From 4e14219444718d5534b0bbccea809ce654800dff Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: jhpoelen Date: Mon, 20 Jun 2022 17:32:30 -0500 Subject: [PATCH] tweak preston after https://github.com/bio-guoda/preston/commit/6ddb5b045806c45d3412b18f70d21d597f7f0b6a to include more distribution map PNGs --- hmw-sample-pretty.json | 8 + hmw-sample.csv | 16 +- hmw-sample.json | 16 +- hmw.csv | 730 ++++++++++++++++++++--------------------- hmw.json | 730 ++++++++++++++++++++--------------------- 5 files changed, 754 insertions(+), 746 deletions(-) diff --git a/hmw-sample-pretty.json b/hmw-sample-pretty.json index 21c1f3f..b68a47a 100644 --- a/hmw-sample-pretty.json +++ b/hmw-sample-pretty.json @@ -60,6 +60,7 @@ "interpretedSpecies": "pinetis", "name": "Geomys pinetis", "subspeciesAndDistribution": "G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.", + "distributionImageURL": "https://zenodo.org/record/6603861/files/figure.png", "bibliography": "Chambers et al. (2009) | Harper (1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008p) | Patton (2005b) | Pembleton & Williams (1978) | Sherman (1940, 1944) | Sudman et al. (2006) | Williams, S.L. (1999c)", "foodAndFeeding": "There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.", "breeding": "The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.", @@ -96,6 +97,7 @@ "interpretedSpecies": "hispidus", "name": "Heterogeomys hispidus", "subspeciesAndDistribution": "H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.", + "distributionImageURL": "https://zenodo.org/record/6603867/files/figure.png", "bibliography": "Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)", "foodAndFeeding": "There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.", "breeding": "The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.", @@ -131,6 +133,7 @@ "interpretedSpecies": "grandis", "name": "Orthogeomys grandis", "subspeciesAndDistribution": "O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.", + "distributionImageURL": "https://zenodo.org/record/6603865/files/figure.png", "bibliography": "Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)", "foodAndFeeding": "There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.", "breeding": "Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.", @@ -166,6 +169,7 @@ "interpretedSpecies": "trichopus", "name": "Zygogeomys trichopus", "subspeciesAndDistribution": "Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.", + "distributionImageURL": "https://zenodo.org/record/6603863/files/figure.png", "bibliography": "Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner & Hafner (1982) | Hafner (1984) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010)", "foodAndFeeding": "There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.", "breeding": "Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.", @@ -202,6 +206,7 @@ "interpretedSpecies": "cavator", "name": "Heterogeomys cavator", "subspeciesAndDistribution": "H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.", + "distributionImageURL": "https://zenodo.org/record/6603871/files/figure.png", "bibliography": "Hafner (1991) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008b) | Spradling et al. (2016)", "foodAndFeeding": "There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.", "breeding": "There is no information available for this species.", @@ -275,6 +280,7 @@ "interpretedSpecies": "dariensis", "name": "Heterogeomys dariensis", "subspeciesAndDistribution": "H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).", + "distributionImageURL": "https://zenodo.org/record/6603873/files/figure.png", "bibliography": "Hafner (2015) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008c) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992)", "foodAndFeeding": "There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.", "breeding": "Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.", @@ -310,6 +316,7 @@ "interpretedSpecies": "jugossicularis", "name": "Geomys jugossicularis", "subspeciesAndDistribution": "G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.", + "distributionImageURL": "https://zenodo.org/record/6603839/files/figure.png", "bibliography": "Chambers et al. (2009) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (2006)", "foodAndFeeding": "There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.", "breeding": "There is no information available for this species.", @@ -345,6 +352,7 @@ "interpretedSpecies": "bursarius", "name": "Geomys bursarius", "subspeciesAndDistribution": "G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.", + "distributionImageURL": "https://zenodo.org/record/6603837/files/figure.png", "bibliography": "Chambers et al. (2009) | Connior (2011) | Genoways et al. (2008) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Swenk (1939) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Zimmerman (1999a)", "foodAndFeeding": "The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.", "breeding": "Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.", diff --git a/hmw-sample.csv b/hmw-sample.csv index 8671e42..6dca930 100644 --- a/hmw-sample.csv +++ b/hmw-sample.csv @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,interpretedGenus,interpretedSpecies,interpretedAuthorityName,interpretedAuthorityYear,commonNames,taxonomy,subspeciesAndDistribution,descriptiveNotes,habitat,foodAndFeeding,breeding,activityPatterns,movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization,statusAndConservation,bibliography,distributionImageURL,verbatimText 03D587F2FFC94C03F8F13AECFBD8F765,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Vol. 9, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw-9.emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,355,zip:hash://sha256/669b07bf81a1e35383e3d83458751684d7416b0b75f4f425f8476a44b1119f42!/03D587F2FFC94C03F8F13AECFBD8F765.xml,Taphozous troughtoni,Taphozous,troughtoni,Tate,1952,Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien de Troughton @fr | Troughton-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de Troughton @es | Troughton's Tomb Bat @en,"Taphozous troughtoni Tate, 1952 , “ Rifle Creek, Mt. Isa, northwest Queensland ,” Australia . Taphozous troughtoni is in the subgenus Taphozous . It was considered ajunior synonym of T georgianus , but. T. Chimimba and D. J. Kitchener in 1991 raised it to a distinct species. Monotypic.","NE Australia endemic, in WC, C & E Queensland.","Head-body 79-4-86-3 mm, tail 31-5-36-9 mm, ear 22-4-27-1 mm, hindfoot 9-8-10-3 mm, forearm 73-76 mm; weight. 20-29 g. Dorsum of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat is predominately olive­ brown, with pale mouse-gray guard hairs. Venter surface hairs are olive-brown from chin to shoulders and posteriorly dark yellow-brown, with guard hairs of pale mouse-gray. Uropatagium close to abdomen is heavily furred. Throat pouches are absent, and radio-metacarpal sacs are present in both sexes. Skin of rhinarium, wings, uropatagium, lips, face, and tragus are fuscous (pale yellow).",Wide variety of habitats and bioregions of interior Queensland.,"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bats forage for insects well above tree canopies and high over open habitats. Large, high-flying grasshoppers are preferred food items and often taken back to cave roosts to eat.",No information.,"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, mines and tunnels, rock crevices, and rocky escarpments. Echolocation call is less than 25 kHz and distinguishes it from the Common Sheath-tailed Bat (. georgianus ) where they co-occur . Movements, Home range and Social organization. Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies.","Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies.","Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, uses a wide variety of habitats, occurs in protected areas, and does not face significant threats. It was originally recorded only from a small area in the Mount Isa Inland bioregion of Queensland, but recent studies based on isozymes and echolocation calls extend distribution further east throughout much of interior and near coastal region of central Queensland, formerly attributed to the Common Sheathtailed Bat. Recent reports of absence of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat in western parts of its distribution require additional verification, possibly leading to re-evaluation of its conservation status after taxonomic issues are clarified.",Chimimba & Kitchener (1991) | Hall (2008b) | McKean & Price (1967) | Reardon & Thomson (2002) | Tate (1952) | Thomson et al. (2001) | Woinarski et al. (2014),https://zenodo.org/record/3747930/files/figure.png,"14 . Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat Taphozous troughtoni French : Taphien deTroughton I German : Troughton-Grabfledermaus I Spanish : Tafozo de Troughton Other common names: Troughton'sTomb Bat Taxonomy . Taphozous troughtoni Tate, 1952 , “ Rifle Creek, Mt. Isa, northwest Queensland ,” Australia . Taphozous troughtoni is in the subgenus Taphozous . It was considered ajunior synonym of T georgianus , but. T. Chimimba and D. J. Kitchener in 1991 raised it to a distinct species. Monotypic. Distribution. NE Australia endemic, in WC, C & E Queensland. Descriptive notes. Head-body 79-4-86-3 mm, tail 31-5-36-9 mm, ear 22-4-27-1 mm, hindfoot 9-8-10-3 mm, forearm 73-76 mm; weight. 20-29 g. Dorsum of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat is predominately olive­ brown, with pale mouse-gray guard hairs. Venter surface hairs are olive-brown from chin to shoulders and posteriorly dark yellow-brown, with guard hairs of pale mouse-gray. Uropatagium close to abdomen is heavily furred. Throat pouches are absent, and radio-metacarpal sacs are present in both sexes. Skin of rhinarium, wings, uropatagium, lips, face, and tragus are fuscous (pale yellow). Habitat . Wide variety of habitats and bioregions of interior Queensland. Food and Feeding . Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bats forage for insects well above tree canopies and high over open habitats. Large, high-flying grasshoppers are preferred food items and often taken back to cave roosts to eat. Breeding . No information. Activity patterns. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, mines and tunnels, rock crevices, and rocky escarpments. Echolocation call is less than 25 kHz and distinguishes it from the Common Sheath-tailed Bat (. georgianus ) where they co-occur . Movements, Home range and Social organization. Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies. Status and Conservation . Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, uses a wide variety of habitats, occurs in protected areas, and does not face significant threats. It was originally recorded only from a small area in the Mount Isa Inland bioregion of Queensland, but recent studies based on isozymes and echolocation calls extend distribution further east throughout much of interior and near coastal region of central Queensland, formerly attributed to the Common Sheathtailed Bat. Recent reports of absence of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat in western parts of its distribution require additional verification, possibly leading to re-evaluation of its conservation status after taxonomic issues are clarified. Bibliography. Chimimba & Kitchener (1991), Hall (2008b), McKean & Price (1967), Reardon & Thomson (2002), Tate (1952),Thomson eta /. (2001), Woinarski eta/. (2014)." -0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,261,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9.xml,Geomys pinetis,Geomys,pinetis,Rafinesque,1817,Gaufre des pinédes @fr | Stidostliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza suroriental @es | Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus) @en | Cumberland @en | sland Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius) @en | Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi) @en | Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus) @en,"Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.","G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.","Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.","Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Harper (1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008p) | Patton (2005b) | Pembleton & Williams (1978) | Sherman (1940, 1944) | Sudman et al. (2006) | Williams, S.L. (1999c)",,"24.South-eastern Pocket GopherGeomys pinetisFrench:Gaufre des pinédes/ German:Stidostliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza surorientalOther common names:Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus), Cumberland Island Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius), Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi), Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus)Taxonomy.Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.Habitat.Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Harper (1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008p), Patton (2005b), Pembleton & Williams (1978), Sherman (1940, 1944), Sudman et al. (2006), Williams, S.L. (1999c)." -0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD.xml,Heterogeomys hispidus,Heterogeomys,hispidus,,,Gaufre hérissé @fr | Borstige Taschenratte @de | Tuza hirsuta @es,"Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.","H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.","Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.",Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.","The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).,"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)",,"27.Hispid Pocket GopherHeterogeomys hispidusFrench:Gaufre hérissé/ German:Borstige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza hirsutaTaxonomy.Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.Breeding.The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)." -0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5.xml,Orthogeomys grandis,Orthogeomys,grandis,,,Grand Gaufre @fr | Riesentaschenratte @de | Tuza gigante @es | Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus) @en,"Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.","Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.","Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.","Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)",,"26.Giant Pocket GopherOrthogeomys grandisFrench:Grand Gaufre/ German:Riesentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza giganteOther common names:Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus)Taxonomy.Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.Habitat.Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)." -0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97.xml,Zygogeomys trichopus,Zygogeomys,trichopus,Merriam,1895,Gaufre du Michoacan @fr | Michoacéan-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Michoacan @es,"Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.","Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.","Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.","Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.","Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.",The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.,"The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.","Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner & Hafner (1982) | Hafner (1984) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010)",,"25.Michoacan Pocket GopherZygogeomys trichopusFrench:Gaufre du Michoacan/ German:Michoacéan-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MichoacanTaxonomy.Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.Habitat.Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.Breeding.Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.Activity patterns.The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner & Hafner (1982), Hafner (1984), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010)." -0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF.xml,Heterogeomys cavator,Heterogeomys,cavator,,,Gaufre du Chiriqui @fr | Chiriqui-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Chiriqui @es,"Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.","H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.","Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.",Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).,Hafner (1991) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008b) | Spradling et al. (2016),,"29.Chiriqui Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cavatorFrench:Gaufre du Chiriqui/ German:Chiriqui-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de ChiriquiTaxonomy.Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).Bibliography.Hafner (1991), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008b), Spradling et al. (2016)." +0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,261,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9.xml,Geomys pinetis,Geomys,pinetis,Rafinesque,1817,Gaufre des pinédes @fr | Stidostliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza suroriental @es | Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus) @en | Cumberland @en | sland Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius) @en | Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi) @en | Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus) @en,"Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.","G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.","Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.","Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Harper (1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008p) | Patton (2005b) | Pembleton & Williams (1978) | Sherman (1940, 1944) | Sudman et al. (2006) | Williams, S.L. (1999c)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603861/files/figure.png,"24.South-eastern Pocket GopherGeomys pinetisFrench:Gaufre des pinédes/ German:Stidostliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza surorientalOther common names:Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus), Cumberland Island Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius), Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi), Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus)Taxonomy.Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.Habitat.Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Harper (1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008p), Patton (2005b), Pembleton & Williams (1978), Sherman (1940, 1944), Sudman et al. (2006), Williams, S.L. (1999c)." +0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD.xml,Heterogeomys hispidus,Heterogeomys,hispidus,,,Gaufre hérissé @fr | Borstige Taschenratte @de | Tuza hirsuta @es,"Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.","H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.","Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.",Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.","The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).,"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603867/files/figure.png,"27.Hispid Pocket GopherHeterogeomys hispidusFrench:Gaufre hérissé/ German:Borstige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza hirsutaTaxonomy.Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.Breeding.The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)." +0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5.xml,Orthogeomys grandis,Orthogeomys,grandis,,,Grand Gaufre @fr | Riesentaschenratte @de | Tuza gigante @es | Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus) @en,"Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.","Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.","Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.","Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603865/files/figure.png,"26.Giant Pocket GopherOrthogeomys grandisFrench:Grand Gaufre/ German:Riesentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza giganteOther common names:Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus)Taxonomy.Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.Habitat.Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)." +0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97.xml,Zygogeomys trichopus,Zygogeomys,trichopus,Merriam,1895,Gaufre du Michoacan @fr | Michoacéan-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Michoacan @es,"Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.","Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.","Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.","Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.","Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.",The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.,"The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.","Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner & Hafner (1982) | Hafner (1984) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603863/files/figure.png,"25.Michoacan Pocket GopherZygogeomys trichopusFrench:Gaufre du Michoacan/ German:Michoacéan-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MichoacanTaxonomy.Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.Habitat.Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.Breeding.Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.Activity patterns.The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner & Hafner (1982), Hafner (1984), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010)." +0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF.xml,Heterogeomys cavator,Heterogeomys,cavator,,,Gaufre du Chiriqui @fr | Chiriqui-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Chiriqui @es,"Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.","H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.","Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.",Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).,Hafner (1991) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008b) | Spradling et al. (2016),https://zenodo.org/record/6603871/files/figure.png,"29.Chiriqui Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cavatorFrench:Gaufre du Chiriqui/ German:Chiriqui-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de ChiriquiTaxonomy.Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).Bibliography.Hafner (1991), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008b), Spradling et al. (2016)." 0131878A0723FF8CFF4AF5E06C6842E5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFF4AF5E06C6842E5.xml,Heterogeomys lanius,Heterogeomys,lanius,,,Gaufre de Xuchil @fr | Wollige Taschenratte @de | Tuza grande @es,"Heterogeomys lanius Elliot, 1905, “Xuchil, Vera Cruz, Mexico.” Restricted by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2014 to “El Xuchitl in west-central Veracruz.”Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. laniusis sister to H. hispidus. Monotypic.","Known only from two localities in WC Veracruz, Mexico.","Head-body 250-290 mm,tail 90-95 mm; weight 850-900 g. Dorsal pelage of the Big Pocket Gopheris thick and woolly; pelage is black dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body.","Well-drained soils in mixed conifer-hardwood forests at elevations above ¢.2400 m, perhaps to timberline.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"The Big Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys lanius). Field observations suggest that the Big Pocket Gopheris absentin regions where widespread deforestation has given rise to large agricultural fields, but itis found in areas subjected to small-scale agriculture, where individuals often occupy patches of brushy or wooded habitat too steep or rugged to cultivate. The Big Pocket Gopher waslisted as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (also as O. lanius). Recent fieldwork has found the Big Pocket Gopherto be relatively abundant where it occurs.",Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008b) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2014) | Patton (2005b) | SE-MARNAT (2010) | Spradling et al. (2016),https://zenodo.org/record/6603869/files/figure.png,"28.Big Pocket GopherHeterogeomys laniusFrench:Gaufre de Xuchil/ German:Wollige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza grandeTaxonomy.Heterogeomys lanius Elliot, 1905, “Xuchil, Vera Cruz, Mexico.” Restricted by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2014 to “El Xuchitl in west-central Veracruz.”Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. laniusis sister to H. hispidus. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from two localities in WC Veracruz, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-290 mm,tail 90-95 mm; weight 850-900 g. Dorsal pelage of the Big Pocket Gopheris thick and woolly; pelage is black dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 84,Habitat.Well-drained soils in mixed conifer-hardwood forests at elevations above ¢.2400 m, perhaps to timberline.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Big Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys lanius). Field observations suggest that the Big Pocket Gopheris absentin regions where widespread deforestation has given rise to large agricultural fields, but itis found in areas subjected to small-scale agriculture, where individuals often occupy patches of brushy or wooded habitat too steep or rugged to cultivate. The Big Pocket Gopher waslisted as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (also as O. lanius). Recent fieldwork has found the Big Pocket Gopherto be relatively abundant where it occurs.Bibliography.Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008b), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2014), Patton (2005b), SE-MARNAT (2010), Spradling et al. (2016)." -0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6.xml,Heterogeomys dariensis,Heterogeomys,dariensis,Goldman,1912,Gaufre du Darien @fr | Darien-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Darién @es,"Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.","H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).","Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.","Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).,Hafner (2015) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008c) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992),,"30.Darien Pocket GopherHeterogeomys dariensisFrench:Gaufre du Darien/ German:Darien-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de DariénTaxonomy.Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.Breeding.Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).Bibliography.Hafner (2015), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008c), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992)." -0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,57,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3.xml,Geomys jugossicularis,Geomys,jugossicularis,Hooper,1940,Gaufre de Hall @fr | Hall-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Hall @es | Colorado Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.","G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.","Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.",Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.",Chambers et al. (2009) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (2006),,"14.Hall's Pocket GopherGeomys jugossicularisFrench:Gaufre de Hall/ German:Hall-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de HallOther common names:Colorado Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (2006)." -0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,57,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1.xml,Geomys bursarius,Geomys,bursarius,Shaw,1800,Gaufre brun @fr | Flachland-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de llanura @es | Mississippi Valley Pocket Gopher @en,"Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.","G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.","Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats.","Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.","The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.","The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,Chambers et al. (2009) | Connior (2011) | Genoways et al. (2008) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Swenk (1939) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Zimmerman (1999a),,"13.Plains Pocket GopherGeomys bursariusFrench:Gaufre brun/ German:Flachland-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de llanuraOther common names:Mississippi Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.Food and Feeding.The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.Activity patterns.The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Connior (2011), Genoways et al. (2008), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Swenk (1939), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Zimmerman (1999a)." +0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6.xml,Heterogeomys dariensis,Heterogeomys,dariensis,Goldman,1912,Gaufre du Darien @fr | Darien-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Darién @es,"Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.","H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).","Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.","Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).,Hafner (2015) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008c) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992),https://zenodo.org/record/6603873/files/figure.png,"30.Darien Pocket GopherHeterogeomys dariensisFrench:Gaufre du Darien/ German:Darien-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de DariénTaxonomy.Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.Breeding.Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).Bibliography.Hafner (2015), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008c), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992)." +0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,57,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3.xml,Geomys jugossicularis,Geomys,jugossicularis,Hooper,1940,Gaufre de Hall @fr | Hall-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Hall @es | Colorado Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.","G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.","Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.",Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.",Chambers et al. (2009) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (2006),https://zenodo.org/record/6603839/files/figure.png,"14.Hall's Pocket GopherGeomys jugossicularisFrench:Gaufre de Hall/ German:Hall-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de HallOther common names:Colorado Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (2006)." +0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,57,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1.xml,Geomys bursarius,Geomys,bursarius,Shaw,1800,Gaufre brun @fr | Flachland-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de llanura @es | Mississippi Valley Pocket Gopher @en,"Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.","G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.","Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats.","Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.","The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.","The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,Chambers et al. (2009) | Connior (2011) | Genoways et al. (2008) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Swenk (1939) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Zimmerman (1999a),https://zenodo.org/record/6603837/files/figure.png,"13.Plains Pocket GopherGeomys bursariusFrench:Gaufre brun/ German:Flachland-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de llanuraOther common names:Mississippi Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.Food and Feeding.The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.Activity patterns.The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Connior (2011), Genoways et al. (2008), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Swenk (1939), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Zimmerman (1999a)." diff --git a/hmw-sample.json b/hmw-sample.json index e8ea1f2..8baab16 100644 --- a/hmw-sample.json +++ b/hmw-sample.json @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/669b07bf81a1e35383e3d83458751684d7416b0b75f4f425f8476a44b1119f42!/03D587F2FFC94C03F8F13AECFBD8F765.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFC94C03F8F13AECFBD8F765","docName":"hbmw-9.emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Vol. 9, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"355","verbatimText":"14 . Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat Taphozous troughtoni French : Taphien deTroughton I German : Troughton-Grabfledermaus I Spanish : Tafozo de Troughton Other common names: Troughton'sTomb Bat Taxonomy . Taphozous troughtoni Tate, 1952 , “ Rifle Creek, Mt. Isa, northwest Queensland ,” Australia . Taphozous troughtoni is in the subgenus Taphozous . It was considered ajunior synonym of T georgianus , but. T. Chimimba and D. J. Kitchener in 1991 raised it to a distinct species. Monotypic. Distribution. NE Australia endemic, in WC, C & E Queensland. Descriptive notes. Head-body 79-4-86-3 mm, tail 31-5-36-9 mm, ear 22-4-27-1 mm, hindfoot 9-8-10-3 mm, forearm 73-76 mm; weight. 20-29 g. Dorsum of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat is predominately olive­ brown, with pale mouse-gray guard hairs. Venter surface hairs are olive-brown from chin to shoulders and posteriorly dark yellow-brown, with guard hairs of pale mouse-gray. Uropatagium close to abdomen is heavily furred. Throat pouches are absent, and radio-metacarpal sacs are present in both sexes. Skin of rhinarium, wings, uropatagium, lips, face, and tragus are fuscous (pale yellow). Habitat . Wide variety of habitats and bioregions of interior Queensland. Food and Feeding . Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bats forage for insects well above tree canopies and high over open habitats. Large, high-flying grasshoppers are preferred food items and often taken back to cave roosts to eat. Breeding . No information. Activity patterns. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, mines and tunnels, rock crevices, and rocky escarpments. Echolocation call is less than 25 kHz and distinguishes it from the Common Sheath-tailed Bat (. georgianus ) where they co-occur . Movements, Home range and Social organization. Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies. Status and Conservation . Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, uses a wide variety of habitats, occurs in protected areas, and does not face significant threats. It was originally recorded only from a small area in the Mount Isa Inland bioregion of Queensland, but recent studies based on isozymes and echolocation calls extend distribution further east throughout much of interior and near coastal region of central Queensland, formerly attributed to the Common Sheathtailed Bat. Recent reports of absence of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat in western parts of its distribution require additional verification, possibly leading to re-evaluation of its conservation status after taxonomic issues are clarified. Bibliography. Chimimba & Kitchener (1991), Hall (2008b), McKean & Price (1967), Reardon & Thomson (2002), Tate (1952),Thomson eta /. (2001), Woinarski eta/. (2014).","taxonomy":"Taphozous troughtoni Tate, 1952 , “ Rifle Creek, Mt. Isa, northwest Queensland ,” Australia . Taphozous troughtoni is in the subgenus Taphozous . It was considered ajunior synonym of T georgianus , but. T. Chimimba and D. J. Kitchener in 1991 raised it to a distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien de Troughton @fr | Troughton-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de Troughton @es | Troughton's Tomb Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Tate","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1952","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"355","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"troughtoni","name":"Taphozous troughtoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Australia endemic, in WC, C & E Queensland.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747930/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chimimba & Kitchener (1991) | Hall (2008b) | McKean & Price (1967) | Reardon & Thomson (2002) | Tate (1952) | Thomson et al. (2001) | Woinarski et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bats forage for insects well above tree canopies and high over open habitats. Large, high-flying grasshoppers are preferred food items and often taken back to cave roosts to eat.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, mines and tunnels, rock crevices, and rocky escarpments. Echolocation call is less than 25 kHz and distinguishes it from the Common Sheath-tailed Bat (. georgianus ) where they co-occur . Movements, Home range and Social organization. Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, uses a wide variety of habitats, occurs in protected areas, and does not face significant threats. It was originally recorded only from a small area in the Mount Isa Inland bioregion of Queensland, but recent studies based on isozymes and echolocation calls extend distribution further east throughout much of interior and near coastal region of central Queensland, formerly attributed to the Common Sheathtailed Bat. Recent reports of absence of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat in western parts of its distribution require additional verification, possibly leading to re-evaluation of its conservation status after taxonomic issues are clarified.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 79-4-86-3 mm, tail 31-5-36-9 mm, ear 22-4-27-1 mm, hindfoot 9-8-10-3 mm, forearm 73-76 mm; weight. 20-29 g. Dorsum of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat is predominately olive­ brown, with pale mouse-gray guard hairs. Venter surface hairs are olive-brown from chin to shoulders and posteriorly dark yellow-brown, with guard hairs of pale mouse-gray. Uropatagium close to abdomen is heavily furred. Throat pouches are absent, and radio-metacarpal sacs are present in both sexes. Skin of rhinarium, wings, uropatagium, lips, face, and tragus are fuscous (pale yellow).","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats and bioregions of interior Queensland."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"261","verbatimText":"24.South-eastern Pocket GopherGeomys pinetisFrench:Gaufre des pinédes/ German:Stidostliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza surorientalOther common names:Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus), Cumberland Island Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius), Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi), Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus)Taxonomy.Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.Habitat.Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Harper (1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008p), Patton (2005b), Pembleton & Williams (1978), Sherman (1940, 1944), Sudman et al. (2006), Williams, S.L. (1999c).","taxonomy":"Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre des pinédes @fr | Stidostliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza suroriental @es | Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus) @en | Cumberland @en | sland Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius) @en | Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi) @en | Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"261","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pinetis","name":"Geomys pinetis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Harper (1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008p) | Patton (2005b) | Pembleton & Williams (1978) | Sherman (1940, 1944) | Sudman et al. (2006) | Williams, S.L. (1999c)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.","habitat":"Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"27.Hispid Pocket GopherHeterogeomys hispidusFrench:Gaufre hérissé/ German:Borstige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza hirsutaTaxonomy.Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.Breeding.The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d).","taxonomy":"Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre hérissé @fr | Borstige Taschenratte @de | Tuza hirsuta @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Le Conte","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hispidus","name":"Heterogeomys hispidus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.","bibliography":"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.","breeding":"The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"26.Giant Pocket GopherOrthogeomys grandisFrench:Grand Gaufre/ German:Riesentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza giganteOther common names:Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus)Taxonomy.Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.Habitat.Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008).","taxonomy":"Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Gaufre @fr | Riesentaschenratte @de | Tuza gigante @es | Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Orthogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grandis","name":"Orthogeomys grandis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.","bibliography":"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.","habitat":"Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"25.Michoacan Pocket GopherZygogeomys trichopusFrench:Gaufre du Michoacan/ German:Michoacéan-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MichoacanTaxonomy.Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.Habitat.Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.Breeding.Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.Activity patterns.The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner & Hafner (1982), Hafner (1984), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010).","taxonomy":"Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Michoacan @fr | Michoacéan-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Michoacan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Zygogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"trichopus","name":"Zygogeomys trichopus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner & Hafner (1982) | Hafner (1984) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.","breeding":"Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.","activityPatterns":"The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.","habitat":"Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"29.Chiriqui Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cavatorFrench:Gaufre du Chiriqui/ German:Chiriqui-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de ChiriquiTaxonomy.Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).Bibliography.Hafner (1991), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008b), Spradling et al. (2016).","taxonomy":"Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Chiriqui @fr | Chiriqui-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Chiriqui @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bangs","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1902","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cavator","name":"Heterogeomys cavator","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.","bibliography":"Hafner (1991) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008b) | Spradling et al. (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"261","verbatimText":"24.South-eastern Pocket GopherGeomys pinetisFrench:Gaufre des pinédes/ German:Stidostliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza surorientalOther common names:Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus), Cumberland Island Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius), Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi), Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus)Taxonomy.Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.Habitat.Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Harper (1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008p), Patton (2005b), Pembleton & Williams (1978), Sherman (1940, 1944), Sudman et al. (2006), Williams, S.L. (1999c).","taxonomy":"Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre des pinédes @fr | Stidostliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza suroriental @es | Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus) @en | Cumberland @en | sland Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius) @en | Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi) @en | Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"261","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pinetis","name":"Geomys pinetis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603861/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Harper (1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008p) | Patton (2005b) | Pembleton & Williams (1978) | Sherman (1940, 1944) | Sudman et al. (2006) | Williams, S.L. (1999c)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.","habitat":"Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"27.Hispid Pocket GopherHeterogeomys hispidusFrench:Gaufre hérissé/ German:Borstige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza hirsutaTaxonomy.Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.Breeding.The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d).","taxonomy":"Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre hérissé @fr | Borstige Taschenratte @de | Tuza hirsuta @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Le Conte","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hispidus","name":"Heterogeomys hispidus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603867/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.","breeding":"The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"26.Giant Pocket GopherOrthogeomys grandisFrench:Grand Gaufre/ German:Riesentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza giganteOther common names:Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus)Taxonomy.Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.Habitat.Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008).","taxonomy":"Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Gaufre @fr | Riesentaschenratte @de | Tuza gigante @es | Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Orthogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grandis","name":"Orthogeomys grandis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603865/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.","habitat":"Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"25.Michoacan Pocket GopherZygogeomys trichopusFrench:Gaufre du Michoacan/ German:Michoacéan-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MichoacanTaxonomy.Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.Habitat.Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.Breeding.Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.Activity patterns.The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner & Hafner (1982), Hafner (1984), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010).","taxonomy":"Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Michoacan @fr | Michoacéan-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Michoacan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Zygogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"trichopus","name":"Zygogeomys trichopus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603863/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner & Hafner (1982) | Hafner (1984) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.","breeding":"Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.","activityPatterns":"The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.","habitat":"Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"29.Chiriqui Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cavatorFrench:Gaufre du Chiriqui/ German:Chiriqui-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de ChiriquiTaxonomy.Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).Bibliography.Hafner (1991), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008b), Spradling et al. (2016).","taxonomy":"Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Chiriqui @fr | Chiriqui-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Chiriqui @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bangs","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1902","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cavator","name":"Heterogeomys cavator","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603871/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hafner (1991) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008b) | Spradling et al. (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFF4AF5E06C6842E5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF8CFF4AF5E06C6842E5","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"28.Big Pocket GopherHeterogeomys laniusFrench:Gaufre de Xuchil/ German:Wollige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza grandeTaxonomy.Heterogeomys lanius Elliot, 1905, “Xuchil, Vera Cruz, Mexico.” Restricted by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2014 to “El Xuchitl in west-central Veracruz.”Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. laniusis sister to H. hispidus. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from two localities in WC Veracruz, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-290 mm,tail 90-95 mm; weight 850-900 g. Dorsal pelage of the Big Pocket Gopheris thick and woolly; pelage is black dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 84,Habitat.Well-drained soils in mixed conifer-hardwood forests at elevations above ¢.2400 m, perhaps to timberline.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Big Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys lanius). Field observations suggest that the Big Pocket Gopheris absentin regions where widespread deforestation has given rise to large agricultural fields, but itis found in areas subjected to small-scale agriculture, where individuals often occupy patches of brushy or wooded habitat too steep or rugged to cultivate. The Big Pocket Gopher waslisted as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (also as O. lanius). Recent fieldwork has found the Big Pocket Gopherto be relatively abundant where it occurs.Bibliography.Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008b), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2014), Patton (2005b), SE-MARNAT (2010), Spradling et al. (2016).","taxonomy":"Heterogeomys lanius Elliot, 1905, “Xuchil, Vera Cruz, Mexico.” Restricted by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2014 to “El Xuchitl in west-central Veracruz.”Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. laniusis sister to H. hispidus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Xuchil @fr | Wollige Taschenratte @de | Tuza grande @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Elliot","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1905","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lanius","name":"Heterogeomys lanius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from two localities in WC Veracruz, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603869/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008b) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2014) | Patton (2005b) | SE-MARNAT (2010) | Spradling et al. (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"The Big Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys lanius). Field observations suggest that the Big Pocket Gopheris absentin regions where widespread deforestation has given rise to large agricultural fields, but itis found in areas subjected to small-scale agriculture, where individuals often occupy patches of brushy or wooded habitat too steep or rugged to cultivate. The Big Pocket Gopher waslisted as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (also as O. lanius). Recent fieldwork has found the Big Pocket Gopherto be relatively abundant where it occurs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 250-290 mm,tail 90-95 mm; weight 850-900 g. Dorsal pelage of the Big Pocket Gopheris thick and woolly; pelage is black dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in mixed conifer-hardwood forests at elevations above ¢.2400 m, perhaps to timberline."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"30.Darien Pocket GopherHeterogeomys dariensisFrench:Gaufre du Darien/ German:Darien-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de DariénTaxonomy.Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.Breeding.Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).Bibliography.Hafner (2015), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008c), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992).","taxonomy":"Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Darien @fr | Darien-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Darién @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goldman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dariensis","name":"Heterogeomys dariensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).","bibliography":"Hafner (2015) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008c) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.","breeding":"Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"57","verbatimText":"14.Hall's Pocket GopherGeomys jugossicularisFrench:Gaufre de Hall/ German:Hall-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de HallOther common names:Colorado Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Hall @fr | Hall-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Hall @es | Colorado Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hooper","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1940","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"57","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"jugossicularis","name":"Geomys jugossicularis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"57","verbatimText":"13.Plains Pocket GopherGeomys bursariusFrench:Gaufre brun/ German:Flachland-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de llanuraOther common names:Mississippi Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.Food and Feeding.The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.Activity patterns.The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Connior (2011), Genoways et al. (2008), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Swenk (1939), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Zimmerman (1999a).","taxonomy":"Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre brun @fr | Flachland-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de llanura @es | Mississippi Valley Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1800","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"57","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bursarius","name":"Geomys bursarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Connior (2011) | Genoways et al. (2008) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Swenk (1939) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Zimmerman (1999a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats.","habitat":"Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"30.Darien Pocket GopherHeterogeomys dariensisFrench:Gaufre du Darien/ German:Darien-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de DariénTaxonomy.Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.Breeding.Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).Bibliography.Hafner (2015), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008c), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992).","taxonomy":"Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Darien @fr | Darien-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Darién @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goldman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dariensis","name":"Heterogeomys dariensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603873/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hafner (2015) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008c) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.","breeding":"Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"57","verbatimText":"14.Hall's Pocket GopherGeomys jugossicularisFrench:Gaufre de Hall/ German:Hall-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de HallOther common names:Colorado Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Hall @fr | Hall-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Hall @es | Colorado Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hooper","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1940","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"57","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"jugossicularis","name":"Geomys jugossicularis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603839/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"57","verbatimText":"13.Plains Pocket GopherGeomys bursariusFrench:Gaufre brun/ German:Flachland-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de llanuraOther common names:Mississippi Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.Food and Feeding.The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.Activity patterns.The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Connior (2011), Genoways et al. (2008), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Swenk (1939), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Zimmerman (1999a).","taxonomy":"Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre brun @fr | Flachland-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de llanura @es | Mississippi Valley Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1800","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"57","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bursarius","name":"Geomys bursarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603837/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Connior (2011) | Genoways et al. (2008) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Swenk (1939) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Zimmerman (1999a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats.","habitat":"Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content."} diff --git a/hmw.csv b/hmw.csv index be05d1c..2035e16 100644 --- a/hmw.csv +++ b/hmw.csv @@ -1,47 +1,47 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,interpretedGenus,interpretedSpecies,interpretedAuthorityName,interpretedAuthorityYear,commonNames,taxonomy,subspeciesAndDistribution,descriptiveNotes,habitat,foodAndFeeding,breeding,activityPatterns,movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization,statusAndConservation,bibliography,distributionImageURL,verbatimText 03D587F2FFC94C03F8F13AECFBD8F765,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Vol. 9, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw-9.emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,355,zip:hash://sha256/669b07bf81a1e35383e3d83458751684d7416b0b75f4f425f8476a44b1119f42!/03D587F2FFC94C03F8F13AECFBD8F765.xml,Taphozous troughtoni,Taphozous,troughtoni,Tate,1952,Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien de Troughton @fr | Troughton-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de Troughton @es | Troughton's Tomb Bat @en,"Taphozous troughtoni Tate, 1952 , “ Rifle Creek, Mt. Isa, northwest Queensland ,” Australia . Taphozous troughtoni is in the subgenus Taphozous . It was considered ajunior synonym of T georgianus , but. T. Chimimba and D. J. Kitchener in 1991 raised it to a distinct species. Monotypic.","NE Australia endemic, in WC, C & E Queensland.","Head-body 79-4-86-3 mm, tail 31-5-36-9 mm, ear 22-4-27-1 mm, hindfoot 9-8-10-3 mm, forearm 73-76 mm; weight. 20-29 g. Dorsum of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat is predominately olive­ brown, with pale mouse-gray guard hairs. Venter surface hairs are olive-brown from chin to shoulders and posteriorly dark yellow-brown, with guard hairs of pale mouse-gray. Uropatagium close to abdomen is heavily furred. Throat pouches are absent, and radio-metacarpal sacs are present in both sexes. Skin of rhinarium, wings, uropatagium, lips, face, and tragus are fuscous (pale yellow).",Wide variety of habitats and bioregions of interior Queensland.,"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bats forage for insects well above tree canopies and high over open habitats. Large, high-flying grasshoppers are preferred food items and often taken back to cave roosts to eat.",No information.,"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, mines and tunnels, rock crevices, and rocky escarpments. Echolocation call is less than 25 kHz and distinguishes it from the Common Sheath-tailed Bat (. georgianus ) where they co-occur . Movements, Home range and Social organization. Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies.","Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies.","Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, uses a wide variety of habitats, occurs in protected areas, and does not face significant threats. It was originally recorded only from a small area in the Mount Isa Inland bioregion of Queensland, but recent studies based on isozymes and echolocation calls extend distribution further east throughout much of interior and near coastal region of central Queensland, formerly attributed to the Common Sheathtailed Bat. Recent reports of absence of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat in western parts of its distribution require additional verification, possibly leading to re-evaluation of its conservation status after taxonomic issues are clarified.",Chimimba & Kitchener (1991) | Hall (2008b) | McKean & Price (1967) | Reardon & Thomson (2002) | Tate (1952) | Thomson et al. (2001) | Woinarski et al. (2014),https://zenodo.org/record/3747930/files/figure.png,"14 . Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat Taphozous troughtoni French : Taphien deTroughton I German : Troughton-Grabfledermaus I Spanish : Tafozo de Troughton Other common names: Troughton'sTomb Bat Taxonomy . Taphozous troughtoni Tate, 1952 , “ Rifle Creek, Mt. Isa, northwest Queensland ,” Australia . Taphozous troughtoni is in the subgenus Taphozous . It was considered ajunior synonym of T georgianus , but. T. Chimimba and D. J. Kitchener in 1991 raised it to a distinct species. Monotypic. Distribution. NE Australia endemic, in WC, C & E Queensland. Descriptive notes. Head-body 79-4-86-3 mm, tail 31-5-36-9 mm, ear 22-4-27-1 mm, hindfoot 9-8-10-3 mm, forearm 73-76 mm; weight. 20-29 g. Dorsum of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat is predominately olive­ brown, with pale mouse-gray guard hairs. Venter surface hairs are olive-brown from chin to shoulders and posteriorly dark yellow-brown, with guard hairs of pale mouse-gray. Uropatagium close to abdomen is heavily furred. Throat pouches are absent, and radio-metacarpal sacs are present in both sexes. Skin of rhinarium, wings, uropatagium, lips, face, and tragus are fuscous (pale yellow). Habitat . Wide variety of habitats and bioregions of interior Queensland. Food and Feeding . Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bats forage for insects well above tree canopies and high over open habitats. Large, high-flying grasshoppers are preferred food items and often taken back to cave roosts to eat. Breeding . No information. Activity patterns. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, mines and tunnels, rock crevices, and rocky escarpments. Echolocation call is less than 25 kHz and distinguishes it from the Common Sheath-tailed Bat (. georgianus ) where they co-occur . Movements, Home range and Social organization. Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies. Status and Conservation . Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, uses a wide variety of habitats, occurs in protected areas, and does not face significant threats. It was originally recorded only from a small area in the Mount Isa Inland bioregion of Queensland, but recent studies based on isozymes and echolocation calls extend distribution further east throughout much of interior and near coastal region of central Queensland, formerly attributed to the Common Sheathtailed Bat. Recent reports of absence of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat in western parts of its distribution require additional verification, possibly leading to re-evaluation of its conservation status after taxonomic issues are clarified. Bibliography. Chimimba & Kitchener (1991), Hall (2008b), McKean & Price (1967), Reardon & Thomson (2002), Tate (1952),Thomson eta /. (2001), Woinarski eta/. (2014)." -0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,261,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9.xml,Geomys pinetis,Geomys,pinetis,Rafinesque,1817,Gaufre des pinédes @fr | Stidostliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza suroriental @es | Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus) @en | Cumberland @en | sland Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius) @en | Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi) @en | Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus) @en,"Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.","G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.","Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.","Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Harper (1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008p) | Patton (2005b) | Pembleton & Williams (1978) | Sherman (1940, 1944) | Sudman et al. (2006) | Williams, S.L. (1999c)",,"24.South-eastern Pocket GopherGeomys pinetisFrench:Gaufre des pinédes/ German:Stidostliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza surorientalOther common names:Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus), Cumberland Island Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius), Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi), Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus)Taxonomy.Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.Habitat.Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Harper (1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008p), Patton (2005b), Pembleton & Williams (1978), Sherman (1940, 1944), Sudman et al. (2006), Williams, S.L. (1999c)." -0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD.xml,Heterogeomys hispidus,Heterogeomys,hispidus,,,Gaufre hérissé @fr | Borstige Taschenratte @de | Tuza hirsuta @es,"Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.","H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.","Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.",Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.","The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).,"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)",,"27.Hispid Pocket GopherHeterogeomys hispidusFrench:Gaufre hérissé/ German:Borstige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza hirsutaTaxonomy.Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.Breeding.The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)." -0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5.xml,Orthogeomys grandis,Orthogeomys,grandis,,,Grand Gaufre @fr | Riesentaschenratte @de | Tuza gigante @es | Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus) @en,"Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.","Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.","Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.","Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)",,"26.Giant Pocket GopherOrthogeomys grandisFrench:Grand Gaufre/ German:Riesentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza giganteOther common names:Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus)Taxonomy.Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.Habitat.Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)." -0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97.xml,Zygogeomys trichopus,Zygogeomys,trichopus,Merriam,1895,Gaufre du Michoacan @fr | Michoacéan-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Michoacan @es,"Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.","Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.","Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.","Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.","Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.",The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.,"The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.","Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner & Hafner (1982) | Hafner (1984) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010)",,"25.Michoacan Pocket GopherZygogeomys trichopusFrench:Gaufre du Michoacan/ German:Michoacéan-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MichoacanTaxonomy.Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.Habitat.Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.Breeding.Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.Activity patterns.The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner & Hafner (1982), Hafner (1984), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010)." -0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF.xml,Heterogeomys cavator,Heterogeomys,cavator,,,Gaufre du Chiriqui @fr | Chiriqui-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Chiriqui @es,"Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.","H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.","Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.",Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).,Hafner (1991) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008b) | Spradling et al. (2016),,"29.Chiriqui Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cavatorFrench:Gaufre du Chiriqui/ German:Chiriqui-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de ChiriquiTaxonomy.Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).Bibliography.Hafner (1991), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008b), Spradling et al. (2016)." +0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,261,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9.xml,Geomys pinetis,Geomys,pinetis,Rafinesque,1817,Gaufre des pinédes @fr | Stidostliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza suroriental @es | Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus) @en | Cumberland @en | sland Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius) @en | Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi) @en | Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus) @en,"Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.","G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.","Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.","Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Harper (1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008p) | Patton (2005b) | Pembleton & Williams (1978) | Sherman (1940, 1944) | Sudman et al. (2006) | Williams, S.L. (1999c)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603861/files/figure.png,"24.South-eastern Pocket GopherGeomys pinetisFrench:Gaufre des pinédes/ German:Stidostliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza surorientalOther common names:Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus), Cumberland Island Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius), Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi), Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus)Taxonomy.Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.Habitat.Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Harper (1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008p), Patton (2005b), Pembleton & Williams (1978), Sherman (1940, 1944), Sudman et al. (2006), Williams, S.L. (1999c)." +0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD.xml,Heterogeomys hispidus,Heterogeomys,hispidus,,,Gaufre hérissé @fr | Borstige Taschenratte @de | Tuza hirsuta @es,"Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.","H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.","Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.",Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.","The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).,"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603867/files/figure.png,"27.Hispid Pocket GopherHeterogeomys hispidusFrench:Gaufre hérissé/ German:Borstige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza hirsutaTaxonomy.Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.Breeding.The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)." +0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5.xml,Orthogeomys grandis,Orthogeomys,grandis,,,Grand Gaufre @fr | Riesentaschenratte @de | Tuza gigante @es | Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus) @en,"Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.","Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.","Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.","Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603865/files/figure.png,"26.Giant Pocket GopherOrthogeomys grandisFrench:Grand Gaufre/ German:Riesentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza giganteOther common names:Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus)Taxonomy.Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.Habitat.Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)." +0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,263,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97.xml,Zygogeomys trichopus,Zygogeomys,trichopus,Merriam,1895,Gaufre du Michoacan @fr | Michoacéan-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Michoacan @es,"Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.","Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.","Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.","Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.","Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.",The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.,"The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.","Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner & Hafner (1982) | Hafner (1984) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603863/files/figure.png,"25.Michoacan Pocket GopherZygogeomys trichopusFrench:Gaufre du Michoacan/ German:Michoacéan-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MichoacanTaxonomy.Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.Habitat.Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.Breeding.Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.Activity patterns.The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner & Hafner (1982), Hafner (1984), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010)." +0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF.xml,Heterogeomys cavator,Heterogeomys,cavator,,,Gaufre du Chiriqui @fr | Chiriqui-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Chiriqui @es,"Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.","H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.","Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.",Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).,Hafner (1991) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008b) | Spradling et al. (2016),https://zenodo.org/record/6603871/files/figure.png,"29.Chiriqui Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cavatorFrench:Gaufre du Chiriqui/ German:Chiriqui-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de ChiriquiTaxonomy.Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).Bibliography.Hafner (1991), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008b), Spradling et al. (2016)." 0131878A0723FF8CFF4AF5E06C6842E5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFF4AF5E06C6842E5.xml,Heterogeomys lanius,Heterogeomys,lanius,,,Gaufre de Xuchil @fr | Wollige Taschenratte @de | Tuza grande @es,"Heterogeomys lanius Elliot, 1905, “Xuchil, Vera Cruz, Mexico.” Restricted by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2014 to “El Xuchitl in west-central Veracruz.”Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. laniusis sister to H. hispidus. Monotypic.","Known only from two localities in WC Veracruz, Mexico.","Head-body 250-290 mm,tail 90-95 mm; weight 850-900 g. Dorsal pelage of the Big Pocket Gopheris thick and woolly; pelage is black dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body.","Well-drained soils in mixed conifer-hardwood forests at elevations above ¢.2400 m, perhaps to timberline.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"The Big Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys lanius). Field observations suggest that the Big Pocket Gopheris absentin regions where widespread deforestation has given rise to large agricultural fields, but itis found in areas subjected to small-scale agriculture, where individuals often occupy patches of brushy or wooded habitat too steep or rugged to cultivate. The Big Pocket Gopher waslisted as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (also as O. lanius). Recent fieldwork has found the Big Pocket Gopherto be relatively abundant where it occurs.",Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008b) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2014) | Patton (2005b) | SE-MARNAT (2010) | Spradling et al. (2016),https://zenodo.org/record/6603869/files/figure.png,"28.Big Pocket GopherHeterogeomys laniusFrench:Gaufre de Xuchil/ German:Wollige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza grandeTaxonomy.Heterogeomys lanius Elliot, 1905, “Xuchil, Vera Cruz, Mexico.” Restricted by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2014 to “El Xuchitl in west-central Veracruz.”Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. laniusis sister to H. hispidus. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from two localities in WC Veracruz, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-290 mm,tail 90-95 mm; weight 850-900 g. Dorsal pelage of the Big Pocket Gopheris thick and woolly; pelage is black dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 84,Habitat.Well-drained soils in mixed conifer-hardwood forests at elevations above ¢.2400 m, perhaps to timberline.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Big Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys lanius). Field observations suggest that the Big Pocket Gopheris absentin regions where widespread deforestation has given rise to large agricultural fields, but itis found in areas subjected to small-scale agriculture, where individuals often occupy patches of brushy or wooded habitat too steep or rugged to cultivate. The Big Pocket Gopher waslisted as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (also as O. lanius). Recent fieldwork has found the Big Pocket Gopherto be relatively abundant where it occurs.Bibliography.Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008b), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2014), Patton (2005b), SE-MARNAT (2010), Spradling et al. (2016)." -0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6.xml,Heterogeomys dariensis,Heterogeomys,dariensis,Goldman,1912,Gaufre du Darien @fr | Darien-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Darién @es,"Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.","H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).","Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.","Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).,Hafner (2015) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008c) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992),,"30.Darien Pocket GopherHeterogeomys dariensisFrench:Gaufre du Darien/ German:Darien-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de DariénTaxonomy.Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.Breeding.Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).Bibliography.Hafner (2015), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008c), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992)." -0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,57,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3.xml,Geomys jugossicularis,Geomys,jugossicularis,Hooper,1940,Gaufre de Hall @fr | Hall-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Hall @es | Colorado Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.","G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.","Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.",Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.",Chambers et al. (2009) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (2006),,"14.Hall's Pocket GopherGeomys jugossicularisFrench:Gaufre de Hall/ German:Hall-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de HallOther common names:Colorado Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (2006)." -0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,57,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1.xml,Geomys bursarius,Geomys,bursarius,Shaw,1800,Gaufre brun @fr | Flachland-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de llanura @es | Mississippi Valley Pocket Gopher @en,"Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.","G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.","Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats.","Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.","The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.","The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,Chambers et al. (2009) | Connior (2011) | Genoways et al. (2008) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Swenk (1939) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Zimmerman (1999a),,"13.Plains Pocket GopherGeomys bursariusFrench:Gaufre brun/ German:Flachland-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de llanuraOther common names:Mississippi Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.Food and Feeding.The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.Activity patterns.The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Connior (2011), Genoways et al. (2008), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Swenk (1939), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Zimmerman (1999a)." +0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6.xml,Heterogeomys dariensis,Heterogeomys,dariensis,Goldman,1912,Gaufre du Darien @fr | Darien-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Darién @es,"Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.","H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).","Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.","Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).,Hafner (2015) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008c) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992),https://zenodo.org/record/6603873/files/figure.png,"30.Darien Pocket GopherHeterogeomys dariensisFrench:Gaufre du Darien/ German:Darien-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de DariénTaxonomy.Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.Breeding.Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).Bibliography.Hafner (2015), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008c), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992)." +0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,57,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3.xml,Geomys jugossicularis,Geomys,jugossicularis,Hooper,1940,Gaufre de Hall @fr | Hall-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Hall @es | Colorado Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.","G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.","Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.",Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.",Chambers et al. (2009) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (2006),https://zenodo.org/record/6603839/files/figure.png,"14.Hall's Pocket GopherGeomys jugossicularisFrench:Gaufre de Hall/ German:Hall-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de HallOther common names:Colorado Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (2006)." +0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,57,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1.xml,Geomys bursarius,Geomys,bursarius,Shaw,1800,Gaufre brun @fr | Flachland-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de llanura @es | Mississippi Valley Pocket Gopher @en,"Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.","G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.","Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats.","Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.","The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.","The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,Chambers et al. (2009) | Connior (2011) | Genoways et al. (2008) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Swenk (1939) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Zimmerman (1999a),https://zenodo.org/record/6603837/files/figure.png,"13.Plains Pocket GopherGeomys bursariusFrench:Gaufre brun/ German:Flachland-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de llanuraOther common names:Mississippi Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.Food and Feeding.The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.Activity patterns.The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Connior (2011), Genoways et al. (2008), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Swenk (1939), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Zimmerman (1999a)." 0131878A0725FF89FA4DF4066865400A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,258,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0725FF89FA4DF4066865400A.xml,Geomys knoxjonesi,Geomys,knoxjonesi,Baker & Genoways,1975,Gaufre de Jones @fr | Jones-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Jones @es | Knox Jones's Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys bursarius knoxjonesi Baker & Genoways, 1975, “4.1 mi. N, 5.1 mi. E Kermit, Winkler Co., Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that G. knoxjonesiis sister to G. arenarius. Monotypic.","SE New Mexico and adjacent parts of W Texas, USA.","Head-body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75-105 mm (males) and 55-95 mm (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Jones’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68-70.","Restricted to deep, sandy soils in xeric, scrubland habitats.","Jones’s Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including yucca (Yucca, Asparagaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",Jones's Pocket Gopherbreeds from late October to early April. Gestation is c.23 days.,"There is no specific information available for this species, butJones's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Jones’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Bradley & Baker (1999) | Chambers et al. (2009) | Hopton & Cameron (2001) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) | (2008) | Patton (2005b),https://zenodo.org/record/6603845/files/figure.png,"17.Jones's Pocket GopherGeomys knoxjonesiFrench:Gaufre de Jones/ German:Jones-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de JonesOther common names:Knox Jones's Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys bursarius knoxjonesi Baker & Genoways, 1975, “4.1 mi. N, 5.1 mi. E Kermit, Winkler Co., Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that G. knoxjonesiis sister to G. arenarius. Monotypic.Distribution.SE New Mexico and adjacent parts of W Texas, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75-105 mm (males) and 55-95 mm (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Jones’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68-70.Habitat.Restricted to deep, sandy soils in xeric, scrubland habitats.Food and Feeding.Jones’s Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including yucca (Yucca, Asparagaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Jones's Pocket Gopherbreeds from late October to early April. Gestation is c.23 days.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, butJones's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Jones’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bradley & Baker (1999), Chambers et al. (2009), Hopton & Cameron (2001), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) (2008), Patton (2005b)." -0131878A0725FF8AFA35FCF563FA4DB5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,258,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0725FF8AFA35FCF563FA4DB5.xml,Geomys arenarius,Geomys,arenarius,Merriam,1895,Gaufre du désert @fr | Wiistentaschenratte @de | Tuza de desierto @es | Sand Pocket Gopher; Rio Grande Pocket Gopher(arenarius) @en | Tularosa Pocket Gopher (brevirostris) @en,"Geomys arenarius Merriam, 1895, “El Paso, [El Paso Co.], Texas,” USA.Considered a subspecies of G. bursariusby D. J. Hafner and K. N. Geluso in 1983, but resurrected to species status by T. W.Jolley and colleagues in 2000. Two subspecies recognized.","G.a.arenariusMerriam,1895—upperRioGrandeValleyinSCNewMexicoandWTexas,USA,andNEChihuahua,Mexico.G. a. brevirostris Hall, 1932— Tularosa Basin of SC New Mexico, USA.","Head—body 130-220 mm,tail 50-105 mm; weight 195-255 g (males) and 165-207 g (females). Male Desert Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Specimens of the subspecies brevirostris are slightly darker brown dorsally than specimens of the subspecies arenarius. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Molecular studies show the Desert Pocket Gopherto besister to the Jones's Pocket Gopher(G. knoxjonesi). Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 88-102.","Sandy, desert habitats where soils are loose and deep. Desert Pocket Gophers are found commonly along riverbanks, around ponds, and nearirrigation canals. The subspecies brevirostris occurs in sand dune habitat in the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico, USA.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Desert Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","Breeding season of the Desert Pocket Gopherspans warmer months of the year (generally May—September), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 4-6 young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Desert Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Desert Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Individual burrow systems may have 20-30 surface entrances (most indicated by mounds ofsoil on the surface), all of which are plugged with soil when not in use.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Pocket Gopheris common where it occurs, but it is restricted to a small geographical area where suitable habitats are threatened by changes in land use and periodic droughts.","Chambers et al. (2009) | Hafner & Geluso (1983) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008a) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b) | Williams, S.L. (1999a) | Williams, S.L. & Baker (1974)",,"16.Desert Pocket GopherGeomys arenariusFrench:Gaufre du désert/ German:Wiistentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de desiertoOther common names:Sand Pocket Gopher; Rio Grande Pocket Gopher(arenarius), Tularosa Pocket Gopher (brevirostris)Taxonomy.Geomys arenarius Merriam, 1895, “El Paso, [El Paso Co.], Texas,” USA.Considered a subspecies of G. bursariusby D. J. Hafner and K. N. Geluso in 1983, but resurrected to species status by T. W.Jolley and colleagues in 2000. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.a.arenariusMerriam,1895—upperRioGrandeValleyinSCNewMexicoandWTexas,USA,andNEChihuahua,Mexico.G. a. brevirostris Hall, 1932— Tularosa Basin of SC New Mexico, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-220 mm,tail 50-105 mm; weight 195-255 g (males) and 165-207 g (females). Male Desert Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Specimens of the subspecies brevirostris are slightly darker brown dorsally than specimens of the subspecies arenarius. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Molecular studies show the Desert Pocket Gopherto besister to the Jones's Pocket Gopher(G. knoxjonesi). Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 88-102.Habitat.Sandy, desert habitats where soils are loose and deep. Desert Pocket Gophers are found commonly along riverbanks, around ponds, and nearirrigation canals. The subspecies brevirostris occurs in sand dune habitat in the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico, USA.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Desert Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Desert Pocket Gopherspans warmer months of the year (generally May—September), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 4-6 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Desert Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Desert Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Individual burrow systems may have 20-30 surface entrances (most indicated by mounds ofsoil on the surface), all of which are plugged with soil when not in use.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Pocket Gopheris common where it occurs, but it is restricted to a small geographical area where suitable habitats are threatened by changes in land use and periodic droughts.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Hafner & Geluso (1983), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008a), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b), Williams, S.L. (1999a), Williams, S.L. & Baker (1974)." +0131878A0725FF8AFA35FCF563FA4DB5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,258,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0725FF8AFA35FCF563FA4DB5.xml,Geomys arenarius,Geomys,arenarius,Merriam,1895,Gaufre du désert @fr | Wiistentaschenratte @de | Tuza de desierto @es | Sand Pocket Gopher; Rio Grande Pocket Gopher(arenarius) @en | Tularosa Pocket Gopher (brevirostris) @en,"Geomys arenarius Merriam, 1895, “El Paso, [El Paso Co.], Texas,” USA.Considered a subspecies of G. bursariusby D. J. Hafner and K. N. Geluso in 1983, but resurrected to species status by T. W.Jolley and colleagues in 2000. Two subspecies recognized.","G.a.arenariusMerriam,1895—upperRioGrandeValleyinSCNewMexicoandWTexas,USA,andNEChihuahua,Mexico.G. a. brevirostris Hall, 1932— Tularosa Basin of SC New Mexico, USA.","Head—body 130-220 mm,tail 50-105 mm; weight 195-255 g (males) and 165-207 g (females). Male Desert Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Specimens of the subspecies brevirostris are slightly darker brown dorsally than specimens of the subspecies arenarius. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Molecular studies show the Desert Pocket Gopherto besister to the Jones's Pocket Gopher(G. knoxjonesi). Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 88-102.","Sandy, desert habitats where soils are loose and deep. Desert Pocket Gophers are found commonly along riverbanks, around ponds, and nearirrigation canals. The subspecies brevirostris occurs in sand dune habitat in the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico, USA.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Desert Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","Breeding season of the Desert Pocket Gopherspans warmer months of the year (generally May—September), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 4-6 young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Desert Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Desert Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Individual burrow systems may have 20-30 surface entrances (most indicated by mounds ofsoil on the surface), all of which are plugged with soil when not in use.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Pocket Gopheris common where it occurs, but it is restricted to a small geographical area where suitable habitats are threatened by changes in land use and periodic droughts.","Chambers et al. (2009) | Hafner & Geluso (1983) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008a) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b) | Williams, S.L. (1999a) | Williams, S.L. & Baker (1974)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603843/files/figure.png,"16.Desert Pocket GopherGeomys arenariusFrench:Gaufre du désert/ German:Wiistentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de desiertoOther common names:Sand Pocket Gopher; Rio Grande Pocket Gopher(arenarius), Tularosa Pocket Gopher (brevirostris)Taxonomy.Geomys arenarius Merriam, 1895, “El Paso, [El Paso Co.], Texas,” USA.Considered a subspecies of G. bursariusby D. J. Hafner and K. N. Geluso in 1983, but resurrected to species status by T. W.Jolley and colleagues in 2000. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.a.arenariusMerriam,1895—upperRioGrandeValleyinSCNewMexicoandWTexas,USA,andNEChihuahua,Mexico.G. a. brevirostris Hall, 1932— Tularosa Basin of SC New Mexico, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-220 mm,tail 50-105 mm; weight 195-255 g (males) and 165-207 g (females). Male Desert Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Specimens of the subspecies brevirostris are slightly darker brown dorsally than specimens of the subspecies arenarius. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Molecular studies show the Desert Pocket Gopherto besister to the Jones's Pocket Gopher(G. knoxjonesi). Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 88-102.Habitat.Sandy, desert habitats where soils are loose and deep. Desert Pocket Gophers are found commonly along riverbanks, around ponds, and nearirrigation canals. The subspecies brevirostris occurs in sand dune habitat in the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico, USA.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Desert Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Desert Pocket Gopherspans warmer months of the year (generally May—September), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 4-6 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Desert Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Desert Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Individual burrow systems may have 20-30 surface entrances (most indicated by mounds ofsoil on the surface), all of which are plugged with soil when not in use.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Pocket Gopheris common where it occurs, but it is restricted to a small geographical area where suitable habitats are threatened by changes in land use and periodic droughts.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Hafner & Geluso (1983), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008a), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b), Williams, S.L. (1999a), Williams, S.L. & Baker (1974)." 0131878A0725FF8AFF35F8026C2544C5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,258,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0725FF8AFF35F8026C2544C5.xml,Geomys lutescens,Geomys,lutescens,Merriam,1890,Gaufre des Sand Hills @fr | Nebraska-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Sand Hills @es | Pale Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys bursarius lutescens Merriam, 1890, “Sand Hills, Birdwood Creek, Lincoln County, Nebraska,” USA.Geomys lutescenswas formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusand was elevated to species status by L. R. Heaney and R. M. Timm in 1983. Molecular studies suggest that G. lutescenssister to G. jugossicularis. Monotypic.","E Wyoming, W Nebraska and adjacent parts of SW South Dakota, and NW Colorado, USA.","Head-body 130-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75-105 mm (males) and 55-95 mm (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Sand Hills Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is medium size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage coloris variable, usually with a yellowish cast, especially on sides of body. Most Sand Hills Pocket Gophers have a middorsal stripe (2-5 cm wide) that is slightly darker than surrounding pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 86-98.","Restricted to deep, sandy soils in open habitats including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. bursariuslutescens).,Chambers et al. (2009) | Heaney & Timm (1983) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b),https://zenodo.org/record/6603841/files/figure.png,"15.Sand Hills Pocket GopherGeomys lutescensFrench:Gaufre des Sand Hills/ German:Nebraska-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de Sand HillsOther common names:Pale Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys bursarius lutescens Merriam, 1890, “Sand Hills, Birdwood Creek, Lincoln County, Nebraska,” USA.Geomys lutescenswas formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusand was elevated to species status by L. R. Heaney and R. M. Timm in 1983. Molecular studies suggest that G. lutescenssister to G. jugossicularis. Monotypic.Distribution.E Wyoming, W Nebraska and adjacent parts of SW South Dakota, and NW Colorado, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75-105 mm (males) and 55-95 mm (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Sand Hills Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is medium size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage coloris variable, usually with a yellowish cast, especially on sides of body. Most Sand Hills Pocket Gophers have a middorsal stripe (2-5 cm wide) that is slightly darker than surrounding pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 86-98.Habitat.Restricted to deep, sandy soils in open habitats including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. bursariuslutescens).Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Heaney & Timm (1983), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b)." -0131878A0726FF88FAA6FC7F69D34762,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,259,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0726FF88FAA6FC7F69D34762.xml,Geomys personatus,Geomys,personatus,True,1889,Gaufre du Texas @fr | Texas-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Texas @es | Masked Pocket Gopher @en | South Texas Pocket Gopher; Del Rio Pocket Gopher (fuscus) @en | Nueces Pocket Gopher (fallax) @en | Padre @en | sland Pocket Gopher(personatus) @en | Rio Grande Pocket Gopher (davis) @en | Seaside Pocket Gopher (maritimus) @en,"Geomys personatus True, 1889, “Padre Island, [Cameron Co.], Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that this species is sister to G. attwateri. Six subspecies recognized.","G.p.personatusTrue,1889—MustangandPadreIs,KlebergCounty,Texas,USA.G.p.davisiWilliams&Genoways,1981—STexas,USA(NofRioGrandeinWebbandZapatacounties).G.p.fallaxMerriam,1895—SportionsofSETexas(N&NWofNuecesBayalongthelowerNuecesRiver),USA.|G.p.fuscusDavis,1940—STexas(NofRioGrandeinKinneyandValverdecounties),USA.G.p.maritimusDavis,1940—GulfcoastofSTexas(mainlandbetweenBaffinBayandFlourBluff),USA.G. p. megapotamus Davis, 1940— SE Texas, USA, into coastal NE Tamaulipas, Mexico.","Head—body 140-280 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 165-400 g. Male Texas Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. There is considerable variation in body size among subspecies, with personatusbeing the largest and fuscus the smallest. The Texas Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is drab brown or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Albino individuals and others with white spots or a faint mid-dorsal stripe have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 68-70 and FN = 70-76.","Deep, sandy soils along river drainages, coastal beaches, barrier islands, and inland remnants of ancient coastlines. The Texas Pocket Gopheris absent from silt loams of the Rio Grande floodplains and gravelly, stony, or clayey soils scattered throughout its general distribution. Its habitats are typically semiarid, and vegetation associated with them includes mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, Fabaceae), and several true grasses such as bahiagrass (Paspalumnotatum), exotic Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), and sandbur (Cenchrusechinatus).","The Texas Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","The Texas Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year, with a peak period of reproduction in October—May. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 2-5 young. Individuals live c.2 years in the wild.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Texas Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Texas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. On sandy coastal islands off the coast of Texas, USA, Texas Pocket Gophers form smallcolonies usually separated by at least 1-5 km.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies maritimus and fuscus are of conservation concern because of their limited distributions and detrimental effects of habitat modification by humans. Subspecies maritimus was listed in 2010 as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Williams, S.L. (1982, 1999b)",,"19.Texas Pocket GopherGeomys personatusFrench:Gaufre du Texas/ German:Texas-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TexasOther common names:Masked Pocket Gopher, South Texas Pocket Gopher; Del Rio Pocket Gopher (fuscus), Nueces Pocket Gopher (fallax), Padre Island Pocket Gopher(personatus), Rio Grande Pocket Gopher (davis), Seaside Pocket Gopher (maritimus)Taxonomy.Geomys personatus True, 1889, “Padre Island, [Cameron Co.], Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that this species is sister to G. attwateri. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.personatusTrue,1889—MustangandPadreIs,KlebergCounty,Texas,USA.G.p.davisiWilliams&Genoways,1981—STexas,USA(NofRioGrandeinWebbandZapatacounties).G.p.fallaxMerriam,1895—SportionsofSETexas(N&NWofNuecesBayalongthelowerNuecesRiver),USA.|G.p.fuscusDavis,1940—STexas(NofRioGrandeinKinneyandValverdecounties),USA.G.p.maritimusDavis,1940—GulfcoastofSTexas(mainlandbetweenBaffinBayandFlourBluff),USA.G. p. megapotamus Davis, 1940— SE Texas, USA, into coastal NE Tamaulipas, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 140-280 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 165-400 g. Male Texas Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. There is considerable variation in body size among subspecies, with personatusbeing the largest and fuscus the smallest. The Texas Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is drab brown or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Albino individuals and others with white spots or a faint mid-dorsal stripe have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 68-70 and FN = 70-76.Habitat.Deep, sandy soils along river drainages, coastal beaches, barrier islands, and inland remnants of ancient coastlines. The Texas Pocket Gopheris absent from silt loams of the Rio Grande floodplains and gravelly, stony, or clayey soils scattered throughout its general distribution. Its habitats are typically semiarid, and vegetation associated with them includes mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, Fabaceae), and several true grasses such as bahiagrass (Paspalumnotatum), exotic Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), and sandbur (Cenchrusechinatus).Food and Feeding.The Texas Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The Texas Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year, with a peak period of reproduction in October—May. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 2-5 young. Individuals live c.2 years in the wild.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Texas Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Texas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. On sandy coastal islands off the coast of Texas, USA, Texas Pocket Gophers form smallcolonies usually separated by at least 1-5 km.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies maritimus and fuscus are of conservation concern because of their limited distributions and detrimental effects of habitat modification by humans. Subspecies maritimus was listed in 2010 as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010), Williams, S.L. (1982, 1999b)." -0131878A0726FF89FFAFF9A96237453F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,259,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0726FF89FFAFF9A96237453F.xml,Geomys attwateri,Geomys,attwateri,Merriam,1895,Gaufre d Attwater @fr | Attwater Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Attwater @es | Victoria Pocket Gopher (ammophilus) @en,"Geomys breviceps attwater: Merriam, 1895, “ “Rockport, Aransas Co., Texas, » USA.Previously regarded as a subspecies of G. bursariusbut elevated to species status by P. K. Tucker and D.J. Schmidly in 1981. Molecular studies suggest that G. attwater: is sister to G. streckeri. Two subspecies recognized.","G.a.attwateriMerriam,1895—GulfcoastofSETexas(betweentheBrazosandNuecesrivers),USA.G. a. ammophilus Davis, 1940— between Colorado and Guadalupe rivers in SE Texas, USA.","Head-body 130-175 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight c.160 g (males) and ¢.130 g (females). Male Attwater’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It 1s average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upperincisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72-74.","Only in areas with friable soils, typically dominated by grasses. Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty clay loam, often with high levels (above 88%) of sand. Where it occurs along the Gulf coastal prairie, vegetation is dominated by perennial bunchgrasses and seasonally occurring forbs.","Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, consuming 36 of 51 available plant species in a study in south-eastern Texas. Individuals avoided annual dicots in winter and preferred perennial dicotyledonous when they were available. Females, especially pregnant females, preferred perennial monocots in spring. Attwater’s Pocket Gophereats predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation;it readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Feeding tunnels are deeper in the ground in winter and summer and shallower in spring and autumn in response to availability of shallow roots of annual monocots.","Breeding season spans the cooler months of the year (generally October— June), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 2-3 young.","Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round. One population of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher moved 57,000-70,000 1 ofsoil from belowground to the surface per hectare per year.","Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In one study, burrow systems of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher had more loops and convolutions than did typically linear, branching burrow systems of other pocket gopher species. Attwater’s Pocket Gopher is often abundant, and estimates of density are 11-44 ind/ha. Hawks, owls, and mammalian carnivores commonly prey on Attwater’s Pocket Gopher, and most individuals live only one year in the wild. Some individuals have been reported to live up to 2:5 years in the wild.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Davis (1940) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008m) | Patton (2005b) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Williams, L.R. (1999a) | Williams, L.R. & Cameron (1991)",,"18.Attwater’s Pocket GopherGeomys attwateriFrench:Gaufre dAttwater/ German:AttwaterTaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de AttwaterOther common names:Victoria Pocket Gopher (ammophilus)Taxonomy.Geomys breviceps attwater: Merriam, 1895, “ “Rockport, Aransas Co., Texas, » USA.Previously regarded as a subspecies of G. bursariusbut elevated to species status by P. K. Tucker and D.J. Schmidly in 1981. Molecular studies suggest that G. attwater: is sister to G. streckeri. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.a.attwateriMerriam,1895—GulfcoastofSETexas(betweentheBrazosandNuecesrivers),USA.G. a. ammophilus Davis, 1940— between Colorado and Guadalupe rivers in SE Texas, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-175 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight c.160 g (males) and ¢.130 g (females). Male Attwater’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It 1s average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upperincisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72-74.Habitat.Only in areas with friable soils, typically dominated by grasses. Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty clay loam, often with high levels (above 88%) of sand. Where it occurs along the Gulf coastal prairie, vegetation is dominated by perennial bunchgrasses and seasonally occurring forbs.Food and Feeding.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, consuming 36 of 51 available plant species in a study in south-eastern Texas. Individuals avoided annual dicots in winter and preferred perennial dicotyledonous when they were available. Females, especially pregnant females, preferred perennial monocots in spring. Attwater’s Pocket Gophereats predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation;it readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Feeding tunnels are deeper in the ground in winter and summer and shallower in spring and autumn in response to availability of shallow roots of annual monocots.Breeding.Breeding season spans the cooler months of the year (generally October— June), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 2-3 young.Activity patterns.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round. One population of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher moved 57,000-70,000 1 ofsoil from belowground to the surface per hectare per year.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In one study, burrow systems of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher had more loops and convolutions than did typically linear, branching burrow systems of other pocket gopher species. Attwater’s Pocket Gopher is often abundant, and estimates of density are 11-44 ind/ha. Hawks, owls, and mammalian carnivores commonly prey on Attwater’s Pocket Gopher, and most individuals live only one year in the wild. Some individuals have been reported to live up to 2:5 years in the wild.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Davis (1940), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008m), Patton (2005b), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Williams, L.R. (1999a), Williams, L.R. & Cameron (1991)." -0131878A0727FF88FA34FD6463C44CCB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,260,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FA34FD6463C44CCB.xml,Geomys texensis,Geomys,texensis,Merriam,1895,Gaufre de Llano @fr | Llano-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Llano @es | Central Texas Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys texensis Merriam, 1895, “Mason, Mason County, Texas,” USA.Molecular studies show G. texensisto be sister to G. bursarius. Three subspecies recognized.","G.t.texensisMerriam,1895—CTexas(Mason,McCulloch,andSanSabacounties),USA.G.t. bakeriSmolen,Pitts&Bickham,1993—SCTexas(Medina,Uvalde,andZavalacounties),USA.G. t. llanensis Block & Zimmerman, 1991— C Texas (Gillespie, Kimble, and Llano counties), USA.","Head-body 120-210 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 125-215 g (males) and 105-165 g (females). The Llano Pocket Gopheris small for genus. There is no significant sexual dimorphism in body size in bakeri, but males are usually larger than females in the other two subspecies. The Llano Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale, buffy brown to liverbrown dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68.","Well-drained sandy or gravelly loams supporting plant communities dominated by mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae), blackbrush (Coleogyneramosissima, Rosaceae), Ashe juniper (Junipreus ashei, Cupressaceae), desert hackberry (Celtispallid, Cannabaceae), and other xeric-adapted species.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Little is known about breeding habits of the Llano Pocket Gopher, but it appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and July-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in ¢.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Cameron (1999) | Chambers et al. (2009) | Cramer & Cameron (2001) | Hafner & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) | (2008) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (20086),,"22.Llano Pocket GopherGeomys texensisFrench:Gaufre de Llano/ German:Llano-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de LlanoOther common names:Central Texas Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys texensis Merriam, 1895, “Mason, Mason County, Texas,” USA.Molecular studies show G. texensisto be sister to G. bursarius. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.t.texensisMerriam,1895—CTexas(Mason,McCulloch,andSanSabacounties),USA.G.t. bakeriSmolen,Pitts&Bickham,1993—SCTexas(Medina,Uvalde,andZavalacounties),USA.G. t. llanensis Block & Zimmerman, 1991— C Texas (Gillespie, Kimble, and Llano counties), USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-210 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 125-215 g (males) and 105-165 g (females). The Llano Pocket Gopheris small for genus. There is no significant sexual dimorphism in body size in bakeri, but males are usually larger than females in the other two subspecies. The Llano Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale, buffy brown to liverbrown dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68.Habitat.Well-drained sandy or gravelly loams supporting plant communities dominated by mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae), blackbrush (Coleogyneramosissima, Rosaceae), Ashe juniper (Junipreus ashei, Cupressaceae), desert hackberry (Celtispallid, Cannabaceae), and other xeric-adapted species.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Little is known about breeding habits of the Llano Pocket Gopher, but it appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and July-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in ¢.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Cameron (1999), Chambers et al. (2009), Cramer & Cameron (2001), Hafner & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) (2008), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (20086)." +0131878A0726FF88FAA6FC7F69D34762,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,259,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0726FF88FAA6FC7F69D34762.xml,Geomys personatus,Geomys,personatus,True,1889,Gaufre du Texas @fr | Texas-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Texas @es | Masked Pocket Gopher @en | South Texas Pocket Gopher; Del Rio Pocket Gopher (fuscus) @en | Nueces Pocket Gopher (fallax) @en | Padre @en | sland Pocket Gopher(personatus) @en | Rio Grande Pocket Gopher (davis) @en | Seaside Pocket Gopher (maritimus) @en,"Geomys personatus True, 1889, “Padre Island, [Cameron Co.], Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that this species is sister to G. attwateri. Six subspecies recognized.","G.p.personatusTrue,1889—MustangandPadreIs,KlebergCounty,Texas,USA.G.p.davisiWilliams&Genoways,1981—STexas,USA(NofRioGrandeinWebbandZapatacounties).G.p.fallaxMerriam,1895—SportionsofSETexas(N&NWofNuecesBayalongthelowerNuecesRiver),USA.|G.p.fuscusDavis,1940—STexas(NofRioGrandeinKinneyandValverdecounties),USA.G.p.maritimusDavis,1940—GulfcoastofSTexas(mainlandbetweenBaffinBayandFlourBluff),USA.G. p. megapotamus Davis, 1940— SE Texas, USA, into coastal NE Tamaulipas, Mexico.","Head—body 140-280 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 165-400 g. Male Texas Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. There is considerable variation in body size among subspecies, with personatusbeing the largest and fuscus the smallest. The Texas Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is drab brown or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Albino individuals and others with white spots or a faint mid-dorsal stripe have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 68-70 and FN = 70-76.","Deep, sandy soils along river drainages, coastal beaches, barrier islands, and inland remnants of ancient coastlines. The Texas Pocket Gopheris absent from silt loams of the Rio Grande floodplains and gravelly, stony, or clayey soils scattered throughout its general distribution. Its habitats are typically semiarid, and vegetation associated with them includes mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, Fabaceae), and several true grasses such as bahiagrass (Paspalumnotatum), exotic Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), and sandbur (Cenchrusechinatus).","The Texas Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","The Texas Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year, with a peak period of reproduction in October—May. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 2-5 young. Individuals live c.2 years in the wild.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Texas Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Texas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. On sandy coastal islands off the coast of Texas, USA, Texas Pocket Gophers form smallcolonies usually separated by at least 1-5 km.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies maritimus and fuscus are of conservation concern because of their limited distributions and detrimental effects of habitat modification by humans. Subspecies maritimus was listed in 2010 as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Williams, S.L. (1982, 1999b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603849/files/figure.png,"19.Texas Pocket GopherGeomys personatusFrench:Gaufre du Texas/ German:Texas-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TexasOther common names:Masked Pocket Gopher, South Texas Pocket Gopher; Del Rio Pocket Gopher (fuscus), Nueces Pocket Gopher (fallax), Padre Island Pocket Gopher(personatus), Rio Grande Pocket Gopher (davis), Seaside Pocket Gopher (maritimus)Taxonomy.Geomys personatus True, 1889, “Padre Island, [Cameron Co.], Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that this species is sister to G. attwateri. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.personatusTrue,1889—MustangandPadreIs,KlebergCounty,Texas,USA.G.p.davisiWilliams&Genoways,1981—STexas,USA(NofRioGrandeinWebbandZapatacounties).G.p.fallaxMerriam,1895—SportionsofSETexas(N&NWofNuecesBayalongthelowerNuecesRiver),USA.|G.p.fuscusDavis,1940—STexas(NofRioGrandeinKinneyandValverdecounties),USA.G.p.maritimusDavis,1940—GulfcoastofSTexas(mainlandbetweenBaffinBayandFlourBluff),USA.G. p. megapotamus Davis, 1940— SE Texas, USA, into coastal NE Tamaulipas, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 140-280 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 165-400 g. Male Texas Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. There is considerable variation in body size among subspecies, with personatusbeing the largest and fuscus the smallest. The Texas Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is drab brown or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Albino individuals and others with white spots or a faint mid-dorsal stripe have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 68-70 and FN = 70-76.Habitat.Deep, sandy soils along river drainages, coastal beaches, barrier islands, and inland remnants of ancient coastlines. The Texas Pocket Gopheris absent from silt loams of the Rio Grande floodplains and gravelly, stony, or clayey soils scattered throughout its general distribution. Its habitats are typically semiarid, and vegetation associated with them includes mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, Fabaceae), and several true grasses such as bahiagrass (Paspalumnotatum), exotic Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), and sandbur (Cenchrusechinatus).Food and Feeding.The Texas Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The Texas Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year, with a peak period of reproduction in October—May. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 2-5 young. Individuals live c.2 years in the wild.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Texas Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Texas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. On sandy coastal islands off the coast of Texas, USA, Texas Pocket Gophers form smallcolonies usually separated by at least 1-5 km.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies maritimus and fuscus are of conservation concern because of their limited distributions and detrimental effects of habitat modification by humans. Subspecies maritimus was listed in 2010 as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010), Williams, S.L. (1982, 1999b)." +0131878A0726FF89FFAFF9A96237453F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,259,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0726FF89FFAFF9A96237453F.xml,Geomys attwateri,Geomys,attwateri,Merriam,1895,Gaufre d Attwater @fr | Attwater Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Attwater @es | Victoria Pocket Gopher (ammophilus) @en,"Geomys breviceps attwater: Merriam, 1895, “ “Rockport, Aransas Co., Texas, » USA.Previously regarded as a subspecies of G. bursariusbut elevated to species status by P. K. Tucker and D.J. Schmidly in 1981. Molecular studies suggest that G. attwater: is sister to G. streckeri. Two subspecies recognized.","G.a.attwateriMerriam,1895—GulfcoastofSETexas(betweentheBrazosandNuecesrivers),USA.G. a. ammophilus Davis, 1940— between Colorado and Guadalupe rivers in SE Texas, USA.","Head-body 130-175 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight c.160 g (males) and ¢.130 g (females). Male Attwater’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It 1s average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upperincisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72-74.","Only in areas with friable soils, typically dominated by grasses. Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty clay loam, often with high levels (above 88%) of sand. Where it occurs along the Gulf coastal prairie, vegetation is dominated by perennial bunchgrasses and seasonally occurring forbs.","Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, consuming 36 of 51 available plant species in a study in south-eastern Texas. Individuals avoided annual dicots in winter and preferred perennial dicotyledonous when they were available. Females, especially pregnant females, preferred perennial monocots in spring. Attwater’s Pocket Gophereats predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation;it readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Feeding tunnels are deeper in the ground in winter and summer and shallower in spring and autumn in response to availability of shallow roots of annual monocots.","Breeding season spans the cooler months of the year (generally October— June), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 2-3 young.","Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round. One population of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher moved 57,000-70,000 1 ofsoil from belowground to the surface per hectare per year.","Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In one study, burrow systems of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher had more loops and convolutions than did typically linear, branching burrow systems of other pocket gopher species. Attwater’s Pocket Gopher is often abundant, and estimates of density are 11-44 ind/ha. Hawks, owls, and mammalian carnivores commonly prey on Attwater’s Pocket Gopher, and most individuals live only one year in the wild. Some individuals have been reported to live up to 2:5 years in the wild.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Davis (1940) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008m) | Patton (2005b) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Williams, L.R. (1999a) | Williams, L.R. & Cameron (1991)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603847/files/figure.png,"18.Attwater’s Pocket GopherGeomys attwateriFrench:Gaufre dAttwater/ German:AttwaterTaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de AttwaterOther common names:Victoria Pocket Gopher (ammophilus)Taxonomy.Geomys breviceps attwater: Merriam, 1895, “ “Rockport, Aransas Co., Texas, » USA.Previously regarded as a subspecies of G. bursariusbut elevated to species status by P. K. Tucker and D.J. Schmidly in 1981. Molecular studies suggest that G. attwater: is sister to G. streckeri. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.a.attwateriMerriam,1895—GulfcoastofSETexas(betweentheBrazosandNuecesrivers),USA.G. a. ammophilus Davis, 1940— between Colorado and Guadalupe rivers in SE Texas, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-175 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight c.160 g (males) and ¢.130 g (females). Male Attwater’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It 1s average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upperincisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72-74.Habitat.Only in areas with friable soils, typically dominated by grasses. Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty clay loam, often with high levels (above 88%) of sand. Where it occurs along the Gulf coastal prairie, vegetation is dominated by perennial bunchgrasses and seasonally occurring forbs.Food and Feeding.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, consuming 36 of 51 available plant species in a study in south-eastern Texas. Individuals avoided annual dicots in winter and preferred perennial dicotyledonous when they were available. Females, especially pregnant females, preferred perennial monocots in spring. Attwater’s Pocket Gophereats predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation;it readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Feeding tunnels are deeper in the ground in winter and summer and shallower in spring and autumn in response to availability of shallow roots of annual monocots.Breeding.Breeding season spans the cooler months of the year (generally October— June), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 2-3 young.Activity patterns.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round. One population of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher moved 57,000-70,000 1 ofsoil from belowground to the surface per hectare per year.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In one study, burrow systems of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher had more loops and convolutions than did typically linear, branching burrow systems of other pocket gopher species. Attwater’s Pocket Gopher is often abundant, and estimates of density are 11-44 ind/ha. Hawks, owls, and mammalian carnivores commonly prey on Attwater’s Pocket Gopher, and most individuals live only one year in the wild. Some individuals have been reported to live up to 2:5 years in the wild.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Davis (1940), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008m), Patton (2005b), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Williams, L.R. (1999a), Williams, L.R. & Cameron (1991)." +0131878A0727FF88FA34FD6463C44CCB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,260,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FA34FD6463C44CCB.xml,Geomys texensis,Geomys,texensis,Merriam,1895,Gaufre de Llano @fr | Llano-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Llano @es | Central Texas Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys texensis Merriam, 1895, “Mason, Mason County, Texas,” USA.Molecular studies show G. texensisto be sister to G. bursarius. Three subspecies recognized.","G.t.texensisMerriam,1895—CTexas(Mason,McCulloch,andSanSabacounties),USA.G.t. bakeriSmolen,Pitts&Bickham,1993—SCTexas(Medina,Uvalde,andZavalacounties),USA.G. t. llanensis Block & Zimmerman, 1991— C Texas (Gillespie, Kimble, and Llano counties), USA.","Head-body 120-210 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 125-215 g (males) and 105-165 g (females). The Llano Pocket Gopheris small for genus. There is no significant sexual dimorphism in body size in bakeri, but males are usually larger than females in the other two subspecies. The Llano Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale, buffy brown to liverbrown dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68.","Well-drained sandy or gravelly loams supporting plant communities dominated by mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae), blackbrush (Coleogyneramosissima, Rosaceae), Ashe juniper (Junipreus ashei, Cupressaceae), desert hackberry (Celtispallid, Cannabaceae), and other xeric-adapted species.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Little is known about breeding habits of the Llano Pocket Gopher, but it appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and July-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in ¢.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Cameron (1999) | Chambers et al. (2009) | Cramer & Cameron (2001) | Hafner & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) | (2008) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (20086),https://zenodo.org/record/6603855/files/figure.png,"22.Llano Pocket GopherGeomys texensisFrench:Gaufre de Llano/ German:Llano-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de LlanoOther common names:Central Texas Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys texensis Merriam, 1895, “Mason, Mason County, Texas,” USA.Molecular studies show G. texensisto be sister to G. bursarius. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.t.texensisMerriam,1895—CTexas(Mason,McCulloch,andSanSabacounties),USA.G.t. bakeriSmolen,Pitts&Bickham,1993—SCTexas(Medina,Uvalde,andZavalacounties),USA.G. t. llanensis Block & Zimmerman, 1991— C Texas (Gillespie, Kimble, and Llano counties), USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-210 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 125-215 g (males) and 105-165 g (females). The Llano Pocket Gopheris small for genus. There is no significant sexual dimorphism in body size in bakeri, but males are usually larger than females in the other two subspecies. The Llano Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale, buffy brown to liverbrown dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68.Habitat.Well-drained sandy or gravelly loams supporting plant communities dominated by mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae), blackbrush (Coleogyneramosissima, Rosaceae), Ashe juniper (Junipreus ashei, Cupressaceae), desert hackberry (Celtispallid, Cannabaceae), and other xeric-adapted species.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Little is known about breeding habits of the Llano Pocket Gopher, but it appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and July-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in ¢.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Cameron (1999), Chambers et al. (2009), Cramer & Cameron (2001), Hafner & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) (2008), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (20086)." 0131878A0727FF88FF36F7E4620F4451,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,260,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FF36F7E4620F4451.xml,Geomys tropicalis,Geomys,tropicalis,Goldman,1915,Gaufre tropical @fr | Tamaulipas-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Tamaulipas @es,"Geomys personatus tropicalis Goldman, 1915, “Alta Mira, Tamaulipas, Mexico.”Molecular studies show G. tropicalisto be closely related to G. personatus. Monotypic.","Coastal plains around Altamira and Tampico, SE Tamaulipas, Mexico.","Head-body 150-I80 mm (males) and 120-155 mm (females), tail 70-90 mm (males) and 60-85 mm (females); weight 175-250 g (males) and 130-180 g oiedess. Male Tropical Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for genus, has a fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is cinnamon to cinnamon-buff dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.","Well-drained sandysoils in the arid, grassy plains of southern Tamaulipas.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 100 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat. Listed as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.","Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008h) | Baker & Williams (1974) | Chambers etal. (2009) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT(2010) | Sudman et al. (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603853/files/figure.png,"21.Tropical Pocket GopherGeomys tropicalisFrench:Gaufre tropical/ German:Tamaulipas-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TamaulipasTaxonomy.Geomys personatus tropicalis Goldman, 1915, “Alta Mira, Tamaulipas, Mexico.”Molecular studies show G. tropicalisto be closely related to G. personatus. Monotypic.Distribution.Coastal plains around Altamira and Tampico, SE Tamaulipas, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-I80 mm (males) and 120-155 mm (females), tail 70-90 mm (males) and 60-85 mm (females); weight 175-250 g (males) and 130-180 g oiedess. Male Tropical Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for genus, has a fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is cinnamon to cinnamon-buff dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.Habitat.Well-drained sandysoils in the arid, grassy plains of southern Tamaulipas.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 100 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat. Listed as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008h), Baker & Williams (1974), Chambers etal. (2009), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT(2010), Sudman et al. (2006)." -0131878A0727FF88FF3FFE536A4941D4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,260,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FF3FFE536A4941D4.xml,Geomys streckeri,Geomys,streckeri,Davis,1943,Gaufre de Strecker @fr | Strecker-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Strecker @es | Carrizo Springs Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys personatus streckeri Davis, 1943, Carrizo Springs, Dimmit Co., Texas, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. personatus. Molecular studies suggest that G. streckeriis sister to G. attwateri. Monotypic.","SW Texas (N of Rio Grande in Dimmit and Zavala counties), USA.","Head-body 120- 190 mm, tail 75-105 mm; weight 160- 185 g. Male Strecker’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 72.","Sandy, fluvial deposits along creek beds in xeric, scrubland habitats.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. personatus streckeri).,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Davis (1940) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b)",,"20.Strecker’s PocketGopherGeomys streckeriFrench:Gaufre de Strecker/ German:Strecker-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de StreckerOther common names:Carrizo Springs Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys personatus streckeri Davis, 1943, Carrizo Springs, Dimmit Co., Texas, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. personatus. Molecular studies suggest that G. streckeriis sister to G. attwateri. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Texas (N of Rio Grande in Dimmit and Zavala counties), USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120- 190 mm, tail 75-105 mm; weight 160- 185 g. Male Strecker’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy, fluvial deposits along creek beds in xeric, scrubland habitats.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. personatus streckeri).Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Davis (1940), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b)." -0131878A0727FF8FFA4DF4F669B0418C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,260,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF8FFA4DF4F669B0418C.xml,Geomys breviceps,Geomys,breviceps,Baird,1855,Gaufre de Baird @fr | Baird-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Baird @es | Louisiana Pocket Gopher @en | Mer Rouge Pocket Gopher (breviceps) @en,"Geomys breviceps Baird, 1855, Morehouse Parish, La.,” oyAccording to J. W. Demastes in 1994, the subspecies sagittalis may be a distinct species based on mtDNA evidence. Two subspecies recognized.","G.b.brevicepsBaird,1855—NCLouisiana(MerRouge,MorehouseParish),USA.G. b. sagittalis Merriam, 1895— SE Oklahoma, SW Arkansas, E Texas (E of the Brazos River), and W Louisiana, USA.","Head—body 130-160 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight 78-150 g. Baird's Pocket Gopheris small for the genus, and males are equal to or only slightly larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 74 and FN = 72.","Only in areas with friable soils, typically plant communities dominated by grasses. Baird's Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty-clay loam. In Louisiana, the subspecies brevicepsis found only in deep,rich alluvial soils, whereas the subspecies sagittalis is found in open prairie grasslands and clearings in pine-oak woodlands.","Baird's Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Food stores recovered from one burrow system contained parts of at least 15 species of nearby plants. Baird’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Tunnels average c.6 cm in diameter and are usually found 10-68 cm below the surface. Total length of tunnels in a single burrow system is 55-180 m. Unlike other pocket gophers, individuals of the subspecies brevicepsconstruct large nest mounds that can rise 30-61 cm above the soil’s surface. Normally, the nest chamber is located 30 cm, or so, below the surface, but when the ground is temporally flooded, the nest chamberis located above the soil’s surface near the top of the nest mound.","Baird's Pocket Gopheris reproductively active in February-August, with peak activity in June—July. Evidence suggests that females have 1-2 litters/year, each litter containing 1-4 young (average 2-7 in one study). Gestation is 4-5 weeks, and young are weaned and leave their mother’s burrow 5-6 weeks after birth. Reproductive maturity in femalesis reached ¢.90 days following birth, and females born early in a breeding season often breed before the season ends.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Baird's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","Baird's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density of Baird’s Pocket Gopherin a Texas prairie habitat was 0-55 ind/ha, which was low for pocket gophers.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,"Demastes (1994) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008n) | Patton (2005b) | Sulentich et al. (1991) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Williams, L.R. (1999b)",,"23.Baird's Pocket GopherGeomys brevicepsFrench:Gaufre de Baird/ German:Baird-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BairdOther common names:Louisiana Pocket Gopher, Mer Rouge Pocket Gopher (breviceps)Taxonomy.Geomys breviceps Baird, 1855, Morehouse Parish, La.,” oyAccording to J. W. Demastes in 1994, the subspecies sagittalis may be a distinct species based on mtDNA evidence. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.brevicepsBaird,1855—NCLouisiana(MerRouge,MorehouseParish),USA.G. b. sagittalis Merriam, 1895— SE Oklahoma, SW Arkansas, E Texas (E of the Brazos River), and W Louisiana, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-160 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight 78-150 g. Baird's Pocket Gopheris small for the genus, and males are equal to or only slightly larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 74 and FN = 72.Habitat.Only in areas with friable soils, typically plant communities dominated by grasses. Baird's Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty-clay loam. In Louisiana, the subspecies brevicepsis found only in deep,rich alluvial soils, whereas the subspecies sagittalis is found in open prairie grasslands and clearings in pine-oak woodlands.Food and Feeding.Baird's Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Food stores recovered from one burrow system contained parts of at least 15 species of nearby plants. Baird’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Tunnels average c.6 cm in diameter and are usually found 10-68 cm below the surface. Total length of tunnels in a single burrow system is 55-180 m. Unlike other pocket gophers, individuals of the subspecies brevicepsconstruct large nest mounds that can rise 30-61 cm above the soil’s surface. Normally, the nest chamber is located 30 cm, or so, below the surface, but when the ground is temporally flooded, the nest chamberis located above the soil’s surface near the top of the nest mound.Breeding.Baird's Pocket Gopheris reproductively active in February-August, with peak activity in June—July. Evidence suggests that females have 1-2 litters/year, each litter containing 1-4 young (average 2-7 in one study). Gestation is 4-5 weeks, and young are weaned and leave their mother’s burrow 5-6 weeks after birth. Reproductive maturity in femalesis reached ¢.90 days following birth, and females born early in a breeding season often breed before the season ends.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Baird's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Baird's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density of Baird’s Pocket Gopherin a Texas prairie habitat was 0-55 ind/ha, which was low for pocket gophers.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Demastes (1994), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008n), Patton (2005b), Sulentich et al. (1991), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Williams, L.R. (1999b)." +0131878A0727FF88FF3FFE536A4941D4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,260,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FF3FFE536A4941D4.xml,Geomys streckeri,Geomys,streckeri,Davis,1943,Gaufre de Strecker @fr | Strecker-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Strecker @es | Carrizo Springs Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys personatus streckeri Davis, 1943, Carrizo Springs, Dimmit Co., Texas, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. personatus. Molecular studies suggest that G. streckeriis sister to G. attwateri. Monotypic.","SW Texas (N of Rio Grande in Dimmit and Zavala counties), USA.","Head-body 120- 190 mm, tail 75-105 mm; weight 160- 185 g. Male Strecker’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 72.","Sandy, fluvial deposits along creek beds in xeric, scrubland habitats.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. personatus streckeri).,"Chambers et al. (2009) | Davis (1940) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603851/files/figure.png,"20.Strecker’s PocketGopherGeomys streckeriFrench:Gaufre de Strecker/ German:Strecker-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de StreckerOther common names:Carrizo Springs Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys personatus streckeri Davis, 1943, Carrizo Springs, Dimmit Co., Texas, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. personatus. Molecular studies suggest that G. streckeriis sister to G. attwateri. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Texas (N of Rio Grande in Dimmit and Zavala counties), USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120- 190 mm, tail 75-105 mm; weight 160- 185 g. Male Strecker’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy, fluvial deposits along creek beds in xeric, scrubland habitats.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. personatus streckeri).Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Davis (1940), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b)." +0131878A0727FF8FFA4DF4F669B0418C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,260,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF8FFA4DF4F669B0418C.xml,Geomys breviceps,Geomys,breviceps,Baird,1855,Gaufre de Baird @fr | Baird-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Baird @es | Louisiana Pocket Gopher @en | Mer Rouge Pocket Gopher (breviceps) @en,"Geomys breviceps Baird, 1855, Morehouse Parish, La.,” oyAccording to J. W. Demastes in 1994, the subspecies sagittalis may be a distinct species based on mtDNA evidence. Two subspecies recognized.","G.b.brevicepsBaird,1855—NCLouisiana(MerRouge,MorehouseParish),USA.G. b. sagittalis Merriam, 1895— SE Oklahoma, SW Arkansas, E Texas (E of the Brazos River), and W Louisiana, USA.","Head—body 130-160 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight 78-150 g. Baird's Pocket Gopheris small for the genus, and males are equal to or only slightly larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 74 and FN = 72.","Only in areas with friable soils, typically plant communities dominated by grasses. Baird's Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty-clay loam. In Louisiana, the subspecies brevicepsis found only in deep,rich alluvial soils, whereas the subspecies sagittalis is found in open prairie grasslands and clearings in pine-oak woodlands.","Baird's Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Food stores recovered from one burrow system contained parts of at least 15 species of nearby plants. Baird’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Tunnels average c.6 cm in diameter and are usually found 10-68 cm below the surface. Total length of tunnels in a single burrow system is 55-180 m. Unlike other pocket gophers, individuals of the subspecies brevicepsconstruct large nest mounds that can rise 30-61 cm above the soil’s surface. Normally, the nest chamber is located 30 cm, or so, below the surface, but when the ground is temporally flooded, the nest chamberis located above the soil’s surface near the top of the nest mound.","Baird's Pocket Gopheris reproductively active in February-August, with peak activity in June—July. Evidence suggests that females have 1-2 litters/year, each litter containing 1-4 young (average 2-7 in one study). Gestation is 4-5 weeks, and young are weaned and leave their mother’s burrow 5-6 weeks after birth. Reproductive maturity in femalesis reached ¢.90 days following birth, and females born early in a breeding season often breed before the season ends.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Baird's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","Baird's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density of Baird’s Pocket Gopherin a Texas prairie habitat was 0-55 ind/ha, which was low for pocket gophers.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,"Demastes (1994) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008n) | Patton (2005b) | Sulentich et al. (1991) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Williams, L.R. (1999b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603857/files/figure.png,"23.Baird's Pocket GopherGeomys brevicepsFrench:Gaufre de Baird/ German:Baird-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BairdOther common names:Louisiana Pocket Gopher, Mer Rouge Pocket Gopher (breviceps)Taxonomy.Geomys breviceps Baird, 1855, Morehouse Parish, La.,” oyAccording to J. W. Demastes in 1994, the subspecies sagittalis may be a distinct species based on mtDNA evidence. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.brevicepsBaird,1855—NCLouisiana(MerRouge,MorehouseParish),USA.G. b. sagittalis Merriam, 1895— SE Oklahoma, SW Arkansas, E Texas (E of the Brazos River), and W Louisiana, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-160 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight 78-150 g. Baird's Pocket Gopheris small for the genus, and males are equal to or only slightly larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 74 and FN = 72.Habitat.Only in areas with friable soils, typically plant communities dominated by grasses. Baird's Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty-clay loam. In Louisiana, the subspecies brevicepsis found only in deep,rich alluvial soils, whereas the subspecies sagittalis is found in open prairie grasslands and clearings in pine-oak woodlands.Food and Feeding.Baird's Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Food stores recovered from one burrow system contained parts of at least 15 species of nearby plants. Baird’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Tunnels average c.6 cm in diameter and are usually found 10-68 cm below the surface. Total length of tunnels in a single burrow system is 55-180 m. Unlike other pocket gophers, individuals of the subspecies brevicepsconstruct large nest mounds that can rise 30-61 cm above the soil’s surface. Normally, the nest chamber is located 30 cm, or so, below the surface, but when the ground is temporally flooded, the nest chamberis located above the soil’s surface near the top of the nest mound.Breeding.Baird's Pocket Gopheris reproductively active in February-August, with peak activity in June—July. Evidence suggests that females have 1-2 litters/year, each litter containing 1-4 young (average 2-7 in one study). Gestation is 4-5 weeks, and young are weaned and leave their mother’s burrow 5-6 weeks after birth. Reproductive maturity in femalesis reached ¢.90 days following birth, and females born early in a breeding season often breed before the season ends.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Baird's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Baird's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density of Baird’s Pocket Gopherin a Texas prairie habitat was 0-55 ind/ha, which was low for pocket gophers.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Demastes (1994), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008n), Patton (2005b), Sulentich et al. (1991), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Williams, L.R. (1999b)." 0131878A0728FF86FAAEF7BC6AC24202,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,238,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0728FF86FAAEF7BC6AC24202.xml,Thomomys bulbrvorus,Thomomys,bulbrvorus,Wied-Neuwied,1839,Gaufre de la Willamette @fr | Oregon-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Camas @es | Camas Rat @en,"Diplostoma? bulbivorum Richardson, 1829, “banks of the Columbia [River],” Oregon, USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Monotypic.","Willamette Valley of NW Oregon, USA.","Head-body 200-240 mm,tail 85-95 mm; weight 300-500 g. Male Camas Pocket Gophers are larger than females. This is the largest species of Thomomys. It has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is sooty brown dorsally, with blackish nose and ears. Ventrum is lead colored, with an irregularshaped white patch on throat. Summer pelage is short and coarse, and winter pelage is long and dense. The Camas Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 76 karyotype.","Mostly non-wooded fields with early seral plant communities, including grassy and weedy fields, orchards, and agricultural fields, often in areas with heavy claysoils. The Camas Pocket Gopheris widely considered an agricultural pest and is frequently subjected to intensive eradication efforts, including trapping and poisoning.","Diet of the Camas Pocket Gopheris heavily biased toward roots of false dandelion (Hypochaerisradicata, Asteraceae), vetch (Vicia sp., Fabaceae), plantains (Plantago sp., Plantaginaceae), grasses, and root crops, including carrots, parsnips, and potatoes. Many captured individuals smell heavily of onion, indicating that wild onions (Alliumamplectens, Amaryllidaceae) are eaten frequently. Bulbs of common camas (Camassiaquamash, Asparagaceae) also form partof the diet. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. In a study of 16 excavated burrow systems, tunnels were located 8-91 cm beneath the surface, and diameter of tunnels were 5-13 cm. Because soils occupied by the Camas Pocket Gopher can become exceptionally hard when dry, it digs primarily with its large, procumbent incisors rather than its forefeet and claws. Individuals forage on the surface 1-2 m from burrow entrances; during these surface forays, they use incisors to cut 5-7 cm sections of food plants, which are placed in their cheek pouches and returned to burrows. These cuttings are either consumed immediately or placed in storage chambers within the burrow system.","The Camas Pocket Gopher breeds from late March to early July, has gestation of c.18 days, and has 3-5 young/litter. Extreme litter sizes of 1-9 young have been reported. Females have one litter per year, and young are weaned at c.6 weeks of age. It is thought that sexual maturity is not attained until the breeding season following birth.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Camas Pocket Gopher can be active at any hourof the day, with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.","The Camas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density estimates are 10-32 ind/ha.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008q) | Patton (1999b, 2005b) | Richardson (1829a) | Verts & Carraway (1987 1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603823/files/figure.png,"6.Camas Pocket GopherThomomys bulbrvorusFrench:Gaufre de la Willamette/ German:Oregon-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de CamasOther common names:Camas RatTaxonomy.Diplostoma? bulbivorum Richardson, 1829, “banks of the Columbia [River],” Oregon, USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Monotypic.Distribution.Willamette Valley of NW Oregon, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-240 mm,tail 85-95 mm; weight 300-500 g. Male Camas Pocket Gophers are larger than females. This is the largest species of Thomomys. It has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is sooty brown dorsally, with blackish nose and ears. Ventrum is lead colored, with an irregularshaped white patch on throat. Summer pelage is short and coarse, and winter pelage is long and dense. The Camas Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 76 karyotype.Habitat.Mostly non-wooded fields with early seral plant communities, including grassy and weedy fields, orchards, and agricultural fields, often in areas with heavy claysoils. The Camas Pocket Gopheris widely considered an agricultural pest and is frequently subjected to intensive eradication efforts, including trapping and poisoning.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Camas Pocket Gopheris heavily biased toward roots of false dandelion (Hypochaerisradicata, Asteraceae), vetch (Vicia sp., Fabaceae), plantains (Plantago sp., Plantaginaceae), grasses, and root crops, including carrots, parsnips, and potatoes. Many captured individuals smell heavily of onion, indicating that wild onions (Alliumamplectens, Amaryllidaceae) are eaten frequently. Bulbs of common camas (Camassiaquamash, Asparagaceae) also form partof the diet. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. In a study of 16 excavated burrow systems, tunnels were located 8-91 cm beneath the surface, and diameter of tunnels were 5-13 cm. Because soils occupied by the Camas Pocket Gopher can become exceptionally hard when dry, it digs primarily with its large, procumbent incisors rather than its forefeet and claws. Individuals forage on the surface 1-2 m from burrow entrances; during these surface forays, they use incisors to cut 5-7 cm sections of food plants, which are placed in their cheek pouches and returned to burrows. These cuttings are either consumed immediately or placed in storage chambers within the burrow system.Breeding.The Camas Pocket Gopher breeds from late March to early July, has gestation of c.18 days, and has 3-5 young/litter. Extreme litter sizes of 1-9 young have been reported. Females have one litter per year, and young are weaned at c.6 weeks of age. It is thought that sexual maturity is not attained until the breeding season following birth.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Camas Pocket Gopher can be active at any hourof the day, with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Camas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density estimates are 10-32 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008q), Patton (1999b, 2005b), Richardson (1829a), Verts & Carraway (1987 1998)." -0131878A0729FF85FA47F4756FF94192,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,239,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF85FA47F4756FF94192.xml,Thomomys sheldoni,Thomomys,sheldoni,Wied-Neuwied,1839,Gaufre de Sheldon @fr | Sierra Madre-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Sierra Madre Occidental @es | Sheldon Pocket Gopher @en,"Thomomys sheldoni Bailey, 1915, “Santa Teresa (6,800 feet altitude), Tepic, [Nayarit], Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934, and a junior synonym of T. u. madrensisby J. L. Patton in 2005. Resurrected to species status by V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2013. Molecular studies show T. sheldonito be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes 7. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.","T.s.sheldoniBailey,1915—WDurango,WZacatecas,andNENayarit,Mexico.T. s. chihuahuae Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NC Chihuahua, Mexico.","Head-body 120-180 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-130 g. Male Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This mediumsized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is moderately dense and medium to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Ventral pelage is golden or yellowish brown. Female Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 118-152.","Restricted to upper elevation habitats (generally above 2000 m) with deep, friable soils that support pine-oak woodlands.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopherare probably like those ofall other species of Thomomys, with 1-2 periods of peak breeding activity per year and 3-6 young/ litter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies suggest that the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m® of surface area.","The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris not listed on The IUCN Red List, but it is common throughoutits distribution and probably not threatened anywhere.",Bailey (1915) | IUCN (2015d) | Mathis et al. (2013a) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (2005b),,"9.Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket GopherThomomys sheldoniFrench:Gaufre de Sheldon/ German:Sierra Madre-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de Sierra Madre OccidentalOther common names:Sheldon Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Thomomys sheldoni Bailey, 1915, “Santa Teresa (6,800 feet altitude), Tepic, [Nayarit], Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934, and a junior synonym of T. u. madrensisby J. L. Patton in 2005. Resurrected to species status by V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2013. Molecular studies show T. sheldonito be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes 7. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.s.sheldoniBailey,1915—WDurango,WZacatecas,andNENayarit,Mexico.T. s. chihuahuae Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NC Chihuahua, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-180 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-130 g. Male Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This mediumsized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is moderately dense and medium to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Ventral pelage is golden or yellowish brown. Female Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 118-152.Habitat.Restricted to upper elevation habitats (generally above 2000 m) with deep, friable soils that support pine-oak woodlands.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopherare probably like those ofall other species of Thomomys, with 1-2 periods of peak breeding activity per year and 3-6 young/ litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies suggest that the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m® of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris not listed on The IUCN Red List, but it is common throughoutits distribution and probably not threatened anywhere.Bibliography.Bailey (1915), IUCN (2015d), Mathis et al. (2013a), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (2005b)." -0131878A0729FF86FA33FEED61414D46,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,254,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF86FA33FEED61414D46.xml,Thomomys umbrinus,Thomomys,umbrinus,,,Gaufre méridional @fr | Sidliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza meridional @es | Animas Mountains Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys umbrinus Richardson, 1829, “Cadadaguois, a town in southwestern part of Louisiana.” Corrected by V. Bailey in 1906 to the “Boca del Monte, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Molecular studies show 7. umbrinusto be a member of the 7. umbrinusspecies group, which also includes 71. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Thirty-two subspecies were listed by J. L. Patton in 1999 and 23 were recognized by Patton in 2005, but subsequent elevation of T. atrovariusand T. sheldonito species rank, followed by a systematic revision of 7. umbrinusby V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2014 reduced the number of subspecies considerably. Four subspecies recognized.","T.u.umbrinusRichardson,1829—ECZacatecas,SthroughtheTrans-MexicoVolcanicBelt,intoWCVeracruz(PicodeOrizaba),Mexico.T.u.durangiNelson&Goldman,1934—SWDurangoandNWZacatecas,Mexico.T.u.goldmaniMerriam,1901—CChihuahuaandSWCoahuilaintoECDurango,Mexico.T. u. intermedius Mearns, 1897— SE Arizona and SW New Mexico, USA, S into Sonora and NW Chihuahua, Mexico.","Head-body 130-180 mm (males) and 120-170 mm (females), tail 65-80 mm (males) and 55-70 mm (females); weight 110-180 g (males) and 80-120 g (females). Male Southern Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; thisis especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Bodysize and pelage color vary considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much smaller and paler than populations living in moist and cool montane meadows at high elevations. Most individuals are light to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. The Southern Pocket Gopheris the only member of this species group with a 2n = 78 karyotype; FN = 96-152.",Low-elevation desert grasslands and scrublands through mid-elevation oak and pine-oak woodlands to high-elevation coniferous forests.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Southern Pocket Gopher.","Breeding season of the Southern Pocket Gophervaries greatly acrossits distribution, with low-elevation individuals breeding in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring. Most populations are thought to breed only once per year, but some populations in Mexico may breed twice per year. Breeding habits of the Southern Pocket Gopherare probably like those of all other members of the genus, with litter sizes of 1-10 young and averaging 4-5 young/litter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies show the Southern Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Southern Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes are typical of those measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bailey (1906) | Castro-Campillo & Ramirez-Pulido (2000) | Hafner et al. (1987) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castaneda & Lacher (2008a) | Mathis et al. (2014) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (1999g, 2005b)",,"8.Southern Pocket GopherThomomys umbrinusFrench:Gaufre méridional/ German:Sidliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza meridionalOther common names:Animas Mountains Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys umbrinus Richardson, 1829, “Cadadaguois, a town in southwestern part of Louisiana.” Corrected by V. Bailey in 1906 to the “Boca del Monte, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Molecular studies show 7. umbrinusto be a member of the 7. umbrinusspecies group, which also includes 71. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Thirty-two subspecies were listed by J. L. Patton in 1999 and 23 were recognized by Patton in 2005, but subsequent elevation of T. atrovariusand T. sheldonito species rank, followed by a systematic revision of 7. umbrinusby V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2014 reduced the number of subspecies considerably. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.u.umbrinusRichardson,1829—ECZacatecas,SthroughtheTrans-MexicoVolcanicBelt,intoWCVeracruz(PicodeOrizaba),Mexico.T.u.durangiNelson&Goldman,1934—SWDurangoandNWZacatecas,Mexico.T.u.goldmaniMerriam,1901—CChihuahuaandSWCoahuilaintoECDurango,Mexico.T. u. intermedius Mearns, 1897— SE Arizona and SW New Mexico, USA, S into Sonora and NW Chihuahua, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-180 mm (males) and 120-170 mm (females), tail 65-80 mm (males) and 55-70 mm (females); weight 110-180 g (males) and 80-120 g (females). Male Southern Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; thisis especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Bodysize and pelage color vary considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much smaller and paler than populations living in moist and cool montane meadows at high elevations. Most individuals are light to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. The Southern Pocket Gopheris the only member of this species group with a 2n = 78 karyotype; FN = 96-152.Habitat.Low-elevation desert grasslands and scrublands through mid-elevation oak and pine-oak woodlands to high-elevation coniferous forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Southern Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Breeding season of the Southern Pocket Gophervaries greatly acrossits distribution, with low-elevation individuals breeding in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring. Most populations are thought to breed only once per year, but some populations in Mexico may breed twice per year. Breeding habits of the Southern Pocket Gopherare probably like those of all other members of the genus, with litter sizes of 1-10 young and averaging 4-5 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies show the Southern Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes are typical of those measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bailey (1906), Castro-Campillo & Ramirez-Pulido (2000), Hafner et al. (1987), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castaneda & Lacher (2008a), Mathis et al. (2014), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (1999g, 2005b)." -0131878A0729FF86FF31FBBE68D04B8E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,239,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF86FF31FBBE68D04B8E.xml,Thomomys townsendii,Thomomys,townsendii,,,Gaufre de Townsend @fr | Townsend-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Townsend @es,"Geomys townsendii Bachman, 1839, “Columbia river.” Modified by V. Bailey in 1915 to “probably southern Idaho and very probably near Nampa [Canyon County],” USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. R. Hall in 1981 but considered a valid species by many other specialists despite limited hybridization with 7. bottaein north-eastern California. Two subspecies recognized.","T.t.townsendBachman,1839—SnakeRiverdrainageinIdahoandECOregon,USA.T. t. nevadensis Merriam, 1897— Humboldt and Quinn River drainages in Nevada and SE Oregon, and Honey Lake Valley in N California, USA.","Head-body 150-230 mm (males) and 145-210 mm (females), tail 60-100 mm (males) and 55-94 mm (females); weight 200-420 g (males) and 120-310 g (females). Male Townsend’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This relatively large pocket gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is light brown to light grayish brown with dark gray nose,face, and post-auricular patches. Chin is white, and some individuals have white marks on top of head. Melanistic individuals may have white patches on chin or feet. Female Townsend's Pocket Gophers have four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 142-148. J. L. Patton and his colleagues investigated a narrow (c.1 km) zone of hybridization between Townsend’s Pocket Gopher and Botta’s Pocket Gopher (T. bottae) in north-eastern California, USA, where hybrid individuals showed a substantial degree of infertility or non-viability. The authors supported the speciesstatus of Townsend's Pocket Gopher because there was no evidence of genetic introgression beyond the hybrid zone.","Bottomland regions in the northern Great Basin of western USA, including river valleys and Pleistocene lakebeds surrounded by arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats. Soils in these regions are deep, loamy, and relatively moist. Maximum elevation recorded for Townsend's Pocket Gopheris ¢.2000 m in eastern Oregon, USA.","In many parts ofits distribution, Townsend's Pocket Gopher feeds heavily on saltgrass (Distichlisspicata, Poaceae) and other grasses, legumes (especially alfalfa), and a large variety of cultivated plants. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for Townsend's Pocket Gopher.","Townsend’s Pocket Gopher breeds in early spring (February-April), and females produce one or morelitters per year, each containing 3-10 young. In a study in north-eastern California, Townsend’s Pocket Gophers were promiscuous, based on female choice.","Townsend's Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In areas supporting large populations of Townsend's pocket gopher, mounds of earth produced by their digging can cover nearly 50% ofthe soil surface. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","Townsend's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bailey (1915, 1933) | Hall (1981) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008v) | Patton (2005b) | Patton et al. (1984) | Rogers (1991) | Smith (1999) | Verts & Carraway (2003)",,"7.Townsend’s Pocket GopherThomomys townsendiiFrench:Gaufre de Townsend/ German:Townsend-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TownsendTaxonomy.Geomys townsendii Bachman, 1839, “Columbia river.” Modified by V. Bailey in 1915 to “probably southern Idaho and very probably near Nampa [Canyon County],” USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. R. Hall in 1981 but considered a valid species by many other specialists despite limited hybridization with 7. bottaein north-eastern California. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.townsendBachman,1839—SnakeRiverdrainageinIdahoandECOregon,USA.T. t. nevadensis Merriam, 1897— Humboldt and Quinn River drainages in Nevada and SE Oregon, and Honey Lake Valley in N California, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-230 mm (males) and 145-210 mm (females), tail 60-100 mm (males) and 55-94 mm (females); weight 200-420 g (males) and 120-310 g (females). Male Townsend’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This relatively large pocket gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is light brown to light grayish brown with dark gray nose,face, and post-auricular patches. Chin is white, and some individuals have white marks on top of head. Melanistic individuals may have white patches on chin or feet. Female Townsend's Pocket Gophers have four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 142-148. J. L. Patton and his colleagues investigated a narrow (c.1 km) zone of hybridization between Townsend’s Pocket Gopher and Botta’s Pocket Gopher (T. bottae) in north-eastern California, USA, where hybrid individuals showed a substantial degree of infertility or non-viability. The authors supported the speciesstatus of Townsend's Pocket Gopher because there was no evidence of genetic introgression beyond the hybrid zone.Habitat.Bottomland regions in the northern Great Basin of western USA, including river valleys and Pleistocene lakebeds surrounded by arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats. Soils in these regions are deep, loamy, and relatively moist. Maximum elevation recorded for Townsend's Pocket Gopheris ¢.2000 m in eastern Oregon, USA.Food and Feeding.In many parts ofits distribution, Townsend's Pocket Gopher feeds heavily on saltgrass (Distichlisspicata, Poaceae) and other grasses, legumes (especially alfalfa), and a large variety of cultivated plants. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for Townsend's Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Townsend’s Pocket Gopher breeds in early spring (February-April), and females produce one or morelitters per year, each containing 3-10 young. In a study in north-eastern California, Townsend’s Pocket Gophers were promiscuous, based on female choice.Activity patterns.Townsend's Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In areas supporting large populations of Townsend's pocket gopher, mounds of earth produced by their digging can cover nearly 50% ofthe soil surface. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Townsend's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bailey (1915, 1933), Hall (1981), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008v), Patton (2005b), Patton et al. (1984), Rogers (1991), Smith (1999), Verts & Carraway (2003)." +0131878A0729FF85FA47F4756FF94192,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,239,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF85FA47F4756FF94192.xml,Thomomys sheldoni,Thomomys,sheldoni,Wied-Neuwied,1839,Gaufre de Sheldon @fr | Sierra Madre-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Sierra Madre Occidental @es | Sheldon Pocket Gopher @en,"Thomomys sheldoni Bailey, 1915, “Santa Teresa (6,800 feet altitude), Tepic, [Nayarit], Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934, and a junior synonym of T. u. madrensisby J. L. Patton in 2005. Resurrected to species status by V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2013. Molecular studies show T. sheldonito be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes 7. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.","T.s.sheldoniBailey,1915—WDurango,WZacatecas,andNENayarit,Mexico.T. s. chihuahuae Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NC Chihuahua, Mexico.","Head-body 120-180 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-130 g. Male Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This mediumsized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is moderately dense and medium to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Ventral pelage is golden or yellowish brown. Female Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 118-152.","Restricted to upper elevation habitats (generally above 2000 m) with deep, friable soils that support pine-oak woodlands.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopherare probably like those ofall other species of Thomomys, with 1-2 periods of peak breeding activity per year and 3-6 young/ litter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies suggest that the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m® of surface area.","The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris not listed on The IUCN Red List, but it is common throughoutits distribution and probably not threatened anywhere.",Bailey (1915) | IUCN (2015d) | Mathis et al. (2013a) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (2005b),https://zenodo.org/record/6603829/files/figure.png,"9.Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket GopherThomomys sheldoniFrench:Gaufre de Sheldon/ German:Sierra Madre-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de Sierra Madre OccidentalOther common names:Sheldon Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Thomomys sheldoni Bailey, 1915, “Santa Teresa (6,800 feet altitude), Tepic, [Nayarit], Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934, and a junior synonym of T. u. madrensisby J. L. Patton in 2005. Resurrected to species status by V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2013. Molecular studies show T. sheldonito be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes 7. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.s.sheldoniBailey,1915—WDurango,WZacatecas,andNENayarit,Mexico.T. s. chihuahuae Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NC Chihuahua, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-180 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-130 g. Male Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This mediumsized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is moderately dense and medium to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Ventral pelage is golden or yellowish brown. Female Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 118-152.Habitat.Restricted to upper elevation habitats (generally above 2000 m) with deep, friable soils that support pine-oak woodlands.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopherare probably like those ofall other species of Thomomys, with 1-2 periods of peak breeding activity per year and 3-6 young/ litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies suggest that the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m® of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris not listed on The IUCN Red List, but it is common throughoutits distribution and probably not threatened anywhere.Bibliography.Bailey (1915), IUCN (2015d), Mathis et al. (2013a), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (2005b)." +0131878A0729FF86FA33FEED61414D46,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,254,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF86FA33FEED61414D46.xml,Thomomys umbrinus,Thomomys,umbrinus,,,Gaufre méridional @fr | Sidliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza meridional @es | Animas Mountains Pocket Gopher @en,"Geomys umbrinus Richardson, 1829, “Cadadaguois, a town in southwestern part of Louisiana.” Corrected by V. Bailey in 1906 to the “Boca del Monte, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Molecular studies show 7. umbrinusto be a member of the 7. umbrinusspecies group, which also includes 71. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Thirty-two subspecies were listed by J. L. Patton in 1999 and 23 were recognized by Patton in 2005, but subsequent elevation of T. atrovariusand T. sheldonito species rank, followed by a systematic revision of 7. umbrinusby V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2014 reduced the number of subspecies considerably. Four subspecies recognized.","T.u.umbrinusRichardson,1829—ECZacatecas,SthroughtheTrans-MexicoVolcanicBelt,intoWCVeracruz(PicodeOrizaba),Mexico.T.u.durangiNelson&Goldman,1934—SWDurangoandNWZacatecas,Mexico.T.u.goldmaniMerriam,1901—CChihuahuaandSWCoahuilaintoECDurango,Mexico.T. u. intermedius Mearns, 1897— SE Arizona and SW New Mexico, USA, S into Sonora and NW Chihuahua, Mexico.","Head-body 130-180 mm (males) and 120-170 mm (females), tail 65-80 mm (males) and 55-70 mm (females); weight 110-180 g (males) and 80-120 g (females). Male Southern Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; thisis especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Bodysize and pelage color vary considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much smaller and paler than populations living in moist and cool montane meadows at high elevations. Most individuals are light to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. The Southern Pocket Gopheris the only member of this species group with a 2n = 78 karyotype; FN = 96-152.",Low-elevation desert grasslands and scrublands through mid-elevation oak and pine-oak woodlands to high-elevation coniferous forests.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Southern Pocket Gopher.","Breeding season of the Southern Pocket Gophervaries greatly acrossits distribution, with low-elevation individuals breeding in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring. Most populations are thought to breed only once per year, but some populations in Mexico may breed twice per year. Breeding habits of the Southern Pocket Gopherare probably like those of all other members of the genus, with litter sizes of 1-10 young and averaging 4-5 young/litter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies show the Southern Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Southern Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes are typical of those measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bailey (1906) | Castro-Campillo & Ramirez-Pulido (2000) | Hafner et al. (1987) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castaneda & Lacher (2008a) | Mathis et al. (2014) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (1999g, 2005b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603827/files/figure.png,"8.Southern Pocket GopherThomomys umbrinusFrench:Gaufre méridional/ German:Sidliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza meridionalOther common names:Animas Mountains Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys umbrinus Richardson, 1829, “Cadadaguois, a town in southwestern part of Louisiana.” Corrected by V. Bailey in 1906 to the “Boca del Monte, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Molecular studies show 7. umbrinusto be a member of the 7. umbrinusspecies group, which also includes 71. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Thirty-two subspecies were listed by J. L. Patton in 1999 and 23 were recognized by Patton in 2005, but subsequent elevation of T. atrovariusand T. sheldonito species rank, followed by a systematic revision of 7. umbrinusby V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2014 reduced the number of subspecies considerably. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.u.umbrinusRichardson,1829—ECZacatecas,SthroughtheTrans-MexicoVolcanicBelt,intoWCVeracruz(PicodeOrizaba),Mexico.T.u.durangiNelson&Goldman,1934—SWDurangoandNWZacatecas,Mexico.T.u.goldmaniMerriam,1901—CChihuahuaandSWCoahuilaintoECDurango,Mexico.T. u. intermedius Mearns, 1897— SE Arizona and SW New Mexico, USA, S into Sonora and NW Chihuahua, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-180 mm (males) and 120-170 mm (females), tail 65-80 mm (males) and 55-70 mm (females); weight 110-180 g (males) and 80-120 g (females). Male Southern Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; thisis especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Bodysize and pelage color vary considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much smaller and paler than populations living in moist and cool montane meadows at high elevations. Most individuals are light to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. The Southern Pocket Gopheris the only member of this species group with a 2n = 78 karyotype; FN = 96-152.Habitat.Low-elevation desert grasslands and scrublands through mid-elevation oak and pine-oak woodlands to high-elevation coniferous forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Southern Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Breeding season of the Southern Pocket Gophervaries greatly acrossits distribution, with low-elevation individuals breeding in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring. Most populations are thought to breed only once per year, but some populations in Mexico may breed twice per year. Breeding habits of the Southern Pocket Gopherare probably like those of all other members of the genus, with litter sizes of 1-10 young and averaging 4-5 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies show the Southern Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes are typical of those measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bailey (1906), Castro-Campillo & Ramirez-Pulido (2000), Hafner et al. (1987), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castaneda & Lacher (2008a), Mathis et al. (2014), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (1999g, 2005b)." +0131878A0729FF86FF31FBBE68D04B8E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,239,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF86FF31FBBE68D04B8E.xml,Thomomys townsendii,Thomomys,townsendii,,,Gaufre de Townsend @fr | Townsend-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Townsend @es,"Geomys townsendii Bachman, 1839, “Columbia river.” Modified by V. Bailey in 1915 to “probably southern Idaho and very probably near Nampa [Canyon County],” USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. R. Hall in 1981 but considered a valid species by many other specialists despite limited hybridization with 7. bottaein north-eastern California. Two subspecies recognized.","T.t.townsendBachman,1839—SnakeRiverdrainageinIdahoandECOregon,USA.T. t. nevadensis Merriam, 1897— Humboldt and Quinn River drainages in Nevada and SE Oregon, and Honey Lake Valley in N California, USA.","Head-body 150-230 mm (males) and 145-210 mm (females), tail 60-100 mm (males) and 55-94 mm (females); weight 200-420 g (males) and 120-310 g (females). Male Townsend’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This relatively large pocket gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is light brown to light grayish brown with dark gray nose,face, and post-auricular patches. Chin is white, and some individuals have white marks on top of head. Melanistic individuals may have white patches on chin or feet. Female Townsend's Pocket Gophers have four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 142-148. J. L. Patton and his colleagues investigated a narrow (c.1 km) zone of hybridization between Townsend’s Pocket Gopher and Botta’s Pocket Gopher (T. bottae) in north-eastern California, USA, where hybrid individuals showed a substantial degree of infertility or non-viability. The authors supported the speciesstatus of Townsend's Pocket Gopher because there was no evidence of genetic introgression beyond the hybrid zone.","Bottomland regions in the northern Great Basin of western USA, including river valleys and Pleistocene lakebeds surrounded by arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats. Soils in these regions are deep, loamy, and relatively moist. Maximum elevation recorded for Townsend's Pocket Gopheris ¢.2000 m in eastern Oregon, USA.","In many parts ofits distribution, Townsend's Pocket Gopher feeds heavily on saltgrass (Distichlisspicata, Poaceae) and other grasses, legumes (especially alfalfa), and a large variety of cultivated plants. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for Townsend's Pocket Gopher.","Townsend’s Pocket Gopher breeds in early spring (February-April), and females produce one or morelitters per year, each containing 3-10 young. In a study in north-eastern California, Townsend’s Pocket Gophers were promiscuous, based on female choice.","Townsend's Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In areas supporting large populations of Townsend's pocket gopher, mounds of earth produced by their digging can cover nearly 50% ofthe soil surface. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","Townsend's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bailey (1915, 1933) | Hall (1981) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008v) | Patton (2005b) | Patton et al. (1984) | Rogers (1991) | Smith (1999) | Verts & Carraway (2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603825/files/figure.png,"7.Townsend’s Pocket GopherThomomys townsendiiFrench:Gaufre de Townsend/ German:Townsend-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TownsendTaxonomy.Geomys townsendii Bachman, 1839, “Columbia river.” Modified by V. Bailey in 1915 to “probably southern Idaho and very probably near Nampa [Canyon County],” USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. R. Hall in 1981 but considered a valid species by many other specialists despite limited hybridization with 7. bottaein north-eastern California. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.townsendBachman,1839—SnakeRiverdrainageinIdahoandECOregon,USA.T. t. nevadensis Merriam, 1897— Humboldt and Quinn River drainages in Nevada and SE Oregon, and Honey Lake Valley in N California, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-230 mm (males) and 145-210 mm (females), tail 60-100 mm (males) and 55-94 mm (females); weight 200-420 g (males) and 120-310 g (females). Male Townsend’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This relatively large pocket gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is light brown to light grayish brown with dark gray nose,face, and post-auricular patches. Chin is white, and some individuals have white marks on top of head. Melanistic individuals may have white patches on chin or feet. Female Townsend's Pocket Gophers have four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 142-148. J. L. Patton and his colleagues investigated a narrow (c.1 km) zone of hybridization between Townsend’s Pocket Gopher and Botta’s Pocket Gopher (T. bottae) in north-eastern California, USA, where hybrid individuals showed a substantial degree of infertility or non-viability. The authors supported the speciesstatus of Townsend's Pocket Gopher because there was no evidence of genetic introgression beyond the hybrid zone.Habitat.Bottomland regions in the northern Great Basin of western USA, including river valleys and Pleistocene lakebeds surrounded by arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats. Soils in these regions are deep, loamy, and relatively moist. Maximum elevation recorded for Townsend's Pocket Gopheris ¢.2000 m in eastern Oregon, USA.Food and Feeding.In many parts ofits distribution, Townsend's Pocket Gopher feeds heavily on saltgrass (Distichlisspicata, Poaceae) and other grasses, legumes (especially alfalfa), and a large variety of cultivated plants. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for Townsend's Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Townsend’s Pocket Gopher breeds in early spring (February-April), and females produce one or morelitters per year, each containing 3-10 young. In a study in north-eastern California, Townsend’s Pocket Gophers were promiscuous, based on female choice.Activity patterns.Townsend's Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In areas supporting large populations of Townsend's pocket gopher, mounds of earth produced by their digging can cover nearly 50% ofthe soil surface. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Townsend's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bailey (1915, 1933), Hall (1981), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008v), Patton (2005b), Patton et al. (1984), Rogers (1991), Smith (1999), Verts & Carraway (2003)." 0131878A072AFF85FAAEFB1E6C884A29,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF85FAAEFB1E6C884A29.xml,Thomomys nayarensis,Thomomys,nayarensis,Mathis et al.,2013,Gaufre de la Nayar @fr | Nayarit-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Nayar @es,"Thomomys nayarensis Mathis et al., 2013, “Mexico: Nayarit; 8.5 km N, 7 km W Mesa del Nayar, 2,200 m.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Specimens of 1. nayarensiswere formerly identified as T. umbrinus. Molecular studies show T. nayarensisto be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Monotypic.","Known from only two localities in the Sierra del Nayar, NE Nayarit, Mexico.","Head-body 110-140 mm, tail 50-75 mm, hindfoot 23-27 mm; weight 75-110 g. Male Nayar Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is medium brown dorsally and golden-yellowish brown ventrally. All specimen of the Nayar Pocket Gopher known to date have few or no prominent guard hairs on dorsal rump, and these guard hairs, if present, extend no more than 3 mm beyond surrounding wool hairs. Female Nayar Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 146.","Open, grassy meadows in pine-oak woodlands and in nearby agricultural fields. Soils in these regions are typically deep and friable. Known elevational range of the Nayar Pocket Gopher is 1300-2200 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","There is no specific information available for this species, but male Nayar Pocket Gophers collected in January appeared to be in reproductive condition and females did not.","Limited observations suggest that the Nayar Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Nayar Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m* of surface area.",The Nayar Pocket Gopher has not been listed on The [UCN Red List. It may be vulnerable because of its extremely limited distribution.,Mathis et al. (2013b) | IUCN (20154),https://zenodo.org/record/6603833/files/figure.png,"11.Nayar Pocket GopherThomomys nayarensisFrench:Gaufre de la Nayar/ German:Nayarit-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de NayarTaxonomy.Thomomys nayarensis Mathis et al., 2013, “Mexico: Nayarit; 8.5 km N, 7 km W Mesa del Nayar, 2,200 m.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Specimens of 1. nayarensiswere formerly identified as T. umbrinus. Molecular studies show T. nayarensisto be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Monotypic.Distribution.Known from only two localities in the Sierra del Nayar, NE Nayarit, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-140 mm, tail 50-75 mm, hindfoot 23-27 mm; weight 75-110 g. Male Nayar Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is medium brown dorsally and golden-yellowish brown ventrally. All specimen of the Nayar Pocket Gopher known to date have few or no prominent guard hairs on dorsal rump, and these guard hairs, if present, extend no more than 3 mm beyond surrounding wool hairs. Female Nayar Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 146.Habitat.Open, grassy meadows in pine-oak woodlands and in nearby agricultural fields. Soils in these regions are typically deep and friable. Known elevational range of the Nayar Pocket Gopher is 1300-2200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but male Nayar Pocket Gophers collected in January appeared to be in reproductive condition and females did not.Activity patterns.Limited observations suggest that the Nayar Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Nayar Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Nayar Pocket Gopher has not been listed on The [UCN Red List. It may be vulnerable because of its extremely limited distribution.Bibliography.Mathis et al. (2013b), IUCN (20154)." -0131878A072AFF85FF96F82F6DB642A2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF85FF96F82F6DB642A2.xml,Thomomys atrovarius,Thomomys,atrovarius,J. A. Allen,1898,Gaufre de Tatemeles @fr | Schwarzbraune Taschenratte @de | Tuza negra y marron @es,"Thomomys atrovarius J. A. Allen, 1898, “Tatemales [near Rosario], State of Sinaloa, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2011. Molecular studies show T. atrovariusto be a member of the Thomomys umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.","T.a.atrovariusJ.A.Allen,1898—CSinaloatoSNayaritandadjacentpartsofSWDurangoandNWJalisco,Mexico.T. a. parviceps Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NE Sinaloa and W Durango S to C Sinaloa, Mexico.","Head-body 110-165 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-150 g. Male Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is moderately dense to very sparse, sometimes almost naked on ventrum, and it is dark brown to dull gray-black dorsally, occasionally with a wash of lighter brown or gray laterally. Female Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal, and baculum in males is usually less than 11 mm in length. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 116-132.","Dry, thornscrub forest. The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheroccurs in a wide variety of soils from near sea level along the coast of the Pacific Ocean to elevations of ¢.2400 m in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Unlike most species of pocket gophers, the Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris only rarely found in agricultural fields, and anecdotal observations suggest that it is reluctant to leave cover of thornscrub forests.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackand-Brown Pocket Gopher probably breeds during, or soon after, the rainy season (June-August) when vegetation is plentiful.","The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","As in other pocket gophers, Blackand-Brown Pocket Gophers are solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes of Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophersare typical of other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.","The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher is not listed on The IUCN Red List because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher (71. umbrinus), which is listed as Least Concern.","Allen (1898a) | Hafner et al. (2011) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafeda & Lacher (2008a) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (2005b)",,"10.Black-and-Brown Pocket GopherThomomys atrovariusFrench:Gaufre de Tatemeles/ German:Schwarzbraune Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza negra y marronTaxonomy.Thomomys atrovarius J. A. Allen, 1898, “Tatemales [near Rosario], State of Sinaloa, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2011. Molecular studies show T. atrovariusto be a member of the Thomomys umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.a.atrovariusJ.A.Allen,1898—CSinaloatoSNayaritandadjacentpartsofSWDurangoandNWJalisco,Mexico.T. a. parviceps Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NE Sinaloa and W Durango S to C Sinaloa, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-165 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-150 g. Male Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is moderately dense to very sparse, sometimes almost naked on ventrum, and it is dark brown to dull gray-black dorsally, occasionally with a wash of lighter brown or gray laterally. Female Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal, and baculum in males is usually less than 11 mm in length. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 116-132.Habitat.Dry, thornscrub forest. The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheroccurs in a wide variety of soils from near sea level along the coast of the Pacific Ocean to elevations of ¢.2400 m in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Unlike most species of pocket gophers, the Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris only rarely found in agricultural fields, and anecdotal observations suggest that it is reluctant to leave cover of thornscrub forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackand-Brown Pocket Gopher probably breeds during, or soon after, the rainy season (June-August) when vegetation is plentiful.Activity patterns.The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As in other pocket gophers, Blackand-Brown Pocket Gophers are solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes of Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophersare typical of other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher is not listed on The IUCN Red List because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher (71. umbrinus), which is listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Allen (1898a), Hafner et al. (2011), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafeda & Lacher (2008a), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (2005b)." -0131878A072AFF8BFA96F3966E1B4D67,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,255,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF8BFA96F3966E1B4D67.xml,Thomomys bottae,Thomomys,bottae,Eydoux & P. Gervais,1836,Gaufre de Botta @fr | Gebirgstaschenratte @de | Tuza de Botta @es | Valley Pocket Gopher @en,"Oryctomys (Saccophorus) bottae Eydoux & P. Gervais, 1836, “coast of California.” Restricted by S. F. Baird in 1855 to “Monterey and San Francisco” (Monterey Co., California, USA).Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Nearly 200 subspecies were formerly recognized in the literature. One hundred thirtythree subspecies recognized.","T.b.bottaeEydoux&Gervais,1836—PacificcoastofC&SCalifornia,USA.T.b.abbottiHuey,1928—PacificcoastofCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T°b.abstrususHall&Davis,1935—NyeCounty,Nevada,USA.T.b.actuosusKelson,1951—CNewMexico,USA.T.b.albatusGrinnell,1912—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.albicaudatusHall,1930—NUtah,USA.T.b.alexandraeGoldman,1933—NCArizona,USA.T.b.alpinusMerriam,1897—SierraNevadaRangeofCCalifornia,USA.T.b.alticolusJ.A.Allen,1899—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.analogusGoldman,1938—SECoahuila,Mexico.T.b.angustidensBaker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.anitaeJ.A.Allen,1898—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.aphrastusElliot,1903—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.aurerventrisHall,1930—NWUtah,USA.T.b.aureusJ.A.Allen,1893—NEArizonaandadjacentpartsofUtah,Colorado,andNewMexico,USA.T.b.awahneeMerriam,1908—WCCalifornia,USA.T.b.baileyiMerriam,1901—NWTexas,USA.T.b.basilicaeBenson&Tillotson,1940—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.birdseye:Goldman,1937—SWUtah,USA.T.b.bonneuvilletDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.borjasensisHuey,1945—SBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brazierhowelliHuey,1960—WCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brevidensHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T:b.cactophilusHuey,1929—SBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.camoaeBurt,1937—PacificcoastofSSonora,Mexico.T.b.canusBailey,1910—NWNevada,USA.T.b.catalinaeGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.catavinensisHuey,1931—SEBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.centralisHall,1930—SEUtah,USA.T.b.cervinusJ.A.Allen,1895—SWArizona,USA.T:b.chrysonotusGrinnell,1912—SWArizona,USA.T.b.cinereusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.collisHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.concisorHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.confinalisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.connectensHall,1936—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.contractusDurrant,1946—SWUtah,USA.T.b.convergensNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T.b.convexusDurrant,1939—WCUtah,USA.T:b.cultellusKelson,1951—NENewMexicoandSEColorado,USA.T.b.cuniculariusHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.curtatusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.depressusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.desertorumMerriam,1901—NWArizona,USA.T.b.detumidusGrinnell,1935—SWOregon,USA.T.b.dissimilisGoldman,1931—SEUtah,USA.T.b.divergensNelson&Goldman,1934—NESonora,Mexico.T:b.estanciaeBenson&Tillotson,1939—NESonora,Mexico.T.b.fulvusWoodhouse,1852—NCArizonatoSWNewMexico,USA.T.b.fumosusHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T.b.guadalupensisGoldman,1936—WCTexas,USA.T:b.homorusHuey,1949—NBajaCaliforniaSurintoSBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.howelliGoldman,1936—ECUtahintoWCColorado,USA.T.b.humilisBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T:b.imitabilisGoldman,1939—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.incomptusGoldman,1939—-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T:b.internatusGoldman,1936—SCColorado,USA.T.b.jojobaeHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.juarezensisHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lachuguillaBailey,1902—WCTexas,USA.T.b.lacrymalisHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.laticepsBaird,1855—NWCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T.b.latusHall&Davis,1935—WCNevada,USA.T.b.lenisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.leucodonMerriam,1897—NCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T:b.levidensisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.limitarisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.limpiaeBlair,1939—SWTexas,USA.T.b.litorisBurt,1940—WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.lucidusHall,1932—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lucrificusHall&Durham,1938—CNevada,USA.T.b.magdalenaeNelson&Goldman,1909-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.martirensisJ.A.Allen,1898—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.mearnsiBailey,1914—SWNewMexico,USA.T.b.mewaMerriam,1908—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.minimusDurrant,1939—NWUtah,USA.T.b.modicusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA,intoNCSonora,Mexico.T.b.morulusHooper,1940—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.nanusHall,1932—SCNevada,USA.T.b.navusMerriam,1901—NCCalifornia,USA.T.b.neglectusBailey,1914—SWCalifornia,USA.T.b.nesophilusDurrant,1936—NWUtah,USA.T.b.nigricansRhoads,1895—SWCalifornia,USA,intoNWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.operariusMerriam,1897—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.optabilisGoodman,1936—SWColorado,USA.T.b.opulentusGoldman,1935—C&SCNewMexico,USA.T:b.osgoodiGoldman,1931—SCUtah,USA.T.b.paguataeHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T:b.pascalisMerriam,1901—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.pectoralisGoldman,1936—SENewMexico,USA.T.b.peramplusGoldman,1931—NEArizonaintoNWNewMexico,USA.T.b.perditusMerriam,1901—CCoahuilaintoNWNuevoLe6n,Mexico.T.b.perpallidusMerriam,1886—SCCalifornia,USA.T:b.pervagusMerriam,1901—NCNewMexicointoSCColorado,USA.T.b.pervariusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T:b.phelleoecusBurt,1933—SCNevada,USA.T.b.pinalensisGoldman,1938—SCArizona,USA.T:b.planirostrisBurt,1931—SWUtahintoNWArizona,USA.T.b.planorumHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.powellDurrant,1955—SCUtah,USA.T.b.proximarinusHuey,1945—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.pusillusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.retractusBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.rhizophagusHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.ripariusGrinnell&Hill,1936—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.robustusDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T.b.rubidusYoungman,1958—SCColorado,USA.T.b.ruidosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.rupestrisChattin,1941—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.ruricolaHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,USA.T:b.russeolusNelson&Goldman,1909—SWBajaCaliforniatoNWBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.saxatillisGrinnell,1934—NECalifornia,USA.T.b.scotophilusDavis,1940—WCTexas,USA.T.b.sevieriDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.siccovallisHuey,1945—CBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.simulusNelson&Goldman,1934—SEIdaho,USA.T:b.sinaloaeMerriam,1901—NWandWCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.solitariusGrinnell,1926—WCNevada,USA.T:b.spatiosusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T.b.stansburyDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T:b.sturgisiGoldman,1938—NWCoahuilaintoEChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.subsimilisGoldman,1933—SWArizona,USA.T.b.texensisBailey,1902—SWTexas,USA.T.b.tiviusDurrant,1937—CUtah,USA.T.b.toltecusJ.A.Allen,1893—SWNewMexico,USA,intoNWChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.tularosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.vanrosseniHuey,1934—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.varusHall&Long,1960—WCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.vescusHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.villa:Baker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.wahwahensisDurrant,1937—WCUtah,USA.T.b.winthropiNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T. b. xerophilus Huey, 1945— NC Baja California, Mexico.","Head—body 90-200 mm (males) and 80-175 mm (females), tail 60— 95 mm (males) and 55-75 mm (females); weight 110-250 g (males) and 80-160 g (females). Botta’s Pocket Gopher has a very broad geographical distribution, encompassing the entire southern one-half of western USA into northern Mexico. Extreme variation in body size and pelage color throughoutits distribution explains the large number of described subspecies. Some authors believe that many, if not most, of these subspecies would not stand up to a detailed analysis of taxonomic status using modern systematic tools. Individuals living at higher elevations or in thinnersoils are usually much smaller than individuals living at lower elevations and in deeper soils. Males continue to grow with age, whereas growth in females ceases after they begin to reproduce. As a result, males of smaller subspecies are somewhat larger than females, but males of larger subspecies can be up to ¢.15% larger than females. Color of dorsal pelage can be black in melanistic populations, white in albinistic individuals, dark-to-light brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, pale gray, yellowish gray, and all shades between these many colors. Some individuals have patches of white fur on throat, chest, or belly, and some populations show subtle changes in hair color seasonally. Botta’s Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Extensive cytogenetic studies of Botta’s Pocket Gopher byJ. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that most populations have a chromosomal complement of 2n = 76 and FN = 110-148. Populations extending from northeastern New Mexico into south-eastern Colorado show a cline in diploid number from 76 chromosomes in the south to 100 in the north. Additional chromosomes, above the typical diploid number of 76, are heterochromatic and potentially genetically inactive.","Wide variety of habitats with many differentsoil types and depths from below sea level in Death Valley National Park, California, to above timberline in many mountain ranges in western USA. Botta’s Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands,forests, and suburban lawns and gardens. Similar to other pocket gophers, they appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invadersof cultivated fields.","Diet of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a wide variety of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Nearly all species of plants in the vicinity of a burrow system are consumed, including annual and perennial monocots and dicots, perennial shrubs, cacti, and roots of a variety of tree species. Young shoots and entire seedlings of many plant species are pulled directly downward into a tunnel excavated beneath the plant. In many habitats, diet shifts seasonally, often in response to increased availabilities of forbs and grasses following spring rains. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Many observations of aboveground foraging have been reported, almost always occurring within a few body lengths of a burrow entrance.","Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of Botta’s Pocket Gopher; low-elevation individuals breed in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring following snow melt. Most populations are thoughtto breed only once per year, but when breeding season is long (January-April in certain low-elevation habitats in California), females born early in the season will breed later in the same season. Males do not attain reproductive maturity until the year after their birth. Some populations of Botta’s Pocket Gophers may breed in spring and autumn in years when food is abundant. In most years, nearly all adult females breed, but relatively few adult males breed, suggesting that male competition for access to femalesis high. Sex ratio of adults in most populationsis heavily skewed in favor of females, and this is especially true in populations with extreme sexual size dimorphism. Litter sizes of Botta’s Pocket Gophers are 1-10 young, averaging 4-5 young/litter. Nutrition and food abundance affect litter size, and studies by J. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that femalesliving in alfalfa fields in the southern California desert had larger litters than those living in nearby desert scrub habitats. Gestation is 18-21 days, and young are weaned and expelled from burrows at ¢.35 days of age. Young disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat not already occupied by a competitor.","Botta’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. A study in southern California showed six individuals to be active an average of ¢.9 hours/day, with peak activity between 16:00 h and 20:00 h. Botta’s Pocket Gopher digs with its incisors and forelimbs, using hard enamel in the teeth to penetrate compact soils resistant to softer keratin in claws. In one study, growth rate of incisors averaged c.0-6 mm/day for the upper pair and almost 1 mm/day (36 cm/year) in the lower pair. Rate of claw growth varies widely butis usually slower than rate of incisor growth in species that dig with their teeth. Botta’s Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round. Burrowing activity is low during hot, dry summers but increases dramatically with cooler temperatures and greater soil moisture in spring, autumn, and winter. Although most burrowing activity takes place in shallow feeding tunnels and is associated with foraging, individuals will also dig deep tunnels to avoid hot surface temperatures.","A study of Botta’s Pocket Gophers living along the Rio Grande in New Mexico, USA, estimated average dispersal distances of ¢.400 m/year. Another study in California showed average daily movements of ¢.32 m for dispersing adult males, 28 m for adult females, and 21 m for subadult females. As in other pocket gophers, Botta’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Although they vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, captures of two or more individuals in the same system are not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Male Botta’s Pocket Gophers tend to have larger burrow systems than females. Mean home range size was ¢.390 m? for females and ¢.810 m? for males in California. A similar study in New Mexico reported home range sizes of ¢.290 m?* for females and ¢.475 m® for males. Densities of ¢.75 ind/ha have been reported in natural habitats, and as many as 150 ind/ha have been recorded from agricultural lands (e.g. alfalfa fields).",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,"Baird (1855) | Hafner et al. (1983) | Howard & Childs (1959) | Jones & Baxter (2004) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafieda & Lacher (2008b) | Nadler etal. (1990) | Patton (1999a, 2005b) | Patton & Smith (1990) | Vleck (1979)",,"12.Botta’s Pocket GopherThomomys bottaeFrench:Gaufre de Botta/ German:Gebirgstaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BottaOther common names:Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Oryctomys (Saccophorus) bottae Eydoux & P. Gervais, 1836, “coast of California.” Restricted by S. F. Baird in 1855 to “Monterey and San Francisco” (Monterey Co., California, USA).Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Nearly 200 subspecies were formerly recognized in the literature. One hundred thirtythree subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.b.bottaeEydoux&Gervais,1836—PacificcoastofC&SCalifornia,USA.T.b.abbottiHuey,1928—PacificcoastofCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T°b.abstrususHall&Davis,1935—NyeCounty,Nevada,USA.T.b.actuosusKelson,1951—CNewMexico,USA.T.b.albatusGrinnell,1912—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.albicaudatusHall,1930—NUtah,USA.T.b.alexandraeGoldman,1933—NCArizona,USA.T.b.alpinusMerriam,1897—SierraNevadaRangeofCCalifornia,USA.T.b.alticolusJ.A.Allen,1899—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.analogusGoldman,1938—SECoahuila,Mexico.T.b.angustidensBaker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.anitaeJ.A.Allen,1898—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.aphrastusElliot,1903—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.aurerventrisHall,1930—NWUtah,USA.T.b.aureusJ.A.Allen,1893—NEArizonaandadjacentpartsofUtah,Colorado,andNewMexico,USA.T.b.awahneeMerriam,1908—WCCalifornia,USA.T.b.baileyiMerriam,1901—NWTexas,USA.T.b.basilicaeBenson&Tillotson,1940—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.birdseye:Goldman,1937—SWUtah,USA.T.b.bonneuvilletDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.borjasensisHuey,1945—SBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brazierhowelliHuey,1960—WCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brevidensHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T:b.cactophilusHuey,1929—SBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.camoaeBurt,1937—PacificcoastofSSonora,Mexico.T.b.canusBailey,1910—NWNevada,USA.T.b.catalinaeGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.catavinensisHuey,1931—SEBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.centralisHall,1930—SEUtah,USA.T.b.cervinusJ.A.Allen,1895—SWArizona,USA.T:b.chrysonotusGrinnell,1912—SWArizona,USA.T.b.cinereusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.collisHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.concisorHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.confinalisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.connectensHall,1936—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.contractusDurrant,1946—SWUtah,USA.T.b.convergensNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T.b.convexusDurrant,1939—WCUtah,USA.T:b.cultellusKelson,1951—NENewMexicoandSEColorado,USA.T.b.cuniculariusHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.curtatusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.depressusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.desertorumMerriam,1901—NWArizona,USA.T.b.detumidusGrinnell,1935—SWOregon,USA.T.b.dissimilisGoldman,1931—SEUtah,USA.T.b.divergensNelson&Goldman,1934—NESonora,Mexico.T:b.estanciaeBenson&Tillotson,1939—NESonora,Mexico.T.b.fulvusWoodhouse,1852—NCArizonatoSWNewMexico,USA.T.b.fumosusHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T.b.guadalupensisGoldman,1936—WCTexas,USA.T:b.homorusHuey,1949—NBajaCaliforniaSurintoSBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.howelliGoldman,1936—ECUtahintoWCColorado,USA.T.b.humilisBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T:b.imitabilisGoldman,1939—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.incomptusGoldman,1939—-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T:b.internatusGoldman,1936—SCColorado,USA.T.b.jojobaeHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.juarezensisHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lachuguillaBailey,1902—WCTexas,USA.T.b.lacrymalisHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.laticepsBaird,1855—NWCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T.b.latusHall&Davis,1935—WCNevada,USA.T.b.lenisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.leucodonMerriam,1897—NCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T:b.levidensisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.limitarisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.limpiaeBlair,1939—SWTexas,USA.T.b.litorisBurt,1940—WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.lucidusHall,1932—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lucrificusHall&Durham,1938—CNevada,USA.T.b.magdalenaeNelson&Goldman,1909-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.martirensisJ.A.Allen,1898—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.mearnsiBailey,1914—SWNewMexico,USA.T.b.mewaMerriam,1908—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.minimusDurrant,1939—NWUtah,USA.T.b.modicusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA,intoNCSonora,Mexico.T.b.morulusHooper,1940—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.nanusHall,1932—SCNevada,USA.T.b.navusMerriam,1901—NCCalifornia,USA.T.b.neglectusBailey,1914—SWCalifornia,USA.T.b.nesophilusDurrant,1936—NWUtah,USA.T.b.nigricansRhoads,1895—SWCalifornia,USA,intoNWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.operariusMerriam,1897—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.optabilisGoodman,1936—SWColorado,USA.T.b.opulentusGoldman,1935—C&SCNewMexico,USA.T:b.osgoodiGoldman,1931—SCUtah,USA.T.b.paguataeHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T:b.pascalisMerriam,1901—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.pectoralisGoldman,1936—SENewMexico,USA.T.b.peramplusGoldman,1931—NEArizonaintoNWNewMexico,USA.T.b.perditusMerriam,1901—CCoahuilaintoNWNuevoLe6n,Mexico.T.b.perpallidusMerriam,1886—SCCalifornia,USA.T:b.pervagusMerriam,1901—NCNewMexicointoSCColorado,USA.T.b.pervariusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T:b.phelleoecusBurt,1933—SCNevada,USA.T.b.pinalensisGoldman,1938—SCArizona,USA.T:b.planirostrisBurt,1931—SWUtahintoNWArizona,USA.T.b.planorumHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.powellDurrant,1955—SCUtah,USA.T.b.proximarinusHuey,1945—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.pusillusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.retractusBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.rhizophagusHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.ripariusGrinnell&Hill,1936—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.robustusDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T.b.rubidusYoungman,1958—SCColorado,USA.T.b.ruidosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.rupestrisChattin,1941—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.ruricolaHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,USA.T:b.russeolusNelson&Goldman,1909—SWBajaCaliforniatoNWBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.saxatillisGrinnell,1934—NECalifornia,USA.T.b.scotophilusDavis,1940—WCTexas,USA.T.b.sevieriDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.siccovallisHuey,1945—CBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.simulusNelson&Goldman,1934—SEIdaho,USA.T:b.sinaloaeMerriam,1901—NWandWCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.solitariusGrinnell,1926—WCNevada,USA.T:b.spatiosusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T.b.stansburyDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T:b.sturgisiGoldman,1938—NWCoahuilaintoEChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.subsimilisGoldman,1933—SWArizona,USA.T.b.texensisBailey,1902—SWTexas,USA.T.b.tiviusDurrant,1937—CUtah,USA.T.b.toltecusJ.A.Allen,1893—SWNewMexico,USA,intoNWChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.tularosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.vanrosseniHuey,1934—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.varusHall&Long,1960—WCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.vescusHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.villa:Baker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.wahwahensisDurrant,1937—WCUtah,USA.T.b.winthropiNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T. b. xerophilus Huey, 1945— NC Baja California, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-200 mm (males) and 80-175 mm (females), tail 60— 95 mm (males) and 55-75 mm (females); weight 110-250 g (males) and 80-160 g (females). Botta’s Pocket Gopher has a very broad geographical distribution, encompassing the entire southern one-half of western USA into northern Mexico. Extreme variation in body size and pelage color throughoutits distribution explains the large number of described subspecies. Some authors believe that many, if not most, of these subspecies would not stand up to a detailed analysis of taxonomic status using modern systematic tools. Individuals living at higher elevations or in thinnersoils are usually much smaller than individuals living at lower elevations and in deeper soils. Males continue to grow with age, whereas growth in females ceases after they begin to reproduce. As a result, males of smaller subspecies are somewhat larger than females, but males of larger subspecies can be up to ¢.15% larger than females. Color of dorsal pelage can be black in melanistic populations, white in albinistic individuals, dark-to-light brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, pale gray, yellowish gray, and all shades between these many colors. Some individuals have patches of white fur on throat, chest, or belly, and some populations show subtle changes in hair color seasonally. Botta’s Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Extensive cytogenetic studies of Botta’s Pocket Gopher byJ. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that most populations have a chromosomal complement of 2n = 76 and FN = 110-148. Populations extending from northeastern New Mexico into south-eastern Colorado show a cline in diploid number from 76 chromosomes in the south to 100 in the north. Additional chromosomes, above the typical diploid number of 76, are heterochromatic and potentially genetically inactive.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats with many differentsoil types and depths from below sea level in Death Valley National Park, California, to above timberline in many mountain ranges in western USA. Botta’s Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands,forests, and suburban lawns and gardens. Similar to other pocket gophers, they appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invadersof cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.Diet of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a wide variety of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Nearly all species of plants in the vicinity of a burrow system are consumed, including annual and perennial monocots and dicots, perennial shrubs, cacti, and roots of a variety of tree species. Young shoots and entire seedlings of many plant species are pulled directly downward into a tunnel excavated beneath the plant. In many habitats, diet shifts seasonally, often in response to increased availabilities of forbs and grasses following spring rains. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Many observations of aboveground foraging have been reported, almost always occurring within a few body lengths of a burrow entrance.Breeding.Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of Botta’s Pocket Gopher; low-elevation individuals breed in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring following snow melt. Most populations are thoughtto breed only once per year, but when breeding season is long (January-April in certain low-elevation habitats in California), females born early in the season will breed later in the same season. Males do not attain reproductive maturity until the year after their birth. Some populations of Botta’s Pocket Gophers may breed in spring and autumn in years when food is abundant. In most years, nearly all adult females breed, but relatively few adult males breed, suggesting that male competition for access to femalesis high. Sex ratio of adults in most populationsis heavily skewed in favor of females, and this is especially true in populations with extreme sexual size dimorphism. Litter sizes of Botta’s Pocket Gophers are 1-10 young, averaging 4-5 young/litter. Nutrition and food abundance affect litter size, and studies by J. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that femalesliving in alfalfa fields in the southern California desert had larger litters than those living in nearby desert scrub habitats. Gestation is 18-21 days, and young are weaned and expelled from burrows at ¢.35 days of age. Young disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat not already occupied by a competitor.Activity patterns.Botta’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. A study in southern California showed six individuals to be active an average of ¢.9 hours/day, with peak activity between 16:00 h and 20:00 h. Botta’s Pocket Gopher digs with its incisors and forelimbs, using hard enamel in the teeth to penetrate compact soils resistant to softer keratin in claws. In one study, growth rate of incisors averaged c.0-6 mm/day for the upper pair and almost 1 mm/day (36 cm/year) in the lower pair. Rate of claw growth varies widely butis usually slower than rate of incisor growth in species that dig with their teeth. Botta’s Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round. Burrowing activity is low during hot, dry summers but increases dramatically with cooler temperatures and greater soil moisture in spring, autumn, and winter. Although most burrowing activity takes place in shallow feeding tunnels and is associated with foraging, individuals will also dig deep tunnels to avoid hot surface temperatures.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A study of Botta’s Pocket Gophers living along the Rio Grande in New Mexico, USA, estimated average dispersal distances of ¢.400 m/year. Another study in California showed average daily movements of ¢.32 m for dispersing adult males, 28 m for adult females, and 21 m for subadult females. As in other pocket gophers, Botta’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Although they vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, captures of two or more individuals in the same system are not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Male Botta’s Pocket Gophers tend to have larger burrow systems than females. Mean home range size was ¢.390 m? for females and ¢.810 m? for males in California. A similar study in New Mexico reported home range sizes of ¢.290 m?* for females and ¢.475 m® for males. Densities of ¢.75 ind/ha have been reported in natural habitats, and as many as 150 ind/ha have been recorded from agricultural lands (e.g. alfalfa fields).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Baird (1855), Hafner et al. (1983), Howard & Childs (1959), Jones & Baxter (2004), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafieda & Lacher (2008b), Nadler etal. (1990), Patton (1999a, 2005b), Patton & Smith (1990), Vleck (1979)." +0131878A072AFF85FF96F82F6DB642A2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF85FF96F82F6DB642A2.xml,Thomomys atrovarius,Thomomys,atrovarius,J. A. Allen,1898,Gaufre de Tatemeles @fr | Schwarzbraune Taschenratte @de | Tuza negra y marron @es,"Thomomys atrovarius J. A. Allen, 1898, “Tatemales [near Rosario], State of Sinaloa, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2011. Molecular studies show T. atrovariusto be a member of the Thomomys umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.","T.a.atrovariusJ.A.Allen,1898—CSinaloatoSNayaritandadjacentpartsofSWDurangoandNWJalisco,Mexico.T. a. parviceps Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NE Sinaloa and W Durango S to C Sinaloa, Mexico.","Head-body 110-165 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-150 g. Male Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is moderately dense to very sparse, sometimes almost naked on ventrum, and it is dark brown to dull gray-black dorsally, occasionally with a wash of lighter brown or gray laterally. Female Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal, and baculum in males is usually less than 11 mm in length. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 116-132.","Dry, thornscrub forest. The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheroccurs in a wide variety of soils from near sea level along the coast of the Pacific Ocean to elevations of ¢.2400 m in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Unlike most species of pocket gophers, the Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris only rarely found in agricultural fields, and anecdotal observations suggest that it is reluctant to leave cover of thornscrub forests.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackand-Brown Pocket Gopher probably breeds during, or soon after, the rainy season (June-August) when vegetation is plentiful.","The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","As in other pocket gophers, Blackand-Brown Pocket Gophers are solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes of Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophersare typical of other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.","The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher is not listed on The IUCN Red List because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher (71. umbrinus), which is listed as Least Concern.","Allen (1898a) | Hafner et al. (2011) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafeda & Lacher (2008a) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (2005b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603831/files/figure.png,"10.Black-and-Brown Pocket GopherThomomys atrovariusFrench:Gaufre de Tatemeles/ German:Schwarzbraune Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza negra y marronTaxonomy.Thomomys atrovarius J. A. Allen, 1898, “Tatemales [near Rosario], State of Sinaloa, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2011. Molecular studies show T. atrovariusto be a member of the Thomomys umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.a.atrovariusJ.A.Allen,1898—CSinaloatoSNayaritandadjacentpartsofSWDurangoandNWJalisco,Mexico.T. a. parviceps Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NE Sinaloa and W Durango S to C Sinaloa, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-165 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-150 g. Male Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is moderately dense to very sparse, sometimes almost naked on ventrum, and it is dark brown to dull gray-black dorsally, occasionally with a wash of lighter brown or gray laterally. Female Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal, and baculum in males is usually less than 11 mm in length. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 116-132.Habitat.Dry, thornscrub forest. The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheroccurs in a wide variety of soils from near sea level along the coast of the Pacific Ocean to elevations of ¢.2400 m in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Unlike most species of pocket gophers, the Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris only rarely found in agricultural fields, and anecdotal observations suggest that it is reluctant to leave cover of thornscrub forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackand-Brown Pocket Gopher probably breeds during, or soon after, the rainy season (June-August) when vegetation is plentiful.Activity patterns.The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As in other pocket gophers, Blackand-Brown Pocket Gophers are solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes of Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophersare typical of other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher is not listed on The IUCN Red List because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher (71. umbrinus), which is listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Allen (1898a), Hafner et al. (2011), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafeda & Lacher (2008a), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (2005b)." +0131878A072AFF8BFA96F3966E1B4D67,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,255,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF8BFA96F3966E1B4D67.xml,Thomomys bottae,Thomomys,bottae,Eydoux & P. Gervais,1836,Gaufre de Botta @fr | Gebirgstaschenratte @de | Tuza de Botta @es | Valley Pocket Gopher @en,"Oryctomys (Saccophorus) bottae Eydoux & P. Gervais, 1836, “coast of California.” Restricted by S. F. Baird in 1855 to “Monterey and San Francisco” (Monterey Co., California, USA).Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Nearly 200 subspecies were formerly recognized in the literature. One hundred thirtythree subspecies recognized.","T.b.bottaeEydoux&Gervais,1836—PacificcoastofC&SCalifornia,USA.T.b.abbottiHuey,1928—PacificcoastofCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T°b.abstrususHall&Davis,1935—NyeCounty,Nevada,USA.T.b.actuosusKelson,1951—CNewMexico,USA.T.b.albatusGrinnell,1912—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.albicaudatusHall,1930—NUtah,USA.T.b.alexandraeGoldman,1933—NCArizona,USA.T.b.alpinusMerriam,1897—SierraNevadaRangeofCCalifornia,USA.T.b.alticolusJ.A.Allen,1899—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.analogusGoldman,1938—SECoahuila,Mexico.T.b.angustidensBaker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.anitaeJ.A.Allen,1898—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.aphrastusElliot,1903—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.aurerventrisHall,1930—NWUtah,USA.T.b.aureusJ.A.Allen,1893—NEArizonaandadjacentpartsofUtah,Colorado,andNewMexico,USA.T.b.awahneeMerriam,1908—WCCalifornia,USA.T.b.baileyiMerriam,1901—NWTexas,USA.T.b.basilicaeBenson&Tillotson,1940—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.birdseye:Goldman,1937—SWUtah,USA.T.b.bonneuvilletDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.borjasensisHuey,1945—SBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brazierhowelliHuey,1960—WCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brevidensHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T:b.cactophilusHuey,1929—SBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.camoaeBurt,1937—PacificcoastofSSonora,Mexico.T.b.canusBailey,1910—NWNevada,USA.T.b.catalinaeGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.catavinensisHuey,1931—SEBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.centralisHall,1930—SEUtah,USA.T.b.cervinusJ.A.Allen,1895—SWArizona,USA.T:b.chrysonotusGrinnell,1912—SWArizona,USA.T.b.cinereusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.collisHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.concisorHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.confinalisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.connectensHall,1936—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.contractusDurrant,1946—SWUtah,USA.T.b.convergensNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T.b.convexusDurrant,1939—WCUtah,USA.T:b.cultellusKelson,1951—NENewMexicoandSEColorado,USA.T.b.cuniculariusHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.curtatusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.depressusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.desertorumMerriam,1901—NWArizona,USA.T.b.detumidusGrinnell,1935—SWOregon,USA.T.b.dissimilisGoldman,1931—SEUtah,USA.T.b.divergensNelson&Goldman,1934—NESonora,Mexico.T:b.estanciaeBenson&Tillotson,1939—NESonora,Mexico.T.b.fulvusWoodhouse,1852—NCArizonatoSWNewMexico,USA.T.b.fumosusHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T.b.guadalupensisGoldman,1936—WCTexas,USA.T:b.homorusHuey,1949—NBajaCaliforniaSurintoSBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.howelliGoldman,1936—ECUtahintoWCColorado,USA.T.b.humilisBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T:b.imitabilisGoldman,1939—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.incomptusGoldman,1939—-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T:b.internatusGoldman,1936—SCColorado,USA.T.b.jojobaeHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.juarezensisHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lachuguillaBailey,1902—WCTexas,USA.T.b.lacrymalisHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.laticepsBaird,1855—NWCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T.b.latusHall&Davis,1935—WCNevada,USA.T.b.lenisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.leucodonMerriam,1897—NCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T:b.levidensisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.limitarisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.limpiaeBlair,1939—SWTexas,USA.T.b.litorisBurt,1940—WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.lucidusHall,1932—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lucrificusHall&Durham,1938—CNevada,USA.T.b.magdalenaeNelson&Goldman,1909-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.martirensisJ.A.Allen,1898—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.mearnsiBailey,1914—SWNewMexico,USA.T.b.mewaMerriam,1908—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.minimusDurrant,1939—NWUtah,USA.T.b.modicusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA,intoNCSonora,Mexico.T.b.morulusHooper,1940—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.nanusHall,1932—SCNevada,USA.T.b.navusMerriam,1901—NCCalifornia,USA.T.b.neglectusBailey,1914—SWCalifornia,USA.T.b.nesophilusDurrant,1936—NWUtah,USA.T.b.nigricansRhoads,1895—SWCalifornia,USA,intoNWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.operariusMerriam,1897—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.optabilisGoodman,1936—SWColorado,USA.T.b.opulentusGoldman,1935—C&SCNewMexico,USA.T:b.osgoodiGoldman,1931—SCUtah,USA.T.b.paguataeHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T:b.pascalisMerriam,1901—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.pectoralisGoldman,1936—SENewMexico,USA.T.b.peramplusGoldman,1931—NEArizonaintoNWNewMexico,USA.T.b.perditusMerriam,1901—CCoahuilaintoNWNuevoLe6n,Mexico.T.b.perpallidusMerriam,1886—SCCalifornia,USA.T:b.pervagusMerriam,1901—NCNewMexicointoSCColorado,USA.T.b.pervariusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T:b.phelleoecusBurt,1933—SCNevada,USA.T.b.pinalensisGoldman,1938—SCArizona,USA.T:b.planirostrisBurt,1931—SWUtahintoNWArizona,USA.T.b.planorumHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.powellDurrant,1955—SCUtah,USA.T.b.proximarinusHuey,1945—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.pusillusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.retractusBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.rhizophagusHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.ripariusGrinnell&Hill,1936—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.robustusDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T.b.rubidusYoungman,1958—SCColorado,USA.T.b.ruidosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.rupestrisChattin,1941—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.ruricolaHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,USA.T:b.russeolusNelson&Goldman,1909—SWBajaCaliforniatoNWBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.saxatillisGrinnell,1934—NECalifornia,USA.T.b.scotophilusDavis,1940—WCTexas,USA.T.b.sevieriDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.siccovallisHuey,1945—CBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.simulusNelson&Goldman,1934—SEIdaho,USA.T:b.sinaloaeMerriam,1901—NWandWCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.solitariusGrinnell,1926—WCNevada,USA.T:b.spatiosusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T.b.stansburyDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T:b.sturgisiGoldman,1938—NWCoahuilaintoEChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.subsimilisGoldman,1933—SWArizona,USA.T.b.texensisBailey,1902—SWTexas,USA.T.b.tiviusDurrant,1937—CUtah,USA.T.b.toltecusJ.A.Allen,1893—SWNewMexico,USA,intoNWChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.tularosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.vanrosseniHuey,1934—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.varusHall&Long,1960—WCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.vescusHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.villa:Baker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.wahwahensisDurrant,1937—WCUtah,USA.T.b.winthropiNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T. b. xerophilus Huey, 1945— NC Baja California, Mexico.","Head—body 90-200 mm (males) and 80-175 mm (females), tail 60— 95 mm (males) and 55-75 mm (females); weight 110-250 g (males) and 80-160 g (females). Botta’s Pocket Gopher has a very broad geographical distribution, encompassing the entire southern one-half of western USA into northern Mexico. Extreme variation in body size and pelage color throughoutits distribution explains the large number of described subspecies. Some authors believe that many, if not most, of these subspecies would not stand up to a detailed analysis of taxonomic status using modern systematic tools. Individuals living at higher elevations or in thinnersoils are usually much smaller than individuals living at lower elevations and in deeper soils. Males continue to grow with age, whereas growth in females ceases after they begin to reproduce. As a result, males of smaller subspecies are somewhat larger than females, but males of larger subspecies can be up to ¢.15% larger than females. Color of dorsal pelage can be black in melanistic populations, white in albinistic individuals, dark-to-light brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, pale gray, yellowish gray, and all shades between these many colors. Some individuals have patches of white fur on throat, chest, or belly, and some populations show subtle changes in hair color seasonally. Botta’s Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Extensive cytogenetic studies of Botta’s Pocket Gopher byJ. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that most populations have a chromosomal complement of 2n = 76 and FN = 110-148. Populations extending from northeastern New Mexico into south-eastern Colorado show a cline in diploid number from 76 chromosomes in the south to 100 in the north. Additional chromosomes, above the typical diploid number of 76, are heterochromatic and potentially genetically inactive.","Wide variety of habitats with many differentsoil types and depths from below sea level in Death Valley National Park, California, to above timberline in many mountain ranges in western USA. Botta’s Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands,forests, and suburban lawns and gardens. Similar to other pocket gophers, they appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invadersof cultivated fields.","Diet of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a wide variety of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Nearly all species of plants in the vicinity of a burrow system are consumed, including annual and perennial monocots and dicots, perennial shrubs, cacti, and roots of a variety of tree species. Young shoots and entire seedlings of many plant species are pulled directly downward into a tunnel excavated beneath the plant. In many habitats, diet shifts seasonally, often in response to increased availabilities of forbs and grasses following spring rains. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Many observations of aboveground foraging have been reported, almost always occurring within a few body lengths of a burrow entrance.","Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of Botta’s Pocket Gopher; low-elevation individuals breed in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring following snow melt. Most populations are thoughtto breed only once per year, but when breeding season is long (January-April in certain low-elevation habitats in California), females born early in the season will breed later in the same season. Males do not attain reproductive maturity until the year after their birth. Some populations of Botta’s Pocket Gophers may breed in spring and autumn in years when food is abundant. In most years, nearly all adult females breed, but relatively few adult males breed, suggesting that male competition for access to femalesis high. Sex ratio of adults in most populationsis heavily skewed in favor of females, and this is especially true in populations with extreme sexual size dimorphism. Litter sizes of Botta’s Pocket Gophers are 1-10 young, averaging 4-5 young/litter. Nutrition and food abundance affect litter size, and studies by J. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that femalesliving in alfalfa fields in the southern California desert had larger litters than those living in nearby desert scrub habitats. Gestation is 18-21 days, and young are weaned and expelled from burrows at ¢.35 days of age. Young disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat not already occupied by a competitor.","Botta’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. A study in southern California showed six individuals to be active an average of ¢.9 hours/day, with peak activity between 16:00 h and 20:00 h. Botta’s Pocket Gopher digs with its incisors and forelimbs, using hard enamel in the teeth to penetrate compact soils resistant to softer keratin in claws. In one study, growth rate of incisors averaged c.0-6 mm/day for the upper pair and almost 1 mm/day (36 cm/year) in the lower pair. Rate of claw growth varies widely butis usually slower than rate of incisor growth in species that dig with their teeth. Botta’s Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round. Burrowing activity is low during hot, dry summers but increases dramatically with cooler temperatures and greater soil moisture in spring, autumn, and winter. Although most burrowing activity takes place in shallow feeding tunnels and is associated with foraging, individuals will also dig deep tunnels to avoid hot surface temperatures.","A study of Botta’s Pocket Gophers living along the Rio Grande in New Mexico, USA, estimated average dispersal distances of ¢.400 m/year. Another study in California showed average daily movements of ¢.32 m for dispersing adult males, 28 m for adult females, and 21 m for subadult females. As in other pocket gophers, Botta’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Although they vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, captures of two or more individuals in the same system are not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Male Botta’s Pocket Gophers tend to have larger burrow systems than females. Mean home range size was ¢.390 m? for females and ¢.810 m? for males in California. A similar study in New Mexico reported home range sizes of ¢.290 m?* for females and ¢.475 m® for males. Densities of ¢.75 ind/ha have been reported in natural habitats, and as many as 150 ind/ha have been recorded from agricultural lands (e.g. alfalfa fields).",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,"Baird (1855) | Hafner et al. (1983) | Howard & Childs (1959) | Jones & Baxter (2004) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafieda & Lacher (2008b) | Nadler etal. (1990) | Patton (1999a, 2005b) | Patton & Smith (1990) | Vleck (1979)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603835/files/figure.png,"12.Botta’s Pocket GopherThomomys bottaeFrench:Gaufre de Botta/ German:Gebirgstaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BottaOther common names:Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Oryctomys (Saccophorus) bottae Eydoux & P. Gervais, 1836, “coast of California.” Restricted by S. F. Baird in 1855 to “Monterey and San Francisco” (Monterey Co., California, USA).Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Nearly 200 subspecies were formerly recognized in the literature. One hundred thirtythree subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.b.bottaeEydoux&Gervais,1836—PacificcoastofC&SCalifornia,USA.T.b.abbottiHuey,1928—PacificcoastofCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T°b.abstrususHall&Davis,1935—NyeCounty,Nevada,USA.T.b.actuosusKelson,1951—CNewMexico,USA.T.b.albatusGrinnell,1912—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.albicaudatusHall,1930—NUtah,USA.T.b.alexandraeGoldman,1933—NCArizona,USA.T.b.alpinusMerriam,1897—SierraNevadaRangeofCCalifornia,USA.T.b.alticolusJ.A.Allen,1899—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.analogusGoldman,1938—SECoahuila,Mexico.T.b.angustidensBaker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.anitaeJ.A.Allen,1898—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.aphrastusElliot,1903—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.aurerventrisHall,1930—NWUtah,USA.T.b.aureusJ.A.Allen,1893—NEArizonaandadjacentpartsofUtah,Colorado,andNewMexico,USA.T.b.awahneeMerriam,1908—WCCalifornia,USA.T.b.baileyiMerriam,1901—NWTexas,USA.T.b.basilicaeBenson&Tillotson,1940—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.birdseye:Goldman,1937—SWUtah,USA.T.b.bonneuvilletDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.borjasensisHuey,1945—SBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brazierhowelliHuey,1960—WCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brevidensHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T:b.cactophilusHuey,1929—SBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.camoaeBurt,1937—PacificcoastofSSonora,Mexico.T.b.canusBailey,1910—NWNevada,USA.T.b.catalinaeGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.catavinensisHuey,1931—SEBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.centralisHall,1930—SEUtah,USA.T.b.cervinusJ.A.Allen,1895—SWArizona,USA.T:b.chrysonotusGrinnell,1912—SWArizona,USA.T.b.cinereusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.collisHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.concisorHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.confinalisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.connectensHall,1936—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.contractusDurrant,1946—SWUtah,USA.T.b.convergensNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T.b.convexusDurrant,1939—WCUtah,USA.T:b.cultellusKelson,1951—NENewMexicoandSEColorado,USA.T.b.cuniculariusHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.curtatusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.depressusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.desertorumMerriam,1901—NWArizona,USA.T.b.detumidusGrinnell,1935—SWOregon,USA.T.b.dissimilisGoldman,1931—SEUtah,USA.T.b.divergensNelson&Goldman,1934—NESonora,Mexico.T:b.estanciaeBenson&Tillotson,1939—NESonora,Mexico.T.b.fulvusWoodhouse,1852—NCArizonatoSWNewMexico,USA.T.b.fumosusHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T.b.guadalupensisGoldman,1936—WCTexas,USA.T:b.homorusHuey,1949—NBajaCaliforniaSurintoSBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.howelliGoldman,1936—ECUtahintoWCColorado,USA.T.b.humilisBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T:b.imitabilisGoldman,1939—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.incomptusGoldman,1939—-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T:b.internatusGoldman,1936—SCColorado,USA.T.b.jojobaeHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.juarezensisHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lachuguillaBailey,1902—WCTexas,USA.T.b.lacrymalisHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.laticepsBaird,1855—NWCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T.b.latusHall&Davis,1935—WCNevada,USA.T.b.lenisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.leucodonMerriam,1897—NCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T:b.levidensisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.limitarisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.limpiaeBlair,1939—SWTexas,USA.T.b.litorisBurt,1940—WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.lucidusHall,1932—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lucrificusHall&Durham,1938—CNevada,USA.T.b.magdalenaeNelson&Goldman,1909-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.martirensisJ.A.Allen,1898—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.mearnsiBailey,1914—SWNewMexico,USA.T.b.mewaMerriam,1908—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.minimusDurrant,1939—NWUtah,USA.T.b.modicusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA,intoNCSonora,Mexico.T.b.morulusHooper,1940—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.nanusHall,1932—SCNevada,USA.T.b.navusMerriam,1901—NCCalifornia,USA.T.b.neglectusBailey,1914—SWCalifornia,USA.T.b.nesophilusDurrant,1936—NWUtah,USA.T.b.nigricansRhoads,1895—SWCalifornia,USA,intoNWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.operariusMerriam,1897—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.optabilisGoodman,1936—SWColorado,USA.T.b.opulentusGoldman,1935—C&SCNewMexico,USA.T:b.osgoodiGoldman,1931—SCUtah,USA.T.b.paguataeHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T:b.pascalisMerriam,1901—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.pectoralisGoldman,1936—SENewMexico,USA.T.b.peramplusGoldman,1931—NEArizonaintoNWNewMexico,USA.T.b.perditusMerriam,1901—CCoahuilaintoNWNuevoLe6n,Mexico.T.b.perpallidusMerriam,1886—SCCalifornia,USA.T:b.pervagusMerriam,1901—NCNewMexicointoSCColorado,USA.T.b.pervariusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T:b.phelleoecusBurt,1933—SCNevada,USA.T.b.pinalensisGoldman,1938—SCArizona,USA.T:b.planirostrisBurt,1931—SWUtahintoNWArizona,USA.T.b.planorumHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.powellDurrant,1955—SCUtah,USA.T.b.proximarinusHuey,1945—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.pusillusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.retractusBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.rhizophagusHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.ripariusGrinnell&Hill,1936—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.robustusDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T.b.rubidusYoungman,1958—SCColorado,USA.T.b.ruidosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.rupestrisChattin,1941—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.ruricolaHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,USA.T:b.russeolusNelson&Goldman,1909—SWBajaCaliforniatoNWBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.saxatillisGrinnell,1934—NECalifornia,USA.T.b.scotophilusDavis,1940—WCTexas,USA.T.b.sevieriDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.siccovallisHuey,1945—CBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.simulusNelson&Goldman,1934—SEIdaho,USA.T:b.sinaloaeMerriam,1901—NWandWCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.solitariusGrinnell,1926—WCNevada,USA.T:b.spatiosusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T.b.stansburyDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T:b.sturgisiGoldman,1938—NWCoahuilaintoEChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.subsimilisGoldman,1933—SWArizona,USA.T.b.texensisBailey,1902—SWTexas,USA.T.b.tiviusDurrant,1937—CUtah,USA.T.b.toltecusJ.A.Allen,1893—SWNewMexico,USA,intoNWChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.tularosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.vanrosseniHuey,1934—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.varusHall&Long,1960—WCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.vescusHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.villa:Baker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.wahwahensisDurrant,1937—WCUtah,USA.T.b.winthropiNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T. b. xerophilus Huey, 1945— NC Baja California, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-200 mm (males) and 80-175 mm (females), tail 60— 95 mm (males) and 55-75 mm (females); weight 110-250 g (males) and 80-160 g (females). Botta’s Pocket Gopher has a very broad geographical distribution, encompassing the entire southern one-half of western USA into northern Mexico. Extreme variation in body size and pelage color throughoutits distribution explains the large number of described subspecies. Some authors believe that many, if not most, of these subspecies would not stand up to a detailed analysis of taxonomic status using modern systematic tools. Individuals living at higher elevations or in thinnersoils are usually much smaller than individuals living at lower elevations and in deeper soils. Males continue to grow with age, whereas growth in females ceases after they begin to reproduce. As a result, males of smaller subspecies are somewhat larger than females, but males of larger subspecies can be up to ¢.15% larger than females. Color of dorsal pelage can be black in melanistic populations, white in albinistic individuals, dark-to-light brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, pale gray, yellowish gray, and all shades between these many colors. Some individuals have patches of white fur on throat, chest, or belly, and some populations show subtle changes in hair color seasonally. Botta’s Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Extensive cytogenetic studies of Botta’s Pocket Gopher byJ. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that most populations have a chromosomal complement of 2n = 76 and FN = 110-148. Populations extending from northeastern New Mexico into south-eastern Colorado show a cline in diploid number from 76 chromosomes in the south to 100 in the north. Additional chromosomes, above the typical diploid number of 76, are heterochromatic and potentially genetically inactive.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats with many differentsoil types and depths from below sea level in Death Valley National Park, California, to above timberline in many mountain ranges in western USA. Botta’s Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands,forests, and suburban lawns and gardens. Similar to other pocket gophers, they appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invadersof cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.Diet of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a wide variety of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Nearly all species of plants in the vicinity of a burrow system are consumed, including annual and perennial monocots and dicots, perennial shrubs, cacti, and roots of a variety of tree species. Young shoots and entire seedlings of many plant species are pulled directly downward into a tunnel excavated beneath the plant. In many habitats, diet shifts seasonally, often in response to increased availabilities of forbs and grasses following spring rains. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Many observations of aboveground foraging have been reported, almost always occurring within a few body lengths of a burrow entrance.Breeding.Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of Botta’s Pocket Gopher; low-elevation individuals breed in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring following snow melt. Most populations are thoughtto breed only once per year, but when breeding season is long (January-April in certain low-elevation habitats in California), females born early in the season will breed later in the same season. Males do not attain reproductive maturity until the year after their birth. Some populations of Botta’s Pocket Gophers may breed in spring and autumn in years when food is abundant. In most years, nearly all adult females breed, but relatively few adult males breed, suggesting that male competition for access to femalesis high. Sex ratio of adults in most populationsis heavily skewed in favor of females, and this is especially true in populations with extreme sexual size dimorphism. Litter sizes of Botta’s Pocket Gophers are 1-10 young, averaging 4-5 young/litter. Nutrition and food abundance affect litter size, and studies by J. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that femalesliving in alfalfa fields in the southern California desert had larger litters than those living in nearby desert scrub habitats. Gestation is 18-21 days, and young are weaned and expelled from burrows at ¢.35 days of age. Young disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat not already occupied by a competitor.Activity patterns.Botta’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. A study in southern California showed six individuals to be active an average of ¢.9 hours/day, with peak activity between 16:00 h and 20:00 h. Botta’s Pocket Gopher digs with its incisors and forelimbs, using hard enamel in the teeth to penetrate compact soils resistant to softer keratin in claws. In one study, growth rate of incisors averaged c.0-6 mm/day for the upper pair and almost 1 mm/day (36 cm/year) in the lower pair. Rate of claw growth varies widely butis usually slower than rate of incisor growth in species that dig with their teeth. Botta’s Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round. Burrowing activity is low during hot, dry summers but increases dramatically with cooler temperatures and greater soil moisture in spring, autumn, and winter. Although most burrowing activity takes place in shallow feeding tunnels and is associated with foraging, individuals will also dig deep tunnels to avoid hot surface temperatures.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A study of Botta’s Pocket Gophers living along the Rio Grande in New Mexico, USA, estimated average dispersal distances of ¢.400 m/year. Another study in California showed average daily movements of ¢.32 m for dispersing adult males, 28 m for adult females, and 21 m for subadult females. As in other pocket gophers, Botta’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Although they vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, captures of two or more individuals in the same system are not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Male Botta’s Pocket Gophers tend to have larger burrow systems than females. Mean home range size was ¢.390 m? for females and ¢.810 m? for males in California. A similar study in New Mexico reported home range sizes of ¢.290 m?* for females and ¢.475 m® for males. Densities of ¢.75 ind/ha have been reported in natural habitats, and as many as 150 ind/ha have been recorded from agricultural lands (e.g. alfalfa fields).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Baird (1855), Hafner et al. (1983), Howard & Childs (1959), Jones & Baxter (2004), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafieda & Lacher (2008b), Nadler etal. (1990), Patton (1999a, 2005b), Patton & Smith (1990), Vleck (1979)." 0131878A072CFF83FE12FDEF6DE2431A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,234,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072CFF83FE12FDEF6DE2431A.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family GEOMYIDAE(POCKET GOPHERS)•• Small to medium-sized rodents with furlined cheek pouches external to the mouth and adaptations for fossorial life, including large incisors, muscular front legs, and fusiform bodies.• 15-45 cm.• Nearctic and Neotropical regions.• Near sea level to timberline in all habitats with friable, non-flooding soils.• 7 genera, 41 species, at least 314 extant taxa.• 2 species Critically Endangered, 1 species Endangered; 3 subspecies Extinct since 1600." -0131878A072EFF80FF92F49A6A9244CA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,251,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072EFF80FF92F49A6A9244CA.xml,Thomomys mazama,Thomomys,mazama,Merriam,1897,Gaufre du Mazama @fr | Mazama-Taschenratte @de | Tuza occidental @es | Mazama Pocket Gopher; Puget Sound Pocket Gopher (pugetensis) @en | Tacoma Pocket Gopher (tacomensis) @en,"Thomomys mazama Merriam, 1897, “Crater Lake, Mt. Mazama, [Klamath County] Oregon,” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded: as a subspecies of 1. monticola. Subspecies tacomensis, named by W. P. Taylor in 1919, known only from the vicinity of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington,is probably extinct as a result of urban expansion. Fourteen extant subspecies recognized.","T.m.mazamaMerriam,1897—CascadeRange,fromCOregonthroughNCalifor-nia,USA.T.m.couchiGoldman,1939—vicinityofShelton,MasonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.glacialisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—RoyPrairie,PierceCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.helleriElliot,1903—mouthoftheRogueRiver,CurryCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.hesperusMerriam,1901—coastalrangesofNWOregon,USA.T.m.lowieiGardner,1950—NECathlamet,WahkiakumCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.melanopsMerriam,1899—OlympicMts,ClallamCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.nasicusMerriam,1897—DeschutesRiverregion,COregon,USA.T.m.nigerMerriam,1901—coastofCOregon,USA.T.m.oregonusMerriam,1901—N&NWedgeofWillametteValley,Oregon,USA.T.m.premaxillarisGrinnell,1914—YollaBollyMts,TehamaCounty,California,USA.T.m.pugetensisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—vicinityofOlympia,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.tumuliDalquest&Scheffer,1942—NofTenino,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T. m. yelmensis Merriam, 1899— vicinity of Yelm Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, USA.","Head-body 140-170 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 80-130 g. Male Western Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is reddish brown dorsally, although some individuals, even entire populations, are completely melanistic. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from most nearby species of pocket gophers by its unusually large post-auricular patches, which are 5-6 times the area of the ear. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from the Northern Pocket Gopher(T. talpoides) by presence of an unusually long baculum in males (longest recorded for all geomyid species), often exceeding 22 mm in length. Bacula of the Northern Pocket Gopher rarely exceed 17 mm in length. The Western Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 40-58 karyotype.","Alpine meadows, open park-like habitats, glacial prairies, pastures, savannas, and early seral woodlands and forests where soils are deep silt or sandy loams. Mixedconifer forests often dominate habitats used by Western Pocket Gophers.","Consumption of plant species by the Western Pocket Gopher corresponds quite well with relative availabilities of those plant species. Annual diet consists primarily of grasses, roots of woody plants, and forbs. As in all pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Western Pocket Gopher. Feeding habits of the Western Pocket Gopher, particularly the numerous mounds of soil deposited on the surface, are believed by some researchers to have contributed to the formation of what are known as Mima mounds in prairie regions of Oregon and Washington in western USA. Mima mounds are conspicuous mounds of soil varying greatly in size but averaging c.600 cm in diameter and ¢.100 cm high that occur in dense clusters and cover large areas of prairie habitat. Mounds are approximately evenly spaced, and spacing is roughly equivalent to size of individual pocket gopher burrow systems. Pocket gophers no longer occupy the vast majority of Mima mounds.","The Western Pocket Gopher mates in spring, has a gestation of ¢.28 days, and has 1-7 young/litter. One study reported an average of 3-9 young/litter, which was the lowest average recorded among five species of Thomomysthat occur in Oregon. Nest chambers excavated in southern Washington were ¢.25 cm in diameter and c.15 cm high at an average depth of c.90 cm below the surface. These nests were lined with dry grass. The Western Pocket Gopher was coprophagous in captivity, but coprophagy in wild individuals has not been investigated.","There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gopher can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.","The Western Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In eastern Oregon, 110 Western Pocket Gophers were removed from a 4ha plot during a 14month period (= density of ¢.28 ind/ha), which did not account for possible immigration onto the plot from surrounding areas after residents were removed. In populations studied in Klamath County, Oregon, c.53% of individuals were young-of-the-year, 42% were 1-2 years old, and 5% were 2-3 years old. No individuals collected were older than c.3 years. Sex ratio in young-of-the-year was 1:1, but it was slightly female-biased in the older age classes.On following pages: 3. Idaho Pocket Gopher(Thomomys idahoensis); 4. Wyoming Pocket Gopher(Thomomys clusius); 5. Northern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys talpoides); 6. Camas Pocket Gopher(Thomomysbulbivorus), 7. Townsend's Pocket Gopher(Thomomystownsend); 8. Southern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys umbrinus); 9. Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopher(Thomomyssheldoni); 10. Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher(Thomomys atrovarius), 11. Nayar Pocket Gopher(Thomomysnayarensis); 12. Botta's Pocket Gopher(Thomomys bottae); 13. Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius); 14. Hall's Pocket Gopher(Geomys jugossicularis); 15. Sand Hills Pocket Gopher(Geomyslutescens); 16. Desert Pocket Gopher(Geomys arenarius); 17. Jones's Pocket Gopher(Geomys knoxjonesi); 18. Attwater’'s Pocket Gopher(Geomys attwateri); 19. Texas Pocket Gopher(Geomys personatus); 20. Strecker’s Pocket Gopher(Geomys streckeri); 21. Tropical Pocket Gopher(Geomys tropicalis); 22. Llano Pocket Gopher(Geomys texensis); 23. Baird's Pocket Gopher(Geomys breviceps); 24. South-eastern Pocket Gopher(Geomys pinetis).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Five subspecies of the Western Pocket Gopher(glacialis, pugetensis, tumuli, and yelmensis) are classified as threatened by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.","Burton & Black (1978) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008s) | Livezey & Verts (1979) | Patton (1999e, 2005b) | Taylor (1919) | Thaeler (1980) | USFWS (2015) | Verts & Carraway (1998, 2000) | Wilks (1962) | Witmer etal. (1996)",,"2.Western Pocket GopherThomomys mazamaFrench:Gaufre du Mazama/ German:Mazama-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza occidentalOther common names:Mazama Pocket Gopher; Puget Sound Pocket Gopher (pugetensis), Tacoma Pocket Gopher (tacomensis)Taxonomy.Thomomys mazama Merriam, 1897, “Crater Lake, Mt. Mazama, [Klamath County] Oregon,” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded: as a subspecies of 1. monticola. Subspecies tacomensis, named by W. P. Taylor in 1919, known only from the vicinity of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington,is probably extinct as a result of urban expansion. Fourteen extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.m.mazamaMerriam,1897—CascadeRange,fromCOregonthroughNCalifor-nia,USA.T.m.couchiGoldman,1939—vicinityofShelton,MasonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.glacialisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—RoyPrairie,PierceCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.helleriElliot,1903—mouthoftheRogueRiver,CurryCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.hesperusMerriam,1901—coastalrangesofNWOregon,USA.T.m.lowieiGardner,1950—NECathlamet,WahkiakumCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.melanopsMerriam,1899—OlympicMts,ClallamCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.nasicusMerriam,1897—DeschutesRiverregion,COregon,USA.T.m.nigerMerriam,1901—coastofCOregon,USA.T.m.oregonusMerriam,1901—N&NWedgeofWillametteValley,Oregon,USA.T.m.premaxillarisGrinnell,1914—YollaBollyMts,TehamaCounty,California,USA.T.m.pugetensisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—vicinityofOlympia,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.tumuliDalquest&Scheffer,1942—NofTenino,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T. m. yelmensis Merriam, 1899— vicinity of Yelm Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-170 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 80-130 g. Male Western Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is reddish brown dorsally, although some individuals, even entire populations, are completely melanistic. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from most nearby species of pocket gophers by its unusually large post-auricular patches, which are 5-6 times the area of the ear. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from the Northern Pocket Gopher(T. talpoides) by presence of an unusually long baculum in males (longest recorded for all geomyid species), often exceeding 22 mm in length. Bacula of the Northern Pocket Gopher rarely exceed 17 mm in length. The Western Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 40-58 karyotype.Habitat.Alpine meadows, open park-like habitats, glacial prairies, pastures, savannas, and early seral woodlands and forests where soils are deep silt or sandy loams. Mixedconifer forests often dominate habitats used by Western Pocket Gophers.Food and Feeding.Consumption of plant species by the Western Pocket Gopher corresponds quite well with relative availabilities of those plant species. Annual diet consists primarily of grasses, roots of woody plants, and forbs. As in all pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Western Pocket Gopher. Feeding habits of the Western Pocket Gopher, particularly the numerous mounds of soil deposited on the surface, are believed by some researchers to have contributed to the formation of what are known as Mima mounds in prairie regions of Oregon and Washington in western USA. Mima mounds are conspicuous mounds of soil varying greatly in size but averaging c.600 cm in diameter and ¢.100 cm high that occur in dense clusters and cover large areas of prairie habitat. Mounds are approximately evenly spaced, and spacing is roughly equivalent to size of individual pocket gopher burrow systems. Pocket gophers no longer occupy the vast majority of Mima mounds.Breeding.The Western Pocket Gopher mates in spring, has a gestation of ¢.28 days, and has 1-7 young/litter. One study reported an average of 3-9 young/litter, which was the lowest average recorded among five species of Thomomysthat occur in Oregon. Nest chambers excavated in southern Washington were ¢.25 cm in diameter and c.15 cm high at an average depth of c.90 cm below the surface. These nests were lined with dry grass. The Western Pocket Gopher was coprophagous in captivity, but coprophagy in wild individuals has not been investigated.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gopher can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Western Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In eastern Oregon, 110 Western Pocket Gophers were removed from a 4ha plot during a 14month period (= density of ¢.28 ind/ha), which did not account for possible immigration onto the plot from surrounding areas after residents were removed. In populations studied in Klamath County, Oregon, c.53% of individuals were young-of-the-year, 42% were 1-2 years old, and 5% were 2-3 years old. No individuals collected were older than c.3 years. Sex ratio in young-of-the-year was 1:1, but it was slightly female-biased in the older age classes.On following pages: 3. Idaho Pocket Gopher(Thomomys idahoensis); 4. Wyoming Pocket Gopher(Thomomys clusius); 5. Northern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys talpoides); 6. Camas Pocket Gopher(Thomomysbulbivorus), 7. Townsend's Pocket Gopher(Thomomystownsend); 8. Southern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys umbrinus); 9. Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopher(Thomomyssheldoni); 10. Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher(Thomomys atrovarius), 11. Nayar Pocket Gopher(Thomomysnayarensis); 12. Botta's Pocket Gopher(Thomomys bottae); 13. Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius); 14. Hall's Pocket Gopher(Geomys jugossicularis); 15. Sand Hills Pocket Gopher(Geomyslutescens); 16. Desert Pocket Gopher(Geomys arenarius); 17. Jones's Pocket Gopher(Geomys knoxjonesi); 18. Attwater’'s Pocket Gopher(Geomys attwateri); 19. Texas Pocket Gopher(Geomys personatus); 20. Strecker’s Pocket Gopher(Geomys streckeri); 21. Tropical Pocket Gopher(Geomys tropicalis); 22. Llano Pocket Gopher(Geomys texensis); 23. Baird's Pocket Gopher(Geomys breviceps); 24. South-eastern Pocket Gopher(Geomys pinetis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Five subspecies of the Western Pocket Gopher(glacialis, pugetensis, tumuli, and yelmensis) are classified as threatened by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.Bibliography.Burton & Black (1978), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008s), Livezey & Verts (1979), Patton (1999e, 2005b), Taylor (1919), Thaeler (1980), USFWS (2015), Verts & Carraway (1998, 2000), Wilks (1962), Witmer etal. (1996)." +0131878A072EFF80FF92F49A6A9244CA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,251,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072EFF80FF92F49A6A9244CA.xml,Thomomys mazama,Thomomys,mazama,Merriam,1897,Gaufre du Mazama @fr | Mazama-Taschenratte @de | Tuza occidental @es | Mazama Pocket Gopher; Puget Sound Pocket Gopher (pugetensis) @en | Tacoma Pocket Gopher (tacomensis) @en,"Thomomys mazama Merriam, 1897, “Crater Lake, Mt. Mazama, [Klamath County] Oregon,” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded: as a subspecies of 1. monticola. Subspecies tacomensis, named by W. P. Taylor in 1919, known only from the vicinity of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington,is probably extinct as a result of urban expansion. Fourteen extant subspecies recognized.","T.m.mazamaMerriam,1897—CascadeRange,fromCOregonthroughNCalifor-nia,USA.T.m.couchiGoldman,1939—vicinityofShelton,MasonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.glacialisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—RoyPrairie,PierceCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.helleriElliot,1903—mouthoftheRogueRiver,CurryCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.hesperusMerriam,1901—coastalrangesofNWOregon,USA.T.m.lowieiGardner,1950—NECathlamet,WahkiakumCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.melanopsMerriam,1899—OlympicMts,ClallamCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.nasicusMerriam,1897—DeschutesRiverregion,COregon,USA.T.m.nigerMerriam,1901—coastofCOregon,USA.T.m.oregonusMerriam,1901—N&NWedgeofWillametteValley,Oregon,USA.T.m.premaxillarisGrinnell,1914—YollaBollyMts,TehamaCounty,California,USA.T.m.pugetensisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—vicinityofOlympia,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.tumuliDalquest&Scheffer,1942—NofTenino,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T. m. yelmensis Merriam, 1899— vicinity of Yelm Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, USA.","Head-body 140-170 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 80-130 g. Male Western Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is reddish brown dorsally, although some individuals, even entire populations, are completely melanistic. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from most nearby species of pocket gophers by its unusually large post-auricular patches, which are 5-6 times the area of the ear. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from the Northern Pocket Gopher(T. talpoides) by presence of an unusually long baculum in males (longest recorded for all geomyid species), often exceeding 22 mm in length. Bacula of the Northern Pocket Gopher rarely exceed 17 mm in length. The Western Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 40-58 karyotype.","Alpine meadows, open park-like habitats, glacial prairies, pastures, savannas, and early seral woodlands and forests where soils are deep silt or sandy loams. Mixedconifer forests often dominate habitats used by Western Pocket Gophers.","Consumption of plant species by the Western Pocket Gopher corresponds quite well with relative availabilities of those plant species. Annual diet consists primarily of grasses, roots of woody plants, and forbs. As in all pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Western Pocket Gopher. Feeding habits of the Western Pocket Gopher, particularly the numerous mounds of soil deposited on the surface, are believed by some researchers to have contributed to the formation of what are known as Mima mounds in prairie regions of Oregon and Washington in western USA. Mima mounds are conspicuous mounds of soil varying greatly in size but averaging c.600 cm in diameter and ¢.100 cm high that occur in dense clusters and cover large areas of prairie habitat. Mounds are approximately evenly spaced, and spacing is roughly equivalent to size of individual pocket gopher burrow systems. Pocket gophers no longer occupy the vast majority of Mima mounds.","The Western Pocket Gopher mates in spring, has a gestation of ¢.28 days, and has 1-7 young/litter. One study reported an average of 3-9 young/litter, which was the lowest average recorded among five species of Thomomysthat occur in Oregon. Nest chambers excavated in southern Washington were ¢.25 cm in diameter and c.15 cm high at an average depth of c.90 cm below the surface. These nests were lined with dry grass. The Western Pocket Gopher was coprophagous in captivity, but coprophagy in wild individuals has not been investigated.","There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gopher can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.","The Western Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In eastern Oregon, 110 Western Pocket Gophers were removed from a 4ha plot during a 14month period (= density of ¢.28 ind/ha), which did not account for possible immigration onto the plot from surrounding areas after residents were removed. In populations studied in Klamath County, Oregon, c.53% of individuals were young-of-the-year, 42% were 1-2 years old, and 5% were 2-3 years old. No individuals collected were older than c.3 years. Sex ratio in young-of-the-year was 1:1, but it was slightly female-biased in the older age classes.On following pages: 3. Idaho Pocket Gopher(Thomomys idahoensis); 4. Wyoming Pocket Gopher(Thomomys clusius); 5. Northern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys talpoides); 6. Camas Pocket Gopher(Thomomysbulbivorus), 7. Townsend's Pocket Gopher(Thomomystownsend); 8. Southern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys umbrinus); 9. Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopher(Thomomyssheldoni); 10. Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher(Thomomys atrovarius), 11. Nayar Pocket Gopher(Thomomysnayarensis); 12. Botta's Pocket Gopher(Thomomys bottae); 13. Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius); 14. Hall's Pocket Gopher(Geomys jugossicularis); 15. Sand Hills Pocket Gopher(Geomyslutescens); 16. Desert Pocket Gopher(Geomys arenarius); 17. Jones's Pocket Gopher(Geomys knoxjonesi); 18. Attwater’'s Pocket Gopher(Geomys attwateri); 19. Texas Pocket Gopher(Geomys personatus); 20. Strecker’s Pocket Gopher(Geomys streckeri); 21. Tropical Pocket Gopher(Geomys tropicalis); 22. Llano Pocket Gopher(Geomys texensis); 23. Baird's Pocket Gopher(Geomys breviceps); 24. South-eastern Pocket Gopher(Geomys pinetis).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Five subspecies of the Western Pocket Gopher(glacialis, pugetensis, tumuli, and yelmensis) are classified as threatened by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.","Burton & Black (1978) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008s) | Livezey & Verts (1979) | Patton (1999e, 2005b) | Taylor (1919) | Thaeler (1980) | USFWS (2015) | Verts & Carraway (1998, 2000) | Wilks (1962) | Witmer etal. (1996)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603815/files/figure.png,"2.Western Pocket GopherThomomys mazamaFrench:Gaufre du Mazama/ German:Mazama-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza occidentalOther common names:Mazama Pocket Gopher; Puget Sound Pocket Gopher (pugetensis), Tacoma Pocket Gopher (tacomensis)Taxonomy.Thomomys mazama Merriam, 1897, “Crater Lake, Mt. Mazama, [Klamath County] Oregon,” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded: as a subspecies of 1. monticola. Subspecies tacomensis, named by W. P. Taylor in 1919, known only from the vicinity of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington,is probably extinct as a result of urban expansion. Fourteen extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.m.mazamaMerriam,1897—CascadeRange,fromCOregonthroughNCalifor-nia,USA.T.m.couchiGoldman,1939—vicinityofShelton,MasonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.glacialisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—RoyPrairie,PierceCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.helleriElliot,1903—mouthoftheRogueRiver,CurryCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.hesperusMerriam,1901—coastalrangesofNWOregon,USA.T.m.lowieiGardner,1950—NECathlamet,WahkiakumCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.melanopsMerriam,1899—OlympicMts,ClallamCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.nasicusMerriam,1897—DeschutesRiverregion,COregon,USA.T.m.nigerMerriam,1901—coastofCOregon,USA.T.m.oregonusMerriam,1901—N&NWedgeofWillametteValley,Oregon,USA.T.m.premaxillarisGrinnell,1914—YollaBollyMts,TehamaCounty,California,USA.T.m.pugetensisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—vicinityofOlympia,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.tumuliDalquest&Scheffer,1942—NofTenino,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T. m. yelmensis Merriam, 1899— vicinity of Yelm Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-170 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 80-130 g. Male Western Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is reddish brown dorsally, although some individuals, even entire populations, are completely melanistic. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from most nearby species of pocket gophers by its unusually large post-auricular patches, which are 5-6 times the area of the ear. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from the Northern Pocket Gopher(T. talpoides) by presence of an unusually long baculum in males (longest recorded for all geomyid species), often exceeding 22 mm in length. Bacula of the Northern Pocket Gopher rarely exceed 17 mm in length. The Western Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 40-58 karyotype.Habitat.Alpine meadows, open park-like habitats, glacial prairies, pastures, savannas, and early seral woodlands and forests where soils are deep silt or sandy loams. Mixedconifer forests often dominate habitats used by Western Pocket Gophers.Food and Feeding.Consumption of plant species by the Western Pocket Gopher corresponds quite well with relative availabilities of those plant species. Annual diet consists primarily of grasses, roots of woody plants, and forbs. As in all pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Western Pocket Gopher. Feeding habits of the Western Pocket Gopher, particularly the numerous mounds of soil deposited on the surface, are believed by some researchers to have contributed to the formation of what are known as Mima mounds in prairie regions of Oregon and Washington in western USA. Mima mounds are conspicuous mounds of soil varying greatly in size but averaging c.600 cm in diameter and ¢.100 cm high that occur in dense clusters and cover large areas of prairie habitat. Mounds are approximately evenly spaced, and spacing is roughly equivalent to size of individual pocket gopher burrow systems. Pocket gophers no longer occupy the vast majority of Mima mounds.Breeding.The Western Pocket Gopher mates in spring, has a gestation of ¢.28 days, and has 1-7 young/litter. One study reported an average of 3-9 young/litter, which was the lowest average recorded among five species of Thomomysthat occur in Oregon. Nest chambers excavated in southern Washington were ¢.25 cm in diameter and c.15 cm high at an average depth of c.90 cm below the surface. These nests were lined with dry grass. The Western Pocket Gopher was coprophagous in captivity, but coprophagy in wild individuals has not been investigated.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gopher can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Western Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In eastern Oregon, 110 Western Pocket Gophers were removed from a 4ha plot during a 14month period (= density of ¢.28 ind/ha), which did not account for possible immigration onto the plot from surrounding areas after residents were removed. In populations studied in Klamath County, Oregon, c.53% of individuals were young-of-the-year, 42% were 1-2 years old, and 5% were 2-3 years old. No individuals collected were older than c.3 years. Sex ratio in young-of-the-year was 1:1, but it was slightly female-biased in the older age classes.On following pages: 3. Idaho Pocket Gopher(Thomomys idahoensis); 4. Wyoming Pocket Gopher(Thomomys clusius); 5. Northern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys talpoides); 6. Camas Pocket Gopher(Thomomysbulbivorus), 7. Townsend's Pocket Gopher(Thomomystownsend); 8. Southern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys umbrinus); 9. Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopher(Thomomyssheldoni); 10. Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher(Thomomys atrovarius), 11. Nayar Pocket Gopher(Thomomysnayarensis); 12. Botta's Pocket Gopher(Thomomys bottae); 13. Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius); 14. Hall's Pocket Gopher(Geomys jugossicularis); 15. Sand Hills Pocket Gopher(Geomyslutescens); 16. Desert Pocket Gopher(Geomys arenarius); 17. Jones's Pocket Gopher(Geomys knoxjonesi); 18. Attwater’'s Pocket Gopher(Geomys attwateri); 19. Texas Pocket Gopher(Geomys personatus); 20. Strecker’s Pocket Gopher(Geomys streckeri); 21. Tropical Pocket Gopher(Geomys tropicalis); 22. Llano Pocket Gopher(Geomys texensis); 23. Baird's Pocket Gopher(Geomys breviceps); 24. South-eastern Pocket Gopher(Geomys pinetis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Five subspecies of the Western Pocket Gopher(glacialis, pugetensis, tumuli, and yelmensis) are classified as threatened by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.Bibliography.Burton & Black (1978), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008s), Livezey & Verts (1979), Patton (1999e, 2005b), Taylor (1919), Thaeler (1980), USFWS (2015), Verts & Carraway (1998, 2000), Wilks (1962), Witmer etal. (1996)." 0131878A072EFF81FF92FDB76FCF4D18,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,251,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072EFF81FF92FDB76FCF4D18.xml,Thomomys monticola,Thomomys,monticola,J. A. Allen,1893,Gaufre de montagne @fr | Sierra-Nevada-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de montana @es | California Mountain Pocket Gopher @en | Sierra Nevada Pocket Gopher @en,"Thomomys monticola J. A. Allen, 1893, “Mt. Tallac, El Dorado Co., Cal., (altitude, 7500 feet),” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Monotypic.","C Sierra Nevada Mts of E California and extreme W Nevada and S Cascade Range of N California S to Mt Shasta; a disjunct population is known from S Yolla Bolly Mtn in NW California, USA.","Head-body 120-160 mm, tail 50-90 mm, ear 8-9 mm, hindfoot 26-30 mm; weight 70-110 g. Male Mountain Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is uniformly brown dorsally, and ears are large for pocket gophers and somewhat pointed rather than rounded as in other species of Thomomys. The Mountain Pocket Gopherhas a large post-auricular patch that is about three times the area of the ear. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 76.","Deep, rich soils in alpine meadows and also gravelly or rocky soils on slopes in forested regions. Most Mountain Pocket Gophers are found in open forest clearings and around edges of meadows.","Diet of the Mountain Pocket Gopherconsists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Mountain Pocket Gopher.","Whereas most species of Thomomysbreed in spring, the Mountain Pocket Gopherbreeds in midto late-summer (July-August). Gestation is c.19 days, and females usually have one litter per year with 3-5 young/litter.","The Mountain Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","In mid-summer, juvenile Mountain Pocket Gophers leave their home burrow systems and disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat. Adults also are thought to disperse on occasion, burrowing through winter snow pack to colonize isolated mountain meadows. As in other pocket gophers, the Mountain Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home rangesizes in one study ranged from c¢.10 m? in some individuals to almost 200 m* in others, and they seemed to be equally variable in all age classes and both sexes. Because individuals, including juveniles, frequently assume ownership of abandoned burrow systems, it cannot be assumed that the occupant of a burrow system excavated the entire network of tunnels. When the soil is wet beneath winter snow pack, some Mountain Pocket Gophers establish nests above the ground within snow pack. These nests, and underground nests, are constructed of finely shredded grasses. Other chambers, some containing food stores and others containing thousands of fecal pellets, are located near nest chambers. Densities of Mountain Pocket Gophers in the Sierra Nevada, California, ranged from 20 ind/ha to almost 50 ind/ha, depending on year, season, and locality. These same populations contained an average of 40% adult females, 26% adult males, and 34% juveniles of both sexes.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Ingles (1949, 1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008t) | Patton (1999f, 2005b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603813/files/figure.png,"1.Mountain Pocket GopherThomomys monticolaFrench:Gaufre de montagne/ German:Sierra-Nevada-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de montanaOther common names:California Mountain Pocket Gopher, Sierra Nevada Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Thomomys monticola J. A. Allen, 1893, “Mt. Tallac, El Dorado Co., Cal., (altitude, 7500 feet),” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Monotypic.Distribution.C Sierra Nevada Mts of E California and extreme W Nevada and S Cascade Range of N California S to Mt Shasta; a disjunct population is known from S Yolla Bolly Mtn in NW California, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-160 mm, tail 50-90 mm, ear 8-9 mm, hindfoot 26-30 mm; weight 70-110 g. Male Mountain Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is uniformly brown dorsally, and ears are large for pocket gophers and somewhat pointed rather than rounded as in other species of Thomomys. The Mountain Pocket Gopherhas a large post-auricular patch that is about three times the area of the ear. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 76.Habitat.Deep, rich soils in alpine meadows and also gravelly or rocky soils on slopes in forested regions. Most Mountain Pocket Gophers are found in open forest clearings and around edges of meadows.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Mountain Pocket Gopherconsists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Mountain Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Whereas most species of Thomomysbreed in spring, the Mountain Pocket Gopherbreeds in midto late-summer (July-August). Gestation is c.19 days, and females usually have one litter per year with 3-5 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Mountain Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In mid-summer, juvenile Mountain Pocket Gophers leave their home burrow systems and disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat. Adults also are thought to disperse on occasion, burrowing through winter snow pack to colonize isolated mountain meadows. As in other pocket gophers, the Mountain Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home rangesizes in one study ranged from c¢.10 m? in some individuals to almost 200 m* in others, and they seemed to be equally variable in all age classes and both sexes. Because individuals, including juveniles, frequently assume ownership of abandoned burrow systems, it cannot be assumed that the occupant of a burrow system excavated the entire network of tunnels. When the soil is wet beneath winter snow pack, some Mountain Pocket Gophers establish nests above the ground within snow pack. These nests, and underground nests, are constructed of finely shredded grasses. Other chambers, some containing food stores and others containing thousands of fecal pellets, are located near nest chambers. Densities of Mountain Pocket Gophers in the Sierra Nevada, California, ranged from 20 ind/ha to almost 50 ind/ha, depending on year, season, and locality. These same populations contained an average of 40% adult females, 26% adult males, and 34% juveniles of both sexes.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ingles (1949, 1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008t), Patton (1999f, 2005b)." -0131878A072FFF80FF33FCEB690A4DBA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,2,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF80FF33FCEB690A4DBA.xml,Thomomys idahoensis,Thomomys,idahoensis,Merriam,1901,Gaufre d’'ldaho @fr | |daho-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de @es | daho @en | Bitterroot Valley Pocket Gopher @en | Hamilton Pocket Gopher (confinus) @en | Pygmy Pocket Gopher (pygmaeus) @en,"Thomomys idahoensis Merriam, 1901, “Birch Creek, Idaho.” Restricted by J. L. Patton in 2005 to “USA, Idaho, Clark Co., Birch Creek (10 mi [16 km] S Nicholia [Lemhi Co.], about 6,400 ft. [1940 m]).”Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Originally regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Three subspecies recognized.","1. 1. idahoensis Merriam, 1901— extreme E Idaho and adjacent parts of Montana, USA.T.i.confinusDavis,1937—WMontana,USA.T. i. pygmaeus Merriam, 1901— SW Wyoming and adjacent parts of SE Idaho and N Utah, USA.","Head-body 120-150 mm, tail 40-70 mm, ear 5-6 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 45-90 g. Female Idaho Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than males. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Idaho and Montana populations are pale yellow dorsally, but Wyoming populations are usually dark brown. The Idaho Pocket Gopherlacks the dark, post-auricular patch and gray-colored cheeks seen in nearby pocket gophers of other species. The Idaho Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 56 or 58 karyotype, which can be used to distinguish it from all other pocket gopher within its distribution.","Arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats, grasslands, and subalpine meadows. The Idaho Pocket Gopher appears to prefer habitats with relatively shallow and rocky soils, and when sympatric with the Northern Pocket Gopher (7. talpoides), the latter species is found in areas with deeper and less rocky soils.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers,the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Idaho Pocket Gopher.","There is no specific information available for this species, but its breeding habits are probably similar to those of other species in this genus, which mate in spring and have 1-7 young/litter.","The Idaho Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active yearround. In winter,it digs tunnels in snow, where it deposits excess soil. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes ofsoil settle to the ground,leaving evidence of an individual's winter activities. As in all species of pocket gophers, Idaho Pocket Gophers can be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity at dawn and dusk.","There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Idaho Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Idaho Pocket Gopher may be vulnerable because ofits limited distribution.,"Clark & Stromberg (1987) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008r) | MTNHP (2015) | Patton (1999d, 2005b) | Thaeler (1972)",,"3.Idaho Pocket GopherThomomys idahoensisFrench:Gaufre d’'ldaho/ German:|daho-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de IdahoOther common names:Bitterroot Valley Pocket Gopher, Hamilton Pocket Gopher (confinus), Pygmy Pocket Gopher (pygmaeus)Taxonomy.Thomomys idahoensis Merriam, 1901, “Birch Creek, Idaho.” Restricted by J. L. Patton in 2005 to “USA, Idaho, Clark Co., Birch Creek (10 mi [16 km] S Nicholia [Lemhi Co.], about 6,400 ft. [1940 m]).”Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Originally regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.1. 1. idahoensis Merriam, 1901— extreme E Idaho and adjacent parts of Montana, USA.T.i.confinusDavis,1937—WMontana,USA.T. i. pygmaeus Merriam, 1901— SW Wyoming and adjacent parts of SE Idaho and N Utah, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-150 mm, tail 40-70 mm, ear 5-6 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 45-90 g. Female Idaho Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than males. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Idaho and Montana populations are pale yellow dorsally, but Wyoming populations are usually dark brown. The Idaho Pocket Gopherlacks the dark, post-auricular patch and gray-colored cheeks seen in nearby pocket gophers of other species. The Idaho Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 56 or 58 karyotype, which can be used to distinguish it from all other pocket gopher within its distribution.Habitat.Arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats, grasslands, and subalpine meadows. The Idaho Pocket Gopher appears to prefer habitats with relatively shallow and rocky soils, and when sympatric with the Northern Pocket Gopher (7. talpoides), the latter species is found in areas with deeper and less rocky soils.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers,the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Idaho Pocket Gopher.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but its breeding habits are probably similar to those of other species in this genus, which mate in spring and have 1-7 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Idaho Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active yearround. In winter,it digs tunnels in snow, where it deposits excess soil. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes ofsoil settle to the ground,leaving evidence of an individual's winter activities. As in all species of pocket gophers, Idaho Pocket Gophers can be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Idaho Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Idaho Pocket Gopher may be vulnerable because ofits limited distribution.Bibliography.Clark & Stromberg (1987), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008r), MTNHP (2015), Patton (1999d, 2005b), Thaeler (1972)." +0131878A072FFF80FF33FCEB690A4DBA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,2,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF80FF33FCEB690A4DBA.xml,Thomomys idahoensis,Thomomys,idahoensis,Merriam,1901,Gaufre d’'ldaho @fr | |daho-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de @es | daho @en | Bitterroot Valley Pocket Gopher @en | Hamilton Pocket Gopher (confinus) @en | Pygmy Pocket Gopher (pygmaeus) @en,"Thomomys idahoensis Merriam, 1901, “Birch Creek, Idaho.” Restricted by J. L. Patton in 2005 to “USA, Idaho, Clark Co., Birch Creek (10 mi [16 km] S Nicholia [Lemhi Co.], about 6,400 ft. [1940 m]).”Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Originally regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Three subspecies recognized.","1. 1. idahoensis Merriam, 1901— extreme E Idaho and adjacent parts of Montana, USA.T.i.confinusDavis,1937—WMontana,USA.T. i. pygmaeus Merriam, 1901— SW Wyoming and adjacent parts of SE Idaho and N Utah, USA.","Head-body 120-150 mm, tail 40-70 mm, ear 5-6 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 45-90 g. Female Idaho Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than males. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Idaho and Montana populations are pale yellow dorsally, but Wyoming populations are usually dark brown. The Idaho Pocket Gopherlacks the dark, post-auricular patch and gray-colored cheeks seen in nearby pocket gophers of other species. The Idaho Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 56 or 58 karyotype, which can be used to distinguish it from all other pocket gopher within its distribution.","Arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats, grasslands, and subalpine meadows. The Idaho Pocket Gopher appears to prefer habitats with relatively shallow and rocky soils, and when sympatric with the Northern Pocket Gopher (7. talpoides), the latter species is found in areas with deeper and less rocky soils.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers,the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Idaho Pocket Gopher.","There is no specific information available for this species, but its breeding habits are probably similar to those of other species in this genus, which mate in spring and have 1-7 young/litter.","The Idaho Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active yearround. In winter,it digs tunnels in snow, where it deposits excess soil. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes ofsoil settle to the ground,leaving evidence of an individual's winter activities. As in all species of pocket gophers, Idaho Pocket Gophers can be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity at dawn and dusk.","There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Idaho Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Idaho Pocket Gopher may be vulnerable because ofits limited distribution.,"Clark & Stromberg (1987) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008r) | MTNHP (2015) | Patton (1999d, 2005b) | Thaeler (1972)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603817/files/figure.png,"3.Idaho Pocket GopherThomomys idahoensisFrench:Gaufre d’'ldaho/ German:|daho-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de IdahoOther common names:Bitterroot Valley Pocket Gopher, Hamilton Pocket Gopher (confinus), Pygmy Pocket Gopher (pygmaeus)Taxonomy.Thomomys idahoensis Merriam, 1901, “Birch Creek, Idaho.” Restricted by J. L. Patton in 2005 to “USA, Idaho, Clark Co., Birch Creek (10 mi [16 km] S Nicholia [Lemhi Co.], about 6,400 ft. [1940 m]).”Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Originally regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.1. 1. idahoensis Merriam, 1901— extreme E Idaho and adjacent parts of Montana, USA.T.i.confinusDavis,1937—WMontana,USA.T. i. pygmaeus Merriam, 1901— SW Wyoming and adjacent parts of SE Idaho and N Utah, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-150 mm, tail 40-70 mm, ear 5-6 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 45-90 g. Female Idaho Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than males. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Idaho and Montana populations are pale yellow dorsally, but Wyoming populations are usually dark brown. The Idaho Pocket Gopherlacks the dark, post-auricular patch and gray-colored cheeks seen in nearby pocket gophers of other species. The Idaho Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 56 or 58 karyotype, which can be used to distinguish it from all other pocket gopher within its distribution.Habitat.Arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats, grasslands, and subalpine meadows. The Idaho Pocket Gopher appears to prefer habitats with relatively shallow and rocky soils, and when sympatric with the Northern Pocket Gopher (7. talpoides), the latter species is found in areas with deeper and less rocky soils.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers,the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Idaho Pocket Gopher.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but its breeding habits are probably similar to those of other species in this genus, which mate in spring and have 1-7 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Idaho Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active yearround. In winter,it digs tunnels in snow, where it deposits excess soil. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes ofsoil settle to the ground,leaving evidence of an individual's winter activities. As in all species of pocket gophers, Idaho Pocket Gophers can be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Idaho Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Idaho Pocket Gopher may be vulnerable because ofits limited distribution.Bibliography.Clark & Stromberg (1987), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008r), MTNHP (2015), Patton (1999d, 2005b), Thaeler (1972)." 0131878A072FFF80FF45F3F9623841E6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,2,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF80FF45F3F9623841E6.xml,Thomomys clusius,Thomomys,clusius,Coues,1875,Gaufre du Wyoming @fr | Wyoming-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Wyoming @es,"Thomomys clusius Coues, 1875, “Bridger’s Pass, Rocky Mountains.” Restricted by C. S. Thaeler and L. L. Hinesley in 1979 to “Bridger Pass (located about 18 mi SW Rawlins,” (Carbon County, Wyoming, USA).Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Monotypic.","Known from two localities in SE Sweetwater County and SW Carbon County, Wyoming, USA.","Head-body 100-130 mm,tail 50-70 mm; weight 40-70 g. The Wyoming Pocket Gopherhas no discernible sexual dimorphism in body size. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is pale yellow dorsally and is easily distinguished from nearby species of pocket gophers by its small size, fringe of white hairs on ears, and absence of dark patch of fur below and behind ears (post-auricular patch). Molecular studies have shown the Wyoming Pocket Gopherto be genetically distinct from all other smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys), and its closest relative appears to be the “Pygmy Pocket Gopher” (7. idahoensispygmaeus). It has a 2n = 44 or 46 karyotype, which is different from those described for the Northern Pocket Gopher(7. talpoides) and the Idaho Pocket Gopher(7. idahoensus).","Arid upland habitats with loose, gravelly, and well-drained soils usually dominated by greasewood (Sarcobatusvermiculatus, Sarcobataceae). Wyoming Pocket Gophers are common along ridge tops and along edges of washes.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Wyoming Pocket Gopher.","There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Wyoming Pocket Gopherare probably similar to those ofits closest relative, the Pygmy Pocket Gopher, which mates in spring and has 1-7 litters/year.","There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gophers can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk. The Wyoming Pocket Gopherdoes not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but like all pocket gophers, the Wyoming Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Wyoming Pocket Gophermay be vulnerable to ongoing development by the natural gas industry within its limited distribution.,"Clark & Stromberg (1987) | Linzey & NatureServe (Clausen & Hammerson) | (2008a) | McDonald & Parchman (2010) | Patton (1999¢, 2005b) | Thaeler (1968) | Thaeler & Hinesley (1979)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603819/files/figure.png,"4.Wyoming Pocket GopherThomomys clusiusFrench:Gaufre du Wyoming/ German:Wyoming-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de WyomingTaxonomy.Thomomys clusius Coues, 1875, “Bridger’s Pass, Rocky Mountains.” Restricted by C. S. Thaeler and L. L. Hinesley in 1979 to “Bridger Pass (located about 18 mi SW Rawlins,” (Carbon County, Wyoming, USA).Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Monotypic.Distribution.Known from two localities in SE Sweetwater County and SW Carbon County, Wyoming, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-130 mm,tail 50-70 mm; weight 40-70 g. The Wyoming Pocket Gopherhas no discernible sexual dimorphism in body size. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is pale yellow dorsally and is easily distinguished from nearby species of pocket gophers by its small size, fringe of white hairs on ears, and absence of dark patch of fur below and behind ears (post-auricular patch). Molecular studies have shown the Wyoming Pocket Gopherto be genetically distinct from all other smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys), and its closest relative appears to be the “Pygmy Pocket Gopher” (7. idahoensispygmaeus). It has a 2n = 44 or 46 karyotype, which is different from those described for the Northern Pocket Gopher(7. talpoides) and the Idaho Pocket Gopher(7. idahoensus).Habitat.Arid upland habitats with loose, gravelly, and well-drained soils usually dominated by greasewood (Sarcobatusvermiculatus, Sarcobataceae). Wyoming Pocket Gophers are common along ridge tops and along edges of washes.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Wyoming Pocket Gopher.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Wyoming Pocket Gopherare probably similar to those ofits closest relative, the Pygmy Pocket Gopher, which mates in spring and has 1-7 litters/year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gophers can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk. The Wyoming Pocket Gopherdoes not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but like all pocket gophers, the Wyoming Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Wyoming Pocket Gophermay be vulnerable to ongoing development by the natural gas industry within its limited distribution.Bibliography.Clark & Stromberg (1987), Linzey & NatureServe (Clausen & Hammerson) (2008a), McDonald & Parchman (2010), Patton (1999¢, 2005b), Thaeler (1968), Thaeler & Hinesley (1979)." -0131878A072FFF87FA46F7D463A141FE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,2,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF87FA46F7D463A141FE.xml,Thomomys talpoides,Thomomys,talpoides,,,Gaufre gris @fr | Nordliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza septentrional @es | Vancouver Pocket Gopher @en,"Cricetus talpoides Richardson, 1828, “banks of the Saskatcehewan [sic] in lat. 52° [N].” Restricted by V. Bailey in 1915 to “near Fort Carlton (Carlton House) on the Saskatchewan River, Saskatchewan,” Canada.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. This species previously included 7. clusiusand T. idahoensisas subspecies. Fifty-four subspecies recognized.","T.t.talpoidesRichardson,1828—NCMontana,USA,andNEintoAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,Canada.T.t.aequalidensDalquest,1942—SEWashingtonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,USA.T.t.agrestisMerriam,1908—SCColorado,USA.T.t.andersoniGoldman,1939—SEAlberta,Canada.T.t.attenuatusHall&Montague,1951—SEWyomingandadjacentpartsofColorado,USA.T.t.bridger:Merriam,1901—SEIdaho,extendingEandSintoWWyoming,USA.T.t.bullatusBailey,1914—EMontana,extendingintoNorthDakotaandColorado,USA,andSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.cary:Bailey,1914—NCWyoming,USA.T.t.cheyennensisSwenk,1941—NEWyomingandadjacentpartsofNebraska,USA.T. t. cognatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.columbianusBailey,1914—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T.t.devexusHall&Dalquest,1939—ECWashington,USA.T.t.douglasiiRichardson,1829—WWashington,USA.T.t.durrantiKelson,1949—WCColoradoextendingintoUtah,withdisjunctpopulationsinSEUtah,USA.T.t.falciferGrinnell,1926—CNevada,USA.T. t. fisheri Merriam, 1901— NE California extending into W Nevada, USA.T.t.fossor].A.Allen,1893—SWColoradointoNNewMexico,withdisjunctpopulationsonArizona—NewMexicoborder,USA.T.t.fuscusMerriam,1891—CIdahointoNCWashington,USA,andSBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.gracilisDurrant,1939—NENevadaandadjacentpartsofUtahextendingSWintocentralNevada,USA.T.t.immunisHall&Dalquest,1939—SCWashington,USA.T.t.incensusGoldman,1939—SBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.kaibabensisGoldman,1938—NArizona,USA.T:t.kelloggiGoldman,1939—SCMontana,USA.T.t.levisGoldman,1938—SCUtahandadjacentpartsofArizona,USA.T.t.limosusMerriam,1901—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T:t.loringiBailey,1914—SCAlberta,Canada.T.t.macrotisMiller,1930—NCColorado,USA.T.t.mediusGoldman,1939—SEBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.meritusHall,1951—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.monoensisHuey,1934—WCNevadaandadjacentpartsofCalifornia,USA.T.t.moore:Goldman,1938—CUtah,USA.T.t.nebulosusBailey,1914—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.ociusMerriam,1901—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofUtahandWyoming,USA.T:t.oquirrhensisDurrant,1939—NCUtah,USA.T.t.parowanensisGoldman,1938—SWUtah,USA.T.t.pierreicolusSwenk,1941—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofMontana,Wyoming,andNebraska,USA.T:t.pryoriBailey,1914—SCMontana,USA.T.t.quadratusMerriam,1897—EOregonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,Nevada,andCalifornia,USA.T.t.ravusDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.relicinusGoldman,1939—SCIdaho,USA.T.t.retrorsusHall,1951—ECColorado,USA.T.t.rostralisHall&Montague,1951—CColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.rufescensWied-Neuwied,1839—NorthDakotaandadjacentpartsofSouthDakotaandMinnesota,USA,andManitobaandSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.saturatusBailey,1914—NIdahoandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA,andBritishColumbia,Canada.T. t. segregatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.shawiTaylor,1921—SCWashington,USA.T:t.tayloriHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T.t.tenellusGoldman,1939—NWWyomingandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA.T.t.trivialisGoldman,1939—CMontana,USA.T.t.wintaMerriam,1901—NEUtah,USA.T.t.wallowaHall&Orr,1933—NEOregonandadjacentpartsofWashington,USA.T.t.wasatchensisDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.whitmaniDrake&Booth,1952—SEWashington,USA.T: t. yakimensis Hall & Dalquest, 1939— SC Washington, USA.","Head-body 110-190 mm, tail 50-80 mm, hindfoot 25-35 mm; weight 65-209 g. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the largest distribution of any pocket gopher, and variation in body size is extreme. Individuals living at high elevations or in thinner soils are usually much smaller than individuals living at low elevations and in deeper soils. Smaller subspecies show little sexual size dimorphism, but males of larger subspecies can be up to 9% larger than females. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal pelage is usually rich brown to brownish gray, grading to buff ventrally. Chin often is white and post-auricular patches are grayish black or black. The almost naked tail is usually brownish with a whitish tip, and feet often are white or partly white. Albinism and melanism are known, with melanism most common. The Northern Pocket Gopher shows widespread variation in chromosome diploid number, leading several authors to suggest that it may contain multiple cryptic species. Extensive cytogenetic studies by C. S. Thaeler in 1968 and 1980 found more than ten different karyotypes (2n = 40-60 chromosomes) in populations of the Northern Pocket Gopher from throughoutits distribution. FN = 70-78. Hybrid individuals with 47, 49, 51, or 53 chromosomes were reported in zones of contact between populations with different diploid numbers, but genetic introgression appeared to be absent at these zones, suggesting genetic isolation between parental forms.","Wide variety of habitats with many different soil types and depths. Northern Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands, forests, and suburban lawns and gardens from elevations of 900 m to more than 3700 m. They appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invaders of cultivated fields. An unknown number of Northern Pocket Gophers survived the explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, in May 1980. Although these individuals were among the first mammals to occupy the devastated wastelands surrounding the volcano, adult survivorship in the year after the eruption was estimated at only 10%, a value much lower than the typical 18-70% survivorship measured in undisturbed populations of Northern Pocket Gophers in Utah.","Diet of the Northern Pocket Gopher consists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. In Oregon, and probably throughout its distribution, the Northern Pocket Gopher will eat most succulent plants within its home range. Although in some habitats, plant species are consumed approximately in proportion to their abundance, one study showed that pocket gophers are able to select plants with higher levels of protein and fat. In Colorado, spring diet of a population of Northern Pocket Gophers living in short-grass prairie habitat was 67% forbs, 30% grasses, and 3% shrubs. In a subalpine habitat, also in Colorado, diet was 87% forbs, 12% roots, and 1% grasses. Feeding activities of Northern Pocket Gophers are similar to those of other species of pocket gophers and are believed to have contributed to the formation of Mima mounds throughout much of the USA west of the Mississippi River. In Colorado, adult Northern Pocket Gophers usually occupy Mima Mounds, but juveniles occupy interrmound areas. In areas with heavy snowpack, individuals tunnel in the snow and deposit excess soil in the tunnels. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes of soil settle to the ground, leaving evidence of the individual’s winter activities. As in other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Northern Pocket Gopher.","At low elevations, the Northern Pocket gopher breeds in spring (mid-March to mid-June), but at higher elevations with heavy snowfall, breeding is delayed until mid-to-late summer. Gestation is 18-19 days, and litter sizes average 3-6 young/litter. Most adult females are thought to produce one litter per year, and one study reported that 88 of 112 (79%) adult females captured in spring were reproductively active. Young are weaned in c.40 days and reach adult body size in 3-6 months.","The Northern Pocket Gopher is active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In one study, radio-tracked individuals were active c.12 hours/day. Like all pocket gophers, Northern Pocket Gophers are prodigious diggers: one captive individual released in a vegetable garden with fairly compact soil was able to dig 50 cm of tunnel in 15 minutes, 32 m of tunnel in eight days, and 146 m of tunnel in six months. In montane habitats with denser soils, individuals burrowed at a nearly constant rate of 2 cm/minute. A study in Colorado showed that the Northern Pocket Gopher tends to dig around rocks larger than c.2:5 cm in diameter, but smaller rocks are removed with surrounding soil and deposited on the surface. The Northern Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round.","As in other pocket gophers, the Northern Pocket Gophersis solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Although Northern Pocket Gophers vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, capture of two or more individuals in the same system is not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Densities of up to 20 ind/ha have been recorded in productive habitats. Average dispersal distance of the Northern Pocket Gopheris estimated to be 239 m/year, with a maximum observed distance of 790 m. As in other species of pocket gophers that live in areas with heavy snowfall, Northern Pocket Gophers frequently disperse long distances by burrowing through snowpack.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Andersen (1978, 1982) | Bailey (1915) | Hansen & Morris (1959) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008u) | MacMahon (1999) | Patton (2005b) | Verts & Carraway (1999)",,"5.Northern Pocket GopherThomomys talpoidesFrench:Gaufre gris/ German:Nordliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza septentrionalOther common names:Vancouver Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cricetus talpoides Richardson, 1828, “banks of the Saskatcehewan [sic] in lat. 52° [N].” Restricted by V. Bailey in 1915 to “near Fort Carlton (Carlton House) on the Saskatchewan River, Saskatchewan,” Canada.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. This species previously included 7. clusiusand T. idahoensisas subspecies. Fifty-four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.talpoidesRichardson,1828—NCMontana,USA,andNEintoAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,Canada.T.t.aequalidensDalquest,1942—SEWashingtonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,USA.T.t.agrestisMerriam,1908—SCColorado,USA.T.t.andersoniGoldman,1939—SEAlberta,Canada.T.t.attenuatusHall&Montague,1951—SEWyomingandadjacentpartsofColorado,USA.T.t.bridger:Merriam,1901—SEIdaho,extendingEandSintoWWyoming,USA.T.t.bullatusBailey,1914—EMontana,extendingintoNorthDakotaandColorado,USA,andSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.cary:Bailey,1914—NCWyoming,USA.T.t.cheyennensisSwenk,1941—NEWyomingandadjacentpartsofNebraska,USA.T. t. cognatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.columbianusBailey,1914—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T.t.devexusHall&Dalquest,1939—ECWashington,USA.T.t.douglasiiRichardson,1829—WWashington,USA.T.t.durrantiKelson,1949—WCColoradoextendingintoUtah,withdisjunctpopulationsinSEUtah,USA.T.t.falciferGrinnell,1926—CNevada,USA.T. t. fisheri Merriam, 1901— NE California extending into W Nevada, USA.T.t.fossor].A.Allen,1893—SWColoradointoNNewMexico,withdisjunctpopulationsonArizona—NewMexicoborder,USA.T.t.fuscusMerriam,1891—CIdahointoNCWashington,USA,andSBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.gracilisDurrant,1939—NENevadaandadjacentpartsofUtahextendingSWintocentralNevada,USA.T.t.immunisHall&Dalquest,1939—SCWashington,USA.T.t.incensusGoldman,1939—SBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.kaibabensisGoldman,1938—NArizona,USA.T:t.kelloggiGoldman,1939—SCMontana,USA.T.t.levisGoldman,1938—SCUtahandadjacentpartsofArizona,USA.T.t.limosusMerriam,1901—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T:t.loringiBailey,1914—SCAlberta,Canada.T.t.macrotisMiller,1930—NCColorado,USA.T.t.mediusGoldman,1939—SEBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.meritusHall,1951—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.monoensisHuey,1934—WCNevadaandadjacentpartsofCalifornia,USA.T.t.moore:Goldman,1938—CUtah,USA.T.t.nebulosusBailey,1914—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.ociusMerriam,1901—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofUtahandWyoming,USA.T:t.oquirrhensisDurrant,1939—NCUtah,USA.T.t.parowanensisGoldman,1938—SWUtah,USA.T.t.pierreicolusSwenk,1941—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofMontana,Wyoming,andNebraska,USA.T:t.pryoriBailey,1914—SCMontana,USA.T.t.quadratusMerriam,1897—EOregonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,Nevada,andCalifornia,USA.T.t.ravusDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.relicinusGoldman,1939—SCIdaho,USA.T.t.retrorsusHall,1951—ECColorado,USA.T.t.rostralisHall&Montague,1951—CColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.rufescensWied-Neuwied,1839—NorthDakotaandadjacentpartsofSouthDakotaandMinnesota,USA,andManitobaandSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.saturatusBailey,1914—NIdahoandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA,andBritishColumbia,Canada.T. t. segregatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.shawiTaylor,1921—SCWashington,USA.T:t.tayloriHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T.t.tenellusGoldman,1939—NWWyomingandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA.T.t.trivialisGoldman,1939—CMontana,USA.T.t.wintaMerriam,1901—NEUtah,USA.T.t.wallowaHall&Orr,1933—NEOregonandadjacentpartsofWashington,USA.T.t.wasatchensisDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.whitmaniDrake&Booth,1952—SEWashington,USA.T: t. yakimensis Hall & Dalquest, 1939— SC Washington, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-190 mm, tail 50-80 mm, hindfoot 25-35 mm; weight 65-209 g. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the largest distribution of any pocket gopher, and variation in body size is extreme. Individuals living at high elevations or in thinner soils are usually much smaller than individuals living at low elevations and in deeper soils. Smaller subspecies show little sexual size dimorphism, but males of larger subspecies can be up to 9% larger than females. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal pelage is usually rich brown to brownish gray, grading to buff ventrally. Chin often is white and post-auricular patches are grayish black or black. The almost naked tail is usually brownish with a whitish tip, and feet often are white or partly white. Albinism and melanism are known, with melanism most common. The Northern Pocket Gopher shows widespread variation in chromosome diploid number, leading several authors to suggest that it may contain multiple cryptic species. Extensive cytogenetic studies by C. S. Thaeler in 1968 and 1980 found more than ten different karyotypes (2n = 40-60 chromosomes) in populations of the Northern Pocket Gopher from throughoutits distribution. FN = 70-78. Hybrid individuals with 47, 49, 51, or 53 chromosomes were reported in zones of contact between populations with different diploid numbers, but genetic introgression appeared to be absent at these zones, suggesting genetic isolation between parental forms.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats with many different soil types and depths. Northern Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands, forests, and suburban lawns and gardens from elevations of 900 m to more than 3700 m. They appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invaders of cultivated fields. An unknown number of Northern Pocket Gophers survived the explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, in May 1980. Although these individuals were among the first mammals to occupy the devastated wastelands surrounding the volcano, adult survivorship in the year after the eruption was estimated at only 10%, a value much lower than the typical 18-70% survivorship measured in undisturbed populations of Northern Pocket Gophers in Utah.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Northern Pocket Gopher consists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. In Oregon, and probably throughout its distribution, the Northern Pocket Gopher will eat most succulent plants within its home range. Although in some habitats, plant species are consumed approximately in proportion to their abundance, one study showed that pocket gophers are able to select plants with higher levels of protein and fat. In Colorado, spring diet of a population of Northern Pocket Gophers living in short-grass prairie habitat was 67% forbs, 30% grasses, and 3% shrubs. In a subalpine habitat, also in Colorado, diet was 87% forbs, 12% roots, and 1% grasses. Feeding activities of Northern Pocket Gophers are similar to those of other species of pocket gophers and are believed to have contributed to the formation of Mima mounds throughout much of the USA west of the Mississippi River. In Colorado, adult Northern Pocket Gophers usually occupy Mima Mounds, but juveniles occupy interrmound areas. In areas with heavy snowpack, individuals tunnel in the snow and deposit excess soil in the tunnels. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes of soil settle to the ground, leaving evidence of the individual’s winter activities. As in other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Northern Pocket Gopher.Breeding.At low elevations, the Northern Pocket gopher breeds in spring (mid-March to mid-June), but at higher elevations with heavy snowfall, breeding is delayed until mid-to-late summer. Gestation is 18-19 days, and litter sizes average 3-6 young/litter. Most adult females are thought to produce one litter per year, and one study reported that 88 of 112 (79%) adult females captured in spring were reproductively active. Young are weaned in c.40 days and reach adult body size in 3-6 months.Activity patterns.The Northern Pocket Gopher is active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In one study, radio-tracked individuals were active c.12 hours/day. Like all pocket gophers, Northern Pocket Gophers are prodigious diggers: one captive individual released in a vegetable garden with fairly compact soil was able to dig 50 cm of tunnel in 15 minutes, 32 m of tunnel in eight days, and 146 m of tunnel in six months. In montane habitats with denser soils, individuals burrowed at a nearly constant rate of 2 cm/minute. A study in Colorado showed that the Northern Pocket Gopher tends to dig around rocks larger than c.2:5 cm in diameter, but smaller rocks are removed with surrounding soil and deposited on the surface. The Northern Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As in other pocket gophers, the Northern Pocket Gophersis solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Although Northern Pocket Gophers vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, capture of two or more individuals in the same system is not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Densities of up to 20 ind/ha have been recorded in productive habitats. Average dispersal distance of the Northern Pocket Gopheris estimated to be 239 m/year, with a maximum observed distance of 790 m. As in other species of pocket gophers that live in areas with heavy snowfall, Northern Pocket Gophers frequently disperse long distances by burrowing through snowpack.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Andersen (1978, 1982), Bailey (1915), Hansen & Morris (1959), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008u), MacMahon (1999), Patton (2005b), Verts & Carraway (1999)." +0131878A072FFF87FA46F7D463A141FE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,2,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF87FA46F7D463A141FE.xml,Thomomys talpoides,Thomomys,talpoides,,,Gaufre gris @fr | Nordliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza septentrional @es | Vancouver Pocket Gopher @en,"Cricetus talpoides Richardson, 1828, “banks of the Saskatcehewan [sic] in lat. 52° [N].” Restricted by V. Bailey in 1915 to “near Fort Carlton (Carlton House) on the Saskatchewan River, Saskatchewan,” Canada.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. This species previously included 7. clusiusand T. idahoensisas subspecies. Fifty-four subspecies recognized.","T.t.talpoidesRichardson,1828—NCMontana,USA,andNEintoAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,Canada.T.t.aequalidensDalquest,1942—SEWashingtonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,USA.T.t.agrestisMerriam,1908—SCColorado,USA.T.t.andersoniGoldman,1939—SEAlberta,Canada.T.t.attenuatusHall&Montague,1951—SEWyomingandadjacentpartsofColorado,USA.T.t.bridger:Merriam,1901—SEIdaho,extendingEandSintoWWyoming,USA.T.t.bullatusBailey,1914—EMontana,extendingintoNorthDakotaandColorado,USA,andSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.cary:Bailey,1914—NCWyoming,USA.T.t.cheyennensisSwenk,1941—NEWyomingandadjacentpartsofNebraska,USA.T. t. cognatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.columbianusBailey,1914—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T.t.devexusHall&Dalquest,1939—ECWashington,USA.T.t.douglasiiRichardson,1829—WWashington,USA.T.t.durrantiKelson,1949—WCColoradoextendingintoUtah,withdisjunctpopulationsinSEUtah,USA.T.t.falciferGrinnell,1926—CNevada,USA.T. t. fisheri Merriam, 1901— NE California extending into W Nevada, USA.T.t.fossor].A.Allen,1893—SWColoradointoNNewMexico,withdisjunctpopulationsonArizona—NewMexicoborder,USA.T.t.fuscusMerriam,1891—CIdahointoNCWashington,USA,andSBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.gracilisDurrant,1939—NENevadaandadjacentpartsofUtahextendingSWintocentralNevada,USA.T.t.immunisHall&Dalquest,1939—SCWashington,USA.T.t.incensusGoldman,1939—SBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.kaibabensisGoldman,1938—NArizona,USA.T:t.kelloggiGoldman,1939—SCMontana,USA.T.t.levisGoldman,1938—SCUtahandadjacentpartsofArizona,USA.T.t.limosusMerriam,1901—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T:t.loringiBailey,1914—SCAlberta,Canada.T.t.macrotisMiller,1930—NCColorado,USA.T.t.mediusGoldman,1939—SEBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.meritusHall,1951—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.monoensisHuey,1934—WCNevadaandadjacentpartsofCalifornia,USA.T.t.moore:Goldman,1938—CUtah,USA.T.t.nebulosusBailey,1914—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.ociusMerriam,1901—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofUtahandWyoming,USA.T:t.oquirrhensisDurrant,1939—NCUtah,USA.T.t.parowanensisGoldman,1938—SWUtah,USA.T.t.pierreicolusSwenk,1941—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofMontana,Wyoming,andNebraska,USA.T:t.pryoriBailey,1914—SCMontana,USA.T.t.quadratusMerriam,1897—EOregonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,Nevada,andCalifornia,USA.T.t.ravusDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.relicinusGoldman,1939—SCIdaho,USA.T.t.retrorsusHall,1951—ECColorado,USA.T.t.rostralisHall&Montague,1951—CColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.rufescensWied-Neuwied,1839—NorthDakotaandadjacentpartsofSouthDakotaandMinnesota,USA,andManitobaandSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.saturatusBailey,1914—NIdahoandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA,andBritishColumbia,Canada.T. t. segregatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.shawiTaylor,1921—SCWashington,USA.T:t.tayloriHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T.t.tenellusGoldman,1939—NWWyomingandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA.T.t.trivialisGoldman,1939—CMontana,USA.T.t.wintaMerriam,1901—NEUtah,USA.T.t.wallowaHall&Orr,1933—NEOregonandadjacentpartsofWashington,USA.T.t.wasatchensisDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.whitmaniDrake&Booth,1952—SEWashington,USA.T: t. yakimensis Hall & Dalquest, 1939— SC Washington, USA.","Head-body 110-190 mm, tail 50-80 mm, hindfoot 25-35 mm; weight 65-209 g. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the largest distribution of any pocket gopher, and variation in body size is extreme. Individuals living at high elevations or in thinner soils are usually much smaller than individuals living at low elevations and in deeper soils. Smaller subspecies show little sexual size dimorphism, but males of larger subspecies can be up to 9% larger than females. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal pelage is usually rich brown to brownish gray, grading to buff ventrally. Chin often is white and post-auricular patches are grayish black or black. The almost naked tail is usually brownish with a whitish tip, and feet often are white or partly white. Albinism and melanism are known, with melanism most common. The Northern Pocket Gopher shows widespread variation in chromosome diploid number, leading several authors to suggest that it may contain multiple cryptic species. Extensive cytogenetic studies by C. S. Thaeler in 1968 and 1980 found more than ten different karyotypes (2n = 40-60 chromosomes) in populations of the Northern Pocket Gopher from throughoutits distribution. FN = 70-78. Hybrid individuals with 47, 49, 51, or 53 chromosomes were reported in zones of contact between populations with different diploid numbers, but genetic introgression appeared to be absent at these zones, suggesting genetic isolation between parental forms.","Wide variety of habitats with many different soil types and depths. Northern Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands, forests, and suburban lawns and gardens from elevations of 900 m to more than 3700 m. They appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invaders of cultivated fields. An unknown number of Northern Pocket Gophers survived the explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, in May 1980. Although these individuals were among the first mammals to occupy the devastated wastelands surrounding the volcano, adult survivorship in the year after the eruption was estimated at only 10%, a value much lower than the typical 18-70% survivorship measured in undisturbed populations of Northern Pocket Gophers in Utah.","Diet of the Northern Pocket Gopher consists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. In Oregon, and probably throughout its distribution, the Northern Pocket Gopher will eat most succulent plants within its home range. Although in some habitats, plant species are consumed approximately in proportion to their abundance, one study showed that pocket gophers are able to select plants with higher levels of protein and fat. In Colorado, spring diet of a population of Northern Pocket Gophers living in short-grass prairie habitat was 67% forbs, 30% grasses, and 3% shrubs. In a subalpine habitat, also in Colorado, diet was 87% forbs, 12% roots, and 1% grasses. Feeding activities of Northern Pocket Gophers are similar to those of other species of pocket gophers and are believed to have contributed to the formation of Mima mounds throughout much of the USA west of the Mississippi River. In Colorado, adult Northern Pocket Gophers usually occupy Mima Mounds, but juveniles occupy interrmound areas. In areas with heavy snowpack, individuals tunnel in the snow and deposit excess soil in the tunnels. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes of soil settle to the ground, leaving evidence of the individual’s winter activities. As in other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Northern Pocket Gopher.","At low elevations, the Northern Pocket gopher breeds in spring (mid-March to mid-June), but at higher elevations with heavy snowfall, breeding is delayed until mid-to-late summer. Gestation is 18-19 days, and litter sizes average 3-6 young/litter. Most adult females are thought to produce one litter per year, and one study reported that 88 of 112 (79%) adult females captured in spring were reproductively active. Young are weaned in c.40 days and reach adult body size in 3-6 months.","The Northern Pocket Gopher is active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In one study, radio-tracked individuals were active c.12 hours/day. Like all pocket gophers, Northern Pocket Gophers are prodigious diggers: one captive individual released in a vegetable garden with fairly compact soil was able to dig 50 cm of tunnel in 15 minutes, 32 m of tunnel in eight days, and 146 m of tunnel in six months. In montane habitats with denser soils, individuals burrowed at a nearly constant rate of 2 cm/minute. A study in Colorado showed that the Northern Pocket Gopher tends to dig around rocks larger than c.2:5 cm in diameter, but smaller rocks are removed with surrounding soil and deposited on the surface. The Northern Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round.","As in other pocket gophers, the Northern Pocket Gophersis solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Although Northern Pocket Gophers vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, capture of two or more individuals in the same system is not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Densities of up to 20 ind/ha have been recorded in productive habitats. Average dispersal distance of the Northern Pocket Gopheris estimated to be 239 m/year, with a maximum observed distance of 790 m. As in other species of pocket gophers that live in areas with heavy snowfall, Northern Pocket Gophers frequently disperse long distances by burrowing through snowpack.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Andersen (1978, 1982) | Bailey (1915) | Hansen & Morris (1959) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008u) | MacMahon (1999) | Patton (2005b) | Verts & Carraway (1999)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603821/files/figure.png,"5.Northern Pocket GopherThomomys talpoidesFrench:Gaufre gris/ German:Nordliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza septentrionalOther common names:Vancouver Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cricetus talpoides Richardson, 1828, “banks of the Saskatcehewan [sic] in lat. 52° [N].” Restricted by V. Bailey in 1915 to “near Fort Carlton (Carlton House) on the Saskatchewan River, Saskatchewan,” Canada.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. This species previously included 7. clusiusand T. idahoensisas subspecies. Fifty-four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.talpoidesRichardson,1828—NCMontana,USA,andNEintoAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,Canada.T.t.aequalidensDalquest,1942—SEWashingtonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,USA.T.t.agrestisMerriam,1908—SCColorado,USA.T.t.andersoniGoldman,1939—SEAlberta,Canada.T.t.attenuatusHall&Montague,1951—SEWyomingandadjacentpartsofColorado,USA.T.t.bridger:Merriam,1901—SEIdaho,extendingEandSintoWWyoming,USA.T.t.bullatusBailey,1914—EMontana,extendingintoNorthDakotaandColorado,USA,andSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.cary:Bailey,1914—NCWyoming,USA.T.t.cheyennensisSwenk,1941—NEWyomingandadjacentpartsofNebraska,USA.T. t. cognatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.columbianusBailey,1914—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T.t.devexusHall&Dalquest,1939—ECWashington,USA.T.t.douglasiiRichardson,1829—WWashington,USA.T.t.durrantiKelson,1949—WCColoradoextendingintoUtah,withdisjunctpopulationsinSEUtah,USA.T.t.falciferGrinnell,1926—CNevada,USA.T. t. fisheri Merriam, 1901— NE California extending into W Nevada, USA.T.t.fossor].A.Allen,1893—SWColoradointoNNewMexico,withdisjunctpopulationsonArizona—NewMexicoborder,USA.T.t.fuscusMerriam,1891—CIdahointoNCWashington,USA,andSBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.gracilisDurrant,1939—NENevadaandadjacentpartsofUtahextendingSWintocentralNevada,USA.T.t.immunisHall&Dalquest,1939—SCWashington,USA.T.t.incensusGoldman,1939—SBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.kaibabensisGoldman,1938—NArizona,USA.T:t.kelloggiGoldman,1939—SCMontana,USA.T.t.levisGoldman,1938—SCUtahandadjacentpartsofArizona,USA.T.t.limosusMerriam,1901—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T:t.loringiBailey,1914—SCAlberta,Canada.T.t.macrotisMiller,1930—NCColorado,USA.T.t.mediusGoldman,1939—SEBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.meritusHall,1951—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.monoensisHuey,1934—WCNevadaandadjacentpartsofCalifornia,USA.T.t.moore:Goldman,1938—CUtah,USA.T.t.nebulosusBailey,1914—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.ociusMerriam,1901—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofUtahandWyoming,USA.T:t.oquirrhensisDurrant,1939—NCUtah,USA.T.t.parowanensisGoldman,1938—SWUtah,USA.T.t.pierreicolusSwenk,1941—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofMontana,Wyoming,andNebraska,USA.T:t.pryoriBailey,1914—SCMontana,USA.T.t.quadratusMerriam,1897—EOregonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,Nevada,andCalifornia,USA.T.t.ravusDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.relicinusGoldman,1939—SCIdaho,USA.T.t.retrorsusHall,1951—ECColorado,USA.T.t.rostralisHall&Montague,1951—CColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.rufescensWied-Neuwied,1839—NorthDakotaandadjacentpartsofSouthDakotaandMinnesota,USA,andManitobaandSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.saturatusBailey,1914—NIdahoandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA,andBritishColumbia,Canada.T. t. segregatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.shawiTaylor,1921—SCWashington,USA.T:t.tayloriHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T.t.tenellusGoldman,1939—NWWyomingandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA.T.t.trivialisGoldman,1939—CMontana,USA.T.t.wintaMerriam,1901—NEUtah,USA.T.t.wallowaHall&Orr,1933—NEOregonandadjacentpartsofWashington,USA.T.t.wasatchensisDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.whitmaniDrake&Booth,1952—SEWashington,USA.T: t. yakimensis Hall & Dalquest, 1939— SC Washington, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-190 mm, tail 50-80 mm, hindfoot 25-35 mm; weight 65-209 g. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the largest distribution of any pocket gopher, and variation in body size is extreme. Individuals living at high elevations or in thinner soils are usually much smaller than individuals living at low elevations and in deeper soils. Smaller subspecies show little sexual size dimorphism, but males of larger subspecies can be up to 9% larger than females. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal pelage is usually rich brown to brownish gray, grading to buff ventrally. Chin often is white and post-auricular patches are grayish black or black. The almost naked tail is usually brownish with a whitish tip, and feet often are white or partly white. Albinism and melanism are known, with melanism most common. The Northern Pocket Gopher shows widespread variation in chromosome diploid number, leading several authors to suggest that it may contain multiple cryptic species. Extensive cytogenetic studies by C. S. Thaeler in 1968 and 1980 found more than ten different karyotypes (2n = 40-60 chromosomes) in populations of the Northern Pocket Gopher from throughoutits distribution. FN = 70-78. Hybrid individuals with 47, 49, 51, or 53 chromosomes were reported in zones of contact between populations with different diploid numbers, but genetic introgression appeared to be absent at these zones, suggesting genetic isolation between parental forms.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats with many different soil types and depths. Northern Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands, forests, and suburban lawns and gardens from elevations of 900 m to more than 3700 m. They appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invaders of cultivated fields. An unknown number of Northern Pocket Gophers survived the explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, in May 1980. Although these individuals were among the first mammals to occupy the devastated wastelands surrounding the volcano, adult survivorship in the year after the eruption was estimated at only 10%, a value much lower than the typical 18-70% survivorship measured in undisturbed populations of Northern Pocket Gophers in Utah.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Northern Pocket Gopher consists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. In Oregon, and probably throughout its distribution, the Northern Pocket Gopher will eat most succulent plants within its home range. Although in some habitats, plant species are consumed approximately in proportion to their abundance, one study showed that pocket gophers are able to select plants with higher levels of protein and fat. In Colorado, spring diet of a population of Northern Pocket Gophers living in short-grass prairie habitat was 67% forbs, 30% grasses, and 3% shrubs. In a subalpine habitat, also in Colorado, diet was 87% forbs, 12% roots, and 1% grasses. Feeding activities of Northern Pocket Gophers are similar to those of other species of pocket gophers and are believed to have contributed to the formation of Mima mounds throughout much of the USA west of the Mississippi River. In Colorado, adult Northern Pocket Gophers usually occupy Mima Mounds, but juveniles occupy interrmound areas. In areas with heavy snowpack, individuals tunnel in the snow and deposit excess soil in the tunnels. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes of soil settle to the ground, leaving evidence of the individual’s winter activities. As in other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Northern Pocket Gopher.Breeding.At low elevations, the Northern Pocket gopher breeds in spring (mid-March to mid-June), but at higher elevations with heavy snowfall, breeding is delayed until mid-to-late summer. Gestation is 18-19 days, and litter sizes average 3-6 young/litter. Most adult females are thought to produce one litter per year, and one study reported that 88 of 112 (79%) adult females captured in spring were reproductively active. Young are weaned in c.40 days and reach adult body size in 3-6 months.Activity patterns.The Northern Pocket Gopher is active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In one study, radio-tracked individuals were active c.12 hours/day. Like all pocket gophers, Northern Pocket Gophers are prodigious diggers: one captive individual released in a vegetable garden with fairly compact soil was able to dig 50 cm of tunnel in 15 minutes, 32 m of tunnel in eight days, and 146 m of tunnel in six months. In montane habitats with denser soils, individuals burrowed at a nearly constant rate of 2 cm/minute. A study in Colorado showed that the Northern Pocket Gopher tends to dig around rocks larger than c.2:5 cm in diameter, but smaller rocks are removed with surrounding soil and deposited on the surface. The Northern Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As in other pocket gophers, the Northern Pocket Gophersis solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Although Northern Pocket Gophers vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, capture of two or more individuals in the same system is not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Densities of up to 20 ind/ha have been recorded in productive habitats. Average dispersal distance of the Northern Pocket Gopheris estimated to be 239 m/year, with a maximum observed distance of 790 m. As in other species of pocket gophers that live in areas with heavy snowfall, Northern Pocket Gophers frequently disperse long distances by burrowing through snowpack.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Andersen (1978, 1982), Bailey (1915), Hansen & Morris (1959), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008u), MacMahon (1999), Patton (2005b), Verts & Carraway (1999)." 0131878A073CFF92FA93F4E86AA64081,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,265,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF92FA93F4E86AA64081.xml,Heterogeomys underwoodi,Heterogeomys,underwoodi,Osgood,1931,Gaufre d'Underwood @fr | Underwood-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Underwood @es,"Heterogeomys underwoodi Osgood, 1931, “Alto de Jabillo Pirris, between San Geronimo and Pozo Azul, western Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. underwood: is sister to a clade composed of H. cherriet and H. heterodus. Monotypic.",Pacific coast of Costa Rica and adjacent SW Panama (Chiriqui).,"Head—body 180-210 mm, tail 85-105 mm; weight 230-330 g. Male Underwood’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and dark brown to almost black; ventral pelage is lighter in color. Nearly all individuals have a white belt (14-52 mm wide) surrounding lumbar region of body; only a few individuals are known that lack this belt. Underwood’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","Well-drained soils in tropical semideciduous forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",Pregnant Underwood’s Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomysunderwood).,"Hafner & Hafner (1987) | McCarthy & Reid (2008) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992) | Merriam, 1895.)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603879/files/figure.png,"33.Underwood’s Pocket GopherHeterogeomys underwoodiFrench:Gaufre d'Underwood/ German:Underwood-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de UnderwoodTaxonomy.Heterogeomys underwoodi Osgood, 1931, “Alto de Jabillo Pirris, between San Geronimo and Pozo Azul, western Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. underwood: is sister to a clade composed of H. cherriet and H. heterodus. Monotypic.Distribution.Pacific coast of Costa Rica and adjacent SW Panama (Chiriqui).Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-210 mm, tail 85-105 mm; weight 230-330 g. Male Underwood’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and dark brown to almost black; ventral pelage is lighter in color. Nearly all individuals have a white belt (14-52 mm wide) surrounding lumbar region of body; only a few individuals are known that lack this belt. Underwood’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in tropical semideciduous forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant Underwood’s Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomysunderwood).Bibliography.Hafner & Hafner (1987), McCarthy & Reid (2008), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992).Merriam, 1895" -0131878A073CFF93FA93FCA66C244CCA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,265,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF93FA93FCA66C244CCA.xml,Heterogeomys heterodus,Heterogeomys,heterodus,,,Gaufre du Costa Rica @fr | Costa-Rica-Taschenratte @de | Tuza variable @es,"Geomys heterodus Peters, 1865, “Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomys considered a subgenus of Orthogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. heterodusis sister to H. cherriei. Three subspecies recognized.","H.h.heterodusPeters,1864—ECCostaRica.H.h.cartagoensisGoodwin,1943—CCostaRica.H. h. dolichocephalus Merriam, 1895— NC Costa Rica.","Head-body 220-275 mm, tail 85-115 mm; weight 400-915 g. Dorsal pelage of the Variable Pocket Gopher is long, moderately dense, and dark brown to almost black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Large nasal pad and tail are almost naked, and feet are nearly so. The Variable Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 82.","Deep well-drained soils, many of volcanic origin, in cool tropical forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is 1000-2000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",Pregnant female Variable Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day. One study measured peak activity between 08:00 h and 14:00 h in March—-May, and another study showed peaks of activity between 06:00-08:00 h and 12:00-14:00 h in December—January. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Variable Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. A radio-telemetry study estimated average home range sizes of 325 m* for males and 233 m?* for females, with larger individuals having larger home ranges.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys heterodus).,Bonino (1994) | Patton (2005b) | Reid & Emmons (2008) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sisk & Vaughan-Dickhaut (1984) | Sudman & Hafner (1992),,"32.Variable Pocket GopherHeterogeomys heterodusFrench:Gaufre du Costa Rica/ German:Costa-Rica-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza variableTaxonomy.Geomys heterodus Peters, 1865, “Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomys considered a subgenus of Orthogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. heterodusis sister to H. cherriei. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.heterodusPeters,1864—ECCostaRica.H.h.cartagoensisGoodwin,1943—CCostaRica.H. h. dolichocephalus Merriam, 1895— NC Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-275 mm, tail 85-115 mm; weight 400-915 g. Dorsal pelage of the Variable Pocket Gopher is long, moderately dense, and dark brown to almost black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Large nasal pad and tail are almost naked, and feet are nearly so. The Variable Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 82.Habitat.Deep well-drained soils, many of volcanic origin, in cool tropical forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is 1000-2000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Variable Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day. One study measured peak activity between 08:00 h and 14:00 h in March—-May, and another study showed peaks of activity between 06:00-08:00 h and 12:00-14:00 h in December—January. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Variable Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. A radio-telemetry study estimated average home range sizes of 325 m* for males and 233 m?* for females, with larger individuals having larger home ranges.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys heterodus).Bibliography.Bonino (1994), Patton (2005b), Reid & Emmons (2008), Spradling et al. (2016), Sisk & Vaughan-Dickhaut (1984), Sudman & Hafner (1992)." -0131878A073CFF93FF97F8046D714517,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,265,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF93FF97F8046D714517.xml,Heterogeomys cherrier,Heterogeomys,cherrier,Merriam,1895,Gaufre de Cherrie @fr | Cherrie-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Cherrie @es,"Geomys cherriei J. A. Allen, 1893, “Santa Clara, Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Or thogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cherrieiis sister to H. heterodus. Orthogeomys matagalpae, was formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. cherrieiby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Four subspecies recognized.","H.c.cherriei].A.Allen,1893—SENicaraguaintoNECostaRica.H.c.carlosensisGoodwin,1943—NWCostaRicaincludingpartsofNicoyaPeninsula.H. c. costaricensis Merriam, 1895— E Costa Rica.H. c. matagalpae J. A. Allen, 1910— NC Honduras S to S Nicaragua.","Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.","Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.","Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Cherrie’s Pocket Gopherappears to reproduce year-round. Females produce at least two litters per year, with 1-4 young/litter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Sex ratio among reproductively immature individuals is 1:2-5 favoring females, but it is equal among adults.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomyscherriet).,Delgado (1992) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Timm & Woodman (2008),,"31.Cherrie’s Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cherrierFrench:Gaufre de Cherrie/ German:Cherrie-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de CherrieTaxonomy.Geomys cherriei J. A. Allen, 1893, “Santa Clara, Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Or thogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cherrieiis sister to H. heterodus. Orthogeomys matagalpae, was formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. cherrieiby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cherriei].A.Allen,1893—SENicaraguaintoNECostaRica.H.c.carlosensisGoodwin,1943—NWCostaRicaincludingpartsofNicoyaPeninsula.H. c. costaricensis Merriam, 1895— E Costa Rica.H. c. matagalpae J. A. Allen, 1910— NC Honduras S to S Nicaragua.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Cherrie’s Pocket Gopherappears to reproduce year-round. Females produce at least two litters per year, with 1-4 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Sex ratio among reproductively immature individuals is 1:2-5 favoring females, but it is equal among adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomyscherriet).Bibliography.Delgado (1992), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Timm & Woodman (2008)." -0131878A073DFF91FA4AFC87697B449C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,266,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073DFF91FA4AFC87697B449C.xml,Cratogeomys castanops,Cratogeomys,castanops,,,Gaufre a face jaune @fr | Gelbgesicht-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de cara amarilla @es,"Pseudostoma castanops Baird, 1852, “along the prairie road to Bent’s Fort” (near the present town of Las Animas, Colorado, USA).Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Molecular studies show C. castanopsto be sister to C. goldmani, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized 17 subspecies of C. castonops, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.","C.c.castanopsBaird,1852—SEColoradoandSWKansas,USA,southwardtoNCoahuila,NNuevoLeon,andNTamaulipas,Mexico.C. c. consitus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— E Chihuahua and W & S Coahuila S to NE Durango, Mexico.","Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 155-215 mm (females), tail 70-105 mm (males) and 50-105 mm (females); weight 225-410 g (males) and 185-260 g (females). Male Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. As in all species of pocket gophers, adult body size can be heavily influenced by local climate, with small individuals in dry regions with sparse vegetation and large individuals in wet regions with denser vegetation. Pelage color also varies considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much paler dorsally than populations living in moist and cool habitats at higher elevations. The Yellowfaced Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale yellowish buffto dark reddish brown dorsally and whitish ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to its inner side. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 46 and FN = 86.","Deep sandy or silty soils that have a low density of rocks. Habitats occupied by the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherinclude mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae) and cactus communities in the western part ofits distribution, native short-grass plains in the east, and broad expanses of native desert scrublands in the northern Mexican Altiplano. It is known from elevations of 10 m (near the mouth of the Rio Grande) to just over 2100 m.","The Yellow-faced Pocket Gophereats predominately fleshy, tuberous roots of desert shrubs, roots and leaves of low-growing forbs, and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Lechugilla (Agavelechuguilla, Asparagaceae) was reported to be the principal food of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheron the Stockton Plateau of Texas. It readily invades cultivated fields and orchards and is considered by farmers to be one of the most injurious of all pocket gopher species. The burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains a single nest chamber and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher.","Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher. In Kansas, females have litters in March-April, followed by a possible second litter in late summer or early autumn. In Texas, pregnant females have been recorded in every month of the year, and individual females may give birth to three, sometimes four, litters per year. In Coahuila, Mexico, the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherhas two distinct breeding seasons: one in winter (December—March) and another in summer (June-August). Litter sizes are 1-5 young, with an average of 2-3 young/litter.","Field studies show the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Several burrow systems measured in western Texas averaged 76 m in total tunnel length. There appears to be only a single nest chamber in the burrow system, unlike the smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys) that may have several nest chambers within a single burrow system. As in most species of pocket gophers, adult sex ratio is biased in favor of females. In one study in southern New Mexico, sex ratio of immature Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers was c.1:1 but that of adults was almost 5:1 in favor of females.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,"Davidow-Henry et al. (1989) | Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Linzey (2008b) | Patton (1999h, 2005b) | Russell (1968b)",,"35.Yellow-faced Pocket GopherCratogeomys castanopsFrench:Gaufre a face jaune/ German:Gelbgesicht-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de cara amarillaTaxonomy.Pseudostoma castanops Baird, 1852, “along the prairie road to Bent’s Fort” (near the present town of Las Animas, Colorado, USA).Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Molecular studies show C. castanopsto be sister to C. goldmani, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized 17 subspecies of C. castonops, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.c.castanopsBaird,1852—SEColoradoandSWKansas,USA,southwardtoNCoahuila,NNuevoLeon,andNTamaulipas,Mexico.C. c. consitus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— E Chihuahua and W & S Coahuila S to NE Durango, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 155-215 mm (females), tail 70-105 mm (males) and 50-105 mm (females); weight 225-410 g (males) and 185-260 g (females). Male Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. As in all species of pocket gophers, adult body size can be heavily influenced by local climate, with small individuals in dry regions with sparse vegetation and large individuals in wet regions with denser vegetation. Pelage color also varies considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much paler dorsally than populations living in moist and cool habitats at higher elevations. The Yellowfaced Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale yellowish buffto dark reddish brown dorsally and whitish ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to its inner side. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 46 and FN = 86.Habitat.Deep sandy or silty soils that have a low density of rocks. Habitats occupied by the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherinclude mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae) and cactus communities in the western part ofits distribution, native short-grass plains in the east, and broad expanses of native desert scrublands in the northern Mexican Altiplano. It is known from elevations of 10 m (near the mouth of the Rio Grande) to just over 2100 m.Food and Feeding.The Yellow-faced Pocket Gophereats predominately fleshy, tuberous roots of desert shrubs, roots and leaves of low-growing forbs, and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Lechugilla (Agavelechuguilla, Asparagaceae) was reported to be the principal food of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheron the Stockton Plateau of Texas. It readily invades cultivated fields and orchards and is considered by farmers to be one of the most injurious of all pocket gopher species. The burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains a single nest chamber and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher. In Kansas, females have litters in March-April, followed by a possible second litter in late summer or early autumn. In Texas, pregnant females have been recorded in every month of the year, and individual females may give birth to three, sometimes four, litters per year. In Coahuila, Mexico, the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherhas two distinct breeding seasons: one in winter (December—March) and another in summer (June-August). Litter sizes are 1-5 young, with an average of 2-3 young/litter.Activity patterns.Field studies show the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Several burrow systems measured in western Texas averaged 76 m in total tunnel length. There appears to be only a single nest chamber in the burrow system, unlike the smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys) that may have several nest chambers within a single burrow system. As in most species of pocket gophers, adult sex ratio is biased in favor of females. In one study in southern New Mexico, sex ratio of immature Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers was c.1:1 but that of adults was almost 5:1 in favor of females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Davidow-Henry et al. (1989), Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Linzey (2008b), Patton (1999h, 2005b), Russell (1968b)." -0131878A073DFF92FF4EF940634D4472,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,266,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073DFF92FF4EF940634D4472.xml,Pappogeomys bulleri,Pappogeomys,bulleri,,,Gaufre de Buller @fr | Jalisco-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Buller @es | Alcorn’s Pocket Gopher (alcorni) @en,"Geomys bulleri Thomas, 1892, “Talpa, Mascota, Jalisco [Mexico], 8500 feet.”Molecular studies suggest that the genus Pappogeomys1s sister to the genus Cratogeomys. The subspecies alcorniwas previously recognized at the species level but was regarded as a subspecies of bulleriby J. W. Demastes and colleagues in 2003. Five subspecies recognized.","P.b.buller:Thomas,1892—CJalisco,Mexico.P.b.albinasusMerriam,1895—SENayarittoNCJalisco,Mexico.P.b.alcorniRussell,1957—ECJalisco(SierradelTigreSofLagunadeChapala),Mexico.P.b.burt:Goldman,1939—PacificcoastofSJaliscoandColima,Mexico.P. b. nayaritensis Goldman, 1939— C Nayarit, Mexico.","Head-body 125-180 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 100-250 g. Male Buller’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage pale gray to dark gray, sometimes black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 56 and FN = 106.","Hot, humid coastal lowlands, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests at middle elevations, and pine-oak forests at elevations up to ¢.3000 m. Unlike most pocket gophers, Buller’s Pocket Gopheronly occasionally invades cultivated fields.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Buller’s Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year. Litters have 1-8 young, with an average of two young perlitter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies alcorniis classified as Critically Endangered (as Pappogeomys alcorni). Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas received special protection under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (as P. alcorni) since 2010. A recent survey in the vicinity of the type locality of alcornifound it to be relatively abundant within this limited area.,Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Demastes et al. (2003) | Hafner et al. (2009) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Solar-Frost et al. (2003),,"34.Buller’s Pocket GopherPappogeomys bulleriFrench:Gaufre de Buller/ German:Jalisco-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BullerOther common names:Alcorn’s Pocket Gopher (alcorni)Taxonomy.Geomys bulleri Thomas, 1892, “Talpa, Mascota, Jalisco [Mexico], 8500 feet.”Molecular studies suggest that the genus Pappogeomys1s sister to the genus Cratogeomys. The subspecies alcorniwas previously recognized at the species level but was regarded as a subspecies of bulleriby J. W. Demastes and colleagues in 2003. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.b.buller:Thomas,1892—CJalisco,Mexico.P.b.albinasusMerriam,1895—SENayarittoNCJalisco,Mexico.P.b.alcorniRussell,1957—ECJalisco(SierradelTigreSofLagunadeChapala),Mexico.P.b.burt:Goldman,1939—PacificcoastofSJaliscoandColima,Mexico.P. b. nayaritensis Goldman, 1939— C Nayarit, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-180 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 100-250 g. Male Buller’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage pale gray to dark gray, sometimes black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 56 and FN = 106.Habitat.Hot, humid coastal lowlands, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests at middle elevations, and pine-oak forests at elevations up to ¢.3000 m. Unlike most pocket gophers, Buller’s Pocket Gopheronly occasionally invades cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Buller’s Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year. Litters have 1-8 young, with an average of two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies alcorniis classified as Critically Endangered (as Pappogeomys alcorni). Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas received special protection under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (as P. alcorni) since 2010. A recent survey in the vicinity of the type locality of alcornifound it to be relatively abundant within this limited area.Bibliography.Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Demastes et al. (2003), Hafner et al. (2009), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010), Solar-Frost et al. (2003)." +0131878A073CFF93FA93FCA66C244CCA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,265,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF93FA93FCA66C244CCA.xml,Heterogeomys heterodus,Heterogeomys,heterodus,,,Gaufre du Costa Rica @fr | Costa-Rica-Taschenratte @de | Tuza variable @es,"Geomys heterodus Peters, 1865, “Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomys considered a subgenus of Orthogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. heterodusis sister to H. cherriei. Three subspecies recognized.","H.h.heterodusPeters,1864—ECCostaRica.H.h.cartagoensisGoodwin,1943—CCostaRica.H. h. dolichocephalus Merriam, 1895— NC Costa Rica.","Head-body 220-275 mm, tail 85-115 mm; weight 400-915 g. Dorsal pelage of the Variable Pocket Gopher is long, moderately dense, and dark brown to almost black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Large nasal pad and tail are almost naked, and feet are nearly so. The Variable Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 82.","Deep well-drained soils, many of volcanic origin, in cool tropical forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is 1000-2000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",Pregnant female Variable Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day. One study measured peak activity between 08:00 h and 14:00 h in March—-May, and another study showed peaks of activity between 06:00-08:00 h and 12:00-14:00 h in December—January. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Variable Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. A radio-telemetry study estimated average home range sizes of 325 m* for males and 233 m?* for females, with larger individuals having larger home ranges.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys heterodus).,Bonino (1994) | Patton (2005b) | Reid & Emmons (2008) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sisk & Vaughan-Dickhaut (1984) | Sudman & Hafner (1992),https://zenodo.org/record/6603877/files/figure.png,"32.Variable Pocket GopherHeterogeomys heterodusFrench:Gaufre du Costa Rica/ German:Costa-Rica-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza variableTaxonomy.Geomys heterodus Peters, 1865, “Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomys considered a subgenus of Orthogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. heterodusis sister to H. cherriei. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.heterodusPeters,1864—ECCostaRica.H.h.cartagoensisGoodwin,1943—CCostaRica.H. h. dolichocephalus Merriam, 1895— NC Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-275 mm, tail 85-115 mm; weight 400-915 g. Dorsal pelage of the Variable Pocket Gopher is long, moderately dense, and dark brown to almost black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Large nasal pad and tail are almost naked, and feet are nearly so. The Variable Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 82.Habitat.Deep well-drained soils, many of volcanic origin, in cool tropical forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is 1000-2000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Variable Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day. One study measured peak activity between 08:00 h and 14:00 h in March—-May, and another study showed peaks of activity between 06:00-08:00 h and 12:00-14:00 h in December—January. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Variable Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. A radio-telemetry study estimated average home range sizes of 325 m* for males and 233 m?* for females, with larger individuals having larger home ranges.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys heterodus).Bibliography.Bonino (1994), Patton (2005b), Reid & Emmons (2008), Spradling et al. (2016), Sisk & Vaughan-Dickhaut (1984), Sudman & Hafner (1992)." +0131878A073CFF93FF97F8046D714517,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,265,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF93FF97F8046D714517.xml,Heterogeomys cherrier,Heterogeomys,cherrier,Merriam,1895,Gaufre de Cherrie @fr | Cherrie-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Cherrie @es,"Geomys cherriei J. A. Allen, 1893, “Santa Clara, Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Or thogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cherrieiis sister to H. heterodus. Orthogeomys matagalpae, was formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. cherrieiby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Four subspecies recognized.","H.c.cherriei].A.Allen,1893—SENicaraguaintoNECostaRica.H.c.carlosensisGoodwin,1943—NWCostaRicaincludingpartsofNicoyaPeninsula.H. c. costaricensis Merriam, 1895— E Costa Rica.H. c. matagalpae J. A. Allen, 1910— NC Honduras S to S Nicaragua.","Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.","Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.","Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Cherrie’s Pocket Gopherappears to reproduce year-round. Females produce at least two litters per year, with 1-4 young/litter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Sex ratio among reproductively immature individuals is 1:2-5 favoring females, but it is equal among adults.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomyscherriet).,Delgado (1992) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Timm & Woodman (2008),https://zenodo.org/record/6603875/files/figure.png,"31.Cherrie’s Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cherrierFrench:Gaufre de Cherrie/ German:Cherrie-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de CherrieTaxonomy.Geomys cherriei J. A. Allen, 1893, “Santa Clara, Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Or thogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cherrieiis sister to H. heterodus. Orthogeomys matagalpae, was formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. cherrieiby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cherriei].A.Allen,1893—SENicaraguaintoNECostaRica.H.c.carlosensisGoodwin,1943—NWCostaRicaincludingpartsofNicoyaPeninsula.H. c. costaricensis Merriam, 1895— E Costa Rica.H. c. matagalpae J. A. Allen, 1910— NC Honduras S to S Nicaragua.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Cherrie’s Pocket Gopherappears to reproduce year-round. Females produce at least two litters per year, with 1-4 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Sex ratio among reproductively immature individuals is 1:2-5 favoring females, but it is equal among adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomyscherriet).Bibliography.Delgado (1992), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Timm & Woodman (2008)." +0131878A073DFF91FA4AFC87697B449C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,266,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073DFF91FA4AFC87697B449C.xml,Cratogeomys castanops,Cratogeomys,castanops,,,Gaufre a face jaune @fr | Gelbgesicht-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de cara amarilla @es,"Pseudostoma castanops Baird, 1852, “along the prairie road to Bent’s Fort” (near the present town of Las Animas, Colorado, USA).Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Molecular studies show C. castanopsto be sister to C. goldmani, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized 17 subspecies of C. castonops, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.","C.c.castanopsBaird,1852—SEColoradoandSWKansas,USA,southwardtoNCoahuila,NNuevoLeon,andNTamaulipas,Mexico.C. c. consitus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— E Chihuahua and W & S Coahuila S to NE Durango, Mexico.","Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 155-215 mm (females), tail 70-105 mm (males) and 50-105 mm (females); weight 225-410 g (males) and 185-260 g (females). Male Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. As in all species of pocket gophers, adult body size can be heavily influenced by local climate, with small individuals in dry regions with sparse vegetation and large individuals in wet regions with denser vegetation. Pelage color also varies considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much paler dorsally than populations living in moist and cool habitats at higher elevations. The Yellowfaced Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale yellowish buffto dark reddish brown dorsally and whitish ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to its inner side. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 46 and FN = 86.","Deep sandy or silty soils that have a low density of rocks. Habitats occupied by the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherinclude mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae) and cactus communities in the western part ofits distribution, native short-grass plains in the east, and broad expanses of native desert scrublands in the northern Mexican Altiplano. It is known from elevations of 10 m (near the mouth of the Rio Grande) to just over 2100 m.","The Yellow-faced Pocket Gophereats predominately fleshy, tuberous roots of desert shrubs, roots and leaves of low-growing forbs, and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Lechugilla (Agavelechuguilla, Asparagaceae) was reported to be the principal food of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheron the Stockton Plateau of Texas. It readily invades cultivated fields and orchards and is considered by farmers to be one of the most injurious of all pocket gopher species. The burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains a single nest chamber and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher.","Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher. In Kansas, females have litters in March-April, followed by a possible second litter in late summer or early autumn. In Texas, pregnant females have been recorded in every month of the year, and individual females may give birth to three, sometimes four, litters per year. In Coahuila, Mexico, the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherhas two distinct breeding seasons: one in winter (December—March) and another in summer (June-August). Litter sizes are 1-5 young, with an average of 2-3 young/litter.","Field studies show the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","The Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Several burrow systems measured in western Texas averaged 76 m in total tunnel length. There appears to be only a single nest chamber in the burrow system, unlike the smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys) that may have several nest chambers within a single burrow system. As in most species of pocket gophers, adult sex ratio is biased in favor of females. In one study in southern New Mexico, sex ratio of immature Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers was c.1:1 but that of adults was almost 5:1 in favor of females.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,"Davidow-Henry et al. (1989) | Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Linzey (2008b) | Patton (1999h, 2005b) | Russell (1968b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603883/files/figure.png,"35.Yellow-faced Pocket GopherCratogeomys castanopsFrench:Gaufre a face jaune/ German:Gelbgesicht-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de cara amarillaTaxonomy.Pseudostoma castanops Baird, 1852, “along the prairie road to Bent’s Fort” (near the present town of Las Animas, Colorado, USA).Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Molecular studies show C. castanopsto be sister to C. goldmani, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized 17 subspecies of C. castonops, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.c.castanopsBaird,1852—SEColoradoandSWKansas,USA,southwardtoNCoahuila,NNuevoLeon,andNTamaulipas,Mexico.C. c. consitus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— E Chihuahua and W & S Coahuila S to NE Durango, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 155-215 mm (females), tail 70-105 mm (males) and 50-105 mm (females); weight 225-410 g (males) and 185-260 g (females). Male Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. As in all species of pocket gophers, adult body size can be heavily influenced by local climate, with small individuals in dry regions with sparse vegetation and large individuals in wet regions with denser vegetation. Pelage color also varies considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much paler dorsally than populations living in moist and cool habitats at higher elevations. The Yellowfaced Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale yellowish buffto dark reddish brown dorsally and whitish ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to its inner side. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 46 and FN = 86.Habitat.Deep sandy or silty soils that have a low density of rocks. Habitats occupied by the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherinclude mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae) and cactus communities in the western part ofits distribution, native short-grass plains in the east, and broad expanses of native desert scrublands in the northern Mexican Altiplano. It is known from elevations of 10 m (near the mouth of the Rio Grande) to just over 2100 m.Food and Feeding.The Yellow-faced Pocket Gophereats predominately fleshy, tuberous roots of desert shrubs, roots and leaves of low-growing forbs, and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Lechugilla (Agavelechuguilla, Asparagaceae) was reported to be the principal food of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheron the Stockton Plateau of Texas. It readily invades cultivated fields and orchards and is considered by farmers to be one of the most injurious of all pocket gopher species. The burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains a single nest chamber and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher. In Kansas, females have litters in March-April, followed by a possible second litter in late summer or early autumn. In Texas, pregnant females have been recorded in every month of the year, and individual females may give birth to three, sometimes four, litters per year. In Coahuila, Mexico, the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherhas two distinct breeding seasons: one in winter (December—March) and another in summer (June-August). Litter sizes are 1-5 young, with an average of 2-3 young/litter.Activity patterns.Field studies show the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Several burrow systems measured in western Texas averaged 76 m in total tunnel length. There appears to be only a single nest chamber in the burrow system, unlike the smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys) that may have several nest chambers within a single burrow system. As in most species of pocket gophers, adult sex ratio is biased in favor of females. In one study in southern New Mexico, sex ratio of immature Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers was c.1:1 but that of adults was almost 5:1 in favor of females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Davidow-Henry et al. (1989), Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Linzey (2008b), Patton (1999h, 2005b), Russell (1968b)." +0131878A073DFF92FF4EF940634D4472,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,266,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073DFF92FF4EF940634D4472.xml,Pappogeomys bulleri,Pappogeomys,bulleri,,,Gaufre de Buller @fr | Jalisco-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Buller @es | Alcorn’s Pocket Gopher (alcorni) @en,"Geomys bulleri Thomas, 1892, “Talpa, Mascota, Jalisco [Mexico], 8500 feet.”Molecular studies suggest that the genus Pappogeomys1s sister to the genus Cratogeomys. The subspecies alcorniwas previously recognized at the species level but was regarded as a subspecies of bulleriby J. W. Demastes and colleagues in 2003. Five subspecies recognized.","P.b.buller:Thomas,1892—CJalisco,Mexico.P.b.albinasusMerriam,1895—SENayarittoNCJalisco,Mexico.P.b.alcorniRussell,1957—ECJalisco(SierradelTigreSofLagunadeChapala),Mexico.P.b.burt:Goldman,1939—PacificcoastofSJaliscoandColima,Mexico.P. b. nayaritensis Goldman, 1939— C Nayarit, Mexico.","Head-body 125-180 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 100-250 g. Male Buller’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage pale gray to dark gray, sometimes black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 56 and FN = 106.","Hot, humid coastal lowlands, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests at middle elevations, and pine-oak forests at elevations up to ¢.3000 m. Unlike most pocket gophers, Buller’s Pocket Gopheronly occasionally invades cultivated fields.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Buller’s Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year. Litters have 1-8 young, with an average of two young perlitter.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies alcorniis classified as Critically Endangered (as Pappogeomys alcorni). Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas received special protection under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (as P. alcorni) since 2010. A recent survey in the vicinity of the type locality of alcornifound it to be relatively abundant within this limited area.,Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Demastes et al. (2003) | Hafner et al. (2009) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Solar-Frost et al. (2003),https://zenodo.org/record/6603881/files/figure.png,"34.Buller’s Pocket GopherPappogeomys bulleriFrench:Gaufre de Buller/ German:Jalisco-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BullerOther common names:Alcorn’s Pocket Gopher (alcorni)Taxonomy.Geomys bulleri Thomas, 1892, “Talpa, Mascota, Jalisco [Mexico], 8500 feet.”Molecular studies suggest that the genus Pappogeomys1s sister to the genus Cratogeomys. The subspecies alcorniwas previously recognized at the species level but was regarded as a subspecies of bulleriby J. W. Demastes and colleagues in 2003. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.b.buller:Thomas,1892—CJalisco,Mexico.P.b.albinasusMerriam,1895—SENayarittoNCJalisco,Mexico.P.b.alcorniRussell,1957—ECJalisco(SierradelTigreSofLagunadeChapala),Mexico.P.b.burt:Goldman,1939—PacificcoastofSJaliscoandColima,Mexico.P. b. nayaritensis Goldman, 1939— C Nayarit, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-180 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 100-250 g. Male Buller’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage pale gray to dark gray, sometimes black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 56 and FN = 106.Habitat.Hot, humid coastal lowlands, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests at middle elevations, and pine-oak forests at elevations up to ¢.3000 m. Unlike most pocket gophers, Buller’s Pocket Gopheronly occasionally invades cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Buller’s Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year. Litters have 1-8 young, with an average of two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies alcorniis classified as Critically Endangered (as Pappogeomys alcorni). Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas received special protection under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (as P. alcorni) since 2010. A recent survey in the vicinity of the type locality of alcornifound it to be relatively abundant within this limited area.Bibliography.Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Demastes et al. (2003), Hafner et al. (2009), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010), Solar-Frost et al. (2003)." 0131878A073EFF90FA95F71D6A0F43B6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,267,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073EFF90FA95F71D6A0F43B6.xml,Cratogeomys merriami,Cratogeomys,merriami,,,Gaufre de Merriam @fr | Merriam-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Merriam @es,"Geomys merriami Thomas, 1893, “S. Mexico.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “probably the Valley of Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Prior to systematic revision of C. merriamiby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005, C. fulvescensand C. perotensiswere considered subspecies of C. merriami. Molecular studies show C. merriamito be closely related to C. fulvescensand C. perotensis, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. merriami, but M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005 found no subspecies-level differentiation. Monotypic.","Mexican endemic, patchily distributed in the S part of the Valley of Mexico (Sierra de Las Cruces, Sierra de Ajusco, Popocatéptl and Iztaccthutl Mts, and from Lerma at the E Toluca Valley E into W Puebla).","Head-body 230-285 mm (males) and 200-255 mm (females), tail 90-125 mm (males) and 80-120 mm (females); weight 580-700 g (males) and 450-670 g (females). Male Merriam’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Merriam’s Pocket Gopheris large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal coloris highly variable, from dull chestnut-brown to slate black. Ventral color is similar to dorsal color but paler. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 36 and FN = 68.","Wide variety of habitats, most characterized by arid conditions, sandy soils, and xeric-adapted vegetation. In parts ofits distribution, Merriam’s Pocket Gophercan be found in oak, pine, and fir woodlands and grassy mountain meadows, and it is known from near timberline on volcanic peaks east of Mexico City. It is known from elevations of 1800-4000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Merriam’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of Merriam’s Pocket Gophercan encompass 400 m* of surface area.","Captures of pregnant female Merriam’s Pocket Gophers suggest that they breed throughout the year, with peak reproductive activities in October—March. Females may have multiple litters per year, with litters usually of 1-3 young.","Merriam’s Pocket Gophers in the Valley of Mexico were active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. Digging activity was generally higher in the dry season (especially December—January) and lower at the beginning of the wet season (June). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Merriam’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,"Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008f) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2005) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | Whisson & Villa-Cornejo (1994)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603889/files/figure.png,"38.Merriam’s Pocket GopherCratogeomys merriamiFrench:Gaufre de Merriam/ German:Merriam-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MerriamTaxonomy.Geomys merriami Thomas, 1893, “S. Mexico.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “probably the Valley of Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Prior to systematic revision of C. merriamiby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005, C. fulvescensand C. perotensiswere considered subspecies of C. merriami. Molecular studies show C. merriamito be closely related to C. fulvescensand C. perotensis, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. merriami, but M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005 found no subspecies-level differentiation. Monotypic.Distribution.Mexican endemic, patchily distributed in the S part of the Valley of Mexico (Sierra de Las Cruces, Sierra de Ajusco, Popocatéptl and Iztaccthutl Mts, and from Lerma at the E Toluca Valley E into W Puebla).Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-285 mm (males) and 200-255 mm (females), tail 90-125 mm (males) and 80-120 mm (females); weight 580-700 g (males) and 450-670 g (females). Male Merriam’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Merriam’s Pocket Gopheris large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal coloris highly variable, from dull chestnut-brown to slate black. Ventral color is similar to dorsal color but paler. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 36 and FN = 68.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats, most characterized by arid conditions, sandy soils, and xeric-adapted vegetation. In parts ofits distribution, Merriam’s Pocket Gophercan be found in oak, pine, and fir woodlands and grassy mountain meadows, and it is known from near timberline on volcanic peaks east of Mexico City. It is known from elevations of 1800-4000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Merriam’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of Merriam’s Pocket Gophercan encompass 400 m* of surface area.Breeding.Captures of pregnant female Merriam’s Pocket Gophers suggest that they breed throughout the year, with peak reproductive activities in October—March. Females may have multiple litters per year, with litters usually of 1-3 young.Activity patterns.Merriam’s Pocket Gophers in the Valley of Mexico were active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. Digging activity was generally higher in the dry season (especially December—January) and lower at the beginning of the wet season (June). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Merriam’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008f), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2005), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), Whisson & Villa-Cornejo (1994)." -0131878A073EFF91FF9AFD1C6BE74DDA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,267,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073EFF91FF9AFD1C6BE74DDA.xml,Cratogeomys goldman,Cratogeomys,goldman,Merriam,1895,Gaufre de Goldman @fr | Goldman-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Goldman @es | Goldman's Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher @en,"Cratogeomys castanops goldmant Merriam, 1895, “Canitas, Zacatecas, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. It was included in C. castanopsby earlier workers, including Russell in 1968, but was recognized as a distinct species by numerous authors beginning with H. K. Lee and R. J. Baker in 1987. Molecular studies show C. goldmanito be sister to C. castanops, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. goldmani, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.","C.g.goldmaniMerriam,1895—drainageoftheRioAguanaval(NEDurango,SCoahuila,andZacatecas)toWSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.C. g. subnubilus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— SE Coahuila and SW Nuevo Leon S to the Rio Verde in C San Luis Potosi, Mexico.","Head—body 160-210 mm (males) and 145-190 mm (females), tail 60-95 mm (males) and 55-90 mm (females); weight 140-350 g (males) and 130-215 ¢g (females). Male Goldman’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is relatively small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are ochreous-buff to dark brown dorsally and pale ochreous-buff to white ventrally. Up to 89% of individuals in some populations have white spots on belly, sides, or rump. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the innerside of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 78.",Usually in arid and semiarid areas with deep sandy or silty soils that support xeric-adapted shrubs and grasses. Goldman's Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 750 m to almost 2700 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Goldman’s Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",Pregnant female Goldman’s Pocket Gophers have been collected in spring and summer.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,"Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008e) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | Spradling et al. (1993)",,"36.Goldman’s Pocket GopherCratogeomys goldmanFrench:Gaufre de Goldman/ German:Goldman-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de GoldmanOther common names:Goldman's Yellow-faced Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cratogeomys castanops goldmant Merriam, 1895, “Canitas, Zacatecas, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. It was included in C. castanopsby earlier workers, including Russell in 1968, but was recognized as a distinct species by numerous authors beginning with H. K. Lee and R. J. Baker in 1987. Molecular studies show C. goldmanito be sister to C. castanops, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. goldmani, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.g.goldmaniMerriam,1895—drainageoftheRioAguanaval(NEDurango,SCoahuila,andZacatecas)toWSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.C. g. subnubilus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— SE Coahuila and SW Nuevo Leon S to the Rio Verde in C San Luis Potosi, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 160-210 mm (males) and 145-190 mm (females), tail 60-95 mm (males) and 55-90 mm (females); weight 140-350 g (males) and 130-215 ¢g (females). Male Goldman’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is relatively small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are ochreous-buff to dark brown dorsally and pale ochreous-buff to white ventrally. Up to 89% of individuals in some populations have white spots on belly, sides, or rump. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the innerside of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 78.Habitat.Usually in arid and semiarid areas with deep sandy or silty soils that support xeric-adapted shrubs and grasses. Goldman's Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 750 m to almost 2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Goldman’s Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Goldman’s Pocket Gophers have been collected in spring and summer.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008e), Ceballos (2014), Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), Spradling et al. (1993)." +0131878A073EFF91FF9AFD1C6BE74DDA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,267,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073EFF91FF9AFD1C6BE74DDA.xml,Cratogeomys goldman,Cratogeomys,goldman,Merriam,1895,Gaufre de Goldman @fr | Goldman-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Goldman @es | Goldman's Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher @en,"Cratogeomys castanops goldmant Merriam, 1895, “Canitas, Zacatecas, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. It was included in C. castanopsby earlier workers, including Russell in 1968, but was recognized as a distinct species by numerous authors beginning with H. K. Lee and R. J. Baker in 1987. Molecular studies show C. goldmanito be sister to C. castanops, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. goldmani, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.","C.g.goldmaniMerriam,1895—drainageoftheRioAguanaval(NEDurango,SCoahuila,andZacatecas)toWSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.C. g. subnubilus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— SE Coahuila and SW Nuevo Leon S to the Rio Verde in C San Luis Potosi, Mexico.","Head—body 160-210 mm (males) and 145-190 mm (females), tail 60-95 mm (males) and 55-90 mm (females); weight 140-350 g (males) and 130-215 ¢g (females). Male Goldman’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is relatively small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are ochreous-buff to dark brown dorsally and pale ochreous-buff to white ventrally. Up to 89% of individuals in some populations have white spots on belly, sides, or rump. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the innerside of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 78.",Usually in arid and semiarid areas with deep sandy or silty soils that support xeric-adapted shrubs and grasses. Goldman's Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 750 m to almost 2700 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Goldman’s Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",Pregnant female Goldman’s Pocket Gophers have been collected in spring and summer.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,"Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008e) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | Spradling et al. (1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603885/files/figure.png,"36.Goldman’s Pocket GopherCratogeomys goldmanFrench:Gaufre de Goldman/ German:Goldman-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de GoldmanOther common names:Goldman's Yellow-faced Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cratogeomys castanops goldmant Merriam, 1895, “Canitas, Zacatecas, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. It was included in C. castanopsby earlier workers, including Russell in 1968, but was recognized as a distinct species by numerous authors beginning with H. K. Lee and R. J. Baker in 1987. Molecular studies show C. goldmanito be sister to C. castanops, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. goldmani, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.g.goldmaniMerriam,1895—drainageoftheRioAguanaval(NEDurango,SCoahuila,andZacatecas)toWSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.C. g. subnubilus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— SE Coahuila and SW Nuevo Leon S to the Rio Verde in C San Luis Potosi, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 160-210 mm (males) and 145-190 mm (females), tail 60-95 mm (males) and 55-90 mm (females); weight 140-350 g (males) and 130-215 ¢g (females). Male Goldman’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is relatively small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are ochreous-buff to dark brown dorsally and pale ochreous-buff to white ventrally. Up to 89% of individuals in some populations have white spots on belly, sides, or rump. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the innerside of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 78.Habitat.Usually in arid and semiarid areas with deep sandy or silty soils that support xeric-adapted shrubs and grasses. Goldman's Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 750 m to almost 2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Goldman’s Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Goldman’s Pocket Gophers have been collected in spring and summer.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008e), Ceballos (2014), Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), Spradling et al. (1993)." 0131878A073EFF91FF9FF3D962014E9E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,267,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073EFF91FF9FF3D962014E9E.xml,Cratogeomys fulvescens,Cratogeomys,fulvescens,Merriam,1895,Gaufre fauve @fr | Puebla-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de la Cuenca Oriental @es | Fulvous Pocket Gopher @en,"Cratogeomys fulvescens Merriam, 1895, “Chalchicomula [= Ciudad Serdan], State of Puebla, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. C. fulvescenswas recognized as a subspecies of C. merriamiby Russell in 1968 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but it was resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005. Molecular studies show C. fulvescensto be closely related to C. perotensisand C. merriami, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. Monotypic.","Oriental Basin of E Puebla, E Tlaxcala, and extreme W Veracruz, Mexico.","Head—body 205-285 mm (males) and 180-215 mm (females), tail 85-105 mm (males) and 95-110 mm (females); weight 420-550 g (males) and 250-500 g (females). Male Oriental Basin Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in other geomyid species. Body size is small for the genus. The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is grizzled yellowish brown, with strong mixture of black-tipped hairs imparting a salt-and-pepper appearance. Ventral coloris similar to dorsal color but paler. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 76.","Dry, sparsely vegetated, desert habitat, dominated by alkaline-tolerant plants. Soils are usually sandy and deep. Plants often associated with the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopherinclude desert saltgrass (Dustichlis spicata, Poaceae), Puebla saltbush (Atriplexpueblensis, Amaranthaceae), gypsum grama (Boutelouabreviseta, Poaceae), prickly pear (Opuntia sp., Cactaceae), agave (Agave sp., Asparagaceae), and various cacti (Mammallaria sp., Cactaceae). The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 2300-2700 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",Pregnant female Oriental Basin Pocket Gophers have been captured in December—February.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2005) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603887/files/figure.png,"37.Oriental Basin Pocket GopherCratogeomys fulvescensFrench:Gaufre fauve/ German:Puebla-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de la Cuenca OrientalOther common names:Fulvous Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cratogeomys fulvescens Merriam, 1895, “Chalchicomula [= Ciudad Serdan], State of Puebla, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. C. fulvescenswas recognized as a subspecies of C. merriamiby Russell in 1968 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but it was resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005. Molecular studies show C. fulvescensto be closely related to C. perotensisand C. merriami, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Oriental Basin of E Puebla, E Tlaxcala, and extreme W Veracruz, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 205-285 mm (males) and 180-215 mm (females), tail 85-105 mm (males) and 95-110 mm (females); weight 420-550 g (males) and 250-500 g (females). Male Oriental Basin Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in other geomyid species. Body size is small for the genus. The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is grizzled yellowish brown, with strong mixture of black-tipped hairs imparting a salt-and-pepper appearance. Ventral coloris similar to dorsal color but paler. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 76.Habitat.Dry, sparsely vegetated, desert habitat, dominated by alkaline-tolerant plants. Soils are usually sandy and deep. Plants often associated with the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopherinclude desert saltgrass (Dustichlis spicata, Poaceae), Puebla saltbush (Atriplexpueblensis, Amaranthaceae), gypsum grama (Boutelouabreviseta, Poaceae), prickly pear (Opuntia sp., Cactaceae), agave (Agave sp., Asparagaceae), and various cacti (Mammallaria sp., Cactaceae). The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 2300-2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Oriental Basin Pocket Gophers have been captured in December—February.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2005), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b)." 0131878A073FFF90FA46FD106DCE4C79,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,268,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073FFF90FA46FD106DCE4C79.xml,Cratogeomys planiceps,Cratogeomys,planiceps,,,Gaufre du Toluca @fr | Toluca-Taschenratte @de | Tuza del Volcan de Toluca @es,"Platygeomys planiceps Merriam, 1895, “north slope Volcan Toluca, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R.J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Russell in 1968 and J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized it as a subspecies of C. tylorhinus, but M. S. Hafner and colleagues resurrected it to species status in 2004. Molecular studies show C. planicepsto be sister to C. fumosus, and together these two species comprise the C. fumosusspecies group. Monotypic.","N slopes of Toluca Volcano and hills N & E of Valle de Bravo in the state of Mexico, Mexico.","Head-body 235-280 mm (males) and 215-250 mm (females), tail 80-110 mm (males) and 75-105 mm (females); weight 400-625 g (males) and 400-600 g (females). Male Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Body size is medium to large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal coloris usually dark reddish brown (approaching black in some individuals) with light-brown wash laterally and ochreous-buff belly. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.",Deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands that transition into pine-fir-spruce forests at high elevations. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gophers often occur in grassy clearings within these habitats and are found at elevations of 2500-3500 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2004) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lamoreux (2008) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b),https://zenodo.org/record/6603893/files/figure.png,"40.Volcan de Toluca Pocket GopherCratogeomys planicepsFrench:Gaufre du Toluca/ German:Toluca-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza del Volcan de TolucaTaxonomy.Platygeomys planiceps Merriam, 1895, “north slope Volcan Toluca, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R.J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Russell in 1968 and J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized it as a subspecies of C. tylorhinus, but M. S. Hafner and colleagues resurrected it to species status in 2004. Molecular studies show C. planicepsto be sister to C. fumosus, and together these two species comprise the C. fumosusspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.N slopes of Toluca Volcano and hills N & E of Valle de Bravo in the state of Mexico, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 235-280 mm (males) and 215-250 mm (females), tail 80-110 mm (males) and 75-105 mm (females); weight 400-625 g (males) and 400-600 g (females). Male Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Body size is medium to large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal coloris usually dark reddish brown (approaching black in some individuals) with light-brown wash laterally and ochreous-buff belly. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.Habitat.Deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands that transition into pine-fir-spruce forests at high elevations. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gophers often occur in grassy clearings within these habitats and are found at elevations of 2500-3500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2004), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lamoreux (2008), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b)." 0131878A073FFF90FF49FA0563A744A2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,268,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073FFF90FF49FA0563A744A2.xml,Cratogeomys perotensis,Cratogeomys,perotensis,Merriam,1895,Gaufre du Perote @fr | Veracruz-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Cofre de Perote @es,"Cratogeomys perotensis Merriam, 1895, “Cofre de Perote, Vera Cruz, Mexico (altitude 9,500 feet).”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R.J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. C. perotensiswas recognized as a subspecies of C. mer riami by Russell in 1968 and |. L.. Patton in 2005, but it was resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005. Molecular studies show C. perotensisto be closely related to C. merriamiand C. fulvescens, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. Monotypic.","Patchily distributed in the Plain of Apan in S Hidalgo E through N Puebla, N Tlaxcala, and WC Veracruz S to Cofre de Perote and Pico de Orizaba volcanoes, Mexico.","Head-body 210-250 mm (males) and 200-245 mm (females), tail 80-115 mm (males) and 80-110 mm (females); weight 290-600 g (males) and 280-600 g (females). Male Cofre de Perote Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Body size is medium for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color varies from light to dark brown, and ventral color is similar but paler. Most, perhaps all, Cofre de Perote Pocket Gophers have one or more small patches of white fur near bases of their tails. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.","Wide variety of habitats, most characterized by arid conditions, sandy soils, and xeric-adapted vegetation. Near the lower end ofits elevational distribution, the Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris found in dry, sparsely vegetated, desert habitat dominated by alkaline-tolerant plants. At higher elevations, it occurs in open areas surrounded by oak, pine, spruce, and fir woodlands and in grassy mountain hillsides and meadows. Plants often associated with the Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopherinclude bacharris (Bacharris sp., Asteraceae), ragworts (Senecio sp., Asteraceae), lupin (Lupinus sp., Fabaceae), and bunch grasses (Muhlenbergia sp.and Festuca sp., both Poaceae). The Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris known from elevations of 2400-4000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Cofre de Perote Pocket is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.,"Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008g) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2005) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603891/files/figure.png,"39.Cofre de Perote Pocket GopherCratogeomys perotensisFrench:Gaufre du Perote/ German:Veracruz-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de Cofre de PeroteTaxonomy.Cratogeomys perotensis Merriam, 1895, “Cofre de Perote, Vera Cruz, Mexico (altitude 9,500 feet).”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R.J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. C. perotensiswas recognized as a subspecies of C. mer riami by Russell in 1968 and |. L.. Patton in 2005, but it was resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005. Molecular studies show C. perotensisto be closely related to C. merriamiand C. fulvescens, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily distributed in the Plain of Apan in S Hidalgo E through N Puebla, N Tlaxcala, and WC Veracruz S to Cofre de Perote and Pico de Orizaba volcanoes, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-250 mm (males) and 200-245 mm (females), tail 80-115 mm (males) and 80-110 mm (females); weight 290-600 g (males) and 280-600 g (females). Male Cofre de Perote Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Body size is medium for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color varies from light to dark brown, and ventral color is similar but paler. Most, perhaps all, Cofre de Perote Pocket Gophers have one or more small patches of white fur near bases of their tails. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats, most characterized by arid conditions, sandy soils, and xeric-adapted vegetation. Near the lower end ofits elevational distribution, the Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris found in dry, sparsely vegetated, desert habitat dominated by alkaline-tolerant plants. At higher elevations, it occurs in open areas surrounded by oak, pine, spruce, and fir woodlands and in grassy mountain hillsides and meadows. Plants often associated with the Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopherinclude bacharris (Bacharris sp., Asteraceae), ragworts (Senecio sp., Asteraceae), lupin (Lupinus sp., Fabaceae), and bunch grasses (Muhlenbergia sp.and Festuca sp., both Poaceae). The Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris known from elevations of 2400-4000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Cofre de Perote Pocket is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008g), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2005), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b)." -0131878A073FFF97FA47F53A63EC431F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,268,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073FFF97FA47F53A63EC431F.xml,Cratogeomys fumosus,Cratogeomys,fumosus,,,Gaufre fuligineux @fr | Colima-Taschenratte @de | Tuza ahumada @es,"Geomysfumosus Merriam, 1892, “Colima City, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycuttand S. L. Willams in 1982. Four species of Cratogeomysrecognized by J. L. Patton in 2005 (C. gymnurus, C. neglectus, C. tylorhinus, and C. zinseri) were synonymized under C. fumosusby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2004, who also elevated C. planiceps to species status. Molecular studies show C. fumosusto be sister to C. planicepsand somewhat more distantly related to members of the C. castanopsspecies group. Together, C. fumosusand C. planicepsconstitute the C. fumosusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","C.f.fumosusMerriam,1892—WMichoacanandadjacentportionsofJaliscoandColima,Mexico.C.f.angustirostrisMerriam,1903—SWpartofCentralMexicanPlateau,includingpartsofJalisco,Guanajuato,andMichoacan,Mexico.C.f.imparilisGoldman,1939—CMichoacan,Mexico.C. f. tylorhinus Merriam, 1895— SE part of Central Mexican Plateau, including parts of the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, and Distrito Federal, Mexico.","Head-body 210-280 mm (males) and 155-270 mm (females), tail 75-110 mm (males) and 65-105 mm (females); weight 300-1050 g (males) and 250-400 g (females). Male Smoky Pocket Gophers are usually much larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. A specimen captured in Michoacan, Mexico is the largest pocket gopher ever recorded from Mexico. The Smoky Pocket Gopheris extremely variable in body size, but most individuals are large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color varies from light brown to almost black dorsally and lighter ventrally. The English common name for this species, Smoky Pocket Gopher, applies only to specimens near Colima City, Colima, which have smoky-gray dorsal pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 86.","At lower elevations, arid habitats with sandy orsilty soils supporting a thin cover of xeric-adapted grasses and shrubs; at intermediate and higher elevations, deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands often in open, grassy meadows. The Smoky Pocket Gopheravoids areas with shallow or rocky soils and densely forested areas with little understory growth. It is known from elevations of 300 m to more than 3000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Smoky Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Pregnant female Smoky Pocket Gophers have been collected in February, April, and July, and it might breed opportunistically throughout the year.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of the Smoky Pocket Gopher near Colima City, Colima (now regarded as populations of the subspecies fumosus) and isolated populations near Pinal de Amoles, Querétaro (formerly recognized as a separate species, C. neglectus) were listed as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act in 2010.","Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008d) | Ceballos (2014) | Demastes et al. (2002) | Fernandez et al. (2014) | Hafner et al. (2004) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Spradling et al. (1993)",,"41.Smoky Pocket GopherCratogeomys fumosusFrench:Gaufre fuligineux/ German:Colima-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza ahumadaTaxonomy.Geomysfumosus Merriam, 1892, “Colima City, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycuttand S. L. Willams in 1982. Four species of Cratogeomysrecognized by J. L. Patton in 2005 (C. gymnurus, C. neglectus, C. tylorhinus, and C. zinseri) were synonymized under C. fumosusby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2004, who also elevated C. planiceps to species status. Molecular studies show C. fumosusto be sister to C. planicepsand somewhat more distantly related to members of the C. castanopsspecies group. Together, C. fumosusand C. planicepsconstitute the C. fumosusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.f.fumosusMerriam,1892—WMichoacanandadjacentportionsofJaliscoandColima,Mexico.C.f.angustirostrisMerriam,1903—SWpartofCentralMexicanPlateau,includingpartsofJalisco,Guanajuato,andMichoacan,Mexico.C.f.imparilisGoldman,1939—CMichoacan,Mexico.C. f. tylorhinus Merriam, 1895— SE part of Central Mexican Plateau, including parts of the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, and Distrito Federal, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-280 mm (males) and 155-270 mm (females), tail 75-110 mm (males) and 65-105 mm (females); weight 300-1050 g (males) and 250-400 g (females). Male Smoky Pocket Gophers are usually much larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. A specimen captured in Michoacan, Mexico is the largest pocket gopher ever recorded from Mexico. The Smoky Pocket Gopheris extremely variable in body size, but most individuals are large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color varies from light brown to almost black dorsally and lighter ventrally. The English common name for this species, Smoky Pocket Gopher, applies only to specimens near Colima City, Colima, which have smoky-gray dorsal pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 86.Habitat.At lower elevations, arid habitats with sandy orsilty soils supporting a thin cover of xeric-adapted grasses and shrubs; at intermediate and higher elevations, deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands often in open, grassy meadows. The Smoky Pocket Gopheravoids areas with shallow or rocky soils and densely forested areas with little understory growth. It is known from elevations of 300 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Smoky Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Smoky Pocket Gophers have been collected in February, April, and July, and it might breed opportunistically throughout the year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of the Smoky Pocket Gopher near Colima City, Colima (now regarded as populations of the subspecies fumosus) and isolated populations near Pinal de Amoles, Querétaro (formerly recognized as a separate species, C. neglectus) were listed as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act in 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008d), Ceballos (2014), Demastes et al. (2002), Fernandez et al. (2014), Hafner et al. (2004), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), SEMARNAT (2010), Spradling et al. (1993)." +0131878A073FFF97FA47F53A63EC431F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602,268,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073FFF97FA47F53A63EC431F.xml,Cratogeomys fumosus,Cratogeomys,fumosus,,,Gaufre fuligineux @fr | Colima-Taschenratte @de | Tuza ahumada @es,"Geomysfumosus Merriam, 1892, “Colima City, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycuttand S. L. Willams in 1982. Four species of Cratogeomysrecognized by J. L. Patton in 2005 (C. gymnurus, C. neglectus, C. tylorhinus, and C. zinseri) were synonymized under C. fumosusby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2004, who also elevated C. planiceps to species status. Molecular studies show C. fumosusto be sister to C. planicepsand somewhat more distantly related to members of the C. castanopsspecies group. Together, C. fumosusand C. planicepsconstitute the C. fumosusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","C.f.fumosusMerriam,1892—WMichoacanandadjacentportionsofJaliscoandColima,Mexico.C.f.angustirostrisMerriam,1903—SWpartofCentralMexicanPlateau,includingpartsofJalisco,Guanajuato,andMichoacan,Mexico.C.f.imparilisGoldman,1939—CMichoacan,Mexico.C. f. tylorhinus Merriam, 1895— SE part of Central Mexican Plateau, including parts of the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, and Distrito Federal, Mexico.","Head-body 210-280 mm (males) and 155-270 mm (females), tail 75-110 mm (males) and 65-105 mm (females); weight 300-1050 g (males) and 250-400 g (females). Male Smoky Pocket Gophers are usually much larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. A specimen captured in Michoacan, Mexico is the largest pocket gopher ever recorded from Mexico. The Smoky Pocket Gopheris extremely variable in body size, but most individuals are large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color varies from light brown to almost black dorsally and lighter ventrally. The English common name for this species, Smoky Pocket Gopher, applies only to specimens near Colima City, Colima, which have smoky-gray dorsal pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 86.","At lower elevations, arid habitats with sandy orsilty soils supporting a thin cover of xeric-adapted grasses and shrubs; at intermediate and higher elevations, deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands often in open, grassy meadows. The Smoky Pocket Gopheravoids areas with shallow or rocky soils and densely forested areas with little understory growth. It is known from elevations of 300 m to more than 3000 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Smoky Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","Pregnant female Smoky Pocket Gophers have been collected in February, April, and July, and it might breed opportunistically throughout the year.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of the Smoky Pocket Gopher near Colima City, Colima (now regarded as populations of the subspecies fumosus) and isolated populations near Pinal de Amoles, Querétaro (formerly recognized as a separate species, C. neglectus) were listed as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act in 2010.","Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008d) | Ceballos (2014) | Demastes et al. (2002) | Fernandez et al. (2014) | Hafner et al. (2004) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Spradling et al. (1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/6603895/files/figure.png,"41.Smoky Pocket GopherCratogeomys fumosusFrench:Gaufre fuligineux/ German:Colima-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza ahumadaTaxonomy.Geomysfumosus Merriam, 1892, “Colima City, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycuttand S. L. Willams in 1982. Four species of Cratogeomysrecognized by J. L. Patton in 2005 (C. gymnurus, C. neglectus, C. tylorhinus, and C. zinseri) were synonymized under C. fumosusby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2004, who also elevated C. planiceps to species status. Molecular studies show C. fumosusto be sister to C. planicepsand somewhat more distantly related to members of the C. castanopsspecies group. Together, C. fumosusand C. planicepsconstitute the C. fumosusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.f.fumosusMerriam,1892—WMichoacanandadjacentportionsofJaliscoandColima,Mexico.C.f.angustirostrisMerriam,1903—SWpartofCentralMexicanPlateau,includingpartsofJalisco,Guanajuato,andMichoacan,Mexico.C.f.imparilisGoldman,1939—CMichoacan,Mexico.C. f. tylorhinus Merriam, 1895— SE part of Central Mexican Plateau, including parts of the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, and Distrito Federal, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-280 mm (males) and 155-270 mm (females), tail 75-110 mm (males) and 65-105 mm (females); weight 300-1050 g (males) and 250-400 g (females). Male Smoky Pocket Gophers are usually much larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. A specimen captured in Michoacan, Mexico is the largest pocket gopher ever recorded from Mexico. The Smoky Pocket Gopheris extremely variable in body size, but most individuals are large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color varies from light brown to almost black dorsally and lighter ventrally. The English common name for this species, Smoky Pocket Gopher, applies only to specimens near Colima City, Colima, which have smoky-gray dorsal pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 86.Habitat.At lower elevations, arid habitats with sandy orsilty soils supporting a thin cover of xeric-adapted grasses and shrubs; at intermediate and higher elevations, deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands often in open, grassy meadows. The Smoky Pocket Gopheravoids areas with shallow or rocky soils and densely forested areas with little understory growth. It is known from elevations of 300 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Smoky Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Smoky Pocket Gophers have been collected in February, April, and July, and it might breed opportunistically throughout the year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of the Smoky Pocket Gopher near Colima City, Colima (now regarded as populations of the subspecies fumosus) and isolated populations near Pinal de Amoles, Querétaro (formerly recognized as a separate species, C. neglectus) were listed as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act in 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008d), Ceballos (2014), Demastes et al. (2002), Fernandez et al. (2014), Hafner et al. (2004), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), SEMARNAT (2010), Spradling et al. (1993)." 035387C7FFC0FFAEFA66150FF77FF847,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9,353,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFC0FFAEFA66150FF77FF847.xml,Mesoplodon hectori,Mesoplodon,hectori,,,Baleine-a-bec de Hector @fr | Hector Zweizahnwahl @de | Zifio de Hector @es | Skew-beaked Whale @en,"Berardius hectori Gray, 1871, New Zealand, Wellington, “killed in Tatai [sic] Bay [= Titai Bay], Cook’s Straits.”This species is monotypic.","Most records come from either New Zealand or the Atlantic coast of South America, but also recorded in Tasmania, Western Australia, and South Africa; distribution remains unclear due to the small number of confirmed strandings. There are no records of this species between New Zealand and the Pacific coast of South America, but it is unclear whether this represents a break in distribution or a lack of research activity in this region. Earlier records from the Pacific coast of USA have since been reclassified as Perrin’s Beaked Whale (M. perrini).","Total length 343-443 cm; weight ¢.500 kg (unconfirmed). Body of Hector’s Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end of the tail. Coloration is typically dark brown, dark gray, or black dorsally and pale underneath. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a beak thatis indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lowerjaw; these tusks are positioned close to tips of mandibles; they are approximately triangular in shape and are laterally flattened.",Presumably waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Hector’s Beaked Whale.,Hector’s Beaked Whale is known to consume deep-water cephalopods and may consume other deep-water organisms such as fish and invertebrates. Theylikely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hector’s Beaked Whaleslikely occur in small groups.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of Hector’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, Hector’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris, bycatch in driftnetfisheries, climate change, and noise pollution. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.",Dalebout et al. (2002) | MacLeod et al. (2006) | Mead (1989b),https://zenodo.org/record/6608529/files/figure.png,"14.Hector’s Beaked WhaleMesoplodon hectoriFrench:Baleine-a-bec de Hector/ German:HectorZweizahnwahl/ Spanish:Zifio de HectorOther common names:Skew-beaked WhaleTaxonomy.Berardius hectori Gray, 1871, New Zealand, Wellington, “killed in Tatai [sic] Bay [= Titai Bay], Cook’s Straits.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Most records come from either New Zealand or the Atlantic coast of South America, but also recorded in Tasmania, Western Australia, and South Africa; distribution remains unclear due to the small number of confirmed strandings. There are no records of this species between New Zealand and the Pacific coast of South America, but it is unclear whether this represents a break in distribution or a lack of research activity in this region. Earlier records from the Pacific coast of USA have since been reclassified as Perrin’s Beaked Whale (M. perrini).Descriptive notes.Total length 343-443 cm; weight ¢.500 kg (unconfirmed). Body of Hector’s Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end of the tail. Coloration is typically dark brown, dark gray, or black dorsally and pale underneath. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a beak thatis indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lowerjaw; these tusks are positioned close to tips of mandibles; they are approximately triangular in shape and are laterally flattened.Habitat.Presumably waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Hector’s Beaked Whale.Food and Feeding.Hector’s Beaked Whale is known to consume deep-water cephalopods and may consume other deep-water organisms such as fish and invertebrates. Theylikely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hector’s Beaked Whaleslikely occur in small groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of Hector’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, Hector’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris, bycatch in driftnetfisheries, climate change, and noise pollution. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Dalebout et al. (2002), MacLeod et al. (2006), Mead (1989b)." 035387C7FFC1FFAEFA261819FC05F858,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9,352,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFC1FFAEFA261819FC05F858.xml,Mesoplodon layardii,Mesoplodon,layardii,,,Baleine-a-bec de Layard @fr | Layard-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de Layard @es | Layard’s Beaked Whale @en | Strap-toothed Beaked Whale @en,"Ziphius layardii Gray, 1865, type locality not given, probably South Africa.This species is monotypic.","Occurs from the temperate waters of S Atlantic, Indian, and S Pacific oceans to the waters of Antarctica. A record from Burma (= Myanmar) is thought to represent a vagrant individual.","Total length 550-625 cm; weight 1000-1300 kg. Female Strap-toothed Whales are c¢.5% larger than males. Body is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Straptoothed Whales are a mix of black and yellowish-gray or white. Rostrum and lower jaw form a long, distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lowerjaw; these tusks are positioned approximately halfway along the jaw line. Tusks are approximately triangular in maturing males, but in fully adult males, they can be up to 30 cm long and cross over the top of the upper jaw, apparently limiting the extent to which individuals can open their jaws, but this does not seem to interfere with feeding.","Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. As with other species of Mesoplodon, Strap-toothed Whales may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but thisstill has to be confirmed.","Strap-toothed Whales consume a wide variety of species of deepwater squid. Although tusks of adult males appearto limit the extent to which they can open their jaws, this does not appear to affect feeding ability. In common with other species of beaked whales, Strap-toothed Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.",Female Strap-toothed Whales give birth to a single offspring after gestation thatis likely twelve months. Offspring are likely to remain dependent on their mothers for at least one year.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings of Strap-toothed Whales at sea tend to be of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about the typical composition of these groups.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of the Straptoothed Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Strap-toothed Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals may be caught as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. As a species restricted to cooler waters, Strap-toothed Whales also may be vulnerable to impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.",Macleod et al. (2006) | Mead (1989b) | Sekiguchi et al. (1996),https://zenodo.org/record/6608527/files/figure.png,"13.Strap-toothed WhaleMesoplodon layardiiFrench:Baleine-a-bec de Layard/ German:Layard-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de LayardOther common names:Layard’s Beaked Whale, Strap-toothed Beaked WhaleTaxonomy.Ziphius layardii Gray, 1865, type locality not given, probably South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Occurs from the temperate waters of S Atlantic, Indian, and S Pacific oceans to the waters of Antarctica. A record from Burma (= Myanmar) is thought to represent a vagrant individual.Descriptive notes.Total length 550-625 cm; weight 1000-1300 kg. Female Strap-toothed Whales are c¢.5% larger than males. Body is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Straptoothed Whales are a mix of black and yellowish-gray or white. Rostrum and lower jaw form a long, distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lowerjaw; these tusks are positioned approximately halfway along the jaw line. Tusks are approximately triangular in maturing males, but in fully adult males, they can be up to 30 cm long and cross over the top of the upper jaw, apparently limiting the extent to which individuals can open their jaws, but this does not seem to interfere with feeding.Habitat.Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. As with other species of Mesoplodon, Strap-toothed Whales may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but thisstill has to be confirmed.Food and Feeding.Strap-toothed Whales consume a wide variety of species of deepwater squid. Although tusks of adult males appearto limit the extent to which they can open their jaws, this does not appear to affect feeding ability. In common with other species of beaked whales, Strap-toothed Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.Breeding.Female Strap-toothed Whales give birth to a single offspring after gestation thatis likely twelve months. Offspring are likely to remain dependent on their mothers for at least one year.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings of Strap-toothed Whales at sea tend to be of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about the typical composition of these groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of the Straptoothed Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Strap-toothed Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals may be caught as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. As a species restricted to cooler waters, Strap-toothed Whales also may be vulnerable to impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Macleod et al. (2006), Mead (1989b), Sekiguchi et al. (1996)." 035387C7FFC1FFAFFA2017C8F5D3F43F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9,352,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFC1FFAFFA2017C8F5D3F43F.xml,Mesoplodon marus,Mesoplodon,marus,Gervais,1850,Baleine-a-bec de True @fr | True-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de True @es,"Mesoplodon mirus True, 1913, USA, “stranded in the outer bank of Bird Island Shoal in the harbor of Beaufort, North Carolina.”There are currently no recognized subspecies, but it is possible that the northern and southern forms are sufficiently distinct to be considered subspecies. Monotypic.","Anti-tropical distribution: N Atlantic Ocean, in a poorly defined region ranging from Ireland to the Canary Is in the E, and from Nova Scotia to Florida in the W, Southern Hemisphere, recorded in S Brazil, South Africa, Madagascar, and S Australia. Nevertheless, due to the small number of records, the full extent of its distribution in the Southern Hemisphere is unclear.","Total length 480-540 cm; weight 1000-1400 kg. Female True’s Beaked Whales may beslightly larger than males. Body is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end of the tail. Coloration differs between True’s Beaked Whales found in the North Atlantic Ocean and those found in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere form, individuals are medium to dark gray on top and paler underneath, with a dark patch just behind the eye. In the Southern Hemisphere form, there is an additional white or pale area on each side on the flank from the dorsal fin back toward flukes. Adult males may have a number of long white lines that are unpigmented scars from aggressive male-male interactions. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a short but distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a pair of conical tusks at the tip of the rostrum; these may become heavily worn over time.","Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. In common with other species of Mesoplodon, True’s Beaked Whales may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but this still has to be confirmed.","Little is known about the diet of True’s Beaked Whale, but in common with other species of Mesoplodon, it is presumed to feed on deep-water squid and deep-water fish. As with other species of beaked whales, True’s Beaked Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings at sea have been of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about typical composition of these groups.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of True’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, True’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris, bycatch in driftnet fisheries, and noise pollution. As a species restricted to cooler waters, it may also be vulnerable to effects of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.",Dalebout et al. (2007) | MacLeod et al. (2006) | Mead (1989b) | Rice (1998) | Ross (1984),https://zenodo.org/record/6608525/files/figure.png,"12.True’s Beaked WhaleMesoplodon marusFrench:Baleine-a-bec de True/ German:True-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de TrueTaxonomy.Mesoplodon mirus True, 1913, USA, “stranded in the outer bank of Bird Island Shoal in the harbor of Beaufort, North Carolina.”There are currently no recognized subspecies, but it is possible that the northern and southern forms are sufficiently distinct to be considered subspecies. Monotypic.Distribution.Anti-tropical distribution: N Atlantic Ocean, in a poorly defined region ranging from Ireland to the Canary Is in the E, and from Nova Scotia to Florida in the W, Southern Hemisphere, recorded in S Brazil, South Africa, Madagascar, and S Australia. Nevertheless, due to the small number of records, the full extent of its distribution in the Southern Hemisphere is unclear.Descriptive notes.Total length 480-540 cm; weight 1000-1400 kg. Female True’s Beaked Whales may beslightly larger than males. Body is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end of the tail. Coloration differs between True’s Beaked Whales found in the North Atlantic Ocean and those found in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere form, individuals are medium to dark gray on top and paler underneath, with a dark patch just behind the eye. In the Southern Hemisphere form, there is an additional white or pale area on each side on the flank from the dorsal fin back toward flukes. Adult males may have a number of long white lines that are unpigmented scars from aggressive male-male interactions. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a short but distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a pair of conical tusks at the tip of the rostrum; these may become heavily worn over time.Habitat.Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. In common with other species of Mesoplodon, True’s Beaked Whales may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but this still has to be confirmed.Food and Feeding.Little is known about the diet of True’s Beaked Whale, but in common with other species of Mesoplodon, it is presumed to feed on deep-water squid and deep-water fish. As with other species of beaked whales, True’s Beaked Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings at sea have been of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about typical composition of these groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of True’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, True’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris, bycatch in driftnet fisheries, and noise pollution. As a species restricted to cooler waters, it may also be vulnerable to effects of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Dalebout et al. (2007), MacLeod et al. (2006), Mead (1989b), Rice (1998), Ross (1984)." @@ -64,88 +64,88 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 035387C7FFCEFFA0FF721508FAE5F706,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9,355,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFCEFFA0FF721508FAE5F706.xml,Mesoplodon grayi,Mesoplodon,grayi,von Haast,1876,Baleine-a-bec de Gray @fr | Gray-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de Gray @es | Scamperdown Whale @en | Southern Beaked Whale @en,"Mesoplodon gray: Von Haast, 1876, New Zealand, “the Chatham Islands...from specimens stranded...on the Waitangi beach of the main island of that group.”This species is monotypic.","Ranges from temperate waters of the S Atlantic, Indian, and S Pacific oceans to waters of Antarctica. A single specimen stranded on the Dutch coast is thought to have been a vagrant individual.","Total length 450-500 cm; weight ¢.900 kg (unconfirmed). Body of Gray's Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance betweentip of the beak and end of the tail. Colorationis typically dark brown, dark gray, or black and paler on the ventral surface. Tip of rostrum is often colored white, especially in adult males. Rostrum and lower jaw form a long distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw; tusks are positioned about halfway along the jaw line. Tusks are approximately triangular but may become heavily worn over time.","Waters greater than 200 m deep. In common with other species of Mesoplodon, Gray's Beaked Whale may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but this still has to be confirmed.","While it is often assumed that Gray's Beaked Whales consume deep-water cephalopods, analyses of stomach contents suggest that they may primarily consume deep-water fish species. In common with other species of beaked whales, Gray's Beaked Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.",Almost nothing is known about the reproductive biology of Gray’s Beaked Whale. Females give birth to a single offspring after gestation that is likely twelve months. Offspring likely remain dependent on their mothers for at least one year.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings of Gray's Beaked Whales at sea tend to be of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about the typical composition of these groups.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of Gray's Beaked Whale. It may be one of the more abundant species of Mesoplodonand may be relatively common in some areas, such as waters to the south of New Zealand. Like other species of beaked whales, Gray’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be caught as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. As a species restricted to cooler waters, it may also be vulnerable to effects of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent ofthese potential impacts.","Macleod, Perrin et al. (2006) | MacLeod, Santos & Pierce (2003) | Mead (1989b) | Rice (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6608531/files/figure.png,"15.Gray’s Beaked WhaleMesoplodon grayiFrench:Baleine-a-bec de Gray/ German:Gray-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de GrayOther common names:Scamperdown Whale, Southern Beaked WhaleTaxonomy.Mesoplodon gray: Von Haast, 1876, New Zealand, “the Chatham Islands...from specimens stranded...on the Waitangi beach of the main island of that group.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Ranges from temperate waters of the S Atlantic, Indian, and S Pacific oceans to waters of Antarctica. A single specimen stranded on the Dutch coast is thought to have been a vagrant individual.Descriptive notes.Total length 450-500 cm; weight ¢.900 kg (unconfirmed). Body of Gray's Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance betweentip of the beak and end of the tail. Colorationis typically dark brown, dark gray, or black and paler on the ventral surface. Tip of rostrum is often colored white, especially in adult males. Rostrum and lower jaw form a long distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw; tusks are positioned about halfway along the jaw line. Tusks are approximately triangular but may become heavily worn over time.Habitat.Waters greater than 200 m deep. In common with other species of Mesoplodon, Gray's Beaked Whale may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but this still has to be confirmed.Food and Feeding.While it is often assumed that Gray's Beaked Whales consume deep-water cephalopods, analyses of stomach contents suggest that they may primarily consume deep-water fish species. In common with other species of beaked whales, Gray's Beaked Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.Breeding.Almost nothing is known about the reproductive biology of Gray’s Beaked Whale. Females give birth to a single offspring after gestation that is likely twelve months. Offspring likely remain dependent on their mothers for at least one year.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings of Gray's Beaked Whales at sea tend to be of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about the typical composition of these groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of Gray's Beaked Whale. It may be one of the more abundant species of Mesoplodonand may be relatively common in some areas, such as waters to the south of New Zealand. Like other species of beaked whales, Gray’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be caught as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. As a species restricted to cooler waters, it may also be vulnerable to effects of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent ofthese potential impacts.Bibliography.Macleod, Perrin et al. (2006), MacLeod, Santos & Pierce (2003), Mead (1989b), Rice (1998)." 035387C7FFCEFFA0FF7B1D30F582FA59,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9,355,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFCEFFA0FF7B1D30F582FA59.xml,Mesoplodon ginkgodens,Mesoplodon,ginkgodens,Nishiwaki & Kamiya,1958,Baleine-a-bec du Japon @fr | Japan-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de dientes de Ginkgo @es | Japanese Beaked Whale @en,"Mesoplodon ginkgodens Nishiwaki & Kamiya, 1958, Japan, “Oiso Beach, Sagami Bay, near Tokyo.”Historically, there has been confusion about the number ofspecies or subspecies contained in the classification of M. ginkgodens. It was originaly described in 1958 from an animal which stranded in Japan, while a second similar species, M. hotaula, was described independently in 1963 from an animal which stranded in Sri Lanka. Based on morphological similarities, these two species were synonymized under the name M. ginkgodensby J. C. Moore and R. M. Gilmore in 1965. However, recent molecular analysis, published in 2014, has resulted in these two species being separated again. Monotypic.","Warmer waters ofthe Pacific and Indian oceans in an area ranging from S India and Sri Lanka to Taiwan, Japan, SE Australia, Galapagos Is, and California. Exact distribution remains unclear due to the small number of known strandings, and the taxonomic confusion between the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale and the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodonhotaula).","Total length 470-528 cm; weight ¢.1000 kg (unconfirmed). Body of the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Coloration is typically dark brown, dark gray, or black. Female and juvenile Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales may be paler on ventral surface. Rostrum and lower jaw form a beak that is indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw. Tusks are positioned approximately one-third of the way along the mandibles, but only the very tips of tusks emerge from gums. Male Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales are unusual because they seem to lack any of the long, pale, linear scars caused by tusks of other males that are found on males of most species of beaked whales.",Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but in common with other species of beaked whales, Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales are thought to consume deep-water squid and, to a lesser extent, deep-water fish. They likely forage at depths greater than 500 m.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales likely occur in small groups.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN RedList. There are no estimates of global population size of the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be killed as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.",Dalebout et al. (2014) | MacLeod et al. (2006) | Mead (1989b) | Moore & Gilmore (1965) | Rice (1998),https://zenodo.org/record/6608533/files/figure.png,"16.Ginkgo-toothed Beaked WhaleMesoplodon ginkgodensFrench:Baleine-a-bec du Japon/ German:Japan-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de dientes de GinkgoOther common names:Japanese Beaked WhaleTaxonomy.Mesoplodon ginkgodens Nishiwaki & Kamiya, 1958, Japan, “Oiso Beach, Sagami Bay, near Tokyo.”Historically, there has been confusion about the number ofspecies or subspecies contained in the classification of M. ginkgodens. It was originaly described in 1958 from an animal which stranded in Japan, while a second similar species, M. hotaula, was described independently in 1963 from an animal which stranded in Sri Lanka. Based on morphological similarities, these two species were synonymized under the name M. ginkgodensby J. C. Moore and R. M. Gilmore in 1965. However, recent molecular analysis, published in 2014, has resulted in these two species being separated again. Monotypic.Distribution.Warmer waters ofthe Pacific and Indian oceans in an area ranging from S India and Sri Lanka to Taiwan, Japan, SE Australia, Galapagos Is, and California. Exact distribution remains unclear due to the small number of known strandings, and the taxonomic confusion between the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale and the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodonhotaula).Descriptive notes.Total length 470-528 cm; weight ¢.1000 kg (unconfirmed). Body of the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Coloration is typically dark brown, dark gray, or black. Female and juvenile Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales may be paler on ventral surface. Rostrum and lower jaw form a beak that is indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw. Tusks are positioned approximately one-third of the way along the mandibles, but only the very tips of tusks emerge from gums. Male Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales are unusual because they seem to lack any of the long, pale, linear scars caused by tusks of other males that are found on males of most species of beaked whales.Habitat.Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but in common with other species of beaked whales, Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales are thought to consume deep-water squid and, to a lesser extent, deep-water fish. They likely forage at depths greater than 500 m.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales likely occur in small groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN RedList. There are no estimates of global population size of the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be killed as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Dalebout et al. (2014), MacLeod et al. (2006), Mead (1989b), Moore & Gilmore (1965), Rice (1998)." 035387C7FFCEFFA3FA7211F2FCAEFD98,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9,355,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFCEFFA3FA7211F2FCAEFD98.xml,Mesoplodon hotaula,Mesoplodon,hotaula,Deraniyagala,1963,Baleine-a-bec de Deraniyagala @fr | Deraniyagala-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de Deraniyagala @es,"Mesoplodon hotaula Deraniyagala, 1963, Sri Lanka, washed ashore “in a dying condition” on 26 January 1963 at Ratmalana (6° 49’ N, 79° 52’ E), approxiately 8 km south of Colombo, on the west coast of Sri Lanka.Historically, there has been confusion about whether or not M. hotaularepresents a species in its own right. It was originally described in 1963 from an animal which stranded in Sri Lanka, but based on morphological similarities, J. C. Moore and R. M. Gilmore synonymized it with M. ginkgodensin 1965. However, recent molecular analysis, published in 2014, has resulted in M. hotaulabeing resurrected as a species in its own right. Monotypic.","Warmer waters ofthe Pacific and Indian oceans in an area ranging from E Africa, S India and Sri Lanka to Galapagos Is, and possibly as far as Central and South America. Exact distribution remains unclear due to the small number of known strandings, and the taxonomic confusion between the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale and the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale (M. ginkgodens).","Total length ¢.400-450 cm; weight ¢.1000 kg (unconfirmed). Body of the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Colorationis typically dark on top and light ventrally, with a pale lowerjaw and chin. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a beak that is indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw. Tusks are positioned approximately one-third of the way along the mandibles. In common with Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales, male Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale may lack anyof the long, pale, linear scars caused by tusks of other males that are found on males of most species of beaked whales, but this is based on information from a single individual. However, broken tusks on two specimens suggests that aggressive male—male combat (the cause ofsuch scars) may occur.",Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whales.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but in common with other species of beaked whales, Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale are thought to consume deep-water squid and, to a lesser extent, deep-water fish. They likely forage at depths greater than 500 m.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whaleslikely occur in small groups.On following pages: 18. Sowery's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon bidens); 19. Blainville’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodondensirostris); 20. Andrews's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon bowdoini); 21. Spade-toothed Whale (Mesoplodontraversil); 22. Gervais's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon europaeus).","As a new species, Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale has not yet evaluated. However,it is mostlikely it will be listed on CITES Appendix II (along with most other beaked whales) and classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be killed as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.",Dalebout et al. (2014) | Moore & Gilmore (1965),https://zenodo.org/record/6608535/files/figure.png,"17.Deraniyagala’s Beaked WhaleMesoplodon hotaulaFrench:Baleine-a-bec de Deraniyagala/ German:Deraniyagala-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de DeraniyagalaTaxonomy.Mesoplodon hotaula Deraniyagala, 1963, Sri Lanka, washed ashore “in a dying condition” on 26 January 1963 at Ratmalana (6° 49’ N, 79° 52’ E), approxiately 8 km south of Colombo, on the west coast of Sri Lanka.Historically, there has been confusion about whether or not M. hotaularepresents a species in its own right. It was originally described in 1963 from an animal which stranded in Sri Lanka, but based on morphological similarities, J. C. Moore and R. M. Gilmore synonymized it with M. ginkgodensin 1965. However, recent molecular analysis, published in 2014, has resulted in M. hotaulabeing resurrected as a species in its own right. Monotypic.Distribution.Warmer waters ofthe Pacific and Indian oceans in an area ranging from E Africa, S India and Sri Lanka to Galapagos Is, and possibly as far as Central and South America. Exact distribution remains unclear due to the small number of known strandings, and the taxonomic confusion between the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale and the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale (M. ginkgodens).Descriptive notes.Total length ¢.400-450 cm; weight ¢.1000 kg (unconfirmed). Body of the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Colorationis typically dark on top and light ventrally, with a pale lowerjaw and chin. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a beak that is indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw. Tusks are positioned approximately one-third of the way along the mandibles. In common with Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales, male Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale may lack anyof the long, pale, linear scars caused by tusks of other males that are found on males of most species of beaked whales, but this is based on information from a single individual. However, broken tusks on two specimens suggests that aggressive male—male combat (the cause ofsuch scars) may occur.Habitat.Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whales.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but in common with other species of beaked whales, Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale are thought to consume deep-water squid and, to a lesser extent, deep-water fish. They likely forage at depths greater than 500 m.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whaleslikely occur in small groups.On following pages: 18. Sowery's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon bidens); 19. Blainville’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodondensirostris); 20. Andrews's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon bowdoini); 21. Spade-toothed Whale (Mesoplodontraversil); 22. Gervais's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon europaeus).Status and Conservation.As a new species, Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale has not yet evaluated. However,it is mostlikely it will be listed on CITES Appendix II (along with most other beaked whales) and classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be killed as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Dalebout et al. (2014), Moore & Gilmore (1965)." -038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,290,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537.xml,Porcula salvania,Porcula,salvania,,,Sanglier nain @fr | Zwergwildschwein @de | Jabalipigmeo @es,"Porcula salvania Hodgson, 1847,SikkimTerai, India.After having been included in Susfor a long time, the species was reassigned to its original genus Porcula. Monotypic.",NE India(NW Assam).,"Head-body 55-71 cm, tail 2: 5 cm, shoulder height about 25 cm; weight 6.6-9. 7 kg. Females are a little smaller and the newborn babies weigh only 150-200 g. The greatest skull length is 17-9 cm. Pygmy Hogs differ from members of the genus Susin the extreme reduction in body, ears, and tail size, relatively short medial false hooves, and snout disc perpendicular to axis of head. There is an absence or warts or whorls on the jaw, and the body shape is more streamlined than that of other pigs. In adults, the profile tapers from relatively longer hindquarters to smaller forequarters. The adult dentition in the Pygmy Hog is similar to Sus.","Pygmy Hogs prefer undisturbed grassland typical of early successional riverine communities, comprising dense tall grass mixed with a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and young trees. Such grasslands, dominated by Narenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, and Themeda villosa, form characteristic associations 2-3 m in height. However, most such early successional communities are subject to wide-scale annual burning and accordingly are characterized by low diversity and the overwhelming preponderance of a few, fire-resistant grasses. Therefore they almost certainly constitute suboptimal habitats for Pygmy Hogs and most other grassland dependent species, which are deprived of cover and other resources for protracted periods prior to the early season rains. The species is not found in structurally similar grasslands located in riverine floodplains, which are subject to prolonged inundations during the monsoon. These grasslands are generally fertile alluvial areas, making them desirable for agriculture. Human use of these habitats contributes to the rapid decline of Pygmy Hogs throughout their known or presumed former range.","Pygmy Hogs feed on roots, tubers, shoots, and ground vegetation, along with worms and other invertebrates and, probably, small vertebrates (e.g. reptiles and the eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds).","Reproduction is strongly seasonal, with almost all births occurring during a single, well-defined birth peak, which coincides with the onset of the monsoon,in late April and May in western Assam. Litter size varies from two to six, but is usually 3-4. The species is unusual among the suids in that nests are constructed and used by both sexes at all times of the year and nest building is not limited to farrowing.","The species seems to be most active during the day, although this remains poorly studied. A study of diurnal activity patterns in captive animals revealed that the highest proportion of observation time was dedicated to foraging and moving, followed by being inside the nest, resting, displaying, and allogrooming. The two sexes partitioned their time rather differently. Females seemed to spend more time on foraging than males, while males moved more than females, which was associated with elevated levels of display behavior and courtship performed by them. Display was exhibited only by males and performed during the breeding season. Allogrooming was the most prominent social interaction observed, with certain individuals grooming more than others. Moreover, among the breeding pairs, males groomed considerably more than females. It is possible that male Pygmy Hogs move a lot and display considerably to increase their potential reproductive success. Because these observations were on captive animals it is not clear how these time budgets would be changed under natural conditions, where the presence of predators and other factors would likely change their behavior.","Adult male Pygmy Hogs usually are seen by themselves, but are reported to join estrous sows during the rut and to associate loosely at other times of the year with the basic natal social family units. These units usually consist of 4-6 individuals, including one or more adult females and accompanyingjuveniles.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects. A highly successful conservation breeding program was also initiated in 1996, following the construction of the “Pygmy Hog Conservation Research and Breeding Centre” located on the outskirts of the Assam State capital, Guwahati, and the capture of two male and four female Pgymy Hogs in Manas. This capture operation, undertaken in close collaboration with Park officials, was timed to coincide with the expected mid-term pregnancy of the adult sows, to increase the number of genetically represented individuals (i.e. wild sows that had been impregnated by other wild males) and therebytriple the number of captive individuals within six weeks. (Three of the four sows produced a total of thirteen infants, all but one of which survived.) Subsequent breeding soon resulted in over crowding and a need to manage the numbers and identities of individuals producing litters each year. A custom-built “pre-release” facility located at Potosali, close to Nameri National Park in north-west Assam, was built, with several large enclosures with habitats where animals scheduled for reintroduction into selected protected sites learned to forage for themselves. The first releases took place in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the first wild births were recorded the following year. More releases were conducted in 2009 and 2010, and several additionalsites have been identified for similar reintroduction efforts in the coming years.","Bell & Oliver (1992) | Deb (1995) | Funk et al. (2007) | Mallinson (1971, 1977) | Narayan (2004) | Narayan & Deka (2002) | Narayan, Deka, Chakrobarty & Oliver (1999) | Narayan, Deka & Oliver (2008a, 2008b) | Narayan, Deka, Oliver & Fa (2009) | Narayan, Oliver et al. (2008) | Oliver (1977, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1991a, 1991b) | Oliver & Deb Roy (1993) | Oliver et al. (1997) | Sanyal (1995)",,"17.Pygmy HogPorcula salvaniaFrench:Sanglier nain/ German:Zwergwildschwein/ Spanish:JabalipigmeoTaxonomy.Porcula salvania Hodgson, 1847,SikkimTerai, India.After having been included in Susfor a long time, the species was reassigned to its original genus Porcula. Monotypic.Distribution.NE India(NW Assam).Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-71 cm, tail 2: 5 cm, shoulder height about 25 cm; weight 6.6-9. 7 kg. Females are a little smaller and the newborn babies weigh only 150-200 g. The greatest skull length is 17-9 cm. Pygmy Hogs differ from members of the genus Susin the extreme reduction in body, ears, and tail size, relatively short medial false hooves, and snout disc perpendicular to axis of head. There is an absence or warts or whorls on the jaw, and the body shape is more streamlined than that of other pigs. In adults, the profile tapers from relatively longer hindquarters to smaller forequarters. The adult dentition in the Pygmy Hog is similar to Sus.Habitat.Pygmy Hogs prefer undisturbed grassland typical of early successional riverine communities, comprising dense tall grass mixed with a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and young trees. Such grasslands, dominated by Narenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, and Themeda villosa, form characteristic associations 2-3 m in height. However, most such early successional communities are subject to wide-scale annual burning and accordingly are characterized by low diversity and the overwhelming preponderance of a few, fire-resistant grasses. Therefore they almost certainly constitute suboptimal habitats for Pygmy Hogs and most other grassland dependent species, which are deprived of cover and other resources for protracted periods prior to the early season rains. The species is not found in structurally similar grasslands located in riverine floodplains, which are subject to prolonged inundations during the monsoon. These grasslands are generally fertile alluvial areas, making them desirable for agriculture. Human use of these habitats contributes to the rapid decline of Pygmy Hogs throughout their known or presumed former range.Food and Feeding.Pygmy Hogs feed on roots, tubers, shoots, and ground vegetation, along with worms and other invertebrates and, probably, small vertebrates (e.g. reptiles and the eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds).Breeding.Reproduction is strongly seasonal, with almost all births occurring during a single, well-defined birth peak, which coincides with the onset of the monsoon,in late April and May in western Assam. Litter size varies from two to six, but is usually 3-4. The species is unusual among the suids in that nests are constructed and used by both sexes at all times of the year and nest building is not limited to farrowing.Activity patterns.The species seems to be most active during the day, although this remains poorly studied. A study of diurnal activity patterns in captive animals revealed that the highest proportion of observation time was dedicated to foraging and moving, followed by being inside the nest, resting, displaying, and allogrooming. The two sexes partitioned their time rather differently. Females seemed to spend more time on foraging than males, while males moved more than females, which was associated with elevated levels of display behavior and courtship performed by them. Display was exhibited only by males and performed during the breeding season. Allogrooming was the most prominent social interaction observed, with certain individuals grooming more than others. Moreover, among the breeding pairs, males groomed considerably more than females. It is possible that male Pygmy Hogs move a lot and display considerably to increase their potential reproductive success. Because these observations were on captive animals it is not clear how these time budgets would be changed under natural conditions, where the presence of predators and other factors would likely change their behavior.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult male Pygmy Hogs usually are seen by themselves, but are reported to join estrous sows during the rut and to associate loosely at other times of the year with the basic natal social family units. These units usually consist of 4-6 individuals, including one or more adult females and accompanyingjuveniles.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects. A highly successful conservation breeding program was also initiated in 1996, following the construction of the “Pygmy Hog Conservation Research and Breeding Centre” located on the outskirts of the Assam State capital, Guwahati, and the capture of two male and four female Pgymy Hogs in Manas. This capture operation, undertaken in close collaboration with Park officials, was timed to coincide with the expected mid-term pregnancy of the adult sows, to increase the number of genetically represented individuals (i.e. wild sows that had been impregnated by other wild males) and therebytriple the number of captive individuals within six weeks. (Three of the four sows produced a total of thirteen infants, all but one of which survived.) Subsequent breeding soon resulted in over crowding and a need to manage the numbers and identities of individuals producing litters each year. A custom-built “pre-release” facility located at Potosali, close to Nameri National Park in north-west Assam, was built, with several large enclosures with habitats where animals scheduled for reintroduction into selected protected sites learned to forage for themselves. The first releases took place in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the first wild births were recorded the following year. More releases were conducted in 2009 and 2010, and several additionalsites have been identified for similar reintroduction efforts in the coming years.Bibliography.Bell & Oliver (1992), Deb (1995), Funk et al. (2007), Mallinson (1971, 1977), Narayan (2004), Narayan & Deka (2002), Narayan, Deka, Chakrobarty & Oliver (1999), Narayan, Deka & Oliver (2008a, 2008b), Narayan, Deka, Oliver & Fa (2009), Narayan, Oliver et al. (2008), Oliver (1977, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1991a, 1991b), Oliver & Deb Roy (1993), Oliver et al. (1997), Sanyal (1995)." -038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,284,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A.xml,Sus oliveri,Sus,oliveri,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier de Mindoro @fr | Mindoro-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Mindoro @es,"Susphilippensis oliveri Groves, 1997,Mayapang, Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines.This species was recognized as a distinct subspecies of the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) in 1997, and four years later designated as a full species, owing to various distinct characteristics setting it aside from S. philippensis. Mindoro island is surrounded by deepwater channels, indicating that it has had no recent landbridge connection with any adjacent island in the Philippine Archipelago. It has thus been isolated and remained isolated during repeated Pleistocene sea-level changes for tens of thousands of years. Monotypic.",Mindoro I in the C Philippines.,"No body measurements are available for this species. Based on skull length measurements in three males specimens, S. oliveri appears to be similar in size to the Philippine Warty Pig, but readily distinguished from that species byits very elongated facial skeleton, which points more downward, especially anterior to the canines. The braincase is more elongated behind the zygomatic roots. The palate is also more elongated, but not to the extent seen in the PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus). The only currently available skin of S. oliveri suggests that males have a black crown tuft mixed with straw-colored hairs. The preocular warts are well developed, and they have a straw-colored tuft on the lower jaw. A photo of an adult female recently taken by trophy hunters on Mindoro shows a well-developed, blackish-gray bristly mane that runs across the head and along the back. The coat is rather shaggy and blackish or blackish-gray all over. Unfortunately, the large ears, short snout, and absence of warts suggest that this might have been a feral or hybrid animal, which means that there is still no clear understanding of what a true Mindoro Warty Pig lookslike.","Very few direct observations of the species in the wild have been recorded, mostly during annual Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) census exercises in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. The species’ habitat preference therefore remains mostly unclear. It presumably favors remaining stands of forests and thickets where it can find shelter and food.",Nothing is known.,Nothing is known.,Nothing is known.,Nothing is known.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrenceis less than 5000 km? and its area of occupancyis less than 500 km?. Even though accurate records are lacking, the distribution range of S. oliveri is likely to be severely fragmented. Surveys conducted in the late 1990s indicated that Mindoro Warty Pigs are now mostly confined to higher elevations in the central and northwestern mountain ranges. There is also a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals because of overhunting. Hybridization with free-ranging domestic pigs introduced and maintained by hinterland communities is an additional and likely serious threat.","Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b) | Oliver (1995, 2008)",,"11.Mindoro Warty PigSus oliveriFrench:Sanglier de Mindoro/ German:Mindoro-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide MindoroTaxonomy.Susphilippensis oliveri Groves, 1997,Mayapang, Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines.This species was recognized as a distinct subspecies of the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) in 1997, and four years later designated as a full species, owing to various distinct characteristics setting it aside from S. philippensis. Mindoro island is surrounded by deepwater channels, indicating that it has had no recent landbridge connection with any adjacent island in the Philippine Archipelago. It has thus been isolated and remained isolated during repeated Pleistocene sea-level changes for tens of thousands of years. Monotypic.Distribution.Mindoro I in the C Philippines.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available for this species. Based on skull length measurements in three males specimens, S. oliveri appears to be similar in size to the Philippine Warty Pig, but readily distinguished from that species byits very elongated facial skeleton, which points more downward, especially anterior to the canines. The braincase is more elongated behind the zygomatic roots. The palate is also more elongated, but not to the extent seen in the PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus). The only currently available skin of S. oliveri suggests that males have a black crown tuft mixed with straw-colored hairs. The preocular warts are well developed, and they have a straw-colored tuft on the lower jaw. A photo of an adult female recently taken by trophy hunters on Mindoro shows a well-developed, blackish-gray bristly mane that runs across the head and along the back. The coat is rather shaggy and blackish or blackish-gray all over. Unfortunately, the large ears, short snout, and absence of warts suggest that this might have been a feral or hybrid animal, which means that there is still no clear understanding of what a true Mindoro Warty Pig lookslike.Habitat.Very few direct observations of the species in the wild have been recorded, mostly during annual Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) census exercises in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. The species’ habitat preference therefore remains mostly unclear. It presumably favors remaining stands of forests and thickets where it can find shelter and food.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Nothing is known.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrenceis less than 5000 km? and its area of occupancyis less than 500 km?. Even though accurate records are lacking, the distribution range of S. oliveri is likely to be severely fragmented. Surveys conducted in the late 1990s indicated that Mindoro Warty Pigs are now mostly confined to higher elevations in the central and northwestern mountain ranges. There is also a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals because of overhunting. Hybridization with free-ranging domestic pigs introduced and maintained by hinterland communities is an additional and likely serious threat.Bibliography.Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Oliver (1995, 2008)." -038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,284,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3.xml,Sus philippensis,Sus,philippensis,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier des Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Filipinas @es,"Sus celebensis var. philippensis Nehring, 1886,Luzon, Philippines.Susphilippensis was recognized formally as a distinct species in 1991, originally having been considered a subspecies of the SulawesiWarty Pig (S. celebensis) or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). Initially, three subspecies were proposed: philippensis from Luzon and associated islands; mindanensis from Mindanao and associated islands; and oliveri from Mindoro. The latter subspecies was assigned later to full species level. Recent mtDNA studies have suggested that philippensis and mindanensis are distinct enough to be considered full species, but this has not yet been formally proposed. Two subspecies are actually recognized.","S.p.philippensisNehring,1886—LuzonandassociatedIs(Polillo,Catanduanes,and,formerly,Marinduque).S. p. mindanensis Forsyth Major, 1897— Mindanao and surrounding Is (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Camiguin, Basilan, and associated smallerIs).","No body measurements are available for this species. This is a species of Suswith karyotype 2n = 36, unlike other wild species, as well as domestic pigs, in which 37 or 38 chromosomes are more common. S. philippensis is generally blackhaired, with a prominent black mane (sometimes interlaced with white higher streaks in subspecies mindanensis) and gray skin, which sometimes appears whitish in color when extending over the well-developed preorbital warts. The latter characteristic and this species’ more prominent white jowl tufts readily distinguish it from other Philippine wild pigs. Philippine Warty Pigs have a long, full crown tuft and a nuchal mane that extends along the back in most individuals, especially adult males. Males have two pairs of warts; their gonial (lower jaw) hair tufts are very long and thick, and largely white or yellow. Adult sows also have distinctive white, but much thinner, gonial tufts. The skull has a deep, sharply bordered preorbital fossa. Compared to S. celebensisand the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), the facial skeleton is somewhat elongated but not as much as in S. barbatusor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus). The face is somewhat concave at the nasal root, with nasals slightly convex and the malar tuberosity greatly swollen. The braincase is high crowned, sloping downward to facial skeleton, and with the occipital crest extending backward. The anterior margin of the temporal fossa is perpendicularly above M? or just behind it. The foramen magnum is described as “teardrop-shaped.” The maxillary premolar rows curve outward anteriorly. M* is very short, with four major cusps and a small 5"" cusp. The two subspecies are morphologically distinct. Subspecies philippensis has a grayish crown tuft with an anterior fringe that is directed forward. The facial warts are relatively large, and the whorls on the lower jaw are white. The skull size in males is relatively small, and the braincase is shortened and relatively flat-topped. Subspecies mindanensis closely resembles philippensis, but differs in the following features: the crest and mane are mostly black, but often distinctly intermixed with white or reddish-brown hairs, though the crown tuft may be white anteriorly; the forward-directed fringe is absent or less apparent in most individuals. The facial warts are small, though the lowerjaw tufts, usually yellow or yellow mixed with black, are prominent; they are much more developed in adult males than females. The skull size of mindanensis is also much larger in males than females, and the braincase more rounded in comparison to philippensis.Habitat.The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad.","The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad. Habitat information from other areas is scarce, butit is assumed that the species is now largely restricted to higher forests in remoter areas.","Nothing is known specifically about what the species feeds on in high elevation forests, but presumably it survives on a diet of tubers, fallen fruit, and invertebrates.","Little is known. The species has seldom been bred in captivity, though a litter of five piglets was reported on one occasion.","Little is known of the species’ circadian activity in remoter areas, but it is reported to be essentially nocturnal in areas subject to human disturbance.",Nothing is known.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because it is currently undergoing a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 30% over a period of three generations, or about 21 years. This decline is inferred from the apparent disappearance of several populations and the effects of overhunting, habitat loss, and hybridization. S. philippensis is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the PalawanFaunal Region (whereitis replaced by the PalawanBearded Pig, S. ahoenobarbus), Mindoro (replaced by the Mindoro Warty Pig, S. oliveri), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (replaced by the Visayan Warty Pig, S. cebifrons), and the SuluFaunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related but as yet undescribed species of pig). Subspecies philippensis is confined to the “Greater Luzon Faunal Region.” Subspecies mindanensis is confined to the “Greater Mindanao Faunal Region.” Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for most of these islands, particularly the smaller ones. The present status of S. philippensis may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest overits known ranges, the likely extent of hunting pressure, and other factors. The species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the largerislands, are badly fragmented and declining. The species’ habitat is threatened by continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Pig hunting continues throughout the remaining range of the species, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and by recreational hunters from cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat, which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals. Incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilanand other islands.","Cruzana et al. (2005) | Griffin & Griffin (2000) | Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b) | Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998) | Heaney, Balete, Gee et al. (2005) | Heaney, Tabaranza et al. (2006) | Oliver (1992, 1995) | Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993) | Rabor (1977) | Wu Guisheng et al. (2006)",,"10.Philippine Warty PigSus philippensisFrench:Sanglier des Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide FilipinasTaxonomy.Sus celebensis var. philippensis Nehring, 1886,Luzon, Philippines.Susphilippensis was recognized formally as a distinct species in 1991, originally having been considered a subspecies of the SulawesiWarty Pig (S. celebensis) or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). Initially, three subspecies were proposed: philippensis from Luzon and associated islands; mindanensis from Mindanao and associated islands; and oliveri from Mindoro. The latter subspecies was assigned later to full species level. Recent mtDNA studies have suggested that philippensis and mindanensis are distinct enough to be considered full species, but this has not yet been formally proposed. Two subspecies are actually recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.p.philippensisNehring,1886—LuzonandassociatedIs(Polillo,Catanduanes,and,formerly,Marinduque).S. p. mindanensis Forsyth Major, 1897— Mindanao and surrounding Is (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Camiguin, Basilan, and associated smallerIs).Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available for this species. This is a species of Suswith karyotype 2n = 36, unlike other wild species, as well as domestic pigs, in which 37 or 38 chromosomes are more common. S. philippensis is generally blackhaired, with a prominent black mane (sometimes interlaced with white higher streaks in subspecies mindanensis) and gray skin, which sometimes appears whitish in color when extending over the well-developed preorbital warts. The latter characteristic and this species’ more prominent white jowl tufts readily distinguish it from other Philippine wild pigs. Philippine Warty Pigs have a long, full crown tuft and a nuchal mane that extends along the back in most individuals, especially adult males. Males have two pairs of warts; their gonial (lower jaw) hair tufts are very long and thick, and largely white or yellow. Adult sows also have distinctive white, but much thinner, gonial tufts. The skull has a deep, sharply bordered preorbital fossa. Compared to S. celebensisand the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), the facial skeleton is somewhat elongated but not as much as in S. barbatusor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus). The face is somewhat concave at the nasal root, with nasals slightly convex and the malar tuberosity greatly swollen. The braincase is high crowned, sloping downward to facial skeleton, and with the occipital crest extending backward. The anterior margin of the temporal fossa is perpendicularly above M? or just behind it. The foramen magnum is described as “teardrop-shaped.” The maxillary premolar rows curve outward anteriorly. M* is very short, with four major cusps and a small 5"" cusp. The two subspecies are morphologically distinct. Subspecies philippensis has a grayish crown tuft with an anterior fringe that is directed forward. The facial warts are relatively large, and the whorls on the lower jaw are white. The skull size in males is relatively small, and the braincase is shortened and relatively flat-topped. Subspecies mindanensis closely resembles philippensis, but differs in the following features: the crest and mane are mostly black, but often distinctly intermixed with white or reddish-brown hairs, though the crown tuft may be white anteriorly; the forward-directed fringe is absent or less apparent in most individuals. The facial warts are small, though the lowerjaw tufts, usually yellow or yellow mixed with black, are prominent; they are much more developed in adult males than females. The skull size of mindanensis is also much larger in males than females, and the braincase more rounded in comparison to philippensis.Habitat.The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad. Habitat information from other areas is scarce, butit is assumed that the species is now largely restricted to higher forests in remoter areas.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known specifically about what the species feeds on in high elevation forests, but presumably it survives on a diet of tubers, fallen fruit, and invertebrates.Breeding.Little is known. The species has seldom been bred in captivity, though a litter of five piglets was reported on one occasion.Activity patterns.Little is known of the species’ circadian activity in remoter areas, but it is reported to be essentially nocturnal in areas subject to human disturbance.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because it is currently undergoing a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 30% over a period of three generations, or about 21 years. This decline is inferred from the apparent disappearance of several populations and the effects of overhunting, habitat loss, and hybridization. S. philippensis is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the PalawanFaunal Region (whereitis replaced by the PalawanBearded Pig, S. ahoenobarbus), Mindoro (replaced by the Mindoro Warty Pig, S. oliveri), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (replaced by the Visayan Warty Pig, S. cebifrons), and the SuluFaunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related but as yet undescribed species of pig). Subspecies philippensis is confined to the “Greater Luzon Faunal Region.” Subspecies mindanensis is confined to the “Greater Mindanao Faunal Region.” Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for most of these islands, particularly the smaller ones. The present status of S. philippensis may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest overits known ranges, the likely extent of hunting pressure, and other factors. The species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the largerislands, are badly fragmented and declining. The species’ habitat is threatened by continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Pig hunting continues throughout the remaining range of the species, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and by recreational hunters from cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat, which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals. Incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilanand other islands.Bibliography.Cruzana et al. (2005), Griffin & Griffin (2000), Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998), Heaney, Balete, Gee et al. (2005), Heaney, Tabaranza et al. (2006), Oliver (1992, 1995), Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993), Rabor (1977), Wu Guisheng et al. (2006)." -038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,283,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14.xml,Sus cebifrons,Sus,cebifrons,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier des Visayas @fr | \isayas-Pustelschwein @de | Jabali de Bisayas @es,"Sus cebifrons Heude, 1888,CebuIsland, Philippines.This species was only upgraded to full species level in 1993. Before that it was variously classified as a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis), the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). However, two recent independent phylogenetic studies suggest that S. cebifrons is a sister species to all other members of the genus Susand may be the most primitive member of the genus. Indications are that a split separating the Philippine species occurred very early in the evolution of the genus. Recent divergence estimates suggest that this happened sometime during the very late Pliocene or early to middle Pleistocene. This was a time of frequently alternating glacial cycles, and possibly pigs made it to what are now the Philippine Islandswhen sea levels were low enough to make dispersal by swimming or rafting possible. Two subspecies are recognized historically, but the nominate form cebifrons (Heude, 1888)from CebuIsland is extinct. Recent mtDNA studies have indicated the likely addition of a third subspecies from Panay; a fourth population from the remote island of Masbateis known only from a single specimen, which has yet to be formally described or compared to other populations. One extant subspecies is recognized.","S. c. megrinus Sanborn, 1952— W Visayas (Negros, Panay, and possibly MasbateIs), Philippines.","Head-body ¢. 100 cm, tail 23 cm, shoulder height up to 63 cm(males) and 30-45 cm (females); weight 35-40 kg (males) and 20-35 kg (females), although weights of up to 80 kghave been reported from Negros. S. cebifronsis relatively small in size compared to other pig species. Males are much larger than females, with up to a fourfold difference in body weights between the sexes. The coat is generally gray-black in females and subadult males, but more fawn mixed with black in adult males. Both sexes have distinct manes extending from crest to hindquarters. Males in breeding condition develop even longer manes, which are grown and shed at the beginning and end of each breeding season (usually November to late March or early April). The mane is a very distinctive character of this species, often flopping over the face of the boar and obscuring the eyes, and extending back to the loins. Females have a weakly marked snout band; the band is very broad and well-marked white or whitish yellow in males. The generally distinct white snout band is a useful characteristic for distinguishing S. cebifrons from S. philippensis and Mindori Warty Pig (S. oliveri). The external appearance of S. oliveri is still poorly known, though S. cebifrons and S. philippensis may also be distinguished by the latter having more prominent white jowl tufts. The PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) also has a distinct white snout band, though this differs from S. cebifrons by typically extending downwards and backwards as a characteristic “white beard,” distinguishing this species from other Philippine wild pigs. S. cebifrons has a high-crowned, relatively small skull with obvious sexual dimorphism. Despite its common name Visayan Warty Pig, the facial warts of S. cebifrons are typically small, and these pigs completely lack gonial warts (warts on the angle of the jaw). The young of S. cebifrons are marked with wide, alternating orange-brown and black stripes that run from the shoulders to the rump. There are typically four black stripes. One pair runs down the back on either side of a paler dorsal stripe and another pair runs along the flanks and haunches. The juvenile striping loses definition at 7-9 months of age and adult coloration is fully achieved after one year. Animals from Panay seem to differ somewhat from those from Negros and Masbate. The Panay animals have grayer rather than predominantly black flank hair, a better developed mane that extends from the forehead down the back to the rump, and males have a more pronounced but narrower snout band. Females from Panay may have a mane, but it is less developed than in males. In animals from Negros, there is usually a dark reddish-brown or black tuft, with scattered red or straw-colored hairs, on the crown of the head. Other dental and cranial details also differentiate populations from Panay and Negros. The Negros animals appear to have a straighter skull profile with a more rounded crown, and the Cebuanimals a more concave shape, although this observation was based on a very small sample.","Originally this species occurred from primary and secondary forests at sea level to mossy forests at 1600 mof elevation, but with the loss of lower elevation forests, the warty pigs are now mostly confined to and isolated in the few remaining forested habitats at 800 mor above. Small numbers of these animals are also known to persist in some degraded habitats, such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands, as long as there are areas of dense cover, but there is evidence that some and perhaps most of these individuals are either feral domestic pigs or hybrids between S. cebifrons and free-ranging domestic pigs introduced by farmers in hinterland communities. In captivity, Visayan Warty Pigs readily bathe in open pools and use mud wallows, and it is assumed that the animals also do this in the wild state.","The Visayan Warty Pig is omnivorous, feeding on a range of plant and animal species. Because of the species’ scarcity in the wild there are no direct reports of feeding behavior, but some information has been obtained from scats and feeding signs. The species appears to feed on plant species such as Lithocarpus(Fagaceae), Platea excelsa (Icainaceae), and Dilleniareifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), with the former two species possibly being completely dependent on S. cebifrons for the dispersal of their seeds. The species also appears to feed on a range of vines, palms, wild bananas, and agricultural crops such as taro and avocados, as well as earthworms. Captive animals will readily consume a wide variety of cereals, fruits, vegetables, leafy branches, and grass, and most individuals will avidly consume rodents (rats and mice) and other prey items.","The breeding behavior of S. cebifrons is primarily known from captive populations. The gestation period is about 118 days. One or two weeks prior to giving birth, females begin showing nesting behavior and may become aggressive to conspecifics. Females usually give birth overnight, and are very protective of their offspring. Litter size in the wild is between two and four, which is similar to those in captivity. A record number of five offspring in a litter was observed in two Philippine breeding centers in 2005; the piglets had to be weaned earlier than usual to help the female regain condition. Juvenile animals begin tasting solid food at one week of age and may be weaned by six months. Females are capable of producing a litter every 8-12 months. Females reach sexual maturity at an age of 2-3 years. Males may be sexually mature at two years, but do not possess the fully developed characteristics of adult males. Captive Visayan Warty Pigs can live up to 18 years.","Little has been reported about the activity patterns of S. cebifrons in undisturbed areas, because these areas are so remote and the terrain so rugged as to make even chance observations unlikely. In more accessible areas, where the species is heavily hunted, the animals avoid human activity (but may raid agricultural crops planted within or close to forest edges) and are mainly active at night.","This species is sociable, mostly living in small groups (though up to a dozen individuals have been reported). Considering its much reduced densities, larger groupings would likely form under more natural conditions. Animals in zoos are described as “playful and friendly,” which may be further reference to their social nature. The composition of S. cebifrons groups is typically a single adult male with several females (usually three or four, according to local hunters), plus young of both sexes. Solitary males have also been reported, but are encountered only rarely. Captive boars are routinely left with peri-natal sows. The sows vigorously defend their farrowing nests from intruding boars (and caretakers), but generally allow boars full access to infants within a few days of their first emergence from the nest.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings.","Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings. In response to increasing evidence ofits critically threatened conservation status, in 1993 the IUCN/SSC Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group and other supporting partner agencies, including the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Rotterdam Zoo, devised and initiated a Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme under the auspices of a Memorandum of Agreement with the Philippine Government's Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR). Priority activities identified and implemented under the auspices of this agreement included various follow-up field status and ethnobiological surveys, education and awareness campaigns, development of new protected areas, and the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programs. These include the development of scientifically managed wildlife rescue and breeding centers on Negros and Panay Islands and similar species recovery programs for a variety of other threatened taxa endemic to the West Visayas (e.g. the Visayan Spotted Deer, Rusa alfredi, and rufous-headed hornbill, Aceros waldeni). This was done partly with a view to reintroductions of these species, but also as a means of opportunistically acquiring sufficient numbers of founder individuals, by rescuing animals illegally caught in snares, confiscating live individuals offered for sale in local meat markets, and prevailing upon local owners to donate individuals they had acquired as pets from similar sources. In the case of the Visayan Warty Pig, there was also an urgent need to ensure the survival of pure-bred animals while the opportunity still existed to do so. Every attempt has been made to determine the precise origin and likely genetic purity of any such founder individuals, to ensure the likely purity of the separate stocks of these animals from Negros and Panay. This action was since vindicated by new evidence of important genetic differences between the Negros and Panay populations. First and second generation captive-bred animals from both islands have also been exported on breeding loans from the Philippine Government to the San Diego and Rotterdam Z00s, and are now being cooperatively managed in a number of approved breeding centers in the USAand Europe.","Cummings (2003) | De Leon et al. (2008) | Groves (1997) | Groves & Grubb (1993) | Hamann & Curio (1999) | Huffman (2010) | Kubbinga (2005) | Lastimoza (2006) | Oliver (1995, 2004, 2008, 2009) | Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993) | Pedregosa (2005) | Rabor (1977)",,"9.Visayan Warty PigSus cebifronsFrench:Sanglier des Visayas/ German:\isayas-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabali de BisayasTaxonomy.Sus cebifrons Heude, 1888,CebuIsland, Philippines.This species was only upgraded to full species level in 1993. Before that it was variously classified as a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis), the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). However, two recent independent phylogenetic studies suggest that S. cebifrons is a sister species to all other members of the genus Susand may be the most primitive member of the genus. Indications are that a split separating the Philippine species occurred very early in the evolution of the genus. Recent divergence estimates suggest that this happened sometime during the very late Pliocene or early to middle Pleistocene. This was a time of frequently alternating glacial cycles, and possibly pigs made it to what are now the Philippine Islandswhen sea levels were low enough to make dispersal by swimming or rafting possible. Two subspecies are recognized historically, but the nominate form cebifrons (Heude, 1888)from CebuIsland is extinct. Recent mtDNA studies have indicated the likely addition of a third subspecies from Panay; a fourth population from the remote island of Masbateis known only from a single specimen, which has yet to be formally described or compared to other populations. One extant subspecies is recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. c. megrinus Sanborn, 1952— W Visayas (Negros, Panay, and possibly MasbateIs), Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢. 100 cm, tail 23 cm, shoulder height up to 63 cm(males) and 30-45 cm (females); weight 35-40 kg (males) and 20-35 kg (females), although weights of up to 80 kghave been reported from Negros. S. cebifronsis relatively small in size compared to other pig species. Males are much larger than females, with up to a fourfold difference in body weights between the sexes. The coat is generally gray-black in females and subadult males, but more fawn mixed with black in adult males. Both sexes have distinct manes extending from crest to hindquarters. Males in breeding condition develop even longer manes, which are grown and shed at the beginning and end of each breeding season (usually November to late March or early April). The mane is a very distinctive character of this species, often flopping over the face of the boar and obscuring the eyes, and extending back to the loins. Females have a weakly marked snout band; the band is very broad and well-marked white or whitish yellow in males. The generally distinct white snout band is a useful characteristic for distinguishing S. cebifrons from S. philippensis and Mindori Warty Pig (S. oliveri). The external appearance of S. oliveri is still poorly known, though S. cebifrons and S. philippensis may also be distinguished by the latter having more prominent white jowl tufts. The PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) also has a distinct white snout band, though this differs from S. cebifrons by typically extending downwards and backwards as a characteristic “white beard,” distinguishing this species from other Philippine wild pigs. S. cebifrons has a high-crowned, relatively small skull with obvious sexual dimorphism. Despite its common name Visayan Warty Pig, the facial warts of S. cebifrons are typically small, and these pigs completely lack gonial warts (warts on the angle of the jaw). The young of S. cebifrons are marked with wide, alternating orange-brown and black stripes that run from the shoulders to the rump. There are typically four black stripes. One pair runs down the back on either side of a paler dorsal stripe and another pair runs along the flanks and haunches. The juvenile striping loses definition at 7-9 months of age and adult coloration is fully achieved after one year. Animals from Panay seem to differ somewhat from those from Negros and Masbate. The Panay animals have grayer rather than predominantly black flank hair, a better developed mane that extends from the forehead down the back to the rump, and males have a more pronounced but narrower snout band. Females from Panay may have a mane, but it is less developed than in males. In animals from Negros, there is usually a dark reddish-brown or black tuft, with scattered red or straw-colored hairs, on the crown of the head. Other dental and cranial details also differentiate populations from Panay and Negros. The Negros animals appear to have a straighter skull profile with a more rounded crown, and the Cebuanimals a more concave shape, although this observation was based on a very small sample.Habitat.Originally this species occurred from primary and secondary forests at sea level to mossy forests at 1600 mof elevation, but with the loss of lower elevation forests, the warty pigs are now mostly confined to and isolated in the few remaining forested habitats at 800 mor above. Small numbers of these animals are also known to persist in some degraded habitats, such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands, as long as there are areas of dense cover, but there is evidence that some and perhaps most of these individuals are either feral domestic pigs or hybrids between S. cebifrons and free-ranging domestic pigs introduced by farmers in hinterland communities. In captivity, Visayan Warty Pigs readily bathe in open pools and use mud wallows, and it is assumed that the animals also do this in the wild state.Food and Feeding.The Visayan Warty Pig is omnivorous, feeding on a range of plant and animal species. Because of the species’ scarcity in the wild there are no direct reports of feeding behavior, but some information has been obtained from scats and feeding signs. The species appears to feed on plant species such as Lithocarpus(Fagaceae), Platea excelsa (Icainaceae), and Dilleniareifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), with the former two species possibly being completely dependent on S. cebifrons for the dispersal of their seeds. The species also appears to feed on a range of vines, palms, wild bananas, and agricultural crops such as taro and avocados, as well as earthworms. Captive animals will readily consume a wide variety of cereals, fruits, vegetables, leafy branches, and grass, and most individuals will avidly consume rodents (rats and mice) and other prey items.Breeding.The breeding behavior of S. cebifrons is primarily known from captive populations. The gestation period is about 118 days. One or two weeks prior to giving birth, females begin showing nesting behavior and may become aggressive to conspecifics. Females usually give birth overnight, and are very protective of their offspring. Litter size in the wild is between two and four, which is similar to those in captivity. A record number of five offspring in a litter was observed in two Philippine breeding centers in 2005; the piglets had to be weaned earlier than usual to help the female regain condition. Juvenile animals begin tasting solid food at one week of age and may be weaned by six months. Females are capable of producing a litter every 8-12 months. Females reach sexual maturity at an age of 2-3 years. Males may be sexually mature at two years, but do not possess the fully developed characteristics of adult males. Captive Visayan Warty Pigs can live up to 18 years.Activity patterns.Little has been reported about the activity patterns of S. cebifrons in undisturbed areas, because these areas are so remote and the terrain so rugged as to make even chance observations unlikely. In more accessible areas, where the species is heavily hunted, the animals avoid human activity (but may raid agricultural crops planted within or close to forest edges) and are mainly active at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.This species is sociable, mostly living in small groups (though up to a dozen individuals have been reported). Considering its much reduced densities, larger groupings would likely form under more natural conditions. Animals in zoos are described as “playful and friendly,” which may be further reference to their social nature. The composition of S. cebifrons groups is typically a single adult male with several females (usually three or four, according to local hunters), plus young of both sexes. Solitary males have also been reported, but are encountered only rarely. Captive boars are routinely left with peri-natal sows. The sows vigorously defend their farrowing nests from intruding boars (and caretakers), but generally allow boars full access to infants within a few days of their first emergence from the nest.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings. In response to increasing evidence ofits critically threatened conservation status, in 1993 the IUCN/SSC Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group and other supporting partner agencies, including the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Rotterdam Zoo, devised and initiated a Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme under the auspices of a Memorandum of Agreement with the Philippine Government's Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR). Priority activities identified and implemented under the auspices of this agreement included various follow-up field status and ethnobiological surveys, education and awareness campaigns, development of new protected areas, and the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programs. These include the development of scientifically managed wildlife rescue and breeding centers on Negros and Panay Islands and similar species recovery programs for a variety of other threatened taxa endemic to the West Visayas (e.g. the Visayan Spotted Deer, Rusa alfredi, and rufous-headed hornbill, Aceros waldeni). This was done partly with a view to reintroductions of these species, but also as a means of opportunistically acquiring sufficient numbers of founder individuals, by rescuing animals illegally caught in snares, confiscating live individuals offered for sale in local meat markets, and prevailing upon local owners to donate individuals they had acquired as pets from similar sources. In the case of the Visayan Warty Pig, there was also an urgent need to ensure the survival of pure-bred animals while the opportunity still existed to do so. Every attempt has been made to determine the precise origin and likely genetic purity of any such founder individuals, to ensure the likely purity of the separate stocks of these animals from Negros and Panay. This action was since vindicated by new evidence of important genetic differences between the Negros and Panay populations. First and second generation captive-bred animals from both islands have also been exported on breeding loans from the Philippine Government to the San Diego and Rotterdam Z00s, and are now being cooperatively managed in a number of approved breeding centers in the USAand Europe.On following pages 10 Phılıppıne Warty Pıg (Susphı/ıppensıs) Mındoro Wany Png(Susolıven) 12 Pılawın Bearded Pıg (Susıhoanobırbus). 13 Bearded Psg (Sus barbatus), 14 Sulawesı Wany Pug (Sus celebensıs) 15 Javan Wany Pıg (Susvenucosusl. 16 Eurasıan Wıld Pıg (Susscrola) 17 Pygmy Hog (Porcııla salvımı)Bibliography.Cummings (2003), De Leon et al. (2008), Groves (1997), Groves & Grubb (1993), Hamann & Curio (1999), Huffman (2010), Kubbinga (2005), Lastimoza (2006), Oliver (1995, 2004, 2008, 2009), Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993), Pedregosa (2005), Rabor (1977)." +038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,290,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537.xml,Porcula salvania,Porcula,salvania,,,Sanglier nain @fr | Zwergwildschwein @de | Jabalipigmeo @es,"Porcula salvania Hodgson, 1847,SikkimTerai, India.After having been included in Susfor a long time, the species was reassigned to its original genus Porcula. Monotypic.",NE India(NW Assam).,"Head-body 55-71 cm, tail 2: 5 cm, shoulder height about 25 cm; weight 6.6-9. 7 kg. Females are a little smaller and the newborn babies weigh only 150-200 g. The greatest skull length is 17-9 cm. Pygmy Hogs differ from members of the genus Susin the extreme reduction in body, ears, and tail size, relatively short medial false hooves, and snout disc perpendicular to axis of head. There is an absence or warts or whorls on the jaw, and the body shape is more streamlined than that of other pigs. In adults, the profile tapers from relatively longer hindquarters to smaller forequarters. The adult dentition in the Pygmy Hog is similar to Sus.","Pygmy Hogs prefer undisturbed grassland typical of early successional riverine communities, comprising dense tall grass mixed with a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and young trees. Such grasslands, dominated by Narenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, and Themeda villosa, form characteristic associations 2-3 m in height. However, most such early successional communities are subject to wide-scale annual burning and accordingly are characterized by low diversity and the overwhelming preponderance of a few, fire-resistant grasses. Therefore they almost certainly constitute suboptimal habitats for Pygmy Hogs and most other grassland dependent species, which are deprived of cover and other resources for protracted periods prior to the early season rains. The species is not found in structurally similar grasslands located in riverine floodplains, which are subject to prolonged inundations during the monsoon. These grasslands are generally fertile alluvial areas, making them desirable for agriculture. Human use of these habitats contributes to the rapid decline of Pygmy Hogs throughout their known or presumed former range.","Pygmy Hogs feed on roots, tubers, shoots, and ground vegetation, along with worms and other invertebrates and, probably, small vertebrates (e.g. reptiles and the eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds).","Reproduction is strongly seasonal, with almost all births occurring during a single, well-defined birth peak, which coincides with the onset of the monsoon,in late April and May in western Assam. Litter size varies from two to six, but is usually 3-4. The species is unusual among the suids in that nests are constructed and used by both sexes at all times of the year and nest building is not limited to farrowing.","The species seems to be most active during the day, although this remains poorly studied. A study of diurnal activity patterns in captive animals revealed that the highest proportion of observation time was dedicated to foraging and moving, followed by being inside the nest, resting, displaying, and allogrooming. The two sexes partitioned their time rather differently. Females seemed to spend more time on foraging than males, while males moved more than females, which was associated with elevated levels of display behavior and courtship performed by them. Display was exhibited only by males and performed during the breeding season. Allogrooming was the most prominent social interaction observed, with certain individuals grooming more than others. Moreover, among the breeding pairs, males groomed considerably more than females. It is possible that male Pygmy Hogs move a lot and display considerably to increase their potential reproductive success. Because these observations were on captive animals it is not clear how these time budgets would be changed under natural conditions, where the presence of predators and other factors would likely change their behavior.","Adult male Pygmy Hogs usually are seen by themselves, but are reported to join estrous sows during the rut and to associate loosely at other times of the year with the basic natal social family units. These units usually consist of 4-6 individuals, including one or more adult females and accompanyingjuveniles.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects. A highly successful conservation breeding program was also initiated in 1996, following the construction of the “Pygmy Hog Conservation Research and Breeding Centre” located on the outskirts of the Assam State capital, Guwahati, and the capture of two male and four female Pgymy Hogs in Manas. This capture operation, undertaken in close collaboration with Park officials, was timed to coincide with the expected mid-term pregnancy of the adult sows, to increase the number of genetically represented individuals (i.e. wild sows that had been impregnated by other wild males) and therebytriple the number of captive individuals within six weeks. (Three of the four sows produced a total of thirteen infants, all but one of which survived.) Subsequent breeding soon resulted in over crowding and a need to manage the numbers and identities of individuals producing litters each year. A custom-built “pre-release” facility located at Potosali, close to Nameri National Park in north-west Assam, was built, with several large enclosures with habitats where animals scheduled for reintroduction into selected protected sites learned to forage for themselves. The first releases took place in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the first wild births were recorded the following year. More releases were conducted in 2009 and 2010, and several additionalsites have been identified for similar reintroduction efforts in the coming years.","Bell & Oliver (1992) | Deb (1995) | Funk et al. (2007) | Mallinson (1971, 1977) | Narayan (2004) | Narayan & Deka (2002) | Narayan, Deka, Chakrobarty & Oliver (1999) | Narayan, Deka & Oliver (2008a, 2008b) | Narayan, Deka, Oliver & Fa (2009) | Narayan, Oliver et al. (2008) | Oliver (1977, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1991a, 1991b) | Oliver & Deb Roy (1993) | Oliver et al. (1997) | Sanyal (1995)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721120/files/figure.png,"17.Pygmy HogPorcula salvaniaFrench:Sanglier nain/ German:Zwergwildschwein/ Spanish:JabalipigmeoTaxonomy.Porcula salvania Hodgson, 1847,SikkimTerai, India.After having been included in Susfor a long time, the species was reassigned to its original genus Porcula. Monotypic.Distribution.NE India(NW Assam).Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-71 cm, tail 2: 5 cm, shoulder height about 25 cm; weight 6.6-9. 7 kg. Females are a little smaller and the newborn babies weigh only 150-200 g. The greatest skull length is 17-9 cm. Pygmy Hogs differ from members of the genus Susin the extreme reduction in body, ears, and tail size, relatively short medial false hooves, and snout disc perpendicular to axis of head. There is an absence or warts or whorls on the jaw, and the body shape is more streamlined than that of other pigs. In adults, the profile tapers from relatively longer hindquarters to smaller forequarters. The adult dentition in the Pygmy Hog is similar to Sus.Habitat.Pygmy Hogs prefer undisturbed grassland typical of early successional riverine communities, comprising dense tall grass mixed with a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and young trees. Such grasslands, dominated by Narenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, and Themeda villosa, form characteristic associations 2-3 m in height. However, most such early successional communities are subject to wide-scale annual burning and accordingly are characterized by low diversity and the overwhelming preponderance of a few, fire-resistant grasses. Therefore they almost certainly constitute suboptimal habitats for Pygmy Hogs and most other grassland dependent species, which are deprived of cover and other resources for protracted periods prior to the early season rains. The species is not found in structurally similar grasslands located in riverine floodplains, which are subject to prolonged inundations during the monsoon. These grasslands are generally fertile alluvial areas, making them desirable for agriculture. Human use of these habitats contributes to the rapid decline of Pygmy Hogs throughout their known or presumed former range.Food and Feeding.Pygmy Hogs feed on roots, tubers, shoots, and ground vegetation, along with worms and other invertebrates and, probably, small vertebrates (e.g. reptiles and the eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds).Breeding.Reproduction is strongly seasonal, with almost all births occurring during a single, well-defined birth peak, which coincides with the onset of the monsoon,in late April and May in western Assam. Litter size varies from two to six, but is usually 3-4. The species is unusual among the suids in that nests are constructed and used by both sexes at all times of the year and nest building is not limited to farrowing.Activity patterns.The species seems to be most active during the day, although this remains poorly studied. A study of diurnal activity patterns in captive animals revealed that the highest proportion of observation time was dedicated to foraging and moving, followed by being inside the nest, resting, displaying, and allogrooming. The two sexes partitioned their time rather differently. Females seemed to spend more time on foraging than males, while males moved more than females, which was associated with elevated levels of display behavior and courtship performed by them. Display was exhibited only by males and performed during the breeding season. Allogrooming was the most prominent social interaction observed, with certain individuals grooming more than others. Moreover, among the breeding pairs, males groomed considerably more than females. It is possible that male Pygmy Hogs move a lot and display considerably to increase their potential reproductive success. Because these observations were on captive animals it is not clear how these time budgets would be changed under natural conditions, where the presence of predators and other factors would likely change their behavior.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult male Pygmy Hogs usually are seen by themselves, but are reported to join estrous sows during the rut and to associate loosely at other times of the year with the basic natal social family units. These units usually consist of 4-6 individuals, including one or more adult females and accompanyingjuveniles.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects. A highly successful conservation breeding program was also initiated in 1996, following the construction of the “Pygmy Hog Conservation Research and Breeding Centre” located on the outskirts of the Assam State capital, Guwahati, and the capture of two male and four female Pgymy Hogs in Manas. This capture operation, undertaken in close collaboration with Park officials, was timed to coincide with the expected mid-term pregnancy of the adult sows, to increase the number of genetically represented individuals (i.e. wild sows that had been impregnated by other wild males) and therebytriple the number of captive individuals within six weeks. (Three of the four sows produced a total of thirteen infants, all but one of which survived.) Subsequent breeding soon resulted in over crowding and a need to manage the numbers and identities of individuals producing litters each year. A custom-built “pre-release” facility located at Potosali, close to Nameri National Park in north-west Assam, was built, with several large enclosures with habitats where animals scheduled for reintroduction into selected protected sites learned to forage for themselves. The first releases took place in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the first wild births were recorded the following year. More releases were conducted in 2009 and 2010, and several additionalsites have been identified for similar reintroduction efforts in the coming years.Bibliography.Bell & Oliver (1992), Deb (1995), Funk et al. (2007), Mallinson (1971, 1977), Narayan (2004), Narayan & Deka (2002), Narayan, Deka, Chakrobarty & Oliver (1999), Narayan, Deka & Oliver (2008a, 2008b), Narayan, Deka, Oliver & Fa (2009), Narayan, Oliver et al. (2008), Oliver (1977, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1991a, 1991b), Oliver & Deb Roy (1993), Oliver et al. (1997), Sanyal (1995)." +038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,284,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A.xml,Sus oliveri,Sus,oliveri,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier de Mindoro @fr | Mindoro-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Mindoro @es,"Susphilippensis oliveri Groves, 1997,Mayapang, Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines.This species was recognized as a distinct subspecies of the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) in 1997, and four years later designated as a full species, owing to various distinct characteristics setting it aside from S. philippensis. Mindoro island is surrounded by deepwater channels, indicating that it has had no recent landbridge connection with any adjacent island in the Philippine Archipelago. It has thus been isolated and remained isolated during repeated Pleistocene sea-level changes for tens of thousands of years. Monotypic.",Mindoro I in the C Philippines.,"No body measurements are available for this species. Based on skull length measurements in three males specimens, S. oliveri appears to be similar in size to the Philippine Warty Pig, but readily distinguished from that species byits very elongated facial skeleton, which points more downward, especially anterior to the canines. The braincase is more elongated behind the zygomatic roots. The palate is also more elongated, but not to the extent seen in the PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus). The only currently available skin of S. oliveri suggests that males have a black crown tuft mixed with straw-colored hairs. The preocular warts are well developed, and they have a straw-colored tuft on the lower jaw. A photo of an adult female recently taken by trophy hunters on Mindoro shows a well-developed, blackish-gray bristly mane that runs across the head and along the back. The coat is rather shaggy and blackish or blackish-gray all over. Unfortunately, the large ears, short snout, and absence of warts suggest that this might have been a feral or hybrid animal, which means that there is still no clear understanding of what a true Mindoro Warty Pig lookslike.","Very few direct observations of the species in the wild have been recorded, mostly during annual Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) census exercises in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. The species’ habitat preference therefore remains mostly unclear. It presumably favors remaining stands of forests and thickets where it can find shelter and food.",Nothing is known.,Nothing is known.,Nothing is known.,Nothing is known.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrenceis less than 5000 km? and its area of occupancyis less than 500 km?. Even though accurate records are lacking, the distribution range of S. oliveri is likely to be severely fragmented. Surveys conducted in the late 1990s indicated that Mindoro Warty Pigs are now mostly confined to higher elevations in the central and northwestern mountain ranges. There is also a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals because of overhunting. Hybridization with free-ranging domestic pigs introduced and maintained by hinterland communities is an additional and likely serious threat.","Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b) | Oliver (1995, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721037/files/figure.png,"11.Mindoro Warty PigSus oliveriFrench:Sanglier de Mindoro/ German:Mindoro-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide MindoroTaxonomy.Susphilippensis oliveri Groves, 1997,Mayapang, Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines.This species was recognized as a distinct subspecies of the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) in 1997, and four years later designated as a full species, owing to various distinct characteristics setting it aside from S. philippensis. Mindoro island is surrounded by deepwater channels, indicating that it has had no recent landbridge connection with any adjacent island in the Philippine Archipelago. It has thus been isolated and remained isolated during repeated Pleistocene sea-level changes for tens of thousands of years. Monotypic.Distribution.Mindoro I in the C Philippines.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available for this species. Based on skull length measurements in three males specimens, S. oliveri appears to be similar in size to the Philippine Warty Pig, but readily distinguished from that species byits very elongated facial skeleton, which points more downward, especially anterior to the canines. The braincase is more elongated behind the zygomatic roots. The palate is also more elongated, but not to the extent seen in the PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus). The only currently available skin of S. oliveri suggests that males have a black crown tuft mixed with straw-colored hairs. The preocular warts are well developed, and they have a straw-colored tuft on the lower jaw. A photo of an adult female recently taken by trophy hunters on Mindoro shows a well-developed, blackish-gray bristly mane that runs across the head and along the back. The coat is rather shaggy and blackish or blackish-gray all over. Unfortunately, the large ears, short snout, and absence of warts suggest that this might have been a feral or hybrid animal, which means that there is still no clear understanding of what a true Mindoro Warty Pig lookslike.Habitat.Very few direct observations of the species in the wild have been recorded, mostly during annual Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) census exercises in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. The species’ habitat preference therefore remains mostly unclear. It presumably favors remaining stands of forests and thickets where it can find shelter and food.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Nothing is known.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrenceis less than 5000 km? and its area of occupancyis less than 500 km?. Even though accurate records are lacking, the distribution range of S. oliveri is likely to be severely fragmented. Surveys conducted in the late 1990s indicated that Mindoro Warty Pigs are now mostly confined to higher elevations in the central and northwestern mountain ranges. There is also a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals because of overhunting. Hybridization with free-ranging domestic pigs introduced and maintained by hinterland communities is an additional and likely serious threat.Bibliography.Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Oliver (1995, 2008)." +038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,284,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3.xml,Sus philippensis,Sus,philippensis,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier des Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Filipinas @es,"Sus celebensis var. philippensis Nehring, 1886,Luzon, Philippines.Susphilippensis was recognized formally as a distinct species in 1991, originally having been considered a subspecies of the SulawesiWarty Pig (S. celebensis) or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). Initially, three subspecies were proposed: philippensis from Luzon and associated islands; mindanensis from Mindanao and associated islands; and oliveri from Mindoro. The latter subspecies was assigned later to full species level. Recent mtDNA studies have suggested that philippensis and mindanensis are distinct enough to be considered full species, but this has not yet been formally proposed. Two subspecies are actually recognized.","S.p.philippensisNehring,1886—LuzonandassociatedIs(Polillo,Catanduanes,and,formerly,Marinduque).S. p. mindanensis Forsyth Major, 1897— Mindanao and surrounding Is (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Camiguin, Basilan, and associated smallerIs).","No body measurements are available for this species. This is a species of Suswith karyotype 2n = 36, unlike other wild species, as well as domestic pigs, in which 37 or 38 chromosomes are more common. S. philippensis is generally blackhaired, with a prominent black mane (sometimes interlaced with white higher streaks in subspecies mindanensis) and gray skin, which sometimes appears whitish in color when extending over the well-developed preorbital warts. The latter characteristic and this species’ more prominent white jowl tufts readily distinguish it from other Philippine wild pigs. Philippine Warty Pigs have a long, full crown tuft and a nuchal mane that extends along the back in most individuals, especially adult males. Males have two pairs of warts; their gonial (lower jaw) hair tufts are very long and thick, and largely white or yellow. Adult sows also have distinctive white, but much thinner, gonial tufts. The skull has a deep, sharply bordered preorbital fossa. Compared to S. celebensisand the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), the facial skeleton is somewhat elongated but not as much as in S. barbatusor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus). The face is somewhat concave at the nasal root, with nasals slightly convex and the malar tuberosity greatly swollen. The braincase is high crowned, sloping downward to facial skeleton, and with the occipital crest extending backward. The anterior margin of the temporal fossa is perpendicularly above M? or just behind it. The foramen magnum is described as “teardrop-shaped.” The maxillary premolar rows curve outward anteriorly. M* is very short, with four major cusps and a small 5"" cusp. The two subspecies are morphologically distinct. Subspecies philippensis has a grayish crown tuft with an anterior fringe that is directed forward. The facial warts are relatively large, and the whorls on the lower jaw are white. The skull size in males is relatively small, and the braincase is shortened and relatively flat-topped. Subspecies mindanensis closely resembles philippensis, but differs in the following features: the crest and mane are mostly black, but often distinctly intermixed with white or reddish-brown hairs, though the crown tuft may be white anteriorly; the forward-directed fringe is absent or less apparent in most individuals. The facial warts are small, though the lowerjaw tufts, usually yellow or yellow mixed with black, are prominent; they are much more developed in adult males than females. The skull size of mindanensis is also much larger in males than females, and the braincase more rounded in comparison to philippensis.Habitat.The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad.","The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad. Habitat information from other areas is scarce, butit is assumed that the species is now largely restricted to higher forests in remoter areas.","Nothing is known specifically about what the species feeds on in high elevation forests, but presumably it survives on a diet of tubers, fallen fruit, and invertebrates.","Little is known. The species has seldom been bred in captivity, though a litter of five piglets was reported on one occasion.","Little is known of the species’ circadian activity in remoter areas, but it is reported to be essentially nocturnal in areas subject to human disturbance.",Nothing is known.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because it is currently undergoing a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 30% over a period of three generations, or about 21 years. This decline is inferred from the apparent disappearance of several populations and the effects of overhunting, habitat loss, and hybridization. S. philippensis is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the PalawanFaunal Region (whereitis replaced by the PalawanBearded Pig, S. ahoenobarbus), Mindoro (replaced by the Mindoro Warty Pig, S. oliveri), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (replaced by the Visayan Warty Pig, S. cebifrons), and the SuluFaunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related but as yet undescribed species of pig). Subspecies philippensis is confined to the “Greater Luzon Faunal Region.” Subspecies mindanensis is confined to the “Greater Mindanao Faunal Region.” Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for most of these islands, particularly the smaller ones. The present status of S. philippensis may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest overits known ranges, the likely extent of hunting pressure, and other factors. The species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the largerislands, are badly fragmented and declining. The species’ habitat is threatened by continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Pig hunting continues throughout the remaining range of the species, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and by recreational hunters from cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat, which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals. Incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilanand other islands.","Cruzana et al. (2005) | Griffin & Griffin (2000) | Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b) | Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998) | Heaney, Balete, Gee et al. (2005) | Heaney, Tabaranza et al. (2006) | Oliver (1992, 1995) | Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993) | Rabor (1977) | Wu Guisheng et al. (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721035/files/figure.png,"10.Philippine Warty PigSus philippensisFrench:Sanglier des Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide FilipinasTaxonomy.Sus celebensis var. philippensis Nehring, 1886,Luzon, Philippines.Susphilippensis was recognized formally as a distinct species in 1991, originally having been considered a subspecies of the SulawesiWarty Pig (S. celebensis) or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). Initially, three subspecies were proposed: philippensis from Luzon and associated islands; mindanensis from Mindanao and associated islands; and oliveri from Mindoro. The latter subspecies was assigned later to full species level. Recent mtDNA studies have suggested that philippensis and mindanensis are distinct enough to be considered full species, but this has not yet been formally proposed. Two subspecies are actually recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.p.philippensisNehring,1886—LuzonandassociatedIs(Polillo,Catanduanes,and,formerly,Marinduque).S. p. mindanensis Forsyth Major, 1897— Mindanao and surrounding Is (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Camiguin, Basilan, and associated smallerIs).Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available for this species. This is a species of Suswith karyotype 2n = 36, unlike other wild species, as well as domestic pigs, in which 37 or 38 chromosomes are more common. S. philippensis is generally blackhaired, with a prominent black mane (sometimes interlaced with white higher streaks in subspecies mindanensis) and gray skin, which sometimes appears whitish in color when extending over the well-developed preorbital warts. The latter characteristic and this species’ more prominent white jowl tufts readily distinguish it from other Philippine wild pigs. Philippine Warty Pigs have a long, full crown tuft and a nuchal mane that extends along the back in most individuals, especially adult males. Males have two pairs of warts; their gonial (lower jaw) hair tufts are very long and thick, and largely white or yellow. Adult sows also have distinctive white, but much thinner, gonial tufts. The skull has a deep, sharply bordered preorbital fossa. Compared to S. celebensisand the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), the facial skeleton is somewhat elongated but not as much as in S. barbatusor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus). The face is somewhat concave at the nasal root, with nasals slightly convex and the malar tuberosity greatly swollen. The braincase is high crowned, sloping downward to facial skeleton, and with the occipital crest extending backward. The anterior margin of the temporal fossa is perpendicularly above M? or just behind it. The foramen magnum is described as “teardrop-shaped.” The maxillary premolar rows curve outward anteriorly. M* is very short, with four major cusps and a small 5"" cusp. The two subspecies are morphologically distinct. Subspecies philippensis has a grayish crown tuft with an anterior fringe that is directed forward. The facial warts are relatively large, and the whorls on the lower jaw are white. The skull size in males is relatively small, and the braincase is shortened and relatively flat-topped. Subspecies mindanensis closely resembles philippensis, but differs in the following features: the crest and mane are mostly black, but often distinctly intermixed with white or reddish-brown hairs, though the crown tuft may be white anteriorly; the forward-directed fringe is absent or less apparent in most individuals. The facial warts are small, though the lowerjaw tufts, usually yellow or yellow mixed with black, are prominent; they are much more developed in adult males than females. The skull size of mindanensis is also much larger in males than females, and the braincase more rounded in comparison to philippensis.Habitat.The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad. Habitat information from other areas is scarce, butit is assumed that the species is now largely restricted to higher forests in remoter areas.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known specifically about what the species feeds on in high elevation forests, but presumably it survives on a diet of tubers, fallen fruit, and invertebrates.Breeding.Little is known. The species has seldom been bred in captivity, though a litter of five piglets was reported on one occasion.Activity patterns.Little is known of the species’ circadian activity in remoter areas, but it is reported to be essentially nocturnal in areas subject to human disturbance.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because it is currently undergoing a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 30% over a period of three generations, or about 21 years. This decline is inferred from the apparent disappearance of several populations and the effects of overhunting, habitat loss, and hybridization. S. philippensis is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the PalawanFaunal Region (whereitis replaced by the PalawanBearded Pig, S. ahoenobarbus), Mindoro (replaced by the Mindoro Warty Pig, S. oliveri), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (replaced by the Visayan Warty Pig, S. cebifrons), and the SuluFaunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related but as yet undescribed species of pig). Subspecies philippensis is confined to the “Greater Luzon Faunal Region.” Subspecies mindanensis is confined to the “Greater Mindanao Faunal Region.” Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for most of these islands, particularly the smaller ones. The present status of S. philippensis may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest overits known ranges, the likely extent of hunting pressure, and other factors. The species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the largerislands, are badly fragmented and declining. The species’ habitat is threatened by continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Pig hunting continues throughout the remaining range of the species, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and by recreational hunters from cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat, which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals. Incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilanand other islands.Bibliography.Cruzana et al. (2005), Griffin & Griffin (2000), Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998), Heaney, Balete, Gee et al. (2005), Heaney, Tabaranza et al. (2006), Oliver (1992, 1995), Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993), Rabor (1977), Wu Guisheng et al. (2006)." +038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,283,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14.xml,Sus cebifrons,Sus,cebifrons,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier des Visayas @fr | \isayas-Pustelschwein @de | Jabali de Bisayas @es,"Sus cebifrons Heude, 1888,CebuIsland, Philippines.This species was only upgraded to full species level in 1993. Before that it was variously classified as a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis), the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). However, two recent independent phylogenetic studies suggest that S. cebifrons is a sister species to all other members of the genus Susand may be the most primitive member of the genus. Indications are that a split separating the Philippine species occurred very early in the evolution of the genus. Recent divergence estimates suggest that this happened sometime during the very late Pliocene or early to middle Pleistocene. This was a time of frequently alternating glacial cycles, and possibly pigs made it to what are now the Philippine Islandswhen sea levels were low enough to make dispersal by swimming or rafting possible. Two subspecies are recognized historically, but the nominate form cebifrons (Heude, 1888)from CebuIsland is extinct. Recent mtDNA studies have indicated the likely addition of a third subspecies from Panay; a fourth population from the remote island of Masbateis known only from a single specimen, which has yet to be formally described or compared to other populations. One extant subspecies is recognized.","S. c. megrinus Sanborn, 1952— W Visayas (Negros, Panay, and possibly MasbateIs), Philippines.","Head-body ¢. 100 cm, tail 23 cm, shoulder height up to 63 cm(males) and 30-45 cm (females); weight 35-40 kg (males) and 20-35 kg (females), although weights of up to 80 kghave been reported from Negros. S. cebifronsis relatively small in size compared to other pig species. Males are much larger than females, with up to a fourfold difference in body weights between the sexes. The coat is generally gray-black in females and subadult males, but more fawn mixed with black in adult males. Both sexes have distinct manes extending from crest to hindquarters. Males in breeding condition develop even longer manes, which are grown and shed at the beginning and end of each breeding season (usually November to late March or early April). The mane is a very distinctive character of this species, often flopping over the face of the boar and obscuring the eyes, and extending back to the loins. Females have a weakly marked snout band; the band is very broad and well-marked white or whitish yellow in males. The generally distinct white snout band is a useful characteristic for distinguishing S. cebifrons from S. philippensis and Mindori Warty Pig (S. oliveri). The external appearance of S. oliveri is still poorly known, though S. cebifrons and S. philippensis may also be distinguished by the latter having more prominent white jowl tufts. The PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) also has a distinct white snout band, though this differs from S. cebifrons by typically extending downwards and backwards as a characteristic “white beard,” distinguishing this species from other Philippine wild pigs. S. cebifrons has a high-crowned, relatively small skull with obvious sexual dimorphism. Despite its common name Visayan Warty Pig, the facial warts of S. cebifrons are typically small, and these pigs completely lack gonial warts (warts on the angle of the jaw). The young of S. cebifrons are marked with wide, alternating orange-brown and black stripes that run from the shoulders to the rump. There are typically four black stripes. One pair runs down the back on either side of a paler dorsal stripe and another pair runs along the flanks and haunches. The juvenile striping loses definition at 7-9 months of age and adult coloration is fully achieved after one year. Animals from Panay seem to differ somewhat from those from Negros and Masbate. The Panay animals have grayer rather than predominantly black flank hair, a better developed mane that extends from the forehead down the back to the rump, and males have a more pronounced but narrower snout band. Females from Panay may have a mane, but it is less developed than in males. In animals from Negros, there is usually a dark reddish-brown or black tuft, with scattered red or straw-colored hairs, on the crown of the head. Other dental and cranial details also differentiate populations from Panay and Negros. The Negros animals appear to have a straighter skull profile with a more rounded crown, and the Cebuanimals a more concave shape, although this observation was based on a very small sample.","Originally this species occurred from primary and secondary forests at sea level to mossy forests at 1600 mof elevation, but with the loss of lower elevation forests, the warty pigs are now mostly confined to and isolated in the few remaining forested habitats at 800 mor above. Small numbers of these animals are also known to persist in some degraded habitats, such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands, as long as there are areas of dense cover, but there is evidence that some and perhaps most of these individuals are either feral domestic pigs or hybrids between S. cebifrons and free-ranging domestic pigs introduced by farmers in hinterland communities. In captivity, Visayan Warty Pigs readily bathe in open pools and use mud wallows, and it is assumed that the animals also do this in the wild state.","The Visayan Warty Pig is omnivorous, feeding on a range of plant and animal species. Because of the species’ scarcity in the wild there are no direct reports of feeding behavior, but some information has been obtained from scats and feeding signs. The species appears to feed on plant species such as Lithocarpus(Fagaceae), Platea excelsa (Icainaceae), and Dilleniareifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), with the former two species possibly being completely dependent on S. cebifrons for the dispersal of their seeds. The species also appears to feed on a range of vines, palms, wild bananas, and agricultural crops such as taro and avocados, as well as earthworms. Captive animals will readily consume a wide variety of cereals, fruits, vegetables, leafy branches, and grass, and most individuals will avidly consume rodents (rats and mice) and other prey items.","The breeding behavior of S. cebifrons is primarily known from captive populations. The gestation period is about 118 days. One or two weeks prior to giving birth, females begin showing nesting behavior and may become aggressive to conspecifics. Females usually give birth overnight, and are very protective of their offspring. Litter size in the wild is between two and four, which is similar to those in captivity. A record number of five offspring in a litter was observed in two Philippine breeding centers in 2005; the piglets had to be weaned earlier than usual to help the female regain condition. Juvenile animals begin tasting solid food at one week of age and may be weaned by six months. Females are capable of producing a litter every 8-12 months. Females reach sexual maturity at an age of 2-3 years. Males may be sexually mature at two years, but do not possess the fully developed characteristics of adult males. Captive Visayan Warty Pigs can live up to 18 years.","Little has been reported about the activity patterns of S. cebifrons in undisturbed areas, because these areas are so remote and the terrain so rugged as to make even chance observations unlikely. In more accessible areas, where the species is heavily hunted, the animals avoid human activity (but may raid agricultural crops planted within or close to forest edges) and are mainly active at night.","This species is sociable, mostly living in small groups (though up to a dozen individuals have been reported). Considering its much reduced densities, larger groupings would likely form under more natural conditions. Animals in zoos are described as “playful and friendly,” which may be further reference to their social nature. The composition of S. cebifrons groups is typically a single adult male with several females (usually three or four, according to local hunters), plus young of both sexes. Solitary males have also been reported, but are encountered only rarely. Captive boars are routinely left with peri-natal sows. The sows vigorously defend their farrowing nests from intruding boars (and caretakers), but generally allow boars full access to infants within a few days of their first emergence from the nest.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings.","Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings. In response to increasing evidence ofits critically threatened conservation status, in 1993 the IUCN/SSC Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group and other supporting partner agencies, including the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Rotterdam Zoo, devised and initiated a Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme under the auspices of a Memorandum of Agreement with the Philippine Government's Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR). Priority activities identified and implemented under the auspices of this agreement included various follow-up field status and ethnobiological surveys, education and awareness campaigns, development of new protected areas, and the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programs. These include the development of scientifically managed wildlife rescue and breeding centers on Negros and Panay Islands and similar species recovery programs for a variety of other threatened taxa endemic to the West Visayas (e.g. the Visayan Spotted Deer, Rusa alfredi, and rufous-headed hornbill, Aceros waldeni). This was done partly with a view to reintroductions of these species, but also as a means of opportunistically acquiring sufficient numbers of founder individuals, by rescuing animals illegally caught in snares, confiscating live individuals offered for sale in local meat markets, and prevailing upon local owners to donate individuals they had acquired as pets from similar sources. In the case of the Visayan Warty Pig, there was also an urgent need to ensure the survival of pure-bred animals while the opportunity still existed to do so. Every attempt has been made to determine the precise origin and likely genetic purity of any such founder individuals, to ensure the likely purity of the separate stocks of these animals from Negros and Panay. This action was since vindicated by new evidence of important genetic differences between the Negros and Panay populations. First and second generation captive-bred animals from both islands have also been exported on breeding loans from the Philippine Government to the San Diego and Rotterdam Z00s, and are now being cooperatively managed in a number of approved breeding centers in the USAand Europe.","Cummings (2003) | De Leon et al. (2008) | Groves (1997) | Groves & Grubb (1993) | Hamann & Curio (1999) | Huffman (2010) | Kubbinga (2005) | Lastimoza (2006) | Oliver (1995, 2004, 2008, 2009) | Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993) | Pedregosa (2005) | Rabor (1977)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721033/files/figure.png,"9.Visayan Warty PigSus cebifronsFrench:Sanglier des Visayas/ German:\isayas-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabali de BisayasTaxonomy.Sus cebifrons Heude, 1888,CebuIsland, Philippines.This species was only upgraded to full species level in 1993. Before that it was variously classified as a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis), the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). However, two recent independent phylogenetic studies suggest that S. cebifrons is a sister species to all other members of the genus Susand may be the most primitive member of the genus. Indications are that a split separating the Philippine species occurred very early in the evolution of the genus. Recent divergence estimates suggest that this happened sometime during the very late Pliocene or early to middle Pleistocene. This was a time of frequently alternating glacial cycles, and possibly pigs made it to what are now the Philippine Islandswhen sea levels were low enough to make dispersal by swimming or rafting possible. Two subspecies are recognized historically, but the nominate form cebifrons (Heude, 1888)from CebuIsland is extinct. Recent mtDNA studies have indicated the likely addition of a third subspecies from Panay; a fourth population from the remote island of Masbateis known only from a single specimen, which has yet to be formally described or compared to other populations. One extant subspecies is recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. c. megrinus Sanborn, 1952— W Visayas (Negros, Panay, and possibly MasbateIs), Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢. 100 cm, tail 23 cm, shoulder height up to 63 cm(males) and 30-45 cm (females); weight 35-40 kg (males) and 20-35 kg (females), although weights of up to 80 kghave been reported from Negros. S. cebifronsis relatively small in size compared to other pig species. Males are much larger than females, with up to a fourfold difference in body weights between the sexes. The coat is generally gray-black in females and subadult males, but more fawn mixed with black in adult males. Both sexes have distinct manes extending from crest to hindquarters. Males in breeding condition develop even longer manes, which are grown and shed at the beginning and end of each breeding season (usually November to late March or early April). The mane is a very distinctive character of this species, often flopping over the face of the boar and obscuring the eyes, and extending back to the loins. Females have a weakly marked snout band; the band is very broad and well-marked white or whitish yellow in males. The generally distinct white snout band is a useful characteristic for distinguishing S. cebifrons from S. philippensis and Mindori Warty Pig (S. oliveri). The external appearance of S. oliveri is still poorly known, though S. cebifrons and S. philippensis may also be distinguished by the latter having more prominent white jowl tufts. The PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) also has a distinct white snout band, though this differs from S. cebifrons by typically extending downwards and backwards as a characteristic “white beard,” distinguishing this species from other Philippine wild pigs. S. cebifrons has a high-crowned, relatively small skull with obvious sexual dimorphism. Despite its common name Visayan Warty Pig, the facial warts of S. cebifrons are typically small, and these pigs completely lack gonial warts (warts on the angle of the jaw). The young of S. cebifrons are marked with wide, alternating orange-brown and black stripes that run from the shoulders to the rump. There are typically four black stripes. One pair runs down the back on either side of a paler dorsal stripe and another pair runs along the flanks and haunches. The juvenile striping loses definition at 7-9 months of age and adult coloration is fully achieved after one year. Animals from Panay seem to differ somewhat from those from Negros and Masbate. The Panay animals have grayer rather than predominantly black flank hair, a better developed mane that extends from the forehead down the back to the rump, and males have a more pronounced but narrower snout band. Females from Panay may have a mane, but it is less developed than in males. In animals from Negros, there is usually a dark reddish-brown or black tuft, with scattered red or straw-colored hairs, on the crown of the head. Other dental and cranial details also differentiate populations from Panay and Negros. The Negros animals appear to have a straighter skull profile with a more rounded crown, and the Cebuanimals a more concave shape, although this observation was based on a very small sample.Habitat.Originally this species occurred from primary and secondary forests at sea level to mossy forests at 1600 mof elevation, but with the loss of lower elevation forests, the warty pigs are now mostly confined to and isolated in the few remaining forested habitats at 800 mor above. Small numbers of these animals are also known to persist in some degraded habitats, such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands, as long as there are areas of dense cover, but there is evidence that some and perhaps most of these individuals are either feral domestic pigs or hybrids between S. cebifrons and free-ranging domestic pigs introduced by farmers in hinterland communities. In captivity, Visayan Warty Pigs readily bathe in open pools and use mud wallows, and it is assumed that the animals also do this in the wild state.Food and Feeding.The Visayan Warty Pig is omnivorous, feeding on a range of plant and animal species. Because of the species’ scarcity in the wild there are no direct reports of feeding behavior, but some information has been obtained from scats and feeding signs. The species appears to feed on plant species such as Lithocarpus(Fagaceae), Platea excelsa (Icainaceae), and Dilleniareifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), with the former two species possibly being completely dependent on S. cebifrons for the dispersal of their seeds. The species also appears to feed on a range of vines, palms, wild bananas, and agricultural crops such as taro and avocados, as well as earthworms. Captive animals will readily consume a wide variety of cereals, fruits, vegetables, leafy branches, and grass, and most individuals will avidly consume rodents (rats and mice) and other prey items.Breeding.The breeding behavior of S. cebifrons is primarily known from captive populations. The gestation period is about 118 days. One or two weeks prior to giving birth, females begin showing nesting behavior and may become aggressive to conspecifics. Females usually give birth overnight, and are very protective of their offspring. Litter size in the wild is between two and four, which is similar to those in captivity. A record number of five offspring in a litter was observed in two Philippine breeding centers in 2005; the piglets had to be weaned earlier than usual to help the female regain condition. Juvenile animals begin tasting solid food at one week of age and may be weaned by six months. Females are capable of producing a litter every 8-12 months. Females reach sexual maturity at an age of 2-3 years. Males may be sexually mature at two years, but do not possess the fully developed characteristics of adult males. Captive Visayan Warty Pigs can live up to 18 years.Activity patterns.Little has been reported about the activity patterns of S. cebifrons in undisturbed areas, because these areas are so remote and the terrain so rugged as to make even chance observations unlikely. In more accessible areas, where the species is heavily hunted, the animals avoid human activity (but may raid agricultural crops planted within or close to forest edges) and are mainly active at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.This species is sociable, mostly living in small groups (though up to a dozen individuals have been reported). Considering its much reduced densities, larger groupings would likely form under more natural conditions. Animals in zoos are described as “playful and friendly,” which may be further reference to their social nature. The composition of S. cebifrons groups is typically a single adult male with several females (usually three or four, according to local hunters), plus young of both sexes. Solitary males have also been reported, but are encountered only rarely. Captive boars are routinely left with peri-natal sows. The sows vigorously defend their farrowing nests from intruding boars (and caretakers), but generally allow boars full access to infants within a few days of their first emergence from the nest.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings. In response to increasing evidence ofits critically threatened conservation status, in 1993 the IUCN/SSC Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group and other supporting partner agencies, including the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Rotterdam Zoo, devised and initiated a Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme under the auspices of a Memorandum of Agreement with the Philippine Government's Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR). Priority activities identified and implemented under the auspices of this agreement included various follow-up field status and ethnobiological surveys, education and awareness campaigns, development of new protected areas, and the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programs. These include the development of scientifically managed wildlife rescue and breeding centers on Negros and Panay Islands and similar species recovery programs for a variety of other threatened taxa endemic to the West Visayas (e.g. the Visayan Spotted Deer, Rusa alfredi, and rufous-headed hornbill, Aceros waldeni). This was done partly with a view to reintroductions of these species, but also as a means of opportunistically acquiring sufficient numbers of founder individuals, by rescuing animals illegally caught in snares, confiscating live individuals offered for sale in local meat markets, and prevailing upon local owners to donate individuals they had acquired as pets from similar sources. In the case of the Visayan Warty Pig, there was also an urgent need to ensure the survival of pure-bred animals while the opportunity still existed to do so. Every attempt has been made to determine the precise origin and likely genetic purity of any such founder individuals, to ensure the likely purity of the separate stocks of these animals from Negros and Panay. This action was since vindicated by new evidence of important genetic differences between the Negros and Panay populations. First and second generation captive-bred animals from both islands have also been exported on breeding loans from the Philippine Government to the San Diego and Rotterdam Z00s, and are now being cooperatively managed in a number of approved breeding centers in the USAand Europe.On following pages 10 Phılıppıne Warty Pıg (Susphı/ıppensıs) Mındoro Wany Png(Susolıven) 12 Pılawın Bearded Pıg (Susıhoanobırbus). 13 Bearded Psg (Sus barbatus), 14 Sulawesı Wany Pug (Sus celebensıs) 15 Javan Wany Pıg (Susvenucosusl. 16 Eurasıan Wıld Pıg (Susscrola) 17 Pygmy Hog (Porcııla salvımı)Bibliography.Cummings (2003), De Leon et al. (2008), Groves (1997), Groves & Grubb (1993), Hamann & Curio (1999), Huffman (2010), Kubbinga (2005), Lastimoza (2006), Oliver (1995, 2004, 2008, 2009), Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993), Pedregosa (2005), Rabor (1977)." 038087E8553456248BC40CA41B2AF4A6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,288,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553456248BC40CA41B2AF4A6.xml,Sus scrofa,Sus,scrofa,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier d’'Eurasie @fr | Wildschwein @de | Jabali @es | Wild Boar; @en | ndochinese Pig (bucculentus) @en | @en | ndonesian Banded Pig (vittatus) @en,"Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758,Germany.S. scrofais the most widespread species of naturally occurring wild pig. Many of the more distinctive regional forms of these animals were originally described as full species, e.g. villatus, cristatus, leucomystax, moupinensis, and meridionalis, respectively from Sumatra, India, Japan, China, and Sardinia. Later and more comprehensive taxonomic reviews have combined many of these taxa into one species, mostly on the recognition that the different forms of S. scrofaformed a stepped cline extending from Western Europe to the Far East and insular South-east Asia. This gradual change in morphological characteristics allowed the combination of the extreme forms on either side of the range (scrofaand wvittatus) into one species. This species is therefore characterized by significant levels of naturally occurring geographic/genetic variation, duly compounded by anthropogenic interferences through widespread releases (whether deliberate or accidental) of pure-bred, hybrid, and domesticated variants originating from other parts ofits wide range. An astonishingly large number of subspecies have therefore been proposed and recognized in the literature, some of which are clearly invalid. Precise analysis of the likely number of truly recognizable/differentiated subspecies is still a matter of debate and disagreement, given that 4-25 subspecies have been recognized by different authors. Of these, C. P. Groves undertook by far the most comprehensive review when proposing the recognition of at least 16 morphologically distinct populations of S. scrofaon the basis of external as well as craniometric characteristics. His work has since been challenged by P. Genov, who proposed recognition of only four subspecies based on similar craniometric analyses, but these analyses were flawed inasmuch as they did not include some of the most distinct populations of these animals. Nonetheless, Genov merged these subspecies into four broadly geographic groupings, thereby broadly mirroring Groves’s more comprehensive review. These were the WESTERN RACES or the “ scrofagroup,” at least six, but possibly as many as eight subspecies (scrofa, meridionalis, baeticus, majori, algirus, attila, lybicus, and nigripes), but only two (algirus and meriodionalis) have clearly defined ranges; INDIAN RACES or “cristatus group,” three races (dauvidi, cristatus, and affinis), none with precisely defined ranges; EASTERN RACES or “leucomystax group,” possibly up to seven subspecies (sibiricus, ussuricus, coreanus, leucomystax, riukiuanus, tarvanus, and moupinensis), though only three (leucomystax, riukiuanus and taivanus) have clearly defined ranges; and a highly disctinctive SUNDAIC RACE (viltatus), though presumably genetically continuous with cristatus in the northern limits of its range in Indochina. We follow Groves’s taxonomy because of the strength and breadth of his analysis and his use of external characteristics that were not incorporated in Genov’s analysis. However, new (e.g. phylogenetic) data sets are most likely to strengthen the case for recognizing particular additional subspecies, or elevating some currently recognized subspecies to full species, or merging other, currently recognized subspecies. Groves has questioned whether his subspecies are all variants of one species or a complex of several different species, and has recently proposed the elevation of both vitattus and moupinensis subspecies to full species status. Of these, vittatus is more easily comprehensible, being morphologically and geographically distinguishable as the so-called “Indonesian Banded Pig,” occurring throughout the distal limits of S. scrofa’s range in South-east Asia, whereas S. moupinensis is apparently confined to Myanmar, Indochina, and south-eastern China(Fujian), and therefore also includes the problematic Indochinese Pig (S. bucculentus) from the Annamite Mountains. The taxonomic identity of S. bucculentus remains unclear. Since its description in 1892 by Heude, based on two skulls from Vietnam, only one skull of similar shape and size as the original two has been reported, from Laos. However, reexamination of the skull dimensions of the type specimens and phylogenetic studies suggest that S. bucculentus might not be a distinct species, but a geographically restricted variant of S. scrofa. The possibility that S. bucculentus might be a synonym of S. scrofais supported by reports from local informants that do not mention facial warts. Warts would be expected if indeed S. bucculentus was more closely related to other South-east Asian warty pigs of the subgenus Euhys. Recent studies have made it more likely that S. bucculentus will be merged with a taxon closelyaffiliated to or part of S. scrofa. As if to complicate matters, Groves has also recently proposed recognition of two more species, namely S. chirodontus described by Heude in 1888 from south-central China(including Kienté, Ningkua, Zhejiang, Shaanxi, Anhui, and also Korea), and S. ussuricus described also by Heude in 1888 from Heilongjiangand far eastern Chinaand Russia. Similarly sharp boundaries between various other mainland Asia subspecies do not exist, especially given evidence of hybridization between salient forms (e.g. davidi and cristatus). However, until these races are formally described and elevated, we retain the existing taxonomy for S. scrofa. We keep subspecies coreanus for now as it is distinct from wussuricus, but note that it was recently proposed for inclusion in moupinensis. Nineteen subspecies are recognized.","S.s.scrofaLinnaeus,1758—WEurope,fromDenmark,Germany,Poland,andCzechRepublictoNItalyandNIberianPeninsula;possiblyalsoAlbania.ThetaxonomicstatusofanimalsinAustria,Switzerland,Slovenia,andSlovakiaisunclearbutpresumablythesepopulationsareincludedinscrofa,asarethepopulationsofSweden,Finland,andtheBalticstates.However,restockingofoncedepletedpopulations,forexampleinItaly,haslikelyinvolvedtheintroductionandmixingofthissubspecieswithothersubspecies,suchasattila.S.s.affinisGray,1847—SIndiaandSriLanka.S.s.algirusLoche,1867—Tunisia,Algeria,andMorocco,onthecoastalsideofthemountainsorinthelowmontaneareas.S.s.attilaThomas,1912—Hungary,Ukraine,C&SBelarus,Romania,Moldova,andSRussiatowardstheNflankoftheCaucasus,butnotincludingtheTranscaucasiancountriesofGeorgia,Armenia,andAzerbaijan.TherangepossiblyextendsasfarSastheMesopotamianDeltainIraq,inwhichcaseitwouldlikelyincludeW&SWIran,andpossiblyETurkeyandSyria,whereitborderswithlybicus.SucharangecouldnotbeeasilyreconciledwithastatementbyGrovesthat“thedifferencebetweenpigsfromNandSoftheCaucasusisquitestriking;Transcaucasianboarsarecertainlynotattila.”ThissubspeciesmayalsoextendintoCAsiaandincludeKazakhstan,Uzbekistan,andTurkmenistan,butnodataexisttosupportthis.S.s.baeticusThomas,1912—originallydescribedfromCotoDonana,SSpain,andlatermergedwithmeridionalis;alsoSPortugal.UnlessevidenceisfoundthattheseItalianandIberianpopulationsaretherelicsofamuchlargerformerlycontiguousrange,thissubspeciesshouldbekeptasdistinct.S.s.coreanusHeude,1897—KoreanPeninsula.S.s.eristatusWagner,1839—HimalayasStoCIndiaandEtoIndochina(NoftheKraIsthmus).S.s.davidiGroves,1981—thearidzonefromEIrantoGujarat,includingPakistanandNWIndia,andperhapsNtoTajikistan.S.s.leucomystaxTemminck,1842—mainIsofJapan(Honshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,Nakadori,Hiburijima,Tojima,Kushima,andothersmallerIs).S.s.lybicusGray,1868—Bulgaria,Greece,Turkey,Syria,Jordan,Israel,Palestine,inthepastalsoinLybia,andEgypt.TheformerYugoslaviawasincludedinitsrange,whichwouldsuggestthatnowSlovenia,Serbia,Croatia,BosniaandHerzegovina,Montenegro,andKosovoarewithintherangeofthissubspecies,althoughtheexactboundariesareunclear.PigsfromAlbaniahavebeenassignedtoS.s.scrofa.S.s.majoriDeBeaux&Festa,1927—C&SItalianPeninsula.S.s.menidionalisForsythMajor,1882—CorsicaandSardinia,withtheprovisothatthetwopopulationsareverylikelytobeintroducedorferal.S.s.moupinensisMilne-Edwards,1871—China,StoVietnamandWtoSichuan.S.s.nigripesBlanford,1875—theflanksoftheTianshanmountainsinKyrgyzstanandNWChina(Xinjiang).AnanimalphotographedinNEIran(Golestan)lookedlikethissubspecies.S.s.nukiuanusKuroda,1924—Iriomote,Ishigaki,Okinawa,Tokunoshima,Amamioshima,andKakeromeIsintheRyukyuchaininextremeSJapan,thoughsomeofthesepopulationshavehybridizedwithintroduceddomesticates.S.s.sibiricusStaffe,1922—MongoliaandTransbaikal(S&EofLakeBaikal).S.s.tawvanusSwinhoe,1863—Taiwan.S.s.ussuricusHeude,1888—farERussiaandtheManchurianregion(China).Koreanpopulationswerepreviouslyincludedinthissubspecies,butbasedonnewevidence,theKoreantaxonseemsmoresimilartomoupinensis.S.s.vittatusBoie,1828—MalayPeninsula,SoftheIsthmusofKra,theoffshoreislandsofTerutaiandLangkawi,Sumatra,RiauArchipelago,Java,Bali,andarangeofsmallerislandsaroundthese,includingBabi,Bakong,Batam,Bawean,Bengkalis,Bintan,Bulan,Bunguran,Cuyo,Deli,Durian,Enggano,Galang,Jambongan,Karimon(RiauIs),Kundur,Lagong,Laut,Lingga,Lingung,Mapor,MoroKecil,NorthPagai,Nias,Panaitan,Payong,Penang,Pinie,Rupat,Siantan,Siberut,Simeulue,Singkep,Sugi,SugiBawa,Telibon,Tinggi,Tuangku,andtheTambelanIs.ThisspecieswasoriginallypresentfromtheBritishIsintheextremeW,throughEurasiafromSScandinaviatoSSiberia,extendingasfarEasKoreaandJapan,andSEintosomeoftheSundaIsandTaiwan.IntheSthespeciesrangedalongtheNileValleytoKhartoum,andNoftheSaharainAfrica,moreorlessfollowingthecontinentalcoastsofS, s, and SE Asia. Within this range it was absent only from extremely dry deserts, e.g. the driest regions of Mongoliaand in ChinaW of Sichuan; and alpine zones, such as the high altitudes of Pamir and Tien Shan. In recent centuries, the range of S. scrofahas changed dramatically because of hunting and changes in available habitat. The species disappeared from the British Is in the 17"" century, from Denmarkin the 19"" century, and was greatly reduced in range and numbers in the 20"" century from areas as distant as Tunisia, Sudan, Germany, and Russia. Following these severe declines, there were some slight population recoveries in Russia, Italy, Spain, and Germanyin the mid-20™ century, and natural and assisted range expansions in Denmarkand Sweden. The species has also been inadvertently reintroduced in various locations in the Great Britainvia escapees of mixed origin from commercial farming enterprises. Ex-S. scrofastocks also occur as introduced feral populations in various other parts of the world, including Australia, New Zealand, the eastern Malay Archipelago, and in North, Central, and South America.","Head-body 90-200 cm, tail 15-40 cm, shoulder height 55-110 cm; weight 44-320 kg. This is a moderate to large pig with a relatively short muzzle and no facial warts. The species is sexually dimorphic, with females about 80% the size of males. Size varies significantly between subspecies. Generally speaking, S. scrofafollows Bergmann’s Rule, with smaller animals nearer the tropics and larger, smaller-eared ones in the north ofits range. The coatis coarse and bristly, and varies in color from brown to almost black, usually turning grayish with age. There are great regional differences in color, and nearly white animals are known from central Asia. Several subspecies have dense underwool. The face, cheeks, and throat are slightly grizzled with whitish hairs, becoming distinctly white or forming white bands in some subspecies. The back is rounded and the legs are relatively long, especially in northern subspecies. Young are born generally brown with a pattern of longitudinal darker brown stripes, known aslivery, along their torso. This pattern fades between the second and sixth month, and the juveniles reach adult coloration at one year of age. The head is long and pointed, without an obvious beard, warts, or facial tufts. The upper canines form tusks that curve out and upwards. The lower canines are kept sharp by rubbing against the upper canines. These canines measure about 20 cmin adult males, and in exceptional cases even 30 cm. In females they are smaller. There is significant geographic variation in S. scrofa. WesTERN RACES: The nominate subspecies scrofahas an adult male skull length between 36-3 cm and 40-6 cm, which further increases towards the border ofits range with the subspecies attila. The species is dull to dark brown or olive-gray, with copious dark-gray or red-brown underwool, and a noticeable mane, which is often long and thick. Bodyweight in scrofavaries significantly from 54 kgto over 200 kgin males, with sows being quite a bit smaller (44.6-61. 4 kg). Towards Spainand Italybody size decreases gradually. In northern Spain, the mean body weight of 637 mature males and females was 74-3 kg and 55-3 kg, respectively. The mean head and body lengths of males and females were 154-4 cm and 142-2 cm, respectively. The subspecies baeticus in southern Spainand meridionalis in the islands of Sardinia and Corsicaare significantly smaller than scrofa, with mean skull lengths for males between 30-8 cm and 32-7 cm. These similar looking subspecies are colored a dull olive-fawn, with sparse underwool, and mostly lacking a mane. There is obvious clinal variation from north-western Europe to southern Spain, and it is unclear where the boundary between subspecies scrofaand baeticus is. In central and southern Italy, the subspecies major: is apparently smaller than scrofa, with a higher and wider skull. Since the 1950s, it has hybridized extensively with introduced scrofapopulations, which likely obscures morphological differences. Farther south, in northern Africa, the subspecies algirus is like scrofabut has smaller teeth and a broader occiput. The coat of this subspecies is black with yellowish or reddish tips, dark brown underwool, and not much of a mane. Subspecies attila is very large, with skull length in males over 45 cm. It has relatively small teeth, but M,is long, always over 4 cm. Subspecies attilais usually pale yellow-gray, with hair tips long and straw-yellow, copious brown underwool, and a long mane that extends to the loins. Recent information suggests that the subspecies is less distinct than previously thought and might overlap in size as well as chromosomal arrangement with scrofa. Subspecies lybicus is small, pale and almost maneless. Subspecies nigripes is a pale-colored subspecies with dark legs, which are usually paler behind, a nearly white face, and no mane. It has a very broad skull. Weights of male wild pigs from present-day Uzbekistanand southern Kazakhstanare given as 220-240 kg. Like subspecies scrofa, race nigripeshas 36 chromosomes, not the 38 that are usual for the species, but the translocation is different. EASTERN RACES: sibiricus is a fairly small pig with a relatively short face (short nasals and palate) compared to similar sized pigs. It has a very high skull with broad occiput. It also stands out for the shape ofits lacrimal bone (as measured by the proportion between suture height of the lacrimal bone at the orbit and its lower suture length), which is 1-0 for males (n = 7) and 0-87 for females (n = 4). Subspecies ussuricus is the largest of S. scrofa, with male wild pigs often weighing over 300 kg. It has a low-crowned skull and thick pelage, which is yellowish-gray in winter and black in summer when the long, pale hair tips have worn off. Subspecies ussuricus has black legs, sharply paler on the posterior surfaces. The face is black and has a clear mouth-gonion band. Initially, pigs from the Korean Peninsula had been included in race ussuricus, but their small size and genetic as well as morphological similarity to race moupinensismakes that affinity less likely. We presently retain this as a distinct subspecies coreanus, but recognize that it might well be included in moupinenss. Subspecies leucomystax is a smallish, short-legged, yellow-brown pig, with virtually no mane. There is a neat cline of diminishing size from north to south, but this apparently doesn’t warrant further division of this subspecies. The island race riukiuanusis by far the smallest subspecies. On the basis of a small data set, there appears to be no sexual size difference; three males with third molars in wear averaged 26-3 cm, and three females 26-1 cm in “profile length,” which presumably equals greatest skull length. Recent phylogenetic studies have shown that this subspecies is more closely related to the mainland Chinaform than to leucomystax from the main islands ofJapan. This is also confirmed by studies of crania and mandibles, which are quite distinct from leucomystax. Subspecies riukiuanus is a prime candidate to be recognized as a full species. Race taivanus from Taiwanis a small black pig with markings on the side of the snout, as judged from camera trap pictures. Measurements of mandibles show considerable overlap between taivanus and leucomystax, but with riukiuanus being quite distinct. The occiput in taivanus is shorter than in leucomystax, with little overhang. Subspecies moupinensis is a fairly small, yellowish (in south of range) or darker (in north), short-maned pig with a broad, high-crowned skull, from most of Chinaand Vietnam. Elevation to full species status was recently proposed for this taxon. SOUTH ASIAN RACES: The subspecies of India, Burma, and western Thailand, cristatus is long-maned, with a coat thatis brindled black, unlike race david: (see below). Subspecies cristatus is more lightly built than European subspecies, and it has a larger and more pointed head, and smaller and more pointed ears. The plane of the forehead is straight, whereas it is concave in the European subspecies. Subspecies cristatus differs little from moupinensis, but has a much longer mane, which extends to the rump. Itis darker than moupinensis. Race davidi is a small, light brown pig, with a long thick mane, and without any black on the legs. Weights of wild pigs from Tajikistan, which might be this subspecies, were reported as 74-144 kg, and occasionally up to 158 kgfor males, and 71-123 kg for females. This subspecies belongs to the low-crowned pigs of the western part of S. scrofa’ distribution range, rather than to the eastern pigs of India, China, and the rest of east and South-east Asia. Race affinis of southern Indiaand Sri Lankais larger than cristatus, overall black or occasionally dark brown. MALAYAN RACE: Sometimes referred to as the Indonesian Banded Pig, of peninsular Malaysiaand western Indonesiais a small, lowcrowned, short-faced pig with very sparse pelage. It is generally brown or agouti colored, with black legs, and typically has a distinct whitish band extending from either side of the snout to the jowls (hence “banded pig”) and a distinct mane. It has very sparse body hair and no underwool. There is a huge range of size and color throughout this region, but it is so sporadically distributed, with intermediates between the extremes, that it is impossible to divide it up. The species has shorter nasals and narrower occiput than race cristatus. It also stands apart from all other S. scrofasubspecies in the shape of the lacrimal bone and the shape of the rear end of the hard palate.","S. scrofais an ecologically very adaptable species, occurring in habitats varying from closed natural and planted forests to open scrublands with some cover. In Europe, the species occurs in agricultural landscapes, as well as riverine and mountainous forests, where it reachesits highest densities in oak-dominated forests. In South-eastAsia, S. scrofais found in mature forests, secondary forests, gardens, and plantations. It can reach very high densities in dipterocarp forests during times of mastfruiting. S. scrofacan cause considerable damage to agriculturalfields. The animals generally avoid open fields but do enter them readily when crops are taller and thus provide cover.","S. scrofais a typical omnivorous species. They eat almost anything they come across, including grass, nuts, berries, carrion, roots, tubers, refuse, insects, and small reptiles. They are also known to prey on young deer and lambs, and, in India, have been observed to prey on Chital (Axis axis) and to forcibly appropriate fresh kills from Leopards (Panthera pardus). Vertebrate prey may constitute an important part of the species’ diet in some areas, though studies in Spainrevealed that prey items (mostly birds and crayfish) made up only 4% of their diets. Snails and terrestrial arthropods were frequently found but take up less volume. The species causes considerable damage to croplands, with damage to permanent grassland more frequent and more severe than damage to annual crops. S. scrofais preyed on by a range of species, including Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Dholes (Cuon alpinus), Tigers (FP. tigris), Leopards, Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) and some larger reptiles, such as crocodiles and pythons (Python spp.).","S. scrofahas a gestation period of 112-130 days. Litters of 5-9 are most common, although both smaller and larger do occur. Piglets weigh 750-1000 g at birth. Just prior to giving birth, the sows leave their social groups and construct well-developed nests in which to give birth, or farrow, a process usually lasting 2-3 hours. The sow and piglets remain in, or close to, the nest for 4-6 days before rejoining their natal family groups, after which piglets will suckle other lactating sows in the group. Young are weaned at 3-4 months, and they will begin to eat solid foods, such as worms and grubs, after about two weeks. The young usually reach sexual maturity at 18 months. Breeding occurs year-round in the tropics, although in more temperate zones the young are born primarily in the spring. In the Ukraine, about 80% of S. scrofafemales reproduce annually. Their fertility rate is 7-21+ 0-26 piglets, but during the first year of their life more than 50% of the piglets die. Animals can live over 20 years in the wild, but populations are dominated by younger animals. For example, a Eurasian wild steppe population comprised 58:6% juveniles (the first year oflife), 14-3% yearlings (the second year), 11:5% adult males, and 15-6% adult females. If surprised or cornered, a boar (and particularly a sow with her piglets) can and will defend itself and its young with intense vigor. The male lowers its head, charges, and then slashes upward with his tusks. The female, whose tusks are notvisible, charges with her head up, mouth wide, and bites.","Activity of S. scrofavaries geographically but seems to be concentrated between dusk and dawn, and especially between 20:00 h and 24:00 h and around 05:00 h, with a primary resting period at night and a briefer rest during the early afternoon. In areas with high hunting pressure, a shift to nearly exclusive nocturnal activity has been observed. S. scrofarests in tight groups with bodily contact. The resting places, used several times before being abandoned, are made of troughs lined with leaves and branches. Wallowing is a favorite activity. After wallowing, the Eurasian Wild Pig rubs against trees and bushes, an activity that serves as a territorial marker.","Densities of S. scrofavary widely depending on habitat quality and mortality rates. To give some examples,in Italy, densities are generally about 3-5 ind/ 100 km?, in Spainthey are about 0-7-16-3 ind/ 100 km? and in Switzerlandthey are about 10 ind/ 100 km®. In Malaysia, S. scrofalocally reaches population densities of 47 ind/km? at least during times of high food availability. Pig biomass at such times was estimated at between 1346 kg/km?*and 1837 kg/km*. A review of 54 density studies in western Eurasia showed that in the geographical span of 37-60° N, the population densities of Eurasian Wild Pigs declined by three orders of magnitude. Mean January temperature and vegetative productivity were the most important factors explaining the biogeographical variation in population densities of S. scrofa, with the impact of temperature being stronger than that of productivity. The presence of Gray Wolves had a weak limiting effect on population densities of wild pigs at the biogeographical scale. S. scrofagenerally occurs in maternal families or sounders averaging 20 individuals, but up to 100 individuals have been reported, albeit perhaps in temporary associations. Adult males are usually solitary outside of the breeding season. Group structure changes with the coming and going of farrowing females, the migration of maturing males (usually when they reach around four years of age) and the arrival of unrelated sexually active males. Pigs are excellent swimmers, and have been documented swimming between offshore islands up to 7 kmapart.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, except for the subspecies riukiuanus, which has sometimes been listed separately as Vulnerable. The species is abundant in many parts of its range, though populations have been severely reduced and fragmented in places where hunting intensity is high (for example, in eastern and south-eastern Asia). Although there is no global population estimate, numbers can be high in many places. At a global level, there are no major threats to the species. However, there are many threats at a more local level, principally habitat destruction and hunting pressure, either for food, sport, or in reprisal for crop damage. In some places, genetic contamination through interbreeding with free-ranging domesticated or feral pigs is also a threat. Areas of special concern include the Ryukyu Islands, south Japan, where the endemic subspecies riukiuanus is internationally recognized as being seriously threatened throughout its extremely restricted and discontinuous range. It is ostensibly protected by the Japanese Government as a national monument. Nonetheless, it is widely hunted for sport and in reprisal for crop damage, and local governmental authorities even pay bounties to farmers for these animals. In various places in Indonesia, most notably in Java, attempts have been made in the past to eradicate wild pigs altogether by means of organized shooting parties and poisoning campaigns. However, despite many thousands of wild pigs being destroyed in this way,it is clear that this has had little lasting effect on these animals. Wild pigs are also susceptible to a variety of highly contagious diseases that can decimate their populations. Such catastrophic crashes were reported from Sri Lankain 1989 due to swine fever, Honshu Island, Japanin 1877, possibly because of hog cholera, and the Iriomote Islands between 1976 and 1980, caused by severe skin disease tentatively identified as sarcoptic mange. The traditional practice of rearing “domestic” pigs in semi-wild conditions has resulted in their hybridizing with the wild populations. Although introduced feral pigs are almost invariably regarded as major pests, some seemingly “ancient” breeds are of particular scientific interest and/or socio-economic importance to local peoples. Most prominent among these are the diminutive wild pigs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.The Andaman Island suids include the world’s smallest freeranging wild pigs (with the exception of Pygmy Hogs, Porculasalvania), which occur in two distinct “long-snouted” and “short-snouted” morphotypes, and which constitute one of the most important food resources for the few remaining indigenous Onge, Jarawa, and Sentinilese tribal societies. Whilst the Andamanese tribals are traditionally hunter-gatherers, dependent on the continued hunting of the wild pigs and other species, both wild and domestic pigs are of the greatest cultural importance to the Shompen tribal people of the Nicobar Islands, who not only domesticate pigs in large numbers, but have evolved one of the most complex “human-pig” cultures found anywhere in the in the world. A similar situation exists in eastern Indonesia, Papua, and a range Micronesian and Macronesian islands, where domesticated S. scrofa(as well as domesticated S. celebensis) play a very important cultural role.","Acevedo et al. (2006) | Albayrak & Inci (2007) | Appelman (1931) | Appolonio et al. (1988) | Asada et al. (2001) | Behera& Gupta (2007) | Chhangani & Mohnot (2004) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Endo, Hayashi, Sasaki et al. (2000) | Endo, Hayashi, Yamazaki et al. (2002) | Endo, Kurohmaru et al. (1998) | Endo, Maeda et al. (1998) | Fistani (1996) | Francis (2008) | Galbreath (2007) | Genov (1987, 1992, 1994, 1999) | Gimenez-Anaya et al. (2008) | Giuffra et al. (1999) | Groves (1981, 2007) | Groves & Oliver (2008) | Hebeisen et al. (2008) | Ickes (2001) | Jayson (1995) | Kelm (1939) | Kodera (2005) | Kumar Chhangani (2002) | Li Chonggi et al. (2005) | Markina et al. (2004) | Massei et al. (1997a, 1997b) | Meijaard et al. (2002) | Melis et al. (2006) | Mitchell (2002) | Monaet al. (2007) | Oliver & Leus (2008) | Oliver, Brisbin & Takahashi (1993a, 1993b) | Oliver, Groves & Cox (1993) | Pei (2006) | Robins et al. (2006) | Ruhe et al. (2007) | Russo et al. (1997) | Santos et al. (2006) | Schley & Roper (2003) | Schley et al. (2008) | Spagnesi & de Marinis (2002) | Thurfjell et al. (2009) | Volokh (2002a, 2002b) | Watanobe, Ishiguro & Nakano (2003) | Watanobe, Okumura et al. (1999) | Wilcox & VanVuren (2009) | Zhang Baoweiet al. (2008)",,"16.Eurasian Wild PigSus scrofaFrench:Sanglier d’'Eurasie/ German:Wildschwein/ Spanish:JabaliOther common names:Wild Boar; Indochinese Pig (bucculentus), Indonesian Banded Pig (vittatus)Taxonomy.Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758,Germany.S. scrofais the most widespread species of naturally occurring wild pig. Many of the more distinctive regional forms of these animals were originally described as full species, e.g. villatus, cristatus, leucomystax, moupinensis, and meridionalis, respectively from Sumatra, India, Japan, China, and Sardinia. Later and more comprehensive taxonomic reviews have combined many of these taxa into one species, mostly on the recognition that the different forms of S. scrofaformed a stepped cline extending from Western Europe to the Far East and insular South-east Asia. This gradual change in morphological characteristics allowed the combination of the extreme forms on either side of the range (scrofaand wvittatus) into one species. This species is therefore characterized by significant levels of naturally occurring geographic/genetic variation, duly compounded by anthropogenic interferences through widespread releases (whether deliberate or accidental) of pure-bred, hybrid, and domesticated variants originating from other parts ofits wide range. An astonishingly large number of subspecies have therefore been proposed and recognized in the literature, some of which are clearly invalid. Precise analysis of the likely number of truly recognizable/differentiated subspecies is still a matter of debate and disagreement, given that 4-25 subspecies have been recognized by different authors. Of these, C. P. Groves undertook by far the most comprehensive review when proposing the recognition of at least 16 morphologically distinct populations of S. scrofaon the basis of external as well as craniometric characteristics. His work has since been challenged by P. Genov, who proposed recognition of only four subspecies based on similar craniometric analyses, but these analyses were flawed inasmuch as they did not include some of the most distinct populations of these animals. Nonetheless, Genov merged these subspecies into four broadly geographic groupings, thereby broadly mirroring Groves’s more comprehensive review. These were the WESTERN RACES or the “ scrofagroup,” at least six, but possibly as many as eight subspecies (scrofa, meridionalis, baeticus, majori, algirus, attila, lybicus, and nigripes), but only two (algirus and meriodionalis) have clearly defined ranges; INDIAN RACES or “cristatus group,” three races (dauvidi, cristatus, and affinis), none with precisely defined ranges; EASTERN RACES or “leucomystax group,” possibly up to seven subspecies (sibiricus, ussuricus, coreanus, leucomystax, riukiuanus, tarvanus, and moupinensis), though only three (leucomystax, riukiuanus and taivanus) have clearly defined ranges; and a highly disctinctive SUNDAIC RACE (viltatus), though presumably genetically continuous with cristatus in the northern limits of its range in Indochina. We follow Groves’s taxonomy because of the strength and breadth of his analysis and his use of external characteristics that were not incorporated in Genov’s analysis. However, new (e.g. phylogenetic) data sets are most likely to strengthen the case for recognizing particular additional subspecies, or elevating some currently recognized subspecies to full species, or merging other, currently recognized subspecies. Groves has questioned whether his subspecies are all variants of one species or a complex of several different species, and has recently proposed the elevation of both vitattus and moupinensis subspecies to full species status. Of these, vittatus is more easily comprehensible, being morphologically and geographically distinguishable as the so-called “Indonesian Banded Pig,” occurring throughout the distal limits of S. scrofa’s range in South-east Asia, whereas S. moupinensis is apparently confined to Myanmar, Indochina, and south-eastern China(Fujian), and therefore also includes the problematic Indochinese Pig (S. bucculentus) from the Annamite Mountains. The taxonomic identity of S. bucculentus remains unclear. Since its description in 1892 by Heude, based on two skulls from Vietnam, only one skull of similar shape and size as the original two has been reported, from Laos. However, reexamination of the skull dimensions of the type specimens and phylogenetic studies suggest that S. bucculentus might not be a distinct species, but a geographically restricted variant of S. scrofa. The possibility that S. bucculentus might be a synonym of S. scrofais supported by reports from local informants that do not mention facial warts. Warts would be expected if indeed S. bucculentus was more closely related to other South-east Asian warty pigs of the subgenus Euhys. Recent studies have made it more likely that S. bucculentus will be merged with a taxon closelyaffiliated to or part of S. scrofa. As if to complicate matters, Groves has also recently proposed recognition of two more species, namely S. chirodontus described by Heude in 1888 from south-central China(including Kienté, Ningkua, Zhejiang, Shaanxi, Anhui, and also Korea), and S. ussuricus described also by Heude in 1888 from Heilongjiangand far eastern Chinaand Russia. Similarly sharp boundaries between various other mainland Asia subspecies do not exist, especially given evidence of hybridization between salient forms (e.g. davidi and cristatus). However, until these races are formally described and elevated, we retain the existing taxonomy for S. scrofa. We keep subspecies coreanus for now as it is distinct from wussuricus, but note that it was recently proposed for inclusion in moupinensis. Nineteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.s.scrofaLinnaeus,1758—WEurope,fromDenmark,Germany,Poland,andCzechRepublictoNItalyandNIberianPeninsula;possiblyalsoAlbania.ThetaxonomicstatusofanimalsinAustria,Switzerland,Slovenia,andSlovakiaisunclearbutpresumablythesepopulationsareincludedinscrofa,asarethepopulationsofSweden,Finland,andtheBalticstates.However,restockingofoncedepletedpopulations,forexampleinItaly,haslikelyinvolvedtheintroductionandmixingofthissubspecieswithothersubspecies,suchasattila.S.s.affinisGray,1847—SIndiaandSriLanka.S.s.algirusLoche,1867—Tunisia,Algeria,andMorocco,onthecoastalsideofthemountainsorinthelowmontaneareas.S.s.attilaThomas,1912—Hungary,Ukraine,C&SBelarus,Romania,Moldova,andSRussiatowardstheNflankoftheCaucasus,butnotincludingtheTranscaucasiancountriesofGeorgia,Armenia,andAzerbaijan.TherangepossiblyextendsasfarSastheMesopotamianDeltainIraq,inwhichcaseitwouldlikelyincludeW&SWIran,andpossiblyETurkeyandSyria,whereitborderswithlybicus.SucharangecouldnotbeeasilyreconciledwithastatementbyGrovesthat“thedifferencebetweenpigsfromNandSoftheCaucasusisquitestriking;Transcaucasianboarsarecertainlynotattila.”ThissubspeciesmayalsoextendintoCAsiaandincludeKazakhstan,Uzbekistan,andTurkmenistan,butnodataexisttosupportthis.S.s.baeticusThomas,1912—originallydescribedfromCotoDonana,SSpain,andlatermergedwithmeridionalis;alsoSPortugal.UnlessevidenceisfoundthattheseItalianandIberianpopulationsaretherelicsofamuchlargerformerlycontiguousrange,thissubspeciesshouldbekeptasdistinct.S.s.coreanusHeude,1897—KoreanPeninsula.S.s.eristatusWagner,1839—HimalayasStoCIndiaandEtoIndochina(NoftheKraIsthmus).S.s.davidiGroves,1981—thearidzonefromEIrantoGujarat,includingPakistanandNWIndia,andperhapsNtoTajikistan.S.s.leucomystaxTemminck,1842—mainIsofJapan(Honshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,Nakadori,Hiburijima,Tojima,Kushima,andothersmallerIs).S.s.lybicusGray,1868—Bulgaria,Greece,Turkey,Syria,Jordan,Israel,Palestine,inthepastalsoinLybia,andEgypt.TheformerYugoslaviawasincludedinitsrange,whichwouldsuggestthatnowSlovenia,Serbia,Croatia,BosniaandHerzegovina,Montenegro,andKosovoarewithintherangeofthissubspecies,althoughtheexactboundariesareunclear.PigsfromAlbaniahavebeenassignedtoS.s.scrofa.S.s.majoriDeBeaux&Festa,1927—C&SItalianPeninsula.S.s.menidionalisForsythMajor,1882—CorsicaandSardinia,withtheprovisothatthetwopopulationsareverylikelytobeintroducedorferal.S.s.moupinensisMilne-Edwards,1871—China,StoVietnamandWtoSichuan.S.s.nigripesBlanford,1875—theflanksoftheTianshanmountainsinKyrgyzstanandNWChina(Xinjiang).AnanimalphotographedinNEIran(Golestan)lookedlikethissubspecies.S.s.nukiuanusKuroda,1924—Iriomote,Ishigaki,Okinawa,Tokunoshima,Amamioshima,andKakeromeIsintheRyukyuchaininextremeSJapan,thoughsomeofthesepopulationshavehybridizedwithintroduceddomesticates.S.s.sibiricusStaffe,1922—MongoliaandTransbaikal(S&EofLakeBaikal).S.s.tawvanusSwinhoe,1863—Taiwan.S.s.ussuricusHeude,1888—farERussiaandtheManchurianregion(China).Koreanpopulationswerepreviouslyincludedinthissubspecies,butbasedonnewevidence,theKoreantaxonseemsmoresimilartomoupinensis.S.s.vittatusBoie,1828—MalayPeninsula,SoftheIsthmusofKra,theoffshoreislandsofTerutaiandLangkawi,Sumatra,RiauArchipelago,Java,Bali,andarangeofsmallerislandsaroundthese,includingBabi,Bakong,Batam,Bawean,Bengkalis,Bintan,Bulan,Bunguran,Cuyo,Deli,Durian,Enggano,Galang,Jambongan,Karimon(RiauIs),Kundur,Lagong,Laut,Lingga,Lingung,Mapor,MoroKecil,NorthPagai,Nias,Panaitan,Payong,Penang,Pinie,Rupat,Siantan,Siberut,Simeulue,Singkep,Sugi,SugiBawa,Telibon,Tinggi,Tuangku,andtheTambelanIs.ThisspecieswasoriginallypresentfromtheBritishIsintheextremeW,throughEurasiafromSScandinaviatoSSiberia,extendingasfarEasKoreaandJapan,andSEintosomeoftheSundaIsandTaiwan.IntheSthespeciesrangedalongtheNileValleytoKhartoum,andNoftheSaharainAfrica,moreorlessfollowingthecontinentalcoastsofS, s, and SE Asia. Within this range it was absent only from extremely dry deserts, e.g. the driest regions of Mongoliaand in ChinaW of Sichuan; and alpine zones, such as the high altitudes of Pamir and Tien Shan. In recent centuries, the range of S. scrofahas changed dramatically because of hunting and changes in available habitat. The species disappeared from the British Is in the 17"" century, from Denmarkin the 19"" century, and was greatly reduced in range and numbers in the 20"" century from areas as distant as Tunisia, Sudan, Germany, and Russia. Following these severe declines, there were some slight population recoveries in Russia, Italy, Spain, and Germanyin the mid-20™ century, and natural and assisted range expansions in Denmarkand Sweden. The species has also been inadvertently reintroduced in various locations in the Great Britainvia escapees of mixed origin from commercial farming enterprises. Ex-S. scrofastocks also occur as introduced feral populations in various other parts of the world, including Australia, New Zealand, the eastern Malay Archipelago, and in North, Central, and South America. In all of these areas they are now generally recognized as a major pestDescriptive notes.Head-body 90-200 cm, tail 15-40 cm, shoulder height 55-110 cm; weight 44-320 kg. This is a moderate to large pig with a relatively short muzzle and no facial warts. The species is sexually dimorphic, with females about 80% the size of males. Size varies significantly between subspecies. Generally speaking, S. scrofafollows Bergmann’s Rule, with smaller animals nearer the tropics and larger, smaller-eared ones in the north ofits range. The coatis coarse and bristly, and varies in color from brown to almost black, usually turning grayish with age. There are great regional differences in color, and nearly white animals are known from central Asia. Several subspecies have dense underwool. The face, cheeks, and throat are slightly grizzled with whitish hairs, becoming distinctly white or forming white bands in some subspecies. The back is rounded and the legs are relatively long, especially in northern subspecies. Young are born generally brown with a pattern of longitudinal darker brown stripes, known aslivery, along their torso. This pattern fades between the second and sixth month, and the juveniles reach adult coloration at one year of age. The head is long and pointed, without an obvious beard, warts, or facial tufts. The upper canines form tusks that curve out and upwards. The lower canines are kept sharp by rubbing against the upper canines. These canines measure about 20 cmin adult males, and in exceptional cases even 30 cm. In females they are smaller. There is significant geographic variation in S. scrofa. WesTERN RACES: The nominate subspecies scrofahas an adult male skull length between 36-3 cm and 40-6 cm, which further increases towards the border ofits range with the subspecies attila. The species is dull to dark brown or olive-gray, with copious dark-gray or red-brown underwool, and a noticeable mane, which is often long and thick. Bodyweight in scrofavaries significantly from 54 kgto over 200 kgin males, with sows being quite a bit smaller (44.6-61. 4 kg). Towards Spainand Italybody size decreases gradually. In northern Spain, the mean body weight of 637 mature males and females was 74-3 kg and 55-3 kg, respectively. The mean head and body lengths of males and females were 154-4 cm and 142-2 cm, respectively. The subspecies baeticus in southern Spainand meridionalis in the islands of Sardinia and Corsicaare significantly smaller than scrofa, with mean skull lengths for males between 30-8 cm and 32-7 cm. These similar looking subspecies are colored a dull olive-fawn, with sparse underwool, and mostly lacking a mane. There is obvious clinal variation from north-western Europe to southern Spain, and it is unclear where the boundary between subspecies scrofaand baeticus is. In central and southern Italy, the subspecies major: is apparently smaller than scrofa, with a higher and wider skull. Since the 1950s, it has hybridized extensively with introduced scrofapopulations, which likely obscures morphological differences. Farther south, in northern Africa, the subspecies algirus is like scrofabut has smaller teeth and a broader occiput. The coat of this subspecies is black with yellowish or reddish tips, dark brown underwool, and not much of a mane. Subspecies attila is very large, with skull length in males over 45 cm. It has relatively small teeth, but M,is long, always over 4 cm. Subspecies attilais usually pale yellow-gray, with hair tips long and straw-yellow, copious brown underwool, and a long mane that extends to the loins. Recent information suggests that the subspecies is less distinct than previously thought and might overlap in size as well as chromosomal arrangement with scrofa. Subspecies lybicus is small, pale and almost maneless. Subspecies nigripes is a pale-colored subspecies with dark legs, which are usually paler behind, a nearly white face, and no mane. It has a very broad skull. Weights of male wild pigs from present-day Uzbekistanand southern Kazakhstanare given as 220-240 kg. Like subspecies scrofa, race nigripeshas 36 chromosomes, not the 38 that are usual for the species, but the translocation is different. EASTERN RACES: sibiricus is a fairly small pig with a relatively short face (short nasals and palate) compared to similar sized pigs. It has a very high skull with broad occiput. It also stands out for the shape ofits lacrimal bone (as measured by the proportion between suture height of the lacrimal bone at the orbit and its lower suture length), which is 1-0 for males (n = 7) and 0-87 for females (n = 4). Subspecies ussuricus is the largest of S. scrofa, with male wild pigs often weighing over 300 kg. It has a low-crowned skull and thick pelage, which is yellowish-gray in winter and black in summer when the long, pale hair tips have worn off. Subspecies ussuricus has black legs, sharply paler on the posterior surfaces. The face is black and has a clear mouth-gonion band. Initially, pigs from the Korean Peninsula had been included in race ussuricus, but their small size and genetic as well as morphological similarity to race moupinensismakes that affinity less likely. We presently retain this as a distinct subspecies coreanus, but recognize that it might well be included in moupinenss. Subspecies leucomystax is a smallish, short-legged, yellow-brown pig, with virtually no mane. There is a neat cline of diminishing size from north to south, but this apparently doesn’t warrant further division of this subspecies. The island race riukiuanusis by far the smallest subspecies. On the basis of a small data set, there appears to be no sexual size difference; three males with third molars in wear averaged 26-3 cm, and three females 26-1 cm in “profile length,” which presumably equals greatest skull length. Recent phylogenetic studies have shown that this subspecies is more closely related to the mainland Chinaform than to leucomystax from the main islands ofJapan. This is also confirmed by studies of crania and mandibles, which are quite distinct from leucomystax. Subspecies riukiuanus is a prime candidate to be recognized as a full species. Race taivanus from Taiwanis a small black pig with markings on the side of the snout, as judged from camera trap pictures. Measurements of mandibles show considerable overlap between taivanus and leucomystax, but with riukiuanus being quite distinct. The occiput in taivanus is shorter than in leucomystax, with little overhang. Subspecies moupinensis is a fairly small, yellowish (in south of range) or darker (in north), short-maned pig with a broad, high-crowned skull, from most of Chinaand Vietnam. Elevation to full species status was recently proposed for this taxon. SOUTH ASIAN RACES: The subspecies of India, Burma, and western Thailand, cristatus is long-maned, with a coat thatis brindled black, unlike race david: (see below). Subspecies cristatus is more lightly built than European subspecies, and it has a larger and more pointed head, and smaller and more pointed ears. The plane of the forehead is straight, whereas it is concave in the European subspecies. Subspecies cristatus differs little from moupinensis, but has a much longer mane, which extends to the rump. Itis darker than moupinensis. Race davidi is a small, light brown pig, with a long thick mane, and without any black on the legs. Weights of wild pigs from Tajikistan, which might be this subspecies, were reported as 74-144 kg, and occasionally up to 158 kgfor males, and 71-123 kg for females. This subspecies belongs to the low-crowned pigs of the western part of S. scrofa’ distribution range, rather than to the eastern pigs of India, China, and the rest of east and South-east Asia. Race affinis of southern Indiaand Sri Lankais larger than cristatus, overall black or occasionally dark brown. MALAYAN RACE: Sometimes referred to as the Indonesian Banded Pig, of peninsular Malaysiaand western Indonesiais a small, lowcrowned, short-faced pig with very sparse pelage. It is generally brown or agouti colored, with black legs, and typically has a distinct whitish band extending from either side of the snout to the jowls (hence “banded pig”) and a distinct mane. It has very sparse body hair and no underwool. There is a huge range of size and color throughout this region, but it is so sporadically distributed, with intermediates between the extremes, that it is impossible to divide it up. The species has shorter nasals and narrower occiput than race cristatus. It also stands apart from all other S. scrofasubspecies in the shape of the lacrimal bone and the shape of the rear end of the hard palate.Habitat.S. scrofais an ecologically very adaptable species, occurring in habitats varying from closed natural and planted forests to open scrublands with some cover. In Europe, the species occurs in agricultural landscapes, as well as riverine and mountainous forests, where it reachesits highest densities in oak-dominated forests. In South-eastAsia, S. scrofais found in mature forests, secondary forests, gardens, and plantations. It can reach very high densities in dipterocarp forests during times of mastfruiting. S. scrofacan cause considerable damage to agriculturalfields. The animals generally avoid open fields but do enter them readily when crops are taller and thus provide cover.Food and Feeding.S. scrofais a typical omnivorous species. They eat almost anything they come across, including grass, nuts, berries, carrion, roots, tubers, refuse, insects, and small reptiles. They are also known to prey on young deer and lambs, and, in India, have been observed to prey on Chital (Axis axis) and to forcibly appropriate fresh kills from Leopards (Panthera pardus). Vertebrate prey may constitute an important part of the species’ diet in some areas, though studies in Spainrevealed that prey items (mostly birds and crayfish) made up only 4% of their diets. Snails and terrestrial arthropods were frequently found but take up less volume. The species causes considerable damage to croplands, with damage to permanent grassland more frequent and more severe than damage to annual crops. S. scrofais preyed on by a range of species, including Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Dholes (Cuon alpinus), Tigers (FP. tigris), Leopards, Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) and some larger reptiles, such as crocodiles and pythons (Python spp.).Breeding.S. scrofahas a gestation period of 112-130 days. Litters of 5-9 are most common, although both smaller and larger do occur. Piglets weigh 750-1000 g at birth. Just prior to giving birth, the sows leave their social groups and construct well-developed nests in which to give birth, or farrow, a process usually lasting 2-3 hours. The sow and piglets remain in, or close to, the nest for 4-6 days before rejoining their natal family groups, after which piglets will suckle other lactating sows in the group. Young are weaned at 3-4 months, and they will begin to eat solid foods, such as worms and grubs, after about two weeks. The young usually reach sexual maturity at 18 months. Breeding occurs year-round in the tropics, although in more temperate zones the young are born primarily in the spring. In the Ukraine, about 80% of S. scrofafemales reproduce annually. Their fertility rate is 7-21+ 0-26 piglets, but during the first year of their life more than 50% of the piglets die. Animals can live over 20 years in the wild, but populations are dominated by younger animals. For example, a Eurasian wild steppe population comprised 58:6% juveniles (the first year oflife), 14-3% yearlings (the second year), 11:5% adult males, and 15-6% adult females. If surprised or cornered, a boar (and particularly a sow with her piglets) can and will defend itself and its young with intense vigor. The male lowers its head, charges, and then slashes upward with his tusks. The female, whose tusks are notvisible, charges with her head up, mouth wide, and bites.Activity patterns.Activity of S. scrofavaries geographically but seems to be concentrated between dusk and dawn, and especially between 20:00 h and 24:00 h and around 05:00 h, with a primary resting period at night and a briefer rest during the early afternoon. In areas with high hunting pressure, a shift to nearly exclusive nocturnal activity has been observed. S. scrofarests in tight groups with bodily contact. The resting places, used several times before being abandoned, are made of troughs lined with leaves and branches. Wallowing is a favorite activity. After wallowing, the Eurasian Wild Pig rubs against trees and bushes, an activity that serves as a territorial marker.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Densities of S. scrofavary widely depending on habitat quality and mortality rates. To give some examples,in Italy, densities are generally about 3-5 ind/ 100 km?, in Spainthey are about 0-7-16-3 ind/ 100 km? and in Switzerlandthey are about 10 ind/ 100 km®. In Malaysia, S. scrofalocally reaches population densities of 47 ind/km? at least during times of high food availability. Pig biomass at such times was estimated at between 1346 kg/km?*and 1837 kg/km*. A review of 54 density studies in western Eurasia showed that in the geographical span of 37-60° N, the population densities of Eurasian Wild Pigs declined by three orders of magnitude. Mean January temperature and vegetative productivity were the most important factors explaining the biogeographical variation in population densities of S. scrofa, with the impact of temperature being stronger than that of productivity. The presence of Gray Wolves had a weak limiting effect on population densities of wild pigs at the biogeographical scale. S. scrofagenerally occurs in maternal families or sounders averaging 20 individuals, but up to 100 individuals have been reported, albeit perhaps in temporary associations. Adult males are usually solitary outside of the breeding season. Group structure changes with the coming and going of farrowing females, the migration of maturing males (usually when they reach around four years of age) and the arrival of unrelated sexually active males. Pigs are excellent swimmers, and have been documented swimming between offshore islands up to 7 kmapart.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, except for the subspecies riukiuanus, which has sometimes been listed separately as Vulnerable. The species is abundant in many parts of its range, though populations have been severely reduced and fragmented in places where hunting intensity is high (for example, in eastern and south-eastern Asia). Although there is no global population estimate, numbers can be high in many places. At a global level, there are no major threats to the species. However, there are many threats at a more local level, principally habitat destruction and hunting pressure, either for food, sport, or in reprisal for crop damage. In some places, genetic contamination through interbreeding with free-ranging domesticated or feral pigs is also a threat. Areas of special concern include the Ryukyu Islands, south Japan, where the endemic subspecies riukiuanus is internationally recognized as being seriously threatened throughout its extremely restricted and discontinuous range. It is ostensibly protected by the Japanese Government as a national monument. Nonetheless, it is widely hunted for sport and in reprisal for crop damage, and local governmental authorities even pay bounties to farmers for these animals. In various places in Indonesia, most notably in Java, attempts have been made in the past to eradicate wild pigs altogether by means of organized shooting parties and poisoning campaigns. However, despite many thousands of wild pigs being destroyed in this way,it is clear that this has had little lasting effect on these animals. Wild pigs are also susceptible to a variety of highly contagious diseases that can decimate their populations. Such catastrophic crashes were reported from Sri Lankain 1989 due to swine fever, Honshu Island, Japanin 1877, possibly because of hog cholera, and the Iriomote Islands between 1976 and 1980, caused by severe skin disease tentatively identified as sarcoptic mange. The traditional practice of rearing “domestic” pigs in semi-wild conditions has resulted in their hybridizing with the wild populations. Although introduced feral pigs are almost invariably regarded as major pests, some seemingly “ancient” breeds are of particular scientific interest and/or socio-economic importance to local peoples. Most prominent among these are the diminutive wild pigs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.The Andaman Island suids include the world’s smallest freeranging wild pigs (with the exception of Pygmy Hogs, Porculasalvania), which occur in two distinct “long-snouted” and “short-snouted” morphotypes, and which constitute one of the most important food resources for the few remaining indigenous Onge, Jarawa, and Sentinilese tribal societies. Whilst the Andamanese tribals are traditionally hunter-gatherers, dependent on the continued hunting of the wild pigs and other species, both wild and domestic pigs are of the greatest cultural importance to the Shompen tribal people of the Nicobar Islands, who not only domesticate pigs in large numbers, but have evolved one of the most complex “human-pig” cultures found anywhere in the in the world. A similar situation exists in eastern Indonesia, Papua, and a range Micronesian and Macronesian islands, where domesticated S. scrofa(as well as domesticated S. celebensis) play a very important cultural role.Bibliography.Acevedo et al. (2006), Albayrak & Inci (2007), Appelman (1931), Appolonio et al. (1988), Asada et al. (2001), Behera& Gupta (2007), Chhangani & Mohnot (2004), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Endo, Hayashi, Sasaki et al. (2000), Endo, Hayashi, Yamazaki et al. (2002), Endo, Kurohmaru et al. (1998), Endo, Maeda et al. (1998), Fistani (1996), Francis (2008), Galbreath (2007), Genov (1987, 1992, 1994, 1999), Gimenez-Anaya et al. (2008), Giuffra et al. (1999), Groves (1981, 2007), Groves & Oliver (2008), Hebeisen et al. (2008), Ickes (2001), Jayson (1995), Kelm (1939), Kodera (2005), Kumar Chhangani (2002), Li Chonggi et al. (2005), Markina et al. (2004), Massei et al. (1997a, 1997b), Meijaard et al. (2002), Melis et al. (2006), Mitchell (2002), Monaet al. (2007), Oliver & Leus (2008), Oliver, Brisbin & Takahashi (1993a, 1993b), Oliver, Groves & Cox (1993), Pei (2006), Robins et al. (2006), Ruhe et al. (2007), Russo et al. (1997), Santos et al. (2006), Schley & Roper (2003), Schley et al. (2008), Spagnesi & de Marinis (2002), Thurfjell et al. (2009), Volokh (2002a, 2002b), Watanobe, Ishiguro & Nakano (2003), Watanobe, Okumura et al. (1999), Wilcox & VanVuren (2009), Zhang Baoweiet al. (2008)." -038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,287,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A.xml,Sus verrucosus,Sus,verrucosus,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier de Java @fr | Java-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Java @es,"Sus verrucosus Boie, 1832,Java.The ancestry of this species has been traced back to some fossil pig species of Java, which combined with phylogenetic data suggests that the S. verrucosus lineage has evolved on Javafor approximately two million years. Two subspecies are recognized.","S.v.verrucosusBoie,1832—W&CJava;extinctonMaduraI.S. v. bloucht Groves, 1981— Bawean I.","Head—body 90-190 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 70-90 cm; weight 35-150 kg. Compared to other species of Susthe Javan Warty Pig is characterized by great elongation of the face, and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male S. verrucosus can be easily distinguished from other species (at least when seen from nearby) by the presence of warts. Observations from two captive S. verrucosus indicate that warts start to grow when youngsters are 17 months old and weigh approximately 25-35 kg. The two pig species on Javaare externally quite similar, and it will often be difficult to determine the species when an animal is seen at a distance, or when it is a female (which lack the warts). Compared to the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), S. verrucosus gives the impression of having a very large, heavy head, at least in adult males. Males of S. verrucosus are much larger than females (c. 90 kgfor males as opposed to 45 kgfor females). Such pronounced sexual dimorphism is not found in S. scrofa, where the males weigh about the same as the S. verrucosus males, but the females are much heavier than S. verrucosus females. Pelage coloration varies greatly in both species. Generally S. verrucosus appears somewhat reddish, but some individuals look quite black from a distance. The hair on the crown and the mane on the back of the neck are usually paler, often reddish-orange and occasionally approaching blond. In S. verrucosus of all sexes and ages the hair on the belly is predominantly white or yellowish, contrasting with the darker pelage on the upper part of the body. S. scrofaon Javaare most often black or grizzled, but reddish-brown individuals are sometimes encountered. The mane is usually black and the belly hairs are also dark, not contrasting with the pelage above. The individual hairs in S. scrofaare of a single type: black with a yellowish band or (when worn) tip. In S. verrucosus there are two hair types intermixed: shorter red or yellow hairs with black tips, and longer black ones. The coloration of piglets in the two Javan pig species differs as well. S. scrofapiglets are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; the striping is very conspicuous. In S. verrucosus, on the other hand, the striping of piglets is very faint and may be difficult to discern in the field. The shape of the lower canines in male pigs is another good indicator of their specific identity. If a cross section is taken near the base, in S. scrofathe inferior surface is narrower. In S. verrucosus it is as broad as the enamel-less posterior surface. If the width of inferior surface is expressed as a percentage of the posterior surface, for S. scrofathis ranges between 61:5% and 109-1%, and for S. verrucosus it ranges between 113:3% and 161:5%. The canines in females are also distinctive. In S. scrofathey are fairly large: the greatest diameter of the upper canine varies from 16-8 mm to 18-2 mm, and of the lower from 14 mmto 17 mm, overlapping the male range. In S. verrucosus the canines of females are much smaller, the upper measuring 9-3-11-5 mm, the lower 7-3— 10 mm. The race blouchiis distinguished from the nominate subspecies by its smaller size, the relatively low occiput, the red color of the pale hairs in the coat, and the red mane.","The Javan Warty Pig occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak (7ectona grandis) forest plantations, interspersed with lalang grasslands (/mperata cylindrica), brush, and patches of secondary forest, restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be because the pigs are unable to tolerate low temperatures. They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest. They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava. As with S. scrofa, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations. The two species appear to avoid each other. In the 1920s, their abundance was thought to be similar, but only one species was generally found in a given location. S. scrofaappeared to be better adapted to agricultural areas and heavily degraded forests, and S. verrucosus more restricted to woodlands.","Ecological information about S. verrucosus is rare because when the species wasstill relatively common, extensive descriptions of feeding and breeding ecology did not differentiate between S. verrucosus and S. scrofa. One account from 1928 describes their ecological similarities: both species feed on a range of animal and plant foods, including fallen fruits, roots, worms, and insects. They are particularly partial to ripe rice, making them a feared agricultural pest.","The gestation period is thought to be about four months, and 3-9 young are born. Most births reportedly occur in the rainy season, from January to March, in a large nest made by the female out ofleaflitter. According to a recent informant, females with young are mostly seen between August and December.","There is little known about activity patterns of S. verrucosus. Interview surveys on Javain 2003 suggest that the species is mostly nocturnal, with several respondents reporting that damage to rice fields almost exclusively happened at night. It could be that a shift from generally diurnal activity patterns in pigs to nocturnal ones is because of the very high hunting pressure on the species.","No estimates of home range or population density are available. Historically, group sizes of up to 20 animals were reported, though most recent records refer to groups of no more than six individuals during the breeding season and fewer at other times.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is now restricted to several isolated areas on mainlandJava. The Javan Warty Pig is endemic to the islands ofJava, Madura, and Bawean in Indonesia. It occurs alongside S. scrofavittatus, but it appears that the two species avoid each other and attain their highest densities where the other speciesis absent. S. verrucosus was widespread on Javaas recently as 1982, but is now absent from most of the island and survives only in highly fragmented populations. A Java-wide, interview-based survey in 2003 found that there were about ten areas on Javaand Bawean where S. verrucosus populations survived, although other small groups may have existed elsewhere. These include remnant and low density populations in west Javain the areas between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, and between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserves of Cikepuh. S. verrucosus is very rare near Purwakarta. Several small populations remain near and south of Garut, with a few reported sightings of S. verrucosus in 2002 and just before. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang, interviewees reported recent killings of S. verrucosus, but the species is now much rarer than in the past. A population of S. verrucosus still remains east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis, although people consider S. verrucosus to be rare in comparison to S. scrofa. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of S. verrucosus from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusa Kembangan, including some from the Nusa Kembangan Nature Reserve off Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into small populations. The only areas where S. verrucosus reportedly remained common were around Subah, where animals were generally seen in small groups of 1-2 individuals and groups of 4-6 during the mating season, and around Blora and Bojonegoro. In the latter area, group size had reportedly declined from 10-20 to only 1-3. No recent records of S. verrucosus exist from Madura Island, and the species is considered extirpated there. On Bawean Island, the only area where the subspecies blouchi occurs, the species is now very rare, and possibly already extirpated. There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 populations (53%) are extirpated or have dropped to low encounter rate levels. [tis thought that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops. Many animals are killed by poisoning. As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation of subspecies blouchi on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals were previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Muslim inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa) has been speculated as a further threat to S. verrucosus, especially in areas where human-induced habitat changes favor S. scrofa. Recent DNA analysis of one S. verrucosus specimen suggested high levels of inbreeding in the species compared to other Sus species, but no evidence of introgression from S. scrofawas found. Further genetic studies on more samples are needed to assess potential conservation implications of both inbreeding and hybridization.","Bartels (1937, 1940, 1942) | Blouch (1983, 1988, 1993) | Blouch & Groves (1990) | Franck (1936) | Groves (1981) | Hardjasamita (1987) | Huffman (2004) | Nijman (2001, 2003) | Olivier (1925, 1928) | Semiadi & Meijaard (2004, 2006) | Semiadi et al. (2008) | Sody (1936, 1941a, 1941b)",,"15.Javan Warty PigSus verrucosusFrench:Sanglier de Java/ German:Java-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide JavaTaxonomy.Sus verrucosus Boie, 1832,Java.The ancestry of this species has been traced back to some fossil pig species of Java, which combined with phylogenetic data suggests that the S. verrucosus lineage has evolved on Javafor approximately two million years. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.v.verrucosusBoie,1832—W&CJava;extinctonMaduraI.S. v. bloucht Groves, 1981— Bawean I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-190 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 70-90 cm; weight 35-150 kg. Compared to other species of Susthe Javan Warty Pig is characterized by great elongation of the face, and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male S. verrucosus can be easily distinguished from other species (at least when seen from nearby) by the presence of warts. Observations from two captive S. verrucosus indicate that warts start to grow when youngsters are 17 months old and weigh approximately 25-35 kg. The two pig species on Javaare externally quite similar, and it will often be difficult to determine the species when an animal is seen at a distance, or when it is a female (which lack the warts). Compared to the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), S. verrucosus gives the impression of having a very large, heavy head, at least in adult males. Males of S. verrucosus are much larger than females (c. 90 kgfor males as opposed to 45 kgfor females). Such pronounced sexual dimorphism is not found in S. scrofa, where the males weigh about the same as the S. verrucosus males, but the females are much heavier than S. verrucosus females. Pelage coloration varies greatly in both species. Generally S. verrucosus appears somewhat reddish, but some individuals look quite black from a distance. The hair on the crown and the mane on the back of the neck are usually paler, often reddish-orange and occasionally approaching blond. In S. verrucosus of all sexes and ages the hair on the belly is predominantly white or yellowish, contrasting with the darker pelage on the upper part of the body. S. scrofaon Javaare most often black or grizzled, but reddish-brown individuals are sometimes encountered. The mane is usually black and the belly hairs are also dark, not contrasting with the pelage above. The individual hairs in S. scrofaare of a single type: black with a yellowish band or (when worn) tip. In S. verrucosus there are two hair types intermixed: shorter red or yellow hairs with black tips, and longer black ones. The coloration of piglets in the two Javan pig species differs as well. S. scrofapiglets are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; the striping is very conspicuous. In S. verrucosus, on the other hand, the striping of piglets is very faint and may be difficult to discern in the field. The shape of the lower canines in male pigs is another good indicator of their specific identity. If a cross section is taken near the base, in S. scrofathe inferior surface is narrower. In S. verrucosus it is as broad as the enamel-less posterior surface. If the width of inferior surface is expressed as a percentage of the posterior surface, for S. scrofathis ranges between 61:5% and 109-1%, and for S. verrucosus it ranges between 113:3% and 161:5%. The canines in females are also distinctive. In S. scrofathey are fairly large: the greatest diameter of the upper canine varies from 16-8 mm to 18-2 mm, and of the lower from 14 mmto 17 mm, overlapping the male range. In S. verrucosus the canines of females are much smaller, the upper measuring 9-3-11-5 mm, the lower 7-3— 10 mm. The race blouchiis distinguished from the nominate subspecies by its smaller size, the relatively low occiput, the red color of the pale hairs in the coat, and the red mane.Habitat.The Javan Warty Pig occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak (7ectona grandis) forest plantations, interspersed with lalang grasslands (/mperata cylindrica), brush, and patches of secondary forest, restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be because the pigs are unable to tolerate low temperatures. They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest. They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava. As with S. scrofa, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations. The two species appear to avoid each other. In the 1920s, their abundance was thought to be similar, but only one species was generally found in a given location. S. scrofaappeared to be better adapted to agricultural areas and heavily degraded forests, and S. verrucosus more restricted to woodlands.Food and Feeding.Ecological information about S. verrucosus is rare because when the species wasstill relatively common, extensive descriptions of feeding and breeding ecology did not differentiate between S. verrucosus and S. scrofa. One account from 1928 describes their ecological similarities: both species feed on a range of animal and plant foods, including fallen fruits, roots, worms, and insects. They are particularly partial to ripe rice, making them a feared agricultural pest.Breeding.The gestation period is thought to be about four months, and 3-9 young are born. Most births reportedly occur in the rainy season, from January to March, in a large nest made by the female out ofleaflitter. According to a recent informant, females with young are mostly seen between August and December.Activity patterns.There is little known about activity patterns of S. verrucosus. Interview surveys on Javain 2003 suggest that the species is mostly nocturnal, with several respondents reporting that damage to rice fields almost exclusively happened at night. It could be that a shift from generally diurnal activity patterns in pigs to nocturnal ones is because of the very high hunting pressure on the species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No estimates of home range or population density are available. Historically, group sizes of up to 20 animals were reported, though most recent records refer to groups of no more than six individuals during the breeding season and fewer at other times.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is now restricted to several isolated areas on mainlandJava. The Javan Warty Pig is endemic to the islands ofJava, Madura, and Bawean in Indonesia. It occurs alongside S. scrofavittatus, but it appears that the two species avoid each other and attain their highest densities where the other speciesis absent. S. verrucosus was widespread on Javaas recently as 1982, but is now absent from most of the island and survives only in highly fragmented populations. A Java-wide, interview-based survey in 2003 found that there were about ten areas on Javaand Bawean where S. verrucosus populations survived, although other small groups may have existed elsewhere. These include remnant and low density populations in west Javain the areas between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, and between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserves of Cikepuh. S. verrucosus is very rare near Purwakarta. Several small populations remain near and south of Garut, with a few reported sightings of S. verrucosus in 2002 and just before. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang, interviewees reported recent killings of S. verrucosus, but the species is now much rarer than in the past. A population of S. verrucosus still remains east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis, although people consider S. verrucosus to be rare in comparison to S. scrofa. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of S. verrucosus from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusa Kembangan, including some from the Nusa Kembangan Nature Reserve off Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into small populations. The only areas where S. verrucosus reportedly remained common were around Subah, where animals were generally seen in small groups of 1-2 individuals and groups of 4-6 during the mating season, and around Blora and Bojonegoro. In the latter area, group size had reportedly declined from 10-20 to only 1-3. No recent records of S. verrucosus exist from Madura Island, and the species is considered extirpated there. On Bawean Island, the only area where the subspecies blouchi occurs, the species is now very rare, and possibly already extirpated. There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 populations (53%) are extirpated or have dropped to low encounter rate levels. [tis thought that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops. Many animals are killed by poisoning. As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation of subspecies blouchi on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals were previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Muslim inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa) has been speculated as a further threat to S. verrucosus, especially in areas where human-induced habitat changes favor S. scrofa. Recent DNA analysis of one S. verrucosus specimen suggested high levels of inbreeding in the species compared to other Sus species, but no evidence of introgression from S. scrofawas found. Further genetic studies on more samples are needed to assess potential conservation implications of both inbreeding and hybridization.Bibliography.Bartels (1937, 1940, 1942), Blouch (1983, 1988, 1993), Blouch & Groves (1990), Franck (1936), Groves (1981), Hardjasamita (1987), Huffman (2004), Nijman (2001, 2003), Olivier (1925, 1928), Semiadi & Meijaard (2004, 2006), Semiadi et al. (2008), Sody (1936, 1941a, 1941b)." -038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,286,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808.xml,Sus celebensis,Sus,celebensis,Muller & Schlegel,1843,Sanglier des Célébes @fr | Sulawesi-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Célebes @es,"Sus celebensis Muller & Schlegel, 1843,Manado, Celebes.Genetic studies have suggested that S. celebensisforms two clades, one restricted to northern Sulawesiand the other to the remainder of the species’ range. This can be explained either by the occurrence of two colonization events onto Sulawesior the historic fragmentation of the island into at least two parts. Taxonomic differentiation between the two clades is not sufficiently supported by morphological studies, although the average skull size of S. celebensiswas found to be considerably greater for southern Sulawesithan for northern Sulawesi. Provisionally monotypic.","Sulawesiand adjacent Is (Buton, Kabaena, Muna, Peleng, Lembeh, and on some of the Togian Is); thought to be extinct on Selayar I. Pigs have been widely domesticated through the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This primarily involved the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), but also S. celebensis, the only other species of pig successfully domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA studies of the dispersion of these domesticated forms agree on three major dispersal events, two involving S. scrofaand one S. celebensis. Evidence supports an early human-mediated translocation of S. celebensisto Floresand Timor and two later, separate human-mediated dispersals of domestic pig through islands of SE Asia into Oceania. In addition to Floresand Timor, S. celebensisis also thought to occur in its domesticated form on Halmahera, Lendu, Roti, and Savur Is, and even on Simeulue and Nias Is to the W of Sumatraand far from its island of origin, Sulawesi. In the Moluccas, and possibly elsewhere in this region, introduced S. celebensisare thought to have hybridized with other introduced pigs of S. scrofaderivation, and apparent hybrids between these species are now reported to survive on a number of islands, including Salawatti, Great Kei, Dobu, Seram, Ambon, Bacan, Ternate, Morotai, and New Guinea. It is also reported that in the 19"" century the sows of domestic pigs in Sulawesi frequently mated with wild animals, after which they returned to their villages.","Head—body 80-130 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 70 cm; weight 40-70 kg. Adult animals are usually dark-haired, although some individuals are reddish-brown or yellowish in color, sometimes with lighter colored hairs on the trunk and abdomen. There is always a dark dorsal stripe, and a clear yellow snout band is usually present. A short mane and distinct crest of longer hair on the crown or forehead has been recorded for captive animals, but observations on 27 animals in the wild in north Sulawesifound no instances of a crest as long as in the zoo specimens. This might be because, as in the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) and the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), prominent manes and crests may only occur during the breeding season (in the case of these latter species, from late November to April). It is unclear when the wild observations on S. celebensiswere made. Young are born with five dark brown and six pale horizontalstripes along the length of their bodies, which they lose at an age of about six months. Adult males have three pairs of facial warts, the preorbital pair being the largest, the infraorbital somewhat smaller, and the mandibular warts emerging from a whorl of hair that first marks their position; the warts enlarge and eventually dominate (at least in captive specimens). The legs are relatively very short, and the back is short and slightly convex. Thetail is long and simply tufted. Adult males are larger than sows, averaging 70 cmat the shoulder in males as opposed to 60 cmin females. Recent forms are larger than the subfossil remains found in caves in southern Sulawesi. S. celebensishas a chromosome number of 38. There are significant differences in the banding of the Y chromosome of S. celebensis, however, when compared with either S. scrofaor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus).","This species is reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including rainforests, swamps, high grassland terrains, and agricultural areas. It is found at elevations up to moss forest at about 2300 m, but it prefers valleys.","Little is known about the feeding behavior of S. celebensis. Roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots are thought to constitute the bulk of their diet, with invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion as occasional secondary additions. However, no quantitative data are available about percentages of these itemsin their diets, and how this varies over time and in different habitats. Unlike babirusas, S. celebensishas been observed to consume grasses, although this is based on brief observations only.","Mating is reported to occur in February, although this is based on only one observation. Births can occur at any time throughout the year but sows usually have their young in April or May. Gestation length is not known for certain, and the suggestion that it may be between 16 and 20 weeks should be treated with caution. Farrowing sows give birth in nests made of grasses, leaves, branches, and twigs piled over a shallow excavation approximately 2 min length. Litter size has been estimated as 2-8 piglets, with an average offive, although a study in North Sulawesiin 1991 found six pregnant sows killed by hunters to be carrying only 1-3 fetuses, with a mean of only 2-17 fetuses per pregnancy.","The SulawesiWarty Pig is primarily diurnal. Most feeding activity observed in relatively undisturbed areas occurs during the daylight hours, concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon.","Few data exist on group size, but observations around a salt lick recorded single animals (five times), pairs (two times), groups of three (four times), and one group of six. In another population the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1-25 (n = 25) and group size was 2-9, with an average of five (n = 16). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults, and 1-3 adults. These and observations from the 19"" century suggest that the species occurs in small troops or families. Densities ranged from 0-4-2 ind/km? in a reserve on the north peninsula to 1:8-19-8 ind/km? and 5-1-14-5 ind/km? in two reserves on the south-east peninsula. A recent study in those reserves found even higher densities in lowland forest (23-5 ind/km?). Such major differences in density are thought to result from varying hunting pressure, with Muslim-dominated areas, where people do not eat pigs, having higher population densities than areas where Christians predominate. With inter-island trade being common, however,it is unclear to what extent Muslimdominated areas become suppliers to the Christian ones. Also, in the south-east peninsula, which is mostly Muslim, S. celebensishas apparently been extirpated, so obviously religious affinity is not sufficient to prevent local extinction of the species.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List based on the level of the main threats, habitat loss and hunting. S. celebensisis a species of the central and eastern islands of Indonesia, occurring east of Wallace's Line, which separates the faunas and floras with Oriental affiliation in the west from the Australasian ones in the east. Generally the species is considered to be common, although statements along these lines have been repeated for decades without actual field surveys providing supporting information. S. celebensishas a patchy distribution on most of SulawesiIsland; it is most common in the south-eastern parts of the island. The species has been considered scarce in south-west Sulawesifor over two decades because of ongoing deforestation and hunting. Decreasing sign of pigs in various parts of southern Sulawesiwas noted as early as 1938. Extensive logging and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration, have resulted in the marked contraction and fragmentation ofits range in most places. Market surveys also indicate that the species is under high hunting pressure. For example, brief surveys of three village markets in north-eastern Sulawesiconcluded that about 2-20 wild pigs per week were being sold by commercial hunters and slaughtered by butchers when needed. Wild piglets that are caught by villagers in Sulawesiare kept and usually raised for slaughter for eating or sold at the local market. The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of the current harvesting rate. The fact that the species is not protected outside certain protected areas, and can therefore be openly hunted and traded, makesit difficult to reduce consumption to more sustainable levels. Surveys within protected areas also show that the species is commonly hunted there, and in three protected areas in north Sulawesino sign at all was found of S. celebensis. It is clear that there are few if any areas where the species can be considered secure. S. celebensisis of particular interest in that it is the only pig species, apart from S. scrofathat has been domesticated and quite widely transported by human agency outsideits original range. The available evidence indicates that it is still maintained as a domestic in some areas, but its commercial importance and future potential as a genetic resource are unknown.","Alvard (2000) | Bosma et al. (1991) | Budiarso (1991) | Burton (2002) | Burton & Macdonald (20086, 2008) | Clason (1976) | Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000) | Clayton et al. (1997) | Dobney et al. (2008) | Groves (1981) | Hooijer (1969) | Huffman (1999) | Keeling et al. (1999) | Larson, Cucchi et al. (2007) | Larson, Dobney et al. (2005) | Lee et al. (2005) | Macdonald (1991b, 1993) | Macdonald et al. (1996) | Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002) | Nehring (1889) | O'Brien & Kinnaird (1996) | Riley (2002) | von Rosenberg (1865) | Toxopeus (1938) | Wiles et al. (2002)",,"14.SulawesiWarty PigSus celebensisFrench:Sanglier des Célébes/ German:Sulawesi-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide CélebesTaxonomy.Sus celebensis Muller & Schlegel, 1843,Manado, Celebes.Genetic studies have suggested that S. celebensisforms two clades, one restricted to northern Sulawesiand the other to the remainder of the species’ range. This can be explained either by the occurrence of two colonization events onto Sulawesior the historic fragmentation of the island into at least two parts. Taxonomic differentiation between the two clades is not sufficiently supported by morphological studies, although the average skull size of S. celebensiswas found to be considerably greater for southern Sulawesithan for northern Sulawesi. Provisionally monotypic.Distribution.Sulawesiand adjacent Is (Buton, Kabaena, Muna, Peleng, Lembeh, and on some of the Togian Is); thought to be extinct on Selayar I. Pigs have been widely domesticated through the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This primarily involved the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), but also S. celebensis, the only other species of pig successfully domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA studies of the dispersion of these domesticated forms agree on three major dispersal events, two involving S. scrofaand one S. celebensis. Evidence supports an early human-mediated translocation of S. celebensisto Floresand Timor and two later, separate human-mediated dispersals of domestic pig through islands of SE Asia into Oceania. In addition to Floresand Timor, S. celebensisis also thought to occur in its domesticated form on Halmahera, Lendu, Roti, and Savur Is, and even on Simeulue and Nias Is to the W of Sumatraand far from its island of origin, Sulawesi. In the Moluccas, and possibly elsewhere in this region, introduced S. celebensisare thought to have hybridized with other introduced pigs of S. scrofaderivation, and apparent hybrids between these species are now reported to survive on a number of islands, including Salawatti, Great Kei, Dobu, Seram, Ambon, Bacan, Ternate, Morotai, and New Guinea. It is also reported that in the 19"" century the sows of domestic pigs in Sulawesi frequently mated with wild animals, after which they returned to their villages.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80-130 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 70 cm; weight 40-70 kg. Adult animals are usually dark-haired, although some individuals are reddish-brown or yellowish in color, sometimes with lighter colored hairs on the trunk and abdomen. There is always a dark dorsal stripe, and a clear yellow snout band is usually present. A short mane and distinct crest of longer hair on the crown or forehead has been recorded for captive animals, but observations on 27 animals in the wild in north Sulawesifound no instances of a crest as long as in the zoo specimens. This might be because, as in the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) and the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), prominent manes and crests may only occur during the breeding season (in the case of these latter species, from late November to April). It is unclear when the wild observations on S. celebensiswere made. Young are born with five dark brown and six pale horizontalstripes along the length of their bodies, which they lose at an age of about six months. Adult males have three pairs of facial warts, the preorbital pair being the largest, the infraorbital somewhat smaller, and the mandibular warts emerging from a whorl of hair that first marks their position; the warts enlarge and eventually dominate (at least in captive specimens). The legs are relatively very short, and the back is short and slightly convex. Thetail is long and simply tufted. Adult males are larger than sows, averaging 70 cmat the shoulder in males as opposed to 60 cmin females. Recent forms are larger than the subfossil remains found in caves in southern Sulawesi. S. celebensishas a chromosome number of 38. There are significant differences in the banding of the Y chromosome of S. celebensis, however, when compared with either S. scrofaor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus).Habitat.This species is reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including rainforests, swamps, high grassland terrains, and agricultural areas. It is found at elevations up to moss forest at about 2300 m, but it prefers valleys.Food and Feeding.Little is known about the feeding behavior of S. celebensis. Roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots are thought to constitute the bulk of their diet, with invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion as occasional secondary additions. However, no quantitative data are available about percentages of these itemsin their diets, and how this varies over time and in different habitats. Unlike babirusas, S. celebensishas been observed to consume grasses, although this is based on brief observations only.Breeding.Mating is reported to occur in February, although this is based on only one observation. Births can occur at any time throughout the year but sows usually have their young in April or May. Gestation length is not known for certain, and the suggestion that it may be between 16 and 20 weeks should be treated with caution. Farrowing sows give birth in nests made of grasses, leaves, branches, and twigs piled over a shallow excavation approximately 2 min length. Litter size has been estimated as 2-8 piglets, with an average offive, although a study in North Sulawesiin 1991 found six pregnant sows killed by hunters to be carrying only 1-3 fetuses, with a mean of only 2-17 fetuses per pregnancy.Activity patterns.The SulawesiWarty Pig is primarily diurnal. Most feeding activity observed in relatively undisturbed areas occurs during the daylight hours, concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Few data exist on group size, but observations around a salt lick recorded single animals (five times), pairs (two times), groups of three (four times), and one group of six. In another population the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1-25 (n = 25) and group size was 2-9, with an average of five (n = 16). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults, and 1-3 adults. These and observations from the 19"" century suggest that the species occurs in small troops or families. Densities ranged from 0-4-2 ind/km? in a reserve on the north peninsula to 1:8-19-8 ind/km? and 5-1-14-5 ind/km? in two reserves on the south-east peninsula. A recent study in those reserves found even higher densities in lowland forest (23-5 ind/km?). Such major differences in density are thought to result from varying hunting pressure, with Muslim-dominated areas, where people do not eat pigs, having higher population densities than areas where Christians predominate. With inter-island trade being common, however,it is unclear to what extent Muslimdominated areas become suppliers to the Christian ones. Also, in the south-east peninsula, which is mostly Muslim, S. celebensishas apparently been extirpated, so obviously religious affinity is not sufficient to prevent local extinction of the species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List based on the level of the main threats, habitat loss and hunting. S. celebensisis a species of the central and eastern islands of Indonesia, occurring east of Wallace's Line, which separates the faunas and floras with Oriental affiliation in the west from the Australasian ones in the east. Generally the species is considered to be common, although statements along these lines have been repeated for decades without actual field surveys providing supporting information. S. celebensishas a patchy distribution on most of SulawesiIsland; it is most common in the south-eastern parts of the island. The species has been considered scarce in south-west Sulawesifor over two decades because of ongoing deforestation and hunting. Decreasing sign of pigs in various parts of southern Sulawesiwas noted as early as 1938. Extensive logging and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration, have resulted in the marked contraction and fragmentation ofits range in most places. Market surveys also indicate that the species is under high hunting pressure. For example, brief surveys of three village markets in north-eastern Sulawesiconcluded that about 2-20 wild pigs per week were being sold by commercial hunters and slaughtered by butchers when needed. Wild piglets that are caught by villagers in Sulawesiare kept and usually raised for slaughter for eating or sold at the local market. The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of the current harvesting rate. The fact that the species is not protected outside certain protected areas, and can therefore be openly hunted and traded, makesit difficult to reduce consumption to more sustainable levels. Surveys within protected areas also show that the species is commonly hunted there, and in three protected areas in north Sulawesino sign at all was found of S. celebensis. It is clear that there are few if any areas where the species can be considered secure. S. celebensisis of particular interest in that it is the only pig species, apart from S. scrofathat has been domesticated and quite widely transported by human agency outsideits original range. The available evidence indicates that it is still maintained as a domestic in some areas, but its commercial importance and future potential as a genetic resource are unknown.Bibliography.Alvard (2000), Bosma et al. (1991), Budiarso (1991), Burton (2002), Burton & Macdonald (20086, 2008), Clason (1976), Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (1997), Dobney et al. (2008), Groves (1981), Hooijer (1969), Huffman (1999), Keeling et al. (1999), Larson, Cucchi et al. (2007), Larson, Dobney et al. (2005), Lee et al. (2005), Macdonald (1991b, 1993), Macdonald et al. (1996), Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002), Nehring (1889), O'Brien & Kinnaird (1996), Riley (2002), von Rosenberg (1865), Toxopeus (1938), Wiles et al. (2002)." -038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,285,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A.xml,Sus barbatus,Sus,barbatus,Muller,1838,Sanglier barbu @fr | Bartschwein @de | Jabalibarbudo @es,"Sus barbatus Muller, 1838,Banjermasin, S. Kalimantan, Indonesia.The seemingly absurd subspecific name 0: has been commented on by several authors. Apparently the name was split from a Sumatran tribal name for pig “nangoi,” with only the last bit of the word used. Two subspecies are recognized.","S.b.barbatusMuller,1838—BorneoandassociatedIs,possiblyextendingtoTawiTawi.S. b. oi Miller, 1902— Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Bangka.","Head—body 137-152 cm (males, although some reports suggest that males can attain a total length of 208 cm) and 122-148 cm (females), tail 17-26 cm, shoulder height 90 cm, hindfoot 27-32 cm; weight usually ranges from 58 kgto 83 kg, with females somewhat lighter than males. When food is abundant, weights of up to 200 kgcan be attained. Adult Bearded Pigs are characterized by their relatively large body size, reduced sexual dimorphism compared to other species of Sus, long legs, a bearded jaw tuft, and sparse body hair. The species has smaller warts and a more elongated skull than the other warty pigs, relatively small ears, and a long tail with a large terminal tuft divided into distinct anterior and posterior parts. The head is typically long, with a beard of bristles extending along the lower mandibles and a thick band of forward-pointing bristles across the snout above the mouth. The nominate subspecies barbatushas long, sweeping cheek whiskers and thicker and longer hairs on the snout band (especially in males); the whiskers of the subspecies oi are shorter on the cheeks, but long and wiry over the snout. It has been suggested that the body of oi is flatter bilaterally than that of barbatus, but this has not been confirmed. The overall body coloration of Bearded Pigs varies from blackish in young pigs to a paler reddish brown, yellow-gray, or almost buffy white in adults. The color of mud wallows affects the apparent color of pigs. Piglets of the Bearded Pig are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; these stripes are lost by six months of age. Females have six pairs of mammae.","Bearded Pigs are well adapted to the extensive dipterocarp forests of Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. This tree family is often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting. Bearded Pigs also make extensive use of riverbanks, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms. Other habitats they use include estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of oldjungle, beaches, all kinds of plantations, clearings, and also the outskirts of towns. The species is well known forits migratory behavior. Bearded Pigs are scattered across large regions during non-mast fruiting times, but move from both mountain and swamp habitats to drier lowland forests when fruit becomes abundant.","Bearded Pigs are real omnivores and it has been said that “it is almost easier to state what they will not eat.” They feed on a long list of food plants, but also consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, and carrion. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition, and reproduction. The other foods that normally occur in the forest are assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaeare thought to be especially important. During mast fruiting the majority of seeds in the diet are dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species. Oaks, especially Castinopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., and Quercus spp., are also favorites. During fruiting times, they are almost solely seed predators, and Bearded Pigs play an important role in the distribution of seeds. They also consume a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes, and other tiny, hard testas, which can pass through their guts and germinate.","Age at first pregnancy varies in the wild from about 10 to 20 months. The rut appears to coincide with synchronized flowering in the forest, occuring during the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer observers a potential visual cue. During the onset of droughts and related flowering of dipterocarps, male Bearded Pigs rut and females construct nests. In big fruiting years, Bearded Pigs can “double-clutch.” This suggests that a certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they are receptive to mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1-5, whereas rutting males scored zero on this measure (n = 19). Gestation length is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Births occur in a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female was seven (n = 53), which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Litter size is, however, very variable in part because of the influence of female size; small mothers typically have 3—4 piglets in a litter and large ones have 10-12.","Bearded Pigs are mostly diurnal. They are subject to irregular migrations, seeming to follow fruit when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for many years after. The ripening of illipe nuts (Shorea sp.) in Sarawakand East Kalimantan appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations. These mass migrations of Bearded Pigs are distinct from annual local movements damaging rice fields. The somewhat forced, lemminglike aspects of these large scale pig migrations are exemplified by the observation of a pig whose hindquarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward byits front legs to follow its conspecifics. The appearance of large numbers of pigs traveling together is especially obvious during river crossings, which they do in groups of over 100 animals. This provides local hunters with the opportunity to kill large numbers of pigs for meat and fat, from which they extract oils. Mass river crossings might have evolved at a time when crocodiles were still abundant in the region. Bearded Pigs appear to exist in different population states, which have been summarized as follows. 1) Dispersed,static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous “background” food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 2) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous “target” food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia-Burseraceae forest in Peninsular Malaysia. 3) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic mosaic of fruit production. Short to medium-range movements. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 4) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable, and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply. Examples: Dryobalanopsaromatica association in Peninsular Malaysia; Dinochloa association in Sabah. 5) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for severallitters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawakin 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987. 6) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported from Malaya and Borneo. It remains largely unstudied how these different population states have been affected by the continuing loss, degradation, and fragmentation of forest habitats. Unconfirmed information from local people in Kalimantan and Sarawaksuggests that mass migrations of pigs no longer occur to the same extent as reported formerly, even as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, which might indicate that with the removal of millions of hectares of high timber value dipterocarp forests food dynamics and related population states have been severely disrupted.","The basic social unit is that of a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. The pigs’ movements vary so much throughout the year and between years that no reliable home range estimates can be made unless animals are radio-tracked for several years. Such studies have recently been completed in Sabah, Malaysia, but the data are not yet available. Bearded Pigs are powerful swimmers and easily cross the many large rivers of Borneo and Sumatra. They have also been reported to cross seas, which might explain why they occur on so many small islands. A report from the 19"" century mentions droves of pigs swimming across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo, a distance of about 8 km. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs crossing the sea channel between Sabahand Sibutu (a distance of some 45 km), and also the Kowie harbor near Tawau, which is at least 9 km. A Bearded Pig was found swimming in the middle of the Sandakan Bay in Sabah, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, 5 kmaway.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, mostly because of the rapid loss of its forest habitat and high hunting pressure throughoutits range. The Bearded Pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo. It is also reported from the island of Sibutu, west of the SuluArchipelago in the Philippines, and possibly on Tawi Tawi Island. In Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a relatively small part ofits presumed prehistoric range. In Borneo the species is still widespread but likely declining. There are additional records from a range of smaller islands, where the status of the speciesis unclear but populations have possibly been extirpated. This includes the islands of Balembangan, Banggi, Batam, Bauwal, Bintan, Bruit, Bunju, Burung, Durian Besar, Galang, Jambongan, Juanata, Karimata, Kundur, Lamukotan, Laut, Malawali, Mapor, Miang Besar, Molleangen, Panebangan, Pelapis, Ransang, Rempang, Rupat, Sauh, Sebuku, Sibutu, Tarakan, Tebing Tinggi, and Ungar. Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as Bearded Pigs for at least 35,000 years. Holocene and prehistoric cave finds in Sabah, Sarawak, and East Kalimantan indicate that Bearded Pigs have been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Bearded Pig was hunted but was apparently fairly plentiful and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1500-2000 years ago. Overhunting has since led to population declines. In some parts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, Bearded Pigs had already been hunted to near extinction by the 1920s. More recently, the threat of extinction is becoming a reality in many more parts of their range, where overhunting, logging, and conversion of forests have caused a rapid decline in Bearded Pig populations. Overhunting has also likely led to the extermination of many small-island populations. In 1906, such extinctions were reported for the Penata and Kebun Islands in the Burung group of northern West Kalimantan, and presumably extinctions have also occurred in the often densely settled islands where Bearded Pigs used to occur. It has been estimated that hunters in Sarawaktake an annual harvest of up to one million or more pigs, making wild pork meat of considerable economic significance. This is quite often related to commercial timber extraction. One typical logging camp in Sarawakkilled as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found to be wasteful, with pigs being killed on sight even if the worker did not need the meat. In one logging area, for example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leave the rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day. Bearded Pigs are by far the most preferred species of wild meat throughout Sarawakand Sabah, where they comprise as much as 72% of the dressed weight of all animals hunted. In these areas, the impact of hunting seems clear, with a significant correlation between hunting pressure and animal density. This pattern is so strong that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated, including Bearded Pigs, decreases, until all large animals are locally extirpated. This pattern of high hunting pressure on these animals is also found among Penan and Kenyah tribes in East Kalimantan, where pigs contributed 79-8% of all catches and 91% ofall the edible meat. On average these people consume of 133-6 kg of pig meat per person per year. The estimate for Sarawakis 12 kgof pig meat per person per year. In Peninsular Malaysia, the more sedentary population of Bearded Pigs, apparently associated with continuously fruiting Koompassia-Burseraceae forests, is endangered by hunting as well as habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced on the peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favored Indonesian Banded Pigs (S. scrofavittatus) over Bearded Pigs in those parts of Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra where sympatry between these species occurs. This poses a further, and potentially serious, threat to Bearded Pigs. Available data indicate that wherever these two species are sympatric, the number of Eurasian Wild Pigs is greater than the number of Bearded Pigs, and that the Eurasian Wild Pig now has a much wider range of distribution than the Bearded Pig throughout these regions. In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya. A comparison between the current distribution of Bearded Pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago, where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear. These animals are also potentially threatened by various contagious diseases. For example, a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the domestic cattle population of south-east Borneo between 1871 and 1872 evidently spread to both domestic pigs and Bearded Pig populations over large parts of Borneo. Several similar and successive outbreaks of rinderpest in domestic cattle between 1878 and 1894 also killed off large numbers of these animals. The most serious may have been an epidemic in 1894, when populations of Bearded Pigs had already been severely reduced by epidemics in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. A final epidemic occurred in 1906, when a great many Bearded Pigs succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area in South Kalimantan. There are no recent records of such epidemics, but the proximity of domestic animals to remaining Bearded Pig populations is a potentially serious threat, particularly at times when the pigs may already be nutritionally stressed.","Banks(1931) | Barton et al. (2009) | Bennett et al. (2000) | Boden Kloss (1905) | Caldecott (1988, 1991a, 1991b) | Caldecott & Caldecott (1985) | Caldecott, Blouch et al. (1993) | Chin(2001) | Cranbrook & Labang (2003) | Curran & Leighton (2000) | Curran & Webb (2000) | Genov (2004) | Hancock et al. (2004, 2006) | Ickes (2001) | Ickes & DeWalt (1999) | Kawanishi, Gumal & Oliver (2008) | Kawanishi, Richardson & Lazarus (2006) | Kempe (1948) | Kloss (1931) | Knapen (1997) | Linkie & Sadikin (2003) | Lyon (1908) | Medway(1977) | Meijaard (2000) | Ong et al. (1999) | Pfeffer (1959) | Pfeffer & Caldecott (1986) | Piper & Rabett (2009)",,"13.Bearded PigSus barbatusFrench:Sanglier barbu/ German:Bartschwein/ Spanish:JabalibarbudoTaxonomy.Sus barbatus Muller, 1838,Banjermasin, S. Kalimantan, Indonesia.The seemingly absurd subspecific name 0: has been commented on by several authors. Apparently the name was split from a Sumatran tribal name for pig “nangoi,” with only the last bit of the word used. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.barbatusMuller,1838—BorneoandassociatedIs,possiblyextendingtoTawiTawi.S. b. oi Miller, 1902— Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Bangka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 137-152 cm (males, although some reports suggest that males can attain a total length of 208 cm) and 122-148 cm (females), tail 17-26 cm, shoulder height 90 cm, hindfoot 27-32 cm; weight usually ranges from 58 kgto 83 kg, with females somewhat lighter than males. When food is abundant, weights of up to 200 kgcan be attained. Adult Bearded Pigs are characterized by their relatively large body size, reduced sexual dimorphism compared to other species of Sus, long legs, a bearded jaw tuft, and sparse body hair. The species has smaller warts and a more elongated skull than the other warty pigs, relatively small ears, and a long tail with a large terminal tuft divided into distinct anterior and posterior parts. The head is typically long, with a beard of bristles extending along the lower mandibles and a thick band of forward-pointing bristles across the snout above the mouth. The nominate subspecies barbatushas long, sweeping cheek whiskers and thicker and longer hairs on the snout band (especially in males); the whiskers of the subspecies oi are shorter on the cheeks, but long and wiry over the snout. It has been suggested that the body of oi is flatter bilaterally than that of barbatus, but this has not been confirmed. The overall body coloration of Bearded Pigs varies from blackish in young pigs to a paler reddish brown, yellow-gray, or almost buffy white in adults. The color of mud wallows affects the apparent color of pigs. Piglets of the Bearded Pig are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; these stripes are lost by six months of age. Females have six pairs of mammae.Habitat.Bearded Pigs are well adapted to the extensive dipterocarp forests of Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. This tree family is often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting. Bearded Pigs also make extensive use of riverbanks, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms. Other habitats they use include estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of oldjungle, beaches, all kinds of plantations, clearings, and also the outskirts of towns. The species is well known forits migratory behavior. Bearded Pigs are scattered across large regions during non-mast fruiting times, but move from both mountain and swamp habitats to drier lowland forests when fruit becomes abundant.Food and Feeding.Bearded Pigs are real omnivores and it has been said that “it is almost easier to state what they will not eat.” They feed on a long list of food plants, but also consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, and carrion. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition, and reproduction. The other foods that normally occur in the forest are assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaeare thought to be especially important. During mast fruiting the majority of seeds in the diet are dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species. Oaks, especially Castinopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., and Quercus spp., are also favorites. During fruiting times, they are almost solely seed predators, and Bearded Pigs play an important role in the distribution of seeds. They also consume a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes, and other tiny, hard testas, which can pass through their guts and germinate.Breeding.Age at first pregnancy varies in the wild from about 10 to 20 months. The rut appears to coincide with synchronized flowering in the forest, occuring during the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer observers a potential visual cue. During the onset of droughts and related flowering of dipterocarps, male Bearded Pigs rut and females construct nests. In big fruiting years, Bearded Pigs can “double-clutch.” This suggests that a certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they are receptive to mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1-5, whereas rutting males scored zero on this measure (n = 19). Gestation length is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Births occur in a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female was seven (n = 53), which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Litter size is, however, very variable in part because of the influence of female size; small mothers typically have 3—4 piglets in a litter and large ones have 10-12.Activity patterns.Bearded Pigs are mostly diurnal. They are subject to irregular migrations, seeming to follow fruit when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for many years after. The ripening of illipe nuts (Shorea sp.) in Sarawakand East Kalimantan appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations. These mass migrations of Bearded Pigs are distinct from annual local movements damaging rice fields. The somewhat forced, lemminglike aspects of these large scale pig migrations are exemplified by the observation of a pig whose hindquarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward byits front legs to follow its conspecifics. The appearance of large numbers of pigs traveling together is especially obvious during river crossings, which they do in groups of over 100 animals. This provides local hunters with the opportunity to kill large numbers of pigs for meat and fat, from which they extract oils. Mass river crossings might have evolved at a time when crocodiles were still abundant in the region. Bearded Pigs appear to exist in different population states, which have been summarized as follows. 1) Dispersed,static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous “background” food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 2) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous “target” food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia-Burseraceae forest in Peninsular Malaysia. 3) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic mosaic of fruit production. Short to medium-range movements. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 4) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable, and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply. Examples: Dryobalanopsaromatica association in Peninsular Malaysia; Dinochloa association in Sabah. 5) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for severallitters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawakin 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987. 6) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported from Malaya and Borneo. It remains largely unstudied how these different population states have been affected by the continuing loss, degradation, and fragmentation of forest habitats. Unconfirmed information from local people in Kalimantan and Sarawaksuggests that mass migrations of pigs no longer occur to the same extent as reported formerly, even as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, which might indicate that with the removal of millions of hectares of high timber value dipterocarp forests food dynamics and related population states have been severely disrupted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is that of a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. The pigs’ movements vary so much throughout the year and between years that no reliable home range estimates can be made unless animals are radio-tracked for several years. Such studies have recently been completed in Sabah, Malaysia, but the data are not yet available. Bearded Pigs are powerful swimmers and easily cross the many large rivers of Borneo and Sumatra. They have also been reported to cross seas, which might explain why they occur on so many small islands. A report from the 19"" century mentions droves of pigs swimming across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo, a distance of about 8 km. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs crossing the sea channel between Sabahand Sibutu (a distance of some 45 km), and also the Kowie harbor near Tawau, which is at least 9 km. A Bearded Pig was found swimming in the middle of the Sandakan Bay in Sabah, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, 5 kmaway.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, mostly because of the rapid loss of its forest habitat and high hunting pressure throughoutits range. The Bearded Pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo. It is also reported from the island of Sibutu, west of the SuluArchipelago in the Philippines, and possibly on Tawi Tawi Island. In Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a relatively small part ofits presumed prehistoric range. In Borneo the species is still widespread but likely declining. There are additional records from a range of smaller islands, where the status of the speciesis unclear but populations have possibly been extirpated. This includes the islands of Balembangan, Banggi, Batam, Bauwal, Bintan, Bruit, Bunju, Burung, Durian Besar, Galang, Jambongan, Juanata, Karimata, Kundur, Lamukotan, Laut, Malawali, Mapor, Miang Besar, Molleangen, Panebangan, Pelapis, Ransang, Rempang, Rupat, Sauh, Sebuku, Sibutu, Tarakan, Tebing Tinggi, and Ungar. Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as Bearded Pigs for at least 35,000 years. Holocene and prehistoric cave finds in Sabah, Sarawak, and East Kalimantan indicate that Bearded Pigs have been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Bearded Pig was hunted but was apparently fairly plentiful and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1500-2000 years ago. Overhunting has since led to population declines. In some parts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, Bearded Pigs had already been hunted to near extinction by the 1920s. More recently, the threat of extinction is becoming a reality in many more parts of their range, where overhunting, logging, and conversion of forests have caused a rapid decline in Bearded Pig populations. Overhunting has also likely led to the extermination of many small-island populations. In 1906, such extinctions were reported for the Penata and Kebun Islands in the Burung group of northern West Kalimantan, and presumably extinctions have also occurred in the often densely settled islands where Bearded Pigs used to occur. It has been estimated that hunters in Sarawaktake an annual harvest of up to one million or more pigs, making wild pork meat of considerable economic significance. This is quite often related to commercial timber extraction. One typical logging camp in Sarawakkilled as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found to be wasteful, with pigs being killed on sight even if the worker did not need the meat. In one logging area, for example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leave the rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day. Bearded Pigs are by far the most preferred species of wild meat throughout Sarawakand Sabah, where they comprise as much as 72% of the dressed weight of all animals hunted. In these areas, the impact of hunting seems clear, with a significant correlation between hunting pressure and animal density. This pattern is so strong that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated, including Bearded Pigs, decreases, until all large animals are locally extirpated. This pattern of high hunting pressure on these animals is also found among Penan and Kenyah tribes in East Kalimantan, where pigs contributed 79-8% of all catches and 91% ofall the edible meat. On average these people consume of 133-6 kg of pig meat per person per year. The estimate for Sarawakis 12 kgof pig meat per person per year. In Peninsular Malaysia, the more sedentary population of Bearded Pigs, apparently associated with continuously fruiting Koompassia-Burseraceae forests, is endangered by hunting as well as habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced on the peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favored Indonesian Banded Pigs (S. scrofavittatus) over Bearded Pigs in those parts of Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra where sympatry between these species occurs. This poses a further, and potentially serious, threat to Bearded Pigs. Available data indicate that wherever these two species are sympatric, the number of Eurasian Wild Pigs is greater than the number of Bearded Pigs, and that the Eurasian Wild Pig now has a much wider range of distribution than the Bearded Pig throughout these regions. In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya. A comparison between the current distribution of Bearded Pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago, where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear. These animals are also potentially threatened by various contagious diseases. For example, a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the domestic cattle population of south-east Borneo between 1871 and 1872 evidently spread to both domestic pigs and Bearded Pig populations over large parts of Borneo. Several similar and successive outbreaks of rinderpest in domestic cattle between 1878 and 1894 also killed off large numbers of these animals. The most serious may have been an epidemic in 1894, when populations of Bearded Pigs had already been severely reduced by epidemics in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. A final epidemic occurred in 1906, when a great many Bearded Pigs succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area in South Kalimantan. There are no recent records of such epidemics, but the proximity of domestic animals to remaining Bearded Pig populations is a potentially serious threat, particularly at times when the pigs may already be nutritionally stressed.Bibliography.Banks(1931), Barton et al. (2009), Bennett et al. (2000), Boden Kloss (1905), Caldecott (1988, 1991a, 1991b), Caldecott & Caldecott (1985), Caldecott, Blouch et al. (1993), Chin(2001), Cranbrook & Labang (2003), Curran & Leighton (2000), Curran & Webb (2000), Genov (2004), Hancock et al. (2004, 2006), Ickes (2001), Ickes & DeWalt (1999), Kawanishi, Gumal & Oliver (2008), Kawanishi, Richardson & Lazarus (2006), Kempe (1948), Kloss (1931), Knapen (1997), Linkie & Sadikin (2003), Lyon (1908), Medway(1977), Meijaard (2000), Ong et al. (1999), Pfeffer (1959), Pfeffer & Caldecott (1986), Piper & Rabett (2009)." -038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,285,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10.xml,Sus ahoenobarbus,Sus,ahoenobarbus,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier de Palawan @fr | Palawan-Bartschwein @de | Jabalibarbudo de Palawan @es,"Sus barbatusahoenobarbus Huet, 1888,“Palauan” (= Palawan).Susahoenobarbus was originally described as a subspecies of the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus), but was upgraded to full species because ofits distinct characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis based on two mt DNA cytochrome b fragments (mtDNA cyt b) pacha that S. ahoenobarbus was more closely related to the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) than to S. barbatus, of which it was originally thought to be a subspecies. Morphologically it is, however, more similar to S. barbatus, as evidenced by their conspicuous beards and absence of the prominent manes and mandibular facial warts characteristic of Philippine Warty Pigs (S. philippensis). Also, the chromosome number, which is 38 inS. ahoenobarbus, S. barbatus, and almost all other Susspecies, but is 36 inS. cebifrons and S. philippinensis, suggests a closer affinity to S. barbatus. As was stated in the taxonomic review of the species by C. P. Groves, “there is absolutely no doubt that this form is a dwarf barbatus.” In view of more recent evidence, it is unclear whether there are issues of data interpretation underlying this apparent contradiction in phylogenetic affinity, or whether there is another explanation. For example, hybridization may have occurred between barbatusand cebifrons, so that ahoenobarbus maintains characteristics of both species. Until further research is conducted, the phylogenetic affinities of S. ahoenobarbus remain unclear. Monotypic.","Palawanand associated Is (Calauit, Busuanga, Bacbac, Coron, Marily, Culion & Dumaran, Linapacan in the N, and Bugsuk, Balabac & Ramos in the S). Probably now extinct in Bulalacao.","Head—body 100-160 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight up to 150 kg. This species is smaller than S. barbatus, and has a shorter facial skeleton. The hair is thin, bristly, and blackish-brown over most of the animal, but adults have a distinct mane of longer whitish hairs extending from crown to rump and a characteristic beard of long white hairs on the cheeks and jowls that extends in a band across the snout. This band with black hairs around the eyes, forehead, and more anterior parts of the snout, provides a mask-like appearance. Infants lack manes and beards and are generally far less distinctly marked, except for three horizontal bands of orange-colored hair extending from their necks to their hindquarters; the lower band is much broader and extends over most of the lowersides of their bodies.","It occurs in a variety of primary and secondary habitats, ranging from lowland and mid-montane rainforests (0—c. 1500 mabove sea level) to drier open woodland and grasslands. It also frequents drier limestone and mangrove forests in coastal areas and occurs in cultivated and managed areas.","Although this has not been studied,it is thought that ecologically S. ahoenobarbus is similar to the Bearded Pig from Borneo, which consumes roots, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and a great range of plants, especially favoring lipidrich fruit of the Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaefamilies.",Nothing is known.,"Little is known, except that the species is most often seen or reported to be active in the early mornings and late afternoons in relatively undisturbed areas, but tends to be almost exclusively nocturnal in areas where hunting and other anthropogenic disturbances are commonplace.","Almost nothing is known. Most local hunters and other informants report that they seldom see more than two or three individuals together, though it is likely that larger natal family units and other socioreproductive groups are maintained in less disturbed areas.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the “ PalawanFaunal Region,” which extends from Balabac and associated islands in the extreme south-west through all of PalawanIsland and its associated offshore islets, as far as the Calamian Islands in the extreme north-east. However, this region also constitutes the easternmost extension of the Sunda Shelf and was intermittently connected by land bridges to Borneo by sea level changes during consecutive Pleistocene glaciations. The species remains relatively widely, if increasingly patchily, distributed. It is heavily hunted throughout most of its range, either for direct consumption or to be sold. One kilogram of pork fetches a price of about twice the price of domestic pork. Pigs are hunted throughout the year, but especially during forest tree-fruiting periods (no specifics are known) when pigs gather to forage on fallen fruits. They are also killed in reprisal for their occasional raids on neighboring forest gardens or other cultivated areas. Hunting methods include snares, low caliberrifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as “pig bombs,” which are made of ping-pong-ball-sized mixtures of gunpowder and shards of porcelain, coated with fish paste or other strong-smelling baits to entice the pigs. These are buried on pig trails or around cultivated plants close to forest edges. They explode when they are unearthed and bitten into by foraging pigs,killing the pigs or, more likely, causing horrendous wounds and producing trails that hunters with dogs can follow to collect the dead or dying animals the following day. S. ahoenobarbus is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas, because ofillegal “kaingin” (slashand-burn agriculture), mining, and other commercial developments. The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced and/or realistically unenforceable in most areas—including most designated protected areas. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation and the addition of new protected areas, which should be designed to enable greater management by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national system. Awareness campaigns are also important: few hinterland communities are aware of any prevailing wildlife protection legislation, or disregard the laws because of the chronic lack of enforcement by salient governmental authorities. This is especially the case where reprisals against the pigs follow their occasional raids on crops; the reprisals are likely to illicit sympathy and non-action from the responsible agencies. Farming in protected areas and reprisals against the pigs are justified by claims of poverty and loss of livelihood,in spite of the highly dubious nature of such claims. Many claimants are not economically dependent on hunting, but instead hunt for predominately traditional/cultural and recreational reasons.","Boissiére & Liswanti (2006) | Caldecott et al. (1993) | Esselstyn et al. (2004) | Groves (2001a, 2001b) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Lucchini et al. (2005) | Oliver (1995, 2008) | Rabor (1977) | Widmann et al. (2008)",,"12.PalawanBearded PigSus ahoenobarbusFrench:Sanglier de Palawan/ German:Palawan-Bartschwein/ Spanish:Jabalibarbudo de PalawanTaxonomy.Sus barbatusahoenobarbus Huet, 1888,“Palauan” (= Palawan).Susahoenobarbus was originally described as a subspecies of the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus), but was upgraded to full species because ofits distinct characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis based on two mt DNA cytochrome b fragments (mtDNA cyt b) pacha that S. ahoenobarbus was more closely related to the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) than to S. barbatus, of which it was originally thought to be a subspecies. Morphologically it is, however, more similar to S. barbatus, as evidenced by their conspicuous beards and absence of the prominent manes and mandibular facial warts characteristic of Philippine Warty Pigs (S. philippensis). Also, the chromosome number, which is 38 inS. ahoenobarbus, S. barbatus, and almost all other Susspecies, but is 36 inS. cebifrons and S. philippinensis, suggests a closer affinity to S. barbatus. As was stated in the taxonomic review of the species by C. P. Groves, “there is absolutely no doubt that this form is a dwarf barbatus.” In view of more recent evidence, it is unclear whether there are issues of data interpretation underlying this apparent contradiction in phylogenetic affinity, or whether there is another explanation. For example, hybridization may have occurred between barbatusand cebifrons, so that ahoenobarbus maintains characteristics of both species. Until further research is conducted, the phylogenetic affinities of S. ahoenobarbus remain unclear. Monotypic.Distribution.Palawanand associated Is (Calauit, Busuanga, Bacbac, Coron, Marily, Culion & Dumaran, Linapacan in the N, and Bugsuk, Balabac & Ramos in the S). Probably now extinct in Bulalacao.Descriptive notes.Head—body 100-160 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight up to 150 kg. This species is smaller than S. barbatus, and has a shorter facial skeleton. The hair is thin, bristly, and blackish-brown over most of the animal, but adults have a distinct mane of longer whitish hairs extending from crown to rump and a characteristic beard of long white hairs on the cheeks and jowls that extends in a band across the snout. This band with black hairs around the eyes, forehead, and more anterior parts of the snout, provides a mask-like appearance. Infants lack manes and beards and are generally far less distinctly marked, except for three horizontal bands of orange-colored hair extending from their necks to their hindquarters; the lower band is much broader and extends over most of the lowersides of their bodies.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of primary and secondary habitats, ranging from lowland and mid-montane rainforests (0—c. 1500 mabove sea level) to drier open woodland and grasslands. It also frequents drier limestone and mangrove forests in coastal areas and occurs in cultivated and managed areas.Food and Feeding.Although this has not been studied,it is thought that ecologically S. ahoenobarbus is similar to the Bearded Pig from Borneo, which consumes roots, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and a great range of plants, especially favoring lipidrich fruit of the Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaefamilies.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known, except that the species is most often seen or reported to be active in the early mornings and late afternoons in relatively undisturbed areas, but tends to be almost exclusively nocturnal in areas where hunting and other anthropogenic disturbances are commonplace.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Almost nothing is known. Most local hunters and other informants report that they seldom see more than two or three individuals together, though it is likely that larger natal family units and other socioreproductive groups are maintained in less disturbed areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the “ PalawanFaunal Region,” which extends from Balabac and associated islands in the extreme south-west through all of PalawanIsland and its associated offshore islets, as far as the Calamian Islands in the extreme north-east. However, this region also constitutes the easternmost extension of the Sunda Shelf and was intermittently connected by land bridges to Borneo by sea level changes during consecutive Pleistocene glaciations. The species remains relatively widely, if increasingly patchily, distributed. It is heavily hunted throughout most of its range, either for direct consumption or to be sold. One kilogram of pork fetches a price of about twice the price of domestic pork. Pigs are hunted throughout the year, but especially during forest tree-fruiting periods (no specifics are known) when pigs gather to forage on fallen fruits. They are also killed in reprisal for their occasional raids on neighboring forest gardens or other cultivated areas. Hunting methods include snares, low caliberrifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as “pig bombs,” which are made of ping-pong-ball-sized mixtures of gunpowder and shards of porcelain, coated with fish paste or other strong-smelling baits to entice the pigs. These are buried on pig trails or around cultivated plants close to forest edges. They explode when they are unearthed and bitten into by foraging pigs,killing the pigs or, more likely, causing horrendous wounds and producing trails that hunters with dogs can follow to collect the dead or dying animals the following day. S. ahoenobarbus is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas, because ofillegal “kaingin” (slashand-burn agriculture), mining, and other commercial developments. The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced and/or realistically unenforceable in most areas—including most designated protected areas. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation and the addition of new protected areas, which should be designed to enable greater management by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national system. Awareness campaigns are also important: few hinterland communities are aware of any prevailing wildlife protection legislation, or disregard the laws because of the chronic lack of enforcement by salient governmental authorities. This is especially the case where reprisals against the pigs follow their occasional raids on crops; the reprisals are likely to illicit sympathy and non-action from the responsible agencies. Farming in protected areas and reprisals against the pigs are justified by claims of poverty and loss of livelihood,in spite of the highly dubious nature of such claims. Many claimants are not economically dependent on hunting, but instead hunt for predominately traditional/cultural and recreational reasons.Bibliography.Boissiére & Liswanti (2006), Caldecott et al. (1993), Esselstyn et al. (2004), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Heaney et al. (1998), Lucchini et al. (2005), Oliver (1995, 2008), Rabor (1977), Widmann et al. (2008)." -038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,276,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10.xml,Phacochoerus africanus,Phacochoerus,africanus,,,Phacochere d'Afrique @fr | \Warzenschwein @de | Facocerode sabana @es,"Sus africanus Gmelin, 1788,“Habitat in Africa a capite viridi as caput bonae spei”; restricted to Senegal, “ Cape Verd[Verde].”Four subspecies are recognized.","P.a.africanusGmelin,1788—NsavannaandSahelregion,fromMauritaniatoEthiopia.Pa.aelianiCretzschmar,1828—Eritrea,Djibouti,andNSomalia.P.a.massaicusLonnberg,1908—E&CAfrica,fromNUgandaandSKenya,E&SDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Tanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique.P. a. sundevallii L.onnberg, 1908— S Africa, including SW Angola, N & E Namibia, N Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, and parts of South Africa.","Head-body 125-150 cm (males), 105-140 cm (females), tail 35-50 cm), shoulder height 55-85 cm; weight 60-150 kg (males), 50-75 kg (females). Thisis a pig with long legs and short neck. Proportionally it has a massive head with broad and flattened muzzle and snout, and prominent curved tusks flaring upwards. The upper tusks measure an average 25-30 cm in length in adult males (record 60 cm) whereas the lower tusks are only 13 cm. The grayish body is barrel shaped, with a hairless skin that can take on differing hues of gray or brown depending on the color of the soil in its holes or wallows. A dorsal mane of yellowish to jet black hairsis longest on the shoulders and neck. A narrow, tufted tail is held vertically when trotting. In many individuals, whitish bristles on the lower jaw form conspicuous“sideburns.” Three pairs of facial warts of different shape and thickness, made of fibrous tissue, are situated on the muzzle, along the jaw, and under the eyes. In males, the infraocular warts can grow up to 15 cmand have a protective function. They can take on various orientations, but are always conical; only the Desert Warthog (PF. aethiopicus) displays curled down jugal warts. Warts are less developed in females, as are the tusks and preorbital glands. Common Warthogs usually trot in a quick, springy stride, with the head held high and the back rigid. When grazing or rooting, they often drop on their “knees” instead ofstretching their short neck. Callosities characteristic of carpal joints on the forelegs are observed on embryos. These observations support evolutionary theories of “anticipatory” adaptation or of the heredity of acquired characters. Females have four pairs of mammae. Dental formulaisI1/3,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Whereas the Desert Warthog is characterized by an absence of functional incisors, Common Warthogs always have two upper incisors and usually six functional lower incisors as in the adult dentition of most pigs.","Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open-country species, with morphological and behavioral adaptations typical of grazers. Generally they are confined to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water. Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, deserts, and steppes, Common Warthogs are present in aridlands near the Danakil desert and Bale Mountain forests (Ethiopia) and in Djiboutiforests. Abundance of Common Warthogs is probably linked to the availability of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes, as the warthogs need deep burrows for protection from predators as well as from fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Their bodies can obviously sustain a certain tolerance range, and they cope with high temperature by sheltering in shade, wallowing, and dust-bathing. Piglets are particularly vulnerable to cold and malnutrition during drought, which, together with predation and other factors, account for an over 50% mortality rate during the first year.","Common Warthogs have an omnivorous diet composed of grasses, roots, fruits, bark, fungi, eggs, and carrion, as well as small mammals, reptiles, and birds. The diet varies with seasonal availability of food items, although the species is very selective. Areas with abundant food resources like bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots can sustain large temporary congregations of animals. This opportunism and dietary versatility account for the Common Warthog’s successful survival strategy. They are powerful diggers, using both snout and hooves, but not tusks. When feeding, they often walk on their anterior knuckles with their hindquarters raised. They use their incisors to wrench grass stems or strip seedheads, and they excavate rhizomes and mineral-rich earth with the hard edge of their snout.","Both sexes reach puberty at 18 months. During the rut, boars locate estrous females by visiting burrows. Male fights consist of frontal-pushing, interlocking tusks, and hitting the opponent in the face or in the flanks. The mating system is promiscuous, with males roaming and mating with numerous females and females mating with more than one male. Where seasons are marked, breeding is seasonal, with females usually coming into estrus early in the dry season and farrowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Non-offspring nursing occurs. Gestation is 160-170 days and most common litter size is 2-3 (range: 1-8).","Common Warthogs are highly diurnal. They go underground before dark and sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks or other animals. Males enterlast and commonly reverse in, with the head facing the opening, ready to fight an intruder or rush out as needed. To a certain extent, season and weather dictate their daytime activity, which includes a range of typical occupations like feeding, drinking, wallowing, rubbing against trees or termite mounds, and grooming. Feeding occurs mainly in early morning and late afternoon, but they also graze between irregular resting periods in the shade of bushy thickets or in mud wallows. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) are also capable of catching small warthogs. Females are extremely aggressive and courageous when defending their piglets. It has been reported that Common Warthogs have inflicted deep and deadly wounds in Lions. Common Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.","On average, sounders move a distance of 7 km/day, and visit the same areas at about the same time. Their home range averages 174 ha (range: 64-374 ha) and both males and females tend to remain close to their natal area. Typical densities are 1-10 ind/km?® in protected areas, but local densities of up to 77 ind/km? were found on short grass in Lake NakuruNational Park, Kenya. The social structure of Common Warthogs is one of small groups: solitary males or bachelor groups (45% of the population), matriarchal groups consisting of adult females with juveniles and/or yearlings, or yearling groups. Boars accompany sounders when females are in estrus. Females are temporarily on their own at farrowing time, but they commonly join up with other females and their young. Bonds between adult females and between mothers and daughters can be stable and last over several breeding cycles.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Common Warthogs occur in most protected areas in savanna zones. Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in a contraction of its range in the north and accounts forits decline in Mauritaniaand Niger. Because of their susceptibility to drought and predation, populations may easily be prone to local extinction. In the past, populations were greatly reduced by rinderpest in some countries.","Child et al. (1968) | Clough & Hassam (1970) | Cumming (1975, 2008, In Press) | Deribe et al. (2008) | Estes (1991) | Grubb (1993) | Kingdon (1997) | Kunzel et al. (2004) | Muwanika et al. (2007) | Radke (1991) | Somers (1997) | Somers et al. (1995) | Treydte, Bernasconi et al. (2006) | Treydte, Halsdorf et al. (2006) | Vercammen & Mason (1993)",,"4.Common WarthogPhacochoerus africanusFrench:Phacochere d'Afrique/ German:\Warzenschwein/ Spanish:Facocerode sabanaTaxonomy.Sus africanus Gmelin, 1788,“Habitat in Africa a capite viridi as caput bonae spei”; restricted to Senegal, “ Cape Verd[Verde].”Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.a.africanusGmelin,1788—NsavannaandSahelregion,fromMauritaniatoEthiopia.Pa.aelianiCretzschmar,1828—Eritrea,Djibouti,andNSomalia.P.a.massaicusLonnberg,1908—E&CAfrica,fromNUgandaandSKenya,E&SDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Tanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique.P. a. sundevallii L.onnberg, 1908— S Africa, including SW Angola, N & E Namibia, N Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, and parts of South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-150 cm (males), 105-140 cm (females), tail 35-50 cm), shoulder height 55-85 cm; weight 60-150 kg (males), 50-75 kg (females). Thisis a pig with long legs and short neck. Proportionally it has a massive head with broad and flattened muzzle and snout, and prominent curved tusks flaring upwards. The upper tusks measure an average 25-30 cm in length in adult males (record 60 cm) whereas the lower tusks are only 13 cm. The grayish body is barrel shaped, with a hairless skin that can take on differing hues of gray or brown depending on the color of the soil in its holes or wallows. A dorsal mane of yellowish to jet black hairsis longest on the shoulders and neck. A narrow, tufted tail is held vertically when trotting. In many individuals, whitish bristles on the lower jaw form conspicuous“sideburns.” Three pairs of facial warts of different shape and thickness, made of fibrous tissue, are situated on the muzzle, along the jaw, and under the eyes. In males, the infraocular warts can grow up to 15 cmand have a protective function. They can take on various orientations, but are always conical; only the Desert Warthog (PF. aethiopicus) displays curled down jugal warts. Warts are less developed in females, as are the tusks and preorbital glands. Common Warthogs usually trot in a quick, springy stride, with the head held high and the back rigid. When grazing or rooting, they often drop on their “knees” instead ofstretching their short neck. Callosities characteristic of carpal joints on the forelegs are observed on embryos. These observations support evolutionary theories of “anticipatory” adaptation or of the heredity of acquired characters. Females have four pairs of mammae. Dental formulaisI1/3,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Whereas the Desert Warthog is characterized by an absence of functional incisors, Common Warthogs always have two upper incisors and usually six functional lower incisors as in the adult dentition of most pigs.Habitat.Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open-country species, with morphological and behavioral adaptations typical of grazers. Generally they are confined to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water. Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, deserts, and steppes, Common Warthogs are present in aridlands near the Danakil desert and Bale Mountain forests (Ethiopia) and in Djiboutiforests. Abundance of Common Warthogs is probably linked to the availability of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes, as the warthogs need deep burrows for protection from predators as well as from fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Their bodies can obviously sustain a certain tolerance range, and they cope with high temperature by sheltering in shade, wallowing, and dust-bathing. Piglets are particularly vulnerable to cold and malnutrition during drought, which, together with predation and other factors, account for an over 50% mortality rate during the first year.Food and Feeding.Common Warthogs have an omnivorous diet composed of grasses, roots, fruits, bark, fungi, eggs, and carrion, as well as small mammals, reptiles, and birds. The diet varies with seasonal availability of food items, although the species is very selective. Areas with abundant food resources like bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots can sustain large temporary congregations of animals. This opportunism and dietary versatility account for the Common Warthog’s successful survival strategy. They are powerful diggers, using both snout and hooves, but not tusks. When feeding, they often walk on their anterior knuckles with their hindquarters raised. They use their incisors to wrench grass stems or strip seedheads, and they excavate rhizomes and mineral-rich earth with the hard edge of their snout.Breeding.Both sexes reach puberty at 18 months. During the rut, boars locate estrous females by visiting burrows. Male fights consist of frontal-pushing, interlocking tusks, and hitting the opponent in the face or in the flanks. The mating system is promiscuous, with males roaming and mating with numerous females and females mating with more than one male. Where seasons are marked, breeding is seasonal, with females usually coming into estrus early in the dry season and farrowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Non-offspring nursing occurs. Gestation is 160-170 days and most common litter size is 2-3 (range: 1-8).Activity patterns.Common Warthogs are highly diurnal. They go underground before dark and sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks or other animals. Males enterlast and commonly reverse in, with the head facing the opening, ready to fight an intruder or rush out as needed. To a certain extent, season and weather dictate their daytime activity, which includes a range of typical occupations like feeding, drinking, wallowing, rubbing against trees or termite mounds, and grooming. Feeding occurs mainly in early morning and late afternoon, but they also graze between irregular resting periods in the shade of bushy thickets or in mud wallows. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) are also capable of catching small warthogs. Females are extremely aggressive and courageous when defending their piglets. It has been reported that Common Warthogs have inflicted deep and deadly wounds in Lions. Common Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On average, sounders move a distance of 7 km/day, and visit the same areas at about the same time. Their home range averages 174 ha (range: 64-374 ha) and both males and females tend to remain close to their natal area. Typical densities are 1-10 ind/km?® in protected areas, but local densities of up to 77 ind/km? were found on short grass in Lake NakuruNational Park, Kenya. The social structure of Common Warthogs is one of small groups: solitary males or bachelor groups (45% of the population), matriarchal groups consisting of adult females with juveniles and/or yearlings, or yearling groups. Boars accompany sounders when females are in estrus. Females are temporarily on their own at farrowing time, but they commonly join up with other females and their young. Bonds between adult females and between mothers and daughters can be stable and last over several breeding cycles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Common Warthogs occur in most protected areas in savanna zones. Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in a contraction of its range in the north and accounts forits decline in Mauritaniaand Niger. Because of their susceptibility to drought and predation, populations may easily be prone to local extinction. In the past, populations were greatly reduced by rinderpest in some countries.Bibliography.Child et al. (1968), Clough & Hassam (1970), Cumming (1975, 2008, In Press), Deribe et al. (2008), Estes (1991), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Kunzel et al. (2004), Muwanika et al. (2007), Radke (1991), Somers (1997), Somers et al. (1995), Treydte, Bernasconi et al. (2006), Treydte, Halsdorf et al. (2006), Vercammen & Mason (1993)." -038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,276,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0.xml,Babyrousa togeanensis,Babyrousa,togeanensis,Sody,1949,Babiroussa des Togian @fr | Togian-Hirscheber @de | Babirusa de Togian @es,"Babirussa babyrousa togeanensis Sody, 1949,“Malengi island, Togean group, Res. Manado, N. Celebes” (Indonesia, N Sulawesi, Togean Isls, Malenge Isl).This species is monotypic.","Togian Archipelago (Batudaka, Togian, Talatakoh & Malenge Is); recently, their tracks also were reported from the small Kadidiri I, N of Togian I.","No body measurements are available, but based on skull measurements B. fogeanensis appears the largest of the three babirusa species. It has Sparser, shorter body hair than Moluccan Babirusa (B. babyrussa), and in contrast to SulawesiBabirusa (B. celebensis), the tail tuft is well developed. The upper canines of males are this species’ most distinctive feature: they are short, slender, rotated forwards, and always converge. The frontal furrows on the skull are always shallow, with sloping edges. It is endemic to the Togian Islands, an island group that has been separated from the adjacent eastern arm of Sulawesifor c.12,000 years. This suggests that the babirusas from the eastern arm of Sulawesishould be closely related to the Togian animals, but an absence of specimens makes this impossible to test. It cannot be ruled out that Togian Babirusas were introduced to the Togian Islands by people, but just as likely, the species swam to these islands. Even though B. togeanensisis the largest of the babirusa species, it was initially characterized by its small teeth, especially the third molar. Further study showed that compared to the other species, B. togeanensishas relatively large premolars, especially P,, P,, and P°.","Babirusas generally inhabit tropical rainforest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. The natural vegetation on the Togian Islands consists of wet forests of variable types, frequently differing from one island to another, and ranging from monsoon to evergreen. B. togeanensishas also been sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub on former slash-and-burn cultivation fields, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches. On Malenge and Kadidiri Islands, the species is most frequently seen moving through coconut plantations.","B. togeanensisreportedly feeds on rhizomes, fallen fruits (Pangium edule, Dracontomelon sp., Mangiferasp., Artocarpus sp., Spondias dulcis) and also tamarinds and cacao, as well as annual herbs and vegetables. The species is also reported to feed on coconut, but it is unclear whether it eats the shoots of young trees or the fallen fruits.","Nothing is known about the breeding behavior of B. togeanensis, but it is assumed to be similar to the much better known B. celebensis. Litter size as observed by local farmers is 2-3 young.","During interview surveys on the Togian Islands, most respondents (68:2%) reported encountering B. togeanensisin the morning, between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. The reported observations of the species included various activities during that time, such as foraging, mating, wallowing, and resting.","In interviews, 37% of the respondents mentioned that B. togeanensisis a solitary animal, whereas 29-6% of those questioned reported that the species is gregarious, usually seen in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter. Group sizes of more than five individuals were reported by 29-5% of the respondents; these groups typically were composed of an adult male with multiple females and a litter.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat, its population is estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals, a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals has been observed, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Babirusas on the Togian Islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forestfires, to disturbance by humans, and to predation by dogs. They are occasionally hunted by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops. Hunting for food occurs only in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998, two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire. No large animal carcasses were found and babirusas have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species. In 1978, the babirusa population on the Togian Islands was estimated in the region of 500-1000 individuals. Recent estimates place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Local residents questioned recently did not agree on population size, giving ranges from fewer than 100 to more than 1000, but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline.","Akbar et al. (2007) | Groves (2001a, 2001b) | Hart (2009) | Ito et al. (2005) | Macdonald et al. (2008) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Selmier (1983)",,"3.Togian BabirusaBabyrousa togeanensisFrench:Babiroussa des Togian/ German:Togian-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusa de TogianTaxonomy.Babirussa babyrousa togeanensis Sody, 1949,“Malengi island, Togean group, Res. Manado, N. Celebes” (Indonesia, N Sulawesi, Togean Isls, Malenge Isl).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Togian Archipelago (Batudaka, Togian, Talatakoh & Malenge Is); recently, their tracks also were reported from the small Kadidiri I, N of Togian I.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available, but based on skull measurements B. fogeanensis appears the largest of the three babirusa species. It has Sparser, shorter body hair than Moluccan Babirusa (B. babyrussa), and in contrast to SulawesiBabirusa (B. celebensis), the tail tuft is well developed. The upper canines of males are this species’ most distinctive feature: they are short, slender, rotated forwards, and always converge. The frontal furrows on the skull are always shallow, with sloping edges. It is endemic to the Togian Islands, an island group that has been separated from the adjacent eastern arm of Sulawesifor c.12,000 years. This suggests that the babirusas from the eastern arm of Sulawesishould be closely related to the Togian animals, but an absence of specimens makes this impossible to test. It cannot be ruled out that Togian Babirusas were introduced to the Togian Islands by people, but just as likely, the species swam to these islands. Even though B. togeanensisis the largest of the babirusa species, it was initially characterized by its small teeth, especially the third molar. Further study showed that compared to the other species, B. togeanensishas relatively large premolars, especially P,, P,, and P°.Habitat.Babirusas generally inhabit tropical rainforest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. The natural vegetation on the Togian Islands consists of wet forests of variable types, frequently differing from one island to another, and ranging from monsoon to evergreen. B. togeanensishas also been sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub on former slash-and-burn cultivation fields, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches. On Malenge and Kadidiri Islands, the species is most frequently seen moving through coconut plantations.Food and Feeding.B. togeanensisreportedly feeds on rhizomes, fallen fruits (Pangium edule, Dracontomelon sp., Mangiferasp., Artocarpus sp., Spondias dulcis) and also tamarinds and cacao, as well as annual herbs and vegetables. The species is also reported to feed on coconut, but it is unclear whether it eats the shoots of young trees or the fallen fruits.Breeding.Nothing is known about the breeding behavior of B. togeanensis, but it is assumed to be similar to the much better known B. celebensis. Litter size as observed by local farmers is 2-3 young.Activity patterns.During interview surveys on the Togian Islands, most respondents (68:2%) reported encountering B. togeanensisin the morning, between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. The reported observations of the species included various activities during that time, such as foraging, mating, wallowing, and resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In interviews, 37% of the respondents mentioned that B. togeanensisis a solitary animal, whereas 29-6% of those questioned reported that the species is gregarious, usually seen in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter. Group sizes of more than five individuals were reported by 29-5% of the respondents; these groups typically were composed of an adult male with multiple females and a litter.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat, its population is estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals, a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals has been observed, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Babirusas on the Togian Islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forestfires, to disturbance by humans, and to predation by dogs. They are occasionally hunted by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops. Hunting for food occurs only in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998, two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire. No large animal carcasses were found and babirusas have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species. In 1978, the babirusa population on the Togian Islands was estimated in the region of 500-1000 individuals. Recent estimates place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Local residents questioned recently did not agree on population size, giving ranges from fewer than 100 to more than 1000, but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline.Bibliography.Akbar et al. (2007), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Hart (2009), Ito et al. (2005), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Selmier (1983)." -038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,276,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2.xml,Babyrousa babyrussa,Babyrousa,babyrussa,,,Babiroussa des Moluques @fr | Molukken-Hirscheber @de | Babirusade Molucas @es,"Sus babyrussa Linnaeus, 1758,“Borneo” (= Buru Island, Indonesia).This species is monotypic.","MoluccasArchipelago, in Sula ls (Mangole & Taliabu) and Buru.","Head—body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight 43-100 kg. B. babyrussais a relatively small species, with long, thick body hair and well-developed tail tuft. The upper canines of males are short and slender and cross the lower caninesin lateral view. The upper canines tend to diverge or be subparallel, but they may be weakly convergent. Based on tooth measurements, B. babyrussais similar to B. bolabatuensis, a presumably extinct form describedfrom subfossil remains retrieved from various sites in the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi.","Buru’s natural vegetation is largely tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest, with tropical montane rainforest occurring above 800 mabove sea level; the only known exception to this pattern is a complex patchwork of monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savanna in the north and north-east section of the island, the result of repeated anthropogenic burnings. No surveys have been done on the habitat use of babirusas on Buru Island, but the local Rana people report that babirusas are most often found in rocky habitat in hilly areas and mountains.","[Local people on Buru report that babirusas primarily feed on leaves, roots, and fruits in the forest, but never enter people’s gardens to feed on crops, unlike the other pig species on Buru, which causes considerable damage to crops. The species is also said to feed along the shoreline when the tide is out.","Nothing is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species, but it is likely to be similar to other Babyrousa spp.","On Buru, B. babyrussais mostly seen during the morning and late afternoons, but rarely around midday.",,"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The speciesis reported to be extinct on Sanana Island (formerly Xulla Besi). Some workers seem to believe babirusas were introduced to these islands, though if this is true these same workers provide no indication of their likely place of origin. Unfortunately, the systematic relationships of babirusas from adjacent eastern and south-eastern parts of Sulawesiremain unknown, so it is also not possible to assess their presumed or potential close affinities to B. babyrussa. During extensive survey efforts on Buru in 1995, no direct evidence of babirusas was found, although a pair of pig mandibles found inland from Fogi, in logged forest at an elevation of 670 m, indicated that the species had been recently hunted. Village interviews in 1997 about the species’ presence suggested that on Buru its range had become fragmented by the 1990s,although locally the animals were still relatively common. The species reportedly was not uncommon on the slopes of Gunung Kepala Mada, the highest mountain on Buru. No surveys have been conducted since, however, and the present status is unclear. The people of Buru differentiate babirusas from other suid species, though it is presently unclear whether any other suids occurring on Buru are of S. celebensisor feral S. scrofaorigin, nor whether any such populations (assuming they exist) are naturally occurring or introduced forms.With half the people of Buru being Christian and therefore willing to eat pork, hunting pressure on pigs is likely to be high. The Rana people of Buru frequently hunt babirusas with dogs and snares. Although the northern portions of Buru island have been degraded by repeated burning and the coastal lowlands have been cleared, the remaining forest forms two large, contiguous blocks.","Deninger (1909) | Groves (1980) | Macdonald et al. (2008) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Sody (1949) | Tomie & Persulessy (1996) | Verbelen (2003)",,"2.Moluccan BabirusaBabyrousa babyrussaFrench:Babiroussa des Moluques/ German:Molukken-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusade MolucasTaxonomy.Sus babyrussa Linnaeus, 1758,“Borneo” (= Buru Island, Indonesia).This species is monotypic.Distribution.MoluccasArchipelago, in Sula ls (Mangole & Taliabu) and Buru.Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight 43-100 kg. B. babyrussais a relatively small species, with long, thick body hair and well-developed tail tuft. The upper canines of males are short and slender and cross the lower caninesin lateral view. The upper canines tend to diverge or be subparallel, but they may be weakly convergent. Based on tooth measurements, B. babyrussais similar to B. bolabatuensis, a presumably extinct form describedfrom subfossil remains retrieved from various sites in the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi.Habitat.Buru’s natural vegetation is largely tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest, with tropical montane rainforest occurring above 800 mabove sea level; the only known exception to this pattern is a complex patchwork of monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savanna in the north and north-east section of the island, the result of repeated anthropogenic burnings. No surveys have been done on the habitat use of babirusas on Buru Island, but the local Rana people report that babirusas are most often found in rocky habitat in hilly areas and mountains.Food and Feeding.[Local people on Buru report that babirusas primarily feed on leaves, roots, and fruits in the forest, but never enter people’s gardens to feed on crops, unlike the other pig species on Buru, which causes considerable damage to crops. The species is also said to feed along the shoreline when the tide is out.Breeding.Nothing is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species, but it is likely to be similar to other Babyrousa spp.Activity patterns.On Buru, B. babyrussais mostly seen during the morning and late afternoons, but rarely around midday.Movements, Home ma@ nnd Social organintion. On Buru, babirusas are reported to be mostlv solitary or may occasionally be encountered in small groups. When in a group they regularlv emit a long and high pitched sound described as “suirii....suuuuuiiiriiii. ""Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The speciesis reported to be extinct on Sanana Island (formerly Xulla Besi). Some workers seem to believe babirusas were introduced to these islands, though if this is true these same workers provide no indication of their likely place of origin. Unfortunately, the systematic relationships of babirusas from adjacent eastern and south-eastern parts of Sulawesiremain unknown, so it is also not possible to assess their presumed or potential close affinities to B. babyrussa. During extensive survey efforts on Buru in 1995, no direct evidence of babirusas was found, although a pair of pig mandibles found inland from Fogi, in logged forest at an elevation of 670 m, indicated that the species had been recently hunted. Village interviews in 1997 about the species’ presence suggested that on Buru its range had become fragmented by the 1990s,although locally the animals were still relatively common. The species reportedly was not uncommon on the slopes of Gunung Kepala Mada, the highest mountain on Buru. No surveys have been conducted since, however, and the present status is unclear. The people of Buru differentiate babirusas from other suid species, though it is presently unclear whether any other suids occurring on Buru are of S. celebensisor feral S. scrofaorigin, nor whether any such populations (assuming they exist) are naturally occurring or introduced forms.With half the people of Buru being Christian and therefore willing to eat pork, hunting pressure on pigs is likely to be high. The Rana people of Buru frequently hunt babirusas with dogs and snares. Although the northern portions of Buru island have been degraded by repeated burning and the coastal lowlands have been cleared, the remaining forest forms two large, contiguous blocks.Bibliography.Deninger (1909), Groves (1980), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Sody (1949), Tomie & Persulessy (1996), Verbelen (2003)." -038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,275,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47.xml,Babyrousa celebensis,Babyrousa,celebensis,,,Babiroussa des Célebes @fr | Sulawesi-Hirscheber @de | Babirusade Célebes @es,"Babyrusa celebensis Deninger, 1910,Sulawesi.Phylogenetic studies suggest that babirusas diverged from other pigs in the Miocene some 10-19 million years ago, which could well be the time when they became isolated on Sulawesi. The land connection between southern Sulawesiand Borneo was severed some 50 million years ago, so this suggests that a later land connection existed between Sundaland and Sulawesi, unless babirusas dispersed through rafting or swimming. The presence of two other suid genera in Sulawesi(Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off from the main stock of Suidaeat different times, indicates several invasions of ancestral suid types to Sulawesiover a great length of time. The genus is considered to be monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or, alternatively, to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. Until recently, all babirusas were classified as a single species, B. babyrussa. However, the genus has now been split into several species, and the nominate scientific name is restricted to the Moluccan Babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands. B. celebensis, the SulawesiBabirusa, is the best known babirusa, and the only species for which substantial ecological and behavioral information is available. B. celebensisspecifically refers to animals from the north of the island, and the taxonomic identity of the individuals from central, eastern and south-eastern Sulawesiremains undecided. No subspecies are recognized.",SulawesiI.,"Head-body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight up to 100 kg. B. celebensisis characterized by its sparse or absent body hair, a nearly hairless tail tuft, and long, relatively thick upper canines that emerge vertically, converge slightly, and curl dorsally in a circle. The upper canines of males are generally long and thick. They merge vertically and do not cross the lower canines in lateral view. The skulls of B. celebensisare longer than the two other species. They are relatively narrower than one specimen from central Sulawesi, for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. The lower (M, and M,) and upper (M* and M?) molars in B. celebensisare longer than in the other two species. Unlike most other pig species, babirusas do not have the typical adaptations for rooting. The nose lacks the rostral bone that in other pigs provides support for the tough connective tissue plate of the rhinarium. Reanalyses of the soft tissue anatomy of the limbs and digestive tract of B. celebensishave revealed mistakes of identification in earlier work. This has reversed the earlier conclusion that babirusas were constructed in a significantly different way from pigs (Susspp.); in general the muscular anatomies are similar and the stomach of babirusas does not resemble that of ruminants.","B. celebensisinhabits tropical rainforest. Whereas previously the animal had been reported to occur in low-lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that the species is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground. Although often associated with swamp and riverine areas, there is still insufficient data to be conclusive on the aquatic affinities of the species. The species frequently uses mineral salt licks.","Diet and feeding behavior in B. celebensisremain poorly studied in the wild, but observations on captive animals provide a useful picture of their potential diet. The anatomical structure of the stomach and digestive tract suggest that B. celebensisis omnivorous. In zoos, adults ofthis species have been observed to chase, catch, and eat small mammals and birds, implying that they may show similar behavior in the wild. Observations of both wild and captive individuals suggest that the species consumes a wide variety ofleaf, root, and fruit material, with fruit especially important. Their jaws and teeth are strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. Notunlike the Bornean Bearded Pig (Susb. barbatus), the apparent requirement of B. celebensisfor fruit-bearing trees as a component ofits environment has been implied, because as soon as mature trees were cleared by forestry operations or conversion to food crop production, the babirusas were no longer to be found in the area. Whether this is a result of changes in food resources or increased hunting pressure and disturbance from logging crews has not yet been clarified. B. celebensisforages for food items on the ground, under logs and stones, in wet areas, and on bushes and trees. Animals will stand with their forelimbs against tree trunks to reach hanging leaves and fruit, and will even balance on their hindlimbs to pluck leaves from the trees.","In zoological collections, B. celebensismay become sexually mature as early as 5-10 months of age. However,it is likely that the age of sexual maturity in the wild is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of nutrition. Precise data do not yet exist, but animals are unlikely to breed in the wild before they are one year old. Estrous cycle lengths of 28-42 days have been recorded, but recent endocrine studies suggest a narrower range of 35-37 days. Captive females generally re-cycle within three months after the birth of their young. Estrus lasts 2-3 days, and the female is not receptive to males at other times. Gestation length is usually 155-158 days, though up to 171 days has been reported. The body weight of the sow increases during gestation. The normallitter size in B. celebensisis one or two, but a low incidence of triplet births has been recorded both in zoos and in the wild, and a litter of four fetuses has been reported in utero in a wild female. Neonatal B. celebensisare uniformly brown in color, small in size, and weigh less than 800 gat birth. The female usually has four mammary glands, but an additional pair has sometimes been reported. Although females can have a life span of as long as 24 years in captivity,it is unlikely that animals in the wild live as long, perhaps no more than 7-12 years. In zoos, B. celebensissows produce young at all times of the year, and may produce two litters within a twelve-month period. However, since it seems likely that diet or seasonal factors would normally influence interbirth intervals, litters may be produced less frequently in the wild. Observation in North Sulawesirevealed adult females accompanied by subadult animals as well as juveniles. However, there was no way to establish whether or not these youngsters represented the progeny of consecutive litters from the same female. Studies of the agonistic behavior of B. celebensishave so far revealed no evidence that the adult males use their teeth during male-male interactions. The ultimate form of agonistic behavior is described as “boxing,” and involves two males raising themselves off the ground until both are standing on their hindlegs facing one another, each leaning and paddling against the chest and shoulders of his opponent. Their snouts are held as high as possible. Females do not employ the same strategy.","Based on observations of captive animals, B. celebensisappears to be mostly diurnal. These animals slept at night, which is consistent with the general lack of activity at night recorded in North Sulawesi. About an hour before sunrise at 06:00 h, individuals began to wake up and move about. Voiding of fecal material and urine occurs at this time, and the animals appeared to prefer to defecate under branches and fallen tree trunks. Foraging extended throughout the day, but occupied a larger proportion of the time in the morning. From about mid-morning onwards an increasing proportion of the time was taken up with non-foraging activities. The animals were either wallowing or lying down. Both in the wild and in captivity, males have been observed to wallow more often than females.","The information available from field and captive studies indicates B. celebensisis a social species. Groups of up to 13 have been observed in the rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas, and salt licks. Rarely aggregations as large as 46 individuals comprising several distinct groups have congregated at salt licks. Most (84%) of all sightings of solitary animals were of adult males. Single adult males were seen with single adult females, but never with two or more females unless young animals were present. Adult females were rarely seen without company; they were sometimes found together with other adult animals, but most often they were with young babirusas. Of the 226 groups studied, 84 contained adult females and young. Two thirds (56) of these groups had no adult males present. Very little is known about the ranging behavior of B. celebensis. Field observations suggest that the adult males have home ranges that overlap with those of a number of other adult males. Density estimates in two protected areas where the species still occurred in 2003 varied from 4-3-11-8 ind/km? to 0-7-4-1 ind/km?. Like other pigs, babirusas evidently swim well. A single adult male was reported approximately 500 mfrom the shore of a large lake in central Sulawesi. It is not certain whether this individual was B. celebensis, but it is likely that all babirusa species can swim and cover relatively large distances.","CITES Appendix I, although international trade in this species is not thought to be an important issue. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Adult B. celebensisappear to have few,if any, natural predators. There are no large native mammalian carnivores on Sulawesi, and the most likely non-human predators are probably large snakes and crocodiles. We here follow The IUCN Red List and treat all individuals occurring on Sulawesi, as well as those previously known from the Muna, Buton, and Lembeh Islands as belonging to B. celebensis, pending resolution of the taxonomy. B. celebensishas been much reduced on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, primarily due to overhunting, and its distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, and the Panua Nature Reserve, all of which are in the western half of the northern peninsula. The species still occurs in central Sulawesiand the eastern and south-eastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking. The species is unlikely to remain on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys, and its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain. The small numbers of young born suggest that the species is not adapted to a high rate of natural predation. However, hunting by humans with snares, nets, spears, and dogs has undoubtedly been an important factor since prehistoric times, and widespread snare trapping constitutes the main threat to the remaining populations of B. celebensisin North Sulawesiand, more recently, elsewhere in Sulawesi. B. celebensisis apparently not hunted specifically for its own meat, but represents a by-catch to the hunting of the SulawesiWarty Pig (Sus celebensis). Therefore, the population of B. celebensisin the wild is being placed under severe and increasing pressure by the market demand for wild pig meat. The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation. Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75%. The genus Babyrousawas accordedfull protection under Indonesian law in 1931. B. celebensisoccurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi, including Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserve, and others.","Andreescu & Murariu (1993) | Bosma & de Haan (1981) | Bowles (1986) | Bowles et al. (1993) | Clason (1976) | Clayton & MacDonald (1999) | Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000) | Clayton et al. (2000) | Groves (1980, 1985) | Hooijer (1975) | Houston et al. (2001) | Lee, Gorog et al. (2005) | Lee, O'Brien et al. (1999) | Leus (1996) | Leus & Vercammen (1996) | Leus, Bland et al. (1996) | Leus, Bowles et al. (1992) | Macdonald (1991) | Macdonald & Leus (1995) | Macdonald, Bowles et al. (1993) | Macdonald, Burton & Leus (2008) | MacKinnon (1981) | Manansang et al. (1996) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Melisch (1994, 1995) | Milner-Gulland (2001) | Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002) | Mohr (1958) | Patry et al. (1995) | Peters (1985) | Rajchl (2007) | Randi et al. (1996) | Rice (1988) | Riley (2002) | Sody (1949) | VanWees et al. (2000) | Wemmer & Watling (1982) | Wiles et al. (2002)",,"1.SulawesiBabirusaBabyrousa celebensisFrench:Babiroussa des Célebes/ German:Sulawesi-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusade CélebesTaxonomy.Babyrusa celebensis Deninger, 1910,Sulawesi.Phylogenetic studies suggest that babirusas diverged from other pigs in the Miocene some 10-19 million years ago, which could well be the time when they became isolated on Sulawesi. The land connection between southern Sulawesiand Borneo was severed some 50 million years ago, so this suggests that a later land connection existed between Sundaland and Sulawesi, unless babirusas dispersed through rafting or swimming. The presence of two other suid genera in Sulawesi(Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off from the main stock of Suidaeat different times, indicates several invasions of ancestral suid types to Sulawesiover a great length of time. The genus is considered to be monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or, alternatively, to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. Until recently, all babirusas were classified as a single species, B. babyrussa. However, the genus has now been split into several species, and the nominate scientific name is restricted to the Moluccan Babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands. B. celebensis, the SulawesiBabirusa, is the best known babirusa, and the only species for which substantial ecological and behavioral information is available. B. celebensisspecifically refers to animals from the north of the island, and the taxonomic identity of the individuals from central, eastern and south-eastern Sulawesiremains undecided. No subspecies are recognized.Distribution.SulawesiI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight up to 100 kg. B. celebensisis characterized by its sparse or absent body hair, a nearly hairless tail tuft, and long, relatively thick upper canines that emerge vertically, converge slightly, and curl dorsally in a circle. The upper canines of males are generally long and thick. They merge vertically and do not cross the lower canines in lateral view. The skulls of B. celebensisare longer than the two other species. They are relatively narrower than one specimen from central Sulawesi, for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. The lower (M, and M,) and upper (M* and M?) molars in B. celebensisare longer than in the other two species. Unlike most other pig species, babirusas do not have the typical adaptations for rooting. The nose lacks the rostral bone that in other pigs provides support for the tough connective tissue plate of the rhinarium. Reanalyses of the soft tissue anatomy of the limbs and digestive tract of B. celebensishave revealed mistakes of identification in earlier work. This has reversed the earlier conclusion that babirusas were constructed in a significantly different way from pigs (Susspp.); in general the muscular anatomies are similar and the stomach of babirusas does not resemble that of ruminants.Habitat.B. celebensisinhabits tropical rainforest. Whereas previously the animal had been reported to occur in low-lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that the species is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground. Although often associated with swamp and riverine areas, there is still insufficient data to be conclusive on the aquatic affinities of the species. The species frequently uses mineral salt licks.Food and Feeding.Diet and feeding behavior in B. celebensisremain poorly studied in the wild, but observations on captive animals provide a useful picture of their potential diet. The anatomical structure of the stomach and digestive tract suggest that B. celebensisis omnivorous. In zoos, adults ofthis species have been observed to chase, catch, and eat small mammals and birds, implying that they may show similar behavior in the wild. Observations of both wild and captive individuals suggest that the species consumes a wide variety ofleaf, root, and fruit material, with fruit especially important. Their jaws and teeth are strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. Notunlike the Bornean Bearded Pig (Susb. barbatus), the apparent requirement of B. celebensisfor fruit-bearing trees as a component ofits environment has been implied, because as soon as mature trees were cleared by forestry operations or conversion to food crop production, the babirusas were no longer to be found in the area. Whether this is a result of changes in food resources or increased hunting pressure and disturbance from logging crews has not yet been clarified. B. celebensisforages for food items on the ground, under logs and stones, in wet areas, and on bushes and trees. Animals will stand with their forelimbs against tree trunks to reach hanging leaves and fruit, and will even balance on their hindlimbs to pluck leaves from the trees.Breeding.In zoological collections, B. celebensismay become sexually mature as early as 5-10 months of age. However,it is likely that the age of sexual maturity in the wild is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of nutrition. Precise data do not yet exist, but animals are unlikely to breed in the wild before they are one year old. Estrous cycle lengths of 28-42 days have been recorded, but recent endocrine studies suggest a narrower range of 35-37 days. Captive females generally re-cycle within three months after the birth of their young. Estrus lasts 2-3 days, and the female is not receptive to males at other times. Gestation length is usually 155-158 days, though up to 171 days has been reported. The body weight of the sow increases during gestation. The normallitter size in B. celebensisis one or two, but a low incidence of triplet births has been recorded both in zoos and in the wild, and a litter of four fetuses has been reported in utero in a wild female. Neonatal B. celebensisare uniformly brown in color, small in size, and weigh less than 800 gat birth. The female usually has four mammary glands, but an additional pair has sometimes been reported. Although females can have a life span of as long as 24 years in captivity,it is unlikely that animals in the wild live as long, perhaps no more than 7-12 years. In zoos, B. celebensissows produce young at all times of the year, and may produce two litters within a twelve-month period. However, since it seems likely that diet or seasonal factors would normally influence interbirth intervals, litters may be produced less frequently in the wild. Observation in North Sulawesirevealed adult females accompanied by subadult animals as well as juveniles. However, there was no way to establish whether or not these youngsters represented the progeny of consecutive litters from the same female. Studies of the agonistic behavior of B. celebensishave so far revealed no evidence that the adult males use their teeth during male-male interactions. The ultimate form of agonistic behavior is described as “boxing,” and involves two males raising themselves off the ground until both are standing on their hindlegs facing one another, each leaning and paddling against the chest and shoulders of his opponent. Their snouts are held as high as possible. Females do not employ the same strategy.Activity patterns.Based on observations of captive animals, B. celebensisappears to be mostly diurnal. These animals slept at night, which is consistent with the general lack of activity at night recorded in North Sulawesi. About an hour before sunrise at 06:00 h, individuals began to wake up and move about. Voiding of fecal material and urine occurs at this time, and the animals appeared to prefer to defecate under branches and fallen tree trunks. Foraging extended throughout the day, but occupied a larger proportion of the time in the morning. From about mid-morning onwards an increasing proportion of the time was taken up with non-foraging activities. The animals were either wallowing or lying down. Both in the wild and in captivity, males have been observed to wallow more often than females.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The information available from field and captive studies indicates B. celebensisis a social species. Groups of up to 13 have been observed in the rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas, and salt licks. Rarely aggregations as large as 46 individuals comprising several distinct groups have congregated at salt licks. Most (84%) of all sightings of solitary animals were of adult males. Single adult males were seen with single adult females, but never with two or more females unless young animals were present. Adult females were rarely seen without company; they were sometimes found together with other adult animals, but most often they were with young babirusas. Of the 226 groups studied, 84 contained adult females and young. Two thirds (56) of these groups had no adult males present. Very little is known about the ranging behavior of B. celebensis. Field observations suggest that the adult males have home ranges that overlap with those of a number of other adult males. Density estimates in two protected areas where the species still occurred in 2003 varied from 4-3-11-8 ind/km? to 0-7-4-1 ind/km?. Like other pigs, babirusas evidently swim well. A single adult male was reported approximately 500 mfrom the shore of a large lake in central Sulawesi. It is not certain whether this individual was B. celebensis, but it is likely that all babirusa species can swim and cover relatively large distances.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, although international trade in this species is not thought to be an important issue. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Adult B. celebensisappear to have few,if any, natural predators. There are no large native mammalian carnivores on Sulawesi, and the most likely non-human predators are probably large snakes and crocodiles. We here follow The IUCN Red List and treat all individuals occurring on Sulawesi, as well as those previously known from the Muna, Buton, and Lembeh Islands as belonging to B. celebensis, pending resolution of the taxonomy. B. celebensishas been much reduced on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, primarily due to overhunting, and its distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, and the Panua Nature Reserve, all of which are in the western half of the northern peninsula. The species still occurs in central Sulawesiand the eastern and south-eastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking. The species is unlikely to remain on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys, and its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain. The small numbers of young born suggest that the species is not adapted to a high rate of natural predation. However, hunting by humans with snares, nets, spears, and dogs has undoubtedly been an important factor since prehistoric times, and widespread snare trapping constitutes the main threat to the remaining populations of B. celebensisin North Sulawesiand, more recently, elsewhere in Sulawesi. B. celebensisis apparently not hunted specifically for its own meat, but represents a by-catch to the hunting of the SulawesiWarty Pig (Sus celebensis). Therefore, the population of B. celebensisin the wild is being placed under severe and increasing pressure by the market demand for wild pig meat. The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation. Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75%. The genus Babyrousawas accordedfull protection under Indonesian law in 1931. B. celebensisoccurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi, including Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserve, and others.On following pages 2 Moluccan Babırusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) 3 Tog an Babırusa (Babyrousarogeanensıs) 4 Common Warthog (Phacochoorus alncanus) 5 Desert Warthog (Phacochoerus aethıopıcus) 6 Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmaınenzhagenı) Bushpıg (Pommochoeıus Iarvalusl 8 Red RıverHog (Poramochoerus porcas)Bibliography.Andreescu & Murariu (1993), Bosma & de Haan (1981), Bowles (1986), Bowles et al. (1993), Clason (1976), Clayton & MacDonald (1999), Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (2000), Groves (1980, 1985), Hooijer (1975), Houston et al. (2001), Lee, Gorog et al. (2005), Lee, O'Brien et al. (1999), Leus (1996), Leus & Vercammen (1996), Leus, Bland et al. (1996), Leus, Bowles et al. (1992), Macdonald (1991), Macdonald & Leus (1995), Macdonald, Bowles et al. (1993), Macdonald, Burton & Leus (2008), MacKinnon (1981), Manansang et al. (1996), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Melisch (1994, 1995), Milner-Gulland (2001), Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002), Mohr (1958), Patry et al. (1995), Peters (1985), Rajchl (2007), Randi et al. (1996), Rice (1988), Riley (2002), Sody (1949), VanWees et al. (2000), Wemmer & Watling (1982), Wiles et al. (2002)." +038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,287,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A.xml,Sus verrucosus,Sus,verrucosus,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier de Java @fr | Java-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Java @es,"Sus verrucosus Boie, 1832,Java.The ancestry of this species has been traced back to some fossil pig species of Java, which combined with phylogenetic data suggests that the S. verrucosus lineage has evolved on Javafor approximately two million years. Two subspecies are recognized.","S.v.verrucosusBoie,1832—W&CJava;extinctonMaduraI.S. v. bloucht Groves, 1981— Bawean I.","Head—body 90-190 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 70-90 cm; weight 35-150 kg. Compared to other species of Susthe Javan Warty Pig is characterized by great elongation of the face, and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male S. verrucosus can be easily distinguished from other species (at least when seen from nearby) by the presence of warts. Observations from two captive S. verrucosus indicate that warts start to grow when youngsters are 17 months old and weigh approximately 25-35 kg. The two pig species on Javaare externally quite similar, and it will often be difficult to determine the species when an animal is seen at a distance, or when it is a female (which lack the warts). Compared to the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), S. verrucosus gives the impression of having a very large, heavy head, at least in adult males. Males of S. verrucosus are much larger than females (c. 90 kgfor males as opposed to 45 kgfor females). Such pronounced sexual dimorphism is not found in S. scrofa, where the males weigh about the same as the S. verrucosus males, but the females are much heavier than S. verrucosus females. Pelage coloration varies greatly in both species. Generally S. verrucosus appears somewhat reddish, but some individuals look quite black from a distance. The hair on the crown and the mane on the back of the neck are usually paler, often reddish-orange and occasionally approaching blond. In S. verrucosus of all sexes and ages the hair on the belly is predominantly white or yellowish, contrasting with the darker pelage on the upper part of the body. S. scrofaon Javaare most often black or grizzled, but reddish-brown individuals are sometimes encountered. The mane is usually black and the belly hairs are also dark, not contrasting with the pelage above. The individual hairs in S. scrofaare of a single type: black with a yellowish band or (when worn) tip. In S. verrucosus there are two hair types intermixed: shorter red or yellow hairs with black tips, and longer black ones. The coloration of piglets in the two Javan pig species differs as well. S. scrofapiglets are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; the striping is very conspicuous. In S. verrucosus, on the other hand, the striping of piglets is very faint and may be difficult to discern in the field. The shape of the lower canines in male pigs is another good indicator of their specific identity. If a cross section is taken near the base, in S. scrofathe inferior surface is narrower. In S. verrucosus it is as broad as the enamel-less posterior surface. If the width of inferior surface is expressed as a percentage of the posterior surface, for S. scrofathis ranges between 61:5% and 109-1%, and for S. verrucosus it ranges between 113:3% and 161:5%. The canines in females are also distinctive. In S. scrofathey are fairly large: the greatest diameter of the upper canine varies from 16-8 mm to 18-2 mm, and of the lower from 14 mmto 17 mm, overlapping the male range. In S. verrucosus the canines of females are much smaller, the upper measuring 9-3-11-5 mm, the lower 7-3— 10 mm. The race blouchiis distinguished from the nominate subspecies by its smaller size, the relatively low occiput, the red color of the pale hairs in the coat, and the red mane.","The Javan Warty Pig occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak (7ectona grandis) forest plantations, interspersed with lalang grasslands (/mperata cylindrica), brush, and patches of secondary forest, restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be because the pigs are unable to tolerate low temperatures. They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest. They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava. As with S. scrofa, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations. The two species appear to avoid each other. In the 1920s, their abundance was thought to be similar, but only one species was generally found in a given location. S. scrofaappeared to be better adapted to agricultural areas and heavily degraded forests, and S. verrucosus more restricted to woodlands.","Ecological information about S. verrucosus is rare because when the species wasstill relatively common, extensive descriptions of feeding and breeding ecology did not differentiate between S. verrucosus and S. scrofa. One account from 1928 describes their ecological similarities: both species feed on a range of animal and plant foods, including fallen fruits, roots, worms, and insects. They are particularly partial to ripe rice, making them a feared agricultural pest.","The gestation period is thought to be about four months, and 3-9 young are born. Most births reportedly occur in the rainy season, from January to March, in a large nest made by the female out ofleaflitter. According to a recent informant, females with young are mostly seen between August and December.","There is little known about activity patterns of S. verrucosus. Interview surveys on Javain 2003 suggest that the species is mostly nocturnal, with several respondents reporting that damage to rice fields almost exclusively happened at night. It could be that a shift from generally diurnal activity patterns in pigs to nocturnal ones is because of the very high hunting pressure on the species.","No estimates of home range or population density are available. Historically, group sizes of up to 20 animals were reported, though most recent records refer to groups of no more than six individuals during the breeding season and fewer at other times.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is now restricted to several isolated areas on mainlandJava. The Javan Warty Pig is endemic to the islands ofJava, Madura, and Bawean in Indonesia. It occurs alongside S. scrofavittatus, but it appears that the two species avoid each other and attain their highest densities where the other speciesis absent. S. verrucosus was widespread on Javaas recently as 1982, but is now absent from most of the island and survives only in highly fragmented populations. A Java-wide, interview-based survey in 2003 found that there were about ten areas on Javaand Bawean where S. verrucosus populations survived, although other small groups may have existed elsewhere. These include remnant and low density populations in west Javain the areas between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, and between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserves of Cikepuh. S. verrucosus is very rare near Purwakarta. Several small populations remain near and south of Garut, with a few reported sightings of S. verrucosus in 2002 and just before. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang, interviewees reported recent killings of S. verrucosus, but the species is now much rarer than in the past. A population of S. verrucosus still remains east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis, although people consider S. verrucosus to be rare in comparison to S. scrofa. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of S. verrucosus from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusa Kembangan, including some from the Nusa Kembangan Nature Reserve off Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into small populations. The only areas where S. verrucosus reportedly remained common were around Subah, where animals were generally seen in small groups of 1-2 individuals and groups of 4-6 during the mating season, and around Blora and Bojonegoro. In the latter area, group size had reportedly declined from 10-20 to only 1-3. No recent records of S. verrucosus exist from Madura Island, and the species is considered extirpated there. On Bawean Island, the only area where the subspecies blouchi occurs, the species is now very rare, and possibly already extirpated. There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 populations (53%) are extirpated or have dropped to low encounter rate levels. [tis thought that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops. Many animals are killed by poisoning. As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation of subspecies blouchi on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals were previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Muslim inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa) has been speculated as a further threat to S. verrucosus, especially in areas where human-induced habitat changes favor S. scrofa. Recent DNA analysis of one S. verrucosus specimen suggested high levels of inbreeding in the species compared to other Sus species, but no evidence of introgression from S. scrofawas found. Further genetic studies on more samples are needed to assess potential conservation implications of both inbreeding and hybridization.","Bartels (1937, 1940, 1942) | Blouch (1983, 1988, 1993) | Blouch & Groves (1990) | Franck (1936) | Groves (1981) | Hardjasamita (1987) | Huffman (2004) | Nijman (2001, 2003) | Olivier (1925, 1928) | Semiadi & Meijaard (2004, 2006) | Semiadi et al. (2008) | Sody (1936, 1941a, 1941b)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721047/files/figure.png,"15.Javan Warty PigSus verrucosusFrench:Sanglier de Java/ German:Java-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide JavaTaxonomy.Sus verrucosus Boie, 1832,Java.The ancestry of this species has been traced back to some fossil pig species of Java, which combined with phylogenetic data suggests that the S. verrucosus lineage has evolved on Javafor approximately two million years. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.v.verrucosusBoie,1832—W&CJava;extinctonMaduraI.S. v. bloucht Groves, 1981— Bawean I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-190 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 70-90 cm; weight 35-150 kg. Compared to other species of Susthe Javan Warty Pig is characterized by great elongation of the face, and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male S. verrucosus can be easily distinguished from other species (at least when seen from nearby) by the presence of warts. Observations from two captive S. verrucosus indicate that warts start to grow when youngsters are 17 months old and weigh approximately 25-35 kg. The two pig species on Javaare externally quite similar, and it will often be difficult to determine the species when an animal is seen at a distance, or when it is a female (which lack the warts). Compared to the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), S. verrucosus gives the impression of having a very large, heavy head, at least in adult males. Males of S. verrucosus are much larger than females (c. 90 kgfor males as opposed to 45 kgfor females). Such pronounced sexual dimorphism is not found in S. scrofa, where the males weigh about the same as the S. verrucosus males, but the females are much heavier than S. verrucosus females. Pelage coloration varies greatly in both species. Generally S. verrucosus appears somewhat reddish, but some individuals look quite black from a distance. The hair on the crown and the mane on the back of the neck are usually paler, often reddish-orange and occasionally approaching blond. In S. verrucosus of all sexes and ages the hair on the belly is predominantly white or yellowish, contrasting with the darker pelage on the upper part of the body. S. scrofaon Javaare most often black or grizzled, but reddish-brown individuals are sometimes encountered. The mane is usually black and the belly hairs are also dark, not contrasting with the pelage above. The individual hairs in S. scrofaare of a single type: black with a yellowish band or (when worn) tip. In S. verrucosus there are two hair types intermixed: shorter red or yellow hairs with black tips, and longer black ones. The coloration of piglets in the two Javan pig species differs as well. S. scrofapiglets are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; the striping is very conspicuous. In S. verrucosus, on the other hand, the striping of piglets is very faint and may be difficult to discern in the field. The shape of the lower canines in male pigs is another good indicator of their specific identity. If a cross section is taken near the base, in S. scrofathe inferior surface is narrower. In S. verrucosus it is as broad as the enamel-less posterior surface. If the width of inferior surface is expressed as a percentage of the posterior surface, for S. scrofathis ranges between 61:5% and 109-1%, and for S. verrucosus it ranges between 113:3% and 161:5%. The canines in females are also distinctive. In S. scrofathey are fairly large: the greatest diameter of the upper canine varies from 16-8 mm to 18-2 mm, and of the lower from 14 mmto 17 mm, overlapping the male range. In S. verrucosus the canines of females are much smaller, the upper measuring 9-3-11-5 mm, the lower 7-3— 10 mm. The race blouchiis distinguished from the nominate subspecies by its smaller size, the relatively low occiput, the red color of the pale hairs in the coat, and the red mane.Habitat.The Javan Warty Pig occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak (7ectona grandis) forest plantations, interspersed with lalang grasslands (/mperata cylindrica), brush, and patches of secondary forest, restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be because the pigs are unable to tolerate low temperatures. They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest. They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava. As with S. scrofa, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations. The two species appear to avoid each other. In the 1920s, their abundance was thought to be similar, but only one species was generally found in a given location. S. scrofaappeared to be better adapted to agricultural areas and heavily degraded forests, and S. verrucosus more restricted to woodlands.Food and Feeding.Ecological information about S. verrucosus is rare because when the species wasstill relatively common, extensive descriptions of feeding and breeding ecology did not differentiate between S. verrucosus and S. scrofa. One account from 1928 describes their ecological similarities: both species feed on a range of animal and plant foods, including fallen fruits, roots, worms, and insects. They are particularly partial to ripe rice, making them a feared agricultural pest.Breeding.The gestation period is thought to be about four months, and 3-9 young are born. Most births reportedly occur in the rainy season, from January to March, in a large nest made by the female out ofleaflitter. According to a recent informant, females with young are mostly seen between August and December.Activity patterns.There is little known about activity patterns of S. verrucosus. Interview surveys on Javain 2003 suggest that the species is mostly nocturnal, with several respondents reporting that damage to rice fields almost exclusively happened at night. It could be that a shift from generally diurnal activity patterns in pigs to nocturnal ones is because of the very high hunting pressure on the species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No estimates of home range or population density are available. Historically, group sizes of up to 20 animals were reported, though most recent records refer to groups of no more than six individuals during the breeding season and fewer at other times.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is now restricted to several isolated areas on mainlandJava. The Javan Warty Pig is endemic to the islands ofJava, Madura, and Bawean in Indonesia. It occurs alongside S. scrofavittatus, but it appears that the two species avoid each other and attain their highest densities where the other speciesis absent. S. verrucosus was widespread on Javaas recently as 1982, but is now absent from most of the island and survives only in highly fragmented populations. A Java-wide, interview-based survey in 2003 found that there were about ten areas on Javaand Bawean where S. verrucosus populations survived, although other small groups may have existed elsewhere. These include remnant and low density populations in west Javain the areas between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, and between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserves of Cikepuh. S. verrucosus is very rare near Purwakarta. Several small populations remain near and south of Garut, with a few reported sightings of S. verrucosus in 2002 and just before. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang, interviewees reported recent killings of S. verrucosus, but the species is now much rarer than in the past. A population of S. verrucosus still remains east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis, although people consider S. verrucosus to be rare in comparison to S. scrofa. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of S. verrucosus from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusa Kembangan, including some from the Nusa Kembangan Nature Reserve off Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into small populations. The only areas where S. verrucosus reportedly remained common were around Subah, where animals were generally seen in small groups of 1-2 individuals and groups of 4-6 during the mating season, and around Blora and Bojonegoro. In the latter area, group size had reportedly declined from 10-20 to only 1-3. No recent records of S. verrucosus exist from Madura Island, and the species is considered extirpated there. On Bawean Island, the only area where the subspecies blouchi occurs, the species is now very rare, and possibly already extirpated. There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 populations (53%) are extirpated or have dropped to low encounter rate levels. [tis thought that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops. Many animals are killed by poisoning. As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation of subspecies blouchi on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals were previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Muslim inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa) has been speculated as a further threat to S. verrucosus, especially in areas where human-induced habitat changes favor S. scrofa. Recent DNA analysis of one S. verrucosus specimen suggested high levels of inbreeding in the species compared to other Sus species, but no evidence of introgression from S. scrofawas found. Further genetic studies on more samples are needed to assess potential conservation implications of both inbreeding and hybridization.Bibliography.Bartels (1937, 1940, 1942), Blouch (1983, 1988, 1993), Blouch & Groves (1990), Franck (1936), Groves (1981), Hardjasamita (1987), Huffman (2004), Nijman (2001, 2003), Olivier (1925, 1928), Semiadi & Meijaard (2004, 2006), Semiadi et al. (2008), Sody (1936, 1941a, 1941b)." +038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,286,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808.xml,Sus celebensis,Sus,celebensis,Muller & Schlegel,1843,Sanglier des Célébes @fr | Sulawesi-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Célebes @es,"Sus celebensis Muller & Schlegel, 1843,Manado, Celebes.Genetic studies have suggested that S. celebensisforms two clades, one restricted to northern Sulawesiand the other to the remainder of the species’ range. This can be explained either by the occurrence of two colonization events onto Sulawesior the historic fragmentation of the island into at least two parts. Taxonomic differentiation between the two clades is not sufficiently supported by morphological studies, although the average skull size of S. celebensiswas found to be considerably greater for southern Sulawesithan for northern Sulawesi. Provisionally monotypic.","Sulawesiand adjacent Is (Buton, Kabaena, Muna, Peleng, Lembeh, and on some of the Togian Is); thought to be extinct on Selayar I. Pigs have been widely domesticated through the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This primarily involved the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), but also S. celebensis, the only other species of pig successfully domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA studies of the dispersion of these domesticated forms agree on three major dispersal events, two involving S. scrofaand one S. celebensis. Evidence supports an early human-mediated translocation of S. celebensisto Floresand Timor and two later, separate human-mediated dispersals of domestic pig through islands of SE Asia into Oceania. In addition to Floresand Timor, S. celebensisis also thought to occur in its domesticated form on Halmahera, Lendu, Roti, and Savur Is, and even on Simeulue and Nias Is to the W of Sumatraand far from its island of origin, Sulawesi. In the Moluccas, and possibly elsewhere in this region, introduced S. celebensisare thought to have hybridized with other introduced pigs of S. scrofaderivation, and apparent hybrids between these species are now reported to survive on a number of islands, including Salawatti, Great Kei, Dobu, Seram, Ambon, Bacan, Ternate, Morotai, and New Guinea. It is also reported that in the 19"" century the sows of domestic pigs in Sulawesi frequently mated with wild animals, after which they returned to their villages.","Head—body 80-130 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 70 cm; weight 40-70 kg. Adult animals are usually dark-haired, although some individuals are reddish-brown or yellowish in color, sometimes with lighter colored hairs on the trunk and abdomen. There is always a dark dorsal stripe, and a clear yellow snout band is usually present. A short mane and distinct crest of longer hair on the crown or forehead has been recorded for captive animals, but observations on 27 animals in the wild in north Sulawesifound no instances of a crest as long as in the zoo specimens. This might be because, as in the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) and the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), prominent manes and crests may only occur during the breeding season (in the case of these latter species, from late November to April). It is unclear when the wild observations on S. celebensiswere made. Young are born with five dark brown and six pale horizontalstripes along the length of their bodies, which they lose at an age of about six months. Adult males have three pairs of facial warts, the preorbital pair being the largest, the infraorbital somewhat smaller, and the mandibular warts emerging from a whorl of hair that first marks their position; the warts enlarge and eventually dominate (at least in captive specimens). The legs are relatively very short, and the back is short and slightly convex. Thetail is long and simply tufted. Adult males are larger than sows, averaging 70 cmat the shoulder in males as opposed to 60 cmin females. Recent forms are larger than the subfossil remains found in caves in southern Sulawesi. S. celebensishas a chromosome number of 38. There are significant differences in the banding of the Y chromosome of S. celebensis, however, when compared with either S. scrofaor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus).","This species is reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including rainforests, swamps, high grassland terrains, and agricultural areas. It is found at elevations up to moss forest at about 2300 m, but it prefers valleys.","Little is known about the feeding behavior of S. celebensis. Roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots are thought to constitute the bulk of their diet, with invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion as occasional secondary additions. However, no quantitative data are available about percentages of these itemsin their diets, and how this varies over time and in different habitats. Unlike babirusas, S. celebensishas been observed to consume grasses, although this is based on brief observations only.","Mating is reported to occur in February, although this is based on only one observation. Births can occur at any time throughout the year but sows usually have their young in April or May. Gestation length is not known for certain, and the suggestion that it may be between 16 and 20 weeks should be treated with caution. Farrowing sows give birth in nests made of grasses, leaves, branches, and twigs piled over a shallow excavation approximately 2 min length. Litter size has been estimated as 2-8 piglets, with an average offive, although a study in North Sulawesiin 1991 found six pregnant sows killed by hunters to be carrying only 1-3 fetuses, with a mean of only 2-17 fetuses per pregnancy.","The SulawesiWarty Pig is primarily diurnal. Most feeding activity observed in relatively undisturbed areas occurs during the daylight hours, concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon.","Few data exist on group size, but observations around a salt lick recorded single animals (five times), pairs (two times), groups of three (four times), and one group of six. In another population the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1-25 (n = 25) and group size was 2-9, with an average of five (n = 16). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults, and 1-3 adults. These and observations from the 19"" century suggest that the species occurs in small troops or families. Densities ranged from 0-4-2 ind/km? in a reserve on the north peninsula to 1:8-19-8 ind/km? and 5-1-14-5 ind/km? in two reserves on the south-east peninsula. A recent study in those reserves found even higher densities in lowland forest (23-5 ind/km?). Such major differences in density are thought to result from varying hunting pressure, with Muslim-dominated areas, where people do not eat pigs, having higher population densities than areas where Christians predominate. With inter-island trade being common, however,it is unclear to what extent Muslimdominated areas become suppliers to the Christian ones. Also, in the south-east peninsula, which is mostly Muslim, S. celebensishas apparently been extirpated, so obviously religious affinity is not sufficient to prevent local extinction of the species.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List based on the level of the main threats, habitat loss and hunting. S. celebensisis a species of the central and eastern islands of Indonesia, occurring east of Wallace's Line, which separates the faunas and floras with Oriental affiliation in the west from the Australasian ones in the east. Generally the species is considered to be common, although statements along these lines have been repeated for decades without actual field surveys providing supporting information. S. celebensishas a patchy distribution on most of SulawesiIsland; it is most common in the south-eastern parts of the island. The species has been considered scarce in south-west Sulawesifor over two decades because of ongoing deforestation and hunting. Decreasing sign of pigs in various parts of southern Sulawesiwas noted as early as 1938. Extensive logging and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration, have resulted in the marked contraction and fragmentation ofits range in most places. Market surveys also indicate that the species is under high hunting pressure. For example, brief surveys of three village markets in north-eastern Sulawesiconcluded that about 2-20 wild pigs per week were being sold by commercial hunters and slaughtered by butchers when needed. Wild piglets that are caught by villagers in Sulawesiare kept and usually raised for slaughter for eating or sold at the local market. The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of the current harvesting rate. The fact that the species is not protected outside certain protected areas, and can therefore be openly hunted and traded, makesit difficult to reduce consumption to more sustainable levels. Surveys within protected areas also show that the species is commonly hunted there, and in three protected areas in north Sulawesino sign at all was found of S. celebensis. It is clear that there are few if any areas where the species can be considered secure. S. celebensisis of particular interest in that it is the only pig species, apart from S. scrofathat has been domesticated and quite widely transported by human agency outsideits original range. The available evidence indicates that it is still maintained as a domestic in some areas, but its commercial importance and future potential as a genetic resource are unknown.","Alvard (2000) | Bosma et al. (1991) | Budiarso (1991) | Burton (2002) | Burton & Macdonald (20086, 2008) | Clason (1976) | Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000) | Clayton et al. (1997) | Dobney et al. (2008) | Groves (1981) | Hooijer (1969) | Huffman (1999) | Keeling et al. (1999) | Larson, Cucchi et al. (2007) | Larson, Dobney et al. (2005) | Lee et al. (2005) | Macdonald (1991b, 1993) | Macdonald et al. (1996) | Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002) | Nehring (1889) | O'Brien & Kinnaird (1996) | Riley (2002) | von Rosenberg (1865) | Toxopeus (1938) | Wiles et al. (2002)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721045/files/figure.png,"14.SulawesiWarty PigSus celebensisFrench:Sanglier des Célébes/ German:Sulawesi-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide CélebesTaxonomy.Sus celebensis Muller & Schlegel, 1843,Manado, Celebes.Genetic studies have suggested that S. celebensisforms two clades, one restricted to northern Sulawesiand the other to the remainder of the species’ range. This can be explained either by the occurrence of two colonization events onto Sulawesior the historic fragmentation of the island into at least two parts. Taxonomic differentiation between the two clades is not sufficiently supported by morphological studies, although the average skull size of S. celebensiswas found to be considerably greater for southern Sulawesithan for northern Sulawesi. Provisionally monotypic.Distribution.Sulawesiand adjacent Is (Buton, Kabaena, Muna, Peleng, Lembeh, and on some of the Togian Is); thought to be extinct on Selayar I. Pigs have been widely domesticated through the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This primarily involved the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), but also S. celebensis, the only other species of pig successfully domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA studies of the dispersion of these domesticated forms agree on three major dispersal events, two involving S. scrofaand one S. celebensis. Evidence supports an early human-mediated translocation of S. celebensisto Floresand Timor and two later, separate human-mediated dispersals of domestic pig through islands of SE Asia into Oceania. In addition to Floresand Timor, S. celebensisis also thought to occur in its domesticated form on Halmahera, Lendu, Roti, and Savur Is, and even on Simeulue and Nias Is to the W of Sumatraand far from its island of origin, Sulawesi. In the Moluccas, and possibly elsewhere in this region, introduced S. celebensisare thought to have hybridized with other introduced pigs of S. scrofaderivation, and apparent hybrids between these species are now reported to survive on a number of islands, including Salawatti, Great Kei, Dobu, Seram, Ambon, Bacan, Ternate, Morotai, and New Guinea. It is also reported that in the 19"" century the sows of domestic pigs in Sulawesi frequently mated with wild animals, after which they returned to their villages.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80-130 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 70 cm; weight 40-70 kg. Adult animals are usually dark-haired, although some individuals are reddish-brown or yellowish in color, sometimes with lighter colored hairs on the trunk and abdomen. There is always a dark dorsal stripe, and a clear yellow snout band is usually present. A short mane and distinct crest of longer hair on the crown or forehead has been recorded for captive animals, but observations on 27 animals in the wild in north Sulawesifound no instances of a crest as long as in the zoo specimens. This might be because, as in the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) and the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), prominent manes and crests may only occur during the breeding season (in the case of these latter species, from late November to April). It is unclear when the wild observations on S. celebensiswere made. Young are born with five dark brown and six pale horizontalstripes along the length of their bodies, which they lose at an age of about six months. Adult males have three pairs of facial warts, the preorbital pair being the largest, the infraorbital somewhat smaller, and the mandibular warts emerging from a whorl of hair that first marks their position; the warts enlarge and eventually dominate (at least in captive specimens). The legs are relatively very short, and the back is short and slightly convex. Thetail is long and simply tufted. Adult males are larger than sows, averaging 70 cmat the shoulder in males as opposed to 60 cmin females. Recent forms are larger than the subfossil remains found in caves in southern Sulawesi. S. celebensishas a chromosome number of 38. There are significant differences in the banding of the Y chromosome of S. celebensis, however, when compared with either S. scrofaor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus).Habitat.This species is reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including rainforests, swamps, high grassland terrains, and agricultural areas. It is found at elevations up to moss forest at about 2300 m, but it prefers valleys.Food and Feeding.Little is known about the feeding behavior of S. celebensis. Roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots are thought to constitute the bulk of their diet, with invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion as occasional secondary additions. However, no quantitative data are available about percentages of these itemsin their diets, and how this varies over time and in different habitats. Unlike babirusas, S. celebensishas been observed to consume grasses, although this is based on brief observations only.Breeding.Mating is reported to occur in February, although this is based on only one observation. Births can occur at any time throughout the year but sows usually have their young in April or May. Gestation length is not known for certain, and the suggestion that it may be between 16 and 20 weeks should be treated with caution. Farrowing sows give birth in nests made of grasses, leaves, branches, and twigs piled over a shallow excavation approximately 2 min length. Litter size has been estimated as 2-8 piglets, with an average offive, although a study in North Sulawesiin 1991 found six pregnant sows killed by hunters to be carrying only 1-3 fetuses, with a mean of only 2-17 fetuses per pregnancy.Activity patterns.The SulawesiWarty Pig is primarily diurnal. Most feeding activity observed in relatively undisturbed areas occurs during the daylight hours, concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Few data exist on group size, but observations around a salt lick recorded single animals (five times), pairs (two times), groups of three (four times), and one group of six. In another population the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1-25 (n = 25) and group size was 2-9, with an average of five (n = 16). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults, and 1-3 adults. These and observations from the 19"" century suggest that the species occurs in small troops or families. Densities ranged from 0-4-2 ind/km? in a reserve on the north peninsula to 1:8-19-8 ind/km? and 5-1-14-5 ind/km? in two reserves on the south-east peninsula. A recent study in those reserves found even higher densities in lowland forest (23-5 ind/km?). Such major differences in density are thought to result from varying hunting pressure, with Muslim-dominated areas, where people do not eat pigs, having higher population densities than areas where Christians predominate. With inter-island trade being common, however,it is unclear to what extent Muslimdominated areas become suppliers to the Christian ones. Also, in the south-east peninsula, which is mostly Muslim, S. celebensishas apparently been extirpated, so obviously religious affinity is not sufficient to prevent local extinction of the species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List based on the level of the main threats, habitat loss and hunting. S. celebensisis a species of the central and eastern islands of Indonesia, occurring east of Wallace's Line, which separates the faunas and floras with Oriental affiliation in the west from the Australasian ones in the east. Generally the species is considered to be common, although statements along these lines have been repeated for decades without actual field surveys providing supporting information. S. celebensishas a patchy distribution on most of SulawesiIsland; it is most common in the south-eastern parts of the island. The species has been considered scarce in south-west Sulawesifor over two decades because of ongoing deforestation and hunting. Decreasing sign of pigs in various parts of southern Sulawesiwas noted as early as 1938. Extensive logging and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration, have resulted in the marked contraction and fragmentation ofits range in most places. Market surveys also indicate that the species is under high hunting pressure. For example, brief surveys of three village markets in north-eastern Sulawesiconcluded that about 2-20 wild pigs per week were being sold by commercial hunters and slaughtered by butchers when needed. Wild piglets that are caught by villagers in Sulawesiare kept and usually raised for slaughter for eating or sold at the local market. The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of the current harvesting rate. The fact that the species is not protected outside certain protected areas, and can therefore be openly hunted and traded, makesit difficult to reduce consumption to more sustainable levels. Surveys within protected areas also show that the species is commonly hunted there, and in three protected areas in north Sulawesino sign at all was found of S. celebensis. It is clear that there are few if any areas where the species can be considered secure. S. celebensisis of particular interest in that it is the only pig species, apart from S. scrofathat has been domesticated and quite widely transported by human agency outsideits original range. The available evidence indicates that it is still maintained as a domestic in some areas, but its commercial importance and future potential as a genetic resource are unknown.Bibliography.Alvard (2000), Bosma et al. (1991), Budiarso (1991), Burton (2002), Burton & Macdonald (20086, 2008), Clason (1976), Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (1997), Dobney et al. (2008), Groves (1981), Hooijer (1969), Huffman (1999), Keeling et al. (1999), Larson, Cucchi et al. (2007), Larson, Dobney et al. (2005), Lee et al. (2005), Macdonald (1991b, 1993), Macdonald et al. (1996), Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002), Nehring (1889), O'Brien & Kinnaird (1996), Riley (2002), von Rosenberg (1865), Toxopeus (1938), Wiles et al. (2002)." +038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,285,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A.xml,Sus barbatus,Sus,barbatus,Muller,1838,Sanglier barbu @fr | Bartschwein @de | Jabalibarbudo @es,"Sus barbatus Muller, 1838,Banjermasin, S. Kalimantan, Indonesia.The seemingly absurd subspecific name 0: has been commented on by several authors. Apparently the name was split from a Sumatran tribal name for pig “nangoi,” with only the last bit of the word used. Two subspecies are recognized.","S.b.barbatusMuller,1838—BorneoandassociatedIs,possiblyextendingtoTawiTawi.S. b. oi Miller, 1902— Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Bangka.","Head—body 137-152 cm (males, although some reports suggest that males can attain a total length of 208 cm) and 122-148 cm (females), tail 17-26 cm, shoulder height 90 cm, hindfoot 27-32 cm; weight usually ranges from 58 kgto 83 kg, with females somewhat lighter than males. When food is abundant, weights of up to 200 kgcan be attained. Adult Bearded Pigs are characterized by their relatively large body size, reduced sexual dimorphism compared to other species of Sus, long legs, a bearded jaw tuft, and sparse body hair. The species has smaller warts and a more elongated skull than the other warty pigs, relatively small ears, and a long tail with a large terminal tuft divided into distinct anterior and posterior parts. The head is typically long, with a beard of bristles extending along the lower mandibles and a thick band of forward-pointing bristles across the snout above the mouth. The nominate subspecies barbatushas long, sweeping cheek whiskers and thicker and longer hairs on the snout band (especially in males); the whiskers of the subspecies oi are shorter on the cheeks, but long and wiry over the snout. It has been suggested that the body of oi is flatter bilaterally than that of barbatus, but this has not been confirmed. The overall body coloration of Bearded Pigs varies from blackish in young pigs to a paler reddish brown, yellow-gray, or almost buffy white in adults. The color of mud wallows affects the apparent color of pigs. Piglets of the Bearded Pig are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; these stripes are lost by six months of age. Females have six pairs of mammae.","Bearded Pigs are well adapted to the extensive dipterocarp forests of Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. This tree family is often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting. Bearded Pigs also make extensive use of riverbanks, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms. Other habitats they use include estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of oldjungle, beaches, all kinds of plantations, clearings, and also the outskirts of towns. The species is well known forits migratory behavior. Bearded Pigs are scattered across large regions during non-mast fruiting times, but move from both mountain and swamp habitats to drier lowland forests when fruit becomes abundant.","Bearded Pigs are real omnivores and it has been said that “it is almost easier to state what they will not eat.” They feed on a long list of food plants, but also consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, and carrion. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition, and reproduction. The other foods that normally occur in the forest are assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaeare thought to be especially important. During mast fruiting the majority of seeds in the diet are dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species. Oaks, especially Castinopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., and Quercus spp., are also favorites. During fruiting times, they are almost solely seed predators, and Bearded Pigs play an important role in the distribution of seeds. They also consume a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes, and other tiny, hard testas, which can pass through their guts and germinate.","Age at first pregnancy varies in the wild from about 10 to 20 months. The rut appears to coincide with synchronized flowering in the forest, occuring during the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer observers a potential visual cue. During the onset of droughts and related flowering of dipterocarps, male Bearded Pigs rut and females construct nests. In big fruiting years, Bearded Pigs can “double-clutch.” This suggests that a certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they are receptive to mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1-5, whereas rutting males scored zero on this measure (n = 19). Gestation length is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Births occur in a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female was seven (n = 53), which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Litter size is, however, very variable in part because of the influence of female size; small mothers typically have 3—4 piglets in a litter and large ones have 10-12.","Bearded Pigs are mostly diurnal. They are subject to irregular migrations, seeming to follow fruit when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for many years after. The ripening of illipe nuts (Shorea sp.) in Sarawakand East Kalimantan appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations. These mass migrations of Bearded Pigs are distinct from annual local movements damaging rice fields. The somewhat forced, lemminglike aspects of these large scale pig migrations are exemplified by the observation of a pig whose hindquarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward byits front legs to follow its conspecifics. The appearance of large numbers of pigs traveling together is especially obvious during river crossings, which they do in groups of over 100 animals. This provides local hunters with the opportunity to kill large numbers of pigs for meat and fat, from which they extract oils. Mass river crossings might have evolved at a time when crocodiles were still abundant in the region. Bearded Pigs appear to exist in different population states, which have been summarized as follows. 1) Dispersed,static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous “background” food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 2) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous “target” food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia-Burseraceae forest in Peninsular Malaysia. 3) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic mosaic of fruit production. Short to medium-range movements. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 4) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable, and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply. Examples: Dryobalanopsaromatica association in Peninsular Malaysia; Dinochloa association in Sabah. 5) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for severallitters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawakin 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987. 6) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported from Malaya and Borneo. It remains largely unstudied how these different population states have been affected by the continuing loss, degradation, and fragmentation of forest habitats. Unconfirmed information from local people in Kalimantan and Sarawaksuggests that mass migrations of pigs no longer occur to the same extent as reported formerly, even as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, which might indicate that with the removal of millions of hectares of high timber value dipterocarp forests food dynamics and related population states have been severely disrupted.","The basic social unit is that of a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. The pigs’ movements vary so much throughout the year and between years that no reliable home range estimates can be made unless animals are radio-tracked for several years. Such studies have recently been completed in Sabah, Malaysia, but the data are not yet available. Bearded Pigs are powerful swimmers and easily cross the many large rivers of Borneo and Sumatra. They have also been reported to cross seas, which might explain why they occur on so many small islands. A report from the 19"" century mentions droves of pigs swimming across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo, a distance of about 8 km. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs crossing the sea channel between Sabahand Sibutu (a distance of some 45 km), and also the Kowie harbor near Tawau, which is at least 9 km. A Bearded Pig was found swimming in the middle of the Sandakan Bay in Sabah, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, 5 kmaway.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, mostly because of the rapid loss of its forest habitat and high hunting pressure throughoutits range. The Bearded Pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo. It is also reported from the island of Sibutu, west of the SuluArchipelago in the Philippines, and possibly on Tawi Tawi Island. In Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a relatively small part ofits presumed prehistoric range. In Borneo the species is still widespread but likely declining. There are additional records from a range of smaller islands, where the status of the speciesis unclear but populations have possibly been extirpated. This includes the islands of Balembangan, Banggi, Batam, Bauwal, Bintan, Bruit, Bunju, Burung, Durian Besar, Galang, Jambongan, Juanata, Karimata, Kundur, Lamukotan, Laut, Malawali, Mapor, Miang Besar, Molleangen, Panebangan, Pelapis, Ransang, Rempang, Rupat, Sauh, Sebuku, Sibutu, Tarakan, Tebing Tinggi, and Ungar. Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as Bearded Pigs for at least 35,000 years. Holocene and prehistoric cave finds in Sabah, Sarawak, and East Kalimantan indicate that Bearded Pigs have been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Bearded Pig was hunted but was apparently fairly plentiful and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1500-2000 years ago. Overhunting has since led to population declines. In some parts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, Bearded Pigs had already been hunted to near extinction by the 1920s. More recently, the threat of extinction is becoming a reality in many more parts of their range, where overhunting, logging, and conversion of forests have caused a rapid decline in Bearded Pig populations. Overhunting has also likely led to the extermination of many small-island populations. In 1906, such extinctions were reported for the Penata and Kebun Islands in the Burung group of northern West Kalimantan, and presumably extinctions have also occurred in the often densely settled islands where Bearded Pigs used to occur. It has been estimated that hunters in Sarawaktake an annual harvest of up to one million or more pigs, making wild pork meat of considerable economic significance. This is quite often related to commercial timber extraction. One typical logging camp in Sarawakkilled as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found to be wasteful, with pigs being killed on sight even if the worker did not need the meat. In one logging area, for example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leave the rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day. Bearded Pigs are by far the most preferred species of wild meat throughout Sarawakand Sabah, where they comprise as much as 72% of the dressed weight of all animals hunted. In these areas, the impact of hunting seems clear, with a significant correlation between hunting pressure and animal density. This pattern is so strong that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated, including Bearded Pigs, decreases, until all large animals are locally extirpated. This pattern of high hunting pressure on these animals is also found among Penan and Kenyah tribes in East Kalimantan, where pigs contributed 79-8% of all catches and 91% ofall the edible meat. On average these people consume of 133-6 kg of pig meat per person per year. The estimate for Sarawakis 12 kgof pig meat per person per year. In Peninsular Malaysia, the more sedentary population of Bearded Pigs, apparently associated with continuously fruiting Koompassia-Burseraceae forests, is endangered by hunting as well as habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced on the peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favored Indonesian Banded Pigs (S. scrofavittatus) over Bearded Pigs in those parts of Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra where sympatry between these species occurs. This poses a further, and potentially serious, threat to Bearded Pigs. Available data indicate that wherever these two species are sympatric, the number of Eurasian Wild Pigs is greater than the number of Bearded Pigs, and that the Eurasian Wild Pig now has a much wider range of distribution than the Bearded Pig throughout these regions. In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya. A comparison between the current distribution of Bearded Pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago, where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear. These animals are also potentially threatened by various contagious diseases. For example, a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the domestic cattle population of south-east Borneo between 1871 and 1872 evidently spread to both domestic pigs and Bearded Pig populations over large parts of Borneo. Several similar and successive outbreaks of rinderpest in domestic cattle between 1878 and 1894 also killed off large numbers of these animals. The most serious may have been an epidemic in 1894, when populations of Bearded Pigs had already been severely reduced by epidemics in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. A final epidemic occurred in 1906, when a great many Bearded Pigs succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area in South Kalimantan. There are no recent records of such epidemics, but the proximity of domestic animals to remaining Bearded Pig populations is a potentially serious threat, particularly at times when the pigs may already be nutritionally stressed.","Banks(1931) | Barton et al. (2009) | Bennett et al. (2000) | Boden Kloss (1905) | Caldecott (1988, 1991a, 1991b) | Caldecott & Caldecott (1985) | Caldecott, Blouch et al. (1993) | Chin(2001) | Cranbrook & Labang (2003) | Curran & Leighton (2000) | Curran & Webb (2000) | Genov (2004) | Hancock et al. (2004, 2006) | Ickes (2001) | Ickes & DeWalt (1999) | Kawanishi, Gumal & Oliver (2008) | Kawanishi, Richardson & Lazarus (2006) | Kempe (1948) | Kloss (1931) | Knapen (1997) | Linkie & Sadikin (2003) | Lyon (1908) | Medway(1977) | Meijaard (2000) | Ong et al. (1999) | Pfeffer (1959) | Pfeffer & Caldecott (1986) | Piper & Rabett (2009)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721043/files/figure.png,"13.Bearded PigSus barbatusFrench:Sanglier barbu/ German:Bartschwein/ Spanish:JabalibarbudoTaxonomy.Sus barbatus Muller, 1838,Banjermasin, S. Kalimantan, Indonesia.The seemingly absurd subspecific name 0: has been commented on by several authors. Apparently the name was split from a Sumatran tribal name for pig “nangoi,” with only the last bit of the word used. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.barbatusMuller,1838—BorneoandassociatedIs,possiblyextendingtoTawiTawi.S. b. oi Miller, 1902— Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Bangka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 137-152 cm (males, although some reports suggest that males can attain a total length of 208 cm) and 122-148 cm (females), tail 17-26 cm, shoulder height 90 cm, hindfoot 27-32 cm; weight usually ranges from 58 kgto 83 kg, with females somewhat lighter than males. When food is abundant, weights of up to 200 kgcan be attained. Adult Bearded Pigs are characterized by their relatively large body size, reduced sexual dimorphism compared to other species of Sus, long legs, a bearded jaw tuft, and sparse body hair. The species has smaller warts and a more elongated skull than the other warty pigs, relatively small ears, and a long tail with a large terminal tuft divided into distinct anterior and posterior parts. The head is typically long, with a beard of bristles extending along the lower mandibles and a thick band of forward-pointing bristles across the snout above the mouth. The nominate subspecies barbatushas long, sweeping cheek whiskers and thicker and longer hairs on the snout band (especially in males); the whiskers of the subspecies oi are shorter on the cheeks, but long and wiry over the snout. It has been suggested that the body of oi is flatter bilaterally than that of barbatus, but this has not been confirmed. The overall body coloration of Bearded Pigs varies from blackish in young pigs to a paler reddish brown, yellow-gray, or almost buffy white in adults. The color of mud wallows affects the apparent color of pigs. Piglets of the Bearded Pig are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; these stripes are lost by six months of age. Females have six pairs of mammae.Habitat.Bearded Pigs are well adapted to the extensive dipterocarp forests of Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. This tree family is often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting. Bearded Pigs also make extensive use of riverbanks, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms. Other habitats they use include estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of oldjungle, beaches, all kinds of plantations, clearings, and also the outskirts of towns. The species is well known forits migratory behavior. Bearded Pigs are scattered across large regions during non-mast fruiting times, but move from both mountain and swamp habitats to drier lowland forests when fruit becomes abundant.Food and Feeding.Bearded Pigs are real omnivores and it has been said that “it is almost easier to state what they will not eat.” They feed on a long list of food plants, but also consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, and carrion. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition, and reproduction. The other foods that normally occur in the forest are assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaeare thought to be especially important. During mast fruiting the majority of seeds in the diet are dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species. Oaks, especially Castinopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., and Quercus spp., are also favorites. During fruiting times, they are almost solely seed predators, and Bearded Pigs play an important role in the distribution of seeds. They also consume a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes, and other tiny, hard testas, which can pass through their guts and germinate.Breeding.Age at first pregnancy varies in the wild from about 10 to 20 months. The rut appears to coincide with synchronized flowering in the forest, occuring during the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer observers a potential visual cue. During the onset of droughts and related flowering of dipterocarps, male Bearded Pigs rut and females construct nests. In big fruiting years, Bearded Pigs can “double-clutch.” This suggests that a certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they are receptive to mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1-5, whereas rutting males scored zero on this measure (n = 19). Gestation length is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Births occur in a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female was seven (n = 53), which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Litter size is, however, very variable in part because of the influence of female size; small mothers typically have 3—4 piglets in a litter and large ones have 10-12.Activity patterns.Bearded Pigs are mostly diurnal. They are subject to irregular migrations, seeming to follow fruit when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for many years after. The ripening of illipe nuts (Shorea sp.) in Sarawakand East Kalimantan appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations. These mass migrations of Bearded Pigs are distinct from annual local movements damaging rice fields. The somewhat forced, lemminglike aspects of these large scale pig migrations are exemplified by the observation of a pig whose hindquarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward byits front legs to follow its conspecifics. The appearance of large numbers of pigs traveling together is especially obvious during river crossings, which they do in groups of over 100 animals. This provides local hunters with the opportunity to kill large numbers of pigs for meat and fat, from which they extract oils. Mass river crossings might have evolved at a time when crocodiles were still abundant in the region. Bearded Pigs appear to exist in different population states, which have been summarized as follows. 1) Dispersed,static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous “background” food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 2) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous “target” food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia-Burseraceae forest in Peninsular Malaysia. 3) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic mosaic of fruit production. Short to medium-range movements. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 4) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable, and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply. Examples: Dryobalanopsaromatica association in Peninsular Malaysia; Dinochloa association in Sabah. 5) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for severallitters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawakin 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987. 6) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported from Malaya and Borneo. It remains largely unstudied how these different population states have been affected by the continuing loss, degradation, and fragmentation of forest habitats. Unconfirmed information from local people in Kalimantan and Sarawaksuggests that mass migrations of pigs no longer occur to the same extent as reported formerly, even as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, which might indicate that with the removal of millions of hectares of high timber value dipterocarp forests food dynamics and related population states have been severely disrupted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is that of a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. The pigs’ movements vary so much throughout the year and between years that no reliable home range estimates can be made unless animals are radio-tracked for several years. Such studies have recently been completed in Sabah, Malaysia, but the data are not yet available. Bearded Pigs are powerful swimmers and easily cross the many large rivers of Borneo and Sumatra. They have also been reported to cross seas, which might explain why they occur on so many small islands. A report from the 19"" century mentions droves of pigs swimming across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo, a distance of about 8 km. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs crossing the sea channel between Sabahand Sibutu (a distance of some 45 km), and also the Kowie harbor near Tawau, which is at least 9 km. A Bearded Pig was found swimming in the middle of the Sandakan Bay in Sabah, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, 5 kmaway.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, mostly because of the rapid loss of its forest habitat and high hunting pressure throughoutits range. The Bearded Pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo. It is also reported from the island of Sibutu, west of the SuluArchipelago in the Philippines, and possibly on Tawi Tawi Island. In Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a relatively small part ofits presumed prehistoric range. In Borneo the species is still widespread but likely declining. There are additional records from a range of smaller islands, where the status of the speciesis unclear but populations have possibly been extirpated. This includes the islands of Balembangan, Banggi, Batam, Bauwal, Bintan, Bruit, Bunju, Burung, Durian Besar, Galang, Jambongan, Juanata, Karimata, Kundur, Lamukotan, Laut, Malawali, Mapor, Miang Besar, Molleangen, Panebangan, Pelapis, Ransang, Rempang, Rupat, Sauh, Sebuku, Sibutu, Tarakan, Tebing Tinggi, and Ungar. Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as Bearded Pigs for at least 35,000 years. Holocene and prehistoric cave finds in Sabah, Sarawak, and East Kalimantan indicate that Bearded Pigs have been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Bearded Pig was hunted but was apparently fairly plentiful and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1500-2000 years ago. Overhunting has since led to population declines. In some parts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, Bearded Pigs had already been hunted to near extinction by the 1920s. More recently, the threat of extinction is becoming a reality in many more parts of their range, where overhunting, logging, and conversion of forests have caused a rapid decline in Bearded Pig populations. Overhunting has also likely led to the extermination of many small-island populations. In 1906, such extinctions were reported for the Penata and Kebun Islands in the Burung group of northern West Kalimantan, and presumably extinctions have also occurred in the often densely settled islands where Bearded Pigs used to occur. It has been estimated that hunters in Sarawaktake an annual harvest of up to one million or more pigs, making wild pork meat of considerable economic significance. This is quite often related to commercial timber extraction. One typical logging camp in Sarawakkilled as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found to be wasteful, with pigs being killed on sight even if the worker did not need the meat. In one logging area, for example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leave the rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day. Bearded Pigs are by far the most preferred species of wild meat throughout Sarawakand Sabah, where they comprise as much as 72% of the dressed weight of all animals hunted. In these areas, the impact of hunting seems clear, with a significant correlation between hunting pressure and animal density. This pattern is so strong that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated, including Bearded Pigs, decreases, until all large animals are locally extirpated. This pattern of high hunting pressure on these animals is also found among Penan and Kenyah tribes in East Kalimantan, where pigs contributed 79-8% of all catches and 91% ofall the edible meat. On average these people consume of 133-6 kg of pig meat per person per year. The estimate for Sarawakis 12 kgof pig meat per person per year. In Peninsular Malaysia, the more sedentary population of Bearded Pigs, apparently associated with continuously fruiting Koompassia-Burseraceae forests, is endangered by hunting as well as habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced on the peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favored Indonesian Banded Pigs (S. scrofavittatus) over Bearded Pigs in those parts of Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra where sympatry between these species occurs. This poses a further, and potentially serious, threat to Bearded Pigs. Available data indicate that wherever these two species are sympatric, the number of Eurasian Wild Pigs is greater than the number of Bearded Pigs, and that the Eurasian Wild Pig now has a much wider range of distribution than the Bearded Pig throughout these regions. In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya. A comparison between the current distribution of Bearded Pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago, where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear. These animals are also potentially threatened by various contagious diseases. For example, a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the domestic cattle population of south-east Borneo between 1871 and 1872 evidently spread to both domestic pigs and Bearded Pig populations over large parts of Borneo. Several similar and successive outbreaks of rinderpest in domestic cattle between 1878 and 1894 also killed off large numbers of these animals. The most serious may have been an epidemic in 1894, when populations of Bearded Pigs had already been severely reduced by epidemics in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. A final epidemic occurred in 1906, when a great many Bearded Pigs succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area in South Kalimantan. There are no recent records of such epidemics, but the proximity of domestic animals to remaining Bearded Pig populations is a potentially serious threat, particularly at times when the pigs may already be nutritionally stressed.Bibliography.Banks(1931), Barton et al. (2009), Bennett et al. (2000), Boden Kloss (1905), Caldecott (1988, 1991a, 1991b), Caldecott & Caldecott (1985), Caldecott, Blouch et al. (1993), Chin(2001), Cranbrook & Labang (2003), Curran & Leighton (2000), Curran & Webb (2000), Genov (2004), Hancock et al. (2004, 2006), Ickes (2001), Ickes & DeWalt (1999), Kawanishi, Gumal & Oliver (2008), Kawanishi, Richardson & Lazarus (2006), Kempe (1948), Kloss (1931), Knapen (1997), Linkie & Sadikin (2003), Lyon (1908), Medway(1977), Meijaard (2000), Ong et al. (1999), Pfeffer (1959), Pfeffer & Caldecott (1986), Piper & Rabett (2009)." +038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,285,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10.xml,Sus ahoenobarbus,Sus,ahoenobarbus,Linnaeus,1758,Sanglier de Palawan @fr | Palawan-Bartschwein @de | Jabalibarbudo de Palawan @es,"Sus barbatusahoenobarbus Huet, 1888,“Palauan” (= Palawan).Susahoenobarbus was originally described as a subspecies of the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus), but was upgraded to full species because ofits distinct characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis based on two mt DNA cytochrome b fragments (mtDNA cyt b) pacha that S. ahoenobarbus was more closely related to the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) than to S. barbatus, of which it was originally thought to be a subspecies. Morphologically it is, however, more similar to S. barbatus, as evidenced by their conspicuous beards and absence of the prominent manes and mandibular facial warts characteristic of Philippine Warty Pigs (S. philippensis). Also, the chromosome number, which is 38 inS. ahoenobarbus, S. barbatus, and almost all other Susspecies, but is 36 inS. cebifrons and S. philippinensis, suggests a closer affinity to S. barbatus. As was stated in the taxonomic review of the species by C. P. Groves, “there is absolutely no doubt that this form is a dwarf barbatus.” In view of more recent evidence, it is unclear whether there are issues of data interpretation underlying this apparent contradiction in phylogenetic affinity, or whether there is another explanation. For example, hybridization may have occurred between barbatusand cebifrons, so that ahoenobarbus maintains characteristics of both species. Until further research is conducted, the phylogenetic affinities of S. ahoenobarbus remain unclear. Monotypic.","Palawanand associated Is (Calauit, Busuanga, Bacbac, Coron, Marily, Culion & Dumaran, Linapacan in the N, and Bugsuk, Balabac & Ramos in the S). Probably now extinct in Bulalacao.","Head—body 100-160 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight up to 150 kg. This species is smaller than S. barbatus, and has a shorter facial skeleton. The hair is thin, bristly, and blackish-brown over most of the animal, but adults have a distinct mane of longer whitish hairs extending from crown to rump and a characteristic beard of long white hairs on the cheeks and jowls that extends in a band across the snout. This band with black hairs around the eyes, forehead, and more anterior parts of the snout, provides a mask-like appearance. Infants lack manes and beards and are generally far less distinctly marked, except for three horizontal bands of orange-colored hair extending from their necks to their hindquarters; the lower band is much broader and extends over most of the lowersides of their bodies.","It occurs in a variety of primary and secondary habitats, ranging from lowland and mid-montane rainforests (0—c. 1500 mabove sea level) to drier open woodland and grasslands. It also frequents drier limestone and mangrove forests in coastal areas and occurs in cultivated and managed areas.","Although this has not been studied,it is thought that ecologically S. ahoenobarbus is similar to the Bearded Pig from Borneo, which consumes roots, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and a great range of plants, especially favoring lipidrich fruit of the Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaefamilies.",Nothing is known.,"Little is known, except that the species is most often seen or reported to be active in the early mornings and late afternoons in relatively undisturbed areas, but tends to be almost exclusively nocturnal in areas where hunting and other anthropogenic disturbances are commonplace.","Almost nothing is known. Most local hunters and other informants report that they seldom see more than two or three individuals together, though it is likely that larger natal family units and other socioreproductive groups are maintained in less disturbed areas.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the “ PalawanFaunal Region,” which extends from Balabac and associated islands in the extreme south-west through all of PalawanIsland and its associated offshore islets, as far as the Calamian Islands in the extreme north-east. However, this region also constitutes the easternmost extension of the Sunda Shelf and was intermittently connected by land bridges to Borneo by sea level changes during consecutive Pleistocene glaciations. The species remains relatively widely, if increasingly patchily, distributed. It is heavily hunted throughout most of its range, either for direct consumption or to be sold. One kilogram of pork fetches a price of about twice the price of domestic pork. Pigs are hunted throughout the year, but especially during forest tree-fruiting periods (no specifics are known) when pigs gather to forage on fallen fruits. They are also killed in reprisal for their occasional raids on neighboring forest gardens or other cultivated areas. Hunting methods include snares, low caliberrifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as “pig bombs,” which are made of ping-pong-ball-sized mixtures of gunpowder and shards of porcelain, coated with fish paste or other strong-smelling baits to entice the pigs. These are buried on pig trails or around cultivated plants close to forest edges. They explode when they are unearthed and bitten into by foraging pigs,killing the pigs or, more likely, causing horrendous wounds and producing trails that hunters with dogs can follow to collect the dead or dying animals the following day. S. ahoenobarbus is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas, because ofillegal “kaingin” (slashand-burn agriculture), mining, and other commercial developments. The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced and/or realistically unenforceable in most areas—including most designated protected areas. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation and the addition of new protected areas, which should be designed to enable greater management by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national system. Awareness campaigns are also important: few hinterland communities are aware of any prevailing wildlife protection legislation, or disregard the laws because of the chronic lack of enforcement by salient governmental authorities. This is especially the case where reprisals against the pigs follow their occasional raids on crops; the reprisals are likely to illicit sympathy and non-action from the responsible agencies. Farming in protected areas and reprisals against the pigs are justified by claims of poverty and loss of livelihood,in spite of the highly dubious nature of such claims. Many claimants are not economically dependent on hunting, but instead hunt for predominately traditional/cultural and recreational reasons.","Boissiére & Liswanti (2006) | Caldecott et al. (1993) | Esselstyn et al. (2004) | Groves (2001a, 2001b) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Lucchini et al. (2005) | Oliver (1995, 2008) | Rabor (1977) | Widmann et al. (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721041/files/figure.png,"12.PalawanBearded PigSus ahoenobarbusFrench:Sanglier de Palawan/ German:Palawan-Bartschwein/ Spanish:Jabalibarbudo de PalawanTaxonomy.Sus barbatusahoenobarbus Huet, 1888,“Palauan” (= Palawan).Susahoenobarbus was originally described as a subspecies of the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus), but was upgraded to full species because ofits distinct characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis based on two mt DNA cytochrome b fragments (mtDNA cyt b) pacha that S. ahoenobarbus was more closely related to the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) than to S. barbatus, of which it was originally thought to be a subspecies. Morphologically it is, however, more similar to S. barbatus, as evidenced by their conspicuous beards and absence of the prominent manes and mandibular facial warts characteristic of Philippine Warty Pigs (S. philippensis). Also, the chromosome number, which is 38 inS. ahoenobarbus, S. barbatus, and almost all other Susspecies, but is 36 inS. cebifrons and S. philippinensis, suggests a closer affinity to S. barbatus. As was stated in the taxonomic review of the species by C. P. Groves, “there is absolutely no doubt that this form is a dwarf barbatus.” In view of more recent evidence, it is unclear whether there are issues of data interpretation underlying this apparent contradiction in phylogenetic affinity, or whether there is another explanation. For example, hybridization may have occurred between barbatusand cebifrons, so that ahoenobarbus maintains characteristics of both species. Until further research is conducted, the phylogenetic affinities of S. ahoenobarbus remain unclear. Monotypic.Distribution.Palawanand associated Is (Calauit, Busuanga, Bacbac, Coron, Marily, Culion & Dumaran, Linapacan in the N, and Bugsuk, Balabac & Ramos in the S). Probably now extinct in Bulalacao.Descriptive notes.Head—body 100-160 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight up to 150 kg. This species is smaller than S. barbatus, and has a shorter facial skeleton. The hair is thin, bristly, and blackish-brown over most of the animal, but adults have a distinct mane of longer whitish hairs extending from crown to rump and a characteristic beard of long white hairs on the cheeks and jowls that extends in a band across the snout. This band with black hairs around the eyes, forehead, and more anterior parts of the snout, provides a mask-like appearance. Infants lack manes and beards and are generally far less distinctly marked, except for three horizontal bands of orange-colored hair extending from their necks to their hindquarters; the lower band is much broader and extends over most of the lowersides of their bodies.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of primary and secondary habitats, ranging from lowland and mid-montane rainforests (0—c. 1500 mabove sea level) to drier open woodland and grasslands. It also frequents drier limestone and mangrove forests in coastal areas and occurs in cultivated and managed areas.Food and Feeding.Although this has not been studied,it is thought that ecologically S. ahoenobarbus is similar to the Bearded Pig from Borneo, which consumes roots, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and a great range of plants, especially favoring lipidrich fruit of the Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaefamilies.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known, except that the species is most often seen or reported to be active in the early mornings and late afternoons in relatively undisturbed areas, but tends to be almost exclusively nocturnal in areas where hunting and other anthropogenic disturbances are commonplace.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Almost nothing is known. Most local hunters and other informants report that they seldom see more than two or three individuals together, though it is likely that larger natal family units and other socioreproductive groups are maintained in less disturbed areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the “ PalawanFaunal Region,” which extends from Balabac and associated islands in the extreme south-west through all of PalawanIsland and its associated offshore islets, as far as the Calamian Islands in the extreme north-east. However, this region also constitutes the easternmost extension of the Sunda Shelf and was intermittently connected by land bridges to Borneo by sea level changes during consecutive Pleistocene glaciations. The species remains relatively widely, if increasingly patchily, distributed. It is heavily hunted throughout most of its range, either for direct consumption or to be sold. One kilogram of pork fetches a price of about twice the price of domestic pork. Pigs are hunted throughout the year, but especially during forest tree-fruiting periods (no specifics are known) when pigs gather to forage on fallen fruits. They are also killed in reprisal for their occasional raids on neighboring forest gardens or other cultivated areas. Hunting methods include snares, low caliberrifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as “pig bombs,” which are made of ping-pong-ball-sized mixtures of gunpowder and shards of porcelain, coated with fish paste or other strong-smelling baits to entice the pigs. These are buried on pig trails or around cultivated plants close to forest edges. They explode when they are unearthed and bitten into by foraging pigs,killing the pigs or, more likely, causing horrendous wounds and producing trails that hunters with dogs can follow to collect the dead or dying animals the following day. S. ahoenobarbus is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas, because ofillegal “kaingin” (slashand-burn agriculture), mining, and other commercial developments. The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced and/or realistically unenforceable in most areas—including most designated protected areas. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation and the addition of new protected areas, which should be designed to enable greater management by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national system. Awareness campaigns are also important: few hinterland communities are aware of any prevailing wildlife protection legislation, or disregard the laws because of the chronic lack of enforcement by salient governmental authorities. This is especially the case where reprisals against the pigs follow their occasional raids on crops; the reprisals are likely to illicit sympathy and non-action from the responsible agencies. Farming in protected areas and reprisals against the pigs are justified by claims of poverty and loss of livelihood,in spite of the highly dubious nature of such claims. Many claimants are not economically dependent on hunting, but instead hunt for predominately traditional/cultural and recreational reasons.Bibliography.Boissiére & Liswanti (2006), Caldecott et al. (1993), Esselstyn et al. (2004), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Heaney et al. (1998), Lucchini et al. (2005), Oliver (1995, 2008), Rabor (1977), Widmann et al. (2008)." +038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,276,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10.xml,Phacochoerus africanus,Phacochoerus,africanus,,,Phacochere d'Afrique @fr | \Warzenschwein @de | Facocerode sabana @es,"Sus africanus Gmelin, 1788,“Habitat in Africa a capite viridi as caput bonae spei”; restricted to Senegal, “ Cape Verd[Verde].”Four subspecies are recognized.","P.a.africanusGmelin,1788—NsavannaandSahelregion,fromMauritaniatoEthiopia.Pa.aelianiCretzschmar,1828—Eritrea,Djibouti,andNSomalia.P.a.massaicusLonnberg,1908—E&CAfrica,fromNUgandaandSKenya,E&SDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Tanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique.P. a. sundevallii L.onnberg, 1908— S Africa, including SW Angola, N & E Namibia, N Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, and parts of South Africa.","Head-body 125-150 cm (males), 105-140 cm (females), tail 35-50 cm), shoulder height 55-85 cm; weight 60-150 kg (males), 50-75 kg (females). Thisis a pig with long legs and short neck. Proportionally it has a massive head with broad and flattened muzzle and snout, and prominent curved tusks flaring upwards. The upper tusks measure an average 25-30 cm in length in adult males (record 60 cm) whereas the lower tusks are only 13 cm. The grayish body is barrel shaped, with a hairless skin that can take on differing hues of gray or brown depending on the color of the soil in its holes or wallows. A dorsal mane of yellowish to jet black hairsis longest on the shoulders and neck. A narrow, tufted tail is held vertically when trotting. In many individuals, whitish bristles on the lower jaw form conspicuous“sideburns.” Three pairs of facial warts of different shape and thickness, made of fibrous tissue, are situated on the muzzle, along the jaw, and under the eyes. In males, the infraocular warts can grow up to 15 cmand have a protective function. They can take on various orientations, but are always conical; only the Desert Warthog (PF. aethiopicus) displays curled down jugal warts. Warts are less developed in females, as are the tusks and preorbital glands. Common Warthogs usually trot in a quick, springy stride, with the head held high and the back rigid. When grazing or rooting, they often drop on their “knees” instead ofstretching their short neck. Callosities characteristic of carpal joints on the forelegs are observed on embryos. These observations support evolutionary theories of “anticipatory” adaptation or of the heredity of acquired characters. Females have four pairs of mammae. Dental formulaisI1/3,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Whereas the Desert Warthog is characterized by an absence of functional incisors, Common Warthogs always have two upper incisors and usually six functional lower incisors as in the adult dentition of most pigs.","Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open-country species, with morphological and behavioral adaptations typical of grazers. Generally they are confined to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water. Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, deserts, and steppes, Common Warthogs are present in aridlands near the Danakil desert and Bale Mountain forests (Ethiopia) and in Djiboutiforests. Abundance of Common Warthogs is probably linked to the availability of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes, as the warthogs need deep burrows for protection from predators as well as from fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Their bodies can obviously sustain a certain tolerance range, and they cope with high temperature by sheltering in shade, wallowing, and dust-bathing. Piglets are particularly vulnerable to cold and malnutrition during drought, which, together with predation and other factors, account for an over 50% mortality rate during the first year.","Common Warthogs have an omnivorous diet composed of grasses, roots, fruits, bark, fungi, eggs, and carrion, as well as small mammals, reptiles, and birds. The diet varies with seasonal availability of food items, although the species is very selective. Areas with abundant food resources like bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots can sustain large temporary congregations of animals. This opportunism and dietary versatility account for the Common Warthog’s successful survival strategy. They are powerful diggers, using both snout and hooves, but not tusks. When feeding, they often walk on their anterior knuckles with their hindquarters raised. They use their incisors to wrench grass stems or strip seedheads, and they excavate rhizomes and mineral-rich earth with the hard edge of their snout.","Both sexes reach puberty at 18 months. During the rut, boars locate estrous females by visiting burrows. Male fights consist of frontal-pushing, interlocking tusks, and hitting the opponent in the face or in the flanks. The mating system is promiscuous, with males roaming and mating with numerous females and females mating with more than one male. Where seasons are marked, breeding is seasonal, with females usually coming into estrus early in the dry season and farrowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Non-offspring nursing occurs. Gestation is 160-170 days and most common litter size is 2-3 (range: 1-8).","Common Warthogs are highly diurnal. They go underground before dark and sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks or other animals. Males enterlast and commonly reverse in, with the head facing the opening, ready to fight an intruder or rush out as needed. To a certain extent, season and weather dictate their daytime activity, which includes a range of typical occupations like feeding, drinking, wallowing, rubbing against trees or termite mounds, and grooming. Feeding occurs mainly in early morning and late afternoon, but they also graze between irregular resting periods in the shade of bushy thickets or in mud wallows. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) are also capable of catching small warthogs. Females are extremely aggressive and courageous when defending their piglets. It has been reported that Common Warthogs have inflicted deep and deadly wounds in Lions. Common Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.","On average, sounders move a distance of 7 km/day, and visit the same areas at about the same time. Their home range averages 174 ha (range: 64-374 ha) and both males and females tend to remain close to their natal area. Typical densities are 1-10 ind/km?® in protected areas, but local densities of up to 77 ind/km? were found on short grass in Lake NakuruNational Park, Kenya. The social structure of Common Warthogs is one of small groups: solitary males or bachelor groups (45% of the population), matriarchal groups consisting of adult females with juveniles and/or yearlings, or yearling groups. Boars accompany sounders when females are in estrus. Females are temporarily on their own at farrowing time, but they commonly join up with other females and their young. Bonds between adult females and between mothers and daughters can be stable and last over several breeding cycles.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Common Warthogs occur in most protected areas in savanna zones. Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in a contraction of its range in the north and accounts forits decline in Mauritaniaand Niger. Because of their susceptibility to drought and predation, populations may easily be prone to local extinction. In the past, populations were greatly reduced by rinderpest in some countries.","Child et al. (1968) | Clough & Hassam (1970) | Cumming (1975, 2008, In Press) | Deribe et al. (2008) | Estes (1991) | Grubb (1993) | Kingdon (1997) | Kunzel et al. (2004) | Muwanika et al. (2007) | Radke (1991) | Somers (1997) | Somers et al. (1995) | Treydte, Bernasconi et al. (2006) | Treydte, Halsdorf et al. (2006) | Vercammen & Mason (1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721023/files/figure.png,"4.Common WarthogPhacochoerus africanusFrench:Phacochere d'Afrique/ German:\Warzenschwein/ Spanish:Facocerode sabanaTaxonomy.Sus africanus Gmelin, 1788,“Habitat in Africa a capite viridi as caput bonae spei”; restricted to Senegal, “ Cape Verd[Verde].”Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.a.africanusGmelin,1788—NsavannaandSahelregion,fromMauritaniatoEthiopia.Pa.aelianiCretzschmar,1828—Eritrea,Djibouti,andNSomalia.P.a.massaicusLonnberg,1908—E&CAfrica,fromNUgandaandSKenya,E&SDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Tanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique.P. a. sundevallii L.onnberg, 1908— S Africa, including SW Angola, N & E Namibia, N Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, and parts of South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-150 cm (males), 105-140 cm (females), tail 35-50 cm), shoulder height 55-85 cm; weight 60-150 kg (males), 50-75 kg (females). Thisis a pig with long legs and short neck. Proportionally it has a massive head with broad and flattened muzzle and snout, and prominent curved tusks flaring upwards. The upper tusks measure an average 25-30 cm in length in adult males (record 60 cm) whereas the lower tusks are only 13 cm. The grayish body is barrel shaped, with a hairless skin that can take on differing hues of gray or brown depending on the color of the soil in its holes or wallows. A dorsal mane of yellowish to jet black hairsis longest on the shoulders and neck. A narrow, tufted tail is held vertically when trotting. In many individuals, whitish bristles on the lower jaw form conspicuous“sideburns.” Three pairs of facial warts of different shape and thickness, made of fibrous tissue, are situated on the muzzle, along the jaw, and under the eyes. In males, the infraocular warts can grow up to 15 cmand have a protective function. They can take on various orientations, but are always conical; only the Desert Warthog (PF. aethiopicus) displays curled down jugal warts. Warts are less developed in females, as are the tusks and preorbital glands. Common Warthogs usually trot in a quick, springy stride, with the head held high and the back rigid. When grazing or rooting, they often drop on their “knees” instead ofstretching their short neck. Callosities characteristic of carpal joints on the forelegs are observed on embryos. These observations support evolutionary theories of “anticipatory” adaptation or of the heredity of acquired characters. Females have four pairs of mammae. Dental formulaisI1/3,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Whereas the Desert Warthog is characterized by an absence of functional incisors, Common Warthogs always have two upper incisors and usually six functional lower incisors as in the adult dentition of most pigs.Habitat.Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open-country species, with morphological and behavioral adaptations typical of grazers. Generally they are confined to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water. Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, deserts, and steppes, Common Warthogs are present in aridlands near the Danakil desert and Bale Mountain forests (Ethiopia) and in Djiboutiforests. Abundance of Common Warthogs is probably linked to the availability of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes, as the warthogs need deep burrows for protection from predators as well as from fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Their bodies can obviously sustain a certain tolerance range, and they cope with high temperature by sheltering in shade, wallowing, and dust-bathing. Piglets are particularly vulnerable to cold and malnutrition during drought, which, together with predation and other factors, account for an over 50% mortality rate during the first year.Food and Feeding.Common Warthogs have an omnivorous diet composed of grasses, roots, fruits, bark, fungi, eggs, and carrion, as well as small mammals, reptiles, and birds. The diet varies with seasonal availability of food items, although the species is very selective. Areas with abundant food resources like bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots can sustain large temporary congregations of animals. This opportunism and dietary versatility account for the Common Warthog’s successful survival strategy. They are powerful diggers, using both snout and hooves, but not tusks. When feeding, they often walk on their anterior knuckles with their hindquarters raised. They use their incisors to wrench grass stems or strip seedheads, and they excavate rhizomes and mineral-rich earth with the hard edge of their snout.Breeding.Both sexes reach puberty at 18 months. During the rut, boars locate estrous females by visiting burrows. Male fights consist of frontal-pushing, interlocking tusks, and hitting the opponent in the face or in the flanks. The mating system is promiscuous, with males roaming and mating with numerous females and females mating with more than one male. Where seasons are marked, breeding is seasonal, with females usually coming into estrus early in the dry season and farrowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Non-offspring nursing occurs. Gestation is 160-170 days and most common litter size is 2-3 (range: 1-8).Activity patterns.Common Warthogs are highly diurnal. They go underground before dark and sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks or other animals. Males enterlast and commonly reverse in, with the head facing the opening, ready to fight an intruder or rush out as needed. To a certain extent, season and weather dictate their daytime activity, which includes a range of typical occupations like feeding, drinking, wallowing, rubbing against trees or termite mounds, and grooming. Feeding occurs mainly in early morning and late afternoon, but they also graze between irregular resting periods in the shade of bushy thickets or in mud wallows. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) are also capable of catching small warthogs. Females are extremely aggressive and courageous when defending their piglets. It has been reported that Common Warthogs have inflicted deep and deadly wounds in Lions. Common Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On average, sounders move a distance of 7 km/day, and visit the same areas at about the same time. Their home range averages 174 ha (range: 64-374 ha) and both males and females tend to remain close to their natal area. Typical densities are 1-10 ind/km?® in protected areas, but local densities of up to 77 ind/km? were found on short grass in Lake NakuruNational Park, Kenya. The social structure of Common Warthogs is one of small groups: solitary males or bachelor groups (45% of the population), matriarchal groups consisting of adult females with juveniles and/or yearlings, or yearling groups. Boars accompany sounders when females are in estrus. Females are temporarily on their own at farrowing time, but they commonly join up with other females and their young. Bonds between adult females and between mothers and daughters can be stable and last over several breeding cycles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Common Warthogs occur in most protected areas in savanna zones. Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in a contraction of its range in the north and accounts forits decline in Mauritaniaand Niger. Because of their susceptibility to drought and predation, populations may easily be prone to local extinction. In the past, populations were greatly reduced by rinderpest in some countries.Bibliography.Child et al. (1968), Clough & Hassam (1970), Cumming (1975, 2008, In Press), Deribe et al. (2008), Estes (1991), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Kunzel et al. (2004), Muwanika et al. (2007), Radke (1991), Somers (1997), Somers et al. (1995), Treydte, Bernasconi et al. (2006), Treydte, Halsdorf et al. (2006), Vercammen & Mason (1993)." +038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,276,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0.xml,Babyrousa togeanensis,Babyrousa,togeanensis,Sody,1949,Babiroussa des Togian @fr | Togian-Hirscheber @de | Babirusa de Togian @es,"Babirussa babyrousa togeanensis Sody, 1949,“Malengi island, Togean group, Res. Manado, N. Celebes” (Indonesia, N Sulawesi, Togean Isls, Malenge Isl).This species is monotypic.","Togian Archipelago (Batudaka, Togian, Talatakoh & Malenge Is); recently, their tracks also were reported from the small Kadidiri I, N of Togian I.","No body measurements are available, but based on skull measurements B. fogeanensis appears the largest of the three babirusa species. It has Sparser, shorter body hair than Moluccan Babirusa (B. babyrussa), and in contrast to SulawesiBabirusa (B. celebensis), the tail tuft is well developed. The upper canines of males are this species’ most distinctive feature: they are short, slender, rotated forwards, and always converge. The frontal furrows on the skull are always shallow, with sloping edges. It is endemic to the Togian Islands, an island group that has been separated from the adjacent eastern arm of Sulawesifor c.12,000 years. This suggests that the babirusas from the eastern arm of Sulawesishould be closely related to the Togian animals, but an absence of specimens makes this impossible to test. It cannot be ruled out that Togian Babirusas were introduced to the Togian Islands by people, but just as likely, the species swam to these islands. Even though B. togeanensisis the largest of the babirusa species, it was initially characterized by its small teeth, especially the third molar. Further study showed that compared to the other species, B. togeanensishas relatively large premolars, especially P,, P,, and P°.","Babirusas generally inhabit tropical rainforest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. The natural vegetation on the Togian Islands consists of wet forests of variable types, frequently differing from one island to another, and ranging from monsoon to evergreen. B. togeanensishas also been sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub on former slash-and-burn cultivation fields, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches. On Malenge and Kadidiri Islands, the species is most frequently seen moving through coconut plantations.","B. togeanensisreportedly feeds on rhizomes, fallen fruits (Pangium edule, Dracontomelon sp., Mangiferasp., Artocarpus sp., Spondias dulcis) and also tamarinds and cacao, as well as annual herbs and vegetables. The species is also reported to feed on coconut, but it is unclear whether it eats the shoots of young trees or the fallen fruits.","Nothing is known about the breeding behavior of B. togeanensis, but it is assumed to be similar to the much better known B. celebensis. Litter size as observed by local farmers is 2-3 young.","During interview surveys on the Togian Islands, most respondents (68:2%) reported encountering B. togeanensisin the morning, between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. The reported observations of the species included various activities during that time, such as foraging, mating, wallowing, and resting.","In interviews, 37% of the respondents mentioned that B. togeanensisis a solitary animal, whereas 29-6% of those questioned reported that the species is gregarious, usually seen in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter. Group sizes of more than five individuals were reported by 29-5% of the respondents; these groups typically were composed of an adult male with multiple females and a litter.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat, its population is estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals, a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals has been observed, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Babirusas on the Togian Islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forestfires, to disturbance by humans, and to predation by dogs. They are occasionally hunted by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops. Hunting for food occurs only in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998, two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire. No large animal carcasses were found and babirusas have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species. In 1978, the babirusa population on the Togian Islands was estimated in the region of 500-1000 individuals. Recent estimates place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Local residents questioned recently did not agree on population size, giving ranges from fewer than 100 to more than 1000, but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline.","Akbar et al. (2007) | Groves (2001a, 2001b) | Hart (2009) | Ito et al. (2005) | Macdonald et al. (2008) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Selmier (1983)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721021/files/figure.png,"3.Togian BabirusaBabyrousa togeanensisFrench:Babiroussa des Togian/ German:Togian-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusa de TogianTaxonomy.Babirussa babyrousa togeanensis Sody, 1949,“Malengi island, Togean group, Res. Manado, N. Celebes” (Indonesia, N Sulawesi, Togean Isls, Malenge Isl).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Togian Archipelago (Batudaka, Togian, Talatakoh & Malenge Is); recently, their tracks also were reported from the small Kadidiri I, N of Togian I.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available, but based on skull measurements B. fogeanensis appears the largest of the three babirusa species. It has Sparser, shorter body hair than Moluccan Babirusa (B. babyrussa), and in contrast to SulawesiBabirusa (B. celebensis), the tail tuft is well developed. The upper canines of males are this species’ most distinctive feature: they are short, slender, rotated forwards, and always converge. The frontal furrows on the skull are always shallow, with sloping edges. It is endemic to the Togian Islands, an island group that has been separated from the adjacent eastern arm of Sulawesifor c.12,000 years. This suggests that the babirusas from the eastern arm of Sulawesishould be closely related to the Togian animals, but an absence of specimens makes this impossible to test. It cannot be ruled out that Togian Babirusas were introduced to the Togian Islands by people, but just as likely, the species swam to these islands. Even though B. togeanensisis the largest of the babirusa species, it was initially characterized by its small teeth, especially the third molar. Further study showed that compared to the other species, B. togeanensishas relatively large premolars, especially P,, P,, and P°.Habitat.Babirusas generally inhabit tropical rainforest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. The natural vegetation on the Togian Islands consists of wet forests of variable types, frequently differing from one island to another, and ranging from monsoon to evergreen. B. togeanensishas also been sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub on former slash-and-burn cultivation fields, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches. On Malenge and Kadidiri Islands, the species is most frequently seen moving through coconut plantations.Food and Feeding.B. togeanensisreportedly feeds on rhizomes, fallen fruits (Pangium edule, Dracontomelon sp., Mangiferasp., Artocarpus sp., Spondias dulcis) and also tamarinds and cacao, as well as annual herbs and vegetables. The species is also reported to feed on coconut, but it is unclear whether it eats the shoots of young trees or the fallen fruits.Breeding.Nothing is known about the breeding behavior of B. togeanensis, but it is assumed to be similar to the much better known B. celebensis. Litter size as observed by local farmers is 2-3 young.Activity patterns.During interview surveys on the Togian Islands, most respondents (68:2%) reported encountering B. togeanensisin the morning, between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. The reported observations of the species included various activities during that time, such as foraging, mating, wallowing, and resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In interviews, 37% of the respondents mentioned that B. togeanensisis a solitary animal, whereas 29-6% of those questioned reported that the species is gregarious, usually seen in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter. Group sizes of more than five individuals were reported by 29-5% of the respondents; these groups typically were composed of an adult male with multiple females and a litter.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat, its population is estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals, a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals has been observed, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Babirusas on the Togian Islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forestfires, to disturbance by humans, and to predation by dogs. They are occasionally hunted by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops. Hunting for food occurs only in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998, two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire. No large animal carcasses were found and babirusas have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species. In 1978, the babirusa population on the Togian Islands was estimated in the region of 500-1000 individuals. Recent estimates place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Local residents questioned recently did not agree on population size, giving ranges from fewer than 100 to more than 1000, but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline.Bibliography.Akbar et al. (2007), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Hart (2009), Ito et al. (2005), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Selmier (1983)." +038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,276,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2.xml,Babyrousa babyrussa,Babyrousa,babyrussa,,,Babiroussa des Moluques @fr | Molukken-Hirscheber @de | Babirusade Molucas @es,"Sus babyrussa Linnaeus, 1758,“Borneo” (= Buru Island, Indonesia).This species is monotypic.","MoluccasArchipelago, in Sula ls (Mangole & Taliabu) and Buru.","Head—body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight 43-100 kg. B. babyrussais a relatively small species, with long, thick body hair and well-developed tail tuft. The upper canines of males are short and slender and cross the lower caninesin lateral view. The upper canines tend to diverge or be subparallel, but they may be weakly convergent. Based on tooth measurements, B. babyrussais similar to B. bolabatuensis, a presumably extinct form describedfrom subfossil remains retrieved from various sites in the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi.","Buru’s natural vegetation is largely tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest, with tropical montane rainforest occurring above 800 mabove sea level; the only known exception to this pattern is a complex patchwork of monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savanna in the north and north-east section of the island, the result of repeated anthropogenic burnings. No surveys have been done on the habitat use of babirusas on Buru Island, but the local Rana people report that babirusas are most often found in rocky habitat in hilly areas and mountains.","[Local people on Buru report that babirusas primarily feed on leaves, roots, and fruits in the forest, but never enter people’s gardens to feed on crops, unlike the other pig species on Buru, which causes considerable damage to crops. The species is also said to feed along the shoreline when the tide is out.","Nothing is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species, but it is likely to be similar to other Babyrousa spp.","On Buru, B. babyrussais mostly seen during the morning and late afternoons, but rarely around midday.",,"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The speciesis reported to be extinct on Sanana Island (formerly Xulla Besi). Some workers seem to believe babirusas were introduced to these islands, though if this is true these same workers provide no indication of their likely place of origin. Unfortunately, the systematic relationships of babirusas from adjacent eastern and south-eastern parts of Sulawesiremain unknown, so it is also not possible to assess their presumed or potential close affinities to B. babyrussa. During extensive survey efforts on Buru in 1995, no direct evidence of babirusas was found, although a pair of pig mandibles found inland from Fogi, in logged forest at an elevation of 670 m, indicated that the species had been recently hunted. Village interviews in 1997 about the species’ presence suggested that on Buru its range had become fragmented by the 1990s,although locally the animals were still relatively common. The species reportedly was not uncommon on the slopes of Gunung Kepala Mada, the highest mountain on Buru. No surveys have been conducted since, however, and the present status is unclear. The people of Buru differentiate babirusas from other suid species, though it is presently unclear whether any other suids occurring on Buru are of S. celebensisor feral S. scrofaorigin, nor whether any such populations (assuming they exist) are naturally occurring or introduced forms.With half the people of Buru being Christian and therefore willing to eat pork, hunting pressure on pigs is likely to be high. The Rana people of Buru frequently hunt babirusas with dogs and snares. Although the northern portions of Buru island have been degraded by repeated burning and the coastal lowlands have been cleared, the remaining forest forms two large, contiguous blocks.","Deninger (1909) | Groves (1980) | Macdonald et al. (2008) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Sody (1949) | Tomie & Persulessy (1996) | Verbelen (2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721019/files/figure.png,"2.Moluccan BabirusaBabyrousa babyrussaFrench:Babiroussa des Moluques/ German:Molukken-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusade MolucasTaxonomy.Sus babyrussa Linnaeus, 1758,“Borneo” (= Buru Island, Indonesia).This species is monotypic.Distribution.MoluccasArchipelago, in Sula ls (Mangole & Taliabu) and Buru.Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight 43-100 kg. B. babyrussais a relatively small species, with long, thick body hair and well-developed tail tuft. The upper canines of males are short and slender and cross the lower caninesin lateral view. The upper canines tend to diverge or be subparallel, but they may be weakly convergent. Based on tooth measurements, B. babyrussais similar to B. bolabatuensis, a presumably extinct form describedfrom subfossil remains retrieved from various sites in the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi.Habitat.Buru’s natural vegetation is largely tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest, with tropical montane rainforest occurring above 800 mabove sea level; the only known exception to this pattern is a complex patchwork of monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savanna in the north and north-east section of the island, the result of repeated anthropogenic burnings. No surveys have been done on the habitat use of babirusas on Buru Island, but the local Rana people report that babirusas are most often found in rocky habitat in hilly areas and mountains.Food and Feeding.[Local people on Buru report that babirusas primarily feed on leaves, roots, and fruits in the forest, but never enter people’s gardens to feed on crops, unlike the other pig species on Buru, which causes considerable damage to crops. The species is also said to feed along the shoreline when the tide is out.Breeding.Nothing is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species, but it is likely to be similar to other Babyrousa spp.Activity patterns.On Buru, B. babyrussais mostly seen during the morning and late afternoons, but rarely around midday.Movements, Home ma@ nnd Social organintion. On Buru, babirusas are reported to be mostlv solitary or may occasionally be encountered in small groups. When in a group they regularlv emit a long and high pitched sound described as “suirii....suuuuuiiiriiii. ""Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The speciesis reported to be extinct on Sanana Island (formerly Xulla Besi). Some workers seem to believe babirusas were introduced to these islands, though if this is true these same workers provide no indication of their likely place of origin. Unfortunately, the systematic relationships of babirusas from adjacent eastern and south-eastern parts of Sulawesiremain unknown, so it is also not possible to assess their presumed or potential close affinities to B. babyrussa. During extensive survey efforts on Buru in 1995, no direct evidence of babirusas was found, although a pair of pig mandibles found inland from Fogi, in logged forest at an elevation of 670 m, indicated that the species had been recently hunted. Village interviews in 1997 about the species’ presence suggested that on Buru its range had become fragmented by the 1990s,although locally the animals were still relatively common. The species reportedly was not uncommon on the slopes of Gunung Kepala Mada, the highest mountain on Buru. No surveys have been conducted since, however, and the present status is unclear. The people of Buru differentiate babirusas from other suid species, though it is presently unclear whether any other suids occurring on Buru are of S. celebensisor feral S. scrofaorigin, nor whether any such populations (assuming they exist) are naturally occurring or introduced forms.With half the people of Buru being Christian and therefore willing to eat pork, hunting pressure on pigs is likely to be high. The Rana people of Buru frequently hunt babirusas with dogs and snares. Although the northern portions of Buru island have been degraded by repeated burning and the coastal lowlands have been cleared, the remaining forest forms two large, contiguous blocks.Bibliography.Deninger (1909), Groves (1980), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Sody (1949), Tomie & Persulessy (1996), Verbelen (2003)." +038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,275,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47.xml,Babyrousa celebensis,Babyrousa,celebensis,,,Babiroussa des Célebes @fr | Sulawesi-Hirscheber @de | Babirusade Célebes @es,"Babyrusa celebensis Deninger, 1910,Sulawesi.Phylogenetic studies suggest that babirusas diverged from other pigs in the Miocene some 10-19 million years ago, which could well be the time when they became isolated on Sulawesi. The land connection between southern Sulawesiand Borneo was severed some 50 million years ago, so this suggests that a later land connection existed between Sundaland and Sulawesi, unless babirusas dispersed through rafting or swimming. The presence of two other suid genera in Sulawesi(Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off from the main stock of Suidaeat different times, indicates several invasions of ancestral suid types to Sulawesiover a great length of time. The genus is considered to be monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or, alternatively, to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. Until recently, all babirusas were classified as a single species, B. babyrussa. However, the genus has now been split into several species, and the nominate scientific name is restricted to the Moluccan Babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands. B. celebensis, the SulawesiBabirusa, is the best known babirusa, and the only species for which substantial ecological and behavioral information is available. B. celebensisspecifically refers to animals from the north of the island, and the taxonomic identity of the individuals from central, eastern and south-eastern Sulawesiremains undecided. No subspecies are recognized.",SulawesiI.,"Head-body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight up to 100 kg. B. celebensisis characterized by its sparse or absent body hair, a nearly hairless tail tuft, and long, relatively thick upper canines that emerge vertically, converge slightly, and curl dorsally in a circle. The upper canines of males are generally long and thick. They merge vertically and do not cross the lower canines in lateral view. The skulls of B. celebensisare longer than the two other species. They are relatively narrower than one specimen from central Sulawesi, for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. The lower (M, and M,) and upper (M* and M?) molars in B. celebensisare longer than in the other two species. Unlike most other pig species, babirusas do not have the typical adaptations for rooting. The nose lacks the rostral bone that in other pigs provides support for the tough connective tissue plate of the rhinarium. Reanalyses of the soft tissue anatomy of the limbs and digestive tract of B. celebensishave revealed mistakes of identification in earlier work. This has reversed the earlier conclusion that babirusas were constructed in a significantly different way from pigs (Susspp.); in general the muscular anatomies are similar and the stomach of babirusas does not resemble that of ruminants.","B. celebensisinhabits tropical rainforest. Whereas previously the animal had been reported to occur in low-lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that the species is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground. Although often associated with swamp and riverine areas, there is still insufficient data to be conclusive on the aquatic affinities of the species. The species frequently uses mineral salt licks.","Diet and feeding behavior in B. celebensisremain poorly studied in the wild, but observations on captive animals provide a useful picture of their potential diet. The anatomical structure of the stomach and digestive tract suggest that B. celebensisis omnivorous. In zoos, adults ofthis species have been observed to chase, catch, and eat small mammals and birds, implying that they may show similar behavior in the wild. Observations of both wild and captive individuals suggest that the species consumes a wide variety ofleaf, root, and fruit material, with fruit especially important. Their jaws and teeth are strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. Notunlike the Bornean Bearded Pig (Susb. barbatus), the apparent requirement of B. celebensisfor fruit-bearing trees as a component ofits environment has been implied, because as soon as mature trees were cleared by forestry operations or conversion to food crop production, the babirusas were no longer to be found in the area. Whether this is a result of changes in food resources or increased hunting pressure and disturbance from logging crews has not yet been clarified. B. celebensisforages for food items on the ground, under logs and stones, in wet areas, and on bushes and trees. Animals will stand with their forelimbs against tree trunks to reach hanging leaves and fruit, and will even balance on their hindlimbs to pluck leaves from the trees.","In zoological collections, B. celebensismay become sexually mature as early as 5-10 months of age. However,it is likely that the age of sexual maturity in the wild is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of nutrition. Precise data do not yet exist, but animals are unlikely to breed in the wild before they are one year old. Estrous cycle lengths of 28-42 days have been recorded, but recent endocrine studies suggest a narrower range of 35-37 days. Captive females generally re-cycle within three months after the birth of their young. Estrus lasts 2-3 days, and the female is not receptive to males at other times. Gestation length is usually 155-158 days, though up to 171 days has been reported. The body weight of the sow increases during gestation. The normallitter size in B. celebensisis one or two, but a low incidence of triplet births has been recorded both in zoos and in the wild, and a litter of four fetuses has been reported in utero in a wild female. Neonatal B. celebensisare uniformly brown in color, small in size, and weigh less than 800 gat birth. The female usually has four mammary glands, but an additional pair has sometimes been reported. Although females can have a life span of as long as 24 years in captivity,it is unlikely that animals in the wild live as long, perhaps no more than 7-12 years. In zoos, B. celebensissows produce young at all times of the year, and may produce two litters within a twelve-month period. However, since it seems likely that diet or seasonal factors would normally influence interbirth intervals, litters may be produced less frequently in the wild. Observation in North Sulawesirevealed adult females accompanied by subadult animals as well as juveniles. However, there was no way to establish whether or not these youngsters represented the progeny of consecutive litters from the same female. Studies of the agonistic behavior of B. celebensishave so far revealed no evidence that the adult males use their teeth during male-male interactions. The ultimate form of agonistic behavior is described as “boxing,” and involves two males raising themselves off the ground until both are standing on their hindlegs facing one another, each leaning and paddling against the chest and shoulders of his opponent. Their snouts are held as high as possible. Females do not employ the same strategy.","Based on observations of captive animals, B. celebensisappears to be mostly diurnal. These animals slept at night, which is consistent with the general lack of activity at night recorded in North Sulawesi. About an hour before sunrise at 06:00 h, individuals began to wake up and move about. Voiding of fecal material and urine occurs at this time, and the animals appeared to prefer to defecate under branches and fallen tree trunks. Foraging extended throughout the day, but occupied a larger proportion of the time in the morning. From about mid-morning onwards an increasing proportion of the time was taken up with non-foraging activities. The animals were either wallowing or lying down. Both in the wild and in captivity, males have been observed to wallow more often than females.","The information available from field and captive studies indicates B. celebensisis a social species. Groups of up to 13 have been observed in the rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas, and salt licks. Rarely aggregations as large as 46 individuals comprising several distinct groups have congregated at salt licks. Most (84%) of all sightings of solitary animals were of adult males. Single adult males were seen with single adult females, but never with two or more females unless young animals were present. Adult females were rarely seen without company; they were sometimes found together with other adult animals, but most often they were with young babirusas. Of the 226 groups studied, 84 contained adult females and young. Two thirds (56) of these groups had no adult males present. Very little is known about the ranging behavior of B. celebensis. Field observations suggest that the adult males have home ranges that overlap with those of a number of other adult males. Density estimates in two protected areas where the species still occurred in 2003 varied from 4-3-11-8 ind/km? to 0-7-4-1 ind/km?. Like other pigs, babirusas evidently swim well. A single adult male was reported approximately 500 mfrom the shore of a large lake in central Sulawesi. It is not certain whether this individual was B. celebensis, but it is likely that all babirusa species can swim and cover relatively large distances.","CITES Appendix I, although international trade in this species is not thought to be an important issue. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Adult B. celebensisappear to have few,if any, natural predators. There are no large native mammalian carnivores on Sulawesi, and the most likely non-human predators are probably large snakes and crocodiles. We here follow The IUCN Red List and treat all individuals occurring on Sulawesi, as well as those previously known from the Muna, Buton, and Lembeh Islands as belonging to B. celebensis, pending resolution of the taxonomy. B. celebensishas been much reduced on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, primarily due to overhunting, and its distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, and the Panua Nature Reserve, all of which are in the western half of the northern peninsula. The species still occurs in central Sulawesiand the eastern and south-eastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking. The species is unlikely to remain on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys, and its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain. The small numbers of young born suggest that the species is not adapted to a high rate of natural predation. However, hunting by humans with snares, nets, spears, and dogs has undoubtedly been an important factor since prehistoric times, and widespread snare trapping constitutes the main threat to the remaining populations of B. celebensisin North Sulawesiand, more recently, elsewhere in Sulawesi. B. celebensisis apparently not hunted specifically for its own meat, but represents a by-catch to the hunting of the SulawesiWarty Pig (Sus celebensis). Therefore, the population of B. celebensisin the wild is being placed under severe and increasing pressure by the market demand for wild pig meat. The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation. Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75%. The genus Babyrousawas accordedfull protection under Indonesian law in 1931. B. celebensisoccurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi, including Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserve, and others.","Andreescu & Murariu (1993) | Bosma & de Haan (1981) | Bowles (1986) | Bowles et al. (1993) | Clason (1976) | Clayton & MacDonald (1999) | Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000) | Clayton et al. (2000) | Groves (1980, 1985) | Hooijer (1975) | Houston et al. (2001) | Lee, Gorog et al. (2005) | Lee, O'Brien et al. (1999) | Leus (1996) | Leus & Vercammen (1996) | Leus, Bland et al. (1996) | Leus, Bowles et al. (1992) | Macdonald (1991) | Macdonald & Leus (1995) | Macdonald, Bowles et al. (1993) | Macdonald, Burton & Leus (2008) | MacKinnon (1981) | Manansang et al. (1996) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Melisch (1994, 1995) | Milner-Gulland (2001) | Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002) | Mohr (1958) | Patry et al. (1995) | Peters (1985) | Rajchl (2007) | Randi et al. (1996) | Rice (1988) | Riley (2002) | Sody (1949) | VanWees et al. (2000) | Wemmer & Watling (1982) | Wiles et al. (2002)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721017/files/figure.png,"1.SulawesiBabirusaBabyrousa celebensisFrench:Babiroussa des Célebes/ German:Sulawesi-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusade CélebesTaxonomy.Babyrusa celebensis Deninger, 1910,Sulawesi.Phylogenetic studies suggest that babirusas diverged from other pigs in the Miocene some 10-19 million years ago, which could well be the time when they became isolated on Sulawesi. The land connection between southern Sulawesiand Borneo was severed some 50 million years ago, so this suggests that a later land connection existed between Sundaland and Sulawesi, unless babirusas dispersed through rafting or swimming. The presence of two other suid genera in Sulawesi(Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off from the main stock of Suidaeat different times, indicates several invasions of ancestral suid types to Sulawesiover a great length of time. The genus is considered to be monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or, alternatively, to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. Until recently, all babirusas were classified as a single species, B. babyrussa. However, the genus has now been split into several species, and the nominate scientific name is restricted to the Moluccan Babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands. B. celebensis, the SulawesiBabirusa, is the best known babirusa, and the only species for which substantial ecological and behavioral information is available. B. celebensisspecifically refers to animals from the north of the island, and the taxonomic identity of the individuals from central, eastern and south-eastern Sulawesiremains undecided. No subspecies are recognized.Distribution.SulawesiI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight up to 100 kg. B. celebensisis characterized by its sparse or absent body hair, a nearly hairless tail tuft, and long, relatively thick upper canines that emerge vertically, converge slightly, and curl dorsally in a circle. The upper canines of males are generally long and thick. They merge vertically and do not cross the lower canines in lateral view. The skulls of B. celebensisare longer than the two other species. They are relatively narrower than one specimen from central Sulawesi, for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. The lower (M, and M,) and upper (M* and M?) molars in B. celebensisare longer than in the other two species. Unlike most other pig species, babirusas do not have the typical adaptations for rooting. The nose lacks the rostral bone that in other pigs provides support for the tough connective tissue plate of the rhinarium. Reanalyses of the soft tissue anatomy of the limbs and digestive tract of B. celebensishave revealed mistakes of identification in earlier work. This has reversed the earlier conclusion that babirusas were constructed in a significantly different way from pigs (Susspp.); in general the muscular anatomies are similar and the stomach of babirusas does not resemble that of ruminants.Habitat.B. celebensisinhabits tropical rainforest. Whereas previously the animal had been reported to occur in low-lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that the species is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground. Although often associated with swamp and riverine areas, there is still insufficient data to be conclusive on the aquatic affinities of the species. The species frequently uses mineral salt licks.Food and Feeding.Diet and feeding behavior in B. celebensisremain poorly studied in the wild, but observations on captive animals provide a useful picture of their potential diet. The anatomical structure of the stomach and digestive tract suggest that B. celebensisis omnivorous. In zoos, adults ofthis species have been observed to chase, catch, and eat small mammals and birds, implying that they may show similar behavior in the wild. Observations of both wild and captive individuals suggest that the species consumes a wide variety ofleaf, root, and fruit material, with fruit especially important. Their jaws and teeth are strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. Notunlike the Bornean Bearded Pig (Susb. barbatus), the apparent requirement of B. celebensisfor fruit-bearing trees as a component ofits environment has been implied, because as soon as mature trees were cleared by forestry operations or conversion to food crop production, the babirusas were no longer to be found in the area. Whether this is a result of changes in food resources or increased hunting pressure and disturbance from logging crews has not yet been clarified. B. celebensisforages for food items on the ground, under logs and stones, in wet areas, and on bushes and trees. Animals will stand with their forelimbs against tree trunks to reach hanging leaves and fruit, and will even balance on their hindlimbs to pluck leaves from the trees.Breeding.In zoological collections, B. celebensismay become sexually mature as early as 5-10 months of age. However,it is likely that the age of sexual maturity in the wild is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of nutrition. Precise data do not yet exist, but animals are unlikely to breed in the wild before they are one year old. Estrous cycle lengths of 28-42 days have been recorded, but recent endocrine studies suggest a narrower range of 35-37 days. Captive females generally re-cycle within three months after the birth of their young. Estrus lasts 2-3 days, and the female is not receptive to males at other times. Gestation length is usually 155-158 days, though up to 171 days has been reported. The body weight of the sow increases during gestation. The normallitter size in B. celebensisis one or two, but a low incidence of triplet births has been recorded both in zoos and in the wild, and a litter of four fetuses has been reported in utero in a wild female. Neonatal B. celebensisare uniformly brown in color, small in size, and weigh less than 800 gat birth. The female usually has four mammary glands, but an additional pair has sometimes been reported. Although females can have a life span of as long as 24 years in captivity,it is unlikely that animals in the wild live as long, perhaps no more than 7-12 years. In zoos, B. celebensissows produce young at all times of the year, and may produce two litters within a twelve-month period. However, since it seems likely that diet or seasonal factors would normally influence interbirth intervals, litters may be produced less frequently in the wild. Observation in North Sulawesirevealed adult females accompanied by subadult animals as well as juveniles. However, there was no way to establish whether or not these youngsters represented the progeny of consecutive litters from the same female. Studies of the agonistic behavior of B. celebensishave so far revealed no evidence that the adult males use their teeth during male-male interactions. The ultimate form of agonistic behavior is described as “boxing,” and involves two males raising themselves off the ground until both are standing on their hindlegs facing one another, each leaning and paddling against the chest and shoulders of his opponent. Their snouts are held as high as possible. Females do not employ the same strategy.Activity patterns.Based on observations of captive animals, B. celebensisappears to be mostly diurnal. These animals slept at night, which is consistent with the general lack of activity at night recorded in North Sulawesi. About an hour before sunrise at 06:00 h, individuals began to wake up and move about. Voiding of fecal material and urine occurs at this time, and the animals appeared to prefer to defecate under branches and fallen tree trunks. Foraging extended throughout the day, but occupied a larger proportion of the time in the morning. From about mid-morning onwards an increasing proportion of the time was taken up with non-foraging activities. The animals were either wallowing or lying down. Both in the wild and in captivity, males have been observed to wallow more often than females.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The information available from field and captive studies indicates B. celebensisis a social species. Groups of up to 13 have been observed in the rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas, and salt licks. Rarely aggregations as large as 46 individuals comprising several distinct groups have congregated at salt licks. Most (84%) of all sightings of solitary animals were of adult males. Single adult males were seen with single adult females, but never with two or more females unless young animals were present. Adult females were rarely seen without company; they were sometimes found together with other adult animals, but most often they were with young babirusas. Of the 226 groups studied, 84 contained adult females and young. Two thirds (56) of these groups had no adult males present. Very little is known about the ranging behavior of B. celebensis. Field observations suggest that the adult males have home ranges that overlap with those of a number of other adult males. Density estimates in two protected areas where the species still occurred in 2003 varied from 4-3-11-8 ind/km? to 0-7-4-1 ind/km?. Like other pigs, babirusas evidently swim well. A single adult male was reported approximately 500 mfrom the shore of a large lake in central Sulawesi. It is not certain whether this individual was B. celebensis, but it is likely that all babirusa species can swim and cover relatively large distances.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, although international trade in this species is not thought to be an important issue. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Adult B. celebensisappear to have few,if any, natural predators. There are no large native mammalian carnivores on Sulawesi, and the most likely non-human predators are probably large snakes and crocodiles. We here follow The IUCN Red List and treat all individuals occurring on Sulawesi, as well as those previously known from the Muna, Buton, and Lembeh Islands as belonging to B. celebensis, pending resolution of the taxonomy. B. celebensishas been much reduced on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, primarily due to overhunting, and its distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, and the Panua Nature Reserve, all of which are in the western half of the northern peninsula. The species still occurs in central Sulawesiand the eastern and south-eastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking. The species is unlikely to remain on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys, and its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain. The small numbers of young born suggest that the species is not adapted to a high rate of natural predation. However, hunting by humans with snares, nets, spears, and dogs has undoubtedly been an important factor since prehistoric times, and widespread snare trapping constitutes the main threat to the remaining populations of B. celebensisin North Sulawesiand, more recently, elsewhere in Sulawesi. B. celebensisis apparently not hunted specifically for its own meat, but represents a by-catch to the hunting of the SulawesiWarty Pig (Sus celebensis). Therefore, the population of B. celebensisin the wild is being placed under severe and increasing pressure by the market demand for wild pig meat. The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation. Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75%. The genus Babyrousawas accordedfull protection under Indonesian law in 1931. B. celebensisoccurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi, including Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserve, and others.On following pages 2 Moluccan Babırusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) 3 Tog an Babırusa (Babyrousarogeanensıs) 4 Common Warthog (Phacochoorus alncanus) 5 Desert Warthog (Phacochoerus aethıopıcus) 6 Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmaınenzhagenı) Bushpıg (Pommochoeıus Iarvalusl 8 Red RıverHog (Poramochoerus porcas)Bibliography.Andreescu & Murariu (1993), Bosma & de Haan (1981), Bowles (1986), Bowles et al. (1993), Clason (1976), Clayton & MacDonald (1999), Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (2000), Groves (1980, 1985), Hooijer (1975), Houston et al. (2001), Lee, Gorog et al. (2005), Lee, O'Brien et al. (1999), Leus (1996), Leus & Vercammen (1996), Leus, Bland et al. (1996), Leus, Bowles et al. (1992), Macdonald (1991), Macdonald & Leus (1995), Macdonald, Bowles et al. (1993), Macdonald, Burton & Leus (2008), MacKinnon (1981), Manansang et al. (1996), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Melisch (1994, 1995), Milner-Gulland (2001), Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002), Mohr (1958), Patry et al. (1995), Peters (1985), Rajchl (2007), Randi et al. (1996), Rice (1988), Riley (2002), Sody (1949), VanWees et al. (2000), Wemmer & Watling (1982), Wiles et al. (2002)." 038087E8553B56358D4B0D521940FAB4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553B56358D4B0D521940FAB4.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family SUIDAE(PIGS)• Small to medium-sized mammals with large head, elongated snout ending in a mobile, disk-like nose, short neck, prominent ears, small eyes, robust jaws with long canines, strong legs, small tail, and bristly coat.• 60-250 cm.• Palearctic, Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan, and Austral asian Regions.• From near-desert conditions to closed forest in tropical, subtropical, and boreal regions.• 6 genera, 17 species,at least 45 extant taxa.• 2 species Critically Endangered, 3 species Endangered, 5 species Vulnerable; 2 subspecies Extinct since 1600." -038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,279,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B.xml,Potamochoerus porcus,Potamochoerus,porcus,,,Potamocheére roux @fr | Pinselohrschwein @de | Potamocerorojo @es,"Sus porcus Linnaeus, 1766,“Habitat in Africa” (= West Africa).No subspecies have been designated, because no discernable geographically consistent morphological variation has been identified. Monotypic.","Main tropical rainforest belt from Senegaland GuineaBissauto NW Ugandaand E DR Congo, reaching as S boundary N Angola(Cabinda); no recent records from Gambiaor Chadand its presence is uncertain in S Sudanand SW Ethiopia. As a species that may range widely through gallery forests, it may also occur in adjacent countries.","Head-body 100-145 cm,tail 30-45 cm, shoulder height 55-80 cm; weight 45-115 kg. Red RiverHogs are the smallest and most colorful of all African pigs. They have short, laterally flattened bodies that are predominantly bright russet orange. There is a narrow white dorsal crest from the head to the tail, which is erected when the animal is excited. The pelage is short except for longer bristles on jaws and flanks. The head is strongly contrasted, with bold markings like a facial mask: grayish muzzle, white “brows” around the eyes, white cheeks and whiskers, and black marks on the snout, jaws, ears, and forehead. The ear pinnae have a prominent terminal tuft of white hair. Young Red RiverHogs are dark brown with a facial mask and rows of pale yellow spots on body. Males have two humps on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The tusks are small and sharp. Skull length is 32-:7-40. 5 cm(adult males) and 26.9-37. 8 cm(adult females). Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosome numberis 34. Life span is 10-15 years.","Red River Hogs mainly occur in gallery forests and swamp margins of primary rainforest where there is significant vegetative cover. In transition zones, they frequently visit dry forests, savanna woodlands, and cultivated areas. The speciesis highly adaptable and locally benefits from regeneration of logged-over forested areas, where they find more varied food sources and a reduction of their natural predators. Population densities are 1-6 ind/km?, but wide variations are recorded. Up to 18-4 ind/km?* have been recorded in the forest-savanna ecotone of Lopé National Park, Gabon. The species is widespread in its habitat except where the Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmeinertzhagent) is common.","Red River Hogs have an omnivorous diet, with a marked preference for roots and tubers. They also feed on grasses, aquatic plants, bulbs,fruit, carrion, and various small animals. They use their snouts to root in the ground and can do serious damage to crops. The species uses the noises and calls of monkeys and frugivorous birds to detect potential food supplies. Seasonal aggregations of Red River Hogs at masting fruit trees account for observations of temporary groups of up to 60 individuals. In Makokou (Gabon), these groups are very noisy when breaking hard nutshells of Caula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis, which attracts the attention of predators and secondary feeders. The hogs are sometimes followed by guinea fowl, who peck about the turned over ground for food. Seasonal massive availability of preferred foods and the hogs’ high level of opportunism explain semi-nomadic circuits of movements.","This species uses a wide range ofritualized postures with release of glandular secretions during male fights and rut. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-24 months. Gestation is 120-127 days. Farrowing occurs in February-March in Nigeriaand in December—]January in Gabon, but females can give birth twice yearly in captive conditions.Litters of 1-4 piglets (rarely up to 6) are born in a sheltered hollow covered with a thick mattress of grasses and leaves, where they stay 10-15 days with their mother before joining the rest of the sounder. Weaning occurs at 2—4 months.","These animals are most active in the evening and during the night, and rest in burrows deep within dense thickets during the day. They are capable of covering long distances in search of food, and like to rest in wallows in shallow swamps. The whole sounder runs away when alarmed or frightened. If striped piglets are present, they crouch and freeze while adults face the danger. When cornered or wounded, the adult hogs can display considerable courage and vigorously attack predators, including humans. They are very good swimmers and are frequently seen crossing large rivers. Their main predators are humans and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but locally also Lions (P. leo), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and pythons. Red RiverHogs make up 20% of the biomass consumed by Leopards in Lopé National Park.","In some areas, the narrow extent and linearity of the species’ home ranges (gallery forests in savanna habitats) may force frequent and extensive movements. Sounders roam a comparatively large home range, sometimes with over 4 kmbetween resting and feeding areas. Distance covered daily is 3-6 km, depending on food availability and the presence of young. Red RiverHogs are gregarious, with sounders of 6-20 females, subadults, and young attended by a large master boar. As with other suids, older juvenile males are bullied by their father if they approach his feeding or wallowing place too closely. On the move, hogs communicate by soft grunts in order to maintain the cohesion of the sounder, and they use a wide range of vocalizations adapted to various circumstances. In shared home ranges, boars communicate their presence and status by frequent rubbing and tusking oftrees.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the speciesis relatively widespread and common, and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline.The main threat to this species is the growing pressure from hunting for commercial bushmeat trade and for subsistence. Together with the duikers,it is one of the most sought after and hunted species in the CongoBasin and it makes up 40% of the bushmeat sold in markets in Gabon. In the CongoBasin, the high demand for bushmeat and the spread of gun hunting are factors that can easily threaten the survival of this species. Experiments with raising in captivity have shown its susceptibility to stress during capture, low rate of survival of young (11-57%), but rapid adaptation to confined environment and human company.","Dosimont (2004) | Grubb (1993) | Henschel et al. (2005) | Kingdon (1997) | Laurance et al. (2006) | Okouyi (2002, 2006) | Payne (2002) | Querouil & Leus (2008) | Tutinet al. (1997) | Vercammen et al. (1993) | van Vliet & Nasi (2008)",,"8.Red RiverHogPotamochoerus porcusFrench:Potamocheére roux/ German:Pinselohrschwein/ Spanish:PotamocerorojoTaxonomy.Sus porcus Linnaeus, 1766,“Habitat in Africa” (= West Africa).No subspecies have been designated, because no discernable geographically consistent morphological variation has been identified. Monotypic.Distribution.Main tropical rainforest belt from Senegaland GuineaBissauto NW Ugandaand E DR Congo, reaching as S boundary N Angola(Cabinda); no recent records from Gambiaor Chadand its presence is uncertain in S Sudanand SW Ethiopia. As a species that may range widely through gallery forests, it may also occur in adjacent countries.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-145 cm,tail 30-45 cm, shoulder height 55-80 cm; weight 45-115 kg. Red RiverHogs are the smallest and most colorful of all African pigs. They have short, laterally flattened bodies that are predominantly bright russet orange. There is a narrow white dorsal crest from the head to the tail, which is erected when the animal is excited. The pelage is short except for longer bristles on jaws and flanks. The head is strongly contrasted, with bold markings like a facial mask: grayish muzzle, white “brows” around the eyes, white cheeks and whiskers, and black marks on the snout, jaws, ears, and forehead. The ear pinnae have a prominent terminal tuft of white hair. Young Red RiverHogs are dark brown with a facial mask and rows of pale yellow spots on body. Males have two humps on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The tusks are small and sharp. Skull length is 32-:7-40. 5 cm(adult males) and 26.9-37. 8 cm(adult females). Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosome numberis 34. Life span is 10-15 years.Habitat.Red River Hogs mainly occur in gallery forests and swamp margins of primary rainforest where there is significant vegetative cover. In transition zones, they frequently visit dry forests, savanna woodlands, and cultivated areas. The speciesis highly adaptable and locally benefits from regeneration of logged-over forested areas, where they find more varied food sources and a reduction of their natural predators. Population densities are 1-6 ind/km?, but wide variations are recorded. Up to 18-4 ind/km?* have been recorded in the forest-savanna ecotone of Lopé National Park, Gabon. The species is widespread in its habitat except where the Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmeinertzhagent) is common.Food and Feeding.Red River Hogs have an omnivorous diet, with a marked preference for roots and tubers. They also feed on grasses, aquatic plants, bulbs,fruit, carrion, and various small animals. They use their snouts to root in the ground and can do serious damage to crops. The species uses the noises and calls of monkeys and frugivorous birds to detect potential food supplies. Seasonal aggregations of Red River Hogs at masting fruit trees account for observations of temporary groups of up to 60 individuals. In Makokou (Gabon), these groups are very noisy when breaking hard nutshells of Caula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis, which attracts the attention of predators and secondary feeders. The hogs are sometimes followed by guinea fowl, who peck about the turned over ground for food. Seasonal massive availability of preferred foods and the hogs’ high level of opportunism explain semi-nomadic circuits of movements.Breeding.This species uses a wide range ofritualized postures with release of glandular secretions during male fights and rut. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-24 months. Gestation is 120-127 days. Farrowing occurs in February-March in Nigeriaand in December—]January in Gabon, but females can give birth twice yearly in captive conditions.Litters of 1-4 piglets (rarely up to 6) are born in a sheltered hollow covered with a thick mattress of grasses and leaves, where they stay 10-15 days with their mother before joining the rest of the sounder. Weaning occurs at 2—4 months.Activity patterns.These animals are most active in the evening and during the night, and rest in burrows deep within dense thickets during the day. They are capable of covering long distances in search of food, and like to rest in wallows in shallow swamps. The whole sounder runs away when alarmed or frightened. If striped piglets are present, they crouch and freeze while adults face the danger. When cornered or wounded, the adult hogs can display considerable courage and vigorously attack predators, including humans. They are very good swimmers and are frequently seen crossing large rivers. Their main predators are humans and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but locally also Lions (P. leo), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and pythons. Red RiverHogs make up 20% of the biomass consumed by Leopards in Lopé National Park.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In some areas, the narrow extent and linearity of the species’ home ranges (gallery forests in savanna habitats) may force frequent and extensive movements. Sounders roam a comparatively large home range, sometimes with over 4 kmbetween resting and feeding areas. Distance covered daily is 3-6 km, depending on food availability and the presence of young. Red RiverHogs are gregarious, with sounders of 6-20 females, subadults, and young attended by a large master boar. As with other suids, older juvenile males are bullied by their father if they approach his feeding or wallowing place too closely. On the move, hogs communicate by soft grunts in order to maintain the cohesion of the sounder, and they use a wide range of vocalizations adapted to various circumstances. In shared home ranges, boars communicate their presence and status by frequent rubbing and tusking oftrees.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the speciesis relatively widespread and common, and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline.The main threat to this species is the growing pressure from hunting for commercial bushmeat trade and for subsistence. Together with the duikers,it is one of the most sought after and hunted species in the CongoBasin and it makes up 40% of the bushmeat sold in markets in Gabon. In the CongoBasin, the high demand for bushmeat and the spread of gun hunting are factors that can easily threaten the survival of this species. Experiments with raising in captivity have shown its susceptibility to stress during capture, low rate of survival of young (11-57%), but rapid adaptation to confined environment and human company.Bibliography.Dosimont (2004), Grubb (1993), Henschel et al. (2005), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Okouyi (2002, 2006), Payne (2002), Querouil & Leus (2008), Tutinet al. (1997), Vercammen et al. (1993), van Vliet & Nasi (2008)." -038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,279,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7.xml,Potamochoerus larvatus,Potamochoerus,larvatus,,,Potamochere du Cap @fr | Buschschwein @de | Potamocerode rio @es,"Sus larvatus F. Cuvier, 1822,“ Madagascar” (no exact type locality known).The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Islands, but the taxonomic situation of these populations is still unresolved as this species is thought to have been introduced there. Two subspecies are sometimes recognized on Madagascar: the nominate form larvatus, described by F. Cuvier in 1822, which lives in Mayotteand the north-west of Madagascar, and the race hovafrom the east of Madagascar. This may suggest that the species was not introduced by people, or was introduced at different times from different source populations. Until this issue is clarified, we do not here recognize the Madagascarraces as subspecies, and thus exclude these populations from the species’ distribution. Three subspecies are recognized.","P.l.hassamaHeuglin,1863—EAfrica,withspecimensknownfromEthiopia,SSudan,EDRCongo,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,Kenya,andTanzania.P.l.koiropotamusDesmoulins,1831—lowerCongoRiver(leftbank),Angola,SDRCongo,Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique,Zimbabwe,Botswana,Swaziland,andSouthAfrica.P. l. somaliensis de Beaux, 1924— Tana, Juba, and Shebelle rivers in NE Kenyaand Somalia.The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Is, but their taxonomic situation thereis still unresolved.","Head—body 100-150 cm, tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height 55-88 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Bushpigs have a compact body with short legs, rounded back, and elongated snout. The coatis extremely variable in color, from blond, pale red, or russet up to a dark brown or near-black shade. The color may vary with sex, age, region, or individual, and this significant variation in body color has led to the description of many variant races. It generally has a paler head with white face markings. Body hairs are long and sparse but elongated from the forehead to the tail, forming a white or grayish dorsal crest. It has a long tufted tail. Newborns are dark brown in color with longitudinal stripes or rows of paler spots. Adult males display bony ridges and calluses on the muzzle. Females have six pairs of mammae. There are clear distinctions between subspecies based, for example, on color and average male skull length, but there are also indications that intergradation may occur locally between subspecies. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. The upper tusks are very small (average 7-6 cm), but the lower tusks are sizeable (9-16. 5 cm) and razor sharp. Chromosome numberis 34. The life span is 20 years.","The Bushpig is ecologically separated from the Red River Hog (FP. porcus). Within areas of co-occurrence (like the Albertine Rift), the Bushpig lives at higher elevations and the Red River Hog in lowland forests. Elsewhere, the two species are separated by ecological barriers such as the CongoRiver. Bushpigs occur in a wide range of forested and woodland habitats, from sea level to montane forest (up to 4000 mon Mount Kilimanjaro), with a marked preference for valley bottoms with soft soils and dense vegetation. There are striking differences in habitat among subspecies, with, for example, the hassama race primarilyoccurring in upland forest areas and the somaliensis race favoringriverine forests.","This species is omnivorous and highly adaptable. It is probably a major seed disperser. Bushpigs consume roots, tubers, bulbs, corn, fungi,fruit, eggs, invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and carrion. In Uganda, Bushpigs were seen following groups of monkeys as they forage and feeding on discarded fruits. They make extensive use of their snouts to root for larvae, worms, and underground plant parts. Locally, Bushpig rooting can leave large areas plowed up and cleared of standing vegetation. In cultivated areas, sounders can do serious damage to crops in a short time.","Sexual maturity is reached at 18-21 months. Breeding may take place yearround, but most young are recorded at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. The gestation period is 120-127 days. Just before giving birth, females retire to a sheltered nest or hollow. Most common litter size is 3—4, with a maximum of ten. Newborns weigh 700-800 g. They are weaned at 2—4 months.","Bushpigs are predominantly nocturnal, resting under heavy thickets of vegetation during the day. Nests for raising young or during rainy seasons are built in the cooler parts of their range. In the southern Cape, South Africa, they tend to be more diurnal during the colder months, suggesting that temperature regulation is a significant factor influencing the rhythm of activity. Mud wallowing and rubbing against trees are also regular activities. Population density is regulated by a wide range of predators including humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), pythons, and eagles. Courageous and dangerous when cornered, both boars and sows defend piglets cooperatively and aggressively. Fighting behavior includes frontal and lateral postures with dorsal crest erected, snout-boxing, and forehead shoving. Bushpigs run fast and swim easily. Their senses of smell and hearing are very good, but eyesight only fair.","In South Africa, groups occupy spatially exclusive home ranges of 3-10 km? with daily movements of 0-5-6 km. Population densities are 0-3-10-1 ind/km?. They live in family sounders of 6-12 individuals, led by a dominant male, with one or more females and their young. Unlike other wild pigs, adult males play an active role in rearing and defending the young. Other males are aggressively chased off and territorial encounters are characterized by ritualized displays and scent marking. Males disperse from the natal group and old males may be solitary, whereas females remain on their natal home range.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread and common and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. Though the Bushpig is still relatively widespread, its distribution is patchy in certain regions. It is reported to be increasingly rare outside of protected areas, and widely hunted either for subsistence or for commercial bushmeat trade at local, mostly urban markets. It is also hunted as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases like African swine fever, nagana (a form of trypanosomiasis), and sleeping sickness. Clearing of forested areas and conversion to cropland have benefited this species in some areas.","de Beaux (1924) | Cooper & Melton (1988) | Duckworth (1992) | Estes (1991) | Ghiglieri et al. (1982) | Grubb (1993) | Kingdon (1997) | Laurance et al. (2006) | Melton et al. (1989) | Nielsen (2006) | Nummelin (1990) | Seydack (1991, 2008) | Skinner et al. (1976) | Sowls & Phelps (1968) | Stuart (1985) | Vercammen et al. (1993)",,"7.BushpigPotamochoerus larvatusFrench:Potamochere du Cap/ German:Buschschwein/ Spanish:Potamocerode rioTaxonomy.Sus larvatus F. Cuvier, 1822,“ Madagascar” (no exact type locality known).The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Islands, but the taxonomic situation of these populations is still unresolved as this species is thought to have been introduced there. Two subspecies are sometimes recognized on Madagascar: the nominate form larvatus, described by F. Cuvier in 1822, which lives in Mayotteand the north-west of Madagascar, and the race hovafrom the east of Madagascar. This may suggest that the species was not introduced by people, or was introduced at different times from different source populations. Until this issue is clarified, we do not here recognize the Madagascarraces as subspecies, and thus exclude these populations from the species’ distribution. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.l.hassamaHeuglin,1863—EAfrica,withspecimensknownfromEthiopia,SSudan,EDRCongo,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,Kenya,andTanzania.P.l.koiropotamusDesmoulins,1831—lowerCongoRiver(leftbank),Angola,SDRCongo,Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique,Zimbabwe,Botswana,Swaziland,andSouthAfrica.P. l. somaliensis de Beaux, 1924— Tana, Juba, and Shebelle rivers in NE Kenyaand Somalia.The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Is, but their taxonomic situation thereis still unresolved.Descriptive notes.Head—body 100-150 cm, tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height 55-88 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Bushpigs have a compact body with short legs, rounded back, and elongated snout. The coatis extremely variable in color, from blond, pale red, or russet up to a dark brown or near-black shade. The color may vary with sex, age, region, or individual, and this significant variation in body color has led to the description of many variant races. It generally has a paler head with white face markings. Body hairs are long and sparse but elongated from the forehead to the tail, forming a white or grayish dorsal crest. It has a long tufted tail. Newborns are dark brown in color with longitudinal stripes or rows of paler spots. Adult males display bony ridges and calluses on the muzzle. Females have six pairs of mammae. There are clear distinctions between subspecies based, for example, on color and average male skull length, but there are also indications that intergradation may occur locally between subspecies. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. The upper tusks are very small (average 7-6 cm), but the lower tusks are sizeable (9-16. 5 cm) and razor sharp. Chromosome numberis 34. The life span is 20 years.Habitat.The Bushpig is ecologically separated from the Red River Hog (FP. porcus). Within areas of co-occurrence (like the Albertine Rift), the Bushpig lives at higher elevations and the Red River Hog in lowland forests. Elsewhere, the two species are separated by ecological barriers such as the CongoRiver. Bushpigs occur in a wide range of forested and woodland habitats, from sea level to montane forest (up to 4000 mon Mount Kilimanjaro), with a marked preference for valley bottoms with soft soils and dense vegetation. There are striking differences in habitat among subspecies, with, for example, the hassama race primarilyoccurring in upland forest areas and the somaliensis race favoringriverine forests.Food and Feeding.This species is omnivorous and highly adaptable. It is probably a major seed disperser. Bushpigs consume roots, tubers, bulbs, corn, fungi,fruit, eggs, invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and carrion. In Uganda, Bushpigs were seen following groups of monkeys as they forage and feeding on discarded fruits. They make extensive use of their snouts to root for larvae, worms, and underground plant parts. Locally, Bushpig rooting can leave large areas plowed up and cleared of standing vegetation. In cultivated areas, sounders can do serious damage to crops in a short time.Breeding.Sexual maturity is reached at 18-21 months. Breeding may take place yearround, but most young are recorded at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. The gestation period is 120-127 days. Just before giving birth, females retire to a sheltered nest or hollow. Most common litter size is 3—4, with a maximum of ten. Newborns weigh 700-800 g. They are weaned at 2—4 months.Activity patterns.Bushpigs are predominantly nocturnal, resting under heavy thickets of vegetation during the day. Nests for raising young or during rainy seasons are built in the cooler parts of their range. In the southern Cape, South Africa, they tend to be more diurnal during the colder months, suggesting that temperature regulation is a significant factor influencing the rhythm of activity. Mud wallowing and rubbing against trees are also regular activities. Population density is regulated by a wide range of predators including humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), pythons, and eagles. Courageous and dangerous when cornered, both boars and sows defend piglets cooperatively and aggressively. Fighting behavior includes frontal and lateral postures with dorsal crest erected, snout-boxing, and forehead shoving. Bushpigs run fast and swim easily. Their senses of smell and hearing are very good, but eyesight only fair.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In South Africa, groups occupy spatially exclusive home ranges of 3-10 km? with daily movements of 0-5-6 km. Population densities are 0-3-10-1 ind/km?. They live in family sounders of 6-12 individuals, led by a dominant male, with one or more females and their young. Unlike other wild pigs, adult males play an active role in rearing and defending the young. Other males are aggressively chased off and territorial encounters are characterized by ritualized displays and scent marking. Males disperse from the natal group and old males may be solitary, whereas females remain on their natal home range.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread and common and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. Though the Bushpig is still relatively widespread, its distribution is patchy in certain regions. It is reported to be increasingly rare outside of protected areas, and widely hunted either for subsistence or for commercial bushmeat trade at local, mostly urban markets. It is also hunted as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases like African swine fever, nagana (a form of trypanosomiasis), and sleeping sickness. Clearing of forested areas and conversion to cropland have benefited this species in some areas.Bibliography.de Beaux (1924), Cooper & Melton (1988), Duckworth (1992), Estes (1991), Ghiglieri et al. (1982), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Melton et al. (1989), Nielsen (2006), Nummelin (1990), Seydack (1991, 2008), Skinner et al. (1976), Sowls & Phelps (1968), Stuart (1985), Vercammen et al. (1993)." -038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,278,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56.xml,Hylochoerus meinertzhageni,Hylochoerus,meinertzhageni,Thomas,1904,Hylochere @fr | Riesenwaldschwein @de | Hilocero @es | Giant Forest Hog (meinertzhageni) @en,"Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas, 1904,Kenya, NandiForest, near Kaimosi, 2134 m.The three subspecies provisionally recognized are differentiated on the basis of the dimensions and shape of their skull. The taxonomy of a fourth, the Ethiopian race, is still indefinite.","H.m.meinertzhageniThomas,1904—EDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Uganda,Kenya,SSudan,andEthiopia.IthasnotreliablybeenrecordedfromTanzania.H.m.woriensisBouet&Neuville,1930—discontinuouspresenceinGuinea,SierraLeone(?),Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana;possiblyalsoinGuineaBissau,andTogo.H. m. rimator Thomas, 1906— SE Nigeria, W & SE Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea(extinct?), N Republic of the Congo, and N DR Congo.","Head—body 130-210 cm, tail 25-45 cm, shoulder height 75-110 cm; weight 140-275 kg (males) and 100-200 kg (females). Males are significantly larger than females in both weight and dimensions. Although the common name “Giant Forest Hog” is often used, western races ofthis species are not much larger than Bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), and only the East African animals are true giants. Their slatey gray skin is densely covered with coarse hair, which gets sparser with age. Adult pelage is coal black, with 15-20 cm long, stout bristles. There is a pale, erectile mane on the neck. The ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to black. The legs are robust, with large and rounded hooves. The long, tasseled tail is slender and flattened at its end, with sparse bristles implanted laterally. The massive head has white to yellowish “whiskers” on the jaw-line callosity. The small, pointed, leaf-shaped ears are fringed with black hairs. In males, the forehead is characterized by a large depression surrounded by five bony, hairless ridges. The species has large, swollen preorbital glands and prominent naked cheeks. The muzzle is flat, with thick tusks flaring outwards and a very broad nasal disc (up to 17 cmin diameter). The skull and facial musculature are adapted to a folivorous rather than an omnivorous diet. Females have four mammae. Dental formulaisl 1/3, Cl1/1,P2/1,M 3/5 (x2) = 30.","Like Red RiverHogs (P. porcus), Forest Hogs are more dependent on forest than the other African pigs. Forest Hogs inhabit a variety offoresttypes: subalpine areas and bamboo groves, forest—grassland mosaics, montane, lowland, and swamp forests, river galleries, wooded savannas, and thickets. It is an ecotonic species, preferring intermediate habitat zones where the edge effect is maximized and where resources from different vegetation types can be exploited within a limited area. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understory cover in some parts of its home range, and a diversity of vegetation types. In dense forest areas, Forest Hogs tend to concentrate in isolated hilly, rocky habitats of savanna and forest, around clearings, or in mixed forest patches rather than in monodominant forest. The variety of forest habitats occupied implies a high degree of adaptability to local climatic conditions. Forest Hogslive in cold uplands (where night temperatures may fall to 0°C) as well as hot lowlands, but do not tolerate low humidity or prolonged solar radiation.","Forest Hogs are mainly grass-eaters and folivorous. Feeding habits show that they are neither exclusively forest animals nor pure grazers. They display great versatility in food selection, depending on the seasonal content, stage of growth, and quantity of plant resources available. Many species of grasses, sedges, and herbs are cropped. They root much less than other wild pigs and dig only in soft or muddy soils. In a savanna area of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, they select more than 100 food plants. In Virunga National Park, however, five major savanna species were selected, on average, over the course of a year; the hogs preferred some grasses during dry seasons and others during rainy seasons, selecting grasses when their nutrient and energetic content is highest. Young piglets are known to feed on grasses well before weaning. In dense forest, both Forest Hogs and Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus) use mast seed areas in monodominant stands. Examination of adult hog dung reveals different types of material, including poorly masticated grass seeds, stems, and leaves, fragments of millipedes and shields of ticks, earth nodules, and bristles. They also excavate salty earth with their tusks and lower incisors. These salt licks may be termite mounds, shallow caves, dry river banks, or even the embankment of a deserted road. Occasionally Forest Hogs eat meat and bones ofcarrion, eggs, and larvae. Coprophagy is not common, but piglets are fond of fresh elephant dung.","Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months. There are two mating seasons in Virunga National Park, with births occuring at the beginning of the rainy season. Gestation period averages 151 days. Before parturition, the expectant sow leaves the group and retreats under dense thickets in a nest made of grasses and branches where young are born. Litter size is 2-6 (average 2-4) piglets. The mother rejoins her group with her offspring only one week after parturition. Piglets may nurse from any female in the group, and are protected by all. Weaning occurs at 8-10 weeks. The averagelife expectancy is 3-5 years and average life span is five years, with a maximum of 18 years.","In the grassland-bushland—dry forest mosaic ofVirunga National Park, DR Congo, Forest Hogs spend on average 25% oftheir daily time moving and foraging in savanna, 21% moving, foraging, and wallowing in thickets or forested areas, and 54% resting in a sheltered sleeping site. Activity is most intense in the early morning and late afternoon, with a rest during hottest hours. There is no evidence of true nocturnal activity. Wallowing is a favorite activity, taking up about one hour each day in certain areas. Before sundown, family groupsretire to their sleeping place under dense thickets. Along the trails, the same dung heaps are always used as communal latrines. Males are fierce defenders of their group and sometimes lead the sounders in driving off predators and competitors. When shot at, they will attack humans. Competition between males is violent and may last for half an hour. Males rush at each other from a distance, crashing their foreheads together like rams. Despite their reinforced skulls, deaths among males due to fractures are not uncommon, but most wounds heal. This species is quite vocal, producing a minimum of ten recognizable categories of sounds. The main predators on adults are Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (P. leo). Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta),, pythons, and eagles prey on young hogs and their mortality rate is about 50%.","Forest Hogs maintain unmarked and undefended home ranges of 3-10 km? laced with a network of well-worn trails connecting resting sites, latrines, wallows, waterholes, salt licks, and grazing meadows. Daily movements average 8-12 km, most of which takes place on an individual’s own or another animal’s trails. Home ranges may overlap extensively with ranges of other groups. Routine activities in confined territories make Forest Hogs easy targets for poachers. In Virunga National Park, the basic social group is a sounder of 4-20 animals consisting of 1-4 males, 1-9 females, and the offspring of up to three generations. Males can be monogamous or polygamous. Average group size is 10-14 in Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. Larger groupings of several sounders have been recorded. Groups of bachelor subadults and solitary males are common. In good habitat, population densities are 7-30 ind/km?.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread, sometimes locally abundant, has a high reproductive potential, and although itis subject to hunting in many parts ofits range,it is not believed to be declining at a rate that would merit its being listed as Near Threatened or in a threatened category. The speciesis very vulnerable to deforestation and hunting for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. The western race zvoriensisis highly vulnerable to fragmentation of its habitat.","Cerling & Viehl (2004) | Estes (1991) | Ewer (1970) | Fimpel (2002) | Grimshaw (1998) | d'Huart (1978, 1993) | d'Huart & Kingdon (In Press) | d'Huart & Klingel (2008) | d'Huart & Yohannes (1995) | Kingdon (1979) | Klingel & Klingel (2004) | Kock & Howell (1999) | Rahm & Christiaensen (1963) | Viehl (2003)",,"6.Forest HogHylochoerus meinertzhageniFrench:Hylochere/ German:Riesenwaldschwein/ Spanish:HiloceroOther common names:Giant Forest Hog (meinertzhageni)Taxonomy.Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas, 1904,Kenya, NandiForest, near Kaimosi, 2134 m.The three subspecies provisionally recognized are differentiated on the basis of the dimensions and shape of their skull. The taxonomy of a fourth, the Ethiopian race, is still indefinite.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.meinertzhageniThomas,1904—EDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Uganda,Kenya,SSudan,andEthiopia.IthasnotreliablybeenrecordedfromTanzania.H.m.woriensisBouet&Neuville,1930—discontinuouspresenceinGuinea,SierraLeone(?),Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana;possiblyalsoinGuineaBissau,andTogo.H. m. rimator Thomas, 1906— SE Nigeria, W & SE Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea(extinct?), N Republic of the Congo, and N DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-210 cm, tail 25-45 cm, shoulder height 75-110 cm; weight 140-275 kg (males) and 100-200 kg (females). Males are significantly larger than females in both weight and dimensions. Although the common name “Giant Forest Hog” is often used, western races ofthis species are not much larger than Bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), and only the East African animals are true giants. Their slatey gray skin is densely covered with coarse hair, which gets sparser with age. Adult pelage is coal black, with 15-20 cm long, stout bristles. There is a pale, erectile mane on the neck. The ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to black. The legs are robust, with large and rounded hooves. The long, tasseled tail is slender and flattened at its end, with sparse bristles implanted laterally. The massive head has white to yellowish “whiskers” on the jaw-line callosity. The small, pointed, leaf-shaped ears are fringed with black hairs. In males, the forehead is characterized by a large depression surrounded by five bony, hairless ridges. The species has large, swollen preorbital glands and prominent naked cheeks. The muzzle is flat, with thick tusks flaring outwards and a very broad nasal disc (up to 17 cmin diameter). The skull and facial musculature are adapted to a folivorous rather than an omnivorous diet. Females have four mammae. Dental formulaisl 1/3, Cl1/1,P2/1,M 3/5 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Like Red RiverHogs (P. porcus), Forest Hogs are more dependent on forest than the other African pigs. Forest Hogs inhabit a variety offoresttypes: subalpine areas and bamboo groves, forest—grassland mosaics, montane, lowland, and swamp forests, river galleries, wooded savannas, and thickets. It is an ecotonic species, preferring intermediate habitat zones where the edge effect is maximized and where resources from different vegetation types can be exploited within a limited area. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understory cover in some parts of its home range, and a diversity of vegetation types. In dense forest areas, Forest Hogs tend to concentrate in isolated hilly, rocky habitats of savanna and forest, around clearings, or in mixed forest patches rather than in monodominant forest. The variety of forest habitats occupied implies a high degree of adaptability to local climatic conditions. Forest Hogslive in cold uplands (where night temperatures may fall to 0°C) as well as hot lowlands, but do not tolerate low humidity or prolonged solar radiation.Food and Feeding.Forest Hogs are mainly grass-eaters and folivorous. Feeding habits show that they are neither exclusively forest animals nor pure grazers. They display great versatility in food selection, depending on the seasonal content, stage of growth, and quantity of plant resources available. Many species of grasses, sedges, and herbs are cropped. They root much less than other wild pigs and dig only in soft or muddy soils. In a savanna area of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, they select more than 100 food plants. In Virunga National Park, however, five major savanna species were selected, on average, over the course of a year; the hogs preferred some grasses during dry seasons and others during rainy seasons, selecting grasses when their nutrient and energetic content is highest. Young piglets are known to feed on grasses well before weaning. In dense forest, both Forest Hogs and Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus) use mast seed areas in monodominant stands. Examination of adult hog dung reveals different types of material, including poorly masticated grass seeds, stems, and leaves, fragments of millipedes and shields of ticks, earth nodules, and bristles. They also excavate salty earth with their tusks and lower incisors. These salt licks may be termite mounds, shallow caves, dry river banks, or even the embankment of a deserted road. Occasionally Forest Hogs eat meat and bones ofcarrion, eggs, and larvae. Coprophagy is not common, but piglets are fond of fresh elephant dung.Breeding.Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months. There are two mating seasons in Virunga National Park, with births occuring at the beginning of the rainy season. Gestation period averages 151 days. Before parturition, the expectant sow leaves the group and retreats under dense thickets in a nest made of grasses and branches where young are born. Litter size is 2-6 (average 2-4) piglets. The mother rejoins her group with her offspring only one week after parturition. Piglets may nurse from any female in the group, and are protected by all. Weaning occurs at 8-10 weeks. The averagelife expectancy is 3-5 years and average life span is five years, with a maximum of 18 years.Activity patterns.In the grassland-bushland—dry forest mosaic ofVirunga National Park, DR Congo, Forest Hogs spend on average 25% oftheir daily time moving and foraging in savanna, 21% moving, foraging, and wallowing in thickets or forested areas, and 54% resting in a sheltered sleeping site. Activity is most intense in the early morning and late afternoon, with a rest during hottest hours. There is no evidence of true nocturnal activity. Wallowing is a favorite activity, taking up about one hour each day in certain areas. Before sundown, family groupsretire to their sleeping place under dense thickets. Along the trails, the same dung heaps are always used as communal latrines. Males are fierce defenders of their group and sometimes lead the sounders in driving off predators and competitors. When shot at, they will attack humans. Competition between males is violent and may last for half an hour. Males rush at each other from a distance, crashing their foreheads together like rams. Despite their reinforced skulls, deaths among males due to fractures are not uncommon, but most wounds heal. This species is quite vocal, producing a minimum of ten recognizable categories of sounds. The main predators on adults are Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (P. leo). Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta),, pythons, and eagles prey on young hogs and their mortality rate is about 50%.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Forest Hogs maintain unmarked and undefended home ranges of 3-10 km? laced with a network of well-worn trails connecting resting sites, latrines, wallows, waterholes, salt licks, and grazing meadows. Daily movements average 8-12 km, most of which takes place on an individual’s own or another animal’s trails. Home ranges may overlap extensively with ranges of other groups. Routine activities in confined territories make Forest Hogs easy targets for poachers. In Virunga National Park, the basic social group is a sounder of 4-20 animals consisting of 1-4 males, 1-9 females, and the offspring of up to three generations. Males can be monogamous or polygamous. Average group size is 10-14 in Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. Larger groupings of several sounders have been recorded. Groups of bachelor subadults and solitary males are common. In good habitat, population densities are 7-30 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread, sometimes locally abundant, has a high reproductive potential, and although itis subject to hunting in many parts ofits range,it is not believed to be declining at a rate that would merit its being listed as Near Threatened or in a threatened category. The speciesis very vulnerable to deforestation and hunting for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. The western race zvoriensisis highly vulnerable to fragmentation of its habitat.Bibliography.Cerling & Viehl (2004), Estes (1991), Ewer (1970), Fimpel (2002), Grimshaw (1998), d'Huart (1978, 1993), d'Huart & Kingdon (In Press), d'Huart & Klingel (2008), d'Huart & Yohannes (1995), Kingdon (1979), Klingel & Klingel (2004), Kock & Howell (1999), Rahm & Christiaensen (1963), Viehl (2003)." -038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,277,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3.xml,Phacochoerus aethiopicus,Phacochoerus,aethiopicus,Pallas,1766,Phacochére du désert @fr | Wistenwarzenschwein @de | Facocerode desierto @es,"Aper aethiopicus Pallas, 1766,“Promontoria BonaSpei advectus,” between Kaffraria and Great Namaqualand (South Africa, Eastern Cape Province), two hundred leagues from the Capeof Good Hope.Nominate subspecies aethiopicus (Pallas, 1766)from eastern Cape Provinceand upper Orange River, South Africa, is extinct. Only one extant subspecies recognized.","P. a. delamerei Lonnberg, 1909 — NW & S Somalia, E Ethiopia, and E Kenya. The distribution is insufficiently known but accurately recorded from several areas, including N Somalia(W Somaliland), S Somalia(Jubaland), E Ethiopia(Ogaden), and E Kenya, from near sea level to ¢. 1400 min C Kenya. Although thought to be restricted to arid environments, its range in Kenyahas been found to extend S to Tsavo West National Park (W of Athi River and S of the Galana River). Formerly the species occurred in South Africa, in the former Cape Provinceand apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now extinct there.","No body measurements have been recorded for Desert Warthogs. External appearance is generally similar to the Common Warthog (FP. africanus), but the Desert Warthog is slightly smaller in size and with fewer, shorter, and paler bristles. Depending on environmental conditions, there can be striking differences in body fatness between Desert Warthog populations. The skin is usually pale gray, but there is a wide variation in color due to mudand dust-bathing. Morphological differences between Desert Warthogs and Common Warthogs have been overlooked until recently, which suggests that no strikingly different features distinguish them in the field. However, adult Desert Warthogs are characterized by hook-shaped or drooping genal warts, tips of ears that bend backwards (which gives the impression that their contour is angular), swollen suborbital pouches under the eyes, and a shorter basioccipital region, which makes the head look “egg-shaped.” The head looks rather “diaboloshaped” in the Common Warthog. The skull is similar in proportions to that of the Common Warthog, but diagnostically distinguished by other cranial and dental characters. Sphenoidal pits in the floor of the neurocranium on each side of the vomer are enormously enlarged and opened out, deepening the vomerine ridge. The zygomatic arches are robust, with large sinuses forming a spherical inflation of the jugal. In the limited number of samples of Desert Warthog skulls that are available, lengths for the two sexes do not overlap, suggesting greater sexual dimorphism than in the Common Warthog. The upper incisors are always absent. The lower incisors are absent or reduced to four or fewer and are very small: they hardly protrude from the alveoli and are probably always concealed by gums. The third molars are also different: when all the enamel columns have begun to wear, no roots have yet formed, unlike the condition in the Common Warthog. At this stage, all the columns are of about the same length and are able to continue growing, extending the life of the tooth. Differences were also recorded between the two species in the shape of the canines: both lower and upper canines appear to be less curved in the Desert Warthog. The wear facet on the lower canine is differently placed, and the lower canines are less compressed. Dental formulais10/0-2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 26-30. Chromosome numberis unknown. DNA analysis has shown that aethiopicusand africanusbelong to two genetically distinct lineages that diverged approximately 4-5 million years ago, in the early Pliocene.Habitat.The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.Food and Feeding.With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks.","The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.","With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.",Nothing is known.,"Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.","Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs further investigation.","Culverwell et al. (2008) | Ewer (1957) | Grubb (1993) | Grubb & d'Huart (In Press) | Grubb & Oliver (1991) | d'Huart & Grubb (2001, 2005) | d'Huart et al. (2008) | de Jong et al. (2009) | Lonnberg (1909) | Randi et al. (2002) | Wilhelmi et al. (2004)",,"5.Desert WarthogPhacochoerus aethiopicusFrench:Phacochére du désert/ German:Wistenwarzenschwein/ Spanish:Facocerode desiertoTaxonomy.Aper aethiopicus Pallas, 1766,“Promontoria BonaSpei advectus,” between Kaffraria and Great Namaqualand (South Africa, Eastern Cape Province), two hundred leagues from the Capeof Good Hope.Nominate subspecies aethiopicus (Pallas, 1766)from eastern Cape Provinceand upper Orange River, South Africa, is extinct. Only one extant subspecies recognized.Distribution.P. a. delamerei Lonnberg, 1909 — NW & S Somalia, E Ethiopia, and E Kenya. The distribution is insufficiently known but accurately recorded from several areas, including N Somalia(W Somaliland), S Somalia(Jubaland), E Ethiopia(Ogaden), and E Kenya, from near sea level to ¢. 1400 min C Kenya. Although thought to be restricted to arid environments, its range in Kenyahas been found to extend S to Tsavo West National Park (W of Athi River and S of the Galana River). Formerly the species occurred in South Africa, in the former Cape Provinceand apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now extinct there.Descriptive notes.No body measurements have been recorded for Desert Warthogs. External appearance is generally similar to the Common Warthog (FP. africanus), but the Desert Warthog is slightly smaller in size and with fewer, shorter, and paler bristles. Depending on environmental conditions, there can be striking differences in body fatness between Desert Warthog populations. The skin is usually pale gray, but there is a wide variation in color due to mudand dust-bathing. Morphological differences between Desert Warthogs and Common Warthogs have been overlooked until recently, which suggests that no strikingly different features distinguish them in the field. However, adult Desert Warthogs are characterized by hook-shaped or drooping genal warts, tips of ears that bend backwards (which gives the impression that their contour is angular), swollen suborbital pouches under the eyes, and a shorter basioccipital region, which makes the head look “egg-shaped.” The head looks rather “diaboloshaped” in the Common Warthog. The skull is similar in proportions to that of the Common Warthog, but diagnostically distinguished by other cranial and dental characters. Sphenoidal pits in the floor of the neurocranium on each side of the vomer are enormously enlarged and opened out, deepening the vomerine ridge. The zygomatic arches are robust, with large sinuses forming a spherical inflation of the jugal. In the limited number of samples of Desert Warthog skulls that are available, lengths for the two sexes do not overlap, suggesting greater sexual dimorphism than in the Common Warthog. The upper incisors are always absent. The lower incisors are absent or reduced to four or fewer and are very small: they hardly protrude from the alveoli and are probably always concealed by gums. The third molars are also different: when all the enamel columns have begun to wear, no roots have yet formed, unlike the condition in the Common Warthog. At this stage, all the columns are of about the same length and are able to continue growing, extending the life of the tooth. Differences were also recorded between the two species in the shape of the canines: both lower and upper canines appear to be less curved in the Desert Warthog. The wear facet on the lower canine is differently placed, and the lower canines are less compressed. Dental formulais10/0-2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 26-30. Chromosome numberis unknown. DNA analysis has shown that aethiopicusand africanusbelong to two genetically distinct lineages that diverged approximately 4-5 million years ago, in the early Pliocene.Habitat.The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.Food and Feeding.With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs further investigation.Bibliography.Culverwell et al. (2008), Ewer (1957), Grubb (1993), Grubb & d'Huart (In Press), Grubb & Oliver (1991), d'Huart & Grubb (2001, 2005), d'Huart et al. (2008), de Jong et al. (2009), Lonnberg (1909), Randi et al. (2002), Wilhelmi et al. (2004)." -03822308B740FFF1FF66F6E0FAD9F454,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,114,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B740FFF1FF66F6E0FAD9F454.xml,Sylvilagus bachmani,Sylvilagus,bachmani,,,Lapin de Bachman @fr | Strauchkaninchen @de | Conejo de matorral @es | Riparian Brush Rabbit @en,"Lepus bachmani Waterhouse, 1839, “between Monterey and Santa Barbara.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “San Luis Obispo,” California, USA.Previously, S. bachmaniand Brachylagus idahoensiswere in the genus Microlagus. Insular S. mansuetusoccurring only on San Jose Island (Baja California) derived from S. bachmani. Sylvilagus bachmaniand S. mansuetusare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Firstly, the original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. Secondly, the extent of variation has not been studied yet. Thus, researchers cannot understand if this exact feature is some important diagostic mark or just an individual or age-specific variation. Moreover, it has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.","S.b.bachmaniWaterhouse,1839—SpartofcoastalCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.cerrosensisJ.A.Allen,1898—CedrosI,BajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.cinerascensJ.A.Allen,1890—SWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.exiguusNelson,1907—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheN(NWMexico).S.b.howelliHuey,1927—NEBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.macrorhinusOrr,1935—NpartofCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.mariposaeGrinnell&Storer,1916—EpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.peninsularisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.b.ripariusOrr,1935—WpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.rosaphagusHuey,1940—NWBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.tehamaeOrr,1935—SWOregon,andNCCalifornia(WUSA).S.b.ubericolorMiller,1899—WOregon(SoftheColumbiaRiver)andNWCalifornia(WUSA).S. b. virgulti Dice, 1926— S part of inland CW California.","Head-body 300-370 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 71-86 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Brush Rabbitis one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is dark brown to gray-brown; ventral fur is whitish. Hindlegs are short, and hindfeet are slender. Ears are small, slightly pointed, and sparsely haired inside. Tail is small, dark above, and white below. Sexual dimorphism exists with females being 1-2-1% larger than males. Fetal sex ratio is essentially 1:1, but adult sex ratios are 80-8-128 males:100 females.","Dense brushy cover from sea level to elevations of at least 2070 m. The Brush Rabbit is confined to brushy habitat, as its common name implies.","Brush Rabbits feed mainly on grasses, and diets vary according to season and region. In September, they feed on spike rush (Eleocharis palustris, Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) such as creeping eragrostis (Eragrostishypnoides), foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum), soft chess grass (Bromushordeaceus), and oats (Avenafatua). Summer diets include wild roses (Rosacalifornica, Rosaceae), Mexican tea (Chenopodiumambrosioides, Amaranthaceae), and several plants in the daisy family such as sow thistle (Sonchusasper), bull thistle (Cirsiumlanceolatum), and Baccharisdouglasii; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); and berries (Rubus sp., Rosaceae). In autumn, roots of poison hemlock (Coniummaculatum), stems and leaves of blackberry (R. vitifolia), and berries (Rubus sp.) also are eaten. In winter, green clover (Trifoliuminvolucratum, Fabaceae) is most preferred, along with new available green grass. Brush Rabbits rarely feed in the open on the mainland, but they prefer to feed in the open and rarely underbrush on Ano Nuevo Island. Before venturing into the open to feed, individuals remain for a while just inside dense brushy cover. After entering an open area next to brushy cover, individuals remain motionless for some time, apparently watching for signs of danger. Several individuals might simultaneously feed in the same area. They rise up on their hindfeet to feed on newly grown tips of plants.","Breeding season of the Brush Rabbit varies from north to south. In California, it lasts from December to May or possibly June, but in Oregon, it lasts from February to August. Gestation lasts 24-30 days, averaging 27 days. Young are born with fine thin hair, do not open their eyes for c.10 days, and suffer postpartum weight loss. Females give birth in nests with cavities of 7.5-15 cm. Nests are lined mainly with hairs from mothers and small amounts of dried grass; nests are closed with plugs constructed of grasses. Young are nursed at night, grow rapidly, and stay in their nests for c.2 weeks. The Brush Rabbit is believed to breed shortly after giving birth, and different females in a population might breed at the same time. Brush Rabbits might have three litters per year in California, but four litters might be possible. Litter size also varies among regions; mean litter size is three in Oregon, 3-5 in northern and central California, and four in west-central California. Juveniles reach maturity at 4-5 monthsold, but it is thought that they reproduce for the first time in reproductive seasons following their births. In Oregon, a female Brush Rabbit produces an average of 15 young/ year in 5-3 litters. Brush Rabbits may not be as fecund as other species of Sylvilagus.","Brush Rabbits are basically crepuscular, being most active between sunset and 02:00 h and again from ¢.06:00 h to 10:30 h. Some reports suggest that most activity occurs in the morning. Individuals are least active between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. They spend considerable time sunning, usually in the mornings or afternoons. After feeding, Brush Rabbits return to a form forgrooming and basking in the sun. They might climb trees for resting.","The Brush Rabbit occasionally uses burrows but does not dig its own. Holes and forms in brush also are used. Forms are cleared places, and a maze of extensively used runways connects forms. Runways of voles (Microtus) and harvest mice (Reithrodontomys) were used in June/July in California, and “huts” of Wood Rats (Neotomafuscipes macrotis) also were used. In Oregon, Brush Rabbits live in disjunct patches of brambles, and sizes and shapes of home ranges conform to sizes and shapes of bramble patches. Brush Rabbits did not permanently occupy patches smaller than 460 m?. Home ranges were less than 2000 m? and depended on uniformity of habitat. Males had larger home ranges than females, and juvenile males had larger home ranges than adult males. Home range sizes of reintroduced individuals were similar among males and females and were larger in the breeding season than during nonbreeding. Thumping the ground with hindfeet often occurs just after individuals are frightened; some thumpfor several minutes before stopping. Brush Rabbits emit squeals and cries as vocalization. Young have been reported to squeal. Minimum distance that individuals can approach one another without resulting in a chase is 0-3-7-5 m—lower distances reported forjuveniles. Nose sniffing and touching often precede a chase.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Brush Rabbit is abundant throughout most ofits distribution, and most populations do not appear to be experiencing significant declines. It is a game species in Oregon and California but is hunted little. The subspecies riparius living in the San Joaquin Valley, California, has been listed as endangered by the State of California and the US Fish and Wildlife Service due to decline caused by habitat degradation, wildfires, and flooding. Major threats to the Brush Rabbit are hunting for food and expansion of human settlements, but extent and severity of these threats have not been quantified.","AMCELA, Romero, Rangel & Williams (2008) | Angermann (2016) | Cervantes, Vazquez & Colmenares (2005) | Chapman (1971a, 1971b, 1974) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Harman (1972) | Connell (1954) | Davis (1936) | Dice (1926) | Gander (1929) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kelt et al. (2014) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mossman (1955) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940, 1942) | Pearson (1959a) | Shields (1960) | Verts (1967)",,"11.Brush RabbitSylvilagus bachmaniFrench:Lapin de Bachman/ German:Strauchkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de matorralOther common names:Riparian Brush RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus bachmani Waterhouse, 1839, “between Monterey and Santa Barbara.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “San Luis Obispo,” California, USA.Previously, S. bachmaniand Brachylagus idahoensiswere in the genus Microlagus. Insular S. mansuetusoccurring only on San Jose Island (Baja California) derived from S. bachmani. Sylvilagus bachmaniand S. mansuetusare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Firstly, the original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. Secondly, the extent of variation has not been studied yet. Thus, researchers cannot understand if this exact feature is some important diagostic mark or just an individual or age-specific variation. Moreover, it has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.bachmaniWaterhouse,1839—SpartofcoastalCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.cerrosensisJ.A.Allen,1898—CedrosI,BajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.cinerascensJ.A.Allen,1890—SWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.exiguusNelson,1907—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheN(NWMexico).S.b.howelliHuey,1927—NEBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.macrorhinusOrr,1935—NpartofCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.mariposaeGrinnell&Storer,1916—EpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.peninsularisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.b.ripariusOrr,1935—WpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.rosaphagusHuey,1940—NWBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.tehamaeOrr,1935—SWOregon,andNCCalifornia(WUSA).S.b.ubericolorMiller,1899—WOregon(SoftheColumbiaRiver)andNWCalifornia(WUSA).S. b. virgulti Dice, 1926— S part of inland CW California.Descriptive notes.Head-body 300-370 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 71-86 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Brush Rabbitis one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is dark brown to gray-brown; ventral fur is whitish. Hindlegs are short, and hindfeet are slender. Ears are small, slightly pointed, and sparsely haired inside. Tail is small, dark above, and white below. Sexual dimorphism exists with females being 1-2-1% larger than males. Fetal sex ratio is essentially 1:1, but adult sex ratios are 80-8-128 males:100 females.Habitat.Dense brushy cover from sea level to elevations of at least 2070 m. The Brush Rabbit is confined to brushy habitat, as its common name implies.Food and Feeding.Brush Rabbits feed mainly on grasses, and diets vary according to season and region. In September, they feed on spike rush (Eleocharis palustris, Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) such as creeping eragrostis (Eragrostishypnoides), foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum), soft chess grass (Bromushordeaceus), and oats (Avenafatua). Summer diets include wild roses (Rosacalifornica, Rosaceae), Mexican tea (Chenopodiumambrosioides, Amaranthaceae), and several plants in the daisy family such as sow thistle (Sonchusasper), bull thistle (Cirsiumlanceolatum), and Baccharisdouglasii; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); and berries (Rubus sp., Rosaceae). In autumn, roots of poison hemlock (Coniummaculatum), stems and leaves of blackberry (R. vitifolia), and berries (Rubus sp.) also are eaten. In winter, green clover (Trifoliuminvolucratum, Fabaceae) is most preferred, along with new available green grass. Brush Rabbits rarely feed in the open on the mainland, but they prefer to feed in the open and rarely underbrush on Ano Nuevo Island. Before venturing into the open to feed, individuals remain for a while just inside dense brushy cover. After entering an open area next to brushy cover, individuals remain motionless for some time, apparently watching for signs of danger. Several individuals might simultaneously feed in the same area. They rise up on their hindfeet to feed on newly grown tips of plants.Breeding.Breeding season of the Brush Rabbit varies from north to south. In California, it lasts from December to May or possibly June, but in Oregon, it lasts from February to August. Gestation lasts 24-30 days, averaging 27 days. Young are born with fine thin hair, do not open their eyes for c.10 days, and suffer postpartum weight loss. Females give birth in nests with cavities of 7.5-15 cm. Nests are lined mainly with hairs from mothers and small amounts of dried grass; nests are closed with plugs constructed of grasses. Young are nursed at night, grow rapidly, and stay in their nests for c.2 weeks. The Brush Rabbit is believed to breed shortly after giving birth, and different females in a population might breed at the same time. Brush Rabbits might have three litters per year in California, but four litters might be possible. Litter size also varies among regions; mean litter size is three in Oregon, 3-5 in northern and central California, and four in west-central California. Juveniles reach maturity at 4-5 monthsold, but it is thought that they reproduce for the first time in reproductive seasons following their births. In Oregon, a female Brush Rabbit produces an average of 15 young/ year in 5-3 litters. Brush Rabbits may not be as fecund as other species of Sylvilagus.Activity patterns.Brush Rabbits are basically crepuscular, being most active between sunset and 02:00 h and again from ¢.06:00 h to 10:30 h. Some reports suggest that most activity occurs in the morning. Individuals are least active between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. They spend considerable time sunning, usually in the mornings or afternoons. After feeding, Brush Rabbits return to a form forgrooming and basking in the sun. They might climb trees for resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Brush Rabbit occasionally uses burrows but does not dig its own. Holes and forms in brush also are used. Forms are cleared places, and a maze of extensively used runways connects forms. Runways of voles (Microtus) and harvest mice (Reithrodontomys) were used in June/July in California, and “huts” of Wood Rats (Neotomafuscipes macrotis) also were used. In Oregon, Brush Rabbits live in disjunct patches of brambles, and sizes and shapes of home ranges conform to sizes and shapes of bramble patches. Brush Rabbits did not permanently occupy patches smaller than 460 m?. Home ranges were less than 2000 m? and depended on uniformity of habitat. Males had larger home ranges than females, and juvenile males had larger home ranges than adult males. Home range sizes of reintroduced individuals were similar among males and females and were larger in the breeding season than during nonbreeding. Thumping the ground with hindfeet often occurs just after individuals are frightened; some thumpfor several minutes before stopping. Brush Rabbits emit squeals and cries as vocalization. Young have been reported to squeal. Minimum distance that individuals can approach one another without resulting in a chase is 0-3-7-5 m—lower distances reported forjuveniles. Nose sniffing and touching often precede a chase.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Brush Rabbit is abundant throughout most ofits distribution, and most populations do not appear to be experiencing significant declines. It is a game species in Oregon and California but is hunted little. The subspecies riparius living in the San Joaquin Valley, California, has been listed as endangered by the State of California and the US Fish and Wildlife Service due to decline caused by habitat degradation, wildfires, and flooding. Major threats to the Brush Rabbit are hunting for food and expansion of human settlements, but extent and severity of these threats have not been quantified.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero, Rangel & Williams (2008), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Vazquez & Colmenares (2005), Chapman (1971a, 1971b, 1974), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Harman (1972), Connell (1954), Davis (1936), Dice (1926), Gander (1929), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kelt et al. (2014), Lissovsky (2016), Mossman (1955), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940, 1942), Pearson (1959a), Shields (1960), Verts (1967)." +038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,279,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B.xml,Potamochoerus porcus,Potamochoerus,porcus,,,Potamocheére roux @fr | Pinselohrschwein @de | Potamocerorojo @es,"Sus porcus Linnaeus, 1766,“Habitat in Africa” (= West Africa).No subspecies have been designated, because no discernable geographically consistent morphological variation has been identified. Monotypic.","Main tropical rainforest belt from Senegaland GuineaBissauto NW Ugandaand E DR Congo, reaching as S boundary N Angola(Cabinda); no recent records from Gambiaor Chadand its presence is uncertain in S Sudanand SW Ethiopia. As a species that may range widely through gallery forests, it may also occur in adjacent countries.","Head-body 100-145 cm,tail 30-45 cm, shoulder height 55-80 cm; weight 45-115 kg. Red RiverHogs are the smallest and most colorful of all African pigs. They have short, laterally flattened bodies that are predominantly bright russet orange. There is a narrow white dorsal crest from the head to the tail, which is erected when the animal is excited. The pelage is short except for longer bristles on jaws and flanks. The head is strongly contrasted, with bold markings like a facial mask: grayish muzzle, white “brows” around the eyes, white cheeks and whiskers, and black marks on the snout, jaws, ears, and forehead. The ear pinnae have a prominent terminal tuft of white hair. Young Red RiverHogs are dark brown with a facial mask and rows of pale yellow spots on body. Males have two humps on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The tusks are small and sharp. Skull length is 32-:7-40. 5 cm(adult males) and 26.9-37. 8 cm(adult females). Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosome numberis 34. Life span is 10-15 years.","Red River Hogs mainly occur in gallery forests and swamp margins of primary rainforest where there is significant vegetative cover. In transition zones, they frequently visit dry forests, savanna woodlands, and cultivated areas. The speciesis highly adaptable and locally benefits from regeneration of logged-over forested areas, where they find more varied food sources and a reduction of their natural predators. Population densities are 1-6 ind/km?, but wide variations are recorded. Up to 18-4 ind/km?* have been recorded in the forest-savanna ecotone of Lopé National Park, Gabon. The species is widespread in its habitat except where the Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmeinertzhagent) is common.","Red River Hogs have an omnivorous diet, with a marked preference for roots and tubers. They also feed on grasses, aquatic plants, bulbs,fruit, carrion, and various small animals. They use their snouts to root in the ground and can do serious damage to crops. The species uses the noises and calls of monkeys and frugivorous birds to detect potential food supplies. Seasonal aggregations of Red River Hogs at masting fruit trees account for observations of temporary groups of up to 60 individuals. In Makokou (Gabon), these groups are very noisy when breaking hard nutshells of Caula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis, which attracts the attention of predators and secondary feeders. The hogs are sometimes followed by guinea fowl, who peck about the turned over ground for food. Seasonal massive availability of preferred foods and the hogs’ high level of opportunism explain semi-nomadic circuits of movements.","This species uses a wide range ofritualized postures with release of glandular secretions during male fights and rut. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-24 months. Gestation is 120-127 days. Farrowing occurs in February-March in Nigeriaand in December—]January in Gabon, but females can give birth twice yearly in captive conditions.Litters of 1-4 piglets (rarely up to 6) are born in a sheltered hollow covered with a thick mattress of grasses and leaves, where they stay 10-15 days with their mother before joining the rest of the sounder. Weaning occurs at 2—4 months.","These animals are most active in the evening and during the night, and rest in burrows deep within dense thickets during the day. They are capable of covering long distances in search of food, and like to rest in wallows in shallow swamps. The whole sounder runs away when alarmed or frightened. If striped piglets are present, they crouch and freeze while adults face the danger. When cornered or wounded, the adult hogs can display considerable courage and vigorously attack predators, including humans. They are very good swimmers and are frequently seen crossing large rivers. Their main predators are humans and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but locally also Lions (P. leo), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and pythons. Red RiverHogs make up 20% of the biomass consumed by Leopards in Lopé National Park.","In some areas, the narrow extent and linearity of the species’ home ranges (gallery forests in savanna habitats) may force frequent and extensive movements. Sounders roam a comparatively large home range, sometimes with over 4 kmbetween resting and feeding areas. Distance covered daily is 3-6 km, depending on food availability and the presence of young. Red RiverHogs are gregarious, with sounders of 6-20 females, subadults, and young attended by a large master boar. As with other suids, older juvenile males are bullied by their father if they approach his feeding or wallowing place too closely. On the move, hogs communicate by soft grunts in order to maintain the cohesion of the sounder, and they use a wide range of vocalizations adapted to various circumstances. In shared home ranges, boars communicate their presence and status by frequent rubbing and tusking oftrees.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the speciesis relatively widespread and common, and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline.The main threat to this species is the growing pressure from hunting for commercial bushmeat trade and for subsistence. Together with the duikers,it is one of the most sought after and hunted species in the CongoBasin and it makes up 40% of the bushmeat sold in markets in Gabon. In the CongoBasin, the high demand for bushmeat and the spread of gun hunting are factors that can easily threaten the survival of this species. Experiments with raising in captivity have shown its susceptibility to stress during capture, low rate of survival of young (11-57%), but rapid adaptation to confined environment and human company.","Dosimont (2004) | Grubb (1993) | Henschel et al. (2005) | Kingdon (1997) | Laurance et al. (2006) | Okouyi (2002, 2006) | Payne (2002) | Querouil & Leus (2008) | Tutinet al. (1997) | Vercammen et al. (1993) | van Vliet & Nasi (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721031/files/figure.png,"8.Red RiverHogPotamochoerus porcusFrench:Potamocheére roux/ German:Pinselohrschwein/ Spanish:PotamocerorojoTaxonomy.Sus porcus Linnaeus, 1766,“Habitat in Africa” (= West Africa).No subspecies have been designated, because no discernable geographically consistent morphological variation has been identified. Monotypic.Distribution.Main tropical rainforest belt from Senegaland GuineaBissauto NW Ugandaand E DR Congo, reaching as S boundary N Angola(Cabinda); no recent records from Gambiaor Chadand its presence is uncertain in S Sudanand SW Ethiopia. As a species that may range widely through gallery forests, it may also occur in adjacent countries.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-145 cm,tail 30-45 cm, shoulder height 55-80 cm; weight 45-115 kg. Red RiverHogs are the smallest and most colorful of all African pigs. They have short, laterally flattened bodies that are predominantly bright russet orange. There is a narrow white dorsal crest from the head to the tail, which is erected when the animal is excited. The pelage is short except for longer bristles on jaws and flanks. The head is strongly contrasted, with bold markings like a facial mask: grayish muzzle, white “brows” around the eyes, white cheeks and whiskers, and black marks on the snout, jaws, ears, and forehead. The ear pinnae have a prominent terminal tuft of white hair. Young Red RiverHogs are dark brown with a facial mask and rows of pale yellow spots on body. Males have two humps on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The tusks are small and sharp. Skull length is 32-:7-40. 5 cm(adult males) and 26.9-37. 8 cm(adult females). Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosome numberis 34. Life span is 10-15 years.Habitat.Red River Hogs mainly occur in gallery forests and swamp margins of primary rainforest where there is significant vegetative cover. In transition zones, they frequently visit dry forests, savanna woodlands, and cultivated areas. The speciesis highly adaptable and locally benefits from regeneration of logged-over forested areas, where they find more varied food sources and a reduction of their natural predators. Population densities are 1-6 ind/km?, but wide variations are recorded. Up to 18-4 ind/km?* have been recorded in the forest-savanna ecotone of Lopé National Park, Gabon. The species is widespread in its habitat except where the Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmeinertzhagent) is common.Food and Feeding.Red River Hogs have an omnivorous diet, with a marked preference for roots and tubers. They also feed on grasses, aquatic plants, bulbs,fruit, carrion, and various small animals. They use their snouts to root in the ground and can do serious damage to crops. The species uses the noises and calls of monkeys and frugivorous birds to detect potential food supplies. Seasonal aggregations of Red River Hogs at masting fruit trees account for observations of temporary groups of up to 60 individuals. In Makokou (Gabon), these groups are very noisy when breaking hard nutshells of Caula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis, which attracts the attention of predators and secondary feeders. The hogs are sometimes followed by guinea fowl, who peck about the turned over ground for food. Seasonal massive availability of preferred foods and the hogs’ high level of opportunism explain semi-nomadic circuits of movements.Breeding.This species uses a wide range ofritualized postures with release of glandular secretions during male fights and rut. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-24 months. Gestation is 120-127 days. Farrowing occurs in February-March in Nigeriaand in December—]January in Gabon, but females can give birth twice yearly in captive conditions.Litters of 1-4 piglets (rarely up to 6) are born in a sheltered hollow covered with a thick mattress of grasses and leaves, where they stay 10-15 days with their mother before joining the rest of the sounder. Weaning occurs at 2—4 months.Activity patterns.These animals are most active in the evening and during the night, and rest in burrows deep within dense thickets during the day. They are capable of covering long distances in search of food, and like to rest in wallows in shallow swamps. The whole sounder runs away when alarmed or frightened. If striped piglets are present, they crouch and freeze while adults face the danger. When cornered or wounded, the adult hogs can display considerable courage and vigorously attack predators, including humans. They are very good swimmers and are frequently seen crossing large rivers. Their main predators are humans and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but locally also Lions (P. leo), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and pythons. Red RiverHogs make up 20% of the biomass consumed by Leopards in Lopé National Park.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In some areas, the narrow extent and linearity of the species’ home ranges (gallery forests in savanna habitats) may force frequent and extensive movements. Sounders roam a comparatively large home range, sometimes with over 4 kmbetween resting and feeding areas. Distance covered daily is 3-6 km, depending on food availability and the presence of young. Red RiverHogs are gregarious, with sounders of 6-20 females, subadults, and young attended by a large master boar. As with other suids, older juvenile males are bullied by their father if they approach his feeding or wallowing place too closely. On the move, hogs communicate by soft grunts in order to maintain the cohesion of the sounder, and they use a wide range of vocalizations adapted to various circumstances. In shared home ranges, boars communicate their presence and status by frequent rubbing and tusking oftrees.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the speciesis relatively widespread and common, and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline.The main threat to this species is the growing pressure from hunting for commercial bushmeat trade and for subsistence. Together with the duikers,it is one of the most sought after and hunted species in the CongoBasin and it makes up 40% of the bushmeat sold in markets in Gabon. In the CongoBasin, the high demand for bushmeat and the spread of gun hunting are factors that can easily threaten the survival of this species. Experiments with raising in captivity have shown its susceptibility to stress during capture, low rate of survival of young (11-57%), but rapid adaptation to confined environment and human company.Bibliography.Dosimont (2004), Grubb (1993), Henschel et al. (2005), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Okouyi (2002, 2006), Payne (2002), Querouil & Leus (2008), Tutinet al. (1997), Vercammen et al. (1993), van Vliet & Nasi (2008)." +038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,279,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7.xml,Potamochoerus larvatus,Potamochoerus,larvatus,,,Potamochere du Cap @fr | Buschschwein @de | Potamocerode rio @es,"Sus larvatus F. Cuvier, 1822,“ Madagascar” (no exact type locality known).The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Islands, but the taxonomic situation of these populations is still unresolved as this species is thought to have been introduced there. Two subspecies are sometimes recognized on Madagascar: the nominate form larvatus, described by F. Cuvier in 1822, which lives in Mayotteand the north-west of Madagascar, and the race hovafrom the east of Madagascar. This may suggest that the species was not introduced by people, or was introduced at different times from different source populations. Until this issue is clarified, we do not here recognize the Madagascarraces as subspecies, and thus exclude these populations from the species’ distribution. Three subspecies are recognized.","P.l.hassamaHeuglin,1863—EAfrica,withspecimensknownfromEthiopia,SSudan,EDRCongo,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,Kenya,andTanzania.P.l.koiropotamusDesmoulins,1831—lowerCongoRiver(leftbank),Angola,SDRCongo,Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique,Zimbabwe,Botswana,Swaziland,andSouthAfrica.P. l. somaliensis de Beaux, 1924— Tana, Juba, and Shebelle rivers in NE Kenyaand Somalia.The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Is, but their taxonomic situation thereis still unresolved.","Head—body 100-150 cm, tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height 55-88 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Bushpigs have a compact body with short legs, rounded back, and elongated snout. The coatis extremely variable in color, from blond, pale red, or russet up to a dark brown or near-black shade. The color may vary with sex, age, region, or individual, and this significant variation in body color has led to the description of many variant races. It generally has a paler head with white face markings. Body hairs are long and sparse but elongated from the forehead to the tail, forming a white or grayish dorsal crest. It has a long tufted tail. Newborns are dark brown in color with longitudinal stripes or rows of paler spots. Adult males display bony ridges and calluses on the muzzle. Females have six pairs of mammae. There are clear distinctions between subspecies based, for example, on color and average male skull length, but there are also indications that intergradation may occur locally between subspecies. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. The upper tusks are very small (average 7-6 cm), but the lower tusks are sizeable (9-16. 5 cm) and razor sharp. Chromosome numberis 34. The life span is 20 years.","The Bushpig is ecologically separated from the Red River Hog (FP. porcus). Within areas of co-occurrence (like the Albertine Rift), the Bushpig lives at higher elevations and the Red River Hog in lowland forests. Elsewhere, the two species are separated by ecological barriers such as the CongoRiver. Bushpigs occur in a wide range of forested and woodland habitats, from sea level to montane forest (up to 4000 mon Mount Kilimanjaro), with a marked preference for valley bottoms with soft soils and dense vegetation. There are striking differences in habitat among subspecies, with, for example, the hassama race primarilyoccurring in upland forest areas and the somaliensis race favoringriverine forests.","This species is omnivorous and highly adaptable. It is probably a major seed disperser. Bushpigs consume roots, tubers, bulbs, corn, fungi,fruit, eggs, invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and carrion. In Uganda, Bushpigs were seen following groups of monkeys as they forage and feeding on discarded fruits. They make extensive use of their snouts to root for larvae, worms, and underground plant parts. Locally, Bushpig rooting can leave large areas plowed up and cleared of standing vegetation. In cultivated areas, sounders can do serious damage to crops in a short time.","Sexual maturity is reached at 18-21 months. Breeding may take place yearround, but most young are recorded at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. The gestation period is 120-127 days. Just before giving birth, females retire to a sheltered nest or hollow. Most common litter size is 3—4, with a maximum of ten. Newborns weigh 700-800 g. They are weaned at 2—4 months.","Bushpigs are predominantly nocturnal, resting under heavy thickets of vegetation during the day. Nests for raising young or during rainy seasons are built in the cooler parts of their range. In the southern Cape, South Africa, they tend to be more diurnal during the colder months, suggesting that temperature regulation is a significant factor influencing the rhythm of activity. Mud wallowing and rubbing against trees are also regular activities. Population density is regulated by a wide range of predators including humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), pythons, and eagles. Courageous and dangerous when cornered, both boars and sows defend piglets cooperatively and aggressively. Fighting behavior includes frontal and lateral postures with dorsal crest erected, snout-boxing, and forehead shoving. Bushpigs run fast and swim easily. Their senses of smell and hearing are very good, but eyesight only fair.","In South Africa, groups occupy spatially exclusive home ranges of 3-10 km? with daily movements of 0-5-6 km. Population densities are 0-3-10-1 ind/km?. They live in family sounders of 6-12 individuals, led by a dominant male, with one or more females and their young. Unlike other wild pigs, adult males play an active role in rearing and defending the young. Other males are aggressively chased off and territorial encounters are characterized by ritualized displays and scent marking. Males disperse from the natal group and old males may be solitary, whereas females remain on their natal home range.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread and common and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. Though the Bushpig is still relatively widespread, its distribution is patchy in certain regions. It is reported to be increasingly rare outside of protected areas, and widely hunted either for subsistence or for commercial bushmeat trade at local, mostly urban markets. It is also hunted as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases like African swine fever, nagana (a form of trypanosomiasis), and sleeping sickness. Clearing of forested areas and conversion to cropland have benefited this species in some areas.","de Beaux (1924) | Cooper & Melton (1988) | Duckworth (1992) | Estes (1991) | Ghiglieri et al. (1982) | Grubb (1993) | Kingdon (1997) | Laurance et al. (2006) | Melton et al. (1989) | Nielsen (2006) | Nummelin (1990) | Seydack (1991, 2008) | Skinner et al. (1976) | Sowls & Phelps (1968) | Stuart (1985) | Vercammen et al. (1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721029/files/figure.png,"7.BushpigPotamochoerus larvatusFrench:Potamochere du Cap/ German:Buschschwein/ Spanish:Potamocerode rioTaxonomy.Sus larvatus F. Cuvier, 1822,“ Madagascar” (no exact type locality known).The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Islands, but the taxonomic situation of these populations is still unresolved as this species is thought to have been introduced there. Two subspecies are sometimes recognized on Madagascar: the nominate form larvatus, described by F. Cuvier in 1822, which lives in Mayotteand the north-west of Madagascar, and the race hovafrom the east of Madagascar. This may suggest that the species was not introduced by people, or was introduced at different times from different source populations. Until this issue is clarified, we do not here recognize the Madagascarraces as subspecies, and thus exclude these populations from the species’ distribution. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.l.hassamaHeuglin,1863—EAfrica,withspecimensknownfromEthiopia,SSudan,EDRCongo,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,Kenya,andTanzania.P.l.koiropotamusDesmoulins,1831—lowerCongoRiver(leftbank),Angola,SDRCongo,Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique,Zimbabwe,Botswana,Swaziland,andSouthAfrica.P. l. somaliensis de Beaux, 1924— Tana, Juba, and Shebelle rivers in NE Kenyaand Somalia.The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Is, but their taxonomic situation thereis still unresolved.Descriptive notes.Head—body 100-150 cm, tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height 55-88 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Bushpigs have a compact body with short legs, rounded back, and elongated snout. The coatis extremely variable in color, from blond, pale red, or russet up to a dark brown or near-black shade. The color may vary with sex, age, region, or individual, and this significant variation in body color has led to the description of many variant races. It generally has a paler head with white face markings. Body hairs are long and sparse but elongated from the forehead to the tail, forming a white or grayish dorsal crest. It has a long tufted tail. Newborns are dark brown in color with longitudinal stripes or rows of paler spots. Adult males display bony ridges and calluses on the muzzle. Females have six pairs of mammae. There are clear distinctions between subspecies based, for example, on color and average male skull length, but there are also indications that intergradation may occur locally between subspecies. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. The upper tusks are very small (average 7-6 cm), but the lower tusks are sizeable (9-16. 5 cm) and razor sharp. Chromosome numberis 34. The life span is 20 years.Habitat.The Bushpig is ecologically separated from the Red River Hog (FP. porcus). Within areas of co-occurrence (like the Albertine Rift), the Bushpig lives at higher elevations and the Red River Hog in lowland forests. Elsewhere, the two species are separated by ecological barriers such as the CongoRiver. Bushpigs occur in a wide range of forested and woodland habitats, from sea level to montane forest (up to 4000 mon Mount Kilimanjaro), with a marked preference for valley bottoms with soft soils and dense vegetation. There are striking differences in habitat among subspecies, with, for example, the hassama race primarilyoccurring in upland forest areas and the somaliensis race favoringriverine forests.Food and Feeding.This species is omnivorous and highly adaptable. It is probably a major seed disperser. Bushpigs consume roots, tubers, bulbs, corn, fungi,fruit, eggs, invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and carrion. In Uganda, Bushpigs were seen following groups of monkeys as they forage and feeding on discarded fruits. They make extensive use of their snouts to root for larvae, worms, and underground plant parts. Locally, Bushpig rooting can leave large areas plowed up and cleared of standing vegetation. In cultivated areas, sounders can do serious damage to crops in a short time.Breeding.Sexual maturity is reached at 18-21 months. Breeding may take place yearround, but most young are recorded at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. The gestation period is 120-127 days. Just before giving birth, females retire to a sheltered nest or hollow. Most common litter size is 3—4, with a maximum of ten. Newborns weigh 700-800 g. They are weaned at 2—4 months.Activity patterns.Bushpigs are predominantly nocturnal, resting under heavy thickets of vegetation during the day. Nests for raising young or during rainy seasons are built in the cooler parts of their range. In the southern Cape, South Africa, they tend to be more diurnal during the colder months, suggesting that temperature regulation is a significant factor influencing the rhythm of activity. Mud wallowing and rubbing against trees are also regular activities. Population density is regulated by a wide range of predators including humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), pythons, and eagles. Courageous and dangerous when cornered, both boars and sows defend piglets cooperatively and aggressively. Fighting behavior includes frontal and lateral postures with dorsal crest erected, snout-boxing, and forehead shoving. Bushpigs run fast and swim easily. Their senses of smell and hearing are very good, but eyesight only fair.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In South Africa, groups occupy spatially exclusive home ranges of 3-10 km? with daily movements of 0-5-6 km. Population densities are 0-3-10-1 ind/km?. They live in family sounders of 6-12 individuals, led by a dominant male, with one or more females and their young. Unlike other wild pigs, adult males play an active role in rearing and defending the young. Other males are aggressively chased off and territorial encounters are characterized by ritualized displays and scent marking. Males disperse from the natal group and old males may be solitary, whereas females remain on their natal home range.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread and common and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. Though the Bushpig is still relatively widespread, its distribution is patchy in certain regions. It is reported to be increasingly rare outside of protected areas, and widely hunted either for subsistence or for commercial bushmeat trade at local, mostly urban markets. It is also hunted as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases like African swine fever, nagana (a form of trypanosomiasis), and sleeping sickness. Clearing of forested areas and conversion to cropland have benefited this species in some areas.Bibliography.de Beaux (1924), Cooper & Melton (1988), Duckworth (1992), Estes (1991), Ghiglieri et al. (1982), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Melton et al. (1989), Nielsen (2006), Nummelin (1990), Seydack (1991, 2008), Skinner et al. (1976), Sowls & Phelps (1968), Stuart (1985), Vercammen et al. (1993)." +038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,278,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56.xml,Hylochoerus meinertzhageni,Hylochoerus,meinertzhageni,Thomas,1904,Hylochere @fr | Riesenwaldschwein @de | Hilocero @es | Giant Forest Hog (meinertzhageni) @en,"Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas, 1904,Kenya, NandiForest, near Kaimosi, 2134 m.The three subspecies provisionally recognized are differentiated on the basis of the dimensions and shape of their skull. The taxonomy of a fourth, the Ethiopian race, is still indefinite.","H.m.meinertzhageniThomas,1904—EDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Uganda,Kenya,SSudan,andEthiopia.IthasnotreliablybeenrecordedfromTanzania.H.m.woriensisBouet&Neuville,1930—discontinuouspresenceinGuinea,SierraLeone(?),Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana;possiblyalsoinGuineaBissau,andTogo.H. m. rimator Thomas, 1906— SE Nigeria, W & SE Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea(extinct?), N Republic of the Congo, and N DR Congo.","Head—body 130-210 cm, tail 25-45 cm, shoulder height 75-110 cm; weight 140-275 kg (males) and 100-200 kg (females). Males are significantly larger than females in both weight and dimensions. Although the common name “Giant Forest Hog” is often used, western races ofthis species are not much larger than Bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), and only the East African animals are true giants. Their slatey gray skin is densely covered with coarse hair, which gets sparser with age. Adult pelage is coal black, with 15-20 cm long, stout bristles. There is a pale, erectile mane on the neck. The ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to black. The legs are robust, with large and rounded hooves. The long, tasseled tail is slender and flattened at its end, with sparse bristles implanted laterally. The massive head has white to yellowish “whiskers” on the jaw-line callosity. The small, pointed, leaf-shaped ears are fringed with black hairs. In males, the forehead is characterized by a large depression surrounded by five bony, hairless ridges. The species has large, swollen preorbital glands and prominent naked cheeks. The muzzle is flat, with thick tusks flaring outwards and a very broad nasal disc (up to 17 cmin diameter). The skull and facial musculature are adapted to a folivorous rather than an omnivorous diet. Females have four mammae. Dental formulaisl 1/3, Cl1/1,P2/1,M 3/5 (x2) = 30.","Like Red RiverHogs (P. porcus), Forest Hogs are more dependent on forest than the other African pigs. Forest Hogs inhabit a variety offoresttypes: subalpine areas and bamboo groves, forest—grassland mosaics, montane, lowland, and swamp forests, river galleries, wooded savannas, and thickets. It is an ecotonic species, preferring intermediate habitat zones where the edge effect is maximized and where resources from different vegetation types can be exploited within a limited area. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understory cover in some parts of its home range, and a diversity of vegetation types. In dense forest areas, Forest Hogs tend to concentrate in isolated hilly, rocky habitats of savanna and forest, around clearings, or in mixed forest patches rather than in monodominant forest. The variety of forest habitats occupied implies a high degree of adaptability to local climatic conditions. Forest Hogslive in cold uplands (where night temperatures may fall to 0°C) as well as hot lowlands, but do not tolerate low humidity or prolonged solar radiation.","Forest Hogs are mainly grass-eaters and folivorous. Feeding habits show that they are neither exclusively forest animals nor pure grazers. They display great versatility in food selection, depending on the seasonal content, stage of growth, and quantity of plant resources available. Many species of grasses, sedges, and herbs are cropped. They root much less than other wild pigs and dig only in soft or muddy soils. In a savanna area of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, they select more than 100 food plants. In Virunga National Park, however, five major savanna species were selected, on average, over the course of a year; the hogs preferred some grasses during dry seasons and others during rainy seasons, selecting grasses when their nutrient and energetic content is highest. Young piglets are known to feed on grasses well before weaning. In dense forest, both Forest Hogs and Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus) use mast seed areas in monodominant stands. Examination of adult hog dung reveals different types of material, including poorly masticated grass seeds, stems, and leaves, fragments of millipedes and shields of ticks, earth nodules, and bristles. They also excavate salty earth with their tusks and lower incisors. These salt licks may be termite mounds, shallow caves, dry river banks, or even the embankment of a deserted road. Occasionally Forest Hogs eat meat and bones ofcarrion, eggs, and larvae. Coprophagy is not common, but piglets are fond of fresh elephant dung.","Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months. There are two mating seasons in Virunga National Park, with births occuring at the beginning of the rainy season. Gestation period averages 151 days. Before parturition, the expectant sow leaves the group and retreats under dense thickets in a nest made of grasses and branches where young are born. Litter size is 2-6 (average 2-4) piglets. The mother rejoins her group with her offspring only one week after parturition. Piglets may nurse from any female in the group, and are protected by all. Weaning occurs at 8-10 weeks. The averagelife expectancy is 3-5 years and average life span is five years, with a maximum of 18 years.","In the grassland-bushland—dry forest mosaic ofVirunga National Park, DR Congo, Forest Hogs spend on average 25% oftheir daily time moving and foraging in savanna, 21% moving, foraging, and wallowing in thickets or forested areas, and 54% resting in a sheltered sleeping site. Activity is most intense in the early morning and late afternoon, with a rest during hottest hours. There is no evidence of true nocturnal activity. Wallowing is a favorite activity, taking up about one hour each day in certain areas. Before sundown, family groupsretire to their sleeping place under dense thickets. Along the trails, the same dung heaps are always used as communal latrines. Males are fierce defenders of their group and sometimes lead the sounders in driving off predators and competitors. When shot at, they will attack humans. Competition between males is violent and may last for half an hour. Males rush at each other from a distance, crashing their foreheads together like rams. Despite their reinforced skulls, deaths among males due to fractures are not uncommon, but most wounds heal. This species is quite vocal, producing a minimum of ten recognizable categories of sounds. The main predators on adults are Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (P. leo). Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta),, pythons, and eagles prey on young hogs and their mortality rate is about 50%.","Forest Hogs maintain unmarked and undefended home ranges of 3-10 km? laced with a network of well-worn trails connecting resting sites, latrines, wallows, waterholes, salt licks, and grazing meadows. Daily movements average 8-12 km, most of which takes place on an individual’s own or another animal’s trails. Home ranges may overlap extensively with ranges of other groups. Routine activities in confined territories make Forest Hogs easy targets for poachers. In Virunga National Park, the basic social group is a sounder of 4-20 animals consisting of 1-4 males, 1-9 females, and the offspring of up to three generations. Males can be monogamous or polygamous. Average group size is 10-14 in Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. Larger groupings of several sounders have been recorded. Groups of bachelor subadults and solitary males are common. In good habitat, population densities are 7-30 ind/km?.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread, sometimes locally abundant, has a high reproductive potential, and although itis subject to hunting in many parts ofits range,it is not believed to be declining at a rate that would merit its being listed as Near Threatened or in a threatened category. The speciesis very vulnerable to deforestation and hunting for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. The western race zvoriensisis highly vulnerable to fragmentation of its habitat.","Cerling & Viehl (2004) | Estes (1991) | Ewer (1970) | Fimpel (2002) | Grimshaw (1998) | d'Huart (1978, 1993) | d'Huart & Kingdon (In Press) | d'Huart & Klingel (2008) | d'Huart & Yohannes (1995) | Kingdon (1979) | Klingel & Klingel (2004) | Kock & Howell (1999) | Rahm & Christiaensen (1963) | Viehl (2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721027/files/figure.png,"6.Forest HogHylochoerus meinertzhageniFrench:Hylochere/ German:Riesenwaldschwein/ Spanish:HiloceroOther common names:Giant Forest Hog (meinertzhageni)Taxonomy.Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas, 1904,Kenya, NandiForest, near Kaimosi, 2134 m.The three subspecies provisionally recognized are differentiated on the basis of the dimensions and shape of their skull. The taxonomy of a fourth, the Ethiopian race, is still indefinite.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.meinertzhageniThomas,1904—EDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Uganda,Kenya,SSudan,andEthiopia.IthasnotreliablybeenrecordedfromTanzania.H.m.woriensisBouet&Neuville,1930—discontinuouspresenceinGuinea,SierraLeone(?),Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana;possiblyalsoinGuineaBissau,andTogo.H. m. rimator Thomas, 1906— SE Nigeria, W & SE Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea(extinct?), N Republic of the Congo, and N DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-210 cm, tail 25-45 cm, shoulder height 75-110 cm; weight 140-275 kg (males) and 100-200 kg (females). Males are significantly larger than females in both weight and dimensions. Although the common name “Giant Forest Hog” is often used, western races ofthis species are not much larger than Bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), and only the East African animals are true giants. Their slatey gray skin is densely covered with coarse hair, which gets sparser with age. Adult pelage is coal black, with 15-20 cm long, stout bristles. There is a pale, erectile mane on the neck. The ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to black. The legs are robust, with large and rounded hooves. The long, tasseled tail is slender and flattened at its end, with sparse bristles implanted laterally. The massive head has white to yellowish “whiskers” on the jaw-line callosity. The small, pointed, leaf-shaped ears are fringed with black hairs. In males, the forehead is characterized by a large depression surrounded by five bony, hairless ridges. The species has large, swollen preorbital glands and prominent naked cheeks. The muzzle is flat, with thick tusks flaring outwards and a very broad nasal disc (up to 17 cmin diameter). The skull and facial musculature are adapted to a folivorous rather than an omnivorous diet. Females have four mammae. Dental formulaisl 1/3, Cl1/1,P2/1,M 3/5 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Like Red RiverHogs (P. porcus), Forest Hogs are more dependent on forest than the other African pigs. Forest Hogs inhabit a variety offoresttypes: subalpine areas and bamboo groves, forest—grassland mosaics, montane, lowland, and swamp forests, river galleries, wooded savannas, and thickets. It is an ecotonic species, preferring intermediate habitat zones where the edge effect is maximized and where resources from different vegetation types can be exploited within a limited area. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understory cover in some parts of its home range, and a diversity of vegetation types. In dense forest areas, Forest Hogs tend to concentrate in isolated hilly, rocky habitats of savanna and forest, around clearings, or in mixed forest patches rather than in monodominant forest. The variety of forest habitats occupied implies a high degree of adaptability to local climatic conditions. Forest Hogslive in cold uplands (where night temperatures may fall to 0°C) as well as hot lowlands, but do not tolerate low humidity or prolonged solar radiation.Food and Feeding.Forest Hogs are mainly grass-eaters and folivorous. Feeding habits show that they are neither exclusively forest animals nor pure grazers. They display great versatility in food selection, depending on the seasonal content, stage of growth, and quantity of plant resources available. Many species of grasses, sedges, and herbs are cropped. They root much less than other wild pigs and dig only in soft or muddy soils. In a savanna area of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, they select more than 100 food plants. In Virunga National Park, however, five major savanna species were selected, on average, over the course of a year; the hogs preferred some grasses during dry seasons and others during rainy seasons, selecting grasses when their nutrient and energetic content is highest. Young piglets are known to feed on grasses well before weaning. In dense forest, both Forest Hogs and Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus) use mast seed areas in monodominant stands. Examination of adult hog dung reveals different types of material, including poorly masticated grass seeds, stems, and leaves, fragments of millipedes and shields of ticks, earth nodules, and bristles. They also excavate salty earth with their tusks and lower incisors. These salt licks may be termite mounds, shallow caves, dry river banks, or even the embankment of a deserted road. Occasionally Forest Hogs eat meat and bones ofcarrion, eggs, and larvae. Coprophagy is not common, but piglets are fond of fresh elephant dung.Breeding.Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months. There are two mating seasons in Virunga National Park, with births occuring at the beginning of the rainy season. Gestation period averages 151 days. Before parturition, the expectant sow leaves the group and retreats under dense thickets in a nest made of grasses and branches where young are born. Litter size is 2-6 (average 2-4) piglets. The mother rejoins her group with her offspring only one week after parturition. Piglets may nurse from any female in the group, and are protected by all. Weaning occurs at 8-10 weeks. The averagelife expectancy is 3-5 years and average life span is five years, with a maximum of 18 years.Activity patterns.In the grassland-bushland—dry forest mosaic ofVirunga National Park, DR Congo, Forest Hogs spend on average 25% oftheir daily time moving and foraging in savanna, 21% moving, foraging, and wallowing in thickets or forested areas, and 54% resting in a sheltered sleeping site. Activity is most intense in the early morning and late afternoon, with a rest during hottest hours. There is no evidence of true nocturnal activity. Wallowing is a favorite activity, taking up about one hour each day in certain areas. Before sundown, family groupsretire to their sleeping place under dense thickets. Along the trails, the same dung heaps are always used as communal latrines. Males are fierce defenders of their group and sometimes lead the sounders in driving off predators and competitors. When shot at, they will attack humans. Competition between males is violent and may last for half an hour. Males rush at each other from a distance, crashing their foreheads together like rams. Despite their reinforced skulls, deaths among males due to fractures are not uncommon, but most wounds heal. This species is quite vocal, producing a minimum of ten recognizable categories of sounds. The main predators on adults are Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (P. leo). Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta),, pythons, and eagles prey on young hogs and their mortality rate is about 50%.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Forest Hogs maintain unmarked and undefended home ranges of 3-10 km? laced with a network of well-worn trails connecting resting sites, latrines, wallows, waterholes, salt licks, and grazing meadows. Daily movements average 8-12 km, most of which takes place on an individual’s own or another animal’s trails. Home ranges may overlap extensively with ranges of other groups. Routine activities in confined territories make Forest Hogs easy targets for poachers. In Virunga National Park, the basic social group is a sounder of 4-20 animals consisting of 1-4 males, 1-9 females, and the offspring of up to three generations. Males can be monogamous or polygamous. Average group size is 10-14 in Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. Larger groupings of several sounders have been recorded. Groups of bachelor subadults and solitary males are common. In good habitat, population densities are 7-30 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread, sometimes locally abundant, has a high reproductive potential, and although itis subject to hunting in many parts ofits range,it is not believed to be declining at a rate that would merit its being listed as Near Threatened or in a threatened category. The speciesis very vulnerable to deforestation and hunting for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. The western race zvoriensisis highly vulnerable to fragmentation of its habitat.Bibliography.Cerling & Viehl (2004), Estes (1991), Ewer (1970), Fimpel (2002), Grimshaw (1998), d'Huart (1978, 1993), d'Huart & Kingdon (In Press), d'Huart & Klingel (2008), d'Huart & Yohannes (1995), Kingdon (1979), Klingel & Klingel (2004), Kock & Howell (1999), Rahm & Christiaensen (1963), Viehl (2003)." +038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf,277,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3.xml,Phacochoerus aethiopicus,Phacochoerus,aethiopicus,Pallas,1766,Phacochére du désert @fr | Wistenwarzenschwein @de | Facocerode desierto @es,"Aper aethiopicus Pallas, 1766,“Promontoria BonaSpei advectus,” between Kaffraria and Great Namaqualand (South Africa, Eastern Cape Province), two hundred leagues from the Capeof Good Hope.Nominate subspecies aethiopicus (Pallas, 1766)from eastern Cape Provinceand upper Orange River, South Africa, is extinct. Only one extant subspecies recognized.","P. a. delamerei Lonnberg, 1909 — NW & S Somalia, E Ethiopia, and E Kenya. The distribution is insufficiently known but accurately recorded from several areas, including N Somalia(W Somaliland), S Somalia(Jubaland), E Ethiopia(Ogaden), and E Kenya, from near sea level to ¢. 1400 min C Kenya. Although thought to be restricted to arid environments, its range in Kenyahas been found to extend S to Tsavo West National Park (W of Athi River and S of the Galana River). Formerly the species occurred in South Africa, in the former Cape Provinceand apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now extinct there.","No body measurements have been recorded for Desert Warthogs. External appearance is generally similar to the Common Warthog (FP. africanus), but the Desert Warthog is slightly smaller in size and with fewer, shorter, and paler bristles. Depending on environmental conditions, there can be striking differences in body fatness between Desert Warthog populations. The skin is usually pale gray, but there is a wide variation in color due to mudand dust-bathing. Morphological differences between Desert Warthogs and Common Warthogs have been overlooked until recently, which suggests that no strikingly different features distinguish them in the field. However, adult Desert Warthogs are characterized by hook-shaped or drooping genal warts, tips of ears that bend backwards (which gives the impression that their contour is angular), swollen suborbital pouches under the eyes, and a shorter basioccipital region, which makes the head look “egg-shaped.” The head looks rather “diaboloshaped” in the Common Warthog. The skull is similar in proportions to that of the Common Warthog, but diagnostically distinguished by other cranial and dental characters. Sphenoidal pits in the floor of the neurocranium on each side of the vomer are enormously enlarged and opened out, deepening the vomerine ridge. The zygomatic arches are robust, with large sinuses forming a spherical inflation of the jugal. In the limited number of samples of Desert Warthog skulls that are available, lengths for the two sexes do not overlap, suggesting greater sexual dimorphism than in the Common Warthog. The upper incisors are always absent. The lower incisors are absent or reduced to four or fewer and are very small: they hardly protrude from the alveoli and are probably always concealed by gums. The third molars are also different: when all the enamel columns have begun to wear, no roots have yet formed, unlike the condition in the Common Warthog. At this stage, all the columns are of about the same length and are able to continue growing, extending the life of the tooth. Differences were also recorded between the two species in the shape of the canines: both lower and upper canines appear to be less curved in the Desert Warthog. The wear facet on the lower canine is differently placed, and the lower canines are less compressed. Dental formulais10/0-2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 26-30. Chromosome numberis unknown. DNA analysis has shown that aethiopicusand africanusbelong to two genetically distinct lineages that diverged approximately 4-5 million years ago, in the early Pliocene.Habitat.The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.Food and Feeding.With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks.","The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.","With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.",Nothing is known.,"Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.","Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs further investigation.","Culverwell et al. (2008) | Ewer (1957) | Grubb (1993) | Grubb & d'Huart (In Press) | Grubb & Oliver (1991) | d'Huart & Grubb (2001, 2005) | d'Huart et al. (2008) | de Jong et al. (2009) | Lonnberg (1909) | Randi et al. (2002) | Wilhelmi et al. (2004)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721025/files/figure.png,"5.Desert WarthogPhacochoerus aethiopicusFrench:Phacochére du désert/ German:Wistenwarzenschwein/ Spanish:Facocerode desiertoTaxonomy.Aper aethiopicus Pallas, 1766,“Promontoria BonaSpei advectus,” between Kaffraria and Great Namaqualand (South Africa, Eastern Cape Province), two hundred leagues from the Capeof Good Hope.Nominate subspecies aethiopicus (Pallas, 1766)from eastern Cape Provinceand upper Orange River, South Africa, is extinct. Only one extant subspecies recognized.Distribution.P. a. delamerei Lonnberg, 1909 — NW & S Somalia, E Ethiopia, and E Kenya. The distribution is insufficiently known but accurately recorded from several areas, including N Somalia(W Somaliland), S Somalia(Jubaland), E Ethiopia(Ogaden), and E Kenya, from near sea level to ¢. 1400 min C Kenya. Although thought to be restricted to arid environments, its range in Kenyahas been found to extend S to Tsavo West National Park (W of Athi River and S of the Galana River). Formerly the species occurred in South Africa, in the former Cape Provinceand apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now extinct there.Descriptive notes.No body measurements have been recorded for Desert Warthogs. External appearance is generally similar to the Common Warthog (FP. africanus), but the Desert Warthog is slightly smaller in size and with fewer, shorter, and paler bristles. Depending on environmental conditions, there can be striking differences in body fatness between Desert Warthog populations. The skin is usually pale gray, but there is a wide variation in color due to mudand dust-bathing. Morphological differences between Desert Warthogs and Common Warthogs have been overlooked until recently, which suggests that no strikingly different features distinguish them in the field. However, adult Desert Warthogs are characterized by hook-shaped or drooping genal warts, tips of ears that bend backwards (which gives the impression that their contour is angular), swollen suborbital pouches under the eyes, and a shorter basioccipital region, which makes the head look “egg-shaped.” The head looks rather “diaboloshaped” in the Common Warthog. The skull is similar in proportions to that of the Common Warthog, but diagnostically distinguished by other cranial and dental characters. Sphenoidal pits in the floor of the neurocranium on each side of the vomer are enormously enlarged and opened out, deepening the vomerine ridge. The zygomatic arches are robust, with large sinuses forming a spherical inflation of the jugal. In the limited number of samples of Desert Warthog skulls that are available, lengths for the two sexes do not overlap, suggesting greater sexual dimorphism than in the Common Warthog. The upper incisors are always absent. The lower incisors are absent or reduced to four or fewer and are very small: they hardly protrude from the alveoli and are probably always concealed by gums. The third molars are also different: when all the enamel columns have begun to wear, no roots have yet formed, unlike the condition in the Common Warthog. At this stage, all the columns are of about the same length and are able to continue growing, extending the life of the tooth. Differences were also recorded between the two species in the shape of the canines: both lower and upper canines appear to be less curved in the Desert Warthog. The wear facet on the lower canine is differently placed, and the lower canines are less compressed. Dental formulais10/0-2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 26-30. Chromosome numberis unknown. DNA analysis has shown that aethiopicusand africanusbelong to two genetically distinct lineages that diverged approximately 4-5 million years ago, in the early Pliocene.Habitat.The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.Food and Feeding.With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs further investigation.Bibliography.Culverwell et al. (2008), Ewer (1957), Grubb (1993), Grubb & d'Huart (In Press), Grubb & Oliver (1991), d'Huart & Grubb (2001, 2005), d'Huart et al. (2008), de Jong et al. (2009), Lonnberg (1909), Randi et al. (2002), Wilhelmi et al. (2004)." +03822308B740FFF1FF66F6E0FAD9F454,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,114,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B740FFF1FF66F6E0FAD9F454.xml,Sylvilagus bachmani,Sylvilagus,bachmani,,,Lapin de Bachman @fr | Strauchkaninchen @de | Conejo de matorral @es | Riparian Brush Rabbit @en,"Lepus bachmani Waterhouse, 1839, “between Monterey and Santa Barbara.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “San Luis Obispo,” California, USA.Previously, S. bachmaniand Brachylagus idahoensiswere in the genus Microlagus. Insular S. mansuetusoccurring only on San Jose Island (Baja California) derived from S. bachmani. Sylvilagus bachmaniand S. mansuetusare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Firstly, the original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. Secondly, the extent of variation has not been studied yet. Thus, researchers cannot understand if this exact feature is some important diagostic mark or just an individual or age-specific variation. Moreover, it has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.","S.b.bachmaniWaterhouse,1839—SpartofcoastalCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.cerrosensisJ.A.Allen,1898—CedrosI,BajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.cinerascensJ.A.Allen,1890—SWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.exiguusNelson,1907—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheN(NWMexico).S.b.howelliHuey,1927—NEBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.macrorhinusOrr,1935—NpartofCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.mariposaeGrinnell&Storer,1916—EpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.peninsularisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.b.ripariusOrr,1935—WpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.rosaphagusHuey,1940—NWBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.tehamaeOrr,1935—SWOregon,andNCCalifornia(WUSA).S.b.ubericolorMiller,1899—WOregon(SoftheColumbiaRiver)andNWCalifornia(WUSA).S. b. virgulti Dice, 1926— S part of inland CW California.","Head-body 300-370 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 71-86 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Brush Rabbitis one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is dark brown to gray-brown; ventral fur is whitish. Hindlegs are short, and hindfeet are slender. Ears are small, slightly pointed, and sparsely haired inside. Tail is small, dark above, and white below. Sexual dimorphism exists with females being 1-2-1% larger than males. Fetal sex ratio is essentially 1:1, but adult sex ratios are 80-8-128 males:100 females.","Dense brushy cover from sea level to elevations of at least 2070 m. The Brush Rabbit is confined to brushy habitat, as its common name implies.","Brush Rabbits feed mainly on grasses, and diets vary according to season and region. In September, they feed on spike rush (Eleocharis palustris, Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) such as creeping eragrostis (Eragrostishypnoides), foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum), soft chess grass (Bromushordeaceus), and oats (Avenafatua). Summer diets include wild roses (Rosacalifornica, Rosaceae), Mexican tea (Chenopodiumambrosioides, Amaranthaceae), and several plants in the daisy family such as sow thistle (Sonchusasper), bull thistle (Cirsiumlanceolatum), and Baccharisdouglasii; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); and berries (Rubus sp., Rosaceae). In autumn, roots of poison hemlock (Coniummaculatum), stems and leaves of blackberry (R. vitifolia), and berries (Rubus sp.) also are eaten. In winter, green clover (Trifoliuminvolucratum, Fabaceae) is most preferred, along with new available green grass. Brush Rabbits rarely feed in the open on the mainland, but they prefer to feed in the open and rarely underbrush on Ano Nuevo Island. Before venturing into the open to feed, individuals remain for a while just inside dense brushy cover. After entering an open area next to brushy cover, individuals remain motionless for some time, apparently watching for signs of danger. Several individuals might simultaneously feed in the same area. They rise up on their hindfeet to feed on newly grown tips of plants.","Breeding season of the Brush Rabbit varies from north to south. In California, it lasts from December to May or possibly June, but in Oregon, it lasts from February to August. Gestation lasts 24-30 days, averaging 27 days. Young are born with fine thin hair, do not open their eyes for c.10 days, and suffer postpartum weight loss. Females give birth in nests with cavities of 7.5-15 cm. Nests are lined mainly with hairs from mothers and small amounts of dried grass; nests are closed with plugs constructed of grasses. Young are nursed at night, grow rapidly, and stay in their nests for c.2 weeks. The Brush Rabbit is believed to breed shortly after giving birth, and different females in a population might breed at the same time. Brush Rabbits might have three litters per year in California, but four litters might be possible. Litter size also varies among regions; mean litter size is three in Oregon, 3-5 in northern and central California, and four in west-central California. Juveniles reach maturity at 4-5 monthsold, but it is thought that they reproduce for the first time in reproductive seasons following their births. In Oregon, a female Brush Rabbit produces an average of 15 young/ year in 5-3 litters. Brush Rabbits may not be as fecund as other species of Sylvilagus.","Brush Rabbits are basically crepuscular, being most active between sunset and 02:00 h and again from ¢.06:00 h to 10:30 h. Some reports suggest that most activity occurs in the morning. Individuals are least active between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. They spend considerable time sunning, usually in the mornings or afternoons. After feeding, Brush Rabbits return to a form forgrooming and basking in the sun. They might climb trees for resting.","The Brush Rabbit occasionally uses burrows but does not dig its own. Holes and forms in brush also are used. Forms are cleared places, and a maze of extensively used runways connects forms. Runways of voles (Microtus) and harvest mice (Reithrodontomys) were used in June/July in California, and “huts” of Wood Rats (Neotomafuscipes macrotis) also were used. In Oregon, Brush Rabbits live in disjunct patches of brambles, and sizes and shapes of home ranges conform to sizes and shapes of bramble patches. Brush Rabbits did not permanently occupy patches smaller than 460 m?. Home ranges were less than 2000 m? and depended on uniformity of habitat. Males had larger home ranges than females, and juvenile males had larger home ranges than adult males. Home range sizes of reintroduced individuals were similar among males and females and were larger in the breeding season than during nonbreeding. Thumping the ground with hindfeet often occurs just after individuals are frightened; some thumpfor several minutes before stopping. Brush Rabbits emit squeals and cries as vocalization. Young have been reported to squeal. Minimum distance that individuals can approach one another without resulting in a chase is 0-3-7-5 m—lower distances reported forjuveniles. Nose sniffing and touching often precede a chase.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Brush Rabbit is abundant throughout most ofits distribution, and most populations do not appear to be experiencing significant declines. It is a game species in Oregon and California but is hunted little. The subspecies riparius living in the San Joaquin Valley, California, has been listed as endangered by the State of California and the US Fish and Wildlife Service due to decline caused by habitat degradation, wildfires, and flooding. Major threats to the Brush Rabbit are hunting for food and expansion of human settlements, but extent and severity of these threats have not been quantified.","AMCELA, Romero, Rangel & Williams (2008) | Angermann (2016) | Cervantes, Vazquez & Colmenares (2005) | Chapman (1971a, 1971b, 1974) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Harman (1972) | Connell (1954) | Davis (1936) | Dice (1926) | Gander (1929) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kelt et al. (2014) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mossman (1955) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940, 1942) | Pearson (1959a) | Shields (1960) | Verts (1967)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625565/files/figure.png,"11.Brush RabbitSylvilagus bachmaniFrench:Lapin de Bachman/ German:Strauchkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de matorralOther common names:Riparian Brush RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus bachmani Waterhouse, 1839, “between Monterey and Santa Barbara.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “San Luis Obispo,” California, USA.Previously, S. bachmaniand Brachylagus idahoensiswere in the genus Microlagus. Insular S. mansuetusoccurring only on San Jose Island (Baja California) derived from S. bachmani. Sylvilagus bachmaniand S. mansuetusare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Firstly, the original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. Secondly, the extent of variation has not been studied yet. Thus, researchers cannot understand if this exact feature is some important diagostic mark or just an individual or age-specific variation. Moreover, it has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.bachmaniWaterhouse,1839—SpartofcoastalCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.cerrosensisJ.A.Allen,1898—CedrosI,BajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.cinerascensJ.A.Allen,1890—SWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.exiguusNelson,1907—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheN(NWMexico).S.b.howelliHuey,1927—NEBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.macrorhinusOrr,1935—NpartofCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.mariposaeGrinnell&Storer,1916—EpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.peninsularisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.b.ripariusOrr,1935—WpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.rosaphagusHuey,1940—NWBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.tehamaeOrr,1935—SWOregon,andNCCalifornia(WUSA).S.b.ubericolorMiller,1899—WOregon(SoftheColumbiaRiver)andNWCalifornia(WUSA).S. b. virgulti Dice, 1926— S part of inland CW California.Descriptive notes.Head-body 300-370 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 71-86 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Brush Rabbitis one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is dark brown to gray-brown; ventral fur is whitish. Hindlegs are short, and hindfeet are slender. Ears are small, slightly pointed, and sparsely haired inside. Tail is small, dark above, and white below. Sexual dimorphism exists with females being 1-2-1% larger than males. Fetal sex ratio is essentially 1:1, but adult sex ratios are 80-8-128 males:100 females.Habitat.Dense brushy cover from sea level to elevations of at least 2070 m. The Brush Rabbit is confined to brushy habitat, as its common name implies.Food and Feeding.Brush Rabbits feed mainly on grasses, and diets vary according to season and region. In September, they feed on spike rush (Eleocharis palustris, Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) such as creeping eragrostis (Eragrostishypnoides), foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum), soft chess grass (Bromushordeaceus), and oats (Avenafatua). Summer diets include wild roses (Rosacalifornica, Rosaceae), Mexican tea (Chenopodiumambrosioides, Amaranthaceae), and several plants in the daisy family such as sow thistle (Sonchusasper), bull thistle (Cirsiumlanceolatum), and Baccharisdouglasii; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); and berries (Rubus sp., Rosaceae). In autumn, roots of poison hemlock (Coniummaculatum), stems and leaves of blackberry (R. vitifolia), and berries (Rubus sp.) also are eaten. In winter, green clover (Trifoliuminvolucratum, Fabaceae) is most preferred, along with new available green grass. Brush Rabbits rarely feed in the open on the mainland, but they prefer to feed in the open and rarely underbrush on Ano Nuevo Island. Before venturing into the open to feed, individuals remain for a while just inside dense brushy cover. After entering an open area next to brushy cover, individuals remain motionless for some time, apparently watching for signs of danger. Several individuals might simultaneously feed in the same area. They rise up on their hindfeet to feed on newly grown tips of plants.Breeding.Breeding season of the Brush Rabbit varies from north to south. In California, it lasts from December to May or possibly June, but in Oregon, it lasts from February to August. Gestation lasts 24-30 days, averaging 27 days. Young are born with fine thin hair, do not open their eyes for c.10 days, and suffer postpartum weight loss. Females give birth in nests with cavities of 7.5-15 cm. Nests are lined mainly with hairs from mothers and small amounts of dried grass; nests are closed with plugs constructed of grasses. Young are nursed at night, grow rapidly, and stay in their nests for c.2 weeks. The Brush Rabbit is believed to breed shortly after giving birth, and different females in a population might breed at the same time. Brush Rabbits might have three litters per year in California, but four litters might be possible. Litter size also varies among regions; mean litter size is three in Oregon, 3-5 in northern and central California, and four in west-central California. Juveniles reach maturity at 4-5 monthsold, but it is thought that they reproduce for the first time in reproductive seasons following their births. In Oregon, a female Brush Rabbit produces an average of 15 young/ year in 5-3 litters. Brush Rabbits may not be as fecund as other species of Sylvilagus.Activity patterns.Brush Rabbits are basically crepuscular, being most active between sunset and 02:00 h and again from ¢.06:00 h to 10:30 h. Some reports suggest that most activity occurs in the morning. Individuals are least active between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. They spend considerable time sunning, usually in the mornings or afternoons. After feeding, Brush Rabbits return to a form forgrooming and basking in the sun. They might climb trees for resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Brush Rabbit occasionally uses burrows but does not dig its own. Holes and forms in brush also are used. Forms are cleared places, and a maze of extensively used runways connects forms. Runways of voles (Microtus) and harvest mice (Reithrodontomys) were used in June/July in California, and “huts” of Wood Rats (Neotomafuscipes macrotis) also were used. In Oregon, Brush Rabbits live in disjunct patches of brambles, and sizes and shapes of home ranges conform to sizes and shapes of bramble patches. Brush Rabbits did not permanently occupy patches smaller than 460 m?. Home ranges were less than 2000 m? and depended on uniformity of habitat. Males had larger home ranges than females, and juvenile males had larger home ranges than adult males. Home range sizes of reintroduced individuals were similar among males and females and were larger in the breeding season than during nonbreeding. Thumping the ground with hindfeet often occurs just after individuals are frightened; some thumpfor several minutes before stopping. Brush Rabbits emit squeals and cries as vocalization. Young have been reported to squeal. Minimum distance that individuals can approach one another without resulting in a chase is 0-3-7-5 m—lower distances reported forjuveniles. Nose sniffing and touching often precede a chase.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Brush Rabbit is abundant throughout most ofits distribution, and most populations do not appear to be experiencing significant declines. It is a game species in Oregon and California but is hunted little. The subspecies riparius living in the San Joaquin Valley, California, has been listed as endangered by the State of California and the US Fish and Wildlife Service due to decline caused by habitat degradation, wildfires, and flooding. Major threats to the Brush Rabbit are hunting for food and expansion of human settlements, but extent and severity of these threats have not been quantified.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero, Rangel & Williams (2008), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Vazquez & Colmenares (2005), Chapman (1971a, 1971b, 1974), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Harman (1972), Connell (1954), Davis (1936), Dice (1926), Gander (1929), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kelt et al. (2014), Lissovsky (2016), Mossman (1955), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940, 1942), Pearson (1959a), Shields (1960), Verts (1967)." 03822308B741FFFEFACAF494FD43FE12,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,113,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B741FFFEFACAF494FD43FE12.xml,Nesolagus timminsi,Nesolagus,timminsi,"Averianov, Abramov & Tikhonov",2000,Lapin d Annam @fr | Annam-Streifenkaninchen @de | Conejo rayado de Annamita @es,"Nesolagus timminsi Averianov, Abramov & Tikhonov, 2000, “Vietnam, Ha Tinh Province, Huong Son District, Son Kim Community, about 10 km south from village Nuoc Sot, 18°22’N, 105°13’E, altitude 200 m.”Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. timminsiand N. netscher: are morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. Genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is a considerable genetic distance between the two species comparable with the distance among leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. timminsiand N. netscherihave been isolated for ¢.8 million years. At that time, sea level was ¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagusmight have been distributed overthis region. Nesolagus timminsiapparently lives sympatrically with Lepus peguensis. Monotypic.",N & C Annamite Mts (Laos and Vietnam); it may occur in S Annamite Mts.,"There are no specific measurements available. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has black or dark brown dorsalstripes, a ferruginous rump, and short tail and ears. Externally,it closely resembles the Sumatran Striped Rabbit (N. netscheri).","Wet evergreen forests that experience little or no dry season. Annamite Striped Rabbits generally occur on seaward facing slopes of the Annamite Mountains. Elevational range is unknown, but they were first collected at elevations of ¢.200 m. Hunters say that Annamite Striped Rabbits are relatively common at higher elevations in the mountains. A number of records come from heavily logged but not completely logged areas. A recent survey using camera traps recorded most Annamite Striped Rabbits in secondary forest. They tended to occur in areas with tall thin trees and a wide variety of plant species in the ground cover.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has a decreasing population trend. It has only recently been discovered. The first evidence of the Annamite Striped Rabbit came from captured individuals offered for sale in a food market in the rural town of Ban Lak, Laos, between December 1995 and February 1996. Annamite Striped Rabbits occur at low densities, in distinct populations, and in a restricted area. Known distribution is based on only c.10 localities. Nothing is known about biology and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit. Threats include habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation from logging, agriculture, and mining and intensive hunting. Although almost all mammals hunted in this region of Laos seem to have some medicinal use, there is no evidence that any medicinal trade demand exists for Annamite Striped Rabbits. They are apparently harvested to feed hunters while in the forests. Heavy hunting pressure might have deleterious effects on extant populations. One problem for the conservation of the Annamite Striped Rabbit might be that most strategies focus on remote high elevational areas, and lowlands are generally degraded by humans and lost to possible management. The Annamite Striped Rabbit inhabits border areas between Laos and Vietnam, and both governments do not actively support any conservation activities for it. Development of management plans and legislation to protect the Annamite Striped Rabbit are recommended. Research on distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit are needed to effectively protect it. Such research could change the conservation status of the Annamite Striped Rabbit from Data Deficient to Near Threatened or even Endangered on The IUCN Red List.",Abramov et al. (2008) | Averianov et al. (2000) | Can et al. (2001) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Sur ridge et al. (1999) | Woodfin & Bell (2015),https://zenodo.org/record/6625563/files/figure.png,"10.Annamite Striped RabbitNesolagus timminsiFrench:Lapin dAnnam/ German:Annam-Streifenkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo rayado de AnnamitaTaxonomy.Nesolagus timminsi Averianov, Abramov & Tikhonov, 2000, “Vietnam, Ha Tinh Province, Huong Son District, Son Kim Community, about 10 km south from village Nuoc Sot, 18°22’N, 105°13’E, altitude 200 m.”Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. timminsiand N. netscher: are morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. Genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is a considerable genetic distance between the two species comparable with the distance among leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. timminsiand N. netscherihave been isolated for ¢.8 million years. At that time, sea level was ¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagusmight have been distributed overthis region. Nesolagus timminsiapparently lives sympatrically with Lepus peguensis. Monotypic.Distribution.N & C Annamite Mts (Laos and Vietnam); it may occur in S Annamite Mts.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has black or dark brown dorsalstripes, a ferruginous rump, and short tail and ears. Externally,it closely resembles the Sumatran Striped Rabbit (N. netscheri).Habitat.Wet evergreen forests that experience little or no dry season. Annamite Striped Rabbits generally occur on seaward facing slopes of the Annamite Mountains. Elevational range is unknown, but they were first collected at elevations of ¢.200 m. Hunters say that Annamite Striped Rabbits are relatively common at higher elevations in the mountains. A number of records come from heavily logged but not completely logged areas. A recent survey using camera traps recorded most Annamite Striped Rabbits in secondary forest. They tended to occur in areas with tall thin trees and a wide variety of plant species in the ground cover.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has a decreasing population trend. It has only recently been discovered. The first evidence of the Annamite Striped Rabbit came from captured individuals offered for sale in a food market in the rural town of Ban Lak, Laos, between December 1995 and February 1996. Annamite Striped Rabbits occur at low densities, in distinct populations, and in a restricted area. Known distribution is based on only c.10 localities. Nothing is known about biology and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit. Threats include habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation from logging, agriculture, and mining and intensive hunting. Although almost all mammals hunted in this region of Laos seem to have some medicinal use, there is no evidence that any medicinal trade demand exists for Annamite Striped Rabbits. They are apparently harvested to feed hunters while in the forests. Heavy hunting pressure might have deleterious effects on extant populations. One problem for the conservation of the Annamite Striped Rabbit might be that most strategies focus on remote high elevational areas, and lowlands are generally degraded by humans and lost to possible management. The Annamite Striped Rabbit inhabits border areas between Laos and Vietnam, and both governments do not actively support any conservation activities for it. Development of management plans and legislation to protect the Annamite Striped Rabbit are recommended. Research on distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit are needed to effectively protect it. Such research could change the conservation status of the Annamite Striped Rabbit from Data Deficient to Near Threatened or even Endangered on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Abramov et al. (2008), Averianov et al. (2000), Can et al. (2001), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Sur ridge et al. (1999), Woodfin & Bell (2015)." 03822308B741FFFFFFCFF3F0F952FCB2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,113,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B741FFFFFFCFF3F0F952FCB2.xml,Nesolagus netscheri,Nesolagus,netscheri,,,Lapin de Sumatra @fr | Sumatra-Streifenkaninchen @de | Conejo rayado de Sumatra @es | Sumatran Rabbit @en | Sumatran Short-eared Rabbit @en,"Lepus netscheri Schlegel, 1880, “Sumatra: Padang-Padjang...about 2000 feet [= Padangpanjang, Sumatera Barat, Indonesia; ca. 610 m].”This species was first described as a species of Lepus but was soon given a separate genus. Its relationship with other leporidsis distinct, and the genus is regarded as being a primitive form. Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. netscher: and N. timminsiare morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. A genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is considerable genetic distance between the two species, compatible with the distance between leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. netscheriand N. timminsihave been isolated for c.8 million years in the Pliocene. At that time, sea level was c¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagusmight have been distributed over this region. Monotypic.",W Sumatra (Barisan Mts).,"Head-body 370-420 mm, tail 17 mm, ear 30-50 mm, hindfoot 67-87 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably c.1-5 kg. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has very short ears. Fur has conspicuous wide black or dark brown stripes on a yellowish gray background that becomes rusty brown toward the rear. Ventral fur, chin, and insides of legs are whitish. Ears are black, and when folded forward, they only reach the eyes. Head is broad, muzzle short, and legs are short. Tail is extremely short, contains only twelve bones compared to 19-24 in other leporids, and is normally notvisible. Furis soft and short. Color is apparently variable among individuals, and stripes might be absent in front or much reduced.","Montane forests at elevations of 600-1900 m on rich volcanic soil, and occasionally also primary/selectively logged lowland forest. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has only been recorded twice in lowland forests below 600 m.",Diet of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit includes plants from the forest understory such as Cyrtandra(Gesneriaceae). Captive individuals fed only at night.,There is no information available for this species.,"The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is completely nocturnal and hides in dark places at bases oftrees, in burrows, or in holes in the ground during the daytime. [t probably uses burrows made by other animals because captive individuals do not dig.",Captive Sumatran Striped Rabbits were slow moving and spent the day nearly motionless.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is endemic to Indonesia and apparently the rarest lagomorph. Historically,its distribution has been described as extending from southern Sumatra to Aceh along the Barisan Mountains, but no recent records have been made outside western Sumatra even though a numberof surveys and camera trappings have been conducted across the island. Recent sightings and photographs taken in the Bukit Barisan Selatan and Kerinci-Seblat national parks suggest that the two parks serve as current refugia for the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Considering that it is only active at night and lives in remote inaccessible habitat, it might not be surprising that local people had no name for it when it was discovered. Detailed surveys for other rare species on the island such as the Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) or the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) have rarely encountered Sumatran Striped Rabbits, so they seem to be remarkably rare. Little is known about the biology, ecology, status, or distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Only a dozen museum specimens collected between 1880 and 1916 exist. Since these collections were made, there has been only one confirmed sighting in 1972 and two photographic records of two different individuals taken by automatic camera traps in 1998. A few additional sightings and photographs from camera traps have been reported since 1998. Major threats to the Sumatran Striped Rabbit are deforestation, human encroachment, and poaching in many of Sumatra’s protected areas. Survival of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit depends on continued existence of their mountain forest habitat. Twenty-five years ago, recommendations highlighted urgent need for widespread studies of biology, ecology, status, and distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit, but no funds have been provided to start these studies. Spotlighting along montane forest roads and camera trapping might be appropriate techniques for targeted ecological research on the Sumatran Striped Rabbit.","Averianov et al. (2000) | Dinets (2010) | Flux (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jacobson (1921) | McCarthy, Fuller et al. (2012) | McCarthy, Holden & Martyr (2015) | McNeely (1981) | Meijaard & Sugardijito (2008) | Surridge et al. (1999)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625561/files/figure.png,"9.Sumatran Striped RabbitNesolagus netscheriFrench:Lapin de Sumatra/ German:Sumatra-Streifenkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo rayado de SumatraOther common names:Sumatran Rabbit, Sumatran Short-eared RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus netscheri Schlegel, 1880, “Sumatra: Padang-Padjang...about 2000 feet [= Padangpanjang, Sumatera Barat, Indonesia; ca. 610 m].”This species was first described as a species of Lepus but was soon given a separate genus. Its relationship with other leporidsis distinct, and the genus is regarded as being a primitive form. Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. netscher: and N. timminsiare morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. A genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is considerable genetic distance between the two species, compatible with the distance between leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. netscheriand N. timminsihave been isolated for c.8 million years in the Pliocene. At that time, sea level was c¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagusmight have been distributed over this region. Monotypic.Distribution.W Sumatra (Barisan Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 370-420 mm, tail 17 mm, ear 30-50 mm, hindfoot 67-87 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably c.1-5 kg. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has very short ears. Fur has conspicuous wide black or dark brown stripes on a yellowish gray background that becomes rusty brown toward the rear. Ventral fur, chin, and insides of legs are whitish. Ears are black, and when folded forward, they only reach the eyes. Head is broad, muzzle short, and legs are short. Tail is extremely short, contains only twelve bones compared to 19-24 in other leporids, and is normally notvisible. Furis soft and short. Color is apparently variable among individuals, and stripes might be absent in front or much reduced.Habitat.Montane forests at elevations of 600-1900 m on rich volcanic soil, and occasionally also primary/selectively logged lowland forest. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has only been recorded twice in lowland forests below 600 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit includes plants from the forest understory such as Cyrtandra(Gesneriaceae). Captive individuals fed only at night.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is completely nocturnal and hides in dark places at bases oftrees, in burrows, or in holes in the ground during the daytime. [t probably uses burrows made by other animals because captive individuals do not dig.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Captive Sumatran Striped Rabbits were slow moving and spent the day nearly motionless.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is endemic to Indonesia and apparently the rarest lagomorph. Historically,its distribution has been described as extending from southern Sumatra to Aceh along the Barisan Mountains, but no recent records have been made outside western Sumatra even though a numberof surveys and camera trappings have been conducted across the island. Recent sightings and photographs taken in the Bukit Barisan Selatan and Kerinci-Seblat national parks suggest that the two parks serve as current refugia for the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Considering that it is only active at night and lives in remote inaccessible habitat, it might not be surprising that local people had no name for it when it was discovered. Detailed surveys for other rare species on the island such as the Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) or the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) have rarely encountered Sumatran Striped Rabbits, so they seem to be remarkably rare. Little is known about the biology, ecology, status, or distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Only a dozen museum specimens collected between 1880 and 1916 exist. Since these collections were made, there has been only one confirmed sighting in 1972 and two photographic records of two different individuals taken by automatic camera traps in 1998. A few additional sightings and photographs from camera traps have been reported since 1998. Major threats to the Sumatran Striped Rabbit are deforestation, human encroachment, and poaching in many of Sumatra’s protected areas. Survival of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit depends on continued existence of their mountain forest habitat. Twenty-five years ago, recommendations highlighted urgent need for widespread studies of biology, ecology, status, and distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit, but no funds have been provided to start these studies. Spotlighting along montane forest roads and camera trapping might be appropriate techniques for targeted ecological research on the Sumatran Striped Rabbit.Bibliography.Averianov et al. (2000), Dinets (2010), Flux (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jacobson (1921), McCarthy, Fuller et al. (2012), McCarthy, Holden & Martyr (2015), McNeely (1981), Meijaard & Sugardijito (2008), Surridge et al. (1999)." 03822308B742FFFCFF6AF956F801F2F9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,112,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B742FFFCFF6AF956F801F2F9.xml,Bunolagus monticularis,Bunolagus,monticularis,,,Lapin des Bochimans @fr | Buschmannhase @de | Conejo de ribera @es | Bushman Hare @en,"Lepus monticularis Thomas, 1903, “Deelfontain, Cape Colony,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.","C Karoo region in South Africa (around Victoria West, Beaufort West, and Fraserburg, in Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces).","Head-body 340-470 mm, tail 70-108 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 90-120 mm; weight 1.1-5 kg. The Riverine Rabbit is small and dark, with relatively long broad ears. Ear tips are rounded and bordered by short black hairs on outer surfaces. Pelage is soft and fluffy. Dorsal fur is grizzled blackish brown, and ventral pelage is white. Characteristic eye rings are pale, and thin dark stripes run along lowerjaws from near the mouth to bases of ears. Lower flanks, limbs, and nuchal patch are rufous. Soles of feet are covered with thick dense hairs. Tail is medium-sized, dark brown with long fluffy hairs.Habitat.Thick riverine vegetation along seasonalrivers, dominated by Salsolaglabrescens, Amaranthaceae(34-8%) and Lycium spp., Solanaceae(112%). Other important species in the habitat of the Riverine Rabbit include Pteroniaeythrochaeta, Asteraceae(7:9%); Osteospermumspinescens, Asteraceae(5-3%); Kochia pubescens, Amaranthaceae(6:5%); and Galenia procumbens, Aizoacae (4%). Only a small part of riparian vegetation consists of grasses, and most plants are dicotyledons.Food and Feeding.The Riverine Rabbit browses on flowers and leaves of dicotyledons, such as P. erythrochaeta, K. pubescens, S. glabrescens, Rosenia humilis, and species of Mesembryanthemaceae. Grasses are included in the diet when available during the wet season.Breeding.Reproduction of the Riverine Rabbit takes place in August-May during the warm season. It has one litter per year, and litter size usually is one and sometimes two young. Females might have a postpartum estrus. Gestation lasts 35-36 days. Young are born in a nest made of maternal fur and grass in a burrow. Lengths of burrow are 20-30 cm, with a nest chamber (12-17 cm wide) at the end. Young weight c.40 g at birth, are blind, and lack fur. Riverine Rabbits close their burrow entrances with soil and twigs when not in use.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Riverine Rabbit is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Riverine Rabbit lives alone and has a polygamous mating system. Average home range is 20-9 ha for males and 12-9 ha for females. There is a low degree of intrasexual home range overlap.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Riverine Rabbit waslisted as endangered in the 1986 South African National Red Data Book. It occurs only in a small area of ¢.86 km? In historic times,its distribution included riverine vegetation in districts of Sutherland and Calvinia (c.136 km?), but extensive surveys suggest that it has disappeared from these areas. Current population is fragmented and declining and estimated at less than 250 breeding pairs. None of the ten subpopulations is estimated at more than 50 individuals. Moreover, these subpopulations seem to be isolated from each other by anthropogenic barriers, and dispersal of individuals among them is impossible. In the past 70 years, there has been a rapid decline of the population by more than 60% due to a loss of 50-60% of suitable habitat.","Thick riverine vegetation along seasonalrivers, dominated by Salsolaglabrescens, Amaranthaceae(34-8%) and Lycium spp., Solanaceae(112%). Other important species in the habitat of the Riverine Rabbit include Pteroniaeythrochaeta, Asteraceae(7:9%); Osteospermumspinescens, Asteraceae(5-3%); Kochia pubescens, Amaranthaceae(6:5%); and Galenia procumbens, Aizoacae (4%). Only a small part of riparian vegetation consists of grasses, and most plants are dicotyledons.","The Riverine Rabbit browses on flowers and leaves of dicotyledons, such as P. erythrochaeta, K. pubescens, S. glabrescens, Rosenia humilis, and species of Mesembryanthemaceae. Grasses are included in the diet when available during the wet season.","Reproduction of the Riverine Rabbit takes place in August-May during the warm season. It has one litter per year, and litter size usually is one and sometimes two young. Females might have a postpartum estrus. Gestation lasts 35-36 days. Young are born in a nest made of maternal fur and grass in a burrow. Lengths of burrow are 20-30 cm, with a nest chamber (12-17 cm wide) at the end. Young weight c.40 g at birth, are blind, and lack fur. Riverine Rabbits close their burrow entrances with soil and twigs when not in use.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Riverine Rabbit is no doubt nocturnal.",The Riverine Rabbit lives alone and has a polygamous mating system. Average home range is 20-9 ha for males and 12-9 ha for females. There is a low degree of intrasexual home range overlap.,"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Riverine Rabbit waslisted as endangered in the 1986 South African National Red Data Book. It occurs only in a small area of ¢.86 km? In historic times,its distribution included riverine vegetation in districts of Sutherland and Calvinia (c.136 km?), but extensive surveys suggest that it has disappeared from these areas. Current population is fragmented and declining and estimated at less than 250 breeding pairs. None of the ten subpopulations is estimated at more than 50 individuals. Moreover, these subpopulations seem to be isolated from each other by anthropogenic barriers, and dispersal of individuals among them is impossible. In the past 70 years, there has been a rapid decline of the population by more than 60% due to a loss of 50-60% of suitable habitat. Habitat has been lost as a result of cultivation (past) and livestock farming (ongoing). Other threats to the Riverine Rabbit include hunting for sport and by farm workers and accidental mortality in traps set for pests on farmlands. Moreover, reduction of Black-backed Jackals (Canis mesomelas) has resulted in an increase of Wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) and Caracals (Caracal caracal)—main predators of the Riverine Rabbit. Population decline has been arrested due to a decrease in cultivation and public awareness and establishment of conservation areas. An overall population decline of 10% or more is predicted to continue through 2022. Recommendations are to conduct further research on biology and ecology of the Volcano Rabbit, establish management plans for wild populations and their habitats, study limiting factors, increase public awareness, and start a captive breeding program.",Duthie (1989) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Duthie et al. (1989) | Happold (2013c) | Robinson (1981) | South African Mammal CAMP Workshop (2013),https://zenodo.org/record/6625557/files/figure.png,"7.Riverine RabbitBunolagus monticularisFrench:Lapin des Bochimans/ German:Buschmannhase/ Spanish:Conejo de riberaOther common names:Bushman HareTaxonomy.Lepus monticularis Thomas, 1903, “Deelfontain, Cape Colony,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.C Karoo region in South Africa (around Victoria West, Beaufort West, and Fraserburg, in Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces).Descriptive notes.Head-body 340-470 mm, tail 70-108 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 90-120 mm; weight 1.1-5 kg. The Riverine Rabbit is small and dark, with relatively long broad ears. Ear tips are rounded and bordered by short black hairs on outer surfaces. Pelage is soft and fluffy. Dorsal fur is grizzled blackish brown, and ventral pelage is white. Characteristic eye rings are pale, and thin dark stripes run along lowerjaws from near the mouth to bases of ears. Lower flanks, limbs, and nuchal patch are rufous. Soles of feet are covered with thick dense hairs. Tail is medium-sized, dark brown with long fluffy hairs.Habitat.Thick riverine vegetation along seasonalrivers, dominated by Salsolaglabrescens, Amaranthaceae(34-8%) and Lycium spp., Solanaceae(112%). Other important species in the habitat of the Riverine Rabbit include Pteroniaeythrochaeta, Asteraceae(7:9%); Osteospermumspinescens, Asteraceae(5-3%); Kochia pubescens, Amaranthaceae(6:5%); and Galenia procumbens, Aizoacae (4%). Only a small part of riparian vegetation consists of grasses, and most plants are dicotyledons.Food and Feeding.The Riverine Rabbit browses on flowers and leaves of dicotyledons, such as P. erythrochaeta, K. pubescens, S. glabrescens, Rosenia humilis, and species of Mesembryanthemaceae. Grasses are included in the diet when available during the wet season.Breeding.Reproduction of the Riverine Rabbit takes place in August-May during the warm season. It has one litter per year, and litter size usually is one and sometimes two young. Females might have a postpartum estrus. Gestation lasts 35-36 days. Young are born in a nest made of maternal fur and grass in a burrow. Lengths of burrow are 20-30 cm, with a nest chamber (12-17 cm wide) at the end. Young weight c.40 g at birth, are blind, and lack fur. Riverine Rabbits close their burrow entrances with soil and twigs when not in use.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Riverine Rabbit is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Riverine Rabbit lives alone and has a polygamous mating system. Average home range is 20-9 ha for males and 12-9 ha for females. There is a low degree of intrasexual home range overlap.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Riverine Rabbit waslisted as endangered in the 1986 South African National Red Data Book. It occurs only in a small area of ¢.86 km? In historic times,its distribution included riverine vegetation in districts of Sutherland and Calvinia (c.136 km?), but extensive surveys suggest that it has disappeared from these areas. Current population is fragmented and declining and estimated at less than 250 breeding pairs. None of the ten subpopulations is estimated at more than 50 individuals. Moreover, these subpopulations seem to be isolated from each other by anthropogenic barriers, and dispersal of individuals among them is impossible. In the past 70 years, there has been a rapid decline of the population by more than 60% due to a loss of 50-60% of suitable habitat. Habitat has been lost as a result of cultivation (past) and livestock farming (ongoing). Other threats to the Riverine Rabbit include hunting for sport and by farm workers and accidental mortality in traps set for pests on farmlands. Moreover, reduction of Black-backed Jackals (Canis mesomelas) has resulted in an increase of Wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) and Caracals (Caracal caracal)—main predators of the Riverine Rabbit. Population decline has been arrested due to a decrease in cultivation and public awareness and establishment of conservation areas. An overall population decline of 10% or more is predicted to continue through 2022. Recommendations are to conduct further research on biology and ecology of the Volcano Rabbit, establish management plans for wild populations and their habitats, study limiting factors, increase public awareness, and start a captive breeding program.Bibliography.Duthie (1989), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Duthie et al. (1989), Happold (2013c), Robinson (1981), South African Mammal CAMP Workshop (2013)." 03822308B742FFFFFA17FA0FFE4AFD60,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,112,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B742FFFFFA17FA0FFE4AFD60.xml,Brachylagus idahoensis,Brachylagus,idahoensis,,,Lapin pygmée @fr | Zwergkaninchen @de | Conejo pigmeo @es,"Lepus idahoensis Merriam, 1891, “Pahsimeroi Valley [near Goldburg, Custer County], Idaho,” USA.This species was formerly included in Lepusand Sylvilagus. At one time, B. idahoensiswas placed with S. bachmaniin Microlagus. Analysis of dental patterns showed a close relationship to Nesolagus. It has been interpreted as being either a primitive lagomorph or as derived from Sylvilagus. It is widely sympatric with Sylvilagus nuttalliand perhaps overlaps narrowly with S. audubonii. Monotypic.","Most of the Great Basin and some of the adjacent intermountain areas of W USA,from SE Oregon and NE California through most of C & N Nevada to S Idaho, extreme SW Montana, extreme W Wyoming, and W Utah. An isolated reintroduced population exists in WC Washington.","Head-body 230-310 mm, tail 15-24 mm, ear 56-64 mm, hindfoot 67-76 mm; weight 246-458 g. The Pygmy Rabbit is small, with short and rounded ears. Dorsalfur is buffy gray, and nape, chest, and legs are cinnamon buff. Hindlegs are relatively short, and hindfeet are broad and heavily haired. Ears are densely haired inside and outside, and their edges are buff. Tail is inconspicuous with a buff underside. The Pygmy Rabbit has one molt per year in midto late summer. New pelageis long, almost silky, and gray above, with abdomen being white. Fur changes in autumn and winter are due to wear and abrasion, and pelage appearssilver gray.Habitat.Primarily plains and alluvial fans dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisiatridentate, Asteraceae) growing in tall dense stands at elevations of ¢.1370-2135 m in Nevada and ¢.1520-1615 m in California. The Pygmy Rabbit often occurs in the same habitat as the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendir). A high degree of vegetation cover appears to be a major habitat feature selected by the Pygmy Rabbit. Densities of big sagebrush in areas used by the Pygmy Rabbit exceed those found throughout most of the plant’s distribution. Usually, heavy grazing increases density of big sagebrush. After grazing ceases and grass cover has recovered, habitat becomes optimal for Pygmy Rabbits. This suggests that they are opportunistic, inhabiting disturbed sites in the sagebrush landscape that have an increased density of sagebrush. Intense feeding activity by Pygmy Rabbits near their burrows might sustain or even increase density of sagebrush. Pygmy Rabbits extensively use burrows that they mainly construct by themselves, so soil structure is thought to be another key habitat feature. Soft deep soils are required for burrowing. Burrows typically have 4-5 entrances but up to ten or only two have been recorded. Entrances are located at bases of sagebrush. Burrows are usually found on slopes and are oriented in a north-to-east direction. Entrance diameters are 10-12 cm. Tunnels widen below the surface, form chambers, and extend to a maximum depth of c.1 m. Pygmy Rabbits also use holes among volcanic rocks, in stone walls, around abandoned buildings, and those made by American Badgers (7axidea taxus) and Yellow-bellied Marmots (Marmola flaviventris). Dense stands of big sagebrush growing adjacent to streams, along fences, and in borrow ditches along roads might be used by dispersing Pygmy Rabbits.Food and Feeding.Preferred diet of the Pygmy Rabbit is big sagebrush (A. tridentata); individuals sometimes even climb into tops of larger plants to feed. Big sagebrush consists up to 99% of the Pygmy Rabbit's food intake in winter. Grasses (Agropyron spp.and Poa spp., both Poaceae) are more important, with 30-40% ofdiets in midto late summer. A study investigating characteristics of browsed vs. unbrowsed big sagebrush showed that higher crude protein increased chances that plants would be browsed by Pygmy Rabbits, and the opposite was the case for certain plant secondary metabolites.Breeding.Testes of male Pygmy Rabbits increase progressively in size beginning in January, peaking in March, and regressing in June. Time of reproduction is dependent on female readiness, which is influenced by photoperiod and vegetative condition of the habitat. A study based on DNA analysis found multiple paternities in the same litter, suggesting that the Pygmy Rabbit has a promiscuous mating system. Pregnant females were collected from late February through late March in Utah and from late March through late May in Idaho. Mating behavior of captive Pygmy Rabbits consisted of chasing and brief copulations, and gestation lasted for 24 days. Females give birth in natal burrows that are separate from residential burrow systems. Natal burrows have a single entrance leading to a nest chamber. Entrances to natal burrows are backfilled with soil and often located at bases of shrubs. Female Pygmy Rabbits returned to burrows to nurse 1-2 times/day in captivity. Litter size averages 5-9 young (range 4-8 young). A maximum ofthree litters per year has been reported in Idaho. Pygmy Rabbits start breeding after their first winter of life. Adult and juvenile sex ratios were not significantly different from 1:1 in Idaho.Activity patterns.Pygmy Rabbits are active any time within the 24hour period, but they are generally crepuscular and highly active in the morning except in winter. Activity level seems to increase at higher elevations with extreme weather conditions. Pygmy Rabbits usually rest near or inside their burrows throughout the day, but they also feed at midday. Forms under vegetation are used during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Extensive and well-used runways of Pygmy Rabbits interlace sage thickets and provide travel and escape routes. Individuals apparently make networks of trails beneath snow at bases of big sagebrush that increase feeding areas in winter. Movementis confined to a small area (30 m radius) around the burrow in winter, with longer movements in spring and summer. Some male Pygmy Rabbits move longer distances (e.g. up to 3-5 km in two days or 1200 km in one day) during the breeding season, probably in search of females. Mean home range were 37-2 ha for females and 67-9 ha for males. Males used more burrow systems and more widely dispersed burrow systems than females. There seems to be no significant evidence of a sex bias in dispersal, but juvenile females (mean = 2-9 km, range =0-02-11-9 km) disperse farther than males (1 km, 0-03-6-5 km). Several individuals might occupy the same burrow, especially when frightened, but one adult per burrow is typical. During the reproductive season, male and female Pygmy Rabbits have been captured from the same burrow. An aggregation of 45 rabbits/ha in Idaho was reported, but it is unclear whether or notthis aggregation was due to ideal habitat or social behavior. Pygmy Rabbits make several vocalizations. They emit a loud squeal when captured as is typical of lagomorphs. An alarm call and two additional vocalizations (a squeak and a chuckle) were identified.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population status of the Pygmy Rabbitis extremely varied across its discontinuous distribution. It is locally threatened in parts ofits distribution. The Pygmy Rabbit is not ubiquitous overthis distribution but is restricted to areas of preferred habitat. A small, isolated, reintroduced population exists in Washington after the Columbia Basin population was extirpated by 2004.","Primarily plains and alluvial fans dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisiatridentate, Asteraceae) growing in tall dense stands at elevations of ¢.1370-2135 m in Nevada and ¢.1520-1615 m in California. The Pygmy Rabbit often occurs in the same habitat as the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendir). A high degree of vegetation cover appears to be a major habitat feature selected by the Pygmy Rabbit. Densities of big sagebrush in areas used by the Pygmy Rabbit exceed those found throughout most of the plant’s distribution. Usually, heavy grazing increases density of big sagebrush. After grazing ceases and grass cover has recovered, habitat becomes optimal for Pygmy Rabbits. This suggests that they are opportunistic, inhabiting disturbed sites in the sagebrush landscape that have an increased density of sagebrush. Intense feeding activity by Pygmy Rabbits near their burrows might sustain or even increase density of sagebrush. Pygmy Rabbits extensively use burrows that they mainly construct by themselves, so soil structure is thought to be another key habitat feature. Soft deep soils are required for burrowing. Burrows typically have 4-5 entrances but up to ten or only two have been recorded. Entrances are located at bases of sagebrush. Burrows are usually found on slopes and are oriented in a north-to-east direction. Entrance diameters are 10-12 cm. Tunnels widen below the surface, form chambers, and extend to a maximum depth of c.1 m. Pygmy Rabbits also use holes among volcanic rocks, in stone walls, around abandoned buildings, and those made by American Badgers (7axidea taxus) and Yellow-bellied Marmots (Marmola flaviventris). Dense stands of big sagebrush growing adjacent to streams, along fences, and in borrow ditches along roads might be used by dispersing Pygmy Rabbits.","Preferred diet of the Pygmy Rabbit is big sagebrush (A. tridentata); individuals sometimes even climb into tops of larger plants to feed. Big sagebrush consists up to 99% of the Pygmy Rabbit's food intake in winter. Grasses (Agropyron spp.and Poa spp., both Poaceae) are more important, with 30-40% ofdiets in midto late summer. A study investigating characteristics of browsed vs. unbrowsed big sagebrush showed that higher crude protein increased chances that plants would be browsed by Pygmy Rabbits, and the opposite was the case for certain plant secondary metabolites.","Testes of male Pygmy Rabbits increase progressively in size beginning in January, peaking in March, and regressing in June. Time of reproduction is dependent on female readiness, which is influenced by photoperiod and vegetative condition of the habitat. A study based on DNA analysis found multiple paternities in the same litter, suggesting that the Pygmy Rabbit has a promiscuous mating system. Pregnant females were collected from late February through late March in Utah and from late March through late May in Idaho. Mating behavior of captive Pygmy Rabbits consisted of chasing and brief copulations, and gestation lasted for 24 days. Females give birth in natal burrows that are separate from residential burrow systems. Natal burrows have a single entrance leading to a nest chamber. Entrances to natal burrows are backfilled with soil and often located at bases of shrubs. Female Pygmy Rabbits returned to burrows to nurse 1-2 times/day in captivity. Litter size averages 5-9 young (range 4-8 young). A maximum ofthree litters per year has been reported in Idaho. Pygmy Rabbits start breeding after their first winter of life. Adult and juvenile sex ratios were not significantly different from 1:1 in Idaho.","Pygmy Rabbits are active any time within the 24hour period, but they are generally crepuscular and highly active in the morning except in winter. Activity level seems to increase at higher elevations with extreme weather conditions. Pygmy Rabbits usually rest near or inside their burrows throughout the day, but they also feed at midday. Forms under vegetation are used during daytime.","Extensive and well-used runways of Pygmy Rabbits interlace sage thickets and provide travel and escape routes. Individuals apparently make networks of trails beneath snow at bases of big sagebrush that increase feeding areas in winter. Movementis confined to a small area (30 m radius) around the burrow in winter, with longer movements in spring and summer. Some male Pygmy Rabbits move longer distances (e.g. up to 3-5 km in two days or 1200 km in one day) during the breeding season, probably in search of females. Mean home range were 37-2 ha for females and 67-9 ha for males. Males used more burrow systems and more widely dispersed burrow systems than females. There seems to be no significant evidence of a sex bias in dispersal, but juvenile females (mean = 2-9 km, range =0-02-11-9 km) disperse farther than males (1 km, 0-03-6-5 km). Several individuals might occupy the same burrow, especially when frightened, but one adult per burrow is typical. During the reproductive season, male and female Pygmy Rabbits have been captured from the same burrow. An aggregation of 45 rabbits/ha in Idaho was reported, but it is unclear whether or notthis aggregation was due to ideal habitat or social behavior. Pygmy Rabbits make several vocalizations. They emit a loud squeal when captured as is typical of lagomorphs. An alarm call and two additional vocalizations (a squeak and a chuckle) were identified.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population status of the Pygmy Rabbitis extremely varied across its discontinuous distribution. It is locally threatened in parts ofits distribution. The Pygmy Rabbit is not ubiquitous overthis distribution but is restricted to areas of preferred habitat. A small, isolated, reintroduced population exists in Washington after the Columbia Basin population was extirpated by 2004. Habitat loss likely accounts for isolation of the Washington population. In other parts of its distribution, healthy populations remain in areas of expansive habitat. Primary threat to the Pygmy Rabbit is fragmentation of sagebrush rangeland, particularly on edges of its distribution. As these habitat patches become smaller, local extirpations of Pygmy Rabbits might occur. Probability of extirpation increases through overgrazing, uncontrolled wildfires, habitat modification, or genetic drift combined with stochastic events. Nevertheless, the fact that the Pygmy Rabbit can use sites that were once disturbed by grazing and have reverted to big sagebrush indicates that suitable habitat can be created. Where isolated populations of Pygmy Rabbits exist, corridors can be created to connect sites and thereby reduce chances of local extirpation.","Beauvais et al. (2008) | Campbell et al. (1982) | Corbet (1983) | Dobler & Dixon (1990) | Elias et al. (2006) | Ellison (1960) | Estes-Zumpf & Rachlow (2009) | Estes-Zumpf et al. (2010) | Falcén et al. (2011) | Green (1978) | Green & Flinders (1980a, 1980b) | Grinnell et al. (1930) | Heady & Laundré (2005) | Hibbard (1963) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Janson (1946) | Johnson et al. (1950) | Katzner (1994) | Katzner & Parker (1997) | Larrucea & Brussard (2008, 2009) | Lee, J.E. et al. (2010) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Pritchett et al. (1987) | Rachlow et al. (2005) | Sanchez & Rachlow (2008) | Schmalz et al. (2014) | Stephenson (1966) | Ulappa et al. (2014) | Weiss & Verts (1984) | Wilde (1978)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625559/files/figure.png,"8.Pygmy RabbitBrachylagus idahoensisFrench:Lapin pygmée/ German:Zwergkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo pigmeoTaxonomy.Lepus idahoensis Merriam, 1891, “Pahsimeroi Valley [near Goldburg, Custer County], Idaho,” USA.This species was formerly included in Lepusand Sylvilagus. At one time, B. idahoensiswas placed with S. bachmaniin Microlagus. Analysis of dental patterns showed a close relationship to Nesolagus. It has been interpreted as being either a primitive lagomorph or as derived from Sylvilagus. It is widely sympatric with Sylvilagus nuttalliand perhaps overlaps narrowly with S. audubonii. Monotypic.Distribution.Most of the Great Basin and some of the adjacent intermountain areas of W USA,from SE Oregon and NE California through most of C & N Nevada to S Idaho, extreme SW Montana, extreme W Wyoming, and W Utah. An isolated reintroduced population exists in WC Washington.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-310 mm, tail 15-24 mm, ear 56-64 mm, hindfoot 67-76 mm; weight 246-458 g. The Pygmy Rabbit is small, with short and rounded ears. Dorsalfur is buffy gray, and nape, chest, and legs are cinnamon buff. Hindlegs are relatively short, and hindfeet are broad and heavily haired. Ears are densely haired inside and outside, and their edges are buff. Tail is inconspicuous with a buff underside. The Pygmy Rabbit has one molt per year in midto late summer. New pelageis long, almost silky, and gray above, with abdomen being white. Fur changes in autumn and winter are due to wear and abrasion, and pelage appearssilver gray.Habitat.Primarily plains and alluvial fans dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisiatridentate, Asteraceae) growing in tall dense stands at elevations of ¢.1370-2135 m in Nevada and ¢.1520-1615 m in California. The Pygmy Rabbit often occurs in the same habitat as the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendir). A high degree of vegetation cover appears to be a major habitat feature selected by the Pygmy Rabbit. Densities of big sagebrush in areas used by the Pygmy Rabbit exceed those found throughout most of the plant’s distribution. Usually, heavy grazing increases density of big sagebrush. After grazing ceases and grass cover has recovered, habitat becomes optimal for Pygmy Rabbits. This suggests that they are opportunistic, inhabiting disturbed sites in the sagebrush landscape that have an increased density of sagebrush. Intense feeding activity by Pygmy Rabbits near their burrows might sustain or even increase density of sagebrush. Pygmy Rabbits extensively use burrows that they mainly construct by themselves, so soil structure is thought to be another key habitat feature. Soft deep soils are required for burrowing. Burrows typically have 4-5 entrances but up to ten or only two have been recorded. Entrances are located at bases of sagebrush. Burrows are usually found on slopes and are oriented in a north-to-east direction. Entrance diameters are 10-12 cm. Tunnels widen below the surface, form chambers, and extend to a maximum depth of c.1 m. Pygmy Rabbits also use holes among volcanic rocks, in stone walls, around abandoned buildings, and those made by American Badgers (7axidea taxus) and Yellow-bellied Marmots (Marmola flaviventris). Dense stands of big sagebrush growing adjacent to streams, along fences, and in borrow ditches along roads might be used by dispersing Pygmy Rabbits.Food and Feeding.Preferred diet of the Pygmy Rabbit is big sagebrush (A. tridentata); individuals sometimes even climb into tops of larger plants to feed. Big sagebrush consists up to 99% of the Pygmy Rabbit's food intake in winter. Grasses (Agropyron spp.and Poa spp., both Poaceae) are more important, with 30-40% ofdiets in midto late summer. A study investigating characteristics of browsed vs. unbrowsed big sagebrush showed that higher crude protein increased chances that plants would be browsed by Pygmy Rabbits, and the opposite was the case for certain plant secondary metabolites.Breeding.Testes of male Pygmy Rabbits increase progressively in size beginning in January, peaking in March, and regressing in June. Time of reproduction is dependent on female readiness, which is influenced by photoperiod and vegetative condition of the habitat. A study based on DNA analysis found multiple paternities in the same litter, suggesting that the Pygmy Rabbit has a promiscuous mating system. Pregnant females were collected from late February through late March in Utah and from late March through late May in Idaho. Mating behavior of captive Pygmy Rabbits consisted of chasing and brief copulations, and gestation lasted for 24 days. Females give birth in natal burrows that are separate from residential burrow systems. Natal burrows have a single entrance leading to a nest chamber. Entrances to natal burrows are backfilled with soil and often located at bases of shrubs. Female Pygmy Rabbits returned to burrows to nurse 1-2 times/day in captivity. Litter size averages 5-9 young (range 4-8 young). A maximum ofthree litters per year has been reported in Idaho. Pygmy Rabbits start breeding after their first winter of life. Adult and juvenile sex ratios were not significantly different from 1:1 in Idaho.Activity patterns.Pygmy Rabbits are active any time within the 24hour period, but they are generally crepuscular and highly active in the morning except in winter. Activity level seems to increase at higher elevations with extreme weather conditions. Pygmy Rabbits usually rest near or inside their burrows throughout the day, but they also feed at midday. Forms under vegetation are used during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Extensive and well-used runways of Pygmy Rabbits interlace sage thickets and provide travel and escape routes. Individuals apparently make networks of trails beneath snow at bases of big sagebrush that increase feeding areas in winter. Movementis confined to a small area (30 m radius) around the burrow in winter, with longer movements in spring and summer. Some male Pygmy Rabbits move longer distances (e.g. up to 3-5 km in two days or 1200 km in one day) during the breeding season, probably in search of females. Mean home range were 37-2 ha for females and 67-9 ha for males. Males used more burrow systems and more widely dispersed burrow systems than females. There seems to be no significant evidence of a sex bias in dispersal, but juvenile females (mean = 2-9 km, range =0-02-11-9 km) disperse farther than males (1 km, 0-03-6-5 km). Several individuals might occupy the same burrow, especially when frightened, but one adult per burrow is typical. During the reproductive season, male and female Pygmy Rabbits have been captured from the same burrow. An aggregation of 45 rabbits/ha in Idaho was reported, but it is unclear whether or notthis aggregation was due to ideal habitat or social behavior. Pygmy Rabbits make several vocalizations. They emit a loud squeal when captured as is typical of lagomorphs. An alarm call and two additional vocalizations (a squeak and a chuckle) were identified.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population status of the Pygmy Rabbitis extremely varied across its discontinuous distribution. It is locally threatened in parts ofits distribution. The Pygmy Rabbit is not ubiquitous overthis distribution but is restricted to areas of preferred habitat. A small, isolated, reintroduced population exists in Washington after the Columbia Basin population was extirpated by 2004. Habitat loss likely accounts for isolation of the Washington population. In other parts of its distribution, healthy populations remain in areas of expansive habitat. Primary threat to the Pygmy Rabbit is fragmentation of sagebrush rangeland, particularly on edges of its distribution. As these habitat patches become smaller, local extirpations of Pygmy Rabbits might occur. Probability of extirpation increases through overgrazing, uncontrolled wildfires, habitat modification, or genetic drift combined with stochastic events. Nevertheless, the fact that the Pygmy Rabbit can use sites that were once disturbed by grazing and have reverted to big sagebrush indicates that suitable habitat can be created. Where isolated populations of Pygmy Rabbits exist, corridors can be created to connect sites and thereby reduce chances of local extirpation.Bibliography.Beauvais et al. (2008), Campbell et al. (1982), Corbet (1983), Dobler & Dixon (1990), Elias et al. (2006), Ellison (1960), Estes-Zumpf & Rachlow (2009), Estes-Zumpf et al. (2010), Falcén et al. (2011), Green (1978), Green & Flinders (1980a, 1980b), Grinnell et al. (1930), Heady & Laundré (2005), Hibbard (1963), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Janson (1946), Johnson et al. (1950), Katzner (1994), Katzner & Parker (1997), Larrucea & Brussard (2008, 2009), Lee, J.E. et al. (2010), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Pritchett et al. (1987), Rachlow et al. (2005), Sanchez & Rachlow (2008), Schmalz et al. (2014), Stephenson (1966), Ulappa et al. (2014), Weiss & Verts (1984), Wilde (1978)." 03822308B743FFFCFFDBF5C7FC91F381,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,111,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B743FFFCFFDBF5C7FC91F381.xml,Romerolagus diazi,Romerolagus,diazi,,,Lapin des volcans @fr | Vulkankaninchen @de | Conejo de los volcanes @es,"Lepus diazi Ferrari-Pérez, 1893, “near San Martin Texmelusan, northeast ern slope of Volcan Iztaccihuatl [Ixtaccthuatl, Puebla], Mexico.”Whether or not the genus Romerolagusrepresents the most primitive of living leporids is still under discussion; or it is close to specialized leporids such as Syl vilagus, Oryctolagus, and Lepus; or is intermediate. Romerolagus diazihas the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Sylvilagus bachmani. A recent study comparing allozymic variation among different leporids indicates that R. diaziis genetically more similar to Sylvilagusthan to Lepus. Romerolagus diazilives sympatrically with two species of Sylvilagus: S. cuniculariusand S. floridanus. A study showed that both taxa were found together in only 8% of their sympatric distribution, and R. diaziwas more common at higher elevations than the species of Sylvilagus. Monotypic.","C Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Distrito Federal, Morelos, and W Puebla states).","Head—body 230-350 mm, tail (vertebrae, not externally visible) 12-31 mm, ear 40-45 mm, hindfoot 40-55 mm; weight 387-602 g. The Volcano Rabbit is relatively small, with small and rounded ears. Hindlegs and hindfeet are short.Tail is enclosed beneath skin, as in pikas (Ochotona), and is invisible externally. Fur is short and dense. Tail, dorsal pelage, and lateral pelage are dark brown to black. Feet are light buff above, and ventral fur is brown. Sides of nose and around eyes are light buff, and throat has tint of gray.Habitat.Pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) forests with undergrowth of tall dense bunchgrasses (“zacaton”) and rocky substrates, interspersed with patches of deep, dark soil at elevations of 2800-4250 m. Volcano Rabbits occur at highest densities at elevations of 3150-3400 m and occupy areas with abrupt relief. Summer is warm and rainy; winter is cold and dry. Vegetation cover consists of open forest of mostly Montezuma pine (P. montezumae), intermixed with P. hartwegii, P. rudis, P. teocote, P. patula, and P. pseudostrobus (all Pinaceae) up to 25 m tall. Understory has a dense ground cover oftall (up to 1-5 m), coarse, clumped bunchgrasses, mainly Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucarosei, I. amplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). Volcano Rabbits also inhabit patches of dense secondary forest of alder (Alnusarguta, Betulaceae) up to 12 m tall, with some palm-like Furcraea bedinghausii (Agavaceae) up to 6 m tall. Shrub layer is up to 2:5 m tall, with heavy cover of a zacaton grass and herb layer. Volcano Rabbits temporarily colonize cultivated fields of oats (Avenasativa, Poaceae) when plants are half-grown in late July until they are harvested in early October. They use burrows with hidden entrances at bases of grass clumps. They probably do not actively dig their own burrows; it has been reported that they use abandoned burrows of the American Badger (Taxidea taxus), the Rock Squirrel (Otospermophilus variegatus), the Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), and Merriam’s Pocket Gopher (Cratogeomys merriam). Hollows between rocks and boulders and large boulderstrewn sinkholes are used as temporary refuges.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Volcano Rabbit consists of zacaton grasses, mainly Festucaamplissima, F. rosei, M. macroura, S. ichu, and Epicampes sp. (all Poaceae). They select green and tender leaves of these grasses. A. arguta is a staple food. Spiny herbs (Cir sium, Asteraceae, and especially Eryngium, Apiaceae) are also consumed. Forbs and shrubs are consumed mainly during the dry season. Oat and maize in cultivated fields are eaten during the rainy season.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Volcano Rabbit may last throughout the year because pregnant females have been found in January—October and lactating females have been found in February-December. Reproductive peak is noticeable during the warm and rainy summer. In captivity, a male always selected the same female, but in her absence, he became interested in another female. Copulations were observed during the day. The male kept pace directly behind the female, occasionally nuzzling her hindquarters. The female turned back toward his flank, and both circled each other rapidly for several turns. The male then mounted the female and engaged in a series of rapid pelvic thrusts. Parturition always took place at night in captivity. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Female Volcano Rabbits have postpartum estrus. Nests are found in April-September. Nest is a shallow hole excavated in the ground nextto the base of a clump of zacaton grass and averages 15 cm in diameter and 11 cm in depth. Outer nest materials are dry plant fragments of pine, alder, herbs, and zacaton grass; inside, the nest is lined and filled out with hairs from the mother. Entrance to the nestis covered with plant fragments. Usually, nests are on flat terrain consisting of deep soil. Only a few nests are found on rocky or steep substrates. Mean litter size is 2-1 young (range 1-5), within the range of species of Lepusbutsignificantly different from largelitters of species of Sylvilagusand Oryctolagus. Female Volcano Rabbits have three pairs of mammae, but only four mammae, on average, produce milk. Newborns are completely furred, but their eyes are closed. Fur is dusky gray above and pale dull gray below. Tail is externally visible and hair-covered in newborns. Eyes of young open at 4-8 days of age, but they remain in the nest for c.14 days. Young start to feed on solid food in the third week after birth and gradually become independent of the nest. Young are still nursed while moving around with their mother.Activity patterns.Volcano Rabbits are especially active in evening and early morning hours and usually rest quietly in the middle of the day. Nevertheless, large numbers of Volcano Rabbits have been observed outside their burrows between 11:00 h and 13:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Volcano Rabbitlives in groups of 2-5 individuals. Formation of social dominance hierarchies among groups of six individuals, with only one male and 1-2 females breeding, has been reported in seminatural enclosures. Playing, fighting, chasing, foraging, and sleeping among clumps of zacaton grass are primary aboveground daytime activities. Pellets regularly are found in groups near burrows and throughout runaways. The Volcano Rabbit frequently utters high-pitched penetrating calls; up to five different vocalizations have been described. Individuals utter a sharp call and scuttle away along a runway to a burrow when alarmed. Captive females were clearly aggressive to both sexes, but males never initiated aggression toward a female. Female—female aggression was much more frequent and violent than female-male aggression. The dominant individual was always a female. Captive individuals defend their own cage and chase intruders.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Volcano Rabbit is endemic to Mexico, and its distribution is restricted to three discontinuous areas of core habitat of ¢.386 km? on slopes of Volcan Pelado, Tlaloc, Popocatépetl, and Ixtaccithuatl. Present distribution is fragmented into 16 patches. A distributional survey suggested that Volcano Rabbits have disappeared from areas of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt such as on Volcan Nevado de Toluca or eastern slopes of Ixtaccithuatl where it has been reported in the recent past. A study based on fecal counts and line transects (on horseback) estimated population size at 2478-12,120 individuals. The smaller estimate was recommended for conservation purposes due to broad confidence intervals. Reasons for decline are habitat destruction from increasing encroachment of agriculture up the slopes of mountains, forest fires, overexploitation of timber, cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture, and human settlements. Large areas of zacaton grasses are burned each dry season to improve grazing for sheep and cattle, but effects of frequentfires are under assessment because new data suggest thatfires actually improve habitat of the Volcano Rabbit. Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations.","Pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) forests with undergrowth of tall dense bunchgrasses (“zacaton”) and rocky substrates, interspersed with patches of deep, dark soil at elevations of 2800-4250 m. Volcano Rabbits occur at highest densities at elevations of 3150-3400 m and occupy areas with abrupt relief. Summer is warm and rainy; winter is cold and dry. Vegetation cover consists of open forest of mostly Montezuma pine (P. montezumae), intermixed with P. hartwegii, P. rudis, P. teocote, P. patula, and P. pseudostrobus (all Pinaceae) up to 25 m tall. Understory has a dense ground cover oftall (up to 1-5 m), coarse, clumped bunchgrasses, mainly Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucarosei, I. amplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). Volcano Rabbits also inhabit patches of dense secondary forest of alder (Alnusarguta, Betulaceae) up to 12 m tall, with some palm-like Furcraea bedinghausii (Agavaceae) up to 6 m tall. Shrub layer is up to 2:5 m tall, with heavy cover of a zacaton grass and herb layer. Volcano Rabbits temporarily colonize cultivated fields of oats (Avenasativa, Poaceae) when plants are half-grown in late July until they are harvested in early October. They use burrows with hidden entrances at bases of grass clumps. They probably do not actively dig their own burrows; it has been reported that they use abandoned burrows of the American Badger (Taxidea taxus), the Rock Squirrel (Otospermophilus variegatus), the Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), and Merriam’s Pocket Gopher (Cratogeomys merriam). Hollows between rocks and boulders and large boulderstrewn sinkholes are used as temporary refuges.","Diet of the Volcano Rabbit consists of zacaton grasses, mainly Festucaamplissima, F. rosei, M. macroura, S. ichu, and Epicampes sp. (all Poaceae). They select green and tender leaves of these grasses. A. arguta is a staple food. Spiny herbs (Cir sium, Asteraceae, and especially Eryngium, Apiaceae) are also consumed. Forbs and shrubs are consumed mainly during the dry season. Oat and maize in cultivated fields are eaten during the rainy season.","Reproductive season of the Volcano Rabbit may last throughout the year because pregnant females have been found in January—October and lactating females have been found in February-December. Reproductive peak is noticeable during the warm and rainy summer. In captivity, a male always selected the same female, but in her absence, he became interested in another female. Copulations were observed during the day. The male kept pace directly behind the female, occasionally nuzzling her hindquarters. The female turned back toward his flank, and both circled each other rapidly for several turns. The male then mounted the female and engaged in a series of rapid pelvic thrusts. Parturition always took place at night in captivity. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Female Volcano Rabbits have postpartum estrus. Nests are found in April-September. Nest is a shallow hole excavated in the ground nextto the base of a clump of zacaton grass and averages 15 cm in diameter and 11 cm in depth. Outer nest materials are dry plant fragments of pine, alder, herbs, and zacaton grass; inside, the nest is lined and filled out with hairs from the mother. Entrance to the nestis covered with plant fragments. Usually, nests are on flat terrain consisting of deep soil. Only a few nests are found on rocky or steep substrates. Mean litter size is 2-1 young (range 1-5), within the range of species of Lepusbutsignificantly different from largelitters of species of Sylvilagusand Oryctolagus. Female Volcano Rabbits have three pairs of mammae, but only four mammae, on average, produce milk. Newborns are completely furred, but their eyes are closed. Fur is dusky gray above and pale dull gray below. Tail is externally visible and hair-covered in newborns. Eyes of young open at 4-8 days of age, but they remain in the nest for c.14 days. Young start to feed on solid food in the third week after birth and gradually become independent of the nest. Young are still nursed while moving around with their mother.","Volcano Rabbits are especially active in evening and early morning hours and usually rest quietly in the middle of the day. Nevertheless, large numbers of Volcano Rabbits have been observed outside their burrows between 11:00 h and 13:00 h.","The Volcano Rabbitlives in groups of 2-5 individuals. Formation of social dominance hierarchies among groups of six individuals, with only one male and 1-2 females breeding, has been reported in seminatural enclosures. Playing, fighting, chasing, foraging, and sleeping among clumps of zacaton grass are primary aboveground daytime activities. Pellets regularly are found in groups near burrows and throughout runaways. The Volcano Rabbit frequently utters high-pitched penetrating calls; up to five different vocalizations have been described. Individuals utter a sharp call and scuttle away along a runway to a burrow when alarmed. Captive females were clearly aggressive to both sexes, but males never initiated aggression toward a female. Female—female aggression was much more frequent and violent than female-male aggression. The dominant individual was always a female. Captive individuals defend their own cage and chase intruders.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Volcano Rabbit is endemic to Mexico, and its distribution is restricted to three discontinuous areas of core habitat of ¢.386 km? on slopes of Volcan Pelado, Tlaloc, Popocatépetl, and Ixtaccithuatl. Present distribution is fragmented into 16 patches. A distributional survey suggested that Volcano Rabbits have disappeared from areas of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt such as on Volcan Nevado de Toluca or eastern slopes of Ixtaccithuatl where it has been reported in the recent past. A study based on fecal counts and line transects (on horseback) estimated population size at 2478-12,120 individuals. The smaller estimate was recommended for conservation purposes due to broad confidence intervals. Reasons for decline are habitat destruction from increasing encroachment of agriculture up the slopes of mountains, forest fires, overexploitation of timber, cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture, and human settlements. Large areas of zacaton grasses are burned each dry season to improve grazing for sheep and cattle, but effects of frequentfires are under assessment because new data suggest thatfires actually improve habitat of the Volcano Rabbit. Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations. Habitat fragmentation is caused by contiguous habitat loss and highway construction, causing fragmented populations to become genetically isolated and increasing risk of local extinction by random processes. Despite it being illegal under Mexican law, hunting by nearby villagers and people from Mexico City is also a concern. Nesting habits of the Volcano Rabbit make the young particularly vulnerable to predation by dogs and humans. Most localvillagers are unaware of the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit, and although it occurs in several national parks (e.g. Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park), hunting and grass burning still occur within their boundaries. One conservation action was establishment of a captive breeding program. The breeding program has been partly successful, but infant mortality has been high.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Volcano Rabbit is endemic to Mexico, and its distribution is restricted to three discontinuous areas of core habitat of ¢.386 km? on slopes of Volcan Pelado, Tlaloc, Popocatépetl, and Ixtaccithuatl. Present distribution is fragmented into 16 patches. A distributional survey suggested that Volcano Rabbits have disappeared from areas of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt such as on Volcan Nevado de Toluca or eastern slopes of Ixtaccithuatl where it has been reported in the recent past. A study based on fecal counts and line transects (on horseback) estimated population size at 2478-12,120 individuals. The smaller estimate was recommended for conservation purposes due to broad confidence intervals. Reasons for decline are habitat destruction from increasing encroachment of agriculture up the slopes of mountains, forest fires, overexploitation of timber, cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture, and human settlements. Large areas of zacaton grasses are burned each dry season to improve grazing for sheep and cattle, but effects of frequentfires are under assessment because new data suggest thatfires actually improve habitat of the Volcano Rabbit. Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations. Habitat fragmentation is caused by contiguous habitat loss and highway construction, causing fragmented populations to become genetically isolated and increasing risk of local extinction by random processes. Despite it being illegal under Mexican law, hunting by nearby villagers and people from Mexico City is also a concern. Nesting habits of the Volcano Rabbit make the young particularly vulnerable to predation by dogs and humans. Most localvillagers are unaware of the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit, and although it occurs in several national parks (e.g. Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park), hunting and grass burning still occur within their boundaries. One conservation action was establishment of a captive breeding program. The breeding program has been partly successful, but infant mortality has been high. Conservation recommendations are to focus on habitat management including control of burning and overgrazing of zacaton habitat and enforcement of the existing law prohibiting hunting and trade of the Volcano Rabbit. Education at local, national, and international levels about the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit should be improved, and zoos should take part in the breeding program to enhanceits success.","AMCELA, Romero, Rangel, de Grammont & Cuarén (2008) | Barrera (1968) | Cervantes (1980, 1982) | Cervantes & Lopez-Forment (1981) | Cervantes & Martinez (1992) | Cervantes, Lorenzo & Hoffmann (1990) | Cervantes, Lorenzo & Yates (2002) | Davis & Russell (1953) | De Poorter & Van der Loo (1981) | Fa & Bell (1990) | Fa et al. (1992) | Granados (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoth et al. (1987) | Hunter & Cresswell (2015) | Leopold (1959) | Lopez-Forment & Cervantes (1981) | Rizo-Aguilar et al. (2015) | Rojas (1951) | Velazquez (1993, 1994) | Velazquez & Heil (1996) | Velazquez et al. (1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625555/files/figure.png,"6.Volcano RabbitRomerolagus diaziFrench:Lapin des volcans/ German:Vulkankaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de los volcanesTaxonomy.Lepus diazi Ferrari-Pérez, 1893, “near San Martin Texmelusan, northeast ern slope of Volcan Iztaccihuatl [Ixtaccthuatl, Puebla], Mexico.”Whether or not the genus Romerolagusrepresents the most primitive of living leporids is still under discussion; or it is close to specialized leporids such as Syl vilagus, Oryctolagus, and Lepus; or is intermediate. Romerolagus diazihas the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Sylvilagus bachmani. A recent study comparing allozymic variation among different leporids indicates that R. diaziis genetically more similar to Sylvilagusthan to Lepus. Romerolagus diazilives sympatrically with two species of Sylvilagus: S. cuniculariusand S. floridanus. A study showed that both taxa were found together in only 8% of their sympatric distribution, and R. diaziwas more common at higher elevations than the species of Sylvilagus. Monotypic.Distribution.C Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Distrito Federal, Morelos, and W Puebla states).Descriptive notes.Head—body 230-350 mm, tail (vertebrae, not externally visible) 12-31 mm, ear 40-45 mm, hindfoot 40-55 mm; weight 387-602 g. The Volcano Rabbit is relatively small, with small and rounded ears. Hindlegs and hindfeet are short.Tail is enclosed beneath skin, as in pikas (Ochotona), and is invisible externally. Fur is short and dense. Tail, dorsal pelage, and lateral pelage are dark brown to black. Feet are light buff above, and ventral fur is brown. Sides of nose and around eyes are light buff, and throat has tint of gray.Habitat.Pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) forests with undergrowth of tall dense bunchgrasses (“zacaton”) and rocky substrates, interspersed with patches of deep, dark soil at elevations of 2800-4250 m. Volcano Rabbits occur at highest densities at elevations of 3150-3400 m and occupy areas with abrupt relief. Summer is warm and rainy; winter is cold and dry. Vegetation cover consists of open forest of mostly Montezuma pine (P. montezumae), intermixed with P. hartwegii, P. rudis, P. teocote, P. patula, and P. pseudostrobus (all Pinaceae) up to 25 m tall. Understory has a dense ground cover oftall (up to 1-5 m), coarse, clumped bunchgrasses, mainly Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucarosei, I. amplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). Volcano Rabbits also inhabit patches of dense secondary forest of alder (Alnusarguta, Betulaceae) up to 12 m tall, with some palm-like Furcraea bedinghausii (Agavaceae) up to 6 m tall. Shrub layer is up to 2:5 m tall, with heavy cover of a zacaton grass and herb layer. Volcano Rabbits temporarily colonize cultivated fields of oats (Avenasativa, Poaceae) when plants are half-grown in late July until they are harvested in early October. They use burrows with hidden entrances at bases of grass clumps. They probably do not actively dig their own burrows; it has been reported that they use abandoned burrows of the American Badger (Taxidea taxus), the Rock Squirrel (Otospermophilus variegatus), the Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), and Merriam’s Pocket Gopher (Cratogeomys merriam). Hollows between rocks and boulders and large boulderstrewn sinkholes are used as temporary refuges.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Volcano Rabbit consists of zacaton grasses, mainly Festucaamplissima, F. rosei, M. macroura, S. ichu, and Epicampes sp. (all Poaceae). They select green and tender leaves of these grasses. A. arguta is a staple food. Spiny herbs (Cir sium, Asteraceae, and especially Eryngium, Apiaceae) are also consumed. Forbs and shrubs are consumed mainly during the dry season. Oat and maize in cultivated fields are eaten during the rainy season.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Volcano Rabbit may last throughout the year because pregnant females have been found in January—October and lactating females have been found in February-December. Reproductive peak is noticeable during the warm and rainy summer. In captivity, a male always selected the same female, but in her absence, he became interested in another female. Copulations were observed during the day. The male kept pace directly behind the female, occasionally nuzzling her hindquarters. The female turned back toward his flank, and both circled each other rapidly for several turns. The male then mounted the female and engaged in a series of rapid pelvic thrusts. Parturition always took place at night in captivity. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Female Volcano Rabbits have postpartum estrus. Nests are found in April-September. Nest is a shallow hole excavated in the ground nextto the base of a clump of zacaton grass and averages 15 cm in diameter and 11 cm in depth. Outer nest materials are dry plant fragments of pine, alder, herbs, and zacaton grass; inside, the nest is lined and filled out with hairs from the mother. Entrance to the nestis covered with plant fragments. Usually, nests are on flat terrain consisting of deep soil. Only a few nests are found on rocky or steep substrates. Mean litter size is 2-1 young (range 1-5), within the range of species of Lepusbutsignificantly different from largelitters of species of Sylvilagusand Oryctolagus. Female Volcano Rabbits have three pairs of mammae, but only four mammae, on average, produce milk. Newborns are completely furred, but their eyes are closed. Fur is dusky gray above and pale dull gray below. Tail is externally visible and hair-covered in newborns. Eyes of young open at 4-8 days of age, but they remain in the nest for c.14 days. Young start to feed on solid food in the third week after birth and gradually become independent of the nest. Young are still nursed while moving around with their mother.Activity patterns.Volcano Rabbits are especially active in evening and early morning hours and usually rest quietly in the middle of the day. Nevertheless, large numbers of Volcano Rabbits have been observed outside their burrows between 11:00 h and 13:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Volcano Rabbitlives in groups of 2-5 individuals. Formation of social dominance hierarchies among groups of six individuals, with only one male and 1-2 females breeding, has been reported in seminatural enclosures. Playing, fighting, chasing, foraging, and sleeping among clumps of zacaton grass are primary aboveground daytime activities. Pellets regularly are found in groups near burrows and throughout runaways. The Volcano Rabbit frequently utters high-pitched penetrating calls; up to five different vocalizations have been described. Individuals utter a sharp call and scuttle away along a runway to a burrow when alarmed. Captive females were clearly aggressive to both sexes, but males never initiated aggression toward a female. Female—female aggression was much more frequent and violent than female-male aggression. The dominant individual was always a female. Captive individuals defend their own cage and chase intruders.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Volcano Rabbit is endemic to Mexico, and its distribution is restricted to three discontinuous areas of core habitat of ¢.386 km? on slopes of Volcan Pelado, Tlaloc, Popocatépetl, and Ixtaccithuatl. Present distribution is fragmented into 16 patches. A distributional survey suggested that Volcano Rabbits have disappeared from areas of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt such as on Volcan Nevado de Toluca or eastern slopes of Ixtaccithuatl where it has been reported in the recent past. A study based on fecal counts and line transects (on horseback) estimated population size at 2478-12,120 individuals. The smaller estimate was recommended for conservation purposes due to broad confidence intervals. Reasons for decline are habitat destruction from increasing encroachment of agriculture up the slopes of mountains, forest fires, overexploitation of timber, cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture, and human settlements. Large areas of zacaton grasses are burned each dry season to improve grazing for sheep and cattle, but effects of frequentfires are under assessment because new data suggest thatfires actually improve habitat of the Volcano Rabbit. Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations. Habitat fragmentation is caused by contiguous habitat loss and highway construction, causing fragmented populations to become genetically isolated and increasing risk of local extinction by random processes. Despite it being illegal under Mexican law, hunting by nearby villagers and people from Mexico City is also a concern. Nesting habits of the Volcano Rabbit make the young particularly vulnerable to predation by dogs and humans. Most localvillagers are unaware of the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit, and although it occurs in several national parks (e.g. Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park), hunting and grass burning still occur within their boundaries. One conservation action was establishment of a captive breeding program. The breeding program has been partly successful, but infant mortality has been high. Conservation recommendations are to focus on habitat management including control of burning and overgrazing of zacaton habitat and enforcement of the existing law prohibiting hunting and trade of the Volcano Rabbit. Education at local, national, and international levels about the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit should be improved, and zoos should take part in the breeding program to enhanceits success.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero, Rangel, de Grammont & Cuarén (2008), Barrera (1968), Cervantes (1980, 1982), Cervantes & Lopez-Forment (1981), Cervantes & Martinez (1992), Cervantes, Lorenzo & Hoffmann (1990), Cervantes, Lorenzo & Yates (2002), Davis & Russell (1953), De Poorter & Van der Loo (1981), Fa & Bell (1990), Fa et al. (1992), Granados (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoth et al. (1987), Hunter & Cresswell (2015), Leopold (1959), Lopez-Forment & Cervantes (1981), Rizo-Aguilar et al. (2015), Rojas (1951), Velazquez (1993, 1994), Velazquez & Heil (1996), Velazquez et al. (1993)." 03822308B743FFFDFFC0FD19FEB1FF2E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,111,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B743FFFDFFC0FD19FEB1FF2E.xml,Pronolagus saundersiae,Pronolagus,saundersiae,Hewitt,1927,Lapin de Hewitt @fr | Hewitt-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Hewitt @es,"Pronolagus crassicaudatus saundersiae Hewitt, 1927, “Albany District,” Eastern Cape, South Africa.Initially, P. saundersiaewas included as a subspecies of P crassicaudatus. Later, P. saundersiaewas included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Distribution of P. saundersiaedoes not overlap that of P. rupestris, but the eastern part of its distribution overlaps that of P crassicaudatusand the north-western part that of P. randensis. Monotypic.","S & E South Africa (Western, Northern and Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga provinces), Lesotho, and W Swaziland.","Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is pale rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is red or pale sandy. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rocky hillsides with boulders, where grassy or scrubby vegetation occurs. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at higher elevations than Smith’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris) in South Africa.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is widely distributed and presumably has a large population. Overall population is estimated at more than 10,000 adults and predicted to decline at a rate of less than 10% during the next 20 years.","Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rocky hillsides with boulders, where grassy or scrubby vegetation occurs. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at higher elevations than Smith’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris) in South Africa.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is widely distributed and presumably has a large population. Overall population is estimated at more than 10,000 adults and predicted to decline at a rate of less than 10% during the next 20 years. Habitat loss has occurred over the past 100 years and is predicted to continue by less than 20% over the next 20 years due to commercial plantations.","Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Friedmann & Daly (2004) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Matthee & Robinson (1996) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Smithers (1983) | Whiteford (1995)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625553/files/figure.png,"5.Hewitt’s Red Rock HarePronolagus saundersiaeFrench:Lapin de Hewitt/ German:Hewitt-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de HewittTaxonomy.Pronolagus crassicaudatus saundersiae Hewitt, 1927, “Albany District,” Eastern Cape, South Africa.Initially, P. saundersiaewas included as a subspecies of P crassicaudatus. Later, P. saundersiaewas included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Distribution of P. saundersiaedoes not overlap that of P. rupestris, but the eastern part of its distribution overlaps that of P crassicaudatusand the north-western part that of P. randensis. Monotypic.Distribution.S & E South Africa (Western, Northern and Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga provinces), Lesotho, and W Swaziland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is pale rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is red or pale sandy. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rocky hillsides with boulders, where grassy or scrubby vegetation occurs. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at higher elevations than Smith’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris) in South Africa.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is widely distributed and presumably has a large population. Overall population is estimated at more than 10,000 adults and predicted to decline at a rate of less than 10% during the next 20 years. Habitat loss has occurred over the past 100 years and is predicted to continue by less than 20% over the next 20 years due to commercial plantations.Bibliography.Duthie & Robinson (1990), Friedmann & Daly (2004), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Matthee & Robinson (1996), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Smithers (1983), Whiteford (1995)." -03822308B744FFFAFF69FA0AF832F5E7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,110,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B744FFFAFF69FA0AF832F5E7.xml,Pronolagus crassicaudatus,Pronolagus,crassicaudatus,,,Lapin du Natal @fr | Natal-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Natal @es | Greater Red Rock Hare @en,"Lepus crassicaudatus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1832, “Port Natal [= Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa].”Formerly, P. crassicaudatuswas included as a subspecies of P. randensisbut now has species status. Previously, P. rupestrisand P. saundersiaewere considered to be subspecies of P. crassicaudatus. Some authors list five subspecies (crassicaudatus, rudd, karigae, bowkeri, and lebombo), but their status, characteristics, and geographical limits are uncertain, and their validity is doubtful, especially because they are distinguished partly by color of nuchal patch. Distribution of P. ¢ crassicaudatusdoes not overlap those of P. randensisand P. rupestris, but in the western half ofits range overlaps with P. saundersiae. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","P.c.crassicaudatus1.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1832—SESouthAfrica(KwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovincesSoftheTugelaRiver)andELesotho.P.c. rudd: Thomas & Schwann, 1905— extreme S Mozambique (Maputo Province), Swaziland, and E South Africa (Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces S to the Tugela River).","Head—body 460-560 mm, tail 35-110 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 100-125 mm; weight 2.4-3.1 kg. The Natal Red Rock Hareis large, with rather dense and harsh fur. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and flecked with black. Pelage is bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is pale rufous, with irregular white patches and streaks. Head is grayish brown and slightly grizzled. Chin, lower cheeks, and throat are gray, with grayish white band extending laterally along edges ofjaws to brown to gray nuchal patch. Patch on throat is brownish rufous. Ears are relatively short, sparsely furred, and whitish gray on outer surfaces and gray on inner surfaces. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are dull rufous. Tail is short and entirety bright rufous.","Solid rocks (“kopjes”), rocky hillsides, and ravines with grass or scrubby vegetation among rocks or bases of the rocks. Natural fragmentation of habitat exists due to distribution of suitable habitat. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs from sea level to elevations of ¢.1550 m.","The Natal Red Rock Hare is herbivorous, and its diet consists mainly of sprouting grasses. It relies heavily on rocks and boulders for cover and rarely moves far away from them when foraging. Individuals avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.","More than one male Natal Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. A study in KwaZulu-Natal recorded pregnant females in June and August and lactating females in August, October, and February. This suggests that reproduction takes place throughout much of the year. Numbers of embryos were 1-2.","The Natal Red Rock Hare is nocturnal. It hides in rock crevices, under boulders, or in dense grass during the day.",The Natal Red Rock Hare lives in small colonies of a few individuals. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Natal Red Rock Hare has a decreasing population trend, but it is widespread and abundant within its distribution. More than 10,000 adult individuals exist in the wild. Nevertheless, a population decline has been recorded due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting and trapping pressures in rural areas. Population decline is predicted to be 20% or more until 2022. In the limited region where the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs, human populations are largely low income and hunt local fauna for subsistence. This enhances the conservation threat to this otherwise abundant species. Further threats include agricultural and habitat encroachment that cause habitat loss. Since the 1990s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss until 2022 is expected in the distribution of the Natal Red Rock Hare.","Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie (1997) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004a, 2008b) | Petter (1972) | Smithers (1983) | Taylor (1998)",,"3.Natal Red Rock HarePronolagus crassicaudatusFrench:Lapin du Natal/ German:Natal-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de NatalOther common names:Greater Red Rock HareTaxonomy.Lepus crassicaudatus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1832, “Port Natal [= Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa].”Formerly, P. crassicaudatuswas included as a subspecies of P. randensisbut now has species status. Previously, P. rupestrisand P. saundersiaewere considered to be subspecies of P. crassicaudatus. Some authors list five subspecies (crassicaudatus, rudd, karigae, bowkeri, and lebombo), but their status, characteristics, and geographical limits are uncertain, and their validity is doubtful, especially because they are distinguished partly by color of nuchal patch. Distribution of P. ¢ crassicaudatusdoes not overlap those of P. randensisand P. rupestris, but in the western half ofits range overlaps with P. saundersiae. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.c.crassicaudatus1.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1832—SESouthAfrica(KwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovincesSoftheTugelaRiver)andELesotho.P.c. rudd: Thomas & Schwann, 1905— extreme S Mozambique (Maputo Province), Swaziland, and E South Africa (Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces S to the Tugela River).Descriptive notes.Head—body 460-560 mm, tail 35-110 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 100-125 mm; weight 2.4-3.1 kg. The Natal Red Rock Hareis large, with rather dense and harsh fur. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and flecked with black. Pelage is bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is pale rufous, with irregular white patches and streaks. Head is grayish brown and slightly grizzled. Chin, lower cheeks, and throat are gray, with grayish white band extending laterally along edges ofjaws to brown to gray nuchal patch. Patch on throat is brownish rufous. Ears are relatively short, sparsely furred, and whitish gray on outer surfaces and gray on inner surfaces. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are dull rufous. Tail is short and entirety bright rufous.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”), rocky hillsides, and ravines with grass or scrubby vegetation among rocks or bases of the rocks. Natural fragmentation of habitat exists due to distribution of suitable habitat. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs from sea level to elevations of ¢.1550 m.Food and Feeding.The Natal Red Rock Hare is herbivorous, and its diet consists mainly of sprouting grasses. It relies heavily on rocks and boulders for cover and rarely moves far away from them when foraging. Individuals avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding.More than one male Natal Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. A study in KwaZulu-Natal recorded pregnant females in June and August and lactating females in August, October, and February. This suggests that reproduction takes place throughout much of the year. Numbers of embryos were 1-2.Activity patterns.The Natal Red Rock Hare is nocturnal. It hides in rock crevices, under boulders, or in dense grass during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Natal Red Rock Hare lives in small colonies of a few individuals. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Natal Red Rock Hare has a decreasing population trend, but it is widespread and abundant within its distribution. More than 10,000 adult individuals exist in the wild. Nevertheless, a population decline has been recorded due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting and trapping pressures in rural areas. Population decline is predicted to be 20% or more until 2022. In the limited region where the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs, human populations are largely low income and hunt local fauna for subsistence. This enhances the conservation threat to this otherwise abundant species. Further threats include agricultural and habitat encroachment that cause habitat loss. Since the 1990s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss until 2022 is expected in the distribution of the Natal Red Rock Hare.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004a, 2008b), Petter (1972), Smithers (1983), Taylor (1998)." -03822308B744FFFDFA15FBB9FB68F407,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,110,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B744FFFDFA15FBB9FB68F407.xml,Pronolagus rupestris,Pronolagus,rupestris,,,Lapin de Smith @fr | Rotkaninchen @de | Liebre roja de Smith @es,"Lepus rupestris A. Smith, 1834, “South Africa, rocky situations.”Refined by R. S. Hoffman and A. T. Smith in 2005 to “probably Van Rhynsdorp District, Western Cape Province, South Africa.”Formerly, P. rupestriswas included in P. crassicaudatus. Pronolagus saundersiaewas until recently included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified because probably no gene flow occurs between them. Distribution of P. rupestrisdoes not overlap those of P. randensis, P. saundersiae, and P. crassicaudatus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","P.r.rupestrisA.Smith,1834—N&NWSouthAfrica(NorthWestandNorthernCapeprovinces);recently,aspecimenhasbeensampledinSNamibia(Keetmanshoop),sothedistributioncouldbecontiguousfromSouthAfricaacrosstheOrangeRiver.P.r.curryiThomas,1902—NSouthAfrica(FreeStateP.r.).P.r.nytkaeThomas,1902—EZambia,andNMalawi.P. r. vallicola Kershaw, 1924— SW Kenya and C Tanzania.","Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur with reddish undertone. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized and either black or black and dark red. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rockyhillsides with boulders with grassy or scrubby vegetation. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at lower elevations in South Africa than Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris).Food and Feeding.Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding. More than one male Smith’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. Females give birth to young in nests lined with their fur and grass in small cavities in the ground. Young are likely altricial, with sparse covering of hair and eyes closed. Reproductive season is from spring to summer (September-February) in South Africa. Gestation lasts 35-45 days, and litter sizes are 1-2 young.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Smith’s Red Rock Hare is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat.",,"Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.",,,"Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat. Habitat loss from construction of human dwellings is a secondary threat. Twenty percent of the habitat of Smith’s Red Rock Hare has been lost since the 1900s, and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until 2022.","Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie (1997) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c¢) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee (2015) | Matthee & Robinson (1996) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b) | Smith & Boyer (2008a) | Smithers (1983) | Stewart (1971b) | Thomas (1902c)",,"4.Smith’s Red Rock HarePronolagus rupestrisFrench:Lapin de Smith/ German:Rotkaninchen/ Spanish:Liebre roja de SmithTaxonomy.Lepus rupestris A. Smith, 1834, “South Africa, rocky situations.”Refined by R. S. Hoffman and A. T. Smith in 2005 to “probably Van Rhynsdorp District, Western Cape Province, South Africa.”Formerly, P. rupestriswas included in P. crassicaudatus. Pronolagus saundersiaewas until recently included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified because probably no gene flow occurs between them. Distribution of P. rupestrisdoes not overlap those of P. randensis, P. saundersiae, and P. crassicaudatus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.rupestrisA.Smith,1834—N&NWSouthAfrica(NorthWestandNorthernCapeprovinces);recently,aspecimenhasbeensampledinSNamibia(Keetmanshoop),sothedistributioncouldbecontiguousfromSouthAfricaacrosstheOrangeRiver.P.r.curryiThomas,1902—NSouthAfrica(FreeStateP.r.).P.r.nytkaeThomas,1902—EZambia,andNMalawi.P. r. vallicola Kershaw, 1924— SW Kenya and C Tanzania.Descriptive notes. Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur with reddish undertone. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized and either black or black and dark red. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rockyhillsides with boulders with grassy or scrubby vegetation. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at lower elevations in South Africa than Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris).Food and Feeding.Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding. More than one male Smith’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. Females give birth to young in nests lined with their fur and grass in small cavities in the ground. Young are likely altricial, with sparse covering of hair and eyes closed. Reproductive season is from spring to summer (September-February) in South Africa. Gestation lasts 35-45 days, and litter sizes are 1-2 young.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Smith’s Red Rock Hare is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat. Habitat loss from construction of human dwellings is a secondary threat. Twenty percent of the habitat of Smith’s Red Rock Hare has been lost since the 1900s, and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until 2022.Bibliography. Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c¢), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee (2015), Matthee & Robinson (1996), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b), Smith & Boyer (2008a), Smithers (1983), Stewart (1971b), Thomas (1902c)." -03822308B745FFFAFAC3F9BAFD52F339,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,109,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B745FFFAFAC3F9BAFD52F339.xml,Pronolagus randensis,Pronolagus,randensis,Jameson,1907,Lapin de Jameson @fr | Rand-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Jameson @es,"Pronolagus randensis Jameson, 1907, “Observatory Kopje...Johannesburg...Witwatersrand Range, Transvaal...5,900 ft [1798 m],” South Africa.Formerly, P. randensisincluded P. crassicaudatusas a subspecies. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified; there is no evidence of gene flow between them. A preliminary study on mtDNA within the distribution P. randensisrevealed little geographical variation. Distribution of P. randensisdoes not overlap those of P. crassicaudatusand P. rupestris, but it does overlap the eastern part of the distribution of P. saundersiae. The subspecific taxonomy in Pronolagusis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the distinctions in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","P.r.randensisJameson,1907—Zimbabwe,extremeWMozambique,EBotswana,andNESouthAfrica.P.r.caucinusThomas,1929—C&NWNamibia,andperhapsextremeSWAngola.P.r. whitei Roberts, 1938— E Zimbabwe.","Head—body 420-500 mm,tail 60-135 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 1.8-3 kg. The Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized. Fur is dense and woolly, with silky texture. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and rufous on rump and flanks. Ventral fur is pale cinnamon. Head is grizzled brownish gray, with lower cheeks and throat whitish gray. Ears are short and brownish gray. Nuchal patch is rufous, and gular patch is brownish rufous. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized, with blackish rufous color.","Solid rocks (“kopjes”), gorges, cliffs, and rocky hills, often naturally fragmented. Rock crevices and boulders are essential components of habitat ofJameson’s Red Rock Hares. Populations sometimeslive on isolated kopjes up to 22 km apart, and therefore, individuals have to cross non-rocky habitat to disperse. When Jameson’s Red Rock Hare lives in sympatry with the Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. saundersiae), it prefers drier, lower mountain slopes, with manyjumbled boulders and rock crevices, and Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare prefers higher elevations with fewer boulders and crevices and higher rainfall.",Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous and grazes on grasses among rocks or at the base of rocky hills. Individuals congregate on recently burned areas to feed on sprouting grasses and avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.,"More than one male Jameson’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. It seems to breed throughout the year in Zimbabwe. Pregnancies have been recorded in January, May, July, and August. Lactating females have been documented in June,July, and August. Litter sizes are 1-2 young, with an average of 1-1 young.","Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is mainly nocturnal but regularly feeds and sunbathes in late afternoon. It rests in rock crevices, under boulders, or in thick grass near rocks during the day. All species of red rock hares can leap from rock to rock and run up steep rock faces to reach crevices.","Jameson’s Red Rock Hares generally live alone. Occasionally, they form small groups of a female and her young or an adult female with 1-2 males. Several individuals sometimes congregate for grazing. A study in Matopos Hill, Zimbabwe, showed that most nocturnal observations were of single individuals and only 15% were of pairs. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that may serve a social function.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jameson's Red Rock Hare is widespread and common within its distribution. Although some decline has occurred and continues, it is not severe, and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa. Future decline in the total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time. Decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Myrtaceae) within the distribution ofJameson’s Red Rock Hare. Since the 1900s, 21-50% ofthe total suitable habitat has been lost, and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2022. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is hunted for food and sport.","Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b, 2008a) | Peddie (1975) | Roberts (1938) | Smithers (1983) | Smithers & Wilson (1979)",,"2.Jameson’s Red Rock HarePronolagus randensisFrench:Lapin de Jameson/ German:Rand-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de JamesonTaxonomy.Pronolagus randensis Jameson, 1907, “Observatory Kopje...Johannesburg...Witwatersrand Range, Transvaal...5,900 ft [1798 m],” South Africa.Formerly, P. randensisincluded P. crassicaudatusas a subspecies. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified; there is no evidence of gene flow between them. A preliminary study on mtDNA within the distribution P. randensisrevealed little geographical variation. Distribution of P. randensisdoes not overlap those of P. crassicaudatusand P. rupestris, but it does overlap the eastern part of the distribution of P. saundersiae. The subspecific taxonomy in Pronolagusis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the distinctions in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.randensisJameson,1907—Zimbabwe,extremeWMozambique,EBotswana,andNESouthAfrica.P.r.caucinusThomas,1929—C&NWNamibia,andperhapsextremeSWAngola.P.r. whitei Roberts, 1938— E Zimbabwe.Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-500 mm,tail 60-135 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 1.8-3 kg. The Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized. Fur is dense and woolly, with silky texture. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and rufous on rump and flanks. Ventral fur is pale cinnamon. Head is grizzled brownish gray, with lower cheeks and throat whitish gray. Ears are short and brownish gray. Nuchal patch is rufous, and gular patch is brownish rufous. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized, with blackish rufous color.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”), gorges, cliffs, and rocky hills, often naturally fragmented. Rock crevices and boulders are essential components of habitat ofJameson’s Red Rock Hares. Populations sometimeslive on isolated kopjes up to 22 km apart, and therefore, individuals have to cross non-rocky habitat to disperse. When Jameson’s Red Rock Hare lives in sympatry with the Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. saundersiae), it prefers drier, lower mountain slopes, with manyjumbled boulders and rock crevices, and Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare prefers higher elevations with fewer boulders and crevices and higher rainfall.Food and Feeding.Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous and grazes on grasses among rocks or at the base of rocky hills. Individuals congregate on recently burned areas to feed on sprouting grasses and avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.On following pages: 3. Natal Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus crassicaudatus); 4. Smith's Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus rupestris Rabbit(Bunolagus monticularis); 8. Pygmy Rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis); 9. Sumatran Striped Rabbit (Nesolagus Jose Brush Rabbit(Sylvilagus mansuetus); 13. Desert Cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii); 14. Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus); 5. Hewitt's Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus saundersiae); 6. Volcano Rabbit (Romerolagus diazi); 7. Riverine netscheri); 10. Annamite Striped Rabbit (Nesolagus timminsi); 11. Brush Rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani); 12. San nuttalli); 15. New England Cottontail (Sylvilagus transitionalis).Breeding.More than one male Jameson’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. It seems to breed throughout the year in Zimbabwe. Pregnancies have been recorded in January, May, July, and August. Lactating females have been documented in June,July, and August. Litter sizes are 1-2 young, with an average of 1-1 young.Activity patterns.Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is mainly nocturnal but regularly feeds and sunbathes in late afternoon. It rests in rock crevices, under boulders, or in thick grass near rocks during the day. All species of red rock hares can leap from rock to rock and run up steep rock faces to reach crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Jameson’s Red Rock Hares generally live alone. Occasionally, they form small groups of a female and her young or an adult female with 1-2 males. Several individuals sometimes congregate for grazing. A study in Matopos Hill, Zimbabwe, showed that most nocturnal observations were of single individuals and only 15% were of pairs. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that may serve a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jameson's Red Rock Hare is widespread and common within its distribution. Although some decline has occurred and continues, it is not severe, and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa. Future decline in the total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time. Decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Myrtaceae) within the distribution ofJameson’s Red Rock Hare. Since the 1900s, 21-50% ofthe total suitable habitat has been lost, and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2022. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is hunted for food and sport.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b, 2008a), Peddie (1975), Roberts (1938), Smithers (1983), Smithers & Wilson (1979)." +03822308B744FFFAFF69FA0AF832F5E7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,110,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B744FFFAFF69FA0AF832F5E7.xml,Pronolagus crassicaudatus,Pronolagus,crassicaudatus,,,Lapin du Natal @fr | Natal-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Natal @es | Greater Red Rock Hare @en,"Lepus crassicaudatus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1832, “Port Natal [= Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa].”Formerly, P. crassicaudatuswas included as a subspecies of P. randensisbut now has species status. Previously, P. rupestrisand P. saundersiaewere considered to be subspecies of P. crassicaudatus. Some authors list five subspecies (crassicaudatus, rudd, karigae, bowkeri, and lebombo), but their status, characteristics, and geographical limits are uncertain, and their validity is doubtful, especially because they are distinguished partly by color of nuchal patch. Distribution of P. ¢ crassicaudatusdoes not overlap those of P. randensisand P. rupestris, but in the western half ofits range overlaps with P. saundersiae. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","P.c.crassicaudatus1.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1832—SESouthAfrica(KwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovincesSoftheTugelaRiver)andELesotho.P.c. rudd: Thomas & Schwann, 1905— extreme S Mozambique (Maputo Province), Swaziland, and E South Africa (Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces S to the Tugela River).","Head—body 460-560 mm, tail 35-110 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 100-125 mm; weight 2.4-3.1 kg. The Natal Red Rock Hareis large, with rather dense and harsh fur. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and flecked with black. Pelage is bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is pale rufous, with irregular white patches and streaks. Head is grayish brown and slightly grizzled. Chin, lower cheeks, and throat are gray, with grayish white band extending laterally along edges ofjaws to brown to gray nuchal patch. Patch on throat is brownish rufous. Ears are relatively short, sparsely furred, and whitish gray on outer surfaces and gray on inner surfaces. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are dull rufous. Tail is short and entirety bright rufous.","Solid rocks (“kopjes”), rocky hillsides, and ravines with grass or scrubby vegetation among rocks or bases of the rocks. Natural fragmentation of habitat exists due to distribution of suitable habitat. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs from sea level to elevations of ¢.1550 m.","The Natal Red Rock Hare is herbivorous, and its diet consists mainly of sprouting grasses. It relies heavily on rocks and boulders for cover and rarely moves far away from them when foraging. Individuals avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.","More than one male Natal Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. A study in KwaZulu-Natal recorded pregnant females in June and August and lactating females in August, October, and February. This suggests that reproduction takes place throughout much of the year. Numbers of embryos were 1-2.","The Natal Red Rock Hare is nocturnal. It hides in rock crevices, under boulders, or in dense grass during the day.",The Natal Red Rock Hare lives in small colonies of a few individuals. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Natal Red Rock Hare has a decreasing population trend, but it is widespread and abundant within its distribution. More than 10,000 adult individuals exist in the wild. Nevertheless, a population decline has been recorded due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting and trapping pressures in rural areas. Population decline is predicted to be 20% or more until 2022. In the limited region where the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs, human populations are largely low income and hunt local fauna for subsistence. This enhances the conservation threat to this otherwise abundant species. Further threats include agricultural and habitat encroachment that cause habitat loss. Since the 1990s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss until 2022 is expected in the distribution of the Natal Red Rock Hare.","Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie (1997) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004a, 2008b) | Petter (1972) | Smithers (1983) | Taylor (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625549/files/figure.png,"3.Natal Red Rock HarePronolagus crassicaudatusFrench:Lapin du Natal/ German:Natal-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de NatalOther common names:Greater Red Rock HareTaxonomy.Lepus crassicaudatus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1832, “Port Natal [= Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa].”Formerly, P. crassicaudatuswas included as a subspecies of P. randensisbut now has species status. Previously, P. rupestrisand P. saundersiaewere considered to be subspecies of P. crassicaudatus. Some authors list five subspecies (crassicaudatus, rudd, karigae, bowkeri, and lebombo), but their status, characteristics, and geographical limits are uncertain, and their validity is doubtful, especially because they are distinguished partly by color of nuchal patch. Distribution of P. ¢ crassicaudatusdoes not overlap those of P. randensisand P. rupestris, but in the western half ofits range overlaps with P. saundersiae. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.c.crassicaudatus1.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1832—SESouthAfrica(KwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovincesSoftheTugelaRiver)andELesotho.P.c. rudd: Thomas & Schwann, 1905— extreme S Mozambique (Maputo Province), Swaziland, and E South Africa (Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces S to the Tugela River).Descriptive notes.Head—body 460-560 mm, tail 35-110 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 100-125 mm; weight 2.4-3.1 kg. The Natal Red Rock Hareis large, with rather dense and harsh fur. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and flecked with black. Pelage is bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is pale rufous, with irregular white patches and streaks. Head is grayish brown and slightly grizzled. Chin, lower cheeks, and throat are gray, with grayish white band extending laterally along edges ofjaws to brown to gray nuchal patch. Patch on throat is brownish rufous. Ears are relatively short, sparsely furred, and whitish gray on outer surfaces and gray on inner surfaces. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are dull rufous. Tail is short and entirety bright rufous.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”), rocky hillsides, and ravines with grass or scrubby vegetation among rocks or bases of the rocks. Natural fragmentation of habitat exists due to distribution of suitable habitat. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs from sea level to elevations of ¢.1550 m.Food and Feeding.The Natal Red Rock Hare is herbivorous, and its diet consists mainly of sprouting grasses. It relies heavily on rocks and boulders for cover and rarely moves far away from them when foraging. Individuals avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding.More than one male Natal Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. A study in KwaZulu-Natal recorded pregnant females in June and August and lactating females in August, October, and February. This suggests that reproduction takes place throughout much of the year. Numbers of embryos were 1-2.Activity patterns.The Natal Red Rock Hare is nocturnal. It hides in rock crevices, under boulders, or in dense grass during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Natal Red Rock Hare lives in small colonies of a few individuals. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Natal Red Rock Hare has a decreasing population trend, but it is widespread and abundant within its distribution. More than 10,000 adult individuals exist in the wild. Nevertheless, a population decline has been recorded due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting and trapping pressures in rural areas. Population decline is predicted to be 20% or more until 2022. In the limited region where the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs, human populations are largely low income and hunt local fauna for subsistence. This enhances the conservation threat to this otherwise abundant species. Further threats include agricultural and habitat encroachment that cause habitat loss. Since the 1990s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss until 2022 is expected in the distribution of the Natal Red Rock Hare.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004a, 2008b), Petter (1972), Smithers (1983), Taylor (1998)." +03822308B744FFFDFA15FBB9FB68F407,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,110,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B744FFFDFA15FBB9FB68F407.xml,Pronolagus rupestris,Pronolagus,rupestris,,,Lapin de Smith @fr | Rotkaninchen @de | Liebre roja de Smith @es,"Lepus rupestris A. Smith, 1834, “South Africa, rocky situations.”Refined by R. S. Hoffman and A. T. Smith in 2005 to “probably Van Rhynsdorp District, Western Cape Province, South Africa.”Formerly, P. rupestriswas included in P. crassicaudatus. Pronolagus saundersiaewas until recently included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified because probably no gene flow occurs between them. Distribution of P. rupestrisdoes not overlap those of P. randensis, P. saundersiae, and P. crassicaudatus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","P.r.rupestrisA.Smith,1834—N&NWSouthAfrica(NorthWestandNorthernCapeprovinces);recently,aspecimenhasbeensampledinSNamibia(Keetmanshoop),sothedistributioncouldbecontiguousfromSouthAfricaacrosstheOrangeRiver.P.r.curryiThomas,1902—NSouthAfrica(FreeStateP.r.).P.r.nytkaeThomas,1902—EZambia,andNMalawi.P. r. vallicola Kershaw, 1924— SW Kenya and C Tanzania.","Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur with reddish undertone. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized and either black or black and dark red. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rockyhillsides with boulders with grassy or scrubby vegetation. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at lower elevations in South Africa than Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris).Food and Feeding.Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding. More than one male Smith’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. Females give birth to young in nests lined with their fur and grass in small cavities in the ground. Young are likely altricial, with sparse covering of hair and eyes closed. Reproductive season is from spring to summer (September-February) in South Africa. Gestation lasts 35-45 days, and litter sizes are 1-2 young.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Smith’s Red Rock Hare is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat.",,"Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.",,,"Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat. Habitat loss from construction of human dwellings is a secondary threat. Twenty percent of the habitat of Smith’s Red Rock Hare has been lost since the 1900s, and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until 2022.","Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie (1997) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c¢) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee (2015) | Matthee & Robinson (1996) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b) | Smith & Boyer (2008a) | Smithers (1983) | Stewart (1971b) | Thomas (1902c)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625551/files/figure.png,"4.Smith’s Red Rock HarePronolagus rupestrisFrench:Lapin de Smith/ German:Rotkaninchen/ Spanish:Liebre roja de SmithTaxonomy.Lepus rupestris A. Smith, 1834, “South Africa, rocky situations.”Refined by R. S. Hoffman and A. T. Smith in 2005 to “probably Van Rhynsdorp District, Western Cape Province, South Africa.”Formerly, P. rupestriswas included in P. crassicaudatus. Pronolagus saundersiaewas until recently included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified because probably no gene flow occurs between them. Distribution of P. rupestrisdoes not overlap those of P. randensis, P. saundersiae, and P. crassicaudatus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.rupestrisA.Smith,1834—N&NWSouthAfrica(NorthWestandNorthernCapeprovinces);recently,aspecimenhasbeensampledinSNamibia(Keetmanshoop),sothedistributioncouldbecontiguousfromSouthAfricaacrosstheOrangeRiver.P.r.curryiThomas,1902—NSouthAfrica(FreeStateP.r.).P.r.nytkaeThomas,1902—EZambia,andNMalawi.P. r. vallicola Kershaw, 1924— SW Kenya and C Tanzania.Descriptive notes. Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur with reddish undertone. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized and either black or black and dark red. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rockyhillsides with boulders with grassy or scrubby vegetation. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at lower elevations in South Africa than Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris).Food and Feeding.Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding. More than one male Smith’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. Females give birth to young in nests lined with their fur and grass in small cavities in the ground. Young are likely altricial, with sparse covering of hair and eyes closed. Reproductive season is from spring to summer (September-February) in South Africa. Gestation lasts 35-45 days, and litter sizes are 1-2 young.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Smith’s Red Rock Hare is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat. Habitat loss from construction of human dwellings is a secondary threat. Twenty percent of the habitat of Smith’s Red Rock Hare has been lost since the 1900s, and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until 2022.Bibliography. Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c¢), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee (2015), Matthee & Robinson (1996), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b), Smith & Boyer (2008a), Smithers (1983), Stewart (1971b), Thomas (1902c)." +03822308B745FFFAFAC3F9BAFD52F339,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,109,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B745FFFAFAC3F9BAFD52F339.xml,Pronolagus randensis,Pronolagus,randensis,Jameson,1907,Lapin de Jameson @fr | Rand-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Jameson @es,"Pronolagus randensis Jameson, 1907, “Observatory Kopje...Johannesburg...Witwatersrand Range, Transvaal...5,900 ft [1798 m],” South Africa.Formerly, P. randensisincluded P. crassicaudatusas a subspecies. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified; there is no evidence of gene flow between them. A preliminary study on mtDNA within the distribution P. randensisrevealed little geographical variation. Distribution of P. randensisdoes not overlap those of P. crassicaudatusand P. rupestris, but it does overlap the eastern part of the distribution of P. saundersiae. The subspecific taxonomy in Pronolagusis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the distinctions in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","P.r.randensisJameson,1907—Zimbabwe,extremeWMozambique,EBotswana,andNESouthAfrica.P.r.caucinusThomas,1929—C&NWNamibia,andperhapsextremeSWAngola.P.r. whitei Roberts, 1938— E Zimbabwe.","Head—body 420-500 mm,tail 60-135 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 1.8-3 kg. The Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized. Fur is dense and woolly, with silky texture. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and rufous on rump and flanks. Ventral fur is pale cinnamon. Head is grizzled brownish gray, with lower cheeks and throat whitish gray. Ears are short and brownish gray. Nuchal patch is rufous, and gular patch is brownish rufous. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized, with blackish rufous color.","Solid rocks (“kopjes”), gorges, cliffs, and rocky hills, often naturally fragmented. Rock crevices and boulders are essential components of habitat ofJameson’s Red Rock Hares. Populations sometimeslive on isolated kopjes up to 22 km apart, and therefore, individuals have to cross non-rocky habitat to disperse. When Jameson’s Red Rock Hare lives in sympatry with the Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. saundersiae), it prefers drier, lower mountain slopes, with manyjumbled boulders and rock crevices, and Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare prefers higher elevations with fewer boulders and crevices and higher rainfall.",Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous and grazes on grasses among rocks or at the base of rocky hills. Individuals congregate on recently burned areas to feed on sprouting grasses and avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.,"More than one male Jameson’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. It seems to breed throughout the year in Zimbabwe. Pregnancies have been recorded in January, May, July, and August. Lactating females have been documented in June,July, and August. Litter sizes are 1-2 young, with an average of 1-1 young.","Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is mainly nocturnal but regularly feeds and sunbathes in late afternoon. It rests in rock crevices, under boulders, or in thick grass near rocks during the day. All species of red rock hares can leap from rock to rock and run up steep rock faces to reach crevices.","Jameson’s Red Rock Hares generally live alone. Occasionally, they form small groups of a female and her young or an adult female with 1-2 males. Several individuals sometimes congregate for grazing. A study in Matopos Hill, Zimbabwe, showed that most nocturnal observations were of single individuals and only 15% were of pairs. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that may serve a social function.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jameson's Red Rock Hare is widespread and common within its distribution. Although some decline has occurred and continues, it is not severe, and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa. Future decline in the total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time. Decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Myrtaceae) within the distribution ofJameson’s Red Rock Hare. Since the 1900s, 21-50% ofthe total suitable habitat has been lost, and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2022. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is hunted for food and sport.","Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b, 2008a) | Peddie (1975) | Roberts (1938) | Smithers (1983) | Smithers & Wilson (1979)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625547/files/figure.png,"2.Jameson’s Red Rock HarePronolagus randensisFrench:Lapin de Jameson/ German:Rand-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de JamesonTaxonomy.Pronolagus randensis Jameson, 1907, “Observatory Kopje...Johannesburg...Witwatersrand Range, Transvaal...5,900 ft [1798 m],” South Africa.Formerly, P. randensisincluded P. crassicaudatusas a subspecies. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified; there is no evidence of gene flow between them. A preliminary study on mtDNA within the distribution P. randensisrevealed little geographical variation. Distribution of P. randensisdoes not overlap those of P. crassicaudatusand P. rupestris, but it does overlap the eastern part of the distribution of P. saundersiae. The subspecific taxonomy in Pronolagusis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the distinctions in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.randensisJameson,1907—Zimbabwe,extremeWMozambique,EBotswana,andNESouthAfrica.P.r.caucinusThomas,1929—C&NWNamibia,andperhapsextremeSWAngola.P.r. whitei Roberts, 1938— E Zimbabwe.Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-500 mm,tail 60-135 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 1.8-3 kg. The Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized. Fur is dense and woolly, with silky texture. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and rufous on rump and flanks. Ventral fur is pale cinnamon. Head is grizzled brownish gray, with lower cheeks and throat whitish gray. Ears are short and brownish gray. Nuchal patch is rufous, and gular patch is brownish rufous. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized, with blackish rufous color.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”), gorges, cliffs, and rocky hills, often naturally fragmented. Rock crevices and boulders are essential components of habitat ofJameson’s Red Rock Hares. Populations sometimeslive on isolated kopjes up to 22 km apart, and therefore, individuals have to cross non-rocky habitat to disperse. When Jameson’s Red Rock Hare lives in sympatry with the Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. saundersiae), it prefers drier, lower mountain slopes, with manyjumbled boulders and rock crevices, and Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare prefers higher elevations with fewer boulders and crevices and higher rainfall.Food and Feeding.Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous and grazes on grasses among rocks or at the base of rocky hills. Individuals congregate on recently burned areas to feed on sprouting grasses and avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.On following pages: 3. Natal Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus crassicaudatus); 4. Smith's Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus rupestris Rabbit(Bunolagus monticularis); 8. Pygmy Rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis); 9. Sumatran Striped Rabbit (Nesolagus Jose Brush Rabbit(Sylvilagus mansuetus); 13. Desert Cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii); 14. Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus); 5. Hewitt's Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus saundersiae); 6. Volcano Rabbit (Romerolagus diazi); 7. Riverine netscheri); 10. Annamite Striped Rabbit (Nesolagus timminsi); 11. Brush Rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani); 12. San nuttalli); 15. New England Cottontail (Sylvilagus transitionalis).Breeding.More than one male Jameson’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. It seems to breed throughout the year in Zimbabwe. Pregnancies have been recorded in January, May, July, and August. Lactating females have been documented in June,July, and August. Litter sizes are 1-2 young, with an average of 1-1 young.Activity patterns.Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is mainly nocturnal but regularly feeds and sunbathes in late afternoon. It rests in rock crevices, under boulders, or in thick grass near rocks during the day. All species of red rock hares can leap from rock to rock and run up steep rock faces to reach crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Jameson’s Red Rock Hares generally live alone. Occasionally, they form small groups of a female and her young or an adult female with 1-2 males. Several individuals sometimes congregate for grazing. A study in Matopos Hill, Zimbabwe, showed that most nocturnal observations were of single individuals and only 15% were of pairs. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that may serve a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jameson's Red Rock Hare is widespread and common within its distribution. Although some decline has occurred and continues, it is not severe, and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa. Future decline in the total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time. Decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Myrtaceae) within the distribution ofJameson’s Red Rock Hare. Since the 1900s, 21-50% ofthe total suitable habitat has been lost, and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2022. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is hunted for food and sport.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b, 2008a), Peddie (1975), Roberts (1938), Smithers (1983), Smithers & Wilson (1979)." 03822308B745FFFBFFC7FE02F68AF2AD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,109,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B745FFFBFFC7FE02F68AF2AD.xml,Pentalagus furnessi,Pentalagus,furnessi,,,Lapin des Amami @fr | Ryukyu-Kaninchen @de | Conejo de Amami @es | Ryukyu Rabbit @en,"Caprolagus furnessi Stone, 1900, “Liu Kiu Islands [= Amami Oshima, Ryukyu Islands],” Japan.This species has been recognized as one of the most primitive lagomorphs in the world. Monotypic.",Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima (Ryukyu Is) in S Japan.,"Head-body 420-470 mm, tail 11-35 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 85-92 mm; weight 2.2-9 kg. The Amami Rabbit is medium-sized and has dark, thick, and woolly pelage. Dorsal fur is dark brown,it becomes reddish brown onsides, and ventralfur is light reddish brown. It has small eyes and short ears, hindfeet, and tail. Snoutis long, and limbs have relatively large strong nails (10-20 mm long) for digging nest holes. Nails are straight on forefeet and curved on hindfeet. Morphologicaltraits of the Amami Rabbit are similar to fossil species found in the Miocene stratum. Dark fur might provide camouflage in the dark forests they inhabit.Habitat.Originally dense primary forest prior to widespread deforestation, currently, subtropical forests of all successional stages but not near cultivated or residential areas. Amami Rabbits are also found in clear cuttings and forest edges covered by the Japanese pampas grass Miscanthus sinensis(Poaceae). The most suitable habitat seems to be a mosaic of the following different habitat types: rich undergrowth cover to provide abundant food, short arboreal cover of young secondary forests to provide hiding places, and old forests to yield acorns in autumn. The Amami Rabbit occurs from sea level up to 694 m on Amami Oshima and 645 m on Tokunoshima.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amami Rabbit consists of more than 29 species of plants: twelve species of herbaceous plants (e.g. Adenostemmalavenia, Asteraceae; Carex, Cyperaceae; M. sinensisand Peucedanumjaponicum, Apiaceae; and Mosladianthera, 1.amiaceae) and 17 shrub species (e.g. Castanopsissieboldii, Fagaceae; Melastomacandidum, Melastomataceae; Rubussieboldii, Rosaceae; Styraxjaponicus, Styracaceae; and Zanthoxylumailanthoides, Rutaceae). The Amami Rabbit eats mainly sprouts and young parts of plants but also nuts from many plant species. Nuts of C. sieboldii are the main part of the diet in autumn and winter.Breeding.The Amami Rabbit has two reproductive seasons per year: March—-May and September-December. Females dig burrows where young are born. Burrow has a 15cm entrance and is 150 cm deep, with a chamber (30 cm in diameter) full of leaves. Litter size is one. Neonates weigh ¢.100 g; have short brown hair, and closed eyes and ears.Juveniles stay in nest chambers. The female returns once per day between 20:00 h and 21:00 h to nurse for ¢.30 seconds. When the female leaves the burrow, she covers the entrance with soil and camouflages it with twigs and leaves. Females have three pairs of mammae (pectoral, abdominal, and inguinal). Mothers expel juveniles from nursing burrows at 3—4 months of age.Activity patterns.The Amami Rabbit is primarily nocturnal. Time of activity varies with season and tends to increase as winter approaches. Individuals burrow underground in densely covered forest valleys, where they stay during the day. Amami Rabbits also use bases of trees, bases of rocks, and inside fallen trees as burrows. Individuals leave their nests at ¢.17:00 h and return and enter nests at c.06:00 h. They frequently use runaways to climb up and down steep slopes from burrows and climb through undergrowth to open areas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Amami Rabbits move 100-200 m away from their burrow to feed and drop pellets on open places. Dung piles consist of an average of 28.7 pellets and are placed on runaways. Average home range size was 1-3 ha for four males and 1 ha for three females, recorded with radio-transmitters. Home ranges of females did not overlap, but those of the males did. Male home ranges overlapped those of the females. The Amami Rabbit has a vocalization like pikas (Ochotona) and beats the ground with its hindfeet. At dusk before they become active, individuals appear at entrances of their burrows and produce calls that can be heard loud and clear in small valleys. A mother vocalizes to attract her young when she approaches her nursing burrow. A vocalization usually consists of 3-4 calls like “puyi, puyi, puyi” (frequency 6-12 kHz, length 0-4-0-6 seconds, and interval 0-4-0-6 seconds). Numbers of vocalizations per hour by three captive Amami Rabbits were 3-30 with peaks at 20:00 h and 03:00 h in August and 3-24 with peaks at 19:00-23:00 h and 03:00 h in October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Amami Rabbit is endemic on two Japanese islands: Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima. Its area of occupancyis estimated to be 334-4 km? (301-4 km? on Amami Oshima and 33 km? on Tokunoshima), based on fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat. Amami Rabbits exist in four fragmented subpopulations, three of which are very small. Amami Rabbits are experiencing continuing population declines because of their small area of occupancy, small area and quality of available habitat, and low numbers of mature individuals. Declines are aggravated by invasive predators and habitat loss caused by forest clearing and resort construction. Probably in 1979, the Javan Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to Amami Oshima,resulting in a serious threat because the Amami Rabbit evolved in the absence of large active predators. The only native predator of the Amami Rabbit is a pit viper, the habu snake (Trimeresurus flavoviridis). Feral cats and dogs on both islands also represent an additional threat.","Originally dense primary forest prior to widespread deforestation, currently, subtropical forests of all successional stages but not near cultivated or residential areas. Amami Rabbits are also found in clear cuttings and forest edges covered by the Japanese pampas grass Miscanthus sinensis(Poaceae). The most suitable habitat seems to be a mosaic of the following different habitat types: rich undergrowth cover to provide abundant food, short arboreal cover of young secondary forests to provide hiding places, and old forests to yield acorns in autumn. The Amami Rabbit occurs from sea level up to 694 m on Amami Oshima and 645 m on Tokunoshima.","Diet of the Amami Rabbit consists of more than 29 species of plants: twelve species of herbaceous plants (e.g. Adenostemmalavenia, Asteraceae; Carex, Cyperaceae; M. sinensisand Peucedanumjaponicum, Apiaceae; and Mosladianthera, 1.amiaceae) and 17 shrub species (e.g. Castanopsissieboldii, Fagaceae; Melastomacandidum, Melastomataceae; Rubussieboldii, Rosaceae; Styraxjaponicus, Styracaceae; and Zanthoxylumailanthoides, Rutaceae). The Amami Rabbit eats mainly sprouts and young parts of plants but also nuts from many plant species. Nuts of C. sieboldii are the main part of the diet in autumn and winter.","The Amami Rabbit has two reproductive seasons per year: March—-May and September-December. Females dig burrows where young are born. Burrow has a 15cm entrance and is 150 cm deep, with a chamber (30 cm in diameter) full of leaves. Litter size is one. Neonates weigh ¢.100 g; have short brown hair, and closed eyes and ears.Juveniles stay in nest chambers. The female returns once per day between 20:00 h and 21:00 h to nurse for ¢.30 seconds. When the female leaves the burrow, she covers the entrance with soil and camouflages it with twigs and leaves. Females have three pairs of mammae (pectoral, abdominal, and inguinal). Mothers expel juveniles from nursing burrows at 3—4 months of age.","The Amami Rabbit is primarily nocturnal. Time of activity varies with season and tends to increase as winter approaches. Individuals burrow underground in densely covered forest valleys, where they stay during the day. Amami Rabbits also use bases of trees, bases of rocks, and inside fallen trees as burrows. Individuals leave their nests at ¢.17:00 h and return and enter nests at c.06:00 h. They frequently use runaways to climb up and down steep slopes from burrows and climb through undergrowth to open areas.","Amami Rabbits move 100-200 m away from their burrow to feed and drop pellets on open places. Dung piles consist of an average of 28.7 pellets and are placed on runaways. Average home range size was 1-3 ha for four males and 1 ha for three females, recorded with radio-transmitters. Home ranges of females did not overlap, but those of the males did. Male home ranges overlapped those of the females. The Amami Rabbit has a vocalization like pikas (Ochotona) and beats the ground with its hindfeet. At dusk before they become active, individuals appear at entrances of their burrows and produce calls that can be heard loud and clear in small valleys. A mother vocalizes to attract her young when she approaches her nursing burrow. A vocalization usually consists of 3-4 calls like “puyi, puyi, puyi” (frequency 6-12 kHz, length 0-4-0-6 seconds, and interval 0-4-0-6 seconds). Numbers of vocalizations per hour by three captive Amami Rabbits were 3-30 with peaks at 20:00 h and 03:00 h in August and 3-24 with peaks at 19:00-23:00 h and 03:00 h in October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Amami Rabbit is endemic on two Japanese islands: Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima. Its area of occupancyis estimated to be 334-4 km? (301-4 km? on Amami Oshima and 33 km? on Tokunoshima), based on fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat. Amami Rabbits exist in four fragmented subpopulations, three of which are very small. Amami Rabbits are experiencing continuing population declines because of their small area of occupancy, small area and quality of available habitat, and low numbers of mature individuals. Declines are aggravated by invasive predators and habitat loss caused by forest clearing and resort construction. Probably in 1979, the Javan Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to Amami Oshima,resulting in a serious threat because the Amami Rabbit evolved in the absence of large active predators. The only native predator of the Amami Rabbit is a pit viper, the habu snake (Trimeresurus flavoviridis). Feral cats and dogs on both islands also represent an additional threat. Habitat destruction by logging has caused a reduction of old forest by 70-90% since 1980. Forest roads constructed for logging encourage dispersal of predators into forests. Construction of resortfacilities (e.g. golf courses on Amami Island) have destroyed habitat. The larger population on Amami Oshima was estimated at 2000-4800 individuals, based on fecal pellet counts in 2002-2003. This represented a decline of ¢.20% since the last count in 1993-1994 (2500-6100 individuals). Area occupied by Amami Rabbits on Amami Oshima declined by 20-40% from 1977 to 1994. Abundance of Amami Rabbits on Tokunoshima is unknown. The Amami Rabbit was declared a natural monument of Japan in 1921 and a special natural monument in 1963. These designations prohibited hunting and capture of Amami Rabbits.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Amami Rabbit is endemic on two Japanese islands: Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima. Its area of occupancyis estimated to be 334-4 km? (301-4 km? on Amami Oshima and 33 km? on Tokunoshima), based on fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat. Amami Rabbits exist in four fragmented subpopulations, three of which are very small. Amami Rabbits are experiencing continuing population declines because of their small area of occupancy, small area and quality of available habitat, and low numbers of mature individuals. Declines are aggravated by invasive predators and habitat loss caused by forest clearing and resort construction. Probably in 1979, the Javan Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to Amami Oshima,resulting in a serious threat because the Amami Rabbit evolved in the absence of large active predators. The only native predator of the Amami Rabbit is a pit viper, the habu snake (Trimeresurus flavoviridis). Feral cats and dogs on both islands also represent an additional threat. Habitat destruction by logging has caused a reduction of old forest by 70-90% since 1980. Forest roads constructed for logging encourage dispersal of predators into forests. Construction of resortfacilities (e.g. golf courses on Amami Island) have destroyed habitat. The larger population on Amami Oshima was estimated at 2000-4800 individuals, based on fecal pellet counts in 2002-2003. This represented a decline of ¢.20% since the last count in 1993-1994 (2500-6100 individuals). Area occupied by Amami Rabbits on Amami Oshima declined by 20-40% from 1977 to 1994. Abundance of Amami Rabbits on Tokunoshima is unknown. The Amami Rabbit was declared a natural monument of Japan in 1921 and a special natural monument in 1963. These designations prohibited hunting and capture of Amami Rabbits. In 1999, the Center for Conservation of Amami Wildlife was established, and the Amami Rabbit was listed under the Japanese Endangered Species Act in 2004. Since 2005, a program of the Ministry of the Environmentstarted with the goal of eradicating the introduced Javan Mongoose.","Hayashi (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Stone (1900) | Sugimura (1990) | Sugimura & Yamada (2004) | Sugimura et al. (2000) | Watari et al. (2008) | Yamada (2002, 2008) | Yamada & Cervantes (2005) | Yamada & Sugimura (2004, 2008) | Yamada, Sugimura et al. (2000) | Yamada, Takaki & Suzuki (2002)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625545/files/figure.png,"1.Amami RabbitPentalagus furnessiFrench:Lapin des Amami/ German:Ryukyu-Kaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de AmamiOther common names:Ryukyu RabbitTaxonomy.Caprolagus furnessi Stone, 1900, “Liu Kiu Islands [= Amami Oshima, Ryukyu Islands],” Japan.This species has been recognized as one of the most primitive lagomorphs in the world. Monotypic.Distribution.Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima (Ryukyu Is) in S Japan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 420-470 mm, tail 11-35 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 85-92 mm; weight 2.2-9 kg. The Amami Rabbit is medium-sized and has dark, thick, and woolly pelage. Dorsal fur is dark brown,it becomes reddish brown onsides, and ventralfur is light reddish brown. It has small eyes and short ears, hindfeet, and tail. Snoutis long, and limbs have relatively large strong nails (10-20 mm long) for digging nest holes. Nails are straight on forefeet and curved on hindfeet. Morphologicaltraits of the Amami Rabbit are similar to fossil species found in the Miocene stratum. Dark fur might provide camouflage in the dark forests they inhabit.Habitat.Originally dense primary forest prior to widespread deforestation, currently, subtropical forests of all successional stages but not near cultivated or residential areas. Amami Rabbits are also found in clear cuttings and forest edges covered by the Japanese pampas grass Miscanthus sinensis(Poaceae). The most suitable habitat seems to be a mosaic of the following different habitat types: rich undergrowth cover to provide abundant food, short arboreal cover of young secondary forests to provide hiding places, and old forests to yield acorns in autumn. The Amami Rabbit occurs from sea level up to 694 m on Amami Oshima and 645 m on Tokunoshima.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amami Rabbit consists of more than 29 species of plants: twelve species of herbaceous plants (e.g. Adenostemmalavenia, Asteraceae; Carex, Cyperaceae; M. sinensisand Peucedanumjaponicum, Apiaceae; and Mosladianthera, 1.amiaceae) and 17 shrub species (e.g. Castanopsissieboldii, Fagaceae; Melastomacandidum, Melastomataceae; Rubussieboldii, Rosaceae; Styraxjaponicus, Styracaceae; and Zanthoxylumailanthoides, Rutaceae). The Amami Rabbit eats mainly sprouts and young parts of plants but also nuts from many plant species. Nuts of C. sieboldii are the main part of the diet in autumn and winter.Breeding.The Amami Rabbit has two reproductive seasons per year: March—-May and September-December. Females dig burrows where young are born. Burrow has a 15cm entrance and is 150 cm deep, with a chamber (30 cm in diameter) full of leaves. Litter size is one. Neonates weigh ¢.100 g; have short brown hair, and closed eyes and ears.Juveniles stay in nest chambers. The female returns once per day between 20:00 h and 21:00 h to nurse for ¢.30 seconds. When the female leaves the burrow, she covers the entrance with soil and camouflages it with twigs and leaves. Females have three pairs of mammae (pectoral, abdominal, and inguinal). Mothers expel juveniles from nursing burrows at 3—4 months of age.Activity patterns.The Amami Rabbit is primarily nocturnal. Time of activity varies with season and tends to increase as winter approaches. Individuals burrow underground in densely covered forest valleys, where they stay during the day. Amami Rabbits also use bases of trees, bases of rocks, and inside fallen trees as burrows. Individuals leave their nests at ¢.17:00 h and return and enter nests at c.06:00 h. They frequently use runaways to climb up and down steep slopes from burrows and climb through undergrowth to open areas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Amami Rabbits move 100-200 m away from their burrow to feed and drop pellets on open places. Dung piles consist of an average of 28.7 pellets and are placed on runaways. Average home range size was 1-3 ha for four males and 1 ha for three females, recorded with radio-transmitters. Home ranges of females did not overlap, but those of the males did. Male home ranges overlapped those of the females. The Amami Rabbit has a vocalization like pikas (Ochotona) and beats the ground with its hindfeet. At dusk before they become active, individuals appear at entrances of their burrows and produce calls that can be heard loud and clear in small valleys. A mother vocalizes to attract her young when she approaches her nursing burrow. A vocalization usually consists of 3-4 calls like “puyi, puyi, puyi” (frequency 6-12 kHz, length 0-4-0-6 seconds, and interval 0-4-0-6 seconds). Numbers of vocalizations per hour by three captive Amami Rabbits were 3-30 with peaks at 20:00 h and 03:00 h in August and 3-24 with peaks at 19:00-23:00 h and 03:00 h in October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Amami Rabbit is endemic on two Japanese islands: Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima. Its area of occupancyis estimated to be 334-4 km? (301-4 km? on Amami Oshima and 33 km? on Tokunoshima), based on fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat. Amami Rabbits exist in four fragmented subpopulations, three of which are very small. Amami Rabbits are experiencing continuing population declines because of their small area of occupancy, small area and quality of available habitat, and low numbers of mature individuals. Declines are aggravated by invasive predators and habitat loss caused by forest clearing and resort construction. Probably in 1979, the Javan Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to Amami Oshima,resulting in a serious threat because the Amami Rabbit evolved in the absence of large active predators. The only native predator of the Amami Rabbit is a pit viper, the habu snake (Trimeresurus flavoviridis). Feral cats and dogs on both islands also represent an additional threat. Habitat destruction by logging has caused a reduction of old forest by 70-90% since 1980. Forest roads constructed for logging encourage dispersal of predators into forests. Construction of resortfacilities (e.g. golf courses on Amami Island) have destroyed habitat. The larger population on Amami Oshima was estimated at 2000-4800 individuals, based on fecal pellet counts in 2002-2003. This represented a decline of ¢.20% since the last count in 1993-1994 (2500-6100 individuals). Area occupied by Amami Rabbits on Amami Oshima declined by 20-40% from 1977 to 1994. Abundance of Amami Rabbits on Tokunoshima is unknown. The Amami Rabbit was declared a natural monument of Japan in 1921 and a special natural monument in 1963. These designations prohibited hunting and capture of Amami Rabbits. In 1999, the Center for Conservation of Amami Wildlife was established, and the Amami Rabbit was listed under the Japanese Endangered Species Act in 2004. Since 2005, a program of the Ministry of the Environmentstarted with the goal of eradicating the introduced Javan Mongoose.Bibliography.Hayashi (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Stone (1900), Sugimura (1990), Sugimura & Yamada (2004), Sugimura et al. (2000), Watari et al. (2008), Yamada (2002, 2008), Yamada & Cervantes (2005), Yamada & Sugimura (2004, 2008), Yamada, Sugimura et al. (2000), Yamada, Takaki & Suzuki (2002)." 03822308B747FFF9FE64FE72F7EFF29B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,107,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B747FFF9FE64FE72F7EFF29B.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family LEPORIDAE(HARES AND RABBITS)• Small to medium-sized lagomorphs with short fluffy tails, soft thick pelage, and large eyes; ears project upward; hindlimbs longer than forelimbs.• 23-68 cm.• Holarctic, Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan, and Neotropical Regions.• Forests, shrubby areas, grasslands, deserts, tundra, alpine slopes, and agricultural landscapes up to 5400 m.• 11 genera, 63 species, 269 taxa.• 2 species Critically Endangered; 7 species Endangered; b species Vulnerable; no species Extinct since 1600." 03822308B748FFE9FA17F7EAFE26F2A6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,122,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B748FFE9FA17F7EAFE26F2A6.xml,Sylvilagus graysoni,Sylvilagus,graysoni,,,Lapin des Marias @fr | Tres-Marias-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Tres Marias @es | Tres Marias Rabbit @en,"Lepus graysoni]. A. Allen, 1877,“Tres Marias Islands.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1899 to “undoubtedly from Maria Madre [Island],” Nayarit, Mexico.Existence of two subspecies of S. graysoniis under consideration (grayson: and badistes). Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that insular S. grayson: shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cuniculariusthat invaded islands when they were very likely connected to the mainland during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. Monotypic.","Islas Marias, Nayarit State (W Mexico).","Head-body 440-470 mm, tail 33-50 mm, ear 62-64 mm, hindfoot 91-95 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Tres Marias Cottontail is medium-sized, with relatively short ears. Dorsal fur is reddish and brightest on nape and rump;lateral fur is paler reddish. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch.","Dense stands ofcacti, trees, brushes, and agaves 3-4 m high; tropical deciduous forests 4 m high; open woodland in coastal areas; agricultural coastal areas; and abandoned agricultural fields consisting of scattered growth of bushes from sea level to elevations of ¢.350 m. Insular habitats of the Tres Marias Cottontail are more arid than on the mainland. Average yearly rainfall is 635 mm; most of it falls during violet summer storms from the south-east. Temperatures are moderate, with monthly averages ranging from 20-3°C in January/February to 28-1°C in July/August.",There is no information available for this species.,One study revealed that eleven female Tres Marias Cottontails were lactating and two females were pregnant in March.,"After 15:00 h, Tres Marias Cottontails have been seen sitting in small open places in the woods’ undergrowth, apparently waiting for sunset.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tres Marias Cottontail is listed as critically endangered in Mexico. Its distribution in Mexico is limited to the Tres Marias Islands, an area less than 500 km2. These islands are located c.86 km off the western coast of Mexico (21-22° N, 106-107° W) and include four islands: Maria Madre, Maria Magdalena, Maria Cleofas, and San Juanito. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails are declining because of extensive habitat alterations on these islands. In 1897, the Tres Marias Cottontail was abundant in some places on the four islands. During a 1987 expedition,it was found only on San Juanito Island, which makes up ¢.12% ofthe total possible extent of occurrence. Main threats are hunting; extensive clearing of habitats and introduced White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), domestic pigs, and domestic goats; and increasing human settlements associated with a federal prison on Maria Madre Island. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails were more abundant on the uninhabited islands of Maria Cleofas and San Juanito, but Maria Cleofas Island has been stripped of ¢.50% ofits native vegetation for human settlements. Recommendations to ensure survival of the Tres Marias Cottontails are to establish reserves on Maria Madre Island, turn San Juanito Island into an ecological reserve, and stop all hunting. Status surveys need to be conducted to determine population status and specific habitat requirements, and long-term research on natural history and population densities in long-term projects should be initiated. Maria Magdalena Island has been designated an ecological reserve by the Mexican government.","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008e) | Cervantes (1997) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman etal. (1990) | Cervantes (1997) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lorenzo (1987) | Nelson (1899a, 1909) | Wilson (1991)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625597/files/figure.png,"24.Tres Marias CottontailSylvilagus graysoniFrench:Lapin des Marias/ German:Tres-Marias-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de Tres MariasOther common names:Tres Marias RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus graysoni]. A. Allen, 1877,“Tres Marias Islands.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1899 to “undoubtedly from Maria Madre [Island],” Nayarit, Mexico.Existence of two subspecies of S. graysoniis under consideration (grayson: and badistes). Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that insular S. grayson: shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cuniculariusthat invaded islands when they were very likely connected to the mainland during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. Monotypic.Distribution.Islas Marias, Nayarit State (W Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 440-470 mm, tail 33-50 mm, ear 62-64 mm, hindfoot 91-95 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Tres Marias Cottontail is medium-sized, with relatively short ears. Dorsal fur is reddish and brightest on nape and rump;lateral fur is paler reddish. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch.Habitat.Dense stands ofcacti, trees, brushes, and agaves 3-4 m high; tropical deciduous forests 4 m high; open woodland in coastal areas; agricultural coastal areas; and abandoned agricultural fields consisting of scattered growth of bushes from sea level to elevations of ¢.350 m. Insular habitats of the Tres Marias Cottontail are more arid than on the mainland. Average yearly rainfall is 635 mm; most of it falls during violet summer storms from the south-east. Temperatures are moderate, with monthly averages ranging from 20-3°C in January/February to 28-1°C in July/August.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.One study revealed that eleven female Tres Marias Cottontails were lactating and two females were pregnant in March.Activity patterns.After 15:00 h, Tres Marias Cottontails have been seen sitting in small open places in the woods’ undergrowth, apparently waiting for sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tres Marias Cottontail is listed as critically endangered in Mexico. Its distribution in Mexico is limited to the Tres Marias Islands, an area less than 500 km2. These islands are located c.86 km off the western coast of Mexico (21-22° N, 106-107° W) and include four islands: Maria Madre, Maria Magdalena, Maria Cleofas, and San Juanito. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails are declining because of extensive habitat alterations on these islands. In 1897, the Tres Marias Cottontail was abundant in some places on the four islands. During a 1987 expedition,it was found only on San Juanito Island, which makes up ¢.12% ofthe total possible extent of occurrence. Main threats are hunting; extensive clearing of habitats and introduced White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), domestic pigs, and domestic goats; and increasing human settlements associated with a federal prison on Maria Madre Island. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails were more abundant on the uninhabited islands of Maria Cleofas and San Juanito, but Maria Cleofas Island has been stripped of ¢.50% ofits native vegetation for human settlements. Recommendations to ensure survival of the Tres Marias Cottontails are to establish reserves on Maria Madre Island, turn San Juanito Island into an ecological reserve, and stop all hunting. Status surveys need to be conducted to determine population status and specific habitat requirements, and long-term research on natural history and population densities in long-term projects should be initiated. Maria Magdalena Island has been designated an ecological reserve by the Mexican government.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008e), Cervantes (1997), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman etal. (1990), Cervantes (1997), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lorenzo (1987), Nelson (1899a, 1909), Wilson (1991)." -03822308B748FFF6FF6AF6DEF89CFE54,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,122,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B748FFF6FF6AF6DEF89CFE54.xml,Sylvilagus cunicularius,Sylvilagus,cunicularius,,,Lapin du Mexique @fr | Mexiko-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de México @es,"Lepus cunicularius Waterhouse, 1848, “Mexico.” Restricted by G. G. Goodwin in 1969 to “Sacualpan [= Zacualpan],” Mexico State, Mexico.Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that S. graysoni, which is endemic to the Tres Marias Island, shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cunicularusthat invaded islands during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus cuniculariusis sympatric with Romerolagus diaziand S. floridanusin highlands of central Mexico. On borders of adjacent plains, S. cuniculariusoccurs sympatrically with S. audubonii, Lepus callotis, and L. californicus. This speciesis also sympatric with L. callotisin Guerrero and S. floridanusin coastal lowlands of S Sinaloa. Three subspecies recognized.","S.c.cuniculariusWaterhouse,1848—C&EMichoacan,SEHidalgo,StateofMexico,Tlaxcala,Morelos,Puebla,WCVeracruz,N&NEGuerrero,andWOaxaca(C&SMexico).S.c.insolitusJ.A.Allen,1890—SWtipofDurango,SSinaloa,WNayarit,W&SJalisco,Colima,andNW&WMichoacan,(WMexico).S. c. pacificus Nelson, 1904— S Michoacan, Guerrero (except the N & NE), and SW tip of Oaxaca (S Mexico).","Head-body 490-520 mm, tail 54-68 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 108-111 mm; weight 1.8-2.3 kg. The Mexican Cottontail is the largest rabbit in Mexico, equaling medium-sized hares in mass. It has coarse fur and massive skull. Dorsal pelage and head are dirty yellowish or grayish, with rufous nape. Eye rings are buff. Ears are about as long as head, and backs of ears are thinly haired and gray, with extreme tips and outer edges darkening to black. Ventral fur is dingy whitish. Forelegs, hindlegs, and sides of hindfeet are dull rust-brown. Tail is short, grayish brown above and pure white below. There is geographical variation in size with individuals in the western part of the distribution slightly larger than those from elsewhere. Amount of variation is surprisingly small considering the wide distribution of the Mexican Cottontail under various climatic conditions. General color becomes paler and more of dingy yellowish gray in worn pelage.","Arid lowlands and temperate highlands from sea level to elevations of c.3400 m in the highlands of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mexican Cottontails display wide ecological tolerance, and they select areas of grasses and herbs. In western Mexico, they occur in tropical deciduous and pine—oak zones and pastures. In the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, they inhabit forests of pine and oak—pine, with understories of clumped grasses.","Diet of the Mexican Cottontail consists of true grasses including Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucaamplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). It selects tender shoots of grasses, young leaves of forbs, bark of shrubs, and cultivated plants such as oats (Avenasativa), maize (Zeamays), and barley (Hordeumvulgare).",The Mexican Cottontail seems to breed throughout the year. Females produce up to six young per litter and severallitters per year. Gestation is ¢.30 days.,"The Mexican Cottontail is active mainly at dusk and dawn, although they can be active at night and during the day.",The Mexican Cottontail lives alone. Fecal pellets accumulate in dung piles and are regularly found next to bases of grasses; each pile is at least 20 m from the next. Mexican Cottontails in central Mexican highlands use abandoned burrows of Merriam’s Pocket Gophers (Cratogeomys merriami) and natural rocky hollows and crevices on and underneath the ground.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Mexican Cottontails is commonly hunted for food and sport. It is endemic to Mexico and has been abundant near the coast of Chamela and Jalisco and in Morelos, but populations have declined due to hunting. Overgrazing and habitat destruction have caused population declines in some areas, butit is still quite abundant throughoutits distribution.","Alvarez et al. (1987) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008d) | Angermann (2016) | Armstrong & Jones (1971) | Ceballos & Galindo (1984) | Ceballos & Miranda (1986) | Cervantes (1980) | Cervantes et al. (1992) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Davis (1944) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1954) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Goodwin (1969) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Leopold (1959, 1972) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo (1987) | Nelson (1909) | Thomas (1890)",,"23.Mexican CottontailSylvilagus cuniculariusFrench:Lapin du Mexique/ German:Mexiko-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de MéxicoTaxonomy.Lepus cunicularius Waterhouse, 1848, “Mexico.” Restricted by G. G. Goodwin in 1969 to “Sacualpan [= Zacualpan],” Mexico State, Mexico.Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that S. graysoni, which is endemic to the Tres Marias Island, shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cunicularusthat invaded islands during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus cuniculariusis sympatric with Romerolagus diaziand S. floridanusin highlands of central Mexico. On borders of adjacent plains, S. cuniculariusoccurs sympatrically with S. audubonii, Lepus callotis, and L. californicus. This speciesis also sympatric with L. callotisin Guerrero and S. floridanusin coastal lowlands of S Sinaloa. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.c.cuniculariusWaterhouse,1848—C&EMichoacan,SEHidalgo,StateofMexico,Tlaxcala,Morelos,Puebla,WCVeracruz,N&NEGuerrero,andWOaxaca(C&SMexico).S.c.insolitusJ.A.Allen,1890—SWtipofDurango,SSinaloa,WNayarit,W&SJalisco,Colima,andNW&WMichoacan,(WMexico).S. c. pacificus Nelson, 1904— S Michoacan, Guerrero (except the N & NE), and SW tip of Oaxaca (S Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 490-520 mm, tail 54-68 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 108-111 mm; weight 1.8-2.3 kg. The Mexican Cottontail is the largest rabbit in Mexico, equaling medium-sized hares in mass. It has coarse fur and massive skull. Dorsal pelage and head are dirty yellowish or grayish, with rufous nape. Eye rings are buff. Ears are about as long as head, and backs of ears are thinly haired and gray, with extreme tips and outer edges darkening to black. Ventral fur is dingy whitish. Forelegs, hindlegs, and sides of hindfeet are dull rust-brown. Tail is short, grayish brown above and pure white below. There is geographical variation in size with individuals in the western part of the distribution slightly larger than those from elsewhere. Amount of variation is surprisingly small considering the wide distribution of the Mexican Cottontail under various climatic conditions. General color becomes paler and more of dingy yellowish gray in worn pelage.Habitat.Arid lowlands and temperate highlands from sea level to elevations of c.3400 m in the highlands of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mexican Cottontails display wide ecological tolerance, and they select areas of grasses and herbs. In western Mexico, they occur in tropical deciduous and pine—oak zones and pastures. In the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, they inhabit forests of pine and oak—pine, with understories of clumped grasses.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Mexican Cottontail consists of true grasses including Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucaamplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). It selects tender shoots of grasses, young leaves of forbs, bark of shrubs, and cultivated plants such as oats (Avenasativa), maize (Zeamays), and barley (Hordeumvulgare).Breeding.The Mexican Cottontail seems to breed throughout the year. Females produce up to six young per litter and severallitters per year. Gestation is ¢.30 days.Activity patterns.The Mexican Cottontail is active mainly at dusk and dawn, although they can be active at night and during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Mexican Cottontail lives alone. Fecal pellets accumulate in dung piles and are regularly found next to bases of grasses; each pile is at least 20 m from the next. Mexican Cottontails in central Mexican highlands use abandoned burrows of Merriam’s Pocket Gophers (Cratogeomys merriami) and natural rocky hollows and crevices on and underneath the ground.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Mexican Cottontails is commonly hunted for food and sport. It is endemic to Mexico and has been abundant near the coast of Chamela and Jalisco and in Morelos, but populations have declined due to hunting. Overgrazing and habitat destruction have caused population declines in some areas, butit is still quite abundant throughoutits distribution.Bibliography.Alvarez et al. (1987), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008d), Angermann (2016), Armstrong & Jones (1971), Ceballos & Galindo (1984), Ceballos & Miranda (1986), Cervantes (1980), Cervantes et al. (1992), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Davis (1944), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1954), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Goodwin (1969), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Leopold (1959, 1972), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo (1987), Nelson (1909), Thomas (1890)." +03822308B748FFF6FF6AF6DEF89CFE54,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,122,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B748FFF6FF6AF6DEF89CFE54.xml,Sylvilagus cunicularius,Sylvilagus,cunicularius,,,Lapin du Mexique @fr | Mexiko-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de México @es,"Lepus cunicularius Waterhouse, 1848, “Mexico.” Restricted by G. G. Goodwin in 1969 to “Sacualpan [= Zacualpan],” Mexico State, Mexico.Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that S. graysoni, which is endemic to the Tres Marias Island, shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cunicularusthat invaded islands during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus cuniculariusis sympatric with Romerolagus diaziand S. floridanusin highlands of central Mexico. On borders of adjacent plains, S. cuniculariusoccurs sympatrically with S. audubonii, Lepus callotis, and L. californicus. This speciesis also sympatric with L. callotisin Guerrero and S. floridanusin coastal lowlands of S Sinaloa. Three subspecies recognized.","S.c.cuniculariusWaterhouse,1848—C&EMichoacan,SEHidalgo,StateofMexico,Tlaxcala,Morelos,Puebla,WCVeracruz,N&NEGuerrero,andWOaxaca(C&SMexico).S.c.insolitusJ.A.Allen,1890—SWtipofDurango,SSinaloa,WNayarit,W&SJalisco,Colima,andNW&WMichoacan,(WMexico).S. c. pacificus Nelson, 1904— S Michoacan, Guerrero (except the N & NE), and SW tip of Oaxaca (S Mexico).","Head-body 490-520 mm, tail 54-68 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 108-111 mm; weight 1.8-2.3 kg. The Mexican Cottontail is the largest rabbit in Mexico, equaling medium-sized hares in mass. It has coarse fur and massive skull. Dorsal pelage and head are dirty yellowish or grayish, with rufous nape. Eye rings are buff. Ears are about as long as head, and backs of ears are thinly haired and gray, with extreme tips and outer edges darkening to black. Ventral fur is dingy whitish. Forelegs, hindlegs, and sides of hindfeet are dull rust-brown. Tail is short, grayish brown above and pure white below. There is geographical variation in size with individuals in the western part of the distribution slightly larger than those from elsewhere. Amount of variation is surprisingly small considering the wide distribution of the Mexican Cottontail under various climatic conditions. General color becomes paler and more of dingy yellowish gray in worn pelage.","Arid lowlands and temperate highlands from sea level to elevations of c.3400 m in the highlands of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mexican Cottontails display wide ecological tolerance, and they select areas of grasses and herbs. In western Mexico, they occur in tropical deciduous and pine—oak zones and pastures. In the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, they inhabit forests of pine and oak—pine, with understories of clumped grasses.","Diet of the Mexican Cottontail consists of true grasses including Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucaamplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). It selects tender shoots of grasses, young leaves of forbs, bark of shrubs, and cultivated plants such as oats (Avenasativa), maize (Zeamays), and barley (Hordeumvulgare).",The Mexican Cottontail seems to breed throughout the year. Females produce up to six young per litter and severallitters per year. Gestation is ¢.30 days.,"The Mexican Cottontail is active mainly at dusk and dawn, although they can be active at night and during the day.",The Mexican Cottontail lives alone. Fecal pellets accumulate in dung piles and are regularly found next to bases of grasses; each pile is at least 20 m from the next. Mexican Cottontails in central Mexican highlands use abandoned burrows of Merriam’s Pocket Gophers (Cratogeomys merriami) and natural rocky hollows and crevices on and underneath the ground.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Mexican Cottontails is commonly hunted for food and sport. It is endemic to Mexico and has been abundant near the coast of Chamela and Jalisco and in Morelos, but populations have declined due to hunting. Overgrazing and habitat destruction have caused population declines in some areas, butit is still quite abundant throughoutits distribution.","Alvarez et al. (1987) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008d) | Angermann (2016) | Armstrong & Jones (1971) | Ceballos & Galindo (1984) | Ceballos & Miranda (1986) | Cervantes (1980) | Cervantes et al. (1992) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Davis (1944) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1954) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Goodwin (1969) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Leopold (1959, 1972) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo (1987) | Nelson (1909) | Thomas (1890)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625595/files/figure.png,"23.Mexican CottontailSylvilagus cuniculariusFrench:Lapin du Mexique/ German:Mexiko-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de MéxicoTaxonomy.Lepus cunicularius Waterhouse, 1848, “Mexico.” Restricted by G. G. Goodwin in 1969 to “Sacualpan [= Zacualpan],” Mexico State, Mexico.Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that S. graysoni, which is endemic to the Tres Marias Island, shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cunicularusthat invaded islands during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus cuniculariusis sympatric with Romerolagus diaziand S. floridanusin highlands of central Mexico. On borders of adjacent plains, S. cuniculariusoccurs sympatrically with S. audubonii, Lepus callotis, and L. californicus. This speciesis also sympatric with L. callotisin Guerrero and S. floridanusin coastal lowlands of S Sinaloa. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.c.cuniculariusWaterhouse,1848—C&EMichoacan,SEHidalgo,StateofMexico,Tlaxcala,Morelos,Puebla,WCVeracruz,N&NEGuerrero,andWOaxaca(C&SMexico).S.c.insolitusJ.A.Allen,1890—SWtipofDurango,SSinaloa,WNayarit,W&SJalisco,Colima,andNW&WMichoacan,(WMexico).S. c. pacificus Nelson, 1904— S Michoacan, Guerrero (except the N & NE), and SW tip of Oaxaca (S Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 490-520 mm, tail 54-68 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 108-111 mm; weight 1.8-2.3 kg. The Mexican Cottontail is the largest rabbit in Mexico, equaling medium-sized hares in mass. It has coarse fur and massive skull. Dorsal pelage and head are dirty yellowish or grayish, with rufous nape. Eye rings are buff. Ears are about as long as head, and backs of ears are thinly haired and gray, with extreme tips and outer edges darkening to black. Ventral fur is dingy whitish. Forelegs, hindlegs, and sides of hindfeet are dull rust-brown. Tail is short, grayish brown above and pure white below. There is geographical variation in size with individuals in the western part of the distribution slightly larger than those from elsewhere. Amount of variation is surprisingly small considering the wide distribution of the Mexican Cottontail under various climatic conditions. General color becomes paler and more of dingy yellowish gray in worn pelage.Habitat.Arid lowlands and temperate highlands from sea level to elevations of c.3400 m in the highlands of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mexican Cottontails display wide ecological tolerance, and they select areas of grasses and herbs. In western Mexico, they occur in tropical deciduous and pine—oak zones and pastures. In the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, they inhabit forests of pine and oak—pine, with understories of clumped grasses.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Mexican Cottontail consists of true grasses including Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucaamplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). It selects tender shoots of grasses, young leaves of forbs, bark of shrubs, and cultivated plants such as oats (Avenasativa), maize (Zeamays), and barley (Hordeumvulgare).Breeding.The Mexican Cottontail seems to breed throughout the year. Females produce up to six young per litter and severallitters per year. Gestation is ¢.30 days.Activity patterns.The Mexican Cottontail is active mainly at dusk and dawn, although they can be active at night and during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Mexican Cottontail lives alone. Fecal pellets accumulate in dung piles and are regularly found next to bases of grasses; each pile is at least 20 m from the next. Mexican Cottontails in central Mexican highlands use abandoned burrows of Merriam’s Pocket Gophers (Cratogeomys merriami) and natural rocky hollows and crevices on and underneath the ground.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Mexican Cottontails is commonly hunted for food and sport. It is endemic to Mexico and has been abundant near the coast of Chamela and Jalisco and in Morelos, but populations have declined due to hunting. Overgrazing and habitat destruction have caused population declines in some areas, butit is still quite abundant throughoutits distribution.Bibliography.Alvarez et al. (1987), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008d), Angermann (2016), Armstrong & Jones (1971), Ceballos & Galindo (1984), Ceballos & Miranda (1986), Cervantes (1980), Cervantes et al. (1992), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Davis (1944), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1954), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Goodwin (1969), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Leopold (1959, 1972), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo (1987), Nelson (1909), Thomas (1890)." 03822308B748FFF6FF6FFC82FDDAFF45,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,122,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B748FFF6FF6FFC82FDDAFF45.xml,Sylvilagus dicei,Sylvilagus,dicei,Harris,1932,Lapin de Dice @fr | Dice-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Dice @es,"Sylvilagus dicei Harris, 1932, “El Copey de Dota, in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica ... 6000 feet [1829 m].”Sylvilagus diceiwas formerly a subspecies of S. brasiliensis. Monotypic.",Cordillera de Talamanca (SC Costa Rica and W Panama).,"Head-body 390-450 mm, tail 15-29 mm, ear 49-54 mm, hindfoot 90-99 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Dice’s Cottontail is large and has rudimentary tail and short ears. Dorsal pelage is a mix of blacks and browns, and sides are blackish gray. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch. Tail is blackish and often not visible.","Paramos grasslands, shrublands, and oak cloud forests. Dice’s Cottontail inhabits high elevations from 1524 m in Cervantes up to 3536 m in Cerro Chirropo, Costa Rica, and 1219 m at Boquete and 1615 m at Cerro Punta, Panama.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Dice’s Cottontail is poorly known, and little data are available on its population status, although it seems common in the Andean Paramos and highland forests of Panama and Costa Rica. Nevertheless, locals report that it was previously more common and had a larger distribution that extended to lower elevations that have been converted to cattle pasture and agricultural land. Dice’s Cottontail is probably endangered due to its small distribution, invasive predators such as Coyotes (Canis latrans) that follow cattle, human-caused fire, and habitat loss due to forest logging for pasture. Nevertheless, the entire distribution of Dice’s Cottontail is within protected areas. Studies on its distribution, population status, conservation threats, biology, and ecology are urgent priorities.",Diersing (1981) | Hall (1981) | Harris (1932) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Reid (2009) | Smith & Boyer (2008d),https://zenodo.org/record/6625593/files/figure.png,"22.Dice’s CottontailSylvilagus diceiFrench:Lapin de Dice/ German:Dice-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de DiceTaxonomy.Sylvilagus dicei Harris, 1932, “El Copey de Dota, in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica ... 6000 feet [1829 m].”Sylvilagus diceiwas formerly a subspecies of S. brasiliensis. Monotypic.Distribution.Cordillera de Talamanca (SC Costa Rica and W Panama).Descriptive notes.Head-body 390-450 mm, tail 15-29 mm, ear 49-54 mm, hindfoot 90-99 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Dice’s Cottontail is large and has rudimentary tail and short ears. Dorsal pelage is a mix of blacks and browns, and sides are blackish gray. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch. Tail is blackish and often not visible.Habitat.Paramos grasslands, shrublands, and oak cloud forests. Dice’s Cottontail inhabits high elevations from 1524 m in Cervantes up to 3536 m in Cerro Chirropo, Costa Rica, and 1219 m at Boquete and 1615 m at Cerro Punta, Panama.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Dice’s Cottontail is poorly known, and little data are available on its population status, although it seems common in the Andean Paramos and highland forests of Panama and Costa Rica. Nevertheless, locals report that it was previously more common and had a larger distribution that extended to lower elevations that have been converted to cattle pasture and agricultural land. Dice’s Cottontail is probably endangered due to its small distribution, invasive predators such as Coyotes (Canis latrans) that follow cattle, human-caused fire, and habitat loss due to forest logging for pasture. Nevertheless, the entire distribution of Dice’s Cottontail is within protected areas. Studies on its distribution, population status, conservation threats, biology, and ecology are urgent priorities.Bibliography.Diersing (1981), Hall (1981), Harris (1932), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Reid (2009), Smith & Boyer (2008d)." 03822308B749FFF6FAC9F727FBE6F4AD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,121,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B749FFF6FAC9F727FBE6F4AD.xml,Sylvilagus varynaensis,Sylvilagus,varynaensis,Durant & Guevara,2001,Lapin du Venezuela @fr | Venezuela-Baumschwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Venezuela @es | Barinas Wild Rabbit @en,"Sylvilagus varynaensis Durant & Guevara, 2001, “Fundo Millano (8E46’LLN and 69E56’LW), 146 m elevation, 18 km NE of the town of Sabaneta, Distrito Obispos, state of Barinas,” Venezuela.This species probably lives sympatrically with S. brasiliensisand S. floridanus. Monotypic.Distribution.Lowlands of the Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guarico states (CE Venezuela).Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-450 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 5864 mm, hindfoot 83-89 mm; weight 1.5-1.8 kg. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit has buffy dorsal fur, bordered with black. Nuchal patch is reddish. Eye rings are cotton-white. Outer surfaces of ears are light buff. Ventral pelage is whitish; gular patch is reddish cinnamon. Tail is reddish cinnamon above and reddish buff below. Female Venezuelan Lowland Rabbits are larger than males.Habitat.Low shrubby, herbaceous savanna called “Escobillal,” consisting of Sida spp.and Malvastrum spp.(both Malvaceae). Savanna adjoins tropical dry forests.Food and Feeding.The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit feeds primarily on Sida spp.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbitlasts for ¢.270 days, with a peak in September-December. Gestation is c¢.35 days, and litter size averages 2-6 young/female.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit is a recently described species endemic to Venezuela, and little data are available on its distribution, population status, threats, and conservations status. It is only known from a few localities: Fundo Millano 18 km north-east of the town of Sabaneta, the type locality in Barinas, Chorrosco Bajo in Barinas 112 km east of type locality, Hato Cantaclaro 15 km north of the town of Santa Rosa, Hacienda Las Mercedesin Portuguesa 25 km west of the city of Guanare, and Finca Las Lajitas in Guarico 5 km north-west of the town of San Rafael de Orituco.","Lowlands of the Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guarico states (CE Venezuela).","Head—body 420-450 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 5864 mm, hindfoot 83-89 mm; weight 1.5-1.8 kg. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit has buffy dorsal fur, bordered with black. Nuchal patch is reddish. Eye rings are cotton-white. Outer surfaces of ears are light buff. Ventral pelage is whitish; gular patch is reddish cinnamon. Tail is reddish cinnamon above and reddish buff below. Female Venezuelan Lowland Rabbits are larger than males.","Low shrubby, herbaceous savanna called “Escobillal,” consisting of Sida spp.and Malvastrum spp.(both Malvaceae). Savanna adjoins tropical dry forests.",The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit feeds primarily on Sida spp.,"Reproductive season of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbitlasts for ¢.270 days, with a peak in September-December. Gestation is c¢.35 days, and litter size averages 2-6 young/female.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit is a recently described species endemic to Venezuela, and little data are available on its distribution, population status, threats, and conservations status. It is only known from a few localities: Fundo Millano 18 km north-east of the town of Sabaneta, the type locality in Barinas, Chorrosco Bajo in Barinas 112 km east of type locality, Hato Cantaclaro 15 km north of the town of Santa Rosa, Hacienda Las Mercedesin Portuguesa 25 km west of the city of Guanare, and Finca Las Lajitas in Guarico 5 km north-west of the town of San Rafael de Orituco. Distribution of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit may be more extensive than what is currently known. Research is needed to clarify its distribution, followed by establishment of management plans and conservation areas. Threats are likely similar to those faced by other species of Sylvilagusin Venezuela, such as deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, hunting, predation by feral dogs, and competition with livestock.","Durant & Guevara (2000, 2001, 2008) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625589/files/figure.png,"21.Venezuelan Lowland RabbitSylvilagus varynaensisFrench:Lapin du Venezuela/ German:Venezuela-Baumschwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de VenezuelaOther common names:Barinas Wild RabbitTaxonomy.Sylvilagus varynaensis Durant & Guevara, 2001, “Fundo Millano (8E46’LLN and 69E56’LW), 146 m elevation, 18 km NE of the town of Sabaneta, Distrito Obispos, state of Barinas,” Venezuela.This species probably lives sympatrically with S. brasiliensisand S. floridanus. Monotypic.Distribution.Lowlands of the Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guarico states (CE Venezuela).Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-450 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 5864 mm, hindfoot 83-89 mm; weight 1.5-1.8 kg. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit has buffy dorsal fur, bordered with black. Nuchal patch is reddish. Eye rings are cotton-white. Outer surfaces of ears are light buff. Ventral pelage is whitish; gular patch is reddish cinnamon. Tail is reddish cinnamon above and reddish buff below. Female Venezuelan Lowland Rabbits are larger than males.Habitat.Low shrubby, herbaceous savanna called “Escobillal,” consisting of Sida spp.and Malvastrum spp.(both Malvaceae). Savanna adjoins tropical dry forests.Food and Feeding.The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit feeds primarily on Sida spp.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbitlasts for ¢.270 days, with a peak in September-December. Gestation is c¢.35 days, and litter size averages 2-6 young/female.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit is a recently described species endemic to Venezuela, and little data are available on its distribution, population status, threats, and conservations status. It is only known from a few localities: Fundo Millano 18 km north-east of the town of Sabaneta, the type locality in Barinas, Chorrosco Bajo in Barinas 112 km east of type locality, Hato Cantaclaro 15 km north of the town of Santa Rosa, Hacienda Las Mercedesin Portuguesa 25 km west of the city of Guanare, and Finca Las Lajitas in Guarico 5 km north-west of the town of San Rafael de Orituco. Distribution of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit may be more extensive than what is currently known. Research is needed to clarify its distribution, followed by establishment of management plans and conservation areas. Threats are likely similar to those faced by other species of Sylvilagusin Venezuela, such as deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, hunting, predation by feral dogs, and competition with livestock.Bibliography.Durant & Guevara (2000, 2001, 2008), Hoffmann & Smith (2005)." -03822308B749FFF7FFC1F464FA61FE07,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,121,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B749FFF7FFC1F464FA61FE07.xml,Sylvilagus gabbi,Sylvilagus,gabbi,,,Lapin de Gabb @fr | Mittelamerika-Tapeti @de | Conejo de Centroamérica @es | Central American Forest Rabbit @en | Tropical Cottontail @en,"Lepus brasiliensis var. gabbi J. A. Allen, 1877, “Talamanca [= Sipurio, Rio Sixaola, near Caribbean coast], Costa Rica.”Formerly, Sylvilagus gabbiwas included in S. brasiliensis, but it recently received full species status due to chromosomal information and distinct morphological characters. Subspecies truei was moved from S. brasiliensisto S. gabbi. Three different karyotypes are recorded for S. gabbi(2n = 36, 2n = 38, and 2n = 40). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations.Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","S. g. gabbi]. A. Allen, 1877— SE Guatemala, N & E Honduras, N & E Nicaragua, NE, E & S Costa Rica, and Panama.S. g truer]. A. Allen, 1890 — E & SE of Mexico (S Tamaulipas, SE San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, NE Querétaro, NE Hidalgo, NE, E & SE Puebla, N & NE Oaxaca, N & C Chiapas, Tabasco, and SW Campeche), S Belize, and Guatemala (except SE tip).","Head—body 380-390 mm, tail mean 21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot mean 77 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Central American Tapeti is small, with short ears, short hindfeet, and extremely short tail. Dorsal color varies from near blackish to blackish brown. Sides and tail are slightly paler than back. Tail is uniformly brown, and ventral fur is whitish, exceptfor dark brownish throat patch.","Tropical forests including rain, deciduous, and second growth forests near openings and pastures adjoining forested areas from sea level to elevations ofat least 1524 m. A representative rainforest used by the Central American Tapeti in Veracruz had a well-developed canopy of trees up to 50 m high, including breadnut (Brosimumalicastrum, Moraceae) and Nectandraambigens (Lauraceae), and sparse understory.",There is no information available for this species.,"Reproductive season of the Central American Tapeti lasts throughout the year in Chiapas, Mexico. Gestation is ¢.28 days, and litter sizes are 3—8 young.",There is no information available for this species.,The Central American Tapeti uses well-worn runways in undergrowth in forest edges.,"The Central American Tapeti has not been assessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, but it was formerly considered to be the Common Tapeti (S. brasiliensis), which is classified as Least Concern. The Central American Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was recorded in Mexico after deforestation, but the Central American Tapeti survives well in second growth forests and pastures. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Central American Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Central American Tapeti and evaluate its distribution and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from a study conducted in Chiapas, Mexico.","Allen (1877a) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c) | Angermann (2016) | Ceballos (2014) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Guerena-Géandara et al. (1982) | Hall (1981) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995) | Nelson (1909) | Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007)",,"20.Central American TapetiSylvilagus gabbiFrench:Lapin de Gabb/ German:Mittelamerika-Tapeti/ Spanish:Conejo de CentroaméricaOther common names:Central American Forest Rabbit, Tropical CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus brasiliensis var. gabbi J. A. Allen, 1877, “Talamanca [= Sipurio, Rio Sixaola, near Caribbean coast], Costa Rica.”Formerly, Sylvilagus gabbiwas included in S. brasiliensis, but it recently received full species status due to chromosomal information and distinct morphological characters. Subspecies truei was moved from S. brasiliensisto S. gabbi. Three different karyotypes are recorded for S. gabbi(2n = 36, 2n = 38, and 2n = 40). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations.Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. g. gabbi]. A. Allen, 1877— SE Guatemala, N & E Honduras, N & E Nicaragua, NE, E & S Costa Rica, and Panama.S. g truer]. A. Allen, 1890 — E & SE of Mexico (S Tamaulipas, SE San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, NE Querétaro, NE Hidalgo, NE, E & SE Puebla, N & NE Oaxaca, N & C Chiapas, Tabasco, and SW Campeche), S Belize, and Guatemala (except SE tip).Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-390 mm, tail mean 21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot mean 77 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Central American Tapeti is small, with short ears, short hindfeet, and extremely short tail. Dorsal color varies from near blackish to blackish brown. Sides and tail are slightly paler than back. Tail is uniformly brown, and ventral fur is whitish, exceptfor dark brownish throat patch.Habitat.Tropical forests including rain, deciduous, and second growth forests near openings and pastures adjoining forested areas from sea level to elevations ofat least 1524 m. A representative rainforest used by the Central American Tapeti in Veracruz had a well-developed canopy of trees up to 50 m high, including breadnut (Brosimumalicastrum, Moraceae) and Nectandraambigens (Lauraceae), and sparse understory.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Central American Tapeti lasts throughout the year in Chiapas, Mexico. Gestation is ¢.28 days, and litter sizes are 3—8 young.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Central American Tapeti uses well-worn runways in undergrowth in forest edges.Status and Conservation.The Central American Tapeti has not been assessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, but it was formerly considered to be the Common Tapeti (S. brasiliensis), which is classified as Least Concern. The Central American Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was recorded in Mexico after deforestation, but the Central American Tapeti survives well in second growth forests and pastures. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Central American Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Central American Tapeti and evaluate its distribution and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from a study conducted in Chiapas, Mexico.Bibliography.Allen (1877a), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c), Angermann (2016), Ceballos (2014), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Guerena-Géandara et al. (1982), Hall (1981), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995), Nelson (1909), Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007)." +03822308B749FFF7FFC1F464FA61FE07,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,121,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B749FFF7FFC1F464FA61FE07.xml,Sylvilagus gabbi,Sylvilagus,gabbi,,,Lapin de Gabb @fr | Mittelamerika-Tapeti @de | Conejo de Centroamérica @es | Central American Forest Rabbit @en | Tropical Cottontail @en,"Lepus brasiliensis var. gabbi J. A. Allen, 1877, “Talamanca [= Sipurio, Rio Sixaola, near Caribbean coast], Costa Rica.”Formerly, Sylvilagus gabbiwas included in S. brasiliensis, but it recently received full species status due to chromosomal information and distinct morphological characters. Subspecies truei was moved from S. brasiliensisto S. gabbi. Three different karyotypes are recorded for S. gabbi(2n = 36, 2n = 38, and 2n = 40). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations.Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","S. g. gabbi]. A. Allen, 1877— SE Guatemala, N & E Honduras, N & E Nicaragua, NE, E & S Costa Rica, and Panama.S. g truer]. A. Allen, 1890 — E & SE of Mexico (S Tamaulipas, SE San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, NE Querétaro, NE Hidalgo, NE, E & SE Puebla, N & NE Oaxaca, N & C Chiapas, Tabasco, and SW Campeche), S Belize, and Guatemala (except SE tip).","Head—body 380-390 mm, tail mean 21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot mean 77 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Central American Tapeti is small, with short ears, short hindfeet, and extremely short tail. Dorsal color varies from near blackish to blackish brown. Sides and tail are slightly paler than back. Tail is uniformly brown, and ventral fur is whitish, exceptfor dark brownish throat patch.","Tropical forests including rain, deciduous, and second growth forests near openings and pastures adjoining forested areas from sea level to elevations ofat least 1524 m. A representative rainforest used by the Central American Tapeti in Veracruz had a well-developed canopy of trees up to 50 m high, including breadnut (Brosimumalicastrum, Moraceae) and Nectandraambigens (Lauraceae), and sparse understory.",There is no information available for this species.,"Reproductive season of the Central American Tapeti lasts throughout the year in Chiapas, Mexico. Gestation is ¢.28 days, and litter sizes are 3—8 young.",There is no information available for this species.,The Central American Tapeti uses well-worn runways in undergrowth in forest edges.,"The Central American Tapeti has not been assessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, but it was formerly considered to be the Common Tapeti (S. brasiliensis), which is classified as Least Concern. The Central American Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was recorded in Mexico after deforestation, but the Central American Tapeti survives well in second growth forests and pastures. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Central American Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Central American Tapeti and evaluate its distribution and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from a study conducted in Chiapas, Mexico.","Allen (1877a) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c) | Angermann (2016) | Ceballos (2014) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Guerena-Géandara et al. (1982) | Hall (1981) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995) | Nelson (1909) | Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625587/files/figure.png,"20.Central American TapetiSylvilagus gabbiFrench:Lapin de Gabb/ German:Mittelamerika-Tapeti/ Spanish:Conejo de CentroaméricaOther common names:Central American Forest Rabbit, Tropical CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus brasiliensis var. gabbi J. A. Allen, 1877, “Talamanca [= Sipurio, Rio Sixaola, near Caribbean coast], Costa Rica.”Formerly, Sylvilagus gabbiwas included in S. brasiliensis, but it recently received full species status due to chromosomal information and distinct morphological characters. Subspecies truei was moved from S. brasiliensisto S. gabbi. Three different karyotypes are recorded for S. gabbi(2n = 36, 2n = 38, and 2n = 40). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations.Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. g. gabbi]. A. Allen, 1877— SE Guatemala, N & E Honduras, N & E Nicaragua, NE, E & S Costa Rica, and Panama.S. g truer]. A. Allen, 1890 — E & SE of Mexico (S Tamaulipas, SE San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, NE Querétaro, NE Hidalgo, NE, E & SE Puebla, N & NE Oaxaca, N & C Chiapas, Tabasco, and SW Campeche), S Belize, and Guatemala (except SE tip).Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-390 mm, tail mean 21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot mean 77 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Central American Tapeti is small, with short ears, short hindfeet, and extremely short tail. Dorsal color varies from near blackish to blackish brown. Sides and tail are slightly paler than back. Tail is uniformly brown, and ventral fur is whitish, exceptfor dark brownish throat patch.Habitat.Tropical forests including rain, deciduous, and second growth forests near openings and pastures adjoining forested areas from sea level to elevations ofat least 1524 m. A representative rainforest used by the Central American Tapeti in Veracruz had a well-developed canopy of trees up to 50 m high, including breadnut (Brosimumalicastrum, Moraceae) and Nectandraambigens (Lauraceae), and sparse understory.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Central American Tapeti lasts throughout the year in Chiapas, Mexico. Gestation is ¢.28 days, and litter sizes are 3—8 young.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Central American Tapeti uses well-worn runways in undergrowth in forest edges.Status and Conservation.The Central American Tapeti has not been assessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, but it was formerly considered to be the Common Tapeti (S. brasiliensis), which is classified as Least Concern. The Central American Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was recorded in Mexico after deforestation, but the Central American Tapeti survives well in second growth forests and pastures. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Central American Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Central American Tapeti and evaluate its distribution and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from a study conducted in Chiapas, Mexico.Bibliography.Allen (1877a), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c), Angermann (2016), Ceballos (2014), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Guerena-Géandara et al. (1982), Hall (1981), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995), Nelson (1909), Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007)." 03822308B74AFFF4FF16F3F5F80BFFBC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,120,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74AFFF4FF16F3F5F80BFFBC.xml,Sylvilagus insonus,Sylvilagus,insonus,,,Lapin d’'Omiltemi @fr | Omilteme-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Omiltemi @es | Omiltemi Cottontail @en | Omiltemi Rabbit @en,"Sylvilagus insonus Nelson, 1904, “Omilteme, Guerrero,” Mexico.Phylogenetic relationships of S. insonusto other species of Sylvilagusare unclear. Sylvilagus insonusand S. brasiliensiswere considered to be more closely related to each other than to other species of Sylvilagusand were placed in the subgenus Tapeti. Later, S. insonuswas transferred to the subgenus Sylvilagusbecause it did not appear to be a Tapeti. Finally, morphological comparisons between S. brasiliensis, S. dicer, and S. insonususing univariate and multivariate techniques indicated that S. brasiliensisand S. diceiare more closely related to each other than either is to S. insonus, and they supported placement of S. insonusin the subgenus Sylvilagus. This species lives sympatrically with S. cunicularius. Monotypic.","Omiltemi State Ecological Park, Sierra Madre del Sur, C Guerrero (SW Mexico).","Head-body 430-500 mm, tail 40-45 mm, ear 60 mm, hindfoot 93-96 mm (all measurements from two individuals). No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Omilteme Cottontail is large, with long ears. It has medium-sized hindfeet and short tail. Dorsal fur is rufous black, with dull dingy rusty-rufous nape. Ears are grizzled and dark blackish brown, with more black along anterior borders and attips. Sides are grayish black. Sides of nose and eye rings are dingy, grayish-buff. Tail is reddish black above. Ventral fur is whitish, with brownish throat patch. Tops of hindfeet are whitish. The Omilteme Cottontail is known only from two specimens available in the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History, so diagnostic information is limited and might not be accurate.","Dense cloud forests of pine and pine—oak at elevations of 2133-5280 m. Dominant trees are pine (Pinus, Pinaceae), oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), fir (Abies, Pinaceae), and cypress (Cupressus, Cupressaceae) that might reach 40 m in height. Weather is humid most of the year, and most rainfall occurs during summer. The Omilteme Cottontail lives in dense undergrowth, makes runways, and occupies burrows under rocks or similar shelter.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Omilteme Cottontail is mainly nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Omilteme Cottontail is listed ascritically endangered in Mexico. It is rare, and its distribution includes less than 500 km?®. Much ofits known distribution occurs in Omiltemi State Ecological Park, a nature reserve of ¢.3613 ha. Nevertheless, major threats to survival of the Omilteme Cottontail are poaching and deforestation. Forests in the region have been intensively logged and used for cattle grazing, resulting in significant fragmentation and modification of the habitat. The Omilteme Cottontail had not been reported in the wild since the early 1900s, although a possible sighting was made in 1991. An inventory of mammals of Omiltemi State Ecological Park conducted in 1993 did not document the Omilteme Cottontail. Therefore, the Mexican government declared the Omiltemi Cottontail endangered in 1994. During a 1998 survey to clarify status of the Omilteme Cottontail, two specimen were killed for food by locals c.1 km south-south-east of the village of Omiltemi, and the dried skin of one specimen (without forefeet and hindfeet) was recovered. Genetic analysis, color pattern offur, and habitat where the specimen was obtained confirmed that it was an Omilteme Cottontail. Recommendations are to clarify present distribution and population status of the Omilteme Cottontail, enhance habitat conservation, enforce its protected status and stop hunting, and conduct research on its biology and ecology.","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008b) | Ceballos (2014) | Ceballos & Navarro (1991) | Cervantes & Lorenzo (1997) | Cervantes et al. (2004) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Nelson (1904, 1909)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625581/files/figure.png,"18.Omilteme CottontailSylvilagus insonusFrench:Lapin d’'Omiltemi/ German:Omilteme-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de OmiltemiOther common names:Omiltemi Cottontail, Omiltemi RabbitTaxonomy.Sylvilagus insonus Nelson, 1904, “Omilteme, Guerrero,” Mexico.Phylogenetic relationships of S. insonusto other species of Sylvilagusare unclear. Sylvilagus insonusand S. brasiliensiswere considered to be more closely related to each other than to other species of Sylvilagusand were placed in the subgenus Tapeti. Later, S. insonuswas transferred to the subgenus Sylvilagusbecause it did not appear to be a Tapeti. Finally, morphological comparisons between S. brasiliensis, S. dicer, and S. insonususing univariate and multivariate techniques indicated that S. brasiliensisand S. diceiare more closely related to each other than either is to S. insonus, and they supported placement of S. insonusin the subgenus Sylvilagus. This species lives sympatrically with S. cunicularius. Monotypic.Distribution.Omiltemi State Ecological Park, Sierra Madre del Sur, C Guerrero (SW Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 430-500 mm, tail 40-45 mm, ear 60 mm, hindfoot 93-96 mm (all measurements from two individuals). No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Omilteme Cottontail is large, with long ears. It has medium-sized hindfeet and short tail. Dorsal fur is rufous black, with dull dingy rusty-rufous nape. Ears are grizzled and dark blackish brown, with more black along anterior borders and attips. Sides are grayish black. Sides of nose and eye rings are dingy, grayish-buff. Tail is reddish black above. Ventral fur is whitish, with brownish throat patch. Tops of hindfeet are whitish. The Omilteme Cottontail is known only from two specimens available in the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History, so diagnostic information is limited and might not be accurate.Habitat.Dense cloud forests of pine and pine—oak at elevations of 2133-5280 m. Dominant trees are pine (Pinus, Pinaceae), oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), fir (Abies, Pinaceae), and cypress (Cupressus, Cupressaceae) that might reach 40 m in height. Weather is humid most of the year, and most rainfall occurs during summer. The Omilteme Cottontail lives in dense undergrowth, makes runways, and occupies burrows under rocks or similar shelter.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Omilteme Cottontail is mainly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Omilteme Cottontail is listed ascritically endangered in Mexico. It is rare, and its distribution includes less than 500 km?®. Much ofits known distribution occurs in Omiltemi State Ecological Park, a nature reserve of ¢.3613 ha. Nevertheless, major threats to survival of the Omilteme Cottontail are poaching and deforestation. Forests in the region have been intensively logged and used for cattle grazing, resulting in significant fragmentation and modification of the habitat. The Omilteme Cottontail had not been reported in the wild since the early 1900s, although a possible sighting was made in 1991. An inventory of mammals of Omiltemi State Ecological Park conducted in 1993 did not document the Omilteme Cottontail. Therefore, the Mexican government declared the Omiltemi Cottontail endangered in 1994. During a 1998 survey to clarify status of the Omilteme Cottontail, two specimen were killed for food by locals c.1 km south-south-east of the village of Omiltemi, and the dried skin of one specimen (without forefeet and hindfeet) was recovered. Genetic analysis, color pattern offur, and habitat where the specimen was obtained confirmed that it was an Omilteme Cottontail. Recommendations are to clarify present distribution and population status of the Omilteme Cottontail, enhance habitat conservation, enforce its protected status and stop hunting, and conduct research on its biology and ecology.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008b), Ceballos (2014), Ceballos & Navarro (1991), Cervantes & Lorenzo (1997), Cervantes et al. (2004), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Nelson (1904, 1909)." -03822308B74AFFF7FA11F597FBBBFDCB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,120,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74AFFF7FA11F597FBBBFDCB.xml,Sylvilagus brasiliensis,Sylvilagus,brasiliensis,,,Lapin du Brésil @fr | Tapeti @de | Conejo tropical @es | Forest Rabbit @en | Tapeti @en,"Lepus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758, “in America meridionalis.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “Pernambuco,” Brazil.Sylvilagus brasiliensisis closely related to S. varynaensis. Formerly, S. brasiliensisincluded S. diceiand S. gabbias subspecies. Subspecies true: has been removed from S. brasiliensisand now belongs to S. gabbi. Taxonomic revision of S. brasiliensisis necessary because some other subspecies might deserve full species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nineteen subspecies recognized.","S.b.brasiliensisLinnaeus,1758—PernambucoandBahiastates(NEBrazil).S.b.andinusThomas,1897—CanarProvince(SCEcuador).S.b.apollinarisThomas,1920—Bogotaregion(CColombia).S.b.capsalisThomas,1913—CajamarcaRegion(NPeru).S.b.caracasensisMondolfi&Méndez,1957—VenezuelanCoastalRange(NCVenezuela).S.b.chillaeAnthony,1923—ElOroProvince(SWEcuador).S.b.chotanusHershkovitz,1938—ImbaburaProvince(NEcuador).S.b.defilippiCornalia,1850—upperAmazonianregionsofColombia,EEcuador,andNWPeru.S.b.fulvescens].A.Allen,1912—CaucaDepartment(SWColombia).S.b.gibsoniThomas,1918—NArgentinafromtheRioParaguay-ParanatoETucuman,Jujuy,andSaltaprovinces,NintoTarijaDepartment(SBolivia).S.b.incaThomas,1913—SEPeru.S.b.kelloggiAnthony,1923—LojaandAzuayprovinces(SEcuador).S.b.meridensisThomas,1904—AndeanParamosinNEColombiaandAndeanParamosandWLlanosinWVenezuela.S.b.minensisThomas,1901—SW&SMinasGerais(SEBrazil).S.b.paraguensisThomas,1901—Paraguay(Chacoregionandadjacenthighlands),MattoGrossoState(WCBrazil),SantaCruzDepartment(EBolivia),CorrientesandMisionesprovinces(NEArgentina).S.b.peruanusHershkovitz,1950—PeruvianAndes.S.b.sanctaemartaeHershkovitz,1950—NColombia.S.b.surdasterThomas,1901—EsmeraldasProvince(NWEcuador).S. b. tapetillus Thomas, 1913— Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sulstates (SE Brazil). Also present in the Guinanas, N Brazil, and other areas shaded in the map, but subspecies involved not known.","Head—body 380-420 mm, tail 20-21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 77-80 mm; weight 500-950 g. The Common Tapetiis small, with short to rudimentary tail. It has short hindfeet and short ears. Dorsal fur varies from light gray to almost black. Sides and upper parts of tail are slightly lighter. Ventral fur is whitish, with dark throat patch. Tail is dingy buff below.","Mostly in disturbed areas, including agricultural areas, and forest edges from sea level to elevations of at least 4500 m. Habitats of the Common Tapeti and the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) are mutually exclusive in north-western South America.",There is no information available for this species.,"The Common Tapeti breeds year-round. Female reproductive activity is negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with monthly low temperatures. Gestation lasts 42—45 days, and 3-9—4-7 litters/year occur in the Andean Paramos. Average litter sizes of 1-2-1-9 are the smallest reported for any species of Sylvilagus. A female Common Tapeti produces less than ten young per year. Young are born in an aboveground nest thatis built of dry grasses and has a central chamber with 3—4 small chambers at the end of a runway system. Young leave the nest at 11-13 days old and are nursed for an average of 20-1 days. Females become sexually active at 9-10 months old; males are sexually active at c.5 months old.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was noted in the high mountains of Venezuela after habitat loss. Little is known about distribution of the Common Tapeti in the Amazonas region. The Eastern Cottontail replaces the Common Tapeti in artificial savannas and scrublands that cut through original forests in north-western South America. Predators that follow the Eastern Cottontail might also threaten the Common Tapeti. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Common Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Nevertheless, the Common Tapeti seems to become more common in eastern Amazonas where forest disturbance and fragmentation due to timber extraction in rainforests are increasing. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Common Tapeti,its distribution, and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from studies conducted in the Paramos of Venezuela.","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c) | Angermann (2016) | Cervantes, Zavala & Colmenares (2005) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Durant (1981, 1983, 1988) | Durant & Guevara (2001) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995) | Mondolfi & Méndez (1957) | Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007) | Silva et al. (2005) | Thomas (1911¢)",,"19.Common TapetiSylvilagus brasiliensisFrench:Lapin du Brésil/ German:Tapeti/ Spanish:Conejo tropicalOther common names:Forest Rabbit, TapetiTaxonomy.Lepus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758, “in America meridionalis.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “Pernambuco,” Brazil.Sylvilagus brasiliensisis closely related to S. varynaensis. Formerly, S. brasiliensisincluded S. diceiand S. gabbias subspecies. Subspecies true: has been removed from S. brasiliensisand now belongs to S. gabbi. Taxonomic revision of S. brasiliensisis necessary because some other subspecies might deserve full species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nineteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.brasiliensisLinnaeus,1758—PernambucoandBahiastates(NEBrazil).S.b.andinusThomas,1897—CanarProvince(SCEcuador).S.b.apollinarisThomas,1920—Bogotaregion(CColombia).S.b.capsalisThomas,1913—CajamarcaRegion(NPeru).S.b.caracasensisMondolfi&Méndez,1957—VenezuelanCoastalRange(NCVenezuela).S.b.chillaeAnthony,1923—ElOroProvince(SWEcuador).S.b.chotanusHershkovitz,1938—ImbaburaProvince(NEcuador).S.b.defilippiCornalia,1850—upperAmazonianregionsofColombia,EEcuador,andNWPeru.S.b.fulvescens].A.Allen,1912—CaucaDepartment(SWColombia).S.b.gibsoniThomas,1918—NArgentinafromtheRioParaguay-ParanatoETucuman,Jujuy,andSaltaprovinces,NintoTarijaDepartment(SBolivia).S.b.incaThomas,1913—SEPeru.S.b.kelloggiAnthony,1923—LojaandAzuayprovinces(SEcuador).S.b.meridensisThomas,1904—AndeanParamosinNEColombiaandAndeanParamosandWLlanosinWVenezuela.S.b.minensisThomas,1901—SW&SMinasGerais(SEBrazil).S.b.paraguensisThomas,1901—Paraguay(Chacoregionandadjacenthighlands),MattoGrossoState(WCBrazil),SantaCruzDepartment(EBolivia),CorrientesandMisionesprovinces(NEArgentina).S.b.peruanusHershkovitz,1950—PeruvianAndes.S.b.sanctaemartaeHershkovitz,1950—NColombia.S.b.surdasterThomas,1901—EsmeraldasProvince(NWEcuador).S. b. tapetillus Thomas, 1913— Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sulstates (SE Brazil). Also present in the Guinanas, N Brazil, and other areas shaded in the map, but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-420 mm, tail 20-21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 77-80 mm; weight 500-950 g. The Common Tapetiis small, with short to rudimentary tail. It has short hindfeet and short ears. Dorsal fur varies from light gray to almost black. Sides and upper parts of tail are slightly lighter. Ventral fur is whitish, with dark throat patch. Tail is dingy buff below.Habitat.Mostly in disturbed areas, including agricultural areas, and forest edges from sea level to elevations of at least 4500 m. Habitats of the Common Tapeti and the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) are mutually exclusive in north-western South America.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.The Common Tapeti breeds year-round. Female reproductive activity is negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with monthly low temperatures. Gestation lasts 42—45 days, and 3-9—4-7 litters/year occur in the Andean Paramos. Average litter sizes of 1-2-1-9 are the smallest reported for any species of Sylvilagus. A female Common Tapeti produces less than ten young per year. Young are born in an aboveground nest thatis built of dry grasses and has a central chamber with 3—4 small chambers at the end of a runway system. Young leave the nest at 11-13 days old and are nursed for an average of 20-1 days. Females become sexually active at 9-10 months old; males are sexually active at c.5 months old.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was noted in the high mountains of Venezuela after habitat loss. Little is known about distribution of the Common Tapeti in the Amazonas region. The Eastern Cottontail replaces the Common Tapeti in artificial savannas and scrublands that cut through original forests in north-western South America. Predators that follow the Eastern Cottontail might also threaten the Common Tapeti. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Common Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Nevertheless, the Common Tapeti seems to become more common in eastern Amazonas where forest disturbance and fragmentation due to timber extraction in rainforests are increasing. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Common Tapeti,its distribution, and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from studies conducted in the Paramos of Venezuela.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Zavala & Colmenares (2005), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Durant (1981, 1983, 1988), Durant & Guevara (2001), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995), Mondolfi & Méndez (1957), Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007), Silva et al. (2005), Thomas (1911¢)." -03822308B74BFFF4FAC8F80AFBD4FA5B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,119,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74BFFF4FAC8F80AFBD4FA5B.xml,Sylvilagus palustris,Sylvilagus,palustris,,,Lapin des marais @fr | Marschlandkaninchen @de | Conejo de pantano @es | Key Rabbit @en | Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit (hefner) @en,"Lepus palustris Bachman, 1837, “South Carolina never ... more than forty miles [64 km] from the sea coast.”Restricted by G. S. Miller and J. A. G. Rehn in 1901 to “Eastern South Carolina,” USA.Genetic analysis shows that S. palustrisand S. aquaticusare sister taxa and share a derived karyotype (2n = 38). Taxonomic status of S. palustrisneeds evaluation. Classification of two subspecies is under discussion (paludicola and palustris). Recent genetic analysis of mtDNA and nDNA to investigate the endangered “Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit” (S. p. hefneri) did not confirm its taxonomic status. Nevertheless, results supported recognition of the western Lower Keys populations as a distinct “population segment” under the US Endangered Species Act. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","S.p.palustrisBachman,1837—fromSEVirginia(DismalSwamp)throughENorthCarolinatoSAlabamaandNFlorida(SEUSA).S.p.hefneriLazell,1984—BocaChica,Saddlebunch,Sugarloaf,andBigPineKeys(FloridaKeys),andonsomeofthesurroundingsmallerkeys(SEUSA).S. p. paludicola Miller & Bangs, 1894— Florida Peninsula (SE USA).","Head-body 430-440 mm, tail 33-39 mm, ear 45-52 mm, hindfoot 89-94 mm; weight 1.1-6 kg. The Marsh Rabbit is small to medium-sized, with rough hair. Dorsal fur, rump, uppertail, and hindlegs vary from chestnut-brown to dark rusty red. Ventral fur is reddish brown, and nape is dark rufous cinnamon. Central abdomen is white, with remainder of belly buff to light brown. Feet are small, slender, and dark reddish to buffy. Tail is small, with a dingy underside. Ears are short and broad, with black edges.On following pages: 18. Omilteme Cottontail (Sylvilagus insonus); 19. Common Tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis); 20 Cottontail (Sylvilagusdice); 23. Mexican Cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius); 24. Tres Marias Cottontail (Sylvilagus Robust Cottontail(Sylvilagus robustus); 28. Manzano Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus cognatus); 29. Hispid Hare (. Central American Tapeti (Sylvilagus gabbi); 21. Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit (Sylvilagus varynaensis), 22. Dice's graysoni); 25. Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus); 26. Appalachian Cottontail (Sylvilagus obscurus); 27. Caprolagus hispidus); 30. Bunyoro Rabbit (Poelagus marjorita); 31. European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).","Confined to marshy habitats from sea level to elevations of 152 m. The single most important factor limiting distribution of the Marsh Rabbit is availability of water. It usually inhabits areas of brackish water, although it can occur in freshwater marshes. In Florida, Marsh Rabbits live in habitats with trees such as magnolia (Magnoliagrandi-Jlora, Magnoliaceae), tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica, Cornaceae), and sweet gum (Liquidambarstyraciflua, Altingiaceae) and shrubs such as blackberry (Rubusbetulifolius) and dewberry (R. continentalis), both Rosaceae. They also occur in habitats dominated by cattails (Typha sp., Typhaceae) that grow along edges of ponds. They have also been recorded in grassy fields, mangroves, hummocks, fallow tomato fields, and vegetation along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields. The Marsh Rabbit does not live in burrows; it digs holes with long toenails. Holes are sloped at ¢.60° and ¢.30 cm deep. The US endangered subspecies Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit is usually found in saltmarsh/ buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes. Their forms have been found in patches of saltmarsh or buttonwoods in brackish wetlands, or in patches of hardwoods embedded in or adjacent to marshes in freshwater wetlands.","Diet of Marsh Rabbits includes various aquatic plants; herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants; cultivated crops; and grasses, sedges, and flowers.","Female Marsh Rabbits breed throughout the year, although some anestrous females are found in all months. Adult males are sexually active year-round, but juvenile males are active in December—-May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Litter sizes were 2—4 young in Florida and 3-5 young in Georgia. Litter size was smaller in November than March in Florida. Averages of 5-7-6-9 litters are produced per year. Young are born in nests that average 36 cm wide and ¢.20 cm deep. Nests are constructed of soft grass and mothers’ fur and are placed among sedges ¢.9 m from water. Reproductive rate of the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit may be lower than that of the other subspecies; 3-7 litters/year and 1-3 young/litter were recorded. Nests of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits are commonly found in grassy saltmarsh. Young leave nests c.2 weeks after birth and often disperse from their natal patches after 8-10 months (particularly males).",Marsh Rabbits are mainly nocturnal. They are most active between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. They rest in forms during the day.,"Marsh Rabbits like to swim, using an alternate paddling motion especially in warm water. They generally walk instead of hopping, particularly when crossing muddy areas. Marsh Rabbits have small home ranges. They deposit feces in small piles on logs and stumps or in larger piles along runways. Both males and females fight one another. Male Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits made one relatively long one-way movement as subadults (more than 124 m but less than 2 km), and females usually remained near their natal patches. They used dense ground cover while traveling. After establishing a home range, an adult lived in one patch of habitat until its death. Home ranges of the same sex rarely overlapped. Home ranges of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits averaged 4 ha, with core areas averaging 1-2 ha.Areas used during inactive periods averaged 1-4 ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Marsh Rabbit is widespread and abundant in parts ofits distribution. It is even considered as pest in some agricultural areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida. It is hunted in the southern USA. Nevertheless,little is known aboutits biology and ecology. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the insular subspecies, the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit, as endangered in1990. It has an estimated population size of only 200-700 mature individuals. It is restricted to the lower Florida Keys (extent of occurrence 90 km? and area of occupancy less than 10 km?), has experienced a severe population decline (loss of nine of the 76 occupied patches recorded in 1988-1996 and revisited in 2001 and 2003), exists in fragmented subpopulations that lower the likelihood of recolonization and gene flow, and has small subpopulations ofless than 250 mature adults. A population viability analysis using data collected in 1991-1993 predicted that the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit had a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years. Major threats to the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit are human-induced sea-levelrise exacerbated by human development, habitat succession, hardwood encroachment, predation by Raccoons (Procyon lotor), domestic and feral cats, and mortality from cars. It is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing, and off-road vehicle use.","Angermann (2016) | Blair (1936) | Burt & Grossenheider (1976) | Carr (1939) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Willner (1981) | Faulhaber (2003) | Faulhaber & Smith (2008) | Faulhaber et al. (2008) | Forys (1995) | Forys & Humphrey (1996, 1999) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951) | Harper (1927) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holler & Conaway (1979) | LaFever et al. (2007) | Lazell (1984) | Lissovsky (2016) | Miller & Rehn (1901) | Nelson (1909) | Robinson et al. (1983, 1984) | Schmidt, J.A. et al. (2012) | Schmidt, PM. et al. (2010) | Schwartz (1952) | Tomkins (1935) | Tursi et al. (2013) | Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)",,"17.Marsh RabbitSylvilagus palustrisFrench:Lapin des marais/ German:Marschlandkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de pantanoOther common names:Key Rabbit, Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit (hefner)Taxonomy.Lepus palustris Bachman, 1837, “South Carolina never ... more than forty miles [64 km] from the sea coast.”Restricted by G. S. Miller and J. A. G. Rehn in 1901 to “Eastern South Carolina,” USA.Genetic analysis shows that S. palustrisand S. aquaticusare sister taxa and share a derived karyotype (2n = 38). Taxonomic status of S. palustrisneeds evaluation. Classification of two subspecies is under discussion (paludicola and palustris). Recent genetic analysis of mtDNA and nDNA to investigate the endangered “Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit” (S. p. hefneri) did not confirm its taxonomic status. Nevertheless, results supported recognition of the western Lower Keys populations as a distinct “population segment” under the US Endangered Species Act. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.p.palustrisBachman,1837—fromSEVirginia(DismalSwamp)throughENorthCarolinatoSAlabamaandNFlorida(SEUSA).S.p.hefneriLazell,1984—BocaChica,Saddlebunch,Sugarloaf,andBigPineKeys(FloridaKeys),andonsomeofthesurroundingsmallerkeys(SEUSA).S. p. paludicola Miller & Bangs, 1894— Florida Peninsula (SE USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 430-440 mm, tail 33-39 mm, ear 45-52 mm, hindfoot 89-94 mm; weight 1.1-6 kg. The Marsh Rabbit is small to medium-sized, with rough hair. Dorsal fur, rump, uppertail, and hindlegs vary from chestnut-brown to dark rusty red. Ventral fur is reddish brown, and nape is dark rufous cinnamon. Central abdomen is white, with remainder of belly buff to light brown. Feet are small, slender, and dark reddish to buffy. Tail is small, with a dingy underside. Ears are short and broad, with black edges.On following pages: 18. Omilteme Cottontail (Sylvilagus insonus); 19. Common Tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis); 20 Cottontail (Sylvilagusdice); 23. Mexican Cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius); 24. Tres Marias Cottontail (Sylvilagus Robust Cottontail(Sylvilagus robustus); 28. Manzano Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus cognatus); 29. Hispid Hare (. Central American Tapeti (Sylvilagus gabbi); 21. Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit (Sylvilagus varynaensis), 22. Dice's graysoni); 25. Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus); 26. Appalachian Cottontail (Sylvilagus obscurus); 27. Caprolagus hispidus); 30. Bunyoro Rabbit (Poelagus marjorita); 31. European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).Habitat.Confined to marshy habitats from sea level to elevations of 152 m. The single most important factor limiting distribution of the Marsh Rabbit is availability of water. It usually inhabits areas of brackish water, although it can occur in freshwater marshes. In Florida, Marsh Rabbits live in habitats with trees such as magnolia (Magnoliagrandi-Jlora, Magnoliaceae), tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica, Cornaceae), and sweet gum (Liquidambarstyraciflua, Altingiaceae) and shrubs such as blackberry (Rubusbetulifolius) and dewberry (R. continentalis), both Rosaceae. They also occur in habitats dominated by cattails (Typha sp., Typhaceae) that grow along edges of ponds. They have also been recorded in grassy fields, mangroves, hummocks, fallow tomato fields, and vegetation along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields. The Marsh Rabbit does not live in burrows; it digs holes with long toenails. Holes are sloped at ¢.60° and ¢.30 cm deep. The US endangered subspecies Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit is usually found in saltmarsh/ buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes. Their forms have been found in patches of saltmarsh or buttonwoods in brackish wetlands, or in patches of hardwoods embedded in or adjacent to marshes in freshwater wetlands.Food and Feeding.Diet of Marsh Rabbits includes various aquatic plants; herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants; cultivated crops; and grasses, sedges, and flowers.Breeding.Female Marsh Rabbits breed throughout the year, although some anestrous females are found in all months. Adult males are sexually active year-round, but juvenile males are active in December—-May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Litter sizes were 2—4 young in Florida and 3-5 young in Georgia. Litter size was smaller in November than March in Florida. Averages of 5-7-6-9 litters are produced per year. Young are born in nests that average 36 cm wide and ¢.20 cm deep. Nests are constructed of soft grass and mothers’ fur and are placed among sedges ¢.9 m from water. Reproductive rate of the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit may be lower than that of the other subspecies; 3-7 litters/year and 1-3 young/litter were recorded. Nests of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits are commonly found in grassy saltmarsh. Young leave nests c.2 weeks after birth and often disperse from their natal patches after 8-10 months (particularly males).Activity patterns.Marsh Rabbits are mainly nocturnal. They are most active between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. They rest in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marsh Rabbits like to swim, using an alternate paddling motion especially in warm water. They generally walk instead of hopping, particularly when crossing muddy areas. Marsh Rabbits have small home ranges. They deposit feces in small piles on logs and stumps or in larger piles along runways. Both males and females fight one another. Male Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits made one relatively long one-way movement as subadults (more than 124 m but less than 2 km), and females usually remained near their natal patches. They used dense ground cover while traveling. After establishing a home range, an adult lived in one patch of habitat until its death. Home ranges of the same sex rarely overlapped. Home ranges of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits averaged 4 ha, with core areas averaging 1-2 ha.Areas used during inactive periods averaged 1-4 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Marsh Rabbit is widespread and abundant in parts ofits distribution. It is even considered as pest in some agricultural areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida. It is hunted in the southern USA. Nevertheless,little is known aboutits biology and ecology. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the insular subspecies, the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit, as endangered in1990. It has an estimated population size of only 200-700 mature individuals. It is restricted to the lower Florida Keys (extent of occurrence 90 km? and area of occupancy less than 10 km?), has experienced a severe population decline (loss of nine of the 76 occupied patches recorded in 1988-1996 and revisited in 2001 and 2003), exists in fragmented subpopulations that lower the likelihood of recolonization and gene flow, and has small subpopulations ofless than 250 mature adults. A population viability analysis using data collected in 1991-1993 predicted that the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit had a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years. Major threats to the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit are human-induced sea-levelrise exacerbated by human development, habitat succession, hardwood encroachment, predation by Raccoons (Procyon lotor), domestic and feral cats, and mortality from cars. It is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing, and off-road vehicle use.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Blair (1936), Burt & Grossenheider (1976), Carr (1939), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Willner (1981), Faulhaber (2003), Faulhaber & Smith (2008), Faulhaber et al. (2008), Forys (1995), Forys & Humphrey (1996, 1999), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951), Harper (1927), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holler & Conaway (1979), LaFever et al. (2007), Lazell (1984), Lissovsky (2016), Miller & Rehn (1901), Nelson (1909), Robinson et al. (1983, 1984), Schmidt, J.A. et al. (2012), Schmidt, PM. et al. (2010), Schwartz (1952), Tomkins (1935), Tursi et al. (2013), Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)." -03822308B74BFFF5FFC9FEA2F7A2F132,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,119,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74BFFF5FFC9FEA2F7A2F132.xml,Sylvilagus aquaticus,Sylvilagus,aquaticus,,,Lapin aquatique @fr | Sumpfkaninchen @de | Conejo de ciénaga @es | Cane-cutter @en,"Lepus aquaticus Bachman, 1837, “...western parts of that state.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Western Alabama,” USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. aquaticusand S. palustrisare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","S.a.aquaticusBachman,1837—NoftherangefromSEKansas,SMissouri,andSIIlinois,SEtoWtipofNorthCarolinaandNWGeorgia,andStoAlabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,andTexas(SEUSA).S. a. littoralis Nelson, 1909— coastal Gulf of Mexico section of the range in SE Texas, S & E Louisiana, SE Mississippi, and SW tip of Alabama (S USA).","Head-body 450-550 mm, tail 50-74 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 90-113 mm; weight 1:6.2-7 kg. The Swamp Rabbit is the largest species of Sylvilagus. Ears are medium-sized in relation to body size. Head and dorsal fur are dark and rusty brown to black. Ventral fur, throat, and tail are white. There are distinctive cinnamon eye rings. Swamp Rabbits are not sexually dimorphic, but there is probably a latitudinal size gradient.Habitat.Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.Food and Feeding.The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).Breeding.The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.Activity patterns.Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease.","Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.","The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).","The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.","Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.","Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease. Habitat fragmentation also impedes dispersal. Despite shrinkage of habitats of Swamp Rabbits on distributional peripheries, there are still large areas of prime habitat (e.g. in Louisiana). Populations also have been reported to persist in southeastern Missouri although its habitat has been greatly reduced. Swamp Rabbits occur in many protected areas, but only few studies have been conducted to determine their abundance orstatus.","Angermann (2016) | Calhoun (1941) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Feldhamer (1981) | Cockrum (1949) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hill (1967) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holler & Marsden (1970) | Holler & Sorensen (1969) | Holler et al. (1963) | Holten & Toll (1960) | Hunt (1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lowe (1958) | Lowery (1974) | Marsden & Holler (1964) | Nelson (1909) | Scheibe & Henson (2003) | Smith, A.T. & Boyer (2008c) | Smith, C.C. (1940) | Sorensen et al. (1968, 1972) | Svihla (1929) | Terrel (1972) | Toll et al. (1960) | Vale & Kissell (2010) | Zoliner et al. (1996)",,"16.Swamp RabbitSylvilagus aquaticusFrench:Lapin aquatique/ German:Sumpfkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de ciénagaOther common names:Cane-cutterTaxonomy.Lepus aquaticus Bachman, 1837, “...western parts of that state.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Western Alabama,” USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. aquaticusand S. palustrisare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.a.aquaticusBachman,1837—NoftherangefromSEKansas,SMissouri,andSIIlinois,SEtoWtipofNorthCarolinaandNWGeorgia,andStoAlabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,andTexas(SEUSA).S. a. littoralis Nelson, 1909— coastal Gulf of Mexico section of the range in SE Texas, S & E Louisiana, SE Mississippi, and SW tip of Alabama (S USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm, tail 50-74 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 90-113 mm; weight 1:6.2-7 kg. The Swamp Rabbit is the largest species of Sylvilagus. Ears are medium-sized in relation to body size. Head and dorsal fur are dark and rusty brown to black. Ventral fur, throat, and tail are white. There are distinctive cinnamon eye rings. Swamp Rabbits are not sexually dimorphic, but there is probably a latitudinal size gradient.Habitat.Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.Food and Feeding.The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).Breeding.The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.Activity patterns.Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease. Habitat fragmentation also impedes dispersal. Despite shrinkage of habitats of Swamp Rabbits on distributional peripheries, there are still large areas of prime habitat (e.g. in Louisiana). Populations also have been reported to persist in southeastern Missouri although its habitat has been greatly reduced. Swamp Rabbits occur in many protected areas, but only few studies have been conducted to determine their abundance orstatus.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Calhoun (1941), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Feldhamer (1981), Cockrum (1949), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951, 1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hill (1967), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holler & Marsden (1970), Holler & Sorensen (1969), Holler et al. (1963), Holten & Toll (1960), Hunt (1959), Lissovsky (2016), Lowe (1958), Lowery (1974), Marsden & Holler (1964), Nelson (1909), Scheibe & Henson (2003), Smith, A.T. & Boyer (2008c), Smith, C.C. (1940), Sorensen et al. (1968, 1972), Svihla (1929), Terrel (1972), Toll et al. (1960), Vale & Kissell (2010), Zoliner et al. (1996)." -03822308B74EFFF0FF61F4E5F600FCAA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,116,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74EFFF0FF61F4E5F600FCAA.xml,Sylvilagus nuttallii,Sylvilagus,nuttallii,,,Lapin de Nuttall @fr | Berg-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Nuttall @es | Nuttall's Cottontail @en,"Lepus nuttallii Bachman, 1837, “...west of the Rocky Mountains....streams which flow into the Shoshonee and Columbia rivers.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “eastern Oregon, near mouth of Malheur River.”Genetic analysis shows that S. nuttalliiand S. auduboniiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus nuttalliiis closely allopatric with S. floridanuswhere their distributions meet across the northern and central Great Plains and in south-western USA. Sylvilagus nuttalliilives sympatrically over most of its distribution and in syntopy in the subalpine zone with Lepus americanus. Three subspecies recognized.","S.n.nuttalliiBachman,1837—NWpartoftherangeinextremeSBritishColumbia(SWCanada),Washington,WCIdaho,Oregon,NECalifornia,andNWNevada(NWUSA).S.n.grangeriJ.A.Allen,1895—Cpartoftherange,fromSAlbertaandSSaskatchewan(SCanada)SWtoCECaliforniaandSEtoNArizonaandNWColorado(CUSA).S. n. pinetisJ. A. Allen, 1894— SE part of the range in SC Wyoming, SE Utah, C & SW Colorado, NW New Mexico, and NE & C Arizona (SC USA).","Head-body 340-390 mm, tail 30-54 mm, ear 55-60 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 629-871 g. The Mountain Cottontail is a large species of Sylvilagus. Hindlegs are long, and all four feet are densely covered with long hair. Ears are rounded at tips and short, with inner surfaces haired. Dorsal fur is grayish, and ventral fur is white. Tail is large, grizzled dark above and white below. Female Mountain Cottontails are slightly less than 4% larger than males. Thereis a single molt per year.","Sagebrush (Artemisia spp., Asteraceae) areas in the northern part of the distribution and forested areas in the southern part. Mountain Cottontails have been recorded in riparian growth, cultivated fields, desert scrub, grasslands, woodlands, and montane and subalpine coniferous forests. They prefer rocky, brushy, and wooded areas. In California, they occur at elevations of 1372 m to at least 3542 m. Mountain Cottontails use burrows and forms but do not dig their own burrows. They mostly live aboveground in dense habitat, but frequently use crevices in rocks or burrows as shelter in less dense vegetation.","In California, the diet of the Mountain Cottontail consists mainly of sagebrush, but they prefer to feed on grasses when available in spring and summer. Western juniper (Juniperusoccidentalis, Cupressaceae) also is eaten. They usually feed underbrush cover or in clearings near shelter.","Start and duration of the reproductive season of the Mountain Cottontail vary across its distribution. It begins in April and lasts into July in north-eastern California and late February until early July in central Oregon. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. Female Mountain Cottontails in California normally have two litters per year, but in Oregon, they have 4-5 litters/year. Litter sizes average 4-6 young (range 1-8). A female might produce 22 young/year in Oregon.Juvenile breeding occurs butis rare. Nest is a cuplike cavity lined with fur and dried grass in a burrow. Top of the nest is covered with fur, grass, and small sticks. Adult sex ratio has been reported to be 1:1-2 (males/females).","The Mountain Cottontails actively feeds in early morning and evening. In California, activity started at dawn until 09:30 h and again from 14:30 h until dark, but in Nevada individuals were active from 17:45 h until dark. Activity of Mountain Cottontails peaks 1-2 hours after sunrise and 0-1 hour before sunset in Oregon. Adult males become extremely secretive after the reproductive season, but activity of females is relatively constant throughout the years.","The Mountain Cottontail is more solitary than other species of Sylvilagus, which might be due to its uniform habitat. It might concentrate, as do other species of Sylvilagus, in areas where patches of green grass or other desirable habitat occurs. Social behavior among adult Mountain Cottontails is only observed during the reproductive season.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Cottontail is common throughout most ofits distribution, and populations do not seem to be declining. The Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) has displaced the Mountain Cottontail in south-western North Dakota, which might represent an ongoing but localized threat. The Mountain Cottontail is a common game species and managed by state and provincial wildlife agencies that determine hunting seasons and bag limits.","Angermann (2016) | Bailey (1936) | Borell & Ellis (1934) | Chapman (1975b, 1999a) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman et al. (1982) | Dalquest (1941) | Dice (1926) | Frey & Malaney (2006) | Frey &Yates (1996) | Genoways & Jones (1972) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1946, 1951, 1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister & Lee (1963) | Lissovsky (2016) | Malaney & Frey (2006) | Nelson (1909) | Nowak (1999a) | Orr (1940) | Powers & Verts (1971) | Smith & Boyer (2008b) | Turner (1974) | Verts & Gehman (1991)",,"14.Mountain CottontailSylvilagus nuttalliiFrench:Lapin de Nuttall/ German:Berg-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de NuttallOther common names:Nuttall's CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus nuttallii Bachman, 1837, “...west of the Rocky Mountains....streams which flow into the Shoshonee and Columbia rivers.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “eastern Oregon, near mouth of Malheur River.”Genetic analysis shows that S. nuttalliiand S. auduboniiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus nuttalliiis closely allopatric with S. floridanuswhere their distributions meet across the northern and central Great Plains and in south-western USA. Sylvilagus nuttalliilives sympatrically over most of its distribution and in syntopy in the subalpine zone with Lepus americanus. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.n.nuttalliiBachman,1837—NWpartoftherangeinextremeSBritishColumbia(SWCanada),Washington,WCIdaho,Oregon,NECalifornia,andNWNevada(NWUSA).S.n.grangeriJ.A.Allen,1895—Cpartoftherange,fromSAlbertaandSSaskatchewan(SCanada)SWtoCECaliforniaandSEtoNArizonaandNWColorado(CUSA).S. n. pinetisJ. A. Allen, 1894— SE part of the range in SC Wyoming, SE Utah, C & SW Colorado, NW New Mexico, and NE & C Arizona (SC USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 340-390 mm, tail 30-54 mm, ear 55-60 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 629-871 g. The Mountain Cottontail is a large species of Sylvilagus. Hindlegs are long, and all four feet are densely covered with long hair. Ears are rounded at tips and short, with inner surfaces haired. Dorsal fur is grayish, and ventral fur is white. Tail is large, grizzled dark above and white below. Female Mountain Cottontails are slightly less than 4% larger than males. Thereis a single molt per year.Habitat.Sagebrush (Artemisia spp., Asteraceae) areas in the northern part of the distribution and forested areas in the southern part. Mountain Cottontails have been recorded in riparian growth, cultivated fields, desert scrub, grasslands, woodlands, and montane and subalpine coniferous forests. They prefer rocky, brushy, and wooded areas. In California, they occur at elevations of 1372 m to at least 3542 m. Mountain Cottontails use burrows and forms but do not dig their own burrows. They mostly live aboveground in dense habitat, but frequently use crevices in rocks or burrows as shelter in less dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.In California, the diet of the Mountain Cottontail consists mainly of sagebrush, but they prefer to feed on grasses when available in spring and summer. Western juniper (Juniperusoccidentalis, Cupressaceae) also is eaten. They usually feed underbrush cover or in clearings near shelter.Breeding.Start and duration of the reproductive season of the Mountain Cottontail vary across its distribution. It begins in April and lasts into July in north-eastern California and late February until early July in central Oregon. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. Female Mountain Cottontails in California normally have two litters per year, but in Oregon, they have 4-5 litters/year. Litter sizes average 4-6 young (range 1-8). A female might produce 22 young/year in Oregon.Juvenile breeding occurs butis rare. Nest is a cuplike cavity lined with fur and dried grass in a burrow. Top of the nest is covered with fur, grass, and small sticks. Adult sex ratio has been reported to be 1:1-2 (males/females).Activity patterns.The Mountain Cottontails actively feeds in early morning and evening. In California, activity started at dawn until 09:30 h and again from 14:30 h until dark, but in Nevada individuals were active from 17:45 h until dark. Activity of Mountain Cottontails peaks 1-2 hours after sunrise and 0-1 hour before sunset in Oregon. Adult males become extremely secretive after the reproductive season, but activity of females is relatively constant throughout the years.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Mountain Cottontail is more solitary than other species of Sylvilagus, which might be due to its uniform habitat. It might concentrate, as do other species of Sylvilagus, in areas where patches of green grass or other desirable habitat occurs. Social behavior among adult Mountain Cottontails is only observed during the reproductive season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Cottontail is common throughout most ofits distribution, and populations do not seem to be declining. The Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) has displaced the Mountain Cottontail in south-western North Dakota, which might represent an ongoing but localized threat. The Mountain Cottontail is a common game species and managed by state and provincial wildlife agencies that determine hunting seasons and bag limits.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Bailey (1936), Borell & Ellis (1934), Chapman (1975b, 1999a), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman et al. (1982), Dalquest (1941), Dice (1926), Frey & Malaney (2006), Frey &Yates (1996), Genoways & Jones (1972), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1946, 1951, 1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister & Lee (1963), Lissovsky (2016), Malaney & Frey (2006), Nelson (1909), Nowak (1999a), Orr (1940), Powers & Verts (1971), Smith & Boyer (2008b), Turner (1974), Verts & Gehman (1991)." +03822308B74AFFF7FA11F597FBBBFDCB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,120,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74AFFF7FA11F597FBBBFDCB.xml,Sylvilagus brasiliensis,Sylvilagus,brasiliensis,,,Lapin du Brésil @fr | Tapeti @de | Conejo tropical @es | Forest Rabbit @en | Tapeti @en,"Lepus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758, “in America meridionalis.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “Pernambuco,” Brazil.Sylvilagus brasiliensisis closely related to S. varynaensis. Formerly, S. brasiliensisincluded S. diceiand S. gabbias subspecies. Subspecies true: has been removed from S. brasiliensisand now belongs to S. gabbi. Taxonomic revision of S. brasiliensisis necessary because some other subspecies might deserve full species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nineteen subspecies recognized.","S.b.brasiliensisLinnaeus,1758—PernambucoandBahiastates(NEBrazil).S.b.andinusThomas,1897—CanarProvince(SCEcuador).S.b.apollinarisThomas,1920—Bogotaregion(CColombia).S.b.capsalisThomas,1913—CajamarcaRegion(NPeru).S.b.caracasensisMondolfi&Méndez,1957—VenezuelanCoastalRange(NCVenezuela).S.b.chillaeAnthony,1923—ElOroProvince(SWEcuador).S.b.chotanusHershkovitz,1938—ImbaburaProvince(NEcuador).S.b.defilippiCornalia,1850—upperAmazonianregionsofColombia,EEcuador,andNWPeru.S.b.fulvescens].A.Allen,1912—CaucaDepartment(SWColombia).S.b.gibsoniThomas,1918—NArgentinafromtheRioParaguay-ParanatoETucuman,Jujuy,andSaltaprovinces,NintoTarijaDepartment(SBolivia).S.b.incaThomas,1913—SEPeru.S.b.kelloggiAnthony,1923—LojaandAzuayprovinces(SEcuador).S.b.meridensisThomas,1904—AndeanParamosinNEColombiaandAndeanParamosandWLlanosinWVenezuela.S.b.minensisThomas,1901—SW&SMinasGerais(SEBrazil).S.b.paraguensisThomas,1901—Paraguay(Chacoregionandadjacenthighlands),MattoGrossoState(WCBrazil),SantaCruzDepartment(EBolivia),CorrientesandMisionesprovinces(NEArgentina).S.b.peruanusHershkovitz,1950—PeruvianAndes.S.b.sanctaemartaeHershkovitz,1950—NColombia.S.b.surdasterThomas,1901—EsmeraldasProvince(NWEcuador).S. b. tapetillus Thomas, 1913— Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sulstates (SE Brazil). Also present in the Guinanas, N Brazil, and other areas shaded in the map, but subspecies involved not known.","Head—body 380-420 mm, tail 20-21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 77-80 mm; weight 500-950 g. The Common Tapetiis small, with short to rudimentary tail. It has short hindfeet and short ears. Dorsal fur varies from light gray to almost black. Sides and upper parts of tail are slightly lighter. Ventral fur is whitish, with dark throat patch. Tail is dingy buff below.","Mostly in disturbed areas, including agricultural areas, and forest edges from sea level to elevations of at least 4500 m. Habitats of the Common Tapeti and the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) are mutually exclusive in north-western South America.",There is no information available for this species.,"The Common Tapeti breeds year-round. Female reproductive activity is negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with monthly low temperatures. Gestation lasts 42—45 days, and 3-9—4-7 litters/year occur in the Andean Paramos. Average litter sizes of 1-2-1-9 are the smallest reported for any species of Sylvilagus. A female Common Tapeti produces less than ten young per year. Young are born in an aboveground nest thatis built of dry grasses and has a central chamber with 3—4 small chambers at the end of a runway system. Young leave the nest at 11-13 days old and are nursed for an average of 20-1 days. Females become sexually active at 9-10 months old; males are sexually active at c.5 months old.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was noted in the high mountains of Venezuela after habitat loss. Little is known about distribution of the Common Tapeti in the Amazonas region. The Eastern Cottontail replaces the Common Tapeti in artificial savannas and scrublands that cut through original forests in north-western South America. Predators that follow the Eastern Cottontail might also threaten the Common Tapeti. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Common Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Nevertheless, the Common Tapeti seems to become more common in eastern Amazonas where forest disturbance and fragmentation due to timber extraction in rainforests are increasing. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Common Tapeti,its distribution, and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from studies conducted in the Paramos of Venezuela.","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c) | Angermann (2016) | Cervantes, Zavala & Colmenares (2005) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Durant (1981, 1983, 1988) | Durant & Guevara (2001) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995) | Mondolfi & Méndez (1957) | Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007) | Silva et al. (2005) | Thomas (1911¢)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625583/files/figure.png,"19.Common TapetiSylvilagus brasiliensisFrench:Lapin du Brésil/ German:Tapeti/ Spanish:Conejo tropicalOther common names:Forest Rabbit, TapetiTaxonomy.Lepus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758, “in America meridionalis.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “Pernambuco,” Brazil.Sylvilagus brasiliensisis closely related to S. varynaensis. Formerly, S. brasiliensisincluded S. diceiand S. gabbias subspecies. Subspecies true: has been removed from S. brasiliensisand now belongs to S. gabbi. Taxonomic revision of S. brasiliensisis necessary because some other subspecies might deserve full species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nineteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.brasiliensisLinnaeus,1758—PernambucoandBahiastates(NEBrazil).S.b.andinusThomas,1897—CanarProvince(SCEcuador).S.b.apollinarisThomas,1920—Bogotaregion(CColombia).S.b.capsalisThomas,1913—CajamarcaRegion(NPeru).S.b.caracasensisMondolfi&Méndez,1957—VenezuelanCoastalRange(NCVenezuela).S.b.chillaeAnthony,1923—ElOroProvince(SWEcuador).S.b.chotanusHershkovitz,1938—ImbaburaProvince(NEcuador).S.b.defilippiCornalia,1850—upperAmazonianregionsofColombia,EEcuador,andNWPeru.S.b.fulvescens].A.Allen,1912—CaucaDepartment(SWColombia).S.b.gibsoniThomas,1918—NArgentinafromtheRioParaguay-ParanatoETucuman,Jujuy,andSaltaprovinces,NintoTarijaDepartment(SBolivia).S.b.incaThomas,1913—SEPeru.S.b.kelloggiAnthony,1923—LojaandAzuayprovinces(SEcuador).S.b.meridensisThomas,1904—AndeanParamosinNEColombiaandAndeanParamosandWLlanosinWVenezuela.S.b.minensisThomas,1901—SW&SMinasGerais(SEBrazil).S.b.paraguensisThomas,1901—Paraguay(Chacoregionandadjacenthighlands),MattoGrossoState(WCBrazil),SantaCruzDepartment(EBolivia),CorrientesandMisionesprovinces(NEArgentina).S.b.peruanusHershkovitz,1950—PeruvianAndes.S.b.sanctaemartaeHershkovitz,1950—NColombia.S.b.surdasterThomas,1901—EsmeraldasProvince(NWEcuador).S. b. tapetillus Thomas, 1913— Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sulstates (SE Brazil). Also present in the Guinanas, N Brazil, and other areas shaded in the map, but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-420 mm, tail 20-21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 77-80 mm; weight 500-950 g. The Common Tapetiis small, with short to rudimentary tail. It has short hindfeet and short ears. Dorsal fur varies from light gray to almost black. Sides and upper parts of tail are slightly lighter. Ventral fur is whitish, with dark throat patch. Tail is dingy buff below.Habitat.Mostly in disturbed areas, including agricultural areas, and forest edges from sea level to elevations of at least 4500 m. Habitats of the Common Tapeti and the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) are mutually exclusive in north-western South America.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.The Common Tapeti breeds year-round. Female reproductive activity is negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with monthly low temperatures. Gestation lasts 42—45 days, and 3-9—4-7 litters/year occur in the Andean Paramos. Average litter sizes of 1-2-1-9 are the smallest reported for any species of Sylvilagus. A female Common Tapeti produces less than ten young per year. Young are born in an aboveground nest thatis built of dry grasses and has a central chamber with 3—4 small chambers at the end of a runway system. Young leave the nest at 11-13 days old and are nursed for an average of 20-1 days. Females become sexually active at 9-10 months old; males are sexually active at c.5 months old.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was noted in the high mountains of Venezuela after habitat loss. Little is known about distribution of the Common Tapeti in the Amazonas region. The Eastern Cottontail replaces the Common Tapeti in artificial savannas and scrublands that cut through original forests in north-western South America. Predators that follow the Eastern Cottontail might also threaten the Common Tapeti. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Common Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Nevertheless, the Common Tapeti seems to become more common in eastern Amazonas where forest disturbance and fragmentation due to timber extraction in rainforests are increasing. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Common Tapeti,its distribution, and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from studies conducted in the Paramos of Venezuela.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Zavala & Colmenares (2005), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Durant (1981, 1983, 1988), Durant & Guevara (2001), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995), Mondolfi & Méndez (1957), Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007), Silva et al. (2005), Thomas (1911¢)." +03822308B74BFFF4FAC8F80AFBD4FA5B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,119,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74BFFF4FAC8F80AFBD4FA5B.xml,Sylvilagus palustris,Sylvilagus,palustris,,,Lapin des marais @fr | Marschlandkaninchen @de | Conejo de pantano @es | Key Rabbit @en | Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit (hefner) @en,"Lepus palustris Bachman, 1837, “South Carolina never ... more than forty miles [64 km] from the sea coast.”Restricted by G. S. Miller and J. A. G. Rehn in 1901 to “Eastern South Carolina,” USA.Genetic analysis shows that S. palustrisand S. aquaticusare sister taxa and share a derived karyotype (2n = 38). Taxonomic status of S. palustrisneeds evaluation. Classification of two subspecies is under discussion (paludicola and palustris). Recent genetic analysis of mtDNA and nDNA to investigate the endangered “Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit” (S. p. hefneri) did not confirm its taxonomic status. Nevertheless, results supported recognition of the western Lower Keys populations as a distinct “population segment” under the US Endangered Species Act. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","S.p.palustrisBachman,1837—fromSEVirginia(DismalSwamp)throughENorthCarolinatoSAlabamaandNFlorida(SEUSA).S.p.hefneriLazell,1984—BocaChica,Saddlebunch,Sugarloaf,andBigPineKeys(FloridaKeys),andonsomeofthesurroundingsmallerkeys(SEUSA).S. p. paludicola Miller & Bangs, 1894— Florida Peninsula (SE USA).","Head-body 430-440 mm, tail 33-39 mm, ear 45-52 mm, hindfoot 89-94 mm; weight 1.1-6 kg. The Marsh Rabbit is small to medium-sized, with rough hair. Dorsal fur, rump, uppertail, and hindlegs vary from chestnut-brown to dark rusty red. Ventral fur is reddish brown, and nape is dark rufous cinnamon. Central abdomen is white, with remainder of belly buff to light brown. Feet are small, slender, and dark reddish to buffy. Tail is small, with a dingy underside. Ears are short and broad, with black edges.On following pages: 18. Omilteme Cottontail (Sylvilagus insonus); 19. Common Tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis); 20 Cottontail (Sylvilagusdice); 23. Mexican Cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius); 24. Tres Marias Cottontail (Sylvilagus Robust Cottontail(Sylvilagus robustus); 28. Manzano Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus cognatus); 29. Hispid Hare (. Central American Tapeti (Sylvilagus gabbi); 21. Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit (Sylvilagus varynaensis), 22. Dice's graysoni); 25. Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus); 26. Appalachian Cottontail (Sylvilagus obscurus); 27. Caprolagus hispidus); 30. Bunyoro Rabbit (Poelagus marjorita); 31. European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).","Confined to marshy habitats from sea level to elevations of 152 m. The single most important factor limiting distribution of the Marsh Rabbit is availability of water. It usually inhabits areas of brackish water, although it can occur in freshwater marshes. In Florida, Marsh Rabbits live in habitats with trees such as magnolia (Magnoliagrandi-Jlora, Magnoliaceae), tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica, Cornaceae), and sweet gum (Liquidambarstyraciflua, Altingiaceae) and shrubs such as blackberry (Rubusbetulifolius) and dewberry (R. continentalis), both Rosaceae. They also occur in habitats dominated by cattails (Typha sp., Typhaceae) that grow along edges of ponds. They have also been recorded in grassy fields, mangroves, hummocks, fallow tomato fields, and vegetation along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields. The Marsh Rabbit does not live in burrows; it digs holes with long toenails. Holes are sloped at ¢.60° and ¢.30 cm deep. The US endangered subspecies Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit is usually found in saltmarsh/ buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes. Their forms have been found in patches of saltmarsh or buttonwoods in brackish wetlands, or in patches of hardwoods embedded in or adjacent to marshes in freshwater wetlands.","Diet of Marsh Rabbits includes various aquatic plants; herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants; cultivated crops; and grasses, sedges, and flowers.","Female Marsh Rabbits breed throughout the year, although some anestrous females are found in all months. Adult males are sexually active year-round, but juvenile males are active in December—-May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Litter sizes were 2—4 young in Florida and 3-5 young in Georgia. Litter size was smaller in November than March in Florida. Averages of 5-7-6-9 litters are produced per year. Young are born in nests that average 36 cm wide and ¢.20 cm deep. Nests are constructed of soft grass and mothers’ fur and are placed among sedges ¢.9 m from water. Reproductive rate of the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit may be lower than that of the other subspecies; 3-7 litters/year and 1-3 young/litter were recorded. Nests of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits are commonly found in grassy saltmarsh. Young leave nests c.2 weeks after birth and often disperse from their natal patches after 8-10 months (particularly males).",Marsh Rabbits are mainly nocturnal. They are most active between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. They rest in forms during the day.,"Marsh Rabbits like to swim, using an alternate paddling motion especially in warm water. They generally walk instead of hopping, particularly when crossing muddy areas. Marsh Rabbits have small home ranges. They deposit feces in small piles on logs and stumps or in larger piles along runways. Both males and females fight one another. Male Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits made one relatively long one-way movement as subadults (more than 124 m but less than 2 km), and females usually remained near their natal patches. They used dense ground cover while traveling. After establishing a home range, an adult lived in one patch of habitat until its death. Home ranges of the same sex rarely overlapped. Home ranges of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits averaged 4 ha, with core areas averaging 1-2 ha.Areas used during inactive periods averaged 1-4 ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Marsh Rabbit is widespread and abundant in parts ofits distribution. It is even considered as pest in some agricultural areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida. It is hunted in the southern USA. Nevertheless,little is known aboutits biology and ecology. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the insular subspecies, the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit, as endangered in1990. It has an estimated population size of only 200-700 mature individuals. It is restricted to the lower Florida Keys (extent of occurrence 90 km? and area of occupancy less than 10 km?), has experienced a severe population decline (loss of nine of the 76 occupied patches recorded in 1988-1996 and revisited in 2001 and 2003), exists in fragmented subpopulations that lower the likelihood of recolonization and gene flow, and has small subpopulations ofless than 250 mature adults. A population viability analysis using data collected in 1991-1993 predicted that the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit had a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years. Major threats to the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit are human-induced sea-levelrise exacerbated by human development, habitat succession, hardwood encroachment, predation by Raccoons (Procyon lotor), domestic and feral cats, and mortality from cars. It is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing, and off-road vehicle use.","Angermann (2016) | Blair (1936) | Burt & Grossenheider (1976) | Carr (1939) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Willner (1981) | Faulhaber (2003) | Faulhaber & Smith (2008) | Faulhaber et al. (2008) | Forys (1995) | Forys & Humphrey (1996, 1999) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951) | Harper (1927) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holler & Conaway (1979) | LaFever et al. (2007) | Lazell (1984) | Lissovsky (2016) | Miller & Rehn (1901) | Nelson (1909) | Robinson et al. (1983, 1984) | Schmidt, J.A. et al. (2012) | Schmidt, PM. et al. (2010) | Schwartz (1952) | Tomkins (1935) | Tursi et al. (2013) | Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625579/files/figure.png,"17.Marsh RabbitSylvilagus palustrisFrench:Lapin des marais/ German:Marschlandkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de pantanoOther common names:Key Rabbit, Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit (hefner)Taxonomy.Lepus palustris Bachman, 1837, “South Carolina never ... more than forty miles [64 km] from the sea coast.”Restricted by G. S. Miller and J. A. G. Rehn in 1901 to “Eastern South Carolina,” USA.Genetic analysis shows that S. palustrisand S. aquaticusare sister taxa and share a derived karyotype (2n = 38). Taxonomic status of S. palustrisneeds evaluation. Classification of two subspecies is under discussion (paludicola and palustris). Recent genetic analysis of mtDNA and nDNA to investigate the endangered “Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit” (S. p. hefneri) did not confirm its taxonomic status. Nevertheless, results supported recognition of the western Lower Keys populations as a distinct “population segment” under the US Endangered Species Act. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.p.palustrisBachman,1837—fromSEVirginia(DismalSwamp)throughENorthCarolinatoSAlabamaandNFlorida(SEUSA).S.p.hefneriLazell,1984—BocaChica,Saddlebunch,Sugarloaf,andBigPineKeys(FloridaKeys),andonsomeofthesurroundingsmallerkeys(SEUSA).S. p. paludicola Miller & Bangs, 1894— Florida Peninsula (SE USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 430-440 mm, tail 33-39 mm, ear 45-52 mm, hindfoot 89-94 mm; weight 1.1-6 kg. The Marsh Rabbit is small to medium-sized, with rough hair. Dorsal fur, rump, uppertail, and hindlegs vary from chestnut-brown to dark rusty red. Ventral fur is reddish brown, and nape is dark rufous cinnamon. Central abdomen is white, with remainder of belly buff to light brown. Feet are small, slender, and dark reddish to buffy. Tail is small, with a dingy underside. Ears are short and broad, with black edges.On following pages: 18. Omilteme Cottontail (Sylvilagus insonus); 19. Common Tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis); 20 Cottontail (Sylvilagusdice); 23. Mexican Cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius); 24. Tres Marias Cottontail (Sylvilagus Robust Cottontail(Sylvilagus robustus); 28. Manzano Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus cognatus); 29. Hispid Hare (. Central American Tapeti (Sylvilagus gabbi); 21. Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit (Sylvilagus varynaensis), 22. Dice's graysoni); 25. Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus); 26. Appalachian Cottontail (Sylvilagus obscurus); 27. Caprolagus hispidus); 30. Bunyoro Rabbit (Poelagus marjorita); 31. European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).Habitat.Confined to marshy habitats from sea level to elevations of 152 m. The single most important factor limiting distribution of the Marsh Rabbit is availability of water. It usually inhabits areas of brackish water, although it can occur in freshwater marshes. In Florida, Marsh Rabbits live in habitats with trees such as magnolia (Magnoliagrandi-Jlora, Magnoliaceae), tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica, Cornaceae), and sweet gum (Liquidambarstyraciflua, Altingiaceae) and shrubs such as blackberry (Rubusbetulifolius) and dewberry (R. continentalis), both Rosaceae. They also occur in habitats dominated by cattails (Typha sp., Typhaceae) that grow along edges of ponds. They have also been recorded in grassy fields, mangroves, hummocks, fallow tomato fields, and vegetation along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields. The Marsh Rabbit does not live in burrows; it digs holes with long toenails. Holes are sloped at ¢.60° and ¢.30 cm deep. The US endangered subspecies Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit is usually found in saltmarsh/ buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes. Their forms have been found in patches of saltmarsh or buttonwoods in brackish wetlands, or in patches of hardwoods embedded in or adjacent to marshes in freshwater wetlands.Food and Feeding.Diet of Marsh Rabbits includes various aquatic plants; herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants; cultivated crops; and grasses, sedges, and flowers.Breeding.Female Marsh Rabbits breed throughout the year, although some anestrous females are found in all months. Adult males are sexually active year-round, but juvenile males are active in December—-May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Litter sizes were 2—4 young in Florida and 3-5 young in Georgia. Litter size was smaller in November than March in Florida. Averages of 5-7-6-9 litters are produced per year. Young are born in nests that average 36 cm wide and ¢.20 cm deep. Nests are constructed of soft grass and mothers’ fur and are placed among sedges ¢.9 m from water. Reproductive rate of the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit may be lower than that of the other subspecies; 3-7 litters/year and 1-3 young/litter were recorded. Nests of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits are commonly found in grassy saltmarsh. Young leave nests c.2 weeks after birth and often disperse from their natal patches after 8-10 months (particularly males).Activity patterns.Marsh Rabbits are mainly nocturnal. They are most active between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. They rest in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marsh Rabbits like to swim, using an alternate paddling motion especially in warm water. They generally walk instead of hopping, particularly when crossing muddy areas. Marsh Rabbits have small home ranges. They deposit feces in small piles on logs and stumps or in larger piles along runways. Both males and females fight one another. Male Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits made one relatively long one-way movement as subadults (more than 124 m but less than 2 km), and females usually remained near their natal patches. They used dense ground cover while traveling. After establishing a home range, an adult lived in one patch of habitat until its death. Home ranges of the same sex rarely overlapped. Home ranges of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits averaged 4 ha, with core areas averaging 1-2 ha.Areas used during inactive periods averaged 1-4 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Marsh Rabbit is widespread and abundant in parts ofits distribution. It is even considered as pest in some agricultural areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida. It is hunted in the southern USA. Nevertheless,little is known aboutits biology and ecology. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the insular subspecies, the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit, as endangered in1990. It has an estimated population size of only 200-700 mature individuals. It is restricted to the lower Florida Keys (extent of occurrence 90 km? and area of occupancy less than 10 km?), has experienced a severe population decline (loss of nine of the 76 occupied patches recorded in 1988-1996 and revisited in 2001 and 2003), exists in fragmented subpopulations that lower the likelihood of recolonization and gene flow, and has small subpopulations ofless than 250 mature adults. A population viability analysis using data collected in 1991-1993 predicted that the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit had a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years. Major threats to the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit are human-induced sea-levelrise exacerbated by human development, habitat succession, hardwood encroachment, predation by Raccoons (Procyon lotor), domestic and feral cats, and mortality from cars. It is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing, and off-road vehicle use.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Blair (1936), Burt & Grossenheider (1976), Carr (1939), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Willner (1981), Faulhaber (2003), Faulhaber & Smith (2008), Faulhaber et al. (2008), Forys (1995), Forys & Humphrey (1996, 1999), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951), Harper (1927), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holler & Conaway (1979), LaFever et al. (2007), Lazell (1984), Lissovsky (2016), Miller & Rehn (1901), Nelson (1909), Robinson et al. (1983, 1984), Schmidt, J.A. et al. (2012), Schmidt, PM. et al. (2010), Schwartz (1952), Tomkins (1935), Tursi et al. (2013), Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)." +03822308B74BFFF5FFC9FEA2F7A2F132,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,119,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74BFFF5FFC9FEA2F7A2F132.xml,Sylvilagus aquaticus,Sylvilagus,aquaticus,,,Lapin aquatique @fr | Sumpfkaninchen @de | Conejo de ciénaga @es | Cane-cutter @en,"Lepus aquaticus Bachman, 1837, “...western parts of that state.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Western Alabama,” USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. aquaticusand S. palustrisare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","S.a.aquaticusBachman,1837—NoftherangefromSEKansas,SMissouri,andSIIlinois,SEtoWtipofNorthCarolinaandNWGeorgia,andStoAlabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,andTexas(SEUSA).S. a. littoralis Nelson, 1909— coastal Gulf of Mexico section of the range in SE Texas, S & E Louisiana, SE Mississippi, and SW tip of Alabama (S USA).","Head-body 450-550 mm, tail 50-74 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 90-113 mm; weight 1:6.2-7 kg. The Swamp Rabbit is the largest species of Sylvilagus. Ears are medium-sized in relation to body size. Head and dorsal fur are dark and rusty brown to black. Ventral fur, throat, and tail are white. There are distinctive cinnamon eye rings. Swamp Rabbits are not sexually dimorphic, but there is probably a latitudinal size gradient.Habitat.Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.Food and Feeding.The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).Breeding.The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.Activity patterns.Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease.","Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.","The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).","The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.","Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.","Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease. Habitat fragmentation also impedes dispersal. Despite shrinkage of habitats of Swamp Rabbits on distributional peripheries, there are still large areas of prime habitat (e.g. in Louisiana). Populations also have been reported to persist in southeastern Missouri although its habitat has been greatly reduced. Swamp Rabbits occur in many protected areas, but only few studies have been conducted to determine their abundance orstatus.","Angermann (2016) | Calhoun (1941) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Feldhamer (1981) | Cockrum (1949) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hill (1967) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holler & Marsden (1970) | Holler & Sorensen (1969) | Holler et al. (1963) | Holten & Toll (1960) | Hunt (1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lowe (1958) | Lowery (1974) | Marsden & Holler (1964) | Nelson (1909) | Scheibe & Henson (2003) | Smith, A.T. & Boyer (2008c) | Smith, C.C. (1940) | Sorensen et al. (1968, 1972) | Svihla (1929) | Terrel (1972) | Toll et al. (1960) | Vale & Kissell (2010) | Zoliner et al. (1996)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625577/files/figure.png,"16.Swamp RabbitSylvilagus aquaticusFrench:Lapin aquatique/ German:Sumpfkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de ciénagaOther common names:Cane-cutterTaxonomy.Lepus aquaticus Bachman, 1837, “...western parts of that state.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Western Alabama,” USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. aquaticusand S. palustrisare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.a.aquaticusBachman,1837—NoftherangefromSEKansas,SMissouri,andSIIlinois,SEtoWtipofNorthCarolinaandNWGeorgia,andStoAlabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,andTexas(SEUSA).S. a. littoralis Nelson, 1909— coastal Gulf of Mexico section of the range in SE Texas, S & E Louisiana, SE Mississippi, and SW tip of Alabama (S USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm, tail 50-74 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 90-113 mm; weight 1:6.2-7 kg. The Swamp Rabbit is the largest species of Sylvilagus. Ears are medium-sized in relation to body size. Head and dorsal fur are dark and rusty brown to black. Ventral fur, throat, and tail are white. There are distinctive cinnamon eye rings. Swamp Rabbits are not sexually dimorphic, but there is probably a latitudinal size gradient.Habitat.Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.Food and Feeding.The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).Breeding.The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.Activity patterns.Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease. Habitat fragmentation also impedes dispersal. Despite shrinkage of habitats of Swamp Rabbits on distributional peripheries, there are still large areas of prime habitat (e.g. in Louisiana). Populations also have been reported to persist in southeastern Missouri although its habitat has been greatly reduced. Swamp Rabbits occur in many protected areas, but only few studies have been conducted to determine their abundance orstatus.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Calhoun (1941), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Feldhamer (1981), Cockrum (1949), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951, 1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hill (1967), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holler & Marsden (1970), Holler & Sorensen (1969), Holler et al. (1963), Holten & Toll (1960), Hunt (1959), Lissovsky (2016), Lowe (1958), Lowery (1974), Marsden & Holler (1964), Nelson (1909), Scheibe & Henson (2003), Smith, A.T. & Boyer (2008c), Smith, C.C. (1940), Sorensen et al. (1968, 1972), Svihla (1929), Terrel (1972), Toll et al. (1960), Vale & Kissell (2010), Zoliner et al. (1996)." +03822308B74EFFF0FF61F4E5F600FCAA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,116,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74EFFF0FF61F4E5F600FCAA.xml,Sylvilagus nuttallii,Sylvilagus,nuttallii,,,Lapin de Nuttall @fr | Berg-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Nuttall @es | Nuttall's Cottontail @en,"Lepus nuttallii Bachman, 1837, “...west of the Rocky Mountains....streams which flow into the Shoshonee and Columbia rivers.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “eastern Oregon, near mouth of Malheur River.”Genetic analysis shows that S. nuttalliiand S. auduboniiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus nuttalliiis closely allopatric with S. floridanuswhere their distributions meet across the northern and central Great Plains and in south-western USA. Sylvilagus nuttalliilives sympatrically over most of its distribution and in syntopy in the subalpine zone with Lepus americanus. Three subspecies recognized.","S.n.nuttalliiBachman,1837—NWpartoftherangeinextremeSBritishColumbia(SWCanada),Washington,WCIdaho,Oregon,NECalifornia,andNWNevada(NWUSA).S.n.grangeriJ.A.Allen,1895—Cpartoftherange,fromSAlbertaandSSaskatchewan(SCanada)SWtoCECaliforniaandSEtoNArizonaandNWColorado(CUSA).S. n. pinetisJ. A. Allen, 1894— SE part of the range in SC Wyoming, SE Utah, C & SW Colorado, NW New Mexico, and NE & C Arizona (SC USA).","Head-body 340-390 mm, tail 30-54 mm, ear 55-60 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 629-871 g. The Mountain Cottontail is a large species of Sylvilagus. Hindlegs are long, and all four feet are densely covered with long hair. Ears are rounded at tips and short, with inner surfaces haired. Dorsal fur is grayish, and ventral fur is white. Tail is large, grizzled dark above and white below. Female Mountain Cottontails are slightly less than 4% larger than males. Thereis a single molt per year.","Sagebrush (Artemisia spp., Asteraceae) areas in the northern part of the distribution and forested areas in the southern part. Mountain Cottontails have been recorded in riparian growth, cultivated fields, desert scrub, grasslands, woodlands, and montane and subalpine coniferous forests. They prefer rocky, brushy, and wooded areas. In California, they occur at elevations of 1372 m to at least 3542 m. Mountain Cottontails use burrows and forms but do not dig their own burrows. They mostly live aboveground in dense habitat, but frequently use crevices in rocks or burrows as shelter in less dense vegetation.","In California, the diet of the Mountain Cottontail consists mainly of sagebrush, but they prefer to feed on grasses when available in spring and summer. Western juniper (Juniperusoccidentalis, Cupressaceae) also is eaten. They usually feed underbrush cover or in clearings near shelter.","Start and duration of the reproductive season of the Mountain Cottontail vary across its distribution. It begins in April and lasts into July in north-eastern California and late February until early July in central Oregon. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. Female Mountain Cottontails in California normally have two litters per year, but in Oregon, they have 4-5 litters/year. Litter sizes average 4-6 young (range 1-8). A female might produce 22 young/year in Oregon.Juvenile breeding occurs butis rare. Nest is a cuplike cavity lined with fur and dried grass in a burrow. Top of the nest is covered with fur, grass, and small sticks. Adult sex ratio has been reported to be 1:1-2 (males/females).","The Mountain Cottontails actively feeds in early morning and evening. In California, activity started at dawn until 09:30 h and again from 14:30 h until dark, but in Nevada individuals were active from 17:45 h until dark. Activity of Mountain Cottontails peaks 1-2 hours after sunrise and 0-1 hour before sunset in Oregon. Adult males become extremely secretive after the reproductive season, but activity of females is relatively constant throughout the years.","The Mountain Cottontail is more solitary than other species of Sylvilagus, which might be due to its uniform habitat. It might concentrate, as do other species of Sylvilagus, in areas where patches of green grass or other desirable habitat occurs. Social behavior among adult Mountain Cottontails is only observed during the reproductive season.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Cottontail is common throughout most ofits distribution, and populations do not seem to be declining. The Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) has displaced the Mountain Cottontail in south-western North Dakota, which might represent an ongoing but localized threat. The Mountain Cottontail is a common game species and managed by state and provincial wildlife agencies that determine hunting seasons and bag limits.","Angermann (2016) | Bailey (1936) | Borell & Ellis (1934) | Chapman (1975b, 1999a) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman et al. (1982) | Dalquest (1941) | Dice (1926) | Frey & Malaney (2006) | Frey &Yates (1996) | Genoways & Jones (1972) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1946, 1951, 1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister & Lee (1963) | Lissovsky (2016) | Malaney & Frey (2006) | Nelson (1909) | Nowak (1999a) | Orr (1940) | Powers & Verts (1971) | Smith & Boyer (2008b) | Turner (1974) | Verts & Gehman (1991)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625573/files/figure.png,"14.Mountain CottontailSylvilagus nuttalliiFrench:Lapin de Nuttall/ German:Berg-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de NuttallOther common names:Nuttall's CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus nuttallii Bachman, 1837, “...west of the Rocky Mountains....streams which flow into the Shoshonee and Columbia rivers.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “eastern Oregon, near mouth of Malheur River.”Genetic analysis shows that S. nuttalliiand S. auduboniiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus nuttalliiis closely allopatric with S. floridanuswhere their distributions meet across the northern and central Great Plains and in south-western USA. Sylvilagus nuttalliilives sympatrically over most of its distribution and in syntopy in the subalpine zone with Lepus americanus. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.n.nuttalliiBachman,1837—NWpartoftherangeinextremeSBritishColumbia(SWCanada),Washington,WCIdaho,Oregon,NECalifornia,andNWNevada(NWUSA).S.n.grangeriJ.A.Allen,1895—Cpartoftherange,fromSAlbertaandSSaskatchewan(SCanada)SWtoCECaliforniaandSEtoNArizonaandNWColorado(CUSA).S. n. pinetisJ. A. Allen, 1894— SE part of the range in SC Wyoming, SE Utah, C & SW Colorado, NW New Mexico, and NE & C Arizona (SC USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 340-390 mm, tail 30-54 mm, ear 55-60 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 629-871 g. The Mountain Cottontail is a large species of Sylvilagus. Hindlegs are long, and all four feet are densely covered with long hair. Ears are rounded at tips and short, with inner surfaces haired. Dorsal fur is grayish, and ventral fur is white. Tail is large, grizzled dark above and white below. Female Mountain Cottontails are slightly less than 4% larger than males. Thereis a single molt per year.Habitat.Sagebrush (Artemisia spp., Asteraceae) areas in the northern part of the distribution and forested areas in the southern part. Mountain Cottontails have been recorded in riparian growth, cultivated fields, desert scrub, grasslands, woodlands, and montane and subalpine coniferous forests. They prefer rocky, brushy, and wooded areas. In California, they occur at elevations of 1372 m to at least 3542 m. Mountain Cottontails use burrows and forms but do not dig their own burrows. They mostly live aboveground in dense habitat, but frequently use crevices in rocks or burrows as shelter in less dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.In California, the diet of the Mountain Cottontail consists mainly of sagebrush, but they prefer to feed on grasses when available in spring and summer. Western juniper (Juniperusoccidentalis, Cupressaceae) also is eaten. They usually feed underbrush cover or in clearings near shelter.Breeding.Start and duration of the reproductive season of the Mountain Cottontail vary across its distribution. It begins in April and lasts into July in north-eastern California and late February until early July in central Oregon. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. Female Mountain Cottontails in California normally have two litters per year, but in Oregon, they have 4-5 litters/year. Litter sizes average 4-6 young (range 1-8). A female might produce 22 young/year in Oregon.Juvenile breeding occurs butis rare. Nest is a cuplike cavity lined with fur and dried grass in a burrow. Top of the nest is covered with fur, grass, and small sticks. Adult sex ratio has been reported to be 1:1-2 (males/females).Activity patterns.The Mountain Cottontails actively feeds in early morning and evening. In California, activity started at dawn until 09:30 h and again from 14:30 h until dark, but in Nevada individuals were active from 17:45 h until dark. Activity of Mountain Cottontails peaks 1-2 hours after sunrise and 0-1 hour before sunset in Oregon. Adult males become extremely secretive after the reproductive season, but activity of females is relatively constant throughout the years.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Mountain Cottontail is more solitary than other species of Sylvilagus, which might be due to its uniform habitat. It might concentrate, as do other species of Sylvilagus, in areas where patches of green grass or other desirable habitat occurs. Social behavior among adult Mountain Cottontails is only observed during the reproductive season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Cottontail is common throughout most ofits distribution, and populations do not seem to be declining. The Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) has displaced the Mountain Cottontail in south-western North Dakota, which might represent an ongoing but localized threat. The Mountain Cottontail is a common game species and managed by state and provincial wildlife agencies that determine hunting seasons and bag limits.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Bailey (1936), Borell & Ellis (1934), Chapman (1975b, 1999a), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman et al. (1982), Dalquest (1941), Dice (1926), Frey & Malaney (2006), Frey &Yates (1996), Genoways & Jones (1972), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1946, 1951, 1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister & Lee (1963), Lissovsky (2016), Malaney & Frey (2006), Nelson (1909), Nowak (1999a), Orr (1940), Powers & Verts (1971), Smith & Boyer (2008b), Turner (1974), Verts & Gehman (1991)." 03822308B74EFFF3FA6EF482F923F0AF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,116,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74EFFF3FA6EF482F923F0AF.xml,Sylvilagus transitionalis,Sylvilagus,transitionalis,,,Lapin de Nouvelle-Angleterre @fr | Neuengland-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Nueva @es | nglaterra @en | Wood Rabbit @en,"Lepus transitionalis Bangs, 1895, “Liberty Hill, Conn. [= New London Co., Connecticut, USA].”Formerly, S. obscuruswas included in S. transitionalisbut received species status due to the discovery of two different cytotypes (S. obscurus2n = 42 and S. transitionalis2n = 52). Monotypic.","NE USA,in coastal S Maine, coastal and Merrimack River valley region of S New Hampshire, SE New York, W Massachusetts (including parts of Cape Cod), W & E (E of the Connecticut River) Connecticut, and Rhode Island.","Head—body 390-430 mm, tail 22-65 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 87-97 mm; weight 0.8-1 kg. The New England Cottontail is a medium-sized species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is pinkish buff to ocher. Back is additionally overlaid with distinct black wash. Ears are short and rounded, and anterior edges are covered with black hair. A characteristic black spot usually occurs between ears. Females are slightly less than 1% larger than males.Adults have one molt per year in autumn.Pelage characteristics alone are not sufficient to differentiate the New England Cottontail from the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus); both species can have the same color and pelage characteristics throughout the distribution of the New England Cottontail. Cranial characteristics are most reliable to distinguish the two species.","Early successional habitat specialist, inhabiting areas of open woods or their borders, or shrubby areas and thickets in open areas. Historically, New England Cottontails occupied early successional forests that became abundant when farmlands were abandoned, and maturation of these forests into closed-canopy stands caused the decline of this species beginning in the 1960s. New England Cottontails prefers habitats with dense understory vegetation and fallow agricultural lands. They avoid venturing into the open and remain in close proximity to cover.","Diet of the New England Cottontail includes a variety of vegetation, but it is the only species of Sylvilagusthat extensively consumes conifer needles.","Reproductive season of the New England Cottontail lasts from early March to early September, peaking in March—July. It is a postpartum synchronous breeder. Gestation appearsto last 28 days. Litter size averages 3-5 young, and females give birth to an average of 24 young/year. Twenty percent of pregnancies are from juvenile females breeding in their first year. Hybridization between the New England Cottontails and Eastern Cottontails occurs in the wild, but frequency is unknown. A genetic study conducted in the north-eastern USA where both species live sympatrically indicated that no hybridization occurred.",There is no information available for this species.,"Dominance hierarchies of male New England Cottontails regulate access to females and reproductive success. Reproductive behavior is most intense during the estrous period of females, and little social interaction occurs between estrous periods. Reproductive behavior begins 2-3 days before parturition, and postpartum breeding occurs.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The New England Cottontail historically inhabited boreal habitats throughout south-eastern Canada in southern Quebec and north-eastern USA from southern Maine to Connecticut and New York. Nevertheless, a recent study restricted current distribution to 12,180 km?, c.86% less than the historical distribution. It has been hypothesized that the New England Cottontail is a “refugial relict” and that its patchy distribution resulted from a gradual change in climate coupled with invasion and displacement by the Eastern Cottontail in lowland areas. This process appears to be accelerated by habitat alteration. Status of the New England Cottontail has been of concern to biologists and resource agencies for more than four decades. It once had a widespread distribution across New England, USA, but suitable habitats of early successional forest have declined by ¢.86% since 1960, and available habitat has become increasingly fragmented. Moreover, the Eastern Cottontail has invaded much of the habitat of the New England Cottontail. As a consequence, the New England Cottontail has disappeared throughout much of north-eastern USA. It is suspected that the population of the New England Cottontail has been reduced by more than 50% since 1994. They are rare to scarce in fragmented populations. Even in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, which had one of the densest populations in the 1980s, a dramatically decline seems to have occurred based on the last census in 2000-2001. The New England Cottontail is hunted for sport and food. Major threats are competition with the Eastern Cottontail, landscape fragmentation, and forest maturation. An ongoing population decline is expected because threats are unabated. A recent genetic study showed that populations of New England Cottontails in Maine and New Hampshire and on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, are at great risk due to low genetic variability caused by fragmentation that limits gene flow. Problems for conservation of the New England Cottontail are confusion with the Eastern Cottontail by hunters; lack of education on existence, biology, and habitat requirements of the New England Cottontail; and conversion of native shrublands to other land uses. Recommendations are to develop habitat connections among fragmented populations, increase suitable habitat such as early successional and shrub-dominated areas, prohibition of hunting, and recolonize of suitable habitat by translocations. Research on the New England Cottontail should be conducted on biology, ecology, population status, and competition with other lagomorphs.","Barry et al. (2008) | Chapman (1975a) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Morgan (1973) | Chapman & Stauffer (1981) | Chapman et al. (1977) | Dalke (1942) | Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis & Litvaitis (2011) | Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis, O'Brien et al. (2014) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holden & Eabry (1970) | Litvaitis, J.A., Barbour et al. (2008) | Litvaitis, J.A., Johnson et al. (2003) | Litvaitis, J.A., Tash et al. (2006) | Litvaitis, M.K., Ruedas et al. (1989) | Smith & Litvaitis (2000) | Tash & Litvaitis (2007) | Tefft & Chapman (1987) | Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625575/files/figure.png,"15.New England CottontailSylvilagus transitionalisFrench:Lapin de Nouvelle-Angleterre/ German:Neuengland-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de Nueva InglaterraOther common names:Wood RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus transitionalis Bangs, 1895, “Liberty Hill, Conn. [= New London Co., Connecticut, USA].”Formerly, S. obscuruswas included in S. transitionalisbut received species status due to the discovery of two different cytotypes (S. obscurus2n = 42 and S. transitionalis2n = 52). Monotypic.Distribution.NE USA,in coastal S Maine, coastal and Merrimack River valley region of S New Hampshire, SE New York, W Massachusetts (including parts of Cape Cod), W & E (E of the Connecticut River) Connecticut, and Rhode Island.Descriptive notes.Head—body 390-430 mm, tail 22-65 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 87-97 mm; weight 0.8-1 kg. The New England Cottontail is a medium-sized species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is pinkish buff to ocher. Back is additionally overlaid with distinct black wash. Ears are short and rounded, and anterior edges are covered with black hair. A characteristic black spot usually occurs between ears. Females are slightly less than 1% larger than males.Adults have one molt per year in autumn.Pelage characteristics alone are not sufficient to differentiate the New England Cottontail from the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus); both species can have the same color and pelage characteristics throughout the distribution of the New England Cottontail. Cranial characteristics are most reliable to distinguish the two species.Habitat.Early successional habitat specialist, inhabiting areas of open woods or their borders, or shrubby areas and thickets in open areas. Historically, New England Cottontails occupied early successional forests that became abundant when farmlands were abandoned, and maturation of these forests into closed-canopy stands caused the decline of this species beginning in the 1960s. New England Cottontails prefers habitats with dense understory vegetation and fallow agricultural lands. They avoid venturing into the open and remain in close proximity to cover.Food and Feeding.Diet of the New England Cottontail includes a variety of vegetation, but it is the only species of Sylvilagusthat extensively consumes conifer needles.Breeding.Reproductive season of the New England Cottontail lasts from early March to early September, peaking in March—July. It is a postpartum synchronous breeder. Gestation appearsto last 28 days. Litter size averages 3-5 young, and females give birth to an average of 24 young/year. Twenty percent of pregnancies are from juvenile females breeding in their first year. Hybridization between the New England Cottontails and Eastern Cottontails occurs in the wild, but frequency is unknown. A genetic study conducted in the north-eastern USA where both species live sympatrically indicated that no hybridization occurred.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dominance hierarchies of male New England Cottontails regulate access to females and reproductive success. Reproductive behavior is most intense during the estrous period of females, and little social interaction occurs between estrous periods. Reproductive behavior begins 2-3 days before parturition, and postpartum breeding occurs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The New England Cottontail historically inhabited boreal habitats throughout south-eastern Canada in southern Quebec and north-eastern USA from southern Maine to Connecticut and New York. Nevertheless, a recent study restricted current distribution to 12,180 km?, c.86% less than the historical distribution. It has been hypothesized that the New England Cottontail is a “refugial relict” and that its patchy distribution resulted from a gradual change in climate coupled with invasion and displacement by the Eastern Cottontail in lowland areas. This process appears to be accelerated by habitat alteration. Status of the New England Cottontail has been of concern to biologists and resource agencies for more than four decades. It once had a widespread distribution across New England, USA, but suitable habitats of early successional forest have declined by ¢.86% since 1960, and available habitat has become increasingly fragmented. Moreover, the Eastern Cottontail has invaded much of the habitat of the New England Cottontail. As a consequence, the New England Cottontail has disappeared throughout much of north-eastern USA. It is suspected that the population of the New England Cottontail has been reduced by more than 50% since 1994. They are rare to scarce in fragmented populations. Even in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, which had one of the densest populations in the 1980s, a dramatically decline seems to have occurred based on the last census in 2000-2001. The New England Cottontail is hunted for sport and food. Major threats are competition with the Eastern Cottontail, landscape fragmentation, and forest maturation. An ongoing population decline is expected because threats are unabated. A recent genetic study showed that populations of New England Cottontails in Maine and New Hampshire and on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, are at great risk due to low genetic variability caused by fragmentation that limits gene flow. Problems for conservation of the New England Cottontail are confusion with the Eastern Cottontail by hunters; lack of education on existence, biology, and habitat requirements of the New England Cottontail; and conversion of native shrublands to other land uses. Recommendations are to develop habitat connections among fragmented populations, increase suitable habitat such as early successional and shrub-dominated areas, prohibition of hunting, and recolonize of suitable habitat by translocations. Research on the New England Cottontail should be conducted on biology, ecology, population status, and competition with other lagomorphs.Bibliography.Barry et al. (2008), Chapman (1975a), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Morgan (1973), Chapman & Stauffer (1981), Chapman et al. (1977), Dalke (1942), Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis & Litvaitis (2011), Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis, O'Brien et al. (2014), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holden & Eabry (1970), Litvaitis, J.A., Barbour et al. (2008), Litvaitis, J.A., Johnson et al. (2003), Litvaitis, J.A., Tash et al. (2006), Litvaitis, M.K., Ruedas et al. (1989), Smith & Litvaitis (2000), Tash & Litvaitis (2007), Tefft & Chapman (1987), Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)." -03822308B74FFFF0FFC2F3EEFD25FD47,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,115,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74FFFF0FFC2F3EEFD25FD47.xml,Sylvilagus audubonii,Sylvilagus,audubonii,,,Lapin d Audubon @fr | Audubon-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de desierto @es | Audubon’s Cottontail @en,"Lepus audubonii Baird, 1858, “San Francisco,” San Francisco Co., California, USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. auduboniiand S. nuttalliiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Twelve subspecies recognized.","S.a.audubonuiBaird,1858—NCalifornia(WUSA).S.a.arizonae].A.Allen,1877—SWUtah,SNevada,SECalifornia,W&SArizona(SWUSA),andmostofSonora(NWMexico).S.a.baileyiMerriam,1897—C&SEMontana,SWNorthDakota,Wyoming,WSouthDakota,WNebraska,NEUtah,N,NW&EColorado,andNWKansas(NCUSA).S.a.cedrophilusNelson,1907—EArizonaandWC&CNewMexico(CUSA).S.a.confinisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheNandBajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.a.goldmaniNelson,1904—SSonora,extremeSWChihuahua,extremeWDurango,andSinaloa(WMexico).S.a.minorMearns,1896—SEArizona,SNewMexico,andSWTexas(SUSA),ESonora,ChihuahuaexceptSW,NEDurango,WCoahuila,andNZacatecas,andWCtipofNuevoLeon(NCMexico).S.a.neomexicanusNelson,1907—SWKansas,WOklahoma,N&WTexas,SEtipofColoradoandENewMexico(SCUSA).S.a.parvulus].A.Allen,1904—SCTexas(SUSA),N&WTamaulipas,NuevoLeon,ECoahuila,S.a.LuisPotosi,Zacatecas,SEDurango,Aguascalientes,WJalisco,NGuanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,CPuebla,Tlaxcala,andWVeracruz(CMexico).S.a.sanctidiegiMiller,1899—SWCalifornia(SWUSA),NWtipofBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.a.vallicolaNelson,1907—CWCalifornia(WUSA).S. a. warreni Nelson, 1907— SE Utah, W & S Colorado, NE Arizona, and NW New Mexico (USA).","Head—body 370-400 mm, tail 39-60 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 810-940 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Desert Cottontail is relatively large, with long pointed ears that are sparsely haired on inner surfaces. Pelage is dorsally gray and ventrally white. Hindlegs are long, and feet are slender. Tail is large and dark above and white below. Female Desert Cottontails are ¢.2% larger than males.","Arid regions in woodlands, grasslands, and deserts at low elevations throughout the south-western United States. The Desert Cottontail lives from below sea level in Death Valley, California, up to elevations of at least 1829 m. It is often associated with riparian zones in arid regions. In California,its hides are found in heavy brush and willows along rivers. In pine-juniper woodlands, shrubs are its primary cover. Plant species associated with the Desert Cottontail are willows (Salix sp., Salicaceae), buttonwillow (Cephalanthusoccidentalis, Rubiaceae), wild grape (Vitiscalifornica, Vitaceae), greasewood (Adenostomafasciculatum, Rosaceae) in California and arrow-weed (Plucheasericea, Asteraceae), screw-bean mesquite (Prosopispubescens) and catclaw (Acaciagreggii), both Fabaceae, in southern Nevada. Occasionally, the Desert Cottontail is found where there is little or no vegetation cover. Abundance of Desert Cottontails is highest under moderate cattle grazing. It relies on thick brambles for cover rather than using holes. The Desert Cottontail in south-eastern Arizona typically builds forms in areas with triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosiadeltoidea, Asteraceae) and tall plants (higher than 1-5 m). Desert Cottontails have some physiological adaptations that enable them survive in desert environments. A shift upward of the thermoneutral zone occurs from winter to summer, and basal metabolism decreases by 18% during the same period. Body temperature is 38-3°C when ambient temperatures are below 30°C, whereas body temperature equals ambient temperature of 41-9°C in summer.","Diet of Desert Cottontails depends on seasonal availabilities of plants. Food plants include various unidentified grasses; foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum, Poaceae); galingale (Cyperus sp.) and sedge (Carex sp.), both Cyperaceae; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae); valley oak (Quercuslobata, Fagaceae); miner's lettuce (Montiaperfoliata, Montiaceae); blackberry (Rubusvitifolius) and California wild rose (Rosacalifornica), both Rosaceae; hoarhound (Marrubiumvulgare, Lamiaceae); and Baccharisdouglasii and California mugwort (Artemisiavulgaris), both Asteraceae. True grasses (Poaceae) such as Johnson grass (Holcushalepensis), Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), blue grass (Poapratensis), ripgut grass (Bromusrigidus), and wheat grass (Agropyroncaninum), as well as morning glory (Convolvulus sp., Convolvulaceae), bull mallow (Malvaborealis, Malvaceae), honeysuckle (Lonicera sp., Caprifoliaceae), and sow thistle (Sonchusasper, Asteraceae) were important dietary items of Desert Cottontails in the Sacramento Valley, California. Desert Cottontails living in fields fed almost entirely on grasses. Cultivated hollyhock, carrots, acorns of valley oak, and fruits of almond and peach also are eaten. Type of cover is an important factor to determine feeding sites. Most feeding in late morning and early evening takes place in areas of brushy cover adjacent to open grassland. Important factors that affect daily feeding periods are habitat, season of the year, fog, rain, and wind. Maximum numbers of Desert Cottontails were observed feeding at dawn. Wind appears to interfere greatly with normal feeding. Light intensity determines distance from shelter an individual will venture for food. Desert Cottontails traveled up to 100 m from cover after dark. They feed by taking successive mouthfuls in open situations. Subsequently, heads are elevated, and they start to chew. They extend their bodies along the ground when feeding on low-growing grasses. Necks are stretched out, and front feet edge forward. Hindfeet are brought forward with hops when food can no longer be reached. Generally, terminal parts of plants are eaten.","Timing of reproductive season of Desert Cottontails depends on the region. In California, it generally lasts for c¢.7 months in December—June, but one study reported that breeding occurred throughout the year. In Arizona, breeding lasts 8-9 months from January until August or September, whereas in Texas,it starts in late February or early March. Female Desert Cottontails give birth in nests. Five examined nests were pear-shaped excavations, 15-25 cm deep, and 15 cm in diameter near their bottoms. Cavities were first lined with thick layers of fine grass and weeds and then filled with the mothers’ fur. Type of site selected for a nest or burrow varies with habitat. Gestation is ¢.28 days. Neonates have sparse hair. When the nest is touched, young lunge upward and utter a “gupp” sound, which might also be a call used prior to nursing. Females nurse young by crouching over their nests. In one occasion, young were nursed between 13:00 h and 14:00 h after 13-5 hours had elapsed since the previous feeding. Another time, young were nursed at 20:00 h following 30 hours without a feeding. Eyes of Desert Cottontails open c.10 days after birth, and young leave the nest 10-14 days after birth but remain near the nest for up to c.3 weeks. Litter size depends on region and is small for species of Sylvilagus. Meanlitter sizes were 2:9 and 2-7 in Arizona, 2-6 in Texas, and 3-6 in California. In Arizona, females produced an average offive litters per year. Sexual maturity is attained ¢.80 days after birth. The Desert Cottontail appears to be less fecund than some other species of Sylvilagus.","The Desert Cottontail is most active in early morning and evening and has activity peaks at 05:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. They are inactive at temperatures above 27°C. Individuals seek shelter from rain and high winds. The Desert Cottontail use burrows during most of their daily periods of inactivity in open habitat. They hide by sitting in forms that are small cleared places on the ground. Desert Cottontails are more vigilant in late morning and early evening than at dawn or dusk. In California, they remained hidden in thickets during winter days, but they moved about at any time in late spring.","Desert Cottontails choose open patches of ground for running and seldom move in a straight line. They clear tufts of grass and other obstacles in their way with small bounds into the air when running. They swim with rapid strokes by moving their legs alternately. They also climb trees and brush piles. Home range sizes of Desert Cottontails were equal in size to blackberry clumps they inhabited in California. Home ranges of males might be as large as 6-1 ha, whereas those of females might be less than 0-4 ha. Little differences in home range size between males and females were found in another study, with 3-2-3-6 ha for both sexes. Young Desert Cottontails have smaller foraging ranges than adults. Desert Cottontails are not gregarious, but as many as three females might forage together without antagonism. Interactions between males occur; on one occasion, a male chased another male away from a foraging area. Individuals take advantage of alarm calls of other species such as American sparrows (Zonotrichia sp.) or California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi). Desert Cottontails use their tails as alarm signals. When individuals run for cover, their tails are raised exposing maximum amount of white fur. When individuals are moving about without concern, their tails point toward the ground showing little white. Desert Cottontails adopt rigid postures, called freezing, during times of uncertainty or possible danger. When an individualis truly alarmed, it dashes to the nearest brush. Another alarm signal is thumping with hindfeet. Low prominences such as logs and tree stumps are used to deposit feces. These places are believed to be lookout posts used after dark. Desert Cottontails and jackrabbits (Lepus sp.) feed together without animosity.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Cottontail is widespread and common, with a stable population trend. It occurs in a large continuous area and is a habitat and dietary generalist. It is an important game species, and population status is monitored in several states. Cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing might be localized threats, but none of the subspecies are under immediate threat. Predation by invasive species such as feral dogs and feral cats and human-induced fire in some areas inhabited by humans might also be of concern.","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008a) | Angermann (2016) | Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011) | Brown & Krausman (2003) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Morgan (1974) | Chapman & Willner (1978) | Cushing (1939) | Dice (1929) | Flinders & Hansen (1975) | Grinnell (1937) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hinds (1973) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Ingles (1941) | Kundaeli & Reynolds (1972) | Lissovsky (2016) | Orr (1940) | Sowls (1957) | Stout (1970) | Sumner (1931)",,"13.Desert CottontailSylvilagus auduboniiFrench:Lapin dAudubon/ German:Audubon-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de desiertoOther common names:Audubon’s CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus audubonii Baird, 1858, “San Francisco,” San Francisco Co., California, USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. auduboniiand S. nuttalliiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.a.audubonuiBaird,1858—NCalifornia(WUSA).S.a.arizonae].A.Allen,1877—SWUtah,SNevada,SECalifornia,W&SArizona(SWUSA),andmostofSonora(NWMexico).S.a.baileyiMerriam,1897—C&SEMontana,SWNorthDakota,Wyoming,WSouthDakota,WNebraska,NEUtah,N,NW&EColorado,andNWKansas(NCUSA).S.a.cedrophilusNelson,1907—EArizonaandWC&CNewMexico(CUSA).S.a.confinisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheNandBajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.a.goldmaniNelson,1904—SSonora,extremeSWChihuahua,extremeWDurango,andSinaloa(WMexico).S.a.minorMearns,1896—SEArizona,SNewMexico,andSWTexas(SUSA),ESonora,ChihuahuaexceptSW,NEDurango,WCoahuila,andNZacatecas,andWCtipofNuevoLeon(NCMexico).S.a.neomexicanusNelson,1907—SWKansas,WOklahoma,N&WTexas,SEtipofColoradoandENewMexico(SCUSA).S.a.parvulus].A.Allen,1904—SCTexas(SUSA),N&WTamaulipas,NuevoLeon,ECoahuila,S.a.LuisPotosi,Zacatecas,SEDurango,Aguascalientes,WJalisco,NGuanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,CPuebla,Tlaxcala,andWVeracruz(CMexico).S.a.sanctidiegiMiller,1899—SWCalifornia(SWUSA),NWtipofBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.a.vallicolaNelson,1907—CWCalifornia(WUSA).S. a. warreni Nelson, 1907— SE Utah, W & S Colorado, NE Arizona, and NW New Mexico (USA).Descriptive notes.Head—body 370-400 mm, tail 39-60 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 810-940 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Desert Cottontail is relatively large, with long pointed ears that are sparsely haired on inner surfaces. Pelage is dorsally gray and ventrally white. Hindlegs are long, and feet are slender. Tail is large and dark above and white below. Female Desert Cottontails are ¢.2% larger than males.Habitat.Arid regions in woodlands, grasslands, and deserts at low elevations throughout the south-western United States. The Desert Cottontail lives from below sea level in Death Valley, California, up to elevations of at least 1829 m. It is often associated with riparian zones in arid regions. In California,its hides are found in heavy brush and willows along rivers. In pine-juniper woodlands, shrubs are its primary cover. Plant species associated with the Desert Cottontail are willows (Salix sp., Salicaceae), buttonwillow (Cephalanthusoccidentalis, Rubiaceae), wild grape (Vitiscalifornica, Vitaceae), greasewood (Adenostomafasciculatum, Rosaceae) in California and arrow-weed (Plucheasericea, Asteraceae), screw-bean mesquite (Prosopispubescens) and catclaw (Acaciagreggii), both Fabaceae, in southern Nevada. Occasionally, the Desert Cottontail is found where there is little or no vegetation cover. Abundance of Desert Cottontails is highest under moderate cattle grazing. It relies on thick brambles for cover rather than using holes. The Desert Cottontail in south-eastern Arizona typically builds forms in areas with triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosiadeltoidea, Asteraceae) and tall plants (higher than 1-5 m). Desert Cottontails have some physiological adaptations that enable them survive in desert environments. A shift upward of the thermoneutral zone occurs from winter to summer, and basal metabolism decreases by 18% during the same period. Body temperature is 38-3°C when ambient temperatures are below 30°C, whereas body temperature equals ambient temperature of 41-9°C in summer.Food and Feeding.Diet of Desert Cottontails depends on seasonal availabilities of plants. Food plants include various unidentified grasses; foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum, Poaceae); galingale (Cyperus sp.) and sedge (Carex sp.), both Cyperaceae; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae); valley oak (Quercuslobata, Fagaceae); miner's lettuce (Montiaperfoliata, Montiaceae); blackberry (Rubusvitifolius) and California wild rose (Rosacalifornica), both Rosaceae; hoarhound (Marrubiumvulgare, Lamiaceae); and Baccharisdouglasii and California mugwort (Artemisiavulgaris), both Asteraceae. True grasses (Poaceae) such as Johnson grass (Holcushalepensis), Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), blue grass (Poapratensis), ripgut grass (Bromusrigidus), and wheat grass (Agropyroncaninum), as well as morning glory (Convolvulus sp., Convolvulaceae), bull mallow (Malvaborealis, Malvaceae), honeysuckle (Lonicera sp., Caprifoliaceae), and sow thistle (Sonchusasper, Asteraceae) were important dietary items of Desert Cottontails in the Sacramento Valley, California. Desert Cottontails living in fields fed almost entirely on grasses. Cultivated hollyhock, carrots, acorns of valley oak, and fruits of almond and peach also are eaten. Type of cover is an important factor to determine feeding sites. Most feeding in late morning and early evening takes place in areas of brushy cover adjacent to open grassland. Important factors that affect daily feeding periods are habitat, season of the year, fog, rain, and wind. Maximum numbers of Desert Cottontails were observed feeding at dawn. Wind appears to interfere greatly with normal feeding. Light intensity determines distance from shelter an individual will venture for food. Desert Cottontails traveled up to 100 m from cover after dark. They feed by taking successive mouthfuls in open situations. Subsequently, heads are elevated, and they start to chew. They extend their bodies along the ground when feeding on low-growing grasses. Necks are stretched out, and front feet edge forward. Hindfeet are brought forward with hops when food can no longer be reached. Generally, terminal parts of plants are eaten.Breeding.Timing of reproductive season of Desert Cottontails depends on the region. In California, it generally lasts for c¢.7 months in December—June, but one study reported that breeding occurred throughout the year. In Arizona, breeding lasts 8-9 months from January until August or September, whereas in Texas,it starts in late February or early March. Female Desert Cottontails give birth in nests. Five examined nests were pear-shaped excavations, 15-25 cm deep, and 15 cm in diameter near their bottoms. Cavities were first lined with thick layers of fine grass and weeds and then filled with the mothers’ fur. Type of site selected for a nest or burrow varies with habitat. Gestation is ¢.28 days. Neonates have sparse hair. When the nest is touched, young lunge upward and utter a “gupp” sound, which might also be a call used prior to nursing. Females nurse young by crouching over their nests. In one occasion, young were nursed between 13:00 h and 14:00 h after 13-5 hours had elapsed since the previous feeding. Another time, young were nursed at 20:00 h following 30 hours without a feeding. Eyes of Desert Cottontails open c.10 days after birth, and young leave the nest 10-14 days after birth but remain near the nest for up to c.3 weeks. Litter size depends on region and is small for species of Sylvilagus. Meanlitter sizes were 2:9 and 2-7 in Arizona, 2-6 in Texas, and 3-6 in California. In Arizona, females produced an average offive litters per year. Sexual maturity is attained ¢.80 days after birth. The Desert Cottontail appears to be less fecund than some other species of Sylvilagus.Activity patterns.The Desert Cottontail is most active in early morning and evening and has activity peaks at 05:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. They are inactive at temperatures above 27°C. Individuals seek shelter from rain and high winds. The Desert Cottontail use burrows during most of their daily periods of inactivity in open habitat. They hide by sitting in forms that are small cleared places on the ground. Desert Cottontails are more vigilant in late morning and early evening than at dawn or dusk. In California, they remained hidden in thickets during winter days, but they moved about at any time in late spring.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Cottontails choose open patches of ground for running and seldom move in a straight line. They clear tufts of grass and other obstacles in their way with small bounds into the air when running. They swim with rapid strokes by moving their legs alternately. They also climb trees and brush piles. Home range sizes of Desert Cottontails were equal in size to blackberry clumps they inhabited in California. Home ranges of males might be as large as 6-1 ha, whereas those of females might be less than 0-4 ha. Little differences in home range size between males and females were found in another study, with 3-2-3-6 ha for both sexes. Young Desert Cottontails have smaller foraging ranges than adults. Desert Cottontails are not gregarious, but as many as three females might forage together without antagonism. Interactions between males occur; on one occasion, a male chased another male away from a foraging area. Individuals take advantage of alarm calls of other species such as American sparrows (Zonotrichia sp.) or California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi). Desert Cottontails use their tails as alarm signals. When individuals run for cover, their tails are raised exposing maximum amount of white fur. When individuals are moving about without concern, their tails point toward the ground showing little white. Desert Cottontails adopt rigid postures, called freezing, during times of uncertainty or possible danger. When an individualis truly alarmed, it dashes to the nearest brush. Another alarm signal is thumping with hindfeet. Low prominences such as logs and tree stumps are used to deposit feces. These places are believed to be lookout posts used after dark. Desert Cottontails and jackrabbits (Lepus sp.) feed together without animosity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Cottontail is widespread and common, with a stable population trend. It occurs in a large continuous area and is a habitat and dietary generalist. It is an important game species, and population status is monitored in several states. Cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing might be localized threats, but none of the subspecies are under immediate threat. Predation by invasive species such as feral dogs and feral cats and human-induced fire in some areas inhabited by humans might also be of concern.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008a), Angermann (2016), Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011), Brown & Krausman (2003), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Morgan (1974), Chapman & Willner (1978), Cushing (1939), Dice (1929), Flinders & Hansen (1975), Grinnell (1937), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951, 1981), Hinds (1973), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Ingles (1941), Kundaeli & Reynolds (1972), Lissovsky (2016), Orr (1940), Sowls (1957), Stout (1970), Sumner (1931)." +03822308B74FFFF0FFC2F3EEFD25FD47,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,115,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74FFFF0FFC2F3EEFD25FD47.xml,Sylvilagus audubonii,Sylvilagus,audubonii,,,Lapin d Audubon @fr | Audubon-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de desierto @es | Audubon’s Cottontail @en,"Lepus audubonii Baird, 1858, “San Francisco,” San Francisco Co., California, USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. auduboniiand S. nuttalliiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Twelve subspecies recognized.","S.a.audubonuiBaird,1858—NCalifornia(WUSA).S.a.arizonae].A.Allen,1877—SWUtah,SNevada,SECalifornia,W&SArizona(SWUSA),andmostofSonora(NWMexico).S.a.baileyiMerriam,1897—C&SEMontana,SWNorthDakota,Wyoming,WSouthDakota,WNebraska,NEUtah,N,NW&EColorado,andNWKansas(NCUSA).S.a.cedrophilusNelson,1907—EArizonaandWC&CNewMexico(CUSA).S.a.confinisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheNandBajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.a.goldmaniNelson,1904—SSonora,extremeSWChihuahua,extremeWDurango,andSinaloa(WMexico).S.a.minorMearns,1896—SEArizona,SNewMexico,andSWTexas(SUSA),ESonora,ChihuahuaexceptSW,NEDurango,WCoahuila,andNZacatecas,andWCtipofNuevoLeon(NCMexico).S.a.neomexicanusNelson,1907—SWKansas,WOklahoma,N&WTexas,SEtipofColoradoandENewMexico(SCUSA).S.a.parvulus].A.Allen,1904—SCTexas(SUSA),N&WTamaulipas,NuevoLeon,ECoahuila,S.a.LuisPotosi,Zacatecas,SEDurango,Aguascalientes,WJalisco,NGuanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,CPuebla,Tlaxcala,andWVeracruz(CMexico).S.a.sanctidiegiMiller,1899—SWCalifornia(SWUSA),NWtipofBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.a.vallicolaNelson,1907—CWCalifornia(WUSA).S. a. warreni Nelson, 1907— SE Utah, W & S Colorado, NE Arizona, and NW New Mexico (USA).","Head—body 370-400 mm, tail 39-60 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 810-940 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Desert Cottontail is relatively large, with long pointed ears that are sparsely haired on inner surfaces. Pelage is dorsally gray and ventrally white. Hindlegs are long, and feet are slender. Tail is large and dark above and white below. Female Desert Cottontails are ¢.2% larger than males.","Arid regions in woodlands, grasslands, and deserts at low elevations throughout the south-western United States. The Desert Cottontail lives from below sea level in Death Valley, California, up to elevations of at least 1829 m. It is often associated with riparian zones in arid regions. In California,its hides are found in heavy brush and willows along rivers. In pine-juniper woodlands, shrubs are its primary cover. Plant species associated with the Desert Cottontail are willows (Salix sp., Salicaceae), buttonwillow (Cephalanthusoccidentalis, Rubiaceae), wild grape (Vitiscalifornica, Vitaceae), greasewood (Adenostomafasciculatum, Rosaceae) in California and arrow-weed (Plucheasericea, Asteraceae), screw-bean mesquite (Prosopispubescens) and catclaw (Acaciagreggii), both Fabaceae, in southern Nevada. Occasionally, the Desert Cottontail is found where there is little or no vegetation cover. Abundance of Desert Cottontails is highest under moderate cattle grazing. It relies on thick brambles for cover rather than using holes. The Desert Cottontail in south-eastern Arizona typically builds forms in areas with triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosiadeltoidea, Asteraceae) and tall plants (higher than 1-5 m). Desert Cottontails have some physiological adaptations that enable them survive in desert environments. A shift upward of the thermoneutral zone occurs from winter to summer, and basal metabolism decreases by 18% during the same period. Body temperature is 38-3°C when ambient temperatures are below 30°C, whereas body temperature equals ambient temperature of 41-9°C in summer.","Diet of Desert Cottontails depends on seasonal availabilities of plants. Food plants include various unidentified grasses; foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum, Poaceae); galingale (Cyperus sp.) and sedge (Carex sp.), both Cyperaceae; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae); valley oak (Quercuslobata, Fagaceae); miner's lettuce (Montiaperfoliata, Montiaceae); blackberry (Rubusvitifolius) and California wild rose (Rosacalifornica), both Rosaceae; hoarhound (Marrubiumvulgare, Lamiaceae); and Baccharisdouglasii and California mugwort (Artemisiavulgaris), both Asteraceae. True grasses (Poaceae) such as Johnson grass (Holcushalepensis), Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), blue grass (Poapratensis), ripgut grass (Bromusrigidus), and wheat grass (Agropyroncaninum), as well as morning glory (Convolvulus sp., Convolvulaceae), bull mallow (Malvaborealis, Malvaceae), honeysuckle (Lonicera sp., Caprifoliaceae), and sow thistle (Sonchusasper, Asteraceae) were important dietary items of Desert Cottontails in the Sacramento Valley, California. Desert Cottontails living in fields fed almost entirely on grasses. Cultivated hollyhock, carrots, acorns of valley oak, and fruits of almond and peach also are eaten. Type of cover is an important factor to determine feeding sites. Most feeding in late morning and early evening takes place in areas of brushy cover adjacent to open grassland. Important factors that affect daily feeding periods are habitat, season of the year, fog, rain, and wind. Maximum numbers of Desert Cottontails were observed feeding at dawn. Wind appears to interfere greatly with normal feeding. Light intensity determines distance from shelter an individual will venture for food. Desert Cottontails traveled up to 100 m from cover after dark. They feed by taking successive mouthfuls in open situations. Subsequently, heads are elevated, and they start to chew. They extend their bodies along the ground when feeding on low-growing grasses. Necks are stretched out, and front feet edge forward. Hindfeet are brought forward with hops when food can no longer be reached. Generally, terminal parts of plants are eaten.","Timing of reproductive season of Desert Cottontails depends on the region. In California, it generally lasts for c¢.7 months in December—June, but one study reported that breeding occurred throughout the year. In Arizona, breeding lasts 8-9 months from January until August or September, whereas in Texas,it starts in late February or early March. Female Desert Cottontails give birth in nests. Five examined nests were pear-shaped excavations, 15-25 cm deep, and 15 cm in diameter near their bottoms. Cavities were first lined with thick layers of fine grass and weeds and then filled with the mothers’ fur. Type of site selected for a nest or burrow varies with habitat. Gestation is ¢.28 days. Neonates have sparse hair. When the nest is touched, young lunge upward and utter a “gupp” sound, which might also be a call used prior to nursing. Females nurse young by crouching over their nests. In one occasion, young were nursed between 13:00 h and 14:00 h after 13-5 hours had elapsed since the previous feeding. Another time, young were nursed at 20:00 h following 30 hours without a feeding. Eyes of Desert Cottontails open c.10 days after birth, and young leave the nest 10-14 days after birth but remain near the nest for up to c.3 weeks. Litter size depends on region and is small for species of Sylvilagus. Meanlitter sizes were 2:9 and 2-7 in Arizona, 2-6 in Texas, and 3-6 in California. In Arizona, females produced an average offive litters per year. Sexual maturity is attained ¢.80 days after birth. The Desert Cottontail appears to be less fecund than some other species of Sylvilagus.","The Desert Cottontail is most active in early morning and evening and has activity peaks at 05:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. They are inactive at temperatures above 27°C. Individuals seek shelter from rain and high winds. The Desert Cottontail use burrows during most of their daily periods of inactivity in open habitat. They hide by sitting in forms that are small cleared places on the ground. Desert Cottontails are more vigilant in late morning and early evening than at dawn or dusk. In California, they remained hidden in thickets during winter days, but they moved about at any time in late spring.","Desert Cottontails choose open patches of ground for running and seldom move in a straight line. They clear tufts of grass and other obstacles in their way with small bounds into the air when running. They swim with rapid strokes by moving their legs alternately. They also climb trees and brush piles. Home range sizes of Desert Cottontails were equal in size to blackberry clumps they inhabited in California. Home ranges of males might be as large as 6-1 ha, whereas those of females might be less than 0-4 ha. Little differences in home range size between males and females were found in another study, with 3-2-3-6 ha for both sexes. Young Desert Cottontails have smaller foraging ranges than adults. Desert Cottontails are not gregarious, but as many as three females might forage together without antagonism. Interactions between males occur; on one occasion, a male chased another male away from a foraging area. Individuals take advantage of alarm calls of other species such as American sparrows (Zonotrichia sp.) or California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi). Desert Cottontails use their tails as alarm signals. When individuals run for cover, their tails are raised exposing maximum amount of white fur. When individuals are moving about without concern, their tails point toward the ground showing little white. Desert Cottontails adopt rigid postures, called freezing, during times of uncertainty or possible danger. When an individualis truly alarmed, it dashes to the nearest brush. Another alarm signal is thumping with hindfeet. Low prominences such as logs and tree stumps are used to deposit feces. These places are believed to be lookout posts used after dark. Desert Cottontails and jackrabbits (Lepus sp.) feed together without animosity.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Cottontail is widespread and common, with a stable population trend. It occurs in a large continuous area and is a habitat and dietary generalist. It is an important game species, and population status is monitored in several states. Cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing might be localized threats, but none of the subspecies are under immediate threat. Predation by invasive species such as feral dogs and feral cats and human-induced fire in some areas inhabited by humans might also be of concern.","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008a) | Angermann (2016) | Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011) | Brown & Krausman (2003) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Morgan (1974) | Chapman & Willner (1978) | Cushing (1939) | Dice (1929) | Flinders & Hansen (1975) | Grinnell (1937) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hinds (1973) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Ingles (1941) | Kundaeli & Reynolds (1972) | Lissovsky (2016) | Orr (1940) | Sowls (1957) | Stout (1970) | Sumner (1931)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625571/files/figure.png,"13.Desert CottontailSylvilagus auduboniiFrench:Lapin dAudubon/ German:Audubon-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de desiertoOther common names:Audubon’s CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus audubonii Baird, 1858, “San Francisco,” San Francisco Co., California, USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. auduboniiand S. nuttalliiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.a.audubonuiBaird,1858—NCalifornia(WUSA).S.a.arizonae].A.Allen,1877—SWUtah,SNevada,SECalifornia,W&SArizona(SWUSA),andmostofSonora(NWMexico).S.a.baileyiMerriam,1897—C&SEMontana,SWNorthDakota,Wyoming,WSouthDakota,WNebraska,NEUtah,N,NW&EColorado,andNWKansas(NCUSA).S.a.cedrophilusNelson,1907—EArizonaandWC&CNewMexico(CUSA).S.a.confinisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheNandBajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.a.goldmaniNelson,1904—SSonora,extremeSWChihuahua,extremeWDurango,andSinaloa(WMexico).S.a.minorMearns,1896—SEArizona,SNewMexico,andSWTexas(SUSA),ESonora,ChihuahuaexceptSW,NEDurango,WCoahuila,andNZacatecas,andWCtipofNuevoLeon(NCMexico).S.a.neomexicanusNelson,1907—SWKansas,WOklahoma,N&WTexas,SEtipofColoradoandENewMexico(SCUSA).S.a.parvulus].A.Allen,1904—SCTexas(SUSA),N&WTamaulipas,NuevoLeon,ECoahuila,S.a.LuisPotosi,Zacatecas,SEDurango,Aguascalientes,WJalisco,NGuanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,CPuebla,Tlaxcala,andWVeracruz(CMexico).S.a.sanctidiegiMiller,1899—SWCalifornia(SWUSA),NWtipofBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.a.vallicolaNelson,1907—CWCalifornia(WUSA).S. a. warreni Nelson, 1907— SE Utah, W & S Colorado, NE Arizona, and NW New Mexico (USA).Descriptive notes.Head—body 370-400 mm, tail 39-60 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 810-940 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Desert Cottontail is relatively large, with long pointed ears that are sparsely haired on inner surfaces. Pelage is dorsally gray and ventrally white. Hindlegs are long, and feet are slender. Tail is large and dark above and white below. Female Desert Cottontails are ¢.2% larger than males.Habitat.Arid regions in woodlands, grasslands, and deserts at low elevations throughout the south-western United States. The Desert Cottontail lives from below sea level in Death Valley, California, up to elevations of at least 1829 m. It is often associated with riparian zones in arid regions. In California,its hides are found in heavy brush and willows along rivers. In pine-juniper woodlands, shrubs are its primary cover. Plant species associated with the Desert Cottontail are willows (Salix sp., Salicaceae), buttonwillow (Cephalanthusoccidentalis, Rubiaceae), wild grape (Vitiscalifornica, Vitaceae), greasewood (Adenostomafasciculatum, Rosaceae) in California and arrow-weed (Plucheasericea, Asteraceae), screw-bean mesquite (Prosopispubescens) and catclaw (Acaciagreggii), both Fabaceae, in southern Nevada. Occasionally, the Desert Cottontail is found where there is little or no vegetation cover. Abundance of Desert Cottontails is highest under moderate cattle grazing. It relies on thick brambles for cover rather than using holes. The Desert Cottontail in south-eastern Arizona typically builds forms in areas with triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosiadeltoidea, Asteraceae) and tall plants (higher than 1-5 m). Desert Cottontails have some physiological adaptations that enable them survive in desert environments. A shift upward of the thermoneutral zone occurs from winter to summer, and basal metabolism decreases by 18% during the same period. Body temperature is 38-3°C when ambient temperatures are below 30°C, whereas body temperature equals ambient temperature of 41-9°C in summer.Food and Feeding.Diet of Desert Cottontails depends on seasonal availabilities of plants. Food plants include various unidentified grasses; foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum, Poaceae); galingale (Cyperus sp.) and sedge (Carex sp.), both Cyperaceae; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae); valley oak (Quercuslobata, Fagaceae); miner's lettuce (Montiaperfoliata, Montiaceae); blackberry (Rubusvitifolius) and California wild rose (Rosacalifornica), both Rosaceae; hoarhound (Marrubiumvulgare, Lamiaceae); and Baccharisdouglasii and California mugwort (Artemisiavulgaris), both Asteraceae. True grasses (Poaceae) such as Johnson grass (Holcushalepensis), Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), blue grass (Poapratensis), ripgut grass (Bromusrigidus), and wheat grass (Agropyroncaninum), as well as morning glory (Convolvulus sp., Convolvulaceae), bull mallow (Malvaborealis, Malvaceae), honeysuckle (Lonicera sp., Caprifoliaceae), and sow thistle (Sonchusasper, Asteraceae) were important dietary items of Desert Cottontails in the Sacramento Valley, California. Desert Cottontails living in fields fed almost entirely on grasses. Cultivated hollyhock, carrots, acorns of valley oak, and fruits of almond and peach also are eaten. Type of cover is an important factor to determine feeding sites. Most feeding in late morning and early evening takes place in areas of brushy cover adjacent to open grassland. Important factors that affect daily feeding periods are habitat, season of the year, fog, rain, and wind. Maximum numbers of Desert Cottontails were observed feeding at dawn. Wind appears to interfere greatly with normal feeding. Light intensity determines distance from shelter an individual will venture for food. Desert Cottontails traveled up to 100 m from cover after dark. They feed by taking successive mouthfuls in open situations. Subsequently, heads are elevated, and they start to chew. They extend their bodies along the ground when feeding on low-growing grasses. Necks are stretched out, and front feet edge forward. Hindfeet are brought forward with hops when food can no longer be reached. Generally, terminal parts of plants are eaten.Breeding.Timing of reproductive season of Desert Cottontails depends on the region. In California, it generally lasts for c¢.7 months in December—June, but one study reported that breeding occurred throughout the year. In Arizona, breeding lasts 8-9 months from January until August or September, whereas in Texas,it starts in late February or early March. Female Desert Cottontails give birth in nests. Five examined nests were pear-shaped excavations, 15-25 cm deep, and 15 cm in diameter near their bottoms. Cavities were first lined with thick layers of fine grass and weeds and then filled with the mothers’ fur. Type of site selected for a nest or burrow varies with habitat. Gestation is ¢.28 days. Neonates have sparse hair. When the nest is touched, young lunge upward and utter a “gupp” sound, which might also be a call used prior to nursing. Females nurse young by crouching over their nests. In one occasion, young were nursed between 13:00 h and 14:00 h after 13-5 hours had elapsed since the previous feeding. Another time, young were nursed at 20:00 h following 30 hours without a feeding. Eyes of Desert Cottontails open c.10 days after birth, and young leave the nest 10-14 days after birth but remain near the nest for up to c.3 weeks. Litter size depends on region and is small for species of Sylvilagus. Meanlitter sizes were 2:9 and 2-7 in Arizona, 2-6 in Texas, and 3-6 in California. In Arizona, females produced an average offive litters per year. Sexual maturity is attained ¢.80 days after birth. The Desert Cottontail appears to be less fecund than some other species of Sylvilagus.Activity patterns.The Desert Cottontail is most active in early morning and evening and has activity peaks at 05:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. They are inactive at temperatures above 27°C. Individuals seek shelter from rain and high winds. The Desert Cottontail use burrows during most of their daily periods of inactivity in open habitat. They hide by sitting in forms that are small cleared places on the ground. Desert Cottontails are more vigilant in late morning and early evening than at dawn or dusk. In California, they remained hidden in thickets during winter days, but they moved about at any time in late spring.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Cottontails choose open patches of ground for running and seldom move in a straight line. They clear tufts of grass and other obstacles in their way with small bounds into the air when running. They swim with rapid strokes by moving their legs alternately. They also climb trees and brush piles. Home range sizes of Desert Cottontails were equal in size to blackberry clumps they inhabited in California. Home ranges of males might be as large as 6-1 ha, whereas those of females might be less than 0-4 ha. Little differences in home range size between males and females were found in another study, with 3-2-3-6 ha for both sexes. Young Desert Cottontails have smaller foraging ranges than adults. Desert Cottontails are not gregarious, but as many as three females might forage together without antagonism. Interactions between males occur; on one occasion, a male chased another male away from a foraging area. Individuals take advantage of alarm calls of other species such as American sparrows (Zonotrichia sp.) or California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi). Desert Cottontails use their tails as alarm signals. When individuals run for cover, their tails are raised exposing maximum amount of white fur. When individuals are moving about without concern, their tails point toward the ground showing little white. Desert Cottontails adopt rigid postures, called freezing, during times of uncertainty or possible danger. When an individualis truly alarmed, it dashes to the nearest brush. Another alarm signal is thumping with hindfeet. Low prominences such as logs and tree stumps are used to deposit feces. These places are believed to be lookout posts used after dark. Desert Cottontails and jackrabbits (Lepus sp.) feed together without animosity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Cottontail is widespread and common, with a stable population trend. It occurs in a large continuous area and is a habitat and dietary generalist. It is an important game species, and population status is monitored in several states. Cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing might be localized threats, but none of the subspecies are under immediate threat. Predation by invasive species such as feral dogs and feral cats and human-induced fire in some areas inhabited by humans might also be of concern.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008a), Angermann (2016), Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011), Brown & Krausman (2003), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Morgan (1974), Chapman & Willner (1978), Cushing (1939), Dice (1929), Flinders & Hansen (1975), Grinnell (1937), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951, 1981), Hinds (1973), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Ingles (1941), Kundaeli & Reynolds (1972), Lissovsky (2016), Orr (1940), Sowls (1957), Stout (1970), Sumner (1931)." 03822308B74FFFF1FFCFFDE8FADEFA52,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,115,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74FFFF1FFCFFDE8FADEFA52.xml,Sylvilagus mansuetus,Sylvilagus,mansuetus,Nelson,1907,Lapin de San José @fr | San-José-Strauchkaninchen @de | Conejo de San José @es,"Sylvilagus mansuetus Nelson, 1907, “San José Island, Gulf of California [Baja California del Sur], Mexico.”This species is an insular allospecies closely related to S. bachmanion the adjacent peninsula of Baja California. Formerly, S. mansuetuswas placed as a subspecies of S. bachmani. Sylvilagus mansuetusand S. bachmaniare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. Monotypic.","SW San José I, Baja California Sur, Mexico.","Head-body 340 mm, tail 44 mm, ear 60 mm, hindfoot 73 mm; weight ¢.800 g (all measurements from a single individual). The San Jose Brush Rabbit is one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur and head are pale buffy or yellowish gray. Sides are paler and grayer than back. Ears are gray, and nape is dull and pale ocherous buff. Forelegs are ocherous clay and shade into dingy white forefeet. Posterior surface of hindlegs is browner than back, and top of hindfeet are white. Throat is paler than sides, and ventral fur is white.","Desert habitat restricted to the south-western coastal plains of the San José Island. Desert habitat consists of primarily seven plant species: jojoba (Simmondsiachinensts, Simmondsiaceae); blue palo verde (Cercidiumpeninsulare, Fabaceae); Maytenus phyllanthoides (Fabaceae); Adam’s trees (Fouquieriadiguetii, Fouquieriaceae); Stenocerus thurbei and S. gummosus (both Cactaceae); and ashy limberbush (Jatrophacinerea, Euphorbiaceae). Five San Jose Brush Rabbits were observed to rest in shade of blue palo verde trees.",There is no information available for this species.,"Two pregnant San Jose Brush Rabbits with two embryos each and two lactating females were recorded in November 2008. Two nests also were found. One nest was in the base of a cardon cactus near a desert thorn (Lycium sp., Solanaceae). Its entrance was 11 cm x 12 cm wide, and den was 15 cm deep, with a total length of 8:5 cm. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, and small branches of desert thorn. Two dead young were found in the nest. The other nest was at the base of a cholla (Opuntiacholla, Cactaceae). Entrance was 8-5 x 10-5 cm wide, and den was 12 cm deep. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, small branches of ashy limberbush, and desert thorn. No young were found in the nest.",San Jose Brush Rabbits are most active between sunset and 02:00 h and from ¢.06:00 h to 10:00 h.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Maximum total population of the San Jose Brush Rabbit is estimated at 500-700 individuals, but it might be significantly lower. Informal surveys conducted in 1995 and 1996 were compared with quantitative surveys in 2008, and it was concluded that the population had declined but the magnitude of decline was not quantified. These surveys restricted distribution to the south-western coastal plain at 10 m above sea level, which reduced the extent of occurrence to only 20 km? in a single continuous population. This is the smallest distribution of any lagomorph species. Major conservation threats to the San Jose Brush Rabbit are feral cats and maybe domestic dogs; habitat loss and competition with feral goats; illegal hunting; development of a tourist area including a golf course, private airport, and small marina; and planned reactivation of a salt mine. Management recommendations include enforcement of protected status of the San Jose Brush Rabbit, with goals of stopping hunting and removal of feral cats and goats. All wildlife on San José Island, including the San Jose Brush Rabbit, is protected under Mexican law. Research is needed on its biology, ecology, population status, genetics, and potential for inbreeding depression due to its small population and distribution.","Cervantes, Lorenzo et al. (1996) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lorenzo & Alvarez-Castarieda (2011) | Lorenzo etal. (2011) | Nelson (1907, 1909) | Thomas & Best (1994a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625567/files/figure.png,"12.San Jose Brush RabbitSylvilagus mansuetusFrench:Lapin de San José/ German:San-José-Strauchkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de San JoséTaxonomy.Sylvilagus mansuetus Nelson, 1907, “San José Island, Gulf of California [Baja California del Sur], Mexico.”This species is an insular allospecies closely related to S. bachmanion the adjacent peninsula of Baja California. Formerly, S. mansuetuswas placed as a subspecies of S. bachmani. Sylvilagus mansuetusand S. bachmaniare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. Monotypic.Distribution.SW San José I, Baja California Sur, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 340 mm, tail 44 mm, ear 60 mm, hindfoot 73 mm; weight ¢.800 g (all measurements from a single individual). The San Jose Brush Rabbit is one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur and head are pale buffy or yellowish gray. Sides are paler and grayer than back. Ears are gray, and nape is dull and pale ocherous buff. Forelegs are ocherous clay and shade into dingy white forefeet. Posterior surface of hindlegs is browner than back, and top of hindfeet are white. Throat is paler than sides, and ventral fur is white.Habitat.Desert habitat restricted to the south-western coastal plains of the San José Island. Desert habitat consists of primarily seven plant species: jojoba (Simmondsiachinensts, Simmondsiaceae); blue palo verde (Cercidiumpeninsulare, Fabaceae); Maytenus phyllanthoides (Fabaceae); Adam’s trees (Fouquieriadiguetii, Fouquieriaceae); Stenocerus thurbei and S. gummosus (both Cactaceae); and ashy limberbush (Jatrophacinerea, Euphorbiaceae). Five San Jose Brush Rabbits were observed to rest in shade of blue palo verde trees.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Two pregnant San Jose Brush Rabbits with two embryos each and two lactating females were recorded in November 2008. Two nests also were found. One nest was in the base of a cardon cactus near a desert thorn (Lycium sp., Solanaceae). Its entrance was 11 cm x 12 cm wide, and den was 15 cm deep, with a total length of 8:5 cm. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, and small branches of desert thorn. Two dead young were found in the nest. The other nest was at the base of a cholla (Opuntiacholla, Cactaceae). Entrance was 8-5 x 10-5 cm wide, and den was 12 cm deep. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, small branches of ashy limberbush, and desert thorn. No young were found in the nest.Activity patterns.San Jose Brush Rabbits are most active between sunset and 02:00 h and from ¢.06:00 h to 10:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Maximum total population of the San Jose Brush Rabbit is estimated at 500-700 individuals, but it might be significantly lower. Informal surveys conducted in 1995 and 1996 were compared with quantitative surveys in 2008, and it was concluded that the population had declined but the magnitude of decline was not quantified. These surveys restricted distribution to the south-western coastal plain at 10 m above sea level, which reduced the extent of occurrence to only 20 km? in a single continuous population. This is the smallest distribution of any lagomorph species. Major conservation threats to the San Jose Brush Rabbit are feral cats and maybe domestic dogs; habitat loss and competition with feral goats; illegal hunting; development of a tourist area including a golf course, private airport, and small marina; and planned reactivation of a salt mine. Management recommendations include enforcement of protected status of the San Jose Brush Rabbit, with goals of stopping hunting and removal of feral cats and goats. All wildlife on San José Island, including the San Jose Brush Rabbit, is protected under Mexican law. Research is needed on its biology, ecology, population status, genetics, and potential for inbreeding depression due to its small population and distribution.Bibliography.Cervantes, Lorenzo et al. (1996), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lorenzo & Alvarez-Castarieda (2011), Lorenzo etal. (2011), Nelson (1907, 1909), Thomas & Best (1994a)." 03822308B750FFE1FA15F9A0FE4AF25C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,130,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFE1FA15F9A0FE4AF25C.xml,Lepus saxatilis,Lepus,saxatilis,F. Cuvier,1823,Lievre des buissons @fr | Buschhase @de | Liebre de matorral @es | Savanna Hare @en,"Lepus saxatilis F. Cuvier, 1823, “il habite les contrées qui se trouvent a trois journées au nord du cap de Bonne-Espérance [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomic relationship of L. saxatilisto L. victoriaeis unclear. Conventionally, they are considered to be allopatric; L. saxatilisrepresents the larger southern African form and L. victoriaethe smaller northern African form. Nevertheless, others consider L. victoriaeand L. saxatilisa single species or even both species included in L. nigricollisas subspecies. A study of mtDNA identified three phylogeographic distributional lineages of L. saxatilis: south-western (Western Cape and Northern Cape provinces), central (Eastern Cape and parts of Free State and KwaZulu-Natal provinces), and northern (northern South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe). Northern boundary of the distribution is uncertain because it is difficult to distinguish between L. saxatilisand sympatric L. capensisin the field. South-western lineage is unique, and it has lacked gene flow with the other two lineages for more than 45,000 years. Therefore,it has been suggested that the south-western lineage may be elevated to species level. None of the subspecies designated forthis species were supported as evolutionarily meaningful units by the mtDNA data analysis and they seem to represent color pattern classes that are more related to ecological habitat than to evolutionary processes. Hence, none ofthe described subspeciesis recognized here and thusit is considered monotypic.","S Namibia, most of South Africa (except the N), Swaziland, and Lesotho; N boundary is uncertain, and it may reach S Botswana and S & SW Zimbabwe.","Head-body 450-630 mm,tail 70-122 mm, ear 100-150 mm, hindfoot 99-128 mm; weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The Scrub Hare is medium to large, with long and broad ears. Fur is soft. Dorsal and head are dark buffy brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is white. Gray or buff eye rings extend to nasal region. Eartips have narrow black bands on inner and outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is large and rufous and extends under ears to base of head. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are brownish above and white below. Tail is medium to long and black above and white below. Geographical cline in size is noticeable in the Scrub Hare;size decreases from south-west to north-east.","Open grassland, thornveld (grassland characterized by thorny plants), roadside verges, rocky and stony habitats, open sand-plain, bushveld (subtropical woodland), and forest. The Scrub Hare seems to be attracted to cultivated areas and gardens. Its forms are located in grass or under a brush.","Scrub Hareseat grass leaves, rhizomes, and stems and prefer green grass.","Female Scrub Hares in Botswana were pregnant in all months of the year except September, with reproductive peak during warmer months (October—February). Pregnant females have been recorded in August, October, December, June, and July in South Africa, and newly born young have been reported in May, October, and November. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 3-5 in KwaZulu-Natal, whereas they ranged 1-3 young and averaged 1-6 in Zimbabwe. Increased breeding success probably is related to higher annual rainfall and nutritional content of grasses available for grazing in KwaZulu-Natal. The Scrub Hare probably has two litters per year. Peak breeding in KwaZulu-Natal occurs in September—February.","The Scrub Hare is nocturnal. It becomes active at dusk and feeds throughout the night. A Scrub Hare lies alone in a form during the day, but another individual is often close.","Home range of the Scrub Hare is variable and depends on habitat type and season. Theylive alone, occasionally in pairs.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Scrub Hare is widespread and common throughout its distribution. Nevertheless,its population trend has been declining and is expected to continue to decline by at least 20% during the next 100 years. Threats are habitat fragmentation resulting from agriculture, commercial plantations, and human development. Overharvesting has reduced population sizes especially in KwaZulu-Natal and South Africa.","Collins et al. (2008) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kryger, Keith et al. (2004) | Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004) | Monadjem (1998) | Shortridge (1934a) | Smithers (1971, 1983) | Taylor (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625625/files/figure.png,"36.Scrub HareLepus saxatilisFrench:Lievre des buissons/ German:Buschhase/ Spanish:Liebre de matorralOther common names:Savanna HareTaxonomy.Lepus saxatilis F. Cuvier, 1823, “il habite les contrées qui se trouvent a trois journées au nord du cap de Bonne-Espérance [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomic relationship of L. saxatilisto L. victoriaeis unclear. Conventionally, they are considered to be allopatric; L. saxatilisrepresents the larger southern African form and L. victoriaethe smaller northern African form. Nevertheless, others consider L. victoriaeand L. saxatilisa single species or even both species included in L. nigricollisas subspecies. A study of mtDNA identified three phylogeographic distributional lineages of L. saxatilis: south-western (Western Cape and Northern Cape provinces), central (Eastern Cape and parts of Free State and KwaZulu-Natal provinces), and northern (northern South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe). Northern boundary of the distribution is uncertain because it is difficult to distinguish between L. saxatilisand sympatric L. capensisin the field. South-western lineage is unique, and it has lacked gene flow with the other two lineages for more than 45,000 years. Therefore,it has been suggested that the south-western lineage may be elevated to species level. None of the subspecies designated forthis species were supported as evolutionarily meaningful units by the mtDNA data analysis and they seem to represent color pattern classes that are more related to ecological habitat than to evolutionary processes. Hence, none ofthe described subspeciesis recognized here and thusit is considered monotypic.Distribution.S Namibia, most of South Africa (except the N), Swaziland, and Lesotho; N boundary is uncertain, and it may reach S Botswana and S & SW Zimbabwe.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-630 mm,tail 70-122 mm, ear 100-150 mm, hindfoot 99-128 mm; weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The Scrub Hare is medium to large, with long and broad ears. Fur is soft. Dorsal and head are dark buffy brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is white. Gray or buff eye rings extend to nasal region. Eartips have narrow black bands on inner and outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is large and rufous and extends under ears to base of head. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are brownish above and white below. Tail is medium to long and black above and white below. Geographical cline in size is noticeable in the Scrub Hare;size decreases from south-west to north-east.Habitat.Open grassland, thornveld (grassland characterized by thorny plants), roadside verges, rocky and stony habitats, open sand-plain, bushveld (subtropical woodland), and forest. The Scrub Hare seems to be attracted to cultivated areas and gardens. Its forms are located in grass or under a brush.Food and Feeding.Scrub Hareseat grass leaves, rhizomes, and stems and prefer green grass.Breeding.Female Scrub Hares in Botswana were pregnant in all months of the year except September, with reproductive peak during warmer months (October—February). Pregnant females have been recorded in August, October, December, June, and July in South Africa, and newly born young have been reported in May, October, and November. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 3-5 in KwaZulu-Natal, whereas they ranged 1-3 young and averaged 1-6 in Zimbabwe. Increased breeding success probably is related to higher annual rainfall and nutritional content of grasses available for grazing in KwaZulu-Natal. The Scrub Hare probably has two litters per year. Peak breeding in KwaZulu-Natal occurs in September—February.Activity patterns.The Scrub Hare is nocturnal. It becomes active at dusk and feeds throughout the night. A Scrub Hare lies alone in a form during the day, but another individual is often close.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range of the Scrub Hare is variable and depends on habitat type and season. Theylive alone, occasionally in pairs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Scrub Hare is widespread and common throughout its distribution. Nevertheless,its population trend has been declining and is expected to continue to decline by at least 20% during the next 100 years. Threats are habitat fragmentation resulting from agriculture, commercial plantations, and human development. Overharvesting has reduced population sizes especially in KwaZulu-Natal and South Africa.Bibliography.Collins et al. (2008), Flux & Angermann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kryger, Keith et al. (2004), Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004), Monadjem (1998), Shortridge (1934a), Smithers (1971, 1983), Taylor (1998)." -03822308B750FFEEFF10F421F689F391,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,130,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFEEFF10F421F689F391.xml,Lepus fagani,Lepus,fagani,Thomas,1903,,"Lepus fagani Thomas, 1903, “Zegi, Lake Tsana [= Tana] 4000 feet [1219 m],” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of Lepus faganiis uncertain. Formerly, it was reconsidered as a subspecies of L. victoriaeor L. capensis, but because ofits unusually uniform morphological characteristics throughoutits distribution,its species status has been maintained since 1987. It is closely related to L. saxatilisand L. victoriae. This speciesis either allopatric or parapatric with L. victoriae. Because L. faganiis geographically isolated in Ethiopian mountains north of the Rift Valley from populations of L. victoriaein lowlands, it may have evolved into a highland allospecies. Monotypic.",N & W highlands of Ethiopia (N of the Rift Valley); maybe also adjacent E South Sudan and NW Kenya.,"Head-body 450-540 mm, tail 50-82 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ethiopian Hare is large, with dense and rather coarse fur. Dorsal fur is brownish buff and finely grizzled with black; ventral fur is white and fluffy. Flanks are buff. Forelimbs are cinnamon brown, and hindlimbs brownish buff above and white below. Head is darker than dorsal pelage and its crown blacker. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short compared to other Ethiopian Lepussuch as the Abyssinian Hare (L. habessinicus) and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki). Ears of the Ethiopian Hare are buff, with narrow black rim around inner surfaces oftips. Nuchal patch is cinnamon-ginger and extends onto sides of neck. Tail is medium-sized and fluffy. It is black above, buff on sides, and buffy white below.","Steppes, grasslands, and scrub and forest margins including wet grasslands with scattered thickets and bushy cultivated areas. The Ethiopian Hare is considered to be an Afro-alpine/Afro-montane species becauseit inhabits elevations of 500-2500 m. Its habitatis similar to that of the African Savanna Hare (L. victoria).",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available forthis species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Research is needed to understand biology, ecology, and conservation status of the Ethiopian Hare.","Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008b) | Yalden et al. (1986)",,"3b.Ethiopian HareLepus faganiFrench: Liévre d'Ethiopie / German: Athiopischer Hase / Spanish: Liebre de EtiopiaTaxonomy.Lepus fagani Thomas, 1903, “Zegi, Lake Tsana [= Tana] 4000 feet [1219 m],” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of Lepus faganiis uncertain. Formerly, it was reconsidered as a subspecies of L. victoriaeor L. capensis, but because ofits unusually uniform morphological characteristics throughoutits distribution,its species status has been maintained since 1987. It is closely related to L. saxatilisand L. victoriae. This speciesis either allopatric or parapatric with L. victoriae. Because L. faganiis geographically isolated in Ethiopian mountains north of the Rift Valley from populations of L. victoriaein lowlands, it may have evolved into a highland allospecies. Monotypic.Distribution.N & W highlands of Ethiopia (N of the Rift Valley); maybe also adjacent E South Sudan and NW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-540 mm, tail 50-82 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ethiopian Hare is large, with dense and rather coarse fur. Dorsal fur is brownish buff and finely grizzled with black; ventral fur is white and fluffy. Flanks are buff. Forelimbs are cinnamon brown, and hindlimbs brownish buff above and white below. Head is darker than dorsal pelage and its crown blacker. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short compared to other Ethiopian Lepussuch as the Abyssinian Hare (L. habessinicus) and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki). Ears of the Ethiopian Hare are buff, with narrow black rim around inner surfaces oftips. Nuchal patch is cinnamon-ginger and extends onto sides of neck. Tail is medium-sized and fluffy. It is black above, buff on sides, and buffy white below.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands, and scrub and forest margins including wet grasslands with scattered thickets and bushy cultivated areas. The Ethiopian Hare is considered to be an Afro-alpine/Afro-montane species becauseit inhabits elevations of 500-2500 m. Its habitatis similar to that of the African Savanna Hare (L. victoria).Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available forthis species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Research is needed to understand biology, ecology, and conservation status of the Ethiopian Hare.Bibliography.Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b), Boitani et al. (1999), Flux & Angermann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008b), Yalden et al. (1986)." -03822308B750FFEEFF60FF41FAF0FD0C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,130,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFEEFF60FF41FAF0FD0C.xml,Lepus peguensis,Lepus,peguensis,Blyth,1856,Liévre du Pégou @fr | Burmesischer-Hase @de | Liebre de Birmania @es | Siamese Hare @en,"Lepus peguensis Blyth, 1856, “ Pegu,” Upper Pegu, Burma (= Myanmar).It was placed as in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus. Formerly, L. peguensis included L. hainanus, which received species status. Lepus peguensisneeds taxonomic clarification. A third subspecies (siamensis) is under discussion to be a valid species. It has been suggested that L. peguensisis conspecific with L. nigricollisbecause of its close resemblance to L. n. ruficaudatus. Nevertheless, L. n. ruficaudatus appears to live allopatrically with L. peguensisfrom eastern India to western Myanmar. A study of dental characteristics concluded that separate species status of L. peguensiswas equivocal. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","L.p.peguensisBlyth,1855—C&SMyanmarfromtheChindwinRivervalleyStoNMalayPeninsula.L. p. vassali Thomas, 1906— Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and S Vietnam.","Head—body 400-590 mm, tail 55-84 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 96-110 mm; weight 2.2-5 kg. The Burmese Hare is medium-sized and closely resembles the Indian Hare (L. nigricollis). Dorsal pelage is reddish gray, mixed with black and grayer on rump. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are rather large with distinct black tips. Tail is black above and white below. Feet vary, being white in Burmese specimens and fulvous in Thailand specimens.Habitat. Lowlands, land cleared for crops, and dry wasteland. The Burmese Hare occurs in sandy regions along the coast in Malaya and southern Vietnam, butit lives in forest clearings in lalang grass (Imperatacylindrical, Poaceae) or around hill tribe villages in Thailand. Numbers of Burmese Hares are especially high in grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. In Thailand, they live in rain/ flood-fed low-intensity rice fields but avoid irrigated multi-croprice fields. A collection expedition in Thailand in 1940 recorded the Burmese Hare at an elevation of 1300 m on Mount Inthanon. Nevertheless, numerous field surveys have not recorded it above 700 m, so an upperlimit of 1300 m is questionable. Burmese Hares spend the day in forms located under bushes orin tall grass.Food and Feeding. Diet of the Burmese Hare includes grass, bark, and twigs.Breeding. The Burmese Hare might have several litters per year. Litter sizes are 1-7 young (typically 2-4 young). Gestation lasts 35-40 days. Young are born in open grassy areas and are fully furred with eyes open.Activity patterns. The Burmese Hare is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Burmese Hare is widespread and common, with an overall stable population. Its distribution probably includes northern and central regions of Laos, because signs ofits presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been noted (but only to the genus level). Its distribution in Myanmaris largely speculative, and it might be more restricted there.",,,,,"The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.",,"Allen & Coolidge (1940) | Angermann (2016) | Duckworth (1996) | Duckworth, Steinmetz & Pattanavibool (2008) | Duckworth, Timmins et al. (1994) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1955) | Evans et al. (2000) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gyldenstolpe (1917) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kloss (1919) | Lekagul & McNeely (1977) | Lissovsky (2016) | Petter (1961) | Pfeffer (1969) | Suchentrunk (2004) | Van Peenen (1969) | Wroughton (1915)",,"34.Burmese HareLepus peguensisFrench:Liévre du Pégou/ German:Burmesischer-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de BirmaniaOther common names:Siamese HareTaxonomy. Lepus peguensis Blyth, 1856, “ Pegu,” Upper Pegu, Burma (= Myanmar).It was placed as in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus. Formerly, L. peguensis included L. hainanus, which received species status. Lepus peguensisneeds taxonomic clarification. A third subspecies (siamensis) is under discussion to be a valid species. It has been suggested that L. peguensisis conspecific with L. nigricollisbecause of its close resemblance to L. n. ruficaudatus. Nevertheless, L. n. ruficaudatus appears to live allopatrically with L. peguensisfrom eastern India to western Myanmar. A study of dental characteristics concluded that separate species status of L. peguensiswas equivocal. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.p.peguensisBlyth,1855—C&SMyanmarfromtheChindwinRivervalleyStoNMalayPeninsula.L. p. vassali Thomas, 1906— Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and S Vietnam.Descriptive notes. Head—body 400-590 mm, tail 55-84 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 96-110 mm; weight 2.2-5 kg. The Burmese Hare is medium-sized and closely resembles the Indian Hare (L. nigricollis). Dorsal pelage is reddish gray, mixed with black and grayer on rump. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are rather large with distinct black tips. Tail is black above and white below. Feet vary, being white in Burmese specimens and fulvous in Thailand specimens.Habitat. Lowlands, land cleared for crops, and dry wasteland. The Burmese Hare occurs in sandy regions along the coast in Malaya and southern Vietnam, butit lives in forest clearings in lalang grass (Imperatacylindrical, Poaceae) or around hill tribe villages in Thailand. Numbers of Burmese Hares are especially high in grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. In Thailand, they live in rain/ flood-fed low-intensity rice fields but avoid irrigated multi-croprice fields. A collection expedition in Thailand in 1940 recorded the Burmese Hare at an elevation of 1300 m on Mount Inthanon. Nevertheless, numerous field surveys have not recorded it above 700 m, so an upperlimit of 1300 m is questionable. Burmese Hares spend the day in forms located under bushes orin tall grass.Food and Feeding. Diet of the Burmese Hare includes grass, bark, and twigs.Breeding. The Burmese Hare might have several litters per year. Litter sizes are 1-7 young (typically 2-4 young). Gestation lasts 35-40 days. Young are born in open grassy areas and are fully furred with eyes open.Activity patterns. The Burmese Hare is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Burmese Hare is widespread and common, with an overall stable population. Its distribution probably includes northern and central regions of Laos, because signs ofits presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been noted (but only to the genus level). Its distribution in Myanmaris largely speculative, and it might be more restricted there. Habitat of the Burmese Hare is probably expanding due to forest clearing, but it occurs in populationsisolated by forest cover. It is heavily hunted, but this does not seem to be a major threat. Extension of irrigated rice fields destroys habitat in some areas. Habitats in Laos and Vietnam are regularly burned during the dry season (February—May), which might pose a threat to young unable to avoid fire. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy, distribution, and behavior of the Burmese Hare.Bibliography. Allen & Coolidge (1940), Angermann (2016), Duckworth (1996), Duckworth, Steinmetz & Pattanavibool (2008), Duckworth, Timmins et al. (1994), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1955), Evans et al. (2000), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gyldenstolpe (1917), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kloss (1919), Lekagul & McNeely (1977), Lissovsky (2016), Petter (1961), Pfeffer (1969), Suchentrunk (2004), Van Peenen (1969). Wroughton (1915)." -03822308B751FFEFFFC3F5ADF62CFAE8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,129,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B751FFEFFFC3F5ADF62CFAE8.xml,Lepus nigricollis,Lepus,nigricollis,F. Cuvier,1823,Liévre a col noir @fr | Schwarznackenhase @de | Liebre de @es | ndia @en | Black-napped Hare; @en | ndian Desert Hare (dayanus) @en | Rufous-tailed Hare (ruficaudatus) @en,"Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823, “Malabar,” Madras, India.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus, but a study analyzing skull and dental characteristics suggests that Caprolagusis synonymous to Lepus. This species needs taxonomic clarification. It includes ruficaudatus and dayanus as subspecies; ruficaudatus might be closer to L. capensis, whereas dayanus might deserve species status. It may include L. victoriaewhytei, L. crawshayi (currently a synonym of L. victoriae), and L. peguensisas subspecies. As taxonomists arestill trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.","L.n.nigricollisF.Cuvier,1823—SIndia(SoftheGodavariRiver).L.n.aryabertensisHodgson,1844—SCNepal.L.n.dayanusBlanford,1874—SEPakistanandNWIndia(GreatIndianDesert).L.n.ruficaudatusE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1826—EPakistan,NIndia,SNepal,Bangladesh,Bhutan,exceptthehigherreachesoftheHimalayasandthemangroveareaswithintheSundarbans.L.n.sadiyaKloss,1918—NEIndia(Assam).L.n.simcoxiWroughton,1912—CIndia(NMaharashtraandMadhyaPradesh).L. n. singhala Wroughton, 1915— Sri Lanka.Indian hares (probably ruficaudatus) also occur in extreme E Afghanistan, in the border areas with Pakistan. Situation in Java is debated and the so called “Javan Hare” might be native there. The species has been introduced by founder individuals of either unknown subspeciesaffiliation or belonging to various subspecies into Comoro, Mayotte, Madagascar, Réunion (including Gunners Quoin I), Mauritius (Agaléga Is), Seychelles (Cousin I), and Andaman Is in the Indian Ocean, and into New Guinea. In Gunners Quoin the Indian Hare has been eradicated.","Head-body 330-530 mm, tail 10-90 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 89-103 mm; weight 1.8-3.6 kg. The Indian Hare is medium-sized. Dorsal fur and head are rufous-brown, mixed with black. Legs and chest are rufous; ventral fur and chin are white. The Indian Hare is larger toward the southern part of its distribution. Color varies in different subspecies— nigricollishas a dark brown or black patch on neck and its tail is black above, ruficaudatus has a gray neck patch and upper side of its tail is brown, dayanuslives in the desert and has a pale yellow-sandy color. A female ruficaudatus (average 2-2 kg) is heavier than a male (1-8 kg).","Open desert with scattered shrubs, thick jungle with some open clearings, grasslands, and large tracts of scrub and wasteland, alternating with cultivated plains, at elevations of 50-4500 m. Indian Hares spent the day in short grasslandshrub forest areas in Nepal and under bushes in the Sindh Desert, borderlands of Pakistan and India. Tall shrubs (e.g. Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae) or young palms are used as forms. The Indian Hare might use ditches or animal burrows for cover when pursued.","Diet of the Indian Hares includes mainly grass and forbs. They feed on Capparisdeciduas (Capparaceae), blue panicgrass (Panicumantidotale, Poaceae), rattlepods (Crotalaria spp., Fabaceae), and Zizyphus spp. in the Sindh Desert. Their diets contain up to 77% grasses in wetter regions. Indian Hares might travel 100-500 m to reach green vegetation in the dry season. They eat grass, young plants, leaves of the sweet potato plant, and lettuce from gardens in Sri Lanka. Analysis of feces of Indian Hares on Cousin Island showed that sedges and grasses are mainly consumed in one area, but prickly chaff flower (Achyranthesaspera, Amaranthaceae) and Ficusreflexa (Moraceae) dominated the diet in another area. Indian Hares can damage young trees and agricultural crops such as chickpeas (Cicerarietinum, Fabaceae) and peanuts (Arachishypogaea, Fabaceae) in Pakistan. They fed on short grass and crops in western Nepal.","NearJodhpur, India, Indian Hares are reproductively active throughout the year, with a peak during the monsoon (July-September). Average annual litter size was 1-8 young (range 1-4). Litter sizes varied throughout the year, with one young in winter to 3-2 young in July.","Indian Hares are crepuscular and nocturnal, but at high densities on Cousin Island, they became active and started to feed in mid-afternoon. They spend the day in a series of forms used for shelter. A single individual might use different forms in the morning and afternoon, depending on the weather.",Home range sizes are 1-10 ha in Nepal and 0-7-1-8 ha on Cousin Island. Larger home ranges are expected in more open country and desert.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hare is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. It is widespread and abundant. It is shot as game and snared or netted by farmers to prevent crop damage. Populations in India are severely fragmented due to expanding agricultural areas and pressure on forests from collection of fuel wood. Major threats to Indian Hares are habitat destruction, conversion of prime forest areas to agricultural areas, and intensive hunting. Other threats are feral and domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human-caused forest fires. The uncertain taxonomic status of the Indian Hare makes conservation activities difficult. For example, the Javan Hare might be an endemic taxon based on its long fossil history, which would merit urgent actions because ofits very low population size.","Angermann (1983, 2016) | Bell (2002) | Brooks et al. (1987) | Chakraborty, Srinivasulu et al. (2005) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Ghose (1971) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jain & Prakash (1976) | Kirk (1981) | Kirk & Bathe (1994) | Kirk & Racey (1992) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Maheswaran & Jordan (2008) | McNeely (1981) | Petter (1961) | Phillips (1935) | Prakash & Taneja (1969) | Prater (1971) | Purohit (1967) | Sabnis (1981) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Suchentrunk (2004) | Suchentrunk & Davidovic (2004)",,"33.Indian HareLepus nigricollisFrench:Liévre a col noir/ German:Schwarznackenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de IndiaOther common names:Black-napped Hare; Indian Desert Hare (dayanus), Rufous-tailed Hare (ruficaudatus)Taxonomy.Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823, “Malabar,” Madras, India.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus, but a study analyzing skull and dental characteristics suggests that Caprolagusis synonymous to Lepus. This species needs taxonomic clarification. It includes ruficaudatus and dayanus as subspecies; ruficaudatus might be closer to L. capensis, whereas dayanus might deserve species status. It may include L. victoriaewhytei, L. crawshayi (currently a synonym of L. victoriae), and L. peguensisas subspecies. As taxonomists arestill trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.n.nigricollisF.Cuvier,1823—SIndia(SoftheGodavariRiver).L.n.aryabertensisHodgson,1844—SCNepal.L.n.dayanusBlanford,1874—SEPakistanandNWIndia(GreatIndianDesert).L.n.ruficaudatusE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1826—EPakistan,NIndia,SNepal,Bangladesh,Bhutan,exceptthehigherreachesoftheHimalayasandthemangroveareaswithintheSundarbans.L.n.sadiyaKloss,1918—NEIndia(Assam).L.n.simcoxiWroughton,1912—CIndia(NMaharashtraandMadhyaPradesh).L. n. singhala Wroughton, 1915— Sri Lanka.Indian hares (probably ruficaudatus) also occur in extreme E Afghanistan, in the border areas with Pakistan. Situation in Java is debated and the so called “Javan Hare” might be native there. The species has been introduced by founder individuals of either unknown subspeciesaffiliation or belonging to various subspecies into Comoro, Mayotte, Madagascar, Réunion (including Gunners Quoin I), Mauritius (Agaléga Is), Seychelles (Cousin I), and Andaman Is in the Indian Ocean, and into New Guinea. In Gunners Quoin the Indian Hare has been eradicated.Descriptive notes.Head-body 330-530 mm, tail 10-90 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 89-103 mm; weight 1.8-3.6 kg. The Indian Hare is medium-sized. Dorsal fur and head are rufous-brown, mixed with black. Legs and chest are rufous; ventral fur and chin are white. The Indian Hare is larger toward the southern part of its distribution. Color varies in different subspecies— nigricollishas a dark brown or black patch on neck and its tail is black above, ruficaudatus has a gray neck patch and upper side of its tail is brown, dayanuslives in the desert and has a pale yellow-sandy color. A female ruficaudatus (average 2-2 kg) is heavier than a male (1-8 kg).Habitat.Open desert with scattered shrubs, thick jungle with some open clearings, grasslands, and large tracts of scrub and wasteland, alternating with cultivated plains, at elevations of 50-4500 m. Indian Hares spent the day in short grasslandshrub forest areas in Nepal and under bushes in the Sindh Desert, borderlands of Pakistan and India. Tall shrubs (e.g. Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae) or young palms are used as forms. The Indian Hare might use ditches or animal burrows for cover when pursued.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Indian Hares includes mainly grass and forbs. They feed on Capparisdeciduas (Capparaceae), blue panicgrass (Panicumantidotale, Poaceae), rattlepods (Crotalaria spp., Fabaceae), and Zizyphus spp. in the Sindh Desert. Their diets contain up to 77% grasses in wetter regions. Indian Hares might travel 100-500 m to reach green vegetation in the dry season. They eat grass, young plants, leaves of the sweet potato plant, and lettuce from gardens in Sri Lanka. Analysis of feces of Indian Hares on Cousin Island showed that sedges and grasses are mainly consumed in one area, but prickly chaff flower (Achyranthesaspera, Amaranthaceae) and Ficusreflexa (Moraceae) dominated the diet in another area. Indian Hares can damage young trees and agricultural crops such as chickpeas (Cicerarietinum, Fabaceae) and peanuts (Arachishypogaea, Fabaceae) in Pakistan. They fed on short grass and crops in western Nepal.Breeding.NearJodhpur, India, Indian Hares are reproductively active throughout the year, with a peak during the monsoon (July-September). Average annual litter size was 1-8 young (range 1-4). Litter sizes varied throughout the year, with one young in winter to 3-2 young in July.Activity patterns.Indian Hares are crepuscular and nocturnal, but at high densities on Cousin Island, they became active and started to feed in mid-afternoon. They spend the day in a series of forms used for shelter. A single individual might use different forms in the morning and afternoon, depending on the weather.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes are 1-10 ha in Nepal and 0-7-1-8 ha on Cousin Island. Larger home ranges are expected in more open country and desert.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hare is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. It is widespread and abundant. It is shot as game and snared or netted by farmers to prevent crop damage. Populations in India are severely fragmented due to expanding agricultural areas and pressure on forests from collection of fuel wood. Major threats to Indian Hares are habitat destruction, conversion of prime forest areas to agricultural areas, and intensive hunting. Other threats are feral and domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human-caused forest fires. The uncertain taxonomic status of the Indian Hare makes conservation activities difficult. For example, the Javan Hare might be an endemic taxon based on its long fossil history, which would merit urgent actions because ofits very low population size.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Bell (2002), Brooks et al. (1987), Chakraborty, Srinivasulu et al. (2005), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux & Angermann (1990), Ghose (1971), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jain & Prakash (1976), Kirk (1981), Kirk & Bathe (1994), Kirk & Racey (1992), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Maheswaran & Jordan (2008), McNeely (1981), Petter (1961), Phillips (1935), Prakash & Taneja (1969), Prater (1971), Purohit (1967), Sabnis (1981), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Suchentrunk (2004), Suchentrunk & Davidovic (2004)." -03822308B751FFEFFFCAFE21FE50FF90,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,129,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B751FFEFFFCAFE21FE50FF90.xml,Lepus hainanus,Lepus,hainanus,Swinhoe,1870,,"Lepus hainanus Swinhoe, 1870, “in the neighbourhood of the capitalcity,” Hainan Province, Hainan Island, China.This species was formerly a subspecies of L. peguensisbut has received species status. Newly conducted genetic analysis revealed that depending on different methods either L. hainanusis conspecific with L. peguensis(genetic distance and phylogenetic network) or L. hainanusis a distinct species (phylogenetic species concept and Bayesian species delimitation analysis). Monotypic.","Hainan I, China.","Head—body 350-390 mm, tail 45-70 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 76-96 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. The Hainan Hare is small, with soft and brightly colored fur. Dorsal fur is tawny brown, tinged with chestnut-brown and black. It has whitish eye rings that extend back toward bases of ears and anteriorly toward mouth. Sides are chestnut-brown. Tail has brownish black stripes above and is white below. Feet are pale brown with white marks. Ventral fur is white. Fur of the Hainan Hare is brighter in winter than summer.","Shrub forests, dry farmland with scattered scrubs, plantains, and dry grassland in low-lying plains. The Hainan Hare avoids mountainous habitat and agricultural land. It does not dig burrows.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but young Hainan Hares are reported to survive well in dry weather.","The Hainan Hare is nocturnal and primarily active before midnight and in early morning, with decreased activity after midnight. Occasionally, it is active during the day.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Hainan Hare is endemic to China and occurs in lowlands of Hainan Island. Densities are greatest in north-western and south-western parts of Hainan Island. Formerly, the Hainan Hare was characterized as abundant but now has a decreasing population trend. Local extirpation of the Hainan Hare was recorded in 1983 as a result of overharvesting. Furthermore, more than 90% of the original natural habitat of the Hainan Hare has been destroyed by human settlement and agriculture. In 1995, it was only located on deforested land used for deer ranches in the central, west coastal part of Hainan Island. There are probably no more than 2 km? of optimal habitat remaining, and total population is estimated at only 250-500 individuals. Despitelisting as a China Key List — II species, the Hainan Hare is still poached for meat and skin. Main threats to the Hainan Hare are overharvesting and habitat destruction. It might face competition from feral domestic European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Recommendations are to enforce existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of Hainan Hares, improve habitat management, and enhance education at local, national, and international levels about their protected status.","Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kong Lingming et al. (2016) | Lazell et al. (1995, 2008) | Smith (2008c)",,"32.Hainan HareLepus hainanusFrench: Livre de Hainan / German: Hainan-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de HainanOther common names: Chinese PinyinTaxonomy.Lepus hainanus Swinhoe, 1870, “in the neighbourhood of the capitalcity,” Hainan Province, Hainan Island, China.This species was formerly a subspecies of L. peguensisbut has received species status. Newly conducted genetic analysis revealed that depending on different methods either L. hainanusis conspecific with L. peguensis(genetic distance and phylogenetic network) or L. hainanusis a distinct species (phylogenetic species concept and Bayesian species delimitation analysis). Monotypic.Distribution.Hainan I, China.Descriptive notes.Head—body 350-390 mm, tail 45-70 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 76-96 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. The Hainan Hare is small, with soft and brightly colored fur. Dorsal fur is tawny brown, tinged with chestnut-brown and black. It has whitish eye rings that extend back toward bases of ears and anteriorly toward mouth. Sides are chestnut-brown. Tail has brownish black stripes above and is white below. Feet are pale brown with white marks. Ventral fur is white. Fur of the Hainan Hare is brighter in winter than summer.Habitat.Shrub forests, dry farmland with scattered scrubs, plantains, and dry grassland in low-lying plains. The Hainan Hare avoids mountainous habitat and agricultural land. It does not dig burrows.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but young Hainan Hares are reported to survive well in dry weather.Activity patterns.The Hainan Hare is nocturnal and primarily active before midnight and in early morning, with decreased activity after midnight. Occasionally, it is active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Hainan Hare is endemic to China and occurs in lowlands of Hainan Island. Densities are greatest in north-western and south-western parts of Hainan Island. Formerly, the Hainan Hare was characterized as abundant but now has a decreasing population trend. Local extirpation of the Hainan Hare was recorded in 1983 as a result of overharvesting. Furthermore, more than 90% of the original natural habitat of the Hainan Hare has been destroyed by human settlement and agriculture. In 1995, it was only located on deforested land used for deer ranches in the central, west coastal part of Hainan Island. There are probably no more than 2 km? of optimal habitat remaining, and total population is estimated at only 250-500 individuals. Despitelisting as a China Key List — II species, the Hainan Hare is still poached for meat and skin. Main threats to the Hainan Hare are overharvesting and habitat destruction. It might face competition from feral domestic European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Recommendations are to enforce existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of Hainan Hares, improve habitat management, and enhance education at local, national, and international levels about their protected status.Bibliography.Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kong Lingming et al. (2016), Lazell et al. (1995, 2008), Smith (2008c)." +03822308B750FFEEFF10F421F689F391,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,130,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFEEFF10F421F689F391.xml,Lepus fagani,Lepus,fagani,Thomas,1903,,"Lepus fagani Thomas, 1903, “Zegi, Lake Tsana [= Tana] 4000 feet [1219 m],” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of Lepus faganiis uncertain. Formerly, it was reconsidered as a subspecies of L. victoriaeor L. capensis, but because ofits unusually uniform morphological characteristics throughoutits distribution,its species status has been maintained since 1987. It is closely related to L. saxatilisand L. victoriae. This speciesis either allopatric or parapatric with L. victoriae. Because L. faganiis geographically isolated in Ethiopian mountains north of the Rift Valley from populations of L. victoriaein lowlands, it may have evolved into a highland allospecies. Monotypic.",N & W highlands of Ethiopia (N of the Rift Valley); maybe also adjacent E South Sudan and NW Kenya.,"Head-body 450-540 mm, tail 50-82 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ethiopian Hare is large, with dense and rather coarse fur. Dorsal fur is brownish buff and finely grizzled with black; ventral fur is white and fluffy. Flanks are buff. Forelimbs are cinnamon brown, and hindlimbs brownish buff above and white below. Head is darker than dorsal pelage and its crown blacker. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short compared to other Ethiopian Lepussuch as the Abyssinian Hare (L. habessinicus) and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki). Ears of the Ethiopian Hare are buff, with narrow black rim around inner surfaces oftips. Nuchal patch is cinnamon-ginger and extends onto sides of neck. Tail is medium-sized and fluffy. It is black above, buff on sides, and buffy white below.","Steppes, grasslands, and scrub and forest margins including wet grasslands with scattered thickets and bushy cultivated areas. The Ethiopian Hare is considered to be an Afro-alpine/Afro-montane species becauseit inhabits elevations of 500-2500 m. Its habitatis similar to that of the African Savanna Hare (L. victoria).",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available forthis species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Research is needed to understand biology, ecology, and conservation status of the Ethiopian Hare.","Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008b) | Yalden et al. (1986)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625623/files/figure.png,"3b.Ethiopian HareLepus faganiFrench: Liévre d'Ethiopie / German: Athiopischer Hase / Spanish: Liebre de EtiopiaTaxonomy.Lepus fagani Thomas, 1903, “Zegi, Lake Tsana [= Tana] 4000 feet [1219 m],” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of Lepus faganiis uncertain. Formerly, it was reconsidered as a subspecies of L. victoriaeor L. capensis, but because ofits unusually uniform morphological characteristics throughoutits distribution,its species status has been maintained since 1987. It is closely related to L. saxatilisand L. victoriae. This speciesis either allopatric or parapatric with L. victoriae. Because L. faganiis geographically isolated in Ethiopian mountains north of the Rift Valley from populations of L. victoriaein lowlands, it may have evolved into a highland allospecies. Monotypic.Distribution.N & W highlands of Ethiopia (N of the Rift Valley); maybe also adjacent E South Sudan and NW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-540 mm, tail 50-82 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ethiopian Hare is large, with dense and rather coarse fur. Dorsal fur is brownish buff and finely grizzled with black; ventral fur is white and fluffy. Flanks are buff. Forelimbs are cinnamon brown, and hindlimbs brownish buff above and white below. Head is darker than dorsal pelage and its crown blacker. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short compared to other Ethiopian Lepussuch as the Abyssinian Hare (L. habessinicus) and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki). Ears of the Ethiopian Hare are buff, with narrow black rim around inner surfaces oftips. Nuchal patch is cinnamon-ginger and extends onto sides of neck. Tail is medium-sized and fluffy. It is black above, buff on sides, and buffy white below.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands, and scrub and forest margins including wet grasslands with scattered thickets and bushy cultivated areas. The Ethiopian Hare is considered to be an Afro-alpine/Afro-montane species becauseit inhabits elevations of 500-2500 m. Its habitatis similar to that of the African Savanna Hare (L. victoria).Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available forthis species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Research is needed to understand biology, ecology, and conservation status of the Ethiopian Hare.Bibliography.Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b), Boitani et al. (1999), Flux & Angermann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008b), Yalden et al. (1986)." +03822308B750FFEEFF60FF41FAF0FD0C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,130,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFEEFF60FF41FAF0FD0C.xml,Lepus peguensis,Lepus,peguensis,Blyth,1856,Liévre du Pégou @fr | Burmesischer-Hase @de | Liebre de Birmania @es | Siamese Hare @en,"Lepus peguensis Blyth, 1856, “ Pegu,” Upper Pegu, Burma (= Myanmar).It was placed as in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus. Formerly, L. peguensis included L. hainanus, which received species status. Lepus peguensisneeds taxonomic clarification. A third subspecies (siamensis) is under discussion to be a valid species. It has been suggested that L. peguensisis conspecific with L. nigricollisbecause of its close resemblance to L. n. ruficaudatus. Nevertheless, L. n. ruficaudatus appears to live allopatrically with L. peguensisfrom eastern India to western Myanmar. A study of dental characteristics concluded that separate species status of L. peguensiswas equivocal. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","L.p.peguensisBlyth,1855—C&SMyanmarfromtheChindwinRivervalleyStoNMalayPeninsula.L. p. vassali Thomas, 1906— Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and S Vietnam.","Head—body 400-590 mm, tail 55-84 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 96-110 mm; weight 2.2-5 kg. The Burmese Hare is medium-sized and closely resembles the Indian Hare (L. nigricollis). Dorsal pelage is reddish gray, mixed with black and grayer on rump. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are rather large with distinct black tips. Tail is black above and white below. Feet vary, being white in Burmese specimens and fulvous in Thailand specimens.Habitat. Lowlands, land cleared for crops, and dry wasteland. The Burmese Hare occurs in sandy regions along the coast in Malaya and southern Vietnam, butit lives in forest clearings in lalang grass (Imperatacylindrical, Poaceae) or around hill tribe villages in Thailand. Numbers of Burmese Hares are especially high in grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. In Thailand, they live in rain/ flood-fed low-intensity rice fields but avoid irrigated multi-croprice fields. A collection expedition in Thailand in 1940 recorded the Burmese Hare at an elevation of 1300 m on Mount Inthanon. Nevertheless, numerous field surveys have not recorded it above 700 m, so an upperlimit of 1300 m is questionable. Burmese Hares spend the day in forms located under bushes orin tall grass.Food and Feeding. Diet of the Burmese Hare includes grass, bark, and twigs.Breeding. The Burmese Hare might have several litters per year. Litter sizes are 1-7 young (typically 2-4 young). Gestation lasts 35-40 days. Young are born in open grassy areas and are fully furred with eyes open.Activity patterns. The Burmese Hare is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Burmese Hare is widespread and common, with an overall stable population. Its distribution probably includes northern and central regions of Laos, because signs ofits presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been noted (but only to the genus level). Its distribution in Myanmaris largely speculative, and it might be more restricted there.",,,,,"The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.",,"Allen & Coolidge (1940) | Angermann (2016) | Duckworth (1996) | Duckworth, Steinmetz & Pattanavibool (2008) | Duckworth, Timmins et al. (1994) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1955) | Evans et al. (2000) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gyldenstolpe (1917) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kloss (1919) | Lekagul & McNeely (1977) | Lissovsky (2016) | Petter (1961) | Pfeffer (1969) | Suchentrunk (2004) | Van Peenen (1969) | Wroughton (1915)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625621/files/figure.png,"34.Burmese HareLepus peguensisFrench:Liévre du Pégou/ German:Burmesischer-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de BirmaniaOther common names:Siamese HareTaxonomy. Lepus peguensis Blyth, 1856, “ Pegu,” Upper Pegu, Burma (= Myanmar).It was placed as in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus. Formerly, L. peguensis included L. hainanus, which received species status. Lepus peguensisneeds taxonomic clarification. A third subspecies (siamensis) is under discussion to be a valid species. It has been suggested that L. peguensisis conspecific with L. nigricollisbecause of its close resemblance to L. n. ruficaudatus. Nevertheless, L. n. ruficaudatus appears to live allopatrically with L. peguensisfrom eastern India to western Myanmar. A study of dental characteristics concluded that separate species status of L. peguensiswas equivocal. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.p.peguensisBlyth,1855—C&SMyanmarfromtheChindwinRivervalleyStoNMalayPeninsula.L. p. vassali Thomas, 1906— Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and S Vietnam.Descriptive notes. Head—body 400-590 mm, tail 55-84 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 96-110 mm; weight 2.2-5 kg. The Burmese Hare is medium-sized and closely resembles the Indian Hare (L. nigricollis). Dorsal pelage is reddish gray, mixed with black and grayer on rump. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are rather large with distinct black tips. Tail is black above and white below. Feet vary, being white in Burmese specimens and fulvous in Thailand specimens.Habitat. Lowlands, land cleared for crops, and dry wasteland. The Burmese Hare occurs in sandy regions along the coast in Malaya and southern Vietnam, butit lives in forest clearings in lalang grass (Imperatacylindrical, Poaceae) or around hill tribe villages in Thailand. Numbers of Burmese Hares are especially high in grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. In Thailand, they live in rain/ flood-fed low-intensity rice fields but avoid irrigated multi-croprice fields. A collection expedition in Thailand in 1940 recorded the Burmese Hare at an elevation of 1300 m on Mount Inthanon. Nevertheless, numerous field surveys have not recorded it above 700 m, so an upperlimit of 1300 m is questionable. Burmese Hares spend the day in forms located under bushes orin tall grass.Food and Feeding. Diet of the Burmese Hare includes grass, bark, and twigs.Breeding. The Burmese Hare might have several litters per year. Litter sizes are 1-7 young (typically 2-4 young). Gestation lasts 35-40 days. Young are born in open grassy areas and are fully furred with eyes open.Activity patterns. The Burmese Hare is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Burmese Hare is widespread and common, with an overall stable population. Its distribution probably includes northern and central regions of Laos, because signs ofits presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been noted (but only to the genus level). Its distribution in Myanmaris largely speculative, and it might be more restricted there. Habitat of the Burmese Hare is probably expanding due to forest clearing, but it occurs in populationsisolated by forest cover. It is heavily hunted, but this does not seem to be a major threat. Extension of irrigated rice fields destroys habitat in some areas. Habitats in Laos and Vietnam are regularly burned during the dry season (February—May), which might pose a threat to young unable to avoid fire. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy, distribution, and behavior of the Burmese Hare.Bibliography. Allen & Coolidge (1940), Angermann (2016), Duckworth (1996), Duckworth, Steinmetz & Pattanavibool (2008), Duckworth, Timmins et al. (1994), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1955), Evans et al. (2000), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gyldenstolpe (1917), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kloss (1919), Lekagul & McNeely (1977), Lissovsky (2016), Petter (1961), Pfeffer (1969), Suchentrunk (2004), Van Peenen (1969). Wroughton (1915)." +03822308B751FFEFFFC3F5ADF62CFAE8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,129,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B751FFEFFFC3F5ADF62CFAE8.xml,Lepus nigricollis,Lepus,nigricollis,F. Cuvier,1823,Liévre a col noir @fr | Schwarznackenhase @de | Liebre de @es | ndia @en | Black-napped Hare; @en | ndian Desert Hare (dayanus) @en | Rufous-tailed Hare (ruficaudatus) @en,"Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823, “Malabar,” Madras, India.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus, but a study analyzing skull and dental characteristics suggests that Caprolagusis synonymous to Lepus. This species needs taxonomic clarification. It includes ruficaudatus and dayanus as subspecies; ruficaudatus might be closer to L. capensis, whereas dayanus might deserve species status. It may include L. victoriaewhytei, L. crawshayi (currently a synonym of L. victoriae), and L. peguensisas subspecies. As taxonomists arestill trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.","L.n.nigricollisF.Cuvier,1823—SIndia(SoftheGodavariRiver).L.n.aryabertensisHodgson,1844—SCNepal.L.n.dayanusBlanford,1874—SEPakistanandNWIndia(GreatIndianDesert).L.n.ruficaudatusE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1826—EPakistan,NIndia,SNepal,Bangladesh,Bhutan,exceptthehigherreachesoftheHimalayasandthemangroveareaswithintheSundarbans.L.n.sadiyaKloss,1918—NEIndia(Assam).L.n.simcoxiWroughton,1912—CIndia(NMaharashtraandMadhyaPradesh).L. n. singhala Wroughton, 1915— Sri Lanka.Indian hares (probably ruficaudatus) also occur in extreme E Afghanistan, in the border areas with Pakistan. Situation in Java is debated and the so called “Javan Hare” might be native there. The species has been introduced by founder individuals of either unknown subspeciesaffiliation or belonging to various subspecies into Comoro, Mayotte, Madagascar, Réunion (including Gunners Quoin I), Mauritius (Agaléga Is), Seychelles (Cousin I), and Andaman Is in the Indian Ocean, and into New Guinea. In Gunners Quoin the Indian Hare has been eradicated.","Head-body 330-530 mm, tail 10-90 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 89-103 mm; weight 1.8-3.6 kg. The Indian Hare is medium-sized. Dorsal fur and head are rufous-brown, mixed with black. Legs and chest are rufous; ventral fur and chin are white. The Indian Hare is larger toward the southern part of its distribution. Color varies in different subspecies— nigricollishas a dark brown or black patch on neck and its tail is black above, ruficaudatus has a gray neck patch and upper side of its tail is brown, dayanuslives in the desert and has a pale yellow-sandy color. A female ruficaudatus (average 2-2 kg) is heavier than a male (1-8 kg).","Open desert with scattered shrubs, thick jungle with some open clearings, grasslands, and large tracts of scrub and wasteland, alternating with cultivated plains, at elevations of 50-4500 m. Indian Hares spent the day in short grasslandshrub forest areas in Nepal and under bushes in the Sindh Desert, borderlands of Pakistan and India. Tall shrubs (e.g. Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae) or young palms are used as forms. The Indian Hare might use ditches or animal burrows for cover when pursued.","Diet of the Indian Hares includes mainly grass and forbs. They feed on Capparisdeciduas (Capparaceae), blue panicgrass (Panicumantidotale, Poaceae), rattlepods (Crotalaria spp., Fabaceae), and Zizyphus spp. in the Sindh Desert. Their diets contain up to 77% grasses in wetter regions. Indian Hares might travel 100-500 m to reach green vegetation in the dry season. They eat grass, young plants, leaves of the sweet potato plant, and lettuce from gardens in Sri Lanka. Analysis of feces of Indian Hares on Cousin Island showed that sedges and grasses are mainly consumed in one area, but prickly chaff flower (Achyranthesaspera, Amaranthaceae) and Ficusreflexa (Moraceae) dominated the diet in another area. Indian Hares can damage young trees and agricultural crops such as chickpeas (Cicerarietinum, Fabaceae) and peanuts (Arachishypogaea, Fabaceae) in Pakistan. They fed on short grass and crops in western Nepal.","NearJodhpur, India, Indian Hares are reproductively active throughout the year, with a peak during the monsoon (July-September). Average annual litter size was 1-8 young (range 1-4). Litter sizes varied throughout the year, with one young in winter to 3-2 young in July.","Indian Hares are crepuscular and nocturnal, but at high densities on Cousin Island, they became active and started to feed in mid-afternoon. They spend the day in a series of forms used for shelter. A single individual might use different forms in the morning and afternoon, depending on the weather.",Home range sizes are 1-10 ha in Nepal and 0-7-1-8 ha on Cousin Island. Larger home ranges are expected in more open country and desert.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hare is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. It is widespread and abundant. It is shot as game and snared or netted by farmers to prevent crop damage. Populations in India are severely fragmented due to expanding agricultural areas and pressure on forests from collection of fuel wood. Major threats to Indian Hares are habitat destruction, conversion of prime forest areas to agricultural areas, and intensive hunting. Other threats are feral and domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human-caused forest fires. The uncertain taxonomic status of the Indian Hare makes conservation activities difficult. For example, the Javan Hare might be an endemic taxon based on its long fossil history, which would merit urgent actions because ofits very low population size.","Angermann (1983, 2016) | Bell (2002) | Brooks et al. (1987) | Chakraborty, Srinivasulu et al. (2005) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Ghose (1971) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jain & Prakash (1976) | Kirk (1981) | Kirk & Bathe (1994) | Kirk & Racey (1992) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Maheswaran & Jordan (2008) | McNeely (1981) | Petter (1961) | Phillips (1935) | Prakash & Taneja (1969) | Prater (1971) | Purohit (1967) | Sabnis (1981) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Suchentrunk (2004) | Suchentrunk & Davidovic (2004)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625619/files/figure.png,"33.Indian HareLepus nigricollisFrench:Liévre a col noir/ German:Schwarznackenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de IndiaOther common names:Black-napped Hare; Indian Desert Hare (dayanus), Rufous-tailed Hare (ruficaudatus)Taxonomy.Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823, “Malabar,” Madras, India.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus, but a study analyzing skull and dental characteristics suggests that Caprolagusis synonymous to Lepus. This species needs taxonomic clarification. It includes ruficaudatus and dayanus as subspecies; ruficaudatus might be closer to L. capensis, whereas dayanus might deserve species status. It may include L. victoriaewhytei, L. crawshayi (currently a synonym of L. victoriae), and L. peguensisas subspecies. As taxonomists arestill trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.n.nigricollisF.Cuvier,1823—SIndia(SoftheGodavariRiver).L.n.aryabertensisHodgson,1844—SCNepal.L.n.dayanusBlanford,1874—SEPakistanandNWIndia(GreatIndianDesert).L.n.ruficaudatusE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1826—EPakistan,NIndia,SNepal,Bangladesh,Bhutan,exceptthehigherreachesoftheHimalayasandthemangroveareaswithintheSundarbans.L.n.sadiyaKloss,1918—NEIndia(Assam).L.n.simcoxiWroughton,1912—CIndia(NMaharashtraandMadhyaPradesh).L. n. singhala Wroughton, 1915— Sri Lanka.Indian hares (probably ruficaudatus) also occur in extreme E Afghanistan, in the border areas with Pakistan. Situation in Java is debated and the so called “Javan Hare” might be native there. The species has been introduced by founder individuals of either unknown subspeciesaffiliation or belonging to various subspecies into Comoro, Mayotte, Madagascar, Réunion (including Gunners Quoin I), Mauritius (Agaléga Is), Seychelles (Cousin I), and Andaman Is in the Indian Ocean, and into New Guinea. In Gunners Quoin the Indian Hare has been eradicated.Descriptive notes.Head-body 330-530 mm, tail 10-90 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 89-103 mm; weight 1.8-3.6 kg. The Indian Hare is medium-sized. Dorsal fur and head are rufous-brown, mixed with black. Legs and chest are rufous; ventral fur and chin are white. The Indian Hare is larger toward the southern part of its distribution. Color varies in different subspecies— nigricollishas a dark brown or black patch on neck and its tail is black above, ruficaudatus has a gray neck patch and upper side of its tail is brown, dayanuslives in the desert and has a pale yellow-sandy color. A female ruficaudatus (average 2-2 kg) is heavier than a male (1-8 kg).Habitat.Open desert with scattered shrubs, thick jungle with some open clearings, grasslands, and large tracts of scrub and wasteland, alternating with cultivated plains, at elevations of 50-4500 m. Indian Hares spent the day in short grasslandshrub forest areas in Nepal and under bushes in the Sindh Desert, borderlands of Pakistan and India. Tall shrubs (e.g. Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae) or young palms are used as forms. The Indian Hare might use ditches or animal burrows for cover when pursued.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Indian Hares includes mainly grass and forbs. They feed on Capparisdeciduas (Capparaceae), blue panicgrass (Panicumantidotale, Poaceae), rattlepods (Crotalaria spp., Fabaceae), and Zizyphus spp. in the Sindh Desert. Their diets contain up to 77% grasses in wetter regions. Indian Hares might travel 100-500 m to reach green vegetation in the dry season. They eat grass, young plants, leaves of the sweet potato plant, and lettuce from gardens in Sri Lanka. Analysis of feces of Indian Hares on Cousin Island showed that sedges and grasses are mainly consumed in one area, but prickly chaff flower (Achyranthesaspera, Amaranthaceae) and Ficusreflexa (Moraceae) dominated the diet in another area. Indian Hares can damage young trees and agricultural crops such as chickpeas (Cicerarietinum, Fabaceae) and peanuts (Arachishypogaea, Fabaceae) in Pakistan. They fed on short grass and crops in western Nepal.Breeding.NearJodhpur, India, Indian Hares are reproductively active throughout the year, with a peak during the monsoon (July-September). Average annual litter size was 1-8 young (range 1-4). Litter sizes varied throughout the year, with one young in winter to 3-2 young in July.Activity patterns.Indian Hares are crepuscular and nocturnal, but at high densities on Cousin Island, they became active and started to feed in mid-afternoon. They spend the day in a series of forms used for shelter. A single individual might use different forms in the morning and afternoon, depending on the weather.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes are 1-10 ha in Nepal and 0-7-1-8 ha on Cousin Island. Larger home ranges are expected in more open country and desert.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hare is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. It is widespread and abundant. It is shot as game and snared or netted by farmers to prevent crop damage. Populations in India are severely fragmented due to expanding agricultural areas and pressure on forests from collection of fuel wood. Major threats to Indian Hares are habitat destruction, conversion of prime forest areas to agricultural areas, and intensive hunting. Other threats are feral and domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human-caused forest fires. The uncertain taxonomic status of the Indian Hare makes conservation activities difficult. For example, the Javan Hare might be an endemic taxon based on its long fossil history, which would merit urgent actions because ofits very low population size.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Bell (2002), Brooks et al. (1987), Chakraborty, Srinivasulu et al. (2005), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux & Angermann (1990), Ghose (1971), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jain & Prakash (1976), Kirk (1981), Kirk & Bathe (1994), Kirk & Racey (1992), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Maheswaran & Jordan (2008), McNeely (1981), Petter (1961), Phillips (1935), Prakash & Taneja (1969), Prater (1971), Purohit (1967), Sabnis (1981), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Suchentrunk (2004), Suchentrunk & Davidovic (2004)." +03822308B751FFEFFFCAFE21FE50FF90,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,129,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B751FFEFFFCAFE21FE50FF90.xml,Lepus hainanus,Lepus,hainanus,Swinhoe,1870,,"Lepus hainanus Swinhoe, 1870, “in the neighbourhood of the capitalcity,” Hainan Province, Hainan Island, China.This species was formerly a subspecies of L. peguensisbut has received species status. Newly conducted genetic analysis revealed that depending on different methods either L. hainanusis conspecific with L. peguensis(genetic distance and phylogenetic network) or L. hainanusis a distinct species (phylogenetic species concept and Bayesian species delimitation analysis). Monotypic.","Hainan I, China.","Head—body 350-390 mm, tail 45-70 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 76-96 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. The Hainan Hare is small, with soft and brightly colored fur. Dorsal fur is tawny brown, tinged with chestnut-brown and black. It has whitish eye rings that extend back toward bases of ears and anteriorly toward mouth. Sides are chestnut-brown. Tail has brownish black stripes above and is white below. Feet are pale brown with white marks. Ventral fur is white. Fur of the Hainan Hare is brighter in winter than summer.","Shrub forests, dry farmland with scattered scrubs, plantains, and dry grassland in low-lying plains. The Hainan Hare avoids mountainous habitat and agricultural land. It does not dig burrows.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but young Hainan Hares are reported to survive well in dry weather.","The Hainan Hare is nocturnal and primarily active before midnight and in early morning, with decreased activity after midnight. Occasionally, it is active during the day.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Hainan Hare is endemic to China and occurs in lowlands of Hainan Island. Densities are greatest in north-western and south-western parts of Hainan Island. Formerly, the Hainan Hare was characterized as abundant but now has a decreasing population trend. Local extirpation of the Hainan Hare was recorded in 1983 as a result of overharvesting. Furthermore, more than 90% of the original natural habitat of the Hainan Hare has been destroyed by human settlement and agriculture. In 1995, it was only located on deforested land used for deer ranches in the central, west coastal part of Hainan Island. There are probably no more than 2 km? of optimal habitat remaining, and total population is estimated at only 250-500 individuals. Despitelisting as a China Key List — II species, the Hainan Hare is still poached for meat and skin. Main threats to the Hainan Hare are overharvesting and habitat destruction. It might face competition from feral domestic European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Recommendations are to enforce existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of Hainan Hares, improve habitat management, and enhance education at local, national, and international levels about their protected status.","Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kong Lingming et al. (2016) | Lazell et al. (1995, 2008) | Smith (2008c)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625617/files/figure.png,"32.Hainan HareLepus hainanusFrench: Livre de Hainan / German: Hainan-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de HainanOther common names: Chinese PinyinTaxonomy.Lepus hainanus Swinhoe, 1870, “in the neighbourhood of the capitalcity,” Hainan Province, Hainan Island, China.This species was formerly a subspecies of L. peguensisbut has received species status. Newly conducted genetic analysis revealed that depending on different methods either L. hainanusis conspecific with L. peguensis(genetic distance and phylogenetic network) or L. hainanusis a distinct species (phylogenetic species concept and Bayesian species delimitation analysis). Monotypic.Distribution.Hainan I, China.Descriptive notes.Head—body 350-390 mm, tail 45-70 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 76-96 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. The Hainan Hare is small, with soft and brightly colored fur. Dorsal fur is tawny brown, tinged with chestnut-brown and black. It has whitish eye rings that extend back toward bases of ears and anteriorly toward mouth. Sides are chestnut-brown. Tail has brownish black stripes above and is white below. Feet are pale brown with white marks. Ventral fur is white. Fur of the Hainan Hare is brighter in winter than summer.Habitat.Shrub forests, dry farmland with scattered scrubs, plantains, and dry grassland in low-lying plains. The Hainan Hare avoids mountainous habitat and agricultural land. It does not dig burrows.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but young Hainan Hares are reported to survive well in dry weather.Activity patterns.The Hainan Hare is nocturnal and primarily active before midnight and in early morning, with decreased activity after midnight. Occasionally, it is active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Hainan Hare is endemic to China and occurs in lowlands of Hainan Island. Densities are greatest in north-western and south-western parts of Hainan Island. Formerly, the Hainan Hare was characterized as abundant but now has a decreasing population trend. Local extirpation of the Hainan Hare was recorded in 1983 as a result of overharvesting. Furthermore, more than 90% of the original natural habitat of the Hainan Hare has been destroyed by human settlement and agriculture. In 1995, it was only located on deforested land used for deer ranches in the central, west coastal part of Hainan Island. There are probably no more than 2 km? of optimal habitat remaining, and total population is estimated at only 250-500 individuals. Despitelisting as a China Key List — II species, the Hainan Hare is still poached for meat and skin. Main threats to the Hainan Hare are overharvesting and habitat destruction. It might face competition from feral domestic European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Recommendations are to enforce existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of Hainan Hares, improve habitat management, and enhance education at local, national, and international levels about their protected status.Bibliography.Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kong Lingming et al. (2016), Lazell et al. (1995, 2008), Smith (2008c)." 03822308B754FFEDFF6DF725F820F363,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,126,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B754FFEDFF6DF725F820F363.xml,Oryctolagus cuniculus,Oryctolagus,cuniculus,,,Lapin de garenne @fr | Wildkaninchen @de | Conejo europeo @es | Domestic Rabbit @en | Wild Rabbit @en,"Lepus cuniculus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa australis.” Restricted by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Germany.”The genus Oryctolagusis monotypic; however, subspecies algirus has exceptional high nucleotide diversity compared with European Rabbit populations on the Iberian Peninsula and worldwide. Furthermore, it has distinct morphological, genetic, reproductive, and parasitological characteristics, and therefore, elevation to species status is under consideration. As in the other Leporidaespecies, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Six subspecies recognized.","O.c.cuniculusLinnaeus,1758—N,NE&EIberianPeninsula(Spain).O.c.algirusLoche,1858—S,SW&WIberianPeninsula(Spain,Portugal),NMorocco,NAlgeria(includingHabibasI).O.c.brachyotusTrouessart,1917—SFrance.O.c.cnossiusBate,1906—CreteI.O.c.habetensisCabrera,1923—Tanger-Tetouan-AlHoceimaRegion(NMorocco).O. c. huxleyi Haeckel, 1874— Mediterranean Is (Balearic Is, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Macaronesia (Azores, Madeira, and Canary Is).Original distribution after last Ice Age restricted to Iberian Peninsula, W France, and N Africa. Ancient introductions of the nominate subspecies probably during the Roman period have spread it throughout Europe, and now it is present in most of W, C & E Europe and the Mediterranean and Macaronesian Is (these mostly old introductions are also shaded on the map). During the 20"" century it has been released into the steppes of the Black Sea in Ukraine and Russia (N Caucasus); introduced into Australia in 1788 and again in 1859 where it is now widespread;it is found on many Pacific Is, islands off the coast of South Africa and Namibia, and in New Zealand; successfully introduced only since 1936 into South America, nowadays with a limited range in Chile, Argentina, and Falkland Is, it is also present in the Caribbean Is (all these modern introductions not shaded in the map). Worldwide as domesticated forms.","Head-body 360-380 mm, tail 65-70 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 80-89 mm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The European Rabbit is small and has grayish brown fur. Dorsal fur and head are pale brown and slightly flecked with black and buff. Ventral pelage is white, with pale ginger-buff. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short, dark brown, and without black tips. Nuchal patch is pale rufous brown, and throat patch is ginger-buff with orange. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are short and pale brown. Hindfeet are white above. Tail is short and the same color as dorsal fur above;laterally it is brown or white and below it is white. Pelage color varies geographically. Domestic rabbits and feral descendants of the European Rabbit vary in color from white to brown and black, with or without different colored patches.Habitat. Ideally, habitats with a Mediterranean climate and less than ¢.1000 mm of rain/year, short herbage, dry and loosely compacted soils that can be easily dug, or with secure refuge areas in thickets near open feeding grounds, below elevations of ¢.1500 m. Nevertheless, European Rabbits also inhabit cold and wet habitat and high mountains, dense bushy regions, and arid habitats in Morocco. They tend to avoid forested habitats and open areas in Algeria.Food and Feeding. Diet of European Rabbits consists of grasses and forbs, mostly the former, and differ considerably between habitats and season.Breeding. The European Rabbit breeds opportunistically in any season, making it an ideal colonist. Breeding begins and ends earlier in the year the lower the latitude in its introduced distribution. Length of reproduction season and number oflitters produced each year depend on length of growing season of plants in the diet. Thus, reproductive season lasts for c.4 months/year at higher latitudes to at least ¢.9 months/year in temperate New Zealand, where it was introduced. Winter breeding of European Rabbits in Mediterranean climates ceases in late spring. In more temperate climates, breeding begins in early spring and continues through mid-summer. In semiarid regions of Australia where droughts last many months, with occasional heavy rains to which the vegetation responds vigorously, opportunistic breeding of European Rabbits is most distinct. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. During early gestation, a female can terminate a pregnancy or reduce litter size by resorbing single embryos or whole litters if conditions are unfavorable for lactation—the most demanding stage of reproduction. Litter sizes are 3-9 young, depending on season and environmental conditions. Mean litter sizes are 4-6 young in mid-season and 3-4 young during off-peak periods. Seasonal and regional variation in litter size is less pronounced than length of the breeding season. Consequently, annual number of young per female depends primarily on length of the breading season. Number of young European Rabbits born per female per year is 15-45 and depends on climate. Females have postpartum estrus or a seven-day estrous period. Young are born in a nest of dead vegetation lined with fur from their mother’s belly. Nest is placed either in a short sub-branch of an existing burrow or a separate breeding burrow called “stop” c¢.1 m long. The female closes the stop with soil when she leaves. Breeding burrows of European Rabbits may be made days, weeks, or even months before they are used; some are never used. A study conducted in Australia showed that the dominant female breeds in the warren, and subordinate females breed in isolated stops. When brush coveris sufficient, European Rabbits often live permanently aboveground and have no warrens;all breeding takes place in stops. Young are altricial and born naked with closed eyes. A female feeds her young once a night for only c¢.5 minutes. They are weaned at ¢.20 days old, after which they leave the nest. Maturity is reached at 3-4 months old. Population numbers often fluctuate greatly.Activity patterns. The European Rabbit is nocturnal but active at dawn and dusk. Daily activity aboveground depended on density relative to food supply. If density was high and food was limited, more than 60% of an introduced population in New Zealand was aboveground during the day. Moreover, individuals in the New Zealand population emerged earlier, relative to sunset, in winter and spring than summer and autumn. Individuals remained in their daytime resting places from soon after dawn until at least mid-afternoon. During the breeding season, females often began to feed soon after midday.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The European Rabbit digs extensive underground burrows (“warrens”) for resting during the day and protection when threatened. It sometimes lives permanently aboveground, lying in dense vegetation during the day and using burrows only for breeding. It is territorial and forms social groups with a strict linear hierarchy of dominance. A dominant male lives in a warren with several females and their young. Isolated pairs, small groups of three animals, or even solitary individuals are common at low densities. Neighboring groups of European Rabbits may feed together at night. Defended territories are usually small (often less than 1 ha). When food is short or clumped, European Rabbits might feed communally at night at distances of at least 500 m away from their resting areas. Nightly home ranges are much larger than daily home ranges. Males have larger home ranges than females. Adults rarely shift their home range permanently. A minority ofjuveniles disperses several kilometers from where they were born but most stay in their natal home ranges. When the European Rabbit was introduced in Australia, it spread into unoccupied areas at rates of up to 300 km/year.Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The European Rabbit is a widespread colonizer and considered a pest outside its natural distribution where its eradication is priority for conservation; however, only those within the natural distribution in Spain, Portugal, and north-western Africa are considered in [UCN’s assessment. The European Rabbit's original distribution after the last ice age included only the Iberian Peninsula, western France, Morocco, and Algeria. Currently, it inhabits most of Western and Central Europe (from Ireland, north to Denmark and southern Sweden, east to Ukraine and Romania, and south to Croatia and Italy), and it also occurs on most Mediterranean islands (Balearic, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Cyprus, and many Greek islands). The domesticated form of the European Rabbit occurs worldwide. Populations of European Rabbits have declined ¢.80% in Spain since 1975. In 2005, a study in the Donana National Park revealed that the remaining population was aslittle as 5% of the population size in 1950. A study in Portugal recorded a population reduction of 24% from1995 to 2002. Causes for declines are disease, habitat loss, and human-induced mortality. Decline of the European Rabbit is uneven across its distribution due to varying degrees of threat. Two diseases that appeared in the 20"" century are major threats to European Rabbits. Myxomatosis is a virus from South America spread by insects (mosquitoes and fleas) that was intentionally introduced by a famer in the mid-1950s to control the rabbit population in France. An estimated 90% of European Rabbits has perished due to myxomatosis since the 1950s. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease is a virus spread by direct contact. The virus appeared in Europe in the late 1980s and initially caused death of 55-75% of European Rabbits on the Iberian Peninsula. Death typically occurred within 24 hours of symptom onset, with a short incubation time ofless than 48 hours.",,,,,"The European Rabbit digs extensive underground burrows (“warrens”) for resting during the day and protection when threatened. It sometimes lives permanently aboveground, lying in dense vegetation during the day and using burrows only for breeding. It is territorial and forms social groups with a strict linear hierarchy of dominance. A dominant male lives in a warren with several females and their young. Isolated pairs, small groups of three animals, or even solitary individuals are common at low densities. Neighboring groups of European Rabbits may feed together at night. Defended territories are usually small (often less than 1 ha). When food is short or clumped, European Rabbits might feed communally at night at distances of at least 500 m away from their resting areas. Nightly home ranges are much larger than daily home ranges. Males have larger home ranges than females. Adults rarely shift their home range permanently. A minority ofjuveniles disperses several kilometers from where they were born but most stay in their natal home ranges. When the European Rabbit was introduced in Australia, it spread into unoccupied areas at rates of up to 300 km/year.Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The European Rabbit is a widespread colonizer and considered a pest outside its natural distribution where its eradication is priority for conservation; however, only those within the natural distribution in Spain, Portugal, and north-western Africa are considered in [UCN’s assessment. The European Rabbit's original distribution after the last ice age included only the Iberian Peninsula, western France, Morocco, and Algeria. Currently, it inhabits most of Western and Central Europe (from Ireland, north to Denmark and southern Sweden, east to Ukraine and Romania, and south to Croatia and Italy), and it also occurs on most Mediterranean islands (Balearic, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Cyprus, and many Greek islands). The domesticated form of the European Rabbit occurs worldwide. Populations of European Rabbits have declined ¢.80% in Spain since 1975. In 2005, a study in the Donana National Park revealed that the remaining population was aslittle as 5% of the population size in 1950. A study in Portugal recorded a population reduction of 24% from1995 to 2002. Causes for declines are disease, habitat loss, and human-induced mortality. Decline of the European Rabbit is uneven across its distribution due to varying degrees of threat. Two diseases that appeared in the 20"" century are major threats to European Rabbits. Myxomatosis is a virus from South America spread by insects (mosquitoes and fleas) that was intentionally introduced by a famer in the mid-1950s to control the rabbit population in France. An estimated 90% of European Rabbits has perished due to myxomatosis since the 1950s. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease is a virus spread by direct contact. The virus appeared in Europe in the late 1980s and initially caused death of 55-75% of European Rabbits on the Iberian Peninsula. Death typically occurred within 24 hours of symptom onset, with a short incubation time ofless than 48 hours. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to modern intensive agriculture, high-intensity livestock production, fallow land that returns to closed forest, tree plantations, urbanization, increased fire danger, and climate change are ongoing threats to European Rabbits. Furthermore, hunting is a threat in some areas. Future threats to the European Rabbit may include a genetically modified version of the myxomatosis virus that is being developed in Australia to suppress recruitment where European Rabbits have been introduced. Unlicensed release of the modified virus into the native distribution could devastate remaining populations.",,"Alves & Ferreira (2002) | Angermann (2016) | Angulo & Cooke (2002) | Aulagnier & Thévenot (1986) | Beaucournu (1980) | Bell & Webb (1991) | Biju-Duval et al. (1991) | Brambell (1944) | Branco et al. (2000) | Carneiro, Albert et al. (2014) | Carneiro, Ferrand & Nachman (2009) | Delibes & Hiraldo (1981) | Delibes et al. (2000) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fa et al. (1999) | Ferrand (2008) | Ferreira et al. (2015) | Flux (1994) | Flux & Fullagar (1992) | Flux et al. (1990) | Fraser (1985) | Gibb (1990) | Gibb & Williams (1994) | Gibb et al. (1985) | Goncalves et al. (2002) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kaetzke et al. (2003) | Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) | Lever (1985) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Myers et al. (1994) | Mykytowycz & Gambale (1965) | Rogers et al. (1994) | Smith & Boyer (2008f) | Smithers (1983) | Villafuerte et al. (1995) | Virgos et al. (2005) | Ward (2005) | Willott et al. (2000) | Wood (1980)",,"31.European RabbitOryctolagus cuniculusFrench:Lapin de garenne/ German:Wildkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo europeoOther common names:Domestic Rabbit, Wild RabbitTaxonomy. Lepus cuniculus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa australis.” Restricted by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Germany.”The genus Oryctolagusis monotypic; however, subspecies algirus has exceptional high nucleotide diversity compared with European Rabbit populations on the Iberian Peninsula and worldwide. Furthermore, it has distinct morphological, genetic, reproductive, and parasitological characteristics, and therefore, elevation to species status is under consideration. As in the other Leporidaespecies, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.c.cuniculusLinnaeus,1758—N,NE&EIberianPeninsula(Spain).O.c.algirusLoche,1858—S,SW&WIberianPeninsula(Spain,Portugal),NMorocco,NAlgeria(includingHabibasI).O.c.brachyotusTrouessart,1917—SFrance.O.c.cnossiusBate,1906—CreteI.O.c.habetensisCabrera,1923—Tanger-Tetouan-AlHoceimaRegion(NMorocco).O. c. huxleyi Haeckel, 1874— Mediterranean Is (Balearic Is, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Macaronesia (Azores, Madeira, and Canary Is).Original distribution after last Ice Age restricted to Iberian Peninsula, W France, and N Africa. Ancient introductions of the nominate subspecies probably during the Roman period have spread it throughout Europe, and now it is present in most of W, C & E Europe and the Mediterranean and Macaronesian Is (these mostly old introductions are also shaded on the map). During the 20"" century it has been released into the steppes of the Black Sea in Ukraine and Russia (N Caucasus); introduced into Australia in 1788 and again in 1859 where it is now widespread;it is found on many Pacific Is, islands off the coast of South Africa and Namibia, and in New Zealand; successfully introduced only since 1936 into South America, nowadays with a limited range in Chile, Argentina, and Falkland Is, it is also present in the Caribbean Is (all these modern introductions not shaded in the map). Worldwide as domesticated forms.Descriptive notes. Head-body 360-380 mm, tail 65-70 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 80-89 mm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The European Rabbit is small and has grayish brown fur. Dorsal fur and head are pale brown and slightly flecked with black and buff. Ventral pelage is white, with pale ginger-buff. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short, dark brown, and without black tips. Nuchal patch is pale rufous brown, and throat patch is ginger-buff with orange. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are short and pale brown. Hindfeet are white above. Tail is short and the same color as dorsal fur above;laterally it is brown or white and below it is white. Pelage color varies geographically. Domestic rabbits and feral descendants of the European Rabbit vary in color from white to brown and black, with or without different colored patches.Habitat. Ideally, habitats with a Mediterranean climate and less than ¢.1000 mm of rain/year, short herbage, dry and loosely compacted soils that can be easily dug, or with secure refuge areas in thickets near open feeding grounds, below elevations of ¢.1500 m. Nevertheless, European Rabbits also inhabit cold and wet habitat and high mountains, dense bushy regions, and arid habitats in Morocco. They tend to avoid forested habitats and open areas in Algeria.Food and Feeding. Diet of European Rabbits consists of grasses and forbs, mostly the former, and differ considerably between habitats and season.Breeding. The European Rabbit breeds opportunistically in any season, making it an ideal colonist. Breeding begins and ends earlier in the year the lower the latitude in its introduced distribution. Length of reproduction season and number oflitters produced each year depend on length of growing season of plants in the diet. Thus, reproductive season lasts for c.4 months/year at higher latitudes to at least ¢.9 months/year in temperate New Zealand, where it was introduced. Winter breeding of European Rabbits in Mediterranean climates ceases in late spring. In more temperate climates, breeding begins in early spring and continues through mid-summer. In semiarid regions of Australia where droughts last many months, with occasional heavy rains to which the vegetation responds vigorously, opportunistic breeding of European Rabbits is most distinct. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. During early gestation, a female can terminate a pregnancy or reduce litter size by resorbing single embryos or whole litters if conditions are unfavorable for lactation—the most demanding stage of reproduction. Litter sizes are 3-9 young, depending on season and environmental conditions. Mean litter sizes are 4-6 young in mid-season and 3-4 young during off-peak periods. Seasonal and regional variation in litter size is less pronounced than length of the breeding season. Consequently, annual number of young per female depends primarily on length of the breading season. Number of young European Rabbits born per female per year is 15-45 and depends on climate. Females have postpartum estrus or a seven-day estrous period. Young are born in a nest of dead vegetation lined with fur from their mother’s belly. Nest is placed either in a short sub-branch of an existing burrow or a separate breeding burrow called “stop” c¢.1 m long. The female closes the stop with soil when she leaves. Breeding burrows of European Rabbits may be made days, weeks, or even months before they are used; some are never used. A study conducted in Australia showed that the dominant female breeds in the warren, and subordinate females breed in isolated stops. When brush coveris sufficient, European Rabbits often live permanently aboveground and have no warrens;all breeding takes place in stops. Young are altricial and born naked with closed eyes. A female feeds her young once a night for only c¢.5 minutes. They are weaned at ¢.20 days old, after which they leave the nest. Maturity is reached at 3-4 months old. Population numbers often fluctuate greatly.Activity patterns. The European Rabbit is nocturnal but active at dawn and dusk. Daily activity aboveground depended on density relative to food supply. If density was high and food was limited, more than 60% of an introduced population in New Zealand was aboveground during the day. Moreover, individuals in the New Zealand population emerged earlier, relative to sunset, in winter and spring than summer and autumn. Individuals remained in their daytime resting places from soon after dawn until at least mid-afternoon. During the breeding season, females often began to feed soon after midday.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The European Rabbit digs extensive underground burrows (“warrens”) for resting during the day and protection when threatened. It sometimes lives permanently aboveground, lying in dense vegetation during the day and using burrows only for breeding. It is territorial and forms social groups with a strict linear hierarchy of dominance. A dominant male lives in a warren with several females and their young. Isolated pairs, small groups of three animals, or even solitary individuals are common at low densities. Neighboring groups of European Rabbits may feed together at night. Defended territories are usually small (often less than 1 ha). When food is short or clumped, European Rabbits might feed communally at night at distances of at least 500 m away from their resting areas. Nightly home ranges are much larger than daily home ranges. Males have larger home ranges than females. Adults rarely shift their home range permanently. A minority ofjuveniles disperses several kilometers from where they were born but most stay in their natal home ranges. When the European Rabbit was introduced in Australia, it spread into unoccupied areas at rates of up to 300 km/year.Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The European Rabbit is a widespread colonizer and considered a pest outside its natural distribution where its eradication is priority for conservation; however, only those within the natural distribution in Spain, Portugal, and north-western Africa are considered in [UCN’s assessment. The European Rabbit's original distribution after the last ice age included only the Iberian Peninsula, western France, Morocco, and Algeria. Currently, it inhabits most of Western and Central Europe (from Ireland, north to Denmark and southern Sweden, east to Ukraine and Romania, and south to Croatia and Italy), and it also occurs on most Mediterranean islands (Balearic, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Cyprus, and many Greek islands). The domesticated form of the European Rabbit occurs worldwide. Populations of European Rabbits have declined ¢.80% in Spain since 1975. In 2005, a study in the Donana National Park revealed that the remaining population was aslittle as 5% of the population size in 1950. A study in Portugal recorded a population reduction of 24% from1995 to 2002. Causes for declines are disease, habitat loss, and human-induced mortality. Decline of the European Rabbit is uneven across its distribution due to varying degrees of threat. Two diseases that appeared in the 20"" century are major threats to European Rabbits. Myxomatosis is a virus from South America spread by insects (mosquitoes and fleas) that was intentionally introduced by a famer in the mid-1950s to control the rabbit population in France. An estimated 90% of European Rabbits has perished due to myxomatosis since the 1950s. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease is a virus spread by direct contact. The virus appeared in Europe in the late 1980s and initially caused death of 55-75% of European Rabbits on the Iberian Peninsula. Death typically occurred within 24 hours of symptom onset, with a short incubation time ofless than 48 hours. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to modern intensive agriculture, high-intensity livestock production, fallow land that returns to closed forest, tree plantations, urbanization, increased fire danger, and climate change are ongoing threats to European Rabbits. Furthermore, hunting is a threat in some areas. Future threats to the European Rabbit may include a genetically modified version of the myxomatosis virus that is being developed in Australia to suppress recruitment where European Rabbits have been introduced. Unlicensed release of the modified virus into the native distribution could devastate remaining populations. Conservation for the European Rabbit was delayed for several decades after their decline became apparent. Efforts began to take shape in the late 1980s due to previous political isolation of its native distribution and lack of information on the European Rabbit as keystone species in Iberian ecosystems. The issue of eradication of the European Rabbit from introduced areas (e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and many islands) may have overshadowed decline in its native distribution. Increased interest in specialist predators such as the Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) and the Spanishimperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) that depend on European Rabbits and sustainability of hunting populations have enhanced public discussion. The European Rabbit occurs in some protected areas within its natural distribution, including Donana National Park in Spain and Serra da Malcata Nature Reserve in Portugal where the Iberian Lynx is protected. Itis a keystone species in the Iberian ecosystem, as prey for specialist predators and as a landscape “modeler” that maintains vegetation growth typical to Spain and Portugal, creates habitat for invertebrate species, increases species richness, and increases soil fertility.Bibliography. Alves & Ferreira (2002), Angermann (2016), Angulo & Cooke (2002), Aulagnier & Thévenot (1986), Beaucournu (1980), Bell & Webb (1991), Biju-Duval et al. (1991), Brambell (1944), Branco et al. (2000), Carneiro, Albert et al. (2014), Carneiro, Ferrand & Nachman (2009), Delibes & Hiraldo (1981), Delibes et al. (2000), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fa et al. (1999), Ferrand (2008), Ferreira et al. (2015), Flux (1994), Flux & Fullagar (1992), Flux et al. (1990), Fraser (1985), Gibb (1990), Gibb & Williams (1994), Gibb et al. (1985), Goncalves et al. (2002), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kaetzke et al. (2003), Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991), Lever (1985), Lissovsky (2016), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Myers et al. (1994), Mykytowycz & Gambale (1965), Rogers et al. (1994), Smith & Boyer (2008f), Smithers (1983), Villafuerte et al. (1995), Virgos et al. (2005), Ward (2005), Willott et al. (2000), Wood (1980)." 03822308B755FFEAFAC9F4ABFE44F1D1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,125,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B755FFEAFAC9F4ABFE44F1D1.xml,Poelagus marjorita,Poelagus,marjorita,,,Lapin d Afrique @fr | Buschkaninchen @de | Conejo de Bunyoro @es | Uganda Grass Hare @en,"Lepus marjorita St. Leger, 1929, “Near Masindi, Bunyoro [= Bunyuru], Uganda, 4000 ft [1219 m],” Africa.Formerly, P. marjoritawas included in the rock hares (Pronolagus) and later in the genus Caprolagus. The genus Poelagusappears to lack diagnostic cranial features. Recent rigorous taxonomic investigations of P. marjoritaare missing. Monotypic.","NE Central African Republic, S South Sudan, C & W Uganda, and NE DR Congo.","Head-body 400-610 mm, tail 38-70 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 65-108 mm; weight 2.3-3.2 kg. The Bunyoro Rabbit is medium-sized and has short ears. Dorsal fur, head, and ears are buffy brown and grizzled with black hairs. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is yellowish buff. A white mid-ventral stripe runs down from chest (20— 30 mm wide) to lower abdomen (40-50 mm wide), extending posteriorly onto inner surfaces of hindlimbs. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short and have brown hairs on inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is rufous; juvenile Bunyoro Rabbits have deep rufous nuchal patches. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are brownish buff. Tail is short and has same color as dorsal fur above and onsides;it is paler below and often has some white hairs. Female and male Bunyoro Rabbits have glandularslits on both sides of their genitalia.","Primarily dense vegetation in woodland savanna, stony habitats, and hills with short grass. The Bunyoro Rabbit might also live in forests in southern Sudan.","The Bunyoro Rabbit forages at night on flowers and sprouting grasses. It prefers to forage in pastures that have been grazed heavily by large mammals, newly mown fields, and burned areas with sprouting grasses.","Newly born Bunyoro Rabbits were recorded in January-March, June, August, and October in Garamba National Park, DR Congo. Juveniles were recorded in January/February, May, and August. These findings suggest that reproduction takes place during most (if not all) months of the year. Gestation is probably c.5 weeks, and litter sizes are 1-2 young. Young are born in short burrows, with entrances concealed by grass and soil. At birth, young are blind, covered with sparse short hair, and helpless. Ears of newborns are black and very short.",The Bunyoro Rabbit is primarily nocturnal and rests in a form during the day.,The Bunyoro Rabbit is probably solitary when resting in a form. It feeds in small groups consisting of pairs or females with young at night. Rocky habitats are often shared with Rock Hyraxes (Procavia capensis).,"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. The Bunyoro Rabbit seems to be widespread and does not appear to be in decline, although a recent survey proposes that its distribution is actually smaller than previous accounts have stated. Bunyoro Rabbits occur in several protected areas and are abundant in north-eastern DR Congo and southern Sudan. Unlike previous claims, there are no specimen records from Ruanda, Burundi, Kenya, southern Chad, southern DR Congo, or northern Angola. Little data are available on population densities, distribution, and conservation threats. Although grassland habitat is burned annually or biannually leaving Bunyoro Rabbits vulnerable to predators, burning also promotes growth of vegetation important in their diets. The Bunyoro Rabbit is hunted locally, and some of its habitat is used for cultivation of peanuts and rice. It is possible that no additional protection is required than the existing Garamba National Park and Murchison Falls National Park (Uganda).","Collins & Smith (2008) | Corbet (1983) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Happold & Wendelen (2006) | Hatt (1940) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kingdon (1974, 1997) | Setzer (1956) | Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625613/files/figure.png,"30.Bunyoro RabbitPoelagus marjoritaFrench:Lapin dAfrique/ German:Buschkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de BunyoroOther common names:Uganda Grass HareTaxonomy.Lepus marjorita St. Leger, 1929, “Near Masindi, Bunyoro [= Bunyuru], Uganda, 4000 ft [1219 m],” Africa.Formerly, P. marjoritawas included in the rock hares (Pronolagus) and later in the genus Caprolagus. The genus Poelagusappears to lack diagnostic cranial features. Recent rigorous taxonomic investigations of P. marjoritaare missing. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Central African Republic, S South Sudan, C & W Uganda, and NE DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-610 mm, tail 38-70 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 65-108 mm; weight 2.3-3.2 kg. The Bunyoro Rabbit is medium-sized and has short ears. Dorsal fur, head, and ears are buffy brown and grizzled with black hairs. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is yellowish buff. A white mid-ventral stripe runs down from chest (20— 30 mm wide) to lower abdomen (40-50 mm wide), extending posteriorly onto inner surfaces of hindlimbs. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short and have brown hairs on inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is rufous; juvenile Bunyoro Rabbits have deep rufous nuchal patches. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are brownish buff. Tail is short and has same color as dorsal fur above and onsides;it is paler below and often has some white hairs. Female and male Bunyoro Rabbits have glandularslits on both sides of their genitalia.Habitat.Primarily dense vegetation in woodland savanna, stony habitats, and hills with short grass. The Bunyoro Rabbit might also live in forests in southern Sudan.Food and Feeding.The Bunyoro Rabbit forages at night on flowers and sprouting grasses. It prefers to forage in pastures that have been grazed heavily by large mammals, newly mown fields, and burned areas with sprouting grasses.Breeding.Newly born Bunyoro Rabbits were recorded in January-March, June, August, and October in Garamba National Park, DR Congo. Juveniles were recorded in January/February, May, and August. These findings suggest that reproduction takes place during most (if not all) months of the year. Gestation is probably c.5 weeks, and litter sizes are 1-2 young. Young are born in short burrows, with entrances concealed by grass and soil. At birth, young are blind, covered with sparse short hair, and helpless. Ears of newborns are black and very short.Activity patterns.The Bunyoro Rabbit is primarily nocturnal and rests in a form during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Bunyoro Rabbit is probably solitary when resting in a form. It feeds in small groups consisting of pairs or females with young at night. Rocky habitats are often shared with Rock Hyraxes (Procavia capensis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. The Bunyoro Rabbit seems to be widespread and does not appear to be in decline, although a recent survey proposes that its distribution is actually smaller than previous accounts have stated. Bunyoro Rabbits occur in several protected areas and are abundant in north-eastern DR Congo and southern Sudan. Unlike previous claims, there are no specimen records from Ruanda, Burundi, Kenya, southern Chad, southern DR Congo, or northern Angola. Little data are available on population densities, distribution, and conservation threats. Although grassland habitat is burned annually or biannually leaving Bunyoro Rabbits vulnerable to predators, burning also promotes growth of vegetation important in their diets. The Bunyoro Rabbit is hunted locally, and some of its habitat is used for cultivation of peanuts and rice. It is possible that no additional protection is required than the existing Garamba National Park and Murchison Falls National Park (Uganda).Bibliography.Collins & Smith (2008), Corbet (1983), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c), Happold & Wendelen (2006), Hatt (1940), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kingdon (1974, 1997), Setzer (1956), Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)." 03822308B755FFEBFFC8F8AAF892FC5D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,125,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B755FFEBFFC8F8AAF892FC5D.xml,Caprolagus hispidus,Caprolagus,hispidus,,,Lapin d Assam @fr | Borstenkaninchen @de | Liebre hispida @es | Assam Rabbit @en,"Lepus hispidus J.T. Pearson, 1839, “Assam, base of the Boutan [= Bhutan] mountains,” India. Caprolagus hispidusis sympatric with Lepus nigricollis.Monotypic.","S Himalaya foothills, N India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar), S Nepal, NE India (N West Bengal and Assam), and S through NW Bangladesh; recently recorded in S Bhutan (Royal Manas National Park).","Head-body c.480 mm, tail c.53 mm, ear c.70 mm, hindfoot c¢.98 mm; weight 1.8-3.2 kg. The Hispid Hare has coarse bristly fur. Dorsal pelage is dark brown, a mixture of black and brown hairs. Ventral fur is brown on chest and whitish on abdomen. Tail is short and brown throughout but paler below. The Hispid Hare has straight and strong claws.","Early successional riverine communities, typically comprising dense tall grasslands, commonly referred to as elephant grass or thatchland such as Saccharum, Imperata, Themeda, Narenga, Arundo, or Phragmites(all Poaceae), at elevations of 100-250 m. These grasslands originate in the succession between primary colonizing grasses through deciduousriverine forest to the sal (Shorearobusta, Dipterocarpaceae) forest climax. Tall grassland habitats might also have an understory during later stages of succession. Maintenance of tall grassland habitat is caused by prolonged inundation during the monsoon or by periodic burning in relatively undisturbed areas, or by regular burning, grazing, or regular harvesting in disturbed areas. Tall grassland habitat has different plant species, dominating in different situations. Main types of grassland are composed of Themedavillosa, Saccharum-Narenga associations, Arundo-Phragmates associations, Imperatacylindrica, and Cymbopogon spp.(all Poaceae) and Alpiniaallughas (Zingiberaceae), Typhaelephantine (Typhaceae), and Leeacrispa (Vitaceae). The Hispid Hare inhabits all of these and other plant communities of varying importance at different times of the year according to availability of cover. During the dry season when most of these communities are subject to extensive regular burning, the Hispid Hare is deprived of cover and all other resources until regrowth of vegetation following onset of early rains a few weeks or even up to 2-3 months later. During this period, the Hispid Hare is entirely dependent on any unburned cover such as marshy sward dominated by Phragmites, Arundo spp., and Saccharumspontaneum (all Poaceae) along riverbanks that are maintained by later prolonged inundation and are therefore left unburned. It has been suggested that carrying capacities of Hispid Hares are determined by sizes of small patches of tall grassland that escape annual dry-season burning. Enforced confinement within these isolated patches of post-burn cover might increase susceptibility of Hispid Hares to predation.","Based on fecal analysis, Hispid Hares in Nepal ate 19-23 plant species, with S. spontaneum, I. cylindrica, Desmostachyabipinnata, and Cynodondactylon (all Poaceae) having the highest frequency of occurrence in feces. Composition of plant species in the diet was proportional to availabilities. A significantly higher diversity of plants was recorded in the diet of Hispid Hares after the fire. Another study reported that Hispid Hares ate inner parts of stems of Narenga porphyrocoma, leaves of Cymbopogon sp., I. cylindrical, and inner cores of S. spontaneum.","Based on a three-month study in western Nepal, Hispid Hares bred in January/February during the post-burn period in a belt of floodplain habitat dominated by marshes, swamps, oxbow lakes, and tall dense grasslands, intermixed with riverine forest. Uniformly small size of scrotal testes in males suggests a monogamous mating system. A single fetus found in a pregnant female during the study in western Nepal, a single young born in captivity, and four nipples on captured females suggest that Hispid Hares have small litter sizes. It is unknown if young Hispid Hares are altricial or precocial, but they might be intermediate as are young Volcano Rabbits (Romerolagusdiaz), which live in a similar habitat. Nests of Hispid Hares were made with leaves of Narenga (Poaceae), laid outcircular shapes.",The Hispid Hare is crepuscular.,"Short-limbed Hispid Hares have small home ranges of 0-82 ha for males and 0-28 ha for females. Overlapping home ranges suggest they live in pairs, although home ranges of males were larger than those of females.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Hispid Hare receives maximum protection in India under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and in Nepal under Schedule I of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Measures Act of 1973. It has been nationally listed as endangered in India and critically endangered in Nepal. Almost no information is available about population status of the Hispid Hare, but there is no doubtthat it has declined substantially due to loss oftall grassland habitat. It has been estimated that a population decline of 20-50% in suitable habitat has occurred since 1994 and the decline is expected to continue at this rate. The few patches oftall grassland habitat that remain all occur in national parks, wildlife reserves, and sanctuaries scattered across the former distribution of the Hispid Hare. There have been very few records from Uttar Pradesh and Assam since 1951. Current populations exist in a few isolated patches across its former distribution. Area of occupancy is estimated at 11-500 km?. Isolated relict populations of Hispid Hares remain at risk because of continuing degradation of habitat even within these protected areas. Major threats are habitat destruction for agriculture, forestry, human settlement, flood control, and irrigation schemes. Additional threats are habitat degradation due to dry-season burning, illegal grazing, and harvesting of tall grasslands. Recommendations are to further study distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Hispid Hare. Research on its distribution should be conducted at different times of the year because Hispid Hares change habitat according to availabilities of cover during flood and burning seasons. Control of the burning season within the distribution of the Hispid Hare is needed to ensure that suitable habitat is available throughout the year. Moreover,status surveys of tall grassland habitats should be conducted. Results of a study on investigating effects of burning and cutting of grassland dominated by I. cylindrica showed that patches of grassland could be left unmanaged for a two-year rotation without significantly altering composition of the plant community and thereby provide refugia for cover-dependent species such as the Hispid Hare. More studies, particularly long-term ones, investigating effects of disturbing factors to habitat are required to formulate appropriate long-term management plans for remnants tall grassland. Local education regarding status of the Hispid Hare is necessary, including educating staff of reserves where the Hispid Hare occurs.",Aryal & Yadav (2010) | Aryal et al. (2012) | Bell et al. (1990) | Ghose (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jordan et al. (2005a) | Maheswaran (2006) | Maheswaran & Smith (2008) | Nidup et al. (2015) | Peet et al. (1999) | Tandan et al. (2013) | Yadav et al. (2008),https://zenodo.org/record/6625611/files/figure.png,"29.Hispid HareCaprolagus hispidusFrench:Lapin dAssam/ German:Borstenkaninchen/ Spanish:Liebre hispidaOther common names:Assam RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus hispidus J.T. Pearson, 1839, “Assam, base of the Boutan [= Bhutan] mountains,” India. Caprolagus hispidusis sympatric with Lepus nigricollis.Monotypic.Distribution.S Himalaya foothills, N India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar), S Nepal, NE India (N West Bengal and Assam), and S through NW Bangladesh; recently recorded in S Bhutan (Royal Manas National Park).Descriptive notes.Head-body c.480 mm, tail c.53 mm, ear c.70 mm, hindfoot c¢.98 mm; weight 1.8-3.2 kg. The Hispid Hare has coarse bristly fur. Dorsal pelage is dark brown, a mixture of black and brown hairs. Ventral fur is brown on chest and whitish on abdomen. Tail is short and brown throughout but paler below. The Hispid Hare has straight and strong claws.Habitat.Early successional riverine communities, typically comprising dense tall grasslands, commonly referred to as elephant grass or thatchland such as Saccharum, Imperata, Themeda, Narenga, Arundo, or Phragmites(all Poaceae), at elevations of 100-250 m. These grasslands originate in the succession between primary colonizing grasses through deciduousriverine forest to the sal (Shorearobusta, Dipterocarpaceae) forest climax. Tall grassland habitats might also have an understory during later stages of succession. Maintenance of tall grassland habitat is caused by prolonged inundation during the monsoon or by periodic burning in relatively undisturbed areas, or by regular burning, grazing, or regular harvesting in disturbed areas. Tall grassland habitat has different plant species, dominating in different situations. Main types of grassland are composed of Themedavillosa, Saccharum-Narenga associations, Arundo-Phragmates associations, Imperatacylindrica, and Cymbopogon spp.(all Poaceae) and Alpiniaallughas (Zingiberaceae), Typhaelephantine (Typhaceae), and Leeacrispa (Vitaceae). The Hispid Hare inhabits all of these and other plant communities of varying importance at different times of the year according to availability of cover. During the dry season when most of these communities are subject to extensive regular burning, the Hispid Hare is deprived of cover and all other resources until regrowth of vegetation following onset of early rains a few weeks or even up to 2-3 months later. During this period, the Hispid Hare is entirely dependent on any unburned cover such as marshy sward dominated by Phragmites, Arundo spp., and Saccharumspontaneum (all Poaceae) along riverbanks that are maintained by later prolonged inundation and are therefore left unburned. It has been suggested that carrying capacities of Hispid Hares are determined by sizes of small patches of tall grassland that escape annual dry-season burning. Enforced confinement within these isolated patches of post-burn cover might increase susceptibility of Hispid Hares to predation.Food and Feeding.Based on fecal analysis, Hispid Hares in Nepal ate 19-23 plant species, with S. spontaneum, I. cylindrica, Desmostachyabipinnata, and Cynodondactylon (all Poaceae) having the highest frequency of occurrence in feces. Composition of plant species in the diet was proportional to availabilities. A significantly higher diversity of plants was recorded in the diet of Hispid Hares after the fire. Another study reported that Hispid Hares ate inner parts of stems of Narenga porphyrocoma, leaves of Cymbopogon sp., I. cylindrical, and inner cores of S. spontaneum.Breeding.Based on a three-month study in western Nepal, Hispid Hares bred in January/February during the post-burn period in a belt of floodplain habitat dominated by marshes, swamps, oxbow lakes, and tall dense grasslands, intermixed with riverine forest. Uniformly small size of scrotal testes in males suggests a monogamous mating system. A single fetus found in a pregnant female during the study in western Nepal, a single young born in captivity, and four nipples on captured females suggest that Hispid Hares have small litter sizes. It is unknown if young Hispid Hares are altricial or precocial, but they might be intermediate as are young Volcano Rabbits (Romerolagusdiaz), which live in a similar habitat. Nests of Hispid Hares were made with leaves of Narenga (Poaceae), laid outcircular shapes.Activity patterns.The Hispid Hare is crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short-limbed Hispid Hares have small home ranges of 0-82 ha for males and 0-28 ha for females. Overlapping home ranges suggest they live in pairs, although home ranges of males were larger than those of females.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Hispid Hare receives maximum protection in India under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and in Nepal under Schedule I of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Measures Act of 1973. It has been nationally listed as endangered in India and critically endangered in Nepal. Almost no information is available about population status of the Hispid Hare, but there is no doubtthat it has declined substantially due to loss oftall grassland habitat. It has been estimated that a population decline of 20-50% in suitable habitat has occurred since 1994 and the decline is expected to continue at this rate. The few patches oftall grassland habitat that remain all occur in national parks, wildlife reserves, and sanctuaries scattered across the former distribution of the Hispid Hare. There have been very few records from Uttar Pradesh and Assam since 1951. Current populations exist in a few isolated patches across its former distribution. Area of occupancy is estimated at 11-500 km?. Isolated relict populations of Hispid Hares remain at risk because of continuing degradation of habitat even within these protected areas. Major threats are habitat destruction for agriculture, forestry, human settlement, flood control, and irrigation schemes. Additional threats are habitat degradation due to dry-season burning, illegal grazing, and harvesting of tall grasslands. Recommendations are to further study distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Hispid Hare. Research on its distribution should be conducted at different times of the year because Hispid Hares change habitat according to availabilities of cover during flood and burning seasons. Control of the burning season within the distribution of the Hispid Hare is needed to ensure that suitable habitat is available throughout the year. Moreover,status surveys of tall grassland habitats should be conducted. Results of a study on investigating effects of burning and cutting of grassland dominated by I. cylindrica showed that patches of grassland could be left unmanaged for a two-year rotation without significantly altering composition of the plant community and thereby provide refugia for cover-dependent species such as the Hispid Hare. More studies, particularly long-term ones, investigating effects of disturbing factors to habitat are required to formulate appropriate long-term management plans for remnants tall grassland. Local education regarding status of the Hispid Hare is necessary, including educating staff of reserves where the Hispid Hare occurs.Bibliography.Aryal & Yadav (2010), Aryal et al. (2012), Bell et al. (1990), Ghose (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jordan et al. (2005a), Maheswaran (2006), Maheswaran & Smith (2008), Nidup et al. (2015), Peet et al. (1999), Tandan et al. (2013), Yadav et al. (2008)." 03822308B756FFE8FA6FFADFF777FA53,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,124,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B756FFE8FA6FFADFF777FA53.xml,Sylvilagus robustus,Sylvilagus,robustus,,,Lapin des Davis @fr | Texas-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Davis @es,"Lepus pinetis robustus Bailey, 1905, “Davis Mountains, Texas, 6000 feet [1829 m] altitude,” USA.Formerly, S. robustuswas included in S. floridanusbut received species status based on morphological and genetic distinctiveness. Genetic analyses confirmed species status based on nDNA only. Monotypic.","S USA, in SE New Mexico and SW Texas (Chisos, Davis, Chinati, Guadalupe, and Elephant Mts), and NE Mexico, in N Coahuila (Sierra del Carmen).","Head—body 380-460 mm, tail 47-67 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 95-103 mm; weight 0.9-1.8 kg. The Robust Cottontail is larger and darker than the widely distributed Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus).","Madrean evergreen woodland of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae), oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), and juniper (Juniperus, Cupressaceae). The Robust Cottontail inhabits elevations above 1500 m and becomes most common above 1800 m. Its days are spent resting in brushy thickets.","The Robust Cottontail feeds in open areas on grasses, leaves of mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus, Rosaceae), and various herbs.",There is no information available for this species.,The Robust Cottontail emerges from brushy thickets to forage late in the evening or early in the morning.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Although it has been suggested that only one population of the Robust Cottontail exists in the Davis Mountains, Texas, recent surveys confirm its presence in the Davis, Guadalupe, and Chisos mountains. Status of populations in the Chinati Mountains and the Sierra de la Madera is unknown. Furthermore, a new location on Elephant Mountain, Brewster County, Texas, has extended distribution of the Robust Cottontail. There may be a population of Sylvilagusin good condition in the Sierra del Carmen, Mexico, although it is not confirmed to be the Robust Cottontail. It occurs at low densities that are even lower during drought. Threats might be grazing practices, brush clearing, and habitat loss due to urbanization and development. Research is needed on population status, distribution, threats, population genetics, biology, and ecology of the Robust Cottontail, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.","Cervantes & Lépez-Hernédndez (2005) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lee, D.N. et al. (2010) | Nalls et al. (2012) | Ruedas (1998) | Ruedas & Smith (2008) | Schmidly (1977)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625603/files/figure.png,"27.Robust CottontailSylvilagus robustusFrench:Lapin des Davis/ German:Texas-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de DavisTaxonomy.Lepus pinetis robustus Bailey, 1905, “Davis Mountains, Texas, 6000 feet [1829 m] altitude,” USA.Formerly, S. robustuswas included in S. floridanusbut received species status based on morphological and genetic distinctiveness. Genetic analyses confirmed species status based on nDNA only. Monotypic.Distribution.S USA, in SE New Mexico and SW Texas (Chisos, Davis, Chinati, Guadalupe, and Elephant Mts), and NE Mexico, in N Coahuila (Sierra del Carmen).Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-460 mm, tail 47-67 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 95-103 mm; weight 0.9-1.8 kg. The Robust Cottontail is larger and darker than the widely distributed Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus).Habitat.Madrean evergreen woodland of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae), oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), and juniper (Juniperus, Cupressaceae). The Robust Cottontail inhabits elevations above 1500 m and becomes most common above 1800 m. Its days are spent resting in brushy thickets.Food and Feeding.The Robust Cottontail feeds in open areas on grasses, leaves of mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus, Rosaceae), and various herbs.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Robust Cottontail emerges from brushy thickets to forage late in the evening or early in the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Although it has been suggested that only one population of the Robust Cottontail exists in the Davis Mountains, Texas, recent surveys confirm its presence in the Davis, Guadalupe, and Chisos mountains. Status of populations in the Chinati Mountains and the Sierra de la Madera is unknown. Furthermore, a new location on Elephant Mountain, Brewster County, Texas, has extended distribution of the Robust Cottontail. There may be a population of Sylvilagusin good condition in the Sierra del Carmen, Mexico, although it is not confirmed to be the Robust Cottontail. It occurs at low densities that are even lower during drought. Threats might be grazing practices, brush clearing, and habitat loss due to urbanization and development. Research is needed on population status, distribution, threats, population genetics, biology, and ecology of the Robust Cottontail, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.Bibliography.Cervantes & Lépez-Hernédndez (2005), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lee, D.N. et al. (2010), Nalls et al. (2012), Ruedas (1998), Ruedas & Smith (2008), Schmidly (1977)." 03822308B756FFE8FF62F7E8F8D3F37E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,124,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B756FFE8FF62F7E8F8D3F37E.xml,Sylvilagus obscurus,Sylvilagus,obscurus,"Chapman, Cramer, Deppenaar & Robinson",1992,Lapin des Appalaches @fr | Appalachen-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de los Apalaches @es | Allegheny Cottontail @en | Wood Rabbit @en,"Sylvilagus obscurus Chapman et al., 1992, “Dolly Sods Scenic Area, Grant Co., West Virginia,” USA.Formerly, S. obscuruswas included in S. transitionalisbut received species status due to discovery of two different cytotypes (S. obscurus2n = 46 and S. transitionalis2n = 52) and cranial distinctiveness. No hybridization occurs between S. obscurusand S. transitionalis. Nevertheless, genetic analysis of mtDNA showed little variation between the two species and did not support separation between S. obscurusand S. transitionalis. This species lives sympatrically with S. floridanus. Monotypic.","Discontinuous patches in N Pennsylvania, S & W along the Appalachian Mts to N Alabama (E USA).","Head—body 390-430 mm, tail 22-65 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 87-97 mm; weight 0.8-1 kg. The Appalachian Cottontail strongly resembles the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) and both species can have the same color and pelage characteristics. None ofits external measurements is clearly diagnostic for differentiation between the two species.","High-elevation montane habitats of conifers, particularly red spruce (Picearubens, Pinaceae), and ericaceous species such as mountain laurel (Kalmialatifolia), rhododendron (Rhododendronmaximum), and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.). Appalachian Cottontails also use mixed oak forests, early successional habitats with dense ericaceous vegetation or blackberry (Rubusallegheniensis, Rosaceae), and old growth forest with dense understory. It generally uses habitat with vegetation cover of more than 80%, providing shelter and thermal protection.","Diet of the Appalachian Cottontail includes ferns, grasses, forbs, shrubs, and conifer needles—the latter rare for species of Sylvilagus. It prefers to eat ericaceous plants such as eastern teaberry (Gaultheriaprocumbens), blueberries, black huckleberry (Gaylussaciabaccata), and chokeberries (Photinia spp., Rosaceae) as browse during winter.","Reproductive season of the Appalachian Cottontail lasts from early March through early September. It is a synchronous breeder. Gestation is c.28 days. A female has an average of 24 young/year, and littersize is 3-5 young.",The Appalachian Cottontail is crepuscular and nocturnal.,"Home range sizes of the Appalachian Cottontail are 5-7-13-3 ha during the vegetation growing period (May-September) and 1-5-9 ha during the dormant season (October—April). Core areas are 0-9-2-5 ha during the growing period and 0-1-2-5 ha during the dormant season. Male Appalachian Cottontails had larger home ranges during the growing period than the dormant season, but female ranges did not differ seasonally.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Appalachian Cottontail is rare and has a fragmented distribution. It is common only in some sections of eastern Tennessee and Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia. The Appalachian Cottontail appears to be declining, but there is no data on current population status. Threats are habitat destruction, fragmentation, and maturation; urbanization and development; encroachment by the Eastern Cottontail that thrives better in developed areas and requires less shelter than the Appalachian Cottontail; and indiscriminate hunting because Eastern Cottontails and Appalachian Cottontails cannot be differentiated in the field. Recommendations are to investigate population status, distribution, threats, population genetics, biology, and ecology of Appalachian Cottontails, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.","Barry & Lazell (2008) | Boyce & Barry (2007) | Bunch et al. (1997) | Chapman (1975a, 1999b) | Chapman et al. (1992) | Hartman & Barry (2010) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Litvaitis et al. (1997) | Ruedas et al. (1989) | Stevens & Barry (2002)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625601/files/figure.png,"26.Appalachian CottontailSylvilagus obscurusFrench:Lapin des Appalaches/ German:Appalachen-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de los ApalachesOther common names:Allegheny Cottontail, Wood RabbitTaxonomy.Sylvilagus obscurus Chapman et al., 1992, “Dolly Sods Scenic Area, Grant Co., West Virginia,” USA.Formerly, S. obscuruswas included in S. transitionalisbut received species status due to discovery of two different cytotypes (S. obscurus2n = 46 and S. transitionalis2n = 52) and cranial distinctiveness. No hybridization occurs between S. obscurusand S. transitionalis. Nevertheless, genetic analysis of mtDNA showed little variation between the two species and did not support separation between S. obscurusand S. transitionalis. This species lives sympatrically with S. floridanus. Monotypic.Distribution.Discontinuous patches in N Pennsylvania, S & W along the Appalachian Mts to N Alabama (E USA).Descriptive notes.Head—body 390-430 mm, tail 22-65 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 87-97 mm; weight 0.8-1 kg. The Appalachian Cottontail strongly resembles the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) and both species can have the same color and pelage characteristics. None ofits external measurements is clearly diagnostic for differentiation between the two species.Habitat.High-elevation montane habitats of conifers, particularly red spruce (Picearubens, Pinaceae), and ericaceous species such as mountain laurel (Kalmialatifolia), rhododendron (Rhododendronmaximum), and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.). Appalachian Cottontails also use mixed oak forests, early successional habitats with dense ericaceous vegetation or blackberry (Rubusallegheniensis, Rosaceae), and old growth forest with dense understory. It generally uses habitat with vegetation cover of more than 80%, providing shelter and thermal protection.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Appalachian Cottontail includes ferns, grasses, forbs, shrubs, and conifer needles—the latter rare for species of Sylvilagus. It prefers to eat ericaceous plants such as eastern teaberry (Gaultheriaprocumbens), blueberries, black huckleberry (Gaylussaciabaccata), and chokeberries (Photinia spp., Rosaceae) as browse during winter.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Appalachian Cottontail lasts from early March through early September. It is a synchronous breeder. Gestation is c.28 days. A female has an average of 24 young/year, and littersize is 3-5 young.Activity patterns.The Appalachian Cottontail is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes of the Appalachian Cottontail are 5-7-13-3 ha during the vegetation growing period (May-September) and 1-5-9 ha during the dormant season (October—April). Core areas are 0-9-2-5 ha during the growing period and 0-1-2-5 ha during the dormant season. Male Appalachian Cottontails had larger home ranges during the growing period than the dormant season, but female ranges did not differ seasonally.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Appalachian Cottontail is rare and has a fragmented distribution. It is common only in some sections of eastern Tennessee and Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia. The Appalachian Cottontail appears to be declining, but there is no data on current population status. Threats are habitat destruction, fragmentation, and maturation; urbanization and development; encroachment by the Eastern Cottontail that thrives better in developed areas and requires less shelter than the Appalachian Cottontail; and indiscriminate hunting because Eastern Cottontails and Appalachian Cottontails cannot be differentiated in the field. Recommendations are to investigate population status, distribution, threats, population genetics, biology, and ecology of Appalachian Cottontails, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.Bibliography.Barry & Lazell (2008), Boyce & Barry (2007), Bunch et al. (1997), Chapman (1975a, 1999b), Chapman et al. (1992), Hartman & Barry (2010), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Litvaitis et al. (1997), Ruedas et al. (1989), Stevens & Barry (2002)." 03822308B756FFEBFA6EF3EDFD9DF059,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,124,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B756FFEBFA6EF3EDFD9DF059.xml,Sylvilagus cognatus,Sylvilagus,cognatus,Nelson,1907,Lapin des Manzano @fr | Manzano-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Manzano @es,"Sylvilagus cognatus Nelson, 1907, “10,000 feet [3048 m] altitude, near summit of Manzano Mountains, New Mexico,” USA. Restricted by J. K. Frey, R. D. Fisher and L. A. Ruedas in 1997 to “...vicinity of Rea Ranch...1-9 km N and 13-4 km W of Tajique (TON, NE 1/4 of NW 1/4 Sec. 9, N34°45'05-39”, W106°25°18-04”) on the NE side of Bosque Peak, at 2880 m elevation.”Formerly, S. cognatuswas included in S. floridanus. Monotypic.",Manzano Mts of New Mexico (SUSA).,"Head-body 450 mm, tail 65 mm, ear 70 mm, hindfoot 102 mm (all measurements are means from five specimens). No specific data are available for body weight. Dorsal fur of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail is light grayish buff, similar to the Robust Cottontail (S. robustus), but it is a little more buff or browner on ears.","At the type locality, upper montane coniferous forest of Douglas fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) and white fir (Abiesconcolor), small patches of subalpine coniferous forest of Engelmann spruce (Piceaengelmannii) and corkbark fir (A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica), all Pinaceae; subalpine montane grassland; and montane scrub.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Almost nothing is known about status, distribution, and threats to the Manzano Mountain Cottontail. It is probably threatened in its small distribution. Only three locations of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail are known: the type locality, eastern slope of the Sandia Mountains at 2590 m where a specimen was found in 1956, and near Sandia Crest at 3550 m where an individual was likely sighted in 1956. The Manzano Mountain Cottontail might be threatened by habitat loss, drought, and wildfire. Research is needed on its population status, distribution, threats, genetics, biology, and ecology, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.",Dick-Peddie (1993) | Frey et al. (1997) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Ivey (1957) | Nelson (1909) | Smith & Boyer (2008e),https://zenodo.org/record/6625609/files/figure.png,"28.Manzano Mountain CottontailSylvilagus cognatusFrench:Lapin des Manzano/ German:Manzano-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de ManzanoTaxonomy.Sylvilagus cognatus Nelson, 1907, “10,000 feet [3048 m] altitude, near summit of Manzano Mountains, New Mexico,” USA. Restricted by J. K. Frey, R. D. Fisher and L. A. Ruedas in 1997 to “...vicinity of Rea Ranch...1-9 km N and 13-4 km W of Tajique (TON, NE 1/4 of NW 1/4 Sec. 9, N34°45'05-39”, W106°25°18-04”) on the NE side of Bosque Peak, at 2880 m elevation.”Formerly, S. cognatuswas included in S. floridanus. Monotypic.Distribution.Manzano Mts of New Mexico (SUSA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 450 mm, tail 65 mm, ear 70 mm, hindfoot 102 mm (all measurements are means from five specimens). No specific data are available for body weight. Dorsal fur of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail is light grayish buff, similar to the Robust Cottontail (S. robustus), but it is a little more buff or browner on ears.Habitat.At the type locality, upper montane coniferous forest of Douglas fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) and white fir (Abiesconcolor), small patches of subalpine coniferous forest of Engelmann spruce (Piceaengelmannii) and corkbark fir (A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica), all Pinaceae; subalpine montane grassland; and montane scrub.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Almost nothing is known about status, distribution, and threats to the Manzano Mountain Cottontail. It is probably threatened in its small distribution. Only three locations of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail are known: the type locality, eastern slope of the Sandia Mountains at 2590 m where a specimen was found in 1956, and near Sandia Crest at 3550 m where an individual was likely sighted in 1956. The Manzano Mountain Cottontail might be threatened by habitat loss, drought, and wildfire. Research is needed on its population status, distribution, threats, genetics, biology, and ecology, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.Bibliography.Dick-Peddie (1993), Frey et al. (1997), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Ivey (1957), Nelson (1909), Smith & Boyer (2008e)." -03822308B757FFE8FFF5FAFBFC03FE53,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,123,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B757FFE8FFF5FAFBFC03FE53.xml,Sylvilagus floridanus,Sylvilagus,floridanus,,,Lapin a queue blanche @fr | Ostliches Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Florida @es | Florida Cottontail @en,"Lepus sylvaticus floridanus J. A. Allen, 1890, “Sebastian River, Brevard Co., Fla. [Florida],” USA.Taxonomic status of S. floridanusneeds revision. Formerly, S. flondanusincluded S. robustusand S. cognatusas subspecies, but they are now recognized as distinct species. Subspecies holzneri is provisionally retained as a subspecies of S. floridanusbecause its relationship to Mexican populations offloridanus has not yet been reported. Genetic similarities suggest that subspecific designations are not warranted for S. floridanusin the north-eastern USA. Genetic studies on widely separated populations of S. floridanusindicate considerably intraspecific genetic variability. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomyis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the ranges in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirty-one subspecies recognized.","S.f.floridanusJ.A.Allen,1890—FloridaPeninsulaexceptSEtip(SEUSA).S.f.alacerBangs,1896—CSUSA,inSEKansas,C&SMissouri,EOklahoma,Arkansas,extremeWTennessee,ETexas,mostofMississippi,extremeWCAlabama,andLouisiana.S.fammophilusHowell,1939—EtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.faviusOsgood,1910—ConejoI(LosTestigos),offNEVenezuela.S.faztecus].A.Allen,1890—S&EOaxaca,andSWtipofChiapas(SWMexico).S.f.chapmani].A.Allen,1899—W&STexas(SUSA),ECoahuila,N&ENuevoLeon,andmostofTamaulipas(NEMexico).S.f.chiapensisNelson,1904—NEtipofOaxacaandC&SChiapas(Mexico),andWGuatemala.S.f.connectensNelson,1904—STamaulipas,VeracruzexcepttheS,SanLuisPotosi,NEQuerétaro,NEHidalgo,NPuebla,andNOaxaca(EMexico).S.f.continentisOsgood,1912—NWVenezuela.S.f.costaricensisHarris1933—NWCostaRica.S.f.cumanicusThomas,1897—N&CVenezuela.S.f.hesperiusHoffmeister&Lee,1963—NW&CArizona(SWUSA).S.f.hitchensiMearns,1911—SmithandFishermanIsinNorthamptonCounty,EVirginia(EUSA).S.f.holzneriMearns,1896—SEArizona,andSWtipofNewMexico(SWUSA),ESonora,Chihuahua,WDurango,WZacatecas,andESinaloa(NWMexico).S.f.hondurensisGoldman,1932—SEGuatemala,SW&SHonduras,ElSalvador,andNW&CNicaragua.S.fllanensisBlair,1938—SWKansas,SEtipofColorado,WOklahoma,andNCTexas(CUSA).S.f.macrocorpusDiersing&Wilson,1980—Nayarit,SWJalisco,andSWMichoacan(WMexico).S.f.mallurusThomas,1898—EUSA,fromMaineSWtoE&SPennsylvania,andEWestVirginia,WthroughSKentuckytomostofTennessee(excepttheextremeW),andStomostofAlabama(excepttheextremeW)andNFlorida.S.f.margaritaeMiller,1898—MargaritaI,offNVenezuela.S.f.mearnsii].A.Allen,1894—NC&NEUSA,fromMinnesotaEtoMichigan,andStoENebraska,NEKansas,NMissouri,Kentucky,NWtipofVirginia,WWestVirginia,Ohio,N&WPennsylvania,NW&NNewYork,andWVermont,alsoSC&SECanada,inSEOntario,andSEQuebec.S.f.nigronuchalisHartert,1894—ArubaandCuracaoIs(NetherlandsAntilles),offNVenezuela.S.f.orinociThomas,1900—VichadaDepartment(EColombia)andVenezuelaSoftheOrinocoRiver.S.f.orizabaeMerriam,1893—SECoahuila,SWNuevoLeon,SEZacatecas,SanLuisPotosi,Guanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,NWVeracruz,México,andPuebla(CMexico).S.fpaulsoniSchwartz,1956—SEtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.f.purgatusThomas,1920—CundinamarcaandTolimaDepartments(CColombia).S.f.restrictusNelson,1907—SWNayarit,C&SJalisco,EColima,andSWMichoacan(Mexico).S.f.russatusJ.A.Allen,1904—SEtipofVeracruz(Mexico).S.f.similisNelson,1907—NCUSA,fromNorthDakota,SWMontana,andNWMinnesotaStoNE&SEWyoming,NEColorado,andNKansas,alsoinSCCanada,SManitoba,andSESaskatchewan(Canada).S.f.subcinctusMiller,1899—Aguascalientes,C&NEJalisco,SWGuanajuato,andNMichoacan(Mexico).S. f. superciliarisJ. A. Allen, 1899— La Guajira, Magdalena, Atlantico and Bolivar departments (N Colombia).S. [> yucatanicus Miller, 1899 — NW Yucatan Peninsula (SE Mexico).The subspecies mearnsii has been introduced into Vancouver I (SW Canada) and into Washington and Oregon states (NW USA). Also introduced into Italy and the Alps.","Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 25-61 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 90-105 mm; weight 0.8-1.5 kg. The Eastern Cottontail is large, with long and dense fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grayish. Ventral fur and underside oftail are white. South American subspecies of the Eastern Cottontail differ in color of their nuchal patches, varying from yellowish brown to black. Geographical variation is high due to wide distribution of Eastern Cottontails, and characteristics that are diagnostic vary according to locality. In local areas,it is generally easy to distinguish the Eastern Cottontail from other sympatric species of Sylvilagus. The only exception is that where the Eastern Cottontail and the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) are sympatric along the Appalachians and in New England, USA, they cannot be distinguished based on pelage color; cranial characteristics are needed to identify these two species. Female Eastern Cottontails are c.1% larger than males. Adults undergo two molts per year: spring molt takes place in March—-August, and fall molt starts in late September and ends in early November.Habitat.Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats.","Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats. Habitat of the Eastern Cottontail has been improved by interspersion of old fields and briar thickets, creation of edge, establishment of open feeding areas, and breaking up large continuous areas of monotypic habitat. Forms used during inactivity are chosen to provide cover and shelter and consist of brush piles and herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. Dens can be used to escape.","Diet of the Eastern Cottontail includes a wide variety of plant species. Herbaceous plants are eaten during growing seasons, and woody plants are eaten during dormant seasons. Herbaceous plants might also be eaten throughout the year except when covered by snow. Two pronounced feeding periods have been reported: 3—4 h after sunrise and from sunset to one hour after sunset. Feeding habits of Eastern Cottontails vary seasonally and with successional changes of plant communities.","Timing of reproduction of Eastern Cottontails depends on latitude, elevation, and weather and varies among subspecies and populations and within the same population from year to year. Diet and rainfall might be important factors particularly in arid regions. Reproductive season begins later at higher elevations and northern latitudes; populations may breed throughout the year or only for ¢.6 months. Synchronized breeding behavior of Eastern Cottontail, even throughout the breeding season, has been recorded, and the synchronized initial pre-estrus stage for all populations over a wide geographical area is probably regulated by photoperiod. Reproductive interactions between males and females consist of a sequence of patterns that precede and culminate in copulation. This includes the male and female turning in a threat posture (face off), the male rushing the female, the female jumping over the male, and finally again the face off. When the female retreats from the male after a face off, the male chases the female before copulation takes place. Gestation typically lasts 28— 29 days but can be 25-35 days. Numbers oflitters per year are 3-7. Sizesoffirst litters of the year are 3-5 young and influenced by age or previous reproductive experience of females. Mean littersizes are 3-1-5-6 in the USA but usually only two young and rarely 1-3 young in South America. Mean annuallitter sizes are correlated with latitude and other factors such as conception dates, body weight, elevation, and, on one occasion, longitude. Annual numbers of young per female are 6-35. Young are born in a nest with a slanting hole into the ground. Nest’s measurements vary: lengths of 13-18 cm, widths of 10-13 cm, and depths of 9-12 cm. There is no relationship between nest size and litter size. Nests have outer linings of grass and herbaceous stems or leaves and inner layers of mothers’ fur. At birth, young Eastern Cottontails have fine hair, have tightly closed eyes, and are able to crawl into their nests. Eyes open at 4-8 days of age, and they leave nests at 12-16 days of age. Onset of sexual maturity is related to the first adult molt. Twenty-seven to 52% ofjuveniles breed during theirfirst year, but productivity is much lower than that of older individuals.","The Eastern Cottontail is most active at dawn and dusk, with increased activity on moonlit nights. Activity was greatest during summer when nights were shortest and when air temperature ranged from —18°C to 1°C. Rain apparently reduced activity.","Mean annual home ranges of adult male and female Eastern Cottontails are 0-95-3 ha. Maximum home range size occurs during an individual’s first winter. Home range size and movements of adults vary by season, sex, and age. Home range size of males increased with the onset of sexual activity. Home range size of males during the reproductive season is influenced by habitat quality and sexual behavior. Home ranges indiscriminately overlap after breeding activity ends. The Eastern Cottontail does not maintain territories. Adult social interactions include those related to reproduction and social hierarchies. Eastern Cottontails have a male dominance hierarchy that controls social structure of populations. Dominant males copulate with most females. Male hierarchies prevent reproductive fighting. Dominance is indicated by displays of aggression and submission. Male-male chases usually are of longer duration than female—female chases. Fights for social status have only been observed between the most dominant males.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Eastern Cottontail is the most widely distributed species of Sylvilagusand is abundant throughout its distribution, with an increasing population trend. It is unique among leporids of the world in that it occurs over broad geographical provinces. It has been widely introduced in North America and Europe. For example, introduction in France failed, but introduced Eastern Cottontails in northern Italy seem to expand. Introductions have permanently altered the gene pool of the Eastern Cottontail and also caused displacement of sympatric species such as the New England Cottontail in north-eastern USA. The Eastern Cottontail is an important game species especially in the USA and has been subject of numerous research projects and publications. The Eastern Cottontail is an aggressive species and a highly efficient colonizer, and it can displace other leporids as it expandsits distribution. Therefore, introduction of Eastern Cottontails to alien habitats is not recommended. Although it is abundant, subpopulations are threatened by hunting pressure, human perturbation, and predation from introduced species. Some populations are threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation. Research is needed on taxonomy of the Eastern Cottontail and on how it affects other leporids.","Allen, D.L. (1939) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008f) | Angermann (2016) | Barkalow (1962) | Bothma & Teer (1977) | Casteel (1966) | Cervantes et al. (1999) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Mor gan (1973) | Chapman & Trethewey (1972) | Chapman & Verts (1969) | Chapman, Harman & Samuel (1977) | Chapman, Hockman & Ojeda (1980) | Conaway & Wight (1962) | Conaway, Sadler & Hazelwood (1974) | Conaway, Wight & Sadler (1963) | Dalke (1942) | Dalke & Sime (1941) | Dice (1929) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Dixon etal. (1981) | Ecke (1955) | Evans et al. (1965) | Flux et al. (1990) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hamilton (1940) | Handley (1976) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hill (1972) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Janes (1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Lord (1961, 1963, 1964) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (2005) | Marsden & Conaway (1963) | Marsden & Holler (1964) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Morgan & Chapman (1981) | Negus (1958) | Nelson (1907) | Niethammer & Angelici (2003) | Pelton & Provost (1972) | Rongstad (1966) | Sheffer (1957) | Smith (1950) | Trent & Rongstad (1974) | Trethewey & Verts (1971) | Vidus-Rosin et al. (2008) | Wight & Conaway (1961, 1962)",,"25.Eastern CottontailSylvilagus floridanusFrench:Lapin a queue blanche/ German:Ostliches Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de FloridaOther common names:Florida CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus sylvaticus floridanus J. A. Allen, 1890, “Sebastian River, Brevard Co., Fla. [Florida],” USA.Taxonomic status of S. floridanusneeds revision. Formerly, S. flondanusincluded S. robustusand S. cognatusas subspecies, but they are now recognized as distinct species. Subspecies holzneri is provisionally retained as a subspecies of S. floridanusbecause its relationship to Mexican populations offloridanus has not yet been reported. Genetic similarities suggest that subspecific designations are not warranted for S. floridanusin the north-eastern USA. Genetic studies on widely separated populations of S. floridanusindicate considerably intraspecific genetic variability. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomyis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the ranges in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirty-one subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.f.floridanusJ.A.Allen,1890—FloridaPeninsulaexceptSEtip(SEUSA).S.f.alacerBangs,1896—CSUSA,inSEKansas,C&SMissouri,EOklahoma,Arkansas,extremeWTennessee,ETexas,mostofMississippi,extremeWCAlabama,andLouisiana.S.fammophilusHowell,1939—EtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.faviusOsgood,1910—ConejoI(LosTestigos),offNEVenezuela.S.faztecus].A.Allen,1890—S&EOaxaca,andSWtipofChiapas(SWMexico).S.f.chapmani].A.Allen,1899—W&STexas(SUSA),ECoahuila,N&ENuevoLeon,andmostofTamaulipas(NEMexico).S.f.chiapensisNelson,1904—NEtipofOaxacaandC&SChiapas(Mexico),andWGuatemala.S.f.connectensNelson,1904—STamaulipas,VeracruzexcepttheS,SanLuisPotosi,NEQuerétaro,NEHidalgo,NPuebla,andNOaxaca(EMexico).S.f.continentisOsgood,1912—NWVenezuela.S.f.costaricensisHarris1933—NWCostaRica.S.f.cumanicusThomas,1897—N&CVenezuela.S.f.hesperiusHoffmeister&Lee,1963—NW&CArizona(SWUSA).S.f.hitchensiMearns,1911—SmithandFishermanIsinNorthamptonCounty,EVirginia(EUSA).S.f.holzneriMearns,1896—SEArizona,andSWtipofNewMexico(SWUSA),ESonora,Chihuahua,WDurango,WZacatecas,andESinaloa(NWMexico).S.f.hondurensisGoldman,1932—SEGuatemala,SW&SHonduras,ElSalvador,andNW&CNicaragua.S.fllanensisBlair,1938—SWKansas,SEtipofColorado,WOklahoma,andNCTexas(CUSA).S.f.macrocorpusDiersing&Wilson,1980—Nayarit,SWJalisco,andSWMichoacan(WMexico).S.f.mallurusThomas,1898—EUSA,fromMaineSWtoE&SPennsylvania,andEWestVirginia,WthroughSKentuckytomostofTennessee(excepttheextremeW),andStomostofAlabama(excepttheextremeW)andNFlorida.S.f.margaritaeMiller,1898—MargaritaI,offNVenezuela.S.f.mearnsii].A.Allen,1894—NC&NEUSA,fromMinnesotaEtoMichigan,andStoENebraska,NEKansas,NMissouri,Kentucky,NWtipofVirginia,WWestVirginia,Ohio,N&WPennsylvania,NW&NNewYork,andWVermont,alsoSC&SECanada,inSEOntario,andSEQuebec.S.f.nigronuchalisHartert,1894—ArubaandCuracaoIs(NetherlandsAntilles),offNVenezuela.S.f.orinociThomas,1900—VichadaDepartment(EColombia)andVenezuelaSoftheOrinocoRiver.S.f.orizabaeMerriam,1893—SECoahuila,SWNuevoLeon,SEZacatecas,SanLuisPotosi,Guanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,NWVeracruz,México,andPuebla(CMexico).S.fpaulsoniSchwartz,1956—SEtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.f.purgatusThomas,1920—CundinamarcaandTolimaDepartments(CColombia).S.f.restrictusNelson,1907—SWNayarit,C&SJalisco,EColima,andSWMichoacan(Mexico).S.f.russatusJ.A.Allen,1904—SEtipofVeracruz(Mexico).S.f.similisNelson,1907—NCUSA,fromNorthDakota,SWMontana,andNWMinnesotaStoNE&SEWyoming,NEColorado,andNKansas,alsoinSCCanada,SManitoba,andSESaskatchewan(Canada).S.f.subcinctusMiller,1899—Aguascalientes,C&NEJalisco,SWGuanajuato,andNMichoacan(Mexico).S. f. superciliarisJ. A. Allen, 1899— La Guajira, Magdalena, Atlantico and Bolivar departments (N Colombia).S. [> yucatanicus Miller, 1899 — NW Yucatan Peninsula (SE Mexico).The subspecies mearnsii has been introduced into Vancouver I (SW Canada) and into Washington and Oregon states (NW USA). Also introduced into Italy and the Alps.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 25-61 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 90-105 mm; weight 0.8-1.5 kg. The Eastern Cottontail is large, with long and dense fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grayish. Ventral fur and underside oftail are white. South American subspecies of the Eastern Cottontail differ in color of their nuchal patches, varying from yellowish brown to black. Geographical variation is high due to wide distribution of Eastern Cottontails, and characteristics that are diagnostic vary according to locality. In local areas,it is generally easy to distinguish the Eastern Cottontail from other sympatric species of Sylvilagus. The only exception is that where the Eastern Cottontail and the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) are sympatric along the Appalachians and in New England, USA, they cannot be distinguished based on pelage color; cranial characteristics are needed to identify these two species. Female Eastern Cottontails are c.1% larger than males. Adults undergo two molts per year: spring molt takes place in March—-August, and fall molt starts in late September and ends in early November.Habitat.Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats. Habitat of the Eastern Cottontail has been improved by interspersion of old fields and briar thickets, creation of edge, establishment of open feeding areas, and breaking up large continuous areas of monotypic habitat. Forms used during inactivity are chosen to provide cover and shelter and consist of brush piles and herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. Dens can be used to escape.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Eastern Cottontail includes a wide variety of plant species. Herbaceous plants are eaten during growing seasons, and woody plants are eaten during dormant seasons. Herbaceous plants might also be eaten throughout the year except when covered by snow. Two pronounced feeding periods have been reported: 3—4 h after sunrise and from sunset to one hour after sunset. Feeding habits of Eastern Cottontails vary seasonally and with successional changes of plant communities.Breeding.Timing of reproduction of Eastern Cottontails depends on latitude, elevation, and weather and varies among subspecies and populations and within the same population from year to year. Diet and rainfall might be important factors particularly in arid regions. Reproductive season begins later at higher elevations and northern latitudes; populations may breed throughout the year or only for ¢.6 months. Synchronized breeding behavior of Eastern Cottontail, even throughout the breeding season, has been recorded, and the synchronized initial pre-estrus stage for all populations over a wide geographical area is probably regulated by photoperiod. Reproductive interactions between males and females consist of a sequence of patterns that precede and culminate in copulation. This includes the male and female turning in a threat posture (face off), the male rushing the female, the female jumping over the male, and finally again the face off. When the female retreats from the male after a face off, the male chases the female before copulation takes place. Gestation typically lasts 28— 29 days but can be 25-35 days. Numbers oflitters per year are 3-7. Sizesoffirst litters of the year are 3-5 young and influenced by age or previous reproductive experience of females. Mean littersizes are 3-1-5-6 in the USA but usually only two young and rarely 1-3 young in South America. Mean annuallitter sizes are correlated with latitude and other factors such as conception dates, body weight, elevation, and, on one occasion, longitude. Annual numbers of young per female are 6-35. Young are born in a nest with a slanting hole into the ground. Nest’s measurements vary: lengths of 13-18 cm, widths of 10-13 cm, and depths of 9-12 cm. There is no relationship between nest size and litter size. Nests have outer linings of grass and herbaceous stems or leaves and inner layers of mothers’ fur. At birth, young Eastern Cottontails have fine hair, have tightly closed eyes, and are able to crawl into their nests. Eyes open at 4-8 days of age, and they leave nests at 12-16 days of age. Onset of sexual maturity is related to the first adult molt. Twenty-seven to 52% ofjuveniles breed during theirfirst year, but productivity is much lower than that of older individuals.Activity patterns.The Eastern Cottontail is most active at dawn and dusk, with increased activity on moonlit nights. Activity was greatest during summer when nights were shortest and when air temperature ranged from —18°C to 1°C. Rain apparently reduced activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mean annual home ranges of adult male and female Eastern Cottontails are 0-95-3 ha. Maximum home range size occurs during an individual’s first winter. Home range size and movements of adults vary by season, sex, and age. Home range size of males increased with the onset of sexual activity. Home range size of males during the reproductive season is influenced by habitat quality and sexual behavior. Home ranges indiscriminately overlap after breeding activity ends. The Eastern Cottontail does not maintain territories. Adult social interactions include those related to reproduction and social hierarchies. Eastern Cottontails have a male dominance hierarchy that controls social structure of populations. Dominant males copulate with most females. Male hierarchies prevent reproductive fighting. Dominance is indicated by displays of aggression and submission. Male-male chases usually are of longer duration than female—female chases. Fights for social status have only been observed between the most dominant males.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Eastern Cottontail is the most widely distributed species of Sylvilagusand is abundant throughout its distribution, with an increasing population trend. It is unique among leporids of the world in that it occurs over broad geographical provinces. It has been widely introduced in North America and Europe. For example, introduction in France failed, but introduced Eastern Cottontails in northern Italy seem to expand. Introductions have permanently altered the gene pool of the Eastern Cottontail and also caused displacement of sympatric species such as the New England Cottontail in north-eastern USA. The Eastern Cottontail is an important game species especially in the USA and has been subject of numerous research projects and publications. The Eastern Cottontail is an aggressive species and a highly efficient colonizer, and it can displace other leporids as it expandsits distribution. Therefore, introduction of Eastern Cottontails to alien habitats is not recommended. Although it is abundant, subpopulations are threatened by hunting pressure, human perturbation, and predation from introduced species. Some populations are threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation. Research is needed on taxonomy of the Eastern Cottontail and on how it affects other leporids.Bibliography.Allen, D.L. (1939), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008f), Angermann (2016), Barkalow (1962), Bothma & Teer (1977), Casteel (1966), Cervantes et al. (1999), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Mor gan (1973), Chapman & Trethewey (1972), Chapman & Verts (1969), Chapman, Harman & Samuel (1977), Chapman, Hockman & Ojeda (1980), Conaway & Wight (1962), Conaway, Sadler & Hazelwood (1974), Conaway, Wight & Sadler (1963), Dalke (1942), Dalke & Sime (1941), Dice (1929), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Dixon etal. (1981), Ecke (1955), Evans et al. (1965), Flux et al. (1990), Hall (1951, 1981), Hamilton (1940), Handley (1976), Hershkovitz (1950), Hill (1972), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Janes (1959), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Lord (1961, 1963, 1964), Lorenzo & Cervantes (2005), Marsden & Conaway (1963), Marsden & Holler (1964), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Morgan & Chapman (1981), Negus (1958), Nelson (1907), Niethammer & Angelici (2003), Pelton & Provost (1972), Rongstad (1966), Sheffer (1957), Smith (1950), Trent & Rongstad (1974), Trethewey & Verts (1971), Vidus-Rosin et al. (2008), Wight & Conaway (1961, 1962)." +03822308B757FFE8FFF5FAFBFC03FE53,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,123,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B757FFE8FFF5FAFBFC03FE53.xml,Sylvilagus floridanus,Sylvilagus,floridanus,,,Lapin a queue blanche @fr | Ostliches Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Florida @es | Florida Cottontail @en,"Lepus sylvaticus floridanus J. A. Allen, 1890, “Sebastian River, Brevard Co., Fla. [Florida],” USA.Taxonomic status of S. floridanusneeds revision. Formerly, S. flondanusincluded S. robustusand S. cognatusas subspecies, but they are now recognized as distinct species. Subspecies holzneri is provisionally retained as a subspecies of S. floridanusbecause its relationship to Mexican populations offloridanus has not yet been reported. Genetic similarities suggest that subspecific designations are not warranted for S. floridanusin the north-eastern USA. Genetic studies on widely separated populations of S. floridanusindicate considerably intraspecific genetic variability. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomyis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the ranges in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirty-one subspecies recognized.","S.f.floridanusJ.A.Allen,1890—FloridaPeninsulaexceptSEtip(SEUSA).S.f.alacerBangs,1896—CSUSA,inSEKansas,C&SMissouri,EOklahoma,Arkansas,extremeWTennessee,ETexas,mostofMississippi,extremeWCAlabama,andLouisiana.S.fammophilusHowell,1939—EtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.faviusOsgood,1910—ConejoI(LosTestigos),offNEVenezuela.S.faztecus].A.Allen,1890—S&EOaxaca,andSWtipofChiapas(SWMexico).S.f.chapmani].A.Allen,1899—W&STexas(SUSA),ECoahuila,N&ENuevoLeon,andmostofTamaulipas(NEMexico).S.f.chiapensisNelson,1904—NEtipofOaxacaandC&SChiapas(Mexico),andWGuatemala.S.f.connectensNelson,1904—STamaulipas,VeracruzexcepttheS,SanLuisPotosi,NEQuerétaro,NEHidalgo,NPuebla,andNOaxaca(EMexico).S.f.continentisOsgood,1912—NWVenezuela.S.f.costaricensisHarris1933—NWCostaRica.S.f.cumanicusThomas,1897—N&CVenezuela.S.f.hesperiusHoffmeister&Lee,1963—NW&CArizona(SWUSA).S.f.hitchensiMearns,1911—SmithandFishermanIsinNorthamptonCounty,EVirginia(EUSA).S.f.holzneriMearns,1896—SEArizona,andSWtipofNewMexico(SWUSA),ESonora,Chihuahua,WDurango,WZacatecas,andESinaloa(NWMexico).S.f.hondurensisGoldman,1932—SEGuatemala,SW&SHonduras,ElSalvador,andNW&CNicaragua.S.fllanensisBlair,1938—SWKansas,SEtipofColorado,WOklahoma,andNCTexas(CUSA).S.f.macrocorpusDiersing&Wilson,1980—Nayarit,SWJalisco,andSWMichoacan(WMexico).S.f.mallurusThomas,1898—EUSA,fromMaineSWtoE&SPennsylvania,andEWestVirginia,WthroughSKentuckytomostofTennessee(excepttheextremeW),andStomostofAlabama(excepttheextremeW)andNFlorida.S.f.margaritaeMiller,1898—MargaritaI,offNVenezuela.S.f.mearnsii].A.Allen,1894—NC&NEUSA,fromMinnesotaEtoMichigan,andStoENebraska,NEKansas,NMissouri,Kentucky,NWtipofVirginia,WWestVirginia,Ohio,N&WPennsylvania,NW&NNewYork,andWVermont,alsoSC&SECanada,inSEOntario,andSEQuebec.S.f.nigronuchalisHartert,1894—ArubaandCuracaoIs(NetherlandsAntilles),offNVenezuela.S.f.orinociThomas,1900—VichadaDepartment(EColombia)andVenezuelaSoftheOrinocoRiver.S.f.orizabaeMerriam,1893—SECoahuila,SWNuevoLeon,SEZacatecas,SanLuisPotosi,Guanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,NWVeracruz,México,andPuebla(CMexico).S.fpaulsoniSchwartz,1956—SEtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.f.purgatusThomas,1920—CundinamarcaandTolimaDepartments(CColombia).S.f.restrictusNelson,1907—SWNayarit,C&SJalisco,EColima,andSWMichoacan(Mexico).S.f.russatusJ.A.Allen,1904—SEtipofVeracruz(Mexico).S.f.similisNelson,1907—NCUSA,fromNorthDakota,SWMontana,andNWMinnesotaStoNE&SEWyoming,NEColorado,andNKansas,alsoinSCCanada,SManitoba,andSESaskatchewan(Canada).S.f.subcinctusMiller,1899—Aguascalientes,C&NEJalisco,SWGuanajuato,andNMichoacan(Mexico).S. f. superciliarisJ. A. Allen, 1899— La Guajira, Magdalena, Atlantico and Bolivar departments (N Colombia).S. [> yucatanicus Miller, 1899 — NW Yucatan Peninsula (SE Mexico).The subspecies mearnsii has been introduced into Vancouver I (SW Canada) and into Washington and Oregon states (NW USA). Also introduced into Italy and the Alps.","Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 25-61 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 90-105 mm; weight 0.8-1.5 kg. The Eastern Cottontail is large, with long and dense fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grayish. Ventral fur and underside oftail are white. South American subspecies of the Eastern Cottontail differ in color of their nuchal patches, varying from yellowish brown to black. Geographical variation is high due to wide distribution of Eastern Cottontails, and characteristics that are diagnostic vary according to locality. In local areas,it is generally easy to distinguish the Eastern Cottontail from other sympatric species of Sylvilagus. The only exception is that where the Eastern Cottontail and the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) are sympatric along the Appalachians and in New England, USA, they cannot be distinguished based on pelage color; cranial characteristics are needed to identify these two species. Female Eastern Cottontails are c.1% larger than males. Adults undergo two molts per year: spring molt takes place in March—-August, and fall molt starts in late September and ends in early November.Habitat.Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats.","Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats. Habitat of the Eastern Cottontail has been improved by interspersion of old fields and briar thickets, creation of edge, establishment of open feeding areas, and breaking up large continuous areas of monotypic habitat. Forms used during inactivity are chosen to provide cover and shelter and consist of brush piles and herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. Dens can be used to escape.","Diet of the Eastern Cottontail includes a wide variety of plant species. Herbaceous plants are eaten during growing seasons, and woody plants are eaten during dormant seasons. Herbaceous plants might also be eaten throughout the year except when covered by snow. Two pronounced feeding periods have been reported: 3—4 h after sunrise and from sunset to one hour after sunset. Feeding habits of Eastern Cottontails vary seasonally and with successional changes of plant communities.","Timing of reproduction of Eastern Cottontails depends on latitude, elevation, and weather and varies among subspecies and populations and within the same population from year to year. Diet and rainfall might be important factors particularly in arid regions. Reproductive season begins later at higher elevations and northern latitudes; populations may breed throughout the year or only for ¢.6 months. Synchronized breeding behavior of Eastern Cottontail, even throughout the breeding season, has been recorded, and the synchronized initial pre-estrus stage for all populations over a wide geographical area is probably regulated by photoperiod. Reproductive interactions between males and females consist of a sequence of patterns that precede and culminate in copulation. This includes the male and female turning in a threat posture (face off), the male rushing the female, the female jumping over the male, and finally again the face off. When the female retreats from the male after a face off, the male chases the female before copulation takes place. Gestation typically lasts 28— 29 days but can be 25-35 days. Numbers oflitters per year are 3-7. Sizesoffirst litters of the year are 3-5 young and influenced by age or previous reproductive experience of females. Mean littersizes are 3-1-5-6 in the USA but usually only two young and rarely 1-3 young in South America. Mean annuallitter sizes are correlated with latitude and other factors such as conception dates, body weight, elevation, and, on one occasion, longitude. Annual numbers of young per female are 6-35. Young are born in a nest with a slanting hole into the ground. Nest’s measurements vary: lengths of 13-18 cm, widths of 10-13 cm, and depths of 9-12 cm. There is no relationship between nest size and litter size. Nests have outer linings of grass and herbaceous stems or leaves and inner layers of mothers’ fur. At birth, young Eastern Cottontails have fine hair, have tightly closed eyes, and are able to crawl into their nests. Eyes open at 4-8 days of age, and they leave nests at 12-16 days of age. Onset of sexual maturity is related to the first adult molt. Twenty-seven to 52% ofjuveniles breed during theirfirst year, but productivity is much lower than that of older individuals.","The Eastern Cottontail is most active at dawn and dusk, with increased activity on moonlit nights. Activity was greatest during summer when nights were shortest and when air temperature ranged from —18°C to 1°C. Rain apparently reduced activity.","Mean annual home ranges of adult male and female Eastern Cottontails are 0-95-3 ha. Maximum home range size occurs during an individual’s first winter. Home range size and movements of adults vary by season, sex, and age. Home range size of males increased with the onset of sexual activity. Home range size of males during the reproductive season is influenced by habitat quality and sexual behavior. Home ranges indiscriminately overlap after breeding activity ends. The Eastern Cottontail does not maintain territories. Adult social interactions include those related to reproduction and social hierarchies. Eastern Cottontails have a male dominance hierarchy that controls social structure of populations. Dominant males copulate with most females. Male hierarchies prevent reproductive fighting. Dominance is indicated by displays of aggression and submission. Male-male chases usually are of longer duration than female—female chases. Fights for social status have only been observed between the most dominant males.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Eastern Cottontail is the most widely distributed species of Sylvilagusand is abundant throughout its distribution, with an increasing population trend. It is unique among leporids of the world in that it occurs over broad geographical provinces. It has been widely introduced in North America and Europe. For example, introduction in France failed, but introduced Eastern Cottontails in northern Italy seem to expand. Introductions have permanently altered the gene pool of the Eastern Cottontail and also caused displacement of sympatric species such as the New England Cottontail in north-eastern USA. The Eastern Cottontail is an important game species especially in the USA and has been subject of numerous research projects and publications. The Eastern Cottontail is an aggressive species and a highly efficient colonizer, and it can displace other leporids as it expandsits distribution. Therefore, introduction of Eastern Cottontails to alien habitats is not recommended. Although it is abundant, subpopulations are threatened by hunting pressure, human perturbation, and predation from introduced species. Some populations are threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation. Research is needed on taxonomy of the Eastern Cottontail and on how it affects other leporids.","Allen, D.L. (1939) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008f) | Angermann (2016) | Barkalow (1962) | Bothma & Teer (1977) | Casteel (1966) | Cervantes et al. (1999) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Mor gan (1973) | Chapman & Trethewey (1972) | Chapman & Verts (1969) | Chapman, Harman & Samuel (1977) | Chapman, Hockman & Ojeda (1980) | Conaway & Wight (1962) | Conaway, Sadler & Hazelwood (1974) | Conaway, Wight & Sadler (1963) | Dalke (1942) | Dalke & Sime (1941) | Dice (1929) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Dixon etal. (1981) | Ecke (1955) | Evans et al. (1965) | Flux et al. (1990) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hamilton (1940) | Handley (1976) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hill (1972) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Janes (1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Lord (1961, 1963, 1964) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (2005) | Marsden & Conaway (1963) | Marsden & Holler (1964) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Morgan & Chapman (1981) | Negus (1958) | Nelson (1907) | Niethammer & Angelici (2003) | Pelton & Provost (1972) | Rongstad (1966) | Sheffer (1957) | Smith (1950) | Trent & Rongstad (1974) | Trethewey & Verts (1971) | Vidus-Rosin et al. (2008) | Wight & Conaway (1961, 1962)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625599/files/figure.png,"25.Eastern CottontailSylvilagus floridanusFrench:Lapin a queue blanche/ German:Ostliches Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de FloridaOther common names:Florida CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus sylvaticus floridanus J. A. Allen, 1890, “Sebastian River, Brevard Co., Fla. [Florida],” USA.Taxonomic status of S. floridanusneeds revision. Formerly, S. flondanusincluded S. robustusand S. cognatusas subspecies, but they are now recognized as distinct species. Subspecies holzneri is provisionally retained as a subspecies of S. floridanusbecause its relationship to Mexican populations offloridanus has not yet been reported. Genetic similarities suggest that subspecific designations are not warranted for S. floridanusin the north-eastern USA. Genetic studies on widely separated populations of S. floridanusindicate considerably intraspecific genetic variability. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomyis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the ranges in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirty-one subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.f.floridanusJ.A.Allen,1890—FloridaPeninsulaexceptSEtip(SEUSA).S.f.alacerBangs,1896—CSUSA,inSEKansas,C&SMissouri,EOklahoma,Arkansas,extremeWTennessee,ETexas,mostofMississippi,extremeWCAlabama,andLouisiana.S.fammophilusHowell,1939—EtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.faviusOsgood,1910—ConejoI(LosTestigos),offNEVenezuela.S.faztecus].A.Allen,1890—S&EOaxaca,andSWtipofChiapas(SWMexico).S.f.chapmani].A.Allen,1899—W&STexas(SUSA),ECoahuila,N&ENuevoLeon,andmostofTamaulipas(NEMexico).S.f.chiapensisNelson,1904—NEtipofOaxacaandC&SChiapas(Mexico),andWGuatemala.S.f.connectensNelson,1904—STamaulipas,VeracruzexcepttheS,SanLuisPotosi,NEQuerétaro,NEHidalgo,NPuebla,andNOaxaca(EMexico).S.f.continentisOsgood,1912—NWVenezuela.S.f.costaricensisHarris1933—NWCostaRica.S.f.cumanicusThomas,1897—N&CVenezuela.S.f.hesperiusHoffmeister&Lee,1963—NW&CArizona(SWUSA).S.f.hitchensiMearns,1911—SmithandFishermanIsinNorthamptonCounty,EVirginia(EUSA).S.f.holzneriMearns,1896—SEArizona,andSWtipofNewMexico(SWUSA),ESonora,Chihuahua,WDurango,WZacatecas,andESinaloa(NWMexico).S.f.hondurensisGoldman,1932—SEGuatemala,SW&SHonduras,ElSalvador,andNW&CNicaragua.S.fllanensisBlair,1938—SWKansas,SEtipofColorado,WOklahoma,andNCTexas(CUSA).S.f.macrocorpusDiersing&Wilson,1980—Nayarit,SWJalisco,andSWMichoacan(WMexico).S.f.mallurusThomas,1898—EUSA,fromMaineSWtoE&SPennsylvania,andEWestVirginia,WthroughSKentuckytomostofTennessee(excepttheextremeW),andStomostofAlabama(excepttheextremeW)andNFlorida.S.f.margaritaeMiller,1898—MargaritaI,offNVenezuela.S.f.mearnsii].A.Allen,1894—NC&NEUSA,fromMinnesotaEtoMichigan,andStoENebraska,NEKansas,NMissouri,Kentucky,NWtipofVirginia,WWestVirginia,Ohio,N&WPennsylvania,NW&NNewYork,andWVermont,alsoSC&SECanada,inSEOntario,andSEQuebec.S.f.nigronuchalisHartert,1894—ArubaandCuracaoIs(NetherlandsAntilles),offNVenezuela.S.f.orinociThomas,1900—VichadaDepartment(EColombia)andVenezuelaSoftheOrinocoRiver.S.f.orizabaeMerriam,1893—SECoahuila,SWNuevoLeon,SEZacatecas,SanLuisPotosi,Guanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,NWVeracruz,México,andPuebla(CMexico).S.fpaulsoniSchwartz,1956—SEtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.f.purgatusThomas,1920—CundinamarcaandTolimaDepartments(CColombia).S.f.restrictusNelson,1907—SWNayarit,C&SJalisco,EColima,andSWMichoacan(Mexico).S.f.russatusJ.A.Allen,1904—SEtipofVeracruz(Mexico).S.f.similisNelson,1907—NCUSA,fromNorthDakota,SWMontana,andNWMinnesotaStoNE&SEWyoming,NEColorado,andNKansas,alsoinSCCanada,SManitoba,andSESaskatchewan(Canada).S.f.subcinctusMiller,1899—Aguascalientes,C&NEJalisco,SWGuanajuato,andNMichoacan(Mexico).S. f. superciliarisJ. A. Allen, 1899— La Guajira, Magdalena, Atlantico and Bolivar departments (N Colombia).S. [> yucatanicus Miller, 1899 — NW Yucatan Peninsula (SE Mexico).The subspecies mearnsii has been introduced into Vancouver I (SW Canada) and into Washington and Oregon states (NW USA). Also introduced into Italy and the Alps.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 25-61 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 90-105 mm; weight 0.8-1.5 kg. The Eastern Cottontail is large, with long and dense fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grayish. Ventral fur and underside oftail are white. South American subspecies of the Eastern Cottontail differ in color of their nuchal patches, varying from yellowish brown to black. Geographical variation is high due to wide distribution of Eastern Cottontails, and characteristics that are diagnostic vary according to locality. In local areas,it is generally easy to distinguish the Eastern Cottontail from other sympatric species of Sylvilagus. The only exception is that where the Eastern Cottontail and the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) are sympatric along the Appalachians and in New England, USA, they cannot be distinguished based on pelage color; cranial characteristics are needed to identify these two species. Female Eastern Cottontails are c.1% larger than males. Adults undergo two molts per year: spring molt takes place in March—-August, and fall molt starts in late September and ends in early November.Habitat.Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats. Habitat of the Eastern Cottontail has been improved by interspersion of old fields and briar thickets, creation of edge, establishment of open feeding areas, and breaking up large continuous areas of monotypic habitat. Forms used during inactivity are chosen to provide cover and shelter and consist of brush piles and herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. Dens can be used to escape.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Eastern Cottontail includes a wide variety of plant species. Herbaceous plants are eaten during growing seasons, and woody plants are eaten during dormant seasons. Herbaceous plants might also be eaten throughout the year except when covered by snow. Two pronounced feeding periods have been reported: 3—4 h after sunrise and from sunset to one hour after sunset. Feeding habits of Eastern Cottontails vary seasonally and with successional changes of plant communities.Breeding.Timing of reproduction of Eastern Cottontails depends on latitude, elevation, and weather and varies among subspecies and populations and within the same population from year to year. Diet and rainfall might be important factors particularly in arid regions. Reproductive season begins later at higher elevations and northern latitudes; populations may breed throughout the year or only for ¢.6 months. Synchronized breeding behavior of Eastern Cottontail, even throughout the breeding season, has been recorded, and the synchronized initial pre-estrus stage for all populations over a wide geographical area is probably regulated by photoperiod. Reproductive interactions between males and females consist of a sequence of patterns that precede and culminate in copulation. This includes the male and female turning in a threat posture (face off), the male rushing the female, the female jumping over the male, and finally again the face off. When the female retreats from the male after a face off, the male chases the female before copulation takes place. Gestation typically lasts 28— 29 days but can be 25-35 days. Numbers oflitters per year are 3-7. Sizesoffirst litters of the year are 3-5 young and influenced by age or previous reproductive experience of females. Mean littersizes are 3-1-5-6 in the USA but usually only two young and rarely 1-3 young in South America. Mean annuallitter sizes are correlated with latitude and other factors such as conception dates, body weight, elevation, and, on one occasion, longitude. Annual numbers of young per female are 6-35. Young are born in a nest with a slanting hole into the ground. Nest’s measurements vary: lengths of 13-18 cm, widths of 10-13 cm, and depths of 9-12 cm. There is no relationship between nest size and litter size. Nests have outer linings of grass and herbaceous stems or leaves and inner layers of mothers’ fur. At birth, young Eastern Cottontails have fine hair, have tightly closed eyes, and are able to crawl into their nests. Eyes open at 4-8 days of age, and they leave nests at 12-16 days of age. Onset of sexual maturity is related to the first adult molt. Twenty-seven to 52% ofjuveniles breed during theirfirst year, but productivity is much lower than that of older individuals.Activity patterns.The Eastern Cottontail is most active at dawn and dusk, with increased activity on moonlit nights. Activity was greatest during summer when nights were shortest and when air temperature ranged from —18°C to 1°C. Rain apparently reduced activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mean annual home ranges of adult male and female Eastern Cottontails are 0-95-3 ha. Maximum home range size occurs during an individual’s first winter. Home range size and movements of adults vary by season, sex, and age. Home range size of males increased with the onset of sexual activity. Home range size of males during the reproductive season is influenced by habitat quality and sexual behavior. Home ranges indiscriminately overlap after breeding activity ends. The Eastern Cottontail does not maintain territories. Adult social interactions include those related to reproduction and social hierarchies. Eastern Cottontails have a male dominance hierarchy that controls social structure of populations. Dominant males copulate with most females. Male hierarchies prevent reproductive fighting. Dominance is indicated by displays of aggression and submission. Male-male chases usually are of longer duration than female—female chases. Fights for social status have only been observed between the most dominant males.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Eastern Cottontail is the most widely distributed species of Sylvilagusand is abundant throughout its distribution, with an increasing population trend. It is unique among leporids of the world in that it occurs over broad geographical provinces. It has been widely introduced in North America and Europe. For example, introduction in France failed, but introduced Eastern Cottontails in northern Italy seem to expand. Introductions have permanently altered the gene pool of the Eastern Cottontail and also caused displacement of sympatric species such as the New England Cottontail in north-eastern USA. The Eastern Cottontail is an important game species especially in the USA and has been subject of numerous research projects and publications. The Eastern Cottontail is an aggressive species and a highly efficient colonizer, and it can displace other leporids as it expandsits distribution. Therefore, introduction of Eastern Cottontails to alien habitats is not recommended. Although it is abundant, subpopulations are threatened by hunting pressure, human perturbation, and predation from introduced species. Some populations are threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation. Research is needed on taxonomy of the Eastern Cottontail and on how it affects other leporids.Bibliography.Allen, D.L. (1939), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008f), Angermann (2016), Barkalow (1962), Bothma & Teer (1977), Casteel (1966), Cervantes et al. (1999), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Mor gan (1973), Chapman & Trethewey (1972), Chapman & Verts (1969), Chapman, Harman & Samuel (1977), Chapman, Hockman & Ojeda (1980), Conaway & Wight (1962), Conaway, Sadler & Hazelwood (1974), Conaway, Wight & Sadler (1963), Dalke (1942), Dalke & Sime (1941), Dice (1929), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Dixon etal. (1981), Ecke (1955), Evans et al. (1965), Flux et al. (1990), Hall (1951, 1981), Hamilton (1940), Handley (1976), Hershkovitz (1950), Hill (1972), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Janes (1959), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Lord (1961, 1963, 1964), Lorenzo & Cervantes (2005), Marsden & Conaway (1963), Marsden & Holler (1964), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Morgan & Chapman (1981), Negus (1958), Nelson (1907), Niethammer & Angelici (2003), Pelton & Provost (1972), Rongstad (1966), Sheffer (1957), Smith (1950), Trent & Rongstad (1974), Trethewey & Verts (1971), Vidus-Rosin et al. (2008), Wight & Conaway (1961, 1962)." 03822308B75AFFE7FA17F546F788F2DF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,136,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75AFFE7FA17F546F788F2DF.xml,Lepus insularis,Lepus,insularis,W. Bryant,1891,Lievre noir @fr | Espiritu-Santo-Hase @de | Liebre de Espiritu Santo @es | Black Hare @en | Espiritu Santo Jackrabbit @en,"Lepus insularis W. Bryant, 1891, “Espiritu Santo Island, [near La Paz], Gulf of California [Baja California del Sur], Mexico.”It is an insular melanistic allospecies related to L. californicus. Its status has been questioned, but a multivariate comparison with L. californicusof the adjacent mainland and nearby islands found distinct differences between the two species based on cranial characteristics. Nevertheless, a recent molecular phylogenetic study indicated that L. californicuswas paraphyletic to L. insularis. All analyses in this study demonstrated that some haplotypes of L. californicus were more closely related to L. insularisthan to other haplotypes of L. californicus, suggesting that L. insularismight represent an isolated population of L. californicus. Nevertheless, the study was based only on mtDNA and a limited sample so results should be regarded with caution. Monotypic.",Espiritu Santo I in the Gulf of California (NW Mexico).,"Head-body 570 mm,tail 96 mm, ear 110 mm, hindfoot 121 mm; weight ¢.2-5 kg (all measurements are means from five specimens). The Black Jackrabbit is medium-sized. Top of head, dorsal fur, nape, and top oftail are glossy black. Sides of head are blackish and grizzled with gray. Eye rings are gray. Insides of ears are gray, and outsides are blackish. Shoulders,sides, and hindlegs are dark buff or cinnamon-buff, and color becomes clearer ventrally. Forelegs are similar to sides of body but more rusty or reddish. Tops of toes are dark buff, and black line extends along inner sides of hindfeet from toes to a little above heels. Underside oftail is dull buffy brown, and underside of head is dark iron gray. Rest of under parts varies from dark cinnamon-buff to dusky brown. Dark color of the Black Jackrabbit makes it extraordinarily conspicuous on open or rocky ground, even when motionless. Populations of Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) living in the same climate and vegetation on the mainland exhibit no signs of melanism. Isolation of the Black Jackrabbit on Espiritu Santo Island and absence of predators apparently have removed selective pressure favoring cryptic coloration.","Open areas on rocky slopes, mesetas (plateaus), dunes, sandy valleys, and beaches. The Black Jackrabbit is most abundant in valleys and on adjoining lower slopes of hills on Espiritu Santo Island from sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m. It inhabits tropical scrub of cactus (Pachycerus, Stenocereus, and Opuntia, all Cactaceae) and shrubs (Prosopisand Acacia, both Fabaceae, and Ambrosia, Asteraceae) and in dunes with grasses (Cenchrus, Poaceae) and halophytic plants (Adenostoma, Rosaceae).","The BlackJackrabbit forages on a wide variety of grasses, herbs, and forbs and consumes fleshy parts of short cacti (Stenocereus, Cactaceae) and young stems of shrubs (e.g. Prosopis, Fabaceae).","One female Black Jackrabbit collected in November was pregnant with two embryos. Males with scrotal testes were found in September, March, June, and October/November.","Black Jackrabbits are most active during crepuscular hours but are known to be active day and night. They actively feed and constantly move about during crepuscular hours, but they rest in shade of cacti and shrubs during mid-day hours.",The Black Jackrabbit is usually solitary but may be observed in groups of up to three individuals.,Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Black Jackrabbit only occurs on Espiritu Santo Island that is only ¢.95 km?. It is hunted on the island. Population trends are unknown. Major threats include disturbance by humans and competition with domestic livestock.,"Bryant (1891) | Cervantes, Alvarez-Castafeda et al. (1996) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Nelson (1909, 1922) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Romero & Rangel (2008) | Thomas & Best (1994b) | Townsend (1912)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625649/files/figure.png,"48.Black JackrabbitLepus insularisFrench:Lievre noir/ German:Espiritu-Santo-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de Espiritu SantoOther common names:Black Hare, Espiritu Santo JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus insularis W. Bryant, 1891, “Espiritu Santo Island, [near La Paz], Gulf of California [Baja California del Sur], Mexico.”It is an insular melanistic allospecies related to L. californicus. Its status has been questioned, but a multivariate comparison with L. californicusof the adjacent mainland and nearby islands found distinct differences between the two species based on cranial characteristics. Nevertheless, a recent molecular phylogenetic study indicated that L. californicuswas paraphyletic to L. insularis. All analyses in this study demonstrated that some haplotypes of L. californicus were more closely related to L. insularisthan to other haplotypes of L. californicus, suggesting that L. insularismight represent an isolated population of L. californicus. Nevertheless, the study was based only on mtDNA and a limited sample so results should be regarded with caution. Monotypic.Distribution.Espiritu Santo I in the Gulf of California (NW Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 570 mm,tail 96 mm, ear 110 mm, hindfoot 121 mm; weight ¢.2-5 kg (all measurements are means from five specimens). The Black Jackrabbit is medium-sized. Top of head, dorsal fur, nape, and top oftail are glossy black. Sides of head are blackish and grizzled with gray. Eye rings are gray. Insides of ears are gray, and outsides are blackish. Shoulders,sides, and hindlegs are dark buff or cinnamon-buff, and color becomes clearer ventrally. Forelegs are similar to sides of body but more rusty or reddish. Tops of toes are dark buff, and black line extends along inner sides of hindfeet from toes to a little above heels. Underside oftail is dull buffy brown, and underside of head is dark iron gray. Rest of under parts varies from dark cinnamon-buff to dusky brown. Dark color of the Black Jackrabbit makes it extraordinarily conspicuous on open or rocky ground, even when motionless. Populations of Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) living in the same climate and vegetation on the mainland exhibit no signs of melanism. Isolation of the Black Jackrabbit on Espiritu Santo Island and absence of predators apparently have removed selective pressure favoring cryptic coloration.Habitat.Open areas on rocky slopes, mesetas (plateaus), dunes, sandy valleys, and beaches. The Black Jackrabbit is most abundant in valleys and on adjoining lower slopes of hills on Espiritu Santo Island from sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m. It inhabits tropical scrub of cactus (Pachycerus, Stenocereus, and Opuntia, all Cactaceae) and shrubs (Prosopisand Acacia, both Fabaceae, and Ambrosia, Asteraceae) and in dunes with grasses (Cenchrus, Poaceae) and halophytic plants (Adenostoma, Rosaceae).Food and Feeding.The BlackJackrabbit forages on a wide variety of grasses, herbs, and forbs and consumes fleshy parts of short cacti (Stenocereus, Cactaceae) and young stems of shrubs (e.g. Prosopis, Fabaceae).Breeding.One female Black Jackrabbit collected in November was pregnant with two embryos. Males with scrotal testes were found in September, March, June, and October/November.Activity patterns.Black Jackrabbits are most active during crepuscular hours but are known to be active day and night. They actively feed and constantly move about during crepuscular hours, but they rest in shade of cacti and shrubs during mid-day hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Black Jackrabbit is usually solitary but may be observed in groups of up to three individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Black Jackrabbit only occurs on Espiritu Santo Island that is only ¢.95 km?. It is hunted on the island. Population trends are unknown. Major threats include disturbance by humans and competition with domestic livestock.Bibliography.Bryant (1891), Cervantes, Alvarez-Castafeda et al. (1996), Dixon et al. (1983), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Nelson (1909, 1922), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Romero & Rangel (2008), Thomas & Best (1994b), Townsend (1912)." -03822308B75BFFE4FAF7F8FAF583FCEB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,135,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75BFFE4FAF7F8FAF583FCEB.xml,Lepus californicus,Lepus,californicus,Gray,1837,Lievre de Californie @fr | Eselhase @de | Liebre de cola negra @es | California Jackrabbit @en,"Lepus californicus Gray, 1837, “St. Antoine [probably near Mission of San Antonio, California, USA].”Lepus insularisis an insular melanistic allospecies and closely related to L. californicus. It is still under debate whether or not L. insularisdeserves species status or represents an isolated population of L. californicus. In southern Arizona, L. californicusand L. allenilive in sympatry. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seventeen subspecies recognized.","L. c. californicus Gray, 1837— SW Oregon, and NW California (W USA).L. c. altamirae Nelson, 1904— SE Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. asellus Miller, 1899— SE Coahuila, NE, S Nuevo Leon, E & SE Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, NE tip ofJalisco, N Guanajuato, and NW Querétaro (NC Mexico).L. c. bennettiz Gray, 1843— SW California (SW USA), and NW Baja California (NW Mexico).L. c. curts Hall, 1951— Is along the coast of Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. deserticola Mearns, 1896— SE Oregon, S Idaho, SW Montana, NE & E California, Nevada, Utah except SE, and NW, W & SW Arizona (W & SW USA), and NW Sonora and NE Baja California (NW Mexico). The population in SW Montanais isolated.L. c. eremicus J. A. Allen, 1894— S Arizona (SW USA), N Sonora except extreme NW, NW Chihuahua (N Mexico).L. c. festinus Nelson, 1904— S Querétaro, Hidalgo, and N State of Mexico (C Mexico).L. c. magdalenae Nelson, 1907— Magdalena I, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. martirensis Stowell, 1895—Baja California except NW & NE and NE Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. melanotis Mearns, 1890— S South Dakota, SE Wyoming, Nebraska, E Colorado, Kansas, W Missouri, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma, W Arkansas, and N Texas (C USA). An isolated population exists in E Oklahoma.L. c. merriami Mearns, 1896— S Texas (S USA), and NE Coahuila, N Tamaulipas, and N Nuevo Leon (NE Mexico).L. c. richardsonii Bachman, 1839— C California (SW USA).L. c. sheldoni Burt, 1933— Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. texianus Waterhouse, 1848— SE Utah, SW Colorado, NE Arizona, New Mexico except the NE, and W Texas (C USA), Chihuahua except the NW, W, & SW extremes, W Coahuila, E Durango, and NW Zacatecas (NC Mexico).L. c. wallawalla Merriam, 1904— S Washington, C & W Oregon, NE California, and NW Nevada (NW USA).L. ¢. xanti Thomas, 1898— Baja California Sur except the NE (NW Mexico).The Black-tailed Jackrabbit has been introduced into Massachusetts, NewJersey, Maryland, Virginia, and S Florida.","Head—body 520-610 mm, tail 75-101 mm, ear 100-130 mm, hindfoot 113-135 mm; weight 1.5-3.6 kg. The Black-tailed Jackrabbitis lean and mediumsized, with soft fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grizzled brown, sides are brownish, and ventral fur is pale. Hindlegs and ears are relatively long, and tail is large, with black stripe above and buffy or grayish below. Color varies considerably among populations. Differences in color and other characteristics relate to corresponding changes in climate; soil color might influence fur color. On the Guadiana lava filed in Durango, Mexico, fur is browner than on those individuals from northern Durango. In Kansas (USA), sexual dimorphism in mass and length has been noted; females are larger than males. Body size of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is larger on islands around Baja California, except the population on Carmen Island that is smaller than adjacent populations. Annual molt begins between late August and early October, depending on latitude, and short summer hair is replaced by longer winter hair. Ear lengths of Black-tailed Jackrabbits vary geographically with temperature. Ears are longer in the south than in the north; longer ears are probably used to dissipate heat. Rectal glands in males and females secrete strong musky odors, but their functions are unknown. No physical change is noticeable during the breeding period; even mammae remain flat in lactating females.","Arid tropics, deserts, and transitional habitats at elevations of -84 m in Death Valley, California, USA, to 3750 m. Black-tailed Jackrabbits favor heavily grazed areas, or where grasses are not abundant and cacti and low shrubs are scattered. They inhabit open habitats with mesquite (Prosopis), sagebrush (Artemisia), desert scrub, and open pine (Pinus)—juniper (Juniperus) in Arizona. They avoid areas of tall grass or forest where visibility is obscured. Where Black-tailed Jackrabbits and Antelope Jackrabbits (L. alleni) live in sympatry, they are often seen togethersitting under the same bush or running away side by side. Antelope Jackrabbits are more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations, and Black-tailed Jackrabbits are more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and in barren chaparral desert.","Diet of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit varies among locations and seasons, but grasses and sedges are primarily eaten in summer. In Utah,it ate nearly all plant species available, including sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata, Asteraceae) and shadscale (Atriplexconfertifolia), Nuttall’s saltbush (A. nuttalliz), winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), and saltlover (Halogetonglomeratus) all Amaranthaceae. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit also eats fungi, gravel, or sand, and it has been reported to feed on horse carcasses in Texas and Tamaulipas. During winter or in desert areas, the main food is dry and woody plant parts such as broom snakeweed (Gutierreziasarothrae, Asteraceae) and creosote bush (Larreatridentate, Zygophyllaceae). There is no evidence that the Blacktailed Jackrabbit drinks free water. In dry habitats, succulent plants and cacti are increasingly eaten as drought conditions increase. Shade seeking reduces heat load and need for water. Other factors that contribute to reducing water loss are insulation and reflectivity of pelage. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit can damage agricultural crops. In Kansas (USA), most crop damage was restricted to fields near resting areas, and buffer fields reduced damage. While feeding, Black-tailed Jackrabbits move slowly and are constantly alert for sings of danger. They rely on hearing more than on other sense to detect danger. Black-tailed Jackrabbits rear up on their hindfeet to browse on bushes.","Reproductive season of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit depends on latitude. In California, males are sexually active in all months of the year, but in Kansas, they are active in December—August. Breeding season is shortest in regions with severe winters (e.g. 128 days in Idaho) and longest in areas with warmer winters (e.g. 220 days in Kansas and more than 300 days in Arizona). A sexually active male Black-tailed Jackrabbit seeks a female with his nose close to the ground. Courtship behavior includes circling, hunting, approaching, chasing, jumping with urine emission, and boxing; copulation usually follows. These complex sequences of behavior may be repeated a couple of times. Breeding is promiscuous. Copulation occurs repeatedly, which induces ovulation. Gestation is c.43 days.Litter size is positively correlated with latitude and averages c.2 young in Arizona, c.3 young in Kansas and Nevada, and c.5 young in Idaho and California. Maximum number of young per litter is seven in California, Idaho, and Nevada. Litter size is dependent on environmental conditions during a particular year, quantity of precipitation, and time of the year; largest litters occur in the middle or end of the breeding period. There are 3-8—4-4 litters/year in Kansas and 3-6 litters/ year in Arizona. Postpartum estrus occurs, but consistent postpartum breeding does not occur in Kansas. Young are placed put in prepared nests with some hair for lining or in nests resembling shelters under bushes when soil is hard. Young are fully furred, and eyes are open at birth. Pelage of young is brown and richer in color than mothers’ pelage. Ear tips and tail are black. Dark natal fur gradually is replaced by paler immature pelage. Adult pelage occurs in the first winter when young are 6-9 months old. Young are nursed exclusively for their first ten days of life, and solid food is gradually eaten; they are weaned at 12-13 weeks of age. Until young are c.1 week old, they suckle lying on their backs, with their hindfeet around their mothers’ necks; then, nursing position changes to an upright posture. Newborns stay close to their birthplace for their first two days oflife; they gradually enlarge their home ranges and spend a lot of time digging. Females stay some distance away and moveto their litters only at night to nurse. Early-born females might breed in their first year of birth.","The Black-tailed Jackrabbit is primarily nocturnal, with activity peaks at 04:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. Feeding periods vary greatly with weather, season, and moon phase. Wind is the most important weather factor limiting activity. Calm and dry evenings are more favorable for longer feeding periods than windy and wet evenings. Falling snow and fog limit nocturnal activities, but rain and temperature have little effect on movement. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit often builds forms to protect itself from heat during the day by making excavations in sand under vegetation. In the Mojave Desert, USA, the Black-tailed Jackrabbit retreats to burrows during hot summer days but only for 3-5 hours in the afternoon. Self-constructed burrows begin as forms and gradually are deepened by digging during hot afternoons. After several days, burrows are deep enough to enclose an individual. Some Black-tailed Jackrabbits also use holes dug by prairie dogs (Cynomys) or American Badgers (Taxidea taxus). Burrows are not used during high winds or cold weather, even though they are typically available.","Black-tailed Jackrabbits do not usually migrate, but one population in Utah migrates to and from traditional wintering areas. There are noticeable changes in numbers of Black-tailed Jackrabbits throughout the year that might be caused by movements to areas with more food or favorable temperatures. Daily movements vary depending on distances between resting and feeding areas. These distances might be short or as long as 16 km. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit makes conspicuous trails and runaways through brush, weeds, meadows, and fields and over dusty or sandy surfaces of desert valleys. Home range sizes are 20-140 ha, and females have larger home ranges than males. In Kansas, home ranges ofjuveniles (4-28 ha, mean 14 ha) were smaller than adults (5-78 ha, mean 17 ha). In Idaho, similar home range sizes were recorded, and c.18% of the population disperses over large distances. Black-tailed Jackrabbits avoid entering water, but they will move across rivers at ice jams or forage on vegetation in 5 cm of water. Black-tailed Jackrabbits are not gregarious; however, groups of 2-5 individuals occur during the breeding season, and groups as large as 200-250 individuals aggregate to feed in winter. There is no social organization among individuals at the same feeding ground. Normally, individuals close together ignore each other, but they might butt, bite, jump into the air, run in circles at high speed around each other, or simply avoid each other. Females often attack other individuals that approach within 5-10 m. This antagonism leads to spacing and might be a type of territorial behavior. The only family structure exists between mother and young as long as nursing occurs. Male Black-tailed Jackrabbits frequently fight by rearing up on their hindlegs and striking each other with their forefeet. Biting, especially on the ears, also occurs. Females sometimes react aggressively to approaching males with low growls or grunts.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Blacktailed Jackrabbit is widespread, and its distribution is expanding. Because the Blacktailed Jackrabbit adapts well to overgrazed areas, it seems to expand at the expense of the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendii) in the north-east and the White-sided Jackrabbit (L. callotis) and Antelope Jackrabbit in the south of its distribution. Major threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and humaninduced fires. Research is needed to definitively classify subspecies and on interactions among Black-tailed Jackrabbits and other sympatric jackrabbits (i.e. White-tailed Jackrabbit, White-sided Jackrabbit, and Antelope Jackrabbit).","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008g) | Angermann (2016) | Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011) | Bailey (1936) | Baker (1956, 1960) | Bednarz & Cook (1984) | Best (1996) | Blackburn (1973) | Bronson & Tiemeier (1958a, 1958b) | Burt (1934) | Cahalane (1939) | Corbet (1983) | Costa et al. (1976) | Couch (1928) | Currie & Goodwin (1966) | Desmond (2004) | Dice (1926) | Dickerson (1917) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Feldhamer (1979) | Flinders & Chapman (2003) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | French et al. (1965) | Griffing (1974) | Grinnell (1937) | Gross et al. (1974) | Hall (1946, 1981) | Harestad & Bunnell (1979) | Haskell & Reynolds (1947) | Hawbecker (1942) | Hill & Veghte (1976) | Hoagland (1992) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Jones et al. (1983) | Lawlor (1982) | Lechleitner (1958a, 1958b, 1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long, J.L. (2003) | Long, W.S. (1940) | Maser et al. (1988) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965) | Seton (1928) | Smith et al. (2002) | Steinberger & Whitford (1983) | Stoddart (1984) | Swarth (1929) | Westoby (1980)",,"47.Black-tailed JackrabbitLepus californicusFrench:Lievre de Californie/ German:Eselhase/ Spanish:Liebre de cola negraOther common names:California JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus californicus Gray, 1837, “St. Antoine [probably near Mission of San Antonio, California, USA].”Lepus insularisis an insular melanistic allospecies and closely related to L. californicus. It is still under debate whether or not L. insularisdeserves species status or represents an isolated population of L. californicus. In southern Arizona, L. californicusand L. allenilive in sympatry. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seventeen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. c. californicus Gray, 1837— SW Oregon, and NW California (W USA).L. c. altamirae Nelson, 1904— SE Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. asellus Miller, 1899— SE Coahuila, NE, S Nuevo Leon, E & SE Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, NE tip ofJalisco, N Guanajuato, and NW Querétaro (NC Mexico).L. c. bennettiz Gray, 1843— SW California (SW USA), and NW Baja California (NW Mexico).L. c. curts Hall, 1951— Is along the coast of Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. deserticola Mearns, 1896— SE Oregon, S Idaho, SW Montana, NE & E California, Nevada, Utah except SE, and NW, W & SW Arizona (W & SW USA), and NW Sonora and NE Baja California (NW Mexico). The population in SW Montanais isolated.L. c. eremicus J. A. Allen, 1894— S Arizona (SW USA), N Sonora except extreme NW, NW Chihuahua (N Mexico).L. c. festinus Nelson, 1904— S Querétaro, Hidalgo, and N State of Mexico (C Mexico).L. c. magdalenae Nelson, 1907— Magdalena I, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. martirensis Stowell, 1895—Baja California except NW & NE and NE Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. melanotis Mearns, 1890— S South Dakota, SE Wyoming, Nebraska, E Colorado, Kansas, W Missouri, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma, W Arkansas, and N Texas (C USA). An isolated population exists in E Oklahoma.L. c. merriami Mearns, 1896— S Texas (S USA), and NE Coahuila, N Tamaulipas, and N Nuevo Leon (NE Mexico).L. c. richardsonii Bachman, 1839— C California (SW USA).L. c. sheldoni Burt, 1933— Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. texianus Waterhouse, 1848— SE Utah, SW Colorado, NE Arizona, New Mexico except the NE, and W Texas (C USA), Chihuahua except the NW, W, & SW extremes, W Coahuila, E Durango, and NW Zacatecas (NC Mexico).L. c. wallawalla Merriam, 1904— S Washington, C & W Oregon, NE California, and NW Nevada (NW USA).L. ¢. xanti Thomas, 1898— Baja California Sur except the NE (NW Mexico).The Black-tailed Jackrabbit has been introduced into Massachusetts, NewJersey, Maryland, Virginia, and S Florida.Descriptive notes.Head—body 520-610 mm, tail 75-101 mm, ear 100-130 mm, hindfoot 113-135 mm; weight 1.5-3.6 kg. The Black-tailed Jackrabbitis lean and mediumsized, with soft fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grizzled brown, sides are brownish, and ventral fur is pale. Hindlegs and ears are relatively long, and tail is large, with black stripe above and buffy or grayish below. Color varies considerably among populations. Differences in color and other characteristics relate to corresponding changes in climate; soil color might influence fur color. On the Guadiana lava filed in Durango, Mexico, fur is browner than on those individuals from northern Durango. In Kansas (USA), sexual dimorphism in mass and length has been noted; females are larger than males. Body size of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is larger on islands around Baja California, except the population on Carmen Island that is smaller than adjacent populations. Annual molt begins between late August and early October, depending on latitude, and short summer hair is replaced by longer winter hair. Ear lengths of Black-tailed Jackrabbits vary geographically with temperature. Ears are longer in the south than in the north; longer ears are probably used to dissipate heat. Rectal glands in males and females secrete strong musky odors, but their functions are unknown. No physical change is noticeable during the breeding period; even mammae remain flat in lactating females.Habitat.Arid tropics, deserts, and transitional habitats at elevations of -84 m in Death Valley, California, USA, to 3750 m. Black-tailed Jackrabbits favor heavily grazed areas, or where grasses are not abundant and cacti and low shrubs are scattered. They inhabit open habitats with mesquite (Prosopis), sagebrush (Artemisia), desert scrub, and open pine (Pinus)—juniper (Juniperus) in Arizona. They avoid areas of tall grass or forest where visibility is obscured. Where Black-tailed Jackrabbits and Antelope Jackrabbits (L. alleni) live in sympatry, they are often seen togethersitting under the same bush or running away side by side. Antelope Jackrabbits are more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations, and Black-tailed Jackrabbits are more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and in barren chaparral desert.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit varies among locations and seasons, but grasses and sedges are primarily eaten in summer. In Utah,it ate nearly all plant species available, including sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata, Asteraceae) and shadscale (Atriplexconfertifolia), Nuttall’s saltbush (A. nuttalliz), winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), and saltlover (Halogetonglomeratus) all Amaranthaceae. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit also eats fungi, gravel, or sand, and it has been reported to feed on horse carcasses in Texas and Tamaulipas. During winter or in desert areas, the main food is dry and woody plant parts such as broom snakeweed (Gutierreziasarothrae, Asteraceae) and creosote bush (Larreatridentate, Zygophyllaceae). There is no evidence that the Blacktailed Jackrabbit drinks free water. In dry habitats, succulent plants and cacti are increasingly eaten as drought conditions increase. Shade seeking reduces heat load and need for water. Other factors that contribute to reducing water loss are insulation and reflectivity of pelage. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit can damage agricultural crops. In Kansas (USA), most crop damage was restricted to fields near resting areas, and buffer fields reduced damage. While feeding, Black-tailed Jackrabbits move slowly and are constantly alert for sings of danger. They rely on hearing more than on other sense to detect danger. Black-tailed Jackrabbits rear up on their hindfeet to browse on bushes.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit depends on latitude. In California, males are sexually active in all months of the year, but in Kansas, they are active in December—August. Breeding season is shortest in regions with severe winters (e.g. 128 days in Idaho) and longest in areas with warmer winters (e.g. 220 days in Kansas and more than 300 days in Arizona). A sexually active male Black-tailed Jackrabbit seeks a female with his nose close to the ground. Courtship behavior includes circling, hunting, approaching, chasing, jumping with urine emission, and boxing; copulation usually follows. These complex sequences of behavior may be repeated a couple of times. Breeding is promiscuous. Copulation occurs repeatedly, which induces ovulation. Gestation is c.43 days.Litter size is positively correlated with latitude and averages c.2 young in Arizona, c.3 young in Kansas and Nevada, and c.5 young in Idaho and California. Maximum number of young per litter is seven in California, Idaho, and Nevada. Litter size is dependent on environmental conditions during a particular year, quantity of precipitation, and time of the year; largest litters occur in the middle or end of the breeding period. There are 3-8—4-4 litters/year in Kansas and 3-6 litters/ year in Arizona. Postpartum estrus occurs, but consistent postpartum breeding does not occur in Kansas. Young are placed put in prepared nests with some hair for lining or in nests resembling shelters under bushes when soil is hard. Young are fully furred, and eyes are open at birth. Pelage of young is brown and richer in color than mothers’ pelage. Ear tips and tail are black. Dark natal fur gradually is replaced by paler immature pelage. Adult pelage occurs in the first winter when young are 6-9 months old. Young are nursed exclusively for their first ten days of life, and solid food is gradually eaten; they are weaned at 12-13 weeks of age. Until young are c.1 week old, they suckle lying on their backs, with their hindfeet around their mothers’ necks; then, nursing position changes to an upright posture. Newborns stay close to their birthplace for their first two days oflife; they gradually enlarge their home ranges and spend a lot of time digging. Females stay some distance away and moveto their litters only at night to nurse. Early-born females might breed in their first year of birth.Activity patterns.The Black-tailed Jackrabbit is primarily nocturnal, with activity peaks at 04:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. Feeding periods vary greatly with weather, season, and moon phase. Wind is the most important weather factor limiting activity. Calm and dry evenings are more favorable for longer feeding periods than windy and wet evenings. Falling snow and fog limit nocturnal activities, but rain and temperature have little effect on movement. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit often builds forms to protect itself from heat during the day by making excavations in sand under vegetation. In the Mojave Desert, USA, the Black-tailed Jackrabbit retreats to burrows during hot summer days but only for 3-5 hours in the afternoon. Self-constructed burrows begin as forms and gradually are deepened by digging during hot afternoons. After several days, burrows are deep enough to enclose an individual. Some Black-tailed Jackrabbits also use holes dug by prairie dogs (Cynomys) or American Badgers (Taxidea taxus). Burrows are not used during high winds or cold weather, even though they are typically available.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black-tailed Jackrabbits do not usually migrate, but one population in Utah migrates to and from traditional wintering areas. There are noticeable changes in numbers of Black-tailed Jackrabbits throughout the year that might be caused by movements to areas with more food or favorable temperatures. Daily movements vary depending on distances between resting and feeding areas. These distances might be short or as long as 16 km. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit makes conspicuous trails and runaways through brush, weeds, meadows, and fields and over dusty or sandy surfaces of desert valleys. Home range sizes are 20-140 ha, and females have larger home ranges than males. In Kansas, home ranges ofjuveniles (4-28 ha, mean 14 ha) were smaller than adults (5-78 ha, mean 17 ha). In Idaho, similar home range sizes were recorded, and c.18% of the population disperses over large distances. Black-tailed Jackrabbits avoid entering water, but they will move across rivers at ice jams or forage on vegetation in 5 cm of water. Black-tailed Jackrabbits are not gregarious; however, groups of 2-5 individuals occur during the breeding season, and groups as large as 200-250 individuals aggregate to feed in winter. There is no social organization among individuals at the same feeding ground. Normally, individuals close together ignore each other, but they might butt, bite, jump into the air, run in circles at high speed around each other, or simply avoid each other. Females often attack other individuals that approach within 5-10 m. This antagonism leads to spacing and might be a type of territorial behavior. The only family structure exists between mother and young as long as nursing occurs. Male Black-tailed Jackrabbits frequently fight by rearing up on their hindlegs and striking each other with their forefeet. Biting, especially on the ears, also occurs. Females sometimes react aggressively to approaching males with low growls or grunts.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Blacktailed Jackrabbit is widespread, and its distribution is expanding. Because the Blacktailed Jackrabbit adapts well to overgrazed areas, it seems to expand at the expense of the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendii) in the north-east and the White-sided Jackrabbit (L. callotis) and Antelope Jackrabbit in the south of its distribution. Major threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and humaninduced fires. Research is needed to definitively classify subspecies and on interactions among Black-tailed Jackrabbits and other sympatric jackrabbits (i.e. White-tailed Jackrabbit, White-sided Jackrabbit, and Antelope Jackrabbit).Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008g), Angermann (2016), Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011), Bailey (1936), Baker (1956, 1960), Bednarz & Cook (1984), Best (1996), Blackburn (1973), Bronson & Tiemeier (1958a, 1958b), Burt (1934), Cahalane (1939), Corbet (1983), Costa et al. (1976), Couch (1928), Currie & Goodwin (1966), Desmond (2004), Dice (1926), Dickerson (1917), Dixon et al. (1983), Dunn et al. (1982), Feldhamer (1979), Flinders & Chapman (2003), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), French et al. (1965), Griffing (1974), Grinnell (1937), Gross et al. (1974), Hall (1946, 1981), Harestad & Bunnell (1979), Haskell & Reynolds (1947), Hawbecker (1942), Hill & Veghte (1976), Hoagland (1992), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister (1986), Jones et al. (1983), Lawlor (1982), Lechleitner (1958a, 1958b, 1959), Lissovsky (2016), Long, J.L. (2003), Long, W.S. (1940), Maser et al. (1988), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965), Seton (1928), Smith et al. (2002), Steinberger & Whitford (1983), Stoddart (1984), Swarth (1929), Westoby (1980)." -03822308B75BFFE5FFC9FDEDF919F0A2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,135,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75BFFE5FFC9FDEDF919F0A2.xml,Lepus americanus,Lepus,americanus,Erxleben,1777,Lievre d Amérique @fr | Schneeschuhhase @de | Liebre americana @es | Snowshoe Rabbit @en | Varying Hare @en,"Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777, “in America boreeli, ad fretum Hudsonis copiosissimus.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Fort Severn,” Ontario, Canada.It is taxonomically distinct from other species of Lepusand does not hybridize with any of them. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Recognition of subspecies might not be justified by the fact that variation is clinal and follows climatic gradients. Fifteen subspecies recognized.","L.a.americanusErxleben,1777—C&ECanada(SENorthwestTerritories,SENunavut,mostAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,S&SEOntario,Quebec,L.a.,andNewfoundland),alsoinNCUSA(NEMontanaandNorthDakota).L.a.bairdiiHayden,1869—SWCanada(SEBritishColumbiaandSWAlberta)andWCUSA(W&CMontana,Idaho,W&SCWyoming,NE&CUtah,NW&CColorado,andNCNewMexico).L.a.cascadensisNelson,1907—SWCanada(SCBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(SC,C&NCWashington).L.a.columbiensisRhoads,1895—RockyMtsinSWCanada(SEBritishColumbia,WCAlberta),andNWUSA(NEtipofWashington).L.a.dalliMerriam,1900—Alaska(USA)andNWCanada(NWAlberta,NBritishColumbia,YukonexcepttheNtip,S&WNorthwestTerritories).L.a.klamathensisMerriam,1899—WUSA(SWOregonandNCalifornia).L.a.oregonusOrr,1934—WUSA(NE&COregon).L.a.pallidusCowan,1938—SWCanada(WC&CBritishColumbia).L.a.phaeonotusJ.A.Allen,1899—WGreatL.a.RegioninSCCanada(SEtipofSaskatchewan,SManitoba,SWOntario)andNCUSA(NEtipofNorthDakota,Minnesota,NWisconsin,andNMichigan).L.a.pineusDalquest,1942—SWCanada(SCtipofBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(EWashington,NIdaho,NWtipofMontana).L.a.seclususBaker&Hankins,1950—NCUSA(SCtipofMontana,NCtipofWyoming).L.a.struthopusBangs,1898—ECanada(EQuebec,NewBrunswick,NovaScotia,PrinceEdwardI)andNEUSA(Maine).L.a.tahoensisOrr,1933—WUSA(ECCaliforniaandWCNevada).L.a.virgtnianusHarlan,1825—SECanada(SOntario,SQuebec)andNE&EUSA(fromMainetoPennsylvaniaandextremeNEOhio,TennesseeandNorthCarolina).L. a. washingtonBaird, 1855 — SW Canada (SW tip of British Columbia) and NW USA (W Washington and W Oregon).The Snowshoe Hare has been introduced by founder individuals of unknown subspecies affiliation to Kodiak I (Alaska) and Anticosti I (Quebec, Canada).","Head-body 360-520 mm,tail 25-55 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 112-150 mm; weight 1.1-1.6 kg. The Snowshoe Hare is the smallest species of Lepus, with small ears and large hindfeet. In summer, dorsal pelage is brownish, dusky gray, or even rusty; ventral pelage, under chin, and sometime feet are white. Most populations have a white fur in winter, although underfur remains gray, and white is restricted to hair tips. Some populations along the Pacific coast of North America are polymorphic because part of the population remains brownish in winter. Autumn molt occurs in August—=November, and spring molt occurs in March—June.","Various forest types of conifers, aspen, birch, beech, maple, and mixed hardwoods. The Snowshoe Hare prefers subclimax forest, transition zones, and swamp edges. Its populations reach peak numbers after fire when shrub and regrowth cover becomes dense, and lowest densities occur when forests mature and ground cover becomes sparse. The Snowshoe Hare favors edge habitat but avoids open habitat. It is not found as a relict species in small isolated patches of forest. A study showed that Snowshoe Hares use multiple vegetation types even when food and cover are apparently abundant in a single habitat.","The Snowshoe Hare eats grasses, sedges, dandelions, ferns, and different herbs in summer. Its winter diet includes birch, spruce, willow, tamarack, and pine. Regular runways are used to reach favored feeding areas.","Reproductive season of the Snowshoe Hare occurs in March-September and is primarily controlled by photoperiod. Weather and phase of the population cycle, typical of Snowshoe Hares, can affect beginning of the reproductive season by c.3 weeks in Alberta. Onset of breeding was early in years with high spring temperatures and fewer days of snow cover. The Snowshoe Hare is promiscuous. Gestation is ¢.36 days. Two litters per year are typical in northern parts ofits distribution and at high elevations; 3—4 litters/year are typical in central parts of its distribution. Litter size increases by c.1 young from the first litter of the season to later litters, and regionally from c.2-2 young to c.6 young. Females have 7-5-17-9 young/year. Young start hopping at c.2 days old and dig at c.5 days old. Young gather at nursing places 1-2 hours after sunset and are nursed for 2-5 minutes immediately after females arrive. Young begin to eat solid food at 6-8 days old.",The Snowshoe Hare is nocturnal and rests in forms that provide cover during the day.,"Home range sizes of Snowshoe Hares are 5-9-13 ha in thick cover. Females have smaller home ranges than males, and adults have larger home ranges thanjuveniles. In the northern part of the distribution, populations cycle every 8-11 years, with peak densities up to 300 times higher than during the lowest phases but normal ranges are 10-30 times higher. Population cycles are synchronous over wide geographical areas. Causes that trigger population crashes are food scarcity due to the high densities during population peaks and predators, or only effects of predation pressure such as the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) wellknown case. Southern populations of Snowshoe Hares appear to be non-cyclic, or they fluctuate with reduced amplitude. The Snowshoe Hare has a clear dominance hierarchy. Males are more frequently involved in more intense interactions than females. Males are more dominant during winter, and females are more dominant during the breeding season in summer.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Snowshoe Hare is widespread, and its populations are stable. The population in Canada and Alaska is continuous, but they are fragmented further south in the contiguous USA. Some concern exists about status of populations in the south-eastern USA where the distributional limit might be receding northward due to habitat loss, fragmentation, increase in predator numbers, and perhaps climate change and resulting loss of snow cover. Status of distinct populations along the Pacific coast of North America is unclear. The Snowshoe Hare is an important game animal and a forestry pest. The Snowshoe Hare in New Mexico (USA) is in need of enhanced management and conservation attention due to restricted distribution and low densities.","Adams (1959) | Banfield (1974) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Cary & Keith (1979) | Cheng et al. (2015) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Feierabend & Kielland (2014) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Frey & Malaney (2006) | Graf (1985) | Graf & Sinclair (1987) | Grange (1932, 1957) | Hall (1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Keith (1981, 1983) | Krebs et al. (2014) | Lomolino et al. (1989) | Long (2003) | Murray (2003) | Murray & Smith (2008a) | Nagorsen (1985) | Nelson (1909) | Nice et al. (1956) | O'Farrell (1965) | Pietz & Tester (1983) | Sinclair et al. (1988)",,"46.Snowshoe HareLepus americanusFrench:Lievre dAmérique/ German:Schneeschuhhase/ Spanish:Liebre americanaOther common names:Snowshoe Rabbit, Varying HareTaxonomy.Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777, “in America boreeli, ad fretum Hudsonis copiosissimus.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Fort Severn,” Ontario, Canada.It is taxonomically distinct from other species of Lepusand does not hybridize with any of them. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Recognition of subspecies might not be justified by the fact that variation is clinal and follows climatic gradients. Fifteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.americanusErxleben,1777—C&ECanada(SENorthwestTerritories,SENunavut,mostAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,S&SEOntario,Quebec,L.a.,andNewfoundland),alsoinNCUSA(NEMontanaandNorthDakota).L.a.bairdiiHayden,1869—SWCanada(SEBritishColumbiaandSWAlberta)andWCUSA(W&CMontana,Idaho,W&SCWyoming,NE&CUtah,NW&CColorado,andNCNewMexico).L.a.cascadensisNelson,1907—SWCanada(SCBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(SC,C&NCWashington).L.a.columbiensisRhoads,1895—RockyMtsinSWCanada(SEBritishColumbia,WCAlberta),andNWUSA(NEtipofWashington).L.a.dalliMerriam,1900—Alaska(USA)andNWCanada(NWAlberta,NBritishColumbia,YukonexcepttheNtip,S&WNorthwestTerritories).L.a.klamathensisMerriam,1899—WUSA(SWOregonandNCalifornia).L.a.oregonusOrr,1934—WUSA(NE&COregon).L.a.pallidusCowan,1938—SWCanada(WC&CBritishColumbia).L.a.phaeonotusJ.A.Allen,1899—WGreatL.a.RegioninSCCanada(SEtipofSaskatchewan,SManitoba,SWOntario)andNCUSA(NEtipofNorthDakota,Minnesota,NWisconsin,andNMichigan).L.a.pineusDalquest,1942—SWCanada(SCtipofBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(EWashington,NIdaho,NWtipofMontana).L.a.seclususBaker&Hankins,1950—NCUSA(SCtipofMontana,NCtipofWyoming).L.a.struthopusBangs,1898—ECanada(EQuebec,NewBrunswick,NovaScotia,PrinceEdwardI)andNEUSA(Maine).L.a.tahoensisOrr,1933—WUSA(ECCaliforniaandWCNevada).L.a.virgtnianusHarlan,1825—SECanada(SOntario,SQuebec)andNE&EUSA(fromMainetoPennsylvaniaandextremeNEOhio,TennesseeandNorthCarolina).L. a. washingtonBaird, 1855 — SW Canada (SW tip of British Columbia) and NW USA (W Washington and W Oregon).The Snowshoe Hare has been introduced by founder individuals of unknown subspecies affiliation to Kodiak I (Alaska) and Anticosti I (Quebec, Canada).Descriptive notes.Head-body 360-520 mm,tail 25-55 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 112-150 mm; weight 1.1-1.6 kg. The Snowshoe Hare is the smallest species of Lepus, with small ears and large hindfeet. In summer, dorsal pelage is brownish, dusky gray, or even rusty; ventral pelage, under chin, and sometime feet are white. Most populations have a white fur in winter, although underfur remains gray, and white is restricted to hair tips. Some populations along the Pacific coast of North America are polymorphic because part of the population remains brownish in winter. Autumn molt occurs in August—=November, and spring molt occurs in March—June.Habitat.Various forest types of conifers, aspen, birch, beech, maple, and mixed hardwoods. The Snowshoe Hare prefers subclimax forest, transition zones, and swamp edges. Its populations reach peak numbers after fire when shrub and regrowth cover becomes dense, and lowest densities occur when forests mature and ground cover becomes sparse. The Snowshoe Hare favors edge habitat but avoids open habitat. It is not found as a relict species in small isolated patches of forest. A study showed that Snowshoe Hares use multiple vegetation types even when food and cover are apparently abundant in a single habitat.Food and Feeding.The Snowshoe Hare eats grasses, sedges, dandelions, ferns, and different herbs in summer. Its winter diet includes birch, spruce, willow, tamarack, and pine. Regular runways are used to reach favored feeding areas.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Snowshoe Hare occurs in March-September and is primarily controlled by photoperiod. Weather and phase of the population cycle, typical of Snowshoe Hares, can affect beginning of the reproductive season by c.3 weeks in Alberta. Onset of breeding was early in years with high spring temperatures and fewer days of snow cover. The Snowshoe Hare is promiscuous. Gestation is ¢.36 days. Two litters per year are typical in northern parts ofits distribution and at high elevations; 3—4 litters/year are typical in central parts of its distribution. Litter size increases by c.1 young from the first litter of the season to later litters, and regionally from c.2-2 young to c.6 young. Females have 7-5-17-9 young/year. Young start hopping at c.2 days old and dig at c.5 days old. Young gather at nursing places 1-2 hours after sunset and are nursed for 2-5 minutes immediately after females arrive. Young begin to eat solid food at 6-8 days old.Activity patterns.The Snowshoe Hare is nocturnal and rests in forms that provide cover during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes of Snowshoe Hares are 5-9-13 ha in thick cover. Females have smaller home ranges than males, and adults have larger home ranges thanjuveniles. In the northern part of the distribution, populations cycle every 8-11 years, with peak densities up to 300 times higher than during the lowest phases but normal ranges are 10-30 times higher. Population cycles are synchronous over wide geographical areas. Causes that trigger population crashes are food scarcity due to the high densities during population peaks and predators, or only effects of predation pressure such as the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) wellknown case. Southern populations of Snowshoe Hares appear to be non-cyclic, or they fluctuate with reduced amplitude. The Snowshoe Hare has a clear dominance hierarchy. Males are more frequently involved in more intense interactions than females. Males are more dominant during winter, and females are more dominant during the breeding season in summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Snowshoe Hare is widespread, and its populations are stable. The population in Canada and Alaska is continuous, but they are fragmented further south in the contiguous USA. Some concern exists about status of populations in the south-eastern USA where the distributional limit might be receding northward due to habitat loss, fragmentation, increase in predator numbers, and perhaps climate change and resulting loss of snow cover. Status of distinct populations along the Pacific coast of North America is unclear. The Snowshoe Hare is an important game animal and a forestry pest. The Snowshoe Hare in New Mexico (USA) is in need of enhanced management and conservation attention due to restricted distribution and low densities.Bibliography.Adams (1959), Banfield (1974), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Cary & Keith (1979), Cheng et al. (2015), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Feierabend & Kielland (2014), Flux & Angermann (1990), Frey & Malaney (2006), Graf (1985), Graf & Sinclair (1987), Grange (1932, 1957), Hall (1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Keith (1981, 1983), Krebs et al. (2014), Lomolino et al. (1989), Long (2003), Murray (2003), Murray & Smith (2008a), Nagorsen (1985), Nelson (1909), Nice et al. (1956), O'Farrell (1965), Pietz & Tester (1983), Sinclair et al. (1988)." +03822308B75BFFE4FAF7F8FAF583FCEB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,135,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75BFFE4FAF7F8FAF583FCEB.xml,Lepus californicus,Lepus,californicus,Gray,1837,Lievre de Californie @fr | Eselhase @de | Liebre de cola negra @es | California Jackrabbit @en,"Lepus californicus Gray, 1837, “St. Antoine [probably near Mission of San Antonio, California, USA].”Lepus insularisis an insular melanistic allospecies and closely related to L. californicus. It is still under debate whether or not L. insularisdeserves species status or represents an isolated population of L. californicus. In southern Arizona, L. californicusand L. allenilive in sympatry. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seventeen subspecies recognized.","L. c. californicus Gray, 1837— SW Oregon, and NW California (W USA).L. c. altamirae Nelson, 1904— SE Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. asellus Miller, 1899— SE Coahuila, NE, S Nuevo Leon, E & SE Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, NE tip ofJalisco, N Guanajuato, and NW Querétaro (NC Mexico).L. c. bennettiz Gray, 1843— SW California (SW USA), and NW Baja California (NW Mexico).L. c. curts Hall, 1951— Is along the coast of Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. deserticola Mearns, 1896— SE Oregon, S Idaho, SW Montana, NE & E California, Nevada, Utah except SE, and NW, W & SW Arizona (W & SW USA), and NW Sonora and NE Baja California (NW Mexico). The population in SW Montanais isolated.L. c. eremicus J. A. Allen, 1894— S Arizona (SW USA), N Sonora except extreme NW, NW Chihuahua (N Mexico).L. c. festinus Nelson, 1904— S Querétaro, Hidalgo, and N State of Mexico (C Mexico).L. c. magdalenae Nelson, 1907— Magdalena I, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. martirensis Stowell, 1895—Baja California except NW & NE and NE Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. melanotis Mearns, 1890— S South Dakota, SE Wyoming, Nebraska, E Colorado, Kansas, W Missouri, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma, W Arkansas, and N Texas (C USA). An isolated population exists in E Oklahoma.L. c. merriami Mearns, 1896— S Texas (S USA), and NE Coahuila, N Tamaulipas, and N Nuevo Leon (NE Mexico).L. c. richardsonii Bachman, 1839— C California (SW USA).L. c. sheldoni Burt, 1933— Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. texianus Waterhouse, 1848— SE Utah, SW Colorado, NE Arizona, New Mexico except the NE, and W Texas (C USA), Chihuahua except the NW, W, & SW extremes, W Coahuila, E Durango, and NW Zacatecas (NC Mexico).L. c. wallawalla Merriam, 1904— S Washington, C & W Oregon, NE California, and NW Nevada (NW USA).L. ¢. xanti Thomas, 1898— Baja California Sur except the NE (NW Mexico).The Black-tailed Jackrabbit has been introduced into Massachusetts, NewJersey, Maryland, Virginia, and S Florida.","Head—body 520-610 mm, tail 75-101 mm, ear 100-130 mm, hindfoot 113-135 mm; weight 1.5-3.6 kg. The Black-tailed Jackrabbitis lean and mediumsized, with soft fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grizzled brown, sides are brownish, and ventral fur is pale. Hindlegs and ears are relatively long, and tail is large, with black stripe above and buffy or grayish below. Color varies considerably among populations. Differences in color and other characteristics relate to corresponding changes in climate; soil color might influence fur color. On the Guadiana lava filed in Durango, Mexico, fur is browner than on those individuals from northern Durango. In Kansas (USA), sexual dimorphism in mass and length has been noted; females are larger than males. Body size of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is larger on islands around Baja California, except the population on Carmen Island that is smaller than adjacent populations. Annual molt begins between late August and early October, depending on latitude, and short summer hair is replaced by longer winter hair. Ear lengths of Black-tailed Jackrabbits vary geographically with temperature. Ears are longer in the south than in the north; longer ears are probably used to dissipate heat. Rectal glands in males and females secrete strong musky odors, but their functions are unknown. No physical change is noticeable during the breeding period; even mammae remain flat in lactating females.","Arid tropics, deserts, and transitional habitats at elevations of -84 m in Death Valley, California, USA, to 3750 m. Black-tailed Jackrabbits favor heavily grazed areas, or where grasses are not abundant and cacti and low shrubs are scattered. They inhabit open habitats with mesquite (Prosopis), sagebrush (Artemisia), desert scrub, and open pine (Pinus)—juniper (Juniperus) in Arizona. They avoid areas of tall grass or forest where visibility is obscured. Where Black-tailed Jackrabbits and Antelope Jackrabbits (L. alleni) live in sympatry, they are often seen togethersitting under the same bush or running away side by side. Antelope Jackrabbits are more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations, and Black-tailed Jackrabbits are more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and in barren chaparral desert.","Diet of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit varies among locations and seasons, but grasses and sedges are primarily eaten in summer. In Utah,it ate nearly all plant species available, including sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata, Asteraceae) and shadscale (Atriplexconfertifolia), Nuttall’s saltbush (A. nuttalliz), winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), and saltlover (Halogetonglomeratus) all Amaranthaceae. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit also eats fungi, gravel, or sand, and it has been reported to feed on horse carcasses in Texas and Tamaulipas. During winter or in desert areas, the main food is dry and woody plant parts such as broom snakeweed (Gutierreziasarothrae, Asteraceae) and creosote bush (Larreatridentate, Zygophyllaceae). There is no evidence that the Blacktailed Jackrabbit drinks free water. In dry habitats, succulent plants and cacti are increasingly eaten as drought conditions increase. Shade seeking reduces heat load and need for water. Other factors that contribute to reducing water loss are insulation and reflectivity of pelage. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit can damage agricultural crops. In Kansas (USA), most crop damage was restricted to fields near resting areas, and buffer fields reduced damage. While feeding, Black-tailed Jackrabbits move slowly and are constantly alert for sings of danger. They rely on hearing more than on other sense to detect danger. Black-tailed Jackrabbits rear up on their hindfeet to browse on bushes.","Reproductive season of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit depends on latitude. In California, males are sexually active in all months of the year, but in Kansas, they are active in December—August. Breeding season is shortest in regions with severe winters (e.g. 128 days in Idaho) and longest in areas with warmer winters (e.g. 220 days in Kansas and more than 300 days in Arizona). A sexually active male Black-tailed Jackrabbit seeks a female with his nose close to the ground. Courtship behavior includes circling, hunting, approaching, chasing, jumping with urine emission, and boxing; copulation usually follows. These complex sequences of behavior may be repeated a couple of times. Breeding is promiscuous. Copulation occurs repeatedly, which induces ovulation. Gestation is c.43 days.Litter size is positively correlated with latitude and averages c.2 young in Arizona, c.3 young in Kansas and Nevada, and c.5 young in Idaho and California. Maximum number of young per litter is seven in California, Idaho, and Nevada. Litter size is dependent on environmental conditions during a particular year, quantity of precipitation, and time of the year; largest litters occur in the middle or end of the breeding period. There are 3-8—4-4 litters/year in Kansas and 3-6 litters/ year in Arizona. Postpartum estrus occurs, but consistent postpartum breeding does not occur in Kansas. Young are placed put in prepared nests with some hair for lining or in nests resembling shelters under bushes when soil is hard. Young are fully furred, and eyes are open at birth. Pelage of young is brown and richer in color than mothers’ pelage. Ear tips and tail are black. Dark natal fur gradually is replaced by paler immature pelage. Adult pelage occurs in the first winter when young are 6-9 months old. Young are nursed exclusively for their first ten days of life, and solid food is gradually eaten; they are weaned at 12-13 weeks of age. Until young are c.1 week old, they suckle lying on their backs, with their hindfeet around their mothers’ necks; then, nursing position changes to an upright posture. Newborns stay close to their birthplace for their first two days oflife; they gradually enlarge their home ranges and spend a lot of time digging. Females stay some distance away and moveto their litters only at night to nurse. Early-born females might breed in their first year of birth.","The Black-tailed Jackrabbit is primarily nocturnal, with activity peaks at 04:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. Feeding periods vary greatly with weather, season, and moon phase. Wind is the most important weather factor limiting activity. Calm and dry evenings are more favorable for longer feeding periods than windy and wet evenings. Falling snow and fog limit nocturnal activities, but rain and temperature have little effect on movement. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit often builds forms to protect itself from heat during the day by making excavations in sand under vegetation. In the Mojave Desert, USA, the Black-tailed Jackrabbit retreats to burrows during hot summer days but only for 3-5 hours in the afternoon. Self-constructed burrows begin as forms and gradually are deepened by digging during hot afternoons. After several days, burrows are deep enough to enclose an individual. Some Black-tailed Jackrabbits also use holes dug by prairie dogs (Cynomys) or American Badgers (Taxidea taxus). Burrows are not used during high winds or cold weather, even though they are typically available.","Black-tailed Jackrabbits do not usually migrate, but one population in Utah migrates to and from traditional wintering areas. There are noticeable changes in numbers of Black-tailed Jackrabbits throughout the year that might be caused by movements to areas with more food or favorable temperatures. Daily movements vary depending on distances between resting and feeding areas. These distances might be short or as long as 16 km. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit makes conspicuous trails and runaways through brush, weeds, meadows, and fields and over dusty or sandy surfaces of desert valleys. Home range sizes are 20-140 ha, and females have larger home ranges than males. In Kansas, home ranges ofjuveniles (4-28 ha, mean 14 ha) were smaller than adults (5-78 ha, mean 17 ha). In Idaho, similar home range sizes were recorded, and c.18% of the population disperses over large distances. Black-tailed Jackrabbits avoid entering water, but they will move across rivers at ice jams or forage on vegetation in 5 cm of water. Black-tailed Jackrabbits are not gregarious; however, groups of 2-5 individuals occur during the breeding season, and groups as large as 200-250 individuals aggregate to feed in winter. There is no social organization among individuals at the same feeding ground. Normally, individuals close together ignore each other, but they might butt, bite, jump into the air, run in circles at high speed around each other, or simply avoid each other. Females often attack other individuals that approach within 5-10 m. This antagonism leads to spacing and might be a type of territorial behavior. The only family structure exists between mother and young as long as nursing occurs. Male Black-tailed Jackrabbits frequently fight by rearing up on their hindlegs and striking each other with their forefeet. Biting, especially on the ears, also occurs. Females sometimes react aggressively to approaching males with low growls or grunts.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Blacktailed Jackrabbit is widespread, and its distribution is expanding. Because the Blacktailed Jackrabbit adapts well to overgrazed areas, it seems to expand at the expense of the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendii) in the north-east and the White-sided Jackrabbit (L. callotis) and Antelope Jackrabbit in the south of its distribution. Major threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and humaninduced fires. Research is needed to definitively classify subspecies and on interactions among Black-tailed Jackrabbits and other sympatric jackrabbits (i.e. White-tailed Jackrabbit, White-sided Jackrabbit, and Antelope Jackrabbit).","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008g) | Angermann (2016) | Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011) | Bailey (1936) | Baker (1956, 1960) | Bednarz & Cook (1984) | Best (1996) | Blackburn (1973) | Bronson & Tiemeier (1958a, 1958b) | Burt (1934) | Cahalane (1939) | Corbet (1983) | Costa et al. (1976) | Couch (1928) | Currie & Goodwin (1966) | Desmond (2004) | Dice (1926) | Dickerson (1917) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Feldhamer (1979) | Flinders & Chapman (2003) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | French et al. (1965) | Griffing (1974) | Grinnell (1937) | Gross et al. (1974) | Hall (1946, 1981) | Harestad & Bunnell (1979) | Haskell & Reynolds (1947) | Hawbecker (1942) | Hill & Veghte (1976) | Hoagland (1992) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Jones et al. (1983) | Lawlor (1982) | Lechleitner (1958a, 1958b, 1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long, J.L. (2003) | Long, W.S. (1940) | Maser et al. (1988) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965) | Seton (1928) | Smith et al. (2002) | Steinberger & Whitford (1983) | Stoddart (1984) | Swarth (1929) | Westoby (1980)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625808/files/figure.png,"47.Black-tailed JackrabbitLepus californicusFrench:Lievre de Californie/ German:Eselhase/ Spanish:Liebre de cola negraOther common names:California JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus californicus Gray, 1837, “St. Antoine [probably near Mission of San Antonio, California, USA].”Lepus insularisis an insular melanistic allospecies and closely related to L. californicus. It is still under debate whether or not L. insularisdeserves species status or represents an isolated population of L. californicus. In southern Arizona, L. californicusand L. allenilive in sympatry. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seventeen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. c. californicus Gray, 1837— SW Oregon, and NW California (W USA).L. c. altamirae Nelson, 1904— SE Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. asellus Miller, 1899— SE Coahuila, NE, S Nuevo Leon, E & SE Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, NE tip ofJalisco, N Guanajuato, and NW Querétaro (NC Mexico).L. c. bennettiz Gray, 1843— SW California (SW USA), and NW Baja California (NW Mexico).L. c. curts Hall, 1951— Is along the coast of Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. deserticola Mearns, 1896— SE Oregon, S Idaho, SW Montana, NE & E California, Nevada, Utah except SE, and NW, W & SW Arizona (W & SW USA), and NW Sonora and NE Baja California (NW Mexico). The population in SW Montanais isolated.L. c. eremicus J. A. Allen, 1894— S Arizona (SW USA), N Sonora except extreme NW, NW Chihuahua (N Mexico).L. c. festinus Nelson, 1904— S Querétaro, Hidalgo, and N State of Mexico (C Mexico).L. c. magdalenae Nelson, 1907— Magdalena I, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. martirensis Stowell, 1895—Baja California except NW & NE and NE Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. melanotis Mearns, 1890— S South Dakota, SE Wyoming, Nebraska, E Colorado, Kansas, W Missouri, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma, W Arkansas, and N Texas (C USA). An isolated population exists in E Oklahoma.L. c. merriami Mearns, 1896— S Texas (S USA), and NE Coahuila, N Tamaulipas, and N Nuevo Leon (NE Mexico).L. c. richardsonii Bachman, 1839— C California (SW USA).L. c. sheldoni Burt, 1933— Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. texianus Waterhouse, 1848— SE Utah, SW Colorado, NE Arizona, New Mexico except the NE, and W Texas (C USA), Chihuahua except the NW, W, & SW extremes, W Coahuila, E Durango, and NW Zacatecas (NC Mexico).L. c. wallawalla Merriam, 1904— S Washington, C & W Oregon, NE California, and NW Nevada (NW USA).L. ¢. xanti Thomas, 1898— Baja California Sur except the NE (NW Mexico).The Black-tailed Jackrabbit has been introduced into Massachusetts, NewJersey, Maryland, Virginia, and S Florida.Descriptive notes.Head—body 520-610 mm, tail 75-101 mm, ear 100-130 mm, hindfoot 113-135 mm; weight 1.5-3.6 kg. The Black-tailed Jackrabbitis lean and mediumsized, with soft fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grizzled brown, sides are brownish, and ventral fur is pale. Hindlegs and ears are relatively long, and tail is large, with black stripe above and buffy or grayish below. Color varies considerably among populations. Differences in color and other characteristics relate to corresponding changes in climate; soil color might influence fur color. On the Guadiana lava filed in Durango, Mexico, fur is browner than on those individuals from northern Durango. In Kansas (USA), sexual dimorphism in mass and length has been noted; females are larger than males. Body size of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is larger on islands around Baja California, except the population on Carmen Island that is smaller than adjacent populations. Annual molt begins between late August and early October, depending on latitude, and short summer hair is replaced by longer winter hair. Ear lengths of Black-tailed Jackrabbits vary geographically with temperature. Ears are longer in the south than in the north; longer ears are probably used to dissipate heat. Rectal glands in males and females secrete strong musky odors, but their functions are unknown. No physical change is noticeable during the breeding period; even mammae remain flat in lactating females.Habitat.Arid tropics, deserts, and transitional habitats at elevations of -84 m in Death Valley, California, USA, to 3750 m. Black-tailed Jackrabbits favor heavily grazed areas, or where grasses are not abundant and cacti and low shrubs are scattered. They inhabit open habitats with mesquite (Prosopis), sagebrush (Artemisia), desert scrub, and open pine (Pinus)—juniper (Juniperus) in Arizona. They avoid areas of tall grass or forest where visibility is obscured. Where Black-tailed Jackrabbits and Antelope Jackrabbits (L. alleni) live in sympatry, they are often seen togethersitting under the same bush or running away side by side. Antelope Jackrabbits are more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations, and Black-tailed Jackrabbits are more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and in barren chaparral desert.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit varies among locations and seasons, but grasses and sedges are primarily eaten in summer. In Utah,it ate nearly all plant species available, including sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata, Asteraceae) and shadscale (Atriplexconfertifolia), Nuttall’s saltbush (A. nuttalliz), winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), and saltlover (Halogetonglomeratus) all Amaranthaceae. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit also eats fungi, gravel, or sand, and it has been reported to feed on horse carcasses in Texas and Tamaulipas. During winter or in desert areas, the main food is dry and woody plant parts such as broom snakeweed (Gutierreziasarothrae, Asteraceae) and creosote bush (Larreatridentate, Zygophyllaceae). There is no evidence that the Blacktailed Jackrabbit drinks free water. In dry habitats, succulent plants and cacti are increasingly eaten as drought conditions increase. Shade seeking reduces heat load and need for water. Other factors that contribute to reducing water loss are insulation and reflectivity of pelage. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit can damage agricultural crops. In Kansas (USA), most crop damage was restricted to fields near resting areas, and buffer fields reduced damage. While feeding, Black-tailed Jackrabbits move slowly and are constantly alert for sings of danger. They rely on hearing more than on other sense to detect danger. Black-tailed Jackrabbits rear up on their hindfeet to browse on bushes.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit depends on latitude. In California, males are sexually active in all months of the year, but in Kansas, they are active in December—August. Breeding season is shortest in regions with severe winters (e.g. 128 days in Idaho) and longest in areas with warmer winters (e.g. 220 days in Kansas and more than 300 days in Arizona). A sexually active male Black-tailed Jackrabbit seeks a female with his nose close to the ground. Courtship behavior includes circling, hunting, approaching, chasing, jumping with urine emission, and boxing; copulation usually follows. These complex sequences of behavior may be repeated a couple of times. Breeding is promiscuous. Copulation occurs repeatedly, which induces ovulation. Gestation is c.43 days.Litter size is positively correlated with latitude and averages c.2 young in Arizona, c.3 young in Kansas and Nevada, and c.5 young in Idaho and California. Maximum number of young per litter is seven in California, Idaho, and Nevada. Litter size is dependent on environmental conditions during a particular year, quantity of precipitation, and time of the year; largest litters occur in the middle or end of the breeding period. There are 3-8—4-4 litters/year in Kansas and 3-6 litters/ year in Arizona. Postpartum estrus occurs, but consistent postpartum breeding does not occur in Kansas. Young are placed put in prepared nests with some hair for lining or in nests resembling shelters under bushes when soil is hard. Young are fully furred, and eyes are open at birth. Pelage of young is brown and richer in color than mothers’ pelage. Ear tips and tail are black. Dark natal fur gradually is replaced by paler immature pelage. Adult pelage occurs in the first winter when young are 6-9 months old. Young are nursed exclusively for their first ten days of life, and solid food is gradually eaten; they are weaned at 12-13 weeks of age. Until young are c.1 week old, they suckle lying on their backs, with their hindfeet around their mothers’ necks; then, nursing position changes to an upright posture. Newborns stay close to their birthplace for their first two days oflife; they gradually enlarge their home ranges and spend a lot of time digging. Females stay some distance away and moveto their litters only at night to nurse. Early-born females might breed in their first year of birth.Activity patterns.The Black-tailed Jackrabbit is primarily nocturnal, with activity peaks at 04:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. Feeding periods vary greatly with weather, season, and moon phase. Wind is the most important weather factor limiting activity. Calm and dry evenings are more favorable for longer feeding periods than windy and wet evenings. Falling snow and fog limit nocturnal activities, but rain and temperature have little effect on movement. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit often builds forms to protect itself from heat during the day by making excavations in sand under vegetation. In the Mojave Desert, USA, the Black-tailed Jackrabbit retreats to burrows during hot summer days but only for 3-5 hours in the afternoon. Self-constructed burrows begin as forms and gradually are deepened by digging during hot afternoons. After several days, burrows are deep enough to enclose an individual. Some Black-tailed Jackrabbits also use holes dug by prairie dogs (Cynomys) or American Badgers (Taxidea taxus). Burrows are not used during high winds or cold weather, even though they are typically available.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black-tailed Jackrabbits do not usually migrate, but one population in Utah migrates to and from traditional wintering areas. There are noticeable changes in numbers of Black-tailed Jackrabbits throughout the year that might be caused by movements to areas with more food or favorable temperatures. Daily movements vary depending on distances between resting and feeding areas. These distances might be short or as long as 16 km. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit makes conspicuous trails and runaways through brush, weeds, meadows, and fields and over dusty or sandy surfaces of desert valleys. Home range sizes are 20-140 ha, and females have larger home ranges than males. In Kansas, home ranges ofjuveniles (4-28 ha, mean 14 ha) were smaller than adults (5-78 ha, mean 17 ha). In Idaho, similar home range sizes were recorded, and c.18% of the population disperses over large distances. Black-tailed Jackrabbits avoid entering water, but they will move across rivers at ice jams or forage on vegetation in 5 cm of water. Black-tailed Jackrabbits are not gregarious; however, groups of 2-5 individuals occur during the breeding season, and groups as large as 200-250 individuals aggregate to feed in winter. There is no social organization among individuals at the same feeding ground. Normally, individuals close together ignore each other, but they might butt, bite, jump into the air, run in circles at high speed around each other, or simply avoid each other. Females often attack other individuals that approach within 5-10 m. This antagonism leads to spacing and might be a type of territorial behavior. The only family structure exists between mother and young as long as nursing occurs. Male Black-tailed Jackrabbits frequently fight by rearing up on their hindlegs and striking each other with their forefeet. Biting, especially on the ears, also occurs. Females sometimes react aggressively to approaching males with low growls or grunts.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Blacktailed Jackrabbit is widespread, and its distribution is expanding. Because the Blacktailed Jackrabbit adapts well to overgrazed areas, it seems to expand at the expense of the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendii) in the north-east and the White-sided Jackrabbit (L. callotis) and Antelope Jackrabbit in the south of its distribution. Major threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and humaninduced fires. Research is needed to definitively classify subspecies and on interactions among Black-tailed Jackrabbits and other sympatric jackrabbits (i.e. White-tailed Jackrabbit, White-sided Jackrabbit, and Antelope Jackrabbit).Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008g), Angermann (2016), Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011), Bailey (1936), Baker (1956, 1960), Bednarz & Cook (1984), Best (1996), Blackburn (1973), Bronson & Tiemeier (1958a, 1958b), Burt (1934), Cahalane (1939), Corbet (1983), Costa et al. (1976), Couch (1928), Currie & Goodwin (1966), Desmond (2004), Dice (1926), Dickerson (1917), Dixon et al. (1983), Dunn et al. (1982), Feldhamer (1979), Flinders & Chapman (2003), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), French et al. (1965), Griffing (1974), Grinnell (1937), Gross et al. (1974), Hall (1946, 1981), Harestad & Bunnell (1979), Haskell & Reynolds (1947), Hawbecker (1942), Hill & Veghte (1976), Hoagland (1992), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister (1986), Jones et al. (1983), Lawlor (1982), Lechleitner (1958a, 1958b, 1959), Lissovsky (2016), Long, J.L. (2003), Long, W.S. (1940), Maser et al. (1988), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965), Seton (1928), Smith et al. (2002), Steinberger & Whitford (1983), Stoddart (1984), Swarth (1929), Westoby (1980)." +03822308B75BFFE5FFC9FDEDF919F0A2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,135,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75BFFE5FFC9FDEDF919F0A2.xml,Lepus americanus,Lepus,americanus,Erxleben,1777,Lievre d Amérique @fr | Schneeschuhhase @de | Liebre americana @es | Snowshoe Rabbit @en | Varying Hare @en,"Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777, “in America boreeli, ad fretum Hudsonis copiosissimus.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Fort Severn,” Ontario, Canada.It is taxonomically distinct from other species of Lepusand does not hybridize with any of them. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Recognition of subspecies might not be justified by the fact that variation is clinal and follows climatic gradients. Fifteen subspecies recognized.","L.a.americanusErxleben,1777—C&ECanada(SENorthwestTerritories,SENunavut,mostAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,S&SEOntario,Quebec,L.a.,andNewfoundland),alsoinNCUSA(NEMontanaandNorthDakota).L.a.bairdiiHayden,1869—SWCanada(SEBritishColumbiaandSWAlberta)andWCUSA(W&CMontana,Idaho,W&SCWyoming,NE&CUtah,NW&CColorado,andNCNewMexico).L.a.cascadensisNelson,1907—SWCanada(SCBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(SC,C&NCWashington).L.a.columbiensisRhoads,1895—RockyMtsinSWCanada(SEBritishColumbia,WCAlberta),andNWUSA(NEtipofWashington).L.a.dalliMerriam,1900—Alaska(USA)andNWCanada(NWAlberta,NBritishColumbia,YukonexcepttheNtip,S&WNorthwestTerritories).L.a.klamathensisMerriam,1899—WUSA(SWOregonandNCalifornia).L.a.oregonusOrr,1934—WUSA(NE&COregon).L.a.pallidusCowan,1938—SWCanada(WC&CBritishColumbia).L.a.phaeonotusJ.A.Allen,1899—WGreatL.a.RegioninSCCanada(SEtipofSaskatchewan,SManitoba,SWOntario)andNCUSA(NEtipofNorthDakota,Minnesota,NWisconsin,andNMichigan).L.a.pineusDalquest,1942—SWCanada(SCtipofBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(EWashington,NIdaho,NWtipofMontana).L.a.seclususBaker&Hankins,1950—NCUSA(SCtipofMontana,NCtipofWyoming).L.a.struthopusBangs,1898—ECanada(EQuebec,NewBrunswick,NovaScotia,PrinceEdwardI)andNEUSA(Maine).L.a.tahoensisOrr,1933—WUSA(ECCaliforniaandWCNevada).L.a.virgtnianusHarlan,1825—SECanada(SOntario,SQuebec)andNE&EUSA(fromMainetoPennsylvaniaandextremeNEOhio,TennesseeandNorthCarolina).L. a. washingtonBaird, 1855 — SW Canada (SW tip of British Columbia) and NW USA (W Washington and W Oregon).The Snowshoe Hare has been introduced by founder individuals of unknown subspecies affiliation to Kodiak I (Alaska) and Anticosti I (Quebec, Canada).","Head-body 360-520 mm,tail 25-55 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 112-150 mm; weight 1.1-1.6 kg. The Snowshoe Hare is the smallest species of Lepus, with small ears and large hindfeet. In summer, dorsal pelage is brownish, dusky gray, or even rusty; ventral pelage, under chin, and sometime feet are white. Most populations have a white fur in winter, although underfur remains gray, and white is restricted to hair tips. Some populations along the Pacific coast of North America are polymorphic because part of the population remains brownish in winter. Autumn molt occurs in August—=November, and spring molt occurs in March—June.","Various forest types of conifers, aspen, birch, beech, maple, and mixed hardwoods. The Snowshoe Hare prefers subclimax forest, transition zones, and swamp edges. Its populations reach peak numbers after fire when shrub and regrowth cover becomes dense, and lowest densities occur when forests mature and ground cover becomes sparse. The Snowshoe Hare favors edge habitat but avoids open habitat. It is not found as a relict species in small isolated patches of forest. A study showed that Snowshoe Hares use multiple vegetation types even when food and cover are apparently abundant in a single habitat.","The Snowshoe Hare eats grasses, sedges, dandelions, ferns, and different herbs in summer. Its winter diet includes birch, spruce, willow, tamarack, and pine. Regular runways are used to reach favored feeding areas.","Reproductive season of the Snowshoe Hare occurs in March-September and is primarily controlled by photoperiod. Weather and phase of the population cycle, typical of Snowshoe Hares, can affect beginning of the reproductive season by c.3 weeks in Alberta. Onset of breeding was early in years with high spring temperatures and fewer days of snow cover. The Snowshoe Hare is promiscuous. Gestation is ¢.36 days. Two litters per year are typical in northern parts ofits distribution and at high elevations; 3—4 litters/year are typical in central parts of its distribution. Litter size increases by c.1 young from the first litter of the season to later litters, and regionally from c.2-2 young to c.6 young. Females have 7-5-17-9 young/year. Young start hopping at c.2 days old and dig at c.5 days old. Young gather at nursing places 1-2 hours after sunset and are nursed for 2-5 minutes immediately after females arrive. Young begin to eat solid food at 6-8 days old.",The Snowshoe Hare is nocturnal and rests in forms that provide cover during the day.,"Home range sizes of Snowshoe Hares are 5-9-13 ha in thick cover. Females have smaller home ranges than males, and adults have larger home ranges thanjuveniles. In the northern part of the distribution, populations cycle every 8-11 years, with peak densities up to 300 times higher than during the lowest phases but normal ranges are 10-30 times higher. Population cycles are synchronous over wide geographical areas. Causes that trigger population crashes are food scarcity due to the high densities during population peaks and predators, or only effects of predation pressure such as the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) wellknown case. Southern populations of Snowshoe Hares appear to be non-cyclic, or they fluctuate with reduced amplitude. The Snowshoe Hare has a clear dominance hierarchy. Males are more frequently involved in more intense interactions than females. Males are more dominant during winter, and females are more dominant during the breeding season in summer.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Snowshoe Hare is widespread, and its populations are stable. The population in Canada and Alaska is continuous, but they are fragmented further south in the contiguous USA. Some concern exists about status of populations in the south-eastern USA where the distributional limit might be receding northward due to habitat loss, fragmentation, increase in predator numbers, and perhaps climate change and resulting loss of snow cover. Status of distinct populations along the Pacific coast of North America is unclear. The Snowshoe Hare is an important game animal and a forestry pest. The Snowshoe Hare in New Mexico (USA) is in need of enhanced management and conservation attention due to restricted distribution and low densities.","Adams (1959) | Banfield (1974) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Cary & Keith (1979) | Cheng et al. (2015) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Feierabend & Kielland (2014) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Frey & Malaney (2006) | Graf (1985) | Graf & Sinclair (1987) | Grange (1932, 1957) | Hall (1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Keith (1981, 1983) | Krebs et al. (2014) | Lomolino et al. (1989) | Long (2003) | Murray (2003) | Murray & Smith (2008a) | Nagorsen (1985) | Nelson (1909) | Nice et al. (1956) | O'Farrell (1965) | Pietz & Tester (1983) | Sinclair et al. (1988)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625645/files/figure.png,"46.Snowshoe HareLepus americanusFrench:Lievre dAmérique/ German:Schneeschuhhase/ Spanish:Liebre americanaOther common names:Snowshoe Rabbit, Varying HareTaxonomy.Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777, “in America boreeli, ad fretum Hudsonis copiosissimus.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Fort Severn,” Ontario, Canada.It is taxonomically distinct from other species of Lepusand does not hybridize with any of them. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Recognition of subspecies might not be justified by the fact that variation is clinal and follows climatic gradients. Fifteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.americanusErxleben,1777—C&ECanada(SENorthwestTerritories,SENunavut,mostAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,S&SEOntario,Quebec,L.a.,andNewfoundland),alsoinNCUSA(NEMontanaandNorthDakota).L.a.bairdiiHayden,1869—SWCanada(SEBritishColumbiaandSWAlberta)andWCUSA(W&CMontana,Idaho,W&SCWyoming,NE&CUtah,NW&CColorado,andNCNewMexico).L.a.cascadensisNelson,1907—SWCanada(SCBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(SC,C&NCWashington).L.a.columbiensisRhoads,1895—RockyMtsinSWCanada(SEBritishColumbia,WCAlberta),andNWUSA(NEtipofWashington).L.a.dalliMerriam,1900—Alaska(USA)andNWCanada(NWAlberta,NBritishColumbia,YukonexcepttheNtip,S&WNorthwestTerritories).L.a.klamathensisMerriam,1899—WUSA(SWOregonandNCalifornia).L.a.oregonusOrr,1934—WUSA(NE&COregon).L.a.pallidusCowan,1938—SWCanada(WC&CBritishColumbia).L.a.phaeonotusJ.A.Allen,1899—WGreatL.a.RegioninSCCanada(SEtipofSaskatchewan,SManitoba,SWOntario)andNCUSA(NEtipofNorthDakota,Minnesota,NWisconsin,andNMichigan).L.a.pineusDalquest,1942—SWCanada(SCtipofBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(EWashington,NIdaho,NWtipofMontana).L.a.seclususBaker&Hankins,1950—NCUSA(SCtipofMontana,NCtipofWyoming).L.a.struthopusBangs,1898—ECanada(EQuebec,NewBrunswick,NovaScotia,PrinceEdwardI)andNEUSA(Maine).L.a.tahoensisOrr,1933—WUSA(ECCaliforniaandWCNevada).L.a.virgtnianusHarlan,1825—SECanada(SOntario,SQuebec)andNE&EUSA(fromMainetoPennsylvaniaandextremeNEOhio,TennesseeandNorthCarolina).L. a. washingtonBaird, 1855 — SW Canada (SW tip of British Columbia) and NW USA (W Washington and W Oregon).The Snowshoe Hare has been introduced by founder individuals of unknown subspecies affiliation to Kodiak I (Alaska) and Anticosti I (Quebec, Canada).Descriptive notes.Head-body 360-520 mm,tail 25-55 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 112-150 mm; weight 1.1-1.6 kg. The Snowshoe Hare is the smallest species of Lepus, with small ears and large hindfeet. In summer, dorsal pelage is brownish, dusky gray, or even rusty; ventral pelage, under chin, and sometime feet are white. Most populations have a white fur in winter, although underfur remains gray, and white is restricted to hair tips. Some populations along the Pacific coast of North America are polymorphic because part of the population remains brownish in winter. Autumn molt occurs in August—=November, and spring molt occurs in March—June.Habitat.Various forest types of conifers, aspen, birch, beech, maple, and mixed hardwoods. The Snowshoe Hare prefers subclimax forest, transition zones, and swamp edges. Its populations reach peak numbers after fire when shrub and regrowth cover becomes dense, and lowest densities occur when forests mature and ground cover becomes sparse. The Snowshoe Hare favors edge habitat but avoids open habitat. It is not found as a relict species in small isolated patches of forest. A study showed that Snowshoe Hares use multiple vegetation types even when food and cover are apparently abundant in a single habitat.Food and Feeding.The Snowshoe Hare eats grasses, sedges, dandelions, ferns, and different herbs in summer. Its winter diet includes birch, spruce, willow, tamarack, and pine. Regular runways are used to reach favored feeding areas.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Snowshoe Hare occurs in March-September and is primarily controlled by photoperiod. Weather and phase of the population cycle, typical of Snowshoe Hares, can affect beginning of the reproductive season by c.3 weeks in Alberta. Onset of breeding was early in years with high spring temperatures and fewer days of snow cover. The Snowshoe Hare is promiscuous. Gestation is ¢.36 days. Two litters per year are typical in northern parts ofits distribution and at high elevations; 3—4 litters/year are typical in central parts of its distribution. Litter size increases by c.1 young from the first litter of the season to later litters, and regionally from c.2-2 young to c.6 young. Females have 7-5-17-9 young/year. Young start hopping at c.2 days old and dig at c.5 days old. Young gather at nursing places 1-2 hours after sunset and are nursed for 2-5 minutes immediately after females arrive. Young begin to eat solid food at 6-8 days old.Activity patterns.The Snowshoe Hare is nocturnal and rests in forms that provide cover during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes of Snowshoe Hares are 5-9-13 ha in thick cover. Females have smaller home ranges than males, and adults have larger home ranges thanjuveniles. In the northern part of the distribution, populations cycle every 8-11 years, with peak densities up to 300 times higher than during the lowest phases but normal ranges are 10-30 times higher. Population cycles are synchronous over wide geographical areas. Causes that trigger population crashes are food scarcity due to the high densities during population peaks and predators, or only effects of predation pressure such as the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) wellknown case. Southern populations of Snowshoe Hares appear to be non-cyclic, or they fluctuate with reduced amplitude. The Snowshoe Hare has a clear dominance hierarchy. Males are more frequently involved in more intense interactions than females. Males are more dominant during winter, and females are more dominant during the breeding season in summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Snowshoe Hare is widespread, and its populations are stable. The population in Canada and Alaska is continuous, but they are fragmented further south in the contiguous USA. Some concern exists about status of populations in the south-eastern USA where the distributional limit might be receding northward due to habitat loss, fragmentation, increase in predator numbers, and perhaps climate change and resulting loss of snow cover. Status of distinct populations along the Pacific coast of North America is unclear. The Snowshoe Hare is an important game animal and a forestry pest. The Snowshoe Hare in New Mexico (USA) is in need of enhanced management and conservation attention due to restricted distribution and low densities.Bibliography.Adams (1959), Banfield (1974), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Cary & Keith (1979), Cheng et al. (2015), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Feierabend & Kielland (2014), Flux & Angermann (1990), Frey & Malaney (2006), Graf (1985), Graf & Sinclair (1987), Grange (1932, 1957), Hall (1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Keith (1981, 1983), Krebs et al. (2014), Lomolino et al. (1989), Long (2003), Murray (2003), Murray & Smith (2008a), Nagorsen (1985), Nelson (1909), Nice et al. (1956), O'Farrell (1965), Pietz & Tester (1983), Sinclair et al. (1988)." 03822308B75CFFE2FF6AF680F96CF5CD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75CFFE2FF6AF680F96CF5CD.xml,Lepus comus,Lepus,comus,G. M. Allen,1927,Lievre du Yunnan @fr | Yunnan-Hase @de | Liebre de Yunnan @es,"Lepus comus G. M. Allen, 1927, “Teng-yueh [Tengueh], Yunnan Province, China, 5,500 feet [1676 m] altitude.”It was formerly included in L. oiostolusbut received species status due to morphological and ecological differences. It might be allopatric or parapatric with L. oiostolus. Molecular phylogenetics indicate sister relationship between L. comusand L. oiostolus. Existence of three subspecies (comus, pena, and pygmaeus) is often mentioned but not supported by low variation of mtDNA. Monotypic.","NE Myanmar and CS China (Yunnan, except the part SW of the Mekong River, SW Sichuan, and W Guizhou).","Head-body 320-480 mm, tail 95-110 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 98-130 mm; weight 1.8-2.5 kg. The Yunnan Hare is small, with soft long and flat grayish brown dorsal fur. Posterior parts of hips are vaguely gray. Flanks, forelegs, and outer sides of hindlegs are bright ocherous, mixed with yellow. Ventral fur is white. Whitish band extends from mouth to bases of ears, including arches over eyes. Ear tops are black, and insides are pale gray. Tail is dark brown above and light gray tinged with yellow below. Small size and bright fur coloring are considered to be diagnostic.Habitat.High montane pastures at elevations of 1300-3200 m.",High montane pastures at elevations of 1300-3200 m. Habitat preferences of the Yunnan Hare are thought to be similar to those of the Woolly Hare (L. oiostolus) in the Tibetan Plateau.,The Yunnan Hare feeds on forbs and shrubs.,"Reproductive season of the Yunnan Hare normally starts in April, with the first litter appearing in May. Litter sizes are 1-4 young, with an average of two, and females have 2-3 litters/year.","The Yunnan Hare forages primarily at night, but it is also active during the day.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yunnan Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. It is reported to be very common by local inhabitants of the region. Remote habitat of the Yunnan Hare is unlikely to be threatened but increasing agricultural development in valleys might isolate mountain populations. More data are needed to fully understand population trends, behavior, habitat, and taxonomy.","Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982) | Corbet (1978) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008g) | Wu Chunhua, Li Haipeng et al. (2000) | Wu Chunhua, Wu Jianping et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625641/files/figure.png,"44.Yunnan HareLepus comusFrench:Lievre du Yunnan/ German:Yunnan-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de YunnanTaxonomy.Lepus comus G. M. Allen, 1927, “Teng-yueh [Tengueh], Yunnan Province, China, 5,500 feet [1676 m] altitude.”It was formerly included in L. oiostolusbut received species status due to morphological and ecological differences. It might be allopatric or parapatric with L. oiostolus. Molecular phylogenetics indicate sister relationship between L. comusand L. oiostolus. Existence of three subspecies (comus, pena, and pygmaeus) is often mentioned but not supported by low variation of mtDNA. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Myanmar and CS China (Yunnan, except the part SW of the Mekong River, SW Sichuan, and W Guizhou).Descriptive notes.Head-body 320-480 mm, tail 95-110 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 98-130 mm; weight 1.8-2.5 kg. The Yunnan Hare is small, with soft long and flat grayish brown dorsal fur. Posterior parts of hips are vaguely gray. Flanks, forelegs, and outer sides of hindlegs are bright ocherous, mixed with yellow. Ventral fur is white. Whitish band extends from mouth to bases of ears, including arches over eyes. Ear tops are black, and insides are pale gray. Tail is dark brown above and light gray tinged with yellow below. Small size and bright fur coloring are considered to be diagnostic.Habitat.High montane pastures at elevations of 1300-3200 m. Habitat preferences of the Yunnan Hare are thought to be similar to those of the Woolly Hare (L. oiostolus) in the Tibetan Plateau.Food and Feeding.The Yunnan Hare feeds on forbs and shrubs.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Yunnan Hare normally starts in April, with the first litter appearing in May. Litter sizes are 1-4 young, with an average of two, and females have 2-3 litters/year.Activity patterns.The Yunnan Hare forages primarily at night, but it is also active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yunnan Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. It is reported to be very common by local inhabitants of the region. Remote habitat of the Yunnan Hare is unlikely to be threatened but increasing agricultural development in valleys might isolate mountain populations. More data are needed to fully understand population trends, behavior, habitat, and taxonomy.Bibliography.Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982), Corbet (1978), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008g), Wu Chunhua, Li Haipeng et al. (2000), Wu Chunhua, Wu Jianping et al. (2005)." -03822308B75CFFE5FA14FC67FDA9F450,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75CFFE5FA14FC67FDA9F450.xml,Lepus oiostolus,Lepus,oiostolus,Hodgson,1840,Lievre laineux @fr | Tibet-Wollhase @de | Liebre lanuda @es,"Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840, “the snowy region of the Hemalaya, and perhaps also Tibet.” Restricted by Kao Yuehting and Feng Tsochien in 1964 to “Southern Tibet” [Xizang, China].It was formerly placed in the subgenus Proeulagus and Eulagos. Subspecies przewalsku was assigned to L. capensis(= L. tolai) but was later placed in L. oiostolus. Existence of several more subspecies have been proposed, but they appear to be continuously distributed throughout the distribution. Molecular analysis suggested sister relationship between L. oiostolusand L. comus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","L.o.owostolusHodgson,1840—WTibetanPlateau(79°Eto92°E).L.o.hypsibiusBlanford,1875—JammuandKashmir(NWIndia),UpperSutlejValley(SWXizang,China).L.o.pallipesHodgson,1842—C&ETibetanPlateau,NNepal,Sikkim(NEIndia);possiblyalsoinNBhutan.L. o. przewalskii Satunin, 1907— NE & E Tibetan Plateau to Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and N Yunnan (China).","Head—body 400-580 mm, tail 65-125 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 102-140 mm; weight 2.4-3 kg. The Woolly Hare is medium-sized to large, with stocky stature. Fur is thick and soft, with long curly hairs. Fur color varies widely between populations from dark grayish brown to pale sandy yellow. Rump is paler and grayer than dorsal pelage. Eye rings are whitish. Bushy tail is white, with narrow brown stripe above. Ears have dark tips. The Woolly Hare probably molts only once per year so it does not change color in winter.","Upland grasslands of various types, alpine and montane meadows, shrub meadows, dry arid plains, and alpine cold deserts and also montane coniferous and broad-leafed mixed forests in the south-eastern parts ofits distribution, generally at elevations above 2500 m to as high as 5400 m. The Woolly Hare is more abundant in habitats with intermediate cover, and habitats with dense cover are less frequented at high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau. Individuals rest in quiet low areas exposed to the sun and sheltered from wind during rest. They may also take cover in marmot (Marmota) burrows and shelter among rocks.",Diet of the Woolly Hare includes grasses and herbaceous plants.,"Reproductive season of the Woolly Hare starts in April, and females produce two litters per year with 4-6 young each. At high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau, Woolly Hares may only be reproductively active in May-July, with an average litter size of 1-8 young. Annual production of young by a female in high elevations is estimated to be 2-9.",The Woolly Hare is primarily nocturnal but can be active during the day.,The Woolly Hare is reported to have restricted areas during active periods where individuals can be seen night after night. It lives alone but might forage in small groups during the mating season.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Woolly Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Nevertheless, there are no available data on population status. In India, it has been assessed as endangered due to restricted distribution, fragmentation, and habitat loss. In Nepal and China, it is listed as least concern. Major threats to the Woolly Hare are decreases in quality and total area of habitat due to destruction and harvesting of fuel wood. This decrease was estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 but was expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015. In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and thus risk of genetic isolation. The Woolly Hare is hunted for local subsistence and fur trade.","Angermann (1967b, 2016) | Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Sechrest & Daniel (2005) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston (2008) | Kao Yuehting & Feng Tsochien (1964) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lu Xin (2010, 2011) | Smith (2008c) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)",,"45.Woolly HareLepus oiostolusFrench:Lievre laineux/ German:Tibet-Wollhase/ Spanish:Liebre lanudaTaxonomy.Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840, “the snowy region of the Hemalaya, and perhaps also Tibet.” Restricted by Kao Yuehting and Feng Tsochien in 1964 to “Southern Tibet” [Xizang, China].It was formerly placed in the subgenus Proeulagus and Eulagos. Subspecies przewalsku was assigned to L. capensis(= L. tolai) but was later placed in L. oiostolus. Existence of several more subspecies have been proposed, but they appear to be continuously distributed throughout the distribution. Molecular analysis suggested sister relationship between L. oiostolusand L. comus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.o.owostolusHodgson,1840—WTibetanPlateau(79°Eto92°E).L.o.hypsibiusBlanford,1875—JammuandKashmir(NWIndia),UpperSutlejValley(SWXizang,China).L.o.pallipesHodgson,1842—C&ETibetanPlateau,NNepal,Sikkim(NEIndia);possiblyalsoinNBhutan.L. o. przewalskii Satunin, 1907— NE & E Tibetan Plateau to Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and N Yunnan (China).Descriptive notes.Head—body 400-580 mm, tail 65-125 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 102-140 mm; weight 2.4-3 kg. The Woolly Hare is medium-sized to large, with stocky stature. Fur is thick and soft, with long curly hairs. Fur color varies widely between populations from dark grayish brown to pale sandy yellow. Rump is paler and grayer than dorsal pelage. Eye rings are whitish. Bushy tail is white, with narrow brown stripe above. Ears have dark tips. The Woolly Hare probably molts only once per year so it does not change color in winter.Habitat.Upland grasslands of various types, alpine and montane meadows, shrub meadows, dry arid plains, and alpine cold deserts and also montane coniferous and broad-leafed mixed forests in the south-eastern parts ofits distribution, generally at elevations above 2500 m to as high as 5400 m. The Woolly Hare is more abundant in habitats with intermediate cover, and habitats with dense cover are less frequented at high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau. Individuals rest in quiet low areas exposed to the sun and sheltered from wind during rest. They may also take cover in marmot (Marmota) burrows and shelter among rocks.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Woolly Hare includes grasses and herbaceous plants.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Woolly Hare starts in April, and females produce two litters per year with 4-6 young each. At high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau, Woolly Hares may only be reproductively active in May-July, with an average litter size of 1-8 young. Annual production of young by a female in high elevations is estimated to be 2-9.Activity patterns.The Woolly Hare is primarily nocturnal but can be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Woolly Hare is reported to have restricted areas during active periods where individuals can be seen night after night. It lives alone but might forage in small groups during the mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Woolly Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Nevertheless, there are no available data on population status. In India, it has been assessed as endangered due to restricted distribution, fragmentation, and habitat loss. In Nepal and China, it is listed as least concern. Major threats to the Woolly Hare are decreases in quality and total area of habitat due to destruction and harvesting of fuel wood. This decrease was estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 but was expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015. In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and thus risk of genetic isolation. The Woolly Hare is hunted for local subsistence and fur trade.Bibliography.Angermann (1967b, 2016), Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Sechrest & Daniel (2005), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston (2008), Kao Yuehting & Feng Tsochien (1964), Lissovsky (2016), Lu Xin (2010, 2011), Smith (2008c), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." -03822308B75DFFE2FAC9F466FE38FEAD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE2FAC9F466FE38FEAD.xml,Lepus tibetanus,Lepus,tibetanus,Waterhouse,1841,Liévre du désert @fr | Wiistenhase @de | Liebre de desierto @es,"Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 1841, “Little Thibet [= Tibet].” Fixed by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1955 to “Baltistan, Kashmir.”Until the 1930s, L. tibetanushad species status. The first major revision united L. europaeus, L. tolai, and L. tibetanusin a single species. Next, L. tibetanusand L. tolaiwere placed as subspecies of L. capensis. Then, L. tibetanuswas clearly separated from L. tolai, but L. capensiswas still used as the species name. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. It shares some cranial and pelage characteristics with L. oiostolusfrom the adjacent Tibetan Plateau, in contrast to L. capensisor L. tolai. Evaluation of these characteristics across zones of potential contact between the ten taxon pairs comprising L. capensis(sensu lato) and genetic analyses are necessary before taxonomy of species of Lepuscan be resolved. Molecular analysis placed pamirensis back to L. capensisand assigned centrasiaticus to L. tolai. This species is allopatric to parapatric with L. tolai, but they might be sympatric in the Tien Shan Mountains. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Five subspecies recognized.","L.t.tibetanusWaterhouse,1841—UpperIndusValley,inNEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNWIndia.L.t.centrasiaticusSatunin,1907—EXinjiang,Gansu,andWInnerMongolia=NeiMongol(NW&NCChina).L.t.craspedotisBlanford,1875—BalochistanProvince(Pakistan).L.t.pamirensisGunther,1875—ETajikistanandSWXinjiang(China).L. t. stoliczkanus Blanford, 1875— NW Xinjiang (China).","Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 87-109 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 109-135 mm; weight 1.6-2.5 kg. The Desert Hare is slender and has a relatively small head. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow or drab, tinged with black. Hips are grayish, and outsides of hindlegs and forefeet are white. Ears are wide and have black-brown tips. Tail has black-brown stripes above. The Desert Hare has light eye rings. Ventral fur is yellow to white. The Desert Hare has thick and gray to sandy brown fur in winter.","Grassland and shrubs on slopes of riverbanks in desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats from low elevations and perhaps up to subalpine habitats at elevations of 3500-4000 m. Desert Hares use burrows constructed by other animals.","Diet of the Desert Hare includes herbaceous vegetation, seeds, berries, roots, and twigs.",Female Desert Hares have up to three litters per year; litters have 3-10 young.,"The Desert Hare is most active at dusk, but it can also be active during daytime.","There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status. Conservation threats are not known. Research is necessary to clarify population status of the Desert Hare and its taxonomic position relative to other species of Lepus.","Angermann (2016) | Cheng Cheng et al. (2012) | China Red List & Johnston (2008b) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, 1955) | Heptner (1934) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Ognev (1966) | Petter (1959, 1961) | Smith (2008c)",,"43.Desert HareLepus tibetanusFrench:Liévre du désert/ German:Wiistenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de desiertoTaxonomy.Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 1841, “Little Thibet [= Tibet].” Fixed by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1955 to “Baltistan, Kashmir.”Until the 1930s, L. tibetanushad species status. The first major revision united L. europaeus, L. tolai, and L. tibetanusin a single species. Next, L. tibetanusand L. tolaiwere placed as subspecies of L. capensis. Then, L. tibetanuswas clearly separated from L. tolai, but L. capensiswas still used as the species name. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. It shares some cranial and pelage characteristics with L. oiostolusfrom the adjacent Tibetan Plateau, in contrast to L. capensisor L. tolai. Evaluation of these characteristics across zones of potential contact between the ten taxon pairs comprising L. capensis(sensu lato) and genetic analyses are necessary before taxonomy of species of Lepuscan be resolved. Molecular analysis placed pamirensis back to L. capensisand assigned centrasiaticus to L. tolai. This species is allopatric to parapatric with L. tolai, but they might be sympatric in the Tien Shan Mountains. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tibetanusWaterhouse,1841—UpperIndusValley,inNEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNWIndia.L.t.centrasiaticusSatunin,1907—EXinjiang,Gansu,andWInnerMongolia=NeiMongol(NW&NCChina).L.t.craspedotisBlanford,1875—BalochistanProvince(Pakistan).L.t.pamirensisGunther,1875—ETajikistanandSWXinjiang(China).L. t. stoliczkanus Blanford, 1875— NW Xinjiang (China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 87-109 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 109-135 mm; weight 1.6-2.5 kg. The Desert Hare is slender and has a relatively small head. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow or drab, tinged with black. Hips are grayish, and outsides of hindlegs and forefeet are white. Ears are wide and have black-brown tips. Tail has black-brown stripes above. The Desert Hare has light eye rings. Ventral fur is yellow to white. The Desert Hare has thick and gray to sandy brown fur in winter.Habitat.Grassland and shrubs on slopes of riverbanks in desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats from low elevations and perhaps up to subalpine habitats at elevations of 3500-4000 m. Desert Hares use burrows constructed by other animals.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Desert Hare includes herbaceous vegetation, seeds, berries, roots, and twigs.Breeding.Female Desert Hares have up to three litters per year; litters have 3-10 young.Activity patterns.The Desert Hare is most active at dusk, but it can also be active during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status. Conservation threats are not known. Research is necessary to clarify population status of the Desert Hare and its taxonomic position relative to other species of Lepus.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Cheng Cheng et al. (2012), China Red List & Johnston (2008b), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, 1955), Heptner (1934), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Ognev (1966), Petter (1959, 1961), Smith (2008c)." -03822308B75DFFE3FFC3F3E9F6C3FDCA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE3FFC3F3E9F6C3FDCA.xml,Lepus tolai,Lepus,tolai,Pallas,1778,Liévre tolai @fr | Tolai-Hase @de | Liebre tolai @es,"Lepus tolai Pallas, 1778, “Caeterum in montibus aprecis campisque rupestribus vel arenosis circa Selengam...” Restricted by S. I. Ognev in 1940 to “valley of the Selenga River,” Russia. Redefined byJ. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Adinscholo Mountain, near Tchinden [Chinden = Chindant], on Borsja [= Boriya] River, a tributary of the Onon River, Eastern Siberia.”In the past, L. tolaiwas included as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeus. Formerly, L. tolaiincluded L. tibetanusas a subspecies. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists.Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Lepus tolaialso included przewalskii that is now considered a subspecies of L. oiostolus.An unclear situation exists in southern Iraq and south-western Iran. The subspecies cheybani occurs westward to ¢.55°-56° E, while L. capensisarabicus occurs eastward to south-eastern Iraq. Whether or not the two forms come into contact is unknown, but their distributions might be separated by that of L. europaeusconnori in south-western Iran. A molecular analysis separated subspecies swinhoei as an independent species and assigned L. tibetanuscentrasiaticus to L. tolai. The population of L. coreanusin Jilin Province, China, may belong to L. tolai. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.","L.t.tolaiPallas,1778—InnerMongolia(=NeiMongol),andGansu(NCChina).L.t.buchariensisOgnev,1922—TajikistanandNEAfghanistan.L.t.cheybaniBaloutch,1978—SWIran(ZagrosMts).L.t.cinnamomeusShamel,1940—SWSichuan,andNYunnan(SCChina).L.t.filchneriMatschie,1908—Shaanxi(CChina).L.t.lehmanniSevertzov,1873—SKazakhstan,Turkmenistan,andextremeN&NEIran,EtoSSiberia,Mongolia,andXinjiang(NWChina).L. t. swinhoei Thomas, 1894— from Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia S to Hebei, Beijing, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong (NE & E China).The Tolai Hare occurs in the steppes E of the Caspian Sea, S to NE & SW Iran, E through the Middle Asian republics to Afghanistan, and from Kazakhstan and S Siberia to Mongolia, S Russian Far East, NW, C & NE China; an isolated population lives in S Iraq and SW Iran. A single specimen in South Asia might extend the distribution of the Tolai Hare as far S as Jammu and Kashmir, N India.","Head-body 400-590 mm, tail 72-110 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-127 mm; weight 1.7-2.7 kg. Color of the Tolai Hare varies across its distribution. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow, pale brown, dusty yellow or sandy gray, mixed with dark brown and red stripes. Hips are grayish to ocherous, and ventral fur is pure white. Tail is wholly white below and on sides, with broad black or blackish brown stripe above. There are grayish white or ocherous eye rings extending back to bases of ears and forward toward mouth. Ear tips are black.","Grassland and forest meadows (never true forests), with tall grasses or shrubby areas for cover in China and semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitat in Mongolia. The Tolai Hare is generally found at elevations of 600-900 m but ascends up to 4900 m in mountains. Forms are created using the front paws. Depths of forms are less during hot weather than when it is cold and windy.","Diet of the Tolai Hare consists of grass, roots, and herbaceous vegetation. Individuals use fixed and restricted routes while foraging.","The Tolai Hare has 2-3 litters/year, with 2-6 young/litter. Females give birth in burrows.",The Tolai Hare is nocturnal. Forms are used for resting during daytime.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tolai Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese and Mongolian red lists. It is widespread and occurs in many protected areas. Its overall population is large, and no major threats are known. Hunting for meat, skins, and traditional medicine has been noted as a threat in Mongolia. In southern Uzbekistan, records of fur harvests decreased from 8751 Tolai Hares in 1959 to 595 in 1977.","Angermann (1983, 2016) | Baloutch (1978) | Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982) | Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Goonatilake & Daniel (2005) | Cheng Cheng etal. (2012) | China Red List & Johnston (2008a) | Clark et al. (2006) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Karami et al. (2008) | Lissovsky (2016) | Ognev (1940, 1966) | Smith (2008c) | Sokolov et al. (2009)",,"42.Tolai HareLepus tolaiFrench:Liévre tolai/ German:Tolai-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre tolaiTaxonomy.Lepus tolai Pallas, 1778, “Caeterum in montibus aprecis campisque rupestribus vel arenosis circa Selengam...” Restricted by S. I. Ognev in 1940 to “valley of the Selenga River,” Russia. Redefined byJ. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Adinscholo Mountain, near Tchinden [Chinden = Chindant], on Borsja [= Boriya] River, a tributary of the Onon River, Eastern Siberia.”In the past, L. tolaiwas included as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeus. Formerly, L. tolaiincluded L. tibetanusas a subspecies. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists.Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Lepus tolaialso included przewalskii that is now considered a subspecies of L. oiostolus.An unclear situation exists in southern Iraq and south-western Iran. The subspecies cheybani occurs westward to ¢.55°-56° E, while L. capensisarabicus occurs eastward to south-eastern Iraq. Whether or not the two forms come into contact is unknown, but their distributions might be separated by that of L. europaeusconnori in south-western Iran. A molecular analysis separated subspecies swinhoei as an independent species and assigned L. tibetanuscentrasiaticus to L. tolai. The population of L. coreanusin Jilin Province, China, may belong to L. tolai. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tolaiPallas,1778—InnerMongolia(=NeiMongol),andGansu(NCChina).L.t.buchariensisOgnev,1922—TajikistanandNEAfghanistan.L.t.cheybaniBaloutch,1978—SWIran(ZagrosMts).L.t.cinnamomeusShamel,1940—SWSichuan,andNYunnan(SCChina).L.t.filchneriMatschie,1908—Shaanxi(CChina).L.t.lehmanniSevertzov,1873—SKazakhstan,Turkmenistan,andextremeN&NEIran,EtoSSiberia,Mongolia,andXinjiang(NWChina).L. t. swinhoei Thomas, 1894— from Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia S to Hebei, Beijing, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong (NE & E China).The Tolai Hare occurs in the steppes E of the Caspian Sea, S to NE & SW Iran, E through the Middle Asian republics to Afghanistan, and from Kazakhstan and S Siberia to Mongolia, S Russian Far East, NW, C & NE China; an isolated population lives in S Iraq and SW Iran. A single specimen in South Asia might extend the distribution of the Tolai Hare as far S as Jammu and Kashmir, N India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-590 mm, tail 72-110 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-127 mm; weight 1.7-2.7 kg. Color of the Tolai Hare varies across its distribution. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow, pale brown, dusty yellow or sandy gray, mixed with dark brown and red stripes. Hips are grayish to ocherous, and ventral fur is pure white. Tail is wholly white below and on sides, with broad black or blackish brown stripe above. There are grayish white or ocherous eye rings extending back to bases of ears and forward toward mouth. Ear tips are black.Habitat.Grassland and forest meadows (never true forests), with tall grasses or shrubby areas for cover in China and semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitat in Mongolia. The Tolai Hare is generally found at elevations of 600-900 m but ascends up to 4900 m in mountains. Forms are created using the front paws. Depths of forms are less during hot weather than when it is cold and windy.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Tolai Hare consists of grass, roots, and herbaceous vegetation. Individuals use fixed and restricted routes while foraging.Breeding.The Tolai Hare has 2-3 litters/year, with 2-6 young/litter. Females give birth in burrows.Activity patterns.The Tolai Hare is nocturnal. Forms are used for resting during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tolai Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese and Mongolian red lists. It is widespread and occurs in many protected areas. Its overall population is large, and no major threats are known. Hunting for meat, skins, and traditional medicine has been noted as a threat in Mongolia. In southern Uzbekistan, records of fur harvests decreased from 8751 Tolai Hares in 1959 to 595 in 1977.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Baloutch (1978), Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982), Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Goonatilake & Daniel (2005), Cheng Cheng etal. (2012), China Red List & Johnston (2008a), Clark et al. (2006), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Karami et al. (2008), Lissovsky (2016), Ognev (1940, 1966), Smith (2008c), Sokolov et al. (2009)." +03822308B75CFFE5FA14FC67FDA9F450,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75CFFE5FA14FC67FDA9F450.xml,Lepus oiostolus,Lepus,oiostolus,Hodgson,1840,Lievre laineux @fr | Tibet-Wollhase @de | Liebre lanuda @es,"Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840, “the snowy region of the Hemalaya, and perhaps also Tibet.” Restricted by Kao Yuehting and Feng Tsochien in 1964 to “Southern Tibet” [Xizang, China].It was formerly placed in the subgenus Proeulagus and Eulagos. Subspecies przewalsku was assigned to L. capensis(= L. tolai) but was later placed in L. oiostolus. Existence of several more subspecies have been proposed, but they appear to be continuously distributed throughout the distribution. Molecular analysis suggested sister relationship between L. oiostolusand L. comus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","L.o.owostolusHodgson,1840—WTibetanPlateau(79°Eto92°E).L.o.hypsibiusBlanford,1875—JammuandKashmir(NWIndia),UpperSutlejValley(SWXizang,China).L.o.pallipesHodgson,1842—C&ETibetanPlateau,NNepal,Sikkim(NEIndia);possiblyalsoinNBhutan.L. o. przewalskii Satunin, 1907— NE & E Tibetan Plateau to Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and N Yunnan (China).","Head—body 400-580 mm, tail 65-125 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 102-140 mm; weight 2.4-3 kg. The Woolly Hare is medium-sized to large, with stocky stature. Fur is thick and soft, with long curly hairs. Fur color varies widely between populations from dark grayish brown to pale sandy yellow. Rump is paler and grayer than dorsal pelage. Eye rings are whitish. Bushy tail is white, with narrow brown stripe above. Ears have dark tips. The Woolly Hare probably molts only once per year so it does not change color in winter.","Upland grasslands of various types, alpine and montane meadows, shrub meadows, dry arid plains, and alpine cold deserts and also montane coniferous and broad-leafed mixed forests in the south-eastern parts ofits distribution, generally at elevations above 2500 m to as high as 5400 m. The Woolly Hare is more abundant in habitats with intermediate cover, and habitats with dense cover are less frequented at high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau. Individuals rest in quiet low areas exposed to the sun and sheltered from wind during rest. They may also take cover in marmot (Marmota) burrows and shelter among rocks.",Diet of the Woolly Hare includes grasses and herbaceous plants.,"Reproductive season of the Woolly Hare starts in April, and females produce two litters per year with 4-6 young each. At high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau, Woolly Hares may only be reproductively active in May-July, with an average litter size of 1-8 young. Annual production of young by a female in high elevations is estimated to be 2-9.",The Woolly Hare is primarily nocturnal but can be active during the day.,The Woolly Hare is reported to have restricted areas during active periods where individuals can be seen night after night. It lives alone but might forage in small groups during the mating season.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Woolly Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Nevertheless, there are no available data on population status. In India, it has been assessed as endangered due to restricted distribution, fragmentation, and habitat loss. In Nepal and China, it is listed as least concern. Major threats to the Woolly Hare are decreases in quality and total area of habitat due to destruction and harvesting of fuel wood. This decrease was estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 but was expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015. In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and thus risk of genetic isolation. The Woolly Hare is hunted for local subsistence and fur trade.","Angermann (1967b, 2016) | Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Sechrest & Daniel (2005) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston (2008) | Kao Yuehting & Feng Tsochien (1964) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lu Xin (2010, 2011) | Smith (2008c) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625643/files/figure.png,"45.Woolly HareLepus oiostolusFrench:Lievre laineux/ German:Tibet-Wollhase/ Spanish:Liebre lanudaTaxonomy.Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840, “the snowy region of the Hemalaya, and perhaps also Tibet.” Restricted by Kao Yuehting and Feng Tsochien in 1964 to “Southern Tibet” [Xizang, China].It was formerly placed in the subgenus Proeulagus and Eulagos. Subspecies przewalsku was assigned to L. capensis(= L. tolai) but was later placed in L. oiostolus. Existence of several more subspecies have been proposed, but they appear to be continuously distributed throughout the distribution. Molecular analysis suggested sister relationship between L. oiostolusand L. comus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.o.owostolusHodgson,1840—WTibetanPlateau(79°Eto92°E).L.o.hypsibiusBlanford,1875—JammuandKashmir(NWIndia),UpperSutlejValley(SWXizang,China).L.o.pallipesHodgson,1842—C&ETibetanPlateau,NNepal,Sikkim(NEIndia);possiblyalsoinNBhutan.L. o. przewalskii Satunin, 1907— NE & E Tibetan Plateau to Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and N Yunnan (China).Descriptive notes.Head—body 400-580 mm, tail 65-125 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 102-140 mm; weight 2.4-3 kg. The Woolly Hare is medium-sized to large, with stocky stature. Fur is thick and soft, with long curly hairs. Fur color varies widely between populations from dark grayish brown to pale sandy yellow. Rump is paler and grayer than dorsal pelage. Eye rings are whitish. Bushy tail is white, with narrow brown stripe above. Ears have dark tips. The Woolly Hare probably molts only once per year so it does not change color in winter.Habitat.Upland grasslands of various types, alpine and montane meadows, shrub meadows, dry arid plains, and alpine cold deserts and also montane coniferous and broad-leafed mixed forests in the south-eastern parts ofits distribution, generally at elevations above 2500 m to as high as 5400 m. The Woolly Hare is more abundant in habitats with intermediate cover, and habitats with dense cover are less frequented at high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau. Individuals rest in quiet low areas exposed to the sun and sheltered from wind during rest. They may also take cover in marmot (Marmota) burrows and shelter among rocks.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Woolly Hare includes grasses and herbaceous plants.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Woolly Hare starts in April, and females produce two litters per year with 4-6 young each. At high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau, Woolly Hares may only be reproductively active in May-July, with an average litter size of 1-8 young. Annual production of young by a female in high elevations is estimated to be 2-9.Activity patterns.The Woolly Hare is primarily nocturnal but can be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Woolly Hare is reported to have restricted areas during active periods where individuals can be seen night after night. It lives alone but might forage in small groups during the mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Woolly Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Nevertheless, there are no available data on population status. In India, it has been assessed as endangered due to restricted distribution, fragmentation, and habitat loss. In Nepal and China, it is listed as least concern. Major threats to the Woolly Hare are decreases in quality and total area of habitat due to destruction and harvesting of fuel wood. This decrease was estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 but was expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015. In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and thus risk of genetic isolation. The Woolly Hare is hunted for local subsistence and fur trade.Bibliography.Angermann (1967b, 2016), Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Sechrest & Daniel (2005), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston (2008), Kao Yuehting & Feng Tsochien (1964), Lissovsky (2016), Lu Xin (2010, 2011), Smith (2008c), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." +03822308B75DFFE2FAC9F466FE38FEAD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE2FAC9F466FE38FEAD.xml,Lepus tibetanus,Lepus,tibetanus,Waterhouse,1841,Liévre du désert @fr | Wiistenhase @de | Liebre de desierto @es,"Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 1841, “Little Thibet [= Tibet].” Fixed by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1955 to “Baltistan, Kashmir.”Until the 1930s, L. tibetanushad species status. The first major revision united L. europaeus, L. tolai, and L. tibetanusin a single species. Next, L. tibetanusand L. tolaiwere placed as subspecies of L. capensis. Then, L. tibetanuswas clearly separated from L. tolai, but L. capensiswas still used as the species name. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. It shares some cranial and pelage characteristics with L. oiostolusfrom the adjacent Tibetan Plateau, in contrast to L. capensisor L. tolai. Evaluation of these characteristics across zones of potential contact between the ten taxon pairs comprising L. capensis(sensu lato) and genetic analyses are necessary before taxonomy of species of Lepuscan be resolved. Molecular analysis placed pamirensis back to L. capensisand assigned centrasiaticus to L. tolai. This species is allopatric to parapatric with L. tolai, but they might be sympatric in the Tien Shan Mountains. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Five subspecies recognized.","L.t.tibetanusWaterhouse,1841—UpperIndusValley,inNEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNWIndia.L.t.centrasiaticusSatunin,1907—EXinjiang,Gansu,andWInnerMongolia=NeiMongol(NW&NCChina).L.t.craspedotisBlanford,1875—BalochistanProvince(Pakistan).L.t.pamirensisGunther,1875—ETajikistanandSWXinjiang(China).L. t. stoliczkanus Blanford, 1875— NW Xinjiang (China).","Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 87-109 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 109-135 mm; weight 1.6-2.5 kg. The Desert Hare is slender and has a relatively small head. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow or drab, tinged with black. Hips are grayish, and outsides of hindlegs and forefeet are white. Ears are wide and have black-brown tips. Tail has black-brown stripes above. The Desert Hare has light eye rings. Ventral fur is yellow to white. The Desert Hare has thick and gray to sandy brown fur in winter.","Grassland and shrubs on slopes of riverbanks in desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats from low elevations and perhaps up to subalpine habitats at elevations of 3500-4000 m. Desert Hares use burrows constructed by other animals.","Diet of the Desert Hare includes herbaceous vegetation, seeds, berries, roots, and twigs.",Female Desert Hares have up to three litters per year; litters have 3-10 young.,"The Desert Hare is most active at dusk, but it can also be active during daytime.","There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status. Conservation threats are not known. Research is necessary to clarify population status of the Desert Hare and its taxonomic position relative to other species of Lepus.","Angermann (2016) | Cheng Cheng et al. (2012) | China Red List & Johnston (2008b) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, 1955) | Heptner (1934) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Ognev (1966) | Petter (1959, 1961) | Smith (2008c)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625639/files/figure.png,"43.Desert HareLepus tibetanusFrench:Liévre du désert/ German:Wiistenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de desiertoTaxonomy.Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 1841, “Little Thibet [= Tibet].” Fixed by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1955 to “Baltistan, Kashmir.”Until the 1930s, L. tibetanushad species status. The first major revision united L. europaeus, L. tolai, and L. tibetanusin a single species. Next, L. tibetanusand L. tolaiwere placed as subspecies of L. capensis. Then, L. tibetanuswas clearly separated from L. tolai, but L. capensiswas still used as the species name. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. It shares some cranial and pelage characteristics with L. oiostolusfrom the adjacent Tibetan Plateau, in contrast to L. capensisor L. tolai. Evaluation of these characteristics across zones of potential contact between the ten taxon pairs comprising L. capensis(sensu lato) and genetic analyses are necessary before taxonomy of species of Lepuscan be resolved. Molecular analysis placed pamirensis back to L. capensisand assigned centrasiaticus to L. tolai. This species is allopatric to parapatric with L. tolai, but they might be sympatric in the Tien Shan Mountains. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tibetanusWaterhouse,1841—UpperIndusValley,inNEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNWIndia.L.t.centrasiaticusSatunin,1907—EXinjiang,Gansu,andWInnerMongolia=NeiMongol(NW&NCChina).L.t.craspedotisBlanford,1875—BalochistanProvince(Pakistan).L.t.pamirensisGunther,1875—ETajikistanandSWXinjiang(China).L. t. stoliczkanus Blanford, 1875— NW Xinjiang (China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 87-109 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 109-135 mm; weight 1.6-2.5 kg. The Desert Hare is slender and has a relatively small head. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow or drab, tinged with black. Hips are grayish, and outsides of hindlegs and forefeet are white. Ears are wide and have black-brown tips. Tail has black-brown stripes above. The Desert Hare has light eye rings. Ventral fur is yellow to white. The Desert Hare has thick and gray to sandy brown fur in winter.Habitat.Grassland and shrubs on slopes of riverbanks in desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats from low elevations and perhaps up to subalpine habitats at elevations of 3500-4000 m. Desert Hares use burrows constructed by other animals.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Desert Hare includes herbaceous vegetation, seeds, berries, roots, and twigs.Breeding.Female Desert Hares have up to three litters per year; litters have 3-10 young.Activity patterns.The Desert Hare is most active at dusk, but it can also be active during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status. Conservation threats are not known. Research is necessary to clarify population status of the Desert Hare and its taxonomic position relative to other species of Lepus.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Cheng Cheng et al. (2012), China Red List & Johnston (2008b), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, 1955), Heptner (1934), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Ognev (1966), Petter (1959, 1961), Smith (2008c)." +03822308B75DFFE3FFC3F3E9F6C3FDCA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE3FFC3F3E9F6C3FDCA.xml,Lepus tolai,Lepus,tolai,Pallas,1778,Liévre tolai @fr | Tolai-Hase @de | Liebre tolai @es,"Lepus tolai Pallas, 1778, “Caeterum in montibus aprecis campisque rupestribus vel arenosis circa Selengam...” Restricted by S. I. Ognev in 1940 to “valley of the Selenga River,” Russia. Redefined byJ. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Adinscholo Mountain, near Tchinden [Chinden = Chindant], on Borsja [= Boriya] River, a tributary of the Onon River, Eastern Siberia.”In the past, L. tolaiwas included as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeus. Formerly, L. tolaiincluded L. tibetanusas a subspecies. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists.Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Lepus tolaialso included przewalskii that is now considered a subspecies of L. oiostolus.An unclear situation exists in southern Iraq and south-western Iran. The subspecies cheybani occurs westward to ¢.55°-56° E, while L. capensisarabicus occurs eastward to south-eastern Iraq. Whether or not the two forms come into contact is unknown, but their distributions might be separated by that of L. europaeusconnori in south-western Iran. A molecular analysis separated subspecies swinhoei as an independent species and assigned L. tibetanuscentrasiaticus to L. tolai. The population of L. coreanusin Jilin Province, China, may belong to L. tolai. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.","L.t.tolaiPallas,1778—InnerMongolia(=NeiMongol),andGansu(NCChina).L.t.buchariensisOgnev,1922—TajikistanandNEAfghanistan.L.t.cheybaniBaloutch,1978—SWIran(ZagrosMts).L.t.cinnamomeusShamel,1940—SWSichuan,andNYunnan(SCChina).L.t.filchneriMatschie,1908—Shaanxi(CChina).L.t.lehmanniSevertzov,1873—SKazakhstan,Turkmenistan,andextremeN&NEIran,EtoSSiberia,Mongolia,andXinjiang(NWChina).L. t. swinhoei Thomas, 1894— from Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia S to Hebei, Beijing, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong (NE & E China).The Tolai Hare occurs in the steppes E of the Caspian Sea, S to NE & SW Iran, E through the Middle Asian republics to Afghanistan, and from Kazakhstan and S Siberia to Mongolia, S Russian Far East, NW, C & NE China; an isolated population lives in S Iraq and SW Iran. A single specimen in South Asia might extend the distribution of the Tolai Hare as far S as Jammu and Kashmir, N India.","Head-body 400-590 mm, tail 72-110 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-127 mm; weight 1.7-2.7 kg. Color of the Tolai Hare varies across its distribution. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow, pale brown, dusty yellow or sandy gray, mixed with dark brown and red stripes. Hips are grayish to ocherous, and ventral fur is pure white. Tail is wholly white below and on sides, with broad black or blackish brown stripe above. There are grayish white or ocherous eye rings extending back to bases of ears and forward toward mouth. Ear tips are black.","Grassland and forest meadows (never true forests), with tall grasses or shrubby areas for cover in China and semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitat in Mongolia. The Tolai Hare is generally found at elevations of 600-900 m but ascends up to 4900 m in mountains. Forms are created using the front paws. Depths of forms are less during hot weather than when it is cold and windy.","Diet of the Tolai Hare consists of grass, roots, and herbaceous vegetation. Individuals use fixed and restricted routes while foraging.","The Tolai Hare has 2-3 litters/year, with 2-6 young/litter. Females give birth in burrows.",The Tolai Hare is nocturnal. Forms are used for resting during daytime.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tolai Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese and Mongolian red lists. It is widespread and occurs in many protected areas. Its overall population is large, and no major threats are known. Hunting for meat, skins, and traditional medicine has been noted as a threat in Mongolia. In southern Uzbekistan, records of fur harvests decreased from 8751 Tolai Hares in 1959 to 595 in 1977.","Angermann (1983, 2016) | Baloutch (1978) | Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982) | Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Goonatilake & Daniel (2005) | Cheng Cheng etal. (2012) | China Red List & Johnston (2008a) | Clark et al. (2006) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Karami et al. (2008) | Lissovsky (2016) | Ognev (1940, 1966) | Smith (2008c) | Sokolov et al. (2009)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625765/files/figure.png,"42.Tolai HareLepus tolaiFrench:Liévre tolai/ German:Tolai-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre tolaiTaxonomy.Lepus tolai Pallas, 1778, “Caeterum in montibus aprecis campisque rupestribus vel arenosis circa Selengam...” Restricted by S. I. Ognev in 1940 to “valley of the Selenga River,” Russia. Redefined byJ. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Adinscholo Mountain, near Tchinden [Chinden = Chindant], on Borsja [= Boriya] River, a tributary of the Onon River, Eastern Siberia.”In the past, L. tolaiwas included as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeus. Formerly, L. tolaiincluded L. tibetanusas a subspecies. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists.Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Lepus tolaialso included przewalskii that is now considered a subspecies of L. oiostolus.An unclear situation exists in southern Iraq and south-western Iran. The subspecies cheybani occurs westward to ¢.55°-56° E, while L. capensisarabicus occurs eastward to south-eastern Iraq. Whether or not the two forms come into contact is unknown, but their distributions might be separated by that of L. europaeusconnori in south-western Iran. A molecular analysis separated subspecies swinhoei as an independent species and assigned L. tibetanuscentrasiaticus to L. tolai. The population of L. coreanusin Jilin Province, China, may belong to L. tolai. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tolaiPallas,1778—InnerMongolia(=NeiMongol),andGansu(NCChina).L.t.buchariensisOgnev,1922—TajikistanandNEAfghanistan.L.t.cheybaniBaloutch,1978—SWIran(ZagrosMts).L.t.cinnamomeusShamel,1940—SWSichuan,andNYunnan(SCChina).L.t.filchneriMatschie,1908—Shaanxi(CChina).L.t.lehmanniSevertzov,1873—SKazakhstan,Turkmenistan,andextremeN&NEIran,EtoSSiberia,Mongolia,andXinjiang(NWChina).L. t. swinhoei Thomas, 1894— from Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia S to Hebei, Beijing, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong (NE & E China).The Tolai Hare occurs in the steppes E of the Caspian Sea, S to NE & SW Iran, E through the Middle Asian republics to Afghanistan, and from Kazakhstan and S Siberia to Mongolia, S Russian Far East, NW, C & NE China; an isolated population lives in S Iraq and SW Iran. A single specimen in South Asia might extend the distribution of the Tolai Hare as far S as Jammu and Kashmir, N India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-590 mm, tail 72-110 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-127 mm; weight 1.7-2.7 kg. Color of the Tolai Hare varies across its distribution. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow, pale brown, dusty yellow or sandy gray, mixed with dark brown and red stripes. Hips are grayish to ocherous, and ventral fur is pure white. Tail is wholly white below and on sides, with broad black or blackish brown stripe above. There are grayish white or ocherous eye rings extending back to bases of ears and forward toward mouth. Ear tips are black.Habitat.Grassland and forest meadows (never true forests), with tall grasses or shrubby areas for cover in China and semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitat in Mongolia. The Tolai Hare is generally found at elevations of 600-900 m but ascends up to 4900 m in mountains. Forms are created using the front paws. Depths of forms are less during hot weather than when it is cold and windy.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Tolai Hare consists of grass, roots, and herbaceous vegetation. Individuals use fixed and restricted routes while foraging.Breeding.The Tolai Hare has 2-3 litters/year, with 2-6 young/litter. Females give birth in burrows.Activity patterns.The Tolai Hare is nocturnal. Forms are used for resting during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tolai Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese and Mongolian red lists. It is widespread and occurs in many protected areas. Its overall population is large, and no major threats are known. Hunting for meat, skins, and traditional medicine has been noted as a threat in Mongolia. In southern Uzbekistan, records of fur harvests decreased from 8751 Tolai Hares in 1959 to 595 in 1977.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Baloutch (1978), Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982), Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Goonatilake & Daniel (2005), Cheng Cheng etal. (2012), China Red List & Johnston (2008a), Clark et al. (2006), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Karami et al. (2008), Lissovsky (2016), Ognev (1940, 1966), Smith (2008c), Sokolov et al. (2009)." 03822308B75DFFE3FFC9FB96FBCFFA50,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE3FFC9FB96FBCFFA50.xml,Lepus habessinicus,Lepus,habessinicus,Hemprich & Ehrenberg,1832,Lievre d @fr | Abyssinie @en | Abessinischer Hase @de | Liebre de Abisinia @es,"Lepus habessinicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832, “East coast of Abyssinia, Near Arkiko,” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of L. habessinicus1s unclear. On one hand,it is postulated to be a distinct species based on its morphological characteristics, its allopatric distribution with L. capensisand L. victoriae, and its isolation in the Horn of Africa. In contrast, L. habessinicusis related to, viewed as a subspecies, or even a synonym of L. capensis. Monotypic.","E Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia (excluding the S region), and perhaps in the extreme N of Kenya.","Head-body 400-550 mm, tail 75-100 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 100-118 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Abyssinian Hare is medium-sized, with long ears. Its fur is soft and dense. Dorsal fur is silvery gray and grizzled with a varying amount of black on shoulders, back, and rump. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is pure white, fluffy, and less dense than dorsal fur. Wide cinnamon or rufousstripe from forelimbs to hindlimbs typically separates ventral color from flanks. Head has similar color as dorsal fur, but nasal region and cheeks are silvery white and finely grizzled. Chin is gray or whitish. Ears are relatively long and wide. They are brown or silvery brown outside and whitish buff inside. There are white fringes on lower parts of outer margins of ears and narrow black rims around ear tips. Nuchal patch is pale brownish cinnamon. Limbs of the Abyssinian Hare are long. Forelimbs are brownish cinnamon above and whitish buff below; hindlimbs are silvery gray and grizzled with black above and white or pale cinnamon-rufous below. Hindfeet are cinnamon. Tail is medium-sized, black above, and white on sides and below. Fur color varies geographically (e.g. sandy in Eritrea and grayer on the Ethiopian plateau), probably related to soil color.","Open grassland, steppe, savanna, semi-desert, and desert, all having some shrubs for daily shade and cover from predators. In these habitats, the Abyssinian Hare replaces the Cape Hare (L. capensis). Abyssinian Hares occur from sea level up to elevations of 2000 m and perhaps 2500 m on the arid north-eastern plateau of Ethiopia and Eritrea.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information for this species, but the Abyssinian Hare is suspected to be nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Abyssinian Hare is widespread and locally very abundant in Djibouti. Its distribution may be increasing due to habitat change from overgrazing. Overall population trends are unknown. Basic insight on actual extent of the distribution of the Abyssinian Hare is needed to clarify conservation needs.,"Angermann (1983, 2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008f)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625635/files/figure.png,"41.Abyssinian HareLepus habessinicusFrench:Lievre d/Abyssinie/ German:Abessinischer Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de AbisiniaTaxonomy.Lepus habessinicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832, “East coast of Abyssinia, Near Arkiko,” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of L. habessinicus1s unclear. On one hand,it is postulated to be a distinct species based on its morphological characteristics, its allopatric distribution with L. capensisand L. victoriae, and its isolation in the Horn of Africa. In contrast, L. habessinicusis related to, viewed as a subspecies, or even a synonym of L. capensis. Monotypic.Distribution.E Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia (excluding the S region), and perhaps in the extreme N of Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-550 mm, tail 75-100 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 100-118 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Abyssinian Hare is medium-sized, with long ears. Its fur is soft and dense. Dorsal fur is silvery gray and grizzled with a varying amount of black on shoulders, back, and rump. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is pure white, fluffy, and less dense than dorsal fur. Wide cinnamon or rufousstripe from forelimbs to hindlimbs typically separates ventral color from flanks. Head has similar color as dorsal fur, but nasal region and cheeks are silvery white and finely grizzled. Chin is gray or whitish. Ears are relatively long and wide. They are brown or silvery brown outside and whitish buff inside. There are white fringes on lower parts of outer margins of ears and narrow black rims around ear tips. Nuchal patch is pale brownish cinnamon. Limbs of the Abyssinian Hare are long. Forelimbs are brownish cinnamon above and whitish buff below; hindlimbs are silvery gray and grizzled with black above and white or pale cinnamon-rufous below. Hindfeet are cinnamon. Tail is medium-sized, black above, and white on sides and below. Fur color varies geographically (e.g. sandy in Eritrea and grayer on the Ethiopian plateau), probably related to soil color.Habitat.Open grassland, steppe, savanna, semi-desert, and desert, all having some shrubs for daily shade and cover from predators. In these habitats, the Abyssinian Hare replaces the Cape Hare (L. capensis). Abyssinian Hares occur from sea level up to elevations of 2000 m and perhaps 2500 m on the arid north-eastern plateau of Ethiopia and Eritrea.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Abyssinian Hare is suspected to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Abyssinian Hare is widespread and locally very abundant in Djibouti. Its distribution may be increasing due to habitat change from overgrazing. Overall population trends are unknown. Basic insight on actual extent of the distribution of the Abyssinian Hare is needed to clarify conservation needs.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b), Boitani et al. (1999), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008f)." -03822308B75EFFE3FF68F8E1FD26F5BB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,132,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75EFFE3FF68F8E1FD26F5BB.xml,Lepus capensis,Lepus,capensis,Linnaeus,1758,Lievre du Cap @fr | Kaphase @de | Liebre de El Cabo @es | Arabian Hare (Middle East) @en | East African Hare (aegyptius @en | hawkeri @en | isabellinus @en | and sinaiticus) @en | North-west African Hare (atlanticus @en | mediterraneus @en | schlumbergeri @en | and whitakeri) @en | Sardinian Hare (mediterraneus) @en | South African Hare (capensis @en | aquilo @en | carpi @en | and grant) @en,"Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758, “ad Cap. b. Spei [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomystatus of L. capensisthroughout its distribution is unclear. As constructed in the past, a single species (capensissensu lato) inhabits Africa in two separate southern and northern areas. There is no evidence of gene flow between these two areas, and intervening areas are inhabited by other species of Lepus. Therefore, an informal subdivision of capensisinto four groups based on their geographical locations (north-western Africa, Middle East, East Africa, and South Africa) is widely accepted and might represent four distinct species. If this is correct, L. capensiswill be restricted to the “South African Hare” group, whereas those in the other three groups will have to be renamed. Nevertheless, formal revision of taxa is not possible due to insufficient data. Subspecies belong in four groups: South Africa (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant), East Africa (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), Middle East (arabicus), and north-western Africa (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri). Taxonomic position of the form mediterraneus (the “Sardinian Hare”) is unresolved. Analysis of the mtCR-1 sequence indicated that mediterraneus forms a monophyletic clade with North African species of Lepus, whereas a phylogenetic analysis of mtCR-1 sequences from Tunisian and Egyptian specimens characterized them as monophyletic and separate from L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis, supporting a hypothesis to include L. europaeusin L. capensis. In light of this continuing uncertainty regarding taxonomic status of the subspecies mediterraneus and North African species of Lepus, they remain included in L. capensis, and L. europaeusretains its taxonomic status as a distinct species. Moreover, the relationship of L. capensisto L. victoriaeis uncertain because in some regions (Kenya and Somalia), specimens appear to have characteristics intermediate between the two species. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the folai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Because of the widespread distribution and interpopulational variation of L. capensis, as many as 38 forms/subspecies have been described. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.Habitat.Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout.","L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.","Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.","Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout. Distribution of the Cape Hare has increased with bush clearing and extensive savanna fires. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Cape Hare prefers shrubs rather than grasses for shelter in summer. In the Namib Desert, it makes short burrows to avoid exposure to the sun.","Cape Hares are herbivorous and graze on grasses at night. Diets presumably vary according to habitat. Fecal analysis in Kenya revealed that 19% ofthe diet was dicotyledons, 40% grasses, 1% sedge, and 32% stem fibers. Grasses in the diet included Sporobolus sp., Aristida sp., Chloris sp., Cynodondactylon, Enneapogon sp., and Eragrostis sp(all Poaceae). The study found differences in proportions of grass species eaten at different sites, but seasonal differences, including wet and dry seasons, were small at each site. The Cape Hare is reasonably opportunistic, selecting different grass species according to their availabilities. It is expanding its distribution at the expense of less adaptable species of Lepusbecause it thrives on overgrazed pastures.","Reproduction of the Cape Hare varies by location. Near the Equator, males are sexually active and females pregnant throughout the year. Pregnancy rates are 80-100% for most of the year, except in April (wettest month of the year) and June/ July (end of wet season). Females have 6-8 litters/year, with a mean littersize of 1-5, or an average of 11-6 young/year. Mean littersize varies seasonally, probably in response to changes in rainfall and forage (one young in September to 1-9 in January). Litter size also varies by elevation; Cape Hares at higher elevations have small litters (mean of 1-2 young at 1800 m) than those at lower elevations (mean of 1-7 young at 600 m).",Cape Hares are nocturnal. They rest in forms during the day but might feed during the day whenitis overcast.,"Home ranges of Cape Hares vary depending on habitat type. They mainly live alone and only occasionally in small groups. In Kenya, only four groups of three Cape Hares were seen out of 800 individuals observed.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Hare is widespread and abundant, with a total population greater than 10,000 individuals. In the southern part of its African distribution, a population decline of less than 10% since 1904 has been reported. No population information is available for the northern African region ofits distribution. Population trends of Cape Hares in Arabia are characterized by moderate declines. Current population trends of Cape Hares on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain, are of concern because it is possible that the form of the Cape Hare living on these islands is a distinct species. The population of the Cape Hare on Sardinia has been declining even though it is characterized as locally common. The Cape Hare has experienced habitat loss on the Arabian Peninsula since the 1950s mainly caused by urbanization, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, livestock competition, agricultural encroachment, recreational activities, harvest/hunting, and infrastructure development related to tourism. These threats will likely lead to continuing population declines on the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, a loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting poses the greatest threats to Cape Hares.","Allen, G.M. (1939) | Angermann (2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Dixon (1975) | Drew et al. (2008) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Ellerman et al. (1953) | Flux (1969, 1981a, 1981b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Flux & Flux (1983) | Flux & Jarvis (1970) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lundholm (1955) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Petter (1959, 1961) | Scandura etal. (2007) | Stewart (1971c¢)",,"40.Cape HareLepus capensisFrench:Lievre du Cap/ German:Kaphase/ Spanish:Liebre de El CaboOther common names:Arabian Hare (Middle East), East African Hare (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), North-west African Hare (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri), Sardinian Hare (mediterraneus), South African Hare (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant)Taxonomy.Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758, “ad Cap. b. Spei [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomystatus of L. capensisthroughout its distribution is unclear. As constructed in the past, a single species (capensissensu lato) inhabits Africa in two separate southern and northern areas. There is no evidence of gene flow between these two areas, and intervening areas are inhabited by other species of Lepus. Therefore, an informal subdivision of capensisinto four groups based on their geographical locations (north-western Africa, Middle East, East Africa, and South Africa) is widely accepted and might represent four distinct species. If this is correct, L. capensiswill be restricted to the “South African Hare” group, whereas those in the other three groups will have to be renamed. Nevertheless, formal revision of taxa is not possible due to insufficient data. Subspecies belong in four groups: South Africa (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant), East Africa (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), Middle East (arabicus), and north-western Africa (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri). Taxonomic position of the form mediterraneus (the “Sardinian Hare”) is unresolved. Analysis of the mtCR-1 sequence indicated that mediterraneus forms a monophyletic clade with North African species of Lepus, whereas a phylogenetic analysis of mtCR-1 sequences from Tunisian and Egyptian specimens characterized them as monophyletic and separate from L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis, supporting a hypothesis to include L. europaeusin L. capensis. In light of this continuing uncertainty regarding taxonomic status of the subspecies mediterraneus and North African species of Lepus, they remain included in L. capensis, and L. europaeusretains its taxonomic status as a distinct species. Moreover, the relationship of L. capensisto L. victoriaeis uncertain because in some regions (Kenya and Somalia), specimens appear to have characteristics intermediate between the two species. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the folai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Because of the widespread distribution and interpopulational variation of L. capensis, as many as 38 forms/subspecies have been described. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.Habitat.Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout. Distribution of the Cape Hare has increased with bush clearing and extensive savanna fires. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Cape Hare prefers shrubs rather than grasses for shelter in summer. In the Namib Desert, it makes short burrows to avoid exposure to the sun.Food and Feeding.Cape Hares are herbivorous and graze on grasses at night. Diets presumably vary according to habitat. Fecal analysis in Kenya revealed that 19% ofthe diet was dicotyledons, 40% grasses, 1% sedge, and 32% stem fibers. Grasses in the diet included Sporobolus sp., Aristida sp., Chloris sp., Cynodondactylon, Enneapogon sp., and Eragrostis sp(all Poaceae). The study found differences in proportions of grass species eaten at different sites, but seasonal differences, including wet and dry seasons, were small at each site. The Cape Hare is reasonably opportunistic, selecting different grass species according to their availabilities. It is expanding its distribution at the expense of less adaptable species of Lepusbecause it thrives on overgrazed pastures.Breeding.Reproduction of the Cape Hare varies by location. Near the Equator, males are sexually active and females pregnant throughout the year. Pregnancy rates are 80-100% for most of the year, except in April (wettest month of the year) and June/ July (end of wet season). Females have 6-8 litters/year, with a mean littersize of 1-5, or an average of 11-6 young/year. Mean littersize varies seasonally, probably in response to changes in rainfall and forage (one young in September to 1-9 in January). Litter size also varies by elevation; Cape Hares at higher elevations have small litters (mean of 1-2 young at 1800 m) than those at lower elevations (mean of 1-7 young at 600 m).Activity patterns.Cape Hares are nocturnal. They rest in forms during the day but might feed during the day whenitis overcast.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Cape Hares vary depending on habitat type. They mainly live alone and only occasionally in small groups. In Kenya, only four groups of three Cape Hares were seen out of 800 individuals observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Hare is widespread and abundant, with a total population greater than 10,000 individuals. In the southern part of its African distribution, a population decline of less than 10% since 1904 has been reported. No population information is available for the northern African region ofits distribution. Population trends of Cape Hares in Arabia are characterized by moderate declines. Current population trends of Cape Hares on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain, are of concern because it is possible that the form of the Cape Hare living on these islands is a distinct species. The population of the Cape Hare on Sardinia has been declining even though it is characterized as locally common. The Cape Hare has experienced habitat loss on the Arabian Peninsula since the 1950s mainly caused by urbanization, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, livestock competition, agricultural encroachment, recreational activities, harvest/hunting, and infrastructure development related to tourism. These threats will likely lead to continuing population declines on the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, a loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting poses the greatest threats to Cape Hares.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1939), Angermann (2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Boitani et al. (1999), Dixon (1975), Drew et al. (2008), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Ellerman et al. (1953), Flux (1969, 1981a, 1981b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Flux & Flux (1983), Flux & Jarvis (1970), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004), Lissovsky (2016), Lundholm (1955), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Petter (1959, 1961), Scandura etal. (2007), Stewart (1971c¢)." +03822308B75EFFE3FF68F8E1FD26F5BB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,132,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75EFFE3FF68F8E1FD26F5BB.xml,Lepus capensis,Lepus,capensis,Linnaeus,1758,Lievre du Cap @fr | Kaphase @de | Liebre de El Cabo @es | Arabian Hare (Middle East) @en | East African Hare (aegyptius @en | hawkeri @en | isabellinus @en | and sinaiticus) @en | North-west African Hare (atlanticus @en | mediterraneus @en | schlumbergeri @en | and whitakeri) @en | Sardinian Hare (mediterraneus) @en | South African Hare (capensis @en | aquilo @en | carpi @en | and grant) @en,"Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758, “ad Cap. b. Spei [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomystatus of L. capensisthroughout its distribution is unclear. As constructed in the past, a single species (capensissensu lato) inhabits Africa in two separate southern and northern areas. There is no evidence of gene flow between these two areas, and intervening areas are inhabited by other species of Lepus. Therefore, an informal subdivision of capensisinto four groups based on their geographical locations (north-western Africa, Middle East, East Africa, and South Africa) is widely accepted and might represent four distinct species. If this is correct, L. capensiswill be restricted to the “South African Hare” group, whereas those in the other three groups will have to be renamed. Nevertheless, formal revision of taxa is not possible due to insufficient data. Subspecies belong in four groups: South Africa (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant), East Africa (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), Middle East (arabicus), and north-western Africa (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri). Taxonomic position of the form mediterraneus (the “Sardinian Hare”) is unresolved. Analysis of the mtCR-1 sequence indicated that mediterraneus forms a monophyletic clade with North African species of Lepus, whereas a phylogenetic analysis of mtCR-1 sequences from Tunisian and Egyptian specimens characterized them as monophyletic and separate from L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis, supporting a hypothesis to include L. europaeusin L. capensis. In light of this continuing uncertainty regarding taxonomic status of the subspecies mediterraneus and North African species of Lepus, they remain included in L. capensis, and L. europaeusretains its taxonomic status as a distinct species. Moreover, the relationship of L. capensisto L. victoriaeis uncertain because in some regions (Kenya and Somalia), specimens appear to have characteristics intermediate between the two species. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the folai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Because of the widespread distribution and interpopulational variation of L. capensis, as many as 38 forms/subspecies have been described. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.Habitat.Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout.","L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.","Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.","Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout. Distribution of the Cape Hare has increased with bush clearing and extensive savanna fires. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Cape Hare prefers shrubs rather than grasses for shelter in summer. In the Namib Desert, it makes short burrows to avoid exposure to the sun.","Cape Hares are herbivorous and graze on grasses at night. Diets presumably vary according to habitat. Fecal analysis in Kenya revealed that 19% ofthe diet was dicotyledons, 40% grasses, 1% sedge, and 32% stem fibers. Grasses in the diet included Sporobolus sp., Aristida sp., Chloris sp., Cynodondactylon, Enneapogon sp., and Eragrostis sp(all Poaceae). The study found differences in proportions of grass species eaten at different sites, but seasonal differences, including wet and dry seasons, were small at each site. The Cape Hare is reasonably opportunistic, selecting different grass species according to their availabilities. It is expanding its distribution at the expense of less adaptable species of Lepusbecause it thrives on overgrazed pastures.","Reproduction of the Cape Hare varies by location. Near the Equator, males are sexually active and females pregnant throughout the year. Pregnancy rates are 80-100% for most of the year, except in April (wettest month of the year) and June/ July (end of wet season). Females have 6-8 litters/year, with a mean littersize of 1-5, or an average of 11-6 young/year. Mean littersize varies seasonally, probably in response to changes in rainfall and forage (one young in September to 1-9 in January). Litter size also varies by elevation; Cape Hares at higher elevations have small litters (mean of 1-2 young at 1800 m) than those at lower elevations (mean of 1-7 young at 600 m).",Cape Hares are nocturnal. They rest in forms during the day but might feed during the day whenitis overcast.,"Home ranges of Cape Hares vary depending on habitat type. They mainly live alone and only occasionally in small groups. In Kenya, only four groups of three Cape Hares were seen out of 800 individuals observed.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Hare is widespread and abundant, with a total population greater than 10,000 individuals. In the southern part of its African distribution, a population decline of less than 10% since 1904 has been reported. No population information is available for the northern African region ofits distribution. Population trends of Cape Hares in Arabia are characterized by moderate declines. Current population trends of Cape Hares on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain, are of concern because it is possible that the form of the Cape Hare living on these islands is a distinct species. The population of the Cape Hare on Sardinia has been declining even though it is characterized as locally common. The Cape Hare has experienced habitat loss on the Arabian Peninsula since the 1950s mainly caused by urbanization, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, livestock competition, agricultural encroachment, recreational activities, harvest/hunting, and infrastructure development related to tourism. These threats will likely lead to continuing population declines on the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, a loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting poses the greatest threats to Cape Hares.","Allen, G.M. (1939) | Angermann (2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Dixon (1975) | Drew et al. (2008) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Ellerman et al. (1953) | Flux (1969, 1981a, 1981b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Flux & Flux (1983) | Flux & Jarvis (1970) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lundholm (1955) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Petter (1959, 1961) | Scandura etal. (2007) | Stewart (1971c¢)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625633/files/figure.png,"40.Cape HareLepus capensisFrench:Lievre du Cap/ German:Kaphase/ Spanish:Liebre de El CaboOther common names:Arabian Hare (Middle East), East African Hare (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), North-west African Hare (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri), Sardinian Hare (mediterraneus), South African Hare (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant)Taxonomy.Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758, “ad Cap. b. Spei [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomystatus of L. capensisthroughout its distribution is unclear. As constructed in the past, a single species (capensissensu lato) inhabits Africa in two separate southern and northern areas. There is no evidence of gene flow between these two areas, and intervening areas are inhabited by other species of Lepus. Therefore, an informal subdivision of capensisinto four groups based on their geographical locations (north-western Africa, Middle East, East Africa, and South Africa) is widely accepted and might represent four distinct species. If this is correct, L. capensiswill be restricted to the “South African Hare” group, whereas those in the other three groups will have to be renamed. Nevertheless, formal revision of taxa is not possible due to insufficient data. Subspecies belong in four groups: South Africa (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant), East Africa (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), Middle East (arabicus), and north-western Africa (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri). Taxonomic position of the form mediterraneus (the “Sardinian Hare”) is unresolved. Analysis of the mtCR-1 sequence indicated that mediterraneus forms a monophyletic clade with North African species of Lepus, whereas a phylogenetic analysis of mtCR-1 sequences from Tunisian and Egyptian specimens characterized them as monophyletic and separate from L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis, supporting a hypothesis to include L. europaeusin L. capensis. In light of this continuing uncertainty regarding taxonomic status of the subspecies mediterraneus and North African species of Lepus, they remain included in L. capensis, and L. europaeusretains its taxonomic status as a distinct species. Moreover, the relationship of L. capensisto L. victoriaeis uncertain because in some regions (Kenya and Somalia), specimens appear to have characteristics intermediate between the two species. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the folai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Because of the widespread distribution and interpopulational variation of L. capensis, as many as 38 forms/subspecies have been described. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.Habitat.Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout. Distribution of the Cape Hare has increased with bush clearing and extensive savanna fires. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Cape Hare prefers shrubs rather than grasses for shelter in summer. In the Namib Desert, it makes short burrows to avoid exposure to the sun.Food and Feeding.Cape Hares are herbivorous and graze on grasses at night. Diets presumably vary according to habitat. Fecal analysis in Kenya revealed that 19% ofthe diet was dicotyledons, 40% grasses, 1% sedge, and 32% stem fibers. Grasses in the diet included Sporobolus sp., Aristida sp., Chloris sp., Cynodondactylon, Enneapogon sp., and Eragrostis sp(all Poaceae). The study found differences in proportions of grass species eaten at different sites, but seasonal differences, including wet and dry seasons, were small at each site. The Cape Hare is reasonably opportunistic, selecting different grass species according to their availabilities. It is expanding its distribution at the expense of less adaptable species of Lepusbecause it thrives on overgrazed pastures.Breeding.Reproduction of the Cape Hare varies by location. Near the Equator, males are sexually active and females pregnant throughout the year. Pregnancy rates are 80-100% for most of the year, except in April (wettest month of the year) and June/ July (end of wet season). Females have 6-8 litters/year, with a mean littersize of 1-5, or an average of 11-6 young/year. Mean littersize varies seasonally, probably in response to changes in rainfall and forage (one young in September to 1-9 in January). Litter size also varies by elevation; Cape Hares at higher elevations have small litters (mean of 1-2 young at 1800 m) than those at lower elevations (mean of 1-7 young at 600 m).Activity patterns.Cape Hares are nocturnal. They rest in forms during the day but might feed during the day whenitis overcast.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Cape Hares vary depending on habitat type. They mainly live alone and only occasionally in small groups. In Kenya, only four groups of three Cape Hares were seen out of 800 individuals observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Hare is widespread and abundant, with a total population greater than 10,000 individuals. In the southern part of its African distribution, a population decline of less than 10% since 1904 has been reported. No population information is available for the northern African region ofits distribution. Population trends of Cape Hares in Arabia are characterized by moderate declines. Current population trends of Cape Hares on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain, are of concern because it is possible that the form of the Cape Hare living on these islands is a distinct species. The population of the Cape Hare on Sardinia has been declining even though it is characterized as locally common. The Cape Hare has experienced habitat loss on the Arabian Peninsula since the 1950s mainly caused by urbanization, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, livestock competition, agricultural encroachment, recreational activities, harvest/hunting, and infrastructure development related to tourism. These threats will likely lead to continuing population declines on the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, a loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting poses the greatest threats to Cape Hares.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1939), Angermann (2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Boitani et al. (1999), Dixon (1975), Drew et al. (2008), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Ellerman et al. (1953), Flux (1969, 1981a, 1981b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Flux & Flux (1983), Flux & Jarvis (1970), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004), Lissovsky (2016), Lundholm (1955), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Petter (1959, 1961), Scandura etal. (2007), Stewart (1971c¢)." 03822308B75FFFE0FAC9F39AFE8CF14E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,131,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75FFFE0FAC9F39AFE8CF14E.xml,Lepus starcki,Lepus,starcki,Petter,1963,Liévre de Starck @fr | Athiopischer Hochlandhase @de | Liebre de tierras altas de Etiopia @es | Starck's Hare @en,"Lepus starcki Petter, 1963, “Jeldu-Liban-Shoa, 2740 metres, 40 km W. Addis Abeba,” Ethiopia.It was originally listed as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeusbut is now considered a distinct species. It has been suggested that L. starckiis a relict form of L. europaeusfrom the Pleistocene because of the similarity between their skulls. Monotypic.","C highlands of Ethiopia, especially in the Mts of Arussi and Bale regions; it does not occur in the Ethiopian Rift Valley separating these mountain regions.","Head-body 440-560 mm, tail 82-115 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 88-120 mm; weight 1.9-3 kg. The Ethiopian Highland Hare is medium-sized. Its fur color is generally dark. Dorsal pelage and head are buffy white and grizzled with dots and streaks of black. Flanks are paler, with lower flanks cinnamon-rufous. Ventral pelage is white and fluffy. Ears are of medium length, with their upper orie-quarter conspicuously black on inner and outer surface. In some individuals, black extends on inner margins of inner surfaces and on outer margins of outer surfaces to bases of ears. Chin is whitish, with tinge of cinnamon on lips. Nuchal patch is bright cinnamon or rufous. The Ethiopian Highland Hare has long forelimbs and hindlimbs that are whitish gray above and pale cinnamon and white below. Hindfeet are cinnamon-buff above and medium brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black above and white on sides and below;tail color is variable, with holotypes having pure white tails.","Open highland habitats, especially rocky grasslands, at elevations of 2100-4400 m. The Ethiopian Highland Hare prefers wetland habitats during the dry season.","Based on fecal analysis, Ethiopian Highland Hares are highly selective for monocotyledons but eat some dicotyledons during the dry season. Festuca spp.(Poaceae) was the most available and important food among grasses. Koeleria capensis, Agrostisgracilifolia (both Poaceae), and Carexmonostachya (Cyperaceae) were also eaten.",One pregnant Ethiopian Highland Hare with one embryo and one lactating female were recorded in December. Reproduction would be expected to occur in the dry season.,There is no information available forthis species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Ethiopian Highland Hare is considered to be abundant within its Ethiopian distribution. No data are available on its population status, and conservation threats are unknown.","Angermann (1983) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Mekonnen et al. (2011) | Smith & Johnston (2008e) | Yalden et al. (1986)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625631/files/figure.png,"39.Ethiopian Highland HareLepus starckiFrench:Liévre de Starck/ German:Athiopischer Hochlandhase/ Spanish:Liebre de tierras altas de EtiopiaOther common names:Starck's HareTaxonomy.Lepus starcki Petter, 1963, “Jeldu-Liban-Shoa, 2740 metres, 40 km W. Addis Abeba,” Ethiopia.It was originally listed as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeusbut is now considered a distinct species. It has been suggested that L. starckiis a relict form of L. europaeusfrom the Pleistocene because of the similarity between their skulls. Monotypic.Distribution.C highlands of Ethiopia, especially in the Mts of Arussi and Bale regions; it does not occur in the Ethiopian Rift Valley separating these mountain regions.Descriptive notes.Head-body 440-560 mm, tail 82-115 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 88-120 mm; weight 1.9-3 kg. The Ethiopian Highland Hare is medium-sized. Its fur color is generally dark. Dorsal pelage and head are buffy white and grizzled with dots and streaks of black. Flanks are paler, with lower flanks cinnamon-rufous. Ventral pelage is white and fluffy. Ears are of medium length, with their upper orie-quarter conspicuously black on inner and outer surface. In some individuals, black extends on inner margins of inner surfaces and on outer margins of outer surfaces to bases of ears. Chin is whitish, with tinge of cinnamon on lips. Nuchal patch is bright cinnamon or rufous. The Ethiopian Highland Hare has long forelimbs and hindlimbs that are whitish gray above and pale cinnamon and white below. Hindfeet are cinnamon-buff above and medium brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black above and white on sides and below;tail color is variable, with holotypes having pure white tails.Habitat.Open highland habitats, especially rocky grasslands, at elevations of 2100-4400 m. The Ethiopian Highland Hare prefers wetland habitats during the dry season.Food and Feeding.Based on fecal analysis, Ethiopian Highland Hares are highly selective for monocotyledons but eat some dicotyledons during the dry season. Festuca spp.(Poaceae) was the most available and important food among grasses. Koeleria capensis, Agrostisgracilifolia (both Poaceae), and Carexmonostachya (Cyperaceae) were also eaten.Breeding.One pregnant Ethiopian Highland Hare with one embryo and one lactating female were recorded in December. Reproduction would be expected to occur in the dry season.Activity patterns.There is no information available forthis species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Ethiopian Highland Hare is considered to be abundant within its Ethiopian distribution. No data are available on its population status, and conservation threats are unknown.Bibliography.Angermann (1983), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b), Boitani et al. (1999), Flux & Angermann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Mekonnen et al. (2011), Smith & Johnston (2008e), Yalden et al. (1986)." 03822308B75FFFE1FAF6FC3DF7FCFD86,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,131,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75FFFE1FAF6FC3DF7FCFD86.xml,Lepus yarkandensis,Lepus,yarkandensis,Gunther,1875,Liévre de Yarkand @fr | Yarkand-Hase @de | Liebre de Yarkand @es,"Lepus yarkandensis Gunther, 1875, “neighbourhood ofYarkand,”China.Significant genetic subdivision occurs among populations of L. yarkandensisinhabiting the two isolated regions in the north-eastern and south-western part of the Tarim Basin. A low level of gene diversity exists among populations that are physically isolated by desert that restricts gene flow, but significant genetic differentiation among the other populations was found.There is genetic evidence for bidirectional introgressive hybridization between L. capensisand L. yarkandensisin the contact zone adjacent to the Tarim Basin. Monotypic.","Steppes of the Tarim Basin around the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, S Xinjiang (NW China).","Head—body 290-430 mm, tail 55-86 mm, ear 90-110 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm; weight 1.1-1.9 kg. The Yarkand Hare is small, with short and straight pelage. Dorsal fur is sand-brown, mixed with many pale brown stripes. Sides are sandyellow, and abdomen is white. Ears are relatively long. Tail is similar to dorsal pelage above and white on sides and below. Ventral fur is wholly white. There is seasonal variation with a paler fur in winter than during the rest of the year.","Mainly tamarisk (7amarix ramosissima, Tamaricaceae) and poplar (Populusdiversifolia and P. pruinosa, Salicaceae) forests, brushwood, and reed meadows distributed in patches along rivers descending from surrounding mountains and running into desert, at elevations of 900-1200 m. Yarkand Hares avoid agricultural areas and make shallow runaways under bushes. Shallow forms are located under vegetation, especially reeds along rivers.",The Yarkand Hare is herbivorous and is known to damage cultivated melons. Groups of 5-6 Yarkand Hares customarily drink on the riverbanks.,"Reproductive season of the Yarkand Hare starts in February and extends possibly until September. Females have 2-3 litters/year, with 2-5 young/litter.","The Yarkand Hare is mainly nocturnal, especially in early morning and late evening. It hides in forms during the day.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Yarkand Hare is classified as vulnerable on the Chinese Red List. It has a restricted distribution but can be locally common. It occurs in nature reserves; however, increased human activity due to petroleum exploration and local development within its distribution are undoubtedly having a negative impact on the Yarkand Hare. At present, there are no data available to quantify ongoing population decline. It is assumed that declines are moderate. Yarkand Hares are shot as game, and ¢.10,000 furs were harvested annually between 1958 and 1981. Low gene flow between isolated populations might result in genetic drift and inbreeding depression. The Yarkand Hares needs some attention dueto its restricted habitat and distribution. Efforts should be made to conserve habitat, and harvest limits should be implemented. Genetic variability should be monitored to avert inbreeding depression.","Angermann (1967b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gao Yaoting (1983) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Li Zengchao et al. (2005) | Shan Wenjuan et al. (2011) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008d) | Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian, Lei Fumin & Yang Qisen (2010) | Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian & Yang Qisen (2010) | Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian, Yang Qisen & Meng Xiuxiang (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625629/files/figure.png,"38.Yarkand HareLepus yarkandensisFrench:Liévre de Yarkand/ German:Yarkand-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de YarkandTaxonomy.Lepus yarkandensis Gunther, 1875, “neighbourhood ofYarkand,”China.Significant genetic subdivision occurs among populations of L. yarkandensisinhabiting the two isolated regions in the north-eastern and south-western part of the Tarim Basin. A low level of gene diversity exists among populations that are physically isolated by desert that restricts gene flow, but significant genetic differentiation among the other populations was found.There is genetic evidence for bidirectional introgressive hybridization between L. capensisand L. yarkandensisin the contact zone adjacent to the Tarim Basin. Monotypic.Distribution.Steppes of the Tarim Basin around the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, S Xinjiang (NW China).Descriptive notes.Head—body 290-430 mm, tail 55-86 mm, ear 90-110 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm; weight 1.1-1.9 kg. The Yarkand Hare is small, with short and straight pelage. Dorsal fur is sand-brown, mixed with many pale brown stripes. Sides are sandyellow, and abdomen is white. Ears are relatively long. Tail is similar to dorsal pelage above and white on sides and below. Ventral fur is wholly white. There is seasonal variation with a paler fur in winter than during the rest of the year.Habitat.Mainly tamarisk (7amarix ramosissima, Tamaricaceae) and poplar (Populusdiversifolia and P. pruinosa, Salicaceae) forests, brushwood, and reed meadows distributed in patches along rivers descending from surrounding mountains and running into desert, at elevations of 900-1200 m. Yarkand Hares avoid agricultural areas and make shallow runaways under bushes. Shallow forms are located under vegetation, especially reeds along rivers.Food and Feeding.The Yarkand Hare is herbivorous and is known to damage cultivated melons. Groups of 5-6 Yarkand Hares customarily drink on the riverbanks.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Yarkand Hare starts in February and extends possibly until September. Females have 2-3 litters/year, with 2-5 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Yarkand Hare is mainly nocturnal, especially in early morning and late evening. It hides in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Yarkand Hare is classified as vulnerable on the Chinese Red List. It has a restricted distribution but can be locally common. It occurs in nature reserves; however, increased human activity due to petroleum exploration and local development within its distribution are undoubtedly having a negative impact on the Yarkand Hare. At present, there are no data available to quantify ongoing population decline. It is assumed that declines are moderate. Yarkand Hares are shot as game, and ¢.10,000 furs were harvested annually between 1958 and 1981. Low gene flow between isolated populations might result in genetic drift and inbreeding depression. The Yarkand Hares needs some attention dueto its restricted habitat and distribution. Efforts should be made to conserve habitat, and harvest limits should be implemented. Genetic variability should be monitored to avert inbreeding depression.Bibliography.Angermann (1967b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gao Yaoting (1983), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Li Zengchao et al. (2005), Shan Wenjuan et al. (2011), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008d), Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian, Lei Fumin & Yang Qisen (2010), Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian & Yang Qisen (2010), Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian, Yang Qisen & Meng Xiuxiang (2011)." -03822308B75FFFE1FFC9FBFDF75EF567,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,131,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75FFFE1FFC9FBFDF75EF567.xml,Lepus victoriae,Lepus,victoriae,Thomas,1893,Liévre des savanes @fr | Savannenhase @de | Liebre de sabana @es,"Lepus victoriae Thomas, 1893, “Lande der Ridj,” Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.It was formerly included with L. saxatilisand has various synonyms that are still under debate (saxatilis, crawshayi, whytei, and macrotis). Some taxonomic confusion has arisen because the skull of the type specimen of victoriaeis missing and because the type of whytei seems to be aberrant and not typical of others in nearby localities. The form whytei seems to be close to but distinguishable from L. fagani, and the wide geographical separation between these two forms merits recognition of whytei as a valid species. Also crawshayi might be a valid species. On the other hand,it is under discussion whether whytei and crawshayi might be subspecies of L. nigricollis. Moreover, L. victoriaemay be considered as the northern allospecies of the southern L. saxatilis. This species is widely sympatric with L. capensisand alloparatric to parapatric with L. saxatilisand L. habessinicus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","L.v.victoriaeThomas,1893—Tanzania.L.v.angolensisThomas,1904—Angola.L.v.senegalensisRochebrune,1883—Senegal,TheGambia.L. v. whyte: Thomas, 1894— Malawi.The African Savanna Hare is present from the Atlantic coast of NW Africa (Western Sahara S to Guinea), E across the Sahel to Sudan and the extreme W Ethiopia, S through E Africa (E DR Congo, Uganda, W Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) to most of Angola, Zambia, Malawi, NE Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, E South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho; a small isolated population exists near Beni Abbas in the Sahara Desert in W Algeria.","Head—body 420-580 mm,tail 68-121 mm, ear 90-120 mm, hindfoot 103-127 mm; weight 1:4.3-2 kg. The African Savanna Hare is medium-sized and has soft butslightly coarse fur. Dorsal pelage, crown of head, and nasal region are brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are buff. Lips, cheeks, and areas around eyes are grayish. Ventral fur is white or buff. Chin is white, and collar is rufous or buffy. Lateral profile of head is shallowly and smoothly convex. Throat is buffy brown. Ears are of medium length, brownish and grizzled. Ear tips are black on outer and inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is characteristically orange to brownish orange. Forelimbs are long and buffy brown; hindlimbs are cinnamon-brown. Hindfeet are cinnamon-brown above and brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black or dark brown above and white laterally and below. Fur color varies geographically, but this might be due to the unclear species status. Montane forms of the African Savanna Hare are more rufous and darker than lowland forms.","Scrub, bush, and grassland habitats, preferring scrubby and montane habitats. The African Savanna Hare occurs in mountain regions up to ¢.3600 m on Mount Kenya and is also recorded in semiarid grasslands. It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution; they are separated largely by habitat. African Savanna Hares have been recorded in grassland associations of Themedatriandra and Imperatacylindrical (both Poaceae) in Ruanda-Urundi and Tarchonanthuscamphoratus (Asteraceae) scrub in East Africa.","The African Savanna Hare is herbivorous. Based on fecal analysis, diet in Kenya consisted of grasses (35%) such as Digitaria sp.(18%), Hyparrhenia sp.(11%), and Cynodondactylon (4%) and dicotyledons (1%). Diets vary by habitat.","In Uganda, 100% of female African Savanna Hares were pregnant in all months except May and November when only 80% were pregnant. Mean litter size was 1-6 young, and numbers of litters per year were 6-8, resulting in a mean of 11-2 young/female/year.",The African Savanna Hare is strictly nocturnal.,Home ranges of African Savanna Hares are 5-10 ha. They live mostly alone but are sometimes seen in groups of 2-3 individuals while feeding.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as L. microtis). The African Savanna Hare is widespread, but no data are available on its population status. Status of a small isolated population in western Algeria is uncertain and needs assessment. Threats to the African Savanna Hare are unknown, but its uncertain taxonomy makesit difficult to thoroughly understand its conservation status.","Allen, G.M. (1939) | Angermann (2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987b) | Curry-Lindahl (1961) | Flux (1981a, 1981b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Flux & Flux (1983) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Petter (1959) | Smith & Johnston (2008c) | Stewart (1971a)",,"37.African Savanna HareLepus victoriaeFrench:Liévre des savanes/ German:Savannenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de sabanaTaxonomy.Lepus victoriae Thomas, 1893, “Lande der Ridj,” Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.It was formerly included with L. saxatilisand has various synonyms that are still under debate (saxatilis, crawshayi, whytei, and macrotis). Some taxonomic confusion has arisen because the skull of the type specimen of victoriaeis missing and because the type of whytei seems to be aberrant and not typical of others in nearby localities. The form whytei seems to be close to but distinguishable from L. fagani, and the wide geographical separation between these two forms merits recognition of whytei as a valid species. Also crawshayi might be a valid species. On the other hand,it is under discussion whether whytei and crawshayi might be subspecies of L. nigricollis. Moreover, L. victoriaemay be considered as the northern allospecies of the southern L. saxatilis. This species is widely sympatric with L. capensisand alloparatric to parapatric with L. saxatilisand L. habessinicus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.v.victoriaeThomas,1893—Tanzania.L.v.angolensisThomas,1904—Angola.L.v.senegalensisRochebrune,1883—Senegal,TheGambia.L. v. whyte: Thomas, 1894— Malawi.The African Savanna Hare is present from the Atlantic coast of NW Africa (Western Sahara S to Guinea), E across the Sahel to Sudan and the extreme W Ethiopia, S through E Africa (E DR Congo, Uganda, W Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) to most of Angola, Zambia, Malawi, NE Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, E South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho; a small isolated population exists near Beni Abbas in the Sahara Desert in W Algeria.Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-580 mm,tail 68-121 mm, ear 90-120 mm, hindfoot 103-127 mm; weight 1:4.3-2 kg. The African Savanna Hare is medium-sized and has soft butslightly coarse fur. Dorsal pelage, crown of head, and nasal region are brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are buff. Lips, cheeks, and areas around eyes are grayish. Ventral fur is white or buff. Chin is white, and collar is rufous or buffy. Lateral profile of head is shallowly and smoothly convex. Throat is buffy brown. Ears are of medium length, brownish and grizzled. Ear tips are black on outer and inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is characteristically orange to brownish orange. Forelimbs are long and buffy brown; hindlimbs are cinnamon-brown. Hindfeet are cinnamon-brown above and brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black or dark brown above and white laterally and below. Fur color varies geographically, but this might be due to the unclear species status. Montane forms of the African Savanna Hare are more rufous and darker than lowland forms.Habitat.Scrub, bush, and grassland habitats, preferring scrubby and montane habitats. The African Savanna Hare occurs in mountain regions up to ¢.3600 m on Mount Kenya and is also recorded in semiarid grasslands. It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution; they are separated largely by habitat. African Savanna Hares have been recorded in grassland associations of Themedatriandra and Imperatacylindrical (both Poaceae) in Ruanda-Urundi and Tarchonanthuscamphoratus (Asteraceae) scrub in East Africa.Food and Feeding.The African Savanna Hare is herbivorous. Based on fecal analysis, diet in Kenya consisted of grasses (35%) such as Digitaria sp.(18%), Hyparrhenia sp.(11%), and Cynodondactylon (4%) and dicotyledons (1%). Diets vary by habitat.Breeding.In Uganda, 100% of female African Savanna Hares were pregnant in all months except May and November when only 80% were pregnant. Mean litter size was 1-6 young, and numbers of litters per year were 6-8, resulting in a mean of 11-2 young/female/year.Activity patterns.The African Savanna Hare is strictly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of African Savanna Hares are 5-10 ha. They live mostly alone but are sometimes seen in groups of 2-3 individuals while feeding.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as L. microtis). The African Savanna Hare is widespread, but no data are available on its population status. Status of a small isolated population in western Algeria is uncertain and needs assessment. Threats to the African Savanna Hare are unknown, but its uncertain taxonomy makesit difficult to thoroughly understand its conservation status.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1939), Angermann (2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987b), Curry-Lindahl (1961), Flux (1981a, 1981b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Flux & Flux (1983), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Petter (1959), Smith & Johnston (2008c), Stewart (1971a)." -03822308B761FFD1FAFCF9FFFC16F4AB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,145,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B761FFD1FAFCF9FFFC16F4AB.xml,Lepus timidus,Lepus,timidus,Linnaeus,1758,Liévre variable @fr | Schneehase @de | Liebre de montana @es | Blue Hare @en | Snow Hare @en | Eurasian Arctic Hare @en | Varying Hare @en | White Hare; @en | rish Hare (hibernicus) @en | Alpine Mountain Hare (varronis) @en,"Lepus timidus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa.”Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidenceis available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occursin the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. Six populations of L. timidusare geographically separated and morphologically distinct and therefore can be treated as subspecies (abe, ainu, hibernicus, orii, scoticus, and varronis). Because division into subspecies is mostly based on pelage characteristics, it must be considered preliminary. Three studies analyzing geographic variation of metric characters of the skull of L. timidusdemonstrated clinal variations. This doubts the advisability of identifying subspecies in L. timidus. Origin of subspecies of L. timidusin Europe from a panmictic population during the Weichsel period is supported by genetic assessments. Hybridization between L. timidusand L. europaeusand between L. timidusand L. tolaiare recorded in contact zones. No interbreeding has been noted between scoticus and hibernicus on the island of Mull where both subspecies were introduced 60 years ago. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","L. t. timidus Linnaeus, 1758— Scandinavia S to 59° N, N Russia (S to 57° N to 58° N) to E of Ural Mts, Estonia, perhaps Poland, and Altai and Beita Mts in N Xinjiang (China); from Sweden extending in hybrid zones with the subspecies sylvaticusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. abet Kuroda, 1938 — Kurile Is (Russia).L. t. ainu Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 — Hokkaido (Japan).L. t. begitschevi Koljuschev, 1936 — Taimyr Peninsula (Russia).L. t. gichiganus J. A. Allen, 1903 — C Yakutia, Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea coast (Russia).L. t. hibernicus Bell, 1837 — Ireland.L. t. kolymensis Ognev, 1922 — NE Siberia (Russia).L. t. kozhevnikovi Ognev, 1929 — C Russia from 57° to 58°N, whereit intergrades with the nomonotypical timidusS to 53° N. The W boundary is unclear.L. t. lugubris Kastschenko, 1899 — Siberian Altai Mts (Russia).L. t. mordeni Goodwin, 1933 — Russian Far East (Ussuri Valley and lower and middle Amur River) and Heilongjiang (China).L. t. ori Kuroda, 1928 — Sakhalin (Russia).L. t. scoticus Hilzheimer, 1906 — Scotland.L. t. sibiricorumJohansen, 1923 — W & SW Siberia (Russia), N Kazakhstan, and Tacheng Mts in N Xinjiang (China).L. t. sylvaticus Nilsson, 1831—S Sweden, extending in hybrid zones with nominotypical timidusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. transbaikalicus Ognev, 1929 — Trans-Baikal region in E Siberia (Russia) and E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol, China).L. t. varronis Miller, 1901 — at high altitudes in the Alps, C Europe.The Mountain Hare inhabits the Palearctic from Scandinavia to Russian Far East, except E Chukchi Peninsula, S to Baltic States, E Poland, N Ukranie, and E to Tian Shan Mts, Altai Mts, N Mongolia, NW & NE China (N Xinjiang, N Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang), and Sikhote-Alin Mts. There are isolated populations in Scotland, Ireland, the Alps, Sakhalin (Russia), Hokkaido (Japan), and the Kurile Is. The nominotypical subspecies has been introduced into Faroe Is (Denmark), Scottish Is, and parts of England. Introduced populations on Spitsbergen I failed to persist.","Head-body 510-550 mm, tail 59-65 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 159-165 mm; weight 2.4-3.4 kg (depending on subspecies). The smallest subspecies is the “Alpine Mountain Hare” (varronis), and the largest subspecies is the nominate timidus. Male Mountain Hares tend to be smaller than females. In general, northern populations are larger. The Mountain Hare is completely white in winter, and its head and body are brown in summer. Summer fur differs among populations and can be pale gray or dusky brown in mountainous areas to rich rustbrown on plains. Exceptionally, fur of the Irish Hare is white on rump, flanks, and legs, with its upper back and head remaining brown in winter. Ears are short and narrow, with 30mm black tips on exterior surfaces and 5mm on interior surfaces. Relatively large head has prominent eyes, with yellowish irises in adults but dark brown in young. Hindfeet have hairy soles and widely spreading toes. Molt occurs three times per year: white to brown in spring; brown to brown in late summer; and brown to white in autumn. Molt is initiated by daylength, and its duration is influenced by temperature. Mountain Hares at high elevations and latitudes remain white longer, relative to average ambient temperature and duration of snow cover.","Wide range of biomes from extreme tundra with permafrost in northern Russia to rich agricultural areas in Ireland. Mountain Hares prefer to live in forests of pine, birch, and juniper. In Scotland and Ireland, heather moors and bog land are favored, and in Russia, copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes are selected. In the Alps, Mountain Hares prefer highly structured forests and thickets at forest edges. In spring, abundant herbaceous food in meadows is important to Mountain Hares. When a habitat offers food and shelter against predators, Mountain Hares use it for rest and activity. Forms are usually a depression they make. In snow, Mountain Hares burrow to make forms and enter rock crevices or marmot (Marmota) burrows for shelter or escape. They sometimes dig permanent burrows 1-2 m long in the ground. Mountain Hares in Ireland and the Alps do not burrow, but in Russia, complex burrows up to 7 m long have been reported. On agricultural land, Mountain Hares tends to be replaced by European Hares (L. europaeus) in Europe and Cape Hares (L. capensis) further east.","Mountain Hares are grazers in summer and browsers in winter. Their diets vary with habitat. Plant species used as food in forest habitats include leaves and twigs of Salixand Populus(both Salicaceae), Sorbus(Rosaceae), Betula(Betulaceae), Juniperus(Cupressaceae), and Vaccinium(Ericaceae); on Scottish moorlands and Swedish islands, Calluna(Ericaceae) is eaten. Different grass species and clovers are eaten when available. With snow cover, Mountain Hares feed on twigs, bark, moss, and lichens. They seldom drink water but may eat snow. Re-ingestion ofsoft pellets takes place at 09:00-16:00 h and increases dietary digestibility up to 25%; these pellets contain three times as much protein as regular pellets. Mountain Hares feed with their back to the wind and can clear snow from vegetation with their forepaws. When snow is hard, they move to lower ground to feed.","Gestation of the Mountain Hare lasts 46-55 days. Postpartum estrus with copulations a few hours after parturition is common. Superfetation does occur. Females have predominantly 2-3 litters/year, with litter sizes of 1-3 young, resulting in 5-9 offspring/female during a reproductive season. Weather has an important influence on numberof litters produced during a reproductive season.","Mountain Hares are nocturnal throughout the year, with a prolonged resting phase during the day. Activity patterns change seasonally with circadian rhythms. Mountains Hares rest by day in a form, with ears back and eyes half closed, but they only sleep for a few minutes at a time. In summer when daylight increases and in winter when food is scarce, more Mountain Hares are active during the day. Activity is highest during the first two hours after sunset.","Mountain Hares move an average of 1400 m/mnight, but they can travel up to 2400 m/night. Home rangesizes vary depending on climate. Home ranges are ¢.200 ha in boreal coniferous forests of Scandinavia. In moorland and pastures of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, and in the Alps, home ranges are 5-435 ha. Home ranges at night are larger than during the day, and they overlap ¢.35%. Densities vary from 1 ind/km? in Russia to 400 ind/km? on the Swedish Island of Vedholmen. Massive migrations of groups of 100-500, but up to 1500-2000 hares have been recorded in years of high numbers in northern Russia (Barents and Kara seas, Yamal Peninsula, Yakutia). Mountain Hares often move, rest, and feed together in groups of 2-5 individuals. Groups of 20-100 individuals have been recorded feeding in the same place.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Hare is widespread, populations appear to be stable across much ofits distribution, and it occurs in many protected areas. Nevertheless, historical game bag records in Northern Ireland indicate that there has been a substantial decline in abundance. Moreover, historical and recent records indicate that distribution of Mountain Haresis decreasing in southern Sweden. This decline started simultaneously with introduction of European Hares and continues while they expand northward. Furthermore, hunting statistics from Grisons, Switzerland, indicate a possible shift of both species to higher elevations. From 1990 to 2010, European Hares and Mountain Hares annually ascended more than 6 m and 3 m, respectively. Results of the study showed that European Hares advanced faster to higher elevations than Mountain Hares. A possible threat to the Irish Hare might be an introduced and expanding population of the European Hare in Ireland. The two examples from Sweden and Switzerland suggest that European Hares benefit from global warming and expand their distribution northward and to higher elevations and, thereby, might displace the Mountain Hares from their current distribution. Competitive exclusion and hybridization and introgression might explain how the European Hare is involved in the continuous decline of the Mountain Hare. Comparison of distributions of European Hares and Mountain Hares in Europe reveals that wherever European Hares occur, Mountain Hares are restricted to higher elevations or deep forests. It seems that European Hares and Mountain Hares are ecologically equivalent and strongly compete with one another. Studies of food preferences show that Mountain Haresin Ireland eat more grasses and herbs than Mountain Hares that live in sympatry with European Hares. Consequently,it has been argued that competitive exclusion by the European Hare restricts Mountain Hare distribution. Besides, in sympatric areas the forms of Mountain Hares are located in denser forest and further away from open fields than in allopatric areas. European Hares also expand their distribution and use of various habitats when densities of Mountain Hare are low. All these studies show that European Hares have the potential to expand into Mountain Hare territory and,in sympatry, Mountain Hares disappear from optimal European Hare habitat. European Hares and Mountain Hares hybridize with each other. Offspring are morphological intermediate and fertile. Normally, a male European Hare will mate with a female Mountain Hare. Reciprocal hybridization is also possible, but very rare due to typical mating behavior of European Hares and Mountain Hares in natural surroundings. Each time a Mountain Hare female hybridizes with a European Hare male, the local Mountain Hare population loses a species-specific litter. Consequently, observed decline in distribution and densities of Mountain Hares may be a direct consequence of unidirectional hybridization. This phenomenon is described as extinction by hybridization in the literature.","Acevedo, Jiménez-Valverde et al. (2012) | Angerbjérn (1981, 1986, 1991) | Angerbjorn & Flux (1995) | Angerbjérn & Pehrson (1987) | Angermann (1967b, 2016) | Baker et al. (1983) | Barrett-Hamilton (1912) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Masseroni et al. (2011) | Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Ossi et al. (2013) | Caravaggi et al. (2015) | Cederlund & Lemnell (1980) | Dahl & Willebrand (2005) | Dingerkus & Montgomery (2001, 2002) | Fairley (1974) | Flux (1970, 1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gamboni (1997) | Genini Gamboni et al. (2008) | Hacklander & Jenny (2011) | Hewson (1962, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1991) | Hewson & Hinge (1990) | Hiltunen & Kauhala (2006) | Hiltunen et al. (2004) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hulbert, lason, Elston & Racey (1996) | Hulbert, lason & Racey (1996) | Jansson & Pehrson (2007) | Kauhala et al. (2005) | Lind (1961, 1963) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long, (2003) | Lonnberg (1905) | Loukashkin (1943) | Mallon (1985) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Myrberget (1984) | Nodari (2006) | Nyholm (1968) | Ognev (1966) | Olsson (1997) | Pehrson (1983a, 1983b) | Rao et al. (2003) | Rehnus et al. (2013) | Rhymer & Simberloff (1996) | Slotta-Bachmayr (1998) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008l) | Sokolov et al. (2009) | Suchentrunk et al. (1999) | Thirgood & Hewson (1987) | Thulin (2003) | Thulin & Tegelstrdom (2002) | Thulin et al. (1997) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Wolfe & Hayden (1996) | Wolfe et al. (1996) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005) | Zachos et al. (2010)",,"59.Mountain HareLepus timidusFrench:Liévre variable/ German:Schneehase/ Spanish:Liebre de montanaOther common names:Blue Hare, Snow Hare, Eurasian Arctic Hare, Varying Hare, White Hare; Irish Hare (hibernicus), Alpine Mountain Hare (varronis)Taxonomy.Lepus timidus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa.”Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidenceis available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occursin the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. Six populations of L. timidusare geographically separated and morphologically distinct and therefore can be treated as subspecies (abe, ainu, hibernicus, orii, scoticus, and varronis). Because division into subspecies is mostly based on pelage characteristics, it must be considered preliminary. Three studies analyzing geographic variation of metric characters of the skull of L. timidusdemonstrated clinal variations. This doubts the advisability of identifying subspecies in L. timidus. Origin of subspecies of L. timidusin Europe from a panmictic population during the Weichsel period is supported by genetic assessments. Hybridization between L. timidusand L. europaeusand between L. timidusand L. tolaiare recorded in contact zones. No interbreeding has been noted between scoticus and hibernicus on the island of Mull where both subspecies were introduced 60 years ago. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. t. timidus Linnaeus, 1758— Scandinavia S to 59° N, N Russia (S to 57° N to 58° N) to E of Ural Mts, Estonia, perhaps Poland, and Altai and Beita Mts in N Xinjiang (China); from Sweden extending in hybrid zones with the subspecies sylvaticusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. abet Kuroda, 1938 — Kurile Is (Russia).L. t. ainu Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 — Hokkaido (Japan).L. t. begitschevi Koljuschev, 1936 — Taimyr Peninsula (Russia).L. t. gichiganus J. A. Allen, 1903 — C Yakutia, Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea coast (Russia).L. t. hibernicus Bell, 1837 — Ireland.L. t. kolymensis Ognev, 1922 — NE Siberia (Russia).L. t. kozhevnikovi Ognev, 1929 — C Russia from 57° to 58°N, whereit intergrades with the nomonotypical timidusS to 53° N. The W boundary is unclear.L. t. lugubris Kastschenko, 1899 — Siberian Altai Mts (Russia).L. t. mordeni Goodwin, 1933 — Russian Far East (Ussuri Valley and lower and middle Amur River) and Heilongjiang (China).L. t. ori Kuroda, 1928 — Sakhalin (Russia).L. t. scoticus Hilzheimer, 1906 — Scotland.L. t. sibiricorumJohansen, 1923 — W & SW Siberia (Russia), N Kazakhstan, and Tacheng Mts in N Xinjiang (China).L. t. sylvaticus Nilsson, 1831—S Sweden, extending in hybrid zones with nominotypical timidusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. transbaikalicus Ognev, 1929 — Trans-Baikal region in E Siberia (Russia) and E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol, China).L. t. varronis Miller, 1901 — at high altitudes in the Alps, C Europe.The Mountain Hare inhabits the Palearctic from Scandinavia to Russian Far East, except E Chukchi Peninsula, S to Baltic States, E Poland, N Ukranie, and E to Tian Shan Mts, Altai Mts, N Mongolia, NW & NE China (N Xinjiang, N Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang), and Sikhote-Alin Mts. There are isolated populations in Scotland, Ireland, the Alps, Sakhalin (Russia), Hokkaido (Japan), and the Kurile Is. The nominotypical subspecies has been introduced into Faroe Is (Denmark), Scottish Is, and parts of England. Introduced populations on Spitsbergen I failed to persist.Descriptive notes.Head-body 510-550 mm, tail 59-65 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 159-165 mm; weight 2.4-3.4 kg (depending on subspecies). The smallest subspecies is the “Alpine Mountain Hare” (varronis), and the largest subspecies is the nominate timidus. Male Mountain Hares tend to be smaller than females. In general, northern populations are larger. The Mountain Hare is completely white in winter, and its head and body are brown in summer. Summer fur differs among populations and can be pale gray or dusky brown in mountainous areas to rich rustbrown on plains. Exceptionally, fur of the Irish Hare is white on rump, flanks, and legs, with its upper back and head remaining brown in winter. Ears are short and narrow, with 30mm black tips on exterior surfaces and 5mm on interior surfaces. Relatively large head has prominent eyes, with yellowish irises in adults but dark brown in young. Hindfeet have hairy soles and widely spreading toes. Molt occurs three times per year: white to brown in spring; brown to brown in late summer; and brown to white in autumn. Molt is initiated by daylength, and its duration is influenced by temperature. Mountain Hares at high elevations and latitudes remain white longer, relative to average ambient temperature and duration of snow cover.Habitat.Wide range of biomes from extreme tundra with permafrost in northern Russia to rich agricultural areas in Ireland. Mountain Hares prefer to live in forests of pine, birch, and juniper. In Scotland and Ireland, heather moors and bog land are favored, and in Russia, copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes are selected. In the Alps, Mountain Hares prefer highly structured forests and thickets at forest edges. In spring, abundant herbaceous food in meadows is important to Mountain Hares. When a habitat offers food and shelter against predators, Mountain Hares use it for rest and activity. Forms are usually a depression they make. In snow, Mountain Hares burrow to make forms and enter rock crevices or marmot (Marmota) burrows for shelter or escape. They sometimes dig permanent burrows 1-2 m long in the ground. Mountain Hares in Ireland and the Alps do not burrow, but in Russia, complex burrows up to 7 m long have been reported. On agricultural land, Mountain Hares tends to be replaced by European Hares (L. europaeus) in Europe and Cape Hares (L. capensis) further east.Food and Feeding.Mountain Hares are grazers in summer and browsers in winter. Their diets vary with habitat. Plant species used as food in forest habitats include leaves and twigs of Salixand Populus(both Salicaceae), Sorbus(Rosaceae), Betula(Betulaceae), Juniperus(Cupressaceae), and Vaccinium(Ericaceae); on Scottish moorlands and Swedish islands, Calluna(Ericaceae) is eaten. Different grass species and clovers are eaten when available. With snow cover, Mountain Hares feed on twigs, bark, moss, and lichens. They seldom drink water but may eat snow. Re-ingestion ofsoft pellets takes place at 09:00-16:00 h and increases dietary digestibility up to 25%; these pellets contain three times as much protein as regular pellets. Mountain Hares feed with their back to the wind and can clear snow from vegetation with their forepaws. When snow is hard, they move to lower ground to feed.Breeding.Gestation of the Mountain Hare lasts 46-55 days. Postpartum estrus with copulations a few hours after parturition is common. Superfetation does occur. Females have predominantly 2-3 litters/year, with litter sizes of 1-3 young, resulting in 5-9 offspring/female during a reproductive season. Weather has an important influence on numberof litters produced during a reproductive season.The second litter is on average larger than the first one. Start of breeding varies with temperature, and gestating females have been recorded from January/February until August/September. Juvenile females do not breed in the same year of their birth. Differences in reproduction exist among populations or subspecies.For example, subspecies timidusin northern Norway normally has only 1-2 litters/ year, but in south-western Sweden,it regularly has three litters. Another difference is the length of the reproductive period with the Irish Hare having a longer one than scoticus. At birth, young are fully furred, their eyes are open, and they start suckling immediately. Adult sex ratio is 1:1. Overall juvenile survival from birth to the following spring averages 20%. In January-July, male Mountain Hares often follow 2-20 m behind a female for hours. Males use scent to track females. During courtship, several males chase a female, but males do not guard females. Females dominate males and strike with their forepaws with ears laid backward if the male approaches too closely. Copulation can involve five or more males and a female, and males can be involved in long fights.Activity patterns.Mountain Hares are nocturnal throughout the year, with a prolonged resting phase during the day. Activity patterns change seasonally with circadian rhythms. Mountains Hares rest by day in a form, with ears back and eyes half closed, but they only sleep for a few minutes at a time. In summer when daylight increases and in winter when food is scarce, more Mountain Hares are active during the day. Activity is highest during the first two hours after sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Hares move an average of 1400 m/mnight, but they can travel up to 2400 m/night. Home rangesizes vary depending on climate. Home ranges are ¢.200 ha in boreal coniferous forests of Scandinavia. In moorland and pastures of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, and in the Alps, home ranges are 5-435 ha. Home ranges at night are larger than during the day, and they overlap ¢.35%. Densities vary from 1 ind/km? in Russia to 400 ind/km? on the Swedish Island of Vedholmen. Massive migrations of groups of 100-500, but up to 1500-2000 hares have been recorded in years of high numbers in northern Russia (Barents and Kara seas, Yamal Peninsula, Yakutia). Mountain Hares often move, rest, and feed together in groups of 2-5 individuals. Groups of 20-100 individuals have been recorded feeding in the same place.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Hare is widespread, populations appear to be stable across much ofits distribution, and it occurs in many protected areas. Nevertheless, historical game bag records in Northern Ireland indicate that there has been a substantial decline in abundance. Moreover, historical and recent records indicate that distribution of Mountain Haresis decreasing in southern Sweden. This decline started simultaneously with introduction of European Hares and continues while they expand northward. Furthermore, hunting statistics from Grisons, Switzerland, indicate a possible shift of both species to higher elevations. From 1990 to 2010, European Hares and Mountain Hares annually ascended more than 6 m and 3 m, respectively. Results of the study showed that European Hares advanced faster to higher elevations than Mountain Hares. A possible threat to the Irish Hare might be an introduced and expanding population of the European Hare in Ireland. The two examples from Sweden and Switzerland suggest that European Hares benefit from global warming and expand their distribution northward and to higher elevations and, thereby, might displace the Mountain Hares from their current distribution. Competitive exclusion and hybridization and introgression might explain how the European Hare is involved in the continuous decline of the Mountain Hare. Comparison of distributions of European Hares and Mountain Hares in Europe reveals that wherever European Hares occur, Mountain Hares are restricted to higher elevations or deep forests. It seems that European Hares and Mountain Hares are ecologically equivalent and strongly compete with one another. Studies of food preferences show that Mountain Haresin Ireland eat more grasses and herbs than Mountain Hares that live in sympatry with European Hares. Consequently,it has been argued that competitive exclusion by the European Hare restricts Mountain Hare distribution. Besides, in sympatric areas the forms of Mountain Hares are located in denser forest and further away from open fields than in allopatric areas. European Hares also expand their distribution and use of various habitats when densities of Mountain Hare are low. All these studies show that European Hares have the potential to expand into Mountain Hare territory and,in sympatry, Mountain Hares disappear from optimal European Hare habitat. European Hares and Mountain Hares hybridize with each other. Offspring are morphological intermediate and fertile. Normally, a male European Hare will mate with a female Mountain Hare. Reciprocal hybridization is also possible, but very rare due to typical mating behavior of European Hares and Mountain Hares in natural surroundings. Each time a Mountain Hare female hybridizes with a European Hare male, the local Mountain Hare population loses a species-specific litter. Consequently, observed decline in distribution and densities of Mountain Hares may be a direct consequence of unidirectional hybridization. This phenomenon is described as extinction by hybridization in the literature.After hybridization, mtDNA of Mountain Hares can be detected in European Hares if the hybrids backcross with true European Hares, which is often the case. Therefore, introgressed individuals can be found in both species. In areas where European Hares live currently in sympatry with Mountain Hares, the proportion of European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA is higher than in areas where both species lived in sympatry in the past. It seems that European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA have a reduced fitness compared with European Hares with species-specific mtDNA. This means that Mountain Hare mtDNA is incorporated into European Hares in sympatric areas but gradually disappears if European Hares remain allopatric. After the introduction of European Hares in Sweden, European Hares and Mountain Hares occurred together for a period of time before Mountain Hares disappeared and only European Hares remained. Hybrids were only observed a couple of years before they disappeared. Accordingly, hybridization, introgression, and the eventual disappearance of Mountain Hare mtDNA might be regarded as refined competitive exclusion in which traces of Mountain Hares are not only ecologically but also genetically erased from the European Hare. In addition to interactions with the European Hare, other causes for the Mountain Hare decline are under consideration, such as diseases (e.g. European Brown Hare Syndrome and tularemia), deforestation and agricultural expansion, predation, and negative interactions with other herbivores. Increasing tourism in the Alps has a negative impact on Mountain Hares and other biota. Nevertheless, none of these factors alone can explain declines of Mountain Hares. Research is needed to identify causes of regional decline.Current conservation status of the endemic Irish Hare and the Alpine Mountain Hare require specific investigations.Bibliography.Acevedo, Jiménez-Valverde et al. (2012), Angerbjérn (1981, 1986, 1991), Angerbjorn & Flux (1995), Angerbjérn & Pehrson (1987), Angermann (1967b, 2016), Baker et al. (1983), Barrett-Hamilton (1912), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Masseroni et al. (2011), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Ossi et al. (2013), Caravaggi et al. (2015), Cederlund & Lemnell (1980), Dahl & Willebrand (2005), Dingerkus & Montgomery (2001, 2002), Fairley (1974), Flux (1970, 1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gamboni (1997), Genini Gamboni et al. (2008), Hacklander & Jenny (2011), Hewson (1962, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1991), Hewson & Hinge (1990), Hiltunen & Kauhala (2006), Hiltunen et al. (2004), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hulbert, lason, Elston & Racey (1996), Hulbert, lason & Racey (1996), Jansson & Pehrson (2007), Kauhala et al. (2005), Lind (1961, 1963), Lissovsky (2016), Long, (2003), Lonnberg (1905), Loukashkin (1943), Mallon (1985), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Myrberget (1984), Nodari (2006), Nyholm (1968), Ognev (1966), Olsson (1997), Pehrson (1983a, 1983b), Rao et al. (2003), Rehnus et al. (2013), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), Slotta-Bachmayr (1998), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008l), Sokolov et al. (2009), Suchentrunk et al. (1999), Thirgood & Hewson (1987), Thulin (2003), Thulin & Tegelstrdom (2002), Thulin et al. (1997), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wolfe & Hayden (1996), Wolfe et al. (1996), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005), Zachos et al. (2010)." -03822308B761FFDFFFF2FC8DFA17F3A3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,145,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B761FFDFFFF2FC8DFA17F3A3.xml,Lepus othus,Lepus,othus,Merriam,1900,,"Lepus othus Merriam, 1900, “St. Michaels, [Norton Sound], Alaska,” USA.Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occurs in the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. If the distribution includes eastern Siberian tschuktschorum it has priority over othus. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the eastern Siberian population is more closely related to L. timidus, and L. othusis distinct from L. arcticus, but more studies are required for a conclusive distinction because the study was only based on mtDNA. Morphological studies found that L. othusis closer to L. townsendiithan to other northern species of Lepus. Lepusothusis partially sympatric with L. americanusin Alaska. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","L.o.othusMerriam,1900—WAlaska(USA).L.o.poadromusMerriam,1900—AlaskaPeninsula(USA).L. o. tschuktschorum Nordqvist, 1883— Chukchi Peninsula, NE Siberia (Russia).","Head-body 570-620 mm, tail 65-83 mm, ear 90-91 mm, hindfoot 164-179 mm; weight 3.9-4.8 kg. The Alaskan Hare is large. Winter pelage is white, except for black ear tips. In summer, fur on nose, sides of face, and top of head is cinnamon-buff; top of head appears darker. General color of back is drab cinnamon. Ears are similar in color to head on anterior one-half of outer surface, but posterior one-half is white. Frontlegs are white, with wash of cinnamon-buff; hindlegs are white, washed with brown. Molting occurs twice per year and starts in mid-September and early May. The Alaskan Hare has stout claws adapted to digging through hard-crusted snow to reach vegetation.","Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.","Habitat.Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.Diet of the Alaskan Hare in April/May consists mainly of shrubs. Woody parts of the Alaskan willow (S. alaxensis) and leaves of crowberry are most commonly eaten. In spring, they fed at edges of melting snow patches where crowberries from the previous summer were abundant. One captive Alaskan Hare seldom drank water.Breeding.Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).Activity patterns.Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.","Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).",Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.,"Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Alaskan Hares seem to be widespread and stable, although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Alaskan Hares for food and fur. Southern populations might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Research is needed to assess taxonomic status of the Alaskan Hare relative to the Mountain Hare (L. timidus) and the Arctic Hare (L. arcticus) and evaluate habitat use and population status and trends.","Anderson (1974) | Anderson & Lent (1977) | Angermann (2016) | Baker et al. (1983) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Best & Henry (1994b) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Dufresne (1946) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1981) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Howell (19364) | Lissovsky (2016) | Loukashkin (1943) | Merriam (1900) | Murie (1959) | Murray & Smith (2008c) | Nelson (1909) | Schiller & Rausch (1956) | Walkinshaw (1947) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Waltari et al. (2004) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)",,"58.Alaskan HareLepus othusFrench: Lievre d/Alaska / German: Alaska-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de AlaskaOther common names: Alaska Arctic Hare, Alaska Peninsula Hare, Alaska Tundra Hare, St. Michael's Hare, Tundra Hare, Swift HareTaxonomy.Lepus othus Merriam, 1900, “St. Michaels, [Norton Sound], Alaska,” USA.Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occurs in the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. If the distribution includes eastern Siberian tschuktschorum it has priority over othus. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the eastern Siberian population is more closely related to L. timidus, and L. othusis distinct from L. arcticus, but more studies are required for a conclusive distinction because the study was only based on mtDNA. Morphological studies found that L. othusis closer to L. townsendiithan to other northern species of Lepus. Lepusothusis partially sympatric with L. americanusin Alaska. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.o.othusMerriam,1900—WAlaska(USA).L.o.poadromusMerriam,1900—AlaskaPeninsula(USA).L. o. tschuktschorum Nordqvist, 1883— Chukchi Peninsula, NE Siberia (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 570-620 mm, tail 65-83 mm, ear 90-91 mm, hindfoot 164-179 mm; weight 3.9-4.8 kg. The Alaskan Hare is large. Winter pelage is white, except for black ear tips. In summer, fur on nose, sides of face, and top of head is cinnamon-buff; top of head appears darker. General color of back is drab cinnamon. Ears are similar in color to head on anterior one-half of outer surface, but posterior one-half is white. Frontlegs are white, with wash of cinnamon-buff; hindlegs are white, washed with brown. Molting occurs twice per year and starts in mid-September and early May. The Alaskan Hare has stout claws adapted to digging through hard-crusted snow to reach vegetation.Habitat.Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Alaskan Hare in April/May consists mainly of shrubs. Woody parts of the Alaskan willow (S. alaxensis) and leaves of crowberry are most commonly eaten. In spring, they fed at edges of melting snow patches where crowberries from the previous summer were abundant. One captive Alaskan Hare seldom drank water.Breeding.Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).Activity patterns.Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Alaskan Hares seem to be widespread and stable, although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Alaskan Hares for food and fur. Southern populations might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Research is needed to assess taxonomic status of the Alaskan Hare relative to the Mountain Hare (L. timidus) and the Arctic Hare (L. arcticus) and evaluate habitat use and population status and trends.Bibliography.Anderson (1974), Anderson & Lent (1977), Angermann (2016), Baker et al. (1983), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Best & Henry (1994b), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Dufresne (1946), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1981), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Howell (19364), Lissovsky (2016), Loukashkin (1943), Merriam (1900), Murie (1959), Murray & Smith (2008c), Nelson (1909), Schiller & Rausch (1956), Walkinshaw (1947), Waltari & Cook (2005), Waltari et al. (2004), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." -03822308B762FFDFFF65F9D5FDD5F4B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,144,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B762FFDFFF65F9D5FDD5F4B3.xml,Lepus arcticus,Lepus,arcticus,Ross,1819,Liévre arctique @fr | Polarhase @de | Liebre artica @es | American Arctic Hare @en | Canadian Arctic Hare @en | Labrador Hare @en | Greenland Hare @en | Polar Hare @en,"Lepus arcticus Ross, 1819, “Southeast of Cape Bowen” (Possession Bay, Bylot Island, latitude 73°37’N, Canada).Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticusand L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics. This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from the L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered distinct species with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nine subspecies recognized.","L.a.arcticusRoss,1819—BaffinI,BylotI,andMelvillePeninsula,NENunavut(NCanada).L.a.andersoniNelson,1934—C&NENorthwestTerritoriesandmostofNunavut(NWCanada).L.a.bangsiiRhoads,1896—NewfoundlandandNEL.a.(ECanada.)L.a.banksicolaManning&Macpherson,1958—BanksI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.groenlandicusRhoads,1896—W,N&NEice-freecoastalregionsofGreenland.L.a.hubbardiHandley,1952—PrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.labradoriusMiller,1899—SEBaffinI,NHudsonBayIs,coastalSNunavut,NEManitoba,NQuebec,andNWL.a.Peninsula(NCanada).L.a.monstrabilisNelson,1934—QueenElizabethIs,exceptPrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L. a. porsildi Nelson, 1934— S & SW ice-free coastal regions of Greenland.","Head—body 560-660 mm, tail 45-100 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 146-164 nm; weight 2.5-6.8 kg. Measurements of Artic Hares vary depending on geographical location. In the north, individuals are larger than in the south. Summer pelage is gray in southern populations and white in northern populations. In winter, Arctic Hares are white except for black ear tips. Winter fur is long and soft. During molt, Arctic Hares remove loose tufts of hair by rolling in snow. Eyes are yellowish brown. Ears are blackish in front and white behind, with a whitish band isolating black tips. Large feet are padded with heavy, yellowish brush of hair. Claws on forefeet and hindfeet are long and well adapted for digging in snow.","Tundra, primarily north of the tree line, arctic alpine, and exposed coastal barren areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. The Artic Hare prefers hillsides or rock-strewn plateaus rather than flat bog land. Throughout most ofits distribution, it spends summer in the tundra north of the tree limit, but in winter, it might penetrate up to 160 km into the forest. Areas with little snow cover and wind exposure are favored, and groups of several hundred Arctic Hares may aggregate in such areas in winter, moving from one place to the other in search for food.","The Arctic Hare feeds mainly on woody plants throughout the year. Arctic willow (Salixarctica, Salicaceae) is the main species eaten in all seasons, and its leaves, buds, bark, and roots make up to 95% of winter diets. It also feeds on mosses, lichens, buds, and berries of crowberry (Empetrumniger, Ericaceae), young blooms of saxifrage (Saxifragaoppositifolia, Saxifragaceae), mountain sorrel (Oxyriadigyna, Polygonaceae), and various kinds of grasses. Summer diets of Arctic Hares are highly variable but mainly contain Arctic willow, mountain avens (Dryasintegrifolia, Rosaceae), and grasses. On Baffin Island, dwarf willows (S. arctica and S. herbacea) and crowberry are the main food. In Greenland, diets consist of Arctic willow and mountain sorrel. The Arctic Hare regularly feeds on stomach contents of eviscerated Caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Water is obtained by eating snow. It makes trails from one grazing place to the next. Often high places are selected to forage. Arctic Hares dig through snow to find food. If snow has a hard crust, they stamp on it with their forefeet to make a hole. Feeding usually occurs in morning and evening.","Mating season of the Arctic Hare occurs in April/May. The male follows the female continuously. During copulation, the male bites the female fiercely on neck and back that she often is covered with blood. Mating corresponds with molting, so fur “flies” during the process. Gestation is c¢.53 days. Young are born in May-July in nests lined with dry grass, moss, and fur from the mother. Nests are either a depression among mosses and grasses or under or between rocks. Females have litter of 2-8 young, with an average of 5-4 young. Females in the far north have one litter per year, and in Newfoundland, average litter size was three young. Newborns are blackish brown, with white bellies, chins, and throats. When threatened, young flatten out on the ground, with their eyes closed and ears pressed tightly on their backs. During the first 2-3 days oflife, the mother stays with her young and defends them against danger. Nursing takes place every 18-20 hours, and nursing bouts lasts 1-4 minutes. By the third day oflife, young hide among stones when danger approaches. After c.2 weeks oflife, young disperse and hide behind rocks appearing only when nibbling on vegetation or nursing. The mother remains near the nursing site. Gradually, young increase their movements to a maximum of c.1 km from where they were born. Juvenile pelage is darker than summer pelage of adults. By the third week of life, young leave their mothers and form nurserybands of up to 20 individuals. Young are weaned at 8-9 weeks old. By late July, they are nearly as large as their parents and are white. Young breed for the first time as yearlings. Adult sex ratio of Arctic Hares is biased toward males.","The Arctic Hare rests during the day when the sun is shining, but during the dark winter, it has no fixed time for resting. When resting,it usually sits near a large stone, dozing or asleep, sheltered from wind, covered from aerial predators, and warmed by the sun. Usually, it chooses a site a little way up a slope. Arctic Hares often are immobile during resting,sitting crouched, with ears halfway erect and eyes nearly closed. Often 2—4 individuals rest together. In the afternoon, the Arctic Hare often leaves its resting place and starts feeding.","The Arctic Hare might be migratory because most individuals in an area disappear during summer, apparently moving northward. In November, they apparently migrate southward. Nevertheless, some researchers do not believe that mass migrations are undertaken by the Arctic Hare. In northern populations, hopping on hindfeet without the forefeet touching the ground has been reported for disturbed and frightened Arctic Hares. Home ranges are 9-290 ha, depending on habitat quality. In Newfoundland,sizes of male home ranges in summer are double the size of female home ranges. Movements increase in March/April with the onset of the mating season. In winter, Arctic Hares may protect themselves from extreme cold by burrowing into snow. These snow dens consist of a tunnel c¢.10 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth, with an enlarged terminal chamber. The Arctic Hare is usually solitary, but grouping behavior is very characteristic, with groups of 100-300 individuals being observed. In large groups, most individuals might be asleep, but one is usually awake and alert to danger. From early winter until early spring, Arctic Hares form groupsof 15-20 individuals. Arctic Hares frequently move among groups. Adults dominate juveniles, and dominance is unrelated to sex or breeding condition. When the mating season starts, groups disperse, pairs are formed, and each pair establishes a small territory. The male usually leaves the female after birth of young but sometimes remains close. Arctic Hares are usually silent, but lactating females may emit a short series of low growls as they approach their nursing places.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Hare is widespread, and population status seems to be constant although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Arctic Hares for food and fur. Southern populations of Arctic Hares might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Distributions of the Arctic Hare and the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus) slightly overlap, but the two species differ in their habitat preferences. The Arctic Hare occupies treeless barrens or tundra, whereas the Snowshoe Hare inhabits forests. In Newfoundland, replacement of the Arctic Hare by the Snowshoe Hare might be an example of competitive exclusion. Other theories list lack of suitable food or predation by the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) as causes that limited distribution of the Arctic Hare in Newfoundland.","Angermann (1967a, 2016) | Aniskowicz et al. (1990) | Audubon (2005) | Bakeret al. (1983) | Banfield (1974) | Barta et al. (1989) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Bergerud (1967) | Best & Henry (1994a) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Cameron (1958) | Corbet (1983) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Fitzgerald & Keith (1990) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gray (1993) | Hall (1951) | Hamilton (1973) | Hearn et al. (1987) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Johnsen (1953) | Lissovsky (2016) | Loukashkin (1943) | Macpherson & Manning (1959) | Manniche (1910) | Merceret al. (1981) | Murray (2003) | Murray & Smith (2008b) | Nelson (1909) | Parker (1977) | Pruitt (1960) | Richardson (1829a) | Soper (1944) | Sutton & Hamilton (1932) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)",,"57.Arctic HareLepus arcticusFrench:Liévre arctique/ German:Polarhase/ Spanish:Liebre articaOther common names:American Arctic Hare, Canadian Arctic Hare, Labrador Hare, Greenland Hare, Polar HareTaxonomy.Lepus arcticus Ross, 1819, “Southeast of Cape Bowen” (Possession Bay, Bylot Island, latitude 73°37’N, Canada).Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticusand L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics. This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from the L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered distinct species with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nine subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.arcticusRoss,1819—BaffinI,BylotI,andMelvillePeninsula,NENunavut(NCanada).L.a.andersoniNelson,1934—C&NENorthwestTerritoriesandmostofNunavut(NWCanada).L.a.bangsiiRhoads,1896—NewfoundlandandNEL.a.(ECanada.)L.a.banksicolaManning&Macpherson,1958—BanksI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.groenlandicusRhoads,1896—W,N&NEice-freecoastalregionsofGreenland.L.a.hubbardiHandley,1952—PrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.labradoriusMiller,1899—SEBaffinI,NHudsonBayIs,coastalSNunavut,NEManitoba,NQuebec,andNWL.a.Peninsula(NCanada).L.a.monstrabilisNelson,1934—QueenElizabethIs,exceptPrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L. a. porsildi Nelson, 1934— S & SW ice-free coastal regions of Greenland.Descriptive notes.Head—body 560-660 mm, tail 45-100 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 146-164 nm; weight 2.5-6.8 kg. Measurements of Artic Hares vary depending on geographical location. In the north, individuals are larger than in the south. Summer pelage is gray in southern populations and white in northern populations. In winter, Arctic Hares are white except for black ear tips. Winter fur is long and soft. During molt, Arctic Hares remove loose tufts of hair by rolling in snow. Eyes are yellowish brown. Ears are blackish in front and white behind, with a whitish band isolating black tips. Large feet are padded with heavy, yellowish brush of hair. Claws on forefeet and hindfeet are long and well adapted for digging in snow.Habitat.Tundra, primarily north of the tree line, arctic alpine, and exposed coastal barren areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. The Artic Hare prefers hillsides or rock-strewn plateaus rather than flat bog land. Throughout most ofits distribution, it spends summer in the tundra north of the tree limit, but in winter, it might penetrate up to 160 km into the forest. Areas with little snow cover and wind exposure are favored, and groups of several hundred Arctic Hares may aggregate in such areas in winter, moving from one place to the other in search for food.Food and Feeding.The Arctic Hare feeds mainly on woody plants throughout the year. Arctic willow (Salixarctica, Salicaceae) is the main species eaten in all seasons, and its leaves, buds, bark, and roots make up to 95% of winter diets. It also feeds on mosses, lichens, buds, and berries of crowberry (Empetrumniger, Ericaceae), young blooms of saxifrage (Saxifragaoppositifolia, Saxifragaceae), mountain sorrel (Oxyriadigyna, Polygonaceae), and various kinds of grasses. Summer diets of Arctic Hares are highly variable but mainly contain Arctic willow, mountain avens (Dryasintegrifolia, Rosaceae), and grasses. On Baffin Island, dwarf willows (S. arctica and S. herbacea) and crowberry are the main food. In Greenland, diets consist of Arctic willow and mountain sorrel. The Arctic Hare regularly feeds on stomach contents of eviscerated Caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Water is obtained by eating snow. It makes trails from one grazing place to the next. Often high places are selected to forage. Arctic Hares dig through snow to find food. If snow has a hard crust, they stamp on it with their forefeet to make a hole. Feeding usually occurs in morning and evening.Breeding.Mating season of the Arctic Hare occurs in April/May. The male follows the female continuously. During copulation, the male bites the female fiercely on neck and back that she often is covered with blood. Mating corresponds with molting, so fur “flies” during the process. Gestation is c¢.53 days. Young are born in May-July in nests lined with dry grass, moss, and fur from the mother. Nests are either a depression among mosses and grasses or under or between rocks. Females have litter of 2-8 young, with an average of 5-4 young. Females in the far north have one litter per year, and in Newfoundland, average litter size was three young. Newborns are blackish brown, with white bellies, chins, and throats. When threatened, young flatten out on the ground, with their eyes closed and ears pressed tightly on their backs. During the first 2-3 days oflife, the mother stays with her young and defends them against danger. Nursing takes place every 18-20 hours, and nursing bouts lasts 1-4 minutes. By the third day oflife, young hide among stones when danger approaches. After c.2 weeks oflife, young disperse and hide behind rocks appearing only when nibbling on vegetation or nursing. The mother remains near the nursing site. Gradually, young increase their movements to a maximum of c.1 km from where they were born. Juvenile pelage is darker than summer pelage of adults. By the third week of life, young leave their mothers and form nurserybands of up to 20 individuals. Young are weaned at 8-9 weeks old. By late July, they are nearly as large as their parents and are white. Young breed for the first time as yearlings. Adult sex ratio of Arctic Hares is biased toward males.Activity patterns.The Arctic Hare rests during the day when the sun is shining, but during the dark winter, it has no fixed time for resting. When resting,it usually sits near a large stone, dozing or asleep, sheltered from wind, covered from aerial predators, and warmed by the sun. Usually, it chooses a site a little way up a slope. Arctic Hares often are immobile during resting,sitting crouched, with ears halfway erect and eyes nearly closed. Often 2—4 individuals rest together. In the afternoon, the Arctic Hare often leaves its resting place and starts feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Arctic Hare might be migratory because most individuals in an area disappear during summer, apparently moving northward. In November, they apparently migrate southward. Nevertheless, some researchers do not believe that mass migrations are undertaken by the Arctic Hare. In northern populations, hopping on hindfeet without the forefeet touching the ground has been reported for disturbed and frightened Arctic Hares. Home ranges are 9-290 ha, depending on habitat quality. In Newfoundland,sizes of male home ranges in summer are double the size of female home ranges. Movements increase in March/April with the onset of the mating season. In winter, Arctic Hares may protect themselves from extreme cold by burrowing into snow. These snow dens consist of a tunnel c¢.10 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth, with an enlarged terminal chamber. The Arctic Hare is usually solitary, but grouping behavior is very characteristic, with groups of 100-300 individuals being observed. In large groups, most individuals might be asleep, but one is usually awake and alert to danger. From early winter until early spring, Arctic Hares form groupsof 15-20 individuals. Arctic Hares frequently move among groups. Adults dominate juveniles, and dominance is unrelated to sex or breeding condition. When the mating season starts, groups disperse, pairs are formed, and each pair establishes a small territory. The male usually leaves the female after birth of young but sometimes remains close. Arctic Hares are usually silent, but lactating females may emit a short series of low growls as they approach their nursing places.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Hare is widespread, and population status seems to be constant although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Arctic Hares for food and fur. Southern populations of Arctic Hares might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Distributions of the Arctic Hare and the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus) slightly overlap, but the two species differ in their habitat preferences. The Arctic Hare occupies treeless barrens or tundra, whereas the Snowshoe Hare inhabits forests. In Newfoundland, replacement of the Arctic Hare by the Snowshoe Hare might be an example of competitive exclusion. Other theories list lack of suitable food or predation by the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) as causes that limited distribution of the Arctic Hare in Newfoundland.Bibliography.Angermann (1967a, 2016), Aniskowicz et al. (1990), Audubon (2005), Bakeret al. (1983), Banfield (1974), Barta et al. (1989), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bergerud (1967), Best & Henry (1994a), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Cameron (1958), Corbet (1983), Dixon et al. (1983), Fitzgerald & Keith (1990), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gray (1993), Hall (1951), Hamilton (1973), Hearn et al. (1987), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Johnsen (1953), Lissovsky (2016), Loukashkin (1943), Macpherson & Manning (1959), Manniche (1910), Merceret al. (1981), Murray (2003), Murray & Smith (2008b), Nelson (1909), Parker (1977), Pruitt (1960), Richardson (1829a), Soper (1944), Sutton & Hamilton (1932), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." -03822308B763FFDCFFFCF2BDFEF6F07C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,143,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B763FFDCFFFCF2BDFEF6F07C.xml,Lepus townsendii,Lepus,townsendii,Bachman,1839,Liévre de Townsend @fr | Prariehase @de | Liebre de cola blanca @es | Prairie Hare @en,"Lepus townsendii Bachman, 1839, “on the Walla-walla ... river.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “old Fort Walla Walla,” near the present town of Wallula, Walla Walla Co., Washington.Formerly, L. townsendiiwas placed as L. campestrisin the subgenera Proeulagus or FEulagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).Descriptive notes.Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.Habitat.Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m.","L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).","Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.","Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m. Distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit extends into the badlands of South Dakota and montane pastures among scattered evergreens in Colorado. White-tailed Jackrabbits use shallow forms at bases of bushes or besides rocks. In winter, they use cavities connected by tunnels dug c.l m into snow or use shrubs and trees for cover. When White-tailed Jackrabbits and Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) are sympatric, they use different habitats. White-tailed Jackrabbits occur in open flats and fields of ryegrass (Lolium, Poaceae) in Oregon and bunchgrass and rabbitbrush in Washington; Black-tailed Jackrabbits inhabit predominantly sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae). In California, the White-tailed Jackrabbit was recorded more often on higher slopes and ridges, and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit more frequently on valley floors.","The White-tailed Jackrabbit feeds primarily on succulent grasses and forbs. Shrubs are eaten in winter after grasses and forbs have become dry. When feeding on shrubs, woody stems are favored over leaves. Diet selection is influenced by age of White-tailed Jackrabbits, season, and availabilities of plant species. Abundant plant species in diets ofthis species are alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), creambush (Holodiscusdiscolor, Rosaceae), sagebrush, clover (Trifolium sp., Fabaceae), common dandelion (Taraxacumofficinale, Asteraceae), dryland sedge (Carexobtusata, Cyperaceae), Indian paintbrush (Castillejaintegra, Orobanchaceae), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), and winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), both Amaranthaceae. One study in Colorado recorded 67 plant species in stomachs of White-tailed Jackrabbits. Pregnant or lactating females usually feed alone; males feed in groups of 2-5 individuals. After feeding, White-tailed Jackrabbits groom their heads and ears with their forepaws and lick their bodies. When sympatric, the White-tailed Jackrabbit seems to be a more selective feeder than the Black-tailed Jackrabbit and therefore has a competitive disadvantage.","Reproductive season starts in late February and ends in September. Breeding condition and environmental factors affect number oflitters born in a year. In the southern part of the distribution, a maximum of fourlitters are produced per year: the first in late April, the second in earlyJune, the third in middle July, and the fourth in late August or early September. In the northern parts of the distribution, only one litter is produced per year between May and early July. Gestation lasts 30-43 days and might be influenced by elevation and latitude. Litter sizes are 1-11 young, with an average of 4-5 young. The White-tailed Jackrabbit is polygamous. Courtship behavior involves a series of circling, jumping, and chasing activities that last 5-20 minutes and end in copulation. Normally, groups of 3-5 males chase one female during the evening hours. Subspecies campanius has breeding synchrony, and postpartum estrus allows conception immediately after parturition. Expected reproductive potential was estimated at 23 young/year, but due to prenatal mortality, it averaged 15 young/year. Nests for young are made of dry leaves and grasses, densely lined with fur from mothers, and well hidden in bushes or vegetation; alternately, they might only be a form on bare ground. Young are born fully furred, with open eyes and mobile to a limited extent. They start to forage at c.15 days old and are completely weaned at c.1 month old. Individuals have the potential to breed as early as c¢.7 months of age, but there is no evidence ofjuvenile breeding.","White-tailed Jackrabbits are nocturnal and forage mainly between sunset and sunrise. A study in summer revealed that they start feeding at 15:00-16:00 h, peak activity was at 22:00-01:00 h, and most activity stopped by 03:00-04:00 h. They hide in forms during the day.","Distance, duration, and frequency of movements of White-tailed Jackrabbits increase in early breeding season (March/ April) and decline during warm summer months. Home range size is as small as 10 ha but usually 300-700 ha. White-tailed Jackrabbits might migrate considerable distances in winter to sheltered areas. They tend to be solitary, but during the reproductive season, 3—4 individuals might group together. Aggregations of ¢.50 individuals have been observed diurnally, with a maximum of 110 individuals during winter. These observations were attributed to an abundance of food in the area. When pursued by a predator, White-tailed Jackrabbits sometimes enter water and swim with forefeet paddling. They also demonstrate tonic immobility behavior that is believed to serve as defensive function similar to feigned death.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The WhitetailedJackrabbit is widespread. Since the early 1900s, there was a gradual distributional expansion to the north and east as favorable habitats (e.g. agricultural land) were created. Since about the 1950s, there has been a gradual reduction in the distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit coupled with distributional expansion of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit in the north-western part ofits distribution where habitats have been altered to favor the latter. The White-tailed Jackrabbit does not occur in most of Nebraska and Kansas anymore, and existence in Missouriis debated. Population status of the White-tailedJackrabbit across its entire distribution is currently unknown, but declines have been observed in two national parks in Wyoming. Populations in Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks decreased to only a few individuals in 1978 and 2008. Causes for these declines are currently unknown. Research is needed to understand factors operating when the White-tailed Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit occur in sympatry and factors contributing to the decline of the White-tailed Jackrabbit in Wyoming.","Angermann (2016) | Anthony (1913) | Armstrong (1972) | Bailey (1926) | Banfield (1974) | Berger (2008a, 2008b) | Blackburn (1973) | Brown (1947) | Couch (1927) | Dalquest (1948) | De Vos (1964) | Dieter & Schaible (2012) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Flinders & Chapman (2003) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoeman (1964) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jackson (1961) | James (1967) | James & Seabloom (1969) | Jones (1964) | Kline (1963) | Lim (1987 1999) | Lissovsky (2016) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Peterson (1966) | Rogowitz (1992, 1997) | Rogowitz & Wolfe (1991) | Seton (1928) | Severaid (1950) | Smith & Johnston (2008k) | Soper (1973) | Warren (1910)",,"56.White-tailed JackrabbitLepus townsendiiFrench:Liévre de Townsend/ German:Prariehase/ Spanish:Liebre de cola blancaOther common names:Prairie HareTaxonomy.Lepus townsendii Bachman, 1839, “on the Walla-walla ... river.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “old Fort Walla Walla,” near the present town of Wallula, Walla Walla Co., Washington.Formerly, L. townsendiiwas placed as L. campestrisin the subgenera Proeulagus or FEulagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).Descriptive notes.Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.Habitat.Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m. Distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit extends into the badlands of South Dakota and montane pastures among scattered evergreens in Colorado. White-tailed Jackrabbits use shallow forms at bases of bushes or besides rocks. In winter, they use cavities connected by tunnels dug c.l m into snow or use shrubs and trees for cover. When White-tailed Jackrabbits and Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) are sympatric, they use different habitats. White-tailed Jackrabbits occur in open flats and fields of ryegrass (Lolium, Poaceae) in Oregon and bunchgrass and rabbitbrush in Washington; Black-tailed Jackrabbits inhabit predominantly sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae). In California, the White-tailed Jackrabbit was recorded more often on higher slopes and ridges, and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit more frequently on valley floors.Food and Feeding.The White-tailed Jackrabbit feeds primarily on succulent grasses and forbs. Shrubs are eaten in winter after grasses and forbs have become dry. When feeding on shrubs, woody stems are favored over leaves. Diet selection is influenced by age of White-tailed Jackrabbits, season, and availabilities of plant species. Abundant plant species in diets ofthis species are alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), creambush (Holodiscusdiscolor, Rosaceae), sagebrush, clover (Trifolium sp., Fabaceae), common dandelion (Taraxacumofficinale, Asteraceae), dryland sedge (Carexobtusata, Cyperaceae), Indian paintbrush (Castillejaintegra, Orobanchaceae), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), and winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), both Amaranthaceae. One study in Colorado recorded 67 plant species in stomachs of White-tailed Jackrabbits. Pregnant or lactating females usually feed alone; males feed in groups of 2-5 individuals. After feeding, White-tailed Jackrabbits groom their heads and ears with their forepaws and lick their bodies. When sympatric, the White-tailed Jackrabbit seems to be a more selective feeder than the Black-tailed Jackrabbit and therefore has a competitive disadvantage.Breeding.Reproductive season starts in late February and ends in September. Breeding condition and environmental factors affect number oflitters born in a year. In the southern part of the distribution, a maximum of fourlitters are produced per year: the first in late April, the second in earlyJune, the third in middle July, and the fourth in late August or early September. In the northern parts of the distribution, only one litter is produced per year between May and early July. Gestation lasts 30-43 days and might be influenced by elevation and latitude. Litter sizes are 1-11 young, with an average of 4-5 young. The White-tailed Jackrabbit is polygamous. Courtship behavior involves a series of circling, jumping, and chasing activities that last 5-20 minutes and end in copulation. Normally, groups of 3-5 males chase one female during the evening hours. Subspecies campanius has breeding synchrony, and postpartum estrus allows conception immediately after parturition. Expected reproductive potential was estimated at 23 young/year, but due to prenatal mortality, it averaged 15 young/year. Nests for young are made of dry leaves and grasses, densely lined with fur from mothers, and well hidden in bushes or vegetation; alternately, they might only be a form on bare ground. Young are born fully furred, with open eyes and mobile to a limited extent. They start to forage at c.15 days old and are completely weaned at c.1 month old. Individuals have the potential to breed as early as c¢.7 months of age, but there is no evidence ofjuvenile breeding.Activity patterns.White-tailed Jackrabbits are nocturnal and forage mainly between sunset and sunrise. A study in summer revealed that they start feeding at 15:00-16:00 h, peak activity was at 22:00-01:00 h, and most activity stopped by 03:00-04:00 h. They hide in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Distance, duration, and frequency of movements of White-tailed Jackrabbits increase in early breeding season (March/ April) and decline during warm summer months. Home range size is as small as 10 ha but usually 300-700 ha. White-tailed Jackrabbits might migrate considerable distances in winter to sheltered areas. They tend to be solitary, but during the reproductive season, 3—4 individuals might group together. Aggregations of ¢.50 individuals have been observed diurnally, with a maximum of 110 individuals during winter. These observations were attributed to an abundance of food in the area. When pursued by a predator, White-tailed Jackrabbits sometimes enter water and swim with forefeet paddling. They also demonstrate tonic immobility behavior that is believed to serve as defensive function similar to feigned death.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The WhitetailedJackrabbit is widespread. Since the early 1900s, there was a gradual distributional expansion to the north and east as favorable habitats (e.g. agricultural land) were created. Since about the 1950s, there has been a gradual reduction in the distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit coupled with distributional expansion of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit in the north-western part ofits distribution where habitats have been altered to favor the latter. The White-tailed Jackrabbit does not occur in most of Nebraska and Kansas anymore, and existence in Missouriis debated. Population status of the White-tailedJackrabbit across its entire distribution is currently unknown, but declines have been observed in two national parks in Wyoming. Populations in Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks decreased to only a few individuals in 1978 and 2008. Causes for these declines are currently unknown. Research is needed to understand factors operating when the White-tailed Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit occur in sympatry and factors contributing to the decline of the White-tailed Jackrabbit in Wyoming.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Anthony (1913), Armstrong (1972), Bailey (1926), Banfield (1974), Berger (2008a, 2008b), Blackburn (1973), Brown (1947), Couch (1927), Dalquest (1948), De Vos (1964), Dieter & Schaible (2012), Dunn et al. (1982), Flinders & Chapman (2003), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoeman (1964), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jackson (1961), James (1967), James & Seabloom (1969), Jones (1964), Kline (1963), Lim (1987 1999), Lissovsky (2016), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Peterson (1966), Rogowitz (1992, 1997), Rogowitz & Wolfe (1991), Seton (1928), Severaid (1950), Smith & Johnston (2008k), Soper (1973), Warren (1910)." +03822308B75FFFE1FFC9FBFDF75EF567,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,131,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75FFFE1FFC9FBFDF75EF567.xml,Lepus victoriae,Lepus,victoriae,Thomas,1893,Liévre des savanes @fr | Savannenhase @de | Liebre de sabana @es,"Lepus victoriae Thomas, 1893, “Lande der Ridj,” Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.It was formerly included with L. saxatilisand has various synonyms that are still under debate (saxatilis, crawshayi, whytei, and macrotis). Some taxonomic confusion has arisen because the skull of the type specimen of victoriaeis missing and because the type of whytei seems to be aberrant and not typical of others in nearby localities. The form whytei seems to be close to but distinguishable from L. fagani, and the wide geographical separation between these two forms merits recognition of whytei as a valid species. Also crawshayi might be a valid species. On the other hand,it is under discussion whether whytei and crawshayi might be subspecies of L. nigricollis. Moreover, L. victoriaemay be considered as the northern allospecies of the southern L. saxatilis. This species is widely sympatric with L. capensisand alloparatric to parapatric with L. saxatilisand L. habessinicus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","L.v.victoriaeThomas,1893—Tanzania.L.v.angolensisThomas,1904—Angola.L.v.senegalensisRochebrune,1883—Senegal,TheGambia.L. v. whyte: Thomas, 1894— Malawi.The African Savanna Hare is present from the Atlantic coast of NW Africa (Western Sahara S to Guinea), E across the Sahel to Sudan and the extreme W Ethiopia, S through E Africa (E DR Congo, Uganda, W Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) to most of Angola, Zambia, Malawi, NE Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, E South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho; a small isolated population exists near Beni Abbas in the Sahara Desert in W Algeria.","Head—body 420-580 mm,tail 68-121 mm, ear 90-120 mm, hindfoot 103-127 mm; weight 1:4.3-2 kg. The African Savanna Hare is medium-sized and has soft butslightly coarse fur. Dorsal pelage, crown of head, and nasal region are brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are buff. Lips, cheeks, and areas around eyes are grayish. Ventral fur is white or buff. Chin is white, and collar is rufous or buffy. Lateral profile of head is shallowly and smoothly convex. Throat is buffy brown. Ears are of medium length, brownish and grizzled. Ear tips are black on outer and inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is characteristically orange to brownish orange. Forelimbs are long and buffy brown; hindlimbs are cinnamon-brown. Hindfeet are cinnamon-brown above and brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black or dark brown above and white laterally and below. Fur color varies geographically, but this might be due to the unclear species status. Montane forms of the African Savanna Hare are more rufous and darker than lowland forms.","Scrub, bush, and grassland habitats, preferring scrubby and montane habitats. The African Savanna Hare occurs in mountain regions up to ¢.3600 m on Mount Kenya and is also recorded in semiarid grasslands. It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution; they are separated largely by habitat. African Savanna Hares have been recorded in grassland associations of Themedatriandra and Imperatacylindrical (both Poaceae) in Ruanda-Urundi and Tarchonanthuscamphoratus (Asteraceae) scrub in East Africa.","The African Savanna Hare is herbivorous. Based on fecal analysis, diet in Kenya consisted of grasses (35%) such as Digitaria sp.(18%), Hyparrhenia sp.(11%), and Cynodondactylon (4%) and dicotyledons (1%). Diets vary by habitat.","In Uganda, 100% of female African Savanna Hares were pregnant in all months except May and November when only 80% were pregnant. Mean litter size was 1-6 young, and numbers of litters per year were 6-8, resulting in a mean of 11-2 young/female/year.",The African Savanna Hare is strictly nocturnal.,Home ranges of African Savanna Hares are 5-10 ha. They live mostly alone but are sometimes seen in groups of 2-3 individuals while feeding.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as L. microtis). The African Savanna Hare is widespread, but no data are available on its population status. Status of a small isolated population in western Algeria is uncertain and needs assessment. Threats to the African Savanna Hare are unknown, but its uncertain taxonomy makesit difficult to thoroughly understand its conservation status.","Allen, G.M. (1939) | Angermann (2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987b) | Curry-Lindahl (1961) | Flux (1981a, 1981b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Flux & Flux (1983) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Petter (1959) | Smith & Johnston (2008c) | Stewart (1971a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625627/files/figure.png,"37.African Savanna HareLepus victoriaeFrench:Liévre des savanes/ German:Savannenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de sabanaTaxonomy.Lepus victoriae Thomas, 1893, “Lande der Ridj,” Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.It was formerly included with L. saxatilisand has various synonyms that are still under debate (saxatilis, crawshayi, whytei, and macrotis). Some taxonomic confusion has arisen because the skull of the type specimen of victoriaeis missing and because the type of whytei seems to be aberrant and not typical of others in nearby localities. The form whytei seems to be close to but distinguishable from L. fagani, and the wide geographical separation between these two forms merits recognition of whytei as a valid species. Also crawshayi might be a valid species. On the other hand,it is under discussion whether whytei and crawshayi might be subspecies of L. nigricollis. Moreover, L. victoriaemay be considered as the northern allospecies of the southern L. saxatilis. This species is widely sympatric with L. capensisand alloparatric to parapatric with L. saxatilisand L. habessinicus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.v.victoriaeThomas,1893—Tanzania.L.v.angolensisThomas,1904—Angola.L.v.senegalensisRochebrune,1883—Senegal,TheGambia.L. v. whyte: Thomas, 1894— Malawi.The African Savanna Hare is present from the Atlantic coast of NW Africa (Western Sahara S to Guinea), E across the Sahel to Sudan and the extreme W Ethiopia, S through E Africa (E DR Congo, Uganda, W Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) to most of Angola, Zambia, Malawi, NE Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, E South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho; a small isolated population exists near Beni Abbas in the Sahara Desert in W Algeria.Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-580 mm,tail 68-121 mm, ear 90-120 mm, hindfoot 103-127 mm; weight 1:4.3-2 kg. The African Savanna Hare is medium-sized and has soft butslightly coarse fur. Dorsal pelage, crown of head, and nasal region are brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are buff. Lips, cheeks, and areas around eyes are grayish. Ventral fur is white or buff. Chin is white, and collar is rufous or buffy. Lateral profile of head is shallowly and smoothly convex. Throat is buffy brown. Ears are of medium length, brownish and grizzled. Ear tips are black on outer and inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is characteristically orange to brownish orange. Forelimbs are long and buffy brown; hindlimbs are cinnamon-brown. Hindfeet are cinnamon-brown above and brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black or dark brown above and white laterally and below. Fur color varies geographically, but this might be due to the unclear species status. Montane forms of the African Savanna Hare are more rufous and darker than lowland forms.Habitat.Scrub, bush, and grassland habitats, preferring scrubby and montane habitats. The African Savanna Hare occurs in mountain regions up to ¢.3600 m on Mount Kenya and is also recorded in semiarid grasslands. It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution; they are separated largely by habitat. African Savanna Hares have been recorded in grassland associations of Themedatriandra and Imperatacylindrical (both Poaceae) in Ruanda-Urundi and Tarchonanthuscamphoratus (Asteraceae) scrub in East Africa.Food and Feeding.The African Savanna Hare is herbivorous. Based on fecal analysis, diet in Kenya consisted of grasses (35%) such as Digitaria sp.(18%), Hyparrhenia sp.(11%), and Cynodondactylon (4%) and dicotyledons (1%). Diets vary by habitat.Breeding.In Uganda, 100% of female African Savanna Hares were pregnant in all months except May and November when only 80% were pregnant. Mean litter size was 1-6 young, and numbers of litters per year were 6-8, resulting in a mean of 11-2 young/female/year.Activity patterns.The African Savanna Hare is strictly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of African Savanna Hares are 5-10 ha. They live mostly alone but are sometimes seen in groups of 2-3 individuals while feeding.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as L. microtis). The African Savanna Hare is widespread, but no data are available on its population status. Status of a small isolated population in western Algeria is uncertain and needs assessment. Threats to the African Savanna Hare are unknown, but its uncertain taxonomy makesit difficult to thoroughly understand its conservation status.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1939), Angermann (2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987b), Curry-Lindahl (1961), Flux (1981a, 1981b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Flux & Flux (1983), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Petter (1959), Smith & Johnston (2008c), Stewart (1971a)." +03822308B761FFD1FAFCF9FFFC16F4AB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,145,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B761FFD1FAFCF9FFFC16F4AB.xml,Lepus timidus,Lepus,timidus,Linnaeus,1758,Liévre variable @fr | Schneehase @de | Liebre de montana @es | Blue Hare @en | Snow Hare @en | Eurasian Arctic Hare @en | Varying Hare @en | White Hare; @en | rish Hare (hibernicus) @en | Alpine Mountain Hare (varronis) @en,"Lepus timidus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa.”Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidenceis available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occursin the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. Six populations of L. timidusare geographically separated and morphologically distinct and therefore can be treated as subspecies (abe, ainu, hibernicus, orii, scoticus, and varronis). Because division into subspecies is mostly based on pelage characteristics, it must be considered preliminary. Three studies analyzing geographic variation of metric characters of the skull of L. timidusdemonstrated clinal variations. This doubts the advisability of identifying subspecies in L. timidus. Origin of subspecies of L. timidusin Europe from a panmictic population during the Weichsel period is supported by genetic assessments. Hybridization between L. timidusand L. europaeusand between L. timidusand L. tolaiare recorded in contact zones. No interbreeding has been noted between scoticus and hibernicus on the island of Mull where both subspecies were introduced 60 years ago. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","L. t. timidus Linnaeus, 1758— Scandinavia S to 59° N, N Russia (S to 57° N to 58° N) to E of Ural Mts, Estonia, perhaps Poland, and Altai and Beita Mts in N Xinjiang (China); from Sweden extending in hybrid zones with the subspecies sylvaticusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. abet Kuroda, 1938 — Kurile Is (Russia).L. t. ainu Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 — Hokkaido (Japan).L. t. begitschevi Koljuschev, 1936 — Taimyr Peninsula (Russia).L. t. gichiganus J. A. Allen, 1903 — C Yakutia, Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea coast (Russia).L. t. hibernicus Bell, 1837 — Ireland.L. t. kolymensis Ognev, 1922 — NE Siberia (Russia).L. t. kozhevnikovi Ognev, 1929 — C Russia from 57° to 58°N, whereit intergrades with the nomonotypical timidusS to 53° N. The W boundary is unclear.L. t. lugubris Kastschenko, 1899 — Siberian Altai Mts (Russia).L. t. mordeni Goodwin, 1933 — Russian Far East (Ussuri Valley and lower and middle Amur River) and Heilongjiang (China).L. t. ori Kuroda, 1928 — Sakhalin (Russia).L. t. scoticus Hilzheimer, 1906 — Scotland.L. t. sibiricorumJohansen, 1923 — W & SW Siberia (Russia), N Kazakhstan, and Tacheng Mts in N Xinjiang (China).L. t. sylvaticus Nilsson, 1831—S Sweden, extending in hybrid zones with nominotypical timidusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. transbaikalicus Ognev, 1929 — Trans-Baikal region in E Siberia (Russia) and E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol, China).L. t. varronis Miller, 1901 — at high altitudes in the Alps, C Europe.The Mountain Hare inhabits the Palearctic from Scandinavia to Russian Far East, except E Chukchi Peninsula, S to Baltic States, E Poland, N Ukranie, and E to Tian Shan Mts, Altai Mts, N Mongolia, NW & NE China (N Xinjiang, N Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang), and Sikhote-Alin Mts. There are isolated populations in Scotland, Ireland, the Alps, Sakhalin (Russia), Hokkaido (Japan), and the Kurile Is. The nominotypical subspecies has been introduced into Faroe Is (Denmark), Scottish Is, and parts of England. Introduced populations on Spitsbergen I failed to persist.","Head-body 510-550 mm, tail 59-65 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 159-165 mm; weight 2.4-3.4 kg (depending on subspecies). The smallest subspecies is the “Alpine Mountain Hare” (varronis), and the largest subspecies is the nominate timidus. Male Mountain Hares tend to be smaller than females. In general, northern populations are larger. The Mountain Hare is completely white in winter, and its head and body are brown in summer. Summer fur differs among populations and can be pale gray or dusky brown in mountainous areas to rich rustbrown on plains. Exceptionally, fur of the Irish Hare is white on rump, flanks, and legs, with its upper back and head remaining brown in winter. Ears are short and narrow, with 30mm black tips on exterior surfaces and 5mm on interior surfaces. Relatively large head has prominent eyes, with yellowish irises in adults but dark brown in young. Hindfeet have hairy soles and widely spreading toes. Molt occurs three times per year: white to brown in spring; brown to brown in late summer; and brown to white in autumn. Molt is initiated by daylength, and its duration is influenced by temperature. Mountain Hares at high elevations and latitudes remain white longer, relative to average ambient temperature and duration of snow cover.","Wide range of biomes from extreme tundra with permafrost in northern Russia to rich agricultural areas in Ireland. Mountain Hares prefer to live in forests of pine, birch, and juniper. In Scotland and Ireland, heather moors and bog land are favored, and in Russia, copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes are selected. In the Alps, Mountain Hares prefer highly structured forests and thickets at forest edges. In spring, abundant herbaceous food in meadows is important to Mountain Hares. When a habitat offers food and shelter against predators, Mountain Hares use it for rest and activity. Forms are usually a depression they make. In snow, Mountain Hares burrow to make forms and enter rock crevices or marmot (Marmota) burrows for shelter or escape. They sometimes dig permanent burrows 1-2 m long in the ground. Mountain Hares in Ireland and the Alps do not burrow, but in Russia, complex burrows up to 7 m long have been reported. On agricultural land, Mountain Hares tends to be replaced by European Hares (L. europaeus) in Europe and Cape Hares (L. capensis) further east.","Mountain Hares are grazers in summer and browsers in winter. Their diets vary with habitat. Plant species used as food in forest habitats include leaves and twigs of Salixand Populus(both Salicaceae), Sorbus(Rosaceae), Betula(Betulaceae), Juniperus(Cupressaceae), and Vaccinium(Ericaceae); on Scottish moorlands and Swedish islands, Calluna(Ericaceae) is eaten. Different grass species and clovers are eaten when available. With snow cover, Mountain Hares feed on twigs, bark, moss, and lichens. They seldom drink water but may eat snow. Re-ingestion ofsoft pellets takes place at 09:00-16:00 h and increases dietary digestibility up to 25%; these pellets contain three times as much protein as regular pellets. Mountain Hares feed with their back to the wind and can clear snow from vegetation with their forepaws. When snow is hard, they move to lower ground to feed.","Gestation of the Mountain Hare lasts 46-55 days. Postpartum estrus with copulations a few hours after parturition is common. Superfetation does occur. Females have predominantly 2-3 litters/year, with litter sizes of 1-3 young, resulting in 5-9 offspring/female during a reproductive season. Weather has an important influence on numberof litters produced during a reproductive season.","Mountain Hares are nocturnal throughout the year, with a prolonged resting phase during the day. Activity patterns change seasonally with circadian rhythms. Mountains Hares rest by day in a form, with ears back and eyes half closed, but they only sleep for a few minutes at a time. In summer when daylight increases and in winter when food is scarce, more Mountain Hares are active during the day. Activity is highest during the first two hours after sunset.","Mountain Hares move an average of 1400 m/mnight, but they can travel up to 2400 m/night. Home rangesizes vary depending on climate. Home ranges are ¢.200 ha in boreal coniferous forests of Scandinavia. In moorland and pastures of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, and in the Alps, home ranges are 5-435 ha. Home ranges at night are larger than during the day, and they overlap ¢.35%. Densities vary from 1 ind/km? in Russia to 400 ind/km? on the Swedish Island of Vedholmen. Massive migrations of groups of 100-500, but up to 1500-2000 hares have been recorded in years of high numbers in northern Russia (Barents and Kara seas, Yamal Peninsula, Yakutia). Mountain Hares often move, rest, and feed together in groups of 2-5 individuals. Groups of 20-100 individuals have been recorded feeding in the same place.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Hare is widespread, populations appear to be stable across much ofits distribution, and it occurs in many protected areas. Nevertheless, historical game bag records in Northern Ireland indicate that there has been a substantial decline in abundance. Moreover, historical and recent records indicate that distribution of Mountain Haresis decreasing in southern Sweden. This decline started simultaneously with introduction of European Hares and continues while they expand northward. Furthermore, hunting statistics from Grisons, Switzerland, indicate a possible shift of both species to higher elevations. From 1990 to 2010, European Hares and Mountain Hares annually ascended more than 6 m and 3 m, respectively. Results of the study showed that European Hares advanced faster to higher elevations than Mountain Hares. A possible threat to the Irish Hare might be an introduced and expanding population of the European Hare in Ireland. The two examples from Sweden and Switzerland suggest that European Hares benefit from global warming and expand their distribution northward and to higher elevations and, thereby, might displace the Mountain Hares from their current distribution. Competitive exclusion and hybridization and introgression might explain how the European Hare is involved in the continuous decline of the Mountain Hare. Comparison of distributions of European Hares and Mountain Hares in Europe reveals that wherever European Hares occur, Mountain Hares are restricted to higher elevations or deep forests. It seems that European Hares and Mountain Hares are ecologically equivalent and strongly compete with one another. Studies of food preferences show that Mountain Haresin Ireland eat more grasses and herbs than Mountain Hares that live in sympatry with European Hares. Consequently,it has been argued that competitive exclusion by the European Hare restricts Mountain Hare distribution. Besides, in sympatric areas the forms of Mountain Hares are located in denser forest and further away from open fields than in allopatric areas. European Hares also expand their distribution and use of various habitats when densities of Mountain Hare are low. All these studies show that European Hares have the potential to expand into Mountain Hare territory and,in sympatry, Mountain Hares disappear from optimal European Hare habitat. European Hares and Mountain Hares hybridize with each other. Offspring are morphological intermediate and fertile. Normally, a male European Hare will mate with a female Mountain Hare. Reciprocal hybridization is also possible, but very rare due to typical mating behavior of European Hares and Mountain Hares in natural surroundings. Each time a Mountain Hare female hybridizes with a European Hare male, the local Mountain Hare population loses a species-specific litter. Consequently, observed decline in distribution and densities of Mountain Hares may be a direct consequence of unidirectional hybridization. This phenomenon is described as extinction by hybridization in the literature.","Acevedo, Jiménez-Valverde et al. (2012) | Angerbjérn (1981, 1986, 1991) | Angerbjorn & Flux (1995) | Angerbjérn & Pehrson (1987) | Angermann (1967b, 2016) | Baker et al. (1983) | Barrett-Hamilton (1912) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Masseroni et al. (2011) | Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Ossi et al. (2013) | Caravaggi et al. (2015) | Cederlund & Lemnell (1980) | Dahl & Willebrand (2005) | Dingerkus & Montgomery (2001, 2002) | Fairley (1974) | Flux (1970, 1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gamboni (1997) | Genini Gamboni et al. (2008) | Hacklander & Jenny (2011) | Hewson (1962, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1991) | Hewson & Hinge (1990) | Hiltunen & Kauhala (2006) | Hiltunen et al. (2004) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hulbert, lason, Elston & Racey (1996) | Hulbert, lason & Racey (1996) | Jansson & Pehrson (2007) | Kauhala et al. (2005) | Lind (1961, 1963) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long, (2003) | Lonnberg (1905) | Loukashkin (1943) | Mallon (1985) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Myrberget (1984) | Nodari (2006) | Nyholm (1968) | Ognev (1966) | Olsson (1997) | Pehrson (1983a, 1983b) | Rao et al. (2003) | Rehnus et al. (2013) | Rhymer & Simberloff (1996) | Slotta-Bachmayr (1998) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008l) | Sokolov et al. (2009) | Suchentrunk et al. (1999) | Thirgood & Hewson (1987) | Thulin (2003) | Thulin & Tegelstrdom (2002) | Thulin et al. (1997) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Wolfe & Hayden (1996) | Wolfe et al. (1996) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005) | Zachos et al. (2010)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625681/files/figure.png,"59.Mountain HareLepus timidusFrench:Liévre variable/ German:Schneehase/ Spanish:Liebre de montanaOther common names:Blue Hare, Snow Hare, Eurasian Arctic Hare, Varying Hare, White Hare; Irish Hare (hibernicus), Alpine Mountain Hare (varronis)Taxonomy.Lepus timidus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa.”Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidenceis available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occursin the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. Six populations of L. timidusare geographically separated and morphologically distinct and therefore can be treated as subspecies (abe, ainu, hibernicus, orii, scoticus, and varronis). Because division into subspecies is mostly based on pelage characteristics, it must be considered preliminary. Three studies analyzing geographic variation of metric characters of the skull of L. timidusdemonstrated clinal variations. This doubts the advisability of identifying subspecies in L. timidus. Origin of subspecies of L. timidusin Europe from a panmictic population during the Weichsel period is supported by genetic assessments. Hybridization between L. timidusand L. europaeusand between L. timidusand L. tolaiare recorded in contact zones. No interbreeding has been noted between scoticus and hibernicus on the island of Mull where both subspecies were introduced 60 years ago. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. t. timidus Linnaeus, 1758— Scandinavia S to 59° N, N Russia (S to 57° N to 58° N) to E of Ural Mts, Estonia, perhaps Poland, and Altai and Beita Mts in N Xinjiang (China); from Sweden extending in hybrid zones with the subspecies sylvaticusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. abet Kuroda, 1938 — Kurile Is (Russia).L. t. ainu Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 — Hokkaido (Japan).L. t. begitschevi Koljuschev, 1936 — Taimyr Peninsula (Russia).L. t. gichiganus J. A. Allen, 1903 — C Yakutia, Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea coast (Russia).L. t. hibernicus Bell, 1837 — Ireland.L. t. kolymensis Ognev, 1922 — NE Siberia (Russia).L. t. kozhevnikovi Ognev, 1929 — C Russia from 57° to 58°N, whereit intergrades with the nomonotypical timidusS to 53° N. The W boundary is unclear.L. t. lugubris Kastschenko, 1899 — Siberian Altai Mts (Russia).L. t. mordeni Goodwin, 1933 — Russian Far East (Ussuri Valley and lower and middle Amur River) and Heilongjiang (China).L. t. ori Kuroda, 1928 — Sakhalin (Russia).L. t. scoticus Hilzheimer, 1906 — Scotland.L. t. sibiricorumJohansen, 1923 — W & SW Siberia (Russia), N Kazakhstan, and Tacheng Mts in N Xinjiang (China).L. t. sylvaticus Nilsson, 1831—S Sweden, extending in hybrid zones with nominotypical timidusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. transbaikalicus Ognev, 1929 — Trans-Baikal region in E Siberia (Russia) and E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol, China).L. t. varronis Miller, 1901 — at high altitudes in the Alps, C Europe.The Mountain Hare inhabits the Palearctic from Scandinavia to Russian Far East, except E Chukchi Peninsula, S to Baltic States, E Poland, N Ukranie, and E to Tian Shan Mts, Altai Mts, N Mongolia, NW & NE China (N Xinjiang, N Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang), and Sikhote-Alin Mts. There are isolated populations in Scotland, Ireland, the Alps, Sakhalin (Russia), Hokkaido (Japan), and the Kurile Is. The nominotypical subspecies has been introduced into Faroe Is (Denmark), Scottish Is, and parts of England. Introduced populations on Spitsbergen I failed to persist.Descriptive notes.Head-body 510-550 mm, tail 59-65 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 159-165 mm; weight 2.4-3.4 kg (depending on subspecies). The smallest subspecies is the “Alpine Mountain Hare” (varronis), and the largest subspecies is the nominate timidus. Male Mountain Hares tend to be smaller than females. In general, northern populations are larger. The Mountain Hare is completely white in winter, and its head and body are brown in summer. Summer fur differs among populations and can be pale gray or dusky brown in mountainous areas to rich rustbrown on plains. Exceptionally, fur of the Irish Hare is white on rump, flanks, and legs, with its upper back and head remaining brown in winter. Ears are short and narrow, with 30mm black tips on exterior surfaces and 5mm on interior surfaces. Relatively large head has prominent eyes, with yellowish irises in adults but dark brown in young. Hindfeet have hairy soles and widely spreading toes. Molt occurs three times per year: white to brown in spring; brown to brown in late summer; and brown to white in autumn. Molt is initiated by daylength, and its duration is influenced by temperature. Mountain Hares at high elevations and latitudes remain white longer, relative to average ambient temperature and duration of snow cover.Habitat.Wide range of biomes from extreme tundra with permafrost in northern Russia to rich agricultural areas in Ireland. Mountain Hares prefer to live in forests of pine, birch, and juniper. In Scotland and Ireland, heather moors and bog land are favored, and in Russia, copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes are selected. In the Alps, Mountain Hares prefer highly structured forests and thickets at forest edges. In spring, abundant herbaceous food in meadows is important to Mountain Hares. When a habitat offers food and shelter against predators, Mountain Hares use it for rest and activity. Forms are usually a depression they make. In snow, Mountain Hares burrow to make forms and enter rock crevices or marmot (Marmota) burrows for shelter or escape. They sometimes dig permanent burrows 1-2 m long in the ground. Mountain Hares in Ireland and the Alps do not burrow, but in Russia, complex burrows up to 7 m long have been reported. On agricultural land, Mountain Hares tends to be replaced by European Hares (L. europaeus) in Europe and Cape Hares (L. capensis) further east.Food and Feeding.Mountain Hares are grazers in summer and browsers in winter. Their diets vary with habitat. Plant species used as food in forest habitats include leaves and twigs of Salixand Populus(both Salicaceae), Sorbus(Rosaceae), Betula(Betulaceae), Juniperus(Cupressaceae), and Vaccinium(Ericaceae); on Scottish moorlands and Swedish islands, Calluna(Ericaceae) is eaten. Different grass species and clovers are eaten when available. With snow cover, Mountain Hares feed on twigs, bark, moss, and lichens. They seldom drink water but may eat snow. Re-ingestion ofsoft pellets takes place at 09:00-16:00 h and increases dietary digestibility up to 25%; these pellets contain three times as much protein as regular pellets. Mountain Hares feed with their back to the wind and can clear snow from vegetation with their forepaws. When snow is hard, they move to lower ground to feed.Breeding.Gestation of the Mountain Hare lasts 46-55 days. Postpartum estrus with copulations a few hours after parturition is common. Superfetation does occur. Females have predominantly 2-3 litters/year, with litter sizes of 1-3 young, resulting in 5-9 offspring/female during a reproductive season. Weather has an important influence on numberof litters produced during a reproductive season.The second litter is on average larger than the first one. Start of breeding varies with temperature, and gestating females have been recorded from January/February until August/September. Juvenile females do not breed in the same year of their birth. Differences in reproduction exist among populations or subspecies.For example, subspecies timidusin northern Norway normally has only 1-2 litters/ year, but in south-western Sweden,it regularly has three litters. Another difference is the length of the reproductive period with the Irish Hare having a longer one than scoticus. At birth, young are fully furred, their eyes are open, and they start suckling immediately. Adult sex ratio is 1:1. Overall juvenile survival from birth to the following spring averages 20%. In January-July, male Mountain Hares often follow 2-20 m behind a female for hours. Males use scent to track females. During courtship, several males chase a female, but males do not guard females. Females dominate males and strike with their forepaws with ears laid backward if the male approaches too closely. Copulation can involve five or more males and a female, and males can be involved in long fights.Activity patterns.Mountain Hares are nocturnal throughout the year, with a prolonged resting phase during the day. Activity patterns change seasonally with circadian rhythms. Mountains Hares rest by day in a form, with ears back and eyes half closed, but they only sleep for a few minutes at a time. In summer when daylight increases and in winter when food is scarce, more Mountain Hares are active during the day. Activity is highest during the first two hours after sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Hares move an average of 1400 m/mnight, but they can travel up to 2400 m/night. Home rangesizes vary depending on climate. Home ranges are ¢.200 ha in boreal coniferous forests of Scandinavia. In moorland and pastures of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, and in the Alps, home ranges are 5-435 ha. Home ranges at night are larger than during the day, and they overlap ¢.35%. Densities vary from 1 ind/km? in Russia to 400 ind/km? on the Swedish Island of Vedholmen. Massive migrations of groups of 100-500, but up to 1500-2000 hares have been recorded in years of high numbers in northern Russia (Barents and Kara seas, Yamal Peninsula, Yakutia). Mountain Hares often move, rest, and feed together in groups of 2-5 individuals. Groups of 20-100 individuals have been recorded feeding in the same place.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Hare is widespread, populations appear to be stable across much ofits distribution, and it occurs in many protected areas. Nevertheless, historical game bag records in Northern Ireland indicate that there has been a substantial decline in abundance. Moreover, historical and recent records indicate that distribution of Mountain Haresis decreasing in southern Sweden. This decline started simultaneously with introduction of European Hares and continues while they expand northward. Furthermore, hunting statistics from Grisons, Switzerland, indicate a possible shift of both species to higher elevations. From 1990 to 2010, European Hares and Mountain Hares annually ascended more than 6 m and 3 m, respectively. Results of the study showed that European Hares advanced faster to higher elevations than Mountain Hares. A possible threat to the Irish Hare might be an introduced and expanding population of the European Hare in Ireland. The two examples from Sweden and Switzerland suggest that European Hares benefit from global warming and expand their distribution northward and to higher elevations and, thereby, might displace the Mountain Hares from their current distribution. Competitive exclusion and hybridization and introgression might explain how the European Hare is involved in the continuous decline of the Mountain Hare. Comparison of distributions of European Hares and Mountain Hares in Europe reveals that wherever European Hares occur, Mountain Hares are restricted to higher elevations or deep forests. It seems that European Hares and Mountain Hares are ecologically equivalent and strongly compete with one another. Studies of food preferences show that Mountain Haresin Ireland eat more grasses and herbs than Mountain Hares that live in sympatry with European Hares. Consequently,it has been argued that competitive exclusion by the European Hare restricts Mountain Hare distribution. Besides, in sympatric areas the forms of Mountain Hares are located in denser forest and further away from open fields than in allopatric areas. European Hares also expand their distribution and use of various habitats when densities of Mountain Hare are low. All these studies show that European Hares have the potential to expand into Mountain Hare territory and,in sympatry, Mountain Hares disappear from optimal European Hare habitat. European Hares and Mountain Hares hybridize with each other. Offspring are morphological intermediate and fertile. Normally, a male European Hare will mate with a female Mountain Hare. Reciprocal hybridization is also possible, but very rare due to typical mating behavior of European Hares and Mountain Hares in natural surroundings. Each time a Mountain Hare female hybridizes with a European Hare male, the local Mountain Hare population loses a species-specific litter. Consequently, observed decline in distribution and densities of Mountain Hares may be a direct consequence of unidirectional hybridization. This phenomenon is described as extinction by hybridization in the literature.After hybridization, mtDNA of Mountain Hares can be detected in European Hares if the hybrids backcross with true European Hares, which is often the case. Therefore, introgressed individuals can be found in both species. In areas where European Hares live currently in sympatry with Mountain Hares, the proportion of European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA is higher than in areas where both species lived in sympatry in the past. It seems that European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA have a reduced fitness compared with European Hares with species-specific mtDNA. This means that Mountain Hare mtDNA is incorporated into European Hares in sympatric areas but gradually disappears if European Hares remain allopatric. After the introduction of European Hares in Sweden, European Hares and Mountain Hares occurred together for a period of time before Mountain Hares disappeared and only European Hares remained. Hybrids were only observed a couple of years before they disappeared. Accordingly, hybridization, introgression, and the eventual disappearance of Mountain Hare mtDNA might be regarded as refined competitive exclusion in which traces of Mountain Hares are not only ecologically but also genetically erased from the European Hare. In addition to interactions with the European Hare, other causes for the Mountain Hare decline are under consideration, such as diseases (e.g. European Brown Hare Syndrome and tularemia), deforestation and agricultural expansion, predation, and negative interactions with other herbivores. Increasing tourism in the Alps has a negative impact on Mountain Hares and other biota. Nevertheless, none of these factors alone can explain declines of Mountain Hares. Research is needed to identify causes of regional decline.Current conservation status of the endemic Irish Hare and the Alpine Mountain Hare require specific investigations.Bibliography.Acevedo, Jiménez-Valverde et al. (2012), Angerbjérn (1981, 1986, 1991), Angerbjorn & Flux (1995), Angerbjérn & Pehrson (1987), Angermann (1967b, 2016), Baker et al. (1983), Barrett-Hamilton (1912), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Masseroni et al. (2011), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Ossi et al. (2013), Caravaggi et al. (2015), Cederlund & Lemnell (1980), Dahl & Willebrand (2005), Dingerkus & Montgomery (2001, 2002), Fairley (1974), Flux (1970, 1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gamboni (1997), Genini Gamboni et al. (2008), Hacklander & Jenny (2011), Hewson (1962, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1991), Hewson & Hinge (1990), Hiltunen & Kauhala (2006), Hiltunen et al. (2004), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hulbert, lason, Elston & Racey (1996), Hulbert, lason & Racey (1996), Jansson & Pehrson (2007), Kauhala et al. (2005), Lind (1961, 1963), Lissovsky (2016), Long, (2003), Lonnberg (1905), Loukashkin (1943), Mallon (1985), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Myrberget (1984), Nodari (2006), Nyholm (1968), Ognev (1966), Olsson (1997), Pehrson (1983a, 1983b), Rao et al. (2003), Rehnus et al. (2013), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), Slotta-Bachmayr (1998), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008l), Sokolov et al. (2009), Suchentrunk et al. (1999), Thirgood & Hewson (1987), Thulin (2003), Thulin & Tegelstrdom (2002), Thulin et al. (1997), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wolfe & Hayden (1996), Wolfe et al. (1996), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005), Zachos et al. (2010)." +03822308B761FFDFFFF2FC8DFA17F3A3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,145,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B761FFDFFFF2FC8DFA17F3A3.xml,Lepus othus,Lepus,othus,Merriam,1900,,"Lepus othus Merriam, 1900, “St. Michaels, [Norton Sound], Alaska,” USA.Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occurs in the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. If the distribution includes eastern Siberian tschuktschorum it has priority over othus. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the eastern Siberian population is more closely related to L. timidus, and L. othusis distinct from L. arcticus, but more studies are required for a conclusive distinction because the study was only based on mtDNA. Morphological studies found that L. othusis closer to L. townsendiithan to other northern species of Lepus. Lepusothusis partially sympatric with L. americanusin Alaska. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","L.o.othusMerriam,1900—WAlaska(USA).L.o.poadromusMerriam,1900—AlaskaPeninsula(USA).L. o. tschuktschorum Nordqvist, 1883— Chukchi Peninsula, NE Siberia (Russia).","Head-body 570-620 mm, tail 65-83 mm, ear 90-91 mm, hindfoot 164-179 mm; weight 3.9-4.8 kg. The Alaskan Hare is large. Winter pelage is white, except for black ear tips. In summer, fur on nose, sides of face, and top of head is cinnamon-buff; top of head appears darker. General color of back is drab cinnamon. Ears are similar in color to head on anterior one-half of outer surface, but posterior one-half is white. Frontlegs are white, with wash of cinnamon-buff; hindlegs are white, washed with brown. Molting occurs twice per year and starts in mid-September and early May. The Alaskan Hare has stout claws adapted to digging through hard-crusted snow to reach vegetation.","Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.","Habitat.Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.Diet of the Alaskan Hare in April/May consists mainly of shrubs. Woody parts of the Alaskan willow (S. alaxensis) and leaves of crowberry are most commonly eaten. In spring, they fed at edges of melting snow patches where crowberries from the previous summer were abundant. One captive Alaskan Hare seldom drank water.Breeding.Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).Activity patterns.Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.","Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).",Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.,"Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Alaskan Hares seem to be widespread and stable, although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Alaskan Hares for food and fur. Southern populations might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Research is needed to assess taxonomic status of the Alaskan Hare relative to the Mountain Hare (L. timidus) and the Arctic Hare (L. arcticus) and evaluate habitat use and population status and trends.","Anderson (1974) | Anderson & Lent (1977) | Angermann (2016) | Baker et al. (1983) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Best & Henry (1994b) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Dufresne (1946) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1981) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Howell (19364) | Lissovsky (2016) | Loukashkin (1943) | Merriam (1900) | Murie (1959) | Murray & Smith (2008c) | Nelson (1909) | Schiller & Rausch (1956) | Walkinshaw (1947) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Waltari et al. (2004) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625679/files/figure.png,"58.Alaskan HareLepus othusFrench: Lievre d/Alaska / German: Alaska-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de AlaskaOther common names: Alaska Arctic Hare, Alaska Peninsula Hare, Alaska Tundra Hare, St. Michael's Hare, Tundra Hare, Swift HareTaxonomy.Lepus othus Merriam, 1900, “St. Michaels, [Norton Sound], Alaska,” USA.Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occurs in the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. If the distribution includes eastern Siberian tschuktschorum it has priority over othus. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the eastern Siberian population is more closely related to L. timidus, and L. othusis distinct from L. arcticus, but more studies are required for a conclusive distinction because the study was only based on mtDNA. Morphological studies found that L. othusis closer to L. townsendiithan to other northern species of Lepus. Lepusothusis partially sympatric with L. americanusin Alaska. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.o.othusMerriam,1900—WAlaska(USA).L.o.poadromusMerriam,1900—AlaskaPeninsula(USA).L. o. tschuktschorum Nordqvist, 1883— Chukchi Peninsula, NE Siberia (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 570-620 mm, tail 65-83 mm, ear 90-91 mm, hindfoot 164-179 mm; weight 3.9-4.8 kg. The Alaskan Hare is large. Winter pelage is white, except for black ear tips. In summer, fur on nose, sides of face, and top of head is cinnamon-buff; top of head appears darker. General color of back is drab cinnamon. Ears are similar in color to head on anterior one-half of outer surface, but posterior one-half is white. Frontlegs are white, with wash of cinnamon-buff; hindlegs are white, washed with brown. Molting occurs twice per year and starts in mid-September and early May. The Alaskan Hare has stout claws adapted to digging through hard-crusted snow to reach vegetation.Habitat.Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Alaskan Hare in April/May consists mainly of shrubs. Woody parts of the Alaskan willow (S. alaxensis) and leaves of crowberry are most commonly eaten. In spring, they fed at edges of melting snow patches where crowberries from the previous summer were abundant. One captive Alaskan Hare seldom drank water.Breeding.Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).Activity patterns.Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Alaskan Hares seem to be widespread and stable, although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Alaskan Hares for food and fur. Southern populations might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Research is needed to assess taxonomic status of the Alaskan Hare relative to the Mountain Hare (L. timidus) and the Arctic Hare (L. arcticus) and evaluate habitat use and population status and trends.Bibliography.Anderson (1974), Anderson & Lent (1977), Angermann (2016), Baker et al. (1983), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Best & Henry (1994b), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Dufresne (1946), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1981), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Howell (19364), Lissovsky (2016), Loukashkin (1943), Merriam (1900), Murie (1959), Murray & Smith (2008c), Nelson (1909), Schiller & Rausch (1956), Walkinshaw (1947), Waltari & Cook (2005), Waltari et al. (2004), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." +03822308B762FFDFFF65F9D5FDD5F4B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,144,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B762FFDFFF65F9D5FDD5F4B3.xml,Lepus arcticus,Lepus,arcticus,Ross,1819,Liévre arctique @fr | Polarhase @de | Liebre artica @es | American Arctic Hare @en | Canadian Arctic Hare @en | Labrador Hare @en | Greenland Hare @en | Polar Hare @en,"Lepus arcticus Ross, 1819, “Southeast of Cape Bowen” (Possession Bay, Bylot Island, latitude 73°37’N, Canada).Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticusand L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics. This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from the L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered distinct species with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nine subspecies recognized.","L.a.arcticusRoss,1819—BaffinI,BylotI,andMelvillePeninsula,NENunavut(NCanada).L.a.andersoniNelson,1934—C&NENorthwestTerritoriesandmostofNunavut(NWCanada).L.a.bangsiiRhoads,1896—NewfoundlandandNEL.a.(ECanada.)L.a.banksicolaManning&Macpherson,1958—BanksI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.groenlandicusRhoads,1896—W,N&NEice-freecoastalregionsofGreenland.L.a.hubbardiHandley,1952—PrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.labradoriusMiller,1899—SEBaffinI,NHudsonBayIs,coastalSNunavut,NEManitoba,NQuebec,andNWL.a.Peninsula(NCanada).L.a.monstrabilisNelson,1934—QueenElizabethIs,exceptPrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L. a. porsildi Nelson, 1934— S & SW ice-free coastal regions of Greenland.","Head—body 560-660 mm, tail 45-100 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 146-164 nm; weight 2.5-6.8 kg. Measurements of Artic Hares vary depending on geographical location. In the north, individuals are larger than in the south. Summer pelage is gray in southern populations and white in northern populations. In winter, Arctic Hares are white except for black ear tips. Winter fur is long and soft. During molt, Arctic Hares remove loose tufts of hair by rolling in snow. Eyes are yellowish brown. Ears are blackish in front and white behind, with a whitish band isolating black tips. Large feet are padded with heavy, yellowish brush of hair. Claws on forefeet and hindfeet are long and well adapted for digging in snow.","Tundra, primarily north of the tree line, arctic alpine, and exposed coastal barren areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. The Artic Hare prefers hillsides or rock-strewn plateaus rather than flat bog land. Throughout most ofits distribution, it spends summer in the tundra north of the tree limit, but in winter, it might penetrate up to 160 km into the forest. Areas with little snow cover and wind exposure are favored, and groups of several hundred Arctic Hares may aggregate in such areas in winter, moving from one place to the other in search for food.","The Arctic Hare feeds mainly on woody plants throughout the year. Arctic willow (Salixarctica, Salicaceae) is the main species eaten in all seasons, and its leaves, buds, bark, and roots make up to 95% of winter diets. It also feeds on mosses, lichens, buds, and berries of crowberry (Empetrumniger, Ericaceae), young blooms of saxifrage (Saxifragaoppositifolia, Saxifragaceae), mountain sorrel (Oxyriadigyna, Polygonaceae), and various kinds of grasses. Summer diets of Arctic Hares are highly variable but mainly contain Arctic willow, mountain avens (Dryasintegrifolia, Rosaceae), and grasses. On Baffin Island, dwarf willows (S. arctica and S. herbacea) and crowberry are the main food. In Greenland, diets consist of Arctic willow and mountain sorrel. The Arctic Hare regularly feeds on stomach contents of eviscerated Caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Water is obtained by eating snow. It makes trails from one grazing place to the next. Often high places are selected to forage. Arctic Hares dig through snow to find food. If snow has a hard crust, they stamp on it with their forefeet to make a hole. Feeding usually occurs in morning and evening.","Mating season of the Arctic Hare occurs in April/May. The male follows the female continuously. During copulation, the male bites the female fiercely on neck and back that she often is covered with blood. Mating corresponds with molting, so fur “flies” during the process. Gestation is c¢.53 days. Young are born in May-July in nests lined with dry grass, moss, and fur from the mother. Nests are either a depression among mosses and grasses or under or between rocks. Females have litter of 2-8 young, with an average of 5-4 young. Females in the far north have one litter per year, and in Newfoundland, average litter size was three young. Newborns are blackish brown, with white bellies, chins, and throats. When threatened, young flatten out on the ground, with their eyes closed and ears pressed tightly on their backs. During the first 2-3 days oflife, the mother stays with her young and defends them against danger. Nursing takes place every 18-20 hours, and nursing bouts lasts 1-4 minutes. By the third day oflife, young hide among stones when danger approaches. After c.2 weeks oflife, young disperse and hide behind rocks appearing only when nibbling on vegetation or nursing. The mother remains near the nursing site. Gradually, young increase their movements to a maximum of c.1 km from where they were born. Juvenile pelage is darker than summer pelage of adults. By the third week of life, young leave their mothers and form nurserybands of up to 20 individuals. Young are weaned at 8-9 weeks old. By late July, they are nearly as large as their parents and are white. Young breed for the first time as yearlings. Adult sex ratio of Arctic Hares is biased toward males.","The Arctic Hare rests during the day when the sun is shining, but during the dark winter, it has no fixed time for resting. When resting,it usually sits near a large stone, dozing or asleep, sheltered from wind, covered from aerial predators, and warmed by the sun. Usually, it chooses a site a little way up a slope. Arctic Hares often are immobile during resting,sitting crouched, with ears halfway erect and eyes nearly closed. Often 2—4 individuals rest together. In the afternoon, the Arctic Hare often leaves its resting place and starts feeding.","The Arctic Hare might be migratory because most individuals in an area disappear during summer, apparently moving northward. In November, they apparently migrate southward. Nevertheless, some researchers do not believe that mass migrations are undertaken by the Arctic Hare. In northern populations, hopping on hindfeet without the forefeet touching the ground has been reported for disturbed and frightened Arctic Hares. Home ranges are 9-290 ha, depending on habitat quality. In Newfoundland,sizes of male home ranges in summer are double the size of female home ranges. Movements increase in March/April with the onset of the mating season. In winter, Arctic Hares may protect themselves from extreme cold by burrowing into snow. These snow dens consist of a tunnel c¢.10 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth, with an enlarged terminal chamber. The Arctic Hare is usually solitary, but grouping behavior is very characteristic, with groups of 100-300 individuals being observed. In large groups, most individuals might be asleep, but one is usually awake and alert to danger. From early winter until early spring, Arctic Hares form groupsof 15-20 individuals. Arctic Hares frequently move among groups. Adults dominate juveniles, and dominance is unrelated to sex or breeding condition. When the mating season starts, groups disperse, pairs are formed, and each pair establishes a small territory. The male usually leaves the female after birth of young but sometimes remains close. Arctic Hares are usually silent, but lactating females may emit a short series of low growls as they approach their nursing places.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Hare is widespread, and population status seems to be constant although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Arctic Hares for food and fur. Southern populations of Arctic Hares might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Distributions of the Arctic Hare and the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus) slightly overlap, but the two species differ in their habitat preferences. The Arctic Hare occupies treeless barrens or tundra, whereas the Snowshoe Hare inhabits forests. In Newfoundland, replacement of the Arctic Hare by the Snowshoe Hare might be an example of competitive exclusion. Other theories list lack of suitable food or predation by the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) as causes that limited distribution of the Arctic Hare in Newfoundland.","Angermann (1967a, 2016) | Aniskowicz et al. (1990) | Audubon (2005) | Bakeret al. (1983) | Banfield (1974) | Barta et al. (1989) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Bergerud (1967) | Best & Henry (1994a) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Cameron (1958) | Corbet (1983) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Fitzgerald & Keith (1990) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gray (1993) | Hall (1951) | Hamilton (1973) | Hearn et al. (1987) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Johnsen (1953) | Lissovsky (2016) | Loukashkin (1943) | Macpherson & Manning (1959) | Manniche (1910) | Merceret al. (1981) | Murray (2003) | Murray & Smith (2008b) | Nelson (1909) | Parker (1977) | Pruitt (1960) | Richardson (1829a) | Soper (1944) | Sutton & Hamilton (1932) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625677/files/figure.png,"57.Arctic HareLepus arcticusFrench:Liévre arctique/ German:Polarhase/ Spanish:Liebre articaOther common names:American Arctic Hare, Canadian Arctic Hare, Labrador Hare, Greenland Hare, Polar HareTaxonomy.Lepus arcticus Ross, 1819, “Southeast of Cape Bowen” (Possession Bay, Bylot Island, latitude 73°37’N, Canada).Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticusand L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics. This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from the L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered distinct species with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nine subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.arcticusRoss,1819—BaffinI,BylotI,andMelvillePeninsula,NENunavut(NCanada).L.a.andersoniNelson,1934—C&NENorthwestTerritoriesandmostofNunavut(NWCanada).L.a.bangsiiRhoads,1896—NewfoundlandandNEL.a.(ECanada.)L.a.banksicolaManning&Macpherson,1958—BanksI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.groenlandicusRhoads,1896—W,N&NEice-freecoastalregionsofGreenland.L.a.hubbardiHandley,1952—PrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.labradoriusMiller,1899—SEBaffinI,NHudsonBayIs,coastalSNunavut,NEManitoba,NQuebec,andNWL.a.Peninsula(NCanada).L.a.monstrabilisNelson,1934—QueenElizabethIs,exceptPrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L. a. porsildi Nelson, 1934— S & SW ice-free coastal regions of Greenland.Descriptive notes.Head—body 560-660 mm, tail 45-100 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 146-164 nm; weight 2.5-6.8 kg. Measurements of Artic Hares vary depending on geographical location. In the north, individuals are larger than in the south. Summer pelage is gray in southern populations and white in northern populations. In winter, Arctic Hares are white except for black ear tips. Winter fur is long and soft. During molt, Arctic Hares remove loose tufts of hair by rolling in snow. Eyes are yellowish brown. Ears are blackish in front and white behind, with a whitish band isolating black tips. Large feet are padded with heavy, yellowish brush of hair. Claws on forefeet and hindfeet are long and well adapted for digging in snow.Habitat.Tundra, primarily north of the tree line, arctic alpine, and exposed coastal barren areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. The Artic Hare prefers hillsides or rock-strewn plateaus rather than flat bog land. Throughout most ofits distribution, it spends summer in the tundra north of the tree limit, but in winter, it might penetrate up to 160 km into the forest. Areas with little snow cover and wind exposure are favored, and groups of several hundred Arctic Hares may aggregate in such areas in winter, moving from one place to the other in search for food.Food and Feeding.The Arctic Hare feeds mainly on woody plants throughout the year. Arctic willow (Salixarctica, Salicaceae) is the main species eaten in all seasons, and its leaves, buds, bark, and roots make up to 95% of winter diets. It also feeds on mosses, lichens, buds, and berries of crowberry (Empetrumniger, Ericaceae), young blooms of saxifrage (Saxifragaoppositifolia, Saxifragaceae), mountain sorrel (Oxyriadigyna, Polygonaceae), and various kinds of grasses. Summer diets of Arctic Hares are highly variable but mainly contain Arctic willow, mountain avens (Dryasintegrifolia, Rosaceae), and grasses. On Baffin Island, dwarf willows (S. arctica and S. herbacea) and crowberry are the main food. In Greenland, diets consist of Arctic willow and mountain sorrel. The Arctic Hare regularly feeds on stomach contents of eviscerated Caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Water is obtained by eating snow. It makes trails from one grazing place to the next. Often high places are selected to forage. Arctic Hares dig through snow to find food. If snow has a hard crust, they stamp on it with their forefeet to make a hole. Feeding usually occurs in morning and evening.Breeding.Mating season of the Arctic Hare occurs in April/May. The male follows the female continuously. During copulation, the male bites the female fiercely on neck and back that she often is covered with blood. Mating corresponds with molting, so fur “flies” during the process. Gestation is c¢.53 days. Young are born in May-July in nests lined with dry grass, moss, and fur from the mother. Nests are either a depression among mosses and grasses or under or between rocks. Females have litter of 2-8 young, with an average of 5-4 young. Females in the far north have one litter per year, and in Newfoundland, average litter size was three young. Newborns are blackish brown, with white bellies, chins, and throats. When threatened, young flatten out on the ground, with their eyes closed and ears pressed tightly on their backs. During the first 2-3 days oflife, the mother stays with her young and defends them against danger. Nursing takes place every 18-20 hours, and nursing bouts lasts 1-4 minutes. By the third day oflife, young hide among stones when danger approaches. After c.2 weeks oflife, young disperse and hide behind rocks appearing only when nibbling on vegetation or nursing. The mother remains near the nursing site. Gradually, young increase their movements to a maximum of c.1 km from where they were born. Juvenile pelage is darker than summer pelage of adults. By the third week of life, young leave their mothers and form nurserybands of up to 20 individuals. Young are weaned at 8-9 weeks old. By late July, they are nearly as large as their parents and are white. Young breed for the first time as yearlings. Adult sex ratio of Arctic Hares is biased toward males.Activity patterns.The Arctic Hare rests during the day when the sun is shining, but during the dark winter, it has no fixed time for resting. When resting,it usually sits near a large stone, dozing or asleep, sheltered from wind, covered from aerial predators, and warmed by the sun. Usually, it chooses a site a little way up a slope. Arctic Hares often are immobile during resting,sitting crouched, with ears halfway erect and eyes nearly closed. Often 2—4 individuals rest together. In the afternoon, the Arctic Hare often leaves its resting place and starts feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Arctic Hare might be migratory because most individuals in an area disappear during summer, apparently moving northward. In November, they apparently migrate southward. Nevertheless, some researchers do not believe that mass migrations are undertaken by the Arctic Hare. In northern populations, hopping on hindfeet without the forefeet touching the ground has been reported for disturbed and frightened Arctic Hares. Home ranges are 9-290 ha, depending on habitat quality. In Newfoundland,sizes of male home ranges in summer are double the size of female home ranges. Movements increase in March/April with the onset of the mating season. In winter, Arctic Hares may protect themselves from extreme cold by burrowing into snow. These snow dens consist of a tunnel c¢.10 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth, with an enlarged terminal chamber. The Arctic Hare is usually solitary, but grouping behavior is very characteristic, with groups of 100-300 individuals being observed. In large groups, most individuals might be asleep, but one is usually awake and alert to danger. From early winter until early spring, Arctic Hares form groupsof 15-20 individuals. Arctic Hares frequently move among groups. Adults dominate juveniles, and dominance is unrelated to sex or breeding condition. When the mating season starts, groups disperse, pairs are formed, and each pair establishes a small territory. The male usually leaves the female after birth of young but sometimes remains close. Arctic Hares are usually silent, but lactating females may emit a short series of low growls as they approach their nursing places.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Hare is widespread, and population status seems to be constant although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Arctic Hares for food and fur. Southern populations of Arctic Hares might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Distributions of the Arctic Hare and the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus) slightly overlap, but the two species differ in their habitat preferences. The Arctic Hare occupies treeless barrens or tundra, whereas the Snowshoe Hare inhabits forests. In Newfoundland, replacement of the Arctic Hare by the Snowshoe Hare might be an example of competitive exclusion. Other theories list lack of suitable food or predation by the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) as causes that limited distribution of the Arctic Hare in Newfoundland.Bibliography.Angermann (1967a, 2016), Aniskowicz et al. (1990), Audubon (2005), Bakeret al. (1983), Banfield (1974), Barta et al. (1989), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bergerud (1967), Best & Henry (1994a), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Cameron (1958), Corbet (1983), Dixon et al. (1983), Fitzgerald & Keith (1990), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gray (1993), Hall (1951), Hamilton (1973), Hearn et al. (1987), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Johnsen (1953), Lissovsky (2016), Loukashkin (1943), Macpherson & Manning (1959), Manniche (1910), Merceret al. (1981), Murray (2003), Murray & Smith (2008b), Nelson (1909), Parker (1977), Pruitt (1960), Richardson (1829a), Soper (1944), Sutton & Hamilton (1932), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." +03822308B763FFDCFFFCF2BDFEF6F07C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,143,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B763FFDCFFFCF2BDFEF6F07C.xml,Lepus townsendii,Lepus,townsendii,Bachman,1839,Liévre de Townsend @fr | Prariehase @de | Liebre de cola blanca @es | Prairie Hare @en,"Lepus townsendii Bachman, 1839, “on the Walla-walla ... river.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “old Fort Walla Walla,” near the present town of Wallula, Walla Walla Co., Washington.Formerly, L. townsendiiwas placed as L. campestrisin the subgenera Proeulagus or FEulagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).Descriptive notes.Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.Habitat.Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m.","L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).","Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.","Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m. Distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit extends into the badlands of South Dakota and montane pastures among scattered evergreens in Colorado. White-tailed Jackrabbits use shallow forms at bases of bushes or besides rocks. In winter, they use cavities connected by tunnels dug c.l m into snow or use shrubs and trees for cover. When White-tailed Jackrabbits and Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) are sympatric, they use different habitats. White-tailed Jackrabbits occur in open flats and fields of ryegrass (Lolium, Poaceae) in Oregon and bunchgrass and rabbitbrush in Washington; Black-tailed Jackrabbits inhabit predominantly sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae). In California, the White-tailed Jackrabbit was recorded more often on higher slopes and ridges, and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit more frequently on valley floors.","The White-tailed Jackrabbit feeds primarily on succulent grasses and forbs. Shrubs are eaten in winter after grasses and forbs have become dry. When feeding on shrubs, woody stems are favored over leaves. Diet selection is influenced by age of White-tailed Jackrabbits, season, and availabilities of plant species. Abundant plant species in diets ofthis species are alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), creambush (Holodiscusdiscolor, Rosaceae), sagebrush, clover (Trifolium sp., Fabaceae), common dandelion (Taraxacumofficinale, Asteraceae), dryland sedge (Carexobtusata, Cyperaceae), Indian paintbrush (Castillejaintegra, Orobanchaceae), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), and winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), both Amaranthaceae. One study in Colorado recorded 67 plant species in stomachs of White-tailed Jackrabbits. Pregnant or lactating females usually feed alone; males feed in groups of 2-5 individuals. After feeding, White-tailed Jackrabbits groom their heads and ears with their forepaws and lick their bodies. When sympatric, the White-tailed Jackrabbit seems to be a more selective feeder than the Black-tailed Jackrabbit and therefore has a competitive disadvantage.","Reproductive season starts in late February and ends in September. Breeding condition and environmental factors affect number oflitters born in a year. In the southern part of the distribution, a maximum of fourlitters are produced per year: the first in late April, the second in earlyJune, the third in middle July, and the fourth in late August or early September. In the northern parts of the distribution, only one litter is produced per year between May and early July. Gestation lasts 30-43 days and might be influenced by elevation and latitude. Litter sizes are 1-11 young, with an average of 4-5 young. The White-tailed Jackrabbit is polygamous. Courtship behavior involves a series of circling, jumping, and chasing activities that last 5-20 minutes and end in copulation. Normally, groups of 3-5 males chase one female during the evening hours. Subspecies campanius has breeding synchrony, and postpartum estrus allows conception immediately after parturition. Expected reproductive potential was estimated at 23 young/year, but due to prenatal mortality, it averaged 15 young/year. Nests for young are made of dry leaves and grasses, densely lined with fur from mothers, and well hidden in bushes or vegetation; alternately, they might only be a form on bare ground. Young are born fully furred, with open eyes and mobile to a limited extent. They start to forage at c.15 days old and are completely weaned at c.1 month old. Individuals have the potential to breed as early as c¢.7 months of age, but there is no evidence ofjuvenile breeding.","White-tailed Jackrabbits are nocturnal and forage mainly between sunset and sunrise. A study in summer revealed that they start feeding at 15:00-16:00 h, peak activity was at 22:00-01:00 h, and most activity stopped by 03:00-04:00 h. They hide in forms during the day.","Distance, duration, and frequency of movements of White-tailed Jackrabbits increase in early breeding season (March/ April) and decline during warm summer months. Home range size is as small as 10 ha but usually 300-700 ha. White-tailed Jackrabbits might migrate considerable distances in winter to sheltered areas. They tend to be solitary, but during the reproductive season, 3—4 individuals might group together. Aggregations of ¢.50 individuals have been observed diurnally, with a maximum of 110 individuals during winter. These observations were attributed to an abundance of food in the area. When pursued by a predator, White-tailed Jackrabbits sometimes enter water and swim with forefeet paddling. They also demonstrate tonic immobility behavior that is believed to serve as defensive function similar to feigned death.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The WhitetailedJackrabbit is widespread. Since the early 1900s, there was a gradual distributional expansion to the north and east as favorable habitats (e.g. agricultural land) were created. Since about the 1950s, there has been a gradual reduction in the distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit coupled with distributional expansion of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit in the north-western part ofits distribution where habitats have been altered to favor the latter. The White-tailed Jackrabbit does not occur in most of Nebraska and Kansas anymore, and existence in Missouriis debated. Population status of the White-tailedJackrabbit across its entire distribution is currently unknown, but declines have been observed in two national parks in Wyoming. Populations in Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks decreased to only a few individuals in 1978 and 2008. Causes for these declines are currently unknown. Research is needed to understand factors operating when the White-tailed Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit occur in sympatry and factors contributing to the decline of the White-tailed Jackrabbit in Wyoming.","Angermann (2016) | Anthony (1913) | Armstrong (1972) | Bailey (1926) | Banfield (1974) | Berger (2008a, 2008b) | Blackburn (1973) | Brown (1947) | Couch (1927) | Dalquest (1948) | De Vos (1964) | Dieter & Schaible (2012) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Flinders & Chapman (2003) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoeman (1964) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jackson (1961) | James (1967) | James & Seabloom (1969) | Jones (1964) | Kline (1963) | Lim (1987 1999) | Lissovsky (2016) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Peterson (1966) | Rogowitz (1992, 1997) | Rogowitz & Wolfe (1991) | Seton (1928) | Severaid (1950) | Smith & Johnston (2008k) | Soper (1973) | Warren (1910)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625673/files/figure.png,"56.White-tailed JackrabbitLepus townsendiiFrench:Liévre de Townsend/ German:Prariehase/ Spanish:Liebre de cola blancaOther common names:Prairie HareTaxonomy.Lepus townsendii Bachman, 1839, “on the Walla-walla ... river.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “old Fort Walla Walla,” near the present town of Wallula, Walla Walla Co., Washington.Formerly, L. townsendiiwas placed as L. campestrisin the subgenera Proeulagus or FEulagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).Descriptive notes.Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.Habitat.Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m. Distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit extends into the badlands of South Dakota and montane pastures among scattered evergreens in Colorado. White-tailed Jackrabbits use shallow forms at bases of bushes or besides rocks. In winter, they use cavities connected by tunnels dug c.l m into snow or use shrubs and trees for cover. When White-tailed Jackrabbits and Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) are sympatric, they use different habitats. White-tailed Jackrabbits occur in open flats and fields of ryegrass (Lolium, Poaceae) in Oregon and bunchgrass and rabbitbrush in Washington; Black-tailed Jackrabbits inhabit predominantly sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae). In California, the White-tailed Jackrabbit was recorded more often on higher slopes and ridges, and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit more frequently on valley floors.Food and Feeding.The White-tailed Jackrabbit feeds primarily on succulent grasses and forbs. Shrubs are eaten in winter after grasses and forbs have become dry. When feeding on shrubs, woody stems are favored over leaves. Diet selection is influenced by age of White-tailed Jackrabbits, season, and availabilities of plant species. Abundant plant species in diets ofthis species are alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), creambush (Holodiscusdiscolor, Rosaceae), sagebrush, clover (Trifolium sp., Fabaceae), common dandelion (Taraxacumofficinale, Asteraceae), dryland sedge (Carexobtusata, Cyperaceae), Indian paintbrush (Castillejaintegra, Orobanchaceae), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), and winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), both Amaranthaceae. One study in Colorado recorded 67 plant species in stomachs of White-tailed Jackrabbits. Pregnant or lactating females usually feed alone; males feed in groups of 2-5 individuals. After feeding, White-tailed Jackrabbits groom their heads and ears with their forepaws and lick their bodies. When sympatric, the White-tailed Jackrabbit seems to be a more selective feeder than the Black-tailed Jackrabbit and therefore has a competitive disadvantage.Breeding.Reproductive season starts in late February and ends in September. Breeding condition and environmental factors affect number oflitters born in a year. In the southern part of the distribution, a maximum of fourlitters are produced per year: the first in late April, the second in earlyJune, the third in middle July, and the fourth in late August or early September. In the northern parts of the distribution, only one litter is produced per year between May and early July. Gestation lasts 30-43 days and might be influenced by elevation and latitude. Litter sizes are 1-11 young, with an average of 4-5 young. The White-tailed Jackrabbit is polygamous. Courtship behavior involves a series of circling, jumping, and chasing activities that last 5-20 minutes and end in copulation. Normally, groups of 3-5 males chase one female during the evening hours. Subspecies campanius has breeding synchrony, and postpartum estrus allows conception immediately after parturition. Expected reproductive potential was estimated at 23 young/year, but due to prenatal mortality, it averaged 15 young/year. Nests for young are made of dry leaves and grasses, densely lined with fur from mothers, and well hidden in bushes or vegetation; alternately, they might only be a form on bare ground. Young are born fully furred, with open eyes and mobile to a limited extent. They start to forage at c.15 days old and are completely weaned at c.1 month old. Individuals have the potential to breed as early as c¢.7 months of age, but there is no evidence ofjuvenile breeding.Activity patterns.White-tailed Jackrabbits are nocturnal and forage mainly between sunset and sunrise. A study in summer revealed that they start feeding at 15:00-16:00 h, peak activity was at 22:00-01:00 h, and most activity stopped by 03:00-04:00 h. They hide in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Distance, duration, and frequency of movements of White-tailed Jackrabbits increase in early breeding season (March/ April) and decline during warm summer months. Home range size is as small as 10 ha but usually 300-700 ha. White-tailed Jackrabbits might migrate considerable distances in winter to sheltered areas. They tend to be solitary, but during the reproductive season, 3—4 individuals might group together. Aggregations of ¢.50 individuals have been observed diurnally, with a maximum of 110 individuals during winter. These observations were attributed to an abundance of food in the area. When pursued by a predator, White-tailed Jackrabbits sometimes enter water and swim with forefeet paddling. They also demonstrate tonic immobility behavior that is believed to serve as defensive function similar to feigned death.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The WhitetailedJackrabbit is widespread. Since the early 1900s, there was a gradual distributional expansion to the north and east as favorable habitats (e.g. agricultural land) were created. Since about the 1950s, there has been a gradual reduction in the distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit coupled with distributional expansion of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit in the north-western part ofits distribution where habitats have been altered to favor the latter. The White-tailed Jackrabbit does not occur in most of Nebraska and Kansas anymore, and existence in Missouriis debated. Population status of the White-tailedJackrabbit across its entire distribution is currently unknown, but declines have been observed in two national parks in Wyoming. Populations in Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks decreased to only a few individuals in 1978 and 2008. Causes for these declines are currently unknown. Research is needed to understand factors operating when the White-tailed Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit occur in sympatry and factors contributing to the decline of the White-tailed Jackrabbit in Wyoming.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Anthony (1913), Armstrong (1972), Bailey (1926), Banfield (1974), Berger (2008a, 2008b), Blackburn (1973), Brown (1947), Couch (1927), Dalquest (1948), De Vos (1964), Dieter & Schaible (2012), Dunn et al. (1982), Flinders & Chapman (2003), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoeman (1964), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jackson (1961), James (1967), James & Seabloom (1969), Jones (1964), Kline (1963), Lim (1987 1999), Lissovsky (2016), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Peterson (1966), Rogowitz (1992, 1997), Rogowitz & Wolfe (1991), Seton (1928), Severaid (1950), Smith & Johnston (2008k), Soper (1973), Warren (1910)." 03822308B764FFDAFA68FEB5F5F6FC27,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,142,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B764FFDAFA68FEB5F5F6FC27.xml,Lepus castroviejoi,Lepus,castroviejoi,Palacios,1976,Liévre de Castroviejo @fr | Castroviejo-Hase @de | Liebre de piornal @es,"Lepus castroviejoi Palacios, 1976, “Puerto de la Ventana, San Emiliano (Leon [Province]),” (= Puerto Ventanas, Spain, 1500 m).It was initially described as a new hare species in 1976—the third species of Lepusbesides L. granatensisand L. europaeusin the Iberian Peninsula—based on different body and skull measurements, dental and skull characteristics, and pelage color and pattern. Nevertheless, this new species was not accepted as distinct because differences in morphological and molecular characteristics were not large enough between L. castroviejoiand L. europaeusto justify species status. Additional data from protein markers and nuclear and mtDNA supported the existence of the three species in the Iberian Peninsula. This species is morphologically and genetically similar to L. corsicanusfrom Italy. The two species are sister taxa and might have had a common ancestor occupying a large distributional area in southwestern Europe between Italy and Spain before expansion of L. europaeus. Nevertheless, another recent genetic study of nDNA casts doubt on the specific status of L. cor sicanus and L. castroviejor; results suggest that they might be conspecific. Monotypic.",Cantabrian Range between Serra dos Ancares and Sierra de Pena Labra (N Spain).,"Head-body 490-510 mm, tail 78-96 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 135-145 mm; weight 2.7-3.2 kg. The Broom Hare is medium-sized, with tawny brown pelage similar in color and texture to the European Hare (L. europaeus). The Broom Hare seems to closely resemble the European Hare but generally has more brownish yellow pelage than the latter. The Broom Hare has clear contrast between ventral and dorsal pelage and grayish white facial arc.","Mountainous broom and heathlands, consisting mainly of Erica, Calluna, and Vaccinium(all Ericaceae) with considerable shrub cover of Cytisus, Genista(both Fabaceae), and Juniperus(Cupressaceae) and clearings in mixed deciduous woods of beech (Fagus) and oak (Quercus), both Fagaceae. The Broom Hare lives in mountains at elevations of 1300-1900 m but descends in winter to ¢.1000 m to avoid snow.",There is no information available for this species.,Reproductive season of the Broom Hare occurs in April-September. Females have 1-3 young/litter.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Broom Hare is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu latoand listed as endangered in Spain. It is common at high elevations in its distribution, except for the western edge in Serra dos Ancares where itis isolated during summer and hunted excessively. A substantial part ofits area of occupancy lies within reserves. Its range is ¢.230 km from east to west and 25-40 km from north to south. Nevertheless, distribution of the Broom Hare is fragmented because it occupies highly specialized patches of scarce habitat. Population declines have been recorded along the northern part of its distribution and in marginal habitat in which it occurs. Besides overhunting, major threats are predation, poisoning (fertilizer and pesticides), and habitat change. Recommendations are to restrict hunting in the western edge ofits distribution and restore altered and unsuitable habitat. Establishment of corridors among fragmented populations to prevent inbreeding also should be considered. Research should be conducted to improve knowledge of biology, ecology, and genetics of the Broom Hare.","Acevedo et al. (2007) | Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003) | Alves, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2008) | Angermann (1983) | Bonhomme et al. (1986) | Corbet & Hill (1986) | Estonba et al. (2006) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Koutsogiannouli et al. (2012) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Palacios (1976, 1983, 1989, 1996) | Palacios & Ramos (1979) | Pérez-Suérez et al. (1994) | Schneider & Leipoldt (1983) | Smith & Johnston (2008;)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625667/files/figure.png,"54.Broom HareLepus castroviejoiFrench:Liévre de Castroviejo/ German:Castroviejo-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de piornalTaxonomy.Lepus castroviejoi Palacios, 1976, “Puerto de la Ventana, San Emiliano (Leon [Province]),” (= Puerto Ventanas, Spain, 1500 m).It was initially described as a new hare species in 1976—the third species of Lepusbesides L. granatensisand L. europaeusin the Iberian Peninsula—based on different body and skull measurements, dental and skull characteristics, and pelage color and pattern. Nevertheless, this new species was not accepted as distinct because differences in morphological and molecular characteristics were not large enough between L. castroviejoiand L. europaeusto justify species status. Additional data from protein markers and nuclear and mtDNA supported the existence of the three species in the Iberian Peninsula. This species is morphologically and genetically similar to L. corsicanusfrom Italy. The two species are sister taxa and might have had a common ancestor occupying a large distributional area in southwestern Europe between Italy and Spain before expansion of L. europaeus. Nevertheless, another recent genetic study of nDNA casts doubt on the specific status of L. cor sicanus and L. castroviejor; results suggest that they might be conspecific. Monotypic.Distribution.Cantabrian Range between Serra dos Ancares and Sierra de Pena Labra (N Spain).Descriptive notes.Head-body 490-510 mm, tail 78-96 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 135-145 mm; weight 2.7-3.2 kg. The Broom Hare is medium-sized, with tawny brown pelage similar in color and texture to the European Hare (L. europaeus). The Broom Hare seems to closely resemble the European Hare but generally has more brownish yellow pelage than the latter. The Broom Hare has clear contrast between ventral and dorsal pelage and grayish white facial arc.Habitat.Mountainous broom and heathlands, consisting mainly of Erica, Calluna, and Vaccinium(all Ericaceae) with considerable shrub cover of Cytisus, Genista(both Fabaceae), and Juniperus(Cupressaceae) and clearings in mixed deciduous woods of beech (Fagus) and oak (Quercus), both Fagaceae. The Broom Hare lives in mountains at elevations of 1300-1900 m but descends in winter to ¢.1000 m to avoid snow.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Broom Hare occurs in April-September. Females have 1-3 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Broom Hare is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu latoand listed as endangered in Spain. It is common at high elevations in its distribution, except for the western edge in Serra dos Ancares where itis isolated during summer and hunted excessively. A substantial part ofits area of occupancy lies within reserves. Its range is ¢.230 km from east to west and 25-40 km from north to south. Nevertheless, distribution of the Broom Hare is fragmented because it occupies highly specialized patches of scarce habitat. Population declines have been recorded along the northern part of its distribution and in marginal habitat in which it occurs. Besides overhunting, major threats are predation, poisoning (fertilizer and pesticides), and habitat change. Recommendations are to restrict hunting in the western edge ofits distribution and restore altered and unsuitable habitat. Establishment of corridors among fragmented populations to prevent inbreeding also should be considered. Research should be conducted to improve knowledge of biology, ecology, and genetics of the Broom Hare.Bibliography.Acevedo et al. (2007), Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003), Alves, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2008), Angermann (1983), Bonhomme et al. (1986), Corbet & Hill (1986), Estonba et al. (2006), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Koutsogiannouli et al. (2012), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palacios (1976, 1983, 1989, 1996), Palacios & Ramos (1979), Pérez-Suérez et al. (1994), Schneider & Leipoldt (1983), Smith & Johnston (2008;)." 03822308B764FFDDFA10F57AFCCBFA9F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,142,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B764FFDDFA10F57AFCCBFA9F.xml,Lepus corsicanus,Lepus,corsicanus,de Winton,1898,Liévre corse @fr | Korsika-Hase @de | Liebre de Coércega @es | Apennine Hare @en | @en | talian Hare @en,"Lepus corsicanus de Winton, 1898, “Bastia,” Corsica, France.Formerly, L. corsicanuswas included in L. capensisor L. europaeusbut has received species status due to distinct genetic, morphometric, and morphological characteristics. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that L. corsicanusand L. europaeuswere not closely related but belong to distinct evolutionary lineages that dispersed in Western Europe in different periods during the early Pleistocene. This species is morphologically and genetically similar to L. castroviejoifrom the Cantabrian Mountains. The two species are sister taxa and might have had a common ancestor occupying a large area in south-western Europe between Italy and Spain before expansion of L. europaeus. Lepus corsicanusprobably differentiated in isolated patches during the last glaciation; however, another recent genetic study based on nDNA suggests that L. corsicanusand L. castroviejoimight be conspecific. Although hybrids of L. europaeusand L. corsicanusmay have occurred in Corsica where frequent introductions of thousands of individuals of other species of Lepushave occurred, a genetic study did not find any interspecific hybrids in Italy, except two cases of L. corsicanusmtDNA introgression in two L. europaeusindividuals. Monotypic.","C & S Italy, distribution poorly known but present in Tuscany, Lazio, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia, Campania, Basilicata, and Calabria, and in Sicily. Introduced into Corsica around the 14"" century.","Head-body 550-610 mm, tail 70-120 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 124-141 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The general appearance of the European Hare (L. europaeus) and the Corsican Hare seems to be fairly similar. Nevertheless, the two species vary in numerous pelage characteristics of taxonomic significance. Among the discriminant features is the color of the basal fringe of the dorsal underfur of adult specimens which is always white in the European Hare and gray in the Corsican Hare. The Corsican Hare is significantly smaller than the European Hare. This can be assessed by measuring the variables head-body, tail, ear, and hind foot length as well as the weight. The two species are also well distinguishable by skull measurements. As regarding to dental characters, the difference between the two speciesis ascertainable in the shape of the posterior contour of the cross section of the first upper incisor, which is concave in the European Hare and smooth or convex in the Corsican Hare.","Various lowland and upland habitats from sea level to elevations of ¢.2400 m on the Mount Etna, Sicily. Densities of Corsican Hares vary due to competition with introduced European Hares that are habitat generalists; e.g. populations of Corsican Hares on the Italian mainland are now restricted to mountainous areas and lowlands and hills where densities of European Hares are low. In Sicily where European Hares are absent, Corsican Hares occur in a variety of natural and artificial lowland habitats such as open grassland, bushy pastures, and cultivated areas. Corsican Hares inhabit Mediterranean maquis (shrubland)—the mosaic of clearings, bushy areas, broadleaved woods, and coastal dunes.","Diet of the Corsican Hare in Sicily varies with seasonal availability of vegetation. Corsican Hares can eat 70 species of plants during the year, including monocotyledons and species of Cyperaceaeand Juncaceaethroughout the year, species of Poaceaein spring, and species of Lamiaceaein summer. Species of Fabaceaeand Asteraceae(dicotyledons) occur in diets of Corsican Hares throughout the year. Diets are seasonally supplemented with fruits of Prunusspinosa, Pyruspiraster, and Malussylvestris (all Rosaceae).","Reproductive activity of Corsican Hares occurs throughout the year, peaking in spring and reaching low levels in winter and summer. Although data are preliminary, dry and cold seasons might have negative influences on the reproduction of the Corsican Hare. Females have an average of two litters per year (maximum of four). Litter size averages 1-5 young.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Corsican Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as part of L. capensissensu lato. The Corsican Hare has been monitored continuously in Italy, including Sicily, since 1997. Its populations are fragmented and scarce on the Italian peninsula, but several protected areas have been created that will help populations to recover. The Corsican Hare is widespread and locally abundant in Sicily. The Sicilian government officially recognized it as a “true” species in 1998, forbidding hunting on the island. Status is unclear in Corsica, but 70% of the samples in a recent genetic study were Corsican Hares. Population and distributional declines of Corsican Hares have been estimated at 50% for continental populations and 38% across the entire distribution, probably from overhunting and introductions of European Hares. The Corsican Hareis legally protected in mainland Italy and Sicily, but differentiation of Corsican Hares and European Hares in the field makes it difficult to manage harvest. In Sicily, a hunting ban on Corsican Hares waslifted in 2004-2005. The Corsican Hare is still a game species in Corsica because it is considered conspecific with the European Hare in France. Major conservation threats to the Corsican Hare are habitat degradation, fragmentation that causes low or absent gene flow among populations, low population densities, competition with introduced European Hares, and overhunting. Captive breeding programs of Corsican Hares are being carried out in mainland Italy and Sicily.","Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003) | Alves, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2008) | Angelici & Luiselli (2001, 2007) | Angelici, Petrozzi & Galli (2010) | Angelici, Randi et al. (2008) | De Battisti et al. (2004) | De Marinis, Trocchi & Mangiafico (2007) | De Marinis, Trocchi, Mangiafico, Fassd & Mallia (2007) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Cosentino et al. (2016) | Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Mallia, Blasi et al. (2014) | Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Mallia, Cosentino & Paolino (2015) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Koutsogiannouli et al. (2012) | Mengoni et al. (2015) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Palacios (1996) | Petter (1961) | Pierpaoli et al. (1999, 2003) | Pietri (2015) | Pietri et al. (2011) | Riga et al. (2001) | Vigne (1988)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625669/files/figure.png,"55.Corsican HareLepus corsicanusFrench:Liévre corse/ German:Korsika-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de CoércegaOther common names:Apennine Hare, Italian HareTaxonomy.Lepus corsicanus de Winton, 1898, “Bastia,” Corsica, France.Formerly, L. corsicanuswas included in L. capensisor L. europaeusbut has received species status due to distinct genetic, morphometric, and morphological characteristics. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that L. corsicanusand L. europaeuswere not closely related but belong to distinct evolutionary lineages that dispersed in Western Europe in different periods during the early Pleistocene. This species is morphologically and genetically similar to L. castroviejoifrom the Cantabrian Mountains. The two species are sister taxa and might have had a common ancestor occupying a large area in south-western Europe between Italy and Spain before expansion of L. europaeus. Lepus corsicanusprobably differentiated in isolated patches during the last glaciation; however, another recent genetic study based on nDNA suggests that L. corsicanusand L. castroviejoimight be conspecific. Although hybrids of L. europaeusand L. corsicanusmay have occurred in Corsica where frequent introductions of thousands of individuals of other species of Lepushave occurred, a genetic study did not find any interspecific hybrids in Italy, except two cases of L. corsicanusmtDNA introgression in two L. europaeusindividuals. Monotypic.Distribution.C & S Italy, distribution poorly known but present in Tuscany, Lazio, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia, Campania, Basilicata, and Calabria, and in Sicily. Introduced into Corsica around the 14"" century.Descriptive notes.Head-body 550-610 mm, tail 70-120 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 124-141 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The general appearance of the European Hare (L. europaeus) and the Corsican Hare seems to be fairly similar. Nevertheless, the two species vary in numerous pelage characteristics of taxonomic significance. Among the discriminant features is the color of the basal fringe of the dorsal underfur of adult specimens which is always white in the European Hare and gray in the Corsican Hare. The Corsican Hare is significantly smaller than the European Hare. This can be assessed by measuring the variables head-body, tail, ear, and hind foot length as well as the weight. The two species are also well distinguishable by skull measurements. As regarding to dental characters, the difference between the two speciesis ascertainable in the shape of the posterior contour of the cross section of the first upper incisor, which is concave in the European Hare and smooth or convex in the Corsican Hare.Habitat.Various lowland and upland habitats from sea level to elevations of ¢.2400 m on the Mount Etna, Sicily. Densities of Corsican Hares vary due to competition with introduced European Hares that are habitat generalists; e.g. populations of Corsican Hares on the Italian mainland are now restricted to mountainous areas and lowlands and hills where densities of European Hares are low. In Sicily where European Hares are absent, Corsican Hares occur in a variety of natural and artificial lowland habitats such as open grassland, bushy pastures, and cultivated areas. Corsican Hares inhabit Mediterranean maquis (shrubland)—the mosaic of clearings, bushy areas, broadleaved woods, and coastal dunes.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Corsican Hare in Sicily varies with seasonal availability of vegetation. Corsican Hares can eat 70 species of plants during the year, including monocotyledons and species of Cyperaceaeand Juncaceaethroughout the year, species of Poaceaein spring, and species of Lamiaceaein summer. Species of Fabaceaeand Asteraceae(dicotyledons) occur in diets of Corsican Hares throughout the year. Diets are seasonally supplemented with fruits of Prunusspinosa, Pyruspiraster, and Malussylvestris (all Rosaceae).Breeding.Reproductive activity of Corsican Hares occurs throughout the year, peaking in spring and reaching low levels in winter and summer. Although data are preliminary, dry and cold seasons might have negative influences on the reproduction of the Corsican Hare. Females have an average of two litters per year (maximum of four). Litter size averages 1-5 young.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Corsican Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as part of L. capensissensu lato. The Corsican Hare has been monitored continuously in Italy, including Sicily, since 1997. Its populations are fragmented and scarce on the Italian peninsula, but several protected areas have been created that will help populations to recover. The Corsican Hare is widespread and locally abundant in Sicily. The Sicilian government officially recognized it as a “true” species in 1998, forbidding hunting on the island. Status is unclear in Corsica, but 70% of the samples in a recent genetic study were Corsican Hares. Population and distributional declines of Corsican Hares have been estimated at 50% for continental populations and 38% across the entire distribution, probably from overhunting and introductions of European Hares. The Corsican Hareis legally protected in mainland Italy and Sicily, but differentiation of Corsican Hares and European Hares in the field makes it difficult to manage harvest. In Sicily, a hunting ban on Corsican Hares waslifted in 2004-2005. The Corsican Hare is still a game species in Corsica because it is considered conspecific with the European Hare in France. Major conservation threats to the Corsican Hare are habitat degradation, fragmentation that causes low or absent gene flow among populations, low population densities, competition with introduced European Hares, and overhunting. Captive breeding programs of Corsican Hares are being carried out in mainland Italy and Sicily.Bibliography.Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003), Alves, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2008), Angelici & Luiselli (2001, 2007), Angelici, Petrozzi & Galli (2010), Angelici, Randi et al. (2008), De Battisti et al. (2004), De Marinis, Trocchi & Mangiafico (2007), De Marinis, Trocchi, Mangiafico, Fassd & Mallia (2007), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Cosentino et al. (2016), Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Mallia, Blasi et al. (2014), Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Mallia, Cosentino & Paolino (2015), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Koutsogiannouli et al. (2012), Mengoni et al. (2015), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palacios (1996), Petter (1961), Pierpaoli et al. (1999, 2003), Pietri (2015), Pietri et al. (2011), Riga et al. (2001), Vigne (1988)." -03822308B765FFDAFAF7FD5EFABBFBD4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,141,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B765FFDAFAF7FD5EFABBFBD4.xml,Lepus europaeus,Lepus,europaeus,Pallas,1778,Liévre d'Europe @fr | Feldhase @de | Liebre europea @es | Brown Hare @en | European Brown Hare @en,"Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, type locality not given. Restricted by Esl. Trouessart in 1910 to “Poland.”It was formerly included in L. capensisbased on a cline in morphological characteristics (mainly size) from north-east ern Africa eastward across the northern Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey. In Kazakhstan, where the large “ europaeus” and the small “ capensis” (= tolar) live in sympatry without hybridization, the interpretation was of the overlapping ends of a ring species. A reanalysis showed a discontinuity between smaller “ capensis” and larger “ europaeus” running from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Iran. This is the basis on which L. europaeusis separated from L. capensisand L. tolai. In Iran, east of the border of the distribution of L. europaeus, L. tolaioccurs apparently in allopatry or parapatry with L. europaeus. Nevertheless, recent evidence suggests that the hypothesis of conspecific status of L. europaeusand L. capensismay be correct. A study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of mtDNA of these three groups indicated a significant degree of divergence supporting species-specific designation. These studies show that genetic differentiation between L. capensisand L. europaeusmight be attributed to geographical separation rather than divergence. It has been speculated that gene flow may occur in the Middle East where distributions meet and may result in intergraded populations. Until conclusive evidence of a single species complex is available to support a change in taxonomic status of L. europaeus, it remains a distinct species. Subspecies are recognized based mainly in size and color. Studies conducted in the USSR on differences in summer fur color and fur structure showed a tendency for clinal variation. Geographic variation has been shown for winter fur color and metric characters of skulls of L. europaeus. Thus the reality of existence of all subspecific forms described for the USSR seems very doubtful. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable throughout the range of L. europaeus. Molecular phylogenetic studies in Spain have shown that the Cantabrian population has unique mtDNA relative to other European populations. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","L.e.europaeusPallas,1778—WesternEurope.L. e. caspicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Lower Volga, Kalmykia (Russia) and W Kazakhstan.JR e. connor Robinson, 1918 — NW Iran. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Crete (Greece).a e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Cyprus. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905 — Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia.a e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822— Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, W & C Russia.Sl e. judeae Gray, 1867— Palestine.aE e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906— Carpathian Mts.all e. medius Nilsson, 1820— Denmark.al e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898— Great Britain.ul e. parnassius Miller, 1903— C Greece.el. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929— Black Sea coast (Russia).ul. e. rhodius Festa, 1914— Rhodes (Greece).Bl e. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Syria.ab. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901— E & SE Europe.The European Hare originated from grasslands in the Middle East, and from there, it has spread into agricultural areas of Europe. The distribution today includes European lowland areas from S Scandinavia to the N & NE Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean Is (Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus), and extends E to W Siberian and W Mongolian lowlands and S to N Israel, N Syria, N Iraq, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and NW Iran. Ancient introduction into Great Britain (shaded in the map). In more recent times this species was widely introduced as a game species into S Sweden, N Ireland, Corsica, SE Canada to NE USA, South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay), Australia, New Zealand, and several islands, including Barbados, Réunion, and the Falkland (Malvinas) Is.","Head—body 550-680 mm, tail 75-140 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 124-185 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The European Hare has tawny or rusty fur. Dorsal pelage is darker than chest and sides. Fur on back is long and curled. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are pale gray, with large triangular black patches on backs of tips. Tail is black on top and white underneath. There is some white on sides of head and bases of ears, and haunches are gray during winter. Geographical variation is low among mainland populations due to high mobility and occupation of continuous habitats. Geographical variation is also obscured by translocations by humans.","Temperate open woodland, farmland with pastures, grasslands, moorland, saltmarsh, steppes, and sub-desert from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. High densities of European Hares are reached on arable land. In Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand, where no other species of Lepusoccurs, European Hares also inhabits pampas, sand dunes, marshes, and alpine fellfield (slopes). Many surveys have investigated habitat preferences of European Hares. In all studies,fallow land is preferred consistently, and residential areas are avoided. There is a positive association with abundance and habitat diversity.","European Hares feed predominantly on cultivated crops, weeds, and grasses. A study investigating dietary preferences showed that they positively selected forbs and grasses. Furthermore, chemical analysis revealed that they select food for high-energy content (crude fat and crude protein) and avoid crude fiber. During feeding, dominance hierarchies among individuals have been demonstrated.","Reproduction of European Hares takes place from winter solstice until the end of summer, with a peak in spring (“March madness”). During the peak, males congregate around a female in estrus. The female boxes and chases off males. Female European Hares have 1-5 litters/year, with an average ofthree litters per year. Females have between 4-6 young/year in Argentinaand 13 young/year in the Czech Republic, but in most populations, females are remarkably consistent at ¢.10 young/year. Litter size can vary with respect to season, with smaller litters produced earlier and larger litters later. Superfetation (a female ovulates while pregnant and then carries both embryos and fetuses) is common in captivity and reduces normal gestation of¢.42 days to ¢.38 days. In the wild, superfetation is less common. Nursing takes place once per day, about one hour after sunset, and lasts only a few minutes. Females reach maturity at 7-8 months old and males at ¢.6 months old. Young from the firstlitters of the year may breed in theirfirst year. Where sympatric, European Hares and Mountain Hares (L. timidus) can hybridize and produce fertile offspring.","European Hares are mostly nocturnal. In winter, activity starts with regularity shortly after sunset and ends shortly before sunrise. In summer, activity is less consistently tied to the dark period so that active European Hares can be regularly observed in full daylight. With GPS telemetry, it was possible to gain new knowledge on daily activity patterns of European Hares during summer. If sunset was early and sunrise late, evening and morning activity peaks occurred during the dark phase. This was the case in late spring and early autumn when nights are longer. When sunset was late and sunrise was early, activity peaked in full daylight.","Distances between areas used during activity and inactivity are 122-306 m in agricultural areas and are shorter when field sizes are small than when field sizes are large. Home ranges are 12-330 ha, depending on study area. A recent study using GPS-collars showed that European Hares in an agricultural landscape with small field sizes used a confined space during the daily resting phase (on average 200 m?*), and home ranges during the active phase were c.3 ha. The European Hare lives alone but can be observed in small groups during reproduction season or when densities are high.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture. The European Hare is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Several countries have placed the European Hare on their red lists as near threatened or threatened. There is growing concern regarding status of regional forms of the European Hare. A meta-study, reviewing literature from twelve European countries and comparing population densities related to habitat characteristics, concluded that the primary cause of declines of the European Hare was agricultural intensification. Abundance was negatively associated to predation. Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on densities. In Greece, Spain, France, and Denmark, restocking of European Hares from other regions or countries to supplement densities for hunting has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. Diseases such as the European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis), coccidiosis, and tularaemia are additional threats because they have been identified as principle causes of mortalities of European Hares in some regions.","Angermann (1972, 1983, 2016) | Averianov et al. (2003) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008) | Bertolino, Cordero di Montezemolo & Perrone (2011) | Bertolino, Perrone et al. (2011) | Broekhuizen & Maaskamp (1980, 1982) | Chapuis (1990) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux (1965, 1967b, 1981a) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Frylestam (1986) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holley (2001) | Homolka (1986, 1987) | Kovacs & Buza (1988) | Kunst etal. (2001) | Lincoln (1974) | LindIof (1978) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Macdonald & Barrett (1993) | Mamuris etal. (2001) | Marboutin & Aebischer (1996) | Martinet (1977) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Monaghan & Metcalfe (1985) | Palacios et al. (2004) | Pépin (1989) | Pépin & Cargnelutti (1994) | Petter (1961) | Pielowski (1972) | Reichlin et al. (2006) | Reitz & Léonard (1994) | Roedenbeck & Voser (2008) | Riihe & Hohmann (2004) | de la Sancha et al.(2009) | Schai-Braun & Hacklander (2014) | Schai-Braun, Reichlin et al. (2015) | Schai-Braun, Rédel & Hacklander (2012) | Schai-Braun, Weber & Hacklander (2013) | Schneider (1978) | Smith, A.T. & Johnston (2008i) | Smith, R.K., Jennings & Harris (2005) | Smith, R.K., Jennings, Robinson & Harris (2004) | Sokolov et al. (2009) | Spitzenberger (2001) | Stott (2003) | Tapper & Barnes (1986) | Trouessart (1910) | Vaughan et al. (2003) | Vidus-Rosin et al. (2009)",,"53.European HareLepus europaeusFrench:Liévre d'Europe/ German:Feldhase/ Spanish:Liebre europeaOther common names:Brown Hare, European Brown HareTaxonomy.Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, type locality not given. Restricted by Esl. Trouessart in 1910 to “Poland.”It was formerly included in L. capensisbased on a cline in morphological characteristics (mainly size) from north-east ern Africa eastward across the northern Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey. In Kazakhstan, where the large “ europaeus” and the small “ capensis” (= tolar) live in sympatry without hybridization, the interpretation was of the overlapping ends of a ring species. A reanalysis showed a discontinuity between smaller “ capensis” and larger “ europaeus” running from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Iran. This is the basis on which L. europaeusis separated from L. capensisand L. tolai. In Iran, east of the border of the distribution of L. europaeus, L. tolaioccurs apparently in allopatry or parapatry with L. europaeus. Nevertheless, recent evidence suggests that the hypothesis of conspecific status of L. europaeusand L. capensismay be correct. A study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of mtDNA of these three groups indicated a significant degree of divergence supporting species-specific designation. These studies show that genetic differentiation between L. capensisand L. europaeusmight be attributed to geographical separation rather than divergence. It has been speculated that gene flow may occur in the Middle East where distributions meet and may result in intergraded populations. Until conclusive evidence of a single species complex is available to support a change in taxonomic status of L. europaeus, it remains a distinct species. Subspecies are recognized based mainly in size and color. Studies conducted in the USSR on differences in summer fur color and fur structure showed a tendency for clinal variation. Geographic variation has been shown for winter fur color and metric characters of skulls of L. europaeus. Thus the reality of existence of all subspecific forms described for the USSR seems very doubtful. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable throughout the range of L. europaeus. Molecular phylogenetic studies in Spain have shown that the Cantabrian population has unique mtDNA relative to other European populations. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.e.europaeusPallas,1778—WesternEurope.L. e. caspicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Lower Volga, Kalmykia (Russia) and W Kazakhstan.JR e. connor Robinson, 1918 — NW Iran. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Crete (Greece).a e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Cyprus. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905 — Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia.a e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822— Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, W & C Russia.Sl e. judeae Gray, 1867— Palestine.aE e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906— Carpathian Mts.all e. medius Nilsson, 1820— Denmark.al e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898— Great Britain.ul e. parnassius Miller, 1903— C Greece.el. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929— Black Sea coast (Russia).ul. e. rhodius Festa, 1914— Rhodes (Greece).Bl e. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Syria.ab. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901— E & SE Europe.The European Hare originated from grasslands in the Middle East, and from there, it has spread into agricultural areas of Europe. The distribution today includes European lowland areas from S Scandinavia to the N & NE Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean Is (Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus), and extends E to W Siberian and W Mongolian lowlands and S to N Israel, N Syria, N Iraq, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and NW Iran. Ancient introduction into Great Britain (shaded in the map). In more recent times this species was widely introduced as a game species into S Sweden, N Ireland, Corsica, SE Canada to NE USA, South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay), Australia, New Zealand, and several islands, including Barbados, Réunion, and the Falkland (Malvinas) Is.Descriptive notes.Head—body 550-680 mm, tail 75-140 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 124-185 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The European Hare has tawny or rusty fur. Dorsal pelage is darker than chest and sides. Fur on back is long and curled. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are pale gray, with large triangular black patches on backs of tips. Tail is black on top and white underneath. There is some white on sides of head and bases of ears, and haunches are gray during winter. Geographical variation is low among mainland populations due to high mobility and occupation of continuous habitats. Geographical variation is also obscured by translocations by humans.Habitat.Temperate open woodland, farmland with pastures, grasslands, moorland, saltmarsh, steppes, and sub-desert from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. High densities of European Hares are reached on arable land. In Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand, where no other species of Lepusoccurs, European Hares also inhabits pampas, sand dunes, marshes, and alpine fellfield (slopes). Many surveys have investigated habitat preferences of European Hares. In all studies,fallow land is preferred consistently, and residential areas are avoided. There is a positive association with abundance and habitat diversity.Food and Feeding.European Hares feed predominantly on cultivated crops, weeds, and grasses. A study investigating dietary preferences showed that they positively selected forbs and grasses. Furthermore, chemical analysis revealed that they select food for high-energy content (crude fat and crude protein) and avoid crude fiber. During feeding, dominance hierarchies among individuals have been demonstrated.Breeding.Reproduction of European Hares takes place from winter solstice until the end of summer, with a peak in spring (“March madness”). During the peak, males congregate around a female in estrus. The female boxes and chases off males. Female European Hares have 1-5 litters/year, with an average ofthree litters per year. Females have between 4-6 young/year in Argentinaand 13 young/year in the Czech Republic, but in most populations, females are remarkably consistent at ¢.10 young/year. Litter size can vary with respect to season, with smaller litters produced earlier and larger litters later. Superfetation (a female ovulates while pregnant and then carries both embryos and fetuses) is common in captivity and reduces normal gestation of¢.42 days to ¢.38 days. In the wild, superfetation is less common. Nursing takes place once per day, about one hour after sunset, and lasts only a few minutes. Females reach maturity at 7-8 months old and males at ¢.6 months old. Young from the firstlitters of the year may breed in theirfirst year. Where sympatric, European Hares and Mountain Hares (L. timidus) can hybridize and produce fertile offspring.Activity patterns.European Hares are mostly nocturnal. In winter, activity starts with regularity shortly after sunset and ends shortly before sunrise. In summer, activity is less consistently tied to the dark period so that active European Hares can be regularly observed in full daylight. With GPS telemetry, it was possible to gain new knowledge on daily activity patterns of European Hares during summer. If sunset was early and sunrise late, evening and morning activity peaks occurred during the dark phase. This was the case in late spring and early autumn when nights are longer. When sunset was late and sunrise was early, activity peaked in full daylight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Distances between areas used during activity and inactivity are 122-306 m in agricultural areas and are shorter when field sizes are small than when field sizes are large. Home ranges are 12-330 ha, depending on study area. A recent study using GPS-collars showed that European Hares in an agricultural landscape with small field sizes used a confined space during the daily resting phase (on average 200 m?*), and home ranges during the active phase were c.3 ha. The European Hare lives alone but can be observed in small groups during reproduction season or when densities are high.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture. The European Hare is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Several countries have placed the European Hare on their red lists as near threatened or threatened. There is growing concern regarding status of regional forms of the European Hare. A meta-study, reviewing literature from twelve European countries and comparing population densities related to habitat characteristics, concluded that the primary cause of declines of the European Hare was agricultural intensification. Abundance was negatively associated to predation. Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on densities. In Greece, Spain, France, and Denmark, restocking of European Hares from other regions or countries to supplement densities for hunting has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. Diseases such as the European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis), coccidiosis, and tularaemia are additional threats because they have been identified as principle causes of mortalities of European Hares in some regions.Bibliography.Angermann (1972, 1983, 2016), Averianov et al. (2003), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Bertolino, Cordero di Montezemolo & Perrone (2011), Bertolino, Perrone et al. (2011), Broekhuizen & Maaskamp (1980, 1982), Chapuis (1990), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux (1965, 1967b, 1981a), Flux & Angermann (1990), Frylestam (1986), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holley (2001), Homolka (1986, 1987), Kovacs & Buza (1988), Kunst etal. (2001), Lincoln (1974), LindIof (1978), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Macdonald & Barrett (1993), Mamuris etal. (2001), Marboutin & Aebischer (1996), Martinet (1977), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Monaghan & Metcalfe (1985), Palacios et al. (2004), Pépin (1989), Pépin & Cargnelutti (1994), Petter (1961), Pielowski (1972), Reichlin et al. (2006), Reitz & Léonard (1994), Roedenbeck & Voser (2008), Riihe & Hohmann (2004), de la Sancha et al.(2009), Schai-Braun & Hacklander (2014), Schai-Braun, Reichlin et al. (2015), Schai-Braun, Rédel & Hacklander (2012), Schai-Braun, Weber & Hacklander (2013), Schneider (1978), Smith, A.T. & Johnston (2008i), Smith, R.K., Jennings & Harris (2005), Smith, R.K., Jennings, Robinson & Harris (2004), Sokolov et al. (2009), Spitzenberger (2001), Stott (2003), Tapper & Barnes (1986), Trouessart (1910), Vaughan et al. (2003), Vidus-Rosin et al. (2009)." -03822308B765FFDBFFCBFDA5F890F4C2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,141,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B765FFDBFFCBFDA5F890F4C2.xml,Lepus granatensis,Lepus,granatensis,Rosenhauer,1856,Lievre ibérique @fr | Andalusischer Hase @de | Liebre ibérica @es | Granada Hare @en,"Lepus granatensis Rosenhauer, 1856, “bei Graneda [Granada],” Andalusia Province, Spain.In the past, L. granatensiswas included in L. europaeusor L. capensisbut received species status based on morphological and genetic characteristics. The population in Sardinia, to which the names mediterraneus and typicus are applied, has formerly been assigned to L. granatensisbased of their closeness, although it was thought to be a distinct species because ofits small size. Up to now, there is no definite study of the Sardinian population, so it is included in L. capensis. If mediterraneus is confirmed as a synonym of granatensisin the future, it has priority over granatensis. A homogeneous distribution of mtDNA from L. granatensiswas found in L. europaeusfrom the northern Iberian Peninsula where both species are parapatric. This is probably a result of gene flow between the two species in the contact zone. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","L.g.granatensisRosenhauer,1856—IberianPeninsulaexceptN&NE.L.g.gallaeciusMiller,1907—Galicia,andWAsturias(NWSpain).L. g. solisi Palacios & Fernandez, 1992— Mallorca (Balearic Is), but this population may have been introduced by early settlers on the islands.","Head-body 440-480 mm, tail 93-112 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 112-121 mm; weight 2.2-6 kg. The Iberian Hare is distinguished by clear contrast between dorsal and ventral pelage and by white strips on forefeet and hindfeet. There is slight geographical variation in color. Ear length is greater in Andalusian specimens; hindfoot length is greater in northern specimens and much smaller in Mallorcan specimens. North-western populations are much darker than the rest.","Humid mountain forests in the north-western part of its distribution, dry cropland in central Spain, and sand dunes in Mediterranean coastal areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.1900 m. The population of the Iberian Hare in Mallorca occurs in dry cropland and thickets. One study shows that habitat requirements of the Iberian Hare have changed significantly in recent decades from a highly significant association with natural vegetation in the 1960s to one with cultivated lands in the 1990s. This shift in habitat use might have enabled increases in numbers of Iberian Hares because anthropogenic habitats provide year-round cover and food. The Iberian Hare showed a high preference for uncultivated land for resting areas.","Diet of the Iberian Hare includes a wide variety of plant species. It feeds mostly on grasses, making up an annual average of ¢.70% of the diet in a mountain ecosystem. Ninety-one percent of available grass species were consumed, but only three of them were used in proportions greater than 5% (Anthoxanthumodoratum, Secalecereale, and Agrostis spp.). Diets consist of 81% grass in winter but only 55% in summer. Other plant groups such as herbs, shrubs, and plant inflorescences are eaten In summer.","Reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare occurs throughout the year, with peaks in February—June;it is lowest in September—-December. Environmental factors have little influence on reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare. Gestation lasts 41-42 days. Averagelitter sizes are 1-6-2:1 young (range 1-7 young). A reproductive female has an average of 3-5 litters/year or 3-5-16-1 young/year.",There is no information available for this species.,Home ranges of Iberian Hare do not vary in size between sexes and average 28 ha for males and 24 ha for females in transitional pastures and 40 ha in arable farmland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Iberian Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu lato. It occurs in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, but it is excluded in the northern and northeastern parts where the Broom Hare (L. castroviejoi) and the European Hare (L. eropaeus) occur. The Iberian Hare once inhabited the Balearic Islands, Spain, butit is now extinct there. It was introduced to southern France and Corsica in recent decades, but there is no proof of established populations. The Iberian Hare is common in much ofits distribution and locally abundant in central and southern Spain; numbers in north-eastern Spain even seem to be increasing. Nevertheless, the Iberian Hare is extremely rare or extinct in western Galicia, western Asturias, and north to the Ebro River between Navarre and Huesca. It is rare on Mallorca and extinct in the western mountains. The Iberian Hare is an important game species in the Iberian Peninsula. No major conservation threats have been identified, and models even predicted that the current distribution will enlarge northward.","Acevedo, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2012) | Alves & Rocha (2003) | Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003) | Alves, Goncalves et al. (2002) | Angermann (2016) | Bonhomme et al. (1986) | Carro et al. (2011) | Farfan, Duarte et al. (2012) | Farfan, Guerrero et al. (2004) | Farféan, Vargas et al. (2004) | Fernandez et al. (2008) | Gortazar et al. (2007) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Miller (1912) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Palacios (1983, 1989) | Palacios & Fernandez (1992) | Paupério & Alves (2008) | Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2012) | Sanz-Martin et al. (2014) | Seixas et al. (2014) | Smith & Johnston (2008h)",,"52.Iberian HareLepus granatensisFrench:Lievre ibérique/ German:Andalusischer Hase/ Spanish:Liebre ibéricaOther common names:Granada HareTaxonomy.Lepus granatensis Rosenhauer, 1856, “bei Graneda [Granada],” Andalusia Province, Spain.In the past, L. granatensiswas included in L. europaeusor L. capensisbut received species status based on morphological and genetic characteristics. The population in Sardinia, to which the names mediterraneus and typicus are applied, has formerly been assigned to L. granatensisbased of their closeness, although it was thought to be a distinct species because ofits small size. Up to now, there is no definite study of the Sardinian population, so it is included in L. capensis. If mediterraneus is confirmed as a synonym of granatensisin the future, it has priority over granatensis. A homogeneous distribution of mtDNA from L. granatensiswas found in L. europaeusfrom the northern Iberian Peninsula where both species are parapatric. This is probably a result of gene flow between the two species in the contact zone. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.g.granatensisRosenhauer,1856—IberianPeninsulaexceptN&NE.L.g.gallaeciusMiller,1907—Galicia,andWAsturias(NWSpain).L. g. solisi Palacios & Fernandez, 1992— Mallorca (Balearic Is), but this population may have been introduced by early settlers on the islands.Descriptive notes.Head-body 440-480 mm, tail 93-112 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 112-121 mm; weight 2.2-6 kg. The Iberian Hare is distinguished by clear contrast between dorsal and ventral pelage and by white strips on forefeet and hindfeet. There is slight geographical variation in color. Ear length is greater in Andalusian specimens; hindfoot length is greater in northern specimens and much smaller in Mallorcan specimens. North-western populations are much darker than the rest.Habitat.Humid mountain forests in the north-western part of its distribution, dry cropland in central Spain, and sand dunes in Mediterranean coastal areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.1900 m. The population of the Iberian Hare in Mallorca occurs in dry cropland and thickets. One study shows that habitat requirements of the Iberian Hare have changed significantly in recent decades from a highly significant association with natural vegetation in the 1960s to one with cultivated lands in the 1990s. This shift in habitat use might have enabled increases in numbers of Iberian Hares because anthropogenic habitats provide year-round cover and food. The Iberian Hare showed a high preference for uncultivated land for resting areas.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Iberian Hare includes a wide variety of plant species. It feeds mostly on grasses, making up an annual average of ¢.70% of the diet in a mountain ecosystem. Ninety-one percent of available grass species were consumed, but only three of them were used in proportions greater than 5% (Anthoxanthumodoratum, Secalecereale, and Agrostis spp.). Diets consist of 81% grass in winter but only 55% in summer. Other plant groups such as herbs, shrubs, and plant inflorescences are eaten In summer.Breeding.Reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare occurs throughout the year, with peaks in February—June;it is lowest in September—-December. Environmental factors have little influence on reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare. Gestation lasts 41-42 days. Averagelitter sizes are 1-6-2:1 young (range 1-7 young). A reproductive female has an average of 3-5 litters/year or 3-5-16-1 young/year.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Iberian Hare do not vary in size between sexes and average 28 ha for males and 24 ha for females in transitional pastures and 40 ha in arable farmland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Iberian Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu lato. It occurs in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, but it is excluded in the northern and northeastern parts where the Broom Hare (L. castroviejoi) and the European Hare (L. eropaeus) occur. The Iberian Hare once inhabited the Balearic Islands, Spain, butit is now extinct there. It was introduced to southern France and Corsica in recent decades, but there is no proof of established populations. The Iberian Hare is common in much ofits distribution and locally abundant in central and southern Spain; numbers in north-eastern Spain even seem to be increasing. Nevertheless, the Iberian Hare is extremely rare or extinct in western Galicia, western Asturias, and north to the Ebro River between Navarre and Huesca. It is rare on Mallorca and extinct in the western mountains. The Iberian Hare is an important game species in the Iberian Peninsula. No major conservation threats have been identified, and models even predicted that the current distribution will enlarge northward.Bibliography.Acevedo, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2012), Alves & Rocha (2003), Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003), Alves, Goncalves et al. (2002), Angermann (2016), Bonhomme et al. (1986), Carro et al. (2011), Farfan, Duarte et al. (2012), Farfan, Guerrero et al. (2004), Farféan, Vargas et al. (2004), Fernandez et al. (2008), Gortazar et al. (2007), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Miller (1912), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palacios (1983, 1989), Palacios & Fernandez (1992), Paupério & Alves (2008), Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2012), Sanz-Martin et al. (2014), Seixas et al. (2014), Smith & Johnston (2008h)." +03822308B765FFDAFAF7FD5EFABBFBD4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,141,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B765FFDAFAF7FD5EFABBFBD4.xml,Lepus europaeus,Lepus,europaeus,Pallas,1778,Liévre d'Europe @fr | Feldhase @de | Liebre europea @es | Brown Hare @en | European Brown Hare @en,"Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, type locality not given. Restricted by Esl. Trouessart in 1910 to “Poland.”It was formerly included in L. capensisbased on a cline in morphological characteristics (mainly size) from north-east ern Africa eastward across the northern Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey. In Kazakhstan, where the large “ europaeus” and the small “ capensis” (= tolar) live in sympatry without hybridization, the interpretation was of the overlapping ends of a ring species. A reanalysis showed a discontinuity between smaller “ capensis” and larger “ europaeus” running from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Iran. This is the basis on which L. europaeusis separated from L. capensisand L. tolai. In Iran, east of the border of the distribution of L. europaeus, L. tolaioccurs apparently in allopatry or parapatry with L. europaeus. Nevertheless, recent evidence suggests that the hypothesis of conspecific status of L. europaeusand L. capensismay be correct. A study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of mtDNA of these three groups indicated a significant degree of divergence supporting species-specific designation. These studies show that genetic differentiation between L. capensisand L. europaeusmight be attributed to geographical separation rather than divergence. It has been speculated that gene flow may occur in the Middle East where distributions meet and may result in intergraded populations. Until conclusive evidence of a single species complex is available to support a change in taxonomic status of L. europaeus, it remains a distinct species. Subspecies are recognized based mainly in size and color. Studies conducted in the USSR on differences in summer fur color and fur structure showed a tendency for clinal variation. Geographic variation has been shown for winter fur color and metric characters of skulls of L. europaeus. Thus the reality of existence of all subspecific forms described for the USSR seems very doubtful. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable throughout the range of L. europaeus. Molecular phylogenetic studies in Spain have shown that the Cantabrian population has unique mtDNA relative to other European populations. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","L.e.europaeusPallas,1778—WesternEurope.L. e. caspicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Lower Volga, Kalmykia (Russia) and W Kazakhstan.JR e. connor Robinson, 1918 — NW Iran. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Crete (Greece).a e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Cyprus. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905 — Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia.a e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822— Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, W & C Russia.Sl e. judeae Gray, 1867— Palestine.aE e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906— Carpathian Mts.all e. medius Nilsson, 1820— Denmark.al e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898— Great Britain.ul e. parnassius Miller, 1903— C Greece.el. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929— Black Sea coast (Russia).ul. e. rhodius Festa, 1914— Rhodes (Greece).Bl e. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Syria.ab. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901— E & SE Europe.The European Hare originated from grasslands in the Middle East, and from there, it has spread into agricultural areas of Europe. The distribution today includes European lowland areas from S Scandinavia to the N & NE Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean Is (Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus), and extends E to W Siberian and W Mongolian lowlands and S to N Israel, N Syria, N Iraq, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and NW Iran. Ancient introduction into Great Britain (shaded in the map). In more recent times this species was widely introduced as a game species into S Sweden, N Ireland, Corsica, SE Canada to NE USA, South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay), Australia, New Zealand, and several islands, including Barbados, Réunion, and the Falkland (Malvinas) Is.","Head—body 550-680 mm, tail 75-140 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 124-185 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The European Hare has tawny or rusty fur. Dorsal pelage is darker than chest and sides. Fur on back is long and curled. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are pale gray, with large triangular black patches on backs of tips. Tail is black on top and white underneath. There is some white on sides of head and bases of ears, and haunches are gray during winter. Geographical variation is low among mainland populations due to high mobility and occupation of continuous habitats. Geographical variation is also obscured by translocations by humans.","Temperate open woodland, farmland with pastures, grasslands, moorland, saltmarsh, steppes, and sub-desert from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. High densities of European Hares are reached on arable land. In Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand, where no other species of Lepusoccurs, European Hares also inhabits pampas, sand dunes, marshes, and alpine fellfield (slopes). Many surveys have investigated habitat preferences of European Hares. In all studies,fallow land is preferred consistently, and residential areas are avoided. There is a positive association with abundance and habitat diversity.","European Hares feed predominantly on cultivated crops, weeds, and grasses. A study investigating dietary preferences showed that they positively selected forbs and grasses. Furthermore, chemical analysis revealed that they select food for high-energy content (crude fat and crude protein) and avoid crude fiber. During feeding, dominance hierarchies among individuals have been demonstrated.","Reproduction of European Hares takes place from winter solstice until the end of summer, with a peak in spring (“March madness”). During the peak, males congregate around a female in estrus. The female boxes and chases off males. Female European Hares have 1-5 litters/year, with an average ofthree litters per year. Females have between 4-6 young/year in Argentinaand 13 young/year in the Czech Republic, but in most populations, females are remarkably consistent at ¢.10 young/year. Litter size can vary with respect to season, with smaller litters produced earlier and larger litters later. Superfetation (a female ovulates while pregnant and then carries both embryos and fetuses) is common in captivity and reduces normal gestation of¢.42 days to ¢.38 days. In the wild, superfetation is less common. Nursing takes place once per day, about one hour after sunset, and lasts only a few minutes. Females reach maturity at 7-8 months old and males at ¢.6 months old. Young from the firstlitters of the year may breed in theirfirst year. Where sympatric, European Hares and Mountain Hares (L. timidus) can hybridize and produce fertile offspring.","European Hares are mostly nocturnal. In winter, activity starts with regularity shortly after sunset and ends shortly before sunrise. In summer, activity is less consistently tied to the dark period so that active European Hares can be regularly observed in full daylight. With GPS telemetry, it was possible to gain new knowledge on daily activity patterns of European Hares during summer. If sunset was early and sunrise late, evening and morning activity peaks occurred during the dark phase. This was the case in late spring and early autumn when nights are longer. When sunset was late and sunrise was early, activity peaked in full daylight.","Distances between areas used during activity and inactivity are 122-306 m in agricultural areas and are shorter when field sizes are small than when field sizes are large. Home ranges are 12-330 ha, depending on study area. A recent study using GPS-collars showed that European Hares in an agricultural landscape with small field sizes used a confined space during the daily resting phase (on average 200 m?*), and home ranges during the active phase were c.3 ha. The European Hare lives alone but can be observed in small groups during reproduction season or when densities are high.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture. The European Hare is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Several countries have placed the European Hare on their red lists as near threatened or threatened. There is growing concern regarding status of regional forms of the European Hare. A meta-study, reviewing literature from twelve European countries and comparing population densities related to habitat characteristics, concluded that the primary cause of declines of the European Hare was agricultural intensification. Abundance was negatively associated to predation. Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on densities. In Greece, Spain, France, and Denmark, restocking of European Hares from other regions or countries to supplement densities for hunting has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. Diseases such as the European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis), coccidiosis, and tularaemia are additional threats because they have been identified as principle causes of mortalities of European Hares in some regions.","Angermann (1972, 1983, 2016) | Averianov et al. (2003) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008) | Bertolino, Cordero di Montezemolo & Perrone (2011) | Bertolino, Perrone et al. (2011) | Broekhuizen & Maaskamp (1980, 1982) | Chapuis (1990) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux (1965, 1967b, 1981a) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Frylestam (1986) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holley (2001) | Homolka (1986, 1987) | Kovacs & Buza (1988) | Kunst etal. (2001) | Lincoln (1974) | LindIof (1978) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Macdonald & Barrett (1993) | Mamuris etal. (2001) | Marboutin & Aebischer (1996) | Martinet (1977) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Monaghan & Metcalfe (1985) | Palacios et al. (2004) | Pépin (1989) | Pépin & Cargnelutti (1994) | Petter (1961) | Pielowski (1972) | Reichlin et al. (2006) | Reitz & Léonard (1994) | Roedenbeck & Voser (2008) | Riihe & Hohmann (2004) | de la Sancha et al.(2009) | Schai-Braun & Hacklander (2014) | Schai-Braun, Reichlin et al. (2015) | Schai-Braun, Rédel & Hacklander (2012) | Schai-Braun, Weber & Hacklander (2013) | Schneider (1978) | Smith, A.T. & Johnston (2008i) | Smith, R.K., Jennings & Harris (2005) | Smith, R.K., Jennings, Robinson & Harris (2004) | Sokolov et al. (2009) | Spitzenberger (2001) | Stott (2003) | Tapper & Barnes (1986) | Trouessart (1910) | Vaughan et al. (2003) | Vidus-Rosin et al. (2009)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625665/files/figure.png,"53.European HareLepus europaeusFrench:Liévre d'Europe/ German:Feldhase/ Spanish:Liebre europeaOther common names:Brown Hare, European Brown HareTaxonomy.Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, type locality not given. Restricted by Esl. Trouessart in 1910 to “Poland.”It was formerly included in L. capensisbased on a cline in morphological characteristics (mainly size) from north-east ern Africa eastward across the northern Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey. In Kazakhstan, where the large “ europaeus” and the small “ capensis” (= tolar) live in sympatry without hybridization, the interpretation was of the overlapping ends of a ring species. A reanalysis showed a discontinuity between smaller “ capensis” and larger “ europaeus” running from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Iran. This is the basis on which L. europaeusis separated from L. capensisand L. tolai. In Iran, east of the border of the distribution of L. europaeus, L. tolaioccurs apparently in allopatry or parapatry with L. europaeus. Nevertheless, recent evidence suggests that the hypothesis of conspecific status of L. europaeusand L. capensismay be correct. A study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of mtDNA of these three groups indicated a significant degree of divergence supporting species-specific designation. These studies show that genetic differentiation between L. capensisand L. europaeusmight be attributed to geographical separation rather than divergence. It has been speculated that gene flow may occur in the Middle East where distributions meet and may result in intergraded populations. Until conclusive evidence of a single species complex is available to support a change in taxonomic status of L. europaeus, it remains a distinct species. Subspecies are recognized based mainly in size and color. Studies conducted in the USSR on differences in summer fur color and fur structure showed a tendency for clinal variation. Geographic variation has been shown for winter fur color and metric characters of skulls of L. europaeus. Thus the reality of existence of all subspecific forms described for the USSR seems very doubtful. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable throughout the range of L. europaeus. Molecular phylogenetic studies in Spain have shown that the Cantabrian population has unique mtDNA relative to other European populations. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.e.europaeusPallas,1778—WesternEurope.L. e. caspicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Lower Volga, Kalmykia (Russia) and W Kazakhstan.JR e. connor Robinson, 1918 — NW Iran. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Crete (Greece).a e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Cyprus. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905 — Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia.a e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822— Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, W & C Russia.Sl e. judeae Gray, 1867— Palestine.aE e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906— Carpathian Mts.all e. medius Nilsson, 1820— Denmark.al e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898— Great Britain.ul e. parnassius Miller, 1903— C Greece.el. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929— Black Sea coast (Russia).ul. e. rhodius Festa, 1914— Rhodes (Greece).Bl e. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Syria.ab. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901— E & SE Europe.The European Hare originated from grasslands in the Middle East, and from there, it has spread into agricultural areas of Europe. The distribution today includes European lowland areas from S Scandinavia to the N & NE Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean Is (Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus), and extends E to W Siberian and W Mongolian lowlands and S to N Israel, N Syria, N Iraq, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and NW Iran. Ancient introduction into Great Britain (shaded in the map). In more recent times this species was widely introduced as a game species into S Sweden, N Ireland, Corsica, SE Canada to NE USA, South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay), Australia, New Zealand, and several islands, including Barbados, Réunion, and the Falkland (Malvinas) Is.Descriptive notes.Head—body 550-680 mm, tail 75-140 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 124-185 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The European Hare has tawny or rusty fur. Dorsal pelage is darker than chest and sides. Fur on back is long and curled. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are pale gray, with large triangular black patches on backs of tips. Tail is black on top and white underneath. There is some white on sides of head and bases of ears, and haunches are gray during winter. Geographical variation is low among mainland populations due to high mobility and occupation of continuous habitats. Geographical variation is also obscured by translocations by humans.Habitat.Temperate open woodland, farmland with pastures, grasslands, moorland, saltmarsh, steppes, and sub-desert from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. High densities of European Hares are reached on arable land. In Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand, where no other species of Lepusoccurs, European Hares also inhabits pampas, sand dunes, marshes, and alpine fellfield (slopes). Many surveys have investigated habitat preferences of European Hares. In all studies,fallow land is preferred consistently, and residential areas are avoided. There is a positive association with abundance and habitat diversity.Food and Feeding.European Hares feed predominantly on cultivated crops, weeds, and grasses. A study investigating dietary preferences showed that they positively selected forbs and grasses. Furthermore, chemical analysis revealed that they select food for high-energy content (crude fat and crude protein) and avoid crude fiber. During feeding, dominance hierarchies among individuals have been demonstrated.Breeding.Reproduction of European Hares takes place from winter solstice until the end of summer, with a peak in spring (“March madness”). During the peak, males congregate around a female in estrus. The female boxes and chases off males. Female European Hares have 1-5 litters/year, with an average ofthree litters per year. Females have between 4-6 young/year in Argentinaand 13 young/year in the Czech Republic, but in most populations, females are remarkably consistent at ¢.10 young/year. Litter size can vary with respect to season, with smaller litters produced earlier and larger litters later. Superfetation (a female ovulates while pregnant and then carries both embryos and fetuses) is common in captivity and reduces normal gestation of¢.42 days to ¢.38 days. In the wild, superfetation is less common. Nursing takes place once per day, about one hour after sunset, and lasts only a few minutes. Females reach maturity at 7-8 months old and males at ¢.6 months old. Young from the firstlitters of the year may breed in theirfirst year. Where sympatric, European Hares and Mountain Hares (L. timidus) can hybridize and produce fertile offspring.Activity patterns.European Hares are mostly nocturnal. In winter, activity starts with regularity shortly after sunset and ends shortly before sunrise. In summer, activity is less consistently tied to the dark period so that active European Hares can be regularly observed in full daylight. With GPS telemetry, it was possible to gain new knowledge on daily activity patterns of European Hares during summer. If sunset was early and sunrise late, evening and morning activity peaks occurred during the dark phase. This was the case in late spring and early autumn when nights are longer. When sunset was late and sunrise was early, activity peaked in full daylight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Distances between areas used during activity and inactivity are 122-306 m in agricultural areas and are shorter when field sizes are small than when field sizes are large. Home ranges are 12-330 ha, depending on study area. A recent study using GPS-collars showed that European Hares in an agricultural landscape with small field sizes used a confined space during the daily resting phase (on average 200 m?*), and home ranges during the active phase were c.3 ha. The European Hare lives alone but can be observed in small groups during reproduction season or when densities are high.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture. The European Hare is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Several countries have placed the European Hare on their red lists as near threatened or threatened. There is growing concern regarding status of regional forms of the European Hare. A meta-study, reviewing literature from twelve European countries and comparing population densities related to habitat characteristics, concluded that the primary cause of declines of the European Hare was agricultural intensification. Abundance was negatively associated to predation. Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on densities. In Greece, Spain, France, and Denmark, restocking of European Hares from other regions or countries to supplement densities for hunting has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. Diseases such as the European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis), coccidiosis, and tularaemia are additional threats because they have been identified as principle causes of mortalities of European Hares in some regions.Bibliography.Angermann (1972, 1983, 2016), Averianov et al. (2003), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Bertolino, Cordero di Montezemolo & Perrone (2011), Bertolino, Perrone et al. (2011), Broekhuizen & Maaskamp (1980, 1982), Chapuis (1990), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux (1965, 1967b, 1981a), Flux & Angermann (1990), Frylestam (1986), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holley (2001), Homolka (1986, 1987), Kovacs & Buza (1988), Kunst etal. (2001), Lincoln (1974), LindIof (1978), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Macdonald & Barrett (1993), Mamuris etal. (2001), Marboutin & Aebischer (1996), Martinet (1977), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Monaghan & Metcalfe (1985), Palacios et al. (2004), Pépin (1989), Pépin & Cargnelutti (1994), Petter (1961), Pielowski (1972), Reichlin et al. (2006), Reitz & Léonard (1994), Roedenbeck & Voser (2008), Riihe & Hohmann (2004), de la Sancha et al.(2009), Schai-Braun & Hacklander (2014), Schai-Braun, Reichlin et al. (2015), Schai-Braun, Rédel & Hacklander (2012), Schai-Braun, Weber & Hacklander (2013), Schneider (1978), Smith, A.T. & Johnston (2008i), Smith, R.K., Jennings & Harris (2005), Smith, R.K., Jennings, Robinson & Harris (2004), Sokolov et al. (2009), Spitzenberger (2001), Stott (2003), Tapper & Barnes (1986), Trouessart (1910), Vaughan et al. (2003), Vidus-Rosin et al. (2009)." +03822308B765FFDBFFCBFDA5F890F4C2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,141,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B765FFDBFFCBFDA5F890F4C2.xml,Lepus granatensis,Lepus,granatensis,Rosenhauer,1856,Lievre ibérique @fr | Andalusischer Hase @de | Liebre ibérica @es | Granada Hare @en,"Lepus granatensis Rosenhauer, 1856, “bei Graneda [Granada],” Andalusia Province, Spain.In the past, L. granatensiswas included in L. europaeusor L. capensisbut received species status based on morphological and genetic characteristics. The population in Sardinia, to which the names mediterraneus and typicus are applied, has formerly been assigned to L. granatensisbased of their closeness, although it was thought to be a distinct species because ofits small size. Up to now, there is no definite study of the Sardinian population, so it is included in L. capensis. If mediterraneus is confirmed as a synonym of granatensisin the future, it has priority over granatensis. A homogeneous distribution of mtDNA from L. granatensiswas found in L. europaeusfrom the northern Iberian Peninsula where both species are parapatric. This is probably a result of gene flow between the two species in the contact zone. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","L.g.granatensisRosenhauer,1856—IberianPeninsulaexceptN&NE.L.g.gallaeciusMiller,1907—Galicia,andWAsturias(NWSpain).L. g. solisi Palacios & Fernandez, 1992— Mallorca (Balearic Is), but this population may have been introduced by early settlers on the islands.","Head-body 440-480 mm, tail 93-112 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 112-121 mm; weight 2.2-6 kg. The Iberian Hare is distinguished by clear contrast between dorsal and ventral pelage and by white strips on forefeet and hindfeet. There is slight geographical variation in color. Ear length is greater in Andalusian specimens; hindfoot length is greater in northern specimens and much smaller in Mallorcan specimens. North-western populations are much darker than the rest.","Humid mountain forests in the north-western part of its distribution, dry cropland in central Spain, and sand dunes in Mediterranean coastal areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.1900 m. The population of the Iberian Hare in Mallorca occurs in dry cropland and thickets. One study shows that habitat requirements of the Iberian Hare have changed significantly in recent decades from a highly significant association with natural vegetation in the 1960s to one with cultivated lands in the 1990s. This shift in habitat use might have enabled increases in numbers of Iberian Hares because anthropogenic habitats provide year-round cover and food. The Iberian Hare showed a high preference for uncultivated land for resting areas.","Diet of the Iberian Hare includes a wide variety of plant species. It feeds mostly on grasses, making up an annual average of ¢.70% of the diet in a mountain ecosystem. Ninety-one percent of available grass species were consumed, but only three of them were used in proportions greater than 5% (Anthoxanthumodoratum, Secalecereale, and Agrostis spp.). Diets consist of 81% grass in winter but only 55% in summer. Other plant groups such as herbs, shrubs, and plant inflorescences are eaten In summer.","Reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare occurs throughout the year, with peaks in February—June;it is lowest in September—-December. Environmental factors have little influence on reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare. Gestation lasts 41-42 days. Averagelitter sizes are 1-6-2:1 young (range 1-7 young). A reproductive female has an average of 3-5 litters/year or 3-5-16-1 young/year.",There is no information available for this species.,Home ranges of Iberian Hare do not vary in size between sexes and average 28 ha for males and 24 ha for females in transitional pastures and 40 ha in arable farmland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Iberian Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu lato. It occurs in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, but it is excluded in the northern and northeastern parts where the Broom Hare (L. castroviejoi) and the European Hare (L. eropaeus) occur. The Iberian Hare once inhabited the Balearic Islands, Spain, butit is now extinct there. It was introduced to southern France and Corsica in recent decades, but there is no proof of established populations. The Iberian Hare is common in much ofits distribution and locally abundant in central and southern Spain; numbers in north-eastern Spain even seem to be increasing. Nevertheless, the Iberian Hare is extremely rare or extinct in western Galicia, western Asturias, and north to the Ebro River between Navarre and Huesca. It is rare on Mallorca and extinct in the western mountains. The Iberian Hare is an important game species in the Iberian Peninsula. No major conservation threats have been identified, and models even predicted that the current distribution will enlarge northward.","Acevedo, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2012) | Alves & Rocha (2003) | Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003) | Alves, Goncalves et al. (2002) | Angermann (2016) | Bonhomme et al. (1986) | Carro et al. (2011) | Farfan, Duarte et al. (2012) | Farfan, Guerrero et al. (2004) | Farféan, Vargas et al. (2004) | Fernandez et al. (2008) | Gortazar et al. (2007) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Miller (1912) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Palacios (1983, 1989) | Palacios & Fernandez (1992) | Paupério & Alves (2008) | Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2012) | Sanz-Martin et al. (2014) | Seixas et al. (2014) | Smith & Johnston (2008h)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625663/files/figure.png,"52.Iberian HareLepus granatensisFrench:Lievre ibérique/ German:Andalusischer Hase/ Spanish:Liebre ibéricaOther common names:Granada HareTaxonomy.Lepus granatensis Rosenhauer, 1856, “bei Graneda [Granada],” Andalusia Province, Spain.In the past, L. granatensiswas included in L. europaeusor L. capensisbut received species status based on morphological and genetic characteristics. The population in Sardinia, to which the names mediterraneus and typicus are applied, has formerly been assigned to L. granatensisbased of their closeness, although it was thought to be a distinct species because ofits small size. Up to now, there is no definite study of the Sardinian population, so it is included in L. capensis. If mediterraneus is confirmed as a synonym of granatensisin the future, it has priority over granatensis. A homogeneous distribution of mtDNA from L. granatensiswas found in L. europaeusfrom the northern Iberian Peninsula where both species are parapatric. This is probably a result of gene flow between the two species in the contact zone. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.g.granatensisRosenhauer,1856—IberianPeninsulaexceptN&NE.L.g.gallaeciusMiller,1907—Galicia,andWAsturias(NWSpain).L. g. solisi Palacios & Fernandez, 1992— Mallorca (Balearic Is), but this population may have been introduced by early settlers on the islands.Descriptive notes.Head-body 440-480 mm, tail 93-112 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 112-121 mm; weight 2.2-6 kg. The Iberian Hare is distinguished by clear contrast between dorsal and ventral pelage and by white strips on forefeet and hindfeet. There is slight geographical variation in color. Ear length is greater in Andalusian specimens; hindfoot length is greater in northern specimens and much smaller in Mallorcan specimens. North-western populations are much darker than the rest.Habitat.Humid mountain forests in the north-western part of its distribution, dry cropland in central Spain, and sand dunes in Mediterranean coastal areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.1900 m. The population of the Iberian Hare in Mallorca occurs in dry cropland and thickets. One study shows that habitat requirements of the Iberian Hare have changed significantly in recent decades from a highly significant association with natural vegetation in the 1960s to one with cultivated lands in the 1990s. This shift in habitat use might have enabled increases in numbers of Iberian Hares because anthropogenic habitats provide year-round cover and food. The Iberian Hare showed a high preference for uncultivated land for resting areas.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Iberian Hare includes a wide variety of plant species. It feeds mostly on grasses, making up an annual average of ¢.70% of the diet in a mountain ecosystem. Ninety-one percent of available grass species were consumed, but only three of them were used in proportions greater than 5% (Anthoxanthumodoratum, Secalecereale, and Agrostis spp.). Diets consist of 81% grass in winter but only 55% in summer. Other plant groups such as herbs, shrubs, and plant inflorescences are eaten In summer.Breeding.Reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare occurs throughout the year, with peaks in February—June;it is lowest in September—-December. Environmental factors have little influence on reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare. Gestation lasts 41-42 days. Averagelitter sizes are 1-6-2:1 young (range 1-7 young). A reproductive female has an average of 3-5 litters/year or 3-5-16-1 young/year.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Iberian Hare do not vary in size between sexes and average 28 ha for males and 24 ha for females in transitional pastures and 40 ha in arable farmland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Iberian Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu lato. It occurs in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, but it is excluded in the northern and northeastern parts where the Broom Hare (L. castroviejoi) and the European Hare (L. eropaeus) occur. The Iberian Hare once inhabited the Balearic Islands, Spain, butit is now extinct there. It was introduced to southern France and Corsica in recent decades, but there is no proof of established populations. The Iberian Hare is common in much ofits distribution and locally abundant in central and southern Spain; numbers in north-eastern Spain even seem to be increasing. Nevertheless, the Iberian Hare is extremely rare or extinct in western Galicia, western Asturias, and north to the Ebro River between Navarre and Huesca. It is rare on Mallorca and extinct in the western mountains. The Iberian Hare is an important game species in the Iberian Peninsula. No major conservation threats have been identified, and models even predicted that the current distribution will enlarge northward.Bibliography.Acevedo, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2012), Alves & Rocha (2003), Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003), Alves, Goncalves et al. (2002), Angermann (2016), Bonhomme et al. (1986), Carro et al. (2011), Farfan, Duarte et al. (2012), Farfan, Guerrero et al. (2004), Farféan, Vargas et al. (2004), Fernandez et al. (2008), Gortazar et al. (2007), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Miller (1912), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palacios (1983, 1989), Palacios & Fernandez (1992), Paupério & Alves (2008), Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2012), Sanz-Martin et al. (2014), Seixas et al. (2014), Smith & Johnston (2008h)." 03822308B766FFDBFF6BF466FADAF787,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B766FFDBFF6BF466FADAF787.xml,Lepus flavigularis,Lepus,flavigularis,Wagner,1844,Lievre de Tehuantepec @fr | Tehuantepec-Hase @de | Liebre de Tehuantepec @es | Tehuantepec Hare @en | Tropical Hare @en,"Lepus flavigularis Wagner, 1844, “Mexico.” Restricted by D. G. Elliot in 1905 to “San Mateo del Mar, Tehuantepec [City],” Oaxaca, Mexico.This species and L. callotisare similar and were considered conspecific by E. W. Nelson in 1909. A numerical analysis of morphological characteristics and distributional records supported the original designation of L. flavigularisas a distinct species. Lepus flavigularisand L. callotisare more similar to each other than to L. alleni. All three species are closely related to L. californicus. It is hypothesized that a population of L. californicusbecame isolated in Mexico and diverged into L. callotis. Later, a population of this divergent group became isolated on the western coastal plain, differentiating further into L. alleni. In a small area in south-eastern Oaxaca, a second isolated population evolved into L. flavigularis. Phylogenetic patterns indicate that L. flavigularisis subdivided into two distinct evolutionary lineages in two non-overlapping areas. Moreover, reduced genetic variability has been recorded in L. flavigularis. Lepusflavigularis occurs in sympatry with Sylvilagus floridanusthroughoutits distribution. Monotypic.","S Mexico, S of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in a small area between Salina Cruz, SEOaxaca, and extreme W Chiapas.","Head-body 570-610 mm, tail 65-95 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 115-134 mm; weight 2:5.3-7 kg. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has coarse fur. Dorsal pelage is bright ocherous buff and strongly washed with black. Nape typically displays black stripe that extends posteriorly from bases of ears with median buff stripe; ears are large and entirely buff. Throat is yellowish. Rump and back of hindlegs are iron gray. Flanks and ventral fur are white. White ventral area extends up over flanks and abruptly ends against iron-gray area of rump and hindlegs. Fronts of hindlegs and tops of hindfeet are white; fronts of forelegs are grayish. Black line extends along middle of rump and over uppersurface of tail. Underside oftail is gray. Pelage color varies seasonally. In spring, black wash on back fades, and buff of upper parts fades to pale yellow. In early autumn, pelage on top and sides of head and back are rich ocherous buff and heavily washed with black.Habitat.Tropical dry savannas of native grasses with an overstory of sparse bushes (Byrsonimacrassifolia, Malpighiaceae) and scattered trees (Crescentia spp, Bignoniaceae) and coastal grassy dunes with Sabalmexicana (Arecaceae) that never exceeds a 4-5km widestrip along shores of saltwater lagoons on north side of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of ¢.666 m in the arid tropical zone. Dominant grasses in savannas and coastal dunes are Paspalumand Bouteloua(both Poaceae). One study noted that adult Tehuantepec Jackrabbits avoided dense vegetation and juveniles avoided not only dense vegetation but also grassland without overstory. Sex and season had no effect on habitat selection by Tehuantepec Jackrabbits.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Breeding season of the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is from late January to early November, with a peak during the rainy season in May-October. It exhibits a polygamous reproductive and mating behavior. One study showed that during the entire reproductive season, a male courted an average of six females and mounted three of them. Throughout the entire reproductive season, a female was courted by an average of five males but mounted only by one dominant male. This indicates that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is not promiscuous as are other species of Lepusand there is no evidence of polyandry or monogamy. Young are born c¢.32 days after copulation. Directly after birth, young are put into “beds” that are depressions in the ground covered by prairie grass (Jouveapilosa, Poaceae). Females return to nurse and groom young once per day, usually at night, until they are weaned and abandoned c.12 days after birth. In some cases, a female calls her young with a shriek, and young answer with several shrieks. When litters are larger than two young, the female separates them into different beds at c.5 days of age. Females have an average of two litters per breeding season, with a meanlitter size of 2:3 (range 1-4 young). Therefore, a female produces an average of 4-5 young/breeding season. Both sexes are mature at 6-7 months of age.Activity patterns.The Tehuantepec Jackrabbitis crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.During a two-year study, annual home ranges and core areas of 48 radio-collared Tehuantepec Jackrabbits averaged 30-4 ha and 7-2 ha for females and 13-5 ha and 3-6 ha for males, respectively. Home ranges of females were significantly wider than those of males. Home ranges were comparable in size and overlapped between active periods and inactive periods. Home ranges of as many as 46 individuals overlapped within and between sexes. This confirms that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has a polygamous mating system and a nonterritorial social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is the most endangered species of Lepus; its overall population has been reduced by more than 50%. This decline has been caused by ongoing habitat loss and diminished quality of remaining habitat. In the early 1990s, TehuantepecJackrabbits occurred on coastal plains and bordering foothills of the southern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in southern Oaxaca, and along the Pacific coast to Chiapas (c.5000 km?). Its distribution has been restricted to a small area between Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, and extreme western Chiapas, but it has not been found recently in Chiapas. Extent of occurrence is perhaps only 520 km? and the area of occupancy is less than 100 km* (possibly only 67 km?). The remaining four populationsare isolated and small. Threats to the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit are ongoing declines in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population size, number of mature individuals, and quality of remaining habitat. Total population size is estimated to be less than 1000 individuals. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is hunted, and habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture as the local human population expands. Habitat is also jeopardized by alteration and degradation by introduction of exotic grasses, human-induced fires, cattle-raising activities, and human settlements.","Tropical dry savannas of native grasses with an overstory of sparse bushes (Byrsonimacrassifolia, Malpighiaceae) and scattered trees (Crescentia spp, Bignoniaceae) and coastal grassy dunes with Sabalmexicana (Arecaceae) that never exceeds a 4-5km widestrip along shores of saltwater lagoons on north side of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of ¢.666 m in the arid tropical zone. Dominant grasses in savannas and coastal dunes are Paspalumand Bouteloua(both Poaceae). One study noted that adult Tehuantepec Jackrabbits avoided dense vegetation and juveniles avoided not only dense vegetation but also grassland without overstory. Sex and season had no effect on habitat selection by Tehuantepec Jackrabbits.",There is no information available for this species.,"Breeding season of the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is from late January to early November, with a peak during the rainy season in May-October. It exhibits a polygamous reproductive and mating behavior. One study showed that during the entire reproductive season, a male courted an average of six females and mounted three of them. Throughout the entire reproductive season, a female was courted by an average of five males but mounted only by one dominant male. This indicates that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is not promiscuous as are other species of Lepusand there is no evidence of polyandry or monogamy. Young are born c¢.32 days after copulation. Directly after birth, young are put into “beds” that are depressions in the ground covered by prairie grass (Jouveapilosa, Poaceae). Females return to nurse and groom young once per day, usually at night, until they are weaned and abandoned c.12 days after birth. In some cases, a female calls her young with a shriek, and young answer with several shrieks. When litters are larger than two young, the female separates them into different beds at c.5 days of age. Females have an average of two litters per breeding season, with a meanlitter size of 2:3 (range 1-4 young). Therefore, a female produces an average of 4-5 young/breeding season. Both sexes are mature at 6-7 months of age.",The Tehuantepec Jackrabbitis crepuscular and nocturnal.,"During a two-year study, annual home ranges and core areas of 48 radio-collared Tehuantepec Jackrabbits averaged 30-4 ha and 7-2 ha for females and 13-5 ha and 3-6 ha for males, respectively. Home ranges of females were significantly wider than those of males. Home ranges were comparable in size and overlapped between active periods and inactive periods. Home ranges of as many as 46 individuals overlapped within and between sexes. This confirms that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has a polygamous mating system and a nonterritorial social organization.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is the most endangered species of Lepus; its overall population has been reduced by more than 50%. This decline has been caused by ongoing habitat loss and diminished quality of remaining habitat. In the early 1990s, TehuantepecJackrabbits occurred on coastal plains and bordering foothills of the southern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in southern Oaxaca, and along the Pacific coast to Chiapas (c.5000 km?). Its distribution has been restricted to a small area between Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, and extreme western Chiapas, but it has not been found recently in Chiapas. Extent of occurrence is perhaps only 520 km? and the area of occupancy is less than 100 km* (possibly only 67 km?). The remaining four populationsare isolated and small. Threats to the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit are ongoing declines in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population size, number of mature individuals, and quality of remaining habitat. Total population size is estimated to be less than 1000 individuals. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is hunted, and habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture as the local human population expands. Habitat is also jeopardized by alteration and degradation by introduction of exotic grasses, human-induced fires, cattle-raising activities, and human settlements. Habitat reduction has been estimated at 8-29% overthe last 24 years.","Anderson & Gaunt (1962) | Carrillo-Reyes et al. (2010) | Cervantes (1993) | Cervantes, Lorenzo, Farfas & Vargas (2008) | Cervantes, Lorenzo & Yates (2002) | Chapman et al. (1983) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Elliot (1905) | Farias (2004) | Farias & Fuller (2009) | Farias et al. (2006) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Goodwin (1969) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lorenzo, Cervantes, Barragan & Vargas (2006) | Lorenzo, Cervantes & Vargas (2003) | Nelson (1909) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Retana & Lorenzo (2002) | Rico et al. (2008) | Rioja etal. (2008, 2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625661/files/figure.png,"51.Tehuantepec JackrabbitLepus flavigularisFrench:Lievre de Tehuantepec/ German:Tehuantepec-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de TehuantepecOther common names:Tehuantepec Hare, Tropical HareTaxonomy.Lepus flavigularis Wagner, 1844, “Mexico.” Restricted by D. G. Elliot in 1905 to “San Mateo del Mar, Tehuantepec [City],” Oaxaca, Mexico.This species and L. callotisare similar and were considered conspecific by E. W. Nelson in 1909. A numerical analysis of morphological characteristics and distributional records supported the original designation of L. flavigularisas a distinct species. Lepus flavigularisand L. callotisare more similar to each other than to L. alleni. All three species are closely related to L. californicus. It is hypothesized that a population of L. californicusbecame isolated in Mexico and diverged into L. callotis. Later, a population of this divergent group became isolated on the western coastal plain, differentiating further into L. alleni. In a small area in south-eastern Oaxaca, a second isolated population evolved into L. flavigularis. Phylogenetic patterns indicate that L. flavigularisis subdivided into two distinct evolutionary lineages in two non-overlapping areas. Moreover, reduced genetic variability has been recorded in L. flavigularis. Lepusflavigularis occurs in sympatry with Sylvilagus floridanusthroughoutits distribution. Monotypic.Distribution.S Mexico, S of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in a small area between Salina Cruz, SEOaxaca, and extreme W Chiapas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 570-610 mm, tail 65-95 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 115-134 mm; weight 2:5.3-7 kg. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has coarse fur. Dorsal pelage is bright ocherous buff and strongly washed with black. Nape typically displays black stripe that extends posteriorly from bases of ears with median buff stripe; ears are large and entirely buff. Throat is yellowish. Rump and back of hindlegs are iron gray. Flanks and ventral fur are white. White ventral area extends up over flanks and abruptly ends against iron-gray area of rump and hindlegs. Fronts of hindlegs and tops of hindfeet are white; fronts of forelegs are grayish. Black line extends along middle of rump and over uppersurface of tail. Underside oftail is gray. Pelage color varies seasonally. In spring, black wash on back fades, and buff of upper parts fades to pale yellow. In early autumn, pelage on top and sides of head and back are rich ocherous buff and heavily washed with black.Habitat.Tropical dry savannas of native grasses with an overstory of sparse bushes (Byrsonimacrassifolia, Malpighiaceae) and scattered trees (Crescentia spp, Bignoniaceae) and coastal grassy dunes with Sabalmexicana (Arecaceae) that never exceeds a 4-5km widestrip along shores of saltwater lagoons on north side of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of ¢.666 m in the arid tropical zone. Dominant grasses in savannas and coastal dunes are Paspalumand Bouteloua(both Poaceae). One study noted that adult Tehuantepec Jackrabbits avoided dense vegetation and juveniles avoided not only dense vegetation but also grassland without overstory. Sex and season had no effect on habitat selection by Tehuantepec Jackrabbits.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Breeding season of the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is from late January to early November, with a peak during the rainy season in May-October. It exhibits a polygamous reproductive and mating behavior. One study showed that during the entire reproductive season, a male courted an average of six females and mounted three of them. Throughout the entire reproductive season, a female was courted by an average of five males but mounted only by one dominant male. This indicates that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is not promiscuous as are other species of Lepusand there is no evidence of polyandry or monogamy. Young are born c¢.32 days after copulation. Directly after birth, young are put into “beds” that are depressions in the ground covered by prairie grass (Jouveapilosa, Poaceae). Females return to nurse and groom young once per day, usually at night, until they are weaned and abandoned c.12 days after birth. In some cases, a female calls her young with a shriek, and young answer with several shrieks. When litters are larger than two young, the female separates them into different beds at c.5 days of age. Females have an average of two litters per breeding season, with a meanlitter size of 2:3 (range 1-4 young). Therefore, a female produces an average of 4-5 young/breeding season. Both sexes are mature at 6-7 months of age.Activity patterns.The Tehuantepec Jackrabbitis crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.During a two-year study, annual home ranges and core areas of 48 radio-collared Tehuantepec Jackrabbits averaged 30-4 ha and 7-2 ha for females and 13-5 ha and 3-6 ha for males, respectively. Home ranges of females were significantly wider than those of males. Home ranges were comparable in size and overlapped between active periods and inactive periods. Home ranges of as many as 46 individuals overlapped within and between sexes. This confirms that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has a polygamous mating system and a nonterritorial social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is the most endangered species of Lepus; its overall population has been reduced by more than 50%. This decline has been caused by ongoing habitat loss and diminished quality of remaining habitat. In the early 1990s, TehuantepecJackrabbits occurred on coastal plains and bordering foothills of the southern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in southern Oaxaca, and along the Pacific coast to Chiapas (c.5000 km?). Its distribution has been restricted to a small area between Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, and extreme western Chiapas, but it has not been found recently in Chiapas. Extent of occurrence is perhaps only 520 km? and the area of occupancy is less than 100 km* (possibly only 67 km?). The remaining four populationsare isolated and small. Threats to the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit are ongoing declines in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population size, number of mature individuals, and quality of remaining habitat. Total population size is estimated to be less than 1000 individuals. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is hunted, and habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture as the local human population expands. Habitat is also jeopardized by alteration and degradation by introduction of exotic grasses, human-induced fires, cattle-raising activities, and human settlements. Habitat reduction has been estimated at 8-29% overthe last 24 years.Bibliography.Anderson & Gaunt (1962), Carrillo-Reyes et al. (2010), Cervantes (1993), Cervantes, Lorenzo, Farfas & Vargas (2008), Cervantes, Lorenzo & Yates (2002), Chapman et al. (1983), Dixon et al. (1983), Elliot (1905), Farias (2004), Farias & Fuller (2009), Farias et al. (2006), Flux & Angermann (1990), Goodwin (1969), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lorenzo, Cervantes, Barragan & Vargas (2006), Lorenzo, Cervantes & Vargas (2003), Nelson (1909), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Retana & Lorenzo (2002), Rico et al. (2008), Rioja etal. (2008, 2011)." -03822308B767FFD8FAF6F8A1FE10FDCD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B767FFD8FAF6F8A1FE10FDCD.xml,Lepus callotis,Lepus,callotis,Wagler,1830,Lievre du Mexique @fr | \Weil3flankenhase @de | Liebre de flancos blancos @es | Beautiful-eared Jackrabbit @en | Gaillard Jackrabbit @en | Snow Sides @en,"Lepus callotis Wagler, 1830, “Mexico.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to the “southern end of the Mexican Tableland.”Morphological characteristics showed only partial separation between Mexican subspecies of L. callotisand L. californicus, whereas nearly complete separation between L. callotisand L. flavigulariswas apparent. A recent molecular phylogenetic study supports another theory suggesting that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new linage. From original stock (L. callotis), one population was isolated in western coastal plains (L. allen?) and a second population became isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Distribution of L. callotisis allopatric with L. allenito which it is probably related, parapatric with L. flavigularis, and sympatric with Sylvilagus cunicularius. This species and L. californicusare only sympatric in marginal habitats because they typically occupy different habitat types. Two subspecies recognized.","L.c.callotisWagler,1830—CMexico(continuousdistributionfromEDurango,SoftheRioNazas,toNGuerreroandNWOaxaca).L. c. gaillardi Mearns, 1896— SW USA (extreme SW New Mexico) and discontinuously in NC Mexico (NW Chihuaha, SC Chihuahua, and NC Durango N of the Rio Nazas).","Head—body 430-600 mm, tail 47-92 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 118-141 mm; weight 1.5-3.2 kg. The White-sided Jackrabbit is medium-sized, with relatively short hindfeet and long ears. Dorsal pelage is pale ocherous cinnamon, mixed with black. Sides, rump, thighs, limbs, and ventral fur are white. Rump is divided by black medial line. Gular patch is bufty, becoming ocherous on fronts of shoulders and sides of neck. Head is cream-buff, mixed with black, and eye rings are whitish. Nape is ocherous buff. Ears are scantily covered with short hairs but are almost bare at their concave surfaces. Tail is white below and black above. Female White-sided Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Geographical variation in pelage color exists, with paler individuals in Chihuahua. The two subspecies also vary in pelage color: callotishas blackish tint and black nape patch, and gaillardi has pale buff tint and brown nape. White-sided Jackrabbits molt twice a year.On following pages: 51. Tehuantepec Jackrabbit (Lepus flavigularis); 52. Iberian Hare (Lepus granatensis); 53. European Hare (Lepus europaeus); 54. Broom Hare (Lepus castroviejoi); 55. Corsican Hare (Lepus corsicanus); 56. White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii); 57. Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus); 58. Alaskan Hare (Lepus othus); 59. Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus); 60. Japanese Hare (Lepus brachyurus); 61. Manchurian Hare (Lepusmandshuricus); 62. Korean Hare Lepus coreanus); 63. Chinese Hare (Lepus sinensis).","Grassy open plains with little shrub cover and desert-grassland of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica, Poaceae). White-sided Jackrabbits avoid hilly areas. A study showed that 97-1% of occupied habitat was grassland, and remaining non-grass habitat was adjacent to large expenses of grassland habitat. The White-sided Jackrabbitis an animal of open grassland, whereas the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) inhabits vegetation where forbs and shrubs are dominant, so overgrazing and grassland deterioration favorsthe latter species and reducesdistribution of the former. White-sidedJackrabbits occur at elevations of 1350-2100 m in north-western Chihuahua, ¢.2550 m in northern Puebla, and ¢.750 m in Morelos.","Diets of White-sided Jackrabbits typically contain more than 99% grass. Plants eaten were true grasses (Poaceae) such as buffalograss (Boutelouadactyloides), tobosa grass, wolftail (Lycurus sp.), blue grama (B. gracilis), and vine mesquite (Panicumobtusum) and sedge nutgrass (Cyperusrotundus, Cyperaceae), ring muhly (Muhlenbergiatorreyi), and fiddleneck (Amsinckia sp., Boraginaceae), woolly Indian wheat (Plantagopurshii, Plantaginaceae), and Wright buckwheat (Eriogonumwrightii, Polygonaceae). The White-sided Jackrabbit uses its forepaws to excavate bulbous tubers of young nutgrass (C. rotundus) in the dry season.","Reproductive season of the White-sidedJackrabbit minimally lasts from mid-April to mid-August but may extend from mid-March until mid-October. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 2-2 young. Females can produce at least three litters per year. Newborns have soft and woolly fur and are typically born in burrows.","Most activity of the White-sided Jackrabbit occurred between 22:00 h and 05:00 h in New Mexico, whereas it was usually seen in the early morning or at dusk in Zacatecas, Mexico. Cloud cover, precipitation, and wind limited activities, but temperature had little effect.","When predators alarm Whitesided Jackrabbits, they alternately flash their white sides while running away or leap straight upward while extending their hindlegs and flashing their white sides. They construct and use shelter forms that are predominantly located in dense stands of clumped tabosa grass. Occasionally but rarely, underground shelters are used. Home ranges of White-sided Jackrabbits overlap, and individuals will move at least 1-6 km to feed. White-sided Jackrabbits usually occur in male-female pairs. This pair bond is most evident during the reproductive season. The male defends the pair from intruding males. It is suggested that pair bonding keeps sexes together during the breeding season because densities are low. White-sided Jackrabbits use three types of vocalization. One is an alarm or fear reaction and consists of a high-pitched scream. The second are harsh grunts produced by the male of a pair to chase away an intruding male. The third is a trilling grunt emitted by an animal of unknown sex during a sexual chase.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The White-sided Jackrabbit is widespread but has been reported as rare throughoutits distribution. Information is lacking regarding current population status in Mexico—the main part of its distribution. Population declines have been reported in New Mexico and Durango, Mexico. A major threat to the White-sided Jackrabbit is the loss of grassland habitat due to an increase of livestock grazing, which provides better habitat for the highly adaptable Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Prospects for survival of the White-sided Jackrabbit in many parts of its distribution are poor. Additional threats are hunting for local subsistence, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. A model generated for predicted climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% reduction of the current distribution of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Its distribution in the USA is restricted to two valleys of only c.120 km? in southern Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and it has been listed as threatened by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. More data are needed on population status of the White-sided Jackrabbit.","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008i) | Anderson (1972) | Anderson & Gaunt (1962) | Angermann (2016) | Baker (1977) | Baker & Greer (1962) | Bednarz & Cook (1984) | Best & Henry (1993b) | Bogan & Jones (1975) | Dalguest (1953) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1953) | Desmond (2004) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Findley (1987) | Findley & Claire (1977) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Goldman & Moore (1945) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mearns (1896b) | Nelson (1909) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010)",,"50.White-sided JackrabbitLepus callotisFrench:Lievre du Mexique/ German:\Weil3flankenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de flancos blancosOther common names:Beautiful-eared Jackrabbit, Gaillard Jackrabbit, Snow SidesTaxonomy.Lepus callotis Wagler, 1830, “Mexico.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to the “southern end of the Mexican Tableland.”Morphological characteristics showed only partial separation between Mexican subspecies of L. callotisand L. californicus, whereas nearly complete separation between L. callotisand L. flavigulariswas apparent. A recent molecular phylogenetic study supports another theory suggesting that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new linage. From original stock (L. callotis), one population was isolated in western coastal plains (L. allen?) and a second population became isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Distribution of L. callotisis allopatric with L. allenito which it is probably related, parapatric with L. flavigularis, and sympatric with Sylvilagus cunicularius. This species and L. californicusare only sympatric in marginal habitats because they typically occupy different habitat types. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.c.callotisWagler,1830—CMexico(continuousdistributionfromEDurango,SoftheRioNazas,toNGuerreroandNWOaxaca).L. c. gaillardi Mearns, 1896— SW USA (extreme SW New Mexico) and discontinuously in NC Mexico (NW Chihuaha, SC Chihuahua, and NC Durango N of the Rio Nazas).Descriptive notes.Head—body 430-600 mm, tail 47-92 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 118-141 mm; weight 1.5-3.2 kg. The White-sided Jackrabbit is medium-sized, with relatively short hindfeet and long ears. Dorsal pelage is pale ocherous cinnamon, mixed with black. Sides, rump, thighs, limbs, and ventral fur are white. Rump is divided by black medial line. Gular patch is bufty, becoming ocherous on fronts of shoulders and sides of neck. Head is cream-buff, mixed with black, and eye rings are whitish. Nape is ocherous buff. Ears are scantily covered with short hairs but are almost bare at their concave surfaces. Tail is white below and black above. Female White-sided Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Geographical variation in pelage color exists, with paler individuals in Chihuahua. The two subspecies also vary in pelage color: callotishas blackish tint and black nape patch, and gaillardi has pale buff tint and brown nape. White-sided Jackrabbits molt twice a year.On following pages: 51. Tehuantepec Jackrabbit (Lepus flavigularis); 52. Iberian Hare (Lepus granatensis); 53. European Hare (Lepus europaeus); 54. Broom Hare (Lepus castroviejoi); 55. Corsican Hare (Lepus corsicanus); 56. White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii); 57. Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus); 58. Alaskan Hare (Lepus othus); 59. Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus); 60. Japanese Hare (Lepus brachyurus); 61. Manchurian Hare (Lepusmandshuricus); 62. Korean Hare Lepus coreanus); 63. Chinese Hare (Lepus sinensis).Habitat.Grassy open plains with little shrub cover and desert-grassland of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica, Poaceae). White-sided Jackrabbits avoid hilly areas. A study showed that 97-1% of occupied habitat was grassland, and remaining non-grass habitat was adjacent to large expenses of grassland habitat. The White-sided Jackrabbitis an animal of open grassland, whereas the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) inhabits vegetation where forbs and shrubs are dominant, so overgrazing and grassland deterioration favorsthe latter species and reducesdistribution of the former. White-sidedJackrabbits occur at elevations of 1350-2100 m in north-western Chihuahua, ¢.2550 m in northern Puebla, and ¢.750 m in Morelos.Food and Feeding.Diets of White-sided Jackrabbits typically contain more than 99% grass. Plants eaten were true grasses (Poaceae) such as buffalograss (Boutelouadactyloides), tobosa grass, wolftail (Lycurus sp.), blue grama (B. gracilis), and vine mesquite (Panicumobtusum) and sedge nutgrass (Cyperusrotundus, Cyperaceae), ring muhly (Muhlenbergiatorreyi), and fiddleneck (Amsinckia sp., Boraginaceae), woolly Indian wheat (Plantagopurshii, Plantaginaceae), and Wright buckwheat (Eriogonumwrightii, Polygonaceae). The White-sided Jackrabbit uses its forepaws to excavate bulbous tubers of young nutgrass (C. rotundus) in the dry season.Breeding.Reproductive season of the White-sidedJackrabbit minimally lasts from mid-April to mid-August but may extend from mid-March until mid-October. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 2-2 young. Females can produce at least three litters per year. Newborns have soft and woolly fur and are typically born in burrows.Activity patterns.Most activity of the White-sided Jackrabbit occurred between 22:00 h and 05:00 h in New Mexico, whereas it was usually seen in the early morning or at dusk in Zacatecas, Mexico. Cloud cover, precipitation, and wind limited activities, but temperature had little effect.Movements, Home range and Social organization.When predators alarm Whitesided Jackrabbits, they alternately flash their white sides while running away or leap straight upward while extending their hindlegs and flashing their white sides. They construct and use shelter forms that are predominantly located in dense stands of clumped tabosa grass. Occasionally but rarely, underground shelters are used. Home ranges of White-sided Jackrabbits overlap, and individuals will move at least 1-6 km to feed. White-sided Jackrabbits usually occur in male-female pairs. This pair bond is most evident during the reproductive season. The male defends the pair from intruding males. It is suggested that pair bonding keeps sexes together during the breeding season because densities are low. White-sided Jackrabbits use three types of vocalization. One is an alarm or fear reaction and consists of a high-pitched scream. The second are harsh grunts produced by the male of a pair to chase away an intruding male. The third is a trilling grunt emitted by an animal of unknown sex during a sexual chase.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The White-sided Jackrabbit is widespread but has been reported as rare throughoutits distribution. Information is lacking regarding current population status in Mexico—the main part of its distribution. Population declines have been reported in New Mexico and Durango, Mexico. A major threat to the White-sided Jackrabbit is the loss of grassland habitat due to an increase of livestock grazing, which provides better habitat for the highly adaptable Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Prospects for survival of the White-sided Jackrabbit in many parts of its distribution are poor. Additional threats are hunting for local subsistence, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. A model generated for predicted climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% reduction of the current distribution of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Its distribution in the USA is restricted to two valleys of only c.120 km? in southern Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and it has been listed as threatened by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. More data are needed on population status of the White-sided Jackrabbit.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008i), Anderson (1972), Anderson & Gaunt (1962), Angermann (2016), Baker (1977), Baker & Greer (1962), Bednarz & Cook (1984), Best & Henry (1993b), Bogan & Jones (1975), Dalguest (1953), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1953), Desmond (2004), Dixon et al. (1983), Dunn et al. (1982), Findley (1987), Findley & Claire (1977), Flux & Angermann (1990), Goldman & Moore (1945), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister (1986), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1896b), Nelson (1909), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010)." -03822308B767FFD9FFCBFEA0F693F08E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B767FFD9FFCBFEA0F693F08E.xml,Lepus alleni,Lepus,alleni,Mearns,1890,Lievre d Allen @fr | Antilopenhase @de | Liebre antilope @es | Allen's Hare @en | Allen's Jackrabbit @en | Blanket Jak @en | Burro Jack @en | Jackass Rabbit @en | Mexican Jackrabbit @en | Saddle Jack @en | Wandering Jackrabbit @en,"Lepus alleni Mearns, 1890, “Rillito Station [Pima Co.], Arizona,” USA.A recent molecular phylogenetic study based on mtDNA suggests that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new lineage. From the original stock (L. callotis), one population wasisolated in western coastal plains (L. allent) and a second isolated population was isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). Taxonomical analysis of cranial characteristics of subspecies revealed no differences. Insular subspecies might not be distinct from mainland subspecies. In southern Arizona, L. alleniand L. californicusoccur sympatrically. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","L.a.alleniMearns,1890—SCArizona(SWUSA)andC&WSonora(NWMexico).L.a.palitansBangs,1900—SSonora,Sinaloa,extremeSWChihuahua,andNWNayarit(WMexico).L. a. tiburonensis Townsend, 1912— Tiburon I in the Gulf of California, Sonora (NW Mexico).","Head-body 550-670 mm, tail 48-76 mm, ear 140-170 mm, hindfoot 127-150 mm; weight 2:7.4-5 kg. The Antelope Jackrabbit has exceptionally large, whitish ears that are nearly naked except for long fringes of white hair on edges. Head has whitish and fulvous tint, mixed with black. Eye rings are white. Dorsal pelage is yellowish brown, mixed with black. Nape is plumbeous. Sides, hips, and rump are pale gray. Ventral pelage, chin, and throat are white. Chest is fulvous, and this color extends backward on lower part of neck. Tail is white and lined above with plumbeous black that extends forward upon rump. Pelage is darker in winter than summer. Subspecies tiburonensis tends to be smaller, with a total length of 500-610 mm. Ears might be more than 210 mm long and more than 100 mm wide, which adds ¢.25% to total surface area of body. Ears are used to dissipate heat in desert climates. Body temperature of the Antelope Jackrabbit averages 37-9°C at ambient temperatures of 3°-25°C. At higher ambient temperatures, body temperature increases as ambient temperature increases and reaches 40-3°C at an ambient temperature of 39°C. Rectal glands secrete orange colored, with a strong musky odor. Their function is unknown, but an individual probably leaves a record in its shelter form or wherever it pauses to sit.","Various habitats from sea level (Sonora, Mexico) to elevations of c.1500 m (southern Arizona). In Arizona, Antelope Jackrabbits favored habitats on slopes at moderate elevations where grasses, mesquites (Prosopis), and catclaws (Acacia), both Fabaceae, are abundant. They also live in desert habitat with little grass, hilly country among scattered oaks (Quercus, Fagaceae) and junipers (Juniperus, Cupressaceae), and stabilized sand dunes. In Mexico, Antelope Jackrabbits occur in low and open grasslands, open grassy foothill with patches of low bushes, and arid and desert plains. Shelter forms include backing up under clumps of vegetation, a sitting place beside a cactus or mesquite trunk with no shade and no digging or scratching having been made, or a dug out depression in the soil. Antelope Jackrabbits always seek shade in shelter forms during hot seasons. Where the Antelope Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) occur sympatrically, they often sit together under the same bush or runaway side by side. The Antelope Jackrabbit is more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations; the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and on barren chaparral desert.","The Antelope Jackrabbit feeds primarily on green grass (45%), mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, 36%), and succulent cacti (7-8%). Of all cacti species available to it, it forages most on pulps and pods of Opuntiaengelmanni (Cactaceae). Diet varies with alternating dry and rainy seasons: cacti are increasingly consumed during dry seasons, and grasses are favored after the rainy seasons. The Antelope Jackrabbit seeks minerals by digging and biting soil. There is no evidence that the Antelope Jackrabbit requires free water. Insulation and reflectance of pelage reduce water loss. Seeking shade reduces heat load and waterloss.","Reproductive season of the Antelope Jackrabbit extends from late December through September, with pronounced peaks in spring and mid-summer. Mating is promiscuous. Males fight by rearing up on hindfeet and hitting each other vigorously and with great rapidity for several seconds. The silent fight usually ends with the victor pursuing the vanquished. Two copulations in the field have been observed. In one instance, a preceding chase and vigorous combat accompanied by continuous growling took place, and in the other instance, the female chased the male a few meters, uttering a growl or grunt after copulation. Gestation is c.6 weeks. Litters average 1-9 young (range 1-6 young). A female has 3—4 litters/year. Percentages of females pregnant and litter size correlate with rainfall. The female gives birth to precocial young in a nest below ground and lined with her fur. Neonates do not show characteristic white rumps, but one 19day-old young had a white rump. The mother returns at night to nurse her young. Length of parental care is short, and young become independent in a matter of days. Young are slightly darker than adults. Breeding age of Antelope Jackrabbits is attained during the second year of life under favorable conditions. Adult sex composition in one population was 47-5% males and 52-5% females.","The Antelope Jackrabbit is nocturnal and crepuscular, but diurnal activity is commonly recorded. Shelter forms are used for resting during the day.","The Antelope Jackrabbit might be the fastest species of Lepus, with running speeds of up to 72 km/h. It leaps over bushes higher than 1 m and fences higher than 1-5 m with little change in stride. One leap of 7 m was recorded. When Antelope Jackrabbits start to run, they make 4-5 long hops on their hindlegs alone, like a kangaroo, and then revert to usual locomotion. When threatened by a predator, they flash their white areas on their rumps and sides by pulling up skin by special muscles. Where food and shelter are separated, daily movements occur. Trips of 16 km from desert to feed on alfalfa have been recorded. Average home range size is 642-8 ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The insular subspecies tiburonensis is endemic and rare and is currently granted “special protection” under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 because it is an insular and endemic species. The Antelope Jackrabbit is widespread, with a stable population. Declines in southern Arizona have been reported. The Antelope Jackrabbit has almost disappeared due to rabbit plague near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, although it was once rather common. Expanding agriculture and resulting habitat alteration and overgrazing by livestock are threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit. Overgrazing by livestock favors the Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Additional threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit are hunting, human perturbations, predation by introduced species, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires.","Allen (1906a) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008h) | Angermann (2016) | Armstrong & Jones (1971) | Best & Henry (1993a) | Brown & Krausman (2003) | Burt (1938) | Chapman et al. (1983) | Claire (1978) | Dawson & Schmidt-Nielsen (1966) | Dice & Blossom (1937) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Doutt (1934) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Garland (1983) | Ghobrial & Nour (1975) | Goldman (1951) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Howell (1944) | Huey (1942) | Lange (1960) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mearns (1890) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965) | Simmons (1966) | Swarth (1929) | Swihart (1986) | Vorhies (1921)",,"49.Antelope JackrabbitLepus alleniFrench:Lievre dAllen/ German:Antilopenhase/ Spanish:Liebre antilopeOther common names:Allen's Hare, Allen's Jackrabbit, Blanket Jak, Burro Jack, Jackass Rabbit, Mexican Jackrabbit, Saddle Jack, Wandering JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus alleni Mearns, 1890, “Rillito Station [Pima Co.], Arizona,” USA.A recent molecular phylogenetic study based on mtDNA suggests that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new lineage. From the original stock (L. callotis), one population wasisolated in western coastal plains (L. allent) and a second isolated population was isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). Taxonomical analysis of cranial characteristics of subspecies revealed no differences. Insular subspecies might not be distinct from mainland subspecies. In southern Arizona, L. alleniand L. californicusoccur sympatrically. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.alleniMearns,1890—SCArizona(SWUSA)andC&WSonora(NWMexico).L.a.palitansBangs,1900—SSonora,Sinaloa,extremeSWChihuahua,andNWNayarit(WMexico).L. a. tiburonensis Townsend, 1912— Tiburon I in the Gulf of California, Sonora (NW Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 550-670 mm, tail 48-76 mm, ear 140-170 mm, hindfoot 127-150 mm; weight 2:7.4-5 kg. The Antelope Jackrabbit has exceptionally large, whitish ears that are nearly naked except for long fringes of white hair on edges. Head has whitish and fulvous tint, mixed with black. Eye rings are white. Dorsal pelage is yellowish brown, mixed with black. Nape is plumbeous. Sides, hips, and rump are pale gray. Ventral pelage, chin, and throat are white. Chest is fulvous, and this color extends backward on lower part of neck. Tail is white and lined above with plumbeous black that extends forward upon rump. Pelage is darker in winter than summer. Subspecies tiburonensis tends to be smaller, with a total length of 500-610 mm. Ears might be more than 210 mm long and more than 100 mm wide, which adds ¢.25% to total surface area of body. Ears are used to dissipate heat in desert climates. Body temperature of the Antelope Jackrabbit averages 37-9°C at ambient temperatures of 3°-25°C. At higher ambient temperatures, body temperature increases as ambient temperature increases and reaches 40-3°C at an ambient temperature of 39°C. Rectal glands secrete orange colored, with a strong musky odor. Their function is unknown, but an individual probably leaves a record in its shelter form or wherever it pauses to sit.Habitat.Various habitats from sea level (Sonora, Mexico) to elevations of c.1500 m (southern Arizona). In Arizona, Antelope Jackrabbits favored habitats on slopes at moderate elevations where grasses, mesquites (Prosopis), and catclaws (Acacia), both Fabaceae, are abundant. They also live in desert habitat with little grass, hilly country among scattered oaks (Quercus, Fagaceae) and junipers (Juniperus, Cupressaceae), and stabilized sand dunes. In Mexico, Antelope Jackrabbits occur in low and open grasslands, open grassy foothill with patches of low bushes, and arid and desert plains. Shelter forms include backing up under clumps of vegetation, a sitting place beside a cactus or mesquite trunk with no shade and no digging or scratching having been made, or a dug out depression in the soil. Antelope Jackrabbits always seek shade in shelter forms during hot seasons. Where the Antelope Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) occur sympatrically, they often sit together under the same bush or runaway side by side. The Antelope Jackrabbit is more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations; the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and on barren chaparral desert.Food and Feeding.The Antelope Jackrabbit feeds primarily on green grass (45%), mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, 36%), and succulent cacti (7-8%). Of all cacti species available to it, it forages most on pulps and pods of Opuntiaengelmanni (Cactaceae). Diet varies with alternating dry and rainy seasons: cacti are increasingly consumed during dry seasons, and grasses are favored after the rainy seasons. The Antelope Jackrabbit seeks minerals by digging and biting soil. There is no evidence that the Antelope Jackrabbit requires free water. Insulation and reflectance of pelage reduce water loss. Seeking shade reduces heat load and waterloss.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Antelope Jackrabbit extends from late December through September, with pronounced peaks in spring and mid-summer. Mating is promiscuous. Males fight by rearing up on hindfeet and hitting each other vigorously and with great rapidity for several seconds. The silent fight usually ends with the victor pursuing the vanquished. Two copulations in the field have been observed. In one instance, a preceding chase and vigorous combat accompanied by continuous growling took place, and in the other instance, the female chased the male a few meters, uttering a growl or grunt after copulation. Gestation is c.6 weeks. Litters average 1-9 young (range 1-6 young). A female has 3—4 litters/year. Percentages of females pregnant and litter size correlate with rainfall. The female gives birth to precocial young in a nest below ground and lined with her fur. Neonates do not show characteristic white rumps, but one 19day-old young had a white rump. The mother returns at night to nurse her young. Length of parental care is short, and young become independent in a matter of days. Young are slightly darker than adults. Breeding age of Antelope Jackrabbits is attained during the second year of life under favorable conditions. Adult sex composition in one population was 47-5% males and 52-5% females.Activity patterns.The Antelope Jackrabbit is nocturnal and crepuscular, but diurnal activity is commonly recorded. Shelter forms are used for resting during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Antelope Jackrabbit might be the fastest species of Lepus, with running speeds of up to 72 km/h. It leaps over bushes higher than 1 m and fences higher than 1-5 m with little change in stride. One leap of 7 m was recorded. When Antelope Jackrabbits start to run, they make 4-5 long hops on their hindlegs alone, like a kangaroo, and then revert to usual locomotion. When threatened by a predator, they flash their white areas on their rumps and sides by pulling up skin by special muscles. Where food and shelter are separated, daily movements occur. Trips of 16 km from desert to feed on alfalfa have been recorded. Average home range size is 642-8 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The insular subspecies tiburonensis is endemic and rare and is currently granted “special protection” under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 because it is an insular and endemic species. The Antelope Jackrabbit is widespread, with a stable population. Declines in southern Arizona have been reported. The Antelope Jackrabbit has almost disappeared due to rabbit plague near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, although it was once rather common. Expanding agriculture and resulting habitat alteration and overgrazing by livestock are threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit. Overgrazing by livestock favors the Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Additional threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit are hunting, human perturbations, predation by introduced species, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires.Bibliography.Allen (1906a), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008h), Angermann (2016), Armstrong & Jones (1971), Best & Henry (1993a), Brown & Krausman (2003), Burt (1938), Chapman et al. (1983), Claire (1978), Dawson & Schmidt-Nielsen (1966), Dice & Blossom (1937), Dixon et al. (1983), Doutt (1934), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Garland (1983), Ghobrial & Nour (1975), Goldman (1951), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Howell (1944), Huey (1942), Lange (1960), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1890), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965), Simmons (1966), Swarth (1929), Swihart (1986), Vorhies (1921)." -03822308B76EFFD0FF6BFB07F8A1F099,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,148,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76EFFD0FF6BFB07F8A1F099.xml,Lepus sinensis,Lepus,sinensis,Gray,1832,Lievre de Chine @fr | China-Hase @de | Liebre de China @es,"Lepus sinensis Gray, 1832, “China.”Restricted by G. M. Allen in 1938 to “more orless in the region of Canton,” Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand allied with L. hainanusand L. brachywrus. Formerly, L. sinensisincluded L. coreanusas a subspecies. All these relationships have not been supported by genetic analysis. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few exterior characteristics and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","L.s.sinensisGray,1832—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver.L.s.formosusThomas,1908—Taiwan.L. s. Province (yuenshanensis China). Shih, 1930— HunanTaxonomic status of the Chinese Hare in NE Vietnam has to be determined.","Head-body 350-450 mm, tail 40-57 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 81-111 mm; weight 1.1-9 kg.The Chinese Hare is small, with short ears and short, straight, and coarse hair. Its general appearance is rather uniform butrich in color. Dorsal, head, and chest furis chestnut and rufous. Ventral pelage is paler, and tail is brown. Ears have black triangular tips. Pelage color varies seasonally, with yellowish tone in winter.","Edges of grassland habitats and scrubby vegetation in hills but not in rice fields. In Taiwan, Chinese Hares are a minor pest of forestry, and they occur in bamboo habitats up to elevations of 4000-5000 m.","Diet of the Chinese Hare consists ofleafy vegetation, green shoots, and twigs.","Reproductive season of the Chinese Hare occurs in April-August. Females give birth in burrows. Young are precocial, and littersize averages three young.",The Chinese Hare is nocturnal but can also be active during the day.,"The Chinese Hares use burrows made by other animals, and they piles fecal pellets outside entrances.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Chinese Hare is also listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas; however, more data are needed to determine population status and current distribution. It is hunted locally for subsistence and sold in markets. Increasing agriculture may isolate populations of Chinese Hares. Populations in Vietnam are thought to be very small, with last confirmed records from the 1990s. Recent surveys did not find Chinese Hares in Vietnam. Major threats to Chinese Hares in Vietnam are habitat loss and hunting.",Allen (1938) | Angermann (2016) | Corbet (1978) | Dao Van Tien (1978) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (20080) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005),,"63.Chinese HareLepus sinensisFrench:Lievre de Chine/ German:China-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de ChinaTaxonomy.Lepus sinensis Gray, 1832, “China.”Restricted by G. M. Allen in 1938 to “more orless in the region of Canton,” Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand allied with L. hainanusand L. brachywrus. Formerly, L. sinensisincluded L. coreanusas a subspecies. All these relationships have not been supported by genetic analysis. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few exterior characteristics and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.s.sinensisGray,1832—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver.L.s.formosusThomas,1908—Taiwan.L. s. Province (yuenshanensis China). Shih, 1930— HunanTaxonomic status of the Chinese Hare in NE Vietnam has to be determined.Descriptive notes.Head-body 350-450 mm, tail 40-57 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 81-111 mm; weight 1.1-9 kg.The Chinese Hare is small, with short ears and short, straight, and coarse hair. Its general appearance is rather uniform butrich in color. Dorsal, head, and chest furis chestnut and rufous. Ventral pelage is paler, and tail is brown. Ears have black triangular tips. Pelage color varies seasonally, with yellowish tone in winter.Habitat.Edges of grassland habitats and scrubby vegetation in hills but not in rice fields. In Taiwan, Chinese Hares are a minor pest of forestry, and they occur in bamboo habitats up to elevations of 4000-5000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Chinese Hare consists ofleafy vegetation, green shoots, and twigs.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Chinese Hare occurs in April-August. Females give birth in burrows. Young are precocial, and littersize averages three young.Activity patterns.The Chinese Hare is nocturnal but can also be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Chinese Hares use burrows made by other animals, and they piles fecal pellets outside entrances.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Chinese Hare is also listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas; however, more data are needed to determine population status and current distribution. It is hunted locally for subsistence and sold in markets. Increasing agriculture may isolate populations of Chinese Hares. Populations in Vietnam are thought to be very small, with last confirmed records from the 1990s. Recent surveys did not find Chinese Hares in Vietnam. Major threats to Chinese Hares in Vietnam are habitat loss and hunting.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Angermann (2016), Corbet (1978), Dao Van Tien (1978), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (20080), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." +03822308B767FFD8FAF6F8A1FE10FDCD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B767FFD8FAF6F8A1FE10FDCD.xml,Lepus callotis,Lepus,callotis,Wagler,1830,Lievre du Mexique @fr | \Weil3flankenhase @de | Liebre de flancos blancos @es | Beautiful-eared Jackrabbit @en | Gaillard Jackrabbit @en | Snow Sides @en,"Lepus callotis Wagler, 1830, “Mexico.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to the “southern end of the Mexican Tableland.”Morphological characteristics showed only partial separation between Mexican subspecies of L. callotisand L. californicus, whereas nearly complete separation between L. callotisand L. flavigulariswas apparent. A recent molecular phylogenetic study supports another theory suggesting that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new linage. From original stock (L. callotis), one population was isolated in western coastal plains (L. allen?) and a second population became isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Distribution of L. callotisis allopatric with L. allenito which it is probably related, parapatric with L. flavigularis, and sympatric with Sylvilagus cunicularius. This species and L. californicusare only sympatric in marginal habitats because they typically occupy different habitat types. Two subspecies recognized.","L.c.callotisWagler,1830—CMexico(continuousdistributionfromEDurango,SoftheRioNazas,toNGuerreroandNWOaxaca).L. c. gaillardi Mearns, 1896— SW USA (extreme SW New Mexico) and discontinuously in NC Mexico (NW Chihuaha, SC Chihuahua, and NC Durango N of the Rio Nazas).","Head—body 430-600 mm, tail 47-92 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 118-141 mm; weight 1.5-3.2 kg. The White-sided Jackrabbit is medium-sized, with relatively short hindfeet and long ears. Dorsal pelage is pale ocherous cinnamon, mixed with black. Sides, rump, thighs, limbs, and ventral fur are white. Rump is divided by black medial line. Gular patch is bufty, becoming ocherous on fronts of shoulders and sides of neck. Head is cream-buff, mixed with black, and eye rings are whitish. Nape is ocherous buff. Ears are scantily covered with short hairs but are almost bare at their concave surfaces. Tail is white below and black above. Female White-sided Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Geographical variation in pelage color exists, with paler individuals in Chihuahua. The two subspecies also vary in pelage color: callotishas blackish tint and black nape patch, and gaillardi has pale buff tint and brown nape. White-sided Jackrabbits molt twice a year.On following pages: 51. Tehuantepec Jackrabbit (Lepus flavigularis); 52. Iberian Hare (Lepus granatensis); 53. European Hare (Lepus europaeus); 54. Broom Hare (Lepus castroviejoi); 55. Corsican Hare (Lepus corsicanus); 56. White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii); 57. Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus); 58. Alaskan Hare (Lepus othus); 59. Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus); 60. Japanese Hare (Lepus brachyurus); 61. Manchurian Hare (Lepusmandshuricus); 62. Korean Hare Lepus coreanus); 63. Chinese Hare (Lepus sinensis).","Grassy open plains with little shrub cover and desert-grassland of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica, Poaceae). White-sided Jackrabbits avoid hilly areas. A study showed that 97-1% of occupied habitat was grassland, and remaining non-grass habitat was adjacent to large expenses of grassland habitat. The White-sided Jackrabbitis an animal of open grassland, whereas the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) inhabits vegetation where forbs and shrubs are dominant, so overgrazing and grassland deterioration favorsthe latter species and reducesdistribution of the former. White-sidedJackrabbits occur at elevations of 1350-2100 m in north-western Chihuahua, ¢.2550 m in northern Puebla, and ¢.750 m in Morelos.","Diets of White-sided Jackrabbits typically contain more than 99% grass. Plants eaten were true grasses (Poaceae) such as buffalograss (Boutelouadactyloides), tobosa grass, wolftail (Lycurus sp.), blue grama (B. gracilis), and vine mesquite (Panicumobtusum) and sedge nutgrass (Cyperusrotundus, Cyperaceae), ring muhly (Muhlenbergiatorreyi), and fiddleneck (Amsinckia sp., Boraginaceae), woolly Indian wheat (Plantagopurshii, Plantaginaceae), and Wright buckwheat (Eriogonumwrightii, Polygonaceae). The White-sided Jackrabbit uses its forepaws to excavate bulbous tubers of young nutgrass (C. rotundus) in the dry season.","Reproductive season of the White-sidedJackrabbit minimally lasts from mid-April to mid-August but may extend from mid-March until mid-October. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 2-2 young. Females can produce at least three litters per year. Newborns have soft and woolly fur and are typically born in burrows.","Most activity of the White-sided Jackrabbit occurred between 22:00 h and 05:00 h in New Mexico, whereas it was usually seen in the early morning or at dusk in Zacatecas, Mexico. Cloud cover, precipitation, and wind limited activities, but temperature had little effect.","When predators alarm Whitesided Jackrabbits, they alternately flash their white sides while running away or leap straight upward while extending their hindlegs and flashing their white sides. They construct and use shelter forms that are predominantly located in dense stands of clumped tabosa grass. Occasionally but rarely, underground shelters are used. Home ranges of White-sided Jackrabbits overlap, and individuals will move at least 1-6 km to feed. White-sided Jackrabbits usually occur in male-female pairs. This pair bond is most evident during the reproductive season. The male defends the pair from intruding males. It is suggested that pair bonding keeps sexes together during the breeding season because densities are low. White-sided Jackrabbits use three types of vocalization. One is an alarm or fear reaction and consists of a high-pitched scream. The second are harsh grunts produced by the male of a pair to chase away an intruding male. The third is a trilling grunt emitted by an animal of unknown sex during a sexual chase.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The White-sided Jackrabbit is widespread but has been reported as rare throughoutits distribution. Information is lacking regarding current population status in Mexico—the main part of its distribution. Population declines have been reported in New Mexico and Durango, Mexico. A major threat to the White-sided Jackrabbit is the loss of grassland habitat due to an increase of livestock grazing, which provides better habitat for the highly adaptable Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Prospects for survival of the White-sided Jackrabbit in many parts of its distribution are poor. Additional threats are hunting for local subsistence, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. A model generated for predicted climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% reduction of the current distribution of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Its distribution in the USA is restricted to two valleys of only c.120 km? in southern Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and it has been listed as threatened by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. More data are needed on population status of the White-sided Jackrabbit.","AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008i) | Anderson (1972) | Anderson & Gaunt (1962) | Angermann (2016) | Baker (1977) | Baker & Greer (1962) | Bednarz & Cook (1984) | Best & Henry (1993b) | Bogan & Jones (1975) | Dalguest (1953) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1953) | Desmond (2004) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Findley (1987) | Findley & Claire (1977) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Goldman & Moore (1945) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mearns (1896b) | Nelson (1909) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625653/files/figure.png,"50.White-sided JackrabbitLepus callotisFrench:Lievre du Mexique/ German:\Weil3flankenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de flancos blancosOther common names:Beautiful-eared Jackrabbit, Gaillard Jackrabbit, Snow SidesTaxonomy.Lepus callotis Wagler, 1830, “Mexico.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to the “southern end of the Mexican Tableland.”Morphological characteristics showed only partial separation between Mexican subspecies of L. callotisand L. californicus, whereas nearly complete separation between L. callotisand L. flavigulariswas apparent. A recent molecular phylogenetic study supports another theory suggesting that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new linage. From original stock (L. callotis), one population was isolated in western coastal plains (L. allen?) and a second population became isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Distribution of L. callotisis allopatric with L. allenito which it is probably related, parapatric with L. flavigularis, and sympatric with Sylvilagus cunicularius. This species and L. californicusare only sympatric in marginal habitats because they typically occupy different habitat types. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.c.callotisWagler,1830—CMexico(continuousdistributionfromEDurango,SoftheRioNazas,toNGuerreroandNWOaxaca).L. c. gaillardi Mearns, 1896— SW USA (extreme SW New Mexico) and discontinuously in NC Mexico (NW Chihuaha, SC Chihuahua, and NC Durango N of the Rio Nazas).Descriptive notes.Head—body 430-600 mm, tail 47-92 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 118-141 mm; weight 1.5-3.2 kg. The White-sided Jackrabbit is medium-sized, with relatively short hindfeet and long ears. Dorsal pelage is pale ocherous cinnamon, mixed with black. Sides, rump, thighs, limbs, and ventral fur are white. Rump is divided by black medial line. Gular patch is bufty, becoming ocherous on fronts of shoulders and sides of neck. Head is cream-buff, mixed with black, and eye rings are whitish. Nape is ocherous buff. Ears are scantily covered with short hairs but are almost bare at their concave surfaces. Tail is white below and black above. Female White-sided Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Geographical variation in pelage color exists, with paler individuals in Chihuahua. The two subspecies also vary in pelage color: callotishas blackish tint and black nape patch, and gaillardi has pale buff tint and brown nape. White-sided Jackrabbits molt twice a year.On following pages: 51. Tehuantepec Jackrabbit (Lepus flavigularis); 52. Iberian Hare (Lepus granatensis); 53. European Hare (Lepus europaeus); 54. Broom Hare (Lepus castroviejoi); 55. Corsican Hare (Lepus corsicanus); 56. White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii); 57. Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus); 58. Alaskan Hare (Lepus othus); 59. Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus); 60. Japanese Hare (Lepus brachyurus); 61. Manchurian Hare (Lepusmandshuricus); 62. Korean Hare Lepus coreanus); 63. Chinese Hare (Lepus sinensis).Habitat.Grassy open plains with little shrub cover and desert-grassland of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica, Poaceae). White-sided Jackrabbits avoid hilly areas. A study showed that 97-1% of occupied habitat was grassland, and remaining non-grass habitat was adjacent to large expenses of grassland habitat. The White-sided Jackrabbitis an animal of open grassland, whereas the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) inhabits vegetation where forbs and shrubs are dominant, so overgrazing and grassland deterioration favorsthe latter species and reducesdistribution of the former. White-sidedJackrabbits occur at elevations of 1350-2100 m in north-western Chihuahua, ¢.2550 m in northern Puebla, and ¢.750 m in Morelos.Food and Feeding.Diets of White-sided Jackrabbits typically contain more than 99% grass. Plants eaten were true grasses (Poaceae) such as buffalograss (Boutelouadactyloides), tobosa grass, wolftail (Lycurus sp.), blue grama (B. gracilis), and vine mesquite (Panicumobtusum) and sedge nutgrass (Cyperusrotundus, Cyperaceae), ring muhly (Muhlenbergiatorreyi), and fiddleneck (Amsinckia sp., Boraginaceae), woolly Indian wheat (Plantagopurshii, Plantaginaceae), and Wright buckwheat (Eriogonumwrightii, Polygonaceae). The White-sided Jackrabbit uses its forepaws to excavate bulbous tubers of young nutgrass (C. rotundus) in the dry season.Breeding.Reproductive season of the White-sidedJackrabbit minimally lasts from mid-April to mid-August but may extend from mid-March until mid-October. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 2-2 young. Females can produce at least three litters per year. Newborns have soft and woolly fur and are typically born in burrows.Activity patterns.Most activity of the White-sided Jackrabbit occurred between 22:00 h and 05:00 h in New Mexico, whereas it was usually seen in the early morning or at dusk in Zacatecas, Mexico. Cloud cover, precipitation, and wind limited activities, but temperature had little effect.Movements, Home range and Social organization.When predators alarm Whitesided Jackrabbits, they alternately flash their white sides while running away or leap straight upward while extending their hindlegs and flashing their white sides. They construct and use shelter forms that are predominantly located in dense stands of clumped tabosa grass. Occasionally but rarely, underground shelters are used. Home ranges of White-sided Jackrabbits overlap, and individuals will move at least 1-6 km to feed. White-sided Jackrabbits usually occur in male-female pairs. This pair bond is most evident during the reproductive season. The male defends the pair from intruding males. It is suggested that pair bonding keeps sexes together during the breeding season because densities are low. White-sided Jackrabbits use three types of vocalization. One is an alarm or fear reaction and consists of a high-pitched scream. The second are harsh grunts produced by the male of a pair to chase away an intruding male. The third is a trilling grunt emitted by an animal of unknown sex during a sexual chase.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The White-sided Jackrabbit is widespread but has been reported as rare throughoutits distribution. Information is lacking regarding current population status in Mexico—the main part of its distribution. Population declines have been reported in New Mexico and Durango, Mexico. A major threat to the White-sided Jackrabbit is the loss of grassland habitat due to an increase of livestock grazing, which provides better habitat for the highly adaptable Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Prospects for survival of the White-sided Jackrabbit in many parts of its distribution are poor. Additional threats are hunting for local subsistence, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. A model generated for predicted climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% reduction of the current distribution of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Its distribution in the USA is restricted to two valleys of only c.120 km? in southern Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and it has been listed as threatened by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. More data are needed on population status of the White-sided Jackrabbit.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008i), Anderson (1972), Anderson & Gaunt (1962), Angermann (2016), Baker (1977), Baker & Greer (1962), Bednarz & Cook (1984), Best & Henry (1993b), Bogan & Jones (1975), Dalguest (1953), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1953), Desmond (2004), Dixon et al. (1983), Dunn et al. (1982), Findley (1987), Findley & Claire (1977), Flux & Angermann (1990), Goldman & Moore (1945), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister (1986), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1896b), Nelson (1909), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010)." +03822308B767FFD9FFCBFEA0F693F08E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B767FFD9FFCBFEA0F693F08E.xml,Lepus alleni,Lepus,alleni,Mearns,1890,Lievre d Allen @fr | Antilopenhase @de | Liebre antilope @es | Allen's Hare @en | Allen's Jackrabbit @en | Blanket Jak @en | Burro Jack @en | Jackass Rabbit @en | Mexican Jackrabbit @en | Saddle Jack @en | Wandering Jackrabbit @en,"Lepus alleni Mearns, 1890, “Rillito Station [Pima Co.], Arizona,” USA.A recent molecular phylogenetic study based on mtDNA suggests that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new lineage. From the original stock (L. callotis), one population wasisolated in western coastal plains (L. allent) and a second isolated population was isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). Taxonomical analysis of cranial characteristics of subspecies revealed no differences. Insular subspecies might not be distinct from mainland subspecies. In southern Arizona, L. alleniand L. californicusoccur sympatrically. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","L.a.alleniMearns,1890—SCArizona(SWUSA)andC&WSonora(NWMexico).L.a.palitansBangs,1900—SSonora,Sinaloa,extremeSWChihuahua,andNWNayarit(WMexico).L. a. tiburonensis Townsend, 1912— Tiburon I in the Gulf of California, Sonora (NW Mexico).","Head-body 550-670 mm, tail 48-76 mm, ear 140-170 mm, hindfoot 127-150 mm; weight 2:7.4-5 kg. The Antelope Jackrabbit has exceptionally large, whitish ears that are nearly naked except for long fringes of white hair on edges. Head has whitish and fulvous tint, mixed with black. Eye rings are white. Dorsal pelage is yellowish brown, mixed with black. Nape is plumbeous. Sides, hips, and rump are pale gray. Ventral pelage, chin, and throat are white. Chest is fulvous, and this color extends backward on lower part of neck. Tail is white and lined above with plumbeous black that extends forward upon rump. Pelage is darker in winter than summer. Subspecies tiburonensis tends to be smaller, with a total length of 500-610 mm. Ears might be more than 210 mm long and more than 100 mm wide, which adds ¢.25% to total surface area of body. Ears are used to dissipate heat in desert climates. Body temperature of the Antelope Jackrabbit averages 37-9°C at ambient temperatures of 3°-25°C. At higher ambient temperatures, body temperature increases as ambient temperature increases and reaches 40-3°C at an ambient temperature of 39°C. Rectal glands secrete orange colored, with a strong musky odor. Their function is unknown, but an individual probably leaves a record in its shelter form or wherever it pauses to sit.","Various habitats from sea level (Sonora, Mexico) to elevations of c.1500 m (southern Arizona). In Arizona, Antelope Jackrabbits favored habitats on slopes at moderate elevations where grasses, mesquites (Prosopis), and catclaws (Acacia), both Fabaceae, are abundant. They also live in desert habitat with little grass, hilly country among scattered oaks (Quercus, Fagaceae) and junipers (Juniperus, Cupressaceae), and stabilized sand dunes. In Mexico, Antelope Jackrabbits occur in low and open grasslands, open grassy foothill with patches of low bushes, and arid and desert plains. Shelter forms include backing up under clumps of vegetation, a sitting place beside a cactus or mesquite trunk with no shade and no digging or scratching having been made, or a dug out depression in the soil. Antelope Jackrabbits always seek shade in shelter forms during hot seasons. Where the Antelope Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) occur sympatrically, they often sit together under the same bush or runaway side by side. The Antelope Jackrabbit is more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations; the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and on barren chaparral desert.","The Antelope Jackrabbit feeds primarily on green grass (45%), mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, 36%), and succulent cacti (7-8%). Of all cacti species available to it, it forages most on pulps and pods of Opuntiaengelmanni (Cactaceae). Diet varies with alternating dry and rainy seasons: cacti are increasingly consumed during dry seasons, and grasses are favored after the rainy seasons. The Antelope Jackrabbit seeks minerals by digging and biting soil. There is no evidence that the Antelope Jackrabbit requires free water. Insulation and reflectance of pelage reduce water loss. Seeking shade reduces heat load and waterloss.","Reproductive season of the Antelope Jackrabbit extends from late December through September, with pronounced peaks in spring and mid-summer. Mating is promiscuous. Males fight by rearing up on hindfeet and hitting each other vigorously and with great rapidity for several seconds. The silent fight usually ends with the victor pursuing the vanquished. Two copulations in the field have been observed. In one instance, a preceding chase and vigorous combat accompanied by continuous growling took place, and in the other instance, the female chased the male a few meters, uttering a growl or grunt after copulation. Gestation is c.6 weeks. Litters average 1-9 young (range 1-6 young). A female has 3—4 litters/year. Percentages of females pregnant and litter size correlate with rainfall. The female gives birth to precocial young in a nest below ground and lined with her fur. Neonates do not show characteristic white rumps, but one 19day-old young had a white rump. The mother returns at night to nurse her young. Length of parental care is short, and young become independent in a matter of days. Young are slightly darker than adults. Breeding age of Antelope Jackrabbits is attained during the second year of life under favorable conditions. Adult sex composition in one population was 47-5% males and 52-5% females.","The Antelope Jackrabbit is nocturnal and crepuscular, but diurnal activity is commonly recorded. Shelter forms are used for resting during the day.","The Antelope Jackrabbit might be the fastest species of Lepus, with running speeds of up to 72 km/h. It leaps over bushes higher than 1 m and fences higher than 1-5 m with little change in stride. One leap of 7 m was recorded. When Antelope Jackrabbits start to run, they make 4-5 long hops on their hindlegs alone, like a kangaroo, and then revert to usual locomotion. When threatened by a predator, they flash their white areas on their rumps and sides by pulling up skin by special muscles. Where food and shelter are separated, daily movements occur. Trips of 16 km from desert to feed on alfalfa have been recorded. Average home range size is 642-8 ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The insular subspecies tiburonensis is endemic and rare and is currently granted “special protection” under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 because it is an insular and endemic species. The Antelope Jackrabbit is widespread, with a stable population. Declines in southern Arizona have been reported. The Antelope Jackrabbit has almost disappeared due to rabbit plague near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, although it was once rather common. Expanding agriculture and resulting habitat alteration and overgrazing by livestock are threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit. Overgrazing by livestock favors the Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Additional threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit are hunting, human perturbations, predation by introduced species, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires.","Allen (1906a) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008h) | Angermann (2016) | Armstrong & Jones (1971) | Best & Henry (1993a) | Brown & Krausman (2003) | Burt (1938) | Chapman et al. (1983) | Claire (1978) | Dawson & Schmidt-Nielsen (1966) | Dice & Blossom (1937) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Doutt (1934) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Garland (1983) | Ghobrial & Nour (1975) | Goldman (1951) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Howell (1944) | Huey (1942) | Lange (1960) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mearns (1890) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965) | Simmons (1966) | Swarth (1929) | Swihart (1986) | Vorhies (1921)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625651/files/figure.png,"49.Antelope JackrabbitLepus alleniFrench:Lievre dAllen/ German:Antilopenhase/ Spanish:Liebre antilopeOther common names:Allen's Hare, Allen's Jackrabbit, Blanket Jak, Burro Jack, Jackass Rabbit, Mexican Jackrabbit, Saddle Jack, Wandering JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus alleni Mearns, 1890, “Rillito Station [Pima Co.], Arizona,” USA.A recent molecular phylogenetic study based on mtDNA suggests that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new lineage. From the original stock (L. callotis), one population wasisolated in western coastal plains (L. allent) and a second isolated population was isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). Taxonomical analysis of cranial characteristics of subspecies revealed no differences. Insular subspecies might not be distinct from mainland subspecies. In southern Arizona, L. alleniand L. californicusoccur sympatrically. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.alleniMearns,1890—SCArizona(SWUSA)andC&WSonora(NWMexico).L.a.palitansBangs,1900—SSonora,Sinaloa,extremeSWChihuahua,andNWNayarit(WMexico).L. a. tiburonensis Townsend, 1912— Tiburon I in the Gulf of California, Sonora (NW Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 550-670 mm, tail 48-76 mm, ear 140-170 mm, hindfoot 127-150 mm; weight 2:7.4-5 kg. The Antelope Jackrabbit has exceptionally large, whitish ears that are nearly naked except for long fringes of white hair on edges. Head has whitish and fulvous tint, mixed with black. Eye rings are white. Dorsal pelage is yellowish brown, mixed with black. Nape is plumbeous. Sides, hips, and rump are pale gray. Ventral pelage, chin, and throat are white. Chest is fulvous, and this color extends backward on lower part of neck. Tail is white and lined above with plumbeous black that extends forward upon rump. Pelage is darker in winter than summer. Subspecies tiburonensis tends to be smaller, with a total length of 500-610 mm. Ears might be more than 210 mm long and more than 100 mm wide, which adds ¢.25% to total surface area of body. Ears are used to dissipate heat in desert climates. Body temperature of the Antelope Jackrabbit averages 37-9°C at ambient temperatures of 3°-25°C. At higher ambient temperatures, body temperature increases as ambient temperature increases and reaches 40-3°C at an ambient temperature of 39°C. Rectal glands secrete orange colored, with a strong musky odor. Their function is unknown, but an individual probably leaves a record in its shelter form or wherever it pauses to sit.Habitat.Various habitats from sea level (Sonora, Mexico) to elevations of c.1500 m (southern Arizona). In Arizona, Antelope Jackrabbits favored habitats on slopes at moderate elevations where grasses, mesquites (Prosopis), and catclaws (Acacia), both Fabaceae, are abundant. They also live in desert habitat with little grass, hilly country among scattered oaks (Quercus, Fagaceae) and junipers (Juniperus, Cupressaceae), and stabilized sand dunes. In Mexico, Antelope Jackrabbits occur in low and open grasslands, open grassy foothill with patches of low bushes, and arid and desert plains. Shelter forms include backing up under clumps of vegetation, a sitting place beside a cactus or mesquite trunk with no shade and no digging or scratching having been made, or a dug out depression in the soil. Antelope Jackrabbits always seek shade in shelter forms during hot seasons. Where the Antelope Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) occur sympatrically, they often sit together under the same bush or runaway side by side. The Antelope Jackrabbit is more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations; the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and on barren chaparral desert.Food and Feeding.The Antelope Jackrabbit feeds primarily on green grass (45%), mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, 36%), and succulent cacti (7-8%). Of all cacti species available to it, it forages most on pulps and pods of Opuntiaengelmanni (Cactaceae). Diet varies with alternating dry and rainy seasons: cacti are increasingly consumed during dry seasons, and grasses are favored after the rainy seasons. The Antelope Jackrabbit seeks minerals by digging and biting soil. There is no evidence that the Antelope Jackrabbit requires free water. Insulation and reflectance of pelage reduce water loss. Seeking shade reduces heat load and waterloss.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Antelope Jackrabbit extends from late December through September, with pronounced peaks in spring and mid-summer. Mating is promiscuous. Males fight by rearing up on hindfeet and hitting each other vigorously and with great rapidity for several seconds. The silent fight usually ends with the victor pursuing the vanquished. Two copulations in the field have been observed. In one instance, a preceding chase and vigorous combat accompanied by continuous growling took place, and in the other instance, the female chased the male a few meters, uttering a growl or grunt after copulation. Gestation is c.6 weeks. Litters average 1-9 young (range 1-6 young). A female has 3—4 litters/year. Percentages of females pregnant and litter size correlate with rainfall. The female gives birth to precocial young in a nest below ground and lined with her fur. Neonates do not show characteristic white rumps, but one 19day-old young had a white rump. The mother returns at night to nurse her young. Length of parental care is short, and young become independent in a matter of days. Young are slightly darker than adults. Breeding age of Antelope Jackrabbits is attained during the second year of life under favorable conditions. Adult sex composition in one population was 47-5% males and 52-5% females.Activity patterns.The Antelope Jackrabbit is nocturnal and crepuscular, but diurnal activity is commonly recorded. Shelter forms are used for resting during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Antelope Jackrabbit might be the fastest species of Lepus, with running speeds of up to 72 km/h. It leaps over bushes higher than 1 m and fences higher than 1-5 m with little change in stride. One leap of 7 m was recorded. When Antelope Jackrabbits start to run, they make 4-5 long hops on their hindlegs alone, like a kangaroo, and then revert to usual locomotion. When threatened by a predator, they flash their white areas on their rumps and sides by pulling up skin by special muscles. Where food and shelter are separated, daily movements occur. Trips of 16 km from desert to feed on alfalfa have been recorded. Average home range size is 642-8 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The insular subspecies tiburonensis is endemic and rare and is currently granted “special protection” under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 because it is an insular and endemic species. The Antelope Jackrabbit is widespread, with a stable population. Declines in southern Arizona have been reported. The Antelope Jackrabbit has almost disappeared due to rabbit plague near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, although it was once rather common. Expanding agriculture and resulting habitat alteration and overgrazing by livestock are threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit. Overgrazing by livestock favors the Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Additional threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit are hunting, human perturbations, predation by introduced species, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires.Bibliography.Allen (1906a), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008h), Angermann (2016), Armstrong & Jones (1971), Best & Henry (1993a), Brown & Krausman (2003), Burt (1938), Chapman et al. (1983), Claire (1978), Dawson & Schmidt-Nielsen (1966), Dice & Blossom (1937), Dixon et al. (1983), Doutt (1934), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Garland (1983), Ghobrial & Nour (1975), Goldman (1951), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Howell (1944), Huey (1942), Lange (1960), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1890), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965), Simmons (1966), Swarth (1929), Swihart (1986), Vorhies (1921)." +03822308B76EFFD0FF6BFB07F8A1F099,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,148,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76EFFD0FF6BFB07F8A1F099.xml,Lepus sinensis,Lepus,sinensis,Gray,1832,Lievre de Chine @fr | China-Hase @de | Liebre de China @es,"Lepus sinensis Gray, 1832, “China.”Restricted by G. M. Allen in 1938 to “more orless in the region of Canton,” Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand allied with L. hainanusand L. brachywrus. Formerly, L. sinensisincluded L. coreanusas a subspecies. All these relationships have not been supported by genetic analysis. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few exterior characteristics and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","L.s.sinensisGray,1832—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver.L.s.formosusThomas,1908—Taiwan.L. s. Province (yuenshanensis China). Shih, 1930— HunanTaxonomic status of the Chinese Hare in NE Vietnam has to be determined.","Head-body 350-450 mm, tail 40-57 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 81-111 mm; weight 1.1-9 kg.The Chinese Hare is small, with short ears and short, straight, and coarse hair. Its general appearance is rather uniform butrich in color. Dorsal, head, and chest furis chestnut and rufous. Ventral pelage is paler, and tail is brown. Ears have black triangular tips. Pelage color varies seasonally, with yellowish tone in winter.","Edges of grassland habitats and scrubby vegetation in hills but not in rice fields. In Taiwan, Chinese Hares are a minor pest of forestry, and they occur in bamboo habitats up to elevations of 4000-5000 m.","Diet of the Chinese Hare consists ofleafy vegetation, green shoots, and twigs.","Reproductive season of the Chinese Hare occurs in April-August. Females give birth in burrows. Young are precocial, and littersize averages three young.",The Chinese Hare is nocturnal but can also be active during the day.,"The Chinese Hares use burrows made by other animals, and they piles fecal pellets outside entrances.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Chinese Hare is also listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas; however, more data are needed to determine population status and current distribution. It is hunted locally for subsistence and sold in markets. Increasing agriculture may isolate populations of Chinese Hares. Populations in Vietnam are thought to be very small, with last confirmed records from the 1990s. Recent surveys did not find Chinese Hares in Vietnam. Major threats to Chinese Hares in Vietnam are habitat loss and hunting.",Allen (1938) | Angermann (2016) | Corbet (1978) | Dao Van Tien (1978) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (20080) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6625689/files/figure.png,"63.Chinese HareLepus sinensisFrench:Lievre de Chine/ German:China-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de ChinaTaxonomy.Lepus sinensis Gray, 1832, “China.”Restricted by G. M. Allen in 1938 to “more orless in the region of Canton,” Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand allied with L. hainanusand L. brachywrus. Formerly, L. sinensisincluded L. coreanusas a subspecies. All these relationships have not been supported by genetic analysis. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few exterior characteristics and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.s.sinensisGray,1832—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver.L.s.formosusThomas,1908—Taiwan.L. s. Province (yuenshanensis China). Shih, 1930— HunanTaxonomic status of the Chinese Hare in NE Vietnam has to be determined.Descriptive notes.Head-body 350-450 mm, tail 40-57 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 81-111 mm; weight 1.1-9 kg.The Chinese Hare is small, with short ears and short, straight, and coarse hair. Its general appearance is rather uniform butrich in color. Dorsal, head, and chest furis chestnut and rufous. Ventral pelage is paler, and tail is brown. Ears have black triangular tips. Pelage color varies seasonally, with yellowish tone in winter.Habitat.Edges of grassland habitats and scrubby vegetation in hills but not in rice fields. In Taiwan, Chinese Hares are a minor pest of forestry, and they occur in bamboo habitats up to elevations of 4000-5000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Chinese Hare consists ofleafy vegetation, green shoots, and twigs.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Chinese Hare occurs in April-August. Females give birth in burrows. Young are precocial, and littersize averages three young.Activity patterns.The Chinese Hare is nocturnal but can also be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Chinese Hares use burrows made by other animals, and they piles fecal pellets outside entrances.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Chinese Hare is also listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas; however, more data are needed to determine population status and current distribution. It is hunted locally for subsistence and sold in markets. Increasing agriculture may isolate populations of Chinese Hares. Populations in Vietnam are thought to be very small, with last confirmed records from the 1990s. Recent surveys did not find Chinese Hares in Vietnam. Major threats to Chinese Hares in Vietnam are habitat loss and hunting.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Angermann (2016), Corbet (1978), Dao Van Tien (1978), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (20080), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." 03822308B76FFFD0FACEF48CFB77F22D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,147,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76FFFD0FACEF48CFB77F22D.xml,Lepus coreanus,Lepus,coreanus,Thomas,1892,Liévre de Corée @fr | Korea-Hase @de | Liebre de Corea @es,"Lepus coreanus Thomas, 1892, “Soul [= Seoul],” Korea.Formerly, L. coreanuswas considered a subspecies of L. sinensis, L. mandshuricus, or L. brachyurus. A phylogenetic study based exclusively on mtDNA considered L. coreanusto be L. timidus, but two other studies based on nDNA and mtDNA showed that L. coreanusis a valid species. Therefore, taxonomic status of L. coreanusstill has to be clarified. Species of Lepusfrom Jilin Province, China, might belong to L. tolai. Monotypic.",Korean Peninsula and NE China (8 Jilin); perhaps SE Heilungjiang and E Liaoning (NE China).,"Head-body 430-490 mm, tail 60-75 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 108-122 mm; weight c.1-7 kg. The Korean Hare is medium-sized, with dense and heavy fur. Dorsal fur and head are grayish yellow, with brown hair tips. Tail is light brown above and at its tip, butit is white below.",Lowland and mountainous habitats. A study conducted in South Korea indicated that abundance of Korean Hares was positively associated with percent shrub cover. Some damage to agriculture and cultivated forests has been recorded.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Korean Hare is widespread and common in Korea. There are no published records of population decline, and no threats are known. Despite lack of known risks, research regarding population status, biology, and ecology of the Korean Hare should be conducted because no data are available.",Cheng Cheng etal. (2012) | Corbet (1978) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jones & Johnson (1965) | Koh Hung-Sun & Jang Kyung-Hee (2010) | Koh Hung-Sun etal. (2001) | Rhim Shin-Jae & Lee Woo-Shin (2007) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008n) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6625687/files/figure.png,"62.Korean HareLepus coreanusFrench:Liévre de Corée/ German:Korea-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de CoreaTaxonomy.Lepus coreanus Thomas, 1892, “Soul [= Seoul],” Korea.Formerly, L. coreanuswas considered a subspecies of L. sinensis, L. mandshuricus, or L. brachyurus. A phylogenetic study based exclusively on mtDNA considered L. coreanusto be L. timidus, but two other studies based on nDNA and mtDNA showed that L. coreanusis a valid species. Therefore, taxonomic status of L. coreanusstill has to be clarified. Species of Lepusfrom Jilin Province, China, might belong to L. tolai. Monotypic.Distribution.Korean Peninsula and NE China (8 Jilin); perhaps SE Heilungjiang and E Liaoning (NE China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 430-490 mm, tail 60-75 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 108-122 mm; weight c.1-7 kg. The Korean Hare is medium-sized, with dense and heavy fur. Dorsal fur and head are grayish yellow, with brown hair tips. Tail is light brown above and at its tip, butit is white below.Habitat.Lowland and mountainous habitats. A study conducted in South Korea indicated that abundance of Korean Hares was positively associated with percent shrub cover. Some damage to agriculture and cultivated forests has been recorded.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Korean Hare is widespread and common in Korea. There are no published records of population decline, and no threats are known. Despite lack of known risks, research regarding population status, biology, and ecology of the Korean Hare should be conducted because no data are available.Bibliography.Cheng Cheng etal. (2012), Corbet (1978), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jones & Johnson (1965), Koh Hung-Sun & Jang Kyung-Hee (2010), Koh Hung-Sun etal. (2001), Rhim Shin-Jae & Lee Woo-Shin (2007), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008n), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." 03822308B76FFFD1FAF5FD27F8A6FCAD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,147,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76FFFD1FAF5FD27F8A6FCAD.xml,Lepus mandshuricus,Lepus,mandshuricus,Radde,1861,Lievre de Mandchourie @fr | Mandschurei-Hase @de | Liebre de Manchuria @es,"Lepus mandshuricus Radde, 1861, “Bureja-Gebirge [= Bureya Mountains],” Khabarovsk Krai, Russia.It has been placed in the genus Lepus, then Caprolagus, later Allolagus, and back again to Lepus. It was formerly recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. A recent genetic analysis suggests that L. mandshuricushas a close phylogenetic relationship with L. yarkandensisbut not with L. brachyurus.Melanistic individuals throughout the entire distribution of L. mandshuricuswere given the specific designation of L. melanius, but morphological examination and nDNA analysis revealed that L. melainus is a melanistic morph of L. mandshuricus. This species and L. coreanusare parapatric in their distribution in north-eastern Korea and southeastern Heilongjiang but are said to occupy different habitat types. Moreover, L. mandshuricusis sympatric with L. timidusin forests and L. tolaiin plains. Lepus tolaitends to replace L. mandshuricusin cleared forest habitats. Monotypic.","Russian Far East (Amur, Khabarovsk, Primoryie), NE China (NE Inner Mongolia = Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang,Jilin, Liaoning), and perhaps extreme NE Korea.","Head—body 410-540 mm, tail 50-80 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-145 mm; weight 1:4.2-6 kg. The Manchurian Hare has soft, long, and thick fur. Dorsal fur is grayish black to blackish brown to rust-brown, and ventral fur is whitish. Chest, flanks, and legs are cinnamon. Ears are ocherous or cinnamon-buff, and neck is dull rust-brown. Tail is blackish brown above and dull white or gray below. The Manchurian Hare has seasonal variation, with pale winter fur and white belly, and some individuals even appear to be ash-gray. Melanistic individuals are common.","Mainly mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests, particularly forests of tall Mongolian oaks (Quercusmongolica, Fagaceae) and thick undergrowth of Manchurian hazelnuts (Corylus sieboldiana var. mandshurica, Betulaceae), creepers, and vines, at elevations of 300-900 m. Hilly country with cliffs and rock outcrops is preferred. Manchurian Hares avoid open valleys, grassland, and human settlement.","The diet of the Manchurian Hare includes bark and twigs of willow, linden, maple, wild apple, birch, and elm. Manchurian Haresalso feed on various shrubs, herbs, and fallen fruits.","Reproductive season of the Manchurian Hare starts in mid-February, and young first appear in May. Littersize is usually 1-2 young but occasionally as large as 4-5 young.","Manchurian Hares are nocturnal but also active at dawn. Resting periods are spent in holes of tree trunks, and forms in open habitat are avoided.","There is no specific information for this species, but the Manchurian Hare is probably solitary, except during mating.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Manchurian Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas (e.g. Honghe, Liangshui, Huanren Laotudingzi, Baishilazi, and Sanjiang national nature reserves and Xingkaihu National Geopark). Nevertheless, population status is unknown. A threat to the Manchurian Hare is habitat loss due to forest clearing, which could allow invasion of competing Tolai Hares(L. tolaz).","Angermann (1966, 1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Ge Deyan et al. (2012) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jones & Johnson (1965) | Liu Jiang et al. (2011) | Loukashkin (1943) | Ognev (1966) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008m) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625685/files/figure.png,"61.Manchurian HareLepus mandshuricusFrench:Lievre de Mandchourie/ German:Mandschurei-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de ManchuriaTaxonomy.Lepus mandshuricus Radde, 1861, “Bureja-Gebirge [= Bureya Mountains],” Khabarovsk Krai, Russia.It has been placed in the genus Lepus, then Caprolagus, later Allolagus, and back again to Lepus. It was formerly recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. A recent genetic analysis suggests that L. mandshuricushas a close phylogenetic relationship with L. yarkandensisbut not with L. brachyurus.Melanistic individuals throughout the entire distribution of L. mandshuricuswere given the specific designation of L. melanius, but morphological examination and nDNA analysis revealed that L. melainus is a melanistic morph of L. mandshuricus. This species and L. coreanusare parapatric in their distribution in north-eastern Korea and southeastern Heilongjiang but are said to occupy different habitat types. Moreover, L. mandshuricusis sympatric with L. timidusin forests and L. tolaiin plains. Lepus tolaitends to replace L. mandshuricusin cleared forest habitats. Monotypic.Distribution.Russian Far East (Amur, Khabarovsk, Primoryie), NE China (NE Inner Mongolia = Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang,Jilin, Liaoning), and perhaps extreme NE Korea.Descriptive notes.Head—body 410-540 mm, tail 50-80 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-145 mm; weight 1:4.2-6 kg. The Manchurian Hare has soft, long, and thick fur. Dorsal fur is grayish black to blackish brown to rust-brown, and ventral fur is whitish. Chest, flanks, and legs are cinnamon. Ears are ocherous or cinnamon-buff, and neck is dull rust-brown. Tail is blackish brown above and dull white or gray below. The Manchurian Hare has seasonal variation, with pale winter fur and white belly, and some individuals even appear to be ash-gray. Melanistic individuals are common.Habitat.Mainly mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests, particularly forests of tall Mongolian oaks (Quercusmongolica, Fagaceae) and thick undergrowth of Manchurian hazelnuts (Corylus sieboldiana var. mandshurica, Betulaceae), creepers, and vines, at elevations of 300-900 m. Hilly country with cliffs and rock outcrops is preferred. Manchurian Hares avoid open valleys, grassland, and human settlement.Food and Feeding.The diet of the Manchurian Hare includes bark and twigs of willow, linden, maple, wild apple, birch, and elm. Manchurian Haresalso feed on various shrubs, herbs, and fallen fruits.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Manchurian Hare starts in mid-February, and young first appear in May. Littersize is usually 1-2 young but occasionally as large as 4-5 young.Activity patterns.Manchurian Hares are nocturnal but also active at dawn. Resting periods are spent in holes of tree trunks, and forms in open habitat are avoided.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information for this species, but the Manchurian Hare is probably solitary, except during mating.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Manchurian Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas (e.g. Honghe, Liangshui, Huanren Laotudingzi, Baishilazi, and Sanjiang national nature reserves and Xingkaihu National Geopark). Nevertheless, population status is unknown. A threat to the Manchurian Hare is habitat loss due to forest clearing, which could allow invasion of competing Tolai Hares(L. tolaz).Bibliography.Angermann (1966, 1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Ge Deyan et al. (2012), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jones & Johnson (1965), Liu Jiang et al. (2011), Loukashkin (1943), Ognev (1966), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008m), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)." -03822308B76FFFD1FFCFFC85F850F40D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,147,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76FFFD1FFCFFC85F850F40D.xml,Lepus brachyurus,Lepus,brachyurus,Temminck,1844,Liévre du Japon @fr | Japan-Hase @de | Liebre de Japon @es,"Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844, “tout I'Empire mais surtout dans I'lle de Jezo” (= Nagasaki, Kyushu, Japan).Formerly, L. brachyuruswas placed in the genus Caprolagus. Lepus mandshuricuswas recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","L.b.brachyurusTemminck,1845—PacificsideofSHonshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,andsurroundingIs(Awaji,Shodo,Goto,Amakusa,andShimokoshiki).L.b.angustidensHollister,1912—NHonshuandSonSeaofJapanside.L.b.lyoniKishida,1937—SadoI(offWHonshu,WJapan).L. b. okiensis Thomas, 1906— Oki Is (off SW Honshu, WJapan).","Head—body 490-540 mm, tail 37-41 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 132-165 mm; weight 2:4.2-7 kg. The Japanese Hare is small, with compact stature and short ears and tail. Fur is dense and soft. Pelage is umber to tawny brown, with variable amounts of white on head and legs. Chest and sides are cinnamon. Throat and ventral fur are white, occasionally with dark hair tips. Ears are dorsally white or cinnamon, with small brown-black patches at tips. Tail is darker above and lighter below than dorsal fur. Japanese Hares inhabiting north-eastern Hondos and mountain regions have white winter fur. On Oki Island, melanistic morph that does not turn white in winter despite deep snow cover may indicate relatively recent introduction of a subspecies. Color varies geographically, with several distinct color forms. A recent genetic study showed that there is no association between winter coat color and genetic population structure in the Japanese Hare.","Fields, grasslands, and open forests from lowlands to alpine zones from sea level to elevations of more than 3000 m. Most common in low montane and montane zones. Land use and agriculture in Japan have remained stable for many centuries, and 68% ofJapan is covered by forest, providing stable habitat for the Japanese Hare. It prefers young forest stands, where open canopy allows greater herbaceous production and shrubs occur with high branch and stem densities. The Japanese Hare rests in bushes, under rocks or fallen trees, or in shallow burrows that they dig themselves.","Summerdiets of theJapanese Hare mainly consist of grasses (48%), agricultural legume seeds, Stellaria(Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum(Polygonaceae), and grain. Winter diets include leaves and bark of young trees, especially Cryptomeriajaponica (Cupressaceae), Acer (Sapindaceae), Paulownia(Paulowniaceae), Acanthopanax and Aralia(both Araliaceae), and legumes. Japanese Hares cause some damage to plantation forests and fruit trees. They seem to prefer branches and stems with large amounts of protein.","Reproductive season of the Japanese Hare occurs in February—July. Young are born in April-August but mostly in May/June when litter size is largest (2-5 young). The Japanese Hare has 2-3 litters/year;litter sizes are 1-6 young, with an average of 1-9 young. Young are born in a shallow nest dug by the mother and can run around one hour after birth. Young are nursed once per night for c¢.2 minutes at about midnight. They start feeding on plants c.8 days after birth but nurse until c.1 month after birth. Females are sexually mature at c.10 months of age.","The Japanese Hare is nocturnal. In captivity, activity starts at ¢.19:00 h and ends at 07:00-08:00 h after a period of restless running. During rest, individuals often close their eyes for 1-3 minutes for ¢.20 minutes/day. They groom before and after activity.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Hare is common across most of its distribution. Total population size in Japan is unknown but shows a stable trend. There has been recent concern regarding population decline of the Japanese Hare on Sado Island where it used to be common but is now rare, presumably due to predation by introduced Japanese Martens (Martes melampus). The Japanese Hare is an important game animal with ¢.400,000-800,000 individuals harvested each year. Recommendations are to determine population trends, densities, and current distribution.","Abe, H. et al. (2005) | Abe, S. et al. (2005) | Angermann (1966, 1983, 2016) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Horino & Kuwahata (1984) | Imaizumi (1970) | Lissovsky (2016) | Nunome et al.(2014) | Otsu (1965) | Shimano et al. (2006) | Shimizu & Shimano (2010) | Tachibana et al. (1970) | Yamada & |sagi (1988) | Yamada & Smith (2008) | Yamada et al. (1988)",,"60.Japanese HareLepus brachyurusFrench:Liévre du Japon/ German:Japan-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de JaponTaxonomy.Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844, “tout I'Empire mais surtout dans I'lle de Jezo” (= Nagasaki, Kyushu, Japan).Formerly, L. brachyuruswas placed in the genus Caprolagus. Lepus mandshuricuswas recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.b.brachyurusTemminck,1845—PacificsideofSHonshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,andsurroundingIs(Awaji,Shodo,Goto,Amakusa,andShimokoshiki).L.b.angustidensHollister,1912—NHonshuandSonSeaofJapanside.L.b.lyoniKishida,1937—SadoI(offWHonshu,WJapan).L. b. okiensis Thomas, 1906— Oki Is (off SW Honshu, WJapan).Descriptive notes.Head—body 490-540 mm, tail 37-41 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 132-165 mm; weight 2:4.2-7 kg. The Japanese Hare is small, with compact stature and short ears and tail. Fur is dense and soft. Pelage is umber to tawny brown, with variable amounts of white on head and legs. Chest and sides are cinnamon. Throat and ventral fur are white, occasionally with dark hair tips. Ears are dorsally white or cinnamon, with small brown-black patches at tips. Tail is darker above and lighter below than dorsal fur. Japanese Hares inhabiting north-eastern Hondos and mountain regions have white winter fur. On Oki Island, melanistic morph that does not turn white in winter despite deep snow cover may indicate relatively recent introduction of a subspecies. Color varies geographically, with several distinct color forms. A recent genetic study showed that there is no association between winter coat color and genetic population structure in the Japanese Hare.Habitat.Fields, grasslands, and open forests from lowlands to alpine zones from sea level to elevations of more than 3000 m. Most common in low montane and montane zones. Land use and agriculture in Japan have remained stable for many centuries, and 68% ofJapan is covered by forest, providing stable habitat for the Japanese Hare. It prefers young forest stands, where open canopy allows greater herbaceous production and shrubs occur with high branch and stem densities. The Japanese Hare rests in bushes, under rocks or fallen trees, or in shallow burrows that they dig themselves.Food and Feeding.Summerdiets of theJapanese Hare mainly consist of grasses (48%), agricultural legume seeds, Stellaria(Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum(Polygonaceae), and grain. Winter diets include leaves and bark of young trees, especially Cryptomeriajaponica (Cupressaceae), Acer (Sapindaceae), Paulownia(Paulowniaceae), Acanthopanax and Aralia(both Araliaceae), and legumes. Japanese Hares cause some damage to plantation forests and fruit trees. They seem to prefer branches and stems with large amounts of protein.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Japanese Hare occurs in February—July. Young are born in April-August but mostly in May/June when litter size is largest (2-5 young). The Japanese Hare has 2-3 litters/year;litter sizes are 1-6 young, with an average of 1-9 young. Young are born in a shallow nest dug by the mother and can run around one hour after birth. Young are nursed once per night for c¢.2 minutes at about midnight. They start feeding on plants c.8 days after birth but nurse until c.1 month after birth. Females are sexually mature at c.10 months of age.Activity patterns.The Japanese Hare is nocturnal. In captivity, activity starts at ¢.19:00 h and ends at 07:00-08:00 h after a period of restless running. During rest, individuals often close their eyes for 1-3 minutes for ¢.20 minutes/day. They groom before and after activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Hare is common across most of its distribution. Total population size in Japan is unknown but shows a stable trend. There has been recent concern regarding population decline of the Japanese Hare on Sado Island where it used to be common but is now rare, presumably due to predation by introduced Japanese Martens (Martes melampus). The Japanese Hare is an important game animal with ¢.400,000-800,000 individuals harvested each year. Recommendations are to determine population trends, densities, and current distribution.Bibliography.Abe, H. et al. (2005), Abe, S. et al. (2005), Angermann (1966, 1983, 2016), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Horino & Kuwahata (1984), Imaizumi (1970), Lissovsky (2016), Nunome et al.(2014), Otsu (1965), Shimano et al. (2006), Shimizu & Shimano (2010), Tachibana et al. (1970), Yamada & |sagi (1988), Yamada & Smith (2008), Yamada et al. (1988)." +03822308B76FFFD1FFCFFC85F850F40D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e,147,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76FFFD1FFCFFC85F850F40D.xml,Lepus brachyurus,Lepus,brachyurus,Temminck,1844,Liévre du Japon @fr | Japan-Hase @de | Liebre de Japon @es,"Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844, “tout I'Empire mais surtout dans I'lle de Jezo” (= Nagasaki, Kyushu, Japan).Formerly, L. brachyuruswas placed in the genus Caprolagus. Lepus mandshuricuswas recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","L.b.brachyurusTemminck,1845—PacificsideofSHonshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,andsurroundingIs(Awaji,Shodo,Goto,Amakusa,andShimokoshiki).L.b.angustidensHollister,1912—NHonshuandSonSeaofJapanside.L.b.lyoniKishida,1937—SadoI(offWHonshu,WJapan).L. b. okiensis Thomas, 1906— Oki Is (off SW Honshu, WJapan).","Head—body 490-540 mm, tail 37-41 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 132-165 mm; weight 2:4.2-7 kg. The Japanese Hare is small, with compact stature and short ears and tail. Fur is dense and soft. Pelage is umber to tawny brown, with variable amounts of white on head and legs. Chest and sides are cinnamon. Throat and ventral fur are white, occasionally with dark hair tips. Ears are dorsally white or cinnamon, with small brown-black patches at tips. Tail is darker above and lighter below than dorsal fur. Japanese Hares inhabiting north-eastern Hondos and mountain regions have white winter fur. On Oki Island, melanistic morph that does not turn white in winter despite deep snow cover may indicate relatively recent introduction of a subspecies. Color varies geographically, with several distinct color forms. A recent genetic study showed that there is no association between winter coat color and genetic population structure in the Japanese Hare.","Fields, grasslands, and open forests from lowlands to alpine zones from sea level to elevations of more than 3000 m. Most common in low montane and montane zones. Land use and agriculture in Japan have remained stable for many centuries, and 68% ofJapan is covered by forest, providing stable habitat for the Japanese Hare. It prefers young forest stands, where open canopy allows greater herbaceous production and shrubs occur with high branch and stem densities. The Japanese Hare rests in bushes, under rocks or fallen trees, or in shallow burrows that they dig themselves.","Summerdiets of theJapanese Hare mainly consist of grasses (48%), agricultural legume seeds, Stellaria(Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum(Polygonaceae), and grain. Winter diets include leaves and bark of young trees, especially Cryptomeriajaponica (Cupressaceae), Acer (Sapindaceae), Paulownia(Paulowniaceae), Acanthopanax and Aralia(both Araliaceae), and legumes. Japanese Hares cause some damage to plantation forests and fruit trees. They seem to prefer branches and stems with large amounts of protein.","Reproductive season of the Japanese Hare occurs in February—July. Young are born in April-August but mostly in May/June when litter size is largest (2-5 young). The Japanese Hare has 2-3 litters/year;litter sizes are 1-6 young, with an average of 1-9 young. Young are born in a shallow nest dug by the mother and can run around one hour after birth. Young are nursed once per night for c¢.2 minutes at about midnight. They start feeding on plants c.8 days after birth but nurse until c.1 month after birth. Females are sexually mature at c.10 months of age.","The Japanese Hare is nocturnal. In captivity, activity starts at ¢.19:00 h and ends at 07:00-08:00 h after a period of restless running. During rest, individuals often close their eyes for 1-3 minutes for ¢.20 minutes/day. They groom before and after activity.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Hare is common across most of its distribution. Total population size in Japan is unknown but shows a stable trend. There has been recent concern regarding population decline of the Japanese Hare on Sado Island where it used to be common but is now rare, presumably due to predation by introduced Japanese Martens (Martes melampus). The Japanese Hare is an important game animal with ¢.400,000-800,000 individuals harvested each year. Recommendations are to determine population trends, densities, and current distribution.","Abe, H. et al. (2005) | Abe, S. et al. (2005) | Angermann (1966, 1983, 2016) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Horino & Kuwahata (1984) | Imaizumi (1970) | Lissovsky (2016) | Nunome et al.(2014) | Otsu (1965) | Shimano et al. (2006) | Shimizu & Shimano (2010) | Tachibana et al. (1970) | Yamada & |sagi (1988) | Yamada & Smith (2008) | Yamada et al. (1988)",https://zenodo.org/record/6625683/files/figure.png,"60.Japanese HareLepus brachyurusFrench:Liévre du Japon/ German:Japan-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de JaponTaxonomy.Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844, “tout I'Empire mais surtout dans I'lle de Jezo” (= Nagasaki, Kyushu, Japan).Formerly, L. brachyuruswas placed in the genus Caprolagus. Lepus mandshuricuswas recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.b.brachyurusTemminck,1845—PacificsideofSHonshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,andsurroundingIs(Awaji,Shodo,Goto,Amakusa,andShimokoshiki).L.b.angustidensHollister,1912—NHonshuandSonSeaofJapanside.L.b.lyoniKishida,1937—SadoI(offWHonshu,WJapan).L. b. okiensis Thomas, 1906— Oki Is (off SW Honshu, WJapan).Descriptive notes.Head—body 490-540 mm, tail 37-41 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 132-165 mm; weight 2:4.2-7 kg. The Japanese Hare is small, with compact stature and short ears and tail. Fur is dense and soft. Pelage is umber to tawny brown, with variable amounts of white on head and legs. Chest and sides are cinnamon. Throat and ventral fur are white, occasionally with dark hair tips. Ears are dorsally white or cinnamon, with small brown-black patches at tips. Tail is darker above and lighter below than dorsal fur. Japanese Hares inhabiting north-eastern Hondos and mountain regions have white winter fur. On Oki Island, melanistic morph that does not turn white in winter despite deep snow cover may indicate relatively recent introduction of a subspecies. Color varies geographically, with several distinct color forms. A recent genetic study showed that there is no association between winter coat color and genetic population structure in the Japanese Hare.Habitat.Fields, grasslands, and open forests from lowlands to alpine zones from sea level to elevations of more than 3000 m. Most common in low montane and montane zones. Land use and agriculture in Japan have remained stable for many centuries, and 68% ofJapan is covered by forest, providing stable habitat for the Japanese Hare. It prefers young forest stands, where open canopy allows greater herbaceous production and shrubs occur with high branch and stem densities. The Japanese Hare rests in bushes, under rocks or fallen trees, or in shallow burrows that they dig themselves.Food and Feeding.Summerdiets of theJapanese Hare mainly consist of grasses (48%), agricultural legume seeds, Stellaria(Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum(Polygonaceae), and grain. Winter diets include leaves and bark of young trees, especially Cryptomeriajaponica (Cupressaceae), Acer (Sapindaceae), Paulownia(Paulowniaceae), Acanthopanax and Aralia(both Araliaceae), and legumes. Japanese Hares cause some damage to plantation forests and fruit trees. They seem to prefer branches and stems with large amounts of protein.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Japanese Hare occurs in February—July. Young are born in April-August but mostly in May/June when litter size is largest (2-5 young). The Japanese Hare has 2-3 litters/year;litter sizes are 1-6 young, with an average of 1-9 young. Young are born in a shallow nest dug by the mother and can run around one hour after birth. Young are nursed once per night for c¢.2 minutes at about midnight. They start feeding on plants c.8 days after birth but nurse until c.1 month after birth. Females are sexually mature at c.10 months of age.Activity patterns.The Japanese Hare is nocturnal. In captivity, activity starts at ¢.19:00 h and ends at 07:00-08:00 h after a period of restless running. During rest, individuals often close their eyes for 1-3 minutes for ¢.20 minutes/day. They groom before and after activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Hare is common across most of its distribution. Total population size in Japan is unknown but shows a stable trend. There has been recent concern regarding population decline of the Japanese Hare on Sado Island where it used to be common but is now rare, presumably due to predation by introduced Japanese Martens (Martes melampus). The Japanese Hare is an important game animal with ¢.400,000-800,000 individuals harvested each year. Recommendations are to determine population trends, densities, and current distribution.Bibliography.Abe, H. et al. (2005), Abe, S. et al. (2005), Angermann (1966, 1983, 2016), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Horino & Kuwahata (1984), Imaizumi (1970), Lissovsky (2016), Nunome et al.(2014), Otsu (1965), Shimano et al. (2006), Shimizu & Shimano (2010), Tachibana et al. (1970), Yamada & |sagi (1988), Yamada & Smith (2008), Yamada et al. (1988)." 0383245F222097788B1EF4BAFCBDF99E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Rhinonycteridae_194.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffba5c272223977c8e73f509ffb1ffd0,205,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/83/24/0383245F222097788B1EF4BAFCBDF99E.xml,Triaenops persicus,Triaenops,persicus,Dobson,1871,Tr aenop de Perse German @fr | Rufous Tr dent Bat Trple Nose-leaf Bat @en,"Triaerrops pasicus Dobson, 1871, “at near elevauon of about 4750 feet1448 m] an Shiraz in Persiaa lran].D. L. Hanison in 1955 described sub species macdonaldí from the United Arab Emiratesbased 0 n pelage color; however, validity of characteristics separating this taxon were regarded as doubtful, and the name widely considered a junior synonym of 'E prrsirus. Populations in southwestern Arabia were assigned to an African subspecies afer, but this opinion was disproved, and populations are regarded as part of TÍ persinu. Monotypic.","Narrow belt along W 8c S coast of Yemen, SW 8c NE Oman, E United Arab Emirates, S lran, and S Pakistan.","Head-body 56-72 mm, tail 27-38 mm, ear 13-6-17-4 mm, hindfoot 8-11 mm, foreann 48-58 mm; weight 6-18 g. The Persian Trident Bat is a large rhinonycterid. Pelage is similarly tinged dorsallv and ventrally; color is variable, including brownish orange, bright orange, pale vellowish, pale brown, and dark grayish brown; hairs are darker around eyes. Wing membranes are dark brown; noseleaf and ears are pale pinkish (unpigrnented) and pale gray to dark grayish brown. Noseleaf is large (width 7 -4-10-9 mm) and rounded or pentagonal, with strap-like longitudinal projection that resembles an hourglass in outline, lying across anterior part of anterior leaf, above deep anterior medial emargination. Three tall pointed projections occur on posterior part of posterior leaf, and its anterior part in medial position has long lanceolated projection, with sharplv pointed tip. Total width of the three posterior projections is c.50% the width of posterior leaf. Lateral parts of posterior leaf are scalloped by numerous cells and separated from each other by fleshy septa, with only one small cell in central position; lateral margins of two of three tall posterior projections are emarginated at their bases. Two supplementary leaflets occur lateral to noseleaf. Ears are short, wide, and pointed, with prominent step-like emargination on anterior margin. Second phalanx of fourth wing finger has unique transverse bone projection into membrane c. 2 -5-3 mm long. Skull has very prominent nasal swellings laterally and posteriorly. Braincase is almost as high as rostrum, and sagittal crest is long. Rostrum is relatively long compared with congeners. Wide plates are present on dorsal sides of zygomatic bones. Greatest skull lengths are 19-9-21 -8 mm, condylo-canine lengths are 15-6-18-3 mm, zygomaıic widths are 8 -4-9-9 mm, and upper tooth row (C -M lengths are 6-4-7-7 mm. l‘ is bilobed; C is slender, with slight cingulum and large posterior secondary cusp, extending one-half the C' crown height; P‘ is small and extruded, C' and P‘ are in or nearly in contact; and M‘ is only little reduced, with metacone. l, is bicuspid, I is tricuspid and larger than ll, C is slender, P? has about two-thirds the crown area and one-half the height of P4, and M is unreduced. Baculum is gracile and 1 -4-2-1 mm long, with broad proximal epiphysis and bifurcated distal epiphysis; it has narrow diaphysis (8-10% of baculum length), with relatively short arms at its distal epiphysis (arm length 0 -25-0-35 mm; c. l7-20% of baculum length) and moderately broad proximal epiphysis (basis width 0-55-0-75 mm; 35-42% of baculum length).","Xeromorphic shrublands and Acacia(Fabaceae) woodlands, generally belonging to the group of Sudanian and sub-Sudanian savannas, from sea level to elevations of c. 1550 m. The Persian Trident Bat does not live in desert habitats or dry mountain forests, and both habitats represent perhaps outer limits of its distribution in lran and southern Arabia. Deserts of the Empty Quarter (Rub' al-Khali) interrupt its continuous occunence in Oman. Two pans of the distribution difier in annual vegetation cycle, influenced by different monsoon seasons: south-westem pan in Yemenand south-westem Omanwith wet season in August-September and north-eastem pan in lran, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, and north-eastem Omanwith wet season injanuary-February","Habitat.Xeromorphic shrublands and Acacia(Fabaceae) woodlands, generally belonging to the group of Sudanian and sub-Sudanian savannas, from sea level to elevations of c. 1550 m. The Persian Trident Bat does not live in desert habitats or dry mountain forests, and both habitats represent perhaps outer limits of its distribution in lran and southern Arabia. Deserts of the Empty Quarter (Rub' al-Khali) interrupt its continuous occunence in Oman. Two pans of the distribution difier in annual vegetation cycle, influenced by different monsoon seasons: south-westem pan in Yemenand south-westem Omanwith wet season in August-September and north-eastem pan in lran, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, and north-eastem Omanwith wet season injanuary-FebruaryConsidering diet composition and occasional observations of foraging individuals, the Persian Trident Bat is probably an aerial hawker, preying on flying insects of various sizes at difl`erent heights aboveground. Foraging individuals are seen at water bodies in oases, gardens, and other densely vegetated places, where prey is expected to concenuate in arid environments. Individuals netted near and over open water ane the most common type of record of Persian Trident Bats. Medium-sized moths are most frequent prey and were found in all analyzed samples from Yemenand Oman. Generally, dietary spectrum of the Persian Trident Bat is rather narrow and unbalanced. Besides moths (3-99% in particular samples, mean 654%), grasshoppers (0-96%, mean 144%), beetles (0-51 %, mean 8-8%), bugs (0-47%, mean 74%), treehoppers (0-15%, mean 24 %), antlions (0-7%, mean 1 %), and some others groups were present in diets.","ln nonh-eastem Oman, pregnant Persian Trident Bats were only found in early April. Each female had one fetus in latestage development, suggesting that births occur in mid-April. Examinations of females in other seasons did not reveal any sign of an ongoing reproduction. Hence, the Persian Trident Bat probably is seasonally monoestrous, with females giving birth to one young per year. lt is possible that timing of annual reproduction differs in the two distributional areas, due to different monsoons and vegetation cycles, with reproduction taking place during high food availability in wet seasons.","The Persian Trident Bat is probably unable to enter torpor and does not hibernate. According to few occasional observations, it is fast and acrobatic and forages at various heights, low to the ground or over water and higher. lt leaves day roosts shortly before or at sunset and forages for several hours; foraging bats were netted c.2f) hours after sunset. The Persian Trident Bat roosts underground in natural caves and man-made structures, but there are few records of day roosts. Human-made structures used as roosts were an old fort, old underground quarry, and underground water channels (“aflaj”); use of natural caves has been documented only three times. Echolocation consists of multiharrnonic QCF calls where pulse is composed of long CF component, combined with short FM component at end (CF-FM); terminating FM component is steep sweep of 1-3 kHz. Entire call lasts 8-7-13-5 milliseconds (mean 10 -8 milliseconds); interpulse intervals are 29 -1-124-7 milliseconds (mean 55 -8 milliseconds); start frequencies are 76-7-83 -6 kHz (mean 81 -1 kHz), peak frequencies are 76-5-82 -6 kHz (mean 79-3 kHz), and end frequencies are 75 -7-81 ~6 kHz (mean 79-6 kHz).","ln roosts, Persian Trident Bats hang from ca\e ceilings alone or exceptionally in small groups that can aggregate in small ceiling niches ifavailable; there are no data on size or sexual composition of such aggre~ gations. The largest group observed in a roost had only c.5 individuals. An unspecified “great number"" of the Persian Trident Bats was reported from a cave in Yemen. ln most cases, numbers of roosting Persian Trident Bats were small and highly outnumbered by coroosting Geoffroys Trident Leaf-nosed Bats (Aselliatridms). Persian Trident Bats roosted with Egyptian Rousettes (Rnusettus aegfiølratus), MuscatMouse-tailed Bats (Rhinopomamusmlellum). and Geoffrov`s Trident leaf-nosed Bats in an underground stone quarry in southern Iranand with MuscatMouse-tailed Bats and Geoffrey's Trident leaf-nosed Bats and with Egvptian Rousettes, respectively, in two caves in Oman.","Classified as Least Concern on The lUCNRıd List. There is no direct evidence of threats to Persian Trident Bats, but they could be locally threatened by disturbance at roost sites and mining activities.",Benda & Va o (2009) | Benda eta 2012) | Dobson (1871 a) | Harrison (1955) | Hıll (1982a) | Kock å Felten (1980) | Yerbury BıThomas (1895) | Zdårská (2013),https://zenodo.org/record/6611824/files/figure.png,"2.Persian Trident BatTriaenops persicusFrench:Tr aenop de PerseGerman:Pers sdıe Dre zahnb attnaseSpanish:Flnonlcterro persaOther common names:RufousTr dent Bat Trple Nose-leaf BatTaxonomy.Triaerrops pasicus Dobson, 1871, “at near elevauon of about 4750 feet1448 m] an Shiraz in Persiaa lran].D. L. Hanison in 1955 described sub species macdonaldí from the United Arab Emiratesbased 0 n pelage color; however, validity of characteristics separating this taxon were regarded as doubtful, and the name widely considered a junior synonym of 'E prrsirus. Populations in southwestern Arabia were assigned to an African subspecies afer, but this opinion was disproved, and populations are regarded as part of TÍ persinu. Monotypic.Distribution.Narrow belt along W 8c S coast of Yemen, SW 8c NE Oman, E United Arab Emirates, S lran, and S Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 56-72 mm, tail 27-38 mm, ear 13-6-17-4 mm, hindfoot 8-11 mm, foreann 48-58 mm; weight 6-18 g. The Persian Trident Bat is a large rhinonycterid. Pelage is similarly tinged dorsallv and ventrally; color is variable, including brownish orange, bright orange, pale vellowish, pale brown, and dark grayish brown; hairs are darker around eyes. Wing membranes are dark brown; noseleaf and ears are pale pinkish (unpigrnented) and pale gray to dark grayish brown. Noseleaf is large (width 7 -4-10-9 mm) and rounded or pentagonal, with strap-like longitudinal projection that resembles an hourglass in outline, lying across anterior part of anterior leaf, above deep anterior medial emargination. Three tall pointed projections occur on posterior part of posterior leaf, and its anterior part in medial position has long lanceolated projection, with sharplv pointed tip. Total width of the three posterior projections is c.50% the width of posterior leaf. Lateral parts of posterior leaf are scalloped by numerous cells and separated from each other by fleshy septa, with only one small cell in central position; lateral margins of two of three tall posterior projections are emarginated at their bases. Two supplementary leaflets occur lateral to noseleaf. Ears are short, wide, and pointed, with prominent step-like emargination on anterior margin. Second phalanx of fourth wing finger has unique transverse bone projection into membrane c. 2 -5-3 mm long. Skull has very prominent nasal swellings laterally and posteriorly. Braincase is almost as high as rostrum, and sagittal crest is long. Rostrum is relatively long compared with congeners. Wide plates are present on dorsal sides of zygomatic bones. Greatest skull lengths are 19-9-21 -8 mm, condylo-canine lengths are 15-6-18-3 mm, zygomaıic widths are 8 -4-9-9 mm, and upper tooth row (C -M lengths are 6-4-7-7 mm. l‘ is bilobed; C is slender, with slight cingulum and large posterior secondary cusp, extending one-half the C' crown height; P‘ is small and extruded, C' and P‘ are in or nearly in contact; and M‘ is only little reduced, with metacone. l, is bicuspid, I is tricuspid and larger than ll, C is slender, P? has about two-thirds the crown area and one-half the height of P4, and M is unreduced. Baculum is gracile and 1 -4-2-1 mm long, with broad proximal epiphysis and bifurcated distal epiphysis; it has narrow diaphysis (8-10% of baculum length), with relatively short arms at its distal epiphysis (arm length 0 -25-0-35 mm; c. l7-20% of baculum length) and moderately broad proximal epiphysis (basis width 0-55-0-75 mm; 35-42% of baculum length).Habitat.Xeromorphic shrublands and Acacia(Fabaceae) woodlands, generally belonging to the group of Sudanian and sub-Sudanian savannas, from sea level to elevations of c. 1550 m. The Persian Trident Bat does not live in desert habitats or dry mountain forests, and both habitats represent perhaps outer limits of its distribution in lran and southern Arabia. Deserts of the Empty Quarter (Rub' al-Khali) interrupt its continuous occunence in Oman. Two pans of the distribution difier in annual vegetation cycle, influenced by different monsoon seasons: south-westem pan in Yemenand south-westem Omanwith wet season in August-September and north-eastem pan in lran, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, and north-eastem Omanwith wet season injanuary-FebruaryFood and Feeding.Considering diet composition and occasional observations of foraging individuals, the Persian Trident Bat is probably an aerial hawker, preying on flying insects of various sizes at difl`erent heights aboveground. Foraging individuals are seen at water bodies in oases, gardens, and other densely vegetated places, where prey is expected to concenuate in arid environments. Individuals netted near and over open water ane the most common type of record of Persian Trident Bats. Medium-sized moths are most frequent prey and were found in all analyzed samples from Yemenand Oman. Generally, dietary spectrum of the Persian Trident Bat is rather narrow and unbalanced. Besides moths (3-99% in particular samples, mean 654%), grasshoppers (0-96%, mean 144%), beetles (0-51 %, mean 8-8%), bugs (0-47%, mean 74%), treehoppers (0-15%, mean 24 %), antlions (0-7%, mean 1 %), and some others groups were present in diets.Breeding.ln nonh-eastem Oman, pregnant Persian Trident Bats were only found in early April. Each female had one fetus in latestage development, suggesting that births occur in mid-April. Examinations of females in other seasons did not reveal any sign of an ongoing reproduction. Hence, the Persian Trident Bat probably is seasonally monoestrous, with females giving birth to one young per year. lt is possible that timing of annual reproduction differs in the two distributional areas, due to different monsoons and vegetation cycles, with reproduction taking place during high food availability in wet seasons.On following pages 3 YemenTr dent Bat (Traenops parvus), 4 Alf can Tndent Bet (Tnaenops efer) 5 Rufous Tr dent Bat (Trıaenops menamena) 6 Percve sTndent Bat (C/oeots perc val) 7 Grand d er sTndent Bat (Pararnaenops auntus). 8 Trouessarfs Tr dent Bat (Paratr aenops furcula). 9 Paul an s Tr dent Bat (Pararnaenops pau am)Activity patterns.The Persian Trident Bat is probably unable to enter torpor and does not hibernate. According to few occasional observations, it is fast and acrobatic and forages at various heights, low to the ground or over water and higher. lt leaves day roosts shortly before or at sunset and forages for several hours; foraging bats were netted c.2f) hours after sunset. The Persian Trident Bat roosts underground in natural caves and man-made structures, but there are few records of day roosts. Human-made structures used as roosts were an old fort, old underground quarry, and underground water channels (“aflaj”); use of natural caves has been documented only three times. Echolocation consists of multiharrnonic QCF calls where pulse is composed of long CF component, combined with short FM component at end (CF-FM); terminating FM component is steep sweep of 1-3 kHz. Entire call lasts 8-7-13-5 milliseconds (mean 10 -8 milliseconds); interpulse intervals are 29 -1-124-7 milliseconds (mean 55 -8 milliseconds); start frequencies are 76-7-83 -6 kHz (mean 81 -1 kHz), peak frequencies are 76-5-82 -6 kHz (mean 79-3 kHz), and end frequencies are 75 -7-81 ~6 kHz (mean 79-6 kHz).Movements, Home range and Social organization.ln roosts, Persian Trident Bats hang from ca\e ceilings alone or exceptionally in small groups that can aggregate in small ceiling niches ifavailable; there are no data on size or sexual composition of such aggre~ gations. The largest group observed in a roost had only c.5 individuals. An unspecified “great number"" of the Persian Trident Bats was reported from a cave in Yemen. ln most cases, numbers of roosting Persian Trident Bats were small and highly outnumbered by coroosting Geoffroys Trident Leaf-nosed Bats (Aselliatridms). Persian Trident Bats roosted with Egyptian Rousettes (Rnusettus aegfiølratus), MuscatMouse-tailed Bats (Rhinopomamusmlellum). and Geoffrov`s Trident leaf-nosed Bats in an underground stone quarry in southern Iranand with MuscatMouse-tailed Bats and Geoffrey's Trident leaf-nosed Bats and with Egvptian Rousettes, respectively, in two caves in Oman.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The lUCNRıd List. There is no direct evidence of threats to Persian Trident Bats, but they could be locally threatened by disturbance at roost sites and mining activities.Bibliography Benda & Va o (2009) Benda eta 2012). Dobson (1871 a) Harrison (1955), Hıll (1982a). Kock å Felten (1980) Yerbury BıThomas (1895). Zdårská (2013)" 0383245F2221977F8ED7FFC8FBC1F320,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Rhinonycteridae_194.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffba5c272223977c8e73f509ffb1ffd0,204,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/83/24/0383245F2221977F8ED7FFC8FBC1F320.xml,Rhinonicteris aurantia,Rhinonicteris,aurantia,,,Rh n nyctère d réGerman @fr | Go den H rseshoe Bat Orange H rseshoe Bat Orange Leaf n sed Bar P barn Leal nosed Bat @en,"Rhínolophm aumnlim]. E. Gray in Ewe, 1845. “Port Essington, near the Hospital,"" Northern Territon, Australia.There are no formally recognized subspecies of R. aurrmha, although an isolated population in the Pilbara region of northern Western Australiawas suggested to represent a separate “fonn. Available evidence does not fully support its distinct status. Differences were in call frequencies among populations not completely concordant with documented pattern of genetic variation, although it is expected that populations have been isolated for about 30,000 years. Monotypic.","Endemic to Australia, in two di¶ unct regions separated by Great Sandy Desert: W region is smallcst and comprises the W part of Pilbara region of Westem Australia, and E region largest and includes NE Western Australia(Kimberley region), N Northern Territory, and NW Queensland.","Head-body 40-56 mm, tail 23-29 mm, ear 10-4-14-4 mm, forearm 45-51 mm; weight 6-12 g. No specific data are available for hindfoot length. The Orange Diamond-laced Bat a medium-sired rhinomcterid. Individuals in the Pilbara population are slightly smaller than those in nonhem Australia. Pelage has similar tinge dorsally and \ entrally, usualh bright orange; in some individuals, t is pale brown, pale yellow, or white; hairs can be darker around mes. Wing membranes are dark brown, and noseleaf and ears are pale pinkish to very pale grayish brown. Noseleaf is large (width 5 -3-8-9 mm) and diamond-shaped, with strap-like longitudinal projection across anterior part of anterior leaf and lving abore deep anterior medial emargination. Poste rior leaf of noseleaf has no tall posterior projections, and its anterior part has long and narrow projection, with rounded tip in medial position. Central and posterior pans of posterior leaf are scalloped with numerous cells, separated from each other b\ fleshy septa. Thickened ridge lies beneath anterior leaf. Ears are small, triangular, and sharply pointed. Skull has dorsalh and lateralh prominent nasal swellings, depression between rostrum and braincase that is markedly higher than rostrum, and sagittal crest that coveis onlw central and posterior parts of braincase. Wide plates are present on dorsal sides of zygomatic bones. Greatest skull lengths are 15-9-18 mm, condflofanine lengths are 13-9-15 -7 mm, zygomatic widths are 8-9-1 mm, and upper tooth row (C -M lengths are 5 -4-6-4 mm. l’ is bilobed; C‘ is slender, with slight cingulum and large posterior secondary l” is small and extruded; C' and P‘ in contact and M‘ is little cusp; are; only reduced and has metacone. All lower incisors are tricuspid, C, is slender, P, has about one-half the crown area and height of P‘, and M, is unreduced. Baculum is gracile and 2 -1-2-3 mm long, with broadly pyramid-like proximal epiphysis and bluntly terminating simple distal epiphysis, slightly curved dorsally; it has narrow diaphysis (5-7% of baculum length) and proximal epiphysis (0-5-0-6 mm wide; 24-26% of baculum length).","Variety of habitats, including monsoon rainforests, tall open forests, open savanna woodlands, grasslands, and shrublands at elevations up to c. 800 min dry habitats and up to 400 min more humid habitats. The Orange Diamond-faced Bat seems to be more limited by availability of roosts than vegetative cover type, although dry open habitats represent much larger part of overall distribution than humid and closed forests. Geographically isolated population in Pilbara inhabits the most arid zone in overall distribution.","The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is an aerial hawker and preys on flying insects of various sizes, mainly smaller moths and beetles. Diet composition shows opportunistic prey selection; during wet season, it clearly prefers flying tennites that provide fat-rich diets for pregnant and laetating females. Annually, diet averages 70% moths, 17% beetles, 7% termites (but in December, 056%), 5% flies, and mosquitoes, with occasional ants, wasps, mantises, lacewings, bugs, and cockroaches (representing 1 —2% together). Individuals forage along gorges, ravines, and larger watercourses and in open woodlands and over grassland hills.","The Orange Diamond-faced Bat seasonallv monoestrous. Females give birth to one young in late December or earlyjanuary after five-month gestation. First three months of pregnancy and sperm production occur during periods of low food availability, and late pregnancy and lactation coincide with maximum food availability. Gestation is prolonged for c.1550 days, although sperm storage and delayed embryonic development have not been observed. Females leave their dry season roosts during late pregnancy and lactation, returning only after young are weaned and independent in late February. This suggests they use separate roosts for birth and rearing of young in wet season. Females are reproductively mature at c.7 months old; males do not mate until 16-18 months old. Males have enlarged testes and mate injuly; mature spermatozoa were observed in testes in April, with increasing numbers up until copulation and declining numbers from August to October; and none were observed in December-March (wet season).","The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is unable to enter torpor and does not hibernate or estivate; remains active year-round and forages in all seasons. lt is strong and highly acrobatic flier; it flies rapidly (up to 26 kmh) with fast wingbeats, tends to forage with an erratic ziglagging flight pattem, and remains in flight all the time while foraging. 1 tforages at various heights: low to the ground or water surface at c.0 -1 m, up to the height above tree crowns, and in all stories in between, including understories and tree canopies. When leaving the day roost, flight is most enatic, which is considered anti-predator behavior. It roosts in underground spaces in natural caves, man-made mines, and occasionally buildings. might roost in tree hollows, but this has not been confirmed. Because the Orange Diamond-faced Bat cannot enter torpor, it needs to roost in relatively wann and humid spaces (28-32 C and 85-100% relative humidity) that naturally occur in deep caves or mines. Underground spaces with such conditions are relatively uncommon in most rocky landscapes of north-westem Australia, but in the monsoonal nonh, humid conditions probably allow use of more caves and rarely buildings. Orange Diamond-faced Bats are often seen flying along roads at night. They leave day roost 10-20 minutes after sunset and forage for several hours (mostly 1 -5-4 hours) or the entire night; however, most individuals return to roosts c.2 hours before sunrise. Sometimes, there is a second activity period of 1-2 hours before sunrise. When roosting, they hang freely from the cave ceiling or on cave walls and are separated from each other by 10-15 cm. Echolocation consists of multihannonic QCF calls where pulse is composed of long CF component, complemented at start and end by two short FM components (FM-CF-FM). The CF component of the first hannonic lasts c. 5-8 milliseconds, initial FM component is short upward sweep (not always detectable), and tenninating FM component is steep sweep of c. 20 kHz. Geographical variation in peak frequencies of calls was reported: 109-119 kHz (mean 114 -6 kHz) in northern Australiaand 116-126 kHz (mean 121 kHz) in the Pilbara region.","The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is colonial and creates colonies of a few to se \ eral thousand individuals, typically up to several hundred. large colonies in the thousands are the exception, with only two currently known. Although there are reports of colonies of 20,000-25,000 individuals, such a size has not been confinned. Both sexes occur in larger colonies to mate in dry season (] uly), but later during late pregnancy and lactation (December-February), many females disappear from these caves, returning only after young are weaned and independent. Because there no evidence of migrations, the two main populations of Orange Diamond-faced Bats separated by the Great Sandy Desert (c. 1400 kmwide) probably have isolated for many thousands of years. Movements within regional popu-Iations are probablyjust related to searching for suitable roosts, with limited exchange among them.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. A national law in Australiaprotects the Orange Diamond-faced Bat.,"Armstrong (2002 2005 2006a 2006 b) | Armstrong G« Co es (2007) | Baud nette er a (2000) | Church) | (1991, 1994, 1995. 2008) | Cramer 6 M (2016) | Gray (1845) | Hand (1997) | H (19828)",https://zenodo.org/record/6611822/files/figure.png,"1.Orange Diamond-faced BatRhinonicteris aurantiaFrench:Rh n nyctère d réGerman:Orangefarbene Au sn B attnaSpanish:R n doradoOther common names:Go den H rseshoe Bat Orange H rseshoe Bat Orange Leaf n sed Bar P barn Leal nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhínolophm aumnlim]. E. Gray in Ewe, 1845. “Port Essington, near the Hospital,"" Northern Territon, Australia.There are no formally recognized subspecies of R. aurrmha, although an isolated population in the Pilbara region of northern Western Australiawas suggested to represent a separate “fonn. Available evidence does not fully support its distinct status. Differences were in call frequencies among populations not completely concordant with documented pattern of genetic variation, although it is expected that populations have been isolated for about 30,000 years. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Australia, in two di¶ unct regions separated by Great Sandy Desert: W region is smallcst and comprises the W part of Pilbara region of Westem Australia, and E region largest and includes NE Western Australia(Kimberley region), N Northern Territory, and NW Queensland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-56 mm, tail 23-29 mm, ear 10-4-14-4 mm, forearm 45-51 mm; weight 6-12 g. No specific data are available for hindfoot length. The Orange Diamond-laced Bat a medium-sired rhinomcterid. Individuals in the Pilbara population are slightly smaller than those in nonhem Australia. Pelage has similar tinge dorsally and \ entrally, usualh bright orange; in some individuals, t is pale brown, pale yellow, or white; hairs can be darker around mes. Wing membranes are dark brown, and noseleaf and ears are pale pinkish to very pale grayish brown. Noseleaf is large (width 5 -3-8-9 mm) and diamond-shaped, with strap-like longitudinal projection across anterior part of anterior leaf and lving abore deep anterior medial emargination. Poste rior leaf of noseleaf has no tall posterior projections, and its anterior part has long and narrow projection, with rounded tip in medial position. Central and posterior pans of posterior leaf are scalloped with numerous cells, separated from each other b\ fleshy septa. Thickened ridge lies beneath anterior leaf. Ears are small, triangular, and sharply pointed. Skull has dorsalh and lateralh prominent nasal swellings, depression between rostrum and braincase that is markedly higher than rostrum, and sagittal crest that coveis onlw central and posterior parts of braincase. Wide plates are present on dorsal sides of zygomatic bones. Greatest skull lengths are 15-9-18 mm, condflofanine lengths are 13-9-15 -7 mm, zygomatic widths are 8-9-1 mm, and upper tooth row (C -M lengths are 5 -4-6-4 mm. l’ is bilobed; C‘ is slender, with slight cingulum and large posterior secondary l” is small and extruded; C' and P‘ in contact and M‘ is little cusp; are; only reduced and has metacone. All lower incisors are tricuspid, C, is slender, P, has about one-half the crown area and height of P‘, and M, is unreduced. Baculum is gracile and 2 -1-2-3 mm long, with broadly pyramid-like proximal epiphysis and bluntly terminating simple distal epiphysis, slightly curved dorsally; it has narrow diaphysis (5-7% of baculum length) and proximal epiphysis (0-5-0-6 mm wide; 24-26% of baculum length).Habitat.Variety of habitats, including monsoon rainforests, tall open forests, open savanna woodlands, grasslands, and shrublands at elevations up to c. 800 min dry habitats and up to 400 min more humid habitats. The Orange Diamond-faced Bat seems to be more limited by availability of roosts than vegetative cover type, although dry open habitats represent much larger part of overall distribution than humid and closed forests. Geographically isolated population in Pilbara inhabits the most arid zone in overall distribution.Food and Feeding.The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is an aerial hawker and preys on flying insects of various sizes, mainly smaller moths and beetles. Diet composition shows opportunistic prey selection; during wet season, it clearly prefers flying tennites that provide fat-rich diets for pregnant and laetating females. Annually, diet averages 70% moths, 17% beetles, 7% termites (but in December, 056%), 5% flies, and mosquitoes, with occasional ants, wasps, mantises, lacewings, bugs, and cockroaches (representing 1 —2% together). Individuals forage along gorges, ravines, and larger watercourses and in open woodlands and over grassland hills.Breeding.The Orange Diamond-faced Bat seasonallv monoestrous. Females give birth to one young in late December or earlyjanuary after five-month gestation. First three months of pregnancy and sperm production occur during periods of low food availability, and late pregnancy and lactation coincide with maximum food availability. Gestation is prolonged for c.1550 days, although sperm storage and delayed embryonic development have not been observed. Females leave their dry season roosts during late pregnancy and lactation, returning only after young are weaned and independent in late February. This suggests they use separate roosts for birth and rearing of young in wet season. Females are reproductively mature at c.7 months old; males do not mate until 16-18 months old. Males have enlarged testes and mate injuly; mature spermatozoa were observed in testes in April, with increasing numbers up until copulation and declining numbers from August to October; and none were observed in December-March (wet season).Activity patterns.The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is unable to enter torpor and does not hibernate or estivate; remains active year-round and forages in all seasons. lt is strong and highly acrobatic flier; it flies rapidly (up to 26 kmh) with fast wingbeats, tends to forage with an erratic ziglagging flight pattem, and remains in flight all the time while foraging. 1 tforages at various heights: low to the ground or water surface at c.0 -1 m, up to the height above tree crowns, and in all stories in between, including understories and tree canopies. When leaving the day roost, flight is most enatic, which is considered anti-predator behavior. It roosts in underground spaces in natural caves, man-made mines, and occasionally buildings. might roost in tree hollows, but this has not been confirmed. Because the Orange Diamond-faced Bat cannot enter torpor, it needs to roost in relatively wann and humid spaces (28-32 C and 85-100% relative humidity) that naturally occur in deep caves or mines. Underground spaces with such conditions are relatively uncommon in most rocky landscapes of north-westem Australia, but in the monsoonal nonh, humid conditions probably allow use of more caves and rarely buildings. Orange Diamond-faced Bats are often seen flying along roads at night. They leave day roost 10-20 minutes after sunset and forage for several hours (mostly 1 -5-4 hours) or the entire night; however, most individuals return to roosts c.2 hours before sunrise. Sometimes, there is a second activity period of 1-2 hours before sunrise. When roosting, they hang freely from the cave ceiling or on cave walls and are separated from each other by 10-15 cm. Echolocation consists of multihannonic QCF calls where pulse is composed of long CF component, complemented at start and end by two short FM components (FM-CF-FM). The CF component of the first hannonic lasts c. 5-8 milliseconds, initial FM component is short upward sweep (not always detectable), and tenninating FM component is steep sweep of c. 20 kHz. Geographical variation in peak frequencies of calls was reported: 109-119 kHz (mean 114 -6 kHz) in northern Australiaand 116-126 kHz (mean 121 kHz) in the Pilbara region.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is colonial and creates colonies of a few to se \ eral thousand individuals, typically up to several hundred. large colonies in the thousands are the exception, with only two currently known. Although there are reports of colonies of 20,000-25,000 individuals, such a size has not been confinned. Both sexes occur in larger colonies to mate in dry season (] uly), but later during late pregnancy and lactation (December-February), many females disappear from these caves, returning only after young are weaned and independent. Because there no evidence of migrations, the two main populations of Orange Diamond-faced Bats separated by the Great Sandy Desert (c. 1400 kmwide) probably have isolated for many thousands of years. Movements within regional popu-Iations are probablyjust related to searching for suitable roosts, with limited exchange among them.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. A national law in Australiaprotects the Orange Diamond-faced Bat.Bibliography. Armstrong (2002 2005 2006a 2006 b) Armstrong G« Co es (2007) Baud nette er a (2000). Church) (1991, 1994, 1995. 2008), Cramer 6 M (2016). Gray (1845). Hand (1997). H (19828)" 0383245F2223977C8F09F4DEF81EFB14,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Rhinonycteridae_194.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffba5c272223977c8e73f509ffb1ffd0,194,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/83/24/0383245F2223977C8F09F4DEF81EFB14.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family RHINONYCTERIDAE(TRIDENT BATS)• Small insectivorous bats with rather small ears lacking tragus and typically large complex noseleaves that, in all but one species, have posterior margins with three tall pointed processes forming trident-like structures.• 6-12 cm.• Afrotropical, Australasian, and marginally Palearctic Regions.• From dry savannas to forest savannas and forests in tropics, marginally in subtropics.• 4 genera, 9 species, 9 taxa.• 1species Vulnerable; none extinct since 1600." @@ -160,30 +160,30 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 0386EB21C26AFFA2FA2DFE01F73B38BB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Iniidae_0364.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbf9359c269ffa6ffe8ffb9ffd13a70,378,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/86/EB/0386EB21C26AFFA2FA2DFE01F73B38BB.xml,Inia araguaiaensis,Inia,araguaiaensis,,,Boto de @fr | 'Araguaia @en | Araguaia-Delfin @de | Delfin del Araguaia @es,"Inia araguaiaensis Hrbek et al., 2014, “entrance of Lake Jurumirim” Araguaia River, State of Goias.This species is monotypic.","Araguaia-Tocantins Basin in the Brazilian states of Goias, Tocantins, Mato Grosso, and Para.","Few data available, but body measurements from individuals below and above Tucurui Dam fall into the range of other botos; the largest individual male recorded was 236 cm long (n = 9) and the largest female 201 cm (n = 12). One individual found at Curuca Estuary was 252 cm in total length. Like the other species of botos, the Araguaian Boto is strongly sexually dimorphic with adult males larger, more robust, more pink and with a more “ragged” appearance than females. Newborn and young individuals are dark gray; adults are lighter gray and with pinkish coloration below. The main differences between the skull of the Araguaian Boto and that of the two other species of botos are the larger biparietal width: males 8:1.9-2 cm (mean 8-7 cm, n = 2) and females 9.6-11.5 cm (mean 10-6 cm, n = 2), and larger greatest width of maxillaries (females 11.3-11.8 cm, mean 11:6 cm, n = 2). The length of the rostrum is 68% oftotal length of the skull in males and 66% in females, but based on measurements ofjust two animals of each sex. Number of teeth may be slightly less than in the Amazon River Dolphin, with total number per row ranging 24-28 (n = 3) teeth. Each upper and lower tooth row has 6-8 molar-type teeth on both sides.","The Araguaia River is a floodplain river with sinuous bed and muddy waters from the substantial sediment load. During the peak of the dry season (July/August) the depth of the river is dramatically reduced, exposing extensive sandbanks. The Tocantins River, however, is embanked, with relatively clear water, several rapids and a faster current. Botos occurin all habitats in this river, but highest densities occur (both during the seasons of low and falling water) in confluences and bays.","Very little information is available for this species, but accounts of fishermen and observations of Araguaian Botos stealing fish from hooks and nets and pursuing schools of fish in an apparently cooperative way confirm the piscivorous diet of the species, similar to that of the two other species of botos. One study reported three species of fish seen in the mouths of Araguaian Botos: Hydrolycus armatus (Characiformes), and Pimelodus blochii and Oxydoras niger (both Siluriformes) of estimated size of 80 cm, 40 cm, and 60 cm respectively. Large catfish (over 60 cm) were found floating dead with boto teeth marks and missing chunks of the posterior part of the body torn out by botos.","There is no specific information available for this species, but it is likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin. Lactating females were recorded in the months ofJuly, August, and September without reference to the size of their young. Two halfgrown fetuses were collected in August, several years apart. Apparent neonates have been observed year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but due to the strong seasonal variation in the water level, and fish movements during the transition from high to low waters, Araguaian Botos must move from lagoons and flooded areas to main river channels, as do the other species of botos.","Group size varies seasonally and usually is between one and three individuals. In the Araguaia River singletons are predominant but 3-4 dolphins are not uncommon, and larger aggregations can occur around a resource or at a confluence or bay. During low water, groups of botos drive schools of fish toward sandbanks and into very shallow water, where they are captured. Surveys above the Tucurui Dam revealed that even after the area was flooded, botos tended to aggregate in places where confluences and bays previously existed, suggesting a strong fidelity to the area. Other characteristics of their movements and social organization are likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin.","Because of its recent description, the Araguaian Boto has not yet been formally evaluated on The IUCN Red List. However, due to population-level threats and fragmentation of the population by dams, the species conforms to IUCN criteria designating it as Vulnerable. The Araguaian Boto has a restricted distribution, with fragmented habitat and population, and low population size when compared to the Amazonian River Dolphin. Animal densities of only 0-8-0-98 ind/km* have been reported, and the species appears to have low levels of genetic diversity. In addition to the seven large dams that have been built in the Tocantins River (Tucurui, Luiz Barreto, Lajeado, Peixe Angical, Sao Salvador, Cana Brava, and Serra da Mesa) and two new large dams planned (Serra Quebrada and Maraba) which divide the boto population into nine fragments, agricultural and ranching activities cause cumulative negative effects on several biotic and abiotic aspects of the river basin ecosystem. After 1984, the Tucurui Dam, 11 km long and 78 m high, totally isolated the Araguaian Boto population, stopping its contact with botos from the Para River and estuary about 350 km below. Before the construction of the dam, botos were recorded above and below the rapids and falls that existed in the area, all flooded bythe reservoir. So, potentially, the species can also occur below the Tucurui Dam and its confluence with the Para River to near Soure on the east side of Marajo Island. Recent analysis of mtDNA for a specimen from Para State revealed a different and isolated geographic form of boto, genetically distant from the Amazonian River Dolphin and the Bolivian Boto. In the Tocantins River, the most upstream and southerly records were well above the rapids near Jatobal as well as below and above the hydroelectric dam of Serra da Mesa, near Uruacu and rivers Lajeado and Manoel Alves, among others. In the Araguaia River, the Araguaian Boto has been recorded between the city of Aragarcas/Barra do Garcas and the southern part of Bananal Island past the city of Luis Alves to Santa Isabel rapids and down to Maraba, and in tributaries such as the Formoso, Cristalino, Vermelho, Peixe, Crixas Acu, and Agua Limpa rivers, as well at lakes dos Tigres and Rico in Goias State, up to the confluence with the Tocantins River, and also in Lake Montaria in Mato Grosso State. Interactions with fisheries, including net entanglement and dolphins being shot for taking fish from nets and offlines, result in direct mortality. Anotherthreat is the large concentration oftourists on the Araguaia River from May to October (dry season) when camping facilities are established on riverine sandbanks, motorized boats, and other high-speedvehicles are common, and intensive sport fishing results in botos ingesting hooks and lines.",Araujo (2010) | Araujo & da Silva (2014) | Araujo & Wang (2012) | Best & da Silva (1989a) | do Carmo & da Silva (2010) | Costa et al. (2013) | Hrbek et al. (2014) | Latrubesse & Stevaux (2006) | Martin et al. (2004) | Natale (2013) | da Silva (1994) | da Silva et al. (1998) | Rebelo & do Carmo (2008),https://zenodo.org/record/6599260/files/figure.png,"3.Araguaian BotoInia araguaiaensisFrench:Boto de I'Araguaia/ German:Araguaia-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del AraguaiaTaxonomy.Inia araguaiaensis Hrbek et al., 2014, “entrance of Lake Jurumirim” Araguaia River, State of Goias.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Araguaia-Tocantins Basin in the Brazilian states of Goias, Tocantins, Mato Grosso, and Para.Descriptive notes.Few data available, but body measurements from individuals below and above Tucurui Dam fall into the range of other botos; the largest individual male recorded was 236 cm long (n = 9) and the largest female 201 cm (n = 12). One individual found at Curuca Estuary was 252 cm in total length. Like the other species of botos, the Araguaian Boto is strongly sexually dimorphic with adult males larger, more robust, more pink and with a more “ragged” appearance than females. Newborn and young individuals are dark gray; adults are lighter gray and with pinkish coloration below. The main differences between the skull of the Araguaian Boto and that of the two other species of botos are the larger biparietal width: males 8:1.9-2 cm (mean 8-7 cm, n = 2) and females 9.6-11.5 cm (mean 10-6 cm, n = 2), and larger greatest width of maxillaries (females 11.3-11.8 cm, mean 11:6 cm, n = 2). The length of the rostrum is 68% oftotal length of the skull in males and 66% in females, but based on measurements ofjust two animals of each sex. Number of teeth may be slightly less than in the Amazon River Dolphin, with total number per row ranging 24-28 (n = 3) teeth. Each upper and lower tooth row has 6-8 molar-type teeth on both sides.Habitat.The Araguaia River is a floodplain river with sinuous bed and muddy waters from the substantial sediment load. During the peak of the dry season (July/August) the depth of the river is dramatically reduced, exposing extensive sandbanks. The Tocantins River, however, is embanked, with relatively clear water, several rapids and a faster current. Botos occurin all habitats in this river, but highest densities occur (both during the seasons of low and falling water) in confluences and bays.Food and Feeding.Very little information is available for this species, but accounts of fishermen and observations of Araguaian Botos stealing fish from hooks and nets and pursuing schools of fish in an apparently cooperative way confirm the piscivorous diet of the species, similar to that of the two other species of botos. One study reported three species of fish seen in the mouths of Araguaian Botos: Hydrolycus armatus (Characiformes), and Pimelodus blochii and Oxydoras niger (both Siluriformes) of estimated size of 80 cm, 40 cm, and 60 cm respectively. Large catfish (over 60 cm) were found floating dead with boto teeth marks and missing chunks of the posterior part of the body torn out by botos.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin. Lactating females were recorded in the months ofJuly, August, and September without reference to the size of their young. Two halfgrown fetuses were collected in August, several years apart. Apparent neonates have been observed year-round.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but due to the strong seasonal variation in the water level, and fish movements during the transition from high to low waters, Araguaian Botos must move from lagoons and flooded areas to main river channels, as do the other species of botos.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Group size varies seasonally and usually is between one and three individuals. In the Araguaia River singletons are predominant but 3-4 dolphins are not uncommon, and larger aggregations can occur around a resource or at a confluence or bay. During low water, groups of botos drive schools of fish toward sandbanks and into very shallow water, where they are captured. Surveys above the Tucurui Dam revealed that even after the area was flooded, botos tended to aggregate in places where confluences and bays previously existed, suggesting a strong fidelity to the area. Other characteristics of their movements and social organization are likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin.Status and Conservation.Because of its recent description, the Araguaian Boto has not yet been formally evaluated on The IUCN Red List. However, due to population-level threats and fragmentation of the population by dams, the species conforms to IUCN criteria designating it as Vulnerable. The Araguaian Boto has a restricted distribution, with fragmented habitat and population, and low population size when compared to the Amazonian River Dolphin. Animal densities of only 0-8-0-98 ind/km* have been reported, and the species appears to have low levels of genetic diversity. In addition to the seven large dams that have been built in the Tocantins River (Tucurui, Luiz Barreto, Lajeado, Peixe Angical, Sao Salvador, Cana Brava, and Serra da Mesa) and two new large dams planned (Serra Quebrada and Maraba) which divide the boto population into nine fragments, agricultural and ranching activities cause cumulative negative effects on several biotic and abiotic aspects of the river basin ecosystem. After 1984, the Tucurui Dam, 11 km long and 78 m high, totally isolated the Araguaian Boto population, stopping its contact with botos from the Para River and estuary about 350 km below. Before the construction of the dam, botos were recorded above and below the rapids and falls that existed in the area, all flooded bythe reservoir. So, potentially, the species can also occur below the Tucurui Dam and its confluence with the Para River to near Soure on the east side of Marajo Island. Recent analysis of mtDNA for a specimen from Para State revealed a different and isolated geographic form of boto, genetically distant from the Amazonian River Dolphin and the Bolivian Boto. In the Tocantins River, the most upstream and southerly records were well above the rapids near Jatobal as well as below and above the hydroelectric dam of Serra da Mesa, near Uruacu and rivers Lajeado and Manoel Alves, among others. In the Araguaia River, the Araguaian Boto has been recorded between the city of Aragarcas/Barra do Garcas and the southern part of Bananal Island past the city of Luis Alves to Santa Isabel rapids and down to Maraba, and in tributaries such as the Formoso, Cristalino, Vermelho, Peixe, Crixas Acu, and Agua Limpa rivers, as well at lakes dos Tigres and Rico in Goias State, up to the confluence with the Tocantins River, and also in Lake Montaria in Mato Grosso State. Interactions with fisheries, including net entanglement and dolphins being shot for taking fish from nets and offlines, result in direct mortality. Anotherthreat is the large concentration oftourists on the Araguaia River from May to October (dry season) when camping facilities are established on riverine sandbanks, motorized boats, and other high-speedvehicles are common, and intensive sport fishing results in botos ingesting hooks and lines.Bibliography.Araujo (2010), Araujo & da Silva (2014), Araujo & Wang (2012), Best & da Silva (1989a), do Carmo & da Silva (2010), Costa et al. (2013), Hrbek et al. (2014), Latrubesse & Stevaux (2006), Martin et al. (2004), Natale (2013), da Silva (1994), da Silva et al. (1998), Rebelo & do Carmo (2008)." 0386EB21C26AFFA5FF23FD93F5E43B18,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Iniidae_0364.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbf9359c269ffa6ffe8ffb9ffd13a70,378,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/86/EB/0386EB21C26AFFA5FF23FD93F5E43B18.xml,Inia boliviensis,Inia,boliviensis,d'Orbigny,1834,Boto de Bolivie @fr | Bolivien-Delfin @de | Delfin del Madeira @es | Bolivian Bufeo @en,"[nia boliviensis d’Orbigny, 1834, “la riviere du Guaporé” (= Itenez) near “Principe de Béira,” Brazil.Recent studies of mitochondrial control region sequences and the cytochrome b gene by E. Banguera-Hinestroza and colleagues in 2002 and mtDNA and nDNA by W. Gravena in 2013, reinforced earlier morphological evidence provided by V. M. F. da Silva in 1994, suggesting that the Bolivian Botos are an evolutionarily significant unit distinct from those in the Amazon and Orinoco drainages. Monotypic.","Bolivian lowlands (NE to the Chiquitano Mts and SW to the piedmont elevations in the subandean region) and SW Brazilian Amazon in the upper Madeira River, and the Beni, Ichilo, Marmoré, Ipurupuru, Iboré, Baré, Abuna, and Iténez (= Guaporé) rivers and their tributaries, all of which drain into the Madeira; recently also recorded below Santo Antonio falls between the cities of Porto Velho and Borba.","Only two reliable body length measurements have been published 208 cm and 216 cm (adult females), but size is presumably very similar to the Amazon River Dolphin (1. geoffrensis) and the Araguaian Boto (I. araguaiaensis). Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in all species, with males larger and more robust than females. The main differences between the skull of boto species are the relative length of their rostrums and the number of teeth, which are greater in the Bolivian Boto, and the biparietal skull width which is comparatively narrower in the Bolivian Boto. Relative rostral length: ¢.73% of total skull length vs. ¢.65% in the Amazonian River Dolphin; number of teeth: upper row 31-35 teeth (mean 33-3) and lower jaw from 31-34 teeth (mean 32-3). Each upper and lower tooth row has 9-11 molar-type teeth.","Sediment-laden white water and clear water, but not black water, in lowland floodplains (oxbow and “varzea” or white-water lakes). Similar to other botos, it aggregates at confluences and meetings of waters and is present in most of the aquatic habitats ofthe region. Otherwise, the habitat of the Bolivian Boto is quite similar to the other species of botos in the Amazon.","There is no specific information available for this species, but examination of stomach contents of two Bolivian Botos suggests a catholic piscivorous diet, similar to that of the Amazon River Dolphin.","There is no information available for this species, but it is likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin, in which the presence of neonates and juveniles has been observed throughout the year, with births peaking during low-water season.","There is no information available for this species, but it probably moves seasonally due to fish migration and the annual flooding cycle. During the transition from high to low waters dolphins leave lagoons and flooded areas and go to main river channels, as do botos in the Brazilian Amazon and Araguaia river basins.","Encounter rates of Bolivian Botos are 0-2-5-8 ind/km of waterway, with greater densities in larger rivers. As described for botos elsewhere, this species is commonly sighted singly or in groups of up to four. Larger aggregations occur around a resource or in confluences and bays. Other characteristics of their movements and social organization have not been studied, but are likely similar to those of the Amazon River Dolphin.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as I. geoffrensisboliviensis). In Bolivia, this dolphin is indirectly protected by the Political Constitution and the Supreme Decree 25458 of July 1999, with a total ban on the hunting and trade of those native wildlife species considered to be in danger of extinction. In March 2008 the Beni Department issued a Law decreeing the Bolivian Boto as a Natural Heritage. The Bolivian Boto has been mostly separated from the congeneric Amazon River Dolphin living in the lower Madeira by a sequence of rapids, but these have not formed a total barrier to downstream movement; individual Bolivian Botos have been found between and below the rapids. During years of exceptionally high water levels, upstream movements may even have been possible. However, the construction of the Jirau and Santo Antonio hydroelectric dams on the Madeira River in Brazil, begun in 2008 and completed in 2013, have now completely blocked all passage of botos in either direction. There are no quantitative studies of abundance or trends of the Bolivian Boto. Estimated densities for tributaries of the Iténez and Mamoré rivers were 3-2 ind/km and 3-5 ind/km, respectively, with estimated population sizes of 2986 and 1369 individuals. So far, the only known human impact on the Bolivian Botois entanglement in monofilament gillnets.","Aliaga-Rossel (2000, 2002) | Aliaga-Rossel et al. (2006) | Banguera-Hinestroza et al. (2002) | Best & da Silva (1989a, 1989b, 1993) | Gravena (2013) | Pilleri & Gihr (1977) | da Silva (1994) | Tavera et al. (2010)",https://zenodo.org/record/6599258/files/figure.png,"2.Bolivian BotoInia boliviensisFrench:Boto de Bolivie/ German:Bolivien-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del MadeiraOther common names:Bolivian BufeoTaxonomy.[nia boliviensis d’Orbigny, 1834, “la riviere du Guaporé” (= Itenez) near “Principe de Béira,” Brazil.Recent studies of mitochondrial control region sequences and the cytochrome b gene by E. Banguera-Hinestroza and colleagues in 2002 and mtDNA and nDNA by W. Gravena in 2013, reinforced earlier morphological evidence provided by V. M. F. da Silva in 1994, suggesting that the Bolivian Botos are an evolutionarily significant unit distinct from those in the Amazon and Orinoco drainages. Monotypic.Distribution.Bolivian lowlands (NE to the Chiquitano Mts and SW to the piedmont elevations in the subandean region) and SW Brazilian Amazon in the upper Madeira River, and the Beni, Ichilo, Marmoré, Ipurupuru, Iboré, Baré, Abuna, and Iténez (= Guaporé) rivers and their tributaries, all of which drain into the Madeira; recently also recorded below Santo Antonio falls between the cities of Porto Velho and Borba.Descriptive notes.Only two reliable body length measurements have been published 208 cm and 216 cm (adult females), but size is presumably very similar to the Amazon River Dolphin (1. geoffrensis) and the Araguaian Boto (I. araguaiaensis). Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in all species, with males larger and more robust than females. The main differences between the skull of boto species are the relative length of their rostrums and the number of teeth, which are greater in the Bolivian Boto, and the biparietal skull width which is comparatively narrower in the Bolivian Boto. Relative rostral length: ¢.73% of total skull length vs. ¢.65% in the Amazonian River Dolphin; number of teeth: upper row 31-35 teeth (mean 33-3) and lower jaw from 31-34 teeth (mean 32-3). Each upper and lower tooth row has 9-11 molar-type teeth.Habitat.Sediment-laden white water and clear water, but not black water, in lowland floodplains (oxbow and “varzea” or white-water lakes). Similar to other botos, it aggregates at confluences and meetings of waters and is present in most of the aquatic habitats ofthe region. Otherwise, the habitat of the Bolivian Boto is quite similar to the other species of botos in the Amazon.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but examination of stomach contents of two Bolivian Botos suggests a catholic piscivorous diet, similar to that of the Amazon River Dolphin.Breeding.There is no information available for this species, but it is likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin, in which the presence of neonates and juveniles has been observed throughout the year, with births peaking during low-water season.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species, but it probably moves seasonally due to fish migration and the annual flooding cycle. During the transition from high to low waters dolphins leave lagoons and flooded areas and go to main river channels, as do botos in the Brazilian Amazon and Araguaia river basins.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Encounter rates of Bolivian Botos are 0-2-5-8 ind/km of waterway, with greater densities in larger rivers. As described for botos elsewhere, this species is commonly sighted singly or in groups of up to four. Larger aggregations occur around a resource or in confluences and bays. Other characteristics of their movements and social organization have not been studied, but are likely similar to those of the Amazon River Dolphin.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as I. geoffrensisboliviensis). In Bolivia, this dolphin is indirectly protected by the Political Constitution and the Supreme Decree 25458 of July 1999, with a total ban on the hunting and trade of those native wildlife species considered to be in danger of extinction. In March 2008 the Beni Department issued a Law decreeing the Bolivian Boto as a Natural Heritage. The Bolivian Boto has been mostly separated from the congeneric Amazon River Dolphin living in the lower Madeira by a sequence of rapids, but these have not formed a total barrier to downstream movement; individual Bolivian Botos have been found between and below the rapids. During years of exceptionally high water levels, upstream movements may even have been possible. However, the construction of the Jirau and Santo Antonio hydroelectric dams on the Madeira River in Brazil, begun in 2008 and completed in 2013, have now completely blocked all passage of botos in either direction. There are no quantitative studies of abundance or trends of the Bolivian Boto. Estimated densities for tributaries of the Iténez and Mamoré rivers were 3-2 ind/km and 3-5 ind/km, respectively, with estimated population sizes of 2986 and 1369 individuals. So far, the only known human impact on the Bolivian Botois entanglement in monofilament gillnets.Bibliography.Aliaga-Rossel (2000, 2002), Aliaga-Rossel et al. (2006), Banguera-Hinestroza et al. (2002), Best & da Silva (1989a, 1989b, 1993), Gravena (2013), Pilleri & Gihr (1977), da Silva (1994), Tavera et al. (2010)." 0386EB21C26BFFA5FF6CFE0DFDF53BAD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Iniidae_0364.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbf9359c269ffa6ffe8ffb9ffd13a70,377,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/86/EB/0386EB21C26BFFA5FF6CFE0DFDF53BAD.xml,Inia geoffrensis,Inia,geoffrensis,,,Boto de Amazone @fr | Amazonas-Delfin @de | Delfin del Amazonas @es | Boto @en | Bufeo @en | Pink River Dolphin; Orinoco Boto @en | Orinoco Bufeo (Orinoco population) @en,"Delphinus geoffrensis de Blainville, 1817, “sur la cote du Brésil,” probably upper Amazon of Brazil.Botos living in the Orinoco Basin have been recognized as a subspecies, the “Orinoco Boto” (humboldtiana), by some authors, but movement of dolphins between this and the adjacent Amazon Basin is very likely to occur. Monotypic.","Most of the Orinoco and Amazon basins in Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador.","Total length 219-255 cm (males) and 182-225 cm (females); weight 113.5-207 kg (males) and 72-154 kg (females). Botos are the largest of all river dolphins. Amazon River Dolphins are highly sexually dimorphic, with adult males longer and heavier than females. Mature adult males often have “cobblestoning” skin modifications on pectoral fins and tailstock. These are related to fighting and may be a form of scar tissue or a shield or weapon. Body of the Amazon River Dolphin is corpulent and heavy but extremely flexible, capable of bending and twisting. Young are dark gray and became lighter with age. Adults can be from uniform pink to uniform dark gray, but usually grayer above and pinker below. Adult males are more pink than females and become pinker with age. The difference of body color between sexes is greater than in any other cetacean, with pinkness of males perhaps advertising size and strength in sexual display. Rostrum is prominent and robust, with short bristles on top and below the jaw. Eyes are small and inconspicuous, but vision is good. Amazon River Dolphins have two different types of teeth: conical and molartype. Total number of upper jaw teeth range from 23-35 (mean 26-6) and the lower jaw from 24-35 (mean 27-1). Each upper and lower mandible has 7-9 molar-type teeth on both sides. Melon is relatively small and flaccid and can be altered in shape by muscular control. Pectoral fins are large, broad, thick, paddle-like, and capable of desynchronized movements, allowing botos to swim backward and in shallow places. Flukes are broad, thick, and triangular in shape. Dorsal fin is not falcate (curved), but laterally flattened and like a dorsal keel extending from the mid-body to the strongly keeled caudal peduncle.","Freshwater, in waterways from the upper reaches of the Amazon and Orinoco to just above the brackish waters of their estuaries. Botos can swim in water shallower than 2 m and come very close to the shore c.1 m depth. Most Amazon River Dolphins live in areas of low gradient, where annual cycles of water depth produce profound habitat changes. For half the year, Amazon River Dolphins have access to vast areas of inundated floodplain, much of it consisting of a complex mosaic of forest, lakes, and channels. This habitat is characterized by low current and high fish density, providing a safe environment, especially for young individuals. Occupied rivers, lakes, and channels vary substantially in character. Some have acidic, black water emanating from flooded forests. Others have clear water originating in geologically old drainage basins. Many have white water laden with sediments from the Andes. Fish communities vary among these ecosystems, but Amazon River Dolphins feed on a wide variety of fish species. Seasonal changes in precipitation and water depth dominate habitats of botos. Major rivers and channels retain adequate water for Amazon River Dolphins throughout the year, but many of the smaller channels and lakes cannot be relied on to retain water in the dry season, so botos and most fish abandon them for several months of the year. The flexible body and broad, rotatable flippers of Amazon River Dolphins, together with the lack of a “normal” falcate dorsal fin, are adaptations for swimming in the tangled vegetation of the flooded forest.","The heterodont (more than one type of tooth) dentition of all three species of botos, unique in cetaceans, allows them to capture and crush armored prey such as armored catfish, crabs, and, on occasion, turtles. Fish dominates the diet of all botos. More than 50 fish species, representing more than 20 families, have been found in the stomachs of Amazon River Dolphins in the Central Amazon area, Brazil, including freshwater fish of benthic, littoral, and pelagic habits. Fish of 5-80 cm in length (average c.20 cm) are consumed. Prey diversity is greater at high water levels when botos have access to flooded forests.","Births of botos in Central Amazon, Brazil, occur throughout the year, with a small peak in the low-water season. Length of gestation is not accurately known, but it is probably 11-12 months. Littersize is always one. Neonates are 80-90 cm long and c.10-13 kg at birth. They remain with their mothers for at least two years. Simultaneous pregnancy and lactation are not uncommon, and reproductivciy active mature females spend most of their lives accompanied by a dependent offspring.","There is limited evidence of diurnal activity patterns of Amazon River Dolphins from echolocation click density and movements, but presence or absence of light is arguably unlikely to be of profound importance because botos live in waters where visibility and light penetration are usually very low. Indeed,vision is not essential to their well-being, and a substantial number of healthy botos have opaque eye lenses (cataracts).","Studies of Amazon River Dolphins in Brazil have relied on the resightings of individuals or, in one case, close-range detection of radio signals from marked individuals. Therefore, long-range movements are almost certainly underrepresented but are likely to occur. Daily movements of up to 20 km are normal, with sustained swimming speeds of 3-6 km/h. About half of Amazon River Dolphins at the entrance of the Mamiraua Lake system in the central Brazilian Amazon were “residents,” defined as being seen there in at least seven months of the year, and 90% of the botos seen inside the system met that definition. The “non-residents” demonstrated a range offidelity to the area, with some (among the hundreds marked permanently with freeze-brands) never being encountered again. Seasonal changes in water level and availabilities of habitats resulted in major local movements of botos on a scale of a few tens of kilometers, but they did not change overall numbers of botos in a local area. Similarly, no larger-scale migrations of Amazon River Dolphins are known or suspected, and there are no obvious reasons for such population-level movements.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Population sizes and trends are inadequately known. The Amazon River Dolphin is distributed throughout most of the Amazon Basin, and it occurs in and near the main stem of the Orinoco River and its largest tributary, the Apure River. It has been reported in smaller rivers of the Orinoco River system and may occur at low densities throughout this basin. Amazon River Dolphins do not occupy salty or brackish waters, but they are tolerant of a wide variety of types of freshwater and habitats. Shallow water, impassable rapids, and availability of food likely limit distribution of the Amazon River Dolphin. Total population size is unknown, but it is likely tens of thousands or more. In the year 2000, 13,000 Amazon River Dolphins were estimated to occur in an area of ¢.11,240 km? in Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve in the central Brazilian Amazon. Encounter rates are ¢.0-6 ind/km of waterway, and most botos in the major rivers occur near the margins. Estimated density of Iniain the Amazon River in Colombia (Loretoyacu and Javari rivers) was 1-8 ind/km? in an area of 593 km?, giving a total population estimate of 1115 botos. In Peru, in the Samiria River and a stretch of the Maranon River between the city of Iquitos and the confluence with the Samiria River, densities were 2.7 ind/km? and 5-9 ind/km? in an area of 554 km?, and estimated population size of 917 botos. In the Ecuadorian Amazon, in the rivers Napo, Cuyabeno, Yasuni, Lagartococha, and Aguarico in a surveyed area of 144 km?®, the population size estimate was 147 botos; encounter rates ranged 0-03-0-4 ind/km®. In the Orinoco River estimated density was 1-1 ind/km?* and population size 1779 in a surveyed area of 1684 km. The Amazon River Dolphin has been widespread and abundant, despite loss of many individuals (probably thousands) per year to entanglement and drowning in monofilament gillnets,first introduced in the 1960s and now used by almost every riverside household in the region. Young and juvenile botos were, and remain, especially vulnerable. Since 2000, standardized monitoring of abundance of Amazon River Dolphins in Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve detected a marked increase in mortality and the beginning of a steady decline in boto abundance. This coincided with reports of the deliberate killing of botos for use as fish bait. Botos are used as bait to catch an abundant scavenging catfish, the zamurito (Calophysus macropterus, Siluriformes), which is widely distributed in the Amazon River Basin. One person can catch hundreds of catfish in a single night, with no equipment other than a large box to hold the catch and a supply of suitable bait. As stocks of catfish diminished in Colombia, this method offishing was exported downriver into Brazil, and today botos from the Brazilian Amazon are harpooned and often sold specifically for bait in Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil. Hunting botos is illegal, clandestine, and almost impossible to quantify. Nevertheless, the approximate size of the catfish catch is known, and calculations of the ratio of botos used per ton of catfish landed, derived from the communities involved, indicates that across its distribution, thousands of Amazon River Dolphins are killed each year in pursuit of this one fishery. In some places, the impact of this hunt on the overall population of Amazon River Dolphins appears to be profound. The hunt continues unabated, and the population continues to decline at an annual rate of ¢.10%. The Amazon River Dolphin is steeped in folklore legends. River-dwelling communities in Brazil fear and revere the Amazon River Dolphin, which is reputed to transform into a man under cover of darkness and seduce women, thereby explaining unexpected pregnancies in human fishing communities. Supposed body parts of Amazon River Dolphins are bought as love charms in Amazonian markets, but DNA analyses have revealed that these are rarely accurately labeled, at least in recent times. Most derive from domestic pigs and sheep, and the Guiana Dolphin (Sotalia guianensis), an ocean dolphin.","Aliaga-Rossel et al. (2006) | Araujo (2010) | Araujo & da Silva (2014) | Araujo & Wang (2012) | Banguera-Hinestroza et al. (2002) | Best (1984) | Best & da Silva (1983, 1984, 1989a, 1989b, 1993) | de Blainville (1817) | Costa et al. (2013) | Cuvier (1823) | Desmarest (1822) | Dutra et al. (2013) | Gervais (1855) | Gomez-Salazar et al. (2012) | Gravena et al. (2008) | Hrbek et al. (2014) | Lailson-Brito et al. (2008) | Latrubesse & Stevaux (2006) | Martin & da Silva (2004a, 2004b, 2006) | Martin, da Silva & Rothery (2008) | Martin, da Silva & Salmon (2004) | May-Collado & Wartzok (2007) | McGuire & Aliaga-Rossel (2010) | McGuire & Winemiller (1998) | Mead & Koehnken (1991) | Mintzer et al. (2013) | d'Orbigny (1834) | Podos et al. (2002) | Rapp (1837) | Reeves & Martin (2009) | Reeves, Jefferson et al. (2008c) | Romagnoli (2009) | Romagnoli et al. (2011) | Sasaki (2013) | Serrano et al. (2007) | da Silva (1983, 1994, 2009) | da Silva & Best (1990,1996) | da Silva & Martin (2000, 2007, 2010) | da Silva, Goulding & Barthem (2008) | da Silva, Martin & do Carmo (2011) | Sioli (1984) | Slater (1994) | von Spix & von Martius (1831) | Tavera et al. (2010) | Tregenza et al. (2007) | Trujillo et al. (2010) | Vidal et al. (1997)",https://zenodo.org/record/6599256/files/figure.png,"1.Amazon River DolphinInia geoffrensisFrench:Boto de Amazone/ German:Amazonas-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del AmazonasOther common names:Boto, Bufeo, Pink River Dolphin; Orinoco Boto, Orinoco Bufeo (Orinoco population)Taxonomy.Delphinus geoffrensis de Blainville, 1817, “sur la cote du Brésil,” probably upper Amazon of Brazil.Botos living in the Orinoco Basin have been recognized as a subspecies, the “Orinoco Boto” (humboldtiana), by some authors, but movement of dolphins between this and the adjacent Amazon Basin is very likely to occur. Monotypic.Distribution.Most of the Orinoco and Amazon basins in Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Total length 219-255 cm (males) and 182-225 cm (females); weight 113.5-207 kg (males) and 72-154 kg (females). Botos are the largest of all river dolphins. Amazon River Dolphins are highly sexually dimorphic, with adult males longer and heavier than females. Mature adult males often have “cobblestoning” skin modifications on pectoral fins and tailstock. These are related to fighting and may be a form of scar tissue or a shield or weapon. Body of the Amazon River Dolphin is corpulent and heavy but extremely flexible, capable of bending and twisting. Young are dark gray and became lighter with age. Adults can be from uniform pink to uniform dark gray, but usually grayer above and pinker below. Adult males are more pink than females and become pinker with age. The difference of body color between sexes is greater than in any other cetacean, with pinkness of males perhaps advertising size and strength in sexual display. Rostrum is prominent and robust, with short bristles on top and below the jaw. Eyes are small and inconspicuous, but vision is good. Amazon River Dolphins have two different types of teeth: conical and molartype. Total number of upper jaw teeth range from 23-35 (mean 26-6) and the lower jaw from 24-35 (mean 27-1). Each upper and lower mandible has 7-9 molar-type teeth on both sides. Melon is relatively small and flaccid and can be altered in shape by muscular control. Pectoral fins are large, broad, thick, paddle-like, and capable of desynchronized movements, allowing botos to swim backward and in shallow places. Flukes are broad, thick, and triangular in shape. Dorsal fin is not falcate (curved), but laterally flattened and like a dorsal keel extending from the mid-body to the strongly keeled caudal peduncle.Habitat.Freshwater, in waterways from the upper reaches of the Amazon and Orinoco to just above the brackish waters of their estuaries. Botos can swim in water shallower than 2 m and come very close to the shore c.1 m depth. Most Amazon River Dolphins live in areas of low gradient, where annual cycles of water depth produce profound habitat changes. For half the year, Amazon River Dolphins have access to vast areas of inundated floodplain, much of it consisting of a complex mosaic of forest, lakes, and channels. This habitat is characterized by low current and high fish density, providing a safe environment, especially for young individuals. Occupied rivers, lakes, and channels vary substantially in character. Some have acidic, black water emanating from flooded forests. Others have clear water originating in geologically old drainage basins. Many have white water laden with sediments from the Andes. Fish communities vary among these ecosystems, but Amazon River Dolphins feed on a wide variety of fish species. Seasonal changes in precipitation and water depth dominate habitats of botos. Major rivers and channels retain adequate water for Amazon River Dolphins throughout the year, but many of the smaller channels and lakes cannot be relied on to retain water in the dry season, so botos and most fish abandon them for several months of the year. The flexible body and broad, rotatable flippers of Amazon River Dolphins, together with the lack of a “normal” falcate dorsal fin, are adaptations for swimming in the tangled vegetation of the flooded forest.Food and Feeding.The heterodont (more than one type of tooth) dentition of all three species of botos, unique in cetaceans, allows them to capture and crush armored prey such as armored catfish, crabs, and, on occasion, turtles. Fish dominates the diet of all botos. More than 50 fish species, representing more than 20 families, have been found in the stomachs of Amazon River Dolphins in the Central Amazon area, Brazil, including freshwater fish of benthic, littoral, and pelagic habits. Fish of 5-80 cm in length (average c.20 cm) are consumed. Prey diversity is greater at high water levels when botos have access to flooded forests.Breeding.Births of botos in Central Amazon, Brazil, occur throughout the year, with a small peak in the low-water season. Length of gestation is not accurately known, but it is probably 11-12 months. Littersize is always one. Neonates are 80-90 cm long and c.10-13 kg at birth. They remain with their mothers for at least two years. Simultaneous pregnancy and lactation are not uncommon, and reproductivciy active mature females spend most of their lives accompanied by a dependent offspring.Activity patterns.There is limited evidence of diurnal activity patterns of Amazon River Dolphins from echolocation click density and movements, but presence or absence of light is arguably unlikely to be of profound importance because botos live in waters where visibility and light penetration are usually very low. Indeed,vision is not essential to their well-being, and a substantial number of healthy botos have opaque eye lenses (cataracts).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Studies of Amazon River Dolphins in Brazil have relied on the resightings of individuals or, in one case, close-range detection of radio signals from marked individuals. Therefore, long-range movements are almost certainly underrepresented but are likely to occur. Daily movements of up to 20 km are normal, with sustained swimming speeds of 3-6 km/h. About half of Amazon River Dolphins at the entrance of the Mamiraua Lake system in the central Brazilian Amazon were “residents,” defined as being seen there in at least seven months of the year, and 90% of the botos seen inside the system met that definition. The “non-residents” demonstrated a range offidelity to the area, with some (among the hundreds marked permanently with freeze-brands) never being encountered again. Seasonal changes in water level and availabilities of habitats resulted in major local movements of botos on a scale of a few tens of kilometers, but they did not change overall numbers of botos in a local area. Similarly, no larger-scale migrations of Amazon River Dolphins are known or suspected, and there are no obvious reasons for such population-level movements.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Population sizes and trends are inadequately known. The Amazon River Dolphin is distributed throughout most of the Amazon Basin, and it occurs in and near the main stem of the Orinoco River and its largest tributary, the Apure River. It has been reported in smaller rivers of the Orinoco River system and may occur at low densities throughout this basin. Amazon River Dolphins do not occupy salty or brackish waters, but they are tolerant of a wide variety of types of freshwater and habitats. Shallow water, impassable rapids, and availability of food likely limit distribution of the Amazon River Dolphin. Total population size is unknown, but it is likely tens of thousands or more. In the year 2000, 13,000 Amazon River Dolphins were estimated to occur in an area of ¢.11,240 km? in Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve in the central Brazilian Amazon. Encounter rates are ¢.0-6 ind/km of waterway, and most botos in the major rivers occur near the margins. Estimated density of Iniain the Amazon River in Colombia (Loretoyacu and Javari rivers) was 1-8 ind/km? in an area of 593 km?, giving a total population estimate of 1115 botos. In Peru, in the Samiria River and a stretch of the Maranon River between the city of Iquitos and the confluence with the Samiria River, densities were 2.7 ind/km? and 5-9 ind/km? in an area of 554 km?, and estimated population size of 917 botos. In the Ecuadorian Amazon, in the rivers Napo, Cuyabeno, Yasuni, Lagartococha, and Aguarico in a surveyed area of 144 km?®, the population size estimate was 147 botos; encounter rates ranged 0-03-0-4 ind/km®. In the Orinoco River estimated density was 1-1 ind/km?* and population size 1779 in a surveyed area of 1684 km. The Amazon River Dolphin has been widespread and abundant, despite loss of many individuals (probably thousands) per year to entanglement and drowning in monofilament gillnets,first introduced in the 1960s and now used by almost every riverside household in the region. Young and juvenile botos were, and remain, especially vulnerable. Since 2000, standardized monitoring of abundance of Amazon River Dolphins in Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve detected a marked increase in mortality and the beginning of a steady decline in boto abundance. This coincided with reports of the deliberate killing of botos for use as fish bait. Botos are used as bait to catch an abundant scavenging catfish, the zamurito (Calophysus macropterus, Siluriformes), which is widely distributed in the Amazon River Basin. One person can catch hundreds of catfish in a single night, with no equipment other than a large box to hold the catch and a supply of suitable bait. As stocks of catfish diminished in Colombia, this method offishing was exported downriver into Brazil, and today botos from the Brazilian Amazon are harpooned and often sold specifically for bait in Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil. Hunting botos is illegal, clandestine, and almost impossible to quantify. Nevertheless, the approximate size of the catfish catch is known, and calculations of the ratio of botos used per ton of catfish landed, derived from the communities involved, indicates that across its distribution, thousands of Amazon River Dolphins are killed each year in pursuit of this one fishery. In some places, the impact of this hunt on the overall population of Amazon River Dolphins appears to be profound. The hunt continues unabated, and the population continues to decline at an annual rate of ¢.10%. The Amazon River Dolphin is steeped in folklore legends. River-dwelling communities in Brazil fear and revere the Amazon River Dolphin, which is reputed to transform into a man under cover of darkness and seduce women, thereby explaining unexpected pregnancies in human fishing communities. Supposed body parts of Amazon River Dolphins are bought as love charms in Amazonian markets, but DNA analyses have revealed that these are rarely accurately labeled, at least in recent times. Most derive from domestic pigs and sheep, and the Guiana Dolphin (Sotalia guianensis), an ocean dolphin.Bibliography.Aliaga-Rossel et al. (2006), Araujo (2010), Araujo & da Silva (2014), Araujo & Wang (2012), Banguera-Hinestroza et al. (2002), Best (1984), Best & da Silva (1983, 1984, 1989a, 1989b, 1993), de Blainville (1817), Costa et al. (2013), Cuvier (1823), Desmarest (1822), Dutra et al. (2013), Gervais (1855), Gomez-Salazar et al. (2012), Gravena et al. (2008), Hrbek et al. (2014), Lailson-Brito et al. (2008), Latrubesse & Stevaux (2006), Martin & da Silva (2004a, 2004b, 2006), Martin, da Silva & Rothery (2008), Martin, da Silva & Salmon (2004), May-Collado & Wartzok (2007), McGuire & Aliaga-Rossel (2010), McGuire & Winemiller (1998), Mead & Koehnken (1991), Mintzer et al. (2013), d'Orbigny (1834), Podos et al. (2002), Rapp (1837), Reeves & Martin (2009), Reeves, Jefferson et al. (2008c), Romagnoli (2009), Romagnoli et al. (2011), Sasaki (2013), Serrano et al. (2007), da Silva (1983, 1994, 2009), da Silva & Best (1990,1996), da Silva & Martin (2000, 2007, 2010), da Silva, Goulding & Barthem (2008), da Silva, Martin & do Carmo (2011), Sioli (1984), Slater (1994), von Spix & von Martius (1831), Tavera et al. (2010), Tregenza et al. (2007), Trujillo et al. (2010), Vidal et al. (1997)." -03877A3E4F185F2FFF63F73BF7E7F8FA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Daubentoniidae_0176.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbe02464f195f2dffc9fff0ffd6ffc3,182,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/7A/03877A3E4F185F2FFF63F73BF7E7F8FA.xml,Daubentonia madagascariensis,Daubentonia,madagascariensis,,,Aye-aye @fr | Fingertier @de | Aye-aye @es,"Sciurus madagascariensis Gmelin, 1788,Western Madagascar.There is a marked difference in size between eastern and north-western representatives ofthis species, with individuals from the eastern part ofthe distribution tending to be larger. Monotypic.","Madagascar, mainly in the E, N & CW parts ofthe island, but it evidently occurs in low numbers in pockets across most coastal areas; whether it existed on Nosy Mangabeprior to the mid-1960s introduction remains uncertain.","Head—body 30-37 cm, tail 44-53 cm; weight 2.4-2.6 kg (there is a little sexual dimorphism, with females being slightly smaller than males). The Aye-ayeis one of the most unusual and distinctive primates. It is immediately recognizable by its large size, prominent ears, long thin fingers and toes, and long bushy tail. Its overall appearance is a dark grayish-brown. The dorsal coat, including that ofthe limbs, consists of a dense layer ofshort, off-white hairs overlaid by a longer, coarser layer of blackish-brown, white-tipped guard hairs, giving the animal a brindled and shaggy appearance. The tail is darkly colored, andits hairs are monochromatic. The ventral coat is similar to the dorsal coat in hair pattern, but it is not as dense and turns whiter on the chest, throat, and face. The head is short, oval-shaped, and large, with a short, tapering, thinly-haired muzzle and prominent eyes that are orientated towardthe front. Thenose is pink andrather pointed. The enormous, highly mobile ears are naked and black. Hands and feet are black with elongated digits, and the third digit of the hand is very slender and withered in appearance.Habitat.Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.Breeding.The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food.","Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.","Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.","The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.","Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.","Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food. Habitat destruction also threatens them throughout their range, with trees such as Intsiabijuga and Canariummadagascariense—dietary staples—preferentially harvested for construction of boats, houses, and coffins. Aye-ayes are known to occur in twelve national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, Ranomafana, Sahamalaza-Iles Radama, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), three strict nature reserves (Betampona, Tsaratanana, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Foret d’Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d’Ivohibe). Theyalso are found in the forests of Daraina (part of the Loky-Manambato protected area) and Maroala and Anjiamangirana classified forests. Despite occurring in many protected areas, their presence is often based only on signs and infrequent sightings, and little is known about their population sizes and dynamics. There is an urgent need for a systematic census of this important flagship species throughout its range, with the ultimate goal of developing a conservation action plan. In the mid-1990s, the total world population was estimated at 1000-10,000.","Albignac (1987) | Ancrenaz et al. (1994) | Andriamasimanana (1994) | Ankel-Simons (1996, 2000) | Barrows (2001) | Beattie et al. (1992) | Bomford (1976, 1981) | Bradt (1994, 2007) | Britt et al. (1999) | Buettner-Janusch & Tattersall (1985) | Carroll & Beattie (1993) | Carroll & Haring (1994) | Cartmill (1974) | Cohn (1993) | Constable et al. (1985) | Curtis (1992) | Curtis & Feistner (1994) | Del Pero et al. (2005) | Dubois & lzard (1990) | Duckworth (1993) | Duckworth et al. (1995) | Dutrillaux & Rumpler (1995) | Erickson (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1998) | Erickson et al. (1998) | Feistner & Ashbourne (1994) | Feistner & Carroll (1993) | Feistner & Sterling (1995) | Feistner & Taylor (1998) | Feistner et al. (1994) | Fleagle (1988) | Ganzhorn & Rabesoa (1986a, 1986b) | Glander (1994a, 1994b) | Godfrey & Jungers (2003) | Godfrey et al. (2003a) | Goix (1993) | Goodman & Ganzhorn (2004) | Groves (1974, 1989, 2001) | Grzimek (1968) | Hakeem et al. (1996) | Harcourt & Thornback (1990) | Haring et al. (1994) | Hawkins et al. (1990) | Iwano (1991a, 1991b) | Iwano & Iwakawa (1988, 1991) | Iwano et al. (1991) | Jolly (1998) | Jones (1986) | Jungers et al. (2002) | Jury (2003) | Kappeler (1997) | Koenig (2005) | Krakauer et al. (2001, 2002) | MacPhee & Raholimavo (1988) | Milliken et al. (1991) | Mittermeier, Konstant et al. (1992) | Mittermeier, Louis et al. (2010) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nicoll & Langrand (1989) | O'Connor et al. (1986) | Oxnard (1981) | Petter (1977) | Petter & Charles-Dominique (1979) | Petter & Petter (1967) | Petter & Peyrieras (1970b) | Petter-Rousseaux & Bourliere (1965) | Pollock et al. (1985) | Poorman-Allen & lzard (1990) | Price & Feistner (1994) | Quinn & Wilson (2004) | Rahajanirina & Dollar (2004) | Rakotoarison (1995b) | Randriananbinina et al. (2003) | Randrianarisoa et al. (1999) | Rendall (1993) | Roos (2003) | Roos et al. (2004) | Rowe (1996) | Rumpler, Warter, Ishak & Dutrillaux (1989) | Rumpler, Warter, Petter et al. (1988) | Schmid & Smolker (1998) | Schwartz & Tattersall (1985) | Schwitzer & Lork (2004) | Simons (1993, 1994) | Simons & Meyers (2001) | Soligo (2005) | Soligo & Miller (1999) | Stanger & Macedonia (1994) | Stephan (1972) | Sterling (1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1998, 2003) | Sterling & McFadden (2000) | Sterling & McCreless (2006) | Sterling & Povinelli (1999) | Sterling & Rakotoarison (1998) | Sterling & Ramaroson (1996) | Sterling & Richard (1995) | Sterling et al. (1994) | Sussman (1977) | Sussman et al. (1985) | Tattersall (1982) | Tattersall & Schwartz (1974) | Thalmann et al. (1999) | Walker (1975) | Winn (1989, 1994a, 1994b) | Yoder (1997) | Yoder et al. (1996)",,"Aye-ayeDaubentonia madagascariensisFrench:Aye-aye/ German:Fingertier/ Spanish:Aye-ayeTaxonomy.Sciurus madagascariensis Gmelin, 1788,Western Madagascar.There is a marked difference in size between eastern and north-western representatives ofthis species, with individuals from the eastern part ofthe distribution tending to be larger. Monotypic.Distribution.Madagascar, mainly in the E, N & CW parts ofthe island, but it evidently occurs in low numbers in pockets across most coastal areas; whether it existed on Nosy Mangabeprior to the mid-1960s introduction remains uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head—body 30-37 cm, tail 44-53 cm; weight 2.4-2.6 kg (there is a little sexual dimorphism, with females being slightly smaller than males). The Aye-ayeis one of the most unusual and distinctive primates. It is immediately recognizable by its large size, prominent ears, long thin fingers and toes, and long bushy tail. Its overall appearance is a dark grayish-brown. The dorsal coat, including that ofthe limbs, consists of a dense layer ofshort, off-white hairs overlaid by a longer, coarser layer of blackish-brown, white-tipped guard hairs, giving the animal a brindled and shaggy appearance. The tail is darkly colored, andits hairs are monochromatic. The ventral coat is similar to the dorsal coat in hair pattern, but it is not as dense and turns whiter on the chest, throat, and face. The head is short, oval-shaped, and large, with a short, tapering, thinly-haired muzzle and prominent eyes that are orientated towardthe front. Thenose is pink andrather pointed. The enormous, highly mobile ears are naked and black. Hands and feet are black with elongated digits, and the third digit of the hand is very slender and withered in appearance.Habitat.Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.Breeding.The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food. Habitat destruction also threatens them throughout their range, with trees such as Intsiabijuga and Canariummadagascariense—dietary staples—preferentially harvested for construction of boats, houses, and coffins. Aye-ayes are known to occur in twelve national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, Ranomafana, Sahamalaza-Iles Radama, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), three strict nature reserves (Betampona, Tsaratanana, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Foret d’Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d’Ivohibe). Theyalso are found in the forests of Daraina (part of the Loky-Manambato protected area) and Maroala and Anjiamangirana classified forests. Despite occurring in many protected areas, their presence is often based only on signs and infrequent sightings, and little is known about their population sizes and dynamics. There is an urgent need for a systematic census of this important flagship species throughout its range, with the ultimate goal of developing a conservation action plan. In the mid-1990s, the total world population was estimated at 1000-10,000.Bibliography.Albignac (1987), Ancrenaz et al. (1994), Andriamasimanana (1994), Ankel-Simons (1996, 2000), Barrows (2001), Beattie et al. (1992), Bomford (1976, 1981), Bradt (1994, 2007), Britt et al. (1999), Buettner-Janusch & Tattersall (1985), Carroll & Beattie (1993), Carroll & Haring (1994), Cartmill (1974), Cohn (1993), Constable et al. (1985), Curtis (1992), Curtis & Feistner (1994), Del Pero et al. (2005), Dubois & lzard (1990), Duckworth (1993), Duckworth et al. (1995), Dutrillaux & Rumpler (1995), Erickson (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1998), Erickson et al. (1998), Feistner & Ashbourne (1994), Feistner & Carroll (1993), Feistner & Sterling (1995), Feistner & Taylor (1998), Feistner et al. (1994), Fleagle (1988), Ganzhorn & Rabesoa (1986a, 1986b), Glander (1994a, 1994b), Godfrey & Jungers (2003), Godfrey et al. (2003a), Goix (1993), Goodman & Ganzhorn (2004), Groves (1974, 1989, 2001), Grzimek (1968), Hakeem et al. (1996), Harcourt & Thornback (1990), Haring et al. (1994), Hawkins et al. (1990), Iwano (1991a, 1991b), Iwano & Iwakawa (1988, 1991), Iwano et al. (1991), Jolly (1998), Jones (1986), Jungers et al. (2002), Jury (2003), Kappeler (1997), Koenig (2005), Krakauer et al. (2001, 2002), MacPhee & Raholimavo (1988), Milliken et al. (1991), Mittermeier, Konstant et al. (1992), Mittermeier, Louis et al. (2010), Napier & Napier (1967), Nicoll & Langrand (1989), O'Connor et al. (1986), Oxnard (1981), Petter (1977), Petter & Charles-Dominique (1979), Petter & Petter (1967), Petter & Peyrieras (1970b), Petter-Rousseaux & Bourliere (1965), Pollock et al. (1985), Poorman-Allen & lzard (1990), Price & Feistner (1994), Quinn & Wilson (2004), Rahajanirina & Dollar (2004), Rakotoarison (1995b), Randriananbinina et al. (2003), Randrianarisoa et al. (1999), Rendall (1993), Roos (2003), Roos et al. (2004), Rowe (1996), Rumpler, Warter, Ishak & Dutrillaux (1989), Rumpler, Warter, Petter et al. (1988), Schmid & Smolker (1998), Schwartz & Tattersall (1985), Schwitzer & Lork (2004), Simons (1993, 1994), Simons & Meyers (2001), Soligo (2005), Soligo & Miller (1999), Stanger & Macedonia (1994), Stephan (1972), Sterling (1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1998, 2003), Sterling & McFadden (2000), Sterling & McCreless (2006), Sterling & Povinelli (1999), Sterling & Rakotoarison (1998), Sterling & Ramaroson (1996), Sterling & Richard (1995), Sterling et al. (1994), Sussman (1977), Sussman et al. (1985), Tattersall (1982), Tattersall & Schwartz (1974), Thalmann et al. (1999), Walker (1975), Winn (1989, 1994a, 1994b), Yoder (1997), Yoder et al. (1996)." +03877A3E4F185F2FFF63F73BF7E7F8FA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Daubentoniidae_0176.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbe02464f195f2dffc9fff0ffd6ffc3,182,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/7A/03877A3E4F185F2FFF63F73BF7E7F8FA.xml,Daubentonia madagascariensis,Daubentonia,madagascariensis,,,Aye-aye @fr | Fingertier @de | Aye-aye @es,"Sciurus madagascariensis Gmelin, 1788,Western Madagascar.There is a marked difference in size between eastern and north-western representatives ofthis species, with individuals from the eastern part ofthe distribution tending to be larger. Monotypic.","Madagascar, mainly in the E, N & CW parts ofthe island, but it evidently occurs in low numbers in pockets across most coastal areas; whether it existed on Nosy Mangabeprior to the mid-1960s introduction remains uncertain.","Head—body 30-37 cm, tail 44-53 cm; weight 2.4-2.6 kg (there is a little sexual dimorphism, with females being slightly smaller than males). The Aye-ayeis one of the most unusual and distinctive primates. It is immediately recognizable by its large size, prominent ears, long thin fingers and toes, and long bushy tail. Its overall appearance is a dark grayish-brown. The dorsal coat, including that ofthe limbs, consists of a dense layer ofshort, off-white hairs overlaid by a longer, coarser layer of blackish-brown, white-tipped guard hairs, giving the animal a brindled and shaggy appearance. The tail is darkly colored, andits hairs are monochromatic. The ventral coat is similar to the dorsal coat in hair pattern, but it is not as dense and turns whiter on the chest, throat, and face. The head is short, oval-shaped, and large, with a short, tapering, thinly-haired muzzle and prominent eyes that are orientated towardthe front. Thenose is pink andrather pointed. The enormous, highly mobile ears are naked and black. Hands and feet are black with elongated digits, and the third digit of the hand is very slender and withered in appearance.Habitat.Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.Breeding.The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food.","Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.","Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.","The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.","Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.","Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food. Habitat destruction also threatens them throughout their range, with trees such as Intsiabijuga and Canariummadagascariense—dietary staples—preferentially harvested for construction of boats, houses, and coffins. Aye-ayes are known to occur in twelve national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, Ranomafana, Sahamalaza-Iles Radama, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), three strict nature reserves (Betampona, Tsaratanana, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Foret d’Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d’Ivohibe). Theyalso are found in the forests of Daraina (part of the Loky-Manambato protected area) and Maroala and Anjiamangirana classified forests. Despite occurring in many protected areas, their presence is often based only on signs and infrequent sightings, and little is known about their population sizes and dynamics. There is an urgent need for a systematic census of this important flagship species throughout its range, with the ultimate goal of developing a conservation action plan. In the mid-1990s, the total world population was estimated at 1000-10,000.","Albignac (1987) | Ancrenaz et al. (1994) | Andriamasimanana (1994) | Ankel-Simons (1996, 2000) | Barrows (2001) | Beattie et al. (1992) | Bomford (1976, 1981) | Bradt (1994, 2007) | Britt et al. (1999) | Buettner-Janusch & Tattersall (1985) | Carroll & Beattie (1993) | Carroll & Haring (1994) | Cartmill (1974) | Cohn (1993) | Constable et al. (1985) | Curtis (1992) | Curtis & Feistner (1994) | Del Pero et al. (2005) | Dubois & lzard (1990) | Duckworth (1993) | Duckworth et al. (1995) | Dutrillaux & Rumpler (1995) | Erickson (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1998) | Erickson et al. (1998) | Feistner & Ashbourne (1994) | Feistner & Carroll (1993) | Feistner & Sterling (1995) | Feistner & Taylor (1998) | Feistner et al. (1994) | Fleagle (1988) | Ganzhorn & Rabesoa (1986a, 1986b) | Glander (1994a, 1994b) | Godfrey & Jungers (2003) | Godfrey et al. (2003a) | Goix (1993) | Goodman & Ganzhorn (2004) | Groves (1974, 1989, 2001) | Grzimek (1968) | Hakeem et al. (1996) | Harcourt & Thornback (1990) | Haring et al. (1994) | Hawkins et al. (1990) | Iwano (1991a, 1991b) | Iwano & Iwakawa (1988, 1991) | Iwano et al. (1991) | Jolly (1998) | Jones (1986) | Jungers et al. (2002) | Jury (2003) | Kappeler (1997) | Koenig (2005) | Krakauer et al. (2001, 2002) | MacPhee & Raholimavo (1988) | Milliken et al. (1991) | Mittermeier, Konstant et al. (1992) | Mittermeier, Louis et al. (2010) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nicoll & Langrand (1989) | O'Connor et al. (1986) | Oxnard (1981) | Petter (1977) | Petter & Charles-Dominique (1979) | Petter & Petter (1967) | Petter & Peyrieras (1970b) | Petter-Rousseaux & Bourliere (1965) | Pollock et al. (1985) | Poorman-Allen & lzard (1990) | Price & Feistner (1994) | Quinn & Wilson (2004) | Rahajanirina & Dollar (2004) | Rakotoarison (1995b) | Randriananbinina et al. (2003) | Randrianarisoa et al. (1999) | Rendall (1993) | Roos (2003) | Roos et al. (2004) | Rowe (1996) | Rumpler, Warter, Ishak & Dutrillaux (1989) | Rumpler, Warter, Petter et al. (1988) | Schmid & Smolker (1998) | Schwartz & Tattersall (1985) | Schwitzer & Lork (2004) | Simons (1993, 1994) | Simons & Meyers (2001) | Soligo (2005) | Soligo & Miller (1999) | Stanger & Macedonia (1994) | Stephan (1972) | Sterling (1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1998, 2003) | Sterling & McFadden (2000) | Sterling & McCreless (2006) | Sterling & Povinelli (1999) | Sterling & Rakotoarison (1998) | Sterling & Ramaroson (1996) | Sterling & Richard (1995) | Sterling et al. (1994) | Sussman (1977) | Sussman et al. (1985) | Tattersall (1982) | Tattersall & Schwartz (1974) | Thalmann et al. (1999) | Walker (1975) | Winn (1989, 1994a, 1994b) | Yoder (1997) | Yoder et al. (1996)",https://zenodo.org/record/6640351/files/figure.png,"Aye-ayeDaubentonia madagascariensisFrench:Aye-aye/ German:Fingertier/ Spanish:Aye-ayeTaxonomy.Sciurus madagascariensis Gmelin, 1788,Western Madagascar.There is a marked difference in size between eastern and north-western representatives ofthis species, with individuals from the eastern part ofthe distribution tending to be larger. Monotypic.Distribution.Madagascar, mainly in the E, N & CW parts ofthe island, but it evidently occurs in low numbers in pockets across most coastal areas; whether it existed on Nosy Mangabeprior to the mid-1960s introduction remains uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head—body 30-37 cm, tail 44-53 cm; weight 2.4-2.6 kg (there is a little sexual dimorphism, with females being slightly smaller than males). The Aye-ayeis one of the most unusual and distinctive primates. It is immediately recognizable by its large size, prominent ears, long thin fingers and toes, and long bushy tail. Its overall appearance is a dark grayish-brown. The dorsal coat, including that ofthe limbs, consists of a dense layer ofshort, off-white hairs overlaid by a longer, coarser layer of blackish-brown, white-tipped guard hairs, giving the animal a brindled and shaggy appearance. The tail is darkly colored, andits hairs are monochromatic. The ventral coat is similar to the dorsal coat in hair pattern, but it is not as dense and turns whiter on the chest, throat, and face. The head is short, oval-shaped, and large, with a short, tapering, thinly-haired muzzle and prominent eyes that are orientated towardthe front. Thenose is pink andrather pointed. The enormous, highly mobile ears are naked and black. Hands and feet are black with elongated digits, and the third digit of the hand is very slender and withered in appearance.Habitat.Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.Breeding.The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food. Habitat destruction also threatens them throughout their range, with trees such as Intsiabijuga and Canariummadagascariense—dietary staples—preferentially harvested for construction of boats, houses, and coffins. Aye-ayes are known to occur in twelve national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, Ranomafana, Sahamalaza-Iles Radama, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), three strict nature reserves (Betampona, Tsaratanana, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Foret d’Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d’Ivohibe). Theyalso are found in the forests of Daraina (part of the Loky-Manambato protected area) and Maroala and Anjiamangirana classified forests. Despite occurring in many protected areas, their presence is often based only on signs and infrequent sightings, and little is known about their population sizes and dynamics. There is an urgent need for a systematic census of this important flagship species throughout its range, with the ultimate goal of developing a conservation action plan. In the mid-1990s, the total world population was estimated at 1000-10,000.Bibliography.Albignac (1987), Ancrenaz et al. (1994), Andriamasimanana (1994), Ankel-Simons (1996, 2000), Barrows (2001), Beattie et al. (1992), Bomford (1976, 1981), Bradt (1994, 2007), Britt et al. (1999), Buettner-Janusch & Tattersall (1985), Carroll & Beattie (1993), Carroll & Haring (1994), Cartmill (1974), Cohn (1993), Constable et al. (1985), Curtis (1992), Curtis & Feistner (1994), Del Pero et al. (2005), Dubois & lzard (1990), Duckworth (1993), Duckworth et al. (1995), Dutrillaux & Rumpler (1995), Erickson (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1998), Erickson et al. (1998), Feistner & Ashbourne (1994), Feistner & Carroll (1993), Feistner & Sterling (1995), Feistner & Taylor (1998), Feistner et al. (1994), Fleagle (1988), Ganzhorn & Rabesoa (1986a, 1986b), Glander (1994a, 1994b), Godfrey & Jungers (2003), Godfrey et al. (2003a), Goix (1993), Goodman & Ganzhorn (2004), Groves (1974, 1989, 2001), Grzimek (1968), Hakeem et al. (1996), Harcourt & Thornback (1990), Haring et al. (1994), Hawkins et al. (1990), Iwano (1991a, 1991b), Iwano & Iwakawa (1988, 1991), Iwano et al. (1991), Jolly (1998), Jones (1986), Jungers et al. (2002), Jury (2003), Kappeler (1997), Koenig (2005), Krakauer et al. (2001, 2002), MacPhee & Raholimavo (1988), Milliken et al. (1991), Mittermeier, Konstant et al. (1992), Mittermeier, Louis et al. (2010), Napier & Napier (1967), Nicoll & Langrand (1989), O'Connor et al. (1986), Oxnard (1981), Petter (1977), Petter & Charles-Dominique (1979), Petter & Petter (1967), Petter & Peyrieras (1970b), Petter-Rousseaux & Bourliere (1965), Pollock et al. (1985), Poorman-Allen & lzard (1990), Price & Feistner (1994), Quinn & Wilson (2004), Rahajanirina & Dollar (2004), Rakotoarison (1995b), Randriananbinina et al. (2003), Randrianarisoa et al. (1999), Rendall (1993), Roos (2003), Roos et al. (2004), Rowe (1996), Rumpler, Warter, Ishak & Dutrillaux (1989), Rumpler, Warter, Petter et al. (1988), Schmid & Smolker (1998), Schwartz & Tattersall (1985), Schwitzer & Lork (2004), Simons (1993, 1994), Simons & Meyers (2001), Soligo (2005), Soligo & Miller (1999), Stanger & Macedonia (1994), Stephan (1972), Sterling (1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1998, 2003), Sterling & McFadden (2000), Sterling & McCreless (2006), Sterling & Povinelli (1999), Sterling & Rakotoarison (1998), Sterling & Ramaroson (1996), Sterling & Richard (1995), Sterling et al. (1994), Sussman (1977), Sussman et al. (1985), Tattersall (1982), Tattersall & Schwartz (1974), Thalmann et al. (1999), Walker (1975), Winn (1989, 1994a, 1994b), Yoder (1997), Yoder et al. (1996)." 03877A3E4F195F2DFDD8FD98F807FA84,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Daubentoniidae_0176.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbe02464f195f2dffc9fff0ffd6ffc3,176,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/7A/03877A3E4F195F2DFDD8FD98F807FA84.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family DAUBENTONIIDAE(AYE-AYE)• Medium-sized prosimian with large, forward-facing eyes, laterally protruding, membranous, mobile ears, reduced dentition with large, ever-growing, rodent-like incisors, long, thin digits, very long, bony third finger, long, coarse, shaggy fur, and long, bushytail.• 70-90 cm.• Madagascar.• All forest types except spiny forest.• 1 genus, 1 species, 1 taxon.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600." -038787B9FF9CDC3F71639BF2F84C808D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Heterocephalidae_0351.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffc1ff9cdc3f71059e75ffe1893a,351,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787B9FF9CDC3F71639BF2F84C808D.xml,Heterocephalus glaber,Heterocephalus,glaber,Ruppell,1842,Hétérocéphale @fr | Nacktmull @de | Rata topo lampina @es | Desert Mole Rat @en | Sand Puppy @en,"Heterocephalus glaber Ruppell, 1842, “Abyssinien und Schoa” (= Ethiopia and [central province of] Shewa).The generic synonym, Fornarina, named by O. Thomas in 1903, was never widely used, and no subspecies are recognized. Heterocephalus glaberis known to vary geographically in genetics, morphology, and chromosomes; Ethiopian and Kenyan populations differ in cytochrome-b sequences, reaching a threshold often shown by distinct species. No integrative revision of the species has been possible because of the need for additional sampling and political strife in much ofits distribution. Monotypic.","Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia, and N & E Kenya.","Head-body 70-110 mm, tail 30-50 mm; weight 15-70 g (mostly 30-35 g). The Naked Mole-rat has pinkish naked skin, studded only by sensory vibrissae. Its strongly protruding incisors are unmistakable. Eyes are tiny, and ear pinnae are minute. Tail is longer than hindfoot. Limbs are short and slender, and third digit of manus is markedly longer than digit four. Cranially,jugal bone is reduced and supported anteriorly by zygomatic portion of maxillary, palate is not excessively constricted between cheekteeth and does not extend behind molars, andjaws bear only 2-3 upper and lower cheekteeth.","Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. Food and Feeding.The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.","Habitat.Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.","The Naked Mole-rat is eusocial and lives in colonies averaging 40-80 individuals. Reproduction is typically limited to a single reproductive female (“queen”) and 1-2 breeding males; remaining colony members are reproductively suppressed by agonistic encounters with breeders. Gestation is 66-74 days, with litters of 1-28 young. Dominant females have litters every 76-84 days and,in the wild, regularly produce 4-5 litters/year and 50 or more young.","Naked Mole-rats are active around the clock, and activity periods are punctuated by resting bouts, often en masse. Most active digging follows rains that reduce soil hardness and thus energetic costs involved in expanding the burrow system. Movements, Home range and Social organization.Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.","Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Naked Mole-rat is widely distributed, relative common, and lacks immediate threats. Nevertheless, its inbred breeding system and infrequent dispersals raise concerns about their ability to respond to changing land-use patterns or climate.","Bennet & Faulkes (2000) | Brett (1991b) | Bugge (1974, 1985) | Cox & Faulkes (2014) | De Graaff (1975) | Ellerman (1940) | Fang Xiaodong etal. (2014) | Faulkes & Bennett (2007) | Faulkes, Abbott & Mellor (1990) | Faulkes, Abbott, O'Brien et al. (1997) | Honeycutt et al. (1991) | Ingram et al. (2014) | Jarvis & Sherman (2002) | Judd & Sherman (1996) | Kim Eun-Bae etal. (2011) | Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Bennett & O’Riain (2010) | Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Ndou et al. (2009) | Landry (1957a, 1999) | Lavocat (1974) | Lavocat & Parent (1985) | Luckett (1985) | O'Riain & Jarvis (1997) | Prochel et al. (2014) | Smith et al. (2012) | Thomas (1903c) | Tian Xiao et al. (2013) | Wood (1985) | Woods (1975, 1984) | Yosida & Okanoya (2009)",,"Naked Mole-ratHeterocephalus glaberFrench:Hétérocéphale/ German:Nacktmull/ Spanish:Rata topo lampinaOther common names:Desert Mole Rat, Sand PuppyTaxonomy.Heterocephalus glaber Ruppell, 1842, “Abyssinien und Schoa” (= Ethiopia and [central province of] Shewa).The generic synonym, Fornarina, named by O. Thomas in 1903, was never widely used, and no subspecies are recognized. Heterocephalus glaberis known to vary geographically in genetics, morphology, and chromosomes; Ethiopian and Kenyan populations differ in cytochrome-b sequences, reaching a threshold often shown by distinct species. No integrative revision of the species has been possible because of the need for additional sampling and political strife in much ofits distribution. Monotypic.Distribution.Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia, and N & E Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-110 mm, tail 30-50 mm; weight 15-70 g (mostly 30-35 g). The Naked Mole-rat has pinkish naked skin, studded only by sensory vibrissae. Its strongly protruding incisors are unmistakable. Eyes are tiny, and ear pinnae are minute. Tail is longer than hindfoot. Limbs are short and slender, and third digit of manus is markedly longer than digit four. Cranially,jugal bone is reduced and supported anteriorly by zygomatic portion of maxillary, palate is not excessively constricted between cheekteeth and does not extend behind molars, andjaws bear only 2-3 upper and lower cheekteeth.Habitat.Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. Food and Feeding.The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.Breeding.The Naked Mole-rat is eusocial and lives in colonies averaging 40-80 individuals. Reproduction is typically limited to a single reproductive female (“queen”) and 1-2 breeding males; remaining colony members are reproductively suppressed by agonistic encounters with breeders. Gestation is 66-74 days, with litters of 1-28 young. Dominant females have litters every 76-84 days and,in the wild, regularly produce 4-5 litters/year and 50 or more young.Activity patterns.Naked Mole-rats are active around the clock, and activity periods are punctuated by resting bouts, often en masse. Most active digging follows rains that reduce soil hardness and thus energetic costs involved in expanding the burrow system. Movements, Home range and Social organization.Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Naked Mole-rat is widely distributed, relative common, and lacks immediate threats. Nevertheless, its inbred breeding system and infrequent dispersals raise concerns about their ability to respond to changing land-use patterns or climate.Bibliography.Bennet & Faulkes (2000), Brett (1991b), Bugge (1974, 1985), Cox & Faulkes (2014), De Graaff (1975), Ellerman (1940), Fang Xiaodong etal. (2014), Faulkes & Bennett (2007), Faulkes, Abbott & Mellor (1990), Faulkes, Abbott, O'Brien et al. (1997), Honeycutt et al. (1991), Ingram et al. (2014), Jarvis & Sherman (2002), Judd & Sherman (1996), Kim Eun-Bae etal. (2011), Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Bennett & O’Riain (2010), Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Ndou et al. (2009), Landry (1957a, 1999), Lavocat (1974), Lavocat & Parent (1985), Luckett (1985), O'Riain & Jarvis (1997), Prochel et al. (2014), Smith et al. (2012), Thomas (1903c), Tian Xiao et al. (2013), Wood (1985), Woods (1975, 1984), Yosida & Okanoya (2009)." +038787B9FF9CDC3F71639BF2F84C808D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Heterocephalidae_0351.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffc1ff9cdc3f71059e75ffe1893a,351,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787B9FF9CDC3F71639BF2F84C808D.xml,Heterocephalus glaber,Heterocephalus,glaber,Ruppell,1842,Hétérocéphale @fr | Nacktmull @de | Rata topo lampina @es | Desert Mole Rat @en | Sand Puppy @en,"Heterocephalus glaber Ruppell, 1842, “Abyssinien und Schoa” (= Ethiopia and [central province of] Shewa).The generic synonym, Fornarina, named by O. Thomas in 1903, was never widely used, and no subspecies are recognized. Heterocephalus glaberis known to vary geographically in genetics, morphology, and chromosomes; Ethiopian and Kenyan populations differ in cytochrome-b sequences, reaching a threshold often shown by distinct species. No integrative revision of the species has been possible because of the need for additional sampling and political strife in much ofits distribution. Monotypic.","Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia, and N & E Kenya.","Head-body 70-110 mm, tail 30-50 mm; weight 15-70 g (mostly 30-35 g). The Naked Mole-rat has pinkish naked skin, studded only by sensory vibrissae. Its strongly protruding incisors are unmistakable. Eyes are tiny, and ear pinnae are minute. Tail is longer than hindfoot. Limbs are short and slender, and third digit of manus is markedly longer than digit four. Cranially,jugal bone is reduced and supported anteriorly by zygomatic portion of maxillary, palate is not excessively constricted between cheekteeth and does not extend behind molars, andjaws bear only 2-3 upper and lower cheekteeth.","Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. Food and Feeding.The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.","Habitat.Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.","The Naked Mole-rat is eusocial and lives in colonies averaging 40-80 individuals. Reproduction is typically limited to a single reproductive female (“queen”) and 1-2 breeding males; remaining colony members are reproductively suppressed by agonistic encounters with breeders. Gestation is 66-74 days, with litters of 1-28 young. Dominant females have litters every 76-84 days and,in the wild, regularly produce 4-5 litters/year and 50 or more young.","Naked Mole-rats are active around the clock, and activity periods are punctuated by resting bouts, often en masse. Most active digging follows rains that reduce soil hardness and thus energetic costs involved in expanding the burrow system. Movements, Home range and Social organization.Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.","Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Naked Mole-rat is widely distributed, relative common, and lacks immediate threats. Nevertheless, its inbred breeding system and infrequent dispersals raise concerns about their ability to respond to changing land-use patterns or climate.","Bennet & Faulkes (2000) | Brett (1991b) | Bugge (1974, 1985) | Cox & Faulkes (2014) | De Graaff (1975) | Ellerman (1940) | Fang Xiaodong etal. (2014) | Faulkes & Bennett (2007) | Faulkes, Abbott & Mellor (1990) | Faulkes, Abbott, O'Brien et al. (1997) | Honeycutt et al. (1991) | Ingram et al. (2014) | Jarvis & Sherman (2002) | Judd & Sherman (1996) | Kim Eun-Bae etal. (2011) | Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Bennett & O’Riain (2010) | Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Ndou et al. (2009) | Landry (1957a, 1999) | Lavocat (1974) | Lavocat & Parent (1985) | Luckett (1985) | O'Riain & Jarvis (1997) | Prochel et al. (2014) | Smith et al. (2012) | Thomas (1903c) | Tian Xiao et al. (2013) | Wood (1985) | Woods (1975, 1984) | Yosida & Okanoya (2009)",https://zenodo.org/record/6607103/files/figure.png,"Naked Mole-ratHeterocephalus glaberFrench:Hétérocéphale/ German:Nacktmull/ Spanish:Rata topo lampinaOther common names:Desert Mole Rat, Sand PuppyTaxonomy.Heterocephalus glaber Ruppell, 1842, “Abyssinien und Schoa” (= Ethiopia and [central province of] Shewa).The generic synonym, Fornarina, named by O. Thomas in 1903, was never widely used, and no subspecies are recognized. Heterocephalus glaberis known to vary geographically in genetics, morphology, and chromosomes; Ethiopian and Kenyan populations differ in cytochrome-b sequences, reaching a threshold often shown by distinct species. No integrative revision of the species has been possible because of the need for additional sampling and political strife in much ofits distribution. Monotypic.Distribution.Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia, and N & E Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-110 mm, tail 30-50 mm; weight 15-70 g (mostly 30-35 g). The Naked Mole-rat has pinkish naked skin, studded only by sensory vibrissae. Its strongly protruding incisors are unmistakable. Eyes are tiny, and ear pinnae are minute. Tail is longer than hindfoot. Limbs are short and slender, and third digit of manus is markedly longer than digit four. Cranially,jugal bone is reduced and supported anteriorly by zygomatic portion of maxillary, palate is not excessively constricted between cheekteeth and does not extend behind molars, andjaws bear only 2-3 upper and lower cheekteeth.Habitat.Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. Food and Feeding.The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.Breeding.The Naked Mole-rat is eusocial and lives in colonies averaging 40-80 individuals. Reproduction is typically limited to a single reproductive female (“queen”) and 1-2 breeding males; remaining colony members are reproductively suppressed by agonistic encounters with breeders. Gestation is 66-74 days, with litters of 1-28 young. Dominant females have litters every 76-84 days and,in the wild, regularly produce 4-5 litters/year and 50 or more young.Activity patterns.Naked Mole-rats are active around the clock, and activity periods are punctuated by resting bouts, often en masse. Most active digging follows rains that reduce soil hardness and thus energetic costs involved in expanding the burrow system. Movements, Home range and Social organization.Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Naked Mole-rat is widely distributed, relative common, and lacks immediate threats. Nevertheless, its inbred breeding system and infrequent dispersals raise concerns about their ability to respond to changing land-use patterns or climate.Bibliography.Bennet & Faulkes (2000), Brett (1991b), Bugge (1974, 1985), Cox & Faulkes (2014), De Graaff (1975), Ellerman (1940), Fang Xiaodong etal. (2014), Faulkes & Bennett (2007), Faulkes, Abbott & Mellor (1990), Faulkes, Abbott, O'Brien et al. (1997), Honeycutt et al. (1991), Ingram et al. (2014), Jarvis & Sherman (2002), Judd & Sherman (1996), Kim Eun-Bae etal. (2011), Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Bennett & O’Riain (2010), Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Ndou et al. (2009), Landry (1957a, 1999), Lavocat (1974), Lavocat & Parent (1985), Luckett (1985), O'Riain & Jarvis (1997), Prochel et al. (2014), Smith et al. (2012), Thomas (1903c), Tian Xiao et al. (2013), Wood (1985), Woods (1975, 1984), Yosida & Okanoya (2009)." 038787D0FFD0FFC6FF38FE01FA107F84,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,288,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD0FFC6FF38FE01FA107F84.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family ERINACEIDAE(HEDGEHOGS AND GYMNURES)• Mediumssized insectivores/omnivores, with stiff spines on head and back and relatively short rostrum (hedgehogs) or soft or coarse fur and shrew-like snout (gymnures).• 10-75 cm.• Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Indo-Malayan Regions.• Deserts, steppes, urban grasslands, forests, farmlands, alpine meadows, parks, and gardens (hedgehogs) or humid, tropical forests (gymnures).• 10 genera, 26 species, 4b taxa.• 2 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." 038787D0FFD2FFC4FF75FDD4F8377719,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,319,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD2FFC4FF75FDD4F8377719.xml,Erinaceus europaeus,Erinaceus,europaeus,Linnaeus,1758,Hérisson commun @fr | Braunbrustigel @de | Erizo europeo @es | Brown-breasted Hedgehog @en | Common Hedgehog @en | European Hedgehog @en | Northern Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus europaeus Linnaeus,1758, “Europa.”Restricted by O. Thomasin 1911 to “Wamlingbo, S. Gothland Id.,”Sweden. Erinaceus europaeusis sympatric with FE. roumanicusin central Russia, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and the Balkan Peninsula. Monotypic.","W Europe, from British Is and Iberian Peninsula E to Fennoscandia and N & C European Russia, also on Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and many smaller islands. Introduced into New Zealand during second halfofthe 19"" century and recently into Azores.","Head-body 209-245 mm, tail 24-32 mm, ear 27-28 mm, hindfoot 43-50 mm; weight 526-556 g (some individuals weigh up to 1-2 kg). The West European Hedgehog has well-developed hallux on hindfeet, short tail, and relatively short ears. Pelage, except non-spiny hairs on face, legs, and underparts, has dense smooth spines, lacking papillae, banded yellow and brown, and with pale tips. As on other species of Erinaceus, the West European Hedgehog has narrow spine-free parting on crown ofhead. It can be distinguished from the Southern White-breasted Hedgehog (E. concolor) by absence of white breast patch. In southern Spain, the West European Hedgehog is pale, with many entirely white spines, and can be distinguished from the similar North African Hedgehog (Atelerix algirus) by narrow spine-free parting on crown of head. Albinos are relatively common, leucistic individuals are rare, and melanistic individuals are very rare. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92.","Forests with ground vegetation and adequate food and grasslands especially adjacent to deciduous woodlands, hedgerows, or scrublands. In the Alps, the West European Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of 2000 m but does not live above tree line. It generally does not enter extensive coniferous forests because oflack of ground cover. It is common in parks, gardens, and golf courses, and it seems to favor edge habitats between open and more densely vegetated areas. Rocky outcrops and piles of rocks can serve as shelters. Populations in cultivated areas are small or lacking where removal of hedgerows and use ofpesticides have reduced cover and amounts ofinvertebrate prey. It may move ontoirrigatedfields in dry years.","The West European Hedgehog is omnivorous but primarily eats invertebrates such as beetles, larvae, slugs, worms, andspiders. It also eats fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates including frogs, snakes, lizards, young birds, eggs, mice, and carrion. It has been reported to congregate around gardens and vineyards to feed on snakes. It commonly eats millipedes and carabid beetles, which use distasteful and noxious substances in defense. Some other distasteful species such as woodlice, staphylinid beetles, and some ladybird beetles seem to be avoided. It enjoys bread and milk, pet food, and kitchen scraps offered by humans. When foraging, it generally progresses slowly and pauses briefly to sniff the air or ground. It also will forage in a more rapid andlinear style whereit covers much more ground but still searches for suitable prey. The West European Hedgehog always is alert and constantly sniffing and listening. Prey likely are detected mainly by their odor, but sound also is important in finding prey. Prey items usually are snapped up rapidly, anditems buried in litter, grass, or soil are quickly rooted out. Males tend to travel faster than females while foraging, and both sexes travel fastest in short grass and progressively slower as density of cover increases.","The West European Hedgehog is believedto be polygynous, but multiple paternities oflitters indicate that at least some individuals practice polyandry. There usually are two breeding seasons each year, and they vary geographically. In Scandinavia, breeding occurs in May to mid-July, and in England, pregnancies occur in May-October, with peaks in May-July and September. Later mating generally occurs ifthe first litter is lost or aborted. Rate ofgrowth ofyoung borntolate litters is faster than for young bornto early litters. There is no difference in rate of growth between sexes. Sexual cycle of males varies regionally. During breeding season, reproductive organs of males increase to 10%ofbody weight. Gestation lasts 31-35 days, but some estimates are up to 42 days. Litters have 4-7 young (range 1-11). Reports of conjoined twins are rare. Young are born in nests ofleaves. Neonates are nearly hairless, eyes are closed, length is ¢.70 mm, and weights are 8-25 g depending onsize oflitter. Young are born with soft whitish spines that harden and begin to be replaced by adult-type spines at","The West European Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal, resting by day under piles of brush or in leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Activity during midday often indicates that an individual is sick, but healthy individuals can be active during the day, particularly in autumn. Some lactating females can be almost as active during day as at night during summer, some individuals tend to emerge before sunset, and some retire to their nest well after dawn. Usual gait is slow, meandering walk that frequently is punctuated by short bursts of speed up to 50-120 m/minute. Males usually move at an average speed of 3-7 m/minute, females at 2:2 m/minute, and subadults at 2:2 m/minute. The West European Hedgehog lives on the surface ofthe ground without extensively burrowing or climbing. It is a good climber, and spines, besides serving as protection from predators, act as a cushion when it falls or drops from a height. It is a good swimmer but might not be able to escape from steepsided garden pools. It hibernates from about October to early April in colder parts ofits distribution, but individuals become active, emerge, and move to another nest 2-3 times in winter. Hibernation bouts last 5-27 days (average nine days). Some nests are repaired and re-used, and others are abandoned. Nests may be occupied, then abandoned for up to four months, and later re-occupied. Others are empty at first and occupied later, suggesting there are spare nests.","Although primary foraging area of a West European Hedgehog can be ¢.200-300 m from its day-shelter, average minimal nightly distances traveled are 868-1785 m for adult males, 570-1006 m for adult females, and 1188 m for subadults. Some males travel up to 3 km/night. Most individuals are active all night. The West European Hedgehog is solitary except during the breeding season or for a mother with her young. It usually is non-territorial, but it is intolerant of conspecifics. Rather than maintaining a defended area, it uses mutual avoidance to allow non-simultaneous use ofthe same area and thus avoid direct competition. Individuals rarely meet, and adults ofthe same sex usually do not approach to within 20 m ofeach other. Adults usually are together only for mating or when attracted to a localized food source where fights sometimes occur; otherwise fights are rare. Presumably as time to hibernate approaches, they vigorously defend territories of1:8-2.5 ha, but in spring after emergence from hibernation, individuals do not stay in these defended areas. At that time, they wander over large areas looking for food and mates, and there may be intensive fighting between males. Home ranges overlap, often completely, irrespective ofsex. In England, average home range of adult males is larger (32 ha; range 16-42 ha) than that of adult females (10 ha; range 6-12 ha) and subadults (12 ha; range 10-15 ha). In Sweden, adult males have larger home ranges (47 ha; range 25-68 ha) than females (20 ha; range 8-30 ha), and in Russia, home ranges are 0-5—11-2 ha for males and 0-8-3-5 ha for females. There is a tendency for both sexes to occupy the same home range for years. Young have a dispersal phase in the first few months oflife; they establish their future home range before, or shortly after, their first winter. Nesting sites usually are shaded by vegetation or other objects. In summer and winter, nests are mostly aboveground, under brambles or other vegetation, and often are constructed ofdry, broad leaves. Burrows are simple, blind, and c.1 m long, with a small chamber at the end. Such burrows are excavated by hedgehogs or by rabbits. The West European Hedgehog engages in self-anointing with frothy saliva. Reasons for self-anointing are unknown, but it might be used to attract mates, as a defense from predators, or by juveniles seeking attention from their mothers. Self-anointing is dependent on gender, age, and season. First-year independent young self-anoint more than adults, and males self-anoint more than females. In adults, selfanointing peaks in summer. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, covering vulnerable underside, face, and limbs with spines.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The West European Hedgehog is common, widespread, and generally well-known. It consumes pests in gardens, is popular in folklore and books, and is eaten by humans, although that is becoming uncommon. Starvation and collisions with motor vehicles are major causes ofdeath. In Belgium, vehicles kill at least 230,000-350,000 West European Hedgehogs each year, and throughout Europe, c¢.1-6 ind/kmofroads arekilled each year. Populations have decreasedsignificantly: 15-22%in Sweden, 26%in Switzerland, and 30% in the Netherlands.","Allanson (1934) | Beer (2003) | Berthoud (1980) | Boitani & Reggiani (1984) | Boukheroufa et al. (2015) | Brodie (1977) | Bunnell (2009) | Corbet & Southern (1977) | D'Havé, Scheirs, Verhagen & De Coen (2005) | Dickman (1988) | Dmi'el & Schwarz (1984) | Gropp et al. (1969) | Haigh et al. (2012) | Harrison Matthews (1952) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Herter (1965) | Holsbeek et al. (1999) | Huijser & Bergers (2000) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jackson, D.B. (2007) | Karaseva et al. (1979) | Kompanje (2005) | Kral (1967) | Kristiansson (1981, 1990) | Lay (1967) | Mathias et al. (1998) | Moran et al. (2009) | Morris (1977, 1985, 1986, 1988, 2006) | Morris & Tutt (1996) | Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009) | Nowak (1999) | Ortowski & Nowak (2004, 2006) | Parkes (1975) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Philchagov (1988) | Reeve (1982, 1994) | Reeve & Morris (1985) | Skoudlin (1981) | Smith (1992) | Stone (1995b) | Sykes & Durrant (1995) | Thomas (1911b) | Warwick (2014)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639342/files/figure.png,"1.West European HedgehogErinaceus europaeusFrench:Hérisson commun/ German:Braunbrustigel/ Spanish:Erizo europeoOther common names:Brown-breasted Hedgehog, Common Hedgehog, European Hedgehog, Northern HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus europaeus Linnaeus,1758, “Europa.”Restricted by O. Thomasin 1911 to “Wamlingbo, S. Gothland Id.,”Sweden. Erinaceus europaeusis sympatric with FE. roumanicusin central Russia, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and the Balkan Peninsula. Monotypic.Distribution.W Europe, from British Is and Iberian Peninsula E to Fennoscandia and N & C European Russia, also on Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and many smaller islands. Introduced into New Zealand during second halfofthe 19"" century and recently into Azores.Descriptive notes.Head-body 209-245 mm, tail 24-32 mm, ear 27-28 mm, hindfoot 43-50 mm; weight 526-556 g (some individuals weigh up to 1-2 kg). The West European Hedgehog has well-developed hallux on hindfeet, short tail, and relatively short ears. Pelage, except non-spiny hairs on face, legs, and underparts, has dense smooth spines, lacking papillae, banded yellow and brown, and with pale tips. As on other species of Erinaceus, the West European Hedgehog has narrow spine-free parting on crown ofhead. It can be distinguished from the Southern White-breasted Hedgehog (E. concolor) by absence of white breast patch. In southern Spain, the West European Hedgehog is pale, with many entirely white spines, and can be distinguished from the similar North African Hedgehog (Atelerix algirus) by narrow spine-free parting on crown of head. Albinos are relatively common, leucistic individuals are rare, and melanistic individuals are very rare. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92.Habitat.Forests with ground vegetation and adequate food and grasslands especially adjacent to deciduous woodlands, hedgerows, or scrublands. In the Alps, the West European Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of 2000 m but does not live above tree line. It generally does not enter extensive coniferous forests because oflack of ground cover. It is common in parks, gardens, and golf courses, and it seems to favor edge habitats between open and more densely vegetated areas. Rocky outcrops and piles of rocks can serve as shelters. Populations in cultivated areas are small or lacking where removal of hedgerows and use ofpesticides have reduced cover and amounts ofinvertebrate prey. It may move ontoirrigatedfields in dry years.Food and Feeding.The West European Hedgehog is omnivorous but primarily eats invertebrates such as beetles, larvae, slugs, worms, andspiders. It also eats fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates including frogs, snakes, lizards, young birds, eggs, mice, and carrion. It has been reported to congregate around gardens and vineyards to feed on snakes. It commonly eats millipedes and carabid beetles, which use distasteful and noxious substances in defense. Some other distasteful species such as woodlice, staphylinid beetles, and some ladybird beetles seem to be avoided. It enjoys bread and milk, pet food, and kitchen scraps offered by humans. When foraging, it generally progresses slowly and pauses briefly to sniff the air or ground. It also will forage in a more rapid andlinear style whereit covers much more ground but still searches for suitable prey. The West European Hedgehog always is alert and constantly sniffing and listening. Prey likely are detected mainly by their odor, but sound also is important in finding prey. Prey items usually are snapped up rapidly, anditems buried in litter, grass, or soil are quickly rooted out. Males tend to travel faster than females while foraging, and both sexes travel fastest in short grass and progressively slower as density of cover increases.Breeding.The West European Hedgehog is believedto be polygynous, but multiple paternities oflitters indicate that at least some individuals practice polyandry. There usually are two breeding seasons each year, and they vary geographically. In Scandinavia, breeding occurs in May to mid-July, and in England, pregnancies occur in May-October, with peaks in May-July and September. Later mating generally occurs ifthe first litter is lost or aborted. Rate ofgrowth ofyoung borntolate litters is faster than for young bornto early litters. There is no difference in rate of growth between sexes. Sexual cycle of males varies regionally. During breeding season, reproductive organs of males increase to 10%ofbody weight. Gestation lasts 31-35 days, but some estimates are up to 42 days. Litters have 4-7 young (range 1-11). Reports of conjoined twins are rare. Young are born in nests ofleaves. Neonates are nearly hairless, eyes are closed, length is ¢.70 mm, and weights are 8-25 g depending onsize oflitter. Young are born with soft whitish spines that harden and begin to be replaced by adult-type spines at2-7 days old. By about three weeks old, spines look like those of adults. At four weeks, young begin following their mother and are weaned at 4-6 weeks old. Males do not participate in rearing young. Sexual maturity is achieved at 9-12 months. In Sweden, females do not breed until their second year. Maximum body size is attained at 2-3 years old. Maximumlife expectancy is ¢.6-8 years in the wild and ten years in captivity.Activity patterns.The West European Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal, resting by day under piles of brush or in leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Activity during midday often indicates that an individual is sick, but healthy individuals can be active during the day, particularly in autumn. Some lactating females can be almost as active during day as at night during summer, some individuals tend to emerge before sunset, and some retire to their nest well after dawn. Usual gait is slow, meandering walk that frequently is punctuated by short bursts of speed up to 50-120 m/minute. Males usually move at an average speed of 3-7 m/minute, females at 2:2 m/minute, and subadults at 2:2 m/minute. The West European Hedgehog lives on the surface ofthe ground without extensively burrowing or climbing. It is a good climber, and spines, besides serving as protection from predators, act as a cushion when it falls or drops from a height. It is a good swimmer but might not be able to escape from steepsided garden pools. It hibernates from about October to early April in colder parts ofits distribution, but individuals become active, emerge, and move to another nest 2-3 times in winter. Hibernation bouts last 5-27 days (average nine days). Some nests are repaired and re-used, and others are abandoned. Nests may be occupied, then abandoned for up to four months, and later re-occupied. Others are empty at first and occupied later, suggesting there are spare nests.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Although primary foraging area of a West European Hedgehog can be ¢.200-300 m from its day-shelter, average minimal nightly distances traveled are 868-1785 m for adult males, 570-1006 m for adult females, and 1188 m for subadults. Some males travel up to 3 km/night. Most individuals are active all night. The West European Hedgehog is solitary except during the breeding season or for a mother with her young. It usually is non-territorial, but it is intolerant of conspecifics. Rather than maintaining a defended area, it uses mutual avoidance to allow non-simultaneous use ofthe same area and thus avoid direct competition. Individuals rarely meet, and adults ofthe same sex usually do not approach to within 20 m ofeach other. Adults usually are together only for mating or when attracted to a localized food source where fights sometimes occur; otherwise fights are rare. Presumably as time to hibernate approaches, they vigorously defend territories of1:8-2.5 ha, but in spring after emergence from hibernation, individuals do not stay in these defended areas. At that time, they wander over large areas looking for food and mates, and there may be intensive fighting between males. Home ranges overlap, often completely, irrespective ofsex. In England, average home range of adult males is larger (32 ha; range 16-42 ha) than that of adult females (10 ha; range 6-12 ha) and subadults (12 ha; range 10-15 ha). In Sweden, adult males have larger home ranges (47 ha; range 25-68 ha) than females (20 ha; range 8-30 ha), and in Russia, home ranges are 0-5—11-2 ha for males and 0-8-3-5 ha for females. There is a tendency for both sexes to occupy the same home range for years. Young have a dispersal phase in the first few months oflife; they establish their future home range before, or shortly after, their first winter. Nesting sites usually are shaded by vegetation or other objects. In summer and winter, nests are mostly aboveground, under brambles or other vegetation, and often are constructed ofdry, broad leaves. Burrows are simple, blind, and c.1 m long, with a small chamber at the end. Such burrows are excavated by hedgehogs or by rabbits. The West European Hedgehog engages in self-anointing with frothy saliva. Reasons for self-anointing are unknown, but it might be used to attract mates, as a defense from predators, or by juveniles seeking attention from their mothers. Self-anointing is dependent on gender, age, and season. First-year independent young self-anoint more than adults, and males self-anoint more than females. In adults, selfanointing peaks in summer. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, covering vulnerable underside, face, and limbs with spines.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The West European Hedgehog is common, widespread, and generally well-known. It consumes pests in gardens, is popular in folklore and books, and is eaten by humans, although that is becoming uncommon. Starvation and collisions with motor vehicles are major causes ofdeath. In Belgium, vehicles kill at least 230,000-350,000 West European Hedgehogs each year, and throughout Europe, c¢.1-6 ind/kmofroads arekilled each year. Populations have decreasedsignificantly: 15-22%in Sweden, 26%in Switzerland, and 30% in the Netherlands.Bibliography.Allanson (1934), Beer (2003), Berthoud (1980), Boitani & Reggiani (1984), Boukheroufa et al. (2015), Brodie (1977), Bunnell (2009), Corbet & Southern (1977), D'Havé, Scheirs, Verhagen & De Coen (2005), Dickman (1988), Dmi'el & Schwarz (1984), Gropp et al. (1969), Haigh et al. (2012), Harrison Matthews (1952), Hayssen et al. (1993), Herter (1965), Holsbeek et al. (1999), Huijser & Bergers (2000), Hutterer (2005a), Jackson, D.B. (2007), Karaseva et al. (1979), Kompanje (2005), Kral (1967), Kristiansson (1981, 1990), Lay (1967), Mathias et al. (1998), Moran et al. (2009), Morris (1977, 1985, 1986, 1988, 2006), Morris & Tutt (1996), Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009), Nowak (1999), Ortowski & Nowak (2004, 2006), Parkes (1975), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Philchagov (1988), Reeve (1982, 1994), Reeve & Morris (1985), Skoudlin (1981), Smith (1992), Stone (1995b), Sykes & Durrant (1995), Thomas (1911b), Warwick (2014)." 038787D0FFD3FFC2FA68F711FAC578A9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,320,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD3FFC2FA68F711FAC578A9.xml,Erinaceus amurensis,Erinaceus,amurensis,Schrenck,1859,Hérisson de Mandchourie @fr | Amur @de | gel @en | Erizo de Manchuria @es | Chinese Hedgehog @en | Manchurian Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus amurensis Schrenck, 1859, “In der Nahe der Stadt Aigun,im mandshurischen Dorfe Gulssoja amAmur,” eastern Siberia, Russia. This species is monotypic.",Amur River and tributaries in Russian Far East (E from Zeya River) and S through Korean Peninsula and C & E China to E Sichuan and N Guangdong.,"Head-body 158-300 mm, tail 17-42 mm, ear 16-26 mm, hindfoot 34-54 mm; weight c.1-4 kg (males) and 800-950 g (females). Weights in China are reported as 0.6-1 kg. The Amur Hedgehog is thick-bodied, with well-developed hallux on hindfeet, short tail, and relatively short ears. Dorsal pelage has sharp spines up to 24 mm long; spines are smooth and lack papillae. It has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head. Face, legs, and underparts are covered with coarse hairs. Color varies from pale yellow to dark brown, and unpigmented spines usually are present among pale-tipped, yellow, and brown-banded ones. Its spines, besides serving as protection against enemies, act as a cushion when it falls or drops deliberately from a height. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.","Various habitats from farmlands to deciduous forests, including grasslands, scrublands, suburban parks, gardens, and alpine regions below tree line. The Amur Hedgehog avoids truly arid areas and dry meadow-steppes. Its northern distribution is largely confined to northernmost limit of deciduous forests, and it generally does not enter extensive coniferous forests because of lack of ground cover.","Diet of the Amur Hedgehog primarily contains invertebrates such as beetles, insect larvae, slugs, worms, and spiders. It also eats fungi, fruits, small vertebrates including frogs, snakes, lizards, mice, young birds, eggs, and carrion, and it scavenges on food discarded by humans. In northern China, almost 95% of dietary items were fly larvae; other invertebrates were earwigs, mole crickets, and beetles. One stomach was full ofjujube dates (Zizyphus jujuba, Rhamnaceae).","Amur Hedgehogs have 1-2 litters/year, with 4-6 young/litter.","The Amur Hedgehog is primarily active at night and rests under piles of brush by day orin leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Usual gaitis slow, rolling walk, but it can run rapidly. It is a good swimmer and climber. It hibernates in winter, entering torpor in October in China and emerging in spring.","Except during breeding season or when a female has young, the Amur Hedgehog is solitary. It probably makes use of nests that are aboveground or in burrows, depending upon circumstances. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, protecting abdomen, face, and limbs with sharp spines. It has been kept as a pet because it adjusts readily to captivity and becomes quite docile.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,"Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Eo Kyung-Yeon et al. (2015) | Harrison Matthews (1952) | Hutterer (2005a) | Liu Chengchao (1937) | Nowak (1999) | Reeve (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2008, 2013) | Stone (1995b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639352/files/figure.png,"4.Amur HedgehogErinaceus amurensisFrench:Hérisson de Mandchourie/ German:AmurIgel/ Spanish:Erizo de ManchuriaOther common names:Chinese Hedgehog, Manchurian HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus amurensis Schrenck, 1859, “In der Nahe der Stadt Aigun,im mandshurischen Dorfe Gulssoja amAmur,” eastern Siberia, Russia. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Amur River and tributaries in Russian Far East (E from Zeya River) and S through Korean Peninsula and C & E China to E Sichuan and N Guangdong.Descriptive notes.Head-body 158-300 mm, tail 17-42 mm, ear 16-26 mm, hindfoot 34-54 mm; weight c.1-4 kg (males) and 800-950 g (females). Weights in China are reported as 0.6-1 kg. The Amur Hedgehog is thick-bodied, with well-developed hallux on hindfeet, short tail, and relatively short ears. Dorsal pelage has sharp spines up to 24 mm long; spines are smooth and lack papillae. It has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head. Face, legs, and underparts are covered with coarse hairs. Color varies from pale yellow to dark brown, and unpigmented spines usually are present among pale-tipped, yellow, and brown-banded ones. Its spines, besides serving as protection against enemies, act as a cushion when it falls or drops deliberately from a height. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.Habitat.Various habitats from farmlands to deciduous forests, including grasslands, scrublands, suburban parks, gardens, and alpine regions below tree line. The Amur Hedgehog avoids truly arid areas and dry meadow-steppes. Its northern distribution is largely confined to northernmost limit of deciduous forests, and it generally does not enter extensive coniferous forests because of lack of ground cover.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amur Hedgehog primarily contains invertebrates such as beetles, insect larvae, slugs, worms, and spiders. It also eats fungi, fruits, small vertebrates including frogs, snakes, lizards, mice, young birds, eggs, and carrion, and it scavenges on food discarded by humans. In northern China, almost 95% of dietary items were fly larvae; other invertebrates were earwigs, mole crickets, and beetles. One stomach was full ofjujube dates (Zizyphus jujuba, Rhamnaceae).Breeding.Amur Hedgehogs have 1-2 litters/year, with 4-6 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Amur Hedgehog is primarily active at night and rests under piles of brush by day orin leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Usual gaitis slow, rolling walk, but it can run rapidly. It is a good swimmer and climber. It hibernates in winter, entering torpor in October in China and emerging in spring.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Except during breeding season or when a female has young, the Amur Hedgehog is solitary. It probably makes use of nests that are aboveground or in burrows, depending upon circumstances. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, protecting abdomen, face, and limbs with sharp spines. It has been kept as a pet because it adjusts readily to captivity and becomes quite docile.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Eo Kyung-Yeon et al. (2015), Harrison Matthews (1952), Hutterer (2005a), Liu Chengchao (1937), Nowak (1999), Reeve (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2008, 2013), Stone (1995b)." -038787D0FFD3FFC5FF57FEDBFD6172C1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,320,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD3FFC5FF57FEDBFD6172C1.xml,Erimaceus roumanicus,Erimaceus,roumanicus,Barrett-Hamilton,1900,Hérisson des Balkans @fr | Nordlicher Weil Rbrustigel @de | Erizo de los Balcanes @es | Eastern European Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus europaeusroumanicus Barrett-Hamilton, 1900, “Gageni, Roumania [= Romania].”Erinaceus roumanicuswas first described as a subspecies of E. europaeusand then included as a subspecies of E. concolor, current genetic and morphologic data suggest that E. concolorand E. roumanicusare distinct species with parapatric distributions. Erinaceus roumanicusis sympatric with E. europaeusin parts of central Europe. Fivesubspecies recognized.","E.r.roumanicusBarrett-Hamilton,1900—C&EEurope(EofalinefromOderRivertoNAdriaticSea).E.r.bolkayiV.Martino,1930—Montenegroandadjacentcountries.E.r.drozdovskiiV.Martino&E.Martino,1933—Macedonia,EuropeanTurkey,andadjacentcountries.E.r.nesiotesBate,1906—CreteandIonianandAegeanIs,Greece.E. r. pallidus Ognev, 1928— SW Russia S to N Caucasus and E to W Siberia. Distributions of most subspecies are not well known.","Head—body 208-306 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 28-29 mm, hindfoot 40— 44 mm; weight 0.6-1.2 kg. As in other species of Erinaceus, the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and well-developed hallux on hindfeet. Color of underside is mix of dirty white and dirty brown. Size varies in a smooth cline across the distribution, with largest individuals in southern populations and smallest in northern areas. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 94.","Farmland, parks, and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at edges of forests, and shrubby vegetation from sea level to elevations of at least 1400 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but diet and feeding behavior of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog are probably similar to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus).",Female Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs can produce two litters peryear: one at the end of May and another at the end of August.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but activity patterns of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.","There is no specific information available, but movements, home range, and social organization probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Many Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by collisions with cars, but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines. It occurs in many protected areas throughoutits wide distribution. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.","Arslan et al. (2008) | Barrett-Hamilton (1900) | Bate (1906) | Corbet (1988) | Geisler & Gropp (1967) | Gropp et al. (1969) | Hutterer (2005a) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2001) | Krystufek, Tvrtkovié et al. (2009) | Lapini (1999) | Martino & Martino (1933) | Masseti (2012) | Ognev (1928) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Poduschka (1969) | Reeve (1994) | Suchentrunk et al. (1998)",,"2.Northern White-breasted HedgehogErimaceus roumanicusFrench:Hérisson des Balkans/ German:Nordlicher WeilRbrustigel/ Spanish:Erizo de los BalcanesOther common names:Eastern European HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus europaeusroumanicus Barrett-Hamilton, 1900, “Gageni, Roumania [= Romania].”Erinaceus roumanicuswas first described as a subspecies of E. europaeusand then included as a subspecies of E. concolor, current genetic and morphologic data suggest that E. concolorand E. roumanicusare distinct species with parapatric distributions. Erinaceus roumanicusis sympatric with E. europaeusin parts of central Europe. Fivesubspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.roumanicusBarrett-Hamilton,1900—C&EEurope(EofalinefromOderRivertoNAdriaticSea).E.r.bolkayiV.Martino,1930—Montenegroandadjacentcountries.E.r.drozdovskiiV.Martino&E.Martino,1933—Macedonia,EuropeanTurkey,andadjacentcountries.E.r.nesiotesBate,1906—CreteandIonianandAegeanIs,Greece.E. r. pallidus Ognev, 1928— SW Russia S to N Caucasus and E to W Siberia. Distributions of most subspecies are not well known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 208-306 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 28-29 mm, hindfoot 40— 44 mm; weight 0.6-1.2 kg. As in other species of Erinaceus, the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and well-developed hallux on hindfeet. Color of underside is mix of dirty white and dirty brown. Size varies in a smooth cline across the distribution, with largest individuals in southern populations and smallest in northern areas. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 94.Habitat.Farmland, parks, and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at edges of forests, and shrubby vegetation from sea level to elevations of at least 1400 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but diet and feeding behavior of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog are probably similar to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus).Breeding.Female Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs can produce two litters peryear: one at the end of May and another at the end of August.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but activity patterns of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available, but movements, home range, and social organization probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Many Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by collisions with cars, but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines. It occurs in many protected areas throughoutits wide distribution. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.Bibliography.Arslan et al. (2008), Barrett-Hamilton (1900), Bate (1906), Corbet (1988), Geisler & Gropp (1967), Gropp et al. (1969), Hutterer (2005a), Krystufek & Vohralik (2001), Krystufek, Tvrtkovié et al. (2009), Lapini (1999), Martino & Martino (1933), Masseti (2012), Ognev (1928), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Poduschka (1969), Reeve (1994), Suchentrunk et al. (1998)." +038787D0FFD3FFC5FF57FEDBFD6172C1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,320,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD3FFC5FF57FEDBFD6172C1.xml,Erimaceus roumanicus,Erimaceus,roumanicus,Barrett-Hamilton,1900,Hérisson des Balkans @fr | Nordlicher Weil Rbrustigel @de | Erizo de los Balcanes @es | Eastern European Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus europaeusroumanicus Barrett-Hamilton, 1900, “Gageni, Roumania [= Romania].”Erinaceus roumanicuswas first described as a subspecies of E. europaeusand then included as a subspecies of E. concolor, current genetic and morphologic data suggest that E. concolorand E. roumanicusare distinct species with parapatric distributions. Erinaceus roumanicusis sympatric with E. europaeusin parts of central Europe. Fivesubspecies recognized.","E.r.roumanicusBarrett-Hamilton,1900—C&EEurope(EofalinefromOderRivertoNAdriaticSea).E.r.bolkayiV.Martino,1930—Montenegroandadjacentcountries.E.r.drozdovskiiV.Martino&E.Martino,1933—Macedonia,EuropeanTurkey,andadjacentcountries.E.r.nesiotesBate,1906—CreteandIonianandAegeanIs,Greece.E. r. pallidus Ognev, 1928— SW Russia S to N Caucasus and E to W Siberia. Distributions of most subspecies are not well known.","Head—body 208-306 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 28-29 mm, hindfoot 40— 44 mm; weight 0.6-1.2 kg. As in other species of Erinaceus, the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and well-developed hallux on hindfeet. Color of underside is mix of dirty white and dirty brown. Size varies in a smooth cline across the distribution, with largest individuals in southern populations and smallest in northern areas. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 94.","Farmland, parks, and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at edges of forests, and shrubby vegetation from sea level to elevations of at least 1400 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but diet and feeding behavior of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog are probably similar to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus).",Female Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs can produce two litters peryear: one at the end of May and another at the end of August.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but activity patterns of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.","There is no specific information available, but movements, home range, and social organization probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Many Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by collisions with cars, but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines. It occurs in many protected areas throughoutits wide distribution. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.","Arslan et al. (2008) | Barrett-Hamilton (1900) | Bate (1906) | Corbet (1988) | Geisler & Gropp (1967) | Gropp et al. (1969) | Hutterer (2005a) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2001) | Krystufek, Tvrtkovié et al. (2009) | Lapini (1999) | Martino & Martino (1933) | Masseti (2012) | Ognev (1928) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Poduschka (1969) | Reeve (1994) | Suchentrunk et al. (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639344/files/figure.png,"2.Northern White-breasted HedgehogErimaceus roumanicusFrench:Hérisson des Balkans/ German:Nordlicher WeilRbrustigel/ Spanish:Erizo de los BalcanesOther common names:Eastern European HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus europaeusroumanicus Barrett-Hamilton, 1900, “Gageni, Roumania [= Romania].”Erinaceus roumanicuswas first described as a subspecies of E. europaeusand then included as a subspecies of E. concolor, current genetic and morphologic data suggest that E. concolorand E. roumanicusare distinct species with parapatric distributions. Erinaceus roumanicusis sympatric with E. europaeusin parts of central Europe. Fivesubspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.roumanicusBarrett-Hamilton,1900—C&EEurope(EofalinefromOderRivertoNAdriaticSea).E.r.bolkayiV.Martino,1930—Montenegroandadjacentcountries.E.r.drozdovskiiV.Martino&E.Martino,1933—Macedonia,EuropeanTurkey,andadjacentcountries.E.r.nesiotesBate,1906—CreteandIonianandAegeanIs,Greece.E. r. pallidus Ognev, 1928— SW Russia S to N Caucasus and E to W Siberia. Distributions of most subspecies are not well known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 208-306 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 28-29 mm, hindfoot 40— 44 mm; weight 0.6-1.2 kg. As in other species of Erinaceus, the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and well-developed hallux on hindfeet. Color of underside is mix of dirty white and dirty brown. Size varies in a smooth cline across the distribution, with largest individuals in southern populations and smallest in northern areas. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 94.Habitat.Farmland, parks, and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at edges of forests, and shrubby vegetation from sea level to elevations of at least 1400 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but diet and feeding behavior of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog are probably similar to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus).Breeding.Female Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs can produce two litters peryear: one at the end of May and another at the end of August.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but activity patterns of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available, but movements, home range, and social organization probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Many Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by collisions with cars, but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines. It occurs in many protected areas throughoutits wide distribution. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.Bibliography.Arslan et al. (2008), Barrett-Hamilton (1900), Bate (1906), Corbet (1988), Geisler & Gropp (1967), Gropp et al. (1969), Hutterer (2005a), Krystufek & Vohralik (2001), Krystufek, Tvrtkovié et al. (2009), Lapini (1999), Martino & Martino (1933), Masseti (2012), Ognev (1928), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Poduschka (1969), Reeve (1994), Suchentrunk et al. (1998)." 038787D0FFD3FFC5FF6DF601F7EB7336,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,320,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD3FFC5FF6DF601F7EB7336.xml,Erinaceus concolor,Erinaceus,concolor,Martin,1838,Hérisson de Turquie @fr | Sidlicher Wei Rbrustigel @de | Erizo oriental de vientre blanco @es | \White-bellied Hedgehog @en | White-chested Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus concolor Martin, 1838,“apud Trebizond.”Interpreted by D. R.Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Trabzon, Turkey, 40°00°N, 39°43’E.” This species is monotypic.","Turkey (Anatolia) E to S Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) and S to NW Iran, N Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan and on Chios, Samos, and Rhodes Is (Greece).","Head-body 200-260 mm, tail 20-30 mm, ear 20-30 mm, hindfoot 41 mm; weight 550-800 g (some individuals weigh up to 1-5 kg). Dorsal pelage of the Southern White-breasted Hedgehog has spines up to 37 mm long. As in other species of Erinaceus,it has faintly visible central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and very well-developed hallux on hindfeet. When it walks, spines on forehead lean forward, and others lean backward. Ears are relatively short. Face, legs, and underparts are covered with non-spiny hairs. Overall color is dark brown, with distinctive patch of white fur across chest. Albinos are extremely rare. It is similar in size and appearance to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus), but it can be distinguished by distinctive white chest thatcontrasts with dark abdomen. Dental formula is 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92-94.","Deciduous forests, scrublands, grasslands, and alpine regions below tree line but typically not extensive coniferous forests because of lack of ground cover. The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog is less common in treeless moors, uplands, and marshlands because it usually gathers broad, dry leaves to construct nests in burrows and other shelters that are used for hibernation. It prospers in wooded parks, gardens, golf courses, and farmlands; however, populations in farmlands are small or lacking where hedgerows have been removed and where use of pesticides has reduced populations of invertebrate prey. During dry years, it might move onto irrigated fields. In Turkey, it inhabits apple, pear, and mulberry orchards; agricultural fields of beets, spinach, corn, cabbage, and other vegetables; areas with thick grasses around barns and bushes; and urban areas.","The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog mainly eats insects and other invertebrates but also frogs, snakes,lizards, young birds, mice, some plant matter, fungi, and carrion. It can supplementits diet by scavenging food discarded by humans.","Breeding season varies geographically: March to late May in southern populations and April-May and into July in northern areas. Gestation lasts 31-36 days. Young are born in nests constructed under foliage or other objects. Litters have 5-6 young (range 3-8). Neonates have an average crown-rump length of 55 mm (range 45-60 mm) and weigh 12-16 g; white-tipped spines soon emerge on their back. Eyes open in 14-18 days, and teeth appear at 21-24 days. Maximum life expectancy is c.6-8 years in the wild and ten years in captivity.","The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog primarily is active at night and rests by day under piles of brush or in leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Itis a good swimmer and climber. Its spines, besides serving as protection from predators, act as a cushion whenitfalls or deliberately drops from a height. Usual gait is slow, ambling walk, but it can run rapidly.","The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog travels ¢.300 m/night, and maximum walking speed is ¢.17 m/minute. It makes large aboveground nests of leaves and grass beneath bushes or under grass. It uses simple burrows on hillsides and gradual slopes and can excavate elaborate burrows. In winter, nests are in gently sloping burrows, often between roots of bushes and trees. Burrows are up to 152 cm long and 76 cm deep. In an area where there were few trees, a nest burrow that was lined with leaves was in dense grass in an orchard. The Southern Whitebreasted Hedgehog is usually solitary, except during the breeding season when a female has young or when several individuals share the same burrow in winter. Average home ranges are 1-6 ha for males (range 0-8-2-3 ha) and adult females (range 0-1-2-4 ha). The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog performs self-anointing behavior, which might be a sexualsignal, provide protection from predators, or serve some other purpose. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, covering vulnerable underside, face, and limbs with spines. It is quite docile in captivity.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Southern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by motor vehicles on roads and by humans for food in some regions.,Arslan et al. (2008) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Harrison Matthews (1952) | Hutterer (2005a) | Karatas et al. (2007) | Kazemi et al. (2016) | Kral (1967) | KryStufek & Vohralik (2001) | Martin (1838) | Masseti (2012) | Nowak (1999) | Ozen (2006) | Qumesiyeh (1996) | Reeve (1994) | Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985) | Stone (1995b) | Vasilenko (1988) | Zherebtsova (1992),https://zenodo.org/record/6639348/files/figure.png,"3.Southern White-breasted HedgehogErinaceus concolorFrench:Hérisson de Turquie/ German:Sidlicher WeiRbrustigel/ Spanish:Erizo oriental de vientre blancoOther common names:\White-bellied Hedgehog, White-chested HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus concolor Martin, 1838,“apud Trebizond.”Interpreted by D. R.Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Trabzon, Turkey, 40°00°N, 39°43’E.” This species is monotypic.Distribution.Turkey (Anatolia) E to S Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) and S to NW Iran, N Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan and on Chios, Samos, and Rhodes Is (Greece).Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-260 mm, tail 20-30 mm, ear 20-30 mm, hindfoot 41 mm; weight 550-800 g (some individuals weigh up to 1-5 kg). Dorsal pelage of the Southern White-breasted Hedgehog has spines up to 37 mm long. As in other species of Erinaceus,it has faintly visible central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and very well-developed hallux on hindfeet. When it walks, spines on forehead lean forward, and others lean backward. Ears are relatively short. Face, legs, and underparts are covered with non-spiny hairs. Overall color is dark brown, with distinctive patch of white fur across chest. Albinos are extremely rare. It is similar in size and appearance to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus), but it can be distinguished by distinctive white chest thatcontrasts with dark abdomen. Dental formula is 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92-94.Habitat.Deciduous forests, scrublands, grasslands, and alpine regions below tree line but typically not extensive coniferous forests because of lack of ground cover. The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog is less common in treeless moors, uplands, and marshlands because it usually gathers broad, dry leaves to construct nests in burrows and other shelters that are used for hibernation. It prospers in wooded parks, gardens, golf courses, and farmlands; however, populations in farmlands are small or lacking where hedgerows have been removed and where use of pesticides has reduced populations of invertebrate prey. During dry years, it might move onto irrigated fields. In Turkey, it inhabits apple, pear, and mulberry orchards; agricultural fields of beets, spinach, corn, cabbage, and other vegetables; areas with thick grasses around barns and bushes; and urban areas.Food and Feeding.The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog mainly eats insects and other invertebrates but also frogs, snakes,lizards, young birds, mice, some plant matter, fungi, and carrion. It can supplementits diet by scavenging food discarded by humans.Breeding.Breeding season varies geographically: March to late May in southern populations and April-May and into July in northern areas. Gestation lasts 31-36 days. Young are born in nests constructed under foliage or other objects. Litters have 5-6 young (range 3-8). Neonates have an average crown-rump length of 55 mm (range 45-60 mm) and weigh 12-16 g; white-tipped spines soon emerge on their back. Eyes open in 14-18 days, and teeth appear at 21-24 days. Maximum life expectancy is c.6-8 years in the wild and ten years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog primarily is active at night and rests by day under piles of brush or in leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Itis a good swimmer and climber. Its spines, besides serving as protection from predators, act as a cushion whenitfalls or deliberately drops from a height. Usual gait is slow, ambling walk, but it can run rapidly.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog travels ¢.300 m/night, and maximum walking speed is ¢.17 m/minute. It makes large aboveground nests of leaves and grass beneath bushes or under grass. It uses simple burrows on hillsides and gradual slopes and can excavate elaborate burrows. In winter, nests are in gently sloping burrows, often between roots of bushes and trees. Burrows are up to 152 cm long and 76 cm deep. In an area where there were few trees, a nest burrow that was lined with leaves was in dense grass in an orchard. The Southern Whitebreasted Hedgehog is usually solitary, except during the breeding season when a female has young or when several individuals share the same burrow in winter. Average home ranges are 1-6 ha for males (range 0-8-2-3 ha) and adult females (range 0-1-2-4 ha). The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog performs self-anointing behavior, which might be a sexualsignal, provide protection from predators, or serve some other purpose. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, covering vulnerable underside, face, and limbs with spines. It is quite docile in captivity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Southern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by motor vehicles on roads and by humans for food in some regions.Bibliography.Arslan et al. (2008), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Harrison Matthews (1952), Hutterer (2005a), Karatas et al. (2007), Kazemi et al. (2016), Kral (1967), KryStufek & Vohralik (2001), Martin (1838), Masseti (2012), Nowak (1999), Ozen (2006), Qumesiyeh (1996), Reeve (1994), Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985), Stone (1995b), Vasilenko (1988), Zherebtsova (1992)." -038787D0FFD4FFC2FF72FB25F93272D8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,321,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD4FFC2FF72FB25F93272D8.xml,Atelerix algirus,Atelerix,algirus,Lereboullet,1842,Hérisson d’Algérie @fr | Nordafrikanischer @de | gel @en | Erizo moruno @es | Algerian Hedgehog @en,"FErinaceus algirus Lereboullet, 1842, “provient d’Oran.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Algeria, currently the province Wilaya d’Oran.”Using mtDNA and nDNA data, M. Khaldi and colleagues in 2016 determined that there was no genetic discontinuity between island and mainland populations suggesting that subspecies recognition is unwarranted and that humans probably mediated introductions onto the Canary and Balearic islands and Europe. Thus, subspecies status of at least vagans by O. Thomas in 1901 appears unwarranted. Whether or not subspecies girbaensis on Djerba Island, Tunisia, is natural or introduced by humans is unknown. Two subspecies recognized.","A.a.algirusLereboullet,1842—NWAfricafromMoroccoEtoNELibya.IntroducedinancienttimesintoMediterraneanFrance(nowextinct),E&SEIberianPeninsula,BalearicIs,andMalta;mostrecently(1890s)alsointoCanaryIs.A. a. girbaensis 1. Vesmanis, 1980— Djerba I, Tunisia. Introduced into Puerto Rico but not established there. Modern introductions not shaded on the map.","Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 15-30 mm, ear 21-30 mm, hindfoot 30-40 mm; weight 500-865 g (males) and 513-640 g (females). The North African Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, but hallux can be slightly shorter than other digits. A means of distinguishing the North African Hedgehogis the spine-free parting on crown of head, which is narrower than in other species. It generally has pale pelage, but color varies from very dark to very pale. Face and abdomen usually are whitish, but there are varying amounts of brown in ventral fur. There are dark spines on back that often are interspersed with white spines. Spines are smooth and without papillae. Pelage on underside is non-spiny. Forehead is wide and white from cheek to cheek. Muzzle is white, with no dark face mask or only a few dark hairs or small spots. Ears are equal or slightly longer than adjacent spines and longer than on the West European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Limbs are short and white or pale. Tail is barely visible and has short pale hairs. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","Coastal dry and warm Mediterranean scrublands and grasslands, especially open spaces with plenty of herbaceous and shrubby cover. In the Middle Atlas Range of Morocco, the North African Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of ¢.2000 m. It reportedly does not inhabit arid deserts, but it has been documented at oases in the Sahara Desert up to 500 km south of coastal Algeria. It seems to do well in areas inhabited by humans such as fallow or cultivated fields, palm groves, almond and olive plantations, hedges, woodlands, and suburban gardens. In Spain, it occupied open grass-scrub areas and used fields when available, butit avoided forests and urban areas.","The North African Hedgehog is primarily insectivorous and opportunistic. Diet includes fungi, worms, eggs,fruits, snails, insects, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion. In Algeria, diet included c.85% insects (mostly ants and beetles), 6% centipedes and millipedes, 5% spiders, 2% gastropods, and 1% crustaceans (isopods). On the Balearic Islands, diet contained snails, centipedes, insects, some small vertebrates (snakes, lizards, and frogs), and a truffle-like fungus. On the Canary Islands,it ate berries, corn, and pumpkins. Results of laboratory studies revealed that color of eggs did not influence rates of consumption of eggs, but size ofeggs was important. North African Hedgehogs preferred to consume smaller eggs (quail) more than intermediate-sized eggs (partridge), and large eggs (chicken) were not consumed at all.","Reproduction of the North African Hedgehog appears limited to spring and summer. In Libya, breeding occurs in April-June, and occasionally a secondlitter is produced in July. On the Balearic Islands, breeding season occurs in June-October, with mostlitters born from the second half ofJuly through the first half of September. Gestation lasts 30-48 days. Litters have 1-7 young. Young remain close to their mother for several months.","North African Hedgehogs are nocturnal. In Algeria, males were first observed dead on roads in spring from March onward. During this time, more males (45%) than females (31%) were found dead. High level of activity of males in spring (maximum in May) and summer coincides with breeding. Most juveniles were found dead on roads in late summer and early autumn (24%), corresponding to dispersal and foraging in preparation for winter. In late autumn,activity begins to decrease and becomes more reduced in winter, apparently to save energy during cold weather. In winter, North African Hedgehogs probably reduce their metabolism and hibernate. Day-resting sites are spherical structures that can be constructed offoliage, herbaceous vegetation, and human-made waste (e.g. plastic strings from nearby crops). These dayresting sites can be under dense vegetation on margins of cultivated crops and in giant canes, open-vegetated areas, buildings (farm sheds, retaining walls, or houses), and piles of logs or wooden boxes.","Adult male North African Hedgehogs have larger home ranges and move longer distances per hour than females. Foraging areas are 1-4-98-8 ha for adult males, 4-3-29-4 ha for adult females, and 3-1-28-6 ha forjuveniles. Individuals tolerate congeners regardless of sex or age; thus, home range of an individual can overlap those of others. Despite its tolerance of other conspecifics, the North African Hedgehog is solitary and does not exhibit social behavior except during mating where courtship lasts a few days and is not limited to mating alone. Up to three adults (two males and one female) were observed on ten occasions feeding simultaneously at a cat feeder without any agonistic behavior besides some snorting and occasional shoving when they came into physical contact; this only resulted in separation of individuals but not in expulsion of any of them. These individuals acted similarly toward cats that frequented the feeder. When threatened, the North African Hedgehog escapes rather than closing into a tight ball with spines directed outward. It self-anoints with its saliva.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humans introduced the North African Hedgehog in Menorca during the 13™ century, continental Spain about 3000 years ago, and the Canary Islands in 1892. European populations have declined, and it has disappeared in some places where it occurred in past decades, including southern France where it might be extinct. Loss and fragmentation of habitats are the possible causes of declines in Europe. The North African Hedgehog is a regular victim of traffic on roads in all parts ofits distribution, especially during breeding in spring and summer. Cattle grids, which are designed to restrict movements of livestock, are hazardous to hedgehogs because they can fall into them and are not able to escape. These grids often are used on narrow roadways with grassy borders and hedges, which are preferred habitats of hedgehogs in rural pasturelands. Installation of escape ramps in cattle grids would be a useful conservation activity.",Alcover (2007) | Beer (2003) | Boukheroufa et al. (2015) | Castilla et al. (2009) | Corbet (1988) | Derouiche et al. (2016) | Frost et al. (1991) | Garcia-Rodriguez & Puig-Montserrat (2014) | Gropp & Natarajan (1972) | Haltenorth & Diller (1988) | Happold (2013b) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Johnson et al. (2012) | Kahmann & Vesmanis (1977) | Khaldi et al. (2016) | Morales & Rofes (2008) | Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009) | Natarajan & Gropp (1971) | Nowak (1999) | Ouarab & Doumandji (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Saint Girons (1969) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1901b) | Vesmanis (1980),,"5.North African HedgehogAtelerix algirusFrench:Hérisson d’Algérie/ German:Nordafrikanischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo morunoOther common names:Algerian HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus algirus Lereboullet, 1842, “provient d’Oran.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Algeria, currently the province Wilaya d’Oran.”Using mtDNA and nDNA data, M. Khaldi and colleagues in 2016 determined that there was no genetic discontinuity between island and mainland populations suggesting that subspecies recognition is unwarranted and that humans probably mediated introductions onto the Canary and Balearic islands and Europe. Thus, subspecies status of at least vagans by O. Thomas in 1901 appears unwarranted. Whether or not subspecies girbaensis on Djerba Island, Tunisia, is natural or introduced by humans is unknown. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.a.algirusLereboullet,1842—NWAfricafromMoroccoEtoNELibya.IntroducedinancienttimesintoMediterraneanFrance(nowextinct),E&SEIberianPeninsula,BalearicIs,andMalta;mostrecently(1890s)alsointoCanaryIs.A. a. girbaensis 1. Vesmanis, 1980— Djerba I, Tunisia. Introduced into Puerto Rico but not established there. Modern introductions not shaded on the map.Descriptive notes.Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 15-30 mm, ear 21-30 mm, hindfoot 30-40 mm; weight 500-865 g (males) and 513-640 g (females). The North African Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, but hallux can be slightly shorter than other digits. A means of distinguishing the North African Hedgehogis the spine-free parting on crown of head, which is narrower than in other species. It generally has pale pelage, but color varies from very dark to very pale. Face and abdomen usually are whitish, but there are varying amounts of brown in ventral fur. There are dark spines on back that often are interspersed with white spines. Spines are smooth and without papillae. Pelage on underside is non-spiny. Forehead is wide and white from cheek to cheek. Muzzle is white, with no dark face mask or only a few dark hairs or small spots. Ears are equal or slightly longer than adjacent spines and longer than on the West European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Limbs are short and white or pale. Tail is barely visible and has short pale hairs. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Coastal dry and warm Mediterranean scrublands and grasslands, especially open spaces with plenty of herbaceous and shrubby cover. In the Middle Atlas Range of Morocco, the North African Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of ¢.2000 m. It reportedly does not inhabit arid deserts, but it has been documented at oases in the Sahara Desert up to 500 km south of coastal Algeria. It seems to do well in areas inhabited by humans such as fallow or cultivated fields, palm groves, almond and olive plantations, hedges, woodlands, and suburban gardens. In Spain, it occupied open grass-scrub areas and used fields when available, butit avoided forests and urban areas.Food and Feeding.The North African Hedgehog is primarily insectivorous and opportunistic. Diet includes fungi, worms, eggs,fruits, snails, insects, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion. In Algeria, diet included c.85% insects (mostly ants and beetles), 6% centipedes and millipedes, 5% spiders, 2% gastropods, and 1% crustaceans (isopods). On the Balearic Islands, diet contained snails, centipedes, insects, some small vertebrates (snakes, lizards, and frogs), and a truffle-like fungus. On the Canary Islands,it ate berries, corn, and pumpkins. Results of laboratory studies revealed that color of eggs did not influence rates of consumption of eggs, but size ofeggs was important. North African Hedgehogs preferred to consume smaller eggs (quail) more than intermediate-sized eggs (partridge), and large eggs (chicken) were not consumed at all.Breeding.Reproduction of the North African Hedgehog appears limited to spring and summer. In Libya, breeding occurs in April-June, and occasionally a secondlitter is produced in July. On the Balearic Islands, breeding season occurs in June-October, with mostlitters born from the second half ofJuly through the first half of September. Gestation lasts 30-48 days. Litters have 1-7 young. Young remain close to their mother for several months.Activity patterns.North African Hedgehogs are nocturnal. In Algeria, males were first observed dead on roads in spring from March onward. During this time, more males (45%) than females (31%) were found dead. High level of activity of males in spring (maximum in May) and summer coincides with breeding. Most juveniles were found dead on roads in late summer and early autumn (24%), corresponding to dispersal and foraging in preparation for winter. In late autumn,activity begins to decrease and becomes more reduced in winter, apparently to save energy during cold weather. In winter, North African Hedgehogs probably reduce their metabolism and hibernate. Day-resting sites are spherical structures that can be constructed offoliage, herbaceous vegetation, and human-made waste (e.g. plastic strings from nearby crops). These dayresting sites can be under dense vegetation on margins of cultivated crops and in giant canes, open-vegetated areas, buildings (farm sheds, retaining walls, or houses), and piles of logs or wooden boxes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult male North African Hedgehogs have larger home ranges and move longer distances per hour than females. Foraging areas are 1-4-98-8 ha for adult males, 4-3-29-4 ha for adult females, and 3-1-28-6 ha forjuveniles. Individuals tolerate congeners regardless of sex or age; thus, home range of an individual can overlap those of others. Despite its tolerance of other conspecifics, the North African Hedgehog is solitary and does not exhibit social behavior except during mating where courtship lasts a few days and is not limited to mating alone. Up to three adults (two males and one female) were observed on ten occasions feeding simultaneously at a cat feeder without any agonistic behavior besides some snorting and occasional shoving when they came into physical contact; this only resulted in separation of individuals but not in expulsion of any of them. These individuals acted similarly toward cats that frequented the feeder. When threatened, the North African Hedgehog escapes rather than closing into a tight ball with spines directed outward. It self-anoints with its saliva.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humans introduced the North African Hedgehog in Menorca during the 13™ century, continental Spain about 3000 years ago, and the Canary Islands in 1892. European populations have declined, and it has disappeared in some places where it occurred in past decades, including southern France where it might be extinct. Loss and fragmentation of habitats are the possible causes of declines in Europe. The North African Hedgehog is a regular victim of traffic on roads in all parts ofits distribution, especially during breeding in spring and summer. Cattle grids, which are designed to restrict movements of livestock, are hazardous to hedgehogs because they can fall into them and are not able to escape. These grids often are used on narrow roadways with grassy borders and hedges, which are preferred habitats of hedgehogs in rural pasturelands. Installation of escape ramps in cattle grids would be a useful conservation activity.Bibliography.Alcover (2007), Beer (2003), Boukheroufa et al. (2015), Castilla et al. (2009), Corbet (1988), Derouiche et al. (2016), Frost et al. (1991), Garcia-Rodriguez & Puig-Montserrat (2014), Gropp & Natarajan (1972), Haltenorth & Diller (1988), Happold (2013b), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Johnson et al. (2012), Kahmann & Vesmanis (1977), Khaldi et al. (2016), Morales & Rofes (2008), Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009), Natarajan & Gropp (1971), Nowak (1999), Ouarab & Doumandji (2010), Reeve (1994), Saint Girons (1969), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1901b), Vesmanis (1980)." +038787D0FFD4FFC2FF72FB25F93272D8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,321,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD4FFC2FF72FB25F93272D8.xml,Atelerix algirus,Atelerix,algirus,Lereboullet,1842,Hérisson d’Algérie @fr | Nordafrikanischer @de | gel @en | Erizo moruno @es | Algerian Hedgehog @en,"FErinaceus algirus Lereboullet, 1842, “provient d’Oran.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Algeria, currently the province Wilaya d’Oran.”Using mtDNA and nDNA data, M. Khaldi and colleagues in 2016 determined that there was no genetic discontinuity between island and mainland populations suggesting that subspecies recognition is unwarranted and that humans probably mediated introductions onto the Canary and Balearic islands and Europe. Thus, subspecies status of at least vagans by O. Thomas in 1901 appears unwarranted. Whether or not subspecies girbaensis on Djerba Island, Tunisia, is natural or introduced by humans is unknown. Two subspecies recognized.","A.a.algirusLereboullet,1842—NWAfricafromMoroccoEtoNELibya.IntroducedinancienttimesintoMediterraneanFrance(nowextinct),E&SEIberianPeninsula,BalearicIs,andMalta;mostrecently(1890s)alsointoCanaryIs.A. a. girbaensis 1. Vesmanis, 1980— Djerba I, Tunisia. Introduced into Puerto Rico but not established there. Modern introductions not shaded on the map.","Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 15-30 mm, ear 21-30 mm, hindfoot 30-40 mm; weight 500-865 g (males) and 513-640 g (females). The North African Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, but hallux can be slightly shorter than other digits. A means of distinguishing the North African Hedgehogis the spine-free parting on crown of head, which is narrower than in other species. It generally has pale pelage, but color varies from very dark to very pale. Face and abdomen usually are whitish, but there are varying amounts of brown in ventral fur. There are dark spines on back that often are interspersed with white spines. Spines are smooth and without papillae. Pelage on underside is non-spiny. Forehead is wide and white from cheek to cheek. Muzzle is white, with no dark face mask or only a few dark hairs or small spots. Ears are equal or slightly longer than adjacent spines and longer than on the West European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Limbs are short and white or pale. Tail is barely visible and has short pale hairs. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","Coastal dry and warm Mediterranean scrublands and grasslands, especially open spaces with plenty of herbaceous and shrubby cover. In the Middle Atlas Range of Morocco, the North African Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of ¢.2000 m. It reportedly does not inhabit arid deserts, but it has been documented at oases in the Sahara Desert up to 500 km south of coastal Algeria. It seems to do well in areas inhabited by humans such as fallow or cultivated fields, palm groves, almond and olive plantations, hedges, woodlands, and suburban gardens. In Spain, it occupied open grass-scrub areas and used fields when available, butit avoided forests and urban areas.","The North African Hedgehog is primarily insectivorous and opportunistic. Diet includes fungi, worms, eggs,fruits, snails, insects, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion. In Algeria, diet included c.85% insects (mostly ants and beetles), 6% centipedes and millipedes, 5% spiders, 2% gastropods, and 1% crustaceans (isopods). On the Balearic Islands, diet contained snails, centipedes, insects, some small vertebrates (snakes, lizards, and frogs), and a truffle-like fungus. On the Canary Islands,it ate berries, corn, and pumpkins. Results of laboratory studies revealed that color of eggs did not influence rates of consumption of eggs, but size ofeggs was important. North African Hedgehogs preferred to consume smaller eggs (quail) more than intermediate-sized eggs (partridge), and large eggs (chicken) were not consumed at all.","Reproduction of the North African Hedgehog appears limited to spring and summer. In Libya, breeding occurs in April-June, and occasionally a secondlitter is produced in July. On the Balearic Islands, breeding season occurs in June-October, with mostlitters born from the second half ofJuly through the first half of September. Gestation lasts 30-48 days. Litters have 1-7 young. Young remain close to their mother for several months.","North African Hedgehogs are nocturnal. In Algeria, males were first observed dead on roads in spring from March onward. During this time, more males (45%) than females (31%) were found dead. High level of activity of males in spring (maximum in May) and summer coincides with breeding. Most juveniles were found dead on roads in late summer and early autumn (24%), corresponding to dispersal and foraging in preparation for winter. In late autumn,activity begins to decrease and becomes more reduced in winter, apparently to save energy during cold weather. In winter, North African Hedgehogs probably reduce their metabolism and hibernate. Day-resting sites are spherical structures that can be constructed offoliage, herbaceous vegetation, and human-made waste (e.g. plastic strings from nearby crops). These dayresting sites can be under dense vegetation on margins of cultivated crops and in giant canes, open-vegetated areas, buildings (farm sheds, retaining walls, or houses), and piles of logs or wooden boxes.","Adult male North African Hedgehogs have larger home ranges and move longer distances per hour than females. Foraging areas are 1-4-98-8 ha for adult males, 4-3-29-4 ha for adult females, and 3-1-28-6 ha forjuveniles. Individuals tolerate congeners regardless of sex or age; thus, home range of an individual can overlap those of others. Despite its tolerance of other conspecifics, the North African Hedgehog is solitary and does not exhibit social behavior except during mating where courtship lasts a few days and is not limited to mating alone. Up to three adults (two males and one female) were observed on ten occasions feeding simultaneously at a cat feeder without any agonistic behavior besides some snorting and occasional shoving when they came into physical contact; this only resulted in separation of individuals but not in expulsion of any of them. These individuals acted similarly toward cats that frequented the feeder. When threatened, the North African Hedgehog escapes rather than closing into a tight ball with spines directed outward. It self-anoints with its saliva.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humans introduced the North African Hedgehog in Menorca during the 13™ century, continental Spain about 3000 years ago, and the Canary Islands in 1892. European populations have declined, and it has disappeared in some places where it occurred in past decades, including southern France where it might be extinct. Loss and fragmentation of habitats are the possible causes of declines in Europe. The North African Hedgehog is a regular victim of traffic on roads in all parts ofits distribution, especially during breeding in spring and summer. Cattle grids, which are designed to restrict movements of livestock, are hazardous to hedgehogs because they can fall into them and are not able to escape. These grids often are used on narrow roadways with grassy borders and hedges, which are preferred habitats of hedgehogs in rural pasturelands. Installation of escape ramps in cattle grids would be a useful conservation activity.",Alcover (2007) | Beer (2003) | Boukheroufa et al. (2015) | Castilla et al. (2009) | Corbet (1988) | Derouiche et al. (2016) | Frost et al. (1991) | Garcia-Rodriguez & Puig-Montserrat (2014) | Gropp & Natarajan (1972) | Haltenorth & Diller (1988) | Happold (2013b) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Johnson et al. (2012) | Kahmann & Vesmanis (1977) | Khaldi et al. (2016) | Morales & Rofes (2008) | Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009) | Natarajan & Gropp (1971) | Nowak (1999) | Ouarab & Doumandji (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Saint Girons (1969) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1901b) | Vesmanis (1980),https://zenodo.org/record/6639356/files/figure.png,"5.North African HedgehogAtelerix algirusFrench:Hérisson d’Algérie/ German:Nordafrikanischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo morunoOther common names:Algerian HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus algirus Lereboullet, 1842, “provient d’Oran.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Algeria, currently the province Wilaya d’Oran.”Using mtDNA and nDNA data, M. Khaldi and colleagues in 2016 determined that there was no genetic discontinuity between island and mainland populations suggesting that subspecies recognition is unwarranted and that humans probably mediated introductions onto the Canary and Balearic islands and Europe. Thus, subspecies status of at least vagans by O. Thomas in 1901 appears unwarranted. Whether or not subspecies girbaensis on Djerba Island, Tunisia, is natural or introduced by humans is unknown. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.a.algirusLereboullet,1842—NWAfricafromMoroccoEtoNELibya.IntroducedinancienttimesintoMediterraneanFrance(nowextinct),E&SEIberianPeninsula,BalearicIs,andMalta;mostrecently(1890s)alsointoCanaryIs.A. a. girbaensis 1. Vesmanis, 1980— Djerba I, Tunisia. Introduced into Puerto Rico but not established there. Modern introductions not shaded on the map.Descriptive notes.Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 15-30 mm, ear 21-30 mm, hindfoot 30-40 mm; weight 500-865 g (males) and 513-640 g (females). The North African Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, but hallux can be slightly shorter than other digits. A means of distinguishing the North African Hedgehogis the spine-free parting on crown of head, which is narrower than in other species. It generally has pale pelage, but color varies from very dark to very pale. Face and abdomen usually are whitish, but there are varying amounts of brown in ventral fur. There are dark spines on back that often are interspersed with white spines. Spines are smooth and without papillae. Pelage on underside is non-spiny. Forehead is wide and white from cheek to cheek. Muzzle is white, with no dark face mask or only a few dark hairs or small spots. Ears are equal or slightly longer than adjacent spines and longer than on the West European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Limbs are short and white or pale. Tail is barely visible and has short pale hairs. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Coastal dry and warm Mediterranean scrublands and grasslands, especially open spaces with plenty of herbaceous and shrubby cover. In the Middle Atlas Range of Morocco, the North African Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of ¢.2000 m. It reportedly does not inhabit arid deserts, but it has been documented at oases in the Sahara Desert up to 500 km south of coastal Algeria. It seems to do well in areas inhabited by humans such as fallow or cultivated fields, palm groves, almond and olive plantations, hedges, woodlands, and suburban gardens. In Spain, it occupied open grass-scrub areas and used fields when available, butit avoided forests and urban areas.Food and Feeding.The North African Hedgehog is primarily insectivorous and opportunistic. Diet includes fungi, worms, eggs,fruits, snails, insects, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion. In Algeria, diet included c.85% insects (mostly ants and beetles), 6% centipedes and millipedes, 5% spiders, 2% gastropods, and 1% crustaceans (isopods). On the Balearic Islands, diet contained snails, centipedes, insects, some small vertebrates (snakes, lizards, and frogs), and a truffle-like fungus. On the Canary Islands,it ate berries, corn, and pumpkins. Results of laboratory studies revealed that color of eggs did not influence rates of consumption of eggs, but size ofeggs was important. North African Hedgehogs preferred to consume smaller eggs (quail) more than intermediate-sized eggs (partridge), and large eggs (chicken) were not consumed at all.Breeding.Reproduction of the North African Hedgehog appears limited to spring and summer. In Libya, breeding occurs in April-June, and occasionally a secondlitter is produced in July. On the Balearic Islands, breeding season occurs in June-October, with mostlitters born from the second half ofJuly through the first half of September. Gestation lasts 30-48 days. Litters have 1-7 young. Young remain close to their mother for several months.Activity patterns.North African Hedgehogs are nocturnal. In Algeria, males were first observed dead on roads in spring from March onward. During this time, more males (45%) than females (31%) were found dead. High level of activity of males in spring (maximum in May) and summer coincides with breeding. Most juveniles were found dead on roads in late summer and early autumn (24%), corresponding to dispersal and foraging in preparation for winter. In late autumn,activity begins to decrease and becomes more reduced in winter, apparently to save energy during cold weather. In winter, North African Hedgehogs probably reduce their metabolism and hibernate. Day-resting sites are spherical structures that can be constructed offoliage, herbaceous vegetation, and human-made waste (e.g. plastic strings from nearby crops). These dayresting sites can be under dense vegetation on margins of cultivated crops and in giant canes, open-vegetated areas, buildings (farm sheds, retaining walls, or houses), and piles of logs or wooden boxes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult male North African Hedgehogs have larger home ranges and move longer distances per hour than females. Foraging areas are 1-4-98-8 ha for adult males, 4-3-29-4 ha for adult females, and 3-1-28-6 ha forjuveniles. Individuals tolerate congeners regardless of sex or age; thus, home range of an individual can overlap those of others. Despite its tolerance of other conspecifics, the North African Hedgehog is solitary and does not exhibit social behavior except during mating where courtship lasts a few days and is not limited to mating alone. Up to three adults (two males and one female) were observed on ten occasions feeding simultaneously at a cat feeder without any agonistic behavior besides some snorting and occasional shoving when they came into physical contact; this only resulted in separation of individuals but not in expulsion of any of them. These individuals acted similarly toward cats that frequented the feeder. When threatened, the North African Hedgehog escapes rather than closing into a tight ball with spines directed outward. It self-anoints with its saliva.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humans introduced the North African Hedgehog in Menorca during the 13™ century, continental Spain about 3000 years ago, and the Canary Islands in 1892. European populations have declined, and it has disappeared in some places where it occurred in past decades, including southern France where it might be extinct. Loss and fragmentation of habitats are the possible causes of declines in Europe. The North African Hedgehog is a regular victim of traffic on roads in all parts ofits distribution, especially during breeding in spring and summer. Cattle grids, which are designed to restrict movements of livestock, are hazardous to hedgehogs because they can fall into them and are not able to escape. These grids often are used on narrow roadways with grassy borders and hedges, which are preferred habitats of hedgehogs in rural pasturelands. Installation of escape ramps in cattle grids would be a useful conservation activity.Bibliography.Alcover (2007), Beer (2003), Boukheroufa et al. (2015), Castilla et al. (2009), Corbet (1988), Derouiche et al. (2016), Frost et al. (1991), Garcia-Rodriguez & Puig-Montserrat (2014), Gropp & Natarajan (1972), Haltenorth & Diller (1988), Happold (2013b), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Johnson et al. (2012), Kahmann & Vesmanis (1977), Khaldi et al. (2016), Morales & Rofes (2008), Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009), Natarajan & Gropp (1971), Nowak (1999), Ouarab & Doumandji (2010), Reeve (1994), Saint Girons (1969), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1901b), Vesmanis (1980)." 038787D0FFD4FFC3FA8DF60FF6AE7FBF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,321,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD4FFC3FA8DF60FF6AE7FBF.xml,Atelerix albiventris,Atelerix,albiventris,,,Hérisson a ventre blanc @fr | \Wei Rbauchigel @de | Erizo africano de vientre blanco @es | African Pygmy Hedgehog @en | Central African Hedgehog @en | White-bellied Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus albwventrisWagner, 1841, type locality not given. Restricted by J. Anderson and W. E. de Winton in 1902 to “in all probability, from Senegambia Confederation [= Senegal + The Gambia],” West Africa. This species is monotypic.","Senegal E to Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia and S through East Africa to Zambezi River.","Head-body 140-258 mm,tail 9-25 mm, ear 15-28 mm, hindfoot 26-34 mm; weight 250-680 g, but up to 900 g in captivity. The Four-toed Hedgehog is small, with hallux (first digit) absent or very small; dorsal pelage has 15-17mm spines; there is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head; ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs; limbs are short and hairy; and tail is short and thinly haired. Back is speckled gray-brown, black, and white; eyes are black; ears are small, dark, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines; muzzle is brownish to black; and face, legs, and underside are covered with white hairs. Some individuals have black face mask. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","Grasslands, thickets, scrublands, shrublands, woodlands, agricultural lands, hills, mountains, and frequently suburban areas occupying gardens and buildings. The Four-toed Hedgehog lives in areas with dry soils and is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests. It seems to be drawn to relatively open, dry, or seasonal habitats, with sparse or patchy grasses, especially overgrazed areas with dense populations of ungulates where there is an abundance of trampled herbage and dung to support termites and other insects.","The Four-toed Hedgehog is omnivorous. It will eat fungi and plant material such as fallen fruits, roots, and groundnuts, but it primarily preys upon invertebrates, especially termites, beetles, earthworms, millipedes, ants, grasshoppers, slugs, snails, and crabs. It also eats small vertebrates including snakes, lizards, frogs, and young and eggs of ground-nesting birds. It usually forages alone and hunts mainly by scent. It will dig for prey in soft, loose soils. Hearing and sight also are involved with searching for food. Immobile foods are toyed with before being ingested, and mobile prey is snapped up and chewed noisily. Lizards and mice are seized and shaken to death. Snakes are approached with caution and are bitten severely and repeatedly while the Four-toed Hedgehog protects its face with spines to avoid being struck;it will continue the attack until it has broken the spine or eviscerated the snake. It readily consumes carrion and will scavenge road kills at night.","Times of reproductive activity of the Fourtoed Hedgehog vary in different parts of its distribution, but it is sexually active throughout the year in central and northern Africa. Farther south in Zambia and Zimbabwe, it breeds seasonally. Courtship is ritualistic. When a female is in search of a mate, she calls with a whine. Males serenade females during courtship with bird-like call of repeated squeaks that vary greatly from almost a whistle to a coarse squawk. Males court females by persistently following them. Male walks around a female in estrus with his snout pointed toward her and puffing; this may last for several days. When the male approaches, the female reacts aggressively by raising her spines and snorting. She respondsto a serenading male by vigorously butting him as she hisses and snorts, and she rejects him by running away, by pushing him on his flank with spines on her head, and with other evasive moves. Such behavior can last for hours. Copulation occurs when the male mounts the female from behind after she has flattened her spines, lowered her abdomen to the ground, and pressed her hindquarters outward. The male has an especially long penis, which might be because spines on the rump of the female prevent the male from getting too close to her during copulation. Gestation lasts 35-37 days. Young are born during any month in central and northern Africa, but in southern areas, young are born during warm and wet months, mainly October—March. In Zambia and Zimbabwe, young are born in November, ¢.2 months after females emerge from estivation. Nests are in well-hidden cavities, lined with vegetative material. After parturition, the female licks the young, eats the afterbirth, and places young on her abdomen to nurse. Young vigorously search for a nipple; after nursing begins, swallowing noises and motion of the throat are apparent. Litters usually have 3-5 young (range 1-10). Young are altricial and nearly hairless, eyes and ears are closed, they weigh ¢.10 g (range 8-13 g), they are 20-26 mm long, and their spines are pliable for the first few daysafter birth. Neonatal mortality is high due to desertion and cannibalism by mothers. Young grow rapidly; they weigh 25 g by day 7, 50 g by day 13, 70-75 g by day 20, 110-120 g by day 28, 130-150 g by day 34, and 170-190 g by day 40. Young huddle together, especially during periods of inactivity. Legs are thin and fragile, and feet are formed with nails intact. Young exhibit boxing, hissing, self-anointing, and anti-predator behaviors before their eyes open. Eyes open at 14-15 days. Deciduous teeth erupt at c.3 weeks, permanent teeth at 7-9 weeks, and consumption ofsolid food begins at ¢.24 days. Young typically are weaned by 4-6 weeks of age when they weigh 170-195 g; then, they begin to accompany their mother and typically leave her by c.7 weeks of age. In captivity, sexual maturity is attained as early as 61 days, but in the wild,it is reached at c.1 year of age. Females can give birth several times each year. There is no record of a reproductively active, captive-born female more than two years of age. Only one wild-caught female that was in the lab for 33 months was able to reproduce longer; females in the wild probably are reproductively active for an even shorter time.","The Four-toed Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal, but it can be both crepuscular and nocturnalto avoid daytime heat and desiccation. In captivity, two peaks of activity are evident: 21:00-24:00 h and ¢.03:00 h. It rests by day curled up in a ball or reclined full-length under rocks, logs, or matted grass or in leaflitter, termitarium, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such refuges change daily unless they are being used to rear young or as a hibernation site. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, the Four-toed Hedgehog gains weight and enters torpor when weather is cool and dry. In southern Africa, hibernation takes place in June-September, with individuals remaining torpid for up to six weeks and emerging during warm intervals. In some parts ofits distribution,it probably does not hibernate. The Four-toed Hedgehog can climb and swim; it typically moves slowly butis capable of bursts of speed.","Four-toed Hedgehogs are common in suitable habitats. Individuals are observed more often at beginning of wet season. Home range is small and usually within 200-300 m of a burrow or day-resting site. Four-toed Hedgehogs are generally solitary, except during courtship or when a female has young. When two individuals meet, there is much growling, hissing, snorting, spitting, and butting of heads. Main defense mechanism used against predators is to contract a series of muscles, rolling into a compact ball shape, with head, limbs, and underparts protected by sharp spines. Feces have a strong odor and might be a means of advertising presence of an individual. Self-anointing behavior occurs when the Fourtoed Hedgehog comes into contact with an irritating substance. It takes the substance into its mouth and creates a mixture with saliva that is rubbed onto spines. Reasons for self-anointing are unknown, but it might be used to attract mates or byjuveniles to get attention from their mothers. Self-anointing is innate becauseit is performed beforeyoung open their eyes. Several vocalizations are emitted that enable communication between individuals. Five types of audible sounds have been recorded. Twitter is a quiet sound emitted through the closed mouth, often accompanied by sniffing and usually associated with unfamiliar situations; each twitter is of short duration (5-40 ms), and several are emitted in pulses lasting for several seconds. Hiss is a short noise of lower pitch than the twitter and emitted during stressful situations. Snort is similar to the hiss but louder and emitted when severely stressed or attacked, often repeated rapidly. Scream is a rare sound, emitted under extreme stress. Serenade is a series of low-pitched sounds, ranging from a whistle to a coarse squawk and emitted by males during courtship behavior.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In eastern Africa, many superstitions surround the Four-toed Hedgehog. Its skin or spines often are used as fertility charms. In Uganda and Kenya, a bumper harvestis believed to be obtained by placing skin of a hedgehog on seeds before sowing, and for maximum yields of cotton, its skin should be burned on the cotton field. Humans eatit as bushmeat. In Nigeria, holes where it lives are located, and they are captured by digging, pouring water into the hole, or filling the hole with smoke. When the individual comes out,itis killed for food. The Four-toed Hedgehog is vulnerable to collisions with motor vehicles, but its overall population faces no major conservation threats.","Allen (1922) | Anderson & de Winton (1902) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Beer (2003) | Booth (1960) | Brecht et al. (1997) | Brockie (1976) | Brodie Ill et al. (1982) | Brodie Jr (1977) | Cansdale (1960) | Catania (2005) | Catania et al. (2000) | Fairley et al. (1999) | Graffam et al. (1998) | Gregory (1975, 1976) | Haltenorth & Diller (1988) | Happold (1969, 1987 2013a) | Herter (1965) | Hoefer (1994) | Hibner et al. (1991) | Hutterer (2005a) | Kingdon (1974a, 1997) | Meritt (1981) | Nowak (1999) | Ofori et al. (2015) | Okaeme & Osakwe (1988) | Okaeme et al. (1988) | Reeve (1994) | Santana et al. (2010) | Smith (1992, 1995) | Symonds (1999) | Watson (1951)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639358/files/figure.png,"6.Four-toed HedgehogAtelerix albiventrisFrench:Hérisson a ventre blanc/ German:\WeiRbauchigel/ Spanish:Erizo africano de vientre blancoOther common names:African Pygmy Hedgehog, Central African Hedgehog, White-bellied HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus albwventrisWagner, 1841, type locality not given. Restricted by J. Anderson and W. E. de Winton in 1902 to “in all probability, from Senegambia Confederation [= Senegal + The Gambia],” West Africa. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Senegal E to Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia and S through East Africa to Zambezi River.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-258 mm,tail 9-25 mm, ear 15-28 mm, hindfoot 26-34 mm; weight 250-680 g, but up to 900 g in captivity. The Four-toed Hedgehog is small, with hallux (first digit) absent or very small; dorsal pelage has 15-17mm spines; there is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head; ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs; limbs are short and hairy; and tail is short and thinly haired. Back is speckled gray-brown, black, and white; eyes are black; ears are small, dark, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines; muzzle is brownish to black; and face, legs, and underside are covered with white hairs. Some individuals have black face mask. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Grasslands, thickets, scrublands, shrublands, woodlands, agricultural lands, hills, mountains, and frequently suburban areas occupying gardens and buildings. The Four-toed Hedgehog lives in areas with dry soils and is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests. It seems to be drawn to relatively open, dry, or seasonal habitats, with sparse or patchy grasses, especially overgrazed areas with dense populations of ungulates where there is an abundance of trampled herbage and dung to support termites and other insects.Food and Feeding.The Four-toed Hedgehog is omnivorous. It will eat fungi and plant material such as fallen fruits, roots, and groundnuts, but it primarily preys upon invertebrates, especially termites, beetles, earthworms, millipedes, ants, grasshoppers, slugs, snails, and crabs. It also eats small vertebrates including snakes, lizards, frogs, and young and eggs of ground-nesting birds. It usually forages alone and hunts mainly by scent. It will dig for prey in soft, loose soils. Hearing and sight also are involved with searching for food. Immobile foods are toyed with before being ingested, and mobile prey is snapped up and chewed noisily. Lizards and mice are seized and shaken to death. Snakes are approached with caution and are bitten severely and repeatedly while the Four-toed Hedgehog protects its face with spines to avoid being struck;it will continue the attack until it has broken the spine or eviscerated the snake. It readily consumes carrion and will scavenge road kills at night.Breeding.Times of reproductive activity of the Fourtoed Hedgehog vary in different parts of its distribution, but it is sexually active throughout the year in central and northern Africa. Farther south in Zambia and Zimbabwe, it breeds seasonally. Courtship is ritualistic. When a female is in search of a mate, she calls with a whine. Males serenade females during courtship with bird-like call of repeated squeaks that vary greatly from almost a whistle to a coarse squawk. Males court females by persistently following them. Male walks around a female in estrus with his snout pointed toward her and puffing; this may last for several days. When the male approaches, the female reacts aggressively by raising her spines and snorting. She respondsto a serenading male by vigorously butting him as she hisses and snorts, and she rejects him by running away, by pushing him on his flank with spines on her head, and with other evasive moves. Such behavior can last for hours. Copulation occurs when the male mounts the female from behind after she has flattened her spines, lowered her abdomen to the ground, and pressed her hindquarters outward. The male has an especially long penis, which might be because spines on the rump of the female prevent the male from getting too close to her during copulation. Gestation lasts 35-37 days. Young are born during any month in central and northern Africa, but in southern areas, young are born during warm and wet months, mainly October—March. In Zambia and Zimbabwe, young are born in November, ¢.2 months after females emerge from estivation. Nests are in well-hidden cavities, lined with vegetative material. After parturition, the female licks the young, eats the afterbirth, and places young on her abdomen to nurse. Young vigorously search for a nipple; after nursing begins, swallowing noises and motion of the throat are apparent. Litters usually have 3-5 young (range 1-10). Young are altricial and nearly hairless, eyes and ears are closed, they weigh ¢.10 g (range 8-13 g), they are 20-26 mm long, and their spines are pliable for the first few daysafter birth. Neonatal mortality is high due to desertion and cannibalism by mothers. Young grow rapidly; they weigh 25 g by day 7, 50 g by day 13, 70-75 g by day 20, 110-120 g by day 28, 130-150 g by day 34, and 170-190 g by day 40. Young huddle together, especially during periods of inactivity. Legs are thin and fragile, and feet are formed with nails intact. Young exhibit boxing, hissing, self-anointing, and anti-predator behaviors before their eyes open. Eyes open at 14-15 days. Deciduous teeth erupt at c.3 weeks, permanent teeth at 7-9 weeks, and consumption ofsolid food begins at ¢.24 days. Young typically are weaned by 4-6 weeks of age when they weigh 170-195 g; then, they begin to accompany their mother and typically leave her by c.7 weeks of age. In captivity, sexual maturity is attained as early as 61 days, but in the wild,it is reached at c.1 year of age. Females can give birth several times each year. There is no record of a reproductively active, captive-born female more than two years of age. Only one wild-caught female that was in the lab for 33 months was able to reproduce longer; females in the wild probably are reproductively active for an even shorter time.Activity patterns.The Four-toed Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal, but it can be both crepuscular and nocturnalto avoid daytime heat and desiccation. In captivity, two peaks of activity are evident: 21:00-24:00 h and ¢.03:00 h. It rests by day curled up in a ball or reclined full-length under rocks, logs, or matted grass or in leaflitter, termitarium, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such refuges change daily unless they are being used to rear young or as a hibernation site. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, the Four-toed Hedgehog gains weight and enters torpor when weather is cool and dry. In southern Africa, hibernation takes place in June-September, with individuals remaining torpid for up to six weeks and emerging during warm intervals. In some parts ofits distribution,it probably does not hibernate. The Four-toed Hedgehog can climb and swim; it typically moves slowly butis capable of bursts of speed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Four-toed Hedgehogs are common in suitable habitats. Individuals are observed more often at beginning of wet season. Home range is small and usually within 200-300 m of a burrow or day-resting site. Four-toed Hedgehogs are generally solitary, except during courtship or when a female has young. When two individuals meet, there is much growling, hissing, snorting, spitting, and butting of heads. Main defense mechanism used against predators is to contract a series of muscles, rolling into a compact ball shape, with head, limbs, and underparts protected by sharp spines. Feces have a strong odor and might be a means of advertising presence of an individual. Self-anointing behavior occurs when the Fourtoed Hedgehog comes into contact with an irritating substance. It takes the substance into its mouth and creates a mixture with saliva that is rubbed onto spines. Reasons for self-anointing are unknown, but it might be used to attract mates or byjuveniles to get attention from their mothers. Self-anointing is innate becauseit is performed beforeyoung open their eyes. Several vocalizations are emitted that enable communication between individuals. Five types of audible sounds have been recorded. Twitter is a quiet sound emitted through the closed mouth, often accompanied by sniffing and usually associated with unfamiliar situations; each twitter is of short duration (5-40 ms), and several are emitted in pulses lasting for several seconds. Hiss is a short noise of lower pitch than the twitter and emitted during stressful situations. Snort is similar to the hiss but louder and emitted when severely stressed or attacked, often repeated rapidly. Scream is a rare sound, emitted under extreme stress. Serenade is a series of low-pitched sounds, ranging from a whistle to a coarse squawk and emitted by males during courtship behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In eastern Africa, many superstitions surround the Four-toed Hedgehog. Its skin or spines often are used as fertility charms. In Uganda and Kenya, a bumper harvestis believed to be obtained by placing skin of a hedgehog on seeds before sowing, and for maximum yields of cotton, its skin should be burned on the cotton field. Humans eatit as bushmeat. In Nigeria, holes where it lives are located, and they are captured by digging, pouring water into the hole, or filling the hole with smoke. When the individual comes out,itis killed for food. The Four-toed Hedgehog is vulnerable to collisions with motor vehicles, but its overall population faces no major conservation threats.Bibliography.Allen (1922), Anderson & de Winton (1902), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Beer (2003), Booth (1960), Brecht et al. (1997), Brockie (1976), Brodie Ill et al. (1982), Brodie Jr (1977), Cansdale (1960), Catania (2005), Catania et al. (2000), Fairley et al. (1999), Graffam et al. (1998), Gregory (1975, 1976), Haltenorth & Diller (1988), Happold (1969, 1987 2013a), Herter (1965), Hoefer (1994), Hibner et al. (1991), Hutterer (2005a), Kingdon (1974a, 1997), Meritt (1981), Nowak (1999), Ofori et al. (2015), Okaeme & Osakwe (1988), Okaeme et al. (1988), Reeve (1994), Santana et al. (2010), Smith (1992, 1995), Symonds (1999), Watson (1951)." -038787D0FFD5FFC0FA53F576F6D17964,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,522,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD5FFC0FA53F576F6D17964.xml,Atelerix frontalis,Atelerix,frontalis,,,Hérisson d’Afrique du Sud @fr | Kap- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Sudéfrica @es | Cape Hedgehog @en | South African Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus frontalis A. Smith,1831, “South Africa.”Restricted byJ. R. El-lerman and colleagues in 1953 to “northern parts of the district of Graaff Reinet, Cape Province,” South Africa. Two subspecies are recognized.","A.f.frontalisA.Smith,1831—EBotswanaandW&CZimbabweStoSouthA.f.A. f. angolae Thomas, 1918— SW Angola and N & C Namibia.","Head-body 170-190 mm (males) and 186-210 mm (females), tail 19-30 mm (males) and 19-25 mm (females), ear 20-27 mm (males) and 25-29 mm (females), hindfoot 30-36 mm (males) and 30-35 mm (females); weight 291-479 g (males) and 410-450 g (females). Some Southern African Hedgehogs reared in captivity weighed up to 800 g. It has five digits on hindfeet. Hallux is present but somewhat reduced in size. Upperparts, exceptfor front of head and ears, are covered with dark spines that are mainly white at bases and tips and have central band that is dark brown or black. Width of band varies geographically and produces darker or paler appearance to individuals in different areas. Surfaces of spines are smooth and without papillae. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs, dark grayish brown, black, or white, with interspersed black hairs. There is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and white band across forehead is well developed and extends below ears. Face mask is black or dark brown and well defined, and it merges with dark throat and chest. Ears are small, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines. Limbs are short, grayish brown to black. Tail is very short. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.","Semiarid and subtemperate scrublands, shrublands, grasslands, rocky areas, city parks, and suburban gardens, with annual summer rainfall of 300-800 mm, ample ground cover, and dry shelters to rest and rear young. The Southern African Hedgehog requires adequate cover of dense grasses or shrubs. It is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests.","The Southern African Hedgehog is omnivorous and forages in litter and just under the soil surface. Its vision might be poor, and it seems to locate food primarily by scent. It emits loud sniffs as it forages. Diet primarily is invertebrates such as beetles, earwigs, grasshoppers, ants, termites, moths, earthworms, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and snails, but fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates such as small mammals, eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, frogs, and lizards also are eaten. It does not seem to be dependent on free water.","The Southern African Hedgehog is polygynous. Testosterone levels are high in September—January and low in February—June, and testicular activity resumesat the end of winter (July-August) when individuals are still experiencing bouts of torpor. It hibernates in June-August or September. Nothing is known about breeding season in more arid regions to the south and west. In precopulatory encounters, the male approaches the female who huffs and puffs and jerks her body in rejection, always on the move. During copulation, the female might move about, huffing and puffing, as if trying to get rid of the male who has a bite-hold of quills on her lower back. He thrusts and moves with the female on his hindlegs, his forepaws pushing on her back. His penis appears locked inside the female who might fall over several times, but mating continues while lying on their side. Upon termination of copulation, the female moves off while the male remains behind. Gestation lasts 35-42 days. Young are born during warm-wet summers, usually in October—-March but sometimes as late as April. Females give birth in sheltered nests in debris or in holes lined with dry leaves. The Southern African Hedgehog sometimes uses termitaria for nesting. Males do not participate in parental care. Litters usually have 4-5 young (range 1-10); litters with 8-9 young are common. Sizes of neonates are head-body lengths of 50-53 mm,tail lengths of 4-5 mm, and weights of 9-12 g. Neonates have eyes and ears closed, their body is pink and hairless, and they actively crawl about. Rudimentary spines are visible beneath the skin. Within 1-3 hours after birth, tips of unpigmented spines emerge through the skin. Actively flexing after birth probably assists in forcing quills through the skin. After 2-3 hours, spines average 3-8 mm long. After a day, spines have grown to 4-9-5-5 mm long. In three days, pigmented spines appear, and in seven days, distinctly hedgehog-like appearance is attained, along with characteristic frowning, puffing, and jerking. Eyes open at 10-14 days old. Spines of infants are shed at 4-6 weeks. Weight at weaning is ¢.200 g. Young are weaned and begin to accompany the mother at c.5-6 weeks. Sexual maturity can be reached as soon as 9-10 weeks after birth. Females can become pregnant during their first year so that parturition takes place during favorable summer conditions. One captive Southern African Hedgehog produced a litter at 13 months old. Females can produce more than onelitter each year.","The Southern African Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal and usually emerges in evening to forage but exhibits some diurnal activity following rainfall, probably to feed on emerging earthworms. It generally moves about slowly but is capable of remarkable bursts of speed. It rests by day curled up in a ball under matted grass or in leaf litter, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such resting sites are changed daily unless they are being used to rear young or for hibernation. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, it gains weight. In cool, dry winter when availability of food declines and ambient temperatures decrease, the Southern African Hedgehog becomes scarce and burrows into loose sandy soil to hibernate. Hibernation is characterized by low oxygen consumption, low respiratory rate, and lowered body temperature. During this time, fat reserves accumulated in wet season are used to obtain energy. It appears that it can modify length of torpor in response to availability of food and energy. Hibernation is in June-September and is slightly less in northern parts ofits distribution. It remains torpid for up to six weeks at a time and temporarily arouses during warm weather. Torpor ends when temperatures increase in spring. Both sexes can lose c¢.15% of their weight during three months in hibernation.","The Southern African Hedgehog is usually solitary but can be in pairs while foraging and during breeding. Aggressive behavior includes head butting accompanied by vocalizations such as snuffling, snorting, and growling. Alarm call is high-pitched screech. Dorsal spines are effective means of defense when accompanied by rolling into a ball with head, limbs, and soft ventral surface in the center. A Lion (Panthera leo) was observed rolling a balled Southern African Hedgehog between its paws and trying to bite it; it escaped and apparently was unharmed. The Southern African Hedgehog engagesin self-anointing behavior.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern African Hedgehog is considered rare in South Africa, and populations have declined because of popularity as a pet, use as food by humans, mortalities on roadways, use of domestic and agricultural pesticides (these kill prey), climate changes, and loss",Apps (2012) | Beer (2003) | van der Colf & van Aarde (1992) | Dippenaar & Baxter (2013a) | Ellerman et al. (1953) | Gillies et al. (1991) | Hallam & Mzilikazi (2011) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jacobsen (1982) | Kingdon (1974a) | Kok & Van Ee (1989) | Maberly (1967) | Nowak (1999) | Rautenbach (1982) | Reeve (1994) | Rowe-Rowe (1974) | Shortridge (1934) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers (1983),,"8.Southern African HedgehogAtelerix frontalisFrench:Hérisson d’Afrique du Sud/ German:Kap-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de SudéfricaOther common names:Cape Hedgehog, South African HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus frontalis A. Smith,1831, “South Africa.”Restricted byJ. R. El-lerman and colleagues in 1953 to “northern parts of the district of Graaff Reinet, Cape Province,” South Africa. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.f.frontalisA.Smith,1831—EBotswanaandW&CZimbabweStoSouthA.f.A. f. angolae Thomas, 1918— SW Angola and N & C Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-190 mm (males) and 186-210 mm (females), tail 19-30 mm (males) and 19-25 mm (females), ear 20-27 mm (males) and 25-29 mm (females), hindfoot 30-36 mm (males) and 30-35 mm (females); weight 291-479 g (males) and 410-450 g (females). Some Southern African Hedgehogs reared in captivity weighed up to 800 g. It has five digits on hindfeet. Hallux is present but somewhat reduced in size. Upperparts, exceptfor front of head and ears, are covered with dark spines that are mainly white at bases and tips and have central band that is dark brown or black. Width of band varies geographically and produces darker or paler appearance to individuals in different areas. Surfaces of spines are smooth and without papillae. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs, dark grayish brown, black, or white, with interspersed black hairs. There is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and white band across forehead is well developed and extends below ears. Face mask is black or dark brown and well defined, and it merges with dark throat and chest. Ears are small, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines. Limbs are short, grayish brown to black. Tail is very short. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.Habitat.Semiarid and subtemperate scrublands, shrublands, grasslands, rocky areas, city parks, and suburban gardens, with annual summer rainfall of 300-800 mm, ample ground cover, and dry shelters to rest and rear young. The Southern African Hedgehog requires adequate cover of dense grasses or shrubs. It is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests.Food and Feeding.The Southern African Hedgehog is omnivorous and forages in litter and just under the soil surface. Its vision might be poor, and it seems to locate food primarily by scent. It emits loud sniffs as it forages. Diet primarily is invertebrates such as beetles, earwigs, grasshoppers, ants, termites, moths, earthworms, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and snails, but fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates such as small mammals, eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, frogs, and lizards also are eaten. It does not seem to be dependent on free water.Breeding.The Southern African Hedgehog is polygynous. Testosterone levels are high in September—January and low in February—June, and testicular activity resumesat the end of winter (July-August) when individuals are still experiencing bouts of torpor. It hibernates in June-August or September. Nothing is known about breeding season in more arid regions to the south and west. In precopulatory encounters, the male approaches the female who huffs and puffs and jerks her body in rejection, always on the move. During copulation, the female might move about, huffing and puffing, as if trying to get rid of the male who has a bite-hold of quills on her lower back. He thrusts and moves with the female on his hindlegs, his forepaws pushing on her back. His penis appears locked inside the female who might fall over several times, but mating continues while lying on their side. Upon termination of copulation, the female moves off while the male remains behind. Gestation lasts 35-42 days. Young are born during warm-wet summers, usually in October—-March but sometimes as late as April. Females give birth in sheltered nests in debris or in holes lined with dry leaves. The Southern African Hedgehog sometimes uses termitaria for nesting. Males do not participate in parental care. Litters usually have 4-5 young (range 1-10); litters with 8-9 young are common. Sizes of neonates are head-body lengths of 50-53 mm,tail lengths of 4-5 mm, and weights of 9-12 g. Neonates have eyes and ears closed, their body is pink and hairless, and they actively crawl about. Rudimentary spines are visible beneath the skin. Within 1-3 hours after birth, tips of unpigmented spines emerge through the skin. Actively flexing after birth probably assists in forcing quills through the skin. After 2-3 hours, spines average 3-8 mm long. After a day, spines have grown to 4-9-5-5 mm long. In three days, pigmented spines appear, and in seven days, distinctly hedgehog-like appearance is attained, along with characteristic frowning, puffing, and jerking. Eyes open at 10-14 days old. Spines of infants are shed at 4-6 weeks. Weight at weaning is ¢.200 g. Young are weaned and begin to accompany the mother at c.5-6 weeks. Sexual maturity can be reached as soon as 9-10 weeks after birth. Females can become pregnant during their first year so that parturition takes place during favorable summer conditions. One captive Southern African Hedgehog produced a litter at 13 months old. Females can produce more than onelitter each year.Activity patterns.The Southern African Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal and usually emerges in evening to forage but exhibits some diurnal activity following rainfall, probably to feed on emerging earthworms. It generally moves about slowly but is capable of remarkable bursts of speed. It rests by day curled up in a ball under matted grass or in leaf litter, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such resting sites are changed daily unless they are being used to rear young or for hibernation. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, it gains weight. In cool, dry winter when availability of food declines and ambient temperatures decrease, the Southern African Hedgehog becomes scarce and burrows into loose sandy soil to hibernate. Hibernation is characterized by low oxygen consumption, low respiratory rate, and lowered body temperature. During this time, fat reserves accumulated in wet season are used to obtain energy. It appears that it can modify length of torpor in response to availability of food and energy. Hibernation is in June-September and is slightly less in northern parts ofits distribution. It remains torpid for up to six weeks at a time and temporarily arouses during warm weather. Torpor ends when temperatures increase in spring. Both sexes can lose c¢.15% of their weight during three months in hibernation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern African Hedgehog is usually solitary but can be in pairs while foraging and during breeding. Aggressive behavior includes head butting accompanied by vocalizations such as snuffling, snorting, and growling. Alarm call is high-pitched screech. Dorsal spines are effective means of defense when accompanied by rolling into a ball with head, limbs, and soft ventral surface in the center. A Lion (Panthera leo) was observed rolling a balled Southern African Hedgehog between its paws and trying to bite it; it escaped and apparently was unharmed. The Southern African Hedgehog engagesin self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern African Hedgehog is considered rare in South Africa, and populations have declined because of popularity as a pet, use as food by humans, mortalities on roadways, use of domestic and agricultural pesticides (these kill prey), climate changes, and lossof habitats to changing land-use in urban, suburban, and agricultural developments. Generally, the Southern African Hedgehog is beneficial as a predator of invertebrate pests.Bibliography.Apps (2012), Beer (2003), van der Colf & van Aarde (1992), Dippenaar & Baxter (2013a), Ellerman et al. (1953), Gillies et al. (1991), Hallam & Mzilikazi (2011), Hill & Carter (1941), Hutterer (2005a), Jacobsen (1982), Kingdon (1974a), Kok & Van Ee (1989), Maberly (1967), Nowak (1999), Rautenbach (1982), Reeve (1994), Rowe-Rowe (1974), Shortridge (1934), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers (1983)." +038787D0FFD5FFC0FA53F576F6D17964,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,522,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD5FFC0FA53F576F6D17964.xml,Atelerix frontalis,Atelerix,frontalis,,,Hérisson d’Afrique du Sud @fr | Kap- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Sudéfrica @es | Cape Hedgehog @en | South African Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus frontalis A. Smith,1831, “South Africa.”Restricted byJ. R. El-lerman and colleagues in 1953 to “northern parts of the district of Graaff Reinet, Cape Province,” South Africa. Two subspecies are recognized.","A.f.frontalisA.Smith,1831—EBotswanaandW&CZimbabweStoSouthA.f.A. f. angolae Thomas, 1918— SW Angola and N & C Namibia.","Head-body 170-190 mm (males) and 186-210 mm (females), tail 19-30 mm (males) and 19-25 mm (females), ear 20-27 mm (males) and 25-29 mm (females), hindfoot 30-36 mm (males) and 30-35 mm (females); weight 291-479 g (males) and 410-450 g (females). Some Southern African Hedgehogs reared in captivity weighed up to 800 g. It has five digits on hindfeet. Hallux is present but somewhat reduced in size. Upperparts, exceptfor front of head and ears, are covered with dark spines that are mainly white at bases and tips and have central band that is dark brown or black. Width of band varies geographically and produces darker or paler appearance to individuals in different areas. Surfaces of spines are smooth and without papillae. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs, dark grayish brown, black, or white, with interspersed black hairs. There is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and white band across forehead is well developed and extends below ears. Face mask is black or dark brown and well defined, and it merges with dark throat and chest. Ears are small, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines. Limbs are short, grayish brown to black. Tail is very short. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.","Semiarid and subtemperate scrublands, shrublands, grasslands, rocky areas, city parks, and suburban gardens, with annual summer rainfall of 300-800 mm, ample ground cover, and dry shelters to rest and rear young. The Southern African Hedgehog requires adequate cover of dense grasses or shrubs. It is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests.","The Southern African Hedgehog is omnivorous and forages in litter and just under the soil surface. Its vision might be poor, and it seems to locate food primarily by scent. It emits loud sniffs as it forages. Diet primarily is invertebrates such as beetles, earwigs, grasshoppers, ants, termites, moths, earthworms, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and snails, but fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates such as small mammals, eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, frogs, and lizards also are eaten. It does not seem to be dependent on free water.","The Southern African Hedgehog is polygynous. Testosterone levels are high in September—January and low in February—June, and testicular activity resumesat the end of winter (July-August) when individuals are still experiencing bouts of torpor. It hibernates in June-August or September. Nothing is known about breeding season in more arid regions to the south and west. In precopulatory encounters, the male approaches the female who huffs and puffs and jerks her body in rejection, always on the move. During copulation, the female might move about, huffing and puffing, as if trying to get rid of the male who has a bite-hold of quills on her lower back. He thrusts and moves with the female on his hindlegs, his forepaws pushing on her back. His penis appears locked inside the female who might fall over several times, but mating continues while lying on their side. Upon termination of copulation, the female moves off while the male remains behind. Gestation lasts 35-42 days. Young are born during warm-wet summers, usually in October—-March but sometimes as late as April. Females give birth in sheltered nests in debris or in holes lined with dry leaves. The Southern African Hedgehog sometimes uses termitaria for nesting. Males do not participate in parental care. Litters usually have 4-5 young (range 1-10); litters with 8-9 young are common. Sizes of neonates are head-body lengths of 50-53 mm,tail lengths of 4-5 mm, and weights of 9-12 g. Neonates have eyes and ears closed, their body is pink and hairless, and they actively crawl about. Rudimentary spines are visible beneath the skin. Within 1-3 hours after birth, tips of unpigmented spines emerge through the skin. Actively flexing after birth probably assists in forcing quills through the skin. After 2-3 hours, spines average 3-8 mm long. After a day, spines have grown to 4-9-5-5 mm long. In three days, pigmented spines appear, and in seven days, distinctly hedgehog-like appearance is attained, along with characteristic frowning, puffing, and jerking. Eyes open at 10-14 days old. Spines of infants are shed at 4-6 weeks. Weight at weaning is ¢.200 g. Young are weaned and begin to accompany the mother at c.5-6 weeks. Sexual maturity can be reached as soon as 9-10 weeks after birth. Females can become pregnant during their first year so that parturition takes place during favorable summer conditions. One captive Southern African Hedgehog produced a litter at 13 months old. Females can produce more than onelitter each year.","The Southern African Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal and usually emerges in evening to forage but exhibits some diurnal activity following rainfall, probably to feed on emerging earthworms. It generally moves about slowly but is capable of remarkable bursts of speed. It rests by day curled up in a ball under matted grass or in leaf litter, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such resting sites are changed daily unless they are being used to rear young or for hibernation. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, it gains weight. In cool, dry winter when availability of food declines and ambient temperatures decrease, the Southern African Hedgehog becomes scarce and burrows into loose sandy soil to hibernate. Hibernation is characterized by low oxygen consumption, low respiratory rate, and lowered body temperature. During this time, fat reserves accumulated in wet season are used to obtain energy. It appears that it can modify length of torpor in response to availability of food and energy. Hibernation is in June-September and is slightly less in northern parts ofits distribution. It remains torpid for up to six weeks at a time and temporarily arouses during warm weather. Torpor ends when temperatures increase in spring. Both sexes can lose c¢.15% of their weight during three months in hibernation.","The Southern African Hedgehog is usually solitary but can be in pairs while foraging and during breeding. Aggressive behavior includes head butting accompanied by vocalizations such as snuffling, snorting, and growling. Alarm call is high-pitched screech. Dorsal spines are effective means of defense when accompanied by rolling into a ball with head, limbs, and soft ventral surface in the center. A Lion (Panthera leo) was observed rolling a balled Southern African Hedgehog between its paws and trying to bite it; it escaped and apparently was unharmed. The Southern African Hedgehog engagesin self-anointing behavior.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern African Hedgehog is considered rare in South Africa, and populations have declined because of popularity as a pet, use as food by humans, mortalities on roadways, use of domestic and agricultural pesticides (these kill prey), climate changes, and loss",Apps (2012) | Beer (2003) | van der Colf & van Aarde (1992) | Dippenaar & Baxter (2013a) | Ellerman et al. (1953) | Gillies et al. (1991) | Hallam & Mzilikazi (2011) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jacobsen (1982) | Kingdon (1974a) | Kok & Van Ee (1989) | Maberly (1967) | Nowak (1999) | Rautenbach (1982) | Reeve (1994) | Rowe-Rowe (1974) | Shortridge (1934) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers (1983),https://zenodo.org/record/6639364/files/figure.png,"8.Southern African HedgehogAtelerix frontalisFrench:Hérisson d’Afrique du Sud/ German:Kap-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de SudéfricaOther common names:Cape Hedgehog, South African HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus frontalis A. Smith,1831, “South Africa.”Restricted byJ. R. El-lerman and colleagues in 1953 to “northern parts of the district of Graaff Reinet, Cape Province,” South Africa. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.f.frontalisA.Smith,1831—EBotswanaandW&CZimbabweStoSouthA.f.A. f. angolae Thomas, 1918— SW Angola and N & C Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-190 mm (males) and 186-210 mm (females), tail 19-30 mm (males) and 19-25 mm (females), ear 20-27 mm (males) and 25-29 mm (females), hindfoot 30-36 mm (males) and 30-35 mm (females); weight 291-479 g (males) and 410-450 g (females). Some Southern African Hedgehogs reared in captivity weighed up to 800 g. It has five digits on hindfeet. Hallux is present but somewhat reduced in size. Upperparts, exceptfor front of head and ears, are covered with dark spines that are mainly white at bases and tips and have central band that is dark brown or black. Width of band varies geographically and produces darker or paler appearance to individuals in different areas. Surfaces of spines are smooth and without papillae. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs, dark grayish brown, black, or white, with interspersed black hairs. There is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and white band across forehead is well developed and extends below ears. Face mask is black or dark brown and well defined, and it merges with dark throat and chest. Ears are small, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines. Limbs are short, grayish brown to black. Tail is very short. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.Habitat.Semiarid and subtemperate scrublands, shrublands, grasslands, rocky areas, city parks, and suburban gardens, with annual summer rainfall of 300-800 mm, ample ground cover, and dry shelters to rest and rear young. The Southern African Hedgehog requires adequate cover of dense grasses or shrubs. It is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests.Food and Feeding.The Southern African Hedgehog is omnivorous and forages in litter and just under the soil surface. Its vision might be poor, and it seems to locate food primarily by scent. It emits loud sniffs as it forages. Diet primarily is invertebrates such as beetles, earwigs, grasshoppers, ants, termites, moths, earthworms, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and snails, but fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates such as small mammals, eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, frogs, and lizards also are eaten. It does not seem to be dependent on free water.Breeding.The Southern African Hedgehog is polygynous. Testosterone levels are high in September—January and low in February—June, and testicular activity resumesat the end of winter (July-August) when individuals are still experiencing bouts of torpor. It hibernates in June-August or September. Nothing is known about breeding season in more arid regions to the south and west. In precopulatory encounters, the male approaches the female who huffs and puffs and jerks her body in rejection, always on the move. During copulation, the female might move about, huffing and puffing, as if trying to get rid of the male who has a bite-hold of quills on her lower back. He thrusts and moves with the female on his hindlegs, his forepaws pushing on her back. His penis appears locked inside the female who might fall over several times, but mating continues while lying on their side. Upon termination of copulation, the female moves off while the male remains behind. Gestation lasts 35-42 days. Young are born during warm-wet summers, usually in October—-March but sometimes as late as April. Females give birth in sheltered nests in debris or in holes lined with dry leaves. The Southern African Hedgehog sometimes uses termitaria for nesting. Males do not participate in parental care. Litters usually have 4-5 young (range 1-10); litters with 8-9 young are common. Sizes of neonates are head-body lengths of 50-53 mm,tail lengths of 4-5 mm, and weights of 9-12 g. Neonates have eyes and ears closed, their body is pink and hairless, and they actively crawl about. Rudimentary spines are visible beneath the skin. Within 1-3 hours after birth, tips of unpigmented spines emerge through the skin. Actively flexing after birth probably assists in forcing quills through the skin. After 2-3 hours, spines average 3-8 mm long. After a day, spines have grown to 4-9-5-5 mm long. In three days, pigmented spines appear, and in seven days, distinctly hedgehog-like appearance is attained, along with characteristic frowning, puffing, and jerking. Eyes open at 10-14 days old. Spines of infants are shed at 4-6 weeks. Weight at weaning is ¢.200 g. Young are weaned and begin to accompany the mother at c.5-6 weeks. Sexual maturity can be reached as soon as 9-10 weeks after birth. Females can become pregnant during their first year so that parturition takes place during favorable summer conditions. One captive Southern African Hedgehog produced a litter at 13 months old. Females can produce more than onelitter each year.Activity patterns.The Southern African Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal and usually emerges in evening to forage but exhibits some diurnal activity following rainfall, probably to feed on emerging earthworms. It generally moves about slowly but is capable of remarkable bursts of speed. It rests by day curled up in a ball under matted grass or in leaf litter, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such resting sites are changed daily unless they are being used to rear young or for hibernation. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, it gains weight. In cool, dry winter when availability of food declines and ambient temperatures decrease, the Southern African Hedgehog becomes scarce and burrows into loose sandy soil to hibernate. Hibernation is characterized by low oxygen consumption, low respiratory rate, and lowered body temperature. During this time, fat reserves accumulated in wet season are used to obtain energy. It appears that it can modify length of torpor in response to availability of food and energy. Hibernation is in June-September and is slightly less in northern parts ofits distribution. It remains torpid for up to six weeks at a time and temporarily arouses during warm weather. Torpor ends when temperatures increase in spring. Both sexes can lose c¢.15% of their weight during three months in hibernation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern African Hedgehog is usually solitary but can be in pairs while foraging and during breeding. Aggressive behavior includes head butting accompanied by vocalizations such as snuffling, snorting, and growling. Alarm call is high-pitched screech. Dorsal spines are effective means of defense when accompanied by rolling into a ball with head, limbs, and soft ventral surface in the center. A Lion (Panthera leo) was observed rolling a balled Southern African Hedgehog between its paws and trying to bite it; it escaped and apparently was unharmed. The Southern African Hedgehog engagesin self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern African Hedgehog is considered rare in South Africa, and populations have declined because of popularity as a pet, use as food by humans, mortalities on roadways, use of domestic and agricultural pesticides (these kill prey), climate changes, and lossof habitats to changing land-use in urban, suburban, and agricultural developments. Generally, the Southern African Hedgehog is beneficial as a predator of invertebrate pests.Bibliography.Apps (2012), Beer (2003), van der Colf & van Aarde (1992), Dippenaar & Baxter (2013a), Ellerman et al. (1953), Gillies et al. (1991), Hallam & Mzilikazi (2011), Hill & Carter (1941), Hutterer (2005a), Jacobsen (1982), Kingdon (1974a), Kok & Van Ee (1989), Maberly (1967), Nowak (1999), Rautenbach (1982), Reeve (1994), Rowe-Rowe (1974), Shortridge (1934), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers (1983)." 038787D0FFD5FFC3FA57FAEEF8C07112,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,522,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD5FFC3FA57FAEEF8C07112.xml,Atelerix sclateri,Atelerix,sclateri,Anderson,1895,Hérisson de Somalie @fr | Somalischer @de | gel @en | Erizo de Somalia @es | Somalian Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus sclateri J. Anderson,1895, “Taf, in Central Somaliland [= So- malia].”This species is monotypic.",Somalia.,"Head-body 206-263 mm, tail 14-20 mm, ear 22-27 mm, hindfoot 25-29 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Somali Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, and hallux is small. Dorsal pelage has spines that are dark gray-brown to grizzled black, smooth, finely striated, without papillae, up to 18 mm long, and 1 mm in diameter. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs that are white or buffy-white, often with dark gray-brown to grizzled black patches on posterior part of abdomen. Spiny dorsum and hairy venter are well delineated on lowerflanks. Forehead is white from cheek to cheek, there is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and black face mask has slight posterior extension of black onto cheeks. Snoutis short, and ears are small, broadly rounded, and shorter than spines between ears. Claws are moderately long, limbs are short and dark, and tail is short, with barely visible, pale hairs.",Maritime plain near hills in arid scrublands.,"The Somali Hedgehog eats invertebrates, small vertebrates, fruits, and fungi.",No information.,The Somali Hedgehog is nocturnal and terrestrial.,The Somali Hedgehog is solitary and probably self-anoint like other hedgehogs.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Anderson (1895) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Happold (2013c) | Hutterer (2005a) | Nowak (1999) | Poduschka (1990) | Reeve (1994),https://zenodo.org/record/6639360/files/figure.png,"7.Somali HedgehogAtelerix sclateriFrench:Hérisson de Somalie/ German:Somalischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de SomaliaOther common names:Somalian HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus sclateri J. Anderson,1895, “Taf, in Central Somaliland [= So- malia].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Somalia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 206-263 mm, tail 14-20 mm, ear 22-27 mm, hindfoot 25-29 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Somali Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, and hallux is small. Dorsal pelage has spines that are dark gray-brown to grizzled black, smooth, finely striated, without papillae, up to 18 mm long, and 1 mm in diameter. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs that are white or buffy-white, often with dark gray-brown to grizzled black patches on posterior part of abdomen. Spiny dorsum and hairy venter are well delineated on lowerflanks. Forehead is white from cheek to cheek, there is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and black face mask has slight posterior extension of black onto cheeks. Snoutis short, and ears are small, broadly rounded, and shorter than spines between ears. Claws are moderately long, limbs are short and dark, and tail is short, with barely visible, pale hairs.Habitat.Maritime plain near hills in arid scrublands.Food and Feeding.The Somali Hedgehog eats invertebrates, small vertebrates, fruits, and fungi.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Somali Hedgehog is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Somali Hedgehog is solitary and probably self-anoint like other hedgehogs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Anderson (1895), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Happold (2013c), Hutterer (2005a), Nowak (1999), Poduschka (1990), Reeve (1994)." 038787D0FFD6FFC1FA89FCE9FCC57823,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,323,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD6FFC1FA89FCE9FCC57823.xml,Paraechinus aethiopicus,Paraechinus,aethiopicus,,,Hérisson du désert @fr | Athiopischer @de | gel @en | Erizo del desierto @es | Ethiopian Hedgehog @en,"FErinaceus aethiopicusEhren-berg, 1833, “in desertis dongalanis habi- tat.”Interpreted by G. B. Corbet in 1988 as“Dongola Desert, Sudan” and restricted byD. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 to “approximately at 19°22’N, 30°45’E,” northern Sudan. Paraechinus aethiopicusmight be polytypic, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment. Monotypic.","Sahara Desert from Mauritania E to Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea, WC Ethiopia (Awash), and deserts in Middle East (Syria, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, and Arabian Peninsula); insular populations on Djerba (Tunisia), Bahrain, and Tunb (Persian Gulf).","Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 23-58 mm, hindfoot 27-39 mm; weight 285-700 g. Dorsal pelage of the Desert Hedgehog has dark spines that are banded, whitish at their bases, with two wide black bands separated by white band, and white tips. Surfaces of spines are rough, with numerous papillae and many longitudinal grooves. Ventral pelage is rather sparse, and hairs are mostly white but can be brown posteriorly or have brown patches on chest in some individuals. Ventral pelage varies geographically in color, which can be variable mix of white, brown, and black, but some individuals have entirely brown venter. Head has broad white forehead from cheek to cheek, wide central parting of spines on crown of head, and welldefined gray-black face mask on muzzle and around eyes that extends posteriorly on lower cheeks. Ears are large, dark, slightly pointed, and usually longer than adjacent spines. Limbs are rather long and dark brown. Feet are black, forefeet have five digits, hindfeet have five digits, and hallux can be slightly reduced. Tail is short, barely visible, and covered with small pale hairs. Dental formulaisI13/2,C1/1,P 2-3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 34 or 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 96.","Dry scrublands, dry steppes, stony plains, mountainous desert country, and more mesic habitats such as oases and vegetated riverine valleys in arid and semiarid regions in and around the Sahara and Arabian deserts.","The Desert Hedgehog forages at night and primarily is insectivorous. Diet also includes scorpions, other invertebrates, and small vertebrates such as frogs, lizards, snakes, and eggs of ground-nesting birds.","Breeding of the Desert Hedgehog begins after hibernation has ended. Females can produce up to four litters each year, with peaks in February-March and June. It nests in clumps of vegetation or uses burrows under shrubs or among rocks. The Desert Hedgehog does not line its nest; a female gave birth to one young in a sand and peat hollow, making no use of hay, wood shavings, and leaves that were available. Gestation lasts 34-46 days. Litters have 2-7 young. Neonates weigh 6-9 g. Weight at ten days of age is 20 g, 20 days is 40 g, 30 days is 60 g, 40 days is 80 g, and 60 daysis 150 g. Rate of growth to six weeks is 1-7 g/day, and it is 3-5 g/day at 6-9 weeks old. Young begin rolling-up for the first time at 7-22 days old, eyes open at 21-22 days,thermoregulation is fully developed, solid foods are eaten at c.38-44 days, and weaning occurs at 40-58 days. Growth to weaning is longer than in other species of hedgehogs. Longevity might be 6-10 years.","The Desert Hedgehog is usually nocturnal, and it can excavate burrows that have many openings. In Egypt,it forages on the coastal plain at night. During day, it rests in crevices in cliffs, under clumps of vegetation, or in burrows. When nights are cold, and food is less abundant in winter,it enters torpor and is rarely seen. In Algeria, it is torpid in November—-March, but it usually emerges every few days to forage. During winter in Qatar, body temperature was higher than ambient temperature throughout the day, and the difference was more extreme during midday. Desert Hedgehogs bask in direct sunlight, which appears beneficial for thermoregulation in the desert where there is plenty of solar radiation.","The Desert Hedgehog is solitary and generally uncommon. Nevertheless,it can be more common in some localities because populations are scattered and isolated. It is relatively abundant in irrigated gardens and fields in parts of its distribution. Long limbs enable fast walking and trotting. One individual was followed at a steady 10 km/h for five minutes. The Desert Hedgehog can be rather sedentary, occupying a single burrow and the same home range all year—behaviors that could be construed as evidence of territoriality. It exhibits self-anointingbehavior. When attacked,it rolls into a ball and makes a noise similar to the throbbing of a miniature engine. Periodically, it gives a sort of half-grunt, half-bark sound.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hedgehog is reported to be widespread species, with a presumed large population.It is believed to be reasonably tolerant of habitat modification and is not considered globally threatened. Nevertheless, increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations. In Algeria, the Desert Hedgehog is hunted and eaten by humans. In Somaliland, humans are rather superstitious about hedgehogs, never harming them because they consider them stars that have fallen from the heavens.","Abu Baker, Mohedano et al. (2016) | Abu Baker, Reeve et al. (2016) | Al-Saleh & Khan (1985) | Amr (2000) | Beer (2003) | Bhatnagar & EI-Azawi (1978) | Brodie (1977) | Corbet (1988) | Delany & Farook (1989) | Drake-Brockman (1910) | Eisentraut (1952) | Frost et al. (1991) | Happold (2013e) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Heuglin (1861) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Nader & Al-Safadi (1993) | Nowak (1999) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Petter (1954) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Reeve (1994) | Sellami et al. (1989) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1919) | Walton & Walton (1973) | Yamaguchi et al. (2013)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639368/files/figure.png,"9.Desert HedgehogParaechinus aethiopicusFrench:Hérisson du désert/ German:Athiopischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo del desiertoOther common names:Ethiopian HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus aethiopicusEhren-berg, 1833, “in desertis dongalanis habi- tat.”Interpreted by G. B. Corbet in 1988 as“Dongola Desert, Sudan” and restricted byD. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 to “approximately at 19°22’N, 30°45’E,” northern Sudan. Paraechinus aethiopicusmight be polytypic, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment. Monotypic.Distribution.Sahara Desert from Mauritania E to Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea, WC Ethiopia (Awash), and deserts in Middle East (Syria, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, and Arabian Peninsula); insular populations on Djerba (Tunisia), Bahrain, and Tunb (Persian Gulf).Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 23-58 mm, hindfoot 27-39 mm; weight 285-700 g. Dorsal pelage of the Desert Hedgehog has dark spines that are banded, whitish at their bases, with two wide black bands separated by white band, and white tips. Surfaces of spines are rough, with numerous papillae and many longitudinal grooves. Ventral pelage is rather sparse, and hairs are mostly white but can be brown posteriorly or have brown patches on chest in some individuals. Ventral pelage varies geographically in color, which can be variable mix of white, brown, and black, but some individuals have entirely brown venter. Head has broad white forehead from cheek to cheek, wide central parting of spines on crown of head, and welldefined gray-black face mask on muzzle and around eyes that extends posteriorly on lower cheeks. Ears are large, dark, slightly pointed, and usually longer than adjacent spines. Limbs are rather long and dark brown. Feet are black, forefeet have five digits, hindfeet have five digits, and hallux can be slightly reduced. Tail is short, barely visible, and covered with small pale hairs. Dental formulaisI13/2,C1/1,P 2-3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 34 or 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 96.Habitat.Dry scrublands, dry steppes, stony plains, mountainous desert country, and more mesic habitats such as oases and vegetated riverine valleys in arid and semiarid regions in and around the Sahara and Arabian deserts.Food and Feeding.The Desert Hedgehog forages at night and primarily is insectivorous. Diet also includes scorpions, other invertebrates, and small vertebrates such as frogs, lizards, snakes, and eggs of ground-nesting birds.Breeding.Breeding of the Desert Hedgehog begins after hibernation has ended. Females can produce up to four litters each year, with peaks in February-March and June. It nests in clumps of vegetation or uses burrows under shrubs or among rocks. The Desert Hedgehog does not line its nest; a female gave birth to one young in a sand and peat hollow, making no use of hay, wood shavings, and leaves that were available. Gestation lasts 34-46 days. Litters have 2-7 young. Neonates weigh 6-9 g. Weight at ten days of age is 20 g, 20 days is 40 g, 30 days is 60 g, 40 days is 80 g, and 60 daysis 150 g. Rate of growth to six weeks is 1-7 g/day, and it is 3-5 g/day at 6-9 weeks old. Young begin rolling-up for the first time at 7-22 days old, eyes open at 21-22 days,thermoregulation is fully developed, solid foods are eaten at c.38-44 days, and weaning occurs at 40-58 days. Growth to weaning is longer than in other species of hedgehogs. Longevity might be 6-10 years.Activity patterns.The Desert Hedgehog is usually nocturnal, and it can excavate burrows that have many openings. In Egypt,it forages on the coastal plain at night. During day, it rests in crevices in cliffs, under clumps of vegetation, or in burrows. When nights are cold, and food is less abundant in winter,it enters torpor and is rarely seen. In Algeria, it is torpid in November—-March, but it usually emerges every few days to forage. During winter in Qatar, body temperature was higher than ambient temperature throughout the day, and the difference was more extreme during midday. Desert Hedgehogs bask in direct sunlight, which appears beneficial for thermoregulation in the desert where there is plenty of solar radiation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Desert Hedgehog is solitary and generally uncommon. Nevertheless,it can be more common in some localities because populations are scattered and isolated. It is relatively abundant in irrigated gardens and fields in parts of its distribution. Long limbs enable fast walking and trotting. One individual was followed at a steady 10 km/h for five minutes. The Desert Hedgehog can be rather sedentary, occupying a single burrow and the same home range all year—behaviors that could be construed as evidence of territoriality. It exhibits self-anointingbehavior. When attacked,it rolls into a ball and makes a noise similar to the throbbing of a miniature engine. Periodically, it gives a sort of half-grunt, half-bark sound.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hedgehog is reported to be widespread species, with a presumed large population.It is believed to be reasonably tolerant of habitat modification and is not considered globally threatened. Nevertheless, increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations. In Algeria, the Desert Hedgehog is hunted and eaten by humans. In Somaliland, humans are rather superstitious about hedgehogs, never harming them because they consider them stars that have fallen from the heavens.Bibliography.Abu Baker, Mohedano et al. (2016), Abu Baker, Reeve et al. (2016), Al-Saleh & Khan (1985), Amr (2000), Beer (2003), Bhatnagar & EI-Azawi (1978), Brodie (1977), Corbet (1988), Delany & Farook (1989), Drake-Brockman (1910), Eisentraut (1952), Frost et al. (1991), Happold (2013e), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hayssen et al. (1993), Heuglin (1861), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Nader & Al-Safadi (1993), Nowak (1999), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Petter (1954), Qumsiyeh (1996), Reeve (1994), Sellami et al. (1989), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1919), Walton & Walton (1973), Yamaguchi et al. (2013)." 038787D0FFD7FFC1FA58FEC3F5F07024,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,324,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD7FFC1FA58FEC3F5F07024.xml,Paraechinus micropus,Paraechinus,micropus,,,Hérisson indien @fr | German @en | ndischer @en | gel @en | Erizo de @es | ndia @en | Other common names @en | ndian Desert Hedgehog @en | Pale Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus micropus Blyth, 1846,“Bhawulpore.”Interpreted by D. R. Frostand colleagues in 1991 as “Bahawalpur, Pakistan, 29°23’N, 71°39’L.” This species is monotypic.","Arid zones of SE Pakistan (extreme SE Balochistan, Punjab, and Sindh) and NW India (W Rajasthan, Gujarat, and extreme NW Maharashtra).","Head-body 130-230 mm, tail 10-40 mm, ear 26-32 mm, hindfoot 24-26 mm; weight 300-600 g. The Indian Hedgehog is small and rounded, with pointed nose and short legs. It has dark legs and relatively small feet and claws. Color is highly variable, with some individuals tending toward melanistic and others toward albinistic. True albinos have been reported. The Indian Hedgehog has well-defined, dark,facial mask thatis variable in shape and color. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they average 19-23 mm long and have fairly extensive creamy-white tips. Spines can be banded with dark brown or black and white or yellow, but usually only one of these colors predominates; some individuals have red-golden tint. There is wide and conspicuous center parting of spines on crown of head and distinct whitish band across forehead. Ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and snoutis pointed. Upper parts of face and cheeks are grayish white. Underparts can be blotched dark brown and white, varying from entirely brown to entirely white. Legs are dark. Limbs, abdomen, and area around eyes and muzzle are covered with reddish brown to reddish gray hairs. Hallux is somewhat reduced but well developed. Tail is short and stumpy and sparsely covered with hairs. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","Primarily deserts and other arid areas in dry sandy areas, tropical thorn forests, semiarid scrublands, and agricultural lands. The Indian Hedgehog also occupies slightly more mesic habitats, especially regions influenced by monsoons.","The Indian Hedgehog usually feeds at night, and its typical gait is a trot at ¢.30 cm/sec. When pursuing prey or when frightened, it may travel up to 64 cm/sec. Its diet consists mainly of insects (especially dung beetles) but also solifugid spiders, scorpions, frogs, toads,lizards, small snakes, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and rodents. It will eat ripe fallen fruits ofjujube dates (Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae). It holds down prey with forepaws and begins consuming its victim posterior-end first. Apparently, it stores excess food in its burrow for future use. Captive Indian Hedgehogs have survived 4-6 weeks without food and water.","The Indian Hedgehog is polygynous, and probably only one litter is produced each year. Males are reproductively capable well in advance of the breeding season, which extends throughout the monsoon period in April-September. Litters are born in July-September when insects are most abundant. Litters usually have 1-2 young (range 1-6). Neonates are 47-54 mm long. Captive Indian Hedgehogs sometimes eat their young.","The Indian Hedgehog usually is nocturnal and rather sedentary. Dayresting sites can be under a pile of brushy debris or a bush, but typically they are in burrows. The Indian Hedgehog does not hibernate. Although insects generally are plentiful even in winter, it undergoes temporary episodes of torpidity during drought or when food is scarce. When torpid,it remains curled up in its burrow or other shelter. It digs its own burrows and caches food.","Indian Hedgehogs excavate their own burrows that have one opening and are ¢.46 cm long. They also occupy burrows abandoned by other small mammals including those of the geographically sympatric Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris); they often occupy the same burrow and territory throughout the year. Indian Hedgehogs are usually solitary and nonaggressive. Males and females meet only to breed. Except for nursing mothers, only one Indian Hedgehog lives in a burrow at a time, although three shared one burrow in captivity. They engage in self-anointing behavior.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hedgehog is widespread and common, but local populations are increasingly fragmented and isolated due to desertification and agricultural development.","Beer (2003) | Bidwai & Bawa (1981) | Corbet (1988) | Eisentraut (1952) | Frost et al. (1991) | Gupta & Sharma (1961) | Hutterer (2005a) | Krishna & Prakash (1956) | Mahabal et al. (2015) | Nowak (1999) | Prakash (1959, 1960) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Shah & Aravinda Babu (1977) | Stone (1995b) | Walton & Walton (1973)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639372/files/figure.png,"11.Indian HedgehogParaechinus micropusFrench:Hérisson indien/ German:Indischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de IndiaOther common names:Indian Desert Hedgehog, Pale HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus micropus Blyth, 1846,“Bhawulpore.”Interpreted by D. R. Frostand colleagues in 1991 as “Bahawalpur, Pakistan, 29°23’N, 71°39’L.” This species is monotypic.Distribution.Arid zones of SE Pakistan (extreme SE Balochistan, Punjab, and Sindh) and NW India (W Rajasthan, Gujarat, and extreme NW Maharashtra).Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-230 mm, tail 10-40 mm, ear 26-32 mm, hindfoot 24-26 mm; weight 300-600 g. The Indian Hedgehog is small and rounded, with pointed nose and short legs. It has dark legs and relatively small feet and claws. Color is highly variable, with some individuals tending toward melanistic and others toward albinistic. True albinos have been reported. The Indian Hedgehog has well-defined, dark,facial mask thatis variable in shape and color. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they average 19-23 mm long and have fairly extensive creamy-white tips. Spines can be banded with dark brown or black and white or yellow, but usually only one of these colors predominates; some individuals have red-golden tint. There is wide and conspicuous center parting of spines on crown of head and distinct whitish band across forehead. Ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and snoutis pointed. Upper parts of face and cheeks are grayish white. Underparts can be blotched dark brown and white, varying from entirely brown to entirely white. Legs are dark. Limbs, abdomen, and area around eyes and muzzle are covered with reddish brown to reddish gray hairs. Hallux is somewhat reduced but well developed. Tail is short and stumpy and sparsely covered with hairs. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Primarily deserts and other arid areas in dry sandy areas, tropical thorn forests, semiarid scrublands, and agricultural lands. The Indian Hedgehog also occupies slightly more mesic habitats, especially regions influenced by monsoons.Food and Feeding.The Indian Hedgehog usually feeds at night, and its typical gait is a trot at ¢.30 cm/sec. When pursuing prey or when frightened, it may travel up to 64 cm/sec. Its diet consists mainly of insects (especially dung beetles) but also solifugid spiders, scorpions, frogs, toads,lizards, small snakes, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and rodents. It will eat ripe fallen fruits ofjujube dates (Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae). It holds down prey with forepaws and begins consuming its victim posterior-end first. Apparently, it stores excess food in its burrow for future use. Captive Indian Hedgehogs have survived 4-6 weeks without food and water.Breeding.The Indian Hedgehog is polygynous, and probably only one litter is produced each year. Males are reproductively capable well in advance of the breeding season, which extends throughout the monsoon period in April-September. Litters are born in July-September when insects are most abundant. Litters usually have 1-2 young (range 1-6). Neonates are 47-54 mm long. Captive Indian Hedgehogs sometimes eat their young.Activity patterns.The Indian Hedgehog usually is nocturnal and rather sedentary. Dayresting sites can be under a pile of brushy debris or a bush, but typically they are in burrows. The Indian Hedgehog does not hibernate. Although insects generally are plentiful even in winter, it undergoes temporary episodes of torpidity during drought or when food is scarce. When torpid,it remains curled up in its burrow or other shelter. It digs its own burrows and caches food.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Indian Hedgehogs excavate their own burrows that have one opening and are ¢.46 cm long. They also occupy burrows abandoned by other small mammals including those of the geographically sympatric Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris); they often occupy the same burrow and territory throughout the year. Indian Hedgehogs are usually solitary and nonaggressive. Males and females meet only to breed. Except for nursing mothers, only one Indian Hedgehog lives in a burrow at a time, although three shared one burrow in captivity. They engage in self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hedgehog is widespread and common, but local populations are increasingly fragmented and isolated due to desertification and agricultural development.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Bidwai & Bawa (1981), Corbet (1988), Eisentraut (1952), Frost et al. (1991), Gupta & Sharma (1961), Hutterer (2005a), Krishna & Prakash (1956), Mahabal et al. (2015), Nowak (1999), Prakash (1959, 1960), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Shah & Aravinda Babu (1977), Stone (1995b), Walton & Walton (1973)." -038787D0FFD7FFC1FF59FC66FC8576DA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,324,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD7FFC1FF59FC66FC8576DA.xml,Paraechinus hypomelas,Paraechinus,hypomelas,,,Hérisson de Brandt @fr | Brandt- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Brandt @es | Brandt's Steppic Hedgehog @en | Long-spined Hedgehog @en,"FErinaceus hypomelas Brandt,1836, “pays des Turcomans [= country of the Turkmens].”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “roughly equivalent to the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kazak, and Karakalpak regions of the [former] U.S.S.R.”” and by R. Hutterer in 2005 as “somewhere in S Kazakhstan.” Five subspecies are recognized.","P.h.hypomelasBrandt,1836—mostofTurkmenistan,SEUzbekistan,SWTajikistan,andIran,includingKhargI. P.h.blanfordiJ.Anderson,1878—EIran,Afghanistan,andPakistan.P.h.eversmanniOgnev,1927—EofCaspianSeainSWKazakhstan,WUzbekistan,andNWTurkmenistan.P.h.sabaeusThomas,1922—ArabianPeninsula.P. h. seniculus Thomas, 1922— Tunb I, Persian Gulf, Iran.","Head—body 136-290 mm, tail 18-38 mm, ear 36-55 mm, hindfoot 30-46 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Typically, Brandt's Hedgehog has striking dark brown or black pelage, with no white band across forehead, but white (not albino) individuals have been documented. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they are up to 36-37 mm long. Median parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines have black tips, often with entire distal one-third being black. Underside, legs, and face are covered with mix of black and gray hairs. Generally, middle part of forehead has more black hairs, with admixture of gray hairs on sides of face. Throat has mix of creamy-white hairs. Legs are long, large ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.",,"Brandt's Hedgehog is a voracious feeder and will tackle almost any prey from venomous snakes to beetles. Although it primarily is insectivorous, it also eats scorpions, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and fruits. In years when the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is plentiful, it forms the bulk of the diet. It has a fondness for ripe melons that are an important summer crop. It also feeds on fallen mulberries and silverberries (Elaegnus, Elacagnaceae). It may be cannibalistic, more so in captivity than in the wild.Breeding. In non-mountainous areas where there is some monsoon influence, Brandt's Hedgehog possibly breeds throughout the year. Litters usually are born in late spring and early summer (April-May). Average litters have 3—4 young (range 1-6). Eyes open in 21-23 days, and teeth appear in 26-28 days. There is no evidence that more than onelitter is produced each year. A captive Brandt's Hedgehog lived seven years and two months.",,,"Brandt's Hedgehog is solitary and rather nomadic, and it does not use the same shelter continuously throughout the year. Day-resting sites can be under overhanging ledges, in crevices between rocks, and occasionally burrows. Its legs are relatively longer and claws shorter and sharper compared with other species of hedgehogs. These physical traits might be a disadvantage in burrowing and might explain why it is not a very active burrower. It exhibits self-anointing behavior.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations.,Anderson (1878) | Beer (2003) | Brodie (1977) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Habibi (2004) | Hutterer (2005a) | Nader (1991) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1922a) | Walton & Walton (1973) | Zherebtsova (1992),,"10.Brandt's HedgehogParaechinus hypomelasFrench:Hérisson de Brandt/ German:Brandt-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de BrandtOther common names:Brandt's Steppic Hedgehog, Long-spined HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus hypomelas Brandt,1836, “pays des Turcomans [= country of the Turkmens].”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “roughly equivalent to the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kazak, and Karakalpak regions of the [former] U.S.S.R.”” and by R. Hutterer in 2005 as “somewhere in S Kazakhstan.” Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.h.hypomelasBrandt,1836—mostofTurkmenistan,SEUzbekistan,SWTajikistan,andIran,includingKhargI. P.h.blanfordiJ.Anderson,1878—EIran,Afghanistan,andPakistan.P.h.eversmanniOgnev,1927—EofCaspianSeainSWKazakhstan,WUzbekistan,andNWTurkmenistan.P.h.sabaeusThomas,1922—ArabianPeninsula.P. h. seniculus Thomas, 1922— Tunb I, Persian Gulf, Iran.Descriptive notes. Head—body 136-290 mm, tail 18-38 mm, ear 36-55 mm, hindfoot 30-46 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Typically, Brandt's Hedgehog has striking dark brown or black pelage, with no white band across forehead, but white (not albino) individuals have been documented. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they are up to 36-37 mm long. Median parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines have black tips, often with entire distal one-third being black. Underside, legs, and face are covered with mix of black and gray hairs. Generally, middle part of forehead has more black hairs, with admixture of gray hairs on sides of face. Throat has mix of creamy-white hairs. Legs are long, large ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.Habitat. Dry deserts, desert steppes, and other arid places. In Pakistan, Brandt's Hedgehog appears to prefer dry gravelly slopes or rocky areas, and it survives and thrives in barren arid areas. It also can occur in lowland areas and will venture into cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.Brandt's Hedgehog is a voracious feeder and will tackle almost any prey from venomous snakes to beetles. Although it primarily is insectivorous, it also eats scorpions, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and fruits. In years when the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is plentiful, it forms the bulk of the diet. It has a fondness for ripe melons that are an important summer crop. It also feeds on fallen mulberries and silverberries (Elaegnus, Elacagnaceae). It may be cannibalistic, more so in captivity than in the wild.Breeding. In non-mountainous areas where there is some monsoon influence, Brandt's Hedgehog possibly breeds throughout the year. Litters usually are born in late spring and early summer (April-May). Average litters have 3—4 young (range 1-6). Eyes open in 21-23 days, and teeth appear in 26-28 days. There is no evidence that more than onelitter is produced each year. A captive Brandt's Hedgehog lived seven years and two months.Activity patterns. Brandt's Hedgehog is terrestrial and nocturnal; it forages most often at night. It has been observed day-resting in burrows 1m deep in sandy embankments of railway tracks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Brandt's Hedgehog is solitary and rather nomadic, and it does not use the same shelter continuously throughout the year. Day-resting sites can be under overhanging ledges, in crevices between rocks, and occasionally burrows. Its legs are relatively longer and claws shorter and sharper compared with other species of hedgehogs. These physical traits might be a disadvantage in burrowing and might explain why it is not a very active burrower. It exhibits self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations.Bibliography. Anderson (1878), Beer (2003), Brodie (1977), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Habibi (2004), Hutterer (2005a), Nader (1991), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1922a), Walton & Walton (1973), Zherebtsova (1992)." +038787D0FFD7FFC1FF59FC66FC8576DA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,324,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD7FFC1FF59FC66FC8576DA.xml,Paraechinus hypomelas,Paraechinus,hypomelas,,,Hérisson de Brandt @fr | Brandt- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Brandt @es | Brandt's Steppic Hedgehog @en | Long-spined Hedgehog @en,"FErinaceus hypomelas Brandt,1836, “pays des Turcomans [= country of the Turkmens].”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “roughly equivalent to the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kazak, and Karakalpak regions of the [former] U.S.S.R.”” and by R. Hutterer in 2005 as “somewhere in S Kazakhstan.” Five subspecies are recognized.","P.h.hypomelasBrandt,1836—mostofTurkmenistan,SEUzbekistan,SWTajikistan,andIran,includingKhargI. P.h.blanfordiJ.Anderson,1878—EIran,Afghanistan,andPakistan.P.h.eversmanniOgnev,1927—EofCaspianSeainSWKazakhstan,WUzbekistan,andNWTurkmenistan.P.h.sabaeusThomas,1922—ArabianPeninsula.P. h. seniculus Thomas, 1922— Tunb I, Persian Gulf, Iran.","Head—body 136-290 mm, tail 18-38 mm, ear 36-55 mm, hindfoot 30-46 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Typically, Brandt's Hedgehog has striking dark brown or black pelage, with no white band across forehead, but white (not albino) individuals have been documented. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they are up to 36-37 mm long. Median parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines have black tips, often with entire distal one-third being black. Underside, legs, and face are covered with mix of black and gray hairs. Generally, middle part of forehead has more black hairs, with admixture of gray hairs on sides of face. Throat has mix of creamy-white hairs. Legs are long, large ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.",,"Brandt's Hedgehog is a voracious feeder and will tackle almost any prey from venomous snakes to beetles. Although it primarily is insectivorous, it also eats scorpions, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and fruits. In years when the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is plentiful, it forms the bulk of the diet. It has a fondness for ripe melons that are an important summer crop. It also feeds on fallen mulberries and silverberries (Elaegnus, Elacagnaceae). It may be cannibalistic, more so in captivity than in the wild.Breeding. In non-mountainous areas where there is some monsoon influence, Brandt's Hedgehog possibly breeds throughout the year. Litters usually are born in late spring and early summer (April-May). Average litters have 3—4 young (range 1-6). Eyes open in 21-23 days, and teeth appear in 26-28 days. There is no evidence that more than onelitter is produced each year. A captive Brandt's Hedgehog lived seven years and two months.",,,"Brandt's Hedgehog is solitary and rather nomadic, and it does not use the same shelter continuously throughout the year. Day-resting sites can be under overhanging ledges, in crevices between rocks, and occasionally burrows. Its legs are relatively longer and claws shorter and sharper compared with other species of hedgehogs. These physical traits might be a disadvantage in burrowing and might explain why it is not a very active burrower. It exhibits self-anointing behavior.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations.,Anderson (1878) | Beer (2003) | Brodie (1977) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Habibi (2004) | Hutterer (2005a) | Nader (1991) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1922a) | Walton & Walton (1973) | Zherebtsova (1992),https://zenodo.org/record/6639370/files/figure.png,"10.Brandt's HedgehogParaechinus hypomelasFrench:Hérisson de Brandt/ German:Brandt-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de BrandtOther common names:Brandt's Steppic Hedgehog, Long-spined HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus hypomelas Brandt,1836, “pays des Turcomans [= country of the Turkmens].”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “roughly equivalent to the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kazak, and Karakalpak regions of the [former] U.S.S.R.”” and by R. Hutterer in 2005 as “somewhere in S Kazakhstan.” Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.h.hypomelasBrandt,1836—mostofTurkmenistan,SEUzbekistan,SWTajikistan,andIran,includingKhargI. P.h.blanfordiJ.Anderson,1878—EIran,Afghanistan,andPakistan.P.h.eversmanniOgnev,1927—EofCaspianSeainSWKazakhstan,WUzbekistan,andNWTurkmenistan.P.h.sabaeusThomas,1922—ArabianPeninsula.P. h. seniculus Thomas, 1922— Tunb I, Persian Gulf, Iran.Descriptive notes. Head—body 136-290 mm, tail 18-38 mm, ear 36-55 mm, hindfoot 30-46 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Typically, Brandt's Hedgehog has striking dark brown or black pelage, with no white band across forehead, but white (not albino) individuals have been documented. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they are up to 36-37 mm long. Median parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines have black tips, often with entire distal one-third being black. Underside, legs, and face are covered with mix of black and gray hairs. Generally, middle part of forehead has more black hairs, with admixture of gray hairs on sides of face. Throat has mix of creamy-white hairs. Legs are long, large ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.Habitat. Dry deserts, desert steppes, and other arid places. In Pakistan, Brandt's Hedgehog appears to prefer dry gravelly slopes or rocky areas, and it survives and thrives in barren arid areas. It also can occur in lowland areas and will venture into cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.Brandt's Hedgehog is a voracious feeder and will tackle almost any prey from venomous snakes to beetles. Although it primarily is insectivorous, it also eats scorpions, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and fruits. In years when the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is plentiful, it forms the bulk of the diet. It has a fondness for ripe melons that are an important summer crop. It also feeds on fallen mulberries and silverberries (Elaegnus, Elacagnaceae). It may be cannibalistic, more so in captivity than in the wild.Breeding. In non-mountainous areas where there is some monsoon influence, Brandt's Hedgehog possibly breeds throughout the year. Litters usually are born in late spring and early summer (April-May). Average litters have 3—4 young (range 1-6). Eyes open in 21-23 days, and teeth appear in 26-28 days. There is no evidence that more than onelitter is produced each year. A captive Brandt's Hedgehog lived seven years and two months.Activity patterns. Brandt's Hedgehog is terrestrial and nocturnal; it forages most often at night. It has been observed day-resting in burrows 1m deep in sandy embankments of railway tracks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Brandt's Hedgehog is solitary and rather nomadic, and it does not use the same shelter continuously throughout the year. Day-resting sites can be under overhanging ledges, in crevices between rocks, and occasionally burrows. Its legs are relatively longer and claws shorter and sharper compared with other species of hedgehogs. These physical traits might be a disadvantage in burrowing and might explain why it is not a very active burrower. It exhibits self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations.Bibliography. Anderson (1878), Beer (2003), Brodie (1977), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Habibi (2004), Hutterer (2005a), Nader (1991), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1922a), Walton & Walton (1973), Zherebtsova (1992)." 038787D0FFD7FFCEFA51F463FCB27D16,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,324,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD7FFCEFA51F463FCB27D16.xml,Paraechinus nudiventris,Paraechinus,nudiventris,,,Hérisson a ventre nu @fr | Nacktbauchigel @de | Erizo de vientre desnudo @es | Madras Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus nudiventris Horsfield, 1851, “Madras,”India. Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as either “the city at 13°05’N, 80°17’E or the older name for the Tamil Nadu province,” India. This species is monotypic.","Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, S India.","There are no specific measurements available. T. Horsfield in 1851 noted that size of the Bare-bellied Hedgehog is about one-half that of the Indian Longeared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris). G. B. Corbet and J. E. Hill in 1992 noted thatcompared with the Indian Hedgehog, the Bare-bellied Hedgehog has shorter ears, brown collar, and very rudimentary third upper premolars (P?). Tail is short and concealed. Spines have a rough surface, they are strongly grooved along their lengths, and they are yellowish white at bases and tips, with blackish band in the middle. Head and ears are naked and sooty black throughout. Throat, neck to near ears, chest, and abdomen are covered with naked skin of a dirty chestnut-brown, changing to blackish on abdomen and dirty yellowish on sides. It has wide center parting of spines on crown of head and distinct white band across forehead. Ears protrude beyond adjacent spines. Hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.",Rocky and shrubby deserts and arid regions with Acacia(Fabaceae) shrubs and trees.,"Diet of the Bare-bellied Hedgehog consists primarily of insects but also small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and scorpions. Captive individuals sometimes eat their young.",The Bare-bellied Hedgehog probably produces only onelitter each year.,"The Bare-bellied Hedgehog is terrestrial and excavates burrows under logs, leaves, and near rocks. Most of the day is spent sleeping, and it wakes up and begins searching for food at dusk.",Bare-bellied Hedgehogs are solitary and engage in self-anointing behavior. Captive individuals generally do not bother one another if fed well.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Barebellied Hedgehog is abundantin its restricted distribution and presumably has a large overall population. Increasing desertification is resulting in fragmentation of populations. Loss of habitats due to collection of fuel wood, logging, agriculture, and urbanization are the major conservation threats.",Corbet (1988) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Frost et al. (1991) | Horsfield (1851) | Hutterer (2005a) | Marimuthu & Asokan (2014) | Nowak (1999) | Reeve (1994) | Stone (1995b),https://zenodo.org/record/6639376/files/figure.png,"12.Bare-bellied HedgehogParaechinus nudiventrisFrench:Hérisson a ventre nu/ German:Nacktbauchigel/ Spanish:Erizo de vientre desnudoOther common names:Madras HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus nudiventris Horsfield, 1851, “Madras,”India. Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as either “the city at 13°05’N, 80°17’E or the older name for the Tamil Nadu province,” India. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, S India.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. T. Horsfield in 1851 noted that size of the Bare-bellied Hedgehog is about one-half that of the Indian Longeared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris). G. B. Corbet and J. E. Hill in 1992 noted thatcompared with the Indian Hedgehog, the Bare-bellied Hedgehog has shorter ears, brown collar, and very rudimentary third upper premolars (P?). Tail is short and concealed. Spines have a rough surface, they are strongly grooved along their lengths, and they are yellowish white at bases and tips, with blackish band in the middle. Head and ears are naked and sooty black throughout. Throat, neck to near ears, chest, and abdomen are covered with naked skin of a dirty chestnut-brown, changing to blackish on abdomen and dirty yellowish on sides. It has wide center parting of spines on crown of head and distinct white band across forehead. Ears protrude beyond adjacent spines. Hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.Habitat.Rocky and shrubby deserts and arid regions with Acacia(Fabaceae) shrubs and trees.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Bare-bellied Hedgehog consists primarily of insects but also small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and scorpions. Captive individuals sometimes eat their young.Breeding.The Bare-bellied Hedgehog probably produces only onelitter each year.Activity patterns.The Bare-bellied Hedgehog is terrestrial and excavates burrows under logs, leaves, and near rocks. Most of the day is spent sleeping, and it wakes up and begins searching for food at dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bare-bellied Hedgehogs are solitary and engage in self-anointing behavior. Captive individuals generally do not bother one another if fed well.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Barebellied Hedgehog is abundantin its restricted distribution and presumably has a large overall population. Increasing desertification is resulting in fragmentation of populations. Loss of habitats due to collection of fuel wood, logging, agriculture, and urbanization are the major conservation threats.Bibliography.Corbet (1988), Corbet & Hill (1992), Frost et al. (1991), Horsfield (1851), Hutterer (2005a), Marimuthu & Asokan (2014), Nowak (1999), Reeve (1994), Stone (1995b)." -038787D0FFD8FFCFFF77F8BDFBBB78F6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,325,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD8FFCFFF77F8BDFBBB78F6.xml,Hemiechinus auritus,Hemiechinus,auritus,,,Hérisson a oreilles longues @fr | Eigentlicher Langohrigel @de | Erizo de orejas largas dorado @es | Afghan Hedgehog @en | Long-eared Steppe Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus auritus S. G. Gmelin,1770, “in regione Astrachanensi.”Inter-preted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in1991 as “Astrackhan’skaya Oblast’, [former] U.S.S.R., 46°21’N, 48°03’E,” now southern Russia. Three subspecies are recognized.","H.a.auritusS.G.Gmelin,1770—NLibya,NEgypt,MiddleEast,EUkraine,SWRussia,ECaucasus,extremeE&SAnatolia(Turkey),andN&WIran.IntroducedintoCyprus.H.a.albulusStoliczka,1872—Kazakhstan,SSiberia(Tuva),W&SMongolia,andNW&NCChina.H. a. megalotis Blyth, 1845— Turkestan, SW & E Iran, Afghanistan, and W Pakistan.","Head-body 160-278 mm, tail 10-55 mm, ear 24-60 mm, hindfoot 30-55 mm; weight 230-400 g (but some weigh 1-1 kg). Unlike species of Erinaceusand Paraechinus, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog and the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (H. collaris) have no central parting of spines on crown of head. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog has long limbs, short barely visible tail, well-developed hallux on hindfeet, and five toes on forefeet. Ears are long and conspicuous,slightly pointed, flexible and mobile, considerably longer than adjacent spines, and apparently adapted for radiation of desert heat. If ears are pressed forward, they cover eyes. Dorsal pelage has dark rough spines, with numerous papillae, many shallow longitudinal grooves, whitish bases, two wide black bands separated by pale band, pale brownish tip, and average length of ¢.25 mm. Spines on lower back and flanks are c.34 mm long. Spines are sharp and flexible, and they act as shock absorbersif a fall occurs from a high place. Head,tail, and limbs generally are white to pale brown. There is no dark face mask. Ventral pelage generally has soft white hairs, but populations in Afghanistan and Pakistan (megalotis) are uniformly brown on their undersides. In Pakistan, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog tends to be rather reddish. Hair on limbs, underside, tail, and lower part of head is reddish brown or auburn. Upper part offace, inside of ears, and top of crown has some white hairs that produce rusty color. Entire body tends to look dark reddish brown, and spines give an impression of lying in a rather smooth and regular pattern because of brown tips and their lengths. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1, P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48-50 and FN = 94-98.","Dry riverbeds, dunes, oases, valleys with shrubs, semiarid country, and steppes over most of its distribution, including coastal semi-desert scrublands with dense vegetation, semiarid grasslands, and high-elevation steppes with subzero temperatures in winter. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is not desert adapted, but it is moderately tolerant of heat and drought, and its large ears might be important in thermoregulation. It is rare in sparsely vegetated areas. It favors mesic sites such as suburban parks and gardens, olive groves, and agricultural lands and is commonly associated with humans. In Pakistan,it is plentiful above elevations of 900 m and can occur in valleys up to 2500 m. In Iran, it spends days in shallow burrows, beneath mud walls, or in piles of hay. In Egypt, it often is in buildings, crevices in walls, piles of bricks and stones, fissures in rocks, small caves, graveyards, and burrows of the Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus) in salt-marsh habitats. It selects soft ground such as sandy dunes where it can dig relatively deep burrows that slope at a slight angle.","The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous,it is a voracious feeder, and it can survive for up to ten weeks without eating or drinking. Diet primarily is insects (bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, termites, lepidopterans, ants), but it also eats other invertebrates (worms, millipedes, and snails), small vertebrates (mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards), eggs, carrion, fruits, and seeds. It seems immune to poisons and stings of insects and other invertebrates and will hunt and eat scorpions, venomous spiders, and stinging hymenopterans. It will kill and eat small snakes, some venomous, by rolling into a ball after grabbing the lower body of the snake so that the snake strikes in vain against the spines, often damaging itself. The Common Longeared Hedgehog feeds on grapes, mulberries, and watermelons, which it hollows out. It does not eat food discarded by humans, and captive individuals show a tendency toward cannibalism. Even with its protective spines,it is an important source of food for carnivores.","The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is polygynous. Breeding probably occurs immediately after emerging from hibernation in early spring (mid-April) and continues into late summer (September). Courtship behavior is well developed and includes sniffing, licking genitalia, and flank rubbing. Male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended. Gestation lasts 28-42 days. Births peak in July-September. Before giving birth, females excavate nest chamber in their burrow. Apparently, they clear all debris from the floor of the nest chamber, they do not line the chamber, they give birth on the smooth floor, and they lick neonates until they are clean. Litters vary geographically but usually have 3-5 young (range 1-7). Neonates are born naked, except for some scattered spines. They weigh 7-13 g, body length is 47-61 mm, hindfoot length is 7 mm, and ear length is 3-4 mm. Their backs are thickly covered with spines by 14 days old, eyes open at 15-20 days, solid food is eaten at 21-28 days, teeth appear at 23-24 days, weaning is at ¢.31-40 days, and young leave nest at ¢.30-40 days. There is no evidence that more than one litter is produced each year. Young can reach sexual maturity as soon as six weeks of age. Longevity is 6-7 years.","The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is nocturnal and begins foraging early in the evening. Day-resting sites usually are in burrows that are under small shrubs or bushes. Burrows are 20-150 cm long and have a single opening. Rest sites occur in caves and crevices and under piles of rocks and bricks. Long limbs enable it to walk and run quickly. It is an active digger and will excavate its own burrow when abandoned dens made by rodents or other mammals are not available. Generally, it excavates burrows under large rocks and can dig in sandy, clay, or rocky soils. Digging employs broad-clawed forefeet to loosen and throw soil backward; snout is not used in digging. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog periodically moves backward up its burrow and kicks out accumulated soil using hindfeet. In firm soil, 30-38cm burrows are completed in 3-4 hours. In soft soil,it can dig a 10cm hole in five minutes and can dig several burrows each night. It enters and exits burrows headfirst. Females widen ends of burrows to accommodate young. During early spring when insects and other invertebrates are plentiful, it builds up a layer offat. It can enter torpor in any season during droughts, shortages of food, and cold or hot weather, and it can remain partially awake, or sufficiently conscious, to react quickly to any disturbance. Even during short periods of torpor and estivation, respiration is slow and shallow, and heart rate decreases. Body temperature usually remains within 1-2°C of ambient temperatures. In regions where temperatures in winter are as cold as —6-5°C, body temperature during hibernation can approach 0°C. In North Africa, it can enter torpor during the cold season (December—February) and remain in its burrow 5-40 days. In northern India, it might hibernate up to 3-5 months in winter, and in the mountains of Pakistan, hibernation occurs in October-March and can be 5-5-6 months. In China, it enters torpor in October and emerges in spring. During hibernation, the Common Longeared Hedgehog wakes up periodically and might emerge briefly to forage or move only within its nesting burrow. In warmer areas, there is no prolonged hibernation in winter.","Common Long-eared Hedgehogs can walk more than 17-20 m/minute. Estimates indicate that the Common Longeared Hedgehog can travel 7-9 km in a 7-9hour activity period. Average home ranges are 4-9-5 ha (range 1-6-10 ha) for adult males, 2-9 ha (range 0-9—4-2 ha) for nonlactating females, and 1:3-3-5 ha (range 0-2-4-3 ha) for non-lactating and lactating females. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary. It usually is non-aggressive, but when fighting, it is very noisy; it growls when alarmed. Adults only nest singly, but they use burrows of other hedgehogs in their absence. It performs self-anointing; practically any substance will induce this behavior. This activity can go on nearly continuously for up to 20 minutes. Reasons for this behavior are unknown; it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season or, because substances that initiate this behavior are either novel or irritating, it might serve asprotection against predators. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog also rubs toads against its spines suggesting that it might be making defensive use of toxins produced by the toads.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is common in much ofits broad distribution. It can damage agricultural crops, especially ripe melons, but it is mostly beneficial because of the insects, reptiles, and other pests that it eats. Humans sometimes eat Common Longeared Hedgehogs.","Al-Behbehani & Ibrahim (2007) | Al-Khalili (1990) | Arslan et al. (2009) | Atallah (1977) | Batsaikhan et al. (2010) | Beer (2003) | Bhatnagar & El-Azawi (1978) | Blanford (1888) | Blyth (1845) | Brodie (1977) | Colak et al. (1997 1998) | Corbet (1988) | Dmi‘el & Schwarz (1984) | Flower (1932) | Frost et al. (1991) | Happold (2013d) | Harrison (1964) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hassinger (1973) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Herter (1965) | Hoogstraal (1962) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Ivanitskaya & Malygin (1985) | Jones (1982) | Karatas et al. (2007) | Kefelioglu (1997) | Krishna & Prakash (1955) | Kumar & Pandey (1995) | Lay (1967) | Nader (1968) | Niethammer (1973) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Poduschka & Poduschka (1986) | Prakash (1953, 1954, 1960) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Reading et al. (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stoliczka (1872) | Stone (1995b) | Zherebtsova (1982, 1992)",,"13.Common Long-eared HedgehogHemiechinus auritusFrench:Hérisson a oreilles longues/ German:Eigentlicher Langohrigel/ Spanish:Erizo de orejas largas doradoOther common names:Afghan Hedgehog, Long-eared Steppe HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus auritus S. G. Gmelin,1770, “in regione Astrachanensi.”Inter-preted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in1991 as “Astrackhan’skaya Oblast’, [former] U.S.S.R., 46°21’N, 48°03’E,” now southern Russia. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.auritusS.G.Gmelin,1770—NLibya,NEgypt,MiddleEast,EUkraine,SWRussia,ECaucasus,extremeE&SAnatolia(Turkey),andN&WIran.IntroducedintoCyprus.H.a.albulusStoliczka,1872—Kazakhstan,SSiberia(Tuva),W&SMongolia,andNW&NCChina.H. a. megalotis Blyth, 1845— Turkestan, SW & E Iran, Afghanistan, and W Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-278 mm, tail 10-55 mm, ear 24-60 mm, hindfoot 30-55 mm; weight 230-400 g (but some weigh 1-1 kg). Unlike species of Erinaceusand Paraechinus, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog and the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (H. collaris) have no central parting of spines on crown of head. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog has long limbs, short barely visible tail, well-developed hallux on hindfeet, and five toes on forefeet. Ears are long and conspicuous,slightly pointed, flexible and mobile, considerably longer than adjacent spines, and apparently adapted for radiation of desert heat. If ears are pressed forward, they cover eyes. Dorsal pelage has dark rough spines, with numerous papillae, many shallow longitudinal grooves, whitish bases, two wide black bands separated by pale band, pale brownish tip, and average length of ¢.25 mm. Spines on lower back and flanks are c.34 mm long. Spines are sharp and flexible, and they act as shock absorbersif a fall occurs from a high place. Head,tail, and limbs generally are white to pale brown. There is no dark face mask. Ventral pelage generally has soft white hairs, but populations in Afghanistan and Pakistan (megalotis) are uniformly brown on their undersides. In Pakistan, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog tends to be rather reddish. Hair on limbs, underside, tail, and lower part of head is reddish brown or auburn. Upper part offace, inside of ears, and top of crown has some white hairs that produce rusty color. Entire body tends to look dark reddish brown, and spines give an impression of lying in a rather smooth and regular pattern because of brown tips and their lengths. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1, P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48-50 and FN = 94-98.Habitat.Dry riverbeds, dunes, oases, valleys with shrubs, semiarid country, and steppes over most of its distribution, including coastal semi-desert scrublands with dense vegetation, semiarid grasslands, and high-elevation steppes with subzero temperatures in winter. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is not desert adapted, but it is moderately tolerant of heat and drought, and its large ears might be important in thermoregulation. It is rare in sparsely vegetated areas. It favors mesic sites such as suburban parks and gardens, olive groves, and agricultural lands and is commonly associated with humans. In Pakistan,it is plentiful above elevations of 900 m and can occur in valleys up to 2500 m. In Iran, it spends days in shallow burrows, beneath mud walls, or in piles of hay. In Egypt, it often is in buildings, crevices in walls, piles of bricks and stones, fissures in rocks, small caves, graveyards, and burrows of the Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus) in salt-marsh habitats. It selects soft ground such as sandy dunes where it can dig relatively deep burrows that slope at a slight angle.Food and Feeding.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous,it is a voracious feeder, and it can survive for up to ten weeks without eating or drinking. Diet primarily is insects (bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, termites, lepidopterans, ants), but it also eats other invertebrates (worms, millipedes, and snails), small vertebrates (mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards), eggs, carrion, fruits, and seeds. It seems immune to poisons and stings of insects and other invertebrates and will hunt and eat scorpions, venomous spiders, and stinging hymenopterans. It will kill and eat small snakes, some venomous, by rolling into a ball after grabbing the lower body of the snake so that the snake strikes in vain against the spines, often damaging itself. The Common Longeared Hedgehog feeds on grapes, mulberries, and watermelons, which it hollows out. It does not eat food discarded by humans, and captive individuals show a tendency toward cannibalism. Even with its protective spines,it is an important source of food for carnivores.Breeding.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is polygynous. Breeding probably occurs immediately after emerging from hibernation in early spring (mid-April) and continues into late summer (September). Courtship behavior is well developed and includes sniffing, licking genitalia, and flank rubbing. Male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended. Gestation lasts 28-42 days. Births peak in July-September. Before giving birth, females excavate nest chamber in their burrow. Apparently, they clear all debris from the floor of the nest chamber, they do not line the chamber, they give birth on the smooth floor, and they lick neonates until they are clean. Litters vary geographically but usually have 3-5 young (range 1-7). Neonates are born naked, except for some scattered spines. They weigh 7-13 g, body length is 47-61 mm, hindfoot length is 7 mm, and ear length is 3-4 mm. Their backs are thickly covered with spines by 14 days old, eyes open at 15-20 days, solid food is eaten at 21-28 days, teeth appear at 23-24 days, weaning is at ¢.31-40 days, and young leave nest at ¢.30-40 days. There is no evidence that more than one litter is produced each year. Young can reach sexual maturity as soon as six weeks of age. Longevity is 6-7 years.Activity patterns.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is nocturnal and begins foraging early in the evening. Day-resting sites usually are in burrows that are under small shrubs or bushes. Burrows are 20-150 cm long and have a single opening. Rest sites occur in caves and crevices and under piles of rocks and bricks. Long limbs enable it to walk and run quickly. It is an active digger and will excavate its own burrow when abandoned dens made by rodents or other mammals are not available. Generally, it excavates burrows under large rocks and can dig in sandy, clay, or rocky soils. Digging employs broad-clawed forefeet to loosen and throw soil backward; snout is not used in digging. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog periodically moves backward up its burrow and kicks out accumulated soil using hindfeet. In firm soil, 30-38cm burrows are completed in 3-4 hours. In soft soil,it can dig a 10cm hole in five minutes and can dig several burrows each night. It enters and exits burrows headfirst. Females widen ends of burrows to accommodate young. During early spring when insects and other invertebrates are plentiful, it builds up a layer offat. It can enter torpor in any season during droughts, shortages of food, and cold or hot weather, and it can remain partially awake, or sufficiently conscious, to react quickly to any disturbance. Even during short periods of torpor and estivation, respiration is slow and shallow, and heart rate decreases. Body temperature usually remains within 1-2°C of ambient temperatures. In regions where temperatures in winter are as cold as —6-5°C, body temperature during hibernation can approach 0°C. In North Africa, it can enter torpor during the cold season (December—February) and remain in its burrow 5-40 days. In northern India, it might hibernate up to 3-5 months in winter, and in the mountains of Pakistan, hibernation occurs in October-March and can be 5-5-6 months. In China, it enters torpor in October and emerges in spring. During hibernation, the Common Longeared Hedgehog wakes up periodically and might emerge briefly to forage or move only within its nesting burrow. In warmer areas, there is no prolonged hibernation in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Common Long-eared Hedgehogs can walk more than 17-20 m/minute. Estimates indicate that the Common Longeared Hedgehog can travel 7-9 km in a 7-9hour activity period. Average home ranges are 4-9-5 ha (range 1-6-10 ha) for adult males, 2-9 ha (range 0-9—4-2 ha) for nonlactating females, and 1:3-3-5 ha (range 0-2-4-3 ha) for non-lactating and lactating females. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary. It usually is non-aggressive, but when fighting, it is very noisy; it growls when alarmed. Adults only nest singly, but they use burrows of other hedgehogs in their absence. It performs self-anointing; practically any substance will induce this behavior. This activity can go on nearly continuously for up to 20 minutes. Reasons for this behavior are unknown; it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season or, because substances that initiate this behavior are either novel or irritating, it might serve asprotection against predators. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog also rubs toads against its spines suggesting that it might be making defensive use of toxins produced by the toads.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is common in much ofits broad distribution. It can damage agricultural crops, especially ripe melons, but it is mostly beneficial because of the insects, reptiles, and other pests that it eats. Humans sometimes eat Common Longeared Hedgehogs.Bibliography.Al-Behbehani & Ibrahim (2007), Al-Khalili (1990), Arslan et al. (2009), Atallah (1977), Batsaikhan et al. (2010), Beer (2003), Bhatnagar & El-Azawi (1978), Blanford (1888), Blyth (1845), Brodie (1977), Colak et al. (1997 1998), Corbet (1988), Dmi‘el & Schwarz (1984), Flower (1932), Frost et al. (1991), Happold (2013d), Harrison (1964), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hassinger (1973), Hayssen et al. (1993), Herter (1965), Hoogstraal (1962), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Ivanitskaya & Malygin (1985), Jones (1982), Karatas et al. (2007), Kefelioglu (1997), Krishna & Prakash (1955), Kumar & Pandey (1995), Lay (1967), Nader (1968), Niethammer (1973), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Poduschka & Poduschka (1986), Prakash (1953, 1954, 1960), Qumsiyeh (1996), Reading et al. (2010), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stoliczka (1872), Stone (1995b), Zherebtsova (1982, 1992)." +038787D0FFD8FFCFFF77F8BDFBBB78F6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,325,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD8FFCFFF77F8BDFBBB78F6.xml,Hemiechinus auritus,Hemiechinus,auritus,,,Hérisson a oreilles longues @fr | Eigentlicher Langohrigel @de | Erizo de orejas largas dorado @es | Afghan Hedgehog @en | Long-eared Steppe Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus auritus S. G. Gmelin,1770, “in regione Astrachanensi.”Inter-preted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in1991 as “Astrackhan’skaya Oblast’, [former] U.S.S.R., 46°21’N, 48°03’E,” now southern Russia. Three subspecies are recognized.","H.a.auritusS.G.Gmelin,1770—NLibya,NEgypt,MiddleEast,EUkraine,SWRussia,ECaucasus,extremeE&SAnatolia(Turkey),andN&WIran.IntroducedintoCyprus.H.a.albulusStoliczka,1872—Kazakhstan,SSiberia(Tuva),W&SMongolia,andNW&NCChina.H. a. megalotis Blyth, 1845— Turkestan, SW & E Iran, Afghanistan, and W Pakistan.","Head-body 160-278 mm, tail 10-55 mm, ear 24-60 mm, hindfoot 30-55 mm; weight 230-400 g (but some weigh 1-1 kg). Unlike species of Erinaceusand Paraechinus, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog and the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (H. collaris) have no central parting of spines on crown of head. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog has long limbs, short barely visible tail, well-developed hallux on hindfeet, and five toes on forefeet. Ears are long and conspicuous,slightly pointed, flexible and mobile, considerably longer than adjacent spines, and apparently adapted for radiation of desert heat. If ears are pressed forward, they cover eyes. Dorsal pelage has dark rough spines, with numerous papillae, many shallow longitudinal grooves, whitish bases, two wide black bands separated by pale band, pale brownish tip, and average length of ¢.25 mm. Spines on lower back and flanks are c.34 mm long. Spines are sharp and flexible, and they act as shock absorbersif a fall occurs from a high place. Head,tail, and limbs generally are white to pale brown. There is no dark face mask. Ventral pelage generally has soft white hairs, but populations in Afghanistan and Pakistan (megalotis) are uniformly brown on their undersides. In Pakistan, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog tends to be rather reddish. Hair on limbs, underside, tail, and lower part of head is reddish brown or auburn. Upper part offace, inside of ears, and top of crown has some white hairs that produce rusty color. Entire body tends to look dark reddish brown, and spines give an impression of lying in a rather smooth and regular pattern because of brown tips and their lengths. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1, P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48-50 and FN = 94-98.","Dry riverbeds, dunes, oases, valleys with shrubs, semiarid country, and steppes over most of its distribution, including coastal semi-desert scrublands with dense vegetation, semiarid grasslands, and high-elevation steppes with subzero temperatures in winter. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is not desert adapted, but it is moderately tolerant of heat and drought, and its large ears might be important in thermoregulation. It is rare in sparsely vegetated areas. It favors mesic sites such as suburban parks and gardens, olive groves, and agricultural lands and is commonly associated with humans. In Pakistan,it is plentiful above elevations of 900 m and can occur in valleys up to 2500 m. In Iran, it spends days in shallow burrows, beneath mud walls, or in piles of hay. In Egypt, it often is in buildings, crevices in walls, piles of bricks and stones, fissures in rocks, small caves, graveyards, and burrows of the Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus) in salt-marsh habitats. It selects soft ground such as sandy dunes where it can dig relatively deep burrows that slope at a slight angle.","The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous,it is a voracious feeder, and it can survive for up to ten weeks without eating or drinking. Diet primarily is insects (bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, termites, lepidopterans, ants), but it also eats other invertebrates (worms, millipedes, and snails), small vertebrates (mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards), eggs, carrion, fruits, and seeds. It seems immune to poisons and stings of insects and other invertebrates and will hunt and eat scorpions, venomous spiders, and stinging hymenopterans. It will kill and eat small snakes, some venomous, by rolling into a ball after grabbing the lower body of the snake so that the snake strikes in vain against the spines, often damaging itself. The Common Longeared Hedgehog feeds on grapes, mulberries, and watermelons, which it hollows out. It does not eat food discarded by humans, and captive individuals show a tendency toward cannibalism. Even with its protective spines,it is an important source of food for carnivores.","The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is polygynous. Breeding probably occurs immediately after emerging from hibernation in early spring (mid-April) and continues into late summer (September). Courtship behavior is well developed and includes sniffing, licking genitalia, and flank rubbing. Male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended. Gestation lasts 28-42 days. Births peak in July-September. Before giving birth, females excavate nest chamber in their burrow. Apparently, they clear all debris from the floor of the nest chamber, they do not line the chamber, they give birth on the smooth floor, and they lick neonates until they are clean. Litters vary geographically but usually have 3-5 young (range 1-7). Neonates are born naked, except for some scattered spines. They weigh 7-13 g, body length is 47-61 mm, hindfoot length is 7 mm, and ear length is 3-4 mm. Their backs are thickly covered with spines by 14 days old, eyes open at 15-20 days, solid food is eaten at 21-28 days, teeth appear at 23-24 days, weaning is at ¢.31-40 days, and young leave nest at ¢.30-40 days. There is no evidence that more than one litter is produced each year. Young can reach sexual maturity as soon as six weeks of age. Longevity is 6-7 years.","The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is nocturnal and begins foraging early in the evening. Day-resting sites usually are in burrows that are under small shrubs or bushes. Burrows are 20-150 cm long and have a single opening. Rest sites occur in caves and crevices and under piles of rocks and bricks. Long limbs enable it to walk and run quickly. It is an active digger and will excavate its own burrow when abandoned dens made by rodents or other mammals are not available. Generally, it excavates burrows under large rocks and can dig in sandy, clay, or rocky soils. Digging employs broad-clawed forefeet to loosen and throw soil backward; snout is not used in digging. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog periodically moves backward up its burrow and kicks out accumulated soil using hindfeet. In firm soil, 30-38cm burrows are completed in 3-4 hours. In soft soil,it can dig a 10cm hole in five minutes and can dig several burrows each night. It enters and exits burrows headfirst. Females widen ends of burrows to accommodate young. During early spring when insects and other invertebrates are plentiful, it builds up a layer offat. It can enter torpor in any season during droughts, shortages of food, and cold or hot weather, and it can remain partially awake, or sufficiently conscious, to react quickly to any disturbance. Even during short periods of torpor and estivation, respiration is slow and shallow, and heart rate decreases. Body temperature usually remains within 1-2°C of ambient temperatures. In regions where temperatures in winter are as cold as —6-5°C, body temperature during hibernation can approach 0°C. In North Africa, it can enter torpor during the cold season (December—February) and remain in its burrow 5-40 days. In northern India, it might hibernate up to 3-5 months in winter, and in the mountains of Pakistan, hibernation occurs in October-March and can be 5-5-6 months. In China, it enters torpor in October and emerges in spring. During hibernation, the Common Longeared Hedgehog wakes up periodically and might emerge briefly to forage or move only within its nesting burrow. In warmer areas, there is no prolonged hibernation in winter.","Common Long-eared Hedgehogs can walk more than 17-20 m/minute. Estimates indicate that the Common Longeared Hedgehog can travel 7-9 km in a 7-9hour activity period. Average home ranges are 4-9-5 ha (range 1-6-10 ha) for adult males, 2-9 ha (range 0-9—4-2 ha) for nonlactating females, and 1:3-3-5 ha (range 0-2-4-3 ha) for non-lactating and lactating females. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary. It usually is non-aggressive, but when fighting, it is very noisy; it growls when alarmed. Adults only nest singly, but they use burrows of other hedgehogs in their absence. It performs self-anointing; practically any substance will induce this behavior. This activity can go on nearly continuously for up to 20 minutes. Reasons for this behavior are unknown; it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season or, because substances that initiate this behavior are either novel or irritating, it might serve asprotection against predators. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog also rubs toads against its spines suggesting that it might be making defensive use of toxins produced by the toads.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is common in much ofits broad distribution. It can damage agricultural crops, especially ripe melons, but it is mostly beneficial because of the insects, reptiles, and other pests that it eats. Humans sometimes eat Common Longeared Hedgehogs.","Al-Behbehani & Ibrahim (2007) | Al-Khalili (1990) | Arslan et al. (2009) | Atallah (1977) | Batsaikhan et al. (2010) | Beer (2003) | Bhatnagar & El-Azawi (1978) | Blanford (1888) | Blyth (1845) | Brodie (1977) | Colak et al. (1997 1998) | Corbet (1988) | Dmi‘el & Schwarz (1984) | Flower (1932) | Frost et al. (1991) | Happold (2013d) | Harrison (1964) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hassinger (1973) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Herter (1965) | Hoogstraal (1962) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Ivanitskaya & Malygin (1985) | Jones (1982) | Karatas et al. (2007) | Kefelioglu (1997) | Krishna & Prakash (1955) | Kumar & Pandey (1995) | Lay (1967) | Nader (1968) | Niethammer (1973) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Poduschka & Poduschka (1986) | Prakash (1953, 1954, 1960) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Reading et al. (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stoliczka (1872) | Stone (1995b) | Zherebtsova (1982, 1992)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639378/files/figure.png,"13.Common Long-eared HedgehogHemiechinus auritusFrench:Hérisson a oreilles longues/ German:Eigentlicher Langohrigel/ Spanish:Erizo de orejas largas doradoOther common names:Afghan Hedgehog, Long-eared Steppe HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus auritus S. G. Gmelin,1770, “in regione Astrachanensi.”Inter-preted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in1991 as “Astrackhan’skaya Oblast’, [former] U.S.S.R., 46°21’N, 48°03’E,” now southern Russia. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.auritusS.G.Gmelin,1770—NLibya,NEgypt,MiddleEast,EUkraine,SWRussia,ECaucasus,extremeE&SAnatolia(Turkey),andN&WIran.IntroducedintoCyprus.H.a.albulusStoliczka,1872—Kazakhstan,SSiberia(Tuva),W&SMongolia,andNW&NCChina.H. a. megalotis Blyth, 1845— Turkestan, SW & E Iran, Afghanistan, and W Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-278 mm, tail 10-55 mm, ear 24-60 mm, hindfoot 30-55 mm; weight 230-400 g (but some weigh 1-1 kg). Unlike species of Erinaceusand Paraechinus, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog and the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (H. collaris) have no central parting of spines on crown of head. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog has long limbs, short barely visible tail, well-developed hallux on hindfeet, and five toes on forefeet. Ears are long and conspicuous,slightly pointed, flexible and mobile, considerably longer than adjacent spines, and apparently adapted for radiation of desert heat. If ears are pressed forward, they cover eyes. Dorsal pelage has dark rough spines, with numerous papillae, many shallow longitudinal grooves, whitish bases, two wide black bands separated by pale band, pale brownish tip, and average length of ¢.25 mm. Spines on lower back and flanks are c.34 mm long. Spines are sharp and flexible, and they act as shock absorbersif a fall occurs from a high place. Head,tail, and limbs generally are white to pale brown. There is no dark face mask. Ventral pelage generally has soft white hairs, but populations in Afghanistan and Pakistan (megalotis) are uniformly brown on their undersides. In Pakistan, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog tends to be rather reddish. Hair on limbs, underside, tail, and lower part of head is reddish brown or auburn. Upper part offace, inside of ears, and top of crown has some white hairs that produce rusty color. Entire body tends to look dark reddish brown, and spines give an impression of lying in a rather smooth and regular pattern because of brown tips and their lengths. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1, P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48-50 and FN = 94-98.Habitat.Dry riverbeds, dunes, oases, valleys with shrubs, semiarid country, and steppes over most of its distribution, including coastal semi-desert scrublands with dense vegetation, semiarid grasslands, and high-elevation steppes with subzero temperatures in winter. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is not desert adapted, but it is moderately tolerant of heat and drought, and its large ears might be important in thermoregulation. It is rare in sparsely vegetated areas. It favors mesic sites such as suburban parks and gardens, olive groves, and agricultural lands and is commonly associated with humans. In Pakistan,it is plentiful above elevations of 900 m and can occur in valleys up to 2500 m. In Iran, it spends days in shallow burrows, beneath mud walls, or in piles of hay. In Egypt, it often is in buildings, crevices in walls, piles of bricks and stones, fissures in rocks, small caves, graveyards, and burrows of the Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus) in salt-marsh habitats. It selects soft ground such as sandy dunes where it can dig relatively deep burrows that slope at a slight angle.Food and Feeding.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous,it is a voracious feeder, and it can survive for up to ten weeks without eating or drinking. Diet primarily is insects (bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, termites, lepidopterans, ants), but it also eats other invertebrates (worms, millipedes, and snails), small vertebrates (mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards), eggs, carrion, fruits, and seeds. It seems immune to poisons and stings of insects and other invertebrates and will hunt and eat scorpions, venomous spiders, and stinging hymenopterans. It will kill and eat small snakes, some venomous, by rolling into a ball after grabbing the lower body of the snake so that the snake strikes in vain against the spines, often damaging itself. The Common Longeared Hedgehog feeds on grapes, mulberries, and watermelons, which it hollows out. It does not eat food discarded by humans, and captive individuals show a tendency toward cannibalism. Even with its protective spines,it is an important source of food for carnivores.Breeding.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is polygynous. Breeding probably occurs immediately after emerging from hibernation in early spring (mid-April) and continues into late summer (September). Courtship behavior is well developed and includes sniffing, licking genitalia, and flank rubbing. Male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended. Gestation lasts 28-42 days. Births peak in July-September. Before giving birth, females excavate nest chamber in their burrow. Apparently, they clear all debris from the floor of the nest chamber, they do not line the chamber, they give birth on the smooth floor, and they lick neonates until they are clean. Litters vary geographically but usually have 3-5 young (range 1-7). Neonates are born naked, except for some scattered spines. They weigh 7-13 g, body length is 47-61 mm, hindfoot length is 7 mm, and ear length is 3-4 mm. Their backs are thickly covered with spines by 14 days old, eyes open at 15-20 days, solid food is eaten at 21-28 days, teeth appear at 23-24 days, weaning is at ¢.31-40 days, and young leave nest at ¢.30-40 days. There is no evidence that more than one litter is produced each year. Young can reach sexual maturity as soon as six weeks of age. Longevity is 6-7 years.Activity patterns.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is nocturnal and begins foraging early in the evening. Day-resting sites usually are in burrows that are under small shrubs or bushes. Burrows are 20-150 cm long and have a single opening. Rest sites occur in caves and crevices and under piles of rocks and bricks. Long limbs enable it to walk and run quickly. It is an active digger and will excavate its own burrow when abandoned dens made by rodents or other mammals are not available. Generally, it excavates burrows under large rocks and can dig in sandy, clay, or rocky soils. Digging employs broad-clawed forefeet to loosen and throw soil backward; snout is not used in digging. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog periodically moves backward up its burrow and kicks out accumulated soil using hindfeet. In firm soil, 30-38cm burrows are completed in 3-4 hours. In soft soil,it can dig a 10cm hole in five minutes and can dig several burrows each night. It enters and exits burrows headfirst. Females widen ends of burrows to accommodate young. During early spring when insects and other invertebrates are plentiful, it builds up a layer offat. It can enter torpor in any season during droughts, shortages of food, and cold or hot weather, and it can remain partially awake, or sufficiently conscious, to react quickly to any disturbance. Even during short periods of torpor and estivation, respiration is slow and shallow, and heart rate decreases. Body temperature usually remains within 1-2°C of ambient temperatures. In regions where temperatures in winter are as cold as —6-5°C, body temperature during hibernation can approach 0°C. In North Africa, it can enter torpor during the cold season (December—February) and remain in its burrow 5-40 days. In northern India, it might hibernate up to 3-5 months in winter, and in the mountains of Pakistan, hibernation occurs in October-March and can be 5-5-6 months. In China, it enters torpor in October and emerges in spring. During hibernation, the Common Longeared Hedgehog wakes up periodically and might emerge briefly to forage or move only within its nesting burrow. In warmer areas, there is no prolonged hibernation in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Common Long-eared Hedgehogs can walk more than 17-20 m/minute. Estimates indicate that the Common Longeared Hedgehog can travel 7-9 km in a 7-9hour activity period. Average home ranges are 4-9-5 ha (range 1-6-10 ha) for adult males, 2-9 ha (range 0-9—4-2 ha) for nonlactating females, and 1:3-3-5 ha (range 0-2-4-3 ha) for non-lactating and lactating females. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary. It usually is non-aggressive, but when fighting, it is very noisy; it growls when alarmed. Adults only nest singly, but they use burrows of other hedgehogs in their absence. It performs self-anointing; practically any substance will induce this behavior. This activity can go on nearly continuously for up to 20 minutes. Reasons for this behavior are unknown; it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season or, because substances that initiate this behavior are either novel or irritating, it might serve asprotection against predators. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog also rubs toads against its spines suggesting that it might be making defensive use of toxins produced by the toads.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is common in much ofits broad distribution. It can damage agricultural crops, especially ripe melons, but it is mostly beneficial because of the insects, reptiles, and other pests that it eats. Humans sometimes eat Common Longeared Hedgehogs.Bibliography.Al-Behbehani & Ibrahim (2007), Al-Khalili (1990), Arslan et al. (2009), Atallah (1977), Batsaikhan et al. (2010), Beer (2003), Bhatnagar & El-Azawi (1978), Blanford (1888), Blyth (1845), Brodie (1977), Colak et al. (1997 1998), Corbet (1988), Dmi‘el & Schwarz (1984), Flower (1932), Frost et al. (1991), Happold (2013d), Harrison (1964), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hassinger (1973), Hayssen et al. (1993), Herter (1965), Hoogstraal (1962), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Ivanitskaya & Malygin (1985), Jones (1982), Karatas et al. (2007), Kefelioglu (1997), Krishna & Prakash (1955), Kumar & Pandey (1995), Lay (1967), Nader (1968), Niethammer (1973), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Poduschka & Poduschka (1986), Prakash (1953, 1954, 1960), Qumsiyeh (1996), Reading et al. (2010), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stoliczka (1872), Stone (1995b), Zherebtsova (1982, 1992)." 038787D0FFD9FFCCFA52F372FEE17D7E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,326,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD9FFCCFA52F372FEE17D7E.xml,Mesechinus miodon,Mesechinus,miodon,Thomas,1908,Hérisson du Shaanxi @fr | Steppenigel @de | Erizo de dientes pequenos @es | Miodont Forest Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus miodonThomas, 1908, “Yu-lin-fu [= Yulin], Shen-si [= Shaanxi], 4000’ [= 1219 m],”China.Based on genetic and morphometric data, Kong Fei and colleagues in 2016 suggested that the population of M. dauuricusnear the outskirts ofYulin city in the Yulin region of Shaanxi, China, should be recognized as M. miodon. Their mitochondrial data indicate that M. miodon is more closely related to Hemiechinusawuritus than to M. dauuricus. Monotypic.","E Ningxia and N Shaanxi, NC China.","Head—body 120-220 mm, tail 25-46 mm, ear 24-35 mm, hindfoot 35-40 mm; weight 230-750 g. Spines of the Small-toothed Forest Hedgehog are 22-29 mm long, and basal two-thirds are pale brown, then ringed with blackish brown for c.4 mm and usually tipped with pale brown for c.4 mm. Tips of spines are sometimes dark. Hair on head, sides, legs, and tail varies from dull white or brownish to distinctly brown. Underside usually is pale to dull white. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44-48 and FN = 84-92. Circular mitochondrial genome is 16,842 base pairs long, comprising 22 transfer RNAs, 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNAs, and one control region.","Arid regions of Shaanxi. The area around Yulinfu has few trees, and bare brown cliffs and yellow sand are devoid of vegetation, except for occasional tufts of sage scrub.",The Small-toothed Forest Hedgehog eats several species of beetles.,No information.,Populations of Small-toothed Forest Hedgehogs appear largest in April-May when food is abundant. They become inactive and enter hibernation by late October.,No information.,Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.,"Ai Huaisen et al. (2018) | Allen (1938) | Kong Fei, Guo Jianmin & Wu Jiayan (2016) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a, 2016b) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan, Guo Jianmin & Wu Xiaomin (2016a, 2016b) | Thomas (1908b, 1909)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639386/files/figure.png,"16.Small-toothed Forest HedgehogMesechinus miodonFrench:Hérisson du Shaanxi/ German:Steppenigel/ Spanish:Erizo de dientes pequenosOther common names:Miodont Forest HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus miodonThomas, 1908, “Yu-lin-fu [= Yulin], Shen-si [= Shaanxi], 4000’ [= 1219 m],”China.Based on genetic and morphometric data, Kong Fei and colleagues in 2016 suggested that the population of M. dauuricusnear the outskirts ofYulin city in the Yulin region of Shaanxi, China, should be recognized as M. miodon. Their mitochondrial data indicate that M. miodon is more closely related to Hemiechinusawuritus than to M. dauuricus. Monotypic.Distribution.E Ningxia and N Shaanxi, NC China.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-220 mm, tail 25-46 mm, ear 24-35 mm, hindfoot 35-40 mm; weight 230-750 g. Spines of the Small-toothed Forest Hedgehog are 22-29 mm long, and basal two-thirds are pale brown, then ringed with blackish brown for c.4 mm and usually tipped with pale brown for c.4 mm. Tips of spines are sometimes dark. Hair on head, sides, legs, and tail varies from dull white or brownish to distinctly brown. Underside usually is pale to dull white. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44-48 and FN = 84-92. Circular mitochondrial genome is 16,842 base pairs long, comprising 22 transfer RNAs, 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNAs, and one control region.Habitat.Arid regions of Shaanxi. The area around Yulinfu has few trees, and bare brown cliffs and yellow sand are devoid of vegetation, except for occasional tufts of sage scrub.Food and Feeding.The Small-toothed Forest Hedgehog eats several species of beetles.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Populations of Small-toothed Forest Hedgehogs appear largest in April-May when food is abundant. They become inactive and enter hibernation by late October.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ai Huaisen et al. (2018), Allen (1938), Kong Fei, Guo Jianmin & Wu Jiayan (2016), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a, 2016b), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan, Guo Jianmin & Wu Xiaomin (2016a, 2016b), Thomas (1908b, 1909)." 038787D0FFD9FFCFFA51F8BFF8837717,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,326,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD9FFCFFA51F8BFF8837717.xml,Mesechinus wangi,Mesechinus,wangi,"He, Jiang Xuelong & Ai Huaisen",2018,Hérisson de Wang @fr | Gaoligong-lgel @de | Erizo de Wang @es | Gaoligong Forest Hedgehog @en,"Mesechinus wangiHe, Jiang Xuelong & Ai Huaisen, 2018, “Gaoligong- shan National Nature Reserve (24°50° N,98°45’ E), Baoshan, Yunnan, China, on 1st September 2010, at altitude of 2215 m.” This species is monotypic.","Known from three counties (Tengchong, Longling, and Longyang) of Baoshan in the Gaoligong National Nature Reserve, Yunnan, S China.","Head-body 177-240 mm,tail 14-18 mm, hindfoot 45-48 mm, ear 28-32 mm; weight 336-451 g. Ears and adjacent spines of Wang's Forest Hedgehog are the same length, and no central parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines are 22-25 mm long, most (greater than 80%) are white for two-thirds of their lengths and black for the other one-third. Some spines (less than 20%) are white for two-thirds of their lengths, then ringed with black, followed by narrow white ring. Tips of spines are black. Supernumerary fourth upper molar (M?) is present and is single-rooted and much smaller than M®. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92.","Wang's Forest Hedgehogs inhabit subtropical, evergreen, broad-leaved forests, with a variety of vegetation including species of Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Ericaceae, and Theaceaeat elevations of 2100-2680 m.",No information.,No information.,Wang's Forest Hedgehog hibernates from mid-Octoberto early April.,No information.,Not assessed on The [UCN Red List.,Ai Huaisen et al. (2018),https://zenodo.org/record/6639384/files/figure.png,"15.Wang's Forest HedgehogMesechinus wangiFrench:Hérisson de Wang/ German:Gaoligong-lgel/ Spanish:Erizo de WangOther common names:Gaoligong Forest HedgehogTaxonomy.Mesechinus wangiHe, Jiang Xuelong & Ai Huaisen, 2018, “Gaoligong- shan National Nature Reserve (24°50° N,98°45’ E), Baoshan, Yunnan, China, on 1st September 2010, at altitude of 2215 m.” This species is monotypic.Distribution.Known from three counties (Tengchong, Longling, and Longyang) of Baoshan in the Gaoligong National Nature Reserve, Yunnan, S China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 177-240 mm,tail 14-18 mm, hindfoot 45-48 mm, ear 28-32 mm; weight 336-451 g. Ears and adjacent spines of Wang's Forest Hedgehog are the same length, and no central parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines are 22-25 mm long, most (greater than 80%) are white for two-thirds of their lengths and black for the other one-third. Some spines (less than 20%) are white for two-thirds of their lengths, then ringed with black, followed by narrow white ring. Tips of spines are black. Supernumerary fourth upper molar (M?) is present and is single-rooted and much smaller than M®. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92.Habitat.Wang's Forest Hedgehogs inhabit subtropical, evergreen, broad-leaved forests, with a variety of vegetation including species of Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Ericaceae, and Theaceaeat elevations of 2100-2680 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Wang's Forest Hedgehog hibernates from mid-Octoberto early April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List.Bibliography.Ai Huaisen et al. (2018)." 038787D0FFD9FFCFFF5AFBD1F7777D17,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,326,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD9FFCFFF5AFBD1F7777D17.xml,Hemiechinus collaris,Hemiechinus,collaris,,,Hérisson a collier @fr | German @en | ndischer Langohrigel @en | Erizo de orejas largas de @es | ndia @en | Collared Hedgehog @en | Hardwicke's Hedgehog @en | Long-eared Desert Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus collaris Gray, 1830,“Doab.”Restricted by R. C. Wroughtonin 1910 to “area between the rivers Jumna and Ganges,” India. This species is monotypic.","NW, EC & SE Pakistan and NW & NC India.","Head-body 140-180 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 32-38 mm; weight 257-306 g. No specific data are available for hindfoot measurements. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog exhibits a tendency toward melanism. It does not have central parting of spines on forehead or face mask. Snout is long and pointed. Legs are long, forefeet have curved claws, and hallux on hindfootis well developed. Long ears probably are adaptations for thermoregulation in its desert environment. Ears usually remain folded back over spines on crown, even when an individualis unrolled. Dorsal pelage has spines that are 17-30 mm long in adults. Spines appear blackish brown, usually banded with dark brown and white, pale at bases, and spines are black on their distal one-half including tips; overall effect is blackish brown appearance. Ventral pelage hassoft fur of variable color from whitish to blackish. Some individuals have collar of white hairs from under chin to ears. Stumpytail and abdomen are sparsely covered with blackish brown hair, face usually is paler and has dark brown or grayish black hair, and ears and upper parts of crown have gray or whitish hairs. Dental formula is I 3/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","Various habitats including lowland areas of the Indus River, semiarid grasslands, plains, scrublands, deserts, dry steppes, and especially numerous in irrigated agricultural lands. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog tends to avoid hot, dry deserts.","The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous and will grab and eat any prey that it can overcome. When foraging,it takes short, rapid steps and appears to depend primarily on scent to locate food. It sniffs with its snout in roots of grass or leaflitter in search of insect larvae. Venomous snakes are grabbed anywhere on the body, and with spines erect and head lowered,it keepsits face partially concealed so that the reptile strikes against spines and injures itself. When an Indian Longeared Hedgehog seizes a snake or limb of a large animal, it will roll itself into a ball and begin chewing on the held portion. Diet primarily contains insects, especially dung beetles and orthopterans (mole crickets, crickets, and grasshoppers), but other insects and arthropods; earthworms; small vertebrates including frogs, toads, lizards, snakes, eggs and nestlings of ground-dwelling birds, and small mammals; carrion; and fruit also are eaten. Cannibalism is common. Females will eat their offspring, and males will attack and eat any young they encounter.","In India, breeding occurs in June-September, which is between extreme heat in May-June and cooler weather in December—January. Young benefit from increased availability of food following monsoons in July-August. Similarly, in Pakistan, mostlitters are born August-September at the height of the monsoon when insect prey is most abundant. The male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended on the ground. Gestation probably lasts 30-40 days. Young are born in burrows. If natal burrow is disturbed, the mother will abandon it. Young are transported by the mother only at night. To carry them, she grasps loose skin on the neck or side with her mouth. Litters average 2-3 young (range is 1-6). A litter of four young was born over a five-hour period. Neonates have closed eyes and seem to locate their mother by smell. Nursing occurs with the mother lying on her side, and infants knead mammae with their forefeet and suck loudly. Neonates average 8:3 g, are 47 mm long, and are nearly hairless, except for scattered spines that are 2 mm long, whitish, and soft. Within c.5 hours of birth spines have grown to ¢.8 mm and begin to darken but are still soft. When c.5 days old, numerous pigmented spines are visible, and by the time young are two weeks old, their back is thickly covered with spines. Young do not leave nest burrows until! four weeks old, after which they accompany their mothers","In summer,the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog escapes intense desert heat by being strictly nocturnal in foraging activity. It emerges at dusk and forages for 5-6 hours. When food is plentiful, it returns to its burrow by about midnight and does not emerge again until the following evening. It is an active digger and excavatesits own burrows. Opening of burrow is entirely or partially concealed under a bush, and if the ground is hard,it can be short, extending no more than 30 cm. In softsandy soil, the burrow can be 150 cm deep. Burrow terminates in slightly wider chamber that is unlined. An individual that descends head first into and out ofits burrow can turn around inside the small chamber. Burrow usually slopes down to ¢.30-35 cm below the surface and will be used by the same individual for an entire year.","The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary and unsocial, and it never shares a burrow with conspecifics. It is relatively silent, and the only vocalization known is a snake-like hiss that is emitted when disturbed in its burrow or threatened by a predator. This hiss generally is accompanied by sudden upward jerking of the body that can be a painful experience for a predator. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog exhibits self-anointing behavior that begins by chewing on vegetable matter, generally grass roots, which produces copious frothy saliva. It then contorts itself so that its muzzle is twisted around to its back and flanks, and the liquid vegetable paste or frothy saliva is plastered onto the skin without injury to the tongue. Self-anointing usually is stimulated by some strong smell. Reasons for this behavior are unknown. Anointing might be a way of grooming otherwise inaccessible skin or helping to remove dried skin because the paste eventually dries and flakes off, or it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog does not come into conflict with humans because it generally lives on edges of cultivation or in deserts.,"Asawa & Mathur (1981) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Goyal & Mathur (1974) | Habibi (2004) | Herter (1965) | Hutterer (2005a) | Kanwar et al. (1980) | Krishna & Prakash (1955, 1956) | Maheshwari (1982, 1984) | McCann (1937) | Molur et al. (2005) | Nowak (1999) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Pandey & Munshi (1987) | Prakash (1955a, 1955b, 1959, 1960) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Sharma, G.P. et al. (1975) | Sharma, S.K. (1991, 1996) | Stone (1995b) | Walton & Walton (1973) | Wroughton (1910)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639380/files/figure.png,"14.Indian Long-eared HedgehogHemiechinus collarisFrench:Hérisson a collier/ German:Indischer Langohrigel/ Spanish:Erizo de orejas largas de IndiaOther common names:Collared Hedgehog, Hardwicke's Hedgehog, Long-eared Desert HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus collaris Gray, 1830,“Doab.”Restricted by R. C. Wroughtonin 1910 to “area between the rivers Jumna and Ganges,” India. This species is monotypic.Distribution.NW, EC & SE Pakistan and NW & NC India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-180 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 32-38 mm; weight 257-306 g. No specific data are available for hindfoot measurements. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog exhibits a tendency toward melanism. It does not have central parting of spines on forehead or face mask. Snout is long and pointed. Legs are long, forefeet have curved claws, and hallux on hindfootis well developed. Long ears probably are adaptations for thermoregulation in its desert environment. Ears usually remain folded back over spines on crown, even when an individualis unrolled. Dorsal pelage has spines that are 17-30 mm long in adults. Spines appear blackish brown, usually banded with dark brown and white, pale at bases, and spines are black on their distal one-half including tips; overall effect is blackish brown appearance. Ventral pelage hassoft fur of variable color from whitish to blackish. Some individuals have collar of white hairs from under chin to ears. Stumpytail and abdomen are sparsely covered with blackish brown hair, face usually is paler and has dark brown or grayish black hair, and ears and upper parts of crown have gray or whitish hairs. Dental formula is I 3/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Various habitats including lowland areas of the Indus River, semiarid grasslands, plains, scrublands, deserts, dry steppes, and especially numerous in irrigated agricultural lands. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog tends to avoid hot, dry deserts.Food and Feeding.The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous and will grab and eat any prey that it can overcome. When foraging,it takes short, rapid steps and appears to depend primarily on scent to locate food. It sniffs with its snout in roots of grass or leaflitter in search of insect larvae. Venomous snakes are grabbed anywhere on the body, and with spines erect and head lowered,it keepsits face partially concealed so that the reptile strikes against spines and injures itself. When an Indian Longeared Hedgehog seizes a snake or limb of a large animal, it will roll itself into a ball and begin chewing on the held portion. Diet primarily contains insects, especially dung beetles and orthopterans (mole crickets, crickets, and grasshoppers), but other insects and arthropods; earthworms; small vertebrates including frogs, toads, lizards, snakes, eggs and nestlings of ground-dwelling birds, and small mammals; carrion; and fruit also are eaten. Cannibalism is common. Females will eat their offspring, and males will attack and eat any young they encounter.Breeding.In India, breeding occurs in June-September, which is between extreme heat in May-June and cooler weather in December—January. Young benefit from increased availability of food following monsoons in July-August. Similarly, in Pakistan, mostlitters are born August-September at the height of the monsoon when insect prey is most abundant. The male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended on the ground. Gestation probably lasts 30-40 days. Young are born in burrows. If natal burrow is disturbed, the mother will abandon it. Young are transported by the mother only at night. To carry them, she grasps loose skin on the neck or side with her mouth. Litters average 2-3 young (range is 1-6). A litter of four young was born over a five-hour period. Neonates have closed eyes and seem to locate their mother by smell. Nursing occurs with the mother lying on her side, and infants knead mammae with their forefeet and suck loudly. Neonates average 8:3 g, are 47 mm long, and are nearly hairless, except for scattered spines that are 2 mm long, whitish, and soft. Within c.5 hours of birth spines have grown to ¢.8 mm and begin to darken but are still soft. When c.5 days old, numerous pigmented spines are visible, and by the time young are two weeks old, their back is thickly covered with spines. Young do not leave nest burrows until! four weeks old, after which they accompany their motherson foraging trips. It is not known at what age young become independent of their mothers but probably at 6-7 weeks.Activity patterns.In summer,the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog escapes intense desert heat by being strictly nocturnal in foraging activity. It emerges at dusk and forages for 5-6 hours. When food is plentiful, it returns to its burrow by about midnight and does not emerge again until the following evening. It is an active digger and excavatesits own burrows. Opening of burrow is entirely or partially concealed under a bush, and if the ground is hard,it can be short, extending no more than 30 cm. In softsandy soil, the burrow can be 150 cm deep. Burrow terminates in slightly wider chamber that is unlined. An individual that descends head first into and out ofits burrow can turn around inside the small chamber. Burrow usually slopes down to ¢.30-35 cm below the surface and will be used by the same individual for an entire year.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary and unsocial, and it never shares a burrow with conspecifics. It is relatively silent, and the only vocalization known is a snake-like hiss that is emitted when disturbed in its burrow or threatened by a predator. This hiss generally is accompanied by sudden upward jerking of the body that can be a painful experience for a predator. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog exhibits self-anointing behavior that begins by chewing on vegetable matter, generally grass roots, which produces copious frothy saliva. It then contorts itself so that its muzzle is twisted around to its back and flanks, and the liquid vegetable paste or frothy saliva is plastered onto the skin without injury to the tongue. Self-anointing usually is stimulated by some strong smell. Reasons for this behavior are unknown. Anointing might be a way of grooming otherwise inaccessible skin or helping to remove dried skin because the paste eventually dries and flakes off, or it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog does not come into conflict with humans because it generally lives on edges of cultivation or in deserts.Bibliography.Asawa & Mathur (1981), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Goyal & Mathur (1974), Habibi (2004), Herter (1965), Hutterer (2005a), Kanwar et al. (1980), Krishna & Prakash (1955, 1956), Maheshwari (1982, 1984), McCann (1937), Molur et al. (2005), Nowak (1999), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Pandey & Munshi (1987), Prakash (1955a, 1955b, 1959, 1960), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Sharma, G.P. et al. (1975), Sharma, S.K. (1991, 1996), Stone (1995b), Walton & Walton (1973), Wroughton (1910)." 038787D0FFDAFFCCFA74FD4BF9F97CF0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,327,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDAFFCCFA74FD4BF9F97CF0.xml,Mesechinus hughi,Mesechinus,hughi,,,Hérisson de Hugh @fr | Hugh- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Hugh @es | Central Chinese Hedgehog @en | Shanxi Hedgehog @en,"Erinaceus hughi Thomas,1908, “Paochi, Shen-si.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as“Baoji, Shaanxi Sheng, China, 34°23’N, 107°09°E.” This species is monotypic.","S Gansu, S Shaanxi, Shanxi, NE & SE Sichuan, and S Henan in C China.","Head-body 148-232 mm, tail 12-24 mm, ear 16-33 mm,hindfoot 30-47 mm; weight 112-750 g. Hugh’s Hedgehog is very dark. Dorsal pelage has spines that are smooth and have minute, subterminal, and pale band just before dark tips. Ears are no longer than adjacent spines. Ventral pelage is pale.",Semiarid and dry steppe habitats and subalpine and low-elevation coniferous forests.,No information.,No information.,"There is no specific information for this species, but Hugh’s Hedgehog is terrestrial.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hugh's Hedgehog occupies relatively small area of suitable habitat thatis shrinking because of human encroachment. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as vulnerable. Research is needed to better understand population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and conservation threats.","Ai Huaisen et al. (2018) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Hutterer (2005a) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a) | Nowak (1999) | Reeve (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1908b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639390/files/figure.png,"18.Hugh's HedgehogMesechinus hughiFrench:Hérisson de Hugh/ German:Hugh-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de HughOther common names:Central Chinese Hedgehog, Shanxi HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus hughi Thomas,1908, “Paochi, Shen-si.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as“Baoji, Shaanxi Sheng, China, 34°23’N, 107°09°E.” This species is monotypic.Distribution.S Gansu, S Shaanxi, Shanxi, NE & SE Sichuan, and S Henan in C China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 148-232 mm, tail 12-24 mm, ear 16-33 mm,hindfoot 30-47 mm; weight 112-750 g. Hugh’s Hedgehog is very dark. Dorsal pelage has spines that are smooth and have minute, subterminal, and pale band just before dark tips. Ears are no longer than adjacent spines. Ventral pelage is pale.Habitat.Semiarid and dry steppe habitats and subalpine and low-elevation coniferous forests.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but Hugh’s Hedgehog is terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hugh's Hedgehog occupies relatively small area of suitable habitat thatis shrinking because of human encroachment. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as vulnerable. Research is needed to better understand population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and conservation threats.Bibliography.Ai Huaisen et al. (2018), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Hutterer (2005a), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a), Nowak (1999), Reeve (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1908b)." 038787D0FFDAFFCCFF7FF9AFF7E1791D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,327,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDAFFCCFF7FF9AFF7E1791D.xml,Mesechinus dawuricus,Mesechinus,dauuricus,Ognev,1951,Hérisson de Daourie @fr | Daurischer @de | gel @en | Erizo del Gobi @es,"Erinaceus dauuricus Sundevall,1842, “Dauuria.”Interpreted by D. R.Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “[former]U.S.S.R., Transbaikalia, Dauryia, 49°57’N, 116°55°E,” Russia. This species is monotypic.","SE Siberia & SW Russian Far East (Transbaikalia E to upper Amur Basin), C & E Mongolia, and NC, NE & C {China.","Head-body 241-267 mm, tail 26-34 mm, ear 18-21 mm, hindfoot 41-44 mm; weight 1.1-1 kg. Ears of the Daurian Hedgehog are moderately long, with slightly coarse fur, and they extend a little beyond adjacent spines. Dorsal pelage has spines that are 19-23 mm long. Spines are dark brown at bases, dull whitish for nearly one-half their lengths, with brownish black bands and 3-5mm white tips. Ventral fur is rather coarse, underparts are whitish, and feet and tail are chestnut-brown. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44-48 and FN = 87-95.","Semiarid habitats including grasslands, with shrubs and herbaceous plants, and dry mountain and wooded steppes. In Mongolia, the Daurian Hedgehog occupies rocky outcrops and low-density shrub habitats and avoids areas with high densities of shrubs. Habitats occupied change between early and late summer, shifting to greater use oflow-density shrub areas and decreased use of forb-dominated short grassy areas.","The Daurian Hedgehog feeds on insects, especially beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers, many other invertebrates, and small vertebrates including rodents, snakes, frogs, and eggs of ground-nesting birds.",The Daurian Hedgehog mates in mid-May after emergence from hibernation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days; 3-7 young are born in June-July.,"The Daurian Hedgehog is terrestrial and digs its own burrows or uses those of other small mammals. Burrows, crevices in rocks, and caves are used as shelters and places to hibernate in winter. Daytime shelters have one, rarely two, entrances and usually are in rocky outcrops or at bases of shrubs.","In Mongolia, home ranges were 113-2172 ha and were larger in early summer than late summer. Nightly movements averaged 3-4 km (range 0-3-12-2 km). The Daurian Hedgehog selects level terrain and areas with shrubs, specifically wild apricots (Amygdalus pedunculata, Rosaceae). It probably forages around wild apricots because they support higher densities of insects, and level areas might be used to reduce energetic costs of foraging. Actual foraging paths of the Daurian Hedgehog have high diversities of shrubs, abundance of wild apricots, and low diversities of grasses, other herbaceous species, and Artemisia(Asteraceae).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Loss of habitat through increased mining activities and grazing by increasing numbers oflivestock probably degrade habitats of the Daurian Hedgehog. Occasional vehicular mortality constitutes a low-level threat. Poisoning of plague carriers, including hedgehogs, is not conducted on a large scale, butit still occurs locally.","Allen (1938) | Batsaikhan et al. (2010) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Hutterer (2005a) | Kong Fei, Guo Jianmin & Wu Jiayan (2016) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a, 2016b) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan, Guo Jianmin & Wu Xiaomin (2016a, 2016b) | Korablev et al. (1996) | Mallon (1985) | Murdoch et al. (2006) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Reading et al. (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stone (1995b) | Sundevall (1842) | Thomas (1908b) | Zapletal et al. (2012, 2015)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639388/files/figure.png,"17.Daurian HedgehogMesechinus dawuricusFrench:Hérisson de Daourie/ German:Daurischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo del GobiTaxonomy.Erinaceus dauuricus Sundevall,1842, “Dauuria.”Interpreted by D. R.Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “[former]U.S.S.R., Transbaikalia, Dauryia, 49°57’N, 116°55°E,” Russia. This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Siberia & SW Russian Far East (Transbaikalia E to upper Amur Basin), C & E Mongolia, and NC, NE & C {China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 241-267 mm, tail 26-34 mm, ear 18-21 mm, hindfoot 41-44 mm; weight 1.1-1 kg. Ears of the Daurian Hedgehog are moderately long, with slightly coarse fur, and they extend a little beyond adjacent spines. Dorsal pelage has spines that are 19-23 mm long. Spines are dark brown at bases, dull whitish for nearly one-half their lengths, with brownish black bands and 3-5mm white tips. Ventral fur is rather coarse, underparts are whitish, and feet and tail are chestnut-brown. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44-48 and FN = 87-95.Habitat.Semiarid habitats including grasslands, with shrubs and herbaceous plants, and dry mountain and wooded steppes. In Mongolia, the Daurian Hedgehog occupies rocky outcrops and low-density shrub habitats and avoids areas with high densities of shrubs. Habitats occupied change between early and late summer, shifting to greater use oflow-density shrub areas and decreased use of forb-dominated short grassy areas.Food and Feeding.The Daurian Hedgehog feeds on insects, especially beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers, many other invertebrates, and small vertebrates including rodents, snakes, frogs, and eggs of ground-nesting birds.Breeding.The Daurian Hedgehog mates in mid-May after emergence from hibernation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days; 3-7 young are born in June-July.Activity patterns.The Daurian Hedgehog is terrestrial and digs its own burrows or uses those of other small mammals. Burrows, crevices in rocks, and caves are used as shelters and places to hibernate in winter. Daytime shelters have one, rarely two, entrances and usually are in rocky outcrops or at bases of shrubs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Mongolia, home ranges were 113-2172 ha and were larger in early summer than late summer. Nightly movements averaged 3-4 km (range 0-3-12-2 km). The Daurian Hedgehog selects level terrain and areas with shrubs, specifically wild apricots (Amygdalus pedunculata, Rosaceae). It probably forages around wild apricots because they support higher densities of insects, and level areas might be used to reduce energetic costs of foraging. Actual foraging paths of the Daurian Hedgehog have high diversities of shrubs, abundance of wild apricots, and low diversities of grasses, other herbaceous species, and Artemisia(Asteraceae).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Loss of habitat through increased mining activities and grazing by increasing numbers oflivestock probably degrade habitats of the Daurian Hedgehog. Occasional vehicular mortality constitutes a low-level threat. Poisoning of plague carriers, including hedgehogs, is not conducted on a large scale, butit still occurs locally.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Batsaikhan et al. (2010), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Hutterer (2005a), Kong Fei, Guo Jianmin & Wu Jiayan (2016), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a, 2016b), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan, Guo Jianmin & Wu Xiaomin (2016a, 2016b), Korablev et al. (1996), Mallon (1985), Murdoch et al. (2006), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Reading et al. (2010), Reeve (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stone (1995b), Sundevall (1842), Thomas (1908b), Zapletal et al. (2012, 2015)." 038787D0FFDAFFCDFA78F6C2FBEA7EF3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,327,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDAFFCDFA78F6C2FBEA7EF3.xml,Hylomys megalotis,Hylomys,megalotis,,,Gymnure oreillard @fr | Langohr-Rattenigel @de | Gimnuro de orejas largas @es | Long-eared Moonrat @en,"Hylomys megalotis Jenkins &M. FE. Robinson, 2002, “ Environs of Ban Muang and Ban Doy, ¢ 18 kmNorth of Thakhek, Thakhekdistrict, Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Khammouan Province, Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, 17°33’15""N 104°49°307E.”This species is monotypic.","Known only from the type locality in Khammouan Province, C Laos.","Head-body 115-135 mm, tail 82-94 mm, ear 20-24 mm, hindfoot 20-22 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-eared Gymnure is medium-sized relative to other species of Hylomys. Pelage is gray, long, soft, and fine, lacking flattened spinous hairs. Individual hairs are gray for most of their lengths and then buff with buff or black tips. Microstructures of hair and vibrissae are similar to those on the Short-tailed Gymnure (H. suillus) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spear-shaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Hairs of the Long-eared Gymnure are longer than those of most other species of gymnures. Thin convoluted bases of hairs are bound up contributing to formation of a layer of air near surface of skin that improves thermal insulation in the absence of downy hairs. Long snout with well-developed nasal vibrissae and numerous long vibrissae on muzzle, neck, wrists, and forearms are important and effective for orientation in complex terrain and karst habitats. Dorsal region of rhinarium is narrow and elongate posteriorly. Ears are prominent, large, and rounded. First and fifthdigits of forefeet are long, claws are long and moderately stout, sole and tarsal regions of hindfeet are naked, and bonesoffeet are large. The Long-eared Gymnureis readily distinguished in external appearance from other species of Hylomys, the Hainan Gymnure (Neohylomys hainanensis), and the Shrew Gymnure; it is similar in size but has considerably longer tail and larger ears. Tail is 65-74% of head-body length in the Long-eared Gymnure, 51-63% in the Shrew Gymnure, 27-31% in the Hainan Gymnure, and less than 25% in the Dwarf Gymnure (Hylomys parvus) and the Short-tailed Gymnure. Lack of flattened spinous hairs in pelage distinguishes the Long-eared Gymnure from the Short-tailed Gymnure and the Shrew Gymnure. Rhinarium is more extensive posteriorly than on the Shrew Gymnure but more elongate and narrower than on the Short-tailed Gymnure. Claws and first and fifth digits of forefeet of the Shrew Gymnure, the Short-tailed Gymnure, and the Dwarf Gymnure are not lengthened as on the Long-eared Gymnure, and bones in feet are smaller than in the Long-eared Gymnure. Sole and tarsal regions of hindfeet are naked in the Long-eared Gymnure, differing from haired soles on the Shrew Gymnure and the Short-tailed Gymnure. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.","Steep slopes around base of a massive limestone karst, covered by rocks and large boulders. There is an underlying soil base that supports heavily degraded mixeddeciduous forest, scrub, and bamboo. Low-lying areas away from karst are cleared for cultivation ofrice.",No information.,No information.,"There is no specific information for this species, but the Long-eared Gymnure is terrestrial.",No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Longeared Gymnure has only recently been described, and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence, status, conservation threats, and ecological requirements.",Chernova et al. (2015) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002),https://zenodo.org/record/6639392/files/figure.png,"19.Long-eared GymnureHylomys megalotisFrench:Gymnure oreillard/ German:Langohr-Rattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de orejas largasOther common names:Long-eared MoonratTaxonomy.Hylomys megalotis Jenkins &M. FE. Robinson, 2002, “ Environs of Ban Muang and Ban Doy, ¢ 18 kmNorth of Thakhek, Thakhekdistrict, Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Khammouan Province, Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, 17°33’15""N 104°49°307E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in Khammouan Province, C Laos.Descriptive notes.Head-body 115-135 mm, tail 82-94 mm, ear 20-24 mm, hindfoot 20-22 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-eared Gymnure is medium-sized relative to other species of Hylomys. Pelage is gray, long, soft, and fine, lacking flattened spinous hairs. Individual hairs are gray for most of their lengths and then buff with buff or black tips. Microstructures of hair and vibrissae are similar to those on the Short-tailed Gymnure (H. suillus) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spear-shaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Hairs of the Long-eared Gymnure are longer than those of most other species of gymnures. Thin convoluted bases of hairs are bound up contributing to formation of a layer of air near surface of skin that improves thermal insulation in the absence of downy hairs. Long snout with well-developed nasal vibrissae and numerous long vibrissae on muzzle, neck, wrists, and forearms are important and effective for orientation in complex terrain and karst habitats. Dorsal region of rhinarium is narrow and elongate posteriorly. Ears are prominent, large, and rounded. First and fifthdigits of forefeet are long, claws are long and moderately stout, sole and tarsal regions of hindfeet are naked, and bonesoffeet are large. The Long-eared Gymnureis readily distinguished in external appearance from other species of Hylomys, the Hainan Gymnure (Neohylomys hainanensis), and the Shrew Gymnure; it is similar in size but has considerably longer tail and larger ears. Tail is 65-74% of head-body length in the Long-eared Gymnure, 51-63% in the Shrew Gymnure, 27-31% in the Hainan Gymnure, and less than 25% in the Dwarf Gymnure (Hylomys parvus) and the Short-tailed Gymnure. Lack of flattened spinous hairs in pelage distinguishes the Long-eared Gymnure from the Short-tailed Gymnure and the Shrew Gymnure. Rhinarium is more extensive posteriorly than on the Shrew Gymnure but more elongate and narrower than on the Short-tailed Gymnure. Claws and first and fifth digits of forefeet of the Shrew Gymnure, the Short-tailed Gymnure, and the Dwarf Gymnure are not lengthened as on the Long-eared Gymnure, and bones in feet are smaller than in the Long-eared Gymnure. Sole and tarsal regions of hindfeet are naked in the Long-eared Gymnure, differing from haired soles on the Shrew Gymnure and the Short-tailed Gymnure. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.Habitat.Steep slopes around base of a massive limestone karst, covered by rocks and large boulders. There is an underlying soil base that supports heavily degraded mixeddeciduous forest, scrub, and bamboo. Low-lying areas away from karst are cleared for cultivation ofrice.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Long-eared Gymnure is terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Longeared Gymnure has only recently been described, and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence, status, conservation threats, and ecological requirements.Bibliography.Chernova et al. (2015), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002)." -038787D0FFDBFFCDFF68F538F7017311,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,328,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDBFFCDFF68F538F7017311.xml,Hylomys suillus,Hylomys,suillus,S. Miller,1839,Petit Gymnure @fr | Kurzschwanz-Rattenigel @de | Gimnuro de cola corta @es | Lesser Moonrat @en | Short-tailed Moonrat @en,"Hylomys suillus S. Miller, 1839,“Java en het andere van Sumatra.”Re- stricted by H. J. V. Sody in 1933 to “Java,” Indonesia. Seven subspecies are recognized.","H.s.swillusS.Muller,1839—Java.H.s.dorsalisThomas,1888—NBorneo(fromMtKinabaluStoKelabitHighlands).H.s.maxiSody,1933—SThailand,MalayPeninsula,andWSumatra.H.s.microtinusThomas,1925—SWChina(Yunnan),Vietnam,andCambodia.H.s.peguensisBlyth,1859—EMyanmarandadjacentSWChina(Yunnan).H.s.siamensisKloss,1916—SEMyanmar,N&WThailand,andLaos.H. s. tionis Chasen, 1940— Tioman I, off SE Malay Peninsula.","Head—body 90-156 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 12-21 mm, hindfoot 20-28 mm; weight 45-80 g. The Short-tailed Gymnure is small, and its short tail distinguishes it from all other gymnures. Snoutis pointed, ears and tail are short, and overall appearance is ratlike. Pelage is soft and dense. Upper parts are rusty brown, sometimes with faint black nape stripe or dorsalstripe, and underparts are grayish, brownish, or yellowish. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Short-tailed Gymnure are similar to those in the Long-eared Gymnure (H. megalotis) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spearshaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.","Usually confined to dense, damp, forested areas, especially hilly, mountainous, and lowland forests with thick undergrowth. In China, the Short-tailed Gymnure occurred in secondary forests that had been clear-cut 13 years previously but was not documented in nearby tropical monsoon forests. In Thailand, it occurred under logs in a grove of wild bananas. It has been recorded at elevations of 90 m on mainland South-east Asia to 3000 m on Sumatra and 1000-3400 m on Borneo. Its presence has been verified along edges of a disturbed montane rainforest at 1200-1500 m in Peninsular Malaysia, in lower montane rainforest at 1700 m on Java, and in lower and upper montane rainforests at 1500-3000 m on Borneo.","Diet of the Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly invertebrates such as insects and earthworms, but it also eats fruits and vegetation. It forages by searching underleaf litter and in upperlayers of humus with its long, mobile snout, which tosses aside leaves and twigs with jerks of head and shoulders.","The Short-tailed Gymnureis polygynous, and it probably breeds throughout the year. A pregnant female with two embryos was observed in February and another with two embryos in March. Litters have 3-6 young. Gestation lasts 30-35 days. Lifespan probably does not exceed two years.","The Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly diurnal but can be active at any time of day or night, singly or in small groups. It is mainly active aboveground, beneath litter, and under logs, but sometimes it climbs on low bushes. It builds nests of leaves in rock crevices, burrows, and hollows among roots of trees. It does not hibernate.","Short-tailed Gymnures are primarily solitary; however, there have been observations of groups of 2-3 individuals that might have been females with young. Although capable of climbing, Short-tailed Gymnures generally stay on the ground, moving quickly and nimbly with short leaps. It appears to use definite paths or runways on the forest floor, often passing under logs that are slightly off the ground. When threatened, the Short-tailed Gymnure bounds away with considerable speed. It emits shrill squeaks that are not loud. In Malaya, average densities in favorable habitats are 3—4 ind/ha. Home ranges are ¢.30-40 m in diameter. The Short-tailed Gymnure has a strong odor.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Gymnure has a wide distribution and relatively stable overall population.,Beer (2003) | Chernova et al. (2015) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Medway (1983) | Nowak (1999) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Rudd (1980) | Ruedi et al. (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Sody (1933) | Stone (1995b) | Wu Delin et al. (1996),,"21.Short-tailed GymnureHylomys suillusFrench:Petit Gymnure/ German:Kurzschwanz-Rattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de cola cortaOther common names:Lesser Moonrat, Short-tailed MoonratTaxonomy.Hylomys suillus S. Miller, 1839,“Java en het andere van Sumatra.”Re- stricted by H. J. V. Sody in 1933 to “Java,” Indonesia. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.s.swillusS.Muller,1839—Java.H.s.dorsalisThomas,1888—NBorneo(fromMtKinabaluStoKelabitHighlands).H.s.maxiSody,1933—SThailand,MalayPeninsula,andWSumatra.H.s.microtinusThomas,1925—SWChina(Yunnan),Vietnam,andCambodia.H.s.peguensisBlyth,1859—EMyanmarandadjacentSWChina(Yunnan).H.s.siamensisKloss,1916—SEMyanmar,N&WThailand,andLaos.H. s. tionis Chasen, 1940— Tioman I, off SE Malay Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-156 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 12-21 mm, hindfoot 20-28 mm; weight 45-80 g. The Short-tailed Gymnure is small, and its short tail distinguishes it from all other gymnures. Snoutis pointed, ears and tail are short, and overall appearance is ratlike. Pelage is soft and dense. Upper parts are rusty brown, sometimes with faint black nape stripe or dorsalstripe, and underparts are grayish, brownish, or yellowish. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Short-tailed Gymnure are similar to those in the Long-eared Gymnure (H. megalotis) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spearshaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.Habitat.Usually confined to dense, damp, forested areas, especially hilly, mountainous, and lowland forests with thick undergrowth. In China, the Short-tailed Gymnure occurred in secondary forests that had been clear-cut 13 years previously but was not documented in nearby tropical monsoon forests. In Thailand, it occurred under logs in a grove of wild bananas. It has been recorded at elevations of 90 m on mainland South-east Asia to 3000 m on Sumatra and 1000-3400 m on Borneo. Its presence has been verified along edges of a disturbed montane rainforest at 1200-1500 m in Peninsular Malaysia, in lower montane rainforest at 1700 m on Java, and in lower and upper montane rainforests at 1500-3000 m on Borneo.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly invertebrates such as insects and earthworms, but it also eats fruits and vegetation. It forages by searching underleaf litter and in upperlayers of humus with its long, mobile snout, which tosses aside leaves and twigs with jerks of head and shoulders.Breeding.The Short-tailed Gymnureis polygynous, and it probably breeds throughout the year. A pregnant female with two embryos was observed in February and another with two embryos in March. Litters have 3-6 young. Gestation lasts 30-35 days. Lifespan probably does not exceed two years.Activity patterns.The Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly diurnal but can be active at any time of day or night, singly or in small groups. It is mainly active aboveground, beneath litter, and under logs, but sometimes it climbs on low bushes. It builds nests of leaves in rock crevices, burrows, and hollows among roots of trees. It does not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short-tailed Gymnures are primarily solitary; however, there have been observations of groups of 2-3 individuals that might have been females with young. Although capable of climbing, Short-tailed Gymnures generally stay on the ground, moving quickly and nimbly with short leaps. It appears to use definite paths or runways on the forest floor, often passing under logs that are slightly off the ground. When threatened, the Short-tailed Gymnure bounds away with considerable speed. It emits shrill squeaks that are not loud. In Malaya, average densities in favorable habitats are 3—4 ind/ha. Home ranges are ¢.30-40 m in diameter. The Short-tailed Gymnure has a strong odor.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Gymnure has a wide distribution and relatively stable overall population.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Chernova et al. (2015), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Medway (1983), Nowak (1999), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Rudd (1980), Ruedi et al. (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Sody (1933), Stone (1995b), Wu Delin et al. (1996)." +038787D0FFDBFFCDFF68F538F7017311,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,328,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDBFFCDFF68F538F7017311.xml,Hylomys suillus,Hylomys,suillus,S. Miller,1839,Petit Gymnure @fr | Kurzschwanz-Rattenigel @de | Gimnuro de cola corta @es | Lesser Moonrat @en | Short-tailed Moonrat @en,"Hylomys suillus S. Miller, 1839,“Java en het andere van Sumatra.”Re- stricted by H. J. V. Sody in 1933 to “Java,” Indonesia. Seven subspecies are recognized.","H.s.swillusS.Muller,1839—Java.H.s.dorsalisThomas,1888—NBorneo(fromMtKinabaluStoKelabitHighlands).H.s.maxiSody,1933—SThailand,MalayPeninsula,andWSumatra.H.s.microtinusThomas,1925—SWChina(Yunnan),Vietnam,andCambodia.H.s.peguensisBlyth,1859—EMyanmarandadjacentSWChina(Yunnan).H.s.siamensisKloss,1916—SEMyanmar,N&WThailand,andLaos.H. s. tionis Chasen, 1940— Tioman I, off SE Malay Peninsula.","Head—body 90-156 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 12-21 mm, hindfoot 20-28 mm; weight 45-80 g. The Short-tailed Gymnure is small, and its short tail distinguishes it from all other gymnures. Snoutis pointed, ears and tail are short, and overall appearance is ratlike. Pelage is soft and dense. Upper parts are rusty brown, sometimes with faint black nape stripe or dorsalstripe, and underparts are grayish, brownish, or yellowish. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Short-tailed Gymnure are similar to those in the Long-eared Gymnure (H. megalotis) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spearshaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.","Usually confined to dense, damp, forested areas, especially hilly, mountainous, and lowland forests with thick undergrowth. In China, the Short-tailed Gymnure occurred in secondary forests that had been clear-cut 13 years previously but was not documented in nearby tropical monsoon forests. In Thailand, it occurred under logs in a grove of wild bananas. It has been recorded at elevations of 90 m on mainland South-east Asia to 3000 m on Sumatra and 1000-3400 m on Borneo. Its presence has been verified along edges of a disturbed montane rainforest at 1200-1500 m in Peninsular Malaysia, in lower montane rainforest at 1700 m on Java, and in lower and upper montane rainforests at 1500-3000 m on Borneo.","Diet of the Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly invertebrates such as insects and earthworms, but it also eats fruits and vegetation. It forages by searching underleaf litter and in upperlayers of humus with its long, mobile snout, which tosses aside leaves and twigs with jerks of head and shoulders.","The Short-tailed Gymnureis polygynous, and it probably breeds throughout the year. A pregnant female with two embryos was observed in February and another with two embryos in March. Litters have 3-6 young. Gestation lasts 30-35 days. Lifespan probably does not exceed two years.","The Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly diurnal but can be active at any time of day or night, singly or in small groups. It is mainly active aboveground, beneath litter, and under logs, but sometimes it climbs on low bushes. It builds nests of leaves in rock crevices, burrows, and hollows among roots of trees. It does not hibernate.","Short-tailed Gymnures are primarily solitary; however, there have been observations of groups of 2-3 individuals that might have been females with young. Although capable of climbing, Short-tailed Gymnures generally stay on the ground, moving quickly and nimbly with short leaps. It appears to use definite paths or runways on the forest floor, often passing under logs that are slightly off the ground. When threatened, the Short-tailed Gymnure bounds away with considerable speed. It emits shrill squeaks that are not loud. In Malaya, average densities in favorable habitats are 3—4 ind/ha. Home ranges are ¢.30-40 m in diameter. The Short-tailed Gymnure has a strong odor.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Gymnure has a wide distribution and relatively stable overall population.,Beer (2003) | Chernova et al. (2015) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Medway (1983) | Nowak (1999) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Rudd (1980) | Ruedi et al. (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Sody (1933) | Stone (1995b) | Wu Delin et al. (1996),https://zenodo.org/record/6639398/files/figure.png,"21.Short-tailed GymnureHylomys suillusFrench:Petit Gymnure/ German:Kurzschwanz-Rattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de cola cortaOther common names:Lesser Moonrat, Short-tailed MoonratTaxonomy.Hylomys suillus S. Miller, 1839,“Java en het andere van Sumatra.”Re- stricted by H. J. V. Sody in 1933 to “Java,” Indonesia. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.s.swillusS.Muller,1839—Java.H.s.dorsalisThomas,1888—NBorneo(fromMtKinabaluStoKelabitHighlands).H.s.maxiSody,1933—SThailand,MalayPeninsula,andWSumatra.H.s.microtinusThomas,1925—SWChina(Yunnan),Vietnam,andCambodia.H.s.peguensisBlyth,1859—EMyanmarandadjacentSWChina(Yunnan).H.s.siamensisKloss,1916—SEMyanmar,N&WThailand,andLaos.H. s. tionis Chasen, 1940— Tioman I, off SE Malay Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-156 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 12-21 mm, hindfoot 20-28 mm; weight 45-80 g. The Short-tailed Gymnure is small, and its short tail distinguishes it from all other gymnures. Snoutis pointed, ears and tail are short, and overall appearance is ratlike. Pelage is soft and dense. Upper parts are rusty brown, sometimes with faint black nape stripe or dorsalstripe, and underparts are grayish, brownish, or yellowish. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Short-tailed Gymnure are similar to those in the Long-eared Gymnure (H. megalotis) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spearshaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.Habitat.Usually confined to dense, damp, forested areas, especially hilly, mountainous, and lowland forests with thick undergrowth. In China, the Short-tailed Gymnure occurred in secondary forests that had been clear-cut 13 years previously but was not documented in nearby tropical monsoon forests. In Thailand, it occurred under logs in a grove of wild bananas. It has been recorded at elevations of 90 m on mainland South-east Asia to 3000 m on Sumatra and 1000-3400 m on Borneo. Its presence has been verified along edges of a disturbed montane rainforest at 1200-1500 m in Peninsular Malaysia, in lower montane rainforest at 1700 m on Java, and in lower and upper montane rainforests at 1500-3000 m on Borneo.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly invertebrates such as insects and earthworms, but it also eats fruits and vegetation. It forages by searching underleaf litter and in upperlayers of humus with its long, mobile snout, which tosses aside leaves and twigs with jerks of head and shoulders.Breeding.The Short-tailed Gymnureis polygynous, and it probably breeds throughout the year. A pregnant female with two embryos was observed in February and another with two embryos in March. Litters have 3-6 young. Gestation lasts 30-35 days. Lifespan probably does not exceed two years.Activity patterns.The Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly diurnal but can be active at any time of day or night, singly or in small groups. It is mainly active aboveground, beneath litter, and under logs, but sometimes it climbs on low bushes. It builds nests of leaves in rock crevices, burrows, and hollows among roots of trees. It does not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short-tailed Gymnures are primarily solitary; however, there have been observations of groups of 2-3 individuals that might have been females with young. Although capable of climbing, Short-tailed Gymnures generally stay on the ground, moving quickly and nimbly with short leaps. It appears to use definite paths or runways on the forest floor, often passing under logs that are slightly off the ground. When threatened, the Short-tailed Gymnure bounds away with considerable speed. It emits shrill squeaks that are not loud. In Malaya, average densities in favorable habitats are 3—4 ind/ha. Home ranges are ¢.30-40 m in diameter. The Short-tailed Gymnure has a strong odor.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Gymnure has a wide distribution and relatively stable overall population.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Chernova et al. (2015), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Medway (1983), Nowak (1999), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Rudd (1980), Ruedi et al. (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Sody (1933), Stone (1995b), Wu Delin et al. (1996)." 038787D0FFDBFFCDFF6FFA2BFEF571EC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,328,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDBFFCDFF6FFA2BFEF571EC.xml,Hylomys parvus,Hylomys,parvus,H. C. Robinson & Kloss,1916,Gymnure nain @fr | Zwergrattenigel @de | Gimnuro enano @es | Dwarf Moonrat @en,"Hylomys parvus H. C. Robinson & Kloss, 1916, “Korinchi Peak, 10,000’ [= 3048 m], West Sumatra,”Indonesia. This species is monotypic.","Restricted to highlands of Mt Kerinci, WC Sumatra.","Head-body 100-127 mm, tail 15-32 mm, ear 17-19 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Dwarf Gymnure has notched space between premaxillary tips, soft-textured pelage, and delicate skull and dentition. Dental formula is I 3/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.","Restricted to high-elevation moss forest covering peak of Mount Kerinci, Sumatra, at elevations of 2000-3000 m.",No information.,No information.,"There is no specific information for this species, but the Dwarf Gymnure 1s terrestrial.",No information.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Dwarf Gymnure is less than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten locations, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat in the Sumatran Mountains.",Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Ruedi & Fumagalli (1996) | Ruedi et al. (1994) | Stone (1995b),https://zenodo.org/record/6639394/files/figure.png,"20.Dwarf GymnureHylomys parvusFrench:Gymnure nain/ German:Zwergrattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro enanoOther common names:Dwarf MoonratTaxonomy.Hylomys parvus H. C. Robinson & Kloss, 1916, “Korinchi Peak, 10,000’ [= 3048 m], West Sumatra,”Indonesia. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to highlands of Mt Kerinci, WC Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-127 mm, tail 15-32 mm, ear 17-19 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Dwarf Gymnure has notched space between premaxillary tips, soft-textured pelage, and delicate skull and dentition. Dental formula is I 3/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.Habitat.Restricted to high-elevation moss forest covering peak of Mount Kerinci, Sumatra, at elevations of 2000-3000 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Dwarf Gymnure 1s terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Dwarf Gymnure is less than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten locations, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat in the Sumatran Mountains.Bibliography.Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Ruedi & Fumagalli (1996), Ruedi et al. (1994), Stone (1995b)." 038787D0FFDCFFCAFA76FA58F6F4700E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,329,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDCFFCAFA76FA58F6F4700E.xml,Neohylomys hainanensis,Neohylomys,hainanensis,,,Gymnure de Hainan @fr | Hainan-Rattenigel @de | Gimnuro de Hainan @es | Hainan Moonrat @en,"Neohylomys hainanensis T. H.Shaw & Wong Song, 1959, “Pai-sa Hsian,Hainan Island.” Interpreted by D. R. Frostand colleagues in 1991 as “Baisha Xian, which is an administrative unit at 19°13’N, 109°26’E,” China. This species is monotypic.","Hainan I, China.","Head-body 120-147 mm, tail 36-43 mm, ear 16-22 mm, hindfoot 24-29 mm; weight 50-70 g. Headof the Hainan Gymnureis blackish gray, mixed with brown. Back is rusty brown, mixed with gray. Long, black stripe on middle of back is darker on head and anterior part of body and paler toward posterior part of body. Sides are washed with pale olive-yellow, and underparts are pale gray or yellowish white. Ears, feet, and tail are almost naked, with minute scattered short hairs. Whiskers are black and up to 35 mm long. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/3,M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 64.",Damp forests including tropical rainforests and subtropical evergreen forests.,Diet of the Hainan Gymnure includes invertebrates and plant material.,No information.,"The Hainan Gymnure is nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends most of its time in subterranean burrows. Its cylindrical body, shorttail, and less-developed claws are adaptations for a fossoriallifestyle.",Hainan Gymnures are solitary.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Hainan Gymnureis less than 5000 km?®. It is only known from Hainan Island, where remaining patches of evergreen forests are shrinking due to harvesting of timber and expansion of agriculture.",Beer (2003) | Bhatnagar & EI-Azawi (1978) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Hubner et al. (1991) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Li Yuchun et al. (2008) | Nowak (1999) | Reumer & Meylan (1986) | Shaw & Wong Song (1959) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stone (1995b) | Zima & Kral (1984),https://zenodo.org/record/6639406/files/figure.png,"24.Hainan GymnureNeohylomys hainanensisFrench:Gymnure de Hainan/ German:Hainan-Rattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de HainanOther common names:Hainan MoonratTaxonomy.Neohylomys hainanensis T. H.Shaw & Wong Song, 1959, “Pai-sa Hsian,Hainan Island.” Interpreted by D. R. Frostand colleagues in 1991 as “Baisha Xian, which is an administrative unit at 19°13’N, 109°26’E,” China. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Hainan I, China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-147 mm, tail 36-43 mm, ear 16-22 mm, hindfoot 24-29 mm; weight 50-70 g. Headof the Hainan Gymnureis blackish gray, mixed with brown. Back is rusty brown, mixed with gray. Long, black stripe on middle of back is darker on head and anterior part of body and paler toward posterior part of body. Sides are washed with pale olive-yellow, and underparts are pale gray or yellowish white. Ears, feet, and tail are almost naked, with minute scattered short hairs. Whiskers are black and up to 35 mm long. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/3,M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 64.Habitat.Damp forests including tropical rainforests and subtropical evergreen forests.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Hainan Gymnure includes invertebrates and plant material.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Hainan Gymnure is nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends most of its time in subterranean burrows. Its cylindrical body, shorttail, and less-developed claws are adaptations for a fossoriallifestyle.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hainan Gymnures are solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Hainan Gymnureis less than 5000 km?®. It is only known from Hainan Island, where remaining patches of evergreen forests are shrinking due to harvesting of timber and expansion of agriculture.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Bhatnagar & EI-Azawi (1978), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Hubner et al. (1991), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Li Yuchun et al. (2008), Nowak (1999), Reumer & Meylan (1986), Shaw & Wong Song (1959), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stone (1995b), Zima & Kral (1984)." 038787D0FFDCFFCAFF78F720F6357F34,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a,329,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDCFFCAFF78F720F6357F34.xml,Neotetracus sinensis,Neotetracus,sinensis,Trouessart,1909,Gymnure de Chine @fr | Spitzmausigel @de | Gimnuro de China @es | Chinese Moonrat @en,"Neotetracus sinensis Trouessart,1909, “Ta-tsien-lou, province of Se-tchouen (China Occidental), at an altitude of 2545 metres.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Kanding, Sichuan Sheng, 30°07’N, 102°02’E,” China. This species is monotypic.","Sichuan, Guizhou, and Yunnan in S China, and adjacent parts of NE Myanmar and N Vietnam.","Head-body 108 mm(males) and 110 mm (females), tail 65 mm (males) and 62 mm (females), ear 18 mm (males and females), hindfoot 26 mm (males) and 25 mm (females); weight 36 g (males) and 38 g (females). Pelage of the Shrew Gymnureis soft, dense, and long. Upper parts are olive-brown, cinnamon-brown, reddish yellow, or mixed cream-colored and black, and sides of head and neck sometimes are tinged with reddish. Indistinct, black dorsal stripe can be present. Underparts are reddish, buffy gray, grayish white, or cream-colored over dark base. Snout is pointed. Tail is ¢.50% of length of head-body, somewhat slender, and sparsely covered with minute hairs. Feet are brown, five-toed, slender, and elongated, especially hindfeet; forefeet are tinted with reddish. Undersides of feet are naked or covered with short hair. Ears are brown, rounded, large, and covered with short hairs. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Shrew Gymnure are similar to those on the Long-eared Gymnures (Hylomys megalotis) and the Shorttailed Gymnure (Hylomys suillus); there are spear-shaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Largest guard hairs of the Shrew Gymnure are long and form upperouter layer of pelage. Zig-zag hairs and wavy hairs are presentamong smaller guard hairs. Dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 40. Karyotype is 2n = 32.","Subtropical evergreen forests, cool damp rainforests in montane areas, and close to and away from streams at elevations of 1500-2700 m.","Diet of the Shrew Gymnure contains invertebrates, rhizomes, berries, and other vegetation. Of those examined, stomach of one individual contained earthworms and the other vegetable matter.",Breeding of Shrew Gymnures appears to occur year-round. Pregnant females have been observed in April and August. Two litters probably are born each year; litters have 5-7 young.,"Shrew Gymnures are nocturnal and strictly terrestrial. They live in runways and underground burrows along moss and fern-covered banks and under logs, rocks, and other cover. It is not known if they make these runways because other small mammals also use them.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shrew Gymnure is common in parts of its wide distribution, but it occupies relatively restricted habitats that are subject to increasing encroachment by humans.","Abramov, Shchinov & Rozhnov (2008) | Allen (1938) | Anthony (1941) | Beer (2003) | Chernova, Kulikov & Abramov (2015) | Chernova, Kulikov, Shchinov & Rozhnov (2012) | Frost et al. (1991) | Heaney & Morgan (1982) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Lu Lu et al. (2013) | Mu Huagiang et al. (2011) | Nowak (1999) | Smith & Yan Xie (2008, 2013) | Stone (1995b) | Trouessart (1909) | Wu Yi et al. (2011) | Ye Jianping et al. (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/6639404/files/figure.png,"23.Shrew GymnureNeotetracus sinensisFrench:Gymnure de Chine/ German:Spitzmausigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de ChinaOther common names:Chinese MoonratTaxonomy.Neotetracus sinensis Trouessart,1909, “Ta-tsien-lou, province of Se-tchouen (China Occidental), at an altitude of 2545 metres.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Kanding, Sichuan Sheng, 30°07’N, 102°02’E,” China. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Sichuan, Guizhou, and Yunnan in S China, and adjacent parts of NE Myanmar and N Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 108 mm(males) and 110 mm (females), tail 65 mm (males) and 62 mm (females), ear 18 mm (males and females), hindfoot 26 mm (males) and 25 mm (females); weight 36 g (males) and 38 g (females). Pelage of the Shrew Gymnureis soft, dense, and long. Upper parts are olive-brown, cinnamon-brown, reddish yellow, or mixed cream-colored and black, and sides of head and neck sometimes are tinged with reddish. Indistinct, black dorsal stripe can be present. Underparts are reddish, buffy gray, grayish white, or cream-colored over dark base. Snout is pointed. Tail is ¢.50% of length of head-body, somewhat slender, and sparsely covered with minute hairs. Feet are brown, five-toed, slender, and elongated, especially hindfeet; forefeet are tinted with reddish. Undersides of feet are naked or covered with short hair. Ears are brown, rounded, large, and covered with short hairs. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Shrew Gymnure are similar to those on the Long-eared Gymnures (Hylomys megalotis) and the Shorttailed Gymnure (Hylomys suillus); there are spear-shaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Largest guard hairs of the Shrew Gymnure are long and form upperouter layer of pelage. Zig-zag hairs and wavy hairs are presentamong smaller guard hairs. Dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 40. Karyotype is 2n = 32.Habitat.Subtropical evergreen forests, cool damp rainforests in montane areas, and close to and away from streams at elevations of 1500-2700 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Shrew Gymnure contains invertebrates, rhizomes, berries, and other vegetation. Of those examined, stomach of one individual contained earthworms and the other vegetable matter.Breeding.Breeding of Shrew Gymnures appears to occur year-round. Pregnant females have been observed in April and August. Two litters probably are born each year; litters have 5-7 young.Activity patterns.Shrew Gymnures are nocturnal and strictly terrestrial. They live in runways and underground burrows along moss and fern-covered banks and under logs, rocks, and other cover. It is not known if they make these runways because other small mammals also use them.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shrew Gymnure is common in parts of its wide distribution, but it occupies relatively restricted habitats that are subject to increasing encroachment by humans.Bibliography.Abramov, Shchinov & Rozhnov (2008), Allen (1938), Anthony (1941), Beer (2003), Chernova, Kulikov & Abramov (2015), Chernova, Kulikov, Shchinov & Rozhnov (2012), Frost et al. (1991), Heaney & Morgan (1982), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Lu Lu et al. (2013), Mu Huagiang et al. (2011), Nowak (1999), Smith & Yan Xie (2008, 2013), Stone (1995b), Trouessart (1909), Wu Yi et al. (2011), Ye Jianping et al. (2006)." @@ -221,150 +221,150 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 038F4B5AFFA6FFD0A82BF623BA65C130,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,367,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD0A82BF623BA65C130.xml,Georychus capensis,Georychus,capensis,Pallas,1779,Bathyergue du Cap @fr | Kap-Blessmull @de | Ratatopo de El Cabo @es | Rata @es | Cape Blesmol @en | Cape Mole Rat @en,"Mus capensis Pallas, 1779, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","South Africa, Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces and isolated populations in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces.","Head-body 85-231-6 mm (males) and 131:2-181-2 mm (females), tail 18:-1-23-1 mm (males) and 17-3-23-7 mm (females); weight 108-5-255-1 g (males) and 87.7-272-3 g (females). The Cape Mole-rat is mediumto largesized; pelage is thick, russet to brown dorsally and significantly lighter ventrally. Head and areas below eyes are dark brown; white patches surround ear openings and eyes; nose is pink, with white surrounding anterior part of head. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 104.On following pages: 5. Common Mole-rat (Cryptomys hottentotus); 6. Ghana Mole-rat (Fukomys zechi); 7. Nigerian bocagel); 10. Zambian Mole-rat (Fukomys amatus); 11. Ansell's Mole-rat (Fukomys anselli); 12. Kafue Mole-rat (Fukomysvandewoestijneae); 15. Whyte's Mole-rat (Fukomyswhytel); 16. Damara Mole-rat (Fukomys damarensis); 17. Mashona Mole-rat (Fukomys foxi); 8. Ochre Mole-rat (Fukomys ochraceocinereus); 9. Bocage's Mole-rat (Fukomys kafuensis); 13. Mechow's Mole-rat (Fukomysmechowii); 14. Caroline's Mole-rat (FukomysMole-rat (Fukomysdarling).","Sandyto clay soils in mesic coastal regions with fynbos shrublands, forests, and savannas of mesic coastal regions.","The Cape Mole-rat is herbivorous and eats green plants, grasses, clover, and geophytes;it does not drink standing water.","Breeding of the Cape Mole-rat occurs in August-December. Gestation is 44-48 days, andlitter size averages six young (range 3-10).",The Cape Mole-rat burrows with its teeth; it can be seen aboveground.,The Cape Mole-rat disperses aboveground;it is solitary and territorial. It communicates with seismic signaling by foot drumming.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Bennett & Jarvis (1988b) | Bennett et al. (2006) | Bronner (1990) | Du Toit et al. (1985) | Lovegrove & Papenfus (1995) | Maree & Faulkes (2008f) | Narins et al. (1992) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Robb et al. (2012) | Roper et al. (2001),https://zenodo.org/record/6584704/files/figure.png,"4.Cape Mole-ratGeorychus capensisFrench:Bathyergue du Cap/ German:Kap-Blessmull/ Spanish:Ratatopo de El CaboOther common names:Cape Blesmol, Cape Mole RatTaxonomy.Mus capensis Pallas, 1779, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.South Africa, Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces and isolated populations in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-231-6 mm (males) and 131:2-181-2 mm (females), tail 18:-1-23-1 mm (males) and 17-3-23-7 mm (females); weight 108-5-255-1 g (males) and 87.7-272-3 g (females). The Cape Mole-rat is mediumto largesized; pelage is thick, russet to brown dorsally and significantly lighter ventrally. Head and areas below eyes are dark brown; white patches surround ear openings and eyes; nose is pink, with white surrounding anterior part of head. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 104.On following pages: 5. Common Mole-rat (Cryptomys hottentotus); 6. Ghana Mole-rat (Fukomys zechi); 7. Nigerian bocagel); 10. Zambian Mole-rat (Fukomys amatus); 11. Ansell's Mole-rat (Fukomys anselli); 12. Kafue Mole-rat (Fukomysvandewoestijneae); 15. Whyte's Mole-rat (Fukomyswhytel); 16. Damara Mole-rat (Fukomys damarensis); 17. Mashona Mole-rat (Fukomys foxi); 8. Ochre Mole-rat (Fukomys ochraceocinereus); 9. Bocage's Mole-rat (Fukomys kafuensis); 13. Mechow's Mole-rat (Fukomysmechowii); 14. Caroline's Mole-rat (FukomysMole-rat (Fukomysdarling).Habitat.Sandyto clay soils in mesic coastal regions with fynbos shrublands, forests, and savannas of mesic coastal regions.Food and Feeding.The Cape Mole-rat is herbivorous and eats green plants, grasses, clover, and geophytes;it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Cape Mole-rat occurs in August-December. Gestation is 44-48 days, andlitter size averages six young (range 3-10).Activity patterns.The Cape Mole-rat burrows with its teeth; it can be seen aboveground.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Cape Mole-rat disperses aboveground;it is solitary and territorial. It communicates with seismic signaling by foot drumming.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett & Jarvis (1988b), Bennett et al. (2006), Bronner (1990), Du Toit et al. (1985), Lovegrove & Papenfus (1995), Maree & Faulkes (2008f), Narins et al. (1992), Nevo et al. (1986), Robb et al. (2012), Roper et al. (2001)." 038F4B5AFFA6FFD1A829FCCDB7B0CAA7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,367,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD1A829FCCDB7B0CAA7.xml,Bathyergus suillus,Bathyergus,suillus,Schreber,1782,Bathyergue des dunes @fr | Kap-Strandgraber @de | Ratatopo de dunas de El Cabo @es | Cape Dune Blesmol @en | Cape Dune Mole Rat @en | Large Cape Dune Mole-rat @en,"Mus suillus Schreber, 1782, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","Endemic to S South Africa, Western Cape Province from Knysna to Lamberts Bay.","Head-body 267-9-353-7 mm (males) and 279-9-329-9 mm (females); tail 30-7-41-9 mm (males) and 29-3-38-3 mm (females); weight 0-57.1-3 kg (males) and 0-58.0-96 kg (females). Some male Cape Dune Mole-rats reach 2 kg. Largest species of mole-rat characterized by thick cinnamon-brown dorsal pelage, with hairs darker at bases and brown at tips; ventral surface is grayish; and whitish hairs are near eyes and nose. Cape Dune Mole-rats have cylinder-shaped bodies, with short limbs, pinkish feet, and long claws on forefeet. Tail is short and contains bristle-like hairs, similar to those seen on feet, with facial bristles being considerably larger. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 56, FN = 102.",Sandy soils in mesic savannas and grasslands.,"The Cape Dune Mole-rat is herbivorous, and its diet contains c.80% grass, geophytes, and aboveand below-ground plants; it does not drink standing water.","Breeding of the Cape Dune Mole-rat occurs during rainy season in July—October; courtship involves foot drumming. Gestation is 50-60 days, litter size averages 3-3 young (range 1-6), and genetic evidence suggests multiple paternity. Cape Dune Mole-rats are territorial and aggressive toward each other.",Cape Dune Mole-rats dig with large claws on their forefeet.,Breeding patterns of Cape Dune Mole-rats suggest aboveground movements; burrows are 50-420 m; home range averages 0-27 ha (range 0-14-0-35 ha). They are solitary and territorial.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Bennett & Jarvis (1995) | Bennett et al. (2009) | Bray, Bloomer et al. (2012) | Bray, van Rensburg & Bennett (2013) | Davies & Jarvis (1986) | Hart et al. (2006) | Maree, Faulkes & Griffin (2008b) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Thomas et al. (2009)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584702/files/figure.png,"3.Cape Dune Mole-ratBathyergus suillusFrench:Bathyergue des dunes/ German:Kap-Strandgraber/ Spanish:Ratatopo de dunas de El CaboOther common names:Cape Dune Blesmol, Cape Dune Mole Rat, Large Cape Dune Mole-ratTaxonomy.Mus suillus Schreber, 1782, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S South Africa, Western Cape Province from Knysna to Lamberts Bay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 267-9-353-7 mm (males) and 279-9-329-9 mm (females); tail 30-7-41-9 mm (males) and 29-3-38-3 mm (females); weight 0-57.1-3 kg (males) and 0-58.0-96 kg (females). Some male Cape Dune Mole-rats reach 2 kg. Largest species of mole-rat characterized by thick cinnamon-brown dorsal pelage, with hairs darker at bases and brown at tips; ventral surface is grayish; and whitish hairs are near eyes and nose. Cape Dune Mole-rats have cylinder-shaped bodies, with short limbs, pinkish feet, and long claws on forefeet. Tail is short and contains bristle-like hairs, similar to those seen on feet, with facial bristles being considerably larger. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 56, FN = 102.Habitat.Sandy soils in mesic savannas and grasslands.Food and Feeding.The Cape Dune Mole-rat is herbivorous, and its diet contains c.80% grass, geophytes, and aboveand below-ground plants; it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Cape Dune Mole-rat occurs during rainy season in July—October; courtship involves foot drumming. Gestation is 50-60 days, litter size averages 3-3 young (range 1-6), and genetic evidence suggests multiple paternity. Cape Dune Mole-rats are territorial and aggressive toward each other.Activity patterns.Cape Dune Mole-rats dig with large claws on their forefeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Breeding patterns of Cape Dune Mole-rats suggest aboveground movements; burrows are 50-420 m; home range averages 0-27 ha (range 0-14-0-35 ha). They are solitary and territorial.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Bennett & Jarvis (1995), Bennett et al. (2009), Bray, Bloomer et al. (2012), Bray, van Rensburg & Bennett (2013), Davies & Jarvis (1986), Hart et al. (2006), Maree, Faulkes & Griffin (2008b), Nevo et al. (1986), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Thomas et al. (2009)." 038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD2DF6CEB9D3C09F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,367,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD2DF6CEB9D3C09F.xml,Bathyergus janetta,Bathyergus,janetta,,1904,Bathyergue namaquois @fr | Namaqua-Strandgraber @de | Ratatopo de dunas de Namaqua @es | Rata @es | Namaqgua Dune Mole Rat @en | Namaguan Dune Blesmol @en | Small Dune Mole-rat @en,"Bathyergus janetta Thomas & Schwann, 1904, Port Nolloth, coastal Little Namaqualand, north-western Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.",S Namibia and W South Africa (W Northern Cape).,"Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 170-205 mm (females), tail 41-52 mm (males) and 40-50 mm (females); weight 242-710 ¢g (males) and 195-540 g (females). The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is smaller than the Cape Dune Mole-rat (B. suillus) and considerably more colorful; dorsal pelage ranges from gray to silvery gray, with a blackish strip leading from head region to rump; ventral surface of pelage is more silvery gray. The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat has short, bushy tail; hairs around eyes and ear pinna are light; and feet are pinkish with short bristles. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 104.","Sandy soils near highly arid, coastal dunes.",The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is herbivorous and eats geophytes and bulbs; it does not drink standing water.,"Breeding of the Namaqua Dune Mole-rat occurs during rainy period in July-September. Litter sizes are 1-7 young, and gestation is a minimum of 52 days.",Burrowing activity of Namaqua Dune Mole-rats is greatest during rainy periods; they excavate burrows with claws.,"Average lengths of burrows are 71:2-165 m, and home ranges are 430-3—-1181-3 m? The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is solitary and territorial with individuals occupying different burrow systems.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Bennett et al. (1991) | Herbst & Bennett (2006) | Herbst et al. (2004) | Jarvis (2013) | Jarvis & Bennett (1991) | Maree, Faulkes & Griffin (2008a) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584700/files/figure.png,"2.Namaqua Dune Mole-ratBathyergus janettaFrench:Bathyergue namaquois/ German:Namaqua-Strandgraber/ Spanish:Ratatopo de dunas de NamaquaOther common names:Namaqgua Dune Mole Rat, Namaguan Dune Blesmol, Small Dune Mole-ratTaxonomy.Bathyergus janetta Thomas & Schwann, 1904, Port Nolloth, coastal Little Namaqualand, north-western Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.S Namibia and W South Africa (W Northern Cape).Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 170-205 mm (females), tail 41-52 mm (males) and 40-50 mm (females); weight 242-710 ¢g (males) and 195-540 g (females). The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is smaller than the Cape Dune Mole-rat (B. suillus) and considerably more colorful; dorsal pelage ranges from gray to silvery gray, with a blackish strip leading from head region to rump; ventral surface of pelage is more silvery gray. The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat has short, bushy tail; hairs around eyes and ear pinna are light; and feet are pinkish with short bristles. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 104.Habitat.Sandy soils near highly arid, coastal dunes.Food and Feeding.The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is herbivorous and eats geophytes and bulbs; it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Namaqua Dune Mole-rat occurs during rainy period in July-September. Litter sizes are 1-7 young, and gestation is a minimum of 52 days.Activity patterns.Burrowing activity of Namaqua Dune Mole-rats is greatest during rainy periods; they excavate burrows with claws.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Average lengths of burrows are 71:2-165 m, and home ranges are 430-3—-1181-3 m? The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is solitary and territorial with individuals occupying different burrow systems.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Bennett et al. (1991), Herbst & Bennett (2006), Herbst et al. (2004), Jarvis (2013), Jarvis & Bennett (1991), Maree, Faulkes & Griffin (2008a), Nevo et al. (1986), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD31FE71BDDECA55,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,367,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD31FE71BDDECA55.xml,Heliophobius argenteocinereus,Heliophobius,argenteocinereus,Peters,1846,Bathyergue argenté @fr | Silbermull @de | Ratatopo plateada @es | Rata @es | Silky Mole-rat @en | Silvery Mole Rat @en,"Heliophobius argenteocinereus Peters, 1846, Tete (on the Zambezi River), Mozambique.Based on the phylogeographic study by C. G. Faulkes and colleagues in 2011, it is very likely that the genus Heliophobiusis represented by more than one species. Five subspecies recognized.","H.a.argenteocinereusPeters,1846—Mozambique,NofZambeziRiver.H.a.eminiNoack,1894—mostofTanzania.H.a.marungensisNoack,1887—SEDRCongo,EZambia,andMalawi.H.a.kapitiHeller,1909—SKenya.H. a. spalax Thomas, 1910— NE Tanzania (Kilimanjaro and Eastern Arc Mts: Usambara, Uluguru, and Ukaguru).","Head-body 131-195 mm (males) and 131-191 mm (females), tail 6-16 mm (males) and 8-17 mm (females); weight 63-331 g (males) and 51-271 g (females). According to A. Scharff and colleagues in 2001, average size of the Silvery Mole-rat is larger in Malawi (mean 160 g, 142-168 g) than Zambia (mean 146 g, 118-170 g). It is mediumto large-sized; dorsal pelage is gray to sandy brown; and ventral pelage being lighter. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 or 62, FN = 144.",Compact sandy soils in grasslands with annual rainfall more than 900 mm.,"The Silvery Mole-rat is herbivorous generalist and eats bulbs, geophytes, green leaves, and tubers.","Breeding of the Silvery Mole-rat occurs in May-June. Gestation exceeds 87 days, and litter size averages 3-2 young.",The Silvery Mole-rat burrows. Genetic studies suggest that it can disperse aboveground.,"Density of the Silvery Mole-rat is c.5 ind/ha; home range averages 157 m?. It is solitary and territorial, but genetic studies reveal multiple paternity.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Faulkes et al. (2011) | George (1979) | Knotkova et al. (2009) | Maree & Faulkes (2008g) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Patzenhauerova et al. (2010) | Scharff, Macholan et al. (2001) | Skliba et al. (2007, 2009) | Sumbera, Burda & Chitaukali (2003) | Sumbera, Chitaukali & Burda (2007) | Sumbera, Chitaukali, Elichova et al. (2004) | Sumbera, Skliba et al. (2008) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"1.Silvery Mole-ratHeliophobius argenteocinereusFrench:Bathyergue argenté/ German:Silbermull/ Spanish:Ratatopo plateadaOther common names:Silky Mole-rat, Silvery Mole RatTaxonomy.Heliophobius argenteocinereus Peters, 1846, Tete (on the Zambezi River), Mozambique.Based on the phylogeographic study by C. G. Faulkes and colleagues in 2011, it is very likely that the genus Heliophobiusis represented by more than one species. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.argenteocinereusPeters,1846—Mozambique,NofZambeziRiver.H.a.eminiNoack,1894—mostofTanzania.H.a.marungensisNoack,1887—SEDRCongo,EZambia,andMalawi.H.a.kapitiHeller,1909—SKenya.H. a. spalax Thomas, 1910— NE Tanzania (Kilimanjaro and Eastern Arc Mts: Usambara, Uluguru, and Ukaguru).Descriptive notes.Head-body 131-195 mm (males) and 131-191 mm (females), tail 6-16 mm (males) and 8-17 mm (females); weight 63-331 g (males) and 51-271 g (females). According to A. Scharff and colleagues in 2001, average size of the Silvery Mole-rat is larger in Malawi (mean 160 g, 142-168 g) than Zambia (mean 146 g, 118-170 g). It is mediumto large-sized; dorsal pelage is gray to sandy brown; and ventral pelage being lighter. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 or 62, FN = 144.Habitat.Compact sandy soils in grasslands with annual rainfall more than 900 mm.Food and Feeding.The Silvery Mole-rat is herbivorous generalist and eats bulbs, geophytes, green leaves, and tubers.Breeding.Breeding of the Silvery Mole-rat occurs in May-June. Gestation exceeds 87 days, and litter size averages 3-2 young.Activity patterns.The Silvery Mole-rat burrows. Genetic studies suggest that it can disperse aboveground.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Density of the Silvery Mole-rat is c.5 ind/ha; home range averages 157 m?. It is solitary and territorial, but genetic studies reveal multiple paternity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Faulkes et al. (2011), George (1979), Knotkova et al. (2009), Maree & Faulkes (2008g), Monadjem et al. (2015), Patzenhauerova et al. (2010), Scharff, Macholan et al. (2001), Skliba et al. (2007, 2009), Sumbera, Burda & Chitaukali (2003), Sumbera, Chitaukali & Burda (2007), Sumbera, Chitaukali, Elichova et al. (2004), Sumbera, Skliba et al. (2008), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD31FE71BDDECA55,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,367,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD31FE71BDDECA55.xml,Heliophobius argenteocinereus,Heliophobius,argenteocinereus,Peters,1846,Bathyergue argenté @fr | Silbermull @de | Ratatopo plateada @es | Rata @es | Silky Mole-rat @en | Silvery Mole Rat @en,"Heliophobius argenteocinereus Peters, 1846, Tete (on the Zambezi River), Mozambique.Based on the phylogeographic study by C. G. Faulkes and colleagues in 2011, it is very likely that the genus Heliophobiusis represented by more than one species. Five subspecies recognized.","H.a.argenteocinereusPeters,1846—Mozambique,NofZambeziRiver.H.a.eminiNoack,1894—mostofTanzania.H.a.marungensisNoack,1887—SEDRCongo,EZambia,andMalawi.H.a.kapitiHeller,1909—SKenya.H. a. spalax Thomas, 1910— NE Tanzania (Kilimanjaro and Eastern Arc Mts: Usambara, Uluguru, and Ukaguru).","Head-body 131-195 mm (males) and 131-191 mm (females), tail 6-16 mm (males) and 8-17 mm (females); weight 63-331 g (males) and 51-271 g (females). According to A. Scharff and colleagues in 2001, average size of the Silvery Mole-rat is larger in Malawi (mean 160 g, 142-168 g) than Zambia (mean 146 g, 118-170 g). It is mediumto large-sized; dorsal pelage is gray to sandy brown; and ventral pelage being lighter. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 or 62, FN = 144.",Compact sandy soils in grasslands with annual rainfall more than 900 mm.,"The Silvery Mole-rat is herbivorous generalist and eats bulbs, geophytes, green leaves, and tubers.","Breeding of the Silvery Mole-rat occurs in May-June. Gestation exceeds 87 days, and litter size averages 3-2 young.",The Silvery Mole-rat burrows. Genetic studies suggest that it can disperse aboveground.,"Density of the Silvery Mole-rat is c.5 ind/ha; home range averages 157 m?. It is solitary and territorial, but genetic studies reveal multiple paternity.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Faulkes et al. (2011) | George (1979) | Knotkova et al. (2009) | Maree & Faulkes (2008g) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Patzenhauerova et al. (2010) | Scharff, Macholan et al. (2001) | Skliba et al. (2007, 2009) | Sumbera, Burda & Chitaukali (2003) | Sumbera, Chitaukali & Burda (2007) | Sumbera, Chitaukali, Elichova et al. (2004) | Sumbera, Skliba et al. (2008) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584698/files/figure.png,"1.Silvery Mole-ratHeliophobius argenteocinereusFrench:Bathyergue argenté/ German:Silbermull/ Spanish:Ratatopo plateadaOther common names:Silky Mole-rat, Silvery Mole RatTaxonomy.Heliophobius argenteocinereus Peters, 1846, Tete (on the Zambezi River), Mozambique.Based on the phylogeographic study by C. G. Faulkes and colleagues in 2011, it is very likely that the genus Heliophobiusis represented by more than one species. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.argenteocinereusPeters,1846—Mozambique,NofZambeziRiver.H.a.eminiNoack,1894—mostofTanzania.H.a.marungensisNoack,1887—SEDRCongo,EZambia,andMalawi.H.a.kapitiHeller,1909—SKenya.H. a. spalax Thomas, 1910— NE Tanzania (Kilimanjaro and Eastern Arc Mts: Usambara, Uluguru, and Ukaguru).Descriptive notes.Head-body 131-195 mm (males) and 131-191 mm (females), tail 6-16 mm (males) and 8-17 mm (females); weight 63-331 g (males) and 51-271 g (females). According to A. Scharff and colleagues in 2001, average size of the Silvery Mole-rat is larger in Malawi (mean 160 g, 142-168 g) than Zambia (mean 146 g, 118-170 g). It is mediumto large-sized; dorsal pelage is gray to sandy brown; and ventral pelage being lighter. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 or 62, FN = 144.Habitat.Compact sandy soils in grasslands with annual rainfall more than 900 mm.Food and Feeding.The Silvery Mole-rat is herbivorous generalist and eats bulbs, geophytes, green leaves, and tubers.Breeding.Breeding of the Silvery Mole-rat occurs in May-June. Gestation exceeds 87 days, and litter size averages 3-2 young.Activity patterns.The Silvery Mole-rat burrows. Genetic studies suggest that it can disperse aboveground.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Density of the Silvery Mole-rat is c.5 ind/ha; home range averages 157 m?. It is solitary and territorial, but genetic studies reveal multiple paternity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Faulkes et al. (2011), George (1979), Knotkova et al. (2009), Maree & Faulkes (2008g), Monadjem et al. (2015), Patzenhauerova et al. (2010), Scharff, Macholan et al. (2001), Skliba et al. (2007, 2009), Sumbera, Burda & Chitaukali (2003), Sumbera, Chitaukali & Burda (2007), Sumbera, Chitaukali, Elichova et al. (2004), Sumbera, Skliba et al. (2008), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 038F4B5AFFA7FFD0A8F5FE76B687C47C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,368,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD0A8F5FE76B687C47C.xml,Fukomys zechi,Fukomys,zechi,,,Bathyergue de Zech @fr | Togo-Graumull @de | Ratatopo de Ghana @es | Ghana Mole Rat @en | Togo Mole-rat @en | Togo Mole Rat @en,"Georhychus [sic] zechi Matschie, 1900, near Kete-Kradji, Togo.This species is monotypic.",EC Ghana and N Togo (between Oti and Volta rivers).,"Head-body 120-226 mm, tail 15 mm; weight 51-283 g. The Ghana Mole-rat is medium-sized, with cinnamon pelage and white patches on some individuals.",Silty loam soils in agricultural areas.,"The Ghana Mole-rat eats bulbs, tubers, and agricultural crops such as cassava and yams.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,Ghana Mole-rats occur at low densities. They are colonial; average colonysize is 3-6 individuals (range 1-7).,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Despite classification of the Ghana Mole-rat as Least Concern, there is very little demographic and ecological information to assess its conservation status. Given its endemic nature and current distribution of available habitat, long-term survival of the Ghana Mole-rat may be in jeopardy.","Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Maree, Faulkes & Schlitter (2008) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Yeboah & Akyeampong (2001) | Yeboah & Dakwa (2002)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584708/files/figure.png,"6.Ghana Mole-ratFukomys zechiFrench:Bathyergue de Zech/ German:Togo-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo de GhanaOther common names:Ghana Mole Rat, Togo Mole-rat, Togo Mole RatTaxonomy.Georhychus [sic] zechi Matschie, 1900, near Kete-Kradji, Togo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.EC Ghana and N Togo (between Oti and Volta rivers).Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-226 mm, tail 15 mm; weight 51-283 g. The Ghana Mole-rat is medium-sized, with cinnamon pelage and white patches on some individuals.Habitat.Silty loam soils in agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.The Ghana Mole-rat eats bulbs, tubers, and agricultural crops such as cassava and yams.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ghana Mole-rats occur at low densities. They are colonial; average colonysize is 3-6 individuals (range 1-7).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Despite classification of the Ghana Mole-rat as Least Concern, there is very little demographic and ecological information to assess its conservation status. Given its endemic nature and current distribution of available habitat, long-term survival of the Ghana Mole-rat may be in jeopardy.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Maree, Faulkes & Schlitter (2008), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Yeboah & Akyeampong (2001), Yeboah & Dakwa (2002)." 038F4B5AFFA7FFD0A8FBF9B3B9D1C82F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,368,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD0A8FBF9B3B9D1C82F.xml,Fukomys foxi,Fukomys,foxi,,,Bathyergue du Nigeria @fr | Nigeria-Graumull @de | Ratatopo de Nigeria @es | Rata @es | Fox's Mole-rat @en | Nigerian Mole Rat @en,"Georychus fox: Thomas, 1911, Panyam, Jos Plateau, 4000’ [1212 m], Nigeria.This species is monotypic.",N Nigeria (Jos Plateau) and C Cameroon (Ngaoundéré).,"Head-body 161-191 mm (males) and 162-191 mm (females), tail 16-23 mm (males) and 17-25 mm (females). No specific data are available for body weight. The Nigerian Mole-rat is medium-sized, with white markings on its body and a head patch; its pelage is brown,soft, and fine. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 66 or 70, FN = 126 or 134.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust.,Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Maree & Faulkes (2008c) | Rosevear (1969) | Williams et al. (1983) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6584710/files/figure.png,"7.Nigerian Mole-ratFukomys foxiFrench:Bathyergue du Nigeria/ German:Nigeria-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo de NigeriaOther common names:Fox's Mole-rat, Nigerian Mole RatTaxonomy.Georychus fox: Thomas, 1911, Panyam, Jos Plateau, 4000’ [1212 m], Nigeria.This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Nigeria (Jos Plateau) and C Cameroon (Ngaoundéré).Descriptive notes.Head-body 161-191 mm (males) and 162-191 mm (females), tail 16-23 mm (males) and 17-25 mm (females). No specific data are available for body weight. The Nigerian Mole-rat is medium-sized, with white markings on its body and a head patch; its pelage is brown,soft, and fine. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 66 or 70, FN = 126 or 134.Habitat.There is no information available for this species.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Maree & Faulkes (2008c), Rosevear (1969), Williams et al. (1983), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -038F4B5AFFA7FFD0ADFEFBA8BCE4CFD8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,368,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD0ADFEFBA8BCE4CFD8.xml,Cryptomys hottentotus,Cryptomys,hottentotus,,,Bathyergue hottentot @fr | Hottentotten-Graumull @de | Ratatopo comun @es | African Mole-rat @en | Common Blesmol @en | Hottentot Mole-rat @en | Southern African Mole-rat @en,"of C. hottentotushas changed based on recent molecular phylogenetic and chromosomal studies. As a result, the formerly considered subspecies amatus and whyte: are now recognized as distinct species of Fukomys. Four subspecies are recognized.","C.h.hottentotusLesson,1826—W&SSouthAfrica(Northern,Western,EasternCape,andFreeStateprovinces).C.h.natalensisRoberts,1913—SMozambiqueandESouthAfrica(MpumalangaandKwaZulu-Natal).C.h.nimrodideWinton,1897—SZimbabwe,extremeEBotswana,andextremeNSouthAfrica(NLimpopoProvince).C. h. pretoriae Roberts, 1913— N South Africa (S Limpopo, E North West, Gauteng, and Mpumalanga provinces).","Head-body 105-185 mm (males) and 100-164 (females), tail 8-27 mm (males) and 10-25 mm (females); weight 112-145 g (males, averaging 134 g) and 98-153 g (females, averaging 119 g). The Common Mole-rat is medium-sized. Dorsal pelage is dark gray to brown; head sometimes has white patch. Limbs and tail are short; feet and tail are fringed with vibrissae. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 106 for the nominate subspecies and FN = 104 for natalensus.","Mesic and semiarid regions with annual rainfall of 200-1000 mm. It occurs in a wide range of substrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane (Colophospermummopane, Fabaceae) woodland.","The Common Mole-rat is herbivorous, and 92% of diet of the nominate subspecies hottentotus consists of geophytes. It stores food and apparently forages randomly; it does not drink standing water.","Breeding of the Common Mole-rat occurs in October—January for the nominate subspecies and April-December for pretoriae. Ovulation is induced by copulation; gestation is 59-66 days; and litter size averages three young (range 1-6). Colonies contain single breeding females, a subset of breeding males, and non-reproductive individuals. Breeding system is not totally monogamous because genetic evidence indicates that offspring are not always from a single breeding pair.",The Common Mole-rat follows the circadian rhythm.,"Dispersal of Common Mole-rats occurs in the wet season, with rate of dispersal constrained by aridity and access to food. Burrow networks are 150-510 m long, and home range averages 0-16 ha. Colonies contain members of a family group and immigrants. Colony sizes are 2-14 individuals for the nominate subspecies, up to ten individuals for pretoriae, and 8-15 individuals for nimrodi. Nevertheless, the Common Mole-rat is less social than species of Fukomys.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bennett (1989, 2013b) | Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Bennett, Cotterill & Spinks (1996) | Bishop, Jarvis et al. (2004) | Bishop, O'Ryan & Jarvis (2007) | Davies & Jarvis (1986) | Hart et al. (2004) | Jackson & Bennett (2005) | Malherbe et al. (2003) | Maree & Faulkes (2008a) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Moolman et al. (1998) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Oosthuizen et al. (2008) | van Rensburg et al. (2002) | Robb et al. (2012) | Spinks (1998) | Spinks, Bennett & Jarvis (2000) | Spinks, Branch et al. (1999) | Spinks, Jarvis & Bennett (2000) | Spinks, Van der Horst & Bennett (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"5.Common Mole-ratCryptomys hottentotusFrench:Bathyergue hottentot/ German:Hottentotten-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo comunOther common names:African Mole-rat, Common Blesmol, Hottentot Mole-rat, Southern African Mole-ratTaxonomy.Bathyergus hottentotus Lesson, 1826, near Paarl (east of Cape Town), Western Cape Province, South Africa.Taxonomy of C. hottentotushas changed based on recent molecular phylogenetic and chromosomal studies. As a result, the formerly considered subspecies amatus and whyte: are now recognized as distinct species of Fukomys. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.h.hottentotusLesson,1826—W&SSouthAfrica(Northern,Western,EasternCape,andFreeStateprovinces).C.h.natalensisRoberts,1913—SMozambiqueandESouthAfrica(MpumalangaandKwaZulu-Natal).C.h.nimrodideWinton,1897—SZimbabwe,extremeEBotswana,andextremeNSouthAfrica(NLimpopoProvince).C. h. pretoriae Roberts, 1913— N South Africa (S Limpopo, E North West, Gauteng, and Mpumalanga provinces).Descriptive notes.Head-body 105-185 mm (males) and 100-164 (females), tail 8-27 mm (males) and 10-25 mm (females); weight 112-145 g (males, averaging 134 g) and 98-153 g (females, averaging 119 g). The Common Mole-rat is medium-sized. Dorsal pelage is dark gray to brown; head sometimes has white patch. Limbs and tail are short; feet and tail are fringed with vibrissae. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 106 for the nominate subspecies and FN = 104 for natalensus.Habitat.Mesic and semiarid regions with annual rainfall of 200-1000 mm. It occurs in a wide range of substrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane (Colophospermummopane, Fabaceae) woodland.Food and Feeding.The Common Mole-rat is herbivorous, and 92% of diet of the nominate subspecies hottentotus consists of geophytes. It stores food and apparently forages randomly; it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Common Mole-rat occurs in October—January for the nominate subspecies and April-December for pretoriae. Ovulation is induced by copulation; gestation is 59-66 days; and litter size averages three young (range 1-6). Colonies contain single breeding females, a subset of breeding males, and non-reproductive individuals. Breeding system is not totally monogamous because genetic evidence indicates that offspring are not always from a single breeding pair.Activity patterns.The Common Mole-rat follows the circadian rhythm.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dispersal of Common Mole-rats occurs in the wet season, with rate of dispersal constrained by aridity and access to food. Burrow networks are 150-510 m long, and home range averages 0-16 ha. Colonies contain members of a family group and immigrants. Colony sizes are 2-14 individuals for the nominate subspecies, up to ten individuals for pretoriae, and 8-15 individuals for nimrodi. Nevertheless, the Common Mole-rat is less social than species of Fukomys.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett (1989, 2013b), Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Bennett, Cotterill & Spinks (1996), Bishop, Jarvis et al. (2004), Bishop, O'Ryan & Jarvis (2007), Davies & Jarvis (1986), Hart et al. (2004), Jackson & Bennett (2005), Malherbe et al. (2003), Maree & Faulkes (2008a), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem et al. (2015), Moolman et al. (1998), Nevo et al. (1986), Oosthuizen et al. (2008), van Rensburg et al. (2002), Robb et al. (2012), Spinks (1998), Spinks, Bennett & Jarvis (2000), Spinks, Branch et al. (1999), Spinks, Jarvis & Bennett (2000), Spinks, Van der Horst & Bennett (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +038F4B5AFFA7FFD0ADFEFBA8BCE4CFD8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,368,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD0ADFEFBA8BCE4CFD8.xml,Cryptomys hottentotus,Cryptomys,hottentotus,,,Bathyergue hottentot @fr | Hottentotten-Graumull @de | Ratatopo comun @es | African Mole-rat @en | Common Blesmol @en | Hottentot Mole-rat @en | Southern African Mole-rat @en,"of C. hottentotushas changed based on recent molecular phylogenetic and chromosomal studies. As a result, the formerly considered subspecies amatus and whyte: are now recognized as distinct species of Fukomys. Four subspecies are recognized.","C.h.hottentotusLesson,1826—W&SSouthAfrica(Northern,Western,EasternCape,andFreeStateprovinces).C.h.natalensisRoberts,1913—SMozambiqueandESouthAfrica(MpumalangaandKwaZulu-Natal).C.h.nimrodideWinton,1897—SZimbabwe,extremeEBotswana,andextremeNSouthAfrica(NLimpopoProvince).C. h. pretoriae Roberts, 1913— N South Africa (S Limpopo, E North West, Gauteng, and Mpumalanga provinces).","Head-body 105-185 mm (males) and 100-164 (females), tail 8-27 mm (males) and 10-25 mm (females); weight 112-145 g (males, averaging 134 g) and 98-153 g (females, averaging 119 g). The Common Mole-rat is medium-sized. Dorsal pelage is dark gray to brown; head sometimes has white patch. Limbs and tail are short; feet and tail are fringed with vibrissae. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 106 for the nominate subspecies and FN = 104 for natalensus.","Mesic and semiarid regions with annual rainfall of 200-1000 mm. It occurs in a wide range of substrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane (Colophospermummopane, Fabaceae) woodland.","The Common Mole-rat is herbivorous, and 92% of diet of the nominate subspecies hottentotus consists of geophytes. It stores food and apparently forages randomly; it does not drink standing water.","Breeding of the Common Mole-rat occurs in October—January for the nominate subspecies and April-December for pretoriae. Ovulation is induced by copulation; gestation is 59-66 days; and litter size averages three young (range 1-6). Colonies contain single breeding females, a subset of breeding males, and non-reproductive individuals. Breeding system is not totally monogamous because genetic evidence indicates that offspring are not always from a single breeding pair.",The Common Mole-rat follows the circadian rhythm.,"Dispersal of Common Mole-rats occurs in the wet season, with rate of dispersal constrained by aridity and access to food. Burrow networks are 150-510 m long, and home range averages 0-16 ha. Colonies contain members of a family group and immigrants. Colony sizes are 2-14 individuals for the nominate subspecies, up to ten individuals for pretoriae, and 8-15 individuals for nimrodi. Nevertheless, the Common Mole-rat is less social than species of Fukomys.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bennett (1989, 2013b) | Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Bennett, Cotterill & Spinks (1996) | Bishop, Jarvis et al. (2004) | Bishop, O'Ryan & Jarvis (2007) | Davies & Jarvis (1986) | Hart et al. (2004) | Jackson & Bennett (2005) | Malherbe et al. (2003) | Maree & Faulkes (2008a) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Moolman et al. (1998) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Oosthuizen et al. (2008) | van Rensburg et al. (2002) | Robb et al. (2012) | Spinks (1998) | Spinks, Bennett & Jarvis (2000) | Spinks, Branch et al. (1999) | Spinks, Jarvis & Bennett (2000) | Spinks, Van der Horst & Bennett (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584706/files/figure.png,"5.Common Mole-ratCryptomys hottentotusFrench:Bathyergue hottentot/ German:Hottentotten-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo comunOther common names:African Mole-rat, Common Blesmol, Hottentot Mole-rat, Southern African Mole-ratTaxonomy.Bathyergus hottentotus Lesson, 1826, near Paarl (east of Cape Town), Western Cape Province, South Africa.Taxonomy of C. hottentotushas changed based on recent molecular phylogenetic and chromosomal studies. As a result, the formerly considered subspecies amatus and whyte: are now recognized as distinct species of Fukomys. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.h.hottentotusLesson,1826—W&SSouthAfrica(Northern,Western,EasternCape,andFreeStateprovinces).C.h.natalensisRoberts,1913—SMozambiqueandESouthAfrica(MpumalangaandKwaZulu-Natal).C.h.nimrodideWinton,1897—SZimbabwe,extremeEBotswana,andextremeNSouthAfrica(NLimpopoProvince).C. h. pretoriae Roberts, 1913— N South Africa (S Limpopo, E North West, Gauteng, and Mpumalanga provinces).Descriptive notes.Head-body 105-185 mm (males) and 100-164 (females), tail 8-27 mm (males) and 10-25 mm (females); weight 112-145 g (males, averaging 134 g) and 98-153 g (females, averaging 119 g). The Common Mole-rat is medium-sized. Dorsal pelage is dark gray to brown; head sometimes has white patch. Limbs and tail are short; feet and tail are fringed with vibrissae. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 106 for the nominate subspecies and FN = 104 for natalensus.Habitat.Mesic and semiarid regions with annual rainfall of 200-1000 mm. It occurs in a wide range of substrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane (Colophospermummopane, Fabaceae) woodland.Food and Feeding.The Common Mole-rat is herbivorous, and 92% of diet of the nominate subspecies hottentotus consists of geophytes. It stores food and apparently forages randomly; it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Common Mole-rat occurs in October—January for the nominate subspecies and April-December for pretoriae. Ovulation is induced by copulation; gestation is 59-66 days; and litter size averages three young (range 1-6). Colonies contain single breeding females, a subset of breeding males, and non-reproductive individuals. Breeding system is not totally monogamous because genetic evidence indicates that offspring are not always from a single breeding pair.Activity patterns.The Common Mole-rat follows the circadian rhythm.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dispersal of Common Mole-rats occurs in the wet season, with rate of dispersal constrained by aridity and access to food. Burrow networks are 150-510 m long, and home range averages 0-16 ha. Colonies contain members of a family group and immigrants. Colony sizes are 2-14 individuals for the nominate subspecies, up to ten individuals for pretoriae, and 8-15 individuals for nimrodi. Nevertheless, the Common Mole-rat is less social than species of Fukomys.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett (1989, 2013b), Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Bennett, Cotterill & Spinks (1996), Bishop, Jarvis et al. (2004), Bishop, O'Ryan & Jarvis (2007), Davies & Jarvis (1986), Hart et al. (2004), Jackson & Bennett (2005), Malherbe et al. (2003), Maree & Faulkes (2008a), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem et al. (2015), Moolman et al. (1998), Nevo et al. (1986), Oosthuizen et al. (2008), van Rensburg et al. (2002), Robb et al. (2012), Spinks (1998), Spinks, Bennett & Jarvis (2000), Spinks, Branch et al. (1999), Spinks, Jarvis & Bennett (2000), Spinks, Van der Horst & Bennett (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 038F4B5AFFA7FFD7A8FBF51EBE73C0A6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256,368,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD7A8FBF51EBE73C0A6.xml,Fukomys ochraceocinereus,Fukomys,ochraceocinereus,,,Bathyergue ocre @fr | Zentralafrika-Graumull @de | Ratatopo ocre @es | Central African Mole-rat @en | Ochre Mole Rat @en,"Georychus ochraceo-cinereus Heuglin, 1864,Upper Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.This species is monotypic.","Central African Republic, N DR Congo, South Sudan, and NW Uganda; presence in E Cameroon and NW Kenya is possible.","Head-body 157-200 mm, tail 14-27 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ochre Mole-rat is medium-sized. Its dorsal and ventral pelage is brown; head has white patch, with lightly colored areas around eyes. Vibrissae occur on feet and tail. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 44, FN = 76.",Woodland savanna and agricultural land.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although the Ochre Mole-rat is widespread, populations appear to be very localized, and given the lack of basic ecological and demographic insight, its conservation status is largely unknown. It probably occurs in protected areas such as Garamba National Park in north-eastern DR Congo.",Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Maree & Faulkes (2008e) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6584712/files/figure.png,"8.Ochre Mole-ratFukomys ochraceocinereusFrench:Bathyergue ocre/ German:Zentralafrika-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo ocreOther common names:Central African Mole-rat, Ochre Mole RatTaxonomy.Georychus ochraceo-cinereus Heuglin, 1864,Upper Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Central African Republic, N DR Congo, South Sudan, and NW Uganda; presence in E Cameroon and NW Kenya is possible.Descriptive notes.Head-body 157-200 mm, tail 14-27 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ochre Mole-rat is medium-sized. Its dorsal and ventral pelage is brown; head has white patch, with lightly colored areas around eyes. Vibrissae occur on feet and tail. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 44, FN = 76.Habitat.Woodland savanna and agricultural land.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although the Ochre Mole-rat is widespread, populations appear to be very localized, and given the lack of basic ecological and demographic insight, its conservation status is largely unknown. It probably occurs in protected areas such as Garamba National Park in north-eastern DR Congo.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Maree & Faulkes (2008e), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,635,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87.xml,Melogale personata,Melogale,personata,Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,1831,Mélogaleindien @fr | Burma-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro birmano @es | Burmese Ferret-badger @en,"Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831, Southern Burma.Three subspecies are recognized.","M. p. personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831— NE Indiato S Myanmarand Thailand.M. p. nipalensis Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.M. p. pierrei Bonhote, 1903— Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam.","Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 15-21 cm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The tail is over half the head and body length. The Large-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage is coarse, thick and short, and varies from fawn brown to dark brown. The sides of the body are heavily frosted white, contrasting slightly with the darker back. The white stripe on the back of the neck extends at least to the middle of the back, and often as far as the base of the tail. The head has a distinct pattern of black (or dark brown) and white patches, which varies among individuals. The bushy tail is pale and usually white on the distal half. The sagittal crest on the skull is large and low. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are larger than Small-toothed Ferret-badger, especially P*. In the upper jaw: P* length over 8 mm; P' is significantly smaller than P=.On following pages: 21. Lesser Grison (Galictis cuja); 22. Greater Grison (Galictis vittata), 23. Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna); 24. Saharan Striped Polecat (/ctonyx libycus); 25. Zorilla (Ictonyx striatus); 26. African Striped Weasel (Poecilogalealbinucha).","Reported to live in forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas.","The diet is said to include insects, earthworms, snails, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents, small birds), fruit, nuts, and eggs.","Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.",Reported to be nocturnal. Rests in underground burrows or under rocks during the day.,"Believed to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.","Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries.","Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",,"20.Large-toothed Ferret-badgerMelogale personataFrench:Mélogaleindien/ German:Burma-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro birmanoOther common names:Burmese Ferret-badgerTaxonomy.Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831, Southern Burma.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. p. personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831— NE Indiato S Myanmarand Thailand.M. p. nipalensis Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.M. p. pierrei Bonhote, 1903— Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 15-21 cm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The tail is over half the head and body length. The Large-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage is coarse, thick and short, and varies from fawn brown to dark brown. The sides of the body are heavily frosted white, contrasting slightly with the darker back. The white stripe on the back of the neck extends at least to the middle of the back, and often as far as the base of the tail. The head has a distinct pattern of black (or dark brown) and white patches, which varies among individuals. The bushy tail is pale and usually white on the distal half. The sagittal crest on the skull is large and low. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are larger than Small-toothed Ferret-badger, especially P*. In the upper jaw: P* length over 8 mm; P' is significantly smaller than P=.On following pages: 21. Lesser Grison (Galictis cuja); 22. Greater Grison (Galictis vittata), 23. Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna); 24. Saharan Striped Polecat (/ctonyx libycus); 25. Zorilla (Ictonyx striatus); 26. African Striped Weasel (Poecilogalealbinucha).Habitat.Reported to live in forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include insects, earthworms, snails, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents, small birds), fruit, nuts, and eggs.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal. Rests in underground burrows or under rocks during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Believed to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." -038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,635,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13.xml,Melogale moschata,Melogale,moschata,,,Mélogalede Chine @fr | China-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro chino @es | Chinese Ferret-badger @en,"Helictis moschata Gray, 1831, S China.Six subspecies are recognized.","M. m. moschata Gray, 1831— SE China(Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan& HainanI) and N Laos.M. m. ferreogrisea Hilzheimer, 1905— C China.M. m. millsi Thomas, 1922— S China(NWYunnan) through N Myanmarto NE India.M. m. sorella G. M.. Allen, 1929— E China(Fujian).M. m. subaurantiaca Swinhoe, 1862— Taiwan.M. m. taxilla Thomas, 1925— Vietnam.","Head-body 30-40 cm, tail 10-15 cm; weight 0.8-1.6 kg. The tail is less than half of the head and body length. The Small-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage varies from gray to black, with the darker fur contrasting with the light patches on the neck and head. The head has a distinct blackand-white pattern, generally with more black than the Large-toothed Ferret-badger but this is quite variable. The white stripe on the top of the head is narrow and incomplete and rarely extends past the shoulders. The tail is bushy, pale brown in color, and with a white tip. The limbs are short, and the feet have strong, thick, fairly straight claws. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is long, high, and smooth, with widely separated temporal ridges. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are relatively small, compared to Large-toothed Ferret-badger, with distinct gaps between the premolars. In the upper jaw: labial edge of P* is slightly concave; P* length over 6 mm; P' is slightly smaller than P*. In the lower jaw: M, talonid is without distinct cusps.","Tropical and subtropical forests, wooded hillsides, grasslands, and cultivated areas. Often occurs in close proximity to humans.","The diet is said to include invertebrates (insects, earthworms), small mammals, birds, frogs, lizards, eggs, and fruits. In Taiwan, invertebrates had a relative importance index of 89%. In China, 163 scats contained 33% seeds and at least eight plant species. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers find food mainly by smell and sound and use their digging claws and probing snouts to dig for roots and earthworms.","Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.","Nocturnal and crepuscular. Active year-round, but less active during the winter months. During the spring, both sexes are active outside their burrows for around eight hours; during the winter this decreases to less than six-and-a-half hours. Rest sites are in burrows, rock crevices, or in trees. In south-east China, radio-collared Small-toothed Ferret-badgers used a variety of shelters as daybeds including rodent dens (47%), firewood stacks (20%), open fields (17%), and rock piles around houses (5%). The distance between daily resting sites averaged 101 mand they often (51% of occasions) returned to rest sites used the previous day.","Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but they may climb trees. In south-east China, the size of resting home ranges (daybed locations only) of six radio-collared individuals averaged 11 ha (range 1-25 ha); no sex-specific differences in home range size were detected.Breeding.Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about Small-toothed Ferret-badgers and more field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are hunted for their fur and meat in Chinaand north-east India; in China, their fur is used for collars and jackets.","Allen (1929) | Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Neal (1986) | Storz & Wozencraft (1999) | Wang & Fuller (2003a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Zhou et al. (2008)",,"18.Small-toothed Ferret-badgerMelogale moschataFrench:Mélogalede Chine/ German:China-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro chinoOther common names:Chinese Ferret-badgerTaxonomy.Helictis moschata Gray, 1831, S China.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. moschata Gray, 1831— SE China(Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan& HainanI) and N Laos.M. m. ferreogrisea Hilzheimer, 1905— C China.M. m. millsi Thomas, 1922— S China(NWYunnan) through N Myanmarto NE India.M. m. sorella G. M.. Allen, 1929— E China(Fujian).M. m. subaurantiaca Swinhoe, 1862— Taiwan.M. m. taxilla Thomas, 1925— Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-40 cm, tail 10-15 cm; weight 0.8-1.6 kg. The tail is less than half of the head and body length. The Small-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage varies from gray to black, with the darker fur contrasting with the light patches on the neck and head. The head has a distinct blackand-white pattern, generally with more black than the Large-toothed Ferret-badger but this is quite variable. The white stripe on the top of the head is narrow and incomplete and rarely extends past the shoulders. The tail is bushy, pale brown in color, and with a white tip. The limbs are short, and the feet have strong, thick, fairly straight claws. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is long, high, and smooth, with widely separated temporal ridges. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are relatively small, compared to Large-toothed Ferret-badger, with distinct gaps between the premolars. In the upper jaw: labial edge of P* is slightly concave; P* length over 6 mm; P' is slightly smaller than P*. In the lower jaw: M, talonid is without distinct cusps.Habitat.Tropical and subtropical forests, wooded hillsides, grasslands, and cultivated areas. Often occurs in close proximity to humans.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include invertebrates (insects, earthworms), small mammals, birds, frogs, lizards, eggs, and fruits. In Taiwan, invertebrates had a relative importance index of 89%. In China, 163 scats contained 33% seeds and at least eight plant species. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers find food mainly by smell and sound and use their digging claws and probing snouts to dig for roots and earthworms.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and crepuscular. Active year-round, but less active during the winter months. During the spring, both sexes are active outside their burrows for around eight hours; during the winter this decreases to less than six-and-a-half hours. Rest sites are in burrows, rock crevices, or in trees. In south-east China, radio-collared Small-toothed Ferret-badgers used a variety of shelters as daybeds including rodent dens (47%), firewood stacks (20%), open fields (17%), and rock piles around houses (5%). The distance between daily resting sites averaged 101 mand they often (51% of occasions) returned to rest sites used the previous day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but they may climb trees. In south-east China, the size of resting home ranges (daybed locations only) of six radio-collared individuals averaged 11 ha (range 1-25 ha); no sex-specific differences in home range size were detected.Breeding.Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about Small-toothed Ferret-badgers and more field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are hunted for their fur and meat in Chinaand north-east India; in China, their fur is used for collars and jackets.Bibliography.Allen (1929), Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Neal (1986), Storz & Wozencraft (1999), Wang & Fuller (2003a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Zhou et al. (2008)." +038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,635,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87.xml,Melogale personata,Melogale,personata,Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,1831,Mélogaleindien @fr | Burma-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro birmano @es | Burmese Ferret-badger @en,"Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831, Southern Burma.Three subspecies are recognized.","M. p. personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831— NE Indiato S Myanmarand Thailand.M. p. nipalensis Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.M. p. pierrei Bonhote, 1903— Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam.","Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 15-21 cm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The tail is over half the head and body length. The Large-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage is coarse, thick and short, and varies from fawn brown to dark brown. The sides of the body are heavily frosted white, contrasting slightly with the darker back. The white stripe on the back of the neck extends at least to the middle of the back, and often as far as the base of the tail. The head has a distinct pattern of black (or dark brown) and white patches, which varies among individuals. The bushy tail is pale and usually white on the distal half. The sagittal crest on the skull is large and low. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are larger than Small-toothed Ferret-badger, especially P*. In the upper jaw: P* length over 8 mm; P' is significantly smaller than P=.On following pages: 21. Lesser Grison (Galictis cuja); 22. Greater Grison (Galictis vittata), 23. Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna); 24. Saharan Striped Polecat (/ctonyx libycus); 25. Zorilla (Ictonyx striatus); 26. African Striped Weasel (Poecilogalealbinucha).","Reported to live in forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas.","The diet is said to include insects, earthworms, snails, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents, small birds), fruit, nuts, and eggs.","Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.",Reported to be nocturnal. Rests in underground burrows or under rocks during the day.,"Believed to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.","Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries.","Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714185/files/figure.png,"20.Large-toothed Ferret-badgerMelogale personataFrench:Mélogaleindien/ German:Burma-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro birmanoOther common names:Burmese Ferret-badgerTaxonomy.Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831, Southern Burma.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. p. personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831— NE Indiato S Myanmarand Thailand.M. p. nipalensis Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.M. p. pierrei Bonhote, 1903— Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 15-21 cm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The tail is over half the head and body length. The Large-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage is coarse, thick and short, and varies from fawn brown to dark brown. The sides of the body are heavily frosted white, contrasting slightly with the darker back. The white stripe on the back of the neck extends at least to the middle of the back, and often as far as the base of the tail. The head has a distinct pattern of black (or dark brown) and white patches, which varies among individuals. The bushy tail is pale and usually white on the distal half. The sagittal crest on the skull is large and low. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are larger than Small-toothed Ferret-badger, especially P*. In the upper jaw: P* length over 8 mm; P' is significantly smaller than P=.On following pages: 21. Lesser Grison (Galictis cuja); 22. Greater Grison (Galictis vittata), 23. Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna); 24. Saharan Striped Polecat (/ctonyx libycus); 25. Zorilla (Ictonyx striatus); 26. African Striped Weasel (Poecilogalealbinucha).Habitat.Reported to live in forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include insects, earthworms, snails, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents, small birds), fruit, nuts, and eggs.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal. Rests in underground burrows or under rocks during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Believed to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." +038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,635,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13.xml,Melogale moschata,Melogale,moschata,,,Mélogalede Chine @fr | China-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro chino @es | Chinese Ferret-badger @en,"Helictis moschata Gray, 1831, S China.Six subspecies are recognized.","M. m. moschata Gray, 1831— SE China(Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan& HainanI) and N Laos.M. m. ferreogrisea Hilzheimer, 1905— C China.M. m. millsi Thomas, 1922— S China(NWYunnan) through N Myanmarto NE India.M. m. sorella G. M.. Allen, 1929— E China(Fujian).M. m. subaurantiaca Swinhoe, 1862— Taiwan.M. m. taxilla Thomas, 1925— Vietnam.","Head-body 30-40 cm, tail 10-15 cm; weight 0.8-1.6 kg. The tail is less than half of the head and body length. The Small-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage varies from gray to black, with the darker fur contrasting with the light patches on the neck and head. The head has a distinct blackand-white pattern, generally with more black than the Large-toothed Ferret-badger but this is quite variable. The white stripe on the top of the head is narrow and incomplete and rarely extends past the shoulders. The tail is bushy, pale brown in color, and with a white tip. The limbs are short, and the feet have strong, thick, fairly straight claws. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is long, high, and smooth, with widely separated temporal ridges. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are relatively small, compared to Large-toothed Ferret-badger, with distinct gaps between the premolars. In the upper jaw: labial edge of P* is slightly concave; P* length over 6 mm; P' is slightly smaller than P*. In the lower jaw: M, talonid is without distinct cusps.","Tropical and subtropical forests, wooded hillsides, grasslands, and cultivated areas. Often occurs in close proximity to humans.","The diet is said to include invertebrates (insects, earthworms), small mammals, birds, frogs, lizards, eggs, and fruits. In Taiwan, invertebrates had a relative importance index of 89%. In China, 163 scats contained 33% seeds and at least eight plant species. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers find food mainly by smell and sound and use their digging claws and probing snouts to dig for roots and earthworms.","Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.","Nocturnal and crepuscular. Active year-round, but less active during the winter months. During the spring, both sexes are active outside their burrows for around eight hours; during the winter this decreases to less than six-and-a-half hours. Rest sites are in burrows, rock crevices, or in trees. In south-east China, radio-collared Small-toothed Ferret-badgers used a variety of shelters as daybeds including rodent dens (47%), firewood stacks (20%), open fields (17%), and rock piles around houses (5%). The distance between daily resting sites averaged 101 mand they often (51% of occasions) returned to rest sites used the previous day.","Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but they may climb trees. In south-east China, the size of resting home ranges (daybed locations only) of six radio-collared individuals averaged 11 ha (range 1-25 ha); no sex-specific differences in home range size were detected.Breeding.Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about Small-toothed Ferret-badgers and more field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are hunted for their fur and meat in Chinaand north-east India; in China, their fur is used for collars and jackets.","Allen (1929) | Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Neal (1986) | Storz & Wozencraft (1999) | Wang & Fuller (2003a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Zhou et al. (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714179/files/figure.png,"18.Small-toothed Ferret-badgerMelogale moschataFrench:Mélogalede Chine/ German:China-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro chinoOther common names:Chinese Ferret-badgerTaxonomy.Helictis moschata Gray, 1831, S China.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. moschata Gray, 1831— SE China(Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan& HainanI) and N Laos.M. m. ferreogrisea Hilzheimer, 1905— C China.M. m. millsi Thomas, 1922— S China(NWYunnan) through N Myanmarto NE India.M. m. sorella G. M.. Allen, 1929— E China(Fujian).M. m. subaurantiaca Swinhoe, 1862— Taiwan.M. m. taxilla Thomas, 1925— Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-40 cm, tail 10-15 cm; weight 0.8-1.6 kg. The tail is less than half of the head and body length. The Small-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage varies from gray to black, with the darker fur contrasting with the light patches on the neck and head. The head has a distinct blackand-white pattern, generally with more black than the Large-toothed Ferret-badger but this is quite variable. The white stripe on the top of the head is narrow and incomplete and rarely extends past the shoulders. The tail is bushy, pale brown in color, and with a white tip. The limbs are short, and the feet have strong, thick, fairly straight claws. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is long, high, and smooth, with widely separated temporal ridges. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are relatively small, compared to Large-toothed Ferret-badger, with distinct gaps between the premolars. In the upper jaw: labial edge of P* is slightly concave; P* length over 6 mm; P' is slightly smaller than P*. In the lower jaw: M, talonid is without distinct cusps.Habitat.Tropical and subtropical forests, wooded hillsides, grasslands, and cultivated areas. Often occurs in close proximity to humans.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include invertebrates (insects, earthworms), small mammals, birds, frogs, lizards, eggs, and fruits. In Taiwan, invertebrates had a relative importance index of 89%. In China, 163 scats contained 33% seeds and at least eight plant species. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers find food mainly by smell and sound and use their digging claws and probing snouts to dig for roots and earthworms.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and crepuscular. Active year-round, but less active during the winter months. During the spring, both sexes are active outside their burrows for around eight hours; during the winter this decreases to less than six-and-a-half hours. Rest sites are in burrows, rock crevices, or in trees. In south-east China, radio-collared Small-toothed Ferret-badgers used a variety of shelters as daybeds including rodent dens (47%), firewood stacks (20%), open fields (17%), and rock piles around houses (5%). The distance between daily resting sites averaged 101 mand they often (51% of occasions) returned to rest sites used the previous day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but they may climb trees. In south-east China, the size of resting home ranges (daybed locations only) of six radio-collared individuals averaged 11 ha (range 1-25 ha); no sex-specific differences in home range size were detected.Breeding.Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about Small-toothed Ferret-badgers and more field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are hunted for their fur and meat in Chinaand north-east India; in China, their fur is used for collars and jackets.Bibliography.Allen (1929), Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Neal (1986), Storz & Wozencraft (1999), Wang & Fuller (2003a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Zhou et al. (2008)." 038F87D4CA40FFAFCAFF3DF5FD3BF96E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,635,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCAFF3DF5FD3BF96E.xml,Melogale everetti,Melogale,everetti,,,Mélogale d'Everett @fr | Borneo-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro de Borneo @es,"Helictis everetti Thomas, 1895, Borneo.Some authors consider M. everetiiand/or orientalisas conspecific with M. personata. Monotypic.",N Borneo.,"Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight 1-2 kg. The Bornean Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The dorsal pelage is dark brown throughout, including the tail. The undersides are rn The head is black with a facial mask that consists of white or yellow patches, which are variable in size and shape. The claws on the forefeet are well- developed for digging. The skull and teeth are small.","Forests and grasslands, from 900 to 3000 m.","The diet is said to include insects and other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and fruits.",A litter of three is said to be common.,Reported to be nocturnal. Rest sites are in holes or rock crevices.,"Appears to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also reported to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.A litter of three is said to be common.","Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. The only recorded sightings of Bornean Ferret-badgers have occurred on the Kinabalu massif, near and within the National Park. There is no information on its susceptibility to habitat change or what hunting levels occur in its range. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Dinets (2003) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Payne et al. (1985) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714175/files/figure.png,"17.Bornean Ferret-badgerMelogale everettiFrench:Mélogale d'Everett/ German:Borneo-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro de BorneoTaxonomy.Helictis everetti Thomas, 1895, Borneo.Some authors consider M. everetiiand/or orientalisas conspecific with M. personata. Monotypic.Distribution.N Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight 1-2 kg. The Bornean Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The dorsal pelage is dark brown throughout, including the tail. The undersides are rn The head is black with a facial mask that consists of white or yellow patches, which are variable in size and shape. The claws on the forefeet are well- developed for digging. The skull and teeth are small.Habitat.Forests and grasslands, from 900 to 3000 m.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include insects and other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and fruits.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal. Rest sites are in holes or rock crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Appears to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also reported to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.A litter of three is said to be common.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. The only recorded sightings of Bornean Ferret-badgers have occurred on the Kinabalu massif, near and within the National Park. There is no information on its susceptibility to habitat change or what hunting levels occur in its range. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Dinets (2003), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Payne et al. (1985), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,635,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE.xml,Melogale orientalis,Melogale,orientalis,,,Mélogalede Java @fr | Java-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro javanés @es,"Gulo orientalis Horsfield, 1821, JavaThe Javan Ferret-badger was previously considered a subspecies of the Large-toothed Ferret-badger. Two subspecies are recognized.","M M..o. orientalis Horsfield Horsfield,, 182 1821- E Javaand o. Bali.M. o. sundaicus Sody, 1937— W Java.","Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight about 2 kg. The Javan Ferret-badger has a small, slender body, and a long snout. The pelage is dark brown, with paler undersides. The head is black with a facial mask consisting of white or yellow patches. The skull is small.",Forests and grasslands.,Said to be omnivorous.,Littersize is said to vary from one to three.,Reported to be nocturnal.,"Terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Littersize is said to vary from one to three.","Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Recorded recently in Central Java(perhaps Dieng Plateau), Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, and Gunung Gede. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeeley (1991) | Long (1992) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Pocock (1941a) | Riffel (1991) | Wozencraft (2005),,"19.Javan Ferret-badgerMelogale orientalisFrench:Mélogalede Java/ German:Java-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro javanésTaxonomy.Gulo orientalis Horsfield, 1821, JavaThe Javan Ferret-badger was previously considered a subspecies of the Large-toothed Ferret-badger. Two subspecies are recognized.Subpecies and Distribution.M M..o. orientalis Horsfield Horsfield,, 182 1821- E Javaand o. Bali.M. o. sundaicus Sody, 1937— W Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight about 2 kg. The Javan Ferret-badger has a small, slender body, and a long snout. The pelage is dark brown, with paler undersides. The head is black with a facial mask consisting of white or yellow patches. The skull is small.Habitat.Forests and grasslands.Food and Feeding.Said to be omnivorous.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Littersize is said to vary from one to three.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Recorded recently in Central Java(perhaps Dieng Plateau), Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, and Gunung Gede. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeeley (1991), Long (1992), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Riffel (1991), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,636,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0.xml,Galictis vittata,Galictis,vittata,Schreber,1776,Grand Grison @fr | Grofser Grison @de | Grison @es,"Viverra vittata Schreber, 1776, Surinam.Four subspecies are recognized.","G. v. vittata Schreber, 1776— the Guianas and Venezuela.G. v. andina Thomas, 1903— Boliviaand Peru.G. v. brasiliensis Thunberg, 1820— Brazil.G. v. canaster Nelson, 1901— Mexicoto Colombiaand Ecuador.","Head-body 47.5-55 cm, tail 16 cm; weight 1.4-3.3 kg. The Greater Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is smoky gray on the upper sides; the face, throat, undersides, and all four limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The skull is strong and massive. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3.","Greater Grisons are found in virgin and secondary low-elevation rainforests, lower montane forests, upland monte alto forests, tropical dry forests, closed deciduous forests, cerrado, yungas woodlands, shrub woodlands, chaco, palm savannah, secondary growth, open fields, plantations, and partially flooded rice fields adjacent to ranches. They are often found near rivers, streams, and wetlands, from sea level to 1500 melevation, but mostly below 500 m.However, on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains in Boliviathey range up to 2000 m. A radio-collared female spent 27-8% of her time in open habitats (69-2% of her prey came from there); the remaining 72-2% was spent in closed woodlands and forests (where she obtained 27-8% of her prey).","The diet includes small mammals, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In Venezuela, seven stomachs contained remains of diurnal rodents (Sigmodon alstoni), a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), a dove (Zenaida auriculata), and an eel-like fish. Two other stomachs contained an opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), an unidentified rodent, a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), and an amphibian (Colestethus auriculata). In Para, Brazil, a Greater Grison was observed carrying a large toad (Bufo marinus) in its mouth, apparently unaffected by the toad’s toxic skin glands. In Panama, a Greater Grison was seen pursuing an Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) at 08:15 h; another Agouti was attacked in a river at midday. In Peru, a Greater Grison was observed eating a piranha-like characin fish. In north-eastern Brazil, Greater Grisons are major predators of Rock Cavies or Mocos (Kerodon rupestris), which they attack in their burrows. The stomachs of two malesand two femalescontained Moco remains and another species of cavy (Galea spixii). Greater Grisons hunt alone, in pairs, or in small family groups. An adult female was seen travelling in association with a nearly grown male and a three-fourths grown female.","Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.","Primarily diurnal, but occasionally active at night. A captive male from Ecuadorwas nearly 100% diurnal, with a rest period of several hours at midday. Three captive Greater Grisons in Panamawere very active in the early morning and late afternoon and rested for four to five hours around midday. Greater Grisons forage during the day at Cocha Cashu, Peru. However, in Venezuela, a radio-collared individual was active for 10-12 h per day, mostly at night (77-1% of the time); all sightings were in the daytime (06:00-11:25 h). Rest sites are undertree roots or in hollow logs, underground burrows, or rock cavities.","Primarily terrestrial, but also excellent swimmers and able to climb trees. In Venezuela, two individuals were observed climbing into a tree, and on another occasion, a female and a young climbed 2 minto a palm tree, while an adult male waited below looking upward. The two grisons scratched around in the tree, knocking down wood and debris, which were examined by the male. Greater Grisons are mostly solitary, but occasionally travel in pairs or small groups. One female in Venezuelahad a home range of 4- 2 km* She traveled 1 km(straight line) between consecutive daily restsites and moved 2-3 kmper 24-h period. Population densities have been estimated at 1-2-4 individuals/km?, but radio-tracking data suggests much lower densities.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Greater Grisons are considered endangered in some parts of their range, such as Mexicoand Costa Rica. In Venezuela, they are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. Greater Grisons occur in medium (860 ha) and large (36,000 ha) fragments in Brazilian Atlantic forests, but are absent from small (60-80 ha) patches of forest. Their fur has no commercial value, but skins and live animals are sold as decorations or pets.",\Wozencraft (2005) | Yensen & Tarifa (2003a),,"22.Greater GrisonGalictis vittataFrench:Grand Grison/ German:Grofser Grison/ Spanish:GrisonTaxonomy.Viverra vittata Schreber, 1776, Surinam.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. v. vittata Schreber, 1776— the Guianas and Venezuela.G. v. andina Thomas, 1903— Boliviaand Peru.G. v. brasiliensis Thunberg, 1820— Brazil.G. v. canaster Nelson, 1901— Mexicoto Colombiaand Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47.5-55 cm, tail 16 cm; weight 1.4-3.3 kg. The Greater Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is smoky gray on the upper sides; the face, throat, undersides, and all four limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The skull is strong and massive. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3.M1/2=34Habitat.Greater Grisons are found in virgin and secondary low-elevation rainforests, lower montane forests, upland monte alto forests, tropical dry forests, closed deciduous forests, cerrado, yungas woodlands, shrub woodlands, chaco, palm savannah, secondary growth, open fields, plantations, and partially flooded rice fields adjacent to ranches. They are often found near rivers, streams, and wetlands, from sea level to 1500 melevation, but mostly below 500 m.However, on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains in Boliviathey range up to 2000 m. A radio-collared female spent 27-8% of her time in open habitats (69-2% of her prey came from there); the remaining 72-2% was spent in closed woodlands and forests (where she obtained 27-8% of her prey).Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In Venezuela, seven stomachs contained remains of diurnal rodents (Sigmodon alstoni), a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), a dove (Zenaida auriculata), and an eel-like fish. Two other stomachs contained an opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), an unidentified rodent, a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), and an amphibian (Colestethus auriculata). In Para, Brazil, a Greater Grison was observed carrying a large toad (Bufo marinus) in its mouth, apparently unaffected by the toad’s toxic skin glands. In Panama, a Greater Grison was seen pursuing an Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) at 08:15 h; another Agouti was attacked in a river at midday. In Peru, a Greater Grison was observed eating a piranha-like characin fish. In north-eastern Brazil, Greater Grisons are major predators of Rock Cavies or Mocos (Kerodon rupestris), which they attack in their burrows. The stomachs of two malesand two femalescontained Moco remains and another species of cavy (Galea spixii). Greater Grisons hunt alone, in pairs, or in small family groups. An adult female was seen travelling in association with a nearly grown male and a three-fourths grown female.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal, but occasionally active at night. A captive male from Ecuadorwas nearly 100% diurnal, with a rest period of several hours at midday. Three captive Greater Grisons in Panamawere very active in the early morning and late afternoon and rested for four to five hours around midday. Greater Grisons forage during the day at Cocha Cashu, Peru. However, in Venezuela, a radio-collared individual was active for 10-12 h per day, mostly at night (77-1% of the time); all sightings were in the daytime (06:00-11:25 h). Rest sites are undertree roots or in hollow logs, underground burrows, or rock cavities.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Primarily terrestrial, but also excellent swimmers and able to climb trees. In Venezuela, two individuals were observed climbing into a tree, and on another occasion, a female and a young climbed 2 minto a palm tree, while an adult male waited below looking upward. The two grisons scratched around in the tree, knocking down wood and debris, which were examined by the male. Greater Grisons are mostly solitary, but occasionally travel in pairs or small groups. One female in Venezuelahad a home range of 4- 2 km* She traveled 1 km(straight line) between consecutive daily restsites and moved 2-3 kmper 24-h period. Population densities have been estimated at 1-2-4 individuals/km?, but radio-tracking data suggests much lower densities.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Greater Grisons are considered endangered in some parts of their range, such as Mexicoand Costa Rica. In Venezuela, they are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. Greater Grisons occur in medium (860 ha) and large (36,000 ha) fragments in Brazilian Atlantic forests, but are absent from small (60-80 ha) patches of forest. Their fur has no commercial value, but skins and live animals are sold as decorations or pets.Bibliography.\Wozencraft (2005), Yensen & Tarifa (2003a)." -038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,636,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51.xml,Galictis cuja,Galictis,cuja,,,Petit Grison @fr | Kleingrison @de | Grison chico @es,"Mustela cuja Molina, 1782, Chile.Four subspecies are recognized.","G. c. cuja Molina, 1782— W Argentinaand Chile.G. c. furax Thomas, 1907— NE Argentina, C & E Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.G. c. huronax Thomas, 1921— C and S Argentina.G. c. luteola Thomas, 1907— W Boliviaand SE Peru.","Head-body 28-508 cm, tail 12-19.3 cm; weight 1.2-5 kg. The Lesser Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-gray to brown; the face, throat, upper chest, and limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The claws are strong and curved.","Lesser Grisons are found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to 4200 m, including seashore, arid scrub, chaco desert, Gran Chaco, Chiquitano woodland, open thorn woodland, cerrado, caatinga, savannah, steppes, evergreen shrublands, semideciduous lower montane forest, brushy areas below the timberline, Tucuman-Bolivian woodlands, wet forest, Brazilian Atlantic forest, high Andean shrublands, Polylepis woodlands, puna grasslands, marshes, high elevation wet meadows “bofedales”, Equisetum-dominated scrub, overgrazed pastures, and agricultural areas of the Pampas. Most localities in Boliviaare between 2000 and 4200 m. Lesser Grisons frequently occur near water.","The diet includes small mammals (especially rodents and lagomorphs), birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In central Chile, the diet was found to consist of 352% rodents, 26-5% introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 20-7% unidentified mammals, 14-7% reptiles (Liolaemus chiliensis and Philodryas chamissonis), and 2-9% unidentified passeriform birds. Average prey weight was 350 g. In Patagonia, Argentina, the diet is 46-:3% rodents, 18-9% lagomorphs, 17-9% lizards, and 16-8% birds; as lagomorph density increases,its percentage in the diet increases up to 96-8%. In coastal south-eastern Argentine, mammals, including rodents (79-1%, at least eight species) and European Hare Lepus europaeus (20-9%), are the main prey items year-round; birds (7-8%) and invertebrates (5-2%) are also eaten. Lesser Grisons frequently prey on guinea pigs and are capable of running down and killing Dwarf Cavies (Microcavia australis).","Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.","Active mainly during the day, with occasional activity at night. Rest sites are in hollow trees, crevices, boulder piles, burrows of other animals, at the base of Polylepis trees, amongst tree roots and rocks, or in banks adjacent to wet meadows at high elevations. Four or five individuals may occupy a burrow system, which may reach 4 min depth. One burrow system occupied by five individuals in Chilewas on a slope among rocks and roots of a Guevina avellana tree in Nothofagus obliqua woods; leaves of Greiga obscured the entrances.","Mostly solitary, although pairs or small groups are occasionally seen.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Lesser Grisonsare generally considered not to be threatened, butfield studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Wozencraft (2005) | Yensen & Tarifa (2003b) | Zapata et al. (2005),,"21.Lesser GrisonGalictis cujaFrench:Petit Grison/ German:Kleingrison/ Spanish:Grison chicoTaxonomy.Mustela cuja Molina, 1782, Chile.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. c. cuja Molina, 1782— W Argentinaand Chile.G. c. furax Thomas, 1907— NE Argentina, C & E Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.G. c. huronax Thomas, 1921— C and S Argentina.G. c. luteola Thomas, 1907— W Boliviaand SE Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-508 cm, tail 12-19.3 cm; weight 1.2-5 kg. The Lesser Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-gray to brown; the face, throat, upper chest, and limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The claws are strong and curved. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=234Habitat.Lesser Grisons are found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to 4200 m, including seashore, arid scrub, chaco desert, Gran Chaco, Chiquitano woodland, open thorn woodland, cerrado, caatinga, savannah, steppes, evergreen shrublands, semideciduous lower montane forest, brushy areas below the timberline, Tucuman-Bolivian woodlands, wet forest, Brazilian Atlantic forest, high Andean shrublands, Polylepis woodlands, puna grasslands, marshes, high elevation wet meadows “bofedales”, Equisetum-dominated scrub, overgrazed pastures, and agricultural areas of the Pampas. Most localities in Boliviaare between 2000 and 4200 m. Lesser Grisons frequently occur near water.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (especially rodents and lagomorphs), birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In central Chile, the diet was found to consist of 352% rodents, 26-5% introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 20-7% unidentified mammals, 14-7% reptiles (Liolaemus chiliensis and Philodryas chamissonis), and 2-9% unidentified passeriform birds. Average prey weight was 350 g. In Patagonia, Argentina, the diet is 46-:3% rodents, 18-9% lagomorphs, 17-9% lizards, and 16-8% birds; as lagomorph density increases,its percentage in the diet increases up to 96-8%. In coastal south-eastern Argentine, mammals, including rodents (79-1%, at least eight species) and European Hare Lepus europaeus (20-9%), are the main prey items year-round; birds (7-8%) and invertebrates (5-2%) are also eaten. Lesser Grisons frequently prey on guinea pigs and are capable of running down and killing Dwarf Cavies (Microcavia australis).Activity patterns.Active mainly during the day, with occasional activity at night. Rest sites are in hollow trees, crevices, boulder piles, burrows of other animals, at the base of Polylepis trees, amongst tree roots and rocks, or in banks adjacent to wet meadows at high elevations. Four or five individuals may occupy a burrow system, which may reach 4 min depth. One burrow system occupied by five individuals in Chilewas on a slope among rocks and roots of a Guevina avellana tree in Nothofagus obliqua woods; leaves of Greiga obscured the entrances.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mostly solitary, although pairs or small groups are occasionally seen.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Lesser Grisonsare generally considered not to be threatened, butfield studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Wozencraft (2005), Yensen & Tarifa (2003b), Zapata et al. (2005)." +038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,635,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE.xml,Melogale orientalis,Melogale,orientalis,,,Mélogalede Java @fr | Java-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro javanés @es,"Gulo orientalis Horsfield, 1821, JavaThe Javan Ferret-badger was previously considered a subspecies of the Large-toothed Ferret-badger. Two subspecies are recognized.","M M..o. orientalis Horsfield Horsfield,, 182 1821- E Javaand o. Bali.M. o. sundaicus Sody, 1937— W Java.","Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight about 2 kg. The Javan Ferret-badger has a small, slender body, and a long snout. The pelage is dark brown, with paler undersides. The head is black with a facial mask consisting of white or yellow patches. The skull is small.",Forests and grasslands.,Said to be omnivorous.,Littersize is said to vary from one to three.,Reported to be nocturnal.,"Terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Littersize is said to vary from one to three.","Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Recorded recently in Central Java(perhaps Dieng Plateau), Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, and Gunung Gede. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeeley (1991) | Long (1992) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Pocock (1941a) | Riffel (1991) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714181/files/figure.png,"19.Javan Ferret-badgerMelogale orientalisFrench:Mélogalede Java/ German:Java-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro javanésTaxonomy.Gulo orientalis Horsfield, 1821, JavaThe Javan Ferret-badger was previously considered a subspecies of the Large-toothed Ferret-badger. Two subspecies are recognized.Subpecies and Distribution.M M..o. orientalis Horsfield Horsfield,, 182 1821- E Javaand o. Bali.M. o. sundaicus Sody, 1937— W Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight about 2 kg. The Javan Ferret-badger has a small, slender body, and a long snout. The pelage is dark brown, with paler undersides. The head is black with a facial mask consisting of white or yellow patches. The skull is small.Habitat.Forests and grasslands.Food and Feeding.Said to be omnivorous.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Littersize is said to vary from one to three.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Recorded recently in Central Java(perhaps Dieng Plateau), Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, and Gunung Gede. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeeley (1991), Long (1992), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Riffel (1991), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,636,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0.xml,Galictis vittata,Galictis,vittata,Schreber,1776,Grand Grison @fr | Grofser Grison @de | Grison @es,"Viverra vittata Schreber, 1776, Surinam.Four subspecies are recognized.","G. v. vittata Schreber, 1776— the Guianas and Venezuela.G. v. andina Thomas, 1903— Boliviaand Peru.G. v. brasiliensis Thunberg, 1820— Brazil.G. v. canaster Nelson, 1901— Mexicoto Colombiaand Ecuador.","Head-body 47.5-55 cm, tail 16 cm; weight 1.4-3.3 kg. The Greater Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is smoky gray on the upper sides; the face, throat, undersides, and all four limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The skull is strong and massive. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3.","Greater Grisons are found in virgin and secondary low-elevation rainforests, lower montane forests, upland monte alto forests, tropical dry forests, closed deciduous forests, cerrado, yungas woodlands, shrub woodlands, chaco, palm savannah, secondary growth, open fields, plantations, and partially flooded rice fields adjacent to ranches. They are often found near rivers, streams, and wetlands, from sea level to 1500 melevation, but mostly below 500 m.However, on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains in Boliviathey range up to 2000 m. A radio-collared female spent 27-8% of her time in open habitats (69-2% of her prey came from there); the remaining 72-2% was spent in closed woodlands and forests (where she obtained 27-8% of her prey).","The diet includes small mammals, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In Venezuela, seven stomachs contained remains of diurnal rodents (Sigmodon alstoni), a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), a dove (Zenaida auriculata), and an eel-like fish. Two other stomachs contained an opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), an unidentified rodent, a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), and an amphibian (Colestethus auriculata). In Para, Brazil, a Greater Grison was observed carrying a large toad (Bufo marinus) in its mouth, apparently unaffected by the toad’s toxic skin glands. In Panama, a Greater Grison was seen pursuing an Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) at 08:15 h; another Agouti was attacked in a river at midday. In Peru, a Greater Grison was observed eating a piranha-like characin fish. In north-eastern Brazil, Greater Grisons are major predators of Rock Cavies or Mocos (Kerodon rupestris), which they attack in their burrows. The stomachs of two malesand two femalescontained Moco remains and another species of cavy (Galea spixii). Greater Grisons hunt alone, in pairs, or in small family groups. An adult female was seen travelling in association with a nearly grown male and a three-fourths grown female.","Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.","Primarily diurnal, but occasionally active at night. A captive male from Ecuadorwas nearly 100% diurnal, with a rest period of several hours at midday. Three captive Greater Grisons in Panamawere very active in the early morning and late afternoon and rested for four to five hours around midday. Greater Grisons forage during the day at Cocha Cashu, Peru. However, in Venezuela, a radio-collared individual was active for 10-12 h per day, mostly at night (77-1% of the time); all sightings were in the daytime (06:00-11:25 h). Rest sites are undertree roots or in hollow logs, underground burrows, or rock cavities.","Primarily terrestrial, but also excellent swimmers and able to climb trees. In Venezuela, two individuals were observed climbing into a tree, and on another occasion, a female and a young climbed 2 minto a palm tree, while an adult male waited below looking upward. The two grisons scratched around in the tree, knocking down wood and debris, which were examined by the male. Greater Grisons are mostly solitary, but occasionally travel in pairs or small groups. One female in Venezuelahad a home range of 4- 2 km* She traveled 1 km(straight line) between consecutive daily restsites and moved 2-3 kmper 24-h period. Population densities have been estimated at 1-2-4 individuals/km?, but radio-tracking data suggests much lower densities.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Greater Grisons are considered endangered in some parts of their range, such as Mexicoand Costa Rica. In Venezuela, they are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. Greater Grisons occur in medium (860 ha) and large (36,000 ha) fragments in Brazilian Atlantic forests, but are absent from small (60-80 ha) patches of forest. Their fur has no commercial value, but skins and live animals are sold as decorations or pets.",\Wozencraft (2005) | Yensen & Tarifa (2003a),https://zenodo.org/record/5714191/files/figure.png,"22.Greater GrisonGalictis vittataFrench:Grand Grison/ German:Grofser Grison/ Spanish:GrisonTaxonomy.Viverra vittata Schreber, 1776, Surinam.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. v. vittata Schreber, 1776— the Guianas and Venezuela.G. v. andina Thomas, 1903— Boliviaand Peru.G. v. brasiliensis Thunberg, 1820— Brazil.G. v. canaster Nelson, 1901— Mexicoto Colombiaand Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47.5-55 cm, tail 16 cm; weight 1.4-3.3 kg. The Greater Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is smoky gray on the upper sides; the face, throat, undersides, and all four limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The skull is strong and massive. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3.M1/2=34Habitat.Greater Grisons are found in virgin and secondary low-elevation rainforests, lower montane forests, upland monte alto forests, tropical dry forests, closed deciduous forests, cerrado, yungas woodlands, shrub woodlands, chaco, palm savannah, secondary growth, open fields, plantations, and partially flooded rice fields adjacent to ranches. They are often found near rivers, streams, and wetlands, from sea level to 1500 melevation, but mostly below 500 m.However, on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains in Boliviathey range up to 2000 m. A radio-collared female spent 27-8% of her time in open habitats (69-2% of her prey came from there); the remaining 72-2% was spent in closed woodlands and forests (where she obtained 27-8% of her prey).Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In Venezuela, seven stomachs contained remains of diurnal rodents (Sigmodon alstoni), a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), a dove (Zenaida auriculata), and an eel-like fish. Two other stomachs contained an opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), an unidentified rodent, a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), and an amphibian (Colestethus auriculata). In Para, Brazil, a Greater Grison was observed carrying a large toad (Bufo marinus) in its mouth, apparently unaffected by the toad’s toxic skin glands. In Panama, a Greater Grison was seen pursuing an Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) at 08:15 h; another Agouti was attacked in a river at midday. In Peru, a Greater Grison was observed eating a piranha-like characin fish. In north-eastern Brazil, Greater Grisons are major predators of Rock Cavies or Mocos (Kerodon rupestris), which they attack in their burrows. The stomachs of two malesand two femalescontained Moco remains and another species of cavy (Galea spixii). Greater Grisons hunt alone, in pairs, or in small family groups. An adult female was seen travelling in association with a nearly grown male and a three-fourths grown female.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal, but occasionally active at night. A captive male from Ecuadorwas nearly 100% diurnal, with a rest period of several hours at midday. Three captive Greater Grisons in Panamawere very active in the early morning and late afternoon and rested for four to five hours around midday. Greater Grisons forage during the day at Cocha Cashu, Peru. However, in Venezuela, a radio-collared individual was active for 10-12 h per day, mostly at night (77-1% of the time); all sightings were in the daytime (06:00-11:25 h). Rest sites are undertree roots or in hollow logs, underground burrows, or rock cavities.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Primarily terrestrial, but also excellent swimmers and able to climb trees. In Venezuela, two individuals were observed climbing into a tree, and on another occasion, a female and a young climbed 2 minto a palm tree, while an adult male waited below looking upward. The two grisons scratched around in the tree, knocking down wood and debris, which were examined by the male. Greater Grisons are mostly solitary, but occasionally travel in pairs or small groups. One female in Venezuelahad a home range of 4- 2 km* She traveled 1 km(straight line) between consecutive daily restsites and moved 2-3 kmper 24-h period. Population densities have been estimated at 1-2-4 individuals/km?, but radio-tracking data suggests much lower densities.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Greater Grisons are considered endangered in some parts of their range, such as Mexicoand Costa Rica. In Venezuela, they are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. Greater Grisons occur in medium (860 ha) and large (36,000 ha) fragments in Brazilian Atlantic forests, but are absent from small (60-80 ha) patches of forest. Their fur has no commercial value, but skins and live animals are sold as decorations or pets.Bibliography.\Wozencraft (2005), Yensen & Tarifa (2003a)." +038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,636,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51.xml,Galictis cuja,Galictis,cuja,,,Petit Grison @fr | Kleingrison @de | Grison chico @es,"Mustela cuja Molina, 1782, Chile.Four subspecies are recognized.","G. c. cuja Molina, 1782— W Argentinaand Chile.G. c. furax Thomas, 1907— NE Argentina, C & E Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.G. c. huronax Thomas, 1921— C and S Argentina.G. c. luteola Thomas, 1907— W Boliviaand SE Peru.","Head-body 28-508 cm, tail 12-19.3 cm; weight 1.2-5 kg. The Lesser Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-gray to brown; the face, throat, upper chest, and limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The claws are strong and curved.","Lesser Grisons are found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to 4200 m, including seashore, arid scrub, chaco desert, Gran Chaco, Chiquitano woodland, open thorn woodland, cerrado, caatinga, savannah, steppes, evergreen shrublands, semideciduous lower montane forest, brushy areas below the timberline, Tucuman-Bolivian woodlands, wet forest, Brazilian Atlantic forest, high Andean shrublands, Polylepis woodlands, puna grasslands, marshes, high elevation wet meadows “bofedales”, Equisetum-dominated scrub, overgrazed pastures, and agricultural areas of the Pampas. Most localities in Boliviaare between 2000 and 4200 m. Lesser Grisons frequently occur near water.","The diet includes small mammals (especially rodents and lagomorphs), birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In central Chile, the diet was found to consist of 352% rodents, 26-5% introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 20-7% unidentified mammals, 14-7% reptiles (Liolaemus chiliensis and Philodryas chamissonis), and 2-9% unidentified passeriform birds. Average prey weight was 350 g. In Patagonia, Argentina, the diet is 46-:3% rodents, 18-9% lagomorphs, 17-9% lizards, and 16-8% birds; as lagomorph density increases,its percentage in the diet increases up to 96-8%. In coastal south-eastern Argentine, mammals, including rodents (79-1%, at least eight species) and European Hare Lepus europaeus (20-9%), are the main prey items year-round; birds (7-8%) and invertebrates (5-2%) are also eaten. Lesser Grisons frequently prey on guinea pigs and are capable of running down and killing Dwarf Cavies (Microcavia australis).","Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.","Active mainly during the day, with occasional activity at night. Rest sites are in hollow trees, crevices, boulder piles, burrows of other animals, at the base of Polylepis trees, amongst tree roots and rocks, or in banks adjacent to wet meadows at high elevations. Four or five individuals may occupy a burrow system, which may reach 4 min depth. One burrow system occupied by five individuals in Chilewas on a slope among rocks and roots of a Guevina avellana tree in Nothofagus obliqua woods; leaves of Greiga obscured the entrances.","Mostly solitary, although pairs or small groups are occasionally seen.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Lesser Grisonsare generally considered not to be threatened, butfield studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Wozencraft (2005) | Yensen & Tarifa (2003b) | Zapata et al. (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714187/files/figure.png,"21.Lesser GrisonGalictis cujaFrench:Petit Grison/ German:Kleingrison/ Spanish:Grison chicoTaxonomy.Mustela cuja Molina, 1782, Chile.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. c. cuja Molina, 1782— W Argentinaand Chile.G. c. furax Thomas, 1907— NE Argentina, C & E Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.G. c. huronax Thomas, 1921— C and S Argentina.G. c. luteola Thomas, 1907— W Boliviaand SE Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-508 cm, tail 12-19.3 cm; weight 1.2-5 kg. The Lesser Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-gray to brown; the face, throat, upper chest, and limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The claws are strong and curved. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=234Habitat.Lesser Grisons are found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to 4200 m, including seashore, arid scrub, chaco desert, Gran Chaco, Chiquitano woodland, open thorn woodland, cerrado, caatinga, savannah, steppes, evergreen shrublands, semideciduous lower montane forest, brushy areas below the timberline, Tucuman-Bolivian woodlands, wet forest, Brazilian Atlantic forest, high Andean shrublands, Polylepis woodlands, puna grasslands, marshes, high elevation wet meadows “bofedales”, Equisetum-dominated scrub, overgrazed pastures, and agricultural areas of the Pampas. Most localities in Boliviaare between 2000 and 4200 m. Lesser Grisons frequently occur near water.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (especially rodents and lagomorphs), birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In central Chile, the diet was found to consist of 352% rodents, 26-5% introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 20-7% unidentified mammals, 14-7% reptiles (Liolaemus chiliensis and Philodryas chamissonis), and 2-9% unidentified passeriform birds. Average prey weight was 350 g. In Patagonia, Argentina, the diet is 46-:3% rodents, 18-9% lagomorphs, 17-9% lizards, and 16-8% birds; as lagomorph density increases,its percentage in the diet increases up to 96-8%. In coastal south-eastern Argentine, mammals, including rodents (79-1%, at least eight species) and European Hare Lepus europaeus (20-9%), are the main prey items year-round; birds (7-8%) and invertebrates (5-2%) are also eaten. Lesser Grisons frequently prey on guinea pigs and are capable of running down and killing Dwarf Cavies (Microcavia australis).Activity patterns.Active mainly during the day, with occasional activity at night. Rest sites are in hollow trees, crevices, boulder piles, burrows of other animals, at the base of Polylepis trees, amongst tree roots and rocks, or in banks adjacent to wet meadows at high elevations. Four or five individuals may occupy a burrow system, which may reach 4 min depth. One burrow system occupied by five individuals in Chilewas on a slope among rocks and roots of a Guevina avellana tree in Nothofagus obliqua woods; leaves of Greiga obscured the entrances.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mostly solitary, although pairs or small groups are occasionally seen.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Lesser Grisonsare generally considered not to be threatened, butfield studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Wozencraft (2005), Yensen & Tarifa (2003b), Zapata et al. (2005)." 038F87D4CA42FFACCFE430B7F901FE26,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,637,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFACCFE430B7F901FE26.xml,Ictonyx striatus,Ictonyx,striatus,Perry,1810,Zorille commune @fr | Zorilla @de | Hurén estriado @es | Striped Polecat @en,"Bradypus striatus Perry, 1810, South Africa.As many as twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","Sub-Saharan Africa from Mauritaniaand Senegalin the W to Sudan, Ethiopiaand Djiboutiin the E and S to South Africa. Absent from W & C African rainforests.","Head-body 28-38 cm(males), 28-34 cm(females), tail 16.5-28 cm(males), 17- 5—28 cm(females); weight 0-80.1- 20 kg(males), 0-42. 0-75 kg(females), adult males are 50% heavier than females. The Zorilla has a black pelage with four white dorsal stripes that unite on the top of the neck. There are three white patches on the head. The undersides and limbs are black, and the tail is a mixture of black and white hairs. The soles of the feet are naked; there are claws on all the feet, but they are longer and straighter on the forefeet. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is heavily built, the rostrum is short and blunt, and the sagittal crest is poorly defined or absent. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P3/3.","Zorillas are found in a wide variety of habitats, including mountains, sand plains, forest, swamps,riverine woodlands, floodplains, grasslands, coastal hummocks, and town gardens.","The diet is mainly insects and small rodents, but birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates are also eaten. In South Africa, the percentage occurrence of food items in 21 stomachs was 62% insects, 38% mammals, 10% birds, 10% arachnids, 5% frogs, and 5% myriapods. In the Cape Province, stomachs contained birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects (Coleoptera, Coleoptera larvae, Orthoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera). One stomach from Kalahari National Park, South Africa, contained mostly reptile remains. In Botswana, twelve stomachs contained insects, reptiles, and small mammals. Most prey are detected by sight or smell, and captured after stalking or short chases. Larger mammals, such as ground squirrels (Xerus) and spring hares, are followed to their burrows and killed. Zorillas often hunt for invertebrates in loose soil, plant debris, and at the base of grass tufts. Typically, a Zorilla pushesits nose into loose soil and sniffs audibly. When food is detected,it is excavated with the forefeet. Slow prey are bitten directly, whereas faster-moving prey, such as moths, mantids, or beetles, may either be bitten or pinned to the ground with a forefoot and eaten head first. All parts of insects are eaten. Rats (Rattus) are located mainly by sight. On occasion, rats are stalked and quickly captured or are chased. They are captured either by direct biting or by being pinned to the ground with the forefeet and then bitten. Mostkilling bites are directed at the back of the neck, head, or chest. Rats larger than 140 gusually require more bites and pinning with the forefeet. Occasionally, Zorillas roll while biting. Large rats are eaten by biting at the flesh and holding the skin with the forefeet. Birds presented to captive Zorillas are quickly and easily killed by a bite at the head, and then eaten head first. Zorillas will consume young birds completely, but they leave most ofthe feathers, feet, and tibia of mature birds. The contents of broken eggs are readily consumed, but captive Zorillas experience initial difficulty with unbroken eggs. Eventually, they learn to open them by biting or rolling the egg against a hard object such as a rock. Once cracked, the egg is easily opened and consumed. Zorillas will kill snakes and can attack large cobras. Snakes are approached cautiously and bitten on the back several times, after which the Zorilla retreats rapidly. Each bite is directed to the posterior half of the snake and is accompanied by vigorous shaking. After four or five such attacks, the Zorilla pins the snake to the ground with the forefeet, and repeatedly bites 10-15 cmfrom the head. Some of the bites involve vigorous shaking. Most snakes are eaten head first, but occasionally the tail or even flanks may be consumed first. Lizards are captured following short chases, pinned to the ground with the forefeet, and killed by a bite at the head. Lizards are entirely consumed and eaten head first. Amphibians are pinned to the ground with the forefeet and killed by biting the head and neck region; all parts of amphibians are eaten.","Mating occurs in the spring. The young are born in late spring or summer, after a short gestation of 36 days. Littersize is two to three. Females have one litter per year, but may breed again if the first litter is lost early. The young are born blind and hairless; color patterns appear after one week. The eyes open after 40 days and the young start to eat solid food at c. 33 days, when their canine teeth erupt; they can kill mice at 60 days. Adultsize is reached at 20 weeks.",,"Terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Zorillas generally are solitary, but pairs may be seen. Larger groups are rare, and usually comprise a female and her young. Adult males and females are together only during mating, and adult males are intolerant of other males.Breeding.Mating occurs in the spring. The young are born in late spring or summer, after a short gestation of 36 days. Littersize is two to three. Females have one litter per year, but may breed again if the first litter is lost early. The young are born blind and hairless; color patterns appear after one week. The eyes open after 40 days and the young start to eat solid food at c. 33 days, when their canine teeth erupt; they can kill mice at 60 days. Adultsize is reached at 20 weeks.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Zorillas are considered common throughout their range. They are not protected outside of national parks, where the most common threat is free-roaming domestic dogs.","Lariviere (2002a) | Rowe-Rowe (1978a, 1978b, 1978c) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Stuart (1981) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714201/files/figure.png,"25.ZorillaIctonyx striatusFrench:Zorille commune/ German:Zorilla/ Spanish:Hurén estriadoOther common names:Striped PolecatTaxonomy.Bradypus striatus Perry, 1810, South Africa.As many as twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Sub-Saharan Africa from Mauritaniaand Senegalin the W to Sudan, Ethiopiaand Djiboutiin the E and S to South Africa. Absent from W & C African rainforests.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-38 cm(males), 28-34 cm(females), tail 16.5-28 cm(males), 17- 5—28 cm(females); weight 0-80.1- 20 kg(males), 0-42. 0-75 kg(females), adult males are 50% heavier than females. The Zorilla has a black pelage with four white dorsal stripes that unite on the top of the neck. There are three white patches on the head. The undersides and limbs are black, and the tail is a mixture of black and white hairs. The soles of the feet are naked; there are claws on all the feet, but they are longer and straighter on the forefeet. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is heavily built, the rostrum is short and blunt, and the sagittal crest is poorly defined or absent. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P3/3.M1/2=54,Habitat.Zorillas are found in a wide variety of habitats, including mountains, sand plains, forest, swamps,riverine woodlands, floodplains, grasslands, coastal hummocks, and town gardens.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly insects and small rodents, but birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates are also eaten. In South Africa, the percentage occurrence of food items in 21 stomachs was 62% insects, 38% mammals, 10% birds, 10% arachnids, 5% frogs, and 5% myriapods. In the Cape Province, stomachs contained birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects (Coleoptera, Coleoptera larvae, Orthoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera). One stomach from Kalahari National Park, South Africa, contained mostly reptile remains. In Botswana, twelve stomachs contained insects, reptiles, and small mammals. Most prey are detected by sight or smell, and captured after stalking or short chases. Larger mammals, such as ground squirrels (Xerus) and spring hares, are followed to their burrows and killed. Zorillas often hunt for invertebrates in loose soil, plant debris, and at the base of grass tufts. Typically, a Zorilla pushesits nose into loose soil and sniffs audibly. When food is detected,it is excavated with the forefeet. Slow prey are bitten directly, whereas faster-moving prey, such as moths, mantids, or beetles, may either be bitten or pinned to the ground with a forefoot and eaten head first. All parts of insects are eaten. Rats (Rattus) are located mainly by sight. On occasion, rats are stalked and quickly captured or are chased. They are captured either by direct biting or by being pinned to the ground with the forefeet and then bitten. Mostkilling bites are directed at the back of the neck, head, or chest. Rats larger than 140 gusually require more bites and pinning with the forefeet. Occasionally, Zorillas roll while biting. Large rats are eaten by biting at the flesh and holding the skin with the forefeet. Birds presented to captive Zorillas are quickly and easily killed by a bite at the head, and then eaten head first. Zorillas will consume young birds completely, but they leave most ofthe feathers, feet, and tibia of mature birds. The contents of broken eggs are readily consumed, but captive Zorillas experience initial difficulty with unbroken eggs. Eventually, they learn to open them by biting or rolling the egg against a hard object such as a rock. Once cracked, the egg is easily opened and consumed. Zorillas will kill snakes and can attack large cobras. Snakes are approached cautiously and bitten on the back several times, after which the Zorilla retreats rapidly. Each bite is directed to the posterior half of the snake and is accompanied by vigorous shaking. After four or five such attacks, the Zorilla pins the snake to the ground with the forefeet, and repeatedly bites 10-15 cmfrom the head. Some of the bites involve vigorous shaking. Most snakes are eaten head first, but occasionally the tail or even flanks may be consumed first. Lizards are captured following short chases, pinned to the ground with the forefeet, and killed by a bite at the head. Lizards are entirely consumed and eaten head first. Amphibians are pinned to the ground with the forefeet and killed by biting the head and neck region; all parts of amphibians are eaten.Activity pattern.Nocturnal. Rest sites are in holes, crevices, hollow logs, or under buildings. Zorillas can dig their own burrows, but often use those dug by other animals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Zorillas generally are solitary, but pairs may be seen. Larger groups are rare, and usually comprise a female and her young. Adult males and females are together only during mating, and adult males are intolerant of other males.Breeding.Mating occurs in the spring. The young are born in late spring or summer, after a short gestation of 36 days. Littersize is two to three. Females have one litter per year, but may breed again if the first litter is lost early. The young are born blind and hairless; color patterns appear after one week. The eyes open after 40 days and the young start to eat solid food at c. 33 days, when their canine teeth erupt; they can kill mice at 60 days. Adultsize is reached at 20 weeks.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Zorillas are considered common throughout their range. They are not protected outside of national parks, where the most common threat is free-roaming domestic dogs.Bibliography.Lariviere (2002a), Rowe-Rowe (1978a, 1978b, 1978c), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,637,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D.xml,Vormela peregusna,Vormela,peregusna,Blasius,1884,Zorille marbrée @fr | Tigeriltis @de | Turén jaspeado @es,"Mustela peregusna Guldenstadt, 1770, Russia.Six subspecies are recognized.","V. p. peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770— Russia.V. p. alpherakii Birula, 1910— Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.V. p. euxina Pocock, 1936— Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.V. p. negans G. S. Miller, 1910— NC & W Chinaand S Mongolia.V.p. pallidior Stroganov, 1948— Kazakhstan.V. p. syriaca Pocock, 1936— Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.","Head-body 31-32: 6 cm(males), 28.8-47.7 cm(females), tail 16-5— 17- 5 cm(males), 15.5-17.8 cm(females); weight 330-715 g(males), 295-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Marbled Polecat has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish and is mottled with reddish or brown markings. The ears are large and white, the muzzle is short, and there is a conspicuous white stripe across the head. The area around the mouth is white. The fur is black around the eyes, giving a masked appearance. Thetail is bushy and covered with black and white hairs. The limbs are short and the feet have long claws. There are five pairs of mammae. The skull is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","The Marbled Polecatis found in open desert, semi-desert, semi-arid rocky areas in upland valleys, steppe country, arid subtropical scrub forest, and low hill ranges. It is generally not found on higher mountain ranges, but has been recorded up to 2100 m. In Europe, the Marbled Polecat inhabits steppes with sparse hawthorn bush and sloe trees, and oldfields. In western Yugoslavia, they occur in montane-steppe and woodland-steppe areas. In eastern Yugoslavia, Marbled Polecats are found from river terraces and low hills to mountainous meadows. In western Serbia, they inhabit the outskirts of settlements. On the Sinai Peninsulain Egypt, one adultmale was captured in a sparsely vegetated sandy area. In Lebanon, Marbled Polecats are restricted to cultivated areas in close association with humans. In Israel, they live in the steppes and hills. In Central Asia, the Marbled Polecat is found in oases, tugai (river-valley complexes of forest, scrub, and meadow), dunes with sparse bush vegetation, clay steppes, and salt marshes;it is also found in irrigated country, melon patches, and vegetable fields, and sometimes enters buildings to forage. In Kazakhstan, Marbled Polecats are found in shifting dune country containing saxaul (Haloxylon), winter fat (Ewrotia ceratoides), and pea tree, and in salt marshes overgrown in saxaul. Marbled Polecats are also found in wormwood deserts, semi-deserts, and occasionally fescue and needle-grass steppes of the foothills. In north-western Chinaand the Ordos Desert, the Marbled Polecat occurs in forested areas, and in Siberia, it inhabits the western foothills of the Altai and the Cuya steppe.","The diet includes small mammals (ground squirrels Spermophilus sp., Gray Dwarf Hamsters Cricetulus migratorius, Libyan Jirds Meriones libycus, mice, voles, and rabbits), birds, reptiles, amphibians, snails, insects, and fruits. In Quetta and Kandahar, rodents, small birds,lizards, snails, and beetles are eaten. In Israel, Marbled Polecats show a high seasonal variability in the diet. During summer, mole crickets (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) make up 66% of the diet, whereas in winter, 62% of the diet is rodents, such as voles (Microtus guentheri), House Mice (Mus musculus), Lesser Blind Mole Rats (Spalax leococon ehrenbergi), and Meriones sp. Marbled Polecats may take small poultry. Excess food may be cached for later use. The eyesight of Marbled Polecats is quite weak and they rely principally on a well-developed sense of smell. They have two kinds of killing bites: the first is the penetration of the prey’s body by the canines, and the second is crushing the prey without canine penetration. To kill small vertebrate prey, Marbled Polecats crush the thorax. If the prey struggles, they may pin the prey down with the forepaws and deliver headshakes or follow up by a bite to head or neck. On large prey, such as GuineaPigs (Cavia porcellus), a Marbled Polecat bites the nape of the neck and eventually severs the spinal column at the base of the skull. With rats, it bites the throat. Fleeing prey are bitten dorsally, but defending prey are bitten on the head or neck.","Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.","Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes active during the day. Den/rest sites are in burrows of large ground squirrels or other rodents, or they dig their own dens. Marbled Polecats in Central Asia live in tunnel systems dug by the Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opinus). In Baluchistan, they live in burrows dug by the rodents or they may use underground irrigation tunnels. Sleeping chambers are 60-100 cmfrom the den entrance. In winter, they line the den with grass. When a Marbled Polecat digs, it presses its chin and hindpaws firmly to the ground and removes earth with its forelegs. Obstacles such as roots are pulled out with the teeth.","Marbled Polecats are good climbers, but feed mainly on the ground. Nightly movements may be up to 1 km. They are solitary except during the breeding season. In Israel, home ranges were 0-5- 0-6 km?; there were some overlaps of ranges and some encounters between individuals, but each animal foraged and rested alone.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.",Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies Vp. peregusna is classified as Vulnerable. The major threat to this speciesis the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides and population declines in key prey species may also be threats. Small numbers of Marbled Polecats are harvested for fur in Pakistanand Lebanon.,"Ben-David (1998) | Ben-David et al. (1991) | Gorsuch & Lariviére (2005) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",,"23.Marbled PolecatVormela peregusnaFrench:Zorille marbrée/ German:Tigeriltis/ Spanish:Turén jaspeadoTaxonomy.Mustela peregusna Guldenstadt, 1770, Russia.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. p. peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770— Russia.V. p. alpherakii Birula, 1910— Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.V. p. euxina Pocock, 1936— Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.V. p. negans G. S. Miller, 1910— NC & W Chinaand S Mongolia.V.p. pallidior Stroganov, 1948— Kazakhstan.V. p. syriaca Pocock, 1936— Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 31-32: 6 cm(males), 28.8-47.7 cm(females), tail 16-5— 17- 5 cm(males), 15.5-17.8 cm(females); weight 330-715 g(males), 295-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Marbled Polecat has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish and is mottled with reddish or brown markings. The ears are large and white, the muzzle is short, and there is a conspicuous white stripe across the head. The area around the mouth is white. The fur is black around the eyes, giving a masked appearance. Thetail is bushy and covered with black and white hairs. The limbs are short and the feet have long claws. There are five pairs of mammae. The skull is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.The Marbled Polecatis found in open desert, semi-desert, semi-arid rocky areas in upland valleys, steppe country, arid subtropical scrub forest, and low hill ranges. It is generally not found on higher mountain ranges, but has been recorded up to 2100 m. In Europe, the Marbled Polecat inhabits steppes with sparse hawthorn bush and sloe trees, and oldfields. In western Yugoslavia, they occur in montane-steppe and woodland-steppe areas. In eastern Yugoslavia, Marbled Polecats are found from river terraces and low hills to mountainous meadows. In western Serbia, they inhabit the outskirts of settlements. On the Sinai Peninsulain Egypt, one adultmale was captured in a sparsely vegetated sandy area. In Lebanon, Marbled Polecats are restricted to cultivated areas in close association with humans. In Israel, they live in the steppes and hills. In Central Asia, the Marbled Polecat is found in oases, tugai (river-valley complexes of forest, scrub, and meadow), dunes with sparse bush vegetation, clay steppes, and salt marshes;it is also found in irrigated country, melon patches, and vegetable fields, and sometimes enters buildings to forage. In Kazakhstan, Marbled Polecats are found in shifting dune country containing saxaul (Haloxylon), winter fat (Ewrotia ceratoides), and pea tree, and in salt marshes overgrown in saxaul. Marbled Polecats are also found in wormwood deserts, semi-deserts, and occasionally fescue and needle-grass steppes of the foothills. In north-western Chinaand the Ordos Desert, the Marbled Polecat occurs in forested areas, and in Siberia, it inhabits the western foothills of the Altai and the Cuya steppe.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (ground squirrels Spermophilus sp., Gray Dwarf Hamsters Cricetulus migratorius, Libyan Jirds Meriones libycus, mice, voles, and rabbits), birds, reptiles, amphibians, snails, insects, and fruits. In Quetta and Kandahar, rodents, small birds,lizards, snails, and beetles are eaten. In Israel, Marbled Polecats show a high seasonal variability in the diet. During summer, mole crickets (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) make up 66% of the diet, whereas in winter, 62% of the diet is rodents, such as voles (Microtus guentheri), House Mice (Mus musculus), Lesser Blind Mole Rats (Spalax leococon ehrenbergi), and Meriones sp. Marbled Polecats may take small poultry. Excess food may be cached for later use. The eyesight of Marbled Polecats is quite weak and they rely principally on a well-developed sense of smell. They have two kinds of killing bites: the first is the penetration of the prey’s body by the canines, and the second is crushing the prey without canine penetration. To kill small vertebrate prey, Marbled Polecats crush the thorax. If the prey struggles, they may pin the prey down with the forepaws and deliver headshakes or follow up by a bite to head or neck. On large prey, such as GuineaPigs (Cavia porcellus), a Marbled Polecat bites the nape of the neck and eventually severs the spinal column at the base of the skull. With rats, it bites the throat. Fleeing prey are bitten dorsally, but defending prey are bitten on the head or neck.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes active during the day. Den/rest sites are in burrows of large ground squirrels or other rodents, or they dig their own dens. Marbled Polecats in Central Asia live in tunnel systems dug by the Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opinus). In Baluchistan, they live in burrows dug by the rodents or they may use underground irrigation tunnels. Sleeping chambers are 60-100 cmfrom the den entrance. In winter, they line the den with grass. When a Marbled Polecat digs, it presses its chin and hindpaws firmly to the ground and removes earth with its forelegs. Obstacles such as roots are pulled out with the teeth.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marbled Polecats are good climbers, but feed mainly on the ground. Nightly movements may be up to 1 km. They are solitary except during the breeding season. In Israel, home ranges were 0-5- 0-6 km?; there were some overlaps of ranges and some encounters between individuals, but each animal foraged and rested alone.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies Vp. peregusna is classified as Vulnerable. The major threat to this speciesis the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides and population declines in key prey species may also be threats. Small numbers of Marbled Polecats are harvested for fur in Pakistanand Lebanon.Bibliography.Ben-David (1998), Ben-David et al. (1991), Gorsuch & Lariviére (2005), Qumsiyeh (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." -038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,637,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7.xml,Ictonyx libycus,Ictonyx,libycus,,,Zorille de Libye @fr | Streifenwiesel @de | Huron del Sahara @es | Saharan Striped Weasel @en,"Mustela libyca Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Libya.Four subspecies are recognized.","I. l. libycus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833— Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia.I. l. multivittata Wagner, 1841— E Chadand C Sudan.I. l. oralis Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Egypt, Eritrea, and N Sudan.I. l. rothschildi Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.","Head-body 20.7-26 cm, tail 114- 18 cm; weight 200-600 g, adult males are slightly larger than females. The Saharan Striped Polecat has a black and white pelage, with poorly defined black and white stripes along the sides of the body. The head is black with a white patch on the upperlip; there is a large white mark on the forehead. The limbs are short. The tail is short and bushy, and mostly white except for the black tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a short rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","Sub-desert habitats, especially stony areas, steppes, and areas of sparse brush. Also found in cultivated areas and coastal sand dunes.","The diet apparently consists of rodents, small birds, eggs,lizards, and insects. Food is located by smell and by sound, and the front claws are used to dig up food items.","Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.",,"Mostly solitary.Breeding.Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. A poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Hufnagl (1972) | Niethammer (1987) | Rosevear (1974) | Setzer (1957) | Sitek (1995) | Wozencraft (2005),,"24.Saharan Striped PolecatIctonyx libycusFrench:Zorille de Libye/ German:Streifenwiesel/ Spanish:Huron del SaharaOther common names:Saharan Striped WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela libyca Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Libya.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I. l. libycus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833— Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia.I. l. multivittata Wagner, 1841— E Chadand C Sudan.I. l. oralis Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Egypt, Eritrea, and N Sudan.I. l. rothschildi Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 20.7-26 cm, tail 114- 18 cm; weight 200-600 g, adult males are slightly larger than females. The Saharan Striped Polecat has a black and white pelage, with poorly defined black and white stripes along the sides of the body. The head is black with a white patch on the upperlip; there is a large white mark on the forehead. The limbs are short. The tail is short and bushy, and mostly white except for the black tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a short rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Sub-desert habitats, especially stony areas, steppes, and areas of sparse brush. Also found in cultivated areas and coastal sand dunes.Food and Feeding.The diet apparently consists of rodents, small birds, eggs,lizards, and insects. Food is located by smell and by sound, and the front claws are used to dig up food items.Activity pattern.Nocturnal. Rest sites are in burrows or rock crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mostly solitary.Breeding.Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. A poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Hufnagl (1972), Niethammer (1987), Rosevear (1974), Setzer (1957), Sitek (1995), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,637,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D.xml,Vormela peregusna,Vormela,peregusna,Blasius,1884,Zorille marbrée @fr | Tigeriltis @de | Turén jaspeado @es,"Mustela peregusna Guldenstadt, 1770, Russia.Six subspecies are recognized.","V. p. peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770— Russia.V. p. alpherakii Birula, 1910— Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.V. p. euxina Pocock, 1936— Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.V. p. negans G. S. Miller, 1910— NC & W Chinaand S Mongolia.V.p. pallidior Stroganov, 1948— Kazakhstan.V. p. syriaca Pocock, 1936— Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.","Head-body 31-32: 6 cm(males), 28.8-47.7 cm(females), tail 16-5— 17- 5 cm(males), 15.5-17.8 cm(females); weight 330-715 g(males), 295-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Marbled Polecat has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish and is mottled with reddish or brown markings. The ears are large and white, the muzzle is short, and there is a conspicuous white stripe across the head. The area around the mouth is white. The fur is black around the eyes, giving a masked appearance. Thetail is bushy and covered with black and white hairs. The limbs are short and the feet have long claws. There are five pairs of mammae. The skull is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","The Marbled Polecatis found in open desert, semi-desert, semi-arid rocky areas in upland valleys, steppe country, arid subtropical scrub forest, and low hill ranges. It is generally not found on higher mountain ranges, but has been recorded up to 2100 m. In Europe, the Marbled Polecat inhabits steppes with sparse hawthorn bush and sloe trees, and oldfields. In western Yugoslavia, they occur in montane-steppe and woodland-steppe areas. In eastern Yugoslavia, Marbled Polecats are found from river terraces and low hills to mountainous meadows. In western Serbia, they inhabit the outskirts of settlements. On the Sinai Peninsulain Egypt, one adultmale was captured in a sparsely vegetated sandy area. In Lebanon, Marbled Polecats are restricted to cultivated areas in close association with humans. In Israel, they live in the steppes and hills. In Central Asia, the Marbled Polecat is found in oases, tugai (river-valley complexes of forest, scrub, and meadow), dunes with sparse bush vegetation, clay steppes, and salt marshes;it is also found in irrigated country, melon patches, and vegetable fields, and sometimes enters buildings to forage. In Kazakhstan, Marbled Polecats are found in shifting dune country containing saxaul (Haloxylon), winter fat (Ewrotia ceratoides), and pea tree, and in salt marshes overgrown in saxaul. Marbled Polecats are also found in wormwood deserts, semi-deserts, and occasionally fescue and needle-grass steppes of the foothills. In north-western Chinaand the Ordos Desert, the Marbled Polecat occurs in forested areas, and in Siberia, it inhabits the western foothills of the Altai and the Cuya steppe.","The diet includes small mammals (ground squirrels Spermophilus sp., Gray Dwarf Hamsters Cricetulus migratorius, Libyan Jirds Meriones libycus, mice, voles, and rabbits), birds, reptiles, amphibians, snails, insects, and fruits. In Quetta and Kandahar, rodents, small birds,lizards, snails, and beetles are eaten. In Israel, Marbled Polecats show a high seasonal variability in the diet. During summer, mole crickets (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) make up 66% of the diet, whereas in winter, 62% of the diet is rodents, such as voles (Microtus guentheri), House Mice (Mus musculus), Lesser Blind Mole Rats (Spalax leococon ehrenbergi), and Meriones sp. Marbled Polecats may take small poultry. Excess food may be cached for later use. The eyesight of Marbled Polecats is quite weak and they rely principally on a well-developed sense of smell. They have two kinds of killing bites: the first is the penetration of the prey’s body by the canines, and the second is crushing the prey without canine penetration. To kill small vertebrate prey, Marbled Polecats crush the thorax. If the prey struggles, they may pin the prey down with the forepaws and deliver headshakes or follow up by a bite to head or neck. On large prey, such as GuineaPigs (Cavia porcellus), a Marbled Polecat bites the nape of the neck and eventually severs the spinal column at the base of the skull. With rats, it bites the throat. Fleeing prey are bitten dorsally, but defending prey are bitten on the head or neck.","Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.","Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes active during the day. Den/rest sites are in burrows of large ground squirrels or other rodents, or they dig their own dens. Marbled Polecats in Central Asia live in tunnel systems dug by the Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opinus). In Baluchistan, they live in burrows dug by the rodents or they may use underground irrigation tunnels. Sleeping chambers are 60-100 cmfrom the den entrance. In winter, they line the den with grass. When a Marbled Polecat digs, it presses its chin and hindpaws firmly to the ground and removes earth with its forelegs. Obstacles such as roots are pulled out with the teeth.","Marbled Polecats are good climbers, but feed mainly on the ground. Nightly movements may be up to 1 km. They are solitary except during the breeding season. In Israel, home ranges were 0-5- 0-6 km?; there were some overlaps of ranges and some encounters between individuals, but each animal foraged and rested alone.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.",Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies Vp. peregusna is classified as Vulnerable. The major threat to this speciesis the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides and population declines in key prey species may also be threats. Small numbers of Marbled Polecats are harvested for fur in Pakistanand Lebanon.,"Ben-David (1998) | Ben-David et al. (1991) | Gorsuch & Lariviére (2005) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714195/files/figure.png,"23.Marbled PolecatVormela peregusnaFrench:Zorille marbrée/ German:Tigeriltis/ Spanish:Turén jaspeadoTaxonomy.Mustela peregusna Guldenstadt, 1770, Russia.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. p. peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770— Russia.V. p. alpherakii Birula, 1910— Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.V. p. euxina Pocock, 1936— Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.V. p. negans G. S. Miller, 1910— NC & W Chinaand S Mongolia.V.p. pallidior Stroganov, 1948— Kazakhstan.V. p. syriaca Pocock, 1936— Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 31-32: 6 cm(males), 28.8-47.7 cm(females), tail 16-5— 17- 5 cm(males), 15.5-17.8 cm(females); weight 330-715 g(males), 295-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Marbled Polecat has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish and is mottled with reddish or brown markings. The ears are large and white, the muzzle is short, and there is a conspicuous white stripe across the head. The area around the mouth is white. The fur is black around the eyes, giving a masked appearance. Thetail is bushy and covered with black and white hairs. The limbs are short and the feet have long claws. There are five pairs of mammae. The skull is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.The Marbled Polecatis found in open desert, semi-desert, semi-arid rocky areas in upland valleys, steppe country, arid subtropical scrub forest, and low hill ranges. It is generally not found on higher mountain ranges, but has been recorded up to 2100 m. In Europe, the Marbled Polecat inhabits steppes with sparse hawthorn bush and sloe trees, and oldfields. In western Yugoslavia, they occur in montane-steppe and woodland-steppe areas. In eastern Yugoslavia, Marbled Polecats are found from river terraces and low hills to mountainous meadows. In western Serbia, they inhabit the outskirts of settlements. On the Sinai Peninsulain Egypt, one adultmale was captured in a sparsely vegetated sandy area. In Lebanon, Marbled Polecats are restricted to cultivated areas in close association with humans. In Israel, they live in the steppes and hills. In Central Asia, the Marbled Polecat is found in oases, tugai (river-valley complexes of forest, scrub, and meadow), dunes with sparse bush vegetation, clay steppes, and salt marshes;it is also found in irrigated country, melon patches, and vegetable fields, and sometimes enters buildings to forage. In Kazakhstan, Marbled Polecats are found in shifting dune country containing saxaul (Haloxylon), winter fat (Ewrotia ceratoides), and pea tree, and in salt marshes overgrown in saxaul. Marbled Polecats are also found in wormwood deserts, semi-deserts, and occasionally fescue and needle-grass steppes of the foothills. In north-western Chinaand the Ordos Desert, the Marbled Polecat occurs in forested areas, and in Siberia, it inhabits the western foothills of the Altai and the Cuya steppe.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (ground squirrels Spermophilus sp., Gray Dwarf Hamsters Cricetulus migratorius, Libyan Jirds Meriones libycus, mice, voles, and rabbits), birds, reptiles, amphibians, snails, insects, and fruits. In Quetta and Kandahar, rodents, small birds,lizards, snails, and beetles are eaten. In Israel, Marbled Polecats show a high seasonal variability in the diet. During summer, mole crickets (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) make up 66% of the diet, whereas in winter, 62% of the diet is rodents, such as voles (Microtus guentheri), House Mice (Mus musculus), Lesser Blind Mole Rats (Spalax leococon ehrenbergi), and Meriones sp. Marbled Polecats may take small poultry. Excess food may be cached for later use. The eyesight of Marbled Polecats is quite weak and they rely principally on a well-developed sense of smell. They have two kinds of killing bites: the first is the penetration of the prey’s body by the canines, and the second is crushing the prey without canine penetration. To kill small vertebrate prey, Marbled Polecats crush the thorax. If the prey struggles, they may pin the prey down with the forepaws and deliver headshakes or follow up by a bite to head or neck. On large prey, such as GuineaPigs (Cavia porcellus), a Marbled Polecat bites the nape of the neck and eventually severs the spinal column at the base of the skull. With rats, it bites the throat. Fleeing prey are bitten dorsally, but defending prey are bitten on the head or neck.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes active during the day. Den/rest sites are in burrows of large ground squirrels or other rodents, or they dig their own dens. Marbled Polecats in Central Asia live in tunnel systems dug by the Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opinus). In Baluchistan, they live in burrows dug by the rodents or they may use underground irrigation tunnels. Sleeping chambers are 60-100 cmfrom the den entrance. In winter, they line the den with grass. When a Marbled Polecat digs, it presses its chin and hindpaws firmly to the ground and removes earth with its forelegs. Obstacles such as roots are pulled out with the teeth.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marbled Polecats are good climbers, but feed mainly on the ground. Nightly movements may be up to 1 km. They are solitary except during the breeding season. In Israel, home ranges were 0-5- 0-6 km?; there were some overlaps of ranges and some encounters between individuals, but each animal foraged and rested alone.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies Vp. peregusna is classified as Vulnerable. The major threat to this speciesis the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides and population declines in key prey species may also be threats. Small numbers of Marbled Polecats are harvested for fur in Pakistanand Lebanon.Bibliography.Ben-David (1998), Ben-David et al. (1991), Gorsuch & Lariviére (2005), Qumsiyeh (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." +038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,637,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7.xml,Ictonyx libycus,Ictonyx,libycus,,,Zorille de Libye @fr | Streifenwiesel @de | Huron del Sahara @es | Saharan Striped Weasel @en,"Mustela libyca Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Libya.Four subspecies are recognized.","I. l. libycus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833— Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia.I. l. multivittata Wagner, 1841— E Chadand C Sudan.I. l. oralis Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Egypt, Eritrea, and N Sudan.I. l. rothschildi Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.","Head-body 20.7-26 cm, tail 114- 18 cm; weight 200-600 g, adult males are slightly larger than females. The Saharan Striped Polecat has a black and white pelage, with poorly defined black and white stripes along the sides of the body. The head is black with a white patch on the upperlip; there is a large white mark on the forehead. The limbs are short. The tail is short and bushy, and mostly white except for the black tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a short rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","Sub-desert habitats, especially stony areas, steppes, and areas of sparse brush. Also found in cultivated areas and coastal sand dunes.","The diet apparently consists of rodents, small birds, eggs,lizards, and insects. Food is located by smell and by sound, and the front claws are used to dig up food items.","Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.",,"Mostly solitary.Breeding.Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. A poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Hufnagl (1972) | Niethammer (1987) | Rosevear (1974) | Setzer (1957) | Sitek (1995) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714199/files/figure.png,"24.Saharan Striped PolecatIctonyx libycusFrench:Zorille de Libye/ German:Streifenwiesel/ Spanish:Huron del SaharaOther common names:Saharan Striped WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela libyca Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Libya.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I. l. libycus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833— Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia.I. l. multivittata Wagner, 1841— E Chadand C Sudan.I. l. oralis Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Egypt, Eritrea, and N Sudan.I. l. rothschildi Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 20.7-26 cm, tail 114- 18 cm; weight 200-600 g, adult males are slightly larger than females. The Saharan Striped Polecat has a black and white pelage, with poorly defined black and white stripes along the sides of the body. The head is black with a white patch on the upperlip; there is a large white mark on the forehead. The limbs are short. The tail is short and bushy, and mostly white except for the black tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a short rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Sub-desert habitats, especially stony areas, steppes, and areas of sparse brush. Also found in cultivated areas and coastal sand dunes.Food and Feeding.The diet apparently consists of rodents, small birds, eggs,lizards, and insects. Food is located by smell and by sound, and the front claws are used to dig up food items.Activity pattern.Nocturnal. Rest sites are in burrows or rock crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mostly solitary.Breeding.Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. A poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Hufnagl (1972), Niethammer (1987), Rosevear (1974), Setzer (1957), Sitek (1995), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA43FFACCFA53ECEF81BF398,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,638,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA43FFACCFA53ECEF81BF398.xml,Poecilogale albinucha,Poecilogale,albinucha,Thomas,1883,Zorille a nugue blanche @fr | Weil3nackenwiesel @de | Huron de nuca blanca @es,"Zorrilla albinucha Gray, 1865, South Africa.Monotypic.",,"Head-body 27-33 cm(males), 24-32 cm(females), tail 13.8-20 cm(males), 14-15.8 cm(females); weight 283-380 g(males), 210-290 g(females), adult males are 35-50% heavier than females. The African Striped Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is black with contrasting dorsal white stripes; the white fur first divides into two lines, then into four distinct white to yellowish lines above the shoulders. The top of the head is white. The tail is long, brushy, and white. The feet are small, with sharp claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, and the rostrum is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 2/2, M 1/1 =28.","African Striped Weasels are found in forests, savannahs, grasslands, pine plantations, and cultivated land. They can be found up to 2200 m, but are more common below 1500 m. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, questionnaire surveys revealed that 75% of sightings occurred in grasslands, 19% in young pine plantations, and 6% in cultivated land.","The diet mainly consists of small mammals, particularly rodents, but also includes reptiles, insects, and birds’ eggs. Out of twelve stomachs obtained in KwaZulu-Natal, six contained small mammals (Mastomys natalensis, Rhabdomys pumailio, and Musminutoides). African Striped Weasels hunt by scent, with vision being used only in the last 50 cm. Their shape enables them to hunt inside the burrows of rodents. When prey is sighted, the weasel stops and then lunges at the prey; short chases may occur. In captivity, all prey were killed within seven minutes. Prey are seized by the back of the neck. African Striped Weasels do not shake the prey when attempting to kill; instead, they roll around and vigorously kick at the back of their victim, possibly dislocating the neck and immobilizing the prey. Although most killing bites are directed at the back of the head and the neck, females may use throat bites when killing large prey. In captivity, African Striped Weasels were unsuccessful in killing rats (Rattus) that were more than 108% the mass of the weasel. One weasel can consume 3-4 mice in a night, but surplus killing may occur. Prey may be cached for future consumption. Small mammals are eaten head first and are usually entirely consumed. Occasionally, the prey’s stomach and its contents are not eaten. The head,tail, legs, and dorsal skin of large rodents are typically not consumed.","Mating occurs in spring or summer. Females give birth to a litter of two or three, after a gestation of 30 days. The young are born in a burrow and weigh around 4 gat birth. The eyes open after seven weeks and the canines erupt at 35 days. The young are fully mobile and weaned after eleven weeks; they start killing prey at 13 weeks. Adult size is reached at 20 weeks, and sexual maturity is attained after eight months. Females rear their young without the assistance of males.","Mostly nocturnal, but activity may occur during the day. Rest sites are in holes, hollow logs, or within rock crevices. African Striped Weasels are powerful diggers and may dig their own dens.","African Striped Weasels are mostly solitary, but pairs or small groups are observed (typically a female with young). Females tolerate the proximity of males only during the mating season.Breeding.Mating occurs in spring or summer. Females give birth to a litter of two or three, after a gestation of 30 days. The young are born in a burrow and weigh around 4 gat birth. The eyes open after seven weeks and the canines erupt at 35 days. The young are fully mobile and weaned after eleven weeks; they start killing prey at 13 weeks. Adult size is reached at 20 weeks, and sexual maturity is attained after eight months. Females rear their young without the assistance of males.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The African Striped Weasel is considered uncommon. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","Ansell (1960a) | Lariviére (2001c) | Rowe-Rowe (1972, 1978a, 1978b, 1978c) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Stuart (1981) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714205/files/figure.png,"26.African Striped WeaselPoecilogale albinuchaFrench:Zorille a nugue blanche/ German:Weil3nackenwiesel/ Spanish:Huron de nuca blancaTaxonomy.Zorrilla albinucha Gray, 1865, South Africa.Monotypic.Distribution.C & S Africa from Angola, PR Congo, DR Congo, Uganda, and Kenyato Eastern CapeDescriptive notes.Head-body 27-33 cm(males), 24-32 cm(females), tail 13.8-20 cm(males), 14-15.8 cm(females); weight 283-380 g(males), 210-290 g(females), adult males are 35-50% heavier than females. The African Striped Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is black with contrasting dorsal white stripes; the white fur first divides into two lines, then into four distinct white to yellowish lines above the shoulders. The top of the head is white. The tail is long, brushy, and white. The feet are small, with sharp claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, and the rostrum is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 2/2, M 1/1 =28.Habitat.African Striped Weasels are found in forests, savannahs, grasslands, pine plantations, and cultivated land. They can be found up to 2200 m, but are more common below 1500 m. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, questionnaire surveys revealed that 75% of sightings occurred in grasslands, 19% in young pine plantations, and 6% in cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The diet mainly consists of small mammals, particularly rodents, but also includes reptiles, insects, and birds’ eggs. Out of twelve stomachs obtained in KwaZulu-Natal, six contained small mammals (Mastomys natalensis, Rhabdomys pumailio, and Musminutoides). African Striped Weasels hunt by scent, with vision being used only in the last 50 cm. Their shape enables them to hunt inside the burrows of rodents. When prey is sighted, the weasel stops and then lunges at the prey; short chases may occur. In captivity, all prey were killed within seven minutes. Prey are seized by the back of the neck. African Striped Weasels do not shake the prey when attempting to kill; instead, they roll around and vigorously kick at the back of their victim, possibly dislocating the neck and immobilizing the prey. Although most killing bites are directed at the back of the head and the neck, females may use throat bites when killing large prey. In captivity, African Striped Weasels were unsuccessful in killing rats (Rattus) that were more than 108% the mass of the weasel. One weasel can consume 3-4 mice in a night, but surplus killing may occur. Prey may be cached for future consumption. Small mammals are eaten head first and are usually entirely consumed. Occasionally, the prey’s stomach and its contents are not eaten. The head,tail, legs, and dorsal skin of large rodents are typically not consumed.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal, but activity may occur during the day. Rest sites are in holes, hollow logs, or within rock crevices. African Striped Weasels are powerful diggers and may dig their own dens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Striped Weasels are mostly solitary, but pairs or small groups are observed (typically a female with young). Females tolerate the proximity of males only during the mating season.Breeding.Mating occurs in spring or summer. Females give birth to a litter of two or three, after a gestation of 30 days. The young are born in a burrow and weigh around 4 gat birth. The eyes open after seven weeks and the canines erupt at 35 days. The young are fully mobile and weaned after eleven weeks; they start killing prey at 13 weeks. Adult size is reached at 20 weeks, and sexual maturity is attained after eight months. Females rear their young without the assistance of males.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The African Striped Weasel is considered uncommon. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Ansell (1960a), Lariviére (2001c), Rowe-Rowe (1972, 1978a, 1978b, 1978c), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,641,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921.xml,Lontra canadensis,Lontra,canadensis,,,Loutre du Canada @fr | Nordamerikanischer Fischotter @de | Nutria neértica @es | River Otter @en,"Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Seven subspecies are recognized.","L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776— E Canada(Maritime Provinces, Ontario& Quebec), NE USA(Mainethrough New York) and Great Lakes of USA(Michiganand Wisconsin).L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935— Alaska(Kodiak and Shuyak Is).L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823— E & SE USA.L. c. mira Goldman, 1935— S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW Canada(Vancouver I).L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W USAand W Canada.L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898— SW USA(Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico& Utah).","Head-body 70-73 cm(males), 58: 3-71.3 cm(females), tail 42-47 cm(males), 31.7-40 cm(females); weight 7.7-9.4 kg(males), 7.3-8.4 kg(females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American RiverOtter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.","North American RiverOtters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites.","The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American RiverOtter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American RiverOtters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American RiverOtters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of 11 km/h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.","North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.","Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.","North American RiverOtters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than 40 kmin a single day. Daily movements average 4-5 kmfor males and 2-3 kmfor females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American RiverOtters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American RiverOtters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach 275 km” for males and 135 km? for females. In south-eastern Minnesota, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per 4 kmof water in Idahoto one per 1-25 kmof coastal water in Alaska.On following pages: 29. Marine Otter (Lontrafelina); 30. Neotropical Otter (Lontralongicaudis); 31. Southern RiverOtter (Lontraprovocax); 32. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris); 33. Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); 34. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra); 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutrasumatrana); 36. African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis); 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus); 38. Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata).Breeding.North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.","CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in Mexico. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.","Gorman, Erb, McMillan & Martin (2006) | Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin & Homyack (2006) | Green (1932) | Hall (1981) | Lariviere & Walton (1998) | LeBlanc et al. (2007) | Melquist & Hornocker (1983) | Reid et al. (1994) | Serfass (1995) | Serfass & Rymon (1985) | Shannon (1989) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)",,"28.North American RiverOtterLontra canadensisFrench:Loutre du Canada/ German:Nordamerikanischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria neérticaOther common names:RiverOtterTaxonomy.Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776— E Canada(Maritime Provinces, Ontario& Quebec), NE USA(Mainethrough New York) and Great Lakes of USA(Michiganand Wisconsin).L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935— Alaska(Kodiak and Shuyak Is).L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823— E & SE USA.L. c. mira Goldman, 1935— S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW Canada(Vancouver I).L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W USAand W Canada.L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898— SW USA(Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico& Utah).Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-73 cm(males), 58: 3-71.3 cm(females), tail 42-47 cm(males), 31.7-40 cm(females); weight 7.7-9.4 kg(males), 7.3-8.4 kg(females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American RiverOtter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.Habitat.North American RiverOtters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American RiverOtter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American RiverOtters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American RiverOtters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of 11 km/h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.Movements, Home range and Social organization.North American RiverOtters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than 40 kmin a single day. Daily movements average 4-5 kmfor males and 2-3 kmfor females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American RiverOtters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American RiverOtters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach 275 km” for males and 135 km? for females. In south-eastern Minnesota, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per 4 kmof water in Idahoto one per 1-25 kmof coastal water in Alaska.On following pages: 29. Marine Otter (Lontrafelina); 30. Neotropical Otter (Lontralongicaudis); 31. Southern RiverOtter (Lontraprovocax); 32. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris); 33. Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); 34. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra); 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutrasumatrana); 36. African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis); 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus); 38. Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata).Breeding.North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in Mexico. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.Bibliography.Gorman, Erb, McMillan & Martin (2006), Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin & Homyack (2006), Green (1932), Hall (1981), Lariviere & Walton (1998), LeBlanc et al. (2007), Melquist & Hornocker (1983), Reid et al. (1994), Serfass (1995), Serfass & Rymon (1985), Shannon (1989), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,641,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921.xml,Lontra canadensis,Lontra,canadensis,,,Loutre du Canada @fr | Nordamerikanischer Fischotter @de | Nutria neértica @es | River Otter @en,"Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Seven subspecies are recognized.","L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776— E Canada(Maritime Provinces, Ontario& Quebec), NE USA(Mainethrough New York) and Great Lakes of USA(Michiganand Wisconsin).L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935— Alaska(Kodiak and Shuyak Is).L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823— E & SE USA.L. c. mira Goldman, 1935— S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW Canada(Vancouver I).L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W USAand W Canada.L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898— SW USA(Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico& Utah).","Head-body 70-73 cm(males), 58: 3-71.3 cm(females), tail 42-47 cm(males), 31.7-40 cm(females); weight 7.7-9.4 kg(males), 7.3-8.4 kg(females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American RiverOtter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.","North American RiverOtters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites.","The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American RiverOtter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American RiverOtters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American RiverOtters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of 11 km/h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.","North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.","Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.","North American RiverOtters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than 40 kmin a single day. Daily movements average 4-5 kmfor males and 2-3 kmfor females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American RiverOtters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American RiverOtters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach 275 km” for males and 135 km? for females. In south-eastern Minnesota, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per 4 kmof water in Idahoto one per 1-25 kmof coastal water in Alaska.On following pages: 29. Marine Otter (Lontrafelina); 30. Neotropical Otter (Lontralongicaudis); 31. Southern RiverOtter (Lontraprovocax); 32. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris); 33. Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); 34. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra); 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutrasumatrana); 36. African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis); 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus); 38. Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata).Breeding.North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.","CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in Mexico. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.","Gorman, Erb, McMillan & Martin (2006) | Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin & Homyack (2006) | Green (1932) | Hall (1981) | Lariviere & Walton (1998) | LeBlanc et al. (2007) | Melquist & Hornocker (1983) | Reid et al. (1994) | Serfass (1995) | Serfass & Rymon (1985) | Shannon (1989) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714211/files/figure.png,"28.North American RiverOtterLontra canadensisFrench:Loutre du Canada/ German:Nordamerikanischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria neérticaOther common names:RiverOtterTaxonomy.Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776— E Canada(Maritime Provinces, Ontario& Quebec), NE USA(Mainethrough New York) and Great Lakes of USA(Michiganand Wisconsin).L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935— Alaska(Kodiak and Shuyak Is).L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823— E & SE USA.L. c. mira Goldman, 1935— S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW Canada(Vancouver I).L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W USAand W Canada.L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898— SW USA(Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico& Utah).Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-73 cm(males), 58: 3-71.3 cm(females), tail 42-47 cm(males), 31.7-40 cm(females); weight 7.7-9.4 kg(males), 7.3-8.4 kg(females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American RiverOtter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.Habitat.North American RiverOtters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American RiverOtter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American RiverOtters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American RiverOtters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of 11 km/h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.Movements, Home range and Social organization.North American RiverOtters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than 40 kmin a single day. Daily movements average 4-5 kmfor males and 2-3 kmfor females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American RiverOtters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American RiverOtters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach 275 km” for males and 135 km? for females. In south-eastern Minnesota, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per 4 kmof water in Idahoto one per 1-25 kmof coastal water in Alaska.On following pages: 29. Marine Otter (Lontrafelina); 30. Neotropical Otter (Lontralongicaudis); 31. Southern RiverOtter (Lontraprovocax); 32. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris); 33. Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); 34. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra); 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutrasumatrana); 36. African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis); 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus); 38. Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata).Breeding.North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in Mexico. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.Bibliography.Gorman, Erb, McMillan & Martin (2006), Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin & Homyack (2006), Green (1932), Hall (1981), Lariviere & Walton (1998), LeBlanc et al. (2007), Melquist & Hornocker (1983), Reid et al. (1994), Serfass (1995), Serfass & Rymon (1985), Shannon (1989), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA46FFA9CAE93DF2F7AEFDBC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,641,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA46FFA9CAE93DF2F7AEFDBC.xml,Pteronura brasiliensis,Pteronura,brasiliensis,Zimmermann,1780,Loutre géante @fr | Riesenotter @de | Nutria gigante @es,"Mustela brasiliensis Gmelin, 1788, Brazil.Monotypic.","Amazon and Orinoco basins from Venezuelato Paraguayand S Brazil. Formerly also Argentinaand Uruguay, but now may be extinct there.","Head-body 100-130 cm(males), 100-120 cm(females), tail 45-65 cm; weight 26-32 kg(males), 22-26 kg(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Giant Otter is the largest South American otter. It has a broad and flattened head and large eyes. The pelage is reddish to dark brown or almost black. There are large and distinctive white to yellow markings on the upper chest, neck, throat, and lips that contrast sharply with the darker body; these patches may unite to form a large “bib”. The rhinarium is fully haired. Thetail is large and flattened dorsoventrally. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is massive and flat.","Giant Otters are found in slow-moving rivers and creeks within forests, swamps, and marshes. They also occur in lakes, reservoirs, and agricultural canals. Although Giant Otters may inhabit dark or murky water, they prefer clear water and waterways with gently sloping banks and good cover.","Primarily fish eaters; adults consume an estimated 3 kgoffish daily. The main fish species eaten are from the suborder Characoideiand are 10-60 cmin length. Other prey items are rare, but may include crabs, small mammals, amphibians, birds, and molluscs. There are records of Giant Otters eating large prey such as anacondas and other snakes, black caimans, and turtles. On the Jauaperi Riverin the central Brazilian Amazon, remains of fish were found in all spraints. The main fish groups were Perciformes(Cichlidae, 97-3%), Characiformes(86-5%) and Siluriformes (5-4%). The Characiformeswere represented mainly by Erythrinidae(Hoplias sp.90-6%), followed by Serrasalmidae (28%). The Anostomidae occurred with a frequency of 18:7%. On the Aquidauana River, the Characiformeswere the most frequent fish group, represented in 100% of all samples, followed by Siluriformes (66-6%) and Perciformes(33:3%). Prey is caught with the mouth and held in the forepaws while being consumed. Small fish may be eaten in the water, but larger prey are taken to shore.","The young are apparently born at the start of the dry season, from August to early October, although births may also occur from December to April. Gestation is 65-70 days, although evidence of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus has been observed in captivity. Litter size is up to five, usually one to three. Neonates weigh c. 200 gand measure c. 33 cm. They are able to eat solid food by three to four months and weaning occurs after nine months. The young remain with the parents until the birth of the next litter and probably for some time afterward. Adult size is reached after ten months and sexual maturity is attained at about two years.","Diurnal. Giant Otters frequently go ashore to groom, play or defecate. Rest sites are in burrows, under root systems, or under fallen trees. At certain points along a stream, areas of about 50 m* are cleared and used for resting and grooming. Dens may consist of one or more short tunnels that lead to a chamber about 1-2- 1-8 mwide. Nine vocalizations have been distinguished including screams of excitement and coos, given upon close intra-specific contact.","Giant Otters are excellent swimmers and seem clumsy on land; however, they are capable of moving considerable distances between waterways. Daily travel may reach 17 km. During the dry season, when the young are being reared, activity is generally restricted to one portion of a waterway. In the wet season, movements are far more extensive. Giant Otters live in family groups that consist of a mated adult pair, one or more subadults, and one or more young of the year. These groups may reach 20 individuals, but are usually four to eight. Solitary animals also occur as transients. Home ranges are 12-32 linear km of creeks or rivers, or 20 km? of lakes or reservoirs. The core area of the home range is defended actively by family members; this core area encompasses 2-10 kmof creek or 5 km” of lake. Both sexes regularly patrol and mark their territory; groups tend to avoid each other and fighting appears to be rare.Breeding.The young are apparently born at the start of the dry season, from August to early October, although births may also occur from December to April. Gestation is 65-70 days, although evidence of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus has been observed in captivity. Litter size is up to five, usually one to three. Neonates weigh c. 200 gand measure c. 33 cm. They are able to eat solid food by three to four months and weaning occurs after nine months. The young remain with the parents until the birth of the next litter and probably for some time afterward. Adult size is reached after ten months and sexual maturity is attained at about two years.","CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The Giant Otter is protected throughoutits distribution.The current total wild population is estimated at between 1000 and 5000 individuals. Major threats are habitat degradation, water pollution, and the ever-increasing encroachment of humans on their habitats, which may lead to a potential future reduction in population size of around 50% over the next 20 years. Other threats for this species are the continued illegal killing for their skins or meat, captures for the zoo trade, or robbing of dens for cubs to be sold as pets. There are also conflicts with fishermen as otters are perceived to reduce available fish stock, although studies have shown little overlap in otter prey species and those of commercial interest. Canine diseases that are transferred through domestic livestock, such as parvovirus and distemper, are also a threat.",Autuori & Deutsch (1977) | Brecht-Munn & Munn (1988) | Carter & Rosas (1997) | Chebez (2008) | Corredor & Tigreros (2006) | Defler (1986b) | Duplaix (1980) | IUCN(2008) | Laidler & Laidler (1983) | Parera (1992) | Rosas et al. (1999) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714209/files/figure.png,"27.Giant OtterPteronura brasiliensisFrench:Loutre géante/ German:Riesenotter/ Spanish:Nutria giganteTaxonomy.Mustela brasiliensis Gmelin, 1788, Brazil.Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon and Orinoco basins from Venezuelato Paraguayand S Brazil. Formerly also Argentinaand Uruguay, but now may be extinct there.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-130 cm(males), 100-120 cm(females), tail 45-65 cm; weight 26-32 kg(males), 22-26 kg(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Giant Otter is the largest South American otter. It has a broad and flattened head and large eyes. The pelage is reddish to dark brown or almost black. There are large and distinctive white to yellow markings on the upper chest, neck, throat, and lips that contrast sharply with the darker body; these patches may unite to form a large “bib”. The rhinarium is fully haired. Thetail is large and flattened dorsoventrally. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is massive and flat.Habitat.Giant Otters are found in slow-moving rivers and creeks within forests, swamps, and marshes. They also occur in lakes, reservoirs, and agricultural canals. Although Giant Otters may inhabit dark or murky water, they prefer clear water and waterways with gently sloping banks and good cover.Food and Feeding.Primarily fish eaters; adults consume an estimated 3 kgoffish daily. The main fish species eaten are from the suborder Characoideiand are 10-60 cmin length. Other prey items are rare, but may include crabs, small mammals, amphibians, birds, and molluscs. There are records of Giant Otters eating large prey such as anacondas and other snakes, black caimans, and turtles. On the Jauaperi Riverin the central Brazilian Amazon, remains of fish were found in all spraints. The main fish groups were Perciformes(Cichlidae, 97-3%), Characiformes(86-5%) and Siluriformes (5-4%). The Characiformeswere represented mainly by Erythrinidae(Hoplias sp.90-6%), followed by Serrasalmidae (28%). The Anostomidae occurred with a frequency of 18:7%. On the Aquidauana River, the Characiformeswere the most frequent fish group, represented in 100% of all samples, followed by Siluriformes (66-6%) and Perciformes(33:3%). Prey is caught with the mouth and held in the forepaws while being consumed. Small fish may be eaten in the water, but larger prey are taken to shore.Activity patterns.Diurnal. Giant Otters frequently go ashore to groom, play or defecate. Rest sites are in burrows, under root systems, or under fallen trees. At certain points along a stream, areas of about 50 m* are cleared and used for resting and grooming. Dens may consist of one or more short tunnels that lead to a chamber about 1-2- 1-8 mwide. Nine vocalizations have been distinguished including screams of excitement and coos, given upon close intra-specific contact.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Otters are excellent swimmers and seem clumsy on land; however, they are capable of moving considerable distances between waterways. Daily travel may reach 17 km. During the dry season, when the young are being reared, activity is generally restricted to one portion of a waterway. In the wet season, movements are far more extensive. Giant Otters live in family groups that consist of a mated adult pair, one or more subadults, and one or more young of the year. These groups may reach 20 individuals, but are usually four to eight. Solitary animals also occur as transients. Home ranges are 12-32 linear km of creeks or rivers, or 20 km? of lakes or reservoirs. The core area of the home range is defended actively by family members; this core area encompasses 2-10 kmof creek or 5 km” of lake. Both sexes regularly patrol and mark their territory; groups tend to avoid each other and fighting appears to be rare.Breeding.The young are apparently born at the start of the dry season, from August to early October, although births may also occur from December to April. Gestation is 65-70 days, although evidence of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus has been observed in captivity. Litter size is up to five, usually one to three. Neonates weigh c. 200 gand measure c. 33 cm. They are able to eat solid food by three to four months and weaning occurs after nine months. The young remain with the parents until the birth of the next litter and probably for some time afterward. Adult size is reached after ten months and sexual maturity is attained at about two years.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The Giant Otter is protected throughoutits distribution.The current total wild population is estimated at between 1000 and 5000 individuals. Major threats are habitat degradation, water pollution, and the ever-increasing encroachment of humans on their habitats, which may lead to a potential future reduction in population size of around 50% over the next 20 years. Other threats for this species are the continued illegal killing for their skins or meat, captures for the zoo trade, or robbing of dens for cubs to be sold as pets. There are also conflicts with fishermen as otters are perceived to reduce available fish stock, although studies have shown little overlap in otter prey species and those of commercial interest. Canine diseases that are transferred through domestic livestock, such as parvovirus and distemper, are also a threat.Bibliography.Autuori & Deutsch (1977), Brecht-Munn & Munn (1988), Carter & Rosas (1997), Chebez (2008), Corredor & Tigreros (2006), Defler (1986b), Duplaix (1980), IUCN(2008), Laidler & Laidler (1983), Parera (1992), Rosas et al. (1999), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,642,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62.xml,Lontra longicaudis,Lontra,longicaudis,Gray,1843,Loutre néotropicale @fr | Siidamerikanischer Fischotter @de | Nutria neotropical @es,"Lutra longicaudis Olfers, 1818, Brazil.Three subspecies are recognized.","L. l. longicaudis Olfers, 1818— Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, S Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.L. l. annectens Major, 1897— Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.L. l. enudris Cuvier, 1823— NE Brazil, the Guyanas, and Trinidad.","Head-body 36-66 cm,tail 37-84 cm; weight 5-15 kg, adult males are 20-25% larger than females. The Neotropical Otter is heavily built, with a long body, short limbs, and fully webbed feet. The pelage is dark brown, with a gray neck and throat. The muzzle is broad, with a yellowish white tip and long vibrissae on each side. The skull is heavy, long, and flat.","Neotropical Otters are found in fast flowing, clear rivers and streams, in both deciduous and evergreen forests, at elevations up to 3000 m. They prefer waterways with clear water, abundant waterside vegetation, and high availability of potential den sites; they are rare or absent from sluggish, murky, lowland waters. In Northern Mexico, along a 30 kmstretch ofriver, the habitat preferred by a Neotropical Otter included pools that averaged more than 0-8 mdeep, more than 14- 6 mwide, with over 64% understory vegetation cover, and rock talus/vegetation cover within 4-8 mof the water's edge.","The diet is mainly fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. In southern Brazil, spraint analysis revealed a diet comprising mainly fish (including Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, Pimelodidae, Auchenipteridae, and Erythrinidae), and also mammals and insects. In the coastal plain of Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, spraints contained fish (mainly Hopliasmalabaricus and Geophagus brasiliensis) and crustaceans (mainly the river crab Trichodactylus fluviatilis). The presence of fruits, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the diet was occasional and opportunistic. On Ibera Lake, Argentina, 205 spraints contained mainly fish (Cichlidae, Characidae, Synbranchidae, Loricariidae, and Erythrinidae), but also crustaceans and molluscs. Seasonal variation was observed in the diet: in the summer, crustaceans and vertebrates (other than fish) increased. A higher percentage of benthic fish species was also observed in the summer, while pelagic and benthopelagic species increased in the winter. Such dietary changes may have resulted from the different habitat used in different seasons, from the lake coast in winter towards a more internal marshy area in summer. Foraging dives last 20-30 seconds. Small prey are eaten while in an upright position at the water’s surface; large prey are taken ashore.","Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.","Mainly diurnal, with activity peaks in the middle or late afternoon. May become nocturnal in areas of high human activity. Rest sites are in natural cavities along riverbanks, in excavated burrows, or in dense grass. In Brazil, two large caves were also used as shelters and to raise young. Neotropical Otters mainly use rest sites located high on riverbanks, probably because they are less vulnerable to flooding. Sprainting sites are usually on solid, high and dry areas, in close proximity to deep water; these sites include logs, root systems, rocks, sand bars, and planks under bridges.","Neotropical Otters are graceful swimmers and divers, and are seldom seen out of the water. On land, they move with a humping gait, with the head and tail carried low. Neotropical Otters are solitary, but breeding pairs and females with young are seen occasionally. Population densities vary from 0-8 to 2-8 otters per km of shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish.","CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish. Conservation goals should aim at reducing hunting pressure, protecting areas, and enacting stricter regulations to prevent water pollution.",Arcila& Ramirez (2004) | Gallo (1991) | Helder & Ker De Andrade (1997) | Kasper et al. (2004) | Lariviere (1999b) | Mondolfi (1970) | Pardini & Trajano (1999) | Parera (1993) | Passamani & Camargo (1995) | Quadros & Monteiro-Filho (2001) | Van Zyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005),,"30.Neotropical OtterLontra longicaudisFrench:Loutre néotropicale/ German:Siidamerikanischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria neotropicalTaxonomy.Lutra longicaudis Olfers, 1818, Brazil.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. l. longicaudis Olfers, 1818— Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, S Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.L. l. annectens Major, 1897— Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.L. l. enudris Cuvier, 1823— NE Brazil, the Guyanas, and Trinidad.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-66 cm,tail 37-84 cm; weight 5-15 kg, adult males are 20-25% larger than females. The Neotropical Otter is heavily built, with a long body, short limbs, and fully webbed feet. The pelage is dark brown, with a gray neck and throat. The muzzle is broad, with a yellowish white tip and long vibrissae on each side. The skull is heavy, long, and flat.Habitat.Neotropical Otters are found in fast flowing, clear rivers and streams, in both deciduous and evergreen forests, at elevations up to 3000 m. They prefer waterways with clear water, abundant waterside vegetation, and high availability of potential den sites; they are rare or absent from sluggish, murky, lowland waters. In Northern Mexico, along a 30 kmstretch ofriver, the habitat preferred by a Neotropical Otter included pools that averaged more than 0-8 mdeep, more than 14- 6 mwide, with over 64% understory vegetation cover, and rock talus/vegetation cover within 4-8 mof the water's edge.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. In southern Brazil, spraint analysis revealed a diet comprising mainly fish (including Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, Pimelodidae, Auchenipteridae, and Erythrinidae), and also mammals and insects. In the coastal plain of Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, spraints contained fish (mainly Hopliasmalabaricus and Geophagus brasiliensis) and crustaceans (mainly the river crab Trichodactylus fluviatilis). The presence of fruits, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the diet was occasional and opportunistic. On Ibera Lake, Argentina, 205 spraints contained mainly fish (Cichlidae, Characidae, Synbranchidae, Loricariidae, and Erythrinidae), but also crustaceans and molluscs. Seasonal variation was observed in the diet: in the summer, crustaceans and vertebrates (other than fish) increased. A higher percentage of benthic fish species was also observed in the summer, while pelagic and benthopelagic species increased in the winter. Such dietary changes may have resulted from the different habitat used in different seasons, from the lake coast in winter towards a more internal marshy area in summer. Foraging dives last 20-30 seconds. Small prey are eaten while in an upright position at the water’s surface; large prey are taken ashore.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, with activity peaks in the middle or late afternoon. May become nocturnal in areas of high human activity. Rest sites are in natural cavities along riverbanks, in excavated burrows, or in dense grass. In Brazil, two large caves were also used as shelters and to raise young. Neotropical Otters mainly use rest sites located high on riverbanks, probably because they are less vulnerable to flooding. Sprainting sites are usually on solid, high and dry areas, in close proximity to deep water; these sites include logs, root systems, rocks, sand bars, and planks under bridges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Neotropical Otters are graceful swimmers and divers, and are seldom seen out of the water. On land, they move with a humping gait, with the head and tail carried low. Neotropical Otters are solitary, but breeding pairs and females with young are seen occasionally. Population densities vary from 0-8 to 2-8 otters per km of shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish. Conservation goals should aim at reducing hunting pressure, protecting areas, and enacting stricter regulations to prevent water pollution.Bibliography.Arcila& Ramirez (2004), Gallo (1991), Helder & Ker De Andrade (1997), Kasper et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999b), Mondolfi (1970), Pardini & Trajano (1999), Parera (1993), Passamani & Camargo (1995), Quadros & Monteiro-Filho (2001), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,642,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62.xml,Lontra longicaudis,Lontra,longicaudis,Gray,1843,Loutre néotropicale @fr | Siidamerikanischer Fischotter @de | Nutria neotropical @es,"Lutra longicaudis Olfers, 1818, Brazil.Three subspecies are recognized.","L. l. longicaudis Olfers, 1818— Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, S Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.L. l. annectens Major, 1897— Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.L. l. enudris Cuvier, 1823— NE Brazil, the Guyanas, and Trinidad.","Head-body 36-66 cm,tail 37-84 cm; weight 5-15 kg, adult males are 20-25% larger than females. The Neotropical Otter is heavily built, with a long body, short limbs, and fully webbed feet. The pelage is dark brown, with a gray neck and throat. The muzzle is broad, with a yellowish white tip and long vibrissae on each side. The skull is heavy, long, and flat.","Neotropical Otters are found in fast flowing, clear rivers and streams, in both deciduous and evergreen forests, at elevations up to 3000 m. They prefer waterways with clear water, abundant waterside vegetation, and high availability of potential den sites; they are rare or absent from sluggish, murky, lowland waters. In Northern Mexico, along a 30 kmstretch ofriver, the habitat preferred by a Neotropical Otter included pools that averaged more than 0-8 mdeep, more than 14- 6 mwide, with over 64% understory vegetation cover, and rock talus/vegetation cover within 4-8 mof the water's edge.","The diet is mainly fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. In southern Brazil, spraint analysis revealed a diet comprising mainly fish (including Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, Pimelodidae, Auchenipteridae, and Erythrinidae), and also mammals and insects. In the coastal plain of Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, spraints contained fish (mainly Hopliasmalabaricus and Geophagus brasiliensis) and crustaceans (mainly the river crab Trichodactylus fluviatilis). The presence of fruits, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the diet was occasional and opportunistic. On Ibera Lake, Argentina, 205 spraints contained mainly fish (Cichlidae, Characidae, Synbranchidae, Loricariidae, and Erythrinidae), but also crustaceans and molluscs. Seasonal variation was observed in the diet: in the summer, crustaceans and vertebrates (other than fish) increased. A higher percentage of benthic fish species was also observed in the summer, while pelagic and benthopelagic species increased in the winter. Such dietary changes may have resulted from the different habitat used in different seasons, from the lake coast in winter towards a more internal marshy area in summer. Foraging dives last 20-30 seconds. Small prey are eaten while in an upright position at the water’s surface; large prey are taken ashore.","Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.","Mainly diurnal, with activity peaks in the middle or late afternoon. May become nocturnal in areas of high human activity. Rest sites are in natural cavities along riverbanks, in excavated burrows, or in dense grass. In Brazil, two large caves were also used as shelters and to raise young. Neotropical Otters mainly use rest sites located high on riverbanks, probably because they are less vulnerable to flooding. Sprainting sites are usually on solid, high and dry areas, in close proximity to deep water; these sites include logs, root systems, rocks, sand bars, and planks under bridges.","Neotropical Otters are graceful swimmers and divers, and are seldom seen out of the water. On land, they move with a humping gait, with the head and tail carried low. Neotropical Otters are solitary, but breeding pairs and females with young are seen occasionally. Population densities vary from 0-8 to 2-8 otters per km of shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish.","CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish. Conservation goals should aim at reducing hunting pressure, protecting areas, and enacting stricter regulations to prevent water pollution.",Arcila& Ramirez (2004) | Gallo (1991) | Helder & Ker De Andrade (1997) | Kasper et al. (2004) | Lariviere (1999b) | Mondolfi (1970) | Pardini & Trajano (1999) | Parera (1993) | Passamani & Camargo (1995) | Quadros & Monteiro-Filho (2001) | Van Zyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714217/files/figure.png,"30.Neotropical OtterLontra longicaudisFrench:Loutre néotropicale/ German:Siidamerikanischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria neotropicalTaxonomy.Lutra longicaudis Olfers, 1818, Brazil.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. l. longicaudis Olfers, 1818— Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, S Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.L. l. annectens Major, 1897— Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.L. l. enudris Cuvier, 1823— NE Brazil, the Guyanas, and Trinidad.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-66 cm,tail 37-84 cm; weight 5-15 kg, adult males are 20-25% larger than females. The Neotropical Otter is heavily built, with a long body, short limbs, and fully webbed feet. The pelage is dark brown, with a gray neck and throat. The muzzle is broad, with a yellowish white tip and long vibrissae on each side. The skull is heavy, long, and flat.Habitat.Neotropical Otters are found in fast flowing, clear rivers and streams, in both deciduous and evergreen forests, at elevations up to 3000 m. They prefer waterways with clear water, abundant waterside vegetation, and high availability of potential den sites; they are rare or absent from sluggish, murky, lowland waters. In Northern Mexico, along a 30 kmstretch ofriver, the habitat preferred by a Neotropical Otter included pools that averaged more than 0-8 mdeep, more than 14- 6 mwide, with over 64% understory vegetation cover, and rock talus/vegetation cover within 4-8 mof the water's edge.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. In southern Brazil, spraint analysis revealed a diet comprising mainly fish (including Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, Pimelodidae, Auchenipteridae, and Erythrinidae), and also mammals and insects. In the coastal plain of Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, spraints contained fish (mainly Hopliasmalabaricus and Geophagus brasiliensis) and crustaceans (mainly the river crab Trichodactylus fluviatilis). The presence of fruits, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the diet was occasional and opportunistic. On Ibera Lake, Argentina, 205 spraints contained mainly fish (Cichlidae, Characidae, Synbranchidae, Loricariidae, and Erythrinidae), but also crustaceans and molluscs. Seasonal variation was observed in the diet: in the summer, crustaceans and vertebrates (other than fish) increased. A higher percentage of benthic fish species was also observed in the summer, while pelagic and benthopelagic species increased in the winter. Such dietary changes may have resulted from the different habitat used in different seasons, from the lake coast in winter towards a more internal marshy area in summer. Foraging dives last 20-30 seconds. Small prey are eaten while in an upright position at the water’s surface; large prey are taken ashore.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, with activity peaks in the middle or late afternoon. May become nocturnal in areas of high human activity. Rest sites are in natural cavities along riverbanks, in excavated burrows, or in dense grass. In Brazil, two large caves were also used as shelters and to raise young. Neotropical Otters mainly use rest sites located high on riverbanks, probably because they are less vulnerable to flooding. Sprainting sites are usually on solid, high and dry areas, in close proximity to deep water; these sites include logs, root systems, rocks, sand bars, and planks under bridges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Neotropical Otters are graceful swimmers and divers, and are seldom seen out of the water. On land, they move with a humping gait, with the head and tail carried low. Neotropical Otters are solitary, but breeding pairs and females with young are seen occasionally. Population densities vary from 0-8 to 2-8 otters per km of shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish. Conservation goals should aim at reducing hunting pressure, protecting areas, and enacting stricter regulations to prevent water pollution.Bibliography.Arcila& Ramirez (2004), Gallo (1991), Helder & Ker De Andrade (1997), Kasper et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999b), Mondolfi (1970), Pardini & Trajano (1999), Parera (1993), Passamani & Camargo (1995), Quadros & Monteiro-Filho (2001), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA47FFA8CAB33B0EF993FBD4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,642,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA47FFA8CAB33B0EF993FBD4.xml,Lontra felina,Lontra,felina,Gray,1843,Loutre chungungo @fr | Stidamerikanischer Meerotter @de | Chungungo @es,"Mustela felina Molina, 1782, Chile.The Marine Otter was previously included in the genus Lutra. Monotypic.","Pacific coast from N Peruto S Chile, and extreme S of ArgentinePatagonia.","Head-body 53.3-78.7 cm, tail 30-36.2 cm; weight 3.2-5.8 kg. The smallest of the South American otters. The pelage is dark brown through-out except for a grayish neck and throat. Large vibrissae occur on each upperlip. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is small and flat, with a broad rostrum.","Marine Otters are found in marine environments, along rocky coasts that harbor a high diversity of prey. They spend most of their time within 150 mof shore, but occasionally may venture into freshwater tributaries flowing into the sea.","The diet is primarily crustaceans, molluscs, and fish, but also includes birds, small mammals, and fruit. Along the Chilean coast, the diet consists of crabs (69-8%), fish (19:9%), shrimp (6:4%), and molluscs (3-9%). On the Valdivian coast in the south of Chile, spraints contained 25 species: 52% crustaceans, 40% fish, and 8% molluscs. Marine Otters showed opportunistic feeding behavior, selecting prey seasonally according to their availability. Marine Otters fish by first swimming to a hunting area, where they then dive underwater for 6-64 seconds. Captured prey are consumed in the waterif they are small enough to be handled easily, or taken ashore if larger. Crabs are almost always taken ashore. Prey can be carried in the mouth, or carried on the belly while swimming dorsally. Unlike Sea Otters, Marine Otters do not use rocks as anvils to crack open bivalves or shellfish. At Isla Choros, northern Chile, Marine Otters spent more time foraging in a wave-protected site compared with a wave-exposed habitat. Successful dives reached 26-9% in the wave-exposed habitat and 38-2% in the wave-protected habitat. Foraging dives were 18% shorter in wave-exposed as compared with wave-protected habitat.","Mating occurs in December orJanuary. Gestation lasts 60-65 days and births take place in January, February, or March. Females give birth in rocky caves; these dens are spaces between boulders that remain above water even at high tide, and many have underwater entrances. Litter size is two to four. The young remain with their mother for up to ten months.","Mainly diurnal. Marine Otters spend about 40% of their time hunting and 60% resting or grooming. They make extensive use of caves, rock crevices, and natural cavities for resting sites. Many areas used for resting at low tide are underwater during high tides.","Marine Otters are strong swimmers, but their daily movements occur within 150 mofthe coast. Long coastal movements are not documented. Marine Otters are solitary and seldom hunt in groups; observed groups are likely to consist of a female with her young. Among adults, home ranges overlap. Six Marine Otters were radio-tracked in central Chile. Females exhibited intra-sexualterritoriality, but there was no territoriality between males or between sexes. Home ranges were less than 4134 mlong and less than 110 mwide; range size did not differ between sexes. Marine Otters concentrated their activity in the littoral zone and spent 81% oftheir time on land, mostly resting. Core areas were associated with resting places and dens. Population density varies from 0-04-10 otters per km of coastline.Breeding.Mating occurs in December orJanuary. Gestation lasts 60-65 days and births take place in January, February, or March. Females give birth in rocky caves; these dens are spaces between boulders that remain above water even at high tide, and many have underwater entrances. Litter size is two to four. The young remain with their mother for up to ten months.","CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. It is estimated that fewer than 1000 Marine Otters remain, including a Peruvian population of 200-300. This species is protected in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Major threats include human occupation of the coast, water pollution, and illegal killing for their pelts or by fisherman who blame Marine Otters for the reduction of local fish or shrimp populations.","Castilla (1981) | Eisenberg (1989) | Lariviere (1998) | Medina(1995) | Medina, Boher et al. (2007) | Medina, Rodriguez et al. (2004) | Ostfeld et al. (1989) | Sielfeld (1983) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714213/files/figure.png,"29.Marine OtterLontra felinaFrench:Loutre chungungo/ German:Stidamerikanischer Meerotter/ Spanish:ChungungoTaxonomy.Mustela felina Molina, 1782, Chile.The Marine Otter was previously included in the genus Lutra. Monotypic.Distribution.Pacific coast from N Peruto S Chile, and extreme S of ArgentinePatagonia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 53.3-78.7 cm, tail 30-36.2 cm; weight 3.2-5.8 kg. The smallest of the South American otters. The pelage is dark brown through-out except for a grayish neck and throat. Large vibrissae occur on each upperlip. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is small and flat, with a broad rostrum.Habitat.Marine Otters are found in marine environments, along rocky coasts that harbor a high diversity of prey. They spend most of their time within 150 mof shore, but occasionally may venture into freshwater tributaries flowing into the sea.Food and Feeding.The diet is primarily crustaceans, molluscs, and fish, but also includes birds, small mammals, and fruit. Along the Chilean coast, the diet consists of crabs (69-8%), fish (19:9%), shrimp (6:4%), and molluscs (3-9%). On the Valdivian coast in the south of Chile, spraints contained 25 species: 52% crustaceans, 40% fish, and 8% molluscs. Marine Otters showed opportunistic feeding behavior, selecting prey seasonally according to their availability. Marine Otters fish by first swimming to a hunting area, where they then dive underwater for 6-64 seconds. Captured prey are consumed in the waterif they are small enough to be handled easily, or taken ashore if larger. Crabs are almost always taken ashore. Prey can be carried in the mouth, or carried on the belly while swimming dorsally. Unlike Sea Otters, Marine Otters do not use rocks as anvils to crack open bivalves or shellfish. At Isla Choros, northern Chile, Marine Otters spent more time foraging in a wave-protected site compared with a wave-exposed habitat. Successful dives reached 26-9% in the wave-exposed habitat and 38-2% in the wave-protected habitat. Foraging dives were 18% shorter in wave-exposed as compared with wave-protected habitat.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal. Marine Otters spend about 40% of their time hunting and 60% resting or grooming. They make extensive use of caves, rock crevices, and natural cavities for resting sites. Many areas used for resting at low tide are underwater during high tides.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marine Otters are strong swimmers, but their daily movements occur within 150 mofthe coast. Long coastal movements are not documented. Marine Otters are solitary and seldom hunt in groups; observed groups are likely to consist of a female with her young. Among adults, home ranges overlap. Six Marine Otters were radio-tracked in central Chile. Females exhibited intra-sexualterritoriality, but there was no territoriality between males or between sexes. Home ranges were less than 4134 mlong and less than 110 mwide; range size did not differ between sexes. Marine Otters concentrated their activity in the littoral zone and spent 81% oftheir time on land, mostly resting. Core areas were associated with resting places and dens. Population density varies from 0-04-10 otters per km of coastline.Breeding.Mating occurs in December orJanuary. Gestation lasts 60-65 days and births take place in January, February, or March. Females give birth in rocky caves; these dens are spaces between boulders that remain above water even at high tide, and many have underwater entrances. Litter size is two to four. The young remain with their mother for up to ten months.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. It is estimated that fewer than 1000 Marine Otters remain, including a Peruvian population of 200-300. This species is protected in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Major threats include human occupation of the coast, water pollution, and illegal killing for their pelts or by fisherman who blame Marine Otters for the reduction of local fish or shrimp populations.Bibliography.Castilla (1981), Eisenberg (1989), Lariviere (1998), Medina(1995), Medina, Boher et al. (2007), Medina, Rodriguez et al. (2004), Ostfeld et al. (1989), Sielfeld (1983), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,643,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC.xml,Enhydra lutris,Enhydra,lutris,,,Loutre de mer @fr | Meerotter @de | Nutria marina @es,"Mustela lutris Linnaeus, 1758, Kamchatka, Russia.Three subspecies are recognized.","E. l. lutris Linnaeus, 1758— NE Russia(Commander Is, Kamchatka, Kurile Is & SakhalinI).E. l. kenyoni Wilson, 1991— Aleutian Is through Alaska and W Canada(Vancouver I) to W USA(Washington).E. l. nereis Merriam, 1904— USA(California).","Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 25-37 cm; weight 21-45 kg(males), 14-33 kg(females). The Sea Otter is one of the largest species within the Mustelidae. Sea Otters have long bodies and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown to dark brown, with a gray or creamy-colored head, throat, and chest. The underfur is very dense, averaging 100,000 hairs per cm®. The head is wide and blunt, with long and thick vibrissae on the upper lips. The ears are small and set low to the sides, and capable of closing when the otter dives. The tail is slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, but uniform in thickness from the base to tip. All four feet are webbed and clawed. There is one pair of mammae. A fold of skin in the armpits enables the Sea Otter to transport prey at sea while foraging. The Sea Otter lacks anal glands. The skull is flat, broad and strong. Dental formula: 1 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 32. The molars are broad and flat, with rounded crowns. This is the only carnivore species with four (instead ofsix) lowerincisors.","Sea Otters are found in coastal marine habitats from sheltered and sandy bays to rocky shorelines exposed to rough seas. Although marine mammals, they rarely venture more than one km from shore. Typically, they live and forage in waters at depths of up to 100 m, but the highest densities of Sea Otters occur in waters less than 40 mdeep.","The diet is mostly marine invertebrates such as abalones, sea urchins, crabs, and molluscs. Other prey include squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, scallops, and, very occasionally, fish. In the northern Kodiak Archipelago, clams were the most frequently identified prey (57-67%, mostly Saxidomus giganteus); mussels (Mytilus sp.), crabs (primarily Telmessus sp.), and green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) contributed 25% to the diet. On the north side of the AlaskaPeninsula, the dominant prey species in 50 spraints were mussels (Mytilus edulis), followed by three species of clams (Siliqua sp., Spisula polynyma, and Tellina lutea), sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and helmet crabs (Telmessus cheiragonus). In south-east Alaska, butter clams (S. giganteus) are the major prey items. Sea Otters on the outer coast of Washingtonfeed heavily on bivalves (63%) and have a diverse diet consisting of several prey groups. In contrast, Sea Otters in the Strait ofJuan de Fuca have a restricted diet dominated by more than 60% red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), with only two other prey species comprising more than 10% of their diet. Sea Otters forage in both rocky and soft-sediment areas on or near the ocean floor. They have good underwater vision and most prey is captured by sight. Prey hiding under rocks or in crevices may also be captured by feeling with the forefeet. Underwater dives are sustained by lungs that are 2-3 times larger than those of similarsized terrestrial mammals. Most hunting dives last 50-90 seconds. In coastal Washington, the average dive time was 55 seconds and average surface time was 45 seconds, irrespective of dive success. At least 77% of all dives were successful in capturing prey. Prey capture success was significantly lower for subadults (63%) than adults (82%). Sea Otters break the exoskeleton of large or hard-shelled prey by hitting the prey item on a rock carried by the otter on its belly. Sea Otters face a tremendous thermoregulatory challenge because of their constant life at sea. When in water, buoyancy and insulation are provided by their fur and the air bubbles trapped within it. The integrity of their pelage is thus essential to thermoregulation. Their metabolic heat production is 2-3 times greater than that of similar-sized terrestrial mammals. To sustain such heat production requires that Sea Otters consume 20-33% of their body mass in food daily. Sea Otters can drink seawater, and their kidneys produce very concentrated urine to avoid unnecessary water loss.","Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.","Generally diurnal, with peaks in activity at dawn and dusk. Daytime foraging increases when females care for young. In Prince William Sound, Alaska, more time was spent foraging (30%) than on any other activity, and foraging bouts were longer than all other activities. Sea Otters rest by floating belly-up in the water with their feet out of the water. They sometimes rest on rocks near the water and often spend the night in a kelp bed, lying under strands of kelp to avoid drifting while sleeping. Ten vocalizations have been described for Sea Otters including screams of distress (heard especially when mothers and young are separated) and coos (heard mostly when individuals are content or in familiar company).","Sea Otters can spend their entire life at sea, and their movements on land are awkward. In the water, they are graceful and can move at speeds of 1- 1-5 km/h at the surface and up to 9 km/h underwater. Annual total movements of both sexes frequently cover 50-100 km. Sea Otters are basically solitary, but they sometimes rest in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, and groups may occur at feeding areas. They aggregate by sex and age, with males and females occupying separate sections of coastline. During the breeding season, some males move into the areas occupied by females and establish territories. Male territories are usually about 20-50 ha; female home ranges may be twice as large. These territories typically are located in prime feeding or resting areas, locations that are attractive to breeding females. The boundaries are vigorously patrolled and intruding males are repulsed, but serious fighting is rare. The ownerofa territory seeks to mate with any female that enters, though sometimes a pair bond is formed for a few days or weeks.Breeding.Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.","CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. Sea Otters are hunted for their fur, which has led to a large reduction in local populations and their distribution. Extirpated in Japan(coastal Hokkaido) and Mexico(Baja California), but now translocations have now reestablised Sea Otters in south-east Alaska, south-west Canada(Vancouver I), and north-west USA(Washingtonand Oregon). They are legally harvested in Alaska, with the annual harvest slightly exceeding 1000 animals. Sea Otters are also persecuted as perceived competitors for shellfish. In the last few decades, massive oil spills, such as that of the Exxon Valdez in 1989, have also decimated Sea Otter populations.",Bodkin (2003) | Doroff & DeGange (1994) | Estes (1980) | Estes & Palmisano (1974) | Gentry & Peterson (1967) | Green & Brueggeman (1991) | Hall & Schaller (1964) | Hattori et al. (2005) | IUCN(2008) | Kenyon (1969) | Pearson & Davis (2005) | Pearson et al. (2006) | Sandegren et al. (1973) | Shimek & Monk (1977) | Wilson et al. (1991) | Wozencraft (2005),,"32.Sea OtterEnhydra lutrisFrench:Loutre de mer/ German:Meerotter/ Spanish:Nutria marinaTaxonomy.Mustela lutris Linnaeus, 1758, Kamchatka, Russia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. l. lutris Linnaeus, 1758— NE Russia(Commander Is, Kamchatka, Kurile Is & SakhalinI).E. l. kenyoni Wilson, 1991— Aleutian Is through Alaska and W Canada(Vancouver I) to W USA(Washington).E. l. nereis Merriam, 1904— USA(California).Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 25-37 cm; weight 21-45 kg(males), 14-33 kg(females). The Sea Otter is one of the largest species within the Mustelidae. Sea Otters have long bodies and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown to dark brown, with a gray or creamy-colored head, throat, and chest. The underfur is very dense, averaging 100,000 hairs per cm®. The head is wide and blunt, with long and thick vibrissae on the upper lips. The ears are small and set low to the sides, and capable of closing when the otter dives. The tail is slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, but uniform in thickness from the base to tip. All four feet are webbed and clawed. There is one pair of mammae. A fold of skin in the armpits enables the Sea Otter to transport prey at sea while foraging. The Sea Otter lacks anal glands. The skull is flat, broad and strong. Dental formula: 1 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 32. The molars are broad and flat, with rounded crowns. This is the only carnivore species with four (instead ofsix) lowerincisors.Habitat.Sea Otters are found in coastal marine habitats from sheltered and sandy bays to rocky shorelines exposed to rough seas. Although marine mammals, they rarely venture more than one km from shore. Typically, they live and forage in waters at depths of up to 100 m, but the highest densities of Sea Otters occur in waters less than 40 mdeep.Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly marine invertebrates such as abalones, sea urchins, crabs, and molluscs. Other prey include squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, scallops, and, very occasionally, fish. In the northern Kodiak Archipelago, clams were the most frequently identified prey (57-67%, mostly Saxidomus giganteus); mussels (Mytilus sp.), crabs (primarily Telmessus sp.), and green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) contributed 25% to the diet. On the north side of the AlaskaPeninsula, the dominant prey species in 50 spraints were mussels (Mytilus edulis), followed by three species of clams (Siliqua sp., Spisula polynyma, and Tellina lutea), sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and helmet crabs (Telmessus cheiragonus). In south-east Alaska, butter clams (S. giganteus) are the major prey items. Sea Otters on the outer coast of Washingtonfeed heavily on bivalves (63%) and have a diverse diet consisting of several prey groups. In contrast, Sea Otters in the Strait ofJuan de Fuca have a restricted diet dominated by more than 60% red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), with only two other prey species comprising more than 10% of their diet. Sea Otters forage in both rocky and soft-sediment areas on or near the ocean floor. They have good underwater vision and most prey is captured by sight. Prey hiding under rocks or in crevices may also be captured by feeling with the forefeet. Underwater dives are sustained by lungs that are 2-3 times larger than those of similarsized terrestrial mammals. Most hunting dives last 50-90 seconds. In coastal Washington, the average dive time was 55 seconds and average surface time was 45 seconds, irrespective of dive success. At least 77% of all dives were successful in capturing prey. Prey capture success was significantly lower for subadults (63%) than adults (82%). Sea Otters break the exoskeleton of large or hard-shelled prey by hitting the prey item on a rock carried by the otter on its belly. Sea Otters face a tremendous thermoregulatory challenge because of their constant life at sea. When in water, buoyancy and insulation are provided by their fur and the air bubbles trapped within it. The integrity of their pelage is thus essential to thermoregulation. Their metabolic heat production is 2-3 times greater than that of similar-sized terrestrial mammals. To sustain such heat production requires that Sea Otters consume 20-33% of their body mass in food daily. Sea Otters can drink seawater, and their kidneys produce very concentrated urine to avoid unnecessary water loss.Activity patterns.Generally diurnal, with peaks in activity at dawn and dusk. Daytime foraging increases when females care for young. In Prince William Sound, Alaska, more time was spent foraging (30%) than on any other activity, and foraging bouts were longer than all other activities. Sea Otters rest by floating belly-up in the water with their feet out of the water. They sometimes rest on rocks near the water and often spend the night in a kelp bed, lying under strands of kelp to avoid drifting while sleeping. Ten vocalizations have been described for Sea Otters including screams of distress (heard especially when mothers and young are separated) and coos (heard mostly when individuals are content or in familiar company).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sea Otters can spend their entire life at sea, and their movements on land are awkward. In the water, they are graceful and can move at speeds of 1- 1-5 km/h at the surface and up to 9 km/h underwater. Annual total movements of both sexes frequently cover 50-100 km. Sea Otters are basically solitary, but they sometimes rest in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, and groups may occur at feeding areas. They aggregate by sex and age, with males and females occupying separate sections of coastline. During the breeding season, some males move into the areas occupied by females and establish territories. Male territories are usually about 20-50 ha; female home ranges may be twice as large. These territories typically are located in prime feeding or resting areas, locations that are attractive to breeding females. The boundaries are vigorously patrolled and intruding males are repulsed, but serious fighting is rare. The ownerofa territory seeks to mate with any female that enters, though sometimes a pair bond is formed for a few days or weeks.Breeding.Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. Sea Otters are hunted for their fur, which has led to a large reduction in local populations and their distribution. Extirpated in Japan(coastal Hokkaido) and Mexico(Baja California), but now translocations have now reestablised Sea Otters in south-east Alaska, south-west Canada(Vancouver I), and north-west USA(Washingtonand Oregon). They are legally harvested in Alaska, with the annual harvest slightly exceeding 1000 animals. Sea Otters are also persecuted as perceived competitors for shellfish. In the last few decades, massive oil spills, such as that of the Exxon Valdez in 1989, have also decimated Sea Otter populations.Bibliography.Bodkin (2003), Doroff & DeGange (1994), Estes (1980), Estes & Palmisano (1974), Gentry & Peterson (1967), Green & Brueggeman (1991), Hall & Schaller (1964), Hattori et al. (2005), IUCN(2008), Kenyon (1969), Pearson & Davis (2005), Pearson et al. (2006), Sandegren et al. (1973), Shimek & Monk (1977), Wilson et al. (1991), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,643,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC.xml,Enhydra lutris,Enhydra,lutris,,,Loutre de mer @fr | Meerotter @de | Nutria marina @es,"Mustela lutris Linnaeus, 1758, Kamchatka, Russia.Three subspecies are recognized.","E. l. lutris Linnaeus, 1758— NE Russia(Commander Is, Kamchatka, Kurile Is & SakhalinI).E. l. kenyoni Wilson, 1991— Aleutian Is through Alaska and W Canada(Vancouver I) to W USA(Washington).E. l. nereis Merriam, 1904— USA(California).","Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 25-37 cm; weight 21-45 kg(males), 14-33 kg(females). The Sea Otter is one of the largest species within the Mustelidae. Sea Otters have long bodies and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown to dark brown, with a gray or creamy-colored head, throat, and chest. The underfur is very dense, averaging 100,000 hairs per cm®. The head is wide and blunt, with long and thick vibrissae on the upper lips. The ears are small and set low to the sides, and capable of closing when the otter dives. The tail is slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, but uniform in thickness from the base to tip. All four feet are webbed and clawed. There is one pair of mammae. A fold of skin in the armpits enables the Sea Otter to transport prey at sea while foraging. The Sea Otter lacks anal glands. The skull is flat, broad and strong. Dental formula: 1 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 32. The molars are broad and flat, with rounded crowns. This is the only carnivore species with four (instead ofsix) lowerincisors.","Sea Otters are found in coastal marine habitats from sheltered and sandy bays to rocky shorelines exposed to rough seas. Although marine mammals, they rarely venture more than one km from shore. Typically, they live and forage in waters at depths of up to 100 m, but the highest densities of Sea Otters occur in waters less than 40 mdeep.","The diet is mostly marine invertebrates such as abalones, sea urchins, crabs, and molluscs. Other prey include squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, scallops, and, very occasionally, fish. In the northern Kodiak Archipelago, clams were the most frequently identified prey (57-67%, mostly Saxidomus giganteus); mussels (Mytilus sp.), crabs (primarily Telmessus sp.), and green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) contributed 25% to the diet. On the north side of the AlaskaPeninsula, the dominant prey species in 50 spraints were mussels (Mytilus edulis), followed by three species of clams (Siliqua sp., Spisula polynyma, and Tellina lutea), sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and helmet crabs (Telmessus cheiragonus). In south-east Alaska, butter clams (S. giganteus) are the major prey items. Sea Otters on the outer coast of Washingtonfeed heavily on bivalves (63%) and have a diverse diet consisting of several prey groups. In contrast, Sea Otters in the Strait ofJuan de Fuca have a restricted diet dominated by more than 60% red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), with only two other prey species comprising more than 10% of their diet. Sea Otters forage in both rocky and soft-sediment areas on or near the ocean floor. They have good underwater vision and most prey is captured by sight. Prey hiding under rocks or in crevices may also be captured by feeling with the forefeet. Underwater dives are sustained by lungs that are 2-3 times larger than those of similarsized terrestrial mammals. Most hunting dives last 50-90 seconds. In coastal Washington, the average dive time was 55 seconds and average surface time was 45 seconds, irrespective of dive success. At least 77% of all dives were successful in capturing prey. Prey capture success was significantly lower for subadults (63%) than adults (82%). Sea Otters break the exoskeleton of large or hard-shelled prey by hitting the prey item on a rock carried by the otter on its belly. Sea Otters face a tremendous thermoregulatory challenge because of their constant life at sea. When in water, buoyancy and insulation are provided by their fur and the air bubbles trapped within it. The integrity of their pelage is thus essential to thermoregulation. Their metabolic heat production is 2-3 times greater than that of similar-sized terrestrial mammals. To sustain such heat production requires that Sea Otters consume 20-33% of their body mass in food daily. Sea Otters can drink seawater, and their kidneys produce very concentrated urine to avoid unnecessary water loss.","Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.","Generally diurnal, with peaks in activity at dawn and dusk. Daytime foraging increases when females care for young. In Prince William Sound, Alaska, more time was spent foraging (30%) than on any other activity, and foraging bouts were longer than all other activities. Sea Otters rest by floating belly-up in the water with their feet out of the water. They sometimes rest on rocks near the water and often spend the night in a kelp bed, lying under strands of kelp to avoid drifting while sleeping. Ten vocalizations have been described for Sea Otters including screams of distress (heard especially when mothers and young are separated) and coos (heard mostly when individuals are content or in familiar company).","Sea Otters can spend their entire life at sea, and their movements on land are awkward. In the water, they are graceful and can move at speeds of 1- 1-5 km/h at the surface and up to 9 km/h underwater. Annual total movements of both sexes frequently cover 50-100 km. Sea Otters are basically solitary, but they sometimes rest in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, and groups may occur at feeding areas. They aggregate by sex and age, with males and females occupying separate sections of coastline. During the breeding season, some males move into the areas occupied by females and establish territories. Male territories are usually about 20-50 ha; female home ranges may be twice as large. These territories typically are located in prime feeding or resting areas, locations that are attractive to breeding females. The boundaries are vigorously patrolled and intruding males are repulsed, but serious fighting is rare. The ownerofa territory seeks to mate with any female that enters, though sometimes a pair bond is formed for a few days or weeks.Breeding.Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.","CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. Sea Otters are hunted for their fur, which has led to a large reduction in local populations and their distribution. Extirpated in Japan(coastal Hokkaido) and Mexico(Baja California), but now translocations have now reestablised Sea Otters in south-east Alaska, south-west Canada(Vancouver I), and north-west USA(Washingtonand Oregon). They are legally harvested in Alaska, with the annual harvest slightly exceeding 1000 animals. Sea Otters are also persecuted as perceived competitors for shellfish. In the last few decades, massive oil spills, such as that of the Exxon Valdez in 1989, have also decimated Sea Otter populations.",Bodkin (2003) | Doroff & DeGange (1994) | Estes (1980) | Estes & Palmisano (1974) | Gentry & Peterson (1967) | Green & Brueggeman (1991) | Hall & Schaller (1964) | Hattori et al. (2005) | IUCN(2008) | Kenyon (1969) | Pearson & Davis (2005) | Pearson et al. (2006) | Sandegren et al. (1973) | Shimek & Monk (1977) | Wilson et al. (1991) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714223/files/figure.png,"32.Sea OtterEnhydra lutrisFrench:Loutre de mer/ German:Meerotter/ Spanish:Nutria marinaTaxonomy.Mustela lutris Linnaeus, 1758, Kamchatka, Russia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. l. lutris Linnaeus, 1758— NE Russia(Commander Is, Kamchatka, Kurile Is & SakhalinI).E. l. kenyoni Wilson, 1991— Aleutian Is through Alaska and W Canada(Vancouver I) to W USA(Washington).E. l. nereis Merriam, 1904— USA(California).Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 25-37 cm; weight 21-45 kg(males), 14-33 kg(females). The Sea Otter is one of the largest species within the Mustelidae. Sea Otters have long bodies and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown to dark brown, with a gray or creamy-colored head, throat, and chest. The underfur is very dense, averaging 100,000 hairs per cm®. The head is wide and blunt, with long and thick vibrissae on the upper lips. The ears are small and set low to the sides, and capable of closing when the otter dives. The tail is slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, but uniform in thickness from the base to tip. All four feet are webbed and clawed. There is one pair of mammae. A fold of skin in the armpits enables the Sea Otter to transport prey at sea while foraging. The Sea Otter lacks anal glands. The skull is flat, broad and strong. Dental formula: 1 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 32. The molars are broad and flat, with rounded crowns. This is the only carnivore species with four (instead ofsix) lowerincisors.Habitat.Sea Otters are found in coastal marine habitats from sheltered and sandy bays to rocky shorelines exposed to rough seas. Although marine mammals, they rarely venture more than one km from shore. Typically, they live and forage in waters at depths of up to 100 m, but the highest densities of Sea Otters occur in waters less than 40 mdeep.Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly marine invertebrates such as abalones, sea urchins, crabs, and molluscs. Other prey include squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, scallops, and, very occasionally, fish. In the northern Kodiak Archipelago, clams were the most frequently identified prey (57-67%, mostly Saxidomus giganteus); mussels (Mytilus sp.), crabs (primarily Telmessus sp.), and green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) contributed 25% to the diet. On the north side of the AlaskaPeninsula, the dominant prey species in 50 spraints were mussels (Mytilus edulis), followed by three species of clams (Siliqua sp., Spisula polynyma, and Tellina lutea), sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and helmet crabs (Telmessus cheiragonus). In south-east Alaska, butter clams (S. giganteus) are the major prey items. Sea Otters on the outer coast of Washingtonfeed heavily on bivalves (63%) and have a diverse diet consisting of several prey groups. In contrast, Sea Otters in the Strait ofJuan de Fuca have a restricted diet dominated by more than 60% red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), with only two other prey species comprising more than 10% of their diet. Sea Otters forage in both rocky and soft-sediment areas on or near the ocean floor. They have good underwater vision and most prey is captured by sight. Prey hiding under rocks or in crevices may also be captured by feeling with the forefeet. Underwater dives are sustained by lungs that are 2-3 times larger than those of similarsized terrestrial mammals. Most hunting dives last 50-90 seconds. In coastal Washington, the average dive time was 55 seconds and average surface time was 45 seconds, irrespective of dive success. At least 77% of all dives were successful in capturing prey. Prey capture success was significantly lower for subadults (63%) than adults (82%). Sea Otters break the exoskeleton of large or hard-shelled prey by hitting the prey item on a rock carried by the otter on its belly. Sea Otters face a tremendous thermoregulatory challenge because of their constant life at sea. When in water, buoyancy and insulation are provided by their fur and the air bubbles trapped within it. The integrity of their pelage is thus essential to thermoregulation. Their metabolic heat production is 2-3 times greater than that of similar-sized terrestrial mammals. To sustain such heat production requires that Sea Otters consume 20-33% of their body mass in food daily. Sea Otters can drink seawater, and their kidneys produce very concentrated urine to avoid unnecessary water loss.Activity patterns.Generally diurnal, with peaks in activity at dawn and dusk. Daytime foraging increases when females care for young. In Prince William Sound, Alaska, more time was spent foraging (30%) than on any other activity, and foraging bouts were longer than all other activities. Sea Otters rest by floating belly-up in the water with their feet out of the water. They sometimes rest on rocks near the water and often spend the night in a kelp bed, lying under strands of kelp to avoid drifting while sleeping. Ten vocalizations have been described for Sea Otters including screams of distress (heard especially when mothers and young are separated) and coos (heard mostly when individuals are content or in familiar company).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sea Otters can spend their entire life at sea, and their movements on land are awkward. In the water, they are graceful and can move at speeds of 1- 1-5 km/h at the surface and up to 9 km/h underwater. Annual total movements of both sexes frequently cover 50-100 km. Sea Otters are basically solitary, but they sometimes rest in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, and groups may occur at feeding areas. They aggregate by sex and age, with males and females occupying separate sections of coastline. During the breeding season, some males move into the areas occupied by females and establish territories. Male territories are usually about 20-50 ha; female home ranges may be twice as large. These territories typically are located in prime feeding or resting areas, locations that are attractive to breeding females. The boundaries are vigorously patrolled and intruding males are repulsed, but serious fighting is rare. The ownerofa territory seeks to mate with any female that enters, though sometimes a pair bond is formed for a few days or weeks.Breeding.Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. Sea Otters are hunted for their fur, which has led to a large reduction in local populations and their distribution. Extirpated in Japan(coastal Hokkaido) and Mexico(Baja California), but now translocations have now reestablised Sea Otters in south-east Alaska, south-west Canada(Vancouver I), and north-west USA(Washingtonand Oregon). They are legally harvested in Alaska, with the annual harvest slightly exceeding 1000 animals. Sea Otters are also persecuted as perceived competitors for shellfish. In the last few decades, massive oil spills, such as that of the Exxon Valdez in 1989, have also decimated Sea Otter populations.Bibliography.Bodkin (2003), Doroff & DeGange (1994), Estes (1980), Estes & Palmisano (1974), Gentry & Peterson (1967), Green & Brueggeman (1991), Hall & Schaller (1964), Hattori et al. (2005), IUCN(2008), Kenyon (1969), Pearson & Davis (2005), Pearson et al. (2006), Sandegren et al. (1973), Shimek & Monk (1977), Wilson et al. (1991), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA48FFA7CAF8384FFC74F218,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,643,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA48FFA7CAF8384FFC74F218.xml,Lontra provocax,Lontra,provocax,Gray,1843,Loutre du Chili @fr | Patagonischer Fischotter @de | Huillin @es | Huillin @en,"Lutra provocax Thomas, 1908, Patagonia. Monotypic.",Argentinaand Chile.,"Head-body 57-61 cm, tail 35-40 cm; weight 5-10 kg, males are about 10% larger than females. This medium-sized otter is dark-brown with pale undersides and a grayish neck and throat. All four feet are fully webbed. The skull is flat, but strongly built. The dentition is broad and adapted for crushing.","Southern River Otters are found in lakes, rivers, and some coastal marshes. In Argentina, they are associated with dense mature forests that have thick undergrowth extending close to the shore of water bodies. In southern Chile, radio-tracked Southern River Otters used rivers more frequently than expected, whereas they avoided small streams. Temperate evergreen swamp forests and river and stream banks with a high density of riparian vegetation, woody debris and exposed roots, were found to be the preferred habitats; canalized rivers and streams lacking these characteristics were avoided.","The diet is mostly fish (under 10 cmin length) and crustaceans, but also includes molluscs and birds. The relative importance of each food typemay vary seasonally or geographically. In central Chile, the diet comprises 75% fish and 63% crustaceans; the highest occurrence of fish occurs in the spring and summer. In the southern marine habitats of Chile, Southern River Otters feed mainly on fish. In Argentina, crustaceans largely dominate the diet (99%) and fish occur rarely (less than 2%). Differences in the proportion offish and crustaceans in the diet may reflect the differential availability of prey typesin different habitats: fish productivity is low in freshwater lakes compared to the oceans, which may explain the high proportion of crustaceans in freshwater lakes.","In central Chile, mating occurs in July and August, and young are born in September or October. Litter size averages one or two, but may reach up to four.","Primarily nocturnal, with occasional activity during the day. Den/ rest sites are rock crevices, hollow trees or logs, earth banks, or under root systems; Southern River Otters may excavate their own dens. Dens occur from 0-7 to 50 mfrom the shoreline; most are within 3-8 mof the water’s edge. They often have multiple terrestrial but no underwater entrances. The density of dens along the southern coast of Chilewas 2-8 per km of coastline. Latrines are common near den entrances or inside dens; they are 50-80 mfrom one another and 3-6 mfrom water.","Southern River Otters may move up to 5 kmper night. They are mostly solitary; females with young and breeding pairs are the only social groups recorded. In the Queule River, southern Chile, the observed behavior of radio-tracked otters suggested intra-sexual territoriality; no home range overlap among males existed, while there was an average of 33% overlap of home ranges among females, and 87% between sexes. In core areas, only one case of overlapping between an adult male and an adult female was observed. Average home range and core area lengths were 11- 3 kmand 0-9 km, respectively. The population density in Chileranges from 0-25 to 0-73 individuals per km of coastline.Breeding.In central Chile, mating occurs in July and August, and young are born in September or October. Litter size averages one or two, but may reach up to four.","CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The major threats to this species are the destruction ofits habitat and hunting, especially in Chile. The high price of otter skins in Chile, combined with low wages for unskilled workers, generates much uncontrolled and illegal harvest.",Aued et al. (2003) | Chéhébar (1986) | Chéhébar et al. (1986) | Lariviere (1999¢) | Medina(1996) | Medinaet al. (2003) | Sielfeld (1983) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714221/files/figure.png,"31.Southern RiverOtterLontra provocaxFrench:Loutre du Chili/ German:Patagonischer Fischotter/ Spanish:HuillinOther common names:HuillinTaxonomy.Lutra provocax Thomas, 1908, Patagonia. Monotypic.Distribution.Argentinaand Chile.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-61 cm, tail 35-40 cm; weight 5-10 kg, males are about 10% larger than females. This medium-sized otter is dark-brown with pale undersides and a grayish neck and throat. All four feet are fully webbed. The skull is flat, but strongly built. The dentition is broad and adapted for crushing.Habitat.Southern River Otters are found in lakes, rivers, and some coastal marshes. In Argentina, they are associated with dense mature forests that have thick undergrowth extending close to the shore of water bodies. In southern Chile, radio-tracked Southern River Otters used rivers more frequently than expected, whereas they avoided small streams. Temperate evergreen swamp forests and river and stream banks with a high density of riparian vegetation, woody debris and exposed roots, were found to be the preferred habitats; canalized rivers and streams lacking these characteristics were avoided.Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly fish (under 10 cmin length) and crustaceans, but also includes molluscs and birds. The relative importance of each food typemay vary seasonally or geographically. In central Chile, the diet comprises 75% fish and 63% crustaceans; the highest occurrence of fish occurs in the spring and summer. In the southern marine habitats of Chile, Southern River Otters feed mainly on fish. In Argentina, crustaceans largely dominate the diet (99%) and fish occur rarely (less than 2%). Differences in the proportion offish and crustaceans in the diet may reflect the differential availability of prey typesin different habitats: fish productivity is low in freshwater lakes compared to the oceans, which may explain the high proportion of crustaceans in freshwater lakes.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, with occasional activity during the day. Den/ rest sites are rock crevices, hollow trees or logs, earth banks, or under root systems; Southern River Otters may excavate their own dens. Dens occur from 0-7 to 50 mfrom the shoreline; most are within 3-8 mof the water’s edge. They often have multiple terrestrial but no underwater entrances. The density of dens along the southern coast of Chilewas 2-8 per km of coastline. Latrines are common near den entrances or inside dens; they are 50-80 mfrom one another and 3-6 mfrom water.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Southern River Otters may move up to 5 kmper night. They are mostly solitary; females with young and breeding pairs are the only social groups recorded. In the Queule River, southern Chile, the observed behavior of radio-tracked otters suggested intra-sexual territoriality; no home range overlap among males existed, while there was an average of 33% overlap of home ranges among females, and 87% between sexes. In core areas, only one case of overlapping between an adult male and an adult female was observed. Average home range and core area lengths were 11- 3 kmand 0-9 km, respectively. The population density in Chileranges from 0-25 to 0-73 individuals per km of coastline.Breeding.In central Chile, mating occurs in July and August, and young are born in September or October. Litter size averages one or two, but may reach up to four.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The major threats to this species are the destruction ofits habitat and hunting, especially in Chile. The high price of otter skins in Chile, combined with low wages for unskilled workers, generates much uncontrolled and illegal harvest.Bibliography.Aued et al. (2003), Chéhébar (1986), Chéhébar et al. (1986), Lariviere (1999¢), Medina(1996), Medinaet al. (2003), Sielfeld (1983), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA49FFA5CFA73028F5B9FE00,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,644,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA49FFA5CFA73028F5B9FE00.xml,Lutra lutra,Lutra,lutra,,,Loutre d'Europe @fr | Eurasischer Fischotter @de | Nutria paleartica @es | European Otter @en,"Mustela lutra Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The Japanese Otter (L. nippon) is considered by some authors to be a valid species, based on recent morphological and molecular analyses. However, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status; it is here considered a subspecies of L. lutra. Up to twenty-eight subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","Wide distribution in the Palearctic: from Europe to Russian Far East, North and South Korea, and Japan; also N Africa, Middle East, C Asia, Sub-Himalayan zone, S India, Sri Lanka, C, E & S China, Taiwan, Indochina, and Sumatra.","Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 33-50 cm; weight 5-14 kg, adult males are typically 50% larger than females. The Eurasian Otter has a long body and a conical tail. The short, dense pelage is brown to almost black throughout, with slightly paler undersides. The legs are short; the feet are fully webbed and have well-developed claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The cranium is large and flat. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.","Eurasian Otters are found along lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams, and in marshes, swamps, and coastal and estuarine wetlands, from sea level up to 4120 m. They avoid areas of deep water.","The diet is mainly fish, frogs, and aquatic invertebrates (including crustaceans and crabs). Birds and small mammals (such as rodents and lagomorphs) may be consumed on occasion. In general, the mean proportion offish declines from 94% on seashores, to 71% on lakes and fish ponds, to 64% on rivers and streams. On inland waters, the abundance of crayfish is an essential food item. In Northern Ireland, over 50% of spraints were composed of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus), salmonids and cyprinids, with Sticklebacks constituting the most frequently occurring prey category. The frequency of occurrence of eels (Anguillaanguilla) was found to be consistently higher in spraints collected from smaller streams. In eastern Poland,fish constitutes 51% of the food biomass consumed in spring-summer and 40% in autumnwinter, with perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike (Esox lucius), and roach (Rutilus rutilus) being captured most frequently. Amphibians (mainly Rana temporaria) make up 34% of the food biomass in spring-summer and 58% in autumn-winter. The cold season diet depends on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, Eurasian Otters feed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of the river increases, and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forests), Eurasian Otters shift to catching predominantly fish (up to 76%). In southern Poland, the main component of the diet is fish (47-9%, including brown trout Salmo trutta and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss). Other important food items are 21-4% frogs (R. temporaria) and 30% birds, small mammals, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, and plant debris. In southern Italy, spraint analysis revealed that fish represented the dominant food (57-3% mean volume), followed by amphibians (18:9%) and crayfish (15-6%). Seasonal variations in fish consumption were related to changes in fish activity and to environmental conditions; the importance of fish decreased in winter, when flooding increased water speeds and turbidity, and thus reduced the hunting efficiency of the otters. Hibernating amphibians represented a primary alternative resource. Insects and reptiles were eaten more frequently in summer, while birds predominated during their breeding season. In Hungary, the primary food is fish (89-8% for riverine and 87-5% for backwater habitats); Eurasian Otters living in riverine habitats, compared to backwaters, consume more birds (3-9% and 0-7%, respectively), less mammals (0-5% and 0-9%, respectively), less reptiles and amphibians (5-6% and 10-2%, respectively) and less invertebrates (0-1% and 0-6%, respectively); most fish eaten are small-sized (below 100 g), and the most frequently taken species is Carassius sp. In Iran, the major food items are 38-1% chub (Alburnoides bipunctatus) and 34-8% carp (Cyprinus carpio). Prey are captured with the mouth, but the forepaws are used to handle the prey for consumption.","Females are polyestrous, with the cycle lasting four to six weeks; estrus lasts about two weeks. Mating typically occurs in late winter or early spring. The gestation period is 60-63 days and births peak in April or May. The main entrance of bank burrows may open underwater and then slope upward into the bank to a nest chamber that is above the high-water level. Litter size is one to five, usually two to three. The young are born blind and weigh about 130 gat birth. They open their eyes after one month and emerge from the den and begin to swim at two months. They nurse for three to four months and separate from the mother at about one year. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but can also be active during the day. Den/restsites are in burrows, among root systems, log jams, or in rock crevices, in close proximity to water.","Eurasian Otters are excellent swimmers and divers. They are usually found no more than a few hundred meters from water, but they may travel several kilometers overland between wetlands. They swim using movements of the hindlegs and tail; usually dives last one or two minutes,five at the most. When traveling on the ground, snow, or ice they may use a combination of running and sliding. Males typically are solitary, whereas females may occur in groups, either with their own young or with unrelated, reproductive females and their young. The straight-line length of a home range may reach an average of 15 kmfor males and 7 kmfor females. Males and femalestypically defend their range against members of the same sex, but the home ranges of males may overlap those of several females. Population densities may be one otter per 2-3 kmof lakeshore or 5 kmofriver.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, with the cycle lasting four to six weeks; estrus lasts about two weeks. Mating typically occurs in late winter or early spring. The gestation period is 60-63 days and births peak in April or May. The main entrance of bank burrows may open underwater and then slope upward into the bank to a nest chamber that is above the high-water level. Litter size is one to five, usually two to three. The young are born blind and weigh about 130 gat birth. They open their eyes after one month and emerge from the den and begin to swim at two months. They nurse for three to four months and separate from the mother at about one year. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","CITESAppendix I. Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. The Japanese Otter, once common, has no recent confirmed sightings and may be extinct. Eurasian Otters are vulnerable to water pollution because their bodies accumulate contaminants and heavy metals, which affect reproduction. They also are killed accidentally on roads and deliberately for their fur.","Chruszcz et al. (2007) | Conroy et al. (1998) | Francis (2008) | Imaizumi & Yoshiyuki (1989) | Kruuk & Conroy (1991) | Kruuk et al. (1989) | Lanszki & Sallai (2006) | Lanszki & Szeles (2006) | Philcox et al. (1999) | Preston et al. (2006) | Prigioni et al. (2006) | Rasooli et al. (2007) | Stroganov (1969) | Suzuki et al. (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714229/files/figure.png,"34.Eurasian OtterLutra lutraFrench:Loutre d'Europe/ German:Eurasischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria palearticaOther common names:European OtterTaxonomy.Mustela lutra Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The Japanese Otter (L. nippon) is considered by some authors to be a valid species, based on recent morphological and molecular analyses. However, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status; it is here considered a subspecies of L. lutra. Up to twenty-eight subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Wide distribution in the Palearctic: from Europe to Russian Far East, North and South Korea, and Japan; also N Africa, Middle East, C Asia, Sub-Himalayan zone, S India, Sri Lanka, C, E & S China, Taiwan, Indochina, and Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 33-50 cm; weight 5-14 kg, adult males are typically 50% larger than females. The Eurasian Otter has a long body and a conical tail. The short, dense pelage is brown to almost black throughout, with slightly paler undersides. The legs are short; the feet are fully webbed and have well-developed claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The cranium is large and flat. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.Eurasian Otters are found along lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams, and in marshes, swamps, and coastal and estuarine wetlands, from sea level up to 4120 m. They avoid areas of deep water.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, frogs, and aquatic invertebrates (including crustaceans and crabs). Birds and small mammals (such as rodents and lagomorphs) may be consumed on occasion. In general, the mean proportion offish declines from 94% on seashores, to 71% on lakes and fish ponds, to 64% on rivers and streams. On inland waters, the abundance of crayfish is an essential food item. In Northern Ireland, over 50% of spraints were composed of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus), salmonids and cyprinids, with Sticklebacks constituting the most frequently occurring prey category. The frequency of occurrence of eels (Anguillaanguilla) was found to be consistently higher in spraints collected from smaller streams. In eastern Poland,fish constitutes 51% of the food biomass consumed in spring-summer and 40% in autumnwinter, with perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike (Esox lucius), and roach (Rutilus rutilus) being captured most frequently. Amphibians (mainly Rana temporaria) make up 34% of the food biomass in spring-summer and 58% in autumn-winter. The cold season diet depends on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, Eurasian Otters feed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of the river increases, and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forests), Eurasian Otters shift to catching predominantly fish (up to 76%). In southern Poland, the main component of the diet is fish (47-9%, including brown trout Salmo trutta and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss). Other important food items are 21-4% frogs (R. temporaria) and 30% birds, small mammals, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, and plant debris. In southern Italy, spraint analysis revealed that fish represented the dominant food (57-3% mean volume), followed by amphibians (18:9%) and crayfish (15-6%). Seasonal variations in fish consumption were related to changes in fish activity and to environmental conditions; the importance of fish decreased in winter, when flooding increased water speeds and turbidity, and thus reduced the hunting efficiency of the otters. Hibernating amphibians represented a primary alternative resource. Insects and reptiles were eaten more frequently in summer, while birds predominated during their breeding season. In Hungary, the primary food is fish (89-8% for riverine and 87-5% for backwater habitats); Eurasian Otters living in riverine habitats, compared to backwaters, consume more birds (3-9% and 0-7%, respectively), less mammals (0-5% and 0-9%, respectively), less reptiles and amphibians (5-6% and 10-2%, respectively) and less invertebrates (0-1% and 0-6%, respectively); most fish eaten are small-sized (below 100 g), and the most frequently taken species is Carassius sp. In Iran, the major food items are 38-1% chub (Alburnoides bipunctatus) and 34-8% carp (Cyprinus carpio). Prey are captured with the mouth, but the forepaws are used to handle the prey for consumption.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but can also be active during the day. Den/restsites are in burrows, among root systems, log jams, or in rock crevices, in close proximity to water.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Eurasian Otters are excellent swimmers and divers. They are usually found no more than a few hundred meters from water, but they may travel several kilometers overland between wetlands. They swim using movements of the hindlegs and tail; usually dives last one or two minutes,five at the most. When traveling on the ground, snow, or ice they may use a combination of running and sliding. Males typically are solitary, whereas females may occur in groups, either with their own young or with unrelated, reproductive females and their young. The straight-line length of a home range may reach an average of 15 kmfor males and 7 kmfor females. Males and femalestypically defend their range against members of the same sex, but the home ranges of males may overlap those of several females. Population densities may be one otter per 2-3 kmof lakeshore or 5 kmofriver.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, with the cycle lasting four to six weeks; estrus lasts about two weeks. Mating typically occurs in late winter or early spring. The gestation period is 60-63 days and births peak in April or May. The main entrance of bank burrows may open underwater and then slope upward into the bank to a nest chamber that is above the high-water level. Litter size is one to five, usually two to three. The young are born blind and weigh about 130 gat birth. They open their eyes after one month and emerge from the den and begin to swim at two months. They nurse for three to four months and separate from the mother at about one year. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. The Japanese Otter, once common, has no recent confirmed sightings and may be extinct. Eurasian Otters are vulnerable to water pollution because their bodies accumulate contaminants and heavy metals, which affect reproduction. They also are killed accidentally on roads and deliberately for their fur.Bibliography.Chruszcz et al. (2007), Conroy et al. (1998), Francis (2008), Imaizumi & Yoshiyuki (1989), Kruuk & Conroy (1991), Kruuk et al. (1989), Lanszki & Sallai (2006), Lanszki & Szeles (2006), Philcox et al. (1999), Preston et al. (2006), Prigioni et al. (2006), Rasooli et al. (2007), Stroganov (1969), Suzuki et al. (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." 038F87D4CA49FFA6CAA23B54F692F493,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,644,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA49FFA6CAA23B54F692F493.xml,Hydrictis maculicollis,Hydrictis,maculicollis,,,Loutre a cou tacheté @fr | Fleckenhals-Otter @de | Nutria moteada @es,"Lutra maculicollis Lichtenstein, 1835, Cape Province, South Africa.The Spotted-necked Otter was previously included in the genus Lutraby some authors, but recent molecular studies have shown that its inclusion in Lutrawould make this genus paraphyletic. Monotypic.","Sub-Saharan Africa from GuineaBissauin the W to SW Ethiopia, E Kenya, and Tanzaniain the E, and S to N Namibia, Botswana, and NW Zimbabwe; also Malawi, Mozambique, and E South Africa.","Head-body 71-76 cm(males), 57-60.5 cm(females), tail 38.5-44 cm(males), 41-44 cm(females); weight 5.7-6 kg(males), 3.8-4.7 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Spotted-necked Otter has a long body, short limbs, and a long tail. The pelage varies from reddish to dark brown. There are creamy-white to white mottled markings on the upper chest and throat. All the feet are fully webbed and there are claws on all the digits. The skull is long and narrow and lightly built, but with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.","Spotted-necked Otters are found in freshwater rivers, lakes, and swamps with large areas of open water; they are absent from coastal or estuarine areas. They seldom venture more than 10 maway from water and prefer shallow, freshwater areas, where there is continuity of lakeside vegetation, low pollution, and no crocodiles. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Spotted-necked Otters were most often located in rivers (40% of 706 locations) and near dams (45%), with only occasional use of swamps (3%) and oxbow lakes (2%).","The diet includesfish (Barbus, Clarias, Haplochromis, Micropterussalmoides, Salmo trutta, and Tilapia), crabs (Potomonautes), and frogs (mostly Xenopus laevis and Rana). Insects and birds are also occasionally eaten. Crabs are the major dietary item during spring, summer, and autumn, whereas fish dominate in winter. Most fish consumed are less than 20 cmin length. In the fish-rich waters of east and central Africa, the diet consists almost entirely of fish, whereas in the fish-poor waters of South Africa, crabs and frogs are consumed in addition to fish. On Lake Victoria, Tanzania, 61% of spraints collected contained 46% Haplochromis, 14% Tilapia, catfish (Bagrus or Clarias), and 1% crab (Potamon niloticus). Direct observations of feeding Spottednecked Otters also revealed a diet dominated by Haplochromis. On Lake Muhazi, Rwanda, 154 spraints contained 80% fish, 10% insects, 3% molluscs, 2% birds and frogs. In Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet is mostly fish (47%), crabs (38%), and frogs (8%). In KwaZulu-Natal, the frequency of occurrence of food items in 516 spraints was 64% fish, 43% crabs, 43% amphibians, and 18% insects. In contrast, 228 spraints collected near a troutriver contained 39% crabs, 38% fish, 20% frogs, 2% insects (mostly dragonfly larvae, Odonata), and unidentified birds. In a non-trout area, 66 spraints contained 30% crabs, 27% frogs, 25% fish, 10% birds (mostly Anatidaeand little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis), and 5% insects. In three stomachs from the Cape Province, South Africa, one contained crabs, one contained frogs and fish, and one contained frogs,fish, a beetle (Coleoptera), and a caterpillar. Spotted-necked Otters generally fish alone and almost all fishing is done within 10 mfrom the shore. When fishing in groups, cooperation among individuals may help facilitate prey capture by herding fish toward each other. Fishing in groups probably occurs when females are training their young. Fish are captured during short dives of less than 20 seconds. Once underwater, a Spotted-necked Otter scans for prey, turning its head from side to side. Prey are detected visually and pursued until captured. Crabs, fish, and frogs are captured with the mouth; the forefeet are not used in prey capture. Fish smaller than 10 cmare consumed in the water, but larger fish are taken to shore for consumption. Fishing forays typically last 10-20 minutes, but may last up to 3 h.","In Tanzania, mating occurs in July and the young are born in September, after a gestation of c. 60 days. In Zambia, three two-week-old cubs from one litter were captured in December. Delayed implantation probably does not occur. Litter size is one to three. Neonates are blind and helpless. The young remain with the mother for up to one year. Males do not provide parental care.","Mostly diurnal, with activity peaks during early morning and late afternoon. In KwaZulu-Natal, Spotted-necked Otters were most active from 06:00-09:00 h and 15:00-21:00 h. Nocturnal activity usually only occurs during periods of full moon. Rest sites are in rock cavities, bank dens, holes in root systems, or dense vegetation. Spotted-necked Otters can dig their own burrows. In KwaZulu-Natal, resting sites were among trees and shrub roots (29%), reeds (21%), small islands near dams (23%), tall grass (14%), swamps (11%), and sheltered places among rocks (2%). A 4-2-km section of river contained ten resting sites, with a mean distance of 467 mbetween dens.","Spotted-necked Otters travel mostly in water, swimming underwater and surfacing briefly to breathe. Swimming speed reaches 3—4 km/h. Spotted-necked Otters may be found in small family groups of up to five individuals, although groups of up to 20 animals have been reported. Group size varies according to locality. Of 14 sightings in KwaZulu-Natal, six were singles, three were pairs, three were trios, one was of four, and one offive. In Rwanda, 75% of observations were ofsolitary Spotted-necked Otters; pairs or trios occurred on occasion and usually consisted of a female with young. In Rwanda, maximum group size was eleven and most animals foraged alone. In Lake Victoria, Tanzania, Spotted-necked Otters were most often seen in groups of three and solitary animals were observed on only five occasions; these groups often travelled together, but fed individually. The home ranges of males are larger than those of females. In KwaZulu-Natal, the mean home rangesize for three maleswas 16- 2 km?, and 5-8 km* for three females. Spotted-necked Otters appeared to be non-territorial as there was large intra- and inter-sexual overlap of home ranges. Population density on Lake Muhazi (3-4 km? in size), Rwanda, was two otters per km of shoreline. In KwaZulu-Natal, density was 0-4-0-6 otters per km of shoreline. Near Kageye, Tanzania, 9-10 otters occupied a 10-km section of the coast of Lake Victoria. In KwaZulu-Natal, the density of otters was estimated at one otter per 6-11 kmof river and at one otter per 1-6— 2-4 kmof river.Breeding.In Tanzania, mating occurs in July and the young are born in September, after a gestation of c. 60 days. In Zambia, three two-week-old cubs from one litter were captured in December. Delayed implantation probably does not occur. Litter size is one to three. Neonates are blind and helpless. The young remain with the mother for up to one year. Males do not provide parental care.","CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Although this is a widespread species, there are local population declines occurring. Spotted-necked Otters are sensitive to habitat alterations and pollution, and because they consume fish, they are susceptible to bioaccumulation of pesticides and other toxic chemical compounds. Throughout Africa, otters are killed for their skins and meat or because they are regarded as competitors for food, particularly in rural areas where fishing is an important source of income. During the last few years, their habitats have been drastically changed or lost following bush clearance, deforestation, overgrazing, siltation, draining of wetlands, water extraction, or denudation ofriparian vegetation.","Angelici et al. (2005) | Koepfli & Wayne (1998) | Kruuk & Goudswaard (1990) | Lariviere (2002b) | Lejeune (1989) | Mortimer (1963) | Perrin & Carugati (2000) | Perrin & D’Inzillo (2000) | Procter (1963) | Roberts (1951) | Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1995) | Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Somers & Purves (1996) | Stuart (1985) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714227/files/figure.png,"33.Spotted-necked OtterHydrictis maculicollisFrench:Loutre a cou tacheté/ German:Fleckenhals-Otter/ Spanish:Nutria moteadaTaxonomy.Lutra maculicollis Lichtenstein, 1835, Cape Province, South Africa.The Spotted-necked Otter was previously included in the genus Lutraby some authors, but recent molecular studies have shown that its inclusion in Lutrawould make this genus paraphyletic. Monotypic.Distribution.Sub-Saharan Africa from GuineaBissauin the W to SW Ethiopia, E Kenya, and Tanzaniain the E, and S to N Namibia, Botswana, and NW Zimbabwe; also Malawi, Mozambique, and E South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 71-76 cm(males), 57-60.5 cm(females), tail 38.5-44 cm(males), 41-44 cm(females); weight 5.7-6 kg(males), 3.8-4.7 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Spotted-necked Otter has a long body, short limbs, and a long tail. The pelage varies from reddish to dark brown. There are creamy-white to white mottled markings on the upper chest and throat. All the feet are fully webbed and there are claws on all the digits. The skull is long and narrow and lightly built, but with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.Spotted-necked Otters are found in freshwater rivers, lakes, and swamps with large areas of open water; they are absent from coastal or estuarine areas. They seldom venture more than 10 maway from water and prefer shallow, freshwater areas, where there is continuity of lakeside vegetation, low pollution, and no crocodiles. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Spotted-necked Otters were most often located in rivers (40% of 706 locations) and near dams (45%), with only occasional use of swamps (3%) and oxbow lakes (2%).Food and Feeding.The diet includesfish (Barbus, Clarias, Haplochromis, Micropterussalmoides, Salmo trutta, and Tilapia), crabs (Potomonautes), and frogs (mostly Xenopus laevis and Rana). Insects and birds are also occasionally eaten. Crabs are the major dietary item during spring, summer, and autumn, whereas fish dominate in winter. Most fish consumed are less than 20 cmin length. In the fish-rich waters of east and central Africa, the diet consists almost entirely of fish, whereas in the fish-poor waters of South Africa, crabs and frogs are consumed in addition to fish. On Lake Victoria, Tanzania, 61% of spraints collected contained 46% Haplochromis, 14% Tilapia, catfish (Bagrus or Clarias), and 1% crab (Potamon niloticus). Direct observations of feeding Spottednecked Otters also revealed a diet dominated by Haplochromis. On Lake Muhazi, Rwanda, 154 spraints contained 80% fish, 10% insects, 3% molluscs, 2% birds and frogs. In Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet is mostly fish (47%), crabs (38%), and frogs (8%). In KwaZulu-Natal, the frequency of occurrence of food items in 516 spraints was 64% fish, 43% crabs, 43% amphibians, and 18% insects. In contrast, 228 spraints collected near a troutriver contained 39% crabs, 38% fish, 20% frogs, 2% insects (mostly dragonfly larvae, Odonata), and unidentified birds. In a non-trout area, 66 spraints contained 30% crabs, 27% frogs, 25% fish, 10% birds (mostly Anatidaeand little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis), and 5% insects. In three stomachs from the Cape Province, South Africa, one contained crabs, one contained frogs and fish, and one contained frogs,fish, a beetle (Coleoptera), and a caterpillar. Spotted-necked Otters generally fish alone and almost all fishing is done within 10 mfrom the shore. When fishing in groups, cooperation among individuals may help facilitate prey capture by herding fish toward each other. Fishing in groups probably occurs when females are training their young. Fish are captured during short dives of less than 20 seconds. Once underwater, a Spotted-necked Otter scans for prey, turning its head from side to side. Prey are detected visually and pursued until captured. Crabs, fish, and frogs are captured with the mouth; the forefeet are not used in prey capture. Fish smaller than 10 cmare consumed in the water, but larger fish are taken to shore for consumption. Fishing forays typically last 10-20 minutes, but may last up to 3 h.Activity patterns.Mostly diurnal, with activity peaks during early morning and late afternoon. In KwaZulu-Natal, Spotted-necked Otters were most active from 06:00-09:00 h and 15:00-21:00 h. Nocturnal activity usually only occurs during periods of full moon. Rest sites are in rock cavities, bank dens, holes in root systems, or dense vegetation. Spotted-necked Otters can dig their own burrows. In KwaZulu-Natal, resting sites were among trees and shrub roots (29%), reeds (21%), small islands near dams (23%), tall grass (14%), swamps (11%), and sheltered places among rocks (2%). A 4-2-km section of river contained ten resting sites, with a mean distance of 467 mbetween dens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Spotted-necked Otters travel mostly in water, swimming underwater and surfacing briefly to breathe. Swimming speed reaches 3—4 km/h. Spotted-necked Otters may be found in small family groups of up to five individuals, although groups of up to 20 animals have been reported. Group size varies according to locality. Of 14 sightings in KwaZulu-Natal, six were singles, three were pairs, three were trios, one was of four, and one offive. In Rwanda, 75% of observations were ofsolitary Spotted-necked Otters; pairs or trios occurred on occasion and usually consisted of a female with young. In Rwanda, maximum group size was eleven and most animals foraged alone. In Lake Victoria, Tanzania, Spotted-necked Otters were most often seen in groups of three and solitary animals were observed on only five occasions; these groups often travelled together, but fed individually. The home ranges of males are larger than those of females. In KwaZulu-Natal, the mean home rangesize for three maleswas 16- 2 km?, and 5-8 km* for three females. Spotted-necked Otters appeared to be non-territorial as there was large intra- and inter-sexual overlap of home ranges. Population density on Lake Muhazi (3-4 km? in size), Rwanda, was two otters per km of shoreline. In KwaZulu-Natal, density was 0-4-0-6 otters per km of shoreline. Near Kageye, Tanzania, 9-10 otters occupied a 10-km section of the coast of Lake Victoria. In KwaZulu-Natal, the density of otters was estimated at one otter per 6-11 kmof river and at one otter per 1-6— 2-4 kmof river.Breeding.In Tanzania, mating occurs in July and the young are born in September, after a gestation of c. 60 days. In Zambia, three two-week-old cubs from one litter were captured in December. Delayed implantation probably does not occur. Litter size is one to three. Neonates are blind and helpless. The young remain with the mother for up to one year. Males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Although this is a widespread species, there are local population declines occurring. Spotted-necked Otters are sensitive to habitat alterations and pollution, and because they consume fish, they are susceptible to bioaccumulation of pesticides and other toxic chemical compounds. Throughout Africa, otters are killed for their skins and meat or because they are regarded as competitors for food, particularly in rural areas where fishing is an important source of income. During the last few years, their habitats have been drastically changed or lost following bush clearance, deforestation, overgrazing, siltation, draining of wetlands, water extraction, or denudation ofriparian vegetation.Bibliography.Angelici et al. (2005), Koepfli & Wayne (1998), Kruuk & Goudswaard (1990), Lariviere (2002b), Lejeune (1989), Mortimer (1963), Perrin & Carugati (2000), Perrin & D’Inzillo (2000), Procter (1963), Roberts (1951), Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1995), Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Somers & Purves (1996), Stuart (1985), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,645,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7.xml,Aonyx capensis,Aonyx,capensis,,,Loutre a joues blanches @fr | Fingerotter @de | Nutria africana @es | Cape Clawless Otter @en | Congo Clawless Otter @en,"Lutra capensis Schinz, 1821, Capeof Good Hope.The CongoClawless Otter (Aonyx congicus) is considered a separate species by some authors, based on morphological and ecological evidence; however, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status. It is here included as a subspecies of A. capensis. Two subspecies are recognized.","A. c. capensis Schinz, 1821— Sub-Saharan Africa from Senegalin the W to E Ethiopia, and E Africa to Western Cape. Absent from CongoBasin and the most arid zones of Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.A. c. congicus Lonnberg, 1910— CongoBasin in WC Africa.","Head-body 76.2-88 cm(males), 73-73.6 cm(females), tail 46-5— 51- 5 cm(males), 49.5-51.5 cm(females); weight 10-21 kg(males), 10.6-16.3 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The African Clawless Otteris large and heavily built. The pelage is dark brown to black throughout, but the sides of the face, neck and throat are white or pale gray. There is a quadrangular dark brown patch between the eye and the nose; the cheeks are white. The hindfeet are partially webbed, but the front feet are not. The toes are clawless except for the three middle toes of each hindfoot, which bear small grooming claws. The cheek teeth are smaller in congicus than in capensis. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.Food and Feeding.African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern.","African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.","African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.","Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.","Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.","African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.","CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern. Habitat alteration and water pollution are the main threats to this species, asit affects the abundance of crabs and other prey. Additionally, the African Clawless Otter is hunted for its pelt and medicinal purposes in some areas and killed in others as a perceived competitorfor fish, particularly where the Rainbow Trout has been introduced.","Angelici et al. (2005) | Arden-Clark (1986) | Baranga (1995) | Carugati et al. (1995) | Emmerson & Philip (2004) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Ligthart et al. (1994) | Nel & Somers (2007) | Perrin & Carugati (2000) | Purves et al. (1994) | Reuther et al. (2003) | Roberts (1951) | Rosevear (1974) | Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1992a, 1995) | Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998) | Somers (2000) | Somers & Nel (2004) | Somers & Purves (1996) | Stuart (1981) | Vander Zee (1981, 1982) | VanNiekerk et al. (1998) | Verwoerd (1987) | Watson & Lang (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)",,"36.African Clawless OtterAonyx capensisFrench:Loutre a joues blanches/ German:Fingerotter/ Spanish:Nutria africanaOther common names:Cape Clawless Otter, CongoClawless OtterTaxonomy.Lutra capensis Schinz, 1821, Capeof Good Hope.The CongoClawless Otter (Aonyx congicus) is considered a separate species by some authors, based on morphological and ecological evidence; however, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status. It is here included as a subspecies of A. capensis. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. c. capensis Schinz, 1821— Sub-Saharan Africa from Senegalin the W to E Ethiopia, and E Africa to Western Cape. Absent from CongoBasin and the most arid zones of Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.A. c. congicus Lonnberg, 1910— CongoBasin in WC Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76.2-88 cm(males), 73-73.6 cm(females), tail 46-5— 51- 5 cm(males), 49.5-51.5 cm(females); weight 10-21 kg(males), 10.6-16.3 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The African Clawless Otteris large and heavily built. The pelage is dark brown to black throughout, but the sides of the face, neck and throat are white or pale gray. There is a quadrangular dark brown patch between the eye and the nose; the cheeks are white. The hindfeet are partially webbed, but the front feet are not. The toes are clawless except for the three middle toes of each hindfoot, which bear small grooming claws. The cheek teeth are smaller in congicus than in capensis. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.Food and Feeding.African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern. Habitat alteration and water pollution are the main threats to this species, asit affects the abundance of crabs and other prey. Additionally, the African Clawless Otter is hunted for its pelt and medicinal purposes in some areas and killed in others as a perceived competitorfor fish, particularly where the Rainbow Trout has been introduced.Bibliography.Angelici et al. (2005), Arden-Clark (1986), Baranga (1995), Carugati et al. (1995), Emmerson & Philip (2004), Kingdon (1971-1982), Ligthart et al. (1994), Nel & Somers (2007), Perrin & Carugati (2000), Purves et al. (1994), Reuther et al. (2003), Roberts (1951), Rosevear (1974), Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1992a, 1995), Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998), Somers (2000), Somers & Nel (2004), Somers & Purves (1996), Stuart (1981), Vander Zee (1981, 1982), VanNiekerk et al. (1998), Verwoerd (1987), Watson & Lang (2003), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,645,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7.xml,Aonyx capensis,Aonyx,capensis,,,Loutre a joues blanches @fr | Fingerotter @de | Nutria africana @es | Cape Clawless Otter @en | Congo Clawless Otter @en,"Lutra capensis Schinz, 1821, Capeof Good Hope.The CongoClawless Otter (Aonyx congicus) is considered a separate species by some authors, based on morphological and ecological evidence; however, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status. It is here included as a subspecies of A. capensis. Two subspecies are recognized.","A. c. capensis Schinz, 1821— Sub-Saharan Africa from Senegalin the W to E Ethiopia, and E Africa to Western Cape. Absent from CongoBasin and the most arid zones of Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.A. c. congicus Lonnberg, 1910— CongoBasin in WC Africa.","Head-body 76.2-88 cm(males), 73-73.6 cm(females), tail 46-5— 51- 5 cm(males), 49.5-51.5 cm(females); weight 10-21 kg(males), 10.6-16.3 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The African Clawless Otteris large and heavily built. The pelage is dark brown to black throughout, but the sides of the face, neck and throat are white or pale gray. There is a quadrangular dark brown patch between the eye and the nose; the cheeks are white. The hindfeet are partially webbed, but the front feet are not. The toes are clawless except for the three middle toes of each hindfoot, which bear small grooming claws. The cheek teeth are smaller in congicus than in capensis. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.Food and Feeding.African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern.","African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.","African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.","Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.","Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.","African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.","CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern. Habitat alteration and water pollution are the main threats to this species, asit affects the abundance of crabs and other prey. Additionally, the African Clawless Otter is hunted for its pelt and medicinal purposes in some areas and killed in others as a perceived competitorfor fish, particularly where the Rainbow Trout has been introduced.","Angelici et al. (2005) | Arden-Clark (1986) | Baranga (1995) | Carugati et al. (1995) | Emmerson & Philip (2004) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Ligthart et al. (1994) | Nel & Somers (2007) | Perrin & Carugati (2000) | Purves et al. (1994) | Reuther et al. (2003) | Roberts (1951) | Rosevear (1974) | Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1992a, 1995) | Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998) | Somers (2000) | Somers & Nel (2004) | Somers & Purves (1996) | Stuart (1981) | Vander Zee (1981, 1982) | VanNiekerk et al. (1998) | Verwoerd (1987) | Watson & Lang (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714235/files/figure.png,"36.African Clawless OtterAonyx capensisFrench:Loutre a joues blanches/ German:Fingerotter/ Spanish:Nutria africanaOther common names:Cape Clawless Otter, CongoClawless OtterTaxonomy.Lutra capensis Schinz, 1821, Capeof Good Hope.The CongoClawless Otter (Aonyx congicus) is considered a separate species by some authors, based on morphological and ecological evidence; however, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status. It is here included as a subspecies of A. capensis. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. c. capensis Schinz, 1821— Sub-Saharan Africa from Senegalin the W to E Ethiopia, and E Africa to Western Cape. Absent from CongoBasin and the most arid zones of Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.A. c. congicus Lonnberg, 1910— CongoBasin in WC Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76.2-88 cm(males), 73-73.6 cm(females), tail 46-5— 51- 5 cm(males), 49.5-51.5 cm(females); weight 10-21 kg(males), 10.6-16.3 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The African Clawless Otteris large and heavily built. The pelage is dark brown to black throughout, but the sides of the face, neck and throat are white or pale gray. There is a quadrangular dark brown patch between the eye and the nose; the cheeks are white. The hindfeet are partially webbed, but the front feet are not. The toes are clawless except for the three middle toes of each hindfoot, which bear small grooming claws. The cheek teeth are smaller in congicus than in capensis. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.Food and Feeding.African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern. Habitat alteration and water pollution are the main threats to this species, asit affects the abundance of crabs and other prey. Additionally, the African Clawless Otter is hunted for its pelt and medicinal purposes in some areas and killed in others as a perceived competitorfor fish, particularly where the Rainbow Trout has been introduced.Bibliography.Angelici et al. (2005), Arden-Clark (1986), Baranga (1995), Carugati et al. (1995), Emmerson & Philip (2004), Kingdon (1971-1982), Ligthart et al. (1994), Nel & Somers (2007), Perrin & Carugati (2000), Purves et al. (1994), Reuther et al. (2003), Roberts (1951), Rosevear (1974), Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1992a, 1995), Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998), Somers (2000), Somers & Nel (2004), Somers & Purves (1996), Stuart (1981), Vander Zee (1981, 1982), VanNiekerk et al. (1998), Verwoerd (1987), Watson & Lang (2003), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA4AFFA5CFF43DEDF5BDF8EF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,645,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4AFFA5CFF43DEDF5BDF8EF.xml,Lutra sumatrana,Lutra,sumatrana,Brisson,1762,Loutre de Sumatra @fr | Haarnasen-Otter @de | Nutria indonesia @es,"Barangia sumatrana Gray, 1865, Sumatra.Monotypic.","Mainland SE Asia in Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, and PeninsularMalaysia; also Borneo and Sumatra.","Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 37.5-50 cm; weight 3.5-6 kg, adult males are larger than females. The Hairy-nosed Otter is small, with a dark brown pelage and paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of the face, chin, and throat are white. The rhinarium is covered with hair, with only the upper edge and margins of the nostrils naked. The limbs are short and strong, the feet are fully webbed and clawed, and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The skull is flat but strongly built.","Coastal wetlands, peat swamps, swamps, large rivers, lakes, and mountain streams.","The dietis said to be primarily fish, but also includes snakes, frogs, small mammals, crabs, and insects.",Nothing known.,Reported to be nocturnal.,Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.,"CITESAppendix II. Classified as Endangered in The [UCN Red List. The Hairy-nosed Otteris the rarest and least known among the five species of otters occurring in Asia. Once believed to be extinct, it has been rediscovered in different parts of South-east Asia such as Cambodia(Tonle Sap wetlands), Malaysia(Terengganuand Maur), Sumatra, Thailand(Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forest), and Viet Nam(U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Mekong Delta). Historically it has also been reported from Brunei, Myanmar, and Penang Island. Very little is known about the Hairy-nosed Otter, but it is likely that it is threatened by destruction of peat swamp forests for logging and agriculture. Research is critically needed on all aspects of this species’ ecology and biology.",Banks (1949) | Francis (2008) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Medway(1969) | Nguyen et al. (2001) | Poole(2003) | Sivasothi & Burhanuddin (1994) | Tate (1947) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714233/files/figure.png,"35.Hairy-nosed OtterLutra sumatranaFrench:Loutre de Sumatra/ German:Haarnasen-Otter/ Spanish:Nutria indonesiaTaxonomy.Barangia sumatrana Gray, 1865, Sumatra.Monotypic.Distribution.Mainland SE Asia in Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, and PeninsularMalaysia; also Borneo and Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 37.5-50 cm; weight 3.5-6 kg, adult males are larger than females. The Hairy-nosed Otter is small, with a dark brown pelage and paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of the face, chin, and throat are white. The rhinarium is covered with hair, with only the upper edge and margins of the nostrils naked. The limbs are short and strong, the feet are fully webbed and clawed, and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The skull is flat but strongly built.Habitat.Coastal wetlands, peat swamps, swamps, large rivers, lakes, and mountain streams.Food and Feeding.The dietis said to be primarily fish, but also includes snakes, frogs, small mammals, crabs, and insects.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Endangered in The [UCN Red List. The Hairy-nosed Otteris the rarest and least known among the five species of otters occurring in Asia. Once believed to be extinct, it has been rediscovered in different parts of South-east Asia such as Cambodia(Tonle Sap wetlands), Malaysia(Terengganuand Maur), Sumatra, Thailand(Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forest), and Viet Nam(U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Mekong Delta). Historically it has also been reported from Brunei, Myanmar, and Penang Island. Very little is known about the Hairy-nosed Otter, but it is likely that it is threatened by destruction of peat swamp forests for logging and agriculture. Research is critically needed on all aspects of this species’ ecology and biology.Bibliography.Banks (1949), Francis (2008), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Medway(1969), Nguyen et al. (2001), Poole(2003), Sivasothi & Burhanuddin (1994), Tate (1947), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,646,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936.xml,Lutrogale perspicillata,Lutrogale,perspicillata,Gray,1865,Loutre indienne @fr | German @en | ndischer Fischotter @en | Nutria lisa @es,"Lutra perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826, Sumatra.Three subspecies are recognized.","L. p. perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826— SE Asia from India, S China, and Mainland SE Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and E Java.L. p. maxwelli Hayman, 1957— Iraqand possibly bordering Iran.L. p. sindica Pocock, 1940— Afghanistanand Pakistan.","Head-body 59-75 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 7-11 kg. A large otter, with a very smooth pelage, naked rhinarium, and fully clawed and webbed feet. The pelage ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, with paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of face, throat, and upper chest are gray. The upper margin of the rhinarium is flat. The vibrissae are well-developed and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The large feet have webbing that extends to the secondjoint of each digit. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is high and wide, with a broad rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M 1/2 = 36.","Smooth-coated Otters are found in inland and coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded swamps, mangroves, and along rivers and irrigation canals. They prefer waterways with banks that are rocky and well vegetated. Smooth-coated Otters are notrestricted to deep water and often forage in small, shallow rivers and seasonally flooded swamps during the monsoons (July-September) and early winter (October-February) in Indiaand Nepal. They commonly inhabit rice fields adjacent to mangroves along coastal areas. In Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters were found to be more abundant in mangroves. On Java, they are restricted to coastal wetlands. When occupying saltwater areas, Smooth-coated Otters require freshwater nearby.","The diet is mainly fish, but may also include small mammals, invertebrates (insects, crabs, and crustaceans), frogs, snakes, and birds. Most fish consumed are 5-30 cmin length. In Rajasthan, India, spraints contained fish (96%), insects (7%), birds (5%), molluscs (3%), frogs (1%), and worms (1%). At Periyar Lake in Kerala, India, fish were found to be the major prey: 32% tilapia (Tilapiamossambica), 26% catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), 16% curmuca barb (Gonoproktopetrus curmuca), 15% European carp (Cyprinus caprio), 3% Deccan mahsheer (Tor khudree), and 1% Periyar barb (Barbus micropogon); a higher intake of bottom-dwelling catfish was observed during periods of low water. Other food items were 4% frogs, 2% crabs, 0-7% birds, and 0-02% insects. In Nepal, spraints contained mainly fish; minor food items were frogs, crabs, shrimp, snakes, and insects. In Perak, Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters eat mostly fish (82% of spraints, mainly Trichogaster pectoralis), followed by molluscs, mammals, and insects (Coleoptera). In Thailand, 70% of spraints contained fish, 13% amphibians, 11% crabs, 4% snakes, and 2% arthropods. Smooth-coated Otters forage in the less rocky areas of lake shallows. Most foraging activity occurs in water; they go on land to rest and defecate. Small fish are swallowed whole, but large fish are taken to shore.","In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.","Mainly diurnal, with a rest period around midday. Den /rest sites occur under tree roots, in openings created by piles of boulders, or in dense vegetation. Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own dens and they sometimes rest on bare sand and grassy areas along river banks. In Nepal, eight dens were in exposed tree roots and one was a tunnel in the sand. In Indiaand Nepal, dens are found in swamps; these are sometimes used as natal den sites and nurseries. Spraint sites often smell of rotten fish. In Thailand, spraint sites occur on small rocks, sand banks, and large boulders, 1-3 mabove water level. The mean number of spraints on each site was 2-2. Smooth-coated Otters often roll and rub on grassy areas, especially after defecation.","Smooth-coated Otters are excellent swimmers and are able to swim underwater for long distances. They are social and are often seen in groups of up to eleven individuals; groups typically consist of a mated pair with young from previouslitters. It is estimated that a group of Smooth-coated Otters requires 7-12 kmofriver to sustain their needs. Population density is 1-1-3 otters per km of water.Breeding.In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.","CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed Last. Although the Smooth-coated Otter may have been quite common in the past and populations stable,it is now likely this is changing rapidly and that this species will soon be in need of urgent help. Increasing human population acrossits range is putting the Smooth-coated Otter under pressure through habitat destruction and pollution. There is widespread conflict with aquaculturalists and fishermen, who kill them as pests and competitors. There is also deliberate trapping for fur in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, mainly for export to China. Although legally protected throughoutits range, this is weakly enforced. Movements of Smooth-coated Otters are limited due to arid regions, leading to poor dispersal and population fragmentation. Several authorities have recommended that ex situ as well as in situ conservation efforts should be made. Field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservationstatus.","Anoop & Hussain (2004, 2005) | Biswas (1973) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008) | Hussain (1996) | Hwang & Lariviere (2005) | Kruuk et al. (1994) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Medway(1969) | Shariff (1985) | Tate (1947) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Yadav (1967)",,"38.Smooth-coated OtterLutrogale perspicillataFrench:Loutre indienne/ German:Indischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria lisaTaxonomy.Lutra perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826, Sumatra.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. p. perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826— SE Asia from India, S China, and Mainland SE Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and E Java.L. p. maxwelli Hayman, 1957— Iraqand possibly bordering Iran.L. p. sindica Pocock, 1940— Afghanistanand Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 59-75 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 7-11 kg. A large otter, with a very smooth pelage, naked rhinarium, and fully clawed and webbed feet. The pelage ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, with paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of face, throat, and upper chest are gray. The upper margin of the rhinarium is flat. The vibrissae are well-developed and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The large feet have webbing that extends to the secondjoint of each digit. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is high and wide, with a broad rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.Smooth-coated Otters are found in inland and coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded swamps, mangroves, and along rivers and irrigation canals. They prefer waterways with banks that are rocky and well vegetated. Smooth-coated Otters are notrestricted to deep water and often forage in small, shallow rivers and seasonally flooded swamps during the monsoons (July-September) and early winter (October-February) in Indiaand Nepal. They commonly inhabit rice fields adjacent to mangroves along coastal areas. In Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters were found to be more abundant in mangroves. On Java, they are restricted to coastal wetlands. When occupying saltwater areas, Smooth-coated Otters require freshwater nearby.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but may also include small mammals, invertebrates (insects, crabs, and crustaceans), frogs, snakes, and birds. Most fish consumed are 5-30 cmin length. In Rajasthan, India, spraints contained fish (96%), insects (7%), birds (5%), molluscs (3%), frogs (1%), and worms (1%). At Periyar Lake in Kerala, India, fish were found to be the major prey: 32% tilapia (Tilapiamossambica), 26% catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), 16% curmuca barb (Gonoproktopetrus curmuca), 15% European carp (Cyprinus caprio), 3% Deccan mahsheer (Tor khudree), and 1% Periyar barb (Barbus micropogon); a higher intake of bottom-dwelling catfish was observed during periods of low water. Other food items were 4% frogs, 2% crabs, 0-7% birds, and 0-02% insects. In Nepal, spraints contained mainly fish; minor food items were frogs, crabs, shrimp, snakes, and insects. In Perak, Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters eat mostly fish (82% of spraints, mainly Trichogaster pectoralis), followed by molluscs, mammals, and insects (Coleoptera). In Thailand, 70% of spraints contained fish, 13% amphibians, 11% crabs, 4% snakes, and 2% arthropods. Smooth-coated Otters forage in the less rocky areas of lake shallows. Most foraging activity occurs in water; they go on land to rest and defecate. Small fish are swallowed whole, but large fish are taken to shore.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, with a rest period around midday. Den /rest sites occur under tree roots, in openings created by piles of boulders, or in dense vegetation. Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own dens and they sometimes rest on bare sand and grassy areas along river banks. In Nepal, eight dens were in exposed tree roots and one was a tunnel in the sand. In Indiaand Nepal, dens are found in swamps; these are sometimes used as natal den sites and nurseries. Spraint sites often smell of rotten fish. In Thailand, spraint sites occur on small rocks, sand banks, and large boulders, 1-3 mabove water level. The mean number of spraints on each site was 2-2. Smooth-coated Otters often roll and rub on grassy areas, especially after defecation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smooth-coated Otters are excellent swimmers and are able to swim underwater for long distances. They are social and are often seen in groups of up to eleven individuals; groups typically consist of a mated pair with young from previouslitters. It is estimated that a group of Smooth-coated Otters requires 7-12 kmofriver to sustain their needs. Population density is 1-1-3 otters per km of water.Breeding.In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed Last. Although the Smooth-coated Otter may have been quite common in the past and populations stable,it is now likely this is changing rapidly and that this species will soon be in need of urgent help. Increasing human population acrossits range is putting the Smooth-coated Otter under pressure through habitat destruction and pollution. There is widespread conflict with aquaculturalists and fishermen, who kill them as pests and competitors. There is also deliberate trapping for fur in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, mainly for export to China. Although legally protected throughoutits range, this is weakly enforced. Movements of Smooth-coated Otters are limited due to arid regions, leading to poor dispersal and population fragmentation. Several authorities have recommended that ex situ as well as in situ conservation efforts should be made. Field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservationstatus.Bibliography.Anoop & Hussain (2004, 2005), Biswas (1973), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008), Hussain (1996), Hwang & Lariviere (2005), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Medway(1969), Shariff (1985), Tate (1947), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yadav (1967)." -038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,646,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A.xml,Aonyx cinereus,Aonyx,cinereus,,,Loutre cendrée @fr | Zwergotter @de | Nutria chica @es | Oriental Small-clawed Otter @en,"Lutra cinerea Illiger, 1815, Batavia, Indonesia.Three subspecies are recognized.","A. c. cinereus Illiger, 1815— S & SE China(including Hainan), Mainland SE Asia, Philippines(Palawan), Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.A. c. concolor Rafinesque, 1832— Sub-Himalan zone in Nepal, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, and SW China.A. c. nirnai Pocock, 1940— SW India.","Head-body 36-44 cm(males), 43: 2-46.8 cm(females), tail 22.5-27 cm(males), 26-27.5 cm(females); weight 2: 40.3-80 kg. Asian Small-clawed Otters are the smallest of the world’s otter species. They have long bodies and short legs, and dorso-ventrally flattened tails. The pelage is uniformly brown exceptfor the neck, throat and chin, which are grayish-silver, sometimes almost white. The head 1s quite small, with eyes that are proportionally larger than in other otters. There are two pairs of mammae. Claws are present but reduced on all the feet; the webbing on all the feet is incomplete. The skull is small, short and wide. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are usually absent. The upper and lower carnassials and the upper molar are very large.","Asian Small-clawed Otters are found along lakes and rivers, in coastal wetlands, marshes, mangroves, and rice fields. They sometimes occur close to human settlements.","The diet is primarily crabs and shellfish. Fish, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, and insects are also eaten. In Thailand, 95% of spraints contained the crab Potamon smithianus, 40% contained amphibians and fish, 15% contained small mammals, and 5% contained arthropods. The size of crabs consumed by Asian Smallclawed Otters reflects what is available in the watershed they inhabit. Asian Smallclawed Otters coexist with Eurasian, Hairy-nosed, and Smooth-coated Otters in numerous locations, including severalriver systems in Thailandand Malaysia. Although all three species consume the same prey, the Asian Small-clawed Otter is predominantly a crab eater, whereas the other species consume mostly fish. Prey are captured mostly by sight, but also by touch, using their dextrous forefeet. Shellfish are dug up and left in the sun so that the heat causes them to open, allowing Asian Small-clawed Otters to consume them without having to crush the shells.","Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.",,"Asian Small-clawed Otters are playful and sociable animals, and often travel and forage in groups of up to 12-13 individuals. In captivity, they can swim underwater at speeds of 0-7- 1-2 m/s.Breeding.Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.","CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in the. Asian Small-clawed Otters are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution from organochlorines. Local persecution may also affect populations where they are perceived as competitors for fish resources. In parts of Asia, their organs have traditional medicinal value. Very little is known about the ecology of this species and field studies are needed.","Foster-Turley & Engfer (1988) | Francis (2008) | Kruuk et al. (1994) | Lariviere (2003a) | Leslie (1970) | Medway(1969) | Nor (1990) | Shariff (1985) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Yoshiyuki (1971)",,"37.Asian Small-clawed OtterAonyx cinereusFrench:Loutre cendrée/ German:Zwergotter/ Spanish:Nutria chicaOther common names:OrientalSmall-clawed OtterTaxonomy.Lutra cinerea Illiger, 1815, Batavia, Indonesia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. c. cinereus Illiger, 1815— S & SE China(including Hainan), Mainland SE Asia, Philippines(Palawan), Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.A. c. concolor Rafinesque, 1832— Sub-Himalan zone in Nepal, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, and SW China.A. c. nirnai Pocock, 1940— SW India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-44 cm(males), 43: 2-46.8 cm(females), tail 22.5-27 cm(males), 26-27.5 cm(females); weight 2: 40.3-80 kg. Asian Small-clawed Otters are the smallest of the world’s otter species. They have long bodies and short legs, and dorso-ventrally flattened tails. The pelage is uniformly brown exceptfor the neck, throat and chin, which are grayish-silver, sometimes almost white. The head 1s quite small, with eyes that are proportionally larger than in other otters. There are two pairs of mammae. Claws are present but reduced on all the feet; the webbing on all the feet is incomplete. The skull is small, short and wide. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are usually absent. The upper and lower carnassials and the upper molar are very large.Habitat.Asian Small-clawed Otters are found along lakes and rivers, in coastal wetlands, marshes, mangroves, and rice fields. They sometimes occur close to human settlements.Food and Feeding.The diet is primarily crabs and shellfish. Fish, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, and insects are also eaten. In Thailand, 95% of spraints contained the crab Potamon smithianus, 40% contained amphibians and fish, 15% contained small mammals, and 5% contained arthropods. The size of crabs consumed by Asian Smallclawed Otters reflects what is available in the watershed they inhabit. Asian Smallclawed Otters coexist with Eurasian, Hairy-nosed, and Smooth-coated Otters in numerous locations, including severalriver systems in Thailandand Malaysia. Although all three species consume the same prey, the Asian Small-clawed Otter is predominantly a crab eater, whereas the other species consume mostly fish. Prey are captured mostly by sight, but also by touch, using their dextrous forefeet. Shellfish are dug up and left in the sun so that the heat causes them to open, allowing Asian Small-clawed Otters to consume them without having to crush the shells.Activity pattern.Primarily diurnal, although reported to be nocturnal or crepuscular when found close to humans. During the day, Asian Small-clawed Otters often rest and groom on grassy or sandy banks near water. In marshes, they use mostly islands. Resting sites often show signs of spraint smearing, a behavior also observed in captivity. Defecation sites used by the Asian Small-clawed Otter occasionally are shared with Eurasian and Smooth-coated Otters and thus cannot be differentiated with certainty. Asian Small-clawed Otters have a diverse vocal repertoire that includes at least twelve different sounds, such as alarm, greeting, and mating calls.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Asian Small-clawed Otters are playful and sociable animals, and often travel and forage in groups of up to 12-13 individuals. In captivity, they can swim underwater at speeds of 0-7- 1-2 m/s.Breeding.Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in the. Asian Small-clawed Otters are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution from organochlorines. Local persecution may also affect populations where they are perceived as competitors for fish resources. In parts of Asia, their organs have traditional medicinal value. Very little is known about the ecology of this species and field studies are needed.Bibliography.Foster-Turley & Engfer (1988), Francis (2008), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lariviere (2003a), Leslie (1970), Medway(1969), Nor (1990), Shariff (1985), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yoshiyuki (1971)." -038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,649,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F.xml,Mustela erminea,Mustela,erminea,Linnaeus,1758,Belette hermine @fr | Hermelin @de | Armino @es | Stoat @en | Short-tailed Weasel @en,"Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Thirty-four subspecies are recognized.","M. e. erminea Linnaeus, 1758— Finland, Norway, NW Russia, and Sweden.M. e. aestiva Kerr, 1792— most of mainland N & C Europe to C Asia in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.M. e. alascensis Merriam, 1896— S Alaska.M. e. anguinae Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I, British Columbia).M. e. arctica Merriam, 1896— Alaska and NW Canada.M. e. bangsi Hall, 1945— C Canadaand NC USA.M. e. celenda Hall, 1944— Alaska(Prince of Wales I).M.e. cicognanii Bonaparte, 1838— SE Canadaand NE USA.M. e. fallenda Hall, 1945— W Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(N Washington).M. e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895— Afghanistan, N India, and Pakistan.M.e. gulosa Hall, 1945— NW USA(E Washington).M.e. haidarum Preble, 1898— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is, British Columbia).M.e. hibernica Thomas & Barrett-Hamilton, 1895— Ireland.M.e. imatis Hall, 1944— Alaska(Baranof I).M.e. invicta Hall, 1945— SW Canada(Alberta) and NW USA(Idaho& Montana).M.e. kadiacensis Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak I).M.e. kaneti Baird, 1857— NE China, Russia(E Siberia).M.e. karaginensis Jurgenson, 1936— NE Russia(Karaginsky I).M.e. lymani Hollister, 1912— E Russia(AltaiMts, Siberia).M.e. minima Cavazza, 1912— Switzerland.M.e. mongolica Ognev, 1928— NW Chinaand Mongolian Altai.M. e. muricus Bangs, 1899— USA(N California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming).M. e. nippon Cabrera, 1913— Japan.M.e. olympica Hall, 1945— NW USA(Olympic Peninsula, Washington).M.e. polaris Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Greenland.M.e.richardsonii Bonaparte, 1838— N Canada.M.e. ricinae G. S. Miller, 1907— Scotland(Islay I).M.e.salva Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Admiralty I).M.e.seclusa Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Suemez I).M.e.sempler Sutton & Hamilton, 1932— Canada(Franklin & Keewatin Districts).M.e.stabilis Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Great Britain.M.e.streatori Merriam, 1896— W USA(NE California, Oregon& coastal Washington).M.e.teberdina Kornejv, 1941— Russian Caucasus.M.e. tobolica Ognev, 1923— W Siberia.Introduced to New Zealand.","Head-body 22: 5-34 cm(males), 19-29 cm(females); tail 4.2-12 cm; weight of males is 208-283 ¢ in Europe, 320 gin Britain, 285-356 gin New Zealand(introduced population), 233-365 gin Ireland, 134-191 gin Russia, 56-206 gin North America, adult males are 40-80% larger than females. The Ermine has a long, slender body and short limbs. Except in certain southern parts of their range, Ermines change color in April-May and October-November. In the summer, the back, flanks, and outersides of the limbs are reddish or chocolate brown; the underparts are white and the tip of the tail is black. During winter, the pelage becomes white throughout except for the black tip of the tail. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull has a long braincase, inflated tympanic bullae, and is relatively flat. Dental formula: I 3/3, Cl/A.P3/3:;M1/2=34.","Ermines are found in a wide range of habitats, including tundra, alpine meadows, woodlands, marshes, mountains, riparian habitats, farmland, and hedgerows, from sea level up to 3000 m. They prefer areas with vegetative or rocky cover. In the mountains of south-east British Columbia, Ermines were detected in all forests surveyed; these covered the range from open dry Douglas-fir forests to dense wet western red cedar (Thwa plicata) and western hemlock (75uga heterophylla) forests, and from very recent clear-cuts to mature stands over 300 years in age. In a subarctic area in Finland, adult females were found to live in areas where the abundance of their preferred Microtus prey was the highest; dominant males lived in less productive habitats than females, but in more productive areas than non-dominant mature males.","The diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats, lemmings, squirrels, and lagomorphs, but also includes birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, and fruit. In Great Britain, the percentage frequency of occurrence in the diet consists of 65% lagomorphs, 16% small rodents, and 17% birds and birds’ eggs; males eat a greater proportion of lagomorphs than females, which eat more small rodents. In Denmark(where European Rabbits are absent), a dietary study showed that rodents are the most important prey group, constituting 84% of their diet (frequency of occurrence). Ermines ate birds and birds’ eggs more often than sympatric Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more insectivores. Ermines ate more Microtus voles and Water Voles than Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more Bank Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Moles (Talpa europaea). In the Italian Alps, 60% of scats contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey. However, the frequency of occurrence offruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50% in July. In the forests of New Brunswick, Canada, the frequency of occurrence of prey is 28-0% soricids, 24:6% arvicolines, and 17-3% cricetines; the Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, 17-3%) and shrews (Sorex sp., 28-:0%) have the highest percent occurrence, whereas the Red Squirrel and the Eastern Chipmunk (7amius striatus) comprise 11-2% of the diet. Ermines generally hunt in a zig-zag pattern, progressing by a series of leaps that are up to 50 cmlong. Prey are located mostly by smell or sound, and are often pursued into underground burrows or under snow. Ermines usually kill prey by biting the base of the skull. They sometimes attack animals considerably larger than themselves, such as adult hares. Ermines may cache excess food underground for later use during the winter.","Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.","Primarily nocturnal, but can be active at any time during the day. Their long shape makes them sensitive to cold temperatures and this, combined with a high metabolic rate, requires that Ermines hunt constantly to fulfill their energetic demands. Short periods of activity and rest alternate every three to five hours. Dens/ rest sites are in crevices, among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in burrows taken over from a rodent. Several nests are maintained within an individual’s home range; these are lined with dry vegetation or the fur and feathers of its prey. Ermines can easily run over or tunnel in snow to escape predators and search for food.","Ermines are solitary and primarily terrestrial, but they are also agile tree climbers and strong swimmers. Daily movements may reach 15 km, but usually average c. 1 km. Movements increase when prey are rare or dispersed. Home ranges may reach 200 ha, but are typically 10-40 ha; male ranges are generally larger than female ranges. Both sexes maintain exclusive territories, but a male home range may overlap one or more female ranges. Males show a marked seasonal shift in their social organization from a pattern of intra-sexual territories during the non-breeding season (autumn and winter) to a non-territorial pattern with extensive and overlapping ranges during the mating season (spring and summer). Boundaries are regularly patrolled and scent-marked, and neighbors usually avoid each other. Population density fluctuates with prey abundance and may range from 2-6 individuals per km®.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Ermines are considered common throughout their distribution. They rarely molest poultry and are valuable to humans because they prey on mice and rats. However, Ermines are considered pests in New Zealand, where they were introduced to control rabbits but subsequently decimated populations of native birds. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Ermine is dependent on two Arvicola species, which are declining in numbers. Ermines are trapped in North America and Russiafor their fur; the white winter fur has long been used in trimming coats and making stoles.","Edwards & Forbes (2003) | EImeros (2006) | Erlinge & Sandell (1986) | Hellstedt & Henttonen (2006) | Hellstedt et al. (2006) | King (1983, 1990) | Martinoli et al. (2001) | McDonaldet al. (2000) | Mowat & Poole (2005) | Robitaille & Raymond (1995) | Samson & Raymond (1998) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",,"41.ErmineMustela ermineaFrench:Belette hermine/ German:Hermelin/ Spanish:ArminoOther common names:Stoat, Short-tailed WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Thirty-four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. e. erminea Linnaeus, 1758— Finland, Norway, NW Russia, and Sweden.M. e. aestiva Kerr, 1792— most of mainland N & C Europe to C Asia in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.M. e. alascensis Merriam, 1896— S Alaska.M. e. anguinae Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I, British Columbia).M. e. arctica Merriam, 1896— Alaska and NW Canada.M. e. bangsi Hall, 1945— C Canadaand NC USA.M. e. celenda Hall, 1944— Alaska(Prince of Wales I).M.e. cicognanii Bonaparte, 1838— SE Canadaand NE USA.M. e. fallenda Hall, 1945— W Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(N Washington).M. e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895— Afghanistan, N India, and Pakistan.M.e. gulosa Hall, 1945— NW USA(E Washington).M.e. haidarum Preble, 1898— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is, British Columbia).M.e. hibernica Thomas & Barrett-Hamilton, 1895— Ireland.M.e. imatis Hall, 1944— Alaska(Baranof I).M.e. invicta Hall, 1945— SW Canada(Alberta) and NW USA(Idaho& Montana).M.e. kadiacensis Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak I).M.e. kaneti Baird, 1857— NE China, Russia(E Siberia).M.e. karaginensis Jurgenson, 1936— NE Russia(Karaginsky I).M.e. lymani Hollister, 1912— E Russia(AltaiMts, Siberia).M.e. minima Cavazza, 1912— Switzerland.M.e. mongolica Ognev, 1928— NW Chinaand Mongolian Altai.M. e. muricus Bangs, 1899— USA(N California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming).M. e. nippon Cabrera, 1913— Japan.M.e. olympica Hall, 1945— NW USA(Olympic Peninsula, Washington).M.e. polaris Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Greenland.M.e.richardsonii Bonaparte, 1838— N Canada.M.e. ricinae G. S. Miller, 1907— Scotland(Islay I).M.e.salva Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Admiralty I).M.e.seclusa Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Suemez I).M.e.sempler Sutton & Hamilton, 1932— Canada(Franklin & Keewatin Districts).M.e.stabilis Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Great Britain.M.e.streatori Merriam, 1896— W USA(NE California, Oregon& coastal Washington).M.e.teberdina Kornejv, 1941— Russian Caucasus.M.e. tobolica Ognev, 1923— W Siberia.Introduced to New Zealand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22: 5-34 cm(males), 19-29 cm(females); tail 4.2-12 cm; weight of males is 208-283 ¢ in Europe, 320 gin Britain, 285-356 gin New Zealand(introduced population), 233-365 gin Ireland, 134-191 gin Russia, 56-206 gin North America, adult males are 40-80% larger than females. The Ermine has a long, slender body and short limbs. Except in certain southern parts of their range, Ermines change color in April-May and October-November. In the summer, the back, flanks, and outersides of the limbs are reddish or chocolate brown; the underparts are white and the tip of the tail is black. During winter, the pelage becomes white throughout except for the black tip of the tail. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull has a long braincase, inflated tympanic bullae, and is relatively flat. Dental formula: I 3/3, Cl/A.P3/3:;M1/2=34.Habitat.Ermines are found in a wide range of habitats, including tundra, alpine meadows, woodlands, marshes, mountains, riparian habitats, farmland, and hedgerows, from sea level up to 3000 m. They prefer areas with vegetative or rocky cover. In the mountains of south-east British Columbia, Ermines were detected in all forests surveyed; these covered the range from open dry Douglas-fir forests to dense wet western red cedar (Thwa plicata) and western hemlock (75uga heterophylla) forests, and from very recent clear-cuts to mature stands over 300 years in age. In a subarctic area in Finland, adult females were found to live in areas where the abundance of their preferred Microtus prey was the highest; dominant males lived in less productive habitats than females, but in more productive areas than non-dominant mature males.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats, lemmings, squirrels, and lagomorphs, but also includes birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, and fruit. In Great Britain, the percentage frequency of occurrence in the diet consists of 65% lagomorphs, 16% small rodents, and 17% birds and birds’ eggs; males eat a greater proportion of lagomorphs than females, which eat more small rodents. In Denmark(where European Rabbits are absent), a dietary study showed that rodents are the most important prey group, constituting 84% of their diet (frequency of occurrence). Ermines ate birds and birds’ eggs more often than sympatric Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more insectivores. Ermines ate more Microtus voles and Water Voles than Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more Bank Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Moles (Talpa europaea). In the Italian Alps, 60% of scats contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey. However, the frequency of occurrence offruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50% in July. In the forests of New Brunswick, Canada, the frequency of occurrence of prey is 28-0% soricids, 24:6% arvicolines, and 17-3% cricetines; the Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, 17-3%) and shrews (Sorex sp., 28-:0%) have the highest percent occurrence, whereas the Red Squirrel and the Eastern Chipmunk (7amius striatus) comprise 11-2% of the diet. Ermines generally hunt in a zig-zag pattern, progressing by a series of leaps that are up to 50 cmlong. Prey are located mostly by smell or sound, and are often pursued into underground burrows or under snow. Ermines usually kill prey by biting the base of the skull. They sometimes attack animals considerably larger than themselves, such as adult hares. Ermines may cache excess food underground for later use during the winter.On following pages: 42. Steppe Polecat (Mustelaeversmanii); 43. Colombian Weasel (Mustelafelipei); 44. Long-tailed Weasel (Mustela frenata); 45. Japanese Weasel (Mustelaitatsi); 46. Yellow-bellied Weasel (Mustelakathiah); 47. European Mink (Mustelalutreola); 48. Indonesian Mountain Weasel (Mustelalutreolina); 49. Black-footed Ferret (Mustelanigripes); 50. Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis); 51. Malay Weasel (Mustelanudipes); 52. European Polecat (Mustela putorius); 53. Siberian Weasel (Mustela sibirica); 54. Back-striped Weasel (Mustelastrigidorsa); 55. Egyptian Weasel (Mustela subpalmata); 56. American Mink (Neovison vison); 57. Patagonian Weasel (Lyncodonpatagonicus).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but can be active at any time during the day. Their long shape makes them sensitive to cold temperatures and this, combined with a high metabolic rate, requires that Ermines hunt constantly to fulfill their energetic demands. Short periods of activity and rest alternate every three to five hours. Dens/ rest sites are in crevices, among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in burrows taken over from a rodent. Several nests are maintained within an individual’s home range; these are lined with dry vegetation or the fur and feathers of its prey. Ermines can easily run over or tunnel in snow to escape predators and search for food.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ermines are solitary and primarily terrestrial, but they are also agile tree climbers and strong swimmers. Daily movements may reach 15 km, but usually average c. 1 km. Movements increase when prey are rare or dispersed. Home ranges may reach 200 ha, but are typically 10-40 ha; male ranges are generally larger than female ranges. Both sexes maintain exclusive territories, but a male home range may overlap one or more female ranges. Males show a marked seasonal shift in their social organization from a pattern of intra-sexual territories during the non-breeding season (autumn and winter) to a non-territorial pattern with extensive and overlapping ranges during the mating season (spring and summer). Boundaries are regularly patrolled and scent-marked, and neighbors usually avoid each other. Population density fluctuates with prey abundance and may range from 2-6 individuals per km®.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Ermines are considered common throughout their distribution. They rarely molest poultry and are valuable to humans because they prey on mice and rats. However, Ermines are considered pests in New Zealand, where they were introduced to control rabbits but subsequently decimated populations of native birds. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Ermine is dependent on two Arvicola species, which are declining in numbers. Ermines are trapped in North America and Russiafor their fur; the white winter fur has long been used in trimming coats and making stoles.Bibliography.Edwards & Forbes (2003), EImeros (2006), Erlinge & Sandell (1986), Hellstedt & Henttonen (2006), Hellstedt et al. (2006), King (1983, 1990), Martinoli et al. (2001), McDonaldet al. (2000), Mowat & Poole (2005), Robitaille & Raymond (1995), Samson & Raymond (1998), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." +038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,646,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936.xml,Lutrogale perspicillata,Lutrogale,perspicillata,Gray,1865,Loutre indienne @fr | German @en | ndischer Fischotter @en | Nutria lisa @es,"Lutra perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826, Sumatra.Three subspecies are recognized.","L. p. perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826— SE Asia from India, S China, and Mainland SE Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and E Java.L. p. maxwelli Hayman, 1957— Iraqand possibly bordering Iran.L. p. sindica Pocock, 1940— Afghanistanand Pakistan.","Head-body 59-75 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 7-11 kg. A large otter, with a very smooth pelage, naked rhinarium, and fully clawed and webbed feet. The pelage ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, with paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of face, throat, and upper chest are gray. The upper margin of the rhinarium is flat. The vibrissae are well-developed and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The large feet have webbing that extends to the secondjoint of each digit. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is high and wide, with a broad rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M 1/2 = 36.","Smooth-coated Otters are found in inland and coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded swamps, mangroves, and along rivers and irrigation canals. They prefer waterways with banks that are rocky and well vegetated. Smooth-coated Otters are notrestricted to deep water and often forage in small, shallow rivers and seasonally flooded swamps during the monsoons (July-September) and early winter (October-February) in Indiaand Nepal. They commonly inhabit rice fields adjacent to mangroves along coastal areas. In Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters were found to be more abundant in mangroves. On Java, they are restricted to coastal wetlands. When occupying saltwater areas, Smooth-coated Otters require freshwater nearby.","The diet is mainly fish, but may also include small mammals, invertebrates (insects, crabs, and crustaceans), frogs, snakes, and birds. Most fish consumed are 5-30 cmin length. In Rajasthan, India, spraints contained fish (96%), insects (7%), birds (5%), molluscs (3%), frogs (1%), and worms (1%). At Periyar Lake in Kerala, India, fish were found to be the major prey: 32% tilapia (Tilapiamossambica), 26% catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), 16% curmuca barb (Gonoproktopetrus curmuca), 15% European carp (Cyprinus caprio), 3% Deccan mahsheer (Tor khudree), and 1% Periyar barb (Barbus micropogon); a higher intake of bottom-dwelling catfish was observed during periods of low water. Other food items were 4% frogs, 2% crabs, 0-7% birds, and 0-02% insects. In Nepal, spraints contained mainly fish; minor food items were frogs, crabs, shrimp, snakes, and insects. In Perak, Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters eat mostly fish (82% of spraints, mainly Trichogaster pectoralis), followed by molluscs, mammals, and insects (Coleoptera). In Thailand, 70% of spraints contained fish, 13% amphibians, 11% crabs, 4% snakes, and 2% arthropods. Smooth-coated Otters forage in the less rocky areas of lake shallows. Most foraging activity occurs in water; they go on land to rest and defecate. Small fish are swallowed whole, but large fish are taken to shore.","In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.","Mainly diurnal, with a rest period around midday. Den /rest sites occur under tree roots, in openings created by piles of boulders, or in dense vegetation. Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own dens and they sometimes rest on bare sand and grassy areas along river banks. In Nepal, eight dens were in exposed tree roots and one was a tunnel in the sand. In Indiaand Nepal, dens are found in swamps; these are sometimes used as natal den sites and nurseries. Spraint sites often smell of rotten fish. In Thailand, spraint sites occur on small rocks, sand banks, and large boulders, 1-3 mabove water level. The mean number of spraints on each site was 2-2. Smooth-coated Otters often roll and rub on grassy areas, especially after defecation.","Smooth-coated Otters are excellent swimmers and are able to swim underwater for long distances. They are social and are often seen in groups of up to eleven individuals; groups typically consist of a mated pair with young from previouslitters. It is estimated that a group of Smooth-coated Otters requires 7-12 kmofriver to sustain their needs. Population density is 1-1-3 otters per km of water.Breeding.In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.","CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed Last. Although the Smooth-coated Otter may have been quite common in the past and populations stable,it is now likely this is changing rapidly and that this species will soon be in need of urgent help. Increasing human population acrossits range is putting the Smooth-coated Otter under pressure through habitat destruction and pollution. There is widespread conflict with aquaculturalists and fishermen, who kill them as pests and competitors. There is also deliberate trapping for fur in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, mainly for export to China. Although legally protected throughoutits range, this is weakly enforced. Movements of Smooth-coated Otters are limited due to arid regions, leading to poor dispersal and population fragmentation. Several authorities have recommended that ex situ as well as in situ conservation efforts should be made. Field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservationstatus.","Anoop & Hussain (2004, 2005) | Biswas (1973) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008) | Hussain (1996) | Hwang & Lariviere (2005) | Kruuk et al. (1994) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Medway(1969) | Shariff (1985) | Tate (1947) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Yadav (1967)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714241/files/figure.png,"38.Smooth-coated OtterLutrogale perspicillataFrench:Loutre indienne/ German:Indischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria lisaTaxonomy.Lutra perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826, Sumatra.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. p. perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826— SE Asia from India, S China, and Mainland SE Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and E Java.L. p. maxwelli Hayman, 1957— Iraqand possibly bordering Iran.L. p. sindica Pocock, 1940— Afghanistanand Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 59-75 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 7-11 kg. A large otter, with a very smooth pelage, naked rhinarium, and fully clawed and webbed feet. The pelage ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, with paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of face, throat, and upper chest are gray. The upper margin of the rhinarium is flat. The vibrissae are well-developed and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The large feet have webbing that extends to the secondjoint of each digit. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is high and wide, with a broad rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.Smooth-coated Otters are found in inland and coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded swamps, mangroves, and along rivers and irrigation canals. They prefer waterways with banks that are rocky and well vegetated. Smooth-coated Otters are notrestricted to deep water and often forage in small, shallow rivers and seasonally flooded swamps during the monsoons (July-September) and early winter (October-February) in Indiaand Nepal. They commonly inhabit rice fields adjacent to mangroves along coastal areas. In Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters were found to be more abundant in mangroves. On Java, they are restricted to coastal wetlands. When occupying saltwater areas, Smooth-coated Otters require freshwater nearby.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but may also include small mammals, invertebrates (insects, crabs, and crustaceans), frogs, snakes, and birds. Most fish consumed are 5-30 cmin length. In Rajasthan, India, spraints contained fish (96%), insects (7%), birds (5%), molluscs (3%), frogs (1%), and worms (1%). At Periyar Lake in Kerala, India, fish were found to be the major prey: 32% tilapia (Tilapiamossambica), 26% catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), 16% curmuca barb (Gonoproktopetrus curmuca), 15% European carp (Cyprinus caprio), 3% Deccan mahsheer (Tor khudree), and 1% Periyar barb (Barbus micropogon); a higher intake of bottom-dwelling catfish was observed during periods of low water. Other food items were 4% frogs, 2% crabs, 0-7% birds, and 0-02% insects. In Nepal, spraints contained mainly fish; minor food items were frogs, crabs, shrimp, snakes, and insects. In Perak, Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters eat mostly fish (82% of spraints, mainly Trichogaster pectoralis), followed by molluscs, mammals, and insects (Coleoptera). In Thailand, 70% of spraints contained fish, 13% amphibians, 11% crabs, 4% snakes, and 2% arthropods. Smooth-coated Otters forage in the less rocky areas of lake shallows. Most foraging activity occurs in water; they go on land to rest and defecate. Small fish are swallowed whole, but large fish are taken to shore.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, with a rest period around midday. Den /rest sites occur under tree roots, in openings created by piles of boulders, or in dense vegetation. Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own dens and they sometimes rest on bare sand and grassy areas along river banks. In Nepal, eight dens were in exposed tree roots and one was a tunnel in the sand. In Indiaand Nepal, dens are found in swamps; these are sometimes used as natal den sites and nurseries. Spraint sites often smell of rotten fish. In Thailand, spraint sites occur on small rocks, sand banks, and large boulders, 1-3 mabove water level. The mean number of spraints on each site was 2-2. Smooth-coated Otters often roll and rub on grassy areas, especially after defecation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smooth-coated Otters are excellent swimmers and are able to swim underwater for long distances. They are social and are often seen in groups of up to eleven individuals; groups typically consist of a mated pair with young from previouslitters. It is estimated that a group of Smooth-coated Otters requires 7-12 kmofriver to sustain their needs. Population density is 1-1-3 otters per km of water.Breeding.In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed Last. Although the Smooth-coated Otter may have been quite common in the past and populations stable,it is now likely this is changing rapidly and that this species will soon be in need of urgent help. Increasing human population acrossits range is putting the Smooth-coated Otter under pressure through habitat destruction and pollution. There is widespread conflict with aquaculturalists and fishermen, who kill them as pests and competitors. There is also deliberate trapping for fur in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, mainly for export to China. Although legally protected throughoutits range, this is weakly enforced. Movements of Smooth-coated Otters are limited due to arid regions, leading to poor dispersal and population fragmentation. Several authorities have recommended that ex situ as well as in situ conservation efforts should be made. Field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservationstatus.Bibliography.Anoop & Hussain (2004, 2005), Biswas (1973), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008), Hussain (1996), Hwang & Lariviere (2005), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Medway(1969), Shariff (1985), Tate (1947), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yadav (1967)." +038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,646,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A.xml,Aonyx cinereus,Aonyx,cinereus,,,Loutre cendrée @fr | Zwergotter @de | Nutria chica @es | Oriental Small-clawed Otter @en,"Lutra cinerea Illiger, 1815, Batavia, Indonesia.Three subspecies are recognized.","A. c. cinereus Illiger, 1815— S & SE China(including Hainan), Mainland SE Asia, Philippines(Palawan), Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.A. c. concolor Rafinesque, 1832— Sub-Himalan zone in Nepal, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, and SW China.A. c. nirnai Pocock, 1940— SW India.","Head-body 36-44 cm(males), 43: 2-46.8 cm(females), tail 22.5-27 cm(males), 26-27.5 cm(females); weight 2: 40.3-80 kg. Asian Small-clawed Otters are the smallest of the world’s otter species. They have long bodies and short legs, and dorso-ventrally flattened tails. The pelage is uniformly brown exceptfor the neck, throat and chin, which are grayish-silver, sometimes almost white. The head 1s quite small, with eyes that are proportionally larger than in other otters. There are two pairs of mammae. Claws are present but reduced on all the feet; the webbing on all the feet is incomplete. The skull is small, short and wide. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are usually absent. The upper and lower carnassials and the upper molar are very large.","Asian Small-clawed Otters are found along lakes and rivers, in coastal wetlands, marshes, mangroves, and rice fields. They sometimes occur close to human settlements.","The diet is primarily crabs and shellfish. Fish, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, and insects are also eaten. In Thailand, 95% of spraints contained the crab Potamon smithianus, 40% contained amphibians and fish, 15% contained small mammals, and 5% contained arthropods. The size of crabs consumed by Asian Smallclawed Otters reflects what is available in the watershed they inhabit. Asian Smallclawed Otters coexist with Eurasian, Hairy-nosed, and Smooth-coated Otters in numerous locations, including severalriver systems in Thailandand Malaysia. Although all three species consume the same prey, the Asian Small-clawed Otter is predominantly a crab eater, whereas the other species consume mostly fish. Prey are captured mostly by sight, but also by touch, using their dextrous forefeet. Shellfish are dug up and left in the sun so that the heat causes them to open, allowing Asian Small-clawed Otters to consume them without having to crush the shells.","Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.",,"Asian Small-clawed Otters are playful and sociable animals, and often travel and forage in groups of up to 12-13 individuals. In captivity, they can swim underwater at speeds of 0-7- 1-2 m/s.Breeding.Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.","CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in the. Asian Small-clawed Otters are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution from organochlorines. Local persecution may also affect populations where they are perceived as competitors for fish resources. In parts of Asia, their organs have traditional medicinal value. Very little is known about the ecology of this species and field studies are needed.","Foster-Turley & Engfer (1988) | Francis (2008) | Kruuk et al. (1994) | Lariviere (2003a) | Leslie (1970) | Medway(1969) | Nor (1990) | Shariff (1985) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Yoshiyuki (1971)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714239/files/figure.png,"37.Asian Small-clawed OtterAonyx cinereusFrench:Loutre cendrée/ German:Zwergotter/ Spanish:Nutria chicaOther common names:OrientalSmall-clawed OtterTaxonomy.Lutra cinerea Illiger, 1815, Batavia, Indonesia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. c. cinereus Illiger, 1815— S & SE China(including Hainan), Mainland SE Asia, Philippines(Palawan), Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.A. c. concolor Rafinesque, 1832— Sub-Himalan zone in Nepal, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, and SW China.A. c. nirnai Pocock, 1940— SW India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-44 cm(males), 43: 2-46.8 cm(females), tail 22.5-27 cm(males), 26-27.5 cm(females); weight 2: 40.3-80 kg. Asian Small-clawed Otters are the smallest of the world’s otter species. They have long bodies and short legs, and dorso-ventrally flattened tails. The pelage is uniformly brown exceptfor the neck, throat and chin, which are grayish-silver, sometimes almost white. The head 1s quite small, with eyes that are proportionally larger than in other otters. There are two pairs of mammae. Claws are present but reduced on all the feet; the webbing on all the feet is incomplete. The skull is small, short and wide. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are usually absent. The upper and lower carnassials and the upper molar are very large.Habitat.Asian Small-clawed Otters are found along lakes and rivers, in coastal wetlands, marshes, mangroves, and rice fields. They sometimes occur close to human settlements.Food and Feeding.The diet is primarily crabs and shellfish. Fish, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, and insects are also eaten. In Thailand, 95% of spraints contained the crab Potamon smithianus, 40% contained amphibians and fish, 15% contained small mammals, and 5% contained arthropods. The size of crabs consumed by Asian Smallclawed Otters reflects what is available in the watershed they inhabit. Asian Smallclawed Otters coexist with Eurasian, Hairy-nosed, and Smooth-coated Otters in numerous locations, including severalriver systems in Thailandand Malaysia. Although all three species consume the same prey, the Asian Small-clawed Otter is predominantly a crab eater, whereas the other species consume mostly fish. Prey are captured mostly by sight, but also by touch, using their dextrous forefeet. Shellfish are dug up and left in the sun so that the heat causes them to open, allowing Asian Small-clawed Otters to consume them without having to crush the shells.Activity pattern.Primarily diurnal, although reported to be nocturnal or crepuscular when found close to humans. During the day, Asian Small-clawed Otters often rest and groom on grassy or sandy banks near water. In marshes, they use mostly islands. Resting sites often show signs of spraint smearing, a behavior also observed in captivity. Defecation sites used by the Asian Small-clawed Otter occasionally are shared with Eurasian and Smooth-coated Otters and thus cannot be differentiated with certainty. Asian Small-clawed Otters have a diverse vocal repertoire that includes at least twelve different sounds, such as alarm, greeting, and mating calls.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Asian Small-clawed Otters are playful and sociable animals, and often travel and forage in groups of up to 12-13 individuals. In captivity, they can swim underwater at speeds of 0-7- 1-2 m/s.Breeding.Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in the. Asian Small-clawed Otters are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution from organochlorines. Local persecution may also affect populations where they are perceived as competitors for fish resources. In parts of Asia, their organs have traditional medicinal value. Very little is known about the ecology of this species and field studies are needed.Bibliography.Foster-Turley & Engfer (1988), Francis (2008), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lariviere (2003a), Leslie (1970), Medway(1969), Nor (1990), Shariff (1985), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yoshiyuki (1971)." +038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,649,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F.xml,Mustela erminea,Mustela,erminea,Linnaeus,1758,Belette hermine @fr | Hermelin @de | Armino @es | Stoat @en | Short-tailed Weasel @en,"Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Thirty-four subspecies are recognized.","M. e. erminea Linnaeus, 1758— Finland, Norway, NW Russia, and Sweden.M. e. aestiva Kerr, 1792— most of mainland N & C Europe to C Asia in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.M. e. alascensis Merriam, 1896— S Alaska.M. e. anguinae Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I, British Columbia).M. e. arctica Merriam, 1896— Alaska and NW Canada.M. e. bangsi Hall, 1945— C Canadaand NC USA.M. e. celenda Hall, 1944— Alaska(Prince of Wales I).M.e. cicognanii Bonaparte, 1838— SE Canadaand NE USA.M. e. fallenda Hall, 1945— W Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(N Washington).M. e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895— Afghanistan, N India, and Pakistan.M.e. gulosa Hall, 1945— NW USA(E Washington).M.e. haidarum Preble, 1898— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is, British Columbia).M.e. hibernica Thomas & Barrett-Hamilton, 1895— Ireland.M.e. imatis Hall, 1944— Alaska(Baranof I).M.e. invicta Hall, 1945— SW Canada(Alberta) and NW USA(Idaho& Montana).M.e. kadiacensis Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak I).M.e. kaneti Baird, 1857— NE China, Russia(E Siberia).M.e. karaginensis Jurgenson, 1936— NE Russia(Karaginsky I).M.e. lymani Hollister, 1912— E Russia(AltaiMts, Siberia).M.e. minima Cavazza, 1912— Switzerland.M.e. mongolica Ognev, 1928— NW Chinaand Mongolian Altai.M. e. muricus Bangs, 1899— USA(N California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming).M. e. nippon Cabrera, 1913— Japan.M.e. olympica Hall, 1945— NW USA(Olympic Peninsula, Washington).M.e. polaris Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Greenland.M.e.richardsonii Bonaparte, 1838— N Canada.M.e. ricinae G. S. Miller, 1907— Scotland(Islay I).M.e.salva Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Admiralty I).M.e.seclusa Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Suemez I).M.e.sempler Sutton & Hamilton, 1932— Canada(Franklin & Keewatin Districts).M.e.stabilis Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Great Britain.M.e.streatori Merriam, 1896— W USA(NE California, Oregon& coastal Washington).M.e.teberdina Kornejv, 1941— Russian Caucasus.M.e. tobolica Ognev, 1923— W Siberia.Introduced to New Zealand.","Head-body 22: 5-34 cm(males), 19-29 cm(females); tail 4.2-12 cm; weight of males is 208-283 ¢ in Europe, 320 gin Britain, 285-356 gin New Zealand(introduced population), 233-365 gin Ireland, 134-191 gin Russia, 56-206 gin North America, adult males are 40-80% larger than females. The Ermine has a long, slender body and short limbs. Except in certain southern parts of their range, Ermines change color in April-May and October-November. In the summer, the back, flanks, and outersides of the limbs are reddish or chocolate brown; the underparts are white and the tip of the tail is black. During winter, the pelage becomes white throughout except for the black tip of the tail. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull has a long braincase, inflated tympanic bullae, and is relatively flat. Dental formula: I 3/3, Cl/A.P3/3:;M1/2=34.","Ermines are found in a wide range of habitats, including tundra, alpine meadows, woodlands, marshes, mountains, riparian habitats, farmland, and hedgerows, from sea level up to 3000 m. They prefer areas with vegetative or rocky cover. In the mountains of south-east British Columbia, Ermines were detected in all forests surveyed; these covered the range from open dry Douglas-fir forests to dense wet western red cedar (Thwa plicata) and western hemlock (75uga heterophylla) forests, and from very recent clear-cuts to mature stands over 300 years in age. In a subarctic area in Finland, adult females were found to live in areas where the abundance of their preferred Microtus prey was the highest; dominant males lived in less productive habitats than females, but in more productive areas than non-dominant mature males.","The diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats, lemmings, squirrels, and lagomorphs, but also includes birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, and fruit. In Great Britain, the percentage frequency of occurrence in the diet consists of 65% lagomorphs, 16% small rodents, and 17% birds and birds’ eggs; males eat a greater proportion of lagomorphs than females, which eat more small rodents. In Denmark(where European Rabbits are absent), a dietary study showed that rodents are the most important prey group, constituting 84% of their diet (frequency of occurrence). Ermines ate birds and birds’ eggs more often than sympatric Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more insectivores. Ermines ate more Microtus voles and Water Voles than Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more Bank Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Moles (Talpa europaea). In the Italian Alps, 60% of scats contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey. However, the frequency of occurrence offruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50% in July. In the forests of New Brunswick, Canada, the frequency of occurrence of prey is 28-0% soricids, 24:6% arvicolines, and 17-3% cricetines; the Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, 17-3%) and shrews (Sorex sp., 28-:0%) have the highest percent occurrence, whereas the Red Squirrel and the Eastern Chipmunk (7amius striatus) comprise 11-2% of the diet. Ermines generally hunt in a zig-zag pattern, progressing by a series of leaps that are up to 50 cmlong. Prey are located mostly by smell or sound, and are often pursued into underground burrows or under snow. Ermines usually kill prey by biting the base of the skull. They sometimes attack animals considerably larger than themselves, such as adult hares. Ermines may cache excess food underground for later use during the winter.","Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.","Primarily nocturnal, but can be active at any time during the day. Their long shape makes them sensitive to cold temperatures and this, combined with a high metabolic rate, requires that Ermines hunt constantly to fulfill their energetic demands. Short periods of activity and rest alternate every three to five hours. Dens/ rest sites are in crevices, among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in burrows taken over from a rodent. Several nests are maintained within an individual’s home range; these are lined with dry vegetation or the fur and feathers of its prey. Ermines can easily run over or tunnel in snow to escape predators and search for food.","Ermines are solitary and primarily terrestrial, but they are also agile tree climbers and strong swimmers. Daily movements may reach 15 km, but usually average c. 1 km. Movements increase when prey are rare or dispersed. Home ranges may reach 200 ha, but are typically 10-40 ha; male ranges are generally larger than female ranges. Both sexes maintain exclusive territories, but a male home range may overlap one or more female ranges. Males show a marked seasonal shift in their social organization from a pattern of intra-sexual territories during the non-breeding season (autumn and winter) to a non-territorial pattern with extensive and overlapping ranges during the mating season (spring and summer). Boundaries are regularly patrolled and scent-marked, and neighbors usually avoid each other. Population density fluctuates with prey abundance and may range from 2-6 individuals per km®.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Ermines are considered common throughout their distribution. They rarely molest poultry and are valuable to humans because they prey on mice and rats. However, Ermines are considered pests in New Zealand, where they were introduced to control rabbits but subsequently decimated populations of native birds. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Ermine is dependent on two Arvicola species, which are declining in numbers. Ermines are trapped in North America and Russiafor their fur; the white winter fur has long been used in trimming coats and making stoles.","Edwards & Forbes (2003) | EImeros (2006) | Erlinge & Sandell (1986) | Hellstedt & Henttonen (2006) | Hellstedt et al. (2006) | King (1983, 1990) | Martinoli et al. (2001) | McDonaldet al. (2000) | Mowat & Poole (2005) | Robitaille & Raymond (1995) | Samson & Raymond (1998) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714249/files/figure.png,"41.ErmineMustela ermineaFrench:Belette hermine/ German:Hermelin/ Spanish:ArminoOther common names:Stoat, Short-tailed WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Thirty-four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. e. erminea Linnaeus, 1758— Finland, Norway, NW Russia, and Sweden.M. e. aestiva Kerr, 1792— most of mainland N & C Europe to C Asia in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.M. e. alascensis Merriam, 1896— S Alaska.M. e. anguinae Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I, British Columbia).M. e. arctica Merriam, 1896— Alaska and NW Canada.M. e. bangsi Hall, 1945— C Canadaand NC USA.M. e. celenda Hall, 1944— Alaska(Prince of Wales I).M.e. cicognanii Bonaparte, 1838— SE Canadaand NE USA.M. e. fallenda Hall, 1945— W Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(N Washington).M. e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895— Afghanistan, N India, and Pakistan.M.e. gulosa Hall, 1945— NW USA(E Washington).M.e. haidarum Preble, 1898— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is, British Columbia).M.e. hibernica Thomas & Barrett-Hamilton, 1895— Ireland.M.e. imatis Hall, 1944— Alaska(Baranof I).M.e. invicta Hall, 1945— SW Canada(Alberta) and NW USA(Idaho& Montana).M.e. kadiacensis Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak I).M.e. kaneti Baird, 1857— NE China, Russia(E Siberia).M.e. karaginensis Jurgenson, 1936— NE Russia(Karaginsky I).M.e. lymani Hollister, 1912— E Russia(AltaiMts, Siberia).M.e. minima Cavazza, 1912— Switzerland.M.e. mongolica Ognev, 1928— NW Chinaand Mongolian Altai.M. e. muricus Bangs, 1899— USA(N California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming).M. e. nippon Cabrera, 1913— Japan.M.e. olympica Hall, 1945— NW USA(Olympic Peninsula, Washington).M.e. polaris Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Greenland.M.e.richardsonii Bonaparte, 1838— N Canada.M.e. ricinae G. S. Miller, 1907— Scotland(Islay I).M.e.salva Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Admiralty I).M.e.seclusa Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Suemez I).M.e.sempler Sutton & Hamilton, 1932— Canada(Franklin & Keewatin Districts).M.e.stabilis Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Great Britain.M.e.streatori Merriam, 1896— W USA(NE California, Oregon& coastal Washington).M.e.teberdina Kornejv, 1941— Russian Caucasus.M.e. tobolica Ognev, 1923— W Siberia.Introduced to New Zealand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22: 5-34 cm(males), 19-29 cm(females); tail 4.2-12 cm; weight of males is 208-283 ¢ in Europe, 320 gin Britain, 285-356 gin New Zealand(introduced population), 233-365 gin Ireland, 134-191 gin Russia, 56-206 gin North America, adult males are 40-80% larger than females. The Ermine has a long, slender body and short limbs. Except in certain southern parts of their range, Ermines change color in April-May and October-November. In the summer, the back, flanks, and outersides of the limbs are reddish or chocolate brown; the underparts are white and the tip of the tail is black. During winter, the pelage becomes white throughout except for the black tip of the tail. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull has a long braincase, inflated tympanic bullae, and is relatively flat. Dental formula: I 3/3, Cl/A.P3/3:;M1/2=34.Habitat.Ermines are found in a wide range of habitats, including tundra, alpine meadows, woodlands, marshes, mountains, riparian habitats, farmland, and hedgerows, from sea level up to 3000 m. They prefer areas with vegetative or rocky cover. In the mountains of south-east British Columbia, Ermines were detected in all forests surveyed; these covered the range from open dry Douglas-fir forests to dense wet western red cedar (Thwa plicata) and western hemlock (75uga heterophylla) forests, and from very recent clear-cuts to mature stands over 300 years in age. In a subarctic area in Finland, adult females were found to live in areas where the abundance of their preferred Microtus prey was the highest; dominant males lived in less productive habitats than females, but in more productive areas than non-dominant mature males.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats, lemmings, squirrels, and lagomorphs, but also includes birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, and fruit. In Great Britain, the percentage frequency of occurrence in the diet consists of 65% lagomorphs, 16% small rodents, and 17% birds and birds’ eggs; males eat a greater proportion of lagomorphs than females, which eat more small rodents. In Denmark(where European Rabbits are absent), a dietary study showed that rodents are the most important prey group, constituting 84% of their diet (frequency of occurrence). Ermines ate birds and birds’ eggs more often than sympatric Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more insectivores. Ermines ate more Microtus voles and Water Voles than Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more Bank Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Moles (Talpa europaea). In the Italian Alps, 60% of scats contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey. However, the frequency of occurrence offruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50% in July. In the forests of New Brunswick, Canada, the frequency of occurrence of prey is 28-0% soricids, 24:6% arvicolines, and 17-3% cricetines; the Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, 17-3%) and shrews (Sorex sp., 28-:0%) have the highest percent occurrence, whereas the Red Squirrel and the Eastern Chipmunk (7amius striatus) comprise 11-2% of the diet. Ermines generally hunt in a zig-zag pattern, progressing by a series of leaps that are up to 50 cmlong. Prey are located mostly by smell or sound, and are often pursued into underground burrows or under snow. Ermines usually kill prey by biting the base of the skull. They sometimes attack animals considerably larger than themselves, such as adult hares. Ermines may cache excess food underground for later use during the winter.On following pages: 42. Steppe Polecat (Mustelaeversmanii); 43. Colombian Weasel (Mustelafelipei); 44. Long-tailed Weasel (Mustela frenata); 45. Japanese Weasel (Mustelaitatsi); 46. Yellow-bellied Weasel (Mustelakathiah); 47. European Mink (Mustelalutreola); 48. Indonesian Mountain Weasel (Mustelalutreolina); 49. Black-footed Ferret (Mustelanigripes); 50. Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis); 51. Malay Weasel (Mustelanudipes); 52. European Polecat (Mustela putorius); 53. Siberian Weasel (Mustela sibirica); 54. Back-striped Weasel (Mustelastrigidorsa); 55. Egyptian Weasel (Mustela subpalmata); 56. American Mink (Neovison vison); 57. Patagonian Weasel (Lyncodonpatagonicus).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but can be active at any time during the day. Their long shape makes them sensitive to cold temperatures and this, combined with a high metabolic rate, requires that Ermines hunt constantly to fulfill their energetic demands. Short periods of activity and rest alternate every three to five hours. Dens/ rest sites are in crevices, among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in burrows taken over from a rodent. Several nests are maintained within an individual’s home range; these are lined with dry vegetation or the fur and feathers of its prey. Ermines can easily run over or tunnel in snow to escape predators and search for food.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ermines are solitary and primarily terrestrial, but they are also agile tree climbers and strong swimmers. Daily movements may reach 15 km, but usually average c. 1 km. Movements increase when prey are rare or dispersed. Home ranges may reach 200 ha, but are typically 10-40 ha; male ranges are generally larger than female ranges. Both sexes maintain exclusive territories, but a male home range may overlap one or more female ranges. Males show a marked seasonal shift in their social organization from a pattern of intra-sexual territories during the non-breeding season (autumn and winter) to a non-territorial pattern with extensive and overlapping ranges during the mating season (spring and summer). Boundaries are regularly patrolled and scent-marked, and neighbors usually avoid each other. Population density fluctuates with prey abundance and may range from 2-6 individuals per km®.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Ermines are considered common throughout their distribution. They rarely molest poultry and are valuable to humans because they prey on mice and rats. However, Ermines are considered pests in New Zealand, where they were introduced to control rabbits but subsequently decimated populations of native birds. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Ermine is dependent on two Arvicola species, which are declining in numbers. Ermines are trapped in North America and Russiafor their fur; the white winter fur has long been used in trimming coats and making stoles.Bibliography.Edwards & Forbes (2003), EImeros (2006), Erlinge & Sandell (1986), Hellstedt & Henttonen (2006), Hellstedt et al. (2006), King (1983, 1990), Martinoli et al. (2001), McDonaldet al. (2000), Mowat & Poole (2005), Robitaille & Raymond (1995), Samson & Raymond (1998), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." 038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACC3E0DFB9BF91C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,649,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACC3E0DFB9BF91C.xml,Mustela africana,Mustela,africana,Linnaeus,1758,Belette des tropiques @fr | Amazonas-Wiesel @de | Comadreja amazonica @es | Tropical Weasel @en,"Mustela africana Desmarest, 1818, Brazil.Monotypic.","Amazon Basin in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.","Head-body 24-38 cm, tail 16-21 cm. The Amazon Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish to dark brown, with paler undersides. The underparts have a longitudinal median stripe of the same color as the upper parts. The tail is uniformly brown. The plantar surfaces on the feet are nearly naked.",Has been reported from primary forest and humid riparian habitats.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,,"Said to be primarily terrestrial, but also reported to be a good swimmer and climber. Has been seen in a group offour.Breeding.Nothing known.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. One of the least known species within the Mustelidae. Amazon Weasels are a high priority for field studies to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Ferrari & Lopes (1992) | zor & de la Torre (1978) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714245/files/figure.png,"39.Amazon WeaselMustela africanaFrench:Belette des tropiques/ German:Amazonas-Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja amazonicaOther common names:Tropical WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela africana Desmarest, 1818, Brazil.Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 24-38 cm, tail 16-21 cm. The Amazon Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish to dark brown, with paler undersides. The underparts have a longitudinal median stripe of the same color as the upper parts. The tail is uniformly brown. The plantar surfaces on the feet are nearly naked.Habitat.Has been reported from primary forest and humid riparian habitats.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Activity pattern.Possibly diurnal: a group of four were seen around 10:00 h. Has been found denning in a hollow tree stump.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Said to be primarily terrestrial, but also reported to be a good swimmer and climber. Has been seen in a group offour.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. One of the least known species within the Mustelidae. Amazon Weasels are a high priority for field studies to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Ferrari & Lopes (1992), zor & de la Torre (1978), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACD3AD9FD80F33A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,649,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACD3AD9FD80F33A.xml,Mustela altaica,Mustela,altaica,Pallas,1811,Belette des montagnes @fr | Altai-Wiesel @de | Comadreja de montana @es,"Mustela altaica Pallas, 1811, Altai Mountains, China.Monotypic.","Altai, Tien Shan, Pamir, and Himalayan ranges; also C, W, SW & NE China, Mongolia, and Russia(S & SE Siberia) to North Korea.","Head-body 22.4-28.7 cm(males), 21.7-24.9 cmfen tail 10.8-14.5 cm(males), 9-11.7 cm(females); weight 217-350 g(males), 122-220 g (females), adult males are slightly larger than females; the tail is more than 40% of the head and body length. The AltaiMountain Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The summer pelage is grayish-brown; in winter, the dorsal pelage is yellowish-brown, with pale undersides. The tail is the same color as the upperparts. The feet are white. The skull has a short rostrum and a long cerebral cranium.","Alpine meadows, steppes and forests, from 1500 to 4000 m.","The diet includes small mammals (rodents, pikas, and rabbits), small birds, lizards, frogs, fish, insects, and berries. AltaiMountain Weasels search for prey around rock crevices, brushy areas, and uprooted trees, often investigating prey burrows.","In Kazakh, mating occurs in February or March. Gestation is 35-50 days. Litter size is two to eight; lactation last two months.",,"Mainly terrestrial, but also climbs and swim well.Breeding.In Kazakh, mating occurs in February or March. Gestation is 35-50 days. Litter size is two to eight; lactation last two months.","Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. Very little 1s known about the AltaiMountain Weasel and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is oflittle importance in the fur trade, but is occasionally hunted and may be susceptible to habitat conversion.","Lunde & Musser (2003) | Meiri et al. (2007) | Pocock (1941a) | Stroganov (1969) | VanBree & Boeadi (1978) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714247/files/figure.png,"40.AltaiMountain WeaselMustela altaicaFrench:Belette des montagnes/ German:Altai-Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja de montanaTaxonomy.Mustela altaica Pallas, 1811, Altai Mountains, China.Monotypic.Distribution.Altai, Tien Shan, Pamir, and Himalayan ranges; also C, W, SW & NE China, Mongolia, and Russia(S & SE Siberia) to North Korea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22.4-28.7 cm(males), 21.7-24.9 cmfen tail 10.8-14.5 cm(males), 9-11.7 cm(females); weight 217-350 g(males), 122-220 g (females), adult males are slightly larger than females; the tail is more than 40% of the head and body length. The AltaiMountain Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The summer pelage is grayish-brown; in winter, the dorsal pelage is yellowish-brown, with pale undersides. The tail is the same color as the upperparts. The feet are white. The skull has a short rostrum and a long cerebral cranium.Habitat.Alpine meadows, steppes and forests, from 1500 to 4000 m.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (rodents, pikas, and rabbits), small birds, lizards, frogs, fish, insects, and berries. AltaiMountain Weasels search for prey around rock crevices, brushy areas, and uprooted trees, often investigating prey burrows.Activity pattern.Mainly nocturnal or crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in rock crevices, among tree roots, or in rodent burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mainly terrestrial, but also climbs and swim well.Breeding.In Kazakh, mating occurs in February or March. Gestation is 35-50 days. Litter size is two to eight; lactation last two months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. Very little 1s known about the AltaiMountain Weasel and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is oflittle importance in the fur trade, but is occasionally hunted and may be susceptible to habitat conversion.Bibliography.Lunde & Musser (2003), Meiri et al. (2007), Pocock (1941a), Stroganov (1969), VanBree & Boeadi (1978), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." -038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,650,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1.xml,Mustela frenata,Mustela,frenata,Lichtenstein,1831,Belette a longue queue @fr | Langschwanzwiesel @de | Comadreja colilarga @es,"Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831, Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.Forty-two subspecies are recognized.","M. f. frenata Lichtenstein, 1831— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).M. f. affinis Gray, 1874— Colombia.M. f. agilis Tschudi, 1844— W Peru.M. f. alleni Merriam, 1896— C USA(South Dakota& Wyoming).M. f. altifrontalis Hall, 1936— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(coastal Oregon& Washington).M. f. arizonensis Mearns, 1891— SW USA(Arizona).M. f. arthuri Hall, 1927— S USA(Louisiana).M. f. aureoventris Gray, 1865— Ecuador.M. f. boliviensis Hall, 1938— Bolivia.M. f. costaricensis Goldman, 1912— CostaRica.M. f. effera Hall, 1936— NW USA(NE Oregon& SE Washington).M. f. goldmani Merriam, 1896— El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico(Chiapas).M. f. helleri Hall, 1935— E Peru.M. f. inyoensis Hall, 1936— SW USA(Inyo County, California).M. f. latirostra Hall, 1936— NW Mexico (Baja California) and SW USA(S California).M. f. leucoparia Merriam, 1896— SW Mexico.M. f. longicauda Bonaparte, 1838— Great Plains of Canadaand USA.M. f. macrophonius Elliot, 1905— S Mexico(Oaxaca& Veracruz).M. f. macrura Taczanowski, 1874— Peru(Cajamarca).M. f. meridana Hollister, 1914— Venezuela.M. f. munda Bangs, 1899— SW USA(NCcoastal California).M. f. neomexicana Barber & Cockerell, 1898— C & N Mexicoand SW USA(New Mexico).M. f. nevadensis Hall, 1936— W USA(Great Basin & Rocky Mts).M. f. nicaraguae]. A. Allen, 1916— Hondurasand Nicaragua.M. f. nigriauris Hall, 1936— SW USA(SC coastal California).M. f. noveboracensis Emmons, 1840— SE Canadaand E USA.M. f. occisor Bangs, 1899— NE USA(Maine).M. f. olivacea Howell, 1913— SE USA.M. f. oregonensis Merriam, 1896— W USA(Cascade Mts of Oregon).M. f. oribasus Bangs, 1899— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(Montana).M. f. panamensis Hall, 1932— Panama.M. f. peninsulae Rhoads, 1894— SE USA(S Florida).M. f. perda Merriam, 1902— Yucatan Peninsula, Belizeand Mexico.M. f. perotae Hall, 1936— C Mexico.M. f. primulina Jackson, 1913— Midwestern USA.M. f. pulchra Hall, 1936— SW USA(Kern County, California).M. f. saturata Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCCalifornia& S Oregon).M. f. spadix Bangs, 1896— N USA(Minnesota).M. f. texensis Hall, 1936— S USA(C Texas).M. f. tropicalis Merriam, 1896— E Mexico(Tamaulipas& Veracruz).M. f. washingtoni Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCOregon& SC Washington).M. f. xanthogenys Gray, 1843— SW USA(C California).","Head-body length, 22-: 8-26 cm(males), 20.3-22.8 cm(females); tail 10.2-15.2 cm(males), 7.6-12.7 cm(females); weight 160-450 g(males), 80-250 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Long-tailed Weasel has a long body and short limbs. In Canadaand the northern United States, the pelage changes from early October to early December and from late February to late April. During the summer, the upperparts are brown, the underparts are buff, and the tip of the tail is black. In winter, the pelage is white except for the black-tipped tail. Subspecies from the southern USA, Mexicoand Central America, have distinctive white or yellow facial markings. The plantar surfaces on the feet are furred. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long, with large tympanic bullae. Dental formula: 13/3, Cl/1,P%3/3,M1/2=34.","[Long-tailed Weasels are found in a wide range of habitats from forested areas to agricultural fields. They show a preference for open, brushy or grassy areas near water.","The diet consists mainly of rodents (voles, mice, and rats) and other small mammals (such as lagomorphs and squirrels), but birds, eggs, snakes, grasshoppers, and poultry are also occasionally eaten. Because of their larger size, males generally consume larger prey than females. In North America, Long-tailed Weasels feed upon a wide variety of small vertebrates, but concentrate on rodents and rabbits of small to medium size. The diet of tropical Long-tailed Weasels, although not well known,is thought to consist mainly of small mammals, rabbits, and birds and their eggs. Small-sized prey, such as mice and voles, usually are subdued when the weasel throws its body into a tight coil around the prey; these are then killed by a bite to the nape of the neck. Long-tailed Weasels can kill animals larger than themselves, such as rabbits. Large prey is initially grabbed by the most convenient part of the animal before a killing bite is administered. Underground mediumsized prey is subdued by a ventral attack and killed by grasping the throat, which results in suffocation.","Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.","Primarily nocturnal, but frequently active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or stumps, among rocks, or in a burrow taken over from a rodent. Long-tailed Weasels spend large amounts of time exploring holes, crevices, root systems, brush piles, thick vegetation, and under the snow in winter, in search of prey.","[Long-tailed Weasels are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and tree climbers. The home ranges of males average larger than those of females, and may include the home ranges of more than one female. During the breeding season, the home ranges of males increase in size, allowing more frequent contact with females. There is little overlap of the home ranges of males. In Kentucky, home ranges vary from 0-16 to 0-24 km* during summer, and 0-10 to 0-18 km? during winter. In Indiana, the mean home range for males was 1-80 km* and for females 0-52 km*. The hourly rate of movement for males (130- 5 m) was greater than that of females (79- 2 m). Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability. Reported population densities are: 0-004-0-008 /ha in western Colorado, 0-02-0-18/ha in Kentucky, 0-19-0-38/ha in chestnut-oak forest and 0-07-0-09/ha in scrub oak-pitch pine forest in Pennsylvania, and 0-2-0-3/ha in cattail marsh in Ontario.Breeding.Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Long-tailed Weasel is considered to be common throughout most ofits distribution; however, several subspecies are considered uncommon. It is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats and can live in close proximity to humans. Long-tailed Weasels are more prone to raid henhouses that other species of Mustela, but they are generally beneficial because they prey on rats and mice. They are trapped in North America for their white winter fur.",Gehring & Swihart (2004) | King (1990) | Sheffield& Thomas (1997) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005),,"44.Long-tailed WeaselMustela frenataFrench:Belette a longue queue/ German:Langschwanzwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja colilargaTaxonomy.Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831, Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.Forty-two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. f. frenata Lichtenstein, 1831— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).M. f. affinis Gray, 1874— Colombia.M. f. agilis Tschudi, 1844— W Peru.M. f. alleni Merriam, 1896— C USA(South Dakota& Wyoming).M. f. altifrontalis Hall, 1936— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(coastal Oregon& Washington).M. f. arizonensis Mearns, 1891— SW USA(Arizona).M. f. arthuri Hall, 1927— S USA(Louisiana).M. f. aureoventris Gray, 1865— Ecuador.M. f. boliviensis Hall, 1938— Bolivia.M. f. costaricensis Goldman, 1912— CostaRica.M. f. effera Hall, 1936— NW USA(NE Oregon& SE Washington).M. f. goldmani Merriam, 1896— El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico(Chiapas).M. f. helleri Hall, 1935— E Peru.M. f. inyoensis Hall, 1936— SW USA(Inyo County, California).M. f. latirostra Hall, 1936— NW Mexico (Baja California) and SW USA(S California).M. f. leucoparia Merriam, 1896— SW Mexico.M. f. longicauda Bonaparte, 1838— Great Plains of Canadaand USA.M. f. macrophonius Elliot, 1905— S Mexico(Oaxaca& Veracruz).M. f. macrura Taczanowski, 1874— Peru(Cajamarca).M. f. meridana Hollister, 1914— Venezuela.M. f. munda Bangs, 1899— SW USA(NCcoastal California).M. f. neomexicana Barber & Cockerell, 1898— C & N Mexicoand SW USA(New Mexico).M. f. nevadensis Hall, 1936— W USA(Great Basin & Rocky Mts).M. f. nicaraguae]. A. Allen, 1916— Hondurasand Nicaragua.M. f. nigriauris Hall, 1936— SW USA(SC coastal California).M. f. noveboracensis Emmons, 1840— SE Canadaand E USA.M. f. occisor Bangs, 1899— NE USA(Maine).M. f. olivacea Howell, 1913— SE USA.M. f. oregonensis Merriam, 1896— W USA(Cascade Mts of Oregon).M. f. oribasus Bangs, 1899— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(Montana).M. f. panamensis Hall, 1932— Panama.M. f. peninsulae Rhoads, 1894— SE USA(S Florida).M. f. perda Merriam, 1902— Yucatan Peninsula, Belizeand Mexico.M. f. perotae Hall, 1936— C Mexico.M. f. primulina Jackson, 1913— Midwestern USA.M. f. pulchra Hall, 1936— SW USA(Kern County, California).M. f. saturata Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCCalifornia& S Oregon).M. f. spadix Bangs, 1896— N USA(Minnesota).M. f. texensis Hall, 1936— S USA(C Texas).M. f. tropicalis Merriam, 1896— E Mexico(Tamaulipas& Veracruz).M. f. washingtoni Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCOregon& SC Washington).M. f. xanthogenys Gray, 1843— SW USA(C California).Descriptive notes.Head-body length, 22-: 8-26 cm(males), 20.3-22.8 cm(females); tail 10.2-15.2 cm(males), 7.6-12.7 cm(females); weight 160-450 g(males), 80-250 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Long-tailed Weasel has a long body and short limbs. In Canadaand the northern United States, the pelage changes from early October to early December and from late February to late April. During the summer, the upperparts are brown, the underparts are buff, and the tip of the tail is black. In winter, the pelage is white except for the black-tipped tail. Subspecies from the southern USA, Mexicoand Central America, have distinctive white or yellow facial markings. The plantar surfaces on the feet are furred. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long, with large tympanic bullae. Dental formula: 13/3, Cl/1,P%3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.[Long-tailed Weasels are found in a wide range of habitats from forested areas to agricultural fields. They show a preference for open, brushy or grassy areas near water.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mainly of rodents (voles, mice, and rats) and other small mammals (such as lagomorphs and squirrels), but birds, eggs, snakes, grasshoppers, and poultry are also occasionally eaten. Because of their larger size, males generally consume larger prey than females. In North America, Long-tailed Weasels feed upon a wide variety of small vertebrates, but concentrate on rodents and rabbits of small to medium size. The diet of tropical Long-tailed Weasels, although not well known,is thought to consist mainly of small mammals, rabbits, and birds and their eggs. Small-sized prey, such as mice and voles, usually are subdued when the weasel throws its body into a tight coil around the prey; these are then killed by a bite to the nape of the neck. Long-tailed Weasels can kill animals larger than themselves, such as rabbits. Large prey is initially grabbed by the most convenient part of the animal before a killing bite is administered. Underground mediumsized prey is subdued by a ventral attack and killed by grasping the throat, which results in suffocation.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but frequently active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or stumps, among rocks, or in a burrow taken over from a rodent. Long-tailed Weasels spend large amounts of time exploring holes, crevices, root systems, brush piles, thick vegetation, and under the snow in winter, in search of prey.Movements, Home range and Social organization.[Long-tailed Weasels are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and tree climbers. The home ranges of males average larger than those of females, and may include the home ranges of more than one female. During the breeding season, the home ranges of males increase in size, allowing more frequent contact with females. There is little overlap of the home ranges of males. In Kentucky, home ranges vary from 0-16 to 0-24 km* during summer, and 0-10 to 0-18 km? during winter. In Indiana, the mean home range for males was 1-80 km* and for females 0-52 km*. The hourly rate of movement for males (130- 5 m) was greater than that of females (79- 2 m). Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability. Reported population densities are: 0-004-0-008 /ha in western Colorado, 0-02-0-18/ha in Kentucky, 0-19-0-38/ha in chestnut-oak forest and 0-07-0-09/ha in scrub oak-pitch pine forest in Pennsylvania, and 0-2-0-3/ha in cattail marsh in Ontario.Breeding.Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Long-tailed Weasel is considered to be common throughout most ofits distribution; however, several subspecies are considered uncommon. It is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats and can live in close proximity to humans. Long-tailed Weasels are more prone to raid henhouses that other species of Mustela, but they are generally beneficial because they prey on rats and mice. They are trapped in North America for their white winter fur.Bibliography.Gehring & Swihart (2004), King (1990), Sheffield& Thomas (1997), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,650,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1.xml,Mustela frenata,Mustela,frenata,Lichtenstein,1831,Belette a longue queue @fr | Langschwanzwiesel @de | Comadreja colilarga @es,"Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831, Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.Forty-two subspecies are recognized.","M. f. frenata Lichtenstein, 1831— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).M. f. affinis Gray, 1874— Colombia.M. f. agilis Tschudi, 1844— W Peru.M. f. alleni Merriam, 1896— C USA(South Dakota& Wyoming).M. f. altifrontalis Hall, 1936— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(coastal Oregon& Washington).M. f. arizonensis Mearns, 1891— SW USA(Arizona).M. f. arthuri Hall, 1927— S USA(Louisiana).M. f. aureoventris Gray, 1865— Ecuador.M. f. boliviensis Hall, 1938— Bolivia.M. f. costaricensis Goldman, 1912— CostaRica.M. f. effera Hall, 1936— NW USA(NE Oregon& SE Washington).M. f. goldmani Merriam, 1896— El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico(Chiapas).M. f. helleri Hall, 1935— E Peru.M. f. inyoensis Hall, 1936— SW USA(Inyo County, California).M. f. latirostra Hall, 1936— NW Mexico (Baja California) and SW USA(S California).M. f. leucoparia Merriam, 1896— SW Mexico.M. f. longicauda Bonaparte, 1838— Great Plains of Canadaand USA.M. f. macrophonius Elliot, 1905— S Mexico(Oaxaca& Veracruz).M. f. macrura Taczanowski, 1874— Peru(Cajamarca).M. f. meridana Hollister, 1914— Venezuela.M. f. munda Bangs, 1899— SW USA(NCcoastal California).M. f. neomexicana Barber & Cockerell, 1898— C & N Mexicoand SW USA(New Mexico).M. f. nevadensis Hall, 1936— W USA(Great Basin & Rocky Mts).M. f. nicaraguae]. A. Allen, 1916— Hondurasand Nicaragua.M. f. nigriauris Hall, 1936— SW USA(SC coastal California).M. f. noveboracensis Emmons, 1840— SE Canadaand E USA.M. f. occisor Bangs, 1899— NE USA(Maine).M. f. olivacea Howell, 1913— SE USA.M. f. oregonensis Merriam, 1896— W USA(Cascade Mts of Oregon).M. f. oribasus Bangs, 1899— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(Montana).M. f. panamensis Hall, 1932— Panama.M. f. peninsulae Rhoads, 1894— SE USA(S Florida).M. f. perda Merriam, 1902— Yucatan Peninsula, Belizeand Mexico.M. f. perotae Hall, 1936— C Mexico.M. f. primulina Jackson, 1913— Midwestern USA.M. f. pulchra Hall, 1936— SW USA(Kern County, California).M. f. saturata Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCCalifornia& S Oregon).M. f. spadix Bangs, 1896— N USA(Minnesota).M. f. texensis Hall, 1936— S USA(C Texas).M. f. tropicalis Merriam, 1896— E Mexico(Tamaulipas& Veracruz).M. f. washingtoni Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCOregon& SC Washington).M. f. xanthogenys Gray, 1843— SW USA(C California).","Head-body length, 22-: 8-26 cm(males), 20.3-22.8 cm(females); tail 10.2-15.2 cm(males), 7.6-12.7 cm(females); weight 160-450 g(males), 80-250 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Long-tailed Weasel has a long body and short limbs. In Canadaand the northern United States, the pelage changes from early October to early December and from late February to late April. During the summer, the upperparts are brown, the underparts are buff, and the tip of the tail is black. In winter, the pelage is white except for the black-tipped tail. Subspecies from the southern USA, Mexicoand Central America, have distinctive white or yellow facial markings. The plantar surfaces on the feet are furred. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long, with large tympanic bullae. Dental formula: 13/3, Cl/1,P%3/3,M1/2=34.","[Long-tailed Weasels are found in a wide range of habitats from forested areas to agricultural fields. They show a preference for open, brushy or grassy areas near water.","The diet consists mainly of rodents (voles, mice, and rats) and other small mammals (such as lagomorphs and squirrels), but birds, eggs, snakes, grasshoppers, and poultry are also occasionally eaten. Because of their larger size, males generally consume larger prey than females. In North America, Long-tailed Weasels feed upon a wide variety of small vertebrates, but concentrate on rodents and rabbits of small to medium size. The diet of tropical Long-tailed Weasels, although not well known,is thought to consist mainly of small mammals, rabbits, and birds and their eggs. Small-sized prey, such as mice and voles, usually are subdued when the weasel throws its body into a tight coil around the prey; these are then killed by a bite to the nape of the neck. Long-tailed Weasels can kill animals larger than themselves, such as rabbits. Large prey is initially grabbed by the most convenient part of the animal before a killing bite is administered. Underground mediumsized prey is subdued by a ventral attack and killed by grasping the throat, which results in suffocation.","Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.","Primarily nocturnal, but frequently active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or stumps, among rocks, or in a burrow taken over from a rodent. Long-tailed Weasels spend large amounts of time exploring holes, crevices, root systems, brush piles, thick vegetation, and under the snow in winter, in search of prey.","[Long-tailed Weasels are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and tree climbers. The home ranges of males average larger than those of females, and may include the home ranges of more than one female. During the breeding season, the home ranges of males increase in size, allowing more frequent contact with females. There is little overlap of the home ranges of males. In Kentucky, home ranges vary from 0-16 to 0-24 km* during summer, and 0-10 to 0-18 km? during winter. In Indiana, the mean home range for males was 1-80 km* and for females 0-52 km*. The hourly rate of movement for males (130- 5 m) was greater than that of females (79- 2 m). Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability. Reported population densities are: 0-004-0-008 /ha in western Colorado, 0-02-0-18/ha in Kentucky, 0-19-0-38/ha in chestnut-oak forest and 0-07-0-09/ha in scrub oak-pitch pine forest in Pennsylvania, and 0-2-0-3/ha in cattail marsh in Ontario.Breeding.Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Long-tailed Weasel is considered to be common throughout most ofits distribution; however, several subspecies are considered uncommon. It is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats and can live in close proximity to humans. Long-tailed Weasels are more prone to raid henhouses that other species of Mustela, but they are generally beneficial because they prey on rats and mice. They are trapped in North America for their white winter fur.",Gehring & Swihart (2004) | King (1990) | Sheffield& Thomas (1997) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714255/files/figure.png,"44.Long-tailed WeaselMustela frenataFrench:Belette a longue queue/ German:Langschwanzwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja colilargaTaxonomy.Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831, Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.Forty-two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. f. frenata Lichtenstein, 1831— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).M. f. affinis Gray, 1874— Colombia.M. f. agilis Tschudi, 1844— W Peru.M. f. alleni Merriam, 1896— C USA(South Dakota& Wyoming).M. f. altifrontalis Hall, 1936— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(coastal Oregon& Washington).M. f. arizonensis Mearns, 1891— SW USA(Arizona).M. f. arthuri Hall, 1927— S USA(Louisiana).M. f. aureoventris Gray, 1865— Ecuador.M. f. boliviensis Hall, 1938— Bolivia.M. f. costaricensis Goldman, 1912— CostaRica.M. f. effera Hall, 1936— NW USA(NE Oregon& SE Washington).M. f. goldmani Merriam, 1896— El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico(Chiapas).M. f. helleri Hall, 1935— E Peru.M. f. inyoensis Hall, 1936— SW USA(Inyo County, California).M. f. latirostra Hall, 1936— NW Mexico (Baja California) and SW USA(S California).M. f. leucoparia Merriam, 1896— SW Mexico.M. f. longicauda Bonaparte, 1838— Great Plains of Canadaand USA.M. f. macrophonius Elliot, 1905— S Mexico(Oaxaca& Veracruz).M. f. macrura Taczanowski, 1874— Peru(Cajamarca).M. f. meridana Hollister, 1914— Venezuela.M. f. munda Bangs, 1899— SW USA(NCcoastal California).M. f. neomexicana Barber & Cockerell, 1898— C & N Mexicoand SW USA(New Mexico).M. f. nevadensis Hall, 1936— W USA(Great Basin & Rocky Mts).M. f. nicaraguae]. A. Allen, 1916— Hondurasand Nicaragua.M. f. nigriauris Hall, 1936— SW USA(SC coastal California).M. f. noveboracensis Emmons, 1840— SE Canadaand E USA.M. f. occisor Bangs, 1899— NE USA(Maine).M. f. olivacea Howell, 1913— SE USA.M. f. oregonensis Merriam, 1896— W USA(Cascade Mts of Oregon).M. f. oribasus Bangs, 1899— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(Montana).M. f. panamensis Hall, 1932— Panama.M. f. peninsulae Rhoads, 1894— SE USA(S Florida).M. f. perda Merriam, 1902— Yucatan Peninsula, Belizeand Mexico.M. f. perotae Hall, 1936— C Mexico.M. f. primulina Jackson, 1913— Midwestern USA.M. f. pulchra Hall, 1936— SW USA(Kern County, California).M. f. saturata Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCCalifornia& S Oregon).M. f. spadix Bangs, 1896— N USA(Minnesota).M. f. texensis Hall, 1936— S USA(C Texas).M. f. tropicalis Merriam, 1896— E Mexico(Tamaulipas& Veracruz).M. f. washingtoni Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCOregon& SC Washington).M. f. xanthogenys Gray, 1843— SW USA(C California).Descriptive notes.Head-body length, 22-: 8-26 cm(males), 20.3-22.8 cm(females); tail 10.2-15.2 cm(males), 7.6-12.7 cm(females); weight 160-450 g(males), 80-250 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Long-tailed Weasel has a long body and short limbs. In Canadaand the northern United States, the pelage changes from early October to early December and from late February to late April. During the summer, the upperparts are brown, the underparts are buff, and the tip of the tail is black. In winter, the pelage is white except for the black-tipped tail. Subspecies from the southern USA, Mexicoand Central America, have distinctive white or yellow facial markings. The plantar surfaces on the feet are furred. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long, with large tympanic bullae. Dental formula: 13/3, Cl/1,P%3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.[Long-tailed Weasels are found in a wide range of habitats from forested areas to agricultural fields. They show a preference for open, brushy or grassy areas near water.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mainly of rodents (voles, mice, and rats) and other small mammals (such as lagomorphs and squirrels), but birds, eggs, snakes, grasshoppers, and poultry are also occasionally eaten. Because of their larger size, males generally consume larger prey than females. In North America, Long-tailed Weasels feed upon a wide variety of small vertebrates, but concentrate on rodents and rabbits of small to medium size. The diet of tropical Long-tailed Weasels, although not well known,is thought to consist mainly of small mammals, rabbits, and birds and their eggs. Small-sized prey, such as mice and voles, usually are subdued when the weasel throws its body into a tight coil around the prey; these are then killed by a bite to the nape of the neck. Long-tailed Weasels can kill animals larger than themselves, such as rabbits. Large prey is initially grabbed by the most convenient part of the animal before a killing bite is administered. Underground mediumsized prey is subdued by a ventral attack and killed by grasping the throat, which results in suffocation.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but frequently active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or stumps, among rocks, or in a burrow taken over from a rodent. Long-tailed Weasels spend large amounts of time exploring holes, crevices, root systems, brush piles, thick vegetation, and under the snow in winter, in search of prey.Movements, Home range and Social organization.[Long-tailed Weasels are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and tree climbers. The home ranges of males average larger than those of females, and may include the home ranges of more than one female. During the breeding season, the home ranges of males increase in size, allowing more frequent contact with females. There is little overlap of the home ranges of males. In Kentucky, home ranges vary from 0-16 to 0-24 km* during summer, and 0-10 to 0-18 km? during winter. In Indiana, the mean home range for males was 1-80 km* and for females 0-52 km*. The hourly rate of movement for males (130- 5 m) was greater than that of females (79- 2 m). Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability. Reported population densities are: 0-004-0-008 /ha in western Colorado, 0-02-0-18/ha in Kentucky, 0-19-0-38/ha in chestnut-oak forest and 0-07-0-09/ha in scrub oak-pitch pine forest in Pennsylvania, and 0-2-0-3/ha in cattail marsh in Ontario.Breeding.Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Long-tailed Weasel is considered to be common throughout most ofits distribution; however, several subspecies are considered uncommon. It is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats and can live in close proximity to humans. Long-tailed Weasels are more prone to raid henhouses that other species of Mustela, but they are generally beneficial because they prey on rats and mice. They are trapped in North America for their white winter fur.Bibliography.Gehring & Swihart (2004), King (1990), Sheffield& Thomas (1997), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA4FFFA0CAD136E3F6A4F9E1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,650,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4FFFA0CAD136E3F6A4F9E1.xml,Mustela eversmanii,Mustela,eversmanii,Linnaeus,1758,Putois d'Eversmann @fr | Steppeniltis @de | Turon estepario @es,"Mustela eversmanii Lesson, 1827, Russia.The Steppe Polecat was considered conspecific with either M. putoriusor M. nigripesby some authors. Up to nineteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.",,"Head-body 37-56.2 cm(males), 29-52 cm(females); tail 8-18.3 cm(males), 7-18 cm(females); weight 2:05 kg (males), 1-35 kg(females), adult males are larger than females. The Steppe Polecat closely resembles the European Polecat. The pelage is highly variable in color, but generally is yellowish-white to brown, with the upperparts darker than the undersides. The fur on the chest, limbs, and tail is darker in color, and there is a dark mask on the whitish face.","Steppe, open grasslands, and semi-desert.","The diet includes rodents (voles, hamsters, marmots), other small mammals (pikas, ground squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, and insects. In Hungary, the principle food consists of small mammals; their frequency fluctuates between 54% and 93%, reaching a maximum in summer. In all seasons, the most important prey is the Common Vole (Microtus arvalis) and the Common Hamster (Cricetus cricetus); in addition, the European Souslik (Spermophilus citellus) is occasionally consumed in spring and autumn, and Brown Rats (Rattus norvegicus) may be eaten in autumn. The European Hare is eaten only in winter (5%). The consumption of birds (mainly Passerines) is considerable in spring (38%) and autumn (29%). A stable isotope study revealed a diet that comprised 27% small mammals (Plateau Pika, Root Vole, and Plateau Zokor) and 47-7% adult passerine birds, with hatchlings contributing 25:6%. Steppe Polecats hunt by exploring the burrows of their mammalian prey and thus they may spend much time underground.","Mating occurs from February to March, with births from April to May. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Litters are large, usually from eight to ten. The young weigh 4-6 gat birth, open their eyes after one month, and are weaned and start hunting with the mother at 1-5 months. They disperse at three months. Sexual maturity is reached during the first breeding season, when the young are nine months old.",Primarily nocturnal. Den /rest sites are in burrows expropriated from other animals.,"Steppe Polecats are solitary. They move rapidly, constantly exploring new ground and searching for food, and may cover up to 18 kmduring the night. Local migrations may occur to areas with greater food abundance or less snow.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March, with births from April to May. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Litters are large, usually from eight to ten. The young weigh 4-6 gat birth, open their eyes after one month, and are weaned and start hunting with the mother at 1-5 months. They disperse at three months. Sexual maturity is reached during the first breeding season, when the young are nine months old.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the subspecies M. e. amurensis, of south-eastern Siberia and Manchuria, is classified as Vulnerable. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is not intentionally hunted except in Russia, but is heavily impacted by persecution in the western parts of its range.","Lanszki & Heltai (2007) | Stroganov (1969) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714251/files/figure.png,"42.Steppe PolecatMustela eversmaniiFrench:Putois d'Eversmann/ German:Steppeniltis/ Spanish:Turon esteparioTaxonomy.Mustela eversmanii Lesson, 1827, Russia.The Steppe Polecat was considered conspecific with either M. putoriusor M. nigripesby some authors. Up to nineteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.SE Europe, Caucasus, and Middle East through C Asia to NE China, Mongolia, and Russian Far EastDescriptive notes.Head-body 37-56.2 cm(males), 29-52 cm(females); tail 8-18.3 cm(males), 7-18 cm(females); weight 2:05 kg (males), 1-35 kg(females), adult males are larger than females. The Steppe Polecat closely resembles the European Polecat. The pelage is highly variable in color, but generally is yellowish-white to brown, with the upperparts darker than the undersides. The fur on the chest, limbs, and tail is darker in color, and there is a dark mask on the whitish face.Habitat.Steppe, open grasslands, and semi-desert.Food and Feeding.The diet includes rodents (voles, hamsters, marmots), other small mammals (pikas, ground squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, and insects. In Hungary, the principle food consists of small mammals; their frequency fluctuates between 54% and 93%, reaching a maximum in summer. In all seasons, the most important prey is the Common Vole (Microtus arvalis) and the Common Hamster (Cricetus cricetus); in addition, the European Souslik (Spermophilus citellus) is occasionally consumed in spring and autumn, and Brown Rats (Rattus norvegicus) may be eaten in autumn. The European Hare is eaten only in winter (5%). The consumption of birds (mainly Passerines) is considerable in spring (38%) and autumn (29%). A stable isotope study revealed a diet that comprised 27% small mammals (Plateau Pika, Root Vole, and Plateau Zokor) and 47-7% adult passerine birds, with hatchlings contributing 25:6%. Steppe Polecats hunt by exploring the burrows of their mammalian prey and thus they may spend much time underground.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal. Den /rest sites are in burrows expropriated from other animals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Steppe Polecats are solitary. They move rapidly, constantly exploring new ground and searching for food, and may cover up to 18 kmduring the night. Local migrations may occur to areas with greater food abundance or less snow.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March, with births from April to May. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Litters are large, usually from eight to ten. The young weigh 4-6 gat birth, open their eyes after one month, and are weaned and start hunting with the mother at 1-5 months. They disperse at three months. Sexual maturity is reached during the first breeding season, when the young are nine months old.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the subspecies M. e. amurensis, of south-eastern Siberia and Manchuria, is classified as Vulnerable. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is not intentionally hunted except in Russia, but is heavily impacted by persecution in the western parts of its range.Bibliography.Lanszki & Heltai (2007), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." 038F87D4CA4FFFA0CFCE3AC2F5C8F4DC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,650,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4FFFA0CFCE3AC2F5C8F4DC.xml,Mustela felipei,Mustela,felipei,Linnaeus,1758,Belette de Colombie @fr | Kolumbien-Wiesel @de | Comadreja de Don Felipe @es,"Mustela felipei 1zor & de la Torre, 1978, Colombia.Monotypic.",Colombiaand Ecuador.,"Head-body 21.7-22.5 cm, tail 11.1-12.2 cm; weight c. 138 g. The Columbian Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is long and soft, almost entirely dark brown on the back, with pale orange undersides. All the feet have extensive webbing, with naked plantar surfaces.","Most specimens were collected near riparian areas, at elevations between 1700-2700 m.",Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.,"Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. A very poorly known species, only recently described. Possibly the rarest carnivore in South America, it occurs in a limited area ofless than 10,000 km? where deforestation is rampant. Since its discovery, only five specimenshave been obtained from western Colombia(provinces of Huilaand Cauca) and northern Ecuador. The Columbian Weasel is a high priority for field research to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Alberico (1994) | Fawcett et al. (1996) | IUCN(2008) | Izor & de la Torre (1978) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714253/files/figure.png,"43.Colombian WeaselMustela felipeiFrench:Belette de Colombie/ German:Kolumbien-Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja de Don FelipeTaxonomy.Mustela felipei 1zor & de la Torre, 1978, Colombia.Monotypic.Distribution.Colombiaand Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-body 21.7-22.5 cm, tail 11.1-12.2 cm; weight c. 138 g. The Columbian Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is long and soft, almost entirely dark brown on the back, with pale orange undersides. All the feet have extensive webbing, with naked plantar surfaces.Habitat.Most specimens were collected near riparian areas, at elevations between 1700-2700 m.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. A very poorly known species, only recently described. Possibly the rarest carnivore in South America, it occurs in a limited area ofless than 10,000 km? where deforestation is rampant. Since its discovery, only five specimenshave been obtained from western Colombia(provinces of Huilaand Cauca) and northern Ecuador. The Columbian Weasel is a high priority for field research to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Alberico (1994), Fawcett et al. (1996), IUCN(2008), Izor & de la Torre (1978), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA50FFBFCB303E15F9A0FA86,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,564,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA50FFBFCB303E15F9A0FA86.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family MUSTELIDAE(WEASELSAND RELATIVES)• Small- to medium-sized mammals with long bodies and short limbs.• 13-195 cm.• Holarctic, Neotropical, African, and Orientalregions.• Forests, grasslands, tundras and oceans, from the Arctic to the tropics.• 22 genera, 57 species, at least 217 extant taxa.• 7 species Endangered, 5 species Vulnerable; 1 species Extinct since 1600." -038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,621,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0.xml,Mellivora capensis,Mellivora,capensis,Schreber,1776,Ratel @fr | Honigdachs @de | Ratel @es | Ratel @en,"Viverra capensis Schreber, 1776, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Ten subspecies are recognized.","M. c. capensis Schreber, 1776— S Africa N to Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia.M. c. buechneri Baryshnikov, 2000— C Asia including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.M. c. concisa Thomas & Wroughton, 1907— Algeria, Morocco, and Subsaharan Africa from Mauritaniato Ethiopia.M.c. cotton: Lydekker, 1906— C Africa from Gabonto Tanzania.M. M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.\g M.c. indica Kerr, 1792— Indiaand Pakistan.M. M.c. maxwell Thomas, 1923— Kenyaand Somalia.\J M.c. pumalio Pocock, 1946— S Arabian Peninsula and Yemen.M. M.c. signata Pocock, 1909— Guineaand Sierra Leone.\f M.c. wilsoni Cheesman, 1920— Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.","Head-body 73: 3-95 cm(males), 81.2-96 cm(females), tail 14.3-23 cm(males), 15.2-22.5 cm(females); weight 7.7-10.5 kg(males), 6.2-13.6 kg(females). The Honey Badger is a short, stocky animal, with strong limbs and a short tail. The upperparts, from the top of the head to the base of the tail, are gray to pale yellow or whitish, and contrast sharply with the dark brown or black of the underparts. Completely black individuals have been reported from some parts of Africa. The tail is black, with a gray or white tip. The front feet are broad, with strong, long claws (> 25 mm), whereas the hindfeet have small claws (15 mm). There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is massive, with short orbital processes and robust teeth. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,.P 3/3, M1/1 =32.","Honey Badgers are found in diverse habitats including deep forests, subtropical dry evergreen forests, tropical thorn forests, open Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia woodlands, open riparian woodland (dominated by Acacia albida), Tarai or marshes, floodplain grasslands (dominated by Vetivaria nigritana), bushveld, afro-alpine steppes, rocky hills and kopjes, Rhigozum scrub sandveld, savannah, dry swamps, waterless sandplains, coastal sandveld, and deserts. They tolerate habitats with a rainfall of over 2000 mm(annually) as well as arid areas with less than 100 mmannual rainfall. Honey Badgers are found from sea level up to 4050 m.","The diet is mostly mammals, insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds, but also includes roots, berries, and fruit (such as ber Zizyphusjubata). Favorite foods are honey and the larvae of honeybees (Hymenoptera). However, their adaptation to burrowing, together with the abundance of subterranean animals found in six stomachs, suggests that honey is only a secondary food item. Consumption of honey may also be seasonal because it is more widely available in the drier months of the year. In October and November, Honey Badgers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa, were found to eat mainly rodents, which occurred in 60% of scats and made up c. 30% of the volume of food. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, Spring Hares (Pedetes capensis), Meerkats, as well as domestic sheep and goats, were also eaten. They are strong diggers, and do not hesitate to dig after rodents or other prey hiding underground. Food items are detected mostly by smell or sound. Excess food may be cached in a den. When Honey Badgers eat, the food is held between the front claws while the forelegs rest on the ground. Beehives are opened by tearing away the wood of trees; honey combs are also scooped out from the cracks of rocks with the claws of the forefeet. Grubs are removed from the comb with their incisors. The clay capsules of estivating lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus), cases of insect pupae, carapaces of turtles, or skins of animals are peeled away to expose the softer inner parts to be eaten. Honey Badgers dig large spiders out of holes 15-25 cmdeep in the ground. Fish are caught with the claws at the edge of streams or from drying pans. They may raid campgrounds or dumpsters at night and are widely blamed for breaking into poultry houses and apiaries. The anecdotal relationship between the Honey Badger and a bird, the greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), may be mythical. Although these two animals may occur together at the nests of bees, a complete observation of this supposed symbiotic relationship, from the initial attraction by a greater honeyguide of a Honey Badger, through guiding to a nest by the honeyguide, to the breaking open of the nest by the Honey Badger does not exist.","Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.","Primarily nocturnal, although diurnal observations are numerous. Honey Badgers shelter in burrows, thick brush, caves, clumps of fallen bamboo, hollow trees, old ruins, rock shelters, dens excavated by themselves, or abandoned burrows. Hollow trees are entered from the top.","Honey Badgers are good swimmers and can chase turtles underwater. They can also climb trees. Daily movements average 10-30 km, with males covering longer distances than females. Female Honey Badgers forage in a relatively small area, covering c. 10 km/day. They zig-zag short distances from bush to bush, digging on average 10-2 holes/km. Males engage in long-distance foraging, covering c. 27 km/day; only c. 1-3 holes/km are dug. Mean straightline distance between dens from one day to the next is c¢. 2: 5 kmfor short-distance foragers and c. 10- 1 kmfor long-distance foragers. Males and females differ significantly in their rate of travel (3-8 km/h and 2-7 km/h, respectively), straight line (6- 2 kmand 2.4 km) and actual distance (13- 8 kmand 7- 7 km) moved during an active period, but do not differ in the percentage of their home range area traversed in a single day (3%). Honey Badgers are mostly solitary, but pairs may be seen and aggregations may occur at feeding sites. Occasionally, after foraging in a particular area for most of the night, a male may suddenly move off to a location less than 9 kmaway, where it may meet up with other adults. On one occasion in Zimbabwe, six animals met up; they showed no aggression but continuously uttered a wide range of grunts, hisses, squeaks, and whines while rolling in the sand, sniffing each other, and scent marking. Such gatherings may last more than 18 min, and the Honey Badgers may retreat to the same den during the day. Radio-telemetry in the southern Kalahari revealed that the mean home range size of adult males (541 km?) wassignificantly larger than the mean home range size of adult females (126 km?). While mean home range overlap in females was moderate (13%) and home range centres were regularly spaced, females did not appearto actively defend a territory and no direct interactions between females were observed. Scent marking appears to mediate spatial-temporal separation and females show a loosely territorial spacing pattern. In contrast, the home ranges of males encompassed the overlapping home ranges of up to 13 females. Young males tended to have smaller home ranges (151 km?*) than adult males and showed a spacing pattern more similar to adult females than adult males.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.",Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Honey Badgers do not occur at high densities and are considered uncommon throughout their range. Persecution by beekeepers and livestock farmers is probably the greatest threat to this species.,"Begg, C. et al. (2005a, 2005b) | Begg, K. (1995) | Dean et al. (1990) | Kruuk & Mills (1983) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Stuart (1981) | Vanderhaar & Hwang (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)",,"2.Honey BadgerMellivora capensisFrench:Ratel/ German:Honigdachs/ Spanish:RatelOther common names:RatelTaxonomy.Viverra capensis Schreber, 1776, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. c. capensis Schreber, 1776— S Africa N to Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia.M. c. buechneri Baryshnikov, 2000— C Asia including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.M. c. concisa Thomas & Wroughton, 1907— Algeria, Morocco, and Subsaharan Africa from Mauritaniato Ethiopia.M.c. cotton: Lydekker, 1906— C Africa from Gabonto Tanzania.M. M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.\g M.c. indica Kerr, 1792— Indiaand Pakistan.M. M.c. maxwell Thomas, 1923— Kenyaand Somalia.\J M.c. pumalio Pocock, 1946— S Arabian Peninsula and Yemen.M. M.c. signata Pocock, 1909— Guineaand Sierra Leone.\f M.c. wilsoni Cheesman, 1920— Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 73: 3-95 cm(males), 81.2-96 cm(females), tail 14.3-23 cm(males), 15.2-22.5 cm(females); weight 7.7-10.5 kg(males), 6.2-13.6 kg(females). The Honey Badger is a short, stocky animal, with strong limbs and a short tail. The upperparts, from the top of the head to the base of the tail, are gray to pale yellow or whitish, and contrast sharply with the dark brown or black of the underparts. Completely black individuals have been reported from some parts of Africa. The tail is black, with a gray or white tip. The front feet are broad, with strong, long claws (> 25 mm), whereas the hindfeet have small claws (15 mm). There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is massive, with short orbital processes and robust teeth. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,.P 3/3, M1/1 =32.Habitat.Honey Badgers are found in diverse habitats including deep forests, subtropical dry evergreen forests, tropical thorn forests, open Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia woodlands, open riparian woodland (dominated by Acacia albida), Tarai or marshes, floodplain grasslands (dominated by Vetivaria nigritana), bushveld, afro-alpine steppes, rocky hills and kopjes, Rhigozum scrub sandveld, savannah, dry swamps, waterless sandplains, coastal sandveld, and deserts. They tolerate habitats with a rainfall of over 2000 mm(annually) as well as arid areas with less than 100 mmannual rainfall. Honey Badgers are found from sea level up to 4050 m.On following pages: 3. Hog Badger (Arctonyx collaris); 4. Japanese Badger (Melesanakuma); 5. Asian Badger (Melesleucurus): 6. European Badger (Melesmeles).Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly mammals, insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds, but also includes roots, berries, and fruit (such as ber Zizyphusjubata). Favorite foods are honey and the larvae of honeybees (Hymenoptera). However, their adaptation to burrowing, together with the abundance of subterranean animals found in six stomachs, suggests that honey is only a secondary food item. Consumption of honey may also be seasonal because it is more widely available in the drier months of the year. In October and November, Honey Badgers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa, were found to eat mainly rodents, which occurred in 60% of scats and made up c. 30% of the volume of food. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, Spring Hares (Pedetes capensis), Meerkats, as well as domestic sheep and goats, were also eaten. They are strong diggers, and do not hesitate to dig after rodents or other prey hiding underground. Food items are detected mostly by smell or sound. Excess food may be cached in a den. When Honey Badgers eat, the food is held between the front claws while the forelegs rest on the ground. Beehives are opened by tearing away the wood of trees; honey combs are also scooped out from the cracks of rocks with the claws of the forefeet. Grubs are removed from the comb with their incisors. The clay capsules of estivating lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus), cases of insect pupae, carapaces of turtles, or skins of animals are peeled away to expose the softer inner parts to be eaten. Honey Badgers dig large spiders out of holes 15-25 cmdeep in the ground. Fish are caught with the claws at the edge of streams or from drying pans. They may raid campgrounds or dumpsters at night and are widely blamed for breaking into poultry houses and apiaries. The anecdotal relationship between the Honey Badger and a bird, the greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), may be mythical. Although these two animals may occur together at the nests of bees, a complete observation of this supposed symbiotic relationship, from the initial attraction by a greater honeyguide of a Honey Badger, through guiding to a nest by the honeyguide, to the breaking open of the nest by the Honey Badger does not exist.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, although diurnal observations are numerous. Honey Badgers shelter in burrows, thick brush, caves, clumps of fallen bamboo, hollow trees, old ruins, rock shelters, dens excavated by themselves, or abandoned burrows. Hollow trees are entered from the top.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Honey Badgers are good swimmers and can chase turtles underwater. They can also climb trees. Daily movements average 10-30 km, with males covering longer distances than females. Female Honey Badgers forage in a relatively small area, covering c. 10 km/day. They zig-zag short distances from bush to bush, digging on average 10-2 holes/km. Males engage in long-distance foraging, covering c. 27 km/day; only c. 1-3 holes/km are dug. Mean straightline distance between dens from one day to the next is c¢. 2: 5 kmfor short-distance foragers and c. 10- 1 kmfor long-distance foragers. Males and females differ significantly in their rate of travel (3-8 km/h and 2-7 km/h, respectively), straight line (6- 2 kmand 2.4 km) and actual distance (13- 8 kmand 7- 7 km) moved during an active period, but do not differ in the percentage of their home range area traversed in a single day (3%). Honey Badgers are mostly solitary, but pairs may be seen and aggregations may occur at feeding sites. Occasionally, after foraging in a particular area for most of the night, a male may suddenly move off to a location less than 9 kmaway, where it may meet up with other adults. On one occasion in Zimbabwe, six animals met up; they showed no aggression but continuously uttered a wide range of grunts, hisses, squeaks, and whines while rolling in the sand, sniffing each other, and scent marking. Such gatherings may last more than 18 min, and the Honey Badgers may retreat to the same den during the day. Radio-telemetry in the southern Kalahari revealed that the mean home range size of adult males (541 km?) wassignificantly larger than the mean home range size of adult females (126 km?). While mean home range overlap in females was moderate (13%) and home range centres were regularly spaced, females did not appearto actively defend a territory and no direct interactions between females were observed. Scent marking appears to mediate spatial-temporal separation and females show a loosely territorial spacing pattern. In contrast, the home ranges of males encompassed the overlapping home ranges of up to 13 females. Young males tended to have smaller home ranges (151 km?*) than adult males and showed a spacing pattern more similar to adult females than adult males.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Honey Badgers do not occur at high densities and are considered uncommon throughout their range. Persecution by beekeepers and livestock farmers is probably the greatest threat to this species.Bibliography.Begg, C. et al. (2005a, 2005b), Begg, K. (1995), Dean et al. (1990), Kruuk & Mills (1983), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Vanderhaar & Hwang (2003), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,621,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996.xml,Taxidea taxus,Taxidea,taxus,Waterhouse,1839,Blaireau d’Amérique @fr | Amerikanischer Dachs @de | Tejon americano @es,"Ursus taxus Schreber, 1778,Canada.Four subspecies are recognized.","T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778— S Canada(Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario& Saskatschewan) and NC USA.T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858— N & C Mexicoand SC USA(W of the MississippiRiver).T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946— NE USA(Great Lakes Region).T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825— W USA(NWto California).","Head-body 42-72 cm, tail 10-15.5 cm; weight 7.6-8.7 kg(males), 6.3-7.1 kg(females), adult males weigh on average 25% more than females. The American Badger’s body appears flat dorso-ventrally, with a flat head, and shorttail and limbs. The upperparts are grayish-white to yellowish-brown orsilvery black; the underparts are buffy. The feet are dark brown to black. Black patches are present on the face, cheeks, chin, and throat. A dorsal white stripe runs from the nose to the neck, and in some populations, to the rump. The claws on the forefeet are long and strong. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is wedge-shaped, almost triangular.","American Badgers are found in grasslands, prairie habitats, shrubs and steppes, and open woodlands. In British Columbia, they prefer open range and agricultural habitats that have fine sandy-loam and well-drained soils.","The diet includes small mammals (especially marmots, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, chipmunks, and squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (insects and molluscs). Carrion is also eaten. In British Columbia, the six main prey species are the Columbian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota Slaviventris), Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Southern Red-backed Vole (Myodes gapperi), and Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). In south-eastern Wyoming, prairie dogs were found in 57% of stomach and fecal samples from female American Badgers. The most common food item in the diet in west-central Minnesotaand south-eastern North Dakotais small mammals (98%, primarily Muridae and Geomyidae). Other prey includes insects (40%), and birds and eggs (32%, mostly ducks Anatidae). Reptiles, amphibians and molluscs are also eaten, but are less common than other foods. Insects and birds’ eggs are more common in the diet during spring (April-May) than summer (June-July). Birds are more frequent in the diets of adults than juveniles. In South Dakota, 40% of stomach contents were mammals, 35% were of plant origin, 10% were birds, 10% were insects, and the remainder was mostly inorganic materials. American Badgers obtain most of their food by excavating the burrows of fossorial animals. If large prey is taken, such as a rabbit, the badger may dig a hole, carry in the prey, and remain below ground with it for several days. There are reports of American Badgers forming a “hunting partnership” with Coyotes. The Coyote apparently usesits keen sense of smell to locate burrowing rodents and the American Badger digs them up with its powerful claws. Both predators then share the proceeds. The techniques used by American Badgers when hunting Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) have been observed. They frequently hunted hibernating squirrels in the autumn, sometimes hunted infants in the spring, but rarely hunted active squirrels in the summer. They always captured hibernating and active squirrels underground, but sometimes intercepted fleeing squirrels aboveground. The most common hunting technique used was excavation of the burrow, but plugging of openings accounted for 5-23% of hunting actions. Plugging occurred predominantly in mid-June to late July, before most ground squirrels hibernated, and in late August to late October when juvenile males were active, but other squirrels were in hibernation. American Badgers usually used soil from around the tunnel opening or soil dragged 30-270 cmfrom a nearby mound to plug tunnels. Theykill ground squirrels with a single grasping bite directed dorsally or laterally to the thorax. The canines and third upper incisors generally only bruise the skin, without puncturing it, but cause extensive hemorrhaging in the thoracic cavity. Food items are sometimes buried and eaten later.","Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.","Mainly nocturnal, but can be active at any hour. American Badgers rest underground in burrows; these are either self-excavated or are modified burrows that were initially made by another animal. The burrow can be as long as 10 mand can extend 3 mbelow the surface. A bulky nest of grass is located in an enlarged chamber; the entrances are marked by mounds of earth. American Badgers are active all year, but during severe winter weather they may sleep in the den for several days or weeks.","Daily movement may exceed 10 kmand dispersal movements may be greater than 100 km. Mean home range size is up to 12- 3 km? for males and up to 3-4 km? for females. Home ranges overlap, but adults are solitary except during the breeding season. In Utah, mean home range size was 5-83 km? the mean size of female home ranges (2-37 km?) was less than half that of the males. In Idaho, mean home range size was 2-4 km? for males and 1-6 km? for females. In south-eastern Wyoming, the mean home range size of females (3-4 km?) was smaller than that of males (12- 3 km?); mean overlap was less for females than for males, and the mean home rangesize of males was larger during the breeding season than during the non-breeding season (breeding = 11- 1 km?non-breeding = 5- 4 km?). A radio-tracked female in Minnesotaused an area of 752 ha during the summer. She had 50 dens within this area and was never found in the same den on two consecutive days. In the autumn, she shifted to an adjacent area of 52 ha and often reused dens. In the winter, she used a single den and traveled infrequently within an area of 2 ha. Population density may be as high as 5/km?. In south-eastern Wyoming, the density varies between 0-8-1-1/km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Badgers are considered common. Although this species haslittle importance in the fur trade,it is harvested for its fur in many parts of its range. American Badgers are also persecuted because of the damage they do to pasture and agricultural land.","Anderson & Johns (1977) | Armitage (2004) | Azevedo et al. (2006) | Eldridge (2004) | Goodrich & Buskirk (1998) | Harlow (1981) | Hart & Trumbo (1983) | Hoodicoff (2006) | Lampe (1982) | Lindzey (1978, 2003) | Long (1973) | Long &Killingley (1983) | Messick & Hornocker (1981) | Michener (2004) | Michener & Iwaniuk (2001) | Minta (1993) | Minta et al. (1992) | Murie (1992) | Sargeant & Warner (1972) | Sovada et al. (1999) | VanVuren (2001) | Wozencraft (2005)",,"1.American BadgerTaxidea taxusFrench:Blaireau d’Amérique/ German:Amerikanischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon americanoTaxonomy.Ursus taxus Schreber, 1778,Canada.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778— S Canada(Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario& Saskatschewan) and NC USA.T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858— N & C Mexicoand SC USA(W of the MississippiRiver).T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946— NE USA(Great Lakes Region).T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825— W USA(NWto California).Descriptive notes.Head-body 42-72 cm, tail 10-15.5 cm; weight 7.6-8.7 kg(males), 6.3-7.1 kg(females), adult males weigh on average 25% more than females. The American Badger’s body appears flat dorso-ventrally, with a flat head, and shorttail and limbs. The upperparts are grayish-white to yellowish-brown orsilvery black; the underparts are buffy. The feet are dark brown to black. Black patches are present on the face, cheeks, chin, and throat. A dorsal white stripe runs from the nose to the neck, and in some populations, to the rump. The claws on the forefeet are long and strong. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is wedge-shaped, almost triangular. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M1/2=34Habitat.American Badgers are found in grasslands, prairie habitats, shrubs and steppes, and open woodlands. In British Columbia, they prefer open range and agricultural habitats that have fine sandy-loam and well-drained soils.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (especially marmots, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, chipmunks, and squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (insects and molluscs). Carrion is also eaten. In British Columbia, the six main prey species are the Columbian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota Slaviventris), Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Southern Red-backed Vole (Myodes gapperi), and Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). In south-eastern Wyoming, prairie dogs were found in 57% of stomach and fecal samples from female American Badgers. The most common food item in the diet in west-central Minnesotaand south-eastern North Dakotais small mammals (98%, primarily Muridae and Geomyidae). Other prey includes insects (40%), and birds and eggs (32%, mostly ducks Anatidae). Reptiles, amphibians and molluscs are also eaten, but are less common than other foods. Insects and birds’ eggs are more common in the diet during spring (April-May) than summer (June-July). Birds are more frequent in the diets of adults than juveniles. In South Dakota, 40% of stomach contents were mammals, 35% were of plant origin, 10% were birds, 10% were insects, and the remainder was mostly inorganic materials. American Badgers obtain most of their food by excavating the burrows of fossorial animals. If large prey is taken, such as a rabbit, the badger may dig a hole, carry in the prey, and remain below ground with it for several days. There are reports of American Badgers forming a “hunting partnership” with Coyotes. The Coyote apparently usesits keen sense of smell to locate burrowing rodents and the American Badger digs them up with its powerful claws. Both predators then share the proceeds. The techniques used by American Badgers when hunting Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) have been observed. They frequently hunted hibernating squirrels in the autumn, sometimes hunted infants in the spring, but rarely hunted active squirrels in the summer. They always captured hibernating and active squirrels underground, but sometimes intercepted fleeing squirrels aboveground. The most common hunting technique used was excavation of the burrow, but plugging of openings accounted for 5-23% of hunting actions. Plugging occurred predominantly in mid-June to late July, before most ground squirrels hibernated, and in late August to late October when juvenile males were active, but other squirrels were in hibernation. American Badgers usually used soil from around the tunnel opening or soil dragged 30-270 cmfrom a nearby mound to plug tunnels. Theykill ground squirrels with a single grasping bite directed dorsally or laterally to the thorax. The canines and third upper incisors generally only bruise the skin, without puncturing it, but cause extensive hemorrhaging in the thoracic cavity. Food items are sometimes buried and eaten later.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but can be active at any hour. American Badgers rest underground in burrows; these are either self-excavated or are modified burrows that were initially made by another animal. The burrow can be as long as 10 mand can extend 3 mbelow the surface. A bulky nest of grass is located in an enlarged chamber; the entrances are marked by mounds of earth. American Badgers are active all year, but during severe winter weather they may sleep in the den for several days or weeks.During this period of inactivity, heart rates are reduced by 50% and the body temperature decreases by 9 °C.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Daily movement may exceed 10 kmand dispersal movements may be greater than 100 km. Mean home range size is up to 12- 3 km? for males and up to 3-4 km? for females. Home ranges overlap, but adults are solitary except during the breeding season. In Utah, mean home range size was 5-83 km? the mean size of female home ranges (2-37 km?) was less than half that of the males. In Idaho, mean home range size was 2-4 km? for males and 1-6 km? for females. In south-eastern Wyoming, the mean home range size of females (3-4 km?) was smaller than that of males (12- 3 km?); mean overlap was less for females than for males, and the mean home rangesize of males was larger during the breeding season than during the non-breeding season (breeding = 11- 1 km?non-breeding = 5- 4 km?). A radio-tracked female in Minnesotaused an area of 752 ha during the summer. She had 50 dens within this area and was never found in the same den on two consecutive days. In the autumn, she shifted to an adjacent area of 52 ha and often reused dens. In the winter, she used a single den and traveled infrequently within an area of 2 ha. Population density may be as high as 5/km?. In south-eastern Wyoming, the density varies between 0-8-1-1/km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Badgers are considered common. Although this species haslittle importance in the fur trade,it is harvested for its fur in many parts of its range. American Badgers are also persecuted because of the damage they do to pasture and agricultural land.Bibliography.Anderson & Johns (1977), Armitage (2004), Azevedo et al. (2006), Eldridge (2004), Goodrich & Buskirk (1998), Harlow (1981), Hart & Trumbo (1983), Hoodicoff (2006), Lampe (1982), Lindzey (1978, 2003), Long (1973), Long &Killingley (1983), Messick & Hornocker (1981), Michener (2004), Michener & Iwaniuk (2001), Minta (1993), Minta et al. (1992), Murie (1992), Sargeant & Warner (1972), Sovada et al. (1999), VanVuren (2001), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,621,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0.xml,Mellivora capensis,Mellivora,capensis,Schreber,1776,Ratel @fr | Honigdachs @de | Ratel @es | Ratel @en,"Viverra capensis Schreber, 1776, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Ten subspecies are recognized.","M. c. capensis Schreber, 1776— S Africa N to Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia.M. c. buechneri Baryshnikov, 2000— C Asia including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.M. c. concisa Thomas & Wroughton, 1907— Algeria, Morocco, and Subsaharan Africa from Mauritaniato Ethiopia.M.c. cotton: Lydekker, 1906— C Africa from Gabonto Tanzania.M. M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.\g M.c. indica Kerr, 1792— Indiaand Pakistan.M. M.c. maxwell Thomas, 1923— Kenyaand Somalia.\J M.c. pumalio Pocock, 1946— S Arabian Peninsula and Yemen.M. M.c. signata Pocock, 1909— Guineaand Sierra Leone.\f M.c. wilsoni Cheesman, 1920— Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.","Head-body 73: 3-95 cm(males), 81.2-96 cm(females), tail 14.3-23 cm(males), 15.2-22.5 cm(females); weight 7.7-10.5 kg(males), 6.2-13.6 kg(females). The Honey Badger is a short, stocky animal, with strong limbs and a short tail. The upperparts, from the top of the head to the base of the tail, are gray to pale yellow or whitish, and contrast sharply with the dark brown or black of the underparts. Completely black individuals have been reported from some parts of Africa. The tail is black, with a gray or white tip. The front feet are broad, with strong, long claws (> 25 mm), whereas the hindfeet have small claws (15 mm). There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is massive, with short orbital processes and robust teeth. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,.P 3/3, M1/1 =32.","Honey Badgers are found in diverse habitats including deep forests, subtropical dry evergreen forests, tropical thorn forests, open Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia woodlands, open riparian woodland (dominated by Acacia albida), Tarai or marshes, floodplain grasslands (dominated by Vetivaria nigritana), bushveld, afro-alpine steppes, rocky hills and kopjes, Rhigozum scrub sandveld, savannah, dry swamps, waterless sandplains, coastal sandveld, and deserts. They tolerate habitats with a rainfall of over 2000 mm(annually) as well as arid areas with less than 100 mmannual rainfall. Honey Badgers are found from sea level up to 4050 m.","The diet is mostly mammals, insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds, but also includes roots, berries, and fruit (such as ber Zizyphusjubata). Favorite foods are honey and the larvae of honeybees (Hymenoptera). However, their adaptation to burrowing, together with the abundance of subterranean animals found in six stomachs, suggests that honey is only a secondary food item. Consumption of honey may also be seasonal because it is more widely available in the drier months of the year. In October and November, Honey Badgers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa, were found to eat mainly rodents, which occurred in 60% of scats and made up c. 30% of the volume of food. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, Spring Hares (Pedetes capensis), Meerkats, as well as domestic sheep and goats, were also eaten. They are strong diggers, and do not hesitate to dig after rodents or other prey hiding underground. Food items are detected mostly by smell or sound. Excess food may be cached in a den. When Honey Badgers eat, the food is held between the front claws while the forelegs rest on the ground. Beehives are opened by tearing away the wood of trees; honey combs are also scooped out from the cracks of rocks with the claws of the forefeet. Grubs are removed from the comb with their incisors. The clay capsules of estivating lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus), cases of insect pupae, carapaces of turtles, or skins of animals are peeled away to expose the softer inner parts to be eaten. Honey Badgers dig large spiders out of holes 15-25 cmdeep in the ground. Fish are caught with the claws at the edge of streams or from drying pans. They may raid campgrounds or dumpsters at night and are widely blamed for breaking into poultry houses and apiaries. The anecdotal relationship between the Honey Badger and a bird, the greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), may be mythical. Although these two animals may occur together at the nests of bees, a complete observation of this supposed symbiotic relationship, from the initial attraction by a greater honeyguide of a Honey Badger, through guiding to a nest by the honeyguide, to the breaking open of the nest by the Honey Badger does not exist.","Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.","Primarily nocturnal, although diurnal observations are numerous. Honey Badgers shelter in burrows, thick brush, caves, clumps of fallen bamboo, hollow trees, old ruins, rock shelters, dens excavated by themselves, or abandoned burrows. Hollow trees are entered from the top.","Honey Badgers are good swimmers and can chase turtles underwater. They can also climb trees. Daily movements average 10-30 km, with males covering longer distances than females. Female Honey Badgers forage in a relatively small area, covering c. 10 km/day. They zig-zag short distances from bush to bush, digging on average 10-2 holes/km. Males engage in long-distance foraging, covering c. 27 km/day; only c. 1-3 holes/km are dug. Mean straightline distance between dens from one day to the next is c¢. 2: 5 kmfor short-distance foragers and c. 10- 1 kmfor long-distance foragers. Males and females differ significantly in their rate of travel (3-8 km/h and 2-7 km/h, respectively), straight line (6- 2 kmand 2.4 km) and actual distance (13- 8 kmand 7- 7 km) moved during an active period, but do not differ in the percentage of their home range area traversed in a single day (3%). Honey Badgers are mostly solitary, but pairs may be seen and aggregations may occur at feeding sites. Occasionally, after foraging in a particular area for most of the night, a male may suddenly move off to a location less than 9 kmaway, where it may meet up with other adults. On one occasion in Zimbabwe, six animals met up; they showed no aggression but continuously uttered a wide range of grunts, hisses, squeaks, and whines while rolling in the sand, sniffing each other, and scent marking. Such gatherings may last more than 18 min, and the Honey Badgers may retreat to the same den during the day. Radio-telemetry in the southern Kalahari revealed that the mean home range size of adult males (541 km?) wassignificantly larger than the mean home range size of adult females (126 km?). While mean home range overlap in females was moderate (13%) and home range centres were regularly spaced, females did not appearto actively defend a territory and no direct interactions between females were observed. Scent marking appears to mediate spatial-temporal separation and females show a loosely territorial spacing pattern. In contrast, the home ranges of males encompassed the overlapping home ranges of up to 13 females. Young males tended to have smaller home ranges (151 km?*) than adult males and showed a spacing pattern more similar to adult females than adult males.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.",Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Honey Badgers do not occur at high densities and are considered uncommon throughout their range. Persecution by beekeepers and livestock farmers is probably the greatest threat to this species.,"Begg, C. et al. (2005a, 2005b) | Begg, K. (1995) | Dean et al. (1990) | Kruuk & Mills (1983) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Stuart (1981) | Vanderhaar & Hwang (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714133/files/figure.png,"2.Honey BadgerMellivora capensisFrench:Ratel/ German:Honigdachs/ Spanish:RatelOther common names:RatelTaxonomy.Viverra capensis Schreber, 1776, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. c. capensis Schreber, 1776— S Africa N to Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia.M. c. buechneri Baryshnikov, 2000— C Asia including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.M. c. concisa Thomas & Wroughton, 1907— Algeria, Morocco, and Subsaharan Africa from Mauritaniato Ethiopia.M.c. cotton: Lydekker, 1906— C Africa from Gabonto Tanzania.M. M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.\g M.c. indica Kerr, 1792— Indiaand Pakistan.M. M.c. maxwell Thomas, 1923— Kenyaand Somalia.\J M.c. pumalio Pocock, 1946— S Arabian Peninsula and Yemen.M. M.c. signata Pocock, 1909— Guineaand Sierra Leone.\f M.c. wilsoni Cheesman, 1920— Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 73: 3-95 cm(males), 81.2-96 cm(females), tail 14.3-23 cm(males), 15.2-22.5 cm(females); weight 7.7-10.5 kg(males), 6.2-13.6 kg(females). The Honey Badger is a short, stocky animal, with strong limbs and a short tail. The upperparts, from the top of the head to the base of the tail, are gray to pale yellow or whitish, and contrast sharply with the dark brown or black of the underparts. Completely black individuals have been reported from some parts of Africa. The tail is black, with a gray or white tip. The front feet are broad, with strong, long claws (> 25 mm), whereas the hindfeet have small claws (15 mm). There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is massive, with short orbital processes and robust teeth. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,.P 3/3, M1/1 =32.Habitat.Honey Badgers are found in diverse habitats including deep forests, subtropical dry evergreen forests, tropical thorn forests, open Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia woodlands, open riparian woodland (dominated by Acacia albida), Tarai or marshes, floodplain grasslands (dominated by Vetivaria nigritana), bushveld, afro-alpine steppes, rocky hills and kopjes, Rhigozum scrub sandveld, savannah, dry swamps, waterless sandplains, coastal sandveld, and deserts. They tolerate habitats with a rainfall of over 2000 mm(annually) as well as arid areas with less than 100 mmannual rainfall. Honey Badgers are found from sea level up to 4050 m.On following pages: 3. Hog Badger (Arctonyx collaris); 4. Japanese Badger (Melesanakuma); 5. Asian Badger (Melesleucurus): 6. European Badger (Melesmeles).Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly mammals, insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds, but also includes roots, berries, and fruit (such as ber Zizyphusjubata). Favorite foods are honey and the larvae of honeybees (Hymenoptera). However, their adaptation to burrowing, together with the abundance of subterranean animals found in six stomachs, suggests that honey is only a secondary food item. Consumption of honey may also be seasonal because it is more widely available in the drier months of the year. In October and November, Honey Badgers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa, were found to eat mainly rodents, which occurred in 60% of scats and made up c. 30% of the volume of food. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, Spring Hares (Pedetes capensis), Meerkats, as well as domestic sheep and goats, were also eaten. They are strong diggers, and do not hesitate to dig after rodents or other prey hiding underground. Food items are detected mostly by smell or sound. Excess food may be cached in a den. When Honey Badgers eat, the food is held between the front claws while the forelegs rest on the ground. Beehives are opened by tearing away the wood of trees; honey combs are also scooped out from the cracks of rocks with the claws of the forefeet. Grubs are removed from the comb with their incisors. The clay capsules of estivating lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus), cases of insect pupae, carapaces of turtles, or skins of animals are peeled away to expose the softer inner parts to be eaten. Honey Badgers dig large spiders out of holes 15-25 cmdeep in the ground. Fish are caught with the claws at the edge of streams or from drying pans. They may raid campgrounds or dumpsters at night and are widely blamed for breaking into poultry houses and apiaries. The anecdotal relationship between the Honey Badger and a bird, the greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), may be mythical. Although these two animals may occur together at the nests of bees, a complete observation of this supposed symbiotic relationship, from the initial attraction by a greater honeyguide of a Honey Badger, through guiding to a nest by the honeyguide, to the breaking open of the nest by the Honey Badger does not exist.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, although diurnal observations are numerous. Honey Badgers shelter in burrows, thick brush, caves, clumps of fallen bamboo, hollow trees, old ruins, rock shelters, dens excavated by themselves, or abandoned burrows. Hollow trees are entered from the top.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Honey Badgers are good swimmers and can chase turtles underwater. They can also climb trees. Daily movements average 10-30 km, with males covering longer distances than females. Female Honey Badgers forage in a relatively small area, covering c. 10 km/day. They zig-zag short distances from bush to bush, digging on average 10-2 holes/km. Males engage in long-distance foraging, covering c. 27 km/day; only c. 1-3 holes/km are dug. Mean straightline distance between dens from one day to the next is c¢. 2: 5 kmfor short-distance foragers and c. 10- 1 kmfor long-distance foragers. Males and females differ significantly in their rate of travel (3-8 km/h and 2-7 km/h, respectively), straight line (6- 2 kmand 2.4 km) and actual distance (13- 8 kmand 7- 7 km) moved during an active period, but do not differ in the percentage of their home range area traversed in a single day (3%). Honey Badgers are mostly solitary, but pairs may be seen and aggregations may occur at feeding sites. Occasionally, after foraging in a particular area for most of the night, a male may suddenly move off to a location less than 9 kmaway, where it may meet up with other adults. On one occasion in Zimbabwe, six animals met up; they showed no aggression but continuously uttered a wide range of grunts, hisses, squeaks, and whines while rolling in the sand, sniffing each other, and scent marking. Such gatherings may last more than 18 min, and the Honey Badgers may retreat to the same den during the day. Radio-telemetry in the southern Kalahari revealed that the mean home range size of adult males (541 km?) wassignificantly larger than the mean home range size of adult females (126 km?). While mean home range overlap in females was moderate (13%) and home range centres were regularly spaced, females did not appearto actively defend a territory and no direct interactions between females were observed. Scent marking appears to mediate spatial-temporal separation and females show a loosely territorial spacing pattern. In contrast, the home ranges of males encompassed the overlapping home ranges of up to 13 females. Young males tended to have smaller home ranges (151 km?*) than adult males and showed a spacing pattern more similar to adult females than adult males.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Honey Badgers do not occur at high densities and are considered uncommon throughout their range. Persecution by beekeepers and livestock farmers is probably the greatest threat to this species.Bibliography.Begg, C. et al. (2005a, 2005b), Begg, K. (1995), Dean et al. (1990), Kruuk & Mills (1983), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Vanderhaar & Hwang (2003), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,621,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996.xml,Taxidea taxus,Taxidea,taxus,Waterhouse,1839,Blaireau d’Amérique @fr | Amerikanischer Dachs @de | Tejon americano @es,"Ursus taxus Schreber, 1778,Canada.Four subspecies are recognized.","T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778— S Canada(Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario& Saskatschewan) and NC USA.T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858— N & C Mexicoand SC USA(W of the MississippiRiver).T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946— NE USA(Great Lakes Region).T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825— W USA(NWto California).","Head-body 42-72 cm, tail 10-15.5 cm; weight 7.6-8.7 kg(males), 6.3-7.1 kg(females), adult males weigh on average 25% more than females. The American Badger’s body appears flat dorso-ventrally, with a flat head, and shorttail and limbs. The upperparts are grayish-white to yellowish-brown orsilvery black; the underparts are buffy. The feet are dark brown to black. Black patches are present on the face, cheeks, chin, and throat. A dorsal white stripe runs from the nose to the neck, and in some populations, to the rump. The claws on the forefeet are long and strong. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is wedge-shaped, almost triangular.","American Badgers are found in grasslands, prairie habitats, shrubs and steppes, and open woodlands. In British Columbia, they prefer open range and agricultural habitats that have fine sandy-loam and well-drained soils.","The diet includes small mammals (especially marmots, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, chipmunks, and squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (insects and molluscs). Carrion is also eaten. In British Columbia, the six main prey species are the Columbian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota Slaviventris), Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Southern Red-backed Vole (Myodes gapperi), and Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). In south-eastern Wyoming, prairie dogs were found in 57% of stomach and fecal samples from female American Badgers. The most common food item in the diet in west-central Minnesotaand south-eastern North Dakotais small mammals (98%, primarily Muridae and Geomyidae). Other prey includes insects (40%), and birds and eggs (32%, mostly ducks Anatidae). Reptiles, amphibians and molluscs are also eaten, but are less common than other foods. Insects and birds’ eggs are more common in the diet during spring (April-May) than summer (June-July). Birds are more frequent in the diets of adults than juveniles. In South Dakota, 40% of stomach contents were mammals, 35% were of plant origin, 10% were birds, 10% were insects, and the remainder was mostly inorganic materials. American Badgers obtain most of their food by excavating the burrows of fossorial animals. If large prey is taken, such as a rabbit, the badger may dig a hole, carry in the prey, and remain below ground with it for several days. There are reports of American Badgers forming a “hunting partnership” with Coyotes. The Coyote apparently usesits keen sense of smell to locate burrowing rodents and the American Badger digs them up with its powerful claws. Both predators then share the proceeds. The techniques used by American Badgers when hunting Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) have been observed. They frequently hunted hibernating squirrels in the autumn, sometimes hunted infants in the spring, but rarely hunted active squirrels in the summer. They always captured hibernating and active squirrels underground, but sometimes intercepted fleeing squirrels aboveground. The most common hunting technique used was excavation of the burrow, but plugging of openings accounted for 5-23% of hunting actions. Plugging occurred predominantly in mid-June to late July, before most ground squirrels hibernated, and in late August to late October when juvenile males were active, but other squirrels were in hibernation. American Badgers usually used soil from around the tunnel opening or soil dragged 30-270 cmfrom a nearby mound to plug tunnels. Theykill ground squirrels with a single grasping bite directed dorsally or laterally to the thorax. The canines and third upper incisors generally only bruise the skin, without puncturing it, but cause extensive hemorrhaging in the thoracic cavity. Food items are sometimes buried and eaten later.","Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.","Mainly nocturnal, but can be active at any hour. American Badgers rest underground in burrows; these are either self-excavated or are modified burrows that were initially made by another animal. The burrow can be as long as 10 mand can extend 3 mbelow the surface. A bulky nest of grass is located in an enlarged chamber; the entrances are marked by mounds of earth. American Badgers are active all year, but during severe winter weather they may sleep in the den for several days or weeks.","Daily movement may exceed 10 kmand dispersal movements may be greater than 100 km. Mean home range size is up to 12- 3 km? for males and up to 3-4 km? for females. Home ranges overlap, but adults are solitary except during the breeding season. In Utah, mean home range size was 5-83 km? the mean size of female home ranges (2-37 km?) was less than half that of the males. In Idaho, mean home range size was 2-4 km? for males and 1-6 km? for females. In south-eastern Wyoming, the mean home range size of females (3-4 km?) was smaller than that of males (12- 3 km?); mean overlap was less for females than for males, and the mean home rangesize of males was larger during the breeding season than during the non-breeding season (breeding = 11- 1 km?non-breeding = 5- 4 km?). A radio-tracked female in Minnesotaused an area of 752 ha during the summer. She had 50 dens within this area and was never found in the same den on two consecutive days. In the autumn, she shifted to an adjacent area of 52 ha and often reused dens. In the winter, she used a single den and traveled infrequently within an area of 2 ha. Population density may be as high as 5/km?. In south-eastern Wyoming, the density varies between 0-8-1-1/km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Badgers are considered common. Although this species haslittle importance in the fur trade,it is harvested for its fur in many parts of its range. American Badgers are also persecuted because of the damage they do to pasture and agricultural land.","Anderson & Johns (1977) | Armitage (2004) | Azevedo et al. (2006) | Eldridge (2004) | Goodrich & Buskirk (1998) | Harlow (1981) | Hart & Trumbo (1983) | Hoodicoff (2006) | Lampe (1982) | Lindzey (1978, 2003) | Long (1973) | Long &Killingley (1983) | Messick & Hornocker (1981) | Michener (2004) | Michener & Iwaniuk (2001) | Minta (1993) | Minta et al. (1992) | Murie (1992) | Sargeant & Warner (1972) | Sovada et al. (1999) | VanVuren (2001) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714129/files/figure.png,"1.American BadgerTaxidea taxusFrench:Blaireau d’Amérique/ German:Amerikanischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon americanoTaxonomy.Ursus taxus Schreber, 1778,Canada.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778— S Canada(Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario& Saskatschewan) and NC USA.T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858— N & C Mexicoand SC USA(W of the MississippiRiver).T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946— NE USA(Great Lakes Region).T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825— W USA(NWto California).Descriptive notes.Head-body 42-72 cm, tail 10-15.5 cm; weight 7.6-8.7 kg(males), 6.3-7.1 kg(females), adult males weigh on average 25% more than females. The American Badger’s body appears flat dorso-ventrally, with a flat head, and shorttail and limbs. The upperparts are grayish-white to yellowish-brown orsilvery black; the underparts are buffy. The feet are dark brown to black. Black patches are present on the face, cheeks, chin, and throat. A dorsal white stripe runs from the nose to the neck, and in some populations, to the rump. The claws on the forefeet are long and strong. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is wedge-shaped, almost triangular. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M1/2=34Habitat.American Badgers are found in grasslands, prairie habitats, shrubs and steppes, and open woodlands. In British Columbia, they prefer open range and agricultural habitats that have fine sandy-loam and well-drained soils.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (especially marmots, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, chipmunks, and squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (insects and molluscs). Carrion is also eaten. In British Columbia, the six main prey species are the Columbian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota Slaviventris), Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Southern Red-backed Vole (Myodes gapperi), and Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). In south-eastern Wyoming, prairie dogs were found in 57% of stomach and fecal samples from female American Badgers. The most common food item in the diet in west-central Minnesotaand south-eastern North Dakotais small mammals (98%, primarily Muridae and Geomyidae). Other prey includes insects (40%), and birds and eggs (32%, mostly ducks Anatidae). Reptiles, amphibians and molluscs are also eaten, but are less common than other foods. Insects and birds’ eggs are more common in the diet during spring (April-May) than summer (June-July). Birds are more frequent in the diets of adults than juveniles. In South Dakota, 40% of stomach contents were mammals, 35% were of plant origin, 10% were birds, 10% were insects, and the remainder was mostly inorganic materials. American Badgers obtain most of their food by excavating the burrows of fossorial animals. If large prey is taken, such as a rabbit, the badger may dig a hole, carry in the prey, and remain below ground with it for several days. There are reports of American Badgers forming a “hunting partnership” with Coyotes. The Coyote apparently usesits keen sense of smell to locate burrowing rodents and the American Badger digs them up with its powerful claws. Both predators then share the proceeds. The techniques used by American Badgers when hunting Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) have been observed. They frequently hunted hibernating squirrels in the autumn, sometimes hunted infants in the spring, but rarely hunted active squirrels in the summer. They always captured hibernating and active squirrels underground, but sometimes intercepted fleeing squirrels aboveground. The most common hunting technique used was excavation of the burrow, but plugging of openings accounted for 5-23% of hunting actions. Plugging occurred predominantly in mid-June to late July, before most ground squirrels hibernated, and in late August to late October when juvenile males were active, but other squirrels were in hibernation. American Badgers usually used soil from around the tunnel opening or soil dragged 30-270 cmfrom a nearby mound to plug tunnels. Theykill ground squirrels with a single grasping bite directed dorsally or laterally to the thorax. The canines and third upper incisors generally only bruise the skin, without puncturing it, but cause extensive hemorrhaging in the thoracic cavity. Food items are sometimes buried and eaten later.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but can be active at any hour. American Badgers rest underground in burrows; these are either self-excavated or are modified burrows that were initially made by another animal. The burrow can be as long as 10 mand can extend 3 mbelow the surface. A bulky nest of grass is located in an enlarged chamber; the entrances are marked by mounds of earth. American Badgers are active all year, but during severe winter weather they may sleep in the den for several days or weeks.During this period of inactivity, heart rates are reduced by 50% and the body temperature decreases by 9 °C.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Daily movement may exceed 10 kmand dispersal movements may be greater than 100 km. Mean home range size is up to 12- 3 km? for males and up to 3-4 km? for females. Home ranges overlap, but adults are solitary except during the breeding season. In Utah, mean home range size was 5-83 km? the mean size of female home ranges (2-37 km?) was less than half that of the males. In Idaho, mean home range size was 2-4 km? for males and 1-6 km? for females. In south-eastern Wyoming, the mean home range size of females (3-4 km?) was smaller than that of males (12- 3 km?); mean overlap was less for females than for males, and the mean home rangesize of males was larger during the breeding season than during the non-breeding season (breeding = 11- 1 km?non-breeding = 5- 4 km?). A radio-tracked female in Minnesotaused an area of 752 ha during the summer. She had 50 dens within this area and was never found in the same den on two consecutive days. In the autumn, she shifted to an adjacent area of 52 ha and often reused dens. In the winter, she used a single den and traveled infrequently within an area of 2 ha. Population density may be as high as 5/km?. In south-eastern Wyoming, the density varies between 0-8-1-1/km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Badgers are considered common. Although this species haslittle importance in the fur trade,it is harvested for its fur in many parts of its range. American Badgers are also persecuted because of the damage they do to pasture and agricultural land.Bibliography.Anderson & Johns (1977), Armitage (2004), Azevedo et al. (2006), Eldridge (2004), Goodrich & Buskirk (1998), Harlow (1981), Hart & Trumbo (1983), Hoodicoff (2006), Lampe (1982), Lindzey (1978, 2003), Long (1973), Long &Killingley (1983), Messick & Hornocker (1981), Michener (2004), Michener & Iwaniuk (2001), Minta (1993), Minta et al. (1992), Murie (1992), Sargeant & Warner (1972), Sovada et al. (1999), VanVuren (2001), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA53FFBBCFAE3020FDBEF7B1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,622,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA53FFBBCFAE3020FDBEF7B1.xml,Meles anakuma,Meles,anakuma,Temminck,1844,Blaireau du Japon @fr | Japanischer Dachs @de | Tejon japonés @es,"Meles anakuma Temminck, 1844. Japan.Some authors consider M. anakuma as a subspecies of the Asian Badger. Monotypic.","Japan(Honshu, Kyushu & Shikoku Is).","Head-body 50-80 cm,tail 14-20 cm; weight 6-17 kg. The Japanese Badger has a stocky body, short legs, grayish pelage, and contrasting black and white stripes on the head and upper neck. The foreclaws are well-developed for digging; the hindclaws are much smaller.","Japanese Badgers are found in fields and forests, often in close proximity to humans in suburban habitats.","In Hinode, a suburb of Tokyo, scat analysis revealed that during spring and summer, earthworms (Megaseolocidae) occur at high frequency in the diet, with berries (Rubus sp.), beetles, and persimmon (Dymopyrus kaki) also eaten during summer months. Scavenged food is eaten in early spring when earthworm availability is low, and in the autumn, Japanese Badgers switch from eating worms when Persimmon is abundant.","Mating occurs from April to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until February. Litter size varies from one to three. Male offspring continue growing for 24 months, but females reach adult size in a year. Sexual maturity is reached after two years.","Primarily nocturnal, although sometimes active in the daytime. Breeding females, in particular, often forage during the day and in the spring. Between July and October, Japanese Badgers usually emerge from their setts around sunset and return around sunrise. After November, the time between emergence and return becomes shorter. From January to February, most activity ceases, and Japanese Badgers stay in their setts most of the time. The total hibernation period varies from 42-80 days, during which the body temperature is reduced. Den/resting sites are in underground burrows called setts or in couches. In Japan, the resting sites in each badger’s home range were found to be within 630 mof each other. Setts were sited within the core areas of home ranges and were mostly on a sub-ridge. Couches were mainly in deciduousforest, and along the forest edge, and were generally sited towards the periphery of home ranges.","Japanese Badgers form family groups consisting of a mother and her offspring. Mature adult males seldom visit the family except in early spring, and they are found to have large home ranges that encompass the home ranges of two to three adultfemales. The home ranges of each sex do not overlap, suggesting intra-sexual territoriality. Japanese Badgers use an average of 13-5 setts in a year; adult males and females seldom stay in the samesett together. Male offspring share a sett with their mother for up to 26 months, whereas female offspring remain with the mother for only 14 months. The average time male offspring spend with their mothers decreases when young are between 15 and 19 months old. In Hinode, Tokyo, the mean home range size of males (40 ha) was found to be larger than that of females (11 ha).Breeding.Mating occurs from April to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until February. Litter size varies from one to three. Male offspring continue growing for 24 months, but females reach adult size in a year. Sexual maturity is reached after two years.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Field studies are needed are learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Japanese Badger.","Abramov & Puzachenko (2006) | Kaneko (2001, 2005) | Kaneko et al. (2006) | Sato et al. (2003) | Tanaka (2005, 2006) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714139/files/figure.png,"4.Japanese BadgerMeles anakumaFrench:Blaireau du Japon/ German:Japanischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon japonésTaxonomy.Meles anakuma Temminck, 1844. Japan.Some authors consider M. anakuma as a subspecies of the Asian Badger. Monotypic.Distribution.Japan(Honshu, Kyushu & Shikoku Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-80 cm,tail 14-20 cm; weight 6-17 kg. The Japanese Badger has a stocky body, short legs, grayish pelage, and contrasting black and white stripes on the head and upper neck. The foreclaws are well-developed for digging; the hindclaws are much smaller.Habitat.Japanese Badgers are found in fields and forests, often in close proximity to humans in suburban habitats.Food and Feeding.In Hinode, a suburb of Tokyo, scat analysis revealed that during spring and summer, earthworms (Megaseolocidae) occur at high frequency in the diet, with berries (Rubus sp.), beetles, and persimmon (Dymopyrus kaki) also eaten during summer months. Scavenged food is eaten in early spring when earthworm availability is low, and in the autumn, Japanese Badgers switch from eating worms when Persimmon is abundant.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, although sometimes active in the daytime. Breeding females, in particular, often forage during the day and in the spring. Between July and October, Japanese Badgers usually emerge from their setts around sunset and return around sunrise. After November, the time between emergence and return becomes shorter. From January to February, most activity ceases, and Japanese Badgers stay in their setts most of the time. The total hibernation period varies from 42-80 days, during which the body temperature is reduced. Den/resting sites are in underground burrows called setts or in couches. In Japan, the resting sites in each badger’s home range were found to be within 630 mof each other. Setts were sited within the core areas of home ranges and were mostly on a sub-ridge. Couches were mainly in deciduousforest, and along the forest edge, and were generally sited towards the periphery of home ranges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Japanese Badgers form family groups consisting of a mother and her offspring. Mature adult males seldom visit the family except in early spring, and they are found to have large home ranges that encompass the home ranges of two to three adultfemales. The home ranges of each sex do not overlap, suggesting intra-sexual territoriality. Japanese Badgers use an average of 13-5 setts in a year; adult males and females seldom stay in the samesett together. Male offspring share a sett with their mother for up to 26 months, whereas female offspring remain with the mother for only 14 months. The average time male offspring spend with their mothers decreases when young are between 15 and 19 months old. In Hinode, Tokyo, the mean home range size of males (40 ha) was found to be larger than that of females (11 ha).Breeding.Mating occurs from April to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until February. Litter size varies from one to three. Male offspring continue growing for 24 months, but females reach adult size in a year. Sexual maturity is reached after two years.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Field studies are needed are learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Japanese Badger.Bibliography.Abramov & Puzachenko (2006), Kaneko (2001, 2005), Kaneko et al. (2006), Sato et al. (2003), Tanaka (2005, 2006), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA53FFBCCFA73EC1F7B6F487,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,622,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA53FFBCCFA73EC1F7B6F487.xml,Arctonyx collaris,Arctonyx,collaris,Cuvier,1825,Balisaur @fr | Schweinsdachs @de | Tejon porcino @es,"Arctonyx collaris Cuvier, 1825, Indonesia.Arctonyxwas regarded as monotypic until late 2008, when this volume was in proof. Based on a review of the most available specimens in world museums, three distinctive species are now recognized within this genus. A. albogularis (Blyth, 1853) is a shaggy-coated, medium-sized badger widely distributed in temperate Asia, from Tibetand the Himalayan region to eastern and southern China. A. collaris (Cuvier, 1825), is an extremely large, shorter-haired badger, distributed throughout South-east Asia, from eastern Indiato Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodiaand Laos. The disjunctly distributed species A. hoevenii (Hubrecht, 1891) is the smallest and darkest member of the genus and is endemic to the Barisan mountain chain of Sumatra.","C, E & S Chinaand E Mongoliato Sub-Himalayan zone in Bhutanand NE India; also, Bangladesh, Indochina, and Sumatra.","Head-body 55-70 cm,tail 12-17 cm; weight 7-14 kg. The Hog Badger is stocky and sparsely furred, with a flat head, a long nose that extends to form a small “trunk”, conspicuous ears, small eyes, and long claws. The elongated snout is hairless and resembles the nose of a pig: hence the name Hog Badger. The pelage is yellowish or grayish with black and white hairs mixed throughout. There are alternating black and white stripes on the top of the head; the white stripes meet behind the ears and merge with the pale throat. The tail is short and sparsely covered with white hairs. The claws are well-developed on the forefeet and are pale in color. The skull is narrow and high with a long rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M1/2=36.","Forests, grasslands and plantations adjacent to forests, at elevations up to 3500 m.","The diet includes earthworms, insects, small mammals, snails, reptiles, tubers, and roots. In China, Hog Badgers were found to eat more mammals and gastropods than other sympatric small carnivore species. They use their hoglike nose to root through the forest floor.","Mating occurs from May to September, depending on the locality. Births typically occur the following February or March. The long delay between mating and parturition suggests that this species undergoes delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus. Litter size is three to five. The young are weaned after four months and become independent soon after.","Nocturnal. Activity peaks occur between 03:00 h and 05:00 h and between 19:00 h and 21:00 h. Hog Badgers spend the day resting in underground burrows or in rock crevices; they can dig their own burrows. They undergo a period of inactivity during winter months and in central China, they may hibernate from November to February or March.","Solitary and terrestrial.Breeding.Mating occurs from May to September, depending on the locality. Births typically occur the following February or March. The long delay between mating and parturition suggests that this species undergoes delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus. Litter size is three to five. The young are weaned after four months and become independent soon after.","Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. The Hog Badger is thought to be common throughoutits range. However, hunting by dogsis a threat to this species and it is also susceptible to snaring. Hog Badgers are hunted and farmed for food in China. They are also eaten in India, and hunted in Vietnamand some areas of Laos.","Francis (2008) | Helgen, Lim & Helgen (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Parker (1979) | Pocock (1941a) | Wang & Fuller (2003a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714135/files/figure.png,"3.Hog BadgerArctonyx collarisFrench:Balisaur/ German:Schweinsdachs/ Spanish:Tejon porcinoTaxonomy.Arctonyx collaris Cuvier, 1825, Indonesia.Arctonyxwas regarded as monotypic until late 2008, when this volume was in proof. Based on a review of the most available specimens in world museums, three distinctive species are now recognized within this genus. A. albogularis (Blyth, 1853) is a shaggy-coated, medium-sized badger widely distributed in temperate Asia, from Tibetand the Himalayan region to eastern and southern China. A. collaris (Cuvier, 1825), is an extremely large, shorter-haired badger, distributed throughout South-east Asia, from eastern Indiato Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodiaand Laos. The disjunctly distributed species A. hoevenii (Hubrecht, 1891) is the smallest and darkest member of the genus and is endemic to the Barisan mountain chain of Sumatra.Distribution.C, E & S Chinaand E Mongoliato Sub-Himalayan zone in Bhutanand NE India; also, Bangladesh, Indochina, and Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-70 cm,tail 12-17 cm; weight 7-14 kg. The Hog Badger is stocky and sparsely furred, with a flat head, a long nose that extends to form a small “trunk”, conspicuous ears, small eyes, and long claws. The elongated snout is hairless and resembles the nose of a pig: hence the name Hog Badger. The pelage is yellowish or grayish with black and white hairs mixed throughout. There are alternating black and white stripes on the top of the head; the white stripes meet behind the ears and merge with the pale throat. The tail is short and sparsely covered with white hairs. The claws are well-developed on the forefeet and are pale in color. The skull is narrow and high with a long rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M1/2=36.Habitat.Forests, grasslands and plantations adjacent to forests, at elevations up to 3500 m.Food and Feeding.The diet includes earthworms, insects, small mammals, snails, reptiles, tubers, and roots. In China, Hog Badgers were found to eat more mammals and gastropods than other sympatric small carnivore species. They use their hoglike nose to root through the forest floor.Activity patterns.Nocturnal. Activity peaks occur between 03:00 h and 05:00 h and between 19:00 h and 21:00 h. Hog Badgers spend the day resting in underground burrows or in rock crevices; they can dig their own burrows. They undergo a period of inactivity during winter months and in central China, they may hibernate from November to February or March.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Solitary and terrestrial.Breeding.Mating occurs from May to September, depending on the locality. Births typically occur the following February or March. The long delay between mating and parturition suggests that this species undergoes delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus. Litter size is three to five. The young are weaned after four months and become independent soon after.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. The Hog Badger is thought to be common throughoutits range. However, hunting by dogsis a threat to this species and it is also susceptible to snaring. Hog Badgers are hunted and farmed for food in China. They are also eaten in India, and hunted in Vietnamand some areas of Laos.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Helgen, Lim & Helgen (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Parker (1979), Pocock (1941a), Wang & Fuller (2003a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." 038F87D4CA54FFBACFEF3E38F9CBF9C6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,623,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA54FFBACFEF3E38F9CBF9C6.xml,Meles meles,Meles,meles,Brisson,1762,Blaireau d'Europe @fr | Européischer Dachs @de | Tején europeo @es | Eurasian Badger @en,"Ursus meles Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Up to twenty-three subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","Europe, E up to Volga River, Russia; also Caucasus and Middle East from Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria, to N Afghanistan.","Head-body 56-90 cm, tail 11.5-20.2 cm; weight 10-16 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Badger has a stocky body, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish, with black underparts and limbs. On each side of the face is a dark stripe that extends from the nose to the ear and encloses the eye; white stripes border the dark stripe. The tip of the ears is white. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. All the feet have strong claws. There are three pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Thefirst premolars are vestigial and sometimes absent.","European Badgers are mainly found in deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodland, hedges, scrub, riverine habitat, agricultural land, grassland, steppes, and semi-deserts. They prefer densely forested areas adjacent to open fields, up to 1700 m. Occasionally, they are found in suburban areas. In central Spain, European Badgers prefer mid-elevation mountain areas, where both dehesas (open woods with pastures) and pine forests prevail; lower elevation areas are avoided. They are associated with watercourses and prefer trees and rock covered areas. In the Swiss Jura Mountains, European Badgers use forests and wooded pastures in the winter and spring and grain fields in the summer and autumn.","The diet includes earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) and other invertebrates (such as insects and molluscs), small mammals (mice, rabbits, rats, voles, shrews, moles, hedgehogs), birds, reptiles, amphibians, carrion, nuts, acorns, berries, fruits, tubers, and mushrooms. In forests, European Badgers rely predominantly on earthworms (on average, 62% in diets). In farmlands and pastures, earthworms and plant material (usually garden fruit and cereals) play equally important roles (34% each). In England, the main foods are earthworms, insects, fruit, and wheat; grass is also ingested in substantial quantities. Earthworms are the most frequent food items, but wheat is almost as important in terms of percentage volume. In Poland, earthworms constitute 82-89% of the biomass consumed in spring. In summer and autumn, the proportion declines to 56% in pristine forest, and to 24% in a mosaic of forests, fields, and orchards. Supplementary food items during this time are amphibians (in forests) and garden fruits (in a rural landscape). In Denmark, earthworms, small mammals, cereals, and arthropods dominate the diet. In central Switzerland, the diet comprises 55% faunal material and 45% vegetal material. Earthworms have the highest frequency of occurrence. Voles, insects, and maize are eaten during most of the year, but never in large volumes, while wasps, cherries, plums, and oats are eaten seasonally and in large volumes. In Italy, earthworms and maize are the staple foods and together account for 57% of the mean estimated volume. Earthworm consumption varies seasonally, with a marked decrease in summer; this decline is compensated by a significant increase in fruits eaten. Maize is consumed all year round with no significant seasonal variation (from 21% in summer to 44-6% in winter). Prey items include amphibians (9%) and mammals (7-2%, primarily rodents and lagomorphs). In a dry Mediterranean coastal habitat in central Italy, European Badgers feed primarily on fruits and insects (90% ofthe total amount of food eaten each year). Other less important food items include myriapods, molluscs, birds, and mammals; earthworms do not play an important role in the diet in any period ofthe year.","Mating can occur year-round, but typically occurs in late winter to midsummer. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus can either be immediate or delayed for about ten months; the time of implantation seems to be controlled by light and temperature conditions. Embryonic developmentlasts six to eight weeks. The total gestation may thus be up to 9-12 months. Births occur mainly from February to March.Litter size is usually three or four, but can be as many as six. The young weigh 75 gat birth; their eyes open after one month. They nurse for 2:5 months and usually separate from the mother in the autumn. Both sexes reach sexual maturity after one year.","European Badgers show crepuscular or nocturnal activity, generally starting after sunset and ending before sunrise, and are active on average for about eight hours per day. The highestlevel of activity is between 20:00 h and 03:00 h. During the day, they mainly rest in elaborate, communal burrow systems (setts) with numerous entrances, passages, and chambers, but other typesof rest sites may be used. Setts may cover an area of 0-25 ha; they are used year after year and increase in complexity over time, and may eventually cover several hectares. There are two typesof burrows: “main” setts (with many entrances) and small “outliers” (with usually only one entrance). Nests may be located 10 mfrom an entrance, 2-3 mbelow the surface, and have a diameter of 1- 5 m.Within a burrow system, European Badgers may utilize one nest for several months and then move to another part of the burrow. The living quarters are kept quite clean. Bedding material (dry grass, bracken, moss, or leaves) is dragged backwards into the den. Around setts, there are several dung pits, sunning grounds, and play areas. Well-defined paths, up to 2-3 km, extend from the sett to foraging areas. In south-western Spain,setts are located almost everywhere, but European Badgers prefer easily dug, well-drained soils, with good vegetation cover within foraging habitats. They select sites with high surrounding shrub density, large shrubs covering the burrow, and close to the centre of the territory. During bouts of cold weather or deep snow, European Badgers may sleep in the sett for days or weeks. In northern Europe, this winter sleep may last several months. During this period, there is a substantial drop in body temperature and the badger lives off fat reserves accumulated in the summer and autumn. In south-west Portugal, main setts are the most frequently used restsites (62:3%); however, an average of 14 other resting sites are used in each territory. Females use more than twice as many occasional resting sites as do males. Generally burrows (predominantly main setts) are most frequently used during winter and autumn, whilst non-burrow shelters are preferred during spring and summer, when the weather is hot, dry and not windy. In northern Italy, ten setts (mean number of entrances = 2-1) were detected in the study area. Each radio-collared badger used 2-3 setts, occupying one sett from one to eight months before moving to another one. All badgers shared (although in different periods) one main sett located in the inner part of their ranges.","Mean daily movement ranges from 1-2 kmin Englandto 7 kmin Poland. Average speed of movement varies from 0-3 km/h in Spainto 1- 1 km/h in Switzerland. European Badgers in Britain form clans of mutli-male and multi-female groups, of up to 23 animals (average = six). Elsewhere in their range they commonly live alone, or in pairs with either intra- or inter-sexual territories. Clans are led by a dominant male and female, and usually have more females than males. Individuals move around alone within a clan range. These ranges are marked using latrine sites and secretions from the sub-caudal glands; sometimes fights may occur at territorial boundaries. In England, many clans have ranges of 50- 150 ha, with little overlap; the minimum distance between the main burrows of clans is 300 m.In the Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland, the daily home range was 2- 1 km? (19% oftheir total home rangesize). The size ofterritories varied from 8-4 to 25- 5 km? (mean 12- 8 km?). The mean individual home range was 9- 3 km? and varied seasonally and among animals of different age and sex classes (from 4-24- 4 km?). Home ranges of adult badgers were significantly larger than those of subadults. European Badgers occupied larger home ranges in summer, when earthworm availability was low. They moved with an average speed of 0-9 km/hour (maximum 7- 1 km/hour). Adults of both sexes visited territory boundaries significantly more often than subadult individuals. In Denmark, home range size varied between 2-96 km? and 3-94 km?; individuals from a social group had similar home ranges (95% overlap), whereas home ranges of individuals from neighboring social groups had little overlap (1-2%). In the Swiss Jura Mountains, radio-collared European Badgers travelled up to 9460 meach night; they avoided pastures and the vicinity of houses during their night trips. The average home range size was 320 ha, but the ranging behavior varied between seasons. Den-watching, night-lighting, and radio-tracking data suggested that European Badgerslive in pairs in this wet and cold region. In an area of agricultural lowland in northern Italy, radiotracked animals showed considerable home range overlap, with an overall mean size of 3-83 km?. Population density estimates range from 0-4 to 1-5 individuals per 100 ha.Breeding.Mating can occur year-round, but typically occurs in late winter to midsummer. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus can either be immediate or delayed for about ten months; the time of implantation seems to be controlled by light and temperature conditions. Embryonic developmentlasts six to eight weeks. The total gestation may thus be up to 9-12 months. Births occur mainly from February to March.Litter size is usually three or four, but can be as many as six. The young weigh 75 gat birth; their eyes open after one month. They nurse for 2:5 months and usually separate from the mother in the autumn. Both sexes reach sexual maturity after one year.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. European Badgers are generally considered common and of no special conservation concern, although declines in numbers have occurred in some areas. They sometimes damage property or consume crops, and thus are often regarded as pests and persecuted. The hair is used to make various kinds of brushes, and badger skin has been used to make rugs. European Badgers are commonly killed on roads; as many as 50,000 may be killed each year in Great Britain. They are vectors of bovine tuberculosis, which has led to controversial efforts to reduce European Badger numbers in parts of Britain.","Balestrieri et al. (2004) | Elmeros et al. (2005) | Fischer & Weber (2003) | Goszczynski et al. (2000) | Kowalczyk, Jedrzejewska & Zalewski (2003) | Kowalczyk, Zalewski & Jedrzejewska (2004, 2006) | Kowalczyk, Zalewski, Jedrzejewska & Jedrzejewski (2003) | Kruuk & Parish (1987) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Loureiro et al. (2007) | Madsen et al. (2002) | Marassi & Biancardi (2002) | Melis et al. (2002) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Page et al. (1994) | Palphramand et al. (2007) | Pigozzi (1991) | Remonti et al. (2006) | Revilla & Palomares (2002) | Revilla et al. (2001) | Rodriguez et al. (1996) | Roper (1994) | Roper & Lups (1995) | Roperet al. (2001) | Rosalino et al. (2002) | San et al. (2007) | Shepherdson et al. (1990) | Virgos & Casanovas (1999) | Weber & Ferrari (2005) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714145/files/figure.png,"6.European BadgerMeles melesFrench:Blaireau d'Europe/ German:Européischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tején europeoOther common names:Eurasian BadgerTaxonomy.Ursus meles Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Up to twenty-three subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Europe, E up to Volga River, Russia; also Caucasus and Middle East from Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria, to N Afghanistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 56-90 cm, tail 11.5-20.2 cm; weight 10-16 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Badger has a stocky body, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish, with black underparts and limbs. On each side of the face is a dark stripe that extends from the nose to the ear and encloses the eye; white stripes border the dark stripe. The tip of the ears is white. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. All the feet have strong claws. There are three pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Thefirst premolars are vestigial and sometimes absent.Habitat.European Badgers are mainly found in deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodland, hedges, scrub, riverine habitat, agricultural land, grassland, steppes, and semi-deserts. They prefer densely forested areas adjacent to open fields, up to 1700 m. Occasionally, they are found in suburban areas. In central Spain, European Badgers prefer mid-elevation mountain areas, where both dehesas (open woods with pastures) and pine forests prevail; lower elevation areas are avoided. They are associated with watercourses and prefer trees and rock covered areas. In the Swiss Jura Mountains, European Badgers use forests and wooded pastures in the winter and spring and grain fields in the summer and autumn.Food and Feeding.The diet includes earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) and other invertebrates (such as insects and molluscs), small mammals (mice, rabbits, rats, voles, shrews, moles, hedgehogs), birds, reptiles, amphibians, carrion, nuts, acorns, berries, fruits, tubers, and mushrooms. In forests, European Badgers rely predominantly on earthworms (on average, 62% in diets). In farmlands and pastures, earthworms and plant material (usually garden fruit and cereals) play equally important roles (34% each). In England, the main foods are earthworms, insects, fruit, and wheat; grass is also ingested in substantial quantities. Earthworms are the most frequent food items, but wheat is almost as important in terms of percentage volume. In Poland, earthworms constitute 82-89% of the biomass consumed in spring. In summer and autumn, the proportion declines to 56% in pristine forest, and to 24% in a mosaic of forests, fields, and orchards. Supplementary food items during this time are amphibians (in forests) and garden fruits (in a rural landscape). In Denmark, earthworms, small mammals, cereals, and arthropods dominate the diet. In central Switzerland, the diet comprises 55% faunal material and 45% vegetal material. Earthworms have the highest frequency of occurrence. Voles, insects, and maize are eaten during most of the year, but never in large volumes, while wasps, cherries, plums, and oats are eaten seasonally and in large volumes. In Italy, earthworms and maize are the staple foods and together account for 57% of the mean estimated volume. Earthworm consumption varies seasonally, with a marked decrease in summer; this decline is compensated by a significant increase in fruits eaten. Maize is consumed all year round with no significant seasonal variation (from 21% in summer to 44-6% in winter). Prey items include amphibians (9%) and mammals (7-2%, primarily rodents and lagomorphs). In a dry Mediterranean coastal habitat in central Italy, European Badgers feed primarily on fruits and insects (90% ofthe total amount of food eaten each year). Other less important food items include myriapods, molluscs, birds, and mammals; earthworms do not play an important role in the diet in any period ofthe year.Activity patterns.European Badgers show crepuscular or nocturnal activity, generally starting after sunset and ending before sunrise, and are active on average for about eight hours per day. The highestlevel of activity is between 20:00 h and 03:00 h. During the day, they mainly rest in elaborate, communal burrow systems (setts) with numerous entrances, passages, and chambers, but other typesof rest sites may be used. Setts may cover an area of 0-25 ha; they are used year after year and increase in complexity over time, and may eventually cover several hectares. There are two typesof burrows: “main” setts (with many entrances) and small “outliers” (with usually only one entrance). Nests may be located 10 mfrom an entrance, 2-3 mbelow the surface, and have a diameter of 1- 5 m.Within a burrow system, European Badgers may utilize one nest for several months and then move to another part of the burrow. The living quarters are kept quite clean. Bedding material (dry grass, bracken, moss, or leaves) is dragged backwards into the den. Around setts, there are several dung pits, sunning grounds, and play areas. Well-defined paths, up to 2-3 km, extend from the sett to foraging areas. In south-western Spain,setts are located almost everywhere, but European Badgers prefer easily dug, well-drained soils, with good vegetation cover within foraging habitats. They select sites with high surrounding shrub density, large shrubs covering the burrow, and close to the centre of the territory. During bouts of cold weather or deep snow, European Badgers may sleep in the sett for days or weeks. In northern Europe, this winter sleep may last several months. During this period, there is a substantial drop in body temperature and the badger lives off fat reserves accumulated in the summer and autumn. In south-west Portugal, main setts are the most frequently used restsites (62:3%); however, an average of 14 other resting sites are used in each territory. Females use more than twice as many occasional resting sites as do males. Generally burrows (predominantly main setts) are most frequently used during winter and autumn, whilst non-burrow shelters are preferred during spring and summer, when the weather is hot, dry and not windy. In northern Italy, ten setts (mean number of entrances = 2-1) were detected in the study area. Each radio-collared badger used 2-3 setts, occupying one sett from one to eight months before moving to another one. All badgers shared (although in different periods) one main sett located in the inner part of their ranges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mean daily movement ranges from 1-2 kmin Englandto 7 kmin Poland. Average speed of movement varies from 0-3 km/h in Spainto 1- 1 km/h in Switzerland. European Badgers in Britain form clans of mutli-male and multi-female groups, of up to 23 animals (average = six). Elsewhere in their range they commonly live alone, or in pairs with either intra- or inter-sexual territories. Clans are led by a dominant male and female, and usually have more females than males. Individuals move around alone within a clan range. These ranges are marked using latrine sites and secretions from the sub-caudal glands; sometimes fights may occur at territorial boundaries. In England, many clans have ranges of 50- 150 ha, with little overlap; the minimum distance between the main burrows of clans is 300 m.In the Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland, the daily home range was 2- 1 km? (19% oftheir total home rangesize). The size ofterritories varied from 8-4 to 25- 5 km? (mean 12- 8 km?). The mean individual home range was 9- 3 km? and varied seasonally and among animals of different age and sex classes (from 4-24- 4 km?). Home ranges of adult badgers were significantly larger than those of subadults. European Badgers occupied larger home ranges in summer, when earthworm availability was low. They moved with an average speed of 0-9 km/hour (maximum 7- 1 km/hour). Adults of both sexes visited territory boundaries significantly more often than subadult individuals. In Denmark, home range size varied between 2-96 km? and 3-94 km?; individuals from a social group had similar home ranges (95% overlap), whereas home ranges of individuals from neighboring social groups had little overlap (1-2%). In the Swiss Jura Mountains, radio-collared European Badgers travelled up to 9460 meach night; they avoided pastures and the vicinity of houses during their night trips. The average home range size was 320 ha, but the ranging behavior varied between seasons. Den-watching, night-lighting, and radio-tracking data suggested that European Badgerslive in pairs in this wet and cold region. In an area of agricultural lowland in northern Italy, radiotracked animals showed considerable home range overlap, with an overall mean size of 3-83 km?. Population density estimates range from 0-4 to 1-5 individuals per 100 ha.Breeding.Mating can occur year-round, but typically occurs in late winter to midsummer. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus can either be immediate or delayed for about ten months; the time of implantation seems to be controlled by light and temperature conditions. Embryonic developmentlasts six to eight weeks. The total gestation may thus be up to 9-12 months. Births occur mainly from February to March.Litter size is usually three or four, but can be as many as six. The young weigh 75 gat birth; their eyes open after one month. They nurse for 2:5 months and usually separate from the mother in the autumn. Both sexes reach sexual maturity after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. European Badgers are generally considered common and of no special conservation concern, although declines in numbers have occurred in some areas. They sometimes damage property or consume crops, and thus are often regarded as pests and persecuted. The hair is used to make various kinds of brushes, and badger skin has been used to make rugs. European Badgers are commonly killed on roads; as many as 50,000 may be killed each year in Great Britain. They are vectors of bovine tuberculosis, which has led to controversial efforts to reduce European Badger numbers in parts of Britain.Bibliography.Balestrieri et al. (2004), Elmeros et al. (2005), Fischer & Weber (2003), Goszczynski et al. (2000), Kowalczyk, Jedrzejewska & Zalewski (2003), Kowalczyk, Zalewski & Jedrzejewska (2004, 2006), Kowalczyk, Zalewski, Jedrzejewska & Jedrzejewski (2003), Kruuk & Parish (1987), Long & Killingley (1983), Loureiro et al. (2007), Madsen et al. (2002), Marassi & Biancardi (2002), Melis et al. (2002), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Page et al. (1994), Palphramand et al. (2007), Pigozzi (1991), Remonti et al. (2006), Revilla & Palomares (2002), Revilla et al. (2001), Rodriguez et al. (1996), Roper (1994), Roper & Lups (1995), Roperet al. (2001), Rosalino et al. (2002), San et al. (2007), Shepherdson et al. (1990), Virgos & Casanovas (1999), Weber & Ferrari (2005), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." -038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,623,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B.xml,Meles leucurus,Meles,leucurus,Brisson,1762,Blaireau d'Asie @fr | Asiatischer Dachs @de | Tejon asiatico @es,"Taxidea leucurus Hodgson, 1847, China.The Asian Badger has been considered conspecific with the European Badger by some authors, but is listed here as a distinct species. Two subspecies are recognized.","M..l. leucurus Hodgson, 1847— C, E & S China..M. l. amurensis Schrenck, 1859— NE China(Manchuria), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Russia(E of Volga River).","Head-body 49.5-70 cm, tail 13-20.5 cm; weight 3.5-9 kg. The Asian Badger bears a great resemblance to the European Badger. The bodyis stocky, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish-silver throughout. The face is white with two narrow blackish-brown stripes running over the eye and above the ear. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. The soles ofthe feet are naked. The front claws are well-developed for digging, whereas the hindclaws are much smaller. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is narrow with an elongated rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","Forests and fields, and in close proximity to humans.","The diet is mainly invertebrates (earthworms and insects), small mammals, and plant material.",Nothing known.,Nocturnal.,Asian Badgers are gregarious and live in communalsetts with multiple tunnels and den entrances.Breeding.Nothing known.,"Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Although the European Badger has been well studied in Europe, little is known specifically about the Asian Badger, although it is presumed that there are few differences in basic natural history between these two species. Field studies are needed to learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Asian Badger. This speciesis legally hunted in China, Russia, and Mongolia.","Abramov & Puzachenko (2006) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",,"5.Asian BadgerMeles leucurusFrench:Blaireau d'Asie/ German:Asiatischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon asiaticoTaxonomy.Taxidea leucurus Hodgson, 1847, China.The Asian Badger has been considered conspecific with the European Badger by some authors, but is listed here as a distinct species. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M..l. leucurus Hodgson, 1847— C, E & S China..M. l. amurensis Schrenck, 1859— NE China(Manchuria), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Russia(E of Volga River).Descriptive notes.Head-body 49.5-70 cm, tail 13-20.5 cm; weight 3.5-9 kg. The Asian Badger bears a great resemblance to the European Badger. The bodyis stocky, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish-silver throughout. The face is white with two narrow blackish-brown stripes running over the eye and above the ear. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. The soles ofthe feet are naked. The front claws are well-developed for digging, whereas the hindclaws are much smaller. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is narrow with an elongated rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Forests and fields, and in close proximity to humans.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly invertebrates (earthworms and insects), small mammals, and plant material.Activity patterns.Nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Asian Badgers are gregarious and live in communalsetts with multiple tunnels and den entrances.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Although the European Badger has been well studied in Europe, little is known specifically about the Asian Badger, although it is presumed that there are few differences in basic natural history between these two species. Field studies are needed to learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Asian Badger. This speciesis legally hunted in China, Russia, and Mongolia.Bibliography.Abramov & Puzachenko (2006), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." -038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,627,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217.xml,Gulo gulo,Gulo,gulo,Pallas,1780,Carcajou @fr | Vielfrafls @de | Gloton @es,"Mustela gulo Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland.Two subspecies are recognized.","G. g. gulo Linnaeus, 1758— NE & NW China, Mongolia, Russia, and Scandinavia.G. g. luscus Linnaeus, 1758— Canadaand W USA(Alaska, California, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington& Wyoming).","Head-body 65-105 cm, tail 21-26 cm; weight 11-18 kg(males), 6-12 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Wolverine is heavily built and stocky, and is the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae. The pelage is long and varies in color from almost blond to dark brown, with two distinctive yellowish stripes that run from the top of the neck to the rump. White patches on the throat, belly or limbs are common. The head is large, with a broad forehead, broad nose, and rounded ears. The limbs are relatively short and the tail is bushy. The feet are large, with well-developed claws. The skull is exceptionally robust and broad, with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are big and strong; the carnassials are very large.Habitat.Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas.","Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas. Habitat associations of females were more complex, but in the summer they avoided roads and recently logged areas. In the Columbia Mountains, where winter recreation is widespread, females prefer alpine and avalanche environments where Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) and Columbia Ground Squirrel prey are found in the summer. During the winter, females tend to avoid areas with helicopter and backcountry skiing, and prefer areas where Moose (Alces alces) can be found.","The diet includes the carcasses of large ungulates, such as Moose and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In many areas, Wolverines are dependent on the ability of larger predators, especially Gray Wolves, to provide kills. In coastal areas, they also feed on the carcasses of whales and seals that wash ashore. Wolverines also prey opportunistically on deer, sheep, small mammals (rodents such as Marmota and Myodes, lagomorphs, and ground squirrels), birds, and eggs. Berries, nuts and fungus are occasionally eaten. Within two study areas in British Columbia, scat analysis revealed a diet that varied regionally and seasonally: Moose, Reindeer, and Hoary Marmots were abundant and common prey items within both study areas. Mountain Goats (Oreamnos americanus) and North American Porcupine (Erithizon dorsata) were more frequent prey items in the Columbia Mountains, while Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) and American Beaver (Castor canadensis) were more frequent prey items in the Omineca Mountains. Reindeer, Hoary Marmots, and North American Porcupines were found in significantly higher frequencies in the diet of reproductive females. Predation on ungulates (such as Reindeer)is facilitated when there is deep snow. Wolverines kill larger prey by a bite at the neck or throat. Small rodents may be chased, pounced upon, or dug out of the ground. Excess food is cached for later use and is covered with earth or snow, or sometimes wedged in the forks of trees. In Albertaand British Columbia, cache sites were in stands of black spruce (Picea mariana) or mixed-wood of high complexity, dominated by conifers, and in which the trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) component consisted of mostly dead or dying trees. These sites offered relatively good visibility of the surrounding area; caches were never located in the very dense homogenous spruce stands. Cache sites were classified as “simple caches”, composed of a single feeding site and/or excavation, and “cache complexes”, involving one or more feeding “stations”, latrines, resting sites, and climbing trees that may have been used as avenues of escape from competitors or predators. The better used cache complexes were accessed by numerous well-used trails made by the Wolverines themselves. Caches contained the remains of Moose that were believed to have been killed by Wolves.","Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","Mainly nocturnal, but occasionally active during the day. Rest sites may be a rough bed of grass or leaves in a cave or rock crevice, in a burrow made by another animal, or under a fallen tree. In Albertaand British Columbia, resting sites were located on top of the snow in relatively open locations that offered good visibility of the surroundings. Wolverines do not appear to be hindered by deep snow and are active year round.","Wolverines are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also strong swimmers and agile tree climbers. Their scavenging habits dictate covering long distances. Daily movements in excess of 30 kmare common; males travel more widely than females. They are capable of reaching speeds of 45 km/h. In north-western Alaska, the home ranges of males were 488-917 km* and 53-232 km? for females. In south-central Alaska, home ranges averaged 535 km” for males and 105 km? for females. In Yukon, home ranges were 209-269 km* for males and 76-269 km? for females. The home range of each male overlaps three or four females. However, in Montana, there was extensive overlap between the ranges of both the same and opposite sexes, and no territorial defense was observed. Population densities vary from one animal per 50 km? in Siberia to one per 500 km* in Scandinavia. North American densities vary from one per 65 km? to one per 200 km.Breeding.Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed Listt. Wolverines are harvested for their pelt; although their fur is not used widely in commerce it is valued for parkas. Fur trapping has contributed to a decline in numbers and distribution of the Wolverine. Wolverines are also intensely hunted because they are considered a nuisance animal: they follow traplines and devour trapped furbearers, they break into cabins and food caches, they allegedly prey on domestic reindeer, and they attack sheep. Protection and recovery measures are needed to restore populations acrossits previously known range.","Aubry et al. (2007) | Banci & Harestad (1988) | Copeland & Whitman (2003) | Copeland et al. (2007) | Hedmarket al. (2007) | Hornocker & Hash (1981) | Krebs et al. (2007) | Krott (1960) | Landa, Linden & Kojola (2000) | Landa, Strand, Linnell & Skogland (1998) | Landa, Strand, Swenson & Skogland (1997) | Lofroth et al. (2007) | Magoun & Copeland (1998) | Mead et al. (1991) | Pasitschniak-Arts & Lariviere (1995) | Stroganov (1969) | Whitman et al. (1986) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Wright & Ernst (2004a, 2004b)",,"8.WolverineGulo guloFrench:Carcajou/ German:Vielfrafls/ Spanish:GlotonTaxonomy.Mustela gulo Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. g. gulo Linnaeus, 1758— NE & NW China, Mongolia, Russia, and Scandinavia.G. g. luscus Linnaeus, 1758— Canadaand W USA(Alaska, California, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington& Wyoming).Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-105 cm, tail 21-26 cm; weight 11-18 kg(males), 6-12 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Wolverine is heavily built and stocky, and is the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae. The pelage is long and varies in color from almost blond to dark brown, with two distinctive yellowish stripes that run from the top of the neck to the rump. White patches on the throat, belly or limbs are common. The head is large, with a broad forehead, broad nose, and rounded ears. The limbs are relatively short and the tail is bushy. The feet are large, with well-developed claws. The skull is exceptionally robust and broad, with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are big and strong; the carnassials are very large.Habitat.Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas. Habitat associations of females were more complex, but in the summer they avoided roads and recently logged areas. In the Columbia Mountains, where winter recreation is widespread, females prefer alpine and avalanche environments where Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) and Columbia Ground Squirrel prey are found in the summer. During the winter, females tend to avoid areas with helicopter and backcountry skiing, and prefer areas where Moose (Alces alces) can be found.On following pages: 9. American Marten (Martesamericana); 10. Yellow-throated Marten (Martesflavigula); 11. Stone 14. Japanese Marten (Martesmelampus); 15. Fisher (Martespennant); 16. Sable (Martes zibellina).Marten (Martesfoina); 12. Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii); 13. European Pine Marten (Martes martes);Food and Feeding.The diet includes the carcasses of large ungulates, such as Moose and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In many areas, Wolverines are dependent on the ability of larger predators, especially Gray Wolves, to provide kills. In coastal areas, they also feed on the carcasses of whales and seals that wash ashore. Wolverines also prey opportunistically on deer, sheep, small mammals (rodents such as Marmota and Myodes, lagomorphs, and ground squirrels), birds, and eggs. Berries, nuts and fungus are occasionally eaten. Within two study areas in British Columbia, scat analysis revealed a diet that varied regionally and seasonally: Moose, Reindeer, and Hoary Marmots were abundant and common prey items within both study areas. Mountain Goats (Oreamnos americanus) and North American Porcupine (Erithizon dorsata) were more frequent prey items in the Columbia Mountains, while Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) and American Beaver (Castor canadensis) were more frequent prey items in the Omineca Mountains. Reindeer, Hoary Marmots, and North American Porcupines were found in significantly higher frequencies in the diet of reproductive females. Predation on ungulates (such as Reindeer)is facilitated when there is deep snow. Wolverines kill larger prey by a bite at the neck or throat. Small rodents may be chased, pounced upon, or dug out of the ground. Excess food is cached for later use and is covered with earth or snow, or sometimes wedged in the forks of trees. In Albertaand British Columbia, cache sites were in stands of black spruce (Picea mariana) or mixed-wood of high complexity, dominated by conifers, and in which the trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) component consisted of mostly dead or dying trees. These sites offered relatively good visibility of the surrounding area; caches were never located in the very dense homogenous spruce stands. Cache sites were classified as “simple caches”, composed of a single feeding site and/or excavation, and “cache complexes”, involving one or more feeding “stations”, latrines, resting sites, and climbing trees that may have been used as avenues of escape from competitors or predators. The better used cache complexes were accessed by numerous well-used trails made by the Wolverines themselves. Caches contained the remains of Moose that were believed to have been killed by Wolves.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but occasionally active during the day. Rest sites may be a rough bed of grass or leaves in a cave or rock crevice, in a burrow made by another animal, or under a fallen tree. In Albertaand British Columbia, resting sites were located on top of the snow in relatively open locations that offered good visibility of the surroundings. Wolverines do not appear to be hindered by deep snow and are active year round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Wolverines are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also strong swimmers and agile tree climbers. Their scavenging habits dictate covering long distances. Daily movements in excess of 30 kmare common; males travel more widely than females. They are capable of reaching speeds of 45 km/h. In north-western Alaska, the home ranges of males were 488-917 km* and 53-232 km? for females. In south-central Alaska, home ranges averaged 535 km” for males and 105 km? for females. In Yukon, home ranges were 209-269 km* for males and 76-269 km? for females. The home range of each male overlaps three or four females. However, in Montana, there was extensive overlap between the ranges of both the same and opposite sexes, and no territorial defense was observed. Population densities vary from one animal per 50 km? in Siberia to one per 500 km* in Scandinavia. North American densities vary from one per 65 km? to one per 200 km.Breeding.Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed Listt. Wolverines are harvested for their pelt; although their fur is not used widely in commerce it is valued for parkas. Fur trapping has contributed to a decline in numbers and distribution of the Wolverine. Wolverines are also intensely hunted because they are considered a nuisance animal: they follow traplines and devour trapped furbearers, they break into cabins and food caches, they allegedly prey on domestic reindeer, and they attack sheep. Protection and recovery measures are needed to restore populations acrossits previously known range.Bibliography.Aubry et al. (2007), Banci & Harestad (1988), Copeland & Whitman (2003), Copeland et al. (2007), Hedmarket al. (2007), Hornocker & Hash (1981), Krebs et al. (2007), Krott (1960), Landa, Linden & Kojola (2000), Landa, Strand, Linnell & Skogland (1998), Landa, Strand, Swenson & Skogland (1997), Lofroth et al. (2007), Magoun & Copeland (1998), Mead et al. (1991), Pasitschniak-Arts & Lariviere (1995), Stroganov (1969), Whitman et al. (1986), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Wright & Ernst (2004a, 2004b)." -038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,627,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A.xml,Eira barbara,Eira,barbara,,,Tayra @fr | Tayra @de | Taira @es,"Mustela barbara Linnaeus, 1758, “ Pernambuco”, Brazil.Seven subspecies are recognized.","E. b. barbara Linnaeus, 1758— Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.E. b. inserta J. A. Allen, 1908— El Salvadorand Hondurasto Costa Rica.E. b. madeirensis Lonnberg, 1913— W Brazll, E Ecuador, and NE Peru.E. b. peruana Tschudi, 1844— Amazonian Boliviaand SE Peru.E. b. poliocephala Traill, 1821— the Guianas, E Venezuela, and lower Amazon Basin.E. b. senex Thomas, 1900— Mexicoto Guatemala.E. b. sinuensis Humboldt, 1812— Panamato Colombia, W Ecuador, W Venezuela, and Trinidad.","Head-body 55.9-71.2 cm, tail 36-5—- 46 cm; weight 2.7-7 kg, adult males are 30% larger than females. The Tayra is large and slender, with elongated limbs and a long brushy tail. The pelage is dark, but the head and neck are grayish or grizzled tan. In Guyana, a yellow morph also occurs. The feet have naked soles and strong claws. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3-4, M 1/1-2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are missing, although the upper first premolar is sometimes retained.","Tayras are found in tropical and subtropical forests, including secondary rainforests, gallery forests, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. They sometimes occur in gardens, plantations, and in agricultural fields. Tayras may hunt in grasslands, although much of their time is spent in forested areas. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, Tayras are usually found along gallery forests; at night, they may cross extensive grasslands, presumably moving from one forest to another. In Veracruz, Mexico, Tayras generally are restricted to forested habitats. They are found in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil, in deciduous and scrub forest of the Pantanal in Paraguayand Bolivia, and in gallery and scrub forest and tall grass savannas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. In Belize, no significant habitat preference was found for the Tayra.","The diet includes fruits, small vertebrates, insects, and carrion. In Venezuela, three species of vertebrate (Echimys semivillous, Rhipidomys sp., and Iguana iguana) and four species of fruit (Genipa americana, Zanthozylum culantrillo, Guazuma tomentosa, and Psychotria anceps) were recorded from 18 scats; both FE. semivillous and G. americana were found in 50% of the scats. In Belize, four species of small mammals were found in 31 scats: Didelphis marsupialis (9-6%), Oryzomys palustris (22-5%), Sigmodon hispidus (32:3%), and Rattus rattus (29-0%). In addition, 19-4% small birds, 58-0% arthropods, and 67-7% fruit were found. The primary fruit eaten was Calocarpum mammosum. Additional fruits consumed included Cecropia mexicana, Astrocaryum standleyanum, and Spondias mombin. Prey and other foods are detected primarily by smell, as its eyesight is relatively poor. Prey are captured after persistent chases; the Tayra does not stalk or ambush prey.","In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.","Primarily diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon. On occasion, some nocturnal activity may occur, especially near human habitations. Rest sites are in hollow trees or underground burrows.","Tayras spend a large proportion of their time foraging or resting in trees. They are normally solitary, but adult pairs and small groups, consisting of a female with her young, are sometimes seen. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, a female with two young maintained a home range of 2: 25 km* around a den until the pups were about three months old, after which her range expanded to almost 9 km*. Upon expansion of her home range and weaning of the young, the female used new dens daily that were an average of 867 mapart. In Belize, Tayras traveled an average of 6-89 kmper day. A female had a home range of 16-03 km* over a 13-month period, one malehad a home range of 24-44 km” over a 10-month period, and another male had a home range of only 2-11 km? over a 3-month period; the short duration of radio-tracking for the last animal may have accounted for the small size of the observed home range. The home ranges of all three animals overlapped greatly. In south-eastern Brazil, a female had a home range of 5- 3 km?; she did not show a preference for any particular habitat typewithin her home range, but her use of secondary forest and grassland agreed with previous studies.Breeding.In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Tayra is considered common throughout most ofits range. However, the range of E. b. senex has been greatly reduced in Mexicobecause of the destruction of tropical forests and the spread of agriculture. Remaining populations are small and threatened by habitat loss and hunting. The Tayra is a popular species for zoo exhibits and is frequently kept In captivity.","Galef et al. (1976) | Michalski et al. (2006) | Poglayen-Neuwall (1975, 1978) | Presley (2000) | Ramirez-Pulido et al. (2005) | Wozencraft (2005)",,"7.TayraEira barbaraFrench:Tayra/ German:Tayra/ Spanish:TairaTaxonomy.Mustela barbara Linnaeus, 1758, “ Pernambuco”, Brazil.Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. b. barbara Linnaeus, 1758— Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.E. b. inserta J. A. Allen, 1908— El Salvadorand Hondurasto Costa Rica.E. b. madeirensis Lonnberg, 1913— W Brazll, E Ecuador, and NE Peru.E. b. peruana Tschudi, 1844— Amazonian Boliviaand SE Peru.E. b. poliocephala Traill, 1821— the Guianas, E Venezuela, and lower Amazon Basin.E. b. senex Thomas, 1900— Mexicoto Guatemala.E. b. sinuensis Humboldt, 1812— Panamato Colombia, W Ecuador, W Venezuela, and Trinidad.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55.9-71.2 cm, tail 36-5—- 46 cm; weight 2.7-7 kg, adult males are 30% larger than females. The Tayra is large and slender, with elongated limbs and a long brushy tail. The pelage is dark, but the head and neck are grayish or grizzled tan. In Guyana, a yellow morph also occurs. The feet have naked soles and strong claws. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3-4, M 1/1-2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are missing, although the upper first premolar is sometimes retained.Habitat.Tayras are found in tropical and subtropical forests, including secondary rainforests, gallery forests, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. They sometimes occur in gardens, plantations, and in agricultural fields. Tayras may hunt in grasslands, although much of their time is spent in forested areas. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, Tayras are usually found along gallery forests; at night, they may cross extensive grasslands, presumably moving from one forest to another. In Veracruz, Mexico, Tayras generally are restricted to forested habitats. They are found in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil, in deciduous and scrub forest of the Pantanal in Paraguayand Bolivia, and in gallery and scrub forest and tall grass savannas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. In Belize, no significant habitat preference was found for the Tayra.Food and Feeding.The diet includes fruits, small vertebrates, insects, and carrion. In Venezuela, three species of vertebrate (Echimys semivillous, Rhipidomys sp., and Iguana iguana) and four species of fruit (Genipa americana, Zanthozylum culantrillo, Guazuma tomentosa, and Psychotria anceps) were recorded from 18 scats; both FE. semivillous and G. americana were found in 50% of the scats. In Belize, four species of small mammals were found in 31 scats: Didelphis marsupialis (9-6%), Oryzomys palustris (22-5%), Sigmodon hispidus (32:3%), and Rattus rattus (29-0%). In addition, 19-4% small birds, 58-0% arthropods, and 67-7% fruit were found. The primary fruit eaten was Calocarpum mammosum. Additional fruits consumed included Cecropia mexicana, Astrocaryum standleyanum, and Spondias mombin. Prey and other foods are detected primarily by smell, as its eyesight is relatively poor. Prey are captured after persistent chases; the Tayra does not stalk or ambush prey.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon. On occasion, some nocturnal activity may occur, especially near human habitations. Rest sites are in hollow trees or underground burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tayras spend a large proportion of their time foraging or resting in trees. They are normally solitary, but adult pairs and small groups, consisting of a female with her young, are sometimes seen. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, a female with two young maintained a home range of 2: 25 km* around a den until the pups were about three months old, after which her range expanded to almost 9 km*. Upon expansion of her home range and weaning of the young, the female used new dens daily that were an average of 867 mapart. In Belize, Tayras traveled an average of 6-89 kmper day. A female had a home range of 16-03 km* over a 13-month period, one malehad a home range of 24-44 km” over a 10-month period, and another male had a home range of only 2-11 km? over a 3-month period; the short duration of radio-tracking for the last animal may have accounted for the small size of the observed home range. The home ranges of all three animals overlapped greatly. In south-eastern Brazil, a female had a home range of 5- 3 km?; she did not show a preference for any particular habitat typewithin her home range, but her use of secondary forest and grassland agreed with previous studies.Breeding.In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Tayra is considered common throughout most ofits range. However, the range of E. b. senex has been greatly reduced in Mexicobecause of the destruction of tropical forests and the spread of agriculture. Remaining populations are small and threatened by habitat loss and hunting. The Tayra is a popular species for zoo exhibits and is frequently kept In captivity.Bibliography.Galef et al. (1976), Michalski et al. (2006), Poglayen-Neuwall (1975, 1978), Presley (2000), Ramirez-Pulido et al. (2005), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,628,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1.xml,Martes americana,Martes,americana,Pinel,1792,Martre d’Amérique @fr | Fichtenmarder @de | Marta norteamericana @es,"Mustela americanus Turton, 1806, North America.The number of subspecies is debated and here we recognize eight.","M. a. americana Turton, 1806— E Canada(Ontario& Quebec) anf NE USA.M. a. abietinoides Gray, 1865— SW Canada(C British Columbia& SW Alberta) and NW USA(N Montana& Idaho).M. a. actuosa Osgood, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(N Alberta, N British Catan, Northwest Territories& Yukon).M. a. atrata Bangs, 1897— NE Canada(Newfoundland and Labrador).M. a. caurina Merriam, 1890— W Canada(W British Columbia) and USA(S Alaska& W Washington).M. a. humboldtensis Grinnell & Dixon, 1926— SW USA(NWCalifornia).M. a. kenaiensis Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).M. a. nesophila Osgood, 1901— SW Alaska and W Canada(islands off British Columbia, and perhaps along nearby mainland).","Head-body 36-45 cm(males), 32-40 cm(females), tail 20-23 cm(males), 18-20 cm(females); weight 470-1250 g(males), 280-850 g(females), adult males are about 65% heavier than females. The American Marten has a long, slender body, with short limbs, bushy tail, and large rounded ears. The pelage ranges from light beige to dark brown, and often shows shades of orange. Many individuals have yellow to bright orange throat and upper chest patches. The head is pale gray and the legs and tail are almost black. The feet are fully furred, each digit has a strong claw. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, with elongated auditory bullae. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 1/2 = 38.","American Martens are found predominantly in mature conifer or coniferdominated mixed forests. Preferred habitats are mature old-growth spruce-fir communities, with greater than 30% canopy cover, a well-established understory of fallen logs and stumps, and lush shrub and forb vegetation. They avoid large open spaces such as clearcuttings, but may use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges, and rocky alpine areas above the timberline. In the coastal forests of California, American Martens select the largest available patches of old-growth, old-growth and late-mature, or serpentine habitat; dense, spatially extensive shrub cover is a key habitat element. In Alberta, during the winter, American Martens use young forests, and mature/old coniferous and deciduous stands, according to their availability. In the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains of south-west Canada, American Martens were detected in all habitats sampled including recently logged areas, regenerating stands, dry Douglas-fir (Pseudosuga menziesii) forest and subalpine parkland. They selected for greater crown closure and older stands at the finer resolution; no selection for forest structure was detected at the larger resolution except that American Martens selected against increased overstory heterogeneity. They preferred coniferous stands over deciduous-dominated stands and were more abundant in wetter than in dryer areas. In a clearcut boreal landscape in western Quebec, in which black spruce (Picea mariana) is the predominant forest type, American Martens avoid open regenerating stands composed mostly of recent clearcuts with sparse regeneration. They do not select coniferous stands, even those that are mature or overmature, but prefer deciduous and mixed stands, a large proportion of which has a dense coniferous shrub layer. Winter home ranges usually contain less than 30-35% open or closed regenerating stands and more than 40-50% uncut forest. In south-eastern Labrador, American Martens avoid areas with low productivity and low canopy cover (<20%), but show no selection for tree species composition or cover among more productive forests. In eastern Newfoundland, mature coniferous forest is the dominant cover typein most American Marten home ranges and is the only forest typeused proportionately more than its availability by resident individuals. Otherforest typesused in proportion to their availability include coniferous scrub and insect-defoliated stands; open areas and sites recently disturbed by fire are avoided at this scale. In northern Maine, in an area where trapping and timber harvesting had been excluded for more than 35 years, American Martens were found to use nearly all the available habitat, although during the summer, they preferred stands that had substantial mortality caused by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). Mature, well-stocked coniferous forest was the least abundant forest typein the home ranges of both sexes, in both seasons, whereas mature, well-stocked deciduous forest was the most abundant.","The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals, including voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels (7amiasciurus and Glaucomys sp.), and lagomorphs, especially the Snowshoe Hare. Other food items include birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, earthworms), fruits, and berries. In Newfoundland, Meadow Voles were the most prevalent food item found in scats (80% in summer and 47-5% in winter); Snowshoe Hares occurred in 28% of winter samples, and 16% other food typeswere found in scats during each season. In the mixed-conifer forests of southern Sierra Nevada, where the American Marten and Fisher are sympatric, the diet of Fishers appeared to include more remains of birds, lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens. However, the dietary overlap between these two species was high. The diets of both species were more diverse than previously reported in North America, perhaps due to the absence or rarity of large prey (Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevada. American Martens hunt and find food by constant searching, sometimes in trees, and often tunnel under snow during winter to search for microtines.","Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.","Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, but can be active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs ortrees, in rock crevices, or in burrows. Large logs, large snags, and large, live spruce and fir trees are important characteristics for den sites in the central Rocky Mountains. Squirrels provide important denning structures as well as prey for American Martens.","American Martens are solitary and partly arboreal, but spend a considerable amount of time on the ground. They can also swim and dive well. The home ranges of males are 2-3 times larger than those of females: up to 45 km” for males (overall average c. 9 km?) and up to 28 km? for females (overall average c. 3 km?). The degree of overlap of home ranges varies, but generally male home ranges overlap those of several females, and individuals are intolerant of conspecifics of the same sex. In Minnesota, the home ranges of three maleswere 10-5, 16-6 and 19- 9 km?, and 4- 3 km? for one female; there was considerable overlap between the ranges of two of the males. In Wisconsin, mean winter home range size was 3-29 km?, with the home ranges of males (mean = 4-25 km?) significantly larger than females (mean = 2-32 km?). In Newfoundland, home range estimates were 29-54 km? for males and 15-19 km?* for females. In Labrador, the mean home range for males was 45 km* and 27- 6 km” for females. In a forest preserve that was closed to trapping, the proportion of males maintaining residency throughout the study period was found to be higher than that of females, indicating that the home ranges of females were more dynamic than the home ranges of males. Neither males nor females adjusted the size of their home ranges among seasons; however, males tended to shift location of their home ranges in response to increases in available space. Females either maintained a high degree of fidelity among seasons or completely abandoned previously established home ranges. Abandonment of existing home ranges by some females may have resulted from stresses associated with a high density in an untrapped population. Population densities vary from 0-5 to 1-7 per km?Breeding.Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Martens are considered common in some parts of their range, and are legally harvested for the fur trade. However, by the early 20"" century, excessive trapping had severely depleted the American Marten in many areas, particularly in Alaska, Canada, and western United States. Protective regulations subsequently allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas and reintroduction programs have been carried out in Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of north-eastern USAand south-eastern Canada.",Buskirk (1984) | Buskirk & MacDonald (1984) | Clark et al. (1987) | Dumyahn & Zollner (2007) | Gosse & Hearn (2005) | Hagmeier (1961) | Mowat (2006) | Poole& Graf (1996) | Potvin et al. (2000) | Powell et al. (2003) | Proulx (2006) | Raine (1983) | Ruggiero et al. (1998) | Simon et al. (1999) | Slauson et al. (2007) | Smith & Schaefer (2002) | Soutiere (1979) | Wozencraft (2005),,"9.American MartenMartes americanaFrench:Martre d’Amérique/ German:Fichtenmarder/ Spanish:Marta norteamericanaTaxonomy.Mustela americanus Turton, 1806, North America.The number of subspecies is debated and here we recognize eight.Subspecies and Distribution.M. a. americana Turton, 1806— E Canada(Ontario& Quebec) anf NE USA.M. a. abietinoides Gray, 1865— SW Canada(C British Columbia& SW Alberta) and NW USA(N Montana& Idaho).M. a. actuosa Osgood, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(N Alberta, N British Catan, Northwest Territories& Yukon).M. a. atrata Bangs, 1897— NE Canada(Newfoundland and Labrador).M. a. caurina Merriam, 1890— W Canada(W British Columbia) and USA(S Alaska& W Washington).M. a. humboldtensis Grinnell & Dixon, 1926— SW USA(NWCalifornia).M. a. kenaiensis Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).M. a. nesophila Osgood, 1901— SW Alaska and W Canada(islands off British Columbia, and perhaps along nearby mainland).Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-45 cm(males), 32-40 cm(females), tail 20-23 cm(males), 18-20 cm(females); weight 470-1250 g(males), 280-850 g(females), adult males are about 65% heavier than females. The American Marten has a long, slender body, with short limbs, bushy tail, and large rounded ears. The pelage ranges from light beige to dark brown, and often shows shades of orange. Many individuals have yellow to bright orange throat and upper chest patches. The head is pale gray and the legs and tail are almost black. The feet are fully furred, each digit has a strong claw. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, with elongated auditory bullae. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 1/2 = 38.Habitat.American Martens are found predominantly in mature conifer or coniferdominated mixed forests. Preferred habitats are mature old-growth spruce-fir communities, with greater than 30% canopy cover, a well-established understory of fallen logs and stumps, and lush shrub and forb vegetation. They avoid large open spaces such as clearcuttings, but may use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges, and rocky alpine areas above the timberline. In the coastal forests of California, American Martens select the largest available patches of old-growth, old-growth and late-mature, or serpentine habitat; dense, spatially extensive shrub cover is a key habitat element. In Alberta, during the winter, American Martens use young forests, and mature/old coniferous and deciduous stands, according to their availability. In the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains of south-west Canada, American Martens were detected in all habitats sampled including recently logged areas, regenerating stands, dry Douglas-fir (Pseudosuga menziesii) forest and subalpine parkland. They selected for greater crown closure and older stands at the finer resolution; no selection for forest structure was detected at the larger resolution except that American Martens selected against increased overstory heterogeneity. They preferred coniferous stands over deciduous-dominated stands and were more abundant in wetter than in dryer areas. In a clearcut boreal landscape in western Quebec, in which black spruce (Picea mariana) is the predominant forest type, American Martens avoid open regenerating stands composed mostly of recent clearcuts with sparse regeneration. They do not select coniferous stands, even those that are mature or overmature, but prefer deciduous and mixed stands, a large proportion of which has a dense coniferous shrub layer. Winter home ranges usually contain less than 30-35% open or closed regenerating stands and more than 40-50% uncut forest. In south-eastern Labrador, American Martens avoid areas with low productivity and low canopy cover (<20%), but show no selection for tree species composition or cover among more productive forests. In eastern Newfoundland, mature coniferous forest is the dominant cover typein most American Marten home ranges and is the only forest typeused proportionately more than its availability by resident individuals. Otherforest typesused in proportion to their availability include coniferous scrub and insect-defoliated stands; open areas and sites recently disturbed by fire are avoided at this scale. In northern Maine, in an area where trapping and timber harvesting had been excluded for more than 35 years, American Martens were found to use nearly all the available habitat, although during the summer, they preferred stands that had substantial mortality caused by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). Mature, well-stocked coniferous forest was the least abundant forest typein the home ranges of both sexes, in both seasons, whereas mature, well-stocked deciduous forest was the most abundant.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals, including voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels (7amiasciurus and Glaucomys sp.), and lagomorphs, especially the Snowshoe Hare. Other food items include birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, earthworms), fruits, and berries. In Newfoundland, Meadow Voles were the most prevalent food item found in scats (80% in summer and 47-5% in winter); Snowshoe Hares occurred in 28% of winter samples, and 16% other food typeswere found in scats during each season. In the mixed-conifer forests of southern Sierra Nevada, where the American Marten and Fisher are sympatric, the diet of Fishers appeared to include more remains of birds, lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens. However, the dietary overlap between these two species was high. The diets of both species were more diverse than previously reported in North America, perhaps due to the absence or rarity of large prey (Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevada. American Martens hunt and find food by constant searching, sometimes in trees, and often tunnel under snow during winter to search for microtines.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, but can be active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs ortrees, in rock crevices, or in burrows. Large logs, large snags, and large, live spruce and fir trees are important characteristics for den sites in the central Rocky Mountains. Squirrels provide important denning structures as well as prey for American Martens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Martens are solitary and partly arboreal, but spend a considerable amount of time on the ground. They can also swim and dive well. The home ranges of males are 2-3 times larger than those of females: up to 45 km” for males (overall average c. 9 km?) and up to 28 km? for females (overall average c. 3 km?). The degree of overlap of home ranges varies, but generally male home ranges overlap those of several females, and individuals are intolerant of conspecifics of the same sex. In Minnesota, the home ranges of three maleswere 10-5, 16-6 and 19- 9 km?, and 4- 3 km? for one female; there was considerable overlap between the ranges of two of the males. In Wisconsin, mean winter home range size was 3-29 km?, with the home ranges of males (mean = 4-25 km?) significantly larger than females (mean = 2-32 km?). In Newfoundland, home range estimates were 29-54 km? for males and 15-19 km?* for females. In Labrador, the mean home range for males was 45 km* and 27- 6 km” for females. In a forest preserve that was closed to trapping, the proportion of males maintaining residency throughout the study period was found to be higher than that of females, indicating that the home ranges of females were more dynamic than the home ranges of males. Neither males nor females adjusted the size of their home ranges among seasons; however, males tended to shift location of their home ranges in response to increases in available space. Females either maintained a high degree of fidelity among seasons or completely abandoned previously established home ranges. Abandonment of existing home ranges by some females may have resulted from stresses associated with a high density in an untrapped population. Population densities vary from 0-5 to 1-7 per km?Breeding.Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Martens are considered common in some parts of their range, and are legally harvested for the fur trade. However, by the early 20"" century, excessive trapping had severely depleted the American Marten in many areas, particularly in Alaska, Canada, and western United States. Protective regulations subsequently allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas and reintroduction programs have been carried out in Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of north-eastern USAand south-eastern Canada.Current low numbers or absences in some areas seem attributable to forestry practices; this species is very sensitive to habitat destruction, and clear-cutting can completely eliminate American Martens from an area. The availability of hollow trees for use as resting sites and natal densis especially critical, and logging procedures that eliminate old stumps or older trees may be detrimental to American Marten populations.Bibliography.Buskirk (1984), Buskirk & MacDonald (1984), Clark et al. (1987), Dumyahn & Zollner (2007), Gosse & Hearn (2005), Hagmeier (1961), Mowat (2006), Poole& Graf (1996), Potvin et al. (2000), Powell et al. (2003), Proulx (2006), Raine (1983), Ruggiero et al. (1998), Simon et al. (1999), Slauson et al. (2007), Smith & Schaefer (2002), Soutiere (1979), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,623,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B.xml,Meles leucurus,Meles,leucurus,Brisson,1762,Blaireau d'Asie @fr | Asiatischer Dachs @de | Tejon asiatico @es,"Taxidea leucurus Hodgson, 1847, China.The Asian Badger has been considered conspecific with the European Badger by some authors, but is listed here as a distinct species. Two subspecies are recognized.","M..l. leucurus Hodgson, 1847— C, E & S China..M. l. amurensis Schrenck, 1859— NE China(Manchuria), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Russia(E of Volga River).","Head-body 49.5-70 cm, tail 13-20.5 cm; weight 3.5-9 kg. The Asian Badger bears a great resemblance to the European Badger. The bodyis stocky, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish-silver throughout. The face is white with two narrow blackish-brown stripes running over the eye and above the ear. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. The soles ofthe feet are naked. The front claws are well-developed for digging, whereas the hindclaws are much smaller. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is narrow with an elongated rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","Forests and fields, and in close proximity to humans.","The diet is mainly invertebrates (earthworms and insects), small mammals, and plant material.",Nothing known.,Nocturnal.,Asian Badgers are gregarious and live in communalsetts with multiple tunnels and den entrances.Breeding.Nothing known.,"Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Although the European Badger has been well studied in Europe, little is known specifically about the Asian Badger, although it is presumed that there are few differences in basic natural history between these two species. Field studies are needed to learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Asian Badger. This speciesis legally hunted in China, Russia, and Mongolia.","Abramov & Puzachenko (2006) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714141/files/figure.png,"5.Asian BadgerMeles leucurusFrench:Blaireau d'Asie/ German:Asiatischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon asiaticoTaxonomy.Taxidea leucurus Hodgson, 1847, China.The Asian Badger has been considered conspecific with the European Badger by some authors, but is listed here as a distinct species. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M..l. leucurus Hodgson, 1847— C, E & S China..M. l. amurensis Schrenck, 1859— NE China(Manchuria), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Russia(E of Volga River).Descriptive notes.Head-body 49.5-70 cm, tail 13-20.5 cm; weight 3.5-9 kg. The Asian Badger bears a great resemblance to the European Badger. The bodyis stocky, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish-silver throughout. The face is white with two narrow blackish-brown stripes running over the eye and above the ear. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. The soles ofthe feet are naked. The front claws are well-developed for digging, whereas the hindclaws are much smaller. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is narrow with an elongated rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Forests and fields, and in close proximity to humans.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly invertebrates (earthworms and insects), small mammals, and plant material.Activity patterns.Nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Asian Badgers are gregarious and live in communalsetts with multiple tunnels and den entrances.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Although the European Badger has been well studied in Europe, little is known specifically about the Asian Badger, although it is presumed that there are few differences in basic natural history between these two species. Field studies are needed to learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Asian Badger. This speciesis legally hunted in China, Russia, and Mongolia.Bibliography.Abramov & Puzachenko (2006), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." +038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,627,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217.xml,Gulo gulo,Gulo,gulo,Pallas,1780,Carcajou @fr | Vielfrafls @de | Gloton @es,"Mustela gulo Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland.Two subspecies are recognized.","G. g. gulo Linnaeus, 1758— NE & NW China, Mongolia, Russia, and Scandinavia.G. g. luscus Linnaeus, 1758— Canadaand W USA(Alaska, California, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington& Wyoming).","Head-body 65-105 cm, tail 21-26 cm; weight 11-18 kg(males), 6-12 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Wolverine is heavily built and stocky, and is the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae. The pelage is long and varies in color from almost blond to dark brown, with two distinctive yellowish stripes that run from the top of the neck to the rump. White patches on the throat, belly or limbs are common. The head is large, with a broad forehead, broad nose, and rounded ears. The limbs are relatively short and the tail is bushy. The feet are large, with well-developed claws. The skull is exceptionally robust and broad, with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are big and strong; the carnassials are very large.Habitat.Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas.","Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas. Habitat associations of females were more complex, but in the summer they avoided roads and recently logged areas. In the Columbia Mountains, where winter recreation is widespread, females prefer alpine and avalanche environments where Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) and Columbia Ground Squirrel prey are found in the summer. During the winter, females tend to avoid areas with helicopter and backcountry skiing, and prefer areas where Moose (Alces alces) can be found.","The diet includes the carcasses of large ungulates, such as Moose and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In many areas, Wolverines are dependent on the ability of larger predators, especially Gray Wolves, to provide kills. In coastal areas, they also feed on the carcasses of whales and seals that wash ashore. Wolverines also prey opportunistically on deer, sheep, small mammals (rodents such as Marmota and Myodes, lagomorphs, and ground squirrels), birds, and eggs. Berries, nuts and fungus are occasionally eaten. Within two study areas in British Columbia, scat analysis revealed a diet that varied regionally and seasonally: Moose, Reindeer, and Hoary Marmots were abundant and common prey items within both study areas. Mountain Goats (Oreamnos americanus) and North American Porcupine (Erithizon dorsata) were more frequent prey items in the Columbia Mountains, while Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) and American Beaver (Castor canadensis) were more frequent prey items in the Omineca Mountains. Reindeer, Hoary Marmots, and North American Porcupines were found in significantly higher frequencies in the diet of reproductive females. Predation on ungulates (such as Reindeer)is facilitated when there is deep snow. Wolverines kill larger prey by a bite at the neck or throat. Small rodents may be chased, pounced upon, or dug out of the ground. Excess food is cached for later use and is covered with earth or snow, or sometimes wedged in the forks of trees. In Albertaand British Columbia, cache sites were in stands of black spruce (Picea mariana) or mixed-wood of high complexity, dominated by conifers, and in which the trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) component consisted of mostly dead or dying trees. These sites offered relatively good visibility of the surrounding area; caches were never located in the very dense homogenous spruce stands. Cache sites were classified as “simple caches”, composed of a single feeding site and/or excavation, and “cache complexes”, involving one or more feeding “stations”, latrines, resting sites, and climbing trees that may have been used as avenues of escape from competitors or predators. The better used cache complexes were accessed by numerous well-used trails made by the Wolverines themselves. Caches contained the remains of Moose that were believed to have been killed by Wolves.","Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","Mainly nocturnal, but occasionally active during the day. Rest sites may be a rough bed of grass or leaves in a cave or rock crevice, in a burrow made by another animal, or under a fallen tree. In Albertaand British Columbia, resting sites were located on top of the snow in relatively open locations that offered good visibility of the surroundings. Wolverines do not appear to be hindered by deep snow and are active year round.","Wolverines are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also strong swimmers and agile tree climbers. Their scavenging habits dictate covering long distances. Daily movements in excess of 30 kmare common; males travel more widely than females. They are capable of reaching speeds of 45 km/h. In north-western Alaska, the home ranges of males were 488-917 km* and 53-232 km? for females. In south-central Alaska, home ranges averaged 535 km” for males and 105 km? for females. In Yukon, home ranges were 209-269 km* for males and 76-269 km? for females. The home range of each male overlaps three or four females. However, in Montana, there was extensive overlap between the ranges of both the same and opposite sexes, and no territorial defense was observed. Population densities vary from one animal per 50 km? in Siberia to one per 500 km* in Scandinavia. North American densities vary from one per 65 km? to one per 200 km.Breeding.Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed Listt. Wolverines are harvested for their pelt; although their fur is not used widely in commerce it is valued for parkas. Fur trapping has contributed to a decline in numbers and distribution of the Wolverine. Wolverines are also intensely hunted because they are considered a nuisance animal: they follow traplines and devour trapped furbearers, they break into cabins and food caches, they allegedly prey on domestic reindeer, and they attack sheep. Protection and recovery measures are needed to restore populations acrossits previously known range.","Aubry et al. (2007) | Banci & Harestad (1988) | Copeland & Whitman (2003) | Copeland et al. (2007) | Hedmarket al. (2007) | Hornocker & Hash (1981) | Krebs et al. (2007) | Krott (1960) | Landa, Linden & Kojola (2000) | Landa, Strand, Linnell & Skogland (1998) | Landa, Strand, Swenson & Skogland (1997) | Lofroth et al. (2007) | Magoun & Copeland (1998) | Mead et al. (1991) | Pasitschniak-Arts & Lariviere (1995) | Stroganov (1969) | Whitman et al. (1986) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Wright & Ernst (2004a, 2004b)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714151/files/figure.png,"8.WolverineGulo guloFrench:Carcajou/ German:Vielfrafls/ Spanish:GlotonTaxonomy.Mustela gulo Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. g. gulo Linnaeus, 1758— NE & NW China, Mongolia, Russia, and Scandinavia.G. g. luscus Linnaeus, 1758— Canadaand W USA(Alaska, California, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington& Wyoming).Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-105 cm, tail 21-26 cm; weight 11-18 kg(males), 6-12 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Wolverine is heavily built and stocky, and is the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae. The pelage is long and varies in color from almost blond to dark brown, with two distinctive yellowish stripes that run from the top of the neck to the rump. White patches on the throat, belly or limbs are common. The head is large, with a broad forehead, broad nose, and rounded ears. The limbs are relatively short and the tail is bushy. The feet are large, with well-developed claws. The skull is exceptionally robust and broad, with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are big and strong; the carnassials are very large.Habitat.Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas. Habitat associations of females were more complex, but in the summer they avoided roads and recently logged areas. In the Columbia Mountains, where winter recreation is widespread, females prefer alpine and avalanche environments where Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) and Columbia Ground Squirrel prey are found in the summer. During the winter, females tend to avoid areas with helicopter and backcountry skiing, and prefer areas where Moose (Alces alces) can be found.On following pages: 9. American Marten (Martesamericana); 10. Yellow-throated Marten (Martesflavigula); 11. Stone 14. Japanese Marten (Martesmelampus); 15. Fisher (Martespennant); 16. Sable (Martes zibellina).Marten (Martesfoina); 12. Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii); 13. European Pine Marten (Martes martes);Food and Feeding.The diet includes the carcasses of large ungulates, such as Moose and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In many areas, Wolverines are dependent on the ability of larger predators, especially Gray Wolves, to provide kills. In coastal areas, they also feed on the carcasses of whales and seals that wash ashore. Wolverines also prey opportunistically on deer, sheep, small mammals (rodents such as Marmota and Myodes, lagomorphs, and ground squirrels), birds, and eggs. Berries, nuts and fungus are occasionally eaten. Within two study areas in British Columbia, scat analysis revealed a diet that varied regionally and seasonally: Moose, Reindeer, and Hoary Marmots were abundant and common prey items within both study areas. Mountain Goats (Oreamnos americanus) and North American Porcupine (Erithizon dorsata) were more frequent prey items in the Columbia Mountains, while Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) and American Beaver (Castor canadensis) were more frequent prey items in the Omineca Mountains. Reindeer, Hoary Marmots, and North American Porcupines were found in significantly higher frequencies in the diet of reproductive females. Predation on ungulates (such as Reindeer)is facilitated when there is deep snow. Wolverines kill larger prey by a bite at the neck or throat. Small rodents may be chased, pounced upon, or dug out of the ground. Excess food is cached for later use and is covered with earth or snow, or sometimes wedged in the forks of trees. In Albertaand British Columbia, cache sites were in stands of black spruce (Picea mariana) or mixed-wood of high complexity, dominated by conifers, and in which the trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) component consisted of mostly dead or dying trees. These sites offered relatively good visibility of the surrounding area; caches were never located in the very dense homogenous spruce stands. Cache sites were classified as “simple caches”, composed of a single feeding site and/or excavation, and “cache complexes”, involving one or more feeding “stations”, latrines, resting sites, and climbing trees that may have been used as avenues of escape from competitors or predators. The better used cache complexes were accessed by numerous well-used trails made by the Wolverines themselves. Caches contained the remains of Moose that were believed to have been killed by Wolves.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but occasionally active during the day. Rest sites may be a rough bed of grass or leaves in a cave or rock crevice, in a burrow made by another animal, or under a fallen tree. In Albertaand British Columbia, resting sites were located on top of the snow in relatively open locations that offered good visibility of the surroundings. Wolverines do not appear to be hindered by deep snow and are active year round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Wolverines are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also strong swimmers and agile tree climbers. Their scavenging habits dictate covering long distances. Daily movements in excess of 30 kmare common; males travel more widely than females. They are capable of reaching speeds of 45 km/h. In north-western Alaska, the home ranges of males were 488-917 km* and 53-232 km? for females. In south-central Alaska, home ranges averaged 535 km” for males and 105 km? for females. In Yukon, home ranges were 209-269 km* for males and 76-269 km? for females. The home range of each male overlaps three or four females. However, in Montana, there was extensive overlap between the ranges of both the same and opposite sexes, and no territorial defense was observed. Population densities vary from one animal per 50 km? in Siberia to one per 500 km* in Scandinavia. North American densities vary from one per 65 km? to one per 200 km.Breeding.Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed Listt. Wolverines are harvested for their pelt; although their fur is not used widely in commerce it is valued for parkas. Fur trapping has contributed to a decline in numbers and distribution of the Wolverine. Wolverines are also intensely hunted because they are considered a nuisance animal: they follow traplines and devour trapped furbearers, they break into cabins and food caches, they allegedly prey on domestic reindeer, and they attack sheep. Protection and recovery measures are needed to restore populations acrossits previously known range.Bibliography.Aubry et al. (2007), Banci & Harestad (1988), Copeland & Whitman (2003), Copeland et al. (2007), Hedmarket al. (2007), Hornocker & Hash (1981), Krebs et al. (2007), Krott (1960), Landa, Linden & Kojola (2000), Landa, Strand, Linnell & Skogland (1998), Landa, Strand, Swenson & Skogland (1997), Lofroth et al. (2007), Magoun & Copeland (1998), Mead et al. (1991), Pasitschniak-Arts & Lariviere (1995), Stroganov (1969), Whitman et al. (1986), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Wright & Ernst (2004a, 2004b)." +038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,627,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A.xml,Eira barbara,Eira,barbara,,,Tayra @fr | Tayra @de | Taira @es,"Mustela barbara Linnaeus, 1758, “ Pernambuco”, Brazil.Seven subspecies are recognized.","E. b. barbara Linnaeus, 1758— Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.E. b. inserta J. A. Allen, 1908— El Salvadorand Hondurasto Costa Rica.E. b. madeirensis Lonnberg, 1913— W Brazll, E Ecuador, and NE Peru.E. b. peruana Tschudi, 1844— Amazonian Boliviaand SE Peru.E. b. poliocephala Traill, 1821— the Guianas, E Venezuela, and lower Amazon Basin.E. b. senex Thomas, 1900— Mexicoto Guatemala.E. b. sinuensis Humboldt, 1812— Panamato Colombia, W Ecuador, W Venezuela, and Trinidad.","Head-body 55.9-71.2 cm, tail 36-5—- 46 cm; weight 2.7-7 kg, adult males are 30% larger than females. The Tayra is large and slender, with elongated limbs and a long brushy tail. The pelage is dark, but the head and neck are grayish or grizzled tan. In Guyana, a yellow morph also occurs. The feet have naked soles and strong claws. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3-4, M 1/1-2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are missing, although the upper first premolar is sometimes retained.","Tayras are found in tropical and subtropical forests, including secondary rainforests, gallery forests, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. They sometimes occur in gardens, plantations, and in agricultural fields. Tayras may hunt in grasslands, although much of their time is spent in forested areas. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, Tayras are usually found along gallery forests; at night, they may cross extensive grasslands, presumably moving from one forest to another. In Veracruz, Mexico, Tayras generally are restricted to forested habitats. They are found in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil, in deciduous and scrub forest of the Pantanal in Paraguayand Bolivia, and in gallery and scrub forest and tall grass savannas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. In Belize, no significant habitat preference was found for the Tayra.","The diet includes fruits, small vertebrates, insects, and carrion. In Venezuela, three species of vertebrate (Echimys semivillous, Rhipidomys sp., and Iguana iguana) and four species of fruit (Genipa americana, Zanthozylum culantrillo, Guazuma tomentosa, and Psychotria anceps) were recorded from 18 scats; both FE. semivillous and G. americana were found in 50% of the scats. In Belize, four species of small mammals were found in 31 scats: Didelphis marsupialis (9-6%), Oryzomys palustris (22-5%), Sigmodon hispidus (32:3%), and Rattus rattus (29-0%). In addition, 19-4% small birds, 58-0% arthropods, and 67-7% fruit were found. The primary fruit eaten was Calocarpum mammosum. Additional fruits consumed included Cecropia mexicana, Astrocaryum standleyanum, and Spondias mombin. Prey and other foods are detected primarily by smell, as its eyesight is relatively poor. Prey are captured after persistent chases; the Tayra does not stalk or ambush prey.","In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.","Primarily diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon. On occasion, some nocturnal activity may occur, especially near human habitations. Rest sites are in hollow trees or underground burrows.","Tayras spend a large proportion of their time foraging or resting in trees. They are normally solitary, but adult pairs and small groups, consisting of a female with her young, are sometimes seen. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, a female with two young maintained a home range of 2: 25 km* around a den until the pups were about three months old, after which her range expanded to almost 9 km*. Upon expansion of her home range and weaning of the young, the female used new dens daily that were an average of 867 mapart. In Belize, Tayras traveled an average of 6-89 kmper day. A female had a home range of 16-03 km* over a 13-month period, one malehad a home range of 24-44 km” over a 10-month period, and another male had a home range of only 2-11 km? over a 3-month period; the short duration of radio-tracking for the last animal may have accounted for the small size of the observed home range. The home ranges of all three animals overlapped greatly. In south-eastern Brazil, a female had a home range of 5- 3 km?; she did not show a preference for any particular habitat typewithin her home range, but her use of secondary forest and grassland agreed with previous studies.Breeding.In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Tayra is considered common throughout most ofits range. However, the range of E. b. senex has been greatly reduced in Mexicobecause of the destruction of tropical forests and the spread of agriculture. Remaining populations are small and threatened by habitat loss and hunting. The Tayra is a popular species for zoo exhibits and is frequently kept In captivity.","Galef et al. (1976) | Michalski et al. (2006) | Poglayen-Neuwall (1975, 1978) | Presley (2000) | Ramirez-Pulido et al. (2005) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714147/files/figure.png,"7.TayraEira barbaraFrench:Tayra/ German:Tayra/ Spanish:TairaTaxonomy.Mustela barbara Linnaeus, 1758, “ Pernambuco”, Brazil.Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. b. barbara Linnaeus, 1758— Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.E. b. inserta J. A. Allen, 1908— El Salvadorand Hondurasto Costa Rica.E. b. madeirensis Lonnberg, 1913— W Brazll, E Ecuador, and NE Peru.E. b. peruana Tschudi, 1844— Amazonian Boliviaand SE Peru.E. b. poliocephala Traill, 1821— the Guianas, E Venezuela, and lower Amazon Basin.E. b. senex Thomas, 1900— Mexicoto Guatemala.E. b. sinuensis Humboldt, 1812— Panamato Colombia, W Ecuador, W Venezuela, and Trinidad.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55.9-71.2 cm, tail 36-5—- 46 cm; weight 2.7-7 kg, adult males are 30% larger than females. The Tayra is large and slender, with elongated limbs and a long brushy tail. The pelage is dark, but the head and neck are grayish or grizzled tan. In Guyana, a yellow morph also occurs. The feet have naked soles and strong claws. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3-4, M 1/1-2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are missing, although the upper first premolar is sometimes retained.Habitat.Tayras are found in tropical and subtropical forests, including secondary rainforests, gallery forests, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. They sometimes occur in gardens, plantations, and in agricultural fields. Tayras may hunt in grasslands, although much of their time is spent in forested areas. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, Tayras are usually found along gallery forests; at night, they may cross extensive grasslands, presumably moving from one forest to another. In Veracruz, Mexico, Tayras generally are restricted to forested habitats. They are found in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil, in deciduous and scrub forest of the Pantanal in Paraguayand Bolivia, and in gallery and scrub forest and tall grass savannas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. In Belize, no significant habitat preference was found for the Tayra.Food and Feeding.The diet includes fruits, small vertebrates, insects, and carrion. In Venezuela, three species of vertebrate (Echimys semivillous, Rhipidomys sp., and Iguana iguana) and four species of fruit (Genipa americana, Zanthozylum culantrillo, Guazuma tomentosa, and Psychotria anceps) were recorded from 18 scats; both FE. semivillous and G. americana were found in 50% of the scats. In Belize, four species of small mammals were found in 31 scats: Didelphis marsupialis (9-6%), Oryzomys palustris (22-5%), Sigmodon hispidus (32:3%), and Rattus rattus (29-0%). In addition, 19-4% small birds, 58-0% arthropods, and 67-7% fruit were found. The primary fruit eaten was Calocarpum mammosum. Additional fruits consumed included Cecropia mexicana, Astrocaryum standleyanum, and Spondias mombin. Prey and other foods are detected primarily by smell, as its eyesight is relatively poor. Prey are captured after persistent chases; the Tayra does not stalk or ambush prey.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon. On occasion, some nocturnal activity may occur, especially near human habitations. Rest sites are in hollow trees or underground burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tayras spend a large proportion of their time foraging or resting in trees. They are normally solitary, but adult pairs and small groups, consisting of a female with her young, are sometimes seen. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, a female with two young maintained a home range of 2: 25 km* around a den until the pups were about three months old, after which her range expanded to almost 9 km*. Upon expansion of her home range and weaning of the young, the female used new dens daily that were an average of 867 mapart. In Belize, Tayras traveled an average of 6-89 kmper day. A female had a home range of 16-03 km* over a 13-month period, one malehad a home range of 24-44 km” over a 10-month period, and another male had a home range of only 2-11 km? over a 3-month period; the short duration of radio-tracking for the last animal may have accounted for the small size of the observed home range. The home ranges of all three animals overlapped greatly. In south-eastern Brazil, a female had a home range of 5- 3 km?; she did not show a preference for any particular habitat typewithin her home range, but her use of secondary forest and grassland agreed with previous studies.Breeding.In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Tayra is considered common throughout most ofits range. However, the range of E. b. senex has been greatly reduced in Mexicobecause of the destruction of tropical forests and the spread of agriculture. Remaining populations are small and threatened by habitat loss and hunting. The Tayra is a popular species for zoo exhibits and is frequently kept In captivity.Bibliography.Galef et al. (1976), Michalski et al. (2006), Poglayen-Neuwall (1975, 1978), Presley (2000), Ramirez-Pulido et al. (2005), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,628,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1.xml,Martes americana,Martes,americana,Pinel,1792,Martre d’Amérique @fr | Fichtenmarder @de | Marta norteamericana @es,"Mustela americanus Turton, 1806, North America.The number of subspecies is debated and here we recognize eight.","M. a. americana Turton, 1806— E Canada(Ontario& Quebec) anf NE USA.M. a. abietinoides Gray, 1865— SW Canada(C British Columbia& SW Alberta) and NW USA(N Montana& Idaho).M. a. actuosa Osgood, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(N Alberta, N British Catan, Northwest Territories& Yukon).M. a. atrata Bangs, 1897— NE Canada(Newfoundland and Labrador).M. a. caurina Merriam, 1890— W Canada(W British Columbia) and USA(S Alaska& W Washington).M. a. humboldtensis Grinnell & Dixon, 1926— SW USA(NWCalifornia).M. a. kenaiensis Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).M. a. nesophila Osgood, 1901— SW Alaska and W Canada(islands off British Columbia, and perhaps along nearby mainland).","Head-body 36-45 cm(males), 32-40 cm(females), tail 20-23 cm(males), 18-20 cm(females); weight 470-1250 g(males), 280-850 g(females), adult males are about 65% heavier than females. The American Marten has a long, slender body, with short limbs, bushy tail, and large rounded ears. The pelage ranges from light beige to dark brown, and often shows shades of orange. Many individuals have yellow to bright orange throat and upper chest patches. The head is pale gray and the legs and tail are almost black. The feet are fully furred, each digit has a strong claw. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, with elongated auditory bullae. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 1/2 = 38.","American Martens are found predominantly in mature conifer or coniferdominated mixed forests. Preferred habitats are mature old-growth spruce-fir communities, with greater than 30% canopy cover, a well-established understory of fallen logs and stumps, and lush shrub and forb vegetation. They avoid large open spaces such as clearcuttings, but may use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges, and rocky alpine areas above the timberline. In the coastal forests of California, American Martens select the largest available patches of old-growth, old-growth and late-mature, or serpentine habitat; dense, spatially extensive shrub cover is a key habitat element. In Alberta, during the winter, American Martens use young forests, and mature/old coniferous and deciduous stands, according to their availability. In the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains of south-west Canada, American Martens were detected in all habitats sampled including recently logged areas, regenerating stands, dry Douglas-fir (Pseudosuga menziesii) forest and subalpine parkland. They selected for greater crown closure and older stands at the finer resolution; no selection for forest structure was detected at the larger resolution except that American Martens selected against increased overstory heterogeneity. They preferred coniferous stands over deciduous-dominated stands and were more abundant in wetter than in dryer areas. In a clearcut boreal landscape in western Quebec, in which black spruce (Picea mariana) is the predominant forest type, American Martens avoid open regenerating stands composed mostly of recent clearcuts with sparse regeneration. They do not select coniferous stands, even those that are mature or overmature, but prefer deciduous and mixed stands, a large proportion of which has a dense coniferous shrub layer. Winter home ranges usually contain less than 30-35% open or closed regenerating stands and more than 40-50% uncut forest. In south-eastern Labrador, American Martens avoid areas with low productivity and low canopy cover (<20%), but show no selection for tree species composition or cover among more productive forests. In eastern Newfoundland, mature coniferous forest is the dominant cover typein most American Marten home ranges and is the only forest typeused proportionately more than its availability by resident individuals. Otherforest typesused in proportion to their availability include coniferous scrub and insect-defoliated stands; open areas and sites recently disturbed by fire are avoided at this scale. In northern Maine, in an area where trapping and timber harvesting had been excluded for more than 35 years, American Martens were found to use nearly all the available habitat, although during the summer, they preferred stands that had substantial mortality caused by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). Mature, well-stocked coniferous forest was the least abundant forest typein the home ranges of both sexes, in both seasons, whereas mature, well-stocked deciduous forest was the most abundant.","The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals, including voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels (7amiasciurus and Glaucomys sp.), and lagomorphs, especially the Snowshoe Hare. Other food items include birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, earthworms), fruits, and berries. In Newfoundland, Meadow Voles were the most prevalent food item found in scats (80% in summer and 47-5% in winter); Snowshoe Hares occurred in 28% of winter samples, and 16% other food typeswere found in scats during each season. In the mixed-conifer forests of southern Sierra Nevada, where the American Marten and Fisher are sympatric, the diet of Fishers appeared to include more remains of birds, lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens. However, the dietary overlap between these two species was high. The diets of both species were more diverse than previously reported in North America, perhaps due to the absence or rarity of large prey (Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevada. American Martens hunt and find food by constant searching, sometimes in trees, and often tunnel under snow during winter to search for microtines.","Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.","Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, but can be active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs ortrees, in rock crevices, or in burrows. Large logs, large snags, and large, live spruce and fir trees are important characteristics for den sites in the central Rocky Mountains. Squirrels provide important denning structures as well as prey for American Martens.","American Martens are solitary and partly arboreal, but spend a considerable amount of time on the ground. They can also swim and dive well. The home ranges of males are 2-3 times larger than those of females: up to 45 km” for males (overall average c. 9 km?) and up to 28 km? for females (overall average c. 3 km?). The degree of overlap of home ranges varies, but generally male home ranges overlap those of several females, and individuals are intolerant of conspecifics of the same sex. In Minnesota, the home ranges of three maleswere 10-5, 16-6 and 19- 9 km?, and 4- 3 km? for one female; there was considerable overlap between the ranges of two of the males. In Wisconsin, mean winter home range size was 3-29 km?, with the home ranges of males (mean = 4-25 km?) significantly larger than females (mean = 2-32 km?). In Newfoundland, home range estimates were 29-54 km? for males and 15-19 km?* for females. In Labrador, the mean home range for males was 45 km* and 27- 6 km” for females. In a forest preserve that was closed to trapping, the proportion of males maintaining residency throughout the study period was found to be higher than that of females, indicating that the home ranges of females were more dynamic than the home ranges of males. Neither males nor females adjusted the size of their home ranges among seasons; however, males tended to shift location of their home ranges in response to increases in available space. Females either maintained a high degree of fidelity among seasons or completely abandoned previously established home ranges. Abandonment of existing home ranges by some females may have resulted from stresses associated with a high density in an untrapped population. Population densities vary from 0-5 to 1-7 per km?Breeding.Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Martens are considered common in some parts of their range, and are legally harvested for the fur trade. However, by the early 20"" century, excessive trapping had severely depleted the American Marten in many areas, particularly in Alaska, Canada, and western United States. Protective regulations subsequently allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas and reintroduction programs have been carried out in Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of north-eastern USAand south-eastern Canada.",Buskirk (1984) | Buskirk & MacDonald (1984) | Clark et al. (1987) | Dumyahn & Zollner (2007) | Gosse & Hearn (2005) | Hagmeier (1961) | Mowat (2006) | Poole& Graf (1996) | Potvin et al. (2000) | Powell et al. (2003) | Proulx (2006) | Raine (1983) | Ruggiero et al. (1998) | Simon et al. (1999) | Slauson et al. (2007) | Smith & Schaefer (2002) | Soutiere (1979) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714153/files/figure.png,"9.American MartenMartes americanaFrench:Martre d’Amérique/ German:Fichtenmarder/ Spanish:Marta norteamericanaTaxonomy.Mustela americanus Turton, 1806, North America.The number of subspecies is debated and here we recognize eight.Subspecies and Distribution.M. a. americana Turton, 1806— E Canada(Ontario& Quebec) anf NE USA.M. a. abietinoides Gray, 1865— SW Canada(C British Columbia& SW Alberta) and NW USA(N Montana& Idaho).M. a. actuosa Osgood, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(N Alberta, N British Catan, Northwest Territories& Yukon).M. a. atrata Bangs, 1897— NE Canada(Newfoundland and Labrador).M. a. caurina Merriam, 1890— W Canada(W British Columbia) and USA(S Alaska& W Washington).M. a. humboldtensis Grinnell & Dixon, 1926— SW USA(NWCalifornia).M. a. kenaiensis Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).M. a. nesophila Osgood, 1901— SW Alaska and W Canada(islands off British Columbia, and perhaps along nearby mainland).Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-45 cm(males), 32-40 cm(females), tail 20-23 cm(males), 18-20 cm(females); weight 470-1250 g(males), 280-850 g(females), adult males are about 65% heavier than females. The American Marten has a long, slender body, with short limbs, bushy tail, and large rounded ears. The pelage ranges from light beige to dark brown, and often shows shades of orange. Many individuals have yellow to bright orange throat and upper chest patches. The head is pale gray and the legs and tail are almost black. The feet are fully furred, each digit has a strong claw. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, with elongated auditory bullae. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 1/2 = 38.Habitat.American Martens are found predominantly in mature conifer or coniferdominated mixed forests. Preferred habitats are mature old-growth spruce-fir communities, with greater than 30% canopy cover, a well-established understory of fallen logs and stumps, and lush shrub and forb vegetation. They avoid large open spaces such as clearcuttings, but may use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges, and rocky alpine areas above the timberline. In the coastal forests of California, American Martens select the largest available patches of old-growth, old-growth and late-mature, or serpentine habitat; dense, spatially extensive shrub cover is a key habitat element. In Alberta, during the winter, American Martens use young forests, and mature/old coniferous and deciduous stands, according to their availability. In the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains of south-west Canada, American Martens were detected in all habitats sampled including recently logged areas, regenerating stands, dry Douglas-fir (Pseudosuga menziesii) forest and subalpine parkland. They selected for greater crown closure and older stands at the finer resolution; no selection for forest structure was detected at the larger resolution except that American Martens selected against increased overstory heterogeneity. They preferred coniferous stands over deciduous-dominated stands and were more abundant in wetter than in dryer areas. In a clearcut boreal landscape in western Quebec, in which black spruce (Picea mariana) is the predominant forest type, American Martens avoid open regenerating stands composed mostly of recent clearcuts with sparse regeneration. They do not select coniferous stands, even those that are mature or overmature, but prefer deciduous and mixed stands, a large proportion of which has a dense coniferous shrub layer. Winter home ranges usually contain less than 30-35% open or closed regenerating stands and more than 40-50% uncut forest. In south-eastern Labrador, American Martens avoid areas with low productivity and low canopy cover (<20%), but show no selection for tree species composition or cover among more productive forests. In eastern Newfoundland, mature coniferous forest is the dominant cover typein most American Marten home ranges and is the only forest typeused proportionately more than its availability by resident individuals. Otherforest typesused in proportion to their availability include coniferous scrub and insect-defoliated stands; open areas and sites recently disturbed by fire are avoided at this scale. In northern Maine, in an area where trapping and timber harvesting had been excluded for more than 35 years, American Martens were found to use nearly all the available habitat, although during the summer, they preferred stands that had substantial mortality caused by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). Mature, well-stocked coniferous forest was the least abundant forest typein the home ranges of both sexes, in both seasons, whereas mature, well-stocked deciduous forest was the most abundant.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals, including voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels (7amiasciurus and Glaucomys sp.), and lagomorphs, especially the Snowshoe Hare. Other food items include birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, earthworms), fruits, and berries. In Newfoundland, Meadow Voles were the most prevalent food item found in scats (80% in summer and 47-5% in winter); Snowshoe Hares occurred in 28% of winter samples, and 16% other food typeswere found in scats during each season. In the mixed-conifer forests of southern Sierra Nevada, where the American Marten and Fisher are sympatric, the diet of Fishers appeared to include more remains of birds, lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens. However, the dietary overlap between these two species was high. The diets of both species were more diverse than previously reported in North America, perhaps due to the absence or rarity of large prey (Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevada. American Martens hunt and find food by constant searching, sometimes in trees, and often tunnel under snow during winter to search for microtines.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, but can be active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs ortrees, in rock crevices, or in burrows. Large logs, large snags, and large, live spruce and fir trees are important characteristics for den sites in the central Rocky Mountains. Squirrels provide important denning structures as well as prey for American Martens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Martens are solitary and partly arboreal, but spend a considerable amount of time on the ground. They can also swim and dive well. The home ranges of males are 2-3 times larger than those of females: up to 45 km” for males (overall average c. 9 km?) and up to 28 km? for females (overall average c. 3 km?). The degree of overlap of home ranges varies, but generally male home ranges overlap those of several females, and individuals are intolerant of conspecifics of the same sex. In Minnesota, the home ranges of three maleswere 10-5, 16-6 and 19- 9 km?, and 4- 3 km? for one female; there was considerable overlap between the ranges of two of the males. In Wisconsin, mean winter home range size was 3-29 km?, with the home ranges of males (mean = 4-25 km?) significantly larger than females (mean = 2-32 km?). In Newfoundland, home range estimates were 29-54 km? for males and 15-19 km?* for females. In Labrador, the mean home range for males was 45 km* and 27- 6 km” for females. In a forest preserve that was closed to trapping, the proportion of males maintaining residency throughout the study period was found to be higher than that of females, indicating that the home ranges of females were more dynamic than the home ranges of males. Neither males nor females adjusted the size of their home ranges among seasons; however, males tended to shift location of their home ranges in response to increases in available space. Females either maintained a high degree of fidelity among seasons or completely abandoned previously established home ranges. Abandonment of existing home ranges by some females may have resulted from stresses associated with a high density in an untrapped population. Population densities vary from 0-5 to 1-7 per km?Breeding.Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Martens are considered common in some parts of their range, and are legally harvested for the fur trade. However, by the early 20"" century, excessive trapping had severely depleted the American Marten in many areas, particularly in Alaska, Canada, and western United States. Protective regulations subsequently allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas and reintroduction programs have been carried out in Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of north-eastern USAand south-eastern Canada.Current low numbers or absences in some areas seem attributable to forestry practices; this species is very sensitive to habitat destruction, and clear-cutting can completely eliminate American Martens from an area. The availability of hollow trees for use as resting sites and natal densis especially critical, and logging procedures that eliminate old stumps or older trees may be detrimental to American Marten populations.Bibliography.Buskirk (1984), Buskirk & MacDonald (1984), Clark et al. (1987), Dumyahn & Zollner (2007), Gosse & Hearn (2005), Hagmeier (1961), Mowat (2006), Poole& Graf (1996), Potvin et al. (2000), Powell et al. (2003), Proulx (2006), Raine (1983), Ruggiero et al. (1998), Simon et al. (1999), Slauson et al. (2007), Smith & Schaefer (2002), Soutiere (1979), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA5AFFB4CFF73AFAFCF7FB31,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,629,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5AFFB4CFF73AFAFCF7FB31.xml,Martes foina,Martes,foina,Pinel,1792,Fouine @fr | Steinmarder @de | Garduna @es | Beech Marten @en,"Mustela foina Erxleben, 1777, Germany.Up to fifteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","Mainland C & S Europe, Caucasus, Middle East, C Asia to Mongolia, C & SW China, and N Myanmar. Introduced to Ibiza I (Spain), but now extirpated, and to USA(Wisconsin).","Head-body 40-54 cm, tail 22-30 cm; weight 1.1-2.3 kg. The Stone Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage ranges from grayish brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white or pale yellow neck and throat patch, which often splits into two parts that extend to the anterior part of the legs. The tail and legs are darker than the back. The upperlip has a medial rhinarial groove. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has slightly convex outer edges (they are concave in the European Pine Marten.","Stone Martens are found in forests and open and rocky areas,at elevations up to 4000 m. They also occur in fragmented forests, hedgerows, and cultivated areas, and in close proximity to humans. They are generally found in more open environments than other marten species and appear to avoid conifer forests. In a fragmented agricultural landscape, Stone Martens were found to prefer areas with wood and scrub vegetation and watercourses with continuous vegetation along their verges; they tended to avoid arable land.","The diet consists of rodents, birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians,insects, fruits, and berries. In France, voles (Microtus sp.) make up to 30-55% of the total diet; there is strong seasonality, with microtines eaten more often in winter and spring. In the Swiss Jura, mammals are the main prey, representing 37-9% ofall food items; Water Voles (Arvicola terrestris) were found in 90-4% of scats during peak vole numbers. In central Italy, fruit and berries are the staple diet, but mammals and birds are also important; the diet varies seasonally in relation to resource availability, with a predominance of fruit in autumn and insects in summer. In east-central Italy, the winter diet is almost completely frugivorous; fruit represents 84% of the total volume in the diet, with a 55% occurrence. Berries from juniperus (42-2%, Juniperus sp.) and from sloe (29-7%, Prunus spinosa) are the most common food items. In south-eastern Romania, birds (45-2% of the biomass) and mammals (36-1%) predominate in the diet; reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fruits are supplementary food. In the Caucasus, the diet is 85% murine rodents during the summer; vegetable matter forms a major part of the late summer and early fall food in some areas.","Mating occurs in summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertlized eggs into the uterus, births do not occur until the following spring. The overall gestation lasts 230-275 days, although true gestation is c. 30 days. Littersize typically is three to four, but may reach up to eight. Sexual maturity may be attained at 15-27 months.","Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/restsites are inside rock crevices, stone heaps, hollow trees, abandoned burrows, and in buildings.","Stone Martens are solitary. They are good climbers, but rarely go high into trees. Home ranges vary between 12-211 ha, being larger in summer and smaller during winter. The home ranges of males are generally larger than those of females, and adult ranges are larger than immature animals. In central Italy, radio-telemetry revealed intra-sexual territoriality; males travelled longer distances than females, although home range sizes did not differ significantly between the sexes.Breeding.Mating occurs in summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertlized eggs into the uterus, births do not occur until the following spring. The overall gestation lasts 230-275 days, although true gestation is c. 30 days. Littersize typically is three to four, but may reach up to eight. Sexual maturity may be attained at 15-27 months.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Stone Marten is considered common throughout most of Europe and Asia. It is hunted for its pelt, but this does not have the same quality of the European Pine Marten.","Baghli et al. (2002) | Canivenc et al. (1981) | Feller (1993a, 1993b) | Francis (2008) | Genovesi & Boitani (1997) | Genovesi, Secchi & Boitani (1996) | Genovesi, Sinibaldi & Boitani (1997) | Lodé (1994) | Lopez-Martin et al. (1992) | Michelat et al. (2001) | Padial et al. (2002) | Pandolfi et al. (1996) | Posluszny et al. (2007) | Roberts (1977) | Romanowski & Lesinski (1991) | Rondinini & Boitani (2002) | Sacchi & Meriggi (1995) | Stone & Cook (2002) | Stroganov (1969) | Virgos et al. (2000) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714159/files/figure.png,"11.Stone MartenMartes foinaFrench:Fouine/ German:Steinmarder/ Spanish:GardunaOther common names:Beech MartenTaxonomy.Mustela foina Erxleben, 1777, Germany.Up to fifteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Mainland C & S Europe, Caucasus, Middle East, C Asia to Mongolia, C & SW China, and N Myanmar. Introduced to Ibiza I (Spain), but now extirpated, and to USA(Wisconsin).Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-54 cm, tail 22-30 cm; weight 1.1-2.3 kg. The Stone Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage ranges from grayish brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white or pale yellow neck and throat patch, which often splits into two parts that extend to the anterior part of the legs. The tail and legs are darker than the back. The upperlip has a medial rhinarial groove. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has slightly convex outer edges (they are concave in the European Pine Marten.Habitat.Stone Martens are found in forests and open and rocky areas,at elevations up to 4000 m. They also occur in fragmented forests, hedgerows, and cultivated areas, and in close proximity to humans. They are generally found in more open environments than other marten species and appear to avoid conifer forests. In a fragmented agricultural landscape, Stone Martens were found to prefer areas with wood and scrub vegetation and watercourses with continuous vegetation along their verges; they tended to avoid arable land.Food and Feeding.The diet consists of rodents, birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians,insects, fruits, and berries. In France, voles (Microtus sp.) make up to 30-55% of the total diet; there is strong seasonality, with microtines eaten more often in winter and spring. In the Swiss Jura, mammals are the main prey, representing 37-9% ofall food items; Water Voles (Arvicola terrestris) were found in 90-4% of scats during peak vole numbers. In central Italy, fruit and berries are the staple diet, but mammals and birds are also important; the diet varies seasonally in relation to resource availability, with a predominance of fruit in autumn and insects in summer. In east-central Italy, the winter diet is almost completely frugivorous; fruit represents 84% of the total volume in the diet, with a 55% occurrence. Berries from juniperus (42-2%, Juniperus sp.) and from sloe (29-7%, Prunus spinosa) are the most common food items. In south-eastern Romania, birds (45-2% of the biomass) and mammals (36-1%) predominate in the diet; reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fruits are supplementary food. In the Caucasus, the diet is 85% murine rodents during the summer; vegetable matter forms a major part of the late summer and early fall food in some areas.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/restsites are inside rock crevices, stone heaps, hollow trees, abandoned burrows, and in buildings.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Stone Martens are solitary. They are good climbers, but rarely go high into trees. Home ranges vary between 12-211 ha, being larger in summer and smaller during winter. The home ranges of males are generally larger than those of females, and adult ranges are larger than immature animals. In central Italy, radio-telemetry revealed intra-sexual territoriality; males travelled longer distances than females, although home range sizes did not differ significantly between the sexes.Breeding.Mating occurs in summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertlized eggs into the uterus, births do not occur until the following spring. The overall gestation lasts 230-275 days, although true gestation is c. 30 days. Littersize typically is three to four, but may reach up to eight. Sexual maturity may be attained at 15-27 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Stone Marten is considered common throughout most of Europe and Asia. It is hunted for its pelt, but this does not have the same quality of the European Pine Marten.Bibliography.Baghli et al. (2002), Canivenc et al. (1981), Feller (1993a, 1993b), Francis (2008), Genovesi & Boitani (1997), Genovesi, Secchi & Boitani (1996), Genovesi, Sinibaldi & Boitani (1997), Lodé (1994), Lopez-Martin et al. (1992), Michelat et al. (2001), Padial et al. (2002), Pandolfi et al. (1996), Posluszny et al. (2007), Roberts (1977), Romanowski & Lesinski (1991), Rondinini & Boitani (2002), Sacchi & Meriggi (1995), Stone & Cook (2002), Stroganov (1969), Virgos et al. (2000), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." -038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,629,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935.xml,Martes flavigula,Martes,flavigula,Pinel,1792,Martre a gorge jaune @fr | Buntmarder @de | Marta papigualda @es,"Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785, Nepal.Six subspecies are recognized.","M. f. flavigula Boddaert, 1785— Bangladesh, Bhutan, C, E & S China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.M. f. borealis Radde, 1862— NE China, North and South Korea, and Russia.M. f. chrysospila Swinhoe, 1866— Taiwan.M. f. indochinensis Kloss, 1916— Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.M. f. perunsularis Bonhote, 1901— Borneo, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.M. f. robinsoni Pocock, 1936— Java.","Head-body 45-65 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 1.3-3 kg. The Yellowthroated Marten has a long, slender body and a long, dark tail; the tail is 60-70% of head and body length. The ears are large and round. The pelage varies geographically and with season. The top of the head and neck,the tail, the lower limbs, and parts of the back are dark brown to black; the rest of the body is pale brown. There are bright orange-yellow markings from the chin to the chest. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is strong; the temporal ridges do not approach to form a sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Males have larger canines than females.","Forests, including dry and hill evergreen, mixed and moist deciduous, and dry dipterocarp forest, at elevations of 200-3000 m. In Thailand, radio-collared Yellowthroated Martens generally used the different typesof habitat in proportion to their availability; however, one malewas observed to use open forest-grassland less than it was available.","The diet includes small rodents, pikas, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, birds, eggs, fruit, honey, berries, and nectar. It has been reported that Yellowthroated Martens prey on musk deer (Moschus sp.) and the young of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), deer, and gorals.","Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.","Primarily diurnal; activity peaks occur during the morning (06:00- 08:00 h) and late afternoon (16:00-18:00 h). Reduced activity periods are scattered during the night (20:00-04:00 h) and are greater during lunar nights than other nights. The highest average monthly activity is during October, whereas the lowest is during March. Wet season activity is significantly greater than dry season activity. Den/ rest sites are in holes, rocks crevices, or hollow trees.","Yellow-throated Martens climb trees with great agility, but often cometo the ground to hunt. They are seen in pairs or small family groups. In Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, five adultYellow-throated Martens were radio-tracked for 4-16 months. The mean daily movement was 770 mfor four malesand 1349 mfor one female. The cumulative home rangesizes for four maleswere 1-7, 3-5, 10-1 and 11- 8 km?, and 8- 8 km? for one female. Home ranges generally increased during the wet season; however, the range of one maleincreased marginally during the dry season. Mean range overlap was 34%.Breeding.Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. f. robinsoni is classified as Endangered. Little is known about Yellow-throated Martens and further field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","Francis (2008) | Grassman, Tewes & Silvy (2005) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Nandini & Karthik (2007) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",,"10.Yellow-throated MartenMartes flavigulaFrench:Martre a gorge jaune/ German:Buntmarder/ Spanish:Marta papigualdaTaxonomy Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785, Nepal.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. f. flavigula Boddaert, 1785— Bangladesh, Bhutan, C, E & S China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.M. f. borealis Radde, 1862— NE China, North and South Korea, and Russia.M. f. chrysospila Swinhoe, 1866— Taiwan.M. f. indochinensis Kloss, 1916— Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.M. f. perunsularis Bonhote, 1901— Borneo, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.M. f. robinsoni Pocock, 1936— Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-65 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 1.3-3 kg. The Yellowthroated Marten has a long, slender body and a long, dark tail; the tail is 60-70% of head and body length. The ears are large and round. The pelage varies geographically and with season. The top of the head and neck,the tail, the lower limbs, and parts of the back are dark brown to black; the rest of the body is pale brown. There are bright orange-yellow markings from the chin to the chest. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is strong; the temporal ridges do not approach to form a sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Males have larger canines than females.Habitat.Forests, including dry and hill evergreen, mixed and moist deciduous, and dry dipterocarp forest, at elevations of 200-3000 m. In Thailand, radio-collared Yellowthroated Martens generally used the different typesof habitat in proportion to their availability; however, one malewas observed to use open forest-grassland less than it was available.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal; activity peaks occur during the morning (06:00- 08:00 h) and late afternoon (16:00-18:00 h). Reduced activity periods are scattered during the night (20:00-04:00 h) and are greater during lunar nights than other nights. The highest average monthly activity is during October, whereas the lowest is during March. Wet season activity is significantly greater than dry season activity. Den/ rest sites are in holes, rocks crevices, or hollow trees.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small rodents, pikas, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, birds, eggs, fruit, honey, berries, and nectar. It has been reported that Yellowthroated Martens prey on musk deer (Moschus sp.) and the young of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), deer, and gorals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Yellow-throated Martens climb trees with great agility, but often cometo the ground to hunt. They are seen in pairs or small family groups. In Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, five adultYellow-throated Martens were radio-tracked for 4-16 months. The mean daily movement was 770 mfor four malesand 1349 mfor one female. The cumulative home rangesizes for four maleswere 1-7, 3-5, 10-1 and 11- 8 km?, and 8- 8 km? for one female. Home ranges generally increased during the wet season; however, the range of one maleincreased marginally during the dry season. Mean range overlap was 34%.Breeding.Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. f. robinsoni is classified as Endangered. Little is known about Yellow-throated Martens and further field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Grassman, Tewes & Silvy (2005), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Nandini & Karthik (2007), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." +038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,629,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935.xml,Martes flavigula,Martes,flavigula,Pinel,1792,Martre a gorge jaune @fr | Buntmarder @de | Marta papigualda @es,"Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785, Nepal.Six subspecies are recognized.","M. f. flavigula Boddaert, 1785— Bangladesh, Bhutan, C, E & S China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.M. f. borealis Radde, 1862— NE China, North and South Korea, and Russia.M. f. chrysospila Swinhoe, 1866— Taiwan.M. f. indochinensis Kloss, 1916— Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.M. f. perunsularis Bonhote, 1901— Borneo, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.M. f. robinsoni Pocock, 1936— Java.","Head-body 45-65 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 1.3-3 kg. The Yellowthroated Marten has a long, slender body and a long, dark tail; the tail is 60-70% of head and body length. The ears are large and round. The pelage varies geographically and with season. The top of the head and neck,the tail, the lower limbs, and parts of the back are dark brown to black; the rest of the body is pale brown. There are bright orange-yellow markings from the chin to the chest. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is strong; the temporal ridges do not approach to form a sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Males have larger canines than females.","Forests, including dry and hill evergreen, mixed and moist deciduous, and dry dipterocarp forest, at elevations of 200-3000 m. In Thailand, radio-collared Yellowthroated Martens generally used the different typesof habitat in proportion to their availability; however, one malewas observed to use open forest-grassland less than it was available.","The diet includes small rodents, pikas, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, birds, eggs, fruit, honey, berries, and nectar. It has been reported that Yellowthroated Martens prey on musk deer (Moschus sp.) and the young of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), deer, and gorals.","Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.","Primarily diurnal; activity peaks occur during the morning (06:00- 08:00 h) and late afternoon (16:00-18:00 h). Reduced activity periods are scattered during the night (20:00-04:00 h) and are greater during lunar nights than other nights. The highest average monthly activity is during October, whereas the lowest is during March. Wet season activity is significantly greater than dry season activity. Den/ rest sites are in holes, rocks crevices, or hollow trees.","Yellow-throated Martens climb trees with great agility, but often cometo the ground to hunt. They are seen in pairs or small family groups. In Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, five adultYellow-throated Martens were radio-tracked for 4-16 months. The mean daily movement was 770 mfor four malesand 1349 mfor one female. The cumulative home rangesizes for four maleswere 1-7, 3-5, 10-1 and 11- 8 km?, and 8- 8 km? for one female. Home ranges generally increased during the wet season; however, the range of one maleincreased marginally during the dry season. Mean range overlap was 34%.Breeding.Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. f. robinsoni is classified as Endangered. Little is known about Yellow-throated Martens and further field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","Francis (2008) | Grassman, Tewes & Silvy (2005) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Nandini & Karthik (2007) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714157/files/figure.png,"10.Yellow-throated MartenMartes flavigulaFrench:Martre a gorge jaune/ German:Buntmarder/ Spanish:Marta papigualdaTaxonomy Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785, Nepal.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. f. flavigula Boddaert, 1785— Bangladesh, Bhutan, C, E & S China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.M. f. borealis Radde, 1862— NE China, North and South Korea, and Russia.M. f. chrysospila Swinhoe, 1866— Taiwan.M. f. indochinensis Kloss, 1916— Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.M. f. perunsularis Bonhote, 1901— Borneo, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.M. f. robinsoni Pocock, 1936— Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-65 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 1.3-3 kg. The Yellowthroated Marten has a long, slender body and a long, dark tail; the tail is 60-70% of head and body length. The ears are large and round. The pelage varies geographically and with season. The top of the head and neck,the tail, the lower limbs, and parts of the back are dark brown to black; the rest of the body is pale brown. There are bright orange-yellow markings from the chin to the chest. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is strong; the temporal ridges do not approach to form a sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Males have larger canines than females.Habitat.Forests, including dry and hill evergreen, mixed and moist deciduous, and dry dipterocarp forest, at elevations of 200-3000 m. In Thailand, radio-collared Yellowthroated Martens generally used the different typesof habitat in proportion to their availability; however, one malewas observed to use open forest-grassland less than it was available.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal; activity peaks occur during the morning (06:00- 08:00 h) and late afternoon (16:00-18:00 h). Reduced activity periods are scattered during the night (20:00-04:00 h) and are greater during lunar nights than other nights. The highest average monthly activity is during October, whereas the lowest is during March. Wet season activity is significantly greater than dry season activity. Den/ rest sites are in holes, rocks crevices, or hollow trees.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small rodents, pikas, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, birds, eggs, fruit, honey, berries, and nectar. It has been reported that Yellowthroated Martens prey on musk deer (Moschus sp.) and the young of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), deer, and gorals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Yellow-throated Martens climb trees with great agility, but often cometo the ground to hunt. They are seen in pairs or small family groups. In Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, five adultYellow-throated Martens were radio-tracked for 4-16 months. The mean daily movement was 770 mfor four malesand 1349 mfor one female. The cumulative home rangesizes for four maleswere 1-7, 3-5, 10-1 and 11- 8 km?, and 8- 8 km? for one female. Home ranges generally increased during the wet season; however, the range of one maleincreased marginally during the dry season. Mean range overlap was 34%.Breeding.Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. f. robinsoni is classified as Endangered. Little is known about Yellow-throated Martens and further field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Grassman, Tewes & Silvy (2005), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Nandini & Karthik (2007), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." 038F87D4CA5BFFB3CAB13626FC52F9D7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,630,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5BFFB3CAB13626FC52F9D7.xml,Martes martes,Martes,martes,,,Martre des pins @fr | Baummarder @de | Marta europea @es | Pine Marten @en,"Mustela martes Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. At least thirteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","Most of Europe up to Russia(W Siberia) and major Mediterranean islands (Mallorca, Minorca, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily); also Middle East in Turkey, Caucasus, Iraq, and Iran.","Head-body 45-58 cm, tail 16-28 cm; weight 0.8-1.8 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Pine Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a light yellow patch on the throat and chest. The underfur is dark on the sides (it is lighter in the Stone Marten). The rhinarium is black. The plantar soles are hairy. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has outer edges that are slightly concave (they are convex in the Stone Marten).","European Pine Martens are found in mature deciduous and coniferous forests. In Norway, they prefer spruce-dominated forests with large trees, and avoid clearcuts and open habitats. In north-east Belarus, the higher food abundance in woodlands on clay soil results in a higher population density and a more even distribution of European Pine Martens than in woodlands on sandy soil, where they mainly live in valley habitats.","The diet consists of small mammals (including mice, voles, and squirrels), birds, amphibians, invertebrates, honey, fruits, and berries. In western Scotland, European Pine Martens prey extensively on small mammals (particularly Field Voles Microtus agrestis) and birds. Invertebrates are also important dietary items, with a high intake of beetles (particularly Geotrupes sp.) from March to September. Predation on birds and the intake of earthwormsis highest during the winter;fruits (bramble and rowan berries) are also important in autumn and late winter. In the Scottish Highlands, the diet is very varied and includes small mammals, large mammal carrion, birds, insects, and fruits. Small mammals are consistently important, whereas large mammal carrion, fruits and insects, are seasonal; birds are eaten at all times of the year, but are not a major part of the diet. Although appearing to be opportunist feeders, European Pine Martens did have strong food preferences: of the small mammals eaten, 94% were Field Voles. Insect species were also selectively eaten. Beetles (Geotrupes stercorosus, Carabus sp., and Serica brunnea) and Hymenoptera (Vespula vulgaris and Bonibus spp.) were consumed in large numbers when encountered. The diet indicated that European Pine Martens foraged on the ground, in glade areas within the forest, around night-time. In northern boreal Finland, the analysis of 5677 scats revealed that the European Pine Marten is an opportunistic generalist;its most favored food being small rodents (especially Clethrionomys sp.). Snow cover decreased the consumption of Microtus sp., but not Clethrionomys sp. or the Wood Lemming (Myopus schisticolor). Other food items were: Eurasian Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus), carcasses of Reindeer, eggs, birds, common frog (Rana temporaria), berries, and mushrooms. In north-east Belarus, the diet includes rodents, birds, fruits, and carrion. In woodlands on sandy soil, European Pine Martens specialize in feeding on carrion in the cold season and on berries in the warm season. In winter, Bank Vole densities and the biomass of carrion are crucial food factors. In central Poland, where the European Pine Marten and Stone Marten are sympatric, both species feed mainly on small rodents, birds, and fruits. Although there is a high overlap in the trophic niches of both species, European Pine Martens feed more frequently on rodents and birds and Stone Martens on fruits and insects. In north-west Spain, mammals constitute the main prey all year round (50% ingested biomass), followed by fruit (28-1%), birds (20-9%), insects (0-8%) and reptiles (0-2%). Small mammals are the major prey species (41:6% ingested biomass), mainly Apodemus sp. (19-1%). Mammals are the most consumed prey in spring (65:8%) and winter (79-5%). However, in summer and autumn, European Pine Martens feed mainly on rowanberries (Sorbus aucuparia) (summer: 49-7%, autumn: 59-9%), followed by mammals (summer: 27-2%, autumn: 30-9%). On the island of Minorca, a total of 28 different food items were identified in 723 scats. Small mammals were the most important food overall, constituting 34% of the volume. During March to April, small mammals were the principal food consumed (63% of volume), followed by birds (19%). From May to June, birds were the main food (40%), followed by small mammals. Plant material and insects were the most important foods from July to August, when they made up 68% ofthe diet. Excess food may be cached for later use.","Mating occurs in mid-summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus, births do not take place until March or April of the following year. Total gestation is 230-275 days. During the breeding season, captive females exhibited one to four periods of sexual receptivity, which usually lasted one to four days and recurred at intervals of 6-17 days. Litter size is two to eight, usually three to five. In Great Britain, natal dens comprise buildings (44:3%), trees (22:8%), other man-made structures (17-1%), and rocks (14-:3%). At birth, the young weigh about 30 g. Their eyes open after 32-38 days, weaning occurs after six or seven weeks, and the young separate from the mother in the autumn. Sexual maturity is attained in the second year.","Mainly nocturnal. On the island of Minorca, radio-collared European Pine Martens were primarily nocturnal, being active at night 53% of the time in autumn/winter and 59% in spring; daytime activity levels were 19% and 14%, respectively. In Poland, radio-telemetry revealed that 69% of the martens’ active time was during the night. The activity rhythms of European Pine Martens vary between sexes and seasons. In spring, male activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h, whereas in summer and autumn/winter, activity is bimodal, peaking at 18:00-22:00 h and 02:00-04:00 h. Female activity in spring is more evenly distributed than that of males, but in summer their activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h. In autumn/winter, females have a bimodal rhythm, with peaks at 18:00-20:00 h and 02:00-06:00 h. In breeding females, activity rhythms change in the course of pregnancy and nursing. On average, European Pine Martensstart their activity 73 min before sunset and finish 87 min after sunrise. Females became active earlier than males, but both sexes terminate their activity at the same time. On average, both sexes are active for around nine hours per day; they decrease their activity from 13 hours per day on warm days to 2-5 hours per day on cooler days. The number of activity bouts per day varies from one to six (mean 2:6); the activity bouts of males are significantly longer (4 hours, on average) than those of females (3 hours). In the cold season, the duration of short inactive bouts increases and inactivity lasts longer in females than in males. Den/restsites are in hollow trees or logs, under debris, or under snow. In Great Britain, most dens are associated with trees (44-3%), rocks (27-6%) and buildings (13-:8%); 69-6% of all dens are elevated, although only 9-8% are in elevated tree cavities, perhaps indicating a scarcity of arboreal cavities.","European Pine Martens are terrestrial, but are also good climbers and will spend considerable time in trees exploring hollows and cavities in search of prey. Nightly movements may be up to 20-30 km. European Pine Martens are mostly solitary. Average home rangesize is 23 km? for males and 6- 5 km? for females. There is little or no overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but male home ranges greatly overlap those of one or more females. Independent subadults are tolerated within the exclusive ranges of adults of the same sex. In Bialowieza National Park, Poland, the mean annual home range of males (2-58 km?) was larger than that of females (1-41 km?). Daily ranges averaged 49 ha in females and 54 ha in males and constituted 0-3% to 88% of annual home ranges. Seasonal home ranges also differed significantly between males and females. Both sexes held the smallest ranges in December to January; female ranges increased in April to May, whereas those of males increased in June to September when they were mating. There was very little home range overlap between neighboring males (mean 4-6%) or females (mean 6%). Year-round, neighboring individuals of the same sex neither avoided nor attracted each other and females attracted males only during the spring/ summer mating season. Daily movement distance averaged 5- 1 kmand the mean speed was 0-6 km/h. With increasing temperature, European Pine Martens moved faster, covered longer distances, and used larger daily ranges. Mobility and home range use were affected by breeding activity. In spring, females rearing cubs had longer daily movement distances and moved faster than non-breeding females. In summer, males covered larger daily ranges during the mating period than outside it. On the island of Minorca, female home ranges were non-overlapping and averaged 0-47 km? (range = 0-31- 0-66 km®); two malehome ranges were partially exclusive, measuring 4-92 km? and 9-19 km?*male home ranges averaged 16 times greater than those of females. In Poland, population densities ranged from 3-6 to 7-6 individuals per 10 km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in mid-summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus, births do not take place until March or April of the following year. Total gestation is 230-275 days. During the breeding season, captive females exhibited one to four periods of sexual receptivity, which usually lasted one to four days and recurred at intervals of 6-17 days. Litter size is two to eight, usually three to five. In Great Britain, natal dens comprise buildings (44:3%), trees (22:8%), other man-made structures (17-1%), and rocks (14-:3%). At birth, the young weigh about 30 g. Their eyes open after 32-38 days, weaning occurs after six or seven weeks, and the young separate from the mother in the autumn. Sexual maturity is attained in the second year.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The European Pine Marten was greatly hunted forits fur, leading to a serious decline of populations in the 1970s, but since then it has recovered in many areas.","Bermejo & Guitian (2000) | Birks et al. (2005) | Brainerd & Rolstad (2002) | Clevenger (1993a, 1993b, 1993c) | Coope (2007) | Goszczynski et al. (2007) | Posluszny et al. (2007) | Pulliainen & Ollinmaki (1996) | Putman (2000) | Rosellini et al. (2007) | Russell & Storch (2004) | Selas (1991) | Sidorovich et al. (2005) | Stroganov (1969) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Zalewski (2000, 2001) | Zalewski et al. (1995, 2004)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714165/files/figure.png,"13.European Pine MartenMartes martesFrench:Martre des pins/ German:Baummarder/ Spanish:Marta europeaOther common names:Pine MartenTaxonomy.Mustela martes Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. At least thirteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Most of Europe up to Russia(W Siberia) and major Mediterranean islands (Mallorca, Minorca, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily); also Middle East in Turkey, Caucasus, Iraq, and Iran.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-58 cm, tail 16-28 cm; weight 0.8-1.8 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Pine Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a light yellow patch on the throat and chest. The underfur is dark on the sides (it is lighter in the Stone Marten). The rhinarium is black. The plantar soles are hairy. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has outer edges that are slightly concave (they are convex in the Stone Marten).Habitat.European Pine Martens are found in mature deciduous and coniferous forests. In Norway, they prefer spruce-dominated forests with large trees, and avoid clearcuts and open habitats. In north-east Belarus, the higher food abundance in woodlands on clay soil results in a higher population density and a more even distribution of European Pine Martens than in woodlands on sandy soil, where they mainly live in valley habitats.Food and Feeding.The diet consists of small mammals (including mice, voles, and squirrels), birds, amphibians, invertebrates, honey, fruits, and berries. In western Scotland, European Pine Martens prey extensively on small mammals (particularly Field Voles Microtus agrestis) and birds. Invertebrates are also important dietary items, with a high intake of beetles (particularly Geotrupes sp.) from March to September. Predation on birds and the intake of earthwormsis highest during the winter;fruits (bramble and rowan berries) are also important in autumn and late winter. In the Scottish Highlands, the diet is very varied and includes small mammals, large mammal carrion, birds, insects, and fruits. Small mammals are consistently important, whereas large mammal carrion, fruits and insects, are seasonal; birds are eaten at all times of the year, but are not a major part of the diet. Although appearing to be opportunist feeders, European Pine Martens did have strong food preferences: of the small mammals eaten, 94% were Field Voles. Insect species were also selectively eaten. Beetles (Geotrupes stercorosus, Carabus sp., and Serica brunnea) and Hymenoptera (Vespula vulgaris and Bonibus spp.) were consumed in large numbers when encountered. The diet indicated that European Pine Martens foraged on the ground, in glade areas within the forest, around night-time. In northern boreal Finland, the analysis of 5677 scats revealed that the European Pine Marten is an opportunistic generalist;its most favored food being small rodents (especially Clethrionomys sp.). Snow cover decreased the consumption of Microtus sp., but not Clethrionomys sp. or the Wood Lemming (Myopus schisticolor). Other food items were: Eurasian Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus), carcasses of Reindeer, eggs, birds, common frog (Rana temporaria), berries, and mushrooms. In north-east Belarus, the diet includes rodents, birds, fruits, and carrion. In woodlands on sandy soil, European Pine Martens specialize in feeding on carrion in the cold season and on berries in the warm season. In winter, Bank Vole densities and the biomass of carrion are crucial food factors. In central Poland, where the European Pine Marten and Stone Marten are sympatric, both species feed mainly on small rodents, birds, and fruits. Although there is a high overlap in the trophic niches of both species, European Pine Martens feed more frequently on rodents and birds and Stone Martens on fruits and insects. In north-west Spain, mammals constitute the main prey all year round (50% ingested biomass), followed by fruit (28-1%), birds (20-9%), insects (0-8%) and reptiles (0-2%). Small mammals are the major prey species (41:6% ingested biomass), mainly Apodemus sp. (19-1%). Mammals are the most consumed prey in spring (65:8%) and winter (79-5%). However, in summer and autumn, European Pine Martens feed mainly on rowanberries (Sorbus aucuparia) (summer: 49-7%, autumn: 59-9%), followed by mammals (summer: 27-2%, autumn: 30-9%). On the island of Minorca, a total of 28 different food items were identified in 723 scats. Small mammals were the most important food overall, constituting 34% of the volume. During March to April, small mammals were the principal food consumed (63% of volume), followed by birds (19%). From May to June, birds were the main food (40%), followed by small mammals. Plant material and insects were the most important foods from July to August, when they made up 68% ofthe diet. Excess food may be cached for later use.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal. On the island of Minorca, radio-collared European Pine Martens were primarily nocturnal, being active at night 53% of the time in autumn/winter and 59% in spring; daytime activity levels were 19% and 14%, respectively. In Poland, radio-telemetry revealed that 69% of the martens’ active time was during the night. The activity rhythms of European Pine Martens vary between sexes and seasons. In spring, male activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h, whereas in summer and autumn/winter, activity is bimodal, peaking at 18:00-22:00 h and 02:00-04:00 h. Female activity in spring is more evenly distributed than that of males, but in summer their activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h. In autumn/winter, females have a bimodal rhythm, with peaks at 18:00-20:00 h and 02:00-06:00 h. In breeding females, activity rhythms change in the course of pregnancy and nursing. On average, European Pine Martensstart their activity 73 min before sunset and finish 87 min after sunrise. Females became active earlier than males, but both sexes terminate their activity at the same time. On average, both sexes are active for around nine hours per day; they decrease their activity from 13 hours per day on warm days to 2-5 hours per day on cooler days. The number of activity bouts per day varies from one to six (mean 2:6); the activity bouts of males are significantly longer (4 hours, on average) than those of females (3 hours). In the cold season, the duration of short inactive bouts increases and inactivity lasts longer in females than in males. Den/restsites are in hollow trees or logs, under debris, or under snow. In Great Britain, most dens are associated with trees (44-3%), rocks (27-6%) and buildings (13-:8%); 69-6% of all dens are elevated, although only 9-8% are in elevated tree cavities, perhaps indicating a scarcity of arboreal cavities.Movements, Home range and Social organization.European Pine Martens are terrestrial, but are also good climbers and will spend considerable time in trees exploring hollows and cavities in search of prey. Nightly movements may be up to 20-30 km. European Pine Martens are mostly solitary. Average home rangesize is 23 km? for males and 6- 5 km? for females. There is little or no overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but male home ranges greatly overlap those of one or more females. Independent subadults are tolerated within the exclusive ranges of adults of the same sex. In Bialowieza National Park, Poland, the mean annual home range of males (2-58 km?) was larger than that of females (1-41 km?). Daily ranges averaged 49 ha in females and 54 ha in males and constituted 0-3% to 88% of annual home ranges. Seasonal home ranges also differed significantly between males and females. Both sexes held the smallest ranges in December to January; female ranges increased in April to May, whereas those of males increased in June to September when they were mating. There was very little home range overlap between neighboring males (mean 4-6%) or females (mean 6%). Year-round, neighboring individuals of the same sex neither avoided nor attracted each other and females attracted males only during the spring/ summer mating season. Daily movement distance averaged 5- 1 kmand the mean speed was 0-6 km/h. With increasing temperature, European Pine Martens moved faster, covered longer distances, and used larger daily ranges. Mobility and home range use were affected by breeding activity. In spring, females rearing cubs had longer daily movement distances and moved faster than non-breeding females. In summer, males covered larger daily ranges during the mating period than outside it. On the island of Minorca, female home ranges were non-overlapping and averaged 0-47 km? (range = 0-31- 0-66 km®); two malehome ranges were partially exclusive, measuring 4-92 km? and 9-19 km?*male home ranges averaged 16 times greater than those of females. In Poland, population densities ranged from 3-6 to 7-6 individuals per 10 km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in mid-summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus, births do not take place until March or April of the following year. Total gestation is 230-275 days. During the breeding season, captive females exhibited one to four periods of sexual receptivity, which usually lasted one to four days and recurred at intervals of 6-17 days. Litter size is two to eight, usually three to five. In Great Britain, natal dens comprise buildings (44:3%), trees (22:8%), other man-made structures (17-1%), and rocks (14-:3%). At birth, the young weigh about 30 g. Their eyes open after 32-38 days, weaning occurs after six or seven weeks, and the young separate from the mother in the autumn. Sexual maturity is attained in the second year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The European Pine Marten was greatly hunted forits fur, leading to a serious decline of populations in the 1970s, but since then it has recovered in many areas.Bibliography.Bermejo & Guitian (2000), Birks et al. (2005), Brainerd & Rolstad (2002), Clevenger (1993a, 1993b, 1993c), Coope (2007), Goszczynski et al. (2007), Posluszny et al. (2007), Pulliainen & Ollinmaki (1996), Putman (2000), Rosellini et al. (2007), Russell & Storch (2004), Selas (1991), Sidorovich et al. (2005), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Zalewski (2000, 2001), Zalewski et al. (1995, 2004)." 038F87D4CA5BFFB4CAAB38F2FC14F67B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,630,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5BFFB4CAAB38F2FC14F67B.xml,Martes gwatkinsii,Martes,gwatkinsii,Pinel,1792,Martre des Nilgiri @fr | Sidindischer Buntmarder @de | Marta india @es,"Martes gwatkinsii Horsfield, 1851, Madras, India.The Nilgiri Marten has been considered a subspecies of the Yellow-throated Marten by some authors. Monotypic.",India(Western Ghats).,"Head-body 50-70 cm(male), tail 35-50 cm(male); weight 1-3 kg(male). The Nilgiri Marten is very similar to the Yellow-throated Marten. The pelage is mostly dark brown; the shoulders and torso are rufous-brown. There are distinct rusty-yellow to lemon-yellow markings on the throat. The skull is low and flat.","Forests, between 120 and 2383 melevation.","Very little known, but there are reports of Nilgiri Martens preying on crows, Indian Giant Squirrels (Ratufa indica), Indian Spotted Chevrotains (Tragulus meminna), and Bengal monitor lizards (Varanus bengalensis), and feeding on honey and nectar.",Nothing known.,"Appear to be diurnal. Nilgiri Martens are seen on the ground, but they atleast partly arboreal as several recent sightings were of individuals in the canopy or in the hollows of trees (Elaeocarpus sp.).",Solitary individuals and pairs have been seen.Breeding.Nothing known.,"CITESAppendix III (India). Classified as Vulnerable in IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Balakrishnan (2005) | Christopher & Jayson (1996) | Kurup & Joseph (2001) | Madhusudan (1995) | Pocock (1941a) | Wirth & VanRompaey (1991) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714163/files/figure.png,"12.Nilgiri MartenMartes gwatkinsiiFrench:Martre des Nilgiri/ German:Sidindischer Buntmarder/ Spanish:Marta indiaTaxonomy.Martes gwatkinsii Horsfield, 1851, Madras, India.The Nilgiri Marten has been considered a subspecies of the Yellow-throated Marten by some authors. Monotypic.Distribution.India(Western Ghats).Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-70 cm(male), tail 35-50 cm(male); weight 1-3 kg(male). The Nilgiri Marten is very similar to the Yellow-throated Marten. The pelage is mostly dark brown; the shoulders and torso are rufous-brown. There are distinct rusty-yellow to lemon-yellow markings on the throat. The skull is low and flat.Habitat.Forests, between 120 and 2383 melevation.Food and Feeding.Very little known, but there are reports of Nilgiri Martens preying on crows, Indian Giant Squirrels (Ratufa indica), Indian Spotted Chevrotains (Tragulus meminna), and Bengal monitor lizards (Varanus bengalensis), and feeding on honey and nectar.Activity patterns.Appear to be diurnal. Nilgiri Martens are seen on the ground, but they atleast partly arboreal as several recent sightings were of individuals in the canopy or in the hollows of trees (Elaeocarpus sp.).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Solitary individuals and pairs have been seen.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix III (India). Classified as Vulnerable in IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Balakrishnan (2005), Christopher & Jayson (1996), Kurup & Joseph (2001), Madhusudan (1995), Pocock (1941a), Wirth & VanRompaey (1991), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,631,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9.xml,Martes pennanti,Martes,pennanti,Pinel,1792,Pekan @fr | Fischermarder @de | Marta pekan @es,"Mustela pennant: Erxleben, 1777, Eastern Canada.Recent molecular studies have suggested that the Fisher should be placed in its own genus, Pekania. Three subspecies are recognized.","M. p. pennanti Exxleben, 1777— E Canadaand NE USA.M. p. columbiana Goldman, 1935— W Canadaand and USA(Rocky Mts).M. p. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W Canada(coastal British Columbia) and W USA.","Head-body 55-65 cm(males), 45-556 cm(females); tail 30-50 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females); weight 3.5-5.5 kg(males), 2.2-5 kg(females), adult males are roughly twice the weight of females. The Fisher has a long body, short limbs, a bushy tail, and large feet with strong claws. It is the largest member of the genus Martes. The pelage is silvery-brown to black; the back of the neck and head are often grayish or silver. White markings on the throat and upper chest are common. The skull has a strong sagittal crest, which is particularly well- developed in older males. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4.","Fishers are found in dense forests with a closed canopy; they avoid open areas. In north-eastern Canadaand United States, they also occur in fragmented, mixed woodlots interspersed with agricultural land. In California, mid-seral Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) forest typescompose the greatest proportion of Fisher home ranges in the Coastal Mountains; the greatest proportion of home ranges in the Sierra Nevadas are in the intermediate tree size class with dense canopy closure, and in mixed conifer forests. In south-central Maine, Fishers use a variety of forest types, especially during summer. During winter, they hunt intensively in dense patches of coniferous undergrowth (where Snowshoe Hare tracks are common) and use deciduous stands less than expected by availability.","The diet includes lagomorphs (especially the Snowshoe Hare), North American Porcupines, ungulate carrion, small mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. During the winter in British Columbia, 18 typesof mammalian and avian prey were found in 256 stomachs. The most commonly occurring prey species were Snowshoe Hares, Red Squirrels, and Southern Red-backed Voles. The diet varied between sexes: female fishers consumed small prey more frequently than did males. In the mountains of California’s Sierra Nevada, where the Snowshoe Hare and North American Porcupine are absent, other mammals are the most frequent food item; however, reptiles (20-4%) and insects (55-7%) are major components of the diet, and at least six fungal species are also eaten. In the mixed-conifer forests of the southern Sierra Nevada, where Fishers and American Martens occur together, the diets of both species are more diverse than reported elsewhere in North America. Although the diet of Fishers includes more birds,lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens, the dietary overlap is high. The great diversity of the diet in these two species may be due to the absence or rarity of large prey (such as Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevadacompared to other areas. In south-eastern Manitoba, Fishers prey heavily on Snowshoe Hares (84:3% frequency occurrence). In Vermont, most of the diet is mammalian (72%), with avian prey (15%) and fruit (10%) of secondary importance. In south-central Maine, winter foods include apples, porcupines, hares, Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), Red Squirrels, Northern Flying Squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), mice (Peromyscus), voles (Clethrionomys gapperi and Microtus), and shrews (Sorex and Blarina). The fall and winter diet in West Virginiaand Marylandincludes ten mammal species, four bird species, one gastropod species, and two typesof vegetation. White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most frequent dietary component. Medium-sized mammals such as Northern Raccoon and small mammals such as Peromyscus sp. are also major dietary components, although small mammals occur less frequently than reported elsewhere. Diet overlap between the sexes was found to be considerable and differences between the sexes in the occurrence of major food groups (small mammals, medium-sized mammals, large mammals, birds, and fruit) were not significant. Hunting strategies vary with prey type. Snowshoe Hares are caught after rapid zig-zagging chases. Fishers hunt porcupines by searching for their dens. The arboreal skills of Fishers enable them to chase porcupines down trees to the ground, where they kill them after lengthy attacks, during which the Fisher repeatedly bites the porcupine’s face (which is unprotected by quills).","Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.","Active during the day and night; most activity occurs shortly before sunrise and after sunset. Males and females show similar amounts of activity, and both sexes are active more frequently in summer than winter. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or trees, brush piles, or in rock crevices. Fishers in Californiaselect restsites in forested areas that have dense canopies, large trees, and steep slopes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, standing trees (live and dead) are the most common resting structures, with Californiablack oak (Quercus kelloggit) and Douglas-fir the most frequent species in the Sierra and Coastal areas, respectively. Resting structures are within the largest diameter trees available, averaging 117- 3 cmfor live conifers, 119- 8 cmfor conifer snags, and 69 cmfor hardwoods. Females use cavity structures more often than males, while males use platform structures significantly more than females. The diversity of typesand sizes of rest structures used by males suggests that males are less selective than females. In the Sierra Nevadastudy area, where surface water is less common, Fishers prefer rest sites within 100 mof water. In a central hardwood forest, Fishers were found to rest in hardwood, softwood, and mixedwood forest typesin proportion to their availability in the summer, but tended to avoid hardwood areas in winter. They used nests, cavities, and burrows in proportionto their availability in winter, but in the summer, Fishers preferred nests to cavities, and burrows were not used. Males tended to use larger cavity trees and mixed forest stands more often than females. During spring, summer, and fall in south-central Maine, Fishers prefer using rest sites in the branches of conifers, within coniferous stands.","Fishers are primarily terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are capable of long movements in short time spans; individuals have been reported to move 90 kmin three days, 45 kmin two days, and 10-11 kmin only a few hours. Usual daily movements are 1-5- 3 km. Movements of males are greatest during the spring breeding season; non-reproductive females move similar distances during all seasons. Adult Fishers are solitary outside of the breeding season. Mean home range sizes are up to 40 km* for males and up to 20 km* for females. There is little overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but there is extensive overlap between the ranges of opposite sexes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, the mean home range size of males (39- 4 km?) was significantly greater than that of females (9- 8 km”); the home ranges of females were significantly greater in the Coastal area than in the Sierras. In eastern Ontario, the mean adult home range size was 4- 4 km?, with up to 71% overlap of adjacent intrasexual home ranges. In Quebec, in an area where trapping had been prohibited for more than 20 years, mean home range size was 9- 2 km” for adult males and 5- 4 km?*for adult females. In south-central Maine, the home ranges of females were stable between seasons and years, but males moved extensively from February through April, and their ranges shifted between years. Home ranges averaged 30- 9 km” for males (range = 10-6-78- 2 km?) and 16- 3 km? for females (range = 8-1-39- 1 km?). The ranges of adults usually did not overlap with others of the same sex, except for males during spring. Fishers of both sexes shifted or enlarged their ranges to include areas left vacant when others of the same sex were removed. Population density in preferred habitat is one per 2:6-7- 5 km? but in other areas it may be as low as one per 200 km*. The adult population density was calculated as 327/ 100 km* in eastern Ontario, 2.7/ 10 km? in Quebec, and 1/2:8-10- 5 km? (summer) and 1/8- 3-20 km* (winter) in south-central Maine.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Fishers are considered common throughout most of their range, particularly in Canada, but they may be threatened in the western USA. They are trapped for their fur. In the 19"" and early 20™ centuries, excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging led to a decline in Fisher populations over most ofits range. Closed hunting seasons, protective regulations, and reintroductions were then initiated in many areas. The Fisher has made a comeback in parts of the eastern United States, but it is still vulnerable in the western states, where it seems to be dependent on old-growth forests.","Arthur & Krohn (1991) | Arthur et al. (1989a, 1989b) | Dzialak et al. (2005) | Garant & Crete(1997) | Kilpatrick & Rego (1994) | Koen et al. (2007) | Koepfli et al. (2008) | Paragi et al. (1994) | Powell (1979, 1981, 1993) | Powell et al. (2003) | Raine (1983, 1987) | VanWhy & Giuliano (2001) | Weir & Corbould (2007) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zielinski, Duncan et al. (1999) | Zielinski, Truex et al. (2004a, 2004Db)",,"15.FisherMartes pennantiFrench:Pekan/ German:Fischermarder/ Spanish:Marta pekanTaxonomy.Mustela pennant: Erxleben, 1777, Eastern Canada.Recent molecular studies have suggested that the Fisher should be placed in its own genus, Pekania. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. p. pennanti Exxleben, 1777— E Canadaand NE USA.M. p. columbiana Goldman, 1935— W Canadaand and USA(Rocky Mts).M. p. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W Canada(coastal British Columbia) and W USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-65 cm(males), 45-556 cm(females); tail 30-50 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females); weight 3.5-5.5 kg(males), 2.2-5 kg(females), adult males are roughly twice the weight of females. The Fisher has a long body, short limbs, a bushy tail, and large feet with strong claws. It is the largest member of the genus Martes. The pelage is silvery-brown to black; the back of the neck and head are often grayish or silver. White markings on the throat and upper chest are common. The skull has a strong sagittal crest, which is particularly well- developed in older males. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4.M1/2=238,Habitat.Fishers are found in dense forests with a closed canopy; they avoid open areas. In north-eastern Canadaand United States, they also occur in fragmented, mixed woodlots interspersed with agricultural land. In California, mid-seral Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) forest typescompose the greatest proportion of Fisher home ranges in the Coastal Mountains; the greatest proportion of home ranges in the Sierra Nevadas are in the intermediate tree size class with dense canopy closure, and in mixed conifer forests. In south-central Maine, Fishers use a variety of forest types, especially during summer. During winter, they hunt intensively in dense patches of coniferous undergrowth (where Snowshoe Hare tracks are common) and use deciduous stands less than expected by availability.Food and Feeding.The diet includes lagomorphs (especially the Snowshoe Hare), North American Porcupines, ungulate carrion, small mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. During the winter in British Columbia, 18 typesof mammalian and avian prey were found in 256 stomachs. The most commonly occurring prey species were Snowshoe Hares, Red Squirrels, and Southern Red-backed Voles. The diet varied between sexes: female fishers consumed small prey more frequently than did males. In the mountains of California’s Sierra Nevada, where the Snowshoe Hare and North American Porcupine are absent, other mammals are the most frequent food item; however, reptiles (20-4%) and insects (55-7%) are major components of the diet, and at least six fungal species are also eaten. In the mixed-conifer forests of the southern Sierra Nevada, where Fishers and American Martens occur together, the diets of both species are more diverse than reported elsewhere in North America. Although the diet of Fishers includes more birds,lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens, the dietary overlap is high. The great diversity of the diet in these two species may be due to the absence or rarity of large prey (such as Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevadacompared to other areas. In south-eastern Manitoba, Fishers prey heavily on Snowshoe Hares (84:3% frequency occurrence). In Vermont, most of the diet is mammalian (72%), with avian prey (15%) and fruit (10%) of secondary importance. In south-central Maine, winter foods include apples, porcupines, hares, Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), Red Squirrels, Northern Flying Squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), mice (Peromyscus), voles (Clethrionomys gapperi and Microtus), and shrews (Sorex and Blarina). The fall and winter diet in West Virginiaand Marylandincludes ten mammal species, four bird species, one gastropod species, and two typesof vegetation. White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most frequent dietary component. Medium-sized mammals such as Northern Raccoon and small mammals such as Peromyscus sp. are also major dietary components, although small mammals occur less frequently than reported elsewhere. Diet overlap between the sexes was found to be considerable and differences between the sexes in the occurrence of major food groups (small mammals, medium-sized mammals, large mammals, birds, and fruit) were not significant. Hunting strategies vary with prey type. Snowshoe Hares are caught after rapid zig-zagging chases. Fishers hunt porcupines by searching for their dens. The arboreal skills of Fishers enable them to chase porcupines down trees to the ground, where they kill them after lengthy attacks, during which the Fisher repeatedly bites the porcupine’s face (which is unprotected by quills).Activity patterns.Active during the day and night; most activity occurs shortly before sunrise and after sunset. Males and females show similar amounts of activity, and both sexes are active more frequently in summer than winter. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or trees, brush piles, or in rock crevices. Fishers in Californiaselect restsites in forested areas that have dense canopies, large trees, and steep slopes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, standing trees (live and dead) are the most common resting structures, with Californiablack oak (Quercus kelloggit) and Douglas-fir the most frequent species in the Sierra and Coastal areas, respectively. Resting structures are within the largest diameter trees available, averaging 117- 3 cmfor live conifers, 119- 8 cmfor conifer snags, and 69 cmfor hardwoods. Females use cavity structures more often than males, while males use platform structures significantly more than females. The diversity of typesand sizes of rest structures used by males suggests that males are less selective than females. In the Sierra Nevadastudy area, where surface water is less common, Fishers prefer rest sites within 100 mof water. In a central hardwood forest, Fishers were found to rest in hardwood, softwood, and mixedwood forest typesin proportion to their availability in the summer, but tended to avoid hardwood areas in winter. They used nests, cavities, and burrows in proportionto their availability in winter, but in the summer, Fishers preferred nests to cavities, and burrows were not used. Males tended to use larger cavity trees and mixed forest stands more often than females. During spring, summer, and fall in south-central Maine, Fishers prefer using rest sites in the branches of conifers, within coniferous stands.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Fishers are primarily terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are capable of long movements in short time spans; individuals have been reported to move 90 kmin three days, 45 kmin two days, and 10-11 kmin only a few hours. Usual daily movements are 1-5- 3 km. Movements of males are greatest during the spring breeding season; non-reproductive females move similar distances during all seasons. Adult Fishers are solitary outside of the breeding season. Mean home range sizes are up to 40 km* for males and up to 20 km* for females. There is little overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but there is extensive overlap between the ranges of opposite sexes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, the mean home range size of males (39- 4 km?) was significantly greater than that of females (9- 8 km”); the home ranges of females were significantly greater in the Coastal area than in the Sierras. In eastern Ontario, the mean adult home range size was 4- 4 km?, with up to 71% overlap of adjacent intrasexual home ranges. In Quebec, in an area where trapping had been prohibited for more than 20 years, mean home range size was 9- 2 km” for adult males and 5- 4 km?*for adult females. In south-central Maine, the home ranges of females were stable between seasons and years, but males moved extensively from February through April, and their ranges shifted between years. Home ranges averaged 30- 9 km” for males (range = 10-6-78- 2 km?) and 16- 3 km? for females (range = 8-1-39- 1 km?). The ranges of adults usually did not overlap with others of the same sex, except for males during spring. Fishers of both sexes shifted or enlarged their ranges to include areas left vacant when others of the same sex were removed. Population density in preferred habitat is one per 2:6-7- 5 km? but in other areas it may be as low as one per 200 km*. The adult population density was calculated as 327/ 100 km* in eastern Ontario, 2.7/ 10 km? in Quebec, and 1/2:8-10- 5 km? (summer) and 1/8- 3-20 km* (winter) in south-central Maine.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Fishers are considered common throughout most of their range, particularly in Canada, but they may be threatened in the western USA. They are trapped for their fur. In the 19"" and early 20™ centuries, excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging led to a decline in Fisher populations over most ofits range. Closed hunting seasons, protective regulations, and reintroductions were then initiated in many areas. The Fisher has made a comeback in parts of the eastern United States, but it is still vulnerable in the western states, where it seems to be dependent on old-growth forests.Bibliography.Arthur & Krohn (1991), Arthur et al. (1989a, 1989b), Dzialak et al. (2005), Garant & Crete(1997), Kilpatrick & Rego (1994), Koen et al. (2007), Koepfli et al. (2008), Paragi et al. (1994), Powell (1979, 1981, 1993), Powell et al. (2003), Raine (1983, 1987), VanWhy & Giuliano (2001), Weir & Corbould (2007), Wozencraft (2005), Zielinski, Duncan et al. (1999), Zielinski, Truex et al. (2004a, 2004Db)." -038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,631,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C.xml,Martes melampus,Martes,melampus,Pinel,1792,Martre du Japon @fr | Japanischer Marder @de | Marta japonesa @es,"Mustela melampus Wagner, 1841, Japan.Three subspecies are recognized.","M. m. melampus Wagner, 1841— Japan(Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku Is).M. m. coreensis Kuroda & Mori, 1923— North and South Korea.M. m. tsuensis Thomas, 1897— Japan(Tsushima I).Introduced on Sado and HokkaidoIs.","Head-body 47-54.5 cm, tail 17-223 cm; average weight is 1-5 kgfor males and 1 kgfor females. The Japanese Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the throat and upper chest.",Broadleaf forests.,"The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, centipedes, spiders, crustaceans, earthworms), fruits, and seeds. In the Kuju Highlandon Kyushu, the mean frequencies of occurrence of food items in scats were 79-7% animals and 511% plants. The diet comprised mainly insects, mammals, crustaceans, and 36 plant species. There were high frequencies of insects from June to October, mammals in February, April and December, crustaceans in August and October, and plants in October and December. Scats collected from the Tsushima Islands revealed that small mammals comprised a relatively stable proportion of the diet throughout the year (range 8-2 to 16-8%), whereas birds showed a peak from January (11-3%) to March (14:6%). Amphibians, mostly small adult frogs (Rana tsushimensis), were most common in the diet in February (9-7%). Insects were the most common animal prey, but their proportions in the diet varied greatly from 10-5% in May to 27-8% in August, and they were consistently least common throughout the winter. Centipedes (mostly Scolopendra subspinipes) were frequently eaten during May andJune (16:9-17-4%). Plant materials were the most common of all foods throughout the year (28:8-53-9%). Berries and seeds occurred at the highest frequency in April (41%, especially Rubus hirsutus and Elaeagnus pungens) and in September (47-3%, especially Vitis ficifolia and Ficus electa).",Nothing known.,Primarily nocturnal. Resting sites are in trees and in ground burrows.,"On the Tsushima Islands, the mean home range size was 0-7 km? for eight malesand 0-63 km? for three females; home ranges were not significantly different between the sexes and ranged from 0-5- 1 km?®. There waslittle overlap of home ranges.Breeding.Nothing known.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. m. tsuensisis classified as Vulnerable. The Japanese Marten is trapped forits fur during the hunting season (1 December to 31 January), except on HokkaidoIsland. The subspecies M. m. tsuensis, found only on the Tsushima Islands, has been protected from trapping since 1971. Predation by feral dogs and highway mortality appear to be major threats.",Arai et al. (2003) | Kuroda & Mori (1923) | Otani (2002) | Shusei et al. (2003) | Tatara (1994) | Tatara & Doi (1994) | Wozencraft (2005),,"14.Japanese MartenMartes melampusFrench:Martre du Japon/ German:Japanischer Marder/ Spanish:Marta japonesaTaxonomy.Mustela melampus Wagner, 1841, Japan.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. melampus Wagner, 1841— Japan(Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku Is).M. m. coreensis Kuroda & Mori, 1923— North and South Korea.M. m. tsuensis Thomas, 1897— Japan(Tsushima I).Introduced on Sado and HokkaidoIs.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-54.5 cm, tail 17-223 cm; average weight is 1-5 kgfor males and 1 kgfor females. The Japanese Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the throat and upper chest.Habitat.Broadleaf forests.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, centipedes, spiders, crustaceans, earthworms), fruits, and seeds. In the Kuju Highlandon Kyushu, the mean frequencies of occurrence of food items in scats were 79-7% animals and 511% plants. The diet comprised mainly insects, mammals, crustaceans, and 36 plant species. There were high frequencies of insects from June to October, mammals in February, April and December, crustaceans in August and October, and plants in October and December. Scats collected from the Tsushima Islands revealed that small mammals comprised a relatively stable proportion of the diet throughout the year (range 8-2 to 16-8%), whereas birds showed a peak from January (11-3%) to March (14:6%). Amphibians, mostly small adult frogs (Rana tsushimensis), were most common in the diet in February (9-7%). Insects were the most common animal prey, but their proportions in the diet varied greatly from 10-5% in May to 27-8% in August, and they were consistently least common throughout the winter. Centipedes (mostly Scolopendra subspinipes) were frequently eaten during May andJune (16:9-17-4%). Plant materials were the most common of all foods throughout the year (28:8-53-9%). Berries and seeds occurred at the highest frequency in April (41%, especially Rubus hirsutus and Elaeagnus pungens) and in September (47-3%, especially Vitis ficifolia and Ficus electa).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal. Resting sites are in trees and in ground burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On the Tsushima Islands, the mean home range size was 0-7 km? for eight malesand 0-63 km? for three females; home ranges were not significantly different between the sexes and ranged from 0-5- 1 km?®. There waslittle overlap of home ranges.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. m. tsuensisis classified as Vulnerable. The Japanese Marten is trapped forits fur during the hunting season (1 December to 31 January), except on HokkaidoIsland. The subspecies M. m. tsuensis, found only on the Tsushima Islands, has been protected from trapping since 1971. Predation by feral dogs and highway mortality appear to be major threats.Bibliography.Arai et al. (2003), Kuroda & Mori (1923), Otani (2002), Shusei et al. (2003), Tatara (1994), Tatara & Doi (1994), Wozencraft (2005)." +038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,631,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9.xml,Martes pennanti,Martes,pennanti,Pinel,1792,Pekan @fr | Fischermarder @de | Marta pekan @es,"Mustela pennant: Erxleben, 1777, Eastern Canada.Recent molecular studies have suggested that the Fisher should be placed in its own genus, Pekania. Three subspecies are recognized.","M. p. pennanti Exxleben, 1777— E Canadaand NE USA.M. p. columbiana Goldman, 1935— W Canadaand and USA(Rocky Mts).M. p. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W Canada(coastal British Columbia) and W USA.","Head-body 55-65 cm(males), 45-556 cm(females); tail 30-50 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females); weight 3.5-5.5 kg(males), 2.2-5 kg(females), adult males are roughly twice the weight of females. The Fisher has a long body, short limbs, a bushy tail, and large feet with strong claws. It is the largest member of the genus Martes. The pelage is silvery-brown to black; the back of the neck and head are often grayish or silver. White markings on the throat and upper chest are common. The skull has a strong sagittal crest, which is particularly well- developed in older males. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4.","Fishers are found in dense forests with a closed canopy; they avoid open areas. In north-eastern Canadaand United States, they also occur in fragmented, mixed woodlots interspersed with agricultural land. In California, mid-seral Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) forest typescompose the greatest proportion of Fisher home ranges in the Coastal Mountains; the greatest proportion of home ranges in the Sierra Nevadas are in the intermediate tree size class with dense canopy closure, and in mixed conifer forests. In south-central Maine, Fishers use a variety of forest types, especially during summer. During winter, they hunt intensively in dense patches of coniferous undergrowth (where Snowshoe Hare tracks are common) and use deciduous stands less than expected by availability.","The diet includes lagomorphs (especially the Snowshoe Hare), North American Porcupines, ungulate carrion, small mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. During the winter in British Columbia, 18 typesof mammalian and avian prey were found in 256 stomachs. The most commonly occurring prey species were Snowshoe Hares, Red Squirrels, and Southern Red-backed Voles. The diet varied between sexes: female fishers consumed small prey more frequently than did males. In the mountains of California’s Sierra Nevada, where the Snowshoe Hare and North American Porcupine are absent, other mammals are the most frequent food item; however, reptiles (20-4%) and insects (55-7%) are major components of the diet, and at least six fungal species are also eaten. In the mixed-conifer forests of the southern Sierra Nevada, where Fishers and American Martens occur together, the diets of both species are more diverse than reported elsewhere in North America. Although the diet of Fishers includes more birds,lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens, the dietary overlap is high. The great diversity of the diet in these two species may be due to the absence or rarity of large prey (such as Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevadacompared to other areas. In south-eastern Manitoba, Fishers prey heavily on Snowshoe Hares (84:3% frequency occurrence). In Vermont, most of the diet is mammalian (72%), with avian prey (15%) and fruit (10%) of secondary importance. In south-central Maine, winter foods include apples, porcupines, hares, Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), Red Squirrels, Northern Flying Squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), mice (Peromyscus), voles (Clethrionomys gapperi and Microtus), and shrews (Sorex and Blarina). The fall and winter diet in West Virginiaand Marylandincludes ten mammal species, four bird species, one gastropod species, and two typesof vegetation. White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most frequent dietary component. Medium-sized mammals such as Northern Raccoon and small mammals such as Peromyscus sp. are also major dietary components, although small mammals occur less frequently than reported elsewhere. Diet overlap between the sexes was found to be considerable and differences between the sexes in the occurrence of major food groups (small mammals, medium-sized mammals, large mammals, birds, and fruit) were not significant. Hunting strategies vary with prey type. Snowshoe Hares are caught after rapid zig-zagging chases. Fishers hunt porcupines by searching for their dens. The arboreal skills of Fishers enable them to chase porcupines down trees to the ground, where they kill them after lengthy attacks, during which the Fisher repeatedly bites the porcupine’s face (which is unprotected by quills).","Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.","Active during the day and night; most activity occurs shortly before sunrise and after sunset. Males and females show similar amounts of activity, and both sexes are active more frequently in summer than winter. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or trees, brush piles, or in rock crevices. Fishers in Californiaselect restsites in forested areas that have dense canopies, large trees, and steep slopes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, standing trees (live and dead) are the most common resting structures, with Californiablack oak (Quercus kelloggit) and Douglas-fir the most frequent species in the Sierra and Coastal areas, respectively. Resting structures are within the largest diameter trees available, averaging 117- 3 cmfor live conifers, 119- 8 cmfor conifer snags, and 69 cmfor hardwoods. Females use cavity structures more often than males, while males use platform structures significantly more than females. The diversity of typesand sizes of rest structures used by males suggests that males are less selective than females. In the Sierra Nevadastudy area, where surface water is less common, Fishers prefer rest sites within 100 mof water. In a central hardwood forest, Fishers were found to rest in hardwood, softwood, and mixedwood forest typesin proportion to their availability in the summer, but tended to avoid hardwood areas in winter. They used nests, cavities, and burrows in proportionto their availability in winter, but in the summer, Fishers preferred nests to cavities, and burrows were not used. Males tended to use larger cavity trees and mixed forest stands more often than females. During spring, summer, and fall in south-central Maine, Fishers prefer using rest sites in the branches of conifers, within coniferous stands.","Fishers are primarily terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are capable of long movements in short time spans; individuals have been reported to move 90 kmin three days, 45 kmin two days, and 10-11 kmin only a few hours. Usual daily movements are 1-5- 3 km. Movements of males are greatest during the spring breeding season; non-reproductive females move similar distances during all seasons. Adult Fishers are solitary outside of the breeding season. Mean home range sizes are up to 40 km* for males and up to 20 km* for females. There is little overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but there is extensive overlap between the ranges of opposite sexes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, the mean home range size of males (39- 4 km?) was significantly greater than that of females (9- 8 km”); the home ranges of females were significantly greater in the Coastal area than in the Sierras. In eastern Ontario, the mean adult home range size was 4- 4 km?, with up to 71% overlap of adjacent intrasexual home ranges. In Quebec, in an area where trapping had been prohibited for more than 20 years, mean home range size was 9- 2 km” for adult males and 5- 4 km?*for adult females. In south-central Maine, the home ranges of females were stable between seasons and years, but males moved extensively from February through April, and their ranges shifted between years. Home ranges averaged 30- 9 km” for males (range = 10-6-78- 2 km?) and 16- 3 km? for females (range = 8-1-39- 1 km?). The ranges of adults usually did not overlap with others of the same sex, except for males during spring. Fishers of both sexes shifted or enlarged their ranges to include areas left vacant when others of the same sex were removed. Population density in preferred habitat is one per 2:6-7- 5 km? but in other areas it may be as low as one per 200 km*. The adult population density was calculated as 327/ 100 km* in eastern Ontario, 2.7/ 10 km? in Quebec, and 1/2:8-10- 5 km? (summer) and 1/8- 3-20 km* (winter) in south-central Maine.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Fishers are considered common throughout most of their range, particularly in Canada, but they may be threatened in the western USA. They are trapped for their fur. In the 19"" and early 20™ centuries, excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging led to a decline in Fisher populations over most ofits range. Closed hunting seasons, protective regulations, and reintroductions were then initiated in many areas. The Fisher has made a comeback in parts of the eastern United States, but it is still vulnerable in the western states, where it seems to be dependent on old-growth forests.","Arthur & Krohn (1991) | Arthur et al. (1989a, 1989b) | Dzialak et al. (2005) | Garant & Crete(1997) | Kilpatrick & Rego (1994) | Koen et al. (2007) | Koepfli et al. (2008) | Paragi et al. (1994) | Powell (1979, 1981, 1993) | Powell et al. (2003) | Raine (1983, 1987) | VanWhy & Giuliano (2001) | Weir & Corbould (2007) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zielinski, Duncan et al. (1999) | Zielinski, Truex et al. (2004a, 2004Db)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714169/files/figure.png,"15.FisherMartes pennantiFrench:Pekan/ German:Fischermarder/ Spanish:Marta pekanTaxonomy.Mustela pennant: Erxleben, 1777, Eastern Canada.Recent molecular studies have suggested that the Fisher should be placed in its own genus, Pekania. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. p. pennanti Exxleben, 1777— E Canadaand NE USA.M. p. columbiana Goldman, 1935— W Canadaand and USA(Rocky Mts).M. p. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W Canada(coastal British Columbia) and W USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-65 cm(males), 45-556 cm(females); tail 30-50 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females); weight 3.5-5.5 kg(males), 2.2-5 kg(females), adult males are roughly twice the weight of females. The Fisher has a long body, short limbs, a bushy tail, and large feet with strong claws. It is the largest member of the genus Martes. The pelage is silvery-brown to black; the back of the neck and head are often grayish or silver. White markings on the throat and upper chest are common. The skull has a strong sagittal crest, which is particularly well- developed in older males. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4.M1/2=238,Habitat.Fishers are found in dense forests with a closed canopy; they avoid open areas. In north-eastern Canadaand United States, they also occur in fragmented, mixed woodlots interspersed with agricultural land. In California, mid-seral Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) forest typescompose the greatest proportion of Fisher home ranges in the Coastal Mountains; the greatest proportion of home ranges in the Sierra Nevadas are in the intermediate tree size class with dense canopy closure, and in mixed conifer forests. In south-central Maine, Fishers use a variety of forest types, especially during summer. During winter, they hunt intensively in dense patches of coniferous undergrowth (where Snowshoe Hare tracks are common) and use deciduous stands less than expected by availability.Food and Feeding.The diet includes lagomorphs (especially the Snowshoe Hare), North American Porcupines, ungulate carrion, small mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. During the winter in British Columbia, 18 typesof mammalian and avian prey were found in 256 stomachs. The most commonly occurring prey species were Snowshoe Hares, Red Squirrels, and Southern Red-backed Voles. The diet varied between sexes: female fishers consumed small prey more frequently than did males. In the mountains of California’s Sierra Nevada, where the Snowshoe Hare and North American Porcupine are absent, other mammals are the most frequent food item; however, reptiles (20-4%) and insects (55-7%) are major components of the diet, and at least six fungal species are also eaten. In the mixed-conifer forests of the southern Sierra Nevada, where Fishers and American Martens occur together, the diets of both species are more diverse than reported elsewhere in North America. Although the diet of Fishers includes more birds,lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens, the dietary overlap is high. The great diversity of the diet in these two species may be due to the absence or rarity of large prey (such as Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevadacompared to other areas. In south-eastern Manitoba, Fishers prey heavily on Snowshoe Hares (84:3% frequency occurrence). In Vermont, most of the diet is mammalian (72%), with avian prey (15%) and fruit (10%) of secondary importance. In south-central Maine, winter foods include apples, porcupines, hares, Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), Red Squirrels, Northern Flying Squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), mice (Peromyscus), voles (Clethrionomys gapperi and Microtus), and shrews (Sorex and Blarina). The fall and winter diet in West Virginiaand Marylandincludes ten mammal species, four bird species, one gastropod species, and two typesof vegetation. White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most frequent dietary component. Medium-sized mammals such as Northern Raccoon and small mammals such as Peromyscus sp. are also major dietary components, although small mammals occur less frequently than reported elsewhere. Diet overlap between the sexes was found to be considerable and differences between the sexes in the occurrence of major food groups (small mammals, medium-sized mammals, large mammals, birds, and fruit) were not significant. Hunting strategies vary with prey type. Snowshoe Hares are caught after rapid zig-zagging chases. Fishers hunt porcupines by searching for their dens. The arboreal skills of Fishers enable them to chase porcupines down trees to the ground, where they kill them after lengthy attacks, during which the Fisher repeatedly bites the porcupine’s face (which is unprotected by quills).Activity patterns.Active during the day and night; most activity occurs shortly before sunrise and after sunset. Males and females show similar amounts of activity, and both sexes are active more frequently in summer than winter. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or trees, brush piles, or in rock crevices. Fishers in Californiaselect restsites in forested areas that have dense canopies, large trees, and steep slopes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, standing trees (live and dead) are the most common resting structures, with Californiablack oak (Quercus kelloggit) and Douglas-fir the most frequent species in the Sierra and Coastal areas, respectively. Resting structures are within the largest diameter trees available, averaging 117- 3 cmfor live conifers, 119- 8 cmfor conifer snags, and 69 cmfor hardwoods. Females use cavity structures more often than males, while males use platform structures significantly more than females. The diversity of typesand sizes of rest structures used by males suggests that males are less selective than females. In the Sierra Nevadastudy area, where surface water is less common, Fishers prefer rest sites within 100 mof water. In a central hardwood forest, Fishers were found to rest in hardwood, softwood, and mixedwood forest typesin proportion to their availability in the summer, but tended to avoid hardwood areas in winter. They used nests, cavities, and burrows in proportionto their availability in winter, but in the summer, Fishers preferred nests to cavities, and burrows were not used. Males tended to use larger cavity trees and mixed forest stands more often than females. During spring, summer, and fall in south-central Maine, Fishers prefer using rest sites in the branches of conifers, within coniferous stands.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Fishers are primarily terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are capable of long movements in short time spans; individuals have been reported to move 90 kmin three days, 45 kmin two days, and 10-11 kmin only a few hours. Usual daily movements are 1-5- 3 km. Movements of males are greatest during the spring breeding season; non-reproductive females move similar distances during all seasons. Adult Fishers are solitary outside of the breeding season. Mean home range sizes are up to 40 km* for males and up to 20 km* for females. There is little overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but there is extensive overlap between the ranges of opposite sexes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, the mean home range size of males (39- 4 km?) was significantly greater than that of females (9- 8 km”); the home ranges of females were significantly greater in the Coastal area than in the Sierras. In eastern Ontario, the mean adult home range size was 4- 4 km?, with up to 71% overlap of adjacent intrasexual home ranges. In Quebec, in an area where trapping had been prohibited for more than 20 years, mean home range size was 9- 2 km” for adult males and 5- 4 km?*for adult females. In south-central Maine, the home ranges of females were stable between seasons and years, but males moved extensively from February through April, and their ranges shifted between years. Home ranges averaged 30- 9 km” for males (range = 10-6-78- 2 km?) and 16- 3 km? for females (range = 8-1-39- 1 km?). The ranges of adults usually did not overlap with others of the same sex, except for males during spring. Fishers of both sexes shifted or enlarged their ranges to include areas left vacant when others of the same sex were removed. Population density in preferred habitat is one per 2:6-7- 5 km? but in other areas it may be as low as one per 200 km*. The adult population density was calculated as 327/ 100 km* in eastern Ontario, 2.7/ 10 km? in Quebec, and 1/2:8-10- 5 km? (summer) and 1/8- 3-20 km* (winter) in south-central Maine.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Fishers are considered common throughout most of their range, particularly in Canada, but they may be threatened in the western USA. They are trapped for their fur. In the 19"" and early 20™ centuries, excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging led to a decline in Fisher populations over most ofits range. Closed hunting seasons, protective regulations, and reintroductions were then initiated in many areas. The Fisher has made a comeback in parts of the eastern United States, but it is still vulnerable in the western states, where it seems to be dependent on old-growth forests.Bibliography.Arthur & Krohn (1991), Arthur et al. (1989a, 1989b), Dzialak et al. (2005), Garant & Crete(1997), Kilpatrick & Rego (1994), Koen et al. (2007), Koepfli et al. (2008), Paragi et al. (1994), Powell (1979, 1981, 1993), Powell et al. (2003), Raine (1983, 1987), VanWhy & Giuliano (2001), Weir & Corbould (2007), Wozencraft (2005), Zielinski, Duncan et al. (1999), Zielinski, Truex et al. (2004a, 2004Db)." +038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,631,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C.xml,Martes melampus,Martes,melampus,Pinel,1792,Martre du Japon @fr | Japanischer Marder @de | Marta japonesa @es,"Mustela melampus Wagner, 1841, Japan.Three subspecies are recognized.","M. m. melampus Wagner, 1841— Japan(Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku Is).M. m. coreensis Kuroda & Mori, 1923— North and South Korea.M. m. tsuensis Thomas, 1897— Japan(Tsushima I).Introduced on Sado and HokkaidoIs.","Head-body 47-54.5 cm, tail 17-223 cm; average weight is 1-5 kgfor males and 1 kgfor females. The Japanese Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the throat and upper chest.",Broadleaf forests.,"The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, centipedes, spiders, crustaceans, earthworms), fruits, and seeds. In the Kuju Highlandon Kyushu, the mean frequencies of occurrence of food items in scats were 79-7% animals and 511% plants. The diet comprised mainly insects, mammals, crustaceans, and 36 plant species. There were high frequencies of insects from June to October, mammals in February, April and December, crustaceans in August and October, and plants in October and December. Scats collected from the Tsushima Islands revealed that small mammals comprised a relatively stable proportion of the diet throughout the year (range 8-2 to 16-8%), whereas birds showed a peak from January (11-3%) to March (14:6%). Amphibians, mostly small adult frogs (Rana tsushimensis), were most common in the diet in February (9-7%). Insects were the most common animal prey, but their proportions in the diet varied greatly from 10-5% in May to 27-8% in August, and they were consistently least common throughout the winter. Centipedes (mostly Scolopendra subspinipes) were frequently eaten during May andJune (16:9-17-4%). Plant materials were the most common of all foods throughout the year (28:8-53-9%). Berries and seeds occurred at the highest frequency in April (41%, especially Rubus hirsutus and Elaeagnus pungens) and in September (47-3%, especially Vitis ficifolia and Ficus electa).",Nothing known.,Primarily nocturnal. Resting sites are in trees and in ground burrows.,"On the Tsushima Islands, the mean home range size was 0-7 km? for eight malesand 0-63 km? for three females; home ranges were not significantly different between the sexes and ranged from 0-5- 1 km?®. There waslittle overlap of home ranges.Breeding.Nothing known.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. m. tsuensisis classified as Vulnerable. The Japanese Marten is trapped forits fur during the hunting season (1 December to 31 January), except on HokkaidoIsland. The subspecies M. m. tsuensis, found only on the Tsushima Islands, has been protected from trapping since 1971. Predation by feral dogs and highway mortality appear to be major threats.",Arai et al. (2003) | Kuroda & Mori (1923) | Otani (2002) | Shusei et al. (2003) | Tatara (1994) | Tatara & Doi (1994) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714167/files/figure.png,"14.Japanese MartenMartes melampusFrench:Martre du Japon/ German:Japanischer Marder/ Spanish:Marta japonesaTaxonomy.Mustela melampus Wagner, 1841, Japan.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. melampus Wagner, 1841— Japan(Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku Is).M. m. coreensis Kuroda & Mori, 1923— North and South Korea.M. m. tsuensis Thomas, 1897— Japan(Tsushima I).Introduced on Sado and HokkaidoIs.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-54.5 cm, tail 17-223 cm; average weight is 1-5 kgfor males and 1 kgfor females. The Japanese Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the throat and upper chest.Habitat.Broadleaf forests.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, centipedes, spiders, crustaceans, earthworms), fruits, and seeds. In the Kuju Highlandon Kyushu, the mean frequencies of occurrence of food items in scats were 79-7% animals and 511% plants. The diet comprised mainly insects, mammals, crustaceans, and 36 plant species. There were high frequencies of insects from June to October, mammals in February, April and December, crustaceans in August and October, and plants in October and December. Scats collected from the Tsushima Islands revealed that small mammals comprised a relatively stable proportion of the diet throughout the year (range 8-2 to 16-8%), whereas birds showed a peak from January (11-3%) to March (14:6%). Amphibians, mostly small adult frogs (Rana tsushimensis), were most common in the diet in February (9-7%). Insects were the most common animal prey, but their proportions in the diet varied greatly from 10-5% in May to 27-8% in August, and they were consistently least common throughout the winter. Centipedes (mostly Scolopendra subspinipes) were frequently eaten during May andJune (16:9-17-4%). Plant materials were the most common of all foods throughout the year (28:8-53-9%). Berries and seeds occurred at the highest frequency in April (41%, especially Rubus hirsutus and Elaeagnus pungens) and in September (47-3%, especially Vitis ficifolia and Ficus electa).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal. Resting sites are in trees and in ground burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On the Tsushima Islands, the mean home range size was 0-7 km? for eight malesand 0-63 km? for three females; home ranges were not significantly different between the sexes and ranged from 0-5- 1 km?®. There waslittle overlap of home ranges.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. m. tsuensisis classified as Vulnerable. The Japanese Marten is trapped forits fur during the hunting season (1 December to 31 January), except on HokkaidoIsland. The subspecies M. m. tsuensis, found only on the Tsushima Islands, has been protected from trapping since 1971. Predation by feral dogs and highway mortality appear to be major threats.Bibliography.Arai et al. (2003), Kuroda & Mori (1923), Otani (2002), Shusei et al. (2003), Tatara (1994), Tatara & Doi (1994), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA5DFFB2CAAC36CAF8BEF3BF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,632,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5DFFB2CAAC36CAF8BEF3BF.xml,Martes zibellina,Martes,zibellina,,,Martre zibeline @fr | Zobel @de | Marta cibelina @es,"Mustela zibellina Linnaeus, 1758, Russia.Thirty subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","China, Japan(Hokkaido), Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.","Head-body 38-56 cm(males), 35-51 cm(females); tail 12-19 cm(males), 11.5-17.2 cm(females); weight 800-1800 g(males), 700-1560 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Sable has a long body and short legs, and a short bushy tail around a third of the head and body length. The pelage is long and silky, and varies from pale grayish-brown to dark brown, almost black. The summer pelageis shorter and darker. The top of the head is lighter than the body, and the white neck patch is vestigial. The soles are covered with extremely dense, stiff hairs. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4,M 1/2 = 38.","Sables are found in deciduous and coniferous forests, and often occur in mountain regions and near streams. They typically prefer mature forests of large trees with a dense canopy. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, Sables prefer late succession mixed forests, with large trees and coarse woody debris, intermediate to dense tree canopy cover, and high densities and diameters of larch tree holes. They avoid open areas, but use the middle of slopes and slope bottoms, and rest on ridge tops with abundant logs, boles, or roots.","The diet consists mostly of small mammals (rodents, pikas, hares), but also includes birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, insects, fruits, honey, nuts, and berries. The summer diet in the Middle Yenisei taiga, Siberia, comprises microtine rodents, mainly Northern Red-backed Voles Clethrionomys rutilus (52-3% of the biomass). Plant food (seeds of Siberian pine Pinus sibiricaand berries of Vaccinium sp.) is also frequently eaten (79-4% of scats and 19-9% of biomass). Shrews, birds, and insects are supplementary food (25% of biomass). In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the winter diet is mainly small mammals (54-1%), berries and pine nuts (32:4%), birds (12-5%), eggs (2:2%), and ants (1%). The main small mammal prey is Gray Red-backed Voles (Clethrionomys rufocanus) and Northern Red-backed Voles (Myodes rutilus), followed by Mountain Hares (Lepus timidus) and Siberian Chipmunks (Eutamias sibiricus). Birds include hazel grouses Tetrastes bonasia (8-1%), Eurasian jays Garrulus glandarius (0-7%), and great tits Parus major (0-5%). Plant items include berries of Vaccinium vitisideae (20-9%) and pine nuts of Pinus pumila (8:8%). In north-eastern China, remains of mammals were found in 89% ofscats, followed in frequency by soft and hard mast, and birds. Sables selected for C. rufocanus more than shrews (Sorex caecutiens), but ate C. rutilus in proportion to its availability. In eastern Hokkaido, Japan, the diet includes mammals, insects, plants, birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, and crustaceans. Mammals are the commonest food items throughout the year, with voles Clethrionomyssp. (frequency of occurrence 56:5%), Siberian Chipmunks (19-3%) and mice Apodemus sp. (14:6%), most often found in scats. Insects are eaten mainly in the summer (48:8%) and less often in other seasons (9:3% on average). Plant materials, chiefly fruits, are consumed mainly in autumn (45-7%) and winter (68-4%), but are rare in the diet during spring (5-1%) and summer (1-3%).","Mating occurs from June to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur the following spring, in April or May. Total gestation is 250-300 days; actual embryonic development is 25-40 days. Litter size is one to five, usually three or four. The young weigh 30-35 gat birth, open their eyes after 30-36 days, emerge from the den at 38 days, and are weaned after seven weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 15-16 months.","Active both during the day and at night. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, radio-collared Sables were found to be nocturnal in spring and winter, and diurnal in summer and autumn. Den/rest sites are in holes among or under rocks, in hollow logs, under tree roots, or in burrows (which may be several meters long and lead to an enlarged nest chamber lined with dry vegetation and fur). In Japan, Sables prefer resting in dense tree forests that have many tree species and woody debris.","Sables are mainly terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges may be up to 30 km?, especially in the desolate forests of Siberia. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the average home range size of males was 13-03 km® and 7-18 km? for females. There was considerable overlap of home ranges between males and females (average 62%), but virtually no overlap between male individuals. In a cooltemperate mixed forest in Japan, home ranges were 0-50- 1-78 km* (mean 1-12 km?); the home ranges of some individuals overlapped extensively. Reported population densities vary from one per 1-5 km? in pine forests to one per 25 km?® in larch forests.Breeding.Mating occurs from June to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur the following spring, in April or May. Total gestation is 250-300 days; actual embryonic development is 25-40 days. Litter size is one to five, usually three or four. The young weigh 30-35 gat birth, open their eyes after 30-36 days, emerge from the den at 38 days, and are weaned after seven weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 15-16 months.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Sable is considered common throughout most ofits distribution. It is hunted for its fur, which is one of the most valuable furs produced in Europe and Asia. Sables are also raised on fur farms to help sustain the fur trade; over 25,000 are harvested annually. This species was once common in China, but is now considered rare.","Brzezinski (1994) | Buskirk et al. (1996a, 1996b) | Ma et al. (1999) | Miyoshi & Higashi (2005) | Murakami (2003) | Stroganov (1969) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Xu, Jiang, Ma, Jin et al. (1996) | Xu, Jiang, Ma, Li & Buskirk (1997) | Zhang & Ma (2000)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714173/files/figure.png,"16.SableMartes zibellinaFrench:Martre zibeline/ German:Zobel/ Spanish:Marta cibelinaTaxonomy.Mustela zibellina Linnaeus, 1758, Russia.Thirty subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.China, Japan(Hokkaido), Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 38-56 cm(males), 35-51 cm(females); tail 12-19 cm(males), 11.5-17.2 cm(females); weight 800-1800 g(males), 700-1560 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Sable has a long body and short legs, and a short bushy tail around a third of the head and body length. The pelage is long and silky, and varies from pale grayish-brown to dark brown, almost black. The summer pelageis shorter and darker. The top of the head is lighter than the body, and the white neck patch is vestigial. The soles are covered with extremely dense, stiff hairs. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4,M 1/2 = 38.Habitat.Sables are found in deciduous and coniferous forests, and often occur in mountain regions and near streams. They typically prefer mature forests of large trees with a dense canopy. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, Sables prefer late succession mixed forests, with large trees and coarse woody debris, intermediate to dense tree canopy cover, and high densities and diameters of larch tree holes. They avoid open areas, but use the middle of slopes and slope bottoms, and rest on ridge tops with abundant logs, boles, or roots.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mostly of small mammals (rodents, pikas, hares), but also includes birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, insects, fruits, honey, nuts, and berries. The summer diet in the Middle Yenisei taiga, Siberia, comprises microtine rodents, mainly Northern Red-backed Voles Clethrionomys rutilus (52-3% of the biomass). Plant food (seeds of Siberian pine Pinus sibiricaand berries of Vaccinium sp.) is also frequently eaten (79-4% of scats and 19-9% of biomass). Shrews, birds, and insects are supplementary food (25% of biomass). In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the winter diet is mainly small mammals (54-1%), berries and pine nuts (32:4%), birds (12-5%), eggs (2:2%), and ants (1%). The main small mammal prey is Gray Red-backed Voles (Clethrionomys rufocanus) and Northern Red-backed Voles (Myodes rutilus), followed by Mountain Hares (Lepus timidus) and Siberian Chipmunks (Eutamias sibiricus). Birds include hazel grouses Tetrastes bonasia (8-1%), Eurasian jays Garrulus glandarius (0-7%), and great tits Parus major (0-5%). Plant items include berries of Vaccinium vitisideae (20-9%) and pine nuts of Pinus pumila (8:8%). In north-eastern China, remains of mammals were found in 89% ofscats, followed in frequency by soft and hard mast, and birds. Sables selected for C. rufocanus more than shrews (Sorex caecutiens), but ate C. rutilus in proportion to its availability. In eastern Hokkaido, Japan, the diet includes mammals, insects, plants, birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, and crustaceans. Mammals are the commonest food items throughout the year, with voles Clethrionomyssp. (frequency of occurrence 56:5%), Siberian Chipmunks (19-3%) and mice Apodemus sp. (14:6%), most often found in scats. Insects are eaten mainly in the summer (48:8%) and less often in other seasons (9:3% on average). Plant materials, chiefly fruits, are consumed mainly in autumn (45-7%) and winter (68-4%), but are rare in the diet during spring (5-1%) and summer (1-3%).Activity patterns.Active both during the day and at night. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, radio-collared Sables were found to be nocturnal in spring and winter, and diurnal in summer and autumn. Den/rest sites are in holes among or under rocks, in hollow logs, under tree roots, or in burrows (which may be several meters long and lead to an enlarged nest chamber lined with dry vegetation and fur). In Japan, Sables prefer resting in dense tree forests that have many tree species and woody debris.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sables are mainly terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges may be up to 30 km?, especially in the desolate forests of Siberia. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the average home range size of males was 13-03 km® and 7-18 km? for females. There was considerable overlap of home ranges between males and females (average 62%), but virtually no overlap between male individuals. In a cooltemperate mixed forest in Japan, home ranges were 0-50- 1-78 km* (mean 1-12 km?); the home ranges of some individuals overlapped extensively. Reported population densities vary from one per 1-5 km? in pine forests to one per 25 km?® in larch forests.Breeding.Mating occurs from June to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur the following spring, in April or May. Total gestation is 250-300 days; actual embryonic development is 25-40 days. Litter size is one to five, usually three or four. The young weigh 30-35 gat birth, open their eyes after 30-36 days, emerge from the den at 38 days, and are weaned after seven weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 15-16 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Sable is considered common throughout most ofits distribution. It is hunted for its fur, which is one of the most valuable furs produced in Europe and Asia. Sables are also raised on fur farms to help sustain the fur trade; over 25,000 are harvested annually. This species was once common in China, but is now considered rare.Bibliography.Brzezinski (1994), Buskirk et al. (1996a, 1996b), Ma et al. (1999), Miyoshi & Higashi (2005), Murakami (2003), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Xu, Jiang, Ma, Jin et al. (1996), Xu, Jiang, Ma, Li & Buskirk (1997), Zhang & Ma (2000)." 038F87D4CA70FF9ECFEF367FFDB7FD34,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,651,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA70FF9ECFEF367FFDB7FD34.xml,Mustela kathiah,Mustela,kathiah,Linnaeus,1758,Belette a ventre jaune @fr | Gelbbauchwiesel @de | Comadreja china @es,"Mustela kathiah Hodgson, 1835, Nepal.Monotypic.","Bhutan, S & E China, N & NE India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, N Thailand, and Vietnam.","Head-body 20-29 cm, tail 13-18 cm; weight 150-260 g. The Yellow-bellied Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The upperparts are dark chocolate to rusty brown; the underparts are pale yellow or light orange-brown. The chin and upper lip are whitish. The tail is bushy and the same color as the upperparts. Some white patches may occur on the feet.","Pine forests, up to 4000 m(above the timber line). In Western Himalaya from 3000-5200 min the cold deserts, but in Hong Kongfound in much lower altitudes, from close to sea-level to over 200 m.","Diet is said to include rodents, birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, insects, and fruit.",Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.,"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","Duckworth & Robichaud (2005) | Francis (2008) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714259/files/figure.png,"46.Yellow-bellied WeaselMustela kathiahFrench:Belette a ventre jaune/ German:Gelbbauchwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja chinaTaxonomy.Mustela kathiah Hodgson, 1835, Nepal.Monotypic.Distribution.Bhutan, S & E China, N & NE India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, N Thailand, and Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 20-29 cm, tail 13-18 cm; weight 150-260 g. The Yellow-bellied Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The upperparts are dark chocolate to rusty brown; the underparts are pale yellow or light orange-brown. The chin and upper lip are whitish. The tail is bushy and the same color as the upperparts. Some white patches may occur on the feet.Habitat.Pine forests, up to 4000 m(above the timber line). In Western Himalaya from 3000-5200 min the cold deserts, but in Hong Kongfound in much lower altitudes, from close to sea-level to over 200 m.Food and Feeding.Diet is said to include rodents, birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, insects, and fruit.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Duckworth & Robichaud (2005), Francis (2008), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." 038F87D4CA70FF9FCFEF38CDFA54F5B0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,651,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA70FF9FCFEF38CDFA54F5B0.xml,Mustela itatsi,Mustela,itatsi,Linnaeus,1758,Putois du Japon @fr | Japan-Wiesel @de | Comadreja japonesa @es,"Mustela itatsi Temminck, 1844, Japan.The Japanese Weasel was previously considered a subspecies of the Siberian Weasel. Monotypic.",Japan. Introduced to Hokkaidoand Russia(S Sakhalin).,"Head-body 28-39 cm(males), 25-30- 56 cm(females); tail 15- 5— 21 cm(males), 13: 3-16.4 cm(females); weight 660-820 g(males), 360-430 g(females), adult males are almost twice the weight of females. The Japanese Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer, and becomes paler, almost yellowish brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white.",Forests. Often found in close proximity to water and sometimes near human dwellings.,"The diet includes insects, reptiles, and small mammals. In Hamura, Japanese Weasels eat rodents, fish, arthropods, and crustaceans throughout the year; seasonal changes in the diet are small. In Tachikawa, the main food items are rodents and fruits in winter and spring, and arthropods and crustaceans in summer and autumn. On Zamami Island, where Japanese Weasels were introduced in 1957 and 1958, they eat a wide variety of prey, mainly insects, followed by reptiles and small mammals.",Mating occurs in late winter and births occur in the spring.,Nocturnal.,Solitary.Breeding.Mating occurs in late winter and births occur in the spring.,"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Japanese Weasel is considered common throughout its range. This species has been introduced to certain areas to control reptiles and rats. Very little is known about Japanese Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Fujii et al. (1998) | Keishi et al. (2002) | Okada et al. (2007) | Sekiguchi et al. (2002) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714257/files/figure.png,"45.Japanese WeaselMustela itatsiFrench:Putois du Japon/ German:Japan-Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja japonesaTaxonomy.Mustela itatsi Temminck, 1844, Japan.The Japanese Weasel was previously considered a subspecies of the Siberian Weasel. Monotypic.Distribution.Japan. Introduced to Hokkaidoand Russia(S Sakhalin).Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-39 cm(males), 25-30- 56 cm(females); tail 15- 5— 21 cm(males), 13: 3-16.4 cm(females); weight 660-820 g(males), 360-430 g(females), adult males are almost twice the weight of females. The Japanese Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer, and becomes paler, almost yellowish brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white.Habitat.Forests. Often found in close proximity to water and sometimes near human dwellings.Food and Feeding.The diet includes insects, reptiles, and small mammals. In Hamura, Japanese Weasels eat rodents, fish, arthropods, and crustaceans throughout the year; seasonal changes in the diet are small. In Tachikawa, the main food items are rodents and fruits in winter and spring, and arthropods and crustaceans in summer and autumn. On Zamami Island, where Japanese Weasels were introduced in 1957 and 1958, they eat a wide variety of prey, mainly insects, followed by reptiles and small mammals.Activity patterns.Nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Solitary.Breeding.Mating occurs in late winter and births occur in the spring.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Japanese Weasel is considered common throughout its range. This species has been introduced to certain areas to control reptiles and rats. Very little is known about Japanese Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Fujii et al. (1998), Keishi et al. (2002), Okada et al. (2007), Sekiguchi et al. (2002), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA71FF9DCFA53BBDFCD4F9BF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,652,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA71FF9DCFA53BBDFCD4F9BF.xml,Mustela nigripes,Mustela,nigripes,Linnaeus,1758,Putois d’Amérique @fr | Schwarzful3iltis @de | Turon patinegro @es,"Putorius nigripes Audubon & Bachman, 1851, Wyoming, USA.Monotypic.","Great Plains of USA(Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming) and N Mexico.","Head-body 40-50 cm, tail 11.4-15 cm; weight 964-1078 g(males), 764-854 g(females), adult males are larger than females. The Black-footed Ferret has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-buff or beige with black hairs throughout; the underparts are paler. The forehead, muzzle, and throat are nearly white. The top of the head and middle of the back are brown. There is a distinctive, broad, horizontal black stripe across the face. The feet and terminal fourth of the tail are black. There are three pairs of mammae.","Black-footed Ferrets are found on short/mid-grass prairies and semi-arid grasslands, in close association with prairie dogs.","Black-footed Ferrets specialize in preying on prairie dogs (Cynomys), which they hunt by pursuing them inside their burrow systems. Occasionally, they may also eat other small mammals, such as microtine rodents and ground squirrels. One scat study revealed a diet that comprised 87% White-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni), 6% mice, and 3% lagomorphs.","Mating occurs in March and April. Gestation lasts 42-45 days and births occur in May and June. Litter size can range from one to six; the average is three. The young emerge from the burrow in early July and separate from the mother in September or early October. Young males disperse a considerable distance, but young females often remain in the vicinity of their mother’s territory. Sexual maturity is attained by one year.",,"Black-footed Ferrets are solitary, except during the breeding season. They seldom move from one prairie dog colony to another. The average nightly movement during winter is 1406 m. The average prairie dog town size occupied by a Black-footed Ferret is 8 ha, but the average size occupied by females with young is 36 ha (range = 10-120 ha). The mean distance between two towns occupied by Black-footed Ferrets is 5- 4 km. Population density in Wyomingwas estimated to be one ferret per 50 ha of prairie dog colonies.Breeding.Mating occurs in March and April. Gestation lasts 42-45 days and births occur in May and June. Litter size can range from one to six; the average is three. The young emerge from the burrow in early July and separate from the mother in September or early October. Young males disperse a considerable distance, but young females often remain in the vicinity of their mother’s territory. Sexual maturity is attained by one year.","Listed as Extinct in the Wild in 1996, but the success of conservation measures has changed their status to Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The Black-footed Ferret may once have been common in southern Canada(Alberta, and Saskatchewan), west-central USA(Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, Arizona, and Texas), and northern Mexico. Destruction of prairie dog colonies for the sake of agriculture led to a decline in Black-footed Ferret numbers and eventually they became so rare that many people considered them to be extinct. However, unconfirmed sigh things continued from several states, and in 1981 a small population of Black-footed Ferrets was discovered in Wyoming. Intensive field studies were initiated, and byJuly 1984, the population was estimated to contain 129 individuals. However, the number of ferrets then began to fall, apparently due to a decline in their prairie dog prey; also, canine distemper was somehow introduced into the wild population. By 1987, the remaining 18 individuals were brought into captivity to start a breeding program. By 1991, there were 180 individuals in captivity and 49 ferrets were released into south-eastern Wyoming; 91 more were released in 1992, and another 48 in1993. Most of these animals are thought to have died, but some are known to have survived and reproduced; at least six litters were born in the wild in 1993. Additional reintroductions were carried out in Montana, South Dakota, and Arizona. Today, they are known from 18 reintroduction efforts, only three of which are self sustaining. These self-sustaining populations are in South Dakota and Wyoming; four populations of limited success are in Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, and Utah; eight populations recently introduced are in Arizona, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Mexico; and three other declining or extirpated populations are in Montana. The current status of this species is still extremely precarious.",Biggins et al. (1986) | Campbell et al. (1987) | Hillman & Clark (1980) | IUCN(2008) | Svendsen (2003) | Vargas& Anderson (1998) | Wozencraft (2005) | Young et al. (2001),https://zenodo.org/record/5714265/files/figure.png,"49.Black-footed FerretMustela nigripesFrench:Putois d’Amérique/ German:Schwarzful3iltis/ Spanish:Turon patinegroTaxonomy.Putorius nigripes Audubon & Bachman, 1851, Wyoming, USA.Monotypic.Distribution.Great Plains of USA(Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming) and N Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-50 cm, tail 11.4-15 cm; weight 964-1078 g(males), 764-854 g(females), adult males are larger than females. The Black-footed Ferret has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-buff or beige with black hairs throughout; the underparts are paler. The forehead, muzzle, and throat are nearly white. The top of the head and middle of the back are brown. There is a distinctive, broad, horizontal black stripe across the face. The feet and terminal fourth of the tail are black. There are three pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34Habitat.Black-footed Ferrets are found on short/mid-grass prairies and semi-arid grasslands, in close association with prairie dogs.Food and Feeding.Black-footed Ferrets specialize in preying on prairie dogs (Cynomys), which they hunt by pursuing them inside their burrow systems. Occasionally, they may also eat other small mammals, such as microtine rodents and ground squirrels. One scat study revealed a diet that comprised 87% White-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni), 6% mice, and 3% lagomorphs.Activity pattern.Primarily nocturnal, although daytime activity is not uncommon. Black-footed Ferrets are active throughout the year and continue to hunt prairie dogs during the winter, even though they are in hibernation. Prairie dog burrows are used as den/rest sites and may be modified for their own use.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black-footed Ferrets are solitary, except during the breeding season. They seldom move from one prairie dog colony to another. The average nightly movement during winter is 1406 m. The average prairie dog town size occupied by a Black-footed Ferret is 8 ha, but the average size occupied by females with young is 36 ha (range = 10-120 ha). The mean distance between two towns occupied by Black-footed Ferrets is 5- 4 km. Population density in Wyomingwas estimated to be one ferret per 50 ha of prairie dog colonies.Breeding.Mating occurs in March and April. Gestation lasts 42-45 days and births occur in May and June. Litter size can range from one to six; the average is three. The young emerge from the burrow in early July and separate from the mother in September or early October. Young males disperse a considerable distance, but young females often remain in the vicinity of their mother’s territory. Sexual maturity is attained by one year.Status and Conservation.Listed as Extinct in the Wild in 1996, but the success of conservation measures has changed their status to Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The Black-footed Ferret may once have been common in southern Canada(Alberta, and Saskatchewan), west-central USA(Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, Arizona, and Texas), and northern Mexico. Destruction of prairie dog colonies for the sake of agriculture led to a decline in Black-footed Ferret numbers and eventually they became so rare that many people considered them to be extinct. However, unconfirmed sigh things continued from several states, and in 1981 a small population of Black-footed Ferrets was discovered in Wyoming. Intensive field studies were initiated, and byJuly 1984, the population was estimated to contain 129 individuals. However, the number of ferrets then began to fall, apparently due to a decline in their prairie dog prey; also, canine distemper was somehow introduced into the wild population. By 1987, the remaining 18 individuals were brought into captivity to start a breeding program. By 1991, there were 180 individuals in captivity and 49 ferrets were released into south-eastern Wyoming; 91 more were released in 1992, and another 48 in1993. Most of these animals are thought to have died, but some are known to have survived and reproduced; at least six litters were born in the wild in 1993. Additional reintroductions were carried out in Montana, South Dakota, and Arizona. Today, they are known from 18 reintroduction efforts, only three of which are self sustaining. These self-sustaining populations are in South Dakota and Wyoming; four populations of limited success are in Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, and Utah; eight populations recently introduced are in Arizona, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Mexico; and three other declining or extirpated populations are in Montana. The current status of this species is still extremely precarious.Bibliography.Biggins et al. (1986), Campbell et al. (1987), Hillman & Clark (1980), IUCN(2008), Svendsen (2003), Vargas& Anderson (1998), Wozencraft (2005), Young et al. (2001)." 038F87D4CA71FF9ECAAD3EE4F91AFD6B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,652,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA71FF9ECAAD3EE4F91AFD6B.xml,Mustela lutreola,Mustela,lutreola,Linnaeus,1758,Vison d'Europe @fr | Europaischer Nerz @de | ison europeo @es,"Viverra lutreola Linnaeus, 1761, Finland.Monotypic.","Belarus, Estonia, France, Latvia, Romania, Russia(W of Urals), and N Spain.","Head-body 20-36 cm, tail 12-17.5 cm; weight 650-1000 g(males), 500-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The European Mink has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dense and short, and reddish-brown in color; the underparts are paler than the back. A margin of white occurs around the mouth and sometimes on the chest and throat. The skull is flat and narrow. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M1/2=34.Habitat.European Mink are found along streams, rivers, and lakes. They are rarely found more than 100 mfrom fresh water and prefer waterways with densely vegetated banks. In south-Western Europe, radio-collared European Mink used areas that had low forest cover and bramble or shrub cover along the riverbank; they avoided areas with dense forest cover. In south-western France, radio-collared European Mink had a strong preference for flooded habitats, particularly open marshes, flooded woodlands, and moorlands; they seldom left riparian forest corridors.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crabs, and insects. The chief prey is often the Water Vole. In northern Spain, scat analysis revealed a diet based on small mammals (relative frequency of occurrence 36:9%), fish (30-6%), and birds (17-8%). The Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) was the most consumed small mammal and cyprinids (mainly Barbus sp.) were the most frequently eaten fish. The average size of consumed fish was 13- 5 cm, and the average weight was 31- 5 g; males ate larger and heavierfish than females. In north-east Belarus, three out of nine individuals studied were specialists on frogs (77-97%, mainly the common frog Rana temporaria). One individual fed mostly on crayfish (Astacus astacus, 62%), and the other five were generalist predators. Excess food may be cached for later use.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in crevices, amongst tree roots and dense bramble patches, or in burrows, either self-excavated or taken from a Water Vole. In south-western France, rest sites were mainly found above ground in flooded areas, under bushes or in cavities between tree roots.Movements, Home range and Social organization.European Mink are terrestrial, but swim and dive well. Home ranges average 32 ha for males and 26 ha for females. In south-Western Europe, the length of home ranges varied between 11-17 kmalong watercourses for five males, and was 0-6 and 3-6 kmfor two females. The home ranges of males were larger than those found in previous studies and most females captured were found within the home range of a male. Males occupied adjoining river sections with minimal range overlap, suggesting an intra-sexual exclusive spacing pattern for males. In autumn and winter, there may be extensive movements to locate swift, nonfrozen streams. Population densities may reach 12 animals/ 10 kmof shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March. Gestation is 35-72 days. Births occur in April and May in rock piles, under roots, in hollow trees, or in abandoned buildings. Litter size is two to seven, usually four or five. The young are born blind, and at birth average 8- 4 gfor males and 7- 6 gfor females. The eyes open after 30-36 days. They are weaned at ten weeks and attain sexual maturity after 9-10 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The European Mink has declined over much of its former range and has been extirpated from Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, and Slovakia.","European Mink are found along streams, rivers, and lakes. They are rarely found more than 100 mfrom fresh water and prefer waterways with densely vegetated banks. In south-Western Europe, radio-collared European Mink used areas that had low forest cover and bramble or shrub cover along the riverbank; they avoided areas with dense forest cover. In south-western France, radio-collared European Mink had a strong preference for flooded habitats, particularly open marshes, flooded woodlands, and moorlands; they seldom left riparian forest corridors.","The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crabs, and insects. The chief prey is often the Water Vole. In northern Spain, scat analysis revealed a diet based on small mammals (relative frequency of occurrence 36:9%), fish (30-6%), and birds (17-8%). The Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) was the most consumed small mammal and cyprinids (mainly Barbus sp.) were the most frequently eaten fish. The average size of consumed fish was 13- 5 cm, and the average weight was 31- 5 g; males ate larger and heavierfish than females. In north-east Belarus, three out of nine individuals studied were specialists on frogs (77-97%, mainly the common frog Rana temporaria). One individual fed mostly on crayfish (Astacus astacus, 62%), and the other five were generalist predators. Excess food may be cached for later use.","Mating occurs from February to March. Gestation is 35-72 days. Births occur in April and May in rock piles, under roots, in hollow trees, or in abandoned buildings. Litter size is two to seven, usually four or five. The young are born blind, and at birth average 8- 4 gfor males and 7- 6 gfor females. The eyes open after 30-36 days. They are weaned at ten weeks and attain sexual maturity after 9-10 months.","Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in crevices, amongst tree roots and dense bramble patches, or in burrows, either self-excavated or taken from a Water Vole. In south-western France, rest sites were mainly found above ground in flooded areas, under bushes or in cavities between tree roots.","European Mink are terrestrial, but swim and dive well. Home ranges average 32 ha for males and 26 ha for females. In south-Western Europe, the length of home ranges varied between 11-17 kmalong watercourses for five males, and was 0-6 and 3-6 kmfor two females. The home ranges of males were larger than those found in previous studies and most females captured were found within the home range of a male. Males occupied adjoining river sections with minimal range overlap, suggesting an intra-sexual exclusive spacing pattern for males. In autumn and winter, there may be extensive movements to locate swift, nonfrozen streams. Population densities may reach 12 animals/ 10 kmof shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March. Gestation is 35-72 days. Births occur in April and May in rock piles, under roots, in hollow trees, or in abandoned buildings. Litter size is two to seven, usually four or five. The young are born blind, and at birth average 8- 4 gfor males and 7- 6 gfor females. The eyes open after 30-36 days. They are weaned at ten weeks and attain sexual maturity after 9-10 months.","Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The European Mink has declined over much of its former range and has been extirpated from Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, and Slovakia. Habitat loss and degradation is a serious threat in many parts of Europe. Ongoing destruction and degradation of freshwater and associated terrestrial habitats has been caused by hydroelectric development, river channelization, and water pollution. Although its fur is not as valuable as that of the American Mink, the European Mink was widely trapped for commercial purposes. It is now legally protected in all range states and at least part of the population occurs within protected areas. However, accidental trapping still poses a threat. In France, secondary poisoning and trapping of European Mink has occurred as a result of efforts to control Coypu (Myocastor coypus) and small carnivore species. Accidental mortality through vehicle collisions is a problem in some areas. Competition with the American Mink (an alien invasive species) has been hypothesized as a contributing factor. In Spainand France, hybridization with the European Polecat may also be a threat. Field studies have been undertaken to determine its ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability of western populations. In Spainand France, programmes have been started to control the American Mink population. A captive breeding programme was launched in 1992 under the European Zoo Association. Reintroduction efforts are underway in Germanyand Russia. The European Mink has recently colonized and spread into northern Spain; it was absent from this country before 1950. Recent genetic studies have shown there is very low genetic variability within this species, which could pose an additional threat.","Dunstone (1993) | Fournier et al. (2007) | Garin, Aihartza et al. (2002) | Garin, Zuberogoitia, et al. (2002) | Michaux, Hardy et al. (2005) | Michaux, Libois et al. (2004) | Palazon et al. (2004) | Sidorovich et al. (2001) | Wozencraft (2005) | Youngman (1990) | Zabala, Zuberogoitia, Garin & Aihartza (2003) | Zabala, Zuberogoitia & Martinez-Climent (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714261/files/figure.png,"47.European MinkMustela lutreolaFrench:Vison d'Europe/ German:Europaischer Nerz/ Spanish:ison europeoTaxonomy.Viverra lutreola Linnaeus, 1761, Finland.Monotypic.Distribution.Belarus, Estonia, France, Latvia, Romania, Russia(W of Urals), and N Spain.Descriptive notes.Head-body 20-36 cm, tail 12-17.5 cm; weight 650-1000 g(males), 500-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The European Mink has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dense and short, and reddish-brown in color; the underparts are paler than the back. A margin of white occurs around the mouth and sometimes on the chest and throat. The skull is flat and narrow. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M1/2=34.Habitat.European Mink are found along streams, rivers, and lakes. They are rarely found more than 100 mfrom fresh water and prefer waterways with densely vegetated banks. In south-Western Europe, radio-collared European Mink used areas that had low forest cover and bramble or shrub cover along the riverbank; they avoided areas with dense forest cover. In south-western France, radio-collared European Mink had a strong preference for flooded habitats, particularly open marshes, flooded woodlands, and moorlands; they seldom left riparian forest corridors.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crabs, and insects. The chief prey is often the Water Vole. In northern Spain, scat analysis revealed a diet based on small mammals (relative frequency of occurrence 36:9%), fish (30-6%), and birds (17-8%). The Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) was the most consumed small mammal and cyprinids (mainly Barbus sp.) were the most frequently eaten fish. The average size of consumed fish was 13- 5 cm, and the average weight was 31- 5 g; males ate larger and heavierfish than females. In north-east Belarus, three out of nine individuals studied were specialists on frogs (77-97%, mainly the common frog Rana temporaria). One individual fed mostly on crayfish (Astacus astacus, 62%), and the other five were generalist predators. Excess food may be cached for later use.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in crevices, amongst tree roots and dense bramble patches, or in burrows, either self-excavated or taken from a Water Vole. In south-western France, rest sites were mainly found above ground in flooded areas, under bushes or in cavities between tree roots.Movements, Home range and Social organization.European Mink are terrestrial, but swim and dive well. Home ranges average 32 ha for males and 26 ha for females. In south-Western Europe, the length of home ranges varied between 11-17 kmalong watercourses for five males, and was 0-6 and 3-6 kmfor two females. The home ranges of males were larger than those found in previous studies and most females captured were found within the home range of a male. Males occupied adjoining river sections with minimal range overlap, suggesting an intra-sexual exclusive spacing pattern for males. In autumn and winter, there may be extensive movements to locate swift, nonfrozen streams. Population densities may reach 12 animals/ 10 kmof shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March. Gestation is 35-72 days. Births occur in April and May in rock piles, under roots, in hollow trees, or in abandoned buildings. Litter size is two to seven, usually four or five. The young are born blind, and at birth average 8- 4 gfor males and 7- 6 gfor females. The eyes open after 30-36 days. They are weaned at ten weeks and attain sexual maturity after 9-10 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The European Mink has declined over much of its former range and has been extirpated from Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, and Slovakia. Habitat loss and degradation is a serious threat in many parts of Europe. Ongoing destruction and degradation of freshwater and associated terrestrial habitats has been caused by hydroelectric development, river channelization, and water pollution. Although its fur is not as valuable as that of the American Mink, the European Mink was widely trapped for commercial purposes. It is now legally protected in all range states and at least part of the population occurs within protected areas. However, accidental trapping still poses a threat. In France, secondary poisoning and trapping of European Mink has occurred as a result of efforts to control Coypu (Myocastor coypus) and small carnivore species. Accidental mortality through vehicle collisions is a problem in some areas. Competition with the American Mink (an alien invasive species) has been hypothesized as a contributing factor. In Spainand France, hybridization with the European Polecat may also be a threat. Field studies have been undertaken to determine its ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability of western populations. In Spainand France, programmes have been started to control the American Mink population. A captive breeding programme was launched in 1992 under the European Zoo Association. Reintroduction efforts are underway in Germanyand Russia. The European Mink has recently colonized and spread into northern Spain; it was absent from this country before 1950. Recent genetic studies have shown there is very low genetic variability within this species, which could pose an additional threat.Bibliography.Dunstone (1993), Fournier et al. (2007), Garin, Aihartza et al. (2002), Garin, Zuberogoitia, et al. (2002), Michaux, Hardy et al. (2005), Michaux, Libois et al. (2004), Palazon et al. (2004), Sidorovich et al. (2001), Wozencraft (2005), Youngman (1990), Zabala, Zuberogoitia, Garin & Aihartza (2003), Zabala, Zuberogoitia & Martinez-Climent (2006)." 038F87D4CA71FF9ECFA43F40F8ADF8F0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,652,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA71FF9ECFA43F40F8ADF8F0.xml,Mustela lutreolina,Mustela,lutreolina,Linnaeus,1758,Putois d' @fr | ndonésie @en | German @en | ndonesisches Bergwiesel @en | Comadreja javanesa @es,"Mustela lutreolina Robinson & Thomas, 1917, west Java.Monotypic.",Javaand S Sumatra.,"Head-body 29.7-32.1 cm, tail 13.6-17 cm; weight 295-340 g. Indonesian Mountain Weasels resemble European Mink in both size and color.; The pelage is brown throughout, with no facial markings.",Specimens have been collected at elevations from 1000-2200 m.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.,"Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Virtually nothing is known about this species. This species is known only from the highlands of Sumatraand Java. On Javait occurs as far east as the Ijang plateau. On Sumatra, it is known from Bengkulu Province(Mount Dempo) and recently was recorded north to Kerinci. The Indonesian Mountain Weasel is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Lunde & Musser (2003) | Meiri et al. (2007) | VanBree & Boeadi (1978) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714263/files/figure.png,"48.Indonesian Mountain WeaselMustela lutreolinaFrench:Putois d'Indonésie/ German:Indonesisches Bergwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja javanesaTaxonomy.Mustela lutreolina Robinson & Thomas, 1917, west Java.Monotypic.Distribution.Javaand S Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 29.7-32.1 cm, tail 13.6-17 cm; weight 295-340 g. Indonesian Mountain Weasels resemble European Mink in both size and color.; The pelage is brown throughout, with no facial markings.Habitat.Specimens have been collected at elevations from 1000-2200 m.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Virtually nothing is known about this species. This species is known only from the highlands of Sumatraand Java. On Javait occurs as far east as the Ijang plateau. On Sumatra, it is known from Bengkulu Province(Mount Dempo) and recently was recorded north to Kerinci. The Indonesian Mountain Weasel is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Lunde & Musser (2003), Meiri et al. (2007), VanBree & Boeadi (1978), Wozencraft (2005)." -038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,653,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701.xml,Mustela nivalis,Mustela,nivalis,Linnaeus,1766,Belette pygmée @fr | Mauswiesel @de | Comadreja comun @es | Weasel @en,"Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766, Sweden.Nine subspecies are recognized.","M. n. nivalis Linnaeus, 1766— China, North and South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Taiwan, and Scandinavia.M. n. allegheniensis Rhoads, 1900— NE USA(Allegheny Mts W to Wisconsin).M. n. boccamela Bechstein, 1800— Corsica, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain.M. n. campestris Jackson, 1913— C Great Plains, USA.M. n. eskimo Stone, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(Yukon).M. n. namiyer Kuroda, 1921— Japanand the Kurile Is.M. n. numidica Pucheran, 1855— N Africa.M. n. rnixosa Bangs, 1896— Canadaand N Great Plains of USA.M. n. vulgaris Erxleben, 1777= W & C Europe and most of C Eurasia.Introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azores Is, and apparently also Sao TomeI.","Head-body 11.4-26 cm,tail 7-9 cm; weight 25-250 g, males are on average larger than females. There is much geographic variation in size. The tail is only slightly longer than the length of the hindfoot, and is less than 35% of head and body length. The Least Weasel is the smallest species within the Carnivora. It has a long and slender body, with short limbs and tail. Except in certain southern parts ofits range, the Least Weasel changes color during the spring and autumn. In summer, the upperparts are brown and the underparts are white. In winter, the entire coat is white, but unlike other weasels that turn white during the winter, the Least Weasel does not posses a black-tipped tail. There are three to four pairs of mammae. The skull has a short rostrum, and a large and long cerebral cranium. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34.","The Least Weasel is found in a wide range of habitats that provide good cover and prey abundance, including agricultural fields, grasslands, forests, prairies, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, mountains (up to 4000 m), alpine meadows, steppes, semi-deserts, and coastal dunes. They are also found near human habitations.","The diet is mainly small rodents, but other small mammals (such as lagomorphs, moles, and squirrels), birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, insects (mostly beetles), fish, worms, and carrion are also occasionally eaten. The proportions of different small rodent species in the diet roughly reflects their relative abundances throughout the year. In Europe and Russia, Microtus agrestris, M. arvalis, M. oeconomus, M. brandti, Arvicola terrestris, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Lemmus lemmus, and L. sibiricusare preyed upon. In North America, M. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogastere, C. rutilus, C. gapperi, Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Sigmodon hispidus, Dicrostonyx rubricatus, D. hudsonicus, and L. sibiricusare eaten. In Great Britain, one study showed that the diet consists of 68% rodents (mainly Microtus agrestis), 25% lagomorphs, and 5% birds and birds’ eggs. The small size of Least Weasels enables them to pursue prey into their burrows, so much of their hunting is underground or under snow. Males readily shift to larger prey such as birds, lagomorphs, and Water Voles, while females continue to search for Field Voles. Thus, males generally take larger prey than females and spend less time hunting in tunnels. Least Weasels take five to ten meals per day. Excess food may be stored, especially in the winter; the cache site may be within the home burrow or near a kill. Killing behavior is innate. Least Weasels respond to movements of prey as a stimulus for attack. The killing bite is delivered at the nape of the neck and penetrates the base of the skull or throat area.","Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.","Active day and night. The high-energy requirements of Least Weasels mean that they have to be constantly active, so active and rest periods occur in rapid succession. However, the timing and extent of their daily activity is related to the activity patterns of their prey. Least Weasels may spend the whole winter under snow. Den/ rest sites are in prey burrows, in rock piles, or in other well-concealed sites. Vocalizations in captive animals consist of a repertoire of five different sounds, including a chirp, a hiss, a trill, a squeal, and a squeak.","Least Weasels constantly move in search of prey. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also agile tree climbers and fairly good swimmers. Movements may reach 1-5 km/h. Least Weasels are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges are 0-6-26/ha for males and 0-2-7/ha for females. Male home ranges overlap with one or more females, but do not overlap with other males. Population densities range from 0-2-1 /ha.Breeding.Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Least Weasel is considered relatively common in Eurasia, but appears to be rare in North America. They are not known to prey on domestic animals and are beneficial to people through its destruction of mice and rats. However, Least Weasels have been introduced to some areas, such as New Zealand, with sometimes devastating effects on the local fauna. Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides and persecution. The Least Weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining in some parts of Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment).","Brandt & Lambin (2007) | Francis (2008) | IUCN(2008) | Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska & Szymura (1995) | Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska, Zub & Nowakowski (2000) | King (1990) | Sheffield& King (1994) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",,"50.Least WeaselMustela nivalisFrench:Belette pygmée/ German:Mauswiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja comunOther common names:WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766, Sweden.Nine subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. n. nivalis Linnaeus, 1766— China, North and South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Taiwan, and Scandinavia.M. n. allegheniensis Rhoads, 1900— NE USA(Allegheny Mts W to Wisconsin).M. n. boccamela Bechstein, 1800— Corsica, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain.M. n. campestris Jackson, 1913— C Great Plains, USA.M. n. eskimo Stone, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(Yukon).M. n. namiyer Kuroda, 1921— Japanand the Kurile Is.M. n. numidica Pucheran, 1855— N Africa.M. n. rnixosa Bangs, 1896— Canadaand N Great Plains of USA.M. n. vulgaris Erxleben, 1777= W & C Europe and most of C Eurasia.Introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azores Is, and apparently also Sao TomeI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 11.4-26 cm,tail 7-9 cm; weight 25-250 g, males are on average larger than females. There is much geographic variation in size. The tail is only slightly longer than the length of the hindfoot, and is less than 35% of head and body length. The Least Weasel is the smallest species within the Carnivora. It has a long and slender body, with short limbs and tail. Except in certain southern parts ofits range, the Least Weasel changes color during the spring and autumn. In summer, the upperparts are brown and the underparts are white. In winter, the entire coat is white, but unlike other weasels that turn white during the winter, the Least Weasel does not posses a black-tipped tail. There are three to four pairs of mammae. The skull has a short rostrum, and a large and long cerebral cranium. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.The Least Weasel is found in a wide range of habitats that provide good cover and prey abundance, including agricultural fields, grasslands, forests, prairies, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, mountains (up to 4000 m), alpine meadows, steppes, semi-deserts, and coastal dunes. They are also found near human habitations.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly small rodents, but other small mammals (such as lagomorphs, moles, and squirrels), birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, insects (mostly beetles), fish, worms, and carrion are also occasionally eaten. The proportions of different small rodent species in the diet roughly reflects their relative abundances throughout the year. In Europe and Russia, Microtus agrestris, M. arvalis, M. oeconomus, M. brandti, Arvicola terrestris, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Lemmus lemmus, and L. sibiricusare preyed upon. In North America, M. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogastere, C. rutilus, C. gapperi, Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Sigmodon hispidus, Dicrostonyx rubricatus, D. hudsonicus, and L. sibiricusare eaten. In Great Britain, one study showed that the diet consists of 68% rodents (mainly Microtus agrestis), 25% lagomorphs, and 5% birds and birds’ eggs. The small size of Least Weasels enables them to pursue prey into their burrows, so much of their hunting is underground or under snow. Males readily shift to larger prey such as birds, lagomorphs, and Water Voles, while females continue to search for Field Voles. Thus, males generally take larger prey than females and spend less time hunting in tunnels. Least Weasels take five to ten meals per day. Excess food may be stored, especially in the winter; the cache site may be within the home burrow or near a kill. Killing behavior is innate. Least Weasels respond to movements of prey as a stimulus for attack. The killing bite is delivered at the nape of the neck and penetrates the base of the skull or throat area.Activity patterns.Active day and night. The high-energy requirements of Least Weasels mean that they have to be constantly active, so active and rest periods occur in rapid succession. However, the timing and extent of their daily activity is related to the activity patterns of their prey. Least Weasels may spend the whole winter under snow. Den/ rest sites are in prey burrows, in rock piles, or in other well-concealed sites. Vocalizations in captive animals consist of a repertoire of five different sounds, including a chirp, a hiss, a trill, a squeal, and a squeak.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Least Weasels constantly move in search of prey. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also agile tree climbers and fairly good swimmers. Movements may reach 1-5 km/h. Least Weasels are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges are 0-6-26/ha for males and 0-2-7/ha for females. Male home ranges overlap with one or more females, but do not overlap with other males. Population densities range from 0-2-1 /ha.Breeding.Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Least Weasel is considered relatively common in Eurasia, but appears to be rare in North America. They are not known to prey on domestic animals and are beneficial to people through its destruction of mice and rats. However, Least Weasels have been introduced to some areas, such as New Zealand, with sometimes devastating effects on the local fauna. Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides and persecution. The Least Weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining in some parts of Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment).Bibliography.Brandt & Lambin (2007), Francis (2008), IUCN(2008), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska & Szymura (1995), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska, Zub & Nowakowski (2000), King (1990), Sheffield& King (1994), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." +038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,653,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701.xml,Mustela nivalis,Mustela,nivalis,Linnaeus,1766,Belette pygmée @fr | Mauswiesel @de | Comadreja comun @es | Weasel @en,"Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766, Sweden.Nine subspecies are recognized.","M. n. nivalis Linnaeus, 1766— China, North and South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Taiwan, and Scandinavia.M. n. allegheniensis Rhoads, 1900— NE USA(Allegheny Mts W to Wisconsin).M. n. boccamela Bechstein, 1800— Corsica, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain.M. n. campestris Jackson, 1913— C Great Plains, USA.M. n. eskimo Stone, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(Yukon).M. n. namiyer Kuroda, 1921— Japanand the Kurile Is.M. n. numidica Pucheran, 1855— N Africa.M. n. rnixosa Bangs, 1896— Canadaand N Great Plains of USA.M. n. vulgaris Erxleben, 1777= W & C Europe and most of C Eurasia.Introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azores Is, and apparently also Sao TomeI.","Head-body 11.4-26 cm,tail 7-9 cm; weight 25-250 g, males are on average larger than females. There is much geographic variation in size. The tail is only slightly longer than the length of the hindfoot, and is less than 35% of head and body length. The Least Weasel is the smallest species within the Carnivora. It has a long and slender body, with short limbs and tail. Except in certain southern parts ofits range, the Least Weasel changes color during the spring and autumn. In summer, the upperparts are brown and the underparts are white. In winter, the entire coat is white, but unlike other weasels that turn white during the winter, the Least Weasel does not posses a black-tipped tail. There are three to four pairs of mammae. The skull has a short rostrum, and a large and long cerebral cranium. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34.","The Least Weasel is found in a wide range of habitats that provide good cover and prey abundance, including agricultural fields, grasslands, forests, prairies, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, mountains (up to 4000 m), alpine meadows, steppes, semi-deserts, and coastal dunes. They are also found near human habitations.","The diet is mainly small rodents, but other small mammals (such as lagomorphs, moles, and squirrels), birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, insects (mostly beetles), fish, worms, and carrion are also occasionally eaten. The proportions of different small rodent species in the diet roughly reflects their relative abundances throughout the year. In Europe and Russia, Microtus agrestris, M. arvalis, M. oeconomus, M. brandti, Arvicola terrestris, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Lemmus lemmus, and L. sibiricusare preyed upon. In North America, M. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogastere, C. rutilus, C. gapperi, Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Sigmodon hispidus, Dicrostonyx rubricatus, D. hudsonicus, and L. sibiricusare eaten. In Great Britain, one study showed that the diet consists of 68% rodents (mainly Microtus agrestis), 25% lagomorphs, and 5% birds and birds’ eggs. The small size of Least Weasels enables them to pursue prey into their burrows, so much of their hunting is underground or under snow. Males readily shift to larger prey such as birds, lagomorphs, and Water Voles, while females continue to search for Field Voles. Thus, males generally take larger prey than females and spend less time hunting in tunnels. Least Weasels take five to ten meals per day. Excess food may be stored, especially in the winter; the cache site may be within the home burrow or near a kill. Killing behavior is innate. Least Weasels respond to movements of prey as a stimulus for attack. The killing bite is delivered at the nape of the neck and penetrates the base of the skull or throat area.","Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.","Active day and night. The high-energy requirements of Least Weasels mean that they have to be constantly active, so active and rest periods occur in rapid succession. However, the timing and extent of their daily activity is related to the activity patterns of their prey. Least Weasels may spend the whole winter under snow. Den/ rest sites are in prey burrows, in rock piles, or in other well-concealed sites. Vocalizations in captive animals consist of a repertoire of five different sounds, including a chirp, a hiss, a trill, a squeal, and a squeak.","Least Weasels constantly move in search of prey. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also agile tree climbers and fairly good swimmers. Movements may reach 1-5 km/h. Least Weasels are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges are 0-6-26/ha for males and 0-2-7/ha for females. Male home ranges overlap with one or more females, but do not overlap with other males. Population densities range from 0-2-1 /ha.Breeding.Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Least Weasel is considered relatively common in Eurasia, but appears to be rare in North America. They are not known to prey on domestic animals and are beneficial to people through its destruction of mice and rats. However, Least Weasels have been introduced to some areas, such as New Zealand, with sometimes devastating effects on the local fauna. Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides and persecution. The Least Weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining in some parts of Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment).","Brandt & Lambin (2007) | Francis (2008) | IUCN(2008) | Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska & Szymura (1995) | Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska, Zub & Nowakowski (2000) | King (1990) | Sheffield& King (1994) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714267/files/figure.png,"50.Least WeaselMustela nivalisFrench:Belette pygmée/ German:Mauswiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja comunOther common names:WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766, Sweden.Nine subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. n. nivalis Linnaeus, 1766— China, North and South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Taiwan, and Scandinavia.M. n. allegheniensis Rhoads, 1900— NE USA(Allegheny Mts W to Wisconsin).M. n. boccamela Bechstein, 1800— Corsica, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain.M. n. campestris Jackson, 1913— C Great Plains, USA.M. n. eskimo Stone, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(Yukon).M. n. namiyer Kuroda, 1921— Japanand the Kurile Is.M. n. numidica Pucheran, 1855— N Africa.M. n. rnixosa Bangs, 1896— Canadaand N Great Plains of USA.M. n. vulgaris Erxleben, 1777= W & C Europe and most of C Eurasia.Introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azores Is, and apparently also Sao TomeI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 11.4-26 cm,tail 7-9 cm; weight 25-250 g, males are on average larger than females. There is much geographic variation in size. The tail is only slightly longer than the length of the hindfoot, and is less than 35% of head and body length. The Least Weasel is the smallest species within the Carnivora. It has a long and slender body, with short limbs and tail. Except in certain southern parts ofits range, the Least Weasel changes color during the spring and autumn. In summer, the upperparts are brown and the underparts are white. In winter, the entire coat is white, but unlike other weasels that turn white during the winter, the Least Weasel does not posses a black-tipped tail. There are three to four pairs of mammae. The skull has a short rostrum, and a large and long cerebral cranium. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.The Least Weasel is found in a wide range of habitats that provide good cover and prey abundance, including agricultural fields, grasslands, forests, prairies, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, mountains (up to 4000 m), alpine meadows, steppes, semi-deserts, and coastal dunes. They are also found near human habitations.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly small rodents, but other small mammals (such as lagomorphs, moles, and squirrels), birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, insects (mostly beetles), fish, worms, and carrion are also occasionally eaten. The proportions of different small rodent species in the diet roughly reflects their relative abundances throughout the year. In Europe and Russia, Microtus agrestris, M. arvalis, M. oeconomus, M. brandti, Arvicola terrestris, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Lemmus lemmus, and L. sibiricusare preyed upon. In North America, M. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogastere, C. rutilus, C. gapperi, Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Sigmodon hispidus, Dicrostonyx rubricatus, D. hudsonicus, and L. sibiricusare eaten. In Great Britain, one study showed that the diet consists of 68% rodents (mainly Microtus agrestis), 25% lagomorphs, and 5% birds and birds’ eggs. The small size of Least Weasels enables them to pursue prey into their burrows, so much of their hunting is underground or under snow. Males readily shift to larger prey such as birds, lagomorphs, and Water Voles, while females continue to search for Field Voles. Thus, males generally take larger prey than females and spend less time hunting in tunnels. Least Weasels take five to ten meals per day. Excess food may be stored, especially in the winter; the cache site may be within the home burrow or near a kill. Killing behavior is innate. Least Weasels respond to movements of prey as a stimulus for attack. The killing bite is delivered at the nape of the neck and penetrates the base of the skull or throat area.Activity patterns.Active day and night. The high-energy requirements of Least Weasels mean that they have to be constantly active, so active and rest periods occur in rapid succession. However, the timing and extent of their daily activity is related to the activity patterns of their prey. Least Weasels may spend the whole winter under snow. Den/ rest sites are in prey burrows, in rock piles, or in other well-concealed sites. Vocalizations in captive animals consist of a repertoire of five different sounds, including a chirp, a hiss, a trill, a squeal, and a squeak.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Least Weasels constantly move in search of prey. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also agile tree climbers and fairly good swimmers. Movements may reach 1-5 km/h. Least Weasels are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges are 0-6-26/ha for males and 0-2-7/ha for females. Male home ranges overlap with one or more females, but do not overlap with other males. Population densities range from 0-2-1 /ha.Breeding.Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Least Weasel is considered relatively common in Eurasia, but appears to be rare in North America. They are not known to prey on domestic animals and are beneficial to people through its destruction of mice and rats. However, Least Weasels have been introduced to some areas, such as New Zealand, with sometimes devastating effects on the local fauna. Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides and persecution. The Least Weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining in some parts of Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment).Bibliography.Brandt & Lambin (2007), Francis (2008), IUCN(2008), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska & Szymura (1995), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska, Zub & Nowakowski (2000), King (1990), Sheffield& King (1994), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." 038F87D4CA72FF9DCFE634EDF7ABF21B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,653,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA72FF9DCFE634EDF7ABF21B.xml,Mustela nudipes,Mustela,nudipes,Linnaeus,1758,Putois a pieds nus @fr | Nacktfu Rwiesel @de | Comadreja descalza @es,"Mustela nudipes Desmarest, 1822, Indonesia.Monotypic.","Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and S Thailand.","Head-body 30-36 cm, tail 24-26 cm; weight 1000 g. The Malay Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown, almost orange throughout, with the head much paler than the rest of the body, often appearing white. The tail is long and bushy; the basal half is the same color as the back, but the distal halfis typically all white. The soles of the feet are naked around the pads. There are two pairs of mammae.","Rainforests, with records from 400 to 1700 m. Often found in close proximity to water.","Diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.",Litter size reported to be up to four.,Apparently active both day and night. Rests in holes underground.,Said to be solitary and terrestrial.Breeding.Litter size reported to be up to four.,"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is eaten in parts of Sarawakand there is some evidence of medicinal use.",Banks (1949) | Duckworth et al. (2006) | Francis (2008) | Franklin & Wells (2005) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Payne et al. (1985) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714269/files/figure.png,"51.Malay WeaselMustela nudipesFrench:Putois a pieds nus/ German:NacktfuRwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja descalzaTaxonomy.Mustela nudipes Desmarest, 1822, Indonesia.Monotypic.Distribution.Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and S Thailand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-36 cm, tail 24-26 cm; weight 1000 g. The Malay Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown, almost orange throughout, with the head much paler than the rest of the body, often appearing white. The tail is long and bushy; the basal half is the same color as the back, but the distal halfis typically all white. The soles of the feet are naked around the pads. There are two pairs of mammae.Habitat.Rainforests, with records from 400 to 1700 m. Often found in close proximity to water.Food and Feeding.Diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.Activity patterns.Apparently active both day and night. Rests in holes underground.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Said to be solitary and terrestrial.Breeding.Litter size reported to be up to four.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is eaten in parts of Sarawakand there is some evidence of medicinal use.Bibliography.Banks (1949), Duckworth et al. (2006), Francis (2008), Franklin & Wells (2005), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Payne et al. (1985), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA73FF9BCFAE35FDFF66FC36,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,654,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA73FF9BCFAE35FDFF66FC36.xml,Mustela strigidorsa,Mustela,strigidorsa,Linnaeus,1758,Putois a dos rayé @fr | Riickenstreifenwiesel @de | Comadreja estriada @es | Stripe-backed Weasel @en,"Mustela strigodorsa Gray, 1853, India.Monotypic.","S China(Guangxi, Guizhou& Yunnan), NE India, N & C Laos, N & C Myanmar, N Thailand, and N & C Vietnam.","Head-body 25-325 cm, tail 10.3-20.5 cm; weight 700-2000 g. The Back-striped Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown with yellowish-white upperlips, cheeks, chin, and throat. A narrow, whitish stripe runs along the back from the head to the base of the tail. Another narrow pale stripe runs along the abdomen. The bushy tail is less than half the head and body length. There are two pairs of mammae. The tympanic bullae are flattened. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","Found mainly in evergreen forests in hills and mountains, but has also been recorded from plains forest, dense scrub, secondary forest, grassland, and farmland. Altitudinal range 90-2500 m.",The dietis said to include small rodents.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Has been seen on the ground and in trees.Breeding.Nothing known.,"Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Populations in the wild are suspected to be declining. Back-striped Weasels are sold for traditional medicine in Laos. About 3000 to 4000 pelts were harvested annually in Chinain the 1970s. Outside China, this species is sold occasionally in Laosand Vietnam. Even though the Back-striped Weasel is not known to have high economic value, hunting or harvesting for trade could be causing major declines because many hunting methods (notably snares) are non-selective. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","Davies (2006) | Evans et al. (1994) | Francis (2008) | Hansel & Tizard (2006) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Pocock (1941a) | Ratajszczak & Cox (1991) | Schreiber et al. (1989) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714275/files/figure.png,"54.Back-striped WeaselMustela strigidorsaFrench:Putois a dos rayé/ German:Riickenstreifenwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja estriadaOther common names:Stripe-backed WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela strigodorsa Gray, 1853, India.Monotypic.Distribution.S China(Guangxi, Guizhou& Yunnan), NE India, N & C Laos, N & C Myanmar, N Thailand, and N & C Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 25-325 cm, tail 10.3-20.5 cm; weight 700-2000 g. The Back-striped Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown with yellowish-white upperlips, cheeks, chin, and throat. A narrow, whitish stripe runs along the back from the head to the base of the tail. Another narrow pale stripe runs along the abdomen. The bushy tail is less than half the head and body length. There are two pairs of mammae. The tympanic bullae are flattened. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Found mainly in evergreen forests in hills and mountains, but has also been recorded from plains forest, dense scrub, secondary forest, grassland, and farmland. Altitudinal range 90-2500 m.Food and Feeding.The dietis said to include small rodents.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Has been seen on the ground and in trees.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Populations in the wild are suspected to be declining. Back-striped Weasels are sold for traditional medicine in Laos. About 3000 to 4000 pelts were harvested annually in Chinain the 1970s. Outside China, this species is sold occasionally in Laosand Vietnam. Even though the Back-striped Weasel is not known to have high economic value, hunting or harvesting for trade could be causing major declines because many hunting methods (notably snares) are non-selective. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Davies (2006), Evans et al. (1994), Francis (2008), Hansel & Tizard (2006), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Pocock (1941a), Ratajszczak & Cox (1991), Schreiber et al. (1989), Wozencraft (2005, 2008)." 038F87D4CA73FF9CCAAD3D1BF76BFDBA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,654,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA73FF9CCAAD3D1BF76BFDBA.xml,Mustela putorius,Mustela,putorius,Linnaeus,1758,Putois d'Europe @fr | Waldiltis @de | Turon europeo @es,"Mustela putorius Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The European Polecat is possibly the ancestor of the domestic Ferret M. p. furo. Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","Most of Europe W of Urals, and Morocco.","Head-body 29.5-46 cm(males), 20.5-38.5 cm(females), tail 10-519 cm(males), 7-14 cm(females); weight 500-1710 g(males), 400-915 g(females), adult males are larger than females. The European Polecat has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown to black, with paler, yellowish undersides. The areas between the eye and ear and around the mouth, are silvery white. There are up to five pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 3/3. CV/1.P5/3. M1/2=34.","The European Polecat is found in forests, meadows, abandoned fields, and agricultural areas, often in close proximity to water. They sometimes occur near humans, but avoid dense urban areas.","The diet consists of amphibians, small mammals, birds, fish, and invertebrates. In Switzerland, the diet of European Polecats is almost exclusively carnivorous, but somefruits are also eaten, mainly by juveniles. Anurans (frogs and toads; mainly Rana temporaria and Bufo bufo) are the staple food. Other foods of importance are small mammals (mainly Muridae, but also Microtidae and Soricidae), carrion, and eggs. The anuran proportion of the diet is higher in summer than in winter and higher in the mountains than in the lowlands. In mountainous regions, anurans are also the most important food in winter. Juveniles eat more fruits and invertebrates and fewer mammals than adults. Sex-related differences in the importance of the main food categories have not been detected. In Denmark, the stomach contents of 47 European Polecats revealed that they preyed mostly on amphibians (87%) and mammals (34%), and only occasionally on birds (9%) and fish (6%). In Poland, the analysis of 222 scats revealed that anurans (mainly R. temporaria) comprised 70 to 98% of the biomass consumed and were found in 60 to 95% of scats. Forest rodents (Apodemus flavicollis and Clethrionomys glareolus) constituted from 1-29% of the biomass eaten. The consumption of rodents grew with decreasing winter temperature and increasing numbers of rodents. Snow-tracking of individual European Polecats has shown that in wet forests, they move in close proximity to watercourses to search for anurans, whereas in the drier forests, they hunt rodents, mainly by digging. European Polecats constantly move as they search for prey, exploring burrows, hollow logs,trees, tree cavities, rock crevices, and farm buildings.","Mating occurs from March to June. The gestation period is about 42 days. Litter size is typically three to seven, but may be up to twelve. Neonates are blind and weigh 9-10 g. They open their eyes and are weaned after about one month, and become independent at around three months. Sexual maturity may be reached during the first year.","Mainly nocturnal, but can be crepuscular and active during the day. In Luxembourg, radio-collared European Polecats were 62% active during the night. Males were more active than females, and activity increased from winter to summer. In central Italy, ten malesand six femaleswere monitored using radio-telemetry. Males exhibited a regular and constant nocturnal pattern in every season, preferring the time between 20:00-06:00 h; activity was lower at dawn and dusk, and scarce during daylight hours. Females were significantly diurnal and crepuscular, but individuals revealed a flexibility in their activity pattern, including arrhythmic patterns without apparent temporal organization. Den/rest sites include crevices, hollow logs, burrows made by other animals, and sometimes buildings. In Luxembourg, European Polecats were located in 53 different resting sites, during the day. Aboveground shelters were used more often than underground shelters. Piles of branches, barns and stables, garden sheds and rat dens, were the most used sites, without specific preference for any one typeof shelter. However, buildings seem to be of prime importance during severe weather conditions.","European Polecats are solitary and terrestrial, but also capable of climbing. Daily movements average 1- 1 km. In some forest areas, home ranges are 100-150 ha. In Poland, European Polecats occupied stretches of 0-65 to 3-05 km along a stream. The home ranges of females were exclusive, but they could be completely overlapped by male home ranges. In Luxembourg, the home range size of European Polecats ranged from 42 to 428 ha, with an average of 181 ha. The mean home range size of males (246 ha) was significantly larger than that of females (84 ha). European Polecats concentrated 50% of their space use in only 15% of their home range, possibly indicating that suitable habitat was patchy. Average distance traveled per night by males was 3-6 times greater than that of females. Also, seasonal variation in movements was observed in males, but not in females. Population density is one per km”.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to June. The gestation period is about 42 days. Litter size is typically three to seven, but may be up to twelve. Neonates are blind and weigh 9-10 g. They open their eyes and are weaned after about one month, and become independent at around three months. Sexual maturity may be reached during the first year.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. In Western Europe, the European Polecat was widely hunted for sport and fur and persecuted as a pest. However, these threats have become less seriousas this species is now protected in a number of range states, and rates of hunting have greatly reduced. Accidental mortality from car collisions and secondary rodenticide poisoning are threats. In Russiaand Morocco, this species is commonly hunted. Hybridization with the Ferret is a possible threat in the United Kingdom. Possible competition with the introduced American Mink may also be a problem.","Baghli & Verhagen (2004, 2005) | Baghli, Engel & Verhagen (2002) | Baghli, Walzberg & Verhagen (2005) | Blandford (1987) | Brzezinski et al. (1992) | Fournier et al. (2007) | Hammershoj et al. (2004) | Jedrzejewski et al. (1993) | Lanszki & Heltai (2007) | Lodé (1997, 2003) | Marcelli et al. (2003) | Rondinini et al. (2006) | Stroganov (1969) | Virgos (2003) | Weber (1989) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zabala et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714271/files/figure.png,"52.European PolecatMustela putoriusFrench:Putois d'Europe/ German:Waldiltis/ Spanish:Turon europeoTaxonomy.Mustela putorius Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The European Polecat is possibly the ancestor of the domestic Ferret M. p. furo. Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Most of Europe W of Urals, and Morocco.Descriptive notes.Head-body 29.5-46 cm(males), 20.5-38.5 cm(females), tail 10-519 cm(males), 7-14 cm(females); weight 500-1710 g(males), 400-915 g(females), adult males are larger than females. The European Polecat has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown to black, with paler, yellowish undersides. The areas between the eye and ear and around the mouth, are silvery white. There are up to five pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 3/3. CV/1.P5/3. M1/2=34.Habitat.The European Polecat is found in forests, meadows, abandoned fields, and agricultural areas, often in close proximity to water. They sometimes occur near humans, but avoid dense urban areas.Food and Feeding.The diet consists of amphibians, small mammals, birds, fish, and invertebrates. In Switzerland, the diet of European Polecats is almost exclusively carnivorous, but somefruits are also eaten, mainly by juveniles. Anurans (frogs and toads; mainly Rana temporaria and Bufo bufo) are the staple food. Other foods of importance are small mammals (mainly Muridae, but also Microtidae and Soricidae), carrion, and eggs. The anuran proportion of the diet is higher in summer than in winter and higher in the mountains than in the lowlands. In mountainous regions, anurans are also the most important food in winter. Juveniles eat more fruits and invertebrates and fewer mammals than adults. Sex-related differences in the importance of the main food categories have not been detected. In Denmark, the stomach contents of 47 European Polecats revealed that they preyed mostly on amphibians (87%) and mammals (34%), and only occasionally on birds (9%) and fish (6%). In Poland, the analysis of 222 scats revealed that anurans (mainly R. temporaria) comprised 70 to 98% of the biomass consumed and were found in 60 to 95% of scats. Forest rodents (Apodemus flavicollis and Clethrionomys glareolus) constituted from 1-29% of the biomass eaten. The consumption of rodents grew with decreasing winter temperature and increasing numbers of rodents. Snow-tracking of individual European Polecats has shown that in wet forests, they move in close proximity to watercourses to search for anurans, whereas in the drier forests, they hunt rodents, mainly by digging. European Polecats constantly move as they search for prey, exploring burrows, hollow logs,trees, tree cavities, rock crevices, and farm buildings.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but can be crepuscular and active during the day. In Luxembourg, radio-collared European Polecats were 62% active during the night. Males were more active than females, and activity increased from winter to summer. In central Italy, ten malesand six femaleswere monitored using radio-telemetry. Males exhibited a regular and constant nocturnal pattern in every season, preferring the time between 20:00-06:00 h; activity was lower at dawn and dusk, and scarce during daylight hours. Females were significantly diurnal and crepuscular, but individuals revealed a flexibility in their activity pattern, including arrhythmic patterns without apparent temporal organization. Den/rest sites include crevices, hollow logs, burrows made by other animals, and sometimes buildings. In Luxembourg, European Polecats were located in 53 different resting sites, during the day. Aboveground shelters were used more often than underground shelters. Piles of branches, barns and stables, garden sheds and rat dens, were the most used sites, without specific preference for any one typeof shelter. However, buildings seem to be of prime importance during severe weather conditions.Movements, Home range and Social organization.European Polecats are solitary and terrestrial, but also capable of climbing. Daily movements average 1- 1 km. In some forest areas, home ranges are 100-150 ha. In Poland, European Polecats occupied stretches of 0-65 to 3-05 km along a stream. The home ranges of females were exclusive, but they could be completely overlapped by male home ranges. In Luxembourg, the home range size of European Polecats ranged from 42 to 428 ha, with an average of 181 ha. The mean home range size of males (246 ha) was significantly larger than that of females (84 ha). European Polecats concentrated 50% of their space use in only 15% of their home range, possibly indicating that suitable habitat was patchy. Average distance traveled per night by males was 3-6 times greater than that of females. Also, seasonal variation in movements was observed in males, but not in females. Population density is one per km”.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to June. The gestation period is about 42 days. Litter size is typically three to seven, but may be up to twelve. Neonates are blind and weigh 9-10 g. They open their eyes and are weaned after about one month, and become independent at around three months. Sexual maturity may be reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. In Western Europe, the European Polecat was widely hunted for sport and fur and persecuted as a pest. However, these threats have become less seriousas this species is now protected in a number of range states, and rates of hunting have greatly reduced. Accidental mortality from car collisions and secondary rodenticide poisoning are threats. In Russiaand Morocco, this species is commonly hunted. Hybridization with the Ferret is a possible threat in the United Kingdom. Possible competition with the introduced American Mink may also be a problem.Bibliography.Baghli & Verhagen (2004, 2005), Baghli, Engel & Verhagen (2002), Baghli, Walzberg & Verhagen (2005), Blandford (1987), Brzezinski et al. (1992), Fournier et al. (2007), Hammershoj et al. (2004), Jedrzejewski et al. (1993), Lanszki & Heltai (2007), Lodé (1997, 2003), Marcelli et al. (2003), Rondinini et al. (2006), Stroganov (1969), Virgos (2003), Weber (1989), Wozencraft (2005), Zabala et al. (2005)." 038F87D4CA73FF9CCFA73E7BF7ECF631,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,654,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA73FF9CCFA73E7BF7ECF631.xml,Mustela sibirica,Mustela,sibirica,Pallas,1773,Putois de Sibérie @fr | Sibirisches Feuerwiesel @de | Comadreja siberiana @es,"Mustela sibirica Pallas, 1773, Russia.Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision 1s needed.","Bhutan, China, India, Japan(Hokkaido), North and South Korea, Nepal, Laos, Mongolia, N Myanmar, Russia, Taiwan, and N Thailand. Introduced to several Japanese islands (Honshu, Kyushu & Shikoku Is).","Head-body 28-39 cm(males), 25-30.5 cm(females), tail 15.5-21 cm(males), 13.3-16.4 cm(females); weight 650-820 g(males), 360-430 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Siberian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer and becomes paler, almost yellowish-brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white. There is usually a dark mask around and in front of the eyes. The tail is about 50% of the head and body length, and may have a dark tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","Siberian Weasels are found in forests, forest steppe, and mountains, from 1500 to 5000 m. They are often found in river valleys, near swamps, and in areas with dense ground vegetation, around villages, and in cultivated areas.","The diet is mainly small mammals (rodents, pikas), but may also include amphibians, birds, eggs,fish, invertebrates, berries, and nuts. Siberian Weasels search for prey by exploring hollow trees, logs,cavities, brush piles, and other enclosed spaces.","Mating occursin late winter and early spring. The gestation period is 33-37 days. The young are born in April to June, inside hollow trees, cavities among rocks or stumps,inside buildings, or in a modified rodent burrow; the nest is lined with fur and feathers from prey killed by the mother. The litter size is 2-12, usually five or six. The young open their eyesafter one month, and lactation lasts two months. They leave their mother by the end of August.","Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are under roots, in logs or tree hollows, modified rodent burrows, rock crevices, or buildings.","Siberian Weasels are solitary and terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Nightly movements may reach 8 km. There are reports of Siberian Weasels relocating to new areas if food becomes scarce locally.Breeding.Mating occursin late winter and early spring. The gestation period is 33-37 days. The young are born in April to June, inside hollow trees, cavities among rocks or stumps,inside buildings, or in a modified rodent burrow; the nest is lined with fur and feathers from prey killed by the mother. The litter size is 2-12, usually five or six. The young open their eyesafter one month, and lactation lasts two months. They leave their mother by the end of August.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Siberian Weasel is important in the fur trade. It occasionally attacks domestic fowl, but is generally considered beneficial because it preys on rodents. Little is known about Siberian Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Pocock (1941a) | Rhim & Lee (2007) | Sasaki & Ono (1994) | Stroganov (1969) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Wu (1999)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714273/files/figure.png,"53.Siberian WeaselMustela sibiricaFrench:Putois de Sibérie/ German:Sibirisches Feuerwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja siberianaTaxonomy.Mustela sibirica Pallas, 1773, Russia.Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision 1s needed.Distribution.Bhutan, China, India, Japan(Hokkaido), North and South Korea, Nepal, Laos, Mongolia, N Myanmar, Russia, Taiwan, and N Thailand. Introduced to several Japanese islands (Honshu, Kyushu & Shikoku Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-39 cm(males), 25-30.5 cm(females), tail 15.5-21 cm(males), 13.3-16.4 cm(females); weight 650-820 g(males), 360-430 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Siberian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer and becomes paler, almost yellowish-brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white. There is usually a dark mask around and in front of the eyes. The tail is about 50% of the head and body length, and may have a dark tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Siberian Weasels are found in forests, forest steppe, and mountains, from 1500 to 5000 m. They are often found in river valleys, near swamps, and in areas with dense ground vegetation, around villages, and in cultivated areas.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly small mammals (rodents, pikas), but may also include amphibians, birds, eggs,fish, invertebrates, berries, and nuts. Siberian Weasels search for prey by exploring hollow trees, logs,cavities, brush piles, and other enclosed spaces.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are under roots, in logs or tree hollows, modified rodent burrows, rock crevices, or buildings.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Siberian Weasels are solitary and terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Nightly movements may reach 8 km. There are reports of Siberian Weasels relocating to new areas if food becomes scarce locally.Breeding.Mating occursin late winter and early spring. The gestation period is 33-37 days. The young are born in April to June, inside hollow trees, cavities among rocks or stumps,inside buildings, or in a modified rodent burrow; the nest is lined with fur and feathers from prey killed by the mother. The litter size is 2-12, usually five or six. The young open their eyesafter one month, and lactation lasts two months. They leave their mother by the end of August.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Siberian Weasel is important in the fur trade. It occasionally attacks domestic fowl, but is generally considered beneficial because it preys on rodents. Little is known about Siberian Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Pocock (1941a), Rhim & Lee (2007), Sasaki & Ono (1994), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Wu (1999)." -038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,655,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A.xml,Neovison vison,Neovison,vison,,,Vison d’Amérique @fr | Amerikanischer Nerz @de | Visén americano @es,"Mustela vison Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Fifteen subspecies are recognized.","N. v. vison Schreber, 1776— E Canadaand NE USA(Allegheny Mts).N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916— SW USA(California& W Nevada).N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964— W Alaska.N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896— W Canadaand NW USA.N. v. evagor Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I).N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948— SE USA(SWFlorida).N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900— most of Alaska and NW Canada(N Mackenzie & Yukon).N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902— C Canada(Keewatin Region, Manitoba& Ontario).N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913— Great Plains of USA.N. v. low Anderson, 1945— E Canada(Labrador & Quebec).N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898— USA(S Carolina to Florida).N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE USA.N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909— SW Alaska.N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895— USA(Arkansas& Louisiana).Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan(Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.","Head-body 33-43 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females), tail 16.7-20 cm(males), 15.2-18.5 cm(females); weight 850-1805 g(males), 450-840 g(females), adult males are generally 10% longer and 100% heavier than females. The American Mink has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is soft and luxurious; it is brown throughout, but white markings on the chest, throat and chin are common. The feet are fully furred and the claws are short and sharp. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and flat, with a small sagittal crest. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, P 3/3,M1/2=34.","American Mink are found along the edges of small creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and in wetlands, swamps, marshes, and along coastal beaches. They prefer densely vegetated areas and are sometimes found far from water. Females have been found to prefer small streams, whereas males prefer large streams.","The diet includes small mammals,fish, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and earthworms. In much of North America, the American Mink is a major predator of Muskrats; fluctuations in Muskrat populations have a direct effect on American Mink abundance. In Eurasia, where the American Mink has been introduced, the staple food items on rivers and streamsare fish (average, 27%), mammals (30%), and amphibians (17%), whereas on lakes and ponds,it is predominantly birds (33%) and fish (28%). On the upper reaches of the Lovatriver, north-east Belarus, three out of ten American Mink were found to be small mammal specialists; 86-92% of their scats contained remains of small rodents (mostly the Water Vole and microtines), and small mammals constituted 83-88% of the food biomass consumed; the other seven were generalist predators. In western Poland, the diet of American Mink consists mainly of mammals, birds, and fish. In autumn-winter, mammals constitute up to 56%, fish up to 62%, and birds 4-16%, of the biomass consumed. In spring and summer, however, birds form 45-60% of the biomass eaten; the common coot (Fulica atra) is the most frequently consumed prey. Scat analysis in eastern Polandrevealed that American Mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring-summer and 10% in autumnwinter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Of the available small mammal species, American Mink strongly selected the Root Vole (Microtus oeconomus). The cold season diet depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, American Mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of a river increases and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forest), American Mink shift to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in the diet). The stomach contents of 211 individuals in Thy, Denmark, revealed that the diet was mostly mammals (55% occurrence), followed by amphibians (36%), birds (33%), and fish (30%). In Bornholm, Denmark, American Mink prey mostly on birds (50%), followed by mammals (42%), fish (25%) and amphibians (4%). In Italy, the diet is mainly fish, followed by small mammals and birds. American Mink spend most of their time hunting near water, but can also hunt underwater. In a coastal environment of Scotland, radio-tracked American Mink were found to forage selectively at low or mid-tide and within the core areas of their home range; they showed no preference for areas rich in prey when foraging at high tide and between core areas. They also avoided areas with freshwater streams and preferred foraging in the mid-tide zone. Prey on land are detected by sight or sound. Surplus food is sometimes cached.","Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.","Mainly nocturnal, but with frequent periods of daytime activity, especially in areas away from humans. Den/rest sites are in burrows, hollow logs, hollow trees, rock crevices, old buildings, or abandoned dwellings of Muskrats, American Beavers, or Woodchucks (Marmota sp.). Burrows may be about 3 mlong and 1 mbeneath the surface, and have one or more entrancesjust above the water level. On the northern Iberian Peninsula, radio-collared American Mink selected resting places within dense scrub,close to deep water. Both sexes also used underground dens, but during cold days females rested in buildings much more often than males. Active females used areas of dense scrub, and males used large scrub patches.","American Mink are good swimmers. They can dive to depths of 5-6 mand swim underwater for about 30 m.They are also agile climbers and occasionally forage in trees. Movements are either short foraging excursions or long travel movements between areas. Daily movements may reach up to 25 km, but usually are less than 5 km. American Mink are solitary outside of the breeding season. Females have home ranges of about 8-20 ha; the ranges of males are larger, sometimes up to 800 ha. Home ranges include 1-8-7- 5 kmof shoreline for males and 1-4- 2 kmfor females. In the prairies, the average home range of males was 7- 7 km*. The home ranges of males overlap with those of females, but there is little overlap with other males. Population densities of 1-8 per km? have been recorded.Breeding.Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The American Mink is considered common throughoutits range. It is harvested in the wild forits fur, particularly in North America; however, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms and American Mink are intensively raised in captivity. Most of the conservation issues with this species relate to its introduction to countries outside its natural distribution and the impacts on native fauna. Major threats to American Mink are linked with water pollution.","Aulerich & Ringer (1979) | Aulerich et al. (1974) | Bartoszewicz & Zalewski (2003) | Birks & Linn (1982) | Bonesi et al. (2000) | Dunstone (1979, 1983, 1993) | Enders (1952) | Errington (1954) | Hammershoj et al. (2004) | Lariviere (1999a, 2003b) | Sidorovich et al. (2001) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zabala et al. (2007a, 2007b) | Zuberogoitia et al. (2006)",,"56.American MinkNeovison visonFrench:Vison d’Amérique/ German:Amerikanischer Nerz/ Spanish:Visén americanoTaxonomy.Mustela vison Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Fifteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N. v. vison Schreber, 1776— E Canadaand NE USA(Allegheny Mts).N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916— SW USA(California& W Nevada).N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964— W Alaska.N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896— W Canadaand NW USA.N. v. evagor Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I).N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948— SE USA(SWFlorida).N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900— most of Alaska and NW Canada(N Mackenzie & Yukon).N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902— C Canada(Keewatin Region, Manitoba& Ontario).N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913— Great Plains of USA.N. v. low Anderson, 1945— E Canada(Labrador & Quebec).N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898— USA(S Carolina to Florida).N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE USA.N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909— SW Alaska.N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895— USA(Arkansas& Louisiana).Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan(Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.Descriptive notes.Head-body 33-43 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females), tail 16.7-20 cm(males), 15.2-18.5 cm(females); weight 850-1805 g(males), 450-840 g(females), adult males are generally 10% longer and 100% heavier than females. The American Mink has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is soft and luxurious; it is brown throughout, but white markings on the chest, throat and chin are common. The feet are fully furred and the claws are short and sharp. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and flat, with a small sagittal crest. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, P 3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.American Mink are found along the edges of small creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and in wetlands, swamps, marshes, and along coastal beaches. They prefer densely vegetated areas and are sometimes found far from water. Females have been found to prefer small streams, whereas males prefer large streams.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals,fish, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and earthworms. In much of North America, the American Mink is a major predator of Muskrats; fluctuations in Muskrat populations have a direct effect on American Mink abundance. In Eurasia, where the American Mink has been introduced, the staple food items on rivers and streamsare fish (average, 27%), mammals (30%), and amphibians (17%), whereas on lakes and ponds,it is predominantly birds (33%) and fish (28%). On the upper reaches of the Lovatriver, north-east Belarus, three out of ten American Mink were found to be small mammal specialists; 86-92% of their scats contained remains of small rodents (mostly the Water Vole and microtines), and small mammals constituted 83-88% of the food biomass consumed; the other seven were generalist predators. In western Poland, the diet of American Mink consists mainly of mammals, birds, and fish. In autumn-winter, mammals constitute up to 56%, fish up to 62%, and birds 4-16%, of the biomass consumed. In spring and summer, however, birds form 45-60% of the biomass eaten; the common coot (Fulica atra) is the most frequently consumed prey. Scat analysis in eastern Polandrevealed that American Mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring-summer and 10% in autumnwinter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Of the available small mammal species, American Mink strongly selected the Root Vole (Microtus oeconomus). The cold season diet depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, American Mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of a river increases and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forest), American Mink shift to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in the diet). The stomach contents of 211 individuals in Thy, Denmark, revealed that the diet was mostly mammals (55% occurrence), followed by amphibians (36%), birds (33%), and fish (30%). In Bornholm, Denmark, American Mink prey mostly on birds (50%), followed by mammals (42%), fish (25%) and amphibians (4%). In Italy, the diet is mainly fish, followed by small mammals and birds. American Mink spend most of their time hunting near water, but can also hunt underwater. In a coastal environment of Scotland, radio-tracked American Mink were found to forage selectively at low or mid-tide and within the core areas of their home range; they showed no preference for areas rich in prey when foraging at high tide and between core areas. They also avoided areas with freshwater streams and preferred foraging in the mid-tide zone. Prey on land are detected by sight or sound. Surplus food is sometimes cached.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but with frequent periods of daytime activity, especially in areas away from humans. Den/rest sites are in burrows, hollow logs, hollow trees, rock crevices, old buildings, or abandoned dwellings of Muskrats, American Beavers, or Woodchucks (Marmota sp.). Burrows may be about 3 mlong and 1 mbeneath the surface, and have one or more entrancesjust above the water level. On the northern Iberian Peninsula, radio-collared American Mink selected resting places within dense scrub,close to deep water. Both sexes also used underground dens, but during cold days females rested in buildings much more often than males. Active females used areas of dense scrub, and males used large scrub patches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Mink are good swimmers. They can dive to depths of 5-6 mand swim underwater for about 30 m.They are also agile climbers and occasionally forage in trees. Movements are either short foraging excursions or long travel movements between areas. Daily movements may reach up to 25 km, but usually are less than 5 km. American Mink are solitary outside of the breeding season. Females have home ranges of about 8-20 ha; the ranges of males are larger, sometimes up to 800 ha. Home ranges include 1-8-7- 5 kmof shoreline for males and 1-4- 2 kmfor females. In the prairies, the average home range of males was 7- 7 km*. The home ranges of males overlap with those of females, but there is little overlap with other males. Population densities of 1-8 per km? have been recorded.Breeding.Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The American Mink is considered common throughoutits range. It is harvested in the wild forits fur, particularly in North America; however, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms and American Mink are intensively raised in captivity. Most of the conservation issues with this species relate to its introduction to countries outside its natural distribution and the impacts on native fauna. Major threats to American Mink are linked with water pollution.Bibliography.Aulerich & Ringer (1979), Aulerich et al. (1974), Bartoszewicz & Zalewski (2003), Birks & Linn (1982), Bonesi et al. (2000), Dunstone (1979, 1983, 1993), Enders (1952), Errington (1954), Hammershoj et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999a, 2003b), Sidorovich et al. (2001), Wozencraft (2005), Zabala et al. (2007a, 2007b), Zuberogoitia et al. (2006)." +038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,655,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A.xml,Neovison vison,Neovison,vison,,,Vison d’Amérique @fr | Amerikanischer Nerz @de | Visén americano @es,"Mustela vison Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Fifteen subspecies are recognized.","N. v. vison Schreber, 1776— E Canadaand NE USA(Allegheny Mts).N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916— SW USA(California& W Nevada).N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964— W Alaska.N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896— W Canadaand NW USA.N. v. evagor Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I).N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948— SE USA(SWFlorida).N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900— most of Alaska and NW Canada(N Mackenzie & Yukon).N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902— C Canada(Keewatin Region, Manitoba& Ontario).N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913— Great Plains of USA.N. v. low Anderson, 1945— E Canada(Labrador & Quebec).N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898— USA(S Carolina to Florida).N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE USA.N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909— SW Alaska.N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895— USA(Arkansas& Louisiana).Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan(Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.","Head-body 33-43 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females), tail 16.7-20 cm(males), 15.2-18.5 cm(females); weight 850-1805 g(males), 450-840 g(females), adult males are generally 10% longer and 100% heavier than females. The American Mink has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is soft and luxurious; it is brown throughout, but white markings on the chest, throat and chin are common. The feet are fully furred and the claws are short and sharp. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and flat, with a small sagittal crest. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, P 3/3,M1/2=34.","American Mink are found along the edges of small creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and in wetlands, swamps, marshes, and along coastal beaches. They prefer densely vegetated areas and are sometimes found far from water. Females have been found to prefer small streams, whereas males prefer large streams.","The diet includes small mammals,fish, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and earthworms. In much of North America, the American Mink is a major predator of Muskrats; fluctuations in Muskrat populations have a direct effect on American Mink abundance. In Eurasia, where the American Mink has been introduced, the staple food items on rivers and streamsare fish (average, 27%), mammals (30%), and amphibians (17%), whereas on lakes and ponds,it is predominantly birds (33%) and fish (28%). On the upper reaches of the Lovatriver, north-east Belarus, three out of ten American Mink were found to be small mammal specialists; 86-92% of their scats contained remains of small rodents (mostly the Water Vole and microtines), and small mammals constituted 83-88% of the food biomass consumed; the other seven were generalist predators. In western Poland, the diet of American Mink consists mainly of mammals, birds, and fish. In autumn-winter, mammals constitute up to 56%, fish up to 62%, and birds 4-16%, of the biomass consumed. In spring and summer, however, birds form 45-60% of the biomass eaten; the common coot (Fulica atra) is the most frequently consumed prey. Scat analysis in eastern Polandrevealed that American Mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring-summer and 10% in autumnwinter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Of the available small mammal species, American Mink strongly selected the Root Vole (Microtus oeconomus). The cold season diet depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, American Mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of a river increases and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forest), American Mink shift to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in the diet). The stomach contents of 211 individuals in Thy, Denmark, revealed that the diet was mostly mammals (55% occurrence), followed by amphibians (36%), birds (33%), and fish (30%). In Bornholm, Denmark, American Mink prey mostly on birds (50%), followed by mammals (42%), fish (25%) and amphibians (4%). In Italy, the diet is mainly fish, followed by small mammals and birds. American Mink spend most of their time hunting near water, but can also hunt underwater. In a coastal environment of Scotland, radio-tracked American Mink were found to forage selectively at low or mid-tide and within the core areas of their home range; they showed no preference for areas rich in prey when foraging at high tide and between core areas. They also avoided areas with freshwater streams and preferred foraging in the mid-tide zone. Prey on land are detected by sight or sound. Surplus food is sometimes cached.","Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.","Mainly nocturnal, but with frequent periods of daytime activity, especially in areas away from humans. Den/rest sites are in burrows, hollow logs, hollow trees, rock crevices, old buildings, or abandoned dwellings of Muskrats, American Beavers, or Woodchucks (Marmota sp.). Burrows may be about 3 mlong and 1 mbeneath the surface, and have one or more entrancesjust above the water level. On the northern Iberian Peninsula, radio-collared American Mink selected resting places within dense scrub,close to deep water. Both sexes also used underground dens, but during cold days females rested in buildings much more often than males. Active females used areas of dense scrub, and males used large scrub patches.","American Mink are good swimmers. They can dive to depths of 5-6 mand swim underwater for about 30 m.They are also agile climbers and occasionally forage in trees. Movements are either short foraging excursions or long travel movements between areas. Daily movements may reach up to 25 km, but usually are less than 5 km. American Mink are solitary outside of the breeding season. Females have home ranges of about 8-20 ha; the ranges of males are larger, sometimes up to 800 ha. Home ranges include 1-8-7- 5 kmof shoreline for males and 1-4- 2 kmfor females. In the prairies, the average home range of males was 7- 7 km*. The home ranges of males overlap with those of females, but there is little overlap with other males. Population densities of 1-8 per km? have been recorded.Breeding.Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The American Mink is considered common throughoutits range. It is harvested in the wild forits fur, particularly in North America; however, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms and American Mink are intensively raised in captivity. Most of the conservation issues with this species relate to its introduction to countries outside its natural distribution and the impacts on native fauna. Major threats to American Mink are linked with water pollution.","Aulerich & Ringer (1979) | Aulerich et al. (1974) | Bartoszewicz & Zalewski (2003) | Birks & Linn (1982) | Bonesi et al. (2000) | Dunstone (1979, 1983, 1993) | Enders (1952) | Errington (1954) | Hammershoj et al. (2004) | Lariviere (1999a, 2003b) | Sidorovich et al. (2001) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zabala et al. (2007a, 2007b) | Zuberogoitia et al. (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714279/files/figure.png,"56.American MinkNeovison visonFrench:Vison d’Amérique/ German:Amerikanischer Nerz/ Spanish:Visén americanoTaxonomy.Mustela vison Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Fifteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N. v. vison Schreber, 1776— E Canadaand NE USA(Allegheny Mts).N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916— SW USA(California& W Nevada).N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964— W Alaska.N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896— W Canadaand NW USA.N. v. evagor Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I).N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948— SE USA(SWFlorida).N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900— most of Alaska and NW Canada(N Mackenzie & Yukon).N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902— C Canada(Keewatin Region, Manitoba& Ontario).N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913— Great Plains of USA.N. v. low Anderson, 1945— E Canada(Labrador & Quebec).N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898— USA(S Carolina to Florida).N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE USA.N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909— SW Alaska.N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895— USA(Arkansas& Louisiana).Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan(Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.Descriptive notes.Head-body 33-43 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females), tail 16.7-20 cm(males), 15.2-18.5 cm(females); weight 850-1805 g(males), 450-840 g(females), adult males are generally 10% longer and 100% heavier than females. The American Mink has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is soft and luxurious; it is brown throughout, but white markings on the chest, throat and chin are common. The feet are fully furred and the claws are short and sharp. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and flat, with a small sagittal crest. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, P 3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.American Mink are found along the edges of small creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and in wetlands, swamps, marshes, and along coastal beaches. They prefer densely vegetated areas and are sometimes found far from water. Females have been found to prefer small streams, whereas males prefer large streams.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals,fish, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and earthworms. In much of North America, the American Mink is a major predator of Muskrats; fluctuations in Muskrat populations have a direct effect on American Mink abundance. In Eurasia, where the American Mink has been introduced, the staple food items on rivers and streamsare fish (average, 27%), mammals (30%), and amphibians (17%), whereas on lakes and ponds,it is predominantly birds (33%) and fish (28%). On the upper reaches of the Lovatriver, north-east Belarus, three out of ten American Mink were found to be small mammal specialists; 86-92% of their scats contained remains of small rodents (mostly the Water Vole and microtines), and small mammals constituted 83-88% of the food biomass consumed; the other seven were generalist predators. In western Poland, the diet of American Mink consists mainly of mammals, birds, and fish. In autumn-winter, mammals constitute up to 56%, fish up to 62%, and birds 4-16%, of the biomass consumed. In spring and summer, however, birds form 45-60% of the biomass eaten; the common coot (Fulica atra) is the most frequently consumed prey. Scat analysis in eastern Polandrevealed that American Mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring-summer and 10% in autumnwinter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Of the available small mammal species, American Mink strongly selected the Root Vole (Microtus oeconomus). The cold season diet depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, American Mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of a river increases and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forest), American Mink shift to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in the diet). The stomach contents of 211 individuals in Thy, Denmark, revealed that the diet was mostly mammals (55% occurrence), followed by amphibians (36%), birds (33%), and fish (30%). In Bornholm, Denmark, American Mink prey mostly on birds (50%), followed by mammals (42%), fish (25%) and amphibians (4%). In Italy, the diet is mainly fish, followed by small mammals and birds. American Mink spend most of their time hunting near water, but can also hunt underwater. In a coastal environment of Scotland, radio-tracked American Mink were found to forage selectively at low or mid-tide and within the core areas of their home range; they showed no preference for areas rich in prey when foraging at high tide and between core areas. They also avoided areas with freshwater streams and preferred foraging in the mid-tide zone. Prey on land are detected by sight or sound. Surplus food is sometimes cached.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but with frequent periods of daytime activity, especially in areas away from humans. Den/rest sites are in burrows, hollow logs, hollow trees, rock crevices, old buildings, or abandoned dwellings of Muskrats, American Beavers, or Woodchucks (Marmota sp.). Burrows may be about 3 mlong and 1 mbeneath the surface, and have one or more entrancesjust above the water level. On the northern Iberian Peninsula, radio-collared American Mink selected resting places within dense scrub,close to deep water. Both sexes also used underground dens, but during cold days females rested in buildings much more often than males. Active females used areas of dense scrub, and males used large scrub patches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Mink are good swimmers. They can dive to depths of 5-6 mand swim underwater for about 30 m.They are also agile climbers and occasionally forage in trees. Movements are either short foraging excursions or long travel movements between areas. Daily movements may reach up to 25 km, but usually are less than 5 km. American Mink are solitary outside of the breeding season. Females have home ranges of about 8-20 ha; the ranges of males are larger, sometimes up to 800 ha. Home ranges include 1-8-7- 5 kmof shoreline for males and 1-4- 2 kmfor females. In the prairies, the average home range of males was 7- 7 km*. The home ranges of males overlap with those of females, but there is little overlap with other males. Population densities of 1-8 per km? have been recorded.Breeding.Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The American Mink is considered common throughoutits range. It is harvested in the wild forits fur, particularly in North America; however, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms and American Mink are intensively raised in captivity. Most of the conservation issues with this species relate to its introduction to countries outside its natural distribution and the impacts on native fauna. Major threats to American Mink are linked with water pollution.Bibliography.Aulerich & Ringer (1979), Aulerich et al. (1974), Bartoszewicz & Zalewski (2003), Birks & Linn (1982), Bonesi et al. (2000), Dunstone (1979, 1983, 1993), Enders (1952), Errington (1954), Hammershoj et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999a, 2003b), Sidorovich et al. (2001), Wozencraft (2005), Zabala et al. (2007a, 2007b), Zuberogoitia et al. (2006)." 038F87D4CA74FF9BCAFB3FFCFC20F836,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,655,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA74FF9BCAFB3FFCFC20F836.xml,Mustela subpalmata,Mustela,subpalmata,Hemprich & Ehrenberg,1833,Belette d'Egypte @fr | Agyptisches Wiesel @de | Comadreja egipcia @es,"Mustela subpalmata Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Egypt.The Egyptian Weasel has often been considered conspecific with the Least Weasel, but is now recognized as a separate species. Monotypic.",Egypt.,"Head-body 27-30 cm, tail 10.7-12.9 cm; weight 45-130 g, but females are smaller than males. The morphology is very similar to that of the Least Weasel.",Fields and along irrigation canals. Also found in towns and villages.,Diet is said to include small mammals and insects.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.,"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Virtually nothing is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.",Setzer (1958) | VanZyll de Jong (1992) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714277/files/figure.png,"55.Egyptian WeaselMustela subpalmataFrench:Belette d'Egypte/ German:Agyptisches Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja egipciaTaxonomy.Mustela subpalmata Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Egypt.The Egyptian Weasel has often been considered conspecific with the Least Weasel, but is now recognized as a separate species. Monotypic.Distribution.Egypt.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27-30 cm, tail 10.7-12.9 cm; weight 45-130 g, but females are smaller than males. The morphology is very similar to that of the Least Weasel.Habitat.Fields and along irrigation canals. Also found in towns and villages.Food and Feeding.Diet is said to include small mammals and insects.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Virtually nothing is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Setzer (1958), VanZyll de Jong (1992), Wozencraft (2005)." 038F87D4CA75FF9ACADA3EB6F656FC61,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c,656,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA75FF9ACADA3EB6F656FC61.xml,Lyncodon patagonicus,Lyncodon,patagonicus,Gervais,1845,Belette de Patagonie @fr | Patagonisches Wiesel @de | Huron patagonico @es,"Mustela patagonica de Blainville, 1842, Argentina.Monotypic.",Argentinaand C & S Chile.,"Head-body 30-35 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 200-250 g. The Patagonian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is grayish-white throughout, with a wide band of white fur on the top of head. The nape, cheeks, chin, throat and limbs are dark brown. Dental formula; 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 1/1=28.","Herbaceous and shrub steppes, and xerophytic woodlands.",Reported to enter burrows and prey on fossorial rodents and birds. May be associated with tuco-tuco (Ctenomys spp.) communities.,Nothing known.,Reported to be nocturnal and crepuscular.,Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.,Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRedList. Verylittle is known about the Patagonian Weasel as it is rarelyseen in the wild or collected. No information has been published onits current population status or major threats. Field studies are needed to learn more about its ecology and conservation status.,Ewer (1973) | IUCN(2008) | Miller et al. (1983) | Pocock (1926) | Wozencraft (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5714281/files/figure.png,"57.Patagonian WeaselLyncodon patagonicusFrench:Belette de Patagonie/ German:Patagonisches Wiesel/ Spanish:Huron patagonicoTaxonomy.Mustela patagonica de Blainville, 1842, Argentina.Monotypic.Distribution.Argentinaand C & S Chile.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-35 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 200-250 g. The Patagonian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is grayish-white throughout, with a wide band of white fur on the top of head. The nape, cheeks, chin, throat and limbs are dark brown. Dental formula; 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 1/1=28.Habitat.Herbaceous and shrub steppes, and xerophytic woodlands.Food and Feeding.Reported to enter burrows and prey on fossorial rodents and birds. May be associated with tuco-tuco (Ctenomys spp.) communities.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRedList. Verylittle is known about the Patagonian Weasel as it is rarelyseen in the wild or collected. No information has been published onits current population status or major threats. Field studies are needed to learn more about its ecology and conservation status.Bibliography.Ewer (1973), IUCN(2008), Miller et al. (1983), Pocock (1926), Wozencraft (2005)." 039187AC5C3C2A51F0B408BA372BF81E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Furipteridae_412.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa8ffd45c3e2a53f03609113f64ffc4,417,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/91/87/039187AC5C3C2A51F0B408BA372BF81E.xml,Furipterus horrens,Furipterus,horrens,F. Cuvier,1828,Furiptere hérissé @fr | Gemeiner Stummeldaumen @de | Murciélagosin pulgar @es,"Furia horrens F. Cuvier, 1828, “la Mana,” French Guiana.R. F. Tomes in 1856 was the first to use the current name combination. Relative to DNA barcoding studies, F horrensshowed a 2:5% mean intraspecific sequence divergence, which according to criteria of R. J. Baker and R. D. Bradley in 2006 could represent cryptic speciation but not distinct mitochondrial lineages or phylogroups. Monotypic.","S Central and N South America from SW Nicaragua(Refugio Bartola), S throughout Costa Ricaand Panamato Colombia, Venezuela, TrinidadI, the Guianas, Brazil, E Ecuador, E Peru, and N Bolivia.","Head-body ¢.34-41 mm (males) and 33-36 mm (females), tail 20-28 mm (males) and 21-38 mm (females), hindfoot 7-8 mm (males) and 7-9 mm (females), forearm 35-37 mm (males) and 36-5-38-5 mm (females); weight 3-1-3-6 g (males) and 3-2-4-2 g (females). Tail of the Thumbless Bat extends a little less than two-thirds the length of uropatagium, in which it is completely encased. Intraspecific divergence in measurements of Thumbless Bats in samples from Espirito Santoand the Guianas varied 2:1-2-5%. Zygomatic breadths are 7-3-7-8 mm, and maxillary tooth rows are 4:7-4-8 mm (females). Specific name horrensrefers to bristly hair on this bat. Thumbless Bats are small and delicate, with soft, thick, bluish gray to slate-gray fur on dorsum; venteris slightly paler. Height of braincase, including auditory bullae, is much less than distance from frontal angle to most posterior point of occipital region; muzzle and lips nearly simple. Rostrum is short, ¢.50% the length of braincase. Dental formula is 12/3, C 1/1, P 2/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 36; upper incisors are paired, outerslightly smaller than inner; space between two inner incisors and that between outer incisor and canine are distinct; C' is small, and its shaft is about equal in height to the large P% P! is ¢.50% the size of canine and second premolar; lower incisors have trifid cutting edges, forming continuous row between canines; C is as high as P, and P,, which are about equal in size; and P| is ¢.50% the height of canine. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 34 and FN = 62; Gand C-band data have not been published.","Humid tropical and subtropical forests in lowlands at elevations of 250-1200 m. Although Thumbless Bats have been associated with caves, they also use other shelters such as buildings (empty or occupied), tunnels, among boulders, hollow logs, and within or under fallen decomposing trees.","Thumbless Bats are insectivorous and fly close to the ground, especially in search of moths. Species of Lepidoptera are more abundant in diets than species of Diptera or Coleoptera.","In Colombia,five females were caught in September: one gravid, three nongravid, and a young. Fifty-nine males were found on a fallen tree in Costa Ricain May, and there were isolated males in a cavern in Panamain February. In the most comprehensive study of the Thumbless Bat in Brazil, W. Uieda and colleagues in 1980 reported lactating females with young in January-February, and the young were ready to start flying. On an October night, three young (two males and one female) were hanging on a cliff inside a cave in Brazil. Female reproductive system has short, partially bicornuate uterus; while ovaries typically have abundant stromal type intersticial gland tissue. The placenta is discoidal; large vascular channels are hemodichorial, with widely scattered maternal endothelial cells; and smaller vascular channels are endotheliodichorial (somite stage embryo) (light microscopy). There was a developing discoidal chorioallantoic placenta in a female Thumbless Bat captured in a road culvert in the Western Andes Range of Colombia. Although she carried only a somite stage embryo, most maternal endotelial cells had already been eliminated from the larger vascular channels (establishing a hemodichorial condition) but were still common in the smaller channels.","It often occurs in small groups of 4-10 individuals but has recently been found in large aggregations (e.g. 59 males roosting inside a tree in Costa Ricaand 150-250 mixed-gender individuals in a few grottos in Brazil). Thumbless Bats begin to fly at twilight but do not leave their shelters until after dark. Echolocation calls have low-duty cycles, dominated by sounds less than 100 kHz.","Thumbless Bats are known to cooccur with several other bat species such as the Woolly False Vampire Bat (Chrotopterus auritus), the Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus), Pallas’s Long-tongued Bat (Glossophaga soricina), Geoffroy’s Tailless Bat (Anoura geoffroyi), Seba’s Short-tailed Bat (Carollia perspicillata), the White-lined Broad-nosed Bat (Platyrrhinus lineatus), the Lesser Dog-like Bat (Peropteryx macrotis), the Hairy-legged Vampire Bat (Diphylla ecaudata), Little Big-eared Bat (Micronycteris megalotis), and the Greater Spear-nosed Bat (Phyllostomus hastatus). Thumbless Bats could be preyed on by carnivorous bats in caves, and remains of Thumbless Bats have been found in stomach contents of the Fringe-lipped Bat (Trachops cirrhosus), the Greater Spear-nosed Bat, and the Woolly False Vampire Bat.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Thumbless Bat is listed as least concern in the Ecuadorian Red Book of Endangered Species but vulnerable in the Brazilian Red Book of Endangered Species. The Thumbless Bat was long considered one of the most rare Neotropical bats, butit has been discovered recently in relatively large aggregations.","Albuja (1999) | Badwaik & Rasweiler (2000) | Baker & Bradley (2006) | Brosset & Charles-Dominique (1991) | Duda et al. (2012) | Falcaoet al. (2015) | Fenton, Whitaker et al. (1999) | Gardner (2008h) | Husson (1962) | LaVal & Fitch (1977) | Leal et al. (2014) | Medina-Fitoria et al. (2015) | Miller (1907) | Nowak (1994) | Portella et al. (2017) | Rasweiler & Badwaik (2000) | Reid (2009) | Reis et al. (2017) | Salles et al. (2014) | Simmons & Voss (1998) | Tirira et al. (2012) | Tomes (1856) | Uieda et al. (1980)",https://zenodo.org/record/5733450/files/figure.png,"2.Thumbless BatFuripterus horrensFrench:Furiptere hérissé/ German:Gemeiner Stummeldaumen/ Spanish:Murciélagosin pulgarTaxonomy.Furia horrens F. Cuvier, 1828, “la Mana,” French Guiana.R. F. Tomes in 1856 was the first to use the current name combination. Relative to DNA barcoding studies, F horrensshowed a 2:5% mean intraspecific sequence divergence, which according to criteria of R. J. Baker and R. D. Bradley in 2006 could represent cryptic speciation but not distinct mitochondrial lineages or phylogroups. Monotypic.Distribution.S Central and N South America from SW Nicaragua(Refugio Bartola), S throughout Costa Ricaand Panamato Colombia, Venezuela, TrinidadI, the Guianas, Brazil, E Ecuador, E Peru, and N Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.34-41 mm (males) and 33-36 mm (females), tail 20-28 mm (males) and 21-38 mm (females), hindfoot 7-8 mm (males) and 7-9 mm (females), forearm 35-37 mm (males) and 36-5-38-5 mm (females); weight 3-1-3-6 g (males) and 3-2-4-2 g (females). Tail of the Thumbless Bat extends a little less than two-thirds the length of uropatagium, in which it is completely encased. Intraspecific divergence in measurements of Thumbless Bats in samples from Espirito Santoand the Guianas varied 2:1-2-5%. Zygomatic breadths are 7-3-7-8 mm, and maxillary tooth rows are 4:7-4-8 mm (females). Specific name horrensrefers to bristly hair on this bat. Thumbless Bats are small and delicate, with soft, thick, bluish gray to slate-gray fur on dorsum; venteris slightly paler. Height of braincase, including auditory bullae, is much less than distance from frontal angle to most posterior point of occipital region; muzzle and lips nearly simple. Rostrum is short, ¢.50% the length of braincase. Dental formula is 12/3, C 1/1, P 2/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 36; upper incisors are paired, outerslightly smaller than inner; space between two inner incisors and that between outer incisor and canine are distinct; C' is small, and its shaft is about equal in height to the large P% P! is ¢.50% the size of canine and second premolar; lower incisors have trifid cutting edges, forming continuous row between canines; C is as high as P, and P,, which are about equal in size; and P| is ¢.50% the height of canine. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 34 and FN = 62; Gand C-band data have not been published.Habitat.Humid tropical and subtropical forests in lowlands at elevations of 250-1200 m. Although Thumbless Bats have been associated with caves, they also use other shelters such as buildings (empty or occupied), tunnels, among boulders, hollow logs, and within or under fallen decomposing trees.Food and Feeding.Thumbless Bats are insectivorous and fly close to the ground, especially in search of moths. Species of Lepidoptera are more abundant in diets than species of Diptera or Coleoptera.Breeding.In Colombia,five females were caught in September: one gravid, three nongravid, and a young. Fifty-nine males were found on a fallen tree in Costa Ricain May, and there were isolated males in a cavern in Panamain February. In the most comprehensive study of the Thumbless Bat in Brazil, W. Uieda and colleagues in 1980 reported lactating females with young in January-February, and the young were ready to start flying. On an October night, three young (two males and one female) were hanging on a cliff inside a cave in Brazil. Female reproductive system has short, partially bicornuate uterus; while ovaries typically have abundant stromal type intersticial gland tissue. The placenta is discoidal; large vascular channels are hemodichorial, with widely scattered maternal endothelial cells; and smaller vascular channels are endotheliodichorial (somite stage embryo) (light microscopy). There was a developing discoidal chorioallantoic placenta in a female Thumbless Bat captured in a road culvert in the Western Andes Range of Colombia. Although she carried only a somite stage embryo, most maternal endotelial cells had already been eliminated from the larger vascular channels (establishing a hemodichorial condition) but were still common in the smaller channels.Activity patterns.It often occurs in small groups of 4-10 individuals but has recently been found in large aggregations (e.g. 59 males roosting inside a tree in Costa Ricaand 150-250 mixed-gender individuals in a few grottos in Brazil). Thumbless Bats begin to fly at twilight but do not leave their shelters until after dark. Echolocation calls have low-duty cycles, dominated by sounds less than 100 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Thumbless Bats are known to cooccur with several other bat species such as the Woolly False Vampire Bat (Chrotopterus auritus), the Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus), Pallas’s Long-tongued Bat (Glossophaga soricina), Geoffroy’s Tailless Bat (Anoura geoffroyi), Seba’s Short-tailed Bat (Carollia perspicillata), the White-lined Broad-nosed Bat (Platyrrhinus lineatus), the Lesser Dog-like Bat (Peropteryx macrotis), the Hairy-legged Vampire Bat (Diphylla ecaudata), Little Big-eared Bat (Micronycteris megalotis), and the Greater Spear-nosed Bat (Phyllostomus hastatus). Thumbless Bats could be preyed on by carnivorous bats in caves, and remains of Thumbless Bats have been found in stomach contents of the Fringe-lipped Bat (Trachops cirrhosus), the Greater Spear-nosed Bat, and the Woolly False Vampire Bat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Thumbless Bat is listed as least concern in the Ecuadorian Red Book of Endangered Species but vulnerable in the Brazilian Red Book of Endangered Species. The Thumbless Bat was long considered one of the most rare Neotropical bats, butit has been discovered recently in relatively large aggregations.Bibliography.Albuja (1999), Badwaik & Rasweiler (2000), Baker & Bradley (2006), Brosset & Charles-Dominique (1991), Duda et al. (2012), Falcaoet al. (2015), Fenton, Whitaker et al. (1999), Gardner (2008h), Husson (1962), LaVal & Fitch (1977), Leal et al. (2014), Medina-Fitoria et al. (2015), Miller (1907), Nowak (1994), Portella et al. (2017), Rasweiler & Badwaik (2000), Reid (2009), Reis et al. (2017), Salles et al. (2014), Simmons & Voss (1998), Tirira et al. (2012), Tomes (1856), Uieda et al. (1980)." 039187AC5C3F2A52F099001F399BF24E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Furipteridae_412.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa8ffd45c3e2a53f03609113f64ffc4,416,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/91/87/039187AC5C3F2A52F099001F399BF24E.xml,Amorphochilus schnablii,Amorphochilus,schnablii,Peters,1877,Furie de Schnabl @fr | Felsenklsten-Stummeldaumen @de | Murciélagoahumado @es | Schnabl's Smoky Bat @en,"Amorphochilusschnablii Peters, 1877. “Tumbez un noérdlichen Peru, an der Grenze von Ecuador.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Tumbes, departamento Tumbes, Peru.This species is monotypic.","Known only from a narrow strip Wofthe Andes in C & S Ecuador(including Puna I), Peru, and N Chile.","Head-body 39-47 mm, tail 27-34 mm, ear 12-15 mm, hindfoot 6-10 mm, forearm 34-38 mm; weight 3-10 g. Tail extends nearly fourfifths the length of uropatagium andis entirely enclosed by that membrane. Height of braincase, including auditory bullae, is equal to distance from frontal angle to most posterior point of occipital region. Muzzleis relatively simple and well-furred; no fleshystructures occur under chin; palateis short, not extending much beyond last molar; and mesopterygoid fossa is longer than wide. The Smoky Bat has long, dark smokygrayfur, often with brownish tinge; hair tips are blackish; front and top of head have pale buffy suffusion; underparts are nearly the same color as the upperparts; ears are light brown; and wing and tail membranes arelittle darker than ears. Snout is prominently rimmedand blunt; lips are conspicuouslyfleshy; and chin excrescences and lowerlips havefleshy wart-like structures. On average, third metacarpal is 34 mm, tibia is 15-5 mm, total skull length is 12 mm, braincase breadthis 6 mm, and uppertooth rowlength (with canine) is 5 mm. Dental formula is I 2/3, Cl1/1,P2/3.M 3/3 (x2) =36.","South American west coast deserts from sea level up to elevations of 2680 m. Two Smoky Bats were found on Hacienda Limon, Cajamarca, Peru, in a small arid valley above the Rio Maranon in the Amazon Basin. It is found in arid regions and cultivated areas; it is a cave-dweller and known to roost in culverts, caves, sugar mills, irrigation tunnels, and abandoned urban-rural buildings near crop areas (banana, rice; etc.).",Smoky Bats eat moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera). Adult moth scales were found in stomachs offive specimens from central Ecuador.,"In central Ecuadorin middle November, a large colony included males that did not show testes in the scrotal position, and several females were pregnant (eight of ten) with single fetuses but not lactating. This high percentage of pregnant females suggested a relatively synchronized seasonal breeding period, undoubtedly related to the rainy season (January-May); similarly, a breeding colony was found in the rainy months (December-March) in southern Peru. In a single reproductively inactive male, the small, paired testes were attached to the posterior body wall and inferior pole of the kidney by a suspensoryligament. The Smoky Bat has an ampullary gland. One specimen appeared to contain a tiny baculum, capping the urethra at tip ofglans.","Echolocation calls of the SmokyBat are the FMtype, with an average duration of4-4 milliseconds, important for foraging in dense vegetation and taking small insects while flying. Maximum averagefrequencyat 75-8 kHz.","In Guayas, Ecuador, a large monospecific colony(c.300 individuals) of Smoky Bats included males and females but not juveniles. This bat species has been collected along with Long-snouted Bat (Platalina genovensium) and Small Big-eared Brown Bat (Histiotusmontanus).","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. The Smoky Bat is considered an endangered species in Ecuadorbecause known populations are small, restricted to areas smaller than 20 km?, and known fromless than five localities. In Peru, it is considered a vulnerable species. In Chile, it has not been evaluated, but it is thought to be beneficial to agroforestry.",Abuja (1999) | Aragon & Aguirre (2014) | Cabrera (1958) | Gardner (2008h) | Ibanez (1986) | Krutzsch (2000) | Miller (1907) | Morgan & Czaplewski (1999) | Nowak (1994) | Rodriguez-San Pedro et al. (2016) | Tirira et al. (2012) | Ugarte-Nunez (2014),https://zenodo.org/record/5733448/files/figure.png,"1.Smoky BatAmorphochilus schnabliiFrench:Furie de Schnabl/ German:Felsenklsten-Stummeldaumen/ Spanish:MurciélagoahumadoOther common names:Schnabl's Smoky BatTaxonomy.Amorphochilusschnablii Peters, 1877. “Tumbez un noérdlichen Peru, an der Grenze von Ecuador.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Tumbes, departamento Tumbes, Peru.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Known only from a narrow strip Wofthe Andes in C & S Ecuador(including Puna I), Peru, and N Chile.Descriptive notes.Head-body 39-47 mm, tail 27-34 mm, ear 12-15 mm, hindfoot 6-10 mm, forearm 34-38 mm; weight 3-10 g. Tail extends nearly fourfifths the length of uropatagium andis entirely enclosed by that membrane. Height of braincase, including auditory bullae, is equal to distance from frontal angle to most posterior point of occipital region. Muzzleis relatively simple and well-furred; no fleshystructures occur under chin; palateis short, not extending much beyond last molar; and mesopterygoid fossa is longer than wide. The Smoky Bat has long, dark smokygrayfur, often with brownish tinge; hair tips are blackish; front and top of head have pale buffy suffusion; underparts are nearly the same color as the upperparts; ears are light brown; and wing and tail membranes arelittle darker than ears. Snout is prominently rimmedand blunt; lips are conspicuouslyfleshy; and chin excrescences and lowerlips havefleshy wart-like structures. On average, third metacarpal is 34 mm, tibia is 15-5 mm, total skull length is 12 mm, braincase breadthis 6 mm, and uppertooth rowlength (with canine) is 5 mm. Dental formula is I 2/3, Cl1/1,P2/3.M 3/3 (x2) =36.Habitat.South American west coast deserts from sea level up to elevations of 2680 m. Two Smoky Bats were found on Hacienda Limon, Cajamarca, Peru, in a small arid valley above the Rio Maranon in the Amazon Basin. It is found in arid regions and cultivated areas; it is a cave-dweller and known to roost in culverts, caves, sugar mills, irrigation tunnels, and abandoned urban-rural buildings near crop areas (banana, rice; etc.).Food and Feeding.Smoky Bats eat moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera). Adult moth scales were found in stomachs offive specimens from central Ecuador.Breeding.In central Ecuadorin middle November, a large colony included males that did not show testes in the scrotal position, and several females were pregnant (eight of ten) with single fetuses but not lactating. This high percentage of pregnant females suggested a relatively synchronized seasonal breeding period, undoubtedly related to the rainy season (January-May); similarly, a breeding colony was found in the rainy months (December-March) in southern Peru. In a single reproductively inactive male, the small, paired testes were attached to the posterior body wall and inferior pole of the kidney by a suspensoryligament. The Smoky Bat has an ampullary gland. One specimen appeared to contain a tiny baculum, capping the urethra at tip ofglans.Activity patterns.Echolocation calls of the SmokyBat are the FMtype, with an average duration of4-4 milliseconds, important for foraging in dense vegetation and taking small insects while flying. Maximum averagefrequencyat 75-8 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Guayas, Ecuador, a large monospecific colony(c.300 individuals) of Smoky Bats included males and females but not juveniles. This bat species has been collected along with Long-snouted Bat (Platalina genovensium) and Small Big-eared Brown Bat (Histiotusmontanus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. The Smoky Bat is considered an endangered species in Ecuadorbecause known populations are small, restricted to areas smaller than 20 km?, and known fromless than five localities. In Peru, it is considered a vulnerable species. In Chile, it has not been evaluated, but it is thought to be beneficial to agroforestry.Bibliography.Abuja (1999), Aragon & Aguirre (2014), Cabrera (1958), Gardner (2008h), Ibanez (1986), Krutzsch (2000), Miller (1907), Morgan & Czaplewski (1999), Nowak (1994), Rodriguez-San Pedro et al. (2016), Tirira et al. (2012), Ugarte-Nunez (2014)." 03928788FFE9FF8D2ADAF6DDF8B1C136,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b,254,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFE9FF8D2ADAF6DDF8B1C136.xml,Crocuta crocuta,Crocuta,crocuta,,,Hyene tachetée @fr | Tl Upfelhyane @de | Hiena manchada @es,"Canis crocuta Erxleben, 1777, Guinea, Aethiopia; restricted to “Senegambia”.The earliest members of the genus Crocutafirst appear in the fossil record of Africa in the early Pliocene, dated at roughly 3-7 million years ago. However, members of this genus soon dispersed out of Africa, and based on fossils from the period ofits greatest range expansion in the Pleistocene, the genus Crocutaoccupied virtually all of Europe and Asia, as well as most of sub-Saharan Africa. When exactly modern C. crocutaarose is not entirely certain, but this species is clearly very recent. C. crocutadoes not appear in the fossil record until sometime after 990,000 years ago, and probably substantially closer to the present, perhaps within the last 250,000 years. Modern Spotted Hyenas can be distinguished from members of the genus Crocutafound in the fossil record based on body size, limb length and stoutness, the length and shape of particular skull bones, and unique characteristics of the cheek teeth. In contrast to earlier members of the genus, including the Cave Hyenas of Europe and Asia (C. spelaea), modern Spotted Hyenas have a post-cranial skeleton that is modified for cursorial hunting. Currently only one subspeciesis recognized despite substantial variation in coloration and body mass throughout sub-Saharan Africa. For example, individuals from southern Africa are larger than those from eastern Africa. Monotypic.","Most of Africa S of the Sahara Desert, except in lowland tropical rainforests. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated from many areas of southern Africa.","Largest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 125-160 cm,tail 22-27 cm, height at shoulder 77.3-80. 7 cm; weight 45-55 kg and up to 86 kg. Females approximately 10% larger than males, although size distributions for males and females overlap. Degree of sexual dimorphism in body size varies geographically, being most pronounced in southern Africa. Its general color is sandy, ginger, or dull gray to reddish-brown, with black or dark brown spots on the back, flanks, rump, and legs. Spots may turn brown and fade with age. The fur is shorter in this species than in the other extant hyaenids. The head is large, rounded and powerful, with a short and blunt muzzle. In contrast to the other extant hyaenids, all of which have pointed ears, Spotted Hyenas have ears with rounded tops. The tail ends in a black, bushy tip, with approximately 12 cmof hair extending beyond the end of the tail bone. Like the other hyaenids, the Spotted Hyena has a sloping back because the forelegs are longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. The mane in this speciesis more poorly developed than in other hyaenids. The feet have four toes. Females usually have only two teats. The Spotted Hyena has long been considered a hermaphrodite in many parts of Africa because the external genitalia of the female are very similar to those of the male. The female has a peniform clitoris that is only a few mm shorter than the male’s penis, and is fully erectile. The sexes can be distinguished by the shape of the penile glans: the male glans is pointed whereas that of the female is blunt. A single urogenital canal traverses the enlarged clitoris; through this canal the female urinates, copulates and gives birth. There is no external vaginal opening as the outer labiae are fused to form a structure that resembles the scrotal sac of the male. The female’s pseudoscrotum has a bi-lobed appearance; the testes of the adult male make the scrotal sac larger and give it more distinctly rounded bulges. Thus scientists who study these animals can distinguish males from females even when the animals are lying down.Habitat.Spotted Hyenas occupy an extraordinarily diverse array of habitats, including savanna, semi-desert, swamps, woodland, and montane forest up to 4000 mof elevation, but are absent in lowland tropical rainforests, in alpine areas at high elevation, and in extreme desert conditions. Although they require water for drinking, they are able to make do with very little water, and seldom require access to it. Even lactating females can survive without water for over one week. The highest population densities reported for this species occur on the prey-rich plains of Kenyaand Tanzania, and surprisingly, in the forests of the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya. In these areas, densities of Spotted Hyenas exceed one animal per square kilometer.Food and Feeding.The foraging behavior of Spotted Hyenas is remarkably flexible. Long believed to feed mainly on carrion, these animals are in fact efficient predators that kill 60% to 95% of their prey themselves. On average across populations in which the relative proportions of hunted and scavenged foods have been documented, two thirds of their diet is derived from kills they make themselves, and only one third from scavenged food items. In addition to being able to obtain food either by hunting or scavenging, Spotted Hyenas exhibit extraordinary plasticity with respect to their prey preferences. Spotted Hyenas have catholic tastes, they are extreme opportunists, and they are able to exploit a vast array of potential prey types, ranging from caterpillars to elephants; they may also occasionally consume some plant material. However, in most parts of Africa, Spotted Hyenas derive the large majority of their food intake from only a small subset of the prey species available to them locally. In most environments, they focus on the local mediumand large-sized ungulates, capture of which yields the greatest caloric return while demanding the least effort and the fewest risks. Thus, in eastern Africa, Spotted Hyenas prey most frequently on Blue Wildebeest, zebra, gazelles and Topi. In the arid parts of southern Africa, they prey most frequently on Gemsbok. In Kruger National Park, their most common prey is Impala, and in western Africa, common prey includes Red-fronted Gazelles and Hartebeest. Foraging behavior varies with the prey currently sought. Spotted Hyenas search for gazelle fawns by wandering upwind through open grassland in a zig-zag pattern. They may dig for crocodile eggs along large rivers, and snap flying termites out of the air with their jaws. When hunting, Spotted Hyenas modify their behavior to take advantage of the most abundant prey species, or the species thatis easiest to catch; these change seasonally in some localities with the migratory movements of particular ungulate species. Instead of using felid-like stealth as a primary hunting tactic, Spotted Hyenas rely on their extraordinary endurance for success in hunting. They can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h, but at slightly lower speeds, they can maintain a chase for several kilometres. If the antelope being chased becomes winded, and turns to defend itself with its horns, the Hyenas rush in and start tearing off pieces of the prey animal’s flesh. Like canids, Spotted Hyenas kill their prey by disembowelling and dismembering them rather than by using a particularkilling bite. Spotted Hyenas may hunt either solitarily or in groups; in the latter case group size varies with the typeof prey sought. Mean hunting group sizes among Hyenas in Kenyaare 1-2 for Topi, 1-7 for Impala, 2-08 for Thompson's Gazelle, 2-92 for Blue Wildebeest, and 9-1 for zebra. Thus only zebra hunts involve large groups of hunters, and most hunting parties contain only one or two Hyenas. Ungulates such as Topi and Blue Wildebeest weigh roughly three times as much as an adult Hyena, but solitary Hyenas routinely kill these antelope. Although hunting group size is often surprisingly small among Spotted Hyenas, the feeding groups formed by these animals are often very large once a prey animal has been killed. The noise produced by feeding Hyenas often draws members of the clan that were not involved in the hunt to the kill site. Feeding competition among the Hyenas present at a kill is usually very intense. In East Africa, often more than 30 Hyenas can be observed trying to feed from a single carcass. Because of this intense competition, each individual Hyena consumes as much food as possible in a very short period of time. A group of 20-30 hungry Hyenas can reduce an adult Blue Wildebeest to nothing more than a pile of rumen contents in only 13 minutes. It is estimated that an adult Spotted Hyena can consume a mass of food equal to 25%-30% ofits body weight, and individual Hyenas have been observed to ingest up to 18 kgof meat and bone in one hour. However,as a result of limited access to carcasses, average food intake ranges only from 1-5 to 3-8 kg per day. Spotted Hyenas sometimes engage in kleptoparasitism, which is the aggressive acquisition of a fresh carcass from other predators. They have been observed displacingjackals, Striped Hyenas, Leopards, Cheetahs, and African Wild Dogs from kills. However Spotted Hyenas most frequently compete for kills with Lions. Spotted Hyenas and Lions occur sympatrically in many areas of Africa, and in most of these habitats, bi-directional food stealing has been observed between these two species. Dominance relations between Spotted Hyenas and competing species are not absolute but depend on the numerical presence of both parties. For instance, Lions usually displace Spotted Hyenas at kills. However, if Hyena group size is large and the ratio of Spotted Hyenas to female and subadult Lions exceeds four to one, Hyenas are often able to displace Lions from kills unless a male Lion is present. A single Spotted Hyena can usually dominate a Cheetah, Leopard, Striped Hyena, Brown Hyena, any species ofjackal, or an African Wild Dog. Spotted Hyenas have been observed caching surplus food in thickets and under water in ponds. These animals are very comfortable in water; they often play in seasonal pools, and lie in shallow water or wet mud to keep cool on hot days. Compared to the other bone-cracking hyenas, Spotted Hyenas rarely carry food to their young at dens. This appears to be because the risk of having one’s food stolen, even by much smaller hyenas,is very high at dens, particularly for low-ranking individuals.Activity patterns.Spotted Hyenas are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular, although they may be active at midday when temperatures permit. Dens are typically modified holes dug by Aardvarks, although caves are used as den sites in some areas. Only cubslive in dens; adults sleep above ground, often in thickets, particularly when midday temperatures are high. Although Spotted Hyenas are active for roughly one third of each 24hour cycle, their activity is not continuous. Instead, activity occurs in bouts interspersed with periods of rest. Hyenas in Kenyathat were followed for complete 24hour cycles spent 32% of their time active, but 53% of their active time occurred during hours of darkness.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On average, Spotted Hyenas in Kenyamove 928 mper hour when active, and typically travel over 12 kmduring each 24hour period, with males moving more than females. In Serengeti, daily movements may be much greater than this, as resident hyenas often commute 30-40 km in orderto feed on migratory herbivores. Spotted Hyenas live in social groups, called clans, which contain from ten to eighty members. Large clans contain multiple matrilines of related females and their offspring, as well as a number of adult immigrant males that are generally unrelated to one another. Small clans may contain only a single matriline and a single breeding male. Clan size appears to be determined by abundance of local prey animals: where these are plentiful, as on the prey-rich plains of eastern Africa, clans are typically very large, but in desert areas of southern Africa, clans may be tiny. Clans are fission-fusion societies. That is, all clan members know each other individually, occupy a common territory, and rear their cubs together at a communal den, yet they also spend much of their time alone or in small sub-groups. Spotted Hyena clans bear little resemblance to canid packs or Lion prides, but they are remarkably similar in their size, structure, and complexity to the societies of cercopithecine primates. Like troops of baboons and macaques, Hyena clans typically contain individuals from multiple overlapping generations, and clans are structured by clear linear dominance hierarchies in which an individual’s rank determinesits priority of access to food and other resources. In contrast to the situation characteristic of other hyaenids and most other mammals, female Spotted Hyenas are socially dominant to all adult immigrant males. Rank relationships among female clan-mates are usually stable for periods of many years. Average relatedness among females from different matrilines within a clan is extremely low. Like most primates, Spotted Hyenas produce tiny litters at long intervals, and their offspring require an unusually long period of nutritional dependence on the mother. Young Hyenas typically nurse for well over a year, and because it takes them years to become proficient at hunting and feeding, their mothers continue to help them gain access to food at ungulate kills long after weaning. Similar to female baboons, the social status of a female Hyena is determined not by hersize or fighting ability, but by her mother’s social rank. Indeed, the acquisition of social rank during early development occurs in a pattern identical to that seen in many monkey species, a pattern called “maternal rank inheritance” by primatologists even though no literal inheritance occurs involving genetic transfer of status from mother to offspring. Instead, in both Hyenas and baboons, maternal rank “inheritance” involves a great deal of important social learning that occurs during a protractedjuvenile period. Young Hyenas initially direct their aggressive behaviors equally at higherand lower-ranking individuals. But this changes rapidly during the first year of life as cubs learn to direct aggression only at animals lower in rank than their own mother. When youngsters become involved in disputes with group-mates, the mother intervenes on their behalf against all individuals lower-ranking than herself. Interventions by high-ranking mothers are more frequent and more effective than those by lowranking females. In addition, like young baboons, Hyena cubs are often joined in fights by coalition partners who may be either kin or unrelated animals. Along with maternal interventions, coalition formation functions importantly in rank acquisition. Thus the mechanisms by which youngsters acquire their social ranks are virtually identical in Hyenas and old-world monkeys. Patterns of competition and cooperation among Spotted Hyenas are also remarkably like those found in baboons. Although Hyenas compete intensively for food, they also rely heavily on cooperative interactions with group-mates, particularly their close kin, to acquire and defend both their social rank and such key resources as food and territory. Young Spotted Hyenas of both sexes “inherit” the social rank of their motherearly in life, and retain their maternal rank as long as they remain in the natal clan. However, whereas females remain in their natal group throughouttheir lives, virtually all males disperse after puberty tojoin a new clan. When a male immigrates into a new group, he entersas the lowest-ranking Hyena in the dominance hierarchy; he behaves submissively to all Hyenas he encounters in the new territory, regardless of their size, fighting ability, or social rank. This results in a society in which adult females and their cubs are dominant to all adult male immigrants. A male Hyena loses his maternal social rank and its associated feeding privileges when he disperses. In their new clans, immigrant males sometimes invest a great deal of time and energy in developing amicable relationships with resident adult females, as males engaging in these amicable relationships may enjoy a high probability ofsiring cubs. Due to the female’s male-like genitalia, coercive sex is impossible, so female choice of mates is an important sexually selected force in this species. Mate choice by female Spotted Hyenas apparently drives males to disperse: females strongly prefer to mate with immigrants, and they appear to discriminate against adult natal males. Therefore, almost all offspring are sired by immigrant males. Immigrants queue for status within the male hierarchy of the new clan; the highest-ranking males are those that immigrated first into the clan. Malesrise in rank only when higherranking immigrants die or engage in secondary dispersal; roughly 40% of immigrants disperse again, although the potential benefits of secondary dispersal are unknown. Clan members defend group territories from neighboring Hyena groups. Territory size ranges from roughly 20 km?® in East Africa to approximately 1500 km? in the desert regions of southern Africa, and is negatively related to the density of available prey. Territorial behavior is exhibited by both sexes, although females engage in these activities more frequently than males. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the territory boundary. Border clashes with neighboring clans, called “clan wars”, are most commonly observed in habitats containing high densities of Hyenas, where intrusion pressure is most intense. Territorial behavioris rarely observed among Spotted Hyenas inhabiting the vast desert regions of southern Africa, where prey are sparse, clan size is small, intrusion pressure is low, and the home ranges of resident hyenas are enormous. In some parts of Africa, where densities of resident prey may be low but where migratory herbivores are available as prey, Spotted Hyenas are known to adopt patterns of space-use that differ strikingly from those seen in areas with year-round resident prey. Specifically, Spotted Hyenas may frequently commute long distances from their defended territory to herds of migratory prey. In the unusual “commuting system” exhibited by Spotted Hyenas in the Serengeti, individuals travel long distances north or south from their centrally-located clan territories in order to feed on migratory herbivores. Intruders are tolerated by territory residents when the intruders are merely passing through, although residents behave aggressively toward intruders found hunting or feeding. In Namibia, Spotted Hyenas defend territories that expand and contract in size seasonally, as migratory prey change locations. Territory boundaries are visited sporadically by multiple clan members performing border patrols, during which boundaries are marked by pasting. A strong-smelling, yellowish buttery secretion is deposited from the anal glands onto grass stalks during border patrols. Spotted Hyenas also commonly paste deep inside their territories, although the frequency with which this occurs is generally far less than in the other hyaenid species. The paste transmits information about an individual’s identity, sex, reproductive state, and clan membership. Young Hyenas engage in pasting behavior long before there is any paste in their anal sacs, suggesting that this behavior enables cubs to acquire group odors from sites where clan-mates had pasted earlier. Spotted Hyenas engage in ritualized greeting ceremonies in which two individuals stand parallel and face in opposite directions. Both individuals usually lift the hindleg nearest to the other and sniff or lick the anogenital region of the other. The unique aspect of their greetingsis the prominent role of the erect “penis” in animals of both sexes. This is used to signal submission. Greetings occur between hyenas of all ages and both sexes, although greetings between adult females and adult males are uncommon and restricted to high-ranking males. Cubs can erect their penis or clitoris and engage in greeting ceremonies as early as four weeks after birth. Spotted Hyenas recognize their group mates based on visual cues, odors, and individually distinctive vocalizations. These animals are well known fortheirrich vocal repertoire. They emit deep groansto call their cubs out of dens, high-pitched whines to beg for food or milk, and cattle-like lowing sounds to bring group-mates to a common state of high arousal. The sound most frequently heard during the night throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa is the long-distance vocalization of the Spotted Hyena, called a whoop. This loud call can be heard over several kilometers. Whoopsclearly serve a variety of functions. They can be rallying calls to gather scattered clan members together to defend territory boundaries, food resources, the communal den, or clan-mates in danger. Mothers whoop to locate their wandering cubs, and hungry cubs whoop to call their mothers so they can nurse. Spotted Hyenas sometimes whoop to recruit hunting partners. Whoops are also used as a form of individual display, particularly by males of high rank. Adult males whoop more frequently than females, and high-ranking males whoop more often than lower ranking males. Finally, Spotted Hyenas are well known for their laugh or giggle, which sounds much like maniacal human laughter. This vocalization is a signal of submission. A submissive individual giggles to signal to another Hyena thatit accepts a lower status.Breeding.Females bear young throughout the year in most parts of Africa, although there are distinct birth peaks and troughs in some populations. Both sexes mate promiscuously with multiple partners. Courtship by male Spotted Hyenas is unusual among mammals because it appears to reflect such extreme conflicting desires to approach the female and also to flee from her. Males often engage in approach-avoid and bowing displays, both of which appear to reflect strong motivational conflict and hesitancy on the part of the male. Their behavior suggests that interactions with females may be unusually risky for males in this species, and that males fear females. In general, the female seems to take little notice of the male hyena’s sexual advances. Estrus lasts 1-3 days, but the length of the female's cycle, and whether ovulation is spontaneous or induced, are not known. Copulation involves multiple mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations. Female receptivity is indicated by inhibited aggression toward the male and by assumption of a distinctive receptive stance in which the female lowers her head and keeps her mouth near the ground. The only behavior indicative of a female's interest in mating is that she may follow a male. Some males who sire cubs form consortships with females, but others do not, suggesting that individual male Hyenas may adopt multiple alternative reproductive tactics to attract and acquire mates. That is, male Hyenas may sometimes “shadow” or “guard” their mates, but intensive mate-guarding is not required to ensure that a male will sire the cubs of a particular female. Females have been observed mating with one to four maleswithin a single estrous period, and multiple paternity has been documented to occur in 25-30% of twin litters. Many copulations among Crocutaappear to be infertile. Female Spotted Hyenas are exposed to high concentrations of androgens in utero, and this early androgen exposure may have negative effects on female fertility by altering ovarian histology or other mechanisms. It has recently been determined that early androgen exposure is not necessary for formation of the female's peniform clitoris. Females give birth through their penis-like clitoris. During parturition, the clitoris tears to permit the passage of the young, creating a large bleeding wound on the posterior surface that may take weeks to heal. Females usually produce litters of two, although singletons are also common, and triplets are observed occasionally. Cubs weigh roughly 1 kgat birth. They are born with their eyes open, their deciduous canine and incisor teeth fully erupted, and they are capable of remarkably coordinated movement immediately after birth. They are thus relatively precocial compared to cubs in other hyaenid species or in most other carnivores. Their coats are pure black at birth; cubs start to molt at 5-6 weeks of age, and the natal coat is completely replaced by an adult-colored, spotted pelage by 4-5 months of age. The spots never change except to fade a bit with age. Cubs are usually born in an isolated natal den and are transferred to the clan’s communal den when they are 2-5 weeks old. They remain at the communal den until they are 8-12 months old, and then begin traveling around the clan’s territory, initially with their mothers and later alone. As in the other bone-cracking hyenas, weaning occurs surprisingly late, usually around 13-14 months of age, but twin litters borne by low-ranking females may be nursed as long as two years. Fifty percent of cubs die before puberty, and mortality rates are generally highest immediately after weaning. Males reach reproductive maturity at around two years of age, and most females start bearing young in their third or fourth year. However, age at first parturition varies between two and six years. All females in a clan reproduce, and females rear their young together in the communal den. Therefore occupied dens may contain up to 30 young of different ages from up to 20 litters. Females nurse only their own cubs and usually reject approaches by other cubs. The milk of Spotted Hyenas has the highest protein content (mean 14-9%) recorded for any terrestrial carnivore, a fat content (mean 141%) exceeded only by that of palaearctic bears and the sea otter, and a higher gross energy density than the milk of most other terrestrial carnivores. Due to the high energy content of their milk, and the long nursing period, Spotted Hyenas have the highest energetic investment per litter of any carnivore. Reproductive success in both sexes is related to dominancestatus, although this relationship is stronger among females than males. High-ranking females enjoy greater reproductive success than low-ranking females because they have longer reproductive life spans and shorter inter-birth intervals, and because their cubs experience lower mortality than do cubs of low-ranking females. Sex ratios among adults are usually slightly female-biased. Reproductive success among males varies with intra-sexual rank, although alpha males fare more poorly than would be expected based on social status alone. As most males disperse from their natal clan when they are at least two years old, most breeding males are immigrants. Spotted Hyenas are sometimes referred to as the “Cain and Abel” of the animal world because of the common belief that they routinely kill their siblings shortly after birth. Although littermates do engage in aggressive interactions within minutes after birth, and although this can result in obvious scarring of the subordinate littermate, these aggressive interactions seldom result in the death of a sibling. These early fights quickly lead to the establishment of a dominance relationship that allows the dominant cub to control access to the mother’s milk. Siblicide in the Spotted Hyena is facultative in that it occurs only in some twin litters rather than routinely. The purpose of the early fighting is to establish an unambiguous dominance relationship within the litter. It appears that the relative costs and benefits of killing one’s sibling vary with current socio-ecological conditions: a cub that killsits sibling may obtain significant benefits if its mother is unable to support multiple cubs. However, mothers can usually support two cubs in many parts of Africa without undue difficulty.Status and Conservation.Listed as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total world population of the Spotted Hyena is well above 10,000 individuals, several subpopulations exceed 1000 individuals and its range well exceeds 20,000 km®. The rapid decline of populations outside conservation areas due to persecution and habitat loss makes the species increasingly dependent on the continued existence of protected areas. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated in Algeriaand Lesotho, and they are listed as threatened in Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone. The largest remaining populations are found in Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, and Namibia. Most adult mortality is caused directly by lions and humans,although disease is an important mortality source in some areas. Human-caused mortality is common even inside protected areas. Spotted Hyenas may attack livestock, particularly where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse. Often in response to confirmed or assumed livestock depredation, Spotted Hyenas are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. Spotted Hyenas are also commonly killed on motor-ways.","Spotted Hyenas occupy an extraordinarily diverse array of habitats, including savanna, semi-desert, swamps, woodland, and montane forest up to 4000 mof elevation, but are absent in lowland tropical rainforests, in alpine areas at high elevation, and in extreme desert conditions. Although they require water for drinking, they are able to make do with very little water, and seldom require access to it. Even lactating females can survive without water for over one week. The highest population densities reported for this species occur on the prey-rich plains of Kenyaand Tanzania, and surprisingly, in the forests of the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya. In these areas, densities of Spotted Hyenas exceed one animal per square kilometer.","The foraging behavior of Spotted Hyenas is remarkably flexible. Long believed to feed mainly on carrion, these animals are in fact efficient predators that kill 60% to 95% of their prey themselves. On average across populations in which the relative proportions of hunted and scavenged foods have been documented, two thirds of their diet is derived from kills they make themselves, and only one third from scavenged food items. In addition to being able to obtain food either by hunting or scavenging, Spotted Hyenas exhibit extraordinary plasticity with respect to their prey preferences. Spotted Hyenas have catholic tastes, they are extreme opportunists, and they are able to exploit a vast array of potential prey types, ranging from caterpillars to elephants; they may also occasionally consume some plant material. However, in most parts of Africa, Spotted Hyenas derive the large majority of their food intake from only a small subset of the prey species available to them locally. In most environments, they focus on the local mediumand large-sized ungulates, capture of which yields the greatest caloric return while demanding the least effort and the fewest risks. Thus, in eastern Africa, Spotted Hyenas prey most frequently on Blue Wildebeest, zebra, gazelles and Topi. In the arid parts of southern Africa, they prey most frequently on Gemsbok. In Kruger National Park, their most common prey is Impala, and in western Africa, common prey includes Red-fronted Gazelles and Hartebeest. Foraging behavior varies with the prey currently sought. Spotted Hyenas search for gazelle fawns by wandering upwind through open grassland in a zig-zag pattern. They may dig for crocodile eggs along large rivers, and snap flying termites out of the air with their jaws. When hunting, Spotted Hyenas modify their behavior to take advantage of the most abundant prey species, or the species thatis easiest to catch; these change seasonally in some localities with the migratory movements of particular ungulate species. Instead of using felid-like stealth as a primary hunting tactic, Spotted Hyenas rely on their extraordinary endurance for success in hunting. They can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h, but at slightly lower speeds, they can maintain a chase for several kilometres. If the antelope being chased becomes winded, and turns to defend itself with its horns, the Hyenas rush in and start tearing off pieces of the prey animal’s flesh. Like canids, Spotted Hyenas kill their prey by disembowelling and dismembering them rather than by using a particularkilling bite. Spotted Hyenas may hunt either solitarily or in groups; in the latter case group size varies with the typeof prey sought. Mean hunting group sizes among Hyenas in Kenyaare 1-2 for Topi, 1-7 for Impala, 2-08 for Thompson's Gazelle, 2-92 for Blue Wildebeest, and 9-1 for zebra. Thus only zebra hunts involve large groups of hunters, and most hunting parties contain only one or two Hyenas. Ungulates such as Topi and Blue Wildebeest weigh roughly three times as much as an adult Hyena, but solitary Hyenas routinely kill these antelope. Although hunting group size is often surprisingly small among Spotted Hyenas, the feeding groups formed by these animals are often very large once a prey animal has been killed. The noise produced by feeding Hyenas often draws members of the clan that were not involved in the hunt to the kill site. Feeding competition among the Hyenas present at a kill is usually very intense. In East Africa, often more than 30 Hyenas can be observed trying to feed from a single carcass. Because of this intense competition, each individual Hyena consumes as much food as possible in a very short period of time. A group of 20-30 hungry Hyenas can reduce an adult Blue Wildebeest to nothing more than a pile of rumen contents in only 13 minutes. It is estimated that an adult Spotted Hyena can consume a mass of food equal to 25%-30% ofits body weight, and individual Hyenas have been observed to ingest up to 18 kgof meat and bone in one hour. However,as a result of limited access to carcasses, average food intake ranges only from 1-5 to 3-8 kg per day. Spotted Hyenas sometimes engage in kleptoparasitism, which is the aggressive acquisition of a fresh carcass from other predators. They have been observed displacingjackals, Striped Hyenas, Leopards, Cheetahs, and African Wild Dogs from kills. However Spotted Hyenas most frequently compete for kills with Lions. Spotted Hyenas and Lions occur sympatrically in many areas of Africa, and in most of these habitats, bi-directional food stealing has been observed between these two species. Dominance relations between Spotted Hyenas and competing species are not absolute but depend on the numerical presence of both parties. For instance, Lions usually displace Spotted Hyenas at kills. However, if Hyena group size is large and the ratio of Spotted Hyenas to female and subadult Lions exceeds four to one, Hyenas are often able to displace Lions from kills unless a male Lion is present. A single Spotted Hyena can usually dominate a Cheetah, Leopard, Striped Hyena, Brown Hyena, any species ofjackal, or an African Wild Dog. Spotted Hyenas have been observed caching surplus food in thickets and under water in ponds. These animals are very comfortable in water; they often play in seasonal pools, and lie in shallow water or wet mud to keep cool on hot days. Compared to the other bone-cracking hyenas, Spotted Hyenas rarely carry food to their young at dens. This appears to be because the risk of having one’s food stolen, even by much smaller hyenas,is very high at dens, particularly for low-ranking individuals.","Females bear young throughout the year in most parts of Africa, although there are distinct birth peaks and troughs in some populations. Both sexes mate promiscuously with multiple partners. Courtship by male Spotted Hyenas is unusual among mammals because it appears to reflect such extreme conflicting desires to approach the female and also to flee from her. Males often engage in approach-avoid and bowing displays, both of which appear to reflect strong motivational conflict and hesitancy on the part of the male. Their behavior suggests that interactions with females may be unusually risky for males in this species, and that males fear females. In general, the female seems to take little notice of the male hyena’s sexual advances. Estrus lasts 1-3 days, but the length of the female's cycle, and whether ovulation is spontaneous or induced, are not known. Copulation involves multiple mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations. Female receptivity is indicated by inhibited aggression toward the male and by assumption of a distinctive receptive stance in which the female lowers her head and keeps her mouth near the ground. The only behavior indicative of a female's interest in mating is that she may follow a male. Some males who sire cubs form consortships with females, but others do not, suggesting that individual male Hyenas may adopt multiple alternative reproductive tactics to attract and acquire mates. That is, male Hyenas may sometimes “shadow” or “guard” their mates, but intensive mate-guarding is not required to ensure that a male will sire the cubs of a particular female. Females have been observed mating with one to four maleswithin a single estrous period, and multiple paternity has been documented to occur in 25-30% of twin litters. Many copulations among Crocutaappear to be infertile. Female Spotted Hyenas are exposed to high concentrations of androgens in utero, and this early androgen exposure may have negative effects on female fertility by altering ovarian histology or other mechanisms. It has recently been determined that early androgen exposure is not necessary for formation of the female's peniform clitoris. Females give birth through their penis-like clitoris. During parturition, the clitoris tears to permit the passage of the young, creating a large bleeding wound on the posterior surface that may take weeks to heal. Females usually produce litters of two, although singletons are also common, and triplets are observed occasionally. Cubs weigh roughly 1 kgat birth. They are born with their eyes open, their deciduous canine and incisor teeth fully erupted, and they are capable of remarkably coordinated movement immediately after birth. They are thus relatively precocial compared to cubs in other hyaenid species or in most other carnivores. Their coats are pure black at birth; cubs start to molt at 5-6 weeks of age, and the natal coat is completely replaced by an adult-colored, spotted pelage by 4-5 months of age. The spots never change except to fade a bit with age. Cubs are usually born in an isolated natal den and are transferred to the clan’s communal den when they are 2-5 weeks old. They remain at the communal den until they are 8-12 months old, and then begin traveling around the clan’s territory, initially with their mothers and later alone. As in the other bone-cracking hyenas, weaning occurs surprisingly late, usually around 13-14 months of age, but twin litters borne by low-ranking females may be nursed as long as two years. Fifty percent of cubs die before puberty, and mortality rates are generally highest immediately after weaning. Males reach reproductive maturity at around two years of age, and most females start bearing young in their third or fourth year. However, age at first parturition varies between two and six years. All females in a clan reproduce, and females rear their young together in the communal den. Therefore occupied dens may contain up to 30 young of different ages from up to 20 litters. Females nurse only their own cubs and usually reject approaches by other cubs. The milk of Spotted Hyenas has the highest protein content (mean 14-9%) recorded for any terrestrial carnivore, a fat content (mean 141%) exceeded only by that of palaearctic bears and the sea otter, and a higher gross energy density than the milk of most other terrestrial carnivores. Due to the high energy content of their milk, and the long nursing period, Spotted Hyenas have the highest energetic investment per litter of any carnivore. Reproductive success in both sexes is related to dominancestatus, although this relationship is stronger among females than males. High-ranking females enjoy greater reproductive success than low-ranking females because they have longer reproductive life spans and shorter inter-birth intervals, and because their cubs experience lower mortality than do cubs of low-ranking females. Sex ratios among adults are usually slightly female-biased. Reproductive success among males varies with intra-sexual rank, although alpha males fare more poorly than would be expected based on social status alone. As most males disperse from their natal clan when they are at least two years old, most breeding males are immigrants. Spotted Hyenas are sometimes referred to as the “Cain and Abel” of the animal world because of the common belief that they routinely kill their siblings shortly after birth. Although littermates do engage in aggressive interactions within minutes after birth, and although this can result in obvious scarring of the subordinate littermate, these aggressive interactions seldom result in the death of a sibling. These early fights quickly lead to the establishment of a dominance relationship that allows the dominant cub to control access to the mother’s milk. Siblicide in the Spotted Hyena is facultative in that it occurs only in some twin litters rather than routinely. The purpose of the early fighting is to establish an unambiguous dominance relationship within the litter. It appears that the relative costs and benefits of killing one’s sibling vary with current socio-ecological conditions: a cub that killsits sibling may obtain significant benefits if its mother is unable to support multiple cubs. However, mothers can usually support two cubs in many parts of Africa without undue difficulty.","Spotted Hyenas are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular, although they may be active at midday when temperatures permit. Dens are typically modified holes dug by Aardvarks, although caves are used as den sites in some areas. Only cubslive in dens; adults sleep above ground, often in thickets, particularly when midday temperatures are high. Although Spotted Hyenas are active for roughly one third of each 24hour cycle, their activity is not continuous. Instead, activity occurs in bouts interspersed with periods of rest. Hyenas in Kenyathat were followed for complete 24hour cycles spent 32% of their time active, but 53% of their active time occurred during hours of darkness.","On average, Spotted Hyenas in Kenyamove 928 mper hour when active, and typically travel over 12 kmduring each 24hour period, with males moving more than females. In Serengeti, daily movements may be much greater than this, as resident hyenas often commute 30-40 km in orderto feed on migratory herbivores. Spotted Hyenas live in social groups, called clans, which contain from ten to eighty members. Large clans contain multiple matrilines of related females and their offspring, as well as a number of adult immigrant males that are generally unrelated to one another. Small clans may contain only a single matriline and a single breeding male. Clan size appears to be determined by abundance of local prey animals: where these are plentiful, as on the prey-rich plains of eastern Africa, clans are typically very large, but in desert areas of southern Africa, clans may be tiny. Clans are fission-fusion societies. That is, all clan members know each other individually, occupy a common territory, and rear their cubs together at a communal den, yet they also spend much of their time alone or in small sub-groups. Spotted Hyena clans bear little resemblance to canid packs or Lion prides, but they are remarkably similar in their size, structure, and complexity to the societies of cercopithecine primates. Like troops of baboons and macaques, Hyena clans typically contain individuals from multiple overlapping generations, and clans are structured by clear linear dominance hierarchies in which an individual’s rank determinesits priority of access to food and other resources. In contrast to the situation characteristic of other hyaenids and most other mammals, female Spotted Hyenas are socially dominant to all adult immigrant males. Rank relationships among female clan-mates are usually stable for periods of many years. Average relatedness among females from different matrilines within a clan is extremely low. Like most primates, Spotted Hyenas produce tiny litters at long intervals, and their offspring require an unusually long period of nutritional dependence on the mother. Young Hyenas typically nurse for well over a year, and because it takes them years to become proficient at hunting and feeding, their mothers continue to help them gain access to food at ungulate kills long after weaning. Similar to female baboons, the social status of a female Hyena is determined not by hersize or fighting ability, but by her mother’s social rank. Indeed, the acquisition of social rank during early development occurs in a pattern identical to that seen in many monkey species, a pattern called “maternal rank inheritance” by primatologists even though no literal inheritance occurs involving genetic transfer of status from mother to offspring. Instead, in both Hyenas and baboons, maternal rank “inheritance” involves a great deal of important social learning that occurs during a protractedjuvenile period. Young Hyenas initially direct their aggressive behaviors equally at higherand lower-ranking individuals. But this changes rapidly during the first year of life as cubs learn to direct aggression only at animals lower in rank than their own mother. When youngsters become involved in disputes with group-mates, the mother intervenes on their behalf against all individuals lower-ranking than herself. Interventions by high-ranking mothers are more frequent and more effective than those by lowranking females. In addition, like young baboons, Hyena cubs are often joined in fights by coalition partners who may be either kin or unrelated animals. Along with maternal interventions, coalition formation functions importantly in rank acquisition. Thus the mechanisms by which youngsters acquire their social ranks are virtually identical in Hyenas and old-world monkeys. Patterns of competition and cooperation among Spotted Hyenas are also remarkably like those found in baboons. Although Hyenas compete intensively for food, they also rely heavily on cooperative interactions with group-mates, particularly their close kin, to acquire and defend both their social rank and such key resources as food and territory. Young Spotted Hyenas of both sexes “inherit” the social rank of their motherearly in life, and retain their maternal rank as long as they remain in the natal clan. However, whereas females remain in their natal group throughouttheir lives, virtually all males disperse after puberty tojoin a new clan. When a male immigrates into a new group, he entersas the lowest-ranking Hyena in the dominance hierarchy; he behaves submissively to all Hyenas he encounters in the new territory, regardless of their size, fighting ability, or social rank. This results in a society in which adult females and their cubs are dominant to all adult male immigrants. A male Hyena loses his maternal social rank and its associated feeding privileges when he disperses. In their new clans, immigrant males sometimes invest a great deal of time and energy in developing amicable relationships with resident adult females, as males engaging in these amicable relationships may enjoy a high probability ofsiring cubs. Due to the female’s male-like genitalia, coercive sex is impossible, so female choice of mates is an important sexually selected force in this species. Mate choice by female Spotted Hyenas apparently drives males to disperse: females strongly prefer to mate with immigrants, and they appear to discriminate against adult natal males. Therefore, almost all offspring are sired by immigrant males. Immigrants queue for status within the male hierarchy of the new clan; the highest-ranking males are those that immigrated first into the clan. Malesrise in rank only when higherranking immigrants die or engage in secondary dispersal; roughly 40% of immigrants disperse again, although the potential benefits of secondary dispersal are unknown. Clan members defend group territories from neighboring Hyena groups. Territory size ranges from roughly 20 km?® in East Africa to approximately 1500 km? in the desert regions of southern Africa, and is negatively related to the density of available prey. Territorial behavior is exhibited by both sexes, although females engage in these activities more frequently than males. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the territory boundary. Border clashes with neighboring clans, called “clan wars”, are most commonly observed in habitats containing high densities of Hyenas, where intrusion pressure is most intense. Territorial behavioris rarely observed among Spotted Hyenas inhabiting the vast desert regions of southern Africa, where prey are sparse, clan size is small, intrusion pressure is low, and the home ranges of resident hyenas are enormous. In some parts of Africa, where densities of resident prey may be low but where migratory herbivores are available as prey, Spotted Hyenas are known to adopt patterns of space-use that differ strikingly from those seen in areas with year-round resident prey. Specifically, Spotted Hyenas may frequently commute long distances from their defended territory to herds of migratory prey. In the unusual “commuting system” exhibited by Spotted Hyenas in the Serengeti, individuals travel long distances north or south from their centrally-located clan territories in order to feed on migratory herbivores. Intruders are tolerated by territory residents when the intruders are merely passing through, although residents behave aggressively toward intruders found hunting or feeding. In Namibia, Spotted Hyenas defend territories that expand and contract in size seasonally, as migratory prey change locations. Territory boundaries are visited sporadically by multiple clan members performing border patrols, during which boundaries are marked by pasting. A strong-smelling, yellowish buttery secretion is deposited from the anal glands onto grass stalks during border patrols. Spotted Hyenas also commonly paste deep inside their territories, although the frequency with which this occurs is generally far less than in the other hyaenid species. The paste transmits information about an individual’s identity, sex, reproductive state, and clan membership. Young Hyenas engage in pasting behavior long before there is any paste in their anal sacs, suggesting that this behavior enables cubs to acquire group odors from sites where clan-mates had pasted earlier. Spotted Hyenas engage in ritualized greeting ceremonies in which two individuals stand parallel and face in opposite directions. Both individuals usually lift the hindleg nearest to the other and sniff or lick the anogenital region of the other. The unique aspect of their greetingsis the prominent role of the erect “penis” in animals of both sexes. This is used to signal submission. Greetings occur between hyenas of all ages and both sexes, although greetings between adult females and adult males are uncommon and restricted to high-ranking males. Cubs can erect their penis or clitoris and engage in greeting ceremonies as early as four weeks after birth. Spotted Hyenas recognize their group mates based on visual cues, odors, and individually distinctive vocalizations. These animals are well known fortheirrich vocal repertoire. They emit deep groansto call their cubs out of dens, high-pitched whines to beg for food or milk, and cattle-like lowing sounds to bring group-mates to a common state of high arousal. The sound most frequently heard during the night throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa is the long-distance vocalization of the Spotted Hyena, called a whoop. This loud call can be heard over several kilometers. Whoopsclearly serve a variety of functions. They can be rallying calls to gather scattered clan members together to defend territory boundaries, food resources, the communal den, or clan-mates in danger. Mothers whoop to locate their wandering cubs, and hungry cubs whoop to call their mothers so they can nurse. Spotted Hyenas sometimes whoop to recruit hunting partners. Whoops are also used as a form of individual display, particularly by males of high rank. Adult males whoop more frequently than females, and high-ranking males whoop more often than lower ranking males. Finally, Spotted Hyenas are well known for their laugh or giggle, which sounds much like maniacal human laughter. This vocalization is a signal of submission. A submissive individual giggles to signal to another Hyena thatit accepts a lower status.Breeding.Females bear young throughout the year in most parts of Africa, although there are distinct birth peaks and troughs in some populations. Both sexes mate promiscuously with multiple partners. Courtship by male Spotted Hyenas is unusual among mammals because it appears to reflect such extreme conflicting desires to approach the female and also to flee from her. Males often engage in approach-avoid and bowing displays, both of which appear to reflect strong motivational conflict and hesitancy on the part of the male. Their behavior suggests that interactions with females may be unusually risky for males in this species, and that males fear females. In general, the female seems to take little notice of the male hyena’s sexual advances. Estrus lasts 1-3 days, but the length of the female's cycle, and whether ovulation is spontaneous or induced, are not known. Copulation involves multiple mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations. Female receptivity is indicated by inhibited aggression toward the male and by assumption of a distinctive receptive stance in which the female lowers her head and keeps her mouth near the ground. The only behavior indicative of a female's interest in mating is that she may follow a male. Some males who sire cubs form consortships with females, but others do not, suggesting that individual male Hyenas may adopt multiple alternative reproductive tactics to attract and acquire mates. That is, male Hyenas may sometimes “shadow” or “guard” their mates, but intensive mate-guarding is not required to ensure that a male will sire the cubs of a particular female. Females have been observed mating with one to four maleswithin a single estrous period, and multiple paternity has been documented to occur in 25-30% of twin litters. Many copulations among Crocutaappear to be infertile. Female Spotted Hyenas are exposed to high concentrations of androgens in utero, and this early androgen exposure may have negative effects on female fertility by altering ovarian histology or other mechanisms. It has recently been determined that early androgen exposure is not necessary for formation of the female's peniform clitoris. Females give birth through their penis-like clitoris. During parturition, the clitoris tears to permit the passage of the young, creating a large bleeding wound on the posterior surface that may take weeks to heal. Females usually produce litters of two, although singletons are also common, and triplets are observed occasionally. Cubs weigh roughly 1 kgat birth. They are born with their eyes open, their deciduous canine and incisor teeth fully erupted, and they are capable of remarkably coordinated movement immediately after birth. They are thus relatively precocial compared to cubs in other hyaenid species or in most other carnivores. Their coats are pure black at birth; cubs start to molt at 5-6 weeks of age, and the natal coat is completely replaced by an adult-colored, spotted pelage by 4-5 months of age. The spots never change except to fade a bit with age. Cubs are usually born in an isolated natal den and are transferred to the clan’s communal den when they are 2-5 weeks old. They remain at the communal den until they are 8-12 months old, and then begin traveling around the clan’s territory, initially with their mothers and later alone. As in the other bone-cracking hyenas, weaning occurs surprisingly late, usually around 13-14 months of age, but twin litters borne by low-ranking females may be nursed as long as two years. Fifty percent of cubs die before puberty, and mortality rates are generally highest immediately after weaning. Males reach reproductive maturity at around two years of age, and most females start bearing young in their third or fourth year. However, age at first parturition varies between two and six years. All females in a clan reproduce, and females rear their young together in the communal den. Therefore occupied dens may contain up to 30 young of different ages from up to 20 litters. Females nurse only their own cubs and usually reject approaches by other cubs. The milk of Spotted Hyenas has the highest protein content (mean 14-9%) recorded for any terrestrial carnivore, a fat content (mean 141%) exceeded only by that of palaearctic bears and the sea otter, and a higher gross energy density than the milk of most other terrestrial carnivores. Due to the high energy content of their milk, and the long nursing period, Spotted Hyenas have the highest energetic investment per litter of any carnivore. Reproductive success in both sexes is related to dominancestatus, although this relationship is stronger among females than males. High-ranking females enjoy greater reproductive success than low-ranking females because they have longer reproductive life spans and shorter inter-birth intervals, and because their cubs experience lower mortality than do cubs of low-ranking females. Sex ratios among adults are usually slightly female-biased. Reproductive success among males varies with intra-sexual rank, although alpha males fare more poorly than would be expected based on social status alone. As most males disperse from their natal clan when they are at least two years old, most breeding males are immigrants. Spotted Hyenas are sometimes referred to as the “Cain and Abel” of the animal world because of the common belief that they routinely kill their siblings shortly after birth. Although littermates do engage in aggressive interactions within minutes after birth, and although this can result in obvious scarring of the subordinate littermate, these aggressive interactions seldom result in the death of a sibling. These early fights quickly lead to the establishment of a dominance relationship that allows the dominant cub to control access to the mother’s milk. Siblicide in the Spotted Hyena is facultative in that it occurs only in some twin litters rather than routinely. The purpose of the early fighting is to establish an unambiguous dominance relationship within the litter. It appears that the relative costs and benefits of killing one’s sibling vary with current socio-ecological conditions: a cub that killsits sibling may obtain significant benefits if its mother is unable to support multiple cubs. However, mothers can usually support two cubs in many parts of Africa without undue difficulty.","Listed as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total world population of the Spotted Hyena is well above 10,000 individuals, several subpopulations exceed 1000 individuals and its range well exceeds 20,000 km®. The rapid decline of populations outside conservation areas due to persecution and habitat loss makes the species increasingly dependent on the continued existence of protected areas. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated in Algeriaand Lesotho, and they are listed as threatened in Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone. The largest remaining populations are found in Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, and Namibia. Most adult mortality is caused directly by lions and humans,although disease is an important mortality source in some areas. Human-caused mortality is common even inside protected areas. Spotted Hyenas may attack livestock, particularly where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse. Often in response to confirmed or assumed livestock depredation, Spotted Hyenas are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. Spotted Hyenas are also commonly killed on motor-ways. Habitat fragmentation and reduction are also having significant negative effects on the size of many Spotted Hyena populations. Finally, one of the most important threats to the conservation of Spotted Hyenas is their negative public image. Many people apparently believe these animals are not worth conserving. Educating the public about these complex and fascinating animals is expected to have a substantial positive effect on conservation efforts.","Bearder (1977) | Bearder & Randall (1978) | Binder & Van Valkenburgh (2000) | Binford et al. (1988) | Boydston, Kapheim & Holekamp (2006) | Boydston, Kapheim, Van Horn et al. (2005) | Boydston, Morelli & Holekamp (2001) | Cooper (1989, 1990, 1991, 1993) | Cooper et al. (1999) | Cunhaet al. (2005) | Di Silvestre et al. (2000) | Drea & Frank (2003) | Drea, Coscia & Glickman (1999) | Drea, Place et al. (2002) | Drea, Vignieri, Cunningham & Glickman (2002) | Drea, Vignieri, Kim et al. (2002) | Drea, Weldele et al. (1998) | East & Hofer (1991a, 1991b, 2001, 2002) | East, Burke et al. (2003) | East, Hofer & Wickler (1993) | Eloff (1964, 1975) | Engh, Esch et al. 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(1999) | Honer, Wachter, East & Hofer (2002) | Honer, Wachter, East, Streich et al. (2007) | Koepfli et al. (2006) | Kolowski & Holekamp (2006) | Kolowski et al. (2007) | Kruuk (1972, 1977) | Lewis & Werdelin (2000) | Licht et al. (1992) | Lindeque & Skinner (1982) | Matthews (1939) | Mills, (1985, 1989, 1990) | Mills & Gorman (1987) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Neaves et al. (1980) | Pienaar (1969) | Pournelle (1965) | Rensberger (1999) | Rohland et al. (2005) | Rosevear (1974) | Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (19924, 1992b) | Skinner, Funston et al. (1992) | Skinner, Henschel & Van Jaarsveld (1986) | Smale, Frank & Holekamp (1993) | Smale, Holekamp & White (1999) | Smale, Nunes & Holekamp (1997) | Sutcliffe, (1970) | Szykman, Engh et al. (2001) | Szykman, Van Horn et al. (2007) | Theis, Greene et al. (2007) | Theis, Heckla et al. (2008) | Tilson & Hamilton (1984) | Tilson & Henschel (1984, 1986) | Tilson, von Blottnitz & Henschel (1980) | Trinkel & Kastberger (2005) | Trinkel et al. (2004) | Van Horn, McElhinny & Holekamp (2003) | Van Horn, Wahaj & Holekamp (2004) | Van Horn, Engh et al. (2004) | Van Jaarsveld et al. (1988) | Wachter et al. (2002) | Wahaj & Holekamp (2006) | Wahaj, Place et al. (2007) | Wahaj, Van Horn et al. (2004) | Watts (2007) | Werdelin & Solounias (1991) | Whateley (1980, 1981) | Whateley & Brooks (1978)",https://zenodo.org/record/6350110/files/figure.png,"2.Spotted HyenaCrocuta crocutaFrench:Hyene tachetée/ German:TlUpfelhyane/ Spanish:Hiena manchadaTaxonomy.Canis crocuta Erxleben, 1777, Guinea, Aethiopia; restricted to “Senegambia”.The earliest members of the genus Crocutafirst appear in the fossil record of Africa in the early Pliocene, dated at roughly 3-7 million years ago. However, members of this genus soon dispersed out of Africa, and based on fossils from the period ofits greatest range expansion in the Pleistocene, the genus Crocutaoccupied virtually all of Europe and Asia, as well as most of sub-Saharan Africa. When exactly modern C. crocutaarose is not entirely certain, but this species is clearly very recent. C. crocutadoes not appear in the fossil record until sometime after 990,000 years ago, and probably substantially closer to the present, perhaps within the last 250,000 years. Modern Spotted Hyenas can be distinguished from members of the genus Crocutafound in the fossil record based on body size, limb length and stoutness, the length and shape of particular skull bones, and unique characteristics of the cheek teeth. In contrast to earlier members of the genus, including the Cave Hyenas of Europe and Asia (C. spelaea), modern Spotted Hyenas have a post-cranial skeleton that is modified for cursorial hunting. Currently only one subspeciesis recognized despite substantial variation in coloration and body mass throughout sub-Saharan Africa. For example, individuals from southern Africa are larger than those from eastern Africa. Monotypic.Distribution.Most of Africa S of the Sahara Desert, except in lowland tropical rainforests. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated from many areas of southern Africa.Descriptive notes.Largest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 125-160 cm,tail 22-27 cm, height at shoulder 77.3-80. 7 cm; weight 45-55 kg and up to 86 kg. Females approximately 10% larger than males, although size distributions for males and females overlap. Degree of sexual dimorphism in body size varies geographically, being most pronounced in southern Africa. Its general color is sandy, ginger, or dull gray to reddish-brown, with black or dark brown spots on the back, flanks, rump, and legs. Spots may turn brown and fade with age. The fur is shorter in this species than in the other extant hyaenids. The head is large, rounded and powerful, with a short and blunt muzzle. In contrast to the other extant hyaenids, all of which have pointed ears, Spotted Hyenas have ears with rounded tops. The tail ends in a black, bushy tip, with approximately 12 cmof hair extending beyond the end of the tail bone. Like the other hyaenids, the Spotted Hyena has a sloping back because the forelegs are longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. The mane in this speciesis more poorly developed than in other hyaenids. The feet have four toes. Females usually have only two teats. The Spotted Hyena has long been considered a hermaphrodite in many parts of Africa because the external genitalia of the female are very similar to those of the male. The female has a peniform clitoris that is only a few mm shorter than the male’s penis, and is fully erectile. The sexes can be distinguished by the shape of the penile glans: the male glans is pointed whereas that of the female is blunt. A single urogenital canal traverses the enlarged clitoris; through this canal the female urinates, copulates and gives birth. There is no external vaginal opening as the outer labiae are fused to form a structure that resembles the scrotal sac of the male. The female’s pseudoscrotum has a bi-lobed appearance; the testes of the adult male make the scrotal sac larger and give it more distinctly rounded bulges. Thus scientists who study these animals can distinguish males from females even when the animals are lying down.Habitat.Spotted Hyenas occupy an extraordinarily diverse array of habitats, including savanna, semi-desert, swamps, woodland, and montane forest up to 4000 mof elevation, but are absent in lowland tropical rainforests, in alpine areas at high elevation, and in extreme desert conditions. Although they require water for drinking, they are able to make do with very little water, and seldom require access to it. Even lactating females can survive without water for over one week. The highest population densities reported for this species occur on the prey-rich plains of Kenyaand Tanzania, and surprisingly, in the forests of the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya. In these areas, densities of Spotted Hyenas exceed one animal per square kilometer.Food and Feeding.The foraging behavior of Spotted Hyenas is remarkably flexible. Long believed to feed mainly on carrion, these animals are in fact efficient predators that kill 60% to 95% of their prey themselves. On average across populations in which the relative proportions of hunted and scavenged foods have been documented, two thirds of their diet is derived from kills they make themselves, and only one third from scavenged food items. In addition to being able to obtain food either by hunting or scavenging, Spotted Hyenas exhibit extraordinary plasticity with respect to their prey preferences. Spotted Hyenas have catholic tastes, they are extreme opportunists, and they are able to exploit a vast array of potential prey types, ranging from caterpillars to elephants; they may also occasionally consume some plant material. However, in most parts of Africa, Spotted Hyenas derive the large majority of their food intake from only a small subset of the prey species available to them locally. In most environments, they focus on the local mediumand large-sized ungulates, capture of which yields the greatest caloric return while demanding the least effort and the fewest risks. Thus, in eastern Africa, Spotted Hyenas prey most frequently on Blue Wildebeest, zebra, gazelles and Topi. In the arid parts of southern Africa, they prey most frequently on Gemsbok. In Kruger National Park, their most common prey is Impala, and in western Africa, common prey includes Red-fronted Gazelles and Hartebeest. Foraging behavior varies with the prey currently sought. Spotted Hyenas search for gazelle fawns by wandering upwind through open grassland in a zig-zag pattern. They may dig for crocodile eggs along large rivers, and snap flying termites out of the air with their jaws. When hunting, Spotted Hyenas modify their behavior to take advantage of the most abundant prey species, or the species thatis easiest to catch; these change seasonally in some localities with the migratory movements of particular ungulate species. Instead of using felid-like stealth as a primary hunting tactic, Spotted Hyenas rely on their extraordinary endurance for success in hunting. They can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h, but at slightly lower speeds, they can maintain a chase for several kilometres. If the antelope being chased becomes winded, and turns to defend itself with its horns, the Hyenas rush in and start tearing off pieces of the prey animal’s flesh. Like canids, Spotted Hyenas kill their prey by disembowelling and dismembering them rather than by using a particularkilling bite. Spotted Hyenas may hunt either solitarily or in groups; in the latter case group size varies with the typeof prey sought. Mean hunting group sizes among Hyenas in Kenyaare 1-2 for Topi, 1-7 for Impala, 2-08 for Thompson's Gazelle, 2-92 for Blue Wildebeest, and 9-1 for zebra. Thus only zebra hunts involve large groups of hunters, and most hunting parties contain only one or two Hyenas. Ungulates such as Topi and Blue Wildebeest weigh roughly three times as much as an adult Hyena, but solitary Hyenas routinely kill these antelope. Although hunting group size is often surprisingly small among Spotted Hyenas, the feeding groups formed by these animals are often very large once a prey animal has been killed. The noise produced by feeding Hyenas often draws members of the clan that were not involved in the hunt to the kill site. Feeding competition among the Hyenas present at a kill is usually very intense. In East Africa, often more than 30 Hyenas can be observed trying to feed from a single carcass. Because of this intense competition, each individual Hyena consumes as much food as possible in a very short period of time. A group of 20-30 hungry Hyenas can reduce an adult Blue Wildebeest to nothing more than a pile of rumen contents in only 13 minutes. It is estimated that an adult Spotted Hyena can consume a mass of food equal to 25%-30% ofits body weight, and individual Hyenas have been observed to ingest up to 18 kgof meat and bone in one hour. However,as a result of limited access to carcasses, average food intake ranges only from 1-5 to 3-8 kg per day. Spotted Hyenas sometimes engage in kleptoparasitism, which is the aggressive acquisition of a fresh carcass from other predators. They have been observed displacingjackals, Striped Hyenas, Leopards, Cheetahs, and African Wild Dogs from kills. However Spotted Hyenas most frequently compete for kills with Lions. Spotted Hyenas and Lions occur sympatrically in many areas of Africa, and in most of these habitats, bi-directional food stealing has been observed between these two species. Dominance relations between Spotted Hyenas and competing species are not absolute but depend on the numerical presence of both parties. For instance, Lions usually displace Spotted Hyenas at kills. However, if Hyena group size is large and the ratio of Spotted Hyenas to female and subadult Lions exceeds four to one, Hyenas are often able to displace Lions from kills unless a male Lion is present. A single Spotted Hyena can usually dominate a Cheetah, Leopard, Striped Hyena, Brown Hyena, any species ofjackal, or an African Wild Dog. Spotted Hyenas have been observed caching surplus food in thickets and under water in ponds. These animals are very comfortable in water; they often play in seasonal pools, and lie in shallow water or wet mud to keep cool on hot days. Compared to the other bone-cracking hyenas, Spotted Hyenas rarely carry food to their young at dens. This appears to be because the risk of having one’s food stolen, even by much smaller hyenas,is very high at dens, particularly for low-ranking individuals.Activity patterns.Spotted Hyenas are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular, although they may be active at midday when temperatures permit. Dens are typically modified holes dug by Aardvarks, although caves are used as den sites in some areas. Only cubslive in dens; adults sleep above ground, often in thickets, particularly when midday temperatures are high. Although Spotted Hyenas are active for roughly one third of each 24hour cycle, their activity is not continuous. Instead, activity occurs in bouts interspersed with periods of rest. Hyenas in Kenyathat were followed for complete 24hour cycles spent 32% of their time active, but 53% of their active time occurred during hours of darkness.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On average, Spotted Hyenas in Kenyamove 928 mper hour when active, and typically travel over 12 kmduring each 24hour period, with males moving more than females. In Serengeti, daily movements may be much greater than this, as resident hyenas often commute 30-40 km in orderto feed on migratory herbivores. Spotted Hyenas live in social groups, called clans, which contain from ten to eighty members. Large clans contain multiple matrilines of related females and their offspring, as well as a number of adult immigrant males that are generally unrelated to one another. Small clans may contain only a single matriline and a single breeding male. Clan size appears to be determined by abundance of local prey animals: where these are plentiful, as on the prey-rich plains of eastern Africa, clans are typically very large, but in desert areas of southern Africa, clans may be tiny. Clans are fission-fusion societies. That is, all clan members know each other individually, occupy a common territory, and rear their cubs together at a communal den, yet they also spend much of their time alone or in small sub-groups. Spotted Hyena clans bear little resemblance to canid packs or Lion prides, but they are remarkably similar in their size, structure, and complexity to the societies of cercopithecine primates. Like troops of baboons and macaques, Hyena clans typically contain individuals from multiple overlapping generations, and clans are structured by clear linear dominance hierarchies in which an individual’s rank determinesits priority of access to food and other resources. In contrast to the situation characteristic of other hyaenids and most other mammals, female Spotted Hyenas are socially dominant to all adult immigrant males. Rank relationships among female clan-mates are usually stable for periods of many years. Average relatedness among females from different matrilines within a clan is extremely low. Like most primates, Spotted Hyenas produce tiny litters at long intervals, and their offspring require an unusually long period of nutritional dependence on the mother. Young Hyenas typically nurse for well over a year, and because it takes them years to become proficient at hunting and feeding, their mothers continue to help them gain access to food at ungulate kills long after weaning. Similar to female baboons, the social status of a female Hyena is determined not by hersize or fighting ability, but by her mother’s social rank. Indeed, the acquisition of social rank during early development occurs in a pattern identical to that seen in many monkey species, a pattern called “maternal rank inheritance” by primatologists even though no literal inheritance occurs involving genetic transfer of status from mother to offspring. Instead, in both Hyenas and baboons, maternal rank “inheritance” involves a great deal of important social learning that occurs during a protractedjuvenile period. Young Hyenas initially direct their aggressive behaviors equally at higherand lower-ranking individuals. But this changes rapidly during the first year of life as cubs learn to direct aggression only at animals lower in rank than their own mother. When youngsters become involved in disputes with group-mates, the mother intervenes on their behalf against all individuals lower-ranking than herself. Interventions by high-ranking mothers are more frequent and more effective than those by lowranking females. In addition, like young baboons, Hyena cubs are often joined in fights by coalition partners who may be either kin or unrelated animals. Along with maternal interventions, coalition formation functions importantly in rank acquisition. Thus the mechanisms by which youngsters acquire their social ranks are virtually identical in Hyenas and old-world monkeys. Patterns of competition and cooperation among Spotted Hyenas are also remarkably like those found in baboons. Although Hyenas compete intensively for food, they also rely heavily on cooperative interactions with group-mates, particularly their close kin, to acquire and defend both their social rank and such key resources as food and territory. Young Spotted Hyenas of both sexes “inherit” the social rank of their motherearly in life, and retain their maternal rank as long as they remain in the natal clan. However, whereas females remain in their natal group throughouttheir lives, virtually all males disperse after puberty tojoin a new clan. When a male immigrates into a new group, he entersas the lowest-ranking Hyena in the dominance hierarchy; he behaves submissively to all Hyenas he encounters in the new territory, regardless of their size, fighting ability, or social rank. This results in a society in which adult females and their cubs are dominant to all adult male immigrants. A male Hyena loses his maternal social rank and its associated feeding privileges when he disperses. In their new clans, immigrant males sometimes invest a great deal of time and energy in developing amicable relationships with resident adult females, as males engaging in these amicable relationships may enjoy a high probability ofsiring cubs. Due to the female’s male-like genitalia, coercive sex is impossible, so female choice of mates is an important sexually selected force in this species. Mate choice by female Spotted Hyenas apparently drives males to disperse: females strongly prefer to mate with immigrants, and they appear to discriminate against adult natal males. Therefore, almost all offspring are sired by immigrant males. Immigrants queue for status within the male hierarchy of the new clan; the highest-ranking males are those that immigrated first into the clan. Malesrise in rank only when higherranking immigrants die or engage in secondary dispersal; roughly 40% of immigrants disperse again, although the potential benefits of secondary dispersal are unknown. Clan members defend group territories from neighboring Hyena groups. Territory size ranges from roughly 20 km?® in East Africa to approximately 1500 km? in the desert regions of southern Africa, and is negatively related to the density of available prey. Territorial behavior is exhibited by both sexes, although females engage in these activities more frequently than males. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the territory boundary. Border clashes with neighboring clans, called “clan wars”, are most commonly observed in habitats containing high densities of Hyenas, where intrusion pressure is most intense. Territorial behavioris rarely observed among Spotted Hyenas inhabiting the vast desert regions of southern Africa, where prey are sparse, clan size is small, intrusion pressure is low, and the home ranges of resident hyenas are enormous. In some parts of Africa, where densities of resident prey may be low but where migratory herbivores are available as prey, Spotted Hyenas are known to adopt patterns of space-use that differ strikingly from those seen in areas with year-round resident prey. Specifically, Spotted Hyenas may frequently commute long distances from their defended territory to herds of migratory prey. In the unusual “commuting system” exhibited by Spotted Hyenas in the Serengeti, individuals travel long distances north or south from their centrally-located clan territories in order to feed on migratory herbivores. Intruders are tolerated by territory residents when the intruders are merely passing through, although residents behave aggressively toward intruders found hunting or feeding. In Namibia, Spotted Hyenas defend territories that expand and contract in size seasonally, as migratory prey change locations. Territory boundaries are visited sporadically by multiple clan members performing border patrols, during which boundaries are marked by pasting. A strong-smelling, yellowish buttery secretion is deposited from the anal glands onto grass stalks during border patrols. Spotted Hyenas also commonly paste deep inside their territories, although the frequency with which this occurs is generally far less than in the other hyaenid species. The paste transmits information about an individual’s identity, sex, reproductive state, and clan membership. Young Hyenas engage in pasting behavior long before there is any paste in their anal sacs, suggesting that this behavior enables cubs to acquire group odors from sites where clan-mates had pasted earlier. Spotted Hyenas engage in ritualized greeting ceremonies in which two individuals stand parallel and face in opposite directions. Both individuals usually lift the hindleg nearest to the other and sniff or lick the anogenital region of the other. The unique aspect of their greetingsis the prominent role of the erect “penis” in animals of both sexes. This is used to signal submission. Greetings occur between hyenas of all ages and both sexes, although greetings between adult females and adult males are uncommon and restricted to high-ranking males. Cubs can erect their penis or clitoris and engage in greeting ceremonies as early as four weeks after birth. Spotted Hyenas recognize their group mates based on visual cues, odors, and individually distinctive vocalizations. These animals are well known fortheirrich vocal repertoire. They emit deep groansto call their cubs out of dens, high-pitched whines to beg for food or milk, and cattle-like lowing sounds to bring group-mates to a common state of high arousal. The sound most frequently heard during the night throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa is the long-distance vocalization of the Spotted Hyena, called a whoop. This loud call can be heard over several kilometers. Whoopsclearly serve a variety of functions. They can be rallying calls to gather scattered clan members together to defend territory boundaries, food resources, the communal den, or clan-mates in danger. Mothers whoop to locate their wandering cubs, and hungry cubs whoop to call their mothers so they can nurse. Spotted Hyenas sometimes whoop to recruit hunting partners. Whoops are also used as a form of individual display, particularly by males of high rank. Adult males whoop more frequently than females, and high-ranking males whoop more often than lower ranking males. Finally, Spotted Hyenas are well known for their laugh or giggle, which sounds much like maniacal human laughter. This vocalization is a signal of submission. A submissive individual giggles to signal to another Hyena thatit accepts a lower status.Breeding.Females bear young throughout the year in most parts of Africa, although there are distinct birth peaks and troughs in some populations. Both sexes mate promiscuously with multiple partners. Courtship by male Spotted Hyenas is unusual among mammals because it appears to reflect such extreme conflicting desires to approach the female and also to flee from her. Males often engage in approach-avoid and bowing displays, both of which appear to reflect strong motivational conflict and hesitancy on the part of the male. Their behavior suggests that interactions with females may be unusually risky for males in this species, and that males fear females. In general, the female seems to take little notice of the male hyena’s sexual advances. Estrus lasts 1-3 days, but the length of the female's cycle, and whether ovulation is spontaneous or induced, are not known. Copulation involves multiple mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations. Female receptivity is indicated by inhibited aggression toward the male and by assumption of a distinctive receptive stance in which the female lowers her head and keeps her mouth near the ground. The only behavior indicative of a female's interest in mating is that she may follow a male. Some males who sire cubs form consortships with females, but others do not, suggesting that individual male Hyenas may adopt multiple alternative reproductive tactics to attract and acquire mates. That is, male Hyenas may sometimes “shadow” or “guard” their mates, but intensive mate-guarding is not required to ensure that a male will sire the cubs of a particular female. Females have been observed mating with one to four maleswithin a single estrous period, and multiple paternity has been documented to occur in 25-30% of twin litters. Many copulations among Crocutaappear to be infertile. Female Spotted Hyenas are exposed to high concentrations of androgens in utero, and this early androgen exposure may have negative effects on female fertility by altering ovarian histology or other mechanisms. It has recently been determined that early androgen exposure is not necessary for formation of the female's peniform clitoris. Females give birth through their penis-like clitoris. During parturition, the clitoris tears to permit the passage of the young, creating a large bleeding wound on the posterior surface that may take weeks to heal. Females usually produce litters of two, although singletons are also common, and triplets are observed occasionally. Cubs weigh roughly 1 kgat birth. They are born with their eyes open, their deciduous canine and incisor teeth fully erupted, and they are capable of remarkably coordinated movement immediately after birth. They are thus relatively precocial compared to cubs in other hyaenid species or in most other carnivores. Their coats are pure black at birth; cubs start to molt at 5-6 weeks of age, and the natal coat is completely replaced by an adult-colored, spotted pelage by 4-5 months of age. The spots never change except to fade a bit with age. Cubs are usually born in an isolated natal den and are transferred to the clan’s communal den when they are 2-5 weeks old. They remain at the communal den until they are 8-12 months old, and then begin traveling around the clan’s territory, initially with their mothers and later alone. As in the other bone-cracking hyenas, weaning occurs surprisingly late, usually around 13-14 months of age, but twin litters borne by low-ranking females may be nursed as long as two years. Fifty percent of cubs die before puberty, and mortality rates are generally highest immediately after weaning. Males reach reproductive maturity at around two years of age, and most females start bearing young in their third or fourth year. However, age at first parturition varies between two and six years. All females in a clan reproduce, and females rear their young together in the communal den. Therefore occupied dens may contain up to 30 young of different ages from up to 20 litters. Females nurse only their own cubs and usually reject approaches by other cubs. The milk of Spotted Hyenas has the highest protein content (mean 14-9%) recorded for any terrestrial carnivore, a fat content (mean 141%) exceeded only by that of palaearctic bears and the sea otter, and a higher gross energy density than the milk of most other terrestrial carnivores. Due to the high energy content of their milk, and the long nursing period, Spotted Hyenas have the highest energetic investment per litter of any carnivore. Reproductive success in both sexes is related to dominancestatus, although this relationship is stronger among females than males. High-ranking females enjoy greater reproductive success than low-ranking females because they have longer reproductive life spans and shorter inter-birth intervals, and because their cubs experience lower mortality than do cubs of low-ranking females. Sex ratios among adults are usually slightly female-biased. Reproductive success among males varies with intra-sexual rank, although alpha males fare more poorly than would be expected based on social status alone. As most males disperse from their natal clan when they are at least two years old, most breeding males are immigrants. Spotted Hyenas are sometimes referred to as the “Cain and Abel” of the animal world because of the common belief that they routinely kill their siblings shortly after birth. Although littermates do engage in aggressive interactions within minutes after birth, and although this can result in obvious scarring of the subordinate littermate, these aggressive interactions seldom result in the death of a sibling. These early fights quickly lead to the establishment of a dominance relationship that allows the dominant cub to control access to the mother’s milk. Siblicide in the Spotted Hyena is facultative in that it occurs only in some twin litters rather than routinely. The purpose of the early fighting is to establish an unambiguous dominance relationship within the litter. It appears that the relative costs and benefits of killing one’s sibling vary with current socio-ecological conditions: a cub that killsits sibling may obtain significant benefits if its mother is unable to support multiple cubs. However, mothers can usually support two cubs in many parts of Africa without undue difficulty.Status and Conservation.Listed as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total world population of the Spotted Hyena is well above 10,000 individuals, several subpopulations exceed 1000 individuals and its range well exceeds 20,000 km®. The rapid decline of populations outside conservation areas due to persecution and habitat loss makes the species increasingly dependent on the continued existence of protected areas. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated in Algeriaand Lesotho, and they are listed as threatened in Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone. The largest remaining populations are found in Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, and Namibia. Most adult mortality is caused directly by lions and humans,although disease is an important mortality source in some areas. Human-caused mortality is common even inside protected areas. Spotted Hyenas may attack livestock, particularly where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse. Often in response to confirmed or assumed livestock depredation, Spotted Hyenas are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. Spotted Hyenas are also commonly killed on motor-ways. Habitat fragmentation and reduction are also having significant negative effects on the size of many Spotted Hyena populations. Finally, one of the most important threats to the conservation of Spotted Hyenas is their negative public image. Many people apparently believe these animals are not worth conserving. Educating the public about these complex and fascinating animals is expected to have a substantial positive effect on conservation efforts.Bibliography.Bearder (1977), Bearder & Randall (1978), Binder & Van Valkenburgh (2000), Binford et al. (1988), Boydston, Kapheim & Holekamp (2006), Boydston, Kapheim, Van Horn et al. (2005), Boydston, Morelli & Holekamp (2001), Cooper (1989, 1990, 1991, 1993), Cooper et al. (1999), Cunhaet al. (2005), Di Silvestre et al. (2000), Drea & Frank (2003), Drea, Coscia & Glickman (1999), Drea, Place et al. (2002), Drea, Vignieri, Cunningham & Glickman (2002), Drea, Vignieri, Kim et al. (2002), Drea, Weldele et al. (1998), East & Hofer (1991a, 1991b, 2001, 2002), East, Burke et al. (2003), East, Hofer & Wickler (1993), Eloff (1964, 1975), Engh, Esch et al. (2000), Engh, Funk et al. (2002), Frank (1986a, 1986b, 1994, 1997), Frank & Glickman (1991, 1994), Frank, Davidson & Smith (1985), Frank, Glickman & Licht (1991), Frank, Glickman & Powch (1990), Frank, Glickman & Zabel (1989), Frank, Holekamp & Smale (1995), Frank, Weldele & Glickman (1995), Gasaway et al. (1989, 1991), Glickman, (1995), Glickman, Cunhaet al. (2006), Glickman, Frank et al. (1993), Golla et al. (1999), Hamilton et al. (1986), Harvey (1992), Hayward (2006), Henschel & Skinner (1987, 1990a, 1990b, 1991), Henschel, & Tilson (1988), Hofer & East (1993a, 1993b, 1993c¢, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2008), Hofer, Campbell et al. (1996), Hofer, East & Campbell (1993), Holekamp & Smale (1990, 1993, 2000), Holekamp, Boydston & Smale (2000), Holekamp, Boydston, Szykman et al. (1999), Holekamp, Sakai & Lundrigan (2007), Holekamp, Smale, Berg & Cooper (1997), Holekamp, Smale & Szykman (1996), Holekamp, Szykman et al. (1999), Honer, Wachter, East & Hofer (2002), Honer, Wachter, East, Streich et al. (2007), Koepfli et al. (2006), Kolowski & Holekamp (2006), Kolowski et al. (2007), Kruuk (1972, 1977), Lewis & Werdelin (2000) Licht et al. (1992), Lindeque & Skinner (1982), Matthews (1939), Mills, (1985, 1989, 1990), Mills & Gorman (1987), Mills & Hofer (1998), Neaves et al. (1980), Pienaar (1969), Pournelle (1965), Rensberger (1999), Rohland et al. (2005), Rosevear (1974), Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (19924, 1992b), Skinner, Funston et al. (1992), Skinner, Henschel & Van Jaarsveld (1986), Smale, Frank & Holekamp (1993), Smale, Holekamp & White (1999), Smale, Nunes & Holekamp (1997), Sutcliffe, (1970), Szykman, Engh et al. (2001), Szykman, Van Horn et al. (2007), Theis, Greene et al. (2007), Theis, Heckla et al. (2008), Tilson & Hamilton (1984), Tilson & Henschel (1984, 1986), Tilson, von Blottnitz & Henschel (1980), Trinkel & Kastberger (2005), Trinkel et al. (2004), Van Horn, McElhinny & Holekamp (2003), Van Horn, Wahaj & Holekamp (2004), Van Horn, Engh et al. (2004), Van Jaarsveld et al. (1988), Wachter et al. (2002), Wahaj & Holekamp (2006), Wahaj, Place et al. (2007), Wahaj, Van Horn et al. (2004), Watts (2007), Werdelin & Solounias (1991), Whateley (1980, 1981), Whateley & Brooks (1978)." 03928788FFEAFF8828B2FDA8F8E3C123,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b,234,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEAFF8828B2FDA8F8E3C123.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family HYAENIDAE(HYENAS)• Mediumto large-sized mammals with round or pointed ears relatively large in comparison to body size, exceptionally powerfuljaw muscles, hindquarters long and sloping; somewhat dog-like in overall appearance, very muscular.• 85-185 cm.• Africa and Middle East to India.• Mainly savannas, but other semi-arid and desert regions to edges of forests, both tropical and temperate zones.• 4 genera, 4 species, at least 5 extant taxa.• All Lower Risk; none Extinct since 1600." -03928788FFEBFF8B2AA6F458FAD2C3D3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b,252,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEBFF8B2AA6F458FAD2C3D3.xml,Proteles cristata,Proteles,cristata,Sparrman,1783,Protele @fr | Erdwolf @de | Proteles @es,"Viverra cristata Sparrman, 1783, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Although previously placed in its own family (Protelidae), it is now considered a member of the family Hyaenidae. The Aardwolf belongs to the subfamily Protelinae, of which it is the only extant member. They occur in two distinct populations separated by about 1500 km. However, studies ofthe extent of genetic and morphological differences between these groups have not been conducted. Two subspecies are recognized.","P. c. cristata Sparrman, 1783— E African coast (S Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, NE Ugandato C Tanzania). P. c. septentrionalis Rothschild, 1902— most of S Africa (S Angola, S Zambia, SW Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa).","By far the smallest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 55-80 cm, tail 20-30 cm, height at shoulder 45-50 cm; weight (adult) 8-12 kg with seasonal variation, and reported as high as 14 kg. No sexual size dimorphism. Superficially similar in appearance to the Striped Hyena, with dark vertical stripes on a buff, yellowish-white or rufous body, and irregular horizontal stripes on the legs. However, the Striped Hyena is more than twice as large with less regular striping. The Aardwolf’s coat is about 2-5 cm long, with longer hairs along the mane and in the bushy tail. The neck is long and the throat is a pale gray-white. The legs are long and slender and the striping terminates in black at the feet. As in the Striped and Brown Hyena, the Aardwolf has long, pointed ears and a long erectile mane extending the length ofits body. Like the other hyaenids, Proteleshas a sloping back with the forelegs longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. Females have two pairs of teats. Uniquely among the hyaenids, Profeles has a number of adaptations for feeding exclusively on termites, including a long, spatulate tongue with large and varied papillae, and a large submaxillary gland which produces copious amounts of sticky saliva. Very small peg-like cheek teeth are widely spaced along thejaw margins, yet large canines have been retained for use in territorial disputes with other Aardwolves and defense againstjackals. Their skulls also feature a relatively broad, nearly parallel-sided palate, and extraordinarily large tympanic bulla.","Aardwolves are primarily found on open, grassy plains or in bush country, but can live in a range of habitats with rainfall between 100-800 mm. They are most common where rainfall is 100-600 mm. They do not occur in forests or pure desert and are independent of drinking water. The northern subspecies occurs in grasslands and tree savannas of the Somali-Masai Arid Zone and the southern subspecies in the Southern Savanna and South-westArid Zone.","Aardwolves are solitary foragers and feed almost exclusively on Trinervitermes termites, usually on one species in each particular region: 1. bettionianus in East Africa, 1. rhodesiensis in Zimbabweand Botswanaand 71. trinervoides in South Africa. These termites are largely avoided by other termite-eating mammals due to the noxious terpenoid chemicals secreted by the soldier termites, to which the Aardwolfis uniquely tolerant. In addition to the lack of competition, Aardwolf preference for this termite genus is likely due to the fact that these termites regularly congregate at night in large aboveground foraging parties. The termites are licked directly from the soil surface, and are easily obtainable in large quantities. Also, unlike true harvester termites, Trinervitermes forage throughout the year, making them a dependable year-round food source. Due to the small size of Trinervitermes and the wide dispersion of colonies, female Aardwolves must forage for at least six hours a night, during which up to 300,000 termites/night (1-2 kg) are consumed. Foraging Aardwolves travel approximately 1 km/h, with their ears cocked forward and head bentslightly down, following an erratic zig-zag route. Because they often approach termite colonies from downwind, and approach with directed movement before termites could be seen,it appears that termite foraging parties are detected at least partially by smell. However, the hearing of the Aardwolf is particularly acute and is assumed to play a role in colony detection. The average time spent foraging at individual termite patches was 20-28 seconds in East Africa, but in drier Namibian grassland, Aardwolves spent an average of 1-8 and 9-2 minutes at each patch in consecutive years of observation. In South Africa, a newly weaned four-month old cub spent an average of only eleven seconds at each patch, and juveniles frequently are seen vomiting after feeding on Trinervitermes, indicating that tolerance to the chemical secretions of Trinervitermes soldiers increases with age. Even adult Aardwolves maintain some aversion to the terpene chemicals, because they will avoid feeding on mounds under repair, where typically only dense concentrations of soldiers are found at the surface. Other surface-foraging termites, particularly Hodotermes and Microhodotermes (South Africa), Odontotermes and Macrotermes species (East Africa), make up a larger proportion of the diet when Trinervitermes are seasonally uncommon or unavailable, as during winter (May-August) in South Africa, and during the rainy season in East Africa. However, these species forage aboveground in much smaller parties (10-20 individuals vs. 4000 inTrinervitermes) and the reduced winter availability of Trinervitermes in South Africaresults in a significant seasonal reduction in Aardwolf body weight and field metabolic rate. Aardwolves here were found to consume only one-sixth the number of termites in winter that they did in summer. Winter is also the highest period of mortality in Aardwolf cubs, which are 7-10 months old at this time, further indicating that this is a period ofsignificant energetic stress. Other termites found in fecal samples have included Odontotermes, Macrotermes, and Lepidotermes that are not surface-foraging species and therefore not important components of the Aardwolf diet. Occasional additional food items include ants and Coleopterans, yet the Aardwolf appears to be surprisingly inefficient at foraging on non-termite insects. Due to the high degree of specialization of its tongue for licking small arthropods, and the almost complete degeneration ofits cheek teeth, it is thought that they are unable to handle larger food items, making the species highly dependent on Trinervitermes. This dependence is supported by the absence of Aardwolves from Zambiaand central and western Africa, where surface foraging Trinervitermes are either uncommon or available only a small part of the year. Aardwolves defecate in middens (also called latrines). The first defecation occurs when they exit the burrow in the evening and is typically very large, weighing up to 1 kg. Defecations are typically covered with soil. This practice of concentrating and burying their faeces, which retains some of the terpene smell of the soldier termites, has been suggested as a way of reducing the probability that an Aardwolf will mistake its own faeces for a termite colony when it is foraging. Up to 20 middens may be located in a territory.","Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.","Predominantly nocturnal, in South AfricaAardwolves are generally active for 8-9 hours a day in summer but only 3-4 hours a day in winter. In summer, they generally leave the den within an hour after sunset and return 1-4 hours before sunrise. However, during winter, some diurnal activity may be observed. Aardwolves typically become active up to an hour before sunset and return to their dens after 3—4 hours of foraging. A higher proportion of their time is spent feeding in winter than in summer, and a relatively large portion of the activity of both males and females in winter (12:6%) consists of breeding activities (e.g. courtship/copulation). Inactive hours during the day are spent in underground dens, which provide refuge from temperature extremes and predators, particularly Black-backed Jackals. Dens also function importantly in cub-rearing. Nighttime rest periods are also often spent near or inside dens. A territory may include up to ten different den holes, which are typically spring hare burrows that have been enlarged by Aardwolves.","A social unit, which occupies a welldefined territory throughout the year, consists of a male-female pair and their most recent offspring. All natal animals disperse from the territory, usually 1-2 months before birth of the nextlitter. Pair bonds arefairly stable lasting 2-5 years. Males without mates (due to death or abandonment by females) establish pair bonds with adjacent females and may abandon their originalterritories. Territory size ranges from 1-5 km? in East Africa to 3-8 km? in South Africa, and appears to be negatively related to the density of available termite mounds. Territories in the Northern Cape Provinceof South Africagenerally supported 3000 termite mounds with an average of 55,000 termites/mound. Aardwolf density reaches 1 adult/km? in optimal habitat. Territories are maintained primarily by scent marking, which is concentrated along territory boundaries, but direct interactions between neighboring residents also occasionally occur. Both males and females actively defend territorial boundaries. Chasing and fighting, with manes raised, occurs between same-sex individuals defending territories. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the boundary and mutual avoidance is generally practiced along boundary areas. If physical contact occurs both combatants drop to their carpals and bite at each others’ necks. Although territorial behavior is exhibited by males and females,it differs between mating (June andJuly in South Africa) and non-mating seasons. Direct fights between Aardwolves appear restricted to the mating season. Whereas females tend to stay within territory boundaries year round, male behavior undergoes a marked change at the start of the mating season. After an approximately one-month “scouting” period at the beginning of the mating season, when males make frequent extra-territorial movements, yet largely refrain from pasting outside the territory, they begin more aggressive extra-territorial pasting. Their movements outside the territory continue to increase, peaking in frequency about a week before females come into estrus. These excursions are suggested to be advertizements of quality to both males and females in surrounding territories. Males engage in consecutive over-markings by pasting on particular grass stalks; the less aggressive, and apparently less fit, individual will eventually cease pasting, thus “losing” the contest. During pre-estrus females also increase their rate of pasting, primarily along territory boundaries and just outside them, apparently to encourage visits by extra-pair males. Visiting males during this period frequently “flirt” with resident females and chase or fight males that they encounter. “Flirting” typically involves the male running toward the female, then veering off and prancing past with his tail raised. However, by the time the female is in estrus (lasting 1-3 days) she is typically left with only her resident male, and potentially an aggressive neighbor. As in Striped Hyenas, there have been cases in which two maleAardwolves shared a territory with a female, both males mating with her and both guarding her cubs, but this appears to be exceptional and rare. Aardwolves are remarkably antisocial outside the breeding season. Members of resident mixed-sex pairs feed alone and typically ignore each other when they meet. Unlike the other three hyaenids, Aardwolves usually do not engage in greeting ceremonies between familiar individuals, with the exception of an occasional muzzle to muzzle sniff between mother and cub. In South Africa, nightly distance traveled by foraging females ranged from 1-5 to 9-1 km (average 4-2 km). Summer travel distances ranged from 8-12 km per night, whereas winter distances were highly variable (from less than 3 kmto more than 24 km) depending on whether males were conducting extra-territorial mating forays. Travel speed is 2-3 km/h when not feeding, and about I km/h when feeding intensely. Aardwolves return to underground burrows during the day. There are typically 5-6 dens per territory. Dens are used for only 1-2 months at a time, and mates rarely use the same dens concurrently. Because Aardwolves rarely interact, the primary form of communication is olfactory. Like the other three hyaenids, the Aardwolf engages in scent marking behavior called pasting, during which a strong-smelling, yellowish-orange secretion (which quickly turns black) is deposited onto grass stalks from an extruded anal gland, located just above the anus. In addition to marking frequently at dens and latrines, which generally are not associated with territory boundaries, Aardwolves appear to use pasting as a means of territory defense. Boundary marking occurs most frequently, and is most concentrated along borders where neighboring Aardwolves maintain territories. Pasting is generally frequent, occurring about twice every 100 mof travel, and about 200 times per night, with males pasting more than females. Based on experiments with translocated scent marks, information conveyed in scent marks appears to include the sex, female reproductive state, and individual identity, at least in the case of resident neighbors, partners, and self-recognition. Outside the mating season, pasting outside territory boundaries is rare if not nonexistent, but this behavior, particularly by males, changes notably during mating periods. Even though direct interactions are rare, Aardwolves possess an impressive visual display, during which the hairs along the mane are erected, resulting in a near doubling of the apparent size of the animal. This is used in intraspecific aggressive interactions involving territory defense and in interspecific defensive interactions. Although generally a silent species, the most comprehensive analysis of the vocal repertoire of Protelesidentified nine distinct sound types: “purr”, whine, jaw click, lip smack, growl, snarl, bark, squeal, and a whizzing sound which was only documented in one individual. Agonistic vocalizations are relatively diverse and increase in intensity in the following order: lip smack/jaw click, growl, snarl, bark. Squeals are heard only in cubs and appear to represent begging to mothers. The whineelicits a variety of reactions depending on the addressee and addressor, but likely functions as an appeasing or reassuring sound. As in striped and brown hyenas, Aardwolves lack a loud, longdistance vocalization like the whoop of spotted hyenas.On following pages: 2. Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta); 3. Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena); 4. Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea).Breeding.Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.","Listed as a species of Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Due to their shy and nocturnal nature, Aardwolves are probably more common than usually believed. That notwithstanding, Aardwolves in southern Africa generally occur outside of protected areas, and the primary threat in these locationsis indirect poisoning aimed at locust outbreaks. Poisoning events can result in the death of up to half the local adult population and all the cubs. Within protected areas, the most important mortality sources are severe drought and predation on cubs by Black-backed Jackals. Human-caused mortality also occurs as a result of direct persecution from farmers suspecting Aardwolf involvement in lamb predation, harvesting of Aardwolves as a food source, and indirect persecution during organized hunting for jackals. Aardwolves may also be killed by vehicles during the night. However, all these other mortality sources appear insignificant relative to poisoning, jackal predation and drought. Across its range, habitat fragmentation and isolation may be the most serious threat to long-term population viability; however,its dependence on habitat preferred for use in livestock grazing makes extensive habitat loss improbable.","Anderson, M.D. & Richardson (2005) | Anderson, M.D. et al. (1992) | Cooper & Skinner (1979) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Koehler & Richardson (1990) | Koepfli et al. (2006) | Kruuk & Sands (1972) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Peters & Sliwa (1997) | Richardson (1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1991) | Richardson & Bearder (1984) | Richardson & Levitan (1994) | Skinner & VanAarde (1986) | Sliwa & Richardson (1998) | Smithers (1983) | Sparrman (1783) | VanJaarsveld (1993) | VanJaarsveld et al. (1995) | Werdelin & Solounias (1991) | Williams et al. (1997)",,"1.AardwolfProteles cristataFrench:Protele/ German:Erdwolf/ Spanish:ProtelesTaxonomy.Viverra cristata Sparrman, 1783, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Although previously placed in its own family (Protelidae), it is now considered a member of the family Hyaenidae. The Aardwolf belongs to the subfamily Protelinae, of which it is the only extant member. They occur in two distinct populations separated by about 1500 km. However, studies ofthe extent of genetic and morphological differences between these groups have not been conducted. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. c. cristata Sparrman, 1783— E African coast (S Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, NE Ugandato C Tanzania). P. c. septentrionalis Rothschild, 1902— most of S Africa (S Angola, S Zambia, SW Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa).Descriptive notes.By far the smallest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 55-80 cm, tail 20-30 cm, height at shoulder 45-50 cm; weight (adult) 8-12 kg with seasonal variation, and reported as high as 14 kg. No sexual size dimorphism. Superficially similar in appearance to the Striped Hyena, with dark vertical stripes on a buff, yellowish-white or rufous body, and irregular horizontal stripes on the legs. However, the Striped Hyena is more than twice as large with less regular striping. The Aardwolf’s coat is about 2-5 cm long, with longer hairs along the mane and in the bushy tail. The neck is long and the throat is a pale gray-white. The legs are long and slender and the striping terminates in black at the feet. As in the Striped and Brown Hyena, the Aardwolf has long, pointed ears and a long erectile mane extending the length ofits body. Like the other hyaenids, Proteleshas a sloping back with the forelegs longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. Females have two pairs of teats. Uniquely among the hyaenids, Profeles has a number of adaptations for feeding exclusively on termites, including a long, spatulate tongue with large and varied papillae, and a large submaxillary gland which produces copious amounts of sticky saliva. Very small peg-like cheek teeth are widely spaced along thejaw margins, yet large canines have been retained for use in territorial disputes with other Aardwolves and defense againstjackals. Their skulls also feature a relatively broad, nearly parallel-sided palate, and extraordinarily large tympanic bulla.Habitat.Aardwolves are primarily found on open, grassy plains or in bush country, but can live in a range of habitats with rainfall between 100-800 mm. They are most common where rainfall is 100-600 mm. They do not occur in forests or pure desert and are independent of drinking water. The northern subspecies occurs in grasslands and tree savannas of the Somali-Masai Arid Zone and the southern subspecies in the Southern Savanna and South-westArid Zone.Food and Feeding.Aardwolves are solitary foragers and feed almost exclusively on Trinervitermes termites, usually on one species in each particular region: 1. bettionianus in East Africa, 1. rhodesiensis in Zimbabweand Botswanaand 71. trinervoides in South Africa. These termites are largely avoided by other termite-eating mammals due to the noxious terpenoid chemicals secreted by the soldier termites, to which the Aardwolfis uniquely tolerant. In addition to the lack of competition, Aardwolf preference for this termite genus is likely due to the fact that these termites regularly congregate at night in large aboveground foraging parties. The termites are licked directly from the soil surface, and are easily obtainable in large quantities. Also, unlike true harvester termites, Trinervitermes forage throughout the year, making them a dependable year-round food source. Due to the small size of Trinervitermes and the wide dispersion of colonies, female Aardwolves must forage for at least six hours a night, during which up to 300,000 termites/night (1-2 kg) are consumed. Foraging Aardwolves travel approximately 1 km/h, with their ears cocked forward and head bentslightly down, following an erratic zig-zag route. Because they often approach termite colonies from downwind, and approach with directed movement before termites could be seen,it appears that termite foraging parties are detected at least partially by smell. However, the hearing of the Aardwolf is particularly acute and is assumed to play a role in colony detection. The average time spent foraging at individual termite patches was 20-28 seconds in East Africa, but in drier Namibian grassland, Aardwolves spent an average of 1-8 and 9-2 minutes at each patch in consecutive years of observation. In South Africa, a newly weaned four-month old cub spent an average of only eleven seconds at each patch, and juveniles frequently are seen vomiting after feeding on Trinervitermes, indicating that tolerance to the chemical secretions of Trinervitermes soldiers increases with age. Even adult Aardwolves maintain some aversion to the terpene chemicals, because they will avoid feeding on mounds under repair, where typically only dense concentrations of soldiers are found at the surface. Other surface-foraging termites, particularly Hodotermes and Microhodotermes (South Africa), Odontotermes and Macrotermes species (East Africa), make up a larger proportion of the diet when Trinervitermes are seasonally uncommon or unavailable, as during winter (May-August) in South Africa, and during the rainy season in East Africa. However, these species forage aboveground in much smaller parties (10-20 individuals vs. 4000 inTrinervitermes) and the reduced winter availability of Trinervitermes in South Africaresults in a significant seasonal reduction in Aardwolf body weight and field metabolic rate. Aardwolves here were found to consume only one-sixth the number of termites in winter that they did in summer. Winter is also the highest period of mortality in Aardwolf cubs, which are 7-10 months old at this time, further indicating that this is a period ofsignificant energetic stress. Other termites found in fecal samples have included Odontotermes, Macrotermes, and Lepidotermes that are not surface-foraging species and therefore not important components of the Aardwolf diet. Occasional additional food items include ants and Coleopterans, yet the Aardwolf appears to be surprisingly inefficient at foraging on non-termite insects. Due to the high degree of specialization of its tongue for licking small arthropods, and the almost complete degeneration ofits cheek teeth, it is thought that they are unable to handle larger food items, making the species highly dependent on Trinervitermes. This dependence is supported by the absence of Aardwolves from Zambiaand central and western Africa, where surface foraging Trinervitermes are either uncommon or available only a small part of the year. Aardwolves defecate in middens (also called latrines). The first defecation occurs when they exit the burrow in the evening and is typically very large, weighing up to 1 kg. Defecations are typically covered with soil. This practice of concentrating and burying their faeces, which retains some of the terpene smell of the soldier termites, has been suggested as a way of reducing the probability that an Aardwolf will mistake its own faeces for a termite colony when it is foraging. Up to 20 middens may be located in a territory.Activity patterns.Predominantly nocturnal, in South AfricaAardwolves are generally active for 8-9 hours a day in summer but only 3-4 hours a day in winter. In summer, they generally leave the den within an hour after sunset and return 1-4 hours before sunrise. However, during winter, some diurnal activity may be observed. Aardwolves typically become active up to an hour before sunset and return to their dens after 3—4 hours of foraging. A higher proportion of their time is spent feeding in winter than in summer, and a relatively large portion of the activity of both males and females in winter (12:6%) consists of breeding activities (e.g. courtship/copulation). Inactive hours during the day are spent in underground dens, which provide refuge from temperature extremes and predators, particularly Black-backed Jackals. Dens also function importantly in cub-rearing. Nighttime rest periods are also often spent near or inside dens. A territory may include up to ten different den holes, which are typically spring hare burrows that have been enlarged by Aardwolves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A social unit, which occupies a welldefined territory throughout the year, consists of a male-female pair and their most recent offspring. All natal animals disperse from the territory, usually 1-2 months before birth of the nextlitter. Pair bonds arefairly stable lasting 2-5 years. Males without mates (due to death or abandonment by females) establish pair bonds with adjacent females and may abandon their originalterritories. Territory size ranges from 1-5 km? in East Africa to 3-8 km? in South Africa, and appears to be negatively related to the density of available termite mounds. Territories in the Northern Cape Provinceof South Africagenerally supported 3000 termite mounds with an average of 55,000 termites/mound. Aardwolf density reaches 1 adult/km? in optimal habitat. Territories are maintained primarily by scent marking, which is concentrated along territory boundaries, but direct interactions between neighboring residents also occasionally occur. Both males and females actively defend territorial boundaries. Chasing and fighting, with manes raised, occurs between same-sex individuals defending territories. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the boundary and mutual avoidance is generally practiced along boundary areas. If physical contact occurs both combatants drop to their carpals and bite at each others’ necks. Although territorial behavior is exhibited by males and females,it differs between mating (June andJuly in South Africa) and non-mating seasons. Direct fights between Aardwolves appear restricted to the mating season. Whereas females tend to stay within territory boundaries year round, male behavior undergoes a marked change at the start of the mating season. After an approximately one-month “scouting” period at the beginning of the mating season, when males make frequent extra-territorial movements, yet largely refrain from pasting outside the territory, they begin more aggressive extra-territorial pasting. Their movements outside the territory continue to increase, peaking in frequency about a week before females come into estrus. These excursions are suggested to be advertizements of quality to both males and females in surrounding territories. Males engage in consecutive over-markings by pasting on particular grass stalks; the less aggressive, and apparently less fit, individual will eventually cease pasting, thus “losing” the contest. During pre-estrus females also increase their rate of pasting, primarily along territory boundaries and just outside them, apparently to encourage visits by extra-pair males. Visiting males during this period frequently “flirt” with resident females and chase or fight males that they encounter. “Flirting” typically involves the male running toward the female, then veering off and prancing past with his tail raised. However, by the time the female is in estrus (lasting 1-3 days) she is typically left with only her resident male, and potentially an aggressive neighbor. As in Striped Hyenas, there have been cases in which two maleAardwolves shared a territory with a female, both males mating with her and both guarding her cubs, but this appears to be exceptional and rare. Aardwolves are remarkably antisocial outside the breeding season. Members of resident mixed-sex pairs feed alone and typically ignore each other when they meet. Unlike the other three hyaenids, Aardwolves usually do not engage in greeting ceremonies between familiar individuals, with the exception of an occasional muzzle to muzzle sniff between mother and cub. In South Africa, nightly distance traveled by foraging females ranged from 1-5 to 9-1 km (average 4-2 km). Summer travel distances ranged from 8-12 km per night, whereas winter distances were highly variable (from less than 3 kmto more than 24 km) depending on whether males were conducting extra-territorial mating forays. Travel speed is 2-3 km/h when not feeding, and about I km/h when feeding intensely. Aardwolves return to underground burrows during the day. There are typically 5-6 dens per territory. Dens are used for only 1-2 months at a time, and mates rarely use the same dens concurrently. Because Aardwolves rarely interact, the primary form of communication is olfactory. Like the other three hyaenids, the Aardwolf engages in scent marking behavior called pasting, during which a strong-smelling, yellowish-orange secretion (which quickly turns black) is deposited onto grass stalks from an extruded anal gland, located just above the anus. In addition to marking frequently at dens and latrines, which generally are not associated with territory boundaries, Aardwolves appear to use pasting as a means of territory defense. Boundary marking occurs most frequently, and is most concentrated along borders where neighboring Aardwolves maintain territories. Pasting is generally frequent, occurring about twice every 100 mof travel, and about 200 times per night, with males pasting more than females. Based on experiments with translocated scent marks, information conveyed in scent marks appears to include the sex, female reproductive state, and individual identity, at least in the case of resident neighbors, partners, and self-recognition. Outside the mating season, pasting outside territory boundaries is rare if not nonexistent, but this behavior, particularly by males, changes notably during mating periods. Even though direct interactions are rare, Aardwolves possess an impressive visual display, during which the hairs along the mane are erected, resulting in a near doubling of the apparent size of the animal. This is used in intraspecific aggressive interactions involving territory defense and in interspecific defensive interactions. Although generally a silent species, the most comprehensive analysis of the vocal repertoire of Protelesidentified nine distinct sound types: “purr”, whine, jaw click, lip smack, growl, snarl, bark, squeal, and a whizzing sound which was only documented in one individual. Agonistic vocalizations are relatively diverse and increase in intensity in the following order: lip smack/jaw click, growl, snarl, bark. Squeals are heard only in cubs and appear to represent begging to mothers. The whineelicits a variety of reactions depending on the addressee and addressor, but likely functions as an appeasing or reassuring sound. As in striped and brown hyenas, Aardwolves lack a loud, longdistance vocalization like the whoop of spotted hyenas.On following pages: 2. Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta); 3. Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena); 4. Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea).Breeding.Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.Status and Conservation.Listed as a species of Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Due to their shy and nocturnal nature, Aardwolves are probably more common than usually believed. That notwithstanding, Aardwolves in southern Africa generally occur outside of protected areas, and the primary threat in these locationsis indirect poisoning aimed at locust outbreaks. Poisoning events can result in the death of up to half the local adult population and all the cubs. Within protected areas, the most important mortality sources are severe drought and predation on cubs by Black-backed Jackals. Human-caused mortality also occurs as a result of direct persecution from farmers suspecting Aardwolf involvement in lamb predation, harvesting of Aardwolves as a food source, and indirect persecution during organized hunting for jackals. Aardwolves may also be killed by vehicles during the night. However, all these other mortality sources appear insignificant relative to poisoning, jackal predation and drought. Across its range, habitat fragmentation and isolation may be the most serious threat to long-term population viability; however,its dependence on habitat preferred for use in livestock grazing makes extensive habitat loss improbable.Bibliography.Anderson, M.D. & Richardson (2005), Anderson, M.D. et al. (1992), Cooper & Skinner (1979), Kingdon (1971-1982), Koehler & Richardson (1990), Koepfli et al. (2006), Kruuk & Sands (1972), Mills & Hofer (1998), Peters & Sliwa (1997), Richardson (1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1991), Richardson & Bearder (1984), Richardson & Levitan (1994), Skinner & VanAarde (1986), Sliwa & Richardson (1998), Smithers (1983), Sparrman (1783), VanJaarsveld (1993), VanJaarsveld et al. (1995), Werdelin & Solounias (1991), Williams et al. (1997)." +03928788FFEBFF8B2AA6F458FAD2C3D3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b,252,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEBFF8B2AA6F458FAD2C3D3.xml,Proteles cristata,Proteles,cristata,Sparrman,1783,Protele @fr | Erdwolf @de | Proteles @es,"Viverra cristata Sparrman, 1783, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Although previously placed in its own family (Protelidae), it is now considered a member of the family Hyaenidae. The Aardwolf belongs to the subfamily Protelinae, of which it is the only extant member. They occur in two distinct populations separated by about 1500 km. However, studies ofthe extent of genetic and morphological differences between these groups have not been conducted. Two subspecies are recognized.","P. c. cristata Sparrman, 1783— E African coast (S Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, NE Ugandato C Tanzania). P. c. septentrionalis Rothschild, 1902— most of S Africa (S Angola, S Zambia, SW Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa).","By far the smallest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 55-80 cm, tail 20-30 cm, height at shoulder 45-50 cm; weight (adult) 8-12 kg with seasonal variation, and reported as high as 14 kg. No sexual size dimorphism. Superficially similar in appearance to the Striped Hyena, with dark vertical stripes on a buff, yellowish-white or rufous body, and irregular horizontal stripes on the legs. However, the Striped Hyena is more than twice as large with less regular striping. The Aardwolf’s coat is about 2-5 cm long, with longer hairs along the mane and in the bushy tail. The neck is long and the throat is a pale gray-white. The legs are long and slender and the striping terminates in black at the feet. As in the Striped and Brown Hyena, the Aardwolf has long, pointed ears and a long erectile mane extending the length ofits body. Like the other hyaenids, Proteleshas a sloping back with the forelegs longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. Females have two pairs of teats. Uniquely among the hyaenids, Profeles has a number of adaptations for feeding exclusively on termites, including a long, spatulate tongue with large and varied papillae, and a large submaxillary gland which produces copious amounts of sticky saliva. Very small peg-like cheek teeth are widely spaced along thejaw margins, yet large canines have been retained for use in territorial disputes with other Aardwolves and defense againstjackals. Their skulls also feature a relatively broad, nearly parallel-sided palate, and extraordinarily large tympanic bulla.","Aardwolves are primarily found on open, grassy plains or in bush country, but can live in a range of habitats with rainfall between 100-800 mm. They are most common where rainfall is 100-600 mm. They do not occur in forests or pure desert and are independent of drinking water. The northern subspecies occurs in grasslands and tree savannas of the Somali-Masai Arid Zone and the southern subspecies in the Southern Savanna and South-westArid Zone.","Aardwolves are solitary foragers and feed almost exclusively on Trinervitermes termites, usually on one species in each particular region: 1. bettionianus in East Africa, 1. rhodesiensis in Zimbabweand Botswanaand 71. trinervoides in South Africa. These termites are largely avoided by other termite-eating mammals due to the noxious terpenoid chemicals secreted by the soldier termites, to which the Aardwolfis uniquely tolerant. In addition to the lack of competition, Aardwolf preference for this termite genus is likely due to the fact that these termites regularly congregate at night in large aboveground foraging parties. The termites are licked directly from the soil surface, and are easily obtainable in large quantities. Also, unlike true harvester termites, Trinervitermes forage throughout the year, making them a dependable year-round food source. Due to the small size of Trinervitermes and the wide dispersion of colonies, female Aardwolves must forage for at least six hours a night, during which up to 300,000 termites/night (1-2 kg) are consumed. Foraging Aardwolves travel approximately 1 km/h, with their ears cocked forward and head bentslightly down, following an erratic zig-zag route. Because they often approach termite colonies from downwind, and approach with directed movement before termites could be seen,it appears that termite foraging parties are detected at least partially by smell. However, the hearing of the Aardwolf is particularly acute and is assumed to play a role in colony detection. The average time spent foraging at individual termite patches was 20-28 seconds in East Africa, but in drier Namibian grassland, Aardwolves spent an average of 1-8 and 9-2 minutes at each patch in consecutive years of observation. In South Africa, a newly weaned four-month old cub spent an average of only eleven seconds at each patch, and juveniles frequently are seen vomiting after feeding on Trinervitermes, indicating that tolerance to the chemical secretions of Trinervitermes soldiers increases with age. Even adult Aardwolves maintain some aversion to the terpene chemicals, because they will avoid feeding on mounds under repair, where typically only dense concentrations of soldiers are found at the surface. Other surface-foraging termites, particularly Hodotermes and Microhodotermes (South Africa), Odontotermes and Macrotermes species (East Africa), make up a larger proportion of the diet when Trinervitermes are seasonally uncommon or unavailable, as during winter (May-August) in South Africa, and during the rainy season in East Africa. However, these species forage aboveground in much smaller parties (10-20 individuals vs. 4000 inTrinervitermes) and the reduced winter availability of Trinervitermes in South Africaresults in a significant seasonal reduction in Aardwolf body weight and field metabolic rate. Aardwolves here were found to consume only one-sixth the number of termites in winter that they did in summer. Winter is also the highest period of mortality in Aardwolf cubs, which are 7-10 months old at this time, further indicating that this is a period ofsignificant energetic stress. Other termites found in fecal samples have included Odontotermes, Macrotermes, and Lepidotermes that are not surface-foraging species and therefore not important components of the Aardwolf diet. Occasional additional food items include ants and Coleopterans, yet the Aardwolf appears to be surprisingly inefficient at foraging on non-termite insects. Due to the high degree of specialization of its tongue for licking small arthropods, and the almost complete degeneration ofits cheek teeth, it is thought that they are unable to handle larger food items, making the species highly dependent on Trinervitermes. This dependence is supported by the absence of Aardwolves from Zambiaand central and western Africa, where surface foraging Trinervitermes are either uncommon or available only a small part of the year. Aardwolves defecate in middens (also called latrines). The first defecation occurs when they exit the burrow in the evening and is typically very large, weighing up to 1 kg. Defecations are typically covered with soil. This practice of concentrating and burying their faeces, which retains some of the terpene smell of the soldier termites, has been suggested as a way of reducing the probability that an Aardwolf will mistake its own faeces for a termite colony when it is foraging. Up to 20 middens may be located in a territory.","Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.","Predominantly nocturnal, in South AfricaAardwolves are generally active for 8-9 hours a day in summer but only 3-4 hours a day in winter. In summer, they generally leave the den within an hour after sunset and return 1-4 hours before sunrise. However, during winter, some diurnal activity may be observed. Aardwolves typically become active up to an hour before sunset and return to their dens after 3—4 hours of foraging. A higher proportion of their time is spent feeding in winter than in summer, and a relatively large portion of the activity of both males and females in winter (12:6%) consists of breeding activities (e.g. courtship/copulation). Inactive hours during the day are spent in underground dens, which provide refuge from temperature extremes and predators, particularly Black-backed Jackals. Dens also function importantly in cub-rearing. Nighttime rest periods are also often spent near or inside dens. A territory may include up to ten different den holes, which are typically spring hare burrows that have been enlarged by Aardwolves.","A social unit, which occupies a welldefined territory throughout the year, consists of a male-female pair and their most recent offspring. All natal animals disperse from the territory, usually 1-2 months before birth of the nextlitter. Pair bonds arefairly stable lasting 2-5 years. Males without mates (due to death or abandonment by females) establish pair bonds with adjacent females and may abandon their originalterritories. Territory size ranges from 1-5 km? in East Africa to 3-8 km? in South Africa, and appears to be negatively related to the density of available termite mounds. Territories in the Northern Cape Provinceof South Africagenerally supported 3000 termite mounds with an average of 55,000 termites/mound. Aardwolf density reaches 1 adult/km? in optimal habitat. Territories are maintained primarily by scent marking, which is concentrated along territory boundaries, but direct interactions between neighboring residents also occasionally occur. Both males and females actively defend territorial boundaries. Chasing and fighting, with manes raised, occurs between same-sex individuals defending territories. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the boundary and mutual avoidance is generally practiced along boundary areas. If physical contact occurs both combatants drop to their carpals and bite at each others’ necks. Although territorial behavior is exhibited by males and females,it differs between mating (June andJuly in South Africa) and non-mating seasons. Direct fights between Aardwolves appear restricted to the mating season. Whereas females tend to stay within territory boundaries year round, male behavior undergoes a marked change at the start of the mating season. After an approximately one-month “scouting” period at the beginning of the mating season, when males make frequent extra-territorial movements, yet largely refrain from pasting outside the territory, they begin more aggressive extra-territorial pasting. Their movements outside the territory continue to increase, peaking in frequency about a week before females come into estrus. These excursions are suggested to be advertizements of quality to both males and females in surrounding territories. Males engage in consecutive over-markings by pasting on particular grass stalks; the less aggressive, and apparently less fit, individual will eventually cease pasting, thus “losing” the contest. During pre-estrus females also increase their rate of pasting, primarily along territory boundaries and just outside them, apparently to encourage visits by extra-pair males. Visiting males during this period frequently “flirt” with resident females and chase or fight males that they encounter. “Flirting” typically involves the male running toward the female, then veering off and prancing past with his tail raised. However, by the time the female is in estrus (lasting 1-3 days) she is typically left with only her resident male, and potentially an aggressive neighbor. As in Striped Hyenas, there have been cases in which two maleAardwolves shared a territory with a female, both males mating with her and both guarding her cubs, but this appears to be exceptional and rare. Aardwolves are remarkably antisocial outside the breeding season. Members of resident mixed-sex pairs feed alone and typically ignore each other when they meet. Unlike the other three hyaenids, Aardwolves usually do not engage in greeting ceremonies between familiar individuals, with the exception of an occasional muzzle to muzzle sniff between mother and cub. In South Africa, nightly distance traveled by foraging females ranged from 1-5 to 9-1 km (average 4-2 km). Summer travel distances ranged from 8-12 km per night, whereas winter distances were highly variable (from less than 3 kmto more than 24 km) depending on whether males were conducting extra-territorial mating forays. Travel speed is 2-3 km/h when not feeding, and about I km/h when feeding intensely. Aardwolves return to underground burrows during the day. There are typically 5-6 dens per territory. Dens are used for only 1-2 months at a time, and mates rarely use the same dens concurrently. Because Aardwolves rarely interact, the primary form of communication is olfactory. Like the other three hyaenids, the Aardwolf engages in scent marking behavior called pasting, during which a strong-smelling, yellowish-orange secretion (which quickly turns black) is deposited onto grass stalks from an extruded anal gland, located just above the anus. In addition to marking frequently at dens and latrines, which generally are not associated with territory boundaries, Aardwolves appear to use pasting as a means of territory defense. Boundary marking occurs most frequently, and is most concentrated along borders where neighboring Aardwolves maintain territories. Pasting is generally frequent, occurring about twice every 100 mof travel, and about 200 times per night, with males pasting more than females. Based on experiments with translocated scent marks, information conveyed in scent marks appears to include the sex, female reproductive state, and individual identity, at least in the case of resident neighbors, partners, and self-recognition. Outside the mating season, pasting outside territory boundaries is rare if not nonexistent, but this behavior, particularly by males, changes notably during mating periods. Even though direct interactions are rare, Aardwolves possess an impressive visual display, during which the hairs along the mane are erected, resulting in a near doubling of the apparent size of the animal. This is used in intraspecific aggressive interactions involving territory defense and in interspecific defensive interactions. Although generally a silent species, the most comprehensive analysis of the vocal repertoire of Protelesidentified nine distinct sound types: “purr”, whine, jaw click, lip smack, growl, snarl, bark, squeal, and a whizzing sound which was only documented in one individual. Agonistic vocalizations are relatively diverse and increase in intensity in the following order: lip smack/jaw click, growl, snarl, bark. Squeals are heard only in cubs and appear to represent begging to mothers. The whineelicits a variety of reactions depending on the addressee and addressor, but likely functions as an appeasing or reassuring sound. As in striped and brown hyenas, Aardwolves lack a loud, longdistance vocalization like the whoop of spotted hyenas.On following pages: 2. Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta); 3. Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena); 4. Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea).Breeding.Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.","Listed as a species of Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Due to their shy and nocturnal nature, Aardwolves are probably more common than usually believed. That notwithstanding, Aardwolves in southern Africa generally occur outside of protected areas, and the primary threat in these locationsis indirect poisoning aimed at locust outbreaks. Poisoning events can result in the death of up to half the local adult population and all the cubs. Within protected areas, the most important mortality sources are severe drought and predation on cubs by Black-backed Jackals. Human-caused mortality also occurs as a result of direct persecution from farmers suspecting Aardwolf involvement in lamb predation, harvesting of Aardwolves as a food source, and indirect persecution during organized hunting for jackals. Aardwolves may also be killed by vehicles during the night. However, all these other mortality sources appear insignificant relative to poisoning, jackal predation and drought. Across its range, habitat fragmentation and isolation may be the most serious threat to long-term population viability; however,its dependence on habitat preferred for use in livestock grazing makes extensive habitat loss improbable.","Anderson, M.D. & Richardson (2005) | Anderson, M.D. et al. (1992) | Cooper & Skinner (1979) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Koehler & Richardson (1990) | Koepfli et al. (2006) | Kruuk & Sands (1972) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Peters & Sliwa (1997) | Richardson (1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1991) | Richardson & Bearder (1984) | Richardson & Levitan (1994) | Skinner & VanAarde (1986) | Sliwa & Richardson (1998) | Smithers (1983) | Sparrman (1783) | VanJaarsveld (1993) | VanJaarsveld et al. (1995) | Werdelin & Solounias (1991) | Williams et al. (1997)",https://zenodo.org/record/6350108/files/figure.png,"1.AardwolfProteles cristataFrench:Protele/ German:Erdwolf/ Spanish:ProtelesTaxonomy.Viverra cristata Sparrman, 1783, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Although previously placed in its own family (Protelidae), it is now considered a member of the family Hyaenidae. The Aardwolf belongs to the subfamily Protelinae, of which it is the only extant member. They occur in two distinct populations separated by about 1500 km. However, studies ofthe extent of genetic and morphological differences between these groups have not been conducted. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. c. cristata Sparrman, 1783— E African coast (S Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, NE Ugandato C Tanzania). P. c. septentrionalis Rothschild, 1902— most of S Africa (S Angola, S Zambia, SW Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa).Descriptive notes.By far the smallest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 55-80 cm, tail 20-30 cm, height at shoulder 45-50 cm; weight (adult) 8-12 kg with seasonal variation, and reported as high as 14 kg. No sexual size dimorphism. Superficially similar in appearance to the Striped Hyena, with dark vertical stripes on a buff, yellowish-white or rufous body, and irregular horizontal stripes on the legs. However, the Striped Hyena is more than twice as large with less regular striping. The Aardwolf’s coat is about 2-5 cm long, with longer hairs along the mane and in the bushy tail. The neck is long and the throat is a pale gray-white. The legs are long and slender and the striping terminates in black at the feet. As in the Striped and Brown Hyena, the Aardwolf has long, pointed ears and a long erectile mane extending the length ofits body. Like the other hyaenids, Proteleshas a sloping back with the forelegs longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. Females have two pairs of teats. Uniquely among the hyaenids, Profeles has a number of adaptations for feeding exclusively on termites, including a long, spatulate tongue with large and varied papillae, and a large submaxillary gland which produces copious amounts of sticky saliva. Very small peg-like cheek teeth are widely spaced along thejaw margins, yet large canines have been retained for use in territorial disputes with other Aardwolves and defense againstjackals. Their skulls also feature a relatively broad, nearly parallel-sided palate, and extraordinarily large tympanic bulla.Habitat.Aardwolves are primarily found on open, grassy plains or in bush country, but can live in a range of habitats with rainfall between 100-800 mm. They are most common where rainfall is 100-600 mm. They do not occur in forests or pure desert and are independent of drinking water. The northern subspecies occurs in grasslands and tree savannas of the Somali-Masai Arid Zone and the southern subspecies in the Southern Savanna and South-westArid Zone.Food and Feeding.Aardwolves are solitary foragers and feed almost exclusively on Trinervitermes termites, usually on one species in each particular region: 1. bettionianus in East Africa, 1. rhodesiensis in Zimbabweand Botswanaand 71. trinervoides in South Africa. These termites are largely avoided by other termite-eating mammals due to the noxious terpenoid chemicals secreted by the soldier termites, to which the Aardwolfis uniquely tolerant. In addition to the lack of competition, Aardwolf preference for this termite genus is likely due to the fact that these termites regularly congregate at night in large aboveground foraging parties. The termites are licked directly from the soil surface, and are easily obtainable in large quantities. Also, unlike true harvester termites, Trinervitermes forage throughout the year, making them a dependable year-round food source. Due to the small size of Trinervitermes and the wide dispersion of colonies, female Aardwolves must forage for at least six hours a night, during which up to 300,000 termites/night (1-2 kg) are consumed. Foraging Aardwolves travel approximately 1 km/h, with their ears cocked forward and head bentslightly down, following an erratic zig-zag route. Because they often approach termite colonies from downwind, and approach with directed movement before termites could be seen,it appears that termite foraging parties are detected at least partially by smell. However, the hearing of the Aardwolf is particularly acute and is assumed to play a role in colony detection. The average time spent foraging at individual termite patches was 20-28 seconds in East Africa, but in drier Namibian grassland, Aardwolves spent an average of 1-8 and 9-2 minutes at each patch in consecutive years of observation. In South Africa, a newly weaned four-month old cub spent an average of only eleven seconds at each patch, and juveniles frequently are seen vomiting after feeding on Trinervitermes, indicating that tolerance to the chemical secretions of Trinervitermes soldiers increases with age. Even adult Aardwolves maintain some aversion to the terpene chemicals, because they will avoid feeding on mounds under repair, where typically only dense concentrations of soldiers are found at the surface. Other surface-foraging termites, particularly Hodotermes and Microhodotermes (South Africa), Odontotermes and Macrotermes species (East Africa), make up a larger proportion of the diet when Trinervitermes are seasonally uncommon or unavailable, as during winter (May-August) in South Africa, and during the rainy season in East Africa. However, these species forage aboveground in much smaller parties (10-20 individuals vs. 4000 inTrinervitermes) and the reduced winter availability of Trinervitermes in South Africaresults in a significant seasonal reduction in Aardwolf body weight and field metabolic rate. Aardwolves here were found to consume only one-sixth the number of termites in winter that they did in summer. Winter is also the highest period of mortality in Aardwolf cubs, which are 7-10 months old at this time, further indicating that this is a period ofsignificant energetic stress. Other termites found in fecal samples have included Odontotermes, Macrotermes, and Lepidotermes that are not surface-foraging species and therefore not important components of the Aardwolf diet. Occasional additional food items include ants and Coleopterans, yet the Aardwolf appears to be surprisingly inefficient at foraging on non-termite insects. Due to the high degree of specialization of its tongue for licking small arthropods, and the almost complete degeneration ofits cheek teeth, it is thought that they are unable to handle larger food items, making the species highly dependent on Trinervitermes. This dependence is supported by the absence of Aardwolves from Zambiaand central and western Africa, where surface foraging Trinervitermes are either uncommon or available only a small part of the year. Aardwolves defecate in middens (also called latrines). The first defecation occurs when they exit the burrow in the evening and is typically very large, weighing up to 1 kg. Defecations are typically covered with soil. This practice of concentrating and burying their faeces, which retains some of the terpene smell of the soldier termites, has been suggested as a way of reducing the probability that an Aardwolf will mistake its own faeces for a termite colony when it is foraging. Up to 20 middens may be located in a territory.Activity patterns.Predominantly nocturnal, in South AfricaAardwolves are generally active for 8-9 hours a day in summer but only 3-4 hours a day in winter. In summer, they generally leave the den within an hour after sunset and return 1-4 hours before sunrise. However, during winter, some diurnal activity may be observed. Aardwolves typically become active up to an hour before sunset and return to their dens after 3—4 hours of foraging. A higher proportion of their time is spent feeding in winter than in summer, and a relatively large portion of the activity of both males and females in winter (12:6%) consists of breeding activities (e.g. courtship/copulation). Inactive hours during the day are spent in underground dens, which provide refuge from temperature extremes and predators, particularly Black-backed Jackals. Dens also function importantly in cub-rearing. Nighttime rest periods are also often spent near or inside dens. A territory may include up to ten different den holes, which are typically spring hare burrows that have been enlarged by Aardwolves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A social unit, which occupies a welldefined territory throughout the year, consists of a male-female pair and their most recent offspring. All natal animals disperse from the territory, usually 1-2 months before birth of the nextlitter. Pair bonds arefairly stable lasting 2-5 years. Males without mates (due to death or abandonment by females) establish pair bonds with adjacent females and may abandon their originalterritories. Territory size ranges from 1-5 km? in East Africa to 3-8 km? in South Africa, and appears to be negatively related to the density of available termite mounds. Territories in the Northern Cape Provinceof South Africagenerally supported 3000 termite mounds with an average of 55,000 termites/mound. Aardwolf density reaches 1 adult/km? in optimal habitat. Territories are maintained primarily by scent marking, which is concentrated along territory boundaries, but direct interactions between neighboring residents also occasionally occur. Both males and females actively defend territorial boundaries. Chasing and fighting, with manes raised, occurs between same-sex individuals defending territories. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the boundary and mutual avoidance is generally practiced along boundary areas. If physical contact occurs both combatants drop to their carpals and bite at each others’ necks. Although territorial behavior is exhibited by males and females,it differs between mating (June andJuly in South Africa) and non-mating seasons. Direct fights between Aardwolves appear restricted to the mating season. Whereas females tend to stay within territory boundaries year round, male behavior undergoes a marked change at the start of the mating season. After an approximately one-month “scouting” period at the beginning of the mating season, when males make frequent extra-territorial movements, yet largely refrain from pasting outside the territory, they begin more aggressive extra-territorial pasting. Their movements outside the territory continue to increase, peaking in frequency about a week before females come into estrus. These excursions are suggested to be advertizements of quality to both males and females in surrounding territories. Males engage in consecutive over-markings by pasting on particular grass stalks; the less aggressive, and apparently less fit, individual will eventually cease pasting, thus “losing” the contest. During pre-estrus females also increase their rate of pasting, primarily along territory boundaries and just outside them, apparently to encourage visits by extra-pair males. Visiting males during this period frequently “flirt” with resident females and chase or fight males that they encounter. “Flirting” typically involves the male running toward the female, then veering off and prancing past with his tail raised. However, by the time the female is in estrus (lasting 1-3 days) she is typically left with only her resident male, and potentially an aggressive neighbor. As in Striped Hyenas, there have been cases in which two maleAardwolves shared a territory with a female, both males mating with her and both guarding her cubs, but this appears to be exceptional and rare. Aardwolves are remarkably antisocial outside the breeding season. Members of resident mixed-sex pairs feed alone and typically ignore each other when they meet. Unlike the other three hyaenids, Aardwolves usually do not engage in greeting ceremonies between familiar individuals, with the exception of an occasional muzzle to muzzle sniff between mother and cub. In South Africa, nightly distance traveled by foraging females ranged from 1-5 to 9-1 km (average 4-2 km). Summer travel distances ranged from 8-12 km per night, whereas winter distances were highly variable (from less than 3 kmto more than 24 km) depending on whether males were conducting extra-territorial mating forays. Travel speed is 2-3 km/h when not feeding, and about I km/h when feeding intensely. Aardwolves return to underground burrows during the day. There are typically 5-6 dens per territory. Dens are used for only 1-2 months at a time, and mates rarely use the same dens concurrently. Because Aardwolves rarely interact, the primary form of communication is olfactory. Like the other three hyaenids, the Aardwolf engages in scent marking behavior called pasting, during which a strong-smelling, yellowish-orange secretion (which quickly turns black) is deposited onto grass stalks from an extruded anal gland, located just above the anus. In addition to marking frequently at dens and latrines, which generally are not associated with territory boundaries, Aardwolves appear to use pasting as a means of territory defense. Boundary marking occurs most frequently, and is most concentrated along borders where neighboring Aardwolves maintain territories. Pasting is generally frequent, occurring about twice every 100 mof travel, and about 200 times per night, with males pasting more than females. Based on experiments with translocated scent marks, information conveyed in scent marks appears to include the sex, female reproductive state, and individual identity, at least in the case of resident neighbors, partners, and self-recognition. Outside the mating season, pasting outside territory boundaries is rare if not nonexistent, but this behavior, particularly by males, changes notably during mating periods. Even though direct interactions are rare, Aardwolves possess an impressive visual display, during which the hairs along the mane are erected, resulting in a near doubling of the apparent size of the animal. This is used in intraspecific aggressive interactions involving territory defense and in interspecific defensive interactions. Although generally a silent species, the most comprehensive analysis of the vocal repertoire of Protelesidentified nine distinct sound types: “purr”, whine, jaw click, lip smack, growl, snarl, bark, squeal, and a whizzing sound which was only documented in one individual. Agonistic vocalizations are relatively diverse and increase in intensity in the following order: lip smack/jaw click, growl, snarl, bark. Squeals are heard only in cubs and appear to represent begging to mothers. The whineelicits a variety of reactions depending on the addressee and addressor, but likely functions as an appeasing or reassuring sound. As in striped and brown hyenas, Aardwolves lack a loud, longdistance vocalization like the whoop of spotted hyenas.On following pages: 2. Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta); 3. Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena); 4. Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea).Breeding.Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.Status and Conservation.Listed as a species of Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Due to their shy and nocturnal nature, Aardwolves are probably more common than usually believed. That notwithstanding, Aardwolves in southern Africa generally occur outside of protected areas, and the primary threat in these locationsis indirect poisoning aimed at locust outbreaks. Poisoning events can result in the death of up to half the local adult population and all the cubs. Within protected areas, the most important mortality sources are severe drought and predation on cubs by Black-backed Jackals. Human-caused mortality also occurs as a result of direct persecution from farmers suspecting Aardwolf involvement in lamb predation, harvesting of Aardwolves as a food source, and indirect persecution during organized hunting for jackals. Aardwolves may also be killed by vehicles during the night. However, all these other mortality sources appear insignificant relative to poisoning, jackal predation and drought. Across its range, habitat fragmentation and isolation may be the most serious threat to long-term population viability; however,its dependence on habitat preferred for use in livestock grazing makes extensive habitat loss improbable.Bibliography.Anderson, M.D. & Richardson (2005), Anderson, M.D. et al. (1992), Cooper & Skinner (1979), Kingdon (1971-1982), Koehler & Richardson (1990), Koepfli et al. (2006), Kruuk & Sands (1972), Mills & Hofer (1998), Peters & Sliwa (1997), Richardson (1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1991), Richardson & Bearder (1984), Richardson & Levitan (1994), Skinner & VanAarde (1986), Sliwa & Richardson (1998), Smithers (1983), Sparrman (1783), VanJaarsveld (1993), VanJaarsveld et al. (1995), Werdelin & Solounias (1991), Williams et al. (1997)." 03928788FFEDFF812FA7FBEBF8DECE95,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b,258,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEDFF812FA7FBEBF8DECE95.xml,Parahyaena brunnea,Parahyaena,brunnea,,,Hyene brune @fr | Braune Hyane @de | Hiena parda @es,"Hyaena brunnea Thunberg, 1820, South Africa, Western Cape Province, Capeof Good Hope.Formerly classified as Hyaena brunnea, but a recent molecular analysis assigns this species to a separate genus from that of the Striped Hyena. Along with Striped and Spotted Hyenas, the Brown Hyena belongs to the subfamily Hyaeninae. Monotypic.","Namibia, Botswana, W & S Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, Swaziland, W Lesotho, and South Africa. Records from the SW of Angolaare all before 1970.","Head-body 110-136 cm; average 123 cm(males), 117 cm(females), tail 18.7-26. 5 cm, average height at shoulders 79 cm(males) and 74 cm(females); weight (adult) varies somewhat regionally, ranges from 28 to 47-5 kg and averages about 40 kg. Most studies show some sexual size dimorphism, but it is often minimal, with males slightly heavier and longer than females. Has a typical hyena appearance with front legs longer and more robust than the rear legs, a broad head and short muzzle, thick neck and short tail. Like the Striped Hyena it has large pointed ears and course shaggy fur that is longest along the back and on the tail. The general color is dark brown with lighter tawny hair on the neck and shoulders. The legs are banded with dark horizontalstripes and the front feet are large and well-developed for digging. Like the Spotted and Striped Hyenas, the Brown Hyena possesses the bonecrushing third premolar that is unique to this family. In contrast to Spotted Hyenas, there is no masculinization of the female genitalia in Brown Hyenas. Females have two to six pairs ofteats, but only the two most caudal pairs are functional.","Brown Hyenas are found in a variety of relatively arid habitats from open desert or semi-desert in the Namib and Kalahari, to dry open scrub and woodland savannah, mopani scrub and tree savannah, as well as the bushveld of the northern Transvaal. They do not need drinking water and inhabit areas where annual rainfall may be even lower than 100 mm, up to about 650 mm.","These hyenas forage alone at night and do not cooperate in hunting or in feeding, although group members tolerate each other at large food items. Although not competent hunters, Brown Hyenas are extremely efficient scavengers with an omnivorous diet. They are opportunistic feeders on a range of vertebrates, primarily mammals, the vast majority of which are scavenged, often from the kills of other carnivores. Fruits, insects and reptiles can be important supplementary foods when carcasses are rare. In one population 58 different food items were identified from fecal analysis. Brown Hyenas in the southern Kalahari spent 30% of their feeding time eating carrion, 28% on vegetable matter, 4-5% on small mammals, 1-5% on birds’ eggs, and 29% on unknown items. Only 5-8% of food they were seen eating was killed by the hyenas themselves. In the central Kalahari 35-9% ofall observed feeding bouts were on fresh scavenged kills, 33-9% on old carcasses, 16% on their own kills, and 12:5% on vegetative food sources. Brown Hyenas do not depend on standing water. In the central Kalahari, no free water orrain is typically found for eight months of the year. Although they will drink on a daily basis when water is present, much of the water during dry seasons is obtained from Cucurbitaceaefruits such as the tsama melon, gemsbok cucumber, and Hookeri melon, which can compose significant proportions of the diet in these seasons. Brown Hyenas inhabiting the Namibian coast feed almost exclusively on subadult Brown Fur Seals. The majority of these seals are thought to be scavenged, although Brown Hyenas have been seen hunting seal pups. In fact, hunting efficiency on seal pups during the peak pupping season can be as high as 47%, and an average of almost five seals per day may be killed from a single colony. Small rodents and seabirds make up the rest of this unique diet. Elsewhere hunting attempts by Brown Hyenas are opportunistic and directed at small mammals such as Springbok lambs, spring hares, Bat-eared Foxes, and ground nesting birds. The hunting technique of the Brown Hyena is unspecialized, rarely successful (except in the case of Brown Fur Seal pups), and may include a brief lunge at a surprised prey, a prolonged chase of up 1 km, or an attempt to dig up a burrowed animal. The percent of observed hunting attempts that were successful was 4:7% in the southern Kalahari and 13-7% in the central Kalahari. The hyenas generally feed where they find food, but food from larger carcasses is frequently cached nearby in a clump of grass or under a bush. Considerable time is often spent at carcasses removing limbs for this purpose and one animal may remove and cache up to three legs before any competitors arrive. Sites where food is cached are scent-marked and may be re-visited over multiple days. In a remarkable example of food caching in the southern Kalahari, a Brown Hyena arrived at an abandoned ostrich (Struthio camelus) nest with 26 eggs, which are prized food items. The hyena spent four hours carrying 14 eggsdistances of 150-600 m from the nest, some of which it simply dropped in the open. It ate only three eggsduring this period. Brown Hyenas also carry food back to cubs at the den. This provisioning of cubs can result in significant bone accumulations at densites. In the southern Kalahari the average distance moved between significant meals was 7-2 km, and the average nightly distance traveled was 31-1 km. During the dry season, nightly movements were longer and were recorded as high as 54-4 km. During the wet season movements were reduced and ranged from 10-20 km. In Namibia, daily distances traveled ranged from 15-47 km. When foraging, Brown Hyenas move at a pace of about 4 km/h, often walking in a zig-zag pattern, probably to maximize their chance of coming across food items. They use smell to locate much of their food, as evidenced by frequent sniffing and moving upwind toward food sources. Their hearing appears to be acute as well and is likely also used in foraging. The Brown Hyena is subordinate at kills to Spotted Hyenas, Lions and African Wild Dogs, although it appears to dominate Leopards in most situations. While they always dominate Cheetahs, they compete heavily with the much smaller Black-backed Jackal, which is often able to steal scraps from hyenas at carcasses. There is some evidence that, where they are sympatric, Brown Hyenas avoid areas frequented by Spotted Hyenas, potentially to avoid direct aggression and competition. For example, dens in the southern Kalahari were rarely found in the prey-rich riverine habitat where most Spotted Hyena dens occurred. Although their presence at livestock carcasses has resulted in much antagonism toward, and persecution of, Brown Hyenas by livestock owners, predation on livestock by these animals appears to be done by a small number of individuals. However, these hyenas, which typically target cow calves and sheep, can account for a large number of kills. Removal of these problem individuals appears effective at halting stock losses.","Brown Hyenas are polyestrous, non-seasonal breeders. Litters range from 1-4 cubs with a modallitter size of three. Estrus lasts approximately one week but mating in captivity occurs over a 15day period. Based on six observed mating bouts in the southern Kalahari, mating associations consist of multiple copulation attempts over a 5-90 minute period, and may be preceded by extended courtship, during which both animals may show aggression and there are mutual approaches and retreats. Gestation in captivity was 96 days. Interbirth intervals appear to range widely. In the southern Kalahari they were as short as a year and as long as 41 months apart, although lost litters in the interim could not be ruled out. Cubs are born with their eyes closed and their ears bent forward. Their fur is similar in color to that of adults. Their eyes begin to open at eight days and are completely open at 14 days. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, Brown Hyena cubs are born without teeth. As in the other bone-cracking hyaenids, den dependenceis long and weaning occurs late. Cubs from 0-3 months of age rarely leave the den hole except when their mother or another adult is present. During this period, mothers attend the den frequently, often at sunrise and sunset and cubs rely completely on their mother’s milk. At four months, visits by the mother become less frequent, with mothers visiting about once a night, but suckling periods are longer. At this time, mothers and other group members begin bringing food to the den for the cubs. Weaning normally occurs at 12-16 months of age, yet weaning conflicts have been observed at ten months. Starting at ten months, cubs begin extensive, and very often solitary, foraging movements away from the den. Length of den residence is variable however, ranging from 8-15 months. Regardless of their dependence on the den, by 16 months weaning has occurred and full adult dentition is present. As they mature, subadults themselves begin to bring food back to the den for younger cubs. This has been observed in subadults as young as 22 months. Adult size is reached at 30 months. The earliest breeding recorded in the wild is 35 months; breeding continues until at least ten years of age. Cubs are raised in underground, sometimes extensive, tunnels, always small enough to prevent adults and potential predators from entering. They are easily distinguished by accumulations of bones, hair, feathers, horns, pieces of hide, and hyena feces. In the southern Kalahari Brown Hyena dens appear to be used only rarely by multiple females at once, and cubs are typically raised in the same den in which they are born. However, communal denning appears to be common in the central Kalahari, with cubs of multiple females, and of different ages, raised together at a single den location. In this system, cubs are born in a solitary den and transported to the communal den sometime before they are four months of age. Throughout their development, den moves are common and cubs may reside at as many as seven different dens, though distances between dens are typically not large. In the central Kalahari, where a social rank system is evident, dominant females enjoy greater reproductive success in terms of number of surviving offspring, yet the number oflitters does not vary based on rank. There appears to be variation, both regionally and temporally, in the mating system of Brown Hyenas. In one system, females breed only with nomadic males that range over wide areas without defended territories or family groups. In the other, females breed not only with nomadic males but with resident immigrant males as well. These residents are members of the clan and assist in territory defense, yet their tenure, at least in the central Kalahari, is relatively short (less than three years). In this area, where both nomadic males and resident immigrant males are present, dominant clan males were observed to copulate with resident females more frequently than nomadic males. In the southern Kalahari, the only mating observed involved nomadic males, and no resident males, either immigrant or natal, were observed to mate. Although males known to be natal showed little sexual interest at all in any resident females, researchers were unable to observe immigrant males long enough to ascertain sexual interest in resident females. The source of the variation in the mating system of Brown Hyenas is unclear, although it may be related to dispersion of food. In the central Kalahari, where both systems were observed over time, mating with nomadic males was restricted to the dry season, when resident clan males would likely have difficulty maintaining contact with clan females (some were separated by 22 km). Because territories are very large in the southern Kalahari and only breeding with nomadic malesis seen, the food dispersion theory is further supported. Individual reproductive patterns in males are also likely to be influenced by individual status and the behavior of other males in the population. In either case, natal males are never observed to mate with females in their natal clan. Communal care of cubs is better developed among Brown Hyenas than in any of the other three hyaenid species. Non-parental aid in cub rearing includes communal suckling (although preference in nursing one’s own cubs has been shown), food provisioning, den maintenance, defense against predators, play, and adoption of orphans. Subadult and adult females ofall social ranks and reproductive states bring food items to the den for cubs. However, the extent of involvement in provisioning by adult males seems to vary by region. In the central Kalahari, subadult males provision cubs, but to a lesser degree than females, and they only bring food to closely related cubs. Neither immigrant nor natal adult males were seen provisioning cubs. It has been suggested thatthis is because males do not benefit from an increased group size, as they are likely to emigrate from their natal clan. In the southern Kalahari, however, group-living males and females, both adult and subadult, were observed to provision cubs regularly. Average distance in this population from which food was carried back to the den was 6-4 km.","Primarily a nocturnal animal, although activity is occasionally observed during the day, particularly on cool, cloudy days during the rainy season. There are typcally two peaks of activity, from 19:30 h to 24:00 h and 2:30 h to 6:00 h, with a rest period in between. Radio-collared adults in the southern Kalahari were active for 42.6% of the 24 h period, and 80.2% of the period between 18:00 h and 06:00 h. In Namibia, three maleswith satellite collars spent an average of 57-1-72-3% of 24 h active. Brown Hyenas typically rest during the day in a hole, or undera large tree or bush.","Approximately 65% of Brown Hyenas in a population are members of small social groups called clans, with the remaining individuals living as nomads. Clan size ranges from 4-14 individuals, including cubs, and clans defend large stable territories. In the southern Kalahari far-ranging nomadic males (8% of the adult population) were the only males observed to breed with clan-living females, yet in the central Kalahari, breeding also occurs with resident immigrant males. In the southern Kalahari territories averaged 308 km? (range: 215-461 km?) with never more than 20% overlap between territories. Brown Hyena density there was calculated to be 1-8 hyenas/ 100 km?®. In the central Kalahari territories averaged 170 km?, but varied greatly with annualrainfall, reaching a maximum of 400 km?. In Namibia, where Brown Hyenas depend almost entirely on Brown Fur Seals along the coast, territories of two clans in one study were 31-9 km? and 220 km? In another study the home ranges of three malesranged from 420-1460 km? with the largest home range being an inland location. Density in this latter Namibian study ranged from 1-0-2-9/ 100 km®. In general, group size appears to be correlated with food abundance and quality within the territory, whereas territory size is influenced by the distribution of food resources. Territories are maintained primarily through scent marking behavior (called “pasting”) and aggression toward intruders. Clan structure appears to vary across regions, but always includes 1-5 breeding females and their subadult offspring. In the central Kalahari, groups often also include at least one adultresident immigrant male. Mean clan size in the southern Kalahari was 3-7 adults and subadults, and total clan size ranged from 4-14. In the central Kalahari, a well-studied clan contained 13 members including cubs. Because adult females and their offspring are the core of a social group, the majority of clan members are related. However, dispersal from and immigration into the clan occurs. Although subadults of both sexes may disperse from their natal clan, males do so more often than females and most males disperse by 36-40 months of age. In two reported cases of female emigration in the central Kalahari, the number of resident adult females was atits zenith (five) and the dispersing females both were targets of severe aggression from other resident females prior to dispersal. In both cases, dispersal appeared to be prompted by conflicts with established adults of the same sex. The central Kalahari and southern Kalahari locales also apparently differ with respect to clan social hierarchies. In the central Kalahari a linear within-sex dominance hierarchy was apparent, and at carcasses with more than one hyena, rank determined priority of access to food. Although immigrant males were dominantto all natal males, the highest ranking male and female appeared to be of equal status. Adult females were typically dominant to natal males of less than 36 months of age. These natal males were tolerated until about 24 months, when aggression gradually increased until their dispersal. However, in one case, a natal male remained in the clan and eventually dominated the clan females. In the southern Kalahari no dominance hierarchy was apparent, with no sex, age-class, or individual consistently winning fights or monopolizing food resources in clans. Differences in the breeding systems and the existence or lack of a hierarchy are thought to be related to significant differences in Brown Hyena density in the two locales. In the central Kalahari, 37-81% of observations involve the association of two or more hyenas. In the southern Kalahari contact between group members appears to be less frequent. Although there is typically aggression between hyenas of the same sex from different groups when they meet, the level of aggression within clans appears to vary between the southern and central Kalahari. In the central Kalahari, neck-biting appears to be used to maintain rank relationships within the clan and is observed with some frequency, while in the southern Kalahari, fighting within the clan is rare, with clan members seldom interacting at all. Here, the only aggression observed is between same-sex members of neighboring clans, and this is extremely infrequent. Interestingly, in the southern Kalahari, where resident males do not breed with clan females, these males show little aggression to nomadic males, who are responsible for mating with groupliving females, suggesting that Brown Hyenas can differentiate between neighboring males and nomadic males. When they meet after being separated, Brown Hyenas from the same group engage in a greeting ceremony in which each animal in turn crouches and presents its extruded anal pouch to the other. This is accompanied by a lowering of the ears and a “grin” (teeth exposed by pulling lips up and corners of the mouth back) by the subordinate animal whenit is greeting a dominant. Greetings can last as long as five minutes. Two additional behaviors that appear to be important in Brown Hyena society are neck-biting and muzzle-wrestling. Neck-biting is a purely agonistic interaction (though cubs may engage in it during play) and is primarily intrasexual. In the southern Kalahari, this behavioris largely restricted to interactions between members of neighboring clans, whereas in the central Kalahari, it can be seen more frequently between clan members and is thought to function in maintenance of a dominance hierarchy. Neck-biting behavioris a ritualized, somewhat elaborate interaction in which dominant and subordinate animals are clear from the start. The submissive animal approaches a standing dominant individual grinning and with its mane and tail raised. Either before or at its approach, the dominant seizes the neck of the subordinate, holding the skin and hair of the neck with its incisors and one or both canines, and vigorously shakes the victim from side to side. This typeof interaction typically lasts less than five minutes, and only rarely does the subordinate flee at its conclusion. Muzzle wresting may be observed anywhere in the territory and is exhibited by all clan members. However, adults rarely engage in this behavior with other adults, though they will do so with cubs with some frequency. Most muzzle-wrestling occurs between cubs and subadults. The two participants stand face to face, and attemptto bite each other on the jowls or along the side of face. Their heads pitch rapidly from side to side with mouths open, and they often growl softly throughout. One or both hyenas may be crouched on their carpals, and in some cases one may lie beneath the other. This behavior is clearly less aggressive than neck biting and may often be play, although it can escalate into true aggression. There is no clear loser, and animals typically remain with each other after muzzle-wrestling, which may last from a few minutes to an hour. The most striking visual display of the Brown Hyena is pilo-erection of the long hairs along its neck and back, which is observed in situations calling for either an attack or flight response. Despite its rather elaborate social interactions, Brown Hyenas spend the vast majority of their time alone, and the primary form of communication between hyenas is olfactory. They convey information to conspecifics with latrines, which have accumulations of feces, and grass stalks on which they have deposited a strong-smelling white secretion and a smaller black secretion. Both secretions are deposited during pasting from an extruded anal scent pouch located between the rectum and base ofthe tail. Although all four hyaenid species paste, the deposition of two different secretionsis unique to Brown Hyenas. Whereas the lipid-rich white secretion is discernible to the human nose for well over 30 days, the more watery black secretion appears unscented after a few hours. This black secretion is thought to convey information relating to the time elapsed since it was deposited, and therefore signal that a hyena has recently foraged in the area. It is suggested that this allows other group members to avoid unproductive areas, and minimizes competition between group members for limited resources. The longer-lasting white secretion is thought to function in territory marking and defense. Pasting is done throughout a clan’s territory. Although most pasting occurs in the central part of the territory, where residents spend most of their time, frequency of pasting and over-pasting (deposition on an existing mark) is highest when individuals visit territory boundaries. Very little pasting is done by residents when they are outside of their territory. Pasting during traveling/foraging movements can be quite frequent, with ten individuals averaging a paste every six minutes. However,this is highly variable, with some individuals pasting only once or twice during a night-time observation period. Males and females do not differ in rate of pasting during their travels. At the den, adults and subadults frequently paste soon after arriving and before departing. At least in the southern Kalahari, the perimeter of hyena territories is thought to be too large to make strict border marking possible or effective. Instead, marks are scattered throughout the residents’ territory. This is known as hinterland marking. Given the frequency of pasting, and how widely pastes are deposited across a territory, simulations indicate that in the southern Kalahari, hinterland marking is effective. Intruders would likely encounter resident paste marks very soon after entering a territory. Indeed, individual hyenas are estimated to deposit some 29,000 paste marks in a year. Experiments with translocated pasted grass stalks indicate that hyenas can distinguish between pastes of group and non-group members and that over-pasting is more commonly done on pastings from non-group hyenas. Chemical analysis of white and black paste suggests that the scent of these substances probably varies between individuals, allowing for identification of the paster. In the southern Kalahari, latrines are not as regularly spaced as pastings, and show a clumped distribution, largely around primary foraging areas that occur along the territory border. Latrines are often associated with landmarks such as trees, bushes or roads, and those along the border are visited more frequently than those in the interior. The vocal repertoire of the Brown Hyena is relatively small, as in the Striped Hyena, and consists of eight vocalizations: a yell, a hoot, two whines and four growls, none of which functions as a longdistance communication. Some authors group these into five calls, the squeal/whine, squeak, scream,yell, and growl/grunt. The squeal is a shrill sharp cry emitted by a juvenile or other subordinate while approaching to greet or beg food from a dominant individual. The squeak is a hoarse rasping cry of abject submission associated with carpal crawling. A scream is a high-pitched, cackling shriek given by a hyena whose neck is being bitten. The yell is a loud, abrupt high-pitched call associated with defensive threat. A growl/grunt is low-pitched, breathless and throaty, and is given while muzzle-wrestling. All but the growl appear to indicate submission or appeasement in social contexts of varying intensity.Breeding.Brown Hyenas are polyestrous, non-seasonal breeders. Litters range from 1-4 cubs with a modallitter size of three. Estrus lasts approximately one week but mating in captivity occurs over a 15day period. Based on six observed mating bouts in the southern Kalahari, mating associations consist of multiple copulation attempts over a 5-90 minute period, and may be preceded by extended courtship, during which both animals may show aggression and there are mutual approaches and retreats. Gestation in captivity was 96 days. Interbirth intervals appear to range widely. In the southern Kalahari they were as short as a year and as long as 41 months apart, although lost litters in the interim could not be ruled out. Cubs are born with their eyes closed and their ears bent forward. Their fur is similar in color to that of adults. Their eyes begin to open at eight days and are completely open at 14 days. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, Brown Hyena cubs are born without teeth. As in the other bone-cracking hyaenids, den dependenceis long and weaning occurs late. Cubs from 0-3 months of age rarely leave the den hole except when their mother or another adult is present. During this period, mothers attend the den frequently, often at sunrise and sunset and cubs rely completely on their mother’s milk. At four months, visits by the mother become less frequent, with mothers visiting about once a night, but suckling periods are longer. At this time, mothers and other group members begin bringing food to the den for the cubs. Weaning normally occurs at 12-16 months of age, yet weaning conflicts have been observed at ten months. Starting at ten months, cubs begin extensive, and very often solitary, foraging movements away from the den. Length of den residence is variable however, ranging from 8-15 months. Regardless of their dependence on the den, by 16 months weaning has occurred and full adult dentition is present. As they mature, subadults themselves begin to bring food back to the den for younger cubs. This has been observed in subadults as young as 22 months. Adult size is reached at 30 months. The earliest breeding recorded in the wild is 35 months; breeding continues until at least ten years of age. Cubs are raised in underground, sometimes extensive, tunnels, always small enough to prevent adults and potential predators from entering. They are easily distinguished by accumulations of bones, hair, feathers, horns, pieces of hide, and hyena feces. In the southern Kalahari Brown Hyena dens appear to be used only rarely by multiple females at once, and cubs are typically raised in the same den in which they are born. However, communal denning appears to be common in the central Kalahari, with cubs of multiple females, and of different ages, raised together at a single den location. In this system, cubs are born in a solitary den and transported to the communal den sometime before they are four months of age. Throughout their development, den moves are common and cubs may reside at as many as seven different dens, though distances between dens are typically not large. In the central Kalahari, where a social rank system is evident, dominant females enjoy greater reproductive success in terms of number of surviving offspring, yet the number oflitters does not vary based on rank. There appears to be variation, both regionally and temporally, in the mating system of Brown Hyenas. In one system, females breed only with nomadic males that range over wide areas without defended territories or family groups. In the other, females breed not only with nomadic males but with resident immigrant males as well. These residents are members of the clan and assist in territory defense, yet their tenure, at least in the central Kalahari, is relatively short (less than three years). In this area, where both nomadic males and resident immigrant males are present, dominant clan males were observed to copulate with resident females more frequently than nomadic males. In the southern Kalahari, the only mating observed involved nomadic males, and no resident males, either immigrant or natal, were observed to mate. Although males known to be natal showed little sexual interest at all in any resident females, researchers were unable to observe immigrant males long enough to ascertain sexual interest in resident females. The source of the variation in the mating system of Brown Hyenas is unclear, although it may be related to dispersion of food. In the central Kalahari, where both systems were observed over time, mating with nomadic males was restricted to the dry season, when resident clan males would likely have difficulty maintaining contact with clan females (some were separated by 22 km). Because territories are very large in the southern Kalahari and only breeding with nomadic malesis seen, the food dispersion theory is further supported. Individual reproductive patterns in males are also likely to be influenced by individual status and the behavior of other males in the population. In either case, natal males are never observed to mate with females in their natal clan. Communal care of cubs is better developed among Brown Hyenas than in any of the other three hyaenid species. Non-parental aid in cub rearing includes communal suckling (although preference in nursing one’s own cubs has been shown), food provisioning, den maintenance, defense against predators, play, and adoption of orphans. Subadult and adult females ofall social ranks and reproductive states bring food items to the den for cubs. However, the extent of involvement in provisioning by adult males seems to vary by region. In the central Kalahari, subadult males provision cubs, but to a lesser degree than females, and they only bring food to closely related cubs. Neither immigrant nor natal adult males were seen provisioning cubs. It has been suggested thatthis is because males do not benefit from an increased group size, as they are likely to emigrate from their natal clan. In the southern Kalahari, however, group-living males and females, both adult and subadult, were observed to provision cubs regularly. Average distance in this population from which food was carried back to the den was 6-4 km.","Listed as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. In 1994 the species was down-listed from Appendix I status, which was afforded the species in 1975, to Appendix II by the IUCN and it has since been deleted from CITES listing altogether. [tis generally considered to be widespread yet rare. The total population is estimated to be 5000 to 8000, but this may be an underestimate due to the secretive nature and nocturnal habits of this animal. It is estimated that areas in excess of 1000 km?” are required to maintain a viable population of Brown Hyenas. These populations currently exist in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africaand the adjacent Gemsbok National Park, Botswana, the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Botswana, and the coastal regions of the southern Namib Desert. These are also the sites of the primary research projects that provide much of what we know about this species in the wild. Much of the habitat where Brown Hyenas occur outside protected areas is used for livestock ranching, and the hyenas are heavily persecuted (shot, poisoned, trapped, and hunted with dogs) in these areas because they are assumed to be livestock predators. This persecution, and habitat loss and fragmentation, are the primary threats to persistence of Brown Hyena. Because they are scavengers, many livestock carcasses where they are seen feeding are likely not to have been killed by Brown Hyenas. Although the species can be involved in depredation,this is usually restricted to a few individuals. Regardless, management of Brown Hyenas on ranchlands must address livestock losses. Typically, removal of individual problem hyenas ends the depredation. Because there is evidence that Brown Hyenas may be limited by the presence of Spotted Hyenas and perhaps other large predators, which are often absent from ranches, these ranchlands have the potential to be developed as Brown Hyena conservation areas, given proper management and conservation education efforts. Brown Hyenas are uncommon in captivity and traditionally do not breed well in confinement. Due to difficulties in captive breeding, the international studbook was discontinued in 1993 and as of 1995 there were only 16 specimensin nine collections. There is no known illegal trade in the species.","Eaton (1976) | Gorman & Mills (1984) | Maddock (1993) | Mills (1982a, 1982b, 1982¢c, 1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1990) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Mills & Mills (1978, 1982) | Mills et al. (1980) | Owens, D.D. & Owens (1979a, 1979b, 1984, 1996) | Owens, M.J. & Owens (1978) | Schultz (1966) | Shoemaker (1983) | Siegfried (1984) | Skinner (1976) | Skinner & llani (1979) | Skinner & VanAarde (1981) | Skinner et al. (1995) | Stuart & Shaughnessy (1984) | Wiesel (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/6350112/files/figure.png,"4.Brown HyenaParahyaena brunneaFrench:Hyene brune/ German:Braune Hyane/ Spanish:Hiena pardaTaxonomy.Hyaena brunnea Thunberg, 1820, South Africa, Western Cape Province, Capeof Good Hope.Formerly classified as Hyaena brunnea, but a recent molecular analysis assigns this species to a separate genus from that of the Striped Hyena. Along with Striped and Spotted Hyenas, the Brown Hyena belongs to the subfamily Hyaeninae. Monotypic.Distribution.Namibia, Botswana, W & S Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, Swaziland, W Lesotho, and South Africa. Records from the SW of Angolaare all before 1970.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-136 cm; average 123 cm(males), 117 cm(females), tail 18.7-26. 5 cm, average height at shoulders 79 cm(males) and 74 cm(females); weight (adult) varies somewhat regionally, ranges from 28 to 47-5 kg and averages about 40 kg. Most studies show some sexual size dimorphism, but it is often minimal, with males slightly heavier and longer than females. Has a typical hyena appearance with front legs longer and more robust than the rear legs, a broad head and short muzzle, thick neck and short tail. Like the Striped Hyena it has large pointed ears and course shaggy fur that is longest along the back and on the tail. The general color is dark brown with lighter tawny hair on the neck and shoulders. The legs are banded with dark horizontalstripes and the front feet are large and well-developed for digging. Like the Spotted and Striped Hyenas, the Brown Hyena possesses the bonecrushing third premolar that is unique to this family. In contrast to Spotted Hyenas, there is no masculinization of the female genitalia in Brown Hyenas. Females have two to six pairs ofteats, but only the two most caudal pairs are functional.Habitat.Brown Hyenas are found in a variety of relatively arid habitats from open desert or semi-desert in the Namib and Kalahari, to dry open scrub and woodland savannah, mopani scrub and tree savannah, as well as the bushveld of the northern Transvaal. They do not need drinking water and inhabit areas where annual rainfall may be even lower than 100 mm, up to about 650 mm.Food and Feeding.These hyenas forage alone at night and do not cooperate in hunting or in feeding, although group members tolerate each other at large food items. Although not competent hunters, Brown Hyenas are extremely efficient scavengers with an omnivorous diet. They are opportunistic feeders on a range of vertebrates, primarily mammals, the vast majority of which are scavenged, often from the kills of other carnivores. Fruits, insects and reptiles can be important supplementary foods when carcasses are rare. In one population 58 different food items were identified from fecal analysis. Brown Hyenas in the southern Kalahari spent 30% of their feeding time eating carrion, 28% on vegetable matter, 4-5% on small mammals, 1-5% on birds’ eggs, and 29% on unknown items. Only 5-8% of food they were seen eating was killed by the hyenas themselves. In the central Kalahari 35-9% ofall observed feeding bouts were on fresh scavenged kills, 33-9% on old carcasses, 16% on their own kills, and 12:5% on vegetative food sources. Brown Hyenas do not depend on standing water. In the central Kalahari, no free water orrain is typically found for eight months of the year. Although they will drink on a daily basis when water is present, much of the water during dry seasons is obtained from Cucurbitaceaefruits such as the tsama melon, gemsbok cucumber, and Hookeri melon, which can compose significant proportions of the diet in these seasons. Brown Hyenas inhabiting the Namibian coast feed almost exclusively on subadult Brown Fur Seals. The majority of these seals are thought to be scavenged, although Brown Hyenas have been seen hunting seal pups. In fact, hunting efficiency on seal pups during the peak pupping season can be as high as 47%, and an average of almost five seals per day may be killed from a single colony. Small rodents and seabirds make up the rest of this unique diet. Elsewhere hunting attempts by Brown Hyenas are opportunistic and directed at small mammals such as Springbok lambs, spring hares, Bat-eared Foxes, and ground nesting birds. The hunting technique of the Brown Hyena is unspecialized, rarely successful (except in the case of Brown Fur Seal pups), and may include a brief lunge at a surprised prey, a prolonged chase of up 1 km, or an attempt to dig up a burrowed animal. The percent of observed hunting attempts that were successful was 4:7% in the southern Kalahari and 13-7% in the central Kalahari. The hyenas generally feed where they find food, but food from larger carcasses is frequently cached nearby in a clump of grass or under a bush. Considerable time is often spent at carcasses removing limbs for this purpose and one animal may remove and cache up to three legs before any competitors arrive. Sites where food is cached are scent-marked and may be re-visited over multiple days. In a remarkable example of food caching in the southern Kalahari, a Brown Hyena arrived at an abandoned ostrich (Struthio camelus) nest with 26 eggs, which are prized food items. The hyena spent four hours carrying 14 eggsdistances of 150-600 m from the nest, some of which it simply dropped in the open. It ate only three eggsduring this period. Brown Hyenas also carry food back to cubs at the den. This provisioning of cubs can result in significant bone accumulations at densites. In the southern Kalahari the average distance moved between significant meals was 7-2 km, and the average nightly distance traveled was 31-1 km. During the dry season, nightly movements were longer and were recorded as high as 54-4 km. During the wet season movements were reduced and ranged from 10-20 km. In Namibia, daily distances traveled ranged from 15-47 km. When foraging, Brown Hyenas move at a pace of about 4 km/h, often walking in a zig-zag pattern, probably to maximize their chance of coming across food items. They use smell to locate much of their food, as evidenced by frequent sniffing and moving upwind toward food sources. Their hearing appears to be acute as well and is likely also used in foraging. The Brown Hyena is subordinate at kills to Spotted Hyenas, Lions and African Wild Dogs, although it appears to dominate Leopards in most situations. While they always dominate Cheetahs, they compete heavily with the much smaller Black-backed Jackal, which is often able to steal scraps from hyenas at carcasses. There is some evidence that, where they are sympatric, Brown Hyenas avoid areas frequented by Spotted Hyenas, potentially to avoid direct aggression and competition. For example, dens in the southern Kalahari were rarely found in the prey-rich riverine habitat where most Spotted Hyena dens occurred. Although their presence at livestock carcasses has resulted in much antagonism toward, and persecution of, Brown Hyenas by livestock owners, predation on livestock by these animals appears to be done by a small number of individuals. However, these hyenas, which typically target cow calves and sheep, can account for a large number of kills. Removal of these problem individuals appears effective at halting stock losses.Activity patterns.Primarily a nocturnal animal, although activity is occasionally observed during the day, particularly on cool, cloudy days during the rainy season. There are typcally two peaks of activity, from 19:30 h to 24:00 h and 2:30 h to 6:00 h, with a rest period in between. Radio-collared adults in the southern Kalahari were active for 42.6% of the 24 h period, and 80.2% of the period between 18:00 h and 06:00 h. In Namibia, three maleswith satellite collars spent an average of 57-1-72-3% of 24 h active. Brown Hyenas typically rest during the day in a hole, or undera large tree or bush.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Approximately 65% of Brown Hyenas in a population are members of small social groups called clans, with the remaining individuals living as nomads. Clan size ranges from 4-14 individuals, including cubs, and clans defend large stable territories. In the southern Kalahari far-ranging nomadic males (8% of the adult population) were the only males observed to breed with clan-living females, yet in the central Kalahari, breeding also occurs with resident immigrant males. In the southern Kalahari territories averaged 308 km? (range: 215-461 km?) with never more than 20% overlap between territories. Brown Hyena density there was calculated to be 1-8 hyenas/ 100 km?®. In the central Kalahari territories averaged 170 km?, but varied greatly with annualrainfall, reaching a maximum of 400 km?. In Namibia, where Brown Hyenas depend almost entirely on Brown Fur Seals along the coast, territories of two clans in one study were 31-9 km? and 220 km? In another study the home ranges of three malesranged from 420-1460 km? with the largest home range being an inland location. Density in this latter Namibian study ranged from 1-0-2-9/ 100 km®. In general, group size appears to be correlated with food abundance and quality within the territory, whereas territory size is influenced by the distribution of food resources. Territories are maintained primarily through scent marking behavior (called “pasting”) and aggression toward intruders. Clan structure appears to vary across regions, but always includes 1-5 breeding females and their subadult offspring. In the central Kalahari, groups often also include at least one adultresident immigrant male. Mean clan size in the southern Kalahari was 3-7 adults and subadults, and total clan size ranged from 4-14. In the central Kalahari, a well-studied clan contained 13 members including cubs. Because adult females and their offspring are the core of a social group, the majority of clan members are related. However, dispersal from and immigration into the clan occurs. Although subadults of both sexes may disperse from their natal clan, males do so more often than females and most males disperse by 36-40 months of age. In two reported cases of female emigration in the central Kalahari, the number of resident adult females was atits zenith (five) and the dispersing females both were targets of severe aggression from other resident females prior to dispersal. In both cases, dispersal appeared to be prompted by conflicts with established adults of the same sex. The central Kalahari and southern Kalahari locales also apparently differ with respect to clan social hierarchies. In the central Kalahari a linear within-sex dominance hierarchy was apparent, and at carcasses with more than one hyena, rank determined priority of access to food. Although immigrant males were dominantto all natal males, the highest ranking male and female appeared to be of equal status. Adult females were typically dominant to natal males of less than 36 months of age. These natal males were tolerated until about 24 months, when aggression gradually increased until their dispersal. However, in one case, a natal male remained in the clan and eventually dominated the clan females. In the southern Kalahari no dominance hierarchy was apparent, with no sex, age-class, or individual consistently winning fights or monopolizing food resources in clans. Differences in the breeding systems and the existence or lack of a hierarchy are thought to be related to significant differences in Brown Hyena density in the two locales. In the central Kalahari, 37-81% of observations involve the association of two or more hyenas. In the southern Kalahari contact between group members appears to be less frequent. Although there is typically aggression between hyenas of the same sex from different groups when they meet, the level of aggression within clans appears to vary between the southern and central Kalahari. In the central Kalahari, neck-biting appears to be used to maintain rank relationships within the clan and is observed with some frequency, while in the southern Kalahari, fighting within the clan is rare, with clan members seldom interacting at all. Here, the only aggression observed is between same-sex members of neighboring clans, and this is extremely infrequent. Interestingly, in the southern Kalahari, where resident males do not breed with clan females, these males show little aggression to nomadic males, who are responsible for mating with groupliving females, suggesting that Brown Hyenas can differentiate between neighboring males and nomadic males. When they meet after being separated, Brown Hyenas from the same group engage in a greeting ceremony in which each animal in turn crouches and presents its extruded anal pouch to the other. This is accompanied by a lowering of the ears and a “grin” (teeth exposed by pulling lips up and corners of the mouth back) by the subordinate animal whenit is greeting a dominant. Greetings can last as long as five minutes. Two additional behaviors that appear to be important in Brown Hyena society are neck-biting and muzzle-wrestling. Neck-biting is a purely agonistic interaction (though cubs may engage in it during play) and is primarily intrasexual. In the southern Kalahari, this behavioris largely restricted to interactions between members of neighboring clans, whereas in the central Kalahari, it can be seen more frequently between clan members and is thought to function in maintenance of a dominance hierarchy. Neck-biting behavioris a ritualized, somewhat elaborate interaction in which dominant and subordinate animals are clear from the start. The submissive animal approaches a standing dominant individual grinning and with its mane and tail raised. Either before or at its approach, the dominant seizes the neck of the subordinate, holding the skin and hair of the neck with its incisors and one or both canines, and vigorously shakes the victim from side to side. This typeof interaction typically lasts less than five minutes, and only rarely does the subordinate flee at its conclusion. Muzzle wresting may be observed anywhere in the territory and is exhibited by all clan members. However, adults rarely engage in this behavior with other adults, though they will do so with cubs with some frequency. Most muzzle-wrestling occurs between cubs and subadults. The two participants stand face to face, and attemptto bite each other on the jowls or along the side of face. Their heads pitch rapidly from side to side with mouths open, and they often growl softly throughout. One or both hyenas may be crouched on their carpals, and in some cases one may lie beneath the other. This behavior is clearly less aggressive than neck biting and may often be play, although it can escalate into true aggression. There is no clear loser, and animals typically remain with each other after muzzle-wrestling, which may last from a few minutes to an hour. The most striking visual display of the Brown Hyena is pilo-erection of the long hairs along its neck and back, which is observed in situations calling for either an attack or flight response. Despite its rather elaborate social interactions, Brown Hyenas spend the vast majority of their time alone, and the primary form of communication between hyenas is olfactory. They convey information to conspecifics with latrines, which have accumulations of feces, and grass stalks on which they have deposited a strong-smelling white secretion and a smaller black secretion. Both secretions are deposited during pasting from an extruded anal scent pouch located between the rectum and base ofthe tail. Although all four hyaenid species paste, the deposition of two different secretionsis unique to Brown Hyenas. Whereas the lipid-rich white secretion is discernible to the human nose for well over 30 days, the more watery black secretion appears unscented after a few hours. This black secretion is thought to convey information relating to the time elapsed since it was deposited, and therefore signal that a hyena has recently foraged in the area. It is suggested that this allows other group members to avoid unproductive areas, and minimizes competition between group members for limited resources. The longer-lasting white secretion is thought to function in territory marking and defense. Pasting is done throughout a clan’s territory. Although most pasting occurs in the central part of the territory, where residents spend most of their time, frequency of pasting and over-pasting (deposition on an existing mark) is highest when individuals visit territory boundaries. Very little pasting is done by residents when they are outside of their territory. Pasting during traveling/foraging movements can be quite frequent, with ten individuals averaging a paste every six minutes. However,this is highly variable, with some individuals pasting only once or twice during a night-time observation period. Males and females do not differ in rate of pasting during their travels. At the den, adults and subadults frequently paste soon after arriving and before departing. At least in the southern Kalahari, the perimeter of hyena territories is thought to be too large to make strict border marking possible or effective. Instead, marks are scattered throughout the residents’ territory. This is known as hinterland marking. Given the frequency of pasting, and how widely pastes are deposited across a territory, simulations indicate that in the southern Kalahari, hinterland marking is effective. Intruders would likely encounter resident paste marks very soon after entering a territory. Indeed, individual hyenas are estimated to deposit some 29,000 paste marks in a year. Experiments with translocated pasted grass stalks indicate that hyenas can distinguish between pastes of group and non-group members and that over-pasting is more commonly done on pastings from non-group hyenas. Chemical analysis of white and black paste suggests that the scent of these substances probably varies between individuals, allowing for identification of the paster. In the southern Kalahari, latrines are not as regularly spaced as pastings, and show a clumped distribution, largely around primary foraging areas that occur along the territory border. Latrines are often associated with landmarks such as trees, bushes or roads, and those along the border are visited more frequently than those in the interior. The vocal repertoire of the Brown Hyena is relatively small, as in the Striped Hyena, and consists of eight vocalizations: a yell, a hoot, two whines and four growls, none of which functions as a longdistance communication. Some authors group these into five calls, the squeal/whine, squeak, scream,yell, and growl/grunt. The squeal is a shrill sharp cry emitted by a juvenile or other subordinate while approaching to greet or beg food from a dominant individual. The squeak is a hoarse rasping cry of abject submission associated with carpal crawling. A scream is a high-pitched, cackling shriek given by a hyena whose neck is being bitten. The yell is a loud, abrupt high-pitched call associated with defensive threat. A growl/grunt is low-pitched, breathless and throaty, and is given while muzzle-wrestling. All but the growl appear to indicate submission or appeasement in social contexts of varying intensity.Breeding.Brown Hyenas are polyestrous, non-seasonal breeders. Litters range from 1-4 cubs with a modallitter size of three. Estrus lasts approximately one week but mating in captivity occurs over a 15day period. Based on six observed mating bouts in the southern Kalahari, mating associations consist of multiple copulation attempts over a 5-90 minute period, and may be preceded by extended courtship, during which both animals may show aggression and there are mutual approaches and retreats. Gestation in captivity was 96 days. Interbirth intervals appear to range widely. In the southern Kalahari they were as short as a year and as long as 41 months apart, although lost litters in the interim could not be ruled out. Cubs are born with their eyes closed and their ears bent forward. Their fur is similar in color to that of adults. Their eyes begin to open at eight days and are completely open at 14 days. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, Brown Hyena cubs are born without teeth. As in the other bone-cracking hyaenids, den dependenceis long and weaning occurs late. Cubs from 0-3 months of age rarely leave the den hole except when their mother or another adult is present. During this period, mothers attend the den frequently, often at sunrise and sunset and cubs rely completely on their mother’s milk. At four months, visits by the mother become less frequent, with mothers visiting about once a night, but suckling periods are longer. At this time, mothers and other group members begin bringing food to the den for the cubs. Weaning normally occurs at 12-16 months of age, yet weaning conflicts have been observed at ten months. Starting at ten months, cubs begin extensive, and very often solitary, foraging movements away from the den. Length of den residence is variable however, ranging from 8-15 months. Regardless of their dependence on the den, by 16 months weaning has occurred and full adult dentition is present. As they mature, subadults themselves begin to bring food back to the den for younger cubs. This has been observed in subadults as young as 22 months. Adult size is reached at 30 months. The earliest breeding recorded in the wild is 35 months; breeding continues until at least ten years of age. Cubs are raised in underground, sometimes extensive, tunnels, always small enough to prevent adults and potential predators from entering. They are easily distinguished by accumulations of bones, hair, feathers, horns, pieces of hide, and hyena feces. In the southern Kalahari Brown Hyena dens appear to be used only rarely by multiple females at once, and cubs are typically raised in the same den in which they are born. However, communal denning appears to be common in the central Kalahari, with cubs of multiple females, and of different ages, raised together at a single den location. In this system, cubs are born in a solitary den and transported to the communal den sometime before they are four months of age. Throughout their development, den moves are common and cubs may reside at as many as seven different dens, though distances between dens are typically not large. In the central Kalahari, where a social rank system is evident, dominant females enjoy greater reproductive success in terms of number of surviving offspring, yet the number oflitters does not vary based on rank. There appears to be variation, both regionally and temporally, in the mating system of Brown Hyenas. In one system, females breed only with nomadic males that range over wide areas without defended territories or family groups. In the other, females breed not only with nomadic males but with resident immigrant males as well. These residents are members of the clan and assist in territory defense, yet their tenure, at least in the central Kalahari, is relatively short (less than three years). In this area, where both nomadic males and resident immigrant males are present, dominant clan males were observed to copulate with resident females more frequently than nomadic males. In the southern Kalahari, the only mating observed involved nomadic males, and no resident males, either immigrant or natal, were observed to mate. Although males known to be natal showed little sexual interest at all in any resident females, researchers were unable to observe immigrant males long enough to ascertain sexual interest in resident females. The source of the variation in the mating system of Brown Hyenas is unclear, although it may be related to dispersion of food. In the central Kalahari, where both systems were observed over time, mating with nomadic males was restricted to the dry season, when resident clan males would likely have difficulty maintaining contact with clan females (some were separated by 22 km). Because territories are very large in the southern Kalahari and only breeding with nomadic malesis seen, the food dispersion theory is further supported. Individual reproductive patterns in males are also likely to be influenced by individual status and the behavior of other males in the population. In either case, natal males are never observed to mate with females in their natal clan. Communal care of cubs is better developed among Brown Hyenas than in any of the other three hyaenid species. Non-parental aid in cub rearing includes communal suckling (although preference in nursing one’s own cubs has been shown), food provisioning, den maintenance, defense against predators, play, and adoption of orphans. Subadult and adult females ofall social ranks and reproductive states bring food items to the den for cubs. However, the extent of involvement in provisioning by adult males seems to vary by region. In the central Kalahari, subadult males provision cubs, but to a lesser degree than females, and they only bring food to closely related cubs. Neither immigrant nor natal adult males were seen provisioning cubs. It has been suggested thatthis is because males do not benefit from an increased group size, as they are likely to emigrate from their natal clan. In the southern Kalahari, however, group-living males and females, both adult and subadult, were observed to provision cubs regularly. Average distance in this population from which food was carried back to the den was 6-4 km.Status and Conservation.Listed as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. In 1994 the species was down-listed from Appendix I status, which was afforded the species in 1975, to Appendix II by the IUCN and it has since been deleted from CITES listing altogether. [tis generally considered to be widespread yet rare. The total population is estimated to be 5000 to 8000, but this may be an underestimate due to the secretive nature and nocturnal habits of this animal. It is estimated that areas in excess of 1000 km?” are required to maintain a viable population of Brown Hyenas. These populations currently exist in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africaand the adjacent Gemsbok National Park, Botswana, the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Botswana, and the coastal regions of the southern Namib Desert. These are also the sites of the primary research projects that provide much of what we know about this species in the wild. Much of the habitat where Brown Hyenas occur outside protected areas is used for livestock ranching, and the hyenas are heavily persecuted (shot, poisoned, trapped, and hunted with dogs) in these areas because they are assumed to be livestock predators. This persecution, and habitat loss and fragmentation, are the primary threats to persistence of Brown Hyena. Because they are scavengers, many livestock carcasses where they are seen feeding are likely not to have been killed by Brown Hyenas. Although the species can be involved in depredation,this is usually restricted to a few individuals. Regardless, management of Brown Hyenas on ranchlands must address livestock losses. Typically, removal of individual problem hyenas ends the depredation. Because there is evidence that Brown Hyenas may be limited by the presence of Spotted Hyenas and perhaps other large predators, which are often absent from ranches, these ranchlands have the potential to be developed as Brown Hyena conservation areas, given proper management and conservation education efforts. Brown Hyenas are uncommon in captivity and traditionally do not breed well in confinement. Due to difficulties in captive breeding, the international studbook was discontinued in 1993 and as of 1995 there were only 16 specimensin nine collections. There is no known illegal trade in the species.Bibliography.Eaton (1976), Gorman & Mills (1984), Maddock (1993), Mills (1982a, 1982b, 1982¢c, 1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1990), Mills & Hofer (1998), Mills & Mills (1978, 1982), Mills et al. (1980), Owens, D.D. & Owens (1979a, 1979b, 1984, 1996), Owens, M.J. & Owens (1978), Schultz (1966), Shoemaker (1983), Siegfried (1984), Skinner (1976), Skinner & llani (1979), Skinner & VanAarde (1981), Skinner et al. (1995), Stuart & Shaughnessy (1984), Wiesel (2006)." 03928788FFEFFF8F2FA5F9F5F9C3C731,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b,256,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEFFF8F2FA5F9F5F9C3C731.xml,Hyaena hyaena,Hyaena,hyaena,,,Hyéne rayée @fr | Streifenhyane @de | Hiena rayada @es,"Canis hyaena Linnaeus, 1758, India.Of the extant hyaenids, the Striped Hyena is most closely related to the Brown Hyena, and its lifestyle, reproduction, and social behavior more closely resemble those of Brown Hyenas than those of Spotted Hyenas or Aardwolves. Some authorities provisionally recognize five subspecies, distinguished mainly by differences in size and pelage (hyaenafrom India, barbara from NW Africa, dubbah from NE Africa, sultana from the Arabian Peninsula, and syriaca from Syria, Asia Minorand the Caucasus). However, other authorities argue that current morphological data and other evidence do not support multiple subspecies.","The Striped Hyena has a very large range, covering much of Africa and western Asia. Although they do not occur in the central Sahara, these animals occur at low density in patches throughout eastern, western and northern Africa, including Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Mali, Nigeria, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Tanzania, and Tunisia. Striped Hyenas also occur in the Middle East and Central Asia. Middle Eastern and Asian countries included in the modern distribution of the Striped Hyena are Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Yemen. The current distribution of this species is patchy, and usually appears to occur in small, isolated populations.","The Striped Hyena is the smallest of the three bone-cracking hyaenids, but is substantially larger than the Aardwolf. Head-body 100-115 cm,tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height between 66-75 cm; weight 26-41 kg (males) and 26-34 kg (females). Among the provisional subspecies, body mass and body size are only well studied in syriaca in Israeland dubbah in Kenya. In these populations, there was no significant sexual dimorphism in body size. However, in one recent study in Israel, sexual dimorphism accounted for 39% of the variation in adult body size. Like the other hyaenids, the Striped Hyena has a sloping back because the forelegs are longer than the hindlegs, and has well-developed anal glands used for scent marking. Large ducts from the anal glands open into an anal pouch dorsal to the anus. As in the other bonecracking Hyenas, the head, neck, and shoulders are relatively massive and powerful. The fur is pale gray or straw-colored, with black vertical stripes on the sides of the body. Like the Brown Hyena, the Striped Hyena has longer fur than the Spotted Hyena, giving it a rather shaggy appearance. The Striped Hyena has a black muzzle and a black patch on the throat. It has five to nine vertical stripes on the flanks, two cheek stripes, and clear black transverse and horizontal stripes on all four legs. The head is roundish with a pointed muzzle and long, pointed ears. It has a gray or blond mane that runs along its dorsal midline from the ears to the tail; the mane can be erected to increase the animal’s apparentsize by over 30%. The mane in this species is more pronounced than that in any other hyaenid, with hairs up to 20 cmlong. The black and white tail is long and bushy, with hair that is generally coarse and long. Females have two or three pairs of teats, but if they have three, only the caudal two pairs are functional. Juvenile females have well-defined labia-like folds anterior to the vagina. These ridges are hairless and darker and rougher than the surrounding tissue. Juvenile males have smaller, smooth, hairless skin folds along the middle septum close to, but anterior to, the scrotum. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, these genital characteristics are not severe enough to confuse sexing of juveniles, and adult genitalia appear normal. Subspecies descriptions are based on limited data except for syriaca in Israeland dubbah in Kenya. In general animals living in the northern parts of the range tend to be slightly larger than those living in southern regions. Variation in pelage color appearsslight, although the Lebanese population is reported to have a reddish coat color, and hyenas on the Arabian Peninsula are described as having a yellow mark below the eyes and a mixed gray and black dorsal crest.","In most ofits range the Striped Hyena occurs in rugged, arid habitat or light thorn bush country. These animals drink regularly where wateris available, but they can also survive in many waterless areas. In North Africa they prefer open woodlands and bushy and mountainous regions. The central Arabian and Sahara Deserts are not suitable habitat. In central Asia, Striped Hyenas avoid high altitudes and dense thickets and forests. The maximum elevations recorded are 2250 min Iran, 2500 min Indiaand 3300 min Pakistan. In the Caucasus region, Turkmenistan, Tadzhikistan, and Uzbekistan, prime habitats include savannah and semi-desert regions up to an elevation of 2100 m, mountain areas with strong relief, valleys with abundant caves or other resting sites, and riverine areas. The Striped Hyena avoids areas with minimum temperatures ofless than —15°C to —20°C and more than 80-120 days offrost per year. In Israel, Striped Hyenas are present even close to dense human settlements. In West Africa, they occur in dry scrub savanna and Sahel woodland, particularly in the belt of Acacia raddiana woodland that extends from Senegalto Chad. In eastern Africa, Striped Hyenas are found in a variety of habitats ranging from open savanna to rugged, bush-covered mountain terrain.","The diet of Striped Hyenas apparently varies considerably from one part of their range to another, but these animals are clearly scavengers with catholic tastes. They are primarily carrion-eaters; their diet consists mainly of dried flesh and bones from carcasses of large vertebrates. They scavenge carrion and the remains of kills made by other predators, including Spotted Hyenas, Cheetahs, Leopards, Lions, and Tigers. The Hyena’s massive cheek teeth and supporting musculature easily permit the gnawing and breaking of bones, as well as the carapaces of tortoises and turtles. Striped Hyenas have also been reported to consume a wide variety of invertebrates, vegetables, fruit, garbage, and small vertebrates that the Hyenas hunt themselves. In central Kenya, analysis of bone fragments and hairs from fecal samples indicated that hyenas regularly consume small mammals and birds that are unlikely to be scavenged. The limited available diet data may underestimate the importance of active hunting in the lives of these animals. In various parts of eastern Africa, Striped Hyenas are reported to supplement their diet with Balanites fruits. The proportion of scavenged and killed prey items in the diet is still a matter of debate as there has been no detailed research on these Hyenas’ food intake. Some authors suggest that only individuals from the three larger subspecies, barbara, syriaca and hyaena, kill large prey, including livestock,as there is no evidence that the smaller subspecies, dubbah and sultana, attack large herbivores. In Turkmenistanthe Striped Hyena has been reported feeding on Wild Boar, Kulan, porcupine, and particularly tortoises. In Uzbekhistan and Tadzhikistan, seasonal abundance of oil willow fruits (Eleagnus angustifolia) is reflected in the diet; in the Caucasus region the diet includes abundant grasshoppers. In Israelthe Striped Hyena feeds on garbage, carrion, and fruits, particularly dates and melons. In eastern Jordan, the main sources of food are carcasses of feral horses and water buffalo and refuse from localvillages. The Striped Hyena can drink water of very variable quality, from fresh water to soda and salt water, but it may also satisfy its water requirements with melons or otherfruits. Very little is currently known about the hunting behavior of Striped Hyenas, but those few hunts that have been observed involved simple chases and grabs at prey. Seasonal influxes of Striped Hyenas follow migrations of large herds of domestic and wild ungulates in Turkmenistan, suggesting that the Hyenas cover long distances on foraging trips. In Egyptthey are known to move along ancient caravan roads where the chance of locating dead camels is high. In Serengeti and in southern Kenya, they spend most of the night actively searching for food or moving between established foraging sites. Striped Hyenas apparently can remember the locations offruiting trees, garbage dumps and other established feeding sites, although the routes taken to re-visit such food sources are seldom repeated on consecutive foraging trips. They are also able to locate tortoises in their hiding places during periods of aestivation and hibernation. Striped Hyenas frequently cache bones or pieces of skin, using their snouts to push these items deep into clumps of grass or stands of dense shrubs. They may also carry food items back to their dens. Bone collections are common at den sites used by Striped Hyenas, although it is often unclear whether these collections represent scavenged or killed prey, and whether the bones collected play a significant nutritional role in the lives of these animals. Several studies have inferred diet by combining data from bone collections and fecal samples. In central Kenya, however, bone collections indicated a much broader range of prey than did scat analysis, and significant portions of bone assemblages were very old bones unlikely to represent material scavenged from fresh kills. From fecal analysis alone, several researchers have found remains of prey items that are more likely to have been scavenged than hunted, and larger mammals are represented far less often in the analysis of hairs in fecal material than would be expected based only on bone collections at dens. Striped Hyenas appear to be strictly solitary foragers, although multiple individuals occasionally gather at rich food sources such as large carcasses or refuse pits. These animals are sometimes found in small groups while resting, but there is no indication that they ever forage cooperatively. Genetic relatedness among members of groups seen feeding together has not been investigated. Foraging activity in Kenyaand Tanzaniais restricted to hours of darkness except during rain or unusually cloudy weather. Under those circumstances, Striped Hyenas may return to previously visited kills or carcasses, but do not embark on full foraging forays. In many areas, and for many centuries, Striped Hyenas have been described as raiding human graves and carrying away bones. Fruit and vegetable crop raiding by Striped Hyenas is currently considered a serious problem in some parts of Israel. While foraging, Striped Hyenas zigzag across the landscape and do not appear to follow set routes, even when returning to the same food source on multiple nights. Minimum mean distance travelled per night is 19 kmat speeds of 2-4 km/h, occasionally trotting at speeds of up to 8 km/h, or running at a maximum of 50 km/h. Overall, the evidence indicates that Striped Hyenas are solitary foragers for which carrion, insects, fruits and vegetable matter represent significant portions of the diet.","Females are polyestrous and breed throughout the year. Estrus is reported to last one day. No detailed descriptions of sexual behavior in the wild have been reported, but during matings in captivity, females may mate several times at intervals of at least 15 minutes. In the wild, litter size varies from one to four (median of three), after a gestation period of 90-91 days. Average litter size in captivity is 2-4, with a range of one to five. Parturition is preceded by intensive digging behavior by the female. Cubs weigh approximately 700 gat birth; they have adult-like markings but lack manes, and instead have only black spinal stripes. They are born with eyes and ears closed, and they are barely able to crawl, so they are far more altricial than Spotted Hyena cubs at birth. Their eyesfirst open after five to nine days, and cubs may emerge from the den at around two weeks of age. Deciduous teeth start to erupt on day 21. Cubs begin to eat meat at the age of 30 days. In the wild cubs are known to nurse for over one year. They reach reproductive maturity during the second year oflife. The mating system is promiscuous or polyandrous. In the Laikipiapopulation in Kenya, females appear to mate with both group males and males that reside elsewhere. It is not known whether sires contribute in any way to parental care in this population, but lactating females are usually found alone at dens with their cubs, males do not spend significant periods of time at dens, and females appear to be solely responsible for care of young. Multiple paternity in this population occurred in half of sampled litters, and extra-group males sired roughly one third of the cubs born to group females. Striped Hyenas usually use caves, ravines or other sheltered rocky places as dens, although earthen dens may also be used. Den entrances are fairly narrow and may be hidden by large boulders. Two dens were measured in the Karakum Desert. The entrances were 0-67 m and 0-72 m wide. The dens sloped downward 3 mand 2bm and were 4-15 m and 5 mlong, with no lateral extensions or special chambers. These simple constructions contrast with much more elaborate dens found in Israel, which can exceed 27 min length.","The Striped Hyena is almost strictly nocturnal, although it does occasionally engage in some activity after dawn and before dusk. Some authorities suggest Striped Hyenas may be moststrictly nocturnal in areas characterized by relatively intensive anthropogenic activity, and where they are directly persecuted by humans.","In Serengeti, Striped Hyenas travel an average of 19 kmper night (range 7-27 km), either following established animal tracks or zig-zagging cross-country. A similar pattern was observed in southern Kenya, where Striped Hyenas followed by human observers covered large distances, but stopped frequently to paste or to investigate grass clumps, carcasses, and other things found on the ground along the way. Home range sizes of one femaleand one malein the Serengeti were 44 km* and 72 km? respectively. There was little evidence of territorial behavior. Home range size was calculated for a single female in the Negev Desert in Israelto be approximately 61 km?; this range partly overlapped those of two other individuals. In the Laikipia Districtof Kenya, the mean home rangesize for 12 maleswas 82 km?, and for eight femaleswas 71 km? with no significant difference in home range sizes between sexes. No evidence ofterritorial defense has been recorded in any studied population, but in some populations these hyenas are known to scent-mark frequently within their home ranges while traveling, and also to defecate in “latrines” near feeding sites and along travel routes. Striped Hyenas are the least well-studied of the extant hyaenids, and their social behavior is very poorly understood. They are most often reported to be solitary. Nevertheless, there appears to be considerable variability with respect to patterns of social grouping among Striped Hyena populations. In some areas, such as central Asia, these animals are reported to form short-term monogamous pair bonds for breeding, with a resulting family unit that may endure for several years. Such family units may sometimes contain offspring from multiple litters. Under these circumstances, both parents and the older offspring may be observed provisioning den-dwelling cubs. Typical group sizes are one or two in all subspecies, but groups of up to seven have been reported in Libya. In Israel, Striped Hyenas are generally solitary, but occasionally several are seen together at a carcass, including both males and females, or females with large cubs. Age-specific foraging data are extremely limited, but cubs have occasionally been observed accompanying their mothers on foraging trips away from the den by 6-12 months of age. Otherwise, foraging is strictly solitary. Almost invariably described as solitary in sub-Saharan Africa, it was recently discovered that Striped Hyenas in the Laikipia Districtof Kenyaare behaviorally solitary but exhibit a polyandrous system of space use. These animals form groups of up to four adults; each group contains one adultfemale and one to three adultmales. Females in both wild and captive populations appear to be highly intolerant of one another, starting around the time they reach puberty. The overall adult sex ratio in the Laikipiapopulation was three malesto two females. Members of these groups share a common home range and may be found resting together during daylight hours. The home ranges of group-mates exhibit 85% overlap, whereas their ranges overlap only 22% with those of animals in other groups. Individual group members spend more than 90% of their time alone. Adult male group-mates included both closely-related and distantly related individuals. In contrast to spatial patterns of relatedness documented in other carnivores, pairs in non-adjacent groups tended to be more closely related genetically than pairs living in adjacent groups. This was true for females as well as males. As these animals are usually found alone, very little has been recorded regarding direct social interactions except for captive situations. In this species, males are slightly larger than females, and males also appear to be socially dominant to females in resource competition. The long dorsal hairs of the mane may be erected to enhance the apparentsize of the individual during confrontations with conspecifics. Both mane and tail hairs are erected when the animal assumes a defensive posture, but also when it adopts an aggressive stance. The mane is also commonly bristled whenever the animal pastes. When Striped Hyenas fight they bite at the throat and legs, rather than at the mane. During an agonistic interaction, the subordinate individual may hunch its body, lower its mane, and swing or turn its head from side to side whereas the dominant animal remains bristled and stands erect. The Striped Hyena exhibits a number of visual displays, the moststriking of which is the erection of the mane and bristling ofthe tail like a bottle brush. The mane and tail thus serve as signalling devices during social interactions. When members of the same social group meet after being separated, they engage in “meeting ceremonies”, which involve investigation and licking of the mid-back region and sniffing of the nose and extruded anal pouch. The tail is often held vertically during meeting ceremonies. Meeting ceremonies may also involve repeated pawing of the throat of the greeting partner. The well-developed anal pouch is inverted during scent marking, called pasting, and also during greetings. In scent marking, the anal pouch produces a pungent yellow to beige paste which is deposited at nose-height on grass stalks, stones, tree-trunks, or sticks. Foraging Striped Hyenas pause to paste at frequent intervals, and these scent marks appear to be deposited throughout the home range rather than exclusively at its borders. Pasting has also been observed at large carcasses in the wild, and, in captivity, on food bowls. Some Striped Hyena vocalizations resemble those of Spotted Hyenas, although calls emitted by Striped Hyenas tend to be much softer, and the sounds carry shorter distances. The vocal repertoire of the Spotted Hyenais also far more elaborate than that of the Striped Hyena. Most ofits vocalizations are uttered in the presence of conspecifics. Cubs whine while they are nursing. Giggling or yelling may occur when a Striped Hyena is frightened or being chased by another predator. A long, drawn-out lowing sound sometimes accompanies the defensive posture, and growling may occur during fighting or play-fighting with conspecifics.Breeding.Females are polyestrous and breed throughout the year. Estrus is reported to last one day. No detailed descriptions of sexual behavior in the wild have been reported, but during matings in captivity, females may mate several times at intervals of at least 15 minutes. In the wild, litter size varies from one to four (median of three), after a gestation period of 90-91 days. Average litter size in captivity is 2-4, with a range of one to five. Parturition is preceded by intensive digging behavior by the female. Cubs weigh approximately 700 gat birth; they have adult-like markings but lack manes, and instead have only black spinal stripes. They are born with eyes and ears closed, and they are barely able to crawl, so they are far more altricial than Spotted Hyena cubs at birth. Their eyesfirst open after five to nine days, and cubs may emerge from the den at around two weeks of age. Deciduous teeth start to erupt on day 21. Cubs begin to eat meat at the age of 30 days. In the wild cubs are known to nurse for over one year. They reach reproductive maturity during the second year oflife. The mating system is promiscuous or polyandrous. In the Laikipiapopulation in Kenya, females appear to mate with both group males and males that reside elsewhere. It is not known whether sires contribute in any way to parental care in this population, but lactating females are usually found alone at dens with their cubs, males do not spend significant periods of time at dens, and females appear to be solely responsible for care of young. Multiple paternity in this population occurred in half of sampled litters, and extra-group males sired roughly one third of the cubs born to group females. Striped Hyenas usually use caves, ravines or other sheltered rocky places as dens, although earthen dens may also be used. Den entrances are fairly narrow and may be hidden by large boulders. Two dens were measured in the Karakum Desert. The entrances were 0-67 m and 0-72 m wide. The dens sloped downward 3 mand 2bm and were 4-15 m and 5 mlong, with no lateral extensions or special chambers. These simple constructions contrast with much more elaborate dens found in Israel, which can exceed 27 min length.","Listed as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Despite their broad distribution, the basic biology of Striped Hyenas, including their abundance in most parts of their range, remains very poorly known. Throughout its range, the Striped Hyena occurs at low densities. There have been only two local estimates of Striped Hyena density in Africa, and it is considered either threatened or data deficient throughout its African range. In Serengeti and Laikipia, density was estimated to be 0-02 per km? and 0-03 adults per km?, respectively. Remarkably little information is available on the species. This is undoubtedly due to its shy, nocturnal, mostly solitary nature, its apparent affinity for rugged terrain, its generally negative reputation, and frequent confusion with, or lack of differentiation from, Spotted Hyenas where the two species overlap. Most adult mortality is directly caused by Lions and humans. Striped Hyenas, particularly those inhabiting areas where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse, may attack livestock, and as a result they are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. It appears that the Striped Hyena is already extinct in many localities, and that populations are generally declining. The major reasonsfor this decline appear to be decreasing natural and domestic sources of carrion due to declines in the populations of other large carnivores and their prey, and changes in livestock practices. Moreover, the low densities and associated large home ranges of these animals are likely to increase the chances that populations will become fragmented into small, non-viable units. This must be considered a key problem if these animals are to be protected. The Striped Hyena evokes many superstitious fears because of putative and documented cases of grave-robbing and attacks on humans. In addition,its body parts are widely exploited as aphrodisiacs, and are utilized in folk medicine. Striped Hyenas are often killed because of suspected or real damage inflicted on agricultural produce and livestock, and they are often shot by livestock ranchers. These animals have also been widely hunted through poisoning, baiting traps, pits, or with the help of dogs. The Striped Hyena does sometimes cause damage to crops, and may sometimes also attack domestic animals, predominantly goats, sheep, dogs, and poultry. In many cases of damage to livestock, it is unclear whether the targeted individual was adult or young, healthy or sick, so Striped Hyenas may be blamed for livestock mortality for which they are not truly responsible. In any case, the records suggest that attacks on livestock by Striped Hyenas usually occur at very low frequencies. Tentative estimates of the total worldwide population size range from 5000 to 14,000 individuals. Fragmentation into many subpopulations is suspected even though the actual degree of fragmentation is unknown. In addition, habitat loss and declining population size are occurring at unknown rates. The Striped Hyena is considered threatened in all parts of its African range where data are sufficient to evaluate the local status, except in Ethiopiaand Kenya, whereit is considered at lowerrisk. As we currently know so little about the biology ofthis species, one of the most pressing conservation concerns is to study these animals in a number of different locales. In addition to knowing very little about their behavioral ecology, we also know virtually nothing about their abundance and population dynamics. Before we can make management decisions in the best interest of Striped Hyenas, we need more information. Fortunately, studies of these animals are currently underway in East Africa, India, and the Middle East.","Bouskila (1984) | Davidar (1990) | Hofer (1998) | Horwitz & Smith (1988) | Kerbis-Peterhans & Horwitz (1992) | Koepfli et al. (2006) | Kolska (1991) | Kruuk (1976) | Leakey et al. (1999) | Macdonald (1978) | Mendelssohn (1985) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Pocock (1934d) | Rieger (1978, 1979a, 1979b, 1979¢, 1981) | Skinner & llani (1979) | Skinner et al. (1980) | VanAarde et al. (1988) | Wagner (2006, In press) | Wagner, Creel et al. (2007) | Wagner, Frank & Creel (2008) | Wagner, Frank, Creel & Coscia (2007) | Werdelin & Solounias (1991) | Yom-Tov & Geffen (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/5676774/files/figure.png,"3.Striped HyenaHyaena hyaenaFrench:Hyéne rayée/ German:Streifenhyane/ Spanish:Hiena rayadaTaxonomy.Canis hyaena Linnaeus, 1758, India.Of the extant hyaenids, the Striped Hyena is most closely related to the Brown Hyena, and its lifestyle, reproduction, and social behavior more closely resemble those of Brown Hyenas than those of Spotted Hyenas or Aardwolves. Some authorities provisionally recognize five subspecies, distinguished mainly by differences in size and pelage (hyaenafrom India, barbara from NW Africa, dubbah from NE Africa, sultana from the Arabian Peninsula, and syriaca from Syria, Asia Minorand the Caucasus). However, other authorities argue that current morphological data and other evidence do not support multiple subspecies.Distribution.The Striped Hyena has a very large range, covering much of Africa and western Asia. Although they do not occur in the central Sahara, these animals occur at low density in patches throughout eastern, western and northern Africa, including Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Mali, Nigeria, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Tanzania, and Tunisia. Striped Hyenas also occur in the Middle East and Central Asia. Middle Eastern and Asian countries included in the modern distribution of the Striped Hyena are Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Yemen. The current distribution of this species is patchy, and usually appears to occur in small, isolated populations.Descriptive notes.The Striped Hyena is the smallest of the three bone-cracking hyaenids, but is substantially larger than the Aardwolf. Head-body 100-115 cm,tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height between 66-75 cm; weight 26-41 kg (males) and 26-34 kg (females). Among the provisional subspecies, body mass and body size are only well studied in syriaca in Israeland dubbah in Kenya. In these populations, there was no significant sexual dimorphism in body size. However, in one recent study in Israel, sexual dimorphism accounted for 39% of the variation in adult body size. Like the other hyaenids, the Striped Hyena has a sloping back because the forelegs are longer than the hindlegs, and has well-developed anal glands used for scent marking. Large ducts from the anal glands open into an anal pouch dorsal to the anus. As in the other bonecracking Hyenas, the head, neck, and shoulders are relatively massive and powerful. The fur is pale gray or straw-colored, with black vertical stripes on the sides of the body. Like the Brown Hyena, the Striped Hyena has longer fur than the Spotted Hyena, giving it a rather shaggy appearance. The Striped Hyena has a black muzzle and a black patch on the throat. It has five to nine vertical stripes on the flanks, two cheek stripes, and clear black transverse and horizontal stripes on all four legs. The head is roundish with a pointed muzzle and long, pointed ears. It has a gray or blond mane that runs along its dorsal midline from the ears to the tail; the mane can be erected to increase the animal’s apparentsize by over 30%. The mane in this species is more pronounced than that in any other hyaenid, with hairs up to 20 cmlong. The black and white tail is long and bushy, with hair that is generally coarse and long. Females have two or three pairs of teats, but if they have three, only the caudal two pairs are functional. Juvenile females have well-defined labia-like folds anterior to the vagina. These ridges are hairless and darker and rougher than the surrounding tissue. Juvenile males have smaller, smooth, hairless skin folds along the middle septum close to, but anterior to, the scrotum. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, these genital characteristics are not severe enough to confuse sexing of juveniles, and adult genitalia appear normal. Subspecies descriptions are based on limited data except for syriaca in Israeland dubbah in Kenya. In general animals living in the northern parts of the range tend to be slightly larger than those living in southern regions. Variation in pelage color appearsslight, although the Lebanese population is reported to have a reddish coat color, and hyenas on the Arabian Peninsula are described as having a yellow mark below the eyes and a mixed gray and black dorsal crest.Habitat.In most ofits range the Striped Hyena occurs in rugged, arid habitat or light thorn bush country. These animals drink regularly where wateris available, but they can also survive in many waterless areas. In North Africa they prefer open woodlands and bushy and mountainous regions. The central Arabian and Sahara Deserts are not suitable habitat. In central Asia, Striped Hyenas avoid high altitudes and dense thickets and forests. The maximum elevations recorded are 2250 min Iran, 2500 min Indiaand 3300 min Pakistan. In the Caucasus region, Turkmenistan, Tadzhikistan, and Uzbekistan, prime habitats include savannah and semi-desert regions up to an elevation of 2100 m, mountain areas with strong relief, valleys with abundant caves or other resting sites, and riverine areas. The Striped Hyena avoids areas with minimum temperatures ofless than —15°C to —20°C and more than 80-120 days offrost per year. In Israel, Striped Hyenas are present even close to dense human settlements. In West Africa, they occur in dry scrub savanna and Sahel woodland, particularly in the belt of Acacia raddiana woodland that extends from Senegalto Chad. In eastern Africa, Striped Hyenas are found in a variety of habitats ranging from open savanna to rugged, bush-covered mountain terrain.Food and Feeding.The diet of Striped Hyenas apparently varies considerably from one part of their range to another, but these animals are clearly scavengers with catholic tastes. They are primarily carrion-eaters; their diet consists mainly of dried flesh and bones from carcasses of large vertebrates. They scavenge carrion and the remains of kills made by other predators, including Spotted Hyenas, Cheetahs, Leopards, Lions, and Tigers. The Hyena’s massive cheek teeth and supporting musculature easily permit the gnawing and breaking of bones, as well as the carapaces of tortoises and turtles. Striped Hyenas have also been reported to consume a wide variety of invertebrates, vegetables, fruit, garbage, and small vertebrates that the Hyenas hunt themselves. In central Kenya, analysis of bone fragments and hairs from fecal samples indicated that hyenas regularly consume small mammals and birds that are unlikely to be scavenged. The limited available diet data may underestimate the importance of active hunting in the lives of these animals. In various parts of eastern Africa, Striped Hyenas are reported to supplement their diet with Balanites fruits. The proportion of scavenged and killed prey items in the diet is still a matter of debate as there has been no detailed research on these Hyenas’ food intake. Some authors suggest that only individuals from the three larger subspecies, barbara, syriaca and hyaena, kill large prey, including livestock,as there is no evidence that the smaller subspecies, dubbah and sultana, attack large herbivores. In Turkmenistanthe Striped Hyena has been reported feeding on Wild Boar, Kulan, porcupine, and particularly tortoises. In Uzbekhistan and Tadzhikistan, seasonal abundance of oil willow fruits (Eleagnus angustifolia) is reflected in the diet; in the Caucasus region the diet includes abundant grasshoppers. In Israelthe Striped Hyena feeds on garbage, carrion, and fruits, particularly dates and melons. In eastern Jordan, the main sources of food are carcasses of feral horses and water buffalo and refuse from localvillages. The Striped Hyena can drink water of very variable quality, from fresh water to soda and salt water, but it may also satisfy its water requirements with melons or otherfruits. Very little is currently known about the hunting behavior of Striped Hyenas, but those few hunts that have been observed involved simple chases and grabs at prey. Seasonal influxes of Striped Hyenas follow migrations of large herds of domestic and wild ungulates in Turkmenistan, suggesting that the Hyenas cover long distances on foraging trips. In Egyptthey are known to move along ancient caravan roads where the chance of locating dead camels is high. In Serengeti and in southern Kenya, they spend most of the night actively searching for food or moving between established foraging sites. Striped Hyenas apparently can remember the locations offruiting trees, garbage dumps and other established feeding sites, although the routes taken to re-visit such food sources are seldom repeated on consecutive foraging trips. They are also able to locate tortoises in their hiding places during periods of aestivation and hibernation. Striped Hyenas frequently cache bones or pieces of skin, using their snouts to push these items deep into clumps of grass or stands of dense shrubs. They may also carry food items back to their dens. Bone collections are common at den sites used by Striped Hyenas, although it is often unclear whether these collections represent scavenged or killed prey, and whether the bones collected play a significant nutritional role in the lives of these animals. Several studies have inferred diet by combining data from bone collections and fecal samples. In central Kenya, however, bone collections indicated a much broader range of prey than did scat analysis, and significant portions of bone assemblages were very old bones unlikely to represent material scavenged from fresh kills. From fecal analysis alone, several researchers have found remains of prey items that are more likely to have been scavenged than hunted, and larger mammals are represented far less often in the analysis of hairs in fecal material than would be expected based only on bone collections at dens. Striped Hyenas appear to be strictly solitary foragers, although multiple individuals occasionally gather at rich food sources such as large carcasses or refuse pits. These animals are sometimes found in small groups while resting, but there is no indication that they ever forage cooperatively. Genetic relatedness among members of groups seen feeding together has not been investigated. Foraging activity in Kenyaand Tanzaniais restricted to hours of darkness except during rain or unusually cloudy weather. Under those circumstances, Striped Hyenas may return to previously visited kills or carcasses, but do not embark on full foraging forays. In many areas, and for many centuries, Striped Hyenas have been described as raiding human graves and carrying away bones. Fruit and vegetable crop raiding by Striped Hyenas is currently considered a serious problem in some parts of Israel. While foraging, Striped Hyenas zigzag across the landscape and do not appear to follow set routes, even when returning to the same food source on multiple nights. Minimum mean distance travelled per night is 19 kmat speeds of 2-4 km/h, occasionally trotting at speeds of up to 8 km/h, or running at a maximum of 50 km/h. Overall, the evidence indicates that Striped Hyenas are solitary foragers for which carrion, insects, fruits and vegetable matter represent significant portions of the diet.Activity patterns.The Striped Hyena is almost strictly nocturnal, although it does occasionally engage in some activity after dawn and before dusk. Some authorities suggest Striped Hyenas may be moststrictly nocturnal in areas characterized by relatively intensive anthropogenic activity, and where they are directly persecuted by humans.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Serengeti, Striped Hyenas travel an average of 19 kmper night (range 7-27 km), either following established animal tracks or zig-zagging cross-country. A similar pattern was observed in southern Kenya, where Striped Hyenas followed by human observers covered large distances, but stopped frequently to paste or to investigate grass clumps, carcasses, and other things found on the ground along the way. Home range sizes of one femaleand one malein the Serengeti were 44 km* and 72 km? respectively. There was little evidence of territorial behavior. Home range size was calculated for a single female in the Negev Desert in Israelto be approximately 61 km?; this range partly overlapped those of two other individuals. In the Laikipia Districtof Kenya, the mean home rangesize for 12 maleswas 82 km?, and for eight femaleswas 71 km? with no significant difference in home range sizes between sexes. No evidence ofterritorial defense has been recorded in any studied population, but in some populations these hyenas are known to scent-mark frequently within their home ranges while traveling, and also to defecate in “latrines” near feeding sites and along travel routes. Striped Hyenas are the least well-studied of the extant hyaenids, and their social behavior is very poorly understood. They are most often reported to be solitary. Nevertheless, there appears to be considerable variability with respect to patterns of social grouping among Striped Hyena populations. In some areas, such as central Asia, these animals are reported to form short-term monogamous pair bonds for breeding, with a resulting family unit that may endure for several years. Such family units may sometimes contain offspring from multiple litters. Under these circumstances, both parents and the older offspring may be observed provisioning den-dwelling cubs. Typical group sizes are one or two in all subspecies, but groups of up to seven have been reported in Libya. In Israel, Striped Hyenas are generally solitary, but occasionally several are seen together at a carcass, including both males and females, or females with large cubs. Age-specific foraging data are extremely limited, but cubs have occasionally been observed accompanying their mothers on foraging trips away from the den by 6-12 months of age. Otherwise, foraging is strictly solitary. Almost invariably described as solitary in sub-Saharan Africa, it was recently discovered that Striped Hyenas in the Laikipia Districtof Kenyaare behaviorally solitary but exhibit a polyandrous system of space use. These animals form groups of up to four adults; each group contains one adultfemale and one to three adultmales. Females in both wild and captive populations appear to be highly intolerant of one another, starting around the time they reach puberty. The overall adult sex ratio in the Laikipiapopulation was three malesto two females. Members of these groups share a common home range and may be found resting together during daylight hours. The home ranges of group-mates exhibit 85% overlap, whereas their ranges overlap only 22% with those of animals in other groups. Individual group members spend more than 90% of their time alone. Adult male group-mates included both closely-related and distantly related individuals. In contrast to spatial patterns of relatedness documented in other carnivores, pairs in non-adjacent groups tended to be more closely related genetically than pairs living in adjacent groups. This was true for females as well as males. As these animals are usually found alone, very little has been recorded regarding direct social interactions except for captive situations. In this species, males are slightly larger than females, and males also appear to be socially dominant to females in resource competition. The long dorsal hairs of the mane may be erected to enhance the apparentsize of the individual during confrontations with conspecifics. Both mane and tail hairs are erected when the animal assumes a defensive posture, but also when it adopts an aggressive stance. The mane is also commonly bristled whenever the animal pastes. When Striped Hyenas fight they bite at the throat and legs, rather than at the mane. During an agonistic interaction, the subordinate individual may hunch its body, lower its mane, and swing or turn its head from side to side whereas the dominant animal remains bristled and stands erect. The Striped Hyena exhibits a number of visual displays, the moststriking of which is the erection of the mane and bristling ofthe tail like a bottle brush. The mane and tail thus serve as signalling devices during social interactions. When members of the same social group meet after being separated, they engage in “meeting ceremonies”, which involve investigation and licking of the mid-back region and sniffing of the nose and extruded anal pouch. The tail is often held vertically during meeting ceremonies. Meeting ceremonies may also involve repeated pawing of the throat of the greeting partner. The well-developed anal pouch is inverted during scent marking, called pasting, and also during greetings. In scent marking, the anal pouch produces a pungent yellow to beige paste which is deposited at nose-height on grass stalks, stones, tree-trunks, or sticks. Foraging Striped Hyenas pause to paste at frequent intervals, and these scent marks appear to be deposited throughout the home range rather than exclusively at its borders. Pasting has also been observed at large carcasses in the wild, and, in captivity, on food bowls. Some Striped Hyena vocalizations resemble those of Spotted Hyenas, although calls emitted by Striped Hyenas tend to be much softer, and the sounds carry shorter distances. The vocal repertoire of the Spotted Hyenais also far more elaborate than that of the Striped Hyena. Most ofits vocalizations are uttered in the presence of conspecifics. Cubs whine while they are nursing. Giggling or yelling may occur when a Striped Hyena is frightened or being chased by another predator. A long, drawn-out lowing sound sometimes accompanies the defensive posture, and growling may occur during fighting or play-fighting with conspecifics.Breeding.Females are polyestrous and breed throughout the year. Estrus is reported to last one day. No detailed descriptions of sexual behavior in the wild have been reported, but during matings in captivity, females may mate several times at intervals of at least 15 minutes. In the wild, litter size varies from one to four (median of three), after a gestation period of 90-91 days. Average litter size in captivity is 2-4, with a range of one to five. Parturition is preceded by intensive digging behavior by the female. Cubs weigh approximately 700 gat birth; they have adult-like markings but lack manes, and instead have only black spinal stripes. They are born with eyes and ears closed, and they are barely able to crawl, so they are far more altricial than Spotted Hyena cubs at birth. Their eyesfirst open after five to nine days, and cubs may emerge from the den at around two weeks of age. Deciduous teeth start to erupt on day 21. Cubs begin to eat meat at the age of 30 days. In the wild cubs are known to nurse for over one year. They reach reproductive maturity during the second year oflife. The mating system is promiscuous or polyandrous. In the Laikipiapopulation in Kenya, females appear to mate with both group males and males that reside elsewhere. It is not known whether sires contribute in any way to parental care in this population, but lactating females are usually found alone at dens with their cubs, males do not spend significant periods of time at dens, and females appear to be solely responsible for care of young. Multiple paternity in this population occurred in half of sampled litters, and extra-group males sired roughly one third of the cubs born to group females. Striped Hyenas usually use caves, ravines or other sheltered rocky places as dens, although earthen dens may also be used. Den entrances are fairly narrow and may be hidden by large boulders. Two dens were measured in the Karakum Desert. The entrances were 0-67 m and 0-72 m wide. The dens sloped downward 3 mand 2bm and were 4-15 m and 5 mlong, with no lateral extensions or special chambers. These simple constructions contrast with much more elaborate dens found in Israel, which can exceed 27 min length.Status and Conservation.Listed as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Despite their broad distribution, the basic biology of Striped Hyenas, including their abundance in most parts of their range, remains very poorly known. Throughout its range, the Striped Hyena occurs at low densities. There have been only two local estimates of Striped Hyena density in Africa, and it is considered either threatened or data deficient throughout its African range. In Serengeti and Laikipia, density was estimated to be 0-02 per km? and 0-03 adults per km?, respectively. Remarkably little information is available on the species. This is undoubtedly due to its shy, nocturnal, mostly solitary nature, its apparent affinity for rugged terrain, its generally negative reputation, and frequent confusion with, or lack of differentiation from, Spotted Hyenas where the two species overlap. Most adult mortality is directly caused by Lions and humans. Striped Hyenas, particularly those inhabiting areas where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse, may attack livestock, and as a result they are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. It appears that the Striped Hyena is already extinct in many localities, and that populations are generally declining. The major reasonsfor this decline appear to be decreasing natural and domestic sources of carrion due to declines in the populations of other large carnivores and their prey, and changes in livestock practices. Moreover, the low densities and associated large home ranges of these animals are likely to increase the chances that populations will become fragmented into small, non-viable units. This must be considered a key problem if these animals are to be protected. The Striped Hyena evokes many superstitious fears because of putative and documented cases of grave-robbing and attacks on humans. In addition,its body parts are widely exploited as aphrodisiacs, and are utilized in folk medicine. Striped Hyenas are often killed because of suspected or real damage inflicted on agricultural produce and livestock, and they are often shot by livestock ranchers. These animals have also been widely hunted through poisoning, baiting traps, pits, or with the help of dogs. The Striped Hyena does sometimes cause damage to crops, and may sometimes also attack domestic animals, predominantly goats, sheep, dogs, and poultry. In many cases of damage to livestock, it is unclear whether the targeted individual was adult or young, healthy or sick, so Striped Hyenas may be blamed for livestock mortality for which they are not truly responsible. In any case, the records suggest that attacks on livestock by Striped Hyenas usually occur at very low frequencies. Tentative estimates of the total worldwide population size range from 5000 to 14,000 individuals. Fragmentation into many subpopulations is suspected even though the actual degree of fragmentation is unknown. In addition, habitat loss and declining population size are occurring at unknown rates. The Striped Hyena is considered threatened in all parts of its African range where data are sufficient to evaluate the local status, except in Ethiopiaand Kenya, whereit is considered at lowerrisk. As we currently know so little about the biology ofthis species, one of the most pressing conservation concerns is to study these animals in a number of different locales. In addition to knowing very little about their behavioral ecology, we also know virtually nothing about their abundance and population dynamics. Before we can make management decisions in the best interest of Striped Hyenas, we need more information. Fortunately, studies of these animals are currently underway in East Africa, India, and the Middle East.Bibliography.Bouskila (1984), Davidar (1990), Hofer (1998), Horwitz & Smith (1988), Kerbis-Peterhans & Horwitz (1992), Koepfli et al. (2006), Kolska (1991), Kruuk (1976), Leakey et al. (1999), Macdonald (1978), Mendelssohn (1985), Mills & Hofer (1998), Pocock (1934d), Rieger (1978, 1979a, 1979b, 1979¢, 1981), Skinner & llani (1979), Skinner et al. (1980), VanAarde et al. (1988), Wagner (2006, In press), Wagner, Creel et al. (2007), Wagner, Frank & Creel (2008), Wagner, Frank, Creel & Coscia (2007), Werdelin & Solounias (1991), Yom-Tov & Geffen (2006)." -03928E699A40FFCED0DBF7C0FB4BF492,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,236,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A40FFCED0DBF7C0FB4BF492.xml,Lama glama,Lama,glama,,,Lama @fr | Lama @de | Llama @es,"Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758,Peru, Andes.The Llama was selectively bred from the Guanaco(L. guanicoe) for use as a pack animal and producer of meat. It is regarded throughout the world as the premier symbol of South American fauna. With the possibility of more than one center, Llama domestication occurred 4000-4500 years ago in the South-Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina) and/or 4500-5500 ago in the Central Andes (Junin de los Andes, Argentina). It is often assumed and reported that the Lake Titacaca region was a core of Llama domestication, but supporting data are lacking from early archaeological sites. Osteological remains and DNA analysis document the origin of domestication to be within the range of the northern subspecies of GuanacoL. g. cacsilensis. From its points of domestication, archeological evidence reveals that breeding and herding of Llamas spread widely throughout the Andean region to intermountain valleys, cloud forest on the eastern slope of the Central Andes, southern coast of Peru, to the mountains of Ecuador. Llamas closely resemble their progenitor the Guanacoin almost all aspects of physiology, behavior, general morphology, and adaptability to a wide range of environments. There are no subspecies, but two distinct phenotypic breeds: Short-Woolled and Long-Woolled Llamas.","Llamas are found at 3800-5000 m above sea level in the Central Andes, from C Peruto W Boliviaand N Argentina. Llama distribution reached its apex during the expansion of the Inca Empire (1470-1532 ap), when pack trains were used to carry supplies for the royal armies to S Colombiaand C Chile. Although originally indigenous and endemic to South America, Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, cottage industry and home use ofits wool, and in North America increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators.","Head-body 180-229 cm, tail 18-22 cm, shoulder height 102-106 cm; weight 110-220 kg. Llamas are the largest of the four cameloids and tallest of all Neotropical animals. Classical, camelid-body shape with long slender necks, long legs, and small head compared to the body. Their pelage can be white, black, or brown with all intermediate shades occurring and a tendency for spots and irregular color patterns. Wild-type Llamas occur with Guanacocoloration. There are two distinct phenotypic breeds. SHORT-WOOLLED LLAMAS: Slim and long-bodied, with short coats and visible guard hairs, Short-Woolled Llamas are typically the breed utilized for carrying cargo and are the more common of the two. In the Altiplano regions of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi Departments the proportion of Short-Woolled Llamas varies between 65% and 83%, while in the Peruvian highlands they represent 80% of the total Llama population. The fleece is low density, low weight (1-3 + 1-1 kg biennially), and relatively thicker fibers with high medullation of 77-88%. Medullation refers to the presence and degree of medulla at the center of the fiber, and high medullation is “undesirable” because the greater the medullation, the bigger the fiber in diameter and so less fine. LONG-WOOLLED LLAMAS: The less common (17-35%) of the two, this breed is compact, short-bodied, and the pelage has fewer guard hairs. Their wool is longer, covering the entire body, generally uniform, and soft to the touch. The fleece is heavier (2-8 + 1-1 kg), denser, and has finer fibers (26-28 microns) with medullation of 26-33%, and on the average wool coarser than the Alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Genetic studies have revealed that 40% of the Llama population shows signs of hybridization with Alpacas. Intentional hybridization has been especially common during the past 25 years both in South America and abroad with the aim of improving wool quality, fleece weight, and economic value. Unfortunately the outcome has been a major loss of pure genetic lines. Indigenous Quechua peoples in the Andes subdivide hybrids into “llamawari” (Llama-like) and “pacowari” (Alpaca-like) based upon physical appearance. Llama ears are banana-shaped (distinctively curved inward) and relatively long (14-16 cm). They are docile, intelligent, and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. Mature Llamas weigh an average of 140 kgwith full body size reached by four years of age. There are no obvious differences between the sexes, but males tend to be slightly larger. The male prepuce is slightly bent down and directed posteriorly for urination. The female vulva is small, located immediately below the anus, with a nose-like structure pointing out from the base; the compact udderis in inguinal area with four small teats. Llamas are long-lived with a life span of 15-20 or more years. The Llama is woolly in appearance; individual fibers are often coarse, not homogeneous, and have a wide variation in diameter. Its fleece is the heaviest (1.8-3. 5 kg) of the four cameloids, but often of uneven quality. As with the other cameloids, Llama fleece lacks grease,is dry, highly hygroscopic, and naturally lanolin free. Through selective breeding and/or hybridization with Alpacas, some Llama bloodlines have finer-fibered fleeces. The typical Llama fleece is dominated by external guard hair covering (c.56% offleece with fiber diameter 50-70 microns) with an internal undercoat of smaller diameter fibers (c.44% with 25-30 microns). Llama wool is more variable in color and diameter than Alpaca wool. Due to its relative coarseness, [Llama wool has little textile value and is worth half the value of Alpaca wool. Llama woolis rougher to the touch, but with greater felting properties since the cuticle scales protrude more. However, because Llama wool is characteristically strong and warm, it is commonly used by indigenous families for making blankets, ponchos, carpets, rugs, shawls, rope, riding gear, sacks, and “costales""—bags tied to the back of Llamas and used for carrying cargo. Only c.40% of the Llama population is shorn annually because producers want heavy fleeces with long fibers to sell commercially. Some Llamas are not shorn for years because the fleece pads the back for carrying cargo. Annually there are c.1,122,667 kg of Llama wool produced in Peru(60%), Bolivia(34%), and relatively small amounts from Argentinaand Chile. In Boliviaan estimated 70% is sold commercially and 30% used for home use. Although the textile industry prefers white, Llama fleeces are of different colors (47% solid, 27% mixed, 25% white). A major problem with Llama woolis its high medullation: without (20%), fragmented (37%), continuous (39%), and kemp/hair (4%). If the fleece wool is separated from different parts of the body and coarse fibers are removed, a favorable proportion of fine wool is obtained. There are no sustainable plans for genetic selection of animals with fine diameter of high value. Although the population of Llamas in Argentinais relatively low, fiber diameter is fine: 48% at 21 microns or less and only 16% at 25 microns and more.","In the Andean Altiplano where large numbers of Llamas are raised, the animals are a central part of the agro-pastoral system and the lifestyle of many people, since Llamas are heavily relied upon for carrying cargo and produce. In general these high-altitude grazing lands are low producing with annual production at 200-600 kg/ha for plains and mountainous zones and 600-2450 kg/ha for bofedales. The bofedal habitat is especially important for foraging Llamas during the dry season, yet fragile and susceptible to erosion if overgrazing is permitted.","[lamas are considered by their indigenous herders to be extremely hardy because of their ability to prosper in desolate-Andean environments. They have similar feeding habits to Alpacas, but distinct enough to make joint husbandry compatible and possible. Herders view the land andits forage as a single valuable unit because it feeds their Llamas and Alpacas. Land ownership is not important, but traditional use and designated rights to graze particular areas is critical. Studies in the highlands of Peruand Chileon the botanical composition of the diets of Llamas feeding on wet (bofedales) and dry (gramadales) meadows found a high overlap with Alpaca and sheep feeding habits, but significantly differed from Alpacas in the summer (61%) and winter (74%) because the two camelids were managed by herders to minimize competition. Llamas had higher digestion coefficients than sheep of organic matter, crude protein, dry matter, and fiber fractions of bunchgrasses, important forage for Llamas. These feeding trials comparing the abilities of Llamas vs domestic sheep in digesting organic material ofvarious qualities revealed the coefficients of digestibility for low quality to be 51 vs. 41 (24% difference between the species), medium quality 60 vs. 52 (15%), high quality 73 vs. 75 (-=3%), high fiber 58 vs. 52 (12%), medium fiber 62 vs. 58 (7%), and low fiber 67 vs. 65 (3%). Thus Llamas were significantly more efficient than sheep when forage was low to medium quality and high in fiber. Maintenance energy requirements for a 108 kgLlama is 2% of its body weight, or 2-2 kg dry matter of forage per day.","The breeding season is from February to May. Males used for breeding are commonly familiar to the females, who when approached sit down in the copulatory position. Unfamiliar males usually have to chase the female and force her to recline. Research and extension agencies encourage herders to use one male with five females for three days, and then remove the male. The male is reintroduced 15 days later and the cycle is repeated until all females are bred. Gestation is 340-360 days. A single offspring is born, although exceptionally twins do occur. The female gives birth standing up, there is no licking of the neonate, and newborns can follow their mother within an hour. Llamas have a high potential for reproduction under good management: 85-95% annual reproductive rate on research and well-managed farms. However, in the Andes due to poor forage conditions frequently available to indigenous herders and the resulting poor condition of animals,fertility has been reported to be as low as 45-55%. In years of severe cold or droughts subadult mortality can be as high as 30-50%. Offspring regularly nurse up to the fifth month and are weaned by the herder at eight months, although if allowed to do so will continue to nurse irregularly until the female gives birth again the following year. Some females breed 8-10 days after parturition, but two to three weeks later is the norm. Mother Llamas are patient with suckling their young and some will accept nursing another female’s offspring. After weaning the young Llamas, some herders separate them from females until two years old, and then segregate them by sex. At three years of age a final selection is made for the best males to be sires with the balance to be used as pack animals or eventually meat. Females are bred at two and half years and not used as beasts of burden.","Daily activity patterns of Llamas are essentially the same as Alpacas. That is, after having spent the night in or next to a rudimentary stone corral adjacent to the family’s residence (often a single-room hut called “choza” made of stones with a thatched roof), the Llamas move out soon after sunrise to feed in the local highaltitude grasslands, moving and grazing often unattended by a herder, then return to the choza as darkness approaches. Activity budgets (percentage of time) of Llamas compared to sheep grazing on native Andean pasture dominated by favorable forage (Festucadolichophylla), have shown that all other activities were similar, but that Llamas feed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (15% vs. 25%) than sheep.","[Llamas (as well as Alpacas) of South America exist within a society of indigenous herders, whose main societal features are seasonal migration, a scattered population without villages or urban centers for permanent residence, and whose social structure is centered around large families with strong ties. Rules and traditions exist within each community that often determines important aspects of herd management. For example, in some systems male [lamas are maintained apart from the female segment in distant community pastures, and then reunited for the breeding/rainy season from January through March. The female segmentis a mixed herd of reproducing and replacement females, young, and one-year-olds of both sexes. When the yearlings are 12-18 months old some herders make a preliminary selection for meat production or future reproduction. Another system used extensively is one in which breeding males are permanently kept with the mixed herds of females year-round. Invariably Llama herders also maintain a flock of sheep that offers an important source of food for the family. A problem, however, is that the sheep compete for forage with the Llamas, reduce the land’s carrying capacity, and increase the probability of overgrazing. Llama herd size averages 40-60 in the more heavily populated communities, compared to 120-180 Llamas in the Altiplano with fewer people. In contrast, average accompanying flocks of sheep average 40-70 animals in both areas.","Boliviahas most (58%) of South America’s ¢.3-91 million Llamas, followed by Peru(37%), Argentina(4%), and Chile(1%); nearly all of which (99%) are found in indigenous communities. The total number of Llamas has increased 12% during the past decade. In Bolivia370,000-500,000 families raise Llamas, in Peru297,414, Argentina2803, 80% of which have fewer than 90 animals. There are no known wild or feral populations. Llamas were intertwined with the rise and spread of the Inca Empire since its beginning in the Peruvian Andes in the early 1200s. With the help of Llamas, the Incas built sturdy walls, buildings, irrigation systems, and some 8700 kmof roads throughout their empire. These roads eventually extended around 2500 kmfrom Ecuadorsouth to central Chileand parts of Argentina. Before the Spanish Conquest of Peru, Llamas numbered into the multimillions, but were severely decimated during the post-conquest period. While early Spanish chroniclers recorded the “virtual disappearance” of these animals within a hundred years, that was obviously an exaggeration. Indigenous and endemic to the South America, [Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, and increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators. In the USAthere were 162,000 registered Llamas in 2010. Export of Llamas (as well as Alpacas) has increased international interest in these species, stimulating research in the medical, nutritional, reproductive, and disease disciplines. In the Andes, Llamas are viewed and described by native herders by masculine terminology. During ceremonies in which Llamas are being honored or sacrificed, they are referred to as “brothers” and when higher rank or importance is expressed, they are called “fathers.” Indigenous Llama terminology is based upon fleece color, patterns and patches, sex, reproductive status, age, size, shape, wool quality, and behavior. The combinations of these descriptive characters amount to over 20,000 words, forming a rich nomenclature used to identify and distinguish individual Llamas as well as Alpacas. Llamas have long been important beasts of burden for the Andean cultures and nations. Cargo-carrying Llamas have made it possible for peoples of the Andes to successfully inhabit this rugged-mountain environment. Extensive and ritualized prayers are said before departure of a Llama caravan, requesting permission and protection from local deities for the journey, safe passage, and that no incident will befall the Llamas or family members while traveling. Only men of the family travel with the Llama pack train, walking behind the animals. Castrated male Llamas are used primarily, and depending upon their maturity, size, and training, individuals are capable of carrying up to 25-30% of their body weight, or 25-35 kg, and traveling 20-30 km in a day for up to 20 days. The cargo is carried in a sack tied to the Llama’s back with a rope made from coarse Llama wool. Males are castrated at two years of age and training begins by accompanying the older animals on trips. Individual Llamas in the traveling caravan are not tied together, but follow the lead of two to three “Llama guides.” Such lead Llamas traditionally were adorned with colorful halters, frontal tapestries, and even a family or national flag atop its back. Animal leaders are given names to reflect their status, such as Road-Breaker, Condor Face, and Champion. Lead Llamas prevent junior animals from usurping the front position, and guide the way when fording rivers, crossing dangerous bridges, and when negotiating narrow paths along steep ravines. If the lead Llama stops, the entire caravan waits until it resumes traveling. At the end of the day, Llamas are unpacked and turned loose to graze and water. If available, they are kept in stone corrals for the night, otherwise they are grouped together with a rope running around them at neck level. Llama caravans use traditional trading circuits in the Altiplano, some descending into the Andean valleys, the Pacific coast to the west, or the Amazon jungle to the east. Goods are sold, purchased, and traded along the route as needed. From the coastal agricultural valleys fresh produce was obtained in exchange for corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley that were grown and carried down from the mountain agricultural valleys. In times past Llama trains traveled hundreds of kilometers to obtain highly prized salt from inland, natural-salt deposits and mines, some types of which were used for human consumption, others for animals. Today, the world of the Andean Llama herdsmen is rapidly changing with goods and produce now primarily transported by trucks and rail. Still, Llama caravans continue to be used and are especially important for transporting goods to remote regions of the Andes. Secondarily Llamas are used in South America for meat, fuel, and wool. Llama meatis often dried and stored as jerky, typically made by alternative freeze-drying during the Andean winter when nights are freezing and days sunny. With a dressing percentage of 44-48% yielding 25-30 kg of fresh meat, 12-15 kg ofjerky are produced. Jerky is not only a convenient form for long-term storage of meat, but is an excellent source of protein (55-60%). Llama hides are used for making shoes, ropes, and bags. Their fecal matter is valuable as fuel in regions where wood is scarce. It should be noted that despite the presence of many animals, the diet of Andean herdsmen is based upon agricultural produce. They eat little meat and drink no milk. Goat or cow cheese is consumed by some, and when meat is eaten,it is in the form of cameloid jerky or fresh sheep meat. Outside South America the Llama’s cargo-carrying ability has been discovered by hikers, hunters, and forest-work crews in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Llamas are quiet, gentle, unobtrusive, and easy to manage. Their hardiness, surefootedness, and trainability make them excellent pack animals and trail companions. The Llama’s agility allows them to negotiate terrain that would be difficult or impossible for other pack animals, and because of their padded feet and ability to browse, they have minimal impact on trails and mountain meadows. In North America Llamas have been used highly successfully as guard llamas for protecting sheep and goats from coyote and feral dog predation. Livestock owners report that their annual sheep losses dropped from 11% to 1% after the introduction of a guard llama, and more than half reported 100% reduction in predator losses. Single, gelded males are typically used, although females work equally well. In 2006, they were found across Canadaas well as in every USstate. In the USAthere were over 11,000 guard llamas in use on some 9500 sheep operations. Remarkably, half the sheep ranchers in Wyominghave guard llamas and they are common on sheep ranches in Colorado(39%), Montana(28%), and Utah(23%). In the Plains States, 23% of sheep producers in North Dakotaand 21% in South Dakotause guard llamas. In the Midwest and the Eastern States, Missouri(23%) and North Carolina(24%) lead the way, respectively. Although not a panacea, guard llamas have proven to be a viable non-lethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no special training and minimal care.","Bravo et al. (2000) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995) | Franklin (1982b) | Franklin & Powell (2006) | Gonzales (1990) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Marin et al. (2007b) | Novoa (1984) | Quispe et al. (2009) | San Martin (1989) | Sumar (1996) | Van Saun (2006) | Wheeler (1984, 2006)",,"2.LlamaLama glamaFrench:Lama/ German:Lama/ Spanish:LlamaTaxonomy.Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758,Peru, Andes.The Llama was selectively bred from the Guanaco(L. guanicoe) for use as a pack animal and producer of meat. It is regarded throughout the world as the premier symbol of South American fauna. With the possibility of more than one center, Llama domestication occurred 4000-4500 years ago in the South-Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina) and/or 4500-5500 ago in the Central Andes (Junin de los Andes, Argentina). It is often assumed and reported that the Lake Titacaca region was a core of Llama domestication, but supporting data are lacking from early archaeological sites. Osteological remains and DNA analysis document the origin of domestication to be within the range of the northern subspecies of GuanacoL. g. cacsilensis. From its points of domestication, archeological evidence reveals that breeding and herding of Llamas spread widely throughout the Andean region to intermountain valleys, cloud forest on the eastern slope of the Central Andes, southern coast of Peru, to the mountains of Ecuador. Llamas closely resemble their progenitor the Guanacoin almost all aspects of physiology, behavior, general morphology, and adaptability to a wide range of environments. There are no subspecies, but two distinct phenotypic breeds: Short-Woolled and Long-Woolled Llamas.Distribution.Llamas are found at 3800-5000 m above sea level in the Central Andes, from C Peruto W Boliviaand N Argentina. Llama distribution reached its apex during the expansion of the Inca Empire (1470-1532 ap), when pack trains were used to carry supplies for the royal armies to S Colombiaand C Chile. Although originally indigenous and endemic to South America, Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, cottage industry and home use ofits wool, and in North America increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-229 cm, tail 18-22 cm, shoulder height 102-106 cm; weight 110-220 kg. Llamas are the largest of the four cameloids and tallest of all Neotropical animals. Classical, camelid-body shape with long slender necks, long legs, and small head compared to the body. Their pelage can be white, black, or brown with all intermediate shades occurring and a tendency for spots and irregular color patterns. Wild-type Llamas occur with Guanacocoloration. There are two distinct phenotypic breeds. SHORT-WOOLLED LLAMAS: Slim and long-bodied, with short coats and visible guard hairs, Short-Woolled Llamas are typically the breed utilized for carrying cargo and are the more common of the two. In the Altiplano regions of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi Departments the proportion of Short-Woolled Llamas varies between 65% and 83%, while in the Peruvian highlands they represent 80% of the total Llama population. The fleece is low density, low weight (1-3 + 1-1 kg biennially), and relatively thicker fibers with high medullation of 77-88%. Medullation refers to the presence and degree of medulla at the center of the fiber, and high medullation is “undesirable” because the greater the medullation, the bigger the fiber in diameter and so less fine. LONG-WOOLLED LLAMAS: The less common (17-35%) of the two, this breed is compact, short-bodied, and the pelage has fewer guard hairs. Their wool is longer, covering the entire body, generally uniform, and soft to the touch. The fleece is heavier (2-8 + 1-1 kg), denser, and has finer fibers (26-28 microns) with medullation of 26-33%, and on the average wool coarser than the Alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Genetic studies have revealed that 40% of the Llama population shows signs of hybridization with Alpacas. Intentional hybridization has been especially common during the past 25 years both in South America and abroad with the aim of improving wool quality, fleece weight, and economic value. Unfortunately the outcome has been a major loss of pure genetic lines. Indigenous Quechua peoples in the Andes subdivide hybrids into “llamawari” (Llama-like) and “pacowari” (Alpaca-like) based upon physical appearance. Llama ears are banana-shaped (distinctively curved inward) and relatively long (14-16 cm). They are docile, intelligent, and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. Mature Llamas weigh an average of 140 kgwith full body size reached by four years of age. There are no obvious differences between the sexes, but males tend to be slightly larger. The male prepuce is slightly bent down and directed posteriorly for urination. The female vulva is small, located immediately below the anus, with a nose-like structure pointing out from the base; the compact udderis in inguinal area with four small teats. Llamas are long-lived with a life span of 15-20 or more years. The Llama is woolly in appearance; individual fibers are often coarse, not homogeneous, and have a wide variation in diameter. Its fleece is the heaviest (1.8-3. 5 kg) of the four cameloids, but often of uneven quality. As with the other cameloids, Llama fleece lacks grease,is dry, highly hygroscopic, and naturally lanolin free. Through selective breeding and/or hybridization with Alpacas, some Llama bloodlines have finer-fibered fleeces. The typical Llama fleece is dominated by external guard hair covering (c.56% offleece with fiber diameter 50-70 microns) with an internal undercoat of smaller diameter fibers (c.44% with 25-30 microns). Llama wool is more variable in color and diameter than Alpaca wool. Due to its relative coarseness, [Llama wool has little textile value and is worth half the value of Alpaca wool. Llama woolis rougher to the touch, but with greater felting properties since the cuticle scales protrude more. However, because Llama wool is characteristically strong and warm, it is commonly used by indigenous families for making blankets, ponchos, carpets, rugs, shawls, rope, riding gear, sacks, and “costales""—bags tied to the back of Llamas and used for carrying cargo. Only c.40% of the Llama population is shorn annually because producers want heavy fleeces with long fibers to sell commercially. Some Llamas are not shorn for years because the fleece pads the back for carrying cargo. Annually there are c.1,122,667 kg of Llama wool produced in Peru(60%), Bolivia(34%), and relatively small amounts from Argentinaand Chile. In Boliviaan estimated 70% is sold commercially and 30% used for home use. Although the textile industry prefers white, Llama fleeces are of different colors (47% solid, 27% mixed, 25% white). A major problem with Llama woolis its high medullation: without (20%), fragmented (37%), continuous (39%), and kemp/hair (4%). If the fleece wool is separated from different parts of the body and coarse fibers are removed, a favorable proportion of fine wool is obtained. There are no sustainable plans for genetic selection of animals with fine diameter of high value. Although the population of Llamas in Argentinais relatively low, fiber diameter is fine: 48% at 21 microns or less and only 16% at 25 microns and more.Habitat.In the Andean Altiplano where large numbers of Llamas are raised, the animals are a central part of the agro-pastoral system and the lifestyle of many people, since Llamas are heavily relied upon for carrying cargo and produce. In general these high-altitude grazing lands are low producing with annual production at 200-600 kg/ha for plains and mountainous zones and 600-2450 kg/ha for bofedales. The bofedal habitat is especially important for foraging Llamas during the dry season, yet fragile and susceptible to erosion if overgrazing is permitted.Food and Feeding.[lamas are considered by their indigenous herders to be extremely hardy because of their ability to prosper in desolate-Andean environments. They have similar feeding habits to Alpacas, but distinct enough to make joint husbandry compatible and possible. Herders view the land andits forage as a single valuable unit because it feeds their Llamas and Alpacas. Land ownership is not important, but traditional use and designated rights to graze particular areas is critical. Studies in the highlands of Peruand Chileon the botanical composition of the diets of Llamas feeding on wet (bofedales) and dry (gramadales) meadows found a high overlap with Alpaca and sheep feeding habits, but significantly differed from Alpacas in the summer (61%) and winter (74%) because the two camelids were managed by herders to minimize competition. Llamas had higher digestion coefficients than sheep of organic matter, crude protein, dry matter, and fiber fractions of bunchgrasses, important forage for Llamas. These feeding trials comparing the abilities of Llamas vs domestic sheep in digesting organic material ofvarious qualities revealed the coefficients of digestibility for low quality to be 51 vs. 41 (24% difference between the species), medium quality 60 vs. 52 (15%), high quality 73 vs. 75 (-=3%), high fiber 58 vs. 52 (12%), medium fiber 62 vs. 58 (7%), and low fiber 67 vs. 65 (3%). Thus Llamas were significantly more efficient than sheep when forage was low to medium quality and high in fiber. Maintenance energy requirements for a 108 kgLlama is 2% of its body weight, or 2-2 kg dry matter of forage per day.Breeding.The breeding season is from February to May. Males used for breeding are commonly familiar to the females, who when approached sit down in the copulatory position. Unfamiliar males usually have to chase the female and force her to recline. Research and extension agencies encourage herders to use one male with five females for three days, and then remove the male. The male is reintroduced 15 days later and the cycle is repeated until all females are bred. Gestation is 340-360 days. A single offspring is born, although exceptionally twins do occur. The female gives birth standing up, there is no licking of the neonate, and newborns can follow their mother within an hour. Llamas have a high potential for reproduction under good management: 85-95% annual reproductive rate on research and well-managed farms. However, in the Andes due to poor forage conditions frequently available to indigenous herders and the resulting poor condition of animals,fertility has been reported to be as low as 45-55%. In years of severe cold or droughts subadult mortality can be as high as 30-50%. Offspring regularly nurse up to the fifth month and are weaned by the herder at eight months, although if allowed to do so will continue to nurse irregularly until the female gives birth again the following year. Some females breed 8-10 days after parturition, but two to three weeks later is the norm. Mother Llamas are patient with suckling their young and some will accept nursing another female’s offspring. After weaning the young Llamas, some herders separate them from females until two years old, and then segregate them by sex. At three years of age a final selection is made for the best males to be sires with the balance to be used as pack animals or eventually meat. Females are bred at two and half years and not used as beasts of burden.Activity patterns.Daily activity patterns of Llamas are essentially the same as Alpacas. That is, after having spent the night in or next to a rudimentary stone corral adjacent to the family’s residence (often a single-room hut called “choza” made of stones with a thatched roof), the Llamas move out soon after sunrise to feed in the local highaltitude grasslands, moving and grazing often unattended by a herder, then return to the choza as darkness approaches. Activity budgets (percentage of time) of Llamas compared to sheep grazing on native Andean pasture dominated by favorable forage (Festucadolichophylla), have shown that all other activities were similar, but that Llamas feed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (15% vs. 25%) than sheep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.[Llamas (as well as Alpacas) of South America exist within a society of indigenous herders, whose main societal features are seasonal migration, a scattered population without villages or urban centers for permanent residence, and whose social structure is centered around large families with strong ties. Rules and traditions exist within each community that often determines important aspects of herd management. For example, in some systems male [lamas are maintained apart from the female segment in distant community pastures, and then reunited for the breeding/rainy season from January through March. The female segmentis a mixed herd of reproducing and replacement females, young, and one-year-olds of both sexes. When the yearlings are 12-18 months old some herders make a preliminary selection for meat production or future reproduction. Another system used extensively is one in which breeding males are permanently kept with the mixed herds of females year-round. Invariably Llama herders also maintain a flock of sheep that offers an important source of food for the family. A problem, however, is that the sheep compete for forage with the Llamas, reduce the land’s carrying capacity, and increase the probability of overgrazing. Llama herd size averages 40-60 in the more heavily populated communities, compared to 120-180 Llamas in the Altiplano with fewer people. In contrast, average accompanying flocks of sheep average 40-70 animals in both areas.Status and Conservation.Boliviahas most (58%) of South America’s ¢.3-91 million Llamas, followed by Peru(37%), Argentina(4%), and Chile(1%); nearly all of which (99%) are found in indigenous communities. The total number of Llamas has increased 12% during the past decade. In Bolivia370,000-500,000 families raise Llamas, in Peru297,414, Argentina2803, 80% of which have fewer than 90 animals. There are no known wild or feral populations. Llamas were intertwined with the rise and spread of the Inca Empire since its beginning in the Peruvian Andes in the early 1200s. With the help of Llamas, the Incas built sturdy walls, buildings, irrigation systems, and some 8700 kmof roads throughout their empire. These roads eventually extended around 2500 kmfrom Ecuadorsouth to central Chileand parts of Argentina. Before the Spanish Conquest of Peru, Llamas numbered into the multimillions, but were severely decimated during the post-conquest period. While early Spanish chroniclers recorded the “virtual disappearance” of these animals within a hundred years, that was obviously an exaggeration. Indigenous and endemic to the South America, [Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, and increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators. In the USAthere were 162,000 registered Llamas in 2010. Export of Llamas (as well as Alpacas) has increased international interest in these species, stimulating research in the medical, nutritional, reproductive, and disease disciplines. In the Andes, Llamas are viewed and described by native herders by masculine terminology. During ceremonies in which Llamas are being honored or sacrificed, they are referred to as “brothers” and when higher rank or importance is expressed, they are called “fathers.” Indigenous Llama terminology is based upon fleece color, patterns and patches, sex, reproductive status, age, size, shape, wool quality, and behavior. The combinations of these descriptive characters amount to over 20,000 words, forming a rich nomenclature used to identify and distinguish individual Llamas as well as Alpacas. Llamas have long been important beasts of burden for the Andean cultures and nations. Cargo-carrying Llamas have made it possible for peoples of the Andes to successfully inhabit this rugged-mountain environment. Extensive and ritualized prayers are said before departure of a Llama caravan, requesting permission and protection from local deities for the journey, safe passage, and that no incident will befall the Llamas or family members while traveling. Only men of the family travel with the Llama pack train, walking behind the animals. Castrated male Llamas are used primarily, and depending upon their maturity, size, and training, individuals are capable of carrying up to 25-30% of their body weight, or 25-35 kg, and traveling 20-30 km in a day for up to 20 days. The cargo is carried in a sack tied to the Llama’s back with a rope made from coarse Llama wool. Males are castrated at two years of age and training begins by accompanying the older animals on trips. Individual Llamas in the traveling caravan are not tied together, but follow the lead of two to three “Llama guides.” Such lead Llamas traditionally were adorned with colorful halters, frontal tapestries, and even a family or national flag atop its back. Animal leaders are given names to reflect their status, such as Road-Breaker, Condor Face, and Champion. Lead Llamas prevent junior animals from usurping the front position, and guide the way when fording rivers, crossing dangerous bridges, and when negotiating narrow paths along steep ravines. If the lead Llama stops, the entire caravan waits until it resumes traveling. At the end of the day, Llamas are unpacked and turned loose to graze and water. If available, they are kept in stone corrals for the night, otherwise they are grouped together with a rope running around them at neck level. Llama caravans use traditional trading circuits in the Altiplano, some descending into the Andean valleys, the Pacific coast to the west, or the Amazon jungle to the east. Goods are sold, purchased, and traded along the route as needed. From the coastal agricultural valleys fresh produce was obtained in exchange for corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley that were grown and carried down from the mountain agricultural valleys. In times past Llama trains traveled hundreds of kilometers to obtain highly prized salt from inland, natural-salt deposits and mines, some types of which were used for human consumption, others for animals. Today, the world of the Andean Llama herdsmen is rapidly changing with goods and produce now primarily transported by trucks and rail. Still, Llama caravans continue to be used and are especially important for transporting goods to remote regions of the Andes. Secondarily Llamas are used in South America for meat, fuel, and wool. Llama meatis often dried and stored as jerky, typically made by alternative freeze-drying during the Andean winter when nights are freezing and days sunny. With a dressing percentage of 44-48% yielding 25-30 kg of fresh meat, 12-15 kg ofjerky are produced. Jerky is not only a convenient form for long-term storage of meat, but is an excellent source of protein (55-60%). Llama hides are used for making shoes, ropes, and bags. Their fecal matter is valuable as fuel in regions where wood is scarce. It should be noted that despite the presence of many animals, the diet of Andean herdsmen is based upon agricultural produce. They eat little meat and drink no milk. Goat or cow cheese is consumed by some, and when meat is eaten,it is in the form of cameloid jerky or fresh sheep meat. Outside South America the Llama’s cargo-carrying ability has been discovered by hikers, hunters, and forest-work crews in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Llamas are quiet, gentle, unobtrusive, and easy to manage. Their hardiness, surefootedness, and trainability make them excellent pack animals and trail companions. The Llama’s agility allows them to negotiate terrain that would be difficult or impossible for other pack animals, and because of their padded feet and ability to browse, they have minimal impact on trails and mountain meadows. In North America Llamas have been used highly successfully as guard llamas for protecting sheep and goats from coyote and feral dog predation. Livestock owners report that their annual sheep losses dropped from 11% to 1% after the introduction of a guard llama, and more than half reported 100% reduction in predator losses. Single, gelded males are typically used, although females work equally well. In 2006, they were found across Canadaas well as in every USstate. In the USAthere were over 11,000 guard llamas in use on some 9500 sheep operations. Remarkably, half the sheep ranchers in Wyominghave guard llamas and they are common on sheep ranches in Colorado(39%), Montana(28%), and Utah(23%). In the Plains States, 23% of sheep producers in North Dakotaand 21% in South Dakotause guard llamas. In the Midwest and the Eastern States, Missouri(23%) and North Carolina(24%) lead the way, respectively. Although not a panacea, guard llamas have proven to be a viable non-lethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no special training and minimal care.Bibliography.Bravo et al. (2000), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995), Franklin (1982b), Franklin & Powell (2006), Gonzales (1990), Kadwell et al. (2001), Marin et al. (2007b), Novoa (1984), Quispe et al. (2009), San Martin (1989), Sumar (1996), Van Saun (2006), Wheeler (1984, 2006)." -03928E699A41FFC8D579FE7AF5F5F837,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,235,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A41FFC8D579FE7AF5F5F837.xml,Lama guanicoe,Lama,guanicoe,,,Guanaco @fr | Guanako @de | Guanaco @es,"Camelus guanicoe Muller, 1776,Patagonia, Argentina.The Guanacois a direct descendent of Hemiauchenia, a genus of camelid that migrated from North to South America three million years ago. Two million yearold fossils of L. guanicoecan be found today in ArgentinePleistocene deposits and others in strata dated 73,000-97,000 years ago in Bolivia. Phylogenetically, L. guanicoeis monophyletic. Historically, four sub-species of Guanacos were recognized, albeit based upon incomplete information on skull measurements, coat coloration, distribution, and body size. However, recent molecular studies using mtDNA cytochrome-b sequences, recognize only two subspecies, placing the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations in subspecies cacsilensis and assigning the remainder of the clade to subspecies guanicoe. A significant biogeographic revision of the two valid subspecies is needed, especially an analysis and classification of populations on a regional and ecosystem basis.","L.g.guanicoeMiller,1776—Bolivia,Chile,WArgentina(fromJujuytoSPatagonia),TierradelFuego,andNavarinoI.L. g. cacsilensis Lonnberg, 1913— N Peruto N Chilebetween 8° Sand 22° S. Introduced from Argentinato Staats I (Falkland Is) during the late 1930s.","Head-body 190-215 cm,tail 23-27 cm, shoulder height 90-130 cm; weight 90-140 kg. Measurements vary because of their wide distribution and differences between subspecies. Guanacos are extremely striking, with their contrasting colors, large, alert brown eyes, streamlined form, and energetic pace. Described by Darwin as “an elegant animal, with a long, slender neck and fine legs,” itis one of South America’s largest terrestrial mammals, reaching its maximum size in southern Chileand smallest in northern Peru. There is no obvious sexual dimorphism in size, color, or structure, except for the presence of large canines in the male. The color of the woolly pelage is similar for all Guanacos, varying from light brown with ocher yellow tones in the north to dark reddish brown in the south. The chest, front of neck, belly, and internal portion of the legs are more or less pure white, the head gray to black. Guanacowool is prized for its softness and warmth, and second only to that of the Vicuna (Vicugnavicugna). The pelts from “chulengos” (newborns and less than one-year-old juveniles) are particularly soft. Like their domestic descendant the Llama (L. glama), the Guanacois double-coated, with coarse guard hair (3-5% offleece) and a soft undercoat. The undercoatfibers range 12-17 (average 14-16) microns in diameter. Fiber (strand) length is 35 mm, the same as the Vicuna. Average fleece weights vary from 322 gto 350 g. Fiber diameter increases about two microns from one to seven year of age. Value of shorn, unclean wool is US$ 100-200/kg and US$ 400/kg for cleaned and dehaired wool. Guanacos have “thermal windows” in the front and rear flanks (underarms) that are nearly without wool. Both wild and captive Guanacos may live as long as 28 years.","The Guanacoinhabits environments from sea level up to 4500 mor more, characterized by highly seasonal weather, with snow cover or dry winters, cold to freezing temperatures, moderate to high winds, and low precipitation. These combine to produce high evapo-transpiration and dry conditions that lead to low primary productivity. At a broad scale, Guanacos inhabit four of the ten major habitats found in South America: desert and xeric shrublands, montane and lowland grasslands, savannas and shrublands, and temperate forests, which botanically include the categories of Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal, and the southern Pampa. They inhabit flatlands, hilly foothills, and mountainous environments. In the arid habitats of southern Chile, isolated mesic subsystems were the preferred plant community accounting for 85% of female sightings and 60% ofterritorial males. These “vegas” (meadows) were not only preferred for their productive, higher-quality succulent forage, but for females a major influence for their selection was the avoidance ofsites and habitats favored by Pumas (Puma concolor).","The Guanacois a non-specialized, opportunistic, intermediate, mixed-feeding herbivore, foraging on a wide variety of plants. It is basically a grazer, but also browses. When the availability of the herbaceous strata decreases or becomes unavailable, especially during winter, Guanacos feed mainly on the shrub or tree strata. This flexibility as a generalist to change diet according to availability or preference extends to eating epiphytes, lichens, fungi, cacti, succulent plants, fruit, flowers, and leaves. Their summer diet in a mixed habitat of southern Chileaveraged 62% grasses (mainly Festuca), 15% browse (Nothofagusspp.), and 11% forbs, which were particularly important in the spring. In another study on Tierra del Fuego their diet was made up of 90% grasses and forbs. In austral coastal forests of southern Chile, Guanacobrowsing significantly diminishes the rate of regeneration of the commercially important southern beech tree (Nothofagus pumilio) and was a limiting factor on initial growth of seedlings and saplings (89% were browsed), although the Guanaco’s diet was less than 10% shrubs and trees. At Torres del Paine National Park, at the western edge of the Patagonia, vegas were highly utilized in summer (86% ofall feeding observations) and preferred by all feeding Guanacos (n = 1659) in family groups, whereas all other vegetation types were avoided (shrub = 3%, upland = 10%). Adult females in family groups showed the greatest feeding preference for vegas, followed by chulengos, yearlings, and adult males. In ArgentinePatagonia, Guanacodensities are low and negatively related to domestic sheep numbers. Guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences, with over 80% oftheir diets being identical. Histological analysis of fecal samples revealed that Guanacos and sheep were intermediate herbivores feeding on a wide range of grasses and forbs, capable of changing their diets seasonally, and their food niches greatly overlapped particularly in summer when food resources were more scarce than in spring.","Nearly all females breed at two years of age and have their first offspring as three-year olds. At Torres del Paine, Chilemales began breeding after obtaining a feeding territory when they were 2—4 years of age. Essentially all breeding took place within feeding territories during the summer. A high percentage (88%) of males established a territory for three or fewer years (average 2-3), although some males held territories for as long as eight years. Few solo males became family group males (19%), that is, 81% remained non-reproductive during their territorial tenure. Those males leaving male groups to become territorial, only 35% directly became family group territorial males while 65% became solo territorial males. Like other camelids, Guanacos are induced ovulators. The territorial mating period was from early Decemberto early January (91% of 88 observed copulations), so males defended their feeding territories for nine weeks before and eight weeks after the mating season. Mature female Guanacos give birth to a single offspring each year after a gestation of about 11-7 months (345-360 days). Only three sets of twins were documented in over two decades offield studies at Torres del Paine during which several thousand newborns were observed; in all cases no more than one survived past the first week. Half of all births occur in the last two weeks of spring. The timing of parturition varies with latitude. At Torres del Paine the birth season occurred from late November to early January. Parturition occurs during the day in Patagonia with 78% of births between 10:00 h and 14:00 h, when the young are able to dry during favorable midday temperature conditions. Birth weight averages 13 kg(7-15 kg) and shows marked density dependence, with lower birth weights at higher population densities. Low weight at birth is related to high rates of mortality. Newborns are very precocious. They can stand as early as 5-76 minutes after birth and can run within hours. Young are weaned at 6-8 months and are expelled from family groups by the territorial male when they are 11-15 months old. Dispersing yearling males join male groups and yearling females join family groups or female groups. Monitoring of 409 radio-collared chulengos at Torres del Paine over a seven-year period revealed an average first-year survival rate of 38% (31-55%). Puma predation was the primary cause of mortality of young Guanacos, especially in the first two weeks of life. Relative to their availabilities, chulengos were preyed upon about four times as much as adults. With every centimeter increase in winter snowfall, the risk of chulengo mortality increased by almost 6% because of greater vulnerability to predation. Out of 731 Guanacoskulls collected at Torres del Paine from 1979 to 1988, 33% showed clear evidence of having been killed by Pumas, and that was considered an underestimate. Observations of farmed Guanacos revealed that allosuckling (nursing of non-filial offspring) comprised 6% of all suckling events by 62% of calves and was allowed by 52% of dams. Dams whose calves performed allosuckling exhibited poorer body condition, suggesting juvenile Guanacos allosuckled to compensate for nutritional deficiencies. Preliminary research on the cytochrome-b gene sequence has found no evidence of hybridization between Guanacos and Vicunas.","Observations of both wild and captive Guanacos have shown peaks of eating, bedding, and ruminating in the morning and again later in the afternoon. Wild Guanacos spent a greater proportion of their time moving and less time resting, probably the result of the need to forage more and maintain intraspecific social interactions. At Torres del Paine during the summer, Guanacos in family groups in vega habitat fed 54% of time, rested 45%, and were involved in other behaviors 1% of the time (3084 focal observations). There was no difference in the activity-time budgets of 23 marked solo territorial males compared to family-group territorial males based on social group type, total number of females, total number of Guanacos present, or age of the ter ritorial males. The pattern suggested thatterritorial male behaviors were related to resource defense rather than to any direct ability to attract potential mates. Males, in all categories, spent most of their time foraging (65% of overall time budget). However, based upon habitat type there was a significant difference in time spent in aggressive and in miscellaneous activities (defecation, alertness to observer, scratching). Most aggressive encounters and miscellaneous activity occurred on hilltops of areas dominated by mata barrosa shrubs (Mulinum spinosum). Vigilance patterns were assessed in Chubut, Argentinafor Guanacos occupying a tall shrubland covering 40-60% of the area, where 40% of the mortality was from Puma predation. Family group territorial males devoted more time to scanning their surroundings and less time feeding than did females, and both sexes benefited from grouping by reducing the time invested in vigilance and increasing foraging time. Males reduced the time invested in vigilance as the number of females in the group increased, while the presence of chulengos increased territorial male vigilance. However, in closed habitats collective vigilance increased with the number of adults but decreased with the number of chulengos. Although male and female Guanacos differed in their time allocation, results supported the hypothesis that both sexes received significant anti-predator benefits from group living. Adjustments in Guanacobody posture can modify the exposure of body surface area H—22%. Guanacos can decrease and increase body heat loss through radiation and convection by “closing” and “opening” their thermal windows in the axillary and flank regions. Researchers report that when ambient temperatures were 0-10°C, animals used postural adjustments to decrease the area of the thermal windows by 5-7% oftotal surface area. At temperatures greater than 10°C they increased the area of the thermal windows up to 22% to regulate heat loss through radiation and convection. When the temperature was below 0—1°C Guanacos bedded and huddled together, often with their hindquarters into the wind.","Intensively studied Guanacopopulations have been either migratory or sedentary. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve (Argentina), both occur but most are sedentary, while on the island of Tierra del Fuego(Chile) both occur, but most are migratory. In Argentinapopulations have been reported to be migratory over short distances, altitudinal-facultative migratory, and strictly sedentary. On Tierra del Fuegosedentary populations were incompletely so, because during the winter when territories were snow covered, many or all of the family group members abandoned the site, leaving the territorial male by himself or only with a few members. The following spring the male regained his group membership. Although some local populations now appear to be sedentary at Torres del Paine, in the 1970s and 1980s the population was completely migratory. In those decades essentially all animals abandoned the summer range and moved in late autumn 8-18 km to where the snow was less deep and browse species were more abundant. The following spring the animals returned to their summer range. Daily movements of family groups on Tierra del Fuegowere highly predictable: days were spent in open meadows feeding and nights were spent resting in the adjacent closed Nothofagus forest. In the open habitat of Torres del Paine, the animals spent days on territories and nights on adjacent slopes or hill tops. The social organization of Guanacos is similar to that of Vicunas, except that territorial, resource-defense polygyny is seasonal instead of yearround and there is fluid movement of females between male territories. The social units of Guanacos for the migratory population at Torres del Paine were family groups, male groups, solo males, mixed groups, and female groups. Typical family groups were composed of one adult territorial male, seven females, and four juveniles less than 15 months old. Group size and composition frequently changed. Family groups occupied feeding territories 7-13 ha in size, which were defended by the resident male. With minor adjustments to the center of activity from year-to-year,territory locations were the same, spatially discrete, and non-overlapping. There was no indication of defended sleeping territories as found with Vicunas. Although family groups were “open” in the sense that females couldjoin and leave at will, the territorial male determined whether or not females were accepted into or rejected from the group. In a study of marked territorial males at Torres del Paine, most (73%, n = 60) returned to the same territorial location from year-to-year. Those males (27%) that shifted territorial locations showed no pattern in changes between solo territorial males and family-group territorial males. Male groups were composed of non-breeding, non-territorial, immature and mature males. Group size was highly variable (3-60) and averaged about 25. Male groups lived apart from family groups, in male-group zones. Solo males were mature males with an established territory, but commonly without females; the mean “group size” for solo males was three. Mixed groups formed in winter and included Guanacos of both sexes and all age classes. They averaged 60 animals with as many as 500. Female groups were gatherings of females of all ages and occasionally included a small number of immature males. These groups came together temporarily immediately before and after the winter migratory season. Female group size was highly variable, and could number 10-90 animals. At high population densities, the size of Guanacoterritories can decrease significantly. Large female groups and their chulengos can shift daily from territory to territory. The annual cycle of migratory Guanacos at Torres del Paine was divisible into four general socioecological periods: summer territorial, autumn transitional, winter aggregational, and spring transitional. The summer period was the longest, from mid-October to the end of March. This was reproductive season, during which males defended territories and when birth and mating occurred. The summer territorial social units were 35% family groups, 15% male groups, 42% solo male groups, and 8% female groups. Most of the animals (65%) were in family groups; 21% were in male groups, 7% were solo males, and 3% were in female groups. The autumn-transitional period was short, lasting from early April to late May, and Guanacos were mainly in family groups and male groups. During this period the territorial system broke down as the Guanacos began migrating to their winter range. The winter aggregational period extended from early June through late August. In this period, the social units were primarily mixed groups (39%) and female groups (41%) with most of the animals (80%) in mixed groups. The spring-transitional period started in late August and ended in mid-October. At this time all social units were found with equal proportion of Guanacos in family groups and male groups. Differences in the weather from year-to-year, especially at the beginning and end of winter, caused slight variations in the timing of animal movements, formation of social groups, and migration. Snow storms and snow cover were especially important in triggering sudden movements west to the winter grounds.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common. Conservation priorities for the Guanacoinclude all of the following: improved and accurate population surveys; adequate habitat protection; regulation of hunting quotas; where feasible, live-shearing; protection of remnant populations from poaching (especially in Peruand northern Chile); more explicit goals and policies (for example in southern Argentinaand Chile); confronting Patagonian land use practices, which focus on maximizing sheep numbers; addressing the need for unified laws and management schemes between countries; and finally and especially, the implementation of conservation oriented management at local, national, and international levels.","Baldi, Lichtenstein et al. (2008) | Baldi, Pelliza-Sbriller et al. (2004) | Bank et al. (1999, 2002) | Cavieres & Fajardo (2005) | Franklin (1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, 2005) | Franklin & Grigione (2005) | Franklin, Bas et al. (1997) | Franklin, Jonson et al. (1999) | Franklin, Poncet & Poncet (2005) | Garay et al. (1995) | Gonzalez et al. (2006) | de Lamo et al. (1998) | Marin, Casey et al. (2007) | Marin, Spotorno et al. (2008) | Marin, Zapata et al. (2007) | Marino & Baldi (2008) | Montes et al. (2006) | Nugent et al. (2006) | Ortega & Franklin (1988, 1995) | Puig et al. (1995, 1996, 1997, 2001) | Raedeke et al. (1979, 1988) | Riveros et al. (2009) | Sarno et al. (1999a, 1999b, 1999¢, 2001, 2003) | Sosa etal. (2005) | Stanley et al. (1994) | Wheeler (1995a, 2006a, 2006b) | Young & Franklin (2004a, 2004b) | Zapata et al. (2010)",,"1.GuanacoLama guanicoeFrench:Guanaco/ German:Guanako/ Spanish:GuanacoTaxonomy.Camelus guanicoe Muller, 1776,Patagonia, Argentina.The Guanacois a direct descendent of Hemiauchenia, a genus of camelid that migrated from North to South America three million years ago. Two million yearold fossils of L. guanicoecan be found today in ArgentinePleistocene deposits and others in strata dated 73,000-97,000 years ago in Bolivia. Phylogenetically, L. guanicoeis monophyletic. Historically, four sub-species of Guanacos were recognized, albeit based upon incomplete information on skull measurements, coat coloration, distribution, and body size. However, recent molecular studies using mtDNA cytochrome-b sequences, recognize only two subspecies, placing the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations in subspecies cacsilensis and assigning the remainder of the clade to subspecies guanicoe. A significant biogeographic revision of the two valid subspecies is needed, especially an analysis and classification of populations on a regional and ecosystem basis.Subspecies and Distribution.L.g.guanicoeMiller,1776—Bolivia,Chile,WArgentina(fromJujuytoSPatagonia),TierradelFuego,andNavarinoI.L. g. cacsilensis Lonnberg, 1913— N Peruto N Chilebetween 8° Sand 22° S. Introduced from Argentinato Staats I (Falkland Is) during the late 1930s.Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-215 cm,tail 23-27 cm, shoulder height 90-130 cm; weight 90-140 kg. Measurements vary because of their wide distribution and differences between subspecies. Guanacos are extremely striking, with their contrasting colors, large, alert brown eyes, streamlined form, and energetic pace. Described by Darwin as “an elegant animal, with a long, slender neck and fine legs,” itis one of South America’s largest terrestrial mammals, reaching its maximum size in southern Chileand smallest in northern Peru. There is no obvious sexual dimorphism in size, color, or structure, except for the presence of large canines in the male. The color of the woolly pelage is similar for all Guanacos, varying from light brown with ocher yellow tones in the north to dark reddish brown in the south. The chest, front of neck, belly, and internal portion of the legs are more or less pure white, the head gray to black. Guanacowool is prized for its softness and warmth, and second only to that of the Vicuna (Vicugnavicugna). The pelts from “chulengos” (newborns and less than one-year-old juveniles) are particularly soft. Like their domestic descendant the Llama (L. glama), the Guanacois double-coated, with coarse guard hair (3-5% offleece) and a soft undercoat. The undercoatfibers range 12-17 (average 14-16) microns in diameter. Fiber (strand) length is 35 mm, the same as the Vicuna. Average fleece weights vary from 322 gto 350 g. Fiber diameter increases about two microns from one to seven year of age. Value of shorn, unclean wool is US$ 100-200/kg and US$ 400/kg for cleaned and dehaired wool. Guanacos have “thermal windows” in the front and rear flanks (underarms) that are nearly without wool. Both wild and captive Guanacos may live as long as 28 years.Habitat.The Guanacoinhabits environments from sea level up to 4500 mor more, characterized by highly seasonal weather, with snow cover or dry winters, cold to freezing temperatures, moderate to high winds, and low precipitation. These combine to produce high evapo-transpiration and dry conditions that lead to low primary productivity. At a broad scale, Guanacos inhabit four of the ten major habitats found in South America: desert and xeric shrublands, montane and lowland grasslands, savannas and shrublands, and temperate forests, which botanically include the categories of Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal, and the southern Pampa. They inhabit flatlands, hilly foothills, and mountainous environments. In the arid habitats of southern Chile, isolated mesic subsystems were the preferred plant community accounting for 85% of female sightings and 60% ofterritorial males. These “vegas” (meadows) were not only preferred for their productive, higher-quality succulent forage, but for females a major influence for their selection was the avoidance ofsites and habitats favored by Pumas (Puma concolor).Food and Feeding.The Guanacois a non-specialized, opportunistic, intermediate, mixed-feeding herbivore, foraging on a wide variety of plants. It is basically a grazer, but also browses. When the availability of the herbaceous strata decreases or becomes unavailable, especially during winter, Guanacos feed mainly on the shrub or tree strata. This flexibility as a generalist to change diet according to availability or preference extends to eating epiphytes, lichens, fungi, cacti, succulent plants, fruit, flowers, and leaves. Their summer diet in a mixed habitat of southern Chileaveraged 62% grasses (mainly Festuca), 15% browse (Nothofagusspp.), and 11% forbs, which were particularly important in the spring. In another study on Tierra del Fuego their diet was made up of 90% grasses and forbs. In austral coastal forests of southern Chile, Guanacobrowsing significantly diminishes the rate of regeneration of the commercially important southern beech tree (Nothofagus pumilio) and was a limiting factor on initial growth of seedlings and saplings (89% were browsed), although the Guanaco’s diet was less than 10% shrubs and trees. At Torres del Paine National Park, at the western edge of the Patagonia, vegas were highly utilized in summer (86% ofall feeding observations) and preferred by all feeding Guanacos (n = 1659) in family groups, whereas all other vegetation types were avoided (shrub = 3%, upland = 10%). Adult females in family groups showed the greatest feeding preference for vegas, followed by chulengos, yearlings, and adult males. In ArgentinePatagonia, Guanacodensities are low and negatively related to domestic sheep numbers. Guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences, with over 80% oftheir diets being identical. Histological analysis of fecal samples revealed that Guanacos and sheep were intermediate herbivores feeding on a wide range of grasses and forbs, capable of changing their diets seasonally, and their food niches greatly overlapped particularly in summer when food resources were more scarce than in spring.Breeding.Nearly all females breed at two years of age and have their first offspring as three-year olds. At Torres del Paine, Chilemales began breeding after obtaining a feeding territory when they were 2—4 years of age. Essentially all breeding took place within feeding territories during the summer. A high percentage (88%) of males established a territory for three or fewer years (average 2-3), although some males held territories for as long as eight years. Few solo males became family group males (19%), that is, 81% remained non-reproductive during their territorial tenure. Those males leaving male groups to become territorial, only 35% directly became family group territorial males while 65% became solo territorial males. Like other camelids, Guanacos are induced ovulators. The territorial mating period was from early Decemberto early January (91% of 88 observed copulations), so males defended their feeding territories for nine weeks before and eight weeks after the mating season. Mature female Guanacos give birth to a single offspring each year after a gestation of about 11-7 months (345-360 days). Only three sets of twins were documented in over two decades offield studies at Torres del Paine during which several thousand newborns were observed; in all cases no more than one survived past the first week. Half of all births occur in the last two weeks of spring. The timing of parturition varies with latitude. At Torres del Paine the birth season occurred from late November to early January. Parturition occurs during the day in Patagonia with 78% of births between 10:00 h and 14:00 h, when the young are able to dry during favorable midday temperature conditions. Birth weight averages 13 kg(7-15 kg) and shows marked density dependence, with lower birth weights at higher population densities. Low weight at birth is related to high rates of mortality. Newborns are very precocious. They can stand as early as 5-76 minutes after birth and can run within hours. Young are weaned at 6-8 months and are expelled from family groups by the territorial male when they are 11-15 months old. Dispersing yearling males join male groups and yearling females join family groups or female groups. Monitoring of 409 radio-collared chulengos at Torres del Paine over a seven-year period revealed an average first-year survival rate of 38% (31-55%). Puma predation was the primary cause of mortality of young Guanacos, especially in the first two weeks of life. Relative to their availabilities, chulengos were preyed upon about four times as much as adults. With every centimeter increase in winter snowfall, the risk of chulengo mortality increased by almost 6% because of greater vulnerability to predation. Out of 731 Guanacoskulls collected at Torres del Paine from 1979 to 1988, 33% showed clear evidence of having been killed by Pumas, and that was considered an underestimate. Observations of farmed Guanacos revealed that allosuckling (nursing of non-filial offspring) comprised 6% of all suckling events by 62% of calves and was allowed by 52% of dams. Dams whose calves performed allosuckling exhibited poorer body condition, suggesting juvenile Guanacos allosuckled to compensate for nutritional deficiencies. Preliminary research on the cytochrome-b gene sequence has found no evidence of hybridization between Guanacos and Vicunas.Activity patterns.Observations of both wild and captive Guanacos have shown peaks of eating, bedding, and ruminating in the morning and again later in the afternoon. Wild Guanacos spent a greater proportion of their time moving and less time resting, probably the result of the need to forage more and maintain intraspecific social interactions. At Torres del Paine during the summer, Guanacos in family groups in vega habitat fed 54% of time, rested 45%, and were involved in other behaviors 1% of the time (3084 focal observations). There was no difference in the activity-time budgets of 23 marked solo territorial males compared to family-group territorial males based on social group type, total number of females, total number of Guanacos present, or age of the ter ritorial males. The pattern suggested thatterritorial male behaviors were related to resource defense rather than to any direct ability to attract potential mates. Males, in all categories, spent most of their time foraging (65% of overall time budget). However, based upon habitat type there was a significant difference in time spent in aggressive and in miscellaneous activities (defecation, alertness to observer, scratching). Most aggressive encounters and miscellaneous activity occurred on hilltops of areas dominated by mata barrosa shrubs (Mulinum spinosum). Vigilance patterns were assessed in Chubut, Argentinafor Guanacos occupying a tall shrubland covering 40-60% of the area, where 40% of the mortality was from Puma predation. Family group territorial males devoted more time to scanning their surroundings and less time feeding than did females, and both sexes benefited from grouping by reducing the time invested in vigilance and increasing foraging time. Males reduced the time invested in vigilance as the number of females in the group increased, while the presence of chulengos increased territorial male vigilance. However, in closed habitats collective vigilance increased with the number of adults but decreased with the number of chulengos. Although male and female Guanacos differed in their time allocation, results supported the hypothesis that both sexes received significant anti-predator benefits from group living. Adjustments in Guanacobody posture can modify the exposure of body surface area H—22%. Guanacos can decrease and increase body heat loss through radiation and convection by “closing” and “opening” their thermal windows in the axillary and flank regions. Researchers report that when ambient temperatures were 0-10°C, animals used postural adjustments to decrease the area of the thermal windows by 5-7% oftotal surface area. At temperatures greater than 10°C they increased the area of the thermal windows up to 22% to regulate heat loss through radiation and convection. When the temperature was below 0—1°C Guanacos bedded and huddled together, often with their hindquarters into the wind.On following pages 2 Llama (Lama glama). 3 Vıcuña (Vicugna vlcuana), 4 Alpaca (Vicugna paces‘) 5 Bacman Camel (Camelus bactnanus), 6 Dromodary Camel (Camelus dromedanus)Movements, Home range and Social organization.Intensively studied Guanacopopulations have been either migratory or sedentary. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve (Argentina), both occur but most are sedentary, while on the island of Tierra del Fuego(Chile) both occur, but most are migratory. In Argentinapopulations have been reported to be migratory over short distances, altitudinal-facultative migratory, and strictly sedentary. On Tierra del Fuegosedentary populations were incompletely so, because during the winter when territories were snow covered, many or all of the family group members abandoned the site, leaving the territorial male by himself or only with a few members. The following spring the male regained his group membership. Although some local populations now appear to be sedentary at Torres del Paine, in the 1970s and 1980s the population was completely migratory. In those decades essentially all animals abandoned the summer range and moved in late autumn 8-18 km to where the snow was less deep and browse species were more abundant. The following spring the animals returned to their summer range. Daily movements of family groups on Tierra del Fuegowere highly predictable: days were spent in open meadows feeding and nights were spent resting in the adjacent closed Nothofagus forest. In the open habitat of Torres del Paine, the animals spent days on territories and nights on adjacent slopes or hill tops. The social organization of Guanacos is similar to that of Vicunas, except that territorial, resource-defense polygyny is seasonal instead of yearround and there is fluid movement of females between male territories. The social units of Guanacos for the migratory population at Torres del Paine were family groups, male groups, solo males, mixed groups, and female groups. Typical family groups were composed of one adult territorial male, seven females, and four juveniles less than 15 months old. Group size and composition frequently changed. Family groups occupied feeding territories 7-13 ha in size, which were defended by the resident male. With minor adjustments to the center of activity from year-to-year,territory locations were the same, spatially discrete, and non-overlapping. There was no indication of defended sleeping territories as found with Vicunas. Although family groups were “open” in the sense that females couldjoin and leave at will, the territorial male determined whether or not females were accepted into or rejected from the group. In a study of marked territorial males at Torres del Paine, most (73%, n = 60) returned to the same territorial location from year-to-year. Those males (27%) that shifted territorial locations showed no pattern in changes between solo territorial males and family-group territorial males. Male groups were composed of non-breeding, non-territorial, immature and mature males. Group size was highly variable (3-60) and averaged about 25. Male groups lived apart from family groups, in male-group zones. Solo males were mature males with an established territory, but commonly without females; the mean “group size” for solo males was three. Mixed groups formed in winter and included Guanacos of both sexes and all age classes. They averaged 60 animals with as many as 500. Female groups were gatherings of females of all ages and occasionally included a small number of immature males. These groups came together temporarily immediately before and after the winter migratory season. Female group size was highly variable, and could number 10-90 animals. At high population densities, the size of Guanacoterritories can decrease significantly. Large female groups and their chulengos can shift daily from territory to territory. The annual cycle of migratory Guanacos at Torres del Paine was divisible into four general socioecological periods: summer territorial, autumn transitional, winter aggregational, and spring transitional. The summer period was the longest, from mid-October to the end of March. This was reproductive season, during which males defended territories and when birth and mating occurred. The summer territorial social units were 35% family groups, 15% male groups, 42% solo male groups, and 8% female groups. Most of the animals (65%) were in family groups; 21% were in male groups, 7% were solo males, and 3% were in female groups. The autumn-transitional period was short, lasting from early April to late May, and Guanacos were mainly in family groups and male groups. During this period the territorial system broke down as the Guanacos began migrating to their winter range. The winter aggregational period extended from early June through late August. In this period, the social units were primarily mixed groups (39%) and female groups (41%) with most of the animals (80%) in mixed groups. The spring-transitional period started in late August and ended in mid-October. At this time all social units were found with equal proportion of Guanacos in family groups and male groups. Differences in the weather from year-to-year, especially at the beginning and end of winter, caused slight variations in the timing of animal movements, formation of social groups, and migration. Snow storms and snow cover were especially important in triggering sudden movements west to the winter grounds.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common. Conservation priorities for the Guanacoinclude all of the following: improved and accurate population surveys; adequate habitat protection; regulation of hunting quotas; where feasible, live-shearing; protection of remnant populations from poaching (especially in Peruand northern Chile); more explicit goals and policies (for example in southern Argentinaand Chile); confronting Patagonian land use practices, which focus on maximizing sheep numbers; addressing the need for unified laws and management schemes between countries; and finally and especially, the implementation of conservation oriented management at local, national, and international levels.Bibliography.Baldi, Lichtenstein et al. (2008), Baldi, Pelliza-Sbriller et al. (2004), Bank et al. (1999, 2002), Cavieres & Fajardo (2005), Franklin (1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, 2005), Franklin & Grigione (2005), Franklin, Bas et al. (1997), Franklin, Jonson et al. (1999), Franklin, Poncet & Poncet (2005), Garay et al. (1995), Gonzalez et al. (2006), de Lamo et al. (1998), Marin, Casey et al. (2007), Marin, Spotorno et al. (2008), Marin, Zapata et al. (2007), Marino & Baldi (2008), Montes et al. (2006), Nugent et al. (2006), Ortega & Franklin (1988, 1995), Puig et al. (1995, 1996, 1997, 2001), Raedeke et al. (1979, 1988), Riveros et al. (2009), Sarno et al. (1999a, 1999b, 1999¢, 2001, 2003), Sosa etal. (2005), Stanley et al. (1994), Wheeler (1995a, 2006a, 2006b), Young & Franklin (2004a, 2004b), Zapata et al. (2010)." +03928E699A40FFCED0DBF7C0FB4BF492,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,236,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A40FFCED0DBF7C0FB4BF492.xml,Lama glama,Lama,glama,,,Lama @fr | Lama @de | Llama @es,"Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758,Peru, Andes.The Llama was selectively bred from the Guanaco(L. guanicoe) for use as a pack animal and producer of meat. It is regarded throughout the world as the premier symbol of South American fauna. With the possibility of more than one center, Llama domestication occurred 4000-4500 years ago in the South-Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina) and/or 4500-5500 ago in the Central Andes (Junin de los Andes, Argentina). It is often assumed and reported that the Lake Titacaca region was a core of Llama domestication, but supporting data are lacking from early archaeological sites. Osteological remains and DNA analysis document the origin of domestication to be within the range of the northern subspecies of GuanacoL. g. cacsilensis. From its points of domestication, archeological evidence reveals that breeding and herding of Llamas spread widely throughout the Andean region to intermountain valleys, cloud forest on the eastern slope of the Central Andes, southern coast of Peru, to the mountains of Ecuador. Llamas closely resemble their progenitor the Guanacoin almost all aspects of physiology, behavior, general morphology, and adaptability to a wide range of environments. There are no subspecies, but two distinct phenotypic breeds: Short-Woolled and Long-Woolled Llamas.","Llamas are found at 3800-5000 m above sea level in the Central Andes, from C Peruto W Boliviaand N Argentina. Llama distribution reached its apex during the expansion of the Inca Empire (1470-1532 ap), when pack trains were used to carry supplies for the royal armies to S Colombiaand C Chile. Although originally indigenous and endemic to South America, Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, cottage industry and home use ofits wool, and in North America increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators.","Head-body 180-229 cm, tail 18-22 cm, shoulder height 102-106 cm; weight 110-220 kg. Llamas are the largest of the four cameloids and tallest of all Neotropical animals. Classical, camelid-body shape with long slender necks, long legs, and small head compared to the body. Their pelage can be white, black, or brown with all intermediate shades occurring and a tendency for spots and irregular color patterns. Wild-type Llamas occur with Guanacocoloration. There are two distinct phenotypic breeds. SHORT-WOOLLED LLAMAS: Slim and long-bodied, with short coats and visible guard hairs, Short-Woolled Llamas are typically the breed utilized for carrying cargo and are the more common of the two. In the Altiplano regions of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi Departments the proportion of Short-Woolled Llamas varies between 65% and 83%, while in the Peruvian highlands they represent 80% of the total Llama population. The fleece is low density, low weight (1-3 + 1-1 kg biennially), and relatively thicker fibers with high medullation of 77-88%. Medullation refers to the presence and degree of medulla at the center of the fiber, and high medullation is “undesirable” because the greater the medullation, the bigger the fiber in diameter and so less fine. LONG-WOOLLED LLAMAS: The less common (17-35%) of the two, this breed is compact, short-bodied, and the pelage has fewer guard hairs. Their wool is longer, covering the entire body, generally uniform, and soft to the touch. The fleece is heavier (2-8 + 1-1 kg), denser, and has finer fibers (26-28 microns) with medullation of 26-33%, and on the average wool coarser than the Alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Genetic studies have revealed that 40% of the Llama population shows signs of hybridization with Alpacas. Intentional hybridization has been especially common during the past 25 years both in South America and abroad with the aim of improving wool quality, fleece weight, and economic value. Unfortunately the outcome has been a major loss of pure genetic lines. Indigenous Quechua peoples in the Andes subdivide hybrids into “llamawari” (Llama-like) and “pacowari” (Alpaca-like) based upon physical appearance. Llama ears are banana-shaped (distinctively curved inward) and relatively long (14-16 cm). They are docile, intelligent, and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. Mature Llamas weigh an average of 140 kgwith full body size reached by four years of age. There are no obvious differences between the sexes, but males tend to be slightly larger. The male prepuce is slightly bent down and directed posteriorly for urination. The female vulva is small, located immediately below the anus, with a nose-like structure pointing out from the base; the compact udderis in inguinal area with four small teats. Llamas are long-lived with a life span of 15-20 or more years. The Llama is woolly in appearance; individual fibers are often coarse, not homogeneous, and have a wide variation in diameter. Its fleece is the heaviest (1.8-3. 5 kg) of the four cameloids, but often of uneven quality. As with the other cameloids, Llama fleece lacks grease,is dry, highly hygroscopic, and naturally lanolin free. Through selective breeding and/or hybridization with Alpacas, some Llama bloodlines have finer-fibered fleeces. The typical Llama fleece is dominated by external guard hair covering (c.56% offleece with fiber diameter 50-70 microns) with an internal undercoat of smaller diameter fibers (c.44% with 25-30 microns). Llama wool is more variable in color and diameter than Alpaca wool. Due to its relative coarseness, [Llama wool has little textile value and is worth half the value of Alpaca wool. Llama woolis rougher to the touch, but with greater felting properties since the cuticle scales protrude more. However, because Llama wool is characteristically strong and warm, it is commonly used by indigenous families for making blankets, ponchos, carpets, rugs, shawls, rope, riding gear, sacks, and “costales""—bags tied to the back of Llamas and used for carrying cargo. Only c.40% of the Llama population is shorn annually because producers want heavy fleeces with long fibers to sell commercially. Some Llamas are not shorn for years because the fleece pads the back for carrying cargo. Annually there are c.1,122,667 kg of Llama wool produced in Peru(60%), Bolivia(34%), and relatively small amounts from Argentinaand Chile. In Boliviaan estimated 70% is sold commercially and 30% used for home use. Although the textile industry prefers white, Llama fleeces are of different colors (47% solid, 27% mixed, 25% white). A major problem with Llama woolis its high medullation: without (20%), fragmented (37%), continuous (39%), and kemp/hair (4%). If the fleece wool is separated from different parts of the body and coarse fibers are removed, a favorable proportion of fine wool is obtained. There are no sustainable plans for genetic selection of animals with fine diameter of high value. Although the population of Llamas in Argentinais relatively low, fiber diameter is fine: 48% at 21 microns or less and only 16% at 25 microns and more.","In the Andean Altiplano where large numbers of Llamas are raised, the animals are a central part of the agro-pastoral system and the lifestyle of many people, since Llamas are heavily relied upon for carrying cargo and produce. In general these high-altitude grazing lands are low producing with annual production at 200-600 kg/ha for plains and mountainous zones and 600-2450 kg/ha for bofedales. The bofedal habitat is especially important for foraging Llamas during the dry season, yet fragile and susceptible to erosion if overgrazing is permitted.","[lamas are considered by their indigenous herders to be extremely hardy because of their ability to prosper in desolate-Andean environments. They have similar feeding habits to Alpacas, but distinct enough to make joint husbandry compatible and possible. Herders view the land andits forage as a single valuable unit because it feeds their Llamas and Alpacas. Land ownership is not important, but traditional use and designated rights to graze particular areas is critical. Studies in the highlands of Peruand Chileon the botanical composition of the diets of Llamas feeding on wet (bofedales) and dry (gramadales) meadows found a high overlap with Alpaca and sheep feeding habits, but significantly differed from Alpacas in the summer (61%) and winter (74%) because the two camelids were managed by herders to minimize competition. Llamas had higher digestion coefficients than sheep of organic matter, crude protein, dry matter, and fiber fractions of bunchgrasses, important forage for Llamas. These feeding trials comparing the abilities of Llamas vs domestic sheep in digesting organic material ofvarious qualities revealed the coefficients of digestibility for low quality to be 51 vs. 41 (24% difference between the species), medium quality 60 vs. 52 (15%), high quality 73 vs. 75 (-=3%), high fiber 58 vs. 52 (12%), medium fiber 62 vs. 58 (7%), and low fiber 67 vs. 65 (3%). Thus Llamas were significantly more efficient than sheep when forage was low to medium quality and high in fiber. Maintenance energy requirements for a 108 kgLlama is 2% of its body weight, or 2-2 kg dry matter of forage per day.","The breeding season is from February to May. Males used for breeding are commonly familiar to the females, who when approached sit down in the copulatory position. Unfamiliar males usually have to chase the female and force her to recline. Research and extension agencies encourage herders to use one male with five females for three days, and then remove the male. The male is reintroduced 15 days later and the cycle is repeated until all females are bred. Gestation is 340-360 days. A single offspring is born, although exceptionally twins do occur. The female gives birth standing up, there is no licking of the neonate, and newborns can follow their mother within an hour. Llamas have a high potential for reproduction under good management: 85-95% annual reproductive rate on research and well-managed farms. However, in the Andes due to poor forage conditions frequently available to indigenous herders and the resulting poor condition of animals,fertility has been reported to be as low as 45-55%. In years of severe cold or droughts subadult mortality can be as high as 30-50%. Offspring regularly nurse up to the fifth month and are weaned by the herder at eight months, although if allowed to do so will continue to nurse irregularly until the female gives birth again the following year. Some females breed 8-10 days after parturition, but two to three weeks later is the norm. Mother Llamas are patient with suckling their young and some will accept nursing another female’s offspring. After weaning the young Llamas, some herders separate them from females until two years old, and then segregate them by sex. At three years of age a final selection is made for the best males to be sires with the balance to be used as pack animals or eventually meat. Females are bred at two and half years and not used as beasts of burden.","Daily activity patterns of Llamas are essentially the same as Alpacas. That is, after having spent the night in or next to a rudimentary stone corral adjacent to the family’s residence (often a single-room hut called “choza” made of stones with a thatched roof), the Llamas move out soon after sunrise to feed in the local highaltitude grasslands, moving and grazing often unattended by a herder, then return to the choza as darkness approaches. Activity budgets (percentage of time) of Llamas compared to sheep grazing on native Andean pasture dominated by favorable forage (Festucadolichophylla), have shown that all other activities were similar, but that Llamas feed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (15% vs. 25%) than sheep.","[Llamas (as well as Alpacas) of South America exist within a society of indigenous herders, whose main societal features are seasonal migration, a scattered population without villages or urban centers for permanent residence, and whose social structure is centered around large families with strong ties. Rules and traditions exist within each community that often determines important aspects of herd management. For example, in some systems male [lamas are maintained apart from the female segment in distant community pastures, and then reunited for the breeding/rainy season from January through March. The female segmentis a mixed herd of reproducing and replacement females, young, and one-year-olds of both sexes. When the yearlings are 12-18 months old some herders make a preliminary selection for meat production or future reproduction. Another system used extensively is one in which breeding males are permanently kept with the mixed herds of females year-round. Invariably Llama herders also maintain a flock of sheep that offers an important source of food for the family. A problem, however, is that the sheep compete for forage with the Llamas, reduce the land’s carrying capacity, and increase the probability of overgrazing. Llama herd size averages 40-60 in the more heavily populated communities, compared to 120-180 Llamas in the Altiplano with fewer people. In contrast, average accompanying flocks of sheep average 40-70 animals in both areas.","Boliviahas most (58%) of South America’s ¢.3-91 million Llamas, followed by Peru(37%), Argentina(4%), and Chile(1%); nearly all of which (99%) are found in indigenous communities. The total number of Llamas has increased 12% during the past decade. In Bolivia370,000-500,000 families raise Llamas, in Peru297,414, Argentina2803, 80% of which have fewer than 90 animals. There are no known wild or feral populations. Llamas were intertwined with the rise and spread of the Inca Empire since its beginning in the Peruvian Andes in the early 1200s. With the help of Llamas, the Incas built sturdy walls, buildings, irrigation systems, and some 8700 kmof roads throughout their empire. These roads eventually extended around 2500 kmfrom Ecuadorsouth to central Chileand parts of Argentina. Before the Spanish Conquest of Peru, Llamas numbered into the multimillions, but were severely decimated during the post-conquest period. While early Spanish chroniclers recorded the “virtual disappearance” of these animals within a hundred years, that was obviously an exaggeration. Indigenous and endemic to the South America, [Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, and increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators. In the USAthere were 162,000 registered Llamas in 2010. Export of Llamas (as well as Alpacas) has increased international interest in these species, stimulating research in the medical, nutritional, reproductive, and disease disciplines. In the Andes, Llamas are viewed and described by native herders by masculine terminology. During ceremonies in which Llamas are being honored or sacrificed, they are referred to as “brothers” and when higher rank or importance is expressed, they are called “fathers.” Indigenous Llama terminology is based upon fleece color, patterns and patches, sex, reproductive status, age, size, shape, wool quality, and behavior. The combinations of these descriptive characters amount to over 20,000 words, forming a rich nomenclature used to identify and distinguish individual Llamas as well as Alpacas. Llamas have long been important beasts of burden for the Andean cultures and nations. Cargo-carrying Llamas have made it possible for peoples of the Andes to successfully inhabit this rugged-mountain environment. Extensive and ritualized prayers are said before departure of a Llama caravan, requesting permission and protection from local deities for the journey, safe passage, and that no incident will befall the Llamas or family members while traveling. Only men of the family travel with the Llama pack train, walking behind the animals. Castrated male Llamas are used primarily, and depending upon their maturity, size, and training, individuals are capable of carrying up to 25-30% of their body weight, or 25-35 kg, and traveling 20-30 km in a day for up to 20 days. The cargo is carried in a sack tied to the Llama’s back with a rope made from coarse Llama wool. Males are castrated at two years of age and training begins by accompanying the older animals on trips. Individual Llamas in the traveling caravan are not tied together, but follow the lead of two to three “Llama guides.” Such lead Llamas traditionally were adorned with colorful halters, frontal tapestries, and even a family or national flag atop its back. Animal leaders are given names to reflect their status, such as Road-Breaker, Condor Face, and Champion. Lead Llamas prevent junior animals from usurping the front position, and guide the way when fording rivers, crossing dangerous bridges, and when negotiating narrow paths along steep ravines. If the lead Llama stops, the entire caravan waits until it resumes traveling. At the end of the day, Llamas are unpacked and turned loose to graze and water. If available, they are kept in stone corrals for the night, otherwise they are grouped together with a rope running around them at neck level. Llama caravans use traditional trading circuits in the Altiplano, some descending into the Andean valleys, the Pacific coast to the west, or the Amazon jungle to the east. Goods are sold, purchased, and traded along the route as needed. From the coastal agricultural valleys fresh produce was obtained in exchange for corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley that were grown and carried down from the mountain agricultural valleys. In times past Llama trains traveled hundreds of kilometers to obtain highly prized salt from inland, natural-salt deposits and mines, some types of which were used for human consumption, others for animals. Today, the world of the Andean Llama herdsmen is rapidly changing with goods and produce now primarily transported by trucks and rail. Still, Llama caravans continue to be used and are especially important for transporting goods to remote regions of the Andes. Secondarily Llamas are used in South America for meat, fuel, and wool. Llama meatis often dried and stored as jerky, typically made by alternative freeze-drying during the Andean winter when nights are freezing and days sunny. With a dressing percentage of 44-48% yielding 25-30 kg of fresh meat, 12-15 kg ofjerky are produced. Jerky is not only a convenient form for long-term storage of meat, but is an excellent source of protein (55-60%). Llama hides are used for making shoes, ropes, and bags. Their fecal matter is valuable as fuel in regions where wood is scarce. It should be noted that despite the presence of many animals, the diet of Andean herdsmen is based upon agricultural produce. They eat little meat and drink no milk. Goat or cow cheese is consumed by some, and when meat is eaten,it is in the form of cameloid jerky or fresh sheep meat. Outside South America the Llama’s cargo-carrying ability has been discovered by hikers, hunters, and forest-work crews in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Llamas are quiet, gentle, unobtrusive, and easy to manage. Their hardiness, surefootedness, and trainability make them excellent pack animals and trail companions. The Llama’s agility allows them to negotiate terrain that would be difficult or impossible for other pack animals, and because of their padded feet and ability to browse, they have minimal impact on trails and mountain meadows. In North America Llamas have been used highly successfully as guard llamas for protecting sheep and goats from coyote and feral dog predation. Livestock owners report that their annual sheep losses dropped from 11% to 1% after the introduction of a guard llama, and more than half reported 100% reduction in predator losses. Single, gelded males are typically used, although females work equally well. In 2006, they were found across Canadaas well as in every USstate. In the USAthere were over 11,000 guard llamas in use on some 9500 sheep operations. Remarkably, half the sheep ranchers in Wyominghave guard llamas and they are common on sheep ranches in Colorado(39%), Montana(28%), and Utah(23%). In the Plains States, 23% of sheep producers in North Dakotaand 21% in South Dakotause guard llamas. In the Midwest and the Eastern States, Missouri(23%) and North Carolina(24%) lead the way, respectively. Although not a panacea, guard llamas have proven to be a viable non-lethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no special training and minimal care.","Bravo et al. (2000) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995) | Franklin (1982b) | Franklin & Powell (2006) | Gonzales (1990) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Marin et al. (2007b) | Novoa (1984) | Quispe et al. (2009) | San Martin (1989) | Sumar (1996) | Van Saun (2006) | Wheeler (1984, 2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719725/files/figure.png,"2.LlamaLama glamaFrench:Lama/ German:Lama/ Spanish:LlamaTaxonomy.Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758,Peru, Andes.The Llama was selectively bred from the Guanaco(L. guanicoe) for use as a pack animal and producer of meat. It is regarded throughout the world as the premier symbol of South American fauna. With the possibility of more than one center, Llama domestication occurred 4000-4500 years ago in the South-Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina) and/or 4500-5500 ago in the Central Andes (Junin de los Andes, Argentina). It is often assumed and reported that the Lake Titacaca region was a core of Llama domestication, but supporting data are lacking from early archaeological sites. Osteological remains and DNA analysis document the origin of domestication to be within the range of the northern subspecies of GuanacoL. g. cacsilensis. From its points of domestication, archeological evidence reveals that breeding and herding of Llamas spread widely throughout the Andean region to intermountain valleys, cloud forest on the eastern slope of the Central Andes, southern coast of Peru, to the mountains of Ecuador. Llamas closely resemble their progenitor the Guanacoin almost all aspects of physiology, behavior, general morphology, and adaptability to a wide range of environments. There are no subspecies, but two distinct phenotypic breeds: Short-Woolled and Long-Woolled Llamas.Distribution.Llamas are found at 3800-5000 m above sea level in the Central Andes, from C Peruto W Boliviaand N Argentina. Llama distribution reached its apex during the expansion of the Inca Empire (1470-1532 ap), when pack trains were used to carry supplies for the royal armies to S Colombiaand C Chile. Although originally indigenous and endemic to South America, Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, cottage industry and home use ofits wool, and in North America increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-229 cm, tail 18-22 cm, shoulder height 102-106 cm; weight 110-220 kg. Llamas are the largest of the four cameloids and tallest of all Neotropical animals. Classical, camelid-body shape with long slender necks, long legs, and small head compared to the body. Their pelage can be white, black, or brown with all intermediate shades occurring and a tendency for spots and irregular color patterns. Wild-type Llamas occur with Guanacocoloration. There are two distinct phenotypic breeds. SHORT-WOOLLED LLAMAS: Slim and long-bodied, with short coats and visible guard hairs, Short-Woolled Llamas are typically the breed utilized for carrying cargo and are the more common of the two. In the Altiplano regions of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi Departments the proportion of Short-Woolled Llamas varies between 65% and 83%, while in the Peruvian highlands they represent 80% of the total Llama population. The fleece is low density, low weight (1-3 + 1-1 kg biennially), and relatively thicker fibers with high medullation of 77-88%. Medullation refers to the presence and degree of medulla at the center of the fiber, and high medullation is “undesirable” because the greater the medullation, the bigger the fiber in diameter and so less fine. LONG-WOOLLED LLAMAS: The less common (17-35%) of the two, this breed is compact, short-bodied, and the pelage has fewer guard hairs. Their wool is longer, covering the entire body, generally uniform, and soft to the touch. The fleece is heavier (2-8 + 1-1 kg), denser, and has finer fibers (26-28 microns) with medullation of 26-33%, and on the average wool coarser than the Alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Genetic studies have revealed that 40% of the Llama population shows signs of hybridization with Alpacas. Intentional hybridization has been especially common during the past 25 years both in South America and abroad with the aim of improving wool quality, fleece weight, and economic value. Unfortunately the outcome has been a major loss of pure genetic lines. Indigenous Quechua peoples in the Andes subdivide hybrids into “llamawari” (Llama-like) and “pacowari” (Alpaca-like) based upon physical appearance. Llama ears are banana-shaped (distinctively curved inward) and relatively long (14-16 cm). They are docile, intelligent, and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. Mature Llamas weigh an average of 140 kgwith full body size reached by four years of age. There are no obvious differences between the sexes, but males tend to be slightly larger. The male prepuce is slightly bent down and directed posteriorly for urination. The female vulva is small, located immediately below the anus, with a nose-like structure pointing out from the base; the compact udderis in inguinal area with four small teats. Llamas are long-lived with a life span of 15-20 or more years. The Llama is woolly in appearance; individual fibers are often coarse, not homogeneous, and have a wide variation in diameter. Its fleece is the heaviest (1.8-3. 5 kg) of the four cameloids, but often of uneven quality. As with the other cameloids, Llama fleece lacks grease,is dry, highly hygroscopic, and naturally lanolin free. Through selective breeding and/or hybridization with Alpacas, some Llama bloodlines have finer-fibered fleeces. The typical Llama fleece is dominated by external guard hair covering (c.56% offleece with fiber diameter 50-70 microns) with an internal undercoat of smaller diameter fibers (c.44% with 25-30 microns). Llama wool is more variable in color and diameter than Alpaca wool. Due to its relative coarseness, [Llama wool has little textile value and is worth half the value of Alpaca wool. Llama woolis rougher to the touch, but with greater felting properties since the cuticle scales protrude more. However, because Llama wool is characteristically strong and warm, it is commonly used by indigenous families for making blankets, ponchos, carpets, rugs, shawls, rope, riding gear, sacks, and “costales""—bags tied to the back of Llamas and used for carrying cargo. Only c.40% of the Llama population is shorn annually because producers want heavy fleeces with long fibers to sell commercially. Some Llamas are not shorn for years because the fleece pads the back for carrying cargo. Annually there are c.1,122,667 kg of Llama wool produced in Peru(60%), Bolivia(34%), and relatively small amounts from Argentinaand Chile. In Boliviaan estimated 70% is sold commercially and 30% used for home use. Although the textile industry prefers white, Llama fleeces are of different colors (47% solid, 27% mixed, 25% white). A major problem with Llama woolis its high medullation: without (20%), fragmented (37%), continuous (39%), and kemp/hair (4%). If the fleece wool is separated from different parts of the body and coarse fibers are removed, a favorable proportion of fine wool is obtained. There are no sustainable plans for genetic selection of animals with fine diameter of high value. Although the population of Llamas in Argentinais relatively low, fiber diameter is fine: 48% at 21 microns or less and only 16% at 25 microns and more.Habitat.In the Andean Altiplano where large numbers of Llamas are raised, the animals are a central part of the agro-pastoral system and the lifestyle of many people, since Llamas are heavily relied upon for carrying cargo and produce. In general these high-altitude grazing lands are low producing with annual production at 200-600 kg/ha for plains and mountainous zones and 600-2450 kg/ha for bofedales. The bofedal habitat is especially important for foraging Llamas during the dry season, yet fragile and susceptible to erosion if overgrazing is permitted.Food and Feeding.[lamas are considered by their indigenous herders to be extremely hardy because of their ability to prosper in desolate-Andean environments. They have similar feeding habits to Alpacas, but distinct enough to make joint husbandry compatible and possible. Herders view the land andits forage as a single valuable unit because it feeds their Llamas and Alpacas. Land ownership is not important, but traditional use and designated rights to graze particular areas is critical. Studies in the highlands of Peruand Chileon the botanical composition of the diets of Llamas feeding on wet (bofedales) and dry (gramadales) meadows found a high overlap with Alpaca and sheep feeding habits, but significantly differed from Alpacas in the summer (61%) and winter (74%) because the two camelids were managed by herders to minimize competition. Llamas had higher digestion coefficients than sheep of organic matter, crude protein, dry matter, and fiber fractions of bunchgrasses, important forage for Llamas. These feeding trials comparing the abilities of Llamas vs domestic sheep in digesting organic material ofvarious qualities revealed the coefficients of digestibility for low quality to be 51 vs. 41 (24% difference between the species), medium quality 60 vs. 52 (15%), high quality 73 vs. 75 (-=3%), high fiber 58 vs. 52 (12%), medium fiber 62 vs. 58 (7%), and low fiber 67 vs. 65 (3%). Thus Llamas were significantly more efficient than sheep when forage was low to medium quality and high in fiber. Maintenance energy requirements for a 108 kgLlama is 2% of its body weight, or 2-2 kg dry matter of forage per day.Breeding.The breeding season is from February to May. Males used for breeding are commonly familiar to the females, who when approached sit down in the copulatory position. Unfamiliar males usually have to chase the female and force her to recline. Research and extension agencies encourage herders to use one male with five females for three days, and then remove the male. The male is reintroduced 15 days later and the cycle is repeated until all females are bred. Gestation is 340-360 days. A single offspring is born, although exceptionally twins do occur. The female gives birth standing up, there is no licking of the neonate, and newborns can follow their mother within an hour. Llamas have a high potential for reproduction under good management: 85-95% annual reproductive rate on research and well-managed farms. However, in the Andes due to poor forage conditions frequently available to indigenous herders and the resulting poor condition of animals,fertility has been reported to be as low as 45-55%. In years of severe cold or droughts subadult mortality can be as high as 30-50%. Offspring regularly nurse up to the fifth month and are weaned by the herder at eight months, although if allowed to do so will continue to nurse irregularly until the female gives birth again the following year. Some females breed 8-10 days after parturition, but two to three weeks later is the norm. Mother Llamas are patient with suckling their young and some will accept nursing another female’s offspring. After weaning the young Llamas, some herders separate them from females until two years old, and then segregate them by sex. At three years of age a final selection is made for the best males to be sires with the balance to be used as pack animals or eventually meat. Females are bred at two and half years and not used as beasts of burden.Activity patterns.Daily activity patterns of Llamas are essentially the same as Alpacas. That is, after having spent the night in or next to a rudimentary stone corral adjacent to the family’s residence (often a single-room hut called “choza” made of stones with a thatched roof), the Llamas move out soon after sunrise to feed in the local highaltitude grasslands, moving and grazing often unattended by a herder, then return to the choza as darkness approaches. Activity budgets (percentage of time) of Llamas compared to sheep grazing on native Andean pasture dominated by favorable forage (Festucadolichophylla), have shown that all other activities were similar, but that Llamas feed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (15% vs. 25%) than sheep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.[Llamas (as well as Alpacas) of South America exist within a society of indigenous herders, whose main societal features are seasonal migration, a scattered population without villages or urban centers for permanent residence, and whose social structure is centered around large families with strong ties. Rules and traditions exist within each community that often determines important aspects of herd management. For example, in some systems male [lamas are maintained apart from the female segment in distant community pastures, and then reunited for the breeding/rainy season from January through March. The female segmentis a mixed herd of reproducing and replacement females, young, and one-year-olds of both sexes. When the yearlings are 12-18 months old some herders make a preliminary selection for meat production or future reproduction. Another system used extensively is one in which breeding males are permanently kept with the mixed herds of females year-round. Invariably Llama herders also maintain a flock of sheep that offers an important source of food for the family. A problem, however, is that the sheep compete for forage with the Llamas, reduce the land’s carrying capacity, and increase the probability of overgrazing. Llama herd size averages 40-60 in the more heavily populated communities, compared to 120-180 Llamas in the Altiplano with fewer people. In contrast, average accompanying flocks of sheep average 40-70 animals in both areas.Status and Conservation.Boliviahas most (58%) of South America’s ¢.3-91 million Llamas, followed by Peru(37%), Argentina(4%), and Chile(1%); nearly all of which (99%) are found in indigenous communities. The total number of Llamas has increased 12% during the past decade. In Bolivia370,000-500,000 families raise Llamas, in Peru297,414, Argentina2803, 80% of which have fewer than 90 animals. There are no known wild or feral populations. Llamas were intertwined with the rise and spread of the Inca Empire since its beginning in the Peruvian Andes in the early 1200s. With the help of Llamas, the Incas built sturdy walls, buildings, irrigation systems, and some 8700 kmof roads throughout their empire. These roads eventually extended around 2500 kmfrom Ecuadorsouth to central Chileand parts of Argentina. Before the Spanish Conquest of Peru, Llamas numbered into the multimillions, but were severely decimated during the post-conquest period. While early Spanish chroniclers recorded the “virtual disappearance” of these animals within a hundred years, that was obviously an exaggeration. Indigenous and endemic to the South America, [Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, and increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators. In the USAthere were 162,000 registered Llamas in 2010. Export of Llamas (as well as Alpacas) has increased international interest in these species, stimulating research in the medical, nutritional, reproductive, and disease disciplines. In the Andes, Llamas are viewed and described by native herders by masculine terminology. During ceremonies in which Llamas are being honored or sacrificed, they are referred to as “brothers” and when higher rank or importance is expressed, they are called “fathers.” Indigenous Llama terminology is based upon fleece color, patterns and patches, sex, reproductive status, age, size, shape, wool quality, and behavior. The combinations of these descriptive characters amount to over 20,000 words, forming a rich nomenclature used to identify and distinguish individual Llamas as well as Alpacas. Llamas have long been important beasts of burden for the Andean cultures and nations. Cargo-carrying Llamas have made it possible for peoples of the Andes to successfully inhabit this rugged-mountain environment. Extensive and ritualized prayers are said before departure of a Llama caravan, requesting permission and protection from local deities for the journey, safe passage, and that no incident will befall the Llamas or family members while traveling. Only men of the family travel with the Llama pack train, walking behind the animals. Castrated male Llamas are used primarily, and depending upon their maturity, size, and training, individuals are capable of carrying up to 25-30% of their body weight, or 25-35 kg, and traveling 20-30 km in a day for up to 20 days. The cargo is carried in a sack tied to the Llama’s back with a rope made from coarse Llama wool. Males are castrated at two years of age and training begins by accompanying the older animals on trips. Individual Llamas in the traveling caravan are not tied together, but follow the lead of two to three “Llama guides.” Such lead Llamas traditionally were adorned with colorful halters, frontal tapestries, and even a family or national flag atop its back. Animal leaders are given names to reflect their status, such as Road-Breaker, Condor Face, and Champion. Lead Llamas prevent junior animals from usurping the front position, and guide the way when fording rivers, crossing dangerous bridges, and when negotiating narrow paths along steep ravines. If the lead Llama stops, the entire caravan waits until it resumes traveling. At the end of the day, Llamas are unpacked and turned loose to graze and water. If available, they are kept in stone corrals for the night, otherwise they are grouped together with a rope running around them at neck level. Llama caravans use traditional trading circuits in the Altiplano, some descending into the Andean valleys, the Pacific coast to the west, or the Amazon jungle to the east. Goods are sold, purchased, and traded along the route as needed. From the coastal agricultural valleys fresh produce was obtained in exchange for corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley that were grown and carried down from the mountain agricultural valleys. In times past Llama trains traveled hundreds of kilometers to obtain highly prized salt from inland, natural-salt deposits and mines, some types of which were used for human consumption, others for animals. Today, the world of the Andean Llama herdsmen is rapidly changing with goods and produce now primarily transported by trucks and rail. Still, Llama caravans continue to be used and are especially important for transporting goods to remote regions of the Andes. Secondarily Llamas are used in South America for meat, fuel, and wool. Llama meatis often dried and stored as jerky, typically made by alternative freeze-drying during the Andean winter when nights are freezing and days sunny. With a dressing percentage of 44-48% yielding 25-30 kg of fresh meat, 12-15 kg ofjerky are produced. Jerky is not only a convenient form for long-term storage of meat, but is an excellent source of protein (55-60%). Llama hides are used for making shoes, ropes, and bags. Their fecal matter is valuable as fuel in regions where wood is scarce. It should be noted that despite the presence of many animals, the diet of Andean herdsmen is based upon agricultural produce. They eat little meat and drink no milk. Goat or cow cheese is consumed by some, and when meat is eaten,it is in the form of cameloid jerky or fresh sheep meat. Outside South America the Llama’s cargo-carrying ability has been discovered by hikers, hunters, and forest-work crews in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Llamas are quiet, gentle, unobtrusive, and easy to manage. Their hardiness, surefootedness, and trainability make them excellent pack animals and trail companions. The Llama’s agility allows them to negotiate terrain that would be difficult or impossible for other pack animals, and because of their padded feet and ability to browse, they have minimal impact on trails and mountain meadows. In North America Llamas have been used highly successfully as guard llamas for protecting sheep and goats from coyote and feral dog predation. Livestock owners report that their annual sheep losses dropped from 11% to 1% after the introduction of a guard llama, and more than half reported 100% reduction in predator losses. Single, gelded males are typically used, although females work equally well. In 2006, they were found across Canadaas well as in every USstate. In the USAthere were over 11,000 guard llamas in use on some 9500 sheep operations. Remarkably, half the sheep ranchers in Wyominghave guard llamas and they are common on sheep ranches in Colorado(39%), Montana(28%), and Utah(23%). In the Plains States, 23% of sheep producers in North Dakotaand 21% in South Dakotause guard llamas. In the Midwest and the Eastern States, Missouri(23%) and North Carolina(24%) lead the way, respectively. Although not a panacea, guard llamas have proven to be a viable non-lethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no special training and minimal care.Bibliography.Bravo et al. (2000), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995), Franklin (1982b), Franklin & Powell (2006), Gonzales (1990), Kadwell et al. (2001), Marin et al. (2007b), Novoa (1984), Quispe et al. (2009), San Martin (1989), Sumar (1996), Van Saun (2006), Wheeler (1984, 2006)." +03928E699A41FFC8D579FE7AF5F5F837,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,235,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A41FFC8D579FE7AF5F5F837.xml,Lama guanicoe,Lama,guanicoe,,,Guanaco @fr | Guanako @de | Guanaco @es,"Camelus guanicoe Muller, 1776,Patagonia, Argentina.The Guanacois a direct descendent of Hemiauchenia, a genus of camelid that migrated from North to South America three million years ago. Two million yearold fossils of L. guanicoecan be found today in ArgentinePleistocene deposits and others in strata dated 73,000-97,000 years ago in Bolivia. Phylogenetically, L. guanicoeis monophyletic. Historically, four sub-species of Guanacos were recognized, albeit based upon incomplete information on skull measurements, coat coloration, distribution, and body size. However, recent molecular studies using mtDNA cytochrome-b sequences, recognize only two subspecies, placing the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations in subspecies cacsilensis and assigning the remainder of the clade to subspecies guanicoe. A significant biogeographic revision of the two valid subspecies is needed, especially an analysis and classification of populations on a regional and ecosystem basis.","L.g.guanicoeMiller,1776—Bolivia,Chile,WArgentina(fromJujuytoSPatagonia),TierradelFuego,andNavarinoI.L. g. cacsilensis Lonnberg, 1913— N Peruto N Chilebetween 8° Sand 22° S. Introduced from Argentinato Staats I (Falkland Is) during the late 1930s.","Head-body 190-215 cm,tail 23-27 cm, shoulder height 90-130 cm; weight 90-140 kg. Measurements vary because of their wide distribution and differences between subspecies. Guanacos are extremely striking, with their contrasting colors, large, alert brown eyes, streamlined form, and energetic pace. Described by Darwin as “an elegant animal, with a long, slender neck and fine legs,” itis one of South America’s largest terrestrial mammals, reaching its maximum size in southern Chileand smallest in northern Peru. There is no obvious sexual dimorphism in size, color, or structure, except for the presence of large canines in the male. The color of the woolly pelage is similar for all Guanacos, varying from light brown with ocher yellow tones in the north to dark reddish brown in the south. The chest, front of neck, belly, and internal portion of the legs are more or less pure white, the head gray to black. Guanacowool is prized for its softness and warmth, and second only to that of the Vicuna (Vicugnavicugna). The pelts from “chulengos” (newborns and less than one-year-old juveniles) are particularly soft. Like their domestic descendant the Llama (L. glama), the Guanacois double-coated, with coarse guard hair (3-5% offleece) and a soft undercoat. The undercoatfibers range 12-17 (average 14-16) microns in diameter. Fiber (strand) length is 35 mm, the same as the Vicuna. Average fleece weights vary from 322 gto 350 g. Fiber diameter increases about two microns from one to seven year of age. Value of shorn, unclean wool is US$ 100-200/kg and US$ 400/kg for cleaned and dehaired wool. Guanacos have “thermal windows” in the front and rear flanks (underarms) that are nearly without wool. Both wild and captive Guanacos may live as long as 28 years.","The Guanacoinhabits environments from sea level up to 4500 mor more, characterized by highly seasonal weather, with snow cover or dry winters, cold to freezing temperatures, moderate to high winds, and low precipitation. These combine to produce high evapo-transpiration and dry conditions that lead to low primary productivity. At a broad scale, Guanacos inhabit four of the ten major habitats found in South America: desert and xeric shrublands, montane and lowland grasslands, savannas and shrublands, and temperate forests, which botanically include the categories of Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal, and the southern Pampa. They inhabit flatlands, hilly foothills, and mountainous environments. In the arid habitats of southern Chile, isolated mesic subsystems were the preferred plant community accounting for 85% of female sightings and 60% ofterritorial males. These “vegas” (meadows) were not only preferred for their productive, higher-quality succulent forage, but for females a major influence for their selection was the avoidance ofsites and habitats favored by Pumas (Puma concolor).","The Guanacois a non-specialized, opportunistic, intermediate, mixed-feeding herbivore, foraging on a wide variety of plants. It is basically a grazer, but also browses. When the availability of the herbaceous strata decreases or becomes unavailable, especially during winter, Guanacos feed mainly on the shrub or tree strata. This flexibility as a generalist to change diet according to availability or preference extends to eating epiphytes, lichens, fungi, cacti, succulent plants, fruit, flowers, and leaves. Their summer diet in a mixed habitat of southern Chileaveraged 62% grasses (mainly Festuca), 15% browse (Nothofagusspp.), and 11% forbs, which were particularly important in the spring. In another study on Tierra del Fuego their diet was made up of 90% grasses and forbs. In austral coastal forests of southern Chile, Guanacobrowsing significantly diminishes the rate of regeneration of the commercially important southern beech tree (Nothofagus pumilio) and was a limiting factor on initial growth of seedlings and saplings (89% were browsed), although the Guanaco’s diet was less than 10% shrubs and trees. At Torres del Paine National Park, at the western edge of the Patagonia, vegas were highly utilized in summer (86% ofall feeding observations) and preferred by all feeding Guanacos (n = 1659) in family groups, whereas all other vegetation types were avoided (shrub = 3%, upland = 10%). Adult females in family groups showed the greatest feeding preference for vegas, followed by chulengos, yearlings, and adult males. In ArgentinePatagonia, Guanacodensities are low and negatively related to domestic sheep numbers. Guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences, with over 80% oftheir diets being identical. Histological analysis of fecal samples revealed that Guanacos and sheep were intermediate herbivores feeding on a wide range of grasses and forbs, capable of changing their diets seasonally, and their food niches greatly overlapped particularly in summer when food resources were more scarce than in spring.","Nearly all females breed at two years of age and have their first offspring as three-year olds. At Torres del Paine, Chilemales began breeding after obtaining a feeding territory when they were 2—4 years of age. Essentially all breeding took place within feeding territories during the summer. A high percentage (88%) of males established a territory for three or fewer years (average 2-3), although some males held territories for as long as eight years. Few solo males became family group males (19%), that is, 81% remained non-reproductive during their territorial tenure. Those males leaving male groups to become territorial, only 35% directly became family group territorial males while 65% became solo territorial males. Like other camelids, Guanacos are induced ovulators. The territorial mating period was from early Decemberto early January (91% of 88 observed copulations), so males defended their feeding territories for nine weeks before and eight weeks after the mating season. Mature female Guanacos give birth to a single offspring each year after a gestation of about 11-7 months (345-360 days). Only three sets of twins were documented in over two decades offield studies at Torres del Paine during which several thousand newborns were observed; in all cases no more than one survived past the first week. Half of all births occur in the last two weeks of spring. The timing of parturition varies with latitude. At Torres del Paine the birth season occurred from late November to early January. Parturition occurs during the day in Patagonia with 78% of births between 10:00 h and 14:00 h, when the young are able to dry during favorable midday temperature conditions. Birth weight averages 13 kg(7-15 kg) and shows marked density dependence, with lower birth weights at higher population densities. Low weight at birth is related to high rates of mortality. Newborns are very precocious. They can stand as early as 5-76 minutes after birth and can run within hours. Young are weaned at 6-8 months and are expelled from family groups by the territorial male when they are 11-15 months old. Dispersing yearling males join male groups and yearling females join family groups or female groups. Monitoring of 409 radio-collared chulengos at Torres del Paine over a seven-year period revealed an average first-year survival rate of 38% (31-55%). Puma predation was the primary cause of mortality of young Guanacos, especially in the first two weeks of life. Relative to their availabilities, chulengos were preyed upon about four times as much as adults. With every centimeter increase in winter snowfall, the risk of chulengo mortality increased by almost 6% because of greater vulnerability to predation. Out of 731 Guanacoskulls collected at Torres del Paine from 1979 to 1988, 33% showed clear evidence of having been killed by Pumas, and that was considered an underestimate. Observations of farmed Guanacos revealed that allosuckling (nursing of non-filial offspring) comprised 6% of all suckling events by 62% of calves and was allowed by 52% of dams. Dams whose calves performed allosuckling exhibited poorer body condition, suggesting juvenile Guanacos allosuckled to compensate for nutritional deficiencies. Preliminary research on the cytochrome-b gene sequence has found no evidence of hybridization between Guanacos and Vicunas.","Observations of both wild and captive Guanacos have shown peaks of eating, bedding, and ruminating in the morning and again later in the afternoon. Wild Guanacos spent a greater proportion of their time moving and less time resting, probably the result of the need to forage more and maintain intraspecific social interactions. At Torres del Paine during the summer, Guanacos in family groups in vega habitat fed 54% of time, rested 45%, and were involved in other behaviors 1% of the time (3084 focal observations). There was no difference in the activity-time budgets of 23 marked solo territorial males compared to family-group territorial males based on social group type, total number of females, total number of Guanacos present, or age of the ter ritorial males. The pattern suggested thatterritorial male behaviors were related to resource defense rather than to any direct ability to attract potential mates. Males, in all categories, spent most of their time foraging (65% of overall time budget). However, based upon habitat type there was a significant difference in time spent in aggressive and in miscellaneous activities (defecation, alertness to observer, scratching). Most aggressive encounters and miscellaneous activity occurred on hilltops of areas dominated by mata barrosa shrubs (Mulinum spinosum). Vigilance patterns were assessed in Chubut, Argentinafor Guanacos occupying a tall shrubland covering 40-60% of the area, where 40% of the mortality was from Puma predation. Family group territorial males devoted more time to scanning their surroundings and less time feeding than did females, and both sexes benefited from grouping by reducing the time invested in vigilance and increasing foraging time. Males reduced the time invested in vigilance as the number of females in the group increased, while the presence of chulengos increased territorial male vigilance. However, in closed habitats collective vigilance increased with the number of adults but decreased with the number of chulengos. Although male and female Guanacos differed in their time allocation, results supported the hypothesis that both sexes received significant anti-predator benefits from group living. Adjustments in Guanacobody posture can modify the exposure of body surface area H—22%. Guanacos can decrease and increase body heat loss through radiation and convection by “closing” and “opening” their thermal windows in the axillary and flank regions. Researchers report that when ambient temperatures were 0-10°C, animals used postural adjustments to decrease the area of the thermal windows by 5-7% oftotal surface area. At temperatures greater than 10°C they increased the area of the thermal windows up to 22% to regulate heat loss through radiation and convection. When the temperature was below 0—1°C Guanacos bedded and huddled together, often with their hindquarters into the wind.","Intensively studied Guanacopopulations have been either migratory or sedentary. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve (Argentina), both occur but most are sedentary, while on the island of Tierra del Fuego(Chile) both occur, but most are migratory. In Argentinapopulations have been reported to be migratory over short distances, altitudinal-facultative migratory, and strictly sedentary. On Tierra del Fuegosedentary populations were incompletely so, because during the winter when territories were snow covered, many or all of the family group members abandoned the site, leaving the territorial male by himself or only with a few members. The following spring the male regained his group membership. Although some local populations now appear to be sedentary at Torres del Paine, in the 1970s and 1980s the population was completely migratory. In those decades essentially all animals abandoned the summer range and moved in late autumn 8-18 km to where the snow was less deep and browse species were more abundant. The following spring the animals returned to their summer range. Daily movements of family groups on Tierra del Fuegowere highly predictable: days were spent in open meadows feeding and nights were spent resting in the adjacent closed Nothofagus forest. In the open habitat of Torres del Paine, the animals spent days on territories and nights on adjacent slopes or hill tops. The social organization of Guanacos is similar to that of Vicunas, except that territorial, resource-defense polygyny is seasonal instead of yearround and there is fluid movement of females between male territories. The social units of Guanacos for the migratory population at Torres del Paine were family groups, male groups, solo males, mixed groups, and female groups. Typical family groups were composed of one adult territorial male, seven females, and four juveniles less than 15 months old. Group size and composition frequently changed. Family groups occupied feeding territories 7-13 ha in size, which were defended by the resident male. With minor adjustments to the center of activity from year-to-year,territory locations were the same, spatially discrete, and non-overlapping. There was no indication of defended sleeping territories as found with Vicunas. Although family groups were “open” in the sense that females couldjoin and leave at will, the territorial male determined whether or not females were accepted into or rejected from the group. In a study of marked territorial males at Torres del Paine, most (73%, n = 60) returned to the same territorial location from year-to-year. Those males (27%) that shifted territorial locations showed no pattern in changes between solo territorial males and family-group territorial males. Male groups were composed of non-breeding, non-territorial, immature and mature males. Group size was highly variable (3-60) and averaged about 25. Male groups lived apart from family groups, in male-group zones. Solo males were mature males with an established territory, but commonly without females; the mean “group size” for solo males was three. Mixed groups formed in winter and included Guanacos of both sexes and all age classes. They averaged 60 animals with as many as 500. Female groups were gatherings of females of all ages and occasionally included a small number of immature males. These groups came together temporarily immediately before and after the winter migratory season. Female group size was highly variable, and could number 10-90 animals. At high population densities, the size of Guanacoterritories can decrease significantly. Large female groups and their chulengos can shift daily from territory to territory. The annual cycle of migratory Guanacos at Torres del Paine was divisible into four general socioecological periods: summer territorial, autumn transitional, winter aggregational, and spring transitional. The summer period was the longest, from mid-October to the end of March. This was reproductive season, during which males defended territories and when birth and mating occurred. The summer territorial social units were 35% family groups, 15% male groups, 42% solo male groups, and 8% female groups. Most of the animals (65%) were in family groups; 21% were in male groups, 7% were solo males, and 3% were in female groups. The autumn-transitional period was short, lasting from early April to late May, and Guanacos were mainly in family groups and male groups. During this period the territorial system broke down as the Guanacos began migrating to their winter range. The winter aggregational period extended from early June through late August. In this period, the social units were primarily mixed groups (39%) and female groups (41%) with most of the animals (80%) in mixed groups. The spring-transitional period started in late August and ended in mid-October. At this time all social units were found with equal proportion of Guanacos in family groups and male groups. Differences in the weather from year-to-year, especially at the beginning and end of winter, caused slight variations in the timing of animal movements, formation of social groups, and migration. Snow storms and snow cover were especially important in triggering sudden movements west to the winter grounds.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common. Conservation priorities for the Guanacoinclude all of the following: improved and accurate population surveys; adequate habitat protection; regulation of hunting quotas; where feasible, live-shearing; protection of remnant populations from poaching (especially in Peruand northern Chile); more explicit goals and policies (for example in southern Argentinaand Chile); confronting Patagonian land use practices, which focus on maximizing sheep numbers; addressing the need for unified laws and management schemes between countries; and finally and especially, the implementation of conservation oriented management at local, national, and international levels.","Baldi, Lichtenstein et al. (2008) | Baldi, Pelliza-Sbriller et al. (2004) | Bank et al. (1999, 2002) | Cavieres & Fajardo (2005) | Franklin (1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, 2005) | Franklin & Grigione (2005) | Franklin, Bas et al. (1997) | Franklin, Jonson et al. (1999) | Franklin, Poncet & Poncet (2005) | Garay et al. (1995) | Gonzalez et al. (2006) | de Lamo et al. (1998) | Marin, Casey et al. (2007) | Marin, Spotorno et al. (2008) | Marin, Zapata et al. (2007) | Marino & Baldi (2008) | Montes et al. (2006) | Nugent et al. (2006) | Ortega & Franklin (1988, 1995) | Puig et al. (1995, 1996, 1997, 2001) | Raedeke et al. (1979, 1988) | Riveros et al. (2009) | Sarno et al. (1999a, 1999b, 1999¢, 2001, 2003) | Sosa etal. (2005) | Stanley et al. (1994) | Wheeler (1995a, 2006a, 2006b) | Young & Franklin (2004a, 2004b) | Zapata et al. (2010)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719721/files/figure.png,"1.GuanacoLama guanicoeFrench:Guanaco/ German:Guanako/ Spanish:GuanacoTaxonomy.Camelus guanicoe Muller, 1776,Patagonia, Argentina.The Guanacois a direct descendent of Hemiauchenia, a genus of camelid that migrated from North to South America three million years ago. Two million yearold fossils of L. guanicoecan be found today in ArgentinePleistocene deposits and others in strata dated 73,000-97,000 years ago in Bolivia. Phylogenetically, L. guanicoeis monophyletic. Historically, four sub-species of Guanacos were recognized, albeit based upon incomplete information on skull measurements, coat coloration, distribution, and body size. However, recent molecular studies using mtDNA cytochrome-b sequences, recognize only two subspecies, placing the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations in subspecies cacsilensis and assigning the remainder of the clade to subspecies guanicoe. A significant biogeographic revision of the two valid subspecies is needed, especially an analysis and classification of populations on a regional and ecosystem basis.Subspecies and Distribution.L.g.guanicoeMiller,1776—Bolivia,Chile,WArgentina(fromJujuytoSPatagonia),TierradelFuego,andNavarinoI.L. g. cacsilensis Lonnberg, 1913— N Peruto N Chilebetween 8° Sand 22° S. Introduced from Argentinato Staats I (Falkland Is) during the late 1930s.Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-215 cm,tail 23-27 cm, shoulder height 90-130 cm; weight 90-140 kg. Measurements vary because of their wide distribution and differences between subspecies. Guanacos are extremely striking, with their contrasting colors, large, alert brown eyes, streamlined form, and energetic pace. Described by Darwin as “an elegant animal, with a long, slender neck and fine legs,” itis one of South America’s largest terrestrial mammals, reaching its maximum size in southern Chileand smallest in northern Peru. There is no obvious sexual dimorphism in size, color, or structure, except for the presence of large canines in the male. The color of the woolly pelage is similar for all Guanacos, varying from light brown with ocher yellow tones in the north to dark reddish brown in the south. The chest, front of neck, belly, and internal portion of the legs are more or less pure white, the head gray to black. Guanacowool is prized for its softness and warmth, and second only to that of the Vicuna (Vicugnavicugna). The pelts from “chulengos” (newborns and less than one-year-old juveniles) are particularly soft. Like their domestic descendant the Llama (L. glama), the Guanacois double-coated, with coarse guard hair (3-5% offleece) and a soft undercoat. The undercoatfibers range 12-17 (average 14-16) microns in diameter. Fiber (strand) length is 35 mm, the same as the Vicuna. Average fleece weights vary from 322 gto 350 g. Fiber diameter increases about two microns from one to seven year of age. Value of shorn, unclean wool is US$ 100-200/kg and US$ 400/kg for cleaned and dehaired wool. Guanacos have “thermal windows” in the front and rear flanks (underarms) that are nearly without wool. Both wild and captive Guanacos may live as long as 28 years.Habitat.The Guanacoinhabits environments from sea level up to 4500 mor more, characterized by highly seasonal weather, with snow cover or dry winters, cold to freezing temperatures, moderate to high winds, and low precipitation. These combine to produce high evapo-transpiration and dry conditions that lead to low primary productivity. At a broad scale, Guanacos inhabit four of the ten major habitats found in South America: desert and xeric shrublands, montane and lowland grasslands, savannas and shrublands, and temperate forests, which botanically include the categories of Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal, and the southern Pampa. They inhabit flatlands, hilly foothills, and mountainous environments. In the arid habitats of southern Chile, isolated mesic subsystems were the preferred plant community accounting for 85% of female sightings and 60% ofterritorial males. These “vegas” (meadows) were not only preferred for their productive, higher-quality succulent forage, but for females a major influence for their selection was the avoidance ofsites and habitats favored by Pumas (Puma concolor).Food and Feeding.The Guanacois a non-specialized, opportunistic, intermediate, mixed-feeding herbivore, foraging on a wide variety of plants. It is basically a grazer, but also browses. When the availability of the herbaceous strata decreases or becomes unavailable, especially during winter, Guanacos feed mainly on the shrub or tree strata. This flexibility as a generalist to change diet according to availability or preference extends to eating epiphytes, lichens, fungi, cacti, succulent plants, fruit, flowers, and leaves. Their summer diet in a mixed habitat of southern Chileaveraged 62% grasses (mainly Festuca), 15% browse (Nothofagusspp.), and 11% forbs, which were particularly important in the spring. In another study on Tierra del Fuego their diet was made up of 90% grasses and forbs. In austral coastal forests of southern Chile, Guanacobrowsing significantly diminishes the rate of regeneration of the commercially important southern beech tree (Nothofagus pumilio) and was a limiting factor on initial growth of seedlings and saplings (89% were browsed), although the Guanaco’s diet was less than 10% shrubs and trees. At Torres del Paine National Park, at the western edge of the Patagonia, vegas were highly utilized in summer (86% ofall feeding observations) and preferred by all feeding Guanacos (n = 1659) in family groups, whereas all other vegetation types were avoided (shrub = 3%, upland = 10%). Adult females in family groups showed the greatest feeding preference for vegas, followed by chulengos, yearlings, and adult males. In ArgentinePatagonia, Guanacodensities are low and negatively related to domestic sheep numbers. Guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences, with over 80% oftheir diets being identical. Histological analysis of fecal samples revealed that Guanacos and sheep were intermediate herbivores feeding on a wide range of grasses and forbs, capable of changing their diets seasonally, and their food niches greatly overlapped particularly in summer when food resources were more scarce than in spring.Breeding.Nearly all females breed at two years of age and have their first offspring as three-year olds. At Torres del Paine, Chilemales began breeding after obtaining a feeding territory when they were 2—4 years of age. Essentially all breeding took place within feeding territories during the summer. A high percentage (88%) of males established a territory for three or fewer years (average 2-3), although some males held territories for as long as eight years. Few solo males became family group males (19%), that is, 81% remained non-reproductive during their territorial tenure. Those males leaving male groups to become territorial, only 35% directly became family group territorial males while 65% became solo territorial males. Like other camelids, Guanacos are induced ovulators. The territorial mating period was from early Decemberto early January (91% of 88 observed copulations), so males defended their feeding territories for nine weeks before and eight weeks after the mating season. Mature female Guanacos give birth to a single offspring each year after a gestation of about 11-7 months (345-360 days). Only three sets of twins were documented in over two decades offield studies at Torres del Paine during which several thousand newborns were observed; in all cases no more than one survived past the first week. Half of all births occur in the last two weeks of spring. The timing of parturition varies with latitude. At Torres del Paine the birth season occurred from late November to early January. Parturition occurs during the day in Patagonia with 78% of births between 10:00 h and 14:00 h, when the young are able to dry during favorable midday temperature conditions. Birth weight averages 13 kg(7-15 kg) and shows marked density dependence, with lower birth weights at higher population densities. Low weight at birth is related to high rates of mortality. Newborns are very precocious. They can stand as early as 5-76 minutes after birth and can run within hours. Young are weaned at 6-8 months and are expelled from family groups by the territorial male when they are 11-15 months old. Dispersing yearling males join male groups and yearling females join family groups or female groups. Monitoring of 409 radio-collared chulengos at Torres del Paine over a seven-year period revealed an average first-year survival rate of 38% (31-55%). Puma predation was the primary cause of mortality of young Guanacos, especially in the first two weeks of life. Relative to their availabilities, chulengos were preyed upon about four times as much as adults. With every centimeter increase in winter snowfall, the risk of chulengo mortality increased by almost 6% because of greater vulnerability to predation. Out of 731 Guanacoskulls collected at Torres del Paine from 1979 to 1988, 33% showed clear evidence of having been killed by Pumas, and that was considered an underestimate. Observations of farmed Guanacos revealed that allosuckling (nursing of non-filial offspring) comprised 6% of all suckling events by 62% of calves and was allowed by 52% of dams. Dams whose calves performed allosuckling exhibited poorer body condition, suggesting juvenile Guanacos allosuckled to compensate for nutritional deficiencies. Preliminary research on the cytochrome-b gene sequence has found no evidence of hybridization between Guanacos and Vicunas.Activity patterns.Observations of both wild and captive Guanacos have shown peaks of eating, bedding, and ruminating in the morning and again later in the afternoon. Wild Guanacos spent a greater proportion of their time moving and less time resting, probably the result of the need to forage more and maintain intraspecific social interactions. At Torres del Paine during the summer, Guanacos in family groups in vega habitat fed 54% of time, rested 45%, and were involved in other behaviors 1% of the time (3084 focal observations). There was no difference in the activity-time budgets of 23 marked solo territorial males compared to family-group territorial males based on social group type, total number of females, total number of Guanacos present, or age of the ter ritorial males. The pattern suggested thatterritorial male behaviors were related to resource defense rather than to any direct ability to attract potential mates. Males, in all categories, spent most of their time foraging (65% of overall time budget). However, based upon habitat type there was a significant difference in time spent in aggressive and in miscellaneous activities (defecation, alertness to observer, scratching). Most aggressive encounters and miscellaneous activity occurred on hilltops of areas dominated by mata barrosa shrubs (Mulinum spinosum). Vigilance patterns were assessed in Chubut, Argentinafor Guanacos occupying a tall shrubland covering 40-60% of the area, where 40% of the mortality was from Puma predation. Family group territorial males devoted more time to scanning their surroundings and less time feeding than did females, and both sexes benefited from grouping by reducing the time invested in vigilance and increasing foraging time. Males reduced the time invested in vigilance as the number of females in the group increased, while the presence of chulengos increased territorial male vigilance. However, in closed habitats collective vigilance increased with the number of adults but decreased with the number of chulengos. Although male and female Guanacos differed in their time allocation, results supported the hypothesis that both sexes received significant anti-predator benefits from group living. Adjustments in Guanacobody posture can modify the exposure of body surface area H—22%. Guanacos can decrease and increase body heat loss through radiation and convection by “closing” and “opening” their thermal windows in the axillary and flank regions. Researchers report that when ambient temperatures were 0-10°C, animals used postural adjustments to decrease the area of the thermal windows by 5-7% oftotal surface area. At temperatures greater than 10°C they increased the area of the thermal windows up to 22% to regulate heat loss through radiation and convection. When the temperature was below 0—1°C Guanacos bedded and huddled together, often with their hindquarters into the wind.On following pages 2 Llama (Lama glama). 3 Vıcuña (Vicugna vlcuana), 4 Alpaca (Vicugna paces‘) 5 Bacman Camel (Camelus bactnanus), 6 Dromodary Camel (Camelus dromedanus)Movements, Home range and Social organization.Intensively studied Guanacopopulations have been either migratory or sedentary. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve (Argentina), both occur but most are sedentary, while on the island of Tierra del Fuego(Chile) both occur, but most are migratory. In Argentinapopulations have been reported to be migratory over short distances, altitudinal-facultative migratory, and strictly sedentary. On Tierra del Fuegosedentary populations were incompletely so, because during the winter when territories were snow covered, many or all of the family group members abandoned the site, leaving the territorial male by himself or only with a few members. The following spring the male regained his group membership. Although some local populations now appear to be sedentary at Torres del Paine, in the 1970s and 1980s the population was completely migratory. In those decades essentially all animals abandoned the summer range and moved in late autumn 8-18 km to where the snow was less deep and browse species were more abundant. The following spring the animals returned to their summer range. Daily movements of family groups on Tierra del Fuegowere highly predictable: days were spent in open meadows feeding and nights were spent resting in the adjacent closed Nothofagus forest. In the open habitat of Torres del Paine, the animals spent days on territories and nights on adjacent slopes or hill tops. The social organization of Guanacos is similar to that of Vicunas, except that territorial, resource-defense polygyny is seasonal instead of yearround and there is fluid movement of females between male territories. The social units of Guanacos for the migratory population at Torres del Paine were family groups, male groups, solo males, mixed groups, and female groups. Typical family groups were composed of one adult territorial male, seven females, and four juveniles less than 15 months old. Group size and composition frequently changed. Family groups occupied feeding territories 7-13 ha in size, which were defended by the resident male. With minor adjustments to the center of activity from year-to-year,territory locations were the same, spatially discrete, and non-overlapping. There was no indication of defended sleeping territories as found with Vicunas. Although family groups were “open” in the sense that females couldjoin and leave at will, the territorial male determined whether or not females were accepted into or rejected from the group. In a study of marked territorial males at Torres del Paine, most (73%, n = 60) returned to the same territorial location from year-to-year. Those males (27%) that shifted territorial locations showed no pattern in changes between solo territorial males and family-group territorial males. Male groups were composed of non-breeding, non-territorial, immature and mature males. Group size was highly variable (3-60) and averaged about 25. Male groups lived apart from family groups, in male-group zones. Solo males were mature males with an established territory, but commonly without females; the mean “group size” for solo males was three. Mixed groups formed in winter and included Guanacos of both sexes and all age classes. They averaged 60 animals with as many as 500. Female groups were gatherings of females of all ages and occasionally included a small number of immature males. These groups came together temporarily immediately before and after the winter migratory season. Female group size was highly variable, and could number 10-90 animals. At high population densities, the size of Guanacoterritories can decrease significantly. Large female groups and their chulengos can shift daily from territory to territory. The annual cycle of migratory Guanacos at Torres del Paine was divisible into four general socioecological periods: summer territorial, autumn transitional, winter aggregational, and spring transitional. The summer period was the longest, from mid-October to the end of March. This was reproductive season, during which males defended territories and when birth and mating occurred. The summer territorial social units were 35% family groups, 15% male groups, 42% solo male groups, and 8% female groups. Most of the animals (65%) were in family groups; 21% were in male groups, 7% were solo males, and 3% were in female groups. The autumn-transitional period was short, lasting from early April to late May, and Guanacos were mainly in family groups and male groups. During this period the territorial system broke down as the Guanacos began migrating to their winter range. The winter aggregational period extended from early June through late August. In this period, the social units were primarily mixed groups (39%) and female groups (41%) with most of the animals (80%) in mixed groups. The spring-transitional period started in late August and ended in mid-October. At this time all social units were found with equal proportion of Guanacos in family groups and male groups. Differences in the weather from year-to-year, especially at the beginning and end of winter, caused slight variations in the timing of animal movements, formation of social groups, and migration. Snow storms and snow cover were especially important in triggering sudden movements west to the winter grounds.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common. Conservation priorities for the Guanacoinclude all of the following: improved and accurate population surveys; adequate habitat protection; regulation of hunting quotas; where feasible, live-shearing; protection of remnant populations from poaching (especially in Peruand northern Chile); more explicit goals and policies (for example in southern Argentinaand Chile); confronting Patagonian land use practices, which focus on maximizing sheep numbers; addressing the need for unified laws and management schemes between countries; and finally and especially, the implementation of conservation oriented management at local, national, and international levels.Bibliography.Baldi, Lichtenstein et al. (2008), Baldi, Pelliza-Sbriller et al. (2004), Bank et al. (1999, 2002), Cavieres & Fajardo (2005), Franklin (1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, 2005), Franklin & Grigione (2005), Franklin, Bas et al. (1997), Franklin, Jonson et al. (1999), Franklin, Poncet & Poncet (2005), Garay et al. (1995), Gonzalez et al. (2006), de Lamo et al. (1998), Marin, Casey et al. (2007), Marin, Spotorno et al. (2008), Marin, Zapata et al. (2007), Marino & Baldi (2008), Montes et al. (2006), Nugent et al. (2006), Ortega & Franklin (1988, 1995), Puig et al. (1995, 1996, 1997, 2001), Raedeke et al. (1979, 1988), Riveros et al. (2009), Sarno et al. (1999a, 1999b, 1999¢, 2001, 2003), Sosa etal. (2005), Stanley et al. (1994), Wheeler (1995a, 2006a, 2006b), Young & Franklin (2004a, 2004b), Zapata et al. (2010)." 03928E699A43FFCBD786FD8AF8BEFAD2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,206,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A43FFCBD786FD8AF8BEFAD2.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family CAMELIDAE(CAMELS)• Medium-sized to large mammals with forequarters larger than hindquarters, long, small head, slender muzzle with split upper lip, thin neck, padded feet with two toes and nails rather than hooves, and woolly pelage.• 130-410cm.• Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Neotropical Regions.• Desert, semi-arid to arid plains, grassland, steppe, and shrubland; from sea level to 4800 m.• 3 genera, 6 species (including 3 domestic), 9 taxa.• 1 subspecies Critically Endangered, 1 subspecies Endangered; none Extinct since 1600." -03928E699A44FFC1D0A7FD9EF7A7FE66,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A44FFC1D0A7FD9EF7A7FE66.xml,Vicugna pacos,Vicugna,pacos,,,Alpaca @fr | Alpaka @de | Alpaca @es,"Camelus pacos Linnaeus, 1758,Peru.The Alpaca is a domesticated camelid indigenous and endemic to South America, well known for the characteristics of its fine-diameter wool: soft, silky, high luster, lightweight, and warm. Alpaca woolis used for luxurious blankets, sweaters, and cloth. The species was long classified in the genus Lama, but recent DNA studies (mtDNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite markers) have established that the Alpaca was domesticated from the Vicuna subspecies V. vicugnamensalis, showing significant genetic differentiation to warrant a change in its genus to Vicugnaand its designation as a separate species. Archeological digs at the Telarmachay site in the Central Andes of Peruindicate that the Alpaca was domesticated 5500-6500 years ago by a hunter-gatherer society. These early indigenous herders selected for an animal with a docile nature while maintaining the fineness of its progenitor’s wool. No remains of Alpaca have been found to date at archeological digs in the south of Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina), but only early domesticated Llamas (Lama glama). The Alpaca has no subspecies, but two distinct breeds are recognized: the Huacaya and Suri.","Alpacas are found in the Central Andes from C Peruinto mid-Bolivia and N Chile. In the 1980s—1990s Alpacas were imported into the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Europe. There are no known wild/feral populations of Alpacas.","Head-body 114-150 cm,tail 18-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 55-65 kg. Alpacas have long necks; relatively short, straight ears (c. 15 cm), thin and agile legs, and fluffy-appearing bodies because of their long wool. When shorn, however, the bodyis slender and Vicuna-like. There are two distinct breeds. HUACAYA ALPACA: Huacayas are the more common (¢.90%) of the two breeds. Its body, legs, and neck are covered by wool that is long, fine (27-5 microns), and wavy; the head and feet are covered by short wool. Wool grows 5-15 cm/year depending upon nutrition and decreases with age. Huacaya wool is crimped (regular and successive undulations) and similar in appearance to Corriedale sheep wool. Huacayas are bigger in size, have shorter and relatively coarser wool, and lighter fleeces than Suris. There are three general categories of wool: “Baby Alpaca” (20-23 microns some as low as 16-17 microns)is the finest and most expensive wool from recently born animals; “Tui” wool is from the first shearing at 12-18 months; and “Standard” Alpaca wool (c.24 microns) is from animals of two years of age and older. White Huacayas are the most common (c.80%), especially on large commercial Alpaca ranches, compared to 30% white animals in indigenous flocks. White wool accounts for over 80% of the total annual Alpaca wool production. Although most Alpaca wool has little cortex in its fibers,it can be easily dyed just as sheep wool, giving woollen mills greater flexibility with white Alpaca wool. Huacaya Alpaca crossed with a Vicuna produces a Paco-Vicuna, which resembles a large-bodied Vicuna and has 17-19 micron wool. Resource managers are concerned that accidently escaped Paco-Vicunas could have harmful genetic consequences on populations of pure Vicunas. SURI ALPACA: Suris arise from a very small percentage (2%) of Huacaya x Huacaya crosses, thus the origin of the breed. Because of their long-hanging wool, phenotyically Suris are quite distinct from Huacayas. Suri wool is silky (24-27 microns), straight, without crimp, generally finer, longer, more lustrous, softer to the touch, less elastic, less resistant to tension, and faster-growing compared to the Huacaya. The wool parts on the animal’s back create a mid-body line that is capable of growing up to 15 cm/year. Some individual Suris, called “wasis” by Andean herders, are not shorn for years, resulting in the fleece growing until it touches the ground; only a few such special animals are kept and are revered by the indigenous people. Around 17% of the offspring from Suri x Suri crosses produce Huacaya types. In their South American homeland, Suri Alpacas are considered to be longerlived, more delicate, less hardy, and to have lower fertility than Huacaya Alpacas. Recent research has found thatjuvenile mortality is high because of lack of wool coverage on the midline. However, when given the right management and equally good pastures, they thrivejust as well and with similar fertility as Huacayas. During lactation Suri Alpacas lose weight more than Huacayas because they produce more milk (udders are larger on Suri females). As a result, Suri young are heavier than Huacayas because they have a greater availability of milk. Body wool is uniform or multicolored; 22 natural colors have been categorized, ranging from white to black, with intermediate shades of grays, fawns, and browns. The upperlip is split for grasping forage. The eyes are large, round, and slightly forward looking. The feet have soft-padded soles and two toes, each ending with large pointed nails. Testes are small, oval-shaped and located in the perineal region under the tail. Life span is 15-20 years. The cuticle on individual wool fibers is made up of poorly developed, elongated, and flattened cells. While such rudimentary cuticle scales without ridges results in poor felting qualities, it makes the Alpaca wool extraordinarily smooth and soft to the touch. Still, Alpaca wool is 3-6 times stronger than human hair. Based upon strand diameter and morphology, the fleece (pelt) of this ungulate is made up of two types of hair: wool and hair. Similar to fine sheep wool, the medulla can be non-existent in unusually fine Alpaca wool, but has been observed in Peruvian Alpaca fibers averaging 17 microns. Such pure Alpacas are considered “one coated” because their fleece consists only of the fine undercoat hairs and lack the outer coarser guard hairs. As the proportion of medullation increases (as it does with age), wool diameter increases and fineness decreases, thatis, the proportion of the medulla progressively increases with the thickness of the individual wool strand. Woolis of the cortex type of fineness, and hair is of the medullar type with larger diameter. Hair is especially common on the chest, face, and extremities, but it is not unusual to find individual hairs intermixed throughout the fleece. This is especially common in “Huarizos,” hybrids between an Alpaca female and a Llama male. Huarizos show intermediate physical characteristics of the two parents, and relatively coarse wool (c.32 microns in diameter). Their fleeces contain as much as 40% guard hair. Huarizos are considered undesirable by the Alpaca wool industry and are being selected against on commercial Alpaca farms. Nearly all (90%) Alpacas on large farms are shorn annually and done indoors with shearing scissors or by mechanized clippers. In indigenous family herds in the Andes only half of the animals are shorn each year, and done under rustic conditions in the out-of-doors with hand shears. Shearing of males, geldings, non-pregnant and some pregnant females takes place in November and December, while new mothers with young, yearlings, and thin males and females are done in February to April. Annual shearing yields 1.5-2. 8 kgof wool per Alpaca in South America (enough to make four sweaters), and up to 3-6 kg in USAand Australia. Fineness of Alpaca fleeces vary from farm to farm in Peru(24-7-32-3 microns, averaging 28-9 microns), but in other countries where it has been introduced, 16-24 microns is more typical. In the Andes Alpaca wool increases in diameter from 17-4 microns to 27-5 microns from the first shearing at ten months to six years of age. Large Alpaca farms in Peruare able to practice better husbandry through pasture management, selective breeding, and health care. Of 3762 shorn Alpacas on one such farm in Puno, Peru, in the 1980s, wool was sorted and classified into the following five quality categories: X 3% at 19 microns, AA 52% at 25 microns, A 17% at 37 microns, LP 23% at 44 microns, and K 5% at 49 microns. Still, nearly half was considered “thick” relative to the Alpaca’s potential for producing fine wool. Now, two decadeslater, better management and selection is beginning to improve wool quality. Alpaca wool production and quality is strongly influenced by artificial selection (genetics) and nutrition. Seasonally wool production varies under the extreme conditions of the Alpaca’s high-altitude habitat: fiber or strand length has been shown to be 25% longer during the rainy season in the Andean highlands, reflecting the percentage of crude plant protein that decreases from 11% in the wet season to 3-5% in the dry season. Wool quality decreases (increase in diameter) when Alpacas are grazed on high-quality pasture compared to native range of poor to very poor quality. For example during a 15month feeding trial relative to controls, Alpacas on diets in Andean rangeland vs. managed pastures of alfalfa, increased the body weight of mothers and young 10 kgand 22 kgrespectively, fleece weight 0-4 kg and 0-8 kg, staple length 2-3 cm and 1-8 cm, fiber diameter 5-2 microns and 6-9 microns, and yield 4-1% and 10-8%. In another study adult Alpacas on high-feeding regimes resulted in increased stand diameter (fine 21-22 microns to thick 27-28 microns), but wool production per head/year increased from 1-1 kg to 2-4 kg. But, because there is little commercial difference in value per kilogram in the two wool diameters, total monetary value was doubled on the higher feeding regime. Contrary to the long-time belief that Alpacas produce finer wool at higher elevations in the Andes, recent studies with controls have shown that when on the same diet wool quality was similar. Commercially, the majority of Alpaca wool is made into carded and semi-carded thread. In the textile industry it is often blended with merino sheep wool to be made into overcoats and high-fashion knitwear. In general, Alpaca wool quality in the Andes is lower than its potential due to poor management and the extensive Alpaca/ILlama hybridization that has occurred over the past 400 years since Spanish colonization. DNA studies have revealed that today’s Andean Alpaca population shows a high (80-92%) level of hybridization. Along with a significant reduction in Peru’s Alpaca population during colonization, pure colored animals significantly decreased to the point that they became rare. The difference between Alpaca and Llamas and between Huacaya and Suri Alpacas has also been impacted. Alpaca husbandry is now addressing these problems. Additionally, in the 1970s the Alpaca population in Perudropped resulting in a 40% decline of wool production due to land and agrarian reforms. A number of revealing physiological parameters have been measured in Alpaca. Body temperature of normal adult males (n = 50) and females (n = 50) is the same (38-7°C), pulse rate/minute in males (83-2 + 2-2) is higher than females (76:6 + 1-9), and respiration rate/minute is similar for males (29-2 + 1-1) and females (28-3 + 0-79). For young Alpaca 10-12 months old (n = 50) body temperature is 38-5 + 0-04, pulse rate 83-8 + 2-9, and respiration rate 33-1 + 0-19. For femalesin the last days of gestation body temperature (38-3 + 0-07) is the same as non-pregnant females, but pulse rates (83-5 + 2-3), and respiration rates (34-8 + 1-9) were higher.","Alpacas are raised in the Andean highlands; regionally known as the Altiplano and Puna. The Puna ecosystem is rolling grassland and isolated wetlands typically at c.3500-5200 m altitude with two marked periods: the rainy season from October to April and the dry season from May to September. Most (75%) precipitation falls from November to March in the form of both hail and rain. In Peruthe annual precipitation varies from 800 mmin the south to 1200 mmin the central mountains. The mean annual temperatures are less than 10°C and nocturnal frosts are common, especially during the dry season. Diurnal fluctuations can be as much as 20°C in the mesic Altiplano and even greater in the dry or desert Altiplano. The short growing season, as determined by moisture and night-time cloud cover, occurs between December and March. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous grasses and forbs. Few trees exist and shrubs are only locally abundant. Perennial bunchgrasses are common including the genera Festuca, Poa, Stipa, and Calamagrostis, as well as the grass-like sedges Carexand Scirpus. High-quality forage is more abundant during the rainy season and scarcer during the remainder of the year. A critical habitat and principal source of forage for Alpacas in the Andes that allows intensive-localized foraging are bofedales or mojadales. Providing lush forage and moist vegetation that Alpacas thrive on, bofedales are localized islands of perennial greenery with deep organic soils moistened by subterranean and considerable surface water often forming small pools. Both natural and artificial bofedales exist, some man-made ones dating back to pre-Inca times. These high-altitude marsh areas can provide year-round forage, allowing herders and their animals to remain in the same area for extended periods. Depending upon water availability, they are productive only during the rainy season or throughout the year. As a result, their carrying capacity is highly variable, from 2-8 Alpacas/ha/year. Natural mojadales compared to irrigated artificial ones, typically have greater plant cover with more palatable and nutritious forage. Vegetative composition of bofedales in the humid Puna varies between several dominant species, including Distichia muscoides, Eleocharisalbibracteata, Hypochoeris taraxacoides, Hidrocotilo ranunculoides, Liliaopsis andina, and others. A percentage cover of 64-72% of desirable species (Werneria nubigena, Werneria pymaea, Hipochoeris stenocephala, Ranunculos sp., Carexfragilaris) is excellent Alpaca forage. Reported total accumulated bofedal forage (dry weight) from January to August was 1021 kg/ha that grew at an average rate of 4-2 kg/ha/day. Protein ranged 8-3-13-4% and crude fiber 19-2-34-1%. Annual bofedal growth varies with season: 60% during the summer growing season (January-April), 21% during the transition to the dry season (May-June), and 19% in the dry season (July-December). Wet artificial bofedales have greater sustained productivity than natural bofedales with 10-11% protein in both the wet and dry seasons and capable of supporting 3—4 Alpaca/ha/year. Continuous year-round grazing of native grasslands is the most common grazing management practice used by indigenous herders, but technicians are encouraging enhancement of rangeland conditions through rotational grazing and reducing stocking rates of Alpacas and competing sheep. Recommended stocking rate for Alpacas on Andean native pastures is 2-7 animals/ha/year on excellent range, 2 good, 1 average, 0-33 poor, and 0-17 very poor. However, intensively managed, irrigated pastures of grasses and legumes at 3850 maltitude can support 25 Alpacas/ha/year. Research indicates that despite the high elevations and low night-time temperatures, it is possible to increase considerably the sustained carrying capacity of Andean rangeland by the introduction of improved forage species. Managed pastures of irrigated ryegrass (Loliumperenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) with application of nitrogen fertilizers can carry up to 30 adult ind/ha compared with the usual rate of 1-1-5 ind/ha on natural grasslands. On Andean rangelands grazed by Alpaca,tall grass communities are commonly set on fire during the dry season (June—October) by native indigenous herders. The objective is the destruction of bunch grasses that will encourage the growth of ground forage preferred by Alpaca and sheep. However, studies have shown that annual burns are not beneficial because they not only stimulate the rapid regrowth of bunchgrasses, but promote hillside soil erosion and encourage the growth of undesirable invasive plant species. Burning every third or more years during the wet season is a more effective approach for improving Alpaca range and habitat.","Historically, an Alpaca was considered to be equivalent to three sheep, but modern animal nutritionists in Peruconsider that Alpacas consume 1-2—-1-5 times as much forage as one sheep. Alpacas are selective for these familiar Altiplano plants: Compositae/composites 31 4% (Hipochoires stenocephala, Werneria novigena), followed by Cyperaceae/sedges-rushes 26-1% (Eleocharisalbibracteata, Carexsp.), Gramineae/grasses 19-1% (Calamagrostisrigescens, Festucadolichophylla), Rosaceae/roses 14-6% (Alchemillapinnata, Alchemilladiplophylla) and minor percentages of Ranunculaceae/ buttercups 5:6% (Ranunculusbreviscapus), Leguminosae/legumes 1-7% (Trifolium amabile) and others. Plant leaves,stalks, and flowers with protein content as high as 17-4% are selected by Alpaca when feeding in quality bofedales in the rainy-growing season. Year-round feeding studies on the chemical composition of ingested forage with fistulated Alpacas in Peruand Boliviayielded the following: dry matter 9-9%, organic material 88-8%, minerals 11-2%, total protein 15-1%, ether extract 7-4%, crude fiber 27-5%, nitrogen-free extract 38-:8%, and detergent neutral fiber 61:6%. General apparent digestibility of bofedal nutrients was dry matter 64-9%, organic material 64-1%, and total protein 64-8%. Total digestible nutrients (TDN) of bofedal forage eaten by Alpacas was similar between the rainy (54-1%) and dry (66:5%) seasons, as was the average energy from TDN at 60-3%. Average daily weight gain per Alpaca grazed on typical (control) bofedales was 0-093 kg, but experimentally at low stocking rates (2 Alpaca/ha/year) weight gain was 0-101 kg/day, medium stocking (4 Alpaca) 0-084 kg/ day, and high stocking (6 Alpaca) 0-079 kg/day. Although the carrying capacity is around one Alpaca/ha/year, overgrazing occurs at 1-8-2-5 Alpaca/ha/year, lowering the quantity and quality of available forage. In indigenous Andean communities where herders own the animals but not the land and the communal grazing lands are used through permission from the community, overgrazing of the natural grasslands is not uncommon. Although efforts are being made to counter the situation, a long history of bofedal overuse by traditional Alpaca herders has frequently resulted in low live (50 kg) and carcass (25-5 kg) weights, reduced fleece weights (1-2 kg), low fertility (35%), and high juvenile mortality (30%). Like Vicunas, Alpacas need frequent water intake. Water consumption by Alpacas grazing on bofedales was high during the dry season at 3-08 kg/animal/day and less in the rainy growing season at 2-04 kg. In another Peruvian study digestibility of high-altitude forage by Alpacas in both Altplano and bofedal habitats was lowest (50-62%) in the winter-dry season and highest (66-76%) in the spring/summer-wet season. Comparative feeding trials measuring the coefficients of digestibility revealed that when fed dry forage low in protein (less than 7-5%) Alpacas were 14% more efficient than sheep, but at high protein levels (greater than 10-5%), sheep were slightly (2%) more efficient. Other studies have reported that Alpacas have a digestion coefficient 25% higher than sheep, particularly on low-quality forage. Maintenance-energy requirements for a 60 kgAlpaca is 2% of its body weight, or 1-2 kg dry forage per day. Alpacas in Peruforage more selectively than Llamas. Diets are highest in grass during the wet and early dry season. As the dry season progresses, the diets of Alpacas in bofedal habitat became largely sedges and reeds (81%). Animals in dryer habitats consume more grass (68%). A study of live weight changes of Alpaca adult males, females, and their progeny, was conducted for three seasons under continuous grazing on natural grasslands on the Mediterranean range of Central Chile. Live weight changes were highest in spring (100-200 g/day), moderate during winter (50-100 g/day), and negative only at the end of summer and in autumn (-110 g/day to — 150 g/day). Weight gains of newborn Alpacas were greatest (110-150 g/day) in the first 90 days after birth and then decreased slightly, reaching values of 75 g/day at 8-5 months old. Weight gainsstabilized at 10-20 g/day at three years of age.","Alpaca females in Perureach puberty at 60% (33-40 kg) of their adult weight, or at c.12-14 months of age when being grazed on native pastures. Although such young females exhibit sexual behavior, ovulation, fertilization, and embryonic survival similar to adults, most breeders waitto first breed females at two years of age when they have reached greater physical maturity. Male Alpacas in Peruare first used for reproduction at two to three years of age, because the penis is still adhered to the prepuce in one-(84%) and two-year-olds (50%), with all males adhesion free at three years old. The rate of detachment is dependent upon the level of testosterone secreted from the testes. The breeding season is from January to April using several different husbandry techniques. If the females are unfamiliar with the breeding male, they most likely will not accept him. Such males become familiarized by staying with the females in the same stone corral or encircled together by rope for a number of hours each day for 20 days; pregnancy rate is as high at 85% using this method. The most common technique is to run four to six breeding males per 100 females together, year-round. Artificial selection is less controlled by this approach, so males with desired traits are chosen (typically white colored, dense and good quality wool, and normally developed testes 4-5 cm long and 2-5 cm wide). On large, Peruvian Alpaca farms no more than 200 females are run with 10-12 males, half of which are rotated in one-week intervals for two months during the breeding season. Males work well for one week, but then begin to fight with each other and establish hierarchies and harems, thus the rotational system. Alpaca breed and give birth seasonally. When males and females are kept together year-round, births only occur during the rainy season from December to March. The continuous association of the sexes produces an inhibiting effect on the sexual activity of the male. But when males are separated from females and only brought together for breeding, births are year-round. Copulation occurs with the female in sternal recumbency, and lasts 20-50 minutes. Non-pregnant Alpaca have no well-defined cyclical sexual activity (estrus), but are always in the follicular phase and state of receptivity until ovulation is induced by copulation. There is no period of sexual inactivity in Alpaca and other cameloids, nor a relationship between size of ovarian follicle and sexual receptivity. Ovulation occurs ¢.26 hours after copulation. Ovulation can be also be induced by the injection of chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and then occurs c¢.24 hours later. Following ovulation the corpus luteum forms and reaches maximum size and secretory activity at approximately eight days. With no gestation the corpus luteum regresses within 12-18 days after mating, giving way to the formation of new follicles. With conception and gestation, the corpus luteum continues its secretory activity and thereafter the female is not sexually receptive. Pregnancy is assessed by sexual behavior of the female in presence of a new male. Studies have found that at least 85% of the females that ovulate in response to the coital stimulation have at least one fertilized ovum within three days of mating. However, in Peruthere is 34% embryonic mortality during the first 30 days of gestation, seriously affecting the annual birth rate of Alpacas. Nearly all (95%) of the pregnancies are in the left horn of the bifurcated uterus, although both ovaries are equally active. Thus, transuterine migration from the right to the left horn of the uterus is common, as evidenced by the corpus luteum in the right ovary and the fetus in the left horn of the uterus. The placenta is simple-diffuse and of the chorial epithelium type. Reproductive studies in Peruon Alpaca mothers (n = 1684) showed that age of the female, year of birth, and the quality of diet were important factors influencing the length of gestation and date of birth. First time mothers at two years of age and those 15 years and older had longer gestation periods (403 and 401 days respectively) than middle-aged females four to twelve years of age (380-390 days). Females grazing on higher quality, cultivated pastures had longer gestation periods than those on native rangelands (389 vs. 379 days). Also in years with favorable vs. poor range conditions, gestation was longer (392 vs. 381 days) and newborns weighed more (8-7 vs. 8-1 kg). The explanation for this may be that females on good forage can afford longer gestations, give birth to a larger young, and be assured that favorable forage will be available for costly lactation. In contrast, females on poor forage have shorter gestations, cannot afford long gestations because of the potential cost of lowering their own health, and need to start lactation as soon as possible while there is at least some forage available before the dry season begins. Age of the Alpaca mother and date of parturition also influenced offspring survival in the Peruvian studies. In a curvilinear fashion, survival of young born to mothers two and three years of age was lower than those with mothers 9-11 years old (82% vs. 91% survival), but declines to 88% for mothers 15 years of age. In Australia, the gestation of spring-mated females is ten days longer than fall-mated females. Birth weight of Alpaca neonates averages 8-4 kg in Peru, with significant variation as indicated among femaleage groups. The importance of good maternal nutrition is critical for such a species with an unusually long gestation. At 180 days or almost half way through gestation the fetus weighs 600 g, only 7% of its eventual 9 kgat birth. Some 93% ofits growth takes place in the last half of gestation, and at 230 days or two-thirds of the way into gestation, a remarkable 72% ofits growth is yet to be gained. The heavy energy demands of lactation lasting 6—8 months, mostly coincides with the Andean rainy, or growing season. Even though multiple ovulations occur c¢.10% of the time, Alpaca twins are extremely rare in Peruand in the USA; only one out of ¢.2000 births. If neonatal twins do occurthere is a significant difference in size, e.g. 4 kgand 6 kg, with the smaller one typically in the right horn of the uterus dying during gestation resulting in the death of the other. After giving birth the female comes into estrus within 48 hours, but only with initial follicular growth. Follicular size and activity capable of ovulation in response to copulation is observed from the fifth day, but the higher rates offertility begin ten days after parturition with the highest fertility 20-30 days postpartum. The Peruvian Alpaca birth season is from December to May. Females are not separated from the herd due to the lack of space. The umbilical of the newborn is treated with iodine or an herb solution to prevent infection and diarrhea. Newborns are watched closely by the herder to assure first nursing is successful (first milk is high in colostrum, rich in antibodies). Parturition in indigenous herds averages a low 50% and juvenile mortality is high (15-35%); itis estimated that no more than half of the female Alpaca of reproductive age produce young every year. Young born during the birth season also had higher survival than those born late. Additionally, juvenile survival is curvilinearly related to birth weight. Neonates weighing 9-11 kg had an average 92% survival but those weighing 4-5 kg survived at a rate of 30-50%. When pregnant females (n = 424) and their young were monitored,it was found that newborn birth weight, and weight and width of the placenta increased with age of the dam reaching a peak at nine years and then declined progressively. Placental efficiency also increased with female Alpaca age, showing a bimodal shape and peaking at 6-11year-old females; more young died from two-year-old females than any other age; and dead neonates weighed less (6-4 kg) than those that survived (7-8 kg). In indigenous herds, young-of-the-year are usually not weaned due to the lack of extra pastures and the labor involved. Instead, young nurse beyond one year of age, including up to the time the mother gives birth again. To impede the yearling from competing with the newborn for nursing, herders will sometimes temporarily pierce the yearling’s nose with a stick. In commercial Alpaca herds weaning occurs in September through October, sometimes until November, when young are 6-8 months old.","The daily routine or activity pattern of indigenous Alpaca family flocks is quite consistent. After having spent the night in a stone corral or next to the family house (usually a stone hut called a choza), the animals are released or move out on their own to graze for the day soon after sunrise. While the family’s sheep flock is tended by a herder, the Alpaca flock is not accompanied by a herder. Instead,its daily movements and activity patterns while grazing are self-directed within 1-2 km of their home base to local bofedales and other feeding areas of their choice. As sunset approaches, the flock returns to the home site by themselves without being escorted by a herder. Daytime activity budgets (percentage of time) of Alpacas compared to sheep while both species grazed on native-Andean pasture dominated by the favorable forage Festucadolichophylla, have shown that while other activities were similar, Alpacas fed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (11% vs. 25%) than sheep.","Seasonal patterns of Alpaca movement are determined by herders as influenced by the availability of forage, varying from one locality to next. One common annual movement of Alpacas in the Andes is to graze herds during the rainy season (generallyJanuary to April) in lower mountains (3600-4100 m) areas characterized by pampas, slopes, and rounded ridges. Then in the dry season (generally May to December) they are moved up to the high altitudes (4100-5200 m) to find favorable forage, bofedales, and water. When the rainy season begins, they are moved back to lower areas where grasses are beginning to grow and to avoid severe hailstorms and other weather at higher altitudes. Herders, however, without access to two seasonal sites maintain their animals in the same area year-round. Indigenous families that raise livestock in the Peruvian Andes on the average have 70 Alpacas (30-120), 30 Llamas (4-50), and 50 sheep (10-80). More importance is placed upon Alpacas because they offer greater economic diversity. Most (90-95%) of the Alpaca woolis sold, the balance used for home use. Many of the young males one to two years old are sold for meat production, and old animals are culled to make jerky. In three Peruvian Alpaca farms that were cooperatively, family, and individually owned, percent herd composition was females: 60/ 65/ 70; gelded males: 25/30/25; breeding males: 3/4/5; white animals: 70/70/90; and colored animals: 30/30/10. With Alpacas that are owned as private property, each member of the family owns animals but herd control is under the family. Ownership is designated by ear markings or colored yarn. Animals are often given as presents or ceremonial gifts. They play an important role in the rituals, symbols, mythology, and ceremoniesin the life of Andean people. Individual animals are recognized and described by physical characteristics and usually given a name. Alpacas have feminine attributes in the Andean cosmic vision oflife and the world, and generically referred to as “mothers” and “dear mothers.” Alpacas are highly social with strong herding behavior, making them easier to drive when necessary. In small, mixed-sex herds, dominance is clear with a few adult males as the leaders. Alpacas are more skittish and shy with strangers than Llamas. When a free-ranging flock is approached on foot, they will distance themselves more quickly than a herd of Llamas. Once they become familiar with you, however, they are docile and easier to handle than sheep. There are no known unmanaged or feral populations of Alpaca that would allow us to assess their social organization and full repertoire of behavior. However, a number of subtle-contrasting characteristics exist in Alpaca behavior that turn out to be, not surprisingly, very similar to the Vicuna: tighter grouping, vocal communication more common, less communicative with their tails, love water and bathe regularly, greater susceptibility to heat stress, higher site fidelity, males more protective of females, less cooperative, and more distant and stand-offish.","Alpacas and Llamas were important to ancient Andean civilizations such as the Tiwanaku Culture that dominated the Lake Titicaca region from ¢.300 BC to 1000 Ap, and the Inca Culture that dominated the Central Andes in the 15% and 16"" centuries. When the Incas captured the cameloid-rich kingdoms near Lake Titicaca and south, they acquired giant herds of Llamas and Alpacas. The Incas then sent “seed herds” throughout their empire and commanded that they be reproduced. State-controlled husbandry of Alpacas produced vast herds that numbered into the millions. The Incas placed special emphasis on avoidance of crossbreeding with Llamas and selective breeding of pure-colored Alpacas (brown, black, and white) for quality wool and sacrifice to deities. The Spanish invasion in the 16™ century destroyed that advanced management system and there ensued a breakdown of controlled breeding. Today, the raising of Alpacas in the high altitudes of Peruand Boliviacontributes substantially to the economy of the region. However, animal production is limited by the low level of technology, adverse climate, disease, herders with scarce resources, and frequent over utilization of native rangelands. The Andean grazing system is extensively based upon utilization of native high-altitude grasslands by mixed herds that include not only Alpacas, but sheep and Llamas as well. Pastoralism and mixed agropastoralism form the subsistence base for the agricultural segment of the high Andes. Indigenous communities control the greatest number of camelids and sheep, as well as half of the native rangelands, which comprise ¢.95% ofthe land area above 3800 m. The Alpaca population in South America is c.4-5 million, down some 20% since the mid-1960s, but up 25% from the early 2000s. Today, numbers are at least stable, if not increasing. Most Alpacas are in Peruwith 91%, followed by Bolivia8% and Chile1%. Few Alpacas occur in Argentinabecause of the lack of moist Puna and the dominance of the dry Puna. More than 73-87% are in southern Peru(Arequipa, Cuzco, Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna), with nearly half of the world’s Alpaca in the Department of Puno. Females represent c¢.70% of the total Alpaca population. A high percentage (85-95%) of Alpacas are owned and managed by native herders in small flocks ofless than 50 animals, but some commercial Alpaca herds are as large as 30,000-50,000 individuals. Although indigenous herders raise most Alpacas, productivity traditionally has been the lowest due to over stocking, improper health care, and inbreeding. Peruhas ¢.789,775 producers raising Alpacas; Boliviahas 13,603, and Chile916. Starting in the early 1980s Alpacas were exported from Chile, Bolivia, and Peruto the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, where cottage industries in Alpaca wool have developed. In the USAthe Alpaca Owners & Breeders Association numbered over 4500 members with 143,000 registered Alpacas in 2010. Peruexports c. US$ 24 million worth of Alpaca products (wool, tops, yarns, woven fabrics, and knitwear) annually to countries around the world, especially China, Germany, and Italy. Annual Alpaca wool production in South America is 4-1 million kg (90% from Peru), yet only represents 0-6% of the world’s fine-fibered wool production (fine sheep wool is ¢.90-95% followed by cashmere at 5-10%). Because of a high market demand for white wool from Huacaya Alpaca, which can be dyed to any desired color, the Alpaca population has become dominated (80-87%) by white individuals. The result has been a scarcity of individuals with pure natural colors and a reduction of genetic diversity in the species. Pure black Alpacas are the rarest. The problem has been recognized and pure natural colors are now beginning to recover. Alpaca wool prices were at their peak from the 1960s-1980s then declined due to land reforms and competition from synthetics. Prices, however, still remain high at four times the value of sheep wool. In North America in its raw state, an ounce of Alpaca varies from US$ 2 to US$ 5. Each stage of the process (cleaning, carding, spinning, knitting, finishing, etc) adds more value to the wool. As a finished garment, it can sell for US$ 10/0z. In addition to its importance as a producer of fine wool, Alpacas have been a valuable source of meat and hides in South America. In the late 1990s some eleven million kilograms of Alpaca meat were produced annually in Peru, representing 10-15% of the country’s total Alpaca population. The best yield and tenderest meat is from animals 1-5-2 years old, but most are slaughtered at 7-8 years old because their wool has become too coarse for economic production. Alpaca meat is healthful, rich in protein and low in cholesterol and fat. Prime cuts are 50% of the carcass and sold either fresh or frozen to meat markets, restaurants, hotels, and supermarkets. Hides are tanned for soft leather products or sold with the fleece intact as wall hangings, rugs, and toys. For indigenous peoples that raise most Alpacas, family income from these animals is primarily from meat (44% fresh, 16% dried) and secondarily from the wool (31%). Despite its excellent quality, the price received for Alpaca meat is 50% less than that for sheep and beef, due to long standing prejudice towards camelid meat. Beginning in the 1960s Peruwas the world leader in quality Alpaca research, especially by the progressive staff and visiting scientists working at the La Raya Research Station from CuzcoUniversity. With the export of Alpacas around the globe starting in the 1990s, serious science on this longneglected species and family expanded to a number of countries. Universities in the USAand Australiapursued vigorous research programs into reproduction, disease, genetics, and nutrition. The future for the Alpaca is encouraging. Wide opportunities exist for improved successful Alpaca production in the highlands of Peruand Bolivia, especially if the stewardship of the Alpaca’s principle habitat, bofedales, is improved towards sustained and balanced use.","Allen (2010) | Bravo & Varela (1993) | Bravo, Garnica & Puma (2009) | Bravo, Pezo & Alarcén (1995) | Bryant et al. (1989) | Bustinza (1989) | Calle Escobar (1984) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | Castellaro et al. (1998) | Fernandez-Baca et al. (1972a, 1972b) | FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995) | Florez (1991) | Gonzales (1990) | Groeneveld et al. (2010) | Hoffman & Fowler (1995) | Huacarpuma (1990) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Moscoso & Bautista (2003) | Munoz (2008) | Novoa & Florez (1991) | Orlove (1977) | Quispe et al. (2009) | San Martin (1989) | Sumar (1996) | Sumar et al. (1972) | Tuckwell (1994) | Villarroel (1991)",,"4.AlpacaVicugna pacosFrench:Alpaca/ German:Alpaka/ Spanish:AlpacaTaxonomy.Camelus pacos Linnaeus, 1758,Peru.The Alpaca is a domesticated camelid indigenous and endemic to South America, well known for the characteristics of its fine-diameter wool: soft, silky, high luster, lightweight, and warm. Alpaca woolis used for luxurious blankets, sweaters, and cloth. The species was long classified in the genus Lama, but recent DNA studies (mtDNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite markers) have established that the Alpaca was domesticated from the Vicuna subspecies V. vicugnamensalis, showing significant genetic differentiation to warrant a change in its genus to Vicugnaand its designation as a separate species. Archeological digs at the Telarmachay site in the Central Andes of Peruindicate that the Alpaca was domesticated 5500-6500 years ago by a hunter-gatherer society. These early indigenous herders selected for an animal with a docile nature while maintaining the fineness of its progenitor’s wool. No remains of Alpaca have been found to date at archeological digs in the south of Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina), but only early domesticated Llamas (Lama glama). The Alpaca has no subspecies, but two distinct breeds are recognized: the Huacaya and Suri.Distribution.Alpacas are found in the Central Andes from C Peruinto mid-Bolivia and N Chile. In the 1980s—1990s Alpacas were imported into the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Europe. There are no known wild/feral populations of Alpacas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-150 cm,tail 18-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 55-65 kg. Alpacas have long necks; relatively short, straight ears (c. 15 cm), thin and agile legs, and fluffy-appearing bodies because of their long wool. When shorn, however, the bodyis slender and Vicuna-like. There are two distinct breeds. HUACAYA ALPACA: Huacayas are the more common (¢.90%) of the two breeds. Its body, legs, and neck are covered by wool that is long, fine (27-5 microns), and wavy; the head and feet are covered by short wool. Wool grows 5-15 cm/year depending upon nutrition and decreases with age. Huacaya wool is crimped (regular and successive undulations) and similar in appearance to Corriedale sheep wool. Huacayas are bigger in size, have shorter and relatively coarser wool, and lighter fleeces than Suris. There are three general categories of wool: “Baby Alpaca” (20-23 microns some as low as 16-17 microns)is the finest and most expensive wool from recently born animals; “Tui” wool is from the first shearing at 12-18 months; and “Standard” Alpaca wool (c.24 microns) is from animals of two years of age and older. White Huacayas are the most common (c.80%), especially on large commercial Alpaca ranches, compared to 30% white animals in indigenous flocks. White wool accounts for over 80% of the total annual Alpaca wool production. Although most Alpaca wool has little cortex in its fibers,it can be easily dyed just as sheep wool, giving woollen mills greater flexibility with white Alpaca wool. Huacaya Alpaca crossed with a Vicuna produces a Paco-Vicuna, which resembles a large-bodied Vicuna and has 17-19 micron wool. Resource managers are concerned that accidently escaped Paco-Vicunas could have harmful genetic consequences on populations of pure Vicunas. SURI ALPACA: Suris arise from a very small percentage (2%) of Huacaya x Huacaya crosses, thus the origin of the breed. Because of their long-hanging wool, phenotyically Suris are quite distinct from Huacayas. Suri wool is silky (24-27 microns), straight, without crimp, generally finer, longer, more lustrous, softer to the touch, less elastic, less resistant to tension, and faster-growing compared to the Huacaya. The wool parts on the animal’s back create a mid-body line that is capable of growing up to 15 cm/year. Some individual Suris, called “wasis” by Andean herders, are not shorn for years, resulting in the fleece growing until it touches the ground; only a few such special animals are kept and are revered by the indigenous people. Around 17% of the offspring from Suri x Suri crosses produce Huacaya types. In their South American homeland, Suri Alpacas are considered to be longerlived, more delicate, less hardy, and to have lower fertility than Huacaya Alpacas. Recent research has found thatjuvenile mortality is high because of lack of wool coverage on the midline. However, when given the right management and equally good pastures, they thrivejust as well and with similar fertility as Huacayas. During lactation Suri Alpacas lose weight more than Huacayas because they produce more milk (udders are larger on Suri females). As a result, Suri young are heavier than Huacayas because they have a greater availability of milk. Body wool is uniform or multicolored; 22 natural colors have been categorized, ranging from white to black, with intermediate shades of grays, fawns, and browns. The upperlip is split for grasping forage. The eyes are large, round, and slightly forward looking. The feet have soft-padded soles and two toes, each ending with large pointed nails. Testes are small, oval-shaped and located in the perineal region under the tail. Life span is 15-20 years. The cuticle on individual wool fibers is made up of poorly developed, elongated, and flattened cells. While such rudimentary cuticle scales without ridges results in poor felting qualities, it makes the Alpaca wool extraordinarily smooth and soft to the touch. Still, Alpaca wool is 3-6 times stronger than human hair. Based upon strand diameter and morphology, the fleece (pelt) of this ungulate is made up of two types of hair: wool and hair. Similar to fine sheep wool, the medulla can be non-existent in unusually fine Alpaca wool, but has been observed in Peruvian Alpaca fibers averaging 17 microns. Such pure Alpacas are considered “one coated” because their fleece consists only of the fine undercoat hairs and lack the outer coarser guard hairs. As the proportion of medullation increases (as it does with age), wool diameter increases and fineness decreases, thatis, the proportion of the medulla progressively increases with the thickness of the individual wool strand. Woolis of the cortex type of fineness, and hair is of the medullar type with larger diameter. Hair is especially common on the chest, face, and extremities, but it is not unusual to find individual hairs intermixed throughout the fleece. This is especially common in “Huarizos,” hybrids between an Alpaca female and a Llama male. Huarizos show intermediate physical characteristics of the two parents, and relatively coarse wool (c.32 microns in diameter). Their fleeces contain as much as 40% guard hair. Huarizos are considered undesirable by the Alpaca wool industry and are being selected against on commercial Alpaca farms. Nearly all (90%) Alpacas on large farms are shorn annually and done indoors with shearing scissors or by mechanized clippers. In indigenous family herds in the Andes only half of the animals are shorn each year, and done under rustic conditions in the out-of-doors with hand shears. Shearing of males, geldings, non-pregnant and some pregnant females takes place in November and December, while new mothers with young, yearlings, and thin males and females are done in February to April. Annual shearing yields 1.5-2. 8 kgof wool per Alpaca in South America (enough to make four sweaters), and up to 3-6 kg in USAand Australia. Fineness of Alpaca fleeces vary from farm to farm in Peru(24-7-32-3 microns, averaging 28-9 microns), but in other countries where it has been introduced, 16-24 microns is more typical. In the Andes Alpaca wool increases in diameter from 17-4 microns to 27-5 microns from the first shearing at ten months to six years of age. Large Alpaca farms in Peruare able to practice better husbandry through pasture management, selective breeding, and health care. Of 3762 shorn Alpacas on one such farm in Puno, Peru, in the 1980s, wool was sorted and classified into the following five quality categories: X 3% at 19 microns, AA 52% at 25 microns, A 17% at 37 microns, LP 23% at 44 microns, and K 5% at 49 microns. Still, nearly half was considered “thick” relative to the Alpaca’s potential for producing fine wool. Now, two decadeslater, better management and selection is beginning to improve wool quality. Alpaca wool production and quality is strongly influenced by artificial selection (genetics) and nutrition. Seasonally wool production varies under the extreme conditions of the Alpaca’s high-altitude habitat: fiber or strand length has been shown to be 25% longer during the rainy season in the Andean highlands, reflecting the percentage of crude plant protein that decreases from 11% in the wet season to 3-5% in the dry season. Wool quality decreases (increase in diameter) when Alpacas are grazed on high-quality pasture compared to native range of poor to very poor quality. For example during a 15month feeding trial relative to controls, Alpacas on diets in Andean rangeland vs. managed pastures of alfalfa, increased the body weight of mothers and young 10 kgand 22 kgrespectively, fleece weight 0-4 kg and 0-8 kg, staple length 2-3 cm and 1-8 cm, fiber diameter 5-2 microns and 6-9 microns, and yield 4-1% and 10-8%. In another study adult Alpacas on high-feeding regimes resulted in increased stand diameter (fine 21-22 microns to thick 27-28 microns), but wool production per head/year increased from 1-1 kg to 2-4 kg. But, because there is little commercial difference in value per kilogram in the two wool diameters, total monetary value was doubled on the higher feeding regime. Contrary to the long-time belief that Alpacas produce finer wool at higher elevations in the Andes, recent studies with controls have shown that when on the same diet wool quality was similar. Commercially, the majority of Alpaca wool is made into carded and semi-carded thread. In the textile industry it is often blended with merino sheep wool to be made into overcoats and high-fashion knitwear. In general, Alpaca wool quality in the Andes is lower than its potential due to poor management and the extensive Alpaca/ILlama hybridization that has occurred over the past 400 years since Spanish colonization. DNA studies have revealed that today’s Andean Alpaca population shows a high (80-92%) level of hybridization. Along with a significant reduction in Peru’s Alpaca population during colonization, pure colored animals significantly decreased to the point that they became rare. The difference between Alpaca and Llamas and between Huacaya and Suri Alpacas has also been impacted. Alpaca husbandry is now addressing these problems. Additionally, in the 1970s the Alpaca population in Perudropped resulting in a 40% decline of wool production due to land and agrarian reforms. A number of revealing physiological parameters have been measured in Alpaca. Body temperature of normal adult males (n = 50) and females (n = 50) is the same (38-7°C), pulse rate/minute in males (83-2 + 2-2) is higher than females (76:6 + 1-9), and respiration rate/minute is similar for males (29-2 + 1-1) and females (28-3 + 0-79). For young Alpaca 10-12 months old (n = 50) body temperature is 38-5 + 0-04, pulse rate 83-8 + 2-9, and respiration rate 33-1 + 0-19. For femalesin the last days of gestation body temperature (38-3 + 0-07) is the same as non-pregnant females, but pulse rates (83-5 + 2-3), and respiration rates (34-8 + 1-9) were higher.Habitat.Alpacas are raised in the Andean highlands; regionally known as the Altiplano and Puna. The Puna ecosystem is rolling grassland and isolated wetlands typically at c.3500-5200 m altitude with two marked periods: the rainy season from October to April and the dry season from May to September. Most (75%) precipitation falls from November to March in the form of both hail and rain. In Peruthe annual precipitation varies from 800 mmin the south to 1200 mmin the central mountains. The mean annual temperatures are less than 10°C and nocturnal frosts are common, especially during the dry season. Diurnal fluctuations can be as much as 20°C in the mesic Altiplano and even greater in the dry or desert Altiplano. The short growing season, as determined by moisture and night-time cloud cover, occurs between December and March. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous grasses and forbs. Few trees exist and shrubs are only locally abundant. Perennial bunchgrasses are common including the genera Festuca, Poa, Stipa, and Calamagrostis, as well as the grass-like sedges Carexand Scirpus. High-quality forage is more abundant during the rainy season and scarcer during the remainder of the year. A critical habitat and principal source of forage for Alpacas in the Andes that allows intensive-localized foraging are bofedales or mojadales. Providing lush forage and moist vegetation that Alpacas thrive on, bofedales are localized islands of perennial greenery with deep organic soils moistened by subterranean and considerable surface water often forming small pools. Both natural and artificial bofedales exist, some man-made ones dating back to pre-Inca times. These high-altitude marsh areas can provide year-round forage, allowing herders and their animals to remain in the same area for extended periods. Depending upon water availability, they are productive only during the rainy season or throughout the year. As a result, their carrying capacity is highly variable, from 2-8 Alpacas/ha/year. Natural mojadales compared to irrigated artificial ones, typically have greater plant cover with more palatable and nutritious forage. Vegetative composition of bofedales in the humid Puna varies between several dominant species, including Distichia muscoides, Eleocharisalbibracteata, Hypochoeris taraxacoides, Hidrocotilo ranunculoides, Liliaopsis andina, and others. A percentage cover of 64-72% of desirable species (Werneria nubigena, Werneria pymaea, Hipochoeris stenocephala, Ranunculos sp., Carexfragilaris) is excellent Alpaca forage. Reported total accumulated bofedal forage (dry weight) from January to August was 1021 kg/ha that grew at an average rate of 4-2 kg/ha/day. Protein ranged 8-3-13-4% and crude fiber 19-2-34-1%. Annual bofedal growth varies with season: 60% during the summer growing season (January-April), 21% during the transition to the dry season (May-June), and 19% in the dry season (July-December). Wet artificial bofedales have greater sustained productivity than natural bofedales with 10-11% protein in both the wet and dry seasons and capable of supporting 3—4 Alpaca/ha/year. Continuous year-round grazing of native grasslands is the most common grazing management practice used by indigenous herders, but technicians are encouraging enhancement of rangeland conditions through rotational grazing and reducing stocking rates of Alpacas and competing sheep. Recommended stocking rate for Alpacas on Andean native pastures is 2-7 animals/ha/year on excellent range, 2 good, 1 average, 0-33 poor, and 0-17 very poor. However, intensively managed, irrigated pastures of grasses and legumes at 3850 maltitude can support 25 Alpacas/ha/year. Research indicates that despite the high elevations and low night-time temperatures, it is possible to increase considerably the sustained carrying capacity of Andean rangeland by the introduction of improved forage species. Managed pastures of irrigated ryegrass (Loliumperenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) with application of nitrogen fertilizers can carry up to 30 adult ind/ha compared with the usual rate of 1-1-5 ind/ha on natural grasslands. On Andean rangelands grazed by Alpaca,tall grass communities are commonly set on fire during the dry season (June—October) by native indigenous herders. The objective is the destruction of bunch grasses that will encourage the growth of ground forage preferred by Alpaca and sheep. However, studies have shown that annual burns are not beneficial because they not only stimulate the rapid regrowth of bunchgrasses, but promote hillside soil erosion and encourage the growth of undesirable invasive plant species. Burning every third or more years during the wet season is a more effective approach for improving Alpaca range and habitat.Food and Feeding.Historically, an Alpaca was considered to be equivalent to three sheep, but modern animal nutritionists in Peruconsider that Alpacas consume 1-2—-1-5 times as much forage as one sheep. Alpacas are selective for these familiar Altiplano plants: Compositae/composites 31 4% (Hipochoires stenocephala, Werneria novigena), followed by Cyperaceae/sedges-rushes 26-1% (Eleocharisalbibracteata, Carexsp.), Gramineae/grasses 19-1% (Calamagrostisrigescens, Festucadolichophylla), Rosaceae/roses 14-6% (Alchemillapinnata, Alchemilladiplophylla) and minor percentages of Ranunculaceae/ buttercups 5:6% (Ranunculusbreviscapus), Leguminosae/legumes 1-7% (Trifolium amabile) and others. Plant leaves,stalks, and flowers with protein content as high as 17-4% are selected by Alpaca when feeding in quality bofedales in the rainy-growing season. Year-round feeding studies on the chemical composition of ingested forage with fistulated Alpacas in Peruand Boliviayielded the following: dry matter 9-9%, organic material 88-8%, minerals 11-2%, total protein 15-1%, ether extract 7-4%, crude fiber 27-5%, nitrogen-free extract 38-:8%, and detergent neutral fiber 61:6%. General apparent digestibility of bofedal nutrients was dry matter 64-9%, organic material 64-1%, and total protein 64-8%. Total digestible nutrients (TDN) of bofedal forage eaten by Alpacas was similar between the rainy (54-1%) and dry (66:5%) seasons, as was the average energy from TDN at 60-3%. Average daily weight gain per Alpaca grazed on typical (control) bofedales was 0-093 kg, but experimentally at low stocking rates (2 Alpaca/ha/year) weight gain was 0-101 kg/day, medium stocking (4 Alpaca) 0-084 kg/ day, and high stocking (6 Alpaca) 0-079 kg/day. Although the carrying capacity is around one Alpaca/ha/year, overgrazing occurs at 1-8-2-5 Alpaca/ha/year, lowering the quantity and quality of available forage. In indigenous Andean communities where herders own the animals but not the land and the communal grazing lands are used through permission from the community, overgrazing of the natural grasslands is not uncommon. Although efforts are being made to counter the situation, a long history of bofedal overuse by traditional Alpaca herders has frequently resulted in low live (50 kg) and carcass (25-5 kg) weights, reduced fleece weights (1-2 kg), low fertility (35%), and high juvenile mortality (30%). Like Vicunas, Alpacas need frequent water intake. Water consumption by Alpacas grazing on bofedales was high during the dry season at 3-08 kg/animal/day and less in the rainy growing season at 2-04 kg. In another Peruvian study digestibility of high-altitude forage by Alpacas in both Altplano and bofedal habitats was lowest (50-62%) in the winter-dry season and highest (66-76%) in the spring/summer-wet season. Comparative feeding trials measuring the coefficients of digestibility revealed that when fed dry forage low in protein (less than 7-5%) Alpacas were 14% more efficient than sheep, but at high protein levels (greater than 10-5%), sheep were slightly (2%) more efficient. Other studies have reported that Alpacas have a digestion coefficient 25% higher than sheep, particularly on low-quality forage. Maintenance-energy requirements for a 60 kgAlpaca is 2% of its body weight, or 1-2 kg dry forage per day. Alpacas in Peruforage more selectively than Llamas. Diets are highest in grass during the wet and early dry season. As the dry season progresses, the diets of Alpacas in bofedal habitat became largely sedges and reeds (81%). Animals in dryer habitats consume more grass (68%). A study of live weight changes of Alpaca adult males, females, and their progeny, was conducted for three seasons under continuous grazing on natural grasslands on the Mediterranean range of Central Chile. Live weight changes were highest in spring (100-200 g/day), moderate during winter (50-100 g/day), and negative only at the end of summer and in autumn (-110 g/day to — 150 g/day). Weight gains of newborn Alpacas were greatest (110-150 g/day) in the first 90 days after birth and then decreased slightly, reaching values of 75 g/day at 8-5 months old. Weight gainsstabilized at 10-20 g/day at three years of age.Breeding.Alpaca females in Perureach puberty at 60% (33-40 kg) of their adult weight, or at c.12-14 months of age when being grazed on native pastures. Although such young females exhibit sexual behavior, ovulation, fertilization, and embryonic survival similar to adults, most breeders waitto first breed females at two years of age when they have reached greater physical maturity. Male Alpacas in Peruare first used for reproduction at two to three years of age, because the penis is still adhered to the prepuce in one-(84%) and two-year-olds (50%), with all males adhesion free at three years old. The rate of detachment is dependent upon the level of testosterone secreted from the testes. The breeding season is from January to April using several different husbandry techniques. If the females are unfamiliar with the breeding male, they most likely will not accept him. Such males become familiarized by staying with the females in the same stone corral or encircled together by rope for a number of hours each day for 20 days; pregnancy rate is as high at 85% using this method. The most common technique is to run four to six breeding males per 100 females together, year-round. Artificial selection is less controlled by this approach, so males with desired traits are chosen (typically white colored, dense and good quality wool, and normally developed testes 4-5 cm long and 2-5 cm wide). On large, Peruvian Alpaca farms no more than 200 females are run with 10-12 males, half of which are rotated in one-week intervals for two months during the breeding season. Males work well for one week, but then begin to fight with each other and establish hierarchies and harems, thus the rotational system. Alpaca breed and give birth seasonally. When males and females are kept together year-round, births only occur during the rainy season from December to March. The continuous association of the sexes produces an inhibiting effect on the sexual activity of the male. But when males are separated from females and only brought together for breeding, births are year-round. Copulation occurs with the female in sternal recumbency, and lasts 20-50 minutes. Non-pregnant Alpaca have no well-defined cyclical sexual activity (estrus), but are always in the follicular phase and state of receptivity until ovulation is induced by copulation. There is no period of sexual inactivity in Alpaca and other cameloids, nor a relationship between size of ovarian follicle and sexual receptivity. Ovulation occurs ¢.26 hours after copulation. Ovulation can be also be induced by the injection of chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and then occurs c¢.24 hours later. Following ovulation the corpus luteum forms and reaches maximum size and secretory activity at approximately eight days. With no gestation the corpus luteum regresses within 12-18 days after mating, giving way to the formation of new follicles. With conception and gestation, the corpus luteum continues its secretory activity and thereafter the female is not sexually receptive. Pregnancy is assessed by sexual behavior of the female in presence of a new male. Studies have found that at least 85% of the females that ovulate in response to the coital stimulation have at least one fertilized ovum within three days of mating. However, in Peruthere is 34% embryonic mortality during the first 30 days of gestation, seriously affecting the annual birth rate of Alpacas. Nearly all (95%) of the pregnancies are in the left horn of the bifurcated uterus, although both ovaries are equally active. Thus, transuterine migration from the right to the left horn of the uterus is common, as evidenced by the corpus luteum in the right ovary and the fetus in the left horn of the uterus. The placenta is simple-diffuse and of the chorial epithelium type. Reproductive studies in Peruon Alpaca mothers (n = 1684) showed that age of the female, year of birth, and the quality of diet were important factors influencing the length of gestation and date of birth. First time mothers at two years of age and those 15 years and older had longer gestation periods (403 and 401 days respectively) than middle-aged females four to twelve years of age (380-390 days). Females grazing on higher quality, cultivated pastures had longer gestation periods than those on native rangelands (389 vs. 379 days). Also in years with favorable vs. poor range conditions, gestation was longer (392 vs. 381 days) and newborns weighed more (8-7 vs. 8-1 kg). The explanation for this may be that females on good forage can afford longer gestations, give birth to a larger young, and be assured that favorable forage will be available for costly lactation. In contrast, females on poor forage have shorter gestations, cannot afford long gestations because of the potential cost of lowering their own health, and need to start lactation as soon as possible while there is at least some forage available before the dry season begins. Age of the Alpaca mother and date of parturition also influenced offspring survival in the Peruvian studies. In a curvilinear fashion, survival of young born to mothers two and three years of age was lower than those with mothers 9-11 years old (82% vs. 91% survival), but declines to 88% for mothers 15 years of age. In Australia, the gestation of spring-mated females is ten days longer than fall-mated females. Birth weight of Alpaca neonates averages 8-4 kg in Peru, with significant variation as indicated among femaleage groups. The importance of good maternal nutrition is critical for such a species with an unusually long gestation. At 180 days or almost half way through gestation the fetus weighs 600 g, only 7% of its eventual 9 kgat birth. Some 93% ofits growth takes place in the last half of gestation, and at 230 days or two-thirds of the way into gestation, a remarkable 72% ofits growth is yet to be gained. The heavy energy demands of lactation lasting 6—8 months, mostly coincides with the Andean rainy, or growing season. Even though multiple ovulations occur c¢.10% of the time, Alpaca twins are extremely rare in Peruand in the USA; only one out of ¢.2000 births. If neonatal twins do occurthere is a significant difference in size, e.g. 4 kgand 6 kg, with the smaller one typically in the right horn of the uterus dying during gestation resulting in the death of the other. After giving birth the female comes into estrus within 48 hours, but only with initial follicular growth. Follicular size and activity capable of ovulation in response to copulation is observed from the fifth day, but the higher rates offertility begin ten days after parturition with the highest fertility 20-30 days postpartum. The Peruvian Alpaca birth season is from December to May. Females are not separated from the herd due to the lack of space. The umbilical of the newborn is treated with iodine or an herb solution to prevent infection and diarrhea. Newborns are watched closely by the herder to assure first nursing is successful (first milk is high in colostrum, rich in antibodies). Parturition in indigenous herds averages a low 50% and juvenile mortality is high (15-35%); itis estimated that no more than half of the female Alpaca of reproductive age produce young every year. Young born during the birth season also had higher survival than those born late. Additionally, juvenile survival is curvilinearly related to birth weight. Neonates weighing 9-11 kg had an average 92% survival but those weighing 4-5 kg survived at a rate of 30-50%. When pregnant females (n = 424) and their young were monitored,it was found that newborn birth weight, and weight and width of the placenta increased with age of the dam reaching a peak at nine years and then declined progressively. Placental efficiency also increased with female Alpaca age, showing a bimodal shape and peaking at 6-11year-old females; more young died from two-year-old females than any other age; and dead neonates weighed less (6-4 kg) than those that survived (7-8 kg). In indigenous herds, young-of-the-year are usually not weaned due to the lack of extra pastures and the labor involved. Instead, young nurse beyond one year of age, including up to the time the mother gives birth again. To impede the yearling from competing with the newborn for nursing, herders will sometimes temporarily pierce the yearling’s nose with a stick. In commercial Alpaca herds weaning occurs in September through October, sometimes until November, when young are 6-8 months old.Activity patterns.The daily routine or activity pattern of indigenous Alpaca family flocks is quite consistent. After having spent the night in a stone corral or next to the family house (usually a stone hut called a choza), the animals are released or move out on their own to graze for the day soon after sunrise. While the family’s sheep flock is tended by a herder, the Alpaca flock is not accompanied by a herder. Instead,its daily movements and activity patterns while grazing are self-directed within 1-2 km of their home base to local bofedales and other feeding areas of their choice. As sunset approaches, the flock returns to the home site by themselves without being escorted by a herder. Daytime activity budgets (percentage of time) of Alpacas compared to sheep while both species grazed on native-Andean pasture dominated by the favorable forage Festucadolichophylla, have shown that while other activities were similar, Alpacas fed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (11% vs. 25%) than sheep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Seasonal patterns of Alpaca movement are determined by herders as influenced by the availability of forage, varying from one locality to next. One common annual movement of Alpacas in the Andes is to graze herds during the rainy season (generallyJanuary to April) in lower mountains (3600-4100 m) areas characterized by pampas, slopes, and rounded ridges. Then in the dry season (generally May to December) they are moved up to the high altitudes (4100-5200 m) to find favorable forage, bofedales, and water. When the rainy season begins, they are moved back to lower areas where grasses are beginning to grow and to avoid severe hailstorms and other weather at higher altitudes. Herders, however, without access to two seasonal sites maintain their animals in the same area year-round. Indigenous families that raise livestock in the Peruvian Andes on the average have 70 Alpacas (30-120), 30 Llamas (4-50), and 50 sheep (10-80). More importance is placed upon Alpacas because they offer greater economic diversity. Most (90-95%) of the Alpaca woolis sold, the balance used for home use. Many of the young males one to two years old are sold for meat production, and old animals are culled to make jerky. In three Peruvian Alpaca farms that were cooperatively, family, and individually owned, percent herd composition was females: 60/ 65/ 70; gelded males: 25/30/25; breeding males: 3/4/5; white animals: 70/70/90; and colored animals: 30/30/10. With Alpacas that are owned as private property, each member of the family owns animals but herd control is under the family. Ownership is designated by ear markings or colored yarn. Animals are often given as presents or ceremonial gifts. They play an important role in the rituals, symbols, mythology, and ceremoniesin the life of Andean people. Individual animals are recognized and described by physical characteristics and usually given a name. Alpacas have feminine attributes in the Andean cosmic vision oflife and the world, and generically referred to as “mothers” and “dear mothers.” Alpacas are highly social with strong herding behavior, making them easier to drive when necessary. In small, mixed-sex herds, dominance is clear with a few adult males as the leaders. Alpacas are more skittish and shy with strangers than Llamas. When a free-ranging flock is approached on foot, they will distance themselves more quickly than a herd of Llamas. Once they become familiar with you, however, they are docile and easier to handle than sheep. There are no known unmanaged or feral populations of Alpaca that would allow us to assess their social organization and full repertoire of behavior. However, a number of subtle-contrasting characteristics exist in Alpaca behavior that turn out to be, not surprisingly, very similar to the Vicuna: tighter grouping, vocal communication more common, less communicative with their tails, love water and bathe regularly, greater susceptibility to heat stress, higher site fidelity, males more protective of females, less cooperative, and more distant and stand-offish.Status and Conservation.Alpacas and Llamas were important to ancient Andean civilizations such as the Tiwanaku Culture that dominated the Lake Titicaca region from ¢.300 BC to 1000 Ap, and the Inca Culture that dominated the Central Andes in the 15% and 16"" centuries. When the Incas captured the cameloid-rich kingdoms near Lake Titicaca and south, they acquired giant herds of Llamas and Alpacas. The Incas then sent “seed herds” throughout their empire and commanded that they be reproduced. State-controlled husbandry of Alpacas produced vast herds that numbered into the millions. The Incas placed special emphasis on avoidance of crossbreeding with Llamas and selective breeding of pure-colored Alpacas (brown, black, and white) for quality wool and sacrifice to deities. The Spanish invasion in the 16™ century destroyed that advanced management system and there ensued a breakdown of controlled breeding. Today, the raising of Alpacas in the high altitudes of Peruand Boliviacontributes substantially to the economy of the region. However, animal production is limited by the low level of technology, adverse climate, disease, herders with scarce resources, and frequent over utilization of native rangelands. The Andean grazing system is extensively based upon utilization of native high-altitude grasslands by mixed herds that include not only Alpacas, but sheep and Llamas as well. Pastoralism and mixed agropastoralism form the subsistence base for the agricultural segment of the high Andes. Indigenous communities control the greatest number of camelids and sheep, as well as half of the native rangelands, which comprise ¢.95% ofthe land area above 3800 m. The Alpaca population in South America is c.4-5 million, down some 20% since the mid-1960s, but up 25% from the early 2000s. Today, numbers are at least stable, if not increasing. Most Alpacas are in Peruwith 91%, followed by Bolivia8% and Chile1%. Few Alpacas occur in Argentinabecause of the lack of moist Puna and the dominance of the dry Puna. More than 73-87% are in southern Peru(Arequipa, Cuzco, Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna), with nearly half of the world’s Alpaca in the Department of Puno. Females represent c¢.70% of the total Alpaca population. A high percentage (85-95%) of Alpacas are owned and managed by native herders in small flocks ofless than 50 animals, but some commercial Alpaca herds are as large as 30,000-50,000 individuals. Although indigenous herders raise most Alpacas, productivity traditionally has been the lowest due to over stocking, improper health care, and inbreeding. Peruhas ¢.789,775 producers raising Alpacas; Boliviahas 13,603, and Chile916. Starting in the early 1980s Alpacas were exported from Chile, Bolivia, and Peruto the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, where cottage industries in Alpaca wool have developed. In the USAthe Alpaca Owners & Breeders Association numbered over 4500 members with 143,000 registered Alpacas in 2010. Peruexports c. US$ 24 million worth of Alpaca products (wool, tops, yarns, woven fabrics, and knitwear) annually to countries around the world, especially China, Germany, and Italy. Annual Alpaca wool production in South America is 4-1 million kg (90% from Peru), yet only represents 0-6% of the world’s fine-fibered wool production (fine sheep wool is ¢.90-95% followed by cashmere at 5-10%). Because of a high market demand for white wool from Huacaya Alpaca, which can be dyed to any desired color, the Alpaca population has become dominated (80-87%) by white individuals. The result has been a scarcity of individuals with pure natural colors and a reduction of genetic diversity in the species. Pure black Alpacas are the rarest. The problem has been recognized and pure natural colors are now beginning to recover. Alpaca wool prices were at their peak from the 1960s-1980s then declined due to land reforms and competition from synthetics. Prices, however, still remain high at four times the value of sheep wool. In North America in its raw state, an ounce of Alpaca varies from US$ 2 to US$ 5. Each stage of the process (cleaning, carding, spinning, knitting, finishing, etc) adds more value to the wool. As a finished garment, it can sell for US$ 10/0z. In addition to its importance as a producer of fine wool, Alpacas have been a valuable source of meat and hides in South America. In the late 1990s some eleven million kilograms of Alpaca meat were produced annually in Peru, representing 10-15% of the country’s total Alpaca population. The best yield and tenderest meat is from animals 1-5-2 years old, but most are slaughtered at 7-8 years old because their wool has become too coarse for economic production. Alpaca meat is healthful, rich in protein and low in cholesterol and fat. Prime cuts are 50% of the carcass and sold either fresh or frozen to meat markets, restaurants, hotels, and supermarkets. Hides are tanned for soft leather products or sold with the fleece intact as wall hangings, rugs, and toys. For indigenous peoples that raise most Alpacas, family income from these animals is primarily from meat (44% fresh, 16% dried) and secondarily from the wool (31%). Despite its excellent quality, the price received for Alpaca meat is 50% less than that for sheep and beef, due to long standing prejudice towards camelid meat. Beginning in the 1960s Peruwas the world leader in quality Alpaca research, especially by the progressive staff and visiting scientists working at the La Raya Research Station from CuzcoUniversity. With the export of Alpacas around the globe starting in the 1990s, serious science on this longneglected species and family expanded to a number of countries. Universities in the USAand Australiapursued vigorous research programs into reproduction, disease, genetics, and nutrition. The future for the Alpaca is encouraging. Wide opportunities exist for improved successful Alpaca production in the highlands of Peruand Bolivia, especially if the stewardship of the Alpaca’s principle habitat, bofedales, is improved towards sustained and balanced use.Bibliography.Allen (2010), Bravo & Varela (1993), Bravo, Garnica & Puma (2009), Bravo, Pezo & Alarcén (1995), Bryant et al. (1989), Bustinza (1989), Calle Escobar (1984), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), Castellaro et al. (1998), Fernandez-Baca et al. (1972a, 1972b), FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995), Florez (1991), Gonzales (1990), Groeneveld et al. (2010), Hoffman & Fowler (1995), Huacarpuma (1990), Kadwell et al. (2001), Moscoso & Bautista (2003), Munoz (2008), Novoa & Florez (1991), Orlove (1977), Quispe et al. (2009), San Martin (1989), Sumar (1996), Sumar et al. (1972), Tuckwell (1994), Villarroel (1991)." -03928E699A46FFCCD5D0F3E6F6E9FE05,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,238,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A46FFCCD5D0F3E6F6E9FE05.xml,Vicugna vicugna,Vicugna,vicugna,,,Vigogne @fr | Vikunja @de | Vicuna @es | Argentine Vicuna (vicugna) @en | Peruvian Vicufa (mensalis) @en,"Camelus vicugna Molina, 1782,Chile, “abondano nella parte della Cordigliera spettante alle Provincie de Coquimbo, e di Copiap6” (Cordilleras of Coquimboand Copiapo in northern Chile).The separation of the Vicuna and the Guanaco(Lama guanicoe) occurred 2-3 million years ago. Palaeontological evidence suggests the genus Vicugnaevolved from Hemiauchenia, a North American immigrant to South America, in the lowlands east of the Andes some two million years ago, with widespread distribution as recently as 10,000-13,000 years ago in lowland grasslands of Bolivia, Paraguay, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. Then 9000-12,000 years ago, during the last Pleistocene glacial advance and the subsequent establishment of the Holocene climate, Vicugnamoved from its lowland distribution to its present day, high-elevation habitat. Today, two subspecies are recognized, distinguished on the bases of genetics, habitat, and morphology. Northern subspecies mensalis is closely related to the domestic Alpaca (V. pacos).","V.v.vicugnaMolina,1782—WBolivia,NWArgentina,andNEChilefrom18°Sto29°S.V. v. mensalis Thomas, 1917— SE Peru, W Bolivia, and NE Chilefrom 9° Sto 19° S. Ecuadorhas a small population (c.3000) introduced from Peru, Chile, and Boliviain the 1980s.","Head-body 125-190 cm,tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 38-45 kg. The body color of the soft, woolly coat is pale cinnamon to reddishbrown, with insides of the legs and underside white. There is a bib of coarse white hairs 20-30 cm long on the chest at the base of the neck in the northern subspecies, which is short to almost unnoticeable in the southern subspecies. The body is slender with a long neck. The head is small and wedge-shaped; the ears are slender and pointed. The Vicuna has unique rodent-like incisors. Males and females weigh approximately the same, look alike, and are sexually indistinguishable in the field. Southern subspecies vicugna, sometimes called the “ ArgentineVicuna,” is ¢.15% larger (c. 45 kgvs. 38 kg), length of molars longer, taller at the withers, substantially shorter chest-bib hair, lighter colored, larger white underside countershading, and in general exhibits higher levels of genetic diversity than the northern subspecies mensalis, sometimes referred to as “Peruvian Vicuna.” Vicuna wool (often called fiber) is among the finest in the world at 12-5 + 1-5 microns (Cashmere goat fibers measure 14-19 microns; Chiru, Pantholops hodgsonii fiber is 9-12 microns). The shorn fleeces of 30,391 Vicunas in Peruaveraged 220 g/animal. With its silky texture, Vicuna woolis highly prized, retailing for US$ 250/0z in the USAand in 2004 selling at wholesale for US$ 566,/kg from certified liveshorn animals. World prices for Vicuna wool ranged from US$ 350/kg to US$ 900/kg over the past decade, promoting reference to it as the “Gold of the Andes.” The adaptations responsible for the animal’s outstanding physical endurance at high altitudes include lightweight insulating fleece, which protects against cold and the sun’s ultraviolet light, and high blood-oxygen affinity (highest of all mammals investigated). Full saturation of the blood with oxygen occurs at the lower partial pressure of oxygen that is found at high altitudes. The Vicuna’s heart muscle capillary densities are exceptionally high for a mammal of its body size. Its ability to load and unload oxygen is improved by a relatively high oxygen transfer conductance because ofits small red blood cells, and it has low blood viscosity due to a relative low percentage of red blood cells. Both are advantageous for maximum cardiac output. The Vicuna’slife span is 20 years, with a maximum age of 24 years and nine months recorded in captivity.","Vicunas are restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of the Andes.The Vicuna is the highest-altitude ungulate in all of South America, living in a unique montane zone from 3200 mto 4800 mabove sea level called the Puna, a high-altitude, equatorial grassland that is above the tree line but below the snow line. Summer precipitation is typically in the form of rain or hail, rarely snow. It is a dry and cold environment with summer nights hovering close to freezing. Winter nights plummet well below freezing, 10-20°C below the daytime highs. Two distinct habitats with different levels of precipitation can be found within this dry-Andean ecosystem: the high-elevation moist or semi-humid high-Andean Puna and the lower elevation dry or semi-arid Puna habitat. The dry Puna is an extremely dry belt called the Andean Dry Diagonal, a north-west/south-east transition zone between two major hemispheric wind belts centered at the junction of north-west Argentina, south-west Bolivia, and north-east Chile. Within the Dry Diagonalthere is essentially no precipitation, no lakes, and no glacier formation. The distribution of subspecies vicugnais within the Dry Diagonal. Subspecies mensalis is found to the north of it. From a landscape perspective the Puna is characterized by peaks and pronounced slopes, the typical elevated plain that defines the region (Puna or Altiplano), and the intermediate piedmont fringes of smooth slopes. Vicunas use the habitats within the Puna and piedmont zones. The most common habitats in the Puna are xerophytic shrub steppes that are often mixed with an understory of sparse short grasses and forbs (typically not an important habitat for Vicunas); bunchgrass steppes (variable importance); open rocky areas with sparse vegetation (not important); short grass and forb areas on lower slopes, gentle slopes, and plains (important); and wetlands of short plants with high ground cover associated with high ground water, surface water, streams, and lagoons, regionally called bofedales, mojadales, and vegas (important). Bofedales (around 4500 melevation in Peru) are perennially green sedge communities typically dominated by Eleocharisalbracteata and Carexecuadorica with vegetative cover of ¢.22% grasses, 42% sedges and reeds, and 33% forbs, and a crude protein content of 12%. Short-grass forb areas on lowerslopes (around 3190 min Peru) are dominated by the grass species Festucadolichophylla and Muhlenbergiafastigiata with a vegetative cover of 66% grass, 13% sedges and reeds, and 6% forbs, and a crude protein content of 10%.","As with other ungulate herbivores, Vicuna habitat and forage selection is based not only upon availability, but heavily influenced by climate (wet vs. dry years), population density (high vs. low), and the social status and ranking of individual animals (high vs. low). Thus for studies done at different locations, landscapes, and animal densities,it is not surprising to see variable results. For example in Peruat the Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Vicunas were observed to be strict grazers on grasses and forbs, whereas in Argentinaat the Laguna Blanca National Park, Vicunas showed some diet plasticity by being grazers on grasses 16-19% ofthe time and browsers on shrubs 59-72% of the time with two grasses (Panicumchlorolewcum and Distichlisspp-) representing nearly 50% of the diet. Feeding preference in productive habitats dominated by grasses has been documented in several areas of the Vicuna’s distribution. Of the two main habitats (grass steppe and vegas) at the Ulla-Ulla Vicuna Reserve in Bolivia, Vicunas preferred vegas. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve of ArgentinaVicunaswere more abundant on the grassland plains. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve Vicunas preferred to forage in grass steppe communities characterized by Festucanigesens or by Calamagrostisvicunarum, the latter being the dominant species in the vegetative type known as Excrement Influenced Vegetation (EIV). EIV is the result of long-term defecation-urination by Vicunas on dung piles; the resulting fertilization and accumulation of organic matter accelerates soil and plant succession over a long period of time. The third sere is an isolated “putting-green,” an island of short, abundant plants in rocky terrain downhill from a single or series of dung piles. The top soil is deeper and the plants grow thickly, close to the ground. EIV covered 18% of the total surface area of Pampa Galeras National Reserve, andits third sere had the highest productivity and was the most preferred forage vegetation. The general pattern of Vicuna habitat selection for grass-dominated communities, especially those of high nutritional value, is consistent with the results of diet studies that found Vicunas forage mainly on grasses (Poaceae) and grass-like sedges (Ciperaceae). When Vicunas coexisted with domestic livestock (sheep, goats, donkeys) in Argentina, they were spatially segregated, had a high overlap in diets, and used preferred habitatless than expected. The native Vicuna and exotic domestic animals coexisted because Vicunas were able to utilize suboptimal habitats while herders kept livestock in the richest habitats. A sympatric population of Vicunas and Guanacos in the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve, Argentina, revealed that the diet of both species was similar, but Guanacos utilized more tall grasses and Vicuna fed more on forbs and short grasses.","Vicunas are strong seasonal breeders. Males reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years of age, and become reproductive after obtaining a feeding territory and recruiting females. Most females first mate as two-year-olds. Breeding is almost an unnoticeable event except for a short chase before mating, because the prolonged copulation takes place with the mating pair in sternal recumbency. Females show no unusual behavior to indicate they are in estrus and males do not persistently smell the female’s hindquarters as is common in other ungulates. There is no prolonged preoccupation or tending that ungulate males traditionally show for females in heat, because a territorial male has exclusive and immediate access to females within his territory. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve mating was observed from the end of February to the end of May, but peaked in April (3 matings/100 hours of observation), followed by May (1-8) and March (1-3). Almost all matings were in the morning and within the family group’s feeding territory. Gestation averages c.11-3 months (330-350 days). Females within a few weeks of parturition are visibly pregnant. At the start of the birth season at Pampa Galeras over a three year period, a high percentage of females two years of age or older were pregnant: 85%, 95%, and 85%. The non-pregnant females were mostly two-year-olds because only 20% of one-year-olds mated. Rectal palpation by experienced veterinarians of captive adult Vicunas in Puno(Peru) revealed 99% of females pregnant. Most (90%) births occurred from the last week of February through the first week of April with 75% of the births in March. February is the reported peak birth season for subspecies vicugnain Argentinaand Chile. Nearly all (96%) births occurred in the morning and within the feeding territory. Females give birth to one offspring, with twins not reported or observed. Morning births are likely a behavioral adaptation to the stormy weather typical of Andean afternoons. In summer and early autumn, daily storms regularly start around noon. Young born during the afternoon storms of rain and hail would not be able to dry their soft-insulating wool before entering the nearfreezing nights. Wet newborns would have little chance for survival. A female aboutto give birth separated herself 15-25 m from the group. During the usual one-hour labor the female looked back to inspect her hindquarters, laid down and stood intermittently, changed positions, and walked a few steps every few minutes. Parturition occurred while the female stood. The labor and birthing behaviors were subtle and not easily noticed, as females commonly continued to feed during the process— surely to avoid attracting potential predators in this wide-open habitat. The mother immediately smelled and inspected the head and muzzle of the newborn, but licking did not occur (thus no assistance with the newborn’s thermoregulation) nor was the afterbirth eaten (the latter two behaviors common in other ungulates). Other members of the group frequently came over to smell and inspect the newborn. Newborns weighed 4-6 kg, were on their feet and able to walk in a wobbly way 15-20 minutes after birth, and began nursing when they were 30-45 minutes old. Vicuna young are “followers” as opposed to “hiders” and stay close to their mothers, especially in the first few months. Most young are weaned during the dry season in July and August, when they are 4-6 months old. During the first four months after birth 10-30% of newborns died. The cause was undetermined, but predation by Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and Pumas (Puma concolor) was suspected. Reproductive success as measured in August by the ratio of young to adult females ranged 35-70 young per 100 females in different regions of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. In Chile, density dependency seemed to be operating: the more females in a family group the lower the number of young per female. Very little research has been conducted on the physiology of Vicuna reproduction, but a noteworthy study on reproduction in captive male Vicunas in the Puna of northern Chilefound higher levels of plasma testosterone, large testessize, greater size of seminiferous tubules, and large diameters of Leydig cell nuclei beginning in February, a month before the summer breeding season started. In the winter month of August spermatogenesis was in the regressive phase. Both findings suggested photoperiod as the mechanism for when males are sexually effective. Insight can be gained from studies on the Vicuna’s domesticated descendent, the Alpaca: an experimental study on Alpacas demonstrated that the continuous association of females and males exerted an inhibiting effect on male sexual activity. After continuous association of two weeks, there was no mating activity by the male even though receptive females were present. However, when mature males were separated from females and reunited at two week intervals, mating occurred. These observations shed light on why nonpregnant Vicunas (and other cameloids) are not bred during non-breeding seasons of the year.","During a year-round, 3-5yearfield study in Pampa Galeras National Reserve, home to a population of the northern subspecies mensalis, Vicuna family groups showed a predictable daily activity pattern in the large open valleys they occupied. Having spent the night on the upperflat ridges in small sleeping territories, within an hour after sunrise they moved as a group down to their daytime feeding territories. They spent the day on these lower slopes or flat plains, feeding at a constant rate. The sleeping territories, on higher ground, were warmer at night than feeding territories and were away from the streambeds where nocturnal predators hunted. The adult male Vicuna in the family group actively defended both territories by challenging and chasing away trespassing Vicunas. If human disturbance did not cause an early retreat back up the slope, the group returned to its sleeping territory in midto late afternoon. In the winter dry season, when small springs on the slopes dried up, groups left their feeding territory and moved to the center of the valley floor to drink from streams. Solo males holding a territory showed similar patterns. Male groups moved randomly and unpredictably through the area. In a separate study at Pampa Galeras National Reserve conducted during the March—-May breeding season, females spent significantly more time grazing than males (54 vs. 45 minutes/hour) and lactating females fed more than non-lactating females (56 vs. 53 minutes/hour). In general females fed 91% of the time; territorial males fed 75% of the time. In Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve above Arequipa, Peru, there was a positive correlation between frequency of alert behavior per adult and the number of offspring in the family group, and at the Laguna de Pozuelos Biosphere Reserve in Argentina, solitary Vicunas spent more time standing and being vigilant and less time foraging than did members of groups. In Abra Pampa (Argentina), territorial males spent more time being vigilant and less time feeding as the size of their family group increased, but not more time in territorial defense (walking, running). At the Laguna Blanca Reserve in Argentina, which is extremely arid, daily activity patterns during the dry season were similar to the patterns of family groups at Pampa Galeras in the same season, with morning feeding on slopes, midday movement to a river on the flat, and a return to the slope and more feeding in the afternoon. At Pampa Galeras there was no significant difference between the amount of time males spent in territorial behavior and the number of female group members or the total group size. Studies at Laguna Blanca on the other subspecies, however, found a substantial decrease in amount of time males spent foraging when the number of females in their group increased.","All Vicuna populations of both subspecies studied to date were sedentary and non-migratory. However, as described above, daily activity patterns and movements are greatly influenced by the need to drink water. Several studies have shown that water distribution and availability can have a major effect on local movement of Vicunas. Despite being well adapted to living in arid conditions, the Vicuna is an obligate drinker and needs to drink often, especially in the dry season when it seeks water daily. Visits to small streams often include water bathing accompanied by dust bathing in dust bowls. The home range of a family group encompasses the area where the group is typically found, thatis,its sleeping territory, feeding territory, and the space in between, as well as those areas it commonly moves through during the dry season on its way to drinking water. The two territories are defended by the male and exclusively occupied by the family group, but the balance of the home range is not;it overlaps and is shared with other groups. These are neutral zones, especially the corridors that groups move through on their way to water. The social units ofVicuna are family groups, male groups, and solo males. A characteristic family group is composed of one adult male, 3-4 females, and two juveniles. Although the permanent territorial family group is the classic Vicuna social unit occupying good habitat containing semi-permanent water, other groups found within Vicuna populations may include marginal territorial family groups occupying secondary habitat types without water, and temporary mobile family groups that lack a territory. Permanentterritorial family groups occupy a year-round feeding territory averaging 18-4 ha (2-56 ha), and sleeping territory averaging 2-6 ha. This is highly unusual for an ungulate. Territorial males defend their sites passively (standing guard near borders) and actively (walking towards, chasing, fighting, biting, etc.) multiple times daily. The territorial system is based upon resource-defense polygyny in which the territorial male defends food resources essential to females. This attracts females to the site, providing them with guaranteed forage in a food-limited environment, within which they can raise their offspring in a socially stable unit free from harassment. The family group male regulates group size by more often than not rejecting outside females, preventing resident females from leaving, and annually forcibly dispersing male young at 4-9 months and expelling female young at 10-11 months of age. The young malesjoin male groups and the females eventuallyjoin another territorial male. Family group size is significantly correlated with feeding territory size and total forage production within the territory. Vocalizations are most commonly used by territorial males, who give a loud alarm call when disturbed by strange objects or a frightening situation: people on foot, herders with dogs, or potential predators such as Culpeos and Pumas. Group size and territory size are density-dependent, decreasing with increasing population size. In extreme cases the system can appear to be more monogamous than polygynous. Male or bachelor groups are bands of 2-155 non-territorial males. The size fluctuates widely; 75% have fewer than 30 males, with 5-10 the most common group size. Male groups frequently invade the family group zones from which they were forced to leave, by individually or cooperatively attacking territorial males. Solo males are sexually mature individuals with an established territory or on the move looking for an available site to establish a territory. In Pampa Galeras, up to 16 months elapsed before solo males were able to attract or forcefully obtain females to form a family group. In intensely studied populations, 32% of all adult males were territorial and family groups made up 75% ofall social units. Territorial boundaries, albeit invisible to the human eye, were well defined and as narrow as one meter. The system was not perfect, as neighboring males were continually testing boundaries. Dung piles were abundant throughout the area. Adults and young of both sexes defecated and urinated only on dung piles, alwaysfirst smelling the dung pile. The primary function of dung piles appeared to be for intragroup orientation, i.e. for assisting members to stay within their territory and neutral zones. If a female inadvertently left her territory she was vehemently chased back by the neighboring territorial male. Dung piles did not keep non-neighbor outsiders out of a territory if the resident male was absent. Thus, the dung piles functioned more for keeping insiders in than outsiders out ofterritories. The highest frequency of dung pile use was when Vicunas were leaving their territories and when groups moved through neutral corridors as if “checking” their location, again suggesting individual self-orientation to avoid aggressive attack by adjacent territorial males. At Pampa Galeras the estimated age that males became territorial was 3—4 years; they remained territorial for at leastsix years. In studies with tagged animals at Aguada Blanca, the average age of solo males was 11-5 years, males in male groups averaged less than three years old, and the average age ofterritorial males was 9-5 years, suggesting significantly longer tenure than Guanacoterritorial males.","CITES Appendix I, except the populations of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile(I Region) which are included in Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List due to its total numbers, wide range of distribution, and occurrence in a number of protected areas. The genetic diversity of the northern subspecies mensalis is relatively low within populations and high between populations, a pattern commonly observed in threatened species with formerly large ranges that became isolated from each other and then suffered drastic demographic contraction. Total area occupied by Vicunas is around 250,000 km?. The distribution of the two subspecies can be seen as a continuum of scattered and fragmented groups that become less frequent north to south. The small populations of the subspecies vicugnain the south have survived in the Dry Diagonal, an extremely arid zone in the high Andes, where they show a genetic signature of demographic isolation. To the north, the subspecies mensalis populations underwent a rapid demographic expansion in the late Pleistocene due to increased precipitation and the subsequent appearance of highaltitude short grasslands. However, the Dry Diagonal is believed to have prevented both the expansion southward of the northern, moist Puna-adapted forms and the expansion northward of the southern, dry Puna-adapted forms, resulting in the two subspecies found today. The subspecies vicugnais most closely related to the basal taxon,i.e. the species’ primitive extinct ancestor. Both subspecies occur in Boliviaand Chile, but the subspecies mensalis has the highest numbers (73% ofall Vicunas) and widest distribution of the two subspecies. Relative abundance of the southern subspecies vicugnain Boliviais 34% of 112,249 Vicunas (data from 2009) and in Chile7% of a minimum 15,544 Vicunas (data from 2007). Majority of the world’s Vicunas in zoos and private collections are of the southern subspecies. The trend for the Vicuna’s general population is increasing. However, as recently as four decades ago, the Vicuna was threatened with extinction. The total population size was as low as 5000-10,000 individuals due to unrelenting poaching for the Vicuna’s valuable wool. In southern Peruthe Pampa Galeras National Reserve was established in the late 1960s to protect the largest remaining population. The first international treaty, The Vicuna Convention, was initially between Peruand Boliviaand in 1974 signed by Chileand Argentina. It established national parks, reserves, and private lands for the protection of Vicunas, with the goal of requiring live animals to be shorn. Since that time, programs for the sustainable harvest of Vicuna wool have been successfully applied and Vicuna populations began to increase. Ownership of the wild species varies between countries. In Peruand Boliviathey are the property of the state, while in Chileand Argentinano one owns wild Vicunas. Current population densities vary from 0-9 ind/km* to 1-8 ind/km? for Lauca National Park in northern Chileto as high as 87 ind/km* in Pampa Galeras, although optimum estimated density for Vicuna in Pampa Galeras National Reserve is 40-43 ind/km?. The total number of Vicunas is about ¢.421,500, with 52% in Peru, 27% in Bolivia, 17% in Argentina, 4% in Chile(not including the small number in Ecuador). Threats remain for the wild Vicuna: poaching; the fact that some protected areas are only “paper parks;” a lack of national management plans; competition with and overgrazing by domestic livestock; mange/scabies infections from domestic animals; crossbreeding of Alpacas and Vicunas for commercial purposes; and management of Vicuna as captive populations. Overall, conservation programs and their tight control at local, national, and international levels are critical for the conservation of this species.","Arzamendia et al. (2006, 2010) | Bonacic et al. (2002, 2003) | Borgnia et al. (2008, 2010) | Bosch & Svendsen (1987) | Cassiniet al. (2009) | Cajal (1989) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | Davies (2003) | Franklin (1969, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1982, 1983) | Gordon (2009) | Hack (2001) | Hoffman & Fowler (1995) | Jurgens et al. (1988) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Koford (1957) | Lichtenstein et al. (2009) | Lucherini et al. (2000) | Marin et al. (2007) | Novoa (1984) | Renaudeau d’Arc (2000) | Sarno et al. (2005) | Stanley et al. (1994) | Urquieta et al. (1994) | Vila & Cassimi (1993, 1994) | Vila & Roig (1992) | Vila et al. (2009) | Villalba (2003) | Wheeler (1995a) | Wheeler & Laker (2009) | Wheeler, Chikhi & Bruford (2006) | Wheeler, Fernandez et al. (2003) | Yacobaccio (2009)",,"3.VicunaVicugna vicugnaFrench:Vigogne/ German:Vikunja/ Spanish:VicunaOther common names:ArgentineVicuna (vicugna), Peruvian Vicufa (mensalis)Taxonomy.Camelus vicugna Molina, 1782,Chile, “abondano nella parte della Cordigliera spettante alle Provincie de Coquimbo, e di Copiap6” (Cordilleras of Coquimboand Copiapo in northern Chile).The separation of the Vicuna and the Guanaco(Lama guanicoe) occurred 2-3 million years ago. Palaeontological evidence suggests the genus Vicugnaevolved from Hemiauchenia, a North American immigrant to South America, in the lowlands east of the Andes some two million years ago, with widespread distribution as recently as 10,000-13,000 years ago in lowland grasslands of Bolivia, Paraguay, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. Then 9000-12,000 years ago, during the last Pleistocene glacial advance and the subsequent establishment of the Holocene climate, Vicugnamoved from its lowland distribution to its present day, high-elevation habitat. Today, two subspecies are recognized, distinguished on the bases of genetics, habitat, and morphology. Northern subspecies mensalis is closely related to the domestic Alpaca (V. pacos).Subspecies and Distribution.V.v.vicugnaMolina,1782—WBolivia,NWArgentina,andNEChilefrom18°Sto29°S.V. v. mensalis Thomas, 1917— SE Peru, W Bolivia, and NE Chilefrom 9° Sto 19° S. Ecuadorhas a small population (c.3000) introduced from Peru, Chile, and Boliviain the 1980s.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-190 cm,tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 38-45 kg. The body color of the soft, woolly coat is pale cinnamon to reddishbrown, with insides of the legs and underside white. There is a bib of coarse white hairs 20-30 cm long on the chest at the base of the neck in the northern subspecies, which is short to almost unnoticeable in the southern subspecies. The body is slender with a long neck. The head is small and wedge-shaped; the ears are slender and pointed. The Vicuna has unique rodent-like incisors. Males and females weigh approximately the same, look alike, and are sexually indistinguishable in the field. Southern subspecies vicugna, sometimes called the “ ArgentineVicuna,” is ¢.15% larger (c. 45 kgvs. 38 kg), length of molars longer, taller at the withers, substantially shorter chest-bib hair, lighter colored, larger white underside countershading, and in general exhibits higher levels of genetic diversity than the northern subspecies mensalis, sometimes referred to as “Peruvian Vicuna.” Vicuna wool (often called fiber) is among the finest in the world at 12-5 + 1-5 microns (Cashmere goat fibers measure 14-19 microns; Chiru, Pantholops hodgsonii fiber is 9-12 microns). The shorn fleeces of 30,391 Vicunas in Peruaveraged 220 g/animal. With its silky texture, Vicuna woolis highly prized, retailing for US$ 250/0z in the USAand in 2004 selling at wholesale for US$ 566,/kg from certified liveshorn animals. World prices for Vicuna wool ranged from US$ 350/kg to US$ 900/kg over the past decade, promoting reference to it as the “Gold of the Andes.” The adaptations responsible for the animal’s outstanding physical endurance at high altitudes include lightweight insulating fleece, which protects against cold and the sun’s ultraviolet light, and high blood-oxygen affinity (highest of all mammals investigated). Full saturation of the blood with oxygen occurs at the lower partial pressure of oxygen that is found at high altitudes. The Vicuna’s heart muscle capillary densities are exceptionally high for a mammal of its body size. Its ability to load and unload oxygen is improved by a relatively high oxygen transfer conductance because ofits small red blood cells, and it has low blood viscosity due to a relative low percentage of red blood cells. Both are advantageous for maximum cardiac output. The Vicuna’slife span is 20 years, with a maximum age of 24 years and nine months recorded in captivity.Habitat.Vicunas are restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of the Andes.The Vicuna is the highest-altitude ungulate in all of South America, living in a unique montane zone from 3200 mto 4800 mabove sea level called the Puna, a high-altitude, equatorial grassland that is above the tree line but below the snow line. Summer precipitation is typically in the form of rain or hail, rarely snow. It is a dry and cold environment with summer nights hovering close to freezing. Winter nights plummet well below freezing, 10-20°C below the daytime highs. Two distinct habitats with different levels of precipitation can be found within this dry-Andean ecosystem: the high-elevation moist or semi-humid high-Andean Puna and the lower elevation dry or semi-arid Puna habitat. The dry Puna is an extremely dry belt called the Andean Dry Diagonal, a north-west/south-east transition zone between two major hemispheric wind belts centered at the junction of north-west Argentina, south-west Bolivia, and north-east Chile. Within the Dry Diagonalthere is essentially no precipitation, no lakes, and no glacier formation. The distribution of subspecies vicugnais within the Dry Diagonal. Subspecies mensalis is found to the north of it. From a landscape perspective the Puna is characterized by peaks and pronounced slopes, the typical elevated plain that defines the region (Puna or Altiplano), and the intermediate piedmont fringes of smooth slopes. Vicunas use the habitats within the Puna and piedmont zones. The most common habitats in the Puna are xerophytic shrub steppes that are often mixed with an understory of sparse short grasses and forbs (typically not an important habitat for Vicunas); bunchgrass steppes (variable importance); open rocky areas with sparse vegetation (not important); short grass and forb areas on lower slopes, gentle slopes, and plains (important); and wetlands of short plants with high ground cover associated with high ground water, surface water, streams, and lagoons, regionally called bofedales, mojadales, and vegas (important). Bofedales (around 4500 melevation in Peru) are perennially green sedge communities typically dominated by Eleocharisalbracteata and Carexecuadorica with vegetative cover of ¢.22% grasses, 42% sedges and reeds, and 33% forbs, and a crude protein content of 12%. Short-grass forb areas on lowerslopes (around 3190 min Peru) are dominated by the grass species Festucadolichophylla and Muhlenbergiafastigiata with a vegetative cover of 66% grass, 13% sedges and reeds, and 6% forbs, and a crude protein content of 10%.Food and Feeding.As with other ungulate herbivores, Vicuna habitat and forage selection is based not only upon availability, but heavily influenced by climate (wet vs. dry years), population density (high vs. low), and the social status and ranking of individual animals (high vs. low). Thus for studies done at different locations, landscapes, and animal densities,it is not surprising to see variable results. For example in Peruat the Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Vicunas were observed to be strict grazers on grasses and forbs, whereas in Argentinaat the Laguna Blanca National Park, Vicunas showed some diet plasticity by being grazers on grasses 16-19% ofthe time and browsers on shrubs 59-72% of the time with two grasses (Panicumchlorolewcum and Distichlisspp-) representing nearly 50% of the diet. Feeding preference in productive habitats dominated by grasses has been documented in several areas of the Vicuna’s distribution. Of the two main habitats (grass steppe and vegas) at the Ulla-Ulla Vicuna Reserve in Bolivia, Vicunas preferred vegas. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve of ArgentinaVicunaswere more abundant on the grassland plains. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve Vicunas preferred to forage in grass steppe communities characterized by Festucanigesens or by Calamagrostisvicunarum, the latter being the dominant species in the vegetative type known as Excrement Influenced Vegetation (EIV). EIV is the result of long-term defecation-urination by Vicunas on dung piles; the resulting fertilization and accumulation of organic matter accelerates soil and plant succession over a long period of time. The third sere is an isolated “putting-green,” an island of short, abundant plants in rocky terrain downhill from a single or series of dung piles. The top soil is deeper and the plants grow thickly, close to the ground. EIV covered 18% of the total surface area of Pampa Galeras National Reserve, andits third sere had the highest productivity and was the most preferred forage vegetation. The general pattern of Vicuna habitat selection for grass-dominated communities, especially those of high nutritional value, is consistent with the results of diet studies that found Vicunas forage mainly on grasses (Poaceae) and grass-like sedges (Ciperaceae). When Vicunas coexisted with domestic livestock (sheep, goats, donkeys) in Argentina, they were spatially segregated, had a high overlap in diets, and used preferred habitatless than expected. The native Vicuna and exotic domestic animals coexisted because Vicunas were able to utilize suboptimal habitats while herders kept livestock in the richest habitats. A sympatric population of Vicunas and Guanacos in the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve, Argentina, revealed that the diet of both species was similar, but Guanacos utilized more tall grasses and Vicuna fed more on forbs and short grasses.Breeding.Vicunas are strong seasonal breeders. Males reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years of age, and become reproductive after obtaining a feeding territory and recruiting females. Most females first mate as two-year-olds. Breeding is almost an unnoticeable event except for a short chase before mating, because the prolonged copulation takes place with the mating pair in sternal recumbency. Females show no unusual behavior to indicate they are in estrus and males do not persistently smell the female’s hindquarters as is common in other ungulates. There is no prolonged preoccupation or tending that ungulate males traditionally show for females in heat, because a territorial male has exclusive and immediate access to females within his territory. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve mating was observed from the end of February to the end of May, but peaked in April (3 matings/100 hours of observation), followed by May (1-8) and March (1-3). Almost all matings were in the morning and within the family group’s feeding territory. Gestation averages c.11-3 months (330-350 days). Females within a few weeks of parturition are visibly pregnant. At the start of the birth season at Pampa Galeras over a three year period, a high percentage of females two years of age or older were pregnant: 85%, 95%, and 85%. The non-pregnant females were mostly two-year-olds because only 20% of one-year-olds mated. Rectal palpation by experienced veterinarians of captive adult Vicunas in Puno(Peru) revealed 99% of females pregnant. Most (90%) births occurred from the last week of February through the first week of April with 75% of the births in March. February is the reported peak birth season for subspecies vicugnain Argentinaand Chile. Nearly all (96%) births occurred in the morning and within the feeding territory. Females give birth to one offspring, with twins not reported or observed. Morning births are likely a behavioral adaptation to the stormy weather typical of Andean afternoons. In summer and early autumn, daily storms regularly start around noon. Young born during the afternoon storms of rain and hail would not be able to dry their soft-insulating wool before entering the nearfreezing nights. Wet newborns would have little chance for survival. A female aboutto give birth separated herself 15-25 m from the group. During the usual one-hour labor the female looked back to inspect her hindquarters, laid down and stood intermittently, changed positions, and walked a few steps every few minutes. Parturition occurred while the female stood. The labor and birthing behaviors were subtle and not easily noticed, as females commonly continued to feed during the process— surely to avoid attracting potential predators in this wide-open habitat. The mother immediately smelled and inspected the head and muzzle of the newborn, but licking did not occur (thus no assistance with the newborn’s thermoregulation) nor was the afterbirth eaten (the latter two behaviors common in other ungulates). Other members of the group frequently came over to smell and inspect the newborn. Newborns weighed 4-6 kg, were on their feet and able to walk in a wobbly way 15-20 minutes after birth, and began nursing when they were 30-45 minutes old. Vicuna young are “followers” as opposed to “hiders” and stay close to their mothers, especially in the first few months. Most young are weaned during the dry season in July and August, when they are 4-6 months old. During the first four months after birth 10-30% of newborns died. The cause was undetermined, but predation by Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and Pumas (Puma concolor) was suspected. Reproductive success as measured in August by the ratio of young to adult females ranged 35-70 young per 100 females in different regions of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. In Chile, density dependency seemed to be operating: the more females in a family group the lower the number of young per female. Very little research has been conducted on the physiology of Vicuna reproduction, but a noteworthy study on reproduction in captive male Vicunas in the Puna of northern Chilefound higher levels of plasma testosterone, large testessize, greater size of seminiferous tubules, and large diameters of Leydig cell nuclei beginning in February, a month before the summer breeding season started. In the winter month of August spermatogenesis was in the regressive phase. Both findings suggested photoperiod as the mechanism for when males are sexually effective. Insight can be gained from studies on the Vicuna’s domesticated descendent, the Alpaca: an experimental study on Alpacas demonstrated that the continuous association of females and males exerted an inhibiting effect on male sexual activity. After continuous association of two weeks, there was no mating activity by the male even though receptive females were present. However, when mature males were separated from females and reunited at two week intervals, mating occurred. These observations shed light on why nonpregnant Vicunas (and other cameloids) are not bred during non-breeding seasons of the year.Activity patterns.During a year-round, 3-5yearfield study in Pampa Galeras National Reserve, home to a population of the northern subspecies mensalis, Vicuna family groups showed a predictable daily activity pattern in the large open valleys they occupied. Having spent the night on the upperflat ridges in small sleeping territories, within an hour after sunrise they moved as a group down to their daytime feeding territories. They spent the day on these lower slopes or flat plains, feeding at a constant rate. The sleeping territories, on higher ground, were warmer at night than feeding territories and were away from the streambeds where nocturnal predators hunted. The adult male Vicuna in the family group actively defended both territories by challenging and chasing away trespassing Vicunas. If human disturbance did not cause an early retreat back up the slope, the group returned to its sleeping territory in midto late afternoon. In the winter dry season, when small springs on the slopes dried up, groups left their feeding territory and moved to the center of the valley floor to drink from streams. Solo males holding a territory showed similar patterns. Male groups moved randomly and unpredictably through the area. In a separate study at Pampa Galeras National Reserve conducted during the March—-May breeding season, females spent significantly more time grazing than males (54 vs. 45 minutes/hour) and lactating females fed more than non-lactating females (56 vs. 53 minutes/hour). In general females fed 91% of the time; territorial males fed 75% of the time. In Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve above Arequipa, Peru, there was a positive correlation between frequency of alert behavior per adult and the number of offspring in the family group, and at the Laguna de Pozuelos Biosphere Reserve in Argentina, solitary Vicunas spent more time standing and being vigilant and less time foraging than did members of groups. In Abra Pampa (Argentina), territorial males spent more time being vigilant and less time feeding as the size of their family group increased, but not more time in territorial defense (walking, running). At the Laguna Blanca Reserve in Argentina, which is extremely arid, daily activity patterns during the dry season were similar to the patterns of family groups at Pampa Galeras in the same season, with morning feeding on slopes, midday movement to a river on the flat, and a return to the slope and more feeding in the afternoon. At Pampa Galeras there was no significant difference between the amount of time males spent in territorial behavior and the number of female group members or the total group size. Studies at Laguna Blanca on the other subspecies, however, found a substantial decrease in amount of time males spent foraging when the number of females in their group increased.Movements, Home range and Social organization.All Vicuna populations of both subspecies studied to date were sedentary and non-migratory. However, as described above, daily activity patterns and movements are greatly influenced by the need to drink water. Several studies have shown that water distribution and availability can have a major effect on local movement of Vicunas. Despite being well adapted to living in arid conditions, the Vicuna is an obligate drinker and needs to drink often, especially in the dry season when it seeks water daily. Visits to small streams often include water bathing accompanied by dust bathing in dust bowls. The home range of a family group encompasses the area where the group is typically found, thatis,its sleeping territory, feeding territory, and the space in between, as well as those areas it commonly moves through during the dry season on its way to drinking water. The two territories are defended by the male and exclusively occupied by the family group, but the balance of the home range is not;it overlaps and is shared with other groups. These are neutral zones, especially the corridors that groups move through on their way to water. The social units ofVicuna are family groups, male groups, and solo males. A characteristic family group is composed of one adult male, 3-4 females, and two juveniles. Although the permanent territorial family group is the classic Vicuna social unit occupying good habitat containing semi-permanent water, other groups found within Vicuna populations may include marginal territorial family groups occupying secondary habitat types without water, and temporary mobile family groups that lack a territory. Permanentterritorial family groups occupy a year-round feeding territory averaging 18-4 ha (2-56 ha), and sleeping territory averaging 2-6 ha. This is highly unusual for an ungulate. Territorial males defend their sites passively (standing guard near borders) and actively (walking towards, chasing, fighting, biting, etc.) multiple times daily. The territorial system is based upon resource-defense polygyny in which the territorial male defends food resources essential to females. This attracts females to the site, providing them with guaranteed forage in a food-limited environment, within which they can raise their offspring in a socially stable unit free from harassment. The family group male regulates group size by more often than not rejecting outside females, preventing resident females from leaving, and annually forcibly dispersing male young at 4-9 months and expelling female young at 10-11 months of age. The young malesjoin male groups and the females eventuallyjoin another territorial male. Family group size is significantly correlated with feeding territory size and total forage production within the territory. Vocalizations are most commonly used by territorial males, who give a loud alarm call when disturbed by strange objects or a frightening situation: people on foot, herders with dogs, or potential predators such as Culpeos and Pumas. Group size and territory size are density-dependent, decreasing with increasing population size. In extreme cases the system can appear to be more monogamous than polygynous. Male or bachelor groups are bands of 2-155 non-territorial males. The size fluctuates widely; 75% have fewer than 30 males, with 5-10 the most common group size. Male groups frequently invade the family group zones from which they were forced to leave, by individually or cooperatively attacking territorial males. Solo males are sexually mature individuals with an established territory or on the move looking for an available site to establish a territory. In Pampa Galeras, up to 16 months elapsed before solo males were able to attract or forcefully obtain females to form a family group. In intensely studied populations, 32% of all adult males were territorial and family groups made up 75% ofall social units. Territorial boundaries, albeit invisible to the human eye, were well defined and as narrow as one meter. The system was not perfect, as neighboring males were continually testing boundaries. Dung piles were abundant throughout the area. Adults and young of both sexes defecated and urinated only on dung piles, alwaysfirst smelling the dung pile. The primary function of dung piles appeared to be for intragroup orientation, i.e. for assisting members to stay within their territory and neutral zones. If a female inadvertently left her territory she was vehemently chased back by the neighboring territorial male. Dung piles did not keep non-neighbor outsiders out of a territory if the resident male was absent. Thus, the dung piles functioned more for keeping insiders in than outsiders out ofterritories. The highest frequency of dung pile use was when Vicunas were leaving their territories and when groups moved through neutral corridors as if “checking” their location, again suggesting individual self-orientation to avoid aggressive attack by adjacent territorial males. At Pampa Galeras the estimated age that males became territorial was 3—4 years; they remained territorial for at leastsix years. In studies with tagged animals at Aguada Blanca, the average age of solo males was 11-5 years, males in male groups averaged less than three years old, and the average age ofterritorial males was 9-5 years, suggesting significantly longer tenure than Guanacoterritorial males.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, except the populations of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile(I Region) which are included in Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List due to its total numbers, wide range of distribution, and occurrence in a number of protected areas. The genetic diversity of the northern subspecies mensalis is relatively low within populations and high between populations, a pattern commonly observed in threatened species with formerly large ranges that became isolated from each other and then suffered drastic demographic contraction. Total area occupied by Vicunas is around 250,000 km?. The distribution of the two subspecies can be seen as a continuum of scattered and fragmented groups that become less frequent north to south. The small populations of the subspecies vicugnain the south have survived in the Dry Diagonal, an extremely arid zone in the high Andes, where they show a genetic signature of demographic isolation. To the north, the subspecies mensalis populations underwent a rapid demographic expansion in the late Pleistocene due to increased precipitation and the subsequent appearance of highaltitude short grasslands. However, the Dry Diagonal is believed to have prevented both the expansion southward of the northern, moist Puna-adapted forms and the expansion northward of the southern, dry Puna-adapted forms, resulting in the two subspecies found today. The subspecies vicugnais most closely related to the basal taxon,i.e. the species’ primitive extinct ancestor. Both subspecies occur in Boliviaand Chile, but the subspecies mensalis has the highest numbers (73% ofall Vicunas) and widest distribution of the two subspecies. Relative abundance of the southern subspecies vicugnain Boliviais 34% of 112,249 Vicunas (data from 2009) and in Chile7% of a minimum 15,544 Vicunas (data from 2007). Majority of the world’s Vicunas in zoos and private collections are of the southern subspecies. The trend for the Vicuna’s general population is increasing. However, as recently as four decades ago, the Vicuna was threatened with extinction. The total population size was as low as 5000-10,000 individuals due to unrelenting poaching for the Vicuna’s valuable wool. In southern Peruthe Pampa Galeras National Reserve was established in the late 1960s to protect the largest remaining population. The first international treaty, The Vicuna Convention, was initially between Peruand Boliviaand in 1974 signed by Chileand Argentina. It established national parks, reserves, and private lands for the protection of Vicunas, with the goal of requiring live animals to be shorn. Since that time, programs for the sustainable harvest of Vicuna wool have been successfully applied and Vicuna populations began to increase. Ownership of the wild species varies between countries. In Peruand Boliviathey are the property of the state, while in Chileand Argentinano one owns wild Vicunas. Current population densities vary from 0-9 ind/km* to 1-8 ind/km? for Lauca National Park in northern Chileto as high as 87 ind/km* in Pampa Galeras, although optimum estimated density for Vicuna in Pampa Galeras National Reserve is 40-43 ind/km?. The total number of Vicunas is about ¢.421,500, with 52% in Peru, 27% in Bolivia, 17% in Argentina, 4% in Chile(not including the small number in Ecuador). Threats remain for the wild Vicuna: poaching; the fact that some protected areas are only “paper parks;” a lack of national management plans; competition with and overgrazing by domestic livestock; mange/scabies infections from domestic animals; crossbreeding of Alpacas and Vicunas for commercial purposes; and management of Vicuna as captive populations. Overall, conservation programs and their tight control at local, national, and international levels are critical for the conservation of this species.Bibliography.Arzamendia et al. (2006, 2010), Bonacic et al. (2002, 2003), Borgnia et al. (2008, 2010), Bosch & Svendsen (1987), Cassiniet al. (2009), Cajal (1989), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), Davies (2003), Franklin (1969, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1982, 1983), Gordon (2009), Hack (2001), Hoffman & Fowler (1995), Jurgens et al. (1988), Kadwell et al. (2001), Koford (1957), Lichtenstein et al. (2009), Lucherini et al. (2000), Marin et al. (2007), Novoa (1984), Renaudeau d’Arc (2000), Sarno et al. (2005), Stanley et al. (1994), Urquieta et al. (1994), Vila & Cassimi (1993, 1994) Vila & Roig (1992), Vila et al. (2009), Villalba (2003), Wheeler (1995a), Wheeler & Laker (2009), Wheeler, Chikhi & Bruford (2006), Wheeler, Fernandez et al. (2003), Yacobaccio (2009)." -03928E699A49FFC0D040FC84F6FFF24B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,243,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A49FFC0D040FC84F6FFF24B.xml,Camelus bactrianus,Camelus,bactrianus,Linnaeus,1758,Chameau @fr | Kamel @de | Camellobactriano @es | Two-Humped Camel @en | Double-Humped Camel @en | Asiatic Camel @en | Wild Bactrian Camel @en,"Camelus bactrianus Linnaeus, 1758,habitat in Africa. Restricted to “Bactria” (Uzbekistan, Bokhara) by Thomas in 1911 based on domestic stock.Bactria and Bactriana were the Greek and Latin names for the ancient Persian provincial capital Baxtriya in Central Asia. Aristotle (384-322 Bc) applied the term “Bactrian” to the domestic camel associated with this eastern region of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which prospered from Bactrian Camel caravans that transported goods between the East and West over the famed Silk Road. The question of the relatedness and genetic distinctiveness of wild and domestic Bactrian Camelsis actively being pursued. Scientists argue variously that: 1) the wild Bactrian is the progenitor of today’s domestic Bactrian; 2) wild Bactrians are escapees and feral forms of domestics; 3) both derived from a common ancestor now extinct; or 4) both derived from separate ancestors now extinct. Preliminary work by Chinese geneticists first suggested the two Bactrians were sufficiently different to warrant subspecies or potentially even species separation. Recent mtDNA studies by Austrian scientists favor the final argument, estimating divergence between the two camelids at 700,000 years ago in the Pleistocene long before Bactrian domestication (4000-6000 years ago). Some classify the wild Bactrian as Camelusgobi or Camelus bactrianusgobi, while others apply the name Camelus ferusdue to a ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature because C. feruswas first applied to the wild species. In this account, the two animals are differentiated at the subspecies level (wild = C. b. ferusand domestic = C. b. bactrianus). Genetic justification for recognizing the domestic form as a separate species is growing, and all workers agree that the critically endangered wild Bactrian is in desperate need of protective conservation measures. Two subspecies recognized here.","C.b.bactrianusLinnaeus,1758—aridlandsanddesertsofC&SAsiaasdomesticatedlivestock.C. b. ferus Przewalski, 1878— NW China(C & SE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, NW Qinghai& NW Gansu) and Mongolia.","Head—body 320-350 cm, tail 51-64 cm, shoulder height 160-180 cm; weight 450-500 kg. Compared to Dromedary Camels (C. dromedarius), Bactrians have stouter and thicker bodies with relatively shorter legs, and two humps instead of one. Dromedaries are slimmer and taller. In winter the Bactrian’s long, woolly coat is sandy beige to dark brown, shedding in large clumps as temperatures warm in spring. They have a mane and a beard of long hair on the neck and throat, with hairs up to 25 cmlong. Long eyelashes and sealable nostrils help to keep out dust in sandstorms. Two broad toes on each foot with undivided soles create a large, flat footpad that spreads widely as an adaptation for walking on sand. Their long face is somewhat triangular, with a split upper lip. Bactrians are well suited to cold and hot temperatures and are suspected to have physiological adaptations similar to those of Dromedaries. Their humps function the same way as Dromedaries’ humps, storing fat convertible to water and energy when there is a shortage of sustenance and enabling the animals to endure harsh desert conditions and periods of travel without water. As the fat depletes, the humps become floppy and flabby. Like Dromedaries, Bactrians rarely sweat, facilitating conservation of fluids. Dehydrated animals are able to drink 135 1 of water in 13 minutes. Although wild and domestic Bactrians have similar conformation and body structure, field observers report obvious differences in behavior, habits, and general appearance. Unlike the ponderous domestic Bactrians, wild ones are relatively lithe. Wild Bactrians are slimmer and smaller-bodied (laterally compressed), with slender limbs. They are sandy-gray-brown rather than predominantly dark brown, with shorter, sparser wool. There is no tuft of hair on top of the head, and the hair on the neck,tail, and knee joints is shorter. They do not have growths on the inner foreleg or callosities on the knees. The wild form has smaller ears and very narrow feet. Notably, their humps are lower, pointed, conical-shaped, and usually about half the size orless of the domestic Bactrian’s. They are timid and elusive.","Bactrians are adapted for living in plains and hills where vegetation and water sources are sparse. They inhabit some of most inhospitable terrain in the world, centered in the extreme Gobi Desert of Central Asia. Gobi means “the rocky place” and it is primarily a rocky desert covered with small stones. There are low valleys and eroded hills, rocky-mountain massifs, “hamadas” (flat pavement-like stony plains), vast washed-out plains, high sand dunes, and rarely, poplarfringed oases. Summers are torrid, winters are cold. Annual precipitation is 50-200 mm. This is a region of extreme drought and scarce food and water. The Taklamankan Desert is sandy; Lop Nur Desert is both a rocky and sandy desert. Field studies in the Lop Nur Lake region of Chinarevealed a Bactrian habitat preference for riparian communities and piedmont foothills; they were more often found in higher,hilly landscape than in the open. The Bactrians avoided gravel desert substrate and areas with hard, salt-crusted soil or moving sand dunes, preferring moderately hard ground. They stayed away from areas occupied by people. They used locations where the distance between foraging habitats and water sources did not exceed ¢.50-60 km and where there was relatively high coverage of halophytic vegetation, especially along lakeshores. In Mongolia preliminary results of satellite telemetry revealed a weak preference for habitat dominated by saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendrum) and no selection of areas with higher productivity or closer to permanent water sources. Climate change has altered Bactrian habitat by increasing the rate of desertification and reducing water resources and vegetation. Wild Bactrians have few native predators. Contrary to some accounts, Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) pose no threat, and although Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) predation does occur,its impact is poorly understood.","Bactrians are opportunistic feeders capable of utilizing low-quality forage when more desirable herbage is unavailable. They are both grazers and browsers. Research on free-ranging domestic Bactrians in wild Bactrian habitat in the Gobi Desert provides the best information available on feeding habits. Those studies found that the camels’ main diet switched from senesced forbs in winter to a shrub in spring and to an increasing dependence on forbs in autumn. Although the shrub Haloxylon ammodendron was the dominant and highest biomass species in this desert community and a staple component of the camels’ diet each season, it was not preferred forage. Still, the shrub was essential when preferred forbs were not available in spring and summer. In autumn preferred annual forbs provided sufficient biomass. New plant growth during the wet season in summer and autumn was vitally important for replenishing the camels’ depleted fat reserves in preparation for winter. Domestic Bactrians are dependent on a year-long forage supply from the fragile and extremely arid environment they occupy. They show a preference for grazing on forbs, but are highly dependent upon browsing on shrubs. It has been reported that Bactrians can utilize salt water, with some researchers stating that salty water is necessary for their survival. When sufficient food is available in spring, summer, and autumn, Bactrians rarely have to drink, obtaining water requirements from plant moisture. In winter they have been observed to eat ice and snow.","Breeding season is called the “musth” after the thick fluid exuded from a gland on the neck behind the head in adult males. A study of semi-captive wild Bactrians found that females reached puberty after three years and males at 5-7 years of age. Wild rutting males in Mongoliabegin forming harems in late autumn (November) and mating in early winter, with most mating in January and February, but occasionally as late at March, or even May. Young males are driven out of the harems by rutting males and form bachelor herds; young females remain with their mothers. Males employ spitting (saliva and pseudorumen contents), kicking, biting, and screaming as offensive and defensive behaviors against each other during mating season. During the rut, wild males stretch their necks, shake their heads while roaring, and make loud noises with their teeth. Simultaneously they are foaming/frothing from the mouth and shaking their lips to throw foam on their head and chests. Occasionally they widen their hindlegs to urinate on their tails, using the tail to spread urine on their hips, hump, and head. The concentrated brown secretion from the 1-5 cm x 5 cmgland behind the head is rubbed on the forehump, giving it a darker color. The penis is 4 cmwide x 13-5 cm long. There is no use of dung piles by either sex. Estrous females are usually receptive in January or February for 4-7 days, at which time they follow males, knocking mating males off females and occasionally urinating. To mate, females lift theirtails after lying down in a sternal recumbancy position. Males typically mate with females 2-3 times in the morning or evening for 3-5 minutes each time. After mating, the genitals of females swell and become pink. Females are semen-induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs 30-48 hours after mating. Gestation of semi-captives in Mongoliawas 390-430 days (13-14 months) depending upon the age of the female and the number of previous calves. Females give birth to a single offspring while standing, but only every 2-3 years. Spring birth season is from March to April. Females giving birth isolate themselves from other animals and people, remaining alone for about two weeks. Calves are able to stumble-walk within 15-30 minutes. They weigh 32-34 kg at birth and nurse every 1-2 hours. Body growth levels off at seven years. Domestic Bactrians produce ¢.760 I of milk during 16 months of lactation. Calves are commonly weaned at 10-11 months but may nurse for up to 18 months. In captive Bactrians there is liberal and indiscriminate allonursing (adult females nursing non-offspring); this has been observed about one-third of the time, and was not correlated with the age of the mother or relatedness of the calf. Spring to autumn calf mortality is high, at 50%. Poor calf survival is often the result of drought, sandstorms, and freezing temperatures. Aerial surveys in the early 2000s counted only 3-9 young/ 100 adults,significantly lower than surveys in 1980 and 1998. The remaining Bactrian population cannot sustain itself with such a low calf-survival rate. Wild and domestic Bactrian Camels readily interbreed, producing fertile-hybrid offspring that can be differentiated by genetic testing based upon fixed mitochondrial sequence polymorphism. They can live as long as 35 years.","Activity budgets are an indication of an animal’s welfare since its primary activities are centered on energy acquisition, conservation, or expenditure. Bactrian Camels are diurnal feeders and nocturnal sleepers. In winter they spend less time foraging and more time resting than in spring and summer. There is high foraging activity in spring, triggered by readily available shrubs with minimal walking required. Daily patterns of activity are structured to expend the least amount of energy to obtain food, even when the food is not preferred forage.","Bactrians often move 50-100 km seeking permanent surface water and patches of foraging habitat. Some populations are suspected to be migratory, especially those in the Chinese Lop Nur Lake region where the animals move between lakeside riparian communities in winter and cooler foothills in the summer. Researchers tracked seven wild camels in the Mongolian Gobi for one year, using satellite telemetry. One adult female moved a minimum of 4527 kmin a home range of 17,232 km. She spent 75% of her time within 8699 km?. Ground surveys in Mongoliareport that the Bactrian population was composed of 82% adults, 12% juveniles (non-reproductive young), and 6% calves (depending upon the time of year). Groups sighted in Chinanumbered 4-40 individuals and in Mongoliafrom one animal to dozens, with researchers frequently encountering groups of more than 50 animals. From 1982 to 1989, when a total of 2370 wild Bactrians and 675 groups were sighted, average herd size was six (5-3—-6-5) with 6-20 animals/group the most common. Other than sporadic and irregular sightings in the vast Gobi Desert, where low densities of Bactrian Camels occur, we know almost nothing of their year-round social organization. However, it would not be surprising to find that the Bactrian social system is similar to that observed in wild/feral Dromedaries of Australia. Gray Wolves have been cited as a contributing factor to the Bactrian’s decline in both Chinaand Mongolia, but the evidence is weak because it is primarily based upon camel remains in scats, which could have been from scavenging.","The wild subspecies is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List and Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It is considered by some to be on the verge of extinction. Protected nationally in Chinaand Mongolia. The Bactrian’s original distribution and natural habitat was the entire Asian Trans-Altai Gobi Desert, stretching from the great bend of the Yellow River in north-east Chinathroughout Mongoliato central Kazakhstanin the west, at elevations 1500-2000 m above sea level in an area that encompassed nearly 100,000 km*. Today they are greatly reduced to a few small and fragmented populations in south-western Mongoliaand nearby areas of north-western Chinain a total area ¢. 28,000 km*. Four populations of wild Bactrians survive: the Taklamakan Desert; Altun Mountains and Archik Valley; and Gashun Desert populations in China; and the Outer Gobi Desert population of Mongoliaand China, which migrates between the two countries. Overall numbers greatly reduced in the past century because of hunting for their meat and hides, habitat loss due to grazing, and competition for water with domestic livestock (domestic camels, sheep, goats, horses, and cattle), interbreeding with domestic camels, mining activities, and poor reproduction and survival of young. Because of harsh climatic conditions, lack of appropriate aircraft for aerial surveys, and the remote and vast region where the remaining Bactrians live, there is uncertainty as to the total numbers remaining. The famous Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, who is given credit for discovering the wild Bactrian Camel of Asia during his travels to Mongoliaand China, noted in 1876: “According to our informants wild camels are numerous in north-western Tsaidam, where the country is barren, the soil being clay, overgrown with budarbana, and so destitute of water that they have to go several miles to drink, and in winter are obligated to satisfy their thirst with snow. The herds are small, averaging five to ten in each, never more than twenty. Their appearanceis slightly different from the domesticated breed: their humps are smaller, the muzzle more pointed, and the color of the hair gray.” It has been reported that wild Bactrians experienced drastic reduction in numbers and range over the past 10-20 years, but the most recent and reliable data suggests that populations in Mongoliahave been relatively stable if not increasing. Actual numbers are unclear and little is known. Estimates of total population size from incomplete ground surveys are as low as 730-950 individuals with projections from aerial surveys in Mongoliaof 4335 individuals. Attempts to assist with Bactrian conservation efforts in Mongoliathrough a captive breeding program have been unsuccessful. In China, the population is suspected to be decreasing in the Taklamakan Desert, because of oil development, but not in the Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve. The wild Bactrian Camel may well be one of the most endangered large mammals on Earth, and our knowledge ofits basic biology and ecology is dismally poor. Research is needed on the comparative genetics of wild and domestic forms, reproductive physiology, population structure and dynamics, and habitat requirements. Bactrian camels need immediate conservation attention, including standardization of methodology for accurate population surveys in both Chinaand Mongolia; development of a comprehensive conservation program; increasing support among local people, including control of illegal hunting; habitat improvement; prevention of hybridization with domestic camels that threatens the gene pool of the Mongolian wild camel population, particularly in the Great Gobi “A” Strictly Protected Area and its associated Buffer Zone; and an increase in the number and size of protected areas. The Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve in China, a former nuclear test site, is especially critical because it is believed to contain the most genetically pure individuals of the species.","Adiya et al. (2004) | Al-Ani (2004) | Bannikov (1976) | Burger & Charruau (2011) | ChinaStatistical Yearbook (2008) | Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981) | Gentry et al. (2004) | Grubb (2005) | Guoying (2001) | Han Jie et al. (2002) | Hare (1996, 1997, 1998, 2008) | Indra et al. (2002, 2003) | Ji Rimutu et al. (2009) | Menglia et al. (2006) | Mijiddorj (2002a, 2002b) | Mix et al. (2002) | Peters & von den Driesch (1997b) | Potts (2004) | Reading, Blumeret al. (2005) | Reading, Enkhbileg & Galbataar (2002) | Reading, Mix, Blumer et al. (2002) | Reading, Mix, Lhagvasuren & Blumer (1999) | Schaller (1998) | Silbermayr et al. (2010) | Tilson (1986) | Tserenbaljid (2002) | Tulgat (2002) | Tulgat & Schaller (1992) | Weidong et al. (2002) | Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2002)",,"5.Bactrian CamelCamelus bactrianusFrench:Chameau/ German:Kamel/ Spanish:CamellobactrianoOther common names:Two-Humped Camel, Double-Humped Camel, Asiatic Camel, Wild Bactrian CamelTaxonomy.Camelus bactrianus Linnaeus, 1758,habitat in Africa. Restricted to “Bactria” (Uzbekistan, Bokhara) by Thomas in 1911 based on domestic stock.Bactria and Bactriana were the Greek and Latin names for the ancient Persian provincial capital Baxtriya in Central Asia. Aristotle (384-322 Bc) applied the term “Bactrian” to the domestic camel associated with this eastern region of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which prospered from Bactrian Camel caravans that transported goods between the East and West over the famed Silk Road. The question of the relatedness and genetic distinctiveness of wild and domestic Bactrian Camelsis actively being pursued. Scientists argue variously that: 1) the wild Bactrian is the progenitor of today’s domestic Bactrian; 2) wild Bactrians are escapees and feral forms of domestics; 3) both derived from a common ancestor now extinct; or 4) both derived from separate ancestors now extinct. Preliminary work by Chinese geneticists first suggested the two Bactrians were sufficiently different to warrant subspecies or potentially even species separation. Recent mtDNA studies by Austrian scientists favor the final argument, estimating divergence between the two camelids at 700,000 years ago in the Pleistocene long before Bactrian domestication (4000-6000 years ago). Some classify the wild Bactrian as Camelusgobi or Camelus bactrianusgobi, while others apply the name Camelus ferusdue to a ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature because C. feruswas first applied to the wild species. In this account, the two animals are differentiated at the subspecies level (wild = C. b. ferusand domestic = C. b. bactrianus). Genetic justification for recognizing the domestic form as a separate species is growing, and all workers agree that the critically endangered wild Bactrian is in desperate need of protective conservation measures. Two subspecies recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C.b.bactrianusLinnaeus,1758—aridlandsanddesertsofC&SAsiaasdomesticatedlivestock.C. b. ferus Przewalski, 1878— NW China(C & SE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, NW Qinghai& NW Gansu) and Mongolia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 320-350 cm, tail 51-64 cm, shoulder height 160-180 cm; weight 450-500 kg. Compared to Dromedary Camels (C. dromedarius), Bactrians have stouter and thicker bodies with relatively shorter legs, and two humps instead of one. Dromedaries are slimmer and taller. In winter the Bactrian’s long, woolly coat is sandy beige to dark brown, shedding in large clumps as temperatures warm in spring. They have a mane and a beard of long hair on the neck and throat, with hairs up to 25 cmlong. Long eyelashes and sealable nostrils help to keep out dust in sandstorms. Two broad toes on each foot with undivided soles create a large, flat footpad that spreads widely as an adaptation for walking on sand. Their long face is somewhat triangular, with a split upper lip. Bactrians are well suited to cold and hot temperatures and are suspected to have physiological adaptations similar to those of Dromedaries. Their humps function the same way as Dromedaries’ humps, storing fat convertible to water and energy when there is a shortage of sustenance and enabling the animals to endure harsh desert conditions and periods of travel without water. As the fat depletes, the humps become floppy and flabby. Like Dromedaries, Bactrians rarely sweat, facilitating conservation of fluids. Dehydrated animals are able to drink 135 1 of water in 13 minutes. Although wild and domestic Bactrians have similar conformation and body structure, field observers report obvious differences in behavior, habits, and general appearance. Unlike the ponderous domestic Bactrians, wild ones are relatively lithe. Wild Bactrians are slimmer and smaller-bodied (laterally compressed), with slender limbs. They are sandy-gray-brown rather than predominantly dark brown, with shorter, sparser wool. There is no tuft of hair on top of the head, and the hair on the neck,tail, and knee joints is shorter. They do not have growths on the inner foreleg or callosities on the knees. The wild form has smaller ears and very narrow feet. Notably, their humps are lower, pointed, conical-shaped, and usually about half the size orless of the domestic Bactrian’s. They are timid and elusive.Habitat.Bactrians are adapted for living in plains and hills where vegetation and water sources are sparse. They inhabit some of most inhospitable terrain in the world, centered in the extreme Gobi Desert of Central Asia. Gobi means “the rocky place” and it is primarily a rocky desert covered with small stones. There are low valleys and eroded hills, rocky-mountain massifs, “hamadas” (flat pavement-like stony plains), vast washed-out plains, high sand dunes, and rarely, poplarfringed oases. Summers are torrid, winters are cold. Annual precipitation is 50-200 mm. This is a region of extreme drought and scarce food and water. The Taklamankan Desert is sandy; Lop Nur Desert is both a rocky and sandy desert. Field studies in the Lop Nur Lake region of Chinarevealed a Bactrian habitat preference for riparian communities and piedmont foothills; they were more often found in higher,hilly landscape than in the open. The Bactrians avoided gravel desert substrate and areas with hard, salt-crusted soil or moving sand dunes, preferring moderately hard ground. They stayed away from areas occupied by people. They used locations where the distance between foraging habitats and water sources did not exceed ¢.50-60 km and where there was relatively high coverage of halophytic vegetation, especially along lakeshores. In Mongolia preliminary results of satellite telemetry revealed a weak preference for habitat dominated by saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendrum) and no selection of areas with higher productivity or closer to permanent water sources. Climate change has altered Bactrian habitat by increasing the rate of desertification and reducing water resources and vegetation. Wild Bactrians have few native predators. Contrary to some accounts, Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) pose no threat, and although Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) predation does occur,its impact is poorly understood.Food and Feeding.Bactrians are opportunistic feeders capable of utilizing low-quality forage when more desirable herbage is unavailable. They are both grazers and browsers. Research on free-ranging domestic Bactrians in wild Bactrian habitat in the Gobi Desert provides the best information available on feeding habits. Those studies found that the camels’ main diet switched from senesced forbs in winter to a shrub in spring and to an increasing dependence on forbs in autumn. Although the shrub Haloxylon ammodendron was the dominant and highest biomass species in this desert community and a staple component of the camels’ diet each season, it was not preferred forage. Still, the shrub was essential when preferred forbs were not available in spring and summer. In autumn preferred annual forbs provided sufficient biomass. New plant growth during the wet season in summer and autumn was vitally important for replenishing the camels’ depleted fat reserves in preparation for winter. Domestic Bactrians are dependent on a year-long forage supply from the fragile and extremely arid environment they occupy. They show a preference for grazing on forbs, but are highly dependent upon browsing on shrubs. It has been reported that Bactrians can utilize salt water, with some researchers stating that salty water is necessary for their survival. When sufficient food is available in spring, summer, and autumn, Bactrians rarely have to drink, obtaining water requirements from plant moisture. In winter they have been observed to eat ice and snow.Breeding.Breeding season is called the “musth” after the thick fluid exuded from a gland on the neck behind the head in adult males. A study of semi-captive wild Bactrians found that females reached puberty after three years and males at 5-7 years of age. Wild rutting males in Mongoliabegin forming harems in late autumn (November) and mating in early winter, with most mating in January and February, but occasionally as late at March, or even May. Young males are driven out of the harems by rutting males and form bachelor herds; young females remain with their mothers. Males employ spitting (saliva and pseudorumen contents), kicking, biting, and screaming as offensive and defensive behaviors against each other during mating season. During the rut, wild males stretch their necks, shake their heads while roaring, and make loud noises with their teeth. Simultaneously they are foaming/frothing from the mouth and shaking their lips to throw foam on their head and chests. Occasionally they widen their hindlegs to urinate on their tails, using the tail to spread urine on their hips, hump, and head. The concentrated brown secretion from the 1-5 cm x 5 cmgland behind the head is rubbed on the forehump, giving it a darker color. The penis is 4 cmwide x 13-5 cm long. There is no use of dung piles by either sex. Estrous females are usually receptive in January or February for 4-7 days, at which time they follow males, knocking mating males off females and occasionally urinating. To mate, females lift theirtails after lying down in a sternal recumbancy position. Males typically mate with females 2-3 times in the morning or evening for 3-5 minutes each time. After mating, the genitals of females swell and become pink. Females are semen-induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs 30-48 hours after mating. Gestation of semi-captives in Mongoliawas 390-430 days (13-14 months) depending upon the age of the female and the number of previous calves. Females give birth to a single offspring while standing, but only every 2-3 years. Spring birth season is from March to April. Females giving birth isolate themselves from other animals and people, remaining alone for about two weeks. Calves are able to stumble-walk within 15-30 minutes. They weigh 32-34 kg at birth and nurse every 1-2 hours. Body growth levels off at seven years. Domestic Bactrians produce ¢.760 I of milk during 16 months of lactation. Calves are commonly weaned at 10-11 months but may nurse for up to 18 months. In captive Bactrians there is liberal and indiscriminate allonursing (adult females nursing non-offspring); this has been observed about one-third of the time, and was not correlated with the age of the mother or relatedness of the calf. Spring to autumn calf mortality is high, at 50%. Poor calf survival is often the result of drought, sandstorms, and freezing temperatures. Aerial surveys in the early 2000s counted only 3-9 young/ 100 adults,significantly lower than surveys in 1980 and 1998. The remaining Bactrian population cannot sustain itself with such a low calf-survival rate. Wild and domestic Bactrian Camels readily interbreed, producing fertile-hybrid offspring that can be differentiated by genetic testing based upon fixed mitochondrial sequence polymorphism. They can live as long as 35 years.Activity patterns.Activity budgets are an indication of an animal’s welfare since its primary activities are centered on energy acquisition, conservation, or expenditure. Bactrian Camels are diurnal feeders and nocturnal sleepers. In winter they spend less time foraging and more time resting than in spring and summer. There is high foraging activity in spring, triggered by readily available shrubs with minimal walking required. Daily patterns of activity are structured to expend the least amount of energy to obtain food, even when the food is not preferred forage.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bactrians often move 50-100 km seeking permanent surface water and patches of foraging habitat. Some populations are suspected to be migratory, especially those in the Chinese Lop Nur Lake region where the animals move between lakeside riparian communities in winter and cooler foothills in the summer. Researchers tracked seven wild camels in the Mongolian Gobi for one year, using satellite telemetry. One adult female moved a minimum of 4527 kmin a home range of 17,232 km. She spent 75% of her time within 8699 km?. Ground surveys in Mongoliareport that the Bactrian population was composed of 82% adults, 12% juveniles (non-reproductive young), and 6% calves (depending upon the time of year). Groups sighted in Chinanumbered 4-40 individuals and in Mongoliafrom one animal to dozens, with researchers frequently encountering groups of more than 50 animals. From 1982 to 1989, when a total of 2370 wild Bactrians and 675 groups were sighted, average herd size was six (5-3—-6-5) with 6-20 animals/group the most common. Other than sporadic and irregular sightings in the vast Gobi Desert, where low densities of Bactrian Camels occur, we know almost nothing of their year-round social organization. However, it would not be surprising to find that the Bactrian social system is similar to that observed in wild/feral Dromedaries of Australia. Gray Wolves have been cited as a contributing factor to the Bactrian’s decline in both Chinaand Mongolia, but the evidence is weak because it is primarily based upon camel remains in scats, which could have been from scavenging.Status and Conservation.The wild subspecies is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List and Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It is considered by some to be on the verge of extinction. Protected nationally in Chinaand Mongolia. The Bactrian’s original distribution and natural habitat was the entire Asian Trans-Altai Gobi Desert, stretching from the great bend of the Yellow River in north-east Chinathroughout Mongoliato central Kazakhstanin the west, at elevations 1500-2000 m above sea level in an area that encompassed nearly 100,000 km*. Today they are greatly reduced to a few small and fragmented populations in south-western Mongoliaand nearby areas of north-western Chinain a total area ¢. 28,000 km*. Four populations of wild Bactrians survive: the Taklamakan Desert; Altun Mountains and Archik Valley; and Gashun Desert populations in China; and the Outer Gobi Desert population of Mongoliaand China, which migrates between the two countries. Overall numbers greatly reduced in the past century because of hunting for their meat and hides, habitat loss due to grazing, and competition for water with domestic livestock (domestic camels, sheep, goats, horses, and cattle), interbreeding with domestic camels, mining activities, and poor reproduction and survival of young. Because of harsh climatic conditions, lack of appropriate aircraft for aerial surveys, and the remote and vast region where the remaining Bactrians live, there is uncertainty as to the total numbers remaining. The famous Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, who is given credit for discovering the wild Bactrian Camel of Asia during his travels to Mongoliaand China, noted in 1876: “According to our informants wild camels are numerous in north-western Tsaidam, where the country is barren, the soil being clay, overgrown with budarbana, and so destitute of water that they have to go several miles to drink, and in winter are obligated to satisfy their thirst with snow. The herds are small, averaging five to ten in each, never more than twenty. Their appearanceis slightly different from the domesticated breed: their humps are smaller, the muzzle more pointed, and the color of the hair gray.” It has been reported that wild Bactrians experienced drastic reduction in numbers and range over the past 10-20 years, but the most recent and reliable data suggests that populations in Mongoliahave been relatively stable if not increasing. Actual numbers are unclear and little is known. Estimates of total population size from incomplete ground surveys are as low as 730-950 individuals with projections from aerial surveys in Mongoliaof 4335 individuals. Attempts to assist with Bactrian conservation efforts in Mongoliathrough a captive breeding program have been unsuccessful. In China, the population is suspected to be decreasing in the Taklamakan Desert, because of oil development, but not in the Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve. The wild Bactrian Camel may well be one of the most endangered large mammals on Earth, and our knowledge ofits basic biology and ecology is dismally poor. Research is needed on the comparative genetics of wild and domestic forms, reproductive physiology, population structure and dynamics, and habitat requirements. Bactrian camels need immediate conservation attention, including standardization of methodology for accurate population surveys in both Chinaand Mongolia; development of a comprehensive conservation program; increasing support among local people, including control of illegal hunting; habitat improvement; prevention of hybridization with domestic camels that threatens the gene pool of the Mongolian wild camel population, particularly in the Great Gobi “A” Strictly Protected Area and its associated Buffer Zone; and an increase in the number and size of protected areas. The Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve in China, a former nuclear test site, is especially critical because it is believed to contain the most genetically pure individuals of the species.Bibliography.Adiya et al. (2004), Al-Ani (2004), Bannikov (1976), Burger & Charruau (2011), ChinaStatistical Yearbook (2008), Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981), Gentry et al. (2004), Grubb (2005), Guoying (2001), Han Jie et al. (2002), Hare (1996, 1997, 1998, 2008), Indra et al. (2002, 2003), Ji Rimutu et al. (2009), Menglia et al. (2006), Mijiddorj (2002a, 2002b), Mix et al. (2002), Peters & von den Driesch (1997b), Potts (2004), Reading, Blumeret al. (2005), Reading, Enkhbileg & Galbataar (2002), Reading, Mix, Blumer et al. (2002), Reading, Mix, Lhagvasuren & Blumer (1999), Schaller (1998), Silbermayr et al. (2010) Tilson (1986), Tserenbaljid (2002), Tulgat (2002), Tulgat & Schaller (1992), Weidong et al. (2002), Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2002)." -03928E699A4FFFC6D57EFE83F6A8F649,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,245,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A4FFFC6D57EFE83F6A8F649.xml,Camelus dromedarius,Camelus,dromedarius,Linnaeus,1758,Dromadaire @fr | Dromedar @de | Dromedario @es | Camel @en | Arabian Camel @en | One-Humped Camel @en | Single-Humped Camel @en | Ship of the Desert @en,"Camelus dromedarius Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Africae desertis arenosis siticulosis.” Restricted to “deserts of Libyaand Arabia” by Thomas in 1911.This species is monotypic.","A species found in the arid and semi-arid regions of N Africa to the Middle East, and parts of C Asia. A sizeabledfreeranging/feral population in C&W Australia. The Dromedary overlaps with the domestic Bactrian Camel (C. bactrianus) in Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, India, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Dromedaries are a domestic species with c¢.50 breeds selected and used for pulling carts, plowing, lifting water at wells, carrying packs, milk production, smooth riding, and racing. The breeds include those in Saudi Arabia(Mojaheem, Maghateer, Wadah, and Awarik), India(Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, and Mewari), Pakistan(Marecha, Dhatti, Larri, Kohi, Campbelpuri, and Sakrai), and Turkmenistan(Arvana). The evidence for domestication comes from archaeological sites dating ¢.4000-5000 years ago in the S Arabian Peninsula with the wild form becoming extinct ¢.2000-5000 years ago. No non-introduced wild populations exist. In Asia Dromedaries occur from Turkeyto W Indiaand N to Kazahkstan. All camels in Africa are Dromedaries, 80-85% in the Sahel and NE portion of the continent (Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya), with the S distribution limited by humidity and trypanosomiasis. Dromedaries in S Africa show no evidence of loss of genetic diversity within 16 populations and very low differentiation among populations. In Kenyan Dromedaries two separate genetic entities have been identified: the Somali and a group including the Gabbra, Rendille, and Turkanapopulations. In Indiatwo distinct genetic clusters have been described for Dromedaries: the Mewari breed being differentiated from the Bikaneri, Kutchi, and the Jaisalmeri breeds. From the 17"" to the early 20"" century unsuccessful attempts were made to introduce Dromedaries to the Caribbean, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Namibia, and south-western USA. Successful introductions of camels were made to the Canary Islands in 1405 and some 10,000 to Australiafrom 1840 to 1907. Camels were important for exploring and developing the Outback of C&W Australia, where they were used for riding; drafting; transporting supplies, railway, and telegraph materials; and as a source of meat and wool. Most (6600) introduced Dromedaries came from India. Three breeds were originally introduced: camels for riding from Rajasthan, India, camels for heavy work from the Kandahar regionof Afghanistan, and camels for riding and carrying moderate cargo loads from Sind, Pakistan. The camels in Australiatoday are a blend of these original imports. By the 1920s, there were an estimated 20,000 domesticated camels in Australia, but by 1930, with the arrival of rail and motor transportation, camels were no longer needed and many were released to the wild. Well suited to the Australian deserts, the camels bred prolifically, spreading across arid and semi-arid areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, and into parts of Queensland, and today they occupy 37% of the continent.","Head-body 220-340 cm, tail 45-55 cm, shoulder height 180-200 cm; weight 400-600 kg. Males and females of near equal size, but in some breeds the females are ¢.10% smaller than males. Body is often sandy colored, but can range from nearly all white to black or even two-colored piebald. Body shape characterized by a long-curved neck, long and thin legs, and deep narrow chest. The hindquarters are less developed than the weight-bearing front legs. Large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges. Facial features include thick eyebrows, long eyelashes, and transparent eyelids that allow partial vision when the eyes close in sandstorms. Thick fine hair in winter for warmth sheds in summer. Hair is longer on throat, shoulder, and hump. The single hump, on the middle of the back (c. 20 cmhigher than shoulder)is a reservoir offatty cells bound by fibroustissues, used in times of food and water scarcity. Hump size varies, depending upon an individual's nutritional status. In a state of starvation, the hump can be almost non-existent. The head is small relative to body size. Slit-like nostrils, surrounded by sphincter muscles, can close to keep out dust and sand. Split upperlip with two independently moving halves and a pendulous lowerlip allow for prehensile-like grasping of forage. Upper middle and inner incisors are replaced by a tough dental pad that opposes the lower incisors. Canines, especially the upper, are massive and pointed. Skin is tightly attached to underlying tissues and modified into horny pads at the sternum, elbows, carpals,stifles, and tarsals: these protect the body when a camelis lying down on hot or rough ground. No facial glands, but males have well-developed occipital glands 5-6 cm below the nuchal crest on either side of the neck midline. The glands increase in size with age, and during the rut they secrete a pungent coffee-colored fluid. Small oval erythrocytes may enhance blood circulation and oxygen carrying capacity. Dromedaries are digitgrade each with two dorsal nails and padded feet well adapted for sandy substrates; the front feet are larger than the hindfeet. The mammary gland has four quarters and teats. Adult dental formula: 11/3,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32 with permanent lower incisors appearing at 2:5—6-5 years and all teeth emerged by eight years. A triangular bone ¢.3 x 2: 5 cmis lodged in the tendinous fibers in the center of the diaphragm, preventing compression of the interior vena cava and distributing muscular pull over a larger surface. Lungs are not lobed. The stomach is complex, with three compartments. When foraging on green and moist plants Dromedaries do not require drinking water. If wateris available in summer, they will drink regularly at dawn. In extreme drought, they need access to waterholes. The Dromedary’s ability to endure severe heat and dryness does not depend upon water storage; instead, numerous mechanisms minimize water loss. In well-watered animals body temperature fluctuates only c.2°C. When necessary, water conservation is aided by heat storage (hyperthermia): camels do not sweat until body temperature exceeds 41-42°C, thus avoiding water loss through perspiration. The body temperature of camels deprived of water can fluctuate as much as 6°C by heating up during the day to 41°C and then cooling at night to 35°C. Dehydrated Dromedaries have a depressed rate of breathing, minimizing water loss through respiration. Paired, fluid-producing sacs connecting the nasal cavities and a pair of lateral nasal glands and sacs serve to moisten incoming dry air. Dromedaries can tolerate water loss greater than 30% of their body mass, whereas 15% lossis lethal for most mammals. Such water loss is from intraand intercellular fluids, and not from plasma, allowing for relatively constant circulation of blood and maintaining the ability to cool. Water loss is ¢.50% greater in shorn compared to unshorn camels. Dromedaries often go without water in the Sahara Desert for seven or eight months, beginning in October, existing only on water content of plants. At temperatures between 30°C and 50°C they can go without water for 10-15 days, and even in the hottest weather need water only every 4-7 days. They can quickly rehydrate by drinking large quantities of water (10-20 1/minute and up to 130 1/minute), consuming up to 30% of their body weight within minutes. Dromedaries can drink salt water in even greater concentrations than seawater. They can consume water containing 19,000 ppm (parts-per-million) in dissolved salt without a decline in condition, compared to sheep, which can consume water at 10,000 ppm and cattle 5000 ppm. Dehydrated camels excrete less fecal water, greatly reduce urine volume, highly increase urine concentration, and recycle urea from the kidneys to the rumen for protein synthesis and water recirculation. Their erythrocytes have high osmotic resistance and can swell to 240% of their initial size without hemolysis during rehydration. Accumulation of fat in the hump instead of subcutaneously facilitates heat dissipation. The gallbladderis absent. The dulla, a pink, tongue-like bladder that hangs out the side of mouth of rutting-agitated males,is actually an inflation ofthe soft palate and unique to Dromedaries. Dulla inflation is typically accompanied by large amounts of saliva foam and gurgling vocalization.","In Africa Dromedaries occupy the Sahara Desert, known forits long, hot-dry season and a short rainy season. In Australia, Dromedaries favor bushy semi-arid lands and sand plains because of the availability of year-round forage, and avoid heavily vegetated and hard rocky areas.","Dromedaries are capable of surviving on poor-quality forage under arid conditions, aided by their ability to select high-quality plant species, increase digestion of low-quality forage, cover large distances while foraging, and diversify the nature of their diet by being both browsers (shrubs and trees) and grazers (forbs and grasses). In the Sahara browse and forbs make up 70% oftheir diet in winter and 90% in summer. Over 300 forage plants have been reported, with Acacia, Atriplex, and Salsola common in their diet. In Syriashrubs dominated the diet during the dry season, but camels switched mainly to herbaceous species with the onset of the wet season. In Australian deserts food intake by volume is 53% browse, 42% forbs, and 5% grasses. Dromedaries browse on trees and tall shrubs up to 3-5 m by grasping with their lips and either breaking off branches or stripping leaves. Under extreme cases of limited forage, the Dromedary can not only decrease its food intake, but also reduce its metabolic rate. Compared to sheep and cattle, Dromedaries require less energy for maintenance; their protein requirements are at least 30% lower than cattle, sheep, or goats. Feeding trials have revealed that Dromedaries utilized fed energy for maintenance with an efficiency of 73% comparable to sheep, and for growth with an efficiency of 61% better than sheep and cattle. The relationship of food intake to body size is low. They can live on only 2 kgof dry matter for limited periods, and 8-12 kg are sufficient for a working Dromedary carrying 130-227 kg load for six hours a day at a speed of 5 km/h for a 24day trip. When forage conditions are lush, camels tend to overeat for their immediate needs and store the excess energy in their humps. Dromedaries require six to eight times more salt than other animals, with 30% oftheir diet from halophytes (plants that tolerate and even require salty conditions). High salt intake is imperative for alimentary absorption of water by camels, with salt deficiencies leading to cramps and cutaneous necrosis. Although consumption of grain can cause indigestion in animals unaccustomed to it, working Dromedaries require 2 kgof grain per day.","The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and climate patterns. Dromedaries typically breed in winter, except near the Equator, where there can be two mating seasons or even year-round mating. In the Arabian camel, sexual receptivity is triggered by rainfall and subsequent availability of forage. There is follicular activity in the female year-round, but it peaks in winter and spring. Mating induces ovulation, which occurs 30-40 hours afterwards; estrus ceases three days later. An unmated female's cycle averages 28 days;follicles mature within six days, are maintained for 13 days, and regress over eight days. The percentage of females that conceived: 50% after a single copulation, 30% after two, and 20% after three or more, during the first two days of estrus. Left and right ovaries are equally active and alternate in follicle production. Egg migration is common, 50% of left-horn implants form corpora lutea in the right ovary, explaining the long oviductal transport time of six days. Simultaneous ovulation from both ovaries occurs 14% of time, but twin pregnancies only 0-4%. The left horn of the uterus is larger than the right and carries 99% of pregnancies. Normal pregnancy produces one offspring, with twins being extremely unusual. The scrotum is high in the perineal region with testes larger during rut. Penis is covered with a triangular sheath opening pointing posteriorally and directed between the hindlegs. A complete separation of the penis from preputial adhesions prevents erections at 6-10 months before sexual maturity. Female lies down in sternal recumbency during copulations averaging 8-120 minutes involving 3-5 ejaculatory pulses by the male, each stimulated by intracervical pressure on his highly mobile urethral process. Mating females normally ruminate; the male may salivate, inflate his dulla, or gurgle during mating. Gestation averages 377-390 days (range of 360-411 days), regardless of whether the calf is male or female. The typical calving interval is 2-3 years (two in Australia), with estrus occurring 4-5—-10 months after parturition. The mean birth massis 37-3 kg (26-4-52-3) with no difference between sexes. Annual calving rates are low (35-40%) because of high (18-20%) embryonic death, abortions, and stillborns. In free-ranging herds, young remain with their mothers for first two years. Males begin rutting at three years but are not fully active sexually until they are 6-8 years old. They continue to breed until 18-20 years of age. Females are sexually mature at three years and typically first mate at 4-5 years and reproduce until they are 20-25, and some until the age of 30. Puberty is delayed by inadequate body weight caused by insufficient food. Birthing duration is typically 30 minutes, with the female in a sitting position. The mother noses and nibbles, but does not lick her newborn. The main birth season in Australiais June to November, during the rut, but newborns have been observed year-round. Before parturition cows segregate themselves (without their previous twoyear-old calf) from their original group and give birth in seclusion in dense vegetation. Isolation thought to be both an anti-predator behavior and perhaps more significantly, avoidance of infanticide by rutting males. After remaining alone for up to three weeks, when the new calf is fully mobile, the female joins other recent new mothers, forming a new cow group. These core groups remain stable until the calves are weaned at 15-18 months, the length of time depending on environmental conditions. Life span of wild/feral animals is 20-35 years. Domestic Dromedaries live substantially longer, with reported maximum longevity 40-49 years. The first cloned camelid was a Dromedary Camel achieved in 2010 by use of somatic cell nuclear transfer.","Wild/feral populations exist only in Australia, where they show a daily pattern of feeding in the morning and afternoon hours and increased resting in the middle of the day. Midday resting is highest in winter. Elsewhere Dromedaries are domestic and intensely managed and regulated by traditional pastoral communities, often in conjunction with other livestock. In the Sahara, when they are allowed to roam without herders, they form stable groups of 2-20 animals. Dromedaries graze for 8-12 hours per day and then ruminate for an equal amount of time. When forage is especially poor they spread out over large areas and break up into units of 1-2 individuals. Guarded herds feed by day (lying down during the hottest hours) and rest by night, but unguarded, their activity pattern is reversed.","Dromedaries are extremely mobile and capable of using large areas to fulfill their nutritional needs. Depending upon environmental and social parameters, wild/feral populations of Australiamay be nomadic, migratory, or move within a home range. They commonly travel 30 km/day even when food is plentiful. In summer, when plants are dry, they comfortably walk up to 60 kmto waterholes every second or third day; in winter they drink water only irregularly, some once per month, others less often. In free-ranging Australian populations, social groups are core cow groups, breeding groups, male groups, and solitary males. Core cow groups occur only in summer (October to March/April) outside the breeding season. These groups of about 24 animals consist of females and their calves of similar age; the groups are stable for up to 1-5-2 years until the young are weaned. Summer cow groups are open to all other individuals (cows with and without calves, including younger and weaker adult males). Individuals join for irregular periods of time. Breeding groups are seen in winter (April/May to September). They are composed of one mature male and several cows with their calves; the male defends the females against other males in a classical harem arrangement. Soon after taking over a cow group the rutting male aggressively chases away weaned two-year-old males; these young males join male groups. The rutting male herds cows for 3-5 months, leaves voluntarily, and does not return to the same cow group the following year; thus the rutting male is never the father of the calves in his group. Male or bachelor groups of up to 30 non-breeding males of all ages are present year-round. These are loose groupings that regularly split up as individuals leave the group and join other males. Solitary males tend to be old males. A rutting male shows ritualized postures and patterns, including vigorous biting when fighting with and defending his breeding group against other males. It should be noted that aggressive spitting, as observed in Bactrians and the South American cameloids has not been observed in Australian Dromedaries. However, Dromedaries may vomit when severely frightened or overly excited. Night time hypothermia in a rutting male may increase the duration and success of his daytime fighting before the male overheats. No classical territoriality has been observed in Australia, but short-term home ranges of 50-150 km* and an annual range, commonly of 5000 km?, shows a tendency forsite attachment to home ranges. Dromedaries show amazing plasticity of social organization with extremes in environmental conditions. During two years of extremely high rainfall in the Australian Outback when food productivity was extraordinarily high, animals coalesced into large herds of up to 200. During the rutting season the herd was subdivided into several breeding groups, each with one herding male, all roaming around together. The subgroup holders tolerated each other to a certain point within the big herd and even showed some cooperation in defending their cows when intruding bachelors came too close. However, during two years of virtually no rainfall (although water was always available for drinking) when food became acutely sparse, normal cow groups split up, even to the extreme of only one mother with her calf. In such harsh droughts conspecifics became each other’s strongest competitors. A social system similar to that seen in Australiaoccurs in Africa at Equatorial latitudes, except the non-breeding season is in winter. Mixed herds (males and females of all age classes), some as large as 500 camels, are more common. In Algeriadomestic herds were much less rigid: 46% of the herds were males, females, and young; 21% males and females without young; 18% females and young; and 14% males only. In Turkmenistandomestic populations were divided into the social units similar to those in Australia. In breeding groups of wildferal populations the male directs the movements of his group from behind, while females rotate in the lead. Domestic herds have a natural tendency to walk in single file, especially when moving to water wells. Dromedaries do not use dung piles for defecation or urination. Freeranging camels showed no marking behavior in the Sahara, but males in Israelmark particular areas with poll-gland secretions. They like to roll in sandy locations and will form lines waiting their turn.","World Dromedary population decreased 15% from 1960 to 2000, with current numbers 18-21 million, including one million camels in Australia. In some countries the decline has been severe over the last century; for example in Syriathe population decreased from 250,000 in1922 to not more than 22,000 in2010. In AustraliaDromedary competition with livestock for forage and water, and significant environmental and infrastructure damage caused by Dromedaries, have prompted culling, with the goal of maintaining a sustainable population for utilization of their meat, hides, and wool. Despite groups of Dromedaries seen moving and grazing without a herder in the Sahara and Arabian deserts, they all have owners. Numbers have drastically declined in Arabian countries during past half century due to modernization and industrialization, forced settlement of nomads, desert forage resources not well developed, low reproductive rate, decreased demand for camel meat and milk, poor genetic selection for breed improvement, and government encouragement of other domestic species.","Al-Ani (2004) | Arnautovic & Abdel-Magid (1974) | Baker (1964) | Baskin (1974) | Bhargava et al. (1963) | Dagg (1974) | Dorges et al. (1995, 2003) | EI-Amin (1984) | Ellard (2000) | Gee & Greenfield (2007) | Gidad & El-Bovevy (1992) | Grigg et al. (1995) | Guerouali & Wardeh (1998) | Guerouali & Zine Filali (1992) | Gauthier-Pilters (1984) | Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981) | Klingel (1985) | Kohler-Rollefson (1991) | McKnight (1969) | Mehta et al. (1962) | Newman (1984) | Novoa (1970) | Peters (1997a) | Peters & von den Driesch (1997b) | Saalfeld & Edwards (2008) | Schmidt-Nielsen, B. et al. (1956) | Schmidth-Nielsen, K. (1964) | Schmidt-Nielsen, K. et al. (1967) | Singh, U.B. & Bharadwaj (1978) | Singh, V. & Prakash (1964) | Wilson (1984) | Yagil (1985)",,"6.Dromedary CamelCamelus dromedariusFrench:Dromadaire/ German:Dromedar/ Spanish:DromedarioOther common names:Camel, Arabian Camel, One-Humped Camel, Single-Humped Camel, Ship of the DesertTaxonomy.Camelus dromedarius Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Africae desertis arenosis siticulosis.” Restricted to “deserts of Libyaand Arabia” by Thomas in 1911.This species is monotypic.Distribution.A species found in the arid and semi-arid regions of N Africa to the Middle East, and parts of C Asia. A sizeabledfreeranging/feral population in C&W Australia. The Dromedary overlaps with the domestic Bactrian Camel (C. bactrianus) in Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, India, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Dromedaries are a domestic species with c¢.50 breeds selected and used for pulling carts, plowing, lifting water at wells, carrying packs, milk production, smooth riding, and racing. The breeds include those in Saudi Arabia(Mojaheem, Maghateer, Wadah, and Awarik), India(Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, and Mewari), Pakistan(Marecha, Dhatti, Larri, Kohi, Campbelpuri, and Sakrai), and Turkmenistan(Arvana). The evidence for domestication comes from archaeological sites dating ¢.4000-5000 years ago in the S Arabian Peninsula with the wild form becoming extinct ¢.2000-5000 years ago. No non-introduced wild populations exist. In Asia Dromedaries occur from Turkeyto W Indiaand N to Kazahkstan. All camels in Africa are Dromedaries, 80-85% in the Sahel and NE portion of the continent (Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya), with the S distribution limited by humidity and trypanosomiasis. Dromedaries in S Africa show no evidence of loss of genetic diversity within 16 populations and very low differentiation among populations. In Kenyan Dromedaries two separate genetic entities have been identified: the Somali and a group including the Gabbra, Rendille, and Turkanapopulations. In Indiatwo distinct genetic clusters have been described for Dromedaries: the Mewari breed being differentiated from the Bikaneri, Kutchi, and the Jaisalmeri breeds. From the 17"" to the early 20"" century unsuccessful attempts were made to introduce Dromedaries to the Caribbean, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Namibia, and south-western USA. Successful introductions of camels were made to the Canary Islands in 1405 and some 10,000 to Australiafrom 1840 to 1907. Camels were important for exploring and developing the Outback of C&W Australia, where they were used for riding; drafting; transporting supplies, railway, and telegraph materials; and as a source of meat and wool. Most (6600) introduced Dromedaries came from India. Three breeds were originally introduced: camels for riding from Rajasthan, India, camels for heavy work from the Kandahar regionof Afghanistan, and camels for riding and carrying moderate cargo loads from Sind, Pakistan. The camels in Australiatoday are a blend of these original imports. By the 1920s, there were an estimated 20,000 domesticated camels in Australia, but by 1930, with the arrival of rail and motor transportation, camels were no longer needed and many were released to the wild. Well suited to the Australian deserts, the camels bred prolifically, spreading across arid and semi-arid areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, and into parts of Queensland, and today they occupy 37% of the continent.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-340 cm, tail 45-55 cm, shoulder height 180-200 cm; weight 400-600 kg. Males and females of near equal size, but in some breeds the females are ¢.10% smaller than males. Body is often sandy colored, but can range from nearly all white to black or even two-colored piebald. Body shape characterized by a long-curved neck, long and thin legs, and deep narrow chest. The hindquarters are less developed than the weight-bearing front legs. Large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges. Facial features include thick eyebrows, long eyelashes, and transparent eyelids that allow partial vision when the eyes close in sandstorms. Thick fine hair in winter for warmth sheds in summer. Hair is longer on throat, shoulder, and hump. The single hump, on the middle of the back (c. 20 cmhigher than shoulder)is a reservoir offatty cells bound by fibroustissues, used in times of food and water scarcity. Hump size varies, depending upon an individual's nutritional status. In a state of starvation, the hump can be almost non-existent. The head is small relative to body size. Slit-like nostrils, surrounded by sphincter muscles, can close to keep out dust and sand. Split upperlip with two independently moving halves and a pendulous lowerlip allow for prehensile-like grasping of forage. Upper middle and inner incisors are replaced by a tough dental pad that opposes the lower incisors. Canines, especially the upper, are massive and pointed. Skin is tightly attached to underlying tissues and modified into horny pads at the sternum, elbows, carpals,stifles, and tarsals: these protect the body when a camelis lying down on hot or rough ground. No facial glands, but males have well-developed occipital glands 5-6 cm below the nuchal crest on either side of the neck midline. The glands increase in size with age, and during the rut they secrete a pungent coffee-colored fluid. Small oval erythrocytes may enhance blood circulation and oxygen carrying capacity. Dromedaries are digitgrade each with two dorsal nails and padded feet well adapted for sandy substrates; the front feet are larger than the hindfeet. The mammary gland has four quarters and teats. Adult dental formula: 11/3,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32 with permanent lower incisors appearing at 2:5—6-5 years and all teeth emerged by eight years. A triangular bone ¢.3 x 2: 5 cmis lodged in the tendinous fibers in the center of the diaphragm, preventing compression of the interior vena cava and distributing muscular pull over a larger surface. Lungs are not lobed. The stomach is complex, with three compartments. When foraging on green and moist plants Dromedaries do not require drinking water. If wateris available in summer, they will drink regularly at dawn. In extreme drought, they need access to waterholes. The Dromedary’s ability to endure severe heat and dryness does not depend upon water storage; instead, numerous mechanisms minimize water loss. In well-watered animals body temperature fluctuates only c.2°C. When necessary, water conservation is aided by heat storage (hyperthermia): camels do not sweat until body temperature exceeds 41-42°C, thus avoiding water loss through perspiration. The body temperature of camels deprived of water can fluctuate as much as 6°C by heating up during the day to 41°C and then cooling at night to 35°C. Dehydrated Dromedaries have a depressed rate of breathing, minimizing water loss through respiration. Paired, fluid-producing sacs connecting the nasal cavities and a pair of lateral nasal glands and sacs serve to moisten incoming dry air. Dromedaries can tolerate water loss greater than 30% of their body mass, whereas 15% lossis lethal for most mammals. Such water loss is from intraand intercellular fluids, and not from plasma, allowing for relatively constant circulation of blood and maintaining the ability to cool. Water loss is ¢.50% greater in shorn compared to unshorn camels. Dromedaries often go without water in the Sahara Desert for seven or eight months, beginning in October, existing only on water content of plants. At temperatures between 30°C and 50°C they can go without water for 10-15 days, and even in the hottest weather need water only every 4-7 days. They can quickly rehydrate by drinking large quantities of water (10-20 1/minute and up to 130 1/minute), consuming up to 30% of their body weight within minutes. Dromedaries can drink salt water in even greater concentrations than seawater. They can consume water containing 19,000 ppm (parts-per-million) in dissolved salt without a decline in condition, compared to sheep, which can consume water at 10,000 ppm and cattle 5000 ppm. Dehydrated camels excrete less fecal water, greatly reduce urine volume, highly increase urine concentration, and recycle urea from the kidneys to the rumen for protein synthesis and water recirculation. Their erythrocytes have high osmotic resistance and can swell to 240% of their initial size without hemolysis during rehydration. Accumulation of fat in the hump instead of subcutaneously facilitates heat dissipation. The gallbladderis absent. The dulla, a pink, tongue-like bladder that hangs out the side of mouth of rutting-agitated males,is actually an inflation ofthe soft palate and unique to Dromedaries. Dulla inflation is typically accompanied by large amounts of saliva foam and gurgling vocalization.Habitat.In Africa Dromedaries occupy the Sahara Desert, known forits long, hot-dry season and a short rainy season. In Australia, Dromedaries favor bushy semi-arid lands and sand plains because of the availability of year-round forage, and avoid heavily vegetated and hard rocky areas.Food and Feeding.Dromedaries are capable of surviving on poor-quality forage under arid conditions, aided by their ability to select high-quality plant species, increase digestion of low-quality forage, cover large distances while foraging, and diversify the nature of their diet by being both browsers (shrubs and trees) and grazers (forbs and grasses). In the Sahara browse and forbs make up 70% oftheir diet in winter and 90% in summer. Over 300 forage plants have been reported, with Acacia, Atriplex, and Salsola common in their diet. In Syriashrubs dominated the diet during the dry season, but camels switched mainly to herbaceous species with the onset of the wet season. In Australian deserts food intake by volume is 53% browse, 42% forbs, and 5% grasses. Dromedaries browse on trees and tall shrubs up to 3-5 m by grasping with their lips and either breaking off branches or stripping leaves. Under extreme cases of limited forage, the Dromedary can not only decrease its food intake, but also reduce its metabolic rate. Compared to sheep and cattle, Dromedaries require less energy for maintenance; their protein requirements are at least 30% lower than cattle, sheep, or goats. Feeding trials have revealed that Dromedaries utilized fed energy for maintenance with an efficiency of 73% comparable to sheep, and for growth with an efficiency of 61% better than sheep and cattle. The relationship of food intake to body size is low. They can live on only 2 kgof dry matter for limited periods, and 8-12 kg are sufficient for a working Dromedary carrying 130-227 kg load for six hours a day at a speed of 5 km/h for a 24day trip. When forage conditions are lush, camels tend to overeat for their immediate needs and store the excess energy in their humps. Dromedaries require six to eight times more salt than other animals, with 30% oftheir diet from halophytes (plants that tolerate and even require salty conditions). High salt intake is imperative for alimentary absorption of water by camels, with salt deficiencies leading to cramps and cutaneous necrosis. Although consumption of grain can cause indigestion in animals unaccustomed to it, working Dromedaries require 2 kgof grain per day.Breeding.The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and climate patterns. Dromedaries typically breed in winter, except near the Equator, where there can be two mating seasons or even year-round mating. In the Arabian camel, sexual receptivity is triggered by rainfall and subsequent availability of forage. There is follicular activity in the female year-round, but it peaks in winter and spring. Mating induces ovulation, which occurs 30-40 hours afterwards; estrus ceases three days later. An unmated female's cycle averages 28 days;follicles mature within six days, are maintained for 13 days, and regress over eight days. The percentage of females that conceived: 50% after a single copulation, 30% after two, and 20% after three or more, during the first two days of estrus. Left and right ovaries are equally active and alternate in follicle production. Egg migration is common, 50% of left-horn implants form corpora lutea in the right ovary, explaining the long oviductal transport time of six days. Simultaneous ovulation from both ovaries occurs 14% of time, but twin pregnancies only 0-4%. The left horn of the uterus is larger than the right and carries 99% of pregnancies. Normal pregnancy produces one offspring, with twins being extremely unusual. The scrotum is high in the perineal region with testes larger during rut. Penis is covered with a triangular sheath opening pointing posteriorally and directed between the hindlegs. A complete separation of the penis from preputial adhesions prevents erections at 6-10 months before sexual maturity. Female lies down in sternal recumbency during copulations averaging 8-120 minutes involving 3-5 ejaculatory pulses by the male, each stimulated by intracervical pressure on his highly mobile urethral process. Mating females normally ruminate; the male may salivate, inflate his dulla, or gurgle during mating. Gestation averages 377-390 days (range of 360-411 days), regardless of whether the calf is male or female. The typical calving interval is 2-3 years (two in Australia), with estrus occurring 4-5—-10 months after parturition. The mean birth massis 37-3 kg (26-4-52-3) with no difference between sexes. Annual calving rates are low (35-40%) because of high (18-20%) embryonic death, abortions, and stillborns. In free-ranging herds, young remain with their mothers for first two years. Males begin rutting at three years but are not fully active sexually until they are 6-8 years old. They continue to breed until 18-20 years of age. Females are sexually mature at three years and typically first mate at 4-5 years and reproduce until they are 20-25, and some until the age of 30. Puberty is delayed by inadequate body weight caused by insufficient food. Birthing duration is typically 30 minutes, with the female in a sitting position. The mother noses and nibbles, but does not lick her newborn. The main birth season in Australiais June to November, during the rut, but newborns have been observed year-round. Before parturition cows segregate themselves (without their previous twoyear-old calf) from their original group and give birth in seclusion in dense vegetation. Isolation thought to be both an anti-predator behavior and perhaps more significantly, avoidance of infanticide by rutting males. After remaining alone for up to three weeks, when the new calf is fully mobile, the female joins other recent new mothers, forming a new cow group. These core groups remain stable until the calves are weaned at 15-18 months, the length of time depending on environmental conditions. Life span of wild/feral animals is 20-35 years. Domestic Dromedaries live substantially longer, with reported maximum longevity 40-49 years. The first cloned camelid was a Dromedary Camel achieved in 2010 by use of somatic cell nuclear transfer.Activity patterns.Wild/feral populations exist only in Australia, where they show a daily pattern of feeding in the morning and afternoon hours and increased resting in the middle of the day. Midday resting is highest in winter. Elsewhere Dromedaries are domestic and intensely managed and regulated by traditional pastoral communities, often in conjunction with other livestock. In the Sahara, when they are allowed to roam without herders, they form stable groups of 2-20 animals. Dromedaries graze for 8-12 hours per day and then ruminate for an equal amount of time. When forage is especially poor they spread out over large areas and break up into units of 1-2 individuals. Guarded herds feed by day (lying down during the hottest hours) and rest by night, but unguarded, their activity pattern is reversed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dromedaries are extremely mobile and capable of using large areas to fulfill their nutritional needs. Depending upon environmental and social parameters, wild/feral populations of Australiamay be nomadic, migratory, or move within a home range. They commonly travel 30 km/day even when food is plentiful. In summer, when plants are dry, they comfortably walk up to 60 kmto waterholes every second or third day; in winter they drink water only irregularly, some once per month, others less often. In free-ranging Australian populations, social groups are core cow groups, breeding groups, male groups, and solitary males. Core cow groups occur only in summer (October to March/April) outside the breeding season. These groups of about 24 animals consist of females and their calves of similar age; the groups are stable for up to 1-5-2 years until the young are weaned. Summer cow groups are open to all other individuals (cows with and without calves, including younger and weaker adult males). Individuals join for irregular periods of time. Breeding groups are seen in winter (April/May to September). They are composed of one mature male and several cows with their calves; the male defends the females against other males in a classical harem arrangement. Soon after taking over a cow group the rutting male aggressively chases away weaned two-year-old males; these young males join male groups. The rutting male herds cows for 3-5 months, leaves voluntarily, and does not return to the same cow group the following year; thus the rutting male is never the father of the calves in his group. Male or bachelor groups of up to 30 non-breeding males of all ages are present year-round. These are loose groupings that regularly split up as individuals leave the group and join other males. Solitary males tend to be old males. A rutting male shows ritualized postures and patterns, including vigorous biting when fighting with and defending his breeding group against other males. It should be noted that aggressive spitting, as observed in Bactrians and the South American cameloids has not been observed in Australian Dromedaries. However, Dromedaries may vomit when severely frightened or overly excited. Night time hypothermia in a rutting male may increase the duration and success of his daytime fighting before the male overheats. No classical territoriality has been observed in Australia, but short-term home ranges of 50-150 km* and an annual range, commonly of 5000 km?, shows a tendency forsite attachment to home ranges. Dromedaries show amazing plasticity of social organization with extremes in environmental conditions. During two years of extremely high rainfall in the Australian Outback when food productivity was extraordinarily high, animals coalesced into large herds of up to 200. During the rutting season the herd was subdivided into several breeding groups, each with one herding male, all roaming around together. The subgroup holders tolerated each other to a certain point within the big herd and even showed some cooperation in defending their cows when intruding bachelors came too close. However, during two years of virtually no rainfall (although water was always available for drinking) when food became acutely sparse, normal cow groups split up, even to the extreme of only one mother with her calf. In such harsh droughts conspecifics became each other’s strongest competitors. A social system similar to that seen in Australiaoccurs in Africa at Equatorial latitudes, except the non-breeding season is in winter. Mixed herds (males and females of all age classes), some as large as 500 camels, are more common. In Algeriadomestic herds were much less rigid: 46% of the herds were males, females, and young; 21% males and females without young; 18% females and young; and 14% males only. In Turkmenistandomestic populations were divided into the social units similar to those in Australia. In breeding groups of wildferal populations the male directs the movements of his group from behind, while females rotate in the lead. Domestic herds have a natural tendency to walk in single file, especially when moving to water wells. Dromedaries do not use dung piles for defecation or urination. Freeranging camels showed no marking behavior in the Sahara, but males in Israelmark particular areas with poll-gland secretions. They like to roll in sandy locations and will form lines waiting their turn.Status and Conservation.World Dromedary population decreased 15% from 1960 to 2000, with current numbers 18-21 million, including one million camels in Australia. In some countries the decline has been severe over the last century; for example in Syriathe population decreased from 250,000 in1922 to not more than 22,000 in2010. In AustraliaDromedary competition with livestock for forage and water, and significant environmental and infrastructure damage caused by Dromedaries, have prompted culling, with the goal of maintaining a sustainable population for utilization of their meat, hides, and wool. Despite groups of Dromedaries seen moving and grazing without a herder in the Sahara and Arabian deserts, they all have owners. Numbers have drastically declined in Arabian countries during past half century due to modernization and industrialization, forced settlement of nomads, desert forage resources not well developed, low reproductive rate, decreased demand for camel meat and milk, poor genetic selection for breed improvement, and government encouragement of other domestic species.Bibliography.Al-Ani (2004), Arnautovic & Abdel-Magid (1974), Baker (1964), Baskin (1974), Bhargava et al. (1963), Dagg (1974), Dorges et al. (1995, 2003), EI-Amin (1984), Ellard (2000), Gee & Greenfield (2007), Gidad & El-Bovevy (1992), Grigg et al. (1995), Guerouali & Wardeh (1998), Guerouali & Zine Filali (1992), Gauthier-Pilters (1984), Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981), Klingel (1985), Kohler-Rollefson (1991). McKnight (1969), Mehta et al. (1962), Newman (1984), Novoa (1970), Peters (1997a) Peters & von den Driesch (1997b), Saalfeld & Edwards (2008), Schmidt-Nielsen, B. et al. (1956), Schmidth-Nielsen, K. (1964), Schmidt-Nielsen, K. et al. (1967), Singh, U.B. & Bharadwaj (1978), Singh, V. & Prakash (1964), Wilson (1984), Yagil (1985)." -03993828FFE00F44FAFAFE0DC54FF8BC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FAFAFE0DC54FF8BC.xml,Dendroprionomys rousseloti,Dendroprionomys,rousseloti,F. Petter,1966,Dendromus de Brazzaville @fr | Samtklettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de terciopelo @es | Congo Tree Mouse @en | Velvet Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendroprionomys rousseloti Petter, 1966,Zoological Gardens, Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.This species is monotypic.","Only known from the type locality in Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.","Head-body ¢.77 mm, tail ¢.108 mm, ear c.16 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and russet-brown dorsally and grayish-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Each eye has a black ring that extends anteriorly onto muzzle. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit short but present.","Only known from the vicinity of the type locality in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, which is situated in a sand forest at ¢.300 m above sea level.",Dentition of the Velvet African Climbing Mouse suggests thatit could be insectivorous.,No information.,The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is terrestrial.,No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is known from just eight specimens collected from the type locality—the last one in 1966.,Denys (2013a) | Denys et al. (1995) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966b),,"58.Velvet African Climbing MouseDendroprionomys rousselotiFrench:Dendromus de Brazzaville/ German:Samtklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de terciopeloOther common names:Congo Tree Mouse, Velvet Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendroprionomys rousseloti Petter, 1966,Zoological Gardens, Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from the type locality in Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.77 mm, tail ¢.108 mm, ear c.16 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and russet-brown dorsally and grayish-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Each eye has a black ring that extends anteriorly onto muzzle. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit short but present.Habitat.Only known from the vicinity of the type locality in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, which is situated in a sand forest at ¢.300 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.Dentition of the Velvet African Climbing Mouse suggests thatit could be insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is known from just eight specimens collected from the type locality—the last one in 1966.Bibliography.Denys (2013a), Denys et al. (1995), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966b)." -03993828FFE00F44FAFBF792C419F235,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FAFBF792C419F235.xml,Prionomys bates,Prionomys,batesi,Dollman,1910,Dendromus de Bates @fr | Dollman-Baummaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Bates @es | Dollman’s African Tree Mouse @en | Dollman’s Tree Mouse @en,"Prionomys batesi Dollman, 1910,“ Bitye, Ja River, Cameroons[= Cameroon |. Altitude 2000 feet[= 610 m].”This species is monotypic.","Restricted to S Cameroon, SW Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.","Head—body 79-85 mm, tail 103-112 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 15-17 mm; weight 15-21 g. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Furis relatively short, soft, and dense. Dorsum is brown or gray-brown, and venter is paler. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Each eye has a faint dark ring. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fifth digits have elongated claws, and first digit is greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits, with first digit opposable and fifth digit not opposable.","L.ow-lying rainforest, particularly in forest-savanna mosaic. Elevational range is between 100 m and 300 m.","Bates’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be entirely insectivorous, preying on ants and spiders.",No information.,"Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and appears to be predominantly arboreal but descends to the ground to reach the nest, which is excavated in the soil. It climbs on twings and lianas.",No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is known from only a handful of localities in its relatively restricted distribution. Its forest habitat is not currently under threat.,"Denys (2013b) | Denys, Colyn & Nicolas (2006) | Denys, Michaux et al. (1995) | Genest-Villard (1980) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Nicolas & Colyn (2006) | Petter (1966b)",,"59.Bates’s African Climbing MousePrionomys batesFrench:Dendromus de Bates/ German:Dollman-Baummaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de BatesOther common names:Dollman’s African Tree Mouse, Dollman’s Tree MouseTaxonomy.Prionomys batesi Dollman, 1910,“ Bitye, Ja River, Cameroons[= Cameroon |. Altitude 2000 feet[= 610 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to S Cameroon, SW Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 79-85 mm, tail 103-112 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 15-17 mm; weight 15-21 g. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Furis relatively short, soft, and dense. Dorsum is brown or gray-brown, and venter is paler. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Each eye has a faint dark ring. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fifth digits have elongated claws, and first digit is greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits, with first digit opposable and fifth digit not opposable.Habitat.L.ow-lying rainforest, particularly in forest-savanna mosaic. Elevational range is between 100 m and 300 m.Food and Feeding.Bates’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be entirely insectivorous, preying on ants and spiders.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and appears to be predominantly arboreal but descends to the ground to reach the nest, which is excavated in the soil. It climbs on twings and lianas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is known from only a handful of localities in its relatively restricted distribution. Its forest habitat is not currently under threat.Bibliography.Denys (2013b), Denys, Colyn & Nicolas (2006), Denys, Michaux et al. (1995), Genest-Villard (1980), Monadjem et al. (2015), Nicolas & Colyn (2006), Petter (1966b)." -03993828FFE00F44FFFFF924C894F235,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FFFFF924C894F235.xml,Dendromus mesomelas,Dendromus,mesomelas,,,Dendromus de Brants @fr | Brants-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Brants @es | Brants's Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromys mesomelas Brants, 1827,east of Port Elizabeth, Sunday’s River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Dendromus mesomelaswas previously considered to extend its distribution across to the highlands of East Africa, but these populations have been assigned to a variety of other species. Taxonomic relationships among various isolated populations in southern Africa require investigation. Monotypic.","E & S South Africa and W Swaziland, with isolated records from extreme S DR Congo, NW Zambia, N Botswana, NE Namibia (Caprivi Strip), and C Mozambique.","Head-body 67-88 mm, tail 77-121 mm, ear 11-17 mm, hindfoot 16-23 mm; weight 6-15 g. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile; it is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown to rufous-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base of tail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Various grassland habitats, especially those associated with wetlands or moist environments. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse can also be relatively abundant in Afro-montane forest.",Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats insects.,"In South Africa, pregnant Brants’s African Climbing Mice have been collected during the rainy season. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level; they also use bird nests. Litter sizes are 2-6 young.",Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly arboreal.,"In captivity, Brants’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be gregarious, suggesting thatit is social.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996) | Avery (1992b) | Choate (1972) | De Graaff (1981) | Monadjem (1997b, 1999a) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Plavsic (2015) | Rowe-Rowe (1986) | Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982) | Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a) | Smithers (1971) | Solano et al. (2014) | Taylor (1998)",,"57.Brants’s African Climbing MouseDendromus mesomelasFrench:Dendromus de Brants/ German:Brants-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de BrantsOther common names:Brants's Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys mesomelas Brants, 1827,east of Port Elizabeth, Sunday’s River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Dendromus mesomelaswas previously considered to extend its distribution across to the highlands of East Africa, but these populations have been assigned to a variety of other species. Taxonomic relationships among various isolated populations in southern Africa require investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.E & S South Africa and W Swaziland, with isolated records from extreme S DR Congo, NW Zambia, N Botswana, NE Namibia (Caprivi Strip), and C Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 67-88 mm, tail 77-121 mm, ear 11-17 mm, hindfoot 16-23 mm; weight 6-15 g. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile; it is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown to rufous-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base of tail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various grassland habitats, especially those associated with wetlands or moist environments. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse can also be relatively abundant in Afro-montane forest.Food and Feeding.Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats insects.Breeding.In South Africa, pregnant Brants’s African Climbing Mice have been collected during the rainy season. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level; they also use bird nests. Litter sizes are 2-6 young.Activity patterns.Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In captivity, Brants’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be gregarious, suggesting thatit is social.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996), Avery (1992b), Choate (1972), De Graaff (1981), Monadjem (1997b, 1999a), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Plavsic (2015), Rowe-Rowe (1986), Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982), Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a), Smithers (1971), Solano et al. (2014), Taylor (1998)." -03993828FFE10F42FA20F5C3C811FDAF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F42FA20F5C3C811FDAF.xml,Steatomys bocager,Steatomys,bocage,Thomas,1892,Rat-adipeux de Bocage @fr | Bocage-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Bocage @es | Bocage's African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys bocage: Thomas, 1892,Caconda, Angola.Steatomys bocageiwas previously included in S. pratensis. Monotypic.",SW DR Congo and Angola.,"Head—body 97-124 mm, tail 52-72 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. Bocage’s Fat Mouse is medium-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is noticeable short and hairy, darker above than below. Fur is reddish brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.","Moist savannas and woodlands,typically above elevations of 500 m.",No information.,No information.,Poorly known. Bocage’s Fat Mouseis terrestrial and excavates its own burrow.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Cabral (1966) | Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Happold (2013i) | Monadjem et al. (2015),,"64.Bocage’s Fat MouseSteatomys bocagerFrench:Rat-adipeux de Bocage/ German:Bocage-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de BocageOther common names:Bocage's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys bocage: Thomas, 1892,Caconda, Angola.Steatomys bocageiwas previously included in S. pratensis. Monotypic.Distribution.SW DR Congo and Angola.Descriptive notes.Head—body 97-124 mm, tail 52-72 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. Bocage’s Fat Mouse is medium-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is noticeable short and hairy, darker above than below. Fur is reddish brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.Habitat.Moist savannas and woodlands,typically above elevations of 500 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Poorly known. Bocage’s Fat Mouseis terrestrial and excavates its own burrow.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Cabral (1966), Crawford-Cabral (1998), Happold (2013i), Monadjem et al. (2015)." +03928E699A44FFC1D0A7FD9EF7A7FE66,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A44FFC1D0A7FD9EF7A7FE66.xml,Vicugna pacos,Vicugna,pacos,,,Alpaca @fr | Alpaka @de | Alpaca @es,"Camelus pacos Linnaeus, 1758,Peru.The Alpaca is a domesticated camelid indigenous and endemic to South America, well known for the characteristics of its fine-diameter wool: soft, silky, high luster, lightweight, and warm. Alpaca woolis used for luxurious blankets, sweaters, and cloth. The species was long classified in the genus Lama, but recent DNA studies (mtDNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite markers) have established that the Alpaca was domesticated from the Vicuna subspecies V. vicugnamensalis, showing significant genetic differentiation to warrant a change in its genus to Vicugnaand its designation as a separate species. Archeological digs at the Telarmachay site in the Central Andes of Peruindicate that the Alpaca was domesticated 5500-6500 years ago by a hunter-gatherer society. These early indigenous herders selected for an animal with a docile nature while maintaining the fineness of its progenitor’s wool. No remains of Alpaca have been found to date at archeological digs in the south of Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina), but only early domesticated Llamas (Lama glama). The Alpaca has no subspecies, but two distinct breeds are recognized: the Huacaya and Suri.","Alpacas are found in the Central Andes from C Peruinto mid-Bolivia and N Chile. In the 1980s—1990s Alpacas were imported into the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Europe. There are no known wild/feral populations of Alpacas.","Head-body 114-150 cm,tail 18-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 55-65 kg. Alpacas have long necks; relatively short, straight ears (c. 15 cm), thin and agile legs, and fluffy-appearing bodies because of their long wool. When shorn, however, the bodyis slender and Vicuna-like. There are two distinct breeds. HUACAYA ALPACA: Huacayas are the more common (¢.90%) of the two breeds. Its body, legs, and neck are covered by wool that is long, fine (27-5 microns), and wavy; the head and feet are covered by short wool. Wool grows 5-15 cm/year depending upon nutrition and decreases with age. Huacaya wool is crimped (regular and successive undulations) and similar in appearance to Corriedale sheep wool. Huacayas are bigger in size, have shorter and relatively coarser wool, and lighter fleeces than Suris. There are three general categories of wool: “Baby Alpaca” (20-23 microns some as low as 16-17 microns)is the finest and most expensive wool from recently born animals; “Tui” wool is from the first shearing at 12-18 months; and “Standard” Alpaca wool (c.24 microns) is from animals of two years of age and older. White Huacayas are the most common (c.80%), especially on large commercial Alpaca ranches, compared to 30% white animals in indigenous flocks. White wool accounts for over 80% of the total annual Alpaca wool production. Although most Alpaca wool has little cortex in its fibers,it can be easily dyed just as sheep wool, giving woollen mills greater flexibility with white Alpaca wool. Huacaya Alpaca crossed with a Vicuna produces a Paco-Vicuna, which resembles a large-bodied Vicuna and has 17-19 micron wool. Resource managers are concerned that accidently escaped Paco-Vicunas could have harmful genetic consequences on populations of pure Vicunas. SURI ALPACA: Suris arise from a very small percentage (2%) of Huacaya x Huacaya crosses, thus the origin of the breed. Because of their long-hanging wool, phenotyically Suris are quite distinct from Huacayas. Suri wool is silky (24-27 microns), straight, without crimp, generally finer, longer, more lustrous, softer to the touch, less elastic, less resistant to tension, and faster-growing compared to the Huacaya. The wool parts on the animal’s back create a mid-body line that is capable of growing up to 15 cm/year. Some individual Suris, called “wasis” by Andean herders, are not shorn for years, resulting in the fleece growing until it touches the ground; only a few such special animals are kept and are revered by the indigenous people. Around 17% of the offspring from Suri x Suri crosses produce Huacaya types. In their South American homeland, Suri Alpacas are considered to be longerlived, more delicate, less hardy, and to have lower fertility than Huacaya Alpacas. Recent research has found thatjuvenile mortality is high because of lack of wool coverage on the midline. However, when given the right management and equally good pastures, they thrivejust as well and with similar fertility as Huacayas. During lactation Suri Alpacas lose weight more than Huacayas because they produce more milk (udders are larger on Suri females). As a result, Suri young are heavier than Huacayas because they have a greater availability of milk. Body wool is uniform or multicolored; 22 natural colors have been categorized, ranging from white to black, with intermediate shades of grays, fawns, and browns. The upperlip is split for grasping forage. The eyes are large, round, and slightly forward looking. The feet have soft-padded soles and two toes, each ending with large pointed nails. Testes are small, oval-shaped and located in the perineal region under the tail. Life span is 15-20 years. The cuticle on individual wool fibers is made up of poorly developed, elongated, and flattened cells. While such rudimentary cuticle scales without ridges results in poor felting qualities, it makes the Alpaca wool extraordinarily smooth and soft to the touch. Still, Alpaca wool is 3-6 times stronger than human hair. Based upon strand diameter and morphology, the fleece (pelt) of this ungulate is made up of two types of hair: wool and hair. Similar to fine sheep wool, the medulla can be non-existent in unusually fine Alpaca wool, but has been observed in Peruvian Alpaca fibers averaging 17 microns. Such pure Alpacas are considered “one coated” because their fleece consists only of the fine undercoat hairs and lack the outer coarser guard hairs. As the proportion of medullation increases (as it does with age), wool diameter increases and fineness decreases, thatis, the proportion of the medulla progressively increases with the thickness of the individual wool strand. Woolis of the cortex type of fineness, and hair is of the medullar type with larger diameter. Hair is especially common on the chest, face, and extremities, but it is not unusual to find individual hairs intermixed throughout the fleece. This is especially common in “Huarizos,” hybrids between an Alpaca female and a Llama male. Huarizos show intermediate physical characteristics of the two parents, and relatively coarse wool (c.32 microns in diameter). Their fleeces contain as much as 40% guard hair. Huarizos are considered undesirable by the Alpaca wool industry and are being selected against on commercial Alpaca farms. Nearly all (90%) Alpacas on large farms are shorn annually and done indoors with shearing scissors or by mechanized clippers. In indigenous family herds in the Andes only half of the animals are shorn each year, and done under rustic conditions in the out-of-doors with hand shears. Shearing of males, geldings, non-pregnant and some pregnant females takes place in November and December, while new mothers with young, yearlings, and thin males and females are done in February to April. Annual shearing yields 1.5-2. 8 kgof wool per Alpaca in South America (enough to make four sweaters), and up to 3-6 kg in USAand Australia. Fineness of Alpaca fleeces vary from farm to farm in Peru(24-7-32-3 microns, averaging 28-9 microns), but in other countries where it has been introduced, 16-24 microns is more typical. In the Andes Alpaca wool increases in diameter from 17-4 microns to 27-5 microns from the first shearing at ten months to six years of age. Large Alpaca farms in Peruare able to practice better husbandry through pasture management, selective breeding, and health care. Of 3762 shorn Alpacas on one such farm in Puno, Peru, in the 1980s, wool was sorted and classified into the following five quality categories: X 3% at 19 microns, AA 52% at 25 microns, A 17% at 37 microns, LP 23% at 44 microns, and K 5% at 49 microns. Still, nearly half was considered “thick” relative to the Alpaca’s potential for producing fine wool. Now, two decadeslater, better management and selection is beginning to improve wool quality. Alpaca wool production and quality is strongly influenced by artificial selection (genetics) and nutrition. Seasonally wool production varies under the extreme conditions of the Alpaca’s high-altitude habitat: fiber or strand length has been shown to be 25% longer during the rainy season in the Andean highlands, reflecting the percentage of crude plant protein that decreases from 11% in the wet season to 3-5% in the dry season. Wool quality decreases (increase in diameter) when Alpacas are grazed on high-quality pasture compared to native range of poor to very poor quality. For example during a 15month feeding trial relative to controls, Alpacas on diets in Andean rangeland vs. managed pastures of alfalfa, increased the body weight of mothers and young 10 kgand 22 kgrespectively, fleece weight 0-4 kg and 0-8 kg, staple length 2-3 cm and 1-8 cm, fiber diameter 5-2 microns and 6-9 microns, and yield 4-1% and 10-8%. In another study adult Alpacas on high-feeding regimes resulted in increased stand diameter (fine 21-22 microns to thick 27-28 microns), but wool production per head/year increased from 1-1 kg to 2-4 kg. But, because there is little commercial difference in value per kilogram in the two wool diameters, total monetary value was doubled on the higher feeding regime. Contrary to the long-time belief that Alpacas produce finer wool at higher elevations in the Andes, recent studies with controls have shown that when on the same diet wool quality was similar. Commercially, the majority of Alpaca wool is made into carded and semi-carded thread. In the textile industry it is often blended with merino sheep wool to be made into overcoats and high-fashion knitwear. In general, Alpaca wool quality in the Andes is lower than its potential due to poor management and the extensive Alpaca/ILlama hybridization that has occurred over the past 400 years since Spanish colonization. DNA studies have revealed that today’s Andean Alpaca population shows a high (80-92%) level of hybridization. Along with a significant reduction in Peru’s Alpaca population during colonization, pure colored animals significantly decreased to the point that they became rare. The difference between Alpaca and Llamas and between Huacaya and Suri Alpacas has also been impacted. Alpaca husbandry is now addressing these problems. Additionally, in the 1970s the Alpaca population in Perudropped resulting in a 40% decline of wool production due to land and agrarian reforms. A number of revealing physiological parameters have been measured in Alpaca. Body temperature of normal adult males (n = 50) and females (n = 50) is the same (38-7°C), pulse rate/minute in males (83-2 + 2-2) is higher than females (76:6 + 1-9), and respiration rate/minute is similar for males (29-2 + 1-1) and females (28-3 + 0-79). For young Alpaca 10-12 months old (n = 50) body temperature is 38-5 + 0-04, pulse rate 83-8 + 2-9, and respiration rate 33-1 + 0-19. For femalesin the last days of gestation body temperature (38-3 + 0-07) is the same as non-pregnant females, but pulse rates (83-5 + 2-3), and respiration rates (34-8 + 1-9) were higher.","Alpacas are raised in the Andean highlands; regionally known as the Altiplano and Puna. The Puna ecosystem is rolling grassland and isolated wetlands typically at c.3500-5200 m altitude with two marked periods: the rainy season from October to April and the dry season from May to September. Most (75%) precipitation falls from November to March in the form of both hail and rain. In Peruthe annual precipitation varies from 800 mmin the south to 1200 mmin the central mountains. The mean annual temperatures are less than 10°C and nocturnal frosts are common, especially during the dry season. Diurnal fluctuations can be as much as 20°C in the mesic Altiplano and even greater in the dry or desert Altiplano. The short growing season, as determined by moisture and night-time cloud cover, occurs between December and March. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous grasses and forbs. Few trees exist and shrubs are only locally abundant. Perennial bunchgrasses are common including the genera Festuca, Poa, Stipa, and Calamagrostis, as well as the grass-like sedges Carexand Scirpus. High-quality forage is more abundant during the rainy season and scarcer during the remainder of the year. A critical habitat and principal source of forage for Alpacas in the Andes that allows intensive-localized foraging are bofedales or mojadales. Providing lush forage and moist vegetation that Alpacas thrive on, bofedales are localized islands of perennial greenery with deep organic soils moistened by subterranean and considerable surface water often forming small pools. Both natural and artificial bofedales exist, some man-made ones dating back to pre-Inca times. These high-altitude marsh areas can provide year-round forage, allowing herders and their animals to remain in the same area for extended periods. Depending upon water availability, they are productive only during the rainy season or throughout the year. As a result, their carrying capacity is highly variable, from 2-8 Alpacas/ha/year. Natural mojadales compared to irrigated artificial ones, typically have greater plant cover with more palatable and nutritious forage. Vegetative composition of bofedales in the humid Puna varies between several dominant species, including Distichia muscoides, Eleocharisalbibracteata, Hypochoeris taraxacoides, Hidrocotilo ranunculoides, Liliaopsis andina, and others. A percentage cover of 64-72% of desirable species (Werneria nubigena, Werneria pymaea, Hipochoeris stenocephala, Ranunculos sp., Carexfragilaris) is excellent Alpaca forage. Reported total accumulated bofedal forage (dry weight) from January to August was 1021 kg/ha that grew at an average rate of 4-2 kg/ha/day. Protein ranged 8-3-13-4% and crude fiber 19-2-34-1%. Annual bofedal growth varies with season: 60% during the summer growing season (January-April), 21% during the transition to the dry season (May-June), and 19% in the dry season (July-December). Wet artificial bofedales have greater sustained productivity than natural bofedales with 10-11% protein in both the wet and dry seasons and capable of supporting 3—4 Alpaca/ha/year. Continuous year-round grazing of native grasslands is the most common grazing management practice used by indigenous herders, but technicians are encouraging enhancement of rangeland conditions through rotational grazing and reducing stocking rates of Alpacas and competing sheep. Recommended stocking rate for Alpacas on Andean native pastures is 2-7 animals/ha/year on excellent range, 2 good, 1 average, 0-33 poor, and 0-17 very poor. However, intensively managed, irrigated pastures of grasses and legumes at 3850 maltitude can support 25 Alpacas/ha/year. Research indicates that despite the high elevations and low night-time temperatures, it is possible to increase considerably the sustained carrying capacity of Andean rangeland by the introduction of improved forage species. Managed pastures of irrigated ryegrass (Loliumperenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) with application of nitrogen fertilizers can carry up to 30 adult ind/ha compared with the usual rate of 1-1-5 ind/ha on natural grasslands. On Andean rangelands grazed by Alpaca,tall grass communities are commonly set on fire during the dry season (June—October) by native indigenous herders. The objective is the destruction of bunch grasses that will encourage the growth of ground forage preferred by Alpaca and sheep. However, studies have shown that annual burns are not beneficial because they not only stimulate the rapid regrowth of bunchgrasses, but promote hillside soil erosion and encourage the growth of undesirable invasive plant species. Burning every third or more years during the wet season is a more effective approach for improving Alpaca range and habitat.","Historically, an Alpaca was considered to be equivalent to three sheep, but modern animal nutritionists in Peruconsider that Alpacas consume 1-2—-1-5 times as much forage as one sheep. Alpacas are selective for these familiar Altiplano plants: Compositae/composites 31 4% (Hipochoires stenocephala, Werneria novigena), followed by Cyperaceae/sedges-rushes 26-1% (Eleocharisalbibracteata, Carexsp.), Gramineae/grasses 19-1% (Calamagrostisrigescens, Festucadolichophylla), Rosaceae/roses 14-6% (Alchemillapinnata, Alchemilladiplophylla) and minor percentages of Ranunculaceae/ buttercups 5:6% (Ranunculusbreviscapus), Leguminosae/legumes 1-7% (Trifolium amabile) and others. Plant leaves,stalks, and flowers with protein content as high as 17-4% are selected by Alpaca when feeding in quality bofedales in the rainy-growing season. Year-round feeding studies on the chemical composition of ingested forage with fistulated Alpacas in Peruand Boliviayielded the following: dry matter 9-9%, organic material 88-8%, minerals 11-2%, total protein 15-1%, ether extract 7-4%, crude fiber 27-5%, nitrogen-free extract 38-:8%, and detergent neutral fiber 61:6%. General apparent digestibility of bofedal nutrients was dry matter 64-9%, organic material 64-1%, and total protein 64-8%. Total digestible nutrients (TDN) of bofedal forage eaten by Alpacas was similar between the rainy (54-1%) and dry (66:5%) seasons, as was the average energy from TDN at 60-3%. Average daily weight gain per Alpaca grazed on typical (control) bofedales was 0-093 kg, but experimentally at low stocking rates (2 Alpaca/ha/year) weight gain was 0-101 kg/day, medium stocking (4 Alpaca) 0-084 kg/ day, and high stocking (6 Alpaca) 0-079 kg/day. Although the carrying capacity is around one Alpaca/ha/year, overgrazing occurs at 1-8-2-5 Alpaca/ha/year, lowering the quantity and quality of available forage. In indigenous Andean communities where herders own the animals but not the land and the communal grazing lands are used through permission from the community, overgrazing of the natural grasslands is not uncommon. Although efforts are being made to counter the situation, a long history of bofedal overuse by traditional Alpaca herders has frequently resulted in low live (50 kg) and carcass (25-5 kg) weights, reduced fleece weights (1-2 kg), low fertility (35%), and high juvenile mortality (30%). Like Vicunas, Alpacas need frequent water intake. Water consumption by Alpacas grazing on bofedales was high during the dry season at 3-08 kg/animal/day and less in the rainy growing season at 2-04 kg. In another Peruvian study digestibility of high-altitude forage by Alpacas in both Altplano and bofedal habitats was lowest (50-62%) in the winter-dry season and highest (66-76%) in the spring/summer-wet season. Comparative feeding trials measuring the coefficients of digestibility revealed that when fed dry forage low in protein (less than 7-5%) Alpacas were 14% more efficient than sheep, but at high protein levels (greater than 10-5%), sheep were slightly (2%) more efficient. Other studies have reported that Alpacas have a digestion coefficient 25% higher than sheep, particularly on low-quality forage. Maintenance-energy requirements for a 60 kgAlpaca is 2% of its body weight, or 1-2 kg dry forage per day. Alpacas in Peruforage more selectively than Llamas. Diets are highest in grass during the wet and early dry season. As the dry season progresses, the diets of Alpacas in bofedal habitat became largely sedges and reeds (81%). Animals in dryer habitats consume more grass (68%). A study of live weight changes of Alpaca adult males, females, and their progeny, was conducted for three seasons under continuous grazing on natural grasslands on the Mediterranean range of Central Chile. Live weight changes were highest in spring (100-200 g/day), moderate during winter (50-100 g/day), and negative only at the end of summer and in autumn (-110 g/day to — 150 g/day). Weight gains of newborn Alpacas were greatest (110-150 g/day) in the first 90 days after birth and then decreased slightly, reaching values of 75 g/day at 8-5 months old. Weight gainsstabilized at 10-20 g/day at three years of age.","Alpaca females in Perureach puberty at 60% (33-40 kg) of their adult weight, or at c.12-14 months of age when being grazed on native pastures. Although such young females exhibit sexual behavior, ovulation, fertilization, and embryonic survival similar to adults, most breeders waitto first breed females at two years of age when they have reached greater physical maturity. Male Alpacas in Peruare first used for reproduction at two to three years of age, because the penis is still adhered to the prepuce in one-(84%) and two-year-olds (50%), with all males adhesion free at three years old. The rate of detachment is dependent upon the level of testosterone secreted from the testes. The breeding season is from January to April using several different husbandry techniques. If the females are unfamiliar with the breeding male, they most likely will not accept him. Such males become familiarized by staying with the females in the same stone corral or encircled together by rope for a number of hours each day for 20 days; pregnancy rate is as high at 85% using this method. The most common technique is to run four to six breeding males per 100 females together, year-round. Artificial selection is less controlled by this approach, so males with desired traits are chosen (typically white colored, dense and good quality wool, and normally developed testes 4-5 cm long and 2-5 cm wide). On large, Peruvian Alpaca farms no more than 200 females are run with 10-12 males, half of which are rotated in one-week intervals for two months during the breeding season. Males work well for one week, but then begin to fight with each other and establish hierarchies and harems, thus the rotational system. Alpaca breed and give birth seasonally. When males and females are kept together year-round, births only occur during the rainy season from December to March. The continuous association of the sexes produces an inhibiting effect on the sexual activity of the male. But when males are separated from females and only brought together for breeding, births are year-round. Copulation occurs with the female in sternal recumbency, and lasts 20-50 minutes. Non-pregnant Alpaca have no well-defined cyclical sexual activity (estrus), but are always in the follicular phase and state of receptivity until ovulation is induced by copulation. There is no period of sexual inactivity in Alpaca and other cameloids, nor a relationship between size of ovarian follicle and sexual receptivity. Ovulation occurs ¢.26 hours after copulation. Ovulation can be also be induced by the injection of chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and then occurs c¢.24 hours later. Following ovulation the corpus luteum forms and reaches maximum size and secretory activity at approximately eight days. With no gestation the corpus luteum regresses within 12-18 days after mating, giving way to the formation of new follicles. With conception and gestation, the corpus luteum continues its secretory activity and thereafter the female is not sexually receptive. Pregnancy is assessed by sexual behavior of the female in presence of a new male. Studies have found that at least 85% of the females that ovulate in response to the coital stimulation have at least one fertilized ovum within three days of mating. However, in Peruthere is 34% embryonic mortality during the first 30 days of gestation, seriously affecting the annual birth rate of Alpacas. Nearly all (95%) of the pregnancies are in the left horn of the bifurcated uterus, although both ovaries are equally active. Thus, transuterine migration from the right to the left horn of the uterus is common, as evidenced by the corpus luteum in the right ovary and the fetus in the left horn of the uterus. The placenta is simple-diffuse and of the chorial epithelium type. Reproductive studies in Peruon Alpaca mothers (n = 1684) showed that age of the female, year of birth, and the quality of diet were important factors influencing the length of gestation and date of birth. First time mothers at two years of age and those 15 years and older had longer gestation periods (403 and 401 days respectively) than middle-aged females four to twelve years of age (380-390 days). Females grazing on higher quality, cultivated pastures had longer gestation periods than those on native rangelands (389 vs. 379 days). Also in years with favorable vs. poor range conditions, gestation was longer (392 vs. 381 days) and newborns weighed more (8-7 vs. 8-1 kg). The explanation for this may be that females on good forage can afford longer gestations, give birth to a larger young, and be assured that favorable forage will be available for costly lactation. In contrast, females on poor forage have shorter gestations, cannot afford long gestations because of the potential cost of lowering their own health, and need to start lactation as soon as possible while there is at least some forage available before the dry season begins. Age of the Alpaca mother and date of parturition also influenced offspring survival in the Peruvian studies. In a curvilinear fashion, survival of young born to mothers two and three years of age was lower than those with mothers 9-11 years old (82% vs. 91% survival), but declines to 88% for mothers 15 years of age. In Australia, the gestation of spring-mated females is ten days longer than fall-mated females. Birth weight of Alpaca neonates averages 8-4 kg in Peru, with significant variation as indicated among femaleage groups. The importance of good maternal nutrition is critical for such a species with an unusually long gestation. At 180 days or almost half way through gestation the fetus weighs 600 g, only 7% of its eventual 9 kgat birth. Some 93% ofits growth takes place in the last half of gestation, and at 230 days or two-thirds of the way into gestation, a remarkable 72% ofits growth is yet to be gained. The heavy energy demands of lactation lasting 6—8 months, mostly coincides with the Andean rainy, or growing season. Even though multiple ovulations occur c¢.10% of the time, Alpaca twins are extremely rare in Peruand in the USA; only one out of ¢.2000 births. If neonatal twins do occurthere is a significant difference in size, e.g. 4 kgand 6 kg, with the smaller one typically in the right horn of the uterus dying during gestation resulting in the death of the other. After giving birth the female comes into estrus within 48 hours, but only with initial follicular growth. Follicular size and activity capable of ovulation in response to copulation is observed from the fifth day, but the higher rates offertility begin ten days after parturition with the highest fertility 20-30 days postpartum. The Peruvian Alpaca birth season is from December to May. Females are not separated from the herd due to the lack of space. The umbilical of the newborn is treated with iodine or an herb solution to prevent infection and diarrhea. Newborns are watched closely by the herder to assure first nursing is successful (first milk is high in colostrum, rich in antibodies). Parturition in indigenous herds averages a low 50% and juvenile mortality is high (15-35%); itis estimated that no more than half of the female Alpaca of reproductive age produce young every year. Young born during the birth season also had higher survival than those born late. Additionally, juvenile survival is curvilinearly related to birth weight. Neonates weighing 9-11 kg had an average 92% survival but those weighing 4-5 kg survived at a rate of 30-50%. When pregnant females (n = 424) and their young were monitored,it was found that newborn birth weight, and weight and width of the placenta increased with age of the dam reaching a peak at nine years and then declined progressively. Placental efficiency also increased with female Alpaca age, showing a bimodal shape and peaking at 6-11year-old females; more young died from two-year-old females than any other age; and dead neonates weighed less (6-4 kg) than those that survived (7-8 kg). In indigenous herds, young-of-the-year are usually not weaned due to the lack of extra pastures and the labor involved. Instead, young nurse beyond one year of age, including up to the time the mother gives birth again. To impede the yearling from competing with the newborn for nursing, herders will sometimes temporarily pierce the yearling’s nose with a stick. In commercial Alpaca herds weaning occurs in September through October, sometimes until November, when young are 6-8 months old.","The daily routine or activity pattern of indigenous Alpaca family flocks is quite consistent. After having spent the night in a stone corral or next to the family house (usually a stone hut called a choza), the animals are released or move out on their own to graze for the day soon after sunrise. While the family’s sheep flock is tended by a herder, the Alpaca flock is not accompanied by a herder. Instead,its daily movements and activity patterns while grazing are self-directed within 1-2 km of their home base to local bofedales and other feeding areas of their choice. As sunset approaches, the flock returns to the home site by themselves without being escorted by a herder. Daytime activity budgets (percentage of time) of Alpacas compared to sheep while both species grazed on native-Andean pasture dominated by the favorable forage Festucadolichophylla, have shown that while other activities were similar, Alpacas fed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (11% vs. 25%) than sheep.","Seasonal patterns of Alpaca movement are determined by herders as influenced by the availability of forage, varying from one locality to next. One common annual movement of Alpacas in the Andes is to graze herds during the rainy season (generallyJanuary to April) in lower mountains (3600-4100 m) areas characterized by pampas, slopes, and rounded ridges. Then in the dry season (generally May to December) they are moved up to the high altitudes (4100-5200 m) to find favorable forage, bofedales, and water. When the rainy season begins, they are moved back to lower areas where grasses are beginning to grow and to avoid severe hailstorms and other weather at higher altitudes. Herders, however, without access to two seasonal sites maintain their animals in the same area year-round. Indigenous families that raise livestock in the Peruvian Andes on the average have 70 Alpacas (30-120), 30 Llamas (4-50), and 50 sheep (10-80). More importance is placed upon Alpacas because they offer greater economic diversity. Most (90-95%) of the Alpaca woolis sold, the balance used for home use. Many of the young males one to two years old are sold for meat production, and old animals are culled to make jerky. In three Peruvian Alpaca farms that were cooperatively, family, and individually owned, percent herd composition was females: 60/ 65/ 70; gelded males: 25/30/25; breeding males: 3/4/5; white animals: 70/70/90; and colored animals: 30/30/10. With Alpacas that are owned as private property, each member of the family owns animals but herd control is under the family. Ownership is designated by ear markings or colored yarn. Animals are often given as presents or ceremonial gifts. They play an important role in the rituals, symbols, mythology, and ceremoniesin the life of Andean people. Individual animals are recognized and described by physical characteristics and usually given a name. Alpacas have feminine attributes in the Andean cosmic vision oflife and the world, and generically referred to as “mothers” and “dear mothers.” Alpacas are highly social with strong herding behavior, making them easier to drive when necessary. In small, mixed-sex herds, dominance is clear with a few adult males as the leaders. Alpacas are more skittish and shy with strangers than Llamas. When a free-ranging flock is approached on foot, they will distance themselves more quickly than a herd of Llamas. Once they become familiar with you, however, they are docile and easier to handle than sheep. There are no known unmanaged or feral populations of Alpaca that would allow us to assess their social organization and full repertoire of behavior. However, a number of subtle-contrasting characteristics exist in Alpaca behavior that turn out to be, not surprisingly, very similar to the Vicuna: tighter grouping, vocal communication more common, less communicative with their tails, love water and bathe regularly, greater susceptibility to heat stress, higher site fidelity, males more protective of females, less cooperative, and more distant and stand-offish.","Alpacas and Llamas were important to ancient Andean civilizations such as the Tiwanaku Culture that dominated the Lake Titicaca region from ¢.300 BC to 1000 Ap, and the Inca Culture that dominated the Central Andes in the 15% and 16"" centuries. When the Incas captured the cameloid-rich kingdoms near Lake Titicaca and south, they acquired giant herds of Llamas and Alpacas. The Incas then sent “seed herds” throughout their empire and commanded that they be reproduced. State-controlled husbandry of Alpacas produced vast herds that numbered into the millions. The Incas placed special emphasis on avoidance of crossbreeding with Llamas and selective breeding of pure-colored Alpacas (brown, black, and white) for quality wool and sacrifice to deities. The Spanish invasion in the 16™ century destroyed that advanced management system and there ensued a breakdown of controlled breeding. Today, the raising of Alpacas in the high altitudes of Peruand Boliviacontributes substantially to the economy of the region. However, animal production is limited by the low level of technology, adverse climate, disease, herders with scarce resources, and frequent over utilization of native rangelands. The Andean grazing system is extensively based upon utilization of native high-altitude grasslands by mixed herds that include not only Alpacas, but sheep and Llamas as well. Pastoralism and mixed agropastoralism form the subsistence base for the agricultural segment of the high Andes. Indigenous communities control the greatest number of camelids and sheep, as well as half of the native rangelands, which comprise ¢.95% ofthe land area above 3800 m. The Alpaca population in South America is c.4-5 million, down some 20% since the mid-1960s, but up 25% from the early 2000s. Today, numbers are at least stable, if not increasing. Most Alpacas are in Peruwith 91%, followed by Bolivia8% and Chile1%. Few Alpacas occur in Argentinabecause of the lack of moist Puna and the dominance of the dry Puna. More than 73-87% are in southern Peru(Arequipa, Cuzco, Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna), with nearly half of the world’s Alpaca in the Department of Puno. Females represent c¢.70% of the total Alpaca population. A high percentage (85-95%) of Alpacas are owned and managed by native herders in small flocks ofless than 50 animals, but some commercial Alpaca herds are as large as 30,000-50,000 individuals. Although indigenous herders raise most Alpacas, productivity traditionally has been the lowest due to over stocking, improper health care, and inbreeding. Peruhas ¢.789,775 producers raising Alpacas; Boliviahas 13,603, and Chile916. Starting in the early 1980s Alpacas were exported from Chile, Bolivia, and Peruto the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, where cottage industries in Alpaca wool have developed. In the USAthe Alpaca Owners & Breeders Association numbered over 4500 members with 143,000 registered Alpacas in 2010. Peruexports c. US$ 24 million worth of Alpaca products (wool, tops, yarns, woven fabrics, and knitwear) annually to countries around the world, especially China, Germany, and Italy. Annual Alpaca wool production in South America is 4-1 million kg (90% from Peru), yet only represents 0-6% of the world’s fine-fibered wool production (fine sheep wool is ¢.90-95% followed by cashmere at 5-10%). Because of a high market demand for white wool from Huacaya Alpaca, which can be dyed to any desired color, the Alpaca population has become dominated (80-87%) by white individuals. The result has been a scarcity of individuals with pure natural colors and a reduction of genetic diversity in the species. Pure black Alpacas are the rarest. The problem has been recognized and pure natural colors are now beginning to recover. Alpaca wool prices were at their peak from the 1960s-1980s then declined due to land reforms and competition from synthetics. Prices, however, still remain high at four times the value of sheep wool. In North America in its raw state, an ounce of Alpaca varies from US$ 2 to US$ 5. Each stage of the process (cleaning, carding, spinning, knitting, finishing, etc) adds more value to the wool. As a finished garment, it can sell for US$ 10/0z. In addition to its importance as a producer of fine wool, Alpacas have been a valuable source of meat and hides in South America. In the late 1990s some eleven million kilograms of Alpaca meat were produced annually in Peru, representing 10-15% of the country’s total Alpaca population. The best yield and tenderest meat is from animals 1-5-2 years old, but most are slaughtered at 7-8 years old because their wool has become too coarse for economic production. Alpaca meat is healthful, rich in protein and low in cholesterol and fat. Prime cuts are 50% of the carcass and sold either fresh or frozen to meat markets, restaurants, hotels, and supermarkets. Hides are tanned for soft leather products or sold with the fleece intact as wall hangings, rugs, and toys. For indigenous peoples that raise most Alpacas, family income from these animals is primarily from meat (44% fresh, 16% dried) and secondarily from the wool (31%). Despite its excellent quality, the price received for Alpaca meat is 50% less than that for sheep and beef, due to long standing prejudice towards camelid meat. Beginning in the 1960s Peruwas the world leader in quality Alpaca research, especially by the progressive staff and visiting scientists working at the La Raya Research Station from CuzcoUniversity. With the export of Alpacas around the globe starting in the 1990s, serious science on this longneglected species and family expanded to a number of countries. Universities in the USAand Australiapursued vigorous research programs into reproduction, disease, genetics, and nutrition. The future for the Alpaca is encouraging. Wide opportunities exist for improved successful Alpaca production in the highlands of Peruand Bolivia, especially if the stewardship of the Alpaca’s principle habitat, bofedales, is improved towards sustained and balanced use.","Allen (2010) | Bravo & Varela (1993) | Bravo, Garnica & Puma (2009) | Bravo, Pezo & Alarcén (1995) | Bryant et al. (1989) | Bustinza (1989) | Calle Escobar (1984) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | Castellaro et al. (1998) | Fernandez-Baca et al. (1972a, 1972b) | FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995) | Florez (1991) | Gonzales (1990) | Groeneveld et al. (2010) | Hoffman & Fowler (1995) | Huacarpuma (1990) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Moscoso & Bautista (2003) | Munoz (2008) | Novoa & Florez (1991) | Orlove (1977) | Quispe et al. (2009) | San Martin (1989) | Sumar (1996) | Sumar et al. (1972) | Tuckwell (1994) | Villarroel (1991)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719731/files/figure.png,"4.AlpacaVicugna pacosFrench:Alpaca/ German:Alpaka/ Spanish:AlpacaTaxonomy.Camelus pacos Linnaeus, 1758,Peru.The Alpaca is a domesticated camelid indigenous and endemic to South America, well known for the characteristics of its fine-diameter wool: soft, silky, high luster, lightweight, and warm. Alpaca woolis used for luxurious blankets, sweaters, and cloth. The species was long classified in the genus Lama, but recent DNA studies (mtDNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite markers) have established that the Alpaca was domesticated from the Vicuna subspecies V. vicugnamensalis, showing significant genetic differentiation to warrant a change in its genus to Vicugnaand its designation as a separate species. Archeological digs at the Telarmachay site in the Central Andes of Peruindicate that the Alpaca was domesticated 5500-6500 years ago by a hunter-gatherer society. These early indigenous herders selected for an animal with a docile nature while maintaining the fineness of its progenitor’s wool. No remains of Alpaca have been found to date at archeological digs in the south of Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina), but only early domesticated Llamas (Lama glama). The Alpaca has no subspecies, but two distinct breeds are recognized: the Huacaya and Suri.Distribution.Alpacas are found in the Central Andes from C Peruinto mid-Bolivia and N Chile. In the 1980s—1990s Alpacas were imported into the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Europe. There are no known wild/feral populations of Alpacas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-150 cm,tail 18-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 55-65 kg. Alpacas have long necks; relatively short, straight ears (c. 15 cm), thin and agile legs, and fluffy-appearing bodies because of their long wool. When shorn, however, the bodyis slender and Vicuna-like. There are two distinct breeds. HUACAYA ALPACA: Huacayas are the more common (¢.90%) of the two breeds. Its body, legs, and neck are covered by wool that is long, fine (27-5 microns), and wavy; the head and feet are covered by short wool. Wool grows 5-15 cm/year depending upon nutrition and decreases with age. Huacaya wool is crimped (regular and successive undulations) and similar in appearance to Corriedale sheep wool. Huacayas are bigger in size, have shorter and relatively coarser wool, and lighter fleeces than Suris. There are three general categories of wool: “Baby Alpaca” (20-23 microns some as low as 16-17 microns)is the finest and most expensive wool from recently born animals; “Tui” wool is from the first shearing at 12-18 months; and “Standard” Alpaca wool (c.24 microns) is from animals of two years of age and older. White Huacayas are the most common (c.80%), especially on large commercial Alpaca ranches, compared to 30% white animals in indigenous flocks. White wool accounts for over 80% of the total annual Alpaca wool production. Although most Alpaca wool has little cortex in its fibers,it can be easily dyed just as sheep wool, giving woollen mills greater flexibility with white Alpaca wool. Huacaya Alpaca crossed with a Vicuna produces a Paco-Vicuna, which resembles a large-bodied Vicuna and has 17-19 micron wool. Resource managers are concerned that accidently escaped Paco-Vicunas could have harmful genetic consequences on populations of pure Vicunas. SURI ALPACA: Suris arise from a very small percentage (2%) of Huacaya x Huacaya crosses, thus the origin of the breed. Because of their long-hanging wool, phenotyically Suris are quite distinct from Huacayas. Suri wool is silky (24-27 microns), straight, without crimp, generally finer, longer, more lustrous, softer to the touch, less elastic, less resistant to tension, and faster-growing compared to the Huacaya. The wool parts on the animal’s back create a mid-body line that is capable of growing up to 15 cm/year. Some individual Suris, called “wasis” by Andean herders, are not shorn for years, resulting in the fleece growing until it touches the ground; only a few such special animals are kept and are revered by the indigenous people. Around 17% of the offspring from Suri x Suri crosses produce Huacaya types. In their South American homeland, Suri Alpacas are considered to be longerlived, more delicate, less hardy, and to have lower fertility than Huacaya Alpacas. Recent research has found thatjuvenile mortality is high because of lack of wool coverage on the midline. However, when given the right management and equally good pastures, they thrivejust as well and with similar fertility as Huacayas. During lactation Suri Alpacas lose weight more than Huacayas because they produce more milk (udders are larger on Suri females). As a result, Suri young are heavier than Huacayas because they have a greater availability of milk. Body wool is uniform or multicolored; 22 natural colors have been categorized, ranging from white to black, with intermediate shades of grays, fawns, and browns. The upperlip is split for grasping forage. The eyes are large, round, and slightly forward looking. The feet have soft-padded soles and two toes, each ending with large pointed nails. Testes are small, oval-shaped and located in the perineal region under the tail. Life span is 15-20 years. The cuticle on individual wool fibers is made up of poorly developed, elongated, and flattened cells. While such rudimentary cuticle scales without ridges results in poor felting qualities, it makes the Alpaca wool extraordinarily smooth and soft to the touch. Still, Alpaca wool is 3-6 times stronger than human hair. Based upon strand diameter and morphology, the fleece (pelt) of this ungulate is made up of two types of hair: wool and hair. Similar to fine sheep wool, the medulla can be non-existent in unusually fine Alpaca wool, but has been observed in Peruvian Alpaca fibers averaging 17 microns. Such pure Alpacas are considered “one coated” because their fleece consists only of the fine undercoat hairs and lack the outer coarser guard hairs. As the proportion of medullation increases (as it does with age), wool diameter increases and fineness decreases, thatis, the proportion of the medulla progressively increases with the thickness of the individual wool strand. Woolis of the cortex type of fineness, and hair is of the medullar type with larger diameter. Hair is especially common on the chest, face, and extremities, but it is not unusual to find individual hairs intermixed throughout the fleece. This is especially common in “Huarizos,” hybrids between an Alpaca female and a Llama male. Huarizos show intermediate physical characteristics of the two parents, and relatively coarse wool (c.32 microns in diameter). Their fleeces contain as much as 40% guard hair. Huarizos are considered undesirable by the Alpaca wool industry and are being selected against on commercial Alpaca farms. Nearly all (90%) Alpacas on large farms are shorn annually and done indoors with shearing scissors or by mechanized clippers. In indigenous family herds in the Andes only half of the animals are shorn each year, and done under rustic conditions in the out-of-doors with hand shears. Shearing of males, geldings, non-pregnant and some pregnant females takes place in November and December, while new mothers with young, yearlings, and thin males and females are done in February to April. Annual shearing yields 1.5-2. 8 kgof wool per Alpaca in South America (enough to make four sweaters), and up to 3-6 kg in USAand Australia. Fineness of Alpaca fleeces vary from farm to farm in Peru(24-7-32-3 microns, averaging 28-9 microns), but in other countries where it has been introduced, 16-24 microns is more typical. In the Andes Alpaca wool increases in diameter from 17-4 microns to 27-5 microns from the first shearing at ten months to six years of age. Large Alpaca farms in Peruare able to practice better husbandry through pasture management, selective breeding, and health care. Of 3762 shorn Alpacas on one such farm in Puno, Peru, in the 1980s, wool was sorted and classified into the following five quality categories: X 3% at 19 microns, AA 52% at 25 microns, A 17% at 37 microns, LP 23% at 44 microns, and K 5% at 49 microns. Still, nearly half was considered “thick” relative to the Alpaca’s potential for producing fine wool. Now, two decadeslater, better management and selection is beginning to improve wool quality. Alpaca wool production and quality is strongly influenced by artificial selection (genetics) and nutrition. Seasonally wool production varies under the extreme conditions of the Alpaca’s high-altitude habitat: fiber or strand length has been shown to be 25% longer during the rainy season in the Andean highlands, reflecting the percentage of crude plant protein that decreases from 11% in the wet season to 3-5% in the dry season. Wool quality decreases (increase in diameter) when Alpacas are grazed on high-quality pasture compared to native range of poor to very poor quality. For example during a 15month feeding trial relative to controls, Alpacas on diets in Andean rangeland vs. managed pastures of alfalfa, increased the body weight of mothers and young 10 kgand 22 kgrespectively, fleece weight 0-4 kg and 0-8 kg, staple length 2-3 cm and 1-8 cm, fiber diameter 5-2 microns and 6-9 microns, and yield 4-1% and 10-8%. In another study adult Alpacas on high-feeding regimes resulted in increased stand diameter (fine 21-22 microns to thick 27-28 microns), but wool production per head/year increased from 1-1 kg to 2-4 kg. But, because there is little commercial difference in value per kilogram in the two wool diameters, total monetary value was doubled on the higher feeding regime. Contrary to the long-time belief that Alpacas produce finer wool at higher elevations in the Andes, recent studies with controls have shown that when on the same diet wool quality was similar. Commercially, the majority of Alpaca wool is made into carded and semi-carded thread. In the textile industry it is often blended with merino sheep wool to be made into overcoats and high-fashion knitwear. In general, Alpaca wool quality in the Andes is lower than its potential due to poor management and the extensive Alpaca/ILlama hybridization that has occurred over the past 400 years since Spanish colonization. DNA studies have revealed that today’s Andean Alpaca population shows a high (80-92%) level of hybridization. Along with a significant reduction in Peru’s Alpaca population during colonization, pure colored animals significantly decreased to the point that they became rare. The difference between Alpaca and Llamas and between Huacaya and Suri Alpacas has also been impacted. Alpaca husbandry is now addressing these problems. Additionally, in the 1970s the Alpaca population in Perudropped resulting in a 40% decline of wool production due to land and agrarian reforms. A number of revealing physiological parameters have been measured in Alpaca. Body temperature of normal adult males (n = 50) and females (n = 50) is the same (38-7°C), pulse rate/minute in males (83-2 + 2-2) is higher than females (76:6 + 1-9), and respiration rate/minute is similar for males (29-2 + 1-1) and females (28-3 + 0-79). For young Alpaca 10-12 months old (n = 50) body temperature is 38-5 + 0-04, pulse rate 83-8 + 2-9, and respiration rate 33-1 + 0-19. For femalesin the last days of gestation body temperature (38-3 + 0-07) is the same as non-pregnant females, but pulse rates (83-5 + 2-3), and respiration rates (34-8 + 1-9) were higher.Habitat.Alpacas are raised in the Andean highlands; regionally known as the Altiplano and Puna. The Puna ecosystem is rolling grassland and isolated wetlands typically at c.3500-5200 m altitude with two marked periods: the rainy season from October to April and the dry season from May to September. Most (75%) precipitation falls from November to March in the form of both hail and rain. In Peruthe annual precipitation varies from 800 mmin the south to 1200 mmin the central mountains. The mean annual temperatures are less than 10°C and nocturnal frosts are common, especially during the dry season. Diurnal fluctuations can be as much as 20°C in the mesic Altiplano and even greater in the dry or desert Altiplano. The short growing season, as determined by moisture and night-time cloud cover, occurs between December and March. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous grasses and forbs. Few trees exist and shrubs are only locally abundant. Perennial bunchgrasses are common including the genera Festuca, Poa, Stipa, and Calamagrostis, as well as the grass-like sedges Carexand Scirpus. High-quality forage is more abundant during the rainy season and scarcer during the remainder of the year. A critical habitat and principal source of forage for Alpacas in the Andes that allows intensive-localized foraging are bofedales or mojadales. Providing lush forage and moist vegetation that Alpacas thrive on, bofedales are localized islands of perennial greenery with deep organic soils moistened by subterranean and considerable surface water often forming small pools. Both natural and artificial bofedales exist, some man-made ones dating back to pre-Inca times. These high-altitude marsh areas can provide year-round forage, allowing herders and their animals to remain in the same area for extended periods. Depending upon water availability, they are productive only during the rainy season or throughout the year. As a result, their carrying capacity is highly variable, from 2-8 Alpacas/ha/year. Natural mojadales compared to irrigated artificial ones, typically have greater plant cover with more palatable and nutritious forage. Vegetative composition of bofedales in the humid Puna varies between several dominant species, including Distichia muscoides, Eleocharisalbibracteata, Hypochoeris taraxacoides, Hidrocotilo ranunculoides, Liliaopsis andina, and others. A percentage cover of 64-72% of desirable species (Werneria nubigena, Werneria pymaea, Hipochoeris stenocephala, Ranunculos sp., Carexfragilaris) is excellent Alpaca forage. Reported total accumulated bofedal forage (dry weight) from January to August was 1021 kg/ha that grew at an average rate of 4-2 kg/ha/day. Protein ranged 8-3-13-4% and crude fiber 19-2-34-1%. Annual bofedal growth varies with season: 60% during the summer growing season (January-April), 21% during the transition to the dry season (May-June), and 19% in the dry season (July-December). Wet artificial bofedales have greater sustained productivity than natural bofedales with 10-11% protein in both the wet and dry seasons and capable of supporting 3—4 Alpaca/ha/year. Continuous year-round grazing of native grasslands is the most common grazing management practice used by indigenous herders, but technicians are encouraging enhancement of rangeland conditions through rotational grazing and reducing stocking rates of Alpacas and competing sheep. Recommended stocking rate for Alpacas on Andean native pastures is 2-7 animals/ha/year on excellent range, 2 good, 1 average, 0-33 poor, and 0-17 very poor. However, intensively managed, irrigated pastures of grasses and legumes at 3850 maltitude can support 25 Alpacas/ha/year. Research indicates that despite the high elevations and low night-time temperatures, it is possible to increase considerably the sustained carrying capacity of Andean rangeland by the introduction of improved forage species. Managed pastures of irrigated ryegrass (Loliumperenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) with application of nitrogen fertilizers can carry up to 30 adult ind/ha compared with the usual rate of 1-1-5 ind/ha on natural grasslands. On Andean rangelands grazed by Alpaca,tall grass communities are commonly set on fire during the dry season (June—October) by native indigenous herders. The objective is the destruction of bunch grasses that will encourage the growth of ground forage preferred by Alpaca and sheep. However, studies have shown that annual burns are not beneficial because they not only stimulate the rapid regrowth of bunchgrasses, but promote hillside soil erosion and encourage the growth of undesirable invasive plant species. Burning every third or more years during the wet season is a more effective approach for improving Alpaca range and habitat.Food and Feeding.Historically, an Alpaca was considered to be equivalent to three sheep, but modern animal nutritionists in Peruconsider that Alpacas consume 1-2—-1-5 times as much forage as one sheep. Alpacas are selective for these familiar Altiplano plants: Compositae/composites 31 4% (Hipochoires stenocephala, Werneria novigena), followed by Cyperaceae/sedges-rushes 26-1% (Eleocharisalbibracteata, Carexsp.), Gramineae/grasses 19-1% (Calamagrostisrigescens, Festucadolichophylla), Rosaceae/roses 14-6% (Alchemillapinnata, Alchemilladiplophylla) and minor percentages of Ranunculaceae/ buttercups 5:6% (Ranunculusbreviscapus), Leguminosae/legumes 1-7% (Trifolium amabile) and others. Plant leaves,stalks, and flowers with protein content as high as 17-4% are selected by Alpaca when feeding in quality bofedales in the rainy-growing season. Year-round feeding studies on the chemical composition of ingested forage with fistulated Alpacas in Peruand Boliviayielded the following: dry matter 9-9%, organic material 88-8%, minerals 11-2%, total protein 15-1%, ether extract 7-4%, crude fiber 27-5%, nitrogen-free extract 38-:8%, and detergent neutral fiber 61:6%. General apparent digestibility of bofedal nutrients was dry matter 64-9%, organic material 64-1%, and total protein 64-8%. Total digestible nutrients (TDN) of bofedal forage eaten by Alpacas was similar between the rainy (54-1%) and dry (66:5%) seasons, as was the average energy from TDN at 60-3%. Average daily weight gain per Alpaca grazed on typical (control) bofedales was 0-093 kg, but experimentally at low stocking rates (2 Alpaca/ha/year) weight gain was 0-101 kg/day, medium stocking (4 Alpaca) 0-084 kg/ day, and high stocking (6 Alpaca) 0-079 kg/day. Although the carrying capacity is around one Alpaca/ha/year, overgrazing occurs at 1-8-2-5 Alpaca/ha/year, lowering the quantity and quality of available forage. In indigenous Andean communities where herders own the animals but not the land and the communal grazing lands are used through permission from the community, overgrazing of the natural grasslands is not uncommon. Although efforts are being made to counter the situation, a long history of bofedal overuse by traditional Alpaca herders has frequently resulted in low live (50 kg) and carcass (25-5 kg) weights, reduced fleece weights (1-2 kg), low fertility (35%), and high juvenile mortality (30%). Like Vicunas, Alpacas need frequent water intake. Water consumption by Alpacas grazing on bofedales was high during the dry season at 3-08 kg/animal/day and less in the rainy growing season at 2-04 kg. In another Peruvian study digestibility of high-altitude forage by Alpacas in both Altplano and bofedal habitats was lowest (50-62%) in the winter-dry season and highest (66-76%) in the spring/summer-wet season. Comparative feeding trials measuring the coefficients of digestibility revealed that when fed dry forage low in protein (less than 7-5%) Alpacas were 14% more efficient than sheep, but at high protein levels (greater than 10-5%), sheep were slightly (2%) more efficient. Other studies have reported that Alpacas have a digestion coefficient 25% higher than sheep, particularly on low-quality forage. Maintenance-energy requirements for a 60 kgAlpaca is 2% of its body weight, or 1-2 kg dry forage per day. Alpacas in Peruforage more selectively than Llamas. Diets are highest in grass during the wet and early dry season. As the dry season progresses, the diets of Alpacas in bofedal habitat became largely sedges and reeds (81%). Animals in dryer habitats consume more grass (68%). A study of live weight changes of Alpaca adult males, females, and their progeny, was conducted for three seasons under continuous grazing on natural grasslands on the Mediterranean range of Central Chile. Live weight changes were highest in spring (100-200 g/day), moderate during winter (50-100 g/day), and negative only at the end of summer and in autumn (-110 g/day to — 150 g/day). Weight gains of newborn Alpacas were greatest (110-150 g/day) in the first 90 days after birth and then decreased slightly, reaching values of 75 g/day at 8-5 months old. Weight gainsstabilized at 10-20 g/day at three years of age.Breeding.Alpaca females in Perureach puberty at 60% (33-40 kg) of their adult weight, or at c.12-14 months of age when being grazed on native pastures. Although such young females exhibit sexual behavior, ovulation, fertilization, and embryonic survival similar to adults, most breeders waitto first breed females at two years of age when they have reached greater physical maturity. Male Alpacas in Peruare first used for reproduction at two to three years of age, because the penis is still adhered to the prepuce in one-(84%) and two-year-olds (50%), with all males adhesion free at three years old. The rate of detachment is dependent upon the level of testosterone secreted from the testes. The breeding season is from January to April using several different husbandry techniques. If the females are unfamiliar with the breeding male, they most likely will not accept him. Such males become familiarized by staying with the females in the same stone corral or encircled together by rope for a number of hours each day for 20 days; pregnancy rate is as high at 85% using this method. The most common technique is to run four to six breeding males per 100 females together, year-round. Artificial selection is less controlled by this approach, so males with desired traits are chosen (typically white colored, dense and good quality wool, and normally developed testes 4-5 cm long and 2-5 cm wide). On large, Peruvian Alpaca farms no more than 200 females are run with 10-12 males, half of which are rotated in one-week intervals for two months during the breeding season. Males work well for one week, but then begin to fight with each other and establish hierarchies and harems, thus the rotational system. Alpaca breed and give birth seasonally. When males and females are kept together year-round, births only occur during the rainy season from December to March. The continuous association of the sexes produces an inhibiting effect on the sexual activity of the male. But when males are separated from females and only brought together for breeding, births are year-round. Copulation occurs with the female in sternal recumbency, and lasts 20-50 minutes. Non-pregnant Alpaca have no well-defined cyclical sexual activity (estrus), but are always in the follicular phase and state of receptivity until ovulation is induced by copulation. There is no period of sexual inactivity in Alpaca and other cameloids, nor a relationship between size of ovarian follicle and sexual receptivity. Ovulation occurs ¢.26 hours after copulation. Ovulation can be also be induced by the injection of chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and then occurs c¢.24 hours later. Following ovulation the corpus luteum forms and reaches maximum size and secretory activity at approximately eight days. With no gestation the corpus luteum regresses within 12-18 days after mating, giving way to the formation of new follicles. With conception and gestation, the corpus luteum continues its secretory activity and thereafter the female is not sexually receptive. Pregnancy is assessed by sexual behavior of the female in presence of a new male. Studies have found that at least 85% of the females that ovulate in response to the coital stimulation have at least one fertilized ovum within three days of mating. However, in Peruthere is 34% embryonic mortality during the first 30 days of gestation, seriously affecting the annual birth rate of Alpacas. Nearly all (95%) of the pregnancies are in the left horn of the bifurcated uterus, although both ovaries are equally active. Thus, transuterine migration from the right to the left horn of the uterus is common, as evidenced by the corpus luteum in the right ovary and the fetus in the left horn of the uterus. The placenta is simple-diffuse and of the chorial epithelium type. Reproductive studies in Peruon Alpaca mothers (n = 1684) showed that age of the female, year of birth, and the quality of diet were important factors influencing the length of gestation and date of birth. First time mothers at two years of age and those 15 years and older had longer gestation periods (403 and 401 days respectively) than middle-aged females four to twelve years of age (380-390 days). Females grazing on higher quality, cultivated pastures had longer gestation periods than those on native rangelands (389 vs. 379 days). Also in years with favorable vs. poor range conditions, gestation was longer (392 vs. 381 days) and newborns weighed more (8-7 vs. 8-1 kg). The explanation for this may be that females on good forage can afford longer gestations, give birth to a larger young, and be assured that favorable forage will be available for costly lactation. In contrast, females on poor forage have shorter gestations, cannot afford long gestations because of the potential cost of lowering their own health, and need to start lactation as soon as possible while there is at least some forage available before the dry season begins. Age of the Alpaca mother and date of parturition also influenced offspring survival in the Peruvian studies. In a curvilinear fashion, survival of young born to mothers two and three years of age was lower than those with mothers 9-11 years old (82% vs. 91% survival), but declines to 88% for mothers 15 years of age. In Australia, the gestation of spring-mated females is ten days longer than fall-mated females. Birth weight of Alpaca neonates averages 8-4 kg in Peru, with significant variation as indicated among femaleage groups. The importance of good maternal nutrition is critical for such a species with an unusually long gestation. At 180 days or almost half way through gestation the fetus weighs 600 g, only 7% of its eventual 9 kgat birth. Some 93% ofits growth takes place in the last half of gestation, and at 230 days or two-thirds of the way into gestation, a remarkable 72% ofits growth is yet to be gained. The heavy energy demands of lactation lasting 6—8 months, mostly coincides with the Andean rainy, or growing season. Even though multiple ovulations occur c¢.10% of the time, Alpaca twins are extremely rare in Peruand in the USA; only one out of ¢.2000 births. If neonatal twins do occurthere is a significant difference in size, e.g. 4 kgand 6 kg, with the smaller one typically in the right horn of the uterus dying during gestation resulting in the death of the other. After giving birth the female comes into estrus within 48 hours, but only with initial follicular growth. Follicular size and activity capable of ovulation in response to copulation is observed from the fifth day, but the higher rates offertility begin ten days after parturition with the highest fertility 20-30 days postpartum. The Peruvian Alpaca birth season is from December to May. Females are not separated from the herd due to the lack of space. The umbilical of the newborn is treated with iodine or an herb solution to prevent infection and diarrhea. Newborns are watched closely by the herder to assure first nursing is successful (first milk is high in colostrum, rich in antibodies). Parturition in indigenous herds averages a low 50% and juvenile mortality is high (15-35%); itis estimated that no more than half of the female Alpaca of reproductive age produce young every year. Young born during the birth season also had higher survival than those born late. Additionally, juvenile survival is curvilinearly related to birth weight. Neonates weighing 9-11 kg had an average 92% survival but those weighing 4-5 kg survived at a rate of 30-50%. When pregnant females (n = 424) and their young were monitored,it was found that newborn birth weight, and weight and width of the placenta increased with age of the dam reaching a peak at nine years and then declined progressively. Placental efficiency also increased with female Alpaca age, showing a bimodal shape and peaking at 6-11year-old females; more young died from two-year-old females than any other age; and dead neonates weighed less (6-4 kg) than those that survived (7-8 kg). In indigenous herds, young-of-the-year are usually not weaned due to the lack of extra pastures and the labor involved. Instead, young nurse beyond one year of age, including up to the time the mother gives birth again. To impede the yearling from competing with the newborn for nursing, herders will sometimes temporarily pierce the yearling’s nose with a stick. In commercial Alpaca herds weaning occurs in September through October, sometimes until November, when young are 6-8 months old.Activity patterns.The daily routine or activity pattern of indigenous Alpaca family flocks is quite consistent. After having spent the night in a stone corral or next to the family house (usually a stone hut called a choza), the animals are released or move out on their own to graze for the day soon after sunrise. While the family’s sheep flock is tended by a herder, the Alpaca flock is not accompanied by a herder. Instead,its daily movements and activity patterns while grazing are self-directed within 1-2 km of their home base to local bofedales and other feeding areas of their choice. As sunset approaches, the flock returns to the home site by themselves without being escorted by a herder. Daytime activity budgets (percentage of time) of Alpacas compared to sheep while both species grazed on native-Andean pasture dominated by the favorable forage Festucadolichophylla, have shown that while other activities were similar, Alpacas fed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (11% vs. 25%) than sheep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Seasonal patterns of Alpaca movement are determined by herders as influenced by the availability of forage, varying from one locality to next. One common annual movement of Alpacas in the Andes is to graze herds during the rainy season (generallyJanuary to April) in lower mountains (3600-4100 m) areas characterized by pampas, slopes, and rounded ridges. Then in the dry season (generally May to December) they are moved up to the high altitudes (4100-5200 m) to find favorable forage, bofedales, and water. When the rainy season begins, they are moved back to lower areas where grasses are beginning to grow and to avoid severe hailstorms and other weather at higher altitudes. Herders, however, without access to two seasonal sites maintain their animals in the same area year-round. Indigenous families that raise livestock in the Peruvian Andes on the average have 70 Alpacas (30-120), 30 Llamas (4-50), and 50 sheep (10-80). More importance is placed upon Alpacas because they offer greater economic diversity. Most (90-95%) of the Alpaca woolis sold, the balance used for home use. Many of the young males one to two years old are sold for meat production, and old animals are culled to make jerky. In three Peruvian Alpaca farms that were cooperatively, family, and individually owned, percent herd composition was females: 60/ 65/ 70; gelded males: 25/30/25; breeding males: 3/4/5; white animals: 70/70/90; and colored animals: 30/30/10. With Alpacas that are owned as private property, each member of the family owns animals but herd control is under the family. Ownership is designated by ear markings or colored yarn. Animals are often given as presents or ceremonial gifts. They play an important role in the rituals, symbols, mythology, and ceremoniesin the life of Andean people. Individual animals are recognized and described by physical characteristics and usually given a name. Alpacas have feminine attributes in the Andean cosmic vision oflife and the world, and generically referred to as “mothers” and “dear mothers.” Alpacas are highly social with strong herding behavior, making them easier to drive when necessary. In small, mixed-sex herds, dominance is clear with a few adult males as the leaders. Alpacas are more skittish and shy with strangers than Llamas. When a free-ranging flock is approached on foot, they will distance themselves more quickly than a herd of Llamas. Once they become familiar with you, however, they are docile and easier to handle than sheep. There are no known unmanaged or feral populations of Alpaca that would allow us to assess their social organization and full repertoire of behavior. However, a number of subtle-contrasting characteristics exist in Alpaca behavior that turn out to be, not surprisingly, very similar to the Vicuna: tighter grouping, vocal communication more common, less communicative with their tails, love water and bathe regularly, greater susceptibility to heat stress, higher site fidelity, males more protective of females, less cooperative, and more distant and stand-offish.Status and Conservation.Alpacas and Llamas were important to ancient Andean civilizations such as the Tiwanaku Culture that dominated the Lake Titicaca region from ¢.300 BC to 1000 Ap, and the Inca Culture that dominated the Central Andes in the 15% and 16"" centuries. When the Incas captured the cameloid-rich kingdoms near Lake Titicaca and south, they acquired giant herds of Llamas and Alpacas. The Incas then sent “seed herds” throughout their empire and commanded that they be reproduced. State-controlled husbandry of Alpacas produced vast herds that numbered into the millions. The Incas placed special emphasis on avoidance of crossbreeding with Llamas and selective breeding of pure-colored Alpacas (brown, black, and white) for quality wool and sacrifice to deities. The Spanish invasion in the 16™ century destroyed that advanced management system and there ensued a breakdown of controlled breeding. Today, the raising of Alpacas in the high altitudes of Peruand Boliviacontributes substantially to the economy of the region. However, animal production is limited by the low level of technology, adverse climate, disease, herders with scarce resources, and frequent over utilization of native rangelands. The Andean grazing system is extensively based upon utilization of native high-altitude grasslands by mixed herds that include not only Alpacas, but sheep and Llamas as well. Pastoralism and mixed agropastoralism form the subsistence base for the agricultural segment of the high Andes. Indigenous communities control the greatest number of camelids and sheep, as well as half of the native rangelands, which comprise ¢.95% ofthe land area above 3800 m. The Alpaca population in South America is c.4-5 million, down some 20% since the mid-1960s, but up 25% from the early 2000s. Today, numbers are at least stable, if not increasing. Most Alpacas are in Peruwith 91%, followed by Bolivia8% and Chile1%. Few Alpacas occur in Argentinabecause of the lack of moist Puna and the dominance of the dry Puna. More than 73-87% are in southern Peru(Arequipa, Cuzco, Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna), with nearly half of the world’s Alpaca in the Department of Puno. Females represent c¢.70% of the total Alpaca population. A high percentage (85-95%) of Alpacas are owned and managed by native herders in small flocks ofless than 50 animals, but some commercial Alpaca herds are as large as 30,000-50,000 individuals. Although indigenous herders raise most Alpacas, productivity traditionally has been the lowest due to over stocking, improper health care, and inbreeding. Peruhas ¢.789,775 producers raising Alpacas; Boliviahas 13,603, and Chile916. Starting in the early 1980s Alpacas were exported from Chile, Bolivia, and Peruto the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, where cottage industries in Alpaca wool have developed. In the USAthe Alpaca Owners & Breeders Association numbered over 4500 members with 143,000 registered Alpacas in 2010. Peruexports c. US$ 24 million worth of Alpaca products (wool, tops, yarns, woven fabrics, and knitwear) annually to countries around the world, especially China, Germany, and Italy. Annual Alpaca wool production in South America is 4-1 million kg (90% from Peru), yet only represents 0-6% of the world’s fine-fibered wool production (fine sheep wool is ¢.90-95% followed by cashmere at 5-10%). Because of a high market demand for white wool from Huacaya Alpaca, which can be dyed to any desired color, the Alpaca population has become dominated (80-87%) by white individuals. The result has been a scarcity of individuals with pure natural colors and a reduction of genetic diversity in the species. Pure black Alpacas are the rarest. The problem has been recognized and pure natural colors are now beginning to recover. Alpaca wool prices were at their peak from the 1960s-1980s then declined due to land reforms and competition from synthetics. Prices, however, still remain high at four times the value of sheep wool. In North America in its raw state, an ounce of Alpaca varies from US$ 2 to US$ 5. Each stage of the process (cleaning, carding, spinning, knitting, finishing, etc) adds more value to the wool. As a finished garment, it can sell for US$ 10/0z. In addition to its importance as a producer of fine wool, Alpacas have been a valuable source of meat and hides in South America. In the late 1990s some eleven million kilograms of Alpaca meat were produced annually in Peru, representing 10-15% of the country’s total Alpaca population. The best yield and tenderest meat is from animals 1-5-2 years old, but most are slaughtered at 7-8 years old because their wool has become too coarse for economic production. Alpaca meat is healthful, rich in protein and low in cholesterol and fat. Prime cuts are 50% of the carcass and sold either fresh or frozen to meat markets, restaurants, hotels, and supermarkets. Hides are tanned for soft leather products or sold with the fleece intact as wall hangings, rugs, and toys. For indigenous peoples that raise most Alpacas, family income from these animals is primarily from meat (44% fresh, 16% dried) and secondarily from the wool (31%). Despite its excellent quality, the price received for Alpaca meat is 50% less than that for sheep and beef, due to long standing prejudice towards camelid meat. Beginning in the 1960s Peruwas the world leader in quality Alpaca research, especially by the progressive staff and visiting scientists working at the La Raya Research Station from CuzcoUniversity. With the export of Alpacas around the globe starting in the 1990s, serious science on this longneglected species and family expanded to a number of countries. Universities in the USAand Australiapursued vigorous research programs into reproduction, disease, genetics, and nutrition. The future for the Alpaca is encouraging. Wide opportunities exist for improved successful Alpaca production in the highlands of Peruand Bolivia, especially if the stewardship of the Alpaca’s principle habitat, bofedales, is improved towards sustained and balanced use.Bibliography.Allen (2010), Bravo & Varela (1993), Bravo, Garnica & Puma (2009), Bravo, Pezo & Alarcén (1995), Bryant et al. (1989), Bustinza (1989), Calle Escobar (1984), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), Castellaro et al. (1998), Fernandez-Baca et al. (1972a, 1972b), FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995), Florez (1991), Gonzales (1990), Groeneveld et al. (2010), Hoffman & Fowler (1995), Huacarpuma (1990), Kadwell et al. (2001), Moscoso & Bautista (2003), Munoz (2008), Novoa & Florez (1991), Orlove (1977), Quispe et al. (2009), San Martin (1989), Sumar (1996), Sumar et al. (1972), Tuckwell (1994), Villarroel (1991)." +03928E699A46FFCCD5D0F3E6F6E9FE05,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,238,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A46FFCCD5D0F3E6F6E9FE05.xml,Vicugna vicugna,Vicugna,vicugna,,,Vigogne @fr | Vikunja @de | Vicuna @es | Argentine Vicuna (vicugna) @en | Peruvian Vicufa (mensalis) @en,"Camelus vicugna Molina, 1782,Chile, “abondano nella parte della Cordigliera spettante alle Provincie de Coquimbo, e di Copiap6” (Cordilleras of Coquimboand Copiapo in northern Chile).The separation of the Vicuna and the Guanaco(Lama guanicoe) occurred 2-3 million years ago. Palaeontological evidence suggests the genus Vicugnaevolved from Hemiauchenia, a North American immigrant to South America, in the lowlands east of the Andes some two million years ago, with widespread distribution as recently as 10,000-13,000 years ago in lowland grasslands of Bolivia, Paraguay, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. Then 9000-12,000 years ago, during the last Pleistocene glacial advance and the subsequent establishment of the Holocene climate, Vicugnamoved from its lowland distribution to its present day, high-elevation habitat. Today, two subspecies are recognized, distinguished on the bases of genetics, habitat, and morphology. Northern subspecies mensalis is closely related to the domestic Alpaca (V. pacos).","V.v.vicugnaMolina,1782—WBolivia,NWArgentina,andNEChilefrom18°Sto29°S.V. v. mensalis Thomas, 1917— SE Peru, W Bolivia, and NE Chilefrom 9° Sto 19° S. Ecuadorhas a small population (c.3000) introduced from Peru, Chile, and Boliviain the 1980s.","Head-body 125-190 cm,tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 38-45 kg. The body color of the soft, woolly coat is pale cinnamon to reddishbrown, with insides of the legs and underside white. There is a bib of coarse white hairs 20-30 cm long on the chest at the base of the neck in the northern subspecies, which is short to almost unnoticeable in the southern subspecies. The body is slender with a long neck. The head is small and wedge-shaped; the ears are slender and pointed. The Vicuna has unique rodent-like incisors. Males and females weigh approximately the same, look alike, and are sexually indistinguishable in the field. Southern subspecies vicugna, sometimes called the “ ArgentineVicuna,” is ¢.15% larger (c. 45 kgvs. 38 kg), length of molars longer, taller at the withers, substantially shorter chest-bib hair, lighter colored, larger white underside countershading, and in general exhibits higher levels of genetic diversity than the northern subspecies mensalis, sometimes referred to as “Peruvian Vicuna.” Vicuna wool (often called fiber) is among the finest in the world at 12-5 + 1-5 microns (Cashmere goat fibers measure 14-19 microns; Chiru, Pantholops hodgsonii fiber is 9-12 microns). The shorn fleeces of 30,391 Vicunas in Peruaveraged 220 g/animal. With its silky texture, Vicuna woolis highly prized, retailing for US$ 250/0z in the USAand in 2004 selling at wholesale for US$ 566,/kg from certified liveshorn animals. World prices for Vicuna wool ranged from US$ 350/kg to US$ 900/kg over the past decade, promoting reference to it as the “Gold of the Andes.” The adaptations responsible for the animal’s outstanding physical endurance at high altitudes include lightweight insulating fleece, which protects against cold and the sun’s ultraviolet light, and high blood-oxygen affinity (highest of all mammals investigated). Full saturation of the blood with oxygen occurs at the lower partial pressure of oxygen that is found at high altitudes. The Vicuna’s heart muscle capillary densities are exceptionally high for a mammal of its body size. Its ability to load and unload oxygen is improved by a relatively high oxygen transfer conductance because ofits small red blood cells, and it has low blood viscosity due to a relative low percentage of red blood cells. Both are advantageous for maximum cardiac output. The Vicuna’slife span is 20 years, with a maximum age of 24 years and nine months recorded in captivity.","Vicunas are restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of the Andes.The Vicuna is the highest-altitude ungulate in all of South America, living in a unique montane zone from 3200 mto 4800 mabove sea level called the Puna, a high-altitude, equatorial grassland that is above the tree line but below the snow line. Summer precipitation is typically in the form of rain or hail, rarely snow. It is a dry and cold environment with summer nights hovering close to freezing. Winter nights plummet well below freezing, 10-20°C below the daytime highs. Two distinct habitats with different levels of precipitation can be found within this dry-Andean ecosystem: the high-elevation moist or semi-humid high-Andean Puna and the lower elevation dry or semi-arid Puna habitat. The dry Puna is an extremely dry belt called the Andean Dry Diagonal, a north-west/south-east transition zone between two major hemispheric wind belts centered at the junction of north-west Argentina, south-west Bolivia, and north-east Chile. Within the Dry Diagonalthere is essentially no precipitation, no lakes, and no glacier formation. The distribution of subspecies vicugnais within the Dry Diagonal. Subspecies mensalis is found to the north of it. From a landscape perspective the Puna is characterized by peaks and pronounced slopes, the typical elevated plain that defines the region (Puna or Altiplano), and the intermediate piedmont fringes of smooth slopes. Vicunas use the habitats within the Puna and piedmont zones. The most common habitats in the Puna are xerophytic shrub steppes that are often mixed with an understory of sparse short grasses and forbs (typically not an important habitat for Vicunas); bunchgrass steppes (variable importance); open rocky areas with sparse vegetation (not important); short grass and forb areas on lower slopes, gentle slopes, and plains (important); and wetlands of short plants with high ground cover associated with high ground water, surface water, streams, and lagoons, regionally called bofedales, mojadales, and vegas (important). Bofedales (around 4500 melevation in Peru) are perennially green sedge communities typically dominated by Eleocharisalbracteata and Carexecuadorica with vegetative cover of ¢.22% grasses, 42% sedges and reeds, and 33% forbs, and a crude protein content of 12%. Short-grass forb areas on lowerslopes (around 3190 min Peru) are dominated by the grass species Festucadolichophylla and Muhlenbergiafastigiata with a vegetative cover of 66% grass, 13% sedges and reeds, and 6% forbs, and a crude protein content of 10%.","As with other ungulate herbivores, Vicuna habitat and forage selection is based not only upon availability, but heavily influenced by climate (wet vs. dry years), population density (high vs. low), and the social status and ranking of individual animals (high vs. low). Thus for studies done at different locations, landscapes, and animal densities,it is not surprising to see variable results. For example in Peruat the Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Vicunas were observed to be strict grazers on grasses and forbs, whereas in Argentinaat the Laguna Blanca National Park, Vicunas showed some diet plasticity by being grazers on grasses 16-19% ofthe time and browsers on shrubs 59-72% of the time with two grasses (Panicumchlorolewcum and Distichlisspp-) representing nearly 50% of the diet. Feeding preference in productive habitats dominated by grasses has been documented in several areas of the Vicuna’s distribution. Of the two main habitats (grass steppe and vegas) at the Ulla-Ulla Vicuna Reserve in Bolivia, Vicunas preferred vegas. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve of ArgentinaVicunaswere more abundant on the grassland plains. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve Vicunas preferred to forage in grass steppe communities characterized by Festucanigesens or by Calamagrostisvicunarum, the latter being the dominant species in the vegetative type known as Excrement Influenced Vegetation (EIV). EIV is the result of long-term defecation-urination by Vicunas on dung piles; the resulting fertilization and accumulation of organic matter accelerates soil and plant succession over a long period of time. The third sere is an isolated “putting-green,” an island of short, abundant plants in rocky terrain downhill from a single or series of dung piles. The top soil is deeper and the plants grow thickly, close to the ground. EIV covered 18% of the total surface area of Pampa Galeras National Reserve, andits third sere had the highest productivity and was the most preferred forage vegetation. The general pattern of Vicuna habitat selection for grass-dominated communities, especially those of high nutritional value, is consistent with the results of diet studies that found Vicunas forage mainly on grasses (Poaceae) and grass-like sedges (Ciperaceae). When Vicunas coexisted with domestic livestock (sheep, goats, donkeys) in Argentina, they were spatially segregated, had a high overlap in diets, and used preferred habitatless than expected. The native Vicuna and exotic domestic animals coexisted because Vicunas were able to utilize suboptimal habitats while herders kept livestock in the richest habitats. A sympatric population of Vicunas and Guanacos in the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve, Argentina, revealed that the diet of both species was similar, but Guanacos utilized more tall grasses and Vicuna fed more on forbs and short grasses.","Vicunas are strong seasonal breeders. Males reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years of age, and become reproductive after obtaining a feeding territory and recruiting females. Most females first mate as two-year-olds. Breeding is almost an unnoticeable event except for a short chase before mating, because the prolonged copulation takes place with the mating pair in sternal recumbency. Females show no unusual behavior to indicate they are in estrus and males do not persistently smell the female’s hindquarters as is common in other ungulates. There is no prolonged preoccupation or tending that ungulate males traditionally show for females in heat, because a territorial male has exclusive and immediate access to females within his territory. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve mating was observed from the end of February to the end of May, but peaked in April (3 matings/100 hours of observation), followed by May (1-8) and March (1-3). Almost all matings were in the morning and within the family group’s feeding territory. Gestation averages c.11-3 months (330-350 days). Females within a few weeks of parturition are visibly pregnant. At the start of the birth season at Pampa Galeras over a three year period, a high percentage of females two years of age or older were pregnant: 85%, 95%, and 85%. The non-pregnant females were mostly two-year-olds because only 20% of one-year-olds mated. Rectal palpation by experienced veterinarians of captive adult Vicunas in Puno(Peru) revealed 99% of females pregnant. Most (90%) births occurred from the last week of February through the first week of April with 75% of the births in March. February is the reported peak birth season for subspecies vicugnain Argentinaand Chile. Nearly all (96%) births occurred in the morning and within the feeding territory. Females give birth to one offspring, with twins not reported or observed. Morning births are likely a behavioral adaptation to the stormy weather typical of Andean afternoons. In summer and early autumn, daily storms regularly start around noon. Young born during the afternoon storms of rain and hail would not be able to dry their soft-insulating wool before entering the nearfreezing nights. Wet newborns would have little chance for survival. A female aboutto give birth separated herself 15-25 m from the group. During the usual one-hour labor the female looked back to inspect her hindquarters, laid down and stood intermittently, changed positions, and walked a few steps every few minutes. Parturition occurred while the female stood. The labor and birthing behaviors were subtle and not easily noticed, as females commonly continued to feed during the process— surely to avoid attracting potential predators in this wide-open habitat. The mother immediately smelled and inspected the head and muzzle of the newborn, but licking did not occur (thus no assistance with the newborn’s thermoregulation) nor was the afterbirth eaten (the latter two behaviors common in other ungulates). Other members of the group frequently came over to smell and inspect the newborn. Newborns weighed 4-6 kg, were on their feet and able to walk in a wobbly way 15-20 minutes after birth, and began nursing when they were 30-45 minutes old. Vicuna young are “followers” as opposed to “hiders” and stay close to their mothers, especially in the first few months. Most young are weaned during the dry season in July and August, when they are 4-6 months old. During the first four months after birth 10-30% of newborns died. The cause was undetermined, but predation by Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and Pumas (Puma concolor) was suspected. Reproductive success as measured in August by the ratio of young to adult females ranged 35-70 young per 100 females in different regions of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. In Chile, density dependency seemed to be operating: the more females in a family group the lower the number of young per female. Very little research has been conducted on the physiology of Vicuna reproduction, but a noteworthy study on reproduction in captive male Vicunas in the Puna of northern Chilefound higher levels of plasma testosterone, large testessize, greater size of seminiferous tubules, and large diameters of Leydig cell nuclei beginning in February, a month before the summer breeding season started. In the winter month of August spermatogenesis was in the regressive phase. Both findings suggested photoperiod as the mechanism for when males are sexually effective. Insight can be gained from studies on the Vicuna’s domesticated descendent, the Alpaca: an experimental study on Alpacas demonstrated that the continuous association of females and males exerted an inhibiting effect on male sexual activity. After continuous association of two weeks, there was no mating activity by the male even though receptive females were present. However, when mature males were separated from females and reunited at two week intervals, mating occurred. These observations shed light on why nonpregnant Vicunas (and other cameloids) are not bred during non-breeding seasons of the year.","During a year-round, 3-5yearfield study in Pampa Galeras National Reserve, home to a population of the northern subspecies mensalis, Vicuna family groups showed a predictable daily activity pattern in the large open valleys they occupied. Having spent the night on the upperflat ridges in small sleeping territories, within an hour after sunrise they moved as a group down to their daytime feeding territories. They spent the day on these lower slopes or flat plains, feeding at a constant rate. The sleeping territories, on higher ground, were warmer at night than feeding territories and were away from the streambeds where nocturnal predators hunted. The adult male Vicuna in the family group actively defended both territories by challenging and chasing away trespassing Vicunas. If human disturbance did not cause an early retreat back up the slope, the group returned to its sleeping territory in midto late afternoon. In the winter dry season, when small springs on the slopes dried up, groups left their feeding territory and moved to the center of the valley floor to drink from streams. Solo males holding a territory showed similar patterns. Male groups moved randomly and unpredictably through the area. In a separate study at Pampa Galeras National Reserve conducted during the March—-May breeding season, females spent significantly more time grazing than males (54 vs. 45 minutes/hour) and lactating females fed more than non-lactating females (56 vs. 53 minutes/hour). In general females fed 91% of the time; territorial males fed 75% of the time. In Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve above Arequipa, Peru, there was a positive correlation between frequency of alert behavior per adult and the number of offspring in the family group, and at the Laguna de Pozuelos Biosphere Reserve in Argentina, solitary Vicunas spent more time standing and being vigilant and less time foraging than did members of groups. In Abra Pampa (Argentina), territorial males spent more time being vigilant and less time feeding as the size of their family group increased, but not more time in territorial defense (walking, running). At the Laguna Blanca Reserve in Argentina, which is extremely arid, daily activity patterns during the dry season were similar to the patterns of family groups at Pampa Galeras in the same season, with morning feeding on slopes, midday movement to a river on the flat, and a return to the slope and more feeding in the afternoon. At Pampa Galeras there was no significant difference between the amount of time males spent in territorial behavior and the number of female group members or the total group size. Studies at Laguna Blanca on the other subspecies, however, found a substantial decrease in amount of time males spent foraging when the number of females in their group increased.","All Vicuna populations of both subspecies studied to date were sedentary and non-migratory. However, as described above, daily activity patterns and movements are greatly influenced by the need to drink water. Several studies have shown that water distribution and availability can have a major effect on local movement of Vicunas. Despite being well adapted to living in arid conditions, the Vicuna is an obligate drinker and needs to drink often, especially in the dry season when it seeks water daily. Visits to small streams often include water bathing accompanied by dust bathing in dust bowls. The home range of a family group encompasses the area where the group is typically found, thatis,its sleeping territory, feeding territory, and the space in between, as well as those areas it commonly moves through during the dry season on its way to drinking water. The two territories are defended by the male and exclusively occupied by the family group, but the balance of the home range is not;it overlaps and is shared with other groups. These are neutral zones, especially the corridors that groups move through on their way to water. The social units ofVicuna are family groups, male groups, and solo males. A characteristic family group is composed of one adult male, 3-4 females, and two juveniles. Although the permanent territorial family group is the classic Vicuna social unit occupying good habitat containing semi-permanent water, other groups found within Vicuna populations may include marginal territorial family groups occupying secondary habitat types without water, and temporary mobile family groups that lack a territory. Permanentterritorial family groups occupy a year-round feeding territory averaging 18-4 ha (2-56 ha), and sleeping territory averaging 2-6 ha. This is highly unusual for an ungulate. Territorial males defend their sites passively (standing guard near borders) and actively (walking towards, chasing, fighting, biting, etc.) multiple times daily. The territorial system is based upon resource-defense polygyny in which the territorial male defends food resources essential to females. This attracts females to the site, providing them with guaranteed forage in a food-limited environment, within which they can raise their offspring in a socially stable unit free from harassment. The family group male regulates group size by more often than not rejecting outside females, preventing resident females from leaving, and annually forcibly dispersing male young at 4-9 months and expelling female young at 10-11 months of age. The young malesjoin male groups and the females eventuallyjoin another territorial male. Family group size is significantly correlated with feeding territory size and total forage production within the territory. Vocalizations are most commonly used by territorial males, who give a loud alarm call when disturbed by strange objects or a frightening situation: people on foot, herders with dogs, or potential predators such as Culpeos and Pumas. Group size and territory size are density-dependent, decreasing with increasing population size. In extreme cases the system can appear to be more monogamous than polygynous. Male or bachelor groups are bands of 2-155 non-territorial males. The size fluctuates widely; 75% have fewer than 30 males, with 5-10 the most common group size. Male groups frequently invade the family group zones from which they were forced to leave, by individually or cooperatively attacking territorial males. Solo males are sexually mature individuals with an established territory or on the move looking for an available site to establish a territory. In Pampa Galeras, up to 16 months elapsed before solo males were able to attract or forcefully obtain females to form a family group. In intensely studied populations, 32% of all adult males were territorial and family groups made up 75% ofall social units. Territorial boundaries, albeit invisible to the human eye, were well defined and as narrow as one meter. The system was not perfect, as neighboring males were continually testing boundaries. Dung piles were abundant throughout the area. Adults and young of both sexes defecated and urinated only on dung piles, alwaysfirst smelling the dung pile. The primary function of dung piles appeared to be for intragroup orientation, i.e. for assisting members to stay within their territory and neutral zones. If a female inadvertently left her territory she was vehemently chased back by the neighboring territorial male. Dung piles did not keep non-neighbor outsiders out of a territory if the resident male was absent. Thus, the dung piles functioned more for keeping insiders in than outsiders out ofterritories. The highest frequency of dung pile use was when Vicunas were leaving their territories and when groups moved through neutral corridors as if “checking” their location, again suggesting individual self-orientation to avoid aggressive attack by adjacent territorial males. At Pampa Galeras the estimated age that males became territorial was 3—4 years; they remained territorial for at leastsix years. In studies with tagged animals at Aguada Blanca, the average age of solo males was 11-5 years, males in male groups averaged less than three years old, and the average age ofterritorial males was 9-5 years, suggesting significantly longer tenure than Guanacoterritorial males.","CITES Appendix I, except the populations of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile(I Region) which are included in Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List due to its total numbers, wide range of distribution, and occurrence in a number of protected areas. The genetic diversity of the northern subspecies mensalis is relatively low within populations and high between populations, a pattern commonly observed in threatened species with formerly large ranges that became isolated from each other and then suffered drastic demographic contraction. Total area occupied by Vicunas is around 250,000 km?. The distribution of the two subspecies can be seen as a continuum of scattered and fragmented groups that become less frequent north to south. The small populations of the subspecies vicugnain the south have survived in the Dry Diagonal, an extremely arid zone in the high Andes, where they show a genetic signature of demographic isolation. To the north, the subspecies mensalis populations underwent a rapid demographic expansion in the late Pleistocene due to increased precipitation and the subsequent appearance of highaltitude short grasslands. However, the Dry Diagonal is believed to have prevented both the expansion southward of the northern, moist Puna-adapted forms and the expansion northward of the southern, dry Puna-adapted forms, resulting in the two subspecies found today. The subspecies vicugnais most closely related to the basal taxon,i.e. the species’ primitive extinct ancestor. Both subspecies occur in Boliviaand Chile, but the subspecies mensalis has the highest numbers (73% ofall Vicunas) and widest distribution of the two subspecies. Relative abundance of the southern subspecies vicugnain Boliviais 34% of 112,249 Vicunas (data from 2009) and in Chile7% of a minimum 15,544 Vicunas (data from 2007). Majority of the world’s Vicunas in zoos and private collections are of the southern subspecies. The trend for the Vicuna’s general population is increasing. However, as recently as four decades ago, the Vicuna was threatened with extinction. The total population size was as low as 5000-10,000 individuals due to unrelenting poaching for the Vicuna’s valuable wool. In southern Peruthe Pampa Galeras National Reserve was established in the late 1960s to protect the largest remaining population. The first international treaty, The Vicuna Convention, was initially between Peruand Boliviaand in 1974 signed by Chileand Argentina. It established national parks, reserves, and private lands for the protection of Vicunas, with the goal of requiring live animals to be shorn. Since that time, programs for the sustainable harvest of Vicuna wool have been successfully applied and Vicuna populations began to increase. Ownership of the wild species varies between countries. In Peruand Boliviathey are the property of the state, while in Chileand Argentinano one owns wild Vicunas. Current population densities vary from 0-9 ind/km* to 1-8 ind/km? for Lauca National Park in northern Chileto as high as 87 ind/km* in Pampa Galeras, although optimum estimated density for Vicuna in Pampa Galeras National Reserve is 40-43 ind/km?. The total number of Vicunas is about ¢.421,500, with 52% in Peru, 27% in Bolivia, 17% in Argentina, 4% in Chile(not including the small number in Ecuador). Threats remain for the wild Vicuna: poaching; the fact that some protected areas are only “paper parks;” a lack of national management plans; competition with and overgrazing by domestic livestock; mange/scabies infections from domestic animals; crossbreeding of Alpacas and Vicunas for commercial purposes; and management of Vicuna as captive populations. Overall, conservation programs and their tight control at local, national, and international levels are critical for the conservation of this species.","Arzamendia et al. (2006, 2010) | Bonacic et al. (2002, 2003) | Borgnia et al. (2008, 2010) | Bosch & Svendsen (1987) | Cassiniet al. (2009) | Cajal (1989) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | Davies (2003) | Franklin (1969, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1982, 1983) | Gordon (2009) | Hack (2001) | Hoffman & Fowler (1995) | Jurgens et al. (1988) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Koford (1957) | Lichtenstein et al. (2009) | Lucherini et al. (2000) | Marin et al. (2007) | Novoa (1984) | Renaudeau d’Arc (2000) | Sarno et al. (2005) | Stanley et al. (1994) | Urquieta et al. (1994) | Vila & Cassimi (1993, 1994) | Vila & Roig (1992) | Vila et al. (2009) | Villalba (2003) | Wheeler (1995a) | Wheeler & Laker (2009) | Wheeler, Chikhi & Bruford (2006) | Wheeler, Fernandez et al. (2003) | Yacobaccio (2009)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719729/files/figure.png,"3.VicunaVicugna vicugnaFrench:Vigogne/ German:Vikunja/ Spanish:VicunaOther common names:ArgentineVicuna (vicugna), Peruvian Vicufa (mensalis)Taxonomy.Camelus vicugna Molina, 1782,Chile, “abondano nella parte della Cordigliera spettante alle Provincie de Coquimbo, e di Copiap6” (Cordilleras of Coquimboand Copiapo in northern Chile).The separation of the Vicuna and the Guanaco(Lama guanicoe) occurred 2-3 million years ago. Palaeontological evidence suggests the genus Vicugnaevolved from Hemiauchenia, a North American immigrant to South America, in the lowlands east of the Andes some two million years ago, with widespread distribution as recently as 10,000-13,000 years ago in lowland grasslands of Bolivia, Paraguay, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. Then 9000-12,000 years ago, during the last Pleistocene glacial advance and the subsequent establishment of the Holocene climate, Vicugnamoved from its lowland distribution to its present day, high-elevation habitat. Today, two subspecies are recognized, distinguished on the bases of genetics, habitat, and morphology. Northern subspecies mensalis is closely related to the domestic Alpaca (V. pacos).Subspecies and Distribution.V.v.vicugnaMolina,1782—WBolivia,NWArgentina,andNEChilefrom18°Sto29°S.V. v. mensalis Thomas, 1917— SE Peru, W Bolivia, and NE Chilefrom 9° Sto 19° S. Ecuadorhas a small population (c.3000) introduced from Peru, Chile, and Boliviain the 1980s.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-190 cm,tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 38-45 kg. The body color of the soft, woolly coat is pale cinnamon to reddishbrown, with insides of the legs and underside white. There is a bib of coarse white hairs 20-30 cm long on the chest at the base of the neck in the northern subspecies, which is short to almost unnoticeable in the southern subspecies. The body is slender with a long neck. The head is small and wedge-shaped; the ears are slender and pointed. The Vicuna has unique rodent-like incisors. Males and females weigh approximately the same, look alike, and are sexually indistinguishable in the field. Southern subspecies vicugna, sometimes called the “ ArgentineVicuna,” is ¢.15% larger (c. 45 kgvs. 38 kg), length of molars longer, taller at the withers, substantially shorter chest-bib hair, lighter colored, larger white underside countershading, and in general exhibits higher levels of genetic diversity than the northern subspecies mensalis, sometimes referred to as “Peruvian Vicuna.” Vicuna wool (often called fiber) is among the finest in the world at 12-5 + 1-5 microns (Cashmere goat fibers measure 14-19 microns; Chiru, Pantholops hodgsonii fiber is 9-12 microns). The shorn fleeces of 30,391 Vicunas in Peruaveraged 220 g/animal. With its silky texture, Vicuna woolis highly prized, retailing for US$ 250/0z in the USAand in 2004 selling at wholesale for US$ 566,/kg from certified liveshorn animals. World prices for Vicuna wool ranged from US$ 350/kg to US$ 900/kg over the past decade, promoting reference to it as the “Gold of the Andes.” The adaptations responsible for the animal’s outstanding physical endurance at high altitudes include lightweight insulating fleece, which protects against cold and the sun’s ultraviolet light, and high blood-oxygen affinity (highest of all mammals investigated). Full saturation of the blood with oxygen occurs at the lower partial pressure of oxygen that is found at high altitudes. The Vicuna’s heart muscle capillary densities are exceptionally high for a mammal of its body size. Its ability to load and unload oxygen is improved by a relatively high oxygen transfer conductance because ofits small red blood cells, and it has low blood viscosity due to a relative low percentage of red blood cells. Both are advantageous for maximum cardiac output. The Vicuna’slife span is 20 years, with a maximum age of 24 years and nine months recorded in captivity.Habitat.Vicunas are restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of the Andes.The Vicuna is the highest-altitude ungulate in all of South America, living in a unique montane zone from 3200 mto 4800 mabove sea level called the Puna, a high-altitude, equatorial grassland that is above the tree line but below the snow line. Summer precipitation is typically in the form of rain or hail, rarely snow. It is a dry and cold environment with summer nights hovering close to freezing. Winter nights plummet well below freezing, 10-20°C below the daytime highs. Two distinct habitats with different levels of precipitation can be found within this dry-Andean ecosystem: the high-elevation moist or semi-humid high-Andean Puna and the lower elevation dry or semi-arid Puna habitat. The dry Puna is an extremely dry belt called the Andean Dry Diagonal, a north-west/south-east transition zone between two major hemispheric wind belts centered at the junction of north-west Argentina, south-west Bolivia, and north-east Chile. Within the Dry Diagonalthere is essentially no precipitation, no lakes, and no glacier formation. The distribution of subspecies vicugnais within the Dry Diagonal. Subspecies mensalis is found to the north of it. From a landscape perspective the Puna is characterized by peaks and pronounced slopes, the typical elevated plain that defines the region (Puna or Altiplano), and the intermediate piedmont fringes of smooth slopes. Vicunas use the habitats within the Puna and piedmont zones. The most common habitats in the Puna are xerophytic shrub steppes that are often mixed with an understory of sparse short grasses and forbs (typically not an important habitat for Vicunas); bunchgrass steppes (variable importance); open rocky areas with sparse vegetation (not important); short grass and forb areas on lower slopes, gentle slopes, and plains (important); and wetlands of short plants with high ground cover associated with high ground water, surface water, streams, and lagoons, regionally called bofedales, mojadales, and vegas (important). Bofedales (around 4500 melevation in Peru) are perennially green sedge communities typically dominated by Eleocharisalbracteata and Carexecuadorica with vegetative cover of ¢.22% grasses, 42% sedges and reeds, and 33% forbs, and a crude protein content of 12%. Short-grass forb areas on lowerslopes (around 3190 min Peru) are dominated by the grass species Festucadolichophylla and Muhlenbergiafastigiata with a vegetative cover of 66% grass, 13% sedges and reeds, and 6% forbs, and a crude protein content of 10%.Food and Feeding.As with other ungulate herbivores, Vicuna habitat and forage selection is based not only upon availability, but heavily influenced by climate (wet vs. dry years), population density (high vs. low), and the social status and ranking of individual animals (high vs. low). Thus for studies done at different locations, landscapes, and animal densities,it is not surprising to see variable results. For example in Peruat the Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Vicunas were observed to be strict grazers on grasses and forbs, whereas in Argentinaat the Laguna Blanca National Park, Vicunas showed some diet plasticity by being grazers on grasses 16-19% ofthe time and browsers on shrubs 59-72% of the time with two grasses (Panicumchlorolewcum and Distichlisspp-) representing nearly 50% of the diet. Feeding preference in productive habitats dominated by grasses has been documented in several areas of the Vicuna’s distribution. Of the two main habitats (grass steppe and vegas) at the Ulla-Ulla Vicuna Reserve in Bolivia, Vicunas preferred vegas. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve of ArgentinaVicunaswere more abundant on the grassland plains. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve Vicunas preferred to forage in grass steppe communities characterized by Festucanigesens or by Calamagrostisvicunarum, the latter being the dominant species in the vegetative type known as Excrement Influenced Vegetation (EIV). EIV is the result of long-term defecation-urination by Vicunas on dung piles; the resulting fertilization and accumulation of organic matter accelerates soil and plant succession over a long period of time. The third sere is an isolated “putting-green,” an island of short, abundant plants in rocky terrain downhill from a single or series of dung piles. The top soil is deeper and the plants grow thickly, close to the ground. EIV covered 18% of the total surface area of Pampa Galeras National Reserve, andits third sere had the highest productivity and was the most preferred forage vegetation. The general pattern of Vicuna habitat selection for grass-dominated communities, especially those of high nutritional value, is consistent with the results of diet studies that found Vicunas forage mainly on grasses (Poaceae) and grass-like sedges (Ciperaceae). When Vicunas coexisted with domestic livestock (sheep, goats, donkeys) in Argentina, they were spatially segregated, had a high overlap in diets, and used preferred habitatless than expected. The native Vicuna and exotic domestic animals coexisted because Vicunas were able to utilize suboptimal habitats while herders kept livestock in the richest habitats. A sympatric population of Vicunas and Guanacos in the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve, Argentina, revealed that the diet of both species was similar, but Guanacos utilized more tall grasses and Vicuna fed more on forbs and short grasses.Breeding.Vicunas are strong seasonal breeders. Males reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years of age, and become reproductive after obtaining a feeding territory and recruiting females. Most females first mate as two-year-olds. Breeding is almost an unnoticeable event except for a short chase before mating, because the prolonged copulation takes place with the mating pair in sternal recumbency. Females show no unusual behavior to indicate they are in estrus and males do not persistently smell the female’s hindquarters as is common in other ungulates. There is no prolonged preoccupation or tending that ungulate males traditionally show for females in heat, because a territorial male has exclusive and immediate access to females within his territory. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve mating was observed from the end of February to the end of May, but peaked in April (3 matings/100 hours of observation), followed by May (1-8) and March (1-3). Almost all matings were in the morning and within the family group’s feeding territory. Gestation averages c.11-3 months (330-350 days). Females within a few weeks of parturition are visibly pregnant. At the start of the birth season at Pampa Galeras over a three year period, a high percentage of females two years of age or older were pregnant: 85%, 95%, and 85%. The non-pregnant females were mostly two-year-olds because only 20% of one-year-olds mated. Rectal palpation by experienced veterinarians of captive adult Vicunas in Puno(Peru) revealed 99% of females pregnant. Most (90%) births occurred from the last week of February through the first week of April with 75% of the births in March. February is the reported peak birth season for subspecies vicugnain Argentinaand Chile. Nearly all (96%) births occurred in the morning and within the feeding territory. Females give birth to one offspring, with twins not reported or observed. Morning births are likely a behavioral adaptation to the stormy weather typical of Andean afternoons. In summer and early autumn, daily storms regularly start around noon. Young born during the afternoon storms of rain and hail would not be able to dry their soft-insulating wool before entering the nearfreezing nights. Wet newborns would have little chance for survival. A female aboutto give birth separated herself 15-25 m from the group. During the usual one-hour labor the female looked back to inspect her hindquarters, laid down and stood intermittently, changed positions, and walked a few steps every few minutes. Parturition occurred while the female stood. The labor and birthing behaviors were subtle and not easily noticed, as females commonly continued to feed during the process— surely to avoid attracting potential predators in this wide-open habitat. The mother immediately smelled and inspected the head and muzzle of the newborn, but licking did not occur (thus no assistance with the newborn’s thermoregulation) nor was the afterbirth eaten (the latter two behaviors common in other ungulates). Other members of the group frequently came over to smell and inspect the newborn. Newborns weighed 4-6 kg, were on their feet and able to walk in a wobbly way 15-20 minutes after birth, and began nursing when they were 30-45 minutes old. Vicuna young are “followers” as opposed to “hiders” and stay close to their mothers, especially in the first few months. Most young are weaned during the dry season in July and August, when they are 4-6 months old. During the first four months after birth 10-30% of newborns died. The cause was undetermined, but predation by Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and Pumas (Puma concolor) was suspected. Reproductive success as measured in August by the ratio of young to adult females ranged 35-70 young per 100 females in different regions of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. In Chile, density dependency seemed to be operating: the more females in a family group the lower the number of young per female. Very little research has been conducted on the physiology of Vicuna reproduction, but a noteworthy study on reproduction in captive male Vicunas in the Puna of northern Chilefound higher levels of plasma testosterone, large testessize, greater size of seminiferous tubules, and large diameters of Leydig cell nuclei beginning in February, a month before the summer breeding season started. In the winter month of August spermatogenesis was in the regressive phase. Both findings suggested photoperiod as the mechanism for when males are sexually effective. Insight can be gained from studies on the Vicuna’s domesticated descendent, the Alpaca: an experimental study on Alpacas demonstrated that the continuous association of females and males exerted an inhibiting effect on male sexual activity. After continuous association of two weeks, there was no mating activity by the male even though receptive females were present. However, when mature males were separated from females and reunited at two week intervals, mating occurred. These observations shed light on why nonpregnant Vicunas (and other cameloids) are not bred during non-breeding seasons of the year.Activity patterns.During a year-round, 3-5yearfield study in Pampa Galeras National Reserve, home to a population of the northern subspecies mensalis, Vicuna family groups showed a predictable daily activity pattern in the large open valleys they occupied. Having spent the night on the upperflat ridges in small sleeping territories, within an hour after sunrise they moved as a group down to their daytime feeding territories. They spent the day on these lower slopes or flat plains, feeding at a constant rate. The sleeping territories, on higher ground, were warmer at night than feeding territories and were away from the streambeds where nocturnal predators hunted. The adult male Vicuna in the family group actively defended both territories by challenging and chasing away trespassing Vicunas. If human disturbance did not cause an early retreat back up the slope, the group returned to its sleeping territory in midto late afternoon. In the winter dry season, when small springs on the slopes dried up, groups left their feeding territory and moved to the center of the valley floor to drink from streams. Solo males holding a territory showed similar patterns. Male groups moved randomly and unpredictably through the area. In a separate study at Pampa Galeras National Reserve conducted during the March—-May breeding season, females spent significantly more time grazing than males (54 vs. 45 minutes/hour) and lactating females fed more than non-lactating females (56 vs. 53 minutes/hour). In general females fed 91% of the time; territorial males fed 75% of the time. In Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve above Arequipa, Peru, there was a positive correlation between frequency of alert behavior per adult and the number of offspring in the family group, and at the Laguna de Pozuelos Biosphere Reserve in Argentina, solitary Vicunas spent more time standing and being vigilant and less time foraging than did members of groups. In Abra Pampa (Argentina), territorial males spent more time being vigilant and less time feeding as the size of their family group increased, but not more time in territorial defense (walking, running). At the Laguna Blanca Reserve in Argentina, which is extremely arid, daily activity patterns during the dry season were similar to the patterns of family groups at Pampa Galeras in the same season, with morning feeding on slopes, midday movement to a river on the flat, and a return to the slope and more feeding in the afternoon. At Pampa Galeras there was no significant difference between the amount of time males spent in territorial behavior and the number of female group members or the total group size. Studies at Laguna Blanca on the other subspecies, however, found a substantial decrease in amount of time males spent foraging when the number of females in their group increased.Movements, Home range and Social organization.All Vicuna populations of both subspecies studied to date were sedentary and non-migratory. However, as described above, daily activity patterns and movements are greatly influenced by the need to drink water. Several studies have shown that water distribution and availability can have a major effect on local movement of Vicunas. Despite being well adapted to living in arid conditions, the Vicuna is an obligate drinker and needs to drink often, especially in the dry season when it seeks water daily. Visits to small streams often include water bathing accompanied by dust bathing in dust bowls. The home range of a family group encompasses the area where the group is typically found, thatis,its sleeping territory, feeding territory, and the space in between, as well as those areas it commonly moves through during the dry season on its way to drinking water. The two territories are defended by the male and exclusively occupied by the family group, but the balance of the home range is not;it overlaps and is shared with other groups. These are neutral zones, especially the corridors that groups move through on their way to water. The social units ofVicuna are family groups, male groups, and solo males. A characteristic family group is composed of one adult male, 3-4 females, and two juveniles. Although the permanent territorial family group is the classic Vicuna social unit occupying good habitat containing semi-permanent water, other groups found within Vicuna populations may include marginal territorial family groups occupying secondary habitat types without water, and temporary mobile family groups that lack a territory. Permanentterritorial family groups occupy a year-round feeding territory averaging 18-4 ha (2-56 ha), and sleeping territory averaging 2-6 ha. This is highly unusual for an ungulate. Territorial males defend their sites passively (standing guard near borders) and actively (walking towards, chasing, fighting, biting, etc.) multiple times daily. The territorial system is based upon resource-defense polygyny in which the territorial male defends food resources essential to females. This attracts females to the site, providing them with guaranteed forage in a food-limited environment, within which they can raise their offspring in a socially stable unit free from harassment. The family group male regulates group size by more often than not rejecting outside females, preventing resident females from leaving, and annually forcibly dispersing male young at 4-9 months and expelling female young at 10-11 months of age. The young malesjoin male groups and the females eventuallyjoin another territorial male. Family group size is significantly correlated with feeding territory size and total forage production within the territory. Vocalizations are most commonly used by territorial males, who give a loud alarm call when disturbed by strange objects or a frightening situation: people on foot, herders with dogs, or potential predators such as Culpeos and Pumas. Group size and territory size are density-dependent, decreasing with increasing population size. In extreme cases the system can appear to be more monogamous than polygynous. Male or bachelor groups are bands of 2-155 non-territorial males. The size fluctuates widely; 75% have fewer than 30 males, with 5-10 the most common group size. Male groups frequently invade the family group zones from which they were forced to leave, by individually or cooperatively attacking territorial males. Solo males are sexually mature individuals with an established territory or on the move looking for an available site to establish a territory. In Pampa Galeras, up to 16 months elapsed before solo males were able to attract or forcefully obtain females to form a family group. In intensely studied populations, 32% of all adult males were territorial and family groups made up 75% ofall social units. Territorial boundaries, albeit invisible to the human eye, were well defined and as narrow as one meter. The system was not perfect, as neighboring males were continually testing boundaries. Dung piles were abundant throughout the area. Adults and young of both sexes defecated and urinated only on dung piles, alwaysfirst smelling the dung pile. The primary function of dung piles appeared to be for intragroup orientation, i.e. for assisting members to stay within their territory and neutral zones. If a female inadvertently left her territory she was vehemently chased back by the neighboring territorial male. Dung piles did not keep non-neighbor outsiders out of a territory if the resident male was absent. Thus, the dung piles functioned more for keeping insiders in than outsiders out ofterritories. The highest frequency of dung pile use was when Vicunas were leaving their territories and when groups moved through neutral corridors as if “checking” their location, again suggesting individual self-orientation to avoid aggressive attack by adjacent territorial males. At Pampa Galeras the estimated age that males became territorial was 3—4 years; they remained territorial for at leastsix years. In studies with tagged animals at Aguada Blanca, the average age of solo males was 11-5 years, males in male groups averaged less than three years old, and the average age ofterritorial males was 9-5 years, suggesting significantly longer tenure than Guanacoterritorial males.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, except the populations of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile(I Region) which are included in Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List due to its total numbers, wide range of distribution, and occurrence in a number of protected areas. The genetic diversity of the northern subspecies mensalis is relatively low within populations and high between populations, a pattern commonly observed in threatened species with formerly large ranges that became isolated from each other and then suffered drastic demographic contraction. Total area occupied by Vicunas is around 250,000 km?. The distribution of the two subspecies can be seen as a continuum of scattered and fragmented groups that become less frequent north to south. The small populations of the subspecies vicugnain the south have survived in the Dry Diagonal, an extremely arid zone in the high Andes, where they show a genetic signature of demographic isolation. To the north, the subspecies mensalis populations underwent a rapid demographic expansion in the late Pleistocene due to increased precipitation and the subsequent appearance of highaltitude short grasslands. However, the Dry Diagonal is believed to have prevented both the expansion southward of the northern, moist Puna-adapted forms and the expansion northward of the southern, dry Puna-adapted forms, resulting in the two subspecies found today. The subspecies vicugnais most closely related to the basal taxon,i.e. the species’ primitive extinct ancestor. Both subspecies occur in Boliviaand Chile, but the subspecies mensalis has the highest numbers (73% ofall Vicunas) and widest distribution of the two subspecies. Relative abundance of the southern subspecies vicugnain Boliviais 34% of 112,249 Vicunas (data from 2009) and in Chile7% of a minimum 15,544 Vicunas (data from 2007). Majority of the world’s Vicunas in zoos and private collections are of the southern subspecies. The trend for the Vicuna’s general population is increasing. However, as recently as four decades ago, the Vicuna was threatened with extinction. The total population size was as low as 5000-10,000 individuals due to unrelenting poaching for the Vicuna’s valuable wool. In southern Peruthe Pampa Galeras National Reserve was established in the late 1960s to protect the largest remaining population. The first international treaty, The Vicuna Convention, was initially between Peruand Boliviaand in 1974 signed by Chileand Argentina. It established national parks, reserves, and private lands for the protection of Vicunas, with the goal of requiring live animals to be shorn. Since that time, programs for the sustainable harvest of Vicuna wool have been successfully applied and Vicuna populations began to increase. Ownership of the wild species varies between countries. In Peruand Boliviathey are the property of the state, while in Chileand Argentinano one owns wild Vicunas. Current population densities vary from 0-9 ind/km* to 1-8 ind/km? for Lauca National Park in northern Chileto as high as 87 ind/km* in Pampa Galeras, although optimum estimated density for Vicuna in Pampa Galeras National Reserve is 40-43 ind/km?. The total number of Vicunas is about ¢.421,500, with 52% in Peru, 27% in Bolivia, 17% in Argentina, 4% in Chile(not including the small number in Ecuador). Threats remain for the wild Vicuna: poaching; the fact that some protected areas are only “paper parks;” a lack of national management plans; competition with and overgrazing by domestic livestock; mange/scabies infections from domestic animals; crossbreeding of Alpacas and Vicunas for commercial purposes; and management of Vicuna as captive populations. Overall, conservation programs and their tight control at local, national, and international levels are critical for the conservation of this species.Bibliography.Arzamendia et al. (2006, 2010), Bonacic et al. (2002, 2003), Borgnia et al. (2008, 2010), Bosch & Svendsen (1987), Cassiniet al. (2009), Cajal (1989), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), Davies (2003), Franklin (1969, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1982, 1983), Gordon (2009), Hack (2001), Hoffman & Fowler (1995), Jurgens et al. (1988), Kadwell et al. (2001), Koford (1957), Lichtenstein et al. (2009), Lucherini et al. (2000), Marin et al. (2007), Novoa (1984), Renaudeau d’Arc (2000), Sarno et al. (2005), Stanley et al. (1994), Urquieta et al. (1994), Vila & Cassimi (1993, 1994) Vila & Roig (1992), Vila et al. (2009), Villalba (2003), Wheeler (1995a), Wheeler & Laker (2009), Wheeler, Chikhi & Bruford (2006), Wheeler, Fernandez et al. (2003), Yacobaccio (2009)." +03928E699A49FFC0D040FC84F6FFF24B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,243,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A49FFC0D040FC84F6FFF24B.xml,Camelus bactrianus,Camelus,bactrianus,Linnaeus,1758,Chameau @fr | Kamel @de | Camellobactriano @es | Two-Humped Camel @en | Double-Humped Camel @en | Asiatic Camel @en | Wild Bactrian Camel @en,"Camelus bactrianus Linnaeus, 1758,habitat in Africa. Restricted to “Bactria” (Uzbekistan, Bokhara) by Thomas in 1911 based on domestic stock.Bactria and Bactriana were the Greek and Latin names for the ancient Persian provincial capital Baxtriya in Central Asia. Aristotle (384-322 Bc) applied the term “Bactrian” to the domestic camel associated with this eastern region of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which prospered from Bactrian Camel caravans that transported goods between the East and West over the famed Silk Road. The question of the relatedness and genetic distinctiveness of wild and domestic Bactrian Camelsis actively being pursued. Scientists argue variously that: 1) the wild Bactrian is the progenitor of today’s domestic Bactrian; 2) wild Bactrians are escapees and feral forms of domestics; 3) both derived from a common ancestor now extinct; or 4) both derived from separate ancestors now extinct. Preliminary work by Chinese geneticists first suggested the two Bactrians were sufficiently different to warrant subspecies or potentially even species separation. Recent mtDNA studies by Austrian scientists favor the final argument, estimating divergence between the two camelids at 700,000 years ago in the Pleistocene long before Bactrian domestication (4000-6000 years ago). Some classify the wild Bactrian as Camelusgobi or Camelus bactrianusgobi, while others apply the name Camelus ferusdue to a ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature because C. feruswas first applied to the wild species. In this account, the two animals are differentiated at the subspecies level (wild = C. b. ferusand domestic = C. b. bactrianus). Genetic justification for recognizing the domestic form as a separate species is growing, and all workers agree that the critically endangered wild Bactrian is in desperate need of protective conservation measures. Two subspecies recognized here.","C.b.bactrianusLinnaeus,1758—aridlandsanddesertsofC&SAsiaasdomesticatedlivestock.C. b. ferus Przewalski, 1878— NW China(C & SE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, NW Qinghai& NW Gansu) and Mongolia.","Head—body 320-350 cm, tail 51-64 cm, shoulder height 160-180 cm; weight 450-500 kg. Compared to Dromedary Camels (C. dromedarius), Bactrians have stouter and thicker bodies with relatively shorter legs, and two humps instead of one. Dromedaries are slimmer and taller. In winter the Bactrian’s long, woolly coat is sandy beige to dark brown, shedding in large clumps as temperatures warm in spring. They have a mane and a beard of long hair on the neck and throat, with hairs up to 25 cmlong. Long eyelashes and sealable nostrils help to keep out dust in sandstorms. Two broad toes on each foot with undivided soles create a large, flat footpad that spreads widely as an adaptation for walking on sand. Their long face is somewhat triangular, with a split upper lip. Bactrians are well suited to cold and hot temperatures and are suspected to have physiological adaptations similar to those of Dromedaries. Their humps function the same way as Dromedaries’ humps, storing fat convertible to water and energy when there is a shortage of sustenance and enabling the animals to endure harsh desert conditions and periods of travel without water. As the fat depletes, the humps become floppy and flabby. Like Dromedaries, Bactrians rarely sweat, facilitating conservation of fluids. Dehydrated animals are able to drink 135 1 of water in 13 minutes. Although wild and domestic Bactrians have similar conformation and body structure, field observers report obvious differences in behavior, habits, and general appearance. Unlike the ponderous domestic Bactrians, wild ones are relatively lithe. Wild Bactrians are slimmer and smaller-bodied (laterally compressed), with slender limbs. They are sandy-gray-brown rather than predominantly dark brown, with shorter, sparser wool. There is no tuft of hair on top of the head, and the hair on the neck,tail, and knee joints is shorter. They do not have growths on the inner foreleg or callosities on the knees. The wild form has smaller ears and very narrow feet. Notably, their humps are lower, pointed, conical-shaped, and usually about half the size orless of the domestic Bactrian’s. They are timid and elusive.","Bactrians are adapted for living in plains and hills where vegetation and water sources are sparse. They inhabit some of most inhospitable terrain in the world, centered in the extreme Gobi Desert of Central Asia. Gobi means “the rocky place” and it is primarily a rocky desert covered with small stones. There are low valleys and eroded hills, rocky-mountain massifs, “hamadas” (flat pavement-like stony plains), vast washed-out plains, high sand dunes, and rarely, poplarfringed oases. Summers are torrid, winters are cold. Annual precipitation is 50-200 mm. This is a region of extreme drought and scarce food and water. The Taklamankan Desert is sandy; Lop Nur Desert is both a rocky and sandy desert. Field studies in the Lop Nur Lake region of Chinarevealed a Bactrian habitat preference for riparian communities and piedmont foothills; they were more often found in higher,hilly landscape than in the open. The Bactrians avoided gravel desert substrate and areas with hard, salt-crusted soil or moving sand dunes, preferring moderately hard ground. They stayed away from areas occupied by people. They used locations where the distance between foraging habitats and water sources did not exceed ¢.50-60 km and where there was relatively high coverage of halophytic vegetation, especially along lakeshores. In Mongolia preliminary results of satellite telemetry revealed a weak preference for habitat dominated by saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendrum) and no selection of areas with higher productivity or closer to permanent water sources. Climate change has altered Bactrian habitat by increasing the rate of desertification and reducing water resources and vegetation. Wild Bactrians have few native predators. Contrary to some accounts, Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) pose no threat, and although Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) predation does occur,its impact is poorly understood.","Bactrians are opportunistic feeders capable of utilizing low-quality forage when more desirable herbage is unavailable. They are both grazers and browsers. Research on free-ranging domestic Bactrians in wild Bactrian habitat in the Gobi Desert provides the best information available on feeding habits. Those studies found that the camels’ main diet switched from senesced forbs in winter to a shrub in spring and to an increasing dependence on forbs in autumn. Although the shrub Haloxylon ammodendron was the dominant and highest biomass species in this desert community and a staple component of the camels’ diet each season, it was not preferred forage. Still, the shrub was essential when preferred forbs were not available in spring and summer. In autumn preferred annual forbs provided sufficient biomass. New plant growth during the wet season in summer and autumn was vitally important for replenishing the camels’ depleted fat reserves in preparation for winter. Domestic Bactrians are dependent on a year-long forage supply from the fragile and extremely arid environment they occupy. They show a preference for grazing on forbs, but are highly dependent upon browsing on shrubs. It has been reported that Bactrians can utilize salt water, with some researchers stating that salty water is necessary for their survival. When sufficient food is available in spring, summer, and autumn, Bactrians rarely have to drink, obtaining water requirements from plant moisture. In winter they have been observed to eat ice and snow.","Breeding season is called the “musth” after the thick fluid exuded from a gland on the neck behind the head in adult males. A study of semi-captive wild Bactrians found that females reached puberty after three years and males at 5-7 years of age. Wild rutting males in Mongoliabegin forming harems in late autumn (November) and mating in early winter, with most mating in January and February, but occasionally as late at March, or even May. Young males are driven out of the harems by rutting males and form bachelor herds; young females remain with their mothers. Males employ spitting (saliva and pseudorumen contents), kicking, biting, and screaming as offensive and defensive behaviors against each other during mating season. During the rut, wild males stretch their necks, shake their heads while roaring, and make loud noises with their teeth. Simultaneously they are foaming/frothing from the mouth and shaking their lips to throw foam on their head and chests. Occasionally they widen their hindlegs to urinate on their tails, using the tail to spread urine on their hips, hump, and head. The concentrated brown secretion from the 1-5 cm x 5 cmgland behind the head is rubbed on the forehump, giving it a darker color. The penis is 4 cmwide x 13-5 cm long. There is no use of dung piles by either sex. Estrous females are usually receptive in January or February for 4-7 days, at which time they follow males, knocking mating males off females and occasionally urinating. To mate, females lift theirtails after lying down in a sternal recumbancy position. Males typically mate with females 2-3 times in the morning or evening for 3-5 minutes each time. After mating, the genitals of females swell and become pink. Females are semen-induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs 30-48 hours after mating. Gestation of semi-captives in Mongoliawas 390-430 days (13-14 months) depending upon the age of the female and the number of previous calves. Females give birth to a single offspring while standing, but only every 2-3 years. Spring birth season is from March to April. Females giving birth isolate themselves from other animals and people, remaining alone for about two weeks. Calves are able to stumble-walk within 15-30 minutes. They weigh 32-34 kg at birth and nurse every 1-2 hours. Body growth levels off at seven years. Domestic Bactrians produce ¢.760 I of milk during 16 months of lactation. Calves are commonly weaned at 10-11 months but may nurse for up to 18 months. In captive Bactrians there is liberal and indiscriminate allonursing (adult females nursing non-offspring); this has been observed about one-third of the time, and was not correlated with the age of the mother or relatedness of the calf. Spring to autumn calf mortality is high, at 50%. Poor calf survival is often the result of drought, sandstorms, and freezing temperatures. Aerial surveys in the early 2000s counted only 3-9 young/ 100 adults,significantly lower than surveys in 1980 and 1998. The remaining Bactrian population cannot sustain itself with such a low calf-survival rate. Wild and domestic Bactrian Camels readily interbreed, producing fertile-hybrid offspring that can be differentiated by genetic testing based upon fixed mitochondrial sequence polymorphism. They can live as long as 35 years.","Activity budgets are an indication of an animal’s welfare since its primary activities are centered on energy acquisition, conservation, or expenditure. Bactrian Camels are diurnal feeders and nocturnal sleepers. In winter they spend less time foraging and more time resting than in spring and summer. There is high foraging activity in spring, triggered by readily available shrubs with minimal walking required. Daily patterns of activity are structured to expend the least amount of energy to obtain food, even when the food is not preferred forage.","Bactrians often move 50-100 km seeking permanent surface water and patches of foraging habitat. Some populations are suspected to be migratory, especially those in the Chinese Lop Nur Lake region where the animals move between lakeside riparian communities in winter and cooler foothills in the summer. Researchers tracked seven wild camels in the Mongolian Gobi for one year, using satellite telemetry. One adult female moved a minimum of 4527 kmin a home range of 17,232 km. She spent 75% of her time within 8699 km?. Ground surveys in Mongoliareport that the Bactrian population was composed of 82% adults, 12% juveniles (non-reproductive young), and 6% calves (depending upon the time of year). Groups sighted in Chinanumbered 4-40 individuals and in Mongoliafrom one animal to dozens, with researchers frequently encountering groups of more than 50 animals. From 1982 to 1989, when a total of 2370 wild Bactrians and 675 groups were sighted, average herd size was six (5-3—-6-5) with 6-20 animals/group the most common. Other than sporadic and irregular sightings in the vast Gobi Desert, where low densities of Bactrian Camels occur, we know almost nothing of their year-round social organization. However, it would not be surprising to find that the Bactrian social system is similar to that observed in wild/feral Dromedaries of Australia. Gray Wolves have been cited as a contributing factor to the Bactrian’s decline in both Chinaand Mongolia, but the evidence is weak because it is primarily based upon camel remains in scats, which could have been from scavenging.","The wild subspecies is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List and Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It is considered by some to be on the verge of extinction. Protected nationally in Chinaand Mongolia. The Bactrian’s original distribution and natural habitat was the entire Asian Trans-Altai Gobi Desert, stretching from the great bend of the Yellow River in north-east Chinathroughout Mongoliato central Kazakhstanin the west, at elevations 1500-2000 m above sea level in an area that encompassed nearly 100,000 km*. Today they are greatly reduced to a few small and fragmented populations in south-western Mongoliaand nearby areas of north-western Chinain a total area ¢. 28,000 km*. Four populations of wild Bactrians survive: the Taklamakan Desert; Altun Mountains and Archik Valley; and Gashun Desert populations in China; and the Outer Gobi Desert population of Mongoliaand China, which migrates between the two countries. Overall numbers greatly reduced in the past century because of hunting for their meat and hides, habitat loss due to grazing, and competition for water with domestic livestock (domestic camels, sheep, goats, horses, and cattle), interbreeding with domestic camels, mining activities, and poor reproduction and survival of young. Because of harsh climatic conditions, lack of appropriate aircraft for aerial surveys, and the remote and vast region where the remaining Bactrians live, there is uncertainty as to the total numbers remaining. The famous Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, who is given credit for discovering the wild Bactrian Camel of Asia during his travels to Mongoliaand China, noted in 1876: “According to our informants wild camels are numerous in north-western Tsaidam, where the country is barren, the soil being clay, overgrown with budarbana, and so destitute of water that they have to go several miles to drink, and in winter are obligated to satisfy their thirst with snow. The herds are small, averaging five to ten in each, never more than twenty. Their appearanceis slightly different from the domesticated breed: their humps are smaller, the muzzle more pointed, and the color of the hair gray.” It has been reported that wild Bactrians experienced drastic reduction in numbers and range over the past 10-20 years, but the most recent and reliable data suggests that populations in Mongoliahave been relatively stable if not increasing. Actual numbers are unclear and little is known. Estimates of total population size from incomplete ground surveys are as low as 730-950 individuals with projections from aerial surveys in Mongoliaof 4335 individuals. Attempts to assist with Bactrian conservation efforts in Mongoliathrough a captive breeding program have been unsuccessful. In China, the population is suspected to be decreasing in the Taklamakan Desert, because of oil development, but not in the Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve. The wild Bactrian Camel may well be one of the most endangered large mammals on Earth, and our knowledge ofits basic biology and ecology is dismally poor. Research is needed on the comparative genetics of wild and domestic forms, reproductive physiology, population structure and dynamics, and habitat requirements. Bactrian camels need immediate conservation attention, including standardization of methodology for accurate population surveys in both Chinaand Mongolia; development of a comprehensive conservation program; increasing support among local people, including control of illegal hunting; habitat improvement; prevention of hybridization with domestic camels that threatens the gene pool of the Mongolian wild camel population, particularly in the Great Gobi “A” Strictly Protected Area and its associated Buffer Zone; and an increase in the number and size of protected areas. The Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve in China, a former nuclear test site, is especially critical because it is believed to contain the most genetically pure individuals of the species.","Adiya et al. (2004) | Al-Ani (2004) | Bannikov (1976) | Burger & Charruau (2011) | ChinaStatistical Yearbook (2008) | Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981) | Gentry et al. (2004) | Grubb (2005) | Guoying (2001) | Han Jie et al. (2002) | Hare (1996, 1997, 1998, 2008) | Indra et al. (2002, 2003) | Ji Rimutu et al. (2009) | Menglia et al. (2006) | Mijiddorj (2002a, 2002b) | Mix et al. (2002) | Peters & von den Driesch (1997b) | Potts (2004) | Reading, Blumeret al. (2005) | Reading, Enkhbileg & Galbataar (2002) | Reading, Mix, Blumer et al. (2002) | Reading, Mix, Lhagvasuren & Blumer (1999) | Schaller (1998) | Silbermayr et al. (2010) | Tilson (1986) | Tserenbaljid (2002) | Tulgat (2002) | Tulgat & Schaller (1992) | Weidong et al. (2002) | Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2002)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719735/files/figure.png,"5.Bactrian CamelCamelus bactrianusFrench:Chameau/ German:Kamel/ Spanish:CamellobactrianoOther common names:Two-Humped Camel, Double-Humped Camel, Asiatic Camel, Wild Bactrian CamelTaxonomy.Camelus bactrianus Linnaeus, 1758,habitat in Africa. Restricted to “Bactria” (Uzbekistan, Bokhara) by Thomas in 1911 based on domestic stock.Bactria and Bactriana were the Greek and Latin names for the ancient Persian provincial capital Baxtriya in Central Asia. Aristotle (384-322 Bc) applied the term “Bactrian” to the domestic camel associated with this eastern region of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which prospered from Bactrian Camel caravans that transported goods between the East and West over the famed Silk Road. The question of the relatedness and genetic distinctiveness of wild and domestic Bactrian Camelsis actively being pursued. Scientists argue variously that: 1) the wild Bactrian is the progenitor of today’s domestic Bactrian; 2) wild Bactrians are escapees and feral forms of domestics; 3) both derived from a common ancestor now extinct; or 4) both derived from separate ancestors now extinct. Preliminary work by Chinese geneticists first suggested the two Bactrians were sufficiently different to warrant subspecies or potentially even species separation. Recent mtDNA studies by Austrian scientists favor the final argument, estimating divergence between the two camelids at 700,000 years ago in the Pleistocene long before Bactrian domestication (4000-6000 years ago). Some classify the wild Bactrian as Camelusgobi or Camelus bactrianusgobi, while others apply the name Camelus ferusdue to a ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature because C. feruswas first applied to the wild species. In this account, the two animals are differentiated at the subspecies level (wild = C. b. ferusand domestic = C. b. bactrianus). Genetic justification for recognizing the domestic form as a separate species is growing, and all workers agree that the critically endangered wild Bactrian is in desperate need of protective conservation measures. Two subspecies recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C.b.bactrianusLinnaeus,1758—aridlandsanddesertsofC&SAsiaasdomesticatedlivestock.C. b. ferus Przewalski, 1878— NW China(C & SE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, NW Qinghai& NW Gansu) and Mongolia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 320-350 cm, tail 51-64 cm, shoulder height 160-180 cm; weight 450-500 kg. Compared to Dromedary Camels (C. dromedarius), Bactrians have stouter and thicker bodies with relatively shorter legs, and two humps instead of one. Dromedaries are slimmer and taller. In winter the Bactrian’s long, woolly coat is sandy beige to dark brown, shedding in large clumps as temperatures warm in spring. They have a mane and a beard of long hair on the neck and throat, with hairs up to 25 cmlong. Long eyelashes and sealable nostrils help to keep out dust in sandstorms. Two broad toes on each foot with undivided soles create a large, flat footpad that spreads widely as an adaptation for walking on sand. Their long face is somewhat triangular, with a split upper lip. Bactrians are well suited to cold and hot temperatures and are suspected to have physiological adaptations similar to those of Dromedaries. Their humps function the same way as Dromedaries’ humps, storing fat convertible to water and energy when there is a shortage of sustenance and enabling the animals to endure harsh desert conditions and periods of travel without water. As the fat depletes, the humps become floppy and flabby. Like Dromedaries, Bactrians rarely sweat, facilitating conservation of fluids. Dehydrated animals are able to drink 135 1 of water in 13 minutes. Although wild and domestic Bactrians have similar conformation and body structure, field observers report obvious differences in behavior, habits, and general appearance. Unlike the ponderous domestic Bactrians, wild ones are relatively lithe. Wild Bactrians are slimmer and smaller-bodied (laterally compressed), with slender limbs. They are sandy-gray-brown rather than predominantly dark brown, with shorter, sparser wool. There is no tuft of hair on top of the head, and the hair on the neck,tail, and knee joints is shorter. They do not have growths on the inner foreleg or callosities on the knees. The wild form has smaller ears and very narrow feet. Notably, their humps are lower, pointed, conical-shaped, and usually about half the size orless of the domestic Bactrian’s. They are timid and elusive.Habitat.Bactrians are adapted for living in plains and hills where vegetation and water sources are sparse. They inhabit some of most inhospitable terrain in the world, centered in the extreme Gobi Desert of Central Asia. Gobi means “the rocky place” and it is primarily a rocky desert covered with small stones. There are low valleys and eroded hills, rocky-mountain massifs, “hamadas” (flat pavement-like stony plains), vast washed-out plains, high sand dunes, and rarely, poplarfringed oases. Summers are torrid, winters are cold. Annual precipitation is 50-200 mm. This is a region of extreme drought and scarce food and water. The Taklamankan Desert is sandy; Lop Nur Desert is both a rocky and sandy desert. Field studies in the Lop Nur Lake region of Chinarevealed a Bactrian habitat preference for riparian communities and piedmont foothills; they were more often found in higher,hilly landscape than in the open. The Bactrians avoided gravel desert substrate and areas with hard, salt-crusted soil or moving sand dunes, preferring moderately hard ground. They stayed away from areas occupied by people. They used locations where the distance between foraging habitats and water sources did not exceed ¢.50-60 km and where there was relatively high coverage of halophytic vegetation, especially along lakeshores. In Mongolia preliminary results of satellite telemetry revealed a weak preference for habitat dominated by saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendrum) and no selection of areas with higher productivity or closer to permanent water sources. Climate change has altered Bactrian habitat by increasing the rate of desertification and reducing water resources and vegetation. Wild Bactrians have few native predators. Contrary to some accounts, Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) pose no threat, and although Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) predation does occur,its impact is poorly understood.Food and Feeding.Bactrians are opportunistic feeders capable of utilizing low-quality forage when more desirable herbage is unavailable. They are both grazers and browsers. Research on free-ranging domestic Bactrians in wild Bactrian habitat in the Gobi Desert provides the best information available on feeding habits. Those studies found that the camels’ main diet switched from senesced forbs in winter to a shrub in spring and to an increasing dependence on forbs in autumn. Although the shrub Haloxylon ammodendron was the dominant and highest biomass species in this desert community and a staple component of the camels’ diet each season, it was not preferred forage. Still, the shrub was essential when preferred forbs were not available in spring and summer. In autumn preferred annual forbs provided sufficient biomass. New plant growth during the wet season in summer and autumn was vitally important for replenishing the camels’ depleted fat reserves in preparation for winter. Domestic Bactrians are dependent on a year-long forage supply from the fragile and extremely arid environment they occupy. They show a preference for grazing on forbs, but are highly dependent upon browsing on shrubs. It has been reported that Bactrians can utilize salt water, with some researchers stating that salty water is necessary for their survival. When sufficient food is available in spring, summer, and autumn, Bactrians rarely have to drink, obtaining water requirements from plant moisture. In winter they have been observed to eat ice and snow.Breeding.Breeding season is called the “musth” after the thick fluid exuded from a gland on the neck behind the head in adult males. A study of semi-captive wild Bactrians found that females reached puberty after three years and males at 5-7 years of age. Wild rutting males in Mongoliabegin forming harems in late autumn (November) and mating in early winter, with most mating in January and February, but occasionally as late at March, or even May. Young males are driven out of the harems by rutting males and form bachelor herds; young females remain with their mothers. Males employ spitting (saliva and pseudorumen contents), kicking, biting, and screaming as offensive and defensive behaviors against each other during mating season. During the rut, wild males stretch their necks, shake their heads while roaring, and make loud noises with their teeth. Simultaneously they are foaming/frothing from the mouth and shaking their lips to throw foam on their head and chests. Occasionally they widen their hindlegs to urinate on their tails, using the tail to spread urine on their hips, hump, and head. The concentrated brown secretion from the 1-5 cm x 5 cmgland behind the head is rubbed on the forehump, giving it a darker color. The penis is 4 cmwide x 13-5 cm long. There is no use of dung piles by either sex. Estrous females are usually receptive in January or February for 4-7 days, at which time they follow males, knocking mating males off females and occasionally urinating. To mate, females lift theirtails after lying down in a sternal recumbancy position. Males typically mate with females 2-3 times in the morning or evening for 3-5 minutes each time. After mating, the genitals of females swell and become pink. Females are semen-induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs 30-48 hours after mating. Gestation of semi-captives in Mongoliawas 390-430 days (13-14 months) depending upon the age of the female and the number of previous calves. Females give birth to a single offspring while standing, but only every 2-3 years. Spring birth season is from March to April. Females giving birth isolate themselves from other animals and people, remaining alone for about two weeks. Calves are able to stumble-walk within 15-30 minutes. They weigh 32-34 kg at birth and nurse every 1-2 hours. Body growth levels off at seven years. Domestic Bactrians produce ¢.760 I of milk during 16 months of lactation. Calves are commonly weaned at 10-11 months but may nurse for up to 18 months. In captive Bactrians there is liberal and indiscriminate allonursing (adult females nursing non-offspring); this has been observed about one-third of the time, and was not correlated with the age of the mother or relatedness of the calf. Spring to autumn calf mortality is high, at 50%. Poor calf survival is often the result of drought, sandstorms, and freezing temperatures. Aerial surveys in the early 2000s counted only 3-9 young/ 100 adults,significantly lower than surveys in 1980 and 1998. The remaining Bactrian population cannot sustain itself with such a low calf-survival rate. Wild and domestic Bactrian Camels readily interbreed, producing fertile-hybrid offspring that can be differentiated by genetic testing based upon fixed mitochondrial sequence polymorphism. They can live as long as 35 years.Activity patterns.Activity budgets are an indication of an animal’s welfare since its primary activities are centered on energy acquisition, conservation, or expenditure. Bactrian Camels are diurnal feeders and nocturnal sleepers. In winter they spend less time foraging and more time resting than in spring and summer. There is high foraging activity in spring, triggered by readily available shrubs with minimal walking required. Daily patterns of activity are structured to expend the least amount of energy to obtain food, even when the food is not preferred forage.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bactrians often move 50-100 km seeking permanent surface water and patches of foraging habitat. Some populations are suspected to be migratory, especially those in the Chinese Lop Nur Lake region where the animals move between lakeside riparian communities in winter and cooler foothills in the summer. Researchers tracked seven wild camels in the Mongolian Gobi for one year, using satellite telemetry. One adult female moved a minimum of 4527 kmin a home range of 17,232 km. She spent 75% of her time within 8699 km?. Ground surveys in Mongoliareport that the Bactrian population was composed of 82% adults, 12% juveniles (non-reproductive young), and 6% calves (depending upon the time of year). Groups sighted in Chinanumbered 4-40 individuals and in Mongoliafrom one animal to dozens, with researchers frequently encountering groups of more than 50 animals. From 1982 to 1989, when a total of 2370 wild Bactrians and 675 groups were sighted, average herd size was six (5-3—-6-5) with 6-20 animals/group the most common. Other than sporadic and irregular sightings in the vast Gobi Desert, where low densities of Bactrian Camels occur, we know almost nothing of their year-round social organization. However, it would not be surprising to find that the Bactrian social system is similar to that observed in wild/feral Dromedaries of Australia. Gray Wolves have been cited as a contributing factor to the Bactrian’s decline in both Chinaand Mongolia, but the evidence is weak because it is primarily based upon camel remains in scats, which could have been from scavenging.Status and Conservation.The wild subspecies is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List and Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It is considered by some to be on the verge of extinction. Protected nationally in Chinaand Mongolia. The Bactrian’s original distribution and natural habitat was the entire Asian Trans-Altai Gobi Desert, stretching from the great bend of the Yellow River in north-east Chinathroughout Mongoliato central Kazakhstanin the west, at elevations 1500-2000 m above sea level in an area that encompassed nearly 100,000 km*. Today they are greatly reduced to a few small and fragmented populations in south-western Mongoliaand nearby areas of north-western Chinain a total area ¢. 28,000 km*. Four populations of wild Bactrians survive: the Taklamakan Desert; Altun Mountains and Archik Valley; and Gashun Desert populations in China; and the Outer Gobi Desert population of Mongoliaand China, which migrates between the two countries. Overall numbers greatly reduced in the past century because of hunting for their meat and hides, habitat loss due to grazing, and competition for water with domestic livestock (domestic camels, sheep, goats, horses, and cattle), interbreeding with domestic camels, mining activities, and poor reproduction and survival of young. Because of harsh climatic conditions, lack of appropriate aircraft for aerial surveys, and the remote and vast region where the remaining Bactrians live, there is uncertainty as to the total numbers remaining. The famous Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, who is given credit for discovering the wild Bactrian Camel of Asia during his travels to Mongoliaand China, noted in 1876: “According to our informants wild camels are numerous in north-western Tsaidam, where the country is barren, the soil being clay, overgrown with budarbana, and so destitute of water that they have to go several miles to drink, and in winter are obligated to satisfy their thirst with snow. The herds are small, averaging five to ten in each, never more than twenty. Their appearanceis slightly different from the domesticated breed: their humps are smaller, the muzzle more pointed, and the color of the hair gray.” It has been reported that wild Bactrians experienced drastic reduction in numbers and range over the past 10-20 years, but the most recent and reliable data suggests that populations in Mongoliahave been relatively stable if not increasing. Actual numbers are unclear and little is known. Estimates of total population size from incomplete ground surveys are as low as 730-950 individuals with projections from aerial surveys in Mongoliaof 4335 individuals. Attempts to assist with Bactrian conservation efforts in Mongoliathrough a captive breeding program have been unsuccessful. In China, the population is suspected to be decreasing in the Taklamakan Desert, because of oil development, but not in the Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve. The wild Bactrian Camel may well be one of the most endangered large mammals on Earth, and our knowledge ofits basic biology and ecology is dismally poor. Research is needed on the comparative genetics of wild and domestic forms, reproductive physiology, population structure and dynamics, and habitat requirements. Bactrian camels need immediate conservation attention, including standardization of methodology for accurate population surveys in both Chinaand Mongolia; development of a comprehensive conservation program; increasing support among local people, including control of illegal hunting; habitat improvement; prevention of hybridization with domestic camels that threatens the gene pool of the Mongolian wild camel population, particularly in the Great Gobi “A” Strictly Protected Area and its associated Buffer Zone; and an increase in the number and size of protected areas. The Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve in China, a former nuclear test site, is especially critical because it is believed to contain the most genetically pure individuals of the species.Bibliography.Adiya et al. (2004), Al-Ani (2004), Bannikov (1976), Burger & Charruau (2011), ChinaStatistical Yearbook (2008), Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981), Gentry et al. (2004), Grubb (2005), Guoying (2001), Han Jie et al. (2002), Hare (1996, 1997, 1998, 2008), Indra et al. (2002, 2003), Ji Rimutu et al. (2009), Menglia et al. (2006), Mijiddorj (2002a, 2002b), Mix et al. (2002), Peters & von den Driesch (1997b), Potts (2004), Reading, Blumeret al. (2005), Reading, Enkhbileg & Galbataar (2002), Reading, Mix, Blumer et al. (2002), Reading, Mix, Lhagvasuren & Blumer (1999), Schaller (1998), Silbermayr et al. (2010) Tilson (1986), Tserenbaljid (2002), Tulgat (2002), Tulgat & Schaller (1992), Weidong et al. (2002), Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2002)." +03928E699A4FFFC6D57EFE83F6A8F649,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb,245,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A4FFFC6D57EFE83F6A8F649.xml,Camelus dromedarius,Camelus,dromedarius,Linnaeus,1758,Dromadaire @fr | Dromedar @de | Dromedario @es | Camel @en | Arabian Camel @en | One-Humped Camel @en | Single-Humped Camel @en | Ship of the Desert @en,"Camelus dromedarius Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Africae desertis arenosis siticulosis.” Restricted to “deserts of Libyaand Arabia” by Thomas in 1911.This species is monotypic.","A species found in the arid and semi-arid regions of N Africa to the Middle East, and parts of C Asia. A sizeabledfreeranging/feral population in C&W Australia. The Dromedary overlaps with the domestic Bactrian Camel (C. bactrianus) in Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, India, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Dromedaries are a domestic species with c¢.50 breeds selected and used for pulling carts, plowing, lifting water at wells, carrying packs, milk production, smooth riding, and racing. The breeds include those in Saudi Arabia(Mojaheem, Maghateer, Wadah, and Awarik), India(Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, and Mewari), Pakistan(Marecha, Dhatti, Larri, Kohi, Campbelpuri, and Sakrai), and Turkmenistan(Arvana). The evidence for domestication comes from archaeological sites dating ¢.4000-5000 years ago in the S Arabian Peninsula with the wild form becoming extinct ¢.2000-5000 years ago. No non-introduced wild populations exist. In Asia Dromedaries occur from Turkeyto W Indiaand N to Kazahkstan. All camels in Africa are Dromedaries, 80-85% in the Sahel and NE portion of the continent (Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya), with the S distribution limited by humidity and trypanosomiasis. Dromedaries in S Africa show no evidence of loss of genetic diversity within 16 populations and very low differentiation among populations. In Kenyan Dromedaries two separate genetic entities have been identified: the Somali and a group including the Gabbra, Rendille, and Turkanapopulations. In Indiatwo distinct genetic clusters have been described for Dromedaries: the Mewari breed being differentiated from the Bikaneri, Kutchi, and the Jaisalmeri breeds. From the 17"" to the early 20"" century unsuccessful attempts were made to introduce Dromedaries to the Caribbean, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Namibia, and south-western USA. Successful introductions of camels were made to the Canary Islands in 1405 and some 10,000 to Australiafrom 1840 to 1907. Camels were important for exploring and developing the Outback of C&W Australia, where they were used for riding; drafting; transporting supplies, railway, and telegraph materials; and as a source of meat and wool. Most (6600) introduced Dromedaries came from India. Three breeds were originally introduced: camels for riding from Rajasthan, India, camels for heavy work from the Kandahar regionof Afghanistan, and camels for riding and carrying moderate cargo loads from Sind, Pakistan. The camels in Australiatoday are a blend of these original imports. By the 1920s, there were an estimated 20,000 domesticated camels in Australia, but by 1930, with the arrival of rail and motor transportation, camels were no longer needed and many were released to the wild. Well suited to the Australian deserts, the camels bred prolifically, spreading across arid and semi-arid areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, and into parts of Queensland, and today they occupy 37% of the continent.","Head-body 220-340 cm, tail 45-55 cm, shoulder height 180-200 cm; weight 400-600 kg. Males and females of near equal size, but in some breeds the females are ¢.10% smaller than males. Body is often sandy colored, but can range from nearly all white to black or even two-colored piebald. Body shape characterized by a long-curved neck, long and thin legs, and deep narrow chest. The hindquarters are less developed than the weight-bearing front legs. Large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges. Facial features include thick eyebrows, long eyelashes, and transparent eyelids that allow partial vision when the eyes close in sandstorms. Thick fine hair in winter for warmth sheds in summer. Hair is longer on throat, shoulder, and hump. The single hump, on the middle of the back (c. 20 cmhigher than shoulder)is a reservoir offatty cells bound by fibroustissues, used in times of food and water scarcity. Hump size varies, depending upon an individual's nutritional status. In a state of starvation, the hump can be almost non-existent. The head is small relative to body size. Slit-like nostrils, surrounded by sphincter muscles, can close to keep out dust and sand. Split upperlip with two independently moving halves and a pendulous lowerlip allow for prehensile-like grasping of forage. Upper middle and inner incisors are replaced by a tough dental pad that opposes the lower incisors. Canines, especially the upper, are massive and pointed. Skin is tightly attached to underlying tissues and modified into horny pads at the sternum, elbows, carpals,stifles, and tarsals: these protect the body when a camelis lying down on hot or rough ground. No facial glands, but males have well-developed occipital glands 5-6 cm below the nuchal crest on either side of the neck midline. The glands increase in size with age, and during the rut they secrete a pungent coffee-colored fluid. Small oval erythrocytes may enhance blood circulation and oxygen carrying capacity. Dromedaries are digitgrade each with two dorsal nails and padded feet well adapted for sandy substrates; the front feet are larger than the hindfeet. The mammary gland has four quarters and teats. Adult dental formula: 11/3,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32 with permanent lower incisors appearing at 2:5—6-5 years and all teeth emerged by eight years. A triangular bone ¢.3 x 2: 5 cmis lodged in the tendinous fibers in the center of the diaphragm, preventing compression of the interior vena cava and distributing muscular pull over a larger surface. Lungs are not lobed. The stomach is complex, with three compartments. When foraging on green and moist plants Dromedaries do not require drinking water. If wateris available in summer, they will drink regularly at dawn. In extreme drought, they need access to waterholes. The Dromedary’s ability to endure severe heat and dryness does not depend upon water storage; instead, numerous mechanisms minimize water loss. In well-watered animals body temperature fluctuates only c.2°C. When necessary, water conservation is aided by heat storage (hyperthermia): camels do not sweat until body temperature exceeds 41-42°C, thus avoiding water loss through perspiration. The body temperature of camels deprived of water can fluctuate as much as 6°C by heating up during the day to 41°C and then cooling at night to 35°C. Dehydrated Dromedaries have a depressed rate of breathing, minimizing water loss through respiration. Paired, fluid-producing sacs connecting the nasal cavities and a pair of lateral nasal glands and sacs serve to moisten incoming dry air. Dromedaries can tolerate water loss greater than 30% of their body mass, whereas 15% lossis lethal for most mammals. Such water loss is from intraand intercellular fluids, and not from plasma, allowing for relatively constant circulation of blood and maintaining the ability to cool. Water loss is ¢.50% greater in shorn compared to unshorn camels. Dromedaries often go without water in the Sahara Desert for seven or eight months, beginning in October, existing only on water content of plants. At temperatures between 30°C and 50°C they can go without water for 10-15 days, and even in the hottest weather need water only every 4-7 days. They can quickly rehydrate by drinking large quantities of water (10-20 1/minute and up to 130 1/minute), consuming up to 30% of their body weight within minutes. Dromedaries can drink salt water in even greater concentrations than seawater. They can consume water containing 19,000 ppm (parts-per-million) in dissolved salt without a decline in condition, compared to sheep, which can consume water at 10,000 ppm and cattle 5000 ppm. Dehydrated camels excrete less fecal water, greatly reduce urine volume, highly increase urine concentration, and recycle urea from the kidneys to the rumen for protein synthesis and water recirculation. Their erythrocytes have high osmotic resistance and can swell to 240% of their initial size without hemolysis during rehydration. Accumulation of fat in the hump instead of subcutaneously facilitates heat dissipation. The gallbladderis absent. The dulla, a pink, tongue-like bladder that hangs out the side of mouth of rutting-agitated males,is actually an inflation ofthe soft palate and unique to Dromedaries. Dulla inflation is typically accompanied by large amounts of saliva foam and gurgling vocalization.","In Africa Dromedaries occupy the Sahara Desert, known forits long, hot-dry season and a short rainy season. In Australia, Dromedaries favor bushy semi-arid lands and sand plains because of the availability of year-round forage, and avoid heavily vegetated and hard rocky areas.","Dromedaries are capable of surviving on poor-quality forage under arid conditions, aided by their ability to select high-quality plant species, increase digestion of low-quality forage, cover large distances while foraging, and diversify the nature of their diet by being both browsers (shrubs and trees) and grazers (forbs and grasses). In the Sahara browse and forbs make up 70% oftheir diet in winter and 90% in summer. Over 300 forage plants have been reported, with Acacia, Atriplex, and Salsola common in their diet. In Syriashrubs dominated the diet during the dry season, but camels switched mainly to herbaceous species with the onset of the wet season. In Australian deserts food intake by volume is 53% browse, 42% forbs, and 5% grasses. Dromedaries browse on trees and tall shrubs up to 3-5 m by grasping with their lips and either breaking off branches or stripping leaves. Under extreme cases of limited forage, the Dromedary can not only decrease its food intake, but also reduce its metabolic rate. Compared to sheep and cattle, Dromedaries require less energy for maintenance; their protein requirements are at least 30% lower than cattle, sheep, or goats. Feeding trials have revealed that Dromedaries utilized fed energy for maintenance with an efficiency of 73% comparable to sheep, and for growth with an efficiency of 61% better than sheep and cattle. The relationship of food intake to body size is low. They can live on only 2 kgof dry matter for limited periods, and 8-12 kg are sufficient for a working Dromedary carrying 130-227 kg load for six hours a day at a speed of 5 km/h for a 24day trip. When forage conditions are lush, camels tend to overeat for their immediate needs and store the excess energy in their humps. Dromedaries require six to eight times more salt than other animals, with 30% oftheir diet from halophytes (plants that tolerate and even require salty conditions). High salt intake is imperative for alimentary absorption of water by camels, with salt deficiencies leading to cramps and cutaneous necrosis. Although consumption of grain can cause indigestion in animals unaccustomed to it, working Dromedaries require 2 kgof grain per day.","The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and climate patterns. Dromedaries typically breed in winter, except near the Equator, where there can be two mating seasons or even year-round mating. In the Arabian camel, sexual receptivity is triggered by rainfall and subsequent availability of forage. There is follicular activity in the female year-round, but it peaks in winter and spring. Mating induces ovulation, which occurs 30-40 hours afterwards; estrus ceases three days later. An unmated female's cycle averages 28 days;follicles mature within six days, are maintained for 13 days, and regress over eight days. The percentage of females that conceived: 50% after a single copulation, 30% after two, and 20% after three or more, during the first two days of estrus. Left and right ovaries are equally active and alternate in follicle production. Egg migration is common, 50% of left-horn implants form corpora lutea in the right ovary, explaining the long oviductal transport time of six days. Simultaneous ovulation from both ovaries occurs 14% of time, but twin pregnancies only 0-4%. The left horn of the uterus is larger than the right and carries 99% of pregnancies. Normal pregnancy produces one offspring, with twins being extremely unusual. The scrotum is high in the perineal region with testes larger during rut. Penis is covered with a triangular sheath opening pointing posteriorally and directed between the hindlegs. A complete separation of the penis from preputial adhesions prevents erections at 6-10 months before sexual maturity. Female lies down in sternal recumbency during copulations averaging 8-120 minutes involving 3-5 ejaculatory pulses by the male, each stimulated by intracervical pressure on his highly mobile urethral process. Mating females normally ruminate; the male may salivate, inflate his dulla, or gurgle during mating. Gestation averages 377-390 days (range of 360-411 days), regardless of whether the calf is male or female. The typical calving interval is 2-3 years (two in Australia), with estrus occurring 4-5—-10 months after parturition. The mean birth massis 37-3 kg (26-4-52-3) with no difference between sexes. Annual calving rates are low (35-40%) because of high (18-20%) embryonic death, abortions, and stillborns. In free-ranging herds, young remain with their mothers for first two years. Males begin rutting at three years but are not fully active sexually until they are 6-8 years old. They continue to breed until 18-20 years of age. Females are sexually mature at three years and typically first mate at 4-5 years and reproduce until they are 20-25, and some until the age of 30. Puberty is delayed by inadequate body weight caused by insufficient food. Birthing duration is typically 30 minutes, with the female in a sitting position. The mother noses and nibbles, but does not lick her newborn. The main birth season in Australiais June to November, during the rut, but newborns have been observed year-round. Before parturition cows segregate themselves (without their previous twoyear-old calf) from their original group and give birth in seclusion in dense vegetation. Isolation thought to be both an anti-predator behavior and perhaps more significantly, avoidance of infanticide by rutting males. After remaining alone for up to three weeks, when the new calf is fully mobile, the female joins other recent new mothers, forming a new cow group. These core groups remain stable until the calves are weaned at 15-18 months, the length of time depending on environmental conditions. Life span of wild/feral animals is 20-35 years. Domestic Dromedaries live substantially longer, with reported maximum longevity 40-49 years. The first cloned camelid was a Dromedary Camel achieved in 2010 by use of somatic cell nuclear transfer.","Wild/feral populations exist only in Australia, where they show a daily pattern of feeding in the morning and afternoon hours and increased resting in the middle of the day. Midday resting is highest in winter. Elsewhere Dromedaries are domestic and intensely managed and regulated by traditional pastoral communities, often in conjunction with other livestock. In the Sahara, when they are allowed to roam without herders, they form stable groups of 2-20 animals. Dromedaries graze for 8-12 hours per day and then ruminate for an equal amount of time. When forage is especially poor they spread out over large areas and break up into units of 1-2 individuals. Guarded herds feed by day (lying down during the hottest hours) and rest by night, but unguarded, their activity pattern is reversed.","Dromedaries are extremely mobile and capable of using large areas to fulfill their nutritional needs. Depending upon environmental and social parameters, wild/feral populations of Australiamay be nomadic, migratory, or move within a home range. They commonly travel 30 km/day even when food is plentiful. In summer, when plants are dry, they comfortably walk up to 60 kmto waterholes every second or third day; in winter they drink water only irregularly, some once per month, others less often. In free-ranging Australian populations, social groups are core cow groups, breeding groups, male groups, and solitary males. Core cow groups occur only in summer (October to March/April) outside the breeding season. These groups of about 24 animals consist of females and their calves of similar age; the groups are stable for up to 1-5-2 years until the young are weaned. Summer cow groups are open to all other individuals (cows with and without calves, including younger and weaker adult males). Individuals join for irregular periods of time. Breeding groups are seen in winter (April/May to September). They are composed of one mature male and several cows with their calves; the male defends the females against other males in a classical harem arrangement. Soon after taking over a cow group the rutting male aggressively chases away weaned two-year-old males; these young males join male groups. The rutting male herds cows for 3-5 months, leaves voluntarily, and does not return to the same cow group the following year; thus the rutting male is never the father of the calves in his group. Male or bachelor groups of up to 30 non-breeding males of all ages are present year-round. These are loose groupings that regularly split up as individuals leave the group and join other males. Solitary males tend to be old males. A rutting male shows ritualized postures and patterns, including vigorous biting when fighting with and defending his breeding group against other males. It should be noted that aggressive spitting, as observed in Bactrians and the South American cameloids has not been observed in Australian Dromedaries. However, Dromedaries may vomit when severely frightened or overly excited. Night time hypothermia in a rutting male may increase the duration and success of his daytime fighting before the male overheats. No classical territoriality has been observed in Australia, but short-term home ranges of 50-150 km* and an annual range, commonly of 5000 km?, shows a tendency forsite attachment to home ranges. Dromedaries show amazing plasticity of social organization with extremes in environmental conditions. During two years of extremely high rainfall in the Australian Outback when food productivity was extraordinarily high, animals coalesced into large herds of up to 200. During the rutting season the herd was subdivided into several breeding groups, each with one herding male, all roaming around together. The subgroup holders tolerated each other to a certain point within the big herd and even showed some cooperation in defending their cows when intruding bachelors came too close. However, during two years of virtually no rainfall (although water was always available for drinking) when food became acutely sparse, normal cow groups split up, even to the extreme of only one mother with her calf. In such harsh droughts conspecifics became each other’s strongest competitors. A social system similar to that seen in Australiaoccurs in Africa at Equatorial latitudes, except the non-breeding season is in winter. Mixed herds (males and females of all age classes), some as large as 500 camels, are more common. In Algeriadomestic herds were much less rigid: 46% of the herds were males, females, and young; 21% males and females without young; 18% females and young; and 14% males only. In Turkmenistandomestic populations were divided into the social units similar to those in Australia. In breeding groups of wildferal populations the male directs the movements of his group from behind, while females rotate in the lead. Domestic herds have a natural tendency to walk in single file, especially when moving to water wells. Dromedaries do not use dung piles for defecation or urination. Freeranging camels showed no marking behavior in the Sahara, but males in Israelmark particular areas with poll-gland secretions. They like to roll in sandy locations and will form lines waiting their turn.","World Dromedary population decreased 15% from 1960 to 2000, with current numbers 18-21 million, including one million camels in Australia. In some countries the decline has been severe over the last century; for example in Syriathe population decreased from 250,000 in1922 to not more than 22,000 in2010. In AustraliaDromedary competition with livestock for forage and water, and significant environmental and infrastructure damage caused by Dromedaries, have prompted culling, with the goal of maintaining a sustainable population for utilization of their meat, hides, and wool. Despite groups of Dromedaries seen moving and grazing without a herder in the Sahara and Arabian deserts, they all have owners. Numbers have drastically declined in Arabian countries during past half century due to modernization and industrialization, forced settlement of nomads, desert forage resources not well developed, low reproductive rate, decreased demand for camel meat and milk, poor genetic selection for breed improvement, and government encouragement of other domestic species.","Al-Ani (2004) | Arnautovic & Abdel-Magid (1974) | Baker (1964) | Baskin (1974) | Bhargava et al. (1963) | Dagg (1974) | Dorges et al. (1995, 2003) | EI-Amin (1984) | Ellard (2000) | Gee & Greenfield (2007) | Gidad & El-Bovevy (1992) | Grigg et al. (1995) | Guerouali & Wardeh (1998) | Guerouali & Zine Filali (1992) | Gauthier-Pilters (1984) | Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981) | Klingel (1985) | Kohler-Rollefson (1991) | McKnight (1969) | Mehta et al. (1962) | Newman (1984) | Novoa (1970) | Peters (1997a) | Peters & von den Driesch (1997b) | Saalfeld & Edwards (2008) | Schmidt-Nielsen, B. et al. (1956) | Schmidth-Nielsen, K. (1964) | Schmidt-Nielsen, K. et al. (1967) | Singh, U.B. & Bharadwaj (1978) | Singh, V. & Prakash (1964) | Wilson (1984) | Yagil (1985)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719737/files/figure.png,"6.Dromedary CamelCamelus dromedariusFrench:Dromadaire/ German:Dromedar/ Spanish:DromedarioOther common names:Camel, Arabian Camel, One-Humped Camel, Single-Humped Camel, Ship of the DesertTaxonomy.Camelus dromedarius Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Africae desertis arenosis siticulosis.” Restricted to “deserts of Libyaand Arabia” by Thomas in 1911.This species is monotypic.Distribution.A species found in the arid and semi-arid regions of N Africa to the Middle East, and parts of C Asia. A sizeabledfreeranging/feral population in C&W Australia. The Dromedary overlaps with the domestic Bactrian Camel (C. bactrianus) in Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, India, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Dromedaries are a domestic species with c¢.50 breeds selected and used for pulling carts, plowing, lifting water at wells, carrying packs, milk production, smooth riding, and racing. The breeds include those in Saudi Arabia(Mojaheem, Maghateer, Wadah, and Awarik), India(Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, and Mewari), Pakistan(Marecha, Dhatti, Larri, Kohi, Campbelpuri, and Sakrai), and Turkmenistan(Arvana). The evidence for domestication comes from archaeological sites dating ¢.4000-5000 years ago in the S Arabian Peninsula with the wild form becoming extinct ¢.2000-5000 years ago. No non-introduced wild populations exist. In Asia Dromedaries occur from Turkeyto W Indiaand N to Kazahkstan. All camels in Africa are Dromedaries, 80-85% in the Sahel and NE portion of the continent (Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya), with the S distribution limited by humidity and trypanosomiasis. Dromedaries in S Africa show no evidence of loss of genetic diversity within 16 populations and very low differentiation among populations. In Kenyan Dromedaries two separate genetic entities have been identified: the Somali and a group including the Gabbra, Rendille, and Turkanapopulations. In Indiatwo distinct genetic clusters have been described for Dromedaries: the Mewari breed being differentiated from the Bikaneri, Kutchi, and the Jaisalmeri breeds. From the 17"" to the early 20"" century unsuccessful attempts were made to introduce Dromedaries to the Caribbean, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Namibia, and south-western USA. Successful introductions of camels were made to the Canary Islands in 1405 and some 10,000 to Australiafrom 1840 to 1907. Camels were important for exploring and developing the Outback of C&W Australia, where they were used for riding; drafting; transporting supplies, railway, and telegraph materials; and as a source of meat and wool. Most (6600) introduced Dromedaries came from India. Three breeds were originally introduced: camels for riding from Rajasthan, India, camels for heavy work from the Kandahar regionof Afghanistan, and camels for riding and carrying moderate cargo loads from Sind, Pakistan. The camels in Australiatoday are a blend of these original imports. By the 1920s, there were an estimated 20,000 domesticated camels in Australia, but by 1930, with the arrival of rail and motor transportation, camels were no longer needed and many were released to the wild. Well suited to the Australian deserts, the camels bred prolifically, spreading across arid and semi-arid areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, and into parts of Queensland, and today they occupy 37% of the continent.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-340 cm, tail 45-55 cm, shoulder height 180-200 cm; weight 400-600 kg. Males and females of near equal size, but in some breeds the females are ¢.10% smaller than males. Body is often sandy colored, but can range from nearly all white to black or even two-colored piebald. Body shape characterized by a long-curved neck, long and thin legs, and deep narrow chest. The hindquarters are less developed than the weight-bearing front legs. Large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges. Facial features include thick eyebrows, long eyelashes, and transparent eyelids that allow partial vision when the eyes close in sandstorms. Thick fine hair in winter for warmth sheds in summer. Hair is longer on throat, shoulder, and hump. The single hump, on the middle of the back (c. 20 cmhigher than shoulder)is a reservoir offatty cells bound by fibroustissues, used in times of food and water scarcity. Hump size varies, depending upon an individual's nutritional status. In a state of starvation, the hump can be almost non-existent. The head is small relative to body size. Slit-like nostrils, surrounded by sphincter muscles, can close to keep out dust and sand. Split upperlip with two independently moving halves and a pendulous lowerlip allow for prehensile-like grasping of forage. Upper middle and inner incisors are replaced by a tough dental pad that opposes the lower incisors. Canines, especially the upper, are massive and pointed. Skin is tightly attached to underlying tissues and modified into horny pads at the sternum, elbows, carpals,stifles, and tarsals: these protect the body when a camelis lying down on hot or rough ground. No facial glands, but males have well-developed occipital glands 5-6 cm below the nuchal crest on either side of the neck midline. The glands increase in size with age, and during the rut they secrete a pungent coffee-colored fluid. Small oval erythrocytes may enhance blood circulation and oxygen carrying capacity. Dromedaries are digitgrade each with two dorsal nails and padded feet well adapted for sandy substrates; the front feet are larger than the hindfeet. The mammary gland has four quarters and teats. Adult dental formula: 11/3,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32 with permanent lower incisors appearing at 2:5—6-5 years and all teeth emerged by eight years. A triangular bone ¢.3 x 2: 5 cmis lodged in the tendinous fibers in the center of the diaphragm, preventing compression of the interior vena cava and distributing muscular pull over a larger surface. Lungs are not lobed. The stomach is complex, with three compartments. When foraging on green and moist plants Dromedaries do not require drinking water. If wateris available in summer, they will drink regularly at dawn. In extreme drought, they need access to waterholes. The Dromedary’s ability to endure severe heat and dryness does not depend upon water storage; instead, numerous mechanisms minimize water loss. In well-watered animals body temperature fluctuates only c.2°C. When necessary, water conservation is aided by heat storage (hyperthermia): camels do not sweat until body temperature exceeds 41-42°C, thus avoiding water loss through perspiration. The body temperature of camels deprived of water can fluctuate as much as 6°C by heating up during the day to 41°C and then cooling at night to 35°C. Dehydrated Dromedaries have a depressed rate of breathing, minimizing water loss through respiration. Paired, fluid-producing sacs connecting the nasal cavities and a pair of lateral nasal glands and sacs serve to moisten incoming dry air. Dromedaries can tolerate water loss greater than 30% of their body mass, whereas 15% lossis lethal for most mammals. Such water loss is from intraand intercellular fluids, and not from plasma, allowing for relatively constant circulation of blood and maintaining the ability to cool. Water loss is ¢.50% greater in shorn compared to unshorn camels. Dromedaries often go without water in the Sahara Desert for seven or eight months, beginning in October, existing only on water content of plants. At temperatures between 30°C and 50°C they can go without water for 10-15 days, and even in the hottest weather need water only every 4-7 days. They can quickly rehydrate by drinking large quantities of water (10-20 1/minute and up to 130 1/minute), consuming up to 30% of their body weight within minutes. Dromedaries can drink salt water in even greater concentrations than seawater. They can consume water containing 19,000 ppm (parts-per-million) in dissolved salt without a decline in condition, compared to sheep, which can consume water at 10,000 ppm and cattle 5000 ppm. Dehydrated camels excrete less fecal water, greatly reduce urine volume, highly increase urine concentration, and recycle urea from the kidneys to the rumen for protein synthesis and water recirculation. Their erythrocytes have high osmotic resistance and can swell to 240% of their initial size without hemolysis during rehydration. Accumulation of fat in the hump instead of subcutaneously facilitates heat dissipation. The gallbladderis absent. The dulla, a pink, tongue-like bladder that hangs out the side of mouth of rutting-agitated males,is actually an inflation ofthe soft palate and unique to Dromedaries. Dulla inflation is typically accompanied by large amounts of saliva foam and gurgling vocalization.Habitat.In Africa Dromedaries occupy the Sahara Desert, known forits long, hot-dry season and a short rainy season. In Australia, Dromedaries favor bushy semi-arid lands and sand plains because of the availability of year-round forage, and avoid heavily vegetated and hard rocky areas.Food and Feeding.Dromedaries are capable of surviving on poor-quality forage under arid conditions, aided by their ability to select high-quality plant species, increase digestion of low-quality forage, cover large distances while foraging, and diversify the nature of their diet by being both browsers (shrubs and trees) and grazers (forbs and grasses). In the Sahara browse and forbs make up 70% oftheir diet in winter and 90% in summer. Over 300 forage plants have been reported, with Acacia, Atriplex, and Salsola common in their diet. In Syriashrubs dominated the diet during the dry season, but camels switched mainly to herbaceous species with the onset of the wet season. In Australian deserts food intake by volume is 53% browse, 42% forbs, and 5% grasses. Dromedaries browse on trees and tall shrubs up to 3-5 m by grasping with their lips and either breaking off branches or stripping leaves. Under extreme cases of limited forage, the Dromedary can not only decrease its food intake, but also reduce its metabolic rate. Compared to sheep and cattle, Dromedaries require less energy for maintenance; their protein requirements are at least 30% lower than cattle, sheep, or goats. Feeding trials have revealed that Dromedaries utilized fed energy for maintenance with an efficiency of 73% comparable to sheep, and for growth with an efficiency of 61% better than sheep and cattle. The relationship of food intake to body size is low. They can live on only 2 kgof dry matter for limited periods, and 8-12 kg are sufficient for a working Dromedary carrying 130-227 kg load for six hours a day at a speed of 5 km/h for a 24day trip. When forage conditions are lush, camels tend to overeat for their immediate needs and store the excess energy in their humps. Dromedaries require six to eight times more salt than other animals, with 30% oftheir diet from halophytes (plants that tolerate and even require salty conditions). High salt intake is imperative for alimentary absorption of water by camels, with salt deficiencies leading to cramps and cutaneous necrosis. Although consumption of grain can cause indigestion in animals unaccustomed to it, working Dromedaries require 2 kgof grain per day.Breeding.The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and climate patterns. Dromedaries typically breed in winter, except near the Equator, where there can be two mating seasons or even year-round mating. In the Arabian camel, sexual receptivity is triggered by rainfall and subsequent availability of forage. There is follicular activity in the female year-round, but it peaks in winter and spring. Mating induces ovulation, which occurs 30-40 hours afterwards; estrus ceases three days later. An unmated female's cycle averages 28 days;follicles mature within six days, are maintained for 13 days, and regress over eight days. The percentage of females that conceived: 50% after a single copulation, 30% after two, and 20% after three or more, during the first two days of estrus. Left and right ovaries are equally active and alternate in follicle production. Egg migration is common, 50% of left-horn implants form corpora lutea in the right ovary, explaining the long oviductal transport time of six days. Simultaneous ovulation from both ovaries occurs 14% of time, but twin pregnancies only 0-4%. The left horn of the uterus is larger than the right and carries 99% of pregnancies. Normal pregnancy produces one offspring, with twins being extremely unusual. The scrotum is high in the perineal region with testes larger during rut. Penis is covered with a triangular sheath opening pointing posteriorally and directed between the hindlegs. A complete separation of the penis from preputial adhesions prevents erections at 6-10 months before sexual maturity. Female lies down in sternal recumbency during copulations averaging 8-120 minutes involving 3-5 ejaculatory pulses by the male, each stimulated by intracervical pressure on his highly mobile urethral process. Mating females normally ruminate; the male may salivate, inflate his dulla, or gurgle during mating. Gestation averages 377-390 days (range of 360-411 days), regardless of whether the calf is male or female. The typical calving interval is 2-3 years (two in Australia), with estrus occurring 4-5—-10 months after parturition. The mean birth massis 37-3 kg (26-4-52-3) with no difference between sexes. Annual calving rates are low (35-40%) because of high (18-20%) embryonic death, abortions, and stillborns. In free-ranging herds, young remain with their mothers for first two years. Males begin rutting at three years but are not fully active sexually until they are 6-8 years old. They continue to breed until 18-20 years of age. Females are sexually mature at three years and typically first mate at 4-5 years and reproduce until they are 20-25, and some until the age of 30. Puberty is delayed by inadequate body weight caused by insufficient food. Birthing duration is typically 30 minutes, with the female in a sitting position. The mother noses and nibbles, but does not lick her newborn. The main birth season in Australiais June to November, during the rut, but newborns have been observed year-round. Before parturition cows segregate themselves (without their previous twoyear-old calf) from their original group and give birth in seclusion in dense vegetation. Isolation thought to be both an anti-predator behavior and perhaps more significantly, avoidance of infanticide by rutting males. After remaining alone for up to three weeks, when the new calf is fully mobile, the female joins other recent new mothers, forming a new cow group. These core groups remain stable until the calves are weaned at 15-18 months, the length of time depending on environmental conditions. Life span of wild/feral animals is 20-35 years. Domestic Dromedaries live substantially longer, with reported maximum longevity 40-49 years. The first cloned camelid was a Dromedary Camel achieved in 2010 by use of somatic cell nuclear transfer.Activity patterns.Wild/feral populations exist only in Australia, where they show a daily pattern of feeding in the morning and afternoon hours and increased resting in the middle of the day. Midday resting is highest in winter. Elsewhere Dromedaries are domestic and intensely managed and regulated by traditional pastoral communities, often in conjunction with other livestock. In the Sahara, when they are allowed to roam without herders, they form stable groups of 2-20 animals. Dromedaries graze for 8-12 hours per day and then ruminate for an equal amount of time. When forage is especially poor they spread out over large areas and break up into units of 1-2 individuals. Guarded herds feed by day (lying down during the hottest hours) and rest by night, but unguarded, their activity pattern is reversed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dromedaries are extremely mobile and capable of using large areas to fulfill their nutritional needs. Depending upon environmental and social parameters, wild/feral populations of Australiamay be nomadic, migratory, or move within a home range. They commonly travel 30 km/day even when food is plentiful. In summer, when plants are dry, they comfortably walk up to 60 kmto waterholes every second or third day; in winter they drink water only irregularly, some once per month, others less often. In free-ranging Australian populations, social groups are core cow groups, breeding groups, male groups, and solitary males. Core cow groups occur only in summer (October to March/April) outside the breeding season. These groups of about 24 animals consist of females and their calves of similar age; the groups are stable for up to 1-5-2 years until the young are weaned. Summer cow groups are open to all other individuals (cows with and without calves, including younger and weaker adult males). Individuals join for irregular periods of time. Breeding groups are seen in winter (April/May to September). They are composed of one mature male and several cows with their calves; the male defends the females against other males in a classical harem arrangement. Soon after taking over a cow group the rutting male aggressively chases away weaned two-year-old males; these young males join male groups. The rutting male herds cows for 3-5 months, leaves voluntarily, and does not return to the same cow group the following year; thus the rutting male is never the father of the calves in his group. Male or bachelor groups of up to 30 non-breeding males of all ages are present year-round. These are loose groupings that regularly split up as individuals leave the group and join other males. Solitary males tend to be old males. A rutting male shows ritualized postures and patterns, including vigorous biting when fighting with and defending his breeding group against other males. It should be noted that aggressive spitting, as observed in Bactrians and the South American cameloids has not been observed in Australian Dromedaries. However, Dromedaries may vomit when severely frightened or overly excited. Night time hypothermia in a rutting male may increase the duration and success of his daytime fighting before the male overheats. No classical territoriality has been observed in Australia, but short-term home ranges of 50-150 km* and an annual range, commonly of 5000 km?, shows a tendency forsite attachment to home ranges. Dromedaries show amazing plasticity of social organization with extremes in environmental conditions. During two years of extremely high rainfall in the Australian Outback when food productivity was extraordinarily high, animals coalesced into large herds of up to 200. During the rutting season the herd was subdivided into several breeding groups, each with one herding male, all roaming around together. The subgroup holders tolerated each other to a certain point within the big herd and even showed some cooperation in defending their cows when intruding bachelors came too close. However, during two years of virtually no rainfall (although water was always available for drinking) when food became acutely sparse, normal cow groups split up, even to the extreme of only one mother with her calf. In such harsh droughts conspecifics became each other’s strongest competitors. A social system similar to that seen in Australiaoccurs in Africa at Equatorial latitudes, except the non-breeding season is in winter. Mixed herds (males and females of all age classes), some as large as 500 camels, are more common. In Algeriadomestic herds were much less rigid: 46% of the herds were males, females, and young; 21% males and females without young; 18% females and young; and 14% males only. In Turkmenistandomestic populations were divided into the social units similar to those in Australia. In breeding groups of wildferal populations the male directs the movements of his group from behind, while females rotate in the lead. Domestic herds have a natural tendency to walk in single file, especially when moving to water wells. Dromedaries do not use dung piles for defecation or urination. Freeranging camels showed no marking behavior in the Sahara, but males in Israelmark particular areas with poll-gland secretions. They like to roll in sandy locations and will form lines waiting their turn.Status and Conservation.World Dromedary population decreased 15% from 1960 to 2000, with current numbers 18-21 million, including one million camels in Australia. In some countries the decline has been severe over the last century; for example in Syriathe population decreased from 250,000 in1922 to not more than 22,000 in2010. In AustraliaDromedary competition with livestock for forage and water, and significant environmental and infrastructure damage caused by Dromedaries, have prompted culling, with the goal of maintaining a sustainable population for utilization of their meat, hides, and wool. Despite groups of Dromedaries seen moving and grazing without a herder in the Sahara and Arabian deserts, they all have owners. Numbers have drastically declined in Arabian countries during past half century due to modernization and industrialization, forced settlement of nomads, desert forage resources not well developed, low reproductive rate, decreased demand for camel meat and milk, poor genetic selection for breed improvement, and government encouragement of other domestic species.Bibliography.Al-Ani (2004), Arnautovic & Abdel-Magid (1974), Baker (1964), Baskin (1974), Bhargava et al. (1963), Dagg (1974), Dorges et al. (1995, 2003), EI-Amin (1984), Ellard (2000), Gee & Greenfield (2007), Gidad & El-Bovevy (1992), Grigg et al. (1995), Guerouali & Wardeh (1998), Guerouali & Zine Filali (1992), Gauthier-Pilters (1984), Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981), Klingel (1985), Kohler-Rollefson (1991). McKnight (1969), Mehta et al. (1962), Newman (1984), Novoa (1970), Peters (1997a) Peters & von den Driesch (1997b), Saalfeld & Edwards (2008), Schmidt-Nielsen, B. et al. (1956), Schmidth-Nielsen, K. (1964), Schmidt-Nielsen, K. et al. (1967), Singh, U.B. & Bharadwaj (1978), Singh, V. & Prakash (1964), Wilson (1984), Yagil (1985)." +03993828FFE00F44FAFAFE0DC54FF8BC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FAFAFE0DC54FF8BC.xml,Dendroprionomys rousseloti,Dendroprionomys,rousseloti,F. Petter,1966,Dendromus de Brazzaville @fr | Samtklettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de terciopelo @es | Congo Tree Mouse @en | Velvet Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendroprionomys rousseloti Petter, 1966,Zoological Gardens, Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.This species is monotypic.","Only known from the type locality in Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.","Head-body ¢.77 mm, tail ¢.108 mm, ear c.16 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and russet-brown dorsally and grayish-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Each eye has a black ring that extends anteriorly onto muzzle. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit short but present.","Only known from the vicinity of the type locality in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, which is situated in a sand forest at ¢.300 m above sea level.",Dentition of the Velvet African Climbing Mouse suggests thatit could be insectivorous.,No information.,The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is terrestrial.,No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is known from just eight specimens collected from the type locality—the last one in 1966.,Denys (2013a) | Denys et al. (1995) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966b),https://zenodo.org/record/6600490/files/figure.png,"58.Velvet African Climbing MouseDendroprionomys rousselotiFrench:Dendromus de Brazzaville/ German:Samtklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de terciopeloOther common names:Congo Tree Mouse, Velvet Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendroprionomys rousseloti Petter, 1966,Zoological Gardens, Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from the type locality in Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.77 mm, tail ¢.108 mm, ear c.16 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and russet-brown dorsally and grayish-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Each eye has a black ring that extends anteriorly onto muzzle. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit short but present.Habitat.Only known from the vicinity of the type locality in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, which is situated in a sand forest at ¢.300 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.Dentition of the Velvet African Climbing Mouse suggests thatit could be insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is known from just eight specimens collected from the type locality—the last one in 1966.Bibliography.Denys (2013a), Denys et al. (1995), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966b)." +03993828FFE00F44FAFBF792C419F235,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FAFBF792C419F235.xml,Prionomys bates,Prionomys,batesi,Dollman,1910,Dendromus de Bates @fr | Dollman-Baummaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Bates @es | Dollman’s African Tree Mouse @en | Dollman’s Tree Mouse @en,"Prionomys batesi Dollman, 1910,“ Bitye, Ja River, Cameroons[= Cameroon |. Altitude 2000 feet[= 610 m].”This species is monotypic.","Restricted to S Cameroon, SW Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.","Head—body 79-85 mm, tail 103-112 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 15-17 mm; weight 15-21 g. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Furis relatively short, soft, and dense. Dorsum is brown or gray-brown, and venter is paler. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Each eye has a faint dark ring. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fifth digits have elongated claws, and first digit is greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits, with first digit opposable and fifth digit not opposable.","L.ow-lying rainforest, particularly in forest-savanna mosaic. Elevational range is between 100 m and 300 m.","Bates’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be entirely insectivorous, preying on ants and spiders.",No information.,"Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and appears to be predominantly arboreal but descends to the ground to reach the nest, which is excavated in the soil. It climbs on twings and lianas.",No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is known from only a handful of localities in its relatively restricted distribution. Its forest habitat is not currently under threat.,"Denys (2013b) | Denys, Colyn & Nicolas (2006) | Denys, Michaux et al. (1995) | Genest-Villard (1980) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Nicolas & Colyn (2006) | Petter (1966b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600492/files/figure.png,"59.Bates’s African Climbing MousePrionomys batesFrench:Dendromus de Bates/ German:Dollman-Baummaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de BatesOther common names:Dollman’s African Tree Mouse, Dollman’s Tree MouseTaxonomy.Prionomys batesi Dollman, 1910,“ Bitye, Ja River, Cameroons[= Cameroon |. Altitude 2000 feet[= 610 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to S Cameroon, SW Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 79-85 mm, tail 103-112 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 15-17 mm; weight 15-21 g. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Furis relatively short, soft, and dense. Dorsum is brown or gray-brown, and venter is paler. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Each eye has a faint dark ring. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fifth digits have elongated claws, and first digit is greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits, with first digit opposable and fifth digit not opposable.Habitat.L.ow-lying rainforest, particularly in forest-savanna mosaic. Elevational range is between 100 m and 300 m.Food and Feeding.Bates’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be entirely insectivorous, preying on ants and spiders.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and appears to be predominantly arboreal but descends to the ground to reach the nest, which is excavated in the soil. It climbs on twings and lianas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is known from only a handful of localities in its relatively restricted distribution. Its forest habitat is not currently under threat.Bibliography.Denys (2013b), Denys, Colyn & Nicolas (2006), Denys, Michaux et al. (1995), Genest-Villard (1980), Monadjem et al. (2015), Nicolas & Colyn (2006), Petter (1966b)." +03993828FFE00F44FFFFF924C894F235,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FFFFF924C894F235.xml,Dendromus mesomelas,Dendromus,mesomelas,,,Dendromus de Brants @fr | Brants-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Brants @es | Brants's Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromys mesomelas Brants, 1827,east of Port Elizabeth, Sunday’s River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Dendromus mesomelaswas previously considered to extend its distribution across to the highlands of East Africa, but these populations have been assigned to a variety of other species. Taxonomic relationships among various isolated populations in southern Africa require investigation. Monotypic.","E & S South Africa and W Swaziland, with isolated records from extreme S DR Congo, NW Zambia, N Botswana, NE Namibia (Caprivi Strip), and C Mozambique.","Head-body 67-88 mm, tail 77-121 mm, ear 11-17 mm, hindfoot 16-23 mm; weight 6-15 g. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile; it is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown to rufous-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base of tail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Various grassland habitats, especially those associated with wetlands or moist environments. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse can also be relatively abundant in Afro-montane forest.",Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats insects.,"In South Africa, pregnant Brants’s African Climbing Mice have been collected during the rainy season. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level; they also use bird nests. Litter sizes are 2-6 young.",Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly arboreal.,"In captivity, Brants’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be gregarious, suggesting thatit is social.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996) | Avery (1992b) | Choate (1972) | De Graaff (1981) | Monadjem (1997b, 1999a) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Plavsic (2015) | Rowe-Rowe (1986) | Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982) | Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a) | Smithers (1971) | Solano et al. (2014) | Taylor (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600488/files/figure.png,"57.Brants’s African Climbing MouseDendromus mesomelasFrench:Dendromus de Brants/ German:Brants-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de BrantsOther common names:Brants's Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys mesomelas Brants, 1827,east of Port Elizabeth, Sunday’s River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Dendromus mesomelaswas previously considered to extend its distribution across to the highlands of East Africa, but these populations have been assigned to a variety of other species. Taxonomic relationships among various isolated populations in southern Africa require investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.E & S South Africa and W Swaziland, with isolated records from extreme S DR Congo, NW Zambia, N Botswana, NE Namibia (Caprivi Strip), and C Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 67-88 mm, tail 77-121 mm, ear 11-17 mm, hindfoot 16-23 mm; weight 6-15 g. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile; it is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown to rufous-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base of tail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various grassland habitats, especially those associated with wetlands or moist environments. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse can also be relatively abundant in Afro-montane forest.Food and Feeding.Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats insects.Breeding.In South Africa, pregnant Brants’s African Climbing Mice have been collected during the rainy season. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level; they also use bird nests. Litter sizes are 2-6 young.Activity patterns.Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In captivity, Brants’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be gregarious, suggesting thatit is social.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996), Avery (1992b), Choate (1972), De Graaff (1981), Monadjem (1997b, 1999a), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Plavsic (2015), Rowe-Rowe (1986), Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982), Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a), Smithers (1971), Solano et al. (2014), Taylor (1998)." +03993828FFE10F42FA20F5C3C811FDAF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F42FA20F5C3C811FDAF.xml,Steatomys bocager,Steatomys,bocage,Thomas,1892,Rat-adipeux de Bocage @fr | Bocage-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Bocage @es | Bocage's African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys bocage: Thomas, 1892,Caconda, Angola.Steatomys bocageiwas previously included in S. pratensis. Monotypic.",SW DR Congo and Angola.,"Head—body 97-124 mm, tail 52-72 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. Bocage’s Fat Mouse is medium-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is noticeable short and hairy, darker above than below. Fur is reddish brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.","Moist savannas and woodlands,typically above elevations of 500 m.",No information.,No information.,Poorly known. Bocage’s Fat Mouseis terrestrial and excavates its own burrow.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Cabral (1966) | Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Happold (2013i) | Monadjem et al. (2015),https://zenodo.org/record/6600504/files/figure.png,"64.Bocage’s Fat MouseSteatomys bocagerFrench:Rat-adipeux de Bocage/ German:Bocage-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de BocageOther common names:Bocage's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys bocage: Thomas, 1892,Caconda, Angola.Steatomys bocageiwas previously included in S. pratensis. Monotypic.Distribution.SW DR Congo and Angola.Descriptive notes.Head—body 97-124 mm, tail 52-72 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. Bocage’s Fat Mouse is medium-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is noticeable short and hairy, darker above than below. Fur is reddish brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.Habitat.Moist savannas and woodlands,typically above elevations of 500 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Poorly known. Bocage’s Fat Mouseis terrestrial and excavates its own burrow.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Cabral (1966), Crawford-Cabral (1998), Happold (2013i), Monadjem et al. (2015)." 03993828FFE10F45FA20FB79CB37F590,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FA20FB79CB37F590.xml,Steatomys opimus,Steatomys,opimus,Pousargues,1894,Rat-adipeux de Pousargues @fr | Pousargues-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Pousargues @es | Pousargues African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys opimus Pousargues, 1894,“ Balao, dans le pays des Dakoas, par 5° 26’ de latitude Nord et environ 17° 40’ de longitude Est,” Central African Republic.This species is monotypic.","Narrowly distributed from S Cameroon E through Central African Republic, N DR Congo, and extreme SW South Sudan.","Head-body 115-125 mm, tail 52-65 mm, ear 17-20 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-50 g. Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is small-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, darker above than below. Furis soft and grayish-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has ten nipples.","Tall tropical grasslands in savanna-forest mosaics, particularly those that are burned regularly.","Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on termites.","Pousargues’s Fat Mouse breed during the wet season (June-December), and litter size is about three young.","Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a complex burrow, typically in a termite mound or burrow of an Aardvark (Orycteropus afer). Individuals put on fat during the wet season, allowing them to reduce activity during the dry season when they enter torpor.",Nests of Pousargues’s Fat Mice are typically occupied by a single individual.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,Genest-Villard (1979) | Happold (2013k) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966¢) | Petter & Genest (1970) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978),https://zenodo.org/record/6600502/files/figure.png,"63.Pousargues’s Fat MouseSteatomys opimusFrench:Rat-adipeux de Pousargues/ German:Pousargues-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de PousarguesOther common names:Pousargues African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys opimus Pousargues, 1894,“ Balao, dans le pays des Dakoas, par 5° 26’ de latitude Nord et environ 17° 40’ de longitude Est,” Central African Republic.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Narrowly distributed from S Cameroon E through Central African Republic, N DR Congo, and extreme SW South Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 115-125 mm, tail 52-65 mm, ear 17-20 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-50 g. Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is small-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, darker above than below. Furis soft and grayish-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has ten nipples.Habitat.Tall tropical grasslands in savanna-forest mosaics, particularly those that are burned regularly.Food and Feeding.Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on termites.Breeding.Pousargues’s Fat Mouse breed during the wet season (June-December), and litter size is about three young.Activity patterns.Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a complex burrow, typically in a termite mound or burrow of an Aardvark (Orycteropus afer). Individuals put on fat during the wet season, allowing them to reduce activity during the dry season when they enter torpor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nests of Pousargues’s Fat Mice are typically occupied by a single individual.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Genest-Villard (1979), Happold (2013k), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966¢), Petter & Genest (1970), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)." -03993828FFE10F45FF24FE09C913F909,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF24FE09C913F909.xml,Steatomys caurinus,Steatomys,caurinus,Thomas,1912,Rat-adipeux du Nord-Ouest @fr | \Westafrikanische Fettmaus @de | Raton grueso noroccidental @es | North-western African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys caurinus Thomas, 1912,Panyam Plateau, Nigeria, 4000 ft(= 1219 m).This species is monotypic.","Continously from Senegal E through Mali, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, to NW Nigeria.","Head-body 96-122 mm, tail 35-50 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-66 g. The North-western Fat Mouse 1s small, with shorttail. Tail is sparsely haired, darker above than below. Fur is coarse and reddishbrown dorsally and clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Numbers of nipples variable but are more than eight (usually twelve).","Various savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover.",No information.,Female North-western Fat Mice have 5-9 young in their burrows.,North-western Fat Mice are terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. Individuals accumulate fat during rains and become torpid during the dry season. They are well adapted to dehydration.,Usually only a single North-western Fat Mouse is present in a burrow (except for females with young).,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Ba et al. (2013) | Granjon & Duplantier (2009, 2011) | Lacas etal. (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter & Genest (1970) | Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996) | Sicard & Duplantier (2013) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)",,"60.North-western Fat MouseSteatomys caurinusFrench:Rat-adipeux du Nord-Ouest/ German:\Westafrikanische Fettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso noroccidentalOther common names:North-western African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys caurinus Thomas, 1912,Panyam Plateau, Nigeria, 4000 ft(= 1219 m).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Continously from Senegal E through Mali, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, to NW Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 96-122 mm, tail 35-50 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-66 g. The North-western Fat Mouse 1s small, with shorttail. Tail is sparsely haired, darker above than below. Fur is coarse and reddishbrown dorsally and clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Numbers of nipples variable but are more than eight (usually twelve).Habitat.Various savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Female North-western Fat Mice have 5-9 young in their burrows.Activity patterns.North-western Fat Mice are terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. Individuals accumulate fat during rains and become torpid during the dry season. They are well adapted to dehydration.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Usually only a single North-western Fat Mouse is present in a burrow (except for females with young).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ba et al. (2013), Granjon & Duplantier (2009, 2011), Lacas etal. (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter & Genest (1970), Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996), Sicard & Duplantier (2013), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)." +03993828FFE10F45FF24FE09C913F909,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF24FE09C913F909.xml,Steatomys caurinus,Steatomys,caurinus,Thomas,1912,Rat-adipeux du Nord-Ouest @fr | \Westafrikanische Fettmaus @de | Raton grueso noroccidental @es | North-western African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys caurinus Thomas, 1912,Panyam Plateau, Nigeria, 4000 ft(= 1219 m).This species is monotypic.","Continously from Senegal E through Mali, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, to NW Nigeria.","Head-body 96-122 mm, tail 35-50 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-66 g. The North-western Fat Mouse 1s small, with shorttail. Tail is sparsely haired, darker above than below. Fur is coarse and reddishbrown dorsally and clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Numbers of nipples variable but are more than eight (usually twelve).","Various savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover.",No information.,Female North-western Fat Mice have 5-9 young in their burrows.,North-western Fat Mice are terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. Individuals accumulate fat during rains and become torpid during the dry season. They are well adapted to dehydration.,Usually only a single North-western Fat Mouse is present in a burrow (except for females with young).,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Ba et al. (2013) | Granjon & Duplantier (2009, 2011) | Lacas etal. (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter & Genest (1970) | Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996) | Sicard & Duplantier (2013) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600494/files/figure.png,"60.North-western Fat MouseSteatomys caurinusFrench:Rat-adipeux du Nord-Ouest/ German:\Westafrikanische Fettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso noroccidentalOther common names:North-western African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys caurinus Thomas, 1912,Panyam Plateau, Nigeria, 4000 ft(= 1219 m).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Continously from Senegal E through Mali, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, to NW Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 96-122 mm, tail 35-50 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-66 g. The North-western Fat Mouse 1s small, with shorttail. Tail is sparsely haired, darker above than below. Fur is coarse and reddishbrown dorsally and clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Numbers of nipples variable but are more than eight (usually twelve).Habitat.Various savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Female North-western Fat Mice have 5-9 young in their burrows.Activity patterns.North-western Fat Mice are terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. Individuals accumulate fat during rains and become torpid during the dry season. They are well adapted to dehydration.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Usually only a single North-western Fat Mouse is present in a burrow (except for females with young).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ba et al. (2013), Granjon & Duplantier (2009, 2011), Lacas etal. (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter & Genest (1970), Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996), Sicard & Duplantier (2013), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)." 03993828FFE10F45FF25F3B9CBFEFB21,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF25F3B9CBFEFB21.xml,Steatomys jacksoni,Steatomys,jacksoni,Hayman,1936,Rat-adipeux de Jackson @fr | Jackson-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Jackson @es | Jackson's African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys jackson: Hayman, 1936, Wenchi, Ashanti, Ghana.Validity of S. jacksoniis not certain, and more specimens are needed to properly diagnose it. Specimens from Nigeria are significantly smaller than the type specimen and may have been misidentified. Monotypic.",Known with certainty from W Ghana and also reported from two localities in W Nigeria.,"Head-body c.120 mm, tail ¢.b0 mm, ear c.18 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Jackson’s Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot.Specimens from Nigeria have twelve nipples.",Apparently savanna. The type locality was open habitat on the edge of forest.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. At present, Jackson’s Fat Mouse is known from too few specimens at too few localities to be able to assess its conservation status.",Anadu (1979b) | Happold (2013j) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978) | Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992),https://zenodo.org/record/6600500/files/figure.png,"62.Jackson's Fat MouseSteatomys jacksoniFrench:Rat-adipeux de Jackson/ German:Jackson-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de JacksonOther common names:Jackson's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys jackson: Hayman, 1936, Wenchi, Ashanti, Ghana.Validity of S. jacksoniis not certain, and more specimens are needed to properly diagnose it. Specimens from Nigeria are significantly smaller than the type specimen and may have been misidentified. Monotypic.Distribution.Known with certainty from W Ghana and also reported from two localities in W Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.120 mm, tail ¢.b0 mm, ear c.18 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Jackson’s Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot.Specimens from Nigeria have twelve nipples.Habitat.Apparently savanna. The type locality was open habitat on the edge of forest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. At present, Jackson’s Fat Mouse is known from too few specimens at too few localities to be able to assess its conservation status.Bibliography.Anadu (1979b), Happold (2013j), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978), Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992)." -03993828FFE10F45FF25F94DC966F41D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF25F94DC966F41D.xml,Steatomys cuppedius,Steatomys,cuppedius,Thomas & Hinton,1920,Rat-adipeux élégant @fr | Zierliche Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso delicado @es | Dainty African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys cuppedius Thomas & Hinton, 1920,“ Farniso, near Kano, North Nigeria(altitude 1,700 ft.[= 518 m]).”This species is monotypic.","Senegal, Benin, N Nigeria, and S Niger.","Head-body 78-93 mm, tail 41-50 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 15-16 mm; weight 14-24 g. The Dainty Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short, sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and pale sandy-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. There are always eight nipples.",Arid savanna.,No information.,No information.,"The Dainty Fat Mouse is terrestrial. Individuals rest in burrows during the day and accumulate fat during rains, becoming torpid during the dry season.","At a few localities, the Dainty Fat Mouse has been trapped in relatively large numbers, but generally it is rare or absent within its overall distribution. Its presence in Senegal is only known from prey remains in owl pellets.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Decher (1997) | Duplantier & Granjon (1992) | Duplantier & Sicard (2013) | Granjon & Duplantier (2009) | Happold (1987) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978) | Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992),,"61.Dainty Fat MouseSteatomys cuppediusFrench:Rat-adipeux élégant/ German:Zierliche Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso delicadoOther common names:Dainty African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys cuppedius Thomas & Hinton, 1920,“ Farniso, near Kano, North Nigeria(altitude 1,700 ft.[= 518 m]).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Senegal, Benin, N Nigeria, and S Niger.Descriptive notes.Head-body 78-93 mm, tail 41-50 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 15-16 mm; weight 14-24 g. The Dainty Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short, sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and pale sandy-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. There are always eight nipples.Habitat.Arid savanna.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Dainty Fat Mouse is terrestrial. Individuals rest in burrows during the day and accumulate fat during rains, becoming torpid during the dry season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.At a few localities, the Dainty Fat Mouse has been trapped in relatively large numbers, but generally it is rare or absent within its overall distribution. Its presence in Senegal is only known from prey remains in owl pellets.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Decher (1997), Duplantier & Granjon (1992), Duplantier & Sicard (2013), Granjon & Duplantier (2009), Happold (1987), Monadjem et al. (2015), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978), Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992)." -03993828FFE20F46FAF2FB8BCB20F774,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,199,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FAF2FB8BCB20F774.xml,Dendromus vernayi,Dendromus,vernayi,Hill & Carter,1937,Dendromus de Vernay @fr | Vernay-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepadorafricano de Vernay @es,"Dendromus mesomelas vernayi Hill & Carter, 1937,“Chitau, alt. 4930 ft. [= 1503 m], Angola.”Dendromus vernayiwas previously recognized as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.",Endemic to C Angola where it 1s currently known only from the type locality.,"Head—body 63-77 mm, tail 80-86 mm, hindfoot 20-20 mm. No specific data are available for body weight.Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Earsare relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.",No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is only known from a single locality and may therefore be atrisk.,Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (2013e) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005),,"51.Vernay’s African Climbing MouseDendromus vernayiFrench:Dendromus de Vernay/ German:Vernay-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepadorafricano de VernayTaxonomy.Dendromus mesomelas vernayi Hill & Carter, 1937,“Chitau, alt. 4930 ft. [= 1503 m], Angola.”Dendromus vernayiwas previously recognized as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C Angola where it 1s currently known only from the type locality.Descriptive notes.Head—body 63-77 mm, tail 80-86 mm, hindfoot 20-20 mm. No specific data are available for body weight.Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Earsare relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is only known from a single locality and may therefore be atrisk.Bibliography.Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (2013e), Hill & Carter (1941), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005)." +03993828FFE10F45FF25F94DC966F41D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF25F94DC966F41D.xml,Steatomys cuppedius,Steatomys,cuppedius,Thomas & Hinton,1920,Rat-adipeux élégant @fr | Zierliche Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso delicado @es | Dainty African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys cuppedius Thomas & Hinton, 1920,“ Farniso, near Kano, North Nigeria(altitude 1,700 ft.[= 518 m]).”This species is monotypic.","Senegal, Benin, N Nigeria, and S Niger.","Head-body 78-93 mm, tail 41-50 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 15-16 mm; weight 14-24 g. The Dainty Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short, sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and pale sandy-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. There are always eight nipples.",Arid savanna.,No information.,No information.,"The Dainty Fat Mouse is terrestrial. Individuals rest in burrows during the day and accumulate fat during rains, becoming torpid during the dry season.","At a few localities, the Dainty Fat Mouse has been trapped in relatively large numbers, but generally it is rare or absent within its overall distribution. Its presence in Senegal is only known from prey remains in owl pellets.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Decher (1997) | Duplantier & Granjon (1992) | Duplantier & Sicard (2013) | Granjon & Duplantier (2009) | Happold (1987) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978) | Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992),https://zenodo.org/record/6600497/files/figure.png,"61.Dainty Fat MouseSteatomys cuppediusFrench:Rat-adipeux élégant/ German:Zierliche Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso delicadoOther common names:Dainty African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys cuppedius Thomas & Hinton, 1920,“ Farniso, near Kano, North Nigeria(altitude 1,700 ft.[= 518 m]).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Senegal, Benin, N Nigeria, and S Niger.Descriptive notes.Head-body 78-93 mm, tail 41-50 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 15-16 mm; weight 14-24 g. The Dainty Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short, sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and pale sandy-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. There are always eight nipples.Habitat.Arid savanna.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Dainty Fat Mouse is terrestrial. Individuals rest in burrows during the day and accumulate fat during rains, becoming torpid during the dry season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.At a few localities, the Dainty Fat Mouse has been trapped in relatively large numbers, but generally it is rare or absent within its overall distribution. Its presence in Senegal is only known from prey remains in owl pellets.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Decher (1997), Duplantier & Granjon (1992), Duplantier & Sicard (2013), Granjon & Duplantier (2009), Happold (1987), Monadjem et al. (2015), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978), Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992)." +03993828FFE20F46FAF2FB8BCB20F774,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,199,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FAF2FB8BCB20F774.xml,Dendromus vernayi,Dendromus,vernayi,Hill & Carter,1937,Dendromus de Vernay @fr | Vernay-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepadorafricano de Vernay @es,"Dendromus mesomelas vernayi Hill & Carter, 1937,“Chitau, alt. 4930 ft. [= 1503 m], Angola.”Dendromus vernayiwas previously recognized as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.",Endemic to C Angola where it 1s currently known only from the type locality.,"Head—body 63-77 mm, tail 80-86 mm, hindfoot 20-20 mm. No specific data are available for body weight.Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Earsare relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.",No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is only known from a single locality and may therefore be atrisk.,Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (2013e) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6600476/files/figure.png,"51.Vernay’s African Climbing MouseDendromus vernayiFrench:Dendromus de Vernay/ German:Vernay-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepadorafricano de VernayTaxonomy.Dendromus mesomelas vernayi Hill & Carter, 1937,“Chitau, alt. 4930 ft. [= 1503 m], Angola.”Dendromus vernayiwas previously recognized as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C Angola where it 1s currently known only from the type locality.Descriptive notes.Head—body 63-77 mm, tail 80-86 mm, hindfoot 20-20 mm. No specific data are available for body weight.Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Earsare relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is only known from a single locality and may therefore be atrisk.Bibliography.Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (2013e), Hill & Carter (1941), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005)." 03993828FFE20F46FFF1F663CAB2FC49,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,199,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FFF1F663CAB2FC49.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"50.Montane African Climbing MouseDendromus insignisFrench:Dendromus des montagnes/ German:Gebirgsklettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de montanaOther common names:Remarkable Climbing MouseDendromys insignis Thomas, 1903,“ Nandi, British East Africa [= Kenya].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Montane areas of E Africa, in East DR Congo, W Uganda, Rwanda, S Kenya, and Eastern Arc Mts of Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 78- 92 mm, tail 82-111 mm, ear 12-18 mm, hindfoot 20-23 mm; weight 12-17 g. The Montane African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Its tail is very long and Eg Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally, with considerable variation in color, and paler ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray, giving pelage a gray wash. Obvious black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Montane grasslands, moist grasslands, and herbaceous vegetation above elevations of 1500 m and moorlands at 3000-4700 m.Food and Feeding.The Montane African Climbing Mouse mostly eats grass seeds and insects.Breeding.The Montane African Climbing Mouse builds small grass nests or uses small bird nests. Littersizes are 1-7 young, typically four young.Activity patterns.The Montane African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal with peak in activity between 22:00 h and 02:00 h. It isterrestrial but also an agile climber, climbing grass stalks using its prehensile tail and opposable fifth digits on hindfeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Montane African Climbing Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of all small mammals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. It forms a small part of diets of Cape eagle-owls (Bubo capensis) and Leopards (Panthera pardus) in the alpine zone of Mount Kenya, Kenya.Bibliography.Clausnitzer & Kityo (2001), Delany (1975), Dieterlen (1971, 2013b), Grimshaw et al. (1995), Kaleme et al. (2007), Kerbis Peterhans et al. (1998), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rodel, Scholze & Kock (2002), Rodel, Scholze & Paulsch (2004)." -03993828FFE20F46FFF6FB16C822F63B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,199,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FFF6FB16C822F63B.xml,Dendromus kahuziensis,Dendromus,kahuziensis,Dieterlen,1969,Dendromus du Kahuzi @fr | Kahuzi-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepadorafricano de Kahuzi @es | Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromus kahuziensis Dieterlen, 1969,Mount Kahuzi, Kivu, DR Congo.This species is monotypic.","Only known from Mt Kahuz1, E DR Congo.","Head—body 77-82 mm, tail 120-132 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 10-12 g. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Furis long, soft, and dark-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Broad black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.",Only known from montane forest with bamboo at elevations of ¢.2100 m.,Stomach contents of a single Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse contained plant material.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is known from a single site in protected Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, DR Congo; this region has experienced political conflict and associated habitat degradation.","Dieterlen (1969b, 1976¢, 2013c) | Kaleme et al. (2007) | Monadjem et al. (2015)",,"49.Mount Kahuzi African Climbing MouseDendromus kahuziensisFrench:Dendromus du Kahuzi/ German:Kahuzi-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepadorafricano de KahuziOther common names:Kahuzi African Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus kahuziensis Dieterlen, 1969,Mount Kahuzi, Kivu, DR Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Mt Kahuz1, E DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 77-82 mm, tail 120-132 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 10-12 g. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Furis long, soft, and dark-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Broad black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Only known from montane forest with bamboo at elevations of ¢.2100 m.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of a single Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse contained plant material.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is known from a single site in protected Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, DR Congo; this region has experienced political conflict and associated habitat degradation.Bibliography.Dieterlen (1969b, 1976¢, 2013c), Kaleme et al. (2007), Monadjem et al. (2015)." -03993828FFE20F47FACCF6A7CDF7FECC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,199,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F47FACCF6A7CDF7FECC.xml,Dendromus leucostomus,Dendromus,leucostomus,Monard,1933,Dendromus de Monard @fr | Monard-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Monard @es,"Dendromus leucostomus Monard, 1933,Caluquembe, Angola.Dendromus leucostomusis considered conspecific with D. melanotisby some authorities but differs from it by lacking mid-dorsal stripe. Monotypic.",Only known from a single site in EC Angola.,"Head-body 47-69 mm, tail 57-80 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 16—-18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long,soft, and rich brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsalline or stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.",No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is known fromjust a single site in a region that is experiencing rapid habitat transformation. Special conservation actions might be necessary to preventits extinction.,Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Monadjem (2013a) | Monadjem et al. (2015),,"52.Monard’s African Climbing MouseDendromus leucostomusFrench:Dendromus de Monard/ German:Monard-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de MonardTaxonomy.Dendromus leucostomus Monard, 1933,Caluquembe, Angola.Dendromus leucostomusis considered conspecific with D. melanotisby some authorities but differs from it by lacking mid-dorsal stripe. Monotypic.Distribution.Only known from a single site in EC Angola.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-69 mm, tail 57-80 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 16—-18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long,soft, and rich brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsalline or stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is known fromjust a single site in a region that is experiencing rapid habitat transformation. Special conservation actions might be necessary to preventits extinction.Bibliography.Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Hill & Carter (1941), Monadjem (2013a), Monadjem et al. (2015)." -03993828FFE30F44FA26F5C3C968F9F9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F44FA26F5C3C968F9F9.xml,Dendromus melanotus,Dendromys,melanotis,A. Smith,1834,Dendromus gris @fr | Graue Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano gris @es,"Dendromys melanotis A. Smith, 1834,“ South Africa,—on shrubs near Port Natal.”Dendromus melanotisis in need of revision. It shows significant genetic variation, suggesting a species complex. Records from West Africa have recently been described as a new species, D. lachaisei. Based on recently molecular work, D. melanotiscomprises at least four cryptic lineages in South Africa, but taxonomic implications are not yet clear. Furthermore, relationships of outlying populations in Nigeria and perhaps Ethiopia require investigation. Monotypic.","Widespread in S Africa, from SW Angola and NW & E Namibia E to Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and S to E & S South Africa and Swaziland; isolated populations occur in C Nigeria, SW Uganda, SW Ethiopia, C & S Kenya, and N & S Tanzania.","Head—body 50-77 mm, tail 55-96 mm, ear 8-18 mm, hindfoot 12-20 mm; weight 6-15 g. The Gray African Climbing Mouse is small, with long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and brown to grayish-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Obvious mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.","Wide range of habitats including stands of tall Hyparrhenia(Poaceae) grassland, short montane grassland, dry Kalahari scrub, fringes of rivers, dry Baikiaeaand Isoberlinia(both Fabaceae) woodland, and flood-plains. The Gray African Climbing Mouse can recolonize burnt grasslands within one month offire, but itis typically associated with grasslands of high ecological integrity and therefore may be a good indicator of high-quality grasslands. In East Africa, it is typically associated with dry savanna but also occurs into moist habitats such as marshes and montane forest.","Poorly known. At one site in South Africa, all examined stomach contents from Gray African Climbing Mice contained seeds and about one-quarter had insects—similar to that reported in East Africa.","In South Africa, pregnant Gray African Climbing Mice were collected during the rainy season and juveniles when rains had ended. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level. They also use burrows. Litter sizes are 2-8 young.","The Gray African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly terrestrial, although it can climb.","The Gray African Climbing Mouse can occur in relatively high numbers in high-elevation grasslands of South Africa, where it has been recorded as the second or third most abundant small mammal species in certain habitats.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Ansell (1978) | Avenant (2011) | Avenant & Cavallini (2007) | Avery (1987) | De Graaff (1981) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (1971) | Dippenaar et al. (1983) | Goheen et al. (2004) | Kerley (1992b) | Kingdon (1974) | Korn (1992) | Lynch (1994) | Martin (1985) | Mendelsohn (1982) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Perrin & Campbell (1980) | Rautenbach et al. (2014) | Robbins & Baker (1978) | Rosevear (1969) | Rowe-Rowe (1986) | Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982) | Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a, 1982b) | Sheppe & Haas (1981) | Smithers (1971) | Solano et al. (2014) | Taylor (1998)",,"56.Gray African Climbing MouseDendromus melanotusFrench:Dendromus gris/ German:Graue Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano grisTaxonomy.Dendromys melanotis A. Smith, 1834,“ South Africa,—on shrubs near Port Natal.”Dendromus melanotisis in need of revision. It shows significant genetic variation, suggesting a species complex. Records from West Africa have recently been described as a new species, D. lachaisei. Based on recently molecular work, D. melanotiscomprises at least four cryptic lineages in South Africa, but taxonomic implications are not yet clear. Furthermore, relationships of outlying populations in Nigeria and perhaps Ethiopia require investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in S Africa, from SW Angola and NW & E Namibia E to Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and S to E & S South Africa and Swaziland; isolated populations occur in C Nigeria, SW Uganda, SW Ethiopia, C & S Kenya, and N & S Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head—body 50-77 mm, tail 55-96 mm, ear 8-18 mm, hindfoot 12-20 mm; weight 6-15 g. The Gray African Climbing Mouse is small, with long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and brown to grayish-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Obvious mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Wide range of habitats including stands of tall Hyparrhenia(Poaceae) grassland, short montane grassland, dry Kalahari scrub, fringes of rivers, dry Baikiaeaand Isoberlinia(both Fabaceae) woodland, and flood-plains. The Gray African Climbing Mouse can recolonize burnt grasslands within one month offire, but itis typically associated with grasslands of high ecological integrity and therefore may be a good indicator of high-quality grasslands. In East Africa, it is typically associated with dry savanna but also occurs into moist habitats such as marshes and montane forest.Food and Feeding.Poorly known. At one site in South Africa, all examined stomach contents from Gray African Climbing Mice contained seeds and about one-quarter had insects—similar to that reported in East Africa.Breeding.In South Africa, pregnant Gray African Climbing Mice were collected during the rainy season and juveniles when rains had ended. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level. They also use burrows. Litter sizes are 2-8 young.Activity patterns.The Gray African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly terrestrial, although it can climb.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gray African Climbing Mouse can occur in relatively high numbers in high-elevation grasslands of South Africa, where it has been recorded as the second or third most abundant small mammal species in certain habitats.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ansell (1978), Avenant (2011), Avenant & Cavallini (2007), Avery (1987), De Graaff (1981), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (1971), Dippenaar et al. (1983), Goheen et al. (2004), Kerley (1992b), Kingdon (1974), Korn (1992), Lynch (1994), Martin (1985), Mendelsohn (1982), Monadjem et al. (2015), Perrin & Campbell (1980), Rautenbach et al. (2014), Robbins & Baker (1978), Rosevear (1969), Rowe-Rowe (1986), Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982), Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a, 1982b), Sheppe & Haas (1981), Smithers (1971), Solano et al. (2014), Taylor (1998)." -03993828FFE30F47FA22FD98C47BF597,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FA22FD98C47BF597.xml,Dendromus mystacalis,Dendromys,mystacalis,Heuglin,1863,Dendromus de Heuglin @fr | Kastanienbraune Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano castano @es | Chestnut Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromys mystacalis Heuglin, 1863,Baschlo region, Ethiopia.Dendromus mystacalismay represent a species complex. In particular, the population from Ethiopia occurs in different habitat and elevations compared with populations elsewhere in its distribution and may represent a distinct species. Taxonomic significance of geographical variation in pelage also needs to be investigated. Monotypic.","Occurs widely in E & S Africa (SW Angola E to S DR Congo, Zambia, extreme N Botswana, and Malawi, and S to Zimbabwe, C & S Mozambique, Swaziland, and E South Africa; isolated populations occur in the highlands of Ethiopia, NE DR Congo and extreme S South Sudan E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and NW Tanzania; also recorded in SE Tanzania.","Head-body 47-80 mm, tail 64-101 mm, ear 7-18 mm, hindfoot 14— 20 mm; weight 4-11 g. The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright chestnutbrown dorsally and pure white ventrally; some populations have grayish ventral pelage. Base of each dorsal hair is dark gray. Thin or faint mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail, which is absent in populations with grayish ventral pelage. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Various grasslands and savannas, especially at elevations below 1000 m (except in Ethiopia). Vegetation cover immediately above the ground appears to be important to the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse. In Swaziland, tall Hyperthelia-Hyparrhenia grassland is favored, but it also occurs in thick tangles adjacent to wetlands and edges of Afro-montane forest.","In Swaziland, the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.","In Zimbabwe, young Chestnut African Climbing Mice have been observed in nests during the rainy season. They build grass nests with multiple entrances, usually placed c.1 m aboveground in tall grass or a bush clump. They also use old bird nests, especially of the family Ploceidae. Litter sizes are 3-8 young.","The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It forages both terrestrially and on grass stalks and low bushes. In Swaziland, pairs were regularly captured in the same trap, suggesting that they forage together.",Densities of the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse can be high in appropriate habitat (2-5-19-8 ind/ha).,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,"Adam et al. (2015) | Avenant & Kuyler (2002) | Bekele (1996a) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (2009) | Fitzherbert et al. (2007) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Misonne (1963) | Monadjem (1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b) | Monadjem & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem etal. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Rautenbach, A. et al. (2014) | Rautenbach, |.L. (1982) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers &Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Solano et al. (2014) | Stanley & Goodman (2011)",,"55.Chestnut African Climbing MouseDendromus mystacalisFrench:Dendromus de Heuglin/ German:Kastanienbraune Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano castanoOther common names:Chestnut Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys mystacalis Heuglin, 1863,Baschlo region, Ethiopia.Dendromus mystacalismay represent a species complex. In particular, the population from Ethiopia occurs in different habitat and elevations compared with populations elsewhere in its distribution and may represent a distinct species. Taxonomic significance of geographical variation in pelage also needs to be investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.Occurs widely in E & S Africa (SW Angola E to S DR Congo, Zambia, extreme N Botswana, and Malawi, and S to Zimbabwe, C & S Mozambique, Swaziland, and E South Africa; isolated populations occur in the highlands of Ethiopia, NE DR Congo and extreme S South Sudan E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and NW Tanzania; also recorded in SE Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-80 mm, tail 64-101 mm, ear 7-18 mm, hindfoot 14— 20 mm; weight 4-11 g. The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright chestnutbrown dorsally and pure white ventrally; some populations have grayish ventral pelage. Base of each dorsal hair is dark gray. Thin or faint mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail, which is absent in populations with grayish ventral pelage. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various grasslands and savannas, especially at elevations below 1000 m (except in Ethiopia). Vegetation cover immediately above the ground appears to be important to the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse. In Swaziland, tall Hyperthelia-Hyparrhenia grassland is favored, but it also occurs in thick tangles adjacent to wetlands and edges of Afro-montane forest.Food and Feeding.In Swaziland, the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.Breeding.In Zimbabwe, young Chestnut African Climbing Mice have been observed in nests during the rainy season. They build grass nests with multiple entrances, usually placed c.1 m aboveground in tall grass or a bush clump. They also use old bird nests, especially of the family Ploceidae. Litter sizes are 3-8 young.Activity patterns.The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It forages both terrestrially and on grass stalks and low bushes. In Swaziland, pairs were regularly captured in the same trap, suggesting that they forage together.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Densities of the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse can be high in appropriate habitat (2-5-19-8 ind/ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Adam et al. (2015), Avenant & Kuyler (2002), Bekele (1996a), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (2009), Fitzherbert et al. (2007), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Misonne (1963), Monadjem (1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b), Monadjem & Perrin (2003), Monadjem etal. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Rautenbach, A. et al. (2014), Rautenbach, |.L. (1982), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers &Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Solano et al. (2014), Stanley & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFE30F47FF25FE08CEF9F7FE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FF25FE08CEF9F7FE.xml,Dendromus nyasae,Dendromus,nyasae,Thomas,1916,Dendromus du Kivu @fr | Kivu-Klettermaus @de | Ratén trepador africano de Kivu @es,"Dendromus mnyasae Thomas, 1916,“ Nyika Plateau, N. Nyasa[District]. Alt. 6500’ [= 1981 m],” Malawi.Relationship between the two subspeciesrequires investigation because they could be distinct species. Two subspecies recognized.","D.n.nyasaeThomas,1916—STanzania,extremeNEZambia,andNMalawi.D. n. kivu Thomas, 1916— NE DR Congo, SW Uganda, and Rwanda.","Head-body 64-80 mm,tail 84-105 mm, ear 11-16 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 6-20 g. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which may occasionally be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Various upland grasslands, especially those associated with water, typically above elevations of 1300 m. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can also occur on edges of swamps and agriculturalfields.","The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating seeds and insects.","Most female KivuAfrican Climbing Mice are reproductively active during the wet season (September—May), although reproduction can occur throughout the year at lower intensity. Average litter size 4 young. Gestation is ¢.23-27 days. Neonates grow rapidly and are able to walk ¢.22 days of age when eyes also open. Weaning occurs at ¢.24 days and is completed at 35 days. It builds a grass nest that is usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level.",The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.,"In appropriate habitat, the KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can comprise 10% of the small mammal community.","Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Subspecies kivuclassified as Least Concern (as D. kivu). Due to its nature of occupying a variety of habitats, it is unlikely to be currently threatened although individual populations may be at risk in areas facing severe habitat transformation.","Dieterlen (1967a, 1967b, 1971, 1976c¢) | Kaleme et al. (2007) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Stanley & Hutterer (2007)",,"53.Kivu African Climbing MouseDendromus nyasaeFrench:Dendromus du Kivu/ German:Kivu-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de KivuTaxonomy.Dendromus mnyasae Thomas, 1916,“ Nyika Plateau, N. Nyasa[District]. Alt. 6500’ [= 1981 m],” Malawi.Relationship between the two subspeciesrequires investigation because they could be distinct species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D.n.nyasaeThomas,1916—STanzania,extremeNEZambia,andNMalawi.D. n. kivu Thomas, 1916— NE DR Congo, SW Uganda, and Rwanda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 64-80 mm,tail 84-105 mm, ear 11-16 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 6-20 g. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which may occasionally be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various upland grasslands, especially those associated with water, typically above elevations of 1300 m. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can also occur on edges of swamps and agriculturalfields.Food and Feeding.The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating seeds and insects.Breeding.Most female KivuAfrican Climbing Mice are reproductively active during the wet season (September—May), although reproduction can occur throughout the year at lower intensity. Average litter size 4 young. Gestation is ¢.23-27 days. Neonates grow rapidly and are able to walk ¢.22 days of age when eyes also open. Weaning occurs at ¢.24 days and is completed at 35 days. It builds a grass nest that is usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level.Activity patterns.The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In appropriate habitat, the KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can comprise 10% of the small mammal community.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Subspecies kivuclassified as Least Concern (as D. kivu). Due to its nature of occupying a variety of habitats, it is unlikely to be currently threatened although individual populations may be at risk in areas facing severe habitat transformation.Bibliography.Dieterlen (1967a, 1967b, 1971, 1976c¢), Kaleme et al. (2007), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Stanley & Hutterer (2007)." +03993828FFE20F46FFF6FB16C822F63B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,199,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FFF6FB16C822F63B.xml,Dendromus kahuziensis,Dendromus,kahuziensis,Dieterlen,1969,Dendromus du Kahuzi @fr | Kahuzi-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepadorafricano de Kahuzi @es | Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromus kahuziensis Dieterlen, 1969,Mount Kahuzi, Kivu, DR Congo.This species is monotypic.","Only known from Mt Kahuz1, E DR Congo.","Head—body 77-82 mm, tail 120-132 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 10-12 g. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Furis long, soft, and dark-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Broad black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.",Only known from montane forest with bamboo at elevations of ¢.2100 m.,Stomach contents of a single Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse contained plant material.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is known from a single site in protected Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, DR Congo; this region has experienced political conflict and associated habitat degradation.","Dieterlen (1969b, 1976¢, 2013c) | Kaleme et al. (2007) | Monadjem et al. (2015)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600472/files/figure.png,"49.Mount Kahuzi African Climbing MouseDendromus kahuziensisFrench:Dendromus du Kahuzi/ German:Kahuzi-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepadorafricano de KahuziOther common names:Kahuzi African Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus kahuziensis Dieterlen, 1969,Mount Kahuzi, Kivu, DR Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Mt Kahuz1, E DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 77-82 mm, tail 120-132 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 10-12 g. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Furis long, soft, and dark-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Broad black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Only known from montane forest with bamboo at elevations of ¢.2100 m.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of a single Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse contained plant material.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is known from a single site in protected Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, DR Congo; this region has experienced political conflict and associated habitat degradation.Bibliography.Dieterlen (1969b, 1976¢, 2013c), Kaleme et al. (2007), Monadjem et al. (2015)." +03993828FFE20F47FACCF6A7CDF7FECC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,199,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F47FACCF6A7CDF7FECC.xml,Dendromus leucostomus,Dendromus,leucostomus,Monard,1933,Dendromus de Monard @fr | Monard-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Monard @es,"Dendromus leucostomus Monard, 1933,Caluquembe, Angola.Dendromus leucostomusis considered conspecific with D. melanotisby some authorities but differs from it by lacking mid-dorsal stripe. Monotypic.",Only known from a single site in EC Angola.,"Head-body 47-69 mm, tail 57-80 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 16—-18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long,soft, and rich brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsalline or stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.",No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is known fromjust a single site in a region that is experiencing rapid habitat transformation. Special conservation actions might be necessary to preventits extinction.,Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Monadjem (2013a) | Monadjem et al. (2015),https://zenodo.org/record/6600478/files/figure.png,"52.Monard’s African Climbing MouseDendromus leucostomusFrench:Dendromus de Monard/ German:Monard-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de MonardTaxonomy.Dendromus leucostomus Monard, 1933,Caluquembe, Angola.Dendromus leucostomusis considered conspecific with D. melanotisby some authorities but differs from it by lacking mid-dorsal stripe. Monotypic.Distribution.Only known from a single site in EC Angola.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-69 mm, tail 57-80 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 16—-18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long,soft, and rich brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsalline or stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is known fromjust a single site in a region that is experiencing rapid habitat transformation. Special conservation actions might be necessary to preventits extinction.Bibliography.Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Hill & Carter (1941), Monadjem (2013a), Monadjem et al. (2015)." +03993828FFE30F44FA26F5C3C968F9F9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F44FA26F5C3C968F9F9.xml,Dendromus melanotus,Dendromys,melanotis,A. Smith,1834,Dendromus gris @fr | Graue Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano gris @es,"Dendromys melanotis A. Smith, 1834,“ South Africa,—on shrubs near Port Natal.”Dendromus melanotisis in need of revision. It shows significant genetic variation, suggesting a species complex. Records from West Africa have recently been described as a new species, D. lachaisei. Based on recently molecular work, D. melanotiscomprises at least four cryptic lineages in South Africa, but taxonomic implications are not yet clear. Furthermore, relationships of outlying populations in Nigeria and perhaps Ethiopia require investigation. Monotypic.","Widespread in S Africa, from SW Angola and NW & E Namibia E to Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and S to E & S South Africa and Swaziland; isolated populations occur in C Nigeria, SW Uganda, SW Ethiopia, C & S Kenya, and N & S Tanzania.","Head—body 50-77 mm, tail 55-96 mm, ear 8-18 mm, hindfoot 12-20 mm; weight 6-15 g. The Gray African Climbing Mouse is small, with long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and brown to grayish-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Obvious mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.","Wide range of habitats including stands of tall Hyparrhenia(Poaceae) grassland, short montane grassland, dry Kalahari scrub, fringes of rivers, dry Baikiaeaand Isoberlinia(both Fabaceae) woodland, and flood-plains. The Gray African Climbing Mouse can recolonize burnt grasslands within one month offire, but itis typically associated with grasslands of high ecological integrity and therefore may be a good indicator of high-quality grasslands. In East Africa, it is typically associated with dry savanna but also occurs into moist habitats such as marshes and montane forest.","Poorly known. At one site in South Africa, all examined stomach contents from Gray African Climbing Mice contained seeds and about one-quarter had insects—similar to that reported in East Africa.","In South Africa, pregnant Gray African Climbing Mice were collected during the rainy season and juveniles when rains had ended. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level. They also use burrows. Litter sizes are 2-8 young.","The Gray African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly terrestrial, although it can climb.","The Gray African Climbing Mouse can occur in relatively high numbers in high-elevation grasslands of South Africa, where it has been recorded as the second or third most abundant small mammal species in certain habitats.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Ansell (1978) | Avenant (2011) | Avenant & Cavallini (2007) | Avery (1987) | De Graaff (1981) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (1971) | Dippenaar et al. (1983) | Goheen et al. (2004) | Kerley (1992b) | Kingdon (1974) | Korn (1992) | Lynch (1994) | Martin (1985) | Mendelsohn (1982) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Perrin & Campbell (1980) | Rautenbach et al. (2014) | Robbins & Baker (1978) | Rosevear (1969) | Rowe-Rowe (1986) | Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982) | Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a, 1982b) | Sheppe & Haas (1981) | Smithers (1971) | Solano et al. (2014) | Taylor (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600486/files/figure.png,"56.Gray African Climbing MouseDendromus melanotusFrench:Dendromus gris/ German:Graue Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano grisTaxonomy.Dendromys melanotis A. Smith, 1834,“ South Africa,—on shrubs near Port Natal.”Dendromus melanotisis in need of revision. It shows significant genetic variation, suggesting a species complex. Records from West Africa have recently been described as a new species, D. lachaisei. Based on recently molecular work, D. melanotiscomprises at least four cryptic lineages in South Africa, but taxonomic implications are not yet clear. Furthermore, relationships of outlying populations in Nigeria and perhaps Ethiopia require investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in S Africa, from SW Angola and NW & E Namibia E to Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and S to E & S South Africa and Swaziland; isolated populations occur in C Nigeria, SW Uganda, SW Ethiopia, C & S Kenya, and N & S Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head—body 50-77 mm, tail 55-96 mm, ear 8-18 mm, hindfoot 12-20 mm; weight 6-15 g. The Gray African Climbing Mouse is small, with long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and brown to grayish-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Obvious mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Wide range of habitats including stands of tall Hyparrhenia(Poaceae) grassland, short montane grassland, dry Kalahari scrub, fringes of rivers, dry Baikiaeaand Isoberlinia(both Fabaceae) woodland, and flood-plains. The Gray African Climbing Mouse can recolonize burnt grasslands within one month offire, but itis typically associated with grasslands of high ecological integrity and therefore may be a good indicator of high-quality grasslands. In East Africa, it is typically associated with dry savanna but also occurs into moist habitats such as marshes and montane forest.Food and Feeding.Poorly known. At one site in South Africa, all examined stomach contents from Gray African Climbing Mice contained seeds and about one-quarter had insects—similar to that reported in East Africa.Breeding.In South Africa, pregnant Gray African Climbing Mice were collected during the rainy season and juveniles when rains had ended. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level. They also use burrows. Litter sizes are 2-8 young.Activity patterns.The Gray African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly terrestrial, although it can climb.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gray African Climbing Mouse can occur in relatively high numbers in high-elevation grasslands of South Africa, where it has been recorded as the second or third most abundant small mammal species in certain habitats.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ansell (1978), Avenant (2011), Avenant & Cavallini (2007), Avery (1987), De Graaff (1981), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (1971), Dippenaar et al. (1983), Goheen et al. (2004), Kerley (1992b), Kingdon (1974), Korn (1992), Lynch (1994), Martin (1985), Mendelsohn (1982), Monadjem et al. (2015), Perrin & Campbell (1980), Rautenbach et al. (2014), Robbins & Baker (1978), Rosevear (1969), Rowe-Rowe (1986), Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982), Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a, 1982b), Sheppe & Haas (1981), Smithers (1971), Solano et al. (2014), Taylor (1998)." +03993828FFE30F47FA22FD98C47BF597,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FA22FD98C47BF597.xml,Dendromus mystacalis,Dendromys,mystacalis,Heuglin,1863,Dendromus de Heuglin @fr | Kastanienbraune Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano castano @es | Chestnut Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromys mystacalis Heuglin, 1863,Baschlo region, Ethiopia.Dendromus mystacalismay represent a species complex. In particular, the population from Ethiopia occurs in different habitat and elevations compared with populations elsewhere in its distribution and may represent a distinct species. Taxonomic significance of geographical variation in pelage also needs to be investigated. Monotypic.","Occurs widely in E & S Africa (SW Angola E to S DR Congo, Zambia, extreme N Botswana, and Malawi, and S to Zimbabwe, C & S Mozambique, Swaziland, and E South Africa; isolated populations occur in the highlands of Ethiopia, NE DR Congo and extreme S South Sudan E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and NW Tanzania; also recorded in SE Tanzania.","Head-body 47-80 mm, tail 64-101 mm, ear 7-18 mm, hindfoot 14— 20 mm; weight 4-11 g. The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright chestnutbrown dorsally and pure white ventrally; some populations have grayish ventral pelage. Base of each dorsal hair is dark gray. Thin or faint mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail, which is absent in populations with grayish ventral pelage. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Various grasslands and savannas, especially at elevations below 1000 m (except in Ethiopia). Vegetation cover immediately above the ground appears to be important to the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse. In Swaziland, tall Hyperthelia-Hyparrhenia grassland is favored, but it also occurs in thick tangles adjacent to wetlands and edges of Afro-montane forest.","In Swaziland, the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.","In Zimbabwe, young Chestnut African Climbing Mice have been observed in nests during the rainy season. They build grass nests with multiple entrances, usually placed c.1 m aboveground in tall grass or a bush clump. They also use old bird nests, especially of the family Ploceidae. Litter sizes are 3-8 young.","The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It forages both terrestrially and on grass stalks and low bushes. In Swaziland, pairs were regularly captured in the same trap, suggesting that they forage together.",Densities of the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse can be high in appropriate habitat (2-5-19-8 ind/ha).,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,"Adam et al. (2015) | Avenant & Kuyler (2002) | Bekele (1996a) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (2009) | Fitzherbert et al. (2007) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Misonne (1963) | Monadjem (1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b) | Monadjem & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem etal. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Rautenbach, A. et al. (2014) | Rautenbach, |.L. (1982) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers &Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Solano et al. (2014) | Stanley & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600484/files/figure.png,"55.Chestnut African Climbing MouseDendromus mystacalisFrench:Dendromus de Heuglin/ German:Kastanienbraune Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano castanoOther common names:Chestnut Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys mystacalis Heuglin, 1863,Baschlo region, Ethiopia.Dendromus mystacalismay represent a species complex. In particular, the population from Ethiopia occurs in different habitat and elevations compared with populations elsewhere in its distribution and may represent a distinct species. Taxonomic significance of geographical variation in pelage also needs to be investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.Occurs widely in E & S Africa (SW Angola E to S DR Congo, Zambia, extreme N Botswana, and Malawi, and S to Zimbabwe, C & S Mozambique, Swaziland, and E South Africa; isolated populations occur in the highlands of Ethiopia, NE DR Congo and extreme S South Sudan E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and NW Tanzania; also recorded in SE Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-80 mm, tail 64-101 mm, ear 7-18 mm, hindfoot 14— 20 mm; weight 4-11 g. The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright chestnutbrown dorsally and pure white ventrally; some populations have grayish ventral pelage. Base of each dorsal hair is dark gray. Thin or faint mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail, which is absent in populations with grayish ventral pelage. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various grasslands and savannas, especially at elevations below 1000 m (except in Ethiopia). Vegetation cover immediately above the ground appears to be important to the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse. In Swaziland, tall Hyperthelia-Hyparrhenia grassland is favored, but it also occurs in thick tangles adjacent to wetlands and edges of Afro-montane forest.Food and Feeding.In Swaziland, the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.Breeding.In Zimbabwe, young Chestnut African Climbing Mice have been observed in nests during the rainy season. They build grass nests with multiple entrances, usually placed c.1 m aboveground in tall grass or a bush clump. They also use old bird nests, especially of the family Ploceidae. Litter sizes are 3-8 young.Activity patterns.The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It forages both terrestrially and on grass stalks and low bushes. In Swaziland, pairs were regularly captured in the same trap, suggesting that they forage together.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Densities of the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse can be high in appropriate habitat (2-5-19-8 ind/ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Adam et al. (2015), Avenant & Kuyler (2002), Bekele (1996a), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (2009), Fitzherbert et al. (2007), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Misonne (1963), Monadjem (1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b), Monadjem & Perrin (2003), Monadjem etal. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Rautenbach, A. et al. (2014), Rautenbach, |.L. (1982), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers &Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Solano et al. (2014), Stanley & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFE30F47FF25FE08CEF9F7FE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FF25FE08CEF9F7FE.xml,Dendromus nyasae,Dendromus,nyasae,Thomas,1916,Dendromus du Kivu @fr | Kivu-Klettermaus @de | Ratén trepador africano de Kivu @es,"Dendromus mnyasae Thomas, 1916,“ Nyika Plateau, N. Nyasa[District]. Alt. 6500’ [= 1981 m],” Malawi.Relationship between the two subspeciesrequires investigation because they could be distinct species. Two subspecies recognized.","D.n.nyasaeThomas,1916—STanzania,extremeNEZambia,andNMalawi.D. n. kivu Thomas, 1916— NE DR Congo, SW Uganda, and Rwanda.","Head-body 64-80 mm,tail 84-105 mm, ear 11-16 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 6-20 g. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which may occasionally be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Various upland grasslands, especially those associated with water, typically above elevations of 1300 m. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can also occur on edges of swamps and agriculturalfields.","The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating seeds and insects.","Most female KivuAfrican Climbing Mice are reproductively active during the wet season (September—May), although reproduction can occur throughout the year at lower intensity. Average litter size 4 young. Gestation is ¢.23-27 days. Neonates grow rapidly and are able to walk ¢.22 days of age when eyes also open. Weaning occurs at ¢.24 days and is completed at 35 days. It builds a grass nest that is usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level.",The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.,"In appropriate habitat, the KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can comprise 10% of the small mammal community.","Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Subspecies kivuclassified as Least Concern (as D. kivu). Due to its nature of occupying a variety of habitats, it is unlikely to be currently threatened although individual populations may be at risk in areas facing severe habitat transformation.","Dieterlen (1967a, 1967b, 1971, 1976c¢) | Kaleme et al. (2007) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Stanley & Hutterer (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600480/files/figure.png,"53.Kivu African Climbing MouseDendromus nyasaeFrench:Dendromus du Kivu/ German:Kivu-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de KivuTaxonomy.Dendromus mnyasae Thomas, 1916,“ Nyika Plateau, N. Nyasa[District]. Alt. 6500’ [= 1981 m],” Malawi.Relationship between the two subspeciesrequires investigation because they could be distinct species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D.n.nyasaeThomas,1916—STanzania,extremeNEZambia,andNMalawi.D. n. kivu Thomas, 1916— NE DR Congo, SW Uganda, and Rwanda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 64-80 mm,tail 84-105 mm, ear 11-16 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 6-20 g. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which may occasionally be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various upland grasslands, especially those associated with water, typically above elevations of 1300 m. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can also occur on edges of swamps and agriculturalfields.Food and Feeding.The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating seeds and insects.Breeding.Most female KivuAfrican Climbing Mice are reproductively active during the wet season (September—May), although reproduction can occur throughout the year at lower intensity. Average litter size 4 young. Gestation is ¢.23-27 days. Neonates grow rapidly and are able to walk ¢.22 days of age when eyes also open. Weaning occurs at ¢.24 days and is completed at 35 days. It builds a grass nest that is usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level.Activity patterns.The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In appropriate habitat, the KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can comprise 10% of the small mammal community.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Subspecies kivuclassified as Least Concern (as D. kivu). Due to its nature of occupying a variety of habitats, it is unlikely to be currently threatened although individual populations may be at risk in areas facing severe habitat transformation.Bibliography.Dieterlen (1967a, 1967b, 1971, 1976c¢), Kaleme et al. (2007), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Stanley & Hutterer (2007)." 03993828FFE30F47FF29F71AC610FE41,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FF29F71AC610FE41.xml,Dendromus nyikae,Dendromus,nyikae,Wroughton,1909,Dendromus du Nyika @fr | Nyika-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Nyika @es | Nyika Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromus nyikae Wroughton, 1909,Nyika Plateau, Malawi.Dendromus nyikaeis closely related to D. melanotis, and the two species are placed in the subgenus Poemysby some authors. Monotypic.","Angola E through S DR Congo and Zambia to Malawi, extreme SW Tanzania, and C Mozambique, and S to Zimbabwe and extreme NE South Africa; also recorded in the Eastern Arc Mts (West Usambara and Udzungwa).","Head-body 61-79 mm, tail 85-97 mm, ear 12-16 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 10-14 g. The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and white or offwhite ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.","Various upland grasslands and savannas, particularly with tall grass, typically above elevations of 1000 m.","The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.",A single pregnant female was collected in November (beginning of the wet season) and had four embryos. Nests occur in underground burrows.,The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.,The Nyika African Climbing Mouse can comprise 9% of the small mammal community in suitable montane grasslands.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Chitaukali et al. (2001) | Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Hanney (1965) | Happold (20139) | Happold & Happold (1986, 1989a, 1989b) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Solano et al. (2014) | Stanley et al. (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600482/files/figure.png,"54.Nyika African Climbing MouseDendromus nyikaeFrench:Dendromus du Nyika/ German:Nyika-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de NyikaOther common names:Nyika Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus nyikae Wroughton, 1909,Nyika Plateau, Malawi.Dendromus nyikaeis closely related to D. melanotis, and the two species are placed in the subgenus Poemysby some authors. Monotypic.Distribution.Angola E through S DR Congo and Zambia to Malawi, extreme SW Tanzania, and C Mozambique, and S to Zimbabwe and extreme NE South Africa; also recorded in the Eastern Arc Mts (West Usambara and Udzungwa).Descriptive notes.Head-body 61-79 mm, tail 85-97 mm, ear 12-16 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 10-14 g. The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and white or offwhite ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various upland grasslands and savannas, particularly with tall grass, typically above elevations of 1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.Breeding.A single pregnant female was collected in November (beginning of the wet season) and had four embryos. Nests occur in underground burrows.Activity patterns.The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Nyika African Climbing Mouse can comprise 9% of the small mammal community in suitable montane grasslands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chitaukali et al. (2001), Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Hanney (1965), Happold (20139), Happold & Happold (1986, 1989a, 1989b), Monadjem et al. (2015), Solano et al. (2014), Stanley et al. (1998)." -03993828FFE60F42FACDF790C5EAF2EB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,203,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FACDF790C5EAF2EB.xml,Malacothrix typica,Malacothrix,typica,,,Malacothrix a grandes oreilles @fr | Afrikanische Langohrmaus @de | Raton de desierto de orejas largas @es | Gerbil Mouse @en | Large-eared African Desert Mouse @en | Long-eared Mouse @en,"Otomys typicus A. Smith, 1834,Graaff Reinet District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","Widely distributed in extreme SW Angola, Namibia, SW Botswana, and W & C South Africa.","Head-body 60-87 mm, tail 29-41 mm, ear 14-21 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 15-23 g. The Longeared Desert Mouse 1s small, with a short tail. Fur is relatively long, soft, and grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Three obvious dark stripes or patches are usually present on back. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are short. Forelimb and hindlimb with four functional digits, with first digit greatly reduced.","Various semiarid savanna and desert habitats, particularly where grass is short, soil is hard and compact and, rainfall is less than 550 mm.",The LLong-eared Desert Mouse feeds predominantly on green plant material but also eats seeds and insects.,Pregnant LLong-eared Desert Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in August-March. Litter sizes are 2-9 young. Gestation is 22-26 days. Neonates are c.1 gin weight and weaned after ¢.32 days. First litters occur at 34 months of age.,The Long-eared Desert Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Activity in captivity peaks between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. It rests in a burrow thatis excavated in soil.,The Long-eared Desert Mouse forages at least up to 100 m from its burrow.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Bosing et al. (2014) | Happold (2013h) | Jooste & Palmer (1982) | Kamleret al. (2015) | Keogh (1985) | Kerley (1992a) | Klare et al. (2014) | Knight & Skinner (1981) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Smithers (1971),,"68.Long-eared Desert MouseMalacothrix typicaFrench:Malacothrix a grandes oreilles/ German:Afrikanische Langohrmaus/ Spanish:Raton de desierto de orejas largasOther common names:Gerbil Mouse, Large-eared African Desert Mouse, Long-eared MouseTaxonomy.Otomys typicus A. Smith, 1834,Graaff Reinet District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in extreme SW Angola, Namibia, SW Botswana, and W & C South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 60-87 mm, tail 29-41 mm, ear 14-21 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 15-23 g. The Longeared Desert Mouse 1s small, with a short tail. Fur is relatively long, soft, and grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Three obvious dark stripes or patches are usually present on back. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are short. Forelimb and hindlimb with four functional digits, with first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various semiarid savanna and desert habitats, particularly where grass is short, soil is hard and compact and, rainfall is less than 550 mm.Food and Feeding.The LLong-eared Desert Mouse feeds predominantly on green plant material but also eats seeds and insects.Breeding.Pregnant LLong-eared Desert Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in August-March. Litter sizes are 2-9 young. Gestation is 22-26 days. Neonates are c.1 gin weight and weaned after ¢.32 days. First litters occur at 34 months of age.Activity patterns.The Long-eared Desert Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Activity in captivity peaks between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. It rests in a burrow thatis excavated in soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-eared Desert Mouse forages at least up to 100 m from its burrow.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bosing et al. (2014), Happold (2013h), Jooste & Palmer (1982), Kamleret al. (2015), Keogh (1985), Kerley (1992a), Klare et al. (2014), Knight & Skinner (1981), Monadjem et al. (2015), Smithers (1971)." -03993828FFE60F42FACEFD1FCB12F882,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,203,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FACEFD1FCB12F882.xml,Steatomys krebsii,Steatomys,krebsii,Peters,1852,Rat-adipeux de Krebs @fr | Krebs-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Krebs @es | Krebs's African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys krebsii Peters, 1852,“ Kaffraria,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.","Widely distributed in three populations: one in Angola, W Zambia, N Namibia, and extreme N Botswana, and the other two in NE and extreme SW South Africa, respectively.","Head—body 73-100 mm, tail 32-56 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 14-21 mm; weight 15-42 g. Krebs’s Fat Mouse is small, with short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable in color, ranging from orange-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or grayish white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has always eight nipples.",Wide variety of savannas.,A single stomach of a Krebs’s Fat Mouse contained insects.,Three female Krebs’s Fat Mice had 4-5 embryos.,Krebs’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates burrows in the soil.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,De Graaff (1981) | Monadjem (2013b) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rautenbach & Nel (1980) | Rautenbach et al. (1981) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978),,"67.Krebs’s Fat MouseSteatomys krebsiiFrench:Rat-adipeux de Krebs/ German:Krebs-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de KrebsOther common names:Krebs's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys krebsii Peters, 1852,“ Kaffraria,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in three populations: one in Angola, W Zambia, N Namibia, and extreme N Botswana, and the other two in NE and extreme SW South Africa, respectively.Descriptive notes.Head—body 73-100 mm, tail 32-56 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 14-21 mm; weight 15-42 g. Krebs’s Fat Mouse is small, with short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable in color, ranging from orange-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or grayish white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has always eight nipples.Habitat.Wide variety of savannas.Food and Feeding.A single stomach of a Krebs’s Fat Mouse contained insects.Breeding.Three female Krebs’s Fat Mice had 4-5 embryos.Activity patterns.Krebs’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates burrows in the soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.De Graaff (1981), Monadjem (2013b), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rautenbach & Nel (1980), Rautenbach et al. (1981), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)." -03993828FFE60F42FFF2F82EC400FDF8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,203,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FFF2F82EC400FDF8.xml,Steatomys pratensis,Steatomys,pratensis,Peters,1846,Rat-adipeux de Peters @fr | Gewohnliche Fettmaus @de | Raton grueso comin @es | Common African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys pratensis Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Mozambique.This species is monotypic.","Widely distributed in S Africa (S DR Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, S Tanzania, Mozambique, NE Namibia, N & SE Botswana, Zimbabwe, N South Africa, and Swaziland; isolated records from Ethiopia and Kenya require verification.","Head-body 82-102 mm, tail 40-56 mm, ear 14-17 mm, hindfoot 14-19 mm; weight 22-48 g. The Common Fat Mouse is small, with noticeably short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable from reddish-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from the pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are also white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Number of nipples varies, but there are usually 10-14.","Wide variety of savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover and often on sandy soils. The Common Fat Mouse appears to select recently burned areas.",The Common Fat Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats green plant material and insects.,"Breeding of the Common Fat Mouse takes place in the wet season. In Swaziland, pregnant and lactating females have been recorded inJanuary-March, and recruitment of young occurs in March—May. Litter size varies considerably, with 1-9 young.","The Common Fat Mouse is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. A single burrow was ¢.30 cm deep with four entrances, three of which were plugged with soil. Individuals accumulate copious amounts of subcutaneous fat during the wet season, becoming torpid for variable duration during the dry season. Individuals achieve high body weights during the rainy season, becoming significantly lighter during the dry season. Activity is reduced but not eliminated during the dry season.","The Common Fat Mouse is relatively sedentary, focusing its activity in a small area; mean monthly distances between captures was 36 m in Swaziland. Burrows are usually occupied singly, occasionally two per burrow. Densities are relatively low; maximum densities of ¢.5-6 ind/ha noted in Swaziland.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,"De Graaff & Nel (1992) | Ellison (1995) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014) | Kinahan & Pillay (2008) | Linzey & Kesner (1997a) | Mahlaba & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem (1999a, 1999b, 2013d) | Monadjem & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Perrin & Curtis (1980) | Perrin & Richardson (2004, 2005a, 2005b) | Plavsic (2015) | Rautenbach et al. (2014) | Richardson & Perrin (1992) | Saetnan & Skarpe (2006) | Schneider & Jorge (2007) | Yarnell et al. (2007)",,"66.Common Fat MouseSteatomys pratensisFrench:Rat-adipeux de Peters/ German:Gewohnliche Fettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso cominOther common names:Common African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys pratensis Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Mozambique.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in S Africa (S DR Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, S Tanzania, Mozambique, NE Namibia, N & SE Botswana, Zimbabwe, N South Africa, and Swaziland; isolated records from Ethiopia and Kenya require verification.Descriptive notes.Head-body 82-102 mm, tail 40-56 mm, ear 14-17 mm, hindfoot 14-19 mm; weight 22-48 g. The Common Fat Mouse is small, with noticeably short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable from reddish-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from the pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are also white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Number of nipples varies, but there are usually 10-14.Habitat.Wide variety of savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover and often on sandy soils. The Common Fat Mouse appears to select recently burned areas.Food and Feeding.The Common Fat Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats green plant material and insects.Breeding.Breeding of the Common Fat Mouse takes place in the wet season. In Swaziland, pregnant and lactating females have been recorded inJanuary-March, and recruitment of young occurs in March—May. Litter size varies considerably, with 1-9 young.Activity patterns.The Common Fat Mouse is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. A single burrow was ¢.30 cm deep with four entrances, three of which were plugged with soil. Individuals accumulate copious amounts of subcutaneous fat during the wet season, becoming torpid for variable duration during the dry season. Individuals achieve high body weights during the rainy season, becoming significantly lighter during the dry season. Activity is reduced but not eliminated during the dry season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Common Fat Mouse is relatively sedentary, focusing its activity in a small area; mean monthly distances between captures was 36 m in Swaziland. Burrows are usually occupied singly, occasionally two per burrow. Densities are relatively low; maximum densities of ¢.5-6 ind/ha noted in Swaziland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.De Graaff & Nel (1992), Ellison (1995), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014), Kinahan & Pillay (2008), Linzey & Kesner (1997a), Mahlaba & Perrin (2003), Monadjem (1999a, 1999b, 2013d), Monadjem & Perrin (2003), Monadjem et al. (2015), Perrin & Curtis (1980), Perrin & Richardson (2004, 2005a, 2005b), Plavsic (2015), Rautenbach et al. (2014), Richardson & Perrin (1992), Saetnan & Skarpe (2006), Schneider & Jorge (2007), Yarnell et al. (2007)." -03993828FFE60F42FFF2FDEACEA9F8EB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,203,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FFF2FDEACEA9F8EB.xml,Steatomys parvus,Steatomys,parvus,Rhoads,1896,Petit Rat-adipeux @fr | Zwergfettmaus @de | Raton grueso diminuto @es | Tiny African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys parvus Rhoads, 1896,“ Rusia, Lake Rudolf[= on the shore of Lake Turkana, Ethiopia], Africa.”This species is monotypic.","Broadly distributed in at least two widely separated populations: one in E Africa (E Uganda, extreme SW Ethiopia, W & S Kenya, and N & W Tanzania), the other in S Africa (S Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana, W Zambia, and extreme W Zimbabwe); isolated population in Jebel Marra, W Sudan.","Head-body 55-83 mm, tail 34-51 mm, ear 11-15 mm, hindfoot 12-16 mm; weight 8-15 g. The Tiny Fat Mouse is very small—the smallest species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, white above and below. Furis soft and pale orange-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or off-white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.","Arid savannas and woodlands, particularly those on sandy soils.","Poorly known, but the Tiny Fat Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.",Poorly known. A single lactating Tiny Fat Mouse was captured at the end of the dry season in November in Botswana.,Poorly known. The Tiny Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a burrow in which food might be hoarded.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Byrom et al. (2015) | Coetzee (1977) | Monadjem (2013c) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Smithers (1971) | Stanley et al. (2007) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978),,"65.Tiny Fat MouseSteatomys parvusFrench:Petit Rat-adipeux/ German:Zwergfettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso diminutoOther common names:Tiny African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys parvus Rhoads, 1896,“ Rusia, Lake Rudolf[= on the shore of Lake Turkana, Ethiopia], Africa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Broadly distributed in at least two widely separated populations: one in E Africa (E Uganda, extreme SW Ethiopia, W & S Kenya, and N & W Tanzania), the other in S Africa (S Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana, W Zambia, and extreme W Zimbabwe); isolated population in Jebel Marra, W Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-83 mm, tail 34-51 mm, ear 11-15 mm, hindfoot 12-16 mm; weight 8-15 g. The Tiny Fat Mouse is very small—the smallest species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, white above and below. Furis soft and pale orange-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or off-white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.Habitat.Arid savannas and woodlands, particularly those on sandy soils.Food and Feeding.Poorly known, but the Tiny Fat Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.Breeding.Poorly known. A single lactating Tiny Fat Mouse was captured at the end of the dry season in November in Botswana.Activity patterns.Poorly known. The Tiny Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a burrow in which food might be hoarded.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Byrom et al. (2015), Coetzee (1977), Monadjem (2013c), Monadjem et al. (2015), Smithers (1971), Stanley et al. (2007), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)." -03993828FFF00F54FAFDFBB8C48FF681,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,185,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FAFDFBB8C48FF681.xml,Gymnuromys robert,Gymnuromys,robert,Forsyth Major,1896,Voalavoanala @fr | Voalavoanala @de | Rata terrestre de pelaje liso @es | \Voalavoanala @en,"Gymnuromys robert: Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest,” Fianarantsoa Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E Madagascar.,"Head-body 156-172 mm, tail 149-199 mm; weight 98-128 g. Coat of the Sleek-furred Ground Rat is dense and short, with mottled gray white dorsal fur that becomes gray to cream on venter. It has round and very prominent ears. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, with dark two-tone gray above and white or light gray below; distal portion ofthe tail has sparse and short white fur. Hindlegs are large.",Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 500-1625 m.,"The Sleek-furred Ground Rat consumes a variety of seeds, such as those from Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It presumably feeds on fruits and invertebrates.","Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.","The Sleek-furred Ground Rat is nocturnal, perhaps partially cathemeral, and terrestrial.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Sleekfurred Ground Rat is forest-dwelling, and it is found in much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar in numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton & Goodman (2003b) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"3.Sleek-furred Ground RatGymnuromys robertFrench:Voalavoanala/ German:Voalavoanala/ Spanish:Rata terrestre de pelaje lisoOther common names:\VoalavoanalaTaxonomy.Gymnuromys robert: Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest,” Fianarantsoa Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 156-172 mm, tail 149-199 mm; weight 98-128 g. Coat of the Sleek-furred Ground Rat is dense and short, with mottled gray white dorsal fur that becomes gray to cream on venter. It has round and very prominent ears. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, with dark two-tone gray above and white or light gray below; distal portion ofthe tail has sparse and short white fur. Hindlegs are large.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 500-1625 m.Food and Feeding.The Sleek-furred Ground Rat consumes a variety of seeds, such as those from Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It presumably feeds on fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.Activity patterns.The Sleek-furred Ground Rat is nocturnal, perhaps partially cathemeral, and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Sleekfurred Ground Rat is forest-dwelling, and it is found in much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar in numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003b), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF00F54FFE2F807C52CFD5A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,185,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FFE2F807C52CFD5A.xml,Brachytarsomys villosus,Brachytarsomys,villosus,Petter,1962,Antsangy a queue touffue @fr | Nordliche Madagaskar\Wei Rschwanzratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola peluda @es | Hairy-tailed Antsangy @en,"Brachytarsomys albicauda villosa [sic] Petter, 1962,“ Vivarium de Tsimbazaza[= Parc botanique et zoologique de Tsimbazazal.”Widely used name villosahas been changed for gender agreement. In 1990, M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt proposed that it might occur in “vast areas of lowland forest around Antongil Bay or the forested slopes of Tsaratanana.” This species was indeed subsequently found on the slopes of Tsaratanana and neighboring Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. F. Petter’s original subspecies villosus has been elevated to species rank. Monotypic.",Endemic to the Northern Highlands of Madagascar.,"Head-body 228-245 mm, tail 260 mm, 272 mm (two individuals); weight 236-350 g. Muzzle of the Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft with woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and merges to light gray or cream on flanks and venter. Feet are short and beige. Ears are short. Tail has relatively dense hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Tail is prehensile. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, red on flanks extends onto dorsum.",Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1200-2030 m.,"Diet is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage.","Female Hairy-tailed Tree Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litters up to six young. Females carrying large embryos in late October have been observed, and males during this same period had developed scrotal testes. Subadults have been captured in April.",The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal.,No information.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as B. villosa). The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is forest-dwelling and known from only five localities in mountains of northern Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 5514 km?. Given continued declines in forest cover in its limited distribution, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton & Goodman (2003a) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala, Raheriarisena & Rakotondravony (2013) | Goodman, Soarimalala & Rakotondravony (2001) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Petter (1962) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"2.Hairy-tailed Tree RatBrachytarsomys villosusFrench:Antsangy a queue touffue/ German:Nordliche Madagaskar\WeiRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola peludaOther common names:Hairy-tailed AntsangyTaxonomy.Brachytarsomys albicauda villosa [sic] Petter, 1962,“ Vivarium de Tsimbazaza[= Parc botanique et zoologique de Tsimbazazal.”Widely used name villosahas been changed for gender agreement. In 1990, M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt proposed that it might occur in “vast areas of lowland forest around Antongil Bay or the forested slopes of Tsaratanana.” This species was indeed subsequently found on the slopes of Tsaratanana and neighboring Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. F. Petter’s original subspecies villosus has been elevated to species rank. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Northern Highlands of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 228-245 mm, tail 260 mm, 272 mm (two individuals); weight 236-350 g. Muzzle of the Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft with woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and merges to light gray or cream on flanks and venter. Feet are short and beige. Ears are short. Tail has relatively dense hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Tail is prehensile. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, red on flanks extends onto dorsum.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1200-2030 m.Food and Feeding.Diet is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage.Breeding.Female Hairy-tailed Tree Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litters up to six young. Females carrying large embryos in late October have been observed, and males during this same period had developed scrotal testes. Subadults have been captured in April.Activity patterns.The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as B. villosa). The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is forest-dwelling and known from only five localities in mountains of northern Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 5514 km?. Given continued declines in forest cover in its limited distribution, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003a), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala, Raheriarisena & Rakotondravony (2013), Goodman, Soarimalala & Rakotondravony (2001), Maminirina et al. (2008), Petter (1962), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF00F54FFE5FDBACE61F8CD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,185,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FFE5FDBACE61F8CD.xml,Brachytarsomys albicauda,Brachytarsomys,albicauda,Gunther,1875,Antsangy a queue blanche @fr | MadagaskarWeil Rschwanzratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola blanca @es | White-tailed Antsangy @en,"Brachytarsomys albicauda Gunther, 1875,“ Tamantave[= Toamasina| to Murundava [= Morondava].”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.,"Head-body 223-235 mm, tail 220-245 mm; weight 235-280 g. Muzzle of the White-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft, somewhat shaggy with dense woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and more reddish toward sides and head. Belly and legs are cream. Ears are short. Tail has scattered hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, reddish color on flanks extends to dorsum.",Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 875-1875 m.,"Diet of the White-tailed Tree Rat is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage. It enters traps baited with banana. A large cache of seed capsules from Canarium(Burseraceae) was found in hollow broken tree limb.","There are four pairs of mammae, and maximum known littersizeis six young.","The White-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. It is known to roost in tree holes. Its tail is prehensile, and at night, it seems primate-like.","At one site, a White-tailed Tree Rat shared a tree hole with a Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur (Allocebus trichotis).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tree Rat is a forest-dwelling species and is known from less than 15 localities spanning eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines ofits habitat, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Biebouw et al. (2009) | Carleton & Goodman (2003a) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Ramanana (2010) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"1.White-tailed Tree RatBrachytarsomys albicaudaFrench:Antsangy a queue blanche/ German:MadagaskarWeilRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola blancaOther common names:White-tailed AntsangyTaxonomy.Brachytarsomys albicauda Gunther, 1875,“ Tamantave[= Toamasina| to Murundava [= Morondava].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 223-235 mm, tail 220-245 mm; weight 235-280 g. Muzzle of the White-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft, somewhat shaggy with dense woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and more reddish toward sides and head. Belly and legs are cream. Ears are short. Tail has scattered hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, reddish color on flanks extends to dorsum.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 875-1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the White-tailed Tree Rat is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage. It enters traps baited with banana. A large cache of seed capsules from Canarium(Burseraceae) was found in hollow broken tree limb.Breeding.There are four pairs of mammae, and maximum known littersizeis six young.Activity patterns.The White-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. It is known to roost in tree holes. Its tail is prehensile, and at night, it seems primate-like.Movements, Home range and Social organization.At one site, a White-tailed Tree Rat shared a tree hole with a Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur (Allocebus trichotis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tree Rat is a forest-dwelling species and is known from less than 15 localities spanning eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines ofits habitat, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Biebouw et al. (2009), Carleton & Goodman (2003a), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Ramanana (2010), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF00F55FAFBF590CE22FB22,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,185,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F55FAFBF590CE22FB22.xml,Eliurus antsingy,Eliurus,antsingy,"Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony",2001,Rat-loir d Antsingy @fr | Antsingy-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Antsingy @es | Tsingy Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus antsingy Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony, 2001,“ Madagascar, Toliara Province, Antsingy Forest, near Bekopaka, about 19°07.5’S, 44°49.0’E.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to W Madagascar.,"Head-body 142-153 mm, tail 153-195 mm; weight 87-101 g. Dorsal fur of AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is generally drab dark brown or gray-brown, and undercoat fur is nearly black. Ventral pelage varies and is often entirely white, sometimes mottled gray-white. Last one-half of tail has brown or grayish brown hair and, in some individuals, mixed with white hair. Tail ends with well-defined tuft, and some individuals have consecutive white and brown whorls. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.On following pages: 5. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliuruscarletoni); 6. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusdaniel); 7. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus ellermani); 8. Grandidier's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus grandidieri); 9. Major's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus majori); 10. Lesser Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusminon; 11. Milne-Edwards's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus myoxinus); 12. White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus penicillatus); 13. Petters Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus petteri); 14. Tanala Tuftedtail Rat (Eliurus tanala); 15. Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus webbi); 16. Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo antsahabensis); 17. Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo gymnocaudus); 18. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomysbastard); 19. Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys ingens); 20. Petter's Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys petteri); 21. Koopman's Forest Mouse (Monticolomys koopmani); 22. Giant Jumping Rat (Hypogeomys antimena); 23. Small Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysbetsileoensis); 24. Large Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysramirohitra); 25. Audebert’s Forest Rat (Nesomys audeberti); 26. Lamberton’s Forest Rat (Nesomys lambertoni); 27. Red Forest Rat (Nesomys rufus); 28. Delany's Swamp Mouse (Delanymys brooksi); 29. African White-tailed Rat(Mystromys albicaudatus); 30. Shortridge’'s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusshortridgei): 31. Short-eared Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus monticularis); 32. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusbarbouri); 33. Common Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus collinus).","Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone towers) habitat, at elevations of 100-430 m.",The Antsingy Tuftedtail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.,The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.,"The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and largely terrestrial, although it often lives off the ground in limestone outcrops. A few individuals have been trapped in trees in relatively narrow canyons and close proximity to rock outcrops.",No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests resting on limestone. Its extent of occurrence is 23,700 km?. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton et al. (2001) | Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"4.AntsingyTufted-tail RatEliurus antsingyFrench:Rat-loir dAntsingy/ German:Antsingy-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de AntsingyOther common names:Tsingy Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus antsingy Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony, 2001,“ Madagascar, Toliara Province, Antsingy Forest, near Bekopaka, about 19°07.5’S, 44°49.0’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 142-153 mm, tail 153-195 mm; weight 87-101 g. Dorsal fur of AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is generally drab dark brown or gray-brown, and undercoat fur is nearly black. Ventral pelage varies and is often entirely white, sometimes mottled gray-white. Last one-half of tail has brown or grayish brown hair and, in some individuals, mixed with white hair. Tail ends with well-defined tuft, and some individuals have consecutive white and brown whorls. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.On following pages: 5. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliuruscarletoni); 6. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusdaniel); 7. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus ellermani); 8. Grandidier's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus grandidieri); 9. Major's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus majori); 10. Lesser Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusminon; 11. Milne-Edwards's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus myoxinus); 12. White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus penicillatus); 13. Petters Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus petteri); 14. Tanala Tuftedtail Rat (Eliurus tanala); 15. Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus webbi); 16. Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo antsahabensis); 17. Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo gymnocaudus); 18. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomysbastard); 19. Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys ingens); 20. Petter's Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys petteri); 21. Koopman's Forest Mouse (Monticolomys koopmani); 22. Giant Jumping Rat (Hypogeomys antimena); 23. Small Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysbetsileoensis); 24. Large Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysramirohitra); 25. Audebert’s Forest Rat (Nesomys audeberti); 26. Lamberton’s Forest Rat (Nesomys lambertoni); 27. Red Forest Rat (Nesomys rufus); 28. Delany's Swamp Mouse (Delanymys brooksi); 29. African White-tailed Rat(Mystromys albicaudatus); 30. Shortridge’'s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusshortridgei): 31. Short-eared Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus monticularis); 32. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusbarbouri); 33. Common Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus collinus).Habitat.Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone towers) habitat, at elevations of 100-430 m.Food and Feeding.The Antsingy Tuftedtail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and largely terrestrial, although it often lives off the ground in limestone outcrops. A few individuals have been trapped in trees in relatively narrow canyons and close proximity to rock outcrops.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests resting on limestone. Its extent of occurrence is 23,700 km?. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton et al. (2001), Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF10F52FA3FF74ECF8AFDFE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,186,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F52FA3FF74ECF8AFDFE.xml,Eliurus grandidieri,Eliurus,grandidieri,Carleton & Goodman,1998,Rat-loir de Grandidier @fr | Grandidier Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Grandidier @es | Grandidier’s Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus grandidieri Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 11 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1550 m, 14°44.5’S, 49°27.5 'E”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 111-164 mm, tail 144-176 mm; weight 42-62 g. Dorsum of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is blackish brown to blackish gray, flanks are dominated by light gray with brown or blackish gray appearance, and venter is grayish white. Muzzle is proportionately more elongated than other congeneric species. Ears are relatively long. Tail is bicolored, with gray dorsum and light venter, covered along distal one-third with white sparse fur becoming thicker and longer toward distal tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are distinctly white.",Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest as far south as the centraleast and parts of the Northern Highlands at elevations of ¢.410-2050 m.,Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.,"Breeding season of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat seems to vary among sites and perhaps along elevational gradients. Females generally give birth at the end of the dry season, sometime in late August or September. Females have six pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.","Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial but, in some cases, scansorial. On the basis of trap captures, it probably uses ground dens.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Ratis forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the northern one-half of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests. Given its habitat preference of montane humid forest, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its mediumterm seems relatively assured.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"8.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus grandidieriFrench:Rat-loir de Grandidier/ German:GrandidierBilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de GrandidierOther common names:Grandidier’s Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus grandidieri Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 11 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1550 m, 14°44.5’S, 49°27.5 'E”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 111-164 mm, tail 144-176 mm; weight 42-62 g. Dorsum of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is blackish brown to blackish gray, flanks are dominated by light gray with brown or blackish gray appearance, and venter is grayish white. Muzzle is proportionately more elongated than other congeneric species. Ears are relatively long. Tail is bicolored, with gray dorsum and light venter, covered along distal one-third with white sparse fur becoming thicker and longer toward distal tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are distinctly white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest as far south as the centraleast and parts of the Northern Highlands at elevations of ¢.410-2050 m.Food and Feeding.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Breeding season of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat seems to vary among sites and perhaps along elevational gradients. Females generally give birth at the end of the dry season, sometime in late August or September. Females have six pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.Activity patterns.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial but, in some cases, scansorial. On the basis of trap captures, it probably uses ground dens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Ratis forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the northern one-half of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests. Given its habitat preference of montane humid forest, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its mediumterm seems relatively assured.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF10F55FA20FBE4C5D4F70A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,186,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FA20FBE4C5D4F70A.xml,Eliurus ellermani,Eliurus,ellermani,Carleton,1994,Rat-loir d’Ellerman @fr | Ellerman-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Ellerman @es | Ellerman’s Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus ellermani Carleton, 1994,“ Hiaraka, near Maroantsetra, 850 maltitude.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E Madagascar.,"Head-body 152 mm, tail 177 mm; weight ¢.100 g. Measurements were taken from one Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat; weight was estimated. Dorsum is dark grayish brown, and venter is off white. Distal one-third of tail is covered with dark hair that becomes progressively thicker toward tip.",Eastern humid lowland forest at elevations of 400-850 m.,Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.,Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.,Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from two specimens collected in the eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"7.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus ellermaniFrench:Rat-loir d’Ellerman/ German:Ellerman-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de EllermanOther common names:Ellerman’s Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus ellermani Carleton, 1994,“ Hiaraka, near Maroantsetra, 850 maltitude.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 152 mm, tail 177 mm; weight ¢.100 g. Measurements were taken from one Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat; weight was estimated. Dorsum is dark grayish brown, and venter is off white. Distal one-third of tail is covered with dark hair that becomes progressively thicker toward tip.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland forest at elevations of 400-850 m.Food and Feeding.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from two specimens collected in the eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF10F55FF23FB71CF83F50A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,186,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FF23FB71CF83F50A.xml,Eliurus carletoni,Eliurus,carletoni,"Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa",2009,Rat-loir de Carleton @fr | Carleton-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Carleton @es,"Eliurus carletoni Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Campement des Anglais(Anilotra), 7.5 mNW Mahamasina, 12°54.4’S, 49°06.6’E; 125 kmabove sea-level.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to N Madagascar.,"Head-body 143-150 mm, tail 164-183 mm; weight 88-89 g. Dorsum typically dark brown, and in some individuals, forehead and face are light brown; venter is completely white or grayish white, with relatively well-demarcated line separating dorsum and venter. Distal onehalf of tail is covered with scattered blackish brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip. In some individuals, terminal tuft is white or composed of whorled bands alternating from white to blackish brown. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.","Dry deciduous forest in the extreme northern part of Madagascar, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacles) habitat or on sandy substrates, at elevations of 50-835 m.",Presumed to be largely granivorous.,"Breeding season is probably at the end of the dry season, with young born in late November or December. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.","Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. Individuals are captured on the ground and moving across different size arboreal substrates. At least in the Ankarana, it seems to occupy niches within exposed limestone. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Ratis preyed on by Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagnei) and was 49-8% of the biomass consumed by this owl.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in extreme northern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 2000 km®. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Cardiff & Goodman (2008) | Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013a, 2013b) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"5.Carleton’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus carletoniFrench:Rat-loir de Carleton/ German:Carleton-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de CarletonTaxonomy.Eliurus carletoni Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Campement des Anglais(Anilotra), 7.5 mNW Mahamasina, 12°54.4’S, 49°06.6’E; 125 kmabove sea-level.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 143-150 mm, tail 164-183 mm; weight 88-89 g. Dorsum typically dark brown, and in some individuals, forehead and face are light brown; venter is completely white or grayish white, with relatively well-demarcated line separating dorsum and venter. Distal onehalf of tail is covered with scattered blackish brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip. In some individuals, terminal tuft is white or composed of whorled bands alternating from white to blackish brown. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest in the extreme northern part of Madagascar, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacles) habitat or on sandy substrates, at elevations of 50-835 m.Food and Feeding.Presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Breeding season is probably at the end of the dry season, with young born in late November or December. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. Individuals are captured on the ground and moving across different size arboreal substrates. At least in the Ankarana, it seems to occupy niches within exposed limestone. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Ratis preyed on by Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagnei) and was 49-8% of the biomass consumed by this owl.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in extreme northern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 2000 km®. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Cardiff & Goodman (2008), Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013a, 2013b), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF10F55FF25F545C59CFBA9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,186,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FF25F545C59CFBA9.xml,Eliurus danieli,Eliurus,danieli,Carleton & Goodman,2007,Rat-loir de Daniel @fr | Daniel-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Daniel @es | Daniel's Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus danieli Carleton & Goodman, 2007,“ Madagascar, Fianarantsoa Province, Parc Nationalde I’' Isalo, 28 kmSEBerenty-Betsileo, along Sahanafa River near foot of Bevato Mountain, 650 m; geographic coordinates: 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6 'E.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to S Central Highlands of Madagascar.,"Head-body 150-152 mm, tail 179 mm, 195 mm (two individuals); weight 91-100 g. Daniel's Tuftedtail Rat is easily recognizable by its gray dorsum that contrasts with grayish white venter. Flanks have brownish appearance. It has relatively long ears for a species of Eliwrus. Tail is covered with black hair along its distal one-half, which progressively become longer and white ¢.12-15 mm toward distal tip. Tarsi are brown, and feet and toes are white.",Only known from sandstone canyons with transitional western dry and eastern humid forest vegetation or gallery forest at elevations of 600-700 m. Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is notstrictly forest-dependent; a few individuals have been captured in close proximity but outside of natural forest.,Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.,Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.,Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial. All known species have been captured at base of large exposed sedimentary rock outcrops.,No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat is known from two localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in the immediate vicinity of Isalo in the central west. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.",Carleton & Goodman (2007) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011),,"6.Daniel’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus danieliFrench:Rat-loir de Daniel/ German:Daniel-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de DanielOther common names:Daniel's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus danieli Carleton & Goodman, 2007,“ Madagascar, Fianarantsoa Province, Parc Nationalde I’' Isalo, 28 kmSEBerenty-Betsileo, along Sahanafa River near foot of Bevato Mountain, 650 m; geographic coordinates: 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6 'E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S Central Highlands of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-152 mm, tail 179 mm, 195 mm (two individuals); weight 91-100 g. Daniel's Tuftedtail Rat is easily recognizable by its gray dorsum that contrasts with grayish white venter. Flanks have brownish appearance. It has relatively long ears for a species of Eliwrus. Tail is covered with black hair along its distal one-half, which progressively become longer and white ¢.12-15 mm toward distal tip. Tarsi are brown, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Only known from sandstone canyons with transitional western dry and eastern humid forest vegetation or gallery forest at elevations of 600-700 m. Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is notstrictly forest-dependent; a few individuals have been captured in close proximity but outside of natural forest.Food and Feeding.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial. All known species have been captured at base of large exposed sedimentary rock outcrops.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat is known from two localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in the immediate vicinity of Isalo in the central west. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2007), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFE60F42FACDF790C5EAF2EB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,203,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FACDF790C5EAF2EB.xml,Malacothrix typica,Malacothrix,typica,,,Malacothrix a grandes oreilles @fr | Afrikanische Langohrmaus @de | Raton de desierto de orejas largas @es | Gerbil Mouse @en | Large-eared African Desert Mouse @en | Long-eared Mouse @en,"Otomys typicus A. Smith, 1834,Graaff Reinet District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","Widely distributed in extreme SW Angola, Namibia, SW Botswana, and W & C South Africa.","Head-body 60-87 mm, tail 29-41 mm, ear 14-21 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 15-23 g. The Longeared Desert Mouse 1s small, with a short tail. Fur is relatively long, soft, and grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Three obvious dark stripes or patches are usually present on back. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are short. Forelimb and hindlimb with four functional digits, with first digit greatly reduced.","Various semiarid savanna and desert habitats, particularly where grass is short, soil is hard and compact and, rainfall is less than 550 mm.",The LLong-eared Desert Mouse feeds predominantly on green plant material but also eats seeds and insects.,Pregnant LLong-eared Desert Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in August-March. Litter sizes are 2-9 young. Gestation is 22-26 days. Neonates are c.1 gin weight and weaned after ¢.32 days. First litters occur at 34 months of age.,The Long-eared Desert Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Activity in captivity peaks between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. It rests in a burrow thatis excavated in soil.,The Long-eared Desert Mouse forages at least up to 100 m from its burrow.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Bosing et al. (2014) | Happold (2013h) | Jooste & Palmer (1982) | Kamleret al. (2015) | Keogh (1985) | Kerley (1992a) | Klare et al. (2014) | Knight & Skinner (1981) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Smithers (1971),https://zenodo.org/record/6600512/files/figure.png,"68.Long-eared Desert MouseMalacothrix typicaFrench:Malacothrix a grandes oreilles/ German:Afrikanische Langohrmaus/ Spanish:Raton de desierto de orejas largasOther common names:Gerbil Mouse, Large-eared African Desert Mouse, Long-eared MouseTaxonomy.Otomys typicus A. Smith, 1834,Graaff Reinet District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in extreme SW Angola, Namibia, SW Botswana, and W & C South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 60-87 mm, tail 29-41 mm, ear 14-21 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 15-23 g. The Longeared Desert Mouse 1s small, with a short tail. Fur is relatively long, soft, and grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Three obvious dark stripes or patches are usually present on back. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are short. Forelimb and hindlimb with four functional digits, with first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various semiarid savanna and desert habitats, particularly where grass is short, soil is hard and compact and, rainfall is less than 550 mm.Food and Feeding.The LLong-eared Desert Mouse feeds predominantly on green plant material but also eats seeds and insects.Breeding.Pregnant LLong-eared Desert Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in August-March. Litter sizes are 2-9 young. Gestation is 22-26 days. Neonates are c.1 gin weight and weaned after ¢.32 days. First litters occur at 34 months of age.Activity patterns.The Long-eared Desert Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Activity in captivity peaks between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. It rests in a burrow thatis excavated in soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-eared Desert Mouse forages at least up to 100 m from its burrow.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bosing et al. (2014), Happold (2013h), Jooste & Palmer (1982), Kamleret al. (2015), Keogh (1985), Kerley (1992a), Klare et al. (2014), Knight & Skinner (1981), Monadjem et al. (2015), Smithers (1971)." +03993828FFE60F42FACEFD1FCB12F882,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,203,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FACEFD1FCB12F882.xml,Steatomys krebsii,Steatomys,krebsii,Peters,1852,Rat-adipeux de Krebs @fr | Krebs-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Krebs @es | Krebs's African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys krebsii Peters, 1852,“ Kaffraria,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.","Widely distributed in three populations: one in Angola, W Zambia, N Namibia, and extreme N Botswana, and the other two in NE and extreme SW South Africa, respectively.","Head—body 73-100 mm, tail 32-56 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 14-21 mm; weight 15-42 g. Krebs’s Fat Mouse is small, with short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable in color, ranging from orange-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or grayish white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has always eight nipples.",Wide variety of savannas.,A single stomach of a Krebs’s Fat Mouse contained insects.,Three female Krebs’s Fat Mice had 4-5 embryos.,Krebs’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates burrows in the soil.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,De Graaff (1981) | Monadjem (2013b) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rautenbach & Nel (1980) | Rautenbach et al. (1981) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978),https://zenodo.org/record/6600510/files/figure.png,"67.Krebs’s Fat MouseSteatomys krebsiiFrench:Rat-adipeux de Krebs/ German:Krebs-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de KrebsOther common names:Krebs's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys krebsii Peters, 1852,“ Kaffraria,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in three populations: one in Angola, W Zambia, N Namibia, and extreme N Botswana, and the other two in NE and extreme SW South Africa, respectively.Descriptive notes.Head—body 73-100 mm, tail 32-56 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 14-21 mm; weight 15-42 g. Krebs’s Fat Mouse is small, with short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable in color, ranging from orange-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or grayish white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has always eight nipples.Habitat.Wide variety of savannas.Food and Feeding.A single stomach of a Krebs’s Fat Mouse contained insects.Breeding.Three female Krebs’s Fat Mice had 4-5 embryos.Activity patterns.Krebs’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates burrows in the soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.De Graaff (1981), Monadjem (2013b), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rautenbach & Nel (1980), Rautenbach et al. (1981), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)." +03993828FFE60F42FFF2F82EC400FDF8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,203,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FFF2F82EC400FDF8.xml,Steatomys pratensis,Steatomys,pratensis,Peters,1846,Rat-adipeux de Peters @fr | Gewohnliche Fettmaus @de | Raton grueso comin @es | Common African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys pratensis Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Mozambique.This species is monotypic.","Widely distributed in S Africa (S DR Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, S Tanzania, Mozambique, NE Namibia, N & SE Botswana, Zimbabwe, N South Africa, and Swaziland; isolated records from Ethiopia and Kenya require verification.","Head-body 82-102 mm, tail 40-56 mm, ear 14-17 mm, hindfoot 14-19 mm; weight 22-48 g. The Common Fat Mouse is small, with noticeably short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable from reddish-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from the pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are also white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Number of nipples varies, but there are usually 10-14.","Wide variety of savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover and often on sandy soils. The Common Fat Mouse appears to select recently burned areas.",The Common Fat Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats green plant material and insects.,"Breeding of the Common Fat Mouse takes place in the wet season. In Swaziland, pregnant and lactating females have been recorded inJanuary-March, and recruitment of young occurs in March—May. Litter size varies considerably, with 1-9 young.","The Common Fat Mouse is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. A single burrow was ¢.30 cm deep with four entrances, three of which were plugged with soil. Individuals accumulate copious amounts of subcutaneous fat during the wet season, becoming torpid for variable duration during the dry season. Individuals achieve high body weights during the rainy season, becoming significantly lighter during the dry season. Activity is reduced but not eliminated during the dry season.","The Common Fat Mouse is relatively sedentary, focusing its activity in a small area; mean monthly distances between captures was 36 m in Swaziland. Burrows are usually occupied singly, occasionally two per burrow. Densities are relatively low; maximum densities of ¢.5-6 ind/ha noted in Swaziland.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,"De Graaff & Nel (1992) | Ellison (1995) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014) | Kinahan & Pillay (2008) | Linzey & Kesner (1997a) | Mahlaba & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem (1999a, 1999b, 2013d) | Monadjem & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Perrin & Curtis (1980) | Perrin & Richardson (2004, 2005a, 2005b) | Plavsic (2015) | Rautenbach et al. (2014) | Richardson & Perrin (1992) | Saetnan & Skarpe (2006) | Schneider & Jorge (2007) | Yarnell et al. (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600508/files/figure.png,"66.Common Fat MouseSteatomys pratensisFrench:Rat-adipeux de Peters/ German:Gewohnliche Fettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso cominOther common names:Common African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys pratensis Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Mozambique.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in S Africa (S DR Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, S Tanzania, Mozambique, NE Namibia, N & SE Botswana, Zimbabwe, N South Africa, and Swaziland; isolated records from Ethiopia and Kenya require verification.Descriptive notes.Head-body 82-102 mm, tail 40-56 mm, ear 14-17 mm, hindfoot 14-19 mm; weight 22-48 g. The Common Fat Mouse is small, with noticeably short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable from reddish-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from the pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are also white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Number of nipples varies, but there are usually 10-14.Habitat.Wide variety of savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover and often on sandy soils. The Common Fat Mouse appears to select recently burned areas.Food and Feeding.The Common Fat Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats green plant material and insects.Breeding.Breeding of the Common Fat Mouse takes place in the wet season. In Swaziland, pregnant and lactating females have been recorded inJanuary-March, and recruitment of young occurs in March—May. Litter size varies considerably, with 1-9 young.Activity patterns.The Common Fat Mouse is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. A single burrow was ¢.30 cm deep with four entrances, three of which were plugged with soil. Individuals accumulate copious amounts of subcutaneous fat during the wet season, becoming torpid for variable duration during the dry season. Individuals achieve high body weights during the rainy season, becoming significantly lighter during the dry season. Activity is reduced but not eliminated during the dry season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Common Fat Mouse is relatively sedentary, focusing its activity in a small area; mean monthly distances between captures was 36 m in Swaziland. Burrows are usually occupied singly, occasionally two per burrow. Densities are relatively low; maximum densities of ¢.5-6 ind/ha noted in Swaziland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.De Graaff & Nel (1992), Ellison (1995), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014), Kinahan & Pillay (2008), Linzey & Kesner (1997a), Mahlaba & Perrin (2003), Monadjem (1999a, 1999b, 2013d), Monadjem & Perrin (2003), Monadjem et al. (2015), Perrin & Curtis (1980), Perrin & Richardson (2004, 2005a, 2005b), Plavsic (2015), Rautenbach et al. (2014), Richardson & Perrin (1992), Saetnan & Skarpe (2006), Schneider & Jorge (2007), Yarnell et al. (2007)." +03993828FFE60F42FFF2FDEACEA9F8EB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,203,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FFF2FDEACEA9F8EB.xml,Steatomys parvus,Steatomys,parvus,Rhoads,1896,Petit Rat-adipeux @fr | Zwergfettmaus @de | Raton grueso diminuto @es | Tiny African Fat Mouse @en,"Steatomys parvus Rhoads, 1896,“ Rusia, Lake Rudolf[= on the shore of Lake Turkana, Ethiopia], Africa.”This species is monotypic.","Broadly distributed in at least two widely separated populations: one in E Africa (E Uganda, extreme SW Ethiopia, W & S Kenya, and N & W Tanzania), the other in S Africa (S Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana, W Zambia, and extreme W Zimbabwe); isolated population in Jebel Marra, W Sudan.","Head-body 55-83 mm, tail 34-51 mm, ear 11-15 mm, hindfoot 12-16 mm; weight 8-15 g. The Tiny Fat Mouse is very small—the smallest species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, white above and below. Furis soft and pale orange-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or off-white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.","Arid savannas and woodlands, particularly those on sandy soils.","Poorly known, but the Tiny Fat Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.",Poorly known. A single lactating Tiny Fat Mouse was captured at the end of the dry season in November in Botswana.,Poorly known. The Tiny Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a burrow in which food might be hoarded.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,Byrom et al. (2015) | Coetzee (1977) | Monadjem (2013c) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Smithers (1971) | Stanley et al. (2007) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978),https://zenodo.org/record/6600506/files/figure.png,"65.Tiny Fat MouseSteatomys parvusFrench:Petit Rat-adipeux/ German:Zwergfettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso diminutoOther common names:Tiny African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys parvus Rhoads, 1896,“ Rusia, Lake Rudolf[= on the shore of Lake Turkana, Ethiopia], Africa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Broadly distributed in at least two widely separated populations: one in E Africa (E Uganda, extreme SW Ethiopia, W & S Kenya, and N & W Tanzania), the other in S Africa (S Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana, W Zambia, and extreme W Zimbabwe); isolated population in Jebel Marra, W Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-83 mm, tail 34-51 mm, ear 11-15 mm, hindfoot 12-16 mm; weight 8-15 g. The Tiny Fat Mouse is very small—the smallest species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, white above and below. Furis soft and pale orange-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or off-white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.Habitat.Arid savannas and woodlands, particularly those on sandy soils.Food and Feeding.Poorly known, but the Tiny Fat Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.Breeding.Poorly known. A single lactating Tiny Fat Mouse was captured at the end of the dry season in November in Botswana.Activity patterns.Poorly known. The Tiny Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a burrow in which food might be hoarded.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Byrom et al. (2015), Coetzee (1977), Monadjem (2013c), Monadjem et al. (2015), Smithers (1971), Stanley et al. (2007), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)." +03993828FFF00F54FAFDFBB8C48FF681,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,185,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FAFDFBB8C48FF681.xml,Gymnuromys robert,Gymnuromys,robert,Forsyth Major,1896,Voalavoanala @fr | Voalavoanala @de | Rata terrestre de pelaje liso @es | \Voalavoanala @en,"Gymnuromys robert: Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest,” Fianarantsoa Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E Madagascar.,"Head-body 156-172 mm, tail 149-199 mm; weight 98-128 g. Coat of the Sleek-furred Ground Rat is dense and short, with mottled gray white dorsal fur that becomes gray to cream on venter. It has round and very prominent ears. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, with dark two-tone gray above and white or light gray below; distal portion ofthe tail has sparse and short white fur. Hindlegs are large.",Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 500-1625 m.,"The Sleek-furred Ground Rat consumes a variety of seeds, such as those from Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It presumably feeds on fruits and invertebrates.","Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.","The Sleek-furred Ground Rat is nocturnal, perhaps partially cathemeral, and terrestrial.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Sleekfurred Ground Rat is forest-dwelling, and it is found in much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar in numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton & Goodman (2003b) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600373/files/figure.png,"3.Sleek-furred Ground RatGymnuromys robertFrench:Voalavoanala/ German:Voalavoanala/ Spanish:Rata terrestre de pelaje lisoOther common names:\VoalavoanalaTaxonomy.Gymnuromys robert: Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest,” Fianarantsoa Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 156-172 mm, tail 149-199 mm; weight 98-128 g. Coat of the Sleek-furred Ground Rat is dense and short, with mottled gray white dorsal fur that becomes gray to cream on venter. It has round and very prominent ears. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, with dark two-tone gray above and white or light gray below; distal portion ofthe tail has sparse and short white fur. Hindlegs are large.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 500-1625 m.Food and Feeding.The Sleek-furred Ground Rat consumes a variety of seeds, such as those from Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It presumably feeds on fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.Activity patterns.The Sleek-furred Ground Rat is nocturnal, perhaps partially cathemeral, and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Sleekfurred Ground Rat is forest-dwelling, and it is found in much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar in numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003b), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF00F54FFE2F807C52CFD5A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,185,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FFE2F807C52CFD5A.xml,Brachytarsomys villosus,Brachytarsomys,villosus,Petter,1962,Antsangy a queue touffue @fr | Nordliche Madagaskar\Wei Rschwanzratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola peluda @es | Hairy-tailed Antsangy @en,"Brachytarsomys albicauda villosa [sic] Petter, 1962,“ Vivarium de Tsimbazaza[= Parc botanique et zoologique de Tsimbazazal.”Widely used name villosahas been changed for gender agreement. In 1990, M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt proposed that it might occur in “vast areas of lowland forest around Antongil Bay or the forested slopes of Tsaratanana.” This species was indeed subsequently found on the slopes of Tsaratanana and neighboring Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. F. Petter’s original subspecies villosus has been elevated to species rank. Monotypic.",Endemic to the Northern Highlands of Madagascar.,"Head-body 228-245 mm, tail 260 mm, 272 mm (two individuals); weight 236-350 g. Muzzle of the Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft with woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and merges to light gray or cream on flanks and venter. Feet are short and beige. Ears are short. Tail has relatively dense hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Tail is prehensile. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, red on flanks extends onto dorsum.",Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1200-2030 m.,"Diet is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage.","Female Hairy-tailed Tree Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litters up to six young. Females carrying large embryos in late October have been observed, and males during this same period had developed scrotal testes. Subadults have been captured in April.",The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal.,No information.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as B. villosa). The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is forest-dwelling and known from only five localities in mountains of northern Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 5514 km?. Given continued declines in forest cover in its limited distribution, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton & Goodman (2003a) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala, Raheriarisena & Rakotondravony (2013) | Goodman, Soarimalala & Rakotondravony (2001) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Petter (1962) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600371/files/figure.png,"2.Hairy-tailed Tree RatBrachytarsomys villosusFrench:Antsangy a queue touffue/ German:Nordliche Madagaskar\WeiRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola peludaOther common names:Hairy-tailed AntsangyTaxonomy.Brachytarsomys albicauda villosa [sic] Petter, 1962,“ Vivarium de Tsimbazaza[= Parc botanique et zoologique de Tsimbazazal.”Widely used name villosahas been changed for gender agreement. In 1990, M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt proposed that it might occur in “vast areas of lowland forest around Antongil Bay or the forested slopes of Tsaratanana.” This species was indeed subsequently found on the slopes of Tsaratanana and neighboring Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. F. Petter’s original subspecies villosus has been elevated to species rank. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Northern Highlands of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 228-245 mm, tail 260 mm, 272 mm (two individuals); weight 236-350 g. Muzzle of the Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft with woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and merges to light gray or cream on flanks and venter. Feet are short and beige. Ears are short. Tail has relatively dense hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Tail is prehensile. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, red on flanks extends onto dorsum.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1200-2030 m.Food and Feeding.Diet is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage.Breeding.Female Hairy-tailed Tree Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litters up to six young. Females carrying large embryos in late October have been observed, and males during this same period had developed scrotal testes. Subadults have been captured in April.Activity patterns.The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as B. villosa). The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is forest-dwelling and known from only five localities in mountains of northern Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 5514 km?. Given continued declines in forest cover in its limited distribution, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003a), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala, Raheriarisena & Rakotondravony (2013), Goodman, Soarimalala & Rakotondravony (2001), Maminirina et al. (2008), Petter (1962), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF00F54FFE5FDBACE61F8CD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,185,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FFE5FDBACE61F8CD.xml,Brachytarsomys albicauda,Brachytarsomys,albicauda,Gunther,1875,Antsangy a queue blanche @fr | MadagaskarWeil Rschwanzratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola blanca @es | White-tailed Antsangy @en,"Brachytarsomys albicauda Gunther, 1875,“ Tamantave[= Toamasina| to Murundava [= Morondava].”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.,"Head-body 223-235 mm, tail 220-245 mm; weight 235-280 g. Muzzle of the White-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft, somewhat shaggy with dense woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and more reddish toward sides and head. Belly and legs are cream. Ears are short. Tail has scattered hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, reddish color on flanks extends to dorsum.",Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 875-1875 m.,"Diet of the White-tailed Tree Rat is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage. It enters traps baited with banana. A large cache of seed capsules from Canarium(Burseraceae) was found in hollow broken tree limb.","There are four pairs of mammae, and maximum known littersizeis six young.","The White-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. It is known to roost in tree holes. Its tail is prehensile, and at night, it seems primate-like.","At one site, a White-tailed Tree Rat shared a tree hole with a Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur (Allocebus trichotis).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tree Rat is a forest-dwelling species and is known from less than 15 localities spanning eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines ofits habitat, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Biebouw et al. (2009) | Carleton & Goodman (2003a) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Ramanana (2010) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600365/files/figure.png,"1.White-tailed Tree RatBrachytarsomys albicaudaFrench:Antsangy a queue blanche/ German:MadagaskarWeilRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola blancaOther common names:White-tailed AntsangyTaxonomy.Brachytarsomys albicauda Gunther, 1875,“ Tamantave[= Toamasina| to Murundava [= Morondava].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 223-235 mm, tail 220-245 mm; weight 235-280 g. Muzzle of the White-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft, somewhat shaggy with dense woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and more reddish toward sides and head. Belly and legs are cream. Ears are short. Tail has scattered hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, reddish color on flanks extends to dorsum.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 875-1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the White-tailed Tree Rat is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage. It enters traps baited with banana. A large cache of seed capsules from Canarium(Burseraceae) was found in hollow broken tree limb.Breeding.There are four pairs of mammae, and maximum known littersizeis six young.Activity patterns.The White-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. It is known to roost in tree holes. Its tail is prehensile, and at night, it seems primate-like.Movements, Home range and Social organization.At one site, a White-tailed Tree Rat shared a tree hole with a Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur (Allocebus trichotis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tree Rat is a forest-dwelling species and is known from less than 15 localities spanning eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines ofits habitat, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Biebouw et al. (2009), Carleton & Goodman (2003a), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Ramanana (2010), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF00F55FAFBF590CE22FB22,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,185,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F55FAFBF590CE22FB22.xml,Eliurus antsingy,Eliurus,antsingy,"Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony",2001,Rat-loir d Antsingy @fr | Antsingy-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Antsingy @es | Tsingy Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus antsingy Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony, 2001,“ Madagascar, Toliara Province, Antsingy Forest, near Bekopaka, about 19°07.5’S, 44°49.0’E.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to W Madagascar.,"Head-body 142-153 mm, tail 153-195 mm; weight 87-101 g. Dorsal fur of AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is generally drab dark brown or gray-brown, and undercoat fur is nearly black. Ventral pelage varies and is often entirely white, sometimes mottled gray-white. Last one-half of tail has brown or grayish brown hair and, in some individuals, mixed with white hair. Tail ends with well-defined tuft, and some individuals have consecutive white and brown whorls. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.On following pages: 5. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliuruscarletoni); 6. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusdaniel); 7. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus ellermani); 8. Grandidier's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus grandidieri); 9. Major's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus majori); 10. Lesser Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusminon; 11. Milne-Edwards's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus myoxinus); 12. White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus penicillatus); 13. Petters Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus petteri); 14. Tanala Tuftedtail Rat (Eliurus tanala); 15. Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus webbi); 16. Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo antsahabensis); 17. Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo gymnocaudus); 18. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomysbastard); 19. Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys ingens); 20. Petter's Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys petteri); 21. Koopman's Forest Mouse (Monticolomys koopmani); 22. Giant Jumping Rat (Hypogeomys antimena); 23. Small Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysbetsileoensis); 24. Large Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysramirohitra); 25. Audebert’s Forest Rat (Nesomys audeberti); 26. Lamberton’s Forest Rat (Nesomys lambertoni); 27. Red Forest Rat (Nesomys rufus); 28. Delany's Swamp Mouse (Delanymys brooksi); 29. African White-tailed Rat(Mystromys albicaudatus); 30. Shortridge’'s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusshortridgei): 31. Short-eared Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus monticularis); 32. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusbarbouri); 33. Common Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus collinus).","Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone towers) habitat, at elevations of 100-430 m.",The Antsingy Tuftedtail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.,The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.,"The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and largely terrestrial, although it often lives off the ground in limestone outcrops. A few individuals have been trapped in trees in relatively narrow canyons and close proximity to rock outcrops.",No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests resting on limestone. Its extent of occurrence is 23,700 km?. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton et al. (2001) | Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600375/files/figure.png,"4.AntsingyTufted-tail RatEliurus antsingyFrench:Rat-loir dAntsingy/ German:Antsingy-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de AntsingyOther common names:Tsingy Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus antsingy Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony, 2001,“ Madagascar, Toliara Province, Antsingy Forest, near Bekopaka, about 19°07.5’S, 44°49.0’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 142-153 mm, tail 153-195 mm; weight 87-101 g. Dorsal fur of AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is generally drab dark brown or gray-brown, and undercoat fur is nearly black. Ventral pelage varies and is often entirely white, sometimes mottled gray-white. Last one-half of tail has brown or grayish brown hair and, in some individuals, mixed with white hair. Tail ends with well-defined tuft, and some individuals have consecutive white and brown whorls. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.On following pages: 5. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliuruscarletoni); 6. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusdaniel); 7. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus ellermani); 8. Grandidier's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus grandidieri); 9. Major's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus majori); 10. Lesser Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusminon; 11. Milne-Edwards's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus myoxinus); 12. White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus penicillatus); 13. Petters Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus petteri); 14. Tanala Tuftedtail Rat (Eliurus tanala); 15. Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus webbi); 16. Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo antsahabensis); 17. Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo gymnocaudus); 18. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomysbastard); 19. Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys ingens); 20. Petter's Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys petteri); 21. Koopman's Forest Mouse (Monticolomys koopmani); 22. Giant Jumping Rat (Hypogeomys antimena); 23. Small Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysbetsileoensis); 24. Large Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysramirohitra); 25. Audebert’s Forest Rat (Nesomys audeberti); 26. Lamberton’s Forest Rat (Nesomys lambertoni); 27. Red Forest Rat (Nesomys rufus); 28. Delany's Swamp Mouse (Delanymys brooksi); 29. African White-tailed Rat(Mystromys albicaudatus); 30. Shortridge’'s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusshortridgei): 31. Short-eared Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus monticularis); 32. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusbarbouri); 33. Common Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus collinus).Habitat.Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone towers) habitat, at elevations of 100-430 m.Food and Feeding.The Antsingy Tuftedtail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and largely terrestrial, although it often lives off the ground in limestone outcrops. A few individuals have been trapped in trees in relatively narrow canyons and close proximity to rock outcrops.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests resting on limestone. Its extent of occurrence is 23,700 km?. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton et al. (2001), Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF10F52FA3FF74ECF8AFDFE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,186,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F52FA3FF74ECF8AFDFE.xml,Eliurus grandidieri,Eliurus,grandidieri,Carleton & Goodman,1998,Rat-loir de Grandidier @fr | Grandidier Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Grandidier @es | Grandidier’s Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus grandidieri Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 11 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1550 m, 14°44.5’S, 49°27.5 'E”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 111-164 mm, tail 144-176 mm; weight 42-62 g. Dorsum of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is blackish brown to blackish gray, flanks are dominated by light gray with brown or blackish gray appearance, and venter is grayish white. Muzzle is proportionately more elongated than other congeneric species. Ears are relatively long. Tail is bicolored, with gray dorsum and light venter, covered along distal one-third with white sparse fur becoming thicker and longer toward distal tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are distinctly white.",Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest as far south as the centraleast and parts of the Northern Highlands at elevations of ¢.410-2050 m.,Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.,"Breeding season of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat seems to vary among sites and perhaps along elevational gradients. Females generally give birth at the end of the dry season, sometime in late August or September. Females have six pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.","Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial but, in some cases, scansorial. On the basis of trap captures, it probably uses ground dens.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Ratis forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the northern one-half of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests. Given its habitat preference of montane humid forest, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its mediumterm seems relatively assured.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600383/files/figure.png,"8.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus grandidieriFrench:Rat-loir de Grandidier/ German:GrandidierBilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de GrandidierOther common names:Grandidier’s Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus grandidieri Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 11 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1550 m, 14°44.5’S, 49°27.5 'E”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 111-164 mm, tail 144-176 mm; weight 42-62 g. Dorsum of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is blackish brown to blackish gray, flanks are dominated by light gray with brown or blackish gray appearance, and venter is grayish white. Muzzle is proportionately more elongated than other congeneric species. Ears are relatively long. Tail is bicolored, with gray dorsum and light venter, covered along distal one-third with white sparse fur becoming thicker and longer toward distal tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are distinctly white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest as far south as the centraleast and parts of the Northern Highlands at elevations of ¢.410-2050 m.Food and Feeding.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Breeding season of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat seems to vary among sites and perhaps along elevational gradients. Females generally give birth at the end of the dry season, sometime in late August or September. Females have six pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.Activity patterns.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial but, in some cases, scansorial. On the basis of trap captures, it probably uses ground dens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Ratis forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the northern one-half of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests. Given its habitat preference of montane humid forest, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its mediumterm seems relatively assured.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF10F55FA20FBE4C5D4F70A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,186,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FA20FBE4C5D4F70A.xml,Eliurus ellermani,Eliurus,ellermani,Carleton,1994,Rat-loir d’Ellerman @fr | Ellerman-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Ellerman @es | Ellerman’s Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus ellermani Carleton, 1994,“ Hiaraka, near Maroantsetra, 850 maltitude.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E Madagascar.,"Head-body 152 mm, tail 177 mm; weight ¢.100 g. Measurements were taken from one Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat; weight was estimated. Dorsum is dark grayish brown, and venter is off white. Distal one-third of tail is covered with dark hair that becomes progressively thicker toward tip.",Eastern humid lowland forest at elevations of 400-850 m.,Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.,Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.,Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from two specimens collected in the eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600381/files/figure.png,"7.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus ellermaniFrench:Rat-loir d’Ellerman/ German:Ellerman-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de EllermanOther common names:Ellerman’s Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus ellermani Carleton, 1994,“ Hiaraka, near Maroantsetra, 850 maltitude.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 152 mm, tail 177 mm; weight ¢.100 g. Measurements were taken from one Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat; weight was estimated. Dorsum is dark grayish brown, and venter is off white. Distal one-third of tail is covered with dark hair that becomes progressively thicker toward tip.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland forest at elevations of 400-850 m.Food and Feeding.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from two specimens collected in the eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF10F55FF23FB71CF83F50A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,186,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FF23FB71CF83F50A.xml,Eliurus carletoni,Eliurus,carletoni,"Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa",2009,Rat-loir de Carleton @fr | Carleton-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Carleton @es,"Eliurus carletoni Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Campement des Anglais(Anilotra), 7.5 mNW Mahamasina, 12°54.4’S, 49°06.6’E; 125 kmabove sea-level.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to N Madagascar.,"Head-body 143-150 mm, tail 164-183 mm; weight 88-89 g. Dorsum typically dark brown, and in some individuals, forehead and face are light brown; venter is completely white or grayish white, with relatively well-demarcated line separating dorsum and venter. Distal onehalf of tail is covered with scattered blackish brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip. In some individuals, terminal tuft is white or composed of whorled bands alternating from white to blackish brown. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.","Dry deciduous forest in the extreme northern part of Madagascar, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacles) habitat or on sandy substrates, at elevations of 50-835 m.",Presumed to be largely granivorous.,"Breeding season is probably at the end of the dry season, with young born in late November or December. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.","Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. Individuals are captured on the ground and moving across different size arboreal substrates. At least in the Ankarana, it seems to occupy niches within exposed limestone. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Ratis preyed on by Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagnei) and was 49-8% of the biomass consumed by this owl.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in extreme northern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 2000 km®. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Cardiff & Goodman (2008) | Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013a, 2013b) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600377/files/figure.png,"5.Carleton’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus carletoniFrench:Rat-loir de Carleton/ German:Carleton-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de CarletonTaxonomy.Eliurus carletoni Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Campement des Anglais(Anilotra), 7.5 mNW Mahamasina, 12°54.4’S, 49°06.6’E; 125 kmabove sea-level.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 143-150 mm, tail 164-183 mm; weight 88-89 g. Dorsum typically dark brown, and in some individuals, forehead and face are light brown; venter is completely white or grayish white, with relatively well-demarcated line separating dorsum and venter. Distal onehalf of tail is covered with scattered blackish brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip. In some individuals, terminal tuft is white or composed of whorled bands alternating from white to blackish brown. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest in the extreme northern part of Madagascar, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacles) habitat or on sandy substrates, at elevations of 50-835 m.Food and Feeding.Presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Breeding season is probably at the end of the dry season, with young born in late November or December. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. Individuals are captured on the ground and moving across different size arboreal substrates. At least in the Ankarana, it seems to occupy niches within exposed limestone. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Ratis preyed on by Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagnei) and was 49-8% of the biomass consumed by this owl.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in extreme northern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 2000 km®. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Cardiff & Goodman (2008), Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013a, 2013b), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF10F55FF25F545C59CFBA9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,186,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FF25F545C59CFBA9.xml,Eliurus danieli,Eliurus,danieli,Carleton & Goodman,2007,Rat-loir de Daniel @fr | Daniel-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Daniel @es | Daniel's Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus danieli Carleton & Goodman, 2007,“ Madagascar, Fianarantsoa Province, Parc Nationalde I’' Isalo, 28 kmSEBerenty-Betsileo, along Sahanafa River near foot of Bevato Mountain, 650 m; geographic coordinates: 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6 'E.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to S Central Highlands of Madagascar.,"Head-body 150-152 mm, tail 179 mm, 195 mm (two individuals); weight 91-100 g. Daniel's Tuftedtail Rat is easily recognizable by its gray dorsum that contrasts with grayish white venter. Flanks have brownish appearance. It has relatively long ears for a species of Eliwrus. Tail is covered with black hair along its distal one-half, which progressively become longer and white ¢.12-15 mm toward distal tip. Tarsi are brown, and feet and toes are white.",Only known from sandstone canyons with transitional western dry and eastern humid forest vegetation or gallery forest at elevations of 600-700 m. Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is notstrictly forest-dependent; a few individuals have been captured in close proximity but outside of natural forest.,Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.,Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.,Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial. All known species have been captured at base of large exposed sedimentary rock outcrops.,No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat is known from two localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in the immediate vicinity of Isalo in the central west. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.",Carleton & Goodman (2007) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011),https://zenodo.org/record/6600379/files/figure.png,"6.Daniel’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus danieliFrench:Rat-loir de Daniel/ German:Daniel-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de DanielOther common names:Daniel's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus danieli Carleton & Goodman, 2007,“ Madagascar, Fianarantsoa Province, Parc Nationalde I’' Isalo, 28 kmSEBerenty-Betsileo, along Sahanafa River near foot of Bevato Mountain, 650 m; geographic coordinates: 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6 'E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S Central Highlands of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-152 mm, tail 179 mm, 195 mm (two individuals); weight 91-100 g. Daniel's Tuftedtail Rat is easily recognizable by its gray dorsum that contrasts with grayish white venter. Flanks have brownish appearance. It has relatively long ears for a species of Eliwrus. Tail is covered with black hair along its distal one-half, which progressively become longer and white ¢.12-15 mm toward distal tip. Tarsi are brown, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Only known from sandstone canyons with transitional western dry and eastern humid forest vegetation or gallery forest at elevations of 600-700 m. Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is notstrictly forest-dependent; a few individuals have been captured in close proximity but outside of natural forest.Food and Feeding.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial. All known species have been captured at base of large exposed sedimentary rock outcrops.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat is known from two localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in the immediate vicinity of Isalo in the central west. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2007), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." 03993828FFF20F56FE6BFDCDCBB2FADC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,156,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF20F56FE6BFDCDCBB2FADC.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family NESOMYIDAE(POUCHED RATS, CLIMBING MICE AND FAT MICE)• Small to medium-sized rodents with short to relatively long bodies, short to long legs, short to long ears and tails, and moderately sized eyes.• 10-85 cm.• Afrotropical Region.• Forests, marshes, savannas, and arid habitats.• 21 genera, 68 species, 76 taxa.• 1 species Critically Endangered, 7 species Endangered, 2 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." -03993828FFF40F50FFFCF3B9C581F8D2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,189,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F50FFFCF3B9C581F8D2.xml,Macrotarsomys bastardi,Macrotarsomys,bastardi,Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier,1898,Kelibotra de Bastard @fr | Bastard-MadagaskarGrofRfu Rmaus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Bastard @es | Lesser Big-footed Mouse @en | Western Big-footed Mouse @en | Western Forest Mouse @en,"Macrotarsomys bastardi Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier, 1898,“sud du Mangoky, entre Midongy et Thosy [= Ihosy].”Two subspecies are recognized.","M.b.bastard:Milne-Edwards&G.Grandidier,1898—moreuplandSCportionofMadagascar.M. b. occidentalis Ellerman, 1949— W & S Madagascar.","Head-body 89-103 mm, tail 120-145 mm; weight 20-26 g. Dorsal pelage of Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is distinctly soft and fine, grayish brown and slightly dull yellow. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venteris uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, rostrum is slightly pointed, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brownish-gray dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with a few brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.",Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush from near sea level to elevations of c.915 m. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse occurs in areas with sandy soils.,"In captivity, Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse eats seeds and fruit and also has been noted to be folivore and insectivore.","Bastard’s Big-footed Mice live in pairs, but no details are available on their breeding systems and ecology. Maximum litter size is generally three young, but four embryos have been found in one case. Females have two sets of mammae.","Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and probably exclusively terrestrial. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil with small inconspicuous openings, which it backfills after entering. These plugs can be obvious in the early morning when soil is still slightly moist. End of the burrow system has an area of dried leaves and grass, which forms the nest. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is largely a dry deciduous forest or open bush-dwelling species and is known from various localities in southern and north-western Madagascar. Given its apparent adaptability to open and slightly degraded environments, Bastard’s Bigfooted Mouse appears more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae. It has been previously considered the most common native rodent in western Madagascar, but in certain areas,this is not the case. It has been proposed that introduced House Mice (Musmusculus) compete with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse for burrows.","Carleton & Goodman (2003c) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Ellerman (1949) | Ganzhorn et al. (1996) | Goodman & Griffiths (2009) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Mittermeier et al. (2014) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Jansa et al. (2008) | Petter (1972a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Rasoma & Goodman (2007) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"18.Bastard’s Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys bastardiFrench:Kelibotra de Bastard/ German:Bastard-MadagaskarGrofRfuRmaus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de BastardOther common names:Lesser Big-footed Mouse, Western Big-footed Mouse, Western Forest MouseTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys bastardi Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier, 1898,“sud du Mangoky, entre Midongy et Thosy [= Ihosy].”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.b.bastard:Milne-Edwards&G.Grandidier,1898—moreuplandSCportionofMadagascar.M. b. occidentalis Ellerman, 1949— W & S Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 89-103 mm, tail 120-145 mm; weight 20-26 g. Dorsal pelage of Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is distinctly soft and fine, grayish brown and slightly dull yellow. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venteris uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, rostrum is slightly pointed, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brownish-gray dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with a few brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush from near sea level to elevations of c.915 m. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse occurs in areas with sandy soils.Food and Feeding.In captivity, Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse eats seeds and fruit and also has been noted to be folivore and insectivore.Breeding.Bastard’s Big-footed Mice live in pairs, but no details are available on their breeding systems and ecology. Maximum litter size is generally three young, but four embryos have been found in one case. Females have two sets of mammae.Activity patterns.Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and probably exclusively terrestrial. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil with small inconspicuous openings, which it backfills after entering. These plugs can be obvious in the early morning when soil is still slightly moist. End of the burrow system has an area of dried leaves and grass, which forms the nest. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is largely a dry deciduous forest or open bush-dwelling species and is known from various localities in southern and north-western Madagascar. Given its apparent adaptability to open and slightly degraded environments, Bastard’s Bigfooted Mouse appears more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae. It has been previously considered the most common native rodent in western Madagascar, but in certain areas,this is not the case. It has been proposed that introduced House Mice (Musmusculus) compete with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse for burrows.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003c), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Ellerman (1949), Ganzhorn et al. (1996), Goodman & Griffiths (2009), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Mittermeier et al. (2014), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Jansa et al. (2008), Petter (1972a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Rasoma & Goodman (2007), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF40F50FFFDFAD7C893F55A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,189,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F50FFFDFAD7C893F55A.xml,Voalavo gymnocaudus,Voalavo,gymnocaudus,Carleton & Goodman,1998,Voalavo a queue nue @fr | Nordlicher Voalavo @de | Raton de bosque de cola desnuda septentrional @es | Naked-tailed Voalavo @en | Northern Voalavo @en,"Voalavo gymnocaudus Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 12.2 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1950 m, 14°44.8’S, 40°26.0’E”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to N Madagascar.,"Head-body 80-90 mm, tail 120-129 mm; weight 17-25-5 g. Fur of the Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.",Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1225-1950 m. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is only known from mountains surrounding the Andapa Basin.,No information.,"Northern Naked-tail Forest Mice have a gland on their upper chest that produces a distinct odor and is most developed in reproductive males. Females probably give birth at the end of the dry season in late August through September. They have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.","The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a limited area of eastern montane forest in northern Madagascar. Currently, degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans is relatively limited.","Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"17.Northern Naked-tail Forest MouseVoalavo gymnocaudusFrench:Voalavo a queue nue/ German:Nordlicher Voalavo/ Spanish:Raton de bosque de cola desnuda septentrionalOther common names:Naked-tailed Voalavo, Northern VoalavoTaxonomy.Voalavo gymnocaudus Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 12.2 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1950 m, 14°44.8’S, 40°26.0’E”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 80-90 mm, tail 120-129 mm; weight 17-25-5 g. Fur of the Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1225-1950 m. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is only known from mountains surrounding the Andapa Basin.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Northern Naked-tail Forest Mice have a gland on their upper chest that produces a distinct odor and is most developed in reproductive males. Females probably give birth at the end of the dry season in late August through September. They have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.Activity patterns.The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a limited area of eastern montane forest in northern Madagascar. Currently, degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans is relatively limited.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF40F51FAF8F80ECF8CFD77,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,189,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F51FAF8F80ECF8CFD77.xml,Macrotarsomys ingens,Macrotarsomys,ingens,Peter,1959,Kelibotra d Ankarafantsika @fr | Ankarafantsika-MadagaskarGro RRfu3maus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Ankarafantsika @es | Greater Big-footed Mouse @en | Long-tailed Big-footed Mouse @en,"Macrotarsomys ingens Peter, 1959,“ 200 metresapres le village d’Ampijoroa,” Madagascar.The specimen named the holotype of M. ingenswas found injured along a main road and probably had fallen prey to a raptor. Monotypic.",Endemic to NW Madagascar (Ankarafantsika Forest).,"Head-body 112-150 mm, tail 183-240 mm; weight 42-74 g.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is similar to Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastardy) buts larger, with relatively smaller ears. Dorsal pelage is quite soft, fine, and light grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brown dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with tuft of brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.",Dry deciduous forest with sandy soils at elevations of 100-400 m.,"The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is presumed to feed on seeds and fruits, as does Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse. The two species occur sympatrically in Ankarafantsika.","Maximum litter size of the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is two young, and females have two sets of mammae.","The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial, being able to climb on small tree branches. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil, with inconspicuous openings that are backfilled upon entering. These plugs can be obvious in early morning when soilis still slightly moist.","The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is generally seen foraging alone; occasionally, two individuals have been observed in the same or nearby trees. When scared by a potential predator, the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse remains motionless on the ground or on thin tree branches. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It does not enter torpor or hibernate.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is dry deciduous forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in north-western Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢.250 km?, most of which is in Ankarafantsika National Park. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region and predation by feral dogs, cats, and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) its mediumand long-term future is at risk.","Carleton & Goodman (2003c) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Lobban etal. (2014) | Petter (1959a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Randrianjafy (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"19.Ankarafantsika Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys ingensFrench:Kelibotra dAnkarafantsika/ German:Ankarafantsika-MadagaskarGroRRfu3maus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de AnkarafantsikaOther common names:Greater Big-footed Mouse, Long-tailed Big-footed MouseTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys ingens Peter, 1959,“ 200 metresapres le village d’Ampijoroa,” Madagascar.The specimen named the holotype of M. ingenswas found injured along a main road and probably had fallen prey to a raptor. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to NW Madagascar (Ankarafantsika Forest).Descriptive notes.Head-body 112-150 mm, tail 183-240 mm; weight 42-74 g.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is similar to Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastardy) buts larger, with relatively smaller ears. Dorsal pelage is quite soft, fine, and light grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brown dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with tuft of brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest with sandy soils at elevations of 100-400 m.Food and Feeding.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is presumed to feed on seeds and fruits, as does Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse. The two species occur sympatrically in Ankarafantsika.Breeding.Maximum litter size of the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is two young, and females have two sets of mammae.Activity patterns.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial, being able to climb on small tree branches. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil, with inconspicuous openings that are backfilled upon entering. These plugs can be obvious in early morning when soilis still slightly moist.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is generally seen foraging alone; occasionally, two individuals have been observed in the same or nearby trees. When scared by a potential predator, the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse remains motionless on the ground or on thin tree branches. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It does not enter torpor or hibernate.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is dry deciduous forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in north-western Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢.250 km?, most of which is in Ankarafantsika National Park. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region and predation by feral dogs, cats, and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) its mediumand long-term future is at risk.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003c), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Lobban etal. (2014), Petter (1959a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Randrianjafy (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF50F51FF28FCA2CEDDF70C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,190,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F51FF28FCA2CEDDF70C.xml,Macrotarsomys peter,Macrotarsomys,peter,Goodman & Soarimalala,2005,Kelibotra de Petter @fr | Pette-Madagaskar-Gro3fuldmaus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Petter @es,"Macrotarsomys petteri Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005,“ Province de Toliara, Foret des Mikea, 16 kmwest Vorehy, Foret d’Andaladomo, 22°16.0’S, 43°28.7’E, 80 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","Endemic to SW Madagascar (Andalomo Forest, Mikea Forest).","Head-body 160 mm, tail 238 mm; weight 105 g. All measurements are from one Petter’s Big-footed Mouse. Dorsum is dark grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long and two-tone, dark brown dorsally and a little lighter ventrally; tip is covered with off-white elongated hair tuft. Hindlegs are elongated.","Transitional dry deciduousforest-spiny bush. Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is only known from a singlesite at an elevation of 80 m. In the Mikea Forest, it occurs in sympatry with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastard).",No information.,No information.,Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and presumed to be exclusively terrestrial.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Last. Petter’s Bigfooted Mouse is spiny bush—dwelling and is known from a single specimen in Mikea Forest, which has been extensively surveyed for small mammals. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, specifically the site the holotype was obtained, including conversion of forest to agriculture and frequent fires, its medium-term future is uncertain. On the basis of subfossil remains, Petter’s Big-footed Mouse had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar,specifically in the south, until about 1800.","Goodman & Soarimalala (2005) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Goodman, Vasey & Burney (2006) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2004, 2011)",,"20.Petter’s Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys peterFrench:Kelibotra de Petter/ German:Pette-Madagaskar-Gro3fuldmaus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de PetterTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys petteri Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005,“ Province de Toliara, Foret des Mikea, 16 kmwest Vorehy, Foret d’Andaladomo, 22°16.0’S, 43°28.7’E, 80 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SW Madagascar (Andalomo Forest, Mikea Forest).Descriptive notes.Head-body 160 mm, tail 238 mm; weight 105 g. All measurements are from one Petter’s Big-footed Mouse. Dorsum is dark grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long and two-tone, dark brown dorsally and a little lighter ventrally; tip is covered with off-white elongated hair tuft. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Transitional dry deciduousforest-spiny bush. Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is only known from a singlesite at an elevation of 80 m. In the Mikea Forest, it occurs in sympatry with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastard).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and presumed to be exclusively terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Last. Petter’s Bigfooted Mouse is spiny bush—dwelling and is known from a single specimen in Mikea Forest, which has been extensively surveyed for small mammals. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, specifically the site the holotype was obtained, including conversion of forest to agriculture and frequent fires, its medium-term future is uncertain. On the basis of subfossil remains, Petter’s Big-footed Mouse had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar,specifically in the south, until about 1800.Bibliography.Goodman & Soarimalala (2005), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Goodman, Vasey & Burney (2006), Soarimalala & Goodman (2004, 2011)." -03993828FFF50F51FF2CF603C620FD72,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,190,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F51FF2CF603C620FD72.xml,Monticolomys koopmani,Monticolomys,koopmani,Carleton & Goodman,1996,Voalavo de Koopman @fr | Madagaskar Bergmaus @de | Ratén de bosque de Koopman @es | Koopman's Montane Voalavo @en | Malagasy Mountain Mouse @en,"Monticolomys koopmani Carleton & Goodman, 1996,“ Madagascar, Antananarivo Province, Manjakatompo, 1800 m, ca. 19°20’S, 47°26’E.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 94-101 mm, tail 134-143 mm; weight 25-27 g. Fur of Koopman’s Forest Mouse is relatively thick, soft, and fine, brownish gray dorsally and lighter gray ventrally. Ears are fairly short. Tail has sparse blackish fur at base, and hairs are progressively more numerous toward tip and sometimes with some white; it does not have distinct tail tuft. Legs are fairly long, with white cream fur, and feet and toes are flesh-pink.",Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 900-2030 m.,Koopman’s Forest Mouse is presumed to be largely granivorous but may also eat fruits and invertebrates.,"Breeding period of Koopman’s Forest Mouse appears to occur during the rainy season. Females have three pairs of mammae, and largest known litter size is three young.","Koopman'’s Forest Mouse is nocturnal and largely arboreal, but because some individuals have been captured on the ground,it is best considered scansorial.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Koopman’s Forest Mouse is forest-dwelling and is known from a few widely separate sites in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, mostly from montane forests. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton & Goodman (1996) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"21.Koopman'’s Forest MouseMonticolomys koopmaniFrench:Voalavo de Koopman/ German:MadagaskarBergmaus/ Spanish:Ratén de bosque de KoopmanOther common names:Koopman's Montane Voalavo, Malagasy Mountain MouseTaxonomy.Monticolomys koopmani Carleton & Goodman, 1996,“ Madagascar, Antananarivo Province, Manjakatompo, 1800 m, ca. 19°20’S, 47°26’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 94-101 mm, tail 134-143 mm; weight 25-27 g. Fur of Koopman’s Forest Mouse is relatively thick, soft, and fine, brownish gray dorsally and lighter gray ventrally. Ears are fairly short. Tail has sparse blackish fur at base, and hairs are progressively more numerous toward tip and sometimes with some white; it does not have distinct tail tuft. Legs are fairly long, with white cream fur, and feet and toes are flesh-pink.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 900-2030 m.Food and Feeding.Koopman’s Forest Mouse is presumed to be largely granivorous but may also eat fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Breeding period of Koopman’s Forest Mouse appears to occur during the rainy season. Females have three pairs of mammae, and largest known litter size is three young.Activity patterns.Koopman'’s Forest Mouse is nocturnal and largely arboreal, but because some individuals have been captured on the ground,it is best considered scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Koopman’s Forest Mouse is forest-dwelling and is known from a few widely separate sites in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, mostly from montane forests. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (1996), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Maminirina et al. (2008), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF50F5EFA24FC5FCC84FD8D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,190,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F5EFA24FC5FCC84FD8D.xml,Hypogeomys antimena,Hypogeomys,antimena,A. Grandidier,1869,Vositse géant @fr | Madagaskar Riesenratte @de | Rata saltadora gigante @es | Malagasy Giant Jumping Rat @en | Votsovotsa @en,"Hypogeomys antimena A. Grandidier, 1869,“sur les rives du Tsidsibon[= Tsiribihina] et de ’ Andranoumene[= Andranomena], deux rivieres du Ménabé indépendant.”This species is monotypic.",Restricted to a narrow coastal zone of CW Madagascar (from the Tsiribihina River S to the northern portion of the Menabe AntimenaNational Park).,"Head-body 305-345 mm, tail 215-240 mm; weight 1.1-1.3 kg. The Giant Jumping Rat is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It is not sexually dimorphic in pelage color or body measurements. Dorsum has relatively stiff hairs that vary from brownish gray to reddish brown; head fur is slightly darker, and venter is light brown. Subadults are distinctly grayer than adults. Ears are long and pointed, measuring 60 mm. Front limbs are distinctly less developed than long plantigrade hindfeet.",Dry deciduous forest on sandy substrate at elevations of 40 —100 m.,"The Giant Jumping Rat feeds on fallen fruits of Adansonia spp.(Malvaceae), Commiphora spp.(Burseraceae), Poupartia spp.(Anacardiaceae), Berchemiadiscolor (Rhamnaceae), and Strychnos spp. (LLoganiaceae), as well as leaves, young shoots, and tubers.","Birthing of the GiantJumping Rat occurs at the start of the hot-rainy season toward the end of November when food resources are at their yearly high. Litters with 1-2 young are produced per pair, but there are reports of up to three young. Female have two pairs of mammae. Gestation is c.130 days. After birth, young remain in a burrow system for 4-6 weeks. They remain with parents after they nearly reach adult size. Sexual maturity is reached after two years of age.","The Giant Jumping Rat is strictly nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends the day in extensive burrow systems c.5 m in length and at least 1 m deep that it excavates. Multiple entrances to burrow system are often up to 40 cm in diameter and present a distinctive aspect to the forest landscape. When a burrow is abandoned by a pair, it is generally taken over by other pair. The Giant Jumping Rat normally walks on all four limbs, but it can break into kangaroo-like saltatorial hopping. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","Breeding Giant Jumping Rats live in permanent monogamous pairs, with largely overlapping home ranges. Pairs remain in the same burrow systems over many years and have little overlap in home ranges with neighboring pairs. Mean home range size is 8300 m* and largely equivalent for males and females. Home ranges expand during the dry season and then contract before birthing; pairs with young have smaller home ranges than those without young. Social communication is seemingly complex, and at night, individuals and pairs can be observed tapping the ground with their large hindfeet, often with heads cocked and ears in close position, and emitting variable cries of “brou-brou-brououou” and “kouitsch-kouitsch.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The extant population of the Giant Jumping Rat was previously estimated at no more than a few hundred individuals and restricted to a small area of dry deciduous forest in the central Menabe Region. That region has experienced drastic reductions in native forest cover. The Giant Jumping Rat once occupied dry deciduous forests between the Andranomena and Tsiribihina rivers, but its distribution has shrunk considerably. In the past few decades,it has disappeared from Andranomena Reserve, although collapsed burrow systems are still found there. As early as 1961, it was considered to be close to extinction and in need of immediate conservation action. On the basis of subfossil remains, the Giant Jumping Rat had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar, specifically further to the south, until the 14™ century (c.1350). It does well in captivity, but little genetic variation remains in natural or captive populations. Given anthropogenic pressures on remaining natural forests, combined with low rates of recruitment of young into the adult breeding population, associated with inferred carnivore (native and introduced) and snake predation, its short-term future is uncertain.","Cook et al. (1991) | Cowan (2000) | Ganzhorn et al. (1996) | Goodman & Rakotondravony (1996) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Petter (1972a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Rasoloarison et al. (1995) | Scharfe & Schlund (1996) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Sommer (1997 2000, 2003b) | Sommer & Tichy (1999) | Sommer, Schwab & Ganzhorn (2002) | Sommer, Toto Volahy & Seal (2002) | Veal (1992) | Young et al. (2008)",,"22.Giant Jumping RatHypogeomys antimenaFrench:Vositse géant/ German:MadagaskarRiesenratte/ Spanish:Rata saltadora giganteOther common names:Malagasy Giant Jumping Rat, VotsovotsaTaxonomy.Hypogeomys antimena A. Grandidier, 1869,“sur les rives du Tsidsibon[= Tsiribihina] et de ’ Andranoumene[= Andranomena], deux rivieres du Ménabé indépendant.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to a narrow coastal zone of CW Madagascar (from the Tsiribihina River S to the northern portion of the Menabe AntimenaNational Park).Descriptive notes.Head-body 305-345 mm, tail 215-240 mm; weight 1.1-1.3 kg. The Giant Jumping Rat is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It is not sexually dimorphic in pelage color or body measurements. Dorsum has relatively stiff hairs that vary from brownish gray to reddish brown; head fur is slightly darker, and venter is light brown. Subadults are distinctly grayer than adults. Ears are long and pointed, measuring 60 mm. Front limbs are distinctly less developed than long plantigrade hindfeet.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest on sandy substrate at elevations of 40 —100 m.Food and Feeding.The Giant Jumping Rat feeds on fallen fruits of Adansonia spp.(Malvaceae), Commiphora spp.(Burseraceae), Poupartia spp.(Anacardiaceae), Berchemiadiscolor (Rhamnaceae), and Strychnos spp. (LLoganiaceae), as well as leaves, young shoots, and tubers.Breeding.Birthing of the GiantJumping Rat occurs at the start of the hot-rainy season toward the end of November when food resources are at their yearly high. Litters with 1-2 young are produced per pair, but there are reports of up to three young. Female have two pairs of mammae. Gestation is c.130 days. After birth, young remain in a burrow system for 4-6 weeks. They remain with parents after they nearly reach adult size. Sexual maturity is reached after two years of age.Activity patterns.The Giant Jumping Rat is strictly nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends the day in extensive burrow systems c.5 m in length and at least 1 m deep that it excavates. Multiple entrances to burrow system are often up to 40 cm in diameter and present a distinctive aspect to the forest landscape. When a burrow is abandoned by a pair, it is generally taken over by other pair. The Giant Jumping Rat normally walks on all four limbs, but it can break into kangaroo-like saltatorial hopping. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Breeding Giant Jumping Rats live in permanent monogamous pairs, with largely overlapping home ranges. Pairs remain in the same burrow systems over many years and have little overlap in home ranges with neighboring pairs. Mean home range size is 8300 m* and largely equivalent for males and females. Home ranges expand during the dry season and then contract before birthing; pairs with young have smaller home ranges than those without young. Social communication is seemingly complex, and at night, individuals and pairs can be observed tapping the ground with their large hindfeet, often with heads cocked and ears in close position, and emitting variable cries of “brou-brou-brououou” and “kouitsch-kouitsch.”Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The extant population of the Giant Jumping Rat was previously estimated at no more than a few hundred individuals and restricted to a small area of dry deciduous forest in the central Menabe Region. That region has experienced drastic reductions in native forest cover. The Giant Jumping Rat once occupied dry deciduous forests between the Andranomena and Tsiribihina rivers, but its distribution has shrunk considerably. In the past few decades,it has disappeared from Andranomena Reserve, although collapsed burrow systems are still found there. As early as 1961, it was considered to be close to extinction and in need of immediate conservation action. On the basis of subfossil remains, the Giant Jumping Rat had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar, specifically further to the south, until the 14™ century (c.1350). It does well in captivity, but little genetic variation remains in natural or captive populations. Given anthropogenic pressures on remaining natural forests, combined with low rates of recruitment of young into the adult breeding population, associated with inferred carnivore (native and introduced) and snake predation, its short-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Cook et al. (1991), Cowan (2000), Ganzhorn et al. (1996), Goodman & Rakotondravony (1996), Goodman et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Petter (1972a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Rasoloarison et al. (1995), Scharfe & Schlund (1996), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Sommer (1997 2000, 2003b), Sommer & Tichy (1999), Sommer, Schwab & Ganzhorn (2002), Sommer, Toto Volahy & Seal (2002), Veal (1992), Young et al. (2008)." -03993828FFF60F52FAFEFC2BC55FF576,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,187,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FAFEFC2BC55FF576.xml,Eliurus myoxinus,Eliurus,myoxinus,Milne-Edwards,1885,Rat-loir de Milne-Edwards @fr | Milne-Edwards-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Milne-Edwards @es | \Vestern Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus myoxinus Milne-Edwards, 1885,“cote ouest de Madagascar.”Modified by P. Rode in 1945 to “Foréts de Tsilambany,” which M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt in 1990 considered a collection locality by A. Grandidier at “Riv. Tsilambana,” approximately 656 km SSE Morondava. Phylogeographic work indicates distinct geographical structure and possible cryptic species of E. myoxinus. Monotypic.","Endemic to N, W & S Madagascar.","Head-body 117-136 mm,tail 125-167 mm; weight 51-75 g. Dorsum of Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Ratis grayish brown, with obvious line on flank separating back from off-white venter. Ears are proportionately small compared with most other species of Eliurus. Distal one-half oftail is black or dark brown that becomes denser and longer toward tip, often forming distinct brush. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.",Dry deciduous and spiny bush formations from sea level to elevations of c.900 m (virtually all of the western one-half of Madagascar) and eastern humid forest formations (far north) at elevations of 700-1250 m.,Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be granivorous and probably consumes fruits.,"During the breeding season, Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rats occupy arboreal nests or ground burrows. Nests are constructed with leaves and small branches or in tree holes located 2-6 m off the ground. In captivity, gestation is 24 days, and some females, which have three pairs of mammae, can have four litters a year; maximum litter size is four young.","Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows and readily moves in woody vegetation, including vertical tree trunks and moderate to thin horizontal branches. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs in low density, but recent work, perhaps with different baits and trap types used by earlier researchers, has found moderate densities that can vary considerably by season.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the western one-half of Madagascar and in the north-east. These habitats are exposed to extensive human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Randrianjafy (2003) | Randrianjafy et al. (2007) | Rasoma & Goodman (2007) | Rode (1945) | Shi et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"11.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus myoxinusFrench:Rat-loir de Milne-Edwards/ German:Milne-Edwards-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de Milne-EdwardsOther common names:\Vestern Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus myoxinus Milne-Edwards, 1885,“cote ouest de Madagascar.”Modified by P. Rode in 1945 to “Foréts de Tsilambany,” which M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt in 1990 considered a collection locality by A. Grandidier at “Riv. Tsilambana,” approximately 656 km SSE Morondava. Phylogeographic work indicates distinct geographical structure and possible cryptic species of E. myoxinus. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N, W & S Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 117-136 mm,tail 125-167 mm; weight 51-75 g. Dorsum of Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Ratis grayish brown, with obvious line on flank separating back from off-white venter. Ears are proportionately small compared with most other species of Eliurus. Distal one-half oftail is black or dark brown that becomes denser and longer toward tip, often forming distinct brush. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Dry deciduous and spiny bush formations from sea level to elevations of c.900 m (virtually all of the western one-half of Madagascar) and eastern humid forest formations (far north) at elevations of 700-1250 m.Food and Feeding.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be granivorous and probably consumes fruits.Breeding.During the breeding season, Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rats occupy arboreal nests or ground burrows. Nests are constructed with leaves and small branches or in tree holes located 2-6 m off the ground. In captivity, gestation is 24 days, and some females, which have three pairs of mammae, can have four litters a year; maximum litter size is four young.Activity patterns.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows and readily moves in woody vegetation, including vertical tree trunks and moderate to thin horizontal branches. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs in low density, but recent work, perhaps with different baits and trap types used by earlier researchers, has found moderate densities that can vary considerably by season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the western one-half of Madagascar and in the north-east. These habitats are exposed to extensive human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Goodman et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Randrianjafy (2003), Randrianjafy et al. (2007), Rasoma & Goodman (2007), Rode (1945), Shi et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF40F50FFFCF3B9C581F8D2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,189,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F50FFFCF3B9C581F8D2.xml,Macrotarsomys bastardi,Macrotarsomys,bastardi,Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier,1898,Kelibotra de Bastard @fr | Bastard-MadagaskarGrofRfu Rmaus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Bastard @es | Lesser Big-footed Mouse @en | Western Big-footed Mouse @en | Western Forest Mouse @en,"Macrotarsomys bastardi Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier, 1898,“sud du Mangoky, entre Midongy et Thosy [= Ihosy].”Two subspecies are recognized.","M.b.bastard:Milne-Edwards&G.Grandidier,1898—moreuplandSCportionofMadagascar.M. b. occidentalis Ellerman, 1949— W & S Madagascar.","Head-body 89-103 mm, tail 120-145 mm; weight 20-26 g. Dorsal pelage of Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is distinctly soft and fine, grayish brown and slightly dull yellow. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venteris uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, rostrum is slightly pointed, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brownish-gray dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with a few brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.",Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush from near sea level to elevations of c.915 m. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse occurs in areas with sandy soils.,"In captivity, Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse eats seeds and fruit and also has been noted to be folivore and insectivore.","Bastard’s Big-footed Mice live in pairs, but no details are available on their breeding systems and ecology. Maximum litter size is generally three young, but four embryos have been found in one case. Females have two sets of mammae.","Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and probably exclusively terrestrial. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil with small inconspicuous openings, which it backfills after entering. These plugs can be obvious in the early morning when soil is still slightly moist. End of the burrow system has an area of dried leaves and grass, which forms the nest. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is largely a dry deciduous forest or open bush-dwelling species and is known from various localities in southern and north-western Madagascar. Given its apparent adaptability to open and slightly degraded environments, Bastard’s Bigfooted Mouse appears more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae. It has been previously considered the most common native rodent in western Madagascar, but in certain areas,this is not the case. It has been proposed that introduced House Mice (Musmusculus) compete with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse for burrows.","Carleton & Goodman (2003c) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Ellerman (1949) | Ganzhorn et al. (1996) | Goodman & Griffiths (2009) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Mittermeier et al. (2014) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Jansa et al. (2008) | Petter (1972a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Rasoma & Goodman (2007) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600406/files/figure.png,"18.Bastard’s Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys bastardiFrench:Kelibotra de Bastard/ German:Bastard-MadagaskarGrofRfuRmaus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de BastardOther common names:Lesser Big-footed Mouse, Western Big-footed Mouse, Western Forest MouseTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys bastardi Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier, 1898,“sud du Mangoky, entre Midongy et Thosy [= Ihosy].”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.b.bastard:Milne-Edwards&G.Grandidier,1898—moreuplandSCportionofMadagascar.M. b. occidentalis Ellerman, 1949— W & S Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 89-103 mm, tail 120-145 mm; weight 20-26 g. Dorsal pelage of Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is distinctly soft and fine, grayish brown and slightly dull yellow. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venteris uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, rostrum is slightly pointed, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brownish-gray dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with a few brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush from near sea level to elevations of c.915 m. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse occurs in areas with sandy soils.Food and Feeding.In captivity, Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse eats seeds and fruit and also has been noted to be folivore and insectivore.Breeding.Bastard’s Big-footed Mice live in pairs, but no details are available on their breeding systems and ecology. Maximum litter size is generally three young, but four embryos have been found in one case. Females have two sets of mammae.Activity patterns.Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and probably exclusively terrestrial. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil with small inconspicuous openings, which it backfills after entering. These plugs can be obvious in the early morning when soil is still slightly moist. End of the burrow system has an area of dried leaves and grass, which forms the nest. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is largely a dry deciduous forest or open bush-dwelling species and is known from various localities in southern and north-western Madagascar. Given its apparent adaptability to open and slightly degraded environments, Bastard’s Bigfooted Mouse appears more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae. It has been previously considered the most common native rodent in western Madagascar, but in certain areas,this is not the case. It has been proposed that introduced House Mice (Musmusculus) compete with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse for burrows.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003c), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Ellerman (1949), Ganzhorn et al. (1996), Goodman & Griffiths (2009), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Mittermeier et al. (2014), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Jansa et al. (2008), Petter (1972a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Rasoma & Goodman (2007), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF40F50FFFDFAD7C893F55A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,189,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F50FFFDFAD7C893F55A.xml,Voalavo gymnocaudus,Voalavo,gymnocaudus,Carleton & Goodman,1998,Voalavo a queue nue @fr | Nordlicher Voalavo @de | Raton de bosque de cola desnuda septentrional @es | Naked-tailed Voalavo @en | Northern Voalavo @en,"Voalavo gymnocaudus Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 12.2 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1950 m, 14°44.8’S, 40°26.0’E”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to N Madagascar.,"Head-body 80-90 mm, tail 120-129 mm; weight 17-25-5 g. Fur of the Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.",Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1225-1950 m. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is only known from mountains surrounding the Andapa Basin.,No information.,"Northern Naked-tail Forest Mice have a gland on their upper chest that produces a distinct odor and is most developed in reproductive males. Females probably give birth at the end of the dry season in late August through September. They have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.","The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a limited area of eastern montane forest in northern Madagascar. Currently, degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans is relatively limited.","Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600404/files/figure.png,"17.Northern Naked-tail Forest MouseVoalavo gymnocaudusFrench:Voalavo a queue nue/ German:Nordlicher Voalavo/ Spanish:Raton de bosque de cola desnuda septentrionalOther common names:Naked-tailed Voalavo, Northern VoalavoTaxonomy.Voalavo gymnocaudus Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 12.2 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1950 m, 14°44.8’S, 40°26.0’E”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 80-90 mm, tail 120-129 mm; weight 17-25-5 g. Fur of the Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1225-1950 m. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is only known from mountains surrounding the Andapa Basin.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Northern Naked-tail Forest Mice have a gland on their upper chest that produces a distinct odor and is most developed in reproductive males. Females probably give birth at the end of the dry season in late August through September. They have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.Activity patterns.The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a limited area of eastern montane forest in northern Madagascar. Currently, degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans is relatively limited.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF40F51FAF8F80ECF8CFD77,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,189,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F51FAF8F80ECF8CFD77.xml,Macrotarsomys ingens,Macrotarsomys,ingens,Peter,1959,Kelibotra d Ankarafantsika @fr | Ankarafantsika-MadagaskarGro RRfu3maus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Ankarafantsika @es | Greater Big-footed Mouse @en | Long-tailed Big-footed Mouse @en,"Macrotarsomys ingens Peter, 1959,“ 200 metresapres le village d’Ampijoroa,” Madagascar.The specimen named the holotype of M. ingenswas found injured along a main road and probably had fallen prey to a raptor. Monotypic.",Endemic to NW Madagascar (Ankarafantsika Forest).,"Head-body 112-150 mm, tail 183-240 mm; weight 42-74 g.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is similar to Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastardy) buts larger, with relatively smaller ears. Dorsal pelage is quite soft, fine, and light grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brown dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with tuft of brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.",Dry deciduous forest with sandy soils at elevations of 100-400 m.,"The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is presumed to feed on seeds and fruits, as does Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse. The two species occur sympatrically in Ankarafantsika.","Maximum litter size of the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is two young, and females have two sets of mammae.","The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial, being able to climb on small tree branches. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil, with inconspicuous openings that are backfilled upon entering. These plugs can be obvious in early morning when soilis still slightly moist.","The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is generally seen foraging alone; occasionally, two individuals have been observed in the same or nearby trees. When scared by a potential predator, the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse remains motionless on the ground or on thin tree branches. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It does not enter torpor or hibernate.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is dry deciduous forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in north-western Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢.250 km?, most of which is in Ankarafantsika National Park. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region and predation by feral dogs, cats, and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) its mediumand long-term future is at risk.","Carleton & Goodman (2003c) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Lobban etal. (2014) | Petter (1959a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Randrianjafy (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600408/files/figure.png,"19.Ankarafantsika Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys ingensFrench:Kelibotra dAnkarafantsika/ German:Ankarafantsika-MadagaskarGroRRfu3maus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de AnkarafantsikaOther common names:Greater Big-footed Mouse, Long-tailed Big-footed MouseTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys ingens Peter, 1959,“ 200 metresapres le village d’Ampijoroa,” Madagascar.The specimen named the holotype of M. ingenswas found injured along a main road and probably had fallen prey to a raptor. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to NW Madagascar (Ankarafantsika Forest).Descriptive notes.Head-body 112-150 mm, tail 183-240 mm; weight 42-74 g.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is similar to Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastardy) buts larger, with relatively smaller ears. Dorsal pelage is quite soft, fine, and light grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brown dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with tuft of brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest with sandy soils at elevations of 100-400 m.Food and Feeding.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is presumed to feed on seeds and fruits, as does Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse. The two species occur sympatrically in Ankarafantsika.Breeding.Maximum litter size of the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is two young, and females have two sets of mammae.Activity patterns.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial, being able to climb on small tree branches. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil, with inconspicuous openings that are backfilled upon entering. These plugs can be obvious in early morning when soilis still slightly moist.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is generally seen foraging alone; occasionally, two individuals have been observed in the same or nearby trees. When scared by a potential predator, the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse remains motionless on the ground or on thin tree branches. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It does not enter torpor or hibernate.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is dry deciduous forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in north-western Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢.250 km?, most of which is in Ankarafantsika National Park. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region and predation by feral dogs, cats, and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) its mediumand long-term future is at risk.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003c), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Lobban etal. (2014), Petter (1959a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Randrianjafy (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF50F51FF28FCA2CEDDF70C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,190,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F51FF28FCA2CEDDF70C.xml,Macrotarsomys peter,Macrotarsomys,peter,Goodman & Soarimalala,2005,Kelibotra de Petter @fr | Pette-Madagaskar-Gro3fuldmaus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Petter @es,"Macrotarsomys petteri Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005,“ Province de Toliara, Foret des Mikea, 16 kmwest Vorehy, Foret d’Andaladomo, 22°16.0’S, 43°28.7’E, 80 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","Endemic to SW Madagascar (Andalomo Forest, Mikea Forest).","Head-body 160 mm, tail 238 mm; weight 105 g. All measurements are from one Petter’s Big-footed Mouse. Dorsum is dark grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long and two-tone, dark brown dorsally and a little lighter ventrally; tip is covered with off-white elongated hair tuft. Hindlegs are elongated.","Transitional dry deciduousforest-spiny bush. Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is only known from a singlesite at an elevation of 80 m. In the Mikea Forest, it occurs in sympatry with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastard).",No information.,No information.,Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and presumed to be exclusively terrestrial.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Last. Petter’s Bigfooted Mouse is spiny bush—dwelling and is known from a single specimen in Mikea Forest, which has been extensively surveyed for small mammals. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, specifically the site the holotype was obtained, including conversion of forest to agriculture and frequent fires, its medium-term future is uncertain. On the basis of subfossil remains, Petter’s Big-footed Mouse had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar,specifically in the south, until about 1800.","Goodman & Soarimalala (2005) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Goodman, Vasey & Burney (2006) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2004, 2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600410/files/figure.png,"20.Petter’s Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys peterFrench:Kelibotra de Petter/ German:Pette-Madagaskar-Gro3fuldmaus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de PetterTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys petteri Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005,“ Province de Toliara, Foret des Mikea, 16 kmwest Vorehy, Foret d’Andaladomo, 22°16.0’S, 43°28.7’E, 80 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SW Madagascar (Andalomo Forest, Mikea Forest).Descriptive notes.Head-body 160 mm, tail 238 mm; weight 105 g. All measurements are from one Petter’s Big-footed Mouse. Dorsum is dark grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long and two-tone, dark brown dorsally and a little lighter ventrally; tip is covered with off-white elongated hair tuft. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Transitional dry deciduousforest-spiny bush. Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is only known from a singlesite at an elevation of 80 m. In the Mikea Forest, it occurs in sympatry with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastard).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and presumed to be exclusively terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Last. Petter’s Bigfooted Mouse is spiny bush—dwelling and is known from a single specimen in Mikea Forest, which has been extensively surveyed for small mammals. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, specifically the site the holotype was obtained, including conversion of forest to agriculture and frequent fires, its medium-term future is uncertain. On the basis of subfossil remains, Petter’s Big-footed Mouse had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar,specifically in the south, until about 1800.Bibliography.Goodman & Soarimalala (2005), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Goodman, Vasey & Burney (2006), Soarimalala & Goodman (2004, 2011)." +03993828FFF50F51FF2CF603C620FD72,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,190,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F51FF2CF603C620FD72.xml,Monticolomys koopmani,Monticolomys,koopmani,Carleton & Goodman,1996,Voalavo de Koopman @fr | Madagaskar Bergmaus @de | Ratén de bosque de Koopman @es | Koopman's Montane Voalavo @en | Malagasy Mountain Mouse @en,"Monticolomys koopmani Carleton & Goodman, 1996,“ Madagascar, Antananarivo Province, Manjakatompo, 1800 m, ca. 19°20’S, 47°26’E.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 94-101 mm, tail 134-143 mm; weight 25-27 g. Fur of Koopman’s Forest Mouse is relatively thick, soft, and fine, brownish gray dorsally and lighter gray ventrally. Ears are fairly short. Tail has sparse blackish fur at base, and hairs are progressively more numerous toward tip and sometimes with some white; it does not have distinct tail tuft. Legs are fairly long, with white cream fur, and feet and toes are flesh-pink.",Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 900-2030 m.,Koopman’s Forest Mouse is presumed to be largely granivorous but may also eat fruits and invertebrates.,"Breeding period of Koopman’s Forest Mouse appears to occur during the rainy season. Females have three pairs of mammae, and largest known litter size is three young.","Koopman'’s Forest Mouse is nocturnal and largely arboreal, but because some individuals have been captured on the ground,it is best considered scansorial.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Koopman’s Forest Mouse is forest-dwelling and is known from a few widely separate sites in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, mostly from montane forests. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton & Goodman (1996) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600412/files/figure.png,"21.Koopman'’s Forest MouseMonticolomys koopmaniFrench:Voalavo de Koopman/ German:MadagaskarBergmaus/ Spanish:Ratén de bosque de KoopmanOther common names:Koopman's Montane Voalavo, Malagasy Mountain MouseTaxonomy.Monticolomys koopmani Carleton & Goodman, 1996,“ Madagascar, Antananarivo Province, Manjakatompo, 1800 m, ca. 19°20’S, 47°26’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 94-101 mm, tail 134-143 mm; weight 25-27 g. Fur of Koopman’s Forest Mouse is relatively thick, soft, and fine, brownish gray dorsally and lighter gray ventrally. Ears are fairly short. Tail has sparse blackish fur at base, and hairs are progressively more numerous toward tip and sometimes with some white; it does not have distinct tail tuft. Legs are fairly long, with white cream fur, and feet and toes are flesh-pink.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 900-2030 m.Food and Feeding.Koopman’s Forest Mouse is presumed to be largely granivorous but may also eat fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Breeding period of Koopman’s Forest Mouse appears to occur during the rainy season. Females have three pairs of mammae, and largest known litter size is three young.Activity patterns.Koopman'’s Forest Mouse is nocturnal and largely arboreal, but because some individuals have been captured on the ground,it is best considered scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Koopman’s Forest Mouse is forest-dwelling and is known from a few widely separate sites in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, mostly from montane forests. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (1996), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Maminirina et al. (2008), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF50F5EFA24FC5FCC84FD8D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,190,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F5EFA24FC5FCC84FD8D.xml,Hypogeomys antimena,Hypogeomys,antimena,A. Grandidier,1869,Vositse géant @fr | Madagaskar Riesenratte @de | Rata saltadora gigante @es | Malagasy Giant Jumping Rat @en | Votsovotsa @en,"Hypogeomys antimena A. Grandidier, 1869,“sur les rives du Tsidsibon[= Tsiribihina] et de ’ Andranoumene[= Andranomena], deux rivieres du Ménabé indépendant.”This species is monotypic.",Restricted to a narrow coastal zone of CW Madagascar (from the Tsiribihina River S to the northern portion of the Menabe AntimenaNational Park).,"Head-body 305-345 mm, tail 215-240 mm; weight 1.1-1.3 kg. The Giant Jumping Rat is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It is not sexually dimorphic in pelage color or body measurements. Dorsum has relatively stiff hairs that vary from brownish gray to reddish brown; head fur is slightly darker, and venter is light brown. Subadults are distinctly grayer than adults. Ears are long and pointed, measuring 60 mm. Front limbs are distinctly less developed than long plantigrade hindfeet.",Dry deciduous forest on sandy substrate at elevations of 40 —100 m.,"The Giant Jumping Rat feeds on fallen fruits of Adansonia spp.(Malvaceae), Commiphora spp.(Burseraceae), Poupartia spp.(Anacardiaceae), Berchemiadiscolor (Rhamnaceae), and Strychnos spp. (LLoganiaceae), as well as leaves, young shoots, and tubers.","Birthing of the GiantJumping Rat occurs at the start of the hot-rainy season toward the end of November when food resources are at their yearly high. Litters with 1-2 young are produced per pair, but there are reports of up to three young. Female have two pairs of mammae. Gestation is c.130 days. After birth, young remain in a burrow system for 4-6 weeks. They remain with parents after they nearly reach adult size. Sexual maturity is reached after two years of age.","The Giant Jumping Rat is strictly nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends the day in extensive burrow systems c.5 m in length and at least 1 m deep that it excavates. Multiple entrances to burrow system are often up to 40 cm in diameter and present a distinctive aspect to the forest landscape. When a burrow is abandoned by a pair, it is generally taken over by other pair. The Giant Jumping Rat normally walks on all four limbs, but it can break into kangaroo-like saltatorial hopping. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","Breeding Giant Jumping Rats live in permanent monogamous pairs, with largely overlapping home ranges. Pairs remain in the same burrow systems over many years and have little overlap in home ranges with neighboring pairs. Mean home range size is 8300 m* and largely equivalent for males and females. Home ranges expand during the dry season and then contract before birthing; pairs with young have smaller home ranges than those without young. Social communication is seemingly complex, and at night, individuals and pairs can be observed tapping the ground with their large hindfeet, often with heads cocked and ears in close position, and emitting variable cries of “brou-brou-brououou” and “kouitsch-kouitsch.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The extant population of the Giant Jumping Rat was previously estimated at no more than a few hundred individuals and restricted to a small area of dry deciduous forest in the central Menabe Region. That region has experienced drastic reductions in native forest cover. The Giant Jumping Rat once occupied dry deciduous forests between the Andranomena and Tsiribihina rivers, but its distribution has shrunk considerably. In the past few decades,it has disappeared from Andranomena Reserve, although collapsed burrow systems are still found there. As early as 1961, it was considered to be close to extinction and in need of immediate conservation action. On the basis of subfossil remains, the Giant Jumping Rat had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar, specifically further to the south, until the 14™ century (c.1350). It does well in captivity, but little genetic variation remains in natural or captive populations. Given anthropogenic pressures on remaining natural forests, combined with low rates of recruitment of young into the adult breeding population, associated with inferred carnivore (native and introduced) and snake predation, its short-term future is uncertain.","Cook et al. (1991) | Cowan (2000) | Ganzhorn et al. (1996) | Goodman & Rakotondravony (1996) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Petter (1972a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Rasoloarison et al. (1995) | Scharfe & Schlund (1996) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Sommer (1997 2000, 2003b) | Sommer & Tichy (1999) | Sommer, Schwab & Ganzhorn (2002) | Sommer, Toto Volahy & Seal (2002) | Veal (1992) | Young et al. (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600414/files/figure.png,"22.Giant Jumping RatHypogeomys antimenaFrench:Vositse géant/ German:MadagaskarRiesenratte/ Spanish:Rata saltadora giganteOther common names:Malagasy Giant Jumping Rat, VotsovotsaTaxonomy.Hypogeomys antimena A. Grandidier, 1869,“sur les rives du Tsidsibon[= Tsiribihina] et de ’ Andranoumene[= Andranomena], deux rivieres du Ménabé indépendant.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to a narrow coastal zone of CW Madagascar (from the Tsiribihina River S to the northern portion of the Menabe AntimenaNational Park).Descriptive notes.Head-body 305-345 mm, tail 215-240 mm; weight 1.1-1.3 kg. The Giant Jumping Rat is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It is not sexually dimorphic in pelage color or body measurements. Dorsum has relatively stiff hairs that vary from brownish gray to reddish brown; head fur is slightly darker, and venter is light brown. Subadults are distinctly grayer than adults. Ears are long and pointed, measuring 60 mm. Front limbs are distinctly less developed than long plantigrade hindfeet.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest on sandy substrate at elevations of 40 —100 m.Food and Feeding.The Giant Jumping Rat feeds on fallen fruits of Adansonia spp.(Malvaceae), Commiphora spp.(Burseraceae), Poupartia spp.(Anacardiaceae), Berchemiadiscolor (Rhamnaceae), and Strychnos spp. (LLoganiaceae), as well as leaves, young shoots, and tubers.Breeding.Birthing of the GiantJumping Rat occurs at the start of the hot-rainy season toward the end of November when food resources are at their yearly high. Litters with 1-2 young are produced per pair, but there are reports of up to three young. Female have two pairs of mammae. Gestation is c.130 days. After birth, young remain in a burrow system for 4-6 weeks. They remain with parents after they nearly reach adult size. Sexual maturity is reached after two years of age.Activity patterns.The Giant Jumping Rat is strictly nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends the day in extensive burrow systems c.5 m in length and at least 1 m deep that it excavates. Multiple entrances to burrow system are often up to 40 cm in diameter and present a distinctive aspect to the forest landscape. When a burrow is abandoned by a pair, it is generally taken over by other pair. The Giant Jumping Rat normally walks on all four limbs, but it can break into kangaroo-like saltatorial hopping. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Breeding Giant Jumping Rats live in permanent monogamous pairs, with largely overlapping home ranges. Pairs remain in the same burrow systems over many years and have little overlap in home ranges with neighboring pairs. Mean home range size is 8300 m* and largely equivalent for males and females. Home ranges expand during the dry season and then contract before birthing; pairs with young have smaller home ranges than those without young. Social communication is seemingly complex, and at night, individuals and pairs can be observed tapping the ground with their large hindfeet, often with heads cocked and ears in close position, and emitting variable cries of “brou-brou-brououou” and “kouitsch-kouitsch.”Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The extant population of the Giant Jumping Rat was previously estimated at no more than a few hundred individuals and restricted to a small area of dry deciduous forest in the central Menabe Region. That region has experienced drastic reductions in native forest cover. The Giant Jumping Rat once occupied dry deciduous forests between the Andranomena and Tsiribihina rivers, but its distribution has shrunk considerably. In the past few decades,it has disappeared from Andranomena Reserve, although collapsed burrow systems are still found there. As early as 1961, it was considered to be close to extinction and in need of immediate conservation action. On the basis of subfossil remains, the Giant Jumping Rat had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar, specifically further to the south, until the 14™ century (c.1350). It does well in captivity, but little genetic variation remains in natural or captive populations. Given anthropogenic pressures on remaining natural forests, combined with low rates of recruitment of young into the adult breeding population, associated with inferred carnivore (native and introduced) and snake predation, its short-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Cook et al. (1991), Cowan (2000), Ganzhorn et al. (1996), Goodman & Rakotondravony (1996), Goodman et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Petter (1972a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Rasoloarison et al. (1995), Scharfe & Schlund (1996), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Sommer (1997 2000, 2003b), Sommer & Tichy (1999), Sommer, Schwab & Ganzhorn (2002), Sommer, Toto Volahy & Seal (2002), Veal (1992), Young et al. (2008)." +03993828FFF60F52FAFEFC2BC55FF576,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,187,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FAFEFC2BC55FF576.xml,Eliurus myoxinus,Eliurus,myoxinus,Milne-Edwards,1885,Rat-loir de Milne-Edwards @fr | Milne-Edwards-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Milne-Edwards @es | \Vestern Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus myoxinus Milne-Edwards, 1885,“cote ouest de Madagascar.”Modified by P. Rode in 1945 to “Foréts de Tsilambany,” which M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt in 1990 considered a collection locality by A. Grandidier at “Riv. Tsilambana,” approximately 656 km SSE Morondava. Phylogeographic work indicates distinct geographical structure and possible cryptic species of E. myoxinus. Monotypic.","Endemic to N, W & S Madagascar.","Head-body 117-136 mm,tail 125-167 mm; weight 51-75 g. Dorsum of Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Ratis grayish brown, with obvious line on flank separating back from off-white venter. Ears are proportionately small compared with most other species of Eliurus. Distal one-half oftail is black or dark brown that becomes denser and longer toward tip, often forming distinct brush. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.",Dry deciduous and spiny bush formations from sea level to elevations of c.900 m (virtually all of the western one-half of Madagascar) and eastern humid forest formations (far north) at elevations of 700-1250 m.,Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be granivorous and probably consumes fruits.,"During the breeding season, Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rats occupy arboreal nests or ground burrows. Nests are constructed with leaves and small branches or in tree holes located 2-6 m off the ground. In captivity, gestation is 24 days, and some females, which have three pairs of mammae, can have four litters a year; maximum litter size is four young.","Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows and readily moves in woody vegetation, including vertical tree trunks and moderate to thin horizontal branches. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs in low density, but recent work, perhaps with different baits and trap types used by earlier researchers, has found moderate densities that can vary considerably by season.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the western one-half of Madagascar and in the north-east. These habitats are exposed to extensive human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Randrianjafy (2003) | Randrianjafy et al. (2007) | Rasoma & Goodman (2007) | Rode (1945) | Shi et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600390/files/figure.png,"11.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus myoxinusFrench:Rat-loir de Milne-Edwards/ German:Milne-Edwards-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de Milne-EdwardsOther common names:\Vestern Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus myoxinus Milne-Edwards, 1885,“cote ouest de Madagascar.”Modified by P. Rode in 1945 to “Foréts de Tsilambany,” which M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt in 1990 considered a collection locality by A. Grandidier at “Riv. Tsilambana,” approximately 656 km SSE Morondava. Phylogeographic work indicates distinct geographical structure and possible cryptic species of E. myoxinus. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N, W & S Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 117-136 mm,tail 125-167 mm; weight 51-75 g. Dorsum of Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Ratis grayish brown, with obvious line on flank separating back from off-white venter. Ears are proportionately small compared with most other species of Eliurus. Distal one-half oftail is black or dark brown that becomes denser and longer toward tip, often forming distinct brush. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Dry deciduous and spiny bush formations from sea level to elevations of c.900 m (virtually all of the western one-half of Madagascar) and eastern humid forest formations (far north) at elevations of 700-1250 m.Food and Feeding.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be granivorous and probably consumes fruits.Breeding.During the breeding season, Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rats occupy arboreal nests or ground burrows. Nests are constructed with leaves and small branches or in tree holes located 2-6 m off the ground. In captivity, gestation is 24 days, and some females, which have three pairs of mammae, can have four litters a year; maximum litter size is four young.Activity patterns.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows and readily moves in woody vegetation, including vertical tree trunks and moderate to thin horizontal branches. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs in low density, but recent work, perhaps with different baits and trap types used by earlier researchers, has found moderate densities that can vary considerably by season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the western one-half of Madagascar and in the north-east. These habitats are exposed to extensive human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Goodman et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Randrianjafy (2003), Randrianjafy et al. (2007), Rasoma & Goodman (2007), Rode (1945), Shi et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." 03993828FFF60F52FFE3F745C40EFCE9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,187,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FFE3F745C40EFCE9.xml,Elurus minor,Eliurus,minor,Forsyth Major,1896,Petit Rat-loir @fr | Kleiner Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho pequena @es | Lesser Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus minor Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest(N.E. Betsileo),” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 101-124 mm, tail 119-137 mm; weight 21-5-49-5 g. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is the smallest species of Eliurus. Dorsum is generally brownish gray, and venter is beige-cream, blended with gray. Ears are proportionately shorter than other congeneric species. Distal one-half of tail has dark brown to blackish hair, becoming denser and longer toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.",Broad distribution in humid lowland and montane forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.2030 m. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is known to occur in disturbed and degraded forest.,The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and may eat fruit.,"Reproduction of the Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is four young.","The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground dens and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than pencil width. It is known to be preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis), Madagascar red owls (71yto soumagne), Spotted Fanalokas (Fossa fossana), and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests from lowland to montane formations. In some areas, it can be at least seasonally common. Given its occurrence in more montane forest habitats, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its medium-term future seems relatively assured, but lowland forests are under severe threat.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Thorstrom (1998) | Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Thorstrom et al. (1997)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600387/files/figure.png,"10.Lesser Tufted-taill RatElurus minorFrench:Petit Rat-loir/ German:Kleiner Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho pequenaOther common names:Lesser Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus minor Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest(N.E. Betsileo),” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 101-124 mm, tail 119-137 mm; weight 21-5-49-5 g. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is the smallest species of Eliurus. Dorsum is generally brownish gray, and venter is beige-cream, blended with gray. Ears are proportionately shorter than other congeneric species. Distal one-half of tail has dark brown to blackish hair, becoming denser and longer toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Broad distribution in humid lowland and montane forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.2030 m. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is known to occur in disturbed and degraded forest.Food and Feeding.The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and may eat fruit.Breeding.Reproduction of the Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is four young.Activity patterns.The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground dens and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than pencil width. It is known to be preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis), Madagascar red owls (71yto soumagne), Spotted Fanalokas (Fossa fossana), and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests from lowland to montane formations. In some areas, it can be at least seasonally common. Given its occurrence in more montane forest habitats, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its medium-term future seems relatively assured, but lowland forests are under severe threat.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Thorstrom (1998), Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Thorstrom et al. (1997)." -03993828FFF60F52FFFFFD1DCFD3F70E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,187,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FFFFFD1DCFD3F70E.xml,Eliurus majori,Eliurus,majori,Thomas,1895,Rat-loir de Major @fr | Major-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Major @es | Major's Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus major: Thomas, 1895,“ Ambolimitombo Forest[= Ambohimitambo], Central Madagascar. Alt. 4500 feet[= 1372 m).”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 138-164 mm, tail 150-192 mm; weight 56-5— 93 g. Pelage of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is silkier and woollier than most other congeneric species. Dorsum is slightly light to dark blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Distal one-fourth of tail is covered with sparse black hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip; tails of some individuals end with a terminal white tuft. Tarsi are gray, and broad feet and toes are white.","Broad distribution in humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forests at elevations of 875-2400 m.",Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is largely granivorous but also eats fruits.,"Reproduction of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.","Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is nocturnal and largely arboreal, although on rare occasions it is captured on the ground. Distinctly broad feet and associated toe structure are indicative of ability to move across trunks, branches, and lianas of different size. It is known to be preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern montane humid forests. Given its occurrence in forest habitats, which to a large extent are not under extensive human pressure,its medium-term future seems relatively assured.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"9.Major's Tufted-tail RatEliurus majoriFrench:Rat-loir de Major/ German:Major-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de MajorOther common names:Major's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus major: Thomas, 1895,“ Ambolimitombo Forest[= Ambohimitambo], Central Madagascar. Alt. 4500 feet[= 1372 m).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 138-164 mm, tail 150-192 mm; weight 56-5— 93 g. Pelage of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is silkier and woollier than most other congeneric species. Dorsum is slightly light to dark blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Distal one-fourth of tail is covered with sparse black hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip; tails of some individuals end with a terminal white tuft. Tarsi are gray, and broad feet and toes are white.Habitat.Broad distribution in humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forests at elevations of 875-2400 m.Food and Feeding.Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is largely granivorous but also eats fruits.Breeding.Reproduction of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.Activity patterns.Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is nocturnal and largely arboreal, although on rare occasions it is captured on the ground. Distinctly broad feet and associated toe structure are indicative of ability to move across trunks, branches, and lianas of different size. It is known to be preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern montane humid forests. Given its occurrence in forest habitats, which to a large extent are not under extensive human pressure,its medium-term future seems relatively assured.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Maminirina et al. (2008), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF60F53FAFEF49ECFF0FC35,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,187,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F53FAFEF49ECFF0FC35.xml,Eliurus penicillatus,Eliurus,penicillatus,Thomas,1908,Rat-loir a queue blanche @fr | Blischel-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de punta blanca @es | \White-tipped Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus penicillatus Thomas, 1908,“ Ampitambé, N.E. Betsileo, Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to SC part of E Madagascar (Ampitambe Forest and Ankerana).,"Head-body 145 mm, tail 169 mm; weight 70 g. Measurements are from one White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is generally brownish gray to blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Line on flank separating these two parts is not very obvious. Distal one-half oftail is covered with scattered white hairs that become progressively denser toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.",Only known from three localities in eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1100-1670 m.,The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be mostly granivorous.,No information.,The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.,No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from three localities in the central-eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued decline in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"12.White-tailed Tufted-tail RatEliurus penicillatusFrench:Rat-loir a queue blanche/ German:Blischel-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de punta blancaOther common names:\White-tipped Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus penicillatus Thomas, 1908,“ Ampitambé, N.E. Betsileo, Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SC part of E Madagascar (Ampitambe Forest and Ankerana).Descriptive notes.Head-body 145 mm, tail 169 mm; weight 70 g. Measurements are from one White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is generally brownish gray to blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Line on flank separating these two parts is not very obvious. Distal one-half oftail is covered with scattered white hairs that become progressively denser toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Only known from three localities in eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1100-1670 m.Food and Feeding.The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be mostly granivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from three localities in the central-eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued decline in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF70F50FA26F4DACD54FABC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,188,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F50FA26F4DACD54FABC.xml,Voalavo antsahabensis,Voalavo,antsahabensis,Goodman et al.,2005,V oalavo d 'Antsahabe @fr | Ostlicher Voalavo @de | Raton de bosque de cola desnuda de Anjozorobe @es | Eastern Voalavo @en,"Voalavo antsahabensis Goodman et al, 2005,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antananarivo, Fivondronana d’Anjozorobe, Commune Rurale d’Anjozorobe, Fokontany d’Antsahabe, Forét d’Analamahavery, 6- 3 kmEAntsahabe(village), 18°24.60’S, 47°56.32’E, elevation 1425 mabove sea level.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E edge of the Central Highlands of Madagascar (Anjozorobe region).,"Head—body 85-100 mm, tail 102-123 mm; weight 19-26 g. Fur of the Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Largely naked tail is bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.",Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1250-1425 m.,The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is presumed to be a granivore and to a lesser extent frugiore.,"The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse has a gland on its upper chest that produces a distinct odor, most developed in reproductive males. Females have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.","The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.",No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in the central eastern humid forest. Its extent of occurrence is only c.60 km*. Given continued degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans, its mediumand short-term future is uncertain.","Goodman, Rakotondravony et al. (2005) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"16.Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest MouseVoalavo antsahabensisFrench:V oalavo d 'Antsahabe/ German:Ostlicher Voalavo/ Spanish:Raton de bosque de cola desnuda de AnjozorobeOther common names:Eastern VoalavoTaxonomy.Voalavo antsahabensis Goodman et al, 2005,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antananarivo, Fivondronana d’Anjozorobe, Commune Rurale d’Anjozorobe, Fokontany d’Antsahabe, Forét d’Analamahavery, 6- 3 kmEAntsahabe(village), 18°24.60’S, 47°56.32’E, elevation 1425 mabove sea level.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E edge of the Central Highlands of Madagascar (Anjozorobe region).Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-100 mm, tail 102-123 mm; weight 19-26 g. Fur of the Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Largely naked tail is bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1250-1425 m.Food and Feeding.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is presumed to be a granivore and to a lesser extent frugiore.Breeding.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse has a gland on its upper chest that produces a distinct odor, most developed in reproductive males. Females have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.Activity patterns.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in the central eastern humid forest. Its extent of occurrence is only c.60 km*. Given continued degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans, its mediumand short-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Goodman, Rakotondravony et al. (2005), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF70F53FA25FCD3C561F5F8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,188,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FA25FCD3C561F5F8.xml,Eliurus webbi,Eliurus,webbi,Ellerman,1949,Rat-loir de Webb @fr | \Webb-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Webb @es | Webb's Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus myoxinus webb: Ellerman, 1949,“ 20 milessouth of Farafangana, south-east coast Madagascar.”Eliurus webbiwas originally described as a subspecies of E. myoxinusbut now is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.",Endemic to the N & E portions of Madagascar.,"Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 161-186 mm; weight 66— 97.5 g. Dorsal pelage of Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is generally dark brown, blackish brown toward middle of back, and belly is light gray with brown tint on sides. It has proportionally smaller ears than other members of Eliurus. Distal one-third of tail has dark brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward distal tip, forming thin tuft. Gray tarsi and are completely white feet and toes. Belly pelage of individuals from Amber Mountain in the far north is off-white.",Humid lowland (including littoral) and montane forest from sea level up to elevations of c.1450 m. Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat is distinctly more common in lowland formations and becomes less common with increasing elevation. It is known from degraded forest mixed with introduced trees.,"Webb's Tufted-tail Rat eats a variety of seeds, such as Canarium(Burseraceae), by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and invertebrates.","Reproduction of Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs during the wet season; young are born in late November—December. There appears to be geographical or annual differences in reproductive period. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.",Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows with nesting birds. It is preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis) and Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagne).,No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. This forestdwelling species is known from the full length of eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines in the natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat's mediumand long-term futures is uncertain.","Andrianjakarivelo et al. (2005) | Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Ellerman (1949) | Goodman (1994) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman & Thorstrom (1998) | Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991) | Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Rakotondravony et al. (1998) | Ramanamanjato & Ganzhorn (2001) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Thorstrom et al. (1997)",,"15.Webb's Tufted-tail RatEliurus webbiFrench:Rat-loir de Webb/ German:\Webb-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de WebbOther common names:Webb's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus myoxinus webb: Ellerman, 1949,“ 20 milessouth of Farafangana, south-east coast Madagascar.”Eliurus webbiwas originally described as a subspecies of E. myoxinusbut now is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the N & E portions of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 161-186 mm; weight 66— 97.5 g. Dorsal pelage of Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is generally dark brown, blackish brown toward middle of back, and belly is light gray with brown tint on sides. It has proportionally smaller ears than other members of Eliurus. Distal one-third of tail has dark brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward distal tip, forming thin tuft. Gray tarsi and are completely white feet and toes. Belly pelage of individuals from Amber Mountain in the far north is off-white.Habitat.Humid lowland (including littoral) and montane forest from sea level up to elevations of c.1450 m. Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat is distinctly more common in lowland formations and becomes less common with increasing elevation. It is known from degraded forest mixed with introduced trees.Food and Feeding.Webb's Tufted-tail Rat eats a variety of seeds, such as Canarium(Burseraceae), by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Reproduction of Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs during the wet season; young are born in late November—December. There appears to be geographical or annual differences in reproductive period. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.Activity patterns.Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows with nesting birds. It is preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis) and Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagne).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. This forestdwelling species is known from the full length of eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines in the natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat's mediumand long-term futures is uncertain.Bibliography.Andrianjakarivelo et al. (2005), Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Ellerman (1949), Goodman (1994), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman & Thorstrom (1998), Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991), Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Maminirina et al. (2008), Rakotondravony et al. (1998), Ramanamanjato & Ganzhorn (2001), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Thorstrom et al. (1997)." -03993828FFF70F53FF29F6A0C597FCBC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,188,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FF29F6A0C597FCBC.xml,Elwurus tanala,Eliurus,tanala,Forsyth Major,1896,Rat-loir tanala @fr | Tanala-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de los Tanala @es | Tanala Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus tanala Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Forest of the Independent Tanala of Ikongo, in the neighbourhood of Vinanitelo, thirty miles south of Fianarantsoa.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 152-194 mm; weight 66— 97-5 g. Dorsum of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is grayish dark brown to dark brown, and venter is entirely white, sometimes spotted with gray. Distinct line on flank separates dorsum and venter. Distal one-half of tail is covered with short black hair that becomes progressively thicker and then white, forming distinct terminal tuft. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","Eastern humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 400-1875 m. In some areas, the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is common. At lower elevations, Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (FE. webbi) is dominant to elevations at ¢.900-1100 m and then is gradually replaced by the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat.","The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat eats various seeds, such as those of Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and perhaps invertebrates.","Reproduction of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is for the most part during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum littersize is four young.","The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. In general, it is more commonly captured in arboreal trap sets than those on the ground. Although in certain settings, such as forest along stream margins, it is regularly trapped in ground sets. It has been observed to climb vertical tree trunks and is capable of negotiating branches and relatively fine lianas.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from the full expanse of eastern humid forests of Madagascar and from numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end of its elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013b) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"14.Tanala Tufted-taill RatElwurus tanalaFrench:Rat-loir tanala/ German:Tanala-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de los TanalaOther common names:Tanala Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus tanala Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Forest of the Independent Tanala of Ikongo, in the neighbourhood of Vinanitelo, thirty miles south of Fianarantsoa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 152-194 mm; weight 66— 97-5 g. Dorsum of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is grayish dark brown to dark brown, and venter is entirely white, sometimes spotted with gray. Distinct line on flank separates dorsum and venter. Distal one-half of tail is covered with short black hair that becomes progressively thicker and then white, forming distinct terminal tuft. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 400-1875 m. In some areas, the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is common. At lower elevations, Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (FE. webbi) is dominant to elevations at ¢.900-1100 m and then is gradually replaced by the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat.Food and Feeding.The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat eats various seeds, such as those of Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and perhaps invertebrates.Breeding.Reproduction of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is for the most part during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum littersize is four young.Activity patterns.The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. In general, it is more commonly captured in arboreal trap sets than those on the ground. Although in certain settings, such as forest along stream margins, it is regularly trapped in ground sets. It has been observed to climb vertical tree trunks and is capable of negotiating branches and relatively fine lianas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from the full expanse of eastern humid forests of Madagascar and from numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end of its elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman et al. (2013), Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013b), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF70F53FF29FC60CDF3F771,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,188,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FF29FC60CDF3F771.xml,Eliurus petteri,Eliurus,petteri,Carleton,1994,Rat-loir de Petter @fr | Petter-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Petter @es | Petters Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus petteri Carleton, 1994,“ 8 kmfrom Fanovana,” Toamasina Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to C part of E Madagascar (Toamasina Province).,"Head-body 133 mm, tail 191 mm; weight 74 g. There are no more specific measurements for Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is grayish brown, and venter is crisp white; it is easily recognizable from adults of other species of Eliurusby this distinct color contrast. Distal one-fourth oftail is covered with sparse grayish brown hair, forming small terminal tuft that is white in some individuals. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.",Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 430-1200 m.,Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely a granivore and to a lesser extent frugivore and insectivore.,Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.,Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.,No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red Lust. Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area of humid forest in the central-eastern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.1500 km*. Given its apparent restricted distribution and continued declines in the natural forest of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Rakotondraparany & Medard (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"13.Petter’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus petteriFrench:Rat-loir de Petter/ German:Petter-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de PetterOther common names:Petters Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus petteri Carleton, 1994,“ 8 kmfrom Fanovana,” Toamasina Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C part of E Madagascar (Toamasina Province).Descriptive notes.Head-body 133 mm, tail 191 mm; weight 74 g. There are no more specific measurements for Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is grayish brown, and venter is crisp white; it is easily recognizable from adults of other species of Eliurusby this distinct color contrast. Distal one-fourth oftail is covered with sparse grayish brown hair, forming small terminal tuft that is white in some individuals. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 430-1200 m.Food and Feeding.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely a granivore and to a lesser extent frugivore and insectivore.Breeding.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red Lust. Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area of humid forest in the central-eastern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.1500 km*. Given its apparent restricted distribution and continued declines in the natural forest of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Goodman et al. (2013), Rakotondraparany & Medard (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFF80F5CFAF4FE0AC5C3F9F9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,193,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF80F5CFAF4FE0AC5C3F9F9.xml,Petromyscus barbouri,Petromyscus,barbouri,Shortridge & Carter,1938,Petromysque de Barbour @fr | Barbour Zwergfelsenmaus @de | Raton de roca enano de Barbour @es | Barbour’'s Rock Mouse @en | Namaqua Pygmy Rock Mouse @en,"Petromyscus barbouri Shortridge & Carter, 1938,“ Witwater(Kamiesberg), Little Namaqualand,” South Africa.Formerly considered a subspecies ofP. collinusbut can be readily distinguished by unique morphological traits. Monotypic.",Endemic to a narrow range in W South Africa.,"Head-body 71-75 mm, tail 76-89 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 17-19 mm; weight 14-16 g. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with a relatively long tail. Furis soft andsilky, grayish brown speckled with pale brown dorsally; venteris grayish. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is long, gray above and white below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet andfive digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.",Rocky outcrops in arid environments with succulent vegetation.,No information.,No information.,Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis nocturnal andspecialized for climbing rocks.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat that is unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.,Avery & Avery (2011) | Coetzee (2013a) | Denys et al. (1995) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Petter (1967) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005),,"32.Barbour’s Pygmy Rock MousePetromyscus barbouriFrench:Petromysque de Barbour/ German:BarbourZwergfelsenmaus/ Spanish:Raton de roca enano de BarbourOther common names:Barbour’'s Rock Mouse, Namaqua Pygmy Rock MouseTaxonomy.Petromyscus barbouri Shortridge & Carter, 1938,“ Witwater(Kamiesberg), Little Namaqualand,” South Africa.Formerly considered a subspecies ofP. collinusbut can be readily distinguished by unique morphological traits. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to a narrow range in W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 71-75 mm, tail 76-89 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 17-19 mm; weight 14-16 g. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with a relatively long tail. Furis soft andsilky, grayish brown speckled with pale brown dorsally; venteris grayish. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is long, gray above and white below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet andfive digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.Habitat.Rocky outcrops in arid environments with succulent vegetation.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis nocturnal andspecialized for climbing rocks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat that is unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.Bibliography.Avery & Avery (2011), Coetzee (2013a), Denys et al. (1995), Jansa et al. (1999), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Petter (1967), Skinner & Chimimba (2005)." -03993828FFF80F5CFFF7FD55CEB4F842,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,193,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF80F5CFFF7FD55CEB4F842.xml,Petromyscus shortridger,Petromyscus,shortridge,Thomas,1926,Petromysque de Shortridge @fr | Shortridge-Zwergfelsenmaus @de | Ratén de roca enano de Shortridge @es | Kaokoveld Pygmy Rock Mouse @en | Shortridge’'s Rock Mouse @en,"Petromyscus shortridge: Thomas, 1926,“ Cunene Falls, N.W. Ovamboland, [southern Angola]. 3350’ [= 1022 m].”This species is monotypic.",Narrow distribution restricted to extreme SW Angola and N Namibia.,"Head—body 65-98 mm, tail 74-104 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 12-31 g. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with long tail. Fur is soft andsilky, dark brown speckled black dorsally and grayish ventrally. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is moderately long but relatively short for a species of Petromyscusand darker above than below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.","Rocky substrates in hilly, mountainous, and arid terrain.",Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis primarily granivorous but also eats insects and green plant material.,"Pregnant Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mice have been collected in August— May, with 2—4 embryos.",No information.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.,"Coetzee (2013d) | Denys et al. (1995) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1967) | Shortridge (1934a, 1934b) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)",,"30.Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock MousePetromyscus shortridgerFrench:Petromysque de Shortridge/ German:Shortridge-Zwergfelsenmaus/ Spanish:Ratén de roca enano de ShortridgeOther common names:Kaokoveld Pygmy Rock Mouse, Shortridge’'s Rock MouseTaxonomy.Petromyscus shortridge: Thomas, 1926,“ Cunene Falls, N.W. Ovamboland, [southern Angola]. 3350’ [= 1022 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Narrow distribution restricted to extreme SW Angola and N Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 65-98 mm, tail 74-104 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 12-31 g. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with long tail. Fur is soft andsilky, dark brown speckled black dorsally and grayish ventrally. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is moderately long but relatively short for a species of Petromyscusand darker above than below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.Habitat.Rocky substrates in hilly, mountainous, and arid terrain.Food and Feeding.Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis primarily granivorous but also eats insects and green plant material.Breeding.Pregnant Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mice have been collected in August— May, with 2—4 embryos.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.Bibliography.Coetzee (2013d), Denys et al. (1995), Jansa et al. (1999), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1967), Shortridge (1934a, 1934b), Skinner & Chimimba (2005)." -03993828FFFA0F5EFAF7FBEFC661F483,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,191,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFAF7FBEFC661F483.xml,Nesomys audeberti,Nesomys,audeberti,,,Nésomys d’Audebert @fr | Audebert- @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque de Audebert @es | Lowland Red Forest Rat @en | White-bellied Nesomys @en,"Hallomys audeberti Jentink, 1879,“ Maisine and Savary, N. E. Madagascar.” Restricted by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 to “ Toamasina Province(former), Analanjirofo Région, west of Antongil Baytoward the western frontier of Fivondronana Mananara Avaratra, ‘ Savary.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E Madagascar.,"Head-body 195-203 mm, tail 169-173 mm; weight 193-239 g. Dorsum of Audebert’s Forest Ratis reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and venteris largely rusty-red, with central portion and throat white. Snout is elongated, and ears are moderately long. Base oftail has short black hair that becomes progressively longer and denser toward tip, which can be white. Legs, feet, and toes have dark brown fur.",Eastern humid lowland and montane forest from nearsea level to elevations of ¢.1050 m. Audebert’s Forest Rat has a patchy distribution and at some localities occurs in sympatry with the Red Forest Rat (N. rufus).,Audebert’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and perhaps on occasion frugivorous or insectivorous.,"Breeding season of Audebert’s Forest Rat coincides with the end of the dry season; reproductive activity begins in July-August, and young are born c.6 weekslater. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum recorded litter size is two young.","Audebert’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, with a tendency to be crepuscular. It lives in underground in complex burrows with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. These burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material.","Average home range of Audebert’s Forest Rat is c.1-5 ha, almost three times larger than that of the Red Forest Rat, with some sexual differences (females averaging 0-5 ha and males 1-4 ha). Home ranges do not appear to be defended and can be occupied by a male and numerous females. An Audebert’s Forest Rat can travel a ground distance of ¢.500 m/day.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Audebert’s Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It frequents lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Rakotomalala et al. (2007) | Ryan (2003) | Ryan et al. (1993) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"25.Audebert’s Forest RatNesomys audebertiFrench:Nésomys d’Audebert/ German:Audebert-Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque de AudebertOther common names:Lowland Red Forest Rat, White-bellied NesomysTaxonomy.Hallomys audeberti Jentink, 1879,“ Maisine and Savary, N. E. Madagascar.” Restricted by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 to “ Toamasina Province(former), Analanjirofo Région, west of Antongil Baytoward the western frontier of Fivondronana Mananara Avaratra, ‘ Savary.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-203 mm, tail 169-173 mm; weight 193-239 g. Dorsum of Audebert’s Forest Ratis reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and venteris largely rusty-red, with central portion and throat white. Snout is elongated, and ears are moderately long. Base oftail has short black hair that becomes progressively longer and denser toward tip, which can be white. Legs, feet, and toes have dark brown fur.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest from nearsea level to elevations of ¢.1050 m. Audebert’s Forest Rat has a patchy distribution and at some localities occurs in sympatry with the Red Forest Rat (N. rufus).Food and Feeding.Audebert’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and perhaps on occasion frugivorous or insectivorous.Breeding.Breeding season of Audebert’s Forest Rat coincides with the end of the dry season; reproductive activity begins in July-August, and young are born c.6 weekslater. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum recorded litter size is two young.Activity patterns.Audebert’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, with a tendency to be crepuscular. It lives in underground in complex burrows with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. These burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Average home range of Audebert’s Forest Rat is c.1-5 ha, almost three times larger than that of the Red Forest Rat, with some sexual differences (females averaging 0-5 ha and males 1-4 ha). Home ranges do not appear to be defended and can be occupied by a male and numerous females. An Audebert’s Forest Rat can travel a ground distance of ¢.500 m/day.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Audebert’s Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It frequents lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Rakotomalala et al. (2007), Ryan (2003), Ryan et al. (1993), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFFA0F5EFFF8F5F0C5DBFCE6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,191,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFFF8F5F0C5DBFCE6.xml,Brachyuromys ramirohitra,Brachyuromys,ramirohitra,Forsyth Major,1896,Grand Ramirohitra @fr | Grol3e Madagaskar Kurzschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola corta grande @es | Greater Short-tailed Rat @en | Gregarious Short-tailed Rat @en,"Brachyuromys ramirohitra Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest, Betsimisaraka country(on the border of N.E. Betsileo), 6 hours S.E. of Fandriana.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E Madagascar.,"Head-body 140-165 mm, tail 84-110 mm; weight 64-117 g. Muzzle of the Large Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown, with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter. Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.",Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 1210-1960 m. Large Short-tailed Rats are widely scattered and have been captured on ground and at openings of tree-root complexes in upper mossy forest.,The Large Short-tailed Rat is presumed to be herbivorous.,Female Large Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and litters of up to two young.,"The Large Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals have been trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Large Short-tailed Rat is largely forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoproctaferox). Given continued declines in forest cover in this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Bennie et al. (2014) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jansa & Carleton (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"24.Large Short-tailed RatBrachyuromys ramirohitraFrench:Grand Ramirohitra/ German:Grol3e MadagaskarKurzschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola corta grandeOther common names:Greater Short-tailed Rat, Gregarious Short-tailed RatTaxonomy.Brachyuromys ramirohitra Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest, Betsimisaraka country(on the border of N.E. Betsileo), 6 hours S.E. of Fandriana.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-165 mm, tail 84-110 mm; weight 64-117 g. Muzzle of the Large Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown, with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter. Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 1210-1960 m. Large Short-tailed Rats are widely scattered and have been captured on ground and at openings of tree-root complexes in upper mossy forest.Food and Feeding.The Large Short-tailed Rat is presumed to be herbivorous.Breeding.Female Large Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and litters of up to two young.Activity patterns.The Large Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals have been trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Large Short-tailed Rat is largely forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoproctaferox). Given continued declines in forest cover in this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Bennie et al. (2014), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jansa & Carleton (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFFA0F5EFFFBFC81CDC9F5AA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,191,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFFFBFC81CDC9F5AA.xml,Brachywromys betsileoensis,Brachywromys,betsileoensis,,,Petit Ramirohitra @fr | Kleine Madagaskar Kurzschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola corta pequena @es | Betsileo Short-tailed Rat @en | Lesser Short-tailed Rat @en,"Nesomys betsileoensis Bartlett, 1880,“S.E. Betsileo,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.,"Head-body 140-184 mm, tail 77-95 mm; weight 96-140 g. Muzzle of the Small Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter.Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.","Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 900-2450 m. The Small Short-tailed Rat is widely scattered and also occurs in degraded forest areas, agricultural areas (including abandoned rice paddy), and marshlands of different types (edge of open water, grassy meadows). It is known to swim in open and relatively deep water. It is one of the small mammals found above tree line in the summit zone of the Andringitra Massif (2658 m) that experiences temperatures of =7°C and sometimes snow. In the highland marshes of Andringitraand othersites, it has been captured in small mammal runways with piles of grass clippings;it is very vole-like.",The Small Short-tailed Rat is presumably completely or largely herbivorous.,Female Small Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litter sizes of two young. Reproduction takes place at least during the southern winter when pregnant and lactating females have been captured and males have enlarged scrotal testes.,"The Small Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals are usually trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems. They are preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Small Short-tailed Rat is not necessarily forest-restricted but is known from less than ten localities in eastern Madagascar. It was trapped in the vicinity of a rice field and more than 11 km to the nearest forest. Given its ability to live outside forest-habitat, it appears much more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae.","Bennie et al. (2014) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jansa & Carleton (2003) | Langrand & Goodman (1997) | Ramanana (2010) | Randriamoria et al. (2015) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"23.Small Short-tailed RatBrachywromys betsileoensisFrench:Petit Ramirohitra/ German:Kleine MadagaskarKurzschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola corta pequenaOther common names:Betsileo Short-tailed Rat, Lesser Short-tailed RatTaxonomy.Nesomys betsileoensis Bartlett, 1880,“S.E. Betsileo,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-184 mm, tail 77-95 mm; weight 96-140 g. Muzzle of the Small Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter.Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.Habitat.Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 900-2450 m. The Small Short-tailed Rat is widely scattered and also occurs in degraded forest areas, agricultural areas (including abandoned rice paddy), and marshlands of different types (edge of open water, grassy meadows). It is known to swim in open and relatively deep water. It is one of the small mammals found above tree line in the summit zone of the Andringitra Massif (2658 m) that experiences temperatures of =7°C and sometimes snow. In the highland marshes of Andringitraand othersites, it has been captured in small mammal runways with piles of grass clippings;it is very vole-like.Food and Feeding.The Small Short-tailed Rat is presumably completely or largely herbivorous.Breeding.Female Small Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litter sizes of two young. Reproduction takes place at least during the southern winter when pregnant and lactating females have been captured and males have enlarged scrotal testes.Activity patterns.The Small Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals are usually trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems. They are preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Small Short-tailed Rat is not necessarily forest-restricted but is known from less than ten localities in eastern Madagascar. It was trapped in the vicinity of a rice field and more than 11 km to the nearest forest. Given its ability to live outside forest-habitat, it appears much more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae.Bibliography.Bennie et al. (2014), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jansa & Carleton (2003), Langrand & Goodman (1997), Ramanana (2010), Randriamoria et al. (2015), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFFA0F5FFAF3F4D6C8ADFB70,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,191,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5FFAF3F4D6C8ADFB70.xml,Nesomys lambertoni,Nesomys,lambertoni,G. Grandidier,1928,Nésomys de Lamberton @fr | Lamberton- @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque de Lamberton @es | Western Nesomys @en | Western Red Forest Rat @en,"Nesomys lambertoni G. Grandidier, 1928,type locality not given. Identified by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 as “Mahajanga Province (former), Melaky Région, Antsalova District, tsingy habitat at the western margin of the Bemaraha Massifand east of Antsalova.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to CW Madagascar (Tsingy de Bemaraha area).,"Head-body 189-195 mm, tail 183-191 mm (two individuals); weight 225-243 g. Lamberton’s Forest Rat is distinctly large and appears squirrel-like from a distance. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and it becomes more saturated with red along flanks. Venteris light brown. It has an elongated snout and distinctly long ears. Tail is completely covered with long, thick dark brown hair. Legs are dark brown, tending to be black.","Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacle) habitat, at elevations of ¢.100 m. Lamberton’s Forest Rat makes its dens in small caves and rock shelters in limestone.",LLamberton’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and frugivorous.,"Female Lamberton’s Forest Rats have three pairs of mammae, and based on limited information, litter size is one young.","Lamberton’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular.",No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lamberton’s Forest Ratis strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a restricted zone of dry deciduous forest that grow on limestone substrate. Its complete known distribution occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is subjected to fire and other anthropogenic pressures.","Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman & Schutz (2003) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Ryan (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",,"26.Lamberton’s Forest RatNesomys lambertoniFrench:Nésomys de Lamberton/ German:Lamberton-Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque de LambertonOther common names:Western Nesomys, Western Red Forest RatTaxonomy.Nesomys lambertoni G. Grandidier, 1928,type locality not given. Identified by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 as “Mahajanga Province (former), Melaky Région, Antsalova District, tsingy habitat at the western margin of the Bemaraha Massifand east of Antsalova.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to CW Madagascar (Tsingy de Bemaraha area).Descriptive notes.Head-body 189-195 mm, tail 183-191 mm (two individuals); weight 225-243 g. Lamberton’s Forest Rat is distinctly large and appears squirrel-like from a distance. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and it becomes more saturated with red along flanks. Venteris light brown. It has an elongated snout and distinctly long ears. Tail is completely covered with long, thick dark brown hair. Legs are dark brown, tending to be black.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacle) habitat, at elevations of ¢.100 m. Lamberton’s Forest Rat makes its dens in small caves and rock shelters in limestone.Food and Feeding.LLamberton’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and frugivorous.Breeding.Female Lamberton’s Forest Rats have three pairs of mammae, and based on limited information, litter size is one young.Activity patterns.Lamberton’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lamberton’s Forest Ratis strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a restricted zone of dry deciduous forest that grow on limestone substrate. Its complete known distribution occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is subjected to fire and other anthropogenic pressures.Bibliography.Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman & Schutz (2003), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Ryan (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFFB0F5CFA25F8A5CCDBFE31,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,192,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5CFA25F8A5CCDBFE31.xml,Mystromys albicaudatus,Mystromys,albicaudatus,,,Mystromys a queue blanche @fr | Afrikanische Wei Rschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola blanca africana @es | Southern African Hamster @en | White-tailed Mouse @en,"Otomys albicaudatus A. Smith, 1834,Albany District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to SW & E South Africa and Lesotho.,"Head-body 116-199 mm, tail 46-87 mm, ear 18-28 mm, hindfoot 23-32 mm; weight 49-111 g. The African White-tailed Rat 1s medium-sized, with a shorttail. Fur is soft and dense, grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally; each hair has dark gray base. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are dark brown and rounded. Tail is short with dense white hairs above and below. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.Food and Feeding.Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.Breeding.Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.Activity patterns.The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network.","Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.",Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.,"Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.",The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.,The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.,Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network. Habitat loss and degradation are thought to be the most important threats.,"Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996) | Avenant (2011) | Avenant & Cavallini (2007) | Avery (1992b) | Dean (1978) | De Graaff (1981) | Downs & Perrin (1995) | Hallett & Meester (1971) | Hickman & Machiné (1986) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Lynch (1983) | Maddock & Perrin (1981, 1983) | Meester & Hallett (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | O'Farrell et al. (2008) | Perrin (2013b) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Perrin & Maddock (1983) | Rautenbach (1982)",,"29.African White-tailed RatMystromys albicaudatusFrench:Mystromys a queue blanche/ German:Afrikanische WeiRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola blanca africanaOther common names:Southern African Hamster, White-tailed MouseTaxonomy.Otomys albicaudatus A. Smith, 1834,Albany District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SW & E South Africa and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 116-199 mm, tail 46-87 mm, ear 18-28 mm, hindfoot 23-32 mm; weight 49-111 g. The African White-tailed Rat 1s medium-sized, with a shorttail. Fur is soft and dense, grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally; each hair has dark gray base. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are dark brown and rounded. Tail is short with dense white hairs above and below. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.Food and Feeding.Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.Breeding.Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.Activity patterns.The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network. Habitat loss and degradation are thought to be the most important threats.Bibliography.Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996), Avenant (2011), Avenant & Cavallini (2007), Avery (1992b), Dean (1978), De Graaff (1981), Downs & Perrin (1995), Hallett & Meester (1971), Hickman & Machiné (1986), Jansa et al. (1999), Lynch (1983), Maddock & Perrin (1981, 1983), Meester & Hallett (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), O'Farrell et al. (2008), Perrin (2013b), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Perrin & Maddock (1983), Rautenbach (1982)." -03993828FFFB0F5FFF29FAA7C93DF444,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,192,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5FFF29FAA7C93DF444.xml,Nesomys rufus,Nesomys,rufus,Peters,1870,Nésomys roux @fr | Rote @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque roja @es | Eastern Red Forest Rat @en | Rufous Nesomys @en,"Nesomys rufus Peters, 1870,“Ein getrocknetes mannliches Exemplar aus Vohima,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 170-200 mm, tail 160-180 mm; weight 135-185 g. Dorsum of the Red Forest Rat is reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back and more saturated with red along flanks. Venter ranges from uniform rusty red, with some parts, particularly along midline, off-white. Ears are moderately long. Proximal part of tail has short and sparse black hair that becomes progressively slightly longer; distal 8-20 mm oftail is white. Legs, feet, and toes are dark brown.","Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 650-2000 m. The Red Forest Ratis distinctly uncommon above elevations of 1900 m, and occurs sympatrically with Audebert’s Forest Rat (N. audeberti) at certain locations.","The Red Forest Rat eats seeds of different forest trees, including Cryptocarya(Lauraceae), Canarium(Burseraceae), and Sloanea (Elaecocarpaceae), and caches fatrich seeds such as Canarium. It has been observed in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture within short distances of relatively intact native forest.",Reproductive season of the Red Forest Rat is from mid-Octoberto late December. Females have three pairs of mammae and are known to have litters of up to four young.,"The Red Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular. It lives in complex underground burrow systems, with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. Burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material. It is preyed on by snakes (boas and the genus Pseudoxyrhopus) and carnivores such as the Ring-tailed Vontsira (Galidia elegans) and the Fosa (Cryproproctaferox).",Home range of the Red Forest Rat has been calculated to average 0-5 ha.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Red Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It occurs in lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and the mediumand long-term future in that habitat is uncertain.","Cadle (1999) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman etal. (2013) | Ryan (2003) | Ryan et al. (1993) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Soarimalala etal. (2001)",,"27.Red Forest RatNesomys rufusFrench:Nésomys roux/ German:Rote Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque rojaOther common names:Eastern Red Forest Rat, Rufous NesomysTaxonomy.Nesomys rufus Peters, 1870,“Ein getrocknetes mannliches Exemplar aus Vohima,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-200 mm, tail 160-180 mm; weight 135-185 g. Dorsum of the Red Forest Rat is reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back and more saturated with red along flanks. Venter ranges from uniform rusty red, with some parts, particularly along midline, off-white. Ears are moderately long. Proximal part of tail has short and sparse black hair that becomes progressively slightly longer; distal 8-20 mm oftail is white. Legs, feet, and toes are dark brown.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 650-2000 m. The Red Forest Ratis distinctly uncommon above elevations of 1900 m, and occurs sympatrically with Audebert’s Forest Rat (N. audeberti) at certain locations.Food and Feeding.The Red Forest Rat eats seeds of different forest trees, including Cryptocarya(Lauraceae), Canarium(Burseraceae), and Sloanea (Elaecocarpaceae), and caches fatrich seeds such as Canarium. It has been observed in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture within short distances of relatively intact native forest.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Red Forest Rat is from mid-Octoberto late December. Females have three pairs of mammae and are known to have litters of up to four young.Activity patterns.The Red Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular. It lives in complex underground burrow systems, with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. Burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material. It is preyed on by snakes (boas and the genus Pseudoxyrhopus) and carnivores such as the Ring-tailed Vontsira (Galidia elegans) and the Fosa (Cryproproctaferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range of the Red Forest Rat has been calculated to average 0-5 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Red Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It occurs in lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and the mediumand long-term future in that habitat is uncertain.Bibliography.Cadle (1999), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman etal. (2013), Ryan (2003), Ryan et al. (1993), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Soarimalala etal. (2001)." -03993828FFFB0F5FFF2DF2FAC420FA1E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,192,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5FFF2DF2FAC420FA1E.xml,Delanymys brooksi,Delanymys,brooksi,Hayman,1962,Delanymyspalustre @fr | Delany-Sumpfklettermaus @de | Raton de los pantanos de Delany @es,"Delanymys brooks: Hayman, 1962,Echuya Swamp, near Kanaba, Kigezi, Uganda.This species is monotypic.","Albertine Rift E of Lake Kivuin SW Uganda, E DR Congo, and W Rwanda.","Head-body 50-63 mm, tail 87-111 mm, ear 9-13 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 5-7 g. Delany’s Swamp Mouse is very small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and brown dorsally, paler ventrally. Long dark guard hairs are present dorsally. Small black patch is between eyes and nose. Ears are relatively large. Second to fifth digits are very long, with long claws. Thumbs are greatly reduced on forefeet but long and opposable on hindfeet.",Swamps in montane forests and grasslands at elevations of 1700-3100 m.,Seeds and insects were found in two stomachs of Delany’s Swamp Mice.,"Delany’s Swamp Mouse builds a small grass nest, with a single entrance. Litter sizes are 3—4 young.","Delany’s Swamp Mouse is nocturnal. It is a good climber, climbing grass stalks with ease using its prehensile tail and opposable thumbs on hindfeet.","Delany’s Swamp Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of small mammals captured.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Delany’s Swamp Mouse has a restricted distribution, occurring in a region with a high human population, and faces destruction of its wetland habitat.","Delany (1975) | Dieterlen (1967a, 1969a, 2013a) | Hayman (1962a, 1962b, 1963) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Van der Straeten & Verheyen (1983) | Verheyen (1965a)",,"28.Delany’s Swamp MouseDelanymys brooksiFrench:Delanymyspalustre/ German:Delany-Sumpfklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton de los pantanos de DelanyTaxonomy.Delanymys brooks: Hayman, 1962,Echuya Swamp, near Kanaba, Kigezi, Uganda.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Albertine Rift E of Lake Kivuin SW Uganda, E DR Congo, and W Rwanda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-63 mm, tail 87-111 mm, ear 9-13 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 5-7 g. Delany’s Swamp Mouse is very small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and brown dorsally, paler ventrally. Long dark guard hairs are present dorsally. Small black patch is between eyes and nose. Ears are relatively large. Second to fifth digits are very long, with long claws. Thumbs are greatly reduced on forefeet but long and opposable on hindfeet.Habitat.Swamps in montane forests and grasslands at elevations of 1700-3100 m.Food and Feeding.Seeds and insects were found in two stomachs of Delany’s Swamp Mice.Breeding.Delany’s Swamp Mouse builds a small grass nest, with a single entrance. Litter sizes are 3—4 young.Activity patterns.Delany’s Swamp Mouse is nocturnal. It is a good climber, climbing grass stalks with ease using its prehensile tail and opposable thumbs on hindfeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Delany’s Swamp Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of small mammals captured.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Delany’s Swamp Mouse has a restricted distribution, occurring in a region with a high human population, and faces destruction of its wetland habitat.Bibliography.Delany (1975), Dieterlen (1967a, 1969a, 2013a), Hayman (1962a, 1962b, 1963), Monadjem et al. (2015), Van der Straeten & Verheyen (1983), Verheyen (1965a)." -03993828FFFC0F58FAFFF7E9CA2CF238,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,197,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FAFFF7E9CA2CF238.xml,Megadendromus nikolausi,Megadendromus,nikolausi,Dieterlen & Rupp,1978,Dendromus des Bale @fr | Riesenklettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Nikolaus @es | Bale Mouse @en | Giant Climbing Mouse @en | Nikolaus's Mouse @en,"Megadendromus nikolausi Dieterlen & Rupp, 1978,Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.Recent molecular analysis suggests that this species belongs in the genus Dendromus. This would render the genus Megadendromusa synonym of Dendromus. Monotypic.",Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands E of the Rift Valley (Bale and Arsi Mts).,"Head-body 117- 129 mm,tail 92-106 mm, ear 23-26 mm, hindfoot 26-27 mm; weight 49-66 g. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a relatively short tail about the same length as the body. Fur is relatively long, soft and russet-brown dorsally and grayish brown ventrally. There is an obvious mid-dorsal stripe extending from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing, but short tail suggests predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits.",High-elevation montane forest and Ericaarborea (Ericaceae) scrub forest at 3000-3800 m ofaltitude.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is known from justfive specimens,collected at four localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains, Ethiopia.",Demeter & Topél (1982) | Dieterlen & Rupp (1978) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Yalden (2013c),,"43.Nikolaus’s African Climbing MouseMegadendromus nikolausiFrench:Dendromus des Bale/ German:Riesenklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de NikolausOther common names:Bale Mouse, Giant Climbing Mouse, Nikolaus's MouseTaxonomy.Megadendromus nikolausi Dieterlen & Rupp, 1978,Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.Recent molecular analysis suggests that this species belongs in the genus Dendromus. This would render the genus Megadendromusa synonym of Dendromus. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands E of the Rift Valley (Bale and Arsi Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 117- 129 mm,tail 92-106 mm, ear 23-26 mm, hindfoot 26-27 mm; weight 49-66 g. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a relatively short tail about the same length as the body. Fur is relatively long, soft and russet-brown dorsally and grayish brown ventrally. There is an obvious mid-dorsal stripe extending from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing, but short tail suggests predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits.Habitat.High-elevation montane forest and Ericaarborea (Ericaceae) scrub forest at 3000-3800 m ofaltitude.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is known from justfive specimens,collected at four localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains, Ethiopia.Bibliography.Demeter & Topél (1982), Dieterlen & Rupp (1978), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Monadjem et al. (2015), Yalden (2013c)." -03993828FFFC0F58FFE3F5B2C67CF95D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,197,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FFE3F5B2C67CF95D.xml,Saccostomus campestris,Saccostomus,campestris,Peters,1846,Saccostome du Cap @fr | Sidliche Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Raton de abazones de Africa meridional @es | Cape Pouched Mouse @en,"Saccostomus campestris Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Tete District, Mozambique.Saccostomus campestrishas high chromosomal variability, prompting suggestions that it may represent a species complex. However, a recent study combining molecular and morphological analyses across southern and eastern Africa has shown that differ ences within this taxon do not represent species-level variation. Hence S. campestrisrefers to a single, but highly variable, species. Two subspecies recognized.","S.c.campestrisPeters,1846—SWTanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique;populationsfromAngolaandDRCongomayrefertothissubspecies.S. c. mashonae de Winton, 1897— Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland.","Head-body 95-173 mm, tail 28-55 mm, ear 16-20 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 33-81 g. The Southern African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. There is significant geographical variation in size and pelage color, with individuals from dry arid zones paler than those from moister woodlands and savannas. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short, sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of low-lying savanna and woodlands from semi-desert conditions to moist miombo woodland, typically below elevations of ¢.1500 m.","The Southern African Pouched Mouse eats mostly seeds, which can be cached in burrows. Seeds from more than 20 species of plants have so far been collected from burrows. It also eats green plant material.","Pregnant Southern African Pouched Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in October—-April. Average littersize varies considerably between locations from 5-1 young in Malawi to 6-7 in Zimbabwe, seven in Botswana, and 7-1 in captivity. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g by c.4 weeks of age. Gestation period c.21 days. Neonates are c.3 g in weight, growing to 15 g when weaned after 19-25 days. First conception occurs at 56 days, and litter interval is 53 days. Body mass of young individuals varies with season, but older individuals retain body weight throughoutthe year.","The Southern African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows in sandy soils or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds or holes excavated by other mammals. Burrows may be simple, containing a single chamber, or more complex with multiple chambers; they can extend up to 8:5 m. In the laboratory, individuals enter torpor at temperatures similar to those in the cool dry season of its distribution in southern Africa, although males are less inclined to enter torpor than females. Burrows provide thermal protection.","The Southern African Pouched Mouse is solitary, with single adults occupying burrows. Based on trapping data, home range size is 0-12-0-28 ha.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Corti et al. (2004) | Ellison (1993, 1996) | Ellison & Skinner (1992) | Ellison, Bronner & Taylor (1993) | Ellison, Taylor et al. (1993) | Fitzherbert et al. (2007) | Gordon (1986) | Gordon & Rautenbach (1980) | Gordon & Watson (1986) | Hanney (1965) | Hickman & Machiné (1986) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014) | Kerley (1989) | Lovegrove & Raman (1998) | MacFadyen et al. (2012) | Maputla etal. (2011) | Mikula et al. (2016) | Monadjem (1997b, 1999a) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Mzilikazi & Lovegrove (2002) | Perrin (2013a) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Petter (1966a) | Rautenbach (1982) | Smithers (1971) | Smithers & Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Speakman et al. (1994) | Westlin-van Aarde (1988, 1989) | Yarnell et al. (2007)",,"42.Southern African Pouched MouseSaccostomus campestrisFrench:Saccostome du Cap/ German:Sidliche Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Raton de abazones de Africa meridionalOther common names:Cape Pouched MouseTaxonomy.Saccostomus campestris Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Tete District, Mozambique.Saccostomus campestrishas high chromosomal variability, prompting suggestions that it may represent a species complex. However, a recent study combining molecular and morphological analyses across southern and eastern Africa has shown that differ ences within this taxon do not represent species-level variation. Hence S. campestrisrefers to a single, but highly variable, species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.c.campestrisPeters,1846—SWTanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique;populationsfromAngolaandDRCongomayrefertothissubspecies.S. c. mashonae de Winton, 1897— Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 95-173 mm, tail 28-55 mm, ear 16-20 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 33-81 g. The Southern African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. There is significant geographical variation in size and pelage color, with individuals from dry arid zones paler than those from moister woodlands and savannas. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short, sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of low-lying savanna and woodlands from semi-desert conditions to moist miombo woodland, typically below elevations of ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.The Southern African Pouched Mouse eats mostly seeds, which can be cached in burrows. Seeds from more than 20 species of plants have so far been collected from burrows. It also eats green plant material.Breeding.Pregnant Southern African Pouched Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in October—-April. Average littersize varies considerably between locations from 5-1 young in Malawi to 6-7 in Zimbabwe, seven in Botswana, and 7-1 in captivity. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g by c.4 weeks of age. Gestation period c.21 days. Neonates are c.3 g in weight, growing to 15 g when weaned after 19-25 days. First conception occurs at 56 days, and litter interval is 53 days. Body mass of young individuals varies with season, but older individuals retain body weight throughoutthe year.Activity patterns.The Southern African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows in sandy soils or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds or holes excavated by other mammals. Burrows may be simple, containing a single chamber, or more complex with multiple chambers; they can extend up to 8:5 m. In the laboratory, individuals enter torpor at temperatures similar to those in the cool dry season of its distribution in southern Africa, although males are less inclined to enter torpor than females. Burrows provide thermal protection.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern African Pouched Mouse is solitary, with single adults occupying burrows. Based on trapping data, home range size is 0-12-0-28 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Corti et al. (2004), Ellison (1993, 1996), Ellison & Skinner (1992), Ellison, Bronner & Taylor (1993), Ellison, Taylor et al. (1993), Fitzherbert et al. (2007), Gordon (1986), Gordon & Rautenbach (1980), Gordon & Watson (1986), Hanney (1965), Hickman & Machiné (1986), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014), Kerley (1989), Lovegrove & Raman (1998), MacFadyen et al. (2012), Maputla etal. (2011), Mikula et al. (2016), Monadjem (1997b, 1999a), Monadjem et al. (2015), Mzilikazi & Lovegrove (2002), Perrin (2013a), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Petter (1966a), Rautenbach (1982), Smithers (1971), Smithers & Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Speakman et al. (1994), Westlin-van Aarde (1988, 1989), Yarnell et al. (2007)." -03993828FFFC0F58FFE5FAD4CF27F663,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,197,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FFE5FAD4CF27F663.xml,Saccostomus umbriventer,Saccostomus,umbriventer,Miller,1910,Saccostome a ventre gris @fr | Graubauch-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Raton de abazones de vientre gris @es,"Saccostomus umbriventer G.S. Miller, 1910,“ Njori Osolali(Sotik), British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation in S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.",N Tanzania and SW Kenya.,"Head-body 133-136 mm, tail 556-60 mm, hindfoot ¢.20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is mediums=sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.",Masai Steppe savanna.,The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.,No information.,The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.,The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be solitary.,Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.,Corti et al. (2004) | Denys (1988) | Mikula et al. (2016),,"41.Gray-bellied Pouched MouseSaccostomus umbriventerFrench:Saccostome a ventre gris/ German:Graubauch-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Raton de abazones de vientre grisTaxonomy.Saccostomus umbriventer G.S. Miller, 1910,“ Njori Osolali(Sotik), British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation in S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.Distribution.N Tanzania and SW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 133-136 mm, tail 556-60 mm, hindfoot ¢.20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is mediums=sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Masai Steppe savanna.Food and Feeding.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Corti et al. (2004), Denys (1988), Mikula et al. (2016)." -03993828FFFD0F46FA39F4DACEE6FBF8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F46FA39F4DACEE6FBF8.xml,Dendromus lovati,Dendromus,lovati,,,Dendromus de Lovat @fr | Lovat-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Lovat @es | Lovat's Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromys lovati de Winton, 1900,Managasha, near Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Dendromus lovatiwas previously placed in its own subgenus Chortomys, but a recent molecular study showed that it is part of the Dendromuss.s.subgenus. Hence, its morphological distinctiveness is due to adaptations to its unique environment and unrelated to its phylogenetic history. Monotypic.",High-elevation regions of Ethiopia.,"Head—body 57-95 mm,tail 57-87 mm, ear 15-18 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 11-23 g. Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail but relatively short for a species of Dendromus. Fur is long, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There are three mid-dorsalstripes. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.",Grasslands above elevations of 2500 m and heathlands above 3300 m.,No information.,Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest under boulders.,"Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be nocturnal, and typically, few individuals are captured in suitable habitat. Based on reduced captures during the cooler months, it has been proposed that it hibernates. Unlike other species of Dendromus,it appears to be mostly terrestrial.",No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bekele & Yalden (2013) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Girma et al. (2012) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a) | Yalden (2013b) | Yalden & Largen (1992) | Yalden, Largen & Kock (1976) | Yalden, Largen, Kock & Hillman (1996)",,"48.Lovat’s African Climbing MouseDendromus lovatiFrench:Dendromus de Lovat/ German:Lovat-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de LovatOther common names:Lovat's Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys lovati de Winton, 1900,Managasha, near Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Dendromus lovatiwas previously placed in its own subgenus Chortomys, but a recent molecular study showed that it is part of the Dendromuss.s.subgenus. Hence, its morphological distinctiveness is due to adaptations to its unique environment and unrelated to its phylogenetic history. Monotypic.Distribution.High-elevation regions of Ethiopia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 57-95 mm,tail 57-87 mm, ear 15-18 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 11-23 g. Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail but relatively short for a species of Dendromus. Fur is long, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There are three mid-dorsalstripes. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Grasslands above elevations of 2500 m and heathlands above 3300 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest under boulders.Activity patterns.Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be nocturnal, and typically, few individuals are captured in suitable habitat. Based on reduced captures during the cooler months, it has been proposed that it hibernates. Unlike other species of Dendromus,it appears to be mostly terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bekele & Yalden (2013), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Girma et al. (2012), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a), Yalden (2013b), Yalden & Largen (1992), Yalden, Largen & Kock (1976), Yalden, Largen, Kock & Hillman (1996)." -03993828FFFD0F59FA36F9EFC576F4BF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FA36F9EFC576F4BF.xml,Dendromus ruppi,Dendromus,ruppi,Dieterlen,2009,Dendromus de Rupp @fr | Rupp-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Rupp @es,"Dendromus ruppi Dieterlen, 2009,Imatong Mountains, South Sudan.Relationship between this recently described species and the population of D. mystacalisfrom the Ethiopian highlands needs to be investigated. Monotypic.","Only known from Imatong Mts, S South Sudan.","Head-body 63-82 mm, tail 91-115 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 8-15 g. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and white with dark gray bases ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.",Only known from montane grasslands at elevations of 1800-1900 m.,No information.,A single female Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse captured in April had four embryos.,No information.,No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse has a highly restricted distribution and may therefore be at conservation risk.,Dieterlen (2009) | Dieterlen et al. (2013) | Monadjem et al. (2015),,"47.Rupp’s African Climbing MouseDendromus ruppiFrench:Dendromus de Rupp/ German:Rupp-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de RuppTaxonomy.Dendromus ruppi Dieterlen, 2009,Imatong Mountains, South Sudan.Relationship between this recently described species and the population of D. mystacalisfrom the Ethiopian highlands needs to be investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Imatong Mts, S South Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 63-82 mm, tail 91-115 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 8-15 g. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and white with dark gray bases ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Only known from montane grasslands at elevations of 1800-1900 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A single female Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse captured in April had four embryos.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse has a highly restricted distribution and may therefore be at conservation risk.Bibliography.Dieterlen (2009), Dieterlen et al. (2013), Monadjem et al. (2015)." +03993828FFF60F52FFFFFD1DCFD3F70E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,187,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FFFFFD1DCFD3F70E.xml,Eliurus majori,Eliurus,majori,Thomas,1895,Rat-loir de Major @fr | Major-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Major @es | Major's Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus major: Thomas, 1895,“ Ambolimitombo Forest[= Ambohimitambo], Central Madagascar. Alt. 4500 feet[= 1372 m).”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 138-164 mm, tail 150-192 mm; weight 56-5— 93 g. Pelage of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is silkier and woollier than most other congeneric species. Dorsum is slightly light to dark blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Distal one-fourth of tail is covered with sparse black hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip; tails of some individuals end with a terminal white tuft. Tarsi are gray, and broad feet and toes are white.","Broad distribution in humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forests at elevations of 875-2400 m.",Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is largely granivorous but also eats fruits.,"Reproduction of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.","Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is nocturnal and largely arboreal, although on rare occasions it is captured on the ground. Distinctly broad feet and associated toe structure are indicative of ability to move across trunks, branches, and lianas of different size. It is known to be preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern montane humid forests. Given its occurrence in forest habitats, which to a large extent are not under extensive human pressure,its medium-term future seems relatively assured.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600385/files/figure.png,"9.Major's Tufted-tail RatEliurus majoriFrench:Rat-loir de Major/ German:Major-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de MajorOther common names:Major's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus major: Thomas, 1895,“ Ambolimitombo Forest[= Ambohimitambo], Central Madagascar. Alt. 4500 feet[= 1372 m).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 138-164 mm, tail 150-192 mm; weight 56-5— 93 g. Pelage of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is silkier and woollier than most other congeneric species. Dorsum is slightly light to dark blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Distal one-fourth of tail is covered with sparse black hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip; tails of some individuals end with a terminal white tuft. Tarsi are gray, and broad feet and toes are white.Habitat.Broad distribution in humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forests at elevations of 875-2400 m.Food and Feeding.Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is largely granivorous but also eats fruits.Breeding.Reproduction of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.Activity patterns.Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is nocturnal and largely arboreal, although on rare occasions it is captured on the ground. Distinctly broad feet and associated toe structure are indicative of ability to move across trunks, branches, and lianas of different size. It is known to be preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern montane humid forests. Given its occurrence in forest habitats, which to a large extent are not under extensive human pressure,its medium-term future seems relatively assured.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Maminirina et al. (2008), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF60F53FAFEF49ECFF0FC35,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,187,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F53FAFEF49ECFF0FC35.xml,Eliurus penicillatus,Eliurus,penicillatus,Thomas,1908,Rat-loir a queue blanche @fr | Blischel-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de punta blanca @es | \White-tipped Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus penicillatus Thomas, 1908,“ Ampitambé, N.E. Betsileo, Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to SC part of E Madagascar (Ampitambe Forest and Ankerana).,"Head-body 145 mm, tail 169 mm; weight 70 g. Measurements are from one White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is generally brownish gray to blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Line on flank separating these two parts is not very obvious. Distal one-half oftail is covered with scattered white hairs that become progressively denser toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.",Only known from three localities in eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1100-1670 m.,The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be mostly granivorous.,No information.,The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.,No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from three localities in the central-eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued decline in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600392/files/figure.png,"12.White-tailed Tufted-tail RatEliurus penicillatusFrench:Rat-loir a queue blanche/ German:Blischel-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de punta blancaOther common names:\White-tipped Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus penicillatus Thomas, 1908,“ Ampitambé, N.E. Betsileo, Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SC part of E Madagascar (Ampitambe Forest and Ankerana).Descriptive notes.Head-body 145 mm, tail 169 mm; weight 70 g. Measurements are from one White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is generally brownish gray to blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Line on flank separating these two parts is not very obvious. Distal one-half oftail is covered with scattered white hairs that become progressively denser toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Only known from three localities in eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1100-1670 m.Food and Feeding.The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be mostly granivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from three localities in the central-eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued decline in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF70F50FA26F4DACD54FABC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,188,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F50FA26F4DACD54FABC.xml,Voalavo antsahabensis,Voalavo,antsahabensis,Goodman et al.,2005,V oalavo d 'Antsahabe @fr | Ostlicher Voalavo @de | Raton de bosque de cola desnuda de Anjozorobe @es | Eastern Voalavo @en,"Voalavo antsahabensis Goodman et al, 2005,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antananarivo, Fivondronana d’Anjozorobe, Commune Rurale d’Anjozorobe, Fokontany d’Antsahabe, Forét d’Analamahavery, 6- 3 kmEAntsahabe(village), 18°24.60’S, 47°56.32’E, elevation 1425 mabove sea level.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E edge of the Central Highlands of Madagascar (Anjozorobe region).,"Head—body 85-100 mm, tail 102-123 mm; weight 19-26 g. Fur of the Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Largely naked tail is bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.",Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1250-1425 m.,The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is presumed to be a granivore and to a lesser extent frugiore.,"The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse has a gland on its upper chest that produces a distinct odor, most developed in reproductive males. Females have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.","The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.",No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in the central eastern humid forest. Its extent of occurrence is only c.60 km*. Given continued degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans, its mediumand short-term future is uncertain.","Goodman, Rakotondravony et al. (2005) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600402/files/figure.png,"16.Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest MouseVoalavo antsahabensisFrench:V oalavo d 'Antsahabe/ German:Ostlicher Voalavo/ Spanish:Raton de bosque de cola desnuda de AnjozorobeOther common names:Eastern VoalavoTaxonomy.Voalavo antsahabensis Goodman et al, 2005,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antananarivo, Fivondronana d’Anjozorobe, Commune Rurale d’Anjozorobe, Fokontany d’Antsahabe, Forét d’Analamahavery, 6- 3 kmEAntsahabe(village), 18°24.60’S, 47°56.32’E, elevation 1425 mabove sea level.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E edge of the Central Highlands of Madagascar (Anjozorobe region).Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-100 mm, tail 102-123 mm; weight 19-26 g. Fur of the Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Largely naked tail is bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1250-1425 m.Food and Feeding.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is presumed to be a granivore and to a lesser extent frugiore.Breeding.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse has a gland on its upper chest that produces a distinct odor, most developed in reproductive males. Females have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.Activity patterns.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in the central eastern humid forest. Its extent of occurrence is only c.60 km*. Given continued degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans, its mediumand short-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Goodman, Rakotondravony et al. (2005), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF70F53FA25FCD3C561F5F8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,188,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FA25FCD3C561F5F8.xml,Eliurus webbi,Eliurus,webbi,Ellerman,1949,Rat-loir de Webb @fr | \Webb-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Webb @es | Webb's Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus myoxinus webb: Ellerman, 1949,“ 20 milessouth of Farafangana, south-east coast Madagascar.”Eliurus webbiwas originally described as a subspecies of E. myoxinusbut now is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.",Endemic to the N & E portions of Madagascar.,"Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 161-186 mm; weight 66— 97.5 g. Dorsal pelage of Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is generally dark brown, blackish brown toward middle of back, and belly is light gray with brown tint on sides. It has proportionally smaller ears than other members of Eliurus. Distal one-third of tail has dark brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward distal tip, forming thin tuft. Gray tarsi and are completely white feet and toes. Belly pelage of individuals from Amber Mountain in the far north is off-white.",Humid lowland (including littoral) and montane forest from sea level up to elevations of c.1450 m. Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat is distinctly more common in lowland formations and becomes less common with increasing elevation. It is known from degraded forest mixed with introduced trees.,"Webb's Tufted-tail Rat eats a variety of seeds, such as Canarium(Burseraceae), by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and invertebrates.","Reproduction of Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs during the wet season; young are born in late November—December. There appears to be geographical or annual differences in reproductive period. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.",Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows with nesting birds. It is preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis) and Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagne).,No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. This forestdwelling species is known from the full length of eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines in the natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat's mediumand long-term futures is uncertain.","Andrianjakarivelo et al. (2005) | Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Ellerman (1949) | Goodman (1994) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman & Thorstrom (1998) | Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991) | Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Rakotondravony et al. (1998) | Ramanamanjato & Ganzhorn (2001) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Thorstrom et al. (1997)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600400/files/figure.png,"15.Webb's Tufted-tail RatEliurus webbiFrench:Rat-loir de Webb/ German:\Webb-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de WebbOther common names:Webb's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus myoxinus webb: Ellerman, 1949,“ 20 milessouth of Farafangana, south-east coast Madagascar.”Eliurus webbiwas originally described as a subspecies of E. myoxinusbut now is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the N & E portions of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 161-186 mm; weight 66— 97.5 g. Dorsal pelage of Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is generally dark brown, blackish brown toward middle of back, and belly is light gray with brown tint on sides. It has proportionally smaller ears than other members of Eliurus. Distal one-third of tail has dark brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward distal tip, forming thin tuft. Gray tarsi and are completely white feet and toes. Belly pelage of individuals from Amber Mountain in the far north is off-white.Habitat.Humid lowland (including littoral) and montane forest from sea level up to elevations of c.1450 m. Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat is distinctly more common in lowland formations and becomes less common with increasing elevation. It is known from degraded forest mixed with introduced trees.Food and Feeding.Webb's Tufted-tail Rat eats a variety of seeds, such as Canarium(Burseraceae), by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Reproduction of Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs during the wet season; young are born in late November—December. There appears to be geographical or annual differences in reproductive period. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.Activity patterns.Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows with nesting birds. It is preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis) and Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagne).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. This forestdwelling species is known from the full length of eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines in the natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat's mediumand long-term futures is uncertain.Bibliography.Andrianjakarivelo et al. (2005), Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Ellerman (1949), Goodman (1994), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman & Thorstrom (1998), Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991), Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Maminirina et al. (2008), Rakotondravony et al. (1998), Ramanamanjato & Ganzhorn (2001), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Thorstrom et al. (1997)." +03993828FFF70F53FF29F6A0C597FCBC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,188,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FF29F6A0C597FCBC.xml,Elwurus tanala,Eliurus,tanala,Forsyth Major,1896,Rat-loir tanala @fr | Tanala-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de los Tanala @es | Tanala Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus tanala Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Forest of the Independent Tanala of Ikongo, in the neighbourhood of Vinanitelo, thirty miles south of Fianarantsoa.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 152-194 mm; weight 66— 97-5 g. Dorsum of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is grayish dark brown to dark brown, and venter is entirely white, sometimes spotted with gray. Distinct line on flank separates dorsum and venter. Distal one-half of tail is covered with short black hair that becomes progressively thicker and then white, forming distinct terminal tuft. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","Eastern humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 400-1875 m. In some areas, the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is common. At lower elevations, Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (FE. webbi) is dominant to elevations at ¢.900-1100 m and then is gradually replaced by the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat.","The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat eats various seeds, such as those of Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and perhaps invertebrates.","Reproduction of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is for the most part during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum littersize is four young.","The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. In general, it is more commonly captured in arboreal trap sets than those on the ground. Although in certain settings, such as forest along stream margins, it is regularly trapped in ground sets. It has been observed to climb vertical tree trunks and is capable of negotiating branches and relatively fine lianas.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from the full expanse of eastern humid forests of Madagascar and from numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end of its elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013b) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600396/files/figure.png,"14.Tanala Tufted-taill RatElwurus tanalaFrench:Rat-loir tanala/ German:Tanala-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de los TanalaOther common names:Tanala Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus tanala Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Forest of the Independent Tanala of Ikongo, in the neighbourhood of Vinanitelo, thirty miles south of Fianarantsoa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 152-194 mm; weight 66— 97-5 g. Dorsum of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is grayish dark brown to dark brown, and venter is entirely white, sometimes spotted with gray. Distinct line on flank separates dorsum and venter. Distal one-half of tail is covered with short black hair that becomes progressively thicker and then white, forming distinct terminal tuft. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 400-1875 m. In some areas, the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is common. At lower elevations, Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (FE. webbi) is dominant to elevations at ¢.900-1100 m and then is gradually replaced by the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat.Food and Feeding.The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat eats various seeds, such as those of Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and perhaps invertebrates.Breeding.Reproduction of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is for the most part during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum littersize is four young.Activity patterns.The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. In general, it is more commonly captured in arboreal trap sets than those on the ground. Although in certain settings, such as forest along stream margins, it is regularly trapped in ground sets. It has been observed to climb vertical tree trunks and is capable of negotiating branches and relatively fine lianas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from the full expanse of eastern humid forests of Madagascar and from numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end of its elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman et al. (2013), Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013b), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF70F53FF29FC60CDF3F771,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,188,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FF29FC60CDF3F771.xml,Eliurus petteri,Eliurus,petteri,Carleton,1994,Rat-loir de Petter @fr | Petter-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Petter @es | Petters Tuft-tailed Rat @en,"Eliurus petteri Carleton, 1994,“ 8 kmfrom Fanovana,” Toamasina Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to C part of E Madagascar (Toamasina Province).,"Head-body 133 mm, tail 191 mm; weight 74 g. There are no more specific measurements for Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is grayish brown, and venter is crisp white; it is easily recognizable from adults of other species of Eliurusby this distinct color contrast. Distal one-fourth oftail is covered with sparse grayish brown hair, forming small terminal tuft that is white in some individuals. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.",Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 430-1200 m.,Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely a granivore and to a lesser extent frugivore and insectivore.,Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.,Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.,No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red Lust. Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area of humid forest in the central-eastern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.1500 km*. Given its apparent restricted distribution and continued declines in the natural forest of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton (1994, 2003) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Rakotondraparany & Medard (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600394/files/figure.png,"13.Petter’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus petteriFrench:Rat-loir de Petter/ German:Petter-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de PetterOther common names:Petters Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus petteri Carleton, 1994,“ 8 kmfrom Fanovana,” Toamasina Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C part of E Madagascar (Toamasina Province).Descriptive notes.Head-body 133 mm, tail 191 mm; weight 74 g. There are no more specific measurements for Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is grayish brown, and venter is crisp white; it is easily recognizable from adults of other species of Eliurusby this distinct color contrast. Distal one-fourth oftail is covered with sparse grayish brown hair, forming small terminal tuft that is white in some individuals. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 430-1200 m.Food and Feeding.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely a granivore and to a lesser extent frugivore and insectivore.Breeding.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red Lust. Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area of humid forest in the central-eastern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.1500 km*. Given its apparent restricted distribution and continued declines in the natural forest of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Goodman et al. (2013), Rakotondraparany & Medard (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFF80F5CFAF4FE0AC5C3F9F9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,193,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF80F5CFAF4FE0AC5C3F9F9.xml,Petromyscus barbouri,Petromyscus,barbouri,Shortridge & Carter,1938,Petromysque de Barbour @fr | Barbour Zwergfelsenmaus @de | Raton de roca enano de Barbour @es | Barbour’'s Rock Mouse @en | Namaqua Pygmy Rock Mouse @en,"Petromyscus barbouri Shortridge & Carter, 1938,“ Witwater(Kamiesberg), Little Namaqualand,” South Africa.Formerly considered a subspecies ofP. collinusbut can be readily distinguished by unique morphological traits. Monotypic.",Endemic to a narrow range in W South Africa.,"Head-body 71-75 mm, tail 76-89 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 17-19 mm; weight 14-16 g. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with a relatively long tail. Furis soft andsilky, grayish brown speckled with pale brown dorsally; venteris grayish. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is long, gray above and white below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet andfive digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.",Rocky outcrops in arid environments with succulent vegetation.,No information.,No information.,Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis nocturnal andspecialized for climbing rocks.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat that is unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.,Avery & Avery (2011) | Coetzee (2013a) | Denys et al. (1995) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Petter (1967) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6600438/files/figure.png,"32.Barbour’s Pygmy Rock MousePetromyscus barbouriFrench:Petromysque de Barbour/ German:BarbourZwergfelsenmaus/ Spanish:Raton de roca enano de BarbourOther common names:Barbour’'s Rock Mouse, Namaqua Pygmy Rock MouseTaxonomy.Petromyscus barbouri Shortridge & Carter, 1938,“ Witwater(Kamiesberg), Little Namaqualand,” South Africa.Formerly considered a subspecies ofP. collinusbut can be readily distinguished by unique morphological traits. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to a narrow range in W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 71-75 mm, tail 76-89 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 17-19 mm; weight 14-16 g. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with a relatively long tail. Furis soft andsilky, grayish brown speckled with pale brown dorsally; venteris grayish. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is long, gray above and white below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet andfive digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.Habitat.Rocky outcrops in arid environments with succulent vegetation.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis nocturnal andspecialized for climbing rocks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat that is unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.Bibliography.Avery & Avery (2011), Coetzee (2013a), Denys et al. (1995), Jansa et al. (1999), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Petter (1967), Skinner & Chimimba (2005)." +03993828FFF80F5CFFF7FD55CEB4F842,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,193,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF80F5CFFF7FD55CEB4F842.xml,Petromyscus shortridger,Petromyscus,shortridge,Thomas,1926,Petromysque de Shortridge @fr | Shortridge-Zwergfelsenmaus @de | Ratén de roca enano de Shortridge @es | Kaokoveld Pygmy Rock Mouse @en | Shortridge’'s Rock Mouse @en,"Petromyscus shortridge: Thomas, 1926,“ Cunene Falls, N.W. Ovamboland, [southern Angola]. 3350’ [= 1022 m].”This species is monotypic.",Narrow distribution restricted to extreme SW Angola and N Namibia.,"Head—body 65-98 mm, tail 74-104 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 12-31 g. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with long tail. Fur is soft andsilky, dark brown speckled black dorsally and grayish ventrally. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is moderately long but relatively short for a species of Petromyscusand darker above than below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.","Rocky substrates in hilly, mountainous, and arid terrain.",Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis primarily granivorous but also eats insects and green plant material.,"Pregnant Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mice have been collected in August— May, with 2—4 embryos.",No information.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.,"Coetzee (2013d) | Denys et al. (1995) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1967) | Shortridge (1934a, 1934b) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600434/files/figure.png,"30.Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock MousePetromyscus shortridgerFrench:Petromysque de Shortridge/ German:Shortridge-Zwergfelsenmaus/ Spanish:Ratén de roca enano de ShortridgeOther common names:Kaokoveld Pygmy Rock Mouse, Shortridge’'s Rock MouseTaxonomy.Petromyscus shortridge: Thomas, 1926,“ Cunene Falls, N.W. Ovamboland, [southern Angola]. 3350’ [= 1022 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Narrow distribution restricted to extreme SW Angola and N Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 65-98 mm, tail 74-104 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 12-31 g. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with long tail. Fur is soft andsilky, dark brown speckled black dorsally and grayish ventrally. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is moderately long but relatively short for a species of Petromyscusand darker above than below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.Habitat.Rocky substrates in hilly, mountainous, and arid terrain.Food and Feeding.Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis primarily granivorous but also eats insects and green plant material.Breeding.Pregnant Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mice have been collected in August— May, with 2—4 embryos.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.Bibliography.Coetzee (2013d), Denys et al. (1995), Jansa et al. (1999), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1967), Shortridge (1934a, 1934b), Skinner & Chimimba (2005)." +03993828FFFA0F5EFAF7FBEFC661F483,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,191,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFAF7FBEFC661F483.xml,Nesomys audeberti,Nesomys,audeberti,,,Nésomys d’Audebert @fr | Audebert- @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque de Audebert @es | Lowland Red Forest Rat @en | White-bellied Nesomys @en,"Hallomys audeberti Jentink, 1879,“ Maisine and Savary, N. E. Madagascar.” Restricted by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 to “ Toamasina Province(former), Analanjirofo Région, west of Antongil Baytoward the western frontier of Fivondronana Mananara Avaratra, ‘ Savary.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E Madagascar.,"Head-body 195-203 mm, tail 169-173 mm; weight 193-239 g. Dorsum of Audebert’s Forest Ratis reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and venteris largely rusty-red, with central portion and throat white. Snout is elongated, and ears are moderately long. Base oftail has short black hair that becomes progressively longer and denser toward tip, which can be white. Legs, feet, and toes have dark brown fur.",Eastern humid lowland and montane forest from nearsea level to elevations of ¢.1050 m. Audebert’s Forest Rat has a patchy distribution and at some localities occurs in sympatry with the Red Forest Rat (N. rufus).,Audebert’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and perhaps on occasion frugivorous or insectivorous.,"Breeding season of Audebert’s Forest Rat coincides with the end of the dry season; reproductive activity begins in July-August, and young are born c.6 weekslater. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum recorded litter size is two young.","Audebert’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, with a tendency to be crepuscular. It lives in underground in complex burrows with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. These burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material.","Average home range of Audebert’s Forest Rat is c.1-5 ha, almost three times larger than that of the Red Forest Rat, with some sexual differences (females averaging 0-5 ha and males 1-4 ha). Home ranges do not appear to be defended and can be occupied by a male and numerous females. An Audebert’s Forest Rat can travel a ground distance of ¢.500 m/day.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Audebert’s Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It frequents lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Rakotomalala et al. (2007) | Ryan (2003) | Ryan et al. (1993) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600420/files/figure.png,"25.Audebert’s Forest RatNesomys audebertiFrench:Nésomys d’Audebert/ German:Audebert-Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque de AudebertOther common names:Lowland Red Forest Rat, White-bellied NesomysTaxonomy.Hallomys audeberti Jentink, 1879,“ Maisine and Savary, N. E. Madagascar.” Restricted by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 to “ Toamasina Province(former), Analanjirofo Région, west of Antongil Baytoward the western frontier of Fivondronana Mananara Avaratra, ‘ Savary.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-203 mm, tail 169-173 mm; weight 193-239 g. Dorsum of Audebert’s Forest Ratis reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and venteris largely rusty-red, with central portion and throat white. Snout is elongated, and ears are moderately long. Base oftail has short black hair that becomes progressively longer and denser toward tip, which can be white. Legs, feet, and toes have dark brown fur.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest from nearsea level to elevations of ¢.1050 m. Audebert’s Forest Rat has a patchy distribution and at some localities occurs in sympatry with the Red Forest Rat (N. rufus).Food and Feeding.Audebert’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and perhaps on occasion frugivorous or insectivorous.Breeding.Breeding season of Audebert’s Forest Rat coincides with the end of the dry season; reproductive activity begins in July-August, and young are born c.6 weekslater. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum recorded litter size is two young.Activity patterns.Audebert’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, with a tendency to be crepuscular. It lives in underground in complex burrows with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. These burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Average home range of Audebert’s Forest Rat is c.1-5 ha, almost three times larger than that of the Red Forest Rat, with some sexual differences (females averaging 0-5 ha and males 1-4 ha). Home ranges do not appear to be defended and can be occupied by a male and numerous females. An Audebert’s Forest Rat can travel a ground distance of ¢.500 m/day.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Audebert’s Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It frequents lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Rakotomalala et al. (2007), Ryan (2003), Ryan et al. (1993), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFFA0F5EFFF8F5F0C5DBFCE6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,191,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFFF8F5F0C5DBFCE6.xml,Brachyuromys ramirohitra,Brachyuromys,ramirohitra,Forsyth Major,1896,Grand Ramirohitra @fr | Grol3e Madagaskar Kurzschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola corta grande @es | Greater Short-tailed Rat @en | Gregarious Short-tailed Rat @en,"Brachyuromys ramirohitra Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest, Betsimisaraka country(on the border of N.E. Betsileo), 6 hours S.E. of Fandriana.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to E Madagascar.,"Head-body 140-165 mm, tail 84-110 mm; weight 64-117 g. Muzzle of the Large Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown, with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter. Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.",Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 1210-1960 m. Large Short-tailed Rats are widely scattered and have been captured on ground and at openings of tree-root complexes in upper mossy forest.,The Large Short-tailed Rat is presumed to be herbivorous.,Female Large Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and litters of up to two young.,"The Large Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals have been trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Large Short-tailed Rat is largely forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoproctaferox). Given continued declines in forest cover in this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","Bennie et al. (2014) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jansa & Carleton (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600418/files/figure.png,"24.Large Short-tailed RatBrachyuromys ramirohitraFrench:Grand Ramirohitra/ German:Grol3e MadagaskarKurzschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola corta grandeOther common names:Greater Short-tailed Rat, Gregarious Short-tailed RatTaxonomy.Brachyuromys ramirohitra Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest, Betsimisaraka country(on the border of N.E. Betsileo), 6 hours S.E. of Fandriana.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-165 mm, tail 84-110 mm; weight 64-117 g. Muzzle of the Large Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown, with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter. Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 1210-1960 m. Large Short-tailed Rats are widely scattered and have been captured on ground and at openings of tree-root complexes in upper mossy forest.Food and Feeding.The Large Short-tailed Rat is presumed to be herbivorous.Breeding.Female Large Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and litters of up to two young.Activity patterns.The Large Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals have been trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Large Short-tailed Rat is largely forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoproctaferox). Given continued declines in forest cover in this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Bennie et al. (2014), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jansa & Carleton (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFFA0F5EFFFBFC81CDC9F5AA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,191,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFFFBFC81CDC9F5AA.xml,Brachywromys betsileoensis,Brachywromys,betsileoensis,,,Petit Ramirohitra @fr | Kleine Madagaskar Kurzschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola corta pequena @es | Betsileo Short-tailed Rat @en | Lesser Short-tailed Rat @en,"Nesomys betsileoensis Bartlett, 1880,“S.E. Betsileo,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.,"Head-body 140-184 mm, tail 77-95 mm; weight 96-140 g. Muzzle of the Small Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter.Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.","Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 900-2450 m. The Small Short-tailed Rat is widely scattered and also occurs in degraded forest areas, agricultural areas (including abandoned rice paddy), and marshlands of different types (edge of open water, grassy meadows). It is known to swim in open and relatively deep water. It is one of the small mammals found above tree line in the summit zone of the Andringitra Massif (2658 m) that experiences temperatures of =7°C and sometimes snow. In the highland marshes of Andringitraand othersites, it has been captured in small mammal runways with piles of grass clippings;it is very vole-like.",The Small Short-tailed Rat is presumably completely or largely herbivorous.,Female Small Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litter sizes of two young. Reproduction takes place at least during the southern winter when pregnant and lactating females have been captured and males have enlarged scrotal testes.,"The Small Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals are usually trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems. They are preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Small Short-tailed Rat is not necessarily forest-restricted but is known from less than ten localities in eastern Madagascar. It was trapped in the vicinity of a rice field and more than 11 km to the nearest forest. Given its ability to live outside forest-habitat, it appears much more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae.","Bennie et al. (2014) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jansa & Carleton (2003) | Langrand & Goodman (1997) | Ramanana (2010) | Randriamoria et al. (2015) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600416/files/figure.png,"23.Small Short-tailed RatBrachywromys betsileoensisFrench:Petit Ramirohitra/ German:Kleine MadagaskarKurzschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola corta pequenaOther common names:Betsileo Short-tailed Rat, Lesser Short-tailed RatTaxonomy.Nesomys betsileoensis Bartlett, 1880,“S.E. Betsileo,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-184 mm, tail 77-95 mm; weight 96-140 g. Muzzle of the Small Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter.Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.Habitat.Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 900-2450 m. The Small Short-tailed Rat is widely scattered and also occurs in degraded forest areas, agricultural areas (including abandoned rice paddy), and marshlands of different types (edge of open water, grassy meadows). It is known to swim in open and relatively deep water. It is one of the small mammals found above tree line in the summit zone of the Andringitra Massif (2658 m) that experiences temperatures of =7°C and sometimes snow. In the highland marshes of Andringitraand othersites, it has been captured in small mammal runways with piles of grass clippings;it is very vole-like.Food and Feeding.The Small Short-tailed Rat is presumably completely or largely herbivorous.Breeding.Female Small Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litter sizes of two young. Reproduction takes place at least during the southern winter when pregnant and lactating females have been captured and males have enlarged scrotal testes.Activity patterns.The Small Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals are usually trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems. They are preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Small Short-tailed Rat is not necessarily forest-restricted but is known from less than ten localities in eastern Madagascar. It was trapped in the vicinity of a rice field and more than 11 km to the nearest forest. Given its ability to live outside forest-habitat, it appears much more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae.Bibliography.Bennie et al. (2014), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jansa & Carleton (2003), Langrand & Goodman (1997), Ramanana (2010), Randriamoria et al. (2015), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFFA0F5FFAF3F4D6C8ADFB70,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,191,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5FFAF3F4D6C8ADFB70.xml,Nesomys lambertoni,Nesomys,lambertoni,G. Grandidier,1928,Nésomys de Lamberton @fr | Lamberton- @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque de Lamberton @es | Western Nesomys @en | Western Red Forest Rat @en,"Nesomys lambertoni G. Grandidier, 1928,type locality not given. Identified by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 as “Mahajanga Province (former), Melaky Région, Antsalova District, tsingy habitat at the western margin of the Bemaraha Massifand east of Antsalova.”This species is monotypic.",Endemic to CW Madagascar (Tsingy de Bemaraha area).,"Head-body 189-195 mm, tail 183-191 mm (two individuals); weight 225-243 g. Lamberton’s Forest Rat is distinctly large and appears squirrel-like from a distance. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and it becomes more saturated with red along flanks. Venteris light brown. It has an elongated snout and distinctly long ears. Tail is completely covered with long, thick dark brown hair. Legs are dark brown, tending to be black.","Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacle) habitat, at elevations of ¢.100 m. Lamberton’s Forest Rat makes its dens in small caves and rock shelters in limestone.",LLamberton’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and frugivorous.,"Female Lamberton’s Forest Rats have three pairs of mammae, and based on limited information, litter size is one young.","Lamberton’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular.",No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lamberton’s Forest Ratis strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a restricted zone of dry deciduous forest that grow on limestone substrate. Its complete known distribution occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is subjected to fire and other anthropogenic pressures.","Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman & Schutz (2003) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Ryan (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600422/files/figure.png,"26.Lamberton’s Forest RatNesomys lambertoniFrench:Nésomys de Lamberton/ German:Lamberton-Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque de LambertonOther common names:Western Nesomys, Western Red Forest RatTaxonomy.Nesomys lambertoni G. Grandidier, 1928,type locality not given. Identified by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 as “Mahajanga Province (former), Melaky Région, Antsalova District, tsingy habitat at the western margin of the Bemaraha Massifand east of Antsalova.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to CW Madagascar (Tsingy de Bemaraha area).Descriptive notes.Head-body 189-195 mm, tail 183-191 mm (two individuals); weight 225-243 g. Lamberton’s Forest Rat is distinctly large and appears squirrel-like from a distance. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and it becomes more saturated with red along flanks. Venteris light brown. It has an elongated snout and distinctly long ears. Tail is completely covered with long, thick dark brown hair. Legs are dark brown, tending to be black.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacle) habitat, at elevations of ¢.100 m. Lamberton’s Forest Rat makes its dens in small caves and rock shelters in limestone.Food and Feeding.LLamberton’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and frugivorous.Breeding.Female Lamberton’s Forest Rats have three pairs of mammae, and based on limited information, litter size is one young.Activity patterns.Lamberton’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lamberton’s Forest Ratis strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a restricted zone of dry deciduous forest that grow on limestone substrate. Its complete known distribution occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is subjected to fire and other anthropogenic pressures.Bibliography.Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman & Schutz (2003), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Ryan (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFFB0F5CFA25F8A5CCDBFE31,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,192,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5CFA25F8A5CCDBFE31.xml,Mystromys albicaudatus,Mystromys,albicaudatus,,,Mystromys a queue blanche @fr | Afrikanische Wei Rschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola blanca africana @es | Southern African Hamster @en | White-tailed Mouse @en,"Otomys albicaudatus A. Smith, 1834,Albany District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to SW & E South Africa and Lesotho.,"Head-body 116-199 mm, tail 46-87 mm, ear 18-28 mm, hindfoot 23-32 mm; weight 49-111 g. The African White-tailed Rat 1s medium-sized, with a shorttail. Fur is soft and dense, grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally; each hair has dark gray base. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are dark brown and rounded. Tail is short with dense white hairs above and below. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.Food and Feeding.Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.Breeding.Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.Activity patterns.The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network.","Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.",Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.,"Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.",The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.,The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.,Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network. Habitat loss and degradation are thought to be the most important threats.,"Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996) | Avenant (2011) | Avenant & Cavallini (2007) | Avery (1992b) | Dean (1978) | De Graaff (1981) | Downs & Perrin (1995) | Hallett & Meester (1971) | Hickman & Machiné (1986) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Lynch (1983) | Maddock & Perrin (1981, 1983) | Meester & Hallett (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | O'Farrell et al. (2008) | Perrin (2013b) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Perrin & Maddock (1983) | Rautenbach (1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600432/files/figure.png,"29.African White-tailed RatMystromys albicaudatusFrench:Mystromys a queue blanche/ German:Afrikanische WeiRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola blanca africanaOther common names:Southern African Hamster, White-tailed MouseTaxonomy.Otomys albicaudatus A. Smith, 1834,Albany District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SW & E South Africa and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 116-199 mm, tail 46-87 mm, ear 18-28 mm, hindfoot 23-32 mm; weight 49-111 g. The African White-tailed Rat 1s medium-sized, with a shorttail. Fur is soft and dense, grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally; each hair has dark gray base. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are dark brown and rounded. Tail is short with dense white hairs above and below. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.Food and Feeding.Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.Breeding.Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.Activity patterns.The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network. Habitat loss and degradation are thought to be the most important threats.Bibliography.Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996), Avenant (2011), Avenant & Cavallini (2007), Avery (1992b), Dean (1978), De Graaff (1981), Downs & Perrin (1995), Hallett & Meester (1971), Hickman & Machiné (1986), Jansa et al. (1999), Lynch (1983), Maddock & Perrin (1981, 1983), Meester & Hallett (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), O'Farrell et al. (2008), Perrin (2013b), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Perrin & Maddock (1983), Rautenbach (1982)." +03993828FFFB0F5FFF29FAA7C93DF444,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,192,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5FFF29FAA7C93DF444.xml,Nesomys rufus,Nesomys,rufus,Peters,1870,Nésomys roux @fr | Rote @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque roja @es | Eastern Red Forest Rat @en | Rufous Nesomys @en,"Nesomys rufus Peters, 1870,“Ein getrocknetes mannliches Exemplar aus Vohima,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to N & E Madagascar.,"Head-body 170-200 mm, tail 160-180 mm; weight 135-185 g. Dorsum of the Red Forest Rat is reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back and more saturated with red along flanks. Venter ranges from uniform rusty red, with some parts, particularly along midline, off-white. Ears are moderately long. Proximal part of tail has short and sparse black hair that becomes progressively slightly longer; distal 8-20 mm oftail is white. Legs, feet, and toes are dark brown.","Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 650-2000 m. The Red Forest Ratis distinctly uncommon above elevations of 1900 m, and occurs sympatrically with Audebert’s Forest Rat (N. audeberti) at certain locations.","The Red Forest Rat eats seeds of different forest trees, including Cryptocarya(Lauraceae), Canarium(Burseraceae), and Sloanea (Elaecocarpaceae), and caches fatrich seeds such as Canarium. It has been observed in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture within short distances of relatively intact native forest.",Reproductive season of the Red Forest Rat is from mid-Octoberto late December. Females have three pairs of mammae and are known to have litters of up to four young.,"The Red Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular. It lives in complex underground burrow systems, with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. Burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material. It is preyed on by snakes (boas and the genus Pseudoxyrhopus) and carnivores such as the Ring-tailed Vontsira (Galidia elegans) and the Fosa (Cryproproctaferox).",Home range of the Red Forest Rat has been calculated to average 0-5 ha.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Red Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It occurs in lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and the mediumand long-term future in that habitat is uncertain.","Cadle (1999) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman etal. (2013) | Ryan (2003) | Ryan et al. (1993) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Soarimalala etal. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600424/files/figure.png,"27.Red Forest RatNesomys rufusFrench:Nésomys roux/ German:Rote Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque rojaOther common names:Eastern Red Forest Rat, Rufous NesomysTaxonomy.Nesomys rufus Peters, 1870,“Ein getrocknetes mannliches Exemplar aus Vohima,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-200 mm, tail 160-180 mm; weight 135-185 g. Dorsum of the Red Forest Rat is reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back and more saturated with red along flanks. Venter ranges from uniform rusty red, with some parts, particularly along midline, off-white. Ears are moderately long. Proximal part of tail has short and sparse black hair that becomes progressively slightly longer; distal 8-20 mm oftail is white. Legs, feet, and toes are dark brown.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 650-2000 m. The Red Forest Ratis distinctly uncommon above elevations of 1900 m, and occurs sympatrically with Audebert’s Forest Rat (N. audeberti) at certain locations.Food and Feeding.The Red Forest Rat eats seeds of different forest trees, including Cryptocarya(Lauraceae), Canarium(Burseraceae), and Sloanea (Elaecocarpaceae), and caches fatrich seeds such as Canarium. It has been observed in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture within short distances of relatively intact native forest.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Red Forest Rat is from mid-Octoberto late December. Females have three pairs of mammae and are known to have litters of up to four young.Activity patterns.The Red Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular. It lives in complex underground burrow systems, with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. Burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material. It is preyed on by snakes (boas and the genus Pseudoxyrhopus) and carnivores such as the Ring-tailed Vontsira (Galidia elegans) and the Fosa (Cryproproctaferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range of the Red Forest Rat has been calculated to average 0-5 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Red Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It occurs in lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and the mediumand long-term future in that habitat is uncertain.Bibliography.Cadle (1999), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman etal. (2013), Ryan (2003), Ryan et al. (1993), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Soarimalala etal. (2001)." +03993828FFFB0F5FFF2DF2FAC420FA1E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,192,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5FFF2DF2FAC420FA1E.xml,Delanymys brooksi,Delanymys,brooksi,Hayman,1962,Delanymyspalustre @fr | Delany-Sumpfklettermaus @de | Raton de los pantanos de Delany @es,"Delanymys brooks: Hayman, 1962,Echuya Swamp, near Kanaba, Kigezi, Uganda.This species is monotypic.","Albertine Rift E of Lake Kivuin SW Uganda, E DR Congo, and W Rwanda.","Head-body 50-63 mm, tail 87-111 mm, ear 9-13 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 5-7 g. Delany’s Swamp Mouse is very small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and brown dorsally, paler ventrally. Long dark guard hairs are present dorsally. Small black patch is between eyes and nose. Ears are relatively large. Second to fifth digits are very long, with long claws. Thumbs are greatly reduced on forefeet but long and opposable on hindfeet.",Swamps in montane forests and grasslands at elevations of 1700-3100 m.,Seeds and insects were found in two stomachs of Delany’s Swamp Mice.,"Delany’s Swamp Mouse builds a small grass nest, with a single entrance. Litter sizes are 3—4 young.","Delany’s Swamp Mouse is nocturnal. It is a good climber, climbing grass stalks with ease using its prehensile tail and opposable thumbs on hindfeet.","Delany’s Swamp Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of small mammals captured.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Delany’s Swamp Mouse has a restricted distribution, occurring in a region with a high human population, and faces destruction of its wetland habitat.","Delany (1975) | Dieterlen (1967a, 1969a, 2013a) | Hayman (1962a, 1962b, 1963) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Van der Straeten & Verheyen (1983) | Verheyen (1965a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600428/files/figure.png,"28.Delany’s Swamp MouseDelanymys brooksiFrench:Delanymyspalustre/ German:Delany-Sumpfklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton de los pantanos de DelanyTaxonomy.Delanymys brooks: Hayman, 1962,Echuya Swamp, near Kanaba, Kigezi, Uganda.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Albertine Rift E of Lake Kivuin SW Uganda, E DR Congo, and W Rwanda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-63 mm, tail 87-111 mm, ear 9-13 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 5-7 g. Delany’s Swamp Mouse is very small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and brown dorsally, paler ventrally. Long dark guard hairs are present dorsally. Small black patch is between eyes and nose. Ears are relatively large. Second to fifth digits are very long, with long claws. Thumbs are greatly reduced on forefeet but long and opposable on hindfeet.Habitat.Swamps in montane forests and grasslands at elevations of 1700-3100 m.Food and Feeding.Seeds and insects were found in two stomachs of Delany’s Swamp Mice.Breeding.Delany’s Swamp Mouse builds a small grass nest, with a single entrance. Litter sizes are 3—4 young.Activity patterns.Delany’s Swamp Mouse is nocturnal. It is a good climber, climbing grass stalks with ease using its prehensile tail and opposable thumbs on hindfeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Delany’s Swamp Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of small mammals captured.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Delany’s Swamp Mouse has a restricted distribution, occurring in a region with a high human population, and faces destruction of its wetland habitat.Bibliography.Delany (1975), Dieterlen (1967a, 1969a, 2013a), Hayman (1962a, 1962b, 1963), Monadjem et al. (2015), Van der Straeten & Verheyen (1983), Verheyen (1965a)." +03993828FFFC0F58FAFFF7E9CA2CF238,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,197,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FAFFF7E9CA2CF238.xml,Megadendromus nikolausi,Megadendromus,nikolausi,Dieterlen & Rupp,1978,Dendromus des Bale @fr | Riesenklettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Nikolaus @es | Bale Mouse @en | Giant Climbing Mouse @en | Nikolaus's Mouse @en,"Megadendromus nikolausi Dieterlen & Rupp, 1978,Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.Recent molecular analysis suggests that this species belongs in the genus Dendromus. This would render the genus Megadendromusa synonym of Dendromus. Monotypic.",Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands E of the Rift Valley (Bale and Arsi Mts).,"Head-body 117- 129 mm,tail 92-106 mm, ear 23-26 mm, hindfoot 26-27 mm; weight 49-66 g. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a relatively short tail about the same length as the body. Fur is relatively long, soft and russet-brown dorsally and grayish brown ventrally. There is an obvious mid-dorsal stripe extending from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing, but short tail suggests predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits.",High-elevation montane forest and Ericaarborea (Ericaceae) scrub forest at 3000-3800 m ofaltitude.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is known from justfive specimens,collected at four localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains, Ethiopia.",Demeter & Topél (1982) | Dieterlen & Rupp (1978) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Yalden (2013c),https://zenodo.org/record/6600460/files/figure.png,"43.Nikolaus’s African Climbing MouseMegadendromus nikolausiFrench:Dendromus des Bale/ German:Riesenklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de NikolausOther common names:Bale Mouse, Giant Climbing Mouse, Nikolaus's MouseTaxonomy.Megadendromus nikolausi Dieterlen & Rupp, 1978,Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.Recent molecular analysis suggests that this species belongs in the genus Dendromus. This would render the genus Megadendromusa synonym of Dendromus. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands E of the Rift Valley (Bale and Arsi Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 117- 129 mm,tail 92-106 mm, ear 23-26 mm, hindfoot 26-27 mm; weight 49-66 g. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a relatively short tail about the same length as the body. Fur is relatively long, soft and russet-brown dorsally and grayish brown ventrally. There is an obvious mid-dorsal stripe extending from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing, but short tail suggests predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits.Habitat.High-elevation montane forest and Ericaarborea (Ericaceae) scrub forest at 3000-3800 m ofaltitude.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is known from justfive specimens,collected at four localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains, Ethiopia.Bibliography.Demeter & Topél (1982), Dieterlen & Rupp (1978), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Monadjem et al. (2015), Yalden (2013c)." +03993828FFFC0F58FFE3F5B2C67CF95D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,197,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FFE3F5B2C67CF95D.xml,Saccostomus campestris,Saccostomus,campestris,Peters,1846,Saccostome du Cap @fr | Sidliche Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Raton de abazones de Africa meridional @es | Cape Pouched Mouse @en,"Saccostomus campestris Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Tete District, Mozambique.Saccostomus campestrishas high chromosomal variability, prompting suggestions that it may represent a species complex. However, a recent study combining molecular and morphological analyses across southern and eastern Africa has shown that differ ences within this taxon do not represent species-level variation. Hence S. campestrisrefers to a single, but highly variable, species. Two subspecies recognized.","S.c.campestrisPeters,1846—SWTanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique;populationsfromAngolaandDRCongomayrefertothissubspecies.S. c. mashonae de Winton, 1897— Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland.","Head-body 95-173 mm, tail 28-55 mm, ear 16-20 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 33-81 g. The Southern African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. There is significant geographical variation in size and pelage color, with individuals from dry arid zones paler than those from moister woodlands and savannas. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short, sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of low-lying savanna and woodlands from semi-desert conditions to moist miombo woodland, typically below elevations of ¢.1500 m.","The Southern African Pouched Mouse eats mostly seeds, which can be cached in burrows. Seeds from more than 20 species of plants have so far been collected from burrows. It also eats green plant material.","Pregnant Southern African Pouched Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in October—-April. Average littersize varies considerably between locations from 5-1 young in Malawi to 6-7 in Zimbabwe, seven in Botswana, and 7-1 in captivity. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g by c.4 weeks of age. Gestation period c.21 days. Neonates are c.3 g in weight, growing to 15 g when weaned after 19-25 days. First conception occurs at 56 days, and litter interval is 53 days. Body mass of young individuals varies with season, but older individuals retain body weight throughoutthe year.","The Southern African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows in sandy soils or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds or holes excavated by other mammals. Burrows may be simple, containing a single chamber, or more complex with multiple chambers; they can extend up to 8:5 m. In the laboratory, individuals enter torpor at temperatures similar to those in the cool dry season of its distribution in southern Africa, although males are less inclined to enter torpor than females. Burrows provide thermal protection.","The Southern African Pouched Mouse is solitary, with single adults occupying burrows. Based on trapping data, home range size is 0-12-0-28 ha.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Corti et al. (2004) | Ellison (1993, 1996) | Ellison & Skinner (1992) | Ellison, Bronner & Taylor (1993) | Ellison, Taylor et al. (1993) | Fitzherbert et al. (2007) | Gordon (1986) | Gordon & Rautenbach (1980) | Gordon & Watson (1986) | Hanney (1965) | Hickman & Machiné (1986) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014) | Kerley (1989) | Lovegrove & Raman (1998) | MacFadyen et al. (2012) | Maputla etal. (2011) | Mikula et al. (2016) | Monadjem (1997b, 1999a) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Mzilikazi & Lovegrove (2002) | Perrin (2013a) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Petter (1966a) | Rautenbach (1982) | Smithers (1971) | Smithers & Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Speakman et al. (1994) | Westlin-van Aarde (1988, 1989) | Yarnell et al. (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600458/files/figure.png,"42.Southern African Pouched MouseSaccostomus campestrisFrench:Saccostome du Cap/ German:Sidliche Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Raton de abazones de Africa meridionalOther common names:Cape Pouched MouseTaxonomy.Saccostomus campestris Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Tete District, Mozambique.Saccostomus campestrishas high chromosomal variability, prompting suggestions that it may represent a species complex. However, a recent study combining molecular and morphological analyses across southern and eastern Africa has shown that differ ences within this taxon do not represent species-level variation. Hence S. campestrisrefers to a single, but highly variable, species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.c.campestrisPeters,1846—SWTanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique;populationsfromAngolaandDRCongomayrefertothissubspecies.S. c. mashonae de Winton, 1897— Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 95-173 mm, tail 28-55 mm, ear 16-20 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 33-81 g. The Southern African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. There is significant geographical variation in size and pelage color, with individuals from dry arid zones paler than those from moister woodlands and savannas. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short, sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of low-lying savanna and woodlands from semi-desert conditions to moist miombo woodland, typically below elevations of ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.The Southern African Pouched Mouse eats mostly seeds, which can be cached in burrows. Seeds from more than 20 species of plants have so far been collected from burrows. It also eats green plant material.Breeding.Pregnant Southern African Pouched Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in October—-April. Average littersize varies considerably between locations from 5-1 young in Malawi to 6-7 in Zimbabwe, seven in Botswana, and 7-1 in captivity. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g by c.4 weeks of age. Gestation period c.21 days. Neonates are c.3 g in weight, growing to 15 g when weaned after 19-25 days. First conception occurs at 56 days, and litter interval is 53 days. Body mass of young individuals varies with season, but older individuals retain body weight throughoutthe year.Activity patterns.The Southern African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows in sandy soils or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds or holes excavated by other mammals. Burrows may be simple, containing a single chamber, or more complex with multiple chambers; they can extend up to 8:5 m. In the laboratory, individuals enter torpor at temperatures similar to those in the cool dry season of its distribution in southern Africa, although males are less inclined to enter torpor than females. Burrows provide thermal protection.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern African Pouched Mouse is solitary, with single adults occupying burrows. Based on trapping data, home range size is 0-12-0-28 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Corti et al. (2004), Ellison (1993, 1996), Ellison & Skinner (1992), Ellison, Bronner & Taylor (1993), Ellison, Taylor et al. (1993), Fitzherbert et al. (2007), Gordon (1986), Gordon & Rautenbach (1980), Gordon & Watson (1986), Hanney (1965), Hickman & Machiné (1986), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014), Kerley (1989), Lovegrove & Raman (1998), MacFadyen et al. (2012), Maputla etal. (2011), Mikula et al. (2016), Monadjem (1997b, 1999a), Monadjem et al. (2015), Mzilikazi & Lovegrove (2002), Perrin (2013a), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Petter (1966a), Rautenbach (1982), Smithers (1971), Smithers & Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Speakman et al. (1994), Westlin-van Aarde (1988, 1989), Yarnell et al. (2007)." +03993828FFFC0F58FFE5FAD4CF27F663,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,197,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FFE5FAD4CF27F663.xml,Saccostomus umbriventer,Saccostomus,umbriventer,Miller,1910,Saccostome a ventre gris @fr | Graubauch-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Raton de abazones de vientre gris @es,"Saccostomus umbriventer G.S. Miller, 1910,“ Njori Osolali(Sotik), British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation in S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.",N Tanzania and SW Kenya.,"Head-body 133-136 mm, tail 556-60 mm, hindfoot ¢.20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is mediums=sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.",Masai Steppe savanna.,The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.,No information.,The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.,The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be solitary.,Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.,Corti et al. (2004) | Denys (1988) | Mikula et al. (2016),https://zenodo.org/record/6600456/files/figure.png,"41.Gray-bellied Pouched MouseSaccostomus umbriventerFrench:Saccostome a ventre gris/ German:Graubauch-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Raton de abazones de vientre grisTaxonomy.Saccostomus umbriventer G.S. Miller, 1910,“ Njori Osolali(Sotik), British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation in S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.Distribution.N Tanzania and SW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 133-136 mm, tail 556-60 mm, hindfoot ¢.20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is mediums=sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Masai Steppe savanna.Food and Feeding.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Corti et al. (2004), Denys (1988), Mikula et al. (2016)." +03993828FFFD0F46FA39F4DACEE6FBF8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F46FA39F4DACEE6FBF8.xml,Dendromus lovati,Dendromus,lovati,,,Dendromus de Lovat @fr | Lovat-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Lovat @es | Lovat's Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromys lovati de Winton, 1900,Managasha, near Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Dendromus lovatiwas previously placed in its own subgenus Chortomys, but a recent molecular study showed that it is part of the Dendromuss.s.subgenus. Hence, its morphological distinctiveness is due to adaptations to its unique environment and unrelated to its phylogenetic history. Monotypic.",High-elevation regions of Ethiopia.,"Head—body 57-95 mm,tail 57-87 mm, ear 15-18 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 11-23 g. Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail but relatively short for a species of Dendromus. Fur is long, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There are three mid-dorsalstripes. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.",Grasslands above elevations of 2500 m and heathlands above 3300 m.,No information.,Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest under boulders.,"Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be nocturnal, and typically, few individuals are captured in suitable habitat. Based on reduced captures during the cooler months, it has been proposed that it hibernates. Unlike other species of Dendromus,it appears to be mostly terrestrial.",No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bekele & Yalden (2013) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Girma et al. (2012) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a) | Yalden (2013b) | Yalden & Largen (1992) | Yalden, Largen & Kock (1976) | Yalden, Largen, Kock & Hillman (1996)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600468/files/figure.png,"48.Lovat’s African Climbing MouseDendromus lovatiFrench:Dendromus de Lovat/ German:Lovat-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de LovatOther common names:Lovat's Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys lovati de Winton, 1900,Managasha, near Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Dendromus lovatiwas previously placed in its own subgenus Chortomys, but a recent molecular study showed that it is part of the Dendromuss.s.subgenus. Hence, its morphological distinctiveness is due to adaptations to its unique environment and unrelated to its phylogenetic history. Monotypic.Distribution.High-elevation regions of Ethiopia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 57-95 mm,tail 57-87 mm, ear 15-18 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 11-23 g. Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail but relatively short for a species of Dendromus. Fur is long, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There are three mid-dorsalstripes. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Grasslands above elevations of 2500 m and heathlands above 3300 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest under boulders.Activity patterns.Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be nocturnal, and typically, few individuals are captured in suitable habitat. Based on reduced captures during the cooler months, it has been proposed that it hibernates. Unlike other species of Dendromus,it appears to be mostly terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bekele & Yalden (2013), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Girma et al. (2012), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a), Yalden (2013b), Yalden & Largen (1992), Yalden, Largen & Kock (1976), Yalden, Largen, Kock & Hillman (1996)." +03993828FFFD0F59FA36F9EFC576F4BF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FA36F9EFC576F4BF.xml,Dendromus ruppi,Dendromus,ruppi,Dieterlen,2009,Dendromus de Rupp @fr | Rupp-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Rupp @es,"Dendromus ruppi Dieterlen, 2009,Imatong Mountains, South Sudan.Relationship between this recently described species and the population of D. mystacalisfrom the Ethiopian highlands needs to be investigated. Monotypic.","Only known from Imatong Mts, S South Sudan.","Head-body 63-82 mm, tail 91-115 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 8-15 g. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and white with dark gray bases ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.",Only known from montane grasslands at elevations of 1800-1900 m.,No information.,A single female Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse captured in April had four embryos.,No information.,No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse has a highly restricted distribution and may therefore be at conservation risk.,Dieterlen (2009) | Dieterlen et al. (2013) | Monadjem et al. (2015),https://zenodo.org/record/6600466/files/figure.png,"47.Rupp’s African Climbing MouseDendromus ruppiFrench:Dendromus de Rupp/ German:Rupp-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de RuppTaxonomy.Dendromus ruppi Dieterlen, 2009,Imatong Mountains, South Sudan.Relationship between this recently described species and the population of D. mystacalisfrom the Ethiopian highlands needs to be investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Imatong Mts, S South Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 63-82 mm, tail 91-115 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 8-15 g. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and white with dark gray bases ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Only known from montane grasslands at elevations of 1800-1900 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A single female Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse captured in April had four embryos.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse has a highly restricted distribution and may therefore be at conservation risk.Bibliography.Dieterlen (2009), Dieterlen et al. (2013), Monadjem et al. (2015)." 03993828FFFD0F59FF38FE0ECE02F90B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF38FE0ECE02F90B.xml,Dendromus lachaiser,Dendromus,lachaisei,Denys & Aniskine,2012,,"Dendromus lachaisei Denys & Aniskine, 2012,Mount Nimba, Guinea.This species is monotypic.","SE Guinea, Liberia, and Ivory Coast.","Head—body 55-78 mm, tail 79-98 mm, ear 10-13 mm, hindfoot 15-19 mm; weight c.11 g. Lachaise’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and bright ocherous brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal line or stripe. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.",,,,,No information.,,Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Gautun et al. (1986) | Heim de Balsac & Bellier (1967) | Heim de Balsac & Lamotte (1958) | Monadjem et al. (2015),,"44.Lachaise’s African Climbing MouseDendromus lachaiserFrench: Dendromus de Lachaise / German: Lachaise-Klettermaus / Spanish: Ratén trepador africano de LachaiseOther common names: Lachaise’s Climbing MouseTaxonomy. Dendromus lachaisei Denys & Aniskine, 2012,Mount Nimba, Guinea.This species is monotypic.Distribution. SE Guinea, Liberia, and Ivory Coast.Descriptive notes. Head—body 55-78 mm, tail 79-98 mm, ear 10-13 mm, hindfoot 15-19 mm; weight c.11 g. Lachaise’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and bright ocherous brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal line or stripe. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat. Wide variety of habitats including grassland, savanna, secondary forest, and cultivated lands typically at elevations of 50-600 m. Proximity to permanent water appears to be important to Lachaise’s African Climbing Mouse.Food and Feeding. No information.Breeding. [achaise’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest. A single female had four embryos during the rainy season.Activity patterns. No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization. No information.Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography. Denys & Aniskine (2012), Gautun et al. (1986), Heim de Balsac & Bellier (1967), Heim de Balsac & Lamotte (1958), Monadjem et al. (2015)." -03993828FFFD0F59FF3AF94EC807F30B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF3AF94EC807F30B.xml,Dendromus oreas,Dendromus,oreas,Osgood,1936,Dendromus du Cameroun @fr | Kamerun-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Camerun @es | Cameroon Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromus oreas Osgood, 1936,“southwest side of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon Mandate, British Nigeria. Alt. 9,000 ft[= 2743 m].”.Previously, oreas was included as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.","Endemic to W Cameroon Mts (Manenguba, Kupé, and Cameroon Mts).","Head-body 60-74 mm, tail 89-104 mm, ear 13-19 mm, hindfoot 18-21 mm; weight 9-13 g. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally and rufous or grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Indistinct black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Montane grasslands and savannas at elevations of ¢.850-2900 m. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse lives on the ground among boulders of lava (Mount Cameroon), dry grassy and scrubby slopes (Mount Manenguba), and plantations and farmlands (Mount Kupé).",No information.,A pregnant female captured in late November had five embryos.,The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also an agile climber.,No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse has a very restricted distribution on just three mountain ranges, but no specific conservation threats are known.","Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014) | Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009) | Dieterlen (2013d) | Eisentraut (1963) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969)",,"45.Cameroon African Climbing MouseDendromus oreasFrench:Dendromus du Cameroun/ German:Kamerun-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de CamerunOther common names:Cameroon Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus oreas Osgood, 1936,“southwest side of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon Mandate, British Nigeria. Alt. 9,000 ft[= 2743 m].”.Previously, oreas was included as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W Cameroon Mts (Manenguba, Kupé, and Cameroon Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 60-74 mm, tail 89-104 mm, ear 13-19 mm, hindfoot 18-21 mm; weight 9-13 g. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally and rufous or grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Indistinct black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Montane grasslands and savannas at elevations of ¢.850-2900 m. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse lives on the ground among boulders of lava (Mount Cameroon), dry grassy and scrubby slopes (Mount Manenguba), and plantations and farmlands (Mount Kupé).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A pregnant female captured in late November had five embryos.Activity patterns.The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also an agile climber.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse has a very restricted distribution on just three mountain ranges, but no specific conservation threats are known.Bibliography.Denys & Aniskine (2012), Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014), Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009), Dieterlen (2013d), Eisentraut (1963), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969)." -03993828FFFD0F59FF3EF353CBC5F9AA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF3EF353CBC5F9AA.xml,Dendromus messorius,Dendromus,messorius,,,Dendromusdes bananiers @fr | Bananenklettermaus @de | Ratén trepador africano de bananera @es | Banana Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromys messorius Thomas, 1903,“ Efulen, Bulu Country, Cameroons[= Cameroon].”Dendromus messoriusis in urgent need of taxonomic revision. Monotypic.","Disjunct range in Ghana, Togo, Benin, SE Nigeria, Cameroon, extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, SE Uganda, and W Kenya; limits uncertain.","Head-body 57-70 mm, tail 78-95 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 16-20 mm; weight 7-10 g. The Banana African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and bright rufous-brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair on back is dark gray but white below. There is usually no mid-dorsal stripe, orif present,it is indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits on forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Various habitats, such as croplands with banana (Musa, Musaceae) trees, gallery forest, and grassland.",Diet of the Banana African Climbing Mouse includes green plant material and fruit.,A single litter of the Banana African Climbing Mouse had three young. It builds a nest with a single entrance in banana trees and tall grass.,The Banana African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal.,Nests of Banana African Climbing Mice are apparently occupied by one individual.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014) | Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009) | Dieterlen (2009) | Happold (2013f) | Hatt (1940) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Matthey (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nicolas, Natta et al. (2010) | Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996) | Rosevear (1969) | Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)",,"46.Banana African Climbing MouseDendromus messoriusFrench:Dendromusdes bananiers/ German:Bananenklettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de bananeraOther common names:Banana Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys messorius Thomas, 1903,“ Efulen, Bulu Country, Cameroons[= Cameroon].”Dendromus messoriusis in urgent need of taxonomic revision. Monotypic.Distribution.Disjunct range in Ghana, Togo, Benin, SE Nigeria, Cameroon, extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, SE Uganda, and W Kenya; limits uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-70 mm, tail 78-95 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 16-20 mm; weight 7-10 g. The Banana African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and bright rufous-brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair on back is dark gray but white below. There is usually no mid-dorsal stripe, orif present,it is indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits on forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various habitats, such as croplands with banana (Musa, Musaceae) trees, gallery forest, and grassland.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Banana African Climbing Mouse includes green plant material and fruit.Breeding.A single litter of the Banana African Climbing Mouse had three young. It builds a nest with a single entrance in banana trees and tall grass.Activity patterns.The Banana African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nests of Banana African Climbing Mice are apparently occupied by one individual.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Denys & Aniskine (2012), Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014), Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009), Dieterlen (2009), Happold (2013f), Hatt (1940), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Matthey (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nicolas, Natta et al. (2010), Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996), Rosevear (1969), Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)." -03993828FFFE0F5AFFE1F794C4F4FB5A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,195,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5AFFE1F794C4F4FB5A.xml,Beamys hindei,Beamys,hindei,Thomas,1909,Petit Rat-hamster @fr | Kleine Hamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones de Hinde @es | Hinde's Pouched Rat @en,"Beamys hindei Thomas, 1909,“ Taveta, Coast region [= Kenya], British East Africa. Alt. 2000’ [= 610 m].”Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. major, but it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.",Coastal plains and montane areas of E Kenya and Tanzania.,"Head-body 125-155 mm, tail 114-127 mm, ear 20-23 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm; weight 49-76 g. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Ratis medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.","Coastal forests and woodlands below elevations of 400 m (but up to 1200 m in the Usambara Mountains), typically on sandy soils. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat enters fallow fields and cassava plantations. Sandy soils might facilitate burrow excavation, in which it rests during the day and stores cached seeds and fruits. Another important factor appears to be a dense shrub layer, but reasons for that are not known.","Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds, which may be cached in burrows. Insects are also eaten but constitute a smaller proportion of the diet.","Juveniles and reproductively active males and females appear throughout the year suggesting aseasonal breeding, but the proportion oflactating female Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats appears to increase during seasonal rains. A large proportion of males are scrotal throughout the year, but individuals enter reproductive condition at different times of the year. Gestation in captivity is 22-23 days, with average litter size of 2-8 young (1-5). Neonates have an average weight of 3-2 g and are pink. Lactation lasts for 5-6 weeks. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g at c.4 weeks old. Longevity is 3—4 years. Equivalent parameters for wild populations are not known.","Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal and relatively slow moving. [tis mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.",Home ranges ofadult male Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats are larger than those of females. Densities in good-quality habitat are relatively stable at 14-31 ind/ha.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction, it occupies a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of coastal and montane forests in Kenya and Tanzania.",Christensen (1987) | Egoscue (1972) | Fitzgibbon et al. (1995) | Happold (2013e) | Hubbard (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sabuni et al. (2015) | Stanley & Goodman (2011),,"35.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched RatBeamys hindeiFrench:Petit Rat-hamster/ German:Kleine Hamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones de HindeOther common names:Hinde's Pouched RatTaxonomy.Beamys hindei Thomas, 1909,“ Taveta, Coast region [= Kenya], British East Africa. Alt. 2000’ [= 610 m].”Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. major, but it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.Distribution.Coastal plains and montane areas of E Kenya and Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-155 mm, tail 114-127 mm, ear 20-23 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm; weight 49-76 g. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Ratis medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.Habitat.Coastal forests and woodlands below elevations of 400 m (but up to 1200 m in the Usambara Mountains), typically on sandy soils. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat enters fallow fields and cassava plantations. Sandy soils might facilitate burrow excavation, in which it rests during the day and stores cached seeds and fruits. Another important factor appears to be a dense shrub layer, but reasons for that are not known.Food and Feeding.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds, which may be cached in burrows. Insects are also eaten but constitute a smaller proportion of the diet.Breeding.Juveniles and reproductively active males and females appear throughout the year suggesting aseasonal breeding, but the proportion oflactating female Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats appears to increase during seasonal rains. A large proportion of males are scrotal throughout the year, but individuals enter reproductive condition at different times of the year. Gestation in captivity is 22-23 days, with average litter size of 2-8 young (1-5). Neonates have an average weight of 3-2 g and are pink. Lactation lasts for 5-6 weeks. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g at c.4 weeks old. Longevity is 3—4 years. Equivalent parameters for wild populations are not known.Activity patterns.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal and relatively slow moving. [tis mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges ofadult male Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats are larger than those of females. Densities in good-quality habitat are relatively stable at 14-31 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction, it occupies a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of coastal and montane forests in Kenya and Tanzania.Bibliography.Christensen (1987), Egoscue (1972), Fitzgibbon et al. (1995), Happold (2013e), Hubbard (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sabuni et al. (2015), Stanley & Goodman (2011)." -03993828FFFE0F5AFFE6FDBCCED1F842,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,195,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5AFFE6FDBCCED1F842.xml,Beamys major,Beamys,major,Dollman,1914,Grand Rat-hamster @fr | Grol3e Hamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones grande @es | Greater Pouched Rat @en,"Beamys major Dollman, 1914,“ Mlanje, Nyasaland,” Malawi, south-east ern Africa.Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. hindeibut it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.","N & E Zambia, Malawi, and NC Mozambique (Mt Mabu).","Head-body 136— 173 mm, tail 126-143 mm, ear 19-21 mm, hindfoot 21-25 mm; weight 95-102 g. The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.",Montane and riparian forests typically at elevations of 500-1000 m.,The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds that might be cached in burrows. Insects constitute a smaller proportion ofthe diet.,"Pregnant Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rats have been recorded during the rainy season in November-May. Average litter size is 4-6 young. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g within the first four weeks. Gestation in captivity in the closely related Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat (B. hindei) is 22-23 days, and longevity is 3—4 years.","The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal. It is mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.",Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is apparently solitary.,"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Although the Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction,it does occupy a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of forests in north-eastern Zambia, Malawi, and central Mozambique.",Ansell (1978) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Egoscue (1972) | Fitzgibbon et al. (1995) | Hanney & Mor ris (1962) | Happold (2013e) | Monadjem et al. (2015),,"34.Greater Long-tailed Pouched RatBeamys majorFrench:Grand Rat-hamster/ German:Grol3e Hamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones grandeOther common names:Greater Pouched RatTaxonomy.Beamys major Dollman, 1914,“ Mlanje, Nyasaland,” Malawi, south-east ern Africa.Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. hindeibut it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.Distribution.N & E Zambia, Malawi, and NC Mozambique (Mt Mabu).Descriptive notes.Head-body 136— 173 mm, tail 126-143 mm, ear 19-21 mm, hindfoot 21-25 mm; weight 95-102 g. The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.Habitat.Montane and riparian forests typically at elevations of 500-1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds that might be cached in burrows. Insects constitute a smaller proportion ofthe diet.Breeding.Pregnant Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rats have been recorded during the rainy season in November-May. Average litter size is 4-6 young. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g within the first four weeks. Gestation in captivity in the closely related Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat (B. hindei) is 22-23 days, and longevity is 3—4 years.Activity patterns.The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal. It is mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is apparently solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Although the Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction,it does occupy a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of forests in north-eastern Zambia, Malawi, and central Mozambique.Bibliography.Ansell (1978), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Egoscue (1972), Fitzgibbon et al. (1995), Hanney & Mor ris (1962), Happold (2013e), Monadjem et al. (2015)." -03993828FFFE0F5BFAFFF9B7CDC5FDAE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,195,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5BFAFFF9B7CDC5FDAE.xml,Cricetomys emini,Cricetomys,emini,Wroughton,1910,Cricétome d'Emin @fr | Emin-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante de bosque @es | Emin’s Giant Pouched Rat @en,"of C. eminiis currently in flux because it represents a species complex. Recent molecular studies have shown presence of at least three, if not four, different species, which are morphologically assignable to C. emini. Further studies are required to sort out taxonomic implications. Monotypic.","Tropical Africa extending continuously from Sierra Leone E to Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Angola; it also occurs on Bioko.","Head—body 300-355 mm, tail 320-429 mm, ear 33-45 mm, hindfoot 64-71 mm; weight 0-5—1-3 kg. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroidrat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Furis relatively short and soft for a species of Cricetomys, bright brown to dark brown dorsally, which is clearly delineated from white or cream venter. Snout is long and pointed. There is no dark ring around eyes,as is typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of forest habitats. The Forest Giant Pouched Ratis often commensal with humans at forest edges, butit is replaced by the Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus) or the Southern Giant Pouched Rat (C. ansorgei) in large forest clearings.","The Forest Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, palm nuts, and seeds, which may be cached in a burrow.","Litter of Forest Giant Pouched Rats are 2—4 young, and gestation is 42 days. They may survive over four years in captivity.",The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial but may also climb. It excavates a burrow where it rests during the day.,"Forest Giant Pouched Rats are typically solitary, with one individual in each burrow system. A single study reported densities of 134 ind/km?.On following pages: 37 Northern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys gambianus); 38. Kivu Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomyskivuensis); 39. Southern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomysansorgel); 40. East African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi); 41. Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus umbriventer); 42. Southern African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus campestris); 43. Nikolaus's African Climbing Mouse (Megadendromusnikolaus)); 44. Lachaise's African Climbing Mouse(Dendromuslachaisei); 45. Cameroon African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus oreas); 46. Banana African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus messorius): 47. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse (Dendromusruppl); 48. Lovat's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromuslovati); 49. Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus kahuziensis); 50. Montane African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus insignis); 51. Vernay's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus vernayl); 52. Monard's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus leucostomus); 53. KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse (Dendromusnyasae); 54. Nyika African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus nyikae); 55. Chestnut African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mystacalis); 56. Gray African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus melanotis); 57 Brants's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mesomelas): 58. Velvet African Climbing Mouse (Dendroprionomysrousselot)); 59. Bates's African Climbing Mouse (Prionomysbates); 60. North-western Fat Mouse (Steatomys caurinus); 61. Dainty Fat Mouse (Steatomyscuppedius); 62. Jackson's Fat Mouse (Steatomysjackson); 63. Pousargues's Fat Mouse (Steatomys opimus); 64. Bocage’s Fat Mouse (Steatomys bocage); 65. Tiny Fat Mouse (Steatomys parvus); 66. Common Fat Mouse (Steatomys pratensis); 67. Krebs's Fat Mouse (Steatomys krebsii): 68. Long-eared Desert Mouse (Malacothrixtypical).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is hunted extensively for food over much of its distribution. Despitethis pressure,it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.",Fa & Purvis (1997) | Malcolm & Ray (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Ray (2013) | Rosevear (1969),,"36.Forest Giant Pouched RatCricetomys eminiFrench:Cricétome d'Emin/ German:Emin-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante de bosqueOther common names:Emin’s Giant Pouched RatTaxonomy.Cricetomys gambianus emini Wroughton, 1910,“ Gadda, Monbattu,” DR Congo.Taxonomy of C. eminiis currently in flux because it represents a species complex. Recent molecular studies have shown presence of at least three, if not four, different species, which are morphologically assignable to C. emini. Further studies are required to sort out taxonomic implications. Monotypic.Distribution.Tropical Africa extending continuously from Sierra Leone E to Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Angola; it also occurs on Bioko.Descriptive notes.Head—body 300-355 mm, tail 320-429 mm, ear 33-45 mm, hindfoot 64-71 mm; weight 0-5—1-3 kg. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroidrat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Furis relatively short and soft for a species of Cricetomys, bright brown to dark brown dorsally, which is clearly delineated from white or cream venter. Snout is long and pointed. There is no dark ring around eyes,as is typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of forest habitats. The Forest Giant Pouched Ratis often commensal with humans at forest edges, butit is replaced by the Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus) or the Southern Giant Pouched Rat (C. ansorgei) in large forest clearings.Food and Feeding.The Forest Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, palm nuts, and seeds, which may be cached in a burrow.Breeding.Litter of Forest Giant Pouched Rats are 2—4 young, and gestation is 42 days. They may survive over four years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial but may also climb. It excavates a burrow where it rests during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Forest Giant Pouched Rats are typically solitary, with one individual in each burrow system. A single study reported densities of 134 ind/km?.On following pages: 37 Northern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys gambianus); 38. Kivu Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomyskivuensis); 39. Southern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomysansorgel); 40. East African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi); 41. Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus umbriventer); 42. Southern African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus campestris); 43. Nikolaus's African Climbing Mouse (Megadendromusnikolaus)); 44. Lachaise's African Climbing Mouse(Dendromuslachaisei); 45. Cameroon African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus oreas); 46. Banana African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus messorius): 47. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse (Dendromusruppl); 48. Lovat's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromuslovati); 49. Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus kahuziensis); 50. Montane African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus insignis); 51. Vernay's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus vernayl); 52. Monard's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus leucostomus); 53. KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse (Dendromusnyasae); 54. Nyika African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus nyikae); 55. Chestnut African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mystacalis); 56. Gray African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus melanotis); 57 Brants's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mesomelas): 58. Velvet African Climbing Mouse (Dendroprionomysrousselot)); 59. Bates's African Climbing Mouse (Prionomysbates); 60. North-western Fat Mouse (Steatomys caurinus); 61. Dainty Fat Mouse (Steatomyscuppedius); 62. Jackson's Fat Mouse (Steatomysjackson); 63. Pousargues's Fat Mouse (Steatomys opimus); 64. Bocage’s Fat Mouse (Steatomys bocage); 65. Tiny Fat Mouse (Steatomys parvus); 66. Common Fat Mouse (Steatomys pratensis); 67. Krebs's Fat Mouse (Steatomys krebsii): 68. Long-eared Desert Mouse (Malacothrixtypical).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is hunted extensively for food over much of its distribution. Despitethis pressure,it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.Bibliography.Fa & Purvis (1997), Malcolm & Ray (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Ray (2013), Rosevear (1969)." -03993828FFFF0F58FA20F401C824FA81,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,196,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F58FA20F401C824FA81.xml,Saccostomus mearnst,Saccostomus,mearnsi,Heller,1910,Saccostome de Mearns @fr | Ostafrika-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Ratén de abazones de Africa oriental @es | Mearn’'s Pouched Mouse @en,"Saccostomus mearnsi Heller, 1910,“ Changamwe, British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation within S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.","E Uganda, Kenya, SW Ethiopia, and S Somalia.","Head-body 101-150 mm, tail 38-74 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 18-25 mm; weight 43-69 g. The East African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of savanna and woodlands,typically below elevations of¢.1500 m.","The East African Pouched Mouse is omnivorous, switching from green plant matter during the dry season to seeds after rains. In laboratory tests, individuals prefer forbs more than seeds.","Proportion of female East African Pouched Mice in breeding condition increases after rains and then drops in the dry season. Proportion of breeding males, however, remains high throughout the year.",The East African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds.,"The East African Pouched Mouse is solitary. In central Kenya, densities fluctuate from 16 ind/ha to 42 ind/ha throughout the year. Interannual variation may be even larger. In the absence of mammalian predators, densities can reach more than 80 ind/ha. Females appear to be territorial. Males are randomly distributed, with larger home ranges (0-21 ha) than females (0-06 ha).",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bergstrom (2013) | Corti, Castiglia, Annesi & Verheyen (2004) | Corti, Castiglia, Colangelo et al. (2005) | Denys (1988, 1992) | Hubert (1978a) | Keesing (1998, 2013) | Keesing & Crawford (2001) | Keesing & Young (2014) | Metz & Keesing (2001) | Mikula et al. (2016) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966a)",,"40.East African Pouched MouseSaccostomus mearnstFrench:Saccostome de Mearns/ German:Ostafrika-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Ratén de abazones de Africa orientalOther common names:Mearn’'s Pouched MouseTaxonomy.Saccostomus mearnsi Heller, 1910,“ Changamwe, British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation within S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.Distribution.E Uganda, Kenya, SW Ethiopia, and S Somalia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 101-150 mm, tail 38-74 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 18-25 mm; weight 43-69 g. The East African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna and woodlands,typically below elevations of¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.The East African Pouched Mouse is omnivorous, switching from green plant matter during the dry season to seeds after rains. In laboratory tests, individuals prefer forbs more than seeds.Breeding.Proportion of female East African Pouched Mice in breeding condition increases after rains and then drops in the dry season. Proportion of breeding males, however, remains high throughout the year.Activity patterns.The East African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The East African Pouched Mouse is solitary. In central Kenya, densities fluctuate from 16 ind/ha to 42 ind/ha throughout the year. Interannual variation may be even larger. In the absence of mammalian predators, densities can reach more than 80 ind/ha. Females appear to be territorial. Males are randomly distributed, with larger home ranges (0-21 ha) than females (0-06 ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bergstrom (2013), Corti, Castiglia, Annesi & Verheyen (2004), Corti, Castiglia, Colangelo et al. (2005), Denys (1988, 1992), Hubert (1978a), Keesing (1998, 2013), Keesing & Crawford (2001), Keesing & Young (2014), Metz & Keesing (2001), Mikula et al. (2016), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966a)." -03993828FFFF0F5BFA39FE0BC614F50B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,196,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFA39FE0BC614F50B.xml,Cricetomys ansorgei,Cricetomys,ansorgei,Thomas,1904,Cricétome d’Ansorge @fr | Sidliche Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante meridional @es,"of C. ansorgeiis currently unclear, and it might represent a species complex. Recent molecular studies of Cricetomyshave not fully aligned with morphological studies, suggesting that traditional morphological traits may not be useful in distinguishing species in this genus. Six subspecies recognized.","C. a. ansorgei Thomas, 1904— from DR Congo S of the Congo River extending E to Kenya, and S to Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa.a. cosenst Hinton, 1919 — Zanzibar, Tanzania. a. elgonis Thomas, 1910 — Mt Elgon, Uganda—Kenya. DoDD a. enguvi Heller, 1912 — Taita Hills, Kenya.a. kenyensis Osgood, 1910 — Mt Kenya.. a. microtis Lonnberg, 1917 — Virunga Mts, DR Congo.","Head-body 288-413 mm, tail 345-449 mm, ear 32-42 mm, hindfoot 68-78 mm; weight 1.2-8 kg (males) and 0.9-1.4 kg (females). The Southern Giant Pouched Ratis the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, brown or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snout is long and pointed, with dark rings around eyes. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is often commensal with humans,living at high densities in some urban and periurban environments. It excavates burrows, primarily with its teeth, typically at bases of large trees or boulders.","The Southern Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, seeds, and tubers that might be cached in a burrow. Gut morphology is complex, and passage rates are slow, adaptations to exploit nutrient-poor foods. Coprophagy appears to pass on gut microbes from mother to offspring to assist with digestion.","Pregnant Southern Giant Pouched Rats have mostly been recorded during the rainy season in September—May. Averagelittersize is three young for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus). Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at c.20 weeks for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat. Southern Giant Pouched Rats can survive c.8 years in captivity.","The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal, with two peaks in activity and a lull between 22:00 h and 01:00 h. Most of the night is spent in a burrow, and only one-quarter of the night spent outside. It is terrestrial but might also climb.","The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system. Average home range was 4-9 ha, with males wandering over larger areas than females. Densities might be high in prime habitat; 42 individuals were captured on a 0-5ha garden in Harare, Zimbabwe.","Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat causes damage to crops and orchards and is often persecuted. It is hunted for food over much ofits distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have suffered from a range contraction or reduced population. Due to its acute sense of smell and high level of intelligence,it has been trained to detect land mines.",Ajayi (1975) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Ewer (1967) | Genest-Villard (1967) | Knight (1984) | Knight & Knight-Eloff (1987) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Morris (1963) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Poling et al. (2010) | Ray & Duplantier (2013) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers &Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979),,"39.Southern Giant Pouched RatCricetomys ansorgeiFrench:Cricétome d’Ansorge/ German:Sidliche Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante meridionalTaxonomy.Cricetomys ansorgei Thomas, 1904,Pungo Andongo, Angola.Taxonomy of C. ansorgeiis currently unclear, and it might represent a species complex. Recent molecular studies of Cricetomyshave not fully aligned with morphological studies, suggesting that traditional morphological traits may not be useful in distinguishing species in this genus. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. a. ansorgei Thomas, 1904— from DR Congo S of the Congo River extending E to Kenya, and S to Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa.a. cosenst Hinton, 1919 — Zanzibar, Tanzania. a. elgonis Thomas, 1910 — Mt Elgon, Uganda—Kenya. DoDD a. enguvi Heller, 1912 — Taita Hills, Kenya.a. kenyensis Osgood, 1910 — Mt Kenya.. a. microtis Lonnberg, 1917 — Virunga Mts, DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 288-413 mm, tail 345-449 mm, ear 32-42 mm, hindfoot 68-78 mm; weight 1.2-8 kg (males) and 0.9-1.4 kg (females). The Southern Giant Pouched Ratis the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, brown or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snout is long and pointed, with dark rings around eyes. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is often commensal with humans,living at high densities in some urban and periurban environments. It excavates burrows, primarily with its teeth, typically at bases of large trees or boulders.Food and Feeding.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, seeds, and tubers that might be cached in a burrow. Gut morphology is complex, and passage rates are slow, adaptations to exploit nutrient-poor foods. Coprophagy appears to pass on gut microbes from mother to offspring to assist with digestion.Breeding.Pregnant Southern Giant Pouched Rats have mostly been recorded during the rainy season in September—May. Averagelittersize is three young for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus). Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at c.20 weeks for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat. Southern Giant Pouched Rats can survive c.8 years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal, with two peaks in activity and a lull between 22:00 h and 01:00 h. Most of the night is spent in a burrow, and only one-quarter of the night spent outside. It is terrestrial but might also climb.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system. Average home range was 4-9 ha, with males wandering over larger areas than females. Densities might be high in prime habitat; 42 individuals were captured on a 0-5ha garden in Harare, Zimbabwe.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat causes damage to crops and orchards and is often persecuted. It is hunted for food over much ofits distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have suffered from a range contraction or reduced population. Due to its acute sense of smell and high level of intelligence,it has been trained to detect land mines.Bibliography.Ajayi (1975), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Ewer (1967), Genest-Villard (1967), Knight (1984), Knight & Knight-Eloff (1987), Monadjem et al. (2015), Morris (1963), Olayemi et al. (2012), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Poling et al. (2010), Ray & Duplantier (2013), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers &Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979)." -03993828FFFF0F5BFF22F74BCB50FECE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,196,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFF22F74BCB50FECE.xml,Cricetomys kivuensis,Cricetomys,kivuensis,Lonnberg,1917,Cricétome du Kivu @fr | Kivu-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante de Kivu @es,"Cricetomys kivuensis Lonnberg, 1917,Masisi, DR Congo.The distinctiveness of this species has recently been questioned on molecular and morphological grounds, and may therefore not represent a distinct species. Further studies are required to resolve the taxonomy of this genus. Monotypic.","Restricted to the Albertine Rift in E DR Congo, SW Uganda, W Rwanda, and N Burundi.","Head-body ¢.320 mm, tail ¢.340 mm, ear c.45 mm, hindfoot c.69 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroid rat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is relatively long and soft, grayish dorsally shading to off-white ventrally. Snout is long and pointed. There are no dark rings around eyes as are typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbsare relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.",Montane forest.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Other species of Cricetomysare hunted extensively for food. If the Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is also hunted in its limited distribution, its conservation status could be negatively affected.",Fa & Purvis (1997) | Malcolm & Ray (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Ray & Duplantier (2013) | Rosevear (1969),,"38.Kivu Giant Pouched RatCricetomys kivuensisFrench:Cricétome du Kivu/ German:Kivu-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante de KivuTaxonomy.Cricetomys kivuensis Lonnberg, 1917,Masisi, DR Congo.The distinctiveness of this species has recently been questioned on molecular and morphological grounds, and may therefore not represent a distinct species. Further studies are required to resolve the taxonomy of this genus. Monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to the Albertine Rift in E DR Congo, SW Uganda, W Rwanda, and N Burundi.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.320 mm, tail ¢.340 mm, ear c.45 mm, hindfoot c.69 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroid rat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is relatively long and soft, grayish dorsally shading to off-white ventrally. Snout is long and pointed. There are no dark rings around eyes as are typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbsare relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane forest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Other species of Cricetomysare hunted extensively for food. If the Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is also hunted in its limited distribution, its conservation status could be negatively affected.Bibliography.Fa & Purvis (1997), Malcolm & Ray (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Ray & Duplantier (2013), Rosevear (1969)." -03993828FFFF0F5BFF3DFDEAC867F70F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,196,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFF3DFDEAC867F70F.xml,Cricetomys gambianus,Cricetomys,gambianus,Waterhouse,1840,Cricétome de Gambie @fr | Gambia-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante septentrional @es | Gambian Giant Pouched Rat @en,"Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse, 1840,Gambia River, The Gambia.This species is monotypic.","Extending continuously from Senegal E to South Sudan and Uganda, and S to Congo River, DR Congo.","Head-body 284-386 mm, tail 247-405 mm, ear 35-40 mm, hindfoot 62-73 mm; weight 0.5-1.5 kg. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, grayish or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snoutis long and pointed, with dark ring around eyes. Earsare relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests.","The Northern Giant Pouched Rat eats mostly fruits, seeds, and tubers, which may be cached in a burrow. Coprophagy appears to pass gut microbes from motherto offspring to assist with digestion.","Pregnant Northern Giant Pouched Rats are present throughout the year, suggesting aseasonal breeding. Average litter size is three young. Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at ¢.20 weeks, and longevity is more than four years in captivity.","The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, but it might also climb. It is often commensal with humans. It excavates burrows.","The Northern Giant Pouched Ratis typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system, but multiple individuals have been reported in a single burrow. Based on counts of burrows, densities can be high in prime habitat; 45 burrows were found on a 5ha farm in Nigeria.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat can damage crops and orchards and is therefore often persecuted. It is also hunted for food over much of its distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.","Ajayi (1975, 1977) | Anizoba (1982) | Duplantier & Granjon (2013) | Ewer (1967) | Fa et al. (2005) | Happold (1987) | Monadjem etal. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Rosevear (1969)",,"37.Northern Giant Pouched RatCricetomys gambianusFrench:Cricétome de Gambie/ German:Gambia-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante septentrionalOther common names:Gambian Giant Pouched RatTaxonomy.Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse, 1840,Gambia River, The Gambia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Extending continuously from Senegal E to South Sudan and Uganda, and S to Congo River, DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 284-386 mm, tail 247-405 mm, ear 35-40 mm, hindfoot 62-73 mm; weight 0.5-1.5 kg. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, grayish or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snoutis long and pointed, with dark ring around eyes. Earsare relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests.Food and Feeding.The Northern Giant Pouched Rat eats mostly fruits, seeds, and tubers, which may be cached in a burrow. Coprophagy appears to pass gut microbes from motherto offspring to assist with digestion.Breeding.Pregnant Northern Giant Pouched Rats are present throughout the year, suggesting aseasonal breeding. Average litter size is three young. Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at ¢.20 weeks, and longevity is more than four years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, but it might also climb. It is often commensal with humans. It excavates burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Northern Giant Pouched Ratis typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system, but multiple individuals have been reported in a single burrow. Based on counts of burrows, densities can be high in prime habitat; 45 burrows were found on a 5ha farm in Nigeria.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat can damage crops and orchards and is therefore often persecuted. It is also hunted for food over much of its distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.Bibliography.Ajayi (1975, 1977), Anizoba (1982), Duplantier & Granjon (2013), Ewer (1967), Fa et al. (2005), Happold (1987), Monadjem etal. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Rosevear (1969)." +03993828FFFD0F59FF3AF94EC807F30B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF3AF94EC807F30B.xml,Dendromus oreas,Dendromus,oreas,Osgood,1936,Dendromus du Cameroun @fr | Kamerun-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Camerun @es | Cameroon Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromus oreas Osgood, 1936,“southwest side of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon Mandate, British Nigeria. Alt. 9,000 ft[= 2743 m].”.Previously, oreas was included as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.","Endemic to W Cameroon Mts (Manenguba, Kupé, and Cameroon Mts).","Head-body 60-74 mm, tail 89-104 mm, ear 13-19 mm, hindfoot 18-21 mm; weight 9-13 g. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally and rufous or grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Indistinct black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Montane grasslands and savannas at elevations of ¢.850-2900 m. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse lives on the ground among boulders of lava (Mount Cameroon), dry grassy and scrubby slopes (Mount Manenguba), and plantations and farmlands (Mount Kupé).",No information.,A pregnant female captured in late November had five embryos.,The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also an agile climber.,No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse has a very restricted distribution on just three mountain ranges, but no specific conservation threats are known.","Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014) | Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009) | Dieterlen (2013d) | Eisentraut (1963) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600462/files/figure.png,"45.Cameroon African Climbing MouseDendromus oreasFrench:Dendromus du Cameroun/ German:Kamerun-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de CamerunOther common names:Cameroon Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus oreas Osgood, 1936,“southwest side of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon Mandate, British Nigeria. Alt. 9,000 ft[= 2743 m].”.Previously, oreas was included as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W Cameroon Mts (Manenguba, Kupé, and Cameroon Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 60-74 mm, tail 89-104 mm, ear 13-19 mm, hindfoot 18-21 mm; weight 9-13 g. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally and rufous or grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Indistinct black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Montane grasslands and savannas at elevations of ¢.850-2900 m. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse lives on the ground among boulders of lava (Mount Cameroon), dry grassy and scrubby slopes (Mount Manenguba), and plantations and farmlands (Mount Kupé).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A pregnant female captured in late November had five embryos.Activity patterns.The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also an agile climber.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse has a very restricted distribution on just three mountain ranges, but no specific conservation threats are known.Bibliography.Denys & Aniskine (2012), Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014), Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009), Dieterlen (2013d), Eisentraut (1963), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969)." +03993828FFFD0F59FF3EF353CBC5F9AA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF3EF353CBC5F9AA.xml,Dendromus messorius,Dendromus,messorius,,,Dendromusdes bananiers @fr | Bananenklettermaus @de | Ratén trepador africano de bananera @es | Banana Climbing Mouse @en,"Dendromys messorius Thomas, 1903,“ Efulen, Bulu Country, Cameroons[= Cameroon].”Dendromus messoriusis in urgent need of taxonomic revision. Monotypic.","Disjunct range in Ghana, Togo, Benin, SE Nigeria, Cameroon, extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, SE Uganda, and W Kenya; limits uncertain.","Head-body 57-70 mm, tail 78-95 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 16-20 mm; weight 7-10 g. The Banana African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and bright rufous-brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair on back is dark gray but white below. There is usually no mid-dorsal stripe, orif present,it is indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits on forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","Various habitats, such as croplands with banana (Musa, Musaceae) trees, gallery forest, and grassland.",Diet of the Banana African Climbing Mouse includes green plant material and fruit.,A single litter of the Banana African Climbing Mouse had three young. It builds a nest with a single entrance in banana trees and tall grass.,The Banana African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal.,Nests of Banana African Climbing Mice are apparently occupied by one individual.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014) | Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009) | Dieterlen (2009) | Happold (2013f) | Hatt (1940) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Matthey (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nicolas, Natta et al. (2010) | Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996) | Rosevear (1969) | Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600464/files/figure.png,"46.Banana African Climbing MouseDendromus messoriusFrench:Dendromusdes bananiers/ German:Bananenklettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de bananeraOther common names:Banana Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys messorius Thomas, 1903,“ Efulen, Bulu Country, Cameroons[= Cameroon].”Dendromus messoriusis in urgent need of taxonomic revision. Monotypic.Distribution.Disjunct range in Ghana, Togo, Benin, SE Nigeria, Cameroon, extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, SE Uganda, and W Kenya; limits uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-70 mm, tail 78-95 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 16-20 mm; weight 7-10 g. The Banana African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and bright rufous-brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair on back is dark gray but white below. There is usually no mid-dorsal stripe, orif present,it is indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits on forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various habitats, such as croplands with banana (Musa, Musaceae) trees, gallery forest, and grassland.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Banana African Climbing Mouse includes green plant material and fruit.Breeding.A single litter of the Banana African Climbing Mouse had three young. It builds a nest with a single entrance in banana trees and tall grass.Activity patterns.The Banana African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nests of Banana African Climbing Mice are apparently occupied by one individual.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Denys & Aniskine (2012), Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014), Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009), Dieterlen (2009), Happold (2013f), Hatt (1940), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Matthey (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nicolas, Natta et al. (2010), Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996), Rosevear (1969), Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)." +03993828FFFE0F5AFFE1F794C4F4FB5A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,195,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5AFFE1F794C4F4FB5A.xml,Beamys hindei,Beamys,hindei,Thomas,1909,Petit Rat-hamster @fr | Kleine Hamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones de Hinde @es | Hinde's Pouched Rat @en,"Beamys hindei Thomas, 1909,“ Taveta, Coast region [= Kenya], British East Africa. Alt. 2000’ [= 610 m].”Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. major, but it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.",Coastal plains and montane areas of E Kenya and Tanzania.,"Head-body 125-155 mm, tail 114-127 mm, ear 20-23 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm; weight 49-76 g. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Ratis medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.","Coastal forests and woodlands below elevations of 400 m (but up to 1200 m in the Usambara Mountains), typically on sandy soils. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat enters fallow fields and cassava plantations. Sandy soils might facilitate burrow excavation, in which it rests during the day and stores cached seeds and fruits. Another important factor appears to be a dense shrub layer, but reasons for that are not known.","Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds, which may be cached in burrows. Insects are also eaten but constitute a smaller proportion of the diet.","Juveniles and reproductively active males and females appear throughout the year suggesting aseasonal breeding, but the proportion oflactating female Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats appears to increase during seasonal rains. A large proportion of males are scrotal throughout the year, but individuals enter reproductive condition at different times of the year. Gestation in captivity is 22-23 days, with average litter size of 2-8 young (1-5). Neonates have an average weight of 3-2 g and are pink. Lactation lasts for 5-6 weeks. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g at c.4 weeks old. Longevity is 3—4 years. Equivalent parameters for wild populations are not known.","Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal and relatively slow moving. [tis mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.",Home ranges ofadult male Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats are larger than those of females. Densities in good-quality habitat are relatively stable at 14-31 ind/ha.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction, it occupies a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of coastal and montane forests in Kenya and Tanzania.",Christensen (1987) | Egoscue (1972) | Fitzgibbon et al. (1995) | Happold (2013e) | Hubbard (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sabuni et al. (2015) | Stanley & Goodman (2011),https://zenodo.org/record/6600444/files/figure.png,"35.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched RatBeamys hindeiFrench:Petit Rat-hamster/ German:Kleine Hamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones de HindeOther common names:Hinde's Pouched RatTaxonomy.Beamys hindei Thomas, 1909,“ Taveta, Coast region [= Kenya], British East Africa. Alt. 2000’ [= 610 m].”Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. major, but it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.Distribution.Coastal plains and montane areas of E Kenya and Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-155 mm, tail 114-127 mm, ear 20-23 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm; weight 49-76 g. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Ratis medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.Habitat.Coastal forests and woodlands below elevations of 400 m (but up to 1200 m in the Usambara Mountains), typically on sandy soils. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat enters fallow fields and cassava plantations. Sandy soils might facilitate burrow excavation, in which it rests during the day and stores cached seeds and fruits. Another important factor appears to be a dense shrub layer, but reasons for that are not known.Food and Feeding.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds, which may be cached in burrows. Insects are also eaten but constitute a smaller proportion of the diet.Breeding.Juveniles and reproductively active males and females appear throughout the year suggesting aseasonal breeding, but the proportion oflactating female Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats appears to increase during seasonal rains. A large proportion of males are scrotal throughout the year, but individuals enter reproductive condition at different times of the year. Gestation in captivity is 22-23 days, with average litter size of 2-8 young (1-5). Neonates have an average weight of 3-2 g and are pink. Lactation lasts for 5-6 weeks. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g at c.4 weeks old. Longevity is 3—4 years. Equivalent parameters for wild populations are not known.Activity patterns.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal and relatively slow moving. [tis mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges ofadult male Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats are larger than those of females. Densities in good-quality habitat are relatively stable at 14-31 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction, it occupies a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of coastal and montane forests in Kenya and Tanzania.Bibliography.Christensen (1987), Egoscue (1972), Fitzgibbon et al. (1995), Happold (2013e), Hubbard (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sabuni et al. (2015), Stanley & Goodman (2011)." +03993828FFFE0F5AFFE6FDBCCED1F842,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,195,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5AFFE6FDBCCED1F842.xml,Beamys major,Beamys,major,Dollman,1914,Grand Rat-hamster @fr | Grol3e Hamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones grande @es | Greater Pouched Rat @en,"Beamys major Dollman, 1914,“ Mlanje, Nyasaland,” Malawi, south-east ern Africa.Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. hindeibut it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.","N & E Zambia, Malawi, and NC Mozambique (Mt Mabu).","Head-body 136— 173 mm, tail 126-143 mm, ear 19-21 mm, hindfoot 21-25 mm; weight 95-102 g. The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.",Montane and riparian forests typically at elevations of 500-1000 m.,The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds that might be cached in burrows. Insects constitute a smaller proportion ofthe diet.,"Pregnant Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rats have been recorded during the rainy season in November-May. Average litter size is 4-6 young. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g within the first four weeks. Gestation in captivity in the closely related Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat (B. hindei) is 22-23 days, and longevity is 3—4 years.","The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal. It is mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.",Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is apparently solitary.,"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Although the Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction,it does occupy a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of forests in north-eastern Zambia, Malawi, and central Mozambique.",Ansell (1978) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Egoscue (1972) | Fitzgibbon et al. (1995) | Hanney & Mor ris (1962) | Happold (2013e) | Monadjem et al. (2015),https://zenodo.org/record/6600442/files/figure.png,"34.Greater Long-tailed Pouched RatBeamys majorFrench:Grand Rat-hamster/ German:Grol3e Hamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones grandeOther common names:Greater Pouched RatTaxonomy.Beamys major Dollman, 1914,“ Mlanje, Nyasaland,” Malawi, south-east ern Africa.Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. hindeibut it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.Distribution.N & E Zambia, Malawi, and NC Mozambique (Mt Mabu).Descriptive notes.Head-body 136— 173 mm, tail 126-143 mm, ear 19-21 mm, hindfoot 21-25 mm; weight 95-102 g. The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.Habitat.Montane and riparian forests typically at elevations of 500-1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds that might be cached in burrows. Insects constitute a smaller proportion ofthe diet.Breeding.Pregnant Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rats have been recorded during the rainy season in November-May. Average litter size is 4-6 young. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g within the first four weeks. Gestation in captivity in the closely related Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat (B. hindei) is 22-23 days, and longevity is 3—4 years.Activity patterns.The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal. It is mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is apparently solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Although the Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction,it does occupy a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of forests in north-eastern Zambia, Malawi, and central Mozambique.Bibliography.Ansell (1978), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Egoscue (1972), Fitzgibbon et al. (1995), Hanney & Mor ris (1962), Happold (2013e), Monadjem et al. (2015)." +03993828FFFE0F5BFAFFF9B7CDC5FDAE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,195,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5BFAFFF9B7CDC5FDAE.xml,Cricetomys emini,Cricetomys,emini,Wroughton,1910,Cricétome d'Emin @fr | Emin-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante de bosque @es | Emin’s Giant Pouched Rat @en,"of C. eminiis currently in flux because it represents a species complex. Recent molecular studies have shown presence of at least three, if not four, different species, which are morphologically assignable to C. emini. Further studies are required to sort out taxonomic implications. Monotypic.","Tropical Africa extending continuously from Sierra Leone E to Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Angola; it also occurs on Bioko.","Head—body 300-355 mm, tail 320-429 mm, ear 33-45 mm, hindfoot 64-71 mm; weight 0-5—1-3 kg. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroidrat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Furis relatively short and soft for a species of Cricetomys, bright brown to dark brown dorsally, which is clearly delineated from white or cream venter. Snout is long and pointed. There is no dark ring around eyes,as is typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of forest habitats. The Forest Giant Pouched Ratis often commensal with humans at forest edges, butit is replaced by the Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus) or the Southern Giant Pouched Rat (C. ansorgei) in large forest clearings.","The Forest Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, palm nuts, and seeds, which may be cached in a burrow.","Litter of Forest Giant Pouched Rats are 2—4 young, and gestation is 42 days. They may survive over four years in captivity.",The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial but may also climb. It excavates a burrow where it rests during the day.,"Forest Giant Pouched Rats are typically solitary, with one individual in each burrow system. A single study reported densities of 134 ind/km?.On following pages: 37 Northern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys gambianus); 38. Kivu Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomyskivuensis); 39. Southern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomysansorgel); 40. East African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi); 41. Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus umbriventer); 42. Southern African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus campestris); 43. Nikolaus's African Climbing Mouse (Megadendromusnikolaus)); 44. Lachaise's African Climbing Mouse(Dendromuslachaisei); 45. Cameroon African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus oreas); 46. Banana African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus messorius): 47. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse (Dendromusruppl); 48. Lovat's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromuslovati); 49. Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus kahuziensis); 50. Montane African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus insignis); 51. Vernay's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus vernayl); 52. Monard's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus leucostomus); 53. KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse (Dendromusnyasae); 54. Nyika African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus nyikae); 55. Chestnut African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mystacalis); 56. Gray African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus melanotis); 57 Brants's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mesomelas): 58. Velvet African Climbing Mouse (Dendroprionomysrousselot)); 59. Bates's African Climbing Mouse (Prionomysbates); 60. North-western Fat Mouse (Steatomys caurinus); 61. Dainty Fat Mouse (Steatomyscuppedius); 62. Jackson's Fat Mouse (Steatomysjackson); 63. Pousargues's Fat Mouse (Steatomys opimus); 64. Bocage’s Fat Mouse (Steatomys bocage); 65. Tiny Fat Mouse (Steatomys parvus); 66. Common Fat Mouse (Steatomys pratensis); 67. Krebs's Fat Mouse (Steatomys krebsii): 68. Long-eared Desert Mouse (Malacothrixtypical).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is hunted extensively for food over much of its distribution. Despitethis pressure,it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.",Fa & Purvis (1997) | Malcolm & Ray (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Ray (2013) | Rosevear (1969),https://zenodo.org/record/6600446/files/figure.png,"36.Forest Giant Pouched RatCricetomys eminiFrench:Cricétome d'Emin/ German:Emin-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante de bosqueOther common names:Emin’s Giant Pouched RatTaxonomy.Cricetomys gambianus emini Wroughton, 1910,“ Gadda, Monbattu,” DR Congo.Taxonomy of C. eminiis currently in flux because it represents a species complex. Recent molecular studies have shown presence of at least three, if not four, different species, which are morphologically assignable to C. emini. Further studies are required to sort out taxonomic implications. Monotypic.Distribution.Tropical Africa extending continuously from Sierra Leone E to Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Angola; it also occurs on Bioko.Descriptive notes.Head—body 300-355 mm, tail 320-429 mm, ear 33-45 mm, hindfoot 64-71 mm; weight 0-5—1-3 kg. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroidrat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Furis relatively short and soft for a species of Cricetomys, bright brown to dark brown dorsally, which is clearly delineated from white or cream venter. Snout is long and pointed. There is no dark ring around eyes,as is typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of forest habitats. The Forest Giant Pouched Ratis often commensal with humans at forest edges, butit is replaced by the Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus) or the Southern Giant Pouched Rat (C. ansorgei) in large forest clearings.Food and Feeding.The Forest Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, palm nuts, and seeds, which may be cached in a burrow.Breeding.Litter of Forest Giant Pouched Rats are 2—4 young, and gestation is 42 days. They may survive over four years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial but may also climb. It excavates a burrow where it rests during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Forest Giant Pouched Rats are typically solitary, with one individual in each burrow system. A single study reported densities of 134 ind/km?.On following pages: 37 Northern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys gambianus); 38. Kivu Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomyskivuensis); 39. Southern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomysansorgel); 40. East African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi); 41. Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus umbriventer); 42. Southern African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus campestris); 43. Nikolaus's African Climbing Mouse (Megadendromusnikolaus)); 44. Lachaise's African Climbing Mouse(Dendromuslachaisei); 45. Cameroon African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus oreas); 46. Banana African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus messorius): 47. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse (Dendromusruppl); 48. Lovat's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromuslovati); 49. Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus kahuziensis); 50. Montane African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus insignis); 51. Vernay's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus vernayl); 52. Monard's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus leucostomus); 53. KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse (Dendromusnyasae); 54. Nyika African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus nyikae); 55. Chestnut African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mystacalis); 56. Gray African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus melanotis); 57 Brants's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mesomelas): 58. Velvet African Climbing Mouse (Dendroprionomysrousselot)); 59. Bates's African Climbing Mouse (Prionomysbates); 60. North-western Fat Mouse (Steatomys caurinus); 61. Dainty Fat Mouse (Steatomyscuppedius); 62. Jackson's Fat Mouse (Steatomysjackson); 63. Pousargues's Fat Mouse (Steatomys opimus); 64. Bocage’s Fat Mouse (Steatomys bocage); 65. Tiny Fat Mouse (Steatomys parvus); 66. Common Fat Mouse (Steatomys pratensis); 67. Krebs's Fat Mouse (Steatomys krebsii): 68. Long-eared Desert Mouse (Malacothrixtypical).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is hunted extensively for food over much of its distribution. Despitethis pressure,it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.Bibliography.Fa & Purvis (1997), Malcolm & Ray (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Ray (2013), Rosevear (1969)." +03993828FFFF0F58FA20F401C824FA81,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,196,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F58FA20F401C824FA81.xml,Saccostomus mearnst,Saccostomus,mearnsi,Heller,1910,Saccostome de Mearns @fr | Ostafrika-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Ratén de abazones de Africa oriental @es | Mearn’'s Pouched Mouse @en,"Saccostomus mearnsi Heller, 1910,“ Changamwe, British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation within S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.","E Uganda, Kenya, SW Ethiopia, and S Somalia.","Head-body 101-150 mm, tail 38-74 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 18-25 mm; weight 43-69 g. The East African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of savanna and woodlands,typically below elevations of¢.1500 m.","The East African Pouched Mouse is omnivorous, switching from green plant matter during the dry season to seeds after rains. In laboratory tests, individuals prefer forbs more than seeds.","Proportion of female East African Pouched Mice in breeding condition increases after rains and then drops in the dry season. Proportion of breeding males, however, remains high throughout the year.",The East African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds.,"The East African Pouched Mouse is solitary. In central Kenya, densities fluctuate from 16 ind/ha to 42 ind/ha throughout the year. Interannual variation may be even larger. In the absence of mammalian predators, densities can reach more than 80 ind/ha. Females appear to be territorial. Males are randomly distributed, with larger home ranges (0-21 ha) than females (0-06 ha).",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bergstrom (2013) | Corti, Castiglia, Annesi & Verheyen (2004) | Corti, Castiglia, Colangelo et al. (2005) | Denys (1988, 1992) | Hubert (1978a) | Keesing (1998, 2013) | Keesing & Crawford (2001) | Keesing & Young (2014) | Metz & Keesing (2001) | Mikula et al. (2016) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600454/files/figure.png,"40.East African Pouched MouseSaccostomus mearnstFrench:Saccostome de Mearns/ German:Ostafrika-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Ratén de abazones de Africa orientalOther common names:Mearn’'s Pouched MouseTaxonomy.Saccostomus mearnsi Heller, 1910,“ Changamwe, British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation within S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.Distribution.E Uganda, Kenya, SW Ethiopia, and S Somalia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 101-150 mm, tail 38-74 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 18-25 mm; weight 43-69 g. The East African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna and woodlands,typically below elevations of¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.The East African Pouched Mouse is omnivorous, switching from green plant matter during the dry season to seeds after rains. In laboratory tests, individuals prefer forbs more than seeds.Breeding.Proportion of female East African Pouched Mice in breeding condition increases after rains and then drops in the dry season. Proportion of breeding males, however, remains high throughout the year.Activity patterns.The East African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The East African Pouched Mouse is solitary. In central Kenya, densities fluctuate from 16 ind/ha to 42 ind/ha throughout the year. Interannual variation may be even larger. In the absence of mammalian predators, densities can reach more than 80 ind/ha. Females appear to be territorial. Males are randomly distributed, with larger home ranges (0-21 ha) than females (0-06 ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bergstrom (2013), Corti, Castiglia, Annesi & Verheyen (2004), Corti, Castiglia, Colangelo et al. (2005), Denys (1988, 1992), Hubert (1978a), Keesing (1998, 2013), Keesing & Crawford (2001), Keesing & Young (2014), Metz & Keesing (2001), Mikula et al. (2016), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966a)." +03993828FFFF0F5BFA39FE0BC614F50B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,196,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFA39FE0BC614F50B.xml,Cricetomys ansorgei,Cricetomys,ansorgei,Thomas,1904,Cricétome d’Ansorge @fr | Sidliche Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante meridional @es,"of C. ansorgeiis currently unclear, and it might represent a species complex. Recent molecular studies of Cricetomyshave not fully aligned with morphological studies, suggesting that traditional morphological traits may not be useful in distinguishing species in this genus. Six subspecies recognized.","C. a. ansorgei Thomas, 1904— from DR Congo S of the Congo River extending E to Kenya, and S to Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa.a. cosenst Hinton, 1919 — Zanzibar, Tanzania. a. elgonis Thomas, 1910 — Mt Elgon, Uganda—Kenya. DoDD a. enguvi Heller, 1912 — Taita Hills, Kenya.a. kenyensis Osgood, 1910 — Mt Kenya.. a. microtis Lonnberg, 1917 — Virunga Mts, DR Congo.","Head-body 288-413 mm, tail 345-449 mm, ear 32-42 mm, hindfoot 68-78 mm; weight 1.2-8 kg (males) and 0.9-1.4 kg (females). The Southern Giant Pouched Ratis the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, brown or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snout is long and pointed, with dark rings around eyes. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is often commensal with humans,living at high densities in some urban and periurban environments. It excavates burrows, primarily with its teeth, typically at bases of large trees or boulders.","The Southern Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, seeds, and tubers that might be cached in a burrow. Gut morphology is complex, and passage rates are slow, adaptations to exploit nutrient-poor foods. Coprophagy appears to pass on gut microbes from mother to offspring to assist with digestion.","Pregnant Southern Giant Pouched Rats have mostly been recorded during the rainy season in September—May. Averagelittersize is three young for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus). Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at c.20 weeks for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat. Southern Giant Pouched Rats can survive c.8 years in captivity.","The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal, with two peaks in activity and a lull between 22:00 h and 01:00 h. Most of the night is spent in a burrow, and only one-quarter of the night spent outside. It is terrestrial but might also climb.","The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system. Average home range was 4-9 ha, with males wandering over larger areas than females. Densities might be high in prime habitat; 42 individuals were captured on a 0-5ha garden in Harare, Zimbabwe.","Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat causes damage to crops and orchards and is often persecuted. It is hunted for food over much ofits distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have suffered from a range contraction or reduced population. Due to its acute sense of smell and high level of intelligence,it has been trained to detect land mines.",Ajayi (1975) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Ewer (1967) | Genest-Villard (1967) | Knight (1984) | Knight & Knight-Eloff (1987) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Morris (1963) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Poling et al. (2010) | Ray & Duplantier (2013) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers &Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979),https://zenodo.org/record/6600452/files/figure.png,"39.Southern Giant Pouched RatCricetomys ansorgeiFrench:Cricétome d’Ansorge/ German:Sidliche Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante meridionalTaxonomy.Cricetomys ansorgei Thomas, 1904,Pungo Andongo, Angola.Taxonomy of C. ansorgeiis currently unclear, and it might represent a species complex. Recent molecular studies of Cricetomyshave not fully aligned with morphological studies, suggesting that traditional morphological traits may not be useful in distinguishing species in this genus. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. a. ansorgei Thomas, 1904— from DR Congo S of the Congo River extending E to Kenya, and S to Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa.a. cosenst Hinton, 1919 — Zanzibar, Tanzania. a. elgonis Thomas, 1910 — Mt Elgon, Uganda—Kenya. DoDD a. enguvi Heller, 1912 — Taita Hills, Kenya.a. kenyensis Osgood, 1910 — Mt Kenya.. a. microtis Lonnberg, 1917 — Virunga Mts, DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 288-413 mm, tail 345-449 mm, ear 32-42 mm, hindfoot 68-78 mm; weight 1.2-8 kg (males) and 0.9-1.4 kg (females). The Southern Giant Pouched Ratis the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, brown or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snout is long and pointed, with dark rings around eyes. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is often commensal with humans,living at high densities in some urban and periurban environments. It excavates burrows, primarily with its teeth, typically at bases of large trees or boulders.Food and Feeding.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, seeds, and tubers that might be cached in a burrow. Gut morphology is complex, and passage rates are slow, adaptations to exploit nutrient-poor foods. Coprophagy appears to pass on gut microbes from mother to offspring to assist with digestion.Breeding.Pregnant Southern Giant Pouched Rats have mostly been recorded during the rainy season in September—May. Averagelittersize is three young for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus). Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at c.20 weeks for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat. Southern Giant Pouched Rats can survive c.8 years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal, with two peaks in activity and a lull between 22:00 h and 01:00 h. Most of the night is spent in a burrow, and only one-quarter of the night spent outside. It is terrestrial but might also climb.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system. Average home range was 4-9 ha, with males wandering over larger areas than females. Densities might be high in prime habitat; 42 individuals were captured on a 0-5ha garden in Harare, Zimbabwe.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat causes damage to crops and orchards and is often persecuted. It is hunted for food over much ofits distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have suffered from a range contraction or reduced population. Due to its acute sense of smell and high level of intelligence,it has been trained to detect land mines.Bibliography.Ajayi (1975), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Ewer (1967), Genest-Villard (1967), Knight (1984), Knight & Knight-Eloff (1987), Monadjem et al. (2015), Morris (1963), Olayemi et al. (2012), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Poling et al. (2010), Ray & Duplantier (2013), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers &Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979)." +03993828FFFF0F5BFF22F74BCB50FECE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,196,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFF22F74BCB50FECE.xml,Cricetomys kivuensis,Cricetomys,kivuensis,Lonnberg,1917,Cricétome du Kivu @fr | Kivu-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante de Kivu @es,"Cricetomys kivuensis Lonnberg, 1917,Masisi, DR Congo.The distinctiveness of this species has recently been questioned on molecular and morphological grounds, and may therefore not represent a distinct species. Further studies are required to resolve the taxonomy of this genus. Monotypic.","Restricted to the Albertine Rift in E DR Congo, SW Uganda, W Rwanda, and N Burundi.","Head-body ¢.320 mm, tail ¢.340 mm, ear c.45 mm, hindfoot c.69 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroid rat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is relatively long and soft, grayish dorsally shading to off-white ventrally. Snout is long and pointed. There are no dark rings around eyes as are typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbsare relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.",Montane forest.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Other species of Cricetomysare hunted extensively for food. If the Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is also hunted in its limited distribution, its conservation status could be negatively affected.",Fa & Purvis (1997) | Malcolm & Ray (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Ray & Duplantier (2013) | Rosevear (1969),https://zenodo.org/record/6600450/files/figure.png,"38.Kivu Giant Pouched RatCricetomys kivuensisFrench:Cricétome du Kivu/ German:Kivu-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante de KivuTaxonomy.Cricetomys kivuensis Lonnberg, 1917,Masisi, DR Congo.The distinctiveness of this species has recently been questioned on molecular and morphological grounds, and may therefore not represent a distinct species. Further studies are required to resolve the taxonomy of this genus. Monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to the Albertine Rift in E DR Congo, SW Uganda, W Rwanda, and N Burundi.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.320 mm, tail ¢.340 mm, ear c.45 mm, hindfoot c.69 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroid rat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is relatively long and soft, grayish dorsally shading to off-white ventrally. Snout is long and pointed. There are no dark rings around eyes as are typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbsare relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane forest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Other species of Cricetomysare hunted extensively for food. If the Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is also hunted in its limited distribution, its conservation status could be negatively affected.Bibliography.Fa & Purvis (1997), Malcolm & Ray (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Ray & Duplantier (2013), Rosevear (1969)." +03993828FFFF0F5BFF3DFDEAC867F70F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3,196,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFF3DFDEAC867F70F.xml,Cricetomys gambianus,Cricetomys,gambianus,Waterhouse,1840,Cricétome de Gambie @fr | Gambia-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante septentrional @es | Gambian Giant Pouched Rat @en,"Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse, 1840,Gambia River, The Gambia.This species is monotypic.","Extending continuously from Senegal E to South Sudan and Uganda, and S to Congo River, DR Congo.","Head-body 284-386 mm, tail 247-405 mm, ear 35-40 mm, hindfoot 62-73 mm; weight 0.5-1.5 kg. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, grayish or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snoutis long and pointed, with dark ring around eyes. Earsare relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests.","The Northern Giant Pouched Rat eats mostly fruits, seeds, and tubers, which may be cached in a burrow. Coprophagy appears to pass gut microbes from motherto offspring to assist with digestion.","Pregnant Northern Giant Pouched Rats are present throughout the year, suggesting aseasonal breeding. Average litter size is three young. Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at ¢.20 weeks, and longevity is more than four years in captivity.","The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, but it might also climb. It is often commensal with humans. It excavates burrows.","The Northern Giant Pouched Ratis typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system, but multiple individuals have been reported in a single burrow. Based on counts of burrows, densities can be high in prime habitat; 45 burrows were found on a 5ha farm in Nigeria.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat can damage crops and orchards and is therefore often persecuted. It is also hunted for food over much of its distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.","Ajayi (1975, 1977) | Anizoba (1982) | Duplantier & Granjon (2013) | Ewer (1967) | Fa et al. (2005) | Happold (1987) | Monadjem etal. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Rosevear (1969)",https://zenodo.org/record/6600448/files/figure.png,"37.Northern Giant Pouched RatCricetomys gambianusFrench:Cricétome de Gambie/ German:Gambia-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante septentrionalOther common names:Gambian Giant Pouched RatTaxonomy.Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse, 1840,Gambia River, The Gambia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Extending continuously from Senegal E to South Sudan and Uganda, and S to Congo River, DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 284-386 mm, tail 247-405 mm, ear 35-40 mm, hindfoot 62-73 mm; weight 0.5-1.5 kg. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, grayish or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snoutis long and pointed, with dark ring around eyes. Earsare relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests.Food and Feeding.The Northern Giant Pouched Rat eats mostly fruits, seeds, and tubers, which may be cached in a burrow. Coprophagy appears to pass gut microbes from motherto offspring to assist with digestion.Breeding.Pregnant Northern Giant Pouched Rats are present throughout the year, suggesting aseasonal breeding. Average litter size is three young. Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at ¢.20 weeks, and longevity is more than four years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, but it might also climb. It is often commensal with humans. It excavates burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Northern Giant Pouched Ratis typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system, but multiple individuals have been reported in a single burrow. Based on counts of burrows, densities can be high in prime habitat; 45 burrows were found on a 5ha farm in Nigeria.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat can damage crops and orchards and is therefore often persecuted. It is also hunted for food over much of its distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.Bibliography.Ajayi (1975, 1977), Anizoba (1982), Duplantier & Granjon (2013), Ewer (1967), Fa et al. (2005), Happold (1987), Monadjem etal. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Rosevear (1969)." 039C9423FFF0087E3170D6E051EFFA84,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,218,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF0087E3170D6E051EFFA84.xml,Nycticebus bengalensis,Nycticebus,bengalensis,,,Loris du Bengale @fr | Bengalen-Plumplori @de | Loris perezoso de Bengala @es | Ashy Slow Loris @en | Northern Slow Loris @en,"Lori bengalensis Lacépede, 1800, India, Bengal.There is considerable variation in body size and pelage coloration, but there are no consistent differences between individuals east and west of the Mekong River. There is a small hybrid zone between N. bengalensisand N. coucangin southern peninsular Thailand. Although sympatric with N. pygmaeus, there is no evidence of hybridization between the two. Monotypic.","E Bangladesh, NE India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur & Mizoram states), S China (S Yunnan Province, from about 25° Nin Yunnan and the Pearl River in the E, and possibly S Guangxi Province), Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), N & C Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and possibly N of Peninsular Malaysia.","Head-body 34-38 cm,tail vestigial; weight 650-2100 g. Larger than the other species of slow lorises, with shorter ears and a pale head. The general color of the Bengal Slow Lorisis variable, but the pelage is generally orange-buff with considerable frosting on the neck and forelimbs. The head, nape, and forepart of shoulders are creamy-gray, white, or gray, and the dorsal stripe is thin and brown to gray to blackish-brown. The stripe can merge with indistinct head forks to very distinct head forks. The second incisor is always present.","Tropical evergreen rainforest, acacia-scrub forest, dry dipterocarp and semievergreen forest, and moist deciduous forest. The forest types where the Bengal Slow Loris is found are probably even more variable, because the geographic range is so large, but the species remainslittle studied. It is known to occur close to agricultural fields and plantations but is usually found in habitats with interconnecting branches and vines up to 20 m above the ground. The Bengal Slow Loris occurs at elevations from sea level to 2400 m. Individuals tend to use large diameter and tall trees, with greater crown depths, and tend to avoid habitats with sparsely crowned trees.","Two of four recent studies found that gum is extremely important to the Bengal Slow Loris. Gum of Bauhinia(Fabaceae) lianas is commonly eaten in Thailand. In Tripura, India, gum is not a fallback food but preferred, because Bengal Slow Lorises feed on exudates 67-94% of the time, depending on the season. They also feed on nectar, fruit, bark, invertebrates, and bird eggs. They lick and scrape insects and gums off bark and also gouge holes to stimulate gum flow. In Cambodia, they eat leaves of Terminaliaalata (Combretaceae), flying insects that they catch with one hand, and tree bark.","Data on the breeding behavior of the Bengal Slow Loris are not available from the wild. The following data from the Duke Lemur Center are from individuals labeled as the Sunda Slow Loris (N. coucang) but that seem to be in the size range of the Bengal Slow Loris. The majority of animals in this colony at the Duke Lemur Center are Bengal Slow Lorises, but a few are Sunda Slow Lorises and some are definitely hybrids, so the Center’s data should be viewed with caution. Females born in the colony copulate for the first time at 18-24 months old. A male that reached sexual maturity in the colony sired hisfirst offspring at 17 months old. Estrous cycles were 29-45 days, with copulations usually occurring during one day of estrus. Gestation averaged 192-2 days. Although a postpartum estrus was observed in three cases following infant death, no conceptions resulted. Lactation lasts approximately six months.","The Bengal Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. In Cambodia, they are significantly more active under little moonlight than during bright moonlight. This predator-rich environment was also more open, and individuals had to move across vulnerable habitat; lunar phobia is likely a valuable tactic to lorises in such a situation.","Little is known about the social behavior of the Begal Slow Loris. Short studies have been carried out in Thailand, India (two), and Cambodia, but none of them used radio-tracking, and individuals could not be identified. Begal Slow Lorises seem to be relatively solitary and silent, although social grooming and social feeding at a gum lick have been observed. Individuals move 40-600 m in one hour. Bengal Slow Lorises move on the ground through grass to reach sparse trees and spend equal amounts of time traveling through the tallest trees at heights of 25 m. Surveys for the Bengal Slow Loris in seven protected areas in Cambodia in 2006-2009 resulted in sightings in two of them (Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Kulen National Park) with populations estimated at 25-75 ind/ km?. Sightings were at c.12 m above the ground. In a study of microhabitat selection in mostly undisturbed, evergreen tropical forest compared with 15-18year-old Acacia/ Leucaena(Fabaceae) plantations with significant secondary regrowth, loris densities in older plantations were nearly identical to primary forest (4:3 ind/km?®vs. 4 ind/km?).","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. All species of Nycticebuswere transferred from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES in June 2007 due to increasing and unsustainable international trade. The Bengal Slow Lorisis protected throughoutits range under the national laws of India, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, and Thailand. Despite this and the upgrade to CITES Appendix I, abuse and trade certainly continues in Cambodia and undoubtedly throughout its range. It is threatened by loss of habitat. hunting for food, and use in traditional Asian medicine. In Cambodia, large numbers of dried lorises can be seen in market places, where they are sold in the belief that they provide a tonic for women after childbirth, are helpful for stomach problems and promote the healing of wounds and broken bones, and can serve in the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Corresponding to its enormous geographic range, the Begal Slow Lorisoccurs in numerous protected areas in Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, and possibly in Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia.","Choudhury (1992, 2002) | Das, N. et al. (2009) | Fitch-Snyder & Ehrlich (2003) | Fitch-Snyder & Vu (2002) | Groves (2001) | lzard et al. (1988) | Johns (1986b) | Le Khac Quet & Nguyen Vu Khoi (2010) | Molur et al. (2003) | Nekaris & Nijman (2007b) | Pliosungnoen et al. (2010) | Radhakrishna et al. (2006) | Rogers & Nekaris (2011) | Starr et al. (2010, 2011) | Swapna et al. (2010)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632669/files/figure.png,"8.Bengal Slow LorisNycticebus bengalensisFrench:Loris du Bengale/ German:Bengalen-Plumplori/ Spanish:Loris perezoso de BengalaOther common names:Ashy Slow Loris, Northern Slow LorisTaxonomy.Lori bengalensis Lacépede, 1800, India, Bengal.There is considerable variation in body size and pelage coloration, but there are no consistent differences between individuals east and west of the Mekong River. There is a small hybrid zone between N. bengalensisand N. coucangin southern peninsular Thailand. Although sympatric with N. pygmaeus, there is no evidence of hybridization between the two. Monotypic.Distribution.E Bangladesh, NE India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur & Mizoram states), S China (S Yunnan Province, from about 25° Nin Yunnan and the Pearl River in the E, and possibly S Guangxi Province), Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), N & C Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and possibly N of Peninsular Malaysia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 34-38 cm,tail vestigial; weight 650-2100 g. Larger than the other species of slow lorises, with shorter ears and a pale head. The general color of the Bengal Slow Lorisis variable, but the pelage is generally orange-buff with considerable frosting on the neck and forelimbs. The head, nape, and forepart of shoulders are creamy-gray, white, or gray, and the dorsal stripe is thin and brown to gray to blackish-brown. The stripe can merge with indistinct head forks to very distinct head forks. The second incisor is always present.Habitat.Tropical evergreen rainforest, acacia-scrub forest, dry dipterocarp and semievergreen forest, and moist deciduous forest. The forest types where the Bengal Slow Loris is found are probably even more variable, because the geographic range is so large, but the species remainslittle studied. It is known to occur close to agricultural fields and plantations but is usually found in habitats with interconnecting branches and vines up to 20 m above the ground. The Bengal Slow Loris occurs at elevations from sea level to 2400 m. Individuals tend to use large diameter and tall trees, with greater crown depths, and tend to avoid habitats with sparsely crowned trees.Food and Feeding.Two of four recent studies found that gum is extremely important to the Bengal Slow Loris. Gum of Bauhinia(Fabaceae) lianas is commonly eaten in Thailand. In Tripura, India, gum is not a fallback food but preferred, because Bengal Slow Lorises feed on exudates 67-94% of the time, depending on the season. They also feed on nectar, fruit, bark, invertebrates, and bird eggs. They lick and scrape insects and gums off bark and also gouge holes to stimulate gum flow. In Cambodia, they eat leaves of Terminaliaalata (Combretaceae), flying insects that they catch with one hand, and tree bark.Breeding.Data on the breeding behavior of the Bengal Slow Loris are not available from the wild. The following data from the Duke Lemur Center are from individuals labeled as the Sunda Slow Loris (N. coucang) but that seem to be in the size range of the Bengal Slow Loris. The majority of animals in this colony at the Duke Lemur Center are Bengal Slow Lorises, but a few are Sunda Slow Lorises and some are definitely hybrids, so the Center’s data should be viewed with caution. Females born in the colony copulate for the first time at 18-24 months old. A male that reached sexual maturity in the colony sired hisfirst offspring at 17 months old. Estrous cycles were 29-45 days, with copulations usually occurring during one day of estrus. Gestation averaged 192-2 days. Although a postpartum estrus was observed in three cases following infant death, no conceptions resulted. Lactation lasts approximately six months.Activity patterns.The Bengal Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. In Cambodia, they are significantly more active under little moonlight than during bright moonlight. This predator-rich environment was also more open, and individuals had to move across vulnerable habitat; lunar phobia is likely a valuable tactic to lorises in such a situation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known about the social behavior of the Begal Slow Loris. Short studies have been carried out in Thailand, India (two), and Cambodia, but none of them used radio-tracking, and individuals could not be identified. Begal Slow Lorises seem to be relatively solitary and silent, although social grooming and social feeding at a gum lick have been observed. Individuals move 40-600 m in one hour. Bengal Slow Lorises move on the ground through grass to reach sparse trees and spend equal amounts of time traveling through the tallest trees at heights of 25 m. Surveys for the Bengal Slow Loris in seven protected areas in Cambodia in 2006-2009 resulted in sightings in two of them (Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Kulen National Park) with populations estimated at 25-75 ind/ km?. Sightings were at c.12 m above the ground. In a study of microhabitat selection in mostly undisturbed, evergreen tropical forest compared with 15-18year-old Acacia/ Leucaena(Fabaceae) plantations with significant secondary regrowth, loris densities in older plantations were nearly identical to primary forest (4:3 ind/km?®vs. 4 ind/km?).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. All species of Nycticebuswere transferred from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES in June 2007 due to increasing and unsustainable international trade. The Bengal Slow Lorisis protected throughoutits range under the national laws of India, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, and Thailand. Despite this and the upgrade to CITES Appendix I, abuse and trade certainly continues in Cambodia and undoubtedly throughout its range. It is threatened by loss of habitat. hunting for food, and use in traditional Asian medicine. In Cambodia, large numbers of dried lorises can be seen in market places, where they are sold in the belief that they provide a tonic for women after childbirth, are helpful for stomach problems and promote the healing of wounds and broken bones, and can serve in the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Corresponding to its enormous geographic range, the Begal Slow Lorisoccurs in numerous protected areas in Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, and possibly in Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia.Bibliography.Choudhury (1992, 2002), Das, N. et al. (2009), Fitch-Snyder & Ehrlich (2003), Fitch-Snyder & Vu (2002), Groves (2001), lzard et al. (1988), Johns (1986b), Le Khac Quet & Nguyen Vu Khoi (2010), Molur et al. (2003), Nekaris & Nijman (2007b), Pliosungnoen et al. (2010), Radhakrishna et al. (2006), Rogers & Nekaris (2011), Starr et al. (2010, 2011), Swapna et al. (2010)." 039C9423FFF0087F3468D0E3523AF86B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,218,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF0087F3468D0E3523AF86B.xml,Nycticebus coucang,Nycticebus,coucang,,,Loris lent @fr | Sunda-Plumplori @de | Loris perezoso de Sonda @es | Greater Slow Loris @en | Sumatran Slow Loris @en,"Tardigradus coucang Boddaert, 1785Malaysia, Malacca.Initial research seems to indicate that there may be two distinct forms on Sumatra and that populations in Singapore, Malaysia, peninsular Thailand, and Bangka are also very distinct. There is a small hybrid zone of this species and N. bengalensisin the south of peninsular Thailand. Monotypic.","S Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (including Pinang, Langkawi & Tioman Is), Singapore, and Sumatra, also Malacca Straits Is and Riau Archipelago (Batam, Galang, Tebingtinggi), and Bunguran in the North Natuna Is.","Head-body 30-34 cm, tail vestigial; weight 635-850 g. The Sunda Slow Loris is small to medium-sized and the most richly colored of the lorises, with pelage light brown to crimson red and slight frosting on the flanks, and not paler on the neck. The chestis a little grayer than the belly. There is a variable broad, dark dorsal stripe that divides on the head into two distinct branches and encircles the eyes—the pattern of this stripe and the circumocular fork shapes may prove to be useful in identifying the Sunda Slow Loris. Color of the circumocular patch varies depending on the region from where an individual comes, and it may be region-specific. Ears are short.","Primary and secondary lowland rainforest, lower freshwater swamp forest, secondary Padang savanna and resin plantations. The Sunda Slow Loris can be found in forest edge among interconnecting branches and vines, up to 20 m above the ground. It also occurs in relatively urban areas, feeding near street lamps.","Diet of the Sunda Slow Loris includes mainly fruits, supplemented with leaves, shoots, saps, gums, flowers, seeds, bird eggs, and animal prey (including insects and the occasional bird). Its diet in Malaysia comprised five food types: floral nectar and nectar-producing parts mainly from flowers of the bertram palm (Eugeissona tristis, Arecaceae), phloem sap,fruits, gum, and arthropods. The largest proportion of feeding time was spent on phloem sap (34:9%), floral nectar and nectar-producing parts (31:7%), and fruits (22:5%). Sunda Slow Lorises gouge with their toothcomb to extract gum, excavating large holes in the wood of trees, and use their long tongues to lap it up. Their slow metabolic rate is linked to detoxifying toxic compounds in this plantrich diet.","Breeding may occur at any time of the year. Female Sunda Slow Lorises are at peak sexual receptivity every 42 days, and their mating call tends to increase in frequency at this time. Normally, a single young is born (occasionally twins) after a 185— 197day gestation. It is difficult to know how accurate this gestation length is because most slow lorises in captivity seem to be Bengal Slow Lorises or hybrids. Newborns are gray with silvery-white limbs and hands, with long glistening hairs that disappear after about eleven weeks. Young cling to their mother until they are four to six weeks old. She then parks them. Rather than learning how to choose food sources by scrounging from the mother, infant Sunda Slow Loris seem to use other mechanisms, one of which may be scent because this species vigorously scent-marks both floral nectaries and gum sites. Captive individuals live for 20 years or more.",The Sunda Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. It is a slow climber but capable of rapid and steady movement through a continuous canopy. It prefers the small-branch niche but can move on trunks and on the ground to cross roads and fields.,"One to three Sunda Slow Lorises interact in overlapping home ranges of 10-25 ha. Adult males and adult females are highly territorial and defend their territories aggressively. Many individuals have numerous healed scars and wounds. The Sunda Slow Loris often occurs at very low densities (e.g. 0-01-0-02 ind/km?® in Pasoh Forest Reserve or 0-4 ind/km* in Petaling Jaya, both in Malaysia), but in some areas with better habitat, such as unlogged primary forest, densities are higher (e.g. 0-5—1-2 ind/km?® in the Sungai Tekam Forest, Malaysia or 1-6-4 ind/km?® in the Manjung District, Malaysia). Their social organization is unimale— unifemale, but mating is promiscuous, with multiple males pursuing a single estrous female. Social behaviors include allogrooming, foraging together and contact during the night, adult/infant play, and interactive vocalizations. Sunda Slow Lorises spend 3-10% oftheir time in social proximity during the night. Depending on the site, two to three individuals regularly sleep in contact. They use sleeping sites repeatedly but swap them regularly. They do not sleep in nests, and sleeping sites always comprise branch tangles, bamboo thickets, or dense lianas. Scent marking with urine is the dominant form of communication. Nevertheless, it is becoming clear that various calls are used by Sunda Slow Lorises, but it is difficult for humans to hear some of them. A whistle or irritated “chitter” may be used during conflict. Other vocalizations include an affiliative “krik” call, and a louder call resembling a crow’s caw specific to the Sunda Slow Loris. When mildly disturbed (e.g. when pushed out of a nest box in captivity), they may also produce a low buzzing hiss or growl. To make contact with other individuals, they emit a single high-pitched rising tone, and females use a high whistle when in estrus.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Despite legal protection in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia, Sunda Slow Lorises are frequently taken for use in the pet and medicinal trade, and they are occasionally shot as a crop pest. For the pet trade, incisors are often removed before sale, frequently causing infection and death; if an individual survives and is confiscated, it cannot be rehabilitated for release into the wild. They are frequently killed when crossing powerlines and roads. Although the Sunda Slow Loris is adaptable to various human-induced habitat changes, severe loss of forest cover is a serious threat. They are known to occur in Berbak, Gunung Leuser, and Kerinci-Seblat national parks in Indonesia and Klong Yan Wildife Sanctuary in Thailand. It may occur in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve in Singapore and in the Tarutao and Taman Negara national parks in Malaysia.","Acharjyo & Misra (1973) | Alterman (1990) | Alterman & Hale (1991) | Barrett (1981) | Chasen (1940) | Dykyj (1980) | Egozcue & Egozcue (1966) | Ehrlich & Macbride (1989) | Ehrlich & Musicant (1977) | Elliot & Elliot (1967) | Fooden (1991a) | Garcia et al. (1978) | Glassman & Wells (1984) | Groves (2001) | Heffner & Masterton (1970) | lzard et al. (1988) | Johns (1986a, 1986b) | Montagna et al. (1961) | Muller (1979) | Munds et al. (2008) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Munds (2010) | Nekaris & Nijman (2007a, 2007b) | Nekaris, Collins et al. (2010) | Nekaris, Shepherd et al. (2010) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Seitz (1969) | Stanyon et al. (2006) | Su et al. (1998) | Tenaza et al. (1969) | Trent et al. (1977) | Weisenseel et al. (1998) | Wiens (1995, 2002) | Wiens & Zitzmann (1999, 2003a, 2003b) | Wilde (1972) | Zimmermann (1985a, 1989b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632671/files/figure.png,"9.Sunda Slow LorisNycticebus coucangFrench:Loris lent/ German:Sunda-Plumplori/ Spanish:Loris perezoso de SondaOther common names:Greater Slow Loris, Sumatran Slow LorisTaxonomy.Tardigradus coucang Boddaert, 1785Malaysia, Malacca.Initial research seems to indicate that there may be two distinct forms on Sumatra and that populations in Singapore, Malaysia, peninsular Thailand, and Bangka are also very distinct. There is a small hybrid zone of this species and N. bengalensisin the south of peninsular Thailand. Monotypic.Distribution.S Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (including Pinang, Langkawi & Tioman Is), Singapore, and Sumatra, also Malacca Straits Is and Riau Archipelago (Batam, Galang, Tebingtinggi), and Bunguran in the North Natuna Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-34 cm, tail vestigial; weight 635-850 g. The Sunda Slow Loris is small to medium-sized and the most richly colored of the lorises, with pelage light brown to crimson red and slight frosting on the flanks, and not paler on the neck. The chestis a little grayer than the belly. There is a variable broad, dark dorsal stripe that divides on the head into two distinct branches and encircles the eyes—the pattern of this stripe and the circumocular fork shapes may prove to be useful in identifying the Sunda Slow Loris. Color of the circumocular patch varies depending on the region from where an individual comes, and it may be region-specific. Ears are short.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforest, lower freshwater swamp forest, secondary Padang savanna and resin plantations. The Sunda Slow Loris can be found in forest edge among interconnecting branches and vines, up to 20 m above the ground. It also occurs in relatively urban areas, feeding near street lamps.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Sunda Slow Loris includes mainly fruits, supplemented with leaves, shoots, saps, gums, flowers, seeds, bird eggs, and animal prey (including insects and the occasional bird). Its diet in Malaysia comprised five food types: floral nectar and nectar-producing parts mainly from flowers of the bertram palm (Eugeissona tristis, Arecaceae), phloem sap,fruits, gum, and arthropods. The largest proportion of feeding time was spent on phloem sap (34:9%), floral nectar and nectar-producing parts (31:7%), and fruits (22:5%). Sunda Slow Lorises gouge with their toothcomb to extract gum, excavating large holes in the wood of trees, and use their long tongues to lap it up. Their slow metabolic rate is linked to detoxifying toxic compounds in this plantrich diet.Breeding.Breeding may occur at any time of the year. Female Sunda Slow Lorises are at peak sexual receptivity every 42 days, and their mating call tends to increase in frequency at this time. Normally, a single young is born (occasionally twins) after a 185— 197day gestation. It is difficult to know how accurate this gestation length is because most slow lorises in captivity seem to be Bengal Slow Lorises or hybrids. Newborns are gray with silvery-white limbs and hands, with long glistening hairs that disappear after about eleven weeks. Young cling to their mother until they are four to six weeks old. She then parks them. Rather than learning how to choose food sources by scrounging from the mother, infant Sunda Slow Loris seem to use other mechanisms, one of which may be scent because this species vigorously scent-marks both floral nectaries and gum sites. Captive individuals live for 20 years or more.Activity patterns.The Sunda Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. It is a slow climber but capable of rapid and steady movement through a continuous canopy. It prefers the small-branch niche but can move on trunks and on the ground to cross roads and fields.Movements, Home range and Social organization.One to three Sunda Slow Lorises interact in overlapping home ranges of 10-25 ha. Adult males and adult females are highly territorial and defend their territories aggressively. Many individuals have numerous healed scars and wounds. The Sunda Slow Loris often occurs at very low densities (e.g. 0-01-0-02 ind/km?® in Pasoh Forest Reserve or 0-4 ind/km* in Petaling Jaya, both in Malaysia), but in some areas with better habitat, such as unlogged primary forest, densities are higher (e.g. 0-5—1-2 ind/km?® in the Sungai Tekam Forest, Malaysia or 1-6-4 ind/km?® in the Manjung District, Malaysia). Their social organization is unimale— unifemale, but mating is promiscuous, with multiple males pursuing a single estrous female. Social behaviors include allogrooming, foraging together and contact during the night, adult/infant play, and interactive vocalizations. Sunda Slow Lorises spend 3-10% oftheir time in social proximity during the night. Depending on the site, two to three individuals regularly sleep in contact. They use sleeping sites repeatedly but swap them regularly. They do not sleep in nests, and sleeping sites always comprise branch tangles, bamboo thickets, or dense lianas. Scent marking with urine is the dominant form of communication. Nevertheless, it is becoming clear that various calls are used by Sunda Slow Lorises, but it is difficult for humans to hear some of them. A whistle or irritated “chitter” may be used during conflict. Other vocalizations include an affiliative “krik” call, and a louder call resembling a crow’s caw specific to the Sunda Slow Loris. When mildly disturbed (e.g. when pushed out of a nest box in captivity), they may also produce a low buzzing hiss or growl. To make contact with other individuals, they emit a single high-pitched rising tone, and females use a high whistle when in estrus.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Despite legal protection in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia, Sunda Slow Lorises are frequently taken for use in the pet and medicinal trade, and they are occasionally shot as a crop pest. For the pet trade, incisors are often removed before sale, frequently causing infection and death; if an individual survives and is confiscated, it cannot be rehabilitated for release into the wild. They are frequently killed when crossing powerlines and roads. Although the Sunda Slow Loris is adaptable to various human-induced habitat changes, severe loss of forest cover is a serious threat. They are known to occur in Berbak, Gunung Leuser, and Kerinci-Seblat national parks in Indonesia and Klong Yan Wildife Sanctuary in Thailand. It may occur in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve in Singapore and in the Tarutao and Taman Negara national parks in Malaysia.Bibliography.Acharjyo & Misra (1973), Alterman (1990), Alterman & Hale (1991), Barrett (1981), Chasen (1940), Dykyj (1980), Egozcue & Egozcue (1966), Ehrlich & Macbride (1989), Ehrlich & Musicant (1977), Elliot & Elliot (1967), Fooden (1991a), Garcia et al. (1978), Glassman & Wells (1984), Groves (2001), Heffner & Masterton (1970), lzard et al. (1988), Johns (1986a, 1986b), Montagna et al. (1961), Muller (1979), Munds et al. (2008), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Munds (2010), Nekaris & Nijman (2007a, 2007b), Nekaris, Collins et al. (2010), Nekaris, Shepherd et al. (2010), Rumpler et al. (1987), Seitz (1969), Stanyon et al. (2006), Su et al. (1998), Tenaza et al. (1969), Trent et al. (1977), Weisenseel et al. (1998), Wiens (1995, 2002), Wiens & Zitzmann (1999, 2003a, 2003b), Wilde (1972), Zimmermann (1985a, 1989b)." 039C9423FFF1087C34BED26E527FF74D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,219,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF1087C34BED26E527FF74D.xml,Nycticebus menagensis,Nycticebus,menagensis,Trouessart,1897,Loris de Menage @fr | Borneo-Plumplori @de | Loris perezoso de Borneo @es | Philippine Slow Loris @en,"Nycticebus menagensis Trouessart, 1897, Philippines, Tawitawi.Extremely variable in color and size on the island of Borneo and surrounding small islands. Earlier authors recognized distinct taxa in the region. Two described by Lyon in 1906: bancanus, from Klabat Bay, Bangka Island, and borneanus from the Sakaiam River, Sanggau District, western Kalimantan, Borneo; and a third philippinus described by Cabrera in 1908, supposedly from Mindanao, but now restricted to the Sulu Archipelago, Philippines. In 1953, W. C. O. Hill subsumed these to subspecies of N. coucang. C. P. Groves in his taxonomic review of the genus published in 1971 concluded that these three forms should be considered junior synonyms of N. coucang menagensis. This taxonomy he maintained in subsequent publications in 2001 and 2005, as well as in a paper written with I. Maryanto in 2008. Current assessments based on museum specimens, however, suggest that these three forms may be taxonomically distinct. Their appearances are described below, but further research is needed. The form natunae described by Stone and Rehn in 1902, from Bunguran, one of the Natuna Islands,is considered by Groves to be a synonym of N. coucang, the Sunda Slow Loris, but modern-day photos ally it, in appearance, to the Bornean Slow Loris. Hill described it as russet in color with very dark facial markings and dorsal stripe, which does not match photos of slow lorises sent from Bunguran. This too deserves further investigation. Monotypic.","Borneo, the islands off the SE coast of Sumatra Bangka and Belitung, and the Philippines (Sulu Archipelago); old reports from Mindanao are erroneous.","Head-body 27-30 cm,tail vestigial; weight 265— 800 g. The Bornean Slow Loris is the smallest of the Indonesian slow lorises, although weights vary considerably. The very smallest weights are adults from museum records, whose skins and teeth confirm adult status. This suggests that these animals may indeed be a distinct smaller species. In “true” Bornean Slow Loris, the fur is pale golden to red; head markings are virtually lacking, but a dark dorsal stripe is almost always present. Ears are short and close to the head, almost giving the appearance of no ears at all. There is a consistent absence of a second upper incisor. Three variants of the Bornean Slow Loris exist and correspond with earlier descriptions (see Taxonomy section). The form philippinusfrom the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines is similar to typical N. menagensis(the “true form”), but itis even paler and almost always lacks a dorsal stripe. The form borneanus from West Kalimantan is easily confused with the Sunda Slow Loris (N. coucang), but it is larger and more woody brown, with much darker facial markings, a deep woody brown dorsal stripe, longer fur, and more prominent ears; two variants of this forms exist with unique facial patterns. The form bancanusfrom Bangka Island is ruby colored and has no frosting;its facial markings are similarly rufousin tint, and the spinal stripe is ill-defined.","Primary, secondary, tropical, moist, montane, evergreen, peat swamp, submontane evergreen, coastal lowland, riparian, dry coastal, gallery, and deciduous forests.","One observation was made of the Bornean Slow Loris eating gum. Based onits cranio-dental morphology, it has been proposed that it is more insectivorous than its congeners.","The Bornean Slow Loris has not yet been held in captivity, and little is known about its breeding. It gives birth to a single infant. Infants have been seen throughout the year in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo.","The Bornean Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. It is sympatric with tarsiers in many parts of its range, and it might move higher in the canopy than other slow lorises as a result. It goes to the ground, butit is mostly seen above 10 m high in the forest.","Very little is known about the social organization of the Bornean Slow Loris. It is very reluctant to enter traps. A first attempt to study it at the Sabangau National Park, Central Kalimantan, yielded only twelve sightings in 75 days. The median distance of a loris from the transect line was about 13 m, and all individuals were seen at heights of 15-20 m in the trees. Lorises were encountered singly, in mother—offspring pairs, or in adult trios. Two trios were observed in fruiting trees: Calophyllumhose: (Calophyllaceae) and Syzygiumcf. nigricans (Myrtaceae). Another survey at Wehea, East Kalimantan, yielded similar results, with only one loris encountered in more than 30 km (0-02 ind/km). It was seen in the canopy at 30 m. Other attempts to find the Bornean Slow Loris have proved equally futile. In 46,000 trap nights in Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, K. Wells and coworkers caught only one animal (three times). J]. W. Duckworth reported in 1997 that he was unable to record loris presence in Similajau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo, after 77 hours of nocturnal walks. In her study in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sabah, Malaysia, R. Munds found low densities of the Bornean Slow Loris. The primary study site there, the Danau Girang Field Centre, was a riparian secondary forest. Only three lorises (on average at 20 m in the canopy) were spotted during 35 night surveys. All were alone and traveling between two trees by lianas or vines. All lorises were sighted at least 100 m away from any of the major rivers that surrounded the Danau Girang Field Centre. One loris, spotted at 05:30 h, moved along a branch toward a 15 m high thicket of vines and leaves. The sighting may indicate that such thickets provide sleeping sites for Bornean Slow Lorises.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Bornean Slow Loris appears to be rare throughoutits range, with a 30% reduction in its population over that last 24 years. Extensive use in the pet trade and habitat loss are primary threats. Ethnographic survey records suggest local extinction on some islands of the Tawi-Tawi group (Philippines), although it is still likely found on some other small islands. It occurs in a number of protected areas: Tasek Merimbun Wildlife Sanctuary in Brunei; national parks of Berbak, Bukit Baka Buki Raya, Kayan Mentarang, and Sabangau in Indonesia; and national parks of Bako, Crocker Range, Gunung Mulu, and Kinabalu in Malaysia.","Chen Jinghua et al. (2006) | Duckworth (1997) | Fooden (1991a) | Groves (1971, 1998, 2001) | Groves & Maryanto (2008) | Hill (1953d) | Munds (2010) | Munds et al. (2008) | Nekaris & Munds (2010) | Nekaris & Nijman (2007b) | Nekaris, Blackham & Nijman (2008) | Nekaris, Collins et al. (2010) | Nekaris, Shepherd et al. (2010) | Ravosa (1998) | Su Bing et al. (1998) | Timm & Birney (1992) | Wells et al. (2004)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632677/files/figure.png,"11.Bornean Slow LorisNycticebus menagensisFrench:Loris de Menage/ German:Borneo-Plumplori/ Spanish:Loris perezoso de BorneoOther common names:Philippine Slow LorisTaxonomy.Nycticebus menagensis Trouessart, 1897, Philippines, Tawitawi.Extremely variable in color and size on the island of Borneo and surrounding small islands. Earlier authors recognized distinct taxa in the region. Two described by Lyon in 1906: bancanus, from Klabat Bay, Bangka Island, and borneanus from the Sakaiam River, Sanggau District, western Kalimantan, Borneo; and a third philippinus described by Cabrera in 1908, supposedly from Mindanao, but now restricted to the Sulu Archipelago, Philippines. In 1953, W. C. O. Hill subsumed these to subspecies of N. coucang. C. P. Groves in his taxonomic review of the genus published in 1971 concluded that these three forms should be considered junior synonyms of N. coucang menagensis. This taxonomy he maintained in subsequent publications in 2001 and 2005, as well as in a paper written with I. Maryanto in 2008. Current assessments based on museum specimens, however, suggest that these three forms may be taxonomically distinct. Their appearances are described below, but further research is needed. The form natunae described by Stone and Rehn in 1902, from Bunguran, one of the Natuna Islands,is considered by Groves to be a synonym of N. coucang, the Sunda Slow Loris, but modern-day photos ally it, in appearance, to the Bornean Slow Loris. Hill described it as russet in color with very dark facial markings and dorsal stripe, which does not match photos of slow lorises sent from Bunguran. This too deserves further investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.Borneo, the islands off the SE coast of Sumatra Bangka and Belitung, and the Philippines (Sulu Archipelago); old reports from Mindanao are erroneous.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27-30 cm,tail vestigial; weight 265— 800 g. The Bornean Slow Loris is the smallest of the Indonesian slow lorises, although weights vary considerably. The very smallest weights are adults from museum records, whose skins and teeth confirm adult status. This suggests that these animals may indeed be a distinct smaller species. In “true” Bornean Slow Loris, the fur is pale golden to red; head markings are virtually lacking, but a dark dorsal stripe is almost always present. Ears are short and close to the head, almost giving the appearance of no ears at all. There is a consistent absence of a second upper incisor. Three variants of the Bornean Slow Loris exist and correspond with earlier descriptions (see Taxonomy section). The form philippinusfrom the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines is similar to typical N. menagensis(the “true form”), but itis even paler and almost always lacks a dorsal stripe. The form borneanus from West Kalimantan is easily confused with the Sunda Slow Loris (N. coucang), but it is larger and more woody brown, with much darker facial markings, a deep woody brown dorsal stripe, longer fur, and more prominent ears; two variants of this forms exist with unique facial patterns. The form bancanusfrom Bangka Island is ruby colored and has no frosting;its facial markings are similarly rufousin tint, and the spinal stripe is ill-defined.Habitat.Primary, secondary, tropical, moist, montane, evergreen, peat swamp, submontane evergreen, coastal lowland, riparian, dry coastal, gallery, and deciduous forests.Food and Feeding.One observation was made of the Bornean Slow Loris eating gum. Based onits cranio-dental morphology, it has been proposed that it is more insectivorous than its congeners.Breeding.The Bornean Slow Loris has not yet been held in captivity, and little is known about its breeding. It gives birth to a single infant. Infants have been seen throughout the year in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo.Activity patterns.The Bornean Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. It is sympatric with tarsiers in many parts of its range, and it might move higher in the canopy than other slow lorises as a result. It goes to the ground, butit is mostly seen above 10 m high in the forest.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Very little is known about the social organization of the Bornean Slow Loris. It is very reluctant to enter traps. A first attempt to study it at the Sabangau National Park, Central Kalimantan, yielded only twelve sightings in 75 days. The median distance of a loris from the transect line was about 13 m, and all individuals were seen at heights of 15-20 m in the trees. Lorises were encountered singly, in mother—offspring pairs, or in adult trios. Two trios were observed in fruiting trees: Calophyllumhose: (Calophyllaceae) and Syzygiumcf. nigricans (Myrtaceae). Another survey at Wehea, East Kalimantan, yielded similar results, with only one loris encountered in more than 30 km (0-02 ind/km). It was seen in the canopy at 30 m. Other attempts to find the Bornean Slow Loris have proved equally futile. In 46,000 trap nights in Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, K. Wells and coworkers caught only one animal (three times). J]. W. Duckworth reported in 1997 that he was unable to record loris presence in Similajau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo, after 77 hours of nocturnal walks. In her study in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sabah, Malaysia, R. Munds found low densities of the Bornean Slow Loris. The primary study site there, the Danau Girang Field Centre, was a riparian secondary forest. Only three lorises (on average at 20 m in the canopy) were spotted during 35 night surveys. All were alone and traveling between two trees by lianas or vines. All lorises were sighted at least 100 m away from any of the major rivers that surrounded the Danau Girang Field Centre. One loris, spotted at 05:30 h, moved along a branch toward a 15 m high thicket of vines and leaves. The sighting may indicate that such thickets provide sleeping sites for Bornean Slow Lorises.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Bornean Slow Loris appears to be rare throughoutits range, with a 30% reduction in its population over that last 24 years. Extensive use in the pet trade and habitat loss are primary threats. Ethnographic survey records suggest local extinction on some islands of the Tawi-Tawi group (Philippines), although it is still likely found on some other small islands. It occurs in a number of protected areas: Tasek Merimbun Wildlife Sanctuary in Brunei; national parks of Berbak, Bukit Baka Buki Raya, Kayan Mentarang, and Sabangau in Indonesia; and national parks of Bako, Crocker Range, Gunung Mulu, and Kinabalu in Malaysia.Bibliography.Chen Jinghua et al. (2006), Duckworth (1997), Fooden (1991a), Groves (1971, 1998, 2001), Groves & Maryanto (2008), Hill (1953d), Munds (2010), Munds et al. (2008), Nekaris & Munds (2010), Nekaris & Nijman (2007b), Nekaris, Blackham & Nijman (2008), Nekaris, Collins et al. (2010), Nekaris, Shepherd et al. (2010), Ravosa (1998), Su Bing et al. (1998), Timm & Birney (1992), Wells et al. (2004)." @@ -373,77 +373,77 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 039C9423FFF80876326DD73F539BFA06,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,210,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF80876326DD73F539BFA06.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family LORISIDAE(ANGWANTIBOS, POTTOS AND LORISES)• Small prosimians with forelimbs and hindlimbs of similar length, rounded head, large eyes, small ears, opposable hands and feet, and vestigial tail.• 20-50 cm.• Afrotropical and Indo-Malayan Regions.• Swamp, lowland, flooded, riparian, semi-evergreen, dry dipterocarp, and mid-elevation to montane forests and secondary and forest-edge, coastal scrub, woodland, and plantations.• 4 genera, 12 species, 18 taxa.• 2 species Endangered, 4 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." 039C9423FFF908743193DD8A5455FED9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,211,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF908743193DD8A5455FED9.xml,Arctocebus calabarensis,Arctocebus,calabarensis,,,Potto de Calabar @fr | Barenmaki @de | Poto dorado de Calabar @es | Angwantibo @en | Golden Potto of Calabar @en,"Perodicticus calabarensis J. A. Smith, 1860, Nigeria, Old Calabar.“Angwantibo” is the name ofthis primate in the Ibibio language from southern Nigeria. The Golden Potto (A. aureus) was formerly considered to be a subspecies. Monotypic.","W Central Africa, from SW Cameroon (E Niger River) to S Nigeria (Sanaga River).","Head-body 26-35 cm, tail 1 cm; weight 230-465 g. Small and woolly with a vestigial tail that can be mistaken as testes and confuses identification ofsexes at night. Sexes alike in size and color and are difficult to tell apart from a distance; yellow-brown above, with a whitish or grayish underside. The muzzle is pointed, and no facial markings are evident. Ears are small and rounded. There is a white line on the face from the brow to the nose. Second and third digits of the hand are greatly reduced. Infants are woollier and more muted in color but otherwise resemble adults.","Primary and secondary lowland rainforest, high deciduous forest, and derived savanna zone, where they are most typicalin tree-fall zones. The Calabar Angwantibois sometimes found on farmland edges and plantations. Individuals spend much of their time in the tangle shrub layer and are able to use very small branches, vines, and lianas; they are usually encountered below 3 m above the ground.","The Calabar Angwantibo seems to be primarily insectivorous. Diet is mainly known from analyses of stomach contents; insects (mostly caterpillars and beetles) make up the bulk ofthe diet, but snails, lizards, and fruits are also eaten. Recently captured angwantibos have eaten orthopterans, mantids, beetles, and snails.","Births occur throughout the year, but they are more common between January and April. The estrous cycle is 36-45 days. Gestation is 130-133 days, producing one offspring of about 35 g, which is weaned at 3-5 months. Minimum interbirth interval is 4-5 months, meaning that two young can be produced in one year—a very different system from the Asian lorises. Sexual maturity occurs at 9-10 months. Young are carried on the mother’s fur or parked while she forages. Longevity in captivity 1s c.13 years.","Calabar Angwantibos are arboreal and nocturnal, and they can be seen throughout the night, almost always alone. They move in a continuous and slow fashion using small branches on which they can maintain a grip with their shortened digits. They travel on the ground when they have to. Rapid movement is possible when threatened, but they also adopt a defense posture. An angwantibo will hunch its back and tuck its head between its arms. It will then thrust its back toward a predator with mouth open, confounding the predator that cannot detect which end is the head. In this way, the angwantibo can bite the predator from beneath its armpit.","The Calabar Angwantibo has a steady non-leaping locomotion and relies on continuous supports. No study has yet been undertaken ofthe species’ home range or social organization. The Calabar Angwantibo was mainly solitary and did not appear to vocalize in the Rhoko Forest, adjacent to Cross River National Park in south-eastern Nigeria. Adult males fight if placed together in captivity. The Calabar Angwantibosleeps by day in an upright position in dense vegetation where it is protected from sun, wind, rain, and predators.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Calabar Angwantibo is sometimes hunted for food in Nigeria. Broadscale forest clearing for plantations, agriculture, and wood products negatively affect the Calabar Angwantibo, but it can use secondary forests if sufficient undergrowth for movement and safety remains. It is known to occur in four protected areas: Korup National Park in Cameroon and Cross River National Park, Akpaka Forest Reserve, and MamuRiver Forest Reserve in Nigeria. It also occurs in the proposed Mount Kupe Forest Reserve in Cameroon.","Bearder & Honess (1992) | Charles-Dominique (1966) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1953d) | Hill & Meester (1971) | Jenkins (1987) | Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b) | Jones (1982) | Kingdon (1997) | Manley (1974) | Montagna et al. (1966) | Oates & Jewell (1967) | Pimley (2009) | Rode (1947) | Sanderson (1940) | Schein (2008) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632653/files/figure.png,"1.Calabar AngwantiboArctocebus calabarensisFrench:Potto de Calabar/ German:Barenmaki/ Spanish:Poto dorado de CalabarOther common names:Angwantibo, Golden Potto of CalabarTaxonomy.Perodicticus calabarensis J. A. Smith, 1860, Nigeria, Old Calabar.“Angwantibo” is the name ofthis primate in the Ibibio language from southern Nigeria. The Golden Potto (A. aureus) was formerly considered to be a subspecies. Monotypic.Distribution.W Central Africa, from SW Cameroon (E Niger River) to S Nigeria (Sanaga River).Descriptive notes.Head-body 26-35 cm, tail 1 cm; weight 230-465 g. Small and woolly with a vestigial tail that can be mistaken as testes and confuses identification ofsexes at night. Sexes alike in size and color and are difficult to tell apart from a distance; yellow-brown above, with a whitish or grayish underside. The muzzle is pointed, and no facial markings are evident. Ears are small and rounded. There is a white line on the face from the brow to the nose. Second and third digits of the hand are greatly reduced. Infants are woollier and more muted in color but otherwise resemble adults.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforest, high deciduous forest, and derived savanna zone, where they are most typicalin tree-fall zones. The Calabar Angwantibois sometimes found on farmland edges and plantations. Individuals spend much of their time in the tangle shrub layer and are able to use very small branches, vines, and lianas; they are usually encountered below 3 m above the ground.Food and Feeding.The Calabar Angwantibo seems to be primarily insectivorous. Diet is mainly known from analyses of stomach contents; insects (mostly caterpillars and beetles) make up the bulk ofthe diet, but snails, lizards, and fruits are also eaten. Recently captured angwantibos have eaten orthopterans, mantids, beetles, and snails.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, but they are more common between January and April. The estrous cycle is 36-45 days. Gestation is 130-133 days, producing one offspring of about 35 g, which is weaned at 3-5 months. Minimum interbirth interval is 4-5 months, meaning that two young can be produced in one year—a very different system from the Asian lorises. Sexual maturity occurs at 9-10 months. Young are carried on the mother’s fur or parked while she forages. Longevity in captivity 1s c.13 years.Activity patterns.Calabar Angwantibos are arboreal and nocturnal, and they can be seen throughout the night, almost always alone. They move in a continuous and slow fashion using small branches on which they can maintain a grip with their shortened digits. They travel on the ground when they have to. Rapid movement is possible when threatened, but they also adopt a defense posture. An angwantibo will hunch its back and tuck its head between its arms. It will then thrust its back toward a predator with mouth open, confounding the predator that cannot detect which end is the head. In this way, the angwantibo can bite the predator from beneath its armpit.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Calabar Angwantibo has a steady non-leaping locomotion and relies on continuous supports. No study has yet been undertaken ofthe species’ home range or social organization. The Calabar Angwantibo was mainly solitary and did not appear to vocalize in the Rhoko Forest, adjacent to Cross River National Park in south-eastern Nigeria. Adult males fight if placed together in captivity. The Calabar Angwantibosleeps by day in an upright position in dense vegetation where it is protected from sun, wind, rain, and predators.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Calabar Angwantibo is sometimes hunted for food in Nigeria. Broadscale forest clearing for plantations, agriculture, and wood products negatively affect the Calabar Angwantibo, but it can use secondary forests if sufficient undergrowth for movement and safety remains. It is known to occur in four protected areas: Korup National Park in Cameroon and Cross River National Park, Akpaka Forest Reserve, and MamuRiver Forest Reserve in Nigeria. It also occurs in the proposed Mount Kupe Forest Reserve in Cameroon.Bibliography.Bearder & Honess (1992), Charles-Dominique (1966), Groves (2001), Hill (1953d), Hill & Meester (1971), Jenkins (1987), Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b), Jones (1982), Kingdon (1997), Manley (1974), Montagna et al. (1966), Oates & Jewell (1967), Pimley (2009), Rode (1947), Sanderson (1940), Schein (2008), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b)." 039C9423FFFA0874316BD4D25034FE36,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,212,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFA0874316BD4D25034FE36.xml,Arctocebus aureus,Arctocebus,aureus,de Winton,1902,Potto doré @fr | Gold-Barenmaki @de | Poto dorado @es | Golden Potto @en,"Arctocebus aureus de Winton, 1902, 80 km from mouth of Benito River, Equatorial Guinea.This species was for many years considered a subspecies of A. calabarensis. Monotypic.","Cameroon (S Sanaga River) S and E to the Congo/Ubangiriver system in Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Angola; it may be present in W DR Congo.","Head-body 22-26 cm, tail 1-2 cm; weight 200-270 g. The Golden Angwantibo is much smaller and more slender than the Calabar Angwantibo, with golden-red dorsal pelage and reddish-buftf underparts. Small and woolly with a vestigial tail that can be mistaken for male testes in the field. Sexes are alike in size and color. The muzzle is pointed, and ears are small, rounded, and naked. Limbs are slender and the second and third digits on the hand are greatly reduced. Juveniles are darker than adults.","Primary and secondary rainforest and high deciduous forest, especially in tree-fall areas at low to medium elevations. Golden Angwantibos are sometimes found on farmland edges and plantations. Individuals spend much of their time in the tangled shrub layer. They tend to use branches and lianas of small size classes around which they can firmly clasp their hands and feet. They prefer dense forest that provides continuous walkways through the vegetation.","Diet is known from limited observations: analyses of stomach contents and controlled taste tests of wild animals in field conditions. The Golden Angwantibo is mainly insectivorous, consuming animal prey, especially caterpillars and other noxious prey ignored by the up to five sympatric nocturnal primate species with which it might occur. Insects are supplemented with fruits and gums. In Gabon, 85% of the diet was insects, 14% fruit, and 1% wood fiber, with the most common prey being caterpillars (65%) and beetles (20%). The Golden Angwantibo often forages in the undergrowth below a height of 5 m but occasionally to 15 m. It sometimes feeds on the ground, probably using scent and olfaction. Angwantibos hold caterpillars by the head with their mouth and wipe their hands along the caterpillar’s body, for up to 20 seconds, to removeirritating hairs. Captive angwantibos have refused fruit but have accepted all insect species offered to them.","The Golden Angwantibo gives birth to one infant weighing 24-30 g and can give birth twice a year. Births can occur throughout the year, but there seem to be fewer during the dry season. Parturition takes place on a branch. Gestation is 131-136 days, with weaning at 100-130 days. Interbirth interval is 4-5 months. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months of age.","The Golden Angwantibos are arboreal and nocturnal, and they move slowly in dense vegetation. Like the Calabar Angwantibo, it adopts a threat posture when disturbed. Guard hairs on the back allow an individual to feel its environment and also probably allow it to detect predators or dangers on conspicuous parts ofits body. If disturbed in a tree, the Golden Angwantibo may roll into a ball and fall to the ground or a lower branch. It relies on small branches that it can clasp, giving it a sense of security. It sleeps in dense tangles of vegetation where it is protected from sun, wind, rain, and predators.","The Golden Angwantibo has a steady non-leaping locomotion, and it relies on continuous supports. No study has been done on its home range. In north-eastern Gabon, Golden Angwantibos seem to forage alone c.97% of the time and in pairs only ¢.2% of the time. They sleep singly except for a mother with her infant. They utter few audible vocalizations and scent-mark copiously. Studies of similar Asian lorises, however, suggest that high-frequency whistles that are difficult for humans to hear may be emitted by the Golden Angwantibo. Known vocalizations are a “tsic” for mother—infant contact, a deep two-phase groan (inhalation, exhalation) for threat, and a “wheet” for distress.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Golden Angwantibo is listed as a Class B species under the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; Class B species are protected but may be hunted, collected, or captured only “under special authorization granted by the competent authority.” Because ofits small size, the Golden Agwantibo is not hunted by humans to any great extent, but like the Calabar Angwantibo, loss of habitat is a significant threat, particularly broad-scale disturbances that removed forest undergrowth. The Golden Agwantibo may occur in Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea and in some newly established parks in Gabon, but these areas have not been adequately surveyed.","Charles-Dominique (1966, 1971, 1974a, 1974b, 1977a) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1953d) | Jenkins (1987) | Kingdon (1997) | Maier (1980) | Manley (1967) | Sanderson (1940) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b) | Thomas (1913)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632655/files/figure.png,"2.Golden AngwantiboArctocebus aureusFrench:Potto doré/ German:Gold-Barenmaki/ Spanish:Poto doradoOther common names:Golden PottoTaxonomy.Arctocebus aureus de Winton, 1902, 80 km from mouth of Benito River, Equatorial Guinea.This species was for many years considered a subspecies of A. calabarensis. Monotypic.Distribution.Cameroon (S Sanaga River) S and E to the Congo/Ubangiriver system in Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Angola; it may be present in W DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22-26 cm, tail 1-2 cm; weight 200-270 g. The Golden Angwantibo is much smaller and more slender than the Calabar Angwantibo, with golden-red dorsal pelage and reddish-buftf underparts. Small and woolly with a vestigial tail that can be mistaken for male testes in the field. Sexes are alike in size and color. The muzzle is pointed, and ears are small, rounded, and naked. Limbs are slender and the second and third digits on the hand are greatly reduced. Juveniles are darker than adults.Habitat.Primary and secondary rainforest and high deciduous forest, especially in tree-fall areas at low to medium elevations. Golden Angwantibos are sometimes found on farmland edges and plantations. Individuals spend much of their time in the tangled shrub layer. They tend to use branches and lianas of small size classes around which they can firmly clasp their hands and feet. They prefer dense forest that provides continuous walkways through the vegetation.Food and Feeding.Diet is known from limited observations: analyses of stomach contents and controlled taste tests of wild animals in field conditions. The Golden Angwantibo is mainly insectivorous, consuming animal prey, especially caterpillars and other noxious prey ignored by the up to five sympatric nocturnal primate species with which it might occur. Insects are supplemented with fruits and gums. In Gabon, 85% of the diet was insects, 14% fruit, and 1% wood fiber, with the most common prey being caterpillars (65%) and beetles (20%). The Golden Angwantibo often forages in the undergrowth below a height of 5 m but occasionally to 15 m. It sometimes feeds on the ground, probably using scent and olfaction. Angwantibos hold caterpillars by the head with their mouth and wipe their hands along the caterpillar’s body, for up to 20 seconds, to removeirritating hairs. Captive angwantibos have refused fruit but have accepted all insect species offered to them.Breeding.The Golden Angwantibo gives birth to one infant weighing 24-30 g and can give birth twice a year. Births can occur throughout the year, but there seem to be fewer during the dry season. Parturition takes place on a branch. Gestation is 131-136 days, with weaning at 100-130 days. Interbirth interval is 4-5 months. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months of age.Activity patterns.The Golden Angwantibos are arboreal and nocturnal, and they move slowly in dense vegetation. Like the Calabar Angwantibo, it adopts a threat posture when disturbed. Guard hairs on the back allow an individual to feel its environment and also probably allow it to detect predators or dangers on conspicuous parts ofits body. If disturbed in a tree, the Golden Angwantibo may roll into a ball and fall to the ground or a lower branch. It relies on small branches that it can clasp, giving it a sense of security. It sleeps in dense tangles of vegetation where it is protected from sun, wind, rain, and predators.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Golden Angwantibo has a steady non-leaping locomotion, and it relies on continuous supports. No study has been done on its home range. In north-eastern Gabon, Golden Angwantibos seem to forage alone c.97% of the time and in pairs only ¢.2% of the time. They sleep singly except for a mother with her infant. They utter few audible vocalizations and scent-mark copiously. Studies of similar Asian lorises, however, suggest that high-frequency whistles that are difficult for humans to hear may be emitted by the Golden Angwantibo. Known vocalizations are a “tsic” for mother—infant contact, a deep two-phase groan (inhalation, exhalation) for threat, and a “wheet” for distress.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Golden Angwantibo is listed as a Class B species under the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; Class B species are protected but may be hunted, collected, or captured only “under special authorization granted by the competent authority.” Because ofits small size, the Golden Agwantibo is not hunted by humans to any great extent, but like the Calabar Angwantibo, loss of habitat is a significant threat, particularly broad-scale disturbances that removed forest undergrowth. The Golden Agwantibo may occur in Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea and in some newly established parks in Gabon, but these areas have not been adequately surveyed.Bibliography.Charles-Dominique (1966, 1971, 1974a, 1974b, 1977a), Groves (2001), Hill (1953d), Jenkins (1987), Kingdon (1997), Maier (1980), Manley (1967), Sanderson (1940), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b), Thomas (1913)." -039C9423FFFA08753460D7FA57A0FB23,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,212,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFA08753460D7FA57A0FB23.xml,Perodicticus potto,Perodicticus,potto,,,Potto de Bosman @fr | Potto @de | Poto occidental @es | Potto @en | Western Potto; Benin Potto (juju) @en | Bosman'’s Potto (potto) @en | Mount Kenya Potto (stockleyi) @en,"Lemur potto P. L. S. Miller, 1766, Ghana, Elmina.Data from mtDNA indicated that pottoand former subspecies edwards: and ibeanus deserved species designation as shown by C. Roos and coworkers in 2004, a finding supported by marked differences in body size and skull morphology. The form from Benin (juju) is probably also a distinct species, but it is not recognized here. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, but others may well be found in the future.","P.p.pottoP.LL.S.Miller,1766—SESenegal,SEGuinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana(WVoltaRiver);itspresenceinGambia,Guinea-Bissau,andmostofGuineahasnotyetbeenconfirmed.P.p.jyyuThomas,1910—EbankofVoltaRiverinSEGhanathroughSTogoandSBeninintoSWNigeria.P. p. stockleyi Butynski & de Jong, 2007— SW Kenya (Mt Kenya).","Head-body ¢.30 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 850-1000 g. The West African Potto is the smallest of the potto species, also notable for its relatively long tail and small teeth. Its body is covered by a coat of dense, dark brown fur, with a dark median stripe and pale hands and feet. Ears are slightly yellowish inside and prominent due to short pelage on the head. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a nuchal shield. There are long, black, guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region. The “Mount Kenya Potto” (P. p. stockleyi) is quite distinct with a reddish snout; relatively short, creamy, ventral hairs; pale to yellowish brown chin; and cinnamon colored face. Hair on the crown is short (5 mm) and tipped with glossy cinnamon. The shoulder saddle is not very woolly but glossy and strongly tipped with cinnamon; hairs behind the shoulders are tipped with cinnamon and mostly silvery gray.","Primary, montane, successional, flooded, riparian, and secondary lowland rainforest. The West African Potto is sometimes found in farms, plantations, and wooded savanna. It commonly moves in the midto upper canopy, 10-20 m or more from the ground. The type specimen of the Mount Kenya Potto was found in montane forest at 1830 m above sea level.","There is no specific information for this species, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum.","The West African Potto has one or occasionally two offspring a year. Infants are rarely parked in trees. Data from captivity indicate a gestation of 193-205 days (but the species in captivity are not always known and may be hybrids). Weight at birth is 30-42 g. Weaning occurs at 120-180 days. Young are sexually mature at six months, and young males disperse. Pottos, in general, may live 26 years in captivity.","The West African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and slow-climbing, but it is capable of swift continuous movement. It moves in the canopy at 5-30 m on medium-sized oblique branches. Basal metabolic rate (36-40 kcal/day/kg “7) is about one-half that expected for a mammal of its size. The potto has a larger brain than predicted from its low metabolic rate. When faced with predators, all species of pottos are equipped with three physical adaptations that make them a formidable adversary: a scapular shield produced by a combination of raised apophyseal cervical spines, some of which protrude above the skin in the form of tubercles, covered by thick skin and bristles of sensory hair, that offers protection, defense, and acute sensitivity; muscular hands that allow the potto to firmly grip a substrate without falling off (a potto can support up to 15 times its weight); and the retia mirabilia of the proximal limbs, a dense web of blood vessels that allow stillness for extended periods. The potto first faces a predator uttering a series of grunts, open-mouthed, and butting with the shield. If it fails to dislodge the predator, the potto simply drops to the ground, moves rapidly through the undergrowth and disappears to safety. Low vertebral spines of the thorax may increase flexibility allowing a potto to twist serpentine-like through the canopy. Such movements enable pottos to bridge gaps and search for food while remaining suspended in one spot.","Like other pottos, the West African relies on continuous substrates for movement through the canopy. It has not been studied in detail in the wild. Pottos sleep in dense foliage or clumps with branches or forks and do not build nests. Densities range from 4-7 ind/km* on Mount Kupe in Cameroon to 810 ind/km? in north-eastern Gabon.On following pages: 4. Milne-Edwards’s Potto(Perodicticus edwardsi); 5. East African Potto(Perodicticus ibeanus).","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies potto is also classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, and the subspecies stockleyi is classified as Data Deficient; it is known only from a single specimen in the Kenya National Museum, Nairobi, and efforts through interviews and field surveys to locate a surviving wild population have been unsuccessful, which means it may be extinct. The subspecies juju (the “Benin Potto”) is not listed on The IUCN Red List, and its conservation status has not been assessed. The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas: the national parks of Bia, Kakum, and Kyabobo in Ghana; Tai National Park and Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in the Ivory Coast; Sapo National Park in Liberia; Okomu National Park in Nigeria; Tiwali Island Wildlife Sanctuary in Sierra Leone; and Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal. Overall, West African Pottos are widespread and common.","Bearder & Pitts (1987) | Bearder et al. (2003) | Bender & Chu (1963) | Buckanoff et al. (2006) | Butler & Juma (1970) | Butynski & de Jong (2007) | Charles-Dominique (1977a) | Cowgill (1969, 1974) | Cowgill et al. (1989) | Frederick (1998) | Frederick & Fernandes (1994, 1996) | Gosling (1982) | Grand et al. (1964a, 1964b) | Groves (2001) | Grubb (1978) | Grubb et al. (2003) | Heffner & Masterton (1970) | Hildwein & Goffart (1975) | Hill (1953d) | Ioannou (1966) | Jenkins (1987) | Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b) | Jouffroy et al. (1983) | Kingdon (1971) | Manley (1966) | McGrew et al. (1978) | Montagna & Ellis (1959) | Montagna & Yun Jeung-Soon (1962b) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Oates (1984, 2011) | Petter & Petter-Rousseaux (1979) | Pollock (1986d) | Ravosa (2007) | Roos et al. (2004) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b) | Suckling et al. (1969) | Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)",,"3.West African PottoPerodicticus pottoFrench:Potto de Bosman/ German:Potto/ Spanish:Poto occidentalOther common names:Potto, Western Potto; Benin Potto (juju), Bosman'’s Potto (potto), Mount Kenya Potto (stockleyi)Taxonomy.Lemur potto P. L. S. Miller, 1766, Ghana, Elmina.Data from mtDNA indicated that pottoand former subspecies edwards: and ibeanus deserved species designation as shown by C. Roos and coworkers in 2004, a finding supported by marked differences in body size and skull morphology. The form from Benin (juju) is probably also a distinct species, but it is not recognized here. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, but others may well be found in the future.Subspecies and Distribution.P.p.pottoP.LL.S.Miller,1766—SESenegal,SEGuinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana(WVoltaRiver);itspresenceinGambia,Guinea-Bissau,andmostofGuineahasnotyetbeenconfirmed.P.p.jyyuThomas,1910—EbankofVoltaRiverinSEGhanathroughSTogoandSBeninintoSWNigeria.P. p. stockleyi Butynski & de Jong, 2007— SW Kenya (Mt Kenya).Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.30 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 850-1000 g. The West African Potto is the smallest of the potto species, also notable for its relatively long tail and small teeth. Its body is covered by a coat of dense, dark brown fur, with a dark median stripe and pale hands and feet. Ears are slightly yellowish inside and prominent due to short pelage on the head. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a nuchal shield. There are long, black, guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region. The “Mount Kenya Potto” (P. p. stockleyi) is quite distinct with a reddish snout; relatively short, creamy, ventral hairs; pale to yellowish brown chin; and cinnamon colored face. Hair on the crown is short (5 mm) and tipped with glossy cinnamon. The shoulder saddle is not very woolly but glossy and strongly tipped with cinnamon; hairs behind the shoulders are tipped with cinnamon and mostly silvery gray.Habitat.Primary, montane, successional, flooded, riparian, and secondary lowland rainforest. The West African Potto is sometimes found in farms, plantations, and wooded savanna. It commonly moves in the midto upper canopy, 10-20 m or more from the ground. The type specimen of the Mount Kenya Potto was found in montane forest at 1830 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum.Breeding.The West African Potto has one or occasionally two offspring a year. Infants are rarely parked in trees. Data from captivity indicate a gestation of 193-205 days (but the species in captivity are not always known and may be hybrids). Weight at birth is 30-42 g. Weaning occurs at 120-180 days. Young are sexually mature at six months, and young males disperse. Pottos, in general, may live 26 years in captivity.Activity patterns.The West African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and slow-climbing, but it is capable of swift continuous movement. It moves in the canopy at 5-30 m on medium-sized oblique branches. Basal metabolic rate (36-40 kcal/day/kg “7) is about one-half that expected for a mammal of its size. The potto has a larger brain than predicted from its low metabolic rate. When faced with predators, all species of pottos are equipped with three physical adaptations that make them a formidable adversary: a scapular shield produced by a combination of raised apophyseal cervical spines, some of which protrude above the skin in the form of tubercles, covered by thick skin and bristles of sensory hair, that offers protection, defense, and acute sensitivity; muscular hands that allow the potto to firmly grip a substrate without falling off (a potto can support up to 15 times its weight); and the retia mirabilia of the proximal limbs, a dense web of blood vessels that allow stillness for extended periods. The potto first faces a predator uttering a series of grunts, open-mouthed, and butting with the shield. If it fails to dislodge the predator, the potto simply drops to the ground, moves rapidly through the undergrowth and disappears to safety. Low vertebral spines of the thorax may increase flexibility allowing a potto to twist serpentine-like through the canopy. Such movements enable pottos to bridge gaps and search for food while remaining suspended in one spot.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other pottos, the West African relies on continuous substrates for movement through the canopy. It has not been studied in detail in the wild. Pottos sleep in dense foliage or clumps with branches or forks and do not build nests. Densities range from 4-7 ind/km* on Mount Kupe in Cameroon to 810 ind/km? in north-eastern Gabon.On following pages: 4. Milne-Edwards’s Potto(Perodicticus edwardsi); 5. East African Potto(Perodicticus ibeanus).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies potto is also classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, and the subspecies stockleyi is classified as Data Deficient; it is known only from a single specimen in the Kenya National Museum, Nairobi, and efforts through interviews and field surveys to locate a surviving wild population have been unsuccessful, which means it may be extinct. The subspecies juju (the “Benin Potto”) is not listed on The IUCN Red List, and its conservation status has not been assessed. The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas: the national parks of Bia, Kakum, and Kyabobo in Ghana; Tai National Park and Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in the Ivory Coast; Sapo National Park in Liberia; Okomu National Park in Nigeria; Tiwali Island Wildlife Sanctuary in Sierra Leone; and Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal. Overall, West African Pottos are widespread and common.Bibliography.Bearder & Pitts (1987), Bearder et al. (2003), Bender & Chu (1963), Buckanoff et al. (2006), Butler & Juma (1970), Butynski & de Jong (2007), Charles-Dominique (1977a), Cowgill (1969, 1974), Cowgill et al. (1989), Frederick (1998), Frederick & Fernandes (1994, 1996), Gosling (1982), Grand et al. (1964a, 1964b), Groves (2001), Grubb (1978), Grubb et al. (2003), Heffner & Masterton (1970), Hildwein & Goffart (1975), Hill (1953d), Ioannou (1966), Jenkins (1987), Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b), Jouffroy et al. (1983), Kingdon (1971), Manley (1966), McGrew et al. (1978), Montagna & Ellis (1959), Montagna & Yun Jeung-Soon (1962b), Napier & Napier (1967), Oates (1984, 2011), Petter & Petter-Rousseaux (1979), Pollock (1986d), Ravosa (2007), Roos et al. (2004), Rumpler et al. (1987), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b), Suckling et al. (1969), Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)." +039C9423FFFA08753460D7FA57A0FB23,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,212,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFA08753460D7FA57A0FB23.xml,Perodicticus potto,Perodicticus,potto,,,Potto de Bosman @fr | Potto @de | Poto occidental @es | Potto @en | Western Potto; Benin Potto (juju) @en | Bosman'’s Potto (potto) @en | Mount Kenya Potto (stockleyi) @en,"Lemur potto P. L. S. Miller, 1766, Ghana, Elmina.Data from mtDNA indicated that pottoand former subspecies edwards: and ibeanus deserved species designation as shown by C. Roos and coworkers in 2004, a finding supported by marked differences in body size and skull morphology. The form from Benin (juju) is probably also a distinct species, but it is not recognized here. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, but others may well be found in the future.","P.p.pottoP.LL.S.Miller,1766—SESenegal,SEGuinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana(WVoltaRiver);itspresenceinGambia,Guinea-Bissau,andmostofGuineahasnotyetbeenconfirmed.P.p.jyyuThomas,1910—EbankofVoltaRiverinSEGhanathroughSTogoandSBeninintoSWNigeria.P. p. stockleyi Butynski & de Jong, 2007— SW Kenya (Mt Kenya).","Head-body ¢.30 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 850-1000 g. The West African Potto is the smallest of the potto species, also notable for its relatively long tail and small teeth. Its body is covered by a coat of dense, dark brown fur, with a dark median stripe and pale hands and feet. Ears are slightly yellowish inside and prominent due to short pelage on the head. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a nuchal shield. There are long, black, guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region. The “Mount Kenya Potto” (P. p. stockleyi) is quite distinct with a reddish snout; relatively short, creamy, ventral hairs; pale to yellowish brown chin; and cinnamon colored face. Hair on the crown is short (5 mm) and tipped with glossy cinnamon. The shoulder saddle is not very woolly but glossy and strongly tipped with cinnamon; hairs behind the shoulders are tipped with cinnamon and mostly silvery gray.","Primary, montane, successional, flooded, riparian, and secondary lowland rainforest. The West African Potto is sometimes found in farms, plantations, and wooded savanna. It commonly moves in the midto upper canopy, 10-20 m or more from the ground. The type specimen of the Mount Kenya Potto was found in montane forest at 1830 m above sea level.","There is no specific information for this species, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum.","The West African Potto has one or occasionally two offspring a year. Infants are rarely parked in trees. Data from captivity indicate a gestation of 193-205 days (but the species in captivity are not always known and may be hybrids). Weight at birth is 30-42 g. Weaning occurs at 120-180 days. Young are sexually mature at six months, and young males disperse. Pottos, in general, may live 26 years in captivity.","The West African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and slow-climbing, but it is capable of swift continuous movement. It moves in the canopy at 5-30 m on medium-sized oblique branches. Basal metabolic rate (36-40 kcal/day/kg “7) is about one-half that expected for a mammal of its size. The potto has a larger brain than predicted from its low metabolic rate. When faced with predators, all species of pottos are equipped with three physical adaptations that make them a formidable adversary: a scapular shield produced by a combination of raised apophyseal cervical spines, some of which protrude above the skin in the form of tubercles, covered by thick skin and bristles of sensory hair, that offers protection, defense, and acute sensitivity; muscular hands that allow the potto to firmly grip a substrate without falling off (a potto can support up to 15 times its weight); and the retia mirabilia of the proximal limbs, a dense web of blood vessels that allow stillness for extended periods. The potto first faces a predator uttering a series of grunts, open-mouthed, and butting with the shield. If it fails to dislodge the predator, the potto simply drops to the ground, moves rapidly through the undergrowth and disappears to safety. Low vertebral spines of the thorax may increase flexibility allowing a potto to twist serpentine-like through the canopy. Such movements enable pottos to bridge gaps and search for food while remaining suspended in one spot.","Like other pottos, the West African relies on continuous substrates for movement through the canopy. It has not been studied in detail in the wild. Pottos sleep in dense foliage or clumps with branches or forks and do not build nests. Densities range from 4-7 ind/km* on Mount Kupe in Cameroon to 810 ind/km? in north-eastern Gabon.On following pages: 4. Milne-Edwards’s Potto(Perodicticus edwardsi); 5. East African Potto(Perodicticus ibeanus).","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies potto is also classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, and the subspecies stockleyi is classified as Data Deficient; it is known only from a single specimen in the Kenya National Museum, Nairobi, and efforts through interviews and field surveys to locate a surviving wild population have been unsuccessful, which means it may be extinct. The subspecies juju (the “Benin Potto”) is not listed on The IUCN Red List, and its conservation status has not been assessed. The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas: the national parks of Bia, Kakum, and Kyabobo in Ghana; Tai National Park and Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in the Ivory Coast; Sapo National Park in Liberia; Okomu National Park in Nigeria; Tiwali Island Wildlife Sanctuary in Sierra Leone; and Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal. Overall, West African Pottos are widespread and common.","Bearder & Pitts (1987) | Bearder et al. (2003) | Bender & Chu (1963) | Buckanoff et al. (2006) | Butler & Juma (1970) | Butynski & de Jong (2007) | Charles-Dominique (1977a) | Cowgill (1969, 1974) | Cowgill et al. (1989) | Frederick (1998) | Frederick & Fernandes (1994, 1996) | Gosling (1982) | Grand et al. (1964a, 1964b) | Groves (2001) | Grubb (1978) | Grubb et al. (2003) | Heffner & Masterton (1970) | Hildwein & Goffart (1975) | Hill (1953d) | Ioannou (1966) | Jenkins (1987) | Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b) | Jouffroy et al. (1983) | Kingdon (1971) | Manley (1966) | McGrew et al. (1978) | Montagna & Ellis (1959) | Montagna & Yun Jeung-Soon (1962b) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Oates (1984, 2011) | Petter & Petter-Rousseaux (1979) | Pollock (1986d) | Ravosa (2007) | Roos et al. (2004) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b) | Suckling et al. (1969) | Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632657/files/figure.png,"3.West African PottoPerodicticus pottoFrench:Potto de Bosman/ German:Potto/ Spanish:Poto occidentalOther common names:Potto, Western Potto; Benin Potto (juju), Bosman'’s Potto (potto), Mount Kenya Potto (stockleyi)Taxonomy.Lemur potto P. L. S. Miller, 1766, Ghana, Elmina.Data from mtDNA indicated that pottoand former subspecies edwards: and ibeanus deserved species designation as shown by C. Roos and coworkers in 2004, a finding supported by marked differences in body size and skull morphology. The form from Benin (juju) is probably also a distinct species, but it is not recognized here. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, but others may well be found in the future.Subspecies and Distribution.P.p.pottoP.LL.S.Miller,1766—SESenegal,SEGuinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana(WVoltaRiver);itspresenceinGambia,Guinea-Bissau,andmostofGuineahasnotyetbeenconfirmed.P.p.jyyuThomas,1910—EbankofVoltaRiverinSEGhanathroughSTogoandSBeninintoSWNigeria.P. p. stockleyi Butynski & de Jong, 2007— SW Kenya (Mt Kenya).Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.30 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 850-1000 g. The West African Potto is the smallest of the potto species, also notable for its relatively long tail and small teeth. Its body is covered by a coat of dense, dark brown fur, with a dark median stripe and pale hands and feet. Ears are slightly yellowish inside and prominent due to short pelage on the head. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a nuchal shield. There are long, black, guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region. The “Mount Kenya Potto” (P. p. stockleyi) is quite distinct with a reddish snout; relatively short, creamy, ventral hairs; pale to yellowish brown chin; and cinnamon colored face. Hair on the crown is short (5 mm) and tipped with glossy cinnamon. The shoulder saddle is not very woolly but glossy and strongly tipped with cinnamon; hairs behind the shoulders are tipped with cinnamon and mostly silvery gray.Habitat.Primary, montane, successional, flooded, riparian, and secondary lowland rainforest. The West African Potto is sometimes found in farms, plantations, and wooded savanna. It commonly moves in the midto upper canopy, 10-20 m or more from the ground. The type specimen of the Mount Kenya Potto was found in montane forest at 1830 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum.Breeding.The West African Potto has one or occasionally two offspring a year. Infants are rarely parked in trees. Data from captivity indicate a gestation of 193-205 days (but the species in captivity are not always known and may be hybrids). Weight at birth is 30-42 g. Weaning occurs at 120-180 days. Young are sexually mature at six months, and young males disperse. Pottos, in general, may live 26 years in captivity.Activity patterns.The West African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and slow-climbing, but it is capable of swift continuous movement. It moves in the canopy at 5-30 m on medium-sized oblique branches. Basal metabolic rate (36-40 kcal/day/kg “7) is about one-half that expected for a mammal of its size. The potto has a larger brain than predicted from its low metabolic rate. When faced with predators, all species of pottos are equipped with three physical adaptations that make them a formidable adversary: a scapular shield produced by a combination of raised apophyseal cervical spines, some of which protrude above the skin in the form of tubercles, covered by thick skin and bristles of sensory hair, that offers protection, defense, and acute sensitivity; muscular hands that allow the potto to firmly grip a substrate without falling off (a potto can support up to 15 times its weight); and the retia mirabilia of the proximal limbs, a dense web of blood vessels that allow stillness for extended periods. The potto first faces a predator uttering a series of grunts, open-mouthed, and butting with the shield. If it fails to dislodge the predator, the potto simply drops to the ground, moves rapidly through the undergrowth and disappears to safety. Low vertebral spines of the thorax may increase flexibility allowing a potto to twist serpentine-like through the canopy. Such movements enable pottos to bridge gaps and search for food while remaining suspended in one spot.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other pottos, the West African relies on continuous substrates for movement through the canopy. It has not been studied in detail in the wild. Pottos sleep in dense foliage or clumps with branches or forks and do not build nests. Densities range from 4-7 ind/km* on Mount Kupe in Cameroon to 810 ind/km? in north-eastern Gabon.On following pages: 4. Milne-Edwards’s Potto(Perodicticus edwardsi); 5. East African Potto(Perodicticus ibeanus).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies potto is also classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, and the subspecies stockleyi is classified as Data Deficient; it is known only from a single specimen in the Kenya National Museum, Nairobi, and efforts through interviews and field surveys to locate a surviving wild population have been unsuccessful, which means it may be extinct. The subspecies juju (the “Benin Potto”) is not listed on The IUCN Red List, and its conservation status has not been assessed. The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas: the national parks of Bia, Kakum, and Kyabobo in Ghana; Tai National Park and Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in the Ivory Coast; Sapo National Park in Liberia; Okomu National Park in Nigeria; Tiwali Island Wildlife Sanctuary in Sierra Leone; and Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal. Overall, West African Pottos are widespread and common.Bibliography.Bearder & Pitts (1987), Bearder et al. (2003), Bender & Chu (1963), Buckanoff et al. (2006), Butler & Juma (1970), Butynski & de Jong (2007), Charles-Dominique (1977a), Cowgill (1969, 1974), Cowgill et al. (1989), Frederick (1998), Frederick & Fernandes (1994, 1996), Gosling (1982), Grand et al. (1964a, 1964b), Groves (2001), Grubb (1978), Grubb et al. (2003), Heffner & Masterton (1970), Hildwein & Goffart (1975), Hill (1953d), Ioannou (1966), Jenkins (1987), Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b), Jouffroy et al. (1983), Kingdon (1971), Manley (1966), McGrew et al. (1978), Montagna & Ellis (1959), Montagna & Yun Jeung-Soon (1962b), Napier & Napier (1967), Oates (1984, 2011), Petter & Petter-Rousseaux (1979), Pollock (1986d), Ravosa (2007), Roos et al. (2004), Rumpler et al. (1987), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b), Suckling et al. (1969), Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)." 039C9423FFFB0875318FD1895FFDF920,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,213,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFB0875318FD1895FFDF920.xml,Perodicticus edwardsi,Perodicticus,edwardsi,Bouvier,1879,Potto de Milne-Edwards @fr | Kamerun-Potto @de | Poto de Milne-Edwards @es | Cameroon Potto @en | Central African Potto @en | Central Potto @en,"Perodicticus edwardsi Bouvier, 1879, Congo-Brazzaville, north bank of the Congo River.Classified by C. P. Groves in 2001 as a subspecies of P. potto, but molecular genetic studies have shown it to be a distinct species. There appears to be significant variation among individuals collected from Cameroon and elsewhere, and it is believed that subspecies of P. edwards: may be found with further research. One of these may be a smaller form P. faustus, described by Thomas in 1910 from the Congo Basin, considered to be a synonym by Groves. Monotypic.","From the Niger River in S Nigeria E through Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Republic of the Congo, and then S of the Congo River through DR Congo as far E as Irneti and as far S as N Angola.","Head—body 32-40 cm, tail c.10 cm; weight 1.1-6 kg. Milne-Edwards’s Potto is the largest of the pottos, and its tail, although short, is about 50% longer that those of the West African Potto (P. potto) and the East African Potto (P. itbeanus). Pelage is cinnamon-brown to orange above, and lighter underneath. Teeth are larger than those of the West African Potto. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a sort of neck guard. It has long black guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region.","Swamp, lowland, mid-altitude, and montane rainforests up to 1500 m above sea level. Milne-Edwards’s Potto is most frequently found 6-10 m above the ground in Cameroon, but in Gabon, it occurs 5-30 m above the ground.","Milne-Edwards’s Potto is mainly frugivorous, but it supplements its diet with a variety of foods. It forages mainly in the canopy, which makes direct observation of their diet choice difficult. Milne-Edwards’s Pottos sometimes go to the ground to forage. Plant material consumed includes ripe fruit and nectaries. They engage in a nose-down foraging posture to lick up ants, other invertebrates, and gum from bark. Insects, presumably beetles and their larvae, may be scavenged from oil palms Elaeis guineensis(Arecaceae). Other prey includes giant West African land snails (Achatina achatina), moths, ants, beetles, beetle larvae, caterpillars, locusts, grasshoppers, spiders, millipedes, centipedes, slugs, frogs, bird eggs, small birds, and young bats. During dry periods, gum seems to become more important in some areas and can comprise 60% of the diet.","In some parts of their range, Milne-Edwards’s Pottos seem to have a birth peak, whereas in others, births occur year-round; variation is probably related to food abundance. Captive pottos show no seasonal estrus. The estrous cycle is 38 days. Copulations normally begin with side-by-side sniffing; a dorsal-ventral mating posture is adopted and copulation lasts 1-4 minutes. Parturition occurs on a branch. After a gestation of 193-205 days, pottos give birth to one young weighing 52 g; twins are rare. They tend to give birth again after 12-13 months. Infant Milne-Edwards’s Pottos are white and can have blue eyes. A mother carries her infant clinging to the ventrum until it is 3-4 months of age. After that time, the infant is parked among branches and lianas while the mother forages. She retrieves the infant before dawn, and both infant and mother utter high-pitched “tisc” contact calls. By 3-4 months, the young pottois constantly with its mother,either riding on her back or walkingjust behind her. Infants are weaned at 120-180 days. They become independent at 6-8 months, and full sexual maturity is reached by 18 months. Pottos, in general, can live ¢.26 years in captivity and at least nine years in the wild.","Milne-Edwards’s Potto is nocturnal and arboreal. It is an agile climber and does not move as slowly as one might think. When followed using radio-tracking in Cameroon, male pottos traveled an average of 2811 m/night (1330-6440 m/night), and females traveled an average of 707 m/night (951-3290 m/night). Anti-predator strategies are as described for the other taxa.","Milne-Edwards’s Potto is not gregarious, although it maintains complex social networks. In Gabon, they spent 4% of the time with conspecifics and slept alone, except for mothers and infants. In Cameroon, they spent 22% of the time with conspecifics and slept in close proximity 26% of the time. In Cameroon, social behavior, lack of sexual dimorphism, and ranging patterns imply a dispersed unimale—unifemale social system. In Gabon, pottos exhibit a dispersed unimale—multifemale social system, where the male patrols home ranges of one to three females. Home ranges of females in Gabon average 7-5 ha and are about one-half the size of male ranges (17-8-40 ha). Home ranges of males and females at Mount Kupe, south-western Cameroon, are a similar size, with females averaging 31-5 ha and males averaging 30-6 ha. Home ranges of one or two females and their infants overlapped the territory of one male in Gabon, while in Cameroon a male’s range overlapped extensively the range of just one female. Young adult females remain in or near their natal home ranges. Vocal exchanges are limited, with the majority of communication made by olfactory cues (urine marking and genital gland secretions). Such cues are deposited in the environment and on conspecifics. Milne-Edwards’s Pottos in captivity make a high-pitched whistle and growling threat.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as P. pottoedwardsi). Milne-Edwards’s Pottois widespread and common, and although declining in numbers in some areas, it occurs in at least eight protected areas: Korup National Park and Dja Biosphere Reserve in Cameroon; Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of the Congo; Salonga National Park in the DR Congo; Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea; and Cross River National Park, Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary and the Mamu Reserve in Nigeria. It also occurs in the proposed Mount Kupe Forest Reserve in Cameroon and Iko Esai Community Forest in Nigeria.","Bearder & Pitts (1987) | Bearder et al. (2003) | Charles-Dominique (1971, 1974a, 1977a) | Cowgill (1969) | Cowgill et al. (1989) | Groves (1998, 2001) | Grubb (1978) | Jenkins (1987) | Kingdon (1971) | Manley (1966) | Oates (1984, 2011) | Pimley (2002) | Pimley et al. (2003, 2005a, 2005b) | Pollock (1986d) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b) | Suckling et al. (1969) | Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632659/files/figure.png,"4.Milne-Edwards’s PottoPerodicticus edwardsiFrench:Potto de Milne-Edwards/ German:Kamerun-Potto/ Spanish:Poto de Milne-EdwardsOther common names:Cameroon Potto, Central African Potto, Central PottoTaxonomy.Perodicticus edwardsi Bouvier, 1879, Congo-Brazzaville, north bank of the Congo River.Classified by C. P. Groves in 2001 as a subspecies of P. potto, but molecular genetic studies have shown it to be a distinct species. There appears to be significant variation among individuals collected from Cameroon and elsewhere, and it is believed that subspecies of P. edwards: may be found with further research. One of these may be a smaller form P. faustus, described by Thomas in 1910 from the Congo Basin, considered to be a synonym by Groves. Monotypic.Distribution.From the Niger River in S Nigeria E through Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Republic of the Congo, and then S of the Congo River through DR Congo as far E as Irneti and as far S as N Angola.Descriptive notes.Head—body 32-40 cm, tail c.10 cm; weight 1.1-6 kg. Milne-Edwards’s Potto is the largest of the pottos, and its tail, although short, is about 50% longer that those of the West African Potto (P. potto) and the East African Potto (P. itbeanus). Pelage is cinnamon-brown to orange above, and lighter underneath. Teeth are larger than those of the West African Potto. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a sort of neck guard. It has long black guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region.Habitat.Swamp, lowland, mid-altitude, and montane rainforests up to 1500 m above sea level. Milne-Edwards’s Potto is most frequently found 6-10 m above the ground in Cameroon, but in Gabon, it occurs 5-30 m above the ground.Food and Feeding.Milne-Edwards’s Potto is mainly frugivorous, but it supplements its diet with a variety of foods. It forages mainly in the canopy, which makes direct observation of their diet choice difficult. Milne-Edwards’s Pottos sometimes go to the ground to forage. Plant material consumed includes ripe fruit and nectaries. They engage in a nose-down foraging posture to lick up ants, other invertebrates, and gum from bark. Insects, presumably beetles and their larvae, may be scavenged from oil palms Elaeis guineensis(Arecaceae). Other prey includes giant West African land snails (Achatina achatina), moths, ants, beetles, beetle larvae, caterpillars, locusts, grasshoppers, spiders, millipedes, centipedes, slugs, frogs, bird eggs, small birds, and young bats. During dry periods, gum seems to become more important in some areas and can comprise 60% of the diet.Breeding.In some parts of their range, Milne-Edwards’s Pottos seem to have a birth peak, whereas in others, births occur year-round; variation is probably related to food abundance. Captive pottos show no seasonal estrus. The estrous cycle is 38 days. Copulations normally begin with side-by-side sniffing; a dorsal-ventral mating posture is adopted and copulation lasts 1-4 minutes. Parturition occurs on a branch. After a gestation of 193-205 days, pottos give birth to one young weighing 52 g; twins are rare. They tend to give birth again after 12-13 months. Infant Milne-Edwards’s Pottos are white and can have blue eyes. A mother carries her infant clinging to the ventrum until it is 3-4 months of age. After that time, the infant is parked among branches and lianas while the mother forages. She retrieves the infant before dawn, and both infant and mother utter high-pitched “tisc” contact calls. By 3-4 months, the young pottois constantly with its mother,either riding on her back or walkingjust behind her. Infants are weaned at 120-180 days. They become independent at 6-8 months, and full sexual maturity is reached by 18 months. Pottos, in general, can live ¢.26 years in captivity and at least nine years in the wild.Activity patterns.Milne-Edwards’s Potto is nocturnal and arboreal. It is an agile climber and does not move as slowly as one might think. When followed using radio-tracking in Cameroon, male pottos traveled an average of 2811 m/night (1330-6440 m/night), and females traveled an average of 707 m/night (951-3290 m/night). Anti-predator strategies are as described for the other taxa.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Milne-Edwards’s Potto is not gregarious, although it maintains complex social networks. In Gabon, they spent 4% of the time with conspecifics and slept alone, except for mothers and infants. In Cameroon, they spent 22% of the time with conspecifics and slept in close proximity 26% of the time. In Cameroon, social behavior, lack of sexual dimorphism, and ranging patterns imply a dispersed unimale—unifemale social system. In Gabon, pottos exhibit a dispersed unimale—multifemale social system, where the male patrols home ranges of one to three females. Home ranges of females in Gabon average 7-5 ha and are about one-half the size of male ranges (17-8-40 ha). Home ranges of males and females at Mount Kupe, south-western Cameroon, are a similar size, with females averaging 31-5 ha and males averaging 30-6 ha. Home ranges of one or two females and their infants overlapped the territory of one male in Gabon, while in Cameroon a male’s range overlapped extensively the range of just one female. Young adult females remain in or near their natal home ranges. Vocal exchanges are limited, with the majority of communication made by olfactory cues (urine marking and genital gland secretions). Such cues are deposited in the environment and on conspecifics. Milne-Edwards’s Pottos in captivity make a high-pitched whistle and growling threat.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as P. pottoedwardsi). Milne-Edwards’s Pottois widespread and common, and although declining in numbers in some areas, it occurs in at least eight protected areas: Korup National Park and Dja Biosphere Reserve in Cameroon; Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of the Congo; Salonga National Park in the DR Congo; Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea; and Cross River National Park, Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary and the Mamu Reserve in Nigeria. It also occurs in the proposed Mount Kupe Forest Reserve in Cameroon and Iko Esai Community Forest in Nigeria.Bibliography.Bearder & Pitts (1987), Bearder et al. (2003), Charles-Dominique (1971, 1974a, 1977a), Cowgill (1969), Cowgill et al. (1989), Groves (1998, 2001), Grubb (1978), Jenkins (1987), Kingdon (1971), Manley (1966), Oates (1984, 2011), Pimley (2002), Pimley et al. (2003, 2005a, 2005b), Pollock (1986d), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b), Suckling et al. (1969), Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)." 039C9423FFFB08753487D3885003F23B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,213,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFB08753487D3885003F23B.xml,Perodicticus ibeanus,Perodicticus,ibeanus,Thomas,1910,Potto est-africain @fr | Ostafrika-Potto @de | Poto oriental @es | Eastern Potto @en,"Perodicticus ibeanus Thomas, 1910, Kenya, Kakamega Forest.This species is monotypic.","E DR Congo, E & S of the Ubangi River and N & E of the Congo River, extending E of the Lualaba River to NW Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda, and to the Kakamega and Nandi forests in SW Kenya.","Head-body ¢.35 cm, tail c¢.5 cm; weight 1.1-2 kg. The East African Potto is intermediate in size compared with the other two recognized species of pottos. It is a relatively small-toothed form. The fur is especially thick and woolly, and hands and feet are dark brown. Dorsal pelage is blackish.","Swamp, lowland, and mid-altitude montane rainforest from 600 m above sea level. In Kakamega Forest in south-western Kenya, the East African Potto is found in the canopy at 6-15 m off the ground, and it rarely descends to the forest floor.","Little is known about its foraging habits of the East African Potto, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum. It has been observed to snatch animal prey with two hands and to engage in typical nose-down searching for small insects on branches.","There is no specific information available for this species, but infants have been seen throughout the year.","The East African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and capable of rapid locomotion. It does not readily enter live traps and despite an attempt to study it for several months in Kakamega Forest, it remained elusive. Whistle calls that probably are used for territorial spacing were heard during the study.","There is no specific information available for this species, but most East African Pottos are seen alone.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as P. pottoibeanus). The East African Potto is relatively adaptable to human pressure and is widespread and common. Its populations are not threatened rangewide, and it occurs in at least eight protected areas: Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and Tayna Gorilla Reserve in DR Congo; Kakamega Nature Reserve and Mount Elgon National Park in Kenya; Volcans National Park in Rwanda; and Bwindi Impenetrable, Kibale, and Queen Elizabeth national parks in Uganda.","Bearder et al. (2003) | Cowgill (1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1972) | Cowgill & Zeman (1980) | Cowgill et al. (1989) | Groves (2001) | Kingdon (1971) | Schwarz (1931b) | Suckling et al. (1969) | Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632715/files/figure.png,"5.East African PottoPerodicticus ibeanusFrench:Potto est-africain/ German:Ostafrika-Potto/ Spanish:Poto orientalOther common names:Eastern PottoTaxonomy.Perodicticus ibeanus Thomas, 1910, Kenya, Kakamega Forest.This species is monotypic.Distribution.E DR Congo, E & S of the Ubangi River and N & E of the Congo River, extending E of the Lualaba River to NW Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda, and to the Kakamega and Nandi forests in SW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.35 cm, tail c¢.5 cm; weight 1.1-2 kg. The East African Potto is intermediate in size compared with the other two recognized species of pottos. It is a relatively small-toothed form. The fur is especially thick and woolly, and hands and feet are dark brown. Dorsal pelage is blackish.Habitat.Swamp, lowland, and mid-altitude montane rainforest from 600 m above sea level. In Kakamega Forest in south-western Kenya, the East African Potto is found in the canopy at 6-15 m off the ground, and it rarely descends to the forest floor.Food and Feeding.Little is known about its foraging habits of the East African Potto, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum. It has been observed to snatch animal prey with two hands and to engage in typical nose-down searching for small insects on branches.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but infants have been seen throughout the year.Activity patterns.The East African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and capable of rapid locomotion. It does not readily enter live traps and despite an attempt to study it for several months in Kakamega Forest, it remained elusive. Whistle calls that probably are used for territorial spacing were heard during the study.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but most East African Pottos are seen alone.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as P. pottoibeanus). The East African Potto is relatively adaptable to human pressure and is widespread and common. Its populations are not threatened rangewide, and it occurs in at least eight protected areas: Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and Tayna Gorilla Reserve in DR Congo; Kakamega Nature Reserve and Mount Elgon National Park in Kenya; Volcans National Park in Rwanda; and Bwindi Impenetrable, Kibale, and Queen Elizabeth national parks in Uganda.Bibliography.Bearder et al. (2003), Cowgill (1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1972), Cowgill & Zeman (1980), Cowgill et al. (1989), Groves (2001), Kingdon (1971), Schwarz (1931b), Suckling et al. (1969), Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)." -039C9423FFFE08713168D49E5251F8A8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,216,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFE08713168D49E5251F8A8.xml,Loris lydekkerianus,Loris,lydekkerianus,Cabrera,1908,Loris de Lydekker @fr | Grauer Schlanklori @de | Loris esbelto gris @es | Dry Zone @en | Northern @en | Northern Ceylon Slender Loris (nordicus) @en | Highland Slender Loris (grandis) @en | Malabar Slender Loris (malabaricus) @en | Mysore Slender Loris (lydekkerianus) @en,"in 2001 considered L. [. grandis and L. I. nordicus synonymous, but this is difficult to resolve. They are similar cranially, but their pelage and especially the muzzle and face are remarkably distinct. They are recognized as distinct subspecies here. K. Kar Gupta in 2007 reportedly studied iL. malabaricus, but the individuals from Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India, have the appearance of L. L lydekkerianus. Four subspecies are recognized here, but there is much overlap in their physical characteristics. Ongoing confusion over their taxonomy requires future research.","L.l.lydekkerianusCabrera,1908—S&EIndia(AndhraPradesh,Karnataka&TamilNadustates),foundinthedryforestsoftheEasternGhats.L.l.grandisHill&Phillips,1932—CSriLanka(CentralProvince);onlyknownfromtheEastMataleHillsbutprobablyoccursthroughoutthelowerfoothillsatanaverageelevationof900m.L.l.malabaricusWroughton,1917—SWIndia(Karnataka,Kerala&TamilNadustates),foundinthewetforestsoftheWesternGhatstoelevationsof1200m.L. l. nordicus Hill, 1933— NC & E Sri Lanka throughout the lowland Dry Zone;it is uncertain if its distribution extends to SE Sri Lanka.","Head—body 21-26 cm,tail vestigial; weight varies among the subspecies. The Gray Slender Loris is similar to the Red Slender Loris (L. tardigradus) but larger, with a less pointed muzzle and more regional variation. Pelage is fairly short, and a dorsal stripe is sometimes present. Two subspecies are recognized in India. The “Mysore Slender Loris” (L. Ll. lydekkerianus) is a large subspecies, with head—body lengths of 20.3-22 cm and adult weight of ¢.294 g (males) and ¢.259 g (females). It is grayish-buff above, often with white frosting, and whitish-buff below with or without white frosting. Eye patches are gray to brown, pre-auricular hairs are white, and ears are yellowish brown. W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1953 reported specimens with black ears, but these have never been seen in the wild or found in subsequent museum specimens. Variation occurs across its very large range, especially in body size, and more Indian subspecies or even species are suspected. The “Malabar Slender Loris” (L. I. malabaricus), despite being in the Gray Slender Loris species, bears a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris, perhaps because it shares similar forest habitat. Pelage is red-brown with or without white frosting on the dorsum and head, and the dorsal stripe is usually absent or indistinct. Head-body length is 18:3-19.8 cm, and adult weight is 180 g. Two subspecies of the Gray Slender Loris are found in Sri Lanka. The “Northern Ceylon Slender Loris” (L. [. nordicus) has a dense woolly pelage and is gray, gray-brown, or buff-brown dorsally and white or light buff ventrally. The throat and median line of the belly are usually creamy buff throughout with no gray hair bases, although medium to pale gray hair bases may intergrade with hairs on the outer part of the creamy underside. The head and dorsum can either have frosting or not, and there is usually a dark dorsal stripe that meets a dark crown. Circumocular patches are dark gray, gray, or gray-brown, and preauricular hairs are either white or light gray extending to white cheeks, making the facial mask more outstanding than in the Red Slender Loris. Ears are large compared with the eyes and are yellow or yellow with dusky ear rims. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris has a head-body length of 21.5-23.8 cm (males 22-7 cm, females 21-7 cm). Male weight (228-285 g) is slightly higher than that of females (238-287 g). The “Highland Slender Loris” (L. I. grandis) was described by Hill and W. Phillips in 1932. The plates of the living animals in the original description bear a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris but no resemblance to living Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises—therefore the separate taxon recognized here. The type was found in Gammaduwa at 675 m above sea level. This medium-size slender loris has a head-body length of 20.9-25.6 cm, and a weight of ¢.220 g. Pelage of grandis makes it distinct from other subspecies. It is dark gray or gray-brown dorsally and sometimes a rusty-brown on the lumbar region. It is ventrally white or light buff on distal ends of the hairs, with the basal one-half being black, unlike the subspecies nor dicus where ventral hairs have pale hair bases fading to pure white at the midline. The throat of grandis is pure white, and it has an indistinct dark dorsal stripe that usually is frosted. Circumocular patches are black, brown, or red-brown. The white interocular stripe bifurcates above circumocular patches. Cheeks and preauricular hairs are mainly white, similar to nordicus. The coat of grandis is thicker than that of tardigradus; it is sometimes so thick as to resemble a subspecies of the Red Slender Loris (the “Horton Plains Slender Loris,” L. t. nycticeboides). The heart-shaped face of grandis has a very long muzzle, which also distinguishes it from other subspecies. As in all the Sri Lankan lorises, infants of grandis are reddish and assume the adult coloration at 8-9 months of age. It would be difficult to tell grandis from nordicus by observing only an infant.","The Gray Slender Loris occurs in tropical primary and some secondary rainforest, dry semi-deciduous forest, shrub, evergreen, swamp, acacia, bamboo, edge, and montane cloud forest to 2000 m above sea level. It occupies the understory in dry forests and the canopy in wetter areas. It can persist in home gardens, tea plantations, and hotel grounds, where it probably lives mainly on insects. Gray Slender Lorises move at heights of 2-5 m, depending on their habitat. They move in a serpentine fashion, from ground to canopy, and also cross gaps of open ground, including roads and paddy fields.","Faunivorous, consuming mainly invertebrates (including ants and mollusks), along with bird eggs, nestlings, geckos, birds, tree frogs, small mammals, unripened fruits, young leaves, and gum. In the only detailed long-term study of the species’ diet, 96% ofall feeding events focused on animal prey, the majority of which were ants and termites. In addition to spiders, mollusks, and lizards, other key insect orders in the diet include: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Lorises are able to eat insects with high levels of secondary compounds, accompanied by pre-ingestive urine washing, or slobbering and urine washing during ingestion. Gray Slender Lorises are terminal branch specialists that catch their prey visually with one or two hands, and they use acrobatic postures in the more dangerous and swaying branches. Lorises infrequently feed on gums and legume pods, but they can make holes in bark through active gouging. Observations of the Sri Lankan forms are in accordance with those of longer-term studies in India. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris was observed to eat only insect or animal prey, including lizards and snails. They nearly always detect their prey with their eyes and engage in acrobatic suspensory postures to catch their prey items. They grasp the prey with one or two hands, and prey items are rarely caught and eaten directly with the mouth. Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises do not appear to eat gum or drink water, and the only non-insect item they appear to eat is nectar from a flowering Cassiaroxburghii (Fabaceae). In captivity, the Highland Slender Loris feeds on tree frogs, geckos, and large insects.","Copulation patterns are similar among the two species of Loris. Mating can occur after play wrestling, but it most often commences after many males have pursued a female. Usually, males move into an area a few days before a female enters full estrus and start to follow her and try to groom her. These interactions can result in violent fights between males. During the pursuit, the males utter “krik” calls at irregular intervals and try to inspect the female’s genitals. The female may give defensive threats, but when she is ready to be mounted, she signals with a suspensory posture. Copulations take place with the male clinging to the female, who is suspended quadrupedally. A female supports herself by all four limbs orjust her hindlimbs. A single copulation may last 2-16 minutes and is ended with the female giving low-intensity threat gestures toward the male. Sometimes the male produces a liquid that forms a vaginal plug. Both sexeslick their genitals after copulation. Gray Slender Lorises give birth to singletons or twins after a gestation of 157-162 days. Births occur throughout the year. A female gives birth in a sitting or a hanging posture. Newborns have partially opened eyes. After birth, the mother may defend the infants against conspecifics if they become overly curious, but often she will allow an adult male from her social group to groom her and her offspring. The newborn clings to the mother’s belly for the first few weeks oflife. Weaning occurs after 148 days. The infantis carried less when it is 2-3 months old, and it may be parked while the mother goes off to feed.","The Gray Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal, and it moves quadrupedally in trees. Although it can move slowly when threatened,it is generally silent and swift. It prefers to move on the top of branches. Gaps between branches are crossed by using horizontal bridging, whereby hindlimbs hold on to a substrate while forelimbs grab for the desired branch. Three limbs are usually holding a support branch when moving in a quadrupedal fashion. The Gray Slender Loris is capable of rapidly scaling a large tree trunk or scampering along other large substrates, although it prefers small supports that it can clasp firmly in its hands. It crosses roads and agricultural fields when necessary.","Social organization of the Gray Slender Loris has been described as dispersed multimale—multifemale, but with unimale—unifemale subunits. Home-range sizes of the Mysore Slender Loris are c.3-6 ha for adult males and 1-6 ha for adult females. Home-range sizes of the Malabar Slender Loris are 1-2-14 ha for adult males and 3-15-3 ha for adult females; roving males can have home ranges as large as 117 ha. Home ranges of adult males overlap one or more females, but home ranges of adult females are exclusive, except for their offspring. Social interactions are common; the Mysore Slender Loris, in particular, is among the most social of the lorises, with up to 38% ofits activity spent in association with other individuals. The Gray Slender Loris, in general, forages at night, alone or in groups of two or three, sometimes larger. An individual usually sleeps with one to four conspecifics and chooses one of three or four sleeping sites night after night. Sleeping site fidelity for resident individuals seems to be high, whereas roving males or dispersing individuals often change their sleeping sites and sleep alone. Sleeping sites are vine tangles, forks, or dense thickets. Grooming is common, and males frequently groom infants when they are parked or on the mother’s belly. Peaceful food sharing occurs among members of a group, although it is not active. The Gray Slender Loris engages in social play; adult males and juveniles play-wrestle most often, but older individuals may also participate. A typical wrestling bout includes two individuals facing each other and gripping the head from the back and pulling the head back. They try to gently bite the other’s hands and feet. A whistle is the most common call of the Gray Slender Loris, uttered throughout the night; it may be used as a countercall, a spacing mechanism, or a territorial call. This call is heard in situations of aggressive excitement and is emitted by adults of both sexes. The “chitter” call is heard in defensive situations between conspecifics and is emitted by males and females. The krik call may be uttered in situations where an infant will threaten its mother in response to other group members’ quarrel. The Gray Slender Loris screams when attacked by a predator; and one individual was also heard screaming when electrocuted crossing an open power line.On following pages: 7. Red Slender Loris(Loris tardigradus); 8. Bengal Slow Loris(Nycticebus bengalensis); 9. Sunda Slow Loris(Nycticebus coucang); 10. Javan Slow Loris(Nycticebus javanicus); 11. Bornean Slow Loris(Nycticebus menagensis); 12. Pygmy Slow Loris(Nycticebus pygmaeus).","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies grandis and nordicus are classified as Endangered, and the nominate subspecies and malabaricus are classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The principal threat is loss of habitat. Loris eyes are valued in traditional Asian medicine because of the local belief that they contain certain properties that are effective against ocular complaints. In India, the eye of the loris is also widely used as a love charm in a preparation that is claimed to be helpful in seducing and kidnapping a woman. The Mysore Slender Loris is reported from three protected areas: Sri Venkateswara National Park and Biligiri Rangswamy Temple and Nelapattu wildlife sanctuaries in India. The Malabar Slender Loris is reported in Periyar National Park and a number of wildlife sanctuaries in India, including Aralam, Brahmagiri, Griz zled Giant Squirrel, Idukki, Indira Gandhi, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai, Parambikulam, Peechi-Vazhani, Shendurney, Someswara, Thattakkad, and Wynad. In Sri Lanka, the Northern Ceylon Slender Loris is reported from reserves and sanctuaries of Ampara, Girithale, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, Ritigala, Sigiriya, and Thangamale; national parks of Angammedilla, Flood Plains, Kaudulla, Maduru Oya, Minneriya, Somawathiya, Wasgamuwa, Wilpattu, and Yala; and forest reserves of Kanthale and Menikdena. The Highland Slender Loris is reported from only three protected areas: Knuckles Mountain Range, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe, and Udawatta Kele.","Christie (1992) | Devaraj Sarkar et al. (1981) | Fitch-Snyder & Schulze (2001) | Goonan (1993) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1933, 1953d) | Ilse (1955) | Izard & Rassmussen (1985) | Kadam & Swayamprabha (1977, 1980) | Kar Gupta (2007) | Kumara et al. (2006) | Meier (1989) | Nanda Kumar et al. (2004) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris (1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004) | Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003) | Nekaris & Schulze (2004) | Nekaris et al. (2006) | Rao (1994) | Rhadakrishna (2001) | Rhadakrishna & Singh (2002, 2004a, 2004b) | Schulze & Meier (1995a) | Singh, Kumar et al. (2000) | Singh, Lindburg et al. (1999) | Swayamprabha & Kadam (1980)",,"6.Gray Slender LorisLoris lydekkerianusFrench:Loris de Lydekker/ German:Grauer Schlanklori/ Spanish:Loris esbelto grisOther common names:Dry Zone/Northern/Northern Ceylon Slender Loris (nordicus), Highland Slender Loris (grandis), Malabar Slender Loris (malabaricus), Mysore Slender Loris (lydekkerianus)Taxonomy.Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908, India, Madras.C. P. Groves in his book Primate Taxonomy in 2001 considered L. [. grandis and L. I. nordicus synonymous, but this is difficult to resolve. They are similar cranially, but their pelage and especially the muzzle and face are remarkably distinct. They are recognized as distinct subspecies here. K. Kar Gupta in 2007 reportedly studied iL. malabaricus, but the individuals from Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India, have the appearance of L. L lydekkerianus. Four subspecies are recognized here, but there is much overlap in their physical characteristics. Ongoing confusion over their taxonomy requires future research.Subspecies and Distribution.L.l.lydekkerianusCabrera,1908—S&EIndia(AndhraPradesh,Karnataka&TamilNadustates),foundinthedryforestsoftheEasternGhats.L.l.grandisHill&Phillips,1932—CSriLanka(CentralProvince);onlyknownfromtheEastMataleHillsbutprobablyoccursthroughoutthelowerfoothillsatanaverageelevationof900m.L.l.malabaricusWroughton,1917—SWIndia(Karnataka,Kerala&TamilNadustates),foundinthewetforestsoftheWesternGhatstoelevationsof1200m.L. l. nordicus Hill, 1933— NC & E Sri Lanka throughout the lowland Dry Zone;it is uncertain if its distribution extends to SE Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 21-26 cm,tail vestigial; weight varies among the subspecies. The Gray Slender Loris is similar to the Red Slender Loris (L. tardigradus) but larger, with a less pointed muzzle and more regional variation. Pelage is fairly short, and a dorsal stripe is sometimes present. Two subspecies are recognized in India. The “Mysore Slender Loris” (L. Ll. lydekkerianus) is a large subspecies, with head—body lengths of 20.3-22 cm and adult weight of ¢.294 g (males) and ¢.259 g (females). It is grayish-buff above, often with white frosting, and whitish-buff below with or without white frosting. Eye patches are gray to brown, pre-auricular hairs are white, and ears are yellowish brown. W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1953 reported specimens with black ears, but these have never been seen in the wild or found in subsequent museum specimens. Variation occurs across its very large range, especially in body size, and more Indian subspecies or even species are suspected. The “Malabar Slender Loris” (L. I. malabaricus), despite being in the Gray Slender Loris species, bears a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris, perhaps because it shares similar forest habitat. Pelage is red-brown with or without white frosting on the dorsum and head, and the dorsal stripe is usually absent or indistinct. Head-body length is 18:3-19.8 cm, and adult weight is 180 g. Two subspecies of the Gray Slender Loris are found in Sri Lanka. The “Northern Ceylon Slender Loris” (L. [. nordicus) has a dense woolly pelage and is gray, gray-brown, or buff-brown dorsally and white or light buff ventrally. The throat and median line of the belly are usually creamy buff throughout with no gray hair bases, although medium to pale gray hair bases may intergrade with hairs on the outer part of the creamy underside. The head and dorsum can either have frosting or not, and there is usually a dark dorsal stripe that meets a dark crown. Circumocular patches are dark gray, gray, or gray-brown, and preauricular hairs are either white or light gray extending to white cheeks, making the facial mask more outstanding than in the Red Slender Loris. Ears are large compared with the eyes and are yellow or yellow with dusky ear rims. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris has a head-body length of 21.5-23.8 cm (males 22-7 cm, females 21-7 cm). Male weight (228-285 g) is slightly higher than that of females (238-287 g). The “Highland Slender Loris” (L. I. grandis) was described by Hill and W. Phillips in 1932. The plates of the living animals in the original description bear a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris but no resemblance to living Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises—therefore the separate taxon recognized here. The type was found in Gammaduwa at 675 m above sea level. This medium-size slender loris has a head-body length of 20.9-25.6 cm, and a weight of ¢.220 g. Pelage of grandis makes it distinct from other subspecies. It is dark gray or gray-brown dorsally and sometimes a rusty-brown on the lumbar region. It is ventrally white or light buff on distal ends of the hairs, with the basal one-half being black, unlike the subspecies nor dicus where ventral hairs have pale hair bases fading to pure white at the midline. The throat of grandis is pure white, and it has an indistinct dark dorsal stripe that usually is frosted. Circumocular patches are black, brown, or red-brown. The white interocular stripe bifurcates above circumocular patches. Cheeks and preauricular hairs are mainly white, similar to nordicus. The coat of grandis is thicker than that of tardigradus; it is sometimes so thick as to resemble a subspecies of the Red Slender Loris (the “Horton Plains Slender Loris,” L. t. nycticeboides). The heart-shaped face of grandis has a very long muzzle, which also distinguishes it from other subspecies. As in all the Sri Lankan lorises, infants of grandis are reddish and assume the adult coloration at 8-9 months of age. It would be difficult to tell grandis from nordicus by observing only an infant.Habitat.The Gray Slender Loris occurs in tropical primary and some secondary rainforest, dry semi-deciduous forest, shrub, evergreen, swamp, acacia, bamboo, edge, and montane cloud forest to 2000 m above sea level. It occupies the understory in dry forests and the canopy in wetter areas. It can persist in home gardens, tea plantations, and hotel grounds, where it probably lives mainly on insects. Gray Slender Lorises move at heights of 2-5 m, depending on their habitat. They move in a serpentine fashion, from ground to canopy, and also cross gaps of open ground, including roads and paddy fields.Food and Feeding.Faunivorous, consuming mainly invertebrates (including ants and mollusks), along with bird eggs, nestlings, geckos, birds, tree frogs, small mammals, unripened fruits, young leaves, and gum. In the only detailed long-term study of the species’ diet, 96% ofall feeding events focused on animal prey, the majority of which were ants and termites. In addition to spiders, mollusks, and lizards, other key insect orders in the diet include: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Lorises are able to eat insects with high levels of secondary compounds, accompanied by pre-ingestive urine washing, or slobbering and urine washing during ingestion. Gray Slender Lorises are terminal branch specialists that catch their prey visually with one or two hands, and they use acrobatic postures in the more dangerous and swaying branches. Lorises infrequently feed on gums and legume pods, but they can make holes in bark through active gouging. Observations of the Sri Lankan forms are in accordance with those of longer-term studies in India. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris was observed to eat only insect or animal prey, including lizards and snails. They nearly always detect their prey with their eyes and engage in acrobatic suspensory postures to catch their prey items. They grasp the prey with one or two hands, and prey items are rarely caught and eaten directly with the mouth. Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises do not appear to eat gum or drink water, and the only non-insect item they appear to eat is nectar from a flowering Cassiaroxburghii (Fabaceae). In captivity, the Highland Slender Loris feeds on tree frogs, geckos, and large insects.Breeding.Copulation patterns are similar among the two species of Loris. Mating can occur after play wrestling, but it most often commences after many males have pursued a female. Usually, males move into an area a few days before a female enters full estrus and start to follow her and try to groom her. These interactions can result in violent fights between males. During the pursuit, the males utter “krik” calls at irregular intervals and try to inspect the female’s genitals. The female may give defensive threats, but when she is ready to be mounted, she signals with a suspensory posture. Copulations take place with the male clinging to the female, who is suspended quadrupedally. A female supports herself by all four limbs orjust her hindlimbs. A single copulation may last 2-16 minutes and is ended with the female giving low-intensity threat gestures toward the male. Sometimes the male produces a liquid that forms a vaginal plug. Both sexeslick their genitals after copulation. Gray Slender Lorises give birth to singletons or twins after a gestation of 157-162 days. Births occur throughout the year. A female gives birth in a sitting or a hanging posture. Newborns have partially opened eyes. After birth, the mother may defend the infants against conspecifics if they become overly curious, but often she will allow an adult male from her social group to groom her and her offspring. The newborn clings to the mother’s belly for the first few weeks oflife. Weaning occurs after 148 days. The infantis carried less when it is 2-3 months old, and it may be parked while the mother goes off to feed.Activity patterns.The Gray Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal, and it moves quadrupedally in trees. Although it can move slowly when threatened,it is generally silent and swift. It prefers to move on the top of branches. Gaps between branches are crossed by using horizontal bridging, whereby hindlimbs hold on to a substrate while forelimbs grab for the desired branch. Three limbs are usually holding a support branch when moving in a quadrupedal fashion. The Gray Slender Loris is capable of rapidly scaling a large tree trunk or scampering along other large substrates, although it prefers small supports that it can clasp firmly in its hands. It crosses roads and agricultural fields when necessary.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social organization of the Gray Slender Loris has been described as dispersed multimale—multifemale, but with unimale—unifemale subunits. Home-range sizes of the Mysore Slender Loris are c.3-6 ha for adult males and 1-6 ha for adult females. Home-range sizes of the Malabar Slender Loris are 1-2-14 ha for adult males and 3-15-3 ha for adult females; roving males can have home ranges as large as 117 ha. Home ranges of adult males overlap one or more females, but home ranges of adult females are exclusive, except for their offspring. Social interactions are common; the Mysore Slender Loris, in particular, is among the most social of the lorises, with up to 38% ofits activity spent in association with other individuals. The Gray Slender Loris, in general, forages at night, alone or in groups of two or three, sometimes larger. An individual usually sleeps with one to four conspecifics and chooses one of three or four sleeping sites night after night. Sleeping site fidelity for resident individuals seems to be high, whereas roving males or dispersing individuals often change their sleeping sites and sleep alone. Sleeping sites are vine tangles, forks, or dense thickets. Grooming is common, and males frequently groom infants when they are parked or on the mother’s belly. Peaceful food sharing occurs among members of a group, although it is not active. The Gray Slender Loris engages in social play; adult males and juveniles play-wrestle most often, but older individuals may also participate. A typical wrestling bout includes two individuals facing each other and gripping the head from the back and pulling the head back. They try to gently bite the other’s hands and feet. A whistle is the most common call of the Gray Slender Loris, uttered throughout the night; it may be used as a countercall, a spacing mechanism, or a territorial call. This call is heard in situations of aggressive excitement and is emitted by adults of both sexes. The “chitter” call is heard in defensive situations between conspecifics and is emitted by males and females. The krik call may be uttered in situations where an infant will threaten its mother in response to other group members’ quarrel. The Gray Slender Loris screams when attacked by a predator; and one individual was also heard screaming when electrocuted crossing an open power line.On following pages: 7. Red Slender Loris(Loris tardigradus); 8. Bengal Slow Loris(Nycticebus bengalensis); 9. Sunda Slow Loris(Nycticebus coucang); 10. Javan Slow Loris(Nycticebus javanicus); 11. Bornean Slow Loris(Nycticebus menagensis); 12. Pygmy Slow Loris(Nycticebus pygmaeus).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies grandis and nordicus are classified as Endangered, and the nominate subspecies and malabaricus are classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The principal threat is loss of habitat. Loris eyes are valued in traditional Asian medicine because of the local belief that they contain certain properties that are effective against ocular complaints. In India, the eye of the loris is also widely used as a love charm in a preparation that is claimed to be helpful in seducing and kidnapping a woman. The Mysore Slender Loris is reported from three protected areas: Sri Venkateswara National Park and Biligiri Rangswamy Temple and Nelapattu wildlife sanctuaries in India. The Malabar Slender Loris is reported in Periyar National Park and a number of wildlife sanctuaries in India, including Aralam, Brahmagiri, Griz zled Giant Squirrel, Idukki, Indira Gandhi, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai, Parambikulam, Peechi-Vazhani, Shendurney, Someswara, Thattakkad, and Wynad. In Sri Lanka, the Northern Ceylon Slender Loris is reported from reserves and sanctuaries of Ampara, Girithale, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, Ritigala, Sigiriya, and Thangamale; national parks of Angammedilla, Flood Plains, Kaudulla, Maduru Oya, Minneriya, Somawathiya, Wasgamuwa, Wilpattu, and Yala; and forest reserves of Kanthale and Menikdena. The Highland Slender Loris is reported from only three protected areas: Knuckles Mountain Range, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe, and Udawatta Kele.Bibliography.Christie (1992), Devaraj Sarkar et al. (1981), Fitch-Snyder & Schulze (2001), Goonan (1993), Groves (2001), Hill (1933, 1953d), Ilse (1955), Izard & Rassmussen (1985), Kadam & Swayamprabha (1977, 1980), Kar Gupta (2007), Kumara et al. (2006), Meier (1989), Nanda Kumar et al. (2004), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Schulze (2004), Nekaris et al. (2006), Rao (1994), Rhadakrishna (2001), Rhadakrishna & Singh (2002, 2004a, 2004b), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Singh, Kumar et al. (2000), Singh, Lindburg et al. (1999), Swayamprabha & Kadam (1980)." -039C9423FFFF087E3189D2385239FDC8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,217,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFF087E3189D2385239FDC8.xml,Loris tardigradus,Loris,tardigradus,,,Loris gréle @fr | Roter Schlanklori @de | Loris esbelto rojo @es | Horton Plains Slender Loris (nycticeboides) @en,"Lemur tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758, Ceylon (= Sri Lanka).The precise type locality is unknown, but it was probably in the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. The subspecies nycticeboides was described by W. C. O. Hill in 1942 from the Horton Plains at an elevation of 1830 m in Sri Lanka’s Central Province, although there remains some dispute as to which species this taxon belongs. There is preliminary evidence for two additional subspecies in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are recognized here.","L.t.tardigradusLinnaeus,1758—SWSriLanka(Western&Southernprovinces),fromtheoutskirtsofColombointheNtoRannaintheS,atlowerelevationsupto¢.470mabovesealevel.L. t. nycticeboides Hill, 1942— Sri Lanka (Central Province highlands), at elevations of 1650-2000 m above sea level.","Head—body 18-21 cm, tail vestigial; weight 85-220 g. The nominate subspecies tardigradusis the smallest of the slender loris taxa (head-body length less than 20-5 cm; weight 122-170 g). Dorsally, its pelage is red-brown with or without a dorsal stripe. The ventral hair is yellowish white with dark gray hair bases. Its preauricular hair has dark bases intergrading to its ear from its dark brown-chestnut circumocular patches, which are rounded in shape. The white interocular stripe is very narrow or absent. Its hands and feet are pink or yellowish-pink in adults. It has very large eyes and relatively small ears that are generally a woody russet color. The muzzle is long and pointed. Fur on forearms, hands, and feetis short. The toilet claw of the second digit of the foot is well developed. The “Horton Plains Slender Loris” (L. t. nycticeboudes) 1s the most distinct of the Sri Lankan lorises. Its limbs are shorter relative to the trunk than in tardigradus, with their hindlimbs especially shortened. The skull (length 5-2 cm) is also considerably larger in all details than in the subspecies tardigradus. The fur of the Horton Plains Slender Lorisis very long, soft, and thick, and it makes the animal look much larger than its body measurements would suggest (head-body 20.4-21.3 cm; weight 140-220 g); it looks superficially like a slow loris (Nycticebus). Limbs, in particular, are thickly furred toward their extremities. This furriness makes this form difficultto confuse with other slender lorises.","Primary and some secondary wet lowland forest and tropical rainforest (tardigradus); cloud, montane, and highland evergreen forest (nycticeboides). The subspecies tardigradusis found in the wet lowland forests up to 470 m above sea level. Its habitat is heavily fragmented. It uses small twigs, lianas, and vines for movement, and it also forage on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Lorisis found in central Sri Lanka at elevations of 1800-2300 m in montane mist forests. It has been observed moving on the ground and crossing roads, and it is often seen low down in stunted vegetation. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts the Red Slender Loris; it is rarely found in home gardens and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches.","In 1905,|. Still suggested that lorises were completely insectivorous, even carnivorous. Wild Red Slender Lorises have only been seen eating animal prey. They eat insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers), lizards (Calotes, Agamidae), and geckos. They have not been seen eating birds, but the speed with which they can grasp prey and kill with a bite to the head suggests this is possible. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas with Humboldtialaurifolia (Fabaceae), a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants and provides abundant food for lorises. Nothing is known of the diet of the Horton Plains Slender Loris.","Dominant males may form partnershipswith smaller beta males—coalitions to pursue estrous females. Males gather when a female is in estrus, some coming from other parts of the forest, and vocal battles are common. Gestation is 165-175 days; one twin birth in captivity occurred after 174 days. Births occur throughout the year, and singletons are more common than twins. Mothersstart to park their infants when they are about two months old, remaining near and rushing back to retrieve the infant at any sign of danger. Females have a 29-40day sexual cycle, with genital swelling and reddening at estrus. Individuals may live up to 15 years. Only one birth has been witnessed for the Horton Plains Slender Loris.","The Red Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. Although lorises are thought to be slow climbers, kinematic studies revealed that the nominate subspecies tardigraduscan move at speeds of 1-3 m/second. In a secondary tree-fall area, Red Slender Lorises are small-branch specialists, most often moving on supports less than 5 cm in diameter and only occasionally selecting branch clusters or substrates larger than 5 cm in diameter. Overall, they do not have strong preferences with respect to branch orientation. Rapid quadrupedalism is used on arboreal supports of all diameters and orientations, but individuals have never been seen moving on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris moves very much like its low-country counterpart and is also capable of incredible speed. It has been observed at low heights (2 m above the ground), and it crosses open ground. It also will occur in the highest trees available, for example, in alpine scrub at heights of 4 m.","Virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the Horton Plains Slender Loris, so the description here refers to the subspecies tardigradus. Red Slender Lorises sleep in groups of up to five animals, most commonly a male, female, and their offspring. Some males change their sleeping site regularly and may sleep in the vicinity of a female. They engage in intense grooming sessions and social and solitary play at dawn and dusk. They communicate regularly using scent marking and loud calls. Individuals with overlapping home ranges interact throughout the night. Females have home ranges of 1-2-6-9 ha, whereas those of males are 1-4-3-4 ha. Males may affiliate with males and with more than one female. Females rarely affiliate with other females and may be aggressive toward males that attempt to follow or groom them. During the single long-term radio-tracking study on the Red Slender Loris, a single male’s home range overlapped a single female’s home range, but not all individuals in the area were caught, and more animals shared sleep sites. This, combined with promiscuous mating, implies that unimale—unifemale social pairs are not the rule for this species. Interestingly, lorises are very disturbed by white light and usually cease social behavior (e.g. partners will disperse) unless red or infrared light is used. The subspecies tardigradusutters “chitters,” “kriks,” and “zic” calls. A scream has not yet been recorded. They produce a soft whistle, barely audible to humans even when standing within 10 m of an individual. By far the most common call is the loud whistle, used to communicate location to friendly conspecifics, to warn non-group members, and to ward off encroaching males. Vocal battles are common and up to 60 calls per hour are not uncommon. The whistle is so common that it is a good indicator of loris presence or absence in a forest. At least six variations of the whistle have been described, with a potential twelve additional variants. The syllables within each call can be undulated, strangled, and short or long, and they occur in different combinations. Density estimates of lorises were 0-08-0-55 ind/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Red Slender Loris is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and the nominate subspecies tardigradusparticularly by gem mining. Individuals are regularly sold illegally in bazaars as pets, and they are valued in traditional medicine and killed because of superstitious folk beliefs. All populations are likely declining and at low levels, with as few as 1500 tardigradusin only c.3000 ha of highly fragmented forests and a critically low number of 80 nycticeboides in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. The subspecies tardigradusoccurs in Udawalawe National Park; the sanctuaries of Attidiya-Belanwila, Kurulukele, Peak Wilderness, Udawattekele, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe; and forest reserves of Ingiriya, Kanneliya, Kombala-Kottawa, Oliyagankele, Polgahaivalakande, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Aparekka, and Godakawela. It can also be found in Gampola-Ambuluwela Biodiversity Park, Maimbulkanda Nature Reserve, Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, and Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is known from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, and Conical Hill and Bomburella forest reserves. It may also occur in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Siripagama.","Bernede (2009) | Bernede et al. (2008) | Gamage et al. (2010) | Goonan (1993) | Goonan et al.(1995) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1942b) | Molur et al. (2003) | Montagna & Ellis (1960) | Muller et al. (1985) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris (2003a, 2003b, 2002/2003) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004) | Nekaris & Perera (2007) | Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003) | Nekaris & Stevens (2007) | Nekaris, Liyanage & Gamage (2005) | Nekaris, Pimley & Ablard (2006, 2007) | Petter & Hladik (1970) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Schmitt & Lemelin (2004) | Schulze & Meier (1995a) | Sellers (1996) | Still (1905) | Subramoniam (1957)",,"7.Red Slender LorisLoris tardigradusFrench:Loris gréle/ German:Roter Schlanklori/ Spanish:Loris esbelto rojoOther common names:Horton Plains Slender Loris (nycticeboides)Taxonomy.Lemur tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758, Ceylon (= Sri Lanka).The precise type locality is unknown, but it was probably in the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. The subspecies nycticeboides was described by W. C. O. Hill in 1942 from the Horton Plains at an elevation of 1830 m in Sri Lanka’s Central Province, although there remains some dispute as to which species this taxon belongs. There is preliminary evidence for two additional subspecies in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tardigradusLinnaeus,1758—SWSriLanka(Western&Southernprovinces),fromtheoutskirtsofColombointheNtoRannaintheS,atlowerelevationsupto¢.470mabovesealevel.L. t. nycticeboides Hill, 1942— Sri Lanka (Central Province highlands), at elevations of 1650-2000 m above sea level.Descriptive notes.Head—body 18-21 cm, tail vestigial; weight 85-220 g. The nominate subspecies tardigradusis the smallest of the slender loris taxa (head-body length less than 20-5 cm; weight 122-170 g). Dorsally, its pelage is red-brown with or without a dorsal stripe. The ventral hair is yellowish white with dark gray hair bases. Its preauricular hair has dark bases intergrading to its ear from its dark brown-chestnut circumocular patches, which are rounded in shape. The white interocular stripe is very narrow or absent. Its hands and feet are pink or yellowish-pink in adults. It has very large eyes and relatively small ears that are generally a woody russet color. The muzzle is long and pointed. Fur on forearms, hands, and feetis short. The toilet claw of the second digit of the foot is well developed. The “Horton Plains Slender Loris” (L. t. nycticeboudes) 1s the most distinct of the Sri Lankan lorises. Its limbs are shorter relative to the trunk than in tardigradus, with their hindlimbs especially shortened. The skull (length 5-2 cm) is also considerably larger in all details than in the subspecies tardigradus. The fur of the Horton Plains Slender Lorisis very long, soft, and thick, and it makes the animal look much larger than its body measurements would suggest (head-body 20.4-21.3 cm; weight 140-220 g); it looks superficially like a slow loris (Nycticebus). Limbs, in particular, are thickly furred toward their extremities. This furriness makes this form difficultto confuse with other slender lorises.Habitat.Primary and some secondary wet lowland forest and tropical rainforest (tardigradus); cloud, montane, and highland evergreen forest (nycticeboides). The subspecies tardigradusis found in the wet lowland forests up to 470 m above sea level. Its habitat is heavily fragmented. It uses small twigs, lianas, and vines for movement, and it also forage on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Lorisis found in central Sri Lanka at elevations of 1800-2300 m in montane mist forests. It has been observed moving on the ground and crossing roads, and it is often seen low down in stunted vegetation. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts the Red Slender Loris; it is rarely found in home gardens and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches.Food and Feeding.In 1905,|. Still suggested that lorises were completely insectivorous, even carnivorous. Wild Red Slender Lorises have only been seen eating animal prey. They eat insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers), lizards (Calotes, Agamidae), and geckos. They have not been seen eating birds, but the speed with which they can grasp prey and kill with a bite to the head suggests this is possible. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas with Humboldtialaurifolia (Fabaceae), a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants and provides abundant food for lorises. Nothing is known of the diet of the Horton Plains Slender Loris.Breeding.Dominant males may form partnershipswith smaller beta males—coalitions to pursue estrous females. Males gather when a female is in estrus, some coming from other parts of the forest, and vocal battles are common. Gestation is 165-175 days; one twin birth in captivity occurred after 174 days. Births occur throughout the year, and singletons are more common than twins. Mothersstart to park their infants when they are about two months old, remaining near and rushing back to retrieve the infant at any sign of danger. Females have a 29-40day sexual cycle, with genital swelling and reddening at estrus. Individuals may live up to 15 years. Only one birth has been witnessed for the Horton Plains Slender Loris.Activity patterns.The Red Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. Although lorises are thought to be slow climbers, kinematic studies revealed that the nominate subspecies tardigraduscan move at speeds of 1-3 m/second. In a secondary tree-fall area, Red Slender Lorises are small-branch specialists, most often moving on supports less than 5 cm in diameter and only occasionally selecting branch clusters or substrates larger than 5 cm in diameter. Overall, they do not have strong preferences with respect to branch orientation. Rapid quadrupedalism is used on arboreal supports of all diameters and orientations, but individuals have never been seen moving on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris moves very much like its low-country counterpart and is also capable of incredible speed. It has been observed at low heights (2 m above the ground), and it crosses open ground. It also will occur in the highest trees available, for example, in alpine scrub at heights of 4 m.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the Horton Plains Slender Loris, so the description here refers to the subspecies tardigradus. Red Slender Lorises sleep in groups of up to five animals, most commonly a male, female, and their offspring. Some males change their sleeping site regularly and may sleep in the vicinity of a female. They engage in intense grooming sessions and social and solitary play at dawn and dusk. They communicate regularly using scent marking and loud calls. Individuals with overlapping home ranges interact throughout the night. Females have home ranges of 1-2-6-9 ha, whereas those of males are 1-4-3-4 ha. Males may affiliate with males and with more than one female. Females rarely affiliate with other females and may be aggressive toward males that attempt to follow or groom them. During the single long-term radio-tracking study on the Red Slender Loris, a single male’s home range overlapped a single female’s home range, but not all individuals in the area were caught, and more animals shared sleep sites. This, combined with promiscuous mating, implies that unimale—unifemale social pairs are not the rule for this species. Interestingly, lorises are very disturbed by white light and usually cease social behavior (e.g. partners will disperse) unless red or infrared light is used. The subspecies tardigradusutters “chitters,” “kriks,” and “zic” calls. A scream has not yet been recorded. They produce a soft whistle, barely audible to humans even when standing within 10 m of an individual. By far the most common call is the loud whistle, used to communicate location to friendly conspecifics, to warn non-group members, and to ward off encroaching males. Vocal battles are common and up to 60 calls per hour are not uncommon. The whistle is so common that it is a good indicator of loris presence or absence in a forest. At least six variations of the whistle have been described, with a potential twelve additional variants. The syllables within each call can be undulated, strangled, and short or long, and they occur in different combinations. Density estimates of lorises were 0-08-0-55 ind/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Red Slender Loris is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and the nominate subspecies tardigradusparticularly by gem mining. Individuals are regularly sold illegally in bazaars as pets, and they are valued in traditional medicine and killed because of superstitious folk beliefs. All populations are likely declining and at low levels, with as few as 1500 tardigradusin only c.3000 ha of highly fragmented forests and a critically low number of 80 nycticeboides in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. The subspecies tardigradusoccurs in Udawalawe National Park; the sanctuaries of Attidiya-Belanwila, Kurulukele, Peak Wilderness, Udawattekele, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe; and forest reserves of Ingiriya, Kanneliya, Kombala-Kottawa, Oliyagankele, Polgahaivalakande, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Aparekka, and Godakawela. It can also be found in Gampola-Ambuluwela Biodiversity Park, Maimbulkanda Nature Reserve, Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, and Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is known from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, and Conical Hill and Bomburella forest reserves. It may also occur in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Siripagama.Bibliography.Bernede (2009), Bernede et al. (2008), Gamage et al. (2010), Goonan (1993), Goonan et al.(1995), Groves (2001), Hill (1942b), Molur et al. (2003), Montagna & Ellis (1960), Muller et al. (1985), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (2003a, 2003b, 2002/2003), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Perera (2007), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Stevens (2007), Nekaris, Liyanage & Gamage (2005), Nekaris, Pimley & Ablard (2006, 2007), Petter & Hladik (1970), Rumpler et al. (1987), Schmitt & Lemelin (2004), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Sellers (1996), Still (1905), Subramoniam (1957)." -039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5.xml,Tapirus terrestris,Tapirus,terrestris,Linnaeus,1758,Tapir du Brésil @fr | Flachlandtapir @de | Tapiramazonico @es | Brazilian Tapir @en | South American Tapir @en,"Hippopotamus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Brasillia” i.e. Pernambuco, Brazil.Four subspecies recognized.","T.t.terrestrisLinnaeus,1758—VenezuelathroughtheGuianastoCBrazilandNEArgentina(N&CMisiones).T.t.aenigmaticusGray,1872—SEColombia,EEcuador,andNEPeru.T.t.colombianusHershkovitz,1954—tropicalzonesofNColombiaintheareasofMagdalena,Bolivar,Atlantico,Cordoba,andNWAntioquia,asfarastheAtrataRiver,andasfarNastheRancheriaRiverinLaGuajira.T. t. spegazzinii Ameghino, 1909— SE Braz1l (Mato Grosso State), E Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentinato NE Santa Fe, NE Santiago del Estero, SE Jujuy, and E Salta.","Head-body 191-242 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 83-118 cm (males), 83-113 cm (females); weight 180-300 kg. Female Lowland Tapirs are usually larger than males. Data collected from 35 Lowland Tapirs captured during a long-term telemetry study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed that the average weight of adult tapirs was 233 kgfor females (200-300 kg) and 208 kgfor males (180-280 kg). Measurements oftapirs in Morro do Diabo demonstrated that adult females are significantly longer andtaller than males. Full length offemales 208-242 cm, full length of males 191-223 cm; rear height of females 90-120 cm, rear height of males 89-109 cm. In captivity, newborn Lowland Tapirs usually weigh 3-2— 5-8 kg. Calves gain an average of2-27 kg per week and are completely weaned at four months of age. Growth is usually completed by 18 months of age. The color of adult Lowland Tapirs is blackish-brown dorsally with the ears edged in white; the chest, venter and limbs are dark brown; the cheeks are grizzled brown and gray. Young of all four tapir species are born dark with yellowish or white stripes and spots, a pattern that is lost after the first six months, although some vestiges of spotting may remain in young adults. The skin of Lowland Tapirs is thickest at the nape, and often covered by scars, scratches, and bruises; beneath the epidermis is a fibrous tissue layer. There is a well-developed sagittal crest that runs from the base of the muzzle to the middle of the back, which is derived from fat and soft tissues and covered by very long black hair. The short, erect mane is prominent, and is thought to help the tapirs escape predators, which seize the dorsum of the neck. This crest is not present in the other three tapir species.Habitat.The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.Food and Feeding.Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.Breeding.There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males.","The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.","Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.","There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males. A Lowland Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2007 modelled the dynamics of the species’ populations in the wild. Given that natural situations impose a toll on the animals, age offirst reproduction in the wild was estimated to be four years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Lowland Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. The sex ratio at birth in captivity is 3:1. The sex ratio observed in Morro do Diabo, Brazil, was 1:1-33. Monitored subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in the central Amazon of Brazilrecorded a sex ratio of kills of 1:1:03. Therefore, the sex ratio at birth in the wild is generally assumed to be 50% males and 50% females. Data on Lowland Tapir longevity comes from captivity and reveals that these animals live over 35 years.","Tapirs are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular. Lowland Tapir rest during the day and begin their activity after sunset, at around 18:00 h. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park in Brazil, their main periods of activity are from 19:00 h to 00:00 h, with a peak between 20:00 h and 21:00 h (63% active); and from 01:00 h to 07:00 h, with a peak between 05:00 h and 06:00 h (60% active). Tapirs in Morro do Diabo are largely inactive between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. Overall, tapirs in Morro do Diabo foraged for approximately five hours in the early evening, and then seemed to rest for a few hours in the middle of the night. There followed a second foraging bout, of approximately six hours in the early hours of the day. Tapir activity patterns were analyzed separately for wet and dry season, as well for both sexes and different age classes in Morro do Diabo, and were fairly consistent. In Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs are mostly active between 18:00 h and 22:00 h, and between 00:00 h and 06:00 h, with a main activity peak between 01:00 h and 06:30 h, and very little activity between 11:00 h and 15:30 h. In the Peruvian Amazon, tapir activity peaks were observed between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and between 03:00 h and 04:00 h, with the main foraging time between 21:00 h and 03:00 h. Nocturnal line-transect sampling in Morro do Diabo State Park allowed for an analysis of the effect of moonlight intensity on tapir activity. Approximately 47% of the tapir encounters occurred during the waning crescent, 21% during the new moon, 18% during the waxing crescent, and only 14% during the full moon. It was clear that tapirs in Morro do Diabo were considerably less active during the brighter phases of the moon. Previous studies suggested that a lower level of animal activity during moonlit nights is a result of higher predation risk. In El Rey National Park, Argentina, tapirs were typically diurnal, perhaps due to lack of human disturbance.","L.owland Tapirs can move fairly easily through areas of low quality habitat (e.g. agricultural crops, pasture lands, and eucalyptus plantations) to get from one patch of forest to another. Parameters of Lowland Tapir spatial ecology reported in the literature, particularly home range size, vary widely. Tapirs are large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals that usually require considerably large home ranges. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, tapirs use very large home ranges (4-67 km?, varying from 1-12 km? to 14-19 km?®). These home ranges have very complex internal structures, including multiple core areas, which comprise a very small proportion of the home range (50% core area = 17% of the home range; 25% core area = 6% of the home range). Little seasonal variation in size and location of home ranges and core areas was observed. These patterns are consistent for both sexes and different age classes. In the Peruvian Amazon, the home ranges of Lowland Tapirs are much smaller, ranging from 1-06 km? to 3-86 km?®, with an average of 2: 61 km®. In Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs had an average home range size of 2: 48 km?*Neighboring tapirs in Morro do Diabo State Park showed very strong home range overlap between individuals (around 30%, although in some cases as high as 92%). This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. Estimates of Lowland Tapir population density range from a high of 1-6 ind/km? reported for the species in Neotropical forests in undisturbed, non-hunted, or lightly hunted sites to less than 0-3 ind/km? in other regions and habitat types. In Amazonian forests, Lowland Tapirs are usually found in densities around 0-5 ind/ km?. Exceptionally high densities (3:3-3-7 ind/km?) were observed in the Amazonian dry forests of Roraima, Brazil. In the Brazilian Pantanal, tapir densities range from 0-13 ind/km? in open grassland habitat to 0-4 ind/km? in forested habitats. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, densities range from 0-21 ind/km? to 1-35 ind/km?. This wide variation in density estimates can be explained by several factors, including differences in environments, habitat types studied,levels of habitat conservation, levels of hunting, and, most importantly, differences in the methods used to estimate densities. Another factor is that the Lowland Tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (e.g. around saltlicks, in palm forests, and near permanent water sources). Great variation in density can also reflect the ability of tapirs to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water). Tapirs are primarily solitary. Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for approximately twelve months. In Morro do Diabo, from a total of 81 tapir sightings obtained through nocturnal line-transect sampling, 77-78% were of one individual and 12-35% of pairs (adult female/adult male, adult female/offspring). On one occasion, three individuals were sighted. In terms of intraspecific interactions and social organization, tapirs in Morro do Diabo showed a strong home range overlap (30%) as well as overlap of core areas of use (20%) between neighboring individuals. This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. The great majority of the individuals shared varying portions of their home ranges with several other individual tapirs. Thus, while tapirs in Morro do Diabo had well-defined home ranges and lived within their boundaries, no evidence was found that they defended their areas against conspecifics. In the Peruvian Amazon, Lowland Tapirs monitored through GPS telemetry regularly walked along the boundaries of their home ranges, which appeared to provide some evidence that they were defining their territory against other individuals by maintaining clear home range boundaries.On following pages 2 Central Amencan Tapır (Taprms ba/rdnl. 3 Mountam Taper (Tapnus pmchaque).","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although the species has been listed as Vulnerable across its entire range, several populations in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuelapresent considerably higher levels of threat. A few examples include tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil, as well as Colombian and Venezuelan populations in Catatumbo, Maracaibo, and Lake Valencia watershed. The Lowland Tapir has the broadest geographic distribution of the four living species of tapirs and the species occurs in 21 different biomes in eleven countries. Historically, this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina, throughout the Chaco, Pantanal, Cerrado, Llanos, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Amazonian/Orinoco biomes. The historic distribution of the species covered approximately 13,129,874 km*. Nevertheless, populations have been severely reduced and are currently often limited to forested biomes and wetlands. The species is believed to have gone extinct in approximately 14% ofits range and the current distribution declined to 11,232,018 km*. The species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agricultural frontiers that are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. In Brazil, which constitutes a large portion of its range, the Lowland Tapir has disappeared from over one million km? (12-4% of its countrywide range). Although only about 15-20% of the Amazon has been deforested in the past 30 years, 85-90% of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared and 40% of the Pantanal has been converted to human use. Most of the Cerrado and Caatinga biomes in Brazilhave been converted to agriculture and cattle ranching. As a consequence, the Lowland Tapir has been extirpated from the Caatinga; most populations in the Cerrado are small and in protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Some exceptions include remote areas of Cerrado (e.g. Chapada das Mangabeiras, Jalapao region in Tocantins State) where tapirs are still common. The Lowland Tapir is now either completely absent or severely fragmented across much of its historic range, with the Northern and Central Amazon as well as the remaining Pantanal (Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) becoming important strongholds as southern, eastern, and north-western populations are declining rapidly. The IUCN Red Lust published in 1996 listed Lowland Tapirs as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Therefore, the species has deteriorated in Red List status over a period of twelve years. There is an ongoing reduction of Lowland Tapir populations estimated to be slightly greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). This rate of decline is predicted to continue for the next three generations. The main identified threats responsible for the decline include habitat deforestation and/or alteration; habitat fragmentation (resulting in small populations and low connectivity); hunting; cattle ranching; infectious diseases; road-kill; fire; human density; plantations of monocultures (sugar cane, soy bean); lack of patrolling of protected areas; small size of protected areas; resource extraction; and impact of tourism. Hunting is one of the most important threats. Tapirs are among the preferred game species for subsistence and commercial hunters throughout the Amazon. Estimates of tapir harvest in the State of Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon range from 15,447 to 17,886 individuals per year. Due to their individualistic lifestyle, low reproductive rate, long generation time, and low population density Lowland Tapirs rarely achieve high local abundance, which makes them highly susceptible to overhunting, and populations show rapid decline when harvested. There are a number of infectious diseases (Bluetongue, Equine Encephalitis, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, and Leptospirosis) and parasites known in Lowland Tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Pantanal biomes in Brazil. These diseases spread to tapirs from domestic livestock, particularly cattle and horses, and can potentially increase tapir mortality and affect reproductive rates. Another serious threat to this species is road-kill. Morro do Diabo State Park in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is crossed by a highway that, from 1996 to 2006, killed an average of six tapirs per year. Most of the tapirs killed were adult individuals capable of breeding. Road-kill is also a serious threat in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes of Brazil. Estimates of the total population size for the species throughoutits entire range are not available. This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. However a large proportion of the total Lowland Tapir population is found outside the boundaries of legally protected areas, where tapirs are hunted, chased by dogs, and face many other threats. Although the species is protected legally in most countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and have proven ineffective.","Affonso (1998) | Aquino et al. (2001) | Aquino & Calle (2003) | Ayala (2002, 2003) | Barongi (1986, 1993) | Bodmer (1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1995) | Bodmer & Lozano (2001) | Bodmer et al. (1997) | Brooks et al. (1997) | Chiarello (1999) | CITES (2005) | Cordeiro (2004) | Cullen et al. (2000) | Desbiez (2009) | Eisenberg (1989, 1997) | Emmons (1990) | Emmons & Feer (1997) | Flesher (2007) | Fradrich & Thenius (1972) | Fragoso (1997) | Fragoso & Huffman (2000) | Fragoso et al. (2000) | Galetti et al. (2001) | Gomez et al. (2005) | Goncalves da Silva (2007) | Haugaasen & Peres (2005) | Henry et al. (2000) | Herrera et al. (1999) | Hershkovitz (1954) | Hunsaker & Hahn (1965) | Janson & Emmons (1990) | Maffei et al. (2002) | Mallinson (1969, 1974) | Mangini (2001) | Mangini & Medici (2001) | Mangini et al. (2000) | Medici (1999, 2001, 2002, 2010) | Medici et al. (2007) | Mendes-Pontes (2004) | Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002) | Montenegro(1998, 1999, 2004) | Montenegroet al. (2000) | Naveda et al. (2008) | Noss et al. (2003) | Novaro etal. (2000) | Olmos (1997) | Olmos et al. (1999) | Padilla & Dowler (1994) | Pena et al. (1996) | Peres (2000) | Robinson & Redford (1986, 1991) | Rodrigues et al. (1993) | Salas (1996) | Salas & Fuller (1996) | Schaller (1983) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Soto (2002) | Souza-Mazurek et al. (2000) | Taber et al. (2008) | Tobler (2008) | Tobler et al. (2009) | Téfoli (2006) | Trolle (2003) | Trolle et al. (2007) | Velastin et al. (2004) | Vickers (1991) | Vié et al. (2009) | Young (1961)",,"1.Lowland TapirTapirus terrestrisFrench:Tapir du Brésil/ German:Flachlandtapir/ Spanish:TapiramazonicoOther common names:Brazilian Tapir, South American TapirTaxonomy.Hippopotamus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Brasillia” i.e. Pernambuco, Brazil.Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.terrestrisLinnaeus,1758—VenezuelathroughtheGuianastoCBrazilandNEArgentina(N&CMisiones).T.t.aenigmaticusGray,1872—SEColombia,EEcuador,andNEPeru.T.t.colombianusHershkovitz,1954—tropicalzonesofNColombiaintheareasofMagdalena,Bolivar,Atlantico,Cordoba,andNWAntioquia,asfarastheAtrataRiver,andasfarNastheRancheriaRiverinLaGuajira.T. t. spegazzinii Ameghino, 1909— SE Braz1l (Mato Grosso State), E Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentinato NE Santa Fe, NE Santiago del Estero, SE Jujuy, and E Salta.Descriptive notes.Head-body 191-242 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 83-118 cm (males), 83-113 cm (females); weight 180-300 kg. Female Lowland Tapirs are usually larger than males. Data collected from 35 Lowland Tapirs captured during a long-term telemetry study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed that the average weight of adult tapirs was 233 kgfor females (200-300 kg) and 208 kgfor males (180-280 kg). Measurements oftapirs in Morro do Diabo demonstrated that adult females are significantly longer andtaller than males. Full length offemales 208-242 cm, full length of males 191-223 cm; rear height of females 90-120 cm, rear height of males 89-109 cm. In captivity, newborn Lowland Tapirs usually weigh 3-2— 5-8 kg. Calves gain an average of2-27 kg per week and are completely weaned at four months of age. Growth is usually completed by 18 months of age. The color of adult Lowland Tapirs is blackish-brown dorsally with the ears edged in white; the chest, venter and limbs are dark brown; the cheeks are grizzled brown and gray. Young of all four tapir species are born dark with yellowish or white stripes and spots, a pattern that is lost after the first six months, although some vestiges of spotting may remain in young adults. The skin of Lowland Tapirs is thickest at the nape, and often covered by scars, scratches, and bruises; beneath the epidermis is a fibrous tissue layer. There is a well-developed sagittal crest that runs from the base of the muzzle to the middle of the back, which is derived from fat and soft tissues and covered by very long black hair. The short, erect mane is prominent, and is thought to help the tapirs escape predators, which seize the dorsum of the neck. This crest is not present in the other three tapir species.Habitat.The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.Food and Feeding.Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.Breeding.There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males. A Lowland Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2007 modelled the dynamics of the species’ populations in the wild. Given that natural situations impose a toll on the animals, age offirst reproduction in the wild was estimated to be four years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Lowland Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. The sex ratio at birth in captivity is 3:1. The sex ratio observed in Morro do Diabo, Brazil, was 1:1-33. Monitored subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in the central Amazon of Brazilrecorded a sex ratio of kills of 1:1:03. Therefore, the sex ratio at birth in the wild is generally assumed to be 50% males and 50% females. Data on Lowland Tapir longevity comes from captivity and reveals that these animals live over 35 years.Activity patterns.Tapirs are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular. Lowland Tapir rest during the day and begin their activity after sunset, at around 18:00 h. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park in Brazil, their main periods of activity are from 19:00 h to 00:00 h, with a peak between 20:00 h and 21:00 h (63% active); and from 01:00 h to 07:00 h, with a peak between 05:00 h and 06:00 h (60% active). Tapirs in Morro do Diabo are largely inactive between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. Overall, tapirs in Morro do Diabo foraged for approximately five hours in the early evening, and then seemed to rest for a few hours in the middle of the night. There followed a second foraging bout, of approximately six hours in the early hours of the day. Tapir activity patterns were analyzed separately for wet and dry season, as well for both sexes and different age classes in Morro do Diabo, and were fairly consistent. In Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs are mostly active between 18:00 h and 22:00 h, and between 00:00 h and 06:00 h, with a main activity peak between 01:00 h and 06:30 h, and very little activity between 11:00 h and 15:30 h. In the Peruvian Amazon, tapir activity peaks were observed between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and between 03:00 h and 04:00 h, with the main foraging time between 21:00 h and 03:00 h. Nocturnal line-transect sampling in Morro do Diabo State Park allowed for an analysis of the effect of moonlight intensity on tapir activity. Approximately 47% of the tapir encounters occurred during the waning crescent, 21% during the new moon, 18% during the waxing crescent, and only 14% during the full moon. It was clear that tapirs in Morro do Diabo were considerably less active during the brighter phases of the moon. Previous studies suggested that a lower level of animal activity during moonlit nights is a result of higher predation risk. In El Rey National Park, Argentina, tapirs were typically diurnal, perhaps due to lack of human disturbance.Movements, Home range and Social organization.L.owland Tapirs can move fairly easily through areas of low quality habitat (e.g. agricultural crops, pasture lands, and eucalyptus plantations) to get from one patch of forest to another. Parameters of Lowland Tapir spatial ecology reported in the literature, particularly home range size, vary widely. Tapirs are large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals that usually require considerably large home ranges. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, tapirs use very large home ranges (4-67 km?, varying from 1-12 km? to 14-19 km?®). These home ranges have very complex internal structures, including multiple core areas, which comprise a very small proportion of the home range (50% core area = 17% of the home range; 25% core area = 6% of the home range). Little seasonal variation in size and location of home ranges and core areas was observed. These patterns are consistent for both sexes and different age classes. In the Peruvian Amazon, the home ranges of Lowland Tapirs are much smaller, ranging from 1-06 km? to 3-86 km?®, with an average of 2: 61 km®. In Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs had an average home range size of 2: 48 km?*Neighboring tapirs in Morro do Diabo State Park showed very strong home range overlap between individuals (around 30%, although in some cases as high as 92%). This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. Estimates of Lowland Tapir population density range from a high of 1-6 ind/km? reported for the species in Neotropical forests in undisturbed, non-hunted, or lightly hunted sites to less than 0-3 ind/km? in other regions and habitat types. In Amazonian forests, Lowland Tapirs are usually found in densities around 0-5 ind/ km?. Exceptionally high densities (3:3-3-7 ind/km?) were observed in the Amazonian dry forests of Roraima, Brazil. In the Brazilian Pantanal, tapir densities range from 0-13 ind/km? in open grassland habitat to 0-4 ind/km? in forested habitats. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, densities range from 0-21 ind/km? to 1-35 ind/km?. This wide variation in density estimates can be explained by several factors, including differences in environments, habitat types studied,levels of habitat conservation, levels of hunting, and, most importantly, differences in the methods used to estimate densities. Another factor is that the Lowland Tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (e.g. around saltlicks, in palm forests, and near permanent water sources). Great variation in density can also reflect the ability of tapirs to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water). Tapirs are primarily solitary. Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for approximately twelve months. In Morro do Diabo, from a total of 81 tapir sightings obtained through nocturnal line-transect sampling, 77-78% were of one individual and 12-35% of pairs (adult female/adult male, adult female/offspring). On one occasion, three individuals were sighted. In terms of intraspecific interactions and social organization, tapirs in Morro do Diabo showed a strong home range overlap (30%) as well as overlap of core areas of use (20%) between neighboring individuals. This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. The great majority of the individuals shared varying portions of their home ranges with several other individual tapirs. Thus, while tapirs in Morro do Diabo had well-defined home ranges and lived within their boundaries, no evidence was found that they defended their areas against conspecifics. In the Peruvian Amazon, Lowland Tapirs monitored through GPS telemetry regularly walked along the boundaries of their home ranges, which appeared to provide some evidence that they were defining their territory against other individuals by maintaining clear home range boundaries.On following pages 2 Central Amencan Tapır (Taprms ba/rdnl. 3 Mountam Taper (Tapnus pmchaque). 4 Malayan Taplr (Taprrus mdrcuslStatus and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although the species has been listed as Vulnerable across its entire range, several populations in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuelapresent considerably higher levels of threat. A few examples include tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil, as well as Colombian and Venezuelan populations in Catatumbo, Maracaibo, and Lake Valencia watershed. The Lowland Tapir has the broadest geographic distribution of the four living species of tapirs and the species occurs in 21 different biomes in eleven countries. Historically, this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina, throughout the Chaco, Pantanal, Cerrado, Llanos, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Amazonian/Orinoco biomes. The historic distribution of the species covered approximately 13,129,874 km*. Nevertheless, populations have been severely reduced and are currently often limited to forested biomes and wetlands. The species is believed to have gone extinct in approximately 14% ofits range and the current distribution declined to 11,232,018 km*. The species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agricultural frontiers that are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. In Brazil, which constitutes a large portion of its range, the Lowland Tapir has disappeared from over one million km? (12-4% of its countrywide range). Although only about 15-20% of the Amazon has been deforested in the past 30 years, 85-90% of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared and 40% of the Pantanal has been converted to human use. Most of the Cerrado and Caatinga biomes in Brazilhave been converted to agriculture and cattle ranching. As a consequence, the Lowland Tapir has been extirpated from the Caatinga; most populations in the Cerrado are small and in protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Some exceptions include remote areas of Cerrado (e.g. Chapada das Mangabeiras, Jalapao region in Tocantins State) where tapirs are still common. The Lowland Tapir is now either completely absent or severely fragmented across much of its historic range, with the Northern and Central Amazon as well as the remaining Pantanal (Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) becoming important strongholds as southern, eastern, and north-western populations are declining rapidly. The IUCN Red Lust published in 1996 listed Lowland Tapirs as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Therefore, the species has deteriorated in Red List status over a period of twelve years. There is an ongoing reduction of Lowland Tapir populations estimated to be slightly greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). This rate of decline is predicted to continue for the next three generations. The main identified threats responsible for the decline include habitat deforestation and/or alteration; habitat fragmentation (resulting in small populations and low connectivity); hunting; cattle ranching; infectious diseases; road-kill; fire; human density; plantations of monocultures (sugar cane, soy bean); lack of patrolling of protected areas; small size of protected areas; resource extraction; and impact of tourism. Hunting is one of the most important threats. Tapirs are among the preferred game species for subsistence and commercial hunters throughout the Amazon. Estimates of tapir harvest in the State of Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon range from 15,447 to 17,886 individuals per year. Due to their individualistic lifestyle, low reproductive rate, long generation time, and low population density Lowland Tapirs rarely achieve high local abundance, which makes them highly susceptible to overhunting, and populations show rapid decline when harvested. There are a number of infectious diseases (Bluetongue, Equine Encephalitis, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, and Leptospirosis) and parasites known in Lowland Tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Pantanal biomes in Brazil. These diseases spread to tapirs from domestic livestock, particularly cattle and horses, and can potentially increase tapir mortality and affect reproductive rates. Another serious threat to this species is road-kill. Morro do Diabo State Park in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is crossed by a highway that, from 1996 to 2006, killed an average of six tapirs per year. Most of the tapirs killed were adult individuals capable of breeding. Road-kill is also a serious threat in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes of Brazil. Estimates of the total population size for the species throughoutits entire range are not available. This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. However a large proportion of the total Lowland Tapir population is found outside the boundaries of legally protected areas, where tapirs are hunted, chased by dogs, and face many other threats. Although the species is protected legally in most countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and have proven ineffective.Bibliography.Affonso (1998), Aquino et al. (2001), Aquino & Calle (2003), Ayala (2002, 2003), Barongi (1986, 1993), Bodmer (1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1995), Bodmer & Lozano (2001), Bodmer et al. (1997), Brooks et al. (1997), Chiarello (1999), CITES (2005), Cordeiro (2004), Cullen et al. (2000), Desbiez (2009), Eisenberg (1989, 1997), Emmons (1990), Emmons & Feer (1997), Flesher (2007), Fradrich & Thenius (1972), Fragoso (1997), Fragoso & Huffman (2000), Fragoso et al. (2000), Galetti et al. (2001), Gomez et al. (2005), Goncalves da Silva (2007), Haugaasen & Peres (2005), Henry et al. (2000), Herrera et al. (1999), Hershkovitz (1954), Hunsaker & Hahn (1965), Janson & Emmons (1990), Maffei et al. (2002), Mallinson (1969, 1974), Mangini (2001), Mangini & Medici (2001), Mangini et al. (2000), Medici (1999, 2001, 2002, 2010), Medici et al. (2007), Mendes-Pontes (2004), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002), Montenegro(1998, 1999, 2004), Montenegroet al. (2000), Naveda et al. (2008), Noss et al. (2003), Novaro etal. (2000), Olmos (1997), Olmos et al. (1999), Padilla & Dowler (1994), Pena et al. (1996), Peres (2000), Robinson & Redford (1986, 1991), Rodrigues et al. (1993), Salas (1996), Salas & Fuller (1996), Schaller (1983), Schipper et al. (2008), Soto (2002), Souza-Mazurek et al. (2000), Taber et al. (2008), Tobler (2008), Tobler et al. (2009), Téfoli (2006), Trolle (2003), Trolle et al. (2007), Velastin et al. (2004), Vickers (1991), Vié et al. (2009), Young (1961)." +039C9423FFFE08713168D49E5251F8A8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,216,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFE08713168D49E5251F8A8.xml,Loris lydekkerianus,Loris,lydekkerianus,Cabrera,1908,Loris de Lydekker @fr | Grauer Schlanklori @de | Loris esbelto gris @es | Dry Zone @en | Northern @en | Northern Ceylon Slender Loris (nordicus) @en | Highland Slender Loris (grandis) @en | Malabar Slender Loris (malabaricus) @en | Mysore Slender Loris (lydekkerianus) @en,"in 2001 considered L. [. grandis and L. I. nordicus synonymous, but this is difficult to resolve. They are similar cranially, but their pelage and especially the muzzle and face are remarkably distinct. They are recognized as distinct subspecies here. K. Kar Gupta in 2007 reportedly studied iL. malabaricus, but the individuals from Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India, have the appearance of L. L lydekkerianus. Four subspecies are recognized here, but there is much overlap in their physical characteristics. Ongoing confusion over their taxonomy requires future research.","L.l.lydekkerianusCabrera,1908—S&EIndia(AndhraPradesh,Karnataka&TamilNadustates),foundinthedryforestsoftheEasternGhats.L.l.grandisHill&Phillips,1932—CSriLanka(CentralProvince);onlyknownfromtheEastMataleHillsbutprobablyoccursthroughoutthelowerfoothillsatanaverageelevationof900m.L.l.malabaricusWroughton,1917—SWIndia(Karnataka,Kerala&TamilNadustates),foundinthewetforestsoftheWesternGhatstoelevationsof1200m.L. l. nordicus Hill, 1933— NC & E Sri Lanka throughout the lowland Dry Zone;it is uncertain if its distribution extends to SE Sri Lanka.","Head—body 21-26 cm,tail vestigial; weight varies among the subspecies. The Gray Slender Loris is similar to the Red Slender Loris (L. tardigradus) but larger, with a less pointed muzzle and more regional variation. Pelage is fairly short, and a dorsal stripe is sometimes present. Two subspecies are recognized in India. The “Mysore Slender Loris” (L. Ll. lydekkerianus) is a large subspecies, with head—body lengths of 20.3-22 cm and adult weight of ¢.294 g (males) and ¢.259 g (females). It is grayish-buff above, often with white frosting, and whitish-buff below with or without white frosting. Eye patches are gray to brown, pre-auricular hairs are white, and ears are yellowish brown. W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1953 reported specimens with black ears, but these have never been seen in the wild or found in subsequent museum specimens. Variation occurs across its very large range, especially in body size, and more Indian subspecies or even species are suspected. The “Malabar Slender Loris” (L. I. malabaricus), despite being in the Gray Slender Loris species, bears a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris, perhaps because it shares similar forest habitat. Pelage is red-brown with or without white frosting on the dorsum and head, and the dorsal stripe is usually absent or indistinct. Head-body length is 18:3-19.8 cm, and adult weight is 180 g. Two subspecies of the Gray Slender Loris are found in Sri Lanka. The “Northern Ceylon Slender Loris” (L. [. nordicus) has a dense woolly pelage and is gray, gray-brown, or buff-brown dorsally and white or light buff ventrally. The throat and median line of the belly are usually creamy buff throughout with no gray hair bases, although medium to pale gray hair bases may intergrade with hairs on the outer part of the creamy underside. The head and dorsum can either have frosting or not, and there is usually a dark dorsal stripe that meets a dark crown. Circumocular patches are dark gray, gray, or gray-brown, and preauricular hairs are either white or light gray extending to white cheeks, making the facial mask more outstanding than in the Red Slender Loris. Ears are large compared with the eyes and are yellow or yellow with dusky ear rims. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris has a head-body length of 21.5-23.8 cm (males 22-7 cm, females 21-7 cm). Male weight (228-285 g) is slightly higher than that of females (238-287 g). The “Highland Slender Loris” (L. I. grandis) was described by Hill and W. Phillips in 1932. The plates of the living animals in the original description bear a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris but no resemblance to living Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises—therefore the separate taxon recognized here. The type was found in Gammaduwa at 675 m above sea level. This medium-size slender loris has a head-body length of 20.9-25.6 cm, and a weight of ¢.220 g. Pelage of grandis makes it distinct from other subspecies. It is dark gray or gray-brown dorsally and sometimes a rusty-brown on the lumbar region. It is ventrally white or light buff on distal ends of the hairs, with the basal one-half being black, unlike the subspecies nor dicus where ventral hairs have pale hair bases fading to pure white at the midline. The throat of grandis is pure white, and it has an indistinct dark dorsal stripe that usually is frosted. Circumocular patches are black, brown, or red-brown. The white interocular stripe bifurcates above circumocular patches. Cheeks and preauricular hairs are mainly white, similar to nordicus. The coat of grandis is thicker than that of tardigradus; it is sometimes so thick as to resemble a subspecies of the Red Slender Loris (the “Horton Plains Slender Loris,” L. t. nycticeboides). The heart-shaped face of grandis has a very long muzzle, which also distinguishes it from other subspecies. As in all the Sri Lankan lorises, infants of grandis are reddish and assume the adult coloration at 8-9 months of age. It would be difficult to tell grandis from nordicus by observing only an infant.","The Gray Slender Loris occurs in tropical primary and some secondary rainforest, dry semi-deciduous forest, shrub, evergreen, swamp, acacia, bamboo, edge, and montane cloud forest to 2000 m above sea level. It occupies the understory in dry forests and the canopy in wetter areas. It can persist in home gardens, tea plantations, and hotel grounds, where it probably lives mainly on insects. Gray Slender Lorises move at heights of 2-5 m, depending on their habitat. They move in a serpentine fashion, from ground to canopy, and also cross gaps of open ground, including roads and paddy fields.","Faunivorous, consuming mainly invertebrates (including ants and mollusks), along with bird eggs, nestlings, geckos, birds, tree frogs, small mammals, unripened fruits, young leaves, and gum. In the only detailed long-term study of the species’ diet, 96% ofall feeding events focused on animal prey, the majority of which were ants and termites. In addition to spiders, mollusks, and lizards, other key insect orders in the diet include: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Lorises are able to eat insects with high levels of secondary compounds, accompanied by pre-ingestive urine washing, or slobbering and urine washing during ingestion. Gray Slender Lorises are terminal branch specialists that catch their prey visually with one or two hands, and they use acrobatic postures in the more dangerous and swaying branches. Lorises infrequently feed on gums and legume pods, but they can make holes in bark through active gouging. Observations of the Sri Lankan forms are in accordance with those of longer-term studies in India. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris was observed to eat only insect or animal prey, including lizards and snails. They nearly always detect their prey with their eyes and engage in acrobatic suspensory postures to catch their prey items. They grasp the prey with one or two hands, and prey items are rarely caught and eaten directly with the mouth. Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises do not appear to eat gum or drink water, and the only non-insect item they appear to eat is nectar from a flowering Cassiaroxburghii (Fabaceae). In captivity, the Highland Slender Loris feeds on tree frogs, geckos, and large insects.","Copulation patterns are similar among the two species of Loris. Mating can occur after play wrestling, but it most often commences after many males have pursued a female. Usually, males move into an area a few days before a female enters full estrus and start to follow her and try to groom her. These interactions can result in violent fights between males. During the pursuit, the males utter “krik” calls at irregular intervals and try to inspect the female’s genitals. The female may give defensive threats, but when she is ready to be mounted, she signals with a suspensory posture. Copulations take place with the male clinging to the female, who is suspended quadrupedally. A female supports herself by all four limbs orjust her hindlimbs. A single copulation may last 2-16 minutes and is ended with the female giving low-intensity threat gestures toward the male. Sometimes the male produces a liquid that forms a vaginal plug. Both sexeslick their genitals after copulation. Gray Slender Lorises give birth to singletons or twins after a gestation of 157-162 days. Births occur throughout the year. A female gives birth in a sitting or a hanging posture. Newborns have partially opened eyes. After birth, the mother may defend the infants against conspecifics if they become overly curious, but often she will allow an adult male from her social group to groom her and her offspring. The newborn clings to the mother’s belly for the first few weeks oflife. Weaning occurs after 148 days. The infantis carried less when it is 2-3 months old, and it may be parked while the mother goes off to feed.","The Gray Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal, and it moves quadrupedally in trees. Although it can move slowly when threatened,it is generally silent and swift. It prefers to move on the top of branches. Gaps between branches are crossed by using horizontal bridging, whereby hindlimbs hold on to a substrate while forelimbs grab for the desired branch. Three limbs are usually holding a support branch when moving in a quadrupedal fashion. The Gray Slender Loris is capable of rapidly scaling a large tree trunk or scampering along other large substrates, although it prefers small supports that it can clasp firmly in its hands. It crosses roads and agricultural fields when necessary.","Social organization of the Gray Slender Loris has been described as dispersed multimale—multifemale, but with unimale—unifemale subunits. Home-range sizes of the Mysore Slender Loris are c.3-6 ha for adult males and 1-6 ha for adult females. Home-range sizes of the Malabar Slender Loris are 1-2-14 ha for adult males and 3-15-3 ha for adult females; roving males can have home ranges as large as 117 ha. Home ranges of adult males overlap one or more females, but home ranges of adult females are exclusive, except for their offspring. Social interactions are common; the Mysore Slender Loris, in particular, is among the most social of the lorises, with up to 38% ofits activity spent in association with other individuals. The Gray Slender Loris, in general, forages at night, alone or in groups of two or three, sometimes larger. An individual usually sleeps with one to four conspecifics and chooses one of three or four sleeping sites night after night. Sleeping site fidelity for resident individuals seems to be high, whereas roving males or dispersing individuals often change their sleeping sites and sleep alone. Sleeping sites are vine tangles, forks, or dense thickets. Grooming is common, and males frequently groom infants when they are parked or on the mother’s belly. Peaceful food sharing occurs among members of a group, although it is not active. The Gray Slender Loris engages in social play; adult males and juveniles play-wrestle most often, but older individuals may also participate. A typical wrestling bout includes two individuals facing each other and gripping the head from the back and pulling the head back. They try to gently bite the other’s hands and feet. A whistle is the most common call of the Gray Slender Loris, uttered throughout the night; it may be used as a countercall, a spacing mechanism, or a territorial call. This call is heard in situations of aggressive excitement and is emitted by adults of both sexes. The “chitter” call is heard in defensive situations between conspecifics and is emitted by males and females. The krik call may be uttered in situations where an infant will threaten its mother in response to other group members’ quarrel. The Gray Slender Loris screams when attacked by a predator; and one individual was also heard screaming when electrocuted crossing an open power line.On following pages: 7. Red Slender Loris(Loris tardigradus); 8. Bengal Slow Loris(Nycticebus bengalensis); 9. Sunda Slow Loris(Nycticebus coucang); 10. Javan Slow Loris(Nycticebus javanicus); 11. Bornean Slow Loris(Nycticebus menagensis); 12. Pygmy Slow Loris(Nycticebus pygmaeus).","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies grandis and nordicus are classified as Endangered, and the nominate subspecies and malabaricus are classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The principal threat is loss of habitat. Loris eyes are valued in traditional Asian medicine because of the local belief that they contain certain properties that are effective against ocular complaints. In India, the eye of the loris is also widely used as a love charm in a preparation that is claimed to be helpful in seducing and kidnapping a woman. The Mysore Slender Loris is reported from three protected areas: Sri Venkateswara National Park and Biligiri Rangswamy Temple and Nelapattu wildlife sanctuaries in India. The Malabar Slender Loris is reported in Periyar National Park and a number of wildlife sanctuaries in India, including Aralam, Brahmagiri, Griz zled Giant Squirrel, Idukki, Indira Gandhi, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai, Parambikulam, Peechi-Vazhani, Shendurney, Someswara, Thattakkad, and Wynad. In Sri Lanka, the Northern Ceylon Slender Loris is reported from reserves and sanctuaries of Ampara, Girithale, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, Ritigala, Sigiriya, and Thangamale; national parks of Angammedilla, Flood Plains, Kaudulla, Maduru Oya, Minneriya, Somawathiya, Wasgamuwa, Wilpattu, and Yala; and forest reserves of Kanthale and Menikdena. The Highland Slender Loris is reported from only three protected areas: Knuckles Mountain Range, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe, and Udawatta Kele.","Christie (1992) | Devaraj Sarkar et al. (1981) | Fitch-Snyder & Schulze (2001) | Goonan (1993) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1933, 1953d) | Ilse (1955) | Izard & Rassmussen (1985) | Kadam & Swayamprabha (1977, 1980) | Kar Gupta (2007) | Kumara et al. (2006) | Meier (1989) | Nanda Kumar et al. (2004) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris (1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004) | Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003) | Nekaris & Schulze (2004) | Nekaris et al. (2006) | Rao (1994) | Rhadakrishna (2001) | Rhadakrishna & Singh (2002, 2004a, 2004b) | Schulze & Meier (1995a) | Singh, Kumar et al. (2000) | Singh, Lindburg et al. (1999) | Swayamprabha & Kadam (1980)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632665/files/figure.png,"6.Gray Slender LorisLoris lydekkerianusFrench:Loris de Lydekker/ German:Grauer Schlanklori/ Spanish:Loris esbelto grisOther common names:Dry Zone/Northern/Northern Ceylon Slender Loris (nordicus), Highland Slender Loris (grandis), Malabar Slender Loris (malabaricus), Mysore Slender Loris (lydekkerianus)Taxonomy.Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908, India, Madras.C. P. Groves in his book Primate Taxonomy in 2001 considered L. [. grandis and L. I. nordicus synonymous, but this is difficult to resolve. They are similar cranially, but their pelage and especially the muzzle and face are remarkably distinct. They are recognized as distinct subspecies here. K. Kar Gupta in 2007 reportedly studied iL. malabaricus, but the individuals from Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India, have the appearance of L. L lydekkerianus. Four subspecies are recognized here, but there is much overlap in their physical characteristics. Ongoing confusion over their taxonomy requires future research.Subspecies and Distribution.L.l.lydekkerianusCabrera,1908—S&EIndia(AndhraPradesh,Karnataka&TamilNadustates),foundinthedryforestsoftheEasternGhats.L.l.grandisHill&Phillips,1932—CSriLanka(CentralProvince);onlyknownfromtheEastMataleHillsbutprobablyoccursthroughoutthelowerfoothillsatanaverageelevationof900m.L.l.malabaricusWroughton,1917—SWIndia(Karnataka,Kerala&TamilNadustates),foundinthewetforestsoftheWesternGhatstoelevationsof1200m.L. l. nordicus Hill, 1933— NC & E Sri Lanka throughout the lowland Dry Zone;it is uncertain if its distribution extends to SE Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 21-26 cm,tail vestigial; weight varies among the subspecies. The Gray Slender Loris is similar to the Red Slender Loris (L. tardigradus) but larger, with a less pointed muzzle and more regional variation. Pelage is fairly short, and a dorsal stripe is sometimes present. Two subspecies are recognized in India. The “Mysore Slender Loris” (L. Ll. lydekkerianus) is a large subspecies, with head—body lengths of 20.3-22 cm and adult weight of ¢.294 g (males) and ¢.259 g (females). It is grayish-buff above, often with white frosting, and whitish-buff below with or without white frosting. Eye patches are gray to brown, pre-auricular hairs are white, and ears are yellowish brown. W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1953 reported specimens with black ears, but these have never been seen in the wild or found in subsequent museum specimens. Variation occurs across its very large range, especially in body size, and more Indian subspecies or even species are suspected. The “Malabar Slender Loris” (L. I. malabaricus), despite being in the Gray Slender Loris species, bears a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris, perhaps because it shares similar forest habitat. Pelage is red-brown with or without white frosting on the dorsum and head, and the dorsal stripe is usually absent or indistinct. Head-body length is 18:3-19.8 cm, and adult weight is 180 g. Two subspecies of the Gray Slender Loris are found in Sri Lanka. The “Northern Ceylon Slender Loris” (L. [. nordicus) has a dense woolly pelage and is gray, gray-brown, or buff-brown dorsally and white or light buff ventrally. The throat and median line of the belly are usually creamy buff throughout with no gray hair bases, although medium to pale gray hair bases may intergrade with hairs on the outer part of the creamy underside. The head and dorsum can either have frosting or not, and there is usually a dark dorsal stripe that meets a dark crown. Circumocular patches are dark gray, gray, or gray-brown, and preauricular hairs are either white or light gray extending to white cheeks, making the facial mask more outstanding than in the Red Slender Loris. Ears are large compared with the eyes and are yellow or yellow with dusky ear rims. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris has a head-body length of 21.5-23.8 cm (males 22-7 cm, females 21-7 cm). Male weight (228-285 g) is slightly higher than that of females (238-287 g). The “Highland Slender Loris” (L. I. grandis) was described by Hill and W. Phillips in 1932. The plates of the living animals in the original description bear a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris but no resemblance to living Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises—therefore the separate taxon recognized here. The type was found in Gammaduwa at 675 m above sea level. This medium-size slender loris has a head-body length of 20.9-25.6 cm, and a weight of ¢.220 g. Pelage of grandis makes it distinct from other subspecies. It is dark gray or gray-brown dorsally and sometimes a rusty-brown on the lumbar region. It is ventrally white or light buff on distal ends of the hairs, with the basal one-half being black, unlike the subspecies nor dicus where ventral hairs have pale hair bases fading to pure white at the midline. The throat of grandis is pure white, and it has an indistinct dark dorsal stripe that usually is frosted. Circumocular patches are black, brown, or red-brown. The white interocular stripe bifurcates above circumocular patches. Cheeks and preauricular hairs are mainly white, similar to nordicus. The coat of grandis is thicker than that of tardigradus; it is sometimes so thick as to resemble a subspecies of the Red Slender Loris (the “Horton Plains Slender Loris,” L. t. nycticeboides). The heart-shaped face of grandis has a very long muzzle, which also distinguishes it from other subspecies. As in all the Sri Lankan lorises, infants of grandis are reddish and assume the adult coloration at 8-9 months of age. It would be difficult to tell grandis from nordicus by observing only an infant.Habitat.The Gray Slender Loris occurs in tropical primary and some secondary rainforest, dry semi-deciduous forest, shrub, evergreen, swamp, acacia, bamboo, edge, and montane cloud forest to 2000 m above sea level. It occupies the understory in dry forests and the canopy in wetter areas. It can persist in home gardens, tea plantations, and hotel grounds, where it probably lives mainly on insects. Gray Slender Lorises move at heights of 2-5 m, depending on their habitat. They move in a serpentine fashion, from ground to canopy, and also cross gaps of open ground, including roads and paddy fields.Food and Feeding.Faunivorous, consuming mainly invertebrates (including ants and mollusks), along with bird eggs, nestlings, geckos, birds, tree frogs, small mammals, unripened fruits, young leaves, and gum. In the only detailed long-term study of the species’ diet, 96% ofall feeding events focused on animal prey, the majority of which were ants and termites. In addition to spiders, mollusks, and lizards, other key insect orders in the diet include: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Lorises are able to eat insects with high levels of secondary compounds, accompanied by pre-ingestive urine washing, or slobbering and urine washing during ingestion. Gray Slender Lorises are terminal branch specialists that catch their prey visually with one or two hands, and they use acrobatic postures in the more dangerous and swaying branches. Lorises infrequently feed on gums and legume pods, but they can make holes in bark through active gouging. Observations of the Sri Lankan forms are in accordance with those of longer-term studies in India. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris was observed to eat only insect or animal prey, including lizards and snails. They nearly always detect their prey with their eyes and engage in acrobatic suspensory postures to catch their prey items. They grasp the prey with one or two hands, and prey items are rarely caught and eaten directly with the mouth. Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises do not appear to eat gum or drink water, and the only non-insect item they appear to eat is nectar from a flowering Cassiaroxburghii (Fabaceae). In captivity, the Highland Slender Loris feeds on tree frogs, geckos, and large insects.Breeding.Copulation patterns are similar among the two species of Loris. Mating can occur after play wrestling, but it most often commences after many males have pursued a female. Usually, males move into an area a few days before a female enters full estrus and start to follow her and try to groom her. These interactions can result in violent fights between males. During the pursuit, the males utter “krik” calls at irregular intervals and try to inspect the female’s genitals. The female may give defensive threats, but when she is ready to be mounted, she signals with a suspensory posture. Copulations take place with the male clinging to the female, who is suspended quadrupedally. A female supports herself by all four limbs orjust her hindlimbs. A single copulation may last 2-16 minutes and is ended with the female giving low-intensity threat gestures toward the male. Sometimes the male produces a liquid that forms a vaginal plug. Both sexeslick their genitals after copulation. Gray Slender Lorises give birth to singletons or twins after a gestation of 157-162 days. Births occur throughout the year. A female gives birth in a sitting or a hanging posture. Newborns have partially opened eyes. After birth, the mother may defend the infants against conspecifics if they become overly curious, but often she will allow an adult male from her social group to groom her and her offspring. The newborn clings to the mother’s belly for the first few weeks oflife. Weaning occurs after 148 days. The infantis carried less when it is 2-3 months old, and it may be parked while the mother goes off to feed.Activity patterns.The Gray Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal, and it moves quadrupedally in trees. Although it can move slowly when threatened,it is generally silent and swift. It prefers to move on the top of branches. Gaps between branches are crossed by using horizontal bridging, whereby hindlimbs hold on to a substrate while forelimbs grab for the desired branch. Three limbs are usually holding a support branch when moving in a quadrupedal fashion. The Gray Slender Loris is capable of rapidly scaling a large tree trunk or scampering along other large substrates, although it prefers small supports that it can clasp firmly in its hands. It crosses roads and agricultural fields when necessary.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social organization of the Gray Slender Loris has been described as dispersed multimale—multifemale, but with unimale—unifemale subunits. Home-range sizes of the Mysore Slender Loris are c.3-6 ha for adult males and 1-6 ha for adult females. Home-range sizes of the Malabar Slender Loris are 1-2-14 ha for adult males and 3-15-3 ha for adult females; roving males can have home ranges as large as 117 ha. Home ranges of adult males overlap one or more females, but home ranges of adult females are exclusive, except for their offspring. Social interactions are common; the Mysore Slender Loris, in particular, is among the most social of the lorises, with up to 38% ofits activity spent in association with other individuals. The Gray Slender Loris, in general, forages at night, alone or in groups of two or three, sometimes larger. An individual usually sleeps with one to four conspecifics and chooses one of three or four sleeping sites night after night. Sleeping site fidelity for resident individuals seems to be high, whereas roving males or dispersing individuals often change their sleeping sites and sleep alone. Sleeping sites are vine tangles, forks, or dense thickets. Grooming is common, and males frequently groom infants when they are parked or on the mother’s belly. Peaceful food sharing occurs among members of a group, although it is not active. The Gray Slender Loris engages in social play; adult males and juveniles play-wrestle most often, but older individuals may also participate. A typical wrestling bout includes two individuals facing each other and gripping the head from the back and pulling the head back. They try to gently bite the other’s hands and feet. A whistle is the most common call of the Gray Slender Loris, uttered throughout the night; it may be used as a countercall, a spacing mechanism, or a territorial call. This call is heard in situations of aggressive excitement and is emitted by adults of both sexes. The “chitter” call is heard in defensive situations between conspecifics and is emitted by males and females. The krik call may be uttered in situations where an infant will threaten its mother in response to other group members’ quarrel. The Gray Slender Loris screams when attacked by a predator; and one individual was also heard screaming when electrocuted crossing an open power line.On following pages: 7. Red Slender Loris(Loris tardigradus); 8. Bengal Slow Loris(Nycticebus bengalensis); 9. Sunda Slow Loris(Nycticebus coucang); 10. Javan Slow Loris(Nycticebus javanicus); 11. Bornean Slow Loris(Nycticebus menagensis); 12. Pygmy Slow Loris(Nycticebus pygmaeus).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies grandis and nordicus are classified as Endangered, and the nominate subspecies and malabaricus are classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The principal threat is loss of habitat. Loris eyes are valued in traditional Asian medicine because of the local belief that they contain certain properties that are effective against ocular complaints. In India, the eye of the loris is also widely used as a love charm in a preparation that is claimed to be helpful in seducing and kidnapping a woman. The Mysore Slender Loris is reported from three protected areas: Sri Venkateswara National Park and Biligiri Rangswamy Temple and Nelapattu wildlife sanctuaries in India. The Malabar Slender Loris is reported in Periyar National Park and a number of wildlife sanctuaries in India, including Aralam, Brahmagiri, Griz zled Giant Squirrel, Idukki, Indira Gandhi, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai, Parambikulam, Peechi-Vazhani, Shendurney, Someswara, Thattakkad, and Wynad. In Sri Lanka, the Northern Ceylon Slender Loris is reported from reserves and sanctuaries of Ampara, Girithale, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, Ritigala, Sigiriya, and Thangamale; national parks of Angammedilla, Flood Plains, Kaudulla, Maduru Oya, Minneriya, Somawathiya, Wasgamuwa, Wilpattu, and Yala; and forest reserves of Kanthale and Menikdena. The Highland Slender Loris is reported from only three protected areas: Knuckles Mountain Range, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe, and Udawatta Kele.Bibliography.Christie (1992), Devaraj Sarkar et al. (1981), Fitch-Snyder & Schulze (2001), Goonan (1993), Groves (2001), Hill (1933, 1953d), Ilse (1955), Izard & Rassmussen (1985), Kadam & Swayamprabha (1977, 1980), Kar Gupta (2007), Kumara et al. (2006), Meier (1989), Nanda Kumar et al. (2004), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Schulze (2004), Nekaris et al. (2006), Rao (1994), Rhadakrishna (2001), Rhadakrishna & Singh (2002, 2004a, 2004b), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Singh, Kumar et al. (2000), Singh, Lindburg et al. (1999), Swayamprabha & Kadam (1980)." +039C9423FFFF087E3189D2385239FDC8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-89-7,hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd,217,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFF087E3189D2385239FDC8.xml,Loris tardigradus,Loris,tardigradus,,,Loris gréle @fr | Roter Schlanklori @de | Loris esbelto rojo @es | Horton Plains Slender Loris (nycticeboides) @en,"Lemur tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758, Ceylon (= Sri Lanka).The precise type locality is unknown, but it was probably in the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. The subspecies nycticeboides was described by W. C. O. Hill in 1942 from the Horton Plains at an elevation of 1830 m in Sri Lanka’s Central Province, although there remains some dispute as to which species this taxon belongs. There is preliminary evidence for two additional subspecies in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are recognized here.","L.t.tardigradusLinnaeus,1758—SWSriLanka(Western&Southernprovinces),fromtheoutskirtsofColombointheNtoRannaintheS,atlowerelevationsupto¢.470mabovesealevel.L. t. nycticeboides Hill, 1942— Sri Lanka (Central Province highlands), at elevations of 1650-2000 m above sea level.","Head—body 18-21 cm, tail vestigial; weight 85-220 g. The nominate subspecies tardigradusis the smallest of the slender loris taxa (head-body length less than 20-5 cm; weight 122-170 g). Dorsally, its pelage is red-brown with or without a dorsal stripe. The ventral hair is yellowish white with dark gray hair bases. Its preauricular hair has dark bases intergrading to its ear from its dark brown-chestnut circumocular patches, which are rounded in shape. The white interocular stripe is very narrow or absent. Its hands and feet are pink or yellowish-pink in adults. It has very large eyes and relatively small ears that are generally a woody russet color. The muzzle is long and pointed. Fur on forearms, hands, and feetis short. The toilet claw of the second digit of the foot is well developed. The “Horton Plains Slender Loris” (L. t. nycticeboudes) 1s the most distinct of the Sri Lankan lorises. Its limbs are shorter relative to the trunk than in tardigradus, with their hindlimbs especially shortened. The skull (length 5-2 cm) is also considerably larger in all details than in the subspecies tardigradus. The fur of the Horton Plains Slender Lorisis very long, soft, and thick, and it makes the animal look much larger than its body measurements would suggest (head-body 20.4-21.3 cm; weight 140-220 g); it looks superficially like a slow loris (Nycticebus). Limbs, in particular, are thickly furred toward their extremities. This furriness makes this form difficultto confuse with other slender lorises.","Primary and some secondary wet lowland forest and tropical rainforest (tardigradus); cloud, montane, and highland evergreen forest (nycticeboides). The subspecies tardigradusis found in the wet lowland forests up to 470 m above sea level. Its habitat is heavily fragmented. It uses small twigs, lianas, and vines for movement, and it also forage on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Lorisis found in central Sri Lanka at elevations of 1800-2300 m in montane mist forests. It has been observed moving on the ground and crossing roads, and it is often seen low down in stunted vegetation. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts the Red Slender Loris; it is rarely found in home gardens and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches.","In 1905,|. Still suggested that lorises were completely insectivorous, even carnivorous. Wild Red Slender Lorises have only been seen eating animal prey. They eat insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers), lizards (Calotes, Agamidae), and geckos. They have not been seen eating birds, but the speed with which they can grasp prey and kill with a bite to the head suggests this is possible. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas with Humboldtialaurifolia (Fabaceae), a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants and provides abundant food for lorises. Nothing is known of the diet of the Horton Plains Slender Loris.","Dominant males may form partnershipswith smaller beta males—coalitions to pursue estrous females. Males gather when a female is in estrus, some coming from other parts of the forest, and vocal battles are common. Gestation is 165-175 days; one twin birth in captivity occurred after 174 days. Births occur throughout the year, and singletons are more common than twins. Mothersstart to park their infants when they are about two months old, remaining near and rushing back to retrieve the infant at any sign of danger. Females have a 29-40day sexual cycle, with genital swelling and reddening at estrus. Individuals may live up to 15 years. Only one birth has been witnessed for the Horton Plains Slender Loris.","The Red Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. Although lorises are thought to be slow climbers, kinematic studies revealed that the nominate subspecies tardigraduscan move at speeds of 1-3 m/second. In a secondary tree-fall area, Red Slender Lorises are small-branch specialists, most often moving on supports less than 5 cm in diameter and only occasionally selecting branch clusters or substrates larger than 5 cm in diameter. Overall, they do not have strong preferences with respect to branch orientation. Rapid quadrupedalism is used on arboreal supports of all diameters and orientations, but individuals have never been seen moving on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris moves very much like its low-country counterpart and is also capable of incredible speed. It has been observed at low heights (2 m above the ground), and it crosses open ground. It also will occur in the highest trees available, for example, in alpine scrub at heights of 4 m.","Virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the Horton Plains Slender Loris, so the description here refers to the subspecies tardigradus. Red Slender Lorises sleep in groups of up to five animals, most commonly a male, female, and their offspring. Some males change their sleeping site regularly and may sleep in the vicinity of a female. They engage in intense grooming sessions and social and solitary play at dawn and dusk. They communicate regularly using scent marking and loud calls. Individuals with overlapping home ranges interact throughout the night. Females have home ranges of 1-2-6-9 ha, whereas those of males are 1-4-3-4 ha. Males may affiliate with males and with more than one female. Females rarely affiliate with other females and may be aggressive toward males that attempt to follow or groom them. During the single long-term radio-tracking study on the Red Slender Loris, a single male’s home range overlapped a single female’s home range, but not all individuals in the area were caught, and more animals shared sleep sites. This, combined with promiscuous mating, implies that unimale—unifemale social pairs are not the rule for this species. Interestingly, lorises are very disturbed by white light and usually cease social behavior (e.g. partners will disperse) unless red or infrared light is used. The subspecies tardigradusutters “chitters,” “kriks,” and “zic” calls. A scream has not yet been recorded. They produce a soft whistle, barely audible to humans even when standing within 10 m of an individual. By far the most common call is the loud whistle, used to communicate location to friendly conspecifics, to warn non-group members, and to ward off encroaching males. Vocal battles are common and up to 60 calls per hour are not uncommon. The whistle is so common that it is a good indicator of loris presence or absence in a forest. At least six variations of the whistle have been described, with a potential twelve additional variants. The syllables within each call can be undulated, strangled, and short or long, and they occur in different combinations. Density estimates of lorises were 0-08-0-55 ind/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Red Slender Loris is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and the nominate subspecies tardigradusparticularly by gem mining. Individuals are regularly sold illegally in bazaars as pets, and they are valued in traditional medicine and killed because of superstitious folk beliefs. All populations are likely declining and at low levels, with as few as 1500 tardigradusin only c.3000 ha of highly fragmented forests and a critically low number of 80 nycticeboides in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. The subspecies tardigradusoccurs in Udawalawe National Park; the sanctuaries of Attidiya-Belanwila, Kurulukele, Peak Wilderness, Udawattekele, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe; and forest reserves of Ingiriya, Kanneliya, Kombala-Kottawa, Oliyagankele, Polgahaivalakande, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Aparekka, and Godakawela. It can also be found in Gampola-Ambuluwela Biodiversity Park, Maimbulkanda Nature Reserve, Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, and Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is known from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, and Conical Hill and Bomburella forest reserves. It may also occur in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Siripagama.","Bernede (2009) | Bernede et al. (2008) | Gamage et al. (2010) | Goonan (1993) | Goonan et al.(1995) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1942b) | Molur et al. (2003) | Montagna & Ellis (1960) | Muller et al. (1985) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris (2003a, 2003b, 2002/2003) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004) | Nekaris & Perera (2007) | Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003) | Nekaris & Stevens (2007) | Nekaris, Liyanage & Gamage (2005) | Nekaris, Pimley & Ablard (2006, 2007) | Petter & Hladik (1970) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Schmitt & Lemelin (2004) | Schulze & Meier (1995a) | Sellers (1996) | Still (1905) | Subramoniam (1957)",https://zenodo.org/record/6632667/files/figure.png,"7.Red Slender LorisLoris tardigradusFrench:Loris gréle/ German:Roter Schlanklori/ Spanish:Loris esbelto rojoOther common names:Horton Plains Slender Loris (nycticeboides)Taxonomy.Lemur tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758, Ceylon (= Sri Lanka).The precise type locality is unknown, but it was probably in the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. The subspecies nycticeboides was described by W. C. O. Hill in 1942 from the Horton Plains at an elevation of 1830 m in Sri Lanka’s Central Province, although there remains some dispute as to which species this taxon belongs. There is preliminary evidence for two additional subspecies in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tardigradusLinnaeus,1758—SWSriLanka(Western&Southernprovinces),fromtheoutskirtsofColombointheNtoRannaintheS,atlowerelevationsupto¢.470mabovesealevel.L. t. nycticeboides Hill, 1942— Sri Lanka (Central Province highlands), at elevations of 1650-2000 m above sea level.Descriptive notes.Head—body 18-21 cm, tail vestigial; weight 85-220 g. The nominate subspecies tardigradusis the smallest of the slender loris taxa (head-body length less than 20-5 cm; weight 122-170 g). Dorsally, its pelage is red-brown with or without a dorsal stripe. The ventral hair is yellowish white with dark gray hair bases. Its preauricular hair has dark bases intergrading to its ear from its dark brown-chestnut circumocular patches, which are rounded in shape. The white interocular stripe is very narrow or absent. Its hands and feet are pink or yellowish-pink in adults. It has very large eyes and relatively small ears that are generally a woody russet color. The muzzle is long and pointed. Fur on forearms, hands, and feetis short. The toilet claw of the second digit of the foot is well developed. The “Horton Plains Slender Loris” (L. t. nycticeboudes) 1s the most distinct of the Sri Lankan lorises. Its limbs are shorter relative to the trunk than in tardigradus, with their hindlimbs especially shortened. The skull (length 5-2 cm) is also considerably larger in all details than in the subspecies tardigradus. The fur of the Horton Plains Slender Lorisis very long, soft, and thick, and it makes the animal look much larger than its body measurements would suggest (head-body 20.4-21.3 cm; weight 140-220 g); it looks superficially like a slow loris (Nycticebus). Limbs, in particular, are thickly furred toward their extremities. This furriness makes this form difficultto confuse with other slender lorises.Habitat.Primary and some secondary wet lowland forest and tropical rainforest (tardigradus); cloud, montane, and highland evergreen forest (nycticeboides). The subspecies tardigradusis found in the wet lowland forests up to 470 m above sea level. Its habitat is heavily fragmented. It uses small twigs, lianas, and vines for movement, and it also forage on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Lorisis found in central Sri Lanka at elevations of 1800-2300 m in montane mist forests. It has been observed moving on the ground and crossing roads, and it is often seen low down in stunted vegetation. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts the Red Slender Loris; it is rarely found in home gardens and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches.Food and Feeding.In 1905,|. Still suggested that lorises were completely insectivorous, even carnivorous. Wild Red Slender Lorises have only been seen eating animal prey. They eat insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers), lizards (Calotes, Agamidae), and geckos. They have not been seen eating birds, but the speed with which they can grasp prey and kill with a bite to the head suggests this is possible. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas with Humboldtialaurifolia (Fabaceae), a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants and provides abundant food for lorises. Nothing is known of the diet of the Horton Plains Slender Loris.Breeding.Dominant males may form partnershipswith smaller beta males—coalitions to pursue estrous females. Males gather when a female is in estrus, some coming from other parts of the forest, and vocal battles are common. Gestation is 165-175 days; one twin birth in captivity occurred after 174 days. Births occur throughout the year, and singletons are more common than twins. Mothersstart to park their infants when they are about two months old, remaining near and rushing back to retrieve the infant at any sign of danger. Females have a 29-40day sexual cycle, with genital swelling and reddening at estrus. Individuals may live up to 15 years. Only one birth has been witnessed for the Horton Plains Slender Loris.Activity patterns.The Red Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. Although lorises are thought to be slow climbers, kinematic studies revealed that the nominate subspecies tardigraduscan move at speeds of 1-3 m/second. In a secondary tree-fall area, Red Slender Lorises are small-branch specialists, most often moving on supports less than 5 cm in diameter and only occasionally selecting branch clusters or substrates larger than 5 cm in diameter. Overall, they do not have strong preferences with respect to branch orientation. Rapid quadrupedalism is used on arboreal supports of all diameters and orientations, but individuals have never been seen moving on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris moves very much like its low-country counterpart and is also capable of incredible speed. It has been observed at low heights (2 m above the ground), and it crosses open ground. It also will occur in the highest trees available, for example, in alpine scrub at heights of 4 m.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the Horton Plains Slender Loris, so the description here refers to the subspecies tardigradus. Red Slender Lorises sleep in groups of up to five animals, most commonly a male, female, and their offspring. Some males change their sleeping site regularly and may sleep in the vicinity of a female. They engage in intense grooming sessions and social and solitary play at dawn and dusk. They communicate regularly using scent marking and loud calls. Individuals with overlapping home ranges interact throughout the night. Females have home ranges of 1-2-6-9 ha, whereas those of males are 1-4-3-4 ha. Males may affiliate with males and with more than one female. Females rarely affiliate with other females and may be aggressive toward males that attempt to follow or groom them. During the single long-term radio-tracking study on the Red Slender Loris, a single male’s home range overlapped a single female’s home range, but not all individuals in the area were caught, and more animals shared sleep sites. This, combined with promiscuous mating, implies that unimale—unifemale social pairs are not the rule for this species. Interestingly, lorises are very disturbed by white light and usually cease social behavior (e.g. partners will disperse) unless red or infrared light is used. The subspecies tardigradusutters “chitters,” “kriks,” and “zic” calls. A scream has not yet been recorded. They produce a soft whistle, barely audible to humans even when standing within 10 m of an individual. By far the most common call is the loud whistle, used to communicate location to friendly conspecifics, to warn non-group members, and to ward off encroaching males. Vocal battles are common and up to 60 calls per hour are not uncommon. The whistle is so common that it is a good indicator of loris presence or absence in a forest. At least six variations of the whistle have been described, with a potential twelve additional variants. The syllables within each call can be undulated, strangled, and short or long, and they occur in different combinations. Density estimates of lorises were 0-08-0-55 ind/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Red Slender Loris is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and the nominate subspecies tardigradusparticularly by gem mining. Individuals are regularly sold illegally in bazaars as pets, and they are valued in traditional medicine and killed because of superstitious folk beliefs. All populations are likely declining and at low levels, with as few as 1500 tardigradusin only c.3000 ha of highly fragmented forests and a critically low number of 80 nycticeboides in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. The subspecies tardigradusoccurs in Udawalawe National Park; the sanctuaries of Attidiya-Belanwila, Kurulukele, Peak Wilderness, Udawattekele, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe; and forest reserves of Ingiriya, Kanneliya, Kombala-Kottawa, Oliyagankele, Polgahaivalakande, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Aparekka, and Godakawela. It can also be found in Gampola-Ambuluwela Biodiversity Park, Maimbulkanda Nature Reserve, Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, and Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is known from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, and Conical Hill and Bomburella forest reserves. It may also occur in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Siripagama.Bibliography.Bernede (2009), Bernede et al. (2008), Gamage et al. (2010), Goonan (1993), Goonan et al.(1995), Groves (2001), Hill (1942b), Molur et al. (2003), Montagna & Ellis (1960), Muller et al. (1985), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (2003a, 2003b, 2002/2003), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Perera (2007), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Stevens (2007), Nekaris, Liyanage & Gamage (2005), Nekaris, Pimley & Ablard (2006, 2007), Petter & Hladik (1970), Rumpler et al. (1987), Schmitt & Lemelin (2004), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Sellers (1996), Still (1905), Subramoniam (1957)." +039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5.xml,Tapirus terrestris,Tapirus,terrestris,Linnaeus,1758,Tapir du Brésil @fr | Flachlandtapir @de | Tapiramazonico @es | Brazilian Tapir @en | South American Tapir @en,"Hippopotamus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Brasillia” i.e. Pernambuco, Brazil.Four subspecies recognized.","T.t.terrestrisLinnaeus,1758—VenezuelathroughtheGuianastoCBrazilandNEArgentina(N&CMisiones).T.t.aenigmaticusGray,1872—SEColombia,EEcuador,andNEPeru.T.t.colombianusHershkovitz,1954—tropicalzonesofNColombiaintheareasofMagdalena,Bolivar,Atlantico,Cordoba,andNWAntioquia,asfarastheAtrataRiver,andasfarNastheRancheriaRiverinLaGuajira.T. t. spegazzinii Ameghino, 1909— SE Braz1l (Mato Grosso State), E Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentinato NE Santa Fe, NE Santiago del Estero, SE Jujuy, and E Salta.","Head-body 191-242 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 83-118 cm (males), 83-113 cm (females); weight 180-300 kg. Female Lowland Tapirs are usually larger than males. Data collected from 35 Lowland Tapirs captured during a long-term telemetry study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed that the average weight of adult tapirs was 233 kgfor females (200-300 kg) and 208 kgfor males (180-280 kg). Measurements oftapirs in Morro do Diabo demonstrated that adult females are significantly longer andtaller than males. Full length offemales 208-242 cm, full length of males 191-223 cm; rear height of females 90-120 cm, rear height of males 89-109 cm. In captivity, newborn Lowland Tapirs usually weigh 3-2— 5-8 kg. Calves gain an average of2-27 kg per week and are completely weaned at four months of age. Growth is usually completed by 18 months of age. The color of adult Lowland Tapirs is blackish-brown dorsally with the ears edged in white; the chest, venter and limbs are dark brown; the cheeks are grizzled brown and gray. Young of all four tapir species are born dark with yellowish or white stripes and spots, a pattern that is lost after the first six months, although some vestiges of spotting may remain in young adults. The skin of Lowland Tapirs is thickest at the nape, and often covered by scars, scratches, and bruises; beneath the epidermis is a fibrous tissue layer. There is a well-developed sagittal crest that runs from the base of the muzzle to the middle of the back, which is derived from fat and soft tissues and covered by very long black hair. The short, erect mane is prominent, and is thought to help the tapirs escape predators, which seize the dorsum of the neck. This crest is not present in the other three tapir species.Habitat.The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.Food and Feeding.Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.Breeding.There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males.","The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.","Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.","There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males. A Lowland Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2007 modelled the dynamics of the species’ populations in the wild. Given that natural situations impose a toll on the animals, age offirst reproduction in the wild was estimated to be four years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Lowland Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. The sex ratio at birth in captivity is 3:1. The sex ratio observed in Morro do Diabo, Brazil, was 1:1-33. Monitored subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in the central Amazon of Brazilrecorded a sex ratio of kills of 1:1:03. Therefore, the sex ratio at birth in the wild is generally assumed to be 50% males and 50% females. Data on Lowland Tapir longevity comes from captivity and reveals that these animals live over 35 years.","Tapirs are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular. Lowland Tapir rest during the day and begin their activity after sunset, at around 18:00 h. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park in Brazil, their main periods of activity are from 19:00 h to 00:00 h, with a peak between 20:00 h and 21:00 h (63% active); and from 01:00 h to 07:00 h, with a peak between 05:00 h and 06:00 h (60% active). Tapirs in Morro do Diabo are largely inactive between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. Overall, tapirs in Morro do Diabo foraged for approximately five hours in the early evening, and then seemed to rest for a few hours in the middle of the night. There followed a second foraging bout, of approximately six hours in the early hours of the day. Tapir activity patterns were analyzed separately for wet and dry season, as well for both sexes and different age classes in Morro do Diabo, and were fairly consistent. In Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs are mostly active between 18:00 h and 22:00 h, and between 00:00 h and 06:00 h, with a main activity peak between 01:00 h and 06:30 h, and very little activity between 11:00 h and 15:30 h. In the Peruvian Amazon, tapir activity peaks were observed between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and between 03:00 h and 04:00 h, with the main foraging time between 21:00 h and 03:00 h. Nocturnal line-transect sampling in Morro do Diabo State Park allowed for an analysis of the effect of moonlight intensity on tapir activity. Approximately 47% of the tapir encounters occurred during the waning crescent, 21% during the new moon, 18% during the waxing crescent, and only 14% during the full moon. It was clear that tapirs in Morro do Diabo were considerably less active during the brighter phases of the moon. Previous studies suggested that a lower level of animal activity during moonlit nights is a result of higher predation risk. In El Rey National Park, Argentina, tapirs were typically diurnal, perhaps due to lack of human disturbance.","L.owland Tapirs can move fairly easily through areas of low quality habitat (e.g. agricultural crops, pasture lands, and eucalyptus plantations) to get from one patch of forest to another. Parameters of Lowland Tapir spatial ecology reported in the literature, particularly home range size, vary widely. Tapirs are large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals that usually require considerably large home ranges. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, tapirs use very large home ranges (4-67 km?, varying from 1-12 km? to 14-19 km?®). These home ranges have very complex internal structures, including multiple core areas, which comprise a very small proportion of the home range (50% core area = 17% of the home range; 25% core area = 6% of the home range). Little seasonal variation in size and location of home ranges and core areas was observed. These patterns are consistent for both sexes and different age classes. In the Peruvian Amazon, the home ranges of Lowland Tapirs are much smaller, ranging from 1-06 km? to 3-86 km?®, with an average of 2: 61 km®. In Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs had an average home range size of 2: 48 km?*Neighboring tapirs in Morro do Diabo State Park showed very strong home range overlap between individuals (around 30%, although in some cases as high as 92%). This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. Estimates of Lowland Tapir population density range from a high of 1-6 ind/km? reported for the species in Neotropical forests in undisturbed, non-hunted, or lightly hunted sites to less than 0-3 ind/km? in other regions and habitat types. In Amazonian forests, Lowland Tapirs are usually found in densities around 0-5 ind/ km?. Exceptionally high densities (3:3-3-7 ind/km?) were observed in the Amazonian dry forests of Roraima, Brazil. In the Brazilian Pantanal, tapir densities range from 0-13 ind/km? in open grassland habitat to 0-4 ind/km? in forested habitats. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, densities range from 0-21 ind/km? to 1-35 ind/km?. This wide variation in density estimates can be explained by several factors, including differences in environments, habitat types studied,levels of habitat conservation, levels of hunting, and, most importantly, differences in the methods used to estimate densities. Another factor is that the Lowland Tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (e.g. around saltlicks, in palm forests, and near permanent water sources). Great variation in density can also reflect the ability of tapirs to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water). Tapirs are primarily solitary. Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for approximately twelve months. In Morro do Diabo, from a total of 81 tapir sightings obtained through nocturnal line-transect sampling, 77-78% were of one individual and 12-35% of pairs (adult female/adult male, adult female/offspring). On one occasion, three individuals were sighted. In terms of intraspecific interactions and social organization, tapirs in Morro do Diabo showed a strong home range overlap (30%) as well as overlap of core areas of use (20%) between neighboring individuals. This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. The great majority of the individuals shared varying portions of their home ranges with several other individual tapirs. Thus, while tapirs in Morro do Diabo had well-defined home ranges and lived within their boundaries, no evidence was found that they defended their areas against conspecifics. In the Peruvian Amazon, Lowland Tapirs monitored through GPS telemetry regularly walked along the boundaries of their home ranges, which appeared to provide some evidence that they were defining their territory against other individuals by maintaining clear home range boundaries.On following pages 2 Central Amencan Tapır (Taprms ba/rdnl. 3 Mountam Taper (Tapnus pmchaque).","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although the species has been listed as Vulnerable across its entire range, several populations in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuelapresent considerably higher levels of threat. A few examples include tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil, as well as Colombian and Venezuelan populations in Catatumbo, Maracaibo, and Lake Valencia watershed. The Lowland Tapir has the broadest geographic distribution of the four living species of tapirs and the species occurs in 21 different biomes in eleven countries. Historically, this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina, throughout the Chaco, Pantanal, Cerrado, Llanos, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Amazonian/Orinoco biomes. The historic distribution of the species covered approximately 13,129,874 km*. Nevertheless, populations have been severely reduced and are currently often limited to forested biomes and wetlands. The species is believed to have gone extinct in approximately 14% ofits range and the current distribution declined to 11,232,018 km*. The species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agricultural frontiers that are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. In Brazil, which constitutes a large portion of its range, the Lowland Tapir has disappeared from over one million km? (12-4% of its countrywide range). Although only about 15-20% of the Amazon has been deforested in the past 30 years, 85-90% of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared and 40% of the Pantanal has been converted to human use. Most of the Cerrado and Caatinga biomes in Brazilhave been converted to agriculture and cattle ranching. As a consequence, the Lowland Tapir has been extirpated from the Caatinga; most populations in the Cerrado are small and in protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Some exceptions include remote areas of Cerrado (e.g. Chapada das Mangabeiras, Jalapao region in Tocantins State) where tapirs are still common. The Lowland Tapir is now either completely absent or severely fragmented across much of its historic range, with the Northern and Central Amazon as well as the remaining Pantanal (Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) becoming important strongholds as southern, eastern, and north-western populations are declining rapidly. The IUCN Red Lust published in 1996 listed Lowland Tapirs as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Therefore, the species has deteriorated in Red List status over a period of twelve years. There is an ongoing reduction of Lowland Tapir populations estimated to be slightly greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). This rate of decline is predicted to continue for the next three generations. The main identified threats responsible for the decline include habitat deforestation and/or alteration; habitat fragmentation (resulting in small populations and low connectivity); hunting; cattle ranching; infectious diseases; road-kill; fire; human density; plantations of monocultures (sugar cane, soy bean); lack of patrolling of protected areas; small size of protected areas; resource extraction; and impact of tourism. Hunting is one of the most important threats. Tapirs are among the preferred game species for subsistence and commercial hunters throughout the Amazon. Estimates of tapir harvest in the State of Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon range from 15,447 to 17,886 individuals per year. Due to their individualistic lifestyle, low reproductive rate, long generation time, and low population density Lowland Tapirs rarely achieve high local abundance, which makes them highly susceptible to overhunting, and populations show rapid decline when harvested. There are a number of infectious diseases (Bluetongue, Equine Encephalitis, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, and Leptospirosis) and parasites known in Lowland Tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Pantanal biomes in Brazil. These diseases spread to tapirs from domestic livestock, particularly cattle and horses, and can potentially increase tapir mortality and affect reproductive rates. Another serious threat to this species is road-kill. Morro do Diabo State Park in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is crossed by a highway that, from 1996 to 2006, killed an average of six tapirs per year. Most of the tapirs killed were adult individuals capable of breeding. Road-kill is also a serious threat in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes of Brazil. Estimates of the total population size for the species throughoutits entire range are not available. This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. However a large proportion of the total Lowland Tapir population is found outside the boundaries of legally protected areas, where tapirs are hunted, chased by dogs, and face many other threats. Although the species is protected legally in most countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and have proven ineffective.","Affonso (1998) | Aquino et al. (2001) | Aquino & Calle (2003) | Ayala (2002, 2003) | Barongi (1986, 1993) | Bodmer (1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1995) | Bodmer & Lozano (2001) | Bodmer et al. (1997) | Brooks et al. (1997) | Chiarello (1999) | CITES (2005) | Cordeiro (2004) | Cullen et al. (2000) | Desbiez (2009) | Eisenberg (1989, 1997) | Emmons (1990) | Emmons & Feer (1997) | Flesher (2007) | Fradrich & Thenius (1972) | Fragoso (1997) | Fragoso & Huffman (2000) | Fragoso et al. (2000) | Galetti et al. (2001) | Gomez et al. (2005) | Goncalves da Silva (2007) | Haugaasen & Peres (2005) | Henry et al. (2000) | Herrera et al. (1999) | Hershkovitz (1954) | Hunsaker & Hahn (1965) | Janson & Emmons (1990) | Maffei et al. (2002) | Mallinson (1969, 1974) | Mangini (2001) | Mangini & Medici (2001) | Mangini et al. (2000) | Medici (1999, 2001, 2002, 2010) | Medici et al. (2007) | Mendes-Pontes (2004) | Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002) | Montenegro(1998, 1999, 2004) | Montenegroet al. (2000) | Naveda et al. (2008) | Noss et al. (2003) | Novaro etal. (2000) | Olmos (1997) | Olmos et al. (1999) | Padilla & Dowler (1994) | Pena et al. (1996) | Peres (2000) | Robinson & Redford (1986, 1991) | Rodrigues et al. (1993) | Salas (1996) | Salas & Fuller (1996) | Schaller (1983) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Soto (2002) | Souza-Mazurek et al. (2000) | Taber et al. (2008) | Tobler (2008) | Tobler et al. (2009) | Téfoli (2006) | Trolle (2003) | Trolle et al. (2007) | Velastin et al. (2004) | Vickers (1991) | Vié et al. (2009) | Young (1961)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721163/files/figure.png,"1.Lowland TapirTapirus terrestrisFrench:Tapir du Brésil/ German:Flachlandtapir/ Spanish:TapiramazonicoOther common names:Brazilian Tapir, South American TapirTaxonomy.Hippopotamus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Brasillia” i.e. Pernambuco, Brazil.Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.terrestrisLinnaeus,1758—VenezuelathroughtheGuianastoCBrazilandNEArgentina(N&CMisiones).T.t.aenigmaticusGray,1872—SEColombia,EEcuador,andNEPeru.T.t.colombianusHershkovitz,1954—tropicalzonesofNColombiaintheareasofMagdalena,Bolivar,Atlantico,Cordoba,andNWAntioquia,asfarastheAtrataRiver,andasfarNastheRancheriaRiverinLaGuajira.T. t. spegazzinii Ameghino, 1909— SE Braz1l (Mato Grosso State), E Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentinato NE Santa Fe, NE Santiago del Estero, SE Jujuy, and E Salta.Descriptive notes.Head-body 191-242 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 83-118 cm (males), 83-113 cm (females); weight 180-300 kg. Female Lowland Tapirs are usually larger than males. Data collected from 35 Lowland Tapirs captured during a long-term telemetry study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed that the average weight of adult tapirs was 233 kgfor females (200-300 kg) and 208 kgfor males (180-280 kg). Measurements oftapirs in Morro do Diabo demonstrated that adult females are significantly longer andtaller than males. Full length offemales 208-242 cm, full length of males 191-223 cm; rear height of females 90-120 cm, rear height of males 89-109 cm. In captivity, newborn Lowland Tapirs usually weigh 3-2— 5-8 kg. Calves gain an average of2-27 kg per week and are completely weaned at four months of age. Growth is usually completed by 18 months of age. The color of adult Lowland Tapirs is blackish-brown dorsally with the ears edged in white; the chest, venter and limbs are dark brown; the cheeks are grizzled brown and gray. Young of all four tapir species are born dark with yellowish or white stripes and spots, a pattern that is lost after the first six months, although some vestiges of spotting may remain in young adults. The skin of Lowland Tapirs is thickest at the nape, and often covered by scars, scratches, and bruises; beneath the epidermis is a fibrous tissue layer. There is a well-developed sagittal crest that runs from the base of the muzzle to the middle of the back, which is derived from fat and soft tissues and covered by very long black hair. The short, erect mane is prominent, and is thought to help the tapirs escape predators, which seize the dorsum of the neck. This crest is not present in the other three tapir species.Habitat.The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.Food and Feeding.Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.Breeding.There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males. A Lowland Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2007 modelled the dynamics of the species’ populations in the wild. Given that natural situations impose a toll on the animals, age offirst reproduction in the wild was estimated to be four years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Lowland Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. The sex ratio at birth in captivity is 3:1. The sex ratio observed in Morro do Diabo, Brazil, was 1:1-33. Monitored subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in the central Amazon of Brazilrecorded a sex ratio of kills of 1:1:03. Therefore, the sex ratio at birth in the wild is generally assumed to be 50% males and 50% females. Data on Lowland Tapir longevity comes from captivity and reveals that these animals live over 35 years.Activity patterns.Tapirs are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular. Lowland Tapir rest during the day and begin their activity after sunset, at around 18:00 h. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park in Brazil, their main periods of activity are from 19:00 h to 00:00 h, with a peak between 20:00 h and 21:00 h (63% active); and from 01:00 h to 07:00 h, with a peak between 05:00 h and 06:00 h (60% active). Tapirs in Morro do Diabo are largely inactive between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. Overall, tapirs in Morro do Diabo foraged for approximately five hours in the early evening, and then seemed to rest for a few hours in the middle of the night. There followed a second foraging bout, of approximately six hours in the early hours of the day. Tapir activity patterns were analyzed separately for wet and dry season, as well for both sexes and different age classes in Morro do Diabo, and were fairly consistent. In Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs are mostly active between 18:00 h and 22:00 h, and between 00:00 h and 06:00 h, with a main activity peak between 01:00 h and 06:30 h, and very little activity between 11:00 h and 15:30 h. In the Peruvian Amazon, tapir activity peaks were observed between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and between 03:00 h and 04:00 h, with the main foraging time between 21:00 h and 03:00 h. Nocturnal line-transect sampling in Morro do Diabo State Park allowed for an analysis of the effect of moonlight intensity on tapir activity. Approximately 47% of the tapir encounters occurred during the waning crescent, 21% during the new moon, 18% during the waxing crescent, and only 14% during the full moon. It was clear that tapirs in Morro do Diabo were considerably less active during the brighter phases of the moon. Previous studies suggested that a lower level of animal activity during moonlit nights is a result of higher predation risk. In El Rey National Park, Argentina, tapirs were typically diurnal, perhaps due to lack of human disturbance.Movements, Home range and Social organization.L.owland Tapirs can move fairly easily through areas of low quality habitat (e.g. agricultural crops, pasture lands, and eucalyptus plantations) to get from one patch of forest to another. Parameters of Lowland Tapir spatial ecology reported in the literature, particularly home range size, vary widely. Tapirs are large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals that usually require considerably large home ranges. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, tapirs use very large home ranges (4-67 km?, varying from 1-12 km? to 14-19 km?®). These home ranges have very complex internal structures, including multiple core areas, which comprise a very small proportion of the home range (50% core area = 17% of the home range; 25% core area = 6% of the home range). Little seasonal variation in size and location of home ranges and core areas was observed. These patterns are consistent for both sexes and different age classes. In the Peruvian Amazon, the home ranges of Lowland Tapirs are much smaller, ranging from 1-06 km? to 3-86 km?®, with an average of 2: 61 km®. In Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs had an average home range size of 2: 48 km?*Neighboring tapirs in Morro do Diabo State Park showed very strong home range overlap between individuals (around 30%, although in some cases as high as 92%). This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. Estimates of Lowland Tapir population density range from a high of 1-6 ind/km? reported for the species in Neotropical forests in undisturbed, non-hunted, or lightly hunted sites to less than 0-3 ind/km? in other regions and habitat types. In Amazonian forests, Lowland Tapirs are usually found in densities around 0-5 ind/ km?. Exceptionally high densities (3:3-3-7 ind/km?) were observed in the Amazonian dry forests of Roraima, Brazil. In the Brazilian Pantanal, tapir densities range from 0-13 ind/km? in open grassland habitat to 0-4 ind/km? in forested habitats. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, densities range from 0-21 ind/km? to 1-35 ind/km?. This wide variation in density estimates can be explained by several factors, including differences in environments, habitat types studied,levels of habitat conservation, levels of hunting, and, most importantly, differences in the methods used to estimate densities. Another factor is that the Lowland Tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (e.g. around saltlicks, in palm forests, and near permanent water sources). Great variation in density can also reflect the ability of tapirs to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water). Tapirs are primarily solitary. Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for approximately twelve months. In Morro do Diabo, from a total of 81 tapir sightings obtained through nocturnal line-transect sampling, 77-78% were of one individual and 12-35% of pairs (adult female/adult male, adult female/offspring). On one occasion, three individuals were sighted. In terms of intraspecific interactions and social organization, tapirs in Morro do Diabo showed a strong home range overlap (30%) as well as overlap of core areas of use (20%) between neighboring individuals. This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. The great majority of the individuals shared varying portions of their home ranges with several other individual tapirs. Thus, while tapirs in Morro do Diabo had well-defined home ranges and lived within their boundaries, no evidence was found that they defended their areas against conspecifics. In the Peruvian Amazon, Lowland Tapirs monitored through GPS telemetry regularly walked along the boundaries of their home ranges, which appeared to provide some evidence that they were defining their territory against other individuals by maintaining clear home range boundaries.On following pages 2 Central Amencan Tapır (Taprms ba/rdnl. 3 Mountam Taper (Tapnus pmchaque). 4 Malayan Taplr (Taprrus mdrcuslStatus and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although the species has been listed as Vulnerable across its entire range, several populations in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuelapresent considerably higher levels of threat. A few examples include tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil, as well as Colombian and Venezuelan populations in Catatumbo, Maracaibo, and Lake Valencia watershed. The Lowland Tapir has the broadest geographic distribution of the four living species of tapirs and the species occurs in 21 different biomes in eleven countries. Historically, this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina, throughout the Chaco, Pantanal, Cerrado, Llanos, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Amazonian/Orinoco biomes. The historic distribution of the species covered approximately 13,129,874 km*. Nevertheless, populations have been severely reduced and are currently often limited to forested biomes and wetlands. The species is believed to have gone extinct in approximately 14% ofits range and the current distribution declined to 11,232,018 km*. The species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agricultural frontiers that are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. In Brazil, which constitutes a large portion of its range, the Lowland Tapir has disappeared from over one million km? (12-4% of its countrywide range). Although only about 15-20% of the Amazon has been deforested in the past 30 years, 85-90% of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared and 40% of the Pantanal has been converted to human use. Most of the Cerrado and Caatinga biomes in Brazilhave been converted to agriculture and cattle ranching. As a consequence, the Lowland Tapir has been extirpated from the Caatinga; most populations in the Cerrado are small and in protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Some exceptions include remote areas of Cerrado (e.g. Chapada das Mangabeiras, Jalapao region in Tocantins State) where tapirs are still common. The Lowland Tapir is now either completely absent or severely fragmented across much of its historic range, with the Northern and Central Amazon as well as the remaining Pantanal (Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) becoming important strongholds as southern, eastern, and north-western populations are declining rapidly. The IUCN Red Lust published in 1996 listed Lowland Tapirs as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Therefore, the species has deteriorated in Red List status over a period of twelve years. There is an ongoing reduction of Lowland Tapir populations estimated to be slightly greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). This rate of decline is predicted to continue for the next three generations. The main identified threats responsible for the decline include habitat deforestation and/or alteration; habitat fragmentation (resulting in small populations and low connectivity); hunting; cattle ranching; infectious diseases; road-kill; fire; human density; plantations of monocultures (sugar cane, soy bean); lack of patrolling of protected areas; small size of protected areas; resource extraction; and impact of tourism. Hunting is one of the most important threats. Tapirs are among the preferred game species for subsistence and commercial hunters throughout the Amazon. Estimates of tapir harvest in the State of Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon range from 15,447 to 17,886 individuals per year. Due to their individualistic lifestyle, low reproductive rate, long generation time, and low population density Lowland Tapirs rarely achieve high local abundance, which makes them highly susceptible to overhunting, and populations show rapid decline when harvested. There are a number of infectious diseases (Bluetongue, Equine Encephalitis, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, and Leptospirosis) and parasites known in Lowland Tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Pantanal biomes in Brazil. These diseases spread to tapirs from domestic livestock, particularly cattle and horses, and can potentially increase tapir mortality and affect reproductive rates. Another serious threat to this species is road-kill. Morro do Diabo State Park in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is crossed by a highway that, from 1996 to 2006, killed an average of six tapirs per year. Most of the tapirs killed were adult individuals capable of breeding. Road-kill is also a serious threat in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes of Brazil. Estimates of the total population size for the species throughoutits entire range are not available. This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. However a large proportion of the total Lowland Tapir population is found outside the boundaries of legally protected areas, where tapirs are hunted, chased by dogs, and face many other threats. Although the species is protected legally in most countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and have proven ineffective.Bibliography.Affonso (1998), Aquino et al. (2001), Aquino & Calle (2003), Ayala (2002, 2003), Barongi (1986, 1993), Bodmer (1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1995), Bodmer & Lozano (2001), Bodmer et al. (1997), Brooks et al. (1997), Chiarello (1999), CITES (2005), Cordeiro (2004), Cullen et al. (2000), Desbiez (2009), Eisenberg (1989, 1997), Emmons (1990), Emmons & Feer (1997), Flesher (2007), Fradrich & Thenius (1972), Fragoso (1997), Fragoso & Huffman (2000), Fragoso et al. (2000), Galetti et al. (2001), Gomez et al. (2005), Goncalves da Silva (2007), Haugaasen & Peres (2005), Henry et al. (2000), Herrera et al. (1999), Hershkovitz (1954), Hunsaker & Hahn (1965), Janson & Emmons (1990), Maffei et al. (2002), Mallinson (1969, 1974), Mangini (2001), Mangini & Medici (2001), Mangini et al. (2000), Medici (1999, 2001, 2002, 2010), Medici et al. (2007), Mendes-Pontes (2004), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002), Montenegro(1998, 1999, 2004), Montenegroet al. (2000), Naveda et al. (2008), Noss et al. (2003), Novaro etal. (2000), Olmos (1997), Olmos et al. (1999), Padilla & Dowler (1994), Pena et al. (1996), Peres (2000), Robinson & Redford (1986, 1991), Rodrigues et al. (1993), Salas (1996), Salas & Fuller (1996), Schaller (1983), Schipper et al. (2008), Soto (2002), Souza-Mazurek et al. (2000), Taber et al. (2008), Tobler (2008), Tobler et al. (2009), Téfoli (2006), Trolle (2003), Trolle et al. (2007), Velastin et al. (2004), Vickers (1991), Vié et al. (2009), Young (1961)." 039CED53FFC1FF8FFD2B27E51BC09088,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e,182,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC1FF8FFD2B27E51BC09088.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family TAPIRIDAE(TAPIRS)• [Large mammals with rounded back and hindquarters, tapering forequarters and nose, short, muscular legs, dark color, thick skin, and bristly, scattered hairs.• 180-300 cm.• Indo-Malayan and Neotropical Regions.• Tropical and subtropical montane, lowland moist, swamp, and cloud forests, paramos, seasonally moist grassland, and savanna; strongly associated with water and riparian environments.• 1 genus, 4 species, 7 taxa.• 3 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." 039CED53FFC2FF8BFF292B4A19D293E0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC2FF8BFF292B4A19D293E0.xml,Tapirus bairdii,Tapirus,bairdii,,,Tapir de Baird @fr | Mittelamerika-Tapir @de | Tapircentroamericano @es | Baird's Tapir @en,"Elasmognathus bairdu Gill, 1865,Isthmus of Panama, Panama.Recent studies have suggested to include it in the genus Tapirella. Monotypic.","SE Mexico to NW Colombia; formerly also W EcuadorS to Gulf of Guayaquil, but their occurrence there is now uncertain.","Head-body 200-230 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height in adults approximately 120 cm; weight 250-350 kg. The Central American Tapir is the largest of the three Latin American species and is the largest terrestrial mammal found in the Neotropics. The Central American Tapir is dark brown or grayish-brown and has a distinctive cream-colored marking on its face and throat and a dark spot on each cheek, behind and below the eye. The edges of the ears are white. Like the other species of tapir, they have small stubby tails and a long, flexible proboscis.Habitat.The Central American Tapir is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3600 m. The speciesis strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramos. Overall, Central American Tapirs prefer habitat types with permanent water bodies, diverse and dense understory, riparian vegetation, low incidence offires, and less hunting pressure and human presence. Some studies in Mexicohave noted that Central American Tapirs prefer densely forested areas rather than open, more disturbed habitats. In the mixed deciduous forest of Santa Rosa National Park in the north-west of Costa Rica, the tapirs relied on small pools of water in dried-up riverbeds for their drinking and wallowing requirements. Much of the habitat there was subclimax forest. In Corcovado National Park, also in Costa Rica, tapir sign (tracks, dung, rubbings, and evidence of foraging) was more abundant in lowland, second-growth forests and palm swamps than mature forests. In fact, tapirs in Corcovado strongly selected secondary forests and avoided mature forests. Seasonal variations in habitat selection correlated with fruit availability were observed. Tapir sign in Corcovado showed positive correlation with distance from perennial water bodies and rain intensity; there was a negative correlation between sign and slope steepness. Central American Tapirs have been observed in the Costa Rican paramos, particularly near ponds surrounded by dense bush of Chusquea. Lacking a dense hair coat like that of the Mountain Tapir, an extraordinarily thick skin and subcutaneous fat deposits probably help Central American Tapirs withstand the low temperatures prevailing in the paramos. In La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, tapir sign has been observed along mountain crests at 1000-1500 m. These mountain crests are often covered by strips of oak forest, which are believed to be used by tapirs as both marking sites and transit areas between tropical subdeciduous and montane cloud forest slopes.Food and Feeding.The Central American Tapir selectively consumes a wide array of fruit, leaves, shoots, bark, and flowers. Long-term direct observations of one Central American Tapir in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, revealed that these animals consume an average of 15-63 kg of fruit and fibrous materials per day. The tapir observed consumed 126 different plant species. The percentages of bites taken of each food item during the study were 67% leaves, 18:6% fruits, 11-7% stems, 2-1% bark, and 0-1% flowers. Three species accounted for 40% ofthe tapir’s bites for the entire study. The information available on feeding habits of Central American Tapirs in Mexicocomes from a few studies in which about 98 plant species of 50 families were recorded as consumed by this ungulate. The plant families most frequently represented in the diet of Central American Tapirs in Mexicoare Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae. A previous study carried out in a tropical lowland forest in Guatemalanoted that 49 species of plants are consumed by tapirs, with three species representing the highest percentage of the diet. Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceaewere the most important plant families. In the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, plant species of the families Arecaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, and Rubiaceaeaccounted for 33% of total plant species in the tapirs’ diet. Asteraceae, Ericaceae, and Poaceae(especially Chusquea subtessellata) seem to be the predominant plant families in the 3000 mhigh paramos of Chirripé National Park, Costa Rica. The most evident changes in proportions of food items ingested by Central American Tapirs throughout the year are those related to fruit consumption. Fruit usually constitutes a smaller proportion of the diet of Central American Tapirs compared to leaves and other fiber sources. Average fruit proportions found in their feces generally ranges from 7-1% to 18:6% in different areas. However, in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, some fecal samples consisted almost entirely of fruit pieces and tapirs there depended heavily on a wide range offruits (and fruit sizes) during the dry season. Fruit provides significant amounts of the nutrition and calories consumed by this ungulate. Palm swamps composed primarily of Raphia taedigeraand Bactris balanoideaare regularly patrolled by the tapirs and other ungulates, White-lipped Peccaries (7ayassu pecari) in particular, in search of fruit. The role of Central American Tapirs in seed dispersal and seed predation is not completely understood but studies in Santa Rosademonstrated that they widely dispersed viable seeds of many species in their dung, including seeds incidentally ingested while browsing. In Guatemalaand Mexico, Central American Tapirs appear to be important dispersers of Manilkara zapota seeds.Breeding.Most information about reproduction of Central American Tapirs in the wild comes from a long-term field study carried out in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. Direct and indirect evidence from this study indicates that they are facultatively polygamous. Adult female tapirs usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. The calf stays with its mother for 12-18 months. An adult female Central American Tapir was monitored in Corcovado for approximately 14 years. During this period, this female produced nine offspring at intervals of approximately 18 months. Reports from zoos and field observations for wild tapirs in Corcovado indicate that females may become pregnant while lactating, which can reduce the interbirth interval to 16 months. Some females may lose their offspring during lactation, or due to stillbirths or neonatal deaths, and come into estrus sooner, therefore reducing the interbirth interval. Lastly, veterinarians who were part of the field team in Corcovado found pregnant females who had month-old calves; the females were one month pregnant, the fetus visible on ultrasound. Thus, it is highly probable that tapirs present a “foal heat” similar to horses, coming into estrus immediately after giving birth and able to get pregnant. The AZA Studbook for Central American Tapirs notes that tapirs in captivity sire their first offspring as young as two years old.","The Central American Tapir is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3600 m. The speciesis strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramos. Overall, Central American Tapirs prefer habitat types with permanent water bodies, diverse and dense understory, riparian vegetation, low incidence offires, and less hunting pressure and human presence. Some studies in Mexicohave noted that Central American Tapirs prefer densely forested areas rather than open, more disturbed habitats. In the mixed deciduous forest of Santa Rosa National Park in the north-west of Costa Rica, the tapirs relied on small pools of water in dried-up riverbeds for their drinking and wallowing requirements. Much of the habitat there was subclimax forest. In Corcovado National Park, also in Costa Rica, tapir sign (tracks, dung, rubbings, and evidence of foraging) was more abundant in lowland, second-growth forests and palm swamps than mature forests. In fact, tapirs in Corcovado strongly selected secondary forests and avoided mature forests. Seasonal variations in habitat selection correlated with fruit availability were observed. Tapir sign in Corcovado showed positive correlation with distance from perennial water bodies and rain intensity; there was a negative correlation between sign and slope steepness. Central American Tapirs have been observed in the Costa Rican paramos, particularly near ponds surrounded by dense bush of Chusquea. Lacking a dense hair coat like that of the Mountain Tapir, an extraordinarily thick skin and subcutaneous fat deposits probably help Central American Tapirs withstand the low temperatures prevailing in the paramos. In La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, tapir sign has been observed along mountain crests at 1000-1500 m. These mountain crests are often covered by strips of oak forest, which are believed to be used by tapirs as both marking sites and transit areas between tropical subdeciduous and montane cloud forest slopes.","The Central American Tapir selectively consumes a wide array of fruit, leaves, shoots, bark, and flowers. Long-term direct observations of one Central American Tapir in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, revealed that these animals consume an average of 15-63 kg of fruit and fibrous materials per day. The tapir observed consumed 126 different plant species. The percentages of bites taken of each food item during the study were 67% leaves, 18:6% fruits, 11-7% stems, 2-1% bark, and 0-1% flowers. Three species accounted for 40% ofthe tapir’s bites for the entire study. The information available on feeding habits of Central American Tapirs in Mexicocomes from a few studies in which about 98 plant species of 50 families were recorded as consumed by this ungulate. The plant families most frequently represented in the diet of Central American Tapirs in Mexicoare Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae. A previous study carried out in a tropical lowland forest in Guatemalanoted that 49 species of plants are consumed by tapirs, with three species representing the highest percentage of the diet. Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceaewere the most important plant families. In the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, plant species of the families Arecaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, and Rubiaceaeaccounted for 33% of total plant species in the tapirs’ diet. Asteraceae, Ericaceae, and Poaceae(especially Chusquea subtessellata) seem to be the predominant plant families in the 3000 mhigh paramos of Chirripé National Park, Costa Rica. The most evident changes in proportions of food items ingested by Central American Tapirs throughout the year are those related to fruit consumption. Fruit usually constitutes a smaller proportion of the diet of Central American Tapirs compared to leaves and other fiber sources. Average fruit proportions found in their feces generally ranges from 7-1% to 18:6% in different areas. However, in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, some fecal samples consisted almost entirely of fruit pieces and tapirs there depended heavily on a wide range offruits (and fruit sizes) during the dry season. Fruit provides significant amounts of the nutrition and calories consumed by this ungulate. Palm swamps composed primarily of Raphia taedigeraand Bactris balanoideaare regularly patrolled by the tapirs and other ungulates, White-lipped Peccaries (7ayassu pecari) in particular, in search of fruit. The role of Central American Tapirs in seed dispersal and seed predation is not completely understood but studies in Santa Rosademonstrated that they widely dispersed viable seeds of many species in their dung, including seeds incidentally ingested while browsing. In Guatemalaand Mexico, Central American Tapirs appear to be important dispersers of Manilkara zapota seeds.","Most information about reproduction of Central American Tapirs in the wild comes from a long-term field study carried out in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. Direct and indirect evidence from this study indicates that they are facultatively polygamous. Adult female tapirs usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. The calf stays with its mother for 12-18 months. An adult female Central American Tapir was monitored in Corcovado for approximately 14 years. During this period, this female produced nine offspring at intervals of approximately 18 months. Reports from zoos and field observations for wild tapirs in Corcovado indicate that females may become pregnant while lactating, which can reduce the interbirth interval to 16 months. Some females may lose their offspring during lactation, or due to stillbirths or neonatal deaths, and come into estrus sooner, therefore reducing the interbirth interval. Lastly, veterinarians who were part of the field team in Corcovado found pregnant females who had month-old calves; the females were one month pregnant, the fetus visible on ultrasound. Thus, it is highly probable that tapirs present a “foal heat” similar to horses, coming into estrus immediately after giving birth and able to get pregnant. The AZA Studbook for Central American Tapirs notes that tapirs in captivity sire their first offspring as young as two years old. A Central American Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2005 modelled the dynamics of populations in the wild. Because conditions are assumed to be harsher in the wild than in captivity, the age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years, for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Central American Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Although field data from Corcovado shows a larger —although not significant— percentage of males, there is no evidence to suggest a skewed sex ratio at birth.","Central American Tapirs are substantially more active nocturnally than during the day. Their main peaks of activity are between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and 03:00 h and 04:00 h. In Santa RosaNational Park, tapirs were often active for short periods during the day, particularly in the dry season, when they entered residual pools in riverbeds to rest. However, tapirs are known to become almost completely nocturnal when there is heavy hunting pressure.","The mean home range size of Central American Tapirs studied via radio-telemetry in the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, was 1-25 km®. Male tapirs showed somewhat larger but not statistically different average home ranges than females. Researchers found no seasonal changes in size or location of home ranges. In the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park, also in Costa Rica, mean tapir home range size was 1-71 km? These home range variations may be due to differences in dominant vegetation types in those areas, as well as a considerably lower number of perennial water bodies in the latter. Tapir home ranges in Corcovado highly overlapped (33-16%) those of neighboring individuals. Central American Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for 12-18 months. It has been found that once they separate, in most cases, young tapirs in Corcovado stay in the vicinity of the mother’s home range for 3—4years prior to dispersal from the area and establishment of their own home ranges. Therefore, the ranging behavior of tapirs in Corcovado included the establishment of so called “family units,” where pairs of adult male and female tapirs maintained an almost entirely exclusive “territory” with no other resident adults over long periods of time, which they shared with 1-3 offspring from previous years. Although very high percentages of home range overlap occur within the family units, very little overlap occurs between neighboring tapir families. Estimates of Central American Tapir population density vary widely, ranging from a high 1-6 ind/km? in Corcovado National Park to a very low 0-21 ind/km? in the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park. The data from Corcovado National Park may not be applicable to other populations, as the region ofthis research (Sirena Biological Station) has a unique mixture of ideal habitat and almost complete protection from poaching, which perhaps contributes to higher density of the species.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Central American Tapir had a continuous distribution from south-eastern Mexicoto the northern portion of Colombia(west of the CaucaRiver) to the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador. The historic distribution ofthis species covered 1,186,300 km®. High rates of habitat destruction and fragmentation throughoutits former range have resulted in the current tapir distribution, which is mostly restricted to protected and/or remote areas in eight countries. A recent range extension of 377 kmbrought Central American Tapir to a new northern limit; La Tuza de Monroy, near the municipality of Santiago Jamiltepec in Oaxaca, Mexico. In Colombia, the species is present in Los Katios National Park. This population is poorly understood due to the presence of guerrilla activity, which has made research in the area extremely difficult. Anecdotally, biologists in Los Katios report that there are a few tapirs between the park and the Pacific Ocean. Large fragments of forest extending to the Pacific, combined with the Darien region, which is shared with the Republic of Panama, could have 160 km? of habitat for a total of 227 km?There is an ongoing reduction of Central American Tapir populations estimated to be greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth oftapirs, coupled with habitat loss/fragmentation and hunting, are the main factors contributing to population declines. It is estimated that approximately 70% of Central American forests have been lost through deforestation and alteration over the last 40 years. In Costa Ricaalone, it is now estimated that 80% of the country has been deforested, up from about 67% approximately 25 years ago. Overall, it is inferred that at least 50% of the Central American Tapir habitat has been lost in the past three generations, causing drastic population declines and making remnant populations more susceptible to extinction from natural disasters and disease. This rate of decline is predicted to continue. In Belize, unremitting forest destruction and fragmentation of the Selva Maya continues to threaten tapir populations. The construction of roads through the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemalais likely to become a major problem for tapirs in that area, as well as the isolation of smaller protected areas. In Costa Rica, logging and destructive farming practices are widespread. Gold mining is another problem in some parts of this country. The effect of hunting is notable given that Central American Tapirs are common where not hunted and nearly absent where hunting pressure is high. Even minimal hunting has proven to significantly decrease their populations, which is expected given their low reproductive rate. Some evidence exists that tapirs are susceptible and have been exposed to pathogens that also cause disease in livestock and horses; however, to date, there is no proof that infectious diseases have caused significant mortalities or have affected population levels. Nevertheless, several adult tapirs have been found dead nearlivestock areas in Chimalapas rain forest, Mexico, and were thought to have died from infectious diseases. Although most Central American Tapir populations have not been quantified and monitored yet, the current overall population estimate for this species is approximately 5000 mature individuals (Mexico, 1000; Belize, no current estimates; Guatemala, 1000; Honduras, 500; Nicaragua, 500; Costa Rica, 1000; Panama, 1000; Colombia, 250). There appear to be several strongholds for tapir populations, including La Amistad International Park in Costa Ricaand Panama. The Selva Maya shared by Belize, Guatemala, and Mexicois the largest continuoustract of forest where Central American Tapirs can be found. Recent surveys in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, found tapirs to be among the most abundant large vertebrates above 2000 melevation, where large populationsstill remain in areas where they are not hunted. In the Republic of Panama, reports suggest that tapirs are distributed continuously along the forests of the Caribbean slope. Their range extends from Bocas del Toro Provincein western Panamathroughout the PanamaCanal watershed to the Kuna YalaComarca. These reports also confirmed their presence along the Cordillera Central in western Panama, including prime habitat above 3000 m,as well as in the Darien regionnear the Colombian border. The Mosquitia area of Hondurasand Nicaraguais particularly important because of its large size and low human population density. The species is believed to have been extirpated from El Salvador, but there are recent sightings and reports suggesting the speciesstill persists there at some level. Central American Tapirs occur in a number of protected areas throughout their range. Six large Biosphere Reserves in Campeche, Chiapas, and Quintana Rooin Mexicoare thought to hold numerous tapirs. In Guatemala, the Maya and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserves could hold several hundred more individuals, as could some other small parks in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Although the species is protected nationally throughout its range, these laws are often not enforced in many areas.","Barongi (1986, 1993) | Bolanos & Naranjo (2001) | Brooks et al. (1997) | Carrillo et al. (2000) | Castellanos et al. (2008) | CITES (2005) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Escamilla et al. (2000) | Foerster (1998) | Foerster & Medici (2002) | Foerster & Vaughan (2002) | Fragoso (1991a, 1991b) | Garcia (2006) | Garcia, Leonardo et al. (2009) | Garcia, Ruiz & Morales (2008) | Harmsen et al. (2009) | Hernédndez-Divers et al. (2005) | Hernandez-Divers & Foerster (2001) | Hershkovitz (1954) | Lira et al. (2004) | Medici (2001, 2010) | Medici et al. (2006) | Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002) | Muench (2001) | Naranjo (1995, 2009) | Naranjo & Bodmer (2002) | Naranjo & Cruz-Aldan (1998) | Read (1986) | Reid (1997) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Terwilliger (1978) | Tobler (2002) | Tobler et al. (2006) | Vié et al. (2009) | Williams (1984)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721167/files/figure.png,"2.Central American TapirTapirus bairdiiFrench:Tapir de Baird/ German:Mittelamerika-Tapir/ Spanish:TapircentroamericanoOther common names:Baird's TapirTaxonomy.Elasmognathus bairdu Gill, 1865,Isthmus of Panama, Panama.Recent studies have suggested to include it in the genus Tapirella. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Mexico to NW Colombia; formerly also W EcuadorS to Gulf of Guayaquil, but their occurrence there is now uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-230 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height in adults approximately 120 cm; weight 250-350 kg. The Central American Tapir is the largest of the three Latin American species and is the largest terrestrial mammal found in the Neotropics. The Central American Tapir is dark brown or grayish-brown and has a distinctive cream-colored marking on its face and throat and a dark spot on each cheek, behind and below the eye. The edges of the ears are white. Like the other species of tapir, they have small stubby tails and a long, flexible proboscis.Habitat.The Central American Tapir is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3600 m. The speciesis strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramos. Overall, Central American Tapirs prefer habitat types with permanent water bodies, diverse and dense understory, riparian vegetation, low incidence offires, and less hunting pressure and human presence. Some studies in Mexicohave noted that Central American Tapirs prefer densely forested areas rather than open, more disturbed habitats. In the mixed deciduous forest of Santa Rosa National Park in the north-west of Costa Rica, the tapirs relied on small pools of water in dried-up riverbeds for their drinking and wallowing requirements. Much of the habitat there was subclimax forest. In Corcovado National Park, also in Costa Rica, tapir sign (tracks, dung, rubbings, and evidence of foraging) was more abundant in lowland, second-growth forests and palm swamps than mature forests. In fact, tapirs in Corcovado strongly selected secondary forests and avoided mature forests. Seasonal variations in habitat selection correlated with fruit availability were observed. Tapir sign in Corcovado showed positive correlation with distance from perennial water bodies and rain intensity; there was a negative correlation between sign and slope steepness. Central American Tapirs have been observed in the Costa Rican paramos, particularly near ponds surrounded by dense bush of Chusquea. Lacking a dense hair coat like that of the Mountain Tapir, an extraordinarily thick skin and subcutaneous fat deposits probably help Central American Tapirs withstand the low temperatures prevailing in the paramos. In La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, tapir sign has been observed along mountain crests at 1000-1500 m. These mountain crests are often covered by strips of oak forest, which are believed to be used by tapirs as both marking sites and transit areas between tropical subdeciduous and montane cloud forest slopes.Food and Feeding.The Central American Tapir selectively consumes a wide array of fruit, leaves, shoots, bark, and flowers. Long-term direct observations of one Central American Tapir in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, revealed that these animals consume an average of 15-63 kg of fruit and fibrous materials per day. The tapir observed consumed 126 different plant species. The percentages of bites taken of each food item during the study were 67% leaves, 18:6% fruits, 11-7% stems, 2-1% bark, and 0-1% flowers. Three species accounted for 40% ofthe tapir’s bites for the entire study. The information available on feeding habits of Central American Tapirs in Mexicocomes from a few studies in which about 98 plant species of 50 families were recorded as consumed by this ungulate. The plant families most frequently represented in the diet of Central American Tapirs in Mexicoare Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae. A previous study carried out in a tropical lowland forest in Guatemalanoted that 49 species of plants are consumed by tapirs, with three species representing the highest percentage of the diet. Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceaewere the most important plant families. In the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, plant species of the families Arecaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, and Rubiaceaeaccounted for 33% of total plant species in the tapirs’ diet. Asteraceae, Ericaceae, and Poaceae(especially Chusquea subtessellata) seem to be the predominant plant families in the 3000 mhigh paramos of Chirripé National Park, Costa Rica. The most evident changes in proportions of food items ingested by Central American Tapirs throughout the year are those related to fruit consumption. Fruit usually constitutes a smaller proportion of the diet of Central American Tapirs compared to leaves and other fiber sources. Average fruit proportions found in their feces generally ranges from 7-1% to 18:6% in different areas. However, in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, some fecal samples consisted almost entirely of fruit pieces and tapirs there depended heavily on a wide range offruits (and fruit sizes) during the dry season. Fruit provides significant amounts of the nutrition and calories consumed by this ungulate. Palm swamps composed primarily of Raphia taedigeraand Bactris balanoideaare regularly patrolled by the tapirs and other ungulates, White-lipped Peccaries (7ayassu pecari) in particular, in search of fruit. The role of Central American Tapirs in seed dispersal and seed predation is not completely understood but studies in Santa Rosademonstrated that they widely dispersed viable seeds of many species in their dung, including seeds incidentally ingested while browsing. In Guatemalaand Mexico, Central American Tapirs appear to be important dispersers of Manilkara zapota seeds.Breeding.Most information about reproduction of Central American Tapirs in the wild comes from a long-term field study carried out in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. Direct and indirect evidence from this study indicates that they are facultatively polygamous. Adult female tapirs usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. The calf stays with its mother for 12-18 months. An adult female Central American Tapir was monitored in Corcovado for approximately 14 years. During this period, this female produced nine offspring at intervals of approximately 18 months. Reports from zoos and field observations for wild tapirs in Corcovado indicate that females may become pregnant while lactating, which can reduce the interbirth interval to 16 months. Some females may lose their offspring during lactation, or due to stillbirths or neonatal deaths, and come into estrus sooner, therefore reducing the interbirth interval. Lastly, veterinarians who were part of the field team in Corcovado found pregnant females who had month-old calves; the females were one month pregnant, the fetus visible on ultrasound. Thus, it is highly probable that tapirs present a “foal heat” similar to horses, coming into estrus immediately after giving birth and able to get pregnant. The AZA Studbook for Central American Tapirs notes that tapirs in captivity sire their first offspring as young as two years old. A Central American Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2005 modelled the dynamics of populations in the wild. Because conditions are assumed to be harsher in the wild than in captivity, the age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years, for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Central American Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Although field data from Corcovado shows a larger —although not significant— percentage of males, there is no evidence to suggest a skewed sex ratio at birth.Activity patterns.Central American Tapirs are substantially more active nocturnally than during the day. Their main peaks of activity are between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and 03:00 h and 04:00 h. In Santa RosaNational Park, tapirs were often active for short periods during the day, particularly in the dry season, when they entered residual pools in riverbeds to rest. However, tapirs are known to become almost completely nocturnal when there is heavy hunting pressure.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The mean home range size of Central American Tapirs studied via radio-telemetry in the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, was 1-25 km®. Male tapirs showed somewhat larger but not statistically different average home ranges than females. Researchers found no seasonal changes in size or location of home ranges. In the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park, also in Costa Rica, mean tapir home range size was 1-71 km? These home range variations may be due to differences in dominant vegetation types in those areas, as well as a considerably lower number of perennial water bodies in the latter. Tapir home ranges in Corcovado highly overlapped (33-16%) those of neighboring individuals. Central American Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for 12-18 months. It has been found that once they separate, in most cases, young tapirs in Corcovado stay in the vicinity of the mother’s home range for 3—4years prior to dispersal from the area and establishment of their own home ranges. Therefore, the ranging behavior of tapirs in Corcovado included the establishment of so called “family units,” where pairs of adult male and female tapirs maintained an almost entirely exclusive “territory” with no other resident adults over long periods of time, which they shared with 1-3 offspring from previous years. Although very high percentages of home range overlap occur within the family units, very little overlap occurs between neighboring tapir families. Estimates of Central American Tapir population density vary widely, ranging from a high 1-6 ind/km? in Corcovado National Park to a very low 0-21 ind/km? in the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park. The data from Corcovado National Park may not be applicable to other populations, as the region ofthis research (Sirena Biological Station) has a unique mixture of ideal habitat and almost complete protection from poaching, which perhaps contributes to higher density of the species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Central American Tapir had a continuous distribution from south-eastern Mexicoto the northern portion of Colombia(west of the CaucaRiver) to the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador. The historic distribution ofthis species covered 1,186,300 km®. High rates of habitat destruction and fragmentation throughoutits former range have resulted in the current tapir distribution, which is mostly restricted to protected and/or remote areas in eight countries. A recent range extension of 377 kmbrought Central American Tapir to a new northern limit; La Tuza de Monroy, near the municipality of Santiago Jamiltepec in Oaxaca, Mexico. In Colombia, the species is present in Los Katios National Park. This population is poorly understood due to the presence of guerrilla activity, which has made research in the area extremely difficult. Anecdotally, biologists in Los Katios report that there are a few tapirs between the park and the Pacific Ocean. Large fragments of forest extending to the Pacific, combined with the Darien region, which is shared with the Republic of Panama, could have 160 km? of habitat for a total of 227 km?There is an ongoing reduction of Central American Tapir populations estimated to be greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth oftapirs, coupled with habitat loss/fragmentation and hunting, are the main factors contributing to population declines. It is estimated that approximately 70% of Central American forests have been lost through deforestation and alteration over the last 40 years. In Costa Ricaalone, it is now estimated that 80% of the country has been deforested, up from about 67% approximately 25 years ago. Overall, it is inferred that at least 50% of the Central American Tapir habitat has been lost in the past three generations, causing drastic population declines and making remnant populations more susceptible to extinction from natural disasters and disease. This rate of decline is predicted to continue. In Belize, unremitting forest destruction and fragmentation of the Selva Maya continues to threaten tapir populations. The construction of roads through the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemalais likely to become a major problem for tapirs in that area, as well as the isolation of smaller protected areas. In Costa Rica, logging and destructive farming practices are widespread. Gold mining is another problem in some parts of this country. The effect of hunting is notable given that Central American Tapirs are common where not hunted and nearly absent where hunting pressure is high. Even minimal hunting has proven to significantly decrease their populations, which is expected given their low reproductive rate. Some evidence exists that tapirs are susceptible and have been exposed to pathogens that also cause disease in livestock and horses; however, to date, there is no proof that infectious diseases have caused significant mortalities or have affected population levels. Nevertheless, several adult tapirs have been found dead nearlivestock areas in Chimalapas rain forest, Mexico, and were thought to have died from infectious diseases. Although most Central American Tapir populations have not been quantified and monitored yet, the current overall population estimate for this species is approximately 5000 mature individuals (Mexico, 1000; Belize, no current estimates; Guatemala, 1000; Honduras, 500; Nicaragua, 500; Costa Rica, 1000; Panama, 1000; Colombia, 250). There appear to be several strongholds for tapir populations, including La Amistad International Park in Costa Ricaand Panama. The Selva Maya shared by Belize, Guatemala, and Mexicois the largest continuoustract of forest where Central American Tapirs can be found. Recent surveys in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, found tapirs to be among the most abundant large vertebrates above 2000 melevation, where large populationsstill remain in areas where they are not hunted. In the Republic of Panama, reports suggest that tapirs are distributed continuously along the forests of the Caribbean slope. Their range extends from Bocas del Toro Provincein western Panamathroughout the PanamaCanal watershed to the Kuna YalaComarca. These reports also confirmed their presence along the Cordillera Central in western Panama, including prime habitat above 3000 m,as well as in the Darien regionnear the Colombian border. The Mosquitia area of Hondurasand Nicaraguais particularly important because of its large size and low human population density. The species is believed to have been extirpated from El Salvador, but there are recent sightings and reports suggesting the speciesstill persists there at some level. Central American Tapirs occur in a number of protected areas throughout their range. Six large Biosphere Reserves in Campeche, Chiapas, and Quintana Rooin Mexicoare thought to hold numerous tapirs. In Guatemala, the Maya and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserves could hold several hundred more individuals, as could some other small parks in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Although the species is protected nationally throughout its range, these laws are often not enforced in many areas.Bibliography.Barongi (1986, 1993), Bolanos & Naranjo (2001), Brooks et al. (1997), Carrillo et al. (2000), Castellanos et al. (2008), CITES (2005), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Escamilla et al. (2000), Foerster (1998), Foerster & Medici (2002), Foerster & Vaughan (2002), Fragoso (1991a, 1991b), Garcia (2006), Garcia, Leonardo et al. (2009), Garcia, Ruiz & Morales (2008), Harmsen et al. (2009), Hernédndez-Divers et al. (2005), Hernandez-Divers & Foerster (2001), Hershkovitz (1954), Lira et al. (2004), Medici (2001, 2010), Medici et al. (2006), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002), Muench (2001), Naranjo (1995, 2009), Naranjo & Bodmer (2002), Naranjo & Cruz-Aldan (1998), Read (1986), Reid (1997), Schipper et al. (2008), Terwilliger (1978), Tobler (2002), Tobler et al. (2006), Vié et al. (2009), Williams (1984)." 039CED53FFC4FF88FA5021E814549604,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC4FF88FA5021E814549604.xml,Tapirus indicus,Tapirus,indicus,Desmarest,1819,Tapir de Malaisie @fr | Schabrackentapir @de | Tapirmalayo @es | Asian Tapir @en | @en | ndian Tapir @en | Malay Tapir @en,"Tapirus indicus Desmarest, 1819,Malaysia, Malay Peninsula.Recent studies have suggested including it in the genus Acrocordia. Considered monotypic here, although an all-black form from Sumatra was named brevetianus on the basis of two individuals.","Malayan Tapirs occur in two disjunct and isolated populations, one on mainland SE Asia in peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, and Myanmar, and the other in the S & C Sumatra, in Indonesia.","Head—body 250-300 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 100-130 cm; weight 280-400 kg. Malayan Tapirs are the largest ofall tapir species. In fact, the Malayan Tapir is one of the largest herbivores of the South-east Asian rainforest, with only wild cattle species, rhinos, and elephants surpassing it in size. The Malayan Tapir can be easily identified by its color pattern. A white saddle starts behind the front legs and extends over the back to the tail. The contrasting colors form a disruptive pattern that blends the animal with its environment and makes it more difficult for predators to recognize it as potential prey. Completely black individuals have been photographed by camera-traps, particularly in Sumatra and Malaysia. Young Malayan Tapirs have length-wise stripes and pale spots; the white saddle only starts to show after approximately 70 days. It takes approximately 5-6 months for the last remains of the juvenilestripes to completely disappear. Although Malayan Tapirs do not have the crest seen on Lowland Tapirs, the skin on the back of the head and nape is nearly 2-3 cm thick, presumably for protection from predator fangs. It also protects the neck when the tapir is moving through dense undergrowth. The proboscis of the Malayan Tapir is longer and stronger than that of its Latin American relatives. Malayan Tapirs have a well-developed sense of smell and hearing and can move with great speed through dense undergrowth. Interestingly, it has been observed that they can escape predators by going under water and staying submerged for considerable lengths of time.Habitat.Malayan Tapirs are found predominantly in tropical lowland moist forests and occur in both primary and mature secondary forests offering good cover. In the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailandtapirs range from 100 mto 1500 min alttude, and in Sumatra, tapirs may reach an altitude of 1500 m, or possibly 2000 mwhen crossing a ridge. They are not found in northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia,likely because of the more seasonal climate and harsher dry season of the forest in these areas. In Thailand, tapirs are associated with a variety of forest types including dry dipterocarp, mixed deciduous, dry evergreen, and hill evergreen. Tapirs move into evergreen forest during the dry season when food is scarce and forestfires are present. They return to the dry dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forest in the rainy season when sprouts of leaves and twigs emerge. Although Malayan Tapirs are generally considered to be lowland animals, they do travel a long way up mountains. In Indonesia, they inhabit lowland areas during the dry season and move to mountain areas during the wet season. Because the lowland forests are disappearing at a faster rate than the montane forests, an accelerated reduction in range and population is suspected. The Malayan Tapir habitat in Indonesiahas been described as humid, swampy, densejungle with an understory of shrubby plants and grassy meadows bordering streams. In southern Sumatra, researchers found the highest densities of tapirs in undisturbed swamp areas and lowland forests on well-drained soil. The same researchers further stated that tapir densities were lower in early-stage successional forest than in late-stage successional forest that was formerly logged. Similarly, in the Jambi Provinceof southern Sumatra, a study showed that undisturbed areas were preferred over disturbed areas; however, signs of their presence were abundant in forest fringes as well as logged or otherwise disturbed forest, and sometimes these animals wandered into rubber and oil palm plantations. In Bengkulu, Sumatra, tapirs are considered to be a problem species for stripping bark from rubber trees. The Malaysian Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) inventories show that Malayan Tapirs are found within a 5 kmradius of major cities like Seremban, Kuantan, and Temerloh. Another important aspect of their habitat use is that saltlicks apparently are visited once or twice a month, preferably with the new and the full moon. Malayan Tapirs generally stay in the vicinity of water. They like to spend a considerable time in the water and often defecate there. Several individuals have been rescued after falling into village wells or getting stuck in mud wallows.Food and Feeding.Malayan Tapirs are selective browsers, concentrating their diet on young leaves and growing twigs. Preferred food plants mostly (42%) belong to the plant families Euphorbiaceaeand Rubiaceae. Most of the plants consumed are woody and only a few herbaceous plants are consumed. In addition to foliage, Malayan Tapirs consume considerable amounts of fruit that they pick up from the ground. During feeding they sometimes push over small trees and break smaller sapling stems and branches in orderto get to the leaves and twigs. The heights at which they break stems were found to range between 0-8 m and 1-4 m. Feeding is not concentrated in particular locations. Suitable leaves and fruits appear to be eaten as encountered. Whereasit was reported by one source that their preferred food plants are characteristic of forest fringe and secondary growth, another source stated that the only feeding signs were found on understory plants in the primary rainforest. More than 115 species of plants are known to be eaten by Malayan Tapirs. Approximately 75% of these plants comprised 27 species and these are considered to be the most highly preferred food items. In Thailand, 39 species of plants were preferred. Their diet comprised 86-5% leaves, 8:1% fruit, and 5-4% leaf/twig matter. The most common plant species consumed by Malayan Tapirs in Sumatra are Symplocos, and Asplenium, Artocarpus, and Durio are occasionally eaten in secondary forests. Some herbaceous plants (Curculigo latifolia) and low-growing succulents (Homalomena and Phyllagathis rotundifolia) are also consumed, as is club moss (Selaginella willdenonii). The saplings of Baccaurea parviflora are browsed heavily.Breeding.There is very little data about the reproduction of Malayan Tapirs in the wild. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). In May 2007, a female held at the Malay Tapir Conservation Centre (MTCC) at the Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve in Malaysiagave birth to twin calves, one male and one female. This was the first recorded twinning in the species. To model the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild, data from captivity have been used to estimate reproductive parameters. Captive females return to a cyclic estrus during lactation, but allow males to mount 153 days, on average, after giving birth. Mating was once observed in a captive pair on five consecutive occasions, averaging 29-4 days (range 29-31) between copulations, suggesting interestrous intervals of about 30 days. The earliest known mating ages are three years for males and average 2-8 (range 2-3-3) years for females. The earliest recorded conception by a female Malayan Tapir, at Saint Louis Zoo in the USA, occurred at 36 months, although females have mated as early as 31-32 months of age. The life span is about 30 years.","Malayan Tapirs are found predominantly in tropical lowland moist forests and occur in both primary and mature secondary forests offering good cover. In the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailandtapirs range from 100 mto 1500 min alttude, and in Sumatra, tapirs may reach an altitude of 1500 m, or possibly 2000 mwhen crossing a ridge. They are not found in northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia,likely because of the more seasonal climate and harsher dry season of the forest in these areas. In Thailand, tapirs are associated with a variety of forest types including dry dipterocarp, mixed deciduous, dry evergreen, and hill evergreen. Tapirs move into evergreen forest during the dry season when food is scarce and forestfires are present. They return to the dry dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forest in the rainy season when sprouts of leaves and twigs emerge. Although Malayan Tapirs are generally considered to be lowland animals, they do travel a long way up mountains. In Indonesia, they inhabit lowland areas during the dry season and move to mountain areas during the wet season. Because the lowland forests are disappearing at a faster rate than the montane forests, an accelerated reduction in range and population is suspected. The Malayan Tapir habitat in Indonesiahas been described as humid, swampy, densejungle with an understory of shrubby plants and grassy meadows bordering streams. In southern Sumatra, researchers found the highest densities of tapirs in undisturbed swamp areas and lowland forests on well-drained soil. The same researchers further stated that tapir densities were lower in early-stage successional forest than in late-stage successional forest that was formerly logged. Similarly, in the Jambi Provinceof southern Sumatra, a study showed that undisturbed areas were preferred over disturbed areas; however, signs of their presence were abundant in forest fringes as well as logged or otherwise disturbed forest, and sometimes these animals wandered into rubber and oil palm plantations. In Bengkulu, Sumatra, tapirs are considered to be a problem species for stripping bark from rubber trees. The Malaysian Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) inventories show that Malayan Tapirs are found within a 5 kmradius of major cities like Seremban, Kuantan, and Temerloh. Another important aspect of their habitat use is that saltlicks apparently are visited once or twice a month, preferably with the new and the full moon. Malayan Tapirs generally stay in the vicinity of water. They like to spend a considerable time in the water and often defecate there. Several individuals have been rescued after falling into village wells or getting stuck in mud wallows.","Malayan Tapirs are selective browsers, concentrating their diet on young leaves and growing twigs. Preferred food plants mostly (42%) belong to the plant families Euphorbiaceaeand Rubiaceae. Most of the plants consumed are woody and only a few herbaceous plants are consumed. In addition to foliage, Malayan Tapirs consume considerable amounts of fruit that they pick up from the ground. During feeding they sometimes push over small trees and break smaller sapling stems and branches in orderto get to the leaves and twigs. The heights at which they break stems were found to range between 0-8 m and 1-4 m. Feeding is not concentrated in particular locations. Suitable leaves and fruits appear to be eaten as encountered. Whereasit was reported by one source that their preferred food plants are characteristic of forest fringe and secondary growth, another source stated that the only feeding signs were found on understory plants in the primary rainforest. More than 115 species of plants are known to be eaten by Malayan Tapirs. Approximately 75% of these plants comprised 27 species and these are considered to be the most highly preferred food items. In Thailand, 39 species of plants were preferred. Their diet comprised 86-5% leaves, 8:1% fruit, and 5-4% leaf/twig matter. The most common plant species consumed by Malayan Tapirs in Sumatra are Symplocos, and Asplenium, Artocarpus, and Durio are occasionally eaten in secondary forests. Some herbaceous plants (Curculigo latifolia) and low-growing succulents (Homalomena and Phyllagathis rotundifolia) are also consumed, as is club moss (Selaginella willdenonii). The saplings of Baccaurea parviflora are browsed heavily.","There is very little data about the reproduction of Malayan Tapirs in the wild. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). In May 2007, a female held at the Malay Tapir Conservation Centre (MTCC) at the Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve in Malaysiagave birth to twin calves, one male and one female. This was the first recorded twinning in the species. To model the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild, data from captivity have been used to estimate reproductive parameters. Captive females return to a cyclic estrus during lactation, but allow males to mount 153 days, on average, after giving birth. Mating was once observed in a captive pair on five consecutive occasions, averaging 29-4 days (range 29-31) between copulations, suggesting interestrous intervals of about 30 days. The earliest known mating ages are three years for males and average 2-8 (range 2-3-3) years for females. The earliest recorded conception by a female Malayan Tapir, at Saint Louis Zoo in the USA, occurred at 36 months, although females have mated as early as 31-32 months of age. The life span is about 30 years. A Malayan Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2003 modelled the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild. Considering that natural situations impose a toll on growth and achieving sexual maturity, it was assumed that in the wild both sexes are capable of reproducing for the first time at age five. Maximum age of reproduction in the wild was estimated to be 24 (+ 2) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Malayan Tapirs was estimated to be twelve years. A female Malayan Tapir could potentially bring up some 5-15 young in her lifetime. Zoo records from the Zoo Negara, Malaysia, show birth rates with a 1:1 sex ratio.","A Malayan Tapir camera-trap study in Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia, found the tapirs to be strictly nocturnal, with an activity pattern that peaks at 19:00 h, when their only possible predator, the Sumatran Tiger, is least active. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village, West Sumatra, noted an activity peak at 22:00 h. Tapirs studied in Taman Negara in Malaysiawere observed to browse occasionally during the daytime hours but were mostly encountered atrest.","A telemetry study on Malayan Tapirs in Taman Negara, Malaysia, revealed a very large home range size of 12-75 km?.The home range of one of the monitored males overlapped the home ranges of several other individuals. An area of 0-52 km?® was occupied over a period of 27 days, during which time the male associated with a female and her young. The average straight line distance traveled per day by a male was 0-32 km. A more recent telemetry study in Krau Wildlife Reserve, also in Malaysia, estimated a home range of approximately 10-15 km?®. One ofthe study animals moved within a range of 70 km? Malayan Tapir density estimates appear to be lower when compared to the three Latin American tapir species. In Thailand, nine individuals were observed in an area of approximately 256 km?, resulting in approximately 0-035 ind/km?In southern Sumatra, the density of tapirs has been estimated to range from 0-3 ind/km? to 0-44 ind/km? in undisturbed swamp forests and lowland forests on well-drained soil, and 0-02 ind/km? in more hilly and mountainous areas in the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. In Kerinci-Seblat National Park, also in Sumatra, Malayan Tapir density based on tapir signs on line-transects and camera-traps was 0-15 ind/km?. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village in Sumatra resulted in a density estimate of 0-5 ind/km?. Several camera-trap studies have noted that Malayan Tapirs are predominantly solitary. A camera-trap study in Krau Wildlife Reserve revealed that they disperse substantial distances and that they visit saltlicks significantly more often than any other animal speciesin the reserve. There have been sporadic records of Malayan Tapirs crossing palm oil estates as the animals travelled from one forested area to the next.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The species previously was listed as occurring in northern India, southern China, southern Cambodia, and possibly southern Vietnam. There was an authenticsounding record from Laosin 1902. Further investigation of historical records and other indications from Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, northern Thailand, and even southern Chinahave found none that has any compelling evidence in its support. There is no credible historical-era record from north of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, although there are fossil remains from Vietnamand Chinathat indicate a much wider range under different climatic scenarios. In Thailand, Malayan Tapirs are found along the western border, on the peninsula south to the Malaysian border, and in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in the north. In Myanmar, the species is found restricted to the Tenasserim region, a narrow strip of territory between Thailandand the Indian Ocean.The speciesis listed as Endangered due to an ongoing population decline caused by habitat loss and fragmentation and increasing hunting pressure throughout its range. Malayan Tapirs are shy animals and appear to be highly sensitive to forest fragmentation. Population declines were estimated to have been greater than 50% in the past three generations (36 years), driven primarily by large-scale conversion of habitat to palm oil plantations and other human land-use. The rate of reduction in population is inferred to be proportional to the reduction of the tropical rainforest area in South-east Asia over the same period; however, it may be higher due to indirect threats. The population on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, historically the main stronghold of the species,is considered to be the most endangered because of largescale habitat destruction. Approximately 60% of the forest cover of Sumatrahas been lost over the past 15 years. As a consequence, more than 50% of the Malayan Tapir habitat is thought to have been lost, with much of the remaining forest either outside of protected areas or outside of the range of the species. Even in the protected areas, illegal logging continues. Less than 10% of the suitable habitat has been preserved, and much of that is degraded. In Thailand, remaining populations are isolated in protected areas and forest fragments, which are mostly discontinuous and offer little opportunity for genetic exchange. In Malaysia, forest loss is extremely severe, especially because of expanding oil palm plantations. Nevertheless, the current forestry trend seems to have stabilized at approximately 43% remaining forest cover (57% lost), of which at least half can be considered tapir habitat. In Myanmar, 3-2% of the land is protected and most tapir habitat lies outside of these protected areas. Although hunting has been a minor threat to the species in the past, it seems to be increasing as people are beginning to see the Malayan Tapir as a food source. Historically, tapirs were not hunted for subsistence or commercial trade in Thailandor Myanmar, since their flesh was considered distasteful, and some hill tribes believed that killing a tapir brings bad luck, so they are not hunted. However, some recent localized hunting has been reported in Sumatra. Nevertheless, it is uncertain how many individuals are actually hunted every year. Hunting could become a cause for concern, as already reduced and isolated populations would be at great risk for extirpation. Another problem is the removal of tapirs for zoos in Indonesia. In the past, several Indonesian zoos, especially Pekanbaru Zoo, traded in live tapirs for sale to other Indonesian zoos or private collections, or for sale as meat in local markets to the non-Muslim community. Fifty tapirs are reported to have passed through the Pekanbaru Zoo since 1993. Some of these animals are suspected of having originated from protected areas. Lastly, there have been reports of tapir road-kills in Malaysia. Further research efforts are needed to determine the total population size of Malayan Tapirs. In 2008, the population in Malaysiawas estimated to be approximately 1500-2000 individuals. The speciesis legally protected in all range states and the habitat of large parts of the range is protected, including a number of National Parks in Thailand, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. Thailandsupports one of the most comprehensive systems of protected areas in South-east Asia, comprising 17% of land area. Malayan Tapirs are recorded from forest areas in the west and south of the country, including transboundary forests in border areas and large isolated forest remnants. The transboundary forests represent the most extensive contiguous habitats for large mammals left in the country. They include the Western Forest Complex (Thai-Myanmar border), which includes twelve protected areas and covers over 18,730 km?, including both dry and wet forests, and the Kaeng Krachan/Chumpol complex, which covers 4373 km? mostly wet evergreen forest on the Thai-Myanmar border. The Balahala Forest is an expanse of 1850 km? of tropical rainforest on the Thai-Malay border. All areas are contiguous with large forest areas on opposite sides of the border. Recent survey efforts suggest that tapirs are present though uncommon in each of these transboundary forest areas. Thus, most existing Malayan Tapir habitat in Thailandis protected and the future for conservation of the species in that country is positive. In Myanmar, Malayan Tapirs are entirely restricted to rainforests in the Tenasserim Ranges along the Thai-Myanmar border. Two new protected areas have been designated in the Tenasserims, TanintharyiNational Park and Lenya River Wildlife Sanctuary. If these areas can be protected, they will preserve valuable tapir habitat in the future. Currently, civil unrest in Myanmarmakes these areas inaccessible for wildlife surveys.","Abdul Ghani (2009) | Barongi (1986, 1993) | Blouch (1984) | Brooks et al. (2007) | CITES (2005) | Duckworth et al. (1999) | DWNP (2003) | Ferris (1905) | Fountaine (1962) | Harper (1945) | Holden et al. (2003) | Holmes (2001) | Kaewsirisuk (2001) | Kawanishi (2002) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Lynam (1996, 1999, 2000, 2003) | Lynam et al. (2008) | Medici (2001) | Medici et al. (2003) | Medway (1974) | Meijaard (1998) | Pournelle (1966) | Prayurasiddhi et al. (1999) | Read (1986) | Santiapillai & Ramono (1990) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Steinmetz et al. (2008) | Traeholt (2002) | WCS (2001, 2003) | Williams (1978, 1979) | Williams & Petrides (1980) | Yin (1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721173/files/figure.png,"4.Malayan TapirTapirus indicusFrench:Tapir de Malaisie/ German:Schabrackentapir/ Spanish:TapirmalayoOther common names:Asian Tapir, Indian Tapir, Malay TapirTaxonomy.Tapirus indicus Desmarest, 1819,Malaysia, Malay Peninsula.Recent studies have suggested including it in the genus Acrocordia. Considered monotypic here, although an all-black form from Sumatra was named brevetianus on the basis of two individuals.Distribution.Malayan Tapirs occur in two disjunct and isolated populations, one on mainland SE Asia in peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, and Myanmar, and the other in the S & C Sumatra, in Indonesia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 250-300 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 100-130 cm; weight 280-400 kg. Malayan Tapirs are the largest ofall tapir species. In fact, the Malayan Tapir is one of the largest herbivores of the South-east Asian rainforest, with only wild cattle species, rhinos, and elephants surpassing it in size. The Malayan Tapir can be easily identified by its color pattern. A white saddle starts behind the front legs and extends over the back to the tail. The contrasting colors form a disruptive pattern that blends the animal with its environment and makes it more difficult for predators to recognize it as potential prey. Completely black individuals have been photographed by camera-traps, particularly in Sumatra and Malaysia. Young Malayan Tapirs have length-wise stripes and pale spots; the white saddle only starts to show after approximately 70 days. It takes approximately 5-6 months for the last remains of the juvenilestripes to completely disappear. Although Malayan Tapirs do not have the crest seen on Lowland Tapirs, the skin on the back of the head and nape is nearly 2-3 cm thick, presumably for protection from predator fangs. It also protects the neck when the tapir is moving through dense undergrowth. The proboscis of the Malayan Tapir is longer and stronger than that of its Latin American relatives. Malayan Tapirs have a well-developed sense of smell and hearing and can move with great speed through dense undergrowth. Interestingly, it has been observed that they can escape predators by going under water and staying submerged for considerable lengths of time.Habitat.Malayan Tapirs are found predominantly in tropical lowland moist forests and occur in both primary and mature secondary forests offering good cover. In the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailandtapirs range from 100 mto 1500 min alttude, and in Sumatra, tapirs may reach an altitude of 1500 m, or possibly 2000 mwhen crossing a ridge. They are not found in northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia,likely because of the more seasonal climate and harsher dry season of the forest in these areas. In Thailand, tapirs are associated with a variety of forest types including dry dipterocarp, mixed deciduous, dry evergreen, and hill evergreen. Tapirs move into evergreen forest during the dry season when food is scarce and forestfires are present. They return to the dry dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forest in the rainy season when sprouts of leaves and twigs emerge. Although Malayan Tapirs are generally considered to be lowland animals, they do travel a long way up mountains. In Indonesia, they inhabit lowland areas during the dry season and move to mountain areas during the wet season. Because the lowland forests are disappearing at a faster rate than the montane forests, an accelerated reduction in range and population is suspected. The Malayan Tapir habitat in Indonesiahas been described as humid, swampy, densejungle with an understory of shrubby plants and grassy meadows bordering streams. In southern Sumatra, researchers found the highest densities of tapirs in undisturbed swamp areas and lowland forests on well-drained soil. The same researchers further stated that tapir densities were lower in early-stage successional forest than in late-stage successional forest that was formerly logged. Similarly, in the Jambi Provinceof southern Sumatra, a study showed that undisturbed areas were preferred over disturbed areas; however, signs of their presence were abundant in forest fringes as well as logged or otherwise disturbed forest, and sometimes these animals wandered into rubber and oil palm plantations. In Bengkulu, Sumatra, tapirs are considered to be a problem species for stripping bark from rubber trees. The Malaysian Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) inventories show that Malayan Tapirs are found within a 5 kmradius of major cities like Seremban, Kuantan, and Temerloh. Another important aspect of their habitat use is that saltlicks apparently are visited once or twice a month, preferably with the new and the full moon. Malayan Tapirs generally stay in the vicinity of water. They like to spend a considerable time in the water and often defecate there. Several individuals have been rescued after falling into village wells or getting stuck in mud wallows.Food and Feeding.Malayan Tapirs are selective browsers, concentrating their diet on young leaves and growing twigs. Preferred food plants mostly (42%) belong to the plant families Euphorbiaceaeand Rubiaceae. Most of the plants consumed are woody and only a few herbaceous plants are consumed. In addition to foliage, Malayan Tapirs consume considerable amounts of fruit that they pick up from the ground. During feeding they sometimes push over small trees and break smaller sapling stems and branches in orderto get to the leaves and twigs. The heights at which they break stems were found to range between 0-8 m and 1-4 m. Feeding is not concentrated in particular locations. Suitable leaves and fruits appear to be eaten as encountered. Whereasit was reported by one source that their preferred food plants are characteristic of forest fringe and secondary growth, another source stated that the only feeding signs were found on understory plants in the primary rainforest. More than 115 species of plants are known to be eaten by Malayan Tapirs. Approximately 75% of these plants comprised 27 species and these are considered to be the most highly preferred food items. In Thailand, 39 species of plants were preferred. Their diet comprised 86-5% leaves, 8:1% fruit, and 5-4% leaf/twig matter. The most common plant species consumed by Malayan Tapirs in Sumatra are Symplocos, and Asplenium, Artocarpus, and Durio are occasionally eaten in secondary forests. Some herbaceous plants (Curculigo latifolia) and low-growing succulents (Homalomena and Phyllagathis rotundifolia) are also consumed, as is club moss (Selaginella willdenonii). The saplings of Baccaurea parviflora are browsed heavily.Breeding.There is very little data about the reproduction of Malayan Tapirs in the wild. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). In May 2007, a female held at the Malay Tapir Conservation Centre (MTCC) at the Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve in Malaysiagave birth to twin calves, one male and one female. This was the first recorded twinning in the species. To model the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild, data from captivity have been used to estimate reproductive parameters. Captive females return to a cyclic estrus during lactation, but allow males to mount 153 days, on average, after giving birth. Mating was once observed in a captive pair on five consecutive occasions, averaging 29-4 days (range 29-31) between copulations, suggesting interestrous intervals of about 30 days. The earliest known mating ages are three years for males and average 2-8 (range 2-3-3) years for females. The earliest recorded conception by a female Malayan Tapir, at Saint Louis Zoo in the USA, occurred at 36 months, although females have mated as early as 31-32 months of age. The life span is about 30 years. A Malayan Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2003 modelled the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild. Considering that natural situations impose a toll on growth and achieving sexual maturity, it was assumed that in the wild both sexes are capable of reproducing for the first time at age five. Maximum age of reproduction in the wild was estimated to be 24 (+ 2) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Malayan Tapirs was estimated to be twelve years. A female Malayan Tapir could potentially bring up some 5-15 young in her lifetime. Zoo records from the Zoo Negara, Malaysia, show birth rates with a 1:1 sex ratio.Activity patterns.A Malayan Tapir camera-trap study in Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia, found the tapirs to be strictly nocturnal, with an activity pattern that peaks at 19:00 h, when their only possible predator, the Sumatran Tiger, is least active. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village, West Sumatra, noted an activity peak at 22:00 h. Tapirs studied in Taman Negara in Malaysiawere observed to browse occasionally during the daytime hours but were mostly encountered atrest.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A telemetry study on Malayan Tapirs in Taman Negara, Malaysia, revealed a very large home range size of 12-75 km?.The home range of one of the monitored males overlapped the home ranges of several other individuals. An area of 0-52 km?® was occupied over a period of 27 days, during which time the male associated with a female and her young. The average straight line distance traveled per day by a male was 0-32 km. A more recent telemetry study in Krau Wildlife Reserve, also in Malaysia, estimated a home range of approximately 10-15 km?®. One ofthe study animals moved within a range of 70 km? Malayan Tapir density estimates appear to be lower when compared to the three Latin American tapir species. In Thailand, nine individuals were observed in an area of approximately 256 km?, resulting in approximately 0-035 ind/km?In southern Sumatra, the density of tapirs has been estimated to range from 0-3 ind/km? to 0-44 ind/km? in undisturbed swamp forests and lowland forests on well-drained soil, and 0-02 ind/km? in more hilly and mountainous areas in the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. In Kerinci-Seblat National Park, also in Sumatra, Malayan Tapir density based on tapir signs on line-transects and camera-traps was 0-15 ind/km?. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village in Sumatra resulted in a density estimate of 0-5 ind/km?. Several camera-trap studies have noted that Malayan Tapirs are predominantly solitary. A camera-trap study in Krau Wildlife Reserve revealed that they disperse substantial distances and that they visit saltlicks significantly more often than any other animal speciesin the reserve. There have been sporadic records of Malayan Tapirs crossing palm oil estates as the animals travelled from one forested area to the next.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The species previously was listed as occurring in northern India, southern China, southern Cambodia, and possibly southern Vietnam. There was an authenticsounding record from Laosin 1902. Further investigation of historical records and other indications from Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, northern Thailand, and even southern Chinahave found none that has any compelling evidence in its support. There is no credible historical-era record from north of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, although there are fossil remains from Vietnamand Chinathat indicate a much wider range under different climatic scenarios. In Thailand, Malayan Tapirs are found along the western border, on the peninsula south to the Malaysian border, and in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in the north. In Myanmar, the species is found restricted to the Tenasserim region, a narrow strip of territory between Thailandand the Indian Ocean.The speciesis listed as Endangered due to an ongoing population decline caused by habitat loss and fragmentation and increasing hunting pressure throughout its range. Malayan Tapirs are shy animals and appear to be highly sensitive to forest fragmentation. Population declines were estimated to have been greater than 50% in the past three generations (36 years), driven primarily by large-scale conversion of habitat to palm oil plantations and other human land-use. The rate of reduction in population is inferred to be proportional to the reduction of the tropical rainforest area in South-east Asia over the same period; however, it may be higher due to indirect threats. The population on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, historically the main stronghold of the species,is considered to be the most endangered because of largescale habitat destruction. Approximately 60% of the forest cover of Sumatrahas been lost over the past 15 years. As a consequence, more than 50% of the Malayan Tapir habitat is thought to have been lost, with much of the remaining forest either outside of protected areas or outside of the range of the species. Even in the protected areas, illegal logging continues. Less than 10% of the suitable habitat has been preserved, and much of that is degraded. In Thailand, remaining populations are isolated in protected areas and forest fragments, which are mostly discontinuous and offer little opportunity for genetic exchange. In Malaysia, forest loss is extremely severe, especially because of expanding oil palm plantations. Nevertheless, the current forestry trend seems to have stabilized at approximately 43% remaining forest cover (57% lost), of which at least half can be considered tapir habitat. In Myanmar, 3-2% of the land is protected and most tapir habitat lies outside of these protected areas. Although hunting has been a minor threat to the species in the past, it seems to be increasing as people are beginning to see the Malayan Tapir as a food source. Historically, tapirs were not hunted for subsistence or commercial trade in Thailandor Myanmar, since their flesh was considered distasteful, and some hill tribes believed that killing a tapir brings bad luck, so they are not hunted. However, some recent localized hunting has been reported in Sumatra. Nevertheless, it is uncertain how many individuals are actually hunted every year. Hunting could become a cause for concern, as already reduced and isolated populations would be at great risk for extirpation. Another problem is the removal of tapirs for zoos in Indonesia. In the past, several Indonesian zoos, especially Pekanbaru Zoo, traded in live tapirs for sale to other Indonesian zoos or private collections, or for sale as meat in local markets to the non-Muslim community. Fifty tapirs are reported to have passed through the Pekanbaru Zoo since 1993. Some of these animals are suspected of having originated from protected areas. Lastly, there have been reports of tapir road-kills in Malaysia. Further research efforts are needed to determine the total population size of Malayan Tapirs. In 2008, the population in Malaysiawas estimated to be approximately 1500-2000 individuals. The speciesis legally protected in all range states and the habitat of large parts of the range is protected, including a number of National Parks in Thailand, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. Thailandsupports one of the most comprehensive systems of protected areas in South-east Asia, comprising 17% of land area. Malayan Tapirs are recorded from forest areas in the west and south of the country, including transboundary forests in border areas and large isolated forest remnants. The transboundary forests represent the most extensive contiguous habitats for large mammals left in the country. They include the Western Forest Complex (Thai-Myanmar border), which includes twelve protected areas and covers over 18,730 km?, including both dry and wet forests, and the Kaeng Krachan/Chumpol complex, which covers 4373 km? mostly wet evergreen forest on the Thai-Myanmar border. The Balahala Forest is an expanse of 1850 km? of tropical rainforest on the Thai-Malay border. All areas are contiguous with large forest areas on opposite sides of the border. Recent survey efforts suggest that tapirs are present though uncommon in each of these transboundary forest areas. Thus, most existing Malayan Tapir habitat in Thailandis protected and the future for conservation of the species in that country is positive. In Myanmar, Malayan Tapirs are entirely restricted to rainforests in the Tenasserim Ranges along the Thai-Myanmar border. Two new protected areas have been designated in the Tenasserims, TanintharyiNational Park and Lenya River Wildlife Sanctuary. If these areas can be protected, they will preserve valuable tapir habitat in the future. Currently, civil unrest in Myanmarmakes these areas inaccessible for wildlife surveys.Bibliography.Abdul Ghani (2009), Barongi (1986, 1993), Blouch (1984), Brooks et al. (2007), CITES (2005), Duckworth et al. (1999), DWNP (2003), Ferris (1905), Fountaine (1962), Harper (1945), Holden et al. (2003), Holmes (2001), Kaewsirisuk (2001), Kawanishi (2002), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Lynam (1996, 1999, 2000, 2003), Lynam et al. (2008), Medici (2001), Medici et al. (2003), Medway (1974), Meijaard (1998), Pournelle (1966), Prayurasiddhi et al. (1999), Read (1986), Santiapillai & Ramono (1990), Schipper et al. (2008), Steinmetz et al. (2008), Traeholt (2002), WCS (2001, 2003), Williams (1978, 1979), Williams & Petrides (1980), Yin (1993)." 039CED53FFC5FF8AFAB221BE16799315,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC5FF8AFAB221BE16799315.xml,Tapirus pinchaque,Tapirus,pinchaque,Roulin,1829,Tapir des Andes @fr | Andentapir @de | Tapirde montana @es | Andean Tapir @en | Woolly Tapir @en,"Tapir pinchaque Roulin, 1829,Paramo de Sumapaz, Cundinamarca, Colombia.This species is monotypic.","The species is known to occur in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, and N Peru; historically also in W Venezuela, but now extirpated.","Head-body 180-200 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 80-90 cm; weight 150-200 kg. The Mountain Tapir is the smallest of the four tapir species. Nevertheless,it is the largest terrestrial mammal in the Andes. Females tend to be slightly larger than males but this is generally indistinguishable in the wild. Newborn Mountain Tapirs usually weigh 4-7 kg. Adults have dark brown to coal-black fur, with white furry fringes around the lips, hoofed toes, and usually the tips of the rounded ears. The fur is 3-4 cm long. The species is adapted to live at high elevations with its thick undercoat and long, woolly outercoat, which both insulates and absorbs heat from the sun, providing protection against the cool night temperatures. The eyes are a glazy bluish-brown. Its splayed hooves allow it considerable versatility for locomotion in the high Andes, even on the snow banks and glaciers.Habitat.The five major habitat types for Mountain Tapirs are chaparral, tropical montane (Andean) forests, paramos, ecotones, and riverine meadows between 2200 mand 4800 m. Mountain Tapirs rarely use open habitats (pampas), in spite of the considerable quantity and quality of food available. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, Mountain Tapirs selected secondary forests, avoided paramos and ecotones, and showed no preference for or against mature forests. Their density in secondary forests was higher than in mature forest, ecotones, and paramos. Bedding sites are frequently encountered in forest thickets. In areas with cattle, the tapirs tend to be found on steep, forested mountain slopes inaccessible to cattle.Food and Feeding.Mountain Tapirs are classified as selective browsers according to their craniodental patterns and dental morphology. The Mountain Tapir diet includes a variety of understory plant species including herbs, grasses, shrubs, fruits and berries, twigs, and a predominance ofleaves. A field study in Ecuadorshowed that of 28 plant families, Asteraceaeranked highest in the number of different species eaten, followed in diminishing order by Gramineae, Rosaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Scrophulareaceae, and Valerianaceae. The same study indicated that Mountain Tapirs select certain favored plants regardless of their relative abundance. Flower parts were noted in five out of 37 fecal samples. A more recentfield study in Colombiashowed that a total of 109 species of plants were consumed, and 45 of them were strongly selected. Mountain Tapirs consumed 54% woody species, 30% herbs, and 16% grasses. Once again, Asteraceaewas the most frequent family in the Mountain Tapir diet. Patches of Chusqueamake up a high proportion of secondary forest vegetation in Los Nevados National Park and make up a large part of the tapirs’ diet. The Mountain Tapir uses the sensitive bristles on the tip of its proboscis, as well as its senses of smell, taste, and, to a lesser degree,sight in selecting palatable items. Like other tropical species living in areas of high rainfall, the Mountain Tapir depends upon supplementary mineral intake from mineral seeps and natural saltlicks. Additionally, Mountain Tapir occasionally eat certain types of clayish mud, according to native Puruhaes Indians.Breeding.There is virtually no information about reproduction of Mountain Tapirs in the wild. Adult females produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births have never been recorded. Estrus lasts 3—4 days and is on a lunar cycle. A Mountain Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2004 modelled the dynamics of mountain tapir populations in the wild. The age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years for females and four years for males. Maximum age of reproduction was estimated to be 15 (+ 3) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Mountain Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Male Mountain Tapirs are reported to engage in violent confrontations over females.Activity patterns.Daily activity of Mountain Tapirs in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, was clearly bimodal, with peaks in the early hours of the day (05:00-07:00 h) and early hours of the evening (18:00-20:00 h). In the cloud forests and wet paramos of Ecuador, the activity of a young Mountain Tapir was higher during the morning (07:00-09:00 h) and late afternoon /evening (15:00-21:00 h). Increased nocturnal activity may be witnessed in areas with a greater presence of humans and livestock. In Colombia,it has been hypothesized that the Mountain Tapir is more active at higher elevations (i.e. paramos and the upper limit of montane forests) during the dry season; during the wet season, activity increases at lower elevations. Apparently, domestic livestock management activities during the dry season at lower elevations forces the tapirs to move to paramos. A camera-trap study carried out in Los Nevados National Park revealed higher Mountain Tapir nighttime activity along trails and at a natural lick during the full moon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Very little is known about the spatial ecology, intraspecific interactions and social organization of Mountain Tapirs. GPS telemetry was used to monitor a few individuals in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia. The estimated mean home range size was 2-5 km*. Home range size did not seem to vary seasonally. Home ranges of adults overlap by as much as a third, with a core territory belonging to the male, his mate, and offspring. Males show greater fidelity to their more circular territory and are more likely to defend territories than females. Markings by dung piles and rubbings on trees seem to be part of the territorial behavior of males as well as females who share the same territory. Urinary demarcation has been noted and is often associated with an instinctive pawing of the hindfoot. Mountain Tapir density estimates appear to be much lower when compared to South American and Central American Tapirs. The Mountain Tapir density estimated through telemetry in Sangay National Park, Ecuador, was 0-17 ind/km?. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, a GPS telemetry study resulted in an estimate of 0-1 ind/km?®. Density estimates based on track counts were 0-18 ind/km? in Los Nevados and 0-25 ind/km? in the Parque Regional Ucumari, also in Colombia.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. In Colombia, it occurs in the central Andes, south of Los Nevados National Park, and in the eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz, near Bogota. There are no Mountain Tapirs in the Western Cordillera, northern part of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serrania de la Macarena, and Cerro Tacarcuna. Nevertheless, there are reports of their presence (footprints, feces, and poaching remains) in the junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of Colombia. In Ecuador, Mountain Tapirs are found in the eastern Andes, including Sangay National Park, Llanganates National Park, Podocarpus National Park, and Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve. In Peru, the species is distributed from the Ayabaca province, PiuraDepartment (04° 20° S) in the Western Cordillera to the Chota Province, CajamarcaDepartment (06° 20° S) in the Eastern Cordillera. In the southern part of the distribution in Peru, the species occurs in the Huancabamba depression, which includes the Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary and the Pagaibamba Protection Forest. Historically, the species has been recorded in Venezuela, in the vicinities of El Tama National Park, opposite the north Santander State of Colombia. However, there is no recent evidence ofits occurrence in the area. The most threatened populations are those of the Central Cordillera in Colombia, between Parque Natural Las Hermosas and Parque Natural Nevado del Huila, where large tracts of mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields. The Mountain Tapir is now extinct in much of its former range. The major threat to the Mountain Tapir throughoutits range is human population growth in the Andean region. People settling in the region need land, consumables, and services, and their activities lead to habitat destruction. Mountain Tapir population declines have been estimated to be greater than 50% in the past three generations (33 years). It has been predicted that that there will be a decline of at least 20% in the next two generations (22 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth characteristic of tapir species, coupled with habitat loss and fragmentation and hunting, are the major factors contributing to population declines.","The five major habitat types for Mountain Tapirs are chaparral, tropical montane (Andean) forests, paramos, ecotones, and riverine meadows between 2200 mand 4800 m. Mountain Tapirs rarely use open habitats (pampas), in spite of the considerable quantity and quality of food available. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, Mountain Tapirs selected secondary forests, avoided paramos and ecotones, and showed no preference for or against mature forests. Their density in secondary forests was higher than in mature forest, ecotones, and paramos. Bedding sites are frequently encountered in forest thickets. In areas with cattle, the tapirs tend to be found on steep, forested mountain slopes inaccessible to cattle.","Mountain Tapirs are classified as selective browsers according to their craniodental patterns and dental morphology. The Mountain Tapir diet includes a variety of understory plant species including herbs, grasses, shrubs, fruits and berries, twigs, and a predominance ofleaves. A field study in Ecuadorshowed that of 28 plant families, Asteraceaeranked highest in the number of different species eaten, followed in diminishing order by Gramineae, Rosaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Scrophulareaceae, and Valerianaceae. The same study indicated that Mountain Tapirs select certain favored plants regardless of their relative abundance. Flower parts were noted in five out of 37 fecal samples. A more recentfield study in Colombiashowed that a total of 109 species of plants were consumed, and 45 of them were strongly selected. Mountain Tapirs consumed 54% woody species, 30% herbs, and 16% grasses. Once again, Asteraceaewas the most frequent family in the Mountain Tapir diet. Patches of Chusqueamake up a high proportion of secondary forest vegetation in Los Nevados National Park and make up a large part of the tapirs’ diet. The Mountain Tapir uses the sensitive bristles on the tip of its proboscis, as well as its senses of smell, taste, and, to a lesser degree,sight in selecting palatable items. Like other tropical species living in areas of high rainfall, the Mountain Tapir depends upon supplementary mineral intake from mineral seeps and natural saltlicks. Additionally, Mountain Tapir occasionally eat certain types of clayish mud, according to native Puruhaes Indians.",There is virtually no information about reproduction of Mountain Tapirs in the wild. Adult females produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births have never been recorded. Estrus lasts 3—4 days and is on a lunar cycle. A Mountain Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2004 modelled the dynamics of mountain tapir populations in the wild. The age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years for females and four years for males. Maximum age of reproduction was estimated to be 15 (+ 3) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Mountain Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Male Mountain Tapirs are reported to engage in violent confrontations over females.,"Daily activity of Mountain Tapirs in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, was clearly bimodal, with peaks in the early hours of the day (05:00-07:00 h) and early hours of the evening (18:00-20:00 h). In the cloud forests and wet paramos of Ecuador, the activity of a young Mountain Tapir was higher during the morning (07:00-09:00 h) and late afternoon /evening (15:00-21:00 h). Increased nocturnal activity may be witnessed in areas with a greater presence of humans and livestock. In Colombia,it has been hypothesized that the Mountain Tapir is more active at higher elevations (i.e. paramos and the upper limit of montane forests) during the dry season; during the wet season, activity increases at lower elevations. Apparently, domestic livestock management activities during the dry season at lower elevations forces the tapirs to move to paramos. A camera-trap study carried out in Los Nevados National Park revealed higher Mountain Tapir nighttime activity along trails and at a natural lick during the full moon.","Very little is known about the spatial ecology, intraspecific interactions and social organization of Mountain Tapirs. GPS telemetry was used to monitor a few individuals in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia. The estimated mean home range size was 2-5 km*. Home range size did not seem to vary seasonally. Home ranges of adults overlap by as much as a third, with a core territory belonging to the male, his mate, and offspring. Males show greater fidelity to their more circular territory and are more likely to defend territories than females. Markings by dung piles and rubbings on trees seem to be part of the territorial behavior of males as well as females who share the same territory. Urinary demarcation has been noted and is often associated with an instinctive pawing of the hindfoot. Mountain Tapir density estimates appear to be much lower when compared to South American and Central American Tapirs. The Mountain Tapir density estimated through telemetry in Sangay National Park, Ecuador, was 0-17 ind/km?. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, a GPS telemetry study resulted in an estimate of 0-1 ind/km?®. Density estimates based on track counts were 0-18 ind/km? in Los Nevados and 0-25 ind/km? in the Parque Regional Ucumari, also in Colombia.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. In Colombia, it occurs in the central Andes, south of Los Nevados National Park, and in the eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz, near Bogota. There are no Mountain Tapirs in the Western Cordillera, northern part of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serrania de la Macarena, and Cerro Tacarcuna. Nevertheless, there are reports of their presence (footprints, feces, and poaching remains) in the junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of Colombia. In Ecuador, Mountain Tapirs are found in the eastern Andes, including Sangay National Park, Llanganates National Park, Podocarpus National Park, and Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve. In Peru, the species is distributed from the Ayabaca province, PiuraDepartment (04° 20° S) in the Western Cordillera to the Chota Province, CajamarcaDepartment (06° 20° S) in the Eastern Cordillera. In the southern part of the distribution in Peru, the species occurs in the Huancabamba depression, which includes the Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary and the Pagaibamba Protection Forest. Historically, the species has been recorded in Venezuela, in the vicinities of El Tama National Park, opposite the north Santander State of Colombia. However, there is no recent evidence ofits occurrence in the area. The most threatened populations are those of the Central Cordillera in Colombia, between Parque Natural Las Hermosas and Parque Natural Nevado del Huila, where large tracts of mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields. The Mountain Tapir is now extinct in much of its former range. The major threat to the Mountain Tapir throughoutits range is human population growth in the Andean region. People settling in the region need land, consumables, and services, and their activities lead to habitat destruction. Mountain Tapir population declines have been estimated to be greater than 50% in the past three generations (33 years). It has been predicted that that there will be a decline of at least 20% in the next two generations (22 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth characteristic of tapir species, coupled with habitat loss and fragmentation and hunting, are the major factors contributing to population declines. Habitat fragmentation is caused by conversion of forests and paramosto cattle ranching and agricultural lands. There is significant hunting pressure on this species. It is extremely rare to encounter an area with Mountain Tapirs where they are not being overhunted. Local poachers use the tapir skin to manufacture working tools (e.g. backpacks, ropes to ride horses, baskets) and domestic artifacts such as carpets and covers for beds. In addition, poachers sell tapir skins and feet for medicinal purposes. Additional threats include the development of hydroelectric dams, highways crossing protected areas, petroleum exploration, and electrical networks. Road construction is a major threat in Puracé National Park, Colombia. There has also been widespread cattle introduction into the last remaining patches of Mountain Tapir habitat, which leads to competition for food resources and a potential risk of transmission of infectious diseases and other etiological agents carried by the cattle. Cattle have been observed forming reproducing herds in western Sangay National Park in Ecuador, causing Mountain Tapirs to abandon areas north of Sangay Volcano. Information from other areas where the species is found (Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve in Ecuador, Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary in Peru, and Natural Parks in Colombia) indicates that the same problem with cattle is occurring there, too, and negatively affecting the species. Other threats include cattle roundups, which can result in increased hunting of the tapirs; poppy growing and eradication; and guerilla warfare in Colombia. The presence of guerillas may benefit the tapirs by halting settlement of some areas, but most local biologists feel that the overall impact on the conservation of Mountain Tapirs is negative. In addition, a mining project in northern Peruthreatens to destroy the headwater cloud forest and paramo habitat of a scant population of Mountain Tapirs. It has been estimated that fewer than 2500 mature individuals still remain in the wild. The Mountain Tapir population in Peruhas been estimated to be approximately 450 individuals. There is no connectivity between the northern and southern Mountain Tapir populations in Peru. The area of suitable habitat for the Mountain Tapir inside National Parks in Colombiais 13% ofthe total area where tapirsare still found. In the Andes of Colombia, there are 23 National Parks, of which tapirs are found in only seven (Cordillera de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, Las Hermosas, Los Nevados, Nevado del Huila, Puracé, and Sumapaz). Legal protection of the speciesis in place in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, but law enforcement is not effective.","Acosta et al. (1996) | Brooks et al. (2007) | CITES (2005) | Davalos (2001) | Diaz et al. (2008) | Downer (1996, 2001, 2003) | Hershkovitz (1954) | Lizcano (2006) | Lizcano & Cavelier (2000a, 2000b, 2004) | Lizcano & Sissa (2003) | Lizcano, Cavelier & Mangini (2001) | Lizcano, Guarnizo et al. (2006) | Lizcano, Mangini et al. (2001) | Lizcano, Medici et al. (2005) | Lizcano, Pizarro et al. (2002) | Medici (2001, 2010) | Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002) | Schauenberg (1968, 1969) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Semple (2000) | Suarez-Mejia & Lizcano (2002) | Thornback & Jenkins (1982) | Tirira (1999)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721169/files/figure.png,"3.Mountain TapirTapirus pinchaqueFrench:Tapir des Andes/ German:Andentapir/ Spanish:Tapirde montanaOther common names:Andean Tapir, Woolly TapirTaxonomy.Tapir pinchaque Roulin, 1829,Paramo de Sumapaz, Cundinamarca, Colombia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The species is known to occur in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, and N Peru; historically also in W Venezuela, but now extirpated.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-200 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 80-90 cm; weight 150-200 kg. The Mountain Tapir is the smallest of the four tapir species. Nevertheless,it is the largest terrestrial mammal in the Andes. Females tend to be slightly larger than males but this is generally indistinguishable in the wild. Newborn Mountain Tapirs usually weigh 4-7 kg. Adults have dark brown to coal-black fur, with white furry fringes around the lips, hoofed toes, and usually the tips of the rounded ears. The fur is 3-4 cm long. The species is adapted to live at high elevations with its thick undercoat and long, woolly outercoat, which both insulates and absorbs heat from the sun, providing protection against the cool night temperatures. The eyes are a glazy bluish-brown. Its splayed hooves allow it considerable versatility for locomotion in the high Andes, even on the snow banks and glaciers.Habitat.The five major habitat types for Mountain Tapirs are chaparral, tropical montane (Andean) forests, paramos, ecotones, and riverine meadows between 2200 mand 4800 m. Mountain Tapirs rarely use open habitats (pampas), in spite of the considerable quantity and quality of food available. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, Mountain Tapirs selected secondary forests, avoided paramos and ecotones, and showed no preference for or against mature forests. Their density in secondary forests was higher than in mature forest, ecotones, and paramos. Bedding sites are frequently encountered in forest thickets. In areas with cattle, the tapirs tend to be found on steep, forested mountain slopes inaccessible to cattle.Food and Feeding.Mountain Tapirs are classified as selective browsers according to their craniodental patterns and dental morphology. The Mountain Tapir diet includes a variety of understory plant species including herbs, grasses, shrubs, fruits and berries, twigs, and a predominance ofleaves. A field study in Ecuadorshowed that of 28 plant families, Asteraceaeranked highest in the number of different species eaten, followed in diminishing order by Gramineae, Rosaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Scrophulareaceae, and Valerianaceae. The same study indicated that Mountain Tapirs select certain favored plants regardless of their relative abundance. Flower parts were noted in five out of 37 fecal samples. A more recentfield study in Colombiashowed that a total of 109 species of plants were consumed, and 45 of them were strongly selected. Mountain Tapirs consumed 54% woody species, 30% herbs, and 16% grasses. Once again, Asteraceaewas the most frequent family in the Mountain Tapir diet. Patches of Chusqueamake up a high proportion of secondary forest vegetation in Los Nevados National Park and make up a large part of the tapirs’ diet. The Mountain Tapir uses the sensitive bristles on the tip of its proboscis, as well as its senses of smell, taste, and, to a lesser degree,sight in selecting palatable items. Like other tropical species living in areas of high rainfall, the Mountain Tapir depends upon supplementary mineral intake from mineral seeps and natural saltlicks. Additionally, Mountain Tapir occasionally eat certain types of clayish mud, according to native Puruhaes Indians.Breeding.There is virtually no information about reproduction of Mountain Tapirs in the wild. Adult females produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births have never been recorded. Estrus lasts 3—4 days and is on a lunar cycle. A Mountain Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2004 modelled the dynamics of mountain tapir populations in the wild. The age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years for females and four years for males. Maximum age of reproduction was estimated to be 15 (+ 3) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Mountain Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Male Mountain Tapirs are reported to engage in violent confrontations over females.Activity patterns.Daily activity of Mountain Tapirs in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, was clearly bimodal, with peaks in the early hours of the day (05:00-07:00 h) and early hours of the evening (18:00-20:00 h). In the cloud forests and wet paramos of Ecuador, the activity of a young Mountain Tapir was higher during the morning (07:00-09:00 h) and late afternoon /evening (15:00-21:00 h). Increased nocturnal activity may be witnessed in areas with a greater presence of humans and livestock. In Colombia,it has been hypothesized that the Mountain Tapir is more active at higher elevations (i.e. paramos and the upper limit of montane forests) during the dry season; during the wet season, activity increases at lower elevations. Apparently, domestic livestock management activities during the dry season at lower elevations forces the tapirs to move to paramos. A camera-trap study carried out in Los Nevados National Park revealed higher Mountain Tapir nighttime activity along trails and at a natural lick during the full moon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Very little is known about the spatial ecology, intraspecific interactions and social organization of Mountain Tapirs. GPS telemetry was used to monitor a few individuals in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia. The estimated mean home range size was 2-5 km*. Home range size did not seem to vary seasonally. Home ranges of adults overlap by as much as a third, with a core territory belonging to the male, his mate, and offspring. Males show greater fidelity to their more circular territory and are more likely to defend territories than females. Markings by dung piles and rubbings on trees seem to be part of the territorial behavior of males as well as females who share the same territory. Urinary demarcation has been noted and is often associated with an instinctive pawing of the hindfoot. Mountain Tapir density estimates appear to be much lower when compared to South American and Central American Tapirs. The Mountain Tapir density estimated through telemetry in Sangay National Park, Ecuador, was 0-17 ind/km?. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, a GPS telemetry study resulted in an estimate of 0-1 ind/km?®. Density estimates based on track counts were 0-18 ind/km? in Los Nevados and 0-25 ind/km? in the Parque Regional Ucumari, also in Colombia.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. In Colombia, it occurs in the central Andes, south of Los Nevados National Park, and in the eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz, near Bogota. There are no Mountain Tapirs in the Western Cordillera, northern part of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serrania de la Macarena, and Cerro Tacarcuna. Nevertheless, there are reports of their presence (footprints, feces, and poaching remains) in the junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of Colombia. In Ecuador, Mountain Tapirs are found in the eastern Andes, including Sangay National Park, Llanganates National Park, Podocarpus National Park, and Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve. In Peru, the species is distributed from the Ayabaca province, PiuraDepartment (04° 20° S) in the Western Cordillera to the Chota Province, CajamarcaDepartment (06° 20° S) in the Eastern Cordillera. In the southern part of the distribution in Peru, the species occurs in the Huancabamba depression, which includes the Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary and the Pagaibamba Protection Forest. Historically, the species has been recorded in Venezuela, in the vicinities of El Tama National Park, opposite the north Santander State of Colombia. However, there is no recent evidence ofits occurrence in the area. The most threatened populations are those of the Central Cordillera in Colombia, between Parque Natural Las Hermosas and Parque Natural Nevado del Huila, where large tracts of mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields. The Mountain Tapir is now extinct in much of its former range. The major threat to the Mountain Tapir throughoutits range is human population growth in the Andean region. People settling in the region need land, consumables, and services, and their activities lead to habitat destruction. Mountain Tapir population declines have been estimated to be greater than 50% in the past three generations (33 years). It has been predicted that that there will be a decline of at least 20% in the next two generations (22 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth characteristic of tapir species, coupled with habitat loss and fragmentation and hunting, are the major factors contributing to population declines. Habitat fragmentation is caused by conversion of forests and paramosto cattle ranching and agricultural lands. There is significant hunting pressure on this species. It is extremely rare to encounter an area with Mountain Tapirs where they are not being overhunted. Local poachers use the tapir skin to manufacture working tools (e.g. backpacks, ropes to ride horses, baskets) and domestic artifacts such as carpets and covers for beds. In addition, poachers sell tapir skins and feet for medicinal purposes. Additional threats include the development of hydroelectric dams, highways crossing protected areas, petroleum exploration, and electrical networks. Road construction is a major threat in Puracé National Park, Colombia. There has also been widespread cattle introduction into the last remaining patches of Mountain Tapir habitat, which leads to competition for food resources and a potential risk of transmission of infectious diseases and other etiological agents carried by the cattle. Cattle have been observed forming reproducing herds in western Sangay National Park in Ecuador, causing Mountain Tapirs to abandon areas north of Sangay Volcano. Information from other areas where the species is found (Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve in Ecuador, Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary in Peru, and Natural Parks in Colombia) indicates that the same problem with cattle is occurring there, too, and negatively affecting the species. Other threats include cattle roundups, which can result in increased hunting of the tapirs; poppy growing and eradication; and guerilla warfare in Colombia. The presence of guerillas may benefit the tapirs by halting settlement of some areas, but most local biologists feel that the overall impact on the conservation of Mountain Tapirs is negative. In addition, a mining project in northern Peruthreatens to destroy the headwater cloud forest and paramo habitat of a scant population of Mountain Tapirs. It has been estimated that fewer than 2500 mature individuals still remain in the wild. The Mountain Tapir population in Peruhas been estimated to be approximately 450 individuals. There is no connectivity between the northern and southern Mountain Tapir populations in Peru. The area of suitable habitat for the Mountain Tapir inside National Parks in Colombiais 13% ofthe total area where tapirsare still found. In the Andes of Colombia, there are 23 National Parks, of which tapirs are found in only seven (Cordillera de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, Las Hermosas, Los Nevados, Nevado del Huila, Puracé, and Sumapaz). Legal protection of the speciesis in place in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, but law enforcement is not effective.Bibliography.Acosta et al. (1996), Brooks et al. (2007), CITES (2005), Davalos (2001), Diaz et al. (2008), Downer (1996, 2001, 2003), Hershkovitz (1954), Lizcano (2006), Lizcano & Cavelier (2000a, 2000b, 2004), Lizcano & Sissa (2003), Lizcano, Cavelier & Mangini (2001), Lizcano, Guarnizo et al. (2006), Lizcano, Mangini et al. (2001), Lizcano, Medici et al. (2005), Lizcano, Pizarro et al. (2002), Medici (2001, 2010), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002), Schauenberg (1968, 1969), Schipper et al. (2008), Semple (2000), Suarez-Mejia & Lizcano (2002), Thornback & Jenkins (1982), Tirira (1999)." 039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,496,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.xml,Ursus maritimus,Ursus,maritimus,,,Ours blanc @fr | Eisbar @de | Oso polar @es | \White Bear @en | Nanook @en,"Ursus maritimus Phipps, 1774, Spitsbergen, (Svalbard) Norway.Considered a sister species to U. arctos. Most closely related to Brown Bears on the Admiralty, Baranof, Chichagof islands of south-east Alaska. Although several distinct populations or stocks have been delineated, small genetic differences have been found among these, and no subspecies have been differentiated. Monotypic.","Arctic Ocean: Canada, USA(Alaska), Greenland, Norway(Svalbard), Russia. Have been sighted within 0-5° of North Pole.","Head-body 180-280 cm, shoulder height up to 170 cm,tail 6-13 cm; adult males are about twice as heavy (300-650 kg, but up to 800 kg) as adult females (150-250 kg, but up to 500 kgwhen pregnant), making them one of the most sexuallydimorphic mammals. Size varies regionally, being smallest in eastern Greenland, and progressively larger westward to the Bering Sea. Facial profile is straight, the neck is longer than in other bears, and the ears are small in relation to head and body size. Coat color appears white or yellowish, with no other markings, but can accumulate colors from the environment (e.g. blood and oils from killed prey). In reality, both guard hairs and underfur are translucent, and guard hairs are hollow, thus enhancing their insulation properties. However, a previous assertion that they act as fiber optic tubes, funneling sunlight to the skin for warmth, has been disproven. The skin is black, but only the black nose is visible. Summer coats are shorter than winter coats, but unlike other bears, coat thickness is not sparser ventrally. Additionally, the paws are well-furred on the underside, and have small soft papillae and vacuoles that may act as suction cups for traction on ice. The feet are also relatively large, providing more surface area for swimming and walking on thin ice. The claws are shorter and more curved than Brown Bears, and are usually dark-colored.","Arctic ice provides a necessary platform for hunting seals. Annual ice adjacent to coastlines (shore fast ice) regularly fractures, providing open leads where seals can breathe. The seasonal fluctuations between freezing and open water also promotes high productivity of fish, the prey of seals. Thus, this habitat is preferred by seals, and is consequently a favored habitat for Polar Bears, which hunt seals along the ice cracks and edges. Polar Bears also hunt from large chunks of drifting ice, and to a lesser extent, multiannual pack ice, where seal density is lower and access to seals more difficult. For this reason, density of Polar Bearsis low close to the North Pole. In summer, when the ice retreats, bears either migrate northward or use nearshore terrestrial habitats. Parturient females stay ashore to den and give birth. In Hudson Bay (Canada) they den 10-80 km inland in peat banks; elsewhere maternity dens are typically in snow caves along coastal areas. However, in the Beaufort Sea, half the pregnant females den on drifting sea ice. Non-pregnant bears do not hibernate, but do use shelter dens. At lower latitudes, they use shelters on land during ice-free periods to escape heat and conserve energy when precluded from hunting seals; at high latitudes (above 75° N) they seek shelters on thick sea ice during winter, when foraging is most difficult and weather conditions harshest.","Almoststrictly carnivorous, preying mainly on young Ringed Seals (Pusa hispida), to a lesser extent Bearded Seals (Erignathus barbatus), and in some areas, Harp Seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus). The principal focus on Ringed Seals is evident in the close association between Polar Bear density and Ringed Seal density, and in the unique behavior of these seals, which give birth in subnivian lairs as an anti-predation strategy. One study found that an average Polar Bear consumes fewer than 50 Ringed Seals a year, 80% being pups caught either in their lairs or shortly after emerging from their lairs. Polar Bears also occasionally prey on other marine mammals, such as Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus), and Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) whales. These large prey, including Bearded Seals (which are much larger than Ringed Seals), are taken mainly by adult male bears. When ashore, depending on availability, Polar Bears have been observed to prey on Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), seabirds, or fish; and eat carrion (dead whales), berries, vegetation, and human garbage.","Breeding occurs from March to June. Mating induces ovulation, and males spar for mating partners. Implantation of the fertilized egg is delayed until autumn, about the time that females enter maternity dens. In some areas this follows a period of on-shore fasting, so by the time these mothers emerge from dens the following spring they may not have eaten for eight months. Birthing occurs mid-November to January, so the total gestation, including the period of delayed implantation, is from 6:5 to more than 8-5 months. Cubs stay in the den until March or early April. Two-cublitters are most common, and average litter size is less than two in virtually all populations; however, litters of three are not uncommon in some areas, and litters of four have been reported. Females have only four mammae (other bears, except Sun Bears and Giant Pandas have six), so this is the maximum litter size. Average age offirst birthing ranges among different populations from 4-6-7-2 years. Productivity increases into the teen years, but then declines through the early 20s, and ceases by the late 20s. Intervals between litters average 2-1-3-6 years. Cubs separate from their mother either at 17 months, or more commonly a year later. Cubs may nurse through their second birthday. The fat content of milk is very high initially (more than 30%), but declines through the nursing period.","Appear to be mainly diurnal. Seasonal changes in activity vary regionally with dynamics of sea ice and abundance of prey. Activity, measured by percent of time active and distance moved,is elevated when seal pups are particularly naive and vulnerable to predation, and when older seals are molting and basking on the ice. In contrast to other predators, Polar Bears are most active when prey is most abundant. They become hyperphagic, and are able to store fat to withstand extended periods when foraging is more difficult, such as during the winter on the pack ice. Periods of rapid annual ice formation and ablation, during summer and fall, also result in greater activity. Parturient females den for about six months (mid-September to mid-March in most areas); non-pregnant Polar Bears do not hibernate.","Although once thought to wander aimlessly or be carried passively on shifting ice, recent data collected using satellite radio collars have shown that Polar Bears have definite home ranges that are used year to year. However, these ranges can be enormous: one female bear traveled over 5200 kmfrom Alaska to Greenlandin four months. Nevertheless, most bears seem to remain within a discrete population, or stock; 19 or 20 such populations have been identified across the geographic range. Home ranges and movements are highly variable by region, habitat, season, and reproductive condition or family association. Around Svalbard, nearshore bears tend to have smaller home ranges than pelagic bears. In the Canadian Arctic, bears that live in areas with highly variable and unpredictable ice conditions (including ice-free periods) have larger ranges than bears living on more stable ice. Individual ranges as large as 600,000 km* have been reported, but so have ranges of less than 1000 km®. Means among different populations range from 20,000-250,000 km?. Little movement data have been collected on males, because they cannot be radio-collared (their necks are bigger than their heads), but data from implanted transmitters indicate that, unlike terrestrial bears, their ranges are not larger than those of females. With females being so mobile, and having highly overlapping ranges, males can include multiple potential breeding partners within their range, even if their range is not larger than the females’. Female maternity dens are highly congregated in some areas, such as Wrangel Island, parts of Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and near Churchill, Manitoba.Breeding.Breeding occurs from March to June. Mating induces ovulation, and males spar for mating partners. Implantation of the fertilized egg is delayed until autumn, about the time that females enter maternity dens. In some areas this follows a period of on-shore fasting, so by the time these mothers emerge from dens the following spring they may not have eaten for eight months. Birthing occurs mid-November to January, so the total gestation, including the period of delayed implantation, is from 6:5 to more than 8-5 months. Cubs stay in the den until March or early April. Two-cublitters are most common, and average litter size is less than two in virtually all populations; however, litters of three are not uncommon in some areas, and litters of four have been reported. Females have only four mammae (other bears, except Sun Bears and Giant Pandas have six), so this is the maximum litter size. Average age offirst birthing ranges among different populations from 4-6-7-2 years. Productivity increases into the teen years, but then declines through the early 20s, and ceases by the late 20s. Intervals between litters average 2-1-3-6 years. Cubs separate from their mother either at 17 months, or more commonly a year later. Cubs may nurse through their second birthday. The fat content of milk is very high initially (more than 30%), but declines through the nursing period.","CITES Appendix II. In 2006 The IUCN Red List status was upgraded to Vulnerable due to projections of dramatic reductions in habitat (coverage and stability of the ice sheet) over the next 50-100 years. Demographic consequences to Polar Bears are already becoming apparent in some areas, in terms of reduced numbers and reduced survival ofjuveniles and old adults. Ringed Seals are also suffering increased mortality from Polar Bear predation because of melting of their subnivian dens. Accordingly, the USAlisted the species as nationally threatened and Canadalisted it as a species of special concern. This would impose further constraints on activities that affect these bears or their habitat, such as hunting, recreational viewing, shipping, and oil and gas exploration and development. The effects of sea ice change will vary enormously by region, which is difficult to forecast, but overall arelikely to be dramatic and permanent. Nineteen fairly discrete populations have been identified, with a total world population estimated at 20,000-25,000; about half this number resides in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. Under an agreement for co-management of Polar Bear populations that was ratified in 1976, the five range countries coordinate and consult with each other on research activities, methods of population estimation and monitoring, and proposals for increased protection. Most importantly, under this treaty, harvestis restricted: the taking of cubs or females with cubs is prohibited, and harvest is limited to native people for subsistence use. This includes consumption of meat, use of hides for clothing, and creation of handicrafts. In some territories of Canada, a portion of the annual harvest is allocated to non-native sport hunters who employ native guides and hunt using dogsleds and other traditional methods. This generates income for the native communities. Harvests are regulated to be sustainable. Recently, pressure has mounted to reduce or prohibit harvests so as not to compound the effects of diminishing sea ice habitat from global warming.","Amstrup (2003) | Amstrup & Gardner (1994) | Amstrup et al. (2001) | Bentzen et al. (2007) | Derocher (1999) | Derocher, Andersen & Wiig (2005) | Derocher, Andriashek & Stirling (1993) | Derocher, Wiig & Anderson (2002) | Durner & Amstrup (1995) | Ferguson, Taylor, Born et al. (1999) | Ferguson, Taylor, Rosing-Asvid et al. (2000) | Garshelis (2004) | Linnell et al. (2000) | Mauritzen et al. (2001) | Messier et al. (1992, 1994) | Paetkau et al. (1999) | Parks et al. (2006) | Ramsay & Stirling (1990) | Regehr et al. (2007) | Rosing-Asvid (2006) | Schliebe et al. (2006) | Shields et al. (2000) | Stirling (1988, 2002) | Stirling & Jritsland (1995) | Stirling & Parkinson (2006) | Taylor et al. (2001) | Thiemann et al. (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714511/files/figure.png,"8.Polar BearUrsus maritimusFrench:Ours blanc/ German:Eisbar/ Spanish:Oso polarOther common names:\White Bear, NanookTaxonomy.Ursus maritimus Phipps, 1774, Spitsbergen, (Svalbard) Norway.Considered a sister species to U. arctos. Most closely related to Brown Bears on the Admiralty, Baranof, Chichagof islands of south-east Alaska. Although several distinct populations or stocks have been delineated, small genetic differences have been found among these, and no subspecies have been differentiated. Monotypic.Distribution.Arctic Ocean: Canada, USA(Alaska), Greenland, Norway(Svalbard), Russia. Have been sighted within 0-5° of North Pole.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-280 cm, shoulder height up to 170 cm,tail 6-13 cm; adult males are about twice as heavy (300-650 kg, but up to 800 kg) as adult females (150-250 kg, but up to 500 kgwhen pregnant), making them one of the most sexuallydimorphic mammals. Size varies regionally, being smallest in eastern Greenland, and progressively larger westward to the Bering Sea. Facial profile is straight, the neck is longer than in other bears, and the ears are small in relation to head and body size. Coat color appears white or yellowish, with no other markings, but can accumulate colors from the environment (e.g. blood and oils from killed prey). In reality, both guard hairs and underfur are translucent, and guard hairs are hollow, thus enhancing their insulation properties. However, a previous assertion that they act as fiber optic tubes, funneling sunlight to the skin for warmth, has been disproven. The skin is black, but only the black nose is visible. Summer coats are shorter than winter coats, but unlike other bears, coat thickness is not sparser ventrally. Additionally, the paws are well-furred on the underside, and have small soft papillae and vacuoles that may act as suction cups for traction on ice. The feet are also relatively large, providing more surface area for swimming and walking on thin ice. The claws are shorter and more curved than Brown Bears, and are usually dark-colored.Habitat.Arctic ice provides a necessary platform for hunting seals. Annual ice adjacent to coastlines (shore fast ice) regularly fractures, providing open leads where seals can breathe. The seasonal fluctuations between freezing and open water also promotes high productivity of fish, the prey of seals. Thus, this habitat is preferred by seals, and is consequently a favored habitat for Polar Bears, which hunt seals along the ice cracks and edges. Polar Bears also hunt from large chunks of drifting ice, and to a lesser extent, multiannual pack ice, where seal density is lower and access to seals more difficult. For this reason, density of Polar Bearsis low close to the North Pole. In summer, when the ice retreats, bears either migrate northward or use nearshore terrestrial habitats. Parturient females stay ashore to den and give birth. In Hudson Bay (Canada) they den 10-80 km inland in peat banks; elsewhere maternity dens are typically in snow caves along coastal areas. However, in the Beaufort Sea, half the pregnant females den on drifting sea ice. Non-pregnant bears do not hibernate, but do use shelter dens. At lower latitudes, they use shelters on land during ice-free periods to escape heat and conserve energy when precluded from hunting seals; at high latitudes (above 75° N) they seek shelters on thick sea ice during winter, when foraging is most difficult and weather conditions harshest.Food and Feeding.Almoststrictly carnivorous, preying mainly on young Ringed Seals (Pusa hispida), to a lesser extent Bearded Seals (Erignathus barbatus), and in some areas, Harp Seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus). The principal focus on Ringed Seals is evident in the close association between Polar Bear density and Ringed Seal density, and in the unique behavior of these seals, which give birth in subnivian lairs as an anti-predation strategy. One study found that an average Polar Bear consumes fewer than 50 Ringed Seals a year, 80% being pups caught either in their lairs or shortly after emerging from their lairs. Polar Bears also occasionally prey on other marine mammals, such as Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus), and Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) whales. These large prey, including Bearded Seals (which are much larger than Ringed Seals), are taken mainly by adult male bears. When ashore, depending on availability, Polar Bears have been observed to prey on Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), seabirds, or fish; and eat carrion (dead whales), berries, vegetation, and human garbage.Activity patterns.Appear to be mainly diurnal. Seasonal changes in activity vary regionally with dynamics of sea ice and abundance of prey. Activity, measured by percent of time active and distance moved,is elevated when seal pups are particularly naive and vulnerable to predation, and when older seals are molting and basking on the ice. In contrast to other predators, Polar Bears are most active when prey is most abundant. They become hyperphagic, and are able to store fat to withstand extended periods when foraging is more difficult, such as during the winter on the pack ice. Periods of rapid annual ice formation and ablation, during summer and fall, also result in greater activity. Parturient females den for about six months (mid-September to mid-March in most areas); non-pregnant Polar Bears do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Although once thought to wander aimlessly or be carried passively on shifting ice, recent data collected using satellite radio collars have shown that Polar Bears have definite home ranges that are used year to year. However, these ranges can be enormous: one female bear traveled over 5200 kmfrom Alaska to Greenlandin four months. Nevertheless, most bears seem to remain within a discrete population, or stock; 19 or 20 such populations have been identified across the geographic range. Home ranges and movements are highly variable by region, habitat, season, and reproductive condition or family association. Around Svalbard, nearshore bears tend to have smaller home ranges than pelagic bears. In the Canadian Arctic, bears that live in areas with highly variable and unpredictable ice conditions (including ice-free periods) have larger ranges than bears living on more stable ice. Individual ranges as large as 600,000 km* have been reported, but so have ranges of less than 1000 km®. Means among different populations range from 20,000-250,000 km?. Little movement data have been collected on males, because they cannot be radio-collared (their necks are bigger than their heads), but data from implanted transmitters indicate that, unlike terrestrial bears, their ranges are not larger than those of females. With females being so mobile, and having highly overlapping ranges, males can include multiple potential breeding partners within their range, even if their range is not larger than the females’. Female maternity dens are highly congregated in some areas, such as Wrangel Island, parts of Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and near Churchill, Manitoba.Breeding.Breeding occurs from March to June. Mating induces ovulation, and males spar for mating partners. Implantation of the fertilized egg is delayed until autumn, about the time that females enter maternity dens. In some areas this follows a period of on-shore fasting, so by the time these mothers emerge from dens the following spring they may not have eaten for eight months. Birthing occurs mid-November to January, so the total gestation, including the period of delayed implantation, is from 6:5 to more than 8-5 months. Cubs stay in the den until March or early April. Two-cublitters are most common, and average litter size is less than two in virtually all populations; however, litters of three are not uncommon in some areas, and litters of four have been reported. Females have only four mammae (other bears, except Sun Bears and Giant Pandas have six), so this is the maximum litter size. Average age offirst birthing ranges among different populations from 4-6-7-2 years. Productivity increases into the teen years, but then declines through the early 20s, and ceases by the late 20s. Intervals between litters average 2-1-3-6 years. Cubs separate from their mother either at 17 months, or more commonly a year later. Cubs may nurse through their second birthday. The fat content of milk is very high initially (more than 30%), but declines through the nursing period.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. In 2006 The IUCN Red List status was upgraded to Vulnerable due to projections of dramatic reductions in habitat (coverage and stability of the ice sheet) over the next 50-100 years. Demographic consequences to Polar Bears are already becoming apparent in some areas, in terms of reduced numbers and reduced survival ofjuveniles and old adults. Ringed Seals are also suffering increased mortality from Polar Bear predation because of melting of their subnivian dens. Accordingly, the USAlisted the species as nationally threatened and Canadalisted it as a species of special concern. This would impose further constraints on activities that affect these bears or their habitat, such as hunting, recreational viewing, shipping, and oil and gas exploration and development. The effects of sea ice change will vary enormously by region, which is difficult to forecast, but overall arelikely to be dramatic and permanent. Nineteen fairly discrete populations have been identified, with a total world population estimated at 20,000-25,000; about half this number resides in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. Under an agreement for co-management of Polar Bear populations that was ratified in 1976, the five range countries coordinate and consult with each other on research activities, methods of population estimation and monitoring, and proposals for increased protection. Most importantly, under this treaty, harvestis restricted: the taking of cubs or females with cubs is prohibited, and harvest is limited to native people for subsistence use. This includes consumption of meat, use of hides for clothing, and creation of handicrafts. In some territories of Canada, a portion of the annual harvest is allocated to non-native sport hunters who employ native guides and hunt using dogsleds and other traditional methods. This generates income for the native communities. Harvests are regulated to be sustainable. Recently, pressure has mounted to reduce or prohibit harvests so as not to compound the effects of diminishing sea ice habitat from global warming.Bibliography.Amstrup (2003), Amstrup & Gardner (1994), Amstrup et al. (2001), Bentzen et al. (2007), Derocher (1999), Derocher, Andersen & Wiig (2005), Derocher, Andriashek & Stirling (1993), Derocher, Wiig & Anderson (2002), Durner & Amstrup (1995), Ferguson, Taylor, Born et al. (1999), Ferguson, Taylor, Rosing-Asvid et al. (2000), Garshelis (2004), Linnell et al. (2000), Mauritzen et al. (2001), Messier et al. (1992, 1994), Paetkau et al. (1999), Parks et al. (2006), Ramsay & Stirling (1990), Regehr et al. (2007), Rosing-Asvid (2006), Schliebe et al. (2006), Shields et al. (2000), Stirling (1988, 2002), Stirling & Jritsland (1995), Stirling & Parkinson (2006), Taylor et al. (2001), Thiemann et al. (2007)." -039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,495,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.xml,Ursus arctos,Ursus,arctos,,,Ours brun @fr | Braunbär @de | Oso pardo @es | Grizzly Bear @en | Kodiak Bear @en,"Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, northern Sweden.Genetic data corroborate the distinctiveness of some subspecies, such as isabellinus in Central Asia, but not others. Eight subspecies have been recognized in North America (seven of which are extant), but genetically these group into only three or four discrete clades, none of which match current subspecies designations. Conversely, whereas only one subspecies (artos) has been recognized for Europe, two geographically distinct lineages have been identified. Californiarace californicus (Merriam, 1896)and north-western Africa race crowthert (Schinz, 1844)are extinct. Fourteen extant subspecies currently recognized.","U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758— Europe and W Russia.U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896— most of Alaska(excluding AlaskaPeninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group).U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853— NE Russia(Kamchatka Peninsula& N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk).U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824— Russia(Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatkaand more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia.U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(N of Alexander Archipelago).U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902— Alaskapeninsula.U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815—W Canada(Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia& Alberta), inland W USA(extirpated from S Wyomingto Mexico).U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826— N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstanand Mongolia(Gobi Desert).U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867— Russia(Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/ Amurriver region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan(Hokkaido).U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak Island & nearby islands).U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853— Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal.U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area).U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914— W Canada(W British Columbia), and formerly W USA(W Washingtonand Oregon).U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828— Middle East, from Turkeyto Iran(extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armeniaand Azerbaijan.","Head-body 150-280 cm, shoulder height up to 150 cm, tail 6-21 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, with food availability. Adult males are heavier (130-550 kg; rarely up to 725 kg) than adult females (80-250 kg, but occasionally up to 340 kg). Facial profile from forehead to nose is concave. Body profile includes a distinct muscular shoulder hump with long hairs. Coat color varies from uniform brown to mixed shades of brown, blond, and silver-tipped (grizzled), to partly gray or black, or fully black. The grizzled phase (Grizzly Bear) occurs in interior North America, whereas the black and partially black phases occur in eastern and central Asia. Color can lighten with bleaching from the sun. Prominent markings, from a white or creamcolored chest patch to a solid band that wrap across the chest and around the shoulders to the back, vary regionally and individually. Such markings are often present on cubs, but may be lost with age. Body hairs are sparser ventrally. Underfur is grown in fall, and molted in spring. Long, powerful, slightly curved front claws (4-10 cm) varying from dark brown to yellow to white, are characteristic. Foot pads are like that of the American Black Bear.","Brown Bears occupy a wider range of habitats than any other bear, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, meadows, grasslands, Arctic shrublands and tundra, alpine tundra, semi-deserts and deserts. Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic Black Bear, and also slightly that of the Polar Bear. They exist at elevations from sea level (temperate rainforests and Arctic tundra) to well above treeline (dry Asian steppes); highest elevation sightings (tracks in snow) have been at 5500 m(possibly 5800 m) in the Himalayas, and highest latitude sightings at 74° N(Canada), well into Polar Bear range.","Food habits vary regionally from principally herbivorous to principally carnivorous, depending on habitat. Plant foods include grasses, sedges, horsetails, forbs, roots, berries, and nuts. Animal foods include insects, rodents, ungulates, and fish. Insects are a significant dietary component in broadleaved forests of Europe, rodents and ungulates are most important in Arctic and alpine areas and some Boreal forests, and fish are paramount along the Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to Alaska to Kamchatka(Russia). Herbaceous vegetation tends to be the chief component of the spring diet. Later the bears switch to roots, berries, pine nuts, acorns, ants, bees, moths, ground squirrels, marmots, pikas, neonate ungulates, or spawning salmon, depending on availability. This species is morphologically and behaviorally well adapted to digging up insects and underground rodents,killing ungulates (including domestic species, like sheep and cattle), and catching salmon. In North America they rarely climb trees, whereas in Europe and parts of Asia they do so more regularly.","Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.","Active diurnally in North America, except where human activity is high. Nocturnally active in most of Europe, possibly due to more frequent contact with humans, both historically and presently. Young bears in Europe are active uniformly through the day, but apparently learn to become more nocturnal through negative experiences with people. Total time active per day (40-80%) varies with local conditions (food, day length). The period of hibernation also varies regionally: at the northern extremes of their range they may hibernate for seven months (October-May); conversely, on Kodiak Island, Alaska, where winters are mild and some food may remain available, about one-quarter of the males do not den all winter, an unusual anomaly among Brown Bears. In Russia, following seasons with very poor food, large numbers of malnourished bears may wander about for much of the winter.","Individual home range sizes vary by nearly four orders of magnitude (7-30,000 km?), related to food supply and bear density. Home ranges are largest in the barren-ground Arctic tundra, averaging 8000 km? for males. Rangesizes are smaller in boreal or montane forests, where large mammals are a main dietary component, and smaller yet in deciduous or mixed forests with hard mast. In coastal areas, with abundant food and high bear density, home ranges are smallest, averaging less than 200 km” for males and less than 100 km? for females. Male home ranges are typically three to four times larger than those of females; both sexes increase their ranges during the mating season to maximize overlap with potential mates. Bear density and home range overlap are high in coastal populations with abundant and predictable food (spawning salmon). In interior populations, with less abundant or more variable food, home ranges overlap less, and bears may be somewhat territorial. In extreme northern populations, where food resources are scarce, home ranges are large and indefensible, so overlap is high. Home range overlap is also positively associated with relatedness, because female offspring often settle near their mother, assuming part of their natal home range. Multigenerational, matrilineal assemblages occur in established populations, whereas females may be more prone to disperse and settle among unrelated individuals in expanding populations. Males disperse in either case, but their dispersal age (1-4 years old) is related to their growth rate, and dispersal distance is inversely related to bear density. In a low density, expanding population in Scandinavia, one-third to half the females dispersed,settling 15 kmfrom the natal range, on average, and 80-90% of males dispersed, generally settling over 100 kmand up to nearly 500 kmaway. Seasonal movements are common for both sexes. In mountainous terrain, regular seasonal altitudinalshifts correspond with changing food conditions at different elevations and habitats. Lateral movements to seasonally abundant food sources may involve large numbers of bears traveling along well-worn routes, akin to a migration. Movements to fall feeding areas, followed by returns to denning sites, are often direct and rapid: travels exceeding 20 kmin twelve hours have been recorded. At rich feeding areas, such as salmon streams, females with cubs avoid places with a high density of males, apparently because of threats of infanticide.Breeding.Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.","Only populations in central Asia (Mongoliato the Himalayas, China, Nepal, Bhutan) fall under CITES Appendix I; all others are CITES Appendix II. The species as a whole is not considered threatened by The IUCN Red List (Least Concern), but some individual European populations are separately red-listed (Vulnerable-Critically Endangered), and other threatened populations will be added in the near future. These small populations tend to exist in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development, which act as mortality sinks. Forty-seven countries in North America, Europe, and Asia are inhabited by Brown Bears. During the past 500 years they have been extirpated from 17 other countries, including large parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Mexico. In the lower 48 states of the USA, they were exterminated from more than 98% of their original range within 100 years of the arrival of European settlers, and have not since recovered. The total world population is estimated to exceed 200,000. Fairly reliable population estimates exist for several areas in North America (USA33,000; Canada25,000) and Europe (14,000, excluding Russia), but for few areas in Asia. Russiahas the largest number of Brown Bears, believed to exceed 100,000. The species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, but smaller, fragmented populations exist farther south. Populations are sufficiently large to sustain legal hunting in Russia, several former Soviet Republics, Japan(HokkaidoIsland), Canada, Alaska(USA), and several European countries. Conversely, populations with fewer than 100 individuals exist along the USA-Canadian border and in southern Europe where several small, isolated populations persist: two in the Pyrenees (Franceand Spain), one with less than 10 bears and the other with about 20, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) containing 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) with 40-50 bears, and in the the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) with 35-40 bears. Small, disconnected populations are also scattered across southern Asia, and in some areas even the present existence of this species is unknown (Bhutan, Iraq). As wide-ranging omnivores, Brown Bears are attracted to areas with human-related foods, where they may threaten life and damage property (livestock, cropfields) and may be killed as a consequence. Small numbers of mortalities, especially adult females, can threaten the viability of small, isolated populations. Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, but with varying degrees of enforcement. Moreover, even where hunting is banned, other sorts of human-caused mortality (management removals, self-defense, malicious killing, poaching, mistaken hunting of Black Bear) dominate the population dynamics of these bears. Reintroductions and population augmentations have helped to restore numbers and expand geographic range in the USAand Western Europe. Numerous protected areas around the world have Brown Bears, but few are large enough to support a self-sustaining population; therefore, Brown Bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses.","Bellemain, Nawaz et al. (2007) | Bellemain, Swenson & Taberlet (2006) | Bromlei (1965) | Brown (1985) | Ciarniello et al. (2007) | Clark et al. (2002) | Craighead, F.C. (1976) | Craighead, J.J. et al. (1995) | Dahle & Swenson (2003a, 2003b, 2003c) | Doupé et al. (2007) | Ferguson & McLoughlin (2000) | Fernandez-Gil et al. (2006) | Galbreath et al. (2007) | Garshelis (2004) | Garshelis et al. (2005) | Groupe National Ours dans les Pyrénées (2008) | Hall (1984) | Hilderbrand, Jenkins et al. (1999) | Hilderbrand, Schwartz et al. (1999) | IUCN (2008) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Kaczensky et al. (2006) | Kasworm et al. (2007) | LeFranc et al. (1987) | Linnell et al. (2000) | MacHutchon & Wellwood (2003) | Mattson & Merrill (2002) | McLellan & Hovey (1995, 2001) | McLellan, Hovey et al. (1999) | McLellan, Servheen & Huber (2007) | McLoughlin, Case et al. (1999) | McLoughlin, Ferguson & Messier (2000) | Miller et al. (2006) | Mowat & Heard(2006) | Munro et al. (2006) | Nellerman et al. (2007) | Nielsen, Herrero et al. (2004) | Nielsen, Stenhouse & Boyce (2006) | Pasitschniak-Arts (1993) | Proctor et al. (2004, 2005) | Rode et al. (2006) | Saarma etal. (2007) | Schwartz, Haroldson et al. (2006) | Schwartz, Keating et al. (2003) | Schwartz, Miller & Haroldson (2003) | Servheen et al. (1999) | Seryodkin et al. (2003) | Steen, Bellemain et al. (2005) | Steen, Zedrosser et al. (2006) | Swenson et al. (2000) | Talbot & Shields (1996) | Vaisfeld & Chestin (1993) | Valdiosera, Garciaet al. (2007) | Valdiosera, Garcia-Garitagoitia et al. (2008) | Van Daele (2007) | Waits et al. (1998) | Xu et al. (2006) | Zager & Beecham (2006) | Zedrosser et al. (2007)",,"7.Brown BearUrsus arctosFrench:Ours brun/ German:Braunbär/ Spanish:Oso pardoOther common names:Grizzly Bear, Kodiak BearTaxonomy.Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, northern Sweden.Genetic data corroborate the distinctiveness of some subspecies, such as isabellinus in Central Asia, but not others. Eight subspecies have been recognized in North America (seven of which are extant), but genetically these group into only three or four discrete clades, none of which match current subspecies designations. Conversely, whereas only one subspecies (artos) has been recognized for Europe, two geographically distinct lineages have been identified. Californiarace californicus (Merriam, 1896)and north-western Africa race crowthert (Schinz, 1844)are extinct. Fourteen extant subspecies currently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758— Europe and W Russia.U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896— most of Alaska(excluding AlaskaPeninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group).U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853— NE Russia(Kamchatka Peninsula& N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk).U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824— Russia(Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatkaand more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia.U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(N of Alexander Archipelago).U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902— Alaskapeninsula.U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815—W Canada(Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia& Alberta), inland W USA(extirpated from S Wyomingto Mexico).U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826— N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstanand Mongolia(Gobi Desert).U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867— Russia(Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/ Amurriver region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan(Hokkaido).U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak Island & nearby islands).U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853— Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal.U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area).U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914— W Canada(W British Columbia), and formerly W USA(W Washingtonand Oregon).U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828— Middle East, from Turkeyto Iran(extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armeniaand Azerbaijan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-280 cm, shoulder height up to 150 cm, tail 6-21 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, with food availability. Adult males are heavier (130-550 kg; rarely up to 725 kg) than adult females (80-250 kg, but occasionally up to 340 kg). Facial profile from forehead to nose is concave. Body profile includes a distinct muscular shoulder hump with long hairs. Coat color varies from uniform brown to mixed shades of brown, blond, and silver-tipped (grizzled), to partly gray or black, or fully black. The grizzled phase (Grizzly Bear) occurs in interior North America, whereas the black and partially black phases occur in eastern and central Asia. Color can lighten with bleaching from the sun. Prominent markings, from a white or creamcolored chest patch to a solid band that wrap across the chest and around the shoulders to the back, vary regionally and individually. Such markings are often present on cubs, but may be lost with age. Body hairs are sparser ventrally. Underfur is grown in fall, and molted in spring. Long, powerful, slightly curved front claws (4-10 cm) varying from dark brown to yellow to white, are characteristic. Foot pads are like that of the American Black Bear.Habitat.Brown Bears occupy a wider range of habitats than any other bear, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, meadows, grasslands, Arctic shrublands and tundra, alpine tundra, semi-deserts and deserts. Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic Black Bear, and also slightly that of the Polar Bear. They exist at elevations from sea level (temperate rainforests and Arctic tundra) to well above treeline (dry Asian steppes); highest elevation sightings (tracks in snow) have been at 5500 m(possibly 5800 m) in the Himalayas, and highest latitude sightings at 74° N(Canada), well into Polar Bear range.Food and Feeding.Food habits vary regionally from principally herbivorous to principally carnivorous, depending on habitat. Plant foods include grasses, sedges, horsetails, forbs, roots, berries, and nuts. Animal foods include insects, rodents, ungulates, and fish. Insects are a significant dietary component in broadleaved forests of Europe, rodents and ungulates are most important in Arctic and alpine areas and some Boreal forests, and fish are paramount along the Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to Alaska to Kamchatka(Russia). Herbaceous vegetation tends to be the chief component of the spring diet. Later the bears switch to roots, berries, pine nuts, acorns, ants, bees, moths, ground squirrels, marmots, pikas, neonate ungulates, or spawning salmon, depending on availability. This species is morphologically and behaviorally well adapted to digging up insects and underground rodents,killing ungulates (including domestic species, like sheep and cattle), and catching salmon. In North America they rarely climb trees, whereas in Europe and parts of Asia they do so more regularly.Activity patterns.Active diurnally in North America, except where human activity is high. Nocturnally active in most of Europe, possibly due to more frequent contact with humans, both historically and presently. Young bears in Europe are active uniformly through the day, but apparently learn to become more nocturnal through negative experiences with people. Total time active per day (40-80%) varies with local conditions (food, day length). The period of hibernation also varies regionally: at the northern extremes of their range they may hibernate for seven months (October-May); conversely, on Kodiak Island, Alaska, where winters are mild and some food may remain available, about one-quarter of the males do not den all winter, an unusual anomaly among Brown Bears. In Russia, following seasons with very poor food, large numbers of malnourished bears may wander about for much of the winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individual home range sizes vary by nearly four orders of magnitude (7-30,000 km?), related to food supply and bear density. Home ranges are largest in the barren-ground Arctic tundra, averaging 8000 km? for males. Rangesizes are smaller in boreal or montane forests, where large mammals are a main dietary component, and smaller yet in deciduous or mixed forests with hard mast. In coastal areas, with abundant food and high bear density, home ranges are smallest, averaging less than 200 km” for males and less than 100 km? for females. Male home ranges are typically three to four times larger than those of females; both sexes increase their ranges during the mating season to maximize overlap with potential mates. Bear density and home range overlap are high in coastal populations with abundant and predictable food (spawning salmon). In interior populations, with less abundant or more variable food, home ranges overlap less, and bears may be somewhat territorial. In extreme northern populations, where food resources are scarce, home ranges are large and indefensible, so overlap is high. Home range overlap is also positively associated with relatedness, because female offspring often settle near their mother, assuming part of their natal home range. Multigenerational, matrilineal assemblages occur in established populations, whereas females may be more prone to disperse and settle among unrelated individuals in expanding populations. Males disperse in either case, but their dispersal age (1-4 years old) is related to their growth rate, and dispersal distance is inversely related to bear density. In a low density, expanding population in Scandinavia, one-third to half the females dispersed,settling 15 kmfrom the natal range, on average, and 80-90% of males dispersed, generally settling over 100 kmand up to nearly 500 kmaway. Seasonal movements are common for both sexes. In mountainous terrain, regular seasonal altitudinalshifts correspond with changing food conditions at different elevations and habitats. Lateral movements to seasonally abundant food sources may involve large numbers of bears traveling along well-worn routes, akin to a migration. Movements to fall feeding areas, followed by returns to denning sites, are often direct and rapid: travels exceeding 20 kmin twelve hours have been recorded. At rich feeding areas, such as salmon streams, females with cubs avoid places with a high density of males, apparently because of threats of infanticide.Breeding.Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.Status and Conservation.Only populations in central Asia (Mongoliato the Himalayas, China, Nepal, Bhutan) fall under CITES Appendix I; all others are CITES Appendix II. The species as a whole is not considered threatened by The IUCN Red List (Least Concern), but some individual European populations are separately red-listed (Vulnerable-Critically Endangered), and other threatened populations will be added in the near future. These small populations tend to exist in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development, which act as mortality sinks. Forty-seven countries in North America, Europe, and Asia are inhabited by Brown Bears. During the past 500 years they have been extirpated from 17 other countries, including large parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Mexico. In the lower 48 states of the USA, they were exterminated from more than 98% of their original range within 100 years of the arrival of European settlers, and have not since recovered. The total world population is estimated to exceed 200,000. Fairly reliable population estimates exist for several areas in North America (USA33,000; Canada25,000) and Europe (14,000, excluding Russia), but for few areas in Asia. Russiahas the largest number of Brown Bears, believed to exceed 100,000. The species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, but smaller, fragmented populations exist farther south. Populations are sufficiently large to sustain legal hunting in Russia, several former Soviet Republics, Japan(HokkaidoIsland), Canada, Alaska(USA), and several European countries. Conversely, populations with fewer than 100 individuals exist along the USA-Canadian border and in southern Europe where several small, isolated populations persist: two in the Pyrenees (Franceand Spain), one with less than 10 bears and the other with about 20, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) containing 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) with 40-50 bears, and in the the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) with 35-40 bears. Small, disconnected populations are also scattered across southern Asia, and in some areas even the present existence of this species is unknown (Bhutan, Iraq). As wide-ranging omnivores, Brown Bears are attracted to areas with human-related foods, where they may threaten life and damage property (livestock, cropfields) and may be killed as a consequence. Small numbers of mortalities, especially adult females, can threaten the viability of small, isolated populations. Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, but with varying degrees of enforcement. Moreover, even where hunting is banned, other sorts of human-caused mortality (management removals, self-defense, malicious killing, poaching, mistaken hunting of Black Bear) dominate the population dynamics of these bears. Reintroductions and population augmentations have helped to restore numbers and expand geographic range in the USAand Western Europe. Numerous protected areas around the world have Brown Bears, but few are large enough to support a self-sustaining population; therefore, Brown Bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses.On following pages: 8. Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus).Bibliography.Bellemain, Nawaz et al. (2007), Bellemain, Swenson & Taberlet (2006), Bromlei (1965), Brown (1985), Ciarniello et al. (2007), Clark et al. (2002), Craighead, F.C. (1976), Craighead, J.J. et al. (1995), Dahle & Swenson (2003a, 2003b, 2003c), Doupé et al. (2007), Ferguson & McLoughlin (2000), Fernandez-Gil et al. (2006), Galbreath et al. (2007), Garshelis (2004), Garshelis et al. (2005), Groupe National Ours dans les Pyrénées (2008), Hall (1984), Hilderbrand, Jenkins et al. (1999), Hilderbrand, Schwartz et al. (1999), IUCN (2008), JapanBear Network (2006), Kaczensky et al. (2006), Kasworm et al. (2007), LeFranc et al. (1987), Linnell et al. (2000), MacHutchon & Wellwood (2003), Mattson & Merrill (2002), McLellan & Hovey (1995, 2001), McLellan, Hovey et al. (1999), McLellan, Servheen & Huber (2007), McLoughlin, Case et al. (1999), McLoughlin, Ferguson & Messier (2000), Miller et al. (2006), Mowat & Heard(2006), Munro et al. (2006), Nellerman et al. (2007), Nielsen, Herrero et al. (2004), Nielsen, Stenhouse & Boyce (2006), Pasitschniak-Arts (1993), Proctor et al. (2004, 2005), Rode et al. (2006), Saarma etal. (2007), Schwartz, Haroldson et al. (2006), Schwartz, Keating et al. (2003), Schwartz, Miller & Haroldson (2003), Servheen et al. (1999), Seryodkin et al. (2003), Steen, Bellemain et al. (2005), Steen, Zedrosser et al. (2006), Swenson et al. (2000), Talbot & Shields (1996), Vaisfeld & Chestin (1993), Valdiosera, Garciaet al. (2007), Valdiosera, Garcia-Garitagoitia et al. (2008), Van Daele (2007), Waits et al. (1998), Xu et al. (2006), Zager & Beecham (2006), Zedrosser et al. (2007)." -039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,488,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.xml,Helarctos malayanus,Helarctos,malayanus,,,Ours malais @fr | Malaienbar @de | Osomalayo @es | Malayan Sun Bear @en | Dog Bear @en | Honey Bear @en,"Ursus malayanus Raffles, 1822[presented orally in 1820, often incorrectly ascribed as 1821], Sumatra, Indonesia.Cranial differences support separation into two subspecies.","H. m. malayanus Raffles, 1822— Bangladesh, NE India, and S China(Yunnan) through SE Asia to Malaysia, and Sumatra.H. m. euryspilus Horsfield, 1825— Borneo.","Head-body 100-150 cm, tail 3-7 cm; weight 30-80 kg. Males are heavier than females, but the degree of sexual dimorphism (10-20%) is less than most other bears. The Bornean subspeciesis notably smaller, with a maximum weight of 65 kg. The body is stocky, and compared to other bears, the front legs more bowed, front feet turned more inward, muzzle shortened, ears especially small, and hair very short, often with obvious whorls. Coat coloris black or less commonly dark brown, typically with a prominent white, yellow, or orange chest marking. The chest marking is highly variable among individuals, usually a U or circular shape, but occasionally more amorphous, and sometimes with dark patches or spots. The bear takes its common name from this marking, which may look like a sun. The muzzle is pale, and the forehead may be wrinkled. The exceptionally long tongue (20-25 cm) is used for feeding on insects and honey. The canine teeth, which are particularly large in relation to the head, and the large front feet with long claws, are used for breaking into wood (e.g. to prey on stingless bees) and termite colonies. Soles of the feet have little hair.","In mainland South-east Asia, where there is a prolonged dry season, Sun Bears inhabit semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, and montane evergreen forest, largely sympatric with Asiatic Black Bears. In Borneo, Sumatra, and peninsular Malaysia, areas with high rainfall throughout the year, they inhabit mainly tropical evergreen dipterocarp rainforest and peat swamps. They also use mangrove forest and oil palm plantations in proximity to other, more favored habitats. They occur from near sea level to over 2100 melevation, but are most common in lower elevation forests.","Omnivorous diet includes insects (over 100 species, mainly termites, ants, beetles and bees), honey, and a wide variety of fruits. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae(figs), Burseraceaeand Myrtaceaemake up more than 50% of the fruit diet, but consumption of fruits from at least 20 other families of trees and lianas were identified in just one small study site (100 km?) in East Kalimantan. Availability of foods varies markedly from masting years when most species fruit synchronously, to inter-masting years when little fruit is available and the bears turn mainly to insects. Figs (Ficus) are a staple food during inter-mast periods. On the mainland, fruiting is more uniform (predictable) from year to year, but varies seasonally. However, there is an enormous diversity of fruits, so some fruit is available at all times of year. In Thailand, about 40 families of trees are climbed by Sun Bears, mostly for food; fruits from Lauraceae(cinnamon) and Fagaceae(oak) are favorites. Sun Bears are especially known for preying on colonies of stingless bees (7Trigona), including their resinous nesting material. The bees form nestsin cavities of live trees, so to prey on them Sun Bears chew and claw through the tree, leaving a conspicuous hole. These bears consume little vegetative matter, although they seem to relish the growth shoots of palm trees (palm hearts), the consumption of which kills the tree. Occasionally they also take reptiles, small mammals, and bird eggs.","This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.","Activity has been described as mainly nocturnal or mainly diurnal. This variability depends on proximity to human activities: in heavily disturbed areas, such as oil palm plantations, Sun Bears are chiefly nocturnal. Camera traps along roads typically obtain photographs of bears mainly at night, whereas signals from radio-collared bears farther from roads indicate that they are active mainly during the day. They spend a large proportion of time feeding in trees when fruit is abundant. They also sometimes build tree nests of branches and leaves for sleeping. This behavior has been attributed to previous predation pressure by Tigers; however,it appears to occur commonly only in heavily-disturbed forests or near people. Sun Bears have been observed to slide rapidly down tree trunks when disturbed by people. Although arboreally adept, they cannot swing orjump from tree to tree. Normally they sleep on the ground, often in cavities of either standing or fallen trees, or under such trees. Females use similar sites for birthing dens. This species does not hibernate.","Home range information is very limited. Two males radio-tracked for about one year in Borneo during a fruiting failure had minimum known ranges of 15-20 km? (butlikely ranged beyond this); one of them centered his activity on a garbage dump. Two Bornean females living in a small, isolated forest patch (100 km? more than half of which had been burned in a forest fire and was rarely used by Sun Bears) had home ranges of only about 4 km®. Most sightings have been ofsolitary bears or mothers with a cub, but gatherings of multiple bears have been witnessed at rich feeding sites.Breeding.This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.","CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although quantitative estimates of population sizes and trends are lacking, rates of habitat loss and degradation, combined with persistent poaching, indicate that the global population ofthis species has declined by more than 30% during the past three decades. Additionally, it is strictly protected under national wildlife laws throughout its range; however, there is generally insufficient enforcement of these laws. None of the eleven countries where the Sun Bear occurs has implemented any conservation measures specifically for this species. Commercial poaching, especially for gall bladders (used in traditional Chinese medicine) and paws (a delicacy), is a considerable threat, especially in mainland South-east Asia. Local hunters in one area of Thailandestimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of Sun Bears by 50% in 20 years. In Malaysiaand Indonesia, deforestation is the prime threat. Clear-cutting to expand oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) plantations (which is likely to worsen with increased biofuel production) and unsustainable logging (both legal and illegal) are escalating at alarming rates. Prolonged droughts, spurring natural and human-caused fires, are compounding the habitat-loss problem, resulting in diminished availability of food and space for bears, sometimes causing their starvation. Where bears do not die directly from food scarcity, they seek out agricultural crops adjacent to the forest, and are poisoned or trapped and killed by local people. Some headway has been made in establishing buffer zones around protected forested areas, educating local people on nonlethal deterrents, and increasing communication between local people and sanctuary managers, resulting in shared problem solving.","Augeri (2005) | Fredriksson (2005) | Fredriksson, Danielsen & Swenson (2007) | Fredriksson, Steinmetz et al. (2007) | Fredriksson, Wich & Trisno (2006) | Hesterman et al. (2005) | JapanBear Network (2006) | McCusker (1974) | Meijaard (1999a, 1999b, 2001, 2004) | Normua et al. (2004) | Schwarzenbergeret al. (2004) | Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008) | Steinmetz et al. (2006) | Wong, Servheen & Ambu (2002, 2004) | Wong, Servheen, Ambu & Norhayati (2005)",,"3.Sun BearHelarctos malayanusFrench:Ours malais/ German:Malaienbar/ Spanish:OsomalayoOther common names:Malayan Sun Bear, Dog Bear, Honey BearTaxonomy.Ursus malayanus Raffles, 1822[presented orally in 1820, often incorrectly ascribed as 1821], Sumatra, Indonesia.Cranial differences support separation into two subspecies.Subspecies and Distribution.H. m. malayanus Raffles, 1822— Bangladesh, NE India, and S China(Yunnan) through SE Asia to Malaysia, and Sumatra.H. m. euryspilus Horsfield, 1825— Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-150 cm, tail 3-7 cm; weight 30-80 kg. Males are heavier than females, but the degree of sexual dimorphism (10-20%) is less than most other bears. The Bornean subspeciesis notably smaller, with a maximum weight of 65 kg. The body is stocky, and compared to other bears, the front legs more bowed, front feet turned more inward, muzzle shortened, ears especially small, and hair very short, often with obvious whorls. Coat coloris black or less commonly dark brown, typically with a prominent white, yellow, or orange chest marking. The chest marking is highly variable among individuals, usually a U or circular shape, but occasionally more amorphous, and sometimes with dark patches or spots. The bear takes its common name from this marking, which may look like a sun. The muzzle is pale, and the forehead may be wrinkled. The exceptionally long tongue (20-25 cm) is used for feeding on insects and honey. The canine teeth, which are particularly large in relation to the head, and the large front feet with long claws, are used for breaking into wood (e.g. to prey on stingless bees) and termite colonies. Soles of the feet have little hair.Habitat.In mainland South-east Asia, where there is a prolonged dry season, Sun Bears inhabit semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, and montane evergreen forest, largely sympatric with Asiatic Black Bears. In Borneo, Sumatra, and peninsular Malaysia, areas with high rainfall throughout the year, they inhabit mainly tropical evergreen dipterocarp rainforest and peat swamps. They also use mangrove forest and oil palm plantations in proximity to other, more favored habitats. They occur from near sea level to over 2100 melevation, but are most common in lower elevation forests.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous diet includes insects (over 100 species, mainly termites, ants, beetles and bees), honey, and a wide variety of fruits. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae(figs), Burseraceaeand Myrtaceaemake up more than 50% of the fruit diet, but consumption of fruits from at least 20 other families of trees and lianas were identified in just one small study site (100 km?) in East Kalimantan. Availability of foods varies markedly from masting years when most species fruit synchronously, to inter-masting years when little fruit is available and the bears turn mainly to insects. Figs (Ficus) are a staple food during inter-mast periods. On the mainland, fruiting is more uniform (predictable) from year to year, but varies seasonally. However, there is an enormous diversity of fruits, so some fruit is available at all times of year. In Thailand, about 40 families of trees are climbed by Sun Bears, mostly for food; fruits from Lauraceae(cinnamon) and Fagaceae(oak) are favorites. Sun Bears are especially known for preying on colonies of stingless bees (7Trigona), including their resinous nesting material. The bees form nestsin cavities of live trees, so to prey on them Sun Bears chew and claw through the tree, leaving a conspicuous hole. These bears consume little vegetative matter, although they seem to relish the growth shoots of palm trees (palm hearts), the consumption of which kills the tree. Occasionally they also take reptiles, small mammals, and bird eggs.Activity patterns.Activity has been described as mainly nocturnal or mainly diurnal. This variability depends on proximity to human activities: in heavily disturbed areas, such as oil palm plantations, Sun Bears are chiefly nocturnal. Camera traps along roads typically obtain photographs of bears mainly at night, whereas signals from radio-collared bears farther from roads indicate that they are active mainly during the day. They spend a large proportion of time feeding in trees when fruit is abundant. They also sometimes build tree nests of branches and leaves for sleeping. This behavior has been attributed to previous predation pressure by Tigers; however,it appears to occur commonly only in heavily-disturbed forests or near people. Sun Bears have been observed to slide rapidly down tree trunks when disturbed by people. Although arboreally adept, they cannot swing orjump from tree to tree. Normally they sleep on the ground, often in cavities of either standing or fallen trees, or under such trees. Females use similar sites for birthing dens. This species does not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range information is very limited. Two males radio-tracked for about one year in Borneo during a fruiting failure had minimum known ranges of 15-20 km? (butlikely ranged beyond this); one of them centered his activity on a garbage dump. Two Bornean females living in a small, isolated forest patch (100 km? more than half of which had been burned in a forest fire and was rarely used by Sun Bears) had home ranges of only about 4 km®. Most sightings have been ofsolitary bears or mothers with a cub, but gatherings of multiple bears have been witnessed at rich feeding sites.Breeding.This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although quantitative estimates of population sizes and trends are lacking, rates of habitat loss and degradation, combined with persistent poaching, indicate that the global population ofthis species has declined by more than 30% during the past three decades. Additionally, it is strictly protected under national wildlife laws throughout its range; however, there is generally insufficient enforcement of these laws. None of the eleven countries where the Sun Bear occurs has implemented any conservation measures specifically for this species. Commercial poaching, especially for gall bladders (used in traditional Chinese medicine) and paws (a delicacy), is a considerable threat, especially in mainland South-east Asia. Local hunters in one area of Thailandestimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of Sun Bears by 50% in 20 years. In Malaysiaand Indonesia, deforestation is the prime threat. Clear-cutting to expand oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) plantations (which is likely to worsen with increased biofuel production) and unsustainable logging (both legal and illegal) are escalating at alarming rates. Prolonged droughts, spurring natural and human-caused fires, are compounding the habitat-loss problem, resulting in diminished availability of food and space for bears, sometimes causing their starvation. Where bears do not die directly from food scarcity, they seek out agricultural crops adjacent to the forest, and are poisoned or trapped and killed by local people. Some headway has been made in establishing buffer zones around protected forested areas, educating local people on nonlethal deterrents, and increasing communication between local people and sanctuary managers, resulting in shared problem solving.Bibliography.Augeri (2005), Fredriksson (2005), Fredriksson, Danielsen & Swenson (2007), Fredriksson, Steinmetz et al. (2007), Fredriksson, Wich & Trisno (2006), Hesterman et al. (2005), JapanBear Network (2006), McCusker (1974), Meijaard (1999a, 1999b, 2001, 2004), Normua et al. (2004), Schwarzenbergeret al. (2004), Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008), Steinmetz et al. (2006), Wong, Servheen & Ambu (2002, 2004), Wong, Servheen, Ambu & Norhayati (2005)." +039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,495,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.xml,Ursus arctos,Ursus,arctos,,,Ours brun @fr | Braunbär @de | Oso pardo @es | Grizzly Bear @en | Kodiak Bear @en,"Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, northern Sweden.Genetic data corroborate the distinctiveness of some subspecies, such as isabellinus in Central Asia, but not others. Eight subspecies have been recognized in North America (seven of which are extant), but genetically these group into only three or four discrete clades, none of which match current subspecies designations. Conversely, whereas only one subspecies (artos) has been recognized for Europe, two geographically distinct lineages have been identified. Californiarace californicus (Merriam, 1896)and north-western Africa race crowthert (Schinz, 1844)are extinct. Fourteen extant subspecies currently recognized.","U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758— Europe and W Russia.U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896— most of Alaska(excluding AlaskaPeninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group).U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853— NE Russia(Kamchatka Peninsula& N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk).U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824— Russia(Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatkaand more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia.U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(N of Alexander Archipelago).U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902— Alaskapeninsula.U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815—W Canada(Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia& Alberta), inland W USA(extirpated from S Wyomingto Mexico).U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826— N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstanand Mongolia(Gobi Desert).U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867— Russia(Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/ Amurriver region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan(Hokkaido).U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak Island & nearby islands).U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853— Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal.U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area).U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914— W Canada(W British Columbia), and formerly W USA(W Washingtonand Oregon).U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828— Middle East, from Turkeyto Iran(extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armeniaand Azerbaijan.","Head-body 150-280 cm, shoulder height up to 150 cm, tail 6-21 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, with food availability. Adult males are heavier (130-550 kg; rarely up to 725 kg) than adult females (80-250 kg, but occasionally up to 340 kg). Facial profile from forehead to nose is concave. Body profile includes a distinct muscular shoulder hump with long hairs. Coat color varies from uniform brown to mixed shades of brown, blond, and silver-tipped (grizzled), to partly gray or black, or fully black. The grizzled phase (Grizzly Bear) occurs in interior North America, whereas the black and partially black phases occur in eastern and central Asia. Color can lighten with bleaching from the sun. Prominent markings, from a white or creamcolored chest patch to a solid band that wrap across the chest and around the shoulders to the back, vary regionally and individually. Such markings are often present on cubs, but may be lost with age. Body hairs are sparser ventrally. Underfur is grown in fall, and molted in spring. Long, powerful, slightly curved front claws (4-10 cm) varying from dark brown to yellow to white, are characteristic. Foot pads are like that of the American Black Bear.","Brown Bears occupy a wider range of habitats than any other bear, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, meadows, grasslands, Arctic shrublands and tundra, alpine tundra, semi-deserts and deserts. Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic Black Bear, and also slightly that of the Polar Bear. They exist at elevations from sea level (temperate rainforests and Arctic tundra) to well above treeline (dry Asian steppes); highest elevation sightings (tracks in snow) have been at 5500 m(possibly 5800 m) in the Himalayas, and highest latitude sightings at 74° N(Canada), well into Polar Bear range.","Food habits vary regionally from principally herbivorous to principally carnivorous, depending on habitat. Plant foods include grasses, sedges, horsetails, forbs, roots, berries, and nuts. Animal foods include insects, rodents, ungulates, and fish. Insects are a significant dietary component in broadleaved forests of Europe, rodents and ungulates are most important in Arctic and alpine areas and some Boreal forests, and fish are paramount along the Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to Alaska to Kamchatka(Russia). Herbaceous vegetation tends to be the chief component of the spring diet. Later the bears switch to roots, berries, pine nuts, acorns, ants, bees, moths, ground squirrels, marmots, pikas, neonate ungulates, or spawning salmon, depending on availability. This species is morphologically and behaviorally well adapted to digging up insects and underground rodents,killing ungulates (including domestic species, like sheep and cattle), and catching salmon. In North America they rarely climb trees, whereas in Europe and parts of Asia they do so more regularly.","Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.","Active diurnally in North America, except where human activity is high. Nocturnally active in most of Europe, possibly due to more frequent contact with humans, both historically and presently. Young bears in Europe are active uniformly through the day, but apparently learn to become more nocturnal through negative experiences with people. Total time active per day (40-80%) varies with local conditions (food, day length). The period of hibernation also varies regionally: at the northern extremes of their range they may hibernate for seven months (October-May); conversely, on Kodiak Island, Alaska, where winters are mild and some food may remain available, about one-quarter of the males do not den all winter, an unusual anomaly among Brown Bears. In Russia, following seasons with very poor food, large numbers of malnourished bears may wander about for much of the winter.","Individual home range sizes vary by nearly four orders of magnitude (7-30,000 km?), related to food supply and bear density. Home ranges are largest in the barren-ground Arctic tundra, averaging 8000 km? for males. Rangesizes are smaller in boreal or montane forests, where large mammals are a main dietary component, and smaller yet in deciduous or mixed forests with hard mast. In coastal areas, with abundant food and high bear density, home ranges are smallest, averaging less than 200 km” for males and less than 100 km? for females. Male home ranges are typically three to four times larger than those of females; both sexes increase their ranges during the mating season to maximize overlap with potential mates. Bear density and home range overlap are high in coastal populations with abundant and predictable food (spawning salmon). In interior populations, with less abundant or more variable food, home ranges overlap less, and bears may be somewhat territorial. In extreme northern populations, where food resources are scarce, home ranges are large and indefensible, so overlap is high. Home range overlap is also positively associated with relatedness, because female offspring often settle near their mother, assuming part of their natal home range. Multigenerational, matrilineal assemblages occur in established populations, whereas females may be more prone to disperse and settle among unrelated individuals in expanding populations. Males disperse in either case, but their dispersal age (1-4 years old) is related to their growth rate, and dispersal distance is inversely related to bear density. In a low density, expanding population in Scandinavia, one-third to half the females dispersed,settling 15 kmfrom the natal range, on average, and 80-90% of males dispersed, generally settling over 100 kmand up to nearly 500 kmaway. Seasonal movements are common for both sexes. In mountainous terrain, regular seasonal altitudinalshifts correspond with changing food conditions at different elevations and habitats. Lateral movements to seasonally abundant food sources may involve large numbers of bears traveling along well-worn routes, akin to a migration. Movements to fall feeding areas, followed by returns to denning sites, are often direct and rapid: travels exceeding 20 kmin twelve hours have been recorded. At rich feeding areas, such as salmon streams, females with cubs avoid places with a high density of males, apparently because of threats of infanticide.Breeding.Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.","Only populations in central Asia (Mongoliato the Himalayas, China, Nepal, Bhutan) fall under CITES Appendix I; all others are CITES Appendix II. The species as a whole is not considered threatened by The IUCN Red List (Least Concern), but some individual European populations are separately red-listed (Vulnerable-Critically Endangered), and other threatened populations will be added in the near future. These small populations tend to exist in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development, which act as mortality sinks. Forty-seven countries in North America, Europe, and Asia are inhabited by Brown Bears. During the past 500 years they have been extirpated from 17 other countries, including large parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Mexico. In the lower 48 states of the USA, they were exterminated from more than 98% of their original range within 100 years of the arrival of European settlers, and have not since recovered. The total world population is estimated to exceed 200,000. Fairly reliable population estimates exist for several areas in North America (USA33,000; Canada25,000) and Europe (14,000, excluding Russia), but for few areas in Asia. Russiahas the largest number of Brown Bears, believed to exceed 100,000. The species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, but smaller, fragmented populations exist farther south. Populations are sufficiently large to sustain legal hunting in Russia, several former Soviet Republics, Japan(HokkaidoIsland), Canada, Alaska(USA), and several European countries. Conversely, populations with fewer than 100 individuals exist along the USA-Canadian border and in southern Europe where several small, isolated populations persist: two in the Pyrenees (Franceand Spain), one with less than 10 bears and the other with about 20, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) containing 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) with 40-50 bears, and in the the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) with 35-40 bears. Small, disconnected populations are also scattered across southern Asia, and in some areas even the present existence of this species is unknown (Bhutan, Iraq). As wide-ranging omnivores, Brown Bears are attracted to areas with human-related foods, where they may threaten life and damage property (livestock, cropfields) and may be killed as a consequence. Small numbers of mortalities, especially adult females, can threaten the viability of small, isolated populations. Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, but with varying degrees of enforcement. Moreover, even where hunting is banned, other sorts of human-caused mortality (management removals, self-defense, malicious killing, poaching, mistaken hunting of Black Bear) dominate the population dynamics of these bears. Reintroductions and population augmentations have helped to restore numbers and expand geographic range in the USAand Western Europe. Numerous protected areas around the world have Brown Bears, but few are large enough to support a self-sustaining population; therefore, Brown Bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses.","Bellemain, Nawaz et al. (2007) | Bellemain, Swenson & Taberlet (2006) | Bromlei (1965) | Brown (1985) | Ciarniello et al. (2007) | Clark et al. (2002) | Craighead, F.C. (1976) | Craighead, J.J. et al. (1995) | Dahle & Swenson (2003a, 2003b, 2003c) | Doupé et al. (2007) | Ferguson & McLoughlin (2000) | Fernandez-Gil et al. (2006) | Galbreath et al. (2007) | Garshelis (2004) | Garshelis et al. (2005) | Groupe National Ours dans les Pyrénées (2008) | Hall (1984) | Hilderbrand, Jenkins et al. (1999) | Hilderbrand, Schwartz et al. (1999) | IUCN (2008) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Kaczensky et al. (2006) | Kasworm et al. (2007) | LeFranc et al. (1987) | Linnell et al. (2000) | MacHutchon & Wellwood (2003) | Mattson & Merrill (2002) | McLellan & Hovey (1995, 2001) | McLellan, Hovey et al. (1999) | McLellan, Servheen & Huber (2007) | McLoughlin, Case et al. (1999) | McLoughlin, Ferguson & Messier (2000) | Miller et al. (2006) | Mowat & Heard(2006) | Munro et al. (2006) | Nellerman et al. (2007) | Nielsen, Herrero et al. (2004) | Nielsen, Stenhouse & Boyce (2006) | Pasitschniak-Arts (1993) | Proctor et al. (2004, 2005) | Rode et al. (2006) | Saarma etal. (2007) | Schwartz, Haroldson et al. (2006) | Schwartz, Keating et al. (2003) | Schwartz, Miller & Haroldson (2003) | Servheen et al. (1999) | Seryodkin et al. (2003) | Steen, Bellemain et al. (2005) | Steen, Zedrosser et al. (2006) | Swenson et al. (2000) | Talbot & Shields (1996) | Vaisfeld & Chestin (1993) | Valdiosera, Garciaet al. (2007) | Valdiosera, Garcia-Garitagoitia et al. (2008) | Van Daele (2007) | Waits et al. (1998) | Xu et al. (2006) | Zager & Beecham (2006) | Zedrosser et al. (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714509/files/figure.png,"7.Brown BearUrsus arctosFrench:Ours brun/ German:Braunbär/ Spanish:Oso pardoOther common names:Grizzly Bear, Kodiak BearTaxonomy.Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, northern Sweden.Genetic data corroborate the distinctiveness of some subspecies, such as isabellinus in Central Asia, but not others. Eight subspecies have been recognized in North America (seven of which are extant), but genetically these group into only three or four discrete clades, none of which match current subspecies designations. Conversely, whereas only one subspecies (artos) has been recognized for Europe, two geographically distinct lineages have been identified. Californiarace californicus (Merriam, 1896)and north-western Africa race crowthert (Schinz, 1844)are extinct. Fourteen extant subspecies currently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758— Europe and W Russia.U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896— most of Alaska(excluding AlaskaPeninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group).U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853— NE Russia(Kamchatka Peninsula& N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk).U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824— Russia(Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatkaand more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia.U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(N of Alexander Archipelago).U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902— Alaskapeninsula.U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815—W Canada(Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia& Alberta), inland W USA(extirpated from S Wyomingto Mexico).U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826— N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstanand Mongolia(Gobi Desert).U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867— Russia(Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/ Amurriver region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan(Hokkaido).U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak Island & nearby islands).U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853— Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal.U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area).U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914— W Canada(W British Columbia), and formerly W USA(W Washingtonand Oregon).U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828— Middle East, from Turkeyto Iran(extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armeniaand Azerbaijan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-280 cm, shoulder height up to 150 cm, tail 6-21 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, with food availability. Adult males are heavier (130-550 kg; rarely up to 725 kg) than adult females (80-250 kg, but occasionally up to 340 kg). Facial profile from forehead to nose is concave. Body profile includes a distinct muscular shoulder hump with long hairs. Coat color varies from uniform brown to mixed shades of brown, blond, and silver-tipped (grizzled), to partly gray or black, or fully black. The grizzled phase (Grizzly Bear) occurs in interior North America, whereas the black and partially black phases occur in eastern and central Asia. Color can lighten with bleaching from the sun. Prominent markings, from a white or creamcolored chest patch to a solid band that wrap across the chest and around the shoulders to the back, vary regionally and individually. Such markings are often present on cubs, but may be lost with age. Body hairs are sparser ventrally. Underfur is grown in fall, and molted in spring. Long, powerful, slightly curved front claws (4-10 cm) varying from dark brown to yellow to white, are characteristic. Foot pads are like that of the American Black Bear.Habitat.Brown Bears occupy a wider range of habitats than any other bear, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, meadows, grasslands, Arctic shrublands and tundra, alpine tundra, semi-deserts and deserts. Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic Black Bear, and also slightly that of the Polar Bear. They exist at elevations from sea level (temperate rainforests and Arctic tundra) to well above treeline (dry Asian steppes); highest elevation sightings (tracks in snow) have been at 5500 m(possibly 5800 m) in the Himalayas, and highest latitude sightings at 74° N(Canada), well into Polar Bear range.Food and Feeding.Food habits vary regionally from principally herbivorous to principally carnivorous, depending on habitat. Plant foods include grasses, sedges, horsetails, forbs, roots, berries, and nuts. Animal foods include insects, rodents, ungulates, and fish. Insects are a significant dietary component in broadleaved forests of Europe, rodents and ungulates are most important in Arctic and alpine areas and some Boreal forests, and fish are paramount along the Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to Alaska to Kamchatka(Russia). Herbaceous vegetation tends to be the chief component of the spring diet. Later the bears switch to roots, berries, pine nuts, acorns, ants, bees, moths, ground squirrels, marmots, pikas, neonate ungulates, or spawning salmon, depending on availability. This species is morphologically and behaviorally well adapted to digging up insects and underground rodents,killing ungulates (including domestic species, like sheep and cattle), and catching salmon. In North America they rarely climb trees, whereas in Europe and parts of Asia they do so more regularly.Activity patterns.Active diurnally in North America, except where human activity is high. Nocturnally active in most of Europe, possibly due to more frequent contact with humans, both historically and presently. Young bears in Europe are active uniformly through the day, but apparently learn to become more nocturnal through negative experiences with people. Total time active per day (40-80%) varies with local conditions (food, day length). The period of hibernation also varies regionally: at the northern extremes of their range they may hibernate for seven months (October-May); conversely, on Kodiak Island, Alaska, where winters are mild and some food may remain available, about one-quarter of the males do not den all winter, an unusual anomaly among Brown Bears. In Russia, following seasons with very poor food, large numbers of malnourished bears may wander about for much of the winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individual home range sizes vary by nearly four orders of magnitude (7-30,000 km?), related to food supply and bear density. Home ranges are largest in the barren-ground Arctic tundra, averaging 8000 km? for males. Rangesizes are smaller in boreal or montane forests, where large mammals are a main dietary component, and smaller yet in deciduous or mixed forests with hard mast. In coastal areas, with abundant food and high bear density, home ranges are smallest, averaging less than 200 km” for males and less than 100 km? for females. Male home ranges are typically three to four times larger than those of females; both sexes increase their ranges during the mating season to maximize overlap with potential mates. Bear density and home range overlap are high in coastal populations with abundant and predictable food (spawning salmon). In interior populations, with less abundant or more variable food, home ranges overlap less, and bears may be somewhat territorial. In extreme northern populations, where food resources are scarce, home ranges are large and indefensible, so overlap is high. Home range overlap is also positively associated with relatedness, because female offspring often settle near their mother, assuming part of their natal home range. Multigenerational, matrilineal assemblages occur in established populations, whereas females may be more prone to disperse and settle among unrelated individuals in expanding populations. Males disperse in either case, but their dispersal age (1-4 years old) is related to their growth rate, and dispersal distance is inversely related to bear density. In a low density, expanding population in Scandinavia, one-third to half the females dispersed,settling 15 kmfrom the natal range, on average, and 80-90% of males dispersed, generally settling over 100 kmand up to nearly 500 kmaway. Seasonal movements are common for both sexes. In mountainous terrain, regular seasonal altitudinalshifts correspond with changing food conditions at different elevations and habitats. Lateral movements to seasonally abundant food sources may involve large numbers of bears traveling along well-worn routes, akin to a migration. Movements to fall feeding areas, followed by returns to denning sites, are often direct and rapid: travels exceeding 20 kmin twelve hours have been recorded. At rich feeding areas, such as salmon streams, females with cubs avoid places with a high density of males, apparently because of threats of infanticide.Breeding.Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.Status and Conservation.Only populations in central Asia (Mongoliato the Himalayas, China, Nepal, Bhutan) fall under CITES Appendix I; all others are CITES Appendix II. The species as a whole is not considered threatened by The IUCN Red List (Least Concern), but some individual European populations are separately red-listed (Vulnerable-Critically Endangered), and other threatened populations will be added in the near future. These small populations tend to exist in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development, which act as mortality sinks. Forty-seven countries in North America, Europe, and Asia are inhabited by Brown Bears. During the past 500 years they have been extirpated from 17 other countries, including large parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Mexico. In the lower 48 states of the USA, they were exterminated from more than 98% of their original range within 100 years of the arrival of European settlers, and have not since recovered. The total world population is estimated to exceed 200,000. Fairly reliable population estimates exist for several areas in North America (USA33,000; Canada25,000) and Europe (14,000, excluding Russia), but for few areas in Asia. Russiahas the largest number of Brown Bears, believed to exceed 100,000. The species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, but smaller, fragmented populations exist farther south. Populations are sufficiently large to sustain legal hunting in Russia, several former Soviet Republics, Japan(HokkaidoIsland), Canada, Alaska(USA), and several European countries. Conversely, populations with fewer than 100 individuals exist along the USA-Canadian border and in southern Europe where several small, isolated populations persist: two in the Pyrenees (Franceand Spain), one with less than 10 bears and the other with about 20, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) containing 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) with 40-50 bears, and in the the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) with 35-40 bears. Small, disconnected populations are also scattered across southern Asia, and in some areas even the present existence of this species is unknown (Bhutan, Iraq). As wide-ranging omnivores, Brown Bears are attracted to areas with human-related foods, where they may threaten life and damage property (livestock, cropfields) and may be killed as a consequence. Small numbers of mortalities, especially adult females, can threaten the viability of small, isolated populations. Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, but with varying degrees of enforcement. Moreover, even where hunting is banned, other sorts of human-caused mortality (management removals, self-defense, malicious killing, poaching, mistaken hunting of Black Bear) dominate the population dynamics of these bears. Reintroductions and population augmentations have helped to restore numbers and expand geographic range in the USAand Western Europe. Numerous protected areas around the world have Brown Bears, but few are large enough to support a self-sustaining population; therefore, Brown Bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses.On following pages: 8. Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus).Bibliography.Bellemain, Nawaz et al. (2007), Bellemain, Swenson & Taberlet (2006), Bromlei (1965), Brown (1985), Ciarniello et al. (2007), Clark et al. (2002), Craighead, F.C. (1976), Craighead, J.J. et al. (1995), Dahle & Swenson (2003a, 2003b, 2003c), Doupé et al. (2007), Ferguson & McLoughlin (2000), Fernandez-Gil et al. (2006), Galbreath et al. (2007), Garshelis (2004), Garshelis et al. (2005), Groupe National Ours dans les Pyrénées (2008), Hall (1984), Hilderbrand, Jenkins et al. (1999), Hilderbrand, Schwartz et al. (1999), IUCN (2008), JapanBear Network (2006), Kaczensky et al. (2006), Kasworm et al. (2007), LeFranc et al. (1987), Linnell et al. (2000), MacHutchon & Wellwood (2003), Mattson & Merrill (2002), McLellan & Hovey (1995, 2001), McLellan, Hovey et al. (1999), McLellan, Servheen & Huber (2007), McLoughlin, Case et al. (1999), McLoughlin, Ferguson & Messier (2000), Miller et al. (2006), Mowat & Heard(2006), Munro et al. (2006), Nellerman et al. (2007), Nielsen, Herrero et al. (2004), Nielsen, Stenhouse & Boyce (2006), Pasitschniak-Arts (1993), Proctor et al. (2004, 2005), Rode et al. (2006), Saarma etal. (2007), Schwartz, Haroldson et al. (2006), Schwartz, Keating et al. (2003), Schwartz, Miller & Haroldson (2003), Servheen et al. (1999), Seryodkin et al. (2003), Steen, Bellemain et al. (2005), Steen, Zedrosser et al. (2006), Swenson et al. (2000), Talbot & Shields (1996), Vaisfeld & Chestin (1993), Valdiosera, Garciaet al. (2007), Valdiosera, Garcia-Garitagoitia et al. (2008), Van Daele (2007), Waits et al. (1998), Xu et al. (2006), Zager & Beecham (2006), Zedrosser et al. (2007)." +039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,488,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.xml,Helarctos malayanus,Helarctos,malayanus,,,Ours malais @fr | Malaienbar @de | Osomalayo @es | Malayan Sun Bear @en | Dog Bear @en | Honey Bear @en,"Ursus malayanus Raffles, 1822[presented orally in 1820, often incorrectly ascribed as 1821], Sumatra, Indonesia.Cranial differences support separation into two subspecies.","H. m. malayanus Raffles, 1822— Bangladesh, NE India, and S China(Yunnan) through SE Asia to Malaysia, and Sumatra.H. m. euryspilus Horsfield, 1825— Borneo.","Head-body 100-150 cm, tail 3-7 cm; weight 30-80 kg. Males are heavier than females, but the degree of sexual dimorphism (10-20%) is less than most other bears. The Bornean subspeciesis notably smaller, with a maximum weight of 65 kg. The body is stocky, and compared to other bears, the front legs more bowed, front feet turned more inward, muzzle shortened, ears especially small, and hair very short, often with obvious whorls. Coat coloris black or less commonly dark brown, typically with a prominent white, yellow, or orange chest marking. The chest marking is highly variable among individuals, usually a U or circular shape, but occasionally more amorphous, and sometimes with dark patches or spots. The bear takes its common name from this marking, which may look like a sun. The muzzle is pale, and the forehead may be wrinkled. The exceptionally long tongue (20-25 cm) is used for feeding on insects and honey. The canine teeth, which are particularly large in relation to the head, and the large front feet with long claws, are used for breaking into wood (e.g. to prey on stingless bees) and termite colonies. Soles of the feet have little hair.","In mainland South-east Asia, where there is a prolonged dry season, Sun Bears inhabit semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, and montane evergreen forest, largely sympatric with Asiatic Black Bears. In Borneo, Sumatra, and peninsular Malaysia, areas with high rainfall throughout the year, they inhabit mainly tropical evergreen dipterocarp rainforest and peat swamps. They also use mangrove forest and oil palm plantations in proximity to other, more favored habitats. They occur from near sea level to over 2100 melevation, but are most common in lower elevation forests.","Omnivorous diet includes insects (over 100 species, mainly termites, ants, beetles and bees), honey, and a wide variety of fruits. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae(figs), Burseraceaeand Myrtaceaemake up more than 50% of the fruit diet, but consumption of fruits from at least 20 other families of trees and lianas were identified in just one small study site (100 km?) in East Kalimantan. Availability of foods varies markedly from masting years when most species fruit synchronously, to inter-masting years when little fruit is available and the bears turn mainly to insects. Figs (Ficus) are a staple food during inter-mast periods. On the mainland, fruiting is more uniform (predictable) from year to year, but varies seasonally. However, there is an enormous diversity of fruits, so some fruit is available at all times of year. In Thailand, about 40 families of trees are climbed by Sun Bears, mostly for food; fruits from Lauraceae(cinnamon) and Fagaceae(oak) are favorites. Sun Bears are especially known for preying on colonies of stingless bees (7Trigona), including their resinous nesting material. The bees form nestsin cavities of live trees, so to prey on them Sun Bears chew and claw through the tree, leaving a conspicuous hole. These bears consume little vegetative matter, although they seem to relish the growth shoots of palm trees (palm hearts), the consumption of which kills the tree. Occasionally they also take reptiles, small mammals, and bird eggs.","This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.","Activity has been described as mainly nocturnal or mainly diurnal. This variability depends on proximity to human activities: in heavily disturbed areas, such as oil palm plantations, Sun Bears are chiefly nocturnal. Camera traps along roads typically obtain photographs of bears mainly at night, whereas signals from radio-collared bears farther from roads indicate that they are active mainly during the day. They spend a large proportion of time feeding in trees when fruit is abundant. They also sometimes build tree nests of branches and leaves for sleeping. This behavior has been attributed to previous predation pressure by Tigers; however,it appears to occur commonly only in heavily-disturbed forests or near people. Sun Bears have been observed to slide rapidly down tree trunks when disturbed by people. Although arboreally adept, they cannot swing orjump from tree to tree. Normally they sleep on the ground, often in cavities of either standing or fallen trees, or under such trees. Females use similar sites for birthing dens. This species does not hibernate.","Home range information is very limited. Two males radio-tracked for about one year in Borneo during a fruiting failure had minimum known ranges of 15-20 km? (butlikely ranged beyond this); one of them centered his activity on a garbage dump. Two Bornean females living in a small, isolated forest patch (100 km? more than half of which had been burned in a forest fire and was rarely used by Sun Bears) had home ranges of only about 4 km®. Most sightings have been ofsolitary bears or mothers with a cub, but gatherings of multiple bears have been witnessed at rich feeding sites.Breeding.This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.","CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although quantitative estimates of population sizes and trends are lacking, rates of habitat loss and degradation, combined with persistent poaching, indicate that the global population ofthis species has declined by more than 30% during the past three decades. Additionally, it is strictly protected under national wildlife laws throughout its range; however, there is generally insufficient enforcement of these laws. None of the eleven countries where the Sun Bear occurs has implemented any conservation measures specifically for this species. Commercial poaching, especially for gall bladders (used in traditional Chinese medicine) and paws (a delicacy), is a considerable threat, especially in mainland South-east Asia. Local hunters in one area of Thailandestimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of Sun Bears by 50% in 20 years. In Malaysiaand Indonesia, deforestation is the prime threat. Clear-cutting to expand oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) plantations (which is likely to worsen with increased biofuel production) and unsustainable logging (both legal and illegal) are escalating at alarming rates. Prolonged droughts, spurring natural and human-caused fires, are compounding the habitat-loss problem, resulting in diminished availability of food and space for bears, sometimes causing their starvation. Where bears do not die directly from food scarcity, they seek out agricultural crops adjacent to the forest, and are poisoned or trapped and killed by local people. Some headway has been made in establishing buffer zones around protected forested areas, educating local people on nonlethal deterrents, and increasing communication between local people and sanctuary managers, resulting in shared problem solving.","Augeri (2005) | Fredriksson (2005) | Fredriksson, Danielsen & Swenson (2007) | Fredriksson, Steinmetz et al. (2007) | Fredriksson, Wich & Trisno (2006) | Hesterman et al. (2005) | JapanBear Network (2006) | McCusker (1974) | Meijaard (1999a, 1999b, 2001, 2004) | Normua et al. (2004) | Schwarzenbergeret al. (2004) | Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008) | Steinmetz et al. (2006) | Wong, Servheen & Ambu (2002, 2004) | Wong, Servheen, Ambu & Norhayati (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714499/files/figure.png,"3.Sun BearHelarctos malayanusFrench:Ours malais/ German:Malaienbar/ Spanish:OsomalayoOther common names:Malayan Sun Bear, Dog Bear, Honey BearTaxonomy.Ursus malayanus Raffles, 1822[presented orally in 1820, often incorrectly ascribed as 1821], Sumatra, Indonesia.Cranial differences support separation into two subspecies.Subspecies and Distribution.H. m. malayanus Raffles, 1822— Bangladesh, NE India, and S China(Yunnan) through SE Asia to Malaysia, and Sumatra.H. m. euryspilus Horsfield, 1825— Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-150 cm, tail 3-7 cm; weight 30-80 kg. Males are heavier than females, but the degree of sexual dimorphism (10-20%) is less than most other bears. The Bornean subspeciesis notably smaller, with a maximum weight of 65 kg. The body is stocky, and compared to other bears, the front legs more bowed, front feet turned more inward, muzzle shortened, ears especially small, and hair very short, often with obvious whorls. Coat coloris black or less commonly dark brown, typically with a prominent white, yellow, or orange chest marking. The chest marking is highly variable among individuals, usually a U or circular shape, but occasionally more amorphous, and sometimes with dark patches or spots. The bear takes its common name from this marking, which may look like a sun. The muzzle is pale, and the forehead may be wrinkled. The exceptionally long tongue (20-25 cm) is used for feeding on insects and honey. The canine teeth, which are particularly large in relation to the head, and the large front feet with long claws, are used for breaking into wood (e.g. to prey on stingless bees) and termite colonies. Soles of the feet have little hair.Habitat.In mainland South-east Asia, where there is a prolonged dry season, Sun Bears inhabit semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, and montane evergreen forest, largely sympatric with Asiatic Black Bears. In Borneo, Sumatra, and peninsular Malaysia, areas with high rainfall throughout the year, they inhabit mainly tropical evergreen dipterocarp rainforest and peat swamps. They also use mangrove forest and oil palm plantations in proximity to other, more favored habitats. They occur from near sea level to over 2100 melevation, but are most common in lower elevation forests.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous diet includes insects (over 100 species, mainly termites, ants, beetles and bees), honey, and a wide variety of fruits. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae(figs), Burseraceaeand Myrtaceaemake up more than 50% of the fruit diet, but consumption of fruits from at least 20 other families of trees and lianas were identified in just one small study site (100 km?) in East Kalimantan. Availability of foods varies markedly from masting years when most species fruit synchronously, to inter-masting years when little fruit is available and the bears turn mainly to insects. Figs (Ficus) are a staple food during inter-mast periods. On the mainland, fruiting is more uniform (predictable) from year to year, but varies seasonally. However, there is an enormous diversity of fruits, so some fruit is available at all times of year. In Thailand, about 40 families of trees are climbed by Sun Bears, mostly for food; fruits from Lauraceae(cinnamon) and Fagaceae(oak) are favorites. Sun Bears are especially known for preying on colonies of stingless bees (7Trigona), including their resinous nesting material. The bees form nestsin cavities of live trees, so to prey on them Sun Bears chew and claw through the tree, leaving a conspicuous hole. These bears consume little vegetative matter, although they seem to relish the growth shoots of palm trees (palm hearts), the consumption of which kills the tree. Occasionally they also take reptiles, small mammals, and bird eggs.Activity patterns.Activity has been described as mainly nocturnal or mainly diurnal. This variability depends on proximity to human activities: in heavily disturbed areas, such as oil palm plantations, Sun Bears are chiefly nocturnal. Camera traps along roads typically obtain photographs of bears mainly at night, whereas signals from radio-collared bears farther from roads indicate that they are active mainly during the day. They spend a large proportion of time feeding in trees when fruit is abundant. They also sometimes build tree nests of branches and leaves for sleeping. This behavior has been attributed to previous predation pressure by Tigers; however,it appears to occur commonly only in heavily-disturbed forests or near people. Sun Bears have been observed to slide rapidly down tree trunks when disturbed by people. Although arboreally adept, they cannot swing orjump from tree to tree. Normally they sleep on the ground, often in cavities of either standing or fallen trees, or under such trees. Females use similar sites for birthing dens. This species does not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range information is very limited. Two males radio-tracked for about one year in Borneo during a fruiting failure had minimum known ranges of 15-20 km? (butlikely ranged beyond this); one of them centered his activity on a garbage dump. Two Bornean females living in a small, isolated forest patch (100 km? more than half of which had been burned in a forest fire and was rarely used by Sun Bears) had home ranges of only about 4 km®. Most sightings have been ofsolitary bears or mothers with a cub, but gatherings of multiple bears have been witnessed at rich feeding sites.Breeding.This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although quantitative estimates of population sizes and trends are lacking, rates of habitat loss and degradation, combined with persistent poaching, indicate that the global population ofthis species has declined by more than 30% during the past three decades. Additionally, it is strictly protected under national wildlife laws throughout its range; however, there is generally insufficient enforcement of these laws. None of the eleven countries where the Sun Bear occurs has implemented any conservation measures specifically for this species. Commercial poaching, especially for gall bladders (used in traditional Chinese medicine) and paws (a delicacy), is a considerable threat, especially in mainland South-east Asia. Local hunters in one area of Thailandestimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of Sun Bears by 50% in 20 years. In Malaysiaand Indonesia, deforestation is the prime threat. Clear-cutting to expand oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) plantations (which is likely to worsen with increased biofuel production) and unsustainable logging (both legal and illegal) are escalating at alarming rates. Prolonged droughts, spurring natural and human-caused fires, are compounding the habitat-loss problem, resulting in diminished availability of food and space for bears, sometimes causing their starvation. Where bears do not die directly from food scarcity, they seek out agricultural crops adjacent to the forest, and are poisoned or trapped and killed by local people. Some headway has been made in establishing buffer zones around protected forested areas, educating local people on nonlethal deterrents, and increasing communication between local people and sanctuary managers, resulting in shared problem solving.Bibliography.Augeri (2005), Fredriksson (2005), Fredriksson, Danielsen & Swenson (2007), Fredriksson, Steinmetz et al. (2007), Fredriksson, Wich & Trisno (2006), Hesterman et al. (2005), JapanBear Network (2006), McCusker (1974), Meijaard (1999a, 1999b, 2001, 2004), Normua et al. (2004), Schwarzenbergeret al. (2004), Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008), Steinmetz et al. (2006), Wong, Servheen & Ambu (2002, 2004), Wong, Servheen, Ambu & Norhayati (2005)." 039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,488,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.xml,Tremarctos ornatus,Tremarctos,ornatus,,,Ours a lunettes @fr | Brillenbar @de | Osode anteojos @es | Spectacled Bear @en | Ucumari @en,"Ursus ornatus Cuvier, 1825, type specimen purportedly from northern Chile, but the species does not occur there.No subspecies have been designated, but substantial variation exists in color patterns within different portions of the range. Recent genetic examination in the northern part of the range indicates that gene flow is extremely low (populations are isolated), and that this situation predates the invasion of Europeans (i.e. it is not human-caused). Monotypic.","Andes Mountains of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peruand Boliva, with controversial evidence of existence in N Argentina.","Head-body 130-190 cm, tail less than 10 cm; weight of males 100-175 kg (rarely to 200 kg), females 60-80 kg. Coatis black or sometimes dark brown with creamy white biblike marking on chin, neck, and/or chest and typically some white markings around the muzzle and eyes. The extent of white markings is highly variable. Individuals with complete white circles around both eyes gave rise to the common name Spectacled Bear. However, many if not most do not have complete circles around both eyes; some have partial circles, some are highly asymmetrical, and some have virtually no facial markings or, conversely, an almost all buff-white face. The muzzle is variably-colored and short compared to the ursine bears. Claws are short on both front and rear feet. The underside of the feet have hair between the digital and plantar pads, but not between the plantar and carpal front pads (similar to Asiatic Black Bears).Habitat.Andean Bears range in elevation from 200 to over 4700 m. Preferred habitat includes various sorts of humid and very humid montane cloud forest. They also occupy higher elevation elfin forest, and puna and paramo (high-altitude) grasslands, as well as lower elevation thorn forest and scrub desert (in western Peru).Food and Feeding.Omnivorous diet includes many kinds of fruits, vegetative material, and meat. Especially important through most parts of the range are the succulent parts of plants in the family Bromeliaceae, both epiphytic and terrestrial bromeliads. In high altitude grasslands, the heart of the terrestrial Puyais a dietary mainstay, as this bromeliad is the only abundant food available for much of the year. The bears must strip away the stiff thorny leaves to get to the heart, which looks somewhat like a pineapple but is vegetative and bland. Bears may eat only one in ten of this obiquitous plant, possibly related to differences in nutritional composition. In the forest, they regularly climb trees to obtain Tillandsia, an epiphytic bromeliad; they eat the basal meristematic tissue and drop the remaining pieces of leaves to the forest floor, providing a highly visible sign of their feeding activity. Bears select patches (with Puya) or trees (with Tillandsia) that have a high density of large bromeliads. Bromeliads compose from 90% to less than 15% of their diet, depending on season and geographic area. Fruits compose the other core part of the diet, varying inversely to the bromeliads. Both shrub and tree-borne fruits are consumed (e.g. Lauraceae, Moraceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae). Fruit abundance varies seasonally with rainfall. Other foods include palm petioles, bamboo shoots, bulbs of orchids, and in drier habitats, fruits and pulp of cacti and, remarkably, the soft cortex of the pasallo tree (Bombax discolor). Near human settlements, they routinely raid cornfields. Animal matter is another potentially important food, although never a large dietary component. They eat insects, snails, and small mammals, but more significantly in terms of total nutrition, they occasionally take large mammals such as deer and free-ranging or unguarded pastured cattle. Considerable controversy has surrounded the issue of whether most meat in their diet is from animals that they killed or scavenged—there is clear evidence that they sometimes prey on cattle, but they probably also find carrion. A test of their attraction to beef demonstrated this: a small (0-5 kg) chunk of meat placed in an open area attracted two different radio-collared bears from a distance of 1-5 km in 5-15 hours. When feeding on a cattle carcass, which may take several days to consume, they often construct ground and tree nests for resting. Tree nests are made from a collection of bent and broken branches. They also sometimes build nests in fruit trees.Activity patterns.In one high-elevation site in Bolivia, composed of mixed grassland and cloud forest, Andean Bears were entirely diurnal. They slept 9-12 hours at night, awoke near sunrise, took brief rests during the day, and began their night's rest just after sunset. This pattern did not vary seasonally. In other areas, bears are reported to be somewhat more active at night, but are still principally diurnal. Because food is available year-round throughout their range, Andean Bears do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Limited information indicates that home ranges may be as small as 10 km? or as large as 150 km®. Males have larger ranges than females, and ranges within and between sexes broadly overlap. They are reported to move along an altitudinal gradient among different habitat types, following seasonal changes in available food resources. Andean Bears may gather at rich feeding areas (e.g. cornfields and cactus groves) and at waterholes in arid environments.Breeding. Presumed mating pairs have been seen between March and October; however, no real information is available on the normal timing of breeding of wild Andean Bears. In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere, births occur from December through February, coinciding with the timing of births in northern species of bears. However, in zoos in South America, Andean Bear births tend to occur more regularly during May-October. Anecdotal information on probable birthing dates in the wild is equivocal. Gestation periods in captivity range from 5-5-8-5 months, indicating a variable period of delayed implantation, and litter size is most commonly two. Litters in the wild are commonly one or two (but up to three or four). Females can produce cubs at two-year intervals, beginning at 4-7 years of age.Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Andean Bears are also protected by national legislation in each of the five range countries. However, loopholes in these laws and lack of adequate enforcement result in bears being killed while depredating crops or livestock, or poached for their parts. Andean Bear products are used for medicinal or ritual purposes, and live bears are also sometimes captured and sold. These problems are exacerbated by habitat loss and fragmentation, which not only reduces their natural foraging area, but also puts the bears in closer proximity to people, crops, and livestock. In a few select areas, management plans have been established, with community involvement, to ameliorate bear-human conflicts. A survey in 1998 revealed that less than 20% of the range was legally protected as parks, reserves or sanctuaries. Since then, additional protected areas have been created and others enlarged, but at the same time, more forested land outside the protected areas has been lost to agriculture or fragmented by road development, and mining activities. Some conservation organizations are working to maintain or establish corridors among populations, especially in the northern part of the range, where many Andean Bear populations are isolated in small to mediumsized patches.","Andean Bears range in elevation from 200 to over 4700 m. Preferred habitat includes various sorts of humid and very humid montane cloud forest. They also occupy higher elevation elfin forest, and puna and paramo (high-altitude) grasslands, as well as lower elevation thorn forest and scrub desert (in western Peru).","Omnivorous diet includes many kinds of fruits, vegetative material, and meat. Especially important through most parts of the range are the succulent parts of plants in the family Bromeliaceae, both epiphytic and terrestrial bromeliads. In high altitude grasslands, the heart of the terrestrial Puyais a dietary mainstay, as this bromeliad is the only abundant food available for much of the year. The bears must strip away the stiff thorny leaves to get to the heart, which looks somewhat like a pineapple but is vegetative and bland. Bears may eat only one in ten of this obiquitous plant, possibly related to differences in nutritional composition. In the forest, they regularly climb trees to obtain Tillandsia, an epiphytic bromeliad; they eat the basal meristematic tissue and drop the remaining pieces of leaves to the forest floor, providing a highly visible sign of their feeding activity. Bears select patches (with Puya) or trees (with Tillandsia) that have a high density of large bromeliads. Bromeliads compose from 90% to less than 15% of their diet, depending on season and geographic area. Fruits compose the other core part of the diet, varying inversely to the bromeliads. Both shrub and tree-borne fruits are consumed (e.g. Lauraceae, Moraceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae). Fruit abundance varies seasonally with rainfall. Other foods include palm petioles, bamboo shoots, bulbs of orchids, and in drier habitats, fruits and pulp of cacti and, remarkably, the soft cortex of the pasallo tree (Bombax discolor). Near human settlements, they routinely raid cornfields. Animal matter is another potentially important food, although never a large dietary component. They eat insects, snails, and small mammals, but more significantly in terms of total nutrition, they occasionally take large mammals such as deer and free-ranging or unguarded pastured cattle. Considerable controversy has surrounded the issue of whether most meat in their diet is from animals that they killed or scavenged—there is clear evidence that they sometimes prey on cattle, but they probably also find carrion. A test of their attraction to beef demonstrated this: a small (0-5 kg) chunk of meat placed in an open area attracted two different radio-collared bears from a distance of 1-5 km in 5-15 hours. When feeding on a cattle carcass, which may take several days to consume, they often construct ground and tree nests for resting. Tree nests are made from a collection of bent and broken branches. They also sometimes build nests in fruit trees.","Presumed mating pairs have been seen between March and October; however, no real information is available on the normal timing of breeding of wild Andean Bears. In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere, births occur from December through February, coinciding with the timing of births in northern species of bears. However, in zoos in South America, Andean Bear births tend to occur more regularly during May-October. Anecdotal information on probable birthing dates in the wild is equivocal. Gestation periods in captivity range from 5-5-8-5 months, indicating a variable period of delayed implantation, and litter size is most commonly two. Litters in the wild are commonly one or two (but up to three or four). Females can produce cubs at two-year intervals, beginning at 4-7 years of age.","In one high-elevation site in Bolivia, composed of mixed grassland and cloud forest, Andean Bears were entirely diurnal. They slept 9-12 hours at night, awoke near sunrise, took brief rests during the day, and began their night's rest just after sunset. This pattern did not vary seasonally. In other areas, bears are reported to be somewhat more active at night, but are still principally diurnal. Because food is available year-round throughout their range, Andean Bears do not hibernate.","Limited information indicates that home ranges may be as small as 10 km? or as large as 150 km®. Males have larger ranges than females, and ranges within and between sexes broadly overlap. They are reported to move along an altitudinal gradient among different habitat types, following seasonal changes in available food resources. Andean Bears may gather at rich feeding areas (e.g. cornfields and cactus groves) and at waterholes in arid environments.Breeding. Presumed mating pairs have been seen between March and October; however, no real information is available on the normal timing of breeding of wild Andean Bears. In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere, births occur from December through February, coinciding with the timing of births in northern species of bears. However, in zoos in South America, Andean Bear births tend to occur more regularly during May-October. Anecdotal information on probable birthing dates in the wild is equivocal. Gestation periods in captivity range from 5-5-8-5 months, indicating a variable period of delayed implantation, and litter size is most commonly two. Litters in the wild are commonly one or two (but up to three or four). Females can produce cubs at two-year intervals, beginning at 4-7 years of age.","CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Andean Bears are also protected by national legislation in each of the five range countries. However, loopholes in these laws and lack of adequate enforcement result in bears being killed while depredating crops or livestock, or poached for their parts. Andean Bear products are used for medicinal or ritual purposes, and live bears are also sometimes captured and sold. These problems are exacerbated by habitat loss and fragmentation, which not only reduces their natural foraging area, but also puts the bears in closer proximity to people, crops, and livestock. In a few select areas, management plans have been established, with community involvement, to ameliorate bear-human conflicts. A survey in 1998 revealed that less than 20% of the range was legally protected as parks, reserves or sanctuaries. Since then, additional protected areas have been created and others enlarged, but at the same time, more forested land outside the protected areas has been lost to agriculture or fragmented by road development, and mining activities. Some conservation organizations are working to maintain or establish corridors among populations, especially in the northern part of the range, where many Andean Bear populations are isolated in small to mediumsized patches. Habitat patches are larger in the southern part of the range (Peru, Bolivia). Valid rangewide or country-wide population estimates are lacking; guesstimates range from about 13,000-25,000. Efforts are underway to survey various parts of the range to obtain information on presence-absence and relative abundance, based on incidence of sign (bear trails, climbed or rubbed trees, tree nests, bed sites, feeding remains, scats).","Cuesta et al. (2003) | Garshelis (2004) | Goldstein (2002, 2004) | Goldstein, Paisley et al. (2006) | Goldstein, Velez-Liendo et al. (2007) | Jorgenson & Sandoval (2005) | Kattan et al. (2004) | Mondolfi (1983, 1989) | Paisley (2001) | Paisley & Garshelis (2006) | Peralvo et al. (2005) | Peyton (1980, 1987) | Peyton et al. (1998) | Rodriguez-Clark & Sanchez-Mercado (2006) | Ruiz-Garcia (2003) | Troya et al. (2004)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714497/files/figure.png,"2.Andean BearTremarctos ornatusFrench:Ours a lunettes/ German:Brillenbar/ Spanish:Osode anteojosOther common names:Spectacled Bear, UcumariTaxonomy.Ursus ornatus Cuvier, 1825, type specimen purportedly from northern Chile, but the species does not occur there.No subspecies have been designated, but substantial variation exists in color patterns within different portions of the range. Recent genetic examination in the northern part of the range indicates that gene flow is extremely low (populations are isolated), and that this situation predates the invasion of Europeans (i.e. it is not human-caused). Monotypic.Distribution.Andes Mountains of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peruand Boliva, with controversial evidence of existence in N Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-190 cm, tail less than 10 cm; weight of males 100-175 kg (rarely to 200 kg), females 60-80 kg. Coatis black or sometimes dark brown with creamy white biblike marking on chin, neck, and/or chest and typically some white markings around the muzzle and eyes. The extent of white markings is highly variable. Individuals with complete white circles around both eyes gave rise to the common name Spectacled Bear. However, many if not most do not have complete circles around both eyes; some have partial circles, some are highly asymmetrical, and some have virtually no facial markings or, conversely, an almost all buff-white face. The muzzle is variably-colored and short compared to the ursine bears. Claws are short on both front and rear feet. The underside of the feet have hair between the digital and plantar pads, but not between the plantar and carpal front pads (similar to Asiatic Black Bears).Habitat.Andean Bears range in elevation from 200 to over 4700 m. Preferred habitat includes various sorts of humid and very humid montane cloud forest. They also occupy higher elevation elfin forest, and puna and paramo (high-altitude) grasslands, as well as lower elevation thorn forest and scrub desert (in western Peru).Food and Feeding.Omnivorous diet includes many kinds of fruits, vegetative material, and meat. Especially important through most parts of the range are the succulent parts of plants in the family Bromeliaceae, both epiphytic and terrestrial bromeliads. In high altitude grasslands, the heart of the terrestrial Puyais a dietary mainstay, as this bromeliad is the only abundant food available for much of the year. The bears must strip away the stiff thorny leaves to get to the heart, which looks somewhat like a pineapple but is vegetative and bland. Bears may eat only one in ten of this obiquitous plant, possibly related to differences in nutritional composition. In the forest, they regularly climb trees to obtain Tillandsia, an epiphytic bromeliad; they eat the basal meristematic tissue and drop the remaining pieces of leaves to the forest floor, providing a highly visible sign of their feeding activity. Bears select patches (with Puya) or trees (with Tillandsia) that have a high density of large bromeliads. Bromeliads compose from 90% to less than 15% of their diet, depending on season and geographic area. Fruits compose the other core part of the diet, varying inversely to the bromeliads. Both shrub and tree-borne fruits are consumed (e.g. Lauraceae, Moraceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae). Fruit abundance varies seasonally with rainfall. Other foods include palm petioles, bamboo shoots, bulbs of orchids, and in drier habitats, fruits and pulp of cacti and, remarkably, the soft cortex of the pasallo tree (Bombax discolor). Near human settlements, they routinely raid cornfields. Animal matter is another potentially important food, although never a large dietary component. They eat insects, snails, and small mammals, but more significantly in terms of total nutrition, they occasionally take large mammals such as deer and free-ranging or unguarded pastured cattle. Considerable controversy has surrounded the issue of whether most meat in their diet is from animals that they killed or scavenged—there is clear evidence that they sometimes prey on cattle, but they probably also find carrion. A test of their attraction to beef demonstrated this: a small (0-5 kg) chunk of meat placed in an open area attracted two different radio-collared bears from a distance of 1-5 km in 5-15 hours. When feeding on a cattle carcass, which may take several days to consume, they often construct ground and tree nests for resting. Tree nests are made from a collection of bent and broken branches. They also sometimes build nests in fruit trees.Activity patterns.In one high-elevation site in Bolivia, composed of mixed grassland and cloud forest, Andean Bears were entirely diurnal. They slept 9-12 hours at night, awoke near sunrise, took brief rests during the day, and began their night's rest just after sunset. This pattern did not vary seasonally. In other areas, bears are reported to be somewhat more active at night, but are still principally diurnal. Because food is available year-round throughout their range, Andean Bears do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Limited information indicates that home ranges may be as small as 10 km? or as large as 150 km®. Males have larger ranges than females, and ranges within and between sexes broadly overlap. They are reported to move along an altitudinal gradient among different habitat types, following seasonal changes in available food resources. Andean Bears may gather at rich feeding areas (e.g. cornfields and cactus groves) and at waterholes in arid environments.Breeding. Presumed mating pairs have been seen between March and October; however, no real information is available on the normal timing of breeding of wild Andean Bears. In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere, births occur from December through February, coinciding with the timing of births in northern species of bears. However, in zoos in South America, Andean Bear births tend to occur more regularly during May-October. Anecdotal information on probable birthing dates in the wild is equivocal. Gestation periods in captivity range from 5-5-8-5 months, indicating a variable period of delayed implantation, and litter size is most commonly two. Litters in the wild are commonly one or two (but up to three or four). Females can produce cubs at two-year intervals, beginning at 4-7 years of age.Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Andean Bears are also protected by national legislation in each of the five range countries. However, loopholes in these laws and lack of adequate enforcement result in bears being killed while depredating crops or livestock, or poached for their parts. Andean Bear products are used for medicinal or ritual purposes, and live bears are also sometimes captured and sold. These problems are exacerbated by habitat loss and fragmentation, which not only reduces their natural foraging area, but also puts the bears in closer proximity to people, crops, and livestock. In a few select areas, management plans have been established, with community involvement, to ameliorate bear-human conflicts. A survey in 1998 revealed that less than 20% of the range was legally protected as parks, reserves or sanctuaries. Since then, additional protected areas have been created and others enlarged, but at the same time, more forested land outside the protected areas has been lost to agriculture or fragmented by road development, and mining activities. Some conservation organizations are working to maintain or establish corridors among populations, especially in the northern part of the range, where many Andean Bear populations are isolated in small to mediumsized patches. Habitat patches are larger in the southern part of the range (Peru, Bolivia). Valid rangewide or country-wide population estimates are lacking; guesstimates range from about 13,000-25,000. Efforts are underway to survey various parts of the range to obtain information on presence-absence and relative abundance, based on incidence of sign (bear trails, climbed or rubbed trees, tree nests, bed sites, feeding remains, scats).Bibliography. Cuesta et al. (2003), Garshelis (2004), Goldstein (2002, 2004), Goldstein, Paisley et al. (2006), Goldstein, Velez-Liendo et al. (2007), Jorgenson & Sandoval (2005), Kattan et al. (2004), Mondolfi (1983, 1989), Paisley (2001), Paisley & Garshelis (2006), Peralvo et al. (2005), Peyton (1980, 1987), Peyton et al. (1998), Rodriguez-Clark & Sanchez-Mercado (2006), Ruiz-Garcia (2003), Troya et al. (2004)." 039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,487,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.xml,Ailuropoda melanoleuca,Ailuropoda,melanoleuca,,,Ours panda @fr | Bambusbar @de | Panda @es | Da Xiong Mao (meaning large bear cat) @en,"Ursus melanoleucus David, 1869, Sichuan Province, China.Previously included in genus Ursus. Once placed in a separate family, morphological and molecular evidence now strongly supports placement in Ursidae. No subspecies yet recognized, although one population in Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi Province, shows differences in cranial and dental morphology, pelage characteristics, and genetics indicative of isolation for several thousand years, and a subspecies designation (ginlingensis) has been proposed.","C China(Sichuan, Gansu& ShaanxiProvinces).","Head-body 120-180 cm, tail 10-16 cm; males weigh 85-125 kg (sometimes exceeding 150 kgin captivity), about 10-20% more than females, which weigh 70-100 kg. Stocky, barrel-shaped body, large forelimbs, wide massive head with short muzzle and erect ears (10 cm). Hairs are coarse and oily. Specific name melanoleucarefers to distinctive black and white color pattern, which is unique among mammals. Face is white with an oblong black patch around each eye, black ears, and a black nose. Forelegs are black, continuing up over shoulders with a narrower band across the back. Hindlegs below the hips are also black. The remainder of the body, including the tail, is white. Occasionally, individuals may have more brown than black coloration. Forepaws are modified with a greatly enlarged radial sesamoid bone, which functions as a sixth digit for grasping bamboo. This “false thumb” is nearly equal in size to the metacarpal bones of the five true digits, and has its own pad that opposes the first digit, although it cannot be moved like an independent thumb. Bamboo is held within the haired furrow between the digits and plantar (palmar) pad, which can be tightly flexed. The Giant Panda’s generic name, meaning panda foot, derives from the foot’s likeness to the structure and function of the foot of the Red Panda, a bamboo-eater that was discovered and named earlier. Claws are short, both front and rear.","Occupy temperate montane forests with dense stands of bamboo at altitudes of 1200-4100m, or more typically 1500-3000m. Bamboo is a dominant understory plant in broad-leaved, broad-leaved mixed with conifer, and subalpine conifer forests in the mountainous regions of central China. However, the type and density of bamboo greatly affect habitat use by Giant Pandas. The growth rate of bamboo, and hence its suitability to Pandas,is also related to the amount of overstory tree canopy. Remaining habitat for Pandas is steep and rugged, being the only land that was not farmed and settled by people in a once-extensive range that extended from Beijingto eastern Chinaand south to present day Vietnamand Myanmar. Within this remaining habitat, Pandas seek areas with relatively gentle slopes and high moisture.","Their diet is almost entirely bamboo (over 99%); however, they occasionally feed on leaves, stems or roots of other plants as well as some meat, from rodents and young ungulates, either killed or scavenged. During large-scale flowering and die-off of bamboo, individuals may seek other foods, including crops and human garbage. For unknown reasons, some individuals do this even when bamboo is readily available. Across the six mountain ranges that they inhabit, Giant Pandas utilize over 60 species of bamboo, 35 of which constitute their main food source. They select species higher in protein and lower in fiber, hence more digestible. They use different species of bamboo in different elevational bands, varying with the seasons and coinciding with the germination and growth of the plants. They eat different parts of bamboo at different times of year, alternating between young tender leaves and shoots, versus stems and branches. They prefer shoots and stems of certain lengths and diameters, selecting those that are easier to hold and chew. Pandas sit or recline to eat. Holding a stem in one paw, a Panda inserts it in the side of its mouth and repeatedly and rapidly bites off chunks approximately the width of its palate, chewing very little. Scats of any individual Panda thus have intact fragments of bamboo that are all approximately the same length. This characteristic has been exploited in population surveys, where the size of bamboo fragments in scats is used to differentiate individuals with overlapping home ranges.","Mating occurs from March through May. Vocalizations (bleating, chirping) and scent marking are used to attract mates. Pairs may remain together for days or weeks prior to mating. Both sexes may mate with multiple (3-5) partners. Peak estrus lasts less than one week. Females use rock dens or hollow trees for birthing. Cubs are born in August or September, 3-5-5 months after mating; a variable period of delayed implantation accounts for the variability in total gestation. At 80-200 grams, the infant at birth is only about 0-1% of the mother’s weight, one-third to one-quarter that of other bears. Infants are born pink in color, with short, sparse white hair; the typical black and white pelage is achieved by three weeks of age. Litter size at birth is often two, generally born about two hours (but up to 36 hours) apart; however, the mother raises just the first born, if it is healthy. Thus, functional litter size in the wild is only one. In captivity, females can be fooled into raising two cubs by switching them every twelve hours. This is the only species of bear to regularly give birth to more cubs than it can raise—the explanation for this unusual reproductive strategy remains elusive. Also, unusual for bears, Panda mothers change dens multiple times, carrying their cub in their mouth, and also periodically leave the den to feed. During the birthing process they only fast for 2-3 weeks. Pandas are often erroneously believed to be poor breeders. This impression stemmed from the previous low reproductive performance of captive animals, now known to have resulted from inadequate captive conditions. Studies of wild Pandas indicate that their reproductive rates are comparable to some other species of bears, with cub production beginning at 5-7 years and inter-litter intervals of two or three years. Breeding continues into the early-20s, so a female could wean six or more cubs in her lifetime.","Pandas are active about 50% of the day, mostly collecting or eating bamboo. Activity occurs rather uniformly through the day and night, in bursts of a few hours. Little variation occurs seasonally. Unlike other bears, which exhibit an energymaximizing strategy, increasing consumption and activity when food is most plentiful, Pandas are least active when feeding on abundant and nutritious leaves. Because food is available throughout the year, Pandas do not hibernate, although during cold and snowy conditions they may take temporary shelter in hollow trees, rock crevices, and caves. They climb trees, although infrequently, to escape danger, to rest, or in courtship—during the mating season males may vocalize from trees to attract females, and estrous females may climb to fend off suitors. However, they spend less time in trees than several other species of bears (Andean Bears, Sun Bears, Asiatic Black Bears) because they do not feed there.","Individuals have home ranges of 1-60 km?, averaging 5-15 km? depending on gender and habitat. Range size changes seasonally, and they make seasonal elevational shifts (sometimes referred to as vertical migrations), which vary by area, corresponding with growth patterns of various kinds of bamboo. Typically they descend to lower elevations during winter, to escape deep snow, and to high elevations in summer. They can move several hundred meters in elevation in just a few days. Home ranges overlap, but pandas may remain in smaller core areas of only about 30 ha for half their time; these core ranges overlap little among animals of the same sex, but adult males overlap the core ranges of several females. Communication and spacing appears to be maintained by extensive scent marking, using secretions from anogenital glands. Secretions are often deposited on stumps, logs or trees along prominent ridges. One study used fecal genetics to investigate relatedness of Pandas living in the same vicinity, and inferred that, unlike all other bears, females rather than males disperse from their natal area. In another study, two radio-collared males settled near their mother, whereas two young females dispersed. As Panda range has expanded, several young, apparently dispersing females have appeared in several new areas, including a large city.Breeding. Mating occurs from March through May. Vocalizations (bleating, chirping) and scent marking are used to attract mates. Pairs may remain together for days or weeks prior to mating. Both sexes may mate with multiple (3-5) partners. Peak estrus lasts less than one week. Females use rock dens or hollow trees for birthing. Cubs are born in August or September, 3-5-5 months after mating; a variable period of delayed implantation accounts for the variability in total gestation. At 80-200 grams, the infant at birth is only about 0-1% of the mother’s weight, one-third to one-quarter that of other bears. Infants are born pink in color, with short, sparse white hair; the typical black and white pelage is achieved by three weeks of age. Litter size at birth is often two, generally born about two hours (but up to 36 hours) apart; however, the mother raises just the first born, if it is healthy. Thus, functional litter size in the wild is only one. In captivity, females can be fooled into raising two cubs by switching them every twelve hours. This is the only species of bear to regularly give birth to more cubs than it can raise—the explanation for this unusual reproductive strategy remains elusive. Also, unusual for bears, Panda mothers change dens multiple times, carrying their cub in their mouth, and also periodically leave the den to feed. During the birthing process they only fast for 2-3 weeks. Pandas are often erroneously believed to be poor breeders. This impression stemmed from the previous low reproductive performance of captive animals, now known to have resulted from inadequate captive conditions. Studies of wild Pandas indicate that their reproductive rates are comparable to some other species of bears, with cub production beginning at 5-7 years and inter-litter intervals of two or three years. Breeding continues into the early-20s, so a female could wean six or more cubs in her lifetime.Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Panda is considered a threatened and precious species in China. They are also listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act, thereby regulating import of captive animals into the USA. Their total population in the wild has been estimated at less than 2000, but this may be revised as better methodology is developed for estimating numbers (e.g. using DNA in their feces to identify individuals). They are a Category I species (maximum level of protection) under the Chinese Wildlife Conservation Law. A national conservation plan, adopted by the Chinese government in 1992, guides conservation initiatives for this species. Intentional poaching of Pandas has been largely curtailed by severe penalties and increased patrolling in their remaining habitats. Markets for their skins have virtually disappeared, and other body parts are not used in traditional Chinese medicine. However, they are still sometimes killed in snares set for Musk Deer and other species. Limited and degraded habitat remains their greatest threat. The species only exists in portions of six mountain ranges separated by expanses of agriculture, and within these, inhabitable bamboo forests are separated by a patchwork of clearings and forested areas without bamboo.","CITES Appendix I. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Panda is considered a threatened and precious species in China. They are also listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act, thereby regulating import of captive animals into the USA. Their total population in the wild has been estimated at less than 2000, but this may be revised as better methodology is developed for estimating numbers (e.g. using DNA in their feces to identify individuals). They are a Category I species (maximum level of protection) under the Chinese Wildlife Conservation Law. A national conservation plan, adopted by the Chinese government in 1992, guides conservation initiatives for this species. Intentional poaching of Pandas has been largely curtailed by severe penalties and increased patrolling in their remaining habitats. Markets for their skins have virtually disappeared, and other body parts are not used in traditional Chinese medicine. However, they are still sometimes killed in snares set for Musk Deer and other species. Limited and degraded habitat remains their greatest threat. The species only exists in portions of six mountain ranges separated by expanses of agriculture, and within these, inhabitable bamboo forests are separated by a patchwork of clearings and forested areas without bamboo. Conservation measures have included the establishment of a network of more than 60 Panda reserves, a ban on logging, and a policy that compensates farmers who convert agricultural fields on steep slopes to forest. However, small population size and restricted total range remains a threat to the viability of this species. A further threat relates to the panda’s reliance on bamboo for food. Bamboo is subject to periodic, synchronous flowering and dieoffs at intervals of 15-120 years, and the fragmented habitat restricts where Pandas can move when such die-offs occur. Effects of climate change on bamboo abundance and flowering cycles are as yet very uncertain. Captive breeding in Chinahas now succeeded (with the aid of artificial insemination) to the extent that captive facilities will soon be overpopulated, providing a potential stock for augmenting wild Panda populations. However, the lack of suitable release sites—having adequate habitat but few resident pandas—Ilimits hopes of eventually releasing many of these captive Pandas into the wild.","Endo et al. (1999) | Garshelis et al. (2008) | Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988b) | Lindburg & Baragona (2004) | Liu et al. (2005) | Loucks, Lu, Dinerstein, Wang, Fu & Wang (2003) | Loucks, Lu, Dinerstein, Wang, Olson et al. (2001) | LG, Johnson et al. (2001) | LU, Pan et al. (2000) | Li, Wang & Garshelis (2007) | Lumpkin & Seidensticker (2002) | Pan et al. (2001) | Reid & Gong (1999) | Schaller, Hu et al. (1985) | Schaller, Teng et al. (1989) | Wanet al. (2005) | Xu et al. (2007) | Zhan, Li et al. (2006) | Zhan, Zhang et al. (2007) | Zhu et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714495/files/figure.png,"1.Giant PandaAiluropoda melanoleucaFrench:Ours panda/ German:Bambusbar/ Spanish:PandaOther common names:Da Xiong Mao (meaning large bear cat)Taxonomy. Ursus melanoleucus David, 1869, Sichuan Province, China.Previously included in genus Ursus. Once placed in a separate family, morphological and molecular evidence now strongly supports placement in Ursidae. No subspecies yet recognized, although one population in Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi Province, shows differences in cranial and dental morphology, pelage characteristics, and genetics indicative of isolation for several thousand years, and a subspecies designation (ginlingensis) has been proposed.Distribution. C China(Sichuan, Gansu& ShaanxiProvinces).Descriptive notes. Head-body 120-180 cm, tail 10-16 cm; males weigh 85-125 kg (sometimes exceeding 150 kgin captivity), about 10-20% more than females, which weigh 70-100 kg. Stocky, barrel-shaped body, large forelimbs, wide massive head with short muzzle and erect ears (10 cm). Hairs are coarse and oily. Specific name melanoleucarefers to distinctive black and white color pattern, which is unique among mammals. Face is white with an oblong black patch around each eye, black ears, and a black nose. Forelegs are black, continuing up over shoulders with a narrower band across the back. Hindlegs below the hips are also black. The remainder of the body, including the tail, is white. Occasionally, individuals may have more brown than black coloration. Forepaws are modified with a greatly enlarged radial sesamoid bone, which functions as a sixth digit for grasping bamboo. This “false thumb” is nearly equal in size to the metacarpal bones of the five true digits, and has its own pad that opposes the first digit, although it cannot be moved like an independent thumb. Bamboo is held within the haired furrow between the digits and plantar (palmar) pad, which can be tightly flexed. The Giant Panda’s generic name, meaning panda foot, derives from the foot’s likeness to the structure and function of the foot of the Red Panda, a bamboo-eater that was discovered and named earlier. Claws are short, both front and rear.Habitat. Occupy temperate montane forests with dense stands of bamboo at altitudes of 1200-4100m, or more typically 1500-3000m. Bamboo is a dominant understory plant in broad-leaved, broad-leaved mixed with conifer, and subalpine conifer forests in the mountainous regions of central China. However, the type and density of bamboo greatly affect habitat use by Giant Pandas. The growth rate of bamboo, and hence its suitability to Pandas,is also related to the amount of overstory tree canopy. Remaining habitat for Pandas is steep and rugged, being the only land that was not farmed and settled by people in a once-extensive range that extended from Beijingto eastern Chinaand south to present day Vietnamand Myanmar. Within this remaining habitat, Pandas seek areas with relatively gentle slopes and high moisture.Food and Feeding. Their diet is almost entirely bamboo (over 99%); however, they occasionally feed on leaves, stems or roots of other plants as well as some meat, from rodents and young ungulates, either killed or scavenged. During large-scale flowering and die-off of bamboo, individuals may seek other foods, including crops and human garbage. For unknown reasons, some individuals do this even when bamboo is readily available. Across the six mountain ranges that they inhabit, Giant Pandas utilize over 60 species of bamboo, 35 of which constitute their main food source. They select species higher in protein and lower in fiber, hence more digestible. They use different species of bamboo in different elevational bands, varying with the seasons and coinciding with the germination and growth of the plants. They eat different parts of bamboo at different times of year, alternating between young tender leaves and shoots, versus stems and branches. They prefer shoots and stems of certain lengths and diameters, selecting those that are easier to hold and chew. Pandas sit or recline to eat. Holding a stem in one paw, a Panda inserts it in the side of its mouth and repeatedly and rapidly bites off chunks approximately the width of its palate, chewing very little. Scats of any individual Panda thus have intact fragments of bamboo that are all approximately the same length. This characteristic has been exploited in population surveys, where the size of bamboo fragments in scats is used to differentiate individuals with overlapping home ranges.Activity patterns. Pandas are active about 50% of the day, mostly collecting or eating bamboo. Activity occurs rather uniformly through the day and night, in bursts of a few hours. Little variation occurs seasonally. Unlike other bears, which exhibit an energymaximizing strategy, increasing consumption and activity when food is most plentiful, Pandas are least active when feeding on abundant and nutritious leaves. Because food is available throughout the year, Pandas do not hibernate, although during cold and snowy conditions they may take temporary shelter in hollow trees, rock crevices, and caves. They climb trees, although infrequently, to escape danger, to rest, or in courtship—during the mating season males may vocalize from trees to attract females, and estrous females may climb to fend off suitors. However, they spend less time in trees than several other species of bears (Andean Bears, Sun Bears, Asiatic Black Bears) because they do not feed there.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Individuals have home ranges of 1-60 km?, averaging 5-15 km? depending on gender and habitat. Range size changes seasonally, and they make seasonal elevational shifts (sometimes referred to as vertical migrations), which vary by area, corresponding with growth patterns of various kinds of bamboo. Typically they descend to lower elevations during winter, to escape deep snow, and to high elevations in summer. They can move several hundred meters in elevation in just a few days. Home ranges overlap, but pandas may remain in smaller core areas of only about 30 ha for half their time; these core ranges overlap little among animals of the same sex, but adult males overlap the core ranges of several females. Communication and spacing appears to be maintained by extensive scent marking, using secretions from anogenital glands. Secretions are often deposited on stumps, logs or trees along prominent ridges. One study used fecal genetics to investigate relatedness of Pandas living in the same vicinity, and inferred that, unlike all other bears, females rather than males disperse from their natal area. In another study, two radio-collared males settled near their mother, whereas two young females dispersed. As Panda range has expanded, several young, apparently dispersing females have appeared in several new areas, including a large city.Breeding. Mating occurs from March through May. Vocalizations (bleating, chirping) and scent marking are used to attract mates. Pairs may remain together for days or weeks prior to mating. Both sexes may mate with multiple (3-5) partners. Peak estrus lasts less than one week. Females use rock dens or hollow trees for birthing. Cubs are born in August or September, 3-5-5 months after mating; a variable period of delayed implantation accounts for the variability in total gestation. At 80-200 grams, the infant at birth is only about 0-1% of the mother’s weight, one-third to one-quarter that of other bears. Infants are born pink in color, with short, sparse white hair; the typical black and white pelage is achieved by three weeks of age. Litter size at birth is often two, generally born about two hours (but up to 36 hours) apart; however, the mother raises just the first born, if it is healthy. Thus, functional litter size in the wild is only one. In captivity, females can be fooled into raising two cubs by switching them every twelve hours. This is the only species of bear to regularly give birth to more cubs than it can raise—the explanation for this unusual reproductive strategy remains elusive. Also, unusual for bears, Panda mothers change dens multiple times, carrying their cub in their mouth, and also periodically leave the den to feed. During the birthing process they only fast for 2-3 weeks. Pandas are often erroneously believed to be poor breeders. This impression stemmed from the previous low reproductive performance of captive animals, now known to have resulted from inadequate captive conditions. Studies of wild Pandas indicate that their reproductive rates are comparable to some other species of bears, with cub production beginning at 5-7 years and inter-litter intervals of two or three years. Breeding continues into the early-20s, so a female could wean six or more cubs in her lifetime.Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Panda is considered a threatened and precious species in China. They are also listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act, thereby regulating import of captive animals into the USA. Their total population in the wild has been estimated at less than 2000, but this may be revised as better methodology is developed for estimating numbers (e.g. using DNA in their feces to identify individuals). They are a Category I species (maximum level of protection) under the Chinese Wildlife Conservation Law. A national conservation plan, adopted by the Chinese government in 1992, guides conservation initiatives for this species. Intentional poaching of Pandas has been largely curtailed by severe penalties and increased patrolling in their remaining habitats. Markets for their skins have virtually disappeared, and other body parts are not used in traditional Chinese medicine. However, they are still sometimes killed in snares set for Musk Deer and other species. Limited and degraded habitat remains their greatest threat. The species only exists in portions of six mountain ranges separated by expanses of agriculture, and within these, inhabitable bamboo forests are separated by a patchwork of clearings and forested areas without bamboo. Conservation measures have included the establishment of a network of more than 60 Panda reserves, a ban on logging, and a policy that compensates farmers who convert agricultural fields on steep slopes to forest. However, small population size and restricted total range remains a threat to the viability of this species. A further threat relates to the panda’s reliance on bamboo for food. Bamboo is subject to periodic, synchronous flowering and dieoffs at intervals of 15-120 years, and the fragmented habitat restricts where Pandas can move when such die-offs occur. Effects of climate change on bamboo abundance and flowering cycles are as yet very uncertain. Captive breeding in Chinahas now succeeded (with the aid of artificial insemination) to the extent that captive facilities will soon be overpopulated, providing a potential stock for augmenting wild Panda populations. However, the lack of suitable release sites—having adequate habitat but few resident pandas—Ilimits hopes of eventually releasing many of these captive Pandas into the wild.Bibliography. Endo et al. (1999), Garshelis et al. (2008), Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988b), Lindburg & Baragona (2004), Liu et al. (2005), Loucks, Lu, Dinerstein, Wang, Fu & Wang (2003), Loucks, Lu, Dinerstein, Wang, Olson et al. (2001), LG, Johnson et al. (2001), LU, Pan et al. (2000), Li, Wang & Garshelis (2007), Lumpkin & Seidensticker (2002), Pan et al. (2001), Reid & Gong (1999), Schaller, Hu et al. (1985), Schaller, Teng et al. (1989), Wanet al. (2005), Xu et al. (2007), Zhan, Li et al. (2006), Zhan, Zhang et al. (2007), Zhu et al. (2001)." 039D8794F66BC76697F97D56F983FA82,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,448,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66BC76697F97D56F983FA82.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family URSIDAE(BEARS)• Large mammals with big head and thick neck, small eyes, rounded ears, no facial vibrissae; muscular bodies with stout legs, large paws, and short tail.• 100-280 cm.• Holarctic, Neotropical, and Oriental regions.• Forested environments (boreal, temperate, and tropical) to tundra and semi-desert; one species in Arctic.• 5 genera, 8 species, at least 44 extant taxa.• 1 species Endangered, 5 Vulnerable; 2 subspecies Extinct since 1600." -039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,491,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.xml,Ursus americanus,Ursus,americanus,,,Ours noir @fr | Baribal @de | Oso negro americano @es,"Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780, eastern North America.Genetic comparisons among the various purported subspecies have not been performed, except in a few cases. Recent genetic evidence indicates that luteolus, formerly thought to occur only in Louisiana, extends northward to Arkansas, and also may not be differentiated from floridanus in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.","U. a. americanus Pallas, 1780— Alaska to E Canadaand E USA.U. a. altifrontalis Elliot, 1903— Pacific coast USAand Canada(S British Columbia).U. a. amblyceps Baird, 1859— SW USA.U. a. californiensisJ. Miller, 1900— SW USA(interior California).U. a. carlottae Osgood, 1901— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).U. a. cinnamomum Audubon & Bachman, 1854— Rocky Mts of Canadaand USA.U. a. emmonsu Dall, 1895— SE Alaska.U. a. eremicus Merriam, 1904— E Mexico.U. a. floridanus Merriam, 1896— SE USA(Florida).U. a. hamilton: Cameron, 1957— E Canada(Newfoundland).U. a. kermodei Hornaday, 1905— W Canada(coastal British Columbia).U. a. luteolus Griffith, 1821— S USA(Louisiana).U. a. machetes Elliot, 1903— W Mexico.U. a. pernigerJ. A. Allen, 1910— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).U. a. pugnax Swarth, 1911— islands of SE Alaska.U. a. vancouver: Hall, 1928— SW Canada(Vancouver I).","Head-body 120-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, adult males are heavier (60-225 kg, rarely up to 400 kg) than adult females (40-150 kg, but occasionally more than 180 kg). Straight facial profile, from forehead to nose, distinguishes this species from the partially sympatric Brown (Grizzly) Bear. Muzzle color is usually tan, with short hairs. Sometimes a small tan circular mark occurs slightly above each eye. Eyes are often blue at birth, but turn brown during the first year. Body hairs are rather uniform in length, but much sparser ventrally. A thick underfur is grown in fall, and molted in late spring. Coat color varies from uniformly black to various shades of brown, including cinnamon (reddish-brown) and blond. Brown-phase American Black Bears are common in western USA, less common in western Canadian Provinces, and rare along the west coast of Canada, across Alaska, and in eastern North America and Mexico. Rare white-colored (non-albino) bears occur in coastal British Columbia and gray (often called blue) bears occur in south-east Alaska. White chest markings, from one or more small spots to a large crescent-shaped blaze, occur to varying degrees, but in most populations are uncommon (except in cubs). Claws are short. Hair separates the digital pads from the main foot pad on the front and rear feet. There is also hair between the front (palmar) foot pad and carpal pad, which in normal walking does not touch the ground. Foot pads are shed in winter, when bears are in dens.","Found primarily in temperate and boreal forests, but also range into subtropical areas (Florida and Mexico) as well as into the subarctic. They inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the Grizzly Bear). They tend to occupy more forested habitats than the Grizzly Bear, especially where the two species are sympatric. Elevationally they range from sea level to 3000 m, and up to 3500 mfor winter denning.","American Black Bears are generalist, opportunistic omnivores with diets varying seasonally from herbaceous vegetation (mainly in spring) to roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion. They are also attracted to human-related foods, including garbage, birdseed, corn, oats, apples, honey and brood in apiaries. Feeding increases dramatically in the fall, in preparation for hibernation, and focuses on foods rich in fat. American chestnuts (Castaneadentata) were once a key fall food in eastern North America, but after blight destroyed this food source in the early to mid-1900s, oak (Quercus) acorns and beechnuts (Fagusgrandifolia) became the main fall foods. Farther west, hazelnuts (Corylus), whitebark pine nuts (Pinus albicaulis), madrone (Arbutusxalapensis), mansanita (Arctostaphylos), huckleberries (Vaccinium), and buffalo berries (Shepherdia canadensis) are principalfall foods. In arid regions, succulents such as yucca and cacti are important, especially during droughts.","Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.","Mainly diurnal, commonly with an early morning and evening peak in activity and a lull in midday. They tend to sleep through the night, but nocturnal activity may increase during fall, especially in places with clumped, abundant foods. It has been theorized that gut capacity and passage rates of food may limit the length of feeding bouts when intake rates are high, prompting more uniform feeding throughout the day. Alternately, or additionally, large weight gains in fall may pose energetic constraints on feeding. More nocturnal activity also occurs when feeding in areas near human activity. Total time active per day averages 50-60%, but may be less when abundant human-related foods are available. Virtually no activity occurs for the 3-7 months of winter hibernation. In some southern portions of the range, where food is available year-round, only parturient females and those with cubs from the previous year hibernate.","Home range sizes vary widely, from 3—- 1100 km? among individuals, and from 5-500 km?* among population means. In one unusual case on the tundra of Labrador, Canada, where food supplies were especially sparse, males ranged over 7000 km*, much like Brown Bears in similar environments. Home ranges are compressed where and when food is abundant, and where bear density is high. Likewise, overlap among home ranges tends to be greater where food abundance and bear density are high. Male home ranges are 2-10 times larger than those of females. Males thus overlap a number of potential breeding partners. In some areas, females (but not males) appear to be territorial, with portions of their home range not shared by other females. Female offspring remain within their natal range for a few years, gaining continued protection from the presence of their mother, and gradually expand their range to include other areas and less of their mother’s range as they age. Males, when 1-4 years old, disperse from the natal range. Dispersal distances vary from less than 10 to more than 200 km; dispersers may travel more than 40 kmin a week. Seasonal movements, especially to fall mast areas, are common for both sexes, although again, males move farther. In mountainous areas,shifts occur elevationally in accordance with changing food conditions; in flatter terrain, fall movements of 20 kmto more than 50 kmare not unusual, with greater movements in years when food supplies are particularly sparse. Single-day movements of more than 20 kmhave been reported. Such fall excursions are commonly referred to as the “fall shuffle”, in reference to the intermixing of individuals from various places (as well as the shuffling gait). Typically, bears that leave their normal home range in the fall return to a more familiar area to den.Breeding.Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.","Not globally threatened, listed as Least Concern by The IUCN Red Lust, but is listed on Appendix II of CITES under the similarity of appearance provision; this mandates tagging of exported parts legally taken by hunters, so they cannot be confused with parts from illegally taken bears ofother species. With a total population estimated at about 900,000, American Black Bears are more than twice as abundant as all other species of bears combined, even though they exist in only three countries in North America (Canada, USA, Mexico). Continent-wide, numbers appear to be increasing by about 2% per year, and more than 60% of USAstates and Canadian provinces report increasing populations. Approximately 40,000-50,000 are harvested annually by sport hunters in 28 USAstates and twelve Canadian provinces and territories. In Mexico, no hunting is allowed, and the species is considered nationally endangered, but appears to be increasing and expanding its range. The Louisianasubspecies (luteolus) was listed as threatened under the USAEndangered Species Act because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality. U. a. floridanusis listed as threatened by the state ofFlorida. The Kermode Bear (kermodei) or “spirit bear”, a white-phase American Black Bear, was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia, and provided the inspiration for a large system of protected areas (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) where logging in coastal temperate rainforest is severely restricted.","Alt (1989) | Ayres et al. (1986) | Barber & Lindzey (1986) | Beck (1991) | Beckman & Berger (2003) | Beecham & Rohliman (1994) | Boone et al. (2003) | Costello et al. (2003) | Czetwertynski et al. (2007) | Fair (1990) | Garshelis (2004) | Garshelis & Hellgren (1994) | Garshelis & Hristienko (2006) | Garshelis & Noyce (2008) | Garshelis & Pelton (1980) | Garshelis, Crider & VanManen (2007) | Garshelis, Quigley et al. (1983) | Hellgren et al. (2005) | Hewitt & Doan-Crider (2008) | Inman & Pelton (2002) | Kilham & Gray (2002) | Kovach & Powell (2003) | Lariviere (2001d) | Lee & Vaughan (2003) | Linnell et al. (2000) | Mitchell et al. (2005) | Noyce & Garshelis (1994) | Onorato et al. (2007) | Pelton (2003) | Pelton et al. (1999) | Ritland et al. (2001) | Rogers (1987) | Rounds (1987) | Samson & Huot (1995) | Vaughan (2002) | Veitch & Harrington (1996) | Warrillow et al. (2001) | White et al. (2000) | Williamson (2002)",,"6.American Black BearUrsus americanusFrench:Ours noir/ German:Baribal/ Spanish:Oso negro americanoTaxonomy.Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780, eastern North America.Genetic comparisons among the various purported subspecies have not been performed, except in a few cases. Recent genetic evidence indicates that luteolus, formerly thought to occur only in Louisiana, extends northward to Arkansas, and also may not be differentiated from floridanus in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. a. americanus Pallas, 1780— Alaska to E Canadaand E USA.U. a. altifrontalis Elliot, 1903— Pacific coast USAand Canada(S British Columbia).U. a. amblyceps Baird, 1859— SW USA.U. a. californiensisJ. Miller, 1900— SW USA(interior California).U. a. carlottae Osgood, 1901— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).U. a. cinnamomum Audubon & Bachman, 1854— Rocky Mts of Canadaand USA.U. a. emmonsu Dall, 1895— SE Alaska.U. a. eremicus Merriam, 1904— E Mexico.U. a. floridanus Merriam, 1896— SE USA(Florida).U. a. hamilton: Cameron, 1957— E Canada(Newfoundland).U. a. kermodei Hornaday, 1905— W Canada(coastal British Columbia).U. a. luteolus Griffith, 1821— S USA(Louisiana).U. a. machetes Elliot, 1903— W Mexico.U. a. pernigerJ. A. Allen, 1910— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).U. a. pugnax Swarth, 1911— islands of SE Alaska.U. a. vancouver: Hall, 1928— SW Canada(Vancouver I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, adult males are heavier (60-225 kg, rarely up to 400 kg) than adult females (40-150 kg, but occasionally more than 180 kg). Straight facial profile, from forehead to nose, distinguishes this species from the partially sympatric Brown (Grizzly) Bear. Muzzle color is usually tan, with short hairs. Sometimes a small tan circular mark occurs slightly above each eye. Eyes are often blue at birth, but turn brown during the first year. Body hairs are rather uniform in length, but much sparser ventrally. A thick underfur is grown in fall, and molted in late spring. Coat color varies from uniformly black to various shades of brown, including cinnamon (reddish-brown) and blond. Brown-phase American Black Bears are common in western USA, less common in western Canadian Provinces, and rare along the west coast of Canada, across Alaska, and in eastern North America and Mexico. Rare white-colored (non-albino) bears occur in coastal British Columbia and gray (often called blue) bears occur in south-east Alaska. White chest markings, from one or more small spots to a large crescent-shaped blaze, occur to varying degrees, but in most populations are uncommon (except in cubs). Claws are short. Hair separates the digital pads from the main foot pad on the front and rear feet. There is also hair between the front (palmar) foot pad and carpal pad, which in normal walking does not touch the ground. Foot pads are shed in winter, when bears are in dens.Habitat.Found primarily in temperate and boreal forests, but also range into subtropical areas (Florida and Mexico) as well as into the subarctic. They inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the Grizzly Bear). They tend to occupy more forested habitats than the Grizzly Bear, especially where the two species are sympatric. Elevationally they range from sea level to 3000 m, and up to 3500 mfor winter denning.Food and Feeding.American Black Bears are generalist, opportunistic omnivores with diets varying seasonally from herbaceous vegetation (mainly in spring) to roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion. They are also attracted to human-related foods, including garbage, birdseed, corn, oats, apples, honey and brood in apiaries. Feeding increases dramatically in the fall, in preparation for hibernation, and focuses on foods rich in fat. American chestnuts (Castaneadentata) were once a key fall food in eastern North America, but after blight destroyed this food source in the early to mid-1900s, oak (Quercus) acorns and beechnuts (Fagusgrandifolia) became the main fall foods. Farther west, hazelnuts (Corylus), whitebark pine nuts (Pinus albicaulis), madrone (Arbutusxalapensis), mansanita (Arctostaphylos), huckleberries (Vaccinium), and buffalo berries (Shepherdia canadensis) are principalfall foods. In arid regions, succulents such as yucca and cacti are important, especially during droughts.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, commonly with an early morning and evening peak in activity and a lull in midday. They tend to sleep through the night, but nocturnal activity may increase during fall, especially in places with clumped, abundant foods. It has been theorized that gut capacity and passage rates of food may limit the length of feeding bouts when intake rates are high, prompting more uniform feeding throughout the day. Alternately, or additionally, large weight gains in fall may pose energetic constraints on feeding. More nocturnal activity also occurs when feeding in areas near human activity. Total time active per day averages 50-60%, but may be less when abundant human-related foods are available. Virtually no activity occurs for the 3-7 months of winter hibernation. In some southern portions of the range, where food is available year-round, only parturient females and those with cubs from the previous year hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes vary widely, from 3—- 1100 km? among individuals, and from 5-500 km?* among population means. In one unusual case on the tundra of Labrador, Canada, where food supplies were especially sparse, males ranged over 7000 km*, much like Brown Bears in similar environments. Home ranges are compressed where and when food is abundant, and where bear density is high. Likewise, overlap among home ranges tends to be greater where food abundance and bear density are high. Male home ranges are 2-10 times larger than those of females. Males thus overlap a number of potential breeding partners. In some areas, females (but not males) appear to be territorial, with portions of their home range not shared by other females. Female offspring remain within their natal range for a few years, gaining continued protection from the presence of their mother, and gradually expand their range to include other areas and less of their mother’s range as they age. Males, when 1-4 years old, disperse from the natal range. Dispersal distances vary from less than 10 to more than 200 km; dispersers may travel more than 40 kmin a week. Seasonal movements, especially to fall mast areas, are common for both sexes, although again, males move farther. In mountainous areas,shifts occur elevationally in accordance with changing food conditions; in flatter terrain, fall movements of 20 kmto more than 50 kmare not unusual, with greater movements in years when food supplies are particularly sparse. Single-day movements of more than 20 kmhave been reported. Such fall excursions are commonly referred to as the “fall shuffle”, in reference to the intermixing of individuals from various places (as well as the shuffling gait). Typically, bears that leave their normal home range in the fall return to a more familiar area to den.Breeding.Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.Status and Conservation.Not globally threatened, listed as Least Concern by The IUCN Red Lust, but is listed on Appendix II of CITES under the similarity of appearance provision; this mandates tagging of exported parts legally taken by hunters, so they cannot be confused with parts from illegally taken bears ofother species. With a total population estimated at about 900,000, American Black Bears are more than twice as abundant as all other species of bears combined, even though they exist in only three countries in North America (Canada, USA, Mexico). Continent-wide, numbers appear to be increasing by about 2% per year, and more than 60% of USAstates and Canadian provinces report increasing populations. Approximately 40,000-50,000 are harvested annually by sport hunters in 28 USAstates and twelve Canadian provinces and territories. In Mexico, no hunting is allowed, and the species is considered nationally endangered, but appears to be increasing and expanding its range. The Louisianasubspecies (luteolus) was listed as threatened under the USAEndangered Species Act because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality. U. a. floridanusis listed as threatened by the state ofFlorida. The Kermode Bear (kermodei) or “spirit bear”, a white-phase American Black Bear, was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia, and provided the inspiration for a large system of protected areas (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) where logging in coastal temperate rainforest is severely restricted.Bibliography.Alt (1989), Ayres et al. (1986), Barber & Lindzey (1986), Beck (1991), Beckman & Berger (2003), Beecham & Rohliman (1994), Boone et al. (2003), Costello et al. (2003), Czetwertynski et al. (2007), Fair (1990), Garshelis (2004), Garshelis & Hellgren (1994), Garshelis & Hristienko (2006), Garshelis & Noyce (2008), Garshelis & Pelton (1980), Garshelis, Crider & VanManen (2007), Garshelis, Quigley et al. (1983), Hellgren et al. (2005), Hewitt & Doan-Crider (2008), Inman & Pelton (2002), Kilham & Gray (2002), Kovach & Powell (2003), Lariviere (2001d), Lee & Vaughan (2003), Linnell et al. (2000), Mitchell et al. (2005), Noyce & Garshelis (1994), Onorato et al. (2007), Pelton (2003), Pelton et al. (1999), Ritland et al. (2001), Rogers (1987), Rounds (1987), Samson & Huot (1995), Vaughan (2002), Veitch & Harrington (1996), Warrillow et al. (2001), White et al. (2000), Williamson (2002)." -039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,490,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.xml,Ursus thibetanus,Ursus,thibetanus,,,Ours a collier @fr | Kragenbér @de | Oso negro asiatico @es | Himalayan Black Bear @en | Moon Bear @en | White-breasted Bear @en | Asian Black Bear @en,"Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823, Sylhet region (presently divided between AssamIndiaand Bangladesh).Previously included in genus Selenarctos = moon bear. Some subspecies have been corroborated as distinct genetic clades (formosanus, japonicus, ussuricus). Seven subspecies recognized.","U. t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823— Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam.U. t. formosanus Swinhoe, 1864— Taiwan.U. t. gedrosianus Blanford, 1877— SE Iran, C & S Pakistan.U. t. japonicus Schlegel, 1857— Japan.U. t. laniger Pocock, 1932— Himalayas from Afghanistanto N India(Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh& Uttarakhand).U. t. mupinensis Heude, 1901— C & S China.U. t. ussuricus Heude, 1901— Russian Far East, NE China, Korean Peninsula.","Head-body 110-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm; adult males are heavier (60-200 kg; rarely to 250 kg) than adult females (35-140 kg; rarely to 170 kg). Maximum weights occur in autumn, prior to hibernation. Islandpopulations (Japan, Taiwan) tend to be smaller-bodied than mainland populations. Ears are rounded and relatively large compared to other bears. Coat color black, typically with prominent white marking on the chest, often in the shape of a V or crescent (from which the common name “moon bear” derives), and white chin patch. However, white markings vary in size and color, sometimes being small or absent. Uncommonly the coat coloris brown (gedrosianus) or blond (rare color phase in South-east Asia). Muzzle color varies from light to dark. Typically there are long, coarse hairs around the neck, sometimes also extending to the cheeks; the extent and frequency of these characteristics varies regionally, as does overall hair length and density of underfur. Some subspecies were differentiated largely by the degree of shagginess of pelts from collected specimens. Proportional length of legs to body also varies considerably, with some individuals being quite short and squat. Both front and rear foot pads have hair separating the toes from the plantar pad, but unlike other Ursusspecies, the front carpal pad (corny protuberance) is connected with the plantar pad by bare skin. Front claws are about 5 cmlong, slightly longer than the rear claws, and curved.Habitat.Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).Food and Feeding.Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.Activity patterns.Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching.","Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).","Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.","Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.","Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.","Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.","CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching. Habitat loss from logging, agriculture, human settlements, roadways, and erosion is most severe in southern portions of the range. The species is protected throughout its range by national and international laws. Sport hunting for Asiatic Black Bears is legal only in Japanand Russia, with annual harvests of about 500 and 100 bears, respectively; however, illegalkills and nuisance kills exceed hunting kills by a factor of five or more in both countries. Bear depredations on crops and apiaries, and attacks on people, have increased throughout the range, and have led to more direct killing, using guns, poisons, and bombs that explode when bitten. Poaching also appears to be increasing, spurred by commercial demands for meat,skins, paws, and gall bladders. The demand for these products has fueled a growing network of international trade throughout South-east Asia, and has encouraged many subsistence hunters to turn to commercial hunting. Paws are sold as an expensive delicacy (made into a soup), especially in China. Bile in gall bladdersis dried and sold as a traditional Chinese medicine; it has been used as such for nearly 3000 years. To supply an increasing demand, bear farms have been established in Chinaand Vietnam, where bile is drained from over 12,000 Asiatic Black Bears and sold commercially. This technique was originally developed in North Koreain the 1970s, and “perfected” over the years in China. Some officials assert that the increased production of bile from farming reduces poaching of wild bears; conversely, the cheaper and more available farmed bile also may encourage more use, and thus ultimately more demand for wild bile, which is considered more potent. Farmed bile is now produced in such surplus that it is incorporated into many non-traditional Chinese medicine products, such as shampoos, lotions, cosmetics, sports drinks, and toothpaste. Prompted by animal welfare-related concerns, several hundred bears have been removed from farms and taken to rescue facilities run by non-governmental organizations. However, the large total number of captive, non-releasable bears and the opinion of government officials that farming aids in the conservation of wild bears, make the situation rather intractable.","Bromlei (1965) | Carr et al. (2002) | Erdbrink (1953) | Fan & Song (1997) | Galbreath et al. (2000) | Garshelis & Steinmetz (2007) | Gutleb & Ziaie (1999) | Hashimoto (2002) | Hashimoto et al. (2003) | Huygens & Hayashi (2001) | Huygens, Goto et al. (2001) | Huygens, Miyashita et al. (2003) | Hwang (2003) | Hwang & Garshelis (2006) | Hwang et al. (2002) | Izumiyama & Shiraishi (2004) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Li (2004) | Mizukami et al. (2005) | Ohnishi et al. (2007) | Oka et al. (2004) | Pocock (1932d) | Reid, Jiang et al. (1991) | Sathyakumar (2001) | Schaller et al. (1989) | Servheen et al. (1999) | Seryodkin et al. (2003) | Shepherd & Nijman (2008) | Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008) | Stubblefield & Shrestha (2007)",,"5.Asiatic Black BearUrsus thibetanusFrench:Ours a collier/ German:Kragenbér/ Spanish:Oso negro asiaticoOther common names:Himalayan Black Bear, Moon Bear, White-breasted Bear, Asian Black BearTaxonomy.Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823, Sylhet region (presently divided between AssamIndiaand Bangladesh).Previously included in genus Selenarctos = moon bear. Some subspecies have been corroborated as distinct genetic clades (formosanus, japonicus, ussuricus). Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823— Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam.U. t. formosanus Swinhoe, 1864— Taiwan.U. t. gedrosianus Blanford, 1877— SE Iran, C & S Pakistan.U. t. japonicus Schlegel, 1857— Japan.U. t. laniger Pocock, 1932— Himalayas from Afghanistanto N India(Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh& Uttarakhand).U. t. mupinensis Heude, 1901— C & S China.U. t. ussuricus Heude, 1901— Russian Far East, NE China, Korean Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm; adult males are heavier (60-200 kg; rarely to 250 kg) than adult females (35-140 kg; rarely to 170 kg). Maximum weights occur in autumn, prior to hibernation. Islandpopulations (Japan, Taiwan) tend to be smaller-bodied than mainland populations. Ears are rounded and relatively large compared to other bears. Coat color black, typically with prominent white marking on the chest, often in the shape of a V or crescent (from which the common name “moon bear” derives), and white chin patch. However, white markings vary in size and color, sometimes being small or absent. Uncommonly the coat coloris brown (gedrosianus) or blond (rare color phase in South-east Asia). Muzzle color varies from light to dark. Typically there are long, coarse hairs around the neck, sometimes also extending to the cheeks; the extent and frequency of these characteristics varies regionally, as does overall hair length and density of underfur. Some subspecies were differentiated largely by the degree of shagginess of pelts from collected specimens. Proportional length of legs to body also varies considerably, with some individuals being quite short and squat. Both front and rear foot pads have hair separating the toes from the plantar pad, but unlike other Ursusspecies, the front carpal pad (corny protuberance) is connected with the plantar pad by bare skin. Front claws are about 5 cmlong, slightly longer than the rear claws, and curved.Habitat.Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).Food and Feeding.Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.Activity patterns.Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching. Habitat loss from logging, agriculture, human settlements, roadways, and erosion is most severe in southern portions of the range. The species is protected throughout its range by national and international laws. Sport hunting for Asiatic Black Bears is legal only in Japanand Russia, with annual harvests of about 500 and 100 bears, respectively; however, illegalkills and nuisance kills exceed hunting kills by a factor of five or more in both countries. Bear depredations on crops and apiaries, and attacks on people, have increased throughout the range, and have led to more direct killing, using guns, poisons, and bombs that explode when bitten. Poaching also appears to be increasing, spurred by commercial demands for meat,skins, paws, and gall bladders. The demand for these products has fueled a growing network of international trade throughout South-east Asia, and has encouraged many subsistence hunters to turn to commercial hunting. Paws are sold as an expensive delicacy (made into a soup), especially in China. Bile in gall bladdersis dried and sold as a traditional Chinese medicine; it has been used as such for nearly 3000 years. To supply an increasing demand, bear farms have been established in Chinaand Vietnam, where bile is drained from over 12,000 Asiatic Black Bears and sold commercially. This technique was originally developed in North Koreain the 1970s, and “perfected” over the years in China. Some officials assert that the increased production of bile from farming reduces poaching of wild bears; conversely, the cheaper and more available farmed bile also may encourage more use, and thus ultimately more demand for wild bile, which is considered more potent. Farmed bile is now produced in such surplus that it is incorporated into many non-traditional Chinese medicine products, such as shampoos, lotions, cosmetics, sports drinks, and toothpaste. Prompted by animal welfare-related concerns, several hundred bears have been removed from farms and taken to rescue facilities run by non-governmental organizations. However, the large total number of captive, non-releasable bears and the opinion of government officials that farming aids in the conservation of wild bears, make the situation rather intractable.Bibliography.Bromlei (1965), Carr et al. (2002), Erdbrink (1953), Fan & Song (1997), Galbreath et al. (2000), Garshelis & Steinmetz (2007), Gutleb & Ziaie (1999), Hashimoto (2002), Hashimoto et al. (2003), Huygens & Hayashi (2001), Huygens, Goto et al. (2001), Huygens, Miyashita et al. (2003), Hwang (2003), Hwang & Garshelis (2006), Hwang et al. (2002), Izumiyama & Shiraishi (2004), JapanBear Network (2006), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Li (2004), Mizukami et al. (2005), Ohnishi et al. (2007), Oka et al. (2004), Pocock (1932d), Reid, Jiang et al. (1991), Sathyakumar (2001), Schaller et al. (1989), Servheen et al. (1999), Seryodkin et al. (2003), Shepherd & Nijman (2008), Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008), Stubblefield & Shrestha (2007)." -039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,489,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.xml,Melursus ursinus,Melursus,ursinus,,,Ours paresseux @fr | Lippenbar @de | Osobezudo @es | Honey Bear @en | Lip Bear @en,"Bradypus ursinus Shaw, 1791, Bihar(earlier Bengal), India.Previously included in genus Bradypus = sloth. Two subspecies recognized.","M. u. wrsinus Shaw, 1791— India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.M. u. inornatus Pucheran, 1855— Sri Lanka.","Head-body 140-190 cm, tail 8-17 cm; weight of males 70-145 kg (rarely to 190 kg), females 50-95 kg (rarely to 120 kg). The Sri Lankan subspecies is smaller, and with a less-shaggy (shorter, sparser) coat than the nominate subspecies. Coat color is black, with rare brown or reddish-brown individuals. Hair length tends to be longer than in other bears, especially around the neck, shoulders, and back (up to 15-20 cm). The ears are also covered with long hair. Underfur is lacking, and ventral body hair is sparse. The muzzle has very short hair, and is distinctly light-colored up to the eyes. The lips are highly protrusible (hence this bear is sometimes called the Lip Bear), adapted for sucking termites, and the nose can be closed during such sucking, by pushing it against the side of the feeding excavation. The chest is normally marked by a prominent white V or U-shaped band. Sloth Bears have long (6-8 cm) slightly curved, ivory-colored front claws (for digging), and shorter rear claws. The long front claws (along with their coarse, shaggy coat and missing two upper incisors) are what seem to have caused an early taxonomist to call it a sloth. Soles of the feet are naked; unlike other bears, there is no hair between the digital pads and plantar pad on front and hindfeet, and also no hair separating the carpal and plantar (palmar) pad on the front. Unique among the bears, the digital pads are partially fused and are in a nearly straight line.Habitat.Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.Food and Feeding.Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.Activity patterns.These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected.","Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.","Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.","Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.","These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.","Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.","CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected. Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads. Commercial trade in bear parts has been reported, but its current extent and impact on Sloth Bears is uncertain. Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g. male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration). Capture of live cubs to raise as “dancing bears” remains a significant threat in some parts of Indiabecause laws against this are not adequately enforced. Some non-governmental organizations have been rescuing these bears (although they cannot be released to the wild) and training the people who hunted them in alternate types of work, in exchange for a commitment that they will not resume the practice.","Akhtar et al. (2004, 2007) | Bargali et al. (2004, 2005) | Chhangani (2002) | Garshelis, Joshi & Smith (1999) | Garshelis, Joshi, Smith & Rice (1999) | Garshelis, Ratnayeke & Chauhan (2007) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Joshi, Garshelis & Smith (1995, 1997) | Joshi, Smith & Garshelis (1999) | Laurie & Seidensticker (1977) | Rajpurohit & Krausman (2000) | Ratnayeke, Van Manen & Padmalal (2007) | Ratnayeke, Van Manen, Pieris & Pragash (2007) | Yoganand et al. (2006)",,"4.Sloth BearMelursus ursinusFrench:Ours paresseux/ German:Lippenbar/ Spanish:OsobezudoOther common names:Honey Bear, Lip BearTaxonomy.Bradypus ursinus Shaw, 1791, Bihar(earlier Bengal), India.Previously included in genus Bradypus = sloth. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. u. wrsinus Shaw, 1791— India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.M. u. inornatus Pucheran, 1855— Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-190 cm, tail 8-17 cm; weight of males 70-145 kg (rarely to 190 kg), females 50-95 kg (rarely to 120 kg). The Sri Lankan subspecies is smaller, and with a less-shaggy (shorter, sparser) coat than the nominate subspecies. Coat color is black, with rare brown or reddish-brown individuals. Hair length tends to be longer than in other bears, especially around the neck, shoulders, and back (up to 15-20 cm). The ears are also covered with long hair. Underfur is lacking, and ventral body hair is sparse. The muzzle has very short hair, and is distinctly light-colored up to the eyes. The lips are highly protrusible (hence this bear is sometimes called the Lip Bear), adapted for sucking termites, and the nose can be closed during such sucking, by pushing it against the side of the feeding excavation. The chest is normally marked by a prominent white V or U-shaped band. Sloth Bears have long (6-8 cm) slightly curved, ivory-colored front claws (for digging), and shorter rear claws. The long front claws (along with their coarse, shaggy coat and missing two upper incisors) are what seem to have caused an early taxonomist to call it a sloth. Soles of the feet are naked; unlike other bears, there is no hair between the digital pads and plantar pad on front and hindfeet, and also no hair separating the carpal and plantar (palmar) pad on the front. Unique among the bears, the digital pads are partially fused and are in a nearly straight line.Habitat.Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.Food and Feeding.Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.Activity patterns.These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected. Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads. Commercial trade in bear parts has been reported, but its current extent and impact on Sloth Bears is uncertain. Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g. male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration). Capture of live cubs to raise as “dancing bears” remains a significant threat in some parts of Indiabecause laws against this are not adequately enforced. Some non-governmental organizations have been rescuing these bears (although they cannot be released to the wild) and training the people who hunted them in alternate types of work, in exchange for a commitment that they will not resume the practice.Bibliography.Akhtar et al. (2004, 2007), Bargali et al. (2004, 2005), Chhangani (2002), Garshelis, Joshi & Smith (1999), Garshelis, Joshi, Smith & Rice (1999), Garshelis, Ratnayeke & Chauhan (2007), JapanBear Network (2006), Joshi, Garshelis & Smith (1995, 1997), Joshi, Smith & Garshelis (1999), Laurie & Seidensticker (1977), Rajpurohit & Krausman (2000), Ratnayeke, Van Manen & Padmalal (2007), Ratnayeke, Van Manen, Pieris & Pragash (2007), Yoganand et al. (2006)." -039F7D71A96CAD1C081CF80D7046DAD4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a,801,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96CAD1C081CF80D7046DAD4.xml,Okapia johnstonii,Okapia,johnstonii,,,Okapi @fr | Okapi @de | Okapi @es | French @en | German @en | Spanish @en,"Equus johnston: Sclater, 1901,forests along Semliki River, Mundala, Democratic Republic of Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.Habitat.Okapis have been able to occupy closed forest in primary or older secondary forest types. Although preferring elevations of 500-1000 m, they may be found as high as 1500 min the eastern montane rainforests. Their range is limited to the high forests in the east, the swamp forests below 500 mto the west, savannah of the Sahel/ Sudanto the north, and open woodlands to the south. They do not occupy gallery forests or the forest islands on the savanna ecotone, nor are they to be found in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. They will use seasonally inundated areas while the substrate is still wet, but they do not occur in truly inundated sites or in extensive swamp forest. Tree fall gaps are their preferred foraging sites during the primary stages of regeneration.Food and Feeding.Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings.","Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.","Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.",,"Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings. Distribution of the Okapi’s food plants favors dispersed rather than congregated foraging. Nowhere is the forage abundant enough to support a herd, nor do the Okapis converge on seasonally-varying food sources, as there is continuous growth of new leaves. Females occupy forest areas that are richest in their favored food plants. There is a greater density of suitable browse in tree-fall gaps, as indicated by a change in locomotion of Okapi when feeding in gaps. When browsing in the subcanopy, their gait is steady, whereas when feeding in a tree-fall gap they walk more slowly, frequently pausing to feed on several plants from one position. Under the canopy and in gaps Okapis are selective browsers, eating only a small proportion of the species present and focussing on the youngest leaves. Food supply in the Ituri forest is patchy and variable in quality and distribution. Okapis exhibit geophagia, ingesting dirt in search of minerals.",,,"Okapis have well-defined home ranges, the most stable of which belong to reproductive females and are in the range of 3-23-6-5 km*. Adult females have exclusive use of a territory except when nursing young. Males make brief incursions to mate. Young animals of both sexes have more restricted home ranges, overlapping with their mothers’, but eventually they emigrate. Adult males cover larger areas, sometimes more than 13 km? Males and females mark trees with an oily secretion from their skin and defecate in selected areas. They have overlapping home ranges of several square kilometres and typically occur at densities of about 1 ind/km?®. They have several methods of communicating, including pheromones from the scent glands on each foot, which leave behind a tar-like substance to signal their passage. They also mark with urine. Males defend territories. Okapis solicit allogrooming of body areas they cannot reach to groom themselves.",,"Bodmer & Rabb (1992) | Colbert (1938) | Hart (1992, 2001) | Hart & Hall (1996) | Hart, J.A. & Hart T.B. (1989) | Hart, T.B. & Hart J.A. (1992, 1998) | IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008) | Landsheere (1957) | Lindsay (1999) | Pellew (1984a)",,"2.OkapiOkapia johnstoniiFrench:Okapi/ German:Okapi/ Spanish:OkapiTaxonomy.Equus johnston: Sclater, 1901,forests along Semliki River, Mundala, Democratic Republic of Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.Habitat.Okapis have been able to occupy closed forest in primary or older secondary forest types. Although preferring elevations of 500-1000 m, they may be found as high as 1500 min the eastern montane rainforests. Their range is limited to the high forests in the east, the swamp forests below 500 mto the west, savannah of the Sahel/ Sudanto the north, and open woodlands to the south. They do not occupy gallery forests or the forest islands on the savanna ecotone, nor are they to be found in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. They will use seasonally inundated areas while the substrate is still wet, but they do not occur in truly inundated sites or in extensive swamp forest. Tree fall gaps are their preferred foraging sites during the primary stages of regeneration.Food and Feeding.Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings. Distribution of the Okapi’s food plants favors dispersed rather than congregated foraging. Nowhere is the forage abundant enough to support a herd, nor do the Okapis converge on seasonally-varying food sources, as there is continuous growth of new leaves. Females occupy forest areas that are richest in their favored food plants. There is a greater density of suitable browse in tree-fall gaps, as indicated by a change in locomotion of Okapi when feeding in gaps. When browsing in the subcanopy, their gait is steady, whereas when feeding in a tree-fall gap they walk more slowly, frequently pausing to feed on several plants from one position. Under the canopy and in gaps Okapis are selective browsers, eating only a small proportion of the species present and focussing on the youngest leaves. Food supply in the Ituri forest is patchy and variable in quality and distribution. Okapis exhibit geophagia, ingesting dirt in search of minerals.Breeding.Male courtship is unobtrusive and cautious. Males may take the better part of a day to approach a female with overtures that include low, moaning calls. Cows may associate with two different bulls over several days. Following a gestation of 14 months, a single calf is born between August and October, and weaned after six months. Females become sexually mature at two years of age and males later, because like most ungulates in the wild, they have to become behaviorally mature to secure mating rights. The behavior of an individual female through the reproductive cycle and gestation does not change markedly. However, after parturition a considerable portion of the day is spent feeding, moving back and forth across the home range. The female travels some distance from the calf, which is hidden,visiting it a few times a day for only a few minutes each time. Calves have been observed allosuckling. A calf remains bonded with its mother for nine months. Calves make a wide range of noises, including coughs, bleats, and whistles. Males are not restricted to areas of food abundance and spend more time roaming in forest zones where palatable leaves are sparse, perhaps in an attempt to gain access to more females.Activity patterns.Okapis are primarily diurnal and are essentially solitary, only associating to breed, except for mother—offspring pairs. Okapis are vulnerable to Leopard (Panthera pardus)attacks, several animals having been killed by Leopards during the course of one field study. Estimated population densities vary from 0-8 ind/km? to 2-3 ind/km?.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Okapis have well-defined home ranges, the most stable of which belong to reproductive females and are in the range of 3-23-6-5 km*. Adult females have exclusive use of a territory except when nursing young. Males make brief incursions to mate. Young animals of both sexes have more restricted home ranges, overlapping with their mothers’, but eventually they emigrate. Adult males cover larger areas, sometimes more than 13 km? Males and females mark trees with an oily secretion from their skin and defecate in selected areas. They have overlapping home ranges of several square kilometres and typically occur at densities of about 1 ind/km?®. They have several methods of communicating, including pheromones from the scent glands on each foot, which leave behind a tar-like substance to signal their passage. They also mark with urine. Males defend territories. Okapis solicit allogrooming of body areas they cannot reach to groom themselves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Okapi was unknown to Europeans until 1901. Although it has been estimated that there are around 10,000-20,000 individuals in the wild, this estimate is likely to be optimistic because they are shy and rarely seen. The most numerous populations of Okapi are found in the Ituri/Aruwimi and adjacent Nepoko Basin forests, and the forests of the upper Lindi, Maiko and Tshopo Basins. The species is also present in the Rubi-Tele region in Bas Uele. It was once present in the Semliki Forest of Uganda, but appears not to have survived in this region. In Virunga National Park, DR Congo, the first official sighting since 1959 was made in 2006. As of 2010, about 160 specimens are on display in some 40 zoological gardens. The name Okapi combines two words in the Congolese Lese Karo dialect, “Oka,” meaning to cut, and “kpi,” which refers to the design made on Efé arrows by wrapping the arrows with bark, making the arrows striped when they are scorched by fire. Lese legend has it that the Okapi’s stripes add to the animal’s great camouflage. The specific epithet, johnstoni, recognizes the explorer Sir Harry Johnston, who organized the expedition thatfirst acquired an Okapi from the [turi forest. Accurate population assessments are difficult in the dense forests. The future of Okapis depends on preservation of their habitat, especially the Ituri forest, an unlikely prospect given the political instability of that region.Bibliography.Bodmer & Rabb (1992), Colbert (1938), Hart (1992, 2001), Hart & Hall (1996), Hart, J.A. & Hart T.B. (1989), Hart, T.B. & Hart J.A. (1992, 1998), IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008), Landsheere (1957), Lindsay (1999), Pellew (1984a)." -039F7D71A96CAD1D0D12FE207077DB5B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a,801,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96CAD1D0D12FE207077DB5B.xml,Giraffa camelopardalis,Giraffa,camelopardalis,Linnaeus,1758,Girafe @fr | Giraffe @de | Jirafa @es | Nubian Giraffe (camelopardalis) @en | Kordofan Giraffe (antiquorum) @en | Masai Giraffe (tippelskirchi) @en | Reticulated @en | Somali Giraffe (reticulata) @en | Rothschild Giraffe (rothschildi) @en | Smoky @en | Angolan Giraffe (angolensis) @en | South African Giraffe (giraffa) @en | Thornicroft @en | Rhodesian Giraffe (thornicrofti) @en | West African @en | Nigerian Giraffe (peralta) @en,"Cervus camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758,Sennar, Sudan.It appears from genetic studies that Giraffes fall into three groups: West African Giraffes (peralta); North African Giraffes (antiguorum, reticulata, rothschildi, thornicrofti, and probably camelopardalis); and southern African Giraffes (angolensis and guraffa). The “Masai Giraffe,” tippelskirchi, exhibits similarities with both the southern and the northern groups. Genetic differences, ranging from 0-15% to 6-9%, are below those required for the establishment of distinct species. Nine regional variants are currently recognized as subspecies, all of which interbreed.","G.c.camelopardalisLinnaeus,1758—ESudanandWEthiopia.G.c.angolensisLydekkcr,1903-NNamibia,SZambia,NBotswana,andNWZimbabwe.G.c.antiquorumJardine,1835-SChad,Genua]AfricanRepublic,andNEDRCongo.G.c.giraffaSchreber.1784-SWMozambique,SZimbabwe,andSouthAfrica.G.c.peraltaThomas,1898-WAfrica.G.c.reticulataDeWinton,1899-SEthiopia,SWSomalia,andNKenya.G.c.rothschildiLydekker,1903-SSudan.NUganda,andWKenya.G.c.tippelskirchiMatschie,1898-SKenyaandTanzania.G. c. thornicrofti Lydekker, 1911-Zambia(Luangwa Valley).","Head-body 350-480 cm,tail 76-110 cm, height to the crown 450-600 cm; weight 1800-1930 kg (males) and 450-1180 kg (females). Adult males are larger than females. Colored hair patches are separated by yellow-white bands and vary in the regional variants. Patches contain large active sweat glands and a unique arrangement of blood vessels, suggesting they act as thermal windows through which to dissipate heat. Pigmentation of the skin is uniformly dark gray. The extraordinary shape results from elongation of the neck skeleton and of the lower leg bones. Elongation of the legs is associated with thickening of the bone wall to provide strength and of the neck by uniform lengthening of all seven cervical vertebrae. Elongation of the skeleton is rapid and demands the accumulation of large amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Giraffe anatomy has necessitated physiological adaptations; e.g. systemic blood pressure is twice that for similar sized mammals. The cells of the left ventricular and interventricular walls of the heart are enlarged, their thickness linearly related to neck length. Simultaneous enlargement of artery and arteriole walls provides resistance to blood flow. This appears to be a coordinated reflex response that maintains blood flow to the brain to protect Giraffes from fainting when they raise their heads after drinking, and to prevent peripheral oedema in the legs. Valves in the jugular vein prevent regurgitation of blood returning to the heart into the jugular vein. The long trachea is significantly narrower than in similar-sized mammals, limiting increases in dead space. Giraffe skulls feature paired subconical ossicones, which resemble short, blunt horns, arising from the top of the brain case. Female skulls are smoother and lighter than those of males. Bulls may have another median horn, which is a male secondary sexual characteristic, arising from the forehead between the eyes.",,"Exclusively browsers of dicotyledons, their preferred browse is mainly various species of Acacia. Four species of Acacia and four species of Combretum predominate in their diet, as these are rich in protein and calcium to support growth of their large skeleton. Bulls browse at higher levels than cows. Giraffes are water dependent but can survive for long periods without drinking water, obtaining their daily water needs from succulent browse. Giraffids are foliovores, selecting succulent foliage, and have an efficient digestive system compared to that of grazers, which eat monocotiyledons. The Giraffe stomach is half the size of that of African buffalo (Syncerus sp.).",,,"Giraffes are mainly diurnal, and most active hours are spent feeding. Their gait is unusual in that both legs on one side swing in unison making their walk ungainly. Their maximum speed is about 56 km/h, and they can jump fences 1-5 m high. Giraffes are not territorial and home ranges vary from 25 km? to 160 km?. Major rivers are barriers, as Giraffes cannot swim and do not easily cross flowing rivers. Strong social bonds are lacking, and herds, mostly of females and their young, rarely consist of the same individuals for more than a few days.",,"Aschaffenburg et al. (1962) | Badlangana et al. (2009) | Berry (1978) | Bigalke (1951) | Bond & Loffell (2001) | Bredin et al. (2008) | Brown et al. (2007) | Cameron & Du Toit (2005, 2007) | Cerling et al. (2004) | Ciofolo & Pendu (1998) | Dagg (1962, 1971) | Dagg & Foster (1976, 1982) | Fennessy & Brown (2010) | Fennessy et al. (2001) | Foster & Dagg, (1972) | Gallagher et al. (1994) | Hall-Martin & Skinner (1978) | Hall-Martin, Skinner & Hopkins (1978) | Hall-Martin, Skinner & Smith (1977) | Hamilton (1973) | Harris (1976) | Hugh-Jones et al. (1978) | Jacobson et al. (1986) | Kidd (1900) | Kok (1982) | Kok & Opperman (1980) | Kuntsch & Nel (1990) | Langman (1977, 1978) | Langman et al. (1982) | Le Pendu et al. (2000) | Leuthold (1979) | Leuthold & Leuthold (1972, 1978) | Lightfoot (1978) | Lydekker (1904) | Madden & Young (1982) | Miller (1994, 1996) | Mitchell (2009) | Mitchell & Hattingh (1993) | Mitchell & Skinner (1993, 2003, 2004, 2009) | Mitchell, Bobbitt & Devries (2008) | Mitchell, Maloney et al. (2006) | Mitchell, van Schalkwyk & Skinner (2005) | Mitchell, van Sittert & Skinner (2009a, 2009b) | Pellew (1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1984b) | Pienaar (1969) | Pilgrim (1911) | Pratt & Anderson (1982) | Ridewood (1904) | Robin et al. (1960) | Scheepers (1992) | Shortridge (1934) | Simmons & Scheepers (1996) | Singer & Boné (1960) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Skinner & Hall-Martin (1975) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Solounias (1999) | Spinage (1968, 1993) | Van Aarde (1976) | Van Sittert et al. (2010) | Van Schalkwyk et al. (2004) | Von Linnaeus (1758) | Wyatt (1971) | Young & Okello (1998)",,"1.GirafteGiraffa camelopardalisFrench:Girafe/ German:Giraffe/ Spanish:JirafaOther common names:Nubian Giraffe (camelopardalis), Kordofan Giraffe (antiquorum), Masai Giraffe (tippelskirchi), Reticulated/ SomaliGiraffe (reticulata), Rothschild Giraffe (rothschildi), Smoky/Angolan Giraffe (angolensis), South African Giraffe (giraffa), Thornicroft/Rhodesian Giraffe (thornicrofti), West African/Nigerian Giraffe (peralta)Taxonomy.Cervus camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758,Sennar, Sudan.It appears from genetic studies that Giraffes fall into three groups: West African Giraffes (peralta); North African Giraffes (antiguorum, reticulata, rothschildi, thornicrofti, and probably camelopardalis); and southern African Giraffes (angolensis and guraffa). The “Masai Giraffe,” tippelskirchi, exhibits similarities with both the southern and the northern groups. Genetic differences, ranging from 0-15% to 6-9%, are below those required for the establishment of distinct species. Nine regional variants are currently recognized as subspecies, all of which interbreed.Subspecies and Distribution.G.c.camelopardalisLinnaeus,1758—ESudanandWEthiopia.G.c.angolensisLydekkcr,1903-NNamibia,SZambia,NBotswana,andNWZimbabwe.G.c.antiquorumJardine,1835-SChad,Genua]AfricanRepublic,andNEDRCongo.G.c.giraffaSchreber.1784-SWMozambique,SZimbabwe,andSouthAfrica.G.c.peraltaThomas,1898-WAfrica.G.c.reticulataDeWinton,1899-SEthiopia,SWSomalia,andNKenya.G.c.rothschildiLydekker,1903-SSudan.NUganda,andWKenya.G.c.tippelskirchiMatschie,1898-SKenyaandTanzania.G. c. thornicrofti Lydekker, 1911-Zambia(Luangwa Valley).Descriptive notes.Head-body 350-480 cm,tail 76-110 cm, height to the crown 450-600 cm; weight 1800-1930 kg (males) and 450-1180 kg (females). Adult males are larger than females. Colored hair patches are separated by yellow-white bands and vary in the regional variants. Patches contain large active sweat glands and a unique arrangement of blood vessels, suggesting they act as thermal windows through which to dissipate heat. Pigmentation of the skin is uniformly dark gray. The extraordinary shape results from elongation of the neck skeleton and of the lower leg bones. Elongation of the legs is associated with thickening of the bone wall to provide strength and of the neck by uniform lengthening of all seven cervical vertebrae. Elongation of the skeleton is rapid and demands the accumulation of large amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Giraffe anatomy has necessitated physiological adaptations; e.g. systemic blood pressure is twice that for similar sized mammals. The cells of the left ventricular and interventricular walls of the heart are enlarged, their thickness linearly related to neck length. Simultaneous enlargement of artery and arteriole walls provides resistance to blood flow. This appears to be a coordinated reflex response that maintains blood flow to the brain to protect Giraffes from fainting when they raise their heads after drinking, and to prevent peripheral oedema in the legs. Valves in the jugular vein prevent regurgitation of blood returning to the heart into the jugular vein. The long trachea is significantly narrower than in similar-sized mammals, limiting increases in dead space. Giraffe skulls feature paired subconical ossicones, which resemble short, blunt horns, arising from the top of the brain case. Female skulls are smoother and lighter than those of males. Bulls may have another median horn, which is a male secondary sexual characteristic, arising from the forehead between the eyes.Habitat.Giraffes are thought to have coevolved with acacia trees in savanna biomes throughout Africa but their occurrence is now discontinuous. They have never occurred in the tropical rain forest of the CongoRiver Basin.Food and Feeding.Exclusively browsers of dicotyledons, their preferred browse is mainly various species of Acacia. Four species of Acacia and four species of Combretum predominate in their diet, as these are rich in protein and calcium to support growth of their large skeleton. Bulls browse at higher levels than cows. Giraffes are water dependent but can survive for long periods without drinking water, obtaining their daily water needs from succulent browse. Giraffids are foliovores, selecting succulent foliage, and have an efficient digestive system compared to that of grazers, which eat monocotiyledons. The Giraffe stomach is half the size of that of African buffalo (Syncerus sp.).Breeding.Giraffes are aseasonal breeders. Females become sexually mature at 4-5 years of age. Gestation lasts about 450 days; birth mass is around 100 kg. At birth shoulder height is 1-50-1-80 m. Calves are precocial, seeking the first suckle within an hour of birth. Calves lie isolated for up to three weeks. Lactation lasts for around twelve months. Calf mortality rate is up to 75% in the first year. In captivity Giraffes can live to 36 years of age. Bulls reach sexual maturity at 2-5—4 years of age but need to pass a behavioral threshold in the wild to compete with mature bulls.Activity patterns.Giraffes rest in the shade during the hottest time of day. Males orient their bodies towards the sun depending on whether they need to reduce or gain radiant heat, but females and calves select shade. They bend their heads backwards towards the body during deep sleep. They gallop in an ungainly manner, swinging the two legs on each side in unison.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giraffes are mainly diurnal, and most active hours are spent feeding. Their gait is unusual in that both legs on one side swing in unison making their walk ungainly. Their maximum speed is about 56 km/h, and they can jump fences 1-5 m high. Giraffes are not territorial and home ranges vary from 25 km? to 160 km?. Major rivers are barriers, as Giraffes cannot swim and do not easily cross flowing rivers. Strong social bonds are lacking, and herds, mostly of females and their young, rarely consist of the same individuals for more than a few days.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Giraffes were provisionally classified as not threatened by IUCN, as the population in the wild consisted of at least 100,000 individuals and their distribution was widespread. However the West African subspecies peralta is now classified as Endangered, its numbers and range having fallen sharply. Previously its range was from Senegalto Lake Chad, but currently the only viable surviving population in this entire area consists ofless than 200 individuals in south-western Niger, with a range of about 15,000 km? Recent population estimates indicate a downward trend in numbers, which might eventually result in a different category. Some populations remain stable, some are increasing, and others are decreasing. Further studies aimed at resolving the taxonomic status of the various subspecies and populations will also allow better assessment of conservation status. In southern Africa, Giraffe has been reintroduced to many parts of the range from which they were previously eliminated, and it has been introduced into Swaziland.Bibliography.Aschaffenburg et al. (1962), Badlangana et al. (2009), Berry (1978), Bigalke (1951), Bond & Loffell (2001), Bredin et al. (2008), Brown et al. (2007), Cameron & Du Toit (2005, 2007), Cerling et al. (2004), Ciofolo & Pendu (1998), Dagg (1962, 1971), Dagg & Foster (1976, 1982), Fennessy & Brown (2010), Fennessy et al. (2001), Foster & Dagg, (1972), Gallagher et al. (1994), Hall-Martin & Skinner (1978), Hall-Martin, Skinner & Hopkins (1978), Hall-Martin, Skinner & Smith (1977), Hamilton (1973), Harris (1976), Hugh-Jones et al. (1978), Jacobson et al. (1986), Kidd (1900), Kok (1982), Kok & Opperman (1980), Kuntsch & Nel (1990), Langman (1977, 1978), Langman et al. (1982), Le Pendu et al. (2000), Leuthold (1979) Leuthold & Leuthold (1972, 1978), Lightfoot (1978), Lydekker (1904), Madden & Young (1982), Miller (1994, 1996), Mitchell (2009), Mitchell & Hattingh (1993), Mitchell & Skinner (1993, 2003, 2004, 2009), Mitchell, Bobbitt & Devries (2008), Mitchell, Maloney et al. (2006), Mitchell, van Schalkwyk & Skinner (2005), Mitchell, van Sittert & Skinner (2009a, 2009b), Pellew (1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1984b), Pienaar (1969), Pilgrim (1911), Pratt & Anderson (1982), Ridewood (1904), Robin et al. (1960), Scheepers (1992), Shortridge (1934), Simmons & Scheepers (1996), Singer & Boné (1960), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Skinner & Hall-Martin (1975) Skinner & Smithers (1990), Solounias (1999), Spinage (1968, 1993), Van Aarde (1976), Van Sittert et al. (2010), Van Schalkwyk et al. (2004), Von Linnaeus (1758), Wyatt (1971), Young & Okello (1998)." +039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,491,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.xml,Ursus americanus,Ursus,americanus,,,Ours noir @fr | Baribal @de | Oso negro americano @es,"Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780, eastern North America.Genetic comparisons among the various purported subspecies have not been performed, except in a few cases. Recent genetic evidence indicates that luteolus, formerly thought to occur only in Louisiana, extends northward to Arkansas, and also may not be differentiated from floridanus in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.","U. a. americanus Pallas, 1780— Alaska to E Canadaand E USA.U. a. altifrontalis Elliot, 1903— Pacific coast USAand Canada(S British Columbia).U. a. amblyceps Baird, 1859— SW USA.U. a. californiensisJ. Miller, 1900— SW USA(interior California).U. a. carlottae Osgood, 1901— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).U. a. cinnamomum Audubon & Bachman, 1854— Rocky Mts of Canadaand USA.U. a. emmonsu Dall, 1895— SE Alaska.U. a. eremicus Merriam, 1904— E Mexico.U. a. floridanus Merriam, 1896— SE USA(Florida).U. a. hamilton: Cameron, 1957— E Canada(Newfoundland).U. a. kermodei Hornaday, 1905— W Canada(coastal British Columbia).U. a. luteolus Griffith, 1821— S USA(Louisiana).U. a. machetes Elliot, 1903— W Mexico.U. a. pernigerJ. A. Allen, 1910— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).U. a. pugnax Swarth, 1911— islands of SE Alaska.U. a. vancouver: Hall, 1928— SW Canada(Vancouver I).","Head-body 120-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, adult males are heavier (60-225 kg, rarely up to 400 kg) than adult females (40-150 kg, but occasionally more than 180 kg). Straight facial profile, from forehead to nose, distinguishes this species from the partially sympatric Brown (Grizzly) Bear. Muzzle color is usually tan, with short hairs. Sometimes a small tan circular mark occurs slightly above each eye. Eyes are often blue at birth, but turn brown during the first year. Body hairs are rather uniform in length, but much sparser ventrally. A thick underfur is grown in fall, and molted in late spring. Coat color varies from uniformly black to various shades of brown, including cinnamon (reddish-brown) and blond. Brown-phase American Black Bears are common in western USA, less common in western Canadian Provinces, and rare along the west coast of Canada, across Alaska, and in eastern North America and Mexico. Rare white-colored (non-albino) bears occur in coastal British Columbia and gray (often called blue) bears occur in south-east Alaska. White chest markings, from one or more small spots to a large crescent-shaped blaze, occur to varying degrees, but in most populations are uncommon (except in cubs). Claws are short. Hair separates the digital pads from the main foot pad on the front and rear feet. There is also hair between the front (palmar) foot pad and carpal pad, which in normal walking does not touch the ground. Foot pads are shed in winter, when bears are in dens.","Found primarily in temperate and boreal forests, but also range into subtropical areas (Florida and Mexico) as well as into the subarctic. They inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the Grizzly Bear). They tend to occupy more forested habitats than the Grizzly Bear, especially where the two species are sympatric. Elevationally they range from sea level to 3000 m, and up to 3500 mfor winter denning.","American Black Bears are generalist, opportunistic omnivores with diets varying seasonally from herbaceous vegetation (mainly in spring) to roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion. They are also attracted to human-related foods, including garbage, birdseed, corn, oats, apples, honey and brood in apiaries. Feeding increases dramatically in the fall, in preparation for hibernation, and focuses on foods rich in fat. American chestnuts (Castaneadentata) were once a key fall food in eastern North America, but after blight destroyed this food source in the early to mid-1900s, oak (Quercus) acorns and beechnuts (Fagusgrandifolia) became the main fall foods. Farther west, hazelnuts (Corylus), whitebark pine nuts (Pinus albicaulis), madrone (Arbutusxalapensis), mansanita (Arctostaphylos), huckleberries (Vaccinium), and buffalo berries (Shepherdia canadensis) are principalfall foods. In arid regions, succulents such as yucca and cacti are important, especially during droughts.","Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.","Mainly diurnal, commonly with an early morning and evening peak in activity and a lull in midday. They tend to sleep through the night, but nocturnal activity may increase during fall, especially in places with clumped, abundant foods. It has been theorized that gut capacity and passage rates of food may limit the length of feeding bouts when intake rates are high, prompting more uniform feeding throughout the day. Alternately, or additionally, large weight gains in fall may pose energetic constraints on feeding. More nocturnal activity also occurs when feeding in areas near human activity. Total time active per day averages 50-60%, but may be less when abundant human-related foods are available. Virtually no activity occurs for the 3-7 months of winter hibernation. In some southern portions of the range, where food is available year-round, only parturient females and those with cubs from the previous year hibernate.","Home range sizes vary widely, from 3—- 1100 km? among individuals, and from 5-500 km?* among population means. In one unusual case on the tundra of Labrador, Canada, where food supplies were especially sparse, males ranged over 7000 km*, much like Brown Bears in similar environments. Home ranges are compressed where and when food is abundant, and where bear density is high. Likewise, overlap among home ranges tends to be greater where food abundance and bear density are high. Male home ranges are 2-10 times larger than those of females. Males thus overlap a number of potential breeding partners. In some areas, females (but not males) appear to be territorial, with portions of their home range not shared by other females. Female offspring remain within their natal range for a few years, gaining continued protection from the presence of their mother, and gradually expand their range to include other areas and less of their mother’s range as they age. Males, when 1-4 years old, disperse from the natal range. Dispersal distances vary from less than 10 to more than 200 km; dispersers may travel more than 40 kmin a week. Seasonal movements, especially to fall mast areas, are common for both sexes, although again, males move farther. In mountainous areas,shifts occur elevationally in accordance with changing food conditions; in flatter terrain, fall movements of 20 kmto more than 50 kmare not unusual, with greater movements in years when food supplies are particularly sparse. Single-day movements of more than 20 kmhave been reported. Such fall excursions are commonly referred to as the “fall shuffle”, in reference to the intermixing of individuals from various places (as well as the shuffling gait). Typically, bears that leave their normal home range in the fall return to a more familiar area to den.Breeding.Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.","Not globally threatened, listed as Least Concern by The IUCN Red Lust, but is listed on Appendix II of CITES under the similarity of appearance provision; this mandates tagging of exported parts legally taken by hunters, so they cannot be confused with parts from illegally taken bears ofother species. With a total population estimated at about 900,000, American Black Bears are more than twice as abundant as all other species of bears combined, even though they exist in only three countries in North America (Canada, USA, Mexico). Continent-wide, numbers appear to be increasing by about 2% per year, and more than 60% of USAstates and Canadian provinces report increasing populations. Approximately 40,000-50,000 are harvested annually by sport hunters in 28 USAstates and twelve Canadian provinces and territories. In Mexico, no hunting is allowed, and the species is considered nationally endangered, but appears to be increasing and expanding its range. The Louisianasubspecies (luteolus) was listed as threatened under the USAEndangered Species Act because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality. U. a. floridanusis listed as threatened by the state ofFlorida. The Kermode Bear (kermodei) or “spirit bear”, a white-phase American Black Bear, was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia, and provided the inspiration for a large system of protected areas (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) where logging in coastal temperate rainforest is severely restricted.","Alt (1989) | Ayres et al. (1986) | Barber & Lindzey (1986) | Beck (1991) | Beckman & Berger (2003) | Beecham & Rohliman (1994) | Boone et al. (2003) | Costello et al. (2003) | Czetwertynski et al. (2007) | Fair (1990) | Garshelis (2004) | Garshelis & Hellgren (1994) | Garshelis & Hristienko (2006) | Garshelis & Noyce (2008) | Garshelis & Pelton (1980) | Garshelis, Crider & VanManen (2007) | Garshelis, Quigley et al. (1983) | Hellgren et al. (2005) | Hewitt & Doan-Crider (2008) | Inman & Pelton (2002) | Kilham & Gray (2002) | Kovach & Powell (2003) | Lariviere (2001d) | Lee & Vaughan (2003) | Linnell et al. (2000) | Mitchell et al. (2005) | Noyce & Garshelis (1994) | Onorato et al. (2007) | Pelton (2003) | Pelton et al. (1999) | Ritland et al. (2001) | Rogers (1987) | Rounds (1987) | Samson & Huot (1995) | Vaughan (2002) | Veitch & Harrington (1996) | Warrillow et al. (2001) | White et al. (2000) | Williamson (2002)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714507/files/figure.png,"6.American Black BearUrsus americanusFrench:Ours noir/ German:Baribal/ Spanish:Oso negro americanoTaxonomy.Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780, eastern North America.Genetic comparisons among the various purported subspecies have not been performed, except in a few cases. Recent genetic evidence indicates that luteolus, formerly thought to occur only in Louisiana, extends northward to Arkansas, and also may not be differentiated from floridanus in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. a. americanus Pallas, 1780— Alaska to E Canadaand E USA.U. a. altifrontalis Elliot, 1903— Pacific coast USAand Canada(S British Columbia).U. a. amblyceps Baird, 1859— SW USA.U. a. californiensisJ. Miller, 1900— SW USA(interior California).U. a. carlottae Osgood, 1901— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).U. a. cinnamomum Audubon & Bachman, 1854— Rocky Mts of Canadaand USA.U. a. emmonsu Dall, 1895— SE Alaska.U. a. eremicus Merriam, 1904— E Mexico.U. a. floridanus Merriam, 1896— SE USA(Florida).U. a. hamilton: Cameron, 1957— E Canada(Newfoundland).U. a. kermodei Hornaday, 1905— W Canada(coastal British Columbia).U. a. luteolus Griffith, 1821— S USA(Louisiana).U. a. machetes Elliot, 1903— W Mexico.U. a. pernigerJ. A. Allen, 1910— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).U. a. pugnax Swarth, 1911— islands of SE Alaska.U. a. vancouver: Hall, 1928— SW Canada(Vancouver I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, adult males are heavier (60-225 kg, rarely up to 400 kg) than adult females (40-150 kg, but occasionally more than 180 kg). Straight facial profile, from forehead to nose, distinguishes this species from the partially sympatric Brown (Grizzly) Bear. Muzzle color is usually tan, with short hairs. Sometimes a small tan circular mark occurs slightly above each eye. Eyes are often blue at birth, but turn brown during the first year. Body hairs are rather uniform in length, but much sparser ventrally. A thick underfur is grown in fall, and molted in late spring. Coat color varies from uniformly black to various shades of brown, including cinnamon (reddish-brown) and blond. Brown-phase American Black Bears are common in western USA, less common in western Canadian Provinces, and rare along the west coast of Canada, across Alaska, and in eastern North America and Mexico. Rare white-colored (non-albino) bears occur in coastal British Columbia and gray (often called blue) bears occur in south-east Alaska. White chest markings, from one or more small spots to a large crescent-shaped blaze, occur to varying degrees, but in most populations are uncommon (except in cubs). Claws are short. Hair separates the digital pads from the main foot pad on the front and rear feet. There is also hair between the front (palmar) foot pad and carpal pad, which in normal walking does not touch the ground. Foot pads are shed in winter, when bears are in dens.Habitat.Found primarily in temperate and boreal forests, but also range into subtropical areas (Florida and Mexico) as well as into the subarctic. They inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the Grizzly Bear). They tend to occupy more forested habitats than the Grizzly Bear, especially where the two species are sympatric. Elevationally they range from sea level to 3000 m, and up to 3500 mfor winter denning.Food and Feeding.American Black Bears are generalist, opportunistic omnivores with diets varying seasonally from herbaceous vegetation (mainly in spring) to roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion. They are also attracted to human-related foods, including garbage, birdseed, corn, oats, apples, honey and brood in apiaries. Feeding increases dramatically in the fall, in preparation for hibernation, and focuses on foods rich in fat. American chestnuts (Castaneadentata) were once a key fall food in eastern North America, but after blight destroyed this food source in the early to mid-1900s, oak (Quercus) acorns and beechnuts (Fagusgrandifolia) became the main fall foods. Farther west, hazelnuts (Corylus), whitebark pine nuts (Pinus albicaulis), madrone (Arbutusxalapensis), mansanita (Arctostaphylos), huckleberries (Vaccinium), and buffalo berries (Shepherdia canadensis) are principalfall foods. In arid regions, succulents such as yucca and cacti are important, especially during droughts.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, commonly with an early morning and evening peak in activity and a lull in midday. They tend to sleep through the night, but nocturnal activity may increase during fall, especially in places with clumped, abundant foods. It has been theorized that gut capacity and passage rates of food may limit the length of feeding bouts when intake rates are high, prompting more uniform feeding throughout the day. Alternately, or additionally, large weight gains in fall may pose energetic constraints on feeding. More nocturnal activity also occurs when feeding in areas near human activity. Total time active per day averages 50-60%, but may be less when abundant human-related foods are available. Virtually no activity occurs for the 3-7 months of winter hibernation. In some southern portions of the range, where food is available year-round, only parturient females and those with cubs from the previous year hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes vary widely, from 3—- 1100 km? among individuals, and from 5-500 km?* among population means. In one unusual case on the tundra of Labrador, Canada, where food supplies were especially sparse, males ranged over 7000 km*, much like Brown Bears in similar environments. Home ranges are compressed where and when food is abundant, and where bear density is high. Likewise, overlap among home ranges tends to be greater where food abundance and bear density are high. Male home ranges are 2-10 times larger than those of females. Males thus overlap a number of potential breeding partners. In some areas, females (but not males) appear to be territorial, with portions of their home range not shared by other females. Female offspring remain within their natal range for a few years, gaining continued protection from the presence of their mother, and gradually expand their range to include other areas and less of their mother’s range as they age. Males, when 1-4 years old, disperse from the natal range. Dispersal distances vary from less than 10 to more than 200 km; dispersers may travel more than 40 kmin a week. Seasonal movements, especially to fall mast areas, are common for both sexes, although again, males move farther. In mountainous areas,shifts occur elevationally in accordance with changing food conditions; in flatter terrain, fall movements of 20 kmto more than 50 kmare not unusual, with greater movements in years when food supplies are particularly sparse. Single-day movements of more than 20 kmhave been reported. Such fall excursions are commonly referred to as the “fall shuffle”, in reference to the intermixing of individuals from various places (as well as the shuffling gait). Typically, bears that leave their normal home range in the fall return to a more familiar area to den.Breeding.Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.Status and Conservation.Not globally threatened, listed as Least Concern by The IUCN Red Lust, but is listed on Appendix II of CITES under the similarity of appearance provision; this mandates tagging of exported parts legally taken by hunters, so they cannot be confused with parts from illegally taken bears ofother species. With a total population estimated at about 900,000, American Black Bears are more than twice as abundant as all other species of bears combined, even though they exist in only three countries in North America (Canada, USA, Mexico). Continent-wide, numbers appear to be increasing by about 2% per year, and more than 60% of USAstates and Canadian provinces report increasing populations. Approximately 40,000-50,000 are harvested annually by sport hunters in 28 USAstates and twelve Canadian provinces and territories. In Mexico, no hunting is allowed, and the species is considered nationally endangered, but appears to be increasing and expanding its range. The Louisianasubspecies (luteolus) was listed as threatened under the USAEndangered Species Act because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality. U. a. floridanusis listed as threatened by the state ofFlorida. The Kermode Bear (kermodei) or “spirit bear”, a white-phase American Black Bear, was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia, and provided the inspiration for a large system of protected areas (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) where logging in coastal temperate rainforest is severely restricted.Bibliography.Alt (1989), Ayres et al. (1986), Barber & Lindzey (1986), Beck (1991), Beckman & Berger (2003), Beecham & Rohliman (1994), Boone et al. (2003), Costello et al. (2003), Czetwertynski et al. (2007), Fair (1990), Garshelis (2004), Garshelis & Hellgren (1994), Garshelis & Hristienko (2006), Garshelis & Noyce (2008), Garshelis & Pelton (1980), Garshelis, Crider & VanManen (2007), Garshelis, Quigley et al. (1983), Hellgren et al. (2005), Hewitt & Doan-Crider (2008), Inman & Pelton (2002), Kilham & Gray (2002), Kovach & Powell (2003), Lariviere (2001d), Lee & Vaughan (2003), Linnell et al. (2000), Mitchell et al. (2005), Noyce & Garshelis (1994), Onorato et al. (2007), Pelton (2003), Pelton et al. (1999), Ritland et al. (2001), Rogers (1987), Rounds (1987), Samson & Huot (1995), Vaughan (2002), Veitch & Harrington (1996), Warrillow et al. (2001), White et al. (2000), Williamson (2002)." +039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,490,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.xml,Ursus thibetanus,Ursus,thibetanus,,,Ours a collier @fr | Kragenbér @de | Oso negro asiatico @es | Himalayan Black Bear @en | Moon Bear @en | White-breasted Bear @en | Asian Black Bear @en,"Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823, Sylhet region (presently divided between AssamIndiaand Bangladesh).Previously included in genus Selenarctos = moon bear. Some subspecies have been corroborated as distinct genetic clades (formosanus, japonicus, ussuricus). Seven subspecies recognized.","U. t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823— Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam.U. t. formosanus Swinhoe, 1864— Taiwan.U. t. gedrosianus Blanford, 1877— SE Iran, C & S Pakistan.U. t. japonicus Schlegel, 1857— Japan.U. t. laniger Pocock, 1932— Himalayas from Afghanistanto N India(Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh& Uttarakhand).U. t. mupinensis Heude, 1901— C & S China.U. t. ussuricus Heude, 1901— Russian Far East, NE China, Korean Peninsula.","Head-body 110-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm; adult males are heavier (60-200 kg; rarely to 250 kg) than adult females (35-140 kg; rarely to 170 kg). Maximum weights occur in autumn, prior to hibernation. Islandpopulations (Japan, Taiwan) tend to be smaller-bodied than mainland populations. Ears are rounded and relatively large compared to other bears. Coat color black, typically with prominent white marking on the chest, often in the shape of a V or crescent (from which the common name “moon bear” derives), and white chin patch. However, white markings vary in size and color, sometimes being small or absent. Uncommonly the coat coloris brown (gedrosianus) or blond (rare color phase in South-east Asia). Muzzle color varies from light to dark. Typically there are long, coarse hairs around the neck, sometimes also extending to the cheeks; the extent and frequency of these characteristics varies regionally, as does overall hair length and density of underfur. Some subspecies were differentiated largely by the degree of shagginess of pelts from collected specimens. Proportional length of legs to body also varies considerably, with some individuals being quite short and squat. Both front and rear foot pads have hair separating the toes from the plantar pad, but unlike other Ursusspecies, the front carpal pad (corny protuberance) is connected with the plantar pad by bare skin. Front claws are about 5 cmlong, slightly longer than the rear claws, and curved.Habitat.Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).Food and Feeding.Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.Activity patterns.Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching.","Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).","Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.","Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.","Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.","Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.","CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching. Habitat loss from logging, agriculture, human settlements, roadways, and erosion is most severe in southern portions of the range. The species is protected throughout its range by national and international laws. Sport hunting for Asiatic Black Bears is legal only in Japanand Russia, with annual harvests of about 500 and 100 bears, respectively; however, illegalkills and nuisance kills exceed hunting kills by a factor of five or more in both countries. Bear depredations on crops and apiaries, and attacks on people, have increased throughout the range, and have led to more direct killing, using guns, poisons, and bombs that explode when bitten. Poaching also appears to be increasing, spurred by commercial demands for meat,skins, paws, and gall bladders. The demand for these products has fueled a growing network of international trade throughout South-east Asia, and has encouraged many subsistence hunters to turn to commercial hunting. Paws are sold as an expensive delicacy (made into a soup), especially in China. Bile in gall bladdersis dried and sold as a traditional Chinese medicine; it has been used as such for nearly 3000 years. To supply an increasing demand, bear farms have been established in Chinaand Vietnam, where bile is drained from over 12,000 Asiatic Black Bears and sold commercially. This technique was originally developed in North Koreain the 1970s, and “perfected” over the years in China. Some officials assert that the increased production of bile from farming reduces poaching of wild bears; conversely, the cheaper and more available farmed bile also may encourage more use, and thus ultimately more demand for wild bile, which is considered more potent. Farmed bile is now produced in such surplus that it is incorporated into many non-traditional Chinese medicine products, such as shampoos, lotions, cosmetics, sports drinks, and toothpaste. Prompted by animal welfare-related concerns, several hundred bears have been removed from farms and taken to rescue facilities run by non-governmental organizations. However, the large total number of captive, non-releasable bears and the opinion of government officials that farming aids in the conservation of wild bears, make the situation rather intractable.","Bromlei (1965) | Carr et al. (2002) | Erdbrink (1953) | Fan & Song (1997) | Galbreath et al. (2000) | Garshelis & Steinmetz (2007) | Gutleb & Ziaie (1999) | Hashimoto (2002) | Hashimoto et al. (2003) | Huygens & Hayashi (2001) | Huygens, Goto et al. (2001) | Huygens, Miyashita et al. (2003) | Hwang (2003) | Hwang & Garshelis (2006) | Hwang et al. (2002) | Izumiyama & Shiraishi (2004) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Li (2004) | Mizukami et al. (2005) | Ohnishi et al. (2007) | Oka et al. (2004) | Pocock (1932d) | Reid, Jiang et al. (1991) | Sathyakumar (2001) | Schaller et al. (1989) | Servheen et al. (1999) | Seryodkin et al. (2003) | Shepherd & Nijman (2008) | Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008) | Stubblefield & Shrestha (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714505/files/figure.png,"5.Asiatic Black BearUrsus thibetanusFrench:Ours a collier/ German:Kragenbér/ Spanish:Oso negro asiaticoOther common names:Himalayan Black Bear, Moon Bear, White-breasted Bear, Asian Black BearTaxonomy.Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823, Sylhet region (presently divided between AssamIndiaand Bangladesh).Previously included in genus Selenarctos = moon bear. Some subspecies have been corroborated as distinct genetic clades (formosanus, japonicus, ussuricus). Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823— Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam.U. t. formosanus Swinhoe, 1864— Taiwan.U. t. gedrosianus Blanford, 1877— SE Iran, C & S Pakistan.U. t. japonicus Schlegel, 1857— Japan.U. t. laniger Pocock, 1932— Himalayas from Afghanistanto N India(Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh& Uttarakhand).U. t. mupinensis Heude, 1901— C & S China.U. t. ussuricus Heude, 1901— Russian Far East, NE China, Korean Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm; adult males are heavier (60-200 kg; rarely to 250 kg) than adult females (35-140 kg; rarely to 170 kg). Maximum weights occur in autumn, prior to hibernation. Islandpopulations (Japan, Taiwan) tend to be smaller-bodied than mainland populations. Ears are rounded and relatively large compared to other bears. Coat color black, typically with prominent white marking on the chest, often in the shape of a V or crescent (from which the common name “moon bear” derives), and white chin patch. However, white markings vary in size and color, sometimes being small or absent. Uncommonly the coat coloris brown (gedrosianus) or blond (rare color phase in South-east Asia). Muzzle color varies from light to dark. Typically there are long, coarse hairs around the neck, sometimes also extending to the cheeks; the extent and frequency of these characteristics varies regionally, as does overall hair length and density of underfur. Some subspecies were differentiated largely by the degree of shagginess of pelts from collected specimens. Proportional length of legs to body also varies considerably, with some individuals being quite short and squat. Both front and rear foot pads have hair separating the toes from the plantar pad, but unlike other Ursusspecies, the front carpal pad (corny protuberance) is connected with the plantar pad by bare skin. Front claws are about 5 cmlong, slightly longer than the rear claws, and curved.Habitat.Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).Food and Feeding.Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.Activity patterns.Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching. Habitat loss from logging, agriculture, human settlements, roadways, and erosion is most severe in southern portions of the range. The species is protected throughout its range by national and international laws. Sport hunting for Asiatic Black Bears is legal only in Japanand Russia, with annual harvests of about 500 and 100 bears, respectively; however, illegalkills and nuisance kills exceed hunting kills by a factor of five or more in both countries. Bear depredations on crops and apiaries, and attacks on people, have increased throughout the range, and have led to more direct killing, using guns, poisons, and bombs that explode when bitten. Poaching also appears to be increasing, spurred by commercial demands for meat,skins, paws, and gall bladders. The demand for these products has fueled a growing network of international trade throughout South-east Asia, and has encouraged many subsistence hunters to turn to commercial hunting. Paws are sold as an expensive delicacy (made into a soup), especially in China. Bile in gall bladdersis dried and sold as a traditional Chinese medicine; it has been used as such for nearly 3000 years. To supply an increasing demand, bear farms have been established in Chinaand Vietnam, where bile is drained from over 12,000 Asiatic Black Bears and sold commercially. This technique was originally developed in North Koreain the 1970s, and “perfected” over the years in China. Some officials assert that the increased production of bile from farming reduces poaching of wild bears; conversely, the cheaper and more available farmed bile also may encourage more use, and thus ultimately more demand for wild bile, which is considered more potent. Farmed bile is now produced in such surplus that it is incorporated into many non-traditional Chinese medicine products, such as shampoos, lotions, cosmetics, sports drinks, and toothpaste. Prompted by animal welfare-related concerns, several hundred bears have been removed from farms and taken to rescue facilities run by non-governmental organizations. However, the large total number of captive, non-releasable bears and the opinion of government officials that farming aids in the conservation of wild bears, make the situation rather intractable.Bibliography.Bromlei (1965), Carr et al. (2002), Erdbrink (1953), Fan & Song (1997), Galbreath et al. (2000), Garshelis & Steinmetz (2007), Gutleb & Ziaie (1999), Hashimoto (2002), Hashimoto et al. (2003), Huygens & Hayashi (2001), Huygens, Goto et al. (2001), Huygens, Miyashita et al. (2003), Hwang (2003), Hwang & Garshelis (2006), Hwang et al. (2002), Izumiyama & Shiraishi (2004), JapanBear Network (2006), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Li (2004), Mizukami et al. (2005), Ohnishi et al. (2007), Oka et al. (2004), Pocock (1932d), Reid, Jiang et al. (1991), Sathyakumar (2001), Schaller et al. (1989), Servheen et al. (1999), Seryodkin et al. (2003), Shepherd & Nijman (2008), Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008), Stubblefield & Shrestha (2007)." +039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d,489,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.xml,Melursus ursinus,Melursus,ursinus,,,Ours paresseux @fr | Lippenbar @de | Osobezudo @es | Honey Bear @en | Lip Bear @en,"Bradypus ursinus Shaw, 1791, Bihar(earlier Bengal), India.Previously included in genus Bradypus = sloth. Two subspecies recognized.","M. u. wrsinus Shaw, 1791— India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.M. u. inornatus Pucheran, 1855— Sri Lanka.","Head-body 140-190 cm, tail 8-17 cm; weight of males 70-145 kg (rarely to 190 kg), females 50-95 kg (rarely to 120 kg). The Sri Lankan subspecies is smaller, and with a less-shaggy (shorter, sparser) coat than the nominate subspecies. Coat color is black, with rare brown or reddish-brown individuals. Hair length tends to be longer than in other bears, especially around the neck, shoulders, and back (up to 15-20 cm). The ears are also covered with long hair. Underfur is lacking, and ventral body hair is sparse. The muzzle has very short hair, and is distinctly light-colored up to the eyes. The lips are highly protrusible (hence this bear is sometimes called the Lip Bear), adapted for sucking termites, and the nose can be closed during such sucking, by pushing it against the side of the feeding excavation. The chest is normally marked by a prominent white V or U-shaped band. Sloth Bears have long (6-8 cm) slightly curved, ivory-colored front claws (for digging), and shorter rear claws. The long front claws (along with their coarse, shaggy coat and missing two upper incisors) are what seem to have caused an early taxonomist to call it a sloth. Soles of the feet are naked; unlike other bears, there is no hair between the digital pads and plantar pad on front and hindfeet, and also no hair separating the carpal and plantar (palmar) pad on the front. Unique among the bears, the digital pads are partially fused and are in a nearly straight line.Habitat.Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.Food and Feeding.Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.Activity patterns.These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected.","Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.","Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.","Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.","These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.","Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.","CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected. Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads. Commercial trade in bear parts has been reported, but its current extent and impact on Sloth Bears is uncertain. Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g. male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration). Capture of live cubs to raise as “dancing bears” remains a significant threat in some parts of Indiabecause laws against this are not adequately enforced. Some non-governmental organizations have been rescuing these bears (although they cannot be released to the wild) and training the people who hunted them in alternate types of work, in exchange for a commitment that they will not resume the practice.","Akhtar et al. (2004, 2007) | Bargali et al. (2004, 2005) | Chhangani (2002) | Garshelis, Joshi & Smith (1999) | Garshelis, Joshi, Smith & Rice (1999) | Garshelis, Ratnayeke & Chauhan (2007) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Joshi, Garshelis & Smith (1995, 1997) | Joshi, Smith & Garshelis (1999) | Laurie & Seidensticker (1977) | Rajpurohit & Krausman (2000) | Ratnayeke, Van Manen & Padmalal (2007) | Ratnayeke, Van Manen, Pieris & Pragash (2007) | Yoganand et al. (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/5714503/files/figure.png,"4.Sloth BearMelursus ursinusFrench:Ours paresseux/ German:Lippenbar/ Spanish:OsobezudoOther common names:Honey Bear, Lip BearTaxonomy.Bradypus ursinus Shaw, 1791, Bihar(earlier Bengal), India.Previously included in genus Bradypus = sloth. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. u. wrsinus Shaw, 1791— India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.M. u. inornatus Pucheran, 1855— Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-190 cm, tail 8-17 cm; weight of males 70-145 kg (rarely to 190 kg), females 50-95 kg (rarely to 120 kg). The Sri Lankan subspecies is smaller, and with a less-shaggy (shorter, sparser) coat than the nominate subspecies. Coat color is black, with rare brown or reddish-brown individuals. Hair length tends to be longer than in other bears, especially around the neck, shoulders, and back (up to 15-20 cm). The ears are also covered with long hair. Underfur is lacking, and ventral body hair is sparse. The muzzle has very short hair, and is distinctly light-colored up to the eyes. The lips are highly protrusible (hence this bear is sometimes called the Lip Bear), adapted for sucking termites, and the nose can be closed during such sucking, by pushing it against the side of the feeding excavation. The chest is normally marked by a prominent white V or U-shaped band. Sloth Bears have long (6-8 cm) slightly curved, ivory-colored front claws (for digging), and shorter rear claws. The long front claws (along with their coarse, shaggy coat and missing two upper incisors) are what seem to have caused an early taxonomist to call it a sloth. Soles of the feet are naked; unlike other bears, there is no hair between the digital pads and plantar pad on front and hindfeet, and also no hair separating the carpal and plantar (palmar) pad on the front. Unique among the bears, the digital pads are partially fused and are in a nearly straight line.Habitat.Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.Food and Feeding.Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.Activity patterns.These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected. Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads. Commercial trade in bear parts has been reported, but its current extent and impact on Sloth Bears is uncertain. Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g. male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration). Capture of live cubs to raise as “dancing bears” remains a significant threat in some parts of Indiabecause laws against this are not adequately enforced. Some non-governmental organizations have been rescuing these bears (although they cannot be released to the wild) and training the people who hunted them in alternate types of work, in exchange for a commitment that they will not resume the practice.Bibliography.Akhtar et al. (2004, 2007), Bargali et al. (2004, 2005), Chhangani (2002), Garshelis, Joshi & Smith (1999), Garshelis, Joshi, Smith & Rice (1999), Garshelis, Ratnayeke & Chauhan (2007), JapanBear Network (2006), Joshi, Garshelis & Smith (1995, 1997), Joshi, Smith & Garshelis (1999), Laurie & Seidensticker (1977), Rajpurohit & Krausman (2000), Ratnayeke, Van Manen & Padmalal (2007), Ratnayeke, Van Manen, Pieris & Pragash (2007), Yoganand et al. (2006)." +039F7D71A96CAD1C081CF80D7046DAD4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a,801,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96CAD1C081CF80D7046DAD4.xml,Okapia johnstonii,Okapia,johnstonii,,,Okapi @fr | Okapi @de | Okapi @es | French @en | German @en | Spanish @en,"Equus johnston: Sclater, 1901,forests along Semliki River, Mundala, Democratic Republic of Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.Habitat.Okapis have been able to occupy closed forest in primary or older secondary forest types. Although preferring elevations of 500-1000 m, they may be found as high as 1500 min the eastern montane rainforests. Their range is limited to the high forests in the east, the swamp forests below 500 mto the west, savannah of the Sahel/ Sudanto the north, and open woodlands to the south. They do not occupy gallery forests or the forest islands on the savanna ecotone, nor are they to be found in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. They will use seasonally inundated areas while the substrate is still wet, but they do not occur in truly inundated sites or in extensive swamp forest. Tree fall gaps are their preferred foraging sites during the primary stages of regeneration.Food and Feeding.Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings.","Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.","Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.",,"Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings. Distribution of the Okapi’s food plants favors dispersed rather than congregated foraging. Nowhere is the forage abundant enough to support a herd, nor do the Okapis converge on seasonally-varying food sources, as there is continuous growth of new leaves. Females occupy forest areas that are richest in their favored food plants. There is a greater density of suitable browse in tree-fall gaps, as indicated by a change in locomotion of Okapi when feeding in gaps. When browsing in the subcanopy, their gait is steady, whereas when feeding in a tree-fall gap they walk more slowly, frequently pausing to feed on several plants from one position. Under the canopy and in gaps Okapis are selective browsers, eating only a small proportion of the species present and focussing on the youngest leaves. Food supply in the Ituri forest is patchy and variable in quality and distribution. Okapis exhibit geophagia, ingesting dirt in search of minerals.",,,"Okapis have well-defined home ranges, the most stable of which belong to reproductive females and are in the range of 3-23-6-5 km*. Adult females have exclusive use of a territory except when nursing young. Males make brief incursions to mate. Young animals of both sexes have more restricted home ranges, overlapping with their mothers’, but eventually they emigrate. Adult males cover larger areas, sometimes more than 13 km? Males and females mark trees with an oily secretion from their skin and defecate in selected areas. They have overlapping home ranges of several square kilometres and typically occur at densities of about 1 ind/km?®. They have several methods of communicating, including pheromones from the scent glands on each foot, which leave behind a tar-like substance to signal their passage. They also mark with urine. Males defend territories. Okapis solicit allogrooming of body areas they cannot reach to groom themselves.",,"Bodmer & Rabb (1992) | Colbert (1938) | Hart (1992, 2001) | Hart & Hall (1996) | Hart, J.A. & Hart T.B. (1989) | Hart, T.B. & Hart J.A. (1992, 1998) | IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008) | Landsheere (1957) | Lindsay (1999) | Pellew (1984a)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719827/files/figure.png,"2.OkapiOkapia johnstoniiFrench:Okapi/ German:Okapi/ Spanish:OkapiTaxonomy.Equus johnston: Sclater, 1901,forests along Semliki River, Mundala, Democratic Republic of Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.Habitat.Okapis have been able to occupy closed forest in primary or older secondary forest types. Although preferring elevations of 500-1000 m, they may be found as high as 1500 min the eastern montane rainforests. Their range is limited to the high forests in the east, the swamp forests below 500 mto the west, savannah of the Sahel/ Sudanto the north, and open woodlands to the south. They do not occupy gallery forests or the forest islands on the savanna ecotone, nor are they to be found in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. They will use seasonally inundated areas while the substrate is still wet, but they do not occur in truly inundated sites or in extensive swamp forest. Tree fall gaps are their preferred foraging sites during the primary stages of regeneration.Food and Feeding.Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings. Distribution of the Okapi’s food plants favors dispersed rather than congregated foraging. Nowhere is the forage abundant enough to support a herd, nor do the Okapis converge on seasonally-varying food sources, as there is continuous growth of new leaves. Females occupy forest areas that are richest in their favored food plants. There is a greater density of suitable browse in tree-fall gaps, as indicated by a change in locomotion of Okapi when feeding in gaps. When browsing in the subcanopy, their gait is steady, whereas when feeding in a tree-fall gap they walk more slowly, frequently pausing to feed on several plants from one position. Under the canopy and in gaps Okapis are selective browsers, eating only a small proportion of the species present and focussing on the youngest leaves. Food supply in the Ituri forest is patchy and variable in quality and distribution. Okapis exhibit geophagia, ingesting dirt in search of minerals.Breeding.Male courtship is unobtrusive and cautious. Males may take the better part of a day to approach a female with overtures that include low, moaning calls. Cows may associate with two different bulls over several days. Following a gestation of 14 months, a single calf is born between August and October, and weaned after six months. Females become sexually mature at two years of age and males later, because like most ungulates in the wild, they have to become behaviorally mature to secure mating rights. The behavior of an individual female through the reproductive cycle and gestation does not change markedly. However, after parturition a considerable portion of the day is spent feeding, moving back and forth across the home range. The female travels some distance from the calf, which is hidden,visiting it a few times a day for only a few minutes each time. Calves have been observed allosuckling. A calf remains bonded with its mother for nine months. Calves make a wide range of noises, including coughs, bleats, and whistles. Males are not restricted to areas of food abundance and spend more time roaming in forest zones where palatable leaves are sparse, perhaps in an attempt to gain access to more females.Activity patterns.Okapis are primarily diurnal and are essentially solitary, only associating to breed, except for mother—offspring pairs. Okapis are vulnerable to Leopard (Panthera pardus)attacks, several animals having been killed by Leopards during the course of one field study. Estimated population densities vary from 0-8 ind/km? to 2-3 ind/km?.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Okapis have well-defined home ranges, the most stable of which belong to reproductive females and are in the range of 3-23-6-5 km*. Adult females have exclusive use of a territory except when nursing young. Males make brief incursions to mate. Young animals of both sexes have more restricted home ranges, overlapping with their mothers’, but eventually they emigrate. Adult males cover larger areas, sometimes more than 13 km? Males and females mark trees with an oily secretion from their skin and defecate in selected areas. They have overlapping home ranges of several square kilometres and typically occur at densities of about 1 ind/km?®. They have several methods of communicating, including pheromones from the scent glands on each foot, which leave behind a tar-like substance to signal their passage. They also mark with urine. Males defend territories. Okapis solicit allogrooming of body areas they cannot reach to groom themselves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Okapi was unknown to Europeans until 1901. Although it has been estimated that there are around 10,000-20,000 individuals in the wild, this estimate is likely to be optimistic because they are shy and rarely seen. The most numerous populations of Okapi are found in the Ituri/Aruwimi and adjacent Nepoko Basin forests, and the forests of the upper Lindi, Maiko and Tshopo Basins. The species is also present in the Rubi-Tele region in Bas Uele. It was once present in the Semliki Forest of Uganda, but appears not to have survived in this region. In Virunga National Park, DR Congo, the first official sighting since 1959 was made in 2006. As of 2010, about 160 specimens are on display in some 40 zoological gardens. The name Okapi combines two words in the Congolese Lese Karo dialect, “Oka,” meaning to cut, and “kpi,” which refers to the design made on Efé arrows by wrapping the arrows with bark, making the arrows striped when they are scorched by fire. Lese legend has it that the Okapi’s stripes add to the animal’s great camouflage. The specific epithet, johnstoni, recognizes the explorer Sir Harry Johnston, who organized the expedition thatfirst acquired an Okapi from the [turi forest. Accurate population assessments are difficult in the dense forests. The future of Okapis depends on preservation of their habitat, especially the Ituri forest, an unlikely prospect given the political instability of that region.Bibliography.Bodmer & Rabb (1992), Colbert (1938), Hart (1992, 2001), Hart & Hall (1996), Hart, J.A. & Hart T.B. (1989), Hart, T.B. & Hart J.A. (1992, 1998), IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008), Landsheere (1957), Lindsay (1999), Pellew (1984a)." +039F7D71A96CAD1D0D12FE207077DB5B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a,801,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96CAD1D0D12FE207077DB5B.xml,Giraffa camelopardalis,Giraffa,camelopardalis,Linnaeus,1758,Girafe @fr | Giraffe @de | Jirafa @es | Nubian Giraffe (camelopardalis) @en | Kordofan Giraffe (antiquorum) @en | Masai Giraffe (tippelskirchi) @en | Reticulated @en | Somali Giraffe (reticulata) @en | Rothschild Giraffe (rothschildi) @en | Smoky @en | Angolan Giraffe (angolensis) @en | South African Giraffe (giraffa) @en | Thornicroft @en | Rhodesian Giraffe (thornicrofti) @en | West African @en | Nigerian Giraffe (peralta) @en,"Cervus camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758,Sennar, Sudan.It appears from genetic studies that Giraffes fall into three groups: West African Giraffes (peralta); North African Giraffes (antiguorum, reticulata, rothschildi, thornicrofti, and probably camelopardalis); and southern African Giraffes (angolensis and guraffa). The “Masai Giraffe,” tippelskirchi, exhibits similarities with both the southern and the northern groups. Genetic differences, ranging from 0-15% to 6-9%, are below those required for the establishment of distinct species. Nine regional variants are currently recognized as subspecies, all of which interbreed.","G.c.camelopardalisLinnaeus,1758—ESudanandWEthiopia.G.c.angolensisLydekkcr,1903-NNamibia,SZambia,NBotswana,andNWZimbabwe.G.c.antiquorumJardine,1835-SChad,Genua]AfricanRepublic,andNEDRCongo.G.c.giraffaSchreber.1784-SWMozambique,SZimbabwe,andSouthAfrica.G.c.peraltaThomas,1898-WAfrica.G.c.reticulataDeWinton,1899-SEthiopia,SWSomalia,andNKenya.G.c.rothschildiLydekker,1903-SSudan.NUganda,andWKenya.G.c.tippelskirchiMatschie,1898-SKenyaandTanzania.G. c. thornicrofti Lydekker, 1911-Zambia(Luangwa Valley).","Head-body 350-480 cm,tail 76-110 cm, height to the crown 450-600 cm; weight 1800-1930 kg (males) and 450-1180 kg (females). Adult males are larger than females. Colored hair patches are separated by yellow-white bands and vary in the regional variants. Patches contain large active sweat glands and a unique arrangement of blood vessels, suggesting they act as thermal windows through which to dissipate heat. Pigmentation of the skin is uniformly dark gray. The extraordinary shape results from elongation of the neck skeleton and of the lower leg bones. Elongation of the legs is associated with thickening of the bone wall to provide strength and of the neck by uniform lengthening of all seven cervical vertebrae. Elongation of the skeleton is rapid and demands the accumulation of large amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Giraffe anatomy has necessitated physiological adaptations; e.g. systemic blood pressure is twice that for similar sized mammals. The cells of the left ventricular and interventricular walls of the heart are enlarged, their thickness linearly related to neck length. Simultaneous enlargement of artery and arteriole walls provides resistance to blood flow. This appears to be a coordinated reflex response that maintains blood flow to the brain to protect Giraffes from fainting when they raise their heads after drinking, and to prevent peripheral oedema in the legs. Valves in the jugular vein prevent regurgitation of blood returning to the heart into the jugular vein. The long trachea is significantly narrower than in similar-sized mammals, limiting increases in dead space. Giraffe skulls feature paired subconical ossicones, which resemble short, blunt horns, arising from the top of the brain case. Female skulls are smoother and lighter than those of males. Bulls may have another median horn, which is a male secondary sexual characteristic, arising from the forehead between the eyes.",,"Exclusively browsers of dicotyledons, their preferred browse is mainly various species of Acacia. Four species of Acacia and four species of Combretum predominate in their diet, as these are rich in protein and calcium to support growth of their large skeleton. Bulls browse at higher levels than cows. Giraffes are water dependent but can survive for long periods without drinking water, obtaining their daily water needs from succulent browse. Giraffids are foliovores, selecting succulent foliage, and have an efficient digestive system compared to that of grazers, which eat monocotiyledons. The Giraffe stomach is half the size of that of African buffalo (Syncerus sp.).",,,"Giraffes are mainly diurnal, and most active hours are spent feeding. Their gait is unusual in that both legs on one side swing in unison making their walk ungainly. Their maximum speed is about 56 km/h, and they can jump fences 1-5 m high. Giraffes are not territorial and home ranges vary from 25 km? to 160 km?. Major rivers are barriers, as Giraffes cannot swim and do not easily cross flowing rivers. Strong social bonds are lacking, and herds, mostly of females and their young, rarely consist of the same individuals for more than a few days.",,"Aschaffenburg et al. (1962) | Badlangana et al. (2009) | Berry (1978) | Bigalke (1951) | Bond & Loffell (2001) | Bredin et al. (2008) | Brown et al. (2007) | Cameron & Du Toit (2005, 2007) | Cerling et al. (2004) | Ciofolo & Pendu (1998) | Dagg (1962, 1971) | Dagg & Foster (1976, 1982) | Fennessy & Brown (2010) | Fennessy et al. (2001) | Foster & Dagg, (1972) | Gallagher et al. (1994) | Hall-Martin & Skinner (1978) | Hall-Martin, Skinner & Hopkins (1978) | Hall-Martin, Skinner & Smith (1977) | Hamilton (1973) | Harris (1976) | Hugh-Jones et al. (1978) | Jacobson et al. (1986) | Kidd (1900) | Kok (1982) | Kok & Opperman (1980) | Kuntsch & Nel (1990) | Langman (1977, 1978) | Langman et al. (1982) | Le Pendu et al. (2000) | Leuthold (1979) | Leuthold & Leuthold (1972, 1978) | Lightfoot (1978) | Lydekker (1904) | Madden & Young (1982) | Miller (1994, 1996) | Mitchell (2009) | Mitchell & Hattingh (1993) | Mitchell & Skinner (1993, 2003, 2004, 2009) | Mitchell, Bobbitt & Devries (2008) | Mitchell, Maloney et al. (2006) | Mitchell, van Schalkwyk & Skinner (2005) | Mitchell, van Sittert & Skinner (2009a, 2009b) | Pellew (1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1984b) | Pienaar (1969) | Pilgrim (1911) | Pratt & Anderson (1982) | Ridewood (1904) | Robin et al. (1960) | Scheepers (1992) | Shortridge (1934) | Simmons & Scheepers (1996) | Singer & Boné (1960) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Skinner & Hall-Martin (1975) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Solounias (1999) | Spinage (1968, 1993) | Van Aarde (1976) | Van Sittert et al. (2010) | Van Schalkwyk et al. (2004) | Von Linnaeus (1758) | Wyatt (1971) | Young & Okello (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719823/files/figure.png,"1.GirafteGiraffa camelopardalisFrench:Girafe/ German:Giraffe/ Spanish:JirafaOther common names:Nubian Giraffe (camelopardalis), Kordofan Giraffe (antiquorum), Masai Giraffe (tippelskirchi), Reticulated/ SomaliGiraffe (reticulata), Rothschild Giraffe (rothschildi), Smoky/Angolan Giraffe (angolensis), South African Giraffe (giraffa), Thornicroft/Rhodesian Giraffe (thornicrofti), West African/Nigerian Giraffe (peralta)Taxonomy.Cervus camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758,Sennar, Sudan.It appears from genetic studies that Giraffes fall into three groups: West African Giraffes (peralta); North African Giraffes (antiguorum, reticulata, rothschildi, thornicrofti, and probably camelopardalis); and southern African Giraffes (angolensis and guraffa). The “Masai Giraffe,” tippelskirchi, exhibits similarities with both the southern and the northern groups. Genetic differences, ranging from 0-15% to 6-9%, are below those required for the establishment of distinct species. Nine regional variants are currently recognized as subspecies, all of which interbreed.Subspecies and Distribution.G.c.camelopardalisLinnaeus,1758—ESudanandWEthiopia.G.c.angolensisLydekkcr,1903-NNamibia,SZambia,NBotswana,andNWZimbabwe.G.c.antiquorumJardine,1835-SChad,Genua]AfricanRepublic,andNEDRCongo.G.c.giraffaSchreber.1784-SWMozambique,SZimbabwe,andSouthAfrica.G.c.peraltaThomas,1898-WAfrica.G.c.reticulataDeWinton,1899-SEthiopia,SWSomalia,andNKenya.G.c.rothschildiLydekker,1903-SSudan.NUganda,andWKenya.G.c.tippelskirchiMatschie,1898-SKenyaandTanzania.G. c. thornicrofti Lydekker, 1911-Zambia(Luangwa Valley).Descriptive notes.Head-body 350-480 cm,tail 76-110 cm, height to the crown 450-600 cm; weight 1800-1930 kg (males) and 450-1180 kg (females). Adult males are larger than females. Colored hair patches are separated by yellow-white bands and vary in the regional variants. Patches contain large active sweat glands and a unique arrangement of blood vessels, suggesting they act as thermal windows through which to dissipate heat. Pigmentation of the skin is uniformly dark gray. The extraordinary shape results from elongation of the neck skeleton and of the lower leg bones. Elongation of the legs is associated with thickening of the bone wall to provide strength and of the neck by uniform lengthening of all seven cervical vertebrae. Elongation of the skeleton is rapid and demands the accumulation of large amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Giraffe anatomy has necessitated physiological adaptations; e.g. systemic blood pressure is twice that for similar sized mammals. The cells of the left ventricular and interventricular walls of the heart are enlarged, their thickness linearly related to neck length. Simultaneous enlargement of artery and arteriole walls provides resistance to blood flow. This appears to be a coordinated reflex response that maintains blood flow to the brain to protect Giraffes from fainting when they raise their heads after drinking, and to prevent peripheral oedema in the legs. Valves in the jugular vein prevent regurgitation of blood returning to the heart into the jugular vein. The long trachea is significantly narrower than in similar-sized mammals, limiting increases in dead space. Giraffe skulls feature paired subconical ossicones, which resemble short, blunt horns, arising from the top of the brain case. Female skulls are smoother and lighter than those of males. Bulls may have another median horn, which is a male secondary sexual characteristic, arising from the forehead between the eyes.Habitat.Giraffes are thought to have coevolved with acacia trees in savanna biomes throughout Africa but their occurrence is now discontinuous. They have never occurred in the tropical rain forest of the CongoRiver Basin.Food and Feeding.Exclusively browsers of dicotyledons, their preferred browse is mainly various species of Acacia. Four species of Acacia and four species of Combretum predominate in their diet, as these are rich in protein and calcium to support growth of their large skeleton. Bulls browse at higher levels than cows. Giraffes are water dependent but can survive for long periods without drinking water, obtaining their daily water needs from succulent browse. Giraffids are foliovores, selecting succulent foliage, and have an efficient digestive system compared to that of grazers, which eat monocotiyledons. The Giraffe stomach is half the size of that of African buffalo (Syncerus sp.).Breeding.Giraffes are aseasonal breeders. Females become sexually mature at 4-5 years of age. Gestation lasts about 450 days; birth mass is around 100 kg. At birth shoulder height is 1-50-1-80 m. Calves are precocial, seeking the first suckle within an hour of birth. Calves lie isolated for up to three weeks. Lactation lasts for around twelve months. Calf mortality rate is up to 75% in the first year. In captivity Giraffes can live to 36 years of age. Bulls reach sexual maturity at 2-5—4 years of age but need to pass a behavioral threshold in the wild to compete with mature bulls.Activity patterns.Giraffes rest in the shade during the hottest time of day. Males orient their bodies towards the sun depending on whether they need to reduce or gain radiant heat, but females and calves select shade. They bend their heads backwards towards the body during deep sleep. They gallop in an ungainly manner, swinging the two legs on each side in unison.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giraffes are mainly diurnal, and most active hours are spent feeding. Their gait is unusual in that both legs on one side swing in unison making their walk ungainly. Their maximum speed is about 56 km/h, and they can jump fences 1-5 m high. Giraffes are not territorial and home ranges vary from 25 km? to 160 km?. Major rivers are barriers, as Giraffes cannot swim and do not easily cross flowing rivers. Strong social bonds are lacking, and herds, mostly of females and their young, rarely consist of the same individuals for more than a few days.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Giraffes were provisionally classified as not threatened by IUCN, as the population in the wild consisted of at least 100,000 individuals and their distribution was widespread. However the West African subspecies peralta is now classified as Endangered, its numbers and range having fallen sharply. Previously its range was from Senegalto Lake Chad, but currently the only viable surviving population in this entire area consists ofless than 200 individuals in south-western Niger, with a range of about 15,000 km? Recent population estimates indicate a downward trend in numbers, which might eventually result in a different category. Some populations remain stable, some are increasing, and others are decreasing. Further studies aimed at resolving the taxonomic status of the various subspecies and populations will also allow better assessment of conservation status. In southern Africa, Giraffe has been reintroduced to many parts of the range from which they were previously eliminated, and it has been introduced into Swaziland.Bibliography.Aschaffenburg et al. (1962), Badlangana et al. (2009), Berry (1978), Bigalke (1951), Bond & Loffell (2001), Bredin et al. (2008), Brown et al. (2007), Cameron & Du Toit (2005, 2007), Cerling et al. (2004), Ciofolo & Pendu (1998), Dagg (1962, 1971), Dagg & Foster (1976, 1982), Fennessy & Brown (2010), Fennessy et al. (2001), Foster & Dagg, (1972), Gallagher et al. (1994), Hall-Martin & Skinner (1978), Hall-Martin, Skinner & Hopkins (1978), Hall-Martin, Skinner & Smith (1977), Hamilton (1973), Harris (1976), Hugh-Jones et al. (1978), Jacobson et al. (1986), Kidd (1900), Kok (1982), Kok & Opperman (1980), Kuntsch & Nel (1990), Langman (1977, 1978), Langman et al. (1982), Le Pendu et al. (2000), Leuthold (1979) Leuthold & Leuthold (1972, 1978), Lightfoot (1978), Lydekker (1904), Madden & Young (1982), Miller (1994, 1996), Mitchell (2009), Mitchell & Hattingh (1993), Mitchell & Skinner (1993, 2003, 2004, 2009), Mitchell, Bobbitt & Devries (2008), Mitchell, Maloney et al. (2006), Mitchell, van Schalkwyk & Skinner (2005), Mitchell, van Sittert & Skinner (2009a, 2009b), Pellew (1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1984b), Pienaar (1969), Pilgrim (1911), Pratt & Anderson (1982), Ridewood (1904), Robin et al. (1960), Scheepers (1992), Shortridge (1934), Simmons & Scheepers (1996), Singer & Boné (1960), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Skinner & Hall-Martin (1975) Skinner & Smithers (1990), Solounias (1999), Spinage (1968, 1993), Van Aarde (1976), Van Sittert et al. (2010), Van Schalkwyk et al. (2004), Von Linnaeus (1758), Wyatt (1971), Young & Okello (1998)." 039F7D71A96EAD1F0CA3FDEC70DCD83D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a,788,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96EAD1F0CA3FDEC70DCD83D.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family GIRAFFIDAE(GIRAFFE AND OKAPI)• Large ruminants with pair of horn-like protuberances called ossicones on the skull, characteristically long neck, and long, slender limbs.• 200-500 cm.• Afrotropical Region.• Savanna woodland and dense rainforest.• 2 genera, 2 species, 10 taxa.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600." 03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA49FBFFEED7F7DF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,411,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA49FBFFEED7F7DF.xml,Muntiacus puhoatensis,Muntiacus,puhoatensis,Trai,1997,Muntjac de Pu Hoat @fr | Vietnam-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Pu Hoat @es,"Muntiacus puhoatensis Trai, 1997, Puhoat, Nghe An province(Vietnam).The systematic status of this speciesis still very doubtful, as it is known only from the type specimen. It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex;it could be simply a synonym of M. truongsonensisor M. rooseveltorum. Monotypic.",NW Vietnam; possibly neighboring Laos.,"No specific body measurements available. Small-sized, morphologically similar to the Annamite Muntjac. The coat is reddish.",Recorded in closed canopy evergreen forest above 900 mabove sea level.,"Nothing is known, as the species is based on a partial specimen obtained with no ecological data.","Unknown, see above.","Unknown, see above.","Unknown, see above.",Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about its taxonomic identity.,Binh Chau (1997) | Francis (2008) | Timmins & Duckworth (2008a),https://zenodo.org/record/6514413/files/figure.png,"10.Puhoat MuntjacMuntiacus puhoatensisFrench:Muntjac de Pu Hoat/ German:Vietnam-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de Pu HoatTaxonomy.Muntiacus puhoatensis Trai, 1997, Puhoat, Nghe An province(Vietnam).The systematic status of this speciesis still very doubtful, as it is known only from the type specimen. It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex;it could be simply a synonym of M. truongsonensisor M. rooseveltorum. Monotypic.Distribution.NW Vietnam; possibly neighboring Laos.Descriptive notes.No specific body measurements available. Small-sized, morphologically similar to the Annamite Muntjac. The coat is reddish.Habitat.Recorded in closed canopy evergreen forest above 900 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, as the species is based on a partial specimen obtained with no ecological data.Breeding.Unknown, see above.Activity patterns.Unknown, see above.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Unknown, see above.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about its taxonomic identity.Bibliography.Binh Chau (1997), Francis (2008), Timmins & Duckworth (2008a)." 03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA4FF7DAEF12F38B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,411,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA4FF7DAEF12F38B.xml,Muntiacus truongsonensis,Muntiacus,truongsonensis,,,Muntjac des Truong Son @fr | Annam-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Truong Son @es | Annamite Dark Muntjac @en,"Caninmuntiacus truongsonensis Giaoet al, 1997, Quang Nam province(Vietnam).The systematic status ofthis speciesis also still unclear. It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex. Monotypic.",Laosand Vietnam; possibly also in S China(Yunnan).,"No specific body measurements available. Small, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm; estimated body weight of 15 kg. With short pedicles (4 cmin length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cmlong). The coatis dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is relatively long and dark brown dorsally.",More common in evergreen wet forests over 1000 mabove sea level.,Browser and fruit-eater.,Nothing is known of the breeding system.,There are no ecological data available for this species.,Nothing is known; see above.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing for overhunting.","Francis (2008) | Giao et al. (1998) | Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514415/files/figure.png,"11.Annamite MungacMuntiacus truongsonensisFrench:Muntjac des Truong Son/ German:Annam-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de Truong SonOther common names:Annamite Dark MuntjacTaxonomy.Caninmuntiacus truongsonensis Giaoet al, 1997, Quang Nam province(Vietnam).The systematic status ofthis speciesis also still unclear. It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex. Monotypic.Distribution.Laosand Vietnam; possibly also in S China(Yunnan).Descriptive notes.No specific body measurements available. Small, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm; estimated body weight of 15 kg. With short pedicles (4 cmin length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cmlong). The coatis dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is relatively long and dark brown dorsally.Habitat.More common in evergreen wet forests over 1000 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Browser and fruit-eater.Breeding.Nothing is known of the breeding system.Activity patterns.There are no ecological data available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known; see above.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing for overhunting.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Giao et al. (1998), Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008b)." 03A087C4FFC1FFC0FF42F46EEEBAFBF9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,411,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC1FFC0FF42F46EEEBAFBF9.xml,Muntiacus putaoensis,Muntiacus,putaoensis,"Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz",1999,Muntjac de Putao @fr | Burma-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Putao @es,"Muntiacus putaoensis Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999, Atanga, Putao (Myanmar). It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex. The name comes from its diminutive size, small enough to be wrapped in a leaf of Phrynium. Monotypic.",NE Indiaand N Myanmar.,"Few measurements available. Shoulder height 40 cm, weight 12 kg. Males and females of equal size. Smallest of the muntjacs, with short pedicles about 3 cmlong, tiny unbranched antlers 1-4 cm in length, often hidden by fur. Coat reddishbrown, legs and face slightly darker. The tail is orange-red dorsally. Preorbital fossa relatively large. Females have prominent upper canines. Fawns possibly unspotted.","Forest-dweller, it has been recorded from 700 mto 1200 mabove sea level.",It feeds on browse and fruit. Stomach contents examined from specimens in Myanmarrevealed mainly fruit remains.,"Both pregnant and lactating females have been taken in May, in Myanmar.","Nothing is known, but similar muntjacs are frequently crepuscular, with others both diurnal and nocturnal.",Nothing is known.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about morphology, taxonomy, distribution, and ecology. Evidence of persistent hunting by local people suggests that numbers may be decreasing.","Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz (1999) | Amato, Egan & Schaller (2000) | Datta et al. (2003) | James et al. (2008) | Rabinowitz et al. (1999) | Timmins, Duckwork & Zaw (2008b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514409/files/figure.png,"9.Leat MungacMuntiacus putaoensisFrench:Muntjac de Putao/ German:Burma-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de PutaoTaxonomy.Muntiacus putaoensis Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999, Atanga, Putao (Myanmar). It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex. The name comes from its diminutive size, small enough to be wrapped in a leaf of Phrynium. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Indiaand N Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Few measurements available. Shoulder height 40 cm, weight 12 kg. Males and females of equal size. Smallest of the muntjacs, with short pedicles about 3 cmlong, tiny unbranched antlers 1-4 cm in length, often hidden by fur. Coat reddishbrown, legs and face slightly darker. The tail is orange-red dorsally. Preorbital fossa relatively large. Females have prominent upper canines. Fawns possibly unspotted.Habitat.Forest-dweller, it has been recorded from 700 mto 1200 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It feeds on browse and fruit. Stomach contents examined from specimens in Myanmarrevealed mainly fruit remains.Breeding.Both pregnant and lactating females have been taken in May, in Myanmar.Activity patterns.Nothing is known, but similar muntjacs are frequently crepuscular, with others both diurnal and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about morphology, taxonomy, distribution, and ecology. Evidence of persistent hunting by local people suggests that numbers may be decreasing.Bibliography.Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz (1999), Amato, Egan & Schaller (2000), Datta et al. (2003), James et al. (2008), Rabinowitz et al. (1999), Timmins, Duckwork & Zaw (2008b)." 03A087C4FFC1FFC1FA4DF30DE117FD14,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,411,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC1FFC1FA4DF30DE117FD14.xml,Muntiacus rooseveltorum,Muntiacus,rooseveltorum,Osgood,1932,Muntjac des Roosevelt @fr | Roosevelt-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Roosevelt @es,"Muntiacus rooseveltorum Osgood, 1932, Muong Yo (Laos).It was collected for the first time by H. G. Coolidge in 1929 during the Kelley-Roosevelt Asiatic Expedition and was dedicated to the brothers Kermit and Theodore Jr., who sponsored and led the scientific mission. It was rediscovered in 1996. Monotypic.","Laos, possibly also in Viet namand S China.","Nospecific body measurements available. Small muntjac, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm, with short pedicles (4 cmin length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cmlong). Females with well-developed upper canines. The coat is dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is brown dorsally.",More common in forests over 1000 mabove sea level.,Browser and fruit-eater.,"As with several other species of muntjac, the lack of systematic clarity makes it impossible to obtain reliable ecological data.",Nothing is known; see above.,Nothing is known; see above.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing because of overhunting.","Amato, Egan & Schaller (2000) | Amato, Egan, Schaller, Baker et al. (1999) | Francis (2008) | Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514419/files/figure.png,"12.Roosevelts’ MuntjacMuntiacus rooseveltorumFrench:Muntjac des Roosevelt/ German:Roosevelt-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de RooseveltTaxonomy.Muntiacus rooseveltorum Osgood, 1932, Muong Yo (Laos).It was collected for the first time by H. G. Coolidge in 1929 during the Kelley-Roosevelt Asiatic Expedition and was dedicated to the brothers Kermit and Theodore Jr., who sponsored and led the scientific mission. It was rediscovered in 1996. Monotypic.Distribution.Laos, possibly also in Viet namand S China.Descriptive notes.Nospecific body measurements available. Small muntjac, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm, with short pedicles (4 cmin length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cmlong). Females with well-developed upper canines. The coat is dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is brown dorsally.Habitat.More common in forests over 1000 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Browser and fruit-eater.Breeding.As with several other species of muntjac, the lack of systematic clarity makes it impossible to obtain reliable ecological data.Activity patterns.Nothing is known; see above.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known; see above.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing because of overhunting.Bibliography.Amato, Egan & Schaller (2000), Amato, Egan, Schaller, Baker et al. (1999), Francis (2008), Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008a)." 03A087C4FFC5FFC4FD26FDD3E392FA93,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,350,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC5FFC4FD26FDD3E392FA93.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family CERVIDAE(DEER)• Small to large advanced ruminants with elongated head, long legs, and short tail; male typically with pair of deciduous antlers.• 70-310 cm.• Holarctic, Indo-Malayan, and Neotropical Regions.• Mainly forested habitats, but also grassland, swamps, and tundra.• 18 genera, 53 species,at least 169 extant taxa.• 1 species Critically Endangered, 7 species Endangered, 16 species Vulnerable; 1 species and 3 subspecies Extinct in the Wild; 1 species and 1 subspecies Extinct since 1600." -03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,410,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470.xml,Muntiacus muntjak,Muntiacus,muntjak,,,Muntjac indien @fr | Muntjak @de | Muntiacorojo @es,"Cervus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780, Java.Some authors have recently proposed recognizing three species, M. muntjakof the Malaysian and Sundaic region, M. montanus of the Sumatran mountains, and M. vaginalis of south and south-eastern continental Asia, mainly on the basis of different karyotypes and small differences in coat coloration. Until further study of the phylogenetic relationships, we will continue to treat them as one species. Ten subspecies are recognized.","M.m.muntjakZimmermann,1780—PeninsularMalaysia,Sumatra,Java,Bali,Borneoandseveralassociatedsmallerislands.M.m.annamensisKloss,1928—SLaos,SVietnam,andCambodia.M.m.aureusC.H.Smith,1826—Pakistan,N&CIndia.M.m.curvostylisGray,1872—Myanmar,Thailand.M.m.malabaricusLydekker,1915—SIndiaandSriLanka.M.m.menglalisWang&Groves,1988—SChina(SYunnan);possiblyalsoinneighboringMyanmar,Laos,andVietnam.M.m.montanusRobinson&Kloss,1918—Sumatranhighlands.M.m.nigripesG.Allen,1930—HainanI.M.m.vaginalisBoddaert,1785—Nepal,Bhutan,NEIndia,andBangladesh.M. m. yunnanensis Ma & Wang, 1988— S China(from C & N Yunnanand S Sichuanto S Fujian& Guangdong).Forms from mainland Asia have been introduced into the Andaman Is.","Head-body 90-120 cm, tail 17-19 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 20-28 kg (up to 35 kgin VietnamandJava). Sexes are of equal size. Mediumto large-sized muntjacs, with long pedicles (8-15 cm in length) and thick frontal ridges; antlers generally well developed (8-20 cm; up to 27 cmlong), typically with a short brow tine; the tips of the antlers tend to curve inwards. The coat is reddish, with paler, sometimes whitish or grayish underparts. The tail is orange to red-brown; in subspecies montanus it is dark brown. Two black lines along antler pedicles extend down to the face. Fawns are spotted. Two straightslits on the face indicate the pair of frontal glands. Antler cycles are synchronized at the local level. Antler casting generally occurs in a three-month period with a peak in April-May. The lowest number of chromosomes of any mammal; diploid number is 7 or 9 (males) and 6 or 8 (females).","It is a flexible forest-dwelling species that lives in deciduous and evergreen forests, old-growth and secondary forests, in exotic commercial plantations, sometimes in grasslands and croplands close to the forest edge. On HainanIsland it uses shrubland and savanna and tends to avoid woods. Normally found up to 1000-1500 m above sea level, in Himalayas up to 3000-3500 m.","The Red Muntjac eats mainly fruits, buds, young leaves, small seeds, twigs, and sometimes green grass near the forest edge. It has been described as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants.","Females may reach puberty at 8-10 months of age. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of about 18 days. Breeding occurs in all months of the year. The length of pregnancy is about 210 days. Females have a postpartum estrus and the interbirth interval may be only eight months. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.2-1. 5 kg. Weaning occurs very precociously at 70 days. Potential maximum longevity is around 17 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.) are the main predators.","It is active all the day, more at dawn and dusk.","It is very secretive, usually moving in a network of pathways in dense cover. Males have relatively large home ranges encompassing those of a few females. In Nepalmales have mean home ranges of 7 km?; female ranges are 6 km?*. Red Muntjacs do not seem strictly territorial, with exclusive areas, but exhibit site-specific dominance. Males spend much time in scent marking and may be aggressive with individuals of the same sex. These muntjacs are essentially solitary, but not asocial; and it is possible that a local population forms some kind of social unit held together by a complex net of scent. The maximum number of animals observed together is four, generally undera fruiting tree or around a small waterhole. Groups of two individuals are a mating pair or mother and her young.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, two forms have been asessed independently; the race fromthe Sumatran mountains (montanus) was classified as Data Deficient and the mainland populations as Least Concern. It appears to be fairly resilient to hunting and habitat degradation and it is still common in most of its range, possibly decreasing. Its meat is among the most consumed in south and south-eastern Asia.","Acharjyo & Patnaik (1984) | Barrette (1977, 2004) | Dubost (1971) | Nagarkoti & Thapa (2007) | Odden & Wegge (2007) | Schaller (1967) | Timmins, Duckworth, Hedges et al. (2008)",,"8.Red MuntjacMuntiacus muntjakFrench:Muntjac indien/ German:Muntjak/ Spanish:MuntiacorojoTaxonomy.Cervus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780, Java.Some authors have recently proposed recognizing three species, M. muntjakof the Malaysian and Sundaic region, M. montanus of the Sumatran mountains, and M. vaginalis of south and south-eastern continental Asia, mainly on the basis of different karyotypes and small differences in coat coloration. Until further study of the phylogenetic relationships, we will continue to treat them as one species. Ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.m.muntjakZimmermann,1780—PeninsularMalaysia,Sumatra,Java,Bali,Borneoandseveralassociatedsmallerislands.M.m.annamensisKloss,1928—SLaos,SVietnam,andCambodia.M.m.aureusC.H.Smith,1826—Pakistan,N&CIndia.M.m.curvostylisGray,1872—Myanmar,Thailand.M.m.malabaricusLydekker,1915—SIndiaandSriLanka.M.m.menglalisWang&Groves,1988—SChina(SYunnan);possiblyalsoinneighboringMyanmar,Laos,andVietnam.M.m.montanusRobinson&Kloss,1918—Sumatranhighlands.M.m.nigripesG.Allen,1930—HainanI.M.m.vaginalisBoddaert,1785—Nepal,Bhutan,NEIndia,andBangladesh.M. m. yunnanensis Ma & Wang, 1988— S China(from C & N Yunnanand S Sichuanto S Fujian& Guangdong).Forms from mainland Asia have been introduced into the Andaman Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-120 cm, tail 17-19 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 20-28 kg (up to 35 kgin VietnamandJava). Sexes are of equal size. Mediumto large-sized muntjacs, with long pedicles (8-15 cm in length) and thick frontal ridges; antlers generally well developed (8-20 cm; up to 27 cmlong), typically with a short brow tine; the tips of the antlers tend to curve inwards. The coat is reddish, with paler, sometimes whitish or grayish underparts. The tail is orange to red-brown; in subspecies montanus it is dark brown. Two black lines along antler pedicles extend down to the face. Fawns are spotted. Two straightslits on the face indicate the pair of frontal glands. Antler cycles are synchronized at the local level. Antler casting generally occurs in a three-month period with a peak in April-May. The lowest number of chromosomes of any mammal; diploid number is 7 or 9 (males) and 6 or 8 (females).Habitat.It is a flexible forest-dwelling species that lives in deciduous and evergreen forests, old-growth and secondary forests, in exotic commercial plantations, sometimes in grasslands and croplands close to the forest edge. On HainanIsland it uses shrubland and savanna and tends to avoid woods. Normally found up to 1000-1500 m above sea level, in Himalayas up to 3000-3500 m.Food and Feeding.The Red Muntjac eats mainly fruits, buds, young leaves, small seeds, twigs, and sometimes green grass near the forest edge. It has been described as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants.Breeding.Females may reach puberty at 8-10 months of age. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of about 18 days. Breeding occurs in all months of the year. The length of pregnancy is about 210 days. Females have a postpartum estrus and the interbirth interval may be only eight months. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.2-1. 5 kg. Weaning occurs very precociously at 70 days. Potential maximum longevity is around 17 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active all the day, more at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very secretive, usually moving in a network of pathways in dense cover. Males have relatively large home ranges encompassing those of a few females. In Nepalmales have mean home ranges of 7 km?; female ranges are 6 km?*. Red Muntjacs do not seem strictly territorial, with exclusive areas, but exhibit site-specific dominance. Males spend much time in scent marking and may be aggressive with individuals of the same sex. These muntjacs are essentially solitary, but not asocial; and it is possible that a local population forms some kind of social unit held together by a complex net of scent. The maximum number of animals observed together is four, generally undera fruiting tree or around a small waterhole. Groups of two individuals are a mating pair or mother and her young.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, two forms have been asessed independently; the race fromthe Sumatran mountains (montanus) was classified as Data Deficient and the mainland populations as Least Concern. It appears to be fairly resilient to hunting and habitat degradation and it is still common in most of its range, possibly decreasing. Its meat is among the most consumed in south and south-eastern Asia.Bibliography.Acharjyo & Patnaik (1984), Barrette (1977, 2004), Dubost (1971), Nagarkoti & Thapa (2007), Odden & Wegge (2007), Schaller (1967), Timmins, Duckworth, Hedges et al. (2008)." +03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,410,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470.xml,Muntiacus muntjak,Muntiacus,muntjak,,,Muntjac indien @fr | Muntjak @de | Muntiacorojo @es,"Cervus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780, Java.Some authors have recently proposed recognizing three species, M. muntjakof the Malaysian and Sundaic region, M. montanus of the Sumatran mountains, and M. vaginalis of south and south-eastern continental Asia, mainly on the basis of different karyotypes and small differences in coat coloration. Until further study of the phylogenetic relationships, we will continue to treat them as one species. Ten subspecies are recognized.","M.m.muntjakZimmermann,1780—PeninsularMalaysia,Sumatra,Java,Bali,Borneoandseveralassociatedsmallerislands.M.m.annamensisKloss,1928—SLaos,SVietnam,andCambodia.M.m.aureusC.H.Smith,1826—Pakistan,N&CIndia.M.m.curvostylisGray,1872—Myanmar,Thailand.M.m.malabaricusLydekker,1915—SIndiaandSriLanka.M.m.menglalisWang&Groves,1988—SChina(SYunnan);possiblyalsoinneighboringMyanmar,Laos,andVietnam.M.m.montanusRobinson&Kloss,1918—Sumatranhighlands.M.m.nigripesG.Allen,1930—HainanI.M.m.vaginalisBoddaert,1785—Nepal,Bhutan,NEIndia,andBangladesh.M. m. yunnanensis Ma & Wang, 1988— S China(from C & N Yunnanand S Sichuanto S Fujian& Guangdong).Forms from mainland Asia have been introduced into the Andaman Is.","Head-body 90-120 cm, tail 17-19 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 20-28 kg (up to 35 kgin VietnamandJava). Sexes are of equal size. Mediumto large-sized muntjacs, with long pedicles (8-15 cm in length) and thick frontal ridges; antlers generally well developed (8-20 cm; up to 27 cmlong), typically with a short brow tine; the tips of the antlers tend to curve inwards. The coat is reddish, with paler, sometimes whitish or grayish underparts. The tail is orange to red-brown; in subspecies montanus it is dark brown. Two black lines along antler pedicles extend down to the face. Fawns are spotted. Two straightslits on the face indicate the pair of frontal glands. Antler cycles are synchronized at the local level. Antler casting generally occurs in a three-month period with a peak in April-May. The lowest number of chromosomes of any mammal; diploid number is 7 or 9 (males) and 6 or 8 (females).","It is a flexible forest-dwelling species that lives in deciduous and evergreen forests, old-growth and secondary forests, in exotic commercial plantations, sometimes in grasslands and croplands close to the forest edge. On HainanIsland it uses shrubland and savanna and tends to avoid woods. Normally found up to 1000-1500 m above sea level, in Himalayas up to 3000-3500 m.","The Red Muntjac eats mainly fruits, buds, young leaves, small seeds, twigs, and sometimes green grass near the forest edge. It has been described as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants.","Females may reach puberty at 8-10 months of age. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of about 18 days. Breeding occurs in all months of the year. The length of pregnancy is about 210 days. Females have a postpartum estrus and the interbirth interval may be only eight months. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.2-1. 5 kg. Weaning occurs very precociously at 70 days. Potential maximum longevity is around 17 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.) are the main predators.","It is active all the day, more at dawn and dusk.","It is very secretive, usually moving in a network of pathways in dense cover. Males have relatively large home ranges encompassing those of a few females. In Nepalmales have mean home ranges of 7 km?; female ranges are 6 km?*. Red Muntjacs do not seem strictly territorial, with exclusive areas, but exhibit site-specific dominance. Males spend much time in scent marking and may be aggressive with individuals of the same sex. These muntjacs are essentially solitary, but not asocial; and it is possible that a local population forms some kind of social unit held together by a complex net of scent. The maximum number of animals observed together is four, generally undera fruiting tree or around a small waterhole. Groups of two individuals are a mating pair or mother and her young.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, two forms have been asessed independently; the race fromthe Sumatran mountains (montanus) was classified as Data Deficient and the mainland populations as Least Concern. It appears to be fairly resilient to hunting and habitat degradation and it is still common in most of its range, possibly decreasing. Its meat is among the most consumed in south and south-eastern Asia.","Acharjyo & Patnaik (1984) | Barrette (1977, 2004) | Dubost (1971) | Nagarkoti & Thapa (2007) | Odden & Wegge (2007) | Schaller (1967) | Timmins, Duckworth, Hedges et al. (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514407/files/figure.png,"8.Red MuntjacMuntiacus muntjakFrench:Muntjac indien/ German:Muntjak/ Spanish:MuntiacorojoTaxonomy.Cervus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780, Java.Some authors have recently proposed recognizing three species, M. muntjakof the Malaysian and Sundaic region, M. montanus of the Sumatran mountains, and M. vaginalis of south and south-eastern continental Asia, mainly on the basis of different karyotypes and small differences in coat coloration. Until further study of the phylogenetic relationships, we will continue to treat them as one species. Ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.m.muntjakZimmermann,1780—PeninsularMalaysia,Sumatra,Java,Bali,Borneoandseveralassociatedsmallerislands.M.m.annamensisKloss,1928—SLaos,SVietnam,andCambodia.M.m.aureusC.H.Smith,1826—Pakistan,N&CIndia.M.m.curvostylisGray,1872—Myanmar,Thailand.M.m.malabaricusLydekker,1915—SIndiaandSriLanka.M.m.menglalisWang&Groves,1988—SChina(SYunnan);possiblyalsoinneighboringMyanmar,Laos,andVietnam.M.m.montanusRobinson&Kloss,1918—Sumatranhighlands.M.m.nigripesG.Allen,1930—HainanI.M.m.vaginalisBoddaert,1785—Nepal,Bhutan,NEIndia,andBangladesh.M. m. yunnanensis Ma & Wang, 1988— S China(from C & N Yunnanand S Sichuanto S Fujian& Guangdong).Forms from mainland Asia have been introduced into the Andaman Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-120 cm, tail 17-19 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 20-28 kg (up to 35 kgin VietnamandJava). Sexes are of equal size. Mediumto large-sized muntjacs, with long pedicles (8-15 cm in length) and thick frontal ridges; antlers generally well developed (8-20 cm; up to 27 cmlong), typically with a short brow tine; the tips of the antlers tend to curve inwards. The coat is reddish, with paler, sometimes whitish or grayish underparts. The tail is orange to red-brown; in subspecies montanus it is dark brown. Two black lines along antler pedicles extend down to the face. Fawns are spotted. Two straightslits on the face indicate the pair of frontal glands. Antler cycles are synchronized at the local level. Antler casting generally occurs in a three-month period with a peak in April-May. The lowest number of chromosomes of any mammal; diploid number is 7 or 9 (males) and 6 or 8 (females).Habitat.It is a flexible forest-dwelling species that lives in deciduous and evergreen forests, old-growth and secondary forests, in exotic commercial plantations, sometimes in grasslands and croplands close to the forest edge. On HainanIsland it uses shrubland and savanna and tends to avoid woods. Normally found up to 1000-1500 m above sea level, in Himalayas up to 3000-3500 m.Food and Feeding.The Red Muntjac eats mainly fruits, buds, young leaves, small seeds, twigs, and sometimes green grass near the forest edge. It has been described as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants.Breeding.Females may reach puberty at 8-10 months of age. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of about 18 days. Breeding occurs in all months of the year. The length of pregnancy is about 210 days. Females have a postpartum estrus and the interbirth interval may be only eight months. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.2-1. 5 kg. Weaning occurs very precociously at 70 days. Potential maximum longevity is around 17 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active all the day, more at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very secretive, usually moving in a network of pathways in dense cover. Males have relatively large home ranges encompassing those of a few females. In Nepalmales have mean home ranges of 7 km?; female ranges are 6 km?*. Red Muntjacs do not seem strictly territorial, with exclusive areas, but exhibit site-specific dominance. Males spend much time in scent marking and may be aggressive with individuals of the same sex. These muntjacs are essentially solitary, but not asocial; and it is possible that a local population forms some kind of social unit held together by a complex net of scent. The maximum number of animals observed together is four, generally undera fruiting tree or around a small waterhole. Groups of two individuals are a mating pair or mother and her young.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, two forms have been asessed independently; the race fromthe Sumatran mountains (montanus) was classified as Data Deficient and the mainland populations as Least Concern. It appears to be fairly resilient to hunting and habitat degradation and it is still common in most of its range, possibly decreasing. Its meat is among the most consumed in south and south-eastern Asia.Bibliography.Acharjyo & Patnaik (1984), Barrette (1977, 2004), Dubost (1971), Nagarkoti & Thapa (2007), Odden & Wegge (2007), Schaller (1967), Timmins, Duckworth, Hedges et al. (2008)." 03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA74FEBAE152FA2C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,410,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA74FEBAE152FA2C.xml,Muntiacus gongshanensis,Muntiacus,gongshanensis,Ma,1990,Muntjac de Gongshan @fr | Gongshan-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Gongshan @es,"Muntiacus gongshanensis Ma, 1990, Mijio, Gongshan county (Yunnan, China).Closely related to M. erinifrons, the divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. Monotypic.","S China(Yunnan) and N Myanmar; possibly SE Xizang, NE India, and Bhutan.","Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Medium-sized; similar to the Black Muntjac (M. c¢rinifrons) but with males lacking the frontal tuft; females have a crown tuft more prominentlaterally than centrally. The coat is brown, with back and tail dark brown, the head pale brown with dark lines on pedicles. Antlers relatively short. The diploid number of chromosomesis 2 n =9 (males) and 8 (females).","The Gongshan Muntjac prefers evergreen, lowland forests.","Nothing is known, but likely a partially omnivorous browser.","No information for this species, but most other tropical muntjacs bear a single young, aseasonally.",Nothing is known forthis species; other muntjacs range from diurnal through crespucular to nocturnal.,"No data for this species, but likely solitary, as in other species of muntjacs.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, probably decreasing. Hunting appears to be the major threat.","Amato et al. (2000) | Huang Ling et al. (2006) | Ma Shilai et al. (1990) | Timmins, Duckworth & Zaw (2008a) | Wang Wen & Lan Hong (2000)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514401/files/figure.png,"6.Gongshan MuntjacMuntiacus gongshanensisFrench:Muntjac de Gongshan/ German:Gongshan-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de GongshanTaxonomy.Muntiacus gongshanensis Ma, 1990, Mijio, Gongshan county (Yunnan, China).Closely related to M. erinifrons, the divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. Monotypic.Distribution.S China(Yunnan) and N Myanmar; possibly SE Xizang, NE India, and Bhutan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Medium-sized; similar to the Black Muntjac (M. c¢rinifrons) but with males lacking the frontal tuft; females have a crown tuft more prominentlaterally than centrally. The coat is brown, with back and tail dark brown, the head pale brown with dark lines on pedicles. Antlers relatively short. The diploid number of chromosomesis 2 n =9 (males) and 8 (females).Habitat.The Gongshan Muntjac prefers evergreen, lowland forests.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, but likely a partially omnivorous browser.Breeding.No information for this species, but most other tropical muntjacs bear a single young, aseasonally.Activity patterns.Nothing is known forthis species; other muntjacs range from diurnal through crespucular to nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No data for this species, but likely solitary, as in other species of muntjacs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, probably decreasing. Hunting appears to be the major threat.Bibliography.Amato et al. (2000), Huang Ling et al. (2006), Ma Shilai et al. (1990), Timmins, Duckworth & Zaw (2008a), Wang Wen & Lan Hong (2000)." 03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA76F9AAEC6EF3B1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,410,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA76F9AAEC6EF3B1.xml,Muntiacus crinifrons,Muntiacus,crinifrons,Sclater,1885,Muntjac noir @fr | Schwarzer Muntjak @de | Muntiaconegro @es | Hairy-fronted Muntjac @en,"Cervulus crinifrons Sclater, 1885, Ningpo, Zhejiiang (China).For more than a century only five specimens were known. It is closely related to M. gongshanensisand sometimes confused with it. Monotypic.","Zhejiangand neighboring areas, E China.","Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Females are slighter larger than males. Large-sized muntjac, with a rufous or golden-yellow long-haired frontal tuft, pointed ears;tail relatively long and fringed with white hair. Pedicles are 7-9 cm long, antlers are 7-8 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 9 (males) and 8 (females).Habitat.It lives in mountain forests with abundant undergrowth, sometimes also in scrubland. Up to 1000 mabove sea level. The forests consist of a mosaic of deciduous broadleaf, evergreen, and bamboo patches with dense undergrowth and subtropical monsoon conditions.Food and Feeding.Its diet consists of leaves, twigs, fruits, forbs, grasses.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding is aseasonal. After about 210 days of pregnancy, females give birth to a single fawn. In one study, some lactating females were found carrying fetuses, implying that post-partum estrus is possible in this species.Activity patterns.Nothing is known about activity in this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black muntjacs are solitary and territorial, but little is known of their movements. Secretions from the frontal and preorbital glands are rubbed against vegetation to mark territories. When the territory of a male Black Muntjac is invaded, he defendsit using the tusk-like upper canines to drive out the invader.Status and Conservation.CITES Annex I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The total population was assessed in late 1990s at 7000-8500 individuals. The Black Muntjac is declining; overhunting and habitat loss and degradation continue to represent important threats.","It lives in mountain forests with abundant undergrowth, sometimes also in scrubland. Up to 1000 mabove sea level. The forests consist of a mosaic of deciduous broadleaf, evergreen, and bamboo patches with dense undergrowth and subtropical monsoon conditions.","Its diet consists of leaves, twigs, fruits, forbs, grasses.","Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding is aseasonal. After about 210 days of pregnancy, females give birth to a single fawn. In one study, some lactating females were found carrying fetuses, implying that post-partum estrus is possible in this species.",Nothing is known about activity in this species.,"Black muntjacs are solitary and territorial, but little is known of their movements. Secretions from the frontal and preorbital glands are rubbed against vegetation to mark territories. When the territory of a male Black Muntjac is invaded, he defendsit using the tusk-like upper canines to drive out the invader.",CITES Annex I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The total population was assessed in late 1990s at 7000-8500 individuals. The Black Muntjac is declining; overhunting and habitat loss and degradation continue to represent important threats. Habitat fragmentation is responsible for a genetic differentiation among subpopulations.,"Amato et al. (2000) | Groves & Grubb (1990) | Harris (2008) | Lan Hong et al. (1995) | Lu Hogee & Sheng Helin (1984) | Smith & Xie Yan (2008) | Wang Wen & Lan Hong (2000) | Wu Hailong et al. (2006, 2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514403/files/figure.png,"7.Black MuntjacMuntiacus crinifronsFrench:Muntjac noir/ German:Schwarzer Muntjak/ Spanish:MuntiaconegroOther common names:Hairy-fronted MuntjacTaxonomy.Cervulus crinifrons Sclater, 1885, Ningpo, Zhejiiang (China).For more than a century only five specimens were known. It is closely related to M. gongshanensisand sometimes confused with it. Monotypic.Distribution.Zhejiangand neighboring areas, E China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Females are slighter larger than males. Large-sized muntjac, with a rufous or golden-yellow long-haired frontal tuft, pointed ears;tail relatively long and fringed with white hair. Pedicles are 7-9 cm long, antlers are 7-8 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 9 (males) and 8 (females).Habitat.It lives in mountain forests with abundant undergrowth, sometimes also in scrubland. Up to 1000 mabove sea level. The forests consist of a mosaic of deciduous broadleaf, evergreen, and bamboo patches with dense undergrowth and subtropical monsoon conditions.Food and Feeding.Its diet consists of leaves, twigs, fruits, forbs, grasses.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding is aseasonal. After about 210 days of pregnancy, females give birth to a single fawn. In one study, some lactating females were found carrying fetuses, implying that post-partum estrus is possible in this species.Activity patterns.Nothing is known about activity in this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black muntjacs are solitary and territorial, but little is known of their movements. Secretions from the frontal and preorbital glands are rubbed against vegetation to mark territories. When the territory of a male Black Muntjac is invaded, he defendsit using the tusk-like upper canines to drive out the invader.Status and Conservation.CITES Annex I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The total population was assessed in late 1990s at 7000-8500 individuals. The Black Muntjac is declining; overhunting and habitat loss and degradation continue to represent important threats. Habitat fragmentation is responsible for a genetic differentiation among subpopulations.Bibliography.Amato et al. (2000), Groves & Grubb (1990), Harris (2008), Lan Hong et al. (1995), Lu Hogee & Sheng Helin (1984), Smith & Xie Yan (2008), Wang Wen & Lan Hong (2000), Wu Hailong et al. (2006, 2007)." 03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF08F812E487F279,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,410,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF08F812E487F279.xml,Muntiacus feae,Muntiacus,feae,Thomas & Doria,1889,Muntjac de Fea @fr | Tenasserim-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Fea @es,"Cervulus feae Thomas & Doria, 1889, Thagata Juva, Tenasserim (Myanmar).Genetic analyses agree in considering this muntjac as a sister species to M. gongshanensis/ M. crinifrons. The name refers to the Italian zoologist and explorer L. Fea. Monotypic.",W Thailandand adjacent Myanmar; dubious reports from N Myanmarand S China.,"Head—body 90-100 cm, tail 10-17 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 20-22 kg. Females are heavier than males. Medium-sized, with short, bright yellow frontal tuft, rounded ears; pedicles 4-5 cm long, antlers 5-6 cm long. Tail relatively long, fringed with white hair. The coat is dark brown speckled with yellow; legs dark; forehead and pedicles yellowish; black stripes on pedicles. The diploid number of chromosomes is 14 (males) and 13 (females).","Seems to prefer evergreen forests of hills and mountains, inhabiting upland evergreen, mixed, or shrub forest at mid-elevations. They are also found in teak plantations.","It feeds on leaves and fruits, with some grasses and shoots as well.","Females reach puberty at about one year of age. The young are usually born in dense vegetation, remaining hidden until able to travel with the mother. Males may compete for access to females by sparring with antlers or fighting using their fang-like canines, although little is known directly about mating in this species. Males likely defend a territory that encompasses that of several females, as in other muntjacs.","Fea’s Muntjac may be either diurnal or nocturnal, but little is known regarding its behavior in the wild.","Nothing is known, but appears to be solitary, like other muntjacs.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to doubts about the validity of many reports of the species, and, thus, about its geographic and ecological range and conservation status.","Groves & Grubb (1990) | Grubb (1977) | Soma et al. (1987) | Tanomtong et al. (2005) | Timmins, Steinmetz, Pattanavibool & Duckworth (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514399/files/figure.png,"5.Fea’s MuntjacMuntiacus feaeFrench:Muntjac de Fea/ German:Tenasserim-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de FeaTaxonomy.Cervulus feae Thomas & Doria, 1889, Thagata Juva, Tenasserim (Myanmar).Genetic analyses agree in considering this muntjac as a sister species to M. gongshanensis/ M. crinifrons. The name refers to the Italian zoologist and explorer L. Fea. Monotypic.Distribution.W Thailandand adjacent Myanmar; dubious reports from N Myanmarand S China.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-100 cm, tail 10-17 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 20-22 kg. Females are heavier than males. Medium-sized, with short, bright yellow frontal tuft, rounded ears; pedicles 4-5 cm long, antlers 5-6 cm long. Tail relatively long, fringed with white hair. The coat is dark brown speckled with yellow; legs dark; forehead and pedicles yellowish; black stripes on pedicles. The diploid number of chromosomes is 14 (males) and 13 (females).Habitat.Seems to prefer evergreen forests of hills and mountains, inhabiting upland evergreen, mixed, or shrub forest at mid-elevations. They are also found in teak plantations.Food and Feeding.It feeds on leaves and fruits, with some grasses and shoots as well.Breeding.Females reach puberty at about one year of age. The young are usually born in dense vegetation, remaining hidden until able to travel with the mother. Males may compete for access to females by sparring with antlers or fighting using their fang-like canines, although little is known directly about mating in this species. Males likely defend a territory that encompasses that of several females, as in other muntjacs.Activity patterns.Fea’s Muntjac may be either diurnal or nocturnal, but little is known regarding its behavior in the wild.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known, but appears to be solitary, like other muntjacs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to doubts about the validity of many reports of the species, and, thus, about its geographic and ecological range and conservation status.Bibliography.Groves & Grubb (1990), Grubb (1977), Soma et al. (1987), Tanomtong et al. (2005), Timmins, Steinmetz, Pattanavibool & Duckworth (2008)." 03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF0DFEBDE573F8A5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,410,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF0DFEBDE573F8A5.xml,Muntiacus vuquangensis,Muntiacus,vuquangensis,,,Muntjac géant @fr | Riesenmuntjak @de | Muntiacogigante @es | Large-antlered Muntjac @en,"Megamuntiacus vuquangensis Tuoc et al., 1994, Vu Quang Nature Reserve (Vietnam).Some individuals belonging to this species were observed several decades ago but they were interpreted as large-sized specimens of M. muntjak. It has only recently been recognized as a new species. The phylogenetic relationships with other muntjacs have been studied, but with contrasting results; a Chinese team considered it in the same clade with M. reevesi, but an American study suggested more affinities with the M. rooseveltorumclade. Monotypic.",Annamite Mts (LLaos & Vietnam) and E Cambodia.,"Head-body 110-115 cm, tail 17 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm; weight 34 kg. The largest species of muntjac, with a short, broad, triangular tail; stout and short pedicles; antlers relatively long (about 23 cmin length, up to 28-5 cm) with a well-developed brow tine (on average 8 cmin length). The coat is yellow-brown to tan; white spot on knee in males.","It is possibly tied to the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Annamite Range, and normally occurs below 1000 mabove sea level, although it has been found at altitudes from 500 mto 1200 m. Although seemingly a denizen of primary forest, it has also been observed in second growth.",It is a browser and a fruit-eater.,"Little is known, but only single young have been observed with females. A female Giant Muntjac was pregnant with a 165 gfetus in January.","The periods of activity have not been documented, butit is likely diurnal, like most other muntjacs.","Although virtually unstudied, adults seem to be solitary.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, due to the restricted range, the very low density, and presumably the small and decreasing total population. The Giant Muntjac continues to be threatened by heavy hunting pressure, as well as by habitat degradation due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.","Amato et al. (2000) | Bauer (1997) | Duckworth (1998) | Evans etal. (2000) | Schaller & Vrba (1996) | Timmins et al. (1998) | Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008c)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514395/files/figure.png,"4.Giant MuntjacMuntiacus vuquangensisFrench:Muntjac géant/ German:Riesenmuntjak/ Spanish:MuntiacogiganteOther common names:Large-antlered MuntjacTaxonomy.Megamuntiacus vuquangensis Tuoc et al., 1994, Vu Quang Nature Reserve (Vietnam).Some individuals belonging to this species were observed several decades ago but they were interpreted as large-sized specimens of M. muntjak. It has only recently been recognized as a new species. The phylogenetic relationships with other muntjacs have been studied, but with contrasting results; a Chinese team considered it in the same clade with M. reevesi, but an American study suggested more affinities with the M. rooseveltorumclade. Monotypic.Distribution.Annamite Mts (LLaos & Vietnam) and E Cambodia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-115 cm, tail 17 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm; weight 34 kg. The largest species of muntjac, with a short, broad, triangular tail; stout and short pedicles; antlers relatively long (about 23 cmin length, up to 28-5 cm) with a well-developed brow tine (on average 8 cmin length). The coat is yellow-brown to tan; white spot on knee in males.Habitat.It is possibly tied to the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Annamite Range, and normally occurs below 1000 mabove sea level, although it has been found at altitudes from 500 mto 1200 m. Although seemingly a denizen of primary forest, it has also been observed in second growth.Food and Feeding.It is a browser and a fruit-eater.Breeding.Little is known, but only single young have been observed with females. A female Giant Muntjac was pregnant with a 165 gfetus in January.Activity patterns.The periods of activity have not been documented, butit is likely diurnal, like most other muntjacs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Although virtually unstudied, adults seem to be solitary.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, due to the restricted range, the very low density, and presumably the small and decreasing total population. The Giant Muntjac continues to be threatened by heavy hunting pressure, as well as by habitat degradation due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.Bibliography.Amato et al. (2000), Bauer (1997), Duckworth (1998), Evans etal. (2000), Schaller & Vrba (1996), Timmins et al. (1998), Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008c)." -03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,409,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D.xml,Muntiacus reevesi,Muntiacus,reevesi,,,Muntjac de Chine @fr | China-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Reeves @es,"Cervus reevesi Ogilby, 1839, Canton (China).Because of the relatively high number of chromosomes of the karyotype this species is considered a primitive muntjac. According to a genetic study, together with M. vuquangensisit forms one of two clades; according to a second study it forms a distinct lineage not closely related to other muntjacs. Its scientific and common name honorJ. Reeves, a naturalist and Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East IndiaCompany, who worked for 19 years in China. Two subspecies are recognized.","M.r.reeves:Ogilby,1838—SEChina.M. r. micrurus Sclater, 1875— Taiwan.The subspecies from mainland Chinawas introduced into Englandin the early 20"" century.","Head-body 70-80 cm,tail 12-13 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight of adult males 14-15 kg and of adult females 12-13 kg. Males are on average 15% heavier than females. A small-sized muntjac with rounded ears. The tail is relatively short, chestnut dorsally, white below. The summer coatis red-brown, the winter coat is gray-brown. Males have a black stripe up each frontal ridge and pedicle, forming a V on the forehead. Fawn coat has ocher spots, which disappear by two months. A large preorbital sac, frontal glands, rear interdigital gland and (in males) a preputial gland are present. Upper canines are around 6 cmlong in males, of which one third is hidden in the alveolus; females have smaller upper canines, about 1-7 cm long, of which one third extends out of the alveolus. Antlers of adults are short and simple, 4-8 cm long, on pedicles 5-8 cm high. They generally have a very small basal brow tine and distally they tend to curve inward. Pedicles begin to grow at 5-7 months of age; first antlers appear at 8-11 months, generally minute spikes without a coronet. Subsequent antler sets grow in summer, are clean in September, and are cast in May. Hooves are very small, about 3 cmlong. The diploid number of chromosomesis 46.","In the original range it prefers dense temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests and scrub, at 200-400 m above sea level. Sometimesit also frequents alpine grasslands up to 3500 mabove sea level. Introduced populations in Englandare particularly common in dense habitat with a good diversity of vegetation.","As a typical concentrate selector, it browses leaves and shoots and eats fruits.","Females attain puberty precociously, at 6-7 months of age. Breeding occurs throughout the year, with fawns born in any month. Females are polyestrous with a mean cycle of 14-15 days. After a gestation of 210 days, females give birth to one fawn weighing about 1-2 kg. Since a postpartum estrus is common, females may give birth every eight months. Fawns are weaned in four months. At six months of age they attain 60% of the final weight, at 18 months they reach 90% of their adult weight. Males may disperse at about 5-6 months, sometimes later. Reeves’s Muntjac can live to a maximum of 13 years.","It is active all day, with five distinct periods of feeding in 24 hours.","As a slinker, it generally moves with the head held down. When alarmed it lifts the tail, showing the white underneath. Usually home ranges are small, 10-30 ha, but can be up to 100 ha, generally larger in males. Males are territorial, with a defended area encompassing the home ranges of some females. Some territoriality is also evident in females, whose core areas are exclusive. It is basically a solitary species, sometimes observed in pairs or small family groups. Adult males are probably weakly serially polygynous, forming temporary tending bonds with estrous females.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, mainly for its large range and its occurrence in many protected areas. It is decreasing, due to the industrial exploitation of hides and continuous habitat loss. In Chinait is considered vulnerable but it is not protected at a national scale. The population established in England, is now quite common, increasing and expanding its range to other parts of Great Britain. In 2005 the total estimate for this population was 118,000 individuals.",Apollonio et al. (2010) | Chapman(2008) | Chapmanet al. (1997) | Leasor et al. (2008) | McCullough et al. (2000) | Miura (1984) | Pei Kurtis & Liu Hwanwun (1994),,"3.Reeves’s MuntjacMuntiacus reevesiFrench:Muntjac de Chine/ German:China-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de ReevesTaxonomy.Cervus reevesi Ogilby, 1839, Canton (China).Because of the relatively high number of chromosomes of the karyotype this species is considered a primitive muntjac. According to a genetic study, together with M. vuquangensisit forms one of two clades; according to a second study it forms a distinct lineage not closely related to other muntjacs. Its scientific and common name honorJ. Reeves, a naturalist and Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East IndiaCompany, who worked for 19 years in China. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.r.reeves:Ogilby,1838—SEChina.M. r. micrurus Sclater, 1875— Taiwan.The subspecies from mainland Chinawas introduced into Englandin the early 20"" century.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-80 cm,tail 12-13 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight of adult males 14-15 kg and of adult females 12-13 kg. Males are on average 15% heavier than females. A small-sized muntjac with rounded ears. The tail is relatively short, chestnut dorsally, white below. The summer coatis red-brown, the winter coat is gray-brown. Males have a black stripe up each frontal ridge and pedicle, forming a V on the forehead. Fawn coat has ocher spots, which disappear by two months. A large preorbital sac, frontal glands, rear interdigital gland and (in males) a preputial gland are present. Upper canines are around 6 cmlong in males, of which one third is hidden in the alveolus; females have smaller upper canines, about 1-7 cm long, of which one third extends out of the alveolus. Antlers of adults are short and simple, 4-8 cm long, on pedicles 5-8 cm high. They generally have a very small basal brow tine and distally they tend to curve inward. Pedicles begin to grow at 5-7 months of age; first antlers appear at 8-11 months, generally minute spikes without a coronet. Subsequent antler sets grow in summer, are clean in September, and are cast in May. Hooves are very small, about 3 cmlong. The diploid number of chromosomesis 46.Habitat.In the original range it prefers dense temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests and scrub, at 200-400 m above sea level. Sometimesit also frequents alpine grasslands up to 3500 mabove sea level. Introduced populations in Englandare particularly common in dense habitat with a good diversity of vegetation.Food and Feeding.As a typical concentrate selector, it browses leaves and shoots and eats fruits.Breeding.Females attain puberty precociously, at 6-7 months of age. Breeding occurs throughout the year, with fawns born in any month. Females are polyestrous with a mean cycle of 14-15 days. After a gestation of 210 days, females give birth to one fawn weighing about 1-2 kg. Since a postpartum estrus is common, females may give birth every eight months. Fawns are weaned in four months. At six months of age they attain 60% of the final weight, at 18 months they reach 90% of their adult weight. Males may disperse at about 5-6 months, sometimes later. Reeves’s Muntjac can live to a maximum of 13 years.Activity patterns.It is active all day, with five distinct periods of feeding in 24 hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As a slinker, it generally moves with the head held down. When alarmed it lifts the tail, showing the white underneath. Usually home ranges are small, 10-30 ha, but can be up to 100 ha, generally larger in males. Males are territorial, with a defended area encompassing the home ranges of some females. Some territoriality is also evident in females, whose core areas are exclusive. It is basically a solitary species, sometimes observed in pairs or small family groups. Adult males are probably weakly serially polygynous, forming temporary tending bonds with estrous females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, mainly for its large range and its occurrence in many protected areas. It is decreasing, due to the industrial exploitation of hides and continuous habitat loss. In Chinait is considered vulnerable but it is not protected at a national scale. The population established in England, is now quite common, increasing and expanding its range to other parts of Great Britain. In 2005 the total estimate for this population was 118,000 individuals.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Chapman(2008), Chapmanet al. (1997), Leasor et al. (2008), McCullough et al. (2000), Miura (1984), Pei Kurtis & Liu Hwanwun (1994)." +03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,409,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D.xml,Muntiacus reevesi,Muntiacus,reevesi,,,Muntjac de Chine @fr | China-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Reeves @es,"Cervus reevesi Ogilby, 1839, Canton (China).Because of the relatively high number of chromosomes of the karyotype this species is considered a primitive muntjac. According to a genetic study, together with M. vuquangensisit forms one of two clades; according to a second study it forms a distinct lineage not closely related to other muntjacs. Its scientific and common name honorJ. Reeves, a naturalist and Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East IndiaCompany, who worked for 19 years in China. Two subspecies are recognized.","M.r.reeves:Ogilby,1838—SEChina.M. r. micrurus Sclater, 1875— Taiwan.The subspecies from mainland Chinawas introduced into Englandin the early 20"" century.","Head-body 70-80 cm,tail 12-13 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight of adult males 14-15 kg and of adult females 12-13 kg. Males are on average 15% heavier than females. A small-sized muntjac with rounded ears. The tail is relatively short, chestnut dorsally, white below. The summer coatis red-brown, the winter coat is gray-brown. Males have a black stripe up each frontal ridge and pedicle, forming a V on the forehead. Fawn coat has ocher spots, which disappear by two months. A large preorbital sac, frontal glands, rear interdigital gland and (in males) a preputial gland are present. Upper canines are around 6 cmlong in males, of which one third is hidden in the alveolus; females have smaller upper canines, about 1-7 cm long, of which one third extends out of the alveolus. Antlers of adults are short and simple, 4-8 cm long, on pedicles 5-8 cm high. They generally have a very small basal brow tine and distally they tend to curve inward. Pedicles begin to grow at 5-7 months of age; first antlers appear at 8-11 months, generally minute spikes without a coronet. Subsequent antler sets grow in summer, are clean in September, and are cast in May. Hooves are very small, about 3 cmlong. The diploid number of chromosomesis 46.","In the original range it prefers dense temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests and scrub, at 200-400 m above sea level. Sometimesit also frequents alpine grasslands up to 3500 mabove sea level. Introduced populations in Englandare particularly common in dense habitat with a good diversity of vegetation.","As a typical concentrate selector, it browses leaves and shoots and eats fruits.","Females attain puberty precociously, at 6-7 months of age. Breeding occurs throughout the year, with fawns born in any month. Females are polyestrous with a mean cycle of 14-15 days. After a gestation of 210 days, females give birth to one fawn weighing about 1-2 kg. Since a postpartum estrus is common, females may give birth every eight months. Fawns are weaned in four months. At six months of age they attain 60% of the final weight, at 18 months they reach 90% of their adult weight. Males may disperse at about 5-6 months, sometimes later. Reeves’s Muntjac can live to a maximum of 13 years.","It is active all day, with five distinct periods of feeding in 24 hours.","As a slinker, it generally moves with the head held down. When alarmed it lifts the tail, showing the white underneath. Usually home ranges are small, 10-30 ha, but can be up to 100 ha, generally larger in males. Males are territorial, with a defended area encompassing the home ranges of some females. Some territoriality is also evident in females, whose core areas are exclusive. It is basically a solitary species, sometimes observed in pairs or small family groups. Adult males are probably weakly serially polygynous, forming temporary tending bonds with estrous females.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, mainly for its large range and its occurrence in many protected areas. It is decreasing, due to the industrial exploitation of hides and continuous habitat loss. In Chinait is considered vulnerable but it is not protected at a national scale. The population established in England, is now quite common, increasing and expanding its range to other parts of Great Britain. In 2005 the total estimate for this population was 118,000 individuals.",Apollonio et al. (2010) | Chapman(2008) | Chapmanet al. (1997) | Leasor et al. (2008) | McCullough et al. (2000) | Miura (1984) | Pei Kurtis & Liu Hwanwun (1994),https://zenodo.org/record/6514393/files/figure.png,"3.Reeves’s MuntjacMuntiacus reevesiFrench:Muntjac de Chine/ German:China-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de ReevesTaxonomy.Cervus reevesi Ogilby, 1839, Canton (China).Because of the relatively high number of chromosomes of the karyotype this species is considered a primitive muntjac. According to a genetic study, together with M. vuquangensisit forms one of two clades; according to a second study it forms a distinct lineage not closely related to other muntjacs. Its scientific and common name honorJ. Reeves, a naturalist and Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East IndiaCompany, who worked for 19 years in China. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.r.reeves:Ogilby,1838—SEChina.M. r. micrurus Sclater, 1875— Taiwan.The subspecies from mainland Chinawas introduced into Englandin the early 20"" century.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-80 cm,tail 12-13 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight of adult males 14-15 kg and of adult females 12-13 kg. Males are on average 15% heavier than females. A small-sized muntjac with rounded ears. The tail is relatively short, chestnut dorsally, white below. The summer coatis red-brown, the winter coat is gray-brown. Males have a black stripe up each frontal ridge and pedicle, forming a V on the forehead. Fawn coat has ocher spots, which disappear by two months. A large preorbital sac, frontal glands, rear interdigital gland and (in males) a preputial gland are present. Upper canines are around 6 cmlong in males, of which one third is hidden in the alveolus; females have smaller upper canines, about 1-7 cm long, of which one third extends out of the alveolus. Antlers of adults are short and simple, 4-8 cm long, on pedicles 5-8 cm high. They generally have a very small basal brow tine and distally they tend to curve inward. Pedicles begin to grow at 5-7 months of age; first antlers appear at 8-11 months, generally minute spikes without a coronet. Subsequent antler sets grow in summer, are clean in September, and are cast in May. Hooves are very small, about 3 cmlong. The diploid number of chromosomesis 46.Habitat.In the original range it prefers dense temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests and scrub, at 200-400 m above sea level. Sometimesit also frequents alpine grasslands up to 3500 mabove sea level. Introduced populations in Englandare particularly common in dense habitat with a good diversity of vegetation.Food and Feeding.As a typical concentrate selector, it browses leaves and shoots and eats fruits.Breeding.Females attain puberty precociously, at 6-7 months of age. Breeding occurs throughout the year, with fawns born in any month. Females are polyestrous with a mean cycle of 14-15 days. After a gestation of 210 days, females give birth to one fawn weighing about 1-2 kg. Since a postpartum estrus is common, females may give birth every eight months. Fawns are weaned in four months. At six months of age they attain 60% of the final weight, at 18 months they reach 90% of their adult weight. Males may disperse at about 5-6 months, sometimes later. Reeves’s Muntjac can live to a maximum of 13 years.Activity patterns.It is active all day, with five distinct periods of feeding in 24 hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As a slinker, it generally moves with the head held down. When alarmed it lifts the tail, showing the white underneath. Usually home ranges are small, 10-30 ha, but can be up to 100 ha, generally larger in males. Males are territorial, with a defended area encompassing the home ranges of some females. Some territoriality is also evident in females, whose core areas are exclusive. It is basically a solitary species, sometimes observed in pairs or small family groups. Adult males are probably weakly serially polygynous, forming temporary tending bonds with estrous females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, mainly for its large range and its occurrence in many protected areas. It is decreasing, due to the industrial exploitation of hides and continuous habitat loss. In Chinait is considered vulnerable but it is not protected at a national scale. The population established in England, is now quite common, increasing and expanding its range to other parts of Great Britain. In 2005 the total estimate for this population was 118,000 individuals.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Chapman(2008), Chapmanet al. (1997), Leasor et al. (2008), McCullough et al. (2000), Miura (1984), Pei Kurtis & Liu Hwanwun (1994)." 03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF42F6BDEF35FDDC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,409,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF42F6BDEF35FDDC.xml,Muntiacus atherodes,Muntiacus,atherodes,Groves & Grubb,1982,Muntjac de Bornéo @fr | Borneo-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Borneo @es,"Muntiacus atherodes Groves & Grubb, 1982, Tawau, Sabah(Borneo).The first member of the genus probably occurred in south-western Chinaabout nine million years ago. All muntjacs are characterized by relatively long pedicles, small preorbital fossae, tusk-like upper canines; metatarsal glands are absent. The Bornean Yellow Muntjac has been confused with the sympatric M. muntjakfor many decades. It has been considered a primitive species for its rudimentary tiny antlers with irregular antler cycles, but the regression of antlers may be only an extreme adaptation to environment and climate. Monotypic.",Borneo.,"Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 15-19 cm, shoulder height 65 cm; weight 14-18 kg. Small, with short slender pedicles and very short unbranched antlers (2-4 cm long). Males are slighter larger than females. The coat is predominantly yellow or yellowish-orange, with agouti-banded hairs and there is a broad dorsal stripe. The tail is dark brown dorsally; the underparts are pale yellow.",Uses both primary and secondary forests. It seems absent from mountains.,"Eats leaves, buds, forbs, seeds, fruits, and grass.",Nothing is known.,"Active all day, with a tendency to be diurnal.",Observed alone or in pairs.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Still widespread, locally common but probably decreasing (especially in the Indonesian part of the island).","Dong (2007) | Groves & Grubb (1982, 1990) | Payne & Francis (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514391/files/figure.png,"2.Bornean Yellow MuntjacMuntiacus atherodesFrench:Muntjac de Bornéo/ German:Borneo-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de BorneoTaxonomy.Muntiacus atherodes Groves & Grubb, 1982, Tawau, Sabah(Borneo).The first member of the genus probably occurred in south-western Chinaabout nine million years ago. All muntjacs are characterized by relatively long pedicles, small preorbital fossae, tusk-like upper canines; metatarsal glands are absent. The Bornean Yellow Muntjac has been confused with the sympatric M. muntjakfor many decades. It has been considered a primitive species for its rudimentary tiny antlers with irregular antler cycles, but the regression of antlers may be only an extreme adaptation to environment and climate. Monotypic.Distribution.Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 15-19 cm, shoulder height 65 cm; weight 14-18 kg. Small, with short slender pedicles and very short unbranched antlers (2-4 cm long). Males are slighter larger than females. The coat is predominantly yellow or yellowish-orange, with agouti-banded hairs and there is a broad dorsal stripe. The tail is dark brown dorsally; the underparts are pale yellow.Habitat.Uses both primary and secondary forests. It seems absent from mountains.Food and Feeding.Eats leaves, buds, forbs, seeds, fruits, and grass.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Active all day, with a tendency to be diurnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Observed alone or in pairs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Still widespread, locally common but probably decreasing (especially in the Indonesian part of the island).Bibliography.Dong (2007), Groves & Grubb (1982, 1990), Payne & Francis (2005)." -03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,409,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804.xml,Elaphodus cephalophus,Elaphodus,cephalophus,Milne-Edwards,1872,Elaphode @fr | Schopfhirsch @de | Elafodo @es,"Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872, Moupin, Sichuan(China).Distinct genus closely related to Muntiacus. Three subspecies are generally recognized.","E.c.cephalophusMilne-Edwards,1872—SWChina;oldrecordsfromNMyanmar.E.c.ichangensisLydekker,1904—SChina.E. c. michianus Swinhoe, 1874— SE China.","Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 7-13 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 17-30 kg. Relatively largesized muntiacine, with shortened head, short and thin pedicles, and diminutive unbranched antlers hidden by a distinct tuft of tall hair on the top of the head. Ears and tail are small. The coat is mainly dark brown, legs are black. White marks at the base and the tip of the ear. The underside of the tail is white. The fur is coarse. Frontal ridges are weak, large upper canines are present in both sexes. Frontal glands are absent, preorbital gland very large, metatarsal glands present but small. Newborn fawns have one or two rows of faint white spots. Antlers are not shed.","Compared to the members of genus Muntiacus, it is adapted to cooler climates. It lives in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, up to 4750 mabove sea level.","Eats bamboo, forbs, fruit, and grass.","Females sexually mature at about 10-12 months of age. Mating season is September-December. After about 180 days of pregnancy, in April-July, females give birth to one or two fawns.",Active mainly at dawn and dusk.,Observed alone or in pairs. When disturbed it flees with cat-like jumps with tail held up and wagging. It barks like a muntjac when alarmed.,Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List and it is decreasing. Overhunting is a major threat.,Groves & Grubb (1990) | Harris (2008a) | Ohtaishi & Gao (1990) | Smith & Xie Yan (2008) | Zhang Zejun et al. (2004),,"1.Tufted DeerElaphodus cephalophusFrench:Elaphode/ German:Schopfhirsch/ Spanish:ElafodoTaxonomy.Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872, Moupin, Sichuan(China).Distinct genus closely related to Muntiacus. Three subspecies are generally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.c.cephalophusMilne-Edwards,1872—SWChina;oldrecordsfromNMyanmar.E.c.ichangensisLydekker,1904—SChina.E. c. michianus Swinhoe, 1874— SE China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 7-13 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 17-30 kg. Relatively largesized muntiacine, with shortened head, short and thin pedicles, and diminutive unbranched antlers hidden by a distinct tuft of tall hair on the top of the head. Ears and tail are small. The coat is mainly dark brown, legs are black. White marks at the base and the tip of the ear. The underside of the tail is white. The fur is coarse. Frontal ridges are weak, large upper canines are present in both sexes. Frontal glands are absent, preorbital gland very large, metatarsal glands present but small. Newborn fawns have one or two rows of faint white spots. Antlers are not shed.Habitat.Compared to the members of genus Muntiacus, it is adapted to cooler climates. It lives in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, up to 4750 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Eats bamboo, forbs, fruit, and grass.Breeding.Females sexually mature at about 10-12 months of age. Mating season is September-December. After about 180 days of pregnancy, in April-July, females give birth to one or two fawns.Activity patterns.Active mainly at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Observed alone or in pairs. When disturbed it flees with cat-like jumps with tail held up and wagging. It barks like a muntjac when alarmed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List and it is decreasing. Overhunting is a major threat.Bibliography.Groves & Grubb (1990), Harris (2008a), Ohtaishi & Gao (1990), Smith & Xie Yan (2008), Zhang Zejun et al. (2004)." -03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,422,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5.xml,Cervus elaphus,Cervus,elaphus,Linnaeus,1758,Cerf élaphe @fr | Rothirsch @de | Ciervo @es | Barbary Red Deer (barbarus) @en | Bukhara Red Deer (bactrianus) @en | Caspian Red Deer @en | Maral (maral) @en | Tarim Red Deer (yarkandensis) @en | Thyrrenian Red Deer (corsicanus) @en,"Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Red deer appeared in Europe in late Early Pleistocene, about 900,000 years ago. They were large-sized deer bearing five-tined antlers with a terminal fork, replaced in Middle Pleistocene by deer characterized by antlers with a terminal crown. For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. The general body shape, the conspicuous rump patch, and the occurrence of the bez tine in the antler are common traits. But the various forms differ in many characteristics (degree of sexual dimorphism, coat coloration, antler conformation, behavior postures, vocalizations) and have only partial interfertility. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. The analysis of mtDNA revealed in the western part of the distribution range three main lineages: a western one that during the last glacial maximum (about 20,000 years ago) survived in an ice-free refugium in Spainand southern France, an eastern one subsisting in South-eastern Europe (Carpathians and Balkans) and a third lineage possibly living then in Italyand now represented only by “Thyrrenian Red Deer” (corsicanus) and “Barbary Red Deer” (barbarus). With the end of the last glaciacion most of Europe was recolonized from the western refugium. It is probable that the Thyrrenian Red Deer derives from introductions by man from mainland Italyinto Sardiniaabout 8000 years ago. Barbary Red Deer of North Africa, could have been translocated there in ancient times. Here six subspecies of Western Red Deer are recognized.","C.e.elaphusLinnaeus,1758—GreatBritainandcontinentalEurope.C.e.bactrianusLydekker,1900—WTurkestan(Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan&NAfghanistan).C.e.barbarusBennett,1833—AtlasMts(Algeria,Tunisia).C.e.corsicanusErxleben,1777—Corsica(extinct,reintroducedin1985),Sardinia.C.e.maralGray,1850—Anatolia,Caucasus,andNWIran.C. e. yarkandensis Blanford, 1892— E Turkestan (S Xinjiang, China).It has been introduced into Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.","Head-body 180-205 cm for males (stags) and 165-180 cm for females (hinds), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 105-130 cm (stags) and 95-115 cm (hinds); post-rutting weight of stags 110-220 kg and hinds 75-120 kg. The heaviest animals occur in the Carpathians and Bulgaria(with records of 350 kglean weight for stags and 200 kgfor hinds), the lightest in the Scottish Highlands, southern Spain, Sardinia, and Mesola Wood (Italian Peninsula). Adult stags are on average 50-70% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with large head and elongated snout. There are two main genetic groups: a western advanced one (typically with six-tined antlers with a terminal crown, from Europe to Iran) and an Asian primitive one (with five-tined antlers, from the Aral Sea to the Tarim Basin). The rump patch is relatively small, orange on the upper portion, whitish on the lower part, and bordered below in dark brown. The tail is orange and relatively short. The summer coat is reddish or reddishbrown, with grayish legs and whitish belly. The winter coat is grayish-brown; adult stags have a thick neck mane and the belly is heavily stained black. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves have a brown coat with scattered white spots on the sides, which are lost after 2-3 months. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. The preorbitals are particularly well developed and open in young calves and in rutting stags. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Permanent teeth erupt at 5-25 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, cylindrical, and typically well branched, with two basal tines (brow and bez) and a terminal cup-like “royal” crown or an upper fork. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 5-40 cm long. At 8-13 years the antlers of Western Red Deer attain their full size. In high quality populations antlers are on average 90-105 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6.6-5 kg, but there are records of 130-140 cm for antler beam length and of 18-21 kg for trophy mass. There are normally 5-7 tines per antler beam, with records of 16 inthe wild and 24 inparks. In less productive habitats (Scottish Highlands, Sardinia, Mesola Wood, North Africa) antlers are on average only 60-70 cm in length, with 3-4 tines per beam. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in July, antler casting in late February-March. Antler regression occurs at 15-16 years of age, sometimes earlier. Hooves are 9-11 cm long in adult stags and 7-8 cm in hinds, with toe pads occupying one third of the hoof.","Originally associated with the interface between woodland and grassland, but highly adaptable. It also lives in Mediterranean maquis scrub, in alpine summit meadows, and in the treeless moorlands of Scotland. It prefers broadleaved woodlands interspersed by large meadows. Up to 2800 mabove sea level on the Alps. In west-central Asia it occurs in woody and shrubby thickets along riverbanks in desert areas.","As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen,it tends to eat a mixed diet of about 30% grass and sedges and about 65% browse, without significant differences among seasons. Fruits and seeds are important items in autumn. It is a very versatile species, consuming up to 300 different species of plants. The two sexes tend to differ in diet composition, hinds eating higher quality food. Stags eat on average 14-16 kg and females around 9-10 kg offresh vegetation per day. Actual food intake follows appetite cycles related to photoperiod and hormones, which are highest in March—June and lowest in late September-December. Lactating hinds more than double their energy requirements.","In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16 months of age. In less productive habitats sexual maturity may be postponed by at least one year. Stags reach puberty at about 16 months, but can actually begin to reproduce at five years of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18 days. During estrus they are receptive for only 6-24 hours. Conceptions are well synchronized, occurring for 80% of females within 3-4 weeks. Stags leave their summer quarters and move to their traditional rutting stands, where they try to collect and defend a harem against other stags. Competition among stags is high, with some failing completely to reproduce and others able to father up to a dozen or more calves in a season. Stags are involved in roaring contests, dominance displays, and overt fights, with a real risk of serious injury, or more rarely, death. During rut stags lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight and up to 80% of body fat. The mean length of gestation is 235 days. Before giving birth, hinds leave their group and move away from their usual core areas, looking for better cover. Calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds almost invariably give birth to one calf, which weighs on average 8-9 kg (about 6-5 kg in Scottish moorlands). Male calves are about 5% heavier than females. For the first 7-10 days calves are kept hidden, usually lying in tall vegetation, then begin to follow their mother. During the first few days calves are fed ten times a day. From five days to 90 days they are nursed eight times, and after that, four times a day. Lactating hinds produce 2-4 liters of milk per day, with a peak 50 days after parturition and a decline after three months. By 15-18 days of age calves have doubled their birth weight. They begin to ingest their first vegetation at ten days, and at one month they feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months (November—February). Stags can typically breed for 3-5 years, peaking in Scotlandat 7-10 years of age (possibly at 9-12 years in continental Europe). Hinds have a much longer reproductive life span, of up to 12-16 years. The sexes have also a differential pattern of body growth; stags do not reach their full body weight before 8-9 years of age, whereas hinds attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally Western Red Deerlive to a maximum of 17-18 years, with records of 22 years for stags and 26 for hinds. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).","It is active all the day, with peaks at dawn and in early evening, alternating 6-8 periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving from place to place. It dedicates 7-12 hours to feeding. Human disturbance increases nocturnal activity.","Western Red Deer have home ranges of variable size, according to sex and habitat; sometimes they occupy only 2-5 km?, sometimes 8-40 km” and more. Adult stags tend to be more mobile and to have separate seasonal ranges. In mountains part of the population can be sedentary, part can make short distance movements, and part can be migratory, moving 10-60 km to reach lower pastures in the winter and high feeding areas in summer. Ranges are normally undefended. Red deer are social animals. The basic social unit is the matrilineal family group, with a dominant old hind associated with her daughters, granddaughters, and their dependent offspring. Stags segregate from hinds for most of the year and form small, less stable, bachelor bands. In woodlands, female family groups can split into smaller units; in open habitat they may unite with neighboring hind groups. During winter and early spring several groups can form temporary large aggregations in open ground.","“Bukhara Red Deer” (bactrianus) CITES Annex I and Barbary Red Deer CITES Annex III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. elaphuscomplex), but it can be considered as not currently at risk and globally increasing. During the 18"" and the 19"" century overhunting with modern weapons resulted in a drastic contraction of the distribution range and abundance in most parts of Europe. Strict rules for culling, the enforcement of laws with precise hunting seasons, and reintroductions combined to produce an increase in range and numbers. This has become particularly evident since the 1950s-1960s. At the beginning of the 20"" century in the Italian Peninsula only a small population in the Po River delta (Mesola Wood) survived. Thanks to the natural recolonization from neighboring countries of the Alpine region and releases, in 1970 deer numbered 3000 individuals. The number grew to 41,000 in2000 and 57,000 in2005. In all of Europe, excluding Russia, Western Red Deer numbered 1-25 million individuals in 1985 and 2-4 million in 2005. The annual harvest grew in the same period from 270,000 to 500,000 individuals. Densities are normally 1-5 ind/km?, sometimes up to 15 ind/km?*; higher numbers often imply supplementary feeding. Densities are artificially raised to unnaturallevels (up to 100 ind/km?) to increase revenues from hunting. The Western Red Deeris extinct in Albaniaand in the Near East (Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Syria). Four subspecies are still rare: the Thyrrenian Red Deer, the Barbary Red Deer, the Bukhara Red Deer, and the “Tarim Red Deer” (yarkandensis). Thyrrenian Red Deer faced a dramatic decline in the 20™ century, disappearing from Corsicain 1969 and decreasing to a minimum population size of 100 animals in Sardinia in 1970. Deforestation,fires, and poaching with guns and snares were the main causes. Red Deer from Sardinia have recovered slowly, numbering 6000 animals in 2005. In 1985 a reintroduction program was started in Corsica. Barbary Red Deer became extinct in Moroccoby 1932, and in early 1960 only a few dozen animals survived in forests in the Atlas Mountains between Algeriaand Tunisia. More effective protection allowed a recovery in Algeriaand Tunisia, and in 1994 a reintroduction was begun in Morocco. The Bukhara Red Deer originally lived in the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Tree felling, cattle grazing, and overhunting led to a rapid decline during the 19"" century. In early 1900 it disappeared from Syr Darya. In the mid-1960s the population reached a minimum of 350-400 animals; in the early 1980s it had grown to 1100. The Tarim Red Deer of Chinese Xinjiang had a declining population of 4000-5000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakash rivers.","Apollonio et al. (2010) | Butzler (1986) | Carnevali et al. (2009) | Clutton-Brock & Albon (1989) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1982) | Danilkin (1999) | Gebert & Verheyden (2008) | Gill (1990) | Mattioli, Fico et al. (2003) | Mattioli, Meneguz et al. (2001) | von Raesfeld & Reulecke (1988) | Skog et al. (2009) | Sommeret al. (2008) | Staines et al. (2008) | Wagenknecht (1986) | Zachos & Hartl (2011)",,"25.Western Red DeerCervus elaphusFrench:Cerf élaphe/ German:Rothirsch/ Spanish:CiervoOther common names:Barbary Red Deer (barbarus), Bukhara Red Deer (bactrianus), Caspian Red Deer/Maral (maral), Tarim Red Deer (yarkandensis), Thyrrenian Red Deer (corsicanus)Taxonomy.Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Red deer appeared in Europe in late Early Pleistocene, about 900,000 years ago. They were large-sized deer bearing five-tined antlers with a terminal fork, replaced in Middle Pleistocene by deer characterized by antlers with a terminal crown. For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. The general body shape, the conspicuous rump patch, and the occurrence of the bez tine in the antler are common traits. But the various forms differ in many characteristics (degree of sexual dimorphism, coat coloration, antler conformation, behavior postures, vocalizations) and have only partial interfertility. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. The analysis of mtDNA revealed in the western part of the distribution range three main lineages: a western one that during the last glacial maximum (about 20,000 years ago) survived in an ice-free refugium in Spainand southern France, an eastern one subsisting in South-eastern Europe (Carpathians and Balkans) and a third lineage possibly living then in Italyand now represented only by “Thyrrenian Red Deer” (corsicanus) and “Barbary Red Deer” (barbarus). With the end of the last glaciacion most of Europe was recolonized from the western refugium. It is probable that the Thyrrenian Red Deer derives from introductions by man from mainland Italyinto Sardiniaabout 8000 years ago. Barbary Red Deer of North Africa, could have been translocated there in ancient times. Here six subspecies of Western Red Deer are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.e.elaphusLinnaeus,1758—GreatBritainandcontinentalEurope.C.e.bactrianusLydekker,1900—WTurkestan(Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan&NAfghanistan).C.e.barbarusBennett,1833—AtlasMts(Algeria,Tunisia).C.e.corsicanusErxleben,1777—Corsica(extinct,reintroducedin1985),Sardinia.C.e.maralGray,1850—Anatolia,Caucasus,andNWIran.C. e. yarkandensis Blanford, 1892— E Turkestan (S Xinjiang, China).It has been introduced into Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-205 cm for males (stags) and 165-180 cm for females (hinds), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 105-130 cm (stags) and 95-115 cm (hinds); post-rutting weight of stags 110-220 kg and hinds 75-120 kg. The heaviest animals occur in the Carpathians and Bulgaria(with records of 350 kglean weight for stags and 200 kgfor hinds), the lightest in the Scottish Highlands, southern Spain, Sardinia, and Mesola Wood (Italian Peninsula). Adult stags are on average 50-70% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with large head and elongated snout. There are two main genetic groups: a western advanced one (typically with six-tined antlers with a terminal crown, from Europe to Iran) and an Asian primitive one (with five-tined antlers, from the Aral Sea to the Tarim Basin). The rump patch is relatively small, orange on the upper portion, whitish on the lower part, and bordered below in dark brown. The tail is orange and relatively short. The summer coat is reddish or reddishbrown, with grayish legs and whitish belly. The winter coat is grayish-brown; adult stags have a thick neck mane and the belly is heavily stained black. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves have a brown coat with scattered white spots on the sides, which are lost after 2-3 months. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. The preorbitals are particularly well developed and open in young calves and in rutting stags. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Permanent teeth erupt at 5-25 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, cylindrical, and typically well branched, with two basal tines (brow and bez) and a terminal cup-like “royal” crown or an upper fork. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 5-40 cm long. At 8-13 years the antlers of Western Red Deer attain their full size. In high quality populations antlers are on average 90-105 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6.6-5 kg, but there are records of 130-140 cm for antler beam length and of 18-21 kg for trophy mass. There are normally 5-7 tines per antler beam, with records of 16 inthe wild and 24 inparks. In less productive habitats (Scottish Highlands, Sardinia, Mesola Wood, North Africa) antlers are on average only 60-70 cm in length, with 3-4 tines per beam. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in July, antler casting in late February-March. Antler regression occurs at 15-16 years of age, sometimes earlier. Hooves are 9-11 cm long in adult stags and 7-8 cm in hinds, with toe pads occupying one third of the hoof.Habitat.Originally associated with the interface between woodland and grassland, but highly adaptable. It also lives in Mediterranean maquis scrub, in alpine summit meadows, and in the treeless moorlands of Scotland. It prefers broadleaved woodlands interspersed by large meadows. Up to 2800 mabove sea level on the Alps. In west-central Asia it occurs in woody and shrubby thickets along riverbanks in desert areas.Food and Feeding.As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen,it tends to eat a mixed diet of about 30% grass and sedges and about 65% browse, without significant differences among seasons. Fruits and seeds are important items in autumn. It is a very versatile species, consuming up to 300 different species of plants. The two sexes tend to differ in diet composition, hinds eating higher quality food. Stags eat on average 14-16 kg and females around 9-10 kg offresh vegetation per day. Actual food intake follows appetite cycles related to photoperiod and hormones, which are highest in March—June and lowest in late September-December. Lactating hinds more than double their energy requirements.Breeding.In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16 months of age. In less productive habitats sexual maturity may be postponed by at least one year. Stags reach puberty at about 16 months, but can actually begin to reproduce at five years of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18 days. During estrus they are receptive for only 6-24 hours. Conceptions are well synchronized, occurring for 80% of females within 3-4 weeks. Stags leave their summer quarters and move to their traditional rutting stands, where they try to collect and defend a harem against other stags. Competition among stags is high, with some failing completely to reproduce and others able to father up to a dozen or more calves in a season. Stags are involved in roaring contests, dominance displays, and overt fights, with a real risk of serious injury, or more rarely, death. During rut stags lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight and up to 80% of body fat. The mean length of gestation is 235 days. Before giving birth, hinds leave their group and move away from their usual core areas, looking for better cover. Calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds almost invariably give birth to one calf, which weighs on average 8-9 kg (about 6-5 kg in Scottish moorlands). Male calves are about 5% heavier than females. For the first 7-10 days calves are kept hidden, usually lying in tall vegetation, then begin to follow their mother. During the first few days calves are fed ten times a day. From five days to 90 days they are nursed eight times, and after that, four times a day. Lactating hinds produce 2-4 liters of milk per day, with a peak 50 days after parturition and a decline after three months. By 15-18 days of age calves have doubled their birth weight. They begin to ingest their first vegetation at ten days, and at one month they feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months (November—February). Stags can typically breed for 3-5 years, peaking in Scotlandat 7-10 years of age (possibly at 9-12 years in continental Europe). Hinds have a much longer reproductive life span, of up to 12-16 years. The sexes have also a differential pattern of body growth; stags do not reach their full body weight before 8-9 years of age, whereas hinds attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally Western Red Deerlive to a maximum of 17-18 years, with records of 22 years for stags and 26 for hinds. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).Activity patterns.It is active all the day, with peaks at dawn and in early evening, alternating 6-8 periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving from place to place. It dedicates 7-12 hours to feeding. Human disturbance increases nocturnal activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Red Deer have home ranges of variable size, according to sex and habitat; sometimes they occupy only 2-5 km?, sometimes 8-40 km” and more. Adult stags tend to be more mobile and to have separate seasonal ranges. In mountains part of the population can be sedentary, part can make short distance movements, and part can be migratory, moving 10-60 km to reach lower pastures in the winter and high feeding areas in summer. Ranges are normally undefended. Red deer are social animals. The basic social unit is the matrilineal family group, with a dominant old hind associated with her daughters, granddaughters, and their dependent offspring. Stags segregate from hinds for most of the year and form small, less stable, bachelor bands. In woodlands, female family groups can split into smaller units; in open habitat they may unite with neighboring hind groups. During winter and early spring several groups can form temporary large aggregations in open ground.Status and Conservation.“Bukhara Red Deer” (bactrianus) CITES Annex I and Barbary Red Deer CITES Annex III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. elaphuscomplex), but it can be considered as not currently at risk and globally increasing. During the 18"" and the 19"" century overhunting with modern weapons resulted in a drastic contraction of the distribution range and abundance in most parts of Europe. Strict rules for culling, the enforcement of laws with precise hunting seasons, and reintroductions combined to produce an increase in range and numbers. This has become particularly evident since the 1950s-1960s. At the beginning of the 20"" century in the Italian Peninsula only a small population in the Po River delta (Mesola Wood) survived. Thanks to the natural recolonization from neighboring countries of the Alpine region and releases, in 1970 deer numbered 3000 individuals. The number grew to 41,000 in2000 and 57,000 in2005. In all of Europe, excluding Russia, Western Red Deer numbered 1-25 million individuals in 1985 and 2-4 million in 2005. The annual harvest grew in the same period from 270,000 to 500,000 individuals. Densities are normally 1-5 ind/km?, sometimes up to 15 ind/km?*; higher numbers often imply supplementary feeding. Densities are artificially raised to unnaturallevels (up to 100 ind/km?) to increase revenues from hunting. The Western Red Deeris extinct in Albaniaand in the Near East (Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Syria). Four subspecies are still rare: the Thyrrenian Red Deer, the Barbary Red Deer, the Bukhara Red Deer, and the “Tarim Red Deer” (yarkandensis). Thyrrenian Red Deer faced a dramatic decline in the 20™ century, disappearing from Corsicain 1969 and decreasing to a minimum population size of 100 animals in Sardinia in 1970. Deforestation,fires, and poaching with guns and snares were the main causes. Red Deer from Sardinia have recovered slowly, numbering 6000 animals in 2005. In 1985 a reintroduction program was started in Corsica. Barbary Red Deer became extinct in Moroccoby 1932, and in early 1960 only a few dozen animals survived in forests in the Atlas Mountains between Algeriaand Tunisia. More effective protection allowed a recovery in Algeriaand Tunisia, and in 1994 a reintroduction was begun in Morocco. The Bukhara Red Deer originally lived in the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Tree felling, cattle grazing, and overhunting led to a rapid decline during the 19"" century. In early 1900 it disappeared from Syr Darya. In the mid-1960s the population reached a minimum of 350-400 animals; in the early 1980s it had grown to 1100. The Tarim Red Deer of Chinese Xinjiang had a declining population of 4000-5000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakash rivers.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Butzler (1986), Carnevali et al. (2009), Clutton-Brock & Albon (1989), Clutton-Brock et al. (1982), Danilkin (1999), Gebert & Verheyden (2008), Gill (1990), Mattioli, Fico et al. (2003), Mattioli, Meneguz et al. (2001), von Raesfeld & Reulecke (1988), Skog et al. (2009), Sommeret al. (2008), Staines et al. (2008), Wagenknecht (1986), Zachos & Hartl (2011)." -03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,421,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5.xml,Cervus nippon,Cervus,nippon,Temminck,1838,Cerf sika @fr | Sikahirsch @de | Sika @es,"Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838, Japan.The first true members of the genus Cervusprobably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japanwas colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.","C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884— N Japan(Hokkaido).It was anciently introduced to Solo I (Philippines) and in 17"" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19"" and 20"" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA.","Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido(with records of 176 kgfor stags and 108 kgfor hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cmfor antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.",Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cmis limiting. Up to 3000 mabove sea level.,"It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japanthe deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.","Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).",Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.,"It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 min length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 kmbetween summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Koreait is extinct, in North Koreavery rare or extinct. In Taiwanit became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnamit is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In Chinathere are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in Chinaand all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Irelandand 27,000 for Great Britain.",Apollonio et al. (2010) | Bartos et al. (1998) | Baskin & Danell (2003) | Feldhamer (1980) | Feldhameret al. (1985) | Geist (1998) | Groves (2006) | Groves & Smeenk (1978) | Hayden et al. (1994) | Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006) | McCullough et al. (2009) | Miura (1984) | Putman (2008) | Suzuki et al. (2001) | Zejda & Babicka (1983),,"23.Sika DeerCervus nipponFrench:Cerf sika/ German:Sikahirsch/ Spanish:SikaTaxonomy.Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838, Japan.The first true members of the genus Cervusprobably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japanwas colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.Subspecies and Distribution.C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884— N Japan(Hokkaido).It was anciently introduced to Solo I (Philippines) and in 17"" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19"" and 20"" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA.Descriptive notes.Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido(with records of 176 kgfor stags and 108 kgfor hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cmfor antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.Habitat.Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cmis limiting. Up to 3000 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japanthe deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.Breeding.Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).Activity patterns.Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 min length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 kmbetween summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Koreait is extinct, in North Koreavery rare or extinct. In Taiwanit became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnamit is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In Chinathere are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in Chinaand all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Irelandand 27,000 for Great Britain.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Bartos et al. (1998), Baskin & Danell (2003), Feldhamer (1980), Feldhameret al. (1985), Geist (1998), Groves (2006), Groves & Smeenk (1978), Hayden et al. (1994), Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006), McCullough et al. (2009), Miura (1984), Putman (2008), Suzuki et al. (2001), Zejda & Babicka (1983)." -03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,421,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3.xml,Cervus wallichii,Cervus,wallichii,G. Cuvier,1823,Cerf de Wallich @fr | China-Rothirsch @de | Ciervoasiatico @es | Hangul (hangl @en | u) @en | Mac Neill's Red Deer (macneilli) @en | Shou (wallichii) @en,"Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, 1823, Lake Mansarovar (S Tibet).For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. C. wallichiiis the most primitive representative of the red deer complex lineage. The scientific name refers to the Danish naturalist N. Wallich, who was superintendent of the Botanical Garden of the East IndiaCompany in Calcutta. Here three subspecies are recognized.","C.w.wallichi:G.Cuvier,1823—SWChina(SEXizang),Bhutan.C.w.hangluWagner,1844—NIndia(Kashmir).C. w. macneilli Lydekker, 1909—C & SW China(N Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, W Sichuan& E Xizang).","Head—body 190-205 cm for males (stags) and 180-195 cm for females (hinds), tail length 8-12 cm, shoulder height 125-145 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of stags 150-240 kg and hinds 110-170 kg. Large-sized deer, with basically a five-tined antler plan, large ears, a short neck mane, a shorttail, massive haunches, and large broad hooves. The rump patch and the tail coloration vary among subspecies. Antlers tend to have a terminal transverse fork and a well-developed bez tine. The “Hangul” (hanglu) has a small rump patch bordered below by a broad black band and a dark tail. The belly is whitish, legs and chest are dark. The “Shou” (wallichii) seems to have a rump patch of variable size, often divided by a dark line. Thetail is whitish. The belly is gray, the lips are pale gray. “MacNeill’s Red Deer” (macneilli) has a narrow white rump patch that expands dorsally into a broad black croup patch, and a dark tail. The lips are gray-brown. This subspecies often has six-tined antlers.","Hanguls live in moist temperate forest. Shous occur in scrublands and alpine grasslands at 4300-4900 m above sea level. MacNeill’s Red Deeris found in montane conifer forest, willow-rhododendron scrublands, and alpine meadows.","As mixed feeders they may graze grasses and forbs, then turn to browsing leaves and twigs.",The rutting call begins as a roar but ends in a Wapiti-like bugle. The calving season of the Hangul peaks in July-August.,,"They are saltatorial, able to move with agility on steep slopes in scrub vegetation. They are gregarious, with large family groups. The rare Shou has been seen recently in herds of up to 55 animals.","Hangul CITES Appendix I. Considered a subspecies of the C. elaphuscomplex by IUCN and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red Lust. It is a very rare species, possibly threatened, the Hangul declined from 2000 animals in 1947 to less than 200 animals in the early 1970s, then increased to 1000 by 1989, but dropped again to 150-200 in the last decade. The Shou was considered extinct and rediscovered in a few localities of south-east Tibet(Xizang) in 1995. The status of MacNeill’s Red Deer is unknown. Poaching and pressure from stock grazing continue to be significant threats.","Dolan (1988) | Dolan & Killmar (1988) | Geist (1998) | Groves (2003, 2006) | Schaller (1998) | Wemmer (1998)",,"24.Central Asian Red DeerCervus wallichiiFrench:Cerf de Wallich/ German:China-Rothirsch/ Spanish:CiervoasiaticoOther common names:Hangul (hangl/u), MacNeill's Red Deer (macneilli), Shou (wallichii)Taxonomy.Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, 1823, Lake Mansarovar (S Tibet).For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. C. wallichiiis the most primitive representative of the red deer complex lineage. The scientific name refers to the Danish naturalist N. Wallich, who was superintendent of the Botanical Garden of the East IndiaCompany in Calcutta. Here three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.w.wallichi:G.Cuvier,1823—SWChina(SEXizang),Bhutan.C.w.hangluWagner,1844—NIndia(Kashmir).C. w. macneilli Lydekker, 1909—C & SW China(N Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, W Sichuan& E Xizang).Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-205 cm for males (stags) and 180-195 cm for females (hinds), tail length 8-12 cm, shoulder height 125-145 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of stags 150-240 kg and hinds 110-170 kg. Large-sized deer, with basically a five-tined antler plan, large ears, a short neck mane, a shorttail, massive haunches, and large broad hooves. The rump patch and the tail coloration vary among subspecies. Antlers tend to have a terminal transverse fork and a well-developed bez tine. The “Hangul” (hanglu) has a small rump patch bordered below by a broad black band and a dark tail. The belly is whitish, legs and chest are dark. The “Shou” (wallichii) seems to have a rump patch of variable size, often divided by a dark line. Thetail is whitish. The belly is gray, the lips are pale gray. “MacNeill’s Red Deer” (macneilli) has a narrow white rump patch that expands dorsally into a broad black croup patch, and a dark tail. The lips are gray-brown. This subspecies often has six-tined antlers.Habitat.Hanguls live in moist temperate forest. Shous occur in scrublands and alpine grasslands at 4300-4900 m above sea level. MacNeill’s Red Deeris found in montane conifer forest, willow-rhododendron scrublands, and alpine meadows.Food and Feeding.As mixed feeders they may graze grasses and forbs, then turn to browsing leaves and twigs.On following pages 25 Western Red Door (Corvus oluphusl, 26 Wapm (Corvus canodenswlBreeding.The rutting call begins as a roar but ends in a Wapiti-like bugle. The calving season of the Hangul peaks in July-August.Movements, Home range and Social organization.They are saltatorial, able to move with agility on steep slopes in scrub vegetation. They are gregarious, with large family groups. The rare Shou has been seen recently in herds of up to 55 animals.Status and Conservation.Hangul CITES Appendix I. Considered a subspecies of the C. elaphuscomplex by IUCN and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red Lust. It is a very rare species, possibly threatened, the Hangul declined from 2000 animals in 1947 to less than 200 animals in the early 1970s, then increased to 1000 by 1989, but dropped again to 150-200 in the last decade. The Shou was considered extinct and rediscovered in a few localities of south-east Tibet(Xizang) in 1995. The status of MacNeill’s Red Deer is unknown. Poaching and pressure from stock grazing continue to be significant threats.Bibliography.Dolan (1988), Dolan & Killmar (1988), Geist (1998), Groves (2003, 2006), Schaller (1998), Wemmer (1998)." +03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,409,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804.xml,Elaphodus cephalophus,Elaphodus,cephalophus,Milne-Edwards,1872,Elaphode @fr | Schopfhirsch @de | Elafodo @es,"Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872, Moupin, Sichuan(China).Distinct genus closely related to Muntiacus. Three subspecies are generally recognized.","E.c.cephalophusMilne-Edwards,1872—SWChina;oldrecordsfromNMyanmar.E.c.ichangensisLydekker,1904—SChina.E. c. michianus Swinhoe, 1874— SE China.","Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 7-13 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 17-30 kg. Relatively largesized muntiacine, with shortened head, short and thin pedicles, and diminutive unbranched antlers hidden by a distinct tuft of tall hair on the top of the head. Ears and tail are small. The coat is mainly dark brown, legs are black. White marks at the base and the tip of the ear. The underside of the tail is white. The fur is coarse. Frontal ridges are weak, large upper canines are present in both sexes. Frontal glands are absent, preorbital gland very large, metatarsal glands present but small. Newborn fawns have one or two rows of faint white spots. Antlers are not shed.","Compared to the members of genus Muntiacus, it is adapted to cooler climates. It lives in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, up to 4750 mabove sea level.","Eats bamboo, forbs, fruit, and grass.","Females sexually mature at about 10-12 months of age. Mating season is September-December. After about 180 days of pregnancy, in April-July, females give birth to one or two fawns.",Active mainly at dawn and dusk.,Observed alone or in pairs. When disturbed it flees with cat-like jumps with tail held up and wagging. It barks like a muntjac when alarmed.,Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List and it is decreasing. Overhunting is a major threat.,Groves & Grubb (1990) | Harris (2008a) | Ohtaishi & Gao (1990) | Smith & Xie Yan (2008) | Zhang Zejun et al. (2004),https://zenodo.org/record/6514387/files/figure.png,"1.Tufted DeerElaphodus cephalophusFrench:Elaphode/ German:Schopfhirsch/ Spanish:ElafodoTaxonomy.Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872, Moupin, Sichuan(China).Distinct genus closely related to Muntiacus. Three subspecies are generally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.c.cephalophusMilne-Edwards,1872—SWChina;oldrecordsfromNMyanmar.E.c.ichangensisLydekker,1904—SChina.E. c. michianus Swinhoe, 1874— SE China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 7-13 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 17-30 kg. Relatively largesized muntiacine, with shortened head, short and thin pedicles, and diminutive unbranched antlers hidden by a distinct tuft of tall hair on the top of the head. Ears and tail are small. The coat is mainly dark brown, legs are black. White marks at the base and the tip of the ear. The underside of the tail is white. The fur is coarse. Frontal ridges are weak, large upper canines are present in both sexes. Frontal glands are absent, preorbital gland very large, metatarsal glands present but small. Newborn fawns have one or two rows of faint white spots. Antlers are not shed.Habitat.Compared to the members of genus Muntiacus, it is adapted to cooler climates. It lives in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, up to 4750 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Eats bamboo, forbs, fruit, and grass.Breeding.Females sexually mature at about 10-12 months of age. Mating season is September-December. After about 180 days of pregnancy, in April-July, females give birth to one or two fawns.Activity patterns.Active mainly at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Observed alone or in pairs. When disturbed it flees with cat-like jumps with tail held up and wagging. It barks like a muntjac when alarmed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List and it is decreasing. Overhunting is a major threat.Bibliography.Groves & Grubb (1990), Harris (2008a), Ohtaishi & Gao (1990), Smith & Xie Yan (2008), Zhang Zejun et al. (2004)." +03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,422,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5.xml,Cervus elaphus,Cervus,elaphus,Linnaeus,1758,Cerf élaphe @fr | Rothirsch @de | Ciervo @es | Barbary Red Deer (barbarus) @en | Bukhara Red Deer (bactrianus) @en | Caspian Red Deer @en | Maral (maral) @en | Tarim Red Deer (yarkandensis) @en | Thyrrenian Red Deer (corsicanus) @en,"Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Red deer appeared in Europe in late Early Pleistocene, about 900,000 years ago. They were large-sized deer bearing five-tined antlers with a terminal fork, replaced in Middle Pleistocene by deer characterized by antlers with a terminal crown. For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. The general body shape, the conspicuous rump patch, and the occurrence of the bez tine in the antler are common traits. But the various forms differ in many characteristics (degree of sexual dimorphism, coat coloration, antler conformation, behavior postures, vocalizations) and have only partial interfertility. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. The analysis of mtDNA revealed in the western part of the distribution range three main lineages: a western one that during the last glacial maximum (about 20,000 years ago) survived in an ice-free refugium in Spainand southern France, an eastern one subsisting in South-eastern Europe (Carpathians and Balkans) and a third lineage possibly living then in Italyand now represented only by “Thyrrenian Red Deer” (corsicanus) and “Barbary Red Deer” (barbarus). With the end of the last glaciacion most of Europe was recolonized from the western refugium. It is probable that the Thyrrenian Red Deer derives from introductions by man from mainland Italyinto Sardiniaabout 8000 years ago. Barbary Red Deer of North Africa, could have been translocated there in ancient times. Here six subspecies of Western Red Deer are recognized.","C.e.elaphusLinnaeus,1758—GreatBritainandcontinentalEurope.C.e.bactrianusLydekker,1900—WTurkestan(Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan&NAfghanistan).C.e.barbarusBennett,1833—AtlasMts(Algeria,Tunisia).C.e.corsicanusErxleben,1777—Corsica(extinct,reintroducedin1985),Sardinia.C.e.maralGray,1850—Anatolia,Caucasus,andNWIran.C. e. yarkandensis Blanford, 1892— E Turkestan (S Xinjiang, China).It has been introduced into Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.","Head-body 180-205 cm for males (stags) and 165-180 cm for females (hinds), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 105-130 cm (stags) and 95-115 cm (hinds); post-rutting weight of stags 110-220 kg and hinds 75-120 kg. The heaviest animals occur in the Carpathians and Bulgaria(with records of 350 kglean weight for stags and 200 kgfor hinds), the lightest in the Scottish Highlands, southern Spain, Sardinia, and Mesola Wood (Italian Peninsula). Adult stags are on average 50-70% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with large head and elongated snout. There are two main genetic groups: a western advanced one (typically with six-tined antlers with a terminal crown, from Europe to Iran) and an Asian primitive one (with five-tined antlers, from the Aral Sea to the Tarim Basin). The rump patch is relatively small, orange on the upper portion, whitish on the lower part, and bordered below in dark brown. The tail is orange and relatively short. The summer coat is reddish or reddishbrown, with grayish legs and whitish belly. The winter coat is grayish-brown; adult stags have a thick neck mane and the belly is heavily stained black. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves have a brown coat with scattered white spots on the sides, which are lost after 2-3 months. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. The preorbitals are particularly well developed and open in young calves and in rutting stags. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Permanent teeth erupt at 5-25 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, cylindrical, and typically well branched, with two basal tines (brow and bez) and a terminal cup-like “royal” crown or an upper fork. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 5-40 cm long. At 8-13 years the antlers of Western Red Deer attain their full size. In high quality populations antlers are on average 90-105 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6.6-5 kg, but there are records of 130-140 cm for antler beam length and of 18-21 kg for trophy mass. There are normally 5-7 tines per antler beam, with records of 16 inthe wild and 24 inparks. In less productive habitats (Scottish Highlands, Sardinia, Mesola Wood, North Africa) antlers are on average only 60-70 cm in length, with 3-4 tines per beam. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in July, antler casting in late February-March. Antler regression occurs at 15-16 years of age, sometimes earlier. Hooves are 9-11 cm long in adult stags and 7-8 cm in hinds, with toe pads occupying one third of the hoof.","Originally associated with the interface between woodland and grassland, but highly adaptable. It also lives in Mediterranean maquis scrub, in alpine summit meadows, and in the treeless moorlands of Scotland. It prefers broadleaved woodlands interspersed by large meadows. Up to 2800 mabove sea level on the Alps. In west-central Asia it occurs in woody and shrubby thickets along riverbanks in desert areas.","As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen,it tends to eat a mixed diet of about 30% grass and sedges and about 65% browse, without significant differences among seasons. Fruits and seeds are important items in autumn. It is a very versatile species, consuming up to 300 different species of plants. The two sexes tend to differ in diet composition, hinds eating higher quality food. Stags eat on average 14-16 kg and females around 9-10 kg offresh vegetation per day. Actual food intake follows appetite cycles related to photoperiod and hormones, which are highest in March—June and lowest in late September-December. Lactating hinds more than double their energy requirements.","In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16 months of age. In less productive habitats sexual maturity may be postponed by at least one year. Stags reach puberty at about 16 months, but can actually begin to reproduce at five years of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18 days. During estrus they are receptive for only 6-24 hours. Conceptions are well synchronized, occurring for 80% of females within 3-4 weeks. Stags leave their summer quarters and move to their traditional rutting stands, where they try to collect and defend a harem against other stags. Competition among stags is high, with some failing completely to reproduce and others able to father up to a dozen or more calves in a season. Stags are involved in roaring contests, dominance displays, and overt fights, with a real risk of serious injury, or more rarely, death. During rut stags lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight and up to 80% of body fat. The mean length of gestation is 235 days. Before giving birth, hinds leave their group and move away from their usual core areas, looking for better cover. Calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds almost invariably give birth to one calf, which weighs on average 8-9 kg (about 6-5 kg in Scottish moorlands). Male calves are about 5% heavier than females. For the first 7-10 days calves are kept hidden, usually lying in tall vegetation, then begin to follow their mother. During the first few days calves are fed ten times a day. From five days to 90 days they are nursed eight times, and after that, four times a day. Lactating hinds produce 2-4 liters of milk per day, with a peak 50 days after parturition and a decline after three months. By 15-18 days of age calves have doubled their birth weight. They begin to ingest their first vegetation at ten days, and at one month they feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months (November—February). Stags can typically breed for 3-5 years, peaking in Scotlandat 7-10 years of age (possibly at 9-12 years in continental Europe). Hinds have a much longer reproductive life span, of up to 12-16 years. The sexes have also a differential pattern of body growth; stags do not reach their full body weight before 8-9 years of age, whereas hinds attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally Western Red Deerlive to a maximum of 17-18 years, with records of 22 years for stags and 26 for hinds. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).","It is active all the day, with peaks at dawn and in early evening, alternating 6-8 periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving from place to place. It dedicates 7-12 hours to feeding. Human disturbance increases nocturnal activity.","Western Red Deer have home ranges of variable size, according to sex and habitat; sometimes they occupy only 2-5 km?, sometimes 8-40 km” and more. Adult stags tend to be more mobile and to have separate seasonal ranges. In mountains part of the population can be sedentary, part can make short distance movements, and part can be migratory, moving 10-60 km to reach lower pastures in the winter and high feeding areas in summer. Ranges are normally undefended. Red deer are social animals. The basic social unit is the matrilineal family group, with a dominant old hind associated with her daughters, granddaughters, and their dependent offspring. Stags segregate from hinds for most of the year and form small, less stable, bachelor bands. In woodlands, female family groups can split into smaller units; in open habitat they may unite with neighboring hind groups. During winter and early spring several groups can form temporary large aggregations in open ground.","“Bukhara Red Deer” (bactrianus) CITES Annex I and Barbary Red Deer CITES Annex III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. elaphuscomplex), but it can be considered as not currently at risk and globally increasing. During the 18"" and the 19"" century overhunting with modern weapons resulted in a drastic contraction of the distribution range and abundance in most parts of Europe. Strict rules for culling, the enforcement of laws with precise hunting seasons, and reintroductions combined to produce an increase in range and numbers. This has become particularly evident since the 1950s-1960s. At the beginning of the 20"" century in the Italian Peninsula only a small population in the Po River delta (Mesola Wood) survived. Thanks to the natural recolonization from neighboring countries of the Alpine region and releases, in 1970 deer numbered 3000 individuals. The number grew to 41,000 in2000 and 57,000 in2005. In all of Europe, excluding Russia, Western Red Deer numbered 1-25 million individuals in 1985 and 2-4 million in 2005. The annual harvest grew in the same period from 270,000 to 500,000 individuals. Densities are normally 1-5 ind/km?, sometimes up to 15 ind/km?*; higher numbers often imply supplementary feeding. Densities are artificially raised to unnaturallevels (up to 100 ind/km?) to increase revenues from hunting. The Western Red Deeris extinct in Albaniaand in the Near East (Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Syria). Four subspecies are still rare: the Thyrrenian Red Deer, the Barbary Red Deer, the Bukhara Red Deer, and the “Tarim Red Deer” (yarkandensis). Thyrrenian Red Deer faced a dramatic decline in the 20™ century, disappearing from Corsicain 1969 and decreasing to a minimum population size of 100 animals in Sardinia in 1970. Deforestation,fires, and poaching with guns and snares were the main causes. Red Deer from Sardinia have recovered slowly, numbering 6000 animals in 2005. In 1985 a reintroduction program was started in Corsica. Barbary Red Deer became extinct in Moroccoby 1932, and in early 1960 only a few dozen animals survived in forests in the Atlas Mountains between Algeriaand Tunisia. More effective protection allowed a recovery in Algeriaand Tunisia, and in 1994 a reintroduction was begun in Morocco. The Bukhara Red Deer originally lived in the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Tree felling, cattle grazing, and overhunting led to a rapid decline during the 19"" century. In early 1900 it disappeared from Syr Darya. In the mid-1960s the population reached a minimum of 350-400 animals; in the early 1980s it had grown to 1100. The Tarim Red Deer of Chinese Xinjiang had a declining population of 4000-5000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakash rivers.","Apollonio et al. (2010) | Butzler (1986) | Carnevali et al. (2009) | Clutton-Brock & Albon (1989) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1982) | Danilkin (1999) | Gebert & Verheyden (2008) | Gill (1990) | Mattioli, Fico et al. (2003) | Mattioli, Meneguz et al. (2001) | von Raesfeld & Reulecke (1988) | Skog et al. (2009) | Sommeret al. (2008) | Staines et al. (2008) | Wagenknecht (1986) | Zachos & Hartl (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514458/files/figure.png,"25.Western Red DeerCervus elaphusFrench:Cerf élaphe/ German:Rothirsch/ Spanish:CiervoOther common names:Barbary Red Deer (barbarus), Bukhara Red Deer (bactrianus), Caspian Red Deer/Maral (maral), Tarim Red Deer (yarkandensis), Thyrrenian Red Deer (corsicanus)Taxonomy.Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Red deer appeared in Europe in late Early Pleistocene, about 900,000 years ago. They were large-sized deer bearing five-tined antlers with a terminal fork, replaced in Middle Pleistocene by deer characterized by antlers with a terminal crown. For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. The general body shape, the conspicuous rump patch, and the occurrence of the bez tine in the antler are common traits. But the various forms differ in many characteristics (degree of sexual dimorphism, coat coloration, antler conformation, behavior postures, vocalizations) and have only partial interfertility. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. The analysis of mtDNA revealed in the western part of the distribution range three main lineages: a western one that during the last glacial maximum (about 20,000 years ago) survived in an ice-free refugium in Spainand southern France, an eastern one subsisting in South-eastern Europe (Carpathians and Balkans) and a third lineage possibly living then in Italyand now represented only by “Thyrrenian Red Deer” (corsicanus) and “Barbary Red Deer” (barbarus). With the end of the last glaciacion most of Europe was recolonized from the western refugium. It is probable that the Thyrrenian Red Deer derives from introductions by man from mainland Italyinto Sardiniaabout 8000 years ago. Barbary Red Deer of North Africa, could have been translocated there in ancient times. Here six subspecies of Western Red Deer are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.e.elaphusLinnaeus,1758—GreatBritainandcontinentalEurope.C.e.bactrianusLydekker,1900—WTurkestan(Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan&NAfghanistan).C.e.barbarusBennett,1833—AtlasMts(Algeria,Tunisia).C.e.corsicanusErxleben,1777—Corsica(extinct,reintroducedin1985),Sardinia.C.e.maralGray,1850—Anatolia,Caucasus,andNWIran.C. e. yarkandensis Blanford, 1892— E Turkestan (S Xinjiang, China).It has been introduced into Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-205 cm for males (stags) and 165-180 cm for females (hinds), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 105-130 cm (stags) and 95-115 cm (hinds); post-rutting weight of stags 110-220 kg and hinds 75-120 kg. The heaviest animals occur in the Carpathians and Bulgaria(with records of 350 kglean weight for stags and 200 kgfor hinds), the lightest in the Scottish Highlands, southern Spain, Sardinia, and Mesola Wood (Italian Peninsula). Adult stags are on average 50-70% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with large head and elongated snout. There are two main genetic groups: a western advanced one (typically with six-tined antlers with a terminal crown, from Europe to Iran) and an Asian primitive one (with five-tined antlers, from the Aral Sea to the Tarim Basin). The rump patch is relatively small, orange on the upper portion, whitish on the lower part, and bordered below in dark brown. The tail is orange and relatively short. The summer coat is reddish or reddishbrown, with grayish legs and whitish belly. The winter coat is grayish-brown; adult stags have a thick neck mane and the belly is heavily stained black. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves have a brown coat with scattered white spots on the sides, which are lost after 2-3 months. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. The preorbitals are particularly well developed and open in young calves and in rutting stags. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Permanent teeth erupt at 5-25 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, cylindrical, and typically well branched, with two basal tines (brow and bez) and a terminal cup-like “royal” crown or an upper fork. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 5-40 cm long. At 8-13 years the antlers of Western Red Deer attain their full size. In high quality populations antlers are on average 90-105 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6.6-5 kg, but there are records of 130-140 cm for antler beam length and of 18-21 kg for trophy mass. There are normally 5-7 tines per antler beam, with records of 16 inthe wild and 24 inparks. In less productive habitats (Scottish Highlands, Sardinia, Mesola Wood, North Africa) antlers are on average only 60-70 cm in length, with 3-4 tines per beam. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in July, antler casting in late February-March. Antler regression occurs at 15-16 years of age, sometimes earlier. Hooves are 9-11 cm long in adult stags and 7-8 cm in hinds, with toe pads occupying one third of the hoof.Habitat.Originally associated with the interface between woodland and grassland, but highly adaptable. It also lives in Mediterranean maquis scrub, in alpine summit meadows, and in the treeless moorlands of Scotland. It prefers broadleaved woodlands interspersed by large meadows. Up to 2800 mabove sea level on the Alps. In west-central Asia it occurs in woody and shrubby thickets along riverbanks in desert areas.Food and Feeding.As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen,it tends to eat a mixed diet of about 30% grass and sedges and about 65% browse, without significant differences among seasons. Fruits and seeds are important items in autumn. It is a very versatile species, consuming up to 300 different species of plants. The two sexes tend to differ in diet composition, hinds eating higher quality food. Stags eat on average 14-16 kg and females around 9-10 kg offresh vegetation per day. Actual food intake follows appetite cycles related to photoperiod and hormones, which are highest in March—June and lowest in late September-December. Lactating hinds more than double their energy requirements.Breeding.In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16 months of age. In less productive habitats sexual maturity may be postponed by at least one year. Stags reach puberty at about 16 months, but can actually begin to reproduce at five years of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18 days. During estrus they are receptive for only 6-24 hours. Conceptions are well synchronized, occurring for 80% of females within 3-4 weeks. Stags leave their summer quarters and move to their traditional rutting stands, where they try to collect and defend a harem against other stags. Competition among stags is high, with some failing completely to reproduce and others able to father up to a dozen or more calves in a season. Stags are involved in roaring contests, dominance displays, and overt fights, with a real risk of serious injury, or more rarely, death. During rut stags lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight and up to 80% of body fat. The mean length of gestation is 235 days. Before giving birth, hinds leave their group and move away from their usual core areas, looking for better cover. Calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds almost invariably give birth to one calf, which weighs on average 8-9 kg (about 6-5 kg in Scottish moorlands). Male calves are about 5% heavier than females. For the first 7-10 days calves are kept hidden, usually lying in tall vegetation, then begin to follow their mother. During the first few days calves are fed ten times a day. From five days to 90 days they are nursed eight times, and after that, four times a day. Lactating hinds produce 2-4 liters of milk per day, with a peak 50 days after parturition and a decline after three months. By 15-18 days of age calves have doubled their birth weight. They begin to ingest their first vegetation at ten days, and at one month they feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months (November—February). Stags can typically breed for 3-5 years, peaking in Scotlandat 7-10 years of age (possibly at 9-12 years in continental Europe). Hinds have a much longer reproductive life span, of up to 12-16 years. The sexes have also a differential pattern of body growth; stags do not reach their full body weight before 8-9 years of age, whereas hinds attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally Western Red Deerlive to a maximum of 17-18 years, with records of 22 years for stags and 26 for hinds. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).Activity patterns.It is active all the day, with peaks at dawn and in early evening, alternating 6-8 periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving from place to place. It dedicates 7-12 hours to feeding. Human disturbance increases nocturnal activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Red Deer have home ranges of variable size, according to sex and habitat; sometimes they occupy only 2-5 km?, sometimes 8-40 km” and more. Adult stags tend to be more mobile and to have separate seasonal ranges. In mountains part of the population can be sedentary, part can make short distance movements, and part can be migratory, moving 10-60 km to reach lower pastures in the winter and high feeding areas in summer. Ranges are normally undefended. Red deer are social animals. The basic social unit is the matrilineal family group, with a dominant old hind associated with her daughters, granddaughters, and their dependent offspring. Stags segregate from hinds for most of the year and form small, less stable, bachelor bands. In woodlands, female family groups can split into smaller units; in open habitat they may unite with neighboring hind groups. During winter and early spring several groups can form temporary large aggregations in open ground.Status and Conservation.“Bukhara Red Deer” (bactrianus) CITES Annex I and Barbary Red Deer CITES Annex III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. elaphuscomplex), but it can be considered as not currently at risk and globally increasing. During the 18"" and the 19"" century overhunting with modern weapons resulted in a drastic contraction of the distribution range and abundance in most parts of Europe. Strict rules for culling, the enforcement of laws with precise hunting seasons, and reintroductions combined to produce an increase in range and numbers. This has become particularly evident since the 1950s-1960s. At the beginning of the 20"" century in the Italian Peninsula only a small population in the Po River delta (Mesola Wood) survived. Thanks to the natural recolonization from neighboring countries of the Alpine region and releases, in 1970 deer numbered 3000 individuals. The number grew to 41,000 in2000 and 57,000 in2005. In all of Europe, excluding Russia, Western Red Deer numbered 1-25 million individuals in 1985 and 2-4 million in 2005. The annual harvest grew in the same period from 270,000 to 500,000 individuals. Densities are normally 1-5 ind/km?, sometimes up to 15 ind/km?*; higher numbers often imply supplementary feeding. Densities are artificially raised to unnaturallevels (up to 100 ind/km?) to increase revenues from hunting. The Western Red Deeris extinct in Albaniaand in the Near East (Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Syria). Four subspecies are still rare: the Thyrrenian Red Deer, the Barbary Red Deer, the Bukhara Red Deer, and the “Tarim Red Deer” (yarkandensis). Thyrrenian Red Deer faced a dramatic decline in the 20™ century, disappearing from Corsicain 1969 and decreasing to a minimum population size of 100 animals in Sardinia in 1970. Deforestation,fires, and poaching with guns and snares were the main causes. Red Deer from Sardinia have recovered slowly, numbering 6000 animals in 2005. In 1985 a reintroduction program was started in Corsica. Barbary Red Deer became extinct in Moroccoby 1932, and in early 1960 only a few dozen animals survived in forests in the Atlas Mountains between Algeriaand Tunisia. More effective protection allowed a recovery in Algeriaand Tunisia, and in 1994 a reintroduction was begun in Morocco. The Bukhara Red Deer originally lived in the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Tree felling, cattle grazing, and overhunting led to a rapid decline during the 19"" century. In early 1900 it disappeared from Syr Darya. In the mid-1960s the population reached a minimum of 350-400 animals; in the early 1980s it had grown to 1100. The Tarim Red Deer of Chinese Xinjiang had a declining population of 4000-5000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakash rivers.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Butzler (1986), Carnevali et al. (2009), Clutton-Brock & Albon (1989), Clutton-Brock et al. (1982), Danilkin (1999), Gebert & Verheyden (2008), Gill (1990), Mattioli, Fico et al. (2003), Mattioli, Meneguz et al. (2001), von Raesfeld & Reulecke (1988), Skog et al. (2009), Sommeret al. (2008), Staines et al. (2008), Wagenknecht (1986), Zachos & Hartl (2011)." +03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,421,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5.xml,Cervus nippon,Cervus,nippon,Temminck,1838,Cerf sika @fr | Sikahirsch @de | Sika @es,"Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838, Japan.The first true members of the genus Cervusprobably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japanwas colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.","C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884— N Japan(Hokkaido).It was anciently introduced to Solo I (Philippines) and in 17"" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19"" and 20"" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA.","Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido(with records of 176 kgfor stags and 108 kgfor hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cmfor antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.",Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cmis limiting. Up to 3000 mabove sea level.,"It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japanthe deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.","Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).",Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.,"It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 min length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 kmbetween summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Koreait is extinct, in North Koreavery rare or extinct. In Taiwanit became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnamit is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In Chinathere are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in Chinaand all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Irelandand 27,000 for Great Britain.",Apollonio et al. (2010) | Bartos et al. (1998) | Baskin & Danell (2003) | Feldhamer (1980) | Feldhameret al. (1985) | Geist (1998) | Groves (2006) | Groves & Smeenk (1978) | Hayden et al. (1994) | Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006) | McCullough et al. (2009) | Miura (1984) | Putman (2008) | Suzuki et al. (2001) | Zejda & Babicka (1983),https://zenodo.org/record/6514452/files/figure.png,"23.Sika DeerCervus nipponFrench:Cerf sika/ German:Sikahirsch/ Spanish:SikaTaxonomy.Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838, Japan.The first true members of the genus Cervusprobably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japanwas colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.Subspecies and Distribution.C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884— N Japan(Hokkaido).It was anciently introduced to Solo I (Philippines) and in 17"" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19"" and 20"" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA.Descriptive notes.Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido(with records of 176 kgfor stags and 108 kgfor hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cmfor antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.Habitat.Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cmis limiting. Up to 3000 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japanthe deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.Breeding.Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).Activity patterns.Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 min length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 kmbetween summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Koreait is extinct, in North Koreavery rare or extinct. In Taiwanit became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnamit is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In Chinathere are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in Chinaand all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Irelandand 27,000 for Great Britain.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Bartos et al. (1998), Baskin & Danell (2003), Feldhamer (1980), Feldhameret al. (1985), Geist (1998), Groves (2006), Groves & Smeenk (1978), Hayden et al. (1994), Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006), McCullough et al. (2009), Miura (1984), Putman (2008), Suzuki et al. (2001), Zejda & Babicka (1983)." +03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,421,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3.xml,Cervus wallichii,Cervus,wallichii,G. Cuvier,1823,Cerf de Wallich @fr | China-Rothirsch @de | Ciervoasiatico @es | Hangul (hangl @en | u) @en | Mac Neill's Red Deer (macneilli) @en | Shou (wallichii) @en,"Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, 1823, Lake Mansarovar (S Tibet).For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. C. wallichiiis the most primitive representative of the red deer complex lineage. The scientific name refers to the Danish naturalist N. Wallich, who was superintendent of the Botanical Garden of the East IndiaCompany in Calcutta. Here three subspecies are recognized.","C.w.wallichi:G.Cuvier,1823—SWChina(SEXizang),Bhutan.C.w.hangluWagner,1844—NIndia(Kashmir).C. w. macneilli Lydekker, 1909—C & SW China(N Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, W Sichuan& E Xizang).","Head—body 190-205 cm for males (stags) and 180-195 cm for females (hinds), tail length 8-12 cm, shoulder height 125-145 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of stags 150-240 kg and hinds 110-170 kg. Large-sized deer, with basically a five-tined antler plan, large ears, a short neck mane, a shorttail, massive haunches, and large broad hooves. The rump patch and the tail coloration vary among subspecies. Antlers tend to have a terminal transverse fork and a well-developed bez tine. The “Hangul” (hanglu) has a small rump patch bordered below by a broad black band and a dark tail. The belly is whitish, legs and chest are dark. The “Shou” (wallichii) seems to have a rump patch of variable size, often divided by a dark line. Thetail is whitish. The belly is gray, the lips are pale gray. “MacNeill’s Red Deer” (macneilli) has a narrow white rump patch that expands dorsally into a broad black croup patch, and a dark tail. The lips are gray-brown. This subspecies often has six-tined antlers.","Hanguls live in moist temperate forest. Shous occur in scrublands and alpine grasslands at 4300-4900 m above sea level. MacNeill’s Red Deeris found in montane conifer forest, willow-rhododendron scrublands, and alpine meadows.","As mixed feeders they may graze grasses and forbs, then turn to browsing leaves and twigs.",The rutting call begins as a roar but ends in a Wapiti-like bugle. The calving season of the Hangul peaks in July-August.,,"They are saltatorial, able to move with agility on steep slopes in scrub vegetation. They are gregarious, with large family groups. The rare Shou has been seen recently in herds of up to 55 animals.","Hangul CITES Appendix I. Considered a subspecies of the C. elaphuscomplex by IUCN and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red Lust. It is a very rare species, possibly threatened, the Hangul declined from 2000 animals in 1947 to less than 200 animals in the early 1970s, then increased to 1000 by 1989, but dropped again to 150-200 in the last decade. The Shou was considered extinct and rediscovered in a few localities of south-east Tibet(Xizang) in 1995. The status of MacNeill’s Red Deer is unknown. Poaching and pressure from stock grazing continue to be significant threats.","Dolan (1988) | Dolan & Killmar (1988) | Geist (1998) | Groves (2003, 2006) | Schaller (1998) | Wemmer (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514454/files/figure.png,"24.Central Asian Red DeerCervus wallichiiFrench:Cerf de Wallich/ German:China-Rothirsch/ Spanish:CiervoasiaticoOther common names:Hangul (hangl/u), MacNeill's Red Deer (macneilli), Shou (wallichii)Taxonomy.Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, 1823, Lake Mansarovar (S Tibet).For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. C. wallichiiis the most primitive representative of the red deer complex lineage. The scientific name refers to the Danish naturalist N. Wallich, who was superintendent of the Botanical Garden of the East IndiaCompany in Calcutta. Here three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.w.wallichi:G.Cuvier,1823—SWChina(SEXizang),Bhutan.C.w.hangluWagner,1844—NIndia(Kashmir).C. w. macneilli Lydekker, 1909—C & SW China(N Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, W Sichuan& E Xizang).Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-205 cm for males (stags) and 180-195 cm for females (hinds), tail length 8-12 cm, shoulder height 125-145 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of stags 150-240 kg and hinds 110-170 kg. Large-sized deer, with basically a five-tined antler plan, large ears, a short neck mane, a shorttail, massive haunches, and large broad hooves. The rump patch and the tail coloration vary among subspecies. Antlers tend to have a terminal transverse fork and a well-developed bez tine. The “Hangul” (hanglu) has a small rump patch bordered below by a broad black band and a dark tail. The belly is whitish, legs and chest are dark. The “Shou” (wallichii) seems to have a rump patch of variable size, often divided by a dark line. Thetail is whitish. The belly is gray, the lips are pale gray. “MacNeill’s Red Deer” (macneilli) has a narrow white rump patch that expands dorsally into a broad black croup patch, and a dark tail. The lips are gray-brown. This subspecies often has six-tined antlers.Habitat.Hanguls live in moist temperate forest. Shous occur in scrublands and alpine grasslands at 4300-4900 m above sea level. MacNeill’s Red Deeris found in montane conifer forest, willow-rhododendron scrublands, and alpine meadows.Food and Feeding.As mixed feeders they may graze grasses and forbs, then turn to browsing leaves and twigs.On following pages 25 Western Red Door (Corvus oluphusl, 26 Wapm (Corvus canodenswlBreeding.The rutting call begins as a roar but ends in a Wapiti-like bugle. The calving season of the Hangul peaks in July-August.Movements, Home range and Social organization.They are saltatorial, able to move with agility on steep slopes in scrub vegetation. They are gregarious, with large family groups. The rare Shou has been seen recently in herds of up to 55 animals.Status and Conservation.Hangul CITES Appendix I. Considered a subspecies of the C. elaphuscomplex by IUCN and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red Lust. It is a very rare species, possibly threatened, the Hangul declined from 2000 animals in 1947 to less than 200 animals in the early 1970s, then increased to 1000 by 1989, but dropped again to 150-200 in the last decade. The Shou was considered extinct and rediscovered in a few localities of south-east Tibet(Xizang) in 1995. The status of MacNeill’s Red Deer is unknown. Poaching and pressure from stock grazing continue to be significant threats.Bibliography.Dolan (1988), Dolan & Killmar (1988), Geist (1998), Groves (2003, 2006), Schaller (1998), Wemmer (1998)." 03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF01FD23E21EF941,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,416,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF01FD23E21EF941.xml,Axis calamianensis,Axis,calamianensis,,,Cerf des Calamian @fr | Calamian-Schweinshirsch @de | Axis de Calamianes @es,"Cervus calamianensis Heude, 1888, Calamian Islands.It has previously been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinus. Monotypic.","Calamian Is (Busuanga, Calauit, Culion, Marily & Dimaquiat).","Head-body on average 130 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 60— 75 cm; weight 35-50 kg. Medium-sized, relatively long-legged deer with a bushy tail; males have prominent pedicles and short three-tined antlers 20-30 cm in length. The coat is tawny brown, with legs much darker than body; the muzzle is whitish.","It lives in grasslands, open woodlands, secondary forests.",It primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.,Females attain puberty at about 8-15 months of age. After a gestation of around 222-226 days they give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-6 kg. Fawns are able to suckle an hour after birth. Weaning occurs after 4-6 months.,It is diurnal and crepuscular.,It is often observed in small groups.,CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In 1996 the total population size was estimated at 550 animals. It is decreasing; hunting pressure and agricultural expansion are major threats.,"Groves & Grubb (1987) | Villamor (1987, 1991) | Wemmer (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514431/files/figure.png,"16.Calamian DeerAxis calamianensisFrench:Cerf des Calamian/ German:Calamian-Schweinshirsch/ Spanish:Axis de CalamianesTaxonomy.Cervus calamianensis Heude, 1888, Calamian Islands.It has previously been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinus. Monotypic.Distribution.Calamian Is (Busuanga, Calauit, Culion, Marily & Dimaquiat).Descriptive notes.Head-body on average 130 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 60— 75 cm; weight 35-50 kg. Medium-sized, relatively long-legged deer with a bushy tail; males have prominent pedicles and short three-tined antlers 20-30 cm in length. The coat is tawny brown, with legs much darker than body; the muzzle is whitish.Habitat.It lives in grasslands, open woodlands, secondary forests.Food and Feeding.It primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about 8-15 months of age. After a gestation of around 222-226 days they give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-6 kg. Fawns are able to suckle an hour after birth. Weaning occurs after 4-6 months.Activity patterns.It is diurnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is often observed in small groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In 1996 the total population size was estimated at 550 animals. It is decreasing; hunting pressure and agricultural expansion are major threats.Bibliography.Groves & Grubb (1987), Villamor (1987, 1991), Wemmer (1998)." 03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF03F872E062F40B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,416,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF03F872E062F40B.xml,Dama dama,Dama,dama,Frisch,1775,Daim d'Europe @fr | Dambhirsch @de | Gamo @es | European Fallow Deer @en,"Cervus dama Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The first known species in the genus Dama, D. clactoniana, appeared in Europe in the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. Damais probably an Upper Pliocene genus adapted to savanna-like and open woodland habitats of Europe, and the first representatives are not yet unanimously identified among the many medium-sized deer of that period. The first D. damaoccurred in Europe about 200,000 years ago. During the first part of the last glaciation its range shrank and the species took refuge in southern Europe and Anatolia. The post-glacial range may have been reduced to Anatolia. Neolithic and Bronze Age records from Macedoniaand Bulgaria, and later from Greek islands, may be interpreted as the first translocations by humans. The Greeks and others probably contributed to an artificial dispersal on central and western Mediterranean coasts, including North Africa. Romans introduced Common Fallow Deer to some areas of mainland Europe and to Great Britain. When separated from D. mesopotamica, Common Fallow Deercan be considered monotypic.","Formerly Anatolia, Turkey, then has been introduced into Europe from ancient times and later into many other countries in North and South America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and FijiIs. The distribution map includes both the native range in Anatoliaand the European continent with its old introductions.","Head-body 145-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130-145 cm for females (does), tail length 16-19 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); post-rutting weight of adult bucks 50-80 kg and of adult does 35-50 kg. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized deer with short and high head. Males have a prominent and mobile larynx (Adam’s apple) and a brush of hairs from the elongated penis sheath. The rump patch is conspicuous, white with a black upper edge. The tail is relatively long, black above and white below. The tail and the black stripe bordering the rump patch form an inverted anchor. The summer coat is typically reddish-brown, with white spots on the back and the upper half of the flanks; the underside of the head and neck and the lower parts of the legs are whitish, the chest and the belly are white; a black dorsal stripe extends from the nape to the end of the tail; a horizontal white line borders the middle of the flank and an oblique line fringes the rear portion of the haunch. The winter coatis gray-brown, with spots barely detectable or absent. Three other color variants are commonly observed: “menil” (a paler coat pattern retaining spots in winter), black (actually dark brown), and white. Molts in May-June and September—October. Newborn fawns are spotted. Preorbital, front and rear interdigital, metatarsal and (in males) preputial glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth; molars erupt at 5-22 months of age. Antlers of adult bucks (four years and older) are typically well palmated; above the trez tine the beam develops a broad thin palm with terminal short points (spellers). Pedicles begin to grow at 7-9 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are always spikers, with antlers 5-20 cm long. At 7-10 years antlers attain their full size. Adult antlers are on average 50-65 cm long, with records of 80-86 cm. Velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting mainly in April. Antler regression usually occurs at 13-14 years of age, sometimes as early as ten years. Hooves are elongated and pointed, 8 cmlong in adult bucks and 5-6 cm in does, with toe pads covering almost half of the hoof.","Very flexible, it is often associated with open broadleaved woodlands with adjacent open ground, but it can also live in conifer plantations or Mediterranean scrubs. Cold temperatures and long-lasting snow cover are limiting factors. Up to 800-1000 m above sea level in the Alps and Apennines, up to 1500 mand more in the Pyrenees.","As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen, it is a preferential grazer, feeding on grass and ground vegetation among trees, and herbs and forbs in neighboring fields. In Mediterranean habitats browsing leaves and buds of shrubs and trees may become particularly important.","Most females attain puberty at 16 months of age; the minimum body weight compatible with reproduction is low, around 32 kg. Bucks reach physiological sexual maturity at about 16 months of age, but do not begin to mate before 3-4 years of age. Rutting season is in October. Does are polyestrous, with cycles of 22 days and a receptive time of only 15 hours. Males move into female areas and start competing to establish display grounds. Bucks are particularly flexible in adopting mating strategies. The most frequent one seems to be the defense of a single permanent territory, with males establishing non-contiguous rutting stands. But at least six other mating systems have been documented: temporary defense of stands, multiple stands (2-3 bucks in contiguous territories), leks (collective arenas with 5-25 bucks in symbolic display territories of few square meters), harem defense, multimale dominance groups (with the highest-ranking buck tolerating other males but achieving most matings) and following (pursuing single estrous does). Rutting bucks emit a series of repeated short groans up to exhaustion; they lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight. The gestation lenght is generally 229-234 days. Fawning season peaks in late May—early June. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 4-5 kg; male offspring are about 10% heavier than females. After ten days the fawn accompanies its mother. Allosucking, i.e. mothers permitting fawns of other females to nurse, has been observed. Weaning occurs at 8-9 months of age. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-6 years of age, and does attain final size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-16 years, with records of 20 years. Maximum longevity in captivity is 25 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators.","It is active all day, alternating 6-8 periods of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving. More diurnal when it is less disturbed, more crepuscular when disturbance is high.","Common Fallow deer walk and trot; pronking is exhibited when alarmed. They are able to jump to 1-7-2 m. They tend to have relatively small home ranges, generally of 70-200 ha. Home ranges can overlap extensively. It is a social species. The basic unit is the family group, one or two adult females with their fawns of the current year and yearling does. Female groups are tolerant and open and can coalesce in larger herds. Males are solitary or form less stable bachelor groups. Groupsize varies according to the habitat, being larger in more open environments. Transitory aggregations of up to 200 animals are sometimes observed in open land on feeding grounds. Males and females tend to live apart most ofthe year.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing. It is rare and with a very restricted present range in its original post-glacial refugium in south-western Turkey, limited to the Termessos National Park near Antalya. The Greek island of Rhodes hosts a small ancient introduced population. In Europe it is a very common species, with a discontinuous range; in 1975 it numbered about 120,000 individuals, increased to 530,000 in2005; about 162,000 are annually harvested.","Apollonio, Andersen & Putman (2010) | Apollonio, Festa-Bianchet et al. (1992,) | Chapman, D.I. & Chapman, N.G.(1975) | Chapman, N.G.& Chapman, D.l. (1980) | Langbein & Putman (1992) | Langbein & Thirgood (1989) | Langbein et al. (2008) | McElligot & Hayden (2000) | Siefke & Stubbe (2008) | Ueckerman & Hansen (1994)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514433/files/figure.png,"17.Common Fallow DeerDama damaFrench:Daim d'Europe/ German:Dambhirsch/ Spanish:GamoOther common names:European Fallow DeerTaxonomy.Cervus dama Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The first known species in the genus Dama, D. clactoniana, appeared in Europe in the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. Damais probably an Upper Pliocene genus adapted to savanna-like and open woodland habitats of Europe, and the first representatives are not yet unanimously identified among the many medium-sized deer of that period. The first D. damaoccurred in Europe about 200,000 years ago. During the first part of the last glaciation its range shrank and the species took refuge in southern Europe and Anatolia. The post-glacial range may have been reduced to Anatolia. Neolithic and Bronze Age records from Macedoniaand Bulgaria, and later from Greek islands, may be interpreted as the first translocations by humans. The Greeks and others probably contributed to an artificial dispersal on central and western Mediterranean coasts, including North Africa. Romans introduced Common Fallow Deer to some areas of mainland Europe and to Great Britain. When separated from D. mesopotamica, Common Fallow Deercan be considered monotypic.Distribution.Formerly Anatolia, Turkey, then has been introduced into Europe from ancient times and later into many other countries in North and South America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and FijiIs. The distribution map includes both the native range in Anatoliaand the European continent with its old introductions.Descriptive notes.Head-body 145-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130-145 cm for females (does), tail length 16-19 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); post-rutting weight of adult bucks 50-80 kg and of adult does 35-50 kg. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized deer with short and high head. Males have a prominent and mobile larynx (Adam’s apple) and a brush of hairs from the elongated penis sheath. The rump patch is conspicuous, white with a black upper edge. The tail is relatively long, black above and white below. The tail and the black stripe bordering the rump patch form an inverted anchor. The summer coat is typically reddish-brown, with white spots on the back and the upper half of the flanks; the underside of the head and neck and the lower parts of the legs are whitish, the chest and the belly are white; a black dorsal stripe extends from the nape to the end of the tail; a horizontal white line borders the middle of the flank and an oblique line fringes the rear portion of the haunch. The winter coatis gray-brown, with spots barely detectable or absent. Three other color variants are commonly observed: “menil” (a paler coat pattern retaining spots in winter), black (actually dark brown), and white. Molts in May-June and September—October. Newborn fawns are spotted. Preorbital, front and rear interdigital, metatarsal and (in males) preputial glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth; molars erupt at 5-22 months of age. Antlers of adult bucks (four years and older) are typically well palmated; above the trez tine the beam develops a broad thin palm with terminal short points (spellers). Pedicles begin to grow at 7-9 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are always spikers, with antlers 5-20 cm long. At 7-10 years antlers attain their full size. Adult antlers are on average 50-65 cm long, with records of 80-86 cm. Velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting mainly in April. Antler regression usually occurs at 13-14 years of age, sometimes as early as ten years. Hooves are elongated and pointed, 8 cmlong in adult bucks and 5-6 cm in does, with toe pads covering almost half of the hoof.Habitat.Very flexible, it is often associated with open broadleaved woodlands with adjacent open ground, but it can also live in conifer plantations or Mediterranean scrubs. Cold temperatures and long-lasting snow cover are limiting factors. Up to 800-1000 m above sea level in the Alps and Apennines, up to 1500 mand more in the Pyrenees.Food and Feeding.As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen, it is a preferential grazer, feeding on grass and ground vegetation among trees, and herbs and forbs in neighboring fields. In Mediterranean habitats browsing leaves and buds of shrubs and trees may become particularly important.Breeding.Most females attain puberty at 16 months of age; the minimum body weight compatible with reproduction is low, around 32 kg. Bucks reach physiological sexual maturity at about 16 months of age, but do not begin to mate before 3-4 years of age. Rutting season is in October. Does are polyestrous, with cycles of 22 days and a receptive time of only 15 hours. Males move into female areas and start competing to establish display grounds. Bucks are particularly flexible in adopting mating strategies. The most frequent one seems to be the defense of a single permanent territory, with males establishing non-contiguous rutting stands. But at least six other mating systems have been documented: temporary defense of stands, multiple stands (2-3 bucks in contiguous territories), leks (collective arenas with 5-25 bucks in symbolic display territories of few square meters), harem defense, multimale dominance groups (with the highest-ranking buck tolerating other males but achieving most matings) and following (pursuing single estrous does). Rutting bucks emit a series of repeated short groans up to exhaustion; they lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight. The gestation lenght is generally 229-234 days. Fawning season peaks in late May—early June. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 4-5 kg; male offspring are about 10% heavier than females. After ten days the fawn accompanies its mother. Allosucking, i.e. mothers permitting fawns of other females to nurse, has been observed. Weaning occurs at 8-9 months of age. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-6 years of age, and does attain final size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-16 years, with records of 20 years. Maximum longevity in captivity is 25 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active all day, alternating 6-8 periods of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving. More diurnal when it is less disturbed, more crepuscular when disturbance is high.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Common Fallow deer walk and trot; pronking is exhibited when alarmed. They are able to jump to 1-7-2 m. They tend to have relatively small home ranges, generally of 70-200 ha. Home ranges can overlap extensively. It is a social species. The basic unit is the family group, one or two adult females with their fawns of the current year and yearling does. Female groups are tolerant and open and can coalesce in larger herds. Males are solitary or form less stable bachelor groups. Groupsize varies according to the habitat, being larger in more open environments. Transitory aggregations of up to 200 animals are sometimes observed in open land on feeding grounds. Males and females tend to live apart most ofthe year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing. It is rare and with a very restricted present range in its original post-glacial refugium in south-western Turkey, limited to the Termessos National Park near Antalya. The Greek island of Rhodes hosts a small ancient introduced population. In Europe it is a very common species, with a discontinuous range; in 1975 it numbered about 120,000 individuals, increased to 530,000 in2005; about 162,000 are annually harvested.Bibliography.Apollonio, Andersen & Putman (2010), Apollonio, Festa-Bianchet et al. (1992,), Chapman, D.I. & Chapman, N.G.(1975), Chapman, N.G.& Chapman, D.l. (1980), Langbein & Putman (1992), Langbein & Thirgood (1989), Langbein et al. (2008), McElligot & Hayden (2000), Siefke & Stubbe (2008), Ueckerman & Hansen (1994)." 03A087C4FFCCFFCEFA74F388E498F98A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,416,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCCFFCEFA74F388E498F98A.xml,Dama mesopotamica,Dama,mesopotamica,,,Daim de Perse @fr | Mesopotamien-Damhirsch @de | Gamopersa @es | Mesopotamian Fallow Deer @en,"Cervus mesopotamicus Brooke, 1875, Iran.It has often been considered a subspecies of the Common Fallow Deer (D. dama). The northern part of the distribution was contiguous to the refugium range of the Common Fallow Deer. Monotypic.",Iranand Israel(reintroduced). The map includes both the native relict population and the reintroduced ones.,"Head-body 180-190 cm for males (adult bucks), 160-170 cm for females (does), tail 16-20 cm, shoulder height 100-110 cm (bucks), 90 cm(does); weight 120-140 kg (adult bucks) and 70-80 kg (adult does). Adult bucks are on average 50% heavier than does. Larger than the Common Fallow Deer, with minor differences in the color pattern of the coat and a distinct antler conformation. The dark upper edge of the rump patch is less developed and the shorter tail appears whitish except for the dark medial line, which is very thin. The naked rhinarium has a slightly different shape. The antlers are shorter, about 50-55 cm long, more robust, with a very short brow tine, a bez tine and a trez tine; some flattening is present in the lower half of the beam.","The relict population in south-western Iranoccurs in riparian woods of poplars, willows, and tamarisk.",As an intermediate feeder living in thickets and scrublands it is probably more a browser of leaves and buds.,"Rutting season in south-west Iranpeaks in late August-September, with most of the births in March. Antler casting peaks in late February—early March.",It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal.,Mainly solitary or lives in small groups.,"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Originally its range included Palestine, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, and it was introduced into Cyprusabout 8300 years ago. It has been represented in Assyrian and ancient Persian bas-reliefs and in an Armenian carpet. The two remnant wild populations (in Dez and in Karkeh Wildlife Refuges, south-west Iran) are on the verge of extinction, numbering a few dozen animals. Predators include Striped Hyenas (Hyaena hyaena), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and feral dogs. The populations in enclosures in North Iranand in Israel, a total of about 700 individuals, are slightly increasing.",Bar-David et al. (2005) | Chapman& Chapman(1975) | Haltenorth (1959) | Jantschke (1990) | Masseti et al. (2008) | Rabiei (2008) | Uerpmann (1987),https://zenodo.org/record/6514437/files/figure.png,"18.Persian Fallow DeerDama mesopotamicaFrench:Daim de Perse/ German:Mesopotamien-Damhirsch/ Spanish:GamopersaOther common names:Mesopotamian Fallow DeerTaxonomy.Cervus mesopotamicus Brooke, 1875, Iran.It has often been considered a subspecies of the Common Fallow Deer (D. dama). The northern part of the distribution was contiguous to the refugium range of the Common Fallow Deer. Monotypic.Distribution.Iranand Israel(reintroduced). The map includes both the native relict population and the reintroduced ones.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-190 cm for males (adult bucks), 160-170 cm for females (does), tail 16-20 cm, shoulder height 100-110 cm (bucks), 90 cm(does); weight 120-140 kg (adult bucks) and 70-80 kg (adult does). Adult bucks are on average 50% heavier than does. Larger than the Common Fallow Deer, with minor differences in the color pattern of the coat and a distinct antler conformation. The dark upper edge of the rump patch is less developed and the shorter tail appears whitish except for the dark medial line, which is very thin. The naked rhinarium has a slightly different shape. The antlers are shorter, about 50-55 cm long, more robust, with a very short brow tine, a bez tine and a trez tine; some flattening is present in the lower half of the beam.Habitat.The relict population in south-western Iranoccurs in riparian woods of poplars, willows, and tamarisk.Food and Feeding.As an intermediate feeder living in thickets and scrublands it is probably more a browser of leaves and buds.Breeding.Rutting season in south-west Iranpeaks in late August-September, with most of the births in March. Antler casting peaks in late February—early March.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mainly solitary or lives in small groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Originally its range included Palestine, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, and it was introduced into Cyprusabout 8300 years ago. It has been represented in Assyrian and ancient Persian bas-reliefs and in an Armenian carpet. The two remnant wild populations (in Dez and in Karkeh Wildlife Refuges, south-west Iran) are on the verge of extinction, numbering a few dozen animals. Predators include Striped Hyenas (Hyaena hyaena), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and feral dogs. The populations in enclosures in North Iranand in Israel, a total of about 700 individuals, are slightly increasing.Bibliography.Bar-David et al. (2005), Chapman& Chapman(1975), Haltenorth (1959), Jantschke (1990), Masseti et al. (2008), Rabiei (2008), Uerpmann (1987)." 03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF42FE4FE271F40F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,415,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF42FE4FE271F40F.xml,Axis axis,Axis,axis,Erxleben,1777,Cerf axis @fr | Axishirsch @de | Axis @es | Axis Deer @en | @en | ndian Spotted Deer @en,"Cervus axis Erxleben, 1777, Banks of Ganges, Bihar(India).The genus Axisappeared in Chinaat the end of the Miocene. The monophyly of Axishas been questioned repeatedly but the most recent genetic analyses have confirmed it. Monotypic.","India, S Nepal, S Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Chital have been introduced in Europe (Croatia, Ukraine, Moldova), Armenia, the Andaman Is, New Guinea, Australia, USA(California, Texas& Hawaii), Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.","Head—body 150-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 140-145 cm for females (does), tail 25-30 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); weight of adult bucks 70-85 kg (up to 110 kg) and of adult does 45-60 kg (up to 70 kg). Hooves are 4-7 cm long. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized elegant deer heavily spotted in all seasons. The coat is reddishfawn flecked with small white spots; white throat patch, whitish underparts, a dark band around the muzzle, and a dark dorsal stripe. Males carry a dark chevron over the face. Face and neck of does are paler. Long hairs at the distal end of the preorbital gland, normally folded inwards. Males have an elongated penis sheath. Preorbital, metatarsal, and rear interdigital glands are present. Adult males have lyre-shaped, long, three-tined antlers, with a brow tine and an inward-oriented trez tine. Antlers are on average 65-75 cm long, with records of 95-110 cm. Pedicles begin to grow at about twelve months of age and grow into spikes. Yearling bucks cast their antlers at 20-22 months of age. Antler cycles lack seasonality. In southern Indiaadult bucks attain peak hard antlers in May-June, yearlings and subadults later.","Chital are typical of the grassland-forest ecotone. They prefer moist and dry forest areas adjoining grassland or scrubland; they are also present in swampy meadows close to forests, riparian forests, and teak plantations. They tend to avoid dense forests and mountains.","Chital are flexible intermediate feeders with a tendency to graze. Up to 190 plant species are recorded as consumed at the Indian subcontinental scale. They eat grasses, but also forbs, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Chital tend to use more wooded habitat during the cool-dry season and early summer (November-May), where they find browse and fruit, and use more open grassland with the monsoon rains and the flush of plant growth. In Sundarbans they are known to feed also on crabs.","Females reach puberty at 10-14 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from March to July. After a pregnancy of 231-235 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 3-4 kg. Weaning occurs at 5—6 months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the major predators.","Active mainly around dawn and dusk, with two major resting periods, one before dawn and the other at midday.","Males have home ranges of about 200-350 ha, females of about 150-250 ha. It is a social species. The basic social unit is the family group consisting of the mother, the fawn, and the offspring of the previous year. Two or three families form fluid, temporary herds of 6-12 animals, often accompanied by subadult males and visited by adult bucks. Aggregations of more than 150-200 individuals are known in abundant pastures during rainy season or near water reservoirs in summer.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List for its relatively wide range and the network of protected areas. Due to overhunting and habitat loss Chital declined dramatically up to 1970; then they became more stable and sometimes locally abundant. The general demographic trend is unknown, but in some areas is still decreasing. In Bangladeshthey are restricted to the Sundarbans.","Ables (1974) | Azad et al. (2005) | Barrette (1985, 1991) | Chapple et al. (1993) | Duckworth et al. (2008) | Geist (1998) | Gilbert et al. (2006) | Mishra & Wemmer (1987) | Miura (1981) | Moe & Wegge (1997) | Ouithavon et al. (2009) | Raman (1997, 1998) | Sankar & Acharya (2004a) | Schaller (1967)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514421/files/figure.png,"13.ChitalAxis axisFrench:Cerf axis/ German:Axishirsch/ Spanish:AxisOther common names:Axis Deer, Indian Spotted DeerTaxonomy.Cervus axis Erxleben, 1777, Banks of Ganges, Bihar(India).The genus Axisappeared in Chinaat the end of the Miocene. The monophyly of Axishas been questioned repeatedly but the most recent genetic analyses have confirmed it. Monotypic.Distribution.India, S Nepal, S Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Chital have been introduced in Europe (Croatia, Ukraine, Moldova), Armenia, the Andaman Is, New Guinea, Australia, USA(California, Texas& Hawaii), Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head—body 150-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 140-145 cm for females (does), tail 25-30 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); weight of adult bucks 70-85 kg (up to 110 kg) and of adult does 45-60 kg (up to 70 kg). Hooves are 4-7 cm long. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized elegant deer heavily spotted in all seasons. The coat is reddishfawn flecked with small white spots; white throat patch, whitish underparts, a dark band around the muzzle, and a dark dorsal stripe. Males carry a dark chevron over the face. Face and neck of does are paler. Long hairs at the distal end of the preorbital gland, normally folded inwards. Males have an elongated penis sheath. Preorbital, metatarsal, and rear interdigital glands are present. Adult males have lyre-shaped, long, three-tined antlers, with a brow tine and an inward-oriented trez tine. Antlers are on average 65-75 cm long, with records of 95-110 cm. Pedicles begin to grow at about twelve months of age and grow into spikes. Yearling bucks cast their antlers at 20-22 months of age. Antler cycles lack seasonality. In southern Indiaadult bucks attain peak hard antlers in May-June, yearlings and subadults later.Habitat.Chital are typical of the grassland-forest ecotone. They prefer moist and dry forest areas adjoining grassland or scrubland; they are also present in swampy meadows close to forests, riparian forests, and teak plantations. They tend to avoid dense forests and mountains.Food and Feeding.Chital are flexible intermediate feeders with a tendency to graze. Up to 190 plant species are recorded as consumed at the Indian subcontinental scale. They eat grasses, but also forbs, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Chital tend to use more wooded habitat during the cool-dry season and early summer (November-May), where they find browse and fruit, and use more open grassland with the monsoon rains and the flush of plant growth. In Sundarbans they are known to feed also on crabs.Breeding.Females reach puberty at 10-14 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from March to July. After a pregnancy of 231-235 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 3-4 kg. Weaning occurs at 5—6 months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the major predators.Activity patterns.Active mainly around dawn and dusk, with two major resting periods, one before dawn and the other at midday.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 200-350 ha, females of about 150-250 ha. It is a social species. The basic social unit is the family group consisting of the mother, the fawn, and the offspring of the previous year. Two or three families form fluid, temporary herds of 6-12 animals, often accompanied by subadult males and visited by adult bucks. Aggregations of more than 150-200 individuals are known in abundant pastures during rainy season or near water reservoirs in summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List for its relatively wide range and the network of protected areas. Due to overhunting and habitat loss Chital declined dramatically up to 1970; then they became more stable and sometimes locally abundant. The general demographic trend is unknown, but in some areas is still decreasing. In Bangladeshthey are restricted to the Sundarbans.Bibliography.Ables (1974), Azad et al. (2005), Barrette (1985, 1991), Chapple et al. (1993), Duckworth et al. (2008), Geist (1998), Gilbert et al. (2006), Mishra & Wemmer (1987), Miura (1981), Moe & Wegge (1997), Ouithavon et al. (2009), Raman (1997, 1998), Sankar & Acharya (2004a), Schaller (1967)." -03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,415,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745.xml,Axis porcinus,Axis,porcinus,,,Cerf cochon @fr | Schweinshirsch @de | Axisporcino @es,"Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, 1780, West Bengal(India).Sometimes it iS put in a separate genus, Hyelaphus. Two subspecies are recognized.","A.p.porcinusZimmermann,1780—Pakistan,NIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andMyanmar.A. p. annamiticus Heude, 1888— S China(Yunnan), Thailand(reintroduced), and Cambodia; formerly also Laosand Vietnam but may be extinct there now.Tt was introduced some centuries ago in Sri Lanka, and more recently into Australia, and South Africa.","Head—body 140-150 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130 cmfor females (does), tail 17-21 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm (bucks) and 55-65 cm (does); weight of bucks 40-55 kg (up to 95 kg) and of does 30-40 kg. Adult bucks are on average 35% heavier than does. Medium-sized, relatively short-legged deer; males have prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers. Face moderately short,tail relatively long. The coat is yellow-brown to dark brown in summer, grayish-brown in winter; underparts dark, tail brown dorsally, white underneath. Newborn fawns are normally spotted, but in Cambodiaand Vietnamthey lack spots. Some spots may persist in adults. Adult antlers are generally 30-45 cm long (up to 61 cm), with a brow tine and fork. Antler casting occurs mainly between November and April.","Lowland wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with rivers: in South Asiaits original range fits with the Indo-Gangetic alluvial floodplain. It avoids closedcanopy forests.","Primarily a grazer of young grasses, but also feeds on herbs, flowers, fruits, and young leaves.","Females reach puberty at 8=12 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from July to November and a peak in September—October. Males search widely for receptive females and guard them temporarily. After a pregnancy of about 230 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 2-3 kg. Weaning occurs at six months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and crocodiles are the main predators.","Active during early morning, early evening, and late evening hours. When under heavy hunting pressure, it becomes nocturnal.","Males have home ranges of about 50-80 ha, females of about 40-60 ha. It is essentially a solitary species. Mean group sizes are normally 2-3 individuals. Males are often alone. Groups are mating pairs or small families, mother and fawn, or mother, fawn, and female yearling. Temporary aggregations of 20-80 individuals are seen in rich pastures.","Subspecies annamiticus CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Since the 1950s Hog Deer have undergone a dramatic decline due to habitat conversion (the Terai floodplains are among the most fertile lowlands of Asia) and direct persecution. By the mid-1980s it became extinct in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; in Bangladeshand possibly in South Chinaa few dozens survived. More recently the Cambodian population collapsed. In Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Hog Deer are declining at a slowerrate.",Biswas (2004) | Dhungel & O'Gara (1991) | Moore & Mayze (1990) | Odden & Wegge (2007) | Odden et al. (2005),,"14.Hog DeerAxis porcinusFrench:Cerf cochon/ German:Schweinshirsch/ Spanish:AxisporcinoTaxonomy.Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, 1780, West Bengal(India).Sometimes it iS put in a separate genus, Hyelaphus. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.p.porcinusZimmermann,1780—Pakistan,NIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andMyanmar.A. p. annamiticus Heude, 1888— S China(Yunnan), Thailand(reintroduced), and Cambodia; formerly also Laosand Vietnam but may be extinct there now.Tt was introduced some centuries ago in Sri Lanka, and more recently into Australia, and South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head—body 140-150 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130 cmfor females (does), tail 17-21 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm (bucks) and 55-65 cm (does); weight of bucks 40-55 kg (up to 95 kg) and of does 30-40 kg. Adult bucks are on average 35% heavier than does. Medium-sized, relatively short-legged deer; males have prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers. Face moderately short,tail relatively long. The coat is yellow-brown to dark brown in summer, grayish-brown in winter; underparts dark, tail brown dorsally, white underneath. Newborn fawns are normally spotted, but in Cambodiaand Vietnamthey lack spots. Some spots may persist in adults. Adult antlers are generally 30-45 cm long (up to 61 cm), with a brow tine and fork. Antler casting occurs mainly between November and April.Habitat.Lowland wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with rivers: in South Asiaits original range fits with the Indo-Gangetic alluvial floodplain. It avoids closedcanopy forests.Food and Feeding.Primarily a grazer of young grasses, but also feeds on herbs, flowers, fruits, and young leaves.Breeding.Females reach puberty at 8=12 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from July to November and a peak in September—October. Males search widely for receptive females and guard them temporarily. After a pregnancy of about 230 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 2-3 kg. Weaning occurs at six months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and crocodiles are the main predators.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, early evening, and late evening hours. When under heavy hunting pressure, it becomes nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 50-80 ha, females of about 40-60 ha. It is essentially a solitary species. Mean group sizes are normally 2-3 individuals. Males are often alone. Groups are mating pairs or small families, mother and fawn, or mother, fawn, and female yearling. Temporary aggregations of 20-80 individuals are seen in rich pastures.Status and Conservation.Subspecies annamiticus CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Since the 1950s Hog Deer have undergone a dramatic decline due to habitat conversion (the Terai floodplains are among the most fertile lowlands of Asia) and direct persecution. By the mid-1980s it became extinct in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; in Bangladeshand possibly in South Chinaa few dozens survived. More recently the Cambodian population collapsed. In Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Hog Deer are declining at a slowerrate.Bibliography.Biswas (2004), Dhungel & O'Gara (1991), Moore & Mayze (1990), Odden & Wegge (2007), Odden et al. (2005)." +03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,415,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745.xml,Axis porcinus,Axis,porcinus,,,Cerf cochon @fr | Schweinshirsch @de | Axisporcino @es,"Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, 1780, West Bengal(India).Sometimes it iS put in a separate genus, Hyelaphus. Two subspecies are recognized.","A.p.porcinusZimmermann,1780—Pakistan,NIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andMyanmar.A. p. annamiticus Heude, 1888— S China(Yunnan), Thailand(reintroduced), and Cambodia; formerly also Laosand Vietnam but may be extinct there now.Tt was introduced some centuries ago in Sri Lanka, and more recently into Australia, and South Africa.","Head—body 140-150 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130 cmfor females (does), tail 17-21 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm (bucks) and 55-65 cm (does); weight of bucks 40-55 kg (up to 95 kg) and of does 30-40 kg. Adult bucks are on average 35% heavier than does. Medium-sized, relatively short-legged deer; males have prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers. Face moderately short,tail relatively long. The coat is yellow-brown to dark brown in summer, grayish-brown in winter; underparts dark, tail brown dorsally, white underneath. Newborn fawns are normally spotted, but in Cambodiaand Vietnamthey lack spots. Some spots may persist in adults. Adult antlers are generally 30-45 cm long (up to 61 cm), with a brow tine and fork. Antler casting occurs mainly between November and April.","Lowland wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with rivers: in South Asiaits original range fits with the Indo-Gangetic alluvial floodplain. It avoids closedcanopy forests.","Primarily a grazer of young grasses, but also feeds on herbs, flowers, fruits, and young leaves.","Females reach puberty at 8=12 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from July to November and a peak in September—October. Males search widely for receptive females and guard them temporarily. After a pregnancy of about 230 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 2-3 kg. Weaning occurs at six months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and crocodiles are the main predators.","Active during early morning, early evening, and late evening hours. When under heavy hunting pressure, it becomes nocturnal.","Males have home ranges of about 50-80 ha, females of about 40-60 ha. It is essentially a solitary species. Mean group sizes are normally 2-3 individuals. Males are often alone. Groups are mating pairs or small families, mother and fawn, or mother, fawn, and female yearling. Temporary aggregations of 20-80 individuals are seen in rich pastures.","Subspecies annamiticus CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Since the 1950s Hog Deer have undergone a dramatic decline due to habitat conversion (the Terai floodplains are among the most fertile lowlands of Asia) and direct persecution. By the mid-1980s it became extinct in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; in Bangladeshand possibly in South Chinaa few dozens survived. More recently the Cambodian population collapsed. In Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Hog Deer are declining at a slowerrate.",Biswas (2004) | Dhungel & O'Gara (1991) | Moore & Mayze (1990) | Odden & Wegge (2007) | Odden et al. (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6514425/files/figure.png,"14.Hog DeerAxis porcinusFrench:Cerf cochon/ German:Schweinshirsch/ Spanish:AxisporcinoTaxonomy.Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, 1780, West Bengal(India).Sometimes it iS put in a separate genus, Hyelaphus. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.p.porcinusZimmermann,1780—Pakistan,NIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andMyanmar.A. p. annamiticus Heude, 1888— S China(Yunnan), Thailand(reintroduced), and Cambodia; formerly also Laosand Vietnam but may be extinct there now.Tt was introduced some centuries ago in Sri Lanka, and more recently into Australia, and South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head—body 140-150 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130 cmfor females (does), tail 17-21 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm (bucks) and 55-65 cm (does); weight of bucks 40-55 kg (up to 95 kg) and of does 30-40 kg. Adult bucks are on average 35% heavier than does. Medium-sized, relatively short-legged deer; males have prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers. Face moderately short,tail relatively long. The coat is yellow-brown to dark brown in summer, grayish-brown in winter; underparts dark, tail brown dorsally, white underneath. Newborn fawns are normally spotted, but in Cambodiaand Vietnamthey lack spots. Some spots may persist in adults. Adult antlers are generally 30-45 cm long (up to 61 cm), with a brow tine and fork. Antler casting occurs mainly between November and April.Habitat.Lowland wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with rivers: in South Asiaits original range fits with the Indo-Gangetic alluvial floodplain. It avoids closedcanopy forests.Food and Feeding.Primarily a grazer of young grasses, but also feeds on herbs, flowers, fruits, and young leaves.Breeding.Females reach puberty at 8=12 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from July to November and a peak in September—October. Males search widely for receptive females and guard them temporarily. After a pregnancy of about 230 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 2-3 kg. Weaning occurs at six months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and crocodiles are the main predators.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, early evening, and late evening hours. When under heavy hunting pressure, it becomes nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 50-80 ha, females of about 40-60 ha. It is essentially a solitary species. Mean group sizes are normally 2-3 individuals. Males are often alone. Groups are mating pairs or small families, mother and fawn, or mother, fawn, and female yearling. Temporary aggregations of 20-80 individuals are seen in rich pastures.Status and Conservation.Subspecies annamiticus CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Since the 1950s Hog Deer have undergone a dramatic decline due to habitat conversion (the Terai floodplains are among the most fertile lowlands of Asia) and direct persecution. By the mid-1980s it became extinct in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; in Bangladeshand possibly in South Chinaa few dozens survived. More recently the Cambodian population collapsed. In Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Hog Deer are declining at a slowerrate.Bibliography.Biswas (2004), Dhungel & O'Gara (1991), Moore & Mayze (1990), Odden & Wegge (2007), Odden et al. (2005)." 03A087C4FFCDFFCDFA4FF6BBE511FDBD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,415,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCDFFCDFA4FF6BBE511FDBD.xml,Axis kuhlii,Axis,kuhlii,,,Cerf de Kuhl @fr | Bawean-Schweinshirsch @de | Axis de Bawean @es,"Cervus kuhlii Temminck, 1836, Bawean Island.It has often been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinusand more recently it has been related to the extinct A. lydekkerii of Pleistocene. Fossils document an ancient occurrence in Java. The scientific name refers to the German naturalist H. Kuhl, who visited the East Indies in 1820-1821. Monotypic.","Bawean I, offJava.","Head—body 130-140 cm, tail 17-20 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight of adult bucks 40-60 kg. Medium-sized short-legged deer with a bushy tail; males with prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers 30-45 cm in length. The coat is brown. Newborn fawns are not spotted. Pedicles begin to grow at six months of age, the first set of antlers at about eight months of age.",It is more common in hilly secondary forests.,Primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.,Males may reproduce in every month of the year. Mating season peaks between July and December and births between February and June. Pregnancy lasts about 225-230 days. There is a postpartum estrus; interbirth intervals are about nine months. Feral dogs and pythons are the main predators.,Mainly nocturnal.,It is typically solitary.,"CITES Annex I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In the 1960s—-1970s hunting and conversion to teak plantations caused a decline of the population, which now numbers around 300-500 individuals. Hunting ban began in 1977.","Blouch & Atmosoedirdjo (1987) | Groves & Grubb (1987) | Meijaard & Groves (2004) | Semiadi, Pudyatmoko et al. (2008) | Semiadi, Subekti et al. (2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514427/files/figure.png,"15.Bawean DeerAxis kuhliiFrench:Cerf de Kuhl/ German:Bawean-Schweinshirsch/ Spanish:Axis de BaweanTaxonomy.Cervus kuhlii Temminck, 1836, Bawean Island.It has often been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinusand more recently it has been related to the extinct A. lydekkerii of Pleistocene. Fossils document an ancient occurrence in Java. The scientific name refers to the German naturalist H. Kuhl, who visited the East Indies in 1820-1821. Monotypic.Distribution.Bawean I, offJava.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-140 cm, tail 17-20 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight of adult bucks 40-60 kg. Medium-sized short-legged deer with a bushy tail; males with prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers 30-45 cm in length. The coat is brown. Newborn fawns are not spotted. Pedicles begin to grow at six months of age, the first set of antlers at about eight months of age.Habitat.It is more common in hilly secondary forests.Food and Feeding.Primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.Breeding.Males may reproduce in every month of the year. Mating season peaks between July and December and births between February and June. Pregnancy lasts about 225-230 days. There is a postpartum estrus; interbirth intervals are about nine months. Feral dogs and pythons are the main predators.On followıng pages 16 Calamıan Deer (Axıs calamıanensıs) 17 Common Fallow Deer (Dama dama) 18 Persnun Fallow Deer (Dama mesopotamıca) 19 Sambar (Rusa unıoolon 20 Javan Deer (Rusa tlmoœnsls). 21 Phılıppıne Spotted Deer (Rusa alfredh 22 Phılıppıne Brown Deer (Husa manannalActivity patterns.Mainly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is typically solitary.Status and Conservation.CITES Annex I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In the 1960s—-1970s hunting and conversion to teak plantations caused a decline of the population, which now numbers around 300-500 individuals. Hunting ban began in 1977.Bibliography.Blouch & Atmosoedirdjo (1987), Groves & Grubb (1987), Meijaard & Groves (2004), Semiadi, Pudyatmoko et al. (2008), Semiadi, Subekti et al. (2003)." -03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,418,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801.xml,Rusa marianna,Rusa,marianna,Desmarest,1822,Cerf des Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Hirsch @de | Sambarde Filipinas @es | Philippine Deer @en | Philippine Sambar @en,"Cervus mariannus Desmarest, 1822, Mariana Islands(introduced).Previously included in R. unicolor. Three subspecies are recognized.","R.m.mariannaDesmarest,1822—Luzon|andassociatedsmallerIs.R.m.barandanaHeude,1888—MindoroI.R. m. nigella Hollister, 1813— Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, and LeyteIs.In addition to its native range, introduced populations of this species are found on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Is and Pohnpei in the Caroline Is. The Philippine Brown Deer was also introduced to the Japanese Bonin Islands, where it later became extinct.","Head-body 140 cm, tail 8-12 cm, shoulder height 55-70 cm; weight 40-60 kg. Small to medium-sized dark brown deer with an unspotted coat, darker above, paler on underparts and on legs. Fawns unspotted soon after birth. Very small ears. Adults have relatively short three-tined antlers, 20-40 cm in length. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth (upper canines absent). Broad lower central incisors and narrow lateral incisiform canines.","It formerly occurred in primary and secondary forests up to 2900 mabove sea level, including wooded lowlands and forested slopes.","Philippine Brown Deer generally favor forest edges or clearings, browsing on a variety of vegetation such as grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and berries. In areas where it has been introduced, the Philippine Brown Deer causes significant damage to indigenous ecosystems, preventing forest regeneration as well as eating large amounts of crops.","Breeding most commonly occurs from September to January, with females giving birth to a single fawn marked with pale spots, which disappear after a few weeks.","The Philippine Brown Deer becomes active in the evenings and continues to feed throughout the night until dawn. They spend most of the day resting, hidden in dense vegetation.","During the mating season, females may form small groups of up to eight individuals, but the males remain solitary and are aggressive.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is declining throughout most of its range, due to hunting and deforestation. The Mindoro population is severely threatened by habitat loss. Despite portions of this species’ range being located in protected areas in the Philippines, poor enforcement allows widespread illegal logging activity, mining, and conversion of land to agriculture.","Grubb & Groves (1983) | Oliver, MacKinnon, Ong & Gonzales (2008) | Wemmer (1998)",,"22.Philippine Brown DeerRusa mariannaFrench:Cerf des Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Hirsch/ Spanish:Sambarde FilipinasOther common names:Philippine Deer, Philippine SambarTaxonomy.Cervus mariannus Desmarest, 1822, Mariana Islands(introduced).Previously included in R. unicolor. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.m.mariannaDesmarest,1822—Luzon|andassociatedsmallerIs.R.m.barandanaHeude,1888—MindoroI.R. m. nigella Hollister, 1813— Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, and LeyteIs.In addition to its native range, introduced populations of this species are found on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Is and Pohnpei in the Caroline Is. The Philippine Brown Deer was also introduced to the Japanese Bonin Islands, where it later became extinct.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140 cm, tail 8-12 cm, shoulder height 55-70 cm; weight 40-60 kg. Small to medium-sized dark brown deer with an unspotted coat, darker above, paler on underparts and on legs. Fawns unspotted soon after birth. Very small ears. Adults have relatively short three-tined antlers, 20-40 cm in length. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth (upper canines absent). Broad lower central incisors and narrow lateral incisiform canines.Habitat.It formerly occurred in primary and secondary forests up to 2900 mabove sea level, including wooded lowlands and forested slopes.Food and Feeding.Philippine Brown Deer generally favor forest edges or clearings, browsing on a variety of vegetation such as grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and berries. In areas where it has been introduced, the Philippine Brown Deer causes significant damage to indigenous ecosystems, preventing forest regeneration as well as eating large amounts of crops.Breeding.Breeding most commonly occurs from September to January, with females giving birth to a single fawn marked with pale spots, which disappear after a few weeks.Activity patterns.The Philippine Brown Deer becomes active in the evenings and continues to feed throughout the night until dawn. They spend most of the day resting, hidden in dense vegetation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.During the mating season, females may form small groups of up to eight individuals, but the males remain solitary and are aggressive.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is declining throughout most of its range, due to hunting and deforestation. The Mindoro population is severely threatened by habitat loss. Despite portions of this species’ range being located in protected areas in the Philippines, poor enforcement allows widespread illegal logging activity, mining, and conversion of land to agriculture.Bibliography.Grubb & Groves (1983), Oliver, MacKinnon, Ong & Gonzales (2008), Wemmer (1998)." +03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,418,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801.xml,Rusa marianna,Rusa,marianna,Desmarest,1822,Cerf des Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Hirsch @de | Sambarde Filipinas @es | Philippine Deer @en | Philippine Sambar @en,"Cervus mariannus Desmarest, 1822, Mariana Islands(introduced).Previously included in R. unicolor. Three subspecies are recognized.","R.m.mariannaDesmarest,1822—Luzon|andassociatedsmallerIs.R.m.barandanaHeude,1888—MindoroI.R. m. nigella Hollister, 1813— Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, and LeyteIs.In addition to its native range, introduced populations of this species are found on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Is and Pohnpei in the Caroline Is. The Philippine Brown Deer was also introduced to the Japanese Bonin Islands, where it later became extinct.","Head-body 140 cm, tail 8-12 cm, shoulder height 55-70 cm; weight 40-60 kg. Small to medium-sized dark brown deer with an unspotted coat, darker above, paler on underparts and on legs. Fawns unspotted soon after birth. Very small ears. Adults have relatively short three-tined antlers, 20-40 cm in length. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth (upper canines absent). Broad lower central incisors and narrow lateral incisiform canines.","It formerly occurred in primary and secondary forests up to 2900 mabove sea level, including wooded lowlands and forested slopes.","Philippine Brown Deer generally favor forest edges or clearings, browsing on a variety of vegetation such as grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and berries. In areas where it has been introduced, the Philippine Brown Deer causes significant damage to indigenous ecosystems, preventing forest regeneration as well as eating large amounts of crops.","Breeding most commonly occurs from September to January, with females giving birth to a single fawn marked with pale spots, which disappear after a few weeks.","The Philippine Brown Deer becomes active in the evenings and continues to feed throughout the night until dawn. They spend most of the day resting, hidden in dense vegetation.","During the mating season, females may form small groups of up to eight individuals, but the males remain solitary and are aggressive.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is declining throughout most of its range, due to hunting and deforestation. The Mindoro population is severely threatened by habitat loss. Despite portions of this species’ range being located in protected areas in the Philippines, poor enforcement allows widespread illegal logging activity, mining, and conversion of land to agriculture.","Grubb & Groves (1983) | Oliver, MacKinnon, Ong & Gonzales (2008) | Wemmer (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514448/files/figure.png,"22.Philippine Brown DeerRusa mariannaFrench:Cerf des Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Hirsch/ Spanish:Sambarde FilipinasOther common names:Philippine Deer, Philippine SambarTaxonomy.Cervus mariannus Desmarest, 1822, Mariana Islands(introduced).Previously included in R. unicolor. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.m.mariannaDesmarest,1822—Luzon|andassociatedsmallerIs.R.m.barandanaHeude,1888—MindoroI.R. m. nigella Hollister, 1813— Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, and LeyteIs.In addition to its native range, introduced populations of this species are found on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Is and Pohnpei in the Caroline Is. The Philippine Brown Deer was also introduced to the Japanese Bonin Islands, where it later became extinct.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140 cm, tail 8-12 cm, shoulder height 55-70 cm; weight 40-60 kg. Small to medium-sized dark brown deer with an unspotted coat, darker above, paler on underparts and on legs. Fawns unspotted soon after birth. Very small ears. Adults have relatively short three-tined antlers, 20-40 cm in length. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth (upper canines absent). Broad lower central incisors and narrow lateral incisiform canines.Habitat.It formerly occurred in primary and secondary forests up to 2900 mabove sea level, including wooded lowlands and forested slopes.Food and Feeding.Philippine Brown Deer generally favor forest edges or clearings, browsing on a variety of vegetation such as grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and berries. In areas where it has been introduced, the Philippine Brown Deer causes significant damage to indigenous ecosystems, preventing forest regeneration as well as eating large amounts of crops.Breeding.Breeding most commonly occurs from September to January, with females giving birth to a single fawn marked with pale spots, which disappear after a few weeks.Activity patterns.The Philippine Brown Deer becomes active in the evenings and continues to feed throughout the night until dawn. They spend most of the day resting, hidden in dense vegetation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.During the mating season, females may form small groups of up to eight individuals, but the males remain solitary and are aggressive.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is declining throughout most of its range, due to hunting and deforestation. The Mindoro population is severely threatened by habitat loss. Despite portions of this species’ range being located in protected areas in the Philippines, poor enforcement allows widespread illegal logging activity, mining, and conversion of land to agriculture.Bibliography.Grubb & Groves (1983), Oliver, MacKinnon, Ong & Gonzales (2008), Wemmer (1998)." 03A087C4FFCEFFCFFF0CFCBEE5FAF800,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,418,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCEFFCFFF0CFCBEE5FAF800.xml,Rusa alfredi,Rusa,alfredi,,,Cerf d'Alfred @fr | Prinz-Alfred-Hirsch @de | Sambarmanchado de Filipinas @es | Prince Alfred's Sambar @en | Visayan Spotted Deer @en,"Cervus alfredi Sclater, 1870, Philippines.This species has been treated for decades as a dwarf island form of R. unicolor. The scientific name refers to Prince Alfred, son of Queen Victoria, who sent a specimen to P. L. Sclater. Monotypic.","Panay and Negros Is, in W Visayas, Philippines.","Head-body 130 cm, tail 12 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm; weight of males around 40 kg. Small to medium-sized deer with a narrow skull and pointed face. Ears relatively small. Fur fine, soft, and dense. The coat is dark brown with beige and whitish spots and a blackish spinal band. Head and neck darker, underparts cream. White on chin and lowerlip. Antlers of adults three-tined and 25 cmin lenght.",It is now restricted to steep slopes of dipterocarp forests.,"It feeds on leaves, buds, forbs, young grasses, and fruits.","Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding occurs all year. Mating season peaks in November-December, births in May-June. Gestation is around 240 days. Females give birth to a single fawn.",Mainly nocturnal.,"It is not very social, with males mostly solitary and females with their fawns.",Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and logging for plantations and agriculture have drastically fragmented its range and decreased its population.,Cox (1987) | Grubb & Groves (1983) | Oliver et al. (1991),https://zenodo.org/record/6514445/files/figure.png,"21.Philippine Spotted DeerRusa alfrediFrench:Cerf d'Alfred/ German:Prinz-Alfred-Hirsch/ Spanish:Sambarmanchado de FilipinasOther common names:Prince Alfred's Sambar, Visayan Spotted DeerTaxonomy.Cervus alfredi Sclater, 1870, Philippines.This species has been treated for decades as a dwarf island form of R. unicolor. The scientific name refers to Prince Alfred, son of Queen Victoria, who sent a specimen to P. L. Sclater. Monotypic.Distribution.Panay and Negros Is, in W Visayas, Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130 cm, tail 12 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm; weight of males around 40 kg. Small to medium-sized deer with a narrow skull and pointed face. Ears relatively small. Fur fine, soft, and dense. The coat is dark brown with beige and whitish spots and a blackish spinal band. Head and neck darker, underparts cream. White on chin and lowerlip. Antlers of adults three-tined and 25 cmin lenght.Habitat.It is now restricted to steep slopes of dipterocarp forests.Food and Feeding.It feeds on leaves, buds, forbs, young grasses, and fruits.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding occurs all year. Mating season peaks in November-December, births in May-June. Gestation is around 240 days. Females give birth to a single fawn.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is not very social, with males mostly solitary and females with their fawns.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and logging for plantations and agriculture have drastically fragmented its range and decreased its population.Bibliography.Cox (1987), Grubb & Groves (1983), Oliver et al. (1991)." -03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,417,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8.xml,Rusa unicolor,Rusa,unicolor,,,Cerf sambar @fr | Sambar @de | Sambar @es,"Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792, Sri Lanka.Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.","R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862— Taiwan.Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.","Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kgin Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cmin Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepalstags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989.","It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.","It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.","Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.",It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.,"Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.",Acharjyo (1982) | Geist (1998) | Johnsingh & Sankar (1991) | Leslie (2011) | Ngampongsai (1987) | Sankar & Acharya (2004b) | Schaller (1967),,"19.SambarRusa unicolorFrench:Cerf sambar/ German:Sambar/ Spanish:SambarTaxonomy.Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792, Sri Lanka.Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862— Taiwan.Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kgin Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cmin Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepalstags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.Bibliography.Acharjyo (1982), Geist (1998), Johnsingh & Sankar (1991), Leslie (2011), Ngampongsai (1987), Sankar & Acharya (2004b), Schaller (1967)." -03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,417,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39.xml,Rusa timorensis,Rusa,timorensis,,,Cerf de Timor @fr | Mahnenhirsch @de | Sambarde Java @es | Maned Sambar @en | Rusa Deer @en | Sunda Sambar @en | Timor Deer @en,"Cervus timorensis de Blainville, 1822, Timor Island.Seven subspecies are usually recognized, but their legitimacy is debatable.","R.t.timorensisdeBlainville,1822—TimorI.R.t.djongaVanBemmel,1949-MunaandButonIs.R.t.flovesiensisHeude,1897—Flores1.R.t.macassaricaHeude,1896—Sulawesi.R.t.moluccensisQuoy&Gaimard,1830—MoluccanIs.R.t.renschiSody,1932—Bali.R. t. russa Muller & Schlegel, 1845— Java.Possibly it is native only to Javaand Baliislands, introduced into Lombok, Flores, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, Sulawesi, and Moluccan Islands in ancient times. It was introduced during the last centuries in many locations, including New Guinea, Aru Islands, New Britain Is, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Mauritius, and Comoro Is. The map represents the native range and the oldest introductions.","Head-body 150-180 cm (males) and 140-170 (females), tail 25 cm, shoulder height 95-110 cm (males) and 85-100 (females); weight of males 70-135 kg and of females 50-90 kg. Males are 40-70% heavier than females. Medium-sized deer with relatively long and narrow tail; males have relatively slender and less rugose antlers, with a brow tine pointing forward and a trez tine in a median position. Males develop a conspicuous neck mane. The coat is dark brown to graybrown. Underparts are paler than back. Females are paler than males. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Adult antlers are 50-80 cm long, with records of 95 cm. Antler casting peaks in December—January, velvet shedding in May-June. Pedicles begin to grow at about 5-9 months of age. The first antler set begins to develop at 7-11 months of age.","It is basically a tropical grassland species, but very adaptable, with populations living in forests, shrubs, and marshes, from sea level to 900 mabove sea level.","It has an extensive diet, feeding on grasses, herbs, leaves, and bark.","Females attain puberty at 7-15 months of age. Males are able to reproduce at about 24 months of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. Javan Deer seems to breed at any time of the year, with a rutting peak from June to September. After a gestation of 249-253 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-5 kg. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the main predator.",It is primarily diurnal.,"It is a gregarious species, with males and females forming distinct groups except during the rutting season. Herds may comprise up to 25 individuals.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It may be locally common, but the global trend in its native range is negative, due to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and poaching.",de Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2005) | Hedges et al. (2008) | VanMourik (1986) | Woodford & Dunning (1992),,"20.Javan DeerRusa timorensisFrench:Cerf de Timor/ German:Mahnenhirsch/ Spanish:Sambarde JavaOther common names:Maned Sambar, Rusa Deer, Sunda Sambar, Timor DeerTaxonomy.Cervus timorensis de Blainville, 1822, Timor Island.Seven subspecies are usually recognized, but their legitimacy is debatable.Subspecies and Distribution.R.t.timorensisdeBlainville,1822—TimorI.R.t.djongaVanBemmel,1949-MunaandButonIs.R.t.flovesiensisHeude,1897—Flores1.R.t.macassaricaHeude,1896—Sulawesi.R.t.moluccensisQuoy&Gaimard,1830—MoluccanIs.R.t.renschiSody,1932—Bali.R. t. russa Muller & Schlegel, 1845— Java.Possibly it is native only to Javaand Baliislands, introduced into Lombok, Flores, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, Sulawesi, and Moluccan Islands in ancient times. It was introduced during the last centuries in many locations, including New Guinea, Aru Islands, New Britain Is, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Mauritius, and Comoro Is. The map represents the native range and the oldest introductions.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-180 cm (males) and 140-170 (females), tail 25 cm, shoulder height 95-110 cm (males) and 85-100 (females); weight of males 70-135 kg and of females 50-90 kg. Males are 40-70% heavier than females. Medium-sized deer with relatively long and narrow tail; males have relatively slender and less rugose antlers, with a brow tine pointing forward and a trez tine in a median position. Males develop a conspicuous neck mane. The coat is dark brown to graybrown. Underparts are paler than back. Females are paler than males. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Adult antlers are 50-80 cm long, with records of 95 cm. Antler casting peaks in December—January, velvet shedding in May-June. Pedicles begin to grow at about 5-9 months of age. The first antler set begins to develop at 7-11 months of age.Habitat.It is basically a tropical grassland species, but very adaptable, with populations living in forests, shrubs, and marshes, from sea level to 900 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It has an extensive diet, feeding on grasses, herbs, leaves, and bark.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 7-15 months of age. Males are able to reproduce at about 24 months of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. Javan Deer seems to breed at any time of the year, with a rutting peak from June to September. After a gestation of 249-253 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-5 kg. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the main predator.Activity patterns.It is primarily diurnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a gregarious species, with males and females forming distinct groups except during the rutting season. Herds may comprise up to 25 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It may be locally common, but the global trend in its native range is negative, due to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and poaching.Bibliography.de Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2005), Hedges et al. (2008), VanMourik (1986), Woodford & Dunning (1992)." -03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,428,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D.xml,Capreolus pygargus,Capreolus,pygargus,,,Chevreuil de Sibérie @fr | Sibirisches Reh @de | Corzosiberiano @es | Siberian Roe Deer @en,"Cervus pygargus Pallas, 1771, river Sok, Trans-Volga region (Russia).Here two subspecies are recognized.","C.p.pygargusPallas,1771—fromEuropeanRussiatoCSiberiaandYakutia.C. p. tianschanicus Satunin, 1906— from Kazakhstanto SE Siberia, C & NE China, and the Korean Peninsula.","Head body 125-145 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height 82-94 cm; weight 35-50 kg for males (adult bucks) and 32-47 kg for females (adult does). The heaviest animals are found in the Urals, Altai Mountains, and Yakutia (bucks up to 60-65 kg); the smallest possibly in China. It is a relatively large roe deer, with mostly uniform coat coloration. Facial markings are generally absent and the metatarsal glands are the same color as the legs. The antlers, which average 28-33 cm long on average in adult bucks, are well spread apart at the tips, but the pedicles are farther apart than in the Western Roe Deer (C. capreolus). The winter coat is gray or, in southern populations, graysh-brown, with a white rump patch. The summer coatis reddish. The molts occur in spring and autumn. Newborn fawns are spotted. The karyotype exhibits 1-14 additional Bchromosomes.","Eastern Roe Deerlive in forests with clearings and in treeless steppes with tall grass. They are particularly adapted to severe weather, tolerating temperatures from —60°C (Siberia) to more than 40°C (Central Asia). They occur up to 3300 mabove sea level on mountain ranges. Snow depth more than 50 cmis a limiting factor.","As browsers, roe deer prefer herbaceous dycotyledons and woody species. In winter they feed on twigs, dry herbs, mosses, and lichens.","Females attain puberty at about one year of age. Males tend to begin to reproduce by two or three years of age. Rut takes place in August and September. Females are described by Russian scientists as polyestrous, contrary to Western Roe Deer. They exhibit an embryonic diapause, with the implantation occurring in earlyJanuary. Around June, does typically give birth to two fawns weighing 1.8-2. 2 kg. Newborn fawns suckle within 30 minutes after birth and walk within 40 minutes. For the first two days they remain hidden in vegetation and if disturbed they tend to freeze. Fawns begin to experiment eating plants when they are 5-10 days old, but continue to nurse for 4-5 months. Eastern Roe Deer live a maximum of 11-12 years. The main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx); in some areas they are also preyed upon by Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris). Natural mortality due to climatic factors (frigid temperature, snowy winters) may affect population dynamics.","Eastern Roe Deer are active all day, alternating bouts of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving, at least 4-7 times in 24 hours. Animals are particularly active at dusk and dawn.","It is saltatorial and cursorial with low endurance. Annual home ranges can be 1-5 km?®, but in some less productive regions can reach 10-15 km?In the Amur regionand Siberian Far East, annual mass migrations of 100-300 km (up to 500 km) occur to avoid deep snow and reach productive habitats. The migrations to winter quarters in September—October can take up to 40 days; the return usually takes place in March-April. Roe deer are solitary or weakly social, forming small matrilinear groups in autumn and winter with an adult doe as a leader. Mass migrations are conducted by family groups aggregated into large herds. Adult bucks are solitary and territorial during late spring and summer.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List but decreasing. Although it is still widespread,it is declining due to overhunting. Formerly its range extended to Belarusand Ukraine. During the 19"" century it was subjected to particularly heavy hunting pressure in Russia, and half a million were killed annually. Illegal hunting for meat and antlers is still frequent in Siberia. Logging and poaching are threatening the populations living in the Korean Peninsula.","Baskin & Danell (2003) | Danilkin (1995, 1999) | Danilkin & Hewison (1996) | Randi et al. (1998) | Sokolov & Gromov (1990) | Xiao Chaoting et al. (2007)",,"33.Eastern Roe DeerCapreolus pygargusFrench:Chevreuil de Sibérie/ German:Sibirisches Reh/ Spanish:CorzosiberianoOther common names:Siberian Roe DeerTaxonomy.Cervus pygargus Pallas, 1771, river Sok, Trans-Volga region (Russia).Here two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.p.pygargusPallas,1771—fromEuropeanRussiatoCSiberiaandYakutia.C. p. tianschanicus Satunin, 1906— from Kazakhstanto SE Siberia, C & NE China, and the Korean Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head body 125-145 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height 82-94 cm; weight 35-50 kg for males (adult bucks) and 32-47 kg for females (adult does). The heaviest animals are found in the Urals, Altai Mountains, and Yakutia (bucks up to 60-65 kg); the smallest possibly in China. It is a relatively large roe deer, with mostly uniform coat coloration. Facial markings are generally absent and the metatarsal glands are the same color as the legs. The antlers, which average 28-33 cm long on average in adult bucks, are well spread apart at the tips, but the pedicles are farther apart than in the Western Roe Deer (C. capreolus). The winter coat is gray or, in southern populations, graysh-brown, with a white rump patch. The summer coatis reddish. The molts occur in spring and autumn. Newborn fawns are spotted. The karyotype exhibits 1-14 additional Bchromosomes.Habitat.Eastern Roe Deerlive in forests with clearings and in treeless steppes with tall grass. They are particularly adapted to severe weather, tolerating temperatures from —60°C (Siberia) to more than 40°C (Central Asia). They occur up to 3300 mabove sea level on mountain ranges. Snow depth more than 50 cmis a limiting factor.Food and Feeding.As browsers, roe deer prefer herbaceous dycotyledons and woody species. In winter they feed on twigs, dry herbs, mosses, and lichens.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about one year of age. Males tend to begin to reproduce by two or three years of age. Rut takes place in August and September. Females are described by Russian scientists as polyestrous, contrary to Western Roe Deer. They exhibit an embryonic diapause, with the implantation occurring in earlyJanuary. Around June, does typically give birth to two fawns weighing 1.8-2. 2 kg. Newborn fawns suckle within 30 minutes after birth and walk within 40 minutes. For the first two days they remain hidden in vegetation and if disturbed they tend to freeze. Fawns begin to experiment eating plants when they are 5-10 days old, but continue to nurse for 4-5 months. Eastern Roe Deer live a maximum of 11-12 years. The main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx); in some areas they are also preyed upon by Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris). Natural mortality due to climatic factors (frigid temperature, snowy winters) may affect population dynamics.Activity patterns.Eastern Roe Deer are active all day, alternating bouts of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving, at least 4-7 times in 24 hours. Animals are particularly active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is saltatorial and cursorial with low endurance. Annual home ranges can be 1-5 km?®, but in some less productive regions can reach 10-15 km?In the Amur regionand Siberian Far East, annual mass migrations of 100-300 km (up to 500 km) occur to avoid deep snow and reach productive habitats. The migrations to winter quarters in September—October can take up to 40 days; the return usually takes place in March-April. Roe deer are solitary or weakly social, forming small matrilinear groups in autumn and winter with an adult doe as a leader. Mass migrations are conducted by family groups aggregated into large herds. Adult bucks are solitary and territorial during late spring and summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List but decreasing. Although it is still widespread,it is declining due to overhunting. Formerly its range extended to Belarusand Ukraine. During the 19"" century it was subjected to particularly heavy hunting pressure in Russia, and half a million were killed annually. Illegal hunting for meat and antlers is still frequent in Siberia. Logging and poaching are threatening the populations living in the Korean Peninsula.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Danilkin (1995, 1999), Danilkin & Hewison (1996), Randi et al. (1998), Sokolov & Gromov (1990), Xiao Chaoting et al. (2007)." +03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,417,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8.xml,Rusa unicolor,Rusa,unicolor,,,Cerf sambar @fr | Sambar @de | Sambar @es,"Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792, Sri Lanka.Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.","R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862— Taiwan.Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.","Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kgin Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cmin Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepalstags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989.","It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.","It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.","Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.",It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.,"Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.",Acharjyo (1982) | Geist (1998) | Johnsingh & Sankar (1991) | Leslie (2011) | Ngampongsai (1987) | Sankar & Acharya (2004b) | Schaller (1967),https://zenodo.org/record/6514439/files/figure.png,"19.SambarRusa unicolorFrench:Cerf sambar/ German:Sambar/ Spanish:SambarTaxonomy.Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792, Sri Lanka.Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862— Taiwan.Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kgin Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cmin Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepalstags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.Bibliography.Acharjyo (1982), Geist (1998), Johnsingh & Sankar (1991), Leslie (2011), Ngampongsai (1987), Sankar & Acharya (2004b), Schaller (1967)." +03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,417,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39.xml,Rusa timorensis,Rusa,timorensis,,,Cerf de Timor @fr | Mahnenhirsch @de | Sambarde Java @es | Maned Sambar @en | Rusa Deer @en | Sunda Sambar @en | Timor Deer @en,"Cervus timorensis de Blainville, 1822, Timor Island.Seven subspecies are usually recognized, but their legitimacy is debatable.","R.t.timorensisdeBlainville,1822—TimorI.R.t.djongaVanBemmel,1949-MunaandButonIs.R.t.flovesiensisHeude,1897—Flores1.R.t.macassaricaHeude,1896—Sulawesi.R.t.moluccensisQuoy&Gaimard,1830—MoluccanIs.R.t.renschiSody,1932—Bali.R. t. russa Muller & Schlegel, 1845— Java.Possibly it is native only to Javaand Baliislands, introduced into Lombok, Flores, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, Sulawesi, and Moluccan Islands in ancient times. It was introduced during the last centuries in many locations, including New Guinea, Aru Islands, New Britain Is, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Mauritius, and Comoro Is. The map represents the native range and the oldest introductions.","Head-body 150-180 cm (males) and 140-170 (females), tail 25 cm, shoulder height 95-110 cm (males) and 85-100 (females); weight of males 70-135 kg and of females 50-90 kg. Males are 40-70% heavier than females. Medium-sized deer with relatively long and narrow tail; males have relatively slender and less rugose antlers, with a brow tine pointing forward and a trez tine in a median position. Males develop a conspicuous neck mane. The coat is dark brown to graybrown. Underparts are paler than back. Females are paler than males. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Adult antlers are 50-80 cm long, with records of 95 cm. Antler casting peaks in December—January, velvet shedding in May-June. Pedicles begin to grow at about 5-9 months of age. The first antler set begins to develop at 7-11 months of age.","It is basically a tropical grassland species, but very adaptable, with populations living in forests, shrubs, and marshes, from sea level to 900 mabove sea level.","It has an extensive diet, feeding on grasses, herbs, leaves, and bark.","Females attain puberty at 7-15 months of age. Males are able to reproduce at about 24 months of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. Javan Deer seems to breed at any time of the year, with a rutting peak from June to September. After a gestation of 249-253 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-5 kg. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the main predator.",It is primarily diurnal.,"It is a gregarious species, with males and females forming distinct groups except during the rutting season. Herds may comprise up to 25 individuals.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It may be locally common, but the global trend in its native range is negative, due to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and poaching.",de Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2005) | Hedges et al. (2008) | VanMourik (1986) | Woodford & Dunning (1992),https://zenodo.org/record/6514441/files/figure.png,"20.Javan DeerRusa timorensisFrench:Cerf de Timor/ German:Mahnenhirsch/ Spanish:Sambarde JavaOther common names:Maned Sambar, Rusa Deer, Sunda Sambar, Timor DeerTaxonomy.Cervus timorensis de Blainville, 1822, Timor Island.Seven subspecies are usually recognized, but their legitimacy is debatable.Subspecies and Distribution.R.t.timorensisdeBlainville,1822—TimorI.R.t.djongaVanBemmel,1949-MunaandButonIs.R.t.flovesiensisHeude,1897—Flores1.R.t.macassaricaHeude,1896—Sulawesi.R.t.moluccensisQuoy&Gaimard,1830—MoluccanIs.R.t.renschiSody,1932—Bali.R. t. russa Muller & Schlegel, 1845— Java.Possibly it is native only to Javaand Baliislands, introduced into Lombok, Flores, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, Sulawesi, and Moluccan Islands in ancient times. It was introduced during the last centuries in many locations, including New Guinea, Aru Islands, New Britain Is, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Mauritius, and Comoro Is. The map represents the native range and the oldest introductions.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-180 cm (males) and 140-170 (females), tail 25 cm, shoulder height 95-110 cm (males) and 85-100 (females); weight of males 70-135 kg and of females 50-90 kg. Males are 40-70% heavier than females. Medium-sized deer with relatively long and narrow tail; males have relatively slender and less rugose antlers, with a brow tine pointing forward and a trez tine in a median position. Males develop a conspicuous neck mane. The coat is dark brown to graybrown. Underparts are paler than back. Females are paler than males. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Adult antlers are 50-80 cm long, with records of 95 cm. Antler casting peaks in December—January, velvet shedding in May-June. Pedicles begin to grow at about 5-9 months of age. The first antler set begins to develop at 7-11 months of age.Habitat.It is basically a tropical grassland species, but very adaptable, with populations living in forests, shrubs, and marshes, from sea level to 900 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It has an extensive diet, feeding on grasses, herbs, leaves, and bark.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 7-15 months of age. Males are able to reproduce at about 24 months of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. Javan Deer seems to breed at any time of the year, with a rutting peak from June to September. After a gestation of 249-253 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-5 kg. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the main predator.Activity patterns.It is primarily diurnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a gregarious species, with males and females forming distinct groups except during the rutting season. Herds may comprise up to 25 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It may be locally common, but the global trend in its native range is negative, due to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and poaching.Bibliography.de Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2005), Hedges et al. (2008), VanMourik (1986), Woodford & Dunning (1992)." +03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,428,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D.xml,Capreolus pygargus,Capreolus,pygargus,,,Chevreuil de Sibérie @fr | Sibirisches Reh @de | Corzosiberiano @es | Siberian Roe Deer @en,"Cervus pygargus Pallas, 1771, river Sok, Trans-Volga region (Russia).Here two subspecies are recognized.","C.p.pygargusPallas,1771—fromEuropeanRussiatoCSiberiaandYakutia.C. p. tianschanicus Satunin, 1906— from Kazakhstanto SE Siberia, C & NE China, and the Korean Peninsula.","Head body 125-145 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height 82-94 cm; weight 35-50 kg for males (adult bucks) and 32-47 kg for females (adult does). The heaviest animals are found in the Urals, Altai Mountains, and Yakutia (bucks up to 60-65 kg); the smallest possibly in China. It is a relatively large roe deer, with mostly uniform coat coloration. Facial markings are generally absent and the metatarsal glands are the same color as the legs. The antlers, which average 28-33 cm long on average in adult bucks, are well spread apart at the tips, but the pedicles are farther apart than in the Western Roe Deer (C. capreolus). The winter coat is gray or, in southern populations, graysh-brown, with a white rump patch. The summer coatis reddish. The molts occur in spring and autumn. Newborn fawns are spotted. The karyotype exhibits 1-14 additional Bchromosomes.","Eastern Roe Deerlive in forests with clearings and in treeless steppes with tall grass. They are particularly adapted to severe weather, tolerating temperatures from —60°C (Siberia) to more than 40°C (Central Asia). They occur up to 3300 mabove sea level on mountain ranges. Snow depth more than 50 cmis a limiting factor.","As browsers, roe deer prefer herbaceous dycotyledons and woody species. In winter they feed on twigs, dry herbs, mosses, and lichens.","Females attain puberty at about one year of age. Males tend to begin to reproduce by two or three years of age. Rut takes place in August and September. Females are described by Russian scientists as polyestrous, contrary to Western Roe Deer. They exhibit an embryonic diapause, with the implantation occurring in earlyJanuary. Around June, does typically give birth to two fawns weighing 1.8-2. 2 kg. Newborn fawns suckle within 30 minutes after birth and walk within 40 minutes. For the first two days they remain hidden in vegetation and if disturbed they tend to freeze. Fawns begin to experiment eating plants when they are 5-10 days old, but continue to nurse for 4-5 months. Eastern Roe Deer live a maximum of 11-12 years. The main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx); in some areas they are also preyed upon by Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris). Natural mortality due to climatic factors (frigid temperature, snowy winters) may affect population dynamics.","Eastern Roe Deer are active all day, alternating bouts of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving, at least 4-7 times in 24 hours. Animals are particularly active at dusk and dawn.","It is saltatorial and cursorial with low endurance. Annual home ranges can be 1-5 km?®, but in some less productive regions can reach 10-15 km?In the Amur regionand Siberian Far East, annual mass migrations of 100-300 km (up to 500 km) occur to avoid deep snow and reach productive habitats. The migrations to winter quarters in September—October can take up to 40 days; the return usually takes place in March-April. Roe deer are solitary or weakly social, forming small matrilinear groups in autumn and winter with an adult doe as a leader. Mass migrations are conducted by family groups aggregated into large herds. Adult bucks are solitary and territorial during late spring and summer.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List but decreasing. Although it is still widespread,it is declining due to overhunting. Formerly its range extended to Belarusand Ukraine. During the 19"" century it was subjected to particularly heavy hunting pressure in Russia, and half a million were killed annually. Illegal hunting for meat and antlers is still frequent in Siberia. Logging and poaching are threatening the populations living in the Korean Peninsula.","Baskin & Danell (2003) | Danilkin (1995, 1999) | Danilkin & Hewison (1996) | Randi et al. (1998) | Sokolov & Gromov (1990) | Xiao Chaoting et al. (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514505/files/figure.png,"33.Eastern Roe DeerCapreolus pygargusFrench:Chevreuil de Sibérie/ German:Sibirisches Reh/ Spanish:CorzosiberianoOther common names:Siberian Roe DeerTaxonomy.Cervus pygargus Pallas, 1771, river Sok, Trans-Volga region (Russia).Here two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.p.pygargusPallas,1771—fromEuropeanRussiatoCSiberiaandYakutia.C. p. tianschanicus Satunin, 1906— from Kazakhstanto SE Siberia, C & NE China, and the Korean Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head body 125-145 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height 82-94 cm; weight 35-50 kg for males (adult bucks) and 32-47 kg for females (adult does). The heaviest animals are found in the Urals, Altai Mountains, and Yakutia (bucks up to 60-65 kg); the smallest possibly in China. It is a relatively large roe deer, with mostly uniform coat coloration. Facial markings are generally absent and the metatarsal glands are the same color as the legs. The antlers, which average 28-33 cm long on average in adult bucks, are well spread apart at the tips, but the pedicles are farther apart than in the Western Roe Deer (C. capreolus). The winter coat is gray or, in southern populations, graysh-brown, with a white rump patch. The summer coatis reddish. The molts occur in spring and autumn. Newborn fawns are spotted. The karyotype exhibits 1-14 additional Bchromosomes.Habitat.Eastern Roe Deerlive in forests with clearings and in treeless steppes with tall grass. They are particularly adapted to severe weather, tolerating temperatures from —60°C (Siberia) to more than 40°C (Central Asia). They occur up to 3300 mabove sea level on mountain ranges. Snow depth more than 50 cmis a limiting factor.Food and Feeding.As browsers, roe deer prefer herbaceous dycotyledons and woody species. In winter they feed on twigs, dry herbs, mosses, and lichens.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about one year of age. Males tend to begin to reproduce by two or three years of age. Rut takes place in August and September. Females are described by Russian scientists as polyestrous, contrary to Western Roe Deer. They exhibit an embryonic diapause, with the implantation occurring in earlyJanuary. Around June, does typically give birth to two fawns weighing 1.8-2. 2 kg. Newborn fawns suckle within 30 minutes after birth and walk within 40 minutes. For the first two days they remain hidden in vegetation and if disturbed they tend to freeze. Fawns begin to experiment eating plants when they are 5-10 days old, but continue to nurse for 4-5 months. Eastern Roe Deer live a maximum of 11-12 years. The main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx); in some areas they are also preyed upon by Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris). Natural mortality due to climatic factors (frigid temperature, snowy winters) may affect population dynamics.Activity patterns.Eastern Roe Deer are active all day, alternating bouts of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving, at least 4-7 times in 24 hours. Animals are particularly active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is saltatorial and cursorial with low endurance. Annual home ranges can be 1-5 km?®, but in some less productive regions can reach 10-15 km?In the Amur regionand Siberian Far East, annual mass migrations of 100-300 km (up to 500 km) occur to avoid deep snow and reach productive habitats. The migrations to winter quarters in September—October can take up to 40 days; the return usually takes place in March-April. Roe deer are solitary or weakly social, forming small matrilinear groups in autumn and winter with an adult doe as a leader. Mass migrations are conducted by family groups aggregated into large herds. Adult bucks are solitary and territorial during late spring and summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List but decreasing. Although it is still widespread,it is declining due to overhunting. Formerly its range extended to Belarusand Ukraine. During the 19"" century it was subjected to particularly heavy hunting pressure in Russia, and half a million were killed annually. Illegal hunting for meat and antlers is still frequent in Siberia. Logging and poaching are threatening the populations living in the Korean Peninsula.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Danilkin (1995, 1999), Danilkin & Hewison (1996), Randi et al. (1998), Sokolov & Gromov (1990), Xiao Chaoting et al. (2007)." 03A087C4FFD1FFD1FF5FFA77E24AF9CE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,427,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD1FFD1FF5FFA77E24AF9CE.xml,Capreolus capreolus,Capreolus,capreolus,Gray,1821,Chevreuil d'Europe @fr | Reh @de | Corzo @es | European Roe Deer @en,"Cervus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The Western Roe Deeris recorded in Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. It was present on most of the continent during Interglacial and mild stages of glacial periods. During the last glacial maximum, 21-15,000 years ago, roe deer retreated to a few ice-free refugia in the Mediterranean region and in South-eastern Europe. About 9600 years ago, the deer began to recolonize Western, Central, and Northern Europe, possibly from one eastern glacial refugium. Due to substantial morphological homogeneity, most recent authorities consider the species as monotypic.","Most of Europe (excluding Iceland, Ireland, and Mediterranean Is), Caucasus, and Near East.","Head-body 107-127 cm,tail 1.5-3 cm, shoulder height 65-84 cm; postrutting weight 20-30 kg for males (adult bucks) and 17-29 kg for females (adult does). Bucks are on average 5-10% heavier than does. The heaviest animals are found in Scandinavia and the Baltic countries, the smallest in Mediterranean habitats of Spainand Italyand in cold alpine valleys. It is an elegant small deer with long neck, relatively short trunk, and rump higher than withers. The area around the muzzle is black, the lips and chin are white. The winter coat is grayish. Bucks have a large, white, kidney-shaped rump patch; in does the rump patch is heart-shaped and there is a prominent tuft of hairs close to the vulva. The summer coatis reddish, without a clear rump patch. The faces of bucks have a variable admixture of colors, from dark brown to grayish, sometimes with a whitish area toward the muzzle. The molt to summer coat occurs in April-June, and to winter coat in September—October. Newborn fawns have a brown coat flecked with black and with white spots on sides and back; the spots start to fade at six weeks and disappear by about five months. Preorbital glands are absent; metatarsal glands are brown and distinct; interdigital glands are well developed. An important glandular area, called the “frontal organ” by the first describers, is present on the forehead and between the pedicles of bucks. In late spring and summer, these sudoriferous glands produce a secrection used to mark territories. Western Roe Deer have a permanent dentition of 32 teeth; the teeth erupt at 3-13 months of age. Antlers are short (16-23 cm on average in adult bucks) and light, typically three-pointed, rugged by pearling in the lower half and with a well-developed burr. The basal anterior point (brow tine) is absent, replaced by a central one. Pedicles are close and the pair of antlers is often lyre-shaped. Pedicles grow precociously at about four months. Fawns normally develop their first rudimentary antler set (bony buttons or tiny spikes 1-2 cm long) at 6-7 months. These are retained for about two months. A second set of antlers begins to grow immediately, and is clean of velvet by May-June; yearling antlers are often spikes 10-14 cm long, but can be also have twoor three-pointed beams. Fawn males that weigh less than 14 kgby theirfirst winter do not develop antlers. Their first set, generally 3-5 cm spikes, appears the following spring. At 3-6 years antlers attain their full size. Regression begins by eight years. In adult bucks velvet shedding occurs in March-April, antler casting in October-November. Hooves are 4-5 cm long, narrow, pointed, with toe pads extending right out to the tips.","The body structure, with the hindquarters higher than the shoulders, makes Western Roe Deer particularly adapted to moving in thick vegetation. Originally it was associated with early successional stages of the forest, young tracts of woods and scrubland. During the Neolithic Revolution, when a transition occurred from huntinggathering to agriculture and settlements, progressive forest fragmentation and the creation of wood clearings, meadows, and cultivated areas, gave Western Roe Deer new opportunities. The higher proportion of forest edge in the mosaic landscapes typical of traditional agriculture was particularly suitable to the species. Today Western Roe Deer occur in a wide variety of habitats, from the maquis scrub of the Mediterranean coast to the boreal forests of Scandinavia, and from Scottish moorlands to modern farmland with scarce cover. They live in the Alps up to 2400 m. Northern and north-eastern range limits seem to be largely determined by snow depth. The heavy foot loading and the low chest height makeit difficult to move in snow more than 40 cmdeep.","Western Roe Deer are typical selective feeders or concentrate selectors, preferring soft food rich in soluble carbohydrates, proteins, and water. They have a relatively small rumen (4-6 1) and abomasum, and large salivary glands and liver; they are able to detoxify secondary plant metabolites. They are opportunistic and flexible deer, consuming up to 370 plant species at the regional level and about 1000 at the continental scale. Buds, shoots, and leaves of shrubs and deciduous trees, and green leaves and flowers of forbs (dicotyledon herbs) are particularly important; seeds and fruits are also eaten, especially in autumn. It seems that roe deer have physiological mechanisms that allow soluble carbohydrates to avoid microbial fermentation in the rumen and to be directly absorbed in the small intestine. With the onset of vegetation growth in spring, metabolic rate and food intake increase, reaching a peak during early lactation and the rutting period in summer; in winter basal metabolism and appetite decline. Daily food intake is 2—4 kgof fresh vegetation. Since roe deer have very scarce body reserves of fat, they need to obtain most nutrients directly from their food. This requires a greater tolerance for food of low nutritional quality, especially in winter, which is unusual for a browser. Special adaptations of the salivary glands make roe deer, unlike most herbivores, insensitive to toxic effects of high concentrations of tannins.","Females attain puberty at 14 months of age and normally begin to reproduce immediately. Males reach physiological maturity at the same age but generally begin to participate in reproduction only at 2-3 years of age. Mature spermatozoa are present from March to October, but the rutting season is restricted to mid-July-mid-August. Females are monestrous, becoming receptive only for 36-48 hours during mid-summer, without the possibility of being fertilized a second time. Adult bucks follow olfactory traces of does, evaluate their status using the vomeronasal organ, and, having spotted a receptive doe, begin a courtship pursuit. This consists initially of a long chase in large circles, then in close runs in small circles or figure eights. Bucks remain with a doe for 2—4 days, and then move to find other estrous does residing in the neighborhood. During rut bucks lose about 10% of their weight. Females can take an active role in mate selection by making excursions out of their home range,visiting a territory holder, and mating with him. Fertilization is followed by a five-month period of “embryonic diapause.” The fertilized ovum penetrates into the uterus without implanting in the endometrium, reaching a blastocyst stage 0-1 mm in diameter, resulting in a blastula 5 mmin diameter. Implantation of the embryo occurs in January. The true gestation period lasts about 150 days, with the birth season in May-June. Does give birth to 1-3 fawns; in most of Europe two is the rule, but in Scandinavia, where mothers are particularly heavy, triplets are common, and in Mediterranean habitats frequently only one fawn is produced. Newborn fawns weigh on average 1.3-1. 9 kg, doubling their mass by 10-15 days. During the first weeks they remain hidden and in case of danger they “freeze”; their mother eats and rests about 50-150 m away. They are fed 5-9 times a day during the first month, 2-4 times during the second, and 1-2 times during the third month. Lactation lasts about three months. They begin to ingest their first leaves at about ten days and feed completely on vegetation by early September. At one month they are active for 1-1-5 hours per day. At weaning they synchronize the rhythms of activity with those of their mother. At 7-8 months males begin to be slightly heavier than females. At 3—4 years, roe deer attain full adult size. At eight years they enter senescence. Normally they live to a maximum of 10-12 years, with records of 14 years for bucks and 18 years for does. In populations subjected to hunting, averagelife expectancy is less than three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators; foxes may prey on young fawns.","The small size of the stomach requires the deer to feed frequently, generally 9-11 times during a 24hour day. Roe deer are active all day, alternating periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving. Feeding bouts at dawn and dusk have the longest duration.","Western Roe Deer are cursorial and saltatorial, able to jump up to 5 min length and 2-5 m in height. The deer are typically sedentary, with home ranges averaging 5-7 km? in wooded habitats and 8-10 km? in open habitats. Adult bucks from 2-3 years of age are territorial between April and August. When population density is low, defended territories are strictly exclusive. At high density they show some overlap, with each buck preserving a core area. Territories are defended and patrolled by means of self-advertisement, threat displays, and, more rarely, overt fights. Bucks mark by using olfactory and opticalsignals,i.e. rubbing saplings with forehead, fraying plants with antlers, and scraping ground with hooves. There can be about 90 scrapes per hectare and about 95 rubs and frayings per hectare. A buck can retain his territory for 5-7 years. When aged bucks lose their territory, they restrict their movements to a small area or become nomadic. Yearling bucks and sometimes two-year-old subadults are non-territorial and relatively mobile; some of them, known as “peripherals,” occupy a small range within the buffer zone between the territories of two adults, and others, known as “satellites,” associate with a territorial buck who tolerates a subordinate. In Scandinavia and the Alps, in areas where a snow depth gradient exists, part of the population tends to move to valley bottoms in late autumn and remain until spring, making small 4-12 km migrations. Western Roe Deer are not very social, living alone or in small groups. Bucks are solitary during the territorial period (late spring and summer), does in the last part of their pregnancy and at parturition time. From September to February adult does tend to form small groups of 2—4 animals, with their offspring, and occasionally with an adult buck. Two family units can form matrilinear clans of 6-8 animals, sometimes coalescing in larger fluid aggregations, especially in open habitats (meadows, farmland). Larger groups are particularly common in snowy winters and at the onset of spring, with the first green vegetation. Early spring aggregations are temporary and fragile, since adult bucks begin to be aggressive, to determine their rank order, to displace yearlings, and then to move to their territory.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Presently the Western Roe Deer is the most common deer species in Europe, numbering about nine million head, of which 2-9 million are annually harvested. Densities are normally 5—=25 ind/km?, with maximums of 50-70 ind/km?. In the Near East it is extinct in Lebanonand Israel(where a reintroduction program was begun in 1997). During Mesolithic times in Europe it was probably less abundant than the Western Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), confined to thick woods, glades, and clearings. But habitat changes caused by humans give it new opportunities. During the Medieval and Renaissance periods, roe deer hunting generally was not restricted to nobles or reigning houses. Overhunting was responsible for a significant decline in the species across most of Europe between the 17"" century and the first half of the 20"" century. The reinforcement of laws, the recovery of natural habitats, and reintroductions, coupled with the extreme ecological flexibility of the Western Roe Deer and its high reproductive potential, made possible a recolonization of vast areas and an increase in density. Populations in Mediterranean regions such as southern Italyand Spainare still threatened by poaching, feral dog predation, competition with livestock, and genetic pollution.",Andersen et al. (1998) | Apollonio et al. (2010) | Danilkin & Hewison (1996) | Melis et al. (2009) | San José& Lovari (1998) | Sempéré et al. (1996) | Sommer et al. (2009) | Stubbe (1990),https://zenodo.org/record/6514501/files/figure.png,"32.Western Roe DeerCapreolus capreolusFrench:Chevreuil d'Europe/ German:Reh/ Spanish:CorzoOther common names:European Roe DeerTaxonomy.Cervus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The Western Roe Deeris recorded in Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. It was present on most of the continent during Interglacial and mild stages of glacial periods. During the last glacial maximum, 21-15,000 years ago, roe deer retreated to a few ice-free refugia in the Mediterranean region and in South-eastern Europe. About 9600 years ago, the deer began to recolonize Western, Central, and Northern Europe, possibly from one eastern glacial refugium. Due to substantial morphological homogeneity, most recent authorities consider the species as monotypic.Distribution.Most of Europe (excluding Iceland, Ireland, and Mediterranean Is), Caucasus, and Near East.Descriptive notes.Head-body 107-127 cm,tail 1.5-3 cm, shoulder height 65-84 cm; postrutting weight 20-30 kg for males (adult bucks) and 17-29 kg for females (adult does). Bucks are on average 5-10% heavier than does. The heaviest animals are found in Scandinavia and the Baltic countries, the smallest in Mediterranean habitats of Spainand Italyand in cold alpine valleys. It is an elegant small deer with long neck, relatively short trunk, and rump higher than withers. The area around the muzzle is black, the lips and chin are white. The winter coat is grayish. Bucks have a large, white, kidney-shaped rump patch; in does the rump patch is heart-shaped and there is a prominent tuft of hairs close to the vulva. The summer coatis reddish, without a clear rump patch. The faces of bucks have a variable admixture of colors, from dark brown to grayish, sometimes with a whitish area toward the muzzle. The molt to summer coat occurs in April-June, and to winter coat in September—October. Newborn fawns have a brown coat flecked with black and with white spots on sides and back; the spots start to fade at six weeks and disappear by about five months. Preorbital glands are absent; metatarsal glands are brown and distinct; interdigital glands are well developed. An important glandular area, called the “frontal organ” by the first describers, is present on the forehead and between the pedicles of bucks. In late spring and summer, these sudoriferous glands produce a secrection used to mark territories. Western Roe Deer have a permanent dentition of 32 teeth; the teeth erupt at 3-13 months of age. Antlers are short (16-23 cm on average in adult bucks) and light, typically three-pointed, rugged by pearling in the lower half and with a well-developed burr. The basal anterior point (brow tine) is absent, replaced by a central one. Pedicles are close and the pair of antlers is often lyre-shaped. Pedicles grow precociously at about four months. Fawns normally develop their first rudimentary antler set (bony buttons or tiny spikes 1-2 cm long) at 6-7 months. These are retained for about two months. A second set of antlers begins to grow immediately, and is clean of velvet by May-June; yearling antlers are often spikes 10-14 cm long, but can be also have twoor three-pointed beams. Fawn males that weigh less than 14 kgby theirfirst winter do not develop antlers. Their first set, generally 3-5 cm spikes, appears the following spring. At 3-6 years antlers attain their full size. Regression begins by eight years. In adult bucks velvet shedding occurs in March-April, antler casting in October-November. Hooves are 4-5 cm long, narrow, pointed, with toe pads extending right out to the tips.Habitat.The body structure, with the hindquarters higher than the shoulders, makes Western Roe Deer particularly adapted to moving in thick vegetation. Originally it was associated with early successional stages of the forest, young tracts of woods and scrubland. During the Neolithic Revolution, when a transition occurred from huntinggathering to agriculture and settlements, progressive forest fragmentation and the creation of wood clearings, meadows, and cultivated areas, gave Western Roe Deer new opportunities. The higher proportion of forest edge in the mosaic landscapes typical of traditional agriculture was particularly suitable to the species. Today Western Roe Deer occur in a wide variety of habitats, from the maquis scrub of the Mediterranean coast to the boreal forests of Scandinavia, and from Scottish moorlands to modern farmland with scarce cover. They live in the Alps up to 2400 m. Northern and north-eastern range limits seem to be largely determined by snow depth. The heavy foot loading and the low chest height makeit difficult to move in snow more than 40 cmdeep.Food and Feeding.Western Roe Deer are typical selective feeders or concentrate selectors, preferring soft food rich in soluble carbohydrates, proteins, and water. They have a relatively small rumen (4-6 1) and abomasum, and large salivary glands and liver; they are able to detoxify secondary plant metabolites. They are opportunistic and flexible deer, consuming up to 370 plant species at the regional level and about 1000 at the continental scale. Buds, shoots, and leaves of shrubs and deciduous trees, and green leaves and flowers of forbs (dicotyledon herbs) are particularly important; seeds and fruits are also eaten, especially in autumn. It seems that roe deer have physiological mechanisms that allow soluble carbohydrates to avoid microbial fermentation in the rumen and to be directly absorbed in the small intestine. With the onset of vegetation growth in spring, metabolic rate and food intake increase, reaching a peak during early lactation and the rutting period in summer; in winter basal metabolism and appetite decline. Daily food intake is 2—4 kgof fresh vegetation. Since roe deer have very scarce body reserves of fat, they need to obtain most nutrients directly from their food. This requires a greater tolerance for food of low nutritional quality, especially in winter, which is unusual for a browser. Special adaptations of the salivary glands make roe deer, unlike most herbivores, insensitive to toxic effects of high concentrations of tannins.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 14 months of age and normally begin to reproduce immediately. Males reach physiological maturity at the same age but generally begin to participate in reproduction only at 2-3 years of age. Mature spermatozoa are present from March to October, but the rutting season is restricted to mid-July-mid-August. Females are monestrous, becoming receptive only for 36-48 hours during mid-summer, without the possibility of being fertilized a second time. Adult bucks follow olfactory traces of does, evaluate their status using the vomeronasal organ, and, having spotted a receptive doe, begin a courtship pursuit. This consists initially of a long chase in large circles, then in close runs in small circles or figure eights. Bucks remain with a doe for 2—4 days, and then move to find other estrous does residing in the neighborhood. During rut bucks lose about 10% of their weight. Females can take an active role in mate selection by making excursions out of their home range,visiting a territory holder, and mating with him. Fertilization is followed by a five-month period of “embryonic diapause.” The fertilized ovum penetrates into the uterus without implanting in the endometrium, reaching a blastocyst stage 0-1 mm in diameter, resulting in a blastula 5 mmin diameter. Implantation of the embryo occurs in January. The true gestation period lasts about 150 days, with the birth season in May-June. Does give birth to 1-3 fawns; in most of Europe two is the rule, but in Scandinavia, where mothers are particularly heavy, triplets are common, and in Mediterranean habitats frequently only one fawn is produced. Newborn fawns weigh on average 1.3-1. 9 kg, doubling their mass by 10-15 days. During the first weeks they remain hidden and in case of danger they “freeze”; their mother eats and rests about 50-150 m away. They are fed 5-9 times a day during the first month, 2-4 times during the second, and 1-2 times during the third month. Lactation lasts about three months. They begin to ingest their first leaves at about ten days and feed completely on vegetation by early September. At one month they are active for 1-1-5 hours per day. At weaning they synchronize the rhythms of activity with those of their mother. At 7-8 months males begin to be slightly heavier than females. At 3—4 years, roe deer attain full adult size. At eight years they enter senescence. Normally they live to a maximum of 10-12 years, with records of 14 years for bucks and 18 years for does. In populations subjected to hunting, averagelife expectancy is less than three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators; foxes may prey on young fawns.Activity patterns.The small size of the stomach requires the deer to feed frequently, generally 9-11 times during a 24hour day. Roe deer are active all day, alternating periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving. Feeding bouts at dawn and dusk have the longest duration.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Roe Deer are cursorial and saltatorial, able to jump up to 5 min length and 2-5 m in height. The deer are typically sedentary, with home ranges averaging 5-7 km? in wooded habitats and 8-10 km? in open habitats. Adult bucks from 2-3 years of age are territorial between April and August. When population density is low, defended territories are strictly exclusive. At high density they show some overlap, with each buck preserving a core area. Territories are defended and patrolled by means of self-advertisement, threat displays, and, more rarely, overt fights. Bucks mark by using olfactory and opticalsignals,i.e. rubbing saplings with forehead, fraying plants with antlers, and scraping ground with hooves. There can be about 90 scrapes per hectare and about 95 rubs and frayings per hectare. A buck can retain his territory for 5-7 years. When aged bucks lose their territory, they restrict their movements to a small area or become nomadic. Yearling bucks and sometimes two-year-old subadults are non-territorial and relatively mobile; some of them, known as “peripherals,” occupy a small range within the buffer zone between the territories of two adults, and others, known as “satellites,” associate with a territorial buck who tolerates a subordinate. In Scandinavia and the Alps, in areas where a snow depth gradient exists, part of the population tends to move to valley bottoms in late autumn and remain until spring, making small 4-12 km migrations. Western Roe Deer are not very social, living alone or in small groups. Bucks are solitary during the territorial period (late spring and summer), does in the last part of their pregnancy and at parturition time. From September to February adult does tend to form small groups of 2—4 animals, with their offspring, and occasionally with an adult buck. Two family units can form matrilinear clans of 6-8 animals, sometimes coalescing in larger fluid aggregations, especially in open habitats (meadows, farmland). Larger groups are particularly common in snowy winters and at the onset of spring, with the first green vegetation. Early spring aggregations are temporary and fragile, since adult bucks begin to be aggressive, to determine their rank order, to displace yearlings, and then to move to their territory.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Presently the Western Roe Deer is the most common deer species in Europe, numbering about nine million head, of which 2-9 million are annually harvested. Densities are normally 5—=25 ind/km?, with maximums of 50-70 ind/km?. In the Near East it is extinct in Lebanonand Israel(where a reintroduction program was begun in 1997). During Mesolithic times in Europe it was probably less abundant than the Western Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), confined to thick woods, glades, and clearings. But habitat changes caused by humans give it new opportunities. During the Medieval and Renaissance periods, roe deer hunting generally was not restricted to nobles or reigning houses. Overhunting was responsible for a significant decline in the species across most of Europe between the 17"" century and the first half of the 20"" century. The reinforcement of laws, the recovery of natural habitats, and reintroductions, coupled with the extreme ecological flexibility of the Western Roe Deer and its high reproductive potential, made possible a recolonization of vast areas and an increase in density. Populations in Mediterranean regions such as southern Italyand Spainare still threatened by poaching, feral dog predation, competition with livestock, and genetic pollution.Bibliography.Andersen et al. (1998), Apollonio et al. (2010), Danilkin & Hewison (1996), Melis et al. (2009), San José& Lovari (1998), Sempéré et al. (1996), Sommer et al. (2009), Stubbe (1990)." -03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,423,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A.xml,Cervus canadensis,Cervus,canadensis,Erxleben,1777,Cerf wapiti @fr | Wapiti @de | Uapiti @es | Elk (in North America); Alashan Wapiti (alashanicus) @en | lzubra @en | Manchurian Wapiti (xanthopygus) @en | Merriam'’s Wapiti (merriami) @en | Tule Elk (in California) @en,"Cervus canadensis Erxleben, 1777, E Canada.Here four subspecies are recognized. Two subspecies (the Siberian and the American ones) are more advanced, more associated to open habitats, with longer antlers and more contrasted coat markings. Wapiti likely originated in Beringia (NE Siberia-Alaska) during the last glaciation and about 12,000 years ago migrated westward into south Siberia and eastward into North America.","C.c.canadensisErxleben,1777—NorthAmerica.C.c.alashanicusBobrinskii&Flerov,1935—NChina(HelanShanMts,Ningxia&NeiMongol).C.c.sibiricusSevertzov,1873—fromTienShantoAltaiandWBaikal(KirgyzstanandNXinjiangtoSSiberiaandNMongolia).C. c. xanthopygus Milne-Edwards, 1867— SW Siberia, Ussuriland, and Manchuria.","Head-body 210-240 cm for males (bulls) and 190-230 cm for females (cows), tail 10-16 cm, shoulder height 145-165 cm (bulls) and 130-150 cm (cows); postrutting weight 220-400 kg (bulls) and 150-250 kg (cows). The heaviest animals occur in southern Canadaand northern USA(with records of 470-530 kg lean weight for bulls and 345 kgfor cows), the lightest in Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), the Ussuri region, and California. Adult bulls are on average 30-60% heavier than cows. Large-sized deer with a large, pale rump patch extending into the croup, a short tail, and a six-tined antler plan. The color patterns of the coat and especially of the rump patch vary by subspecies. In the primitive “Alashan Wapiti” (alashanicus) the rump patch is white below and yellow-brown above, dorsally bisected by a dark stripe and laterally bordered by a dark rim that fades out in the upper portion; the tail is white and dark. In the other primitive subspecies, the “Izubra Wapiti” (xanthopygus) the rump patch is orange or reddish, laterally bordered on the lower half by a dark rim; the tail is orange. In the Siberian and North American advanced subspecies the large rump patch is pale yellowish, with a short tail of the same color. In advanced Wapiti both males and females develop a neck mane, with extentions onto the nape and the withers; the head, neck, and legs are dark and the back and flanks are paler in color. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 7-28 months of age. The antlers of stags are six-tined and are typically long, bending backward at the fourth tine (“dagger”). The terminal part of the beam branches serially. The third tine (trez) is relatively short, the fourth is long. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings may be “spikers” or may have forked or more complex antlers. At about ten years antlers attain their full size. They are on average 85-130 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6-12 kg, but there are records of 164 cmfor antler beam length and of 19-24 kg for trophy mass. Relative antler mass is lower than in Western Red Deer (C. elaphus). Wapiti rarely grow extra tines. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting in February— March. Hooves are 11-13 cm long in adult bulls and 10-12 cm in cows.","Alashan and Izubra Wapitilive in forests; Siberian and North American Wapiti are adapted to open grasslands, prairies, and steppes. High flexibility and lack of competition have allowed North American Wapiti to colonize moist cold forests, dry conifer forests, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests, and chaparral scrub. Snow deeper than 70-75 cm is a limiting factor. Wapiti occur up to 1900 mabove sea level in the Altai, 3300 min the Alatau, and 3100 min the Rocky Mountains.","It is mainly a grazer, feeding on grasses, sedges, and forbs and supplementing the diet with twigs and leaves in winter. Alashan and Izubra Wapiti tend to eat higher proportions of browse.","Puberty may be attained by females at 16-28 months of age, depending on the physical condition. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at 16 months of age but usually begin to have a chance to breed when they are five years old. Rut occurs in September—October. Cows are seasonally polyestrous, with cycles of 21 days. Adult bulls move to the traditional rutting grounds and compete to defend a harem. Siberian and American bulls emit bugles, high-pitched rutting calls. Izubra bulls have a modified bugle with lower frequencies. Bulls spray urine on their chests, wallow, dig ground, and horn vegetation. The courtship posture is peculiar, with the head raised high and antlers tilted upwards. During the rut bulls lose up to 20% oftheir pre-rut body weight. The mean length of gestation is 247 days. Calving season peaks in May-June. Cows give birth to a single calf weighing 11-17 kg. Forthe first ten days calves are hidden and suckled 4-6 times a day. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months of age. Breeding life span in bulls is restricted to 3-5 years; cows may reproduce up to 12-16 years. Bulls do not reach their full body weight before 7-9 years of age, but cows attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 17-18 years. The main predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and (in North America) Pumas (Puma concolor) may prey on adults. Lynxes (Lynx spp.), Wolverines (Gulo gulo) and (in North America) Black Bears (U. americanus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) may kill calves.",Active all the day with peaks at dawn and dusk.,"It is a cursorial long-legged deer, able to run at high speed in open ground. Bulls are more mobile than cows and have larger home ranges. In the mountains, some or all of the population may be migratory. Animals move 50-65 km on average from higher summer ranges to lower winter ranges. These seasonal migrations can be longer, up to 140 kmin the Altaiand Sayan Mountains and up to 130-180 km in the Rocky Mountains. Wapiti are social, with matrilinear family groups and small bands of bachelor bulls. In open ground, many groups form large aggregations, up to 400-500 animals in summer, up to 800-1500 in winter.","Until recently often considered a subspecies of the Red Deer and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red List, but could be classified as not currently at risk and globally increasing. In North America from the second half of the 18"" century to the late 19"" century it was actively persecuted and disappeared from vast regions. In the early 1900sit reached the minimum population size, around 90,000 individuals. Active protection by means of national parks and refuges and law enforcement, and massive translocation programs, contributed to a recovery and range expansion. In the late 1980s the total population size was estimated at 800,000 animals; it grew to about one million in the late 1990s. Annual harvest in North America is around 200,000 individuals. Californian Wapiti, known as “Tule Elk,” had dropped to 2-5 individuals in 1875;strict protection and transplants contributed to the recovery of the population, which in 1971 numbered 500 animals in three herds and in 2010 numbered 3900 in22 herds. In the late 1990s there were 8000-10,000 deer in Mongoliaand around 160,000 inSiberia and Ussuriland. The status of Alashan Wapiti of northern Chinais unknown.",Baskin & Danell (2003) | Benderet al. (2003) | Bender& Haufler (1999) | Boyce (1989) | Boyce & Hayden-Wing (1979) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Danilkin (1999) | Flook (1970) | Geist (1998) | Gill (1990) | Haigh (2001) | McCullough (1969) | Peek (2003) | Struhsaker (1967) | Thomas & Toweill (1982) | Wolfe (1982),,"26.WapitiCervus canadensisFrench:Cerf wapiti/ German:Wapiti/ Spanish:UapitiOther common names:Elk (in North America); Alashan Wapiti (alashanicus), lzubra/Manchurian Wapiti (xanthopygus), Merriam'’s Wapiti (merriami), Tule Elk (in California)Taxonomy.Cervus canadensis Erxleben, 1777, E Canada.Here four subspecies are recognized. Two subspecies (the Siberian and the American ones) are more advanced, more associated to open habitats, with longer antlers and more contrasted coat markings. Wapiti likely originated in Beringia (NE Siberia-Alaska) during the last glaciation and about 12,000 years ago migrated westward into south Siberia and eastward into North America.Subspecies and Distribution.C.c.canadensisErxleben,1777—NorthAmerica.C.c.alashanicusBobrinskii&Flerov,1935—NChina(HelanShanMts,Ningxia&NeiMongol).C.c.sibiricusSevertzov,1873—fromTienShantoAltaiandWBaikal(KirgyzstanandNXinjiangtoSSiberiaandNMongolia).C. c. xanthopygus Milne-Edwards, 1867— SW Siberia, Ussuriland, and Manchuria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-240 cm for males (bulls) and 190-230 cm for females (cows), tail 10-16 cm, shoulder height 145-165 cm (bulls) and 130-150 cm (cows); postrutting weight 220-400 kg (bulls) and 150-250 kg (cows). The heaviest animals occur in southern Canadaand northern USA(with records of 470-530 kg lean weight for bulls and 345 kgfor cows), the lightest in Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), the Ussuri region, and California. Adult bulls are on average 30-60% heavier than cows. Large-sized deer with a large, pale rump patch extending into the croup, a short tail, and a six-tined antler plan. The color patterns of the coat and especially of the rump patch vary by subspecies. In the primitive “Alashan Wapiti” (alashanicus) the rump patch is white below and yellow-brown above, dorsally bisected by a dark stripe and laterally bordered by a dark rim that fades out in the upper portion; the tail is white and dark. In the other primitive subspecies, the “Izubra Wapiti” (xanthopygus) the rump patch is orange or reddish, laterally bordered on the lower half by a dark rim; the tail is orange. In the Siberian and North American advanced subspecies the large rump patch is pale yellowish, with a short tail of the same color. In advanced Wapiti both males and females develop a neck mane, with extentions onto the nape and the withers; the head, neck, and legs are dark and the back and flanks are paler in color. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 7-28 months of age. The antlers of stags are six-tined and are typically long, bending backward at the fourth tine (“dagger”). The terminal part of the beam branches serially. The third tine (trez) is relatively short, the fourth is long. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings may be “spikers” or may have forked or more complex antlers. At about ten years antlers attain their full size. They are on average 85-130 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6-12 kg, but there are records of 164 cmfor antler beam length and of 19-24 kg for trophy mass. Relative antler mass is lower than in Western Red Deer (C. elaphus). Wapiti rarely grow extra tines. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting in February— March. Hooves are 11-13 cm long in adult bulls and 10-12 cm in cows.Habitat.Alashan and Izubra Wapitilive in forests; Siberian and North American Wapiti are adapted to open grasslands, prairies, and steppes. High flexibility and lack of competition have allowed North American Wapiti to colonize moist cold forests, dry conifer forests, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests, and chaparral scrub. Snow deeper than 70-75 cm is a limiting factor. Wapiti occur up to 1900 mabove sea level in the Altai, 3300 min the Alatau, and 3100 min the Rocky Mountains.Food and Feeding.It is mainly a grazer, feeding on grasses, sedges, and forbs and supplementing the diet with twigs and leaves in winter. Alashan and Izubra Wapiti tend to eat higher proportions of browse.Breeding.Puberty may be attained by females at 16-28 months of age, depending on the physical condition. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at 16 months of age but usually begin to have a chance to breed when they are five years old. Rut occurs in September—October. Cows are seasonally polyestrous, with cycles of 21 days. Adult bulls move to the traditional rutting grounds and compete to defend a harem. Siberian and American bulls emit bugles, high-pitched rutting calls. Izubra bulls have a modified bugle with lower frequencies. Bulls spray urine on their chests, wallow, dig ground, and horn vegetation. The courtship posture is peculiar, with the head raised high and antlers tilted upwards. During the rut bulls lose up to 20% oftheir pre-rut body weight. The mean length of gestation is 247 days. Calving season peaks in May-June. Cows give birth to a single calf weighing 11-17 kg. Forthe first ten days calves are hidden and suckled 4-6 times a day. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months of age. Breeding life span in bulls is restricted to 3-5 years; cows may reproduce up to 12-16 years. Bulls do not reach their full body weight before 7-9 years of age, but cows attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 17-18 years. The main predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and (in North America) Pumas (Puma concolor) may prey on adults. Lynxes (Lynx spp.), Wolverines (Gulo gulo) and (in North America) Black Bears (U. americanus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) may kill calves.Activity patterns.Active all the day with peaks at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a cursorial long-legged deer, able to run at high speed in open ground. Bulls are more mobile than cows and have larger home ranges. In the mountains, some or all of the population may be migratory. Animals move 50-65 km on average from higher summer ranges to lower winter ranges. These seasonal migrations can be longer, up to 140 kmin the Altaiand Sayan Mountains and up to 130-180 km in the Rocky Mountains. Wapiti are social, with matrilinear family groups and small bands of bachelor bulls. In open ground, many groups form large aggregations, up to 400-500 animals in summer, up to 800-1500 in winter.Status and Conservation.Until recently often considered a subspecies of the Red Deer and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red List, but could be classified as not currently at risk and globally increasing. In North America from the second half of the 18"" century to the late 19"" century it was actively persecuted and disappeared from vast regions. In the early 1900sit reached the minimum population size, around 90,000 individuals. Active protection by means of national parks and refuges and law enforcement, and massive translocation programs, contributed to a recovery and range expansion. In the late 1980s the total population size was estimated at 800,000 animals; it grew to about one million in the late 1990s. Annual harvest in North America is around 200,000 individuals. Californian Wapiti, known as “Tule Elk,” had dropped to 2-5 individuals in 1875;strict protection and transplants contributed to the recovery of the population, which in 1971 numbered 500 animals in three herds and in 2010 numbered 3900 in22 herds. In the late 1990s there were 8000-10,000 deer in Mongoliaand around 160,000 inSiberia and Ussuriland. The status of Alashan Wapiti of northern Chinais unknown.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Benderet al. (2003), Bender& Haufler (1999), Boyce (1989), Boyce & Hayden-Wing (1979), Crete & Daigle (1999), Danilkin (1999), Flook (1970), Geist (1998), Gill (1990), Haigh (2001), McCullough (1969), Peek (2003), Struhsaker (1967), Thomas & Toweill (1982), Wolfe (1982)." -03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,426,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57.xml,Hydropotes inermis,Hydropotes,inermis,Swinhoe,1870,Hydropote @fr | Chinesisches Wasserreh @de | Ciervoacuatico @es,"Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870, Yangtze River (China).Two subspecies are recognized.","H.i.inermisSwinhoe,1870—EChina.H. i. argyropus Heude, 1884— Korean Peninsula.Introduced into England.","Head-body 90-100 cm, tail 6-7 cm, shoulder height 50-55 cm; weight of adult males 11-15 kg and adult females 12-15. 5 kg. Females are on average 10-15% heavier than males. Small-sized deer with relatively long legs, short tail, and large erect ears. Males are antlerless but provided with long curved upper canines. The canines of females are five times smaller and not visible in the field. The summer coat is reddish-brown, the winter coat is paler and thick. The chin is pale, the nose is black and surrounded by an area of white. Molts in May and October. Fawns have pale spots, lost after two months. Preorbital, interdigital, and inguinal glands are present. Permanent molars erupt at 1-14 months.Habitat.In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.Food and Feeding.Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.Breeding.Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.Activity patterns.Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin.","In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.","Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.","Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.","Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.","Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin. Habitat destruction and poaching are the main threats. It has been kept in Woburn Park, England, since 1896; the first animals in the wild were sighted in 1945. In 2004 there were about 1500 free-living Chinese Water Deer in England.","Cooke & Farrell (2008) | Dubost et al. (2008, 2011a, 201 1b) | Sun & Dai (1995) | Sun & Xiao (1995) | Zhang (2000)",,"31.Chinese Water DeerHydropotes inermisFrench:Hydropote/ German:Chinesisches Wasserreh/ Spanish:CiervoacuaticoTaxonomy.Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870, Yangtze River (China).Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.i.inermisSwinhoe,1870—EChina.H. i. argyropus Heude, 1884— Korean Peninsula.Introduced into England.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-100 cm, tail 6-7 cm, shoulder height 50-55 cm; weight of adult males 11-15 kg and adult females 12-15. 5 kg. Females are on average 10-15% heavier than males. Small-sized deer with relatively long legs, short tail, and large erect ears. Males are antlerless but provided with long curved upper canines. The canines of females are five times smaller and not visible in the field. The summer coat is reddish-brown, the winter coat is paler and thick. The chin is pale, the nose is black and surrounded by an area of white. Molts in May and October. Fawns have pale spots, lost after two months. Preorbital, interdigital, and inguinal glands are present. Permanent molars erupt at 1-14 months.Habitat.In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.Food and Feeding.Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.Breeding.Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.Activity patterns.Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin. Habitat destruction and poaching are the main threats. It has been kept in Woburn Park, England, since 1896; the first animals in the wild were sighted in 1945. In 2004 there were about 1500 free-living Chinese Water Deer in England.Bibliography.Cooke & Farrell (2008), Dubost et al. (2008, 2011a, 201 1b), Sun & Dai (1995), Sun & Xiao (1995), Zhang (2000)." -03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,426,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906.xml,Rucervus duvaucelii,Rucervus,duvaucelii,G. Cuvier,1823,Cerf de Duvaucel @fr | Barasingha @de | Ciervo de Duvaucel @es | Swamp Deer; Eastern Barasingha (ranjitsinhi) @en | Hard-ground Barasingha (branderi) @en | Wetland Barasingha (duvaucelii) @en,"Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823, N India.It is closely related to the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). Its scientific name refers to the French naturalist A. Duvaucel, who explored India. Three subspecies are recognized.","R. d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823— N India, S Nepal.R. d. branderi Pocock, 1943— C India.R. d. ranpitsinhi Groves, 1982— NE India.","Head-body 180-190 cm, tail 14-19 cm, shoulder height 120-135 cm for males (stags) and 115 cmfor females (hinds); weight of adult stags 170-200 kg (up to 270 kg) and adult hinds 140-145 kg. Stags are about 30% heavier than hinds. Largesized deer with a relatively short tail, large and rounded ears. The coat is basically golden brown to reddish-brown in summer, with a dark brown dorsal stripe and whitish underparts. In winter the coatis grayish-brown. Males have a poorly developed neck mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Antlers are dichotomously branched in the upper third of the beam, and each branch is also dichotomously branched. Most adults have five to name “barasingha"" means twelve-pointed in six times per beam; the common llong: up lo 104 cm. Pedicles begin to grow Hindi. Adult antlers UC generally * 60-80 cmare z antlers spikes. Antler cyles are iocally synchrtr at about:seven months. The first g “am ¡n April, in ranjitsinhi in October. nilnıl in subspecies dui-imizlu antler casti and in in May-June. or sandy grasslands; also in open forestsHabitat. Barasinghas occur mainly in marschy glades. Nonhem subspecies inhabit flooded with an abundant grass layer and gmss lives in dry grassland bordering tall gmsslandfi The open central Indian subspecies sal forest. on grasses and aquatic plants' Food and Feeding, Pnmarily a feeding grazer. of Females age. They are apparently monoestrous.Breeding' reach suberty at mo vears ' Maung î occurs ın October-January in Males begin ze to rfpwduce - rrom tour years of subspecies ranjitsinhi, I rn December-Febnrary rn branderi2. duvaucelii, in April August in Males move m mdiuoml] nmmg 'where bugling_ and wallowing_ are common. ground; After f abo 1 250 ds' give birth to a single fawn weighing around a pmgnancy „ da“ hi"" 7 kg. CÁI-; remain hidden for 10-Weaning occurs at six months ofage. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 of age. _ Tigers (Panthera _ tigris) are the main_ preda- years tom of adults. Goldenjarkals (Canis aumuzfomcümes kl"" calves and Yearllngs-Movements, Home range and Social organization.a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20"" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004.",,,,"Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.","a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20"" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004. Habitat degradation, competition with livestock, and poaching are major current threats outside well-secured protected areas.",Groves (1982) | Martin (1977) | Moe (1994) | Qureshi et al. (2004) | Schaller (1967) | Wegge et al. (2006),,"30.Barasingha.Rucervus duvauceliiFrench:Cerf de Duvaucel/ German:Barasingha/ Spanish:Ciervo de DuvaucelOther common names:Swamp Deer; Eastern Barasingha (ranjitsinhi), Hard-ground Barasingha (branderi), Wetland Barasingha (duvaucelii)Taxonomy.Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823, N India.It is closely related to the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). Its scientific name refers to the French naturalist A. Duvaucel, who explored India. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R. d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823— N India, S Nepal.R. d. branderi Pocock, 1943— C India.R. d. ranpitsinhi Groves, 1982— NE India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-190 cm, tail 14-19 cm, shoulder height 120-135 cm for males (stags) and 115 cmfor females (hinds); weight of adult stags 170-200 kg (up to 270 kg) and adult hinds 140-145 kg. Stags are about 30% heavier than hinds. Largesized deer with a relatively short tail, large and rounded ears. The coat is basically golden brown to reddish-brown in summer, with a dark brown dorsal stripe and whitish underparts. In winter the coatis grayish-brown. Males have a poorly developed neck mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Antlers are dichotomously branched in the upper third of the beam, and each branch is also dichotomously branched. Most adults have five to name “barasingha"" means twelve-pointed in six times per beam; the common llong: up lo 104 cm. Pedicles begin to grow Hindi. Adult antlers UC generally * 60-80 cmare z antlers spikes. Antler cyles are iocally synchrtr at about:seven months. The first g “am ¡n April, in ranjitsinhi in October. nilnıl in subspecies dui-imizlu antler casti and in in May-June. or sandy grasslands; also in open forestsHabitat. Barasinghas occur mainly in marschy glades. Nonhem subspecies inhabit flooded with an abundant grass layer and gmss lives in dry grassland bordering tall gmsslandfi The open central Indian subspecies sal forest. on grasses and aquatic plants' Food and Feeding, Pnmarily a feeding grazer. of Females age. They are apparently monoestrous.Breeding' reach suberty at mo vears ' Maung î occurs ın October-January in Males begin ze to rfpwduce - rrom tour years of subspecies ranjitsinhi, I rn December-Febnrary rn branderi2. duvaucelii, in April August in Males move m mdiuoml] nmmg 'where bugling_ and wallowing_ are common. ground; After f abo 1 250 ds' give birth to a single fawn weighing around a pmgnancy „ da“ hi"" 7 kg. CÁI-; remain hidden for 10-Weaning occurs at six months ofage. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 of age. _ Tigers (Panthera _ tigris) are the main_ preda- years tom of adults. Goldenjarkals (Canis aumuzfomcümes kl"" calves and Yearllngs-Movements, Home range and Social organization.a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20"" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004. Habitat degradation, competition with livestock, and poaching are major current threats outside well-secured protected areas.Bibliography.Groves (1982), Martin (1977), Moe (1994), Qureshi et al. (2004), Schaller (1967), Wegge et al. (2006)." -03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,425,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A.xml,Elaphurus davidianus,Elaphurus,davidianus,Milne Edwards,1866,,"Elaphurus davidíanus Milne Edwards, 1866, Imperial Hunting Park near Peking.The genus appeared in the Late Pliocene of Chinaand japan. Some genetic studie have related to Ruœruus aldi. lts scientific and common names refer to Père A. David. French Lazarite missionary and naturalist. who was able to collect the first skins in 1865. Monotypic.",Reintroduced into E Chinasince 1985; main inirocduced populations marked on the map.,"Head-hody 195-210 cm for males (adult stags) and 180-190 cm for females (hinds), tail length 35 cm, shoulder height 120-140 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of 169-220 kg (stags) and 140-170 kg (hinds). Males are on average 40% heavier than females. A large-sized deer, with short neck, elongated and narrow head, large eyes, long legs, and long tail with a terminal tuft. The lachrymal pits are large. The permanent dentition is 34 teeth and the incisors are specialized for grazing. In summer, the coat is reddish-brown with a black dorsal stripe; the winter pelage is grayish-brown with the underside bright cream. Stags have a throat mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Only the preorbital gland is present. Males have very peculiar antlers, consisting of a very short basal beam and two shafts, an almost vertical branched foreshaft and a simpler, backward-pointing hindshaft with thorn-like snags Antler casting occurs in November—January, velvet shedding in April-May. Hooves are large and splayed.","Plains, grasslands, and reed marshes.","It primarily feeds on grasses, reeds, and leaves.","Females attain puberty at 14-26 months of age. They are seasonally nolyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-20 days. Stags begin to compete for reproduction at four years of age. Mating season occurs in june-August. Stags join the female groups and compete to defend a harem. They roar, adorn their antlers with soil and vegetation, spray urine, and wallow. At high density they may adopt a lekking behavior. A stag following an estrous hind makes slow, rhythmic left-right antler movements (“swaggering”). After a gestation of 283-287 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 11-12 kg in March-April. The calf can stand after 40 minutes and nurses after one hour; it remains hidden for around five days. The white spots on its coat fade after two months. Weaning occurs at 6-10 months of age. Normally Pere David's Deer live to a maximum of 18 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years.",It is diurnal and crepuscular.,"It is very agile on moist ground and spends a lot of time in water. It can swim well. It is a social species, forming male and female groups. Mixed-sex groups are present only during the mating season.","Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. It became extinct a long time ago, perhaps 1800 years ago, and was preserved by the Chinese Emperor in his Imperial Hunting Park not far from Beijing. After the extermination of the last animals in the Hunting Park in 1900, the species was saved by a captive breeding program begun in Englandby the Duke of Bedford. In 1985-2002 the reintroduction into Chinatook place. Currently, there are in China53 herds, with a total of more than 2000 individuals. Four localities have the most numerous herds: Milu Park in Beijing, Dafeng Reserve, Tian’ezhou Wetland Reserve, and Yuanyang.",Beck & Wemmer (1983) | Geist (1998) | Jiang Zigang et al. (2000) | Schaller & Hamer (1978) | Wemmeret al. (1989) | Zeng Yan et al. (2007),,"28.Pere David's DeerElaphurus davidianusFrench ert du Père David Gaiman Davidshiisch Spenleh Ciervode Padre DavidTaxonomy.Elaphurus davidíanus Milne Edwards, 1866, Imperial Hunting Park near Peking.The genus appeared in the Late Pliocene of Chinaand japan. Some genetic studie have related to Ruœruus aldi. lts scientific and common names refer to Père A. David. French Lazarite missionary and naturalist. who was able to collect the first skins in 1865. Monotypic.Distribution.Reintroduced into E Chinasince 1985; main inirocduced populations marked on the map.Descriptive notes.Head-hody 195-210 cm for males (adult stags) and 180-190 cm for females (hinds), tail length 35 cm, shoulder height 120-140 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of 169-220 kg (stags) and 140-170 kg (hinds). Males are on average 40% heavier than females. A large-sized deer, with short neck, elongated and narrow head, large eyes, long legs, and long tail with a terminal tuft. The lachrymal pits are large. The permanent dentition is 34 teeth and the incisors are specialized for grazing. In summer, the coat is reddish-brown with a black dorsal stripe; the winter pelage is grayish-brown with the underside bright cream. Stags have a throat mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Only the preorbital gland is present. Males have very peculiar antlers, consisting of a very short basal beam and two shafts, an almost vertical branched foreshaft and a simpler, backward-pointing hindshaft with thorn-like snags Antler casting occurs in November—January, velvet shedding in April-May. Hooves are large and splayed.Habitat.Plains, grasslands, and reed marshes.Food and Feeding.It primarily feeds on grasses, reeds, and leaves.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 14-26 months of age. They are seasonally nolyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-20 days. Stags begin to compete for reproduction at four years of age. Mating season occurs in june-August. Stags join the female groups and compete to defend a harem. They roar, adorn their antlers with soil and vegetation, spray urine, and wallow. At high density they may adopt a lekking behavior. A stag following an estrous hind makes slow, rhythmic left-right antler movements (“swaggering”). After a gestation of 283-287 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 11-12 kg in March-April. The calf can stand after 40 minutes and nurses after one hour; it remains hidden for around five days. The white spots on its coat fade after two months. Weaning occurs at 6-10 months of age. Normally Pere David's Deer live to a maximum of 18 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years.Activity patterns.It is diurnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very agile on moist ground and spends a lot of time in water. It can swim well. It is a social species, forming male and female groups. Mixed-sex groups are present only during the mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. It became extinct a long time ago, perhaps 1800 years ago, and was preserved by the Chinese Emperor in his Imperial Hunting Park not far from Beijing. After the extermination of the last animals in the Hunting Park in 1900, the species was saved by a captive breeding program begun in Englandby the Duke of Bedford. In 1985-2002 the reintroduction into Chinatook place. Currently, there are in China53 herds, with a total of more than 2000 individuals. Four localities have the most numerous herds: Milu Park in Beijing, Dafeng Reserve, Tian’ezhou Wetland Reserve, and Yuanyang.Bibliography.Beck & Wemmer (1983), Geist (1998), Jiang Zigang et al. (2000), Schaller & Hamer (1978), Wemmeret al. (1989), Zeng Yan et al. (2007)." +03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,423,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A.xml,Cervus canadensis,Cervus,canadensis,Erxleben,1777,Cerf wapiti @fr | Wapiti @de | Uapiti @es | Elk (in North America); Alashan Wapiti (alashanicus) @en | lzubra @en | Manchurian Wapiti (xanthopygus) @en | Merriam'’s Wapiti (merriami) @en | Tule Elk (in California) @en,"Cervus canadensis Erxleben, 1777, E Canada.Here four subspecies are recognized. Two subspecies (the Siberian and the American ones) are more advanced, more associated to open habitats, with longer antlers and more contrasted coat markings. Wapiti likely originated in Beringia (NE Siberia-Alaska) during the last glaciation and about 12,000 years ago migrated westward into south Siberia and eastward into North America.","C.c.canadensisErxleben,1777—NorthAmerica.C.c.alashanicusBobrinskii&Flerov,1935—NChina(HelanShanMts,Ningxia&NeiMongol).C.c.sibiricusSevertzov,1873—fromTienShantoAltaiandWBaikal(KirgyzstanandNXinjiangtoSSiberiaandNMongolia).C. c. xanthopygus Milne-Edwards, 1867— SW Siberia, Ussuriland, and Manchuria.","Head-body 210-240 cm for males (bulls) and 190-230 cm for females (cows), tail 10-16 cm, shoulder height 145-165 cm (bulls) and 130-150 cm (cows); postrutting weight 220-400 kg (bulls) and 150-250 kg (cows). The heaviest animals occur in southern Canadaand northern USA(with records of 470-530 kg lean weight for bulls and 345 kgfor cows), the lightest in Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), the Ussuri region, and California. Adult bulls are on average 30-60% heavier than cows. Large-sized deer with a large, pale rump patch extending into the croup, a short tail, and a six-tined antler plan. The color patterns of the coat and especially of the rump patch vary by subspecies. In the primitive “Alashan Wapiti” (alashanicus) the rump patch is white below and yellow-brown above, dorsally bisected by a dark stripe and laterally bordered by a dark rim that fades out in the upper portion; the tail is white and dark. In the other primitive subspecies, the “Izubra Wapiti” (xanthopygus) the rump patch is orange or reddish, laterally bordered on the lower half by a dark rim; the tail is orange. In the Siberian and North American advanced subspecies the large rump patch is pale yellowish, with a short tail of the same color. In advanced Wapiti both males and females develop a neck mane, with extentions onto the nape and the withers; the head, neck, and legs are dark and the back and flanks are paler in color. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 7-28 months of age. The antlers of stags are six-tined and are typically long, bending backward at the fourth tine (“dagger”). The terminal part of the beam branches serially. The third tine (trez) is relatively short, the fourth is long. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings may be “spikers” or may have forked or more complex antlers. At about ten years antlers attain their full size. They are on average 85-130 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6-12 kg, but there are records of 164 cmfor antler beam length and of 19-24 kg for trophy mass. Relative antler mass is lower than in Western Red Deer (C. elaphus). Wapiti rarely grow extra tines. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting in February— March. Hooves are 11-13 cm long in adult bulls and 10-12 cm in cows.","Alashan and Izubra Wapitilive in forests; Siberian and North American Wapiti are adapted to open grasslands, prairies, and steppes. High flexibility and lack of competition have allowed North American Wapiti to colonize moist cold forests, dry conifer forests, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests, and chaparral scrub. Snow deeper than 70-75 cm is a limiting factor. Wapiti occur up to 1900 mabove sea level in the Altai, 3300 min the Alatau, and 3100 min the Rocky Mountains.","It is mainly a grazer, feeding on grasses, sedges, and forbs and supplementing the diet with twigs and leaves in winter. Alashan and Izubra Wapiti tend to eat higher proportions of browse.","Puberty may be attained by females at 16-28 months of age, depending on the physical condition. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at 16 months of age but usually begin to have a chance to breed when they are five years old. Rut occurs in September—October. Cows are seasonally polyestrous, with cycles of 21 days. Adult bulls move to the traditional rutting grounds and compete to defend a harem. Siberian and American bulls emit bugles, high-pitched rutting calls. Izubra bulls have a modified bugle with lower frequencies. Bulls spray urine on their chests, wallow, dig ground, and horn vegetation. The courtship posture is peculiar, with the head raised high and antlers tilted upwards. During the rut bulls lose up to 20% oftheir pre-rut body weight. The mean length of gestation is 247 days. Calving season peaks in May-June. Cows give birth to a single calf weighing 11-17 kg. Forthe first ten days calves are hidden and suckled 4-6 times a day. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months of age. Breeding life span in bulls is restricted to 3-5 years; cows may reproduce up to 12-16 years. Bulls do not reach their full body weight before 7-9 years of age, but cows attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 17-18 years. The main predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and (in North America) Pumas (Puma concolor) may prey on adults. Lynxes (Lynx spp.), Wolverines (Gulo gulo) and (in North America) Black Bears (U. americanus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) may kill calves.",Active all the day with peaks at dawn and dusk.,"It is a cursorial long-legged deer, able to run at high speed in open ground. Bulls are more mobile than cows and have larger home ranges. In the mountains, some or all of the population may be migratory. Animals move 50-65 km on average from higher summer ranges to lower winter ranges. These seasonal migrations can be longer, up to 140 kmin the Altaiand Sayan Mountains and up to 130-180 km in the Rocky Mountains. Wapiti are social, with matrilinear family groups and small bands of bachelor bulls. In open ground, many groups form large aggregations, up to 400-500 animals in summer, up to 800-1500 in winter.","Until recently often considered a subspecies of the Red Deer and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red List, but could be classified as not currently at risk and globally increasing. In North America from the second half of the 18"" century to the late 19"" century it was actively persecuted and disappeared from vast regions. In the early 1900sit reached the minimum population size, around 90,000 individuals. Active protection by means of national parks and refuges and law enforcement, and massive translocation programs, contributed to a recovery and range expansion. In the late 1980s the total population size was estimated at 800,000 animals; it grew to about one million in the late 1990s. Annual harvest in North America is around 200,000 individuals. Californian Wapiti, known as “Tule Elk,” had dropped to 2-5 individuals in 1875;strict protection and transplants contributed to the recovery of the population, which in 1971 numbered 500 animals in three herds and in 2010 numbered 3900 in22 herds. In the late 1990s there were 8000-10,000 deer in Mongoliaand around 160,000 inSiberia and Ussuriland. The status of Alashan Wapiti of northern Chinais unknown.",Baskin & Danell (2003) | Benderet al. (2003) | Bender& Haufler (1999) | Boyce (1989) | Boyce & Hayden-Wing (1979) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Danilkin (1999) | Flook (1970) | Geist (1998) | Gill (1990) | Haigh (2001) | McCullough (1969) | Peek (2003) | Struhsaker (1967) | Thomas & Toweill (1982) | Wolfe (1982),https://zenodo.org/record/6514462/files/figure.png,"26.WapitiCervus canadensisFrench:Cerf wapiti/ German:Wapiti/ Spanish:UapitiOther common names:Elk (in North America); Alashan Wapiti (alashanicus), lzubra/Manchurian Wapiti (xanthopygus), Merriam'’s Wapiti (merriami), Tule Elk (in California)Taxonomy.Cervus canadensis Erxleben, 1777, E Canada.Here four subspecies are recognized. Two subspecies (the Siberian and the American ones) are more advanced, more associated to open habitats, with longer antlers and more contrasted coat markings. Wapiti likely originated in Beringia (NE Siberia-Alaska) during the last glaciation and about 12,000 years ago migrated westward into south Siberia and eastward into North America.Subspecies and Distribution.C.c.canadensisErxleben,1777—NorthAmerica.C.c.alashanicusBobrinskii&Flerov,1935—NChina(HelanShanMts,Ningxia&NeiMongol).C.c.sibiricusSevertzov,1873—fromTienShantoAltaiandWBaikal(KirgyzstanandNXinjiangtoSSiberiaandNMongolia).C. c. xanthopygus Milne-Edwards, 1867— SW Siberia, Ussuriland, and Manchuria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-240 cm for males (bulls) and 190-230 cm for females (cows), tail 10-16 cm, shoulder height 145-165 cm (bulls) and 130-150 cm (cows); postrutting weight 220-400 kg (bulls) and 150-250 kg (cows). The heaviest animals occur in southern Canadaand northern USA(with records of 470-530 kg lean weight for bulls and 345 kgfor cows), the lightest in Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), the Ussuri region, and California. Adult bulls are on average 30-60% heavier than cows. Large-sized deer with a large, pale rump patch extending into the croup, a short tail, and a six-tined antler plan. The color patterns of the coat and especially of the rump patch vary by subspecies. In the primitive “Alashan Wapiti” (alashanicus) the rump patch is white below and yellow-brown above, dorsally bisected by a dark stripe and laterally bordered by a dark rim that fades out in the upper portion; the tail is white and dark. In the other primitive subspecies, the “Izubra Wapiti” (xanthopygus) the rump patch is orange or reddish, laterally bordered on the lower half by a dark rim; the tail is orange. In the Siberian and North American advanced subspecies the large rump patch is pale yellowish, with a short tail of the same color. In advanced Wapiti both males and females develop a neck mane, with extentions onto the nape and the withers; the head, neck, and legs are dark and the back and flanks are paler in color. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 7-28 months of age. The antlers of stags are six-tined and are typically long, bending backward at the fourth tine (“dagger”). The terminal part of the beam branches serially. The third tine (trez) is relatively short, the fourth is long. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings may be “spikers” or may have forked or more complex antlers. At about ten years antlers attain their full size. They are on average 85-130 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6-12 kg, but there are records of 164 cmfor antler beam length and of 19-24 kg for trophy mass. Relative antler mass is lower than in Western Red Deer (C. elaphus). Wapiti rarely grow extra tines. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting in February— March. Hooves are 11-13 cm long in adult bulls and 10-12 cm in cows.Habitat.Alashan and Izubra Wapitilive in forests; Siberian and North American Wapiti are adapted to open grasslands, prairies, and steppes. High flexibility and lack of competition have allowed North American Wapiti to colonize moist cold forests, dry conifer forests, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests, and chaparral scrub. Snow deeper than 70-75 cm is a limiting factor. Wapiti occur up to 1900 mabove sea level in the Altai, 3300 min the Alatau, and 3100 min the Rocky Mountains.Food and Feeding.It is mainly a grazer, feeding on grasses, sedges, and forbs and supplementing the diet with twigs and leaves in winter. Alashan and Izubra Wapiti tend to eat higher proportions of browse.Breeding.Puberty may be attained by females at 16-28 months of age, depending on the physical condition. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at 16 months of age but usually begin to have a chance to breed when they are five years old. Rut occurs in September—October. Cows are seasonally polyestrous, with cycles of 21 days. Adult bulls move to the traditional rutting grounds and compete to defend a harem. Siberian and American bulls emit bugles, high-pitched rutting calls. Izubra bulls have a modified bugle with lower frequencies. Bulls spray urine on their chests, wallow, dig ground, and horn vegetation. The courtship posture is peculiar, with the head raised high and antlers tilted upwards. During the rut bulls lose up to 20% oftheir pre-rut body weight. The mean length of gestation is 247 days. Calving season peaks in May-June. Cows give birth to a single calf weighing 11-17 kg. Forthe first ten days calves are hidden and suckled 4-6 times a day. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months of age. Breeding life span in bulls is restricted to 3-5 years; cows may reproduce up to 12-16 years. Bulls do not reach their full body weight before 7-9 years of age, but cows attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 17-18 years. The main predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and (in North America) Pumas (Puma concolor) may prey on adults. Lynxes (Lynx spp.), Wolverines (Gulo gulo) and (in North America) Black Bears (U. americanus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) may kill calves.Activity patterns.Active all the day with peaks at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a cursorial long-legged deer, able to run at high speed in open ground. Bulls are more mobile than cows and have larger home ranges. In the mountains, some or all of the population may be migratory. Animals move 50-65 km on average from higher summer ranges to lower winter ranges. These seasonal migrations can be longer, up to 140 kmin the Altaiand Sayan Mountains and up to 130-180 km in the Rocky Mountains. Wapiti are social, with matrilinear family groups and small bands of bachelor bulls. In open ground, many groups form large aggregations, up to 400-500 animals in summer, up to 800-1500 in winter.Status and Conservation.Until recently often considered a subspecies of the Red Deer and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red List, but could be classified as not currently at risk and globally increasing. In North America from the second half of the 18"" century to the late 19"" century it was actively persecuted and disappeared from vast regions. In the early 1900sit reached the minimum population size, around 90,000 individuals. Active protection by means of national parks and refuges and law enforcement, and massive translocation programs, contributed to a recovery and range expansion. In the late 1980s the total population size was estimated at 800,000 animals; it grew to about one million in the late 1990s. Annual harvest in North America is around 200,000 individuals. Californian Wapiti, known as “Tule Elk,” had dropped to 2-5 individuals in 1875;strict protection and transplants contributed to the recovery of the population, which in 1971 numbered 500 animals in three herds and in 2010 numbered 3900 in22 herds. In the late 1990s there were 8000-10,000 deer in Mongoliaand around 160,000 inSiberia and Ussuriland. The status of Alashan Wapiti of northern Chinais unknown.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Benderet al. (2003), Bender& Haufler (1999), Boyce (1989), Boyce & Hayden-Wing (1979), Crete & Daigle (1999), Danilkin (1999), Flook (1970), Geist (1998), Gill (1990), Haigh (2001), McCullough (1969), Peek (2003), Struhsaker (1967), Thomas & Toweill (1982), Wolfe (1982)." +03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,426,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57.xml,Hydropotes inermis,Hydropotes,inermis,Swinhoe,1870,Hydropote @fr | Chinesisches Wasserreh @de | Ciervoacuatico @es,"Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870, Yangtze River (China).Two subspecies are recognized.","H.i.inermisSwinhoe,1870—EChina.H. i. argyropus Heude, 1884— Korean Peninsula.Introduced into England.","Head-body 90-100 cm, tail 6-7 cm, shoulder height 50-55 cm; weight of adult males 11-15 kg and adult females 12-15. 5 kg. Females are on average 10-15% heavier than males. Small-sized deer with relatively long legs, short tail, and large erect ears. Males are antlerless but provided with long curved upper canines. The canines of females are five times smaller and not visible in the field. The summer coat is reddish-brown, the winter coat is paler and thick. The chin is pale, the nose is black and surrounded by an area of white. Molts in May and October. Fawns have pale spots, lost after two months. Preorbital, interdigital, and inguinal glands are present. Permanent molars erupt at 1-14 months.Habitat.In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.Food and Feeding.Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.Breeding.Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.Activity patterns.Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin.","In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.","Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.","Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.","Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.","Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin. Habitat destruction and poaching are the main threats. It has been kept in Woburn Park, England, since 1896; the first animals in the wild were sighted in 1945. In 2004 there were about 1500 free-living Chinese Water Deer in England.","Cooke & Farrell (2008) | Dubost et al. (2008, 2011a, 201 1b) | Sun & Dai (1995) | Sun & Xiao (1995) | Zhang (2000)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514497/files/figure.png,"31.Chinese Water DeerHydropotes inermisFrench:Hydropote/ German:Chinesisches Wasserreh/ Spanish:CiervoacuaticoTaxonomy.Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870, Yangtze River (China).Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.i.inermisSwinhoe,1870—EChina.H. i. argyropus Heude, 1884— Korean Peninsula.Introduced into England.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-100 cm, tail 6-7 cm, shoulder height 50-55 cm; weight of adult males 11-15 kg and adult females 12-15. 5 kg. Females are on average 10-15% heavier than males. Small-sized deer with relatively long legs, short tail, and large erect ears. Males are antlerless but provided with long curved upper canines. The canines of females are five times smaller and not visible in the field. The summer coat is reddish-brown, the winter coat is paler and thick. The chin is pale, the nose is black and surrounded by an area of white. Molts in May and October. Fawns have pale spots, lost after two months. Preorbital, interdigital, and inguinal glands are present. Permanent molars erupt at 1-14 months.Habitat.In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.Food and Feeding.Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.Breeding.Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.Activity patterns.Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin. Habitat destruction and poaching are the main threats. It has been kept in Woburn Park, England, since 1896; the first animals in the wild were sighted in 1945. In 2004 there were about 1500 free-living Chinese Water Deer in England.Bibliography.Cooke & Farrell (2008), Dubost et al. (2008, 2011a, 201 1b), Sun & Dai (1995), Sun & Xiao (1995), Zhang (2000)." +03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,426,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906.xml,Rucervus duvaucelii,Rucervus,duvaucelii,G. Cuvier,1823,Cerf de Duvaucel @fr | Barasingha @de | Ciervo de Duvaucel @es | Swamp Deer; Eastern Barasingha (ranjitsinhi) @en | Hard-ground Barasingha (branderi) @en | Wetland Barasingha (duvaucelii) @en,"Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823, N India.It is closely related to the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). Its scientific name refers to the French naturalist A. Duvaucel, who explored India. Three subspecies are recognized.","R. d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823— N India, S Nepal.R. d. branderi Pocock, 1943— C India.R. d. ranpitsinhi Groves, 1982— NE India.","Head-body 180-190 cm, tail 14-19 cm, shoulder height 120-135 cm for males (stags) and 115 cmfor females (hinds); weight of adult stags 170-200 kg (up to 270 kg) and adult hinds 140-145 kg. Stags are about 30% heavier than hinds. Largesized deer with a relatively short tail, large and rounded ears. The coat is basically golden brown to reddish-brown in summer, with a dark brown dorsal stripe and whitish underparts. In winter the coatis grayish-brown. Males have a poorly developed neck mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Antlers are dichotomously branched in the upper third of the beam, and each branch is also dichotomously branched. Most adults have five to name “barasingha"" means twelve-pointed in six times per beam; the common llong: up lo 104 cm. Pedicles begin to grow Hindi. Adult antlers UC generally * 60-80 cmare z antlers spikes. Antler cyles are iocally synchrtr at about:seven months. The first g “am ¡n April, in ranjitsinhi in October. nilnıl in subspecies dui-imizlu antler casti and in in May-June. or sandy grasslands; also in open forestsHabitat. Barasinghas occur mainly in marschy glades. Nonhem subspecies inhabit flooded with an abundant grass layer and gmss lives in dry grassland bordering tall gmsslandfi The open central Indian subspecies sal forest. on grasses and aquatic plants' Food and Feeding, Pnmarily a feeding grazer. of Females age. They are apparently monoestrous.Breeding' reach suberty at mo vears ' Maung î occurs ın October-January in Males begin ze to rfpwduce - rrom tour years of subspecies ranjitsinhi, I rn December-Febnrary rn branderi2. duvaucelii, in April August in Males move m mdiuoml] nmmg 'where bugling_ and wallowing_ are common. ground; After f abo 1 250 ds' give birth to a single fawn weighing around a pmgnancy „ da“ hi"" 7 kg. CÁI-; remain hidden for 10-Weaning occurs at six months ofage. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 of age. _ Tigers (Panthera _ tigris) are the main_ preda- years tom of adults. Goldenjarkals (Canis aumuzfomcümes kl"" calves and Yearllngs-Movements, Home range and Social organization.a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20"" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004.",,,,"Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.","a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20"" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004. Habitat degradation, competition with livestock, and poaching are major current threats outside well-secured protected areas.",Groves (1982) | Martin (1977) | Moe (1994) | Qureshi et al. (2004) | Schaller (1967) | Wegge et al. (2006),https://zenodo.org/record/6514495/files/figure.png,"30.Barasingha.Rucervus duvauceliiFrench:Cerf de Duvaucel/ German:Barasingha/ Spanish:Ciervo de DuvaucelOther common names:Swamp Deer; Eastern Barasingha (ranjitsinhi), Hard-ground Barasingha (branderi), Wetland Barasingha (duvaucelii)Taxonomy.Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823, N India.It is closely related to the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). Its scientific name refers to the French naturalist A. Duvaucel, who explored India. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R. d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823— N India, S Nepal.R. d. branderi Pocock, 1943— C India.R. d. ranpitsinhi Groves, 1982— NE India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-190 cm, tail 14-19 cm, shoulder height 120-135 cm for males (stags) and 115 cmfor females (hinds); weight of adult stags 170-200 kg (up to 270 kg) and adult hinds 140-145 kg. Stags are about 30% heavier than hinds. Largesized deer with a relatively short tail, large and rounded ears. The coat is basically golden brown to reddish-brown in summer, with a dark brown dorsal stripe and whitish underparts. In winter the coatis grayish-brown. Males have a poorly developed neck mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Antlers are dichotomously branched in the upper third of the beam, and each branch is also dichotomously branched. Most adults have five to name “barasingha"" means twelve-pointed in six times per beam; the common llong: up lo 104 cm. Pedicles begin to grow Hindi. Adult antlers UC generally * 60-80 cmare z antlers spikes. Antler cyles are iocally synchrtr at about:seven months. The first g “am ¡n April, in ranjitsinhi in October. nilnıl in subspecies dui-imizlu antler casti and in in May-June. or sandy grasslands; also in open forestsHabitat. Barasinghas occur mainly in marschy glades. Nonhem subspecies inhabit flooded with an abundant grass layer and gmss lives in dry grassland bordering tall gmsslandfi The open central Indian subspecies sal forest. on grasses and aquatic plants' Food and Feeding, Pnmarily a feeding grazer. of Females age. They are apparently monoestrous.Breeding' reach suberty at mo vears ' Maung î occurs ın October-January in Males begin ze to rfpwduce - rrom tour years of subspecies ranjitsinhi, I rn December-Febnrary rn branderi2. duvaucelii, in April August in Males move m mdiuoml] nmmg 'where bugling_ and wallowing_ are common. ground; After f abo 1 250 ds' give birth to a single fawn weighing around a pmgnancy „ da“ hi"" 7 kg. CÁI-; remain hidden for 10-Weaning occurs at six months ofage. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 of age. _ Tigers (Panthera _ tigris) are the main_ preda- years tom of adults. Goldenjarkals (Canis aumuzfomcümes kl"" calves and Yearllngs-Movements, Home range and Social organization.a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20"" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004. Habitat degradation, competition with livestock, and poaching are major current threats outside well-secured protected areas.Bibliography.Groves (1982), Martin (1977), Moe (1994), Qureshi et al. (2004), Schaller (1967), Wegge et al. (2006)." +03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,425,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A.xml,Elaphurus davidianus,Elaphurus,davidianus,Milne Edwards,1866,,"Elaphurus davidíanus Milne Edwards, 1866, Imperial Hunting Park near Peking.The genus appeared in the Late Pliocene of Chinaand japan. Some genetic studie have related to Ruœruus aldi. lts scientific and common names refer to Père A. David. French Lazarite missionary and naturalist. who was able to collect the first skins in 1865. Monotypic.",Reintroduced into E Chinasince 1985; main inirocduced populations marked on the map.,"Head-hody 195-210 cm for males (adult stags) and 180-190 cm for females (hinds), tail length 35 cm, shoulder height 120-140 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of 169-220 kg (stags) and 140-170 kg (hinds). Males are on average 40% heavier than females. A large-sized deer, with short neck, elongated and narrow head, large eyes, long legs, and long tail with a terminal tuft. The lachrymal pits are large. The permanent dentition is 34 teeth and the incisors are specialized for grazing. In summer, the coat is reddish-brown with a black dorsal stripe; the winter pelage is grayish-brown with the underside bright cream. Stags have a throat mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Only the preorbital gland is present. Males have very peculiar antlers, consisting of a very short basal beam and two shafts, an almost vertical branched foreshaft and a simpler, backward-pointing hindshaft with thorn-like snags Antler casting occurs in November—January, velvet shedding in April-May. Hooves are large and splayed.","Plains, grasslands, and reed marshes.","It primarily feeds on grasses, reeds, and leaves.","Females attain puberty at 14-26 months of age. They are seasonally nolyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-20 days. Stags begin to compete for reproduction at four years of age. Mating season occurs in june-August. Stags join the female groups and compete to defend a harem. They roar, adorn their antlers with soil and vegetation, spray urine, and wallow. At high density they may adopt a lekking behavior. A stag following an estrous hind makes slow, rhythmic left-right antler movements (“swaggering”). After a gestation of 283-287 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 11-12 kg in March-April. The calf can stand after 40 minutes and nurses after one hour; it remains hidden for around five days. The white spots on its coat fade after two months. Weaning occurs at 6-10 months of age. Normally Pere David's Deer live to a maximum of 18 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years.",It is diurnal and crepuscular.,"It is very agile on moist ground and spends a lot of time in water. It can swim well. It is a social species, forming male and female groups. Mixed-sex groups are present only during the mating season.","Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. It became extinct a long time ago, perhaps 1800 years ago, and was preserved by the Chinese Emperor in his Imperial Hunting Park not far from Beijing. After the extermination of the last animals in the Hunting Park in 1900, the species was saved by a captive breeding program begun in Englandby the Duke of Bedford. In 1985-2002 the reintroduction into Chinatook place. Currently, there are in China53 herds, with a total of more than 2000 individuals. Four localities have the most numerous herds: Milu Park in Beijing, Dafeng Reserve, Tian’ezhou Wetland Reserve, and Yuanyang.",Beck & Wemmer (1983) | Geist (1998) | Jiang Zigang et al. (2000) | Schaller & Hamer (1978) | Wemmeret al. (1989) | Zeng Yan et al. (2007),https://zenodo.org/record/6514489/files/figure.png,"28.Pere David's DeerElaphurus davidianusFrench ert du Père David Gaiman Davidshiisch Spenleh Ciervode Padre DavidTaxonomy.Elaphurus davidíanus Milne Edwards, 1866, Imperial Hunting Park near Peking.The genus appeared in the Late Pliocene of Chinaand japan. Some genetic studie have related to Ruœruus aldi. lts scientific and common names refer to Père A. David. French Lazarite missionary and naturalist. who was able to collect the first skins in 1865. Monotypic.Distribution.Reintroduced into E Chinasince 1985; main inirocduced populations marked on the map.Descriptive notes.Head-hody 195-210 cm for males (adult stags) and 180-190 cm for females (hinds), tail length 35 cm, shoulder height 120-140 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of 169-220 kg (stags) and 140-170 kg (hinds). Males are on average 40% heavier than females. A large-sized deer, with short neck, elongated and narrow head, large eyes, long legs, and long tail with a terminal tuft. The lachrymal pits are large. The permanent dentition is 34 teeth and the incisors are specialized for grazing. In summer, the coat is reddish-brown with a black dorsal stripe; the winter pelage is grayish-brown with the underside bright cream. Stags have a throat mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Only the preorbital gland is present. Males have very peculiar antlers, consisting of a very short basal beam and two shafts, an almost vertical branched foreshaft and a simpler, backward-pointing hindshaft with thorn-like snags Antler casting occurs in November—January, velvet shedding in April-May. Hooves are large and splayed.Habitat.Plains, grasslands, and reed marshes.Food and Feeding.It primarily feeds on grasses, reeds, and leaves.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 14-26 months of age. They are seasonally nolyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-20 days. Stags begin to compete for reproduction at four years of age. Mating season occurs in june-August. Stags join the female groups and compete to defend a harem. They roar, adorn their antlers with soil and vegetation, spray urine, and wallow. At high density they may adopt a lekking behavior. A stag following an estrous hind makes slow, rhythmic left-right antler movements (“swaggering”). After a gestation of 283-287 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 11-12 kg in March-April. The calf can stand after 40 minutes and nurses after one hour; it remains hidden for around five days. The white spots on its coat fade after two months. Weaning occurs at 6-10 months of age. Normally Pere David's Deer live to a maximum of 18 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years.Activity patterns.It is diurnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very agile on moist ground and spends a lot of time in water. It can swim well. It is a social species, forming male and female groups. Mixed-sex groups are present only during the mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. It became extinct a long time ago, perhaps 1800 years ago, and was preserved by the Chinese Emperor in his Imperial Hunting Park not far from Beijing. After the extermination of the last animals in the Hunting Park in 1900, the species was saved by a captive breeding program begun in Englandby the Duke of Bedford. In 1985-2002 the reintroduction into Chinatook place. Currently, there are in China53 herds, with a total of more than 2000 individuals. Four localities have the most numerous herds: Milu Park in Beijing, Dafeng Reserve, Tian’ezhou Wetland Reserve, and Yuanyang.Bibliography.Beck & Wemmer (1983), Geist (1998), Jiang Zigang et al. (2000), Schaller & Hamer (1978), Wemmeret al. (1989), Zeng Yan et al. (2007)." 03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5EFF4AE228F461,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,425,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5EFF4AE228F461.xml,Cervus albirostris,Cervus,albirostris,Przewalski,1883,,"Cervus albirostris Przewalski, 1883, NanShan, Humboldt’s Mountains, bansu (.is sometimes classified m4 distinct ge nus, Pnzuıalslıh Earlier thought to be related to sambaß (Rfßfl) › bl"" “WTPVQlogical, behavioral, and geflflic 81141 'WS align this species with the red deu' clade. wzsfizzwwvzdbwzvflewzlsfl » Russian office.Fìttexplorer of Polish origin. in 1879. W. G.",E Tibetan Plateau (E Xizang. w Ggmurgnghah W “Chuan 8‘ Nwyunnan).,,,"t is classified as an intermediated feeder, with a tendency to graze. prefers grasses and sedges but also eats leaves and shoots of woody plants. lts diet includes al least 95 species of plants.","Females attain puberty at 18-30 months of age. Males reach sexual maturity at about 18 months but do not begin to reproduce before four years of age. Gestation is about 246 days. Rutting season peaks in October. Stagsjoin female groups and maintain microscale harems within the large mixed group or tend individual estrous hinds, without strong competition or oven aggression from other males. lnjune hinds separate themselves from the group and seek an isolated place to give birth. The newborns weigh about 9 kgand are precocial. Half an hour after birth they are able to stand up and within a couple of hours they begin to move away from the birth site. After two weeks calves follow their mothers and rejoin the group. Maximum known longevity in the wild is nine years for stags and twelve years for hinds. They can attain 19 years of age in captivity. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Cams lupus) and Snow Leopards (Panthera unria).","1tis diurnal and active all day, with peaks at dawn and dusk.","Thanks to its robust build and specialized hooves, it is very agile on steep terrain. t is also a good swimmer. 1 thas been described as a nomadic species, moving slowly across vast areas to feed and to shelter from harsh weather. In autumn the deer descend from high summer ranges to low winter ranges. highly gregarious, forming large herds of 25-35 individuals on average. Males and females tend to live separately for most of the year, mixed groups are mainly observed during the rutting season. Aggregations of up to 100-170 animals have been recorded in recent times and up to 800 were documented in the past.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. Hunting, poaching, and competition with domestic stock (yaks, sheep, and goats) have dramatically reduced the distribution range and population size. Hunting has been prohibited since 1989. ln 1999 there were an estimated 15,800 individuals. A more recent estimate is around 7000 animals. Poaching for meat, antlers, and organs, and competition with livestock are still important threats. Bibliognphy Haırıs (2008c) Harris 8i Loggers (2004) Hams 8i MIIer (1995) Kay at al (1993) Koizumi er al (1993) Lesley (2010), Mıura er al (1993) Schaller (1998) Sheng à Ohtaıshı (1993)",,,"27.White-lipped DeerCervus albirostrisFrench cerf à museau blanc German Weißlippenhirsch Spanish Ciervo hociblanco Other common names Thoıolds DeerTaxonomy.Cervus albirostris Przewalski, 1883, NanShan, Humboldt’s Mountains, bansu (.is sometimes classified m4 distinct ge nus, Pnzuıalslıh Earlier thought to be related to sambaß (Rfßfl) › bl"" “WTPVQlogical, behavioral, and geflflic 81141 'WS align this species with the red deu' clade. wzsfizzwwvzdbwzvflewzlsfl » Russian office.Fìttexplorer of Polish origin. in 1879. W. G. 'l'l\omld collected two i n' v specimens in 1891 and send them to Euro’): Distribution.E Tibetan Plateau (E Xizang. w Ggmurgnghah W “Chuan 8‘ Nwyunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body on average ioo cm for males (stags) and 180 cmfor females (hinds), tail lengt 12-13 cm, shoulder height 120-130 cm(stags) and 110- 120 cm(hinds); weight 190-220 kg(stags) and 90-150 kg(hinds). Stags are on average 60% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with a large face and relatively short legs. The rump patch large and reddish. The tail relatively short. The ears are long, pointed, and fringed with white. Hooves are short and broad. The coat is grayish-brown; the muzzle, chin, and upper throat are white. There is a pale ring around the eyes. The pelage is stiff, thick, and coarse. Newborn calves are spotted; the spots fade precociously at 1 - 5 months of age. Preorbital and metatarsal glands are well developed. Pennanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt at 3-30 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, typically with five points, a brow tine, a high trez tine, a dagger, and a tenninal fork. At full size the antler beam is 90-95 cmlong. Yearling males are normally spikers, and subadults 2-3 years old are three- to four-tined. The largest antlers of adults have up to seven tines and are 130-133 cmlong. ln adult stags velvet shedding occurs in September and antler rnclinrr in Mzffrhanfir Hıbitfit. lt is a high-elevation specialist, living in rhododendron scrub and alpine grasslands above spruce forests, at 3500-5100 mabove sea level. The short legs, massive haunches, and broad hooves allow it to use steep terrain.Food and Feeding.t is classified as an intermediated feeder, with a tendency to graze. prefers grasses and sedges but also eats leaves and shoots of woody plants. lts diet includes al least 95 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-30 months of age. Males reach sexual maturity at about 18 months but do not begin to reproduce before four years of age. Gestation is about 246 days. Rutting season peaks in October. Stagsjoin female groups and maintain microscale harems within the large mixed group or tend individual estrous hinds, without strong competition or oven aggression from other males. lnjune hinds separate themselves from the group and seek an isolated place to give birth. The newborns weigh about 9 kgand are precocial. Half an hour after birth they are able to stand up and within a couple of hours they begin to move away from the birth site. After two weeks calves follow their mothers and rejoin the group. Maximum known longevity in the wild is nine years for stags and twelve years for hinds. They can attain 19 years of age in captivity. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Cams lupus) and Snow Leopards (Panthera unria).Activity patterns.1tis diurnal and active all day, with peaks at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Thanks to its robust build and specialized hooves, it is very agile on steep terrain. t is also a good swimmer. 1 thas been described as a nomadic species, moving slowly across vast areas to feed and to shelter from harsh weather. In autumn the deer descend from high summer ranges to low winter ranges. highly gregarious, forming large herds of 25-35 individuals on average. Males and females tend to live separately for most of the year, mixed groups are mainly observed during the rutting season. Aggregations of up to 100-170 animals have been recorded in recent times and up to 800 were documented in the past.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. Hunting, poaching, and competition with domestic stock (yaks, sheep, and goats) have dramatically reduced the distribution range and population size. Hunting has been prohibited since 1989. ln 1999 there were an estimated 15,800 individuals. A more recent estimate is around 7000 animals. Poaching for meat, antlers, and organs, and competition with livestock are still important threats. Bibliognphy Haırıs (2008c) Harris 8i Loggers (2004) Hams 8i MIIer (1995) Kay at al (1993) Koizumi er al (1993) Lesley (2010), Mıura er al (1993) Schaller (1998) Sheng à Ohtaıshı (1993)" -03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,425,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4.xml,Rucervus eldii,Rucervus,eldii,,,Cerf d'Eld @fr | Leierhirsch @de | Ciervo de Eld @es | Eld's Deer; Sangai (eldii) @en | Thamin (thamin) @en,"Cervus eldii M’Clelland, 1842, Manipur, Assam(India).The genus Rucervusgenerally encompasses three species: Brow-antlered Deer, Barasingha (R. duvaucelit), and the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). They are all specialized grass-eaters with highcrowned, uniquelyfolded cheek teeth. The molars have relatively large columns and prominent styles and pillars. Recent genetic analyses have questioned the monophyly of the genus and Brow-antlered Deer might not be related closely to the other two species. It has been sometimes placed in Cervusor in a distinct genus, Panolia. The scientific and the other common name ofthis species refers to L. P. D. Eld, British officer, whofirst observed and described it when he was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assamin 1838. Three subspecies are recognized.","R.e.eldisM’Clelland,1842—NEIndia(Manipur).R.e.siamensisLydekker,1915-Vietnam(couldbeextinct),Laos,Cambodia,andHainanI.R. e. thamin Thomas, 1918— Myanmar.","Head body 160-170 cm for males (stags) and 140-150 cin for females (hinds); tail 22-25 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (stags) and 90-100 cm (hinds); weight 90-125 kg (adult stags) and 60-80 kg (adult hinds). Males are about 60% heavier than females. Medium to large-sized deer; male antlers have a very long brow tine that forms a continuous curve with the main beam. The skull has a deep lacrimal pit. The coat is reddish-brown abeve, whitish underneath. The tail is brown above. Females are paler. Males develop a neck mane during the rutting season. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Antlers of adult stags are about 90-100 cm long. with a record of 112 cm. The main beam first grows backwards, thep outwaids, and terminates in a forward curve. Toward the tip the beam tends to develop several small tines. Antler cycles are synchronized; antler casting occurs in May-June and velvet cleaning is in December. The Indian subspecies “Sangai” (¢ldii) has splaying hooves with cornified skin on the back of the digits, an adaptation for waiking on moist ground.c 15 days.","In IndiaBrow-antlered Deerlive in: floating marshes. In South-east Asia it occurs in open-grass-dominated habitats, such as lowland open-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forests with grass understory and adjoining grassland patches. In Hainan Island it mainly occursin dry grassland with sparse trees and scrubland. In the recent pastit lived also in the pine savanna of Laotian plateaus.","It tends to be a grazer of grasses and forbs and also feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits.","Females reach puberty at about 16 months of age. They are seasonally polyestrous with estrous cycles of 16-19 days and mean receptive periods of about 16 hours. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at about twelve months. For a tropical deer, breeding is very concentrated. Mating season occurs in 60-90 days between February and May (peak March-April), and calving season is in October-November. After a pregnancy of 240 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3.5-6 kg. At 10-15 days calves begin to eat grasses; at one month they follow their mother; at 50 days they begin to consume plants more regularly. Weaning occurs at 5-7 months of age. Primary predators are Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (FP. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus).",It is more active in early morning and early evening.,"Where studied, males have home ranges of about 9 km? and females of 7 km®*. Maleslive for most of the year as solitary animals; females form small family groups with their fawns. During the rut in the hotdry season the most common groups are multimale mixed sex groups of aboutsix individuals; these may sometimes coalesce into larger herds of 50-70 or more.","Cites Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Owing to hunting and habitat loss, the Brow-antlered Deer’s historical range has been contracted significantly and fragmented. The Indian subspecies eldiiis reduced to a single population in the Keibul Lamjao National Park, whereit is slowly increasing from a minimum of 14 animals in 1975 to about 180 in2004. The “Thamin” (thamin) of the central plain of Myanmar,still occurs in several localized areas and has been reintroduced in Thailand. The most eastern subspecies, siamensis, is scattered in small populations (one or two in Laos, a few in Cambodia, one on Hainan Island). In Vietnamit may be extinct and in mainland China(Yunnan) it is certainly extinct.",Aung et al. (2001) | Balakrishnan et al. (2003) | Blakeslee et al. (1979) | Gee (1961) | McShea et al. (2001) | Song Yanling & Zeng Zhigao (2003) | Timmins & Duckworth (2008b) | Wemmer & Grodinsky (1988) | Wemmer & Montali (1988) | Zeng Zhigao et al. (2005),,"29.Brow-antlered DeerRucervus eldiiFrench:Cerf d'Eld/ German:Leierhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervo de EldOther common names:Eld's Deer; Sangai (eldii), Thamin (thamin)Taxonomy.Cervus eldii M’Clelland, 1842, Manipur, Assam(India).The genus Rucervusgenerally encompasses three species: Brow-antlered Deer, Barasingha (R. duvaucelit), and the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). They are all specialized grass-eaters with highcrowned, uniquelyfolded cheek teeth. The molars have relatively large columns and prominent styles and pillars. Recent genetic analyses have questioned the monophyly of the genus and Brow-antlered Deer might not be related closely to the other two species. It has been sometimes placed in Cervusor in a distinct genus, Panolia. The scientific and the other common name ofthis species refers to L. P. D. Eld, British officer, whofirst observed and described it when he was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assamin 1838. Three subspecies are recognized.On followmg pages 30 Barasıngha (Huoervus duvıuoelıı) 31 Chınose Water Deer (Hydroporos ınermısl 32 Western Roe Deer (Capreolus aıpmolus), 33 Eastern Roe Deer (Capraolus pyyaryus)Subspecies and Distribution.R.e.eldisM’Clelland,1842—NEIndia(Manipur).R.e.siamensisLydekker,1915-Vietnam(couldbeextinct),Laos,Cambodia,andHainanI.R. e. thamin Thomas, 1918— Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Head body 160-170 cm for males (stags) and 140-150 cin for females (hinds); tail 22-25 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (stags) and 90-100 cm (hinds); weight 90-125 kg (adult stags) and 60-80 kg (adult hinds). Males are about 60% heavier than females. Medium to large-sized deer; male antlers have a very long brow tine that forms a continuous curve with the main beam. The skull has a deep lacrimal pit. The coat is reddish-brown abeve, whitish underneath. The tail is brown above. Females are paler. Males develop a neck mane during the rutting season. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Antlers of adult stags are about 90-100 cm long. with a record of 112 cm. The main beam first grows backwards, thep outwaids, and terminates in a forward curve. Toward the tip the beam tends to develop several small tines. Antler cycles are synchronized; antler casting occurs in May-June and velvet cleaning is in December. The Indian subspecies “Sangai” (¢ldii) has splaying hooves with cornified skin on the back of the digits, an adaptation for waiking on moist ground.c 15 days.Habitat.In IndiaBrow-antlered Deerlive in: floating marshes. In South-east Asia it occurs in open-grass-dominated habitats, such as lowland open-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forests with grass understory and adjoining grassland patches. In Hainan Island it mainly occursin dry grassland with sparse trees and scrubland. In the recent pastit lived also in the pine savanna of Laotian plateaus.Food and Feeding.It tends to be a grazer of grasses and forbs and also feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits.Breeding.Females reach puberty at about 16 months of age. They are seasonally polyestrous with estrous cycles of 16-19 days and mean receptive periods of about 16 hours. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at about twelve months. For a tropical deer, breeding is very concentrated. Mating season occurs in 60-90 days between February and May (peak March-April), and calving season is in October-November. After a pregnancy of 240 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3.5-6 kg. At 10-15 days calves begin to eat grasses; at one month they follow their mother; at 50 days they begin to consume plants more regularly. Weaning occurs at 5-7 months of age. Primary predators are Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (FP. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus).Activity patterns.It is more active in early morning and early evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Where studied, males have home ranges of about 9 km? and females of 7 km®*. Maleslive for most of the year as solitary animals; females form small family groups with their fawns. During the rut in the hotdry season the most common groups are multimale mixed sex groups of aboutsix individuals; these may sometimes coalesce into larger herds of 50-70 or more.Status and Conservation.Cites Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Owing to hunting and habitat loss, the Brow-antlered Deer’s historical range has been contracted significantly and fragmented. The Indian subspecies eldiiis reduced to a single population in the Keibul Lamjao National Park, whereit is slowly increasing from a minimum of 14 animals in 1975 to about 180 in2004. The “Thamin” (thamin) of the central plain of Myanmar,still occurs in several localized areas and has been reintroduced in Thailand. The most eastern subspecies, siamensis, is scattered in small populations (one or two in Laos, a few in Cambodia, one on Hainan Island). In Vietnamit may be extinct and in mainland China(Yunnan) it is certainly extinct.Bibliography.Aung et al. (2001), Balakrishnan et al. (2003), Blakeslee et al. (1979), Gee (1961), McShea et al. (2001), Song Yanling & Zeng Zhigao (2003), Timmins & Duckworth (2008b), Wemmer & Grodinsky (1988), Wemmer & Montali (1988), Zeng Zhigao et al. (2005)." -03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,436,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54.xml,Odocoileus hemionus,Odocoileus,hemionus,,,Cerf mulet @fr | Maultierhirsch @de | Ciervomulo @es | Black-tailed Deer (columbianus and sitkensis) @en,"Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, 1817, Big Sioux River, South Dakota(USA).A study on mtDNA has confirmed that there are two distinct groups, a northern coastal one (“Black-tailed Deer”) and an eastern and south-western one (true Mule Deer). The large divergence between these two lineages seems to provide evidence for separate ice-free refugia during the last glacial maximum, about 18,000 years ago. Mule Deer persisted south of the ice sheet in multiple refugial populations. Black-tailed Deer probably survived in a single refugium in the Pacific Northwest, with a slow post-glacial recolonization, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity. Here eight subspecies are recognized.","O.h.hemionusRafinesque,1817—RockyMtsfromYukontoTexasandNewMexico.O.h.californicusCaton,1876—CCalifornia.O.h.cerrosensisMerriam,1898—NWMexico(CedrosI,BajaCalifornia).O.h.columbianusRichardson,1829—coastalregionfromPortSimpsoninBritishColumbia(WCanada)toCCalifornia(WUSA).O.h.eremicusMearns,1897—SWUSA(Arizona,NMexico).O.h.fulbiginatusCowan,1933—SWUSA(SCalifornia)andNWMexico(NBajaCalifornia).O.h.peninsulaeLydekker,1898—NWMexico(SBajaCalifornia).O. h. sitkensis Merriam, 1898— coastal S Alaska.","Head-body 150-180 cm for males (adult bucks) and 135-155 cm for females (does), tail 15-23 cm, shoulder height 85-105 cm (bucks) and 75-95 cm (does); weight 50-110 kg (adult bucks) and 35-65 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in the northern Rocky Mountains, with records of 210-230 kg for exceptional bucks. Adult bucks average 50-70% heavier than does. Generally a mediumsized deer similar to the White-tailed Deer (O. virginianus), but with a relatively shorter and narrower tail that is white to black above, or tipped with black. The ears are very large, around two thirds the length of the face. Males have antlers, with a main beam that grows upward and then bifurcates in equal-length forked tines (“dichotomous branching”); the subbasal snag is short. The lacrimal fossa is deep. The coat is reddishbrown in summer, grayish-yellow, gray, or dark brown in winter. The rostrum is pale and the forehead has a dark patch. Molts in May and September. Newborn fawns are spotted. Nasal, preorbital, metatarsal, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital and caudal glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is large. There are two main phenotypes, the Black-tailed Deer of the north-west coast, which has a tail thatis black above and a moderately large metatarsal gland, and the true Mule Deer of the south-west coast and inland, which has a conspicuous white rump patch, a white tail with a black tip, and a very large metatarsal gland. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males sprout antler pedicles at three months of age. The first antler set, small buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Adult antlers are usually 45-65 cm in length but can be longer, up to 75 cm. Antler casting occurs from to late January to March. Regrowth begins in April-May, from two weeks to two months after antler casting. Velvet shedding occurs in September.","It is an ecotone deer, preferring open forest and scrubland associated with steep and broken terrain. It also lives in coastal coniferous rain forests and on prairies and in semi-desert shrub habitats. Snow depth of 30 cmmay impede movements, and depth more than 50 cmprevents the use of an area.","It is an opportunistic intermediate feeder, with a tendency to be selective on various types of browse.","Puberty is generally reached by females at about 18 months of age, rarely at 6-7 months. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at 18 months, but their opportunities to mate are low up to 2-3 years of age. Rutting season peaks between November and January. Dominant bucks court and mate estrous does. The courtship is initiated by a low-stretch approach of the buck, followed by a slow pursuit in small circles. Females are seasonally polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 23-28 days and a receptive period of 24-36 hours. Mean pregnancy length is 203 days, with a birth peak between June and July. Primiparous does give birth to a single fawn; adults tend to produce twins. The spotted newborns weighs 2.7-4 kg and remain hidden for the first week. At three months of age they lose the spots, and at three or four months are weaned. Full weight is attained at 2-3 years of age by females, at 7-8 years by males. Maximum longevity is 19-20 years, but very few animals survive beyond 8-10 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Bobcats (Lynx rufus).",Mule Deer are mainly active at dusk and dawn.,"It is a saltatorial runner with a specialized flight gait, the fourfooted bound known as “stotting.” For short durations it can reach 40 km/h. Generally home ranges are relatively small, 2-5-5 km?, larger in males. In northern latitudes and in montane areas, decreasing temperatures and snow fall prompt 15-30 km seasonal movements from higher to lower elevations. It is a moderately social deer. Females form matrilinear groups. Males are solitary orlive in small bands of unrelated individuals. Large temporary feeding aggregations in open ground are common in winter and early spring.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. Persecution and habitat destruction were responsible for the dramatic decline in the 19"" century. Predator control, law enforcement, and habitat diversification caused by human activities (logging, burning, livestock ranching) all improved the living conditions for Mule Deer, which increased in abundance and distribution to a peak population of 7-5 million in late 1950s. From 1980 on, the total population has seemed substantially stable at about five million animals. Annual harvest in late 1990s was 535,000 individuals.",Anderson et al. (1974) | Anderson & Wallmo (1984) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Geist (1998) | Kie & Czech (2000) | Mackie et al. (2003) | Martinez-Munoz et al. (2003) | Wallmo (1981),,"37.Mule DeerOdocoileus hemionusFrench:Cerf mulet/ German:Maultierhirsch/ Spanish:CiervomuloOther common names:Black-tailed Deer (columbianus and sitkensis)Taxonomy.Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, 1817, Big Sioux River, South Dakota(USA).A study on mtDNA has confirmed that there are two distinct groups, a northern coastal one (“Black-tailed Deer”) and an eastern and south-western one (true Mule Deer). The large divergence between these two lineages seems to provide evidence for separate ice-free refugia during the last glacial maximum, about 18,000 years ago. Mule Deer persisted south of the ice sheet in multiple refugial populations. Black-tailed Deer probably survived in a single refugium in the Pacific Northwest, with a slow post-glacial recolonization, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity. Here eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.h.hemionusRafinesque,1817—RockyMtsfromYukontoTexasandNewMexico.O.h.californicusCaton,1876—CCalifornia.O.h.cerrosensisMerriam,1898—NWMexico(CedrosI,BajaCalifornia).O.h.columbianusRichardson,1829—coastalregionfromPortSimpsoninBritishColumbia(WCanada)toCCalifornia(WUSA).O.h.eremicusMearns,1897—SWUSA(Arizona,NMexico).O.h.fulbiginatusCowan,1933—SWUSA(SCalifornia)andNWMexico(NBajaCalifornia).O.h.peninsulaeLydekker,1898—NWMexico(SBajaCalifornia).O. h. sitkensis Merriam, 1898— coastal S Alaska.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-180 cm for males (adult bucks) and 135-155 cm for females (does), tail 15-23 cm, shoulder height 85-105 cm (bucks) and 75-95 cm (does); weight 50-110 kg (adult bucks) and 35-65 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in the northern Rocky Mountains, with records of 210-230 kg for exceptional bucks. Adult bucks average 50-70% heavier than does. Generally a mediumsized deer similar to the White-tailed Deer (O. virginianus), but with a relatively shorter and narrower tail that is white to black above, or tipped with black. The ears are very large, around two thirds the length of the face. Males have antlers, with a main beam that grows upward and then bifurcates in equal-length forked tines (“dichotomous branching”); the subbasal snag is short. The lacrimal fossa is deep. The coat is reddishbrown in summer, grayish-yellow, gray, or dark brown in winter. The rostrum is pale and the forehead has a dark patch. Molts in May and September. Newborn fawns are spotted. Nasal, preorbital, metatarsal, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital and caudal glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is large. There are two main phenotypes, the Black-tailed Deer of the north-west coast, which has a tail thatis black above and a moderately large metatarsal gland, and the true Mule Deer of the south-west coast and inland, which has a conspicuous white rump patch, a white tail with a black tip, and a very large metatarsal gland. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males sprout antler pedicles at three months of age. The first antler set, small buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Adult antlers are usually 45-65 cm in length but can be longer, up to 75 cm. Antler casting occurs from to late January to March. Regrowth begins in April-May, from two weeks to two months after antler casting. Velvet shedding occurs in September.Habitat.It is an ecotone deer, preferring open forest and scrubland associated with steep and broken terrain. It also lives in coastal coniferous rain forests and on prairies and in semi-desert shrub habitats. Snow depth of 30 cmmay impede movements, and depth more than 50 cmprevents the use of an area.Food and Feeding.It is an opportunistic intermediate feeder, with a tendency to be selective on various types of browse.Breeding.Puberty is generally reached by females at about 18 months of age, rarely at 6-7 months. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at 18 months, but their opportunities to mate are low up to 2-3 years of age. Rutting season peaks between November and January. Dominant bucks court and mate estrous does. The courtship is initiated by a low-stretch approach of the buck, followed by a slow pursuit in small circles. Females are seasonally polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 23-28 days and a receptive period of 24-36 hours. Mean pregnancy length is 203 days, with a birth peak between June and July. Primiparous does give birth to a single fawn; adults tend to produce twins. The spotted newborns weighs 2.7-4 kg and remain hidden for the first week. At three months of age they lose the spots, and at three or four months are weaned. Full weight is attained at 2-3 years of age by females, at 7-8 years by males. Maximum longevity is 19-20 years, but very few animals survive beyond 8-10 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Bobcats (Lynx rufus).Activity patterns.Mule Deer are mainly active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial runner with a specialized flight gait, the fourfooted bound known as “stotting.” For short durations it can reach 40 km/h. Generally home ranges are relatively small, 2-5-5 km?, larger in males. In northern latitudes and in montane areas, decreasing temperatures and snow fall prompt 15-30 km seasonal movements from higher to lower elevations. It is a moderately social deer. Females form matrilinear groups. Males are solitary orlive in small bands of unrelated individuals. Large temporary feeding aggregations in open ground are common in winter and early spring.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. Persecution and habitat destruction were responsible for the dramatic decline in the 19"" century. Predator control, law enforcement, and habitat diversification caused by human activities (logging, burning, livestock ranching) all improved the living conditions for Mule Deer, which increased in abundance and distribution to a peak population of 7-5 million in late 1950s. From 1980 on, the total population has seemed substantially stable at about five million animals. Annual harvest in late 1990s was 535,000 individuals.Bibliography.Anderson et al. (1974), Anderson & Wallmo (1984), Crete & Daigle (1999), Geist (1998), Kie & Czech (2000), Mackie et al. (2003), Martinez-Munoz et al. (2003), Wallmo (1981)." +03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,425,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4.xml,Rucervus eldii,Rucervus,eldii,,,Cerf d'Eld @fr | Leierhirsch @de | Ciervo de Eld @es | Eld's Deer; Sangai (eldii) @en | Thamin (thamin) @en,"Cervus eldii M’Clelland, 1842, Manipur, Assam(India).The genus Rucervusgenerally encompasses three species: Brow-antlered Deer, Barasingha (R. duvaucelit), and the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). They are all specialized grass-eaters with highcrowned, uniquelyfolded cheek teeth. The molars have relatively large columns and prominent styles and pillars. Recent genetic analyses have questioned the monophyly of the genus and Brow-antlered Deer might not be related closely to the other two species. It has been sometimes placed in Cervusor in a distinct genus, Panolia. The scientific and the other common name ofthis species refers to L. P. D. Eld, British officer, whofirst observed and described it when he was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assamin 1838. Three subspecies are recognized.","R.e.eldisM’Clelland,1842—NEIndia(Manipur).R.e.siamensisLydekker,1915-Vietnam(couldbeextinct),Laos,Cambodia,andHainanI.R. e. thamin Thomas, 1918— Myanmar.","Head body 160-170 cm for males (stags) and 140-150 cin for females (hinds); tail 22-25 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (stags) and 90-100 cm (hinds); weight 90-125 kg (adult stags) and 60-80 kg (adult hinds). Males are about 60% heavier than females. Medium to large-sized deer; male antlers have a very long brow tine that forms a continuous curve with the main beam. The skull has a deep lacrimal pit. The coat is reddish-brown abeve, whitish underneath. The tail is brown above. Females are paler. Males develop a neck mane during the rutting season. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Antlers of adult stags are about 90-100 cm long. with a record of 112 cm. The main beam first grows backwards, thep outwaids, and terminates in a forward curve. Toward the tip the beam tends to develop several small tines. Antler cycles are synchronized; antler casting occurs in May-June and velvet cleaning is in December. The Indian subspecies “Sangai” (¢ldii) has splaying hooves with cornified skin on the back of the digits, an adaptation for waiking on moist ground.c 15 days.","In IndiaBrow-antlered Deerlive in: floating marshes. In South-east Asia it occurs in open-grass-dominated habitats, such as lowland open-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forests with grass understory and adjoining grassland patches. In Hainan Island it mainly occursin dry grassland with sparse trees and scrubland. In the recent pastit lived also in the pine savanna of Laotian plateaus.","It tends to be a grazer of grasses and forbs and also feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits.","Females reach puberty at about 16 months of age. They are seasonally polyestrous with estrous cycles of 16-19 days and mean receptive periods of about 16 hours. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at about twelve months. For a tropical deer, breeding is very concentrated. Mating season occurs in 60-90 days between February and May (peak March-April), and calving season is in October-November. After a pregnancy of 240 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3.5-6 kg. At 10-15 days calves begin to eat grasses; at one month they follow their mother; at 50 days they begin to consume plants more regularly. Weaning occurs at 5-7 months of age. Primary predators are Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (FP. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus).",It is more active in early morning and early evening.,"Where studied, males have home ranges of about 9 km? and females of 7 km®*. Maleslive for most of the year as solitary animals; females form small family groups with their fawns. During the rut in the hotdry season the most common groups are multimale mixed sex groups of aboutsix individuals; these may sometimes coalesce into larger herds of 50-70 or more.","Cites Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Owing to hunting and habitat loss, the Brow-antlered Deer’s historical range has been contracted significantly and fragmented. The Indian subspecies eldiiis reduced to a single population in the Keibul Lamjao National Park, whereit is slowly increasing from a minimum of 14 animals in 1975 to about 180 in2004. The “Thamin” (thamin) of the central plain of Myanmar,still occurs in several localized areas and has been reintroduced in Thailand. The most eastern subspecies, siamensis, is scattered in small populations (one or two in Laos, a few in Cambodia, one on Hainan Island). In Vietnamit may be extinct and in mainland China(Yunnan) it is certainly extinct.",Aung et al. (2001) | Balakrishnan et al. (2003) | Blakeslee et al. (1979) | Gee (1961) | McShea et al. (2001) | Song Yanling & Zeng Zhigao (2003) | Timmins & Duckworth (2008b) | Wemmer & Grodinsky (1988) | Wemmer & Montali (1988) | Zeng Zhigao et al. (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6514491/files/figure.png,"29.Brow-antlered DeerRucervus eldiiFrench:Cerf d'Eld/ German:Leierhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervo de EldOther common names:Eld's Deer; Sangai (eldii), Thamin (thamin)Taxonomy.Cervus eldii M’Clelland, 1842, Manipur, Assam(India).The genus Rucervusgenerally encompasses three species: Brow-antlered Deer, Barasingha (R. duvaucelit), and the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). They are all specialized grass-eaters with highcrowned, uniquelyfolded cheek teeth. The molars have relatively large columns and prominent styles and pillars. Recent genetic analyses have questioned the monophyly of the genus and Brow-antlered Deer might not be related closely to the other two species. It has been sometimes placed in Cervusor in a distinct genus, Panolia. The scientific and the other common name ofthis species refers to L. P. D. Eld, British officer, whofirst observed and described it when he was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assamin 1838. Three subspecies are recognized.On followmg pages 30 Barasıngha (Huoervus duvıuoelıı) 31 Chınose Water Deer (Hydroporos ınermısl 32 Western Roe Deer (Capreolus aıpmolus), 33 Eastern Roe Deer (Capraolus pyyaryus)Subspecies and Distribution.R.e.eldisM’Clelland,1842—NEIndia(Manipur).R.e.siamensisLydekker,1915-Vietnam(couldbeextinct),Laos,Cambodia,andHainanI.R. e. thamin Thomas, 1918— Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Head body 160-170 cm for males (stags) and 140-150 cin for females (hinds); tail 22-25 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (stags) and 90-100 cm (hinds); weight 90-125 kg (adult stags) and 60-80 kg (adult hinds). Males are about 60% heavier than females. Medium to large-sized deer; male antlers have a very long brow tine that forms a continuous curve with the main beam. The skull has a deep lacrimal pit. The coat is reddish-brown abeve, whitish underneath. The tail is brown above. Females are paler. Males develop a neck mane during the rutting season. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Antlers of adult stags are about 90-100 cm long. with a record of 112 cm. The main beam first grows backwards, thep outwaids, and terminates in a forward curve. Toward the tip the beam tends to develop several small tines. Antler cycles are synchronized; antler casting occurs in May-June and velvet cleaning is in December. The Indian subspecies “Sangai” (¢ldii) has splaying hooves with cornified skin on the back of the digits, an adaptation for waiking on moist ground.c 15 days.Habitat.In IndiaBrow-antlered Deerlive in: floating marshes. In South-east Asia it occurs in open-grass-dominated habitats, such as lowland open-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forests with grass understory and adjoining grassland patches. In Hainan Island it mainly occursin dry grassland with sparse trees and scrubland. In the recent pastit lived also in the pine savanna of Laotian plateaus.Food and Feeding.It tends to be a grazer of grasses and forbs and also feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits.Breeding.Females reach puberty at about 16 months of age. They are seasonally polyestrous with estrous cycles of 16-19 days and mean receptive periods of about 16 hours. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at about twelve months. For a tropical deer, breeding is very concentrated. Mating season occurs in 60-90 days between February and May (peak March-April), and calving season is in October-November. After a pregnancy of 240 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3.5-6 kg. At 10-15 days calves begin to eat grasses; at one month they follow their mother; at 50 days they begin to consume plants more regularly. Weaning occurs at 5-7 months of age. Primary predators are Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (FP. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus).Activity patterns.It is more active in early morning and early evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Where studied, males have home ranges of about 9 km? and females of 7 km®*. Maleslive for most of the year as solitary animals; females form small family groups with their fawns. During the rut in the hotdry season the most common groups are multimale mixed sex groups of aboutsix individuals; these may sometimes coalesce into larger herds of 50-70 or more.Status and Conservation.Cites Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Owing to hunting and habitat loss, the Brow-antlered Deer’s historical range has been contracted significantly and fragmented. The Indian subspecies eldiiis reduced to a single population in the Keibul Lamjao National Park, whereit is slowly increasing from a minimum of 14 animals in 1975 to about 180 in2004. The “Thamin” (thamin) of the central plain of Myanmar,still occurs in several localized areas and has been reintroduced in Thailand. The most eastern subspecies, siamensis, is scattered in small populations (one or two in Laos, a few in Cambodia, one on Hainan Island). In Vietnamit may be extinct and in mainland China(Yunnan) it is certainly extinct.Bibliography.Aung et al. (2001), Balakrishnan et al. (2003), Blakeslee et al. (1979), Gee (1961), McShea et al. (2001), Song Yanling & Zeng Zhigao (2003), Timmins & Duckworth (2008b), Wemmer & Grodinsky (1988), Wemmer & Montali (1988), Zeng Zhigao et al. (2005)." +03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,436,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54.xml,Odocoileus hemionus,Odocoileus,hemionus,,,Cerf mulet @fr | Maultierhirsch @de | Ciervomulo @es | Black-tailed Deer (columbianus and sitkensis) @en,"Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, 1817, Big Sioux River, South Dakota(USA).A study on mtDNA has confirmed that there are two distinct groups, a northern coastal one (“Black-tailed Deer”) and an eastern and south-western one (true Mule Deer). The large divergence between these two lineages seems to provide evidence for separate ice-free refugia during the last glacial maximum, about 18,000 years ago. Mule Deer persisted south of the ice sheet in multiple refugial populations. Black-tailed Deer probably survived in a single refugium in the Pacific Northwest, with a slow post-glacial recolonization, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity. Here eight subspecies are recognized.","O.h.hemionusRafinesque,1817—RockyMtsfromYukontoTexasandNewMexico.O.h.californicusCaton,1876—CCalifornia.O.h.cerrosensisMerriam,1898—NWMexico(CedrosI,BajaCalifornia).O.h.columbianusRichardson,1829—coastalregionfromPortSimpsoninBritishColumbia(WCanada)toCCalifornia(WUSA).O.h.eremicusMearns,1897—SWUSA(Arizona,NMexico).O.h.fulbiginatusCowan,1933—SWUSA(SCalifornia)andNWMexico(NBajaCalifornia).O.h.peninsulaeLydekker,1898—NWMexico(SBajaCalifornia).O. h. sitkensis Merriam, 1898— coastal S Alaska.","Head-body 150-180 cm for males (adult bucks) and 135-155 cm for females (does), tail 15-23 cm, shoulder height 85-105 cm (bucks) and 75-95 cm (does); weight 50-110 kg (adult bucks) and 35-65 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in the northern Rocky Mountains, with records of 210-230 kg for exceptional bucks. Adult bucks average 50-70% heavier than does. Generally a mediumsized deer similar to the White-tailed Deer (O. virginianus), but with a relatively shorter and narrower tail that is white to black above, or tipped with black. The ears are very large, around two thirds the length of the face. Males have antlers, with a main beam that grows upward and then bifurcates in equal-length forked tines (“dichotomous branching”); the subbasal snag is short. The lacrimal fossa is deep. The coat is reddishbrown in summer, grayish-yellow, gray, or dark brown in winter. The rostrum is pale and the forehead has a dark patch. Molts in May and September. Newborn fawns are spotted. Nasal, preorbital, metatarsal, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital and caudal glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is large. There are two main phenotypes, the Black-tailed Deer of the north-west coast, which has a tail thatis black above and a moderately large metatarsal gland, and the true Mule Deer of the south-west coast and inland, which has a conspicuous white rump patch, a white tail with a black tip, and a very large metatarsal gland. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males sprout antler pedicles at three months of age. The first antler set, small buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Adult antlers are usually 45-65 cm in length but can be longer, up to 75 cm. Antler casting occurs from to late January to March. Regrowth begins in April-May, from two weeks to two months after antler casting. Velvet shedding occurs in September.","It is an ecotone deer, preferring open forest and scrubland associated with steep and broken terrain. It also lives in coastal coniferous rain forests and on prairies and in semi-desert shrub habitats. Snow depth of 30 cmmay impede movements, and depth more than 50 cmprevents the use of an area.","It is an opportunistic intermediate feeder, with a tendency to be selective on various types of browse.","Puberty is generally reached by females at about 18 months of age, rarely at 6-7 months. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at 18 months, but their opportunities to mate are low up to 2-3 years of age. Rutting season peaks between November and January. Dominant bucks court and mate estrous does. The courtship is initiated by a low-stretch approach of the buck, followed by a slow pursuit in small circles. Females are seasonally polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 23-28 days and a receptive period of 24-36 hours. Mean pregnancy length is 203 days, with a birth peak between June and July. Primiparous does give birth to a single fawn; adults tend to produce twins. The spotted newborns weighs 2.7-4 kg and remain hidden for the first week. At three months of age they lose the spots, and at three or four months are weaned. Full weight is attained at 2-3 years of age by females, at 7-8 years by males. Maximum longevity is 19-20 years, but very few animals survive beyond 8-10 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Bobcats (Lynx rufus).",Mule Deer are mainly active at dusk and dawn.,"It is a saltatorial runner with a specialized flight gait, the fourfooted bound known as “stotting.” For short durations it can reach 40 km/h. Generally home ranges are relatively small, 2-5-5 km?, larger in males. In northern latitudes and in montane areas, decreasing temperatures and snow fall prompt 15-30 km seasonal movements from higher to lower elevations. It is a moderately social deer. Females form matrilinear groups. Males are solitary orlive in small bands of unrelated individuals. Large temporary feeding aggregations in open ground are common in winter and early spring.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. Persecution and habitat destruction were responsible for the dramatic decline in the 19"" century. Predator control, law enforcement, and habitat diversification caused by human activities (logging, burning, livestock ranching) all improved the living conditions for Mule Deer, which increased in abundance and distribution to a peak population of 7-5 million in late 1950s. From 1980 on, the total population has seemed substantially stable at about five million animals. Annual harvest in late 1990s was 535,000 individuals.",Anderson et al. (1974) | Anderson & Wallmo (1984) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Geist (1998) | Kie & Czech (2000) | Mackie et al. (2003) | Martinez-Munoz et al. (2003) | Wallmo (1981),https://zenodo.org/record/6514517/files/figure.png,"37.Mule DeerOdocoileus hemionusFrench:Cerf mulet/ German:Maultierhirsch/ Spanish:CiervomuloOther common names:Black-tailed Deer (columbianus and sitkensis)Taxonomy.Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, 1817, Big Sioux River, South Dakota(USA).A study on mtDNA has confirmed that there are two distinct groups, a northern coastal one (“Black-tailed Deer”) and an eastern and south-western one (true Mule Deer). The large divergence between these two lineages seems to provide evidence for separate ice-free refugia during the last glacial maximum, about 18,000 years ago. Mule Deer persisted south of the ice sheet in multiple refugial populations. Black-tailed Deer probably survived in a single refugium in the Pacific Northwest, with a slow post-glacial recolonization, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity. Here eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.h.hemionusRafinesque,1817—RockyMtsfromYukontoTexasandNewMexico.O.h.californicusCaton,1876—CCalifornia.O.h.cerrosensisMerriam,1898—NWMexico(CedrosI,BajaCalifornia).O.h.columbianusRichardson,1829—coastalregionfromPortSimpsoninBritishColumbia(WCanada)toCCalifornia(WUSA).O.h.eremicusMearns,1897—SWUSA(Arizona,NMexico).O.h.fulbiginatusCowan,1933—SWUSA(SCalifornia)andNWMexico(NBajaCalifornia).O.h.peninsulaeLydekker,1898—NWMexico(SBajaCalifornia).O. h. sitkensis Merriam, 1898— coastal S Alaska.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-180 cm for males (adult bucks) and 135-155 cm for females (does), tail 15-23 cm, shoulder height 85-105 cm (bucks) and 75-95 cm (does); weight 50-110 kg (adult bucks) and 35-65 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in the northern Rocky Mountains, with records of 210-230 kg for exceptional bucks. Adult bucks average 50-70% heavier than does. Generally a mediumsized deer similar to the White-tailed Deer (O. virginianus), but with a relatively shorter and narrower tail that is white to black above, or tipped with black. The ears are very large, around two thirds the length of the face. Males have antlers, with a main beam that grows upward and then bifurcates in equal-length forked tines (“dichotomous branching”); the subbasal snag is short. The lacrimal fossa is deep. The coat is reddishbrown in summer, grayish-yellow, gray, or dark brown in winter. The rostrum is pale and the forehead has a dark patch. Molts in May and September. Newborn fawns are spotted. Nasal, preorbital, metatarsal, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital and caudal glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is large. There are two main phenotypes, the Black-tailed Deer of the north-west coast, which has a tail thatis black above and a moderately large metatarsal gland, and the true Mule Deer of the south-west coast and inland, which has a conspicuous white rump patch, a white tail with a black tip, and a very large metatarsal gland. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males sprout antler pedicles at three months of age. The first antler set, small buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Adult antlers are usually 45-65 cm in length but can be longer, up to 75 cm. Antler casting occurs from to late January to March. Regrowth begins in April-May, from two weeks to two months after antler casting. Velvet shedding occurs in September.Habitat.It is an ecotone deer, preferring open forest and scrubland associated with steep and broken terrain. It also lives in coastal coniferous rain forests and on prairies and in semi-desert shrub habitats. Snow depth of 30 cmmay impede movements, and depth more than 50 cmprevents the use of an area.Food and Feeding.It is an opportunistic intermediate feeder, with a tendency to be selective on various types of browse.Breeding.Puberty is generally reached by females at about 18 months of age, rarely at 6-7 months. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at 18 months, but their opportunities to mate are low up to 2-3 years of age. Rutting season peaks between November and January. Dominant bucks court and mate estrous does. The courtship is initiated by a low-stretch approach of the buck, followed by a slow pursuit in small circles. Females are seasonally polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 23-28 days and a receptive period of 24-36 hours. Mean pregnancy length is 203 days, with a birth peak between June and July. Primiparous does give birth to a single fawn; adults tend to produce twins. The spotted newborns weighs 2.7-4 kg and remain hidden for the first week. At three months of age they lose the spots, and at three or four months are weaned. Full weight is attained at 2-3 years of age by females, at 7-8 years by males. Maximum longevity is 19-20 years, but very few animals survive beyond 8-10 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Bobcats (Lynx rufus).Activity patterns.Mule Deer are mainly active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial runner with a specialized flight gait, the fourfooted bound known as “stotting.” For short durations it can reach 40 km/h. Generally home ranges are relatively small, 2-5-5 km?, larger in males. In northern latitudes and in montane areas, decreasing temperatures and snow fall prompt 15-30 km seasonal movements from higher to lower elevations. It is a moderately social deer. Females form matrilinear groups. Males are solitary orlive in small bands of unrelated individuals. Large temporary feeding aggregations in open ground are common in winter and early spring.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. Persecution and habitat destruction were responsible for the dramatic decline in the 19"" century. Predator control, law enforcement, and habitat diversification caused by human activities (logging, burning, livestock ranching) all improved the living conditions for Mule Deer, which increased in abundance and distribution to a peak population of 7-5 million in late 1950s. From 1980 on, the total population has seemed substantially stable at about five million animals. Annual harvest in late 1990s was 535,000 individuals.Bibliography.Anderson et al. (1974), Anderson & Wallmo (1984), Crete & Daigle (1999), Geist (1998), Kie & Czech (2000), Mackie et al. (2003), Martinez-Munoz et al. (2003), Wallmo (1981)." 03A087C4FFD8FFDAFA70FB75E7FFFE9B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,436,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD8FFDAFA70FB75E7FFFE9B.xml,Blastocerus dichotomus,Blastocerus,dichotomus,,,Cerf des marais @fr | Sumpfhirsch @de | Ciervode los pantanos @es,"Cervus dichotomus Illiger, 1815, Lake Ipoa, Paraguay.This species is monotypic.","E Peru, Bolivia, Brazil(S of Amazonia), Paraguay, and N Argentina.","Head-body 180 cm(males) and 165 cm(females), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (males) and 100-115 cm (females); weight 110-130 kg (males) and 70-100 kg (females). Bucks are on average 30-50% heavier than does. Relatively large-sized deer, with a narrow face and long, thin legs; bushy tail. Legs black up to the radius. Muzzle black, white ring around eyes. Yellowish tail with black tip. Fawns unspotted. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, nasal, rear interdigital, and tarsal glands are present. Antlers of adult males are typically fourto five-tined, 40-45 cm long, with radial branching; the main beam bifurcates not far from the base and each tine tends to bifurcate. Yearling males have simple spikes; two-year-old subadults have forked beams. Antler casting occurs in almost every month of the year, with a peak in September. Hooves are elongated; the pads of the hoof are connected by a strong membrane and can be spread up to 10 cmapart.","It occurs in several kinds of wetlands, including marshy habitats and seasonally flooded areas. It avoids forests and selects areas with a water depth of 30-60 cm.",It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to browse easily-digestible food. The diet consists mainly of semi-aquatic and aquatic plants.,"It is not yet known at what age females attain puberty. They have an estrous cycle of 24 days. The mean length of gestation is 271 days. In captivity there is no clear seasonality in reproduction. In the Pantanal of Brazil, the main fawning season is in April-August, with a higher frequency of births in May-July, when the water level is declining. In Argentinabirths are mainly in December—March. Does give birth to a singleton, weighing on average 4-5 kg. The fawn is relatively precocious and at five days of age it begins to follow its mother. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), caimans and anacondas may prey on full-grown Marsh Deer; Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) may prey on fawns.","It is mostly diurnal, but it may become nocturnal when persecuted. It avoids eating during the hottest hours of the day.","Its large haunches and long limbs make it a saltatorial deer. Its movements follow the advance and recession of the water level. Males have home ranges of 800-5000 ha, females of 300-2400 ha. It is quite adept at swimming. It is a weakly gregarious species. Females form small family groups and males are mostly solitary.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting and habitat loss have drastically decreased the original distribution, creating small isolated populations. It was extinct in Uruguayby the late 1950s. The largest population lives in the Pantanal wetland, in Brazil, where in 1991-1992 a large scale survey estimated it at around 44,000 animals. In Argentina, estimates for Ibera marshes are around 1100-2000 animals, and other important populations are known from FormosaNatural Reserve and the Parana River Delta. In Bolivia, several populations are known from the Benisavannas and Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, and in Pampas del Heath, north of Madidi National Park, a recent survey gives an estimate of around 700 Marsh Deer. The main population in Paraguayis in the Yacyreta region where density is low. Hydroelectric dams and drainage for agriculture continue to reduce its range. Poaching and diseases transmitted by introduced livestock contribute to its decline. Pollution of water associated with gold mining is an additional threat in Pantanal, Brazil.",Duarte et al. (2008) | Pinder & Grosse (1991) | Piovezan et al. (2010) | Schaller & Vasconcelos (1978) | Tomas & Salis (2000),https://zenodo.org/record/6514519/files/figure.png,"38.Marsh DeerBlastocerus dichotomusFrench:Cerf des marais/ German:Sumpfhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode los pantanosTaxonomy.Cervus dichotomus Illiger, 1815, Lake Ipoa, Paraguay.This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Peru, Bolivia, Brazil(S of Amazonia), Paraguay, and N Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180 cm(males) and 165 cm(females), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (males) and 100-115 cm (females); weight 110-130 kg (males) and 70-100 kg (females). Bucks are on average 30-50% heavier than does. Relatively large-sized deer, with a narrow face and long, thin legs; bushy tail. Legs black up to the radius. Muzzle black, white ring around eyes. Yellowish tail with black tip. Fawns unspotted. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, nasal, rear interdigital, and tarsal glands are present. Antlers of adult males are typically fourto five-tined, 40-45 cm long, with radial branching; the main beam bifurcates not far from the base and each tine tends to bifurcate. Yearling males have simple spikes; two-year-old subadults have forked beams. Antler casting occurs in almost every month of the year, with a peak in September. Hooves are elongated; the pads of the hoof are connected by a strong membrane and can be spread up to 10 cmapart.Habitat.It occurs in several kinds of wetlands, including marshy habitats and seasonally flooded areas. It avoids forests and selects areas with a water depth of 30-60 cm.Food and Feeding.It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to browse easily-digestible food. The diet consists mainly of semi-aquatic and aquatic plants.Breeding.It is not yet known at what age females attain puberty. They have an estrous cycle of 24 days. The mean length of gestation is 271 days. In captivity there is no clear seasonality in reproduction. In the Pantanal of Brazil, the main fawning season is in April-August, with a higher frequency of births in May-July, when the water level is declining. In Argentinabirths are mainly in December—March. Does give birth to a singleton, weighing on average 4-5 kg. The fawn is relatively precocious and at five days of age it begins to follow its mother. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), caimans and anacondas may prey on full-grown Marsh Deer; Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) may prey on fawns.Activity patterns.It is mostly diurnal, but it may become nocturnal when persecuted. It avoids eating during the hottest hours of the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Its large haunches and long limbs make it a saltatorial deer. Its movements follow the advance and recession of the water level. Males have home ranges of 800-5000 ha, females of 300-2400 ha. It is quite adept at swimming. It is a weakly gregarious species. Females form small family groups and males are mostly solitary.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting and habitat loss have drastically decreased the original distribution, creating small isolated populations. It was extinct in Uruguayby the late 1950s. The largest population lives in the Pantanal wetland, in Brazil, where in 1991-1992 a large scale survey estimated it at around 44,000 animals. In Argentina, estimates for Ibera marshes are around 1100-2000 animals, and other important populations are known from FormosaNatural Reserve and the Parana River Delta. In Bolivia, several populations are known from the Benisavannas and Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, and in Pampas del Heath, north of Madidi National Park, a recent survey gives an estimate of around 700 Marsh Deer. The main population in Paraguayis in the Yacyreta region where density is low. Hydroelectric dams and drainage for agriculture continue to reduce its range. Poaching and diseases transmitted by introduced livestock contribute to its decline. Pollution of water associated with gold mining is an additional threat in Pantanal, Brazil.Bibliography.Duarte et al. (2008), Pinder & Grosse (1991), Piovezan et al. (2010), Schaller & Vasconcelos (1978), Tomas & Salis (2000)." -03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,435,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04.xml,Odocoileus virginianus,Odocoileus,virginianus,,,Cerf de Virginie @fr | Weil Rwedelhirsch @de | Ciervode cola blanca @es | Florida Key Deer(clavium) @en,"Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780, Virginia(USA).The first Odocoileusappeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.","O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.O.v.clamumBarbour&G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).O.v.macmurusRafinesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).O.v.semmalusGoldman&Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872-SE Mexico(Yucatan).White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.","Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canadaand northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kgfor does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cmand antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexicoantler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexicoto northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.","As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 mabove sea level in the Andes.","As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.","Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Surinamemating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombiabetween February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.","Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.","It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.","Populations of GuatemalaCITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canadaand USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexicoto northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finlandwas estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.",Crete & Daigle (1999) | DelGiudice (2007) | Demarais et al. (2000) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Geist (1998) | Halls (1984) | Hirth (1977) | Lopez et al. (2004) | McCullough (1979) | Miller et al. (2003) | Smith (1991),,"36.White-tailed DeerOdocoileus virginianusFrench:Cerf de Virginie/ German:WeilRwedelhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode cola blancaOther common names:FloridaKey Deer(clavium)Taxonomy.Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780, Virginia(USA).The first Odocoileusappeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.O.v.clamumBarbour&G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).O.v.macmurusRafinesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).O.v.semmalusGoldman&Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872-SE Mexico(Yucatan).White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canadaand northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kgfor does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cmand antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexicoantler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexicoto northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.Habitat.As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 mabove sea level in the Andes.Food and Feeding.As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.Breeding.Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Surinamemating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombiabetween February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.Activity patterns.Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.Status and Conservation.Populations of GuatemalaCITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canadaand USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexicoto northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finlandwas estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.On following pages 37 Mule Deer IOdocoı/eııs hemıonus) 38 Marsh Deer (Blastocerusdıchoromus) 39 Pampas Huemul (Hrppocamelus brsulcusl 42 Northern Pudu(Pudumephıstophılesl. 43 Southern Pudu(Pudupude) Deer (Ozoroceros bezoartrcusl, 40 North Andean Huomul (Hıppocamelusanrrsensrsl, 41 South AndeanBibliography.Crete & Daigle (1999), DelGiudice (2007), Demarais et al. (2000), Fuller et al. (1989), Geist (1998), Halls (1984), Hirth (1977), Lopez et al. (2004), McCullough (1979), Miller et al. (2003), Smith (1991)." +03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,435,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04.xml,Odocoileus virginianus,Odocoileus,virginianus,,,Cerf de Virginie @fr | Weil Rwedelhirsch @de | Ciervode cola blanca @es | Florida Key Deer(clavium) @en,"Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780, Virginia(USA).The first Odocoileusappeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.","O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.O.v.clamumBarbour&G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).O.v.macmurusRafinesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).O.v.semmalusGoldman&Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872-SE Mexico(Yucatan).White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.","Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canadaand northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kgfor does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cmand antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexicoantler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexicoto northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.","As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 mabove sea level in the Andes.","As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.","Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Surinamemating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombiabetween February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.","Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.","It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.","Populations of GuatemalaCITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canadaand USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexicoto northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finlandwas estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.",Crete & Daigle (1999) | DelGiudice (2007) | Demarais et al. (2000) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Geist (1998) | Halls (1984) | Hirth (1977) | Lopez et al. (2004) | McCullough (1979) | Miller et al. (2003) | Smith (1991),https://zenodo.org/record/6514515/files/figure.png,"36.White-tailed DeerOdocoileus virginianusFrench:Cerf de Virginie/ German:WeilRwedelhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode cola blancaOther common names:FloridaKey Deer(clavium)Taxonomy.Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780, Virginia(USA).The first Odocoileusappeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.O.v.clamumBarbour&G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).O.v.macmurusRafinesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).O.v.semmalusGoldman&Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872-SE Mexico(Yucatan).White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canadaand northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kgfor does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cmand antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexicoantler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexicoto northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.Habitat.As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 mabove sea level in the Andes.Food and Feeding.As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.Breeding.Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Surinamemating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombiabetween February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.Activity patterns.Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.Status and Conservation.Populations of GuatemalaCITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canadaand USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexicoto northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finlandwas estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.On following pages 37 Mule Deer IOdocoı/eııs hemıonus) 38 Marsh Deer (Blastocerusdıchoromus) 39 Pampas Huemul (Hrppocamelus brsulcusl 42 Northern Pudu(Pudumephıstophılesl. 43 Southern Pudu(Pudupude) Deer (Ozoroceros bezoartrcusl, 40 North Andean Huomul (Hıppocamelusanrrsensrsl, 41 South AndeanBibliography.Crete & Daigle (1999), DelGiudice (2007), Demarais et al. (2000), Fuller et al. (1989), Geist (1998), Halls (1984), Hirth (1977), Lopez et al. (2004), McCullough (1979), Miller et al. (2003), Smith (1991)." 03A087C4FFDAFFDBFA73FBAEEE34F3BB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,438,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDAFFDBFA73FBAEEE34F3BB.xml,Pudu puda,Pudu,puda,,,Poudou austral @fr | Siidpudu @de | Pudu @es | Chilean Pudu @en,"Capra puda Molina, 1782, Chiloé Province (Chile).This species is monotypic.","It is found in S Chilebetween 35° S(Mataquito River) and 47° S(Lake Buenos Aires, Peninsula Esmeralda & Laguna San Rafael) and in adjacent W Argentinafrom SW Neuquén Province, southward along the foothills of the Andes to Los Alerces National Park in Chubut Province.","Head—body 80 cm, tail 4 cm, shoulder height 30-40 cm; weight 9-10 kg (up to 14 kg). Small-sized deer,slightly larger than the Northern Pudu. The coat is rufous in summer, dark brown in winter; the legs are paler. Fawns are spotted until they are three months of age. A large preorbital gland and a small interdigital gland are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes 5-9 cm long (up to 10 cm). Thefirst true set of antlers develops at 9-12 months of age. Antler cycle is synchronized: antler casting is in June—July, velvet cleaning in October. Hooves are short.","It lives in temperate pristine rain forests, from sea level to 1700 mabove sea level, more frequently at high elevations. It also occurs in secondary forests. It feeds along forest edges.","As a browser,it eats young leaves, sprouts of trees and shrubs, forbs, and fruits.","Females attain puberty at 12-18 months of age, sometimes at 5—6 months. Males are able to reproduce at two or three years of age. Breeding is markedly seasonal, with a rut mainly in March-April and a fawning season in November-December. In the courtship approach males lower their body in an exaggerated crouched posture with belly almost touching the ground. Females have an estrous cycle of eleven days. The length of pregnancy is about 195 days. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing about 0.7-0. 9 kg. The first solid food is eaten at twelve days of age. Weaning occurs very early, possibly at two months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 17-18 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Kodkods (Leopardus guigna), foxes and Magellanic horned owls (Bubo magellanicus). On Chiloé Island, pudus comprise 3-7% of the diet of Darwin’s Fox (Pseudalopexfulvipes).","It is mainly crepuscular, but can be active both day and night as well.","Its small and compact body enables it to move in the thick understory of the forest. It occupies home ranges of 15-25 ha, sometimes larger, which it defends actively. Fighting includes jumping at the rival, biting, and thrashing him with the front legs. Marking includes depositing feces in latrines. It lives solitarily or in temporary pairs.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Total population is thought to be less than 10,000 animals. Poaching and habitat loss and fragmentation have caused a rapid decline in recent decades. Over 90% ofits former habitat in Chilehas been lost. Predation by domestic dogs and competition with domestic livestock and exotic wildlife are important additional threats.",Blainvillain et al. (1997) | Eldridge et al. (1987) | Feer (1984) | Hershkovitz (1982) | Jimenez (2010) | MacNamara & Eldridge (1987) | Meier & Merino (2007),https://zenodo.org/record/6514539/files/figure.png,"43.Southern PuduPudu pudaFrench:Poudou austral/ German:Siidpudu/ Spanish:PuduOther common names:Chilean PuduTaxonomy.Capra puda Molina, 1782, Chiloé Province (Chile).This species is monotypic.Distribution.It is found in S Chilebetween 35° S(Mataquito River) and 47° S(Lake Buenos Aires, Peninsula Esmeralda & Laguna San Rafael) and in adjacent W Argentinafrom SW Neuquén Province, southward along the foothills of the Andes to Los Alerces National Park in Chubut Province.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80 cm, tail 4 cm, shoulder height 30-40 cm; weight 9-10 kg (up to 14 kg). Small-sized deer,slightly larger than the Northern Pudu. The coat is rufous in summer, dark brown in winter; the legs are paler. Fawns are spotted until they are three months of age. A large preorbital gland and a small interdigital gland are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes 5-9 cm long (up to 10 cm). Thefirst true set of antlers develops at 9-12 months of age. Antler cycle is synchronized: antler casting is in June—July, velvet cleaning in October. Hooves are short.Habitat.It lives in temperate pristine rain forests, from sea level to 1700 mabove sea level, more frequently at high elevations. It also occurs in secondary forests. It feeds along forest edges.Food and Feeding.As a browser,it eats young leaves, sprouts of trees and shrubs, forbs, and fruits.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 12-18 months of age, sometimes at 5—6 months. Males are able to reproduce at two or three years of age. Breeding is markedly seasonal, with a rut mainly in March-April and a fawning season in November-December. In the courtship approach males lower their body in an exaggerated crouched posture with belly almost touching the ground. Females have an estrous cycle of eleven days. The length of pregnancy is about 195 days. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing about 0.7-0. 9 kg. The first solid food is eaten at twelve days of age. Weaning occurs very early, possibly at two months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 17-18 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Kodkods (Leopardus guigna), foxes and Magellanic horned owls (Bubo magellanicus). On Chiloé Island, pudus comprise 3-7% of the diet of Darwin’s Fox (Pseudalopexfulvipes).Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular, but can be active both day and night as well.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Its small and compact body enables it to move in the thick understory of the forest. It occupies home ranges of 15-25 ha, sometimes larger, which it defends actively. Fighting includes jumping at the rival, biting, and thrashing him with the front legs. Marking includes depositing feces in latrines. It lives solitarily or in temporary pairs.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Total population is thought to be less than 10,000 animals. Poaching and habitat loss and fragmentation have caused a rapid decline in recent decades. Over 90% ofits former habitat in Chilehas been lost. Predation by domestic dogs and competition with domestic livestock and exotic wildlife are important additional threats.Bibliography.Blainvillain et al. (1997), Eldridge et al. (1987), Feer (1984), Hershkovitz (1982), Jimenez (2010), MacNamara & Eldridge (1987), Meier & Merino (2007)." 03A087C4FFDAFFDBFF74FA76EFFBFC29,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,438,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDAFFDBFF74FA76EFFBFC29.xml,Pudu mephistophiles,Pudu,mephistophiles,De Winton,1896,Poudou de @fr | 'Equateur @en | Nordpudu @de | Puduchico @es,"Pudua mephistophiles De Winton, 1896, Papallacta, Napo-Pastaza (Ecuador).This species is monotypic.","It ranges through temperate zone forests and paramos from the Cordillera Central in C Colombiathrough the Cordillera Oriental of Ecuadorto the eastern Andean cloud forests in Peru, southward to Junindepartment. The exact range is unknown and there are obvious distributional gaps. One major natural gap is the dry forest south of the Huancabamba depression, which separates the northern population from the main Peruvian population.","Head-body 75 cm, tail 3 cm, shoulder height 25-38 cm; weight 5-6 kg. Very small-sized deer, the smallest species of the family. The legs are short, the rostrum and the neck are shortened; the ears are rounded. The rhinarium is bulbous. The tail is rudimentary. Males and females are of similar size. The coatis rufous with dark brown on the back. The face is black; the legs are dark brown. Fawns are unspotted. Preorbital glands are very small or absent. Tarsal and metatarsal glands are lacking. There are small interdigital glands. Permanent dentition of 32-34 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes about 6 cmlong (up to 9 cm). Pedicles begin to grow at about three months. Hooves are narrow and pointed.","It mainly occurs in mountain forests and high elevation grasslands, from 1700 mto 4500 mabove sea level. Throughoutits range, the Northern Puduuses several habitat types, especially high altitude montane forests and the humid paramo grasslands above the tree-line. Montane forests occupied are humid rainforests such as elfin and cloud forests, frequently close to paramo grasslands, which are primarily used by populations in the northern part of the range. The main altitude used by Northern Pudus is 2000-4000 m, with records as high as 4500 min Ecuador. Paramo can be characterized as a humid grassland mixed with short, flowering vegetation such as terrestrial bromeliads, mosses, lichens, tree-ferns, and various other bushes. Throughout its distribution, this species endures low temperatures, with frequent night-time frost in the higher altitudes. Precipitation is high in all habitat types used, and includes rain, snow, and fog.","The Northern Puduis assumed to be a browser feeding mainly on leaves and fruits. According to the observations of local people in Peru,it climbs trees to forage on fruit. The species is known to encroach on agriculturalfields to feed on crops in areas of higher human habitation.","It is not known at what age females attain puberty. Since the climate and the environment are less seasonal than in the southern Andes, reproduction is probably less seasonal. There are probably two main peaks of rutting activity, one in August— September and one in March-April. After a gestation of about seven months, a single fawn is born, weighing about 0-4 kg. Females experience a postpartum estrus. Fawns are precocious and at six months of age reach adult size.","It is crepuscular and nocturnal, but given the lack of good observational data on this species, it may have more complicated patterns of foraging and resting throughout the day.","It is a saltatorial, duiker-like deer, able to flee zig-zagging in dense cover. Pudus are mostly solitary but are sometimes seen in pairs. They are probably territorial, but no long term studies are available.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting from the 1950s through the early 1980s and habitat loss have fragmented the distribution range and decreased the population size. The expansion of human settlements, with consequent habitat conversion and persecution by dogs are important current threats.",Barrio & Tirira (2008) | Czernay (1987) | Escamilo et al. (2010) | Hershkovitz (1982),https://zenodo.org/record/6514537/files/figure.png,"42.Northern PuduPudu mephistophilesFrench:Poudou de I'Equateur/ German:Nordpudu/ Spanish:PuduchicoTaxonomy.Pudua mephistophiles De Winton, 1896, Papallacta, Napo-Pastaza (Ecuador).This species is monotypic.Distribution.It ranges through temperate zone forests and paramos from the Cordillera Central in C Colombiathrough the Cordillera Oriental of Ecuadorto the eastern Andean cloud forests in Peru, southward to Junindepartment. The exact range is unknown and there are obvious distributional gaps. One major natural gap is the dry forest south of the Huancabamba depression, which separates the northern population from the main Peruvian population.Descriptive notes.Head-body 75 cm, tail 3 cm, shoulder height 25-38 cm; weight 5-6 kg. Very small-sized deer, the smallest species of the family. The legs are short, the rostrum and the neck are shortened; the ears are rounded. The rhinarium is bulbous. The tail is rudimentary. Males and females are of similar size. The coatis rufous with dark brown on the back. The face is black; the legs are dark brown. Fawns are unspotted. Preorbital glands are very small or absent. Tarsal and metatarsal glands are lacking. There are small interdigital glands. Permanent dentition of 32-34 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes about 6 cmlong (up to 9 cm). Pedicles begin to grow at about three months. Hooves are narrow and pointed.Habitat.It mainly occurs in mountain forests and high elevation grasslands, from 1700 mto 4500 mabove sea level. Throughoutits range, the Northern Puduuses several habitat types, especially high altitude montane forests and the humid paramo grasslands above the tree-line. Montane forests occupied are humid rainforests such as elfin and cloud forests, frequently close to paramo grasslands, which are primarily used by populations in the northern part of the range. The main altitude used by Northern Pudus is 2000-4000 m, with records as high as 4500 min Ecuador. Paramo can be characterized as a humid grassland mixed with short, flowering vegetation such as terrestrial bromeliads, mosses, lichens, tree-ferns, and various other bushes. Throughout its distribution, this species endures low temperatures, with frequent night-time frost in the higher altitudes. Precipitation is high in all habitat types used, and includes rain, snow, and fog.Food and Feeding.The Northern Puduis assumed to be a browser feeding mainly on leaves and fruits. According to the observations of local people in Peru,it climbs trees to forage on fruit. The species is known to encroach on agriculturalfields to feed on crops in areas of higher human habitation.Breeding.It is not known at what age females attain puberty. Since the climate and the environment are less seasonal than in the southern Andes, reproduction is probably less seasonal. There are probably two main peaks of rutting activity, one in August— September and one in March-April. After a gestation of about seven months, a single fawn is born, weighing about 0-4 kg. Females experience a postpartum estrus. Fawns are precocious and at six months of age reach adult size.Activity patterns.It is crepuscular and nocturnal, but given the lack of good observational data on this species, it may have more complicated patterns of foraging and resting throughout the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial, duiker-like deer, able to flee zig-zagging in dense cover. Pudus are mostly solitary but are sometimes seen in pairs. They are probably territorial, but no long term studies are available.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting from the 1950s through the early 1980s and habitat loss have fragmented the distribution range and decreased the population size. The expansion of human settlements, with consequent habitat conversion and persecution by dogs are important current threats.Bibliography.Barrio & Tirira (2008), Czernay (1987), Escamilo et al. (2010), Hershkovitz (1982)." -03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,437,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE.xml,Hippocamelus antisensis,Hippocamelus,antisensis,,,,"Cervus antisensis d’Orbigny, 1834, Bolivian Andes.This species is monotypic.","The Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina.","Head-body 140-145 cm, tail 11-12 cm, shoulder height 75-80 cm (males) and 70-75 cm (females); weight 55-60 kg (males) and 45-55 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, with a stocky, short-legged body. Tail relatively short. Ears long and pointed. The coat is sandy-gray to grayish-brown, with a white rump-patch, a dark band over eyes, a whitish patch around the muzzle, and a pale throat. The hairs are coarse, long, and brittle. Fawns are unspotted. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present; the preorbital gland is very large. Antlers of adults are forked and 22-25 cm long. Antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting around September and velvet cleaning around January.","It lives at high elevations, up to 5000 mabove sea level, in open landscapes near rock outcrops, in alpine grasslands and scrublands. It seems to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources, usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh.",It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to select more digestible plants. Its diet mainly consists of small forbs and young grasses.,"Females likely reach puberty at about 18 months of age. Reproduction is markedly seasonal, with a rutting season around June-July, during the driest period of the year. The mean length of pregnancy is about 240 days. The peak of births is in February-March, in the middle of or towards the end of the rainy season. Females usually give birth to a singleton, but twins are recorded in particularly productive habitats.",Mainly diurnal; most active in early morning and afternoon.,"It is very agile on steep slopes and rocks. During the day it makes elevational movements, ascending toward noon and descending in late afternoon and night. It forms small, fluid, mixed groups led by a dominant female. These open groups, of three to six animals, which continuously change composition, are part of local cohesive population units.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is around 12,000-17,000 individuals, of which 9000-13,000 are in Peru. Habitatloss, competition with livestock, and predation by dogs are the main threats.",Barrio (2010) | Barrio & Ferreyra (2008) | Merkt (1987) | Roe & Rees (1976),,"40.North Andean HuemulHippocamelus antisensisFrench: Taruca / German: Nordlicher Andenhirsch / Spanish: Huemul septentrionalOther common names: Northern Huemul, Peruvian Heumul, TarucaTaxonomy.Cervus antisensis d’Orbigny, 1834, Bolivian Andes.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-145 cm, tail 11-12 cm, shoulder height 75-80 cm (males) and 70-75 cm (females); weight 55-60 kg (males) and 45-55 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, with a stocky, short-legged body. Tail relatively short. Ears long and pointed. The coat is sandy-gray to grayish-brown, with a white rump-patch, a dark band over eyes, a whitish patch around the muzzle, and a pale throat. The hairs are coarse, long, and brittle. Fawns are unspotted. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present; the preorbital gland is very large. Antlers of adults are forked and 22-25 cm long. Antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting around September and velvet cleaning around January.Habitat.It lives at high elevations, up to 5000 mabove sea level, in open landscapes near rock outcrops, in alpine grasslands and scrublands. It seems to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources, usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh.Food and Feeding.It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to select more digestible plants. Its diet mainly consists of small forbs and young grasses.Breeding.Females likely reach puberty at about 18 months of age. Reproduction is markedly seasonal, with a rutting season around June-July, during the driest period of the year. The mean length of pregnancy is about 240 days. The peak of births is in February-March, in the middle of or towards the end of the rainy season. Females usually give birth to a singleton, but twins are recorded in particularly productive habitats.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal; most active in early morning and afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very agile on steep slopes and rocks. During the day it makes elevational movements, ascending toward noon and descending in late afternoon and night. It forms small, fluid, mixed groups led by a dominant female. These open groups, of three to six animals, which continuously change composition, are part of local cohesive population units.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is around 12,000-17,000 individuals, of which 9000-13,000 are in Peru. Habitatloss, competition with livestock, and predation by dogs are the main threats.Bibliography.Barrio (2010), Barrio & Ferreyra (2008), Merkt (1987), Roe & Rees (1976)." -03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,437,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A.xml,Ozotoceros bezoarticus,Ozotoceros,bezoarticus,,,Cerf des pampas @fr | Pampashirsch @de | Ciervode la pampa @es,"Cervus bezoarcticus Linnaeus, 1758, Pernanbuco (Brazil).The scientific name of the species originates from bezoar stone, a calcareous mass allegedly found in the stomachs of this deer. Five subspecies are recognized.","O.b.bezoarcticusLinnaeus,1758—CBrazil(SofAmazonia).O.b.arerunguaensisGonzalezetal.,2002—WUruguay.O.b.celerCabrera,1943—ArgentinePampas(SanLuis&BuenosAiresprovinces).O.b.leucogasterGoldfuss,1817—Bolivia,WBrazil,Paraguay,NArgentineChaco(SantaFe&Corrientesprovinces).O. b. uruguayensis Gonzalez et al., 2002— E Uruguay.","Head-body 90-120 cm (males) and 85-90 cm (females), tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm (males) and 60-65 cm (females); weight of males 24-34 kg (up to 40 kg) and of females 22-29 kg. Bucks are on average 15-20% heavier than females. Medium-sized, lightly built deer. The main color of the coat goes from pale reddish-brown or tawny-brown in the north to bay in the south. Whitish areas around the eyes, lips, throat, chest, and tarsal tuft. Females have two small white spots on the forehead. Fawns are spotted for three months. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, and rear interdigital glands are always present. Metatarsal glands are sometimes lacking. Permanent dentition is 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are about 30 cmlong and typically have three tines, a well-developed brow tine, and a terminal fork. Pedicles begin to grow at five months of age; the first antlers are buttons or short spikes. Antler cycles are seasonal and locally synchronized, but with variable timing according to latitude. Antler casting occurs in autumn (Brazil) or in winter (Argentinaand Uruguay). Regrowth starts immediately and lasts about 100 days. Velvet shedding peaks in winter or spring. At six years of age antlers attain their full size.Habitat. It prefers grassland (pampas, savanna, also seasonally flooded grassland). In Argentinait is able to tolerate winter temperatures as low as —15°C and a summer shade temperature of 42°C.Food and Feeding. As a mixed feeder,it is able to eat grass but often selects forbs and can browse shrubs.Breeding. Does generally attain puberty at around 14 months of age. Bucks reach sexual maturity at about twelve months but normally begin to reproduce later. Conceptions may occur year-round, but the mating season has often one main peak in summer-early autumn. Does have an estrous cycle of 21 days. Bucks may follow receptive does with long pursuits and approach them in a low stretch posture, uttering soft buzzing sounds, possibly an imitation ofthe distress call of the fawn. The mean length of gestation is around 220 days. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 2 kg. Fawns stand up and start to suckle 30-60 minutes after birth. By 2-3 weeks of age they begin to run and play. At four weeks they start to graze and by eight weeks they feed with their mother and other deer. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), and Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are the main predators; Pampas Foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) may kill fawns.Activity patterns. It is active all day, with recurrent feeding and resting bouts.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Near Threatened on The [UCN Red List and decreasing.",,,,,"Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.",,"Gonzalez, Alvarez & Maldonado(2002) | Gonzalez, Cosse et al. (2010) | Gonzalez, Maldonadoet al. (1998) | Jackson (1986, 1987) | Jackson & Langguth (1987) | Redford (1987) | Rodrigues& Monteiro Filho (2000) | Tomas (1995) | Ungerfeld, Bielli et al. (2008) | Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Pensado et al. (2008) | Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Sierra & Bielli (2008) | Vila et al. (2008)",,"39.Pampas DeerOzotoceros bezoarticusFrench:Cerf des pampas/ German:Pampashirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode la pampaTaxonomy. Cervus bezoarcticus Linnaeus, 1758, Pernanbuco (Brazil).The scientific name of the species originates from bezoar stone, a calcareous mass allegedly found in the stomachs of this deer. Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.b.bezoarcticusLinnaeus,1758—CBrazil(SofAmazonia).O.b.arerunguaensisGonzalezetal.,2002—WUruguay.O.b.celerCabrera,1943—ArgentinePampas(SanLuis&BuenosAiresprovinces).O.b.leucogasterGoldfuss,1817—Bolivia,WBrazil,Paraguay,NArgentineChaco(SantaFe&Corrientesprovinces).O. b. uruguayensis Gonzalez et al., 2002— E Uruguay.Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-120 cm (males) and 85-90 cm (females), tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm (males) and 60-65 cm (females); weight of males 24-34 kg (up to 40 kg) and of females 22-29 kg. Bucks are on average 15-20% heavier than females. Medium-sized, lightly built deer. The main color of the coat goes from pale reddish-brown or tawny-brown in the north to bay in the south. Whitish areas around the eyes, lips, throat, chest, and tarsal tuft. Females have two small white spots on the forehead. Fawns are spotted for three months. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, and rear interdigital glands are always present. Metatarsal glands are sometimes lacking. Permanent dentition is 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are about 30 cmlong and typically have three tines, a well-developed brow tine, and a terminal fork. Pedicles begin to grow at five months of age; the first antlers are buttons or short spikes. Antler cycles are seasonal and locally synchronized, but with variable timing according to latitude. Antler casting occurs in autumn (Brazil) or in winter (Argentinaand Uruguay). Regrowth starts immediately and lasts about 100 days. Velvet shedding peaks in winter or spring. At six years of age antlers attain their full size.Habitat. It prefers grassland (pampas, savanna, also seasonally flooded grassland). In Argentinait is able to tolerate winter temperatures as low as —15°C and a summer shade temperature of 42°C.Food and Feeding. As a mixed feeder,it is able to eat grass but often selects forbs and can browse shrubs.Breeding. Does generally attain puberty at around 14 months of age. Bucks reach sexual maturity at about twelve months but normally begin to reproduce later. Conceptions may occur year-round, but the mating season has often one main peak in summer-early autumn. Does have an estrous cycle of 21 days. Bucks may follow receptive does with long pursuits and approach them in a low stretch posture, uttering soft buzzing sounds, possibly an imitation ofthe distress call of the fawn. The mean length of gestation is around 220 days. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 2 kg. Fawns stand up and start to suckle 30-60 minutes after birth. By 2-3 weeks of age they begin to run and play. At four weeks they start to graze and by eight weeks they feed with their mother and other deer. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), and Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are the main predators; Pampas Foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) may kill fawns.Activity patterns. It is active all day, with recurrent feeding and resting bouts.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Near Threatened on The [UCN Red List and decreasing. Habitat destruction and habitat conversion to cropland and cattle ranching continue to be significant threats. Poaching and predation by dogs contribute to its decline. The main populations are in Brazil, in Pantanal with 20,000-40,000 individuals and in Cerrado with 2000 animals; small populations have been recently rediscovered in the Brazilian states of Parana, Santa Catarinaand Rio Grande do Sul. Around 1100 deer live in Uruguay(El Tapado in the north-west with 800 individuals and Los Ajos in the southeast with 300 deer). In Argentina, where originally Pampas Deer had half a million square kilometers of available grassland, now only four small populationssurvive, for a total of 1200-1400 individuals. A small population may still exist in northern Boliviaand small pockets still live in the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, in north-eastern Bolivia.Bibliography. Gonzalez, Alvarez & Maldonado(2002), Gonzalez, Cosse et al. (2010), Gonzalez, Maldonadoet al. (1998), Jackson (1986, 1987), Jackson & Langguth (1987), Redford (1987), Rodrigues& Monteiro Filho (2000), Tomas (1995), Ungerfeld, Bielli et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Pensado et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Sierra & Bielli (2008), Vila et al. (2008)." +03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,437,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE.xml,Hippocamelus antisensis,Hippocamelus,antisensis,,,,"Cervus antisensis d’Orbigny, 1834, Bolivian Andes.This species is monotypic.","The Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina.","Head-body 140-145 cm, tail 11-12 cm, shoulder height 75-80 cm (males) and 70-75 cm (females); weight 55-60 kg (males) and 45-55 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, with a stocky, short-legged body. Tail relatively short. Ears long and pointed. The coat is sandy-gray to grayish-brown, with a white rump-patch, a dark band over eyes, a whitish patch around the muzzle, and a pale throat. The hairs are coarse, long, and brittle. Fawns are unspotted. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present; the preorbital gland is very large. Antlers of adults are forked and 22-25 cm long. Antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting around September and velvet cleaning around January.","It lives at high elevations, up to 5000 mabove sea level, in open landscapes near rock outcrops, in alpine grasslands and scrublands. It seems to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources, usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh.",It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to select more digestible plants. Its diet mainly consists of small forbs and young grasses.,"Females likely reach puberty at about 18 months of age. Reproduction is markedly seasonal, with a rutting season around June-July, during the driest period of the year. The mean length of pregnancy is about 240 days. The peak of births is in February-March, in the middle of or towards the end of the rainy season. Females usually give birth to a singleton, but twins are recorded in particularly productive habitats.",Mainly diurnal; most active in early morning and afternoon.,"It is very agile on steep slopes and rocks. During the day it makes elevational movements, ascending toward noon and descending in late afternoon and night. It forms small, fluid, mixed groups led by a dominant female. These open groups, of three to six animals, which continuously change composition, are part of local cohesive population units.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is around 12,000-17,000 individuals, of which 9000-13,000 are in Peru. Habitatloss, competition with livestock, and predation by dogs are the main threats.",Barrio (2010) | Barrio & Ferreyra (2008) | Merkt (1987) | Roe & Rees (1976),https://zenodo.org/record/6514531/files/figure.png,"40.North Andean HuemulHippocamelus antisensisFrench: Taruca / German: Nordlicher Andenhirsch / Spanish: Huemul septentrionalOther common names: Northern Huemul, Peruvian Heumul, TarucaTaxonomy.Cervus antisensis d’Orbigny, 1834, Bolivian Andes.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-145 cm, tail 11-12 cm, shoulder height 75-80 cm (males) and 70-75 cm (females); weight 55-60 kg (males) and 45-55 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, with a stocky, short-legged body. Tail relatively short. Ears long and pointed. The coat is sandy-gray to grayish-brown, with a white rump-patch, a dark band over eyes, a whitish patch around the muzzle, and a pale throat. The hairs are coarse, long, and brittle. Fawns are unspotted. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present; the preorbital gland is very large. Antlers of adults are forked and 22-25 cm long. Antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting around September and velvet cleaning around January.Habitat.It lives at high elevations, up to 5000 mabove sea level, in open landscapes near rock outcrops, in alpine grasslands and scrublands. It seems to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources, usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh.Food and Feeding.It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to select more digestible plants. Its diet mainly consists of small forbs and young grasses.Breeding.Females likely reach puberty at about 18 months of age. Reproduction is markedly seasonal, with a rutting season around June-July, during the driest period of the year. The mean length of pregnancy is about 240 days. The peak of births is in February-March, in the middle of or towards the end of the rainy season. Females usually give birth to a singleton, but twins are recorded in particularly productive habitats.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal; most active in early morning and afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very agile on steep slopes and rocks. During the day it makes elevational movements, ascending toward noon and descending in late afternoon and night. It forms small, fluid, mixed groups led by a dominant female. These open groups, of three to six animals, which continuously change composition, are part of local cohesive population units.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is around 12,000-17,000 individuals, of which 9000-13,000 are in Peru. Habitatloss, competition with livestock, and predation by dogs are the main threats.Bibliography.Barrio (2010), Barrio & Ferreyra (2008), Merkt (1987), Roe & Rees (1976)." +03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,437,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A.xml,Ozotoceros bezoarticus,Ozotoceros,bezoarticus,,,Cerf des pampas @fr | Pampashirsch @de | Ciervode la pampa @es,"Cervus bezoarcticus Linnaeus, 1758, Pernanbuco (Brazil).The scientific name of the species originates from bezoar stone, a calcareous mass allegedly found in the stomachs of this deer. Five subspecies are recognized.","O.b.bezoarcticusLinnaeus,1758—CBrazil(SofAmazonia).O.b.arerunguaensisGonzalezetal.,2002—WUruguay.O.b.celerCabrera,1943—ArgentinePampas(SanLuis&BuenosAiresprovinces).O.b.leucogasterGoldfuss,1817—Bolivia,WBrazil,Paraguay,NArgentineChaco(SantaFe&Corrientesprovinces).O. b. uruguayensis Gonzalez et al., 2002— E Uruguay.","Head-body 90-120 cm (males) and 85-90 cm (females), tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm (males) and 60-65 cm (females); weight of males 24-34 kg (up to 40 kg) and of females 22-29 kg. Bucks are on average 15-20% heavier than females. Medium-sized, lightly built deer. The main color of the coat goes from pale reddish-brown or tawny-brown in the north to bay in the south. Whitish areas around the eyes, lips, throat, chest, and tarsal tuft. Females have two small white spots on the forehead. Fawns are spotted for three months. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, and rear interdigital glands are always present. Metatarsal glands are sometimes lacking. Permanent dentition is 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are about 30 cmlong and typically have three tines, a well-developed brow tine, and a terminal fork. Pedicles begin to grow at five months of age; the first antlers are buttons or short spikes. Antler cycles are seasonal and locally synchronized, but with variable timing according to latitude. Antler casting occurs in autumn (Brazil) or in winter (Argentinaand Uruguay). Regrowth starts immediately and lasts about 100 days. Velvet shedding peaks in winter or spring. At six years of age antlers attain their full size.Habitat. It prefers grassland (pampas, savanna, also seasonally flooded grassland). In Argentinait is able to tolerate winter temperatures as low as —15°C and a summer shade temperature of 42°C.Food and Feeding. As a mixed feeder,it is able to eat grass but often selects forbs and can browse shrubs.Breeding. Does generally attain puberty at around 14 months of age. Bucks reach sexual maturity at about twelve months but normally begin to reproduce later. Conceptions may occur year-round, but the mating season has often one main peak in summer-early autumn. Does have an estrous cycle of 21 days. Bucks may follow receptive does with long pursuits and approach them in a low stretch posture, uttering soft buzzing sounds, possibly an imitation ofthe distress call of the fawn. The mean length of gestation is around 220 days. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 2 kg. Fawns stand up and start to suckle 30-60 minutes after birth. By 2-3 weeks of age they begin to run and play. At four weeks they start to graze and by eight weeks they feed with their mother and other deer. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), and Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are the main predators; Pampas Foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) may kill fawns.Activity patterns. It is active all day, with recurrent feeding and resting bouts.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Near Threatened on The [UCN Red List and decreasing.",,,,,"Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.",,"Gonzalez, Alvarez & Maldonado(2002) | Gonzalez, Cosse et al. (2010) | Gonzalez, Maldonadoet al. (1998) | Jackson (1986, 1987) | Jackson & Langguth (1987) | Redford (1987) | Rodrigues& Monteiro Filho (2000) | Tomas (1995) | Ungerfeld, Bielli et al. (2008) | Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Pensado et al. (2008) | Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Sierra & Bielli (2008) | Vila et al. (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514525/files/figure.png,"39.Pampas DeerOzotoceros bezoarticusFrench:Cerf des pampas/ German:Pampashirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode la pampaTaxonomy. Cervus bezoarcticus Linnaeus, 1758, Pernanbuco (Brazil).The scientific name of the species originates from bezoar stone, a calcareous mass allegedly found in the stomachs of this deer. Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.b.bezoarcticusLinnaeus,1758—CBrazil(SofAmazonia).O.b.arerunguaensisGonzalezetal.,2002—WUruguay.O.b.celerCabrera,1943—ArgentinePampas(SanLuis&BuenosAiresprovinces).O.b.leucogasterGoldfuss,1817—Bolivia,WBrazil,Paraguay,NArgentineChaco(SantaFe&Corrientesprovinces).O. b. uruguayensis Gonzalez et al., 2002— E Uruguay.Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-120 cm (males) and 85-90 cm (females), tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm (males) and 60-65 cm (females); weight of males 24-34 kg (up to 40 kg) and of females 22-29 kg. Bucks are on average 15-20% heavier than females. Medium-sized, lightly built deer. The main color of the coat goes from pale reddish-brown or tawny-brown in the north to bay in the south. Whitish areas around the eyes, lips, throat, chest, and tarsal tuft. Females have two small white spots on the forehead. Fawns are spotted for three months. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, and rear interdigital glands are always present. Metatarsal glands are sometimes lacking. Permanent dentition is 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are about 30 cmlong and typically have three tines, a well-developed brow tine, and a terminal fork. Pedicles begin to grow at five months of age; the first antlers are buttons or short spikes. Antler cycles are seasonal and locally synchronized, but with variable timing according to latitude. Antler casting occurs in autumn (Brazil) or in winter (Argentinaand Uruguay). Regrowth starts immediately and lasts about 100 days. Velvet shedding peaks in winter or spring. At six years of age antlers attain their full size.Habitat. It prefers grassland (pampas, savanna, also seasonally flooded grassland). In Argentinait is able to tolerate winter temperatures as low as —15°C and a summer shade temperature of 42°C.Food and Feeding. As a mixed feeder,it is able to eat grass but often selects forbs and can browse shrubs.Breeding. Does generally attain puberty at around 14 months of age. Bucks reach sexual maturity at about twelve months but normally begin to reproduce later. Conceptions may occur year-round, but the mating season has often one main peak in summer-early autumn. Does have an estrous cycle of 21 days. Bucks may follow receptive does with long pursuits and approach them in a low stretch posture, uttering soft buzzing sounds, possibly an imitation ofthe distress call of the fawn. The mean length of gestation is around 220 days. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 2 kg. Fawns stand up and start to suckle 30-60 minutes after birth. By 2-3 weeks of age they begin to run and play. At four weeks they start to graze and by eight weeks they feed with their mother and other deer. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), and Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are the main predators; Pampas Foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) may kill fawns.Activity patterns. It is active all day, with recurrent feeding and resting bouts.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Near Threatened on The [UCN Red List and decreasing. Habitat destruction and habitat conversion to cropland and cattle ranching continue to be significant threats. Poaching and predation by dogs contribute to its decline. The main populations are in Brazil, in Pantanal with 20,000-40,000 individuals and in Cerrado with 2000 animals; small populations have been recently rediscovered in the Brazilian states of Parana, Santa Catarinaand Rio Grande do Sul. Around 1100 deer live in Uruguay(El Tapado in the north-west with 800 individuals and Los Ajos in the southeast with 300 deer). In Argentina, where originally Pampas Deer had half a million square kilometers of available grassland, now only four small populationssurvive, for a total of 1200-1400 individuals. A small population may still exist in northern Boliviaand small pockets still live in the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, in north-eastern Bolivia.Bibliography. Gonzalez, Alvarez & Maldonado(2002), Gonzalez, Cosse et al. (2010), Gonzalez, Maldonadoet al. (1998), Jackson (1986, 1987), Jackson & Langguth (1987), Redford (1987), Rodrigues& Monteiro Filho (2000), Tomas (1995), Ungerfeld, Bielli et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Pensado et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Sierra & Bielli (2008), Vila et al. (2008)." 03A087C4FFDBFFDBFA48F727E294FB40,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,437,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDBFA48F727E294FB40.xml,Hippocamelus bisulcus,Hippocamelus,bisulcus,,,Guémal @fr | Sidlicher Andenhirsch @de | Huemulmeridional @es | Chilean Huemul @en | Southern Huemul @en | Patagonian Huemul @en,"Equus bisulcus Molina, 1782, Colchagua Province, Chile.This species is monotypic.",The Andes in S Chileand S Argentina.,"Head-body 155-165 cm (males), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm (males) and 80-85 cm (females); weight 70-75 kg (males) and 60-70 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, very similar to the North Andean Huemul, butslightly larger, darker, and with a more uniform coloration. The coat is rusty brown in summer and grayish-yellow in winter. Bucks have a dark chevron along the face and muzzle. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital glands are present. Antlers of adults are forked and about 25 cmlong. The pedicle begins to grow at six months; the first antlers are short spikes. The antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting in early winter (late June-July) and velvet shedding in late spring (November).","It lives on bare rocks, alpine meadows, and at elevations from sea level to 3000 m. Forests, especially of southern beech (Nothofagus), may become more important in winter. In the past, it occurred also in completely treeless areas of the Patagonian grasslands.","It mainly eats highly digestible plants, forbs, buds, young twigs, and young grass. More than 145 plant species have been identified in six different study areas.","Females attain puberty at about 18 months of age. Males are weakly polygynous, with a tending bond mating system. Rutting season peaks in February—-May. The gestation is about 240 days long. Births are mostly in mid-spring to early summer. Females usually give birth on bare cliffs, to a single fawn weighing 3-6 kg. Fawns remain hidden for the first days. At two months of age they consume vegetation frequently. Weaning occurs at four months of age. Pumas (Puma concolor), Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus), and dogs are the main predators.",It is mainly crepuscular. During midday it spends most of the time ruminating and resting.,"It is particularly adapted to moving on rugged terrain. Home ranges are relatively stable, small (40-80 ha) or medium sized (300-500 ha). The huemuls tend to move down during winter and up during summer, without long-distance migrations. They are weakly gregarious, forming small groups, generally consisting of a pair of adults (male and female) with offspring. Sexual segregation occurs only during the fawning season. In the past feeding aggregations of over 100 animals were observed in winter.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is probably around 1500 animals, of which 1000 are in Chileand 500 inArgentina. It is the rarest deer in South America. The present range is extremely fragmented, with about one hundred subpopulations, of which 63 are outside protected areas. The northernmost subpopulation (Nevados de Chillan-Laguna del Laja, in the Chilean Andes, 36° S) possibly amounts to less than 50 individuals dispersed in more than 2000 km*. Overhunting, introduction of livestock, competition with exotic deer and habitat conversion to agriculture have produced a dramatic decrease in range and abundance.","Corti, Shaffer et al. (2011) | Corti, Wittmer & Festa-Bianchet (2010) | Diaz (1993) | Frid (1994, 1999, 2001) | Gill et al. (2007) | Povilitis (1985, 1998) | Saucedo & Gill (2004) | Vila et al. (2010)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514533/files/figure.png,"41.South Andean HuemulHippocamelus bisulcusFrench:Guémal/ German:Sidlicher Andenhirsch/ Spanish:HuemulmeridionalOther common names:Chilean Huemul, Southern Huemul, Patagonian HuemulTaxonomy.Equus bisulcus Molina, 1782, Colchagua Province, Chile.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The Andes in S Chileand S Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 155-165 cm (males), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm (males) and 80-85 cm (females); weight 70-75 kg (males) and 60-70 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, very similar to the North Andean Huemul, butslightly larger, darker, and with a more uniform coloration. The coat is rusty brown in summer and grayish-yellow in winter. Bucks have a dark chevron along the face and muzzle. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital glands are present. Antlers of adults are forked and about 25 cmlong. The pedicle begins to grow at six months; the first antlers are short spikes. The antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting in early winter (late June-July) and velvet shedding in late spring (November).Habitat.It lives on bare rocks, alpine meadows, and at elevations from sea level to 3000 m. Forests, especially of southern beech (Nothofagus), may become more important in winter. In the past, it occurred also in completely treeless areas of the Patagonian grasslands.Food and Feeding.It mainly eats highly digestible plants, forbs, buds, young twigs, and young grass. More than 145 plant species have been identified in six different study areas.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about 18 months of age. Males are weakly polygynous, with a tending bond mating system. Rutting season peaks in February—-May. The gestation is about 240 days long. Births are mostly in mid-spring to early summer. Females usually give birth on bare cliffs, to a single fawn weighing 3-6 kg. Fawns remain hidden for the first days. At two months of age they consume vegetation frequently. Weaning occurs at four months of age. Pumas (Puma concolor), Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus), and dogs are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular. During midday it spends most of the time ruminating and resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is particularly adapted to moving on rugged terrain. Home ranges are relatively stable, small (40-80 ha) or medium sized (300-500 ha). The huemuls tend to move down during winter and up during summer, without long-distance migrations. They are weakly gregarious, forming small groups, generally consisting of a pair of adults (male and female) with offspring. Sexual segregation occurs only during the fawning season. In the past feeding aggregations of over 100 animals were observed in winter.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is probably around 1500 animals, of which 1000 are in Chileand 500 inArgentina. It is the rarest deer in South America. The present range is extremely fragmented, with about one hundred subpopulations, of which 63 are outside protected areas. The northernmost subpopulation (Nevados de Chillan-Laguna del Laja, in the Chilean Andes, 36° S) possibly amounts to less than 50 individuals dispersed in more than 2000 km*. Overhunting, introduction of livestock, competition with exotic deer and habitat conversion to agriculture have produced a dramatic decrease in range and abundance.Bibliography.Corti, Shaffer et al. (2011), Corti, Wittmer & Festa-Bianchet (2010), Diaz (1993), Frid (1994, 1999, 2001), Gill et al. (2007), Povilitis (1985, 1998), Saucedo & Gill (2004), Vila et al. (2010)." -03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,431,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4.xml,Alces alces,Alces,alces,Gray,1821,Elan @fr | Eich @de | Alce @es | Elk (in Europe); Caucasian Moose (caucasica) @en,"Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Early Alceiniappeared in the Middle Miocene of central Siberia, about three million years ago. Modern Moose first occurred early in the Late Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, in Eurasia, and entered North America only about 10,000-14,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European, and one North American. North-eastern Siberia can be identified as the origin of all the extant lineages. East Siberian and Alaskan Moose have similar body size and antler design but are not closely related. The race caucasica (Vereshchagin, 1955)from the Caucasusis extinct. Eight extant subspecies are recognized.","A.a.alcesLinnaeus,1758—fromScandinavia,Finland,BalticstatesandPolandEtotheYeniseyRiver.A.a.americanaClinton,1822—ECanada(COntariotoNewfoundland).A.a.andersoniPeterson,1950—fromBritishColumbiatoMinnesotaandOntario.A.a.buturliniChernyavsky&Zhelesnov,1982—NESiberiaandKamchatka.A.a.cameloidesMilne-Edwards,1867—NMongolia,Ussuriland,NManchuria.A.a.gigasMiller,1899—AlaskaandYukon.A.a.pfizenmayeriZukowsky,1910—fromCSiberiatoStanovoyMtsandCherskiyMts.A. a. shirasi Nelson, 1914— from S Albertato Wyomingand Utah.","Head—body 250-300 cm for males (bulls) and 240-290 cm for females (cows), tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 190-210 cm (bulls) and 185-200 cm (cows); weight of adult bulls 300-600 kg and adult cows 280-460 kg. The heaviest animals occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska(with records of more than 770 kgfor bulls and 600 kgfor cows), the lightest in the Amur regionand Manchuria (with some bulls weighing just 260 kg). Bulls are on average 25-30% heavier than cows. The largest extant deer, with massive trunk, short neck, shoulder hump, long and pendulous nose, very small bare rhinarium, long dewlap (“bell”) from the throat; large head and elongated snout, long legs. The coat is prevailingly dark brown with grayish legs. The tail is short and of the same color as the rump. Molts in May and September. Newborn calves have a reddish-brown unspotted coat. Suborbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Permanent teeth erupt at 6-19 months of age. Antlers of adults are typically palmated, but a simpler design without any flattening is the rule in Manchuria and common in Europe. Pedicles appear at 4-5 months after birth; their apices, generally simple, minute buttons, ossify at 6-7 months and cast at 10-11 months. The second antler set, simple spikes or forked beams (in Alaskasometimes already with traces of palmation) develop at about 13-14 months and are cast the following February—March. At 7-11 years antlers attain their full size. In good quality populations of Europe, antlers of adult bulls have a span of 105 cmon average and a brutto (skull plus antlers) weight of 10 kg(with records of 145 cmand 18.5-20 kg); in Alaskamean antler span is 145 cmand antler mass is about 20 kg, with records of 205 cmand 30-35. 8 kg. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in September, antler casting in December, and the beginning of the new antler growth in April. Hooves are 13-18 cm long and 11-14 cm broad in adult bulls, with the pads extending right outto the tip of the hoof.","Boreal forests, mixed forests of the northern temperate zone, especially with damp, marshy areas. In Alaskaalso tundra. Up to 1700 mabove sea level on the AltaiMountains. Snow depth more than 70 cmand mean temperature in summer higher than 14°C are limiting factors. Males tend to select habitats with greater food abundance. Females select areas with better concealment cover.","As a browser, it feeds on the vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, preferring birch, alder, and willow. Adult daily consumption is about 10-30 kg of fresh vegetation.","In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16-17 months of age. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at the same age, but in naturally structured populations yearling and subadults are excluded from breeding by dominant bulls and begin to reproduce only at five years of age; in heavily hunted populations with a low proportion of adults, subadults have a good chance of mating. Rutting season is in September—October. Typically an adult male locates and defends an estrous female until he mates with her, and then he moves on in search of other females (“tending bond mating system”). In tundra the dominant bull tends to herd and defend a group of females (“harem mating system”). Bulls thrash antlers on vegetation, rub trees, dig rutting pits, and urinate and wallow,salivating copiously. Females are polyestrous, with cycles on average of 24 days. During estrus they are receptive for 15-26 hours. Estrous females rub trees and visit rutting pits dug by males and wallow in them. Bulls lose 9-18% of their weight during the rut. Gestation lasts on average 234 days, with the birth season in May-June. Cows give birth to one or two calves, weighing on average 10-12 kg in Europe and 14-18 kg in Alaska; their mass doubles in about two weeks. Mothers remain within 50 mof their offspring for 5-7 days. Calves are nursed 7-9 times during the first days and four times at about 50 days of age. At 2-3 weeks calves begin to ingest solid food and at one month, half of their diet consists mostly of plants. Lactation lasts about 4-5 months. Final weight is attained at about eight years by bulls and four years by cows. Senescence occurs from 12-13 years onward. Normally they live to a maximum of 16-19 years, with records of 21 years for bulls and 25 for cows. In captivity the maximum longevity recorded is 27 years of age. In populations subjected only to natural mortality, average life expectancy in protected areas can be about seven years. In populations subjected to hunting, average life expectancy can decline to about three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are the main predators.","It is active though the day, with peaks at dawn and dusk and 5-8 feeding bouts for a total of 9-13 hours in summer and 6-8 hours in winter.","Moose have a specialized trotting gait, by which they glide over obstacles with little energetic cost. They can reach a speed of 60 km/h. Sedentary Moose have home ranges of 2-90 km®. A segment of the population can be migratory, moving 10-30 km on average, normally to reach areas with shallower snow and better food availability in winter. Migrations can sometimes be much longer, up to 200 kmin North America, up to 300-500 km in Siberia. Natal dispersal can be up to 180-250 km. The Moose is not particularly gregarious. The basic social unitis a female with her young offspring. Bulls are generally solitary and tend to spatially segregate from cows for most of the year. In open terrain in Alaskapredation risk favors some grouping behavior.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In the early Holocene the European Moose extended its range to Great Britain, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. In the early Middle Ages it disappeared from the last relict areas of western Central Europe,its range restricted to Fennoscandia and Eastern Europe. At the beginning of the 19"" century Moose suffered a drastic decline due to overhunting and disappeared from the Caucasus. In the last 50 years European Moose populations have increased dramatically. In Europe there are at least 440,000 individuals, possibly more than half a million, of which about 214,000 are harvested every year.Vagrant individuals are currently recorded in Central and South-eastern Europe, from Germanyto Croatiaand Romania. A few very small populations are now established in South Czech Republicand North Austria. In North America the original population was estimated at about one million; overexploitation caused a decline to around 500,000 in1948, but in 1960 the number had grown to more than 900,000 and is now again about one million. Annual harvest in late 1990s was about 85,000 individuals.","Apollonio et al. 2010, van Ballenberghe (1982) | Baskin & Danell (2003) | Bowyer, Stewart et al. (2001) | Bowyer, van Ballengerghe & Kie (2003) | Cederlund et al. (1988) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Ericsson et al. (2001) | Franzmann et al. (2008) | Garel et al. (2006) | Gasaway et al. (1987) | Hundermark & Bowyer (2004) | Nygrén (1986) | Nygrén et al. (2007) | Schmolcke & Zachos (2005)",,"34.MooseAlces alcesFrench:Elan/ German:Eich/ Spanish:AlceOther common names:Elk (in Europe); Caucasian Moose (caucasica)Taxonomy.Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Early Alceiniappeared in the Middle Miocene of central Siberia, about three million years ago. Modern Moose first occurred early in the Late Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, in Eurasia, and entered North America only about 10,000-14,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European, and one North American. North-eastern Siberia can be identified as the origin of all the extant lineages. East Siberian and Alaskan Moose have similar body size and antler design but are not closely related. The race caucasica (Vereshchagin, 1955)from the Caucasusis extinct. Eight extant subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.a.alcesLinnaeus,1758—fromScandinavia,Finland,BalticstatesandPolandEtotheYeniseyRiver.A.a.americanaClinton,1822—ECanada(COntariotoNewfoundland).A.a.andersoniPeterson,1950—fromBritishColumbiatoMinnesotaandOntario.A.a.buturliniChernyavsky&Zhelesnov,1982—NESiberiaandKamchatka.A.a.cameloidesMilne-Edwards,1867—NMongolia,Ussuriland,NManchuria.A.a.gigasMiller,1899—AlaskaandYukon.A.a.pfizenmayeriZukowsky,1910—fromCSiberiatoStanovoyMtsandCherskiyMts.A. a. shirasi Nelson, 1914— from S Albertato Wyomingand Utah.Descriptive notes.Head—body 250-300 cm for males (bulls) and 240-290 cm for females (cows), tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 190-210 cm (bulls) and 185-200 cm (cows); weight of adult bulls 300-600 kg and adult cows 280-460 kg. The heaviest animals occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska(with records of more than 770 kgfor bulls and 600 kgfor cows), the lightest in the Amur regionand Manchuria (with some bulls weighing just 260 kg). Bulls are on average 25-30% heavier than cows. The largest extant deer, with massive trunk, short neck, shoulder hump, long and pendulous nose, very small bare rhinarium, long dewlap (“bell”) from the throat; large head and elongated snout, long legs. The coat is prevailingly dark brown with grayish legs. The tail is short and of the same color as the rump. Molts in May and September. Newborn calves have a reddish-brown unspotted coat. Suborbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Permanent teeth erupt at 6-19 months of age. Antlers of adults are typically palmated, but a simpler design without any flattening is the rule in Manchuria and common in Europe. Pedicles appear at 4-5 months after birth; their apices, generally simple, minute buttons, ossify at 6-7 months and cast at 10-11 months. The second antler set, simple spikes or forked beams (in Alaskasometimes already with traces of palmation) develop at about 13-14 months and are cast the following February—March. At 7-11 years antlers attain their full size. In good quality populations of Europe, antlers of adult bulls have a span of 105 cmon average and a brutto (skull plus antlers) weight of 10 kg(with records of 145 cmand 18.5-20 kg); in Alaskamean antler span is 145 cmand antler mass is about 20 kg, with records of 205 cmand 30-35. 8 kg. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in September, antler casting in December, and the beginning of the new antler growth in April. Hooves are 13-18 cm long and 11-14 cm broad in adult bulls, with the pads extending right outto the tip of the hoof.Habitat.Boreal forests, mixed forests of the northern temperate zone, especially with damp, marshy areas. In Alaskaalso tundra. Up to 1700 mabove sea level on the AltaiMountains. Snow depth more than 70 cmand mean temperature in summer higher than 14°C are limiting factors. Males tend to select habitats with greater food abundance. Females select areas with better concealment cover.Food and Feeding.As a browser, it feeds on the vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, preferring birch, alder, and willow. Adult daily consumption is about 10-30 kg of fresh vegetation.Breeding.In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16-17 months of age. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at the same age, but in naturally structured populations yearling and subadults are excluded from breeding by dominant bulls and begin to reproduce only at five years of age; in heavily hunted populations with a low proportion of adults, subadults have a good chance of mating. Rutting season is in September—October. Typically an adult male locates and defends an estrous female until he mates with her, and then he moves on in search of other females (“tending bond mating system”). In tundra the dominant bull tends to herd and defend a group of females (“harem mating system”). Bulls thrash antlers on vegetation, rub trees, dig rutting pits, and urinate and wallow,salivating copiously. Females are polyestrous, with cycles on average of 24 days. During estrus they are receptive for 15-26 hours. Estrous females rub trees and visit rutting pits dug by males and wallow in them. Bulls lose 9-18% of their weight during the rut. Gestation lasts on average 234 days, with the birth season in May-June. Cows give birth to one or two calves, weighing on average 10-12 kg in Europe and 14-18 kg in Alaska; their mass doubles in about two weeks. Mothers remain within 50 mof their offspring for 5-7 days. Calves are nursed 7-9 times during the first days and four times at about 50 days of age. At 2-3 weeks calves begin to ingest solid food and at one month, half of their diet consists mostly of plants. Lactation lasts about 4-5 months. Final weight is attained at about eight years by bulls and four years by cows. Senescence occurs from 12-13 years onward. Normally they live to a maximum of 16-19 years, with records of 21 years for bulls and 25 for cows. In captivity the maximum longevity recorded is 27 years of age. In populations subjected only to natural mortality, average life expectancy in protected areas can be about seven years. In populations subjected to hunting, average life expectancy can decline to about three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active though the day, with peaks at dawn and dusk and 5-8 feeding bouts for a total of 9-13 hours in summer and 6-8 hours in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Moose have a specialized trotting gait, by which they glide over obstacles with little energetic cost. They can reach a speed of 60 km/h. Sedentary Moose have home ranges of 2-90 km®. A segment of the population can be migratory, moving 10-30 km on average, normally to reach areas with shallower snow and better food availability in winter. Migrations can sometimes be much longer, up to 200 kmin North America, up to 300-500 km in Siberia. Natal dispersal can be up to 180-250 km. The Moose is not particularly gregarious. The basic social unitis a female with her young offspring. Bulls are generally solitary and tend to spatially segregate from cows for most of the year. In open terrain in Alaskapredation risk favors some grouping behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In the early Holocene the European Moose extended its range to Great Britain, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. In the early Middle Ages it disappeared from the last relict areas of western Central Europe,its range restricted to Fennoscandia and Eastern Europe. At the beginning of the 19"" century Moose suffered a drastic decline due to overhunting and disappeared from the Caucasus. In the last 50 years European Moose populations have increased dramatically. In Europe there are at least 440,000 individuals, possibly more than half a million, of which about 214,000 are harvested every year.Vagrant individuals are currently recorded in Central and South-eastern Europe, from Germanyto Croatiaand Romania. A few very small populations are now established in South Czech Republicand North Austria. In North America the original population was estimated at about one million; overexploitation caused a decline to around 500,000 in1948, but in 1960 the number had grown to more than 900,000 and is now again about one million. Annual harvest in late 1990s was about 85,000 individuals.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. 2010, van Ballenberghe (1982), Baskin & Danell (2003), Bowyer, Stewart et al. (2001), Bowyer, van Ballengerghe & Kie (2003), Cederlund et al. (1988), Crete & Daigle (1999), Ericsson et al. (2001), Franzmann et al. (2008), Garel et al. (2006), Gasaway et al. (1987), Hundermark & Bowyer (2004), Nygrén (1986), Nygrén et al. (2007), Schmolcke & Zachos (2005)." -03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,431,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800.xml,Rangifer tarandus,Rangifer,tarandus,,,Renne @fr | Ren @de | Reno @es | Reindeer (in Europe) @en,"Cervus tarandus Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland, Sweden.The oldest evidence of the genus Rangiferdates back to the late Pliocene, about two million years ago, in Alaska. “Reindeer” were present in Siberia and Central Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 650,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three main haplogroups, possibly representing three separate populations during the last glacial period. The main population lived in Siberia and Beringia and has contributed to the gene pool of all the extant subspecies. One small refugial population supposedly lived in Western Europe and the other in eastern North America. The word caribou derives from the Micmac Indian term “xalibu,” which means “pawer,” “shoveller,” in reference to the habit of digging snow for obtaining food. Taxonomists are not concordant on the number of subspecies. Here ten subspecies are recognized.","R.t.tarandusLinnaeus,1758—Norway.R.t.caribouGmelin,1788—SCanada(fromSYukontoLabradorandNewfoundland)andNWUSA(NEWashington,NIdaho&WMontana).R.t.fennicusLonnberg,1909—FinlandandNWRussia(Karelia).R.t.groenlandicusLinnaeus,1767—Alaska,NCanada,WGreenland.R.t.pearsoniLydekker,1903—NovayaZemlya(Russia).R.t.pearyiJ.A.Allen,1902—CanadianArcticIs.R. t. phylarchus Hollister, 1912— Russian Far East (Amur region, Okhotsk area, Sakhalin, Kamchatka).R.t.platyrhynchusVrolik,1829—Svalbard(Norway).R.t.sibiricusMurray,1866—NSiberiantundra,RussianArcticIs.R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933— Ural Mts (Russia), AltaiMts, Mongolia.Feral Icelandic population originated from animals introduced from Norwayin 1771; they have been introduced also into South GeorgiaIs (in 1911-1912 and 1925) and Kerguelen Is (in 1955).","Head-body 185-210 cm for males (bulls) and 170-195 cm for females (cows), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 90-135 cm (bulls) and 70-100 cm (cows); post-rutting weight 65-170 kg (adult bulls) and 55-110 kg (adult cows). Males can reach 210-240 kg, females 140 kg. Size dimorphism very variable. Males are on average 30-90% heavier than females. A medium to large-sized deer, with long neck, rump, and legs, and short ears and tail. The rhinarium is furred. Hooves are wide, crescentshaped and splayed; the dewclaws are relatively large and low, providing a large surface to support the body. Toe pads are spongelike in summer, tightened and sharp-edged in winter. Both sexes have an inflatable laryngeal air sac; it is larger in males. The coat is made of particularly dense hair, of variable color, from grayish-brown to white. Males have a well-developed neck mane. The coat of the newborn calf is unspotted. There are three main ecotypes: a large-bodied forest form, a medium-sized tundra form, and a small, short-legged, whitish high Arctic ecotype. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, interdigital, and caudal glands are present. Permanent dentition is 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt fom 4-26 months of age. Males bear large antlers 90-120 cm long, with flattened and multipointed brow and bez tines. Most females develop simple, light-weight antlers 30-45 cm long. Pedicles begin to grow very early, at 7-10 days of age, and the first set of antlers (a pair of spikes 10-40 cm long) begins to grow at just 4-6 weeks, finishes growing at about five months of age, and is cast off at 11-12 months. Adult bulls clean their antlers in September and cast them in November—January. The new antler set begins to grow 1-2 months later. Adult cows retain their antlers though the winter and cast them in March-May. The species has the largest relative antler mass, with bulls of 230-240 kg carrying up to 15 kgof antler weight. The longest antler beams are 140-150 cm.","Mountain summit meadows, open taiga, tundra, and high Arctic desert up to 2700-3000 m above sea level. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -60°C and suffers when the temperature exceeds 15°C. More than 60-80 cm of snow impedes movements.","The main diet consists of lichens, moss, ferns, grasses, leaves, and shoots of shrubs and trees (especially willow and birch). Lichens are particularly important in winter. Occasionally they may also feed on animal matter such as lemmings, fish, and bird eggs. To reach ground lichens in winter they dig craters in the snow.","Most females first conceive at 28-29 months of age. In highly productive habitats, some female calves can attain puberty at about six months of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18-19 days. During estrus they are receptive for 12-24 hours. In tundra conceptions are synchronized, with a 7-10 day peak; in woodland habitat they tend to be less synchronous. Tundra bulls form tending bonds within large mating aggregations. Woodland and high Arctic bulls tend to practice harem defense. During rut adult males lose as much as 20-25% of their weight. The gestation lenght is generally 221-237 days. The cow gives birth to a highly developed calf of 4-9 kg (2.5-3 kg in Svalbard), able to stand up one hour after birth and to follow its mother after 5-7 hours (precocial follower-type young). Calves are born with the ability to regulate body temperature. During the first days they nurse every 18 minutes. The milk is rich in fats and proteins. After one week the calf begins to eat lichens, at two weeks it doublesits weight, and at 4-5 months of age it is weaned. Bulls reach their full body weight at six years of age while cows attain adult size at four years. Senescence occurs at about 11-12 years of age. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-18 years. The maximum longevity in captivity is 22 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators. Juvenile mortality is high: Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), ravens, and eagles may prey on calves.","Cycles of activity of 4-5 hours, more active in summer than in winter. They are not crepuscular. In the summer, insects (oestrid flies, mosquitoes) may severely affect activity patterns and also impact body weight and reproduction.","It is the most cursorial deer, able to run up to 80 km/h in open country and swim up to 11 km/h. In woodland habitats it tends to be sedentary, but sometimes makes small to medium-scaled movements, up to 50-100 km. In tundra it is typically migratory; in Taymyr migrations are 1000-2000 km long, in Yakutia 600-700 km. Animals cover 20-50 km per day. It is a highly gregarious species, particularly in open habitats. The basic social unit is the family group with females and calves. Males form small bands. Groups may coalesce in larger aggregations. Migratory Caribou can form impressive moving herds of 50,000-500,000. During migrations, 100,000 Caribou may move through an area of 30 km?®.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and stable. East GreenlandCaribou and Caribou of the Queen Charlotte Islands (once considered subspecies and known respectively as neogroenlandicus and dawsoni) were exterminated in the first decades of 20"" century. In Northern Europe wild Reindeer numbered 26,000 in2005. Feral Reindeer introduced to Icelandnumber about 1000 animals. In 1999 the population size in the Russian Federationwas estimated at 1-1 million individuals. In Mongolia there are fewer than 1000; in Chinathere are a few hundred, probably of domestic origin. In the early 1980s the total population in North America was 2-3-2-8 million animals. The number grew to four million in nearly 200 herds in 2000. Annual harvest in late 1990s was around 120,000 individuals. In a recent survey of 58 major herds around the world, 34 were reported as declining, eight as increasing, and 16 had no trend data. The simultaneous decrease of many herds is coincident with and could be a result of global warming and human-induced landscape changes. In North America, the Caribou is threatened by onshore petroleum explorations. Poaching is important in the Russian Federation. Hybridization with semi-domestic Reindeeris another threat. Natural densities are very low, 0-5 ind/ km?, but during migrations animals can reach 19,000 ind/km?®. Reindeer were domesticated about 3000 years ago in Fennoscandia and Russia.",Baskin & Danell (2003) | Blake et al. (1998) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Cronin et al. (2005) | Geist (1998) | Lincoln & Tyler (1994) | Loe et al. (2007) | Miller (2003) | Reimers et al. (2005) | Roed (2005) | Roed et al. (2008) | Schaefer & Mahoney (2001) | Vors & Boyce (2009) | Williams & Heard(1986),,"35.CaribouRangifer tarandusFrench:Renne/ German:Ren/ Spanish:RenoOther common names:Reindeer (in Europe)Taxonomy.Cervus tarandus Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland, Sweden.The oldest evidence of the genus Rangiferdates back to the late Pliocene, about two million years ago, in Alaska. “Reindeer” were present in Siberia and Central Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 650,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three main haplogroups, possibly representing three separate populations during the last glacial period. The main population lived in Siberia and Beringia and has contributed to the gene pool of all the extant subspecies. One small refugial population supposedly lived in Western Europe and the other in eastern North America. The word caribou derives from the Micmac Indian term “xalibu,” which means “pawer,” “shoveller,” in reference to the habit of digging snow for obtaining food. Taxonomists are not concordant on the number of subspecies. Here ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.t.tarandusLinnaeus,1758—Norway.R.t.caribouGmelin,1788—SCanada(fromSYukontoLabradorandNewfoundland)andNWUSA(NEWashington,NIdaho&WMontana).R.t.fennicusLonnberg,1909—FinlandandNWRussia(Karelia).R.t.groenlandicusLinnaeus,1767—Alaska,NCanada,WGreenland.R.t.pearsoniLydekker,1903—NovayaZemlya(Russia).R.t.pearyiJ.A.Allen,1902—CanadianArcticIs.R. t. phylarchus Hollister, 1912— Russian Far East (Amur region, Okhotsk area, Sakhalin, Kamchatka).R.t.platyrhynchusVrolik,1829—Svalbard(Norway).R.t.sibiricusMurray,1866—NSiberiantundra,RussianArcticIs.R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933— Ural Mts (Russia), AltaiMts, Mongolia.Feral Icelandic population originated from animals introduced from Norwayin 1771; they have been introduced also into South GeorgiaIs (in 1911-1912 and 1925) and Kerguelen Is (in 1955).Descriptive notes.Head-body 185-210 cm for males (bulls) and 170-195 cm for females (cows), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 90-135 cm (bulls) and 70-100 cm (cows); post-rutting weight 65-170 kg (adult bulls) and 55-110 kg (adult cows). Males can reach 210-240 kg, females 140 kg. Size dimorphism very variable. Males are on average 30-90% heavier than females. A medium to large-sized deer, with long neck, rump, and legs, and short ears and tail. The rhinarium is furred. Hooves are wide, crescentshaped and splayed; the dewclaws are relatively large and low, providing a large surface to support the body. Toe pads are spongelike in summer, tightened and sharp-edged in winter. Both sexes have an inflatable laryngeal air sac; it is larger in males. The coat is made of particularly dense hair, of variable color, from grayish-brown to white. Males have a well-developed neck mane. The coat of the newborn calf is unspotted. There are three main ecotypes: a large-bodied forest form, a medium-sized tundra form, and a small, short-legged, whitish high Arctic ecotype. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, interdigital, and caudal glands are present. Permanent dentition is 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt fom 4-26 months of age. Males bear large antlers 90-120 cm long, with flattened and multipointed brow and bez tines. Most females develop simple, light-weight antlers 30-45 cm long. Pedicles begin to grow very early, at 7-10 days of age, and the first set of antlers (a pair of spikes 10-40 cm long) begins to grow at just 4-6 weeks, finishes growing at about five months of age, and is cast off at 11-12 months. Adult bulls clean their antlers in September and cast them in November—January. The new antler set begins to grow 1-2 months later. Adult cows retain their antlers though the winter and cast them in March-May. The species has the largest relative antler mass, with bulls of 230-240 kg carrying up to 15 kgof antler weight. The longest antler beams are 140-150 cm.Habitat.Mountain summit meadows, open taiga, tundra, and high Arctic desert up to 2700-3000 m above sea level. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -60°C and suffers when the temperature exceeds 15°C. More than 60-80 cm of snow impedes movements.Food and Feeding.The main diet consists of lichens, moss, ferns, grasses, leaves, and shoots of shrubs and trees (especially willow and birch). Lichens are particularly important in winter. Occasionally they may also feed on animal matter such as lemmings, fish, and bird eggs. To reach ground lichens in winter they dig craters in the snow.Breeding.Most females first conceive at 28-29 months of age. In highly productive habitats, some female calves can attain puberty at about six months of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18-19 days. During estrus they are receptive for 12-24 hours. In tundra conceptions are synchronized, with a 7-10 day peak; in woodland habitat they tend to be less synchronous. Tundra bulls form tending bonds within large mating aggregations. Woodland and high Arctic bulls tend to practice harem defense. During rut adult males lose as much as 20-25% of their weight. The gestation lenght is generally 221-237 days. The cow gives birth to a highly developed calf of 4-9 kg (2.5-3 kg in Svalbard), able to stand up one hour after birth and to follow its mother after 5-7 hours (precocial follower-type young). Calves are born with the ability to regulate body temperature. During the first days they nurse every 18 minutes. The milk is rich in fats and proteins. After one week the calf begins to eat lichens, at two weeks it doublesits weight, and at 4-5 months of age it is weaned. Bulls reach their full body weight at six years of age while cows attain adult size at four years. Senescence occurs at about 11-12 years of age. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-18 years. The maximum longevity in captivity is 22 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators. Juvenile mortality is high: Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), ravens, and eagles may prey on calves.Activity patterns.Cycles of activity of 4-5 hours, more active in summer than in winter. They are not crepuscular. In the summer, insects (oestrid flies, mosquitoes) may severely affect activity patterns and also impact body weight and reproduction.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is the most cursorial deer, able to run up to 80 km/h in open country and swim up to 11 km/h. In woodland habitats it tends to be sedentary, but sometimes makes small to medium-scaled movements, up to 50-100 km. In tundra it is typically migratory; in Taymyr migrations are 1000-2000 km long, in Yakutia 600-700 km. Animals cover 20-50 km per day. It is a highly gregarious species, particularly in open habitats. The basic social unit is the family group with females and calves. Males form small bands. Groups may coalesce in larger aggregations. Migratory Caribou can form impressive moving herds of 50,000-500,000. During migrations, 100,000 Caribou may move through an area of 30 km?®.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and stable. East GreenlandCaribou and Caribou of the Queen Charlotte Islands (once considered subspecies and known respectively as neogroenlandicus and dawsoni) were exterminated in the first decades of 20"" century. In Northern Europe wild Reindeer numbered 26,000 in2005. Feral Reindeer introduced to Icelandnumber about 1000 animals. In 1999 the population size in the Russian Federationwas estimated at 1-1 million individuals. In Mongolia there are fewer than 1000; in Chinathere are a few hundred, probably of domestic origin. In the early 1980s the total population in North America was 2-3-2-8 million animals. The number grew to four million in nearly 200 herds in 2000. Annual harvest in late 1990s was around 120,000 individuals. In a recent survey of 58 major herds around the world, 34 were reported as declining, eight as increasing, and 16 had no trend data. The simultaneous decrease of many herds is coincident with and could be a result of global warming and human-induced landscape changes. In North America, the Caribou is threatened by onshore petroleum explorations. Poaching is important in the Russian Federation. Hybridization with semi-domestic Reindeeris another threat. Natural densities are very low, 0-5 ind/ km?, but during migrations animals can reach 19,000 ind/km?®. Reindeer were domesticated about 3000 years ago in Fennoscandia and Russia.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Blake et al. (1998), Crete & Daigle (1999), Cronin et al. (2005), Geist (1998), Lincoln & Tyler (1994), Loe et al. (2007), Miller (2003), Reimers et al. (2005), Roed (2005), Roed et al. (2008), Schaefer & Mahoney (2001), Vors & Boyce (2009), Williams & Heard(1986)." +03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,431,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4.xml,Alces alces,Alces,alces,Gray,1821,Elan @fr | Eich @de | Alce @es | Elk (in Europe); Caucasian Moose (caucasica) @en,"Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Early Alceiniappeared in the Middle Miocene of central Siberia, about three million years ago. Modern Moose first occurred early in the Late Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, in Eurasia, and entered North America only about 10,000-14,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European, and one North American. North-eastern Siberia can be identified as the origin of all the extant lineages. East Siberian and Alaskan Moose have similar body size and antler design but are not closely related. The race caucasica (Vereshchagin, 1955)from the Caucasusis extinct. Eight extant subspecies are recognized.","A.a.alcesLinnaeus,1758—fromScandinavia,Finland,BalticstatesandPolandEtotheYeniseyRiver.A.a.americanaClinton,1822—ECanada(COntariotoNewfoundland).A.a.andersoniPeterson,1950—fromBritishColumbiatoMinnesotaandOntario.A.a.buturliniChernyavsky&Zhelesnov,1982—NESiberiaandKamchatka.A.a.cameloidesMilne-Edwards,1867—NMongolia,Ussuriland,NManchuria.A.a.gigasMiller,1899—AlaskaandYukon.A.a.pfizenmayeriZukowsky,1910—fromCSiberiatoStanovoyMtsandCherskiyMts.A. a. shirasi Nelson, 1914— from S Albertato Wyomingand Utah.","Head—body 250-300 cm for males (bulls) and 240-290 cm for females (cows), tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 190-210 cm (bulls) and 185-200 cm (cows); weight of adult bulls 300-600 kg and adult cows 280-460 kg. The heaviest animals occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska(with records of more than 770 kgfor bulls and 600 kgfor cows), the lightest in the Amur regionand Manchuria (with some bulls weighing just 260 kg). Bulls are on average 25-30% heavier than cows. The largest extant deer, with massive trunk, short neck, shoulder hump, long and pendulous nose, very small bare rhinarium, long dewlap (“bell”) from the throat; large head and elongated snout, long legs. The coat is prevailingly dark brown with grayish legs. The tail is short and of the same color as the rump. Molts in May and September. Newborn calves have a reddish-brown unspotted coat. Suborbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Permanent teeth erupt at 6-19 months of age. Antlers of adults are typically palmated, but a simpler design without any flattening is the rule in Manchuria and common in Europe. Pedicles appear at 4-5 months after birth; their apices, generally simple, minute buttons, ossify at 6-7 months and cast at 10-11 months. The second antler set, simple spikes or forked beams (in Alaskasometimes already with traces of palmation) develop at about 13-14 months and are cast the following February—March. At 7-11 years antlers attain their full size. In good quality populations of Europe, antlers of adult bulls have a span of 105 cmon average and a brutto (skull plus antlers) weight of 10 kg(with records of 145 cmand 18.5-20 kg); in Alaskamean antler span is 145 cmand antler mass is about 20 kg, with records of 205 cmand 30-35. 8 kg. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in September, antler casting in December, and the beginning of the new antler growth in April. Hooves are 13-18 cm long and 11-14 cm broad in adult bulls, with the pads extending right outto the tip of the hoof.","Boreal forests, mixed forests of the northern temperate zone, especially with damp, marshy areas. In Alaskaalso tundra. Up to 1700 mabove sea level on the AltaiMountains. Snow depth more than 70 cmand mean temperature in summer higher than 14°C are limiting factors. Males tend to select habitats with greater food abundance. Females select areas with better concealment cover.","As a browser, it feeds on the vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, preferring birch, alder, and willow. Adult daily consumption is about 10-30 kg of fresh vegetation.","In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16-17 months of age. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at the same age, but in naturally structured populations yearling and subadults are excluded from breeding by dominant bulls and begin to reproduce only at five years of age; in heavily hunted populations with a low proportion of adults, subadults have a good chance of mating. Rutting season is in September—October. Typically an adult male locates and defends an estrous female until he mates with her, and then he moves on in search of other females (“tending bond mating system”). In tundra the dominant bull tends to herd and defend a group of females (“harem mating system”). Bulls thrash antlers on vegetation, rub trees, dig rutting pits, and urinate and wallow,salivating copiously. Females are polyestrous, with cycles on average of 24 days. During estrus they are receptive for 15-26 hours. Estrous females rub trees and visit rutting pits dug by males and wallow in them. Bulls lose 9-18% of their weight during the rut. Gestation lasts on average 234 days, with the birth season in May-June. Cows give birth to one or two calves, weighing on average 10-12 kg in Europe and 14-18 kg in Alaska; their mass doubles in about two weeks. Mothers remain within 50 mof their offspring for 5-7 days. Calves are nursed 7-9 times during the first days and four times at about 50 days of age. At 2-3 weeks calves begin to ingest solid food and at one month, half of their diet consists mostly of plants. Lactation lasts about 4-5 months. Final weight is attained at about eight years by bulls and four years by cows. Senescence occurs from 12-13 years onward. Normally they live to a maximum of 16-19 years, with records of 21 years for bulls and 25 for cows. In captivity the maximum longevity recorded is 27 years of age. In populations subjected only to natural mortality, average life expectancy in protected areas can be about seven years. In populations subjected to hunting, average life expectancy can decline to about three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are the main predators.","It is active though the day, with peaks at dawn and dusk and 5-8 feeding bouts for a total of 9-13 hours in summer and 6-8 hours in winter.","Moose have a specialized trotting gait, by which they glide over obstacles with little energetic cost. They can reach a speed of 60 km/h. Sedentary Moose have home ranges of 2-90 km®. A segment of the population can be migratory, moving 10-30 km on average, normally to reach areas with shallower snow and better food availability in winter. Migrations can sometimes be much longer, up to 200 kmin North America, up to 300-500 km in Siberia. Natal dispersal can be up to 180-250 km. The Moose is not particularly gregarious. The basic social unitis a female with her young offspring. Bulls are generally solitary and tend to spatially segregate from cows for most of the year. In open terrain in Alaskapredation risk favors some grouping behavior.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In the early Holocene the European Moose extended its range to Great Britain, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. In the early Middle Ages it disappeared from the last relict areas of western Central Europe,its range restricted to Fennoscandia and Eastern Europe. At the beginning of the 19"" century Moose suffered a drastic decline due to overhunting and disappeared from the Caucasus. In the last 50 years European Moose populations have increased dramatically. In Europe there are at least 440,000 individuals, possibly more than half a million, of which about 214,000 are harvested every year.Vagrant individuals are currently recorded in Central and South-eastern Europe, from Germanyto Croatiaand Romania. A few very small populations are now established in South Czech Republicand North Austria. In North America the original population was estimated at about one million; overexploitation caused a decline to around 500,000 in1948, but in 1960 the number had grown to more than 900,000 and is now again about one million. Annual harvest in late 1990s was about 85,000 individuals.","Apollonio et al. 2010, van Ballenberghe (1982) | Baskin & Danell (2003) | Bowyer, Stewart et al. (2001) | Bowyer, van Ballengerghe & Kie (2003) | Cederlund et al. (1988) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Ericsson et al. (2001) | Franzmann et al. (2008) | Garel et al. (2006) | Gasaway et al. (1987) | Hundermark & Bowyer (2004) | Nygrén (1986) | Nygrén et al. (2007) | Schmolcke & Zachos (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514509/files/figure.png,"34.MooseAlces alcesFrench:Elan/ German:Eich/ Spanish:AlceOther common names:Elk (in Europe); Caucasian Moose (caucasica)Taxonomy.Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Early Alceiniappeared in the Middle Miocene of central Siberia, about three million years ago. Modern Moose first occurred early in the Late Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, in Eurasia, and entered North America only about 10,000-14,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European, and one North American. North-eastern Siberia can be identified as the origin of all the extant lineages. East Siberian and Alaskan Moose have similar body size and antler design but are not closely related. The race caucasica (Vereshchagin, 1955)from the Caucasusis extinct. Eight extant subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.a.alcesLinnaeus,1758—fromScandinavia,Finland,BalticstatesandPolandEtotheYeniseyRiver.A.a.americanaClinton,1822—ECanada(COntariotoNewfoundland).A.a.andersoniPeterson,1950—fromBritishColumbiatoMinnesotaandOntario.A.a.buturliniChernyavsky&Zhelesnov,1982—NESiberiaandKamchatka.A.a.cameloidesMilne-Edwards,1867—NMongolia,Ussuriland,NManchuria.A.a.gigasMiller,1899—AlaskaandYukon.A.a.pfizenmayeriZukowsky,1910—fromCSiberiatoStanovoyMtsandCherskiyMts.A. a. shirasi Nelson, 1914— from S Albertato Wyomingand Utah.Descriptive notes.Head—body 250-300 cm for males (bulls) and 240-290 cm for females (cows), tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 190-210 cm (bulls) and 185-200 cm (cows); weight of adult bulls 300-600 kg and adult cows 280-460 kg. The heaviest animals occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska(with records of more than 770 kgfor bulls and 600 kgfor cows), the lightest in the Amur regionand Manchuria (with some bulls weighing just 260 kg). Bulls are on average 25-30% heavier than cows. The largest extant deer, with massive trunk, short neck, shoulder hump, long and pendulous nose, very small bare rhinarium, long dewlap (“bell”) from the throat; large head and elongated snout, long legs. The coat is prevailingly dark brown with grayish legs. The tail is short and of the same color as the rump. Molts in May and September. Newborn calves have a reddish-brown unspotted coat. Suborbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Permanent teeth erupt at 6-19 months of age. Antlers of adults are typically palmated, but a simpler design without any flattening is the rule in Manchuria and common in Europe. Pedicles appear at 4-5 months after birth; their apices, generally simple, minute buttons, ossify at 6-7 months and cast at 10-11 months. The second antler set, simple spikes or forked beams (in Alaskasometimes already with traces of palmation) develop at about 13-14 months and are cast the following February—March. At 7-11 years antlers attain their full size. In good quality populations of Europe, antlers of adult bulls have a span of 105 cmon average and a brutto (skull plus antlers) weight of 10 kg(with records of 145 cmand 18.5-20 kg); in Alaskamean antler span is 145 cmand antler mass is about 20 kg, with records of 205 cmand 30-35. 8 kg. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in September, antler casting in December, and the beginning of the new antler growth in April. Hooves are 13-18 cm long and 11-14 cm broad in adult bulls, with the pads extending right outto the tip of the hoof.Habitat.Boreal forests, mixed forests of the northern temperate zone, especially with damp, marshy areas. In Alaskaalso tundra. Up to 1700 mabove sea level on the AltaiMountains. Snow depth more than 70 cmand mean temperature in summer higher than 14°C are limiting factors. Males tend to select habitats with greater food abundance. Females select areas with better concealment cover.Food and Feeding.As a browser, it feeds on the vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, preferring birch, alder, and willow. Adult daily consumption is about 10-30 kg of fresh vegetation.Breeding.In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16-17 months of age. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at the same age, but in naturally structured populations yearling and subadults are excluded from breeding by dominant bulls and begin to reproduce only at five years of age; in heavily hunted populations with a low proportion of adults, subadults have a good chance of mating. Rutting season is in September—October. Typically an adult male locates and defends an estrous female until he mates with her, and then he moves on in search of other females (“tending bond mating system”). In tundra the dominant bull tends to herd and defend a group of females (“harem mating system”). Bulls thrash antlers on vegetation, rub trees, dig rutting pits, and urinate and wallow,salivating copiously. Females are polyestrous, with cycles on average of 24 days. During estrus they are receptive for 15-26 hours. Estrous females rub trees and visit rutting pits dug by males and wallow in them. Bulls lose 9-18% of their weight during the rut. Gestation lasts on average 234 days, with the birth season in May-June. Cows give birth to one or two calves, weighing on average 10-12 kg in Europe and 14-18 kg in Alaska; their mass doubles in about two weeks. Mothers remain within 50 mof their offspring for 5-7 days. Calves are nursed 7-9 times during the first days and four times at about 50 days of age. At 2-3 weeks calves begin to ingest solid food and at one month, half of their diet consists mostly of plants. Lactation lasts about 4-5 months. Final weight is attained at about eight years by bulls and four years by cows. Senescence occurs from 12-13 years onward. Normally they live to a maximum of 16-19 years, with records of 21 years for bulls and 25 for cows. In captivity the maximum longevity recorded is 27 years of age. In populations subjected only to natural mortality, average life expectancy in protected areas can be about seven years. In populations subjected to hunting, average life expectancy can decline to about three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active though the day, with peaks at dawn and dusk and 5-8 feeding bouts for a total of 9-13 hours in summer and 6-8 hours in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Moose have a specialized trotting gait, by which they glide over obstacles with little energetic cost. They can reach a speed of 60 km/h. Sedentary Moose have home ranges of 2-90 km®. A segment of the population can be migratory, moving 10-30 km on average, normally to reach areas with shallower snow and better food availability in winter. Migrations can sometimes be much longer, up to 200 kmin North America, up to 300-500 km in Siberia. Natal dispersal can be up to 180-250 km. The Moose is not particularly gregarious. The basic social unitis a female with her young offspring. Bulls are generally solitary and tend to spatially segregate from cows for most of the year. In open terrain in Alaskapredation risk favors some grouping behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In the early Holocene the European Moose extended its range to Great Britain, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. In the early Middle Ages it disappeared from the last relict areas of western Central Europe,its range restricted to Fennoscandia and Eastern Europe. At the beginning of the 19"" century Moose suffered a drastic decline due to overhunting and disappeared from the Caucasus. In the last 50 years European Moose populations have increased dramatically. In Europe there are at least 440,000 individuals, possibly more than half a million, of which about 214,000 are harvested every year.Vagrant individuals are currently recorded in Central and South-eastern Europe, from Germanyto Croatiaand Romania. A few very small populations are now established in South Czech Republicand North Austria. In North America the original population was estimated at about one million; overexploitation caused a decline to around 500,000 in1948, but in 1960 the number had grown to more than 900,000 and is now again about one million. Annual harvest in late 1990s was about 85,000 individuals.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. 2010, van Ballenberghe (1982), Baskin & Danell (2003), Bowyer, Stewart et al. (2001), Bowyer, van Ballengerghe & Kie (2003), Cederlund et al. (1988), Crete & Daigle (1999), Ericsson et al. (2001), Franzmann et al. (2008), Garel et al. (2006), Gasaway et al. (1987), Hundermark & Bowyer (2004), Nygrén (1986), Nygrén et al. (2007), Schmolcke & Zachos (2005)." +03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,431,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800.xml,Rangifer tarandus,Rangifer,tarandus,,,Renne @fr | Ren @de | Reno @es | Reindeer (in Europe) @en,"Cervus tarandus Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland, Sweden.The oldest evidence of the genus Rangiferdates back to the late Pliocene, about two million years ago, in Alaska. “Reindeer” were present in Siberia and Central Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 650,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three main haplogroups, possibly representing three separate populations during the last glacial period. The main population lived in Siberia and Beringia and has contributed to the gene pool of all the extant subspecies. One small refugial population supposedly lived in Western Europe and the other in eastern North America. The word caribou derives from the Micmac Indian term “xalibu,” which means “pawer,” “shoveller,” in reference to the habit of digging snow for obtaining food. Taxonomists are not concordant on the number of subspecies. Here ten subspecies are recognized.","R.t.tarandusLinnaeus,1758—Norway.R.t.caribouGmelin,1788—SCanada(fromSYukontoLabradorandNewfoundland)andNWUSA(NEWashington,NIdaho&WMontana).R.t.fennicusLonnberg,1909—FinlandandNWRussia(Karelia).R.t.groenlandicusLinnaeus,1767—Alaska,NCanada,WGreenland.R.t.pearsoniLydekker,1903—NovayaZemlya(Russia).R.t.pearyiJ.A.Allen,1902—CanadianArcticIs.R. t. phylarchus Hollister, 1912— Russian Far East (Amur region, Okhotsk area, Sakhalin, Kamchatka).R.t.platyrhynchusVrolik,1829—Svalbard(Norway).R.t.sibiricusMurray,1866—NSiberiantundra,RussianArcticIs.R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933— Ural Mts (Russia), AltaiMts, Mongolia.Feral Icelandic population originated from animals introduced from Norwayin 1771; they have been introduced also into South GeorgiaIs (in 1911-1912 and 1925) and Kerguelen Is (in 1955).","Head-body 185-210 cm for males (bulls) and 170-195 cm for females (cows), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 90-135 cm (bulls) and 70-100 cm (cows); post-rutting weight 65-170 kg (adult bulls) and 55-110 kg (adult cows). Males can reach 210-240 kg, females 140 kg. Size dimorphism very variable. Males are on average 30-90% heavier than females. A medium to large-sized deer, with long neck, rump, and legs, and short ears and tail. The rhinarium is furred. Hooves are wide, crescentshaped and splayed; the dewclaws are relatively large and low, providing a large surface to support the body. Toe pads are spongelike in summer, tightened and sharp-edged in winter. Both sexes have an inflatable laryngeal air sac; it is larger in males. The coat is made of particularly dense hair, of variable color, from grayish-brown to white. Males have a well-developed neck mane. The coat of the newborn calf is unspotted. There are three main ecotypes: a large-bodied forest form, a medium-sized tundra form, and a small, short-legged, whitish high Arctic ecotype. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, interdigital, and caudal glands are present. Permanent dentition is 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt fom 4-26 months of age. Males bear large antlers 90-120 cm long, with flattened and multipointed brow and bez tines. Most females develop simple, light-weight antlers 30-45 cm long. Pedicles begin to grow very early, at 7-10 days of age, and the first set of antlers (a pair of spikes 10-40 cm long) begins to grow at just 4-6 weeks, finishes growing at about five months of age, and is cast off at 11-12 months. Adult bulls clean their antlers in September and cast them in November—January. The new antler set begins to grow 1-2 months later. Adult cows retain their antlers though the winter and cast them in March-May. The species has the largest relative antler mass, with bulls of 230-240 kg carrying up to 15 kgof antler weight. The longest antler beams are 140-150 cm.","Mountain summit meadows, open taiga, tundra, and high Arctic desert up to 2700-3000 m above sea level. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -60°C and suffers when the temperature exceeds 15°C. More than 60-80 cm of snow impedes movements.","The main diet consists of lichens, moss, ferns, grasses, leaves, and shoots of shrubs and trees (especially willow and birch). Lichens are particularly important in winter. Occasionally they may also feed on animal matter such as lemmings, fish, and bird eggs. To reach ground lichens in winter they dig craters in the snow.","Most females first conceive at 28-29 months of age. In highly productive habitats, some female calves can attain puberty at about six months of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18-19 days. During estrus they are receptive for 12-24 hours. In tundra conceptions are synchronized, with a 7-10 day peak; in woodland habitat they tend to be less synchronous. Tundra bulls form tending bonds within large mating aggregations. Woodland and high Arctic bulls tend to practice harem defense. During rut adult males lose as much as 20-25% of their weight. The gestation lenght is generally 221-237 days. The cow gives birth to a highly developed calf of 4-9 kg (2.5-3 kg in Svalbard), able to stand up one hour after birth and to follow its mother after 5-7 hours (precocial follower-type young). Calves are born with the ability to regulate body temperature. During the first days they nurse every 18 minutes. The milk is rich in fats and proteins. After one week the calf begins to eat lichens, at two weeks it doublesits weight, and at 4-5 months of age it is weaned. Bulls reach their full body weight at six years of age while cows attain adult size at four years. Senescence occurs at about 11-12 years of age. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-18 years. The maximum longevity in captivity is 22 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators. Juvenile mortality is high: Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), ravens, and eagles may prey on calves.","Cycles of activity of 4-5 hours, more active in summer than in winter. They are not crepuscular. In the summer, insects (oestrid flies, mosquitoes) may severely affect activity patterns and also impact body weight and reproduction.","It is the most cursorial deer, able to run up to 80 km/h in open country and swim up to 11 km/h. In woodland habitats it tends to be sedentary, but sometimes makes small to medium-scaled movements, up to 50-100 km. In tundra it is typically migratory; in Taymyr migrations are 1000-2000 km long, in Yakutia 600-700 km. Animals cover 20-50 km per day. It is a highly gregarious species, particularly in open habitats. The basic social unit is the family group with females and calves. Males form small bands. Groups may coalesce in larger aggregations. Migratory Caribou can form impressive moving herds of 50,000-500,000. During migrations, 100,000 Caribou may move through an area of 30 km?®.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and stable. East GreenlandCaribou and Caribou of the Queen Charlotte Islands (once considered subspecies and known respectively as neogroenlandicus and dawsoni) were exterminated in the first decades of 20"" century. In Northern Europe wild Reindeer numbered 26,000 in2005. Feral Reindeer introduced to Icelandnumber about 1000 animals. In 1999 the population size in the Russian Federationwas estimated at 1-1 million individuals. In Mongolia there are fewer than 1000; in Chinathere are a few hundred, probably of domestic origin. In the early 1980s the total population in North America was 2-3-2-8 million animals. The number grew to four million in nearly 200 herds in 2000. Annual harvest in late 1990s was around 120,000 individuals. In a recent survey of 58 major herds around the world, 34 were reported as declining, eight as increasing, and 16 had no trend data. The simultaneous decrease of many herds is coincident with and could be a result of global warming and human-induced landscape changes. In North America, the Caribou is threatened by onshore petroleum explorations. Poaching is important in the Russian Federation. Hybridization with semi-domestic Reindeeris another threat. Natural densities are very low, 0-5 ind/ km?, but during migrations animals can reach 19,000 ind/km?®. Reindeer were domesticated about 3000 years ago in Fennoscandia and Russia.",Baskin & Danell (2003) | Blake et al. (1998) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Cronin et al. (2005) | Geist (1998) | Lincoln & Tyler (1994) | Loe et al. (2007) | Miller (2003) | Reimers et al. (2005) | Roed (2005) | Roed et al. (2008) | Schaefer & Mahoney (2001) | Vors & Boyce (2009) | Williams & Heard(1986),https://zenodo.org/record/6514511/files/figure.png,"35.CaribouRangifer tarandusFrench:Renne/ German:Ren/ Spanish:RenoOther common names:Reindeer (in Europe)Taxonomy.Cervus tarandus Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland, Sweden.The oldest evidence of the genus Rangiferdates back to the late Pliocene, about two million years ago, in Alaska. “Reindeer” were present in Siberia and Central Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 650,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three main haplogroups, possibly representing three separate populations during the last glacial period. The main population lived in Siberia and Beringia and has contributed to the gene pool of all the extant subspecies. One small refugial population supposedly lived in Western Europe and the other in eastern North America. The word caribou derives from the Micmac Indian term “xalibu,” which means “pawer,” “shoveller,” in reference to the habit of digging snow for obtaining food. Taxonomists are not concordant on the number of subspecies. Here ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.t.tarandusLinnaeus,1758—Norway.R.t.caribouGmelin,1788—SCanada(fromSYukontoLabradorandNewfoundland)andNWUSA(NEWashington,NIdaho&WMontana).R.t.fennicusLonnberg,1909—FinlandandNWRussia(Karelia).R.t.groenlandicusLinnaeus,1767—Alaska,NCanada,WGreenland.R.t.pearsoniLydekker,1903—NovayaZemlya(Russia).R.t.pearyiJ.A.Allen,1902—CanadianArcticIs.R. t. phylarchus Hollister, 1912— Russian Far East (Amur region, Okhotsk area, Sakhalin, Kamchatka).R.t.platyrhynchusVrolik,1829—Svalbard(Norway).R.t.sibiricusMurray,1866—NSiberiantundra,RussianArcticIs.R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933— Ural Mts (Russia), AltaiMts, Mongolia.Feral Icelandic population originated from animals introduced from Norwayin 1771; they have been introduced also into South GeorgiaIs (in 1911-1912 and 1925) and Kerguelen Is (in 1955).Descriptive notes.Head-body 185-210 cm for males (bulls) and 170-195 cm for females (cows), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 90-135 cm (bulls) and 70-100 cm (cows); post-rutting weight 65-170 kg (adult bulls) and 55-110 kg (adult cows). Males can reach 210-240 kg, females 140 kg. Size dimorphism very variable. Males are on average 30-90% heavier than females. A medium to large-sized deer, with long neck, rump, and legs, and short ears and tail. The rhinarium is furred. Hooves are wide, crescentshaped and splayed; the dewclaws are relatively large and low, providing a large surface to support the body. Toe pads are spongelike in summer, tightened and sharp-edged in winter. Both sexes have an inflatable laryngeal air sac; it is larger in males. The coat is made of particularly dense hair, of variable color, from grayish-brown to white. Males have a well-developed neck mane. The coat of the newborn calf is unspotted. There are three main ecotypes: a large-bodied forest form, a medium-sized tundra form, and a small, short-legged, whitish high Arctic ecotype. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, interdigital, and caudal glands are present. Permanent dentition is 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt fom 4-26 months of age. Males bear large antlers 90-120 cm long, with flattened and multipointed brow and bez tines. Most females develop simple, light-weight antlers 30-45 cm long. Pedicles begin to grow very early, at 7-10 days of age, and the first set of antlers (a pair of spikes 10-40 cm long) begins to grow at just 4-6 weeks, finishes growing at about five months of age, and is cast off at 11-12 months. Adult bulls clean their antlers in September and cast them in November—January. The new antler set begins to grow 1-2 months later. Adult cows retain their antlers though the winter and cast them in March-May. The species has the largest relative antler mass, with bulls of 230-240 kg carrying up to 15 kgof antler weight. The longest antler beams are 140-150 cm.Habitat.Mountain summit meadows, open taiga, tundra, and high Arctic desert up to 2700-3000 m above sea level. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -60°C and suffers when the temperature exceeds 15°C. More than 60-80 cm of snow impedes movements.Food and Feeding.The main diet consists of lichens, moss, ferns, grasses, leaves, and shoots of shrubs and trees (especially willow and birch). Lichens are particularly important in winter. Occasionally they may also feed on animal matter such as lemmings, fish, and bird eggs. To reach ground lichens in winter they dig craters in the snow.Breeding.Most females first conceive at 28-29 months of age. In highly productive habitats, some female calves can attain puberty at about six months of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18-19 days. During estrus they are receptive for 12-24 hours. In tundra conceptions are synchronized, with a 7-10 day peak; in woodland habitat they tend to be less synchronous. Tundra bulls form tending bonds within large mating aggregations. Woodland and high Arctic bulls tend to practice harem defense. During rut adult males lose as much as 20-25% of their weight. The gestation lenght is generally 221-237 days. The cow gives birth to a highly developed calf of 4-9 kg (2.5-3 kg in Svalbard), able to stand up one hour after birth and to follow its mother after 5-7 hours (precocial follower-type young). Calves are born with the ability to regulate body temperature. During the first days they nurse every 18 minutes. The milk is rich in fats and proteins. After one week the calf begins to eat lichens, at two weeks it doublesits weight, and at 4-5 months of age it is weaned. Bulls reach their full body weight at six years of age while cows attain adult size at four years. Senescence occurs at about 11-12 years of age. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-18 years. The maximum longevity in captivity is 22 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators. Juvenile mortality is high: Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), ravens, and eagles may prey on calves.Activity patterns.Cycles of activity of 4-5 hours, more active in summer than in winter. They are not crepuscular. In the summer, insects (oestrid flies, mosquitoes) may severely affect activity patterns and also impact body weight and reproduction.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is the most cursorial deer, able to run up to 80 km/h in open country and swim up to 11 km/h. In woodland habitats it tends to be sedentary, but sometimes makes small to medium-scaled movements, up to 50-100 km. In tundra it is typically migratory; in Taymyr migrations are 1000-2000 km long, in Yakutia 600-700 km. Animals cover 20-50 km per day. It is a highly gregarious species, particularly in open habitats. The basic social unit is the family group with females and calves. Males form small bands. Groups may coalesce in larger aggregations. Migratory Caribou can form impressive moving herds of 50,000-500,000. During migrations, 100,000 Caribou may move through an area of 30 km?®.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and stable. East GreenlandCaribou and Caribou of the Queen Charlotte Islands (once considered subspecies and known respectively as neogroenlandicus and dawsoni) were exterminated in the first decades of 20"" century. In Northern Europe wild Reindeer numbered 26,000 in2005. Feral Reindeer introduced to Icelandnumber about 1000 animals. In 1999 the population size in the Russian Federationwas estimated at 1-1 million individuals. In Mongolia there are fewer than 1000; in Chinathere are a few hundred, probably of domestic origin. In the early 1980s the total population in North America was 2-3-2-8 million animals. The number grew to four million in nearly 200 herds in 2000. Annual harvest in late 1990s was around 120,000 individuals. In a recent survey of 58 major herds around the world, 34 were reported as declining, eight as increasing, and 16 had no trend data. The simultaneous decrease of many herds is coincident with and could be a result of global warming and human-induced landscape changes. In North America, the Caribou is threatened by onshore petroleum explorations. Poaching is important in the Russian Federation. Hybridization with semi-domestic Reindeeris another threat. Natural densities are very low, 0-5 ind/ km?, but during migrations animals can reach 19,000 ind/km?®. Reindeer were domesticated about 3000 years ago in Fennoscandia and Russia.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Blake et al. (1998), Crete & Daigle (1999), Cronin et al. (2005), Geist (1998), Lincoln & Tyler (1994), Loe et al. (2007), Miller (2003), Reimers et al. (2005), Roed (2005), Roed et al. (2008), Schaefer & Mahoney (2001), Vors & Boyce (2009), Williams & Heard(1986)." 03A087C4FFE1FFE0FAA6FDAEEE1BF886,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,443,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE1FFE0FAA6FDAEEE1BF886.xml,Mazama chunyi,Mazama,chunyi,Hershkovitz,1959,Mazame pygmée @fr | Sudlicher Zwergmazama @de | Corzuelaenana @es | Peruvian Dwarf Brocket @en | Andean Brocket @en,"Mazama chunyi Hershkovitz, 1959, Cocapunco, Cordillera Real (Bolivia).It has been confused for decades with the sympatric Pudu mephistophiles. Its scientific name, chunyi, is from “chuni,” the Bolivian name for this species. Monotypic.",Andes of S Peruand N Bolivia.,"Few measurements available. Head-body 70-75 cm, shoulder height 38 cm; weight 11 kg. Small-sized brocket, with a dark coat, round ears, and a visible tail. The general color of the coat is brown, with reddish mid-back and flanks, blackish neck, head, and legs; the throat, chest, and belly are orange. White markings on ear margins and on the tip of the muzzle.","It occurs in montane forests and summit grasslands and scrublands, from 1000 mto 3500-4000 m above sea level.","Itis frugivorous and folivorous, foraging for leaves and fruits in the lowerlayers of the forest.","Fairly little is known about the biology ofthis shy and seldom seen deer. Although almost nothing is known about reproduction in the Common Dwarf Brocket, it is likely to be similar to that of other brocket species. Brockets usually reproduce year-round, giving birth to a single calf after a fairly long gestation of 218-228 days. Young brocket deer mature rapidly, and females can breed before they are one year old in many species.","It is believed to be a solitary species thatis active during the day and night, but is mostly crepuscular.",It is very secretive and is basically solitary.,Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Forest cutting and burning and small scale agriculture and cattle ranching are the primary threats.,"Rumiz & Pardo (2008, 2010) | Rumiz et al. (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514567/files/figure.png,"53.Common Dwarf BrocketMazama chunyiFrench:Mazame pygmée/ German:Sudlicher Zwergmazama/ Spanish:CorzuelaenanaOther common names:Peruvian Dwarf Brocket, Andean BrocketTaxonomy.Mazama chunyi Hershkovitz, 1959, Cocapunco, Cordillera Real (Bolivia).It has been confused for decades with the sympatric Pudu mephistophiles. Its scientific name, chunyi, is from “chuni,” the Bolivian name for this species. Monotypic.Distribution.Andes of S Peruand N Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Few measurements available. Head-body 70-75 cm, shoulder height 38 cm; weight 11 kg. Small-sized brocket, with a dark coat, round ears, and a visible tail. The general color of the coat is brown, with reddish mid-back and flanks, blackish neck, head, and legs; the throat, chest, and belly are orange. White markings on ear margins and on the tip of the muzzle.Habitat.It occurs in montane forests and summit grasslands and scrublands, from 1000 mto 3500-4000 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.Itis frugivorous and folivorous, foraging for leaves and fruits in the lowerlayers of the forest.Breeding.Fairly little is known about the biology ofthis shy and seldom seen deer. Although almost nothing is known about reproduction in the Common Dwarf Brocket, it is likely to be similar to that of other brocket species. Brockets usually reproduce year-round, giving birth to a single calf after a fairly long gestation of 218-228 days. Young brocket deer mature rapidly, and females can breed before they are one year old in many species.Activity patterns.It is believed to be a solitary species thatis active during the day and night, but is mostly crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very secretive and is basically solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Forest cutting and burning and small scale agriculture and cattle ranching are the primary threats.Bibliography.Rumiz & Pardo (2008, 2010), Rumiz et al. (2007)." 03A087C4FFE1FFE0FFBDFC35EF4FFE29,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,443,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE1FFE0FFBDFC35EF4FFE29.xml,Mazama bricenii,Mazama,bricenii,Thomas,1908,Mazame du Merida @fr | Nordlicher Zwergmazama @de | Corzuelade Mérida @es | Meroia Brocket @en,"Mazama briceni Thomas, 1908, Paramo de La Culata, Mérida(Venezuela).This species and M. chuny: have been considered subspecies of M. rufina. Collected for the first time by S. Briceno in 1907. Monotypic.",NE Colombiaand W Venezuela.,"Head-body 80-95 cm, tail 8-9 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 8-13 kg. Small-sized brocket with a long-haired coat. The coatis basically reddish, with dark head and legs, orange throat. Antler spikes are short, up to 6 cmin length. Deep cavity in the lacrimal bone.Habitat.It occurs in tropical montane cloud forests and alpine grasslands from 800 mto 3500 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, but presumably this speciesis a browser on understory leaves, shoots, and fruits, like other brockets.Breeding.Puberty is attained at twelve months of age. Births have mainly been observed in December. After a pregnancy of about 210 days, females give birth to a single fawn. Weaning occurs at six months of age.Activity patterns.No studies to date, butlikely to be active both day and night, based on its closest relatives.Movements. Home range and Social organization. Very shy and mostly solitary, but no data available.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.",It occurs in tropical montane cloud forests and alpine grasslands from 800 mto 3500 mabove sea level.,"Nothing is known, but presumably this speciesis a browser on understory leaves, shoots, and fruits, like other brockets.","Puberty is attained at twelve months of age. Births have mainly been observed in December. After a pregnancy of about 210 days, females give birth to a single fawn. Weaning occurs at six months of age.","No studies to date, butlikely to be active both day and night, based on its closest relatives.",,Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and poaching continue to be the main threats.,Czernay (1987) | Lizcano & Alvarez (2008a) | Linares (1998) | Lizcano et al. (2010),https://zenodo.org/record/6514563/files/figure.png,"52.MeridaBrocketMazama briceniiFrench:Mazame du Merida/ German:Nordlicher Zwergmazama/ Spanish:Corzuelade MéridaOther common names:Meroia BrocketTaxonomy.Mazama briceni Thomas, 1908, Paramo de La Culata, Mérida(Venezuela).This species and M. chuny: have been considered subspecies of M. rufina. Collected for the first time by S. Briceno in 1907. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Colombiaand W Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 80-95 cm, tail 8-9 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 8-13 kg. Small-sized brocket with a long-haired coat. The coatis basically reddish, with dark head and legs, orange throat. Antler spikes are short, up to 6 cmin length. Deep cavity in the lacrimal bone.Habitat.It occurs in tropical montane cloud forests and alpine grasslands from 800 mto 3500 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, but presumably this speciesis a browser on understory leaves, shoots, and fruits, like other brockets.Breeding.Puberty is attained at twelve months of age. Births have mainly been observed in December. After a pregnancy of about 210 days, females give birth to a single fawn. Weaning occurs at six months of age.Activity patterns.No studies to date, butlikely to be active both day and night, based on its closest relatives.Movements. Home range and Social organization. Very shy and mostly solitary, but no data available.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and poaching continue to be the main threats.Bibliography.Czernay (1987), Lizcano & Alvarez (2008a), Linares (1998), Lizcano et al. (2010)." 03A087C4FFE6FFE0FA7DF7D0E6F6FCCE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,442,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE0FA7DF7D0E6F6FCCE.xml,Mazama rufina,Mazama,rufina,,,Mazame de @fr | 'Equateu @en | Roter Kleinmazama @de | Corzuelaroja pequena @es | Ecuador Red Brocket @en,"Cervus rufinus Pucheran, 1851, Lloa Valley, Pichincha(Ecuador).This species is monotypic.",Andes from C Colombiato Ecuadorand NW Peru.,"Head—body 85-90 cm, tail 8 cm, shoulder height 45 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Small-sized brocket. The coat is reddish with black head and legs. The lacrimal fossa is deep. Antlers are up to 8 cmlong.","It prefers tropical montane cloud forests from 1400 mabove sea level to alpine grasslands (paramos) up to 3600 m. The main habitat of the Little Red Brocket is paramo and tropical montane cloud forests above 1500 m. These paramos are highaltitude grasslands dominated by Calamagrostis spp. and gigantic Andean rosette plants of the genus Espeletia, among others. The tropical montane cloud forestis a type of vegetation that has special climatic conditions allowing clouds and mist to be regularly in contact with the forest. These forests support an ecosystem of distinctive vegetation with lower canopy and thicker understory than lowland forests.","The Little Red Brocket feeds mainly on forbs, but it may also eat leaves, buds, and fruits. It is expected to be a browser/frugivore in the forest understorey, but they are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. They are frequent visitors to salt licks. In the Central Andes of Colombiathe diet is composed of 40 species of plants, most of which are herbs, and they prefer Solanum spp. and Begonia umbellata, among others. Oxalis sp. has been identified among other plant species eaten by this species.",Females attain puberty at about one year of age. After a gestation of 200-220 days they give birth to a single fawn. The main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor and dogs.,"Although it is often nocturnal, it seems to be active by day as well as at night, but details of its ecology are unknown.","They are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. It seems to be a territorial species with a small home range. Animals defecate in latrines to scent-mark. It is basically solitary, with most individuals observed alone or in pairs. Its density is low ranging from 0-06 ind/km? in mature forest to 0-3 ind/km?* in paramo-montane forest ecotone. They rely on small size and knowledge of the habitat in which they live to escape predators, diving into thick vegetation when threatened. Occasionally they freeze before escaping.",Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and habitat loss and conversion to agriculture and cattle ranching are the main threats.,Bello et al. (2008) | Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Lizcaino & Alvarez (2008b),https://zenodo.org/record/6514561/files/figure.png,"51.Little Red BrocketMazama rufinaFrench:Mazame de I'Equateu/ German:Roter Kleinmazama/ Spanish:Corzuelaroja pequenaOther common names:EcuadorRed BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus rufinus Pucheran, 1851, Lloa Valley, Pichincha(Ecuador).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Andes from C Colombiato Ecuadorand NW Peru.Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-90 cm, tail 8 cm, shoulder height 45 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Small-sized brocket. The coat is reddish with black head and legs. The lacrimal fossa is deep. Antlers are up to 8 cmlong.Habitat.It prefers tropical montane cloud forests from 1400 mabove sea level to alpine grasslands (paramos) up to 3600 m. The main habitat of the Little Red Brocket is paramo and tropical montane cloud forests above 1500 m. These paramos are highaltitude grasslands dominated by Calamagrostis spp. and gigantic Andean rosette plants of the genus Espeletia, among others. The tropical montane cloud forestis a type of vegetation that has special climatic conditions allowing clouds and mist to be regularly in contact with the forest. These forests support an ecosystem of distinctive vegetation with lower canopy and thicker understory than lowland forests.Food and Feeding.The Little Red Brocket feeds mainly on forbs, but it may also eat leaves, buds, and fruits. It is expected to be a browser/frugivore in the forest understorey, but they are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. They are frequent visitors to salt licks. In the Central Andes of Colombiathe diet is composed of 40 species of plants, most of which are herbs, and they prefer Solanum spp. and Begonia umbellata, among others. Oxalis sp. has been identified among other plant species eaten by this species.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about one year of age. After a gestation of 200-220 days they give birth to a single fawn. The main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor and dogs.Activity patterns.Although it is often nocturnal, it seems to be active by day as well as at night, but details of its ecology are unknown.Movements, Home range and Social organization.They are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. It seems to be a territorial species with a small home range. Animals defecate in latrines to scent-mark. It is basically solitary, with most individuals observed alone or in pairs. Its density is low ranging from 0-06 ind/km? in mature forest to 0-3 ind/km?* in paramo-montane forest ecotone. They rely on small size and knowledge of the habitat in which they live to escape predators, diving into thick vegetation when threatened. Occasionally they freeze before escaping.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and habitat loss and conversion to agriculture and cattle ranching are the main threats.Bibliography.Bello et al. (2008), Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Lizcaino & Alvarez (2008b)." 03A087C4FFE6FFE7FA73FD52EF18F7E6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,442,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FA73FD52EF18F7E6.xml,Mazama nanus,Mazama,nanus,Rafinesque,1817,Mazame nain @fr | Kleinmazama @de | Corzuelamenor @es | Brazilian Dwarf Brocket @en | Dwarf Red Brocket @en | Pigmy Brocket @en,"Cervus nanus Hensel, 1872, Rio Grande do Sul(Brazil).Originally it was included in M. rufina. It is closely related to M. bororo. Although the name appears frequently as M. nana, the original nanus is a noun and must remain unchanged. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, SE Paraguay, and N Argentina.","Head-body 70 cm, tail estimated 9-12 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small-sized brocket with small ears; forelegs shorter than hindlegs. The coat is reddish-chestnut. There is evidence of an annual cycle of antler growth and casting in the captive animals in Argentina. In Brazilthis cycle apparently does not exist. The diploid number of chromosomesis 36.",It is associated with mixed wet forests and southern pine (Awracaria) woodlands. It mainly lives in mountainous regions covered with dense vegetation. The habitat in eastern Paraguayis moist forest with an understory of bamboo thickets.,"Nothing is known, but surely a browser on fruits, leaves, and shoots of various plants, like other species of Mazama.",Birth have been observed between September and February. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-3 kg.,Their behavior is almost unknown but they appear to be active both by day and at night.,"Basically solitary, but no field studies available.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is considered the most threatened deer of Brazil. It is probably declining, due to habitat loss (timber exploitation, expansion of agriculture) and range fragmentation.","Abril & Duarte (2008) | Abril, Vogliotti et al. (2010) | Czernay (1987)",https://zenodo.org/record/6514559/files/figure.png,"50.Lesser BrocketMazama nanusFrench:Mazame nain/ German:Kleinmazama/ Spanish:CorzuelamenorOther common names:Brazilian Dwarf Brocket, Dwarf Red Brocket, Pigmy BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus nanus Hensel, 1872, Rio Grande do Sul(Brazil).Originally it was included in M. rufina. It is closely related to M. bororo. Although the name appears frequently as M. nana, the original nanus is a noun and must remain unchanged. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, SE Paraguay, and N Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70 cm, tail estimated 9-12 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small-sized brocket with small ears; forelegs shorter than hindlegs. The coat is reddish-chestnut. There is evidence of an annual cycle of antler growth and casting in the captive animals in Argentina. In Brazilthis cycle apparently does not exist. The diploid number of chromosomesis 36.Habitat.It is associated with mixed wet forests and southern pine (Awracaria) woodlands. It mainly lives in mountainous regions covered with dense vegetation. The habitat in eastern Paraguayis moist forest with an understory of bamboo thickets.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, but surely a browser on fruits, leaves, and shoots of various plants, like other species of Mazama.Breeding.Birth have been observed between September and February. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-3 kg.Activity patterns.Their behavior is almost unknown but they appear to be active both by day and at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Basically solitary, but no field studies available.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is considered the most threatened deer of Brazil. It is probably declining, due to habitat loss (timber exploitation, expansion of agriculture) and range fragmentation.Bibliography.Abril & Duarte (2008), Abril, Vogliotti et al. (2010), Czernay (1987)." -03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,442,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592.xml,Mazama temama,Mazama,temama,,,Mazame de Hernandez @fr | Mexico-Gro Rmazama @de | Corzuelatemama @es | Central American Red Brocket @en,"Cervus temama Kerr, 1792, Mirador, Veracruz(Mexico).For decades this species was considered part of M. americana. The scientific name refers to an animal the explorer and naturalist F. Hernandez called “temamacame” in 1651. Three subspecies are recognized.","M.t.temamaKerr,1792—SMexico.M.t.cerasinaHollister,1914—PanamaandNWColombia.M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913— from Guatemalaand Belizeto Costa Rica.","Head—body 80-110 cm, tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight 12-32 kg. The back is reddish, the head and throat are brown or reddish, the underparts are white. The forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs.","It is more common in well-preserved forests, especially humid ones. It can be found up to 2800 mabove sea level. It is a species that seems to prefer primary tropical rainforest areas but has been recorded in areas of secondary vegetation as well.","Although it is mainly frugivorous, the diet includes fallen fruits and seeds, grasses, shoots, vines, and crops such as beans where available.","Mating occurs throughout the year. After a gestation of 225 days females give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 4 kg; occasionally twins are born. The young remain with the mother through the first year. Females can breed at about one year, but the age of sexual maturity of males is unknown. One captive lived almost 14 years.","Reported by different authorities as being diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular. Seldom seen and little known because of extreme shyness and wariness. Often remains motionless when danger is sensed. Lacks endurance compared to other deer, and can be run down and killed by an ordinary dog. Excellent swimmer, easily crossing large rivers.","Relatively sedentary, with a small home range, and adult males are territorial. The Mexican Red Brocket is basically solitary or a female may travel with her young. Males and females come together only briefly to mate.",Race cerasina CITES Appendix III. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List since its taxonomic status is unclear and the information on distribution and abundance are scant. Hunting and habitat loss and degradation are the main threats.,Bello et al. (2008) | Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010),,"48.Mexican Red BrocketMazama temamaFrench:Mazame de Hernandez/ German:Mexico-GroRmazama/ Spanish:CorzuelatemamaOther common names:Central American Red BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus temama Kerr, 1792, Mirador, Veracruz(Mexico).For decades this species was considered part of M. americana. The scientific name refers to an animal the explorer and naturalist F. Hernandez called “temamacame” in 1651. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.t.temamaKerr,1792—SMexico.M.t.cerasinaHollister,1914—PanamaandNWColombia.M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913— from Guatemalaand Belizeto Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80-110 cm, tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight 12-32 kg. The back is reddish, the head and throat are brown or reddish, the underparts are white. The forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs.Habitat.It is more common in well-preserved forests, especially humid ones. It can be found up to 2800 mabove sea level. It is a species that seems to prefer primary tropical rainforest areas but has been recorded in areas of secondary vegetation as well.Food and Feeding.Although it is mainly frugivorous, the diet includes fallen fruits and seeds, grasses, shoots, vines, and crops such as beans where available.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year. After a gestation of 225 days females give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 4 kg; occasionally twins are born. The young remain with the mother through the first year. Females can breed at about one year, but the age of sexual maturity of males is unknown. One captive lived almost 14 years.Activity patterns.Reported by different authorities as being diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular. Seldom seen and little known because of extreme shyness and wariness. Often remains motionless when danger is sensed. Lacks endurance compared to other deer, and can be run down and killed by an ordinary dog. Excellent swimmer, easily crossing large rivers.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Relatively sedentary, with a small home range, and adult males are territorial. The Mexican Red Brocket is basically solitary or a female may travel with her young. Males and females come together only briefly to mate.Status and Conservation.Race cerasina CITES Appendix III. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List since its taxonomic status is unclear and the information on distribution and abundance are scant. Hunting and habitat loss and degradation are the main threats.Bibliography.Bello et al. (2008), Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010)." +03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,442,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592.xml,Mazama temama,Mazama,temama,,,Mazame de Hernandez @fr | Mexico-Gro Rmazama @de | Corzuelatemama @es | Central American Red Brocket @en,"Cervus temama Kerr, 1792, Mirador, Veracruz(Mexico).For decades this species was considered part of M. americana. The scientific name refers to an animal the explorer and naturalist F. Hernandez called “temamacame” in 1651. Three subspecies are recognized.","M.t.temamaKerr,1792—SMexico.M.t.cerasinaHollister,1914—PanamaandNWColombia.M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913— from Guatemalaand Belizeto Costa Rica.","Head—body 80-110 cm, tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight 12-32 kg. The back is reddish, the head and throat are brown or reddish, the underparts are white. The forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs.","It is more common in well-preserved forests, especially humid ones. It can be found up to 2800 mabove sea level. It is a species that seems to prefer primary tropical rainforest areas but has been recorded in areas of secondary vegetation as well.","Although it is mainly frugivorous, the diet includes fallen fruits and seeds, grasses, shoots, vines, and crops such as beans where available.","Mating occurs throughout the year. After a gestation of 225 days females give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 4 kg; occasionally twins are born. The young remain with the mother through the first year. Females can breed at about one year, but the age of sexual maturity of males is unknown. One captive lived almost 14 years.","Reported by different authorities as being diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular. Seldom seen and little known because of extreme shyness and wariness. Often remains motionless when danger is sensed. Lacks endurance compared to other deer, and can be run down and killed by an ordinary dog. Excellent swimmer, easily crossing large rivers.","Relatively sedentary, with a small home range, and adult males are territorial. The Mexican Red Brocket is basically solitary or a female may travel with her young. Males and females come together only briefly to mate.",Race cerasina CITES Appendix III. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List since its taxonomic status is unclear and the information on distribution and abundance are scant. Hunting and habitat loss and degradation are the main threats.,Bello et al. (2008) | Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010),https://zenodo.org/record/6514553/files/figure.png,"48.Mexican Red BrocketMazama temamaFrench:Mazame de Hernandez/ German:Mexico-GroRmazama/ Spanish:CorzuelatemamaOther common names:Central American Red BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus temama Kerr, 1792, Mirador, Veracruz(Mexico).For decades this species was considered part of M. americana. The scientific name refers to an animal the explorer and naturalist F. Hernandez called “temamacame” in 1651. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.t.temamaKerr,1792—SMexico.M.t.cerasinaHollister,1914—PanamaandNWColombia.M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913— from Guatemalaand Belizeto Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80-110 cm, tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight 12-32 kg. The back is reddish, the head and throat are brown or reddish, the underparts are white. The forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs.Habitat.It is more common in well-preserved forests, especially humid ones. It can be found up to 2800 mabove sea level. It is a species that seems to prefer primary tropical rainforest areas but has been recorded in areas of secondary vegetation as well.Food and Feeding.Although it is mainly frugivorous, the diet includes fallen fruits and seeds, grasses, shoots, vines, and crops such as beans where available.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year. After a gestation of 225 days females give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 4 kg; occasionally twins are born. The young remain with the mother through the first year. Females can breed at about one year, but the age of sexual maturity of males is unknown. One captive lived almost 14 years.Activity patterns.Reported by different authorities as being diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular. Seldom seen and little known because of extreme shyness and wariness. Often remains motionless when danger is sensed. Lacks endurance compared to other deer, and can be run down and killed by an ordinary dog. Excellent swimmer, easily crossing large rivers.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Relatively sedentary, with a small home range, and adult males are territorial. The Mexican Red Brocket is basically solitary or a female may travel with her young. Males and females come together only briefly to mate.Status and Conservation.Race cerasina CITES Appendix III. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List since its taxonomic status is unclear and the information on distribution and abundance are scant. Hunting and habitat loss and degradation are the main threats.Bibliography.Bello et al. (2008), Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010)." 03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF75F500EF6CFD61,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,442,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF75F500EF6CFD61.xml,Mazama bororo,Mazama,bororo,Duarte,1996,Mazame de Sao Paulo @fr | Kiistenwald-Mazama @de | Corzuelabororo @es,"Mazama bororo Duarte, 1996, Capao Bonito, Sao Paulo(Brazil).This species is monotypic.","E Brazil(SE Sao Paulo State& NE Parana State), the smallest distribution of any Neotropical deer species.","Head-body 85 cm, tail estimated 11-14 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 25 kg. It is a mediumsized brocket. The coat is mainly reddish, with a grayish neck. The base of the ear, the chin, the throat, and the belly are whitish. The hindlegs are blackish from the calcaneus to the hoof. The diploid number of chromosomes is 32.Habitat.It lives in the remaining fragments of the Serra do Mar coastal Atlantic forest, from the coast up to 1200 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It feeds mainly on fruits, leaves, and sprouts.Breeding.Mating may occur throughout the year. Most births occur between August and September, at the end of winter.Activity patterns.It is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Females seem to have home ranges of 10-50 ha. It is a solitary deer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","It lives in the remaining fragments of the Serra do Mar coastal Atlantic forest, from the coast up to 1200 mabove sea level.","It feeds mainly on fruits, leaves, and sprouts.","Mating may occur throughout the year. Most births occur between August and September, at the end of winter.",It is crepuscular and nocturnal.,Females seem to have home ranges of 10-50 ha. It is a solitary deer.,Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat fragmentation and destruction are the main threats. The total population has been assessed at about 4500 individuals.,Duarte & Jorge (2003) | Duarte et al. (2008) | Vogliotti & Duarte (2010),https://zenodo.org/record/6514557/files/figure.png,"49.Small Red BrocketMazama bororoFrench:Mazame de Sao Paulo/ German:Kiistenwald-Mazama/ Spanish:CorzuelabororoTaxonomy.Mazama bororo Duarte, 1996, Capao Bonito, Sao Paulo(Brazil).This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil(SE Sao Paulo State& NE Parana State), the smallest distribution of any Neotropical deer species.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85 cm, tail estimated 11-14 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 25 kg. It is a mediumsized brocket. The coat is mainly reddish, with a grayish neck. The base of the ear, the chin, the throat, and the belly are whitish. The hindlegs are blackish from the calcaneus to the hoof. The diploid number of chromosomes is 32.Habitat.It lives in the remaining fragments of the Serra do Mar coastal Atlantic forest, from the coast up to 1200 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It feeds mainly on fruits, leaves, and sprouts.Breeding.Mating may occur throughout the year. Most births occur between August and September, at the end of winter.Activity patterns.It is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Females seem to have home ranges of 10-50 ha. It is a solitary deer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat fragmentation and destruction are the main threats. The total population has been assessed at about 4500 individuals.Bibliography.Duarte & Jorge (2003), Duarte et al. (2008), Vogliotti & Duarte (2010)." 03A087C4FFE7FFE6FAB6FD0DEF95F747,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,441,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE7FFE6FAB6FD0DEF95F747.xml,Mazama nemorivaga,Mazama,nemorivaga,Rafinesque,1817,Cariacou de Cayenne @fr | Amazonien-Mazama @de | Corzuelaamazénica @es | Amazonian Gray Brocket @en,"Cervus nemorivagus F. Cuvier, 1817, Cayenne (French Guiana).Long considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubira, it is now considered a distinct species. Monotypic.","From N & E Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas to E Ecuador, E Peru, Amazonian Brazil, and N Bolivia; an isolated population in San José I (Panama).","Head—body 75-100 cm, tail 6-11 cm, shoulder height 50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small to medium-sized brocket, with relatively small rounded ears. Large eyes and orbital cavities. The coat is dark brown dorsally, including the rump and tail. The flanks are faded brown. Antlers are 3-11 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 66-70.","It inhabits the tropical broadleaf moist forests of Amazonia, avoiding the flooded forests. Up to 1500 min Peru. Most localities for Amazonian Brown Brockets are from tropical and subtropical broadleaf moist forests of the Amazon Basin. In addition, there are a few records from the desert and xeric scrubland biomes. They occur in non-flooded forests and are rare or absent in seasonally flooded forests.","It is mainly a fruit-eater, but also feeds on a variety of leaves and shoots.","Mating occurs year-round. In Perubirths have two peaks, January-April and July-October. In Venezuelabirths are mainly in July-August and November. There is a postpartum estrus. No twinning was observed and half of the females were pregnant at any given time. Most pregnant females were adults between one and two years old.","It is active throughout the day, although perhaps more nocturnal than some other species of Mazama.","It is a solitary species. They are found foraging alone or in mated pairs within their own small territory, the boundaries of which are usually marked with urine or feces, or secretions from the eye glands.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List forits relatively large distribution range. Hunting pressure and habitat destruction for cattle ranching and agriculture are major threats.,Branan et al. (1985) | Gayot et al. (2004) | Rossi & Duarte (2008) | Rossi et al. (2010),https://zenodo.org/record/6514547/files/figure.png,"46.Amazonian Brown BrocketMazama nemorivagaFrench:Cariacou de Cayenne/ German:Amazonien-Mazama/ Spanish:CorzuelaamazénicaOther common names:Amazonian Gray BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus nemorivagus F. Cuvier, 1817, Cayenne (French Guiana).Long considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubira, it is now considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.From N & E Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas to E Ecuador, E Peru, Amazonian Brazil, and N Bolivia; an isolated population in San José I (Panama).Descriptive notes.Head—body 75-100 cm, tail 6-11 cm, shoulder height 50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small to medium-sized brocket, with relatively small rounded ears. Large eyes and orbital cavities. The coat is dark brown dorsally, including the rump and tail. The flanks are faded brown. Antlers are 3-11 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 66-70.Habitat.It inhabits the tropical broadleaf moist forests of Amazonia, avoiding the flooded forests. Up to 1500 min Peru. Most localities for Amazonian Brown Brockets are from tropical and subtropical broadleaf moist forests of the Amazon Basin. In addition, there are a few records from the desert and xeric scrubland biomes. They occur in non-flooded forests and are rare or absent in seasonally flooded forests.Food and Feeding.It is mainly a fruit-eater, but also feeds on a variety of leaves and shoots.Breeding.Mating occurs year-round. In Perubirths have two peaks, January-April and July-October. In Venezuelabirths are mainly in July-August and November. There is a postpartum estrus. No twinning was observed and half of the females were pregnant at any given time. Most pregnant females were adults between one and two years old.Activity patterns.It is active throughout the day, although perhaps more nocturnal than some other species of Mazama.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a solitary species. They are found foraging alone or in mated pairs within their own small territory, the boundaries of which are usually marked with urine or feces, or secretions from the eye glands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List forits relatively large distribution range. Hunting pressure and habitat destruction for cattle ranching and agriculture are major threats.Bibliography.Branan et al. (1985), Gayot et al. (2004), Rossi & Duarte (2008), Rossi et al. (2010)." 03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF43F69BEF32FD88,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9,441,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF43F69BEF32FD88.xml,Mazama pandora,Mazama,pandora,Merriam,1901,Cariacou du Yucatan @fr | Yucatan-Mazama @de | Corzuelade Yucatan @es,"Mazama pandora Merriam, 1901, Tunkas, Yucatan(Mexico).It has been considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubiraand of M. americana. Monotypic.",YucatanPeninsula (Mexico); possibly also in N Guatemalaand N Belize.,"Few measuremets available. Shoulder height 70 cm; weight 17-21 kg. Medium-sized brocket, slightly larger than the sympatric Mexican Red Brocket (M. temama). The main color of the coatis gray-brown, with pale brown to whitish underparts. A tuft of stiff hairs grows on the forehead. Relatively long antlers, longitudinally furrowed; antler tips may curve inward.","It is a generalist, able to live in wet and dry forests as well as shrublands, with a preference for tall and medium semi-evergreen forests. It also occurs in mangrove forests, above high tide level. In populated areas,it will sometimes enter into agricultural plantations to feed.","It is mainly frugivorous, but feeds on a wide range of plants. The diet is richer in species during the wet season.",It seems to breed during most of the year.,"Nothing is known of the daily activity patterns, but almost surely crepuscular. In addition, it may be active at other times of the day and night, depending on hunting pressure.",It lives in small home ranges and is basically solitary.,Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It is globally declining. Overhunting and habitat loss are the main threats.,Medellin et al. (1998) | Weber & Medellin (2010) | Weber et al. (2008),https://zenodo.org/record/6514545/files/figure.png,"45.YucatanBrown BrocketMazama pandoraFrench:Cariacou du Yucatan/ German:Yucatan-Mazama/ Spanish:Corzuelade YucatanTaxonomy.Mazama pandora Merriam, 1901, Tunkas, Yucatan(Mexico).It has been considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubiraand of M. americana. Monotypic.Distribution.YucatanPeninsula (Mexico); possibly also in N Guatemalaand N Belize.Descriptive notes.Few measuremets available. Shoulder height 70 cm; weight 17-21 kg. Medium-sized brocket, slightly larger than the sympatric Mexican Red Brocket (M. temama). The main color of the coatis gray-brown, with pale brown to whitish underparts. A tuft of stiff hairs grows on the forehead. Relatively long antlers, longitudinally furrowed; antler tips may curve inward.Habitat.It is a generalist, able to live in wet and dry forests as well as shrublands, with a preference for tall and medium semi-evergreen forests. It also occurs in mangrove forests, above high tide level. In populated areas,it will sometimes enter into agricultural plantations to feed.Food and Feeding.It is mainly frugivorous, but feeds on a wide range of plants. The diet is richer in species during the wet season.Breeding.It seems to breed during most of the year.Activity patterns.Nothing is known of the daily activity patterns, but almost surely crepuscular. In addition, it may be active at other times of the day and night, depending on hunting pressure.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It lives in small home ranges and is basically solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It is globally declining. Overhunting and habitat loss are the main threats.Bibliography.Medellin et al. (1998), Weber & Medellin (2010), Weber et al. (2008)." @@ -459,11 +459,11 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03A637439150FFECE4EACCF02EB6ACD0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,441,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439150FFECE4EACCF02EB6ACD0.xml,Pteronotus pusillus,Pteronotus,pusillus,,,Ptéronote d'Hispaniola @fr | Hispaniola-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Hispaniola @es | Hispaniolan Mustached Bat @en,"Chilonycteris parnelliipusillus [sic] G. M. Allen, 1917, “Arroyo Salado, Santo Domingo,” Dominican Republic.Pteronotuspusillus was formerly classified as a subspecies of P. parnellir, but here it is considered a distinct species. Fossil subspecies gonavensis, described by K. F. Koopman in 1995 from an owl pellet deposit found in a cave near En Café, Gonave Island, off western Hispaniola,is considered a temporal variation of the population currently inhabiting Hispaniola (i.e. P. pusillus). Monotypic.",Haitiand Dominican Republic.,"Head—body ¢. 53 mm, tail 20 mm, ear 18 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 49-7-52-9 mm. The Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat is the smallest species of common mustached bat. It is easily distinguished from Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat (P. parnelliz) and the Puerto Rican Common Mustached Bat (P. portoricensis) based on smaller external and cranial sizes. Pelage is darker dorsally than ventrally; hairs on back have paler central zone similar to Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat. Skull of the Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat has delicate rostrum and comparatively robust, globular braincase. Condylo-basal lengths are 17-17-8 mm. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Phyllodia are listed in descriptive notes for Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat.",Dense vegetation in dry thorn scrub and forests or along streams.,"The Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat feeds on insects, but there is no specific information available on prey items in its diet.",No reproductive activity was observed in Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bats collected in May and August in three distinct localities in Haiti.,Echolocation calls of the Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat consist of long CF-FM pulses with most energy at ¢.67-5 kHz.,"Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bats roost in caves with other mormoopids and phyllostomids. There are seasonal changes in colony sizes, probably related to reproductive activity.","Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat is included under Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat, which is classified as Least Concern. It is not particularly abundant compared with other species of mormoopids on Hispaniola.",Davalos et al. (2019) | Klingener et al. (1978) | Koopman (1955) | Nunez-Novas et al. (2016) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Smith (1972),https://zenodo.org/record/6419830/files/figure.png,"11.Hispaniolan Common Mustached BatPteronotus pusillusFrench:Ptéronote d'Hispaniola/ German:Hispaniola-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de HispaniolaOther common names:Hispaniolan Mustached BatTaxonomy.Chilonycteris parnelliipusillus [sic] G. M. Allen, 1917, “Arroyo Salado, Santo Domingo,” Dominican Republic.Pteronotuspusillus was formerly classified as a subspecies of P. parnellir, but here it is considered a distinct species. Fossil subspecies gonavensis, described by K. F. Koopman in 1995 from an owl pellet deposit found in a cave near En Café, Gonave Island, off western Hispaniola,is considered a temporal variation of the population currently inhabiting Hispaniola (i.e. P. pusillus). Monotypic.Distribution.Haitiand Dominican Republic.Descriptive notes.Head—body ¢. 53 mm, tail 20 mm, ear 18 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 49-7-52-9 mm. The Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat is the smallest species of common mustached bat. It is easily distinguished from Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat (P. parnelliz) and the Puerto Rican Common Mustached Bat (P. portoricensis) based on smaller external and cranial sizes. Pelage is darker dorsally than ventrally; hairs on back have paler central zone similar to Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat. Skull of the Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat has delicate rostrum and comparatively robust, globular braincase. Condylo-basal lengths are 17-17-8 mm. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Phyllodia are listed in descriptive notes for Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat.Habitat.Dense vegetation in dry thorn scrub and forests or along streams.Food and Feeding.The Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat feeds on insects, but there is no specific information available on prey items in its diet.Breeding.No reproductive activity was observed in Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bats collected in May and August in three distinct localities in Haiti.Activity patterns.Echolocation calls of the Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat consist of long CF-FM pulses with most energy at ¢.67-5 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bats roost in caves with other mormoopids and phyllostomids. There are seasonal changes in colony sizes, probably related to reproductive activity.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat is included under Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat, which is classified as Least Concern. It is not particularly abundant compared with other species of mormoopids on Hispaniola.Bibliography.Davalos et al. (2019), Klingener et al. (1978), Koopman (1955), Nunez-Novas et al. (2016), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Smith (1972)." 03A637439151FFEDE4D8C82A2DB3A9C0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,440,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439151FFEDE4D8C82A2DB3A9C0.xml,Pteronotus personatus,Pteronotus,personatus,,,Ptéronote masqué @fr | Kleine \WWagner Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Wagner @es | Lesser Mustached Bat @en,"Chilonycteris personata Wagner, 1843, “ Mato grosso[sic],” Brazil. Restricted byJ. A. Wagner in 1847 to “St. Vincente [= Sao Vicente] in der Provinz Mato grosso[sic],” Brazil.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized two subspecies of P. personatus: P. p. personatusand P. p. psilotis. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. personatusrepresents a species complex, supporting elevation of psilotisto a distinct species. Hence, P. personatussensu strictooccurs in South America; its distribution possibly extends northward to Costa Ricaat the border with Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of the Central American and Colombian populations has not been assessed. Fossil records of P. personatusare reported from Tobago Island. Monotypic.","From SW NicaraguaS through Costa Ricaand Panamato NE & C Brazil, E Peru, and NE Boliviaincluding lowlands of Colombiaand Venezuela, the Guianas, and TrinidadI.","Head-body c.45-55 mm, tail 16-21 mm, ear 12-19 mm, hindfoot 8:5—-12 mm, forearm 43-48 mm; weight 6-5-10 g. Wagner’s Lesser Mustached Batis easily distinguished from other mormoopids occurring in sympatry based on small size and hair-covered back. Dorsal pelage varies from dark brown to reddish brown and ocherous. Ventral pelage is paler than on back and head. Ears are pointed, connected by two low ridges that meet on top of muzzle and form prominent rostral tubercle. Labionasal plate is simple, with typically smooth margin above nostrils. Skull is relatively flat in profile, with ovoid braincase. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-5-15 mm. Rostral breadth is usually equal to length of maxillary tooth row. Infraorbital foramen is located directly above anterior one-half of second upper molar. Lower incisors are reduced, inner pair is distinctly trilobed, and outer pair is weakly trilobed. There is non-linear variation in cranial size throughout the distribution, with individuals from Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombiaaveraging larger than individuals from Venezuelaand Trinidad Island, and individuals from Brazilincreasing in size again.","Tropical dry forests, rainforests, and gallery forests. Wagner’s Lesser Mustached Bat also occurs in areas of humid subtropical forest in Peru. Its occurrence is probably restricted to sites that provide specific roosting requirements.","Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat feeds on insects, but there is no specific information available on prey itemsin its diet.",Two pregnant Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bats were reported in May from Venezuela.,"Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat is most commonly reported foraging over water bodies or in dense vegetation near streams. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses with c.5 milliseconds. Second harmonic is most intense, starting with initial CF component at ¢.80 kHz, followed by downward FM sweep, and ending in short CF component at ¢.65 kHz.","Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat has been reported roosting in hot caves in association with other mormoopids, particularly the Big Naked-backed Bat (P. gymnonotus).",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.,Arias-Aguilar et al. (2018) | Bernard et al. (2011) | Bowles et al. (1979) | Davalos (2006) | Eshelman & Morgan (1985) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Goodwin & Greenhall (1961) | Ibanez & Ochoa (1989) | Montes et al. (2012) | Ochoa & Ibanez (1985) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Rocha et al. (2011) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | de la Torre & Medellin (2010) | Wagner (1847),,"8.Wagner's Lesser Mustached BatPteronotus personatusFrench:Ptéronote masqué/ German:Kleine \WWagnerSchnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de WagnerOther common names:Lesser Mustached BatTaxonomy.Chilonycteris personata Wagner, 1843, “ Mato grosso[sic],” Brazil. Restricted byJ. A. Wagner in 1847 to “St. Vincente [= Sao Vicente] in der Provinz Mato grosso[sic],” Brazil.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized two subspecies of P. personatus: P. p. personatusand P. p. psilotis. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. personatusrepresents a species complex, supporting elevation of psilotisto a distinct species. Hence, P. personatussensu strictooccurs in South America; its distribution possibly extends northward to Costa Ricaat the border with Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of the Central American and Colombian populations has not been assessed. Fossil records of P. personatusare reported from Tobago Island. Monotypic.Distribution.From SW NicaraguaS through Costa Ricaand Panamato NE & C Brazil, E Peru, and NE Boliviaincluding lowlands of Colombiaand Venezuela, the Guianas, and TrinidadI.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.45-55 mm, tail 16-21 mm, ear 12-19 mm, hindfoot 8:5—-12 mm, forearm 43-48 mm; weight 6-5-10 g. Wagner’s Lesser Mustached Batis easily distinguished from other mormoopids occurring in sympatry based on small size and hair-covered back. Dorsal pelage varies from dark brown to reddish brown and ocherous. Ventral pelage is paler than on back and head. Ears are pointed, connected by two low ridges that meet on top of muzzle and form prominent rostral tubercle. Labionasal plate is simple, with typically smooth margin above nostrils. Skull is relatively flat in profile, with ovoid braincase. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-5-15 mm. Rostral breadth is usually equal to length of maxillary tooth row. Infraorbital foramen is located directly above anterior one-half of second upper molar. Lower incisors are reduced, inner pair is distinctly trilobed, and outer pair is weakly trilobed. There is non-linear variation in cranial size throughout the distribution, with individuals from Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombiaaveraging larger than individuals from Venezuelaand Trinidad Island, and individuals from Brazilincreasing in size again.Habitat.Tropical dry forests, rainforests, and gallery forests. Wagner’s Lesser Mustached Bat also occurs in areas of humid subtropical forest in Peru. Its occurrence is probably restricted to sites that provide specific roosting requirements.Food and Feeding.Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat feeds on insects, but there is no specific information available on prey itemsin its diet.Breeding.Two pregnant Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bats were reported in May from Venezuela.Activity patterns.Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat is most commonly reported foraging over water bodies or in dense vegetation near streams. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses with c.5 milliseconds. Second harmonic is most intense, starting with initial CF component at ¢.80 kHz, followed by downward FM sweep, and ending in short CF component at ¢.65 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat has been reported roosting in hot caves in association with other mormoopids, particularly the Big Naked-backed Bat (P. gymnonotus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Arias-Aguilar et al. (2018), Bernard et al. (2011), Bowles et al. (1979), Davalos (2006), Eshelman & Morgan (1985), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Goodwin & Greenhall (1961), Ibanez & Ochoa (1989), Montes et al. (2012), Ochoa & Ibanez (1985), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Rocha et al. (2011), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), de la Torre & Medellin (2010), Wagner (1847)." 03A637439151FFEDE4DAC0D82672A6EE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,440,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439151FFEDE4DAC0D82672A6EE.xml,Pteronotus psilotis,Pteronotus,psilotis,Dobson,1878,Ptéronote a oreilles nues @fr | Kleine Dobson-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Dobson @es | Dobson's Mustached Bat @en,"Chilonycteris psilotis Dobson, 1878, type locality unknown. Restricted by IL. de Ia Towe in 1955 to “Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico.”P. psilotiswas formerly classified as a subspecies of P. personatus, but here it is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.","From Sonoraand Tamaulipasalong Pacific and Gulf coasts of N Mexico, respectively, S to El Salvadorand W Honduras.","Head-body c.45-54 mm, tail 15-18 mm, ear 16-18 mm, hindfoot 9-4-12 mm, forearm 40-8-45 mm; weight 6:5-7-4 g. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is the smallest species of mormoopid on the mainland. Pelage is highly variable in color. Dorsal fur is gray to brownish when hairs are new, becoming reddish brown and ocherous as hairs age. Ventral fur is bicolored; hairs of new pelage have brown bases and grayish or cinnamon tips; as hairs age, tips get reddish or almost yellowish. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat resembles Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat (PF. personatus) externally and cranially but it has an average smaller overall size. Skull of Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Batis similar in size to that of Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat (PF. fulvus), which occurs in the same geographical area, but it is flatter in profile; rostrum 1s also narrower; and basioccipital region is less developed. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-2-14-5 mm.","Woodlands of tropical deciduous and semideciduous forest, rainforest, and vegetation with well-developed canopies. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is usually associated with streams and rivers. Similar to Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat, Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat has a narrow thermal tolerance for roosting;it prefers roosting in hot and humid caves or mines, which probably restricts habitats that it can use.","Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat is known to eat insects, but there is no specific information available on prey items in its diet.","Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat is seasonally monoestrous, with females usually giving birth at beginning of rainy season. Males seem to form bachelor colonies during at least part of the year, with maternity colonies almost exclusively comprised of females. In Mexico, pregnant females have been reported in April-July, lactating females in July-September, and most records of young in August-December.","Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is reportedly crepuscular. On average, it uses the first four hours of the night to emerge and forage, returning immediately to its roost. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of 4-7 milliseconds. Second harmonic, which is most intense, is composed by initial short CF component at ¢.83 kHz, followed by downward FM sweep, and terminal short CF component of 65-68 kHz. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bats seem able to perform DSC.","In Mexico, Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bats are found in colonies that can exceed 10,000 individuals and in association with other mormoopids, particularly Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat, phyllostomids, and natalids. Colonies exhibit seasonal changes in size, with larger numbers of individuals most commonly reported during dry seasons. Fluctuations in colony size are probably related to seasonal movements for reproduction. Individuals were reported to maintain specific flyways in arroyos and canyon bottoms, foraging in areas 3-5 km from roosts.","Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is included under Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat, which is classified as Least Concern.","Avila & Medellin (2004) | Bateman & Vaughan (1974) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | MacSwiney etal. (2006) | O'Farrell & Miller (1997) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Smith (1972) | Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008) | de la Torre, J.A. & Medellin (2010) | de la Torre, L. (1955) | Torres-Flores et al. (2012)",https://zenodo.org/record/6419826/files/figure.png,"9.Dobson’s Lesser Mustached BatPteronotus psilotisFrench:Ptéronote a oreilles nues/ German:Kleine Dobson-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de DobsonOther common names:Dobson's Mustached BatTaxonomy.Chilonycteris psilotis Dobson, 1878, type locality unknown. Restricted by IL. de Ia Towe in 1955 to “Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico.”P. psilotiswas formerly classified as a subspecies of P. personatus, but here it is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.From Sonoraand Tamaulipasalong Pacific and Gulf coasts of N Mexico, respectively, S to El Salvadorand W Honduras.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.45-54 mm, tail 15-18 mm, ear 16-18 mm, hindfoot 9-4-12 mm, forearm 40-8-45 mm; weight 6:5-7-4 g. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is the smallest species of mormoopid on the mainland. Pelage is highly variable in color. Dorsal fur is gray to brownish when hairs are new, becoming reddish brown and ocherous as hairs age. Ventral fur is bicolored; hairs of new pelage have brown bases and grayish or cinnamon tips; as hairs age, tips get reddish or almost yellowish. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat resembles Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat (PF. personatus) externally and cranially but it has an average smaller overall size. Skull of Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Batis similar in size to that of Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat (PF. fulvus), which occurs in the same geographical area, but it is flatter in profile; rostrum 1s also narrower; and basioccipital region is less developed. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-2-14-5 mm.Habitat.Woodlands of tropical deciduous and semideciduous forest, rainforest, and vegetation with well-developed canopies. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is usually associated with streams and rivers. Similar to Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat, Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat has a narrow thermal tolerance for roosting;it prefers roosting in hot and humid caves or mines, which probably restricts habitats that it can use.Food and Feeding.Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat is known to eat insects, but there is no specific information available on prey items in its diet.Breeding.Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat is seasonally monoestrous, with females usually giving birth at beginning of rainy season. Males seem to form bachelor colonies during at least part of the year, with maternity colonies almost exclusively comprised of females. In Mexico, pregnant females have been reported in April-July, lactating females in July-September, and most records of young in August-December.Activity patterns.Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is reportedly crepuscular. On average, it uses the first four hours of the night to emerge and forage, returning immediately to its roost. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of 4-7 milliseconds. Second harmonic, which is most intense, is composed by initial short CF component at ¢.83 kHz, followed by downward FM sweep, and terminal short CF component of 65-68 kHz. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bats seem able to perform DSC.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Mexico, Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bats are found in colonies that can exceed 10,000 individuals and in association with other mormoopids, particularly Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat, phyllostomids, and natalids. Colonies exhibit seasonal changes in size, with larger numbers of individuals most commonly reported during dry seasons. Fluctuations in colony size are probably related to seasonal movements for reproduction. Individuals were reported to maintain specific flyways in arroyos and canyon bottoms, foraging in areas 3-5 km from roosts.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is included under Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat, which is classified as Least Concern.Bibliography.Avila & Medellin (2004), Bateman & Vaughan (1974), GBIF Secretariat (2017), MacSwiney etal. (2006), O'Farrell & Miller (1997), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Smith (1972), Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008), de la Torre, J.A. & Medellin (2010), de la Torre, L. (1955), Torres-Flores et al. (2012)." -03A637439152FFEEE4E4CC8F27C9A2B6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,439,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439152FFEEE4E4CC8F27C9A2B6.xml,Pleronotus macleayii,Pleronotus,macleayii,,,Ptéronote de Macleay @fr | Macleay-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Macleay @es,"Chilonycteris macleayii J. E.Gray, 1839, “ Cuba.” Restricted by G. SilvaTaboada in 1976 to Guanabacoa, Havana Province, Cuba.Description of macleayiiwas associated with three specimens from Cubapresented by W. S. Macleay to J. E. Gray; original description was detailed and accurate and apparently based on only one male among these specimens. It is believed that such material, however, contained both species of Antillean mustached bats, P. macleayiiand P. quadridens, and that during World WarII, the incorrect specimen (an individual of P. quadridens) was segregated as the holotype of P. macleayiiand subsequently labeled. J. D. Smith in 1972 designated another of these specimens as the holotype. Fossil records of P. macleayu: are reported from the DominicanRepublic and New Providence Island, Bahamas, suggesting a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than today. Two subspecies recognized.","P.m.macleayii].E.Gray,1839—CubaandIsladelaJuventud.P. m. griseus Gosse, 1851— Jamaica.","Head-body ¢.41-53 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 9-10 mm, hindfoot 9-15 mm, forearm 41-45 mm; weight 4-8 g. Pelage is tricolored dorsally, basal and tip bands vary from dark brown or olive-brown to orange, and central band is whitish to grayish. Ventral fur is paler. Tragus is long and spatulated, with prominent secondary fold. Labionasal plate is very distinct: nostrils have squared flaps above them and prominent lateral spikes to either side. Calcar length is c.1-5 times longer than hindfoot. Skull has slightly elevated rostrum, which is longer than one-half total length of skull. Braincase is globular. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-16 mm. Subspecies macleayi: is smaller than griseus based on external and cranial measurements.","Semi-open spaces over streams and watercourses for foraging. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is considered an obligate cave-dweller, preferably roosting in high-domed chambers in deep and wet cave systems.","Macleay’s Mustached Bat feeds on a high diversity of arthropods, including lepidopterans, dipterans, coleopterans, orthopterans, hemipterans, ephemeropterans, and spiders.","Macleay’s Mustached Bat is monoestrous and bears one young each pregnancy. Breeding begins in March, pregnant females are observed in March—July, and lactation occurs in June-August.","Macleay’s Mustached Bat has an intermediate flight speed and is most active in edge habitats, usually foraging relatively higher than syntopic species of Pteronotus. There is temporal displacement in activity patterns among Macleay’s Mustached Bat, the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (Mormoops blainvillei), and the Sooty Mustached Bat (P. quadridens) when foraging in the same habitat. In Jamaica, its activity 1s more intense a few hours after sunset. In Cuba,it exhibits a unimodal peak of activity in the middle of the night. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM signals of ¢.4-3 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is usually most intense and starts at ¢.71 kHz and ends at ¢.56 kHz.","Macleay’s Mustached Bat roosts in association with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but it forms spatially separated clusters. In Cuba, colonies ofseveral thousand are found; in Jamaica, it sometimes congregates in smaller clusters. Males and females might disappear from daily roosts during mating season.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is less abundant and has a more restricted distribution in Jamaicathan Cuba.,"Emrich et al. (2014) | Genoways et al. (2005) | Mancina (2005) | Mancina, Echenique-Diaz et al. (2007) | Mancina, Garcia-Rivera & Miller (2012) | Mora & Macias (2011) | Morgan (2001) | Silva-Taboada (1976b) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)",,"6.Macleay’s Mustached BatPleronotus macleayiiFrench:Ptéronote de Macleay/ German:Macleay-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de MacleayTaxonomy.Chilonycteris macleayii J. E.Gray, 1839, “ Cuba.” Restricted by G. SilvaTaboada in 1976 to Guanabacoa, Havana Province, Cuba.Description of macleayiiwas associated with three specimens from Cubapresented by W. S. Macleay to J. E. Gray; original description was detailed and accurate and apparently based on only one male among these specimens. It is believed that such material, however, contained both species of Antillean mustached bats, P. macleayiiand P. quadridens, and that during World WarII, the incorrect specimen (an individual of P. quadridens) was segregated as the holotype of P. macleayiiand subsequently labeled. J. D. Smith in 1972 designated another of these specimens as the holotype. Fossil records of P. macleayu: are reported from the DominicanRepublic and New Providence Island, Bahamas, suggesting a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than today. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.m.macleayii].E.Gray,1839—CubaandIsladelaJuventud.P. m. griseus Gosse, 1851— Jamaica.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.41-53 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 9-10 mm, hindfoot 9-15 mm, forearm 41-45 mm; weight 4-8 g. Pelage is tricolored dorsally, basal and tip bands vary from dark brown or olive-brown to orange, and central band is whitish to grayish. Ventral fur is paler. Tragus is long and spatulated, with prominent secondary fold. Labionasal plate is very distinct: nostrils have squared flaps above them and prominent lateral spikes to either side. Calcar length is c.1-5 times longer than hindfoot. Skull has slightly elevated rostrum, which is longer than one-half total length of skull. Braincase is globular. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-16 mm. Subspecies macleayi: is smaller than griseus based on external and cranial measurements.Habitat.Semi-open spaces over streams and watercourses for foraging. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is considered an obligate cave-dweller, preferably roosting in high-domed chambers in deep and wet cave systems.Food and Feeding.Macleay’s Mustached Bat feeds on a high diversity of arthropods, including lepidopterans, dipterans, coleopterans, orthopterans, hemipterans, ephemeropterans, and spiders.Breeding.Macleay’s Mustached Bat is monoestrous and bears one young each pregnancy. Breeding begins in March, pregnant females are observed in March—July, and lactation occurs in June-August.Activity patterns.Macleay’s Mustached Bat has an intermediate flight speed and is most active in edge habitats, usually foraging relatively higher than syntopic species of Pteronotus. There is temporal displacement in activity patterns among Macleay’s Mustached Bat, the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (Mormoops blainvillei), and the Sooty Mustached Bat (P. quadridens) when foraging in the same habitat. In Jamaica, its activity 1s more intense a few hours after sunset. In Cuba,it exhibits a unimodal peak of activity in the middle of the night. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM signals of ¢.4-3 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is usually most intense and starts at ¢.71 kHz and ends at ¢.56 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Macleay’s Mustached Bat roosts in association with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but it forms spatially separated clusters. In Cuba, colonies ofseveral thousand are found; in Jamaica, it sometimes congregates in smaller clusters. Males and females might disappear from daily roosts during mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is less abundant and has a more restricted distribution in Jamaicathan Cuba.Bibliography.Emrich et al. (2014), Genoways et al. (2005), Mancina (2005), Mancina, Echenique-Diaz et al. (2007), Mancina, Garcia-Rivera & Miller (2012), Mora & Macias (2011), Morgan (2001), Silva-Taboada (1976b), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)." +03A637439152FFEEE4E4CC8F27C9A2B6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,439,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439152FFEEE4E4CC8F27C9A2B6.xml,Pleronotus macleayii,Pleronotus,macleayii,,,Ptéronote de Macleay @fr | Macleay-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Macleay @es,"Chilonycteris macleayii J. E.Gray, 1839, “ Cuba.” Restricted by G. SilvaTaboada in 1976 to Guanabacoa, Havana Province, Cuba.Description of macleayiiwas associated with three specimens from Cubapresented by W. S. Macleay to J. E. Gray; original description was detailed and accurate and apparently based on only one male among these specimens. It is believed that such material, however, contained both species of Antillean mustached bats, P. macleayiiand P. quadridens, and that during World WarII, the incorrect specimen (an individual of P. quadridens) was segregated as the holotype of P. macleayiiand subsequently labeled. J. D. Smith in 1972 designated another of these specimens as the holotype. Fossil records of P. macleayu: are reported from the DominicanRepublic and New Providence Island, Bahamas, suggesting a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than today. Two subspecies recognized.","P.m.macleayii].E.Gray,1839—CubaandIsladelaJuventud.P. m. griseus Gosse, 1851— Jamaica.","Head-body ¢.41-53 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 9-10 mm, hindfoot 9-15 mm, forearm 41-45 mm; weight 4-8 g. Pelage is tricolored dorsally, basal and tip bands vary from dark brown or olive-brown to orange, and central band is whitish to grayish. Ventral fur is paler. Tragus is long and spatulated, with prominent secondary fold. Labionasal plate is very distinct: nostrils have squared flaps above them and prominent lateral spikes to either side. Calcar length is c.1-5 times longer than hindfoot. Skull has slightly elevated rostrum, which is longer than one-half total length of skull. Braincase is globular. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-16 mm. Subspecies macleayi: is smaller than griseus based on external and cranial measurements.","Semi-open spaces over streams and watercourses for foraging. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is considered an obligate cave-dweller, preferably roosting in high-domed chambers in deep and wet cave systems.","Macleay’s Mustached Bat feeds on a high diversity of arthropods, including lepidopterans, dipterans, coleopterans, orthopterans, hemipterans, ephemeropterans, and spiders.","Macleay’s Mustached Bat is monoestrous and bears one young each pregnancy. Breeding begins in March, pregnant females are observed in March—July, and lactation occurs in June-August.","Macleay’s Mustached Bat has an intermediate flight speed and is most active in edge habitats, usually foraging relatively higher than syntopic species of Pteronotus. There is temporal displacement in activity patterns among Macleay’s Mustached Bat, the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (Mormoops blainvillei), and the Sooty Mustached Bat (P. quadridens) when foraging in the same habitat. In Jamaica, its activity 1s more intense a few hours after sunset. In Cuba,it exhibits a unimodal peak of activity in the middle of the night. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM signals of ¢.4-3 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is usually most intense and starts at ¢.71 kHz and ends at ¢.56 kHz.","Macleay’s Mustached Bat roosts in association with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but it forms spatially separated clusters. In Cuba, colonies ofseveral thousand are found; in Jamaica, it sometimes congregates in smaller clusters. Males and females might disappear from daily roosts during mating season.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is less abundant and has a more restricted distribution in Jamaicathan Cuba.,"Emrich et al. (2014) | Genoways et al. (2005) | Mancina (2005) | Mancina, Echenique-Diaz et al. (2007) | Mancina, Garcia-Rivera & Miller (2012) | Mora & Macias (2011) | Morgan (2001) | Silva-Taboada (1976b) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)",https://zenodo.org/record/6419813/files/figure.png,"6.Macleay’s Mustached BatPleronotus macleayiiFrench:Ptéronote de Macleay/ German:Macleay-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de MacleayTaxonomy.Chilonycteris macleayii J. E.Gray, 1839, “ Cuba.” Restricted by G. SilvaTaboada in 1976 to Guanabacoa, Havana Province, Cuba.Description of macleayiiwas associated with three specimens from Cubapresented by W. S. Macleay to J. E. Gray; original description was detailed and accurate and apparently based on only one male among these specimens. It is believed that such material, however, contained both species of Antillean mustached bats, P. macleayiiand P. quadridens, and that during World WarII, the incorrect specimen (an individual of P. quadridens) was segregated as the holotype of P. macleayiiand subsequently labeled. J. D. Smith in 1972 designated another of these specimens as the holotype. Fossil records of P. macleayu: are reported from the DominicanRepublic and New Providence Island, Bahamas, suggesting a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than today. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.m.macleayii].E.Gray,1839—CubaandIsladelaJuventud.P. m. griseus Gosse, 1851— Jamaica.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.41-53 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 9-10 mm, hindfoot 9-15 mm, forearm 41-45 mm; weight 4-8 g. Pelage is tricolored dorsally, basal and tip bands vary from dark brown or olive-brown to orange, and central band is whitish to grayish. Ventral fur is paler. Tragus is long and spatulated, with prominent secondary fold. Labionasal plate is very distinct: nostrils have squared flaps above them and prominent lateral spikes to either side. Calcar length is c.1-5 times longer than hindfoot. Skull has slightly elevated rostrum, which is longer than one-half total length of skull. Braincase is globular. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-16 mm. Subspecies macleayi: is smaller than griseus based on external and cranial measurements.Habitat.Semi-open spaces over streams and watercourses for foraging. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is considered an obligate cave-dweller, preferably roosting in high-domed chambers in deep and wet cave systems.Food and Feeding.Macleay’s Mustached Bat feeds on a high diversity of arthropods, including lepidopterans, dipterans, coleopterans, orthopterans, hemipterans, ephemeropterans, and spiders.Breeding.Macleay’s Mustached Bat is monoestrous and bears one young each pregnancy. Breeding begins in March, pregnant females are observed in March—July, and lactation occurs in June-August.Activity patterns.Macleay’s Mustached Bat has an intermediate flight speed and is most active in edge habitats, usually foraging relatively higher than syntopic species of Pteronotus. There is temporal displacement in activity patterns among Macleay’s Mustached Bat, the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (Mormoops blainvillei), and the Sooty Mustached Bat (P. quadridens) when foraging in the same habitat. In Jamaica, its activity 1s more intense a few hours after sunset. In Cuba,it exhibits a unimodal peak of activity in the middle of the night. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM signals of ¢.4-3 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is usually most intense and starts at ¢.71 kHz and ends at ¢.56 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Macleay’s Mustached Bat roosts in association with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but it forms spatially separated clusters. In Cuba, colonies ofseveral thousand are found; in Jamaica, it sometimes congregates in smaller clusters. Males and females might disappear from daily roosts during mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is less abundant and has a more restricted distribution in Jamaicathan Cuba.Bibliography.Emrich et al. (2014), Genoways et al. (2005), Mancina (2005), Mancina, Echenique-Diaz et al. (2007), Mancina, Garcia-Rivera & Miller (2012), Mora & Macias (2011), Morgan (2001), Silva-Taboada (1976b), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)." 03A637439153FFEEE1D5C02C2DB2A510,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,438,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439153FFEEE1D5C02C2DB2A510.xml,Pteronotus gymnonotus,Pteronotus,gymnonotus,,,Ptéronote a dos nu @fr | Gro Re Nacktrlickenfledermaus @de | Pteronotusde espalda desnuda @es,"Chilonycteris gymnonotus[sic] Wagner, 1843, “Cuyaba [= Cuiabd],” Mato Grosso, Brazil.Some authors attribute the name P. gymnonotusto J. B. Natterer. When J. D. Smith in 1977 clarified the nomenclatural history recognizing P. gymnonotusas the senior synonym of P. suapurensis, he assigned Natterer as its authority. Smith argued that J.A. Wagner, when he described P. gymnonotus, attributed the name of the species to Natterer because the descriptive notes were taken directly from Natterer’s field diary. D. C. Carter and P. G. Dolan in 1978 examined a photocopy of Natterer’s field notes and stated that, even though Wagner used Natterer’s species name, he wrote the species diagnosis independently, and therefore Smith’s claim was not supported. Carter and Dolan’s argument is followed here. Fossil records of P. gymnonotusare reported from Tobago Island. Monotypic.","From S MexicoS along Central America, Caribbean coast of South America, and the Guianas to C & NE Brazil, E Peru, and NE Bolivia.","Head-body ¢.51-69 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 13-20 mm, hindfoot 9-13 mm, forearm 50-56 mm; weight 12-18 g. The Big Naked-backed Bat is the largest species of naked-backed bat, both externally and cranially. Fur color varies from dark brown to bright orange and is paler ventrally than dorsally. There are short hairs densely covering fused wing membrane, giving back a “velvety” appearance. Skull rostrum is conspicuously shorter than one-half total length of skull and very broad, with depressed nasals. Braincase is oblong, and basioccipital region between bullae is very broad. Condylo-basal lengths are 15-17 mm. There is a geographical trend of larger overall sizes in the northernmost distribution, but no population structuring at the molecular level is observed. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Pleronotusare listed in descriptive notes for Davy’s Naked-backed Bat (P. davyr).","Tropical rainforest, dry forest, xerophytic scrub, and savannas. The Big Naked-backed Bat is more abundant in dry and semi-open environments below elevations of 400 m, although there are several records from the Brazilian central plateau above 1000 m.","Diets of Big Naked-backed Bats include moths, beetles, flies, and crickets.","In Nicaraguaand Mexico, pregnant Big Naked-backed Bats were reported in April, May, and June. In north-eastern Brazil, it has been suggested that the reproductive pattern is related to the wet season, with pregnant females reported in September—November.","The Big Naked-backed Bat forages more commonly in semi-open areas and over water bodies. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses averaging 6-6 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is the most intense, starting with a CF component at 55 kHz and ending with a QCF component of ¢.48-7 kHz.","The Big Naked-backed Bat prefers roosting in large and humid cave systems, where it is found in association with other species of mormoopids and phyllostomids.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.,"Bernard et al. (2011) | Bredt et al. (1999) | Cajaiba (2014) | Carter & Dolan (1978) | Eshelman & Morgan (1985) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Ibanez & Ochoa (1989) | Ibanez et al. (2000) | Patton & Gardner (2008) | Pavan & Marroig (2016, 2017) | Rocha et al. (2011) | Sbragia & Cardoso (2008) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972, 1977) | Vargas-Mena et al. (2018) | Willig (1985a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6419811/files/figure.png,"5.Big Naked-backed BatPteronotus gymnonotusFrench:Ptéronote a dos nu/ German:GroRe Nacktrlickenfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotusde espalda desnudaTaxonomy.Chilonycteris gymnonotus[sic] Wagner, 1843, “Cuyaba [= Cuiabd],” Mato Grosso, Brazil.Some authors attribute the name P. gymnonotusto J. B. Natterer. When J. D. Smith in 1977 clarified the nomenclatural history recognizing P. gymnonotusas the senior synonym of P. suapurensis, he assigned Natterer as its authority. Smith argued that J.A. Wagner, when he described P. gymnonotus, attributed the name of the species to Natterer because the descriptive notes were taken directly from Natterer’s field diary. D. C. Carter and P. G. Dolan in 1978 examined a photocopy of Natterer’s field notes and stated that, even though Wagner used Natterer’s species name, he wrote the species diagnosis independently, and therefore Smith’s claim was not supported. Carter and Dolan’s argument is followed here. Fossil records of P. gymnonotusare reported from Tobago Island. Monotypic.Distribution.From S MexicoS along Central America, Caribbean coast of South America, and the Guianas to C & NE Brazil, E Peru, and NE Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.51-69 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 13-20 mm, hindfoot 9-13 mm, forearm 50-56 mm; weight 12-18 g. The Big Naked-backed Bat is the largest species of naked-backed bat, both externally and cranially. Fur color varies from dark brown to bright orange and is paler ventrally than dorsally. There are short hairs densely covering fused wing membrane, giving back a “velvety” appearance. Skull rostrum is conspicuously shorter than one-half total length of skull and very broad, with depressed nasals. Braincase is oblong, and basioccipital region between bullae is very broad. Condylo-basal lengths are 15-17 mm. There is a geographical trend of larger overall sizes in the northernmost distribution, but no population structuring at the molecular level is observed. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Pleronotusare listed in descriptive notes for Davy’s Naked-backed Bat (P. davyr).Habitat.Tropical rainforest, dry forest, xerophytic scrub, and savannas. The Big Naked-backed Bat is more abundant in dry and semi-open environments below elevations of 400 m, although there are several records from the Brazilian central plateau above 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Diets of Big Naked-backed Bats include moths, beetles, flies, and crickets.Breeding.In Nicaraguaand Mexico, pregnant Big Naked-backed Bats were reported in April, May, and June. In north-eastern Brazil, it has been suggested that the reproductive pattern is related to the wet season, with pregnant females reported in September—November.Activity patterns.The Big Naked-backed Bat forages more commonly in semi-open areas and over water bodies. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses averaging 6-6 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is the most intense, starting with a CF component at 55 kHz and ending with a QCF component of ¢.48-7 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Big Naked-backed Bat prefers roosting in large and humid cave systems, where it is found in association with other species of mormoopids and phyllostomids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bernard et al. (2011), Bredt et al. (1999), Cajaiba (2014), Carter & Dolan (1978), Eshelman & Morgan (1985), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Ibanez & Ochoa (1989), Ibanez et al. (2000), Patton & Gardner (2008), Pavan & Marroig (2016, 2017), Rocha et al. (2011), Sbragia & Cardoso (2008), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972, 1977), Vargas-Mena et al. (2018), Willig (1985a)." -03A637439153FFEFE4D8C8852D71AC5E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,438,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439153FFEFE4D8C8852D71AC5E.xml,Pteronotus davyi,Pteronotus,davyi,J. E. Gray,1838,Ptéronote de Davy @fr | Davy-Nacktrlickenfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Davy @es | Lesser Naked-backed Bat @en,"Pteronotus davyi J. E. Gray, 1838“Trimidad [Island],” Trinidad and Tobago.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized three subspecies of P. davyi: P. d. davyi, P. d. fulvus, and P. d. incae. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. davy: represents a species complex, supporting elevation of fulvus to a distinct species.Hence, P davyisensu strictooccurs in coastal lowlands of Venezuelaand in the Lesser Antilles, and as an isolated population in Peru; its distribution might extend to Colombiaand northward to Costa Ricaand Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of these populations has not been assessed. Pteronotus davyiseems uncommon in Central America, and no extant populations are known in Panama, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, and Brazil. Occurrence records in north-eastern Brazilwere erroneous and corresponded to P. gymnonotus. Fossil records of P. davyiare reported from Bahiaand Goiasin Braziland Tobago Island. Based on fossil records, its distribution was more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Two subspecies recognized.","P.d.davyiJ.E.Gray,1838—Nicaragua,CostaRica,NColombia,andNVenezuela;LesserAntillesonMarie-Galante,Dominica,Martinique,St.Lucia,Grenada,Trinidad,andCuracao.P. d. incae]. D. Smith, 1972— Piura, Lambayeque, and Cajamarcadepartments, NW Peru.","Head-body ¢.50-57 mm, tail 18-25 mm, ear 16-19 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm, forearm 46-50 mm; weight 8-11 g. Dorsal fur under wing membranes is longer than ventral fur. Hairs are usually unicolored or only slightly bicolored, varying from grayish to reddish brown. Rostrum is very broad, with wide and concave nasals. Individuals of subspecies incae are overall larger than those of davyi. Some external and cranial features are shared with the other species currently recognized in the subgenus Pteronotus: wing membranes fused dorsally at midline; ears pointed, with anteromedial edge of pinna smooth (lacking serrations); skull rostrum noticeably upturned in lateral profile and shorter than one-half total length of skull; braincase oblong and basioccipital region broad between auditory bullae; and lower incisors reduced in size and trilobed. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-4-15-7 mm.","Tropical thorn forest, semideciduous forest, woodlands, and swamps. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat usually forages over water and near vegetation. It is sensitive to ambient temperatures below 15°C; it thermoregulates efficiently and usually maintains high body temperature (c.38°C) in warm environments. In Peru, subspecies incae occurs at higher elevations (up to 2700 m) on western slope of Andes and might be adapted to tolerate colder temperatures.","Diet of Davy’s Naked-backed Bat includes lepidopterans, dipterans, and dermapterans.","In Dominica, pregnant Davy’s Naked-backed Bats were observed in March and one lactating female in July. Ajuvenile was reported in September in Curacao.","Davy’s Naked-backed Bats seem to be crepuscular, being the first to leave caves at dusk in multispecies assemblages. They prefer roosting in large and warm caves. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.4-5 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is frequently most intense, starting with a CF component of 68-70 kHz, followed by a FM sweep, and ending in a QCF segment averaging 54 kHz.","Davy’s Naked-backed Bats frequently share large and warm caves with other mormoopids, phyllostomids, and natalids. Males and females apparently roost in the same areas of caves. They select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature. There are no records of long-range movements by Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, but it is the only mormoopid inhabiting islands of the Lesser Antilles farther from the coast.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat is classified as endangered in Curacao.,"Adams (1989) | Bonaccorso et al. (1992) | Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998) | Davalos (2006) | Eshelman & Morgan (1985) | Fracasso & Salles (2005) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Genoways et al. (2001) | Ibanez et al. (1999) | Jennings et al. (2004) | Lenoble, Bochaton et al. (2014) | Mares & Wilson (1971) | Mares et al. (1981) | Patton & Gardner (2008) | Pavan & Marroig, (2016) | Pedersen et al. (2013) | Petit et al. (2006) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Willig (1985)",,"3.Davy’s Naked-backed BatPteronotus davyiFrench:Ptéronote de Davy/ German:Davy-Nacktrlickenfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de DavyOther common names:Lesser Naked-backed BatTaxonomy.Pteronotus davyi J. E. Gray, 1838“Trimidad [Island],” Trinidad and Tobago.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized three subspecies of P. davyi: P. d. davyi, P. d. fulvus, and P. d. incae. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. davy: represents a species complex, supporting elevation of fulvus to a distinct species.Hence, P davyisensu strictooccurs in coastal lowlands of Venezuelaand in the Lesser Antilles, and as an isolated population in Peru; its distribution might extend to Colombiaand northward to Costa Ricaand Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of these populations has not been assessed. Pteronotus davyiseems uncommon in Central America, and no extant populations are known in Panama, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, and Brazil. Occurrence records in north-eastern Brazilwere erroneous and corresponded to P. gymnonotus. Fossil records of P. davyiare reported from Bahiaand Goiasin Braziland Tobago Island. Based on fossil records, its distribution was more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.d.davyiJ.E.Gray,1838—Nicaragua,CostaRica,NColombia,andNVenezuela;LesserAntillesonMarie-Galante,Dominica,Martinique,St.Lucia,Grenada,Trinidad,andCuracao.P. d. incae]. D. Smith, 1972— Piura, Lambayeque, and Cajamarcadepartments, NW Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.50-57 mm, tail 18-25 mm, ear 16-19 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm, forearm 46-50 mm; weight 8-11 g. Dorsal fur under wing membranes is longer than ventral fur. Hairs are usually unicolored or only slightly bicolored, varying from grayish to reddish brown. Rostrum is very broad, with wide and concave nasals. Individuals of subspecies incae are overall larger than those of davyi. Some external and cranial features are shared with the other species currently recognized in the subgenus Pteronotus: wing membranes fused dorsally at midline; ears pointed, with anteromedial edge of pinna smooth (lacking serrations); skull rostrum noticeably upturned in lateral profile and shorter than one-half total length of skull; braincase oblong and basioccipital region broad between auditory bullae; and lower incisors reduced in size and trilobed. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-4-15-7 mm.Habitat.Tropical thorn forest, semideciduous forest, woodlands, and swamps. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat usually forages over water and near vegetation. It is sensitive to ambient temperatures below 15°C; it thermoregulates efficiently and usually maintains high body temperature (c.38°C) in warm environments. In Peru, subspecies incae occurs at higher elevations (up to 2700 m) on western slope of Andes and might be adapted to tolerate colder temperatures.Food and Feeding.Diet of Davy’s Naked-backed Bat includes lepidopterans, dipterans, and dermapterans.Breeding.In Dominica, pregnant Davy’s Naked-backed Bats were observed in March and one lactating female in July. Ajuvenile was reported in September in Curacao.Activity patterns.Davy’s Naked-backed Bats seem to be crepuscular, being the first to leave caves at dusk in multispecies assemblages. They prefer roosting in large and warm caves. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.4-5 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is frequently most intense, starting with a CF component of 68-70 kHz, followed by a FM sweep, and ending in a QCF segment averaging 54 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Davy’s Naked-backed Bats frequently share large and warm caves with other mormoopids, phyllostomids, and natalids. Males and females apparently roost in the same areas of caves. They select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature. There are no records of long-range movements by Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, but it is the only mormoopid inhabiting islands of the Lesser Antilles farther from the coast.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat is classified as endangered in Curacao.Bibliography.Adams (1989), Bonaccorso et al. (1992), Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998), Davalos (2006), Eshelman & Morgan (1985), Fracasso & Salles (2005), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Genoways et al. (2001), Ibanez et al. (1999), Jennings et al. (2004), Lenoble, Bochaton et al. (2014), Mares & Wilson (1971), Mares et al. (1981), Patton & Gardner (2008), Pavan & Marroig, (2016), Pedersen et al. (2013), Petit et al. (2006), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Willig (1985)." +03A637439153FFEFE4D8C8852D71AC5E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,438,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439153FFEFE4D8C8852D71AC5E.xml,Pteronotus davyi,Pteronotus,davyi,J. E. Gray,1838,Ptéronote de Davy @fr | Davy-Nacktrlickenfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Davy @es | Lesser Naked-backed Bat @en,"Pteronotus davyi J. E. Gray, 1838“Trimidad [Island],” Trinidad and Tobago.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized three subspecies of P. davyi: P. d. davyi, P. d. fulvus, and P. d. incae. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. davy: represents a species complex, supporting elevation of fulvus to a distinct species.Hence, P davyisensu strictooccurs in coastal lowlands of Venezuelaand in the Lesser Antilles, and as an isolated population in Peru; its distribution might extend to Colombiaand northward to Costa Ricaand Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of these populations has not been assessed. Pteronotus davyiseems uncommon in Central America, and no extant populations are known in Panama, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, and Brazil. Occurrence records in north-eastern Brazilwere erroneous and corresponded to P. gymnonotus. Fossil records of P. davyiare reported from Bahiaand Goiasin Braziland Tobago Island. Based on fossil records, its distribution was more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Two subspecies recognized.","P.d.davyiJ.E.Gray,1838—Nicaragua,CostaRica,NColombia,andNVenezuela;LesserAntillesonMarie-Galante,Dominica,Martinique,St.Lucia,Grenada,Trinidad,andCuracao.P. d. incae]. D. Smith, 1972— Piura, Lambayeque, and Cajamarcadepartments, NW Peru.","Head-body ¢.50-57 mm, tail 18-25 mm, ear 16-19 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm, forearm 46-50 mm; weight 8-11 g. Dorsal fur under wing membranes is longer than ventral fur. Hairs are usually unicolored or only slightly bicolored, varying from grayish to reddish brown. Rostrum is very broad, with wide and concave nasals. Individuals of subspecies incae are overall larger than those of davyi. Some external and cranial features are shared with the other species currently recognized in the subgenus Pteronotus: wing membranes fused dorsally at midline; ears pointed, with anteromedial edge of pinna smooth (lacking serrations); skull rostrum noticeably upturned in lateral profile and shorter than one-half total length of skull; braincase oblong and basioccipital region broad between auditory bullae; and lower incisors reduced in size and trilobed. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-4-15-7 mm.","Tropical thorn forest, semideciduous forest, woodlands, and swamps. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat usually forages over water and near vegetation. It is sensitive to ambient temperatures below 15°C; it thermoregulates efficiently and usually maintains high body temperature (c.38°C) in warm environments. In Peru, subspecies incae occurs at higher elevations (up to 2700 m) on western slope of Andes and might be adapted to tolerate colder temperatures.","Diet of Davy’s Naked-backed Bat includes lepidopterans, dipterans, and dermapterans.","In Dominica, pregnant Davy’s Naked-backed Bats were observed in March and one lactating female in July. Ajuvenile was reported in September in Curacao.","Davy’s Naked-backed Bats seem to be crepuscular, being the first to leave caves at dusk in multispecies assemblages. They prefer roosting in large and warm caves. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.4-5 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is frequently most intense, starting with a CF component of 68-70 kHz, followed by a FM sweep, and ending in a QCF segment averaging 54 kHz.","Davy’s Naked-backed Bats frequently share large and warm caves with other mormoopids, phyllostomids, and natalids. Males and females apparently roost in the same areas of caves. They select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature. There are no records of long-range movements by Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, but it is the only mormoopid inhabiting islands of the Lesser Antilles farther from the coast.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat is classified as endangered in Curacao.,"Adams (1989) | Bonaccorso et al. (1992) | Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998) | Davalos (2006) | Eshelman & Morgan (1985) | Fracasso & Salles (2005) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Genoways et al. (2001) | Ibanez et al. (1999) | Jennings et al. (2004) | Lenoble, Bochaton et al. (2014) | Mares & Wilson (1971) | Mares et al. (1981) | Patton & Gardner (2008) | Pavan & Marroig, (2016) | Pedersen et al. (2013) | Petit et al. (2006) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Willig (1985)",https://zenodo.org/record/6419804/files/figure.png,"3.Davy’s Naked-backed BatPteronotus davyiFrench:Ptéronote de Davy/ German:Davy-Nacktrlickenfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de DavyOther common names:Lesser Naked-backed BatTaxonomy.Pteronotus davyi J. E. Gray, 1838“Trimidad [Island],” Trinidad and Tobago.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized three subspecies of P. davyi: P. d. davyi, P. d. fulvus, and P. d. incae. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. davy: represents a species complex, supporting elevation of fulvus to a distinct species.Hence, P davyisensu strictooccurs in coastal lowlands of Venezuelaand in the Lesser Antilles, and as an isolated population in Peru; its distribution might extend to Colombiaand northward to Costa Ricaand Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of these populations has not been assessed. Pteronotus davyiseems uncommon in Central America, and no extant populations are known in Panama, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, and Brazil. Occurrence records in north-eastern Brazilwere erroneous and corresponded to P. gymnonotus. Fossil records of P. davyiare reported from Bahiaand Goiasin Braziland Tobago Island. Based on fossil records, its distribution was more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.d.davyiJ.E.Gray,1838—Nicaragua,CostaRica,NColombia,andNVenezuela;LesserAntillesonMarie-Galante,Dominica,Martinique,St.Lucia,Grenada,Trinidad,andCuracao.P. d. incae]. D. Smith, 1972— Piura, Lambayeque, and Cajamarcadepartments, NW Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.50-57 mm, tail 18-25 mm, ear 16-19 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm, forearm 46-50 mm; weight 8-11 g. Dorsal fur under wing membranes is longer than ventral fur. Hairs are usually unicolored or only slightly bicolored, varying from grayish to reddish brown. Rostrum is very broad, with wide and concave nasals. Individuals of subspecies incae are overall larger than those of davyi. Some external and cranial features are shared with the other species currently recognized in the subgenus Pteronotus: wing membranes fused dorsally at midline; ears pointed, with anteromedial edge of pinna smooth (lacking serrations); skull rostrum noticeably upturned in lateral profile and shorter than one-half total length of skull; braincase oblong and basioccipital region broad between auditory bullae; and lower incisors reduced in size and trilobed. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-4-15-7 mm.Habitat.Tropical thorn forest, semideciduous forest, woodlands, and swamps. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat usually forages over water and near vegetation. It is sensitive to ambient temperatures below 15°C; it thermoregulates efficiently and usually maintains high body temperature (c.38°C) in warm environments. In Peru, subspecies incae occurs at higher elevations (up to 2700 m) on western slope of Andes and might be adapted to tolerate colder temperatures.Food and Feeding.Diet of Davy’s Naked-backed Bat includes lepidopterans, dipterans, and dermapterans.Breeding.In Dominica, pregnant Davy’s Naked-backed Bats were observed in March and one lactating female in July. Ajuvenile was reported in September in Curacao.Activity patterns.Davy’s Naked-backed Bats seem to be crepuscular, being the first to leave caves at dusk in multispecies assemblages. They prefer roosting in large and warm caves. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.4-5 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is frequently most intense, starting with a CF component of 68-70 kHz, followed by a FM sweep, and ending in a QCF segment averaging 54 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Davy’s Naked-backed Bats frequently share large and warm caves with other mormoopids, phyllostomids, and natalids. Males and females apparently roost in the same areas of caves. They select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature. There are no records of long-range movements by Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, but it is the only mormoopid inhabiting islands of the Lesser Antilles farther from the coast.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat is classified as endangered in Curacao.Bibliography.Adams (1989), Bonaccorso et al. (1992), Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998), Davalos (2006), Eshelman & Morgan (1985), Fracasso & Salles (2005), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Genoways et al. (2001), Ibanez et al. (1999), Jennings et al. (2004), Lenoble, Bochaton et al. (2014), Mares & Wilson (1971), Mares et al. (1981), Patton & Gardner (2008), Pavan & Marroig, (2016), Pedersen et al. (2013), Petit et al. (2006), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Willig (1985)." 03A637439153FFEFE4DEC5572767A8B4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,438,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439153FFEFE4DEC5572767A8B4.xml,Pteronotus fulvus,Pteronotus,fulvus,,,Ptéronote fauve @fr | Thomas-Nacktriickenfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Thomas @es,"Chilonycteris davyifulvus [sic] Thomas, 1892, “Las Penas, west coast ofJalisco,” Mexico.Pteronotusfulvus was formerly classified as a subspecies of P. davyi, but here it is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.","From Sonoraand TamaulipasS along Pacific and Gulf coasts of N Mexico, respectively, to El Salvadorand W Honduras.","Head-body ¢.48-52 mm, tail 20-23 mm, ear 17-18 mm, hindfoot 11 mm, forearm 40-5-46-7 mm; weight ¢.7-8: 7 g. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat is the smallest species of naked-backed bat. Dorsal and head pelage colors range from dark brown to bright orange; ventral hairs have grayish white tips. Rostrum is broad but comparatively narrower than in other species of naked-backed bats. Braincase is oval and less robust than in Davy’s Naked-backed Bat (P. davyi). Condylo-basal lengths are 13-7-15 mm. Individuals from Hondurasand El Salvadorare larger on average than in other areas of its distribution; a marked increase in overall size is also observed in the northernmost distributional limit in Sonora, Mexico. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Pteronotusare listed in descriptive notes for Davy’s Nakedbacked Bat.","Tropical dry forest, usually lowland habitats, mostly below 600 m. Thomas's Naked-backed Bat is abundant throughoutits distribution. It has narrow thermal specificity for roosting and is usually reported from hot caves (higher than 30°C), with 27°C being the lowest recorded roost temperature. This physiological limitation probably restricts habitats occupied by Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat.","Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat feeds mainly on dipterans, lepidopterans, and dermapterans, but diversity of insects included in diets might increase when prey abundance is low.","Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat is seasonally monoestrous, with most females giving birth in the beginning of the rainy season. Maternity colonies mostly contain females, but males might be present in small numbers. In Mexico, mating occurs in January—March. Pregnant females are reported in April-May, with embryos ofvariable sizes (3-20 mm), and lactating females in July-September.","Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat has a bimodal activity pattern, which seems to correspond to abundance peaks of crepuscular and nocturnal insects. It typically forages along riparian corridors, in open places 2-10 m aboveground, over water surfaces, and in forest trails. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.6 milliseconds. Second harmonic, which is the most intense, has two short CF components at 68-71 kHz and 58-60 kHz, joined by a FM downward sweep.","Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat roosts in hot and humid caves and usually forms large colonies. Fluctuations in colony sizes are commonly reported and are probably related to seasonal movements due to reproductive activity. It exhibits a limited tolerance to low temperatures, which probably excludes it from temperate areas in its northernmost distribution. It has been suggested that mountain peaks and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Mexico) act as physical barriers to dispersal of Thomas’s Naked-backed Bats.","Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Thomas's Naked-backed Bat is included under Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, which is classified as Least Concern.",Arriaga-Flores et al. (2012) | Avila & Medellin (2004) | Birney et al. (1974) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Guevara-Chumacero et al. (2010) | O'Farrell & Miller (1997) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Rydell et al. (2002) | Salinas-Ramos et al. (2015) | Smith (1972) | Torres-Flores et al. (2012),https://zenodo.org/record/6419809/files/figure.png,"4.Thomas's Naked-backed BatPteronotus fulvusFrench:Ptéronote fauve/ German:Thomas-Nacktriickenfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de ThomasTaxonomy.Chilonycteris davyifulvus [sic] Thomas, 1892, “Las Penas, west coast ofJalisco,” Mexico.Pteronotusfulvus was formerly classified as a subspecies of P. davyi, but here it is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution. From Sonoraand TamaulipasS along Pacific and Gulf coasts of N Mexico, respectively, to El Salvadorand W Honduras.Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢.48-52 mm, tail 20-23 mm, ear 17-18 mm, hindfoot 11 mm, forearm 40-5-46-7 mm; weight ¢.7-8: 7 g. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat is the smallest species of naked-backed bat. Dorsal and head pelage colors range from dark brown to bright orange; ventral hairs have grayish white tips. Rostrum is broad but comparatively narrower than in other species of naked-backed bats. Braincase is oval and less robust than in Davy’s Naked-backed Bat (P. davyi). Condylo-basal lengths are 13-7-15 mm. Individuals from Hondurasand El Salvadorare larger on average than in other areas of its distribution; a marked increase in overall size is also observed in the northernmost distributional limit in Sonora, Mexico. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Pteronotusare listed in descriptive notes for Davy’s Nakedbacked Bat.Habitat. Tropical dry forest, usually lowland habitats, mostly below 600 m. Thomas's Naked-backed Bat is abundant throughoutits distribution. It has narrow thermal specificity for roosting and is usually reported from hot caves (higher than 30°C), with 27°C being the lowest recorded roost temperature. This physiological limitation probably restricts habitats occupied by Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat.Food and Feeding. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat feeds mainly on dipterans, lepidopterans, and dermapterans, but diversity of insects included in diets might increase when prey abundance is low.Breeding. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat is seasonally monoestrous, with most females giving birth in the beginning of the rainy season. Maternity colonies mostly contain females, but males might be present in small numbers. In Mexico, mating occurs in January—March. Pregnant females are reported in April-May, with embryos ofvariable sizes (3-20 mm), and lactating females in July-September.Activity patterns. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat has a bimodal activity pattern, which seems to correspond to abundance peaks of crepuscular and nocturnal insects. It typically forages along riparian corridors, in open places 2-10 m aboveground, over water surfaces, and in forest trails. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.6 milliseconds. Second harmonic, which is the most intense, has two short CF components at 68-71 kHz and 58-60 kHz, joined by a FM downward sweep.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat roosts in hot and humid caves and usually forms large colonies. Fluctuations in colony sizes are commonly reported and are probably related to seasonal movements due to reproductive activity. It exhibits a limited tolerance to low temperatures, which probably excludes it from temperate areas in its northernmost distribution. It has been suggested that mountain peaks and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Mexico) act as physical barriers to dispersal of Thomas’s Naked-backed Bats.Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Thomas's Naked-backed Bat is included under Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, which is classified as Least Concern.Bibliography. Arriaga-Flores et al. (2012), Avila & Medellin (2004), Birney et al. (1974), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Guevara-Chumacero et al. (2010), O'Farrell & Miller (1997), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Rydell et al. (2002), Salinas-Ramos et al. (2015), Smith (1972), Torres-Flores et al. (2012)." -03A637439154FFE8E4E7C52129FBAC0D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,437,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439154FFE8E4E7C52129FBAC0D.xml,Mormoops megalophylla,Mormoops,megalophylla,,,Mormoops de Peters @fr | Peters-Kinnblattfledermaus @de | Mormépido de Peters @es | Ghost-faced Bat @en | Leaf-chinned Bat @en | Old-man Bat @en,"Mormops [sic] megalophylla Peters, 1864, “ Mexico.” Restricted by |.. D. Smith in 1972 to “Parris, Coahuila, México.”Fossil records of M. megalophyllaare reported from several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Bahamas, Florida(USA), and Bahia(Brazil). Based on these records, distribution of M. megalophyllawas more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Four subspecies recognized.","M. m. megalophylla Peters, 1864— from SW Arizonaand Texas, USA, and Baja California, Mexico, S to W Nicaragua.M. m. carteri J. D. Smith, 1972— Carchiand Pichinchaprovinces, N Ecuador, and LambayequeDepartment, NW Peru.M. m. intermedia G. S. Miller, 1900— Netherlands Antilles(Aruba, Curacao, and Bonaire).M. m. tumidiceps G. S. Miller, 1902— coastal and inland localities between C & E Andes ranges of Colombia, Caribbean coast of Venezuelaincluding Margarita I, and TrinidadI.","Head—body ¢.56-73 mm, tail 18-31 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 9-14 mm, forearm 50-61 mm; weight 11-22 g.; individuals of subspecies intermediaare smallest (forearm 50-54 mm) and those of subspecies carteri are largest (forearm 56— 61 mm). Pelage is long and lax. Fur color varies from pale brown to deep cinnamonred; hairs usually have four color bands. Individuals from South American subspecies have cape of long hairs over shoulders, contrasting in color with dorsal fur. Ears are short and rounded. Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat is externally and cranially similar to the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (M. blainvillei) but larger. Skull rostrum is proportionally broader. Braincase is squared in profile, with parietals inflated. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-1-15-1 mm.","Temperate coniferous forest and lowland tropical rainforest to xerophytic scrub. In Ecuador, Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat occurs in cloud forest at elevations of 2350-2700 m. It seems to be more common in hot lowland areas in its northern distribution and in forested areas in tropical regions.","Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat feeds mostly on large moths, usually with body lengths of 5-6 mm; other prey items include beetles and flies.","Female Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature to establish maternity roosts. Male Peters’s Ghostfaced Bats select cooler caves outside mating season. There is evidence that reproductive cycle differs throughout the distribution. Mating season in Venezuelareportedly occurs in March-April. Pregnant females were observed in May and November in Ecuadorand February—June in North America. Lactating females were reported in January, March, and October in Ecuador, March on Trinidad Island, and June-August in North America.","Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats usually roost in large and deep cave systems or in abandoned mine shafts. Although they have been observed in roosts with wide ranges of temperatures (over 15°C) and humidity (over 50%), females only use hot caves as maternity roosts. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats fly higher and faster than other mormoopids, usually foraging in open spaces along canyons and over streams. They are more commonly caught in caves or in other day roosts than in mist nets. They usually become active later than other species of mormoopids, emerging from day roosts after dark. In Ecuador, two activity peaks have been reported. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of steep FM downsweep pulses of ¢.3-5-5 milliseconds, with three harmonics; second harmonic of 48-54 kHz is usually of high intensity.","Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are found roosting with other bat species, including mormoopids, but spatially separated from them. Large clusters of hundreds of thousands have been observed in some localities, but small groups are more commonly reported. Individuals usually maintain a distance of ¢. 15 cmfrom each other within the colony. There are seasonal fluctuations in sizes of colonies, with higher numbers of individuals usually observed in the dry season. In Ecuador, populations occupying caves in different geographical regions might maintain gene flow, suggesting high dispersal abilities. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of the reproductive cycle.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are classified as vulnerable in Ecuadorand critically endangered in Curacaodue to size of declines and threats faced by populations known in these areas. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bat has a large but discontinuous distribution.,"Avila & Medellin (2004) | Bateman & Vaughan (1974) | Birney et al. (1974) | Boada et al. (2003) | Bonaccorso et al. (1992) | Camacho et al. (2017) | Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998) | Goodwin & Greenhall (1961) | Morgan (2001) | Petit et al. (2006) | Rezsutek & Cameron (1993) | Rydell et al. (2002) | Salles et al. (2014) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008) | Torres-Flores et al. (2012) | Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)",,"2.Peters’s Ghostfaced BatMormoops megalophyllaFrench:Mormoops de Peters/ German:Peters-Kinnblattfledermaus/ Spanish:Mormépido de PetersOther common names:Ghost-faced Bat, Leaf-chinned Bat, Old-man BatTaxonomy. Mormops [sic] megalophylla Peters, 1864, “ Mexico.” Restricted by |.. D. Smith in 1972 to “Parris, Coahuila, México.”Fossil records of M. megalophyllaare reported from several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Bahamas, Florida(USA), and Bahia(Brazil). Based on these records, distribution of M. megalophyllawas more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. megalophylla Peters, 1864— from SW Arizonaand Texas, USA, and Baja California, Mexico, S to W Nicaragua.M. m. carteri J. D. Smith, 1972— Carchiand Pichinchaprovinces, N Ecuador, and LambayequeDepartment, NW Peru.M. m. intermedia G. S. Miller, 1900— Netherlands Antilles(Aruba, Curacao, and Bonaire).M. m. tumidiceps G. S. Miller, 1902— coastal and inland localities between C & E Andes ranges of Colombia, Caribbean coast of Venezuelaincluding Margarita I, and TrinidadI.Descriptive notes. Head—body ¢.56-73 mm, tail 18-31 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 9-14 mm, forearm 50-61 mm; weight 11-22 g.; individuals of subspecies intermediaare smallest (forearm 50-54 mm) and those of subspecies carteri are largest (forearm 56— 61 mm). Pelage is long and lax. Fur color varies from pale brown to deep cinnamonred; hairs usually have four color bands. Individuals from South American subspecies have cape of long hairs over shoulders, contrasting in color with dorsal fur. Ears are short and rounded. Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat is externally and cranially similar to the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (M. blainvillei) but larger. Skull rostrum is proportionally broader. Braincase is squared in profile, with parietals inflated. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-1-15-1 mm.Habitat. Temperate coniferous forest and lowland tropical rainforest to xerophytic scrub. In Ecuador, Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat occurs in cloud forest at elevations of 2350-2700 m. It seems to be more common in hot lowland areas in its northern distribution and in forested areas in tropical regions.Food and Feeding.Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat feeds mostly on large moths, usually with body lengths of 5-6 mm; other prey items include beetles and flies.Breeding.Female Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature to establish maternity roosts. Male Peters’s Ghostfaced Bats select cooler caves outside mating season. There is evidence that reproductive cycle differs throughout the distribution. Mating season in Venezuelareportedly occurs in March-April. Pregnant females were observed in May and November in Ecuadorand February—June in North America. Lactating females were reported in January, March, and October in Ecuador, March on Trinidad Island, and June-August in North America.Activity patterns.Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats usually roost in large and deep cave systems or in abandoned mine shafts. Although they have been observed in roosts with wide ranges of temperatures (over 15°C) and humidity (over 50%), females only use hot caves as maternity roosts. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats fly higher and faster than other mormoopids, usually foraging in open spaces along canyons and over streams. They are more commonly caught in caves or in other day roosts than in mist nets. They usually become active later than other species of mormoopids, emerging from day roosts after dark. In Ecuador, two activity peaks have been reported. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of steep FM downsweep pulses of ¢.3-5-5 milliseconds, with three harmonics; second harmonic of 48-54 kHz is usually of high intensity.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are found roosting with other bat species, including mormoopids, but spatially separated from them. Large clusters of hundreds of thousands have been observed in some localities, but small groups are more commonly reported. Individuals usually maintain a distance of ¢. 15 cmfrom each other within the colony. There are seasonal fluctuations in sizes of colonies, with higher numbers of individuals usually observed in the dry season. In Ecuador, populations occupying caves in different geographical regions might maintain gene flow, suggesting high dispersal abilities. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of the reproductive cycle.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are classified as vulnerable in Ecuadorand critically endangered in Curacaodue to size of declines and threats faced by populations known in these areas. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bat has a large but discontinuous distribution.Bibliography. Avila & Medellin (2004), Bateman & Vaughan (1974), Birney et al. (1974), Boada et al. (2003), Bonaccorso et al. (1992), Camacho et al. (2017), Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998), Goodwin & Greenhall (1961), Morgan (2001), Petit et al. (2006), Rezsutek & Cameron (1993), Rydell et al. (2002), Salles et al. (2014), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008), Torres-Flores et al. (2012), Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)." +03A637439154FFE8E4E7C52129FBAC0D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,437,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439154FFE8E4E7C52129FBAC0D.xml,Mormoops megalophylla,Mormoops,megalophylla,,,Mormoops de Peters @fr | Peters-Kinnblattfledermaus @de | Mormépido de Peters @es | Ghost-faced Bat @en | Leaf-chinned Bat @en | Old-man Bat @en,"Mormops [sic] megalophylla Peters, 1864, “ Mexico.” Restricted by |.. D. Smith in 1972 to “Parris, Coahuila, México.”Fossil records of M. megalophyllaare reported from several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Bahamas, Florida(USA), and Bahia(Brazil). Based on these records, distribution of M. megalophyllawas more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Four subspecies recognized.","M. m. megalophylla Peters, 1864— from SW Arizonaand Texas, USA, and Baja California, Mexico, S to W Nicaragua.M. m. carteri J. D. Smith, 1972— Carchiand Pichinchaprovinces, N Ecuador, and LambayequeDepartment, NW Peru.M. m. intermedia G. S. Miller, 1900— Netherlands Antilles(Aruba, Curacao, and Bonaire).M. m. tumidiceps G. S. Miller, 1902— coastal and inland localities between C & E Andes ranges of Colombia, Caribbean coast of Venezuelaincluding Margarita I, and TrinidadI.","Head—body ¢.56-73 mm, tail 18-31 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 9-14 mm, forearm 50-61 mm; weight 11-22 g.; individuals of subspecies intermediaare smallest (forearm 50-54 mm) and those of subspecies carteri are largest (forearm 56— 61 mm). Pelage is long and lax. Fur color varies from pale brown to deep cinnamonred; hairs usually have four color bands. Individuals from South American subspecies have cape of long hairs over shoulders, contrasting in color with dorsal fur. Ears are short and rounded. Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat is externally and cranially similar to the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (M. blainvillei) but larger. Skull rostrum is proportionally broader. Braincase is squared in profile, with parietals inflated. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-1-15-1 mm.","Temperate coniferous forest and lowland tropical rainforest to xerophytic scrub. In Ecuador, Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat occurs in cloud forest at elevations of 2350-2700 m. It seems to be more common in hot lowland areas in its northern distribution and in forested areas in tropical regions.","Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat feeds mostly on large moths, usually with body lengths of 5-6 mm; other prey items include beetles and flies.","Female Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature to establish maternity roosts. Male Peters’s Ghostfaced Bats select cooler caves outside mating season. There is evidence that reproductive cycle differs throughout the distribution. Mating season in Venezuelareportedly occurs in March-April. Pregnant females were observed in May and November in Ecuadorand February—June in North America. Lactating females were reported in January, March, and October in Ecuador, March on Trinidad Island, and June-August in North America.","Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats usually roost in large and deep cave systems or in abandoned mine shafts. Although they have been observed in roosts with wide ranges of temperatures (over 15°C) and humidity (over 50%), females only use hot caves as maternity roosts. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats fly higher and faster than other mormoopids, usually foraging in open spaces along canyons and over streams. They are more commonly caught in caves or in other day roosts than in mist nets. They usually become active later than other species of mormoopids, emerging from day roosts after dark. In Ecuador, two activity peaks have been reported. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of steep FM downsweep pulses of ¢.3-5-5 milliseconds, with three harmonics; second harmonic of 48-54 kHz is usually of high intensity.","Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are found roosting with other bat species, including mormoopids, but spatially separated from them. Large clusters of hundreds of thousands have been observed in some localities, but small groups are more commonly reported. Individuals usually maintain a distance of ¢. 15 cmfrom each other within the colony. There are seasonal fluctuations in sizes of colonies, with higher numbers of individuals usually observed in the dry season. In Ecuador, populations occupying caves in different geographical regions might maintain gene flow, suggesting high dispersal abilities. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of the reproductive cycle.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are classified as vulnerable in Ecuadorand critically endangered in Curacaodue to size of declines and threats faced by populations known in these areas. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bat has a large but discontinuous distribution.,"Avila & Medellin (2004) | Bateman & Vaughan (1974) | Birney et al. (1974) | Boada et al. (2003) | Bonaccorso et al. (1992) | Camacho et al. (2017) | Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998) | Goodwin & Greenhall (1961) | Morgan (2001) | Petit et al. (2006) | Rezsutek & Cameron (1993) | Rydell et al. (2002) | Salles et al. (2014) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008) | Torres-Flores et al. (2012) | Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)",https://zenodo.org/record/6419799/files/figure.png,"2.Peters’s Ghostfaced BatMormoops megalophyllaFrench:Mormoops de Peters/ German:Peters-Kinnblattfledermaus/ Spanish:Mormépido de PetersOther common names:Ghost-faced Bat, Leaf-chinned Bat, Old-man BatTaxonomy. Mormops [sic] megalophylla Peters, 1864, “ Mexico.” Restricted by |.. D. Smith in 1972 to “Parris, Coahuila, México.”Fossil records of M. megalophyllaare reported from several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Bahamas, Florida(USA), and Bahia(Brazil). Based on these records, distribution of M. megalophyllawas more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. megalophylla Peters, 1864— from SW Arizonaand Texas, USA, and Baja California, Mexico, S to W Nicaragua.M. m. carteri J. D. Smith, 1972— Carchiand Pichinchaprovinces, N Ecuador, and LambayequeDepartment, NW Peru.M. m. intermedia G. S. Miller, 1900— Netherlands Antilles(Aruba, Curacao, and Bonaire).M. m. tumidiceps G. S. Miller, 1902— coastal and inland localities between C & E Andes ranges of Colombia, Caribbean coast of Venezuelaincluding Margarita I, and TrinidadI.Descriptive notes. Head—body ¢.56-73 mm, tail 18-31 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 9-14 mm, forearm 50-61 mm; weight 11-22 g.; individuals of subspecies intermediaare smallest (forearm 50-54 mm) and those of subspecies carteri are largest (forearm 56— 61 mm). Pelage is long and lax. Fur color varies from pale brown to deep cinnamonred; hairs usually have four color bands. Individuals from South American subspecies have cape of long hairs over shoulders, contrasting in color with dorsal fur. Ears are short and rounded. Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat is externally and cranially similar to the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (M. blainvillei) but larger. Skull rostrum is proportionally broader. Braincase is squared in profile, with parietals inflated. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-1-15-1 mm.Habitat. Temperate coniferous forest and lowland tropical rainforest to xerophytic scrub. In Ecuador, Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat occurs in cloud forest at elevations of 2350-2700 m. It seems to be more common in hot lowland areas in its northern distribution and in forested areas in tropical regions.Food and Feeding.Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat feeds mostly on large moths, usually with body lengths of 5-6 mm; other prey items include beetles and flies.Breeding.Female Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature to establish maternity roosts. Male Peters’s Ghostfaced Bats select cooler caves outside mating season. There is evidence that reproductive cycle differs throughout the distribution. Mating season in Venezuelareportedly occurs in March-April. Pregnant females were observed in May and November in Ecuadorand February—June in North America. Lactating females were reported in January, March, and October in Ecuador, March on Trinidad Island, and June-August in North America.Activity patterns.Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats usually roost in large and deep cave systems or in abandoned mine shafts. Although they have been observed in roosts with wide ranges of temperatures (over 15°C) and humidity (over 50%), females only use hot caves as maternity roosts. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats fly higher and faster than other mormoopids, usually foraging in open spaces along canyons and over streams. They are more commonly caught in caves or in other day roosts than in mist nets. They usually become active later than other species of mormoopids, emerging from day roosts after dark. In Ecuador, two activity peaks have been reported. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of steep FM downsweep pulses of ¢.3-5-5 milliseconds, with three harmonics; second harmonic of 48-54 kHz is usually of high intensity.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are found roosting with other bat species, including mormoopids, but spatially separated from them. Large clusters of hundreds of thousands have been observed in some localities, but small groups are more commonly reported. Individuals usually maintain a distance of ¢. 15 cmfrom each other within the colony. There are seasonal fluctuations in sizes of colonies, with higher numbers of individuals usually observed in the dry season. In Ecuador, populations occupying caves in different geographical regions might maintain gene flow, suggesting high dispersal abilities. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of the reproductive cycle.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are classified as vulnerable in Ecuadorand critically endangered in Curacaodue to size of declines and threats faced by populations known in these areas. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bat has a large but discontinuous distribution.Bibliography. Avila & Medellin (2004), Bateman & Vaughan (1974), Birney et al. (1974), Boada et al. (2003), Bonaccorso et al. (1992), Camacho et al. (2017), Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998), Goodwin & Greenhall (1961), Morgan (2001), Petit et al. (2006), Rezsutek & Cameron (1993), Rydell et al. (2002), Salles et al. (2014), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008), Torres-Flores et al. (2012), Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)." 03A637439154FFE8E4EBC8922E75ABCB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,437,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439154FFE8E4EBC8922E75ABCB.xml,Mormoops blainvillei,Mormoops,blainvillei,Leach,1821,Mormoops de Blainville @fr | Antillen-Kinnblattfledermaus @de | Mormoépido de Blainville @es | Blainville's Ghost-faced Bat @en,"Mormoops blainvillii[sic] Leach, 1821, “ Jamaica.”W. E. Leach in 1821 described two new species, Aello cuviert and Mormoopsblainvilliz, in the same volume of the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, with Aello appearing eight pages before Mormoops. After examining the type specimens, G. E. Dobson in 1878 concluded that both names applied to the same species. Despite the page priority, he argued to retain the name Mormoopsbecause the definition of the genus Aello was incorrect, and the type specimen had lost many of the diagnostic characteristics. Based on Dobson’s recommendation, other subsequent revisions of the group chose the name Mormoops blainvillii over Aellocuvieri. Hence, opinion 462 of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) in 1957 officially recognized the name Mormoopsas having precedence over Aello. In this same document, the specific epithet blainvilleiwas placed as the correct spelling. Fossil records of M. blainvilleiare reported from several islands in the Bahamasand Greater Antilles and Anguilla, Antigua, and Barbudain the Lesser Antilles. Based on these records, M. blainvilleihad a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than it has today. Monotypic.","Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Mona I.","Head-body ¢.52-56 mm, tail 28-30 mm, hindfoot 10-11 mm, forearm 43-50 mm; weight 6-11 g. Pelage is long, soft, and silky. Fur color varies from pale cinnamon to reddish; hairs are slightly darker dorsally than ventrally. Ears are short and rounded. Labionasal plate is complex, with nostrils surrounded by separate pads; margin above and between nostrils is characterized by several irregularly shaped tubercles. Skull rostrum is strongly upturned, almost at a 90° angle to braincase plane. Braincase is globular, with inflated parietals. Condylo-basal lengths are 12-14 mm. Incisors are delicate, separated from canines by conspicuous diastemata in upper tooth row. There is a geographical trend of increasing overall size from Cubato Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, with Jamaican populations being intermediate in size.",Semi-open spaces along riverine galleries and forested terraces to forage and caves to roost.,"The Antillean Ghost-faced Bat feeds exclusively on insects, mostly small lepidopterans, but dipterans, homopterans, coleopterans, and ephemeropterans have also been reported in diets.",The Antillean Ghostfaced Bat is monoestrous and has one young per year. Records on reproductive status in Cubanoted pregnancy in March—June and lactation until September. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of reproductive cycle.,"The Antillean Ghost-faced Bat usually flies at greater heights and faster speeds compared with sympatric species of Pteronotus. It is nocturnal; foraging activity starts relatively late after dark and is consistent throughout the night. Higher activity levels are associated with primary forest sites. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short and steep FM pulses averaging c.3 milliseconds, with up to four harmonics; second harmonic of 48-69kHz is typically most intense.","Antillean Ghostfaced Bats roost in hot, humid, and large caves, where colonies containing many thousands of individuals can be observed. They are commonly found roosting with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but in spatially separated clusters.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Antillean Ghostfaced Bat is one of the most abundant species of insectivorous bats in the Greater Antilles.,Dobson (1878) | Emrich et al. (2014) | Genoways et al. (2005) | ICZN (1957) | Jennings et al. (2004) | Lancaster & Kalko (1996) | Leach (1821) | Macias et al. (2006) | Mancina et al. (2012) | Morgan (2001) | Patton & Gardner (2008) | Rodriguez-Duran & Padilla-Rodriguez (2010) | Rolfe et al. (2014) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972),https://zenodo.org/record/6419795/files/figure.png,"1.Antllean Ghost-faced BatMormoops blainvilleiFrench:Mormoops de Blainville/ German:Antillen-Kinnblattfledermaus/ Spanish:Mormoépido de BlainvilleOther common names:Blainville's Ghost-faced BatTaxonomy.Mormoops blainvillii[sic] Leach, 1821, “ Jamaica.”W. E. Leach in 1821 described two new species, Aello cuviert and Mormoopsblainvilliz, in the same volume of the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, with Aello appearing eight pages before Mormoops. After examining the type specimens, G. E. Dobson in 1878 concluded that both names applied to the same species. Despite the page priority, he argued to retain the name Mormoopsbecause the definition of the genus Aello was incorrect, and the type specimen had lost many of the diagnostic characteristics. Based on Dobson’s recommendation, other subsequent revisions of the group chose the name Mormoops blainvillii over Aellocuvieri. Hence, opinion 462 of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) in 1957 officially recognized the name Mormoopsas having precedence over Aello. In this same document, the specific epithet blainvilleiwas placed as the correct spelling. Fossil records of M. blainvilleiare reported from several islands in the Bahamasand Greater Antilles and Anguilla, Antigua, and Barbudain the Lesser Antilles. Based on these records, M. blainvilleihad a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than it has today. Monotypic.Distribution.Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Mona I.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.52-56 mm, tail 28-30 mm, hindfoot 10-11 mm, forearm 43-50 mm; weight 6-11 g. Pelage is long, soft, and silky. Fur color varies from pale cinnamon to reddish; hairs are slightly darker dorsally than ventrally. Ears are short and rounded. Labionasal plate is complex, with nostrils surrounded by separate pads; margin above and between nostrils is characterized by several irregularly shaped tubercles. Skull rostrum is strongly upturned, almost at a 90° angle to braincase plane. Braincase is globular, with inflated parietals. Condylo-basal lengths are 12-14 mm. Incisors are delicate, separated from canines by conspicuous diastemata in upper tooth row. There is a geographical trend of increasing overall size from Cubato Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, with Jamaican populations being intermediate in size.Habitat.Semi-open spaces along riverine galleries and forested terraces to forage and caves to roost.Food and Feeding.The Antillean Ghost-faced Bat feeds exclusively on insects, mostly small lepidopterans, but dipterans, homopterans, coleopterans, and ephemeropterans have also been reported in diets.Breeding.The Antillean Ghostfaced Bat is monoestrous and has one young per year. Records on reproductive status in Cubanoted pregnancy in March—June and lactation until September. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of reproductive cycle.Activity patterns.The Antillean Ghost-faced Bat usually flies at greater heights and faster speeds compared with sympatric species of Pteronotus. It is nocturnal; foraging activity starts relatively late after dark and is consistent throughout the night. Higher activity levels are associated with primary forest sites. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short and steep FM pulses averaging c.3 milliseconds, with up to four harmonics; second harmonic of 48-69kHz is typically most intense.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Antillean Ghostfaced Bats roost in hot, humid, and large caves, where colonies containing many thousands of individuals can be observed. They are commonly found roosting with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but in spatially separated clusters.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Antillean Ghostfaced Bat is one of the most abundant species of insectivorous bats in the Greater Antilles.Bibliography.Dobson (1878), Emrich et al. (2014), Genoways et al. (2005), ICZN (1957), Jennings et al. (2004), Lancaster & Kalko (1996), Leach (1821), Macias et al. (2006), Mancina et al. (2012), Morgan (2001), Patton & Gardner (2008), Rodriguez-Duran & Padilla-Rodriguez (2010), Rolfe et al. (2014), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972)." 03A637439157FFEBE687C89F289BA554,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,424,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439157FFEBE687C89F289BA554.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family MORMOOPIDAE(GHOSTFACED, NAKED-BACKED AND MUSTACHED BATS)• Smallto medium-sized bats characterized by small eyes, large and funnel-shaped ears and complex lower lips with flap-like outgrowths.• 5-11 cm.• Nearctic and Neotropical Regions.• Arid and semiarid regions to coastal lowlands, tropical rainforest, and montane forests up to elevations of 2700 m.• 2 genera, 18 species, 24 taxa.•] species Endangered; none Extinct since 1600." 03A63743915EFFE2E1E0CC2F27B1ABC6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072,443,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A63743915EFFE2E1E0CC2F27B1ABC6.xml,Pteronotus alitonus,Pteronotus,alitonus,,,Ptéronote alitone @fr | Amazonas-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotusbiogotudo amazoénico @es | Amazonian Mustached Bat @en,"Pteronotus alitonus Pavan, Bobrowiec & Percequillo, 2018, “Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) area, 80 kmnorth of Manaus, Brazil(2°20’S, 60°6’W, elevation of 30- 125m).”Pteronotusalitonus was split from P. rubiginosus based on molecular, morphological, and acoustic evidence; it was referred to in some previous molecular studies as Pleronotus sp. 3or Pteronotus sp. 1. Monotypic.",The Guianas and N Brazil.,"Head—body ¢.65-70 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 17-19 mm, hindfoot 13-15 mm, forearm 59-64 mm; weight 18-26 g. Pelage is dense and short; color varies from pale brown to reddish. Skull rostrum is robust, and braincase is large and rounded. Condylo-basal lengths are 20-22 mm. Nasal bones form markedly concave area in rostrum at suture of maxillary and frontal bones; they are narrower and slightly upturned in their anterior part. Pterygoid canal has pair of foramina varying from almost indistinct perforations to small pits. Maxillary tooth row length is less than 9-7 mm. Greatest width across molars is more than 8: 1 mm. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Phyllodia are listed in descriptive notes for Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat (P. parnellii).",Continuous forests in the Amazon.,"The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat is insectivorous, but there is no specific information available on prey itemsin its diet.","In French Guiana, pregnant and lactating females were found in July, and post-lactating females between August and October.",The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat shows highest activity levels in forests in contrast to foraging sites over water bodies. Its activity patterns seem to be similar between dry and wet season in the central Amazon. Echolocation calls consist of long CF-FM pulses of ¢.25 milliseconds. Second harmonic has maximum energy at 59-60 kHz.,"The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat exhibits high genetic structuring, which might be consequence of low dispersal capability related to limitations to cross open landscapes in the Amazon region.",Not assessed on The [UCN Red List.,"Clare et al. (2013) | Filippi-Codaccioni et al. (2018) | Lépez-Baucells, Torrent et al. (2018) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Pavan et al. (2018) | de Thoisy et al. (2014) | Torrent et al. (2018)",https://zenodo.org/record/6419845/files/figure.png,"18.Amazonian Common Mustached BatPteronotus alitonusFrench:Ptéronote alitone/ German:Amazonas-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotusbiogotudo amazoénicoOther common names:Amazonian Mustached BatTaxonomy.Pteronotus alitonus Pavan, Bobrowiec & Percequillo, 2018, “Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) area, 80 kmnorth of Manaus, Brazil(2°20’S, 60°6’W, elevation of 30- 125m).”Pteronotusalitonus was split from P. rubiginosus based on molecular, morphological, and acoustic evidence; it was referred to in some previous molecular studies as Pleronotus sp. 3or Pteronotus sp. 1. Monotypic.Distribution.The Guianas and N Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head—body ¢.65-70 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 17-19 mm, hindfoot 13-15 mm, forearm 59-64 mm; weight 18-26 g. Pelage is dense and short; color varies from pale brown to reddish. Skull rostrum is robust, and braincase is large and rounded. Condylo-basal lengths are 20-22 mm. Nasal bones form markedly concave area in rostrum at suture of maxillary and frontal bones; they are narrower and slightly upturned in their anterior part. Pterygoid canal has pair of foramina varying from almost indistinct perforations to small pits. Maxillary tooth row length is less than 9-7 mm. Greatest width across molars is more than 8: 1 mm. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Phyllodia are listed in descriptive notes for Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat (P. parnellii).Habitat.Continuous forests in the Amazon.Food and Feeding.The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat is insectivorous, but there is no specific information available on prey itemsin its diet.Breeding.In French Guiana, pregnant and lactating females were found in July, and post-lactating females between August and October.Activity patterns.The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat shows highest activity levels in forests in contrast to foraging sites over water bodies. Its activity patterns seem to be similar between dry and wet season in the central Amazon. Echolocation calls consist of long CF-FM pulses of ¢.25 milliseconds. Second harmonic has maximum energy at 59-60 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat exhibits high genetic structuring, which might be consequence of low dispersal capability related to limitations to cross open landscapes in the Amazon region.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List.Bibliography.Clare et al. (2013), Filippi-Codaccioni et al. (2018), Lépez-Baucells, Torrent et al. (2018), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Pavan et al. (2018), de Thoisy et al. (2014), Torrent et al. (2018)." @@ -479,45 +479,45 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03A91B1CC1544A66C9AAF8329A636A4A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c,309,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1544A66C9AAF8329A636A4A.xml,Hystrix cristata,Hystrix,cristata,Linnaeus,1758,Porc-épic a créte @fr | Gewohnliches Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin crestado @es | North African Crested Porcupine @en,"Hystrix cristata Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “near Rome,Italy.”Hystrix cristatais in subgenus Hystrix. Two species, H. cristataand H. galeata, had been described from Africa north of the Equator, but wide overlap in all characteristics led G. B. Corbet and L. A. Jones in 1965 to regard them as a single species. Several subspecies had been described in Italy and North Africa, although D. C. D. Happold recognized none in 2013. Monotypic.","S Europe (mainland Italy and Sicily Is), N Africa (along the coast and in parts of the Atlas Mts in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, parts of Libyan and Egyptian coasts, and isolated populations in the semiarid parts of Mauritania, Mali, and Niger), E Africa (S Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, S Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Somalia), and across a narrow band extending from Senegal to Tanzania (and including Zanzibar I). Introduced in the 19"" century into Elba I (but now possibly extinct there) and from 2005 into Sardinia from mainland Italy.","Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 39 mm (one individual), hindfoot 86 mm (one individual); weight 8-27 kg. The Crested Porcupine is the second largest rodent in Europe (second to the Eurasian Beaver, Castorfiber) and, along with the similarly sized Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis), is the largest rodent in Africa. It is thickset, with coarse blackish brown fur and well-bristled body, relatively short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Male-biased and reverse sexualsize dimorphism has been reported, but two recent studies found no difference in body size between adult males and females. Quill type and distribution are similar to the Cape Porcupine. Head, neck, feet, and belly of the Crested Porcupine are covered with short, sturdy, flattened spines and bristles (20-45 mm long, 2 mm wide). Back and sides are covered with 300-400 mm long,stiff true quills, banded in black and white. Well-developed integumentary smooth muscles and subcutaneous muscles reflect quill arrangement on back; these muscles contract to raise quills. Microscopic spiny bristles are present on quill surfaces and oriented in opposite direction from quills, resulting in a “harpoonlike” effect. Legs and ventrum are covered with short, coarse black hairs. Short legs are stout, and feet have large pads and well-developed claws. Erectile, well-developed crest of coarse brownish white hair up to 500 mm in length spreads from top of head to shoulders and characterizes morphology of the subgenus Hystrix. White chin patch is often present. Yellow-gray head of the Crested Porcupine is large and blunt, with small dark eyes and darkly pigmented ears, and has long, dark mystacial vibrissae. Long, wide nasal bones are more than 57% of occipito-nasal length and extend posteriorly almost to anterior end of orbits. Frontal:nasal ratios are 23-38%. Upper incisors are smooth, and folds of enamel and dentine characterize cheekteeth. Rump is covered with short, flat, dark bristles on dorsal and ventral sides. Short tail is covered with short quills, mostly invisible beneath defensive quills on lower back, and has rattle-quills that rattle when tail is shaken. There are 4-6 mammae. Perianal glands are well developed. In the field, it is difficult to distinguish the Crested Porcupine from the Cape Porcupine; short quills on lower rump of the Crested Porcupine are black, whereas they are white on the Cape Porcupine. Skull differences are clear and were well described by van Weers. Compared with the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), short spines on rump of the Crested Porcupine form conspicuous white patches when raised, and crest is predominantly white. Premaxillae of medium width, and frontal-to-nasal ratio 23-38%.","Woodlands, warm and cold savanna grasslands, dry semi-deserts, and warm Mediterranean coastal shrublands. In Algeria and Morocco, the Crested Porcupine lives in forested hills and steppes. In the Atlas Mountains and on Kilimanjaro,it lives at elevations of up to 3500 m. It prefers rocky areas.","The Crested Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats subterranean bulbs, roots,fruits, and bark. It can be a pest to farmers, damaging cassava, sweet potato, and groundnut crops in savanna farmlands. In Italy, the Crested Porcupine changesits diet seasonally, consuming roots as the predominant food year-round, supplemented by herbs in winter and spring, grass inflorescences and fruits in summer, and fruits in autumn.","The Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Indian Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Breeding takes place throughout the year, with a female giving birth to 1-2 precocial offspring once or twice per year. In captivity, there is a nightly rhythm of mounting. Multiple mountings per night are typical, but copulation takes place only during estrus (a difference from the Indian Crested Porcupine and the Cape Porcupine in which mounting and copulation take place independent of stage of estrus). The female Crested Porcupine presses her quills against her back to allow mating. Gestation lasts 7-8 weeks,after which litters of 1-4 young are born in a grass-lined burrow. Longevity is up to 20 years.","The Crested Porcupine is nocturnal. Individuals spend their days at rest in burrows. In Italy, a Crested Porcupine might share its burrow with a European Badger (Meles meles). The Crested Porcupine is active across a wide range of temperatures, with mean duration of nocturnal and crepuscular activity in central Italy lasting on average 9-2 hours/night, varying little throughout the year. In cold months when nights were longer, individuals left burrows after sunset and returned some hours before sunrise. In the warm season, they left at sunset or shortly before and returned at or shortly after sunrise. Moonlight avoidance is slight. Diurnal activity is scarce. When alarmed, a Crested Porcupine first raises its quills and erects its crest; second,it rattles its tail; and third, it stomps its hindfeet and growls. If these displays fail to deter a threat, it may attack by moving rapidly backward and sideways toward it, stabbing it with its long defensive quills that detach easily from the skin.","Crested Porcupines live in family groups. In captivity, males mark feeding sites with secretions from perianal glands. Chemical profiles from secretions of perianal glands may aid in individual recognition. Published studies of space use, home range, and social behavior report only on Italian populations. Home range size does not differ between males and females, although in one study in Tuscany, upper-limit of home range size was significantly higher for females than males. Home range size varies with habitat and season. Crested Porcupines in agricultural areas have larger home ranges than those in natural maquis shrubland (densely growing evergreen shrubs), and home range size decreases with increasing habitat richness. Home ranges were significantly larger in the warm season than the cold season in both habitats. Average minimum convex polygon home range size in agricultural areas was 151 ha in summer and 128 ha in winter vs. 50 ha in summer and 34 ha in winter in natural areas. For each male-female pair, median home range overlap is ¢.75%, with no change between seasons. Pair members show a strong and consistent spatial overlap throughout the year. Crested Porcupines prefer covered habitats by day. At night, those foraging in agricultural habitat spent 42-5% of time in ecotone areas, 28-5% in fields or fallows, and 28% in woods; those foraging in natural habitats stayed in cover 69% ofthe time, using the ecotone only 19% and open habitat 12% of the time. In terms of distance moved per night, Crested Porcupines moved greater distances in pine woods habitat (460-746 m) than grazed areas (210-225 m). Those living in pinewoods did not move to agricultural fields to forage, but those living in grazed areas did. Crested Porcupines will visit feeding areas as far as 10-12 km from their dens. Very little is known about densities and population dynamics of Crested Porcupines. In Italy, the Crested Porcupine has been found in feces of Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and, rarely, Gray Wolves (Canis lupus).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Crested Porcupine is a nationally protected species in Italy, although its eradication from Sardinia, where it has been recently introduced, has been recommended. Some recommend listing the Crested Porcupine as an endangered species in Europe, due to destruction of maquis,its optimal habitat, and because of poaching (especially in recently colonized areas). Payments of up to €19,500/year are claimed for crop damage by farmers in southern Tuscany. Distributional expansion in Italy would suggest that the Crested Porcupine is in fact doing well. Lack of data on abundance and densities regionally and nationally in Italy makes management a challenge. In Africa, the Crested Porcupine is one of the most important species for subsistence and income in the Albertine Rift where it is used for human food and wearing apparel. Almost nothing is written about ecology or behavior of the Crested Porcupine from anywhere in Africa. Although there remains some debate about how the Crested Porcupine came to be in Italy, its presence there is likely the result of an introduction from North Africa. Although there are fossil remains from the genus Hystrixin Europe beyond Italy, recent molecular analysis of three genes from Italian and African specimens shows a pattern of diversity congruent with an introduction from northern Africa during the Roman Age; one of three clades revealed in the analysis grouped Italian specimens together with specimens from Tunisia. A large number of DNA haplotypes present in Italian specimens may indicate several introductions over historical time. Since the 1970s, distribution of the Crested Porcupine in Italy has been expanding northward and eastward, crossing the Apennines from the Tyrrhenian coast to Marche. Historical and social factors, including progressive urbanization and consequent abandonment of traditional land use in mountainous areas, probably have contributed to distributional expansion. Despite suggestions otherwise, the Crested Porcupine has never occurred on the Ionian and Aegean islands, the Balkans, or the Iberian Peninsula in the Holocene, even in the very recent past.","Amori & Angelici (1992) | Angelici, Cabras & Trucchi (2009) | Angelici, Capizzi et al. (2003) | Bruno & Riccardi (1995) | Carr et al. (2013) | Corbet (1978) | Corbet & Jones (1965) | Corsini et al. (1995) | Felicioli et al. (1997) | Fischer et al. (2002) | Foley et al. (2014) | Giotto (2011) | Grubb et al. (2008) | Happold (2013a) | Hoath (2009) | Lovari et al. (2013) | Masseti (2012) | Massolo et al. (2009) | Mohr (1965) | Mori & Lovari (2014) | Mori et al. (2013) | Nowak (1999a) | Pigozzi (1987, 1992) | Pigozzi & Patterson (1990) | Sonnino (1998) | Storch (1990) | Thomas (1911c¢) | Trucchi & Sbordoni (2009) | van Weers (1979)",https://zenodo.org/record/6612239/files/figure.png,"9.Crested PorcupineHystrix cristataFrench:Porc-épic a créte/ German:Gewohnliches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin crestadoOther common names:North African Crested PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix cristata Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “near Rome,Italy.”Hystrix cristatais in subgenus Hystrix. Two species, H. cristataand H. galeata, had been described from Africa north of the Equator, but wide overlap in all characteristics led G. B. Corbet and L. A. Jones in 1965 to regard them as a single species. Several subspecies had been described in Italy and North Africa, although D. C. D. Happold recognized none in 2013. Monotypic.Distribution.S Europe (mainland Italy and Sicily Is), N Africa (along the coast and in parts of the Atlas Mts in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, parts of Libyan and Egyptian coasts, and isolated populations in the semiarid parts of Mauritania, Mali, and Niger), E Africa (S Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, S Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Somalia), and across a narrow band extending from Senegal to Tanzania (and including Zanzibar I). Introduced in the 19"" century into Elba I (but now possibly extinct there) and from 2005 into Sardinia from mainland Italy.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 39 mm (one individual), hindfoot 86 mm (one individual); weight 8-27 kg. The Crested Porcupine is the second largest rodent in Europe (second to the Eurasian Beaver, Castorfiber) and, along with the similarly sized Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis), is the largest rodent in Africa. It is thickset, with coarse blackish brown fur and well-bristled body, relatively short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Male-biased and reverse sexualsize dimorphism has been reported, but two recent studies found no difference in body size between adult males and females. Quill type and distribution are similar to the Cape Porcupine. Head, neck, feet, and belly of the Crested Porcupine are covered with short, sturdy, flattened spines and bristles (20-45 mm long, 2 mm wide). Back and sides are covered with 300-400 mm long,stiff true quills, banded in black and white. Well-developed integumentary smooth muscles and subcutaneous muscles reflect quill arrangement on back; these muscles contract to raise quills. Microscopic spiny bristles are present on quill surfaces and oriented in opposite direction from quills, resulting in a “harpoonlike” effect. Legs and ventrum are covered with short, coarse black hairs. Short legs are stout, and feet have large pads and well-developed claws. Erectile, well-developed crest of coarse brownish white hair up to 500 mm in length spreads from top of head to shoulders and characterizes morphology of the subgenus Hystrix. White chin patch is often present. Yellow-gray head of the Crested Porcupine is large and blunt, with small dark eyes and darkly pigmented ears, and has long, dark mystacial vibrissae. Long, wide nasal bones are more than 57% of occipito-nasal length and extend posteriorly almost to anterior end of orbits. Frontal:nasal ratios are 23-38%. Upper incisors are smooth, and folds of enamel and dentine characterize cheekteeth. Rump is covered with short, flat, dark bristles on dorsal and ventral sides. Short tail is covered with short quills, mostly invisible beneath defensive quills on lower back, and has rattle-quills that rattle when tail is shaken. There are 4-6 mammae. Perianal glands are well developed. In the field, it is difficult to distinguish the Crested Porcupine from the Cape Porcupine; short quills on lower rump of the Crested Porcupine are black, whereas they are white on the Cape Porcupine. Skull differences are clear and were well described by van Weers. Compared with the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), short spines on rump of the Crested Porcupine form conspicuous white patches when raised, and crest is predominantly white. Premaxillae of medium width, and frontal-to-nasal ratio 23-38%.Habitat.Woodlands, warm and cold savanna grasslands, dry semi-deserts, and warm Mediterranean coastal shrublands. In Algeria and Morocco, the Crested Porcupine lives in forested hills and steppes. In the Atlas Mountains and on Kilimanjaro,it lives at elevations of up to 3500 m. It prefers rocky areas.Food and Feeding.The Crested Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats subterranean bulbs, roots,fruits, and bark. It can be a pest to farmers, damaging cassava, sweet potato, and groundnut crops in savanna farmlands. In Italy, the Crested Porcupine changesits diet seasonally, consuming roots as the predominant food year-round, supplemented by herbs in winter and spring, grass inflorescences and fruits in summer, and fruits in autumn.Breeding.The Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Indian Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Breeding takes place throughout the year, with a female giving birth to 1-2 precocial offspring once or twice per year. In captivity, there is a nightly rhythm of mounting. Multiple mountings per night are typical, but copulation takes place only during estrus (a difference from the Indian Crested Porcupine and the Cape Porcupine in which mounting and copulation take place independent of stage of estrus). The female Crested Porcupine presses her quills against her back to allow mating. Gestation lasts 7-8 weeks,after which litters of 1-4 young are born in a grass-lined burrow. Longevity is up to 20 years.Activity patterns.The Crested Porcupine is nocturnal. Individuals spend their days at rest in burrows. In Italy, a Crested Porcupine might share its burrow with a European Badger (Meles meles). The Crested Porcupine is active across a wide range of temperatures, with mean duration of nocturnal and crepuscular activity in central Italy lasting on average 9-2 hours/night, varying little throughout the year. In cold months when nights were longer, individuals left burrows after sunset and returned some hours before sunrise. In the warm season, they left at sunset or shortly before and returned at or shortly after sunrise. Moonlight avoidance is slight. Diurnal activity is scarce. When alarmed, a Crested Porcupine first raises its quills and erects its crest; second,it rattles its tail; and third, it stomps its hindfeet and growls. If these displays fail to deter a threat, it may attack by moving rapidly backward and sideways toward it, stabbing it with its long defensive quills that detach easily from the skin.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Crested Porcupines live in family groups. In captivity, males mark feeding sites with secretions from perianal glands. Chemical profiles from secretions of perianal glands may aid in individual recognition. Published studies of space use, home range, and social behavior report only on Italian populations. Home range size does not differ between males and females, although in one study in Tuscany, upper-limit of home range size was significantly higher for females than males. Home range size varies with habitat and season. Crested Porcupines in agricultural areas have larger home ranges than those in natural maquis shrubland (densely growing evergreen shrubs), and home range size decreases with increasing habitat richness. Home ranges were significantly larger in the warm season than the cold season in both habitats. Average minimum convex polygon home range size in agricultural areas was 151 ha in summer and 128 ha in winter vs. 50 ha in summer and 34 ha in winter in natural areas. For each male-female pair, median home range overlap is ¢.75%, with no change between seasons. Pair members show a strong and consistent spatial overlap throughout the year. Crested Porcupines prefer covered habitats by day. At night, those foraging in agricultural habitat spent 42-5% of time in ecotone areas, 28-5% in fields or fallows, and 28% in woods; those foraging in natural habitats stayed in cover 69% ofthe time, using the ecotone only 19% and open habitat 12% of the time. In terms of distance moved per night, Crested Porcupines moved greater distances in pine woods habitat (460-746 m) than grazed areas (210-225 m). Those living in pinewoods did not move to agricultural fields to forage, but those living in grazed areas did. Crested Porcupines will visit feeding areas as far as 10-12 km from their dens. Very little is known about densities and population dynamics of Crested Porcupines. In Italy, the Crested Porcupine has been found in feces of Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and, rarely, Gray Wolves (Canis lupus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Crested Porcupine is a nationally protected species in Italy, although its eradication from Sardinia, where it has been recently introduced, has been recommended. Some recommend listing the Crested Porcupine as an endangered species in Europe, due to destruction of maquis,its optimal habitat, and because of poaching (especially in recently colonized areas). Payments of up to €19,500/year are claimed for crop damage by farmers in southern Tuscany. Distributional expansion in Italy would suggest that the Crested Porcupine is in fact doing well. Lack of data on abundance and densities regionally and nationally in Italy makes management a challenge. In Africa, the Crested Porcupine is one of the most important species for subsistence and income in the Albertine Rift where it is used for human food and wearing apparel. Almost nothing is written about ecology or behavior of the Crested Porcupine from anywhere in Africa. Although there remains some debate about how the Crested Porcupine came to be in Italy, its presence there is likely the result of an introduction from North Africa. Although there are fossil remains from the genus Hystrixin Europe beyond Italy, recent molecular analysis of three genes from Italian and African specimens shows a pattern of diversity congruent with an introduction from northern Africa during the Roman Age; one of three clades revealed in the analysis grouped Italian specimens together with specimens from Tunisia. A large number of DNA haplotypes present in Italian specimens may indicate several introductions over historical time. Since the 1970s, distribution of the Crested Porcupine in Italy has been expanding northward and eastward, crossing the Apennines from the Tyrrhenian coast to Marche. Historical and social factors, including progressive urbanization and consequent abandonment of traditional land use in mountainous areas, probably have contributed to distributional expansion. Despite suggestions otherwise, the Crested Porcupine has never occurred on the Ionian and Aegean islands, the Balkans, or the Iberian Peninsula in the Holocene, even in the very recent past.Bibliography.Amori & Angelici (1992), Angelici, Cabras & Trucchi (2009), Angelici, Capizzi et al. (2003), Bruno & Riccardi (1995), Carr et al. (2013), Corbet (1978), Corbet & Jones (1965), Corsini et al. (1995), Felicioli et al. (1997), Fischer et al. (2002), Foley et al. (2014), Giotto (2011), Grubb et al. (2008), Happold (2013a), Hoath (2009), Lovari et al. (2013), Masseti (2012), Massolo et al. (2009), Mohr (1965), Mori & Lovari (2014), Mori et al. (2013), Nowak (1999a), Pigozzi (1987, 1992), Pigozzi & Patterson (1990), Sonnino (1998), Storch (1990), Thomas (1911c¢), Trucchi & Sbordoni (2009), van Weers (1979)." 03A91B1CC1554A64C975FEF29C8C6899,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c,308,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1554A64C975FEF29C8C6899.xml,Hystrix crassispinis,Hystrix,crassispinis,Gunther,1877,Porc-épic de Bornéo @fr | Borneo Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de espinas gruesas @es | Borneo Short-tailed Porcupine @en,"Hystrix crassispinis Gunther, 1877, “Borneo.” A. Gunther in 1877 cross referenced an earlier paper of his in the same journal in which the type locality was given as “Borneo, opposite of Labuau.”H. crassispinisis in subgenus Thecurus. Monotypic.",Borneo.,"Head-body 450-665 mm, tail 65-190 mm, ear 35-42 mm, hindfoot 80-90 mm; weight 3.8-5.4 kg.The Thick-spined Porcupine is medium-sized and brown, with extremely thick quills. It is the largest species in the subgenus Thecurus, with the largest quills, tactile bristles, and rattle-quills. It appears distinctly speckled by white tips of spines on cheeks, neck, shoulders, flanks, and sometimes anterior of back. Some large defensive quills on posterior of back have white tips ¢.25-65 mm long, while others are blackish up to their tips. Number of white-tipped quillsis larger than number of black quills; number of tactile bristles is small. As with other species in the subgenus Thecurus, there is no crest on head. Thick quills reach up to 8:3 mm in diameter, making them thicker than those in the largest specimens of subgenus Acanthion and as thick as those in subgenus Hystrix. Tail is short, with ratio of tail-to-head-body length less than 20%, and it has rattle-quills. Lengths of hollow capsule-like parts of rattle-quills are 12-16 mm. Long quills of hindquarters are dark brown, with fairly narrow white tips and bases, and quills beneath tail are brown and white. The Thick-spined Porcupine can be differentiated from the Sumatran Porcupine (H. sumatrae) byits larger skull with slightly longer nasals, longer rattle-quills, thicker quills, and largertactile bristles.","Primary lowland rainforest, old and young secondary forest, and open areas up to elevations of 1200 m in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Endemic island rodents such as the Thick-spined Porcupine may be particularly at risk of extinction and require further study.,"Amori, Gippoliti & Helgen (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Glinther (1877b) | Helgen & Lunde (2008) | Medway & Harrisson (1963) | Nowak (1999a) | Rustam et al. (2011) | Storch (1990) | van Weers (1978)",https://zenodo.org/record/6612229/files/figure.png,"5.Thick-spined PorcupineHystrix crassispinisFrench:Porc-épic de Bornéo/ German:Borneo Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de espinas gruesasOther common names:Borneo Short-tailed PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix crassispinis Gunther, 1877, “Borneo.” A. Gunther in 1877 cross referenced an earlier paper of his in the same journal in which the type locality was given as “Borneo, opposite of Labuau.”H. crassispinisis in subgenus Thecurus. Monotypic.Distribution.Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-665 mm, tail 65-190 mm, ear 35-42 mm, hindfoot 80-90 mm; weight 3.8-5.4 kg.The Thick-spined Porcupine is medium-sized and brown, with extremely thick quills. It is the largest species in the subgenus Thecurus, with the largest quills, tactile bristles, and rattle-quills. It appears distinctly speckled by white tips of spines on cheeks, neck, shoulders, flanks, and sometimes anterior of back. Some large defensive quills on posterior of back have white tips ¢.25-65 mm long, while others are blackish up to their tips. Number of white-tipped quillsis larger than number of black quills; number of tactile bristles is small. As with other species in the subgenus Thecurus, there is no crest on head. Thick quills reach up to 8:3 mm in diameter, making them thicker than those in the largest specimens of subgenus Acanthion and as thick as those in subgenus Hystrix. Tail is short, with ratio of tail-to-head-body length less than 20%, and it has rattle-quills. Lengths of hollow capsule-like parts of rattle-quills are 12-16 mm. Long quills of hindquarters are dark brown, with fairly narrow white tips and bases, and quills beneath tail are brown and white. The Thick-spined Porcupine can be differentiated from the Sumatran Porcupine (H. sumatrae) byits larger skull with slightly longer nasals, longer rattle-quills, thicker quills, and largertactile bristles.Habitat.Primary lowland rainforest, old and young secondary forest, and open areas up to elevations of 1200 m in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Endemic island rodents such as the Thick-spined Porcupine may be particularly at risk of extinction and require further study.Bibliography.Amori, Gippoliti & Helgen (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Glinther (1877b), Helgen & Lunde (2008), Medway & Harrisson (1963), Nowak (1999a), Rustam et al. (2011), Storch (1990), van Weers (1978)." 03A91B1CC1554A64C97BF83B9BD4629A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c,308,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1554A64C97BF83B9BD4629A.xml,Hystrix pumila,Hystrix,pumila,Gunther,1879,Porc-épic des Philippines @fr | Palawan-Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de Filipinas @es | Other common names @en | ndonesian Porcupine @en | Palawan Porcupine @en | Philippine Short-tailed Porcupine @en,"Hystrix pumila Gunther, 1879, “Puerto Princesa, in the island of Paragua [= Palawan],” Philippines.Placed in subgenus Thecurus. Monotypic.","SW Philippines, endemic on Palawan and adjacent Busuanga and Balabac Is.","Head-body 450-665 mm, tail 64-190 mm, ear 31 mm (one individual), hindfoot 69 mm (one individual); weight 3.8-5.4 kg. The Philippine Porcupineis the smallest species of Hystrix. Spiny covering of bodyis poorly developed, with very small quills,tactile bristles, and rattle-quills and only a small number of quills on back. Like other species of Hystrix, tail has rattle-quills. Lengths of hollow capsulelike parts of rattle-quills are 10-11 mm. There is no crest on head. Maximum diameters of thickest defensive quills on back are 4-5 mm, and they are colored as single dark bands with no white tips. Absence of white tips on long quills of back differentiates Philippine Porcupines from Sumatran Porcupines and Thick-spined Porcupines.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Population of the Philippine Porcupine is expected to decline by more than 30% in the next three generations, based on rate of forest loss and numbers of individuals taken for bushmeat and the pet trade. The Philippine Porcupine is the most important game species of the Tagbanwa people and is often dug out of subterranean dens. Endemic island rodents such as the Philippine Porcupine may be particularly at risk of extinction and require further study.","Amori, Gippoliti & Helgen (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Esselstyn et al. (2004) | Heaney et al. (2008) | Nowak (1999a) | Storch (1990) | van Weers (1978) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6612233/files/figure.png,"6.Philippine PorcupineHystrix pumilaFrench:Porc-épic des Philippines/ German:Palawan-Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de FilipinasOther common names:Indonesian Porcupine, Palawan Porcupine, Philippine Short-tailed PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix pumila Gunther, 1879, “Puerto Princesa, in the island of Paragua [= Palawan],” Philippines.Placed in subgenus Thecurus. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Philippines, endemic on Palawan and adjacent Busuanga and Balabac Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-665 mm, tail 64-190 mm, ear 31 mm (one individual), hindfoot 69 mm (one individual); weight 3.8-5.4 kg. The Philippine Porcupineis the smallest species of Hystrix. Spiny covering of bodyis poorly developed, with very small quills,tactile bristles, and rattle-quills and only a small number of quills on back. Like other species of Hystrix, tail has rattle-quills. Lengths of hollow capsulelike parts of rattle-quills are 10-11 mm. There is no crest on head. Maximum diameters of thickest defensive quills on back are 4-5 mm, and they are colored as single dark bands with no white tips. Absence of white tips on long quills of back differentiates Philippine Porcupines from Sumatran Porcupines and Thick-spined Porcupines.Habitat.There is no information available for this species.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Population of the Philippine Porcupine is expected to decline by more than 30% in the next three generations, based on rate of forest loss and numbers of individuals taken for bushmeat and the pet trade. The Philippine Porcupine is the most important game species of the Tagbanwa people and is often dug out of subterranean dens. Endemic island rodents such as the Philippine Porcupine may be particularly at risk of extinction and require further study.Bibliography.Amori, Gippoliti & Helgen (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Esselstyn et al. (2004), Heaney et al. (2008), Nowak (1999a), Storch (1990), van Weers (1978), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03A91B1CC1554A64CC72FEF59F20629E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c,308,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1554A64CC72FEF59F20629E.xml,Hystrix brachyura,Hystrix,brachyura,Linnaeus,1758,Porc-épic de Malaisie @fr | Malaiisches Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de Malasia @es | Himalayan Crestless Porcupine @en | Hodgson's Porcupine @en,"Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Identified by A. Grote in J. E. Gray in 1866 as “Malacca,” Malaya.Hystrix brachyurais in subgenus Acanthion. Many different subspecies have been described (some based on single specimens) including four recent subspecies in China, butD. J. van Weers in 1979 concluded after careful measurements of many specimens that although some clearly different populations can be recognized,full subspecific designation was unwarranted due to a high degree of intergradation. Further examination of a larger number of specimens, especially a larger number from China, will help resolve subspecific taxonomy. Northern limit of H. brachyurain China is in southern Gansu and southern Shaanxi from where Pleistocene fossils have also been recorded as H. subcristata. Three subspecies recognized.","H.b.brachyuraLinnaeus,1758— MalayPeninsula,PenangI(offWcoastofPeninsularMalaysia),Sumatra,andBorneo.H.b.hodgsoniGray,1847— SofHimalayasinENepal,NIndia(Sikkim).H. b. subcristata Swinhoe, 1870— S Bhutan, NE India, C & S China (including Hainan I), Bangladesh, Burma (= Myanmar), and mainland South-east Asia.","Head—body 455-930 mm,tail 60-170 mm, ear 25-38 mm, hindfoot 75-95 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Malayan Porcupine is large, stocky, and blackish brown, with short tail. In some individuals, spines along back of neck form rudimentary dorsal crest. Quills of back, shoulders, and sides are brown without white tips. Dorsal quills are square anteriorly and become round posteriorly. Long defensive quills on lower back are white, with single brownish black band in middle of each quill and white tips ¢.200 mm in length. Diameters of thickest quills on back are 5-7 mm. Ears and eyes are relatively small. Nasals are long (41-60% of occipito-nasal length) and broad (37-62% of zygomatic breadth). Skull has inflated pneumatic cavities. Quills on hindquarters are white, with fairly narrow sub-terminal black bands, and quills under tail are entirely white. Length of short tail is less than 20% of head-body length. Tail carries hollow, goblet-shaped rattlequills, extending 200-300 mm in length that rattle when shaken. Lengths of hollow parts of rattle-quills are 15-34 mm. Channels in network of medulla in quills might serve to transport pheromones. There are three pairs of lateral mammae. Diploid number is 2n = 60. The Malayan Porcupine can be differentiated from the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), with which it overlaps in India, by having rudimentary crest, if any, and having quills with only single brown bands. The Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) is smaller than the Malayan Porcupine, with shorter brown quills, a longer scaly tail with a brush on the tip, and beaded tail quills.Habitat.Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.Breeding.Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.Activity patterns.The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food.","Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.","The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.","Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.","The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.","The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food. Habitat loss and poaching are the main threats to populations of Malayan Porcupines in India.","Agrawal (2000) | Brooks et al. (2010) | Chung & Corlett (2006) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008) | Gray (1866) | Lunde, Aplin & Molur (2008) | Medway & Harrisson (1963) | Menon (2009) | Nowak (1999a) | Raha et al. (2015) | van Schaik & Griffiths (1996) | Smith & Yan Xie (2008) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Storch (1990) | Tempa et al. (2013) | van Weers (1979)",,"7.Malayan PorcupineHystrix brachyuraFrench:Porc-épic de Malaisie/ German:Malaiisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de MalasiaOther common names:Himalayan Crestless Porcupine, Hodgson's PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Identified by A. Grote in J. E. Gray in 1866 as “Malacca,” Malaya.Hystrix brachyurais in subgenus Acanthion. Many different subspecies have been described (some based on single specimens) including four recent subspecies in China, butD. J. van Weers in 1979 concluded after careful measurements of many specimens that although some clearly different populations can be recognized,full subspecific designation was unwarranted due to a high degree of intergradation. Further examination of a larger number of specimens, especially a larger number from China, will help resolve subspecific taxonomy. Northern limit of H. brachyurain China is in southern Gansu and southern Shaanxi from where Pleistocene fossils have also been recorded as H. subcristata. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.b.brachyuraLinnaeus,1758— MalayPeninsula,PenangI(offWcoastofPeninsularMalaysia),Sumatra,andBorneo.H.b.hodgsoniGray,1847— SofHimalayasinENepal,NIndia(Sikkim).H. b. subcristata Swinhoe, 1870— S Bhutan, NE India, C & S China (including Hainan I), Bangladesh, Burma (= Myanmar), and mainland South-east Asia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 455-930 mm,tail 60-170 mm, ear 25-38 mm, hindfoot 75-95 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Malayan Porcupine is large, stocky, and blackish brown, with short tail. In some individuals, spines along back of neck form rudimentary dorsal crest. Quills of back, shoulders, and sides are brown without white tips. Dorsal quills are square anteriorly and become round posteriorly. Long defensive quills on lower back are white, with single brownish black band in middle of each quill and white tips ¢.200 mm in length. Diameters of thickest quills on back are 5-7 mm. Ears and eyes are relatively small. Nasals are long (41-60% of occipito-nasal length) and broad (37-62% of zygomatic breadth). Skull has inflated pneumatic cavities. Quills on hindquarters are white, with fairly narrow sub-terminal black bands, and quills under tail are entirely white. Length of short tail is less than 20% of head-body length. Tail carries hollow, goblet-shaped rattlequills, extending 200-300 mm in length that rattle when shaken. Lengths of hollow parts of rattle-quills are 15-34 mm. Channels in network of medulla in quills might serve to transport pheromones. There are three pairs of lateral mammae. Diploid number is 2n = 60. The Malayan Porcupine can be differentiated from the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), with which it overlaps in India, by having rudimentary crest, if any, and having quills with only single brown bands. The Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) is smaller than the Malayan Porcupine, with shorter brown quills, a longer scaly tail with a brush on the tip, and beaded tail quills.Habitat.Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.Breeding.Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.Activity patterns.The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food. Habitat loss and poaching are the main threats to populations of Malayan Porcupines in India.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Brooks et al. (2010), Chung & Corlett (2006), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008), Gray (1866), Lunde, Aplin & Molur (2008), Medway & Harrisson (1963), Menon (2009), Nowak (1999a), Raha et al. (2015), van Schaik & Griffiths (1996), Smith & Yan Xie (2008), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Storch (1990), Tempa et al. (2013), van Weers (1979)." -03A91B1CC1564A68C9D5F9B49FB86B0B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c,311,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1564A68C9D5F9B49FB86B0B.xml,Hystrix indica,Hystrix,indica,Kerr,1792,Porc-épic indien @fr | German @en | ndisches Stachelschwein @en | Puercoespin de @es | ndia @en | White-tailed Porcupine @en,"Hystrix cristata indica Kerr, 1792, India.Hystrix indicais in subgenus Hystrix. Monotypic.Distribution.W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).Habitat Wide variety of natural, agricultural, and urbanized habitats.","W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.","Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).",,"The Indian Crested Porcupine is generalist herbivore. It is particularly adept at exploiting patchy vegetation of semiarid and arid habitats. In the Negev Desert,it eats at least 18 species of geophytes (tubers, bulbs, corms, rhizomes and other subterranean structures) and hemicryptophytes. Its use of geophytes increases water balance and reduce exposure to plants with low nutrient content, low digestibility, or high concentrations of secondary metabolites. Fasted captive Indian Crested Porcupines consumed 528-7 g potatoes within 45 minutes and averaged 147-9 g/hour thereafter. Averaged total intake was 1239-4 g fresh mass for 5-8 h of feeding. Nightly intakes were 198-3 g dry matter, 1092 ml preformed water, and 3056 kJ of energy. Maintenance energy requirement of captive porcupines was 220 kJ/kg/day. In the Negev Desert, daily water intake was significantly higher in summer than winter, although there were no differences in seasonal ad libitum food intake by captive individuals. The Indian Crested Porcupine also eats grains and fruits. Digging as a form of ecological disturbance has an important positive role in increasing plant biomass, density, and species richness across patchy landscapes of the Negev Desert. Density of porcupine digs in highlands of the Negev Desert varied from more than 1 dig/m? on a densely vegetated plateau to 0-1 dig/m? on a sparsely vegetated deep loess. Digs of Indian Crested Porcupines persist for 1-6-5 years, depending on size. Individuals appeared to exploit the same food patches over time. Investigatory sniffing is a major behavior probably associated with searching for food. Indian Crested Porcupines use a stereotypical posture when eating, in which body is prone, hindlegs are outstretched, and forelimbs rest on ground; food items are manipulated with inner front paws. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be a pest to agriculture by raiding crops and to forestry by debarking trees at ground level. In India, it is destructive to sweet potato, sugarcane, and maize crops and production forests. It gnaws bones, horns, and antlers. In Israel, consumption of roots and aboveground crops and bark of cultivated trees and damage to irrigation tubing causesit to be regarded as the most important agricultural pest among the country’s large mammals. Time required to forage might limit occurrence of Indian Crested Porcupines to areas where nights are not less than seven hours. Most northern populations are at ¢.44° N, where night duration at summersolstice is ¢.7-3 hours. To occur north of this boundary, Indian Crested Porcupines would have to forage during daylight or reduce food intake. Otherwise, northern distributional limits do not coincide with broad bioclimatic or vegetation boundaries.","The Indian Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Observations of captive pairs found that females presented themselves to males, and males copulated with them (including intromission) every night throughout the year. The male, who parades in front of the female and then stands motionless for several minutes with his quills erect, might also initiate mating. Next, he approaches and retreats from the female several times, while making squawking sounds. Copulation takes place during pregnancy and lactation and is not restricted to estrus. In Pakistan, breeding has been recorded in March-April. Females give birth to litters of 1-4 young in “maternity chambers,” cushioned with grass or leaves. Neonates weigh ¢.3% of their mother’s weight at birth and require a long nursing period. Eyes open at or within a few hours of birth, and incisors have broken through completely. Back spikes are still soft, short, and ¢.30 mm long; tail rattle-quills are soft and silent. Sensory bristles are developed and extend beyond lengths of spikes. Newborns are very active and agile within hours of birth. From birth to about three months of age, young are cared for by their fathers that perform all of the same parental care behaviors as their mothers, except nursing and licking their anogenital areas. Running toward a newborn when it utters a distress call is predominantly a male response. During the first month after birth of young, the male spends ¢.30% ofhis active time alone with newborns and ¢.20% of his time with the female and newborns. During the second and third month after birth, there is a gradual decrease in percent active time spent alone with newborns by both males and females and a gradual increase in percent active time that both parents spend with young.","Indian Crested Porcupines are strictly nocturnal. They spend daytime hours in dens (natural caves or excavated burrows). Timing of den emergence varies with season. In winter, they largely confine their behavior to darker nights or darker periods of the night and strongly avoid bright moonlight. In summer, they are active independent of moonlight given the shorter nights. Mean duration of nocturnal activity is 9-2 hours in summervs. 6-7 hours in winter. Indian Crested Porcupines remain closer to dens on bright nights than dark nights throughout the year. Rainfall curtails activity. Activity pattern may be influenced by predation risk; one study used the method of “giving up density” and found that porcupines have lowest foraging costs in habitats with densest cover and on dark nights. In a camera trapping study in western Nepal, porcupine activity was significantly more common during the central part of the night (23:00 h to 02:00 h) than in crepuscular or daylight periods. When sensing danger, Indian Crested Porcupines erect their quills and rattle their tails menacingly.","Indian Crested Porcupines live alone or in family groups. They spend daylight hours in communal dens in family units or clans. In deserts east of the Caspian Sea, Indian Crested Porcupines dig complicated burrow systems in compacted dunes and clay embankments. Most tunnels are up to 2:5 m underground, and main tunnels are more than 10-16 m long, ending in a deep living chamber. Chambers may be used by clans for decades and provide protection and constant temperature and humidity. Intraspecific communication and territorial marking occur mainly by anal gland secretions and urine. Quills of the Indian Crested Porcupine contain channels that may allow quills to serve as osmotrichia. Individuals from the same den share broadly overlapping home ranges and foraging areas that are substantially different from porcupines occupying different dens, although in one study three individuals from the same den had little home range overlap. Solitary males have different movement behavior than male-female pairs. In one study, a solitary male was active in part of his home range and then wandered up to 8 km defining another part of his home range. Pairs remained in underground shelters during the day, while solitary males used surface shelters. Average distance traveled per night was shorter for solitary males (1684 m) than for pairs (2310 m). Temperature, humidity, and rainfall did not influence movement. Home ranges averaged 1-5 km®, and individuals typically moved 2-8 km/night. Home range size differs between individuals that use agricultural areas and those that do not. In the Negev Desert, Indian Crested Porcupines that foraged in natural desert had exclusive home ranges that were 37% larger (1-2-1-8 km?) than the overlapping, smaller (0-38-1-3 km*) home ranges of individuals dependent on agricultural habitat. Movements averaged 2767 m/night at arate of 7 m/minute, but they were longer for individuals near vs. far from agricultural habitat. Near agriculture, individuals moved 3174 m/night at a rate of 8 m/minute, whereas in natural areas, individuals moved an average of 2361 m/night at 5-9 m/ minute. Indian Crested Porcupines with dens close to agriculturalfields had narrower home ranges and showed bimodal space use, moving between the den and agricultural fields. In contrast, individuals with dens further from agriculture had broader home ranges that largely or entirely included natural habitats; they had single activity centers near their dens and used many different food patches. Densities of Indian Crested Porcupines in different habitats in Israel are: 4 ind/km? on coastal plains, 2-1 ind/km? in semiarid natural areas, and 7-5 ind/km? in agricultural areas. Densities might be regulated in part by predation. Leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas, and perhaps Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) prey on Indian Crested Porcupines.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Poaching of the Indian Crested Porcupine is a conservation threat in India. It is threatened in western Asia because it is hunted for food and considered an agricultural pest. It serves as an intermediate host for Linguatula serrata, a zoonotic parasite whose definitive hosts are carnivores and humans. Much of what is known about ecology and behavior of the Indian Crested Porcupine comes from the Negev Desert; further research in other habitats across its broad distribution are warranted.","Agrawal (2000) | Alkon (1999) | Alkon & Olsvig-Whittaker (1989) | Alkon & Saltz (1985, 1988) | Alkon et al. (1986) | Amori, Hutterer, Krystufek, Yigit, Mitsain & Palomo (2008) | Arslan (2008) | Boeken et al. (1995) | Brown & Alkon (1990) | Chesemore (1970) | Corbet (1978) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Corbet & Jones (1965) | Fattorini & Pokheral (2012) | Khan et al. (2014) | Menon (2009) | Nowak (1999a) | Poddar-Sarkar et al. (2011) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Rajabloo et al. (2015) | Saltz & Alkon (1989) | Sever & Mendelssohn (1988, 1989, 1991) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Storch (1990) | van Weers (1979)",,"11.Indian Crested PorcupineHystrix indicaFrench:Porc-épic indien/ German:Indisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de IndiaOther common names:White-tailed PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix cristata indica Kerr, 1792, India.Hystrix indicais in subgenus Hystrix. Monotypic.Distribution.W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).Habitat Wide variety of natural, agricultural, and urbanized habitats. Distribution of the Indian Crested Porcupine is centered in steppe biomes and also includes desert margins and relatively mesic zones. In the central and northern Negev Desert of Israel, it occupies a variety of habitats including limestone hills, flat plateaus, seasonally dry wadis (riverbeds) and flood plains, and steep, narrow canyons. In India, it prefers rocky hillsides, open countryside, and deciduous and monsoon forests. Camera-trap data from Nepal showed a preponderance of photos from grasslandsvs. forests, which might result from distribution of food resources or presence of large predators (e.g. Leopards, Panthera pardus).Food and Feeding.The Indian Crested Porcupine is generalist herbivore. It is particularly adept at exploiting patchy vegetation of semiarid and arid habitats. In the Negev Desert,it eats at least 18 species of geophytes (tubers, bulbs, corms, rhizomes and other subterranean structures) and hemicryptophytes. Its use of geophytes increases water balance and reduce exposure to plants with low nutrient content, low digestibility, or high concentrations of secondary metabolites. Fasted captive Indian Crested Porcupines consumed 528-7 g potatoes within 45 minutes and averaged 147-9 g/hour thereafter. Averaged total intake was 1239-4 g fresh mass for 5-8 h of feeding. Nightly intakes were 198-3 g dry matter, 1092 ml preformed water, and 3056 kJ of energy. Maintenance energy requirement of captive porcupines was 220 kJ/kg/day. In the Negev Desert, daily water intake was significantly higher in summer than winter, although there were no differences in seasonal ad libitum food intake by captive individuals. The Indian Crested Porcupine also eats grains and fruits. Digging as a form of ecological disturbance has an important positive role in increasing plant biomass, density, and species richness across patchy landscapes of the Negev Desert. Density of porcupine digs in highlands of the Negev Desert varied from more than 1 dig/m? on a densely vegetated plateau to 0-1 dig/m? on a sparsely vegetated deep loess. Digs of Indian Crested Porcupines persist for 1-6-5 years, depending on size. Individuals appeared to exploit the same food patches over time. Investigatory sniffing is a major behavior probably associated with searching for food. Indian Crested Porcupines use a stereotypical posture when eating, in which body is prone, hindlegs are outstretched, and forelimbs rest on ground; food items are manipulated with inner front paws. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be a pest to agriculture by raiding crops and to forestry by debarking trees at ground level. In India, it is destructive to sweet potato, sugarcane, and maize crops and production forests. It gnaws bones, horns, and antlers. In Israel, consumption of roots and aboveground crops and bark of cultivated trees and damage to irrigation tubing causesit to be regarded as the most important agricultural pest among the country’s large mammals. Time required to forage might limit occurrence of Indian Crested Porcupines to areas where nights are not less than seven hours. Most northern populations are at ¢.44° N, where night duration at summersolstice is ¢.7-3 hours. To occur north of this boundary, Indian Crested Porcupines would have to forage during daylight or reduce food intake. Otherwise, northern distributional limits do not coincide with broad bioclimatic or vegetation boundaries.Breeding.The Indian Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Observations of captive pairs found that females presented themselves to males, and males copulated with them (including intromission) every night throughout the year. The male, who parades in front of the female and then stands motionless for several minutes with his quills erect, might also initiate mating. Next, he approaches and retreats from the female several times, while making squawking sounds. Copulation takes place during pregnancy and lactation and is not restricted to estrus. In Pakistan, breeding has been recorded in March-April. Females give birth to litters of 1-4 young in “maternity chambers,” cushioned with grass or leaves. Neonates weigh ¢.3% of their mother’s weight at birth and require a long nursing period. Eyes open at or within a few hours of birth, and incisors have broken through completely. Back spikes are still soft, short, and ¢.30 mm long; tail rattle-quills are soft and silent. Sensory bristles are developed and extend beyond lengths of spikes. Newborns are very active and agile within hours of birth. From birth to about three months of age, young are cared for by their fathers that perform all of the same parental care behaviors as their mothers, except nursing and licking their anogenital areas. Running toward a newborn when it utters a distress call is predominantly a male response. During the first month after birth of young, the male spends ¢.30% ofhis active time alone with newborns and ¢.20% of his time with the female and newborns. During the second and third month after birth, there is a gradual decrease in percent active time spent alone with newborns by both males and females and a gradual increase in percent active time that both parents spend with young.Activity patterns.Indian Crested Porcupines are strictly nocturnal. They spend daytime hours in dens (natural caves or excavated burrows). Timing of den emergence varies with season. In winter, they largely confine their behavior to darker nights or darker periods of the night and strongly avoid bright moonlight. In summer, they are active independent of moonlight given the shorter nights. Mean duration of nocturnal activity is 9-2 hours in summervs. 6-7 hours in winter. Indian Crested Porcupines remain closer to dens on bright nights than dark nights throughout the year. Rainfall curtails activity. Activity pattern may be influenced by predation risk; one study used the method of “giving up density” and found that porcupines have lowest foraging costs in habitats with densest cover and on dark nights. In a camera trapping study in western Nepal, porcupine activity was significantly more common during the central part of the night (23:00 h to 02:00 h) than in crepuscular or daylight periods. When sensing danger, Indian Crested Porcupines erect their quills and rattle their tails menacingly.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Indian Crested Porcupines live alone or in family groups. They spend daylight hours in communal dens in family units or clans. In deserts east of the Caspian Sea, Indian Crested Porcupines dig complicated burrow systems in compacted dunes and clay embankments. Most tunnels are up to 2:5 m underground, and main tunnels are more than 10-16 m long, ending in a deep living chamber. Chambers may be used by clans for decades and provide protection and constant temperature and humidity. Intraspecific communication and territorial marking occur mainly by anal gland secretions and urine. Quills of the Indian Crested Porcupine contain channels that may allow quills to serve as osmotrichia. Individuals from the same den share broadly overlapping home ranges and foraging areas that are substantially different from porcupines occupying different dens, although in one study three individuals from the same den had little home range overlap. Solitary males have different movement behavior than male-female pairs. In one study, a solitary male was active in part of his home range and then wandered up to 8 km defining another part of his home range. Pairs remained in underground shelters during the day, while solitary males used surface shelters. Average distance traveled per night was shorter for solitary males (1684 m) than for pairs (2310 m). Temperature, humidity, and rainfall did not influence movement. Home ranges averaged 1-5 km®, and individuals typically moved 2-8 km/night. Home range size differs between individuals that use agricultural areas and those that do not. In the Negev Desert, Indian Crested Porcupines that foraged in natural desert had exclusive home ranges that were 37% larger (1-2-1-8 km?) than the overlapping, smaller (0-38-1-3 km*) home ranges of individuals dependent on agricultural habitat. Movements averaged 2767 m/night at arate of 7 m/minute, but they were longer for individuals near vs. far from agricultural habitat. Near agriculture, individuals moved 3174 m/night at a rate of 8 m/minute, whereas in natural areas, individuals moved an average of 2361 m/night at 5-9 m/ minute. Indian Crested Porcupines with dens close to agriculturalfields had narrower home ranges and showed bimodal space use, moving between the den and agricultural fields. In contrast, individuals with dens further from agriculture had broader home ranges that largely or entirely included natural habitats; they had single activity centers near their dens and used many different food patches. Densities of Indian Crested Porcupines in different habitats in Israel are: 4 ind/km? on coastal plains, 2-1 ind/km? in semiarid natural areas, and 7-5 ind/km? in agricultural areas. Densities might be regulated in part by predation. Leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas, and perhaps Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) prey on Indian Crested Porcupines.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Poaching of the Indian Crested Porcupine is a conservation threat in India. It is threatened in western Asia because it is hunted for food and considered an agricultural pest. It serves as an intermediate host for Linguatula serrata, a zoonotic parasite whose definitive hosts are carnivores and humans. Much of what is known about ecology and behavior of the Indian Crested Porcupine comes from the Negev Desert; further research in other habitats across its broad distribution are warranted.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Alkon (1999), Alkon & Olsvig-Whittaker (1989), Alkon & Saltz (1985, 1988), Alkon et al. (1986), Amori, Hutterer, Krystufek, Yigit, Mitsain & Palomo (2008), Arslan (2008), Boeken et al. (1995), Brown & Alkon (1990), Chesemore (1970), Corbet (1978), Corbet & Hill (1992), Corbet & Jones (1965), Fattorini & Pokheral (2012), Khan et al. (2014), Menon (2009), Nowak (1999a), Poddar-Sarkar et al. (2011), Qumsiyeh (1996), Rajabloo et al. (2015), Saltz & Alkon (1989), Sever & Mendelssohn (1988, 1989, 1991), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Storch (1990), van Weers (1979)." +03A91B1CC1554A64CC72FEF59F20629E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c,308,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1554A64CC72FEF59F20629E.xml,Hystrix brachyura,Hystrix,brachyura,Linnaeus,1758,Porc-épic de Malaisie @fr | Malaiisches Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de Malasia @es | Himalayan Crestless Porcupine @en | Hodgson's Porcupine @en,"Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Identified by A. Grote in J. E. Gray in 1866 as “Malacca,” Malaya.Hystrix brachyurais in subgenus Acanthion. Many different subspecies have been described (some based on single specimens) including four recent subspecies in China, butD. J. van Weers in 1979 concluded after careful measurements of many specimens that although some clearly different populations can be recognized,full subspecific designation was unwarranted due to a high degree of intergradation. Further examination of a larger number of specimens, especially a larger number from China, will help resolve subspecific taxonomy. Northern limit of H. brachyurain China is in southern Gansu and southern Shaanxi from where Pleistocene fossils have also been recorded as H. subcristata. Three subspecies recognized.","H.b.brachyuraLinnaeus,1758— MalayPeninsula,PenangI(offWcoastofPeninsularMalaysia),Sumatra,andBorneo.H.b.hodgsoniGray,1847— SofHimalayasinENepal,NIndia(Sikkim).H. b. subcristata Swinhoe, 1870— S Bhutan, NE India, C & S China (including Hainan I), Bangladesh, Burma (= Myanmar), and mainland South-east Asia.","Head—body 455-930 mm,tail 60-170 mm, ear 25-38 mm, hindfoot 75-95 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Malayan Porcupine is large, stocky, and blackish brown, with short tail. In some individuals, spines along back of neck form rudimentary dorsal crest. Quills of back, shoulders, and sides are brown without white tips. Dorsal quills are square anteriorly and become round posteriorly. Long defensive quills on lower back are white, with single brownish black band in middle of each quill and white tips ¢.200 mm in length. Diameters of thickest quills on back are 5-7 mm. Ears and eyes are relatively small. Nasals are long (41-60% of occipito-nasal length) and broad (37-62% of zygomatic breadth). Skull has inflated pneumatic cavities. Quills on hindquarters are white, with fairly narrow sub-terminal black bands, and quills under tail are entirely white. Length of short tail is less than 20% of head-body length. Tail carries hollow, goblet-shaped rattlequills, extending 200-300 mm in length that rattle when shaken. Lengths of hollow parts of rattle-quills are 15-34 mm. Channels in network of medulla in quills might serve to transport pheromones. There are three pairs of lateral mammae. Diploid number is 2n = 60. The Malayan Porcupine can be differentiated from the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), with which it overlaps in India, by having rudimentary crest, if any, and having quills with only single brown bands. The Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) is smaller than the Malayan Porcupine, with shorter brown quills, a longer scaly tail with a brush on the tip, and beaded tail quills.Habitat.Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.Breeding.Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.Activity patterns.The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food.","Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.","The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.","Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.","The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.","The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food. Habitat loss and poaching are the main threats to populations of Malayan Porcupines in India.","Agrawal (2000) | Brooks et al. (2010) | Chung & Corlett (2006) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008) | Gray (1866) | Lunde, Aplin & Molur (2008) | Medway & Harrisson (1963) | Menon (2009) | Nowak (1999a) | Raha et al. (2015) | van Schaik & Griffiths (1996) | Smith & Yan Xie (2008) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Storch (1990) | Tempa et al. (2013) | van Weers (1979)",https://zenodo.org/record/6612235/files/figure.png,"7.Malayan PorcupineHystrix brachyuraFrench:Porc-épic de Malaisie/ German:Malaiisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de MalasiaOther common names:Himalayan Crestless Porcupine, Hodgson's PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Identified by A. Grote in J. E. Gray in 1866 as “Malacca,” Malaya.Hystrix brachyurais in subgenus Acanthion. Many different subspecies have been described (some based on single specimens) including four recent subspecies in China, butD. J. van Weers in 1979 concluded after careful measurements of many specimens that although some clearly different populations can be recognized,full subspecific designation was unwarranted due to a high degree of intergradation. Further examination of a larger number of specimens, especially a larger number from China, will help resolve subspecific taxonomy. Northern limit of H. brachyurain China is in southern Gansu and southern Shaanxi from where Pleistocene fossils have also been recorded as H. subcristata. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.b.brachyuraLinnaeus,1758— MalayPeninsula,PenangI(offWcoastofPeninsularMalaysia),Sumatra,andBorneo.H.b.hodgsoniGray,1847— SofHimalayasinENepal,NIndia(Sikkim).H. b. subcristata Swinhoe, 1870— S Bhutan, NE India, C & S China (including Hainan I), Bangladesh, Burma (= Myanmar), and mainland South-east Asia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 455-930 mm,tail 60-170 mm, ear 25-38 mm, hindfoot 75-95 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Malayan Porcupine is large, stocky, and blackish brown, with short tail. In some individuals, spines along back of neck form rudimentary dorsal crest. Quills of back, shoulders, and sides are brown without white tips. Dorsal quills are square anteriorly and become round posteriorly. Long defensive quills on lower back are white, with single brownish black band in middle of each quill and white tips ¢.200 mm in length. Diameters of thickest quills on back are 5-7 mm. Ears and eyes are relatively small. Nasals are long (41-60% of occipito-nasal length) and broad (37-62% of zygomatic breadth). Skull has inflated pneumatic cavities. Quills on hindquarters are white, with fairly narrow sub-terminal black bands, and quills under tail are entirely white. Length of short tail is less than 20% of head-body length. Tail carries hollow, goblet-shaped rattlequills, extending 200-300 mm in length that rattle when shaken. Lengths of hollow parts of rattle-quills are 15-34 mm. Channels in network of medulla in quills might serve to transport pheromones. There are three pairs of lateral mammae. Diploid number is 2n = 60. The Malayan Porcupine can be differentiated from the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), with which it overlaps in India, by having rudimentary crest, if any, and having quills with only single brown bands. The Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) is smaller than the Malayan Porcupine, with shorter brown quills, a longer scaly tail with a brush on the tip, and beaded tail quills.Habitat.Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.Breeding.Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.Activity patterns.The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food. Habitat loss and poaching are the main threats to populations of Malayan Porcupines in India.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Brooks et al. (2010), Chung & Corlett (2006), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008), Gray (1866), Lunde, Aplin & Molur (2008), Medway & Harrisson (1963), Menon (2009), Nowak (1999a), Raha et al. (2015), van Schaik & Griffiths (1996), Smith & Yan Xie (2008), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Storch (1990), Tempa et al. (2013), van Weers (1979)." +03A91B1CC1564A68C9D5F9B49FB86B0B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c,311,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1564A68C9D5F9B49FB86B0B.xml,Hystrix indica,Hystrix,indica,Kerr,1792,Porc-épic indien @fr | German @en | ndisches Stachelschwein @en | Puercoespin de @es | ndia @en | White-tailed Porcupine @en,"Hystrix cristata indica Kerr, 1792, India.Hystrix indicais in subgenus Hystrix. Monotypic.Distribution.W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).Habitat Wide variety of natural, agricultural, and urbanized habitats.","W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.","Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).",,"The Indian Crested Porcupine is generalist herbivore. It is particularly adept at exploiting patchy vegetation of semiarid and arid habitats. In the Negev Desert,it eats at least 18 species of geophytes (tubers, bulbs, corms, rhizomes and other subterranean structures) and hemicryptophytes. Its use of geophytes increases water balance and reduce exposure to plants with low nutrient content, low digestibility, or high concentrations of secondary metabolites. Fasted captive Indian Crested Porcupines consumed 528-7 g potatoes within 45 minutes and averaged 147-9 g/hour thereafter. Averaged total intake was 1239-4 g fresh mass for 5-8 h of feeding. Nightly intakes were 198-3 g dry matter, 1092 ml preformed water, and 3056 kJ of energy. Maintenance energy requirement of captive porcupines was 220 kJ/kg/day. In the Negev Desert, daily water intake was significantly higher in summer than winter, although there were no differences in seasonal ad libitum food intake by captive individuals. The Indian Crested Porcupine also eats grains and fruits. Digging as a form of ecological disturbance has an important positive role in increasing plant biomass, density, and species richness across patchy landscapes of the Negev Desert. Density of porcupine digs in highlands of the Negev Desert varied from more than 1 dig/m? on a densely vegetated plateau to 0-1 dig/m? on a sparsely vegetated deep loess. Digs of Indian Crested Porcupines persist for 1-6-5 years, depending on size. Individuals appeared to exploit the same food patches over time. Investigatory sniffing is a major behavior probably associated with searching for food. Indian Crested Porcupines use a stereotypical posture when eating, in which body is prone, hindlegs are outstretched, and forelimbs rest on ground; food items are manipulated with inner front paws. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be a pest to agriculture by raiding crops and to forestry by debarking trees at ground level. In India, it is destructive to sweet potato, sugarcane, and maize crops and production forests. It gnaws bones, horns, and antlers. In Israel, consumption of roots and aboveground crops and bark of cultivated trees and damage to irrigation tubing causesit to be regarded as the most important agricultural pest among the country’s large mammals. Time required to forage might limit occurrence of Indian Crested Porcupines to areas where nights are not less than seven hours. Most northern populations are at ¢.44° N, where night duration at summersolstice is ¢.7-3 hours. To occur north of this boundary, Indian Crested Porcupines would have to forage during daylight or reduce food intake. Otherwise, northern distributional limits do not coincide with broad bioclimatic or vegetation boundaries.","The Indian Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Observations of captive pairs found that females presented themselves to males, and males copulated with them (including intromission) every night throughout the year. The male, who parades in front of the female and then stands motionless for several minutes with his quills erect, might also initiate mating. Next, he approaches and retreats from the female several times, while making squawking sounds. Copulation takes place during pregnancy and lactation and is not restricted to estrus. In Pakistan, breeding has been recorded in March-April. Females give birth to litters of 1-4 young in “maternity chambers,” cushioned with grass or leaves. Neonates weigh ¢.3% of their mother’s weight at birth and require a long nursing period. Eyes open at or within a few hours of birth, and incisors have broken through completely. Back spikes are still soft, short, and ¢.30 mm long; tail rattle-quills are soft and silent. Sensory bristles are developed and extend beyond lengths of spikes. Newborns are very active and agile within hours of birth. From birth to about three months of age, young are cared for by their fathers that perform all of the same parental care behaviors as their mothers, except nursing and licking their anogenital areas. Running toward a newborn when it utters a distress call is predominantly a male response. During the first month after birth of young, the male spends ¢.30% ofhis active time alone with newborns and ¢.20% of his time with the female and newborns. During the second and third month after birth, there is a gradual decrease in percent active time spent alone with newborns by both males and females and a gradual increase in percent active time that both parents spend with young.","Indian Crested Porcupines are strictly nocturnal. They spend daytime hours in dens (natural caves or excavated burrows). Timing of den emergence varies with season. In winter, they largely confine their behavior to darker nights or darker periods of the night and strongly avoid bright moonlight. In summer, they are active independent of moonlight given the shorter nights. Mean duration of nocturnal activity is 9-2 hours in summervs. 6-7 hours in winter. Indian Crested Porcupines remain closer to dens on bright nights than dark nights throughout the year. Rainfall curtails activity. Activity pattern may be influenced by predation risk; one study used the method of “giving up density” and found that porcupines have lowest foraging costs in habitats with densest cover and on dark nights. In a camera trapping study in western Nepal, porcupine activity was significantly more common during the central part of the night (23:00 h to 02:00 h) than in crepuscular or daylight periods. When sensing danger, Indian Crested Porcupines erect their quills and rattle their tails menacingly.","Indian Crested Porcupines live alone or in family groups. They spend daylight hours in communal dens in family units or clans. In deserts east of the Caspian Sea, Indian Crested Porcupines dig complicated burrow systems in compacted dunes and clay embankments. Most tunnels are up to 2:5 m underground, and main tunnels are more than 10-16 m long, ending in a deep living chamber. Chambers may be used by clans for decades and provide protection and constant temperature and humidity. Intraspecific communication and territorial marking occur mainly by anal gland secretions and urine. Quills of the Indian Crested Porcupine contain channels that may allow quills to serve as osmotrichia. Individuals from the same den share broadly overlapping home ranges and foraging areas that are substantially different from porcupines occupying different dens, although in one study three individuals from the same den had little home range overlap. Solitary males have different movement behavior than male-female pairs. In one study, a solitary male was active in part of his home range and then wandered up to 8 km defining another part of his home range. Pairs remained in underground shelters during the day, while solitary males used surface shelters. Average distance traveled per night was shorter for solitary males (1684 m) than for pairs (2310 m). Temperature, humidity, and rainfall did not influence movement. Home ranges averaged 1-5 km®, and individuals typically moved 2-8 km/night. Home range size differs between individuals that use agricultural areas and those that do not. In the Negev Desert, Indian Crested Porcupines that foraged in natural desert had exclusive home ranges that were 37% larger (1-2-1-8 km?) than the overlapping, smaller (0-38-1-3 km*) home ranges of individuals dependent on agricultural habitat. Movements averaged 2767 m/night at arate of 7 m/minute, but they were longer for individuals near vs. far from agricultural habitat. Near agriculture, individuals moved 3174 m/night at a rate of 8 m/minute, whereas in natural areas, individuals moved an average of 2361 m/night at 5-9 m/ minute. Indian Crested Porcupines with dens close to agriculturalfields had narrower home ranges and showed bimodal space use, moving between the den and agricultural fields. In contrast, individuals with dens further from agriculture had broader home ranges that largely or entirely included natural habitats; they had single activity centers near their dens and used many different food patches. Densities of Indian Crested Porcupines in different habitats in Israel are: 4 ind/km? on coastal plains, 2-1 ind/km? in semiarid natural areas, and 7-5 ind/km? in agricultural areas. Densities might be regulated in part by predation. Leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas, and perhaps Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) prey on Indian Crested Porcupines.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Poaching of the Indian Crested Porcupine is a conservation threat in India. It is threatened in western Asia because it is hunted for food and considered an agricultural pest. It serves as an intermediate host for Linguatula serrata, a zoonotic parasite whose definitive hosts are carnivores and humans. Much of what is known about ecology and behavior of the Indian Crested Porcupine comes from the Negev Desert; further research in other habitats across its broad distribution are warranted.","Agrawal (2000) | Alkon (1999) | Alkon & Olsvig-Whittaker (1989) | Alkon & Saltz (1985, 1988) | Alkon et al. (1986) | Amori, Hutterer, Krystufek, Yigit, Mitsain & Palomo (2008) | Arslan (2008) | Boeken et al. (1995) | Brown & Alkon (1990) | Chesemore (1970) | Corbet (1978) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Corbet & Jones (1965) | Fattorini & Pokheral (2012) | Khan et al. (2014) | Menon (2009) | Nowak (1999a) | Poddar-Sarkar et al. (2011) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Rajabloo et al. (2015) | Saltz & Alkon (1989) | Sever & Mendelssohn (1988, 1989, 1991) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Storch (1990) | van Weers (1979)",https://zenodo.org/record/6612245/files/figure.png,"11.Indian Crested PorcupineHystrix indicaFrench:Porc-épic indien/ German:Indisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de IndiaOther common names:White-tailed PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix cristata indica Kerr, 1792, India.Hystrix indicais in subgenus Hystrix. Monotypic.Distribution.W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).Habitat Wide variety of natural, agricultural, and urbanized habitats. Distribution of the Indian Crested Porcupine is centered in steppe biomes and also includes desert margins and relatively mesic zones. In the central and northern Negev Desert of Israel, it occupies a variety of habitats including limestone hills, flat plateaus, seasonally dry wadis (riverbeds) and flood plains, and steep, narrow canyons. In India, it prefers rocky hillsides, open countryside, and deciduous and monsoon forests. Camera-trap data from Nepal showed a preponderance of photos from grasslandsvs. forests, which might result from distribution of food resources or presence of large predators (e.g. Leopards, Panthera pardus).Food and Feeding.The Indian Crested Porcupine is generalist herbivore. It is particularly adept at exploiting patchy vegetation of semiarid and arid habitats. In the Negev Desert,it eats at least 18 species of geophytes (tubers, bulbs, corms, rhizomes and other subterranean structures) and hemicryptophytes. Its use of geophytes increases water balance and reduce exposure to plants with low nutrient content, low digestibility, or high concentrations of secondary metabolites. Fasted captive Indian Crested Porcupines consumed 528-7 g potatoes within 45 minutes and averaged 147-9 g/hour thereafter. Averaged total intake was 1239-4 g fresh mass for 5-8 h of feeding. Nightly intakes were 198-3 g dry matter, 1092 ml preformed water, and 3056 kJ of energy. Maintenance energy requirement of captive porcupines was 220 kJ/kg/day. In the Negev Desert, daily water intake was significantly higher in summer than winter, although there were no differences in seasonal ad libitum food intake by captive individuals. The Indian Crested Porcupine also eats grains and fruits. Digging as a form of ecological disturbance has an important positive role in increasing plant biomass, density, and species richness across patchy landscapes of the Negev Desert. Density of porcupine digs in highlands of the Negev Desert varied from more than 1 dig/m? on a densely vegetated plateau to 0-1 dig/m? on a sparsely vegetated deep loess. Digs of Indian Crested Porcupines persist for 1-6-5 years, depending on size. Individuals appeared to exploit the same food patches over time. Investigatory sniffing is a major behavior probably associated with searching for food. Indian Crested Porcupines use a stereotypical posture when eating, in which body is prone, hindlegs are outstretched, and forelimbs rest on ground; food items are manipulated with inner front paws. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be a pest to agriculture by raiding crops and to forestry by debarking trees at ground level. In India, it is destructive to sweet potato, sugarcane, and maize crops and production forests. It gnaws bones, horns, and antlers. In Israel, consumption of roots and aboveground crops and bark of cultivated trees and damage to irrigation tubing causesit to be regarded as the most important agricultural pest among the country’s large mammals. Time required to forage might limit occurrence of Indian Crested Porcupines to areas where nights are not less than seven hours. Most northern populations are at ¢.44° N, where night duration at summersolstice is ¢.7-3 hours. To occur north of this boundary, Indian Crested Porcupines would have to forage during daylight or reduce food intake. Otherwise, northern distributional limits do not coincide with broad bioclimatic or vegetation boundaries.Breeding.The Indian Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Observations of captive pairs found that females presented themselves to males, and males copulated with them (including intromission) every night throughout the year. The male, who parades in front of the female and then stands motionless for several minutes with his quills erect, might also initiate mating. Next, he approaches and retreats from the female several times, while making squawking sounds. Copulation takes place during pregnancy and lactation and is not restricted to estrus. In Pakistan, breeding has been recorded in March-April. Females give birth to litters of 1-4 young in “maternity chambers,” cushioned with grass or leaves. Neonates weigh ¢.3% of their mother’s weight at birth and require a long nursing period. Eyes open at or within a few hours of birth, and incisors have broken through completely. Back spikes are still soft, short, and ¢.30 mm long; tail rattle-quills are soft and silent. Sensory bristles are developed and extend beyond lengths of spikes. Newborns are very active and agile within hours of birth. From birth to about three months of age, young are cared for by their fathers that perform all of the same parental care behaviors as their mothers, except nursing and licking their anogenital areas. Running toward a newborn when it utters a distress call is predominantly a male response. During the first month after birth of young, the male spends ¢.30% ofhis active time alone with newborns and ¢.20% of his time with the female and newborns. During the second and third month after birth, there is a gradual decrease in percent active time spent alone with newborns by both males and females and a gradual increase in percent active time that both parents spend with young.Activity patterns.Indian Crested Porcupines are strictly nocturnal. They spend daytime hours in dens (natural caves or excavated burrows). Timing of den emergence varies with season. In winter, they largely confine their behavior to darker nights or darker periods of the night and strongly avoid bright moonlight. In summer, they are active independent of moonlight given the shorter nights. Mean duration of nocturnal activity is 9-2 hours in summervs. 6-7 hours in winter. Indian Crested Porcupines remain closer to dens on bright nights than dark nights throughout the year. Rainfall curtails activity. Activity pattern may be influenced by predation risk; one study used the method of “giving up density” and found that porcupines have lowest foraging costs in habitats with densest cover and on dark nights. In a camera trapping study in western Nepal, porcupine activity was significantly more common during the central part of the night (23:00 h to 02:00 h) than in crepuscular or daylight periods. When sensing danger, Indian Crested Porcupines erect their quills and rattle their tails menacingly.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Indian Crested Porcupines live alone or in family groups. They spend daylight hours in communal dens in family units or clans. In deserts east of the Caspian Sea, Indian Crested Porcupines dig complicated burrow systems in compacted dunes and clay embankments. Most tunnels are up to 2:5 m underground, and main tunnels are more than 10-16 m long, ending in a deep living chamber. Chambers may be used by clans for decades and provide protection and constant temperature and humidity. Intraspecific communication and territorial marking occur mainly by anal gland secretions and urine. Quills of the Indian Crested Porcupine contain channels that may allow quills to serve as osmotrichia. Individuals from the same den share broadly overlapping home ranges and foraging areas that are substantially different from porcupines occupying different dens, although in one study three individuals from the same den had little home range overlap. Solitary males have different movement behavior than male-female pairs. In one study, a solitary male was active in part of his home range and then wandered up to 8 km defining another part of his home range. Pairs remained in underground shelters during the day, while solitary males used surface shelters. Average distance traveled per night was shorter for solitary males (1684 m) than for pairs (2310 m). Temperature, humidity, and rainfall did not influence movement. Home ranges averaged 1-5 km®, and individuals typically moved 2-8 km/night. Home range size differs between individuals that use agricultural areas and those that do not. In the Negev Desert, Indian Crested Porcupines that foraged in natural desert had exclusive home ranges that were 37% larger (1-2-1-8 km?) than the overlapping, smaller (0-38-1-3 km*) home ranges of individuals dependent on agricultural habitat. Movements averaged 2767 m/night at arate of 7 m/minute, but they were longer for individuals near vs. far from agricultural habitat. Near agriculture, individuals moved 3174 m/night at a rate of 8 m/minute, whereas in natural areas, individuals moved an average of 2361 m/night at 5-9 m/ minute. Indian Crested Porcupines with dens close to agriculturalfields had narrower home ranges and showed bimodal space use, moving between the den and agricultural fields. In contrast, individuals with dens further from agriculture had broader home ranges that largely or entirely included natural habitats; they had single activity centers near their dens and used many different food patches. Densities of Indian Crested Porcupines in different habitats in Israel are: 4 ind/km? on coastal plains, 2-1 ind/km? in semiarid natural areas, and 7-5 ind/km? in agricultural areas. Densities might be regulated in part by predation. Leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas, and perhaps Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) prey on Indian Crested Porcupines.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Poaching of the Indian Crested Porcupine is a conservation threat in India. It is threatened in western Asia because it is hunted for food and considered an agricultural pest. It serves as an intermediate host for Linguatula serrata, a zoonotic parasite whose definitive hosts are carnivores and humans. Much of what is known about ecology and behavior of the Indian Crested Porcupine comes from the Negev Desert; further research in other habitats across its broad distribution are warranted.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Alkon (1999), Alkon & Olsvig-Whittaker (1989), Alkon & Saltz (1985, 1988), Alkon et al. (1986), Amori, Hutterer, Krystufek, Yigit, Mitsain & Palomo (2008), Arslan (2008), Boeken et al. (1995), Brown & Alkon (1990), Chesemore (1970), Corbet (1978), Corbet & Hill (1992), Corbet & Jones (1965), Fattorini & Pokheral (2012), Khan et al. (2014), Menon (2009), Nowak (1999a), Poddar-Sarkar et al. (2011), Qumsiyeh (1996), Rajabloo et al. (2015), Saltz & Alkon (1989), Sever & Mendelssohn (1988, 1989, 1991), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Storch (1990), van Weers (1979)." 03A91B1CC1574A67C974FA6B9B78690B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c,310,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1574A67C974FA6B9B78690B.xml,Hystrix africaeaustralis,Hystrix,africaeaustralis,Peters,1852,Porc-épic du Cap @fr | Stidafrikanisches Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de El Cabo @es | Cape Crested Porcupine @en | South African Porcupine @en | Southern African Porcupine @en,"Hystrix africaeaustralis Peters, 1852, “Querimba” and “Tette.” Restricted by R. E. Moreau and colleagues in 1946 to Querimba coast (ca. 10° 30’ to 12° 00’S, 40° 30’E, sea level) Mozambique.Hystrix africaeaustralisis in the subgenus Hystrix. It is sympatric with the similar H. cristata, in parts of southern Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Up to three subspecies have been identified, but none was recognized by J. A. J. Meester in 1986 or D. C. D. Happold in 2013. Monotypic.","S one-half of Africa, from S of the Republic of the Congo and S DR Congo E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and Tanzania (not in Zanzibar I), and S to South Africa, excluding Namibian coast.","Head-body 630-805 mm, tail 105-130 mm, ear 39-48 mm, hindfoot 89-114 mm; weight 10-24.1 kg. The Cape Porcupine and the similarly sized Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) are the largest rodents in Africa. The Cape Porcupine is stout, heavily built, and well-bristled, with relatively short legs and short, well-hidden tail. There is no sexual dimorphism. Quills of several types on the Cape Porcupine are most notable. True quills are defensive quills; they are the thickest of modified hairs, circular in cross section, long (up to 300 mm) with very sharp points, and relatively inflexible. Their diameters are greatest at mid-lengths of quills and taper toward both ends. True quills carry microstructural “feathering” along tips, analogous to barbed quills seen in the North American Porcupine (Erethizondorsatum), which may aid in reducing force required to allow muscle penetration by quills. Tactile bristles, also circular in cross section, are very flexible. Their diameters are greatest near bases and smaller than diameters of defensive quills. Transitional quills are intermediate between true quills and tactile bristles in length, diameter, and flexibility. Spines are long (up to 500 mm), sharp,stiff, flattened, and grooved bristly hairs that cover most of the body. Rattle-quills, located only on tail, are circular in cross section, hollow, capsule shaped, and open at ends. They attach to tail by stalks at bases of quills. Spines and quills are distributed across posterior two-thirds of dorsum and flanks but not on ventrum. Quills along dorsum are banded black and white; black bands are broader with white tips. Longer quills have multiple repeating bands of black and white, with up to six white sections per quill. There is an erectile crest of coarse hairs, up to 500 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Hairs at front of crest are black at bases with white tips. Some Cape Porcupines have triangular patches of white bristles (flattened hair) on either side of neck. Head is rounded, with grayish brown, bristled face and stout, movable vibrissae. Small eyes are situated far back on head, and ears are inconspicuous and humanlike in shape. Nasal bones are 51-58% of occipito-nasal length, wide, and posteriorly extended almost to anterior ends of orbits. Frontal-to-nasal bone ratio is 49-68%. Upper incisors are smooth, and folds of enamel and dentine characterize cheekteeth. Rump is covered with short, flat, white bristles on dorsal and ventral sides. Shorttail is covered with short quills, mostly invisible beneath defensive quills on lower back and has rattle-quills that rattle when tail is shaken. There are 4-6 mammae. In the field, it is difficult to distinguish Cape Porcupines from Crested Porcupines; short quills on lower rump of the Cape Porcupine are white, but they are black on the Crested Porcupine. Skull differences are clear and well described by van Weers.","[.owland and montane tropical forests, savanna grassland, brushland, Acacia and Brachystegia (miombo) woodlands, and semiarid deserts, with broad daily and seasonal temperature changes, from sea level to elevations of ¢.2000 m. In South Africa, Cape Porcupines prefer Burkea—Acacia savanna, probably due to concentration of preferred foods. They are not found in swampy areas.","The Cape Porcupine is omnivorous and eats subterranean tubers, bulbs, and roots; shoots; fruits; and stems. Osteophagy is common, particularly in phosphorous-limited areas. It might eat carrion. It is considered a pest by farmers; it will raid melon, pumpkin, and maize crops; uproot young trees; and damage young plantations by debarking and feeding on innerliving tissue of trees from ground level to c.0-5 m up the trunk. Cape Porcupines are ecosystem engineers because their foraging has landscape-level effects through food choice and physical effects of digging. Selective bark feeding in some natural savanna ecosystems may influence patterns of succession. Cape Porcupines dig circular, conical holes in the soil surface in search of tubers, insect larvae, and seeds, which creates sites for seedlings and allows water to infiltrate the soil crust. Digging by Cape Porcupines annually disturbs 0-34% ofthe soil surface and displace 1-6 m®/ha/year ofsoil acrossits distribution.","The Cape Porcupine,like the Crested Porcupine and the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), is monogamous. Sexual maturity is reached at 8-18 months of age for males and in the second year oflife for females. Males and females are reproductive throughout the year. In both captive and wild individuals in South Africa, most litters are born in August-March, corresponding to periods of summer rain; this timing probably maximizes neonatal survival, especially in arid regions that experience cold, dry winters. Females are polyestrous, with cycle lengths of 17-42 days. Sexual activity (lordosis, mounting, and ejaculation) occurs throughout estrus, pregnancy, and lactation, but actual copulation outside of estrus is hindered by presence of a vaginal closure membrane. This physical contact between sexes maintains cyclic ovarian activity and may strengthen pair bonds. Estrus begins when vaginal membrane opens, coinciding with a surge in 17B-estradiol. Copulation is typically preceded by the female approaching the male and occurs ¢.2-8 days after onset of estrus. The female adopts a receptive posture, with tail and rump raised and quills pointed away from the male. He mounts the female from behind, with his forepaws resting on her back. Intromission only occurs when the female is in estrus. After mating, a copulatory plug is formed. Gestation lasts 93-105 days, and females average onelitter per year, with 1-3 precocial young; 59% oflitters produce singletons and 30% twins. Newborns weigh 300-400 g and have soft defensive quills and closed, pointed rattle-quills at birth. Young nibble on solid foods by 9-14 days of age and begin to feed alone at 4-6 weeks of age, although they continue to nurse for 13-19 weeks when they weigh 2.5-4.7 kg. Lactation averages 101 days and includes c.110 days of anestrus during lactation. The father provides paternal care by accompanying young on foraging trips, grooming and huddling with them, and protecting them from threats. Although Cape Porcupines live in family groups, only the adult pair reproduces. Females are almost continuously exposed to sexually mature males. Subordinate females experience cyclic ovarian activity, but only the dominant female conceives. Mechanism of reproductive suppression of subordinate females is unknown, but progesterone concentrations, despite cyclic changes, remain insufficient for implantation. Social factors may impact ovarian function. Females separated from males in captivity experience impairment of ovarian function. Physical contact with males may be required to sustain regular follicular and luteal activities of females. Densities might influence whether or not females reproduce during their first year. Conception in sexually mature females is suppressed until after dispersal from her natal group. Cape Porcupineslive for about ten years in the wild and up to 20 years in captivity.","Cape Porcupines are nocturnal. They spend their days at rest in shelters in rock crevices, caves, or abandoned burrows of Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer), which they modify to suit their needs with their front claws. They may excavate their own holes or use termite mounds as dens. Cape Porcupines often bring bones into their shelters. They forage alone at night, although pairs forage near one another, spending less than 25% of their active periods more than 400 m apart and spending more than 50% of active time within 200 m of one another. A pair of Cape Porcupines foraging in proximity of one other could be mate guarding because it is not apparent that they cooperate in foraging or anti-predator defense. When alarmed, defensive action is to raise quills and shake the rattle-quills. If a threat does not subside, a Cape Porcupine might attack by backing rapidly toward the threat, stabbing it with long defensive quills that detach easily from skin.","Cape Porcupines are monogamous and live in family groups typically consisting of an adult male-female pair and subadult and juvenile offspring. Mature offspring may remain in their natal groups when dispersal opportunities are limited; groups of up to 14 individuals have been observed sharing a single burrow. One family unit will irregularly use up to six different burrows. Den entrances can be 10 m apart, and main tunnels can be 20 m long. A living chamber is found c.2 m below ground. Home range is a large, non-exclusive area surrounding a smaller, exclusive core area (territory) that is defended by an adult pair. Males scent-mark more frequently than females and more often in feeding than non-feeding areas, and scent marking may thus play a larger role in territory defense. Territorial boundaries are neither permanent nor rigidly defined. Space use changes with season, but home ranges of adult pairs tend to include the same general area throughout the year, and most activity occurs in a fairly small proportion of the home range. Home ranges of adjacent groups overlap little; neighbors rarely encounter one another in areas of overlap. Home range size is smaller for individuals that forage on natural food vs. individuals that raid crops. Cape Porcupines that feed in natural areas also have larger home ranges in winter (c.116 ha) than summer (c.67 ha). On average, home ranges of males and females in mated pairs overlap ¢.75%. Cape Porcupines exhibit bi-parental care of offspring. Adult males accompany young on foraging excursions and defend against territory intruders. Group huddling among parents and offspring while sleeping in the burrow also provides thermoregulatory benefits, particularly for newborns that do not leave burrows for about nine weeks. Assistance with thermoregulation allows newborns more energy to allocate toward growth. The monogamous pair bond, unusual in mammals, may allow for territory maintenance. There is immediate burrow take-over by a new pair upon the death of one member of a pair. Group living and a monogamous mating system appear to increase territory holding and juvenile success. In absence of natural predation, population age structure is variable, changing between seasons and years. Population regulation is densitydependent. High-density populations of 25 ind/km? have been observed on riverine plains in the South African Karoo. Eight Cape Porcupines per square kilometer is a high density for semiarid regions. Population size appears to be limited by available den sites and territory size. Populations can also be limited by extrinsic factors such as predation; Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (Panthera leo) are primary predators of Cape Porcupines.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Cape Porcupines damage crops and are a source of accessible meat protein to indigenous people, leaving them vulnerable to hunting, trapping, and snaring. Their role as an ecosystem engineer indicates that their protection should be included in conservation plans. Although the Cape Porcupine can hybridize with the Crested Porcupine in captivity, hybridization does not occur in their natural zone of overlap in East Africa.","van Aarde (1985, 1987, 1998) | van Aarde & Skinner (1986) | van Aarde & van Wyk (1991) | Alexander (1956) | Barthelmess (2006) | Bragg et al. (2005) | Corbet & van Aarde (1996) | Dean & Milton (1991) | De Graaff (1981) | Duthie & Skinner (1986) | Ferguson et al. (2010) | Findlay (1977) | Foley et al. (2014) | Gooden & Augee (2015) | Greaves & Khan (1978) | Grubb (2008b) | Haim et al. (1992) | Happold (2013a) | Lawton & Jones (1995) | Macdonald (2009) | Meester et al. (1986) | Mohr (1964) | Moreau et al. (1946) | Morris & van Aarde (1985) | Nowak (1999a) | Roberts (1951) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Skinner et al. (1984) | Storch (1990) | Thomson (1974) | de Villiers & van Aarde (1994) | van Weers (1979) | Yeaton (1988)",https://zenodo.org/record/6612243/files/figure.png,"10.Cape PorcupineHystrix africaeaustralisFrench:Porc-épic du Cap/ German:Stidafrikanisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de El CaboOther common names:CapeCrested Porcupine, South African Porcupine, Southern African PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix africaeaustralis Peters, 1852, “Querimba” and “Tette.” Restricted by R. E. Moreau and colleagues in 1946 to Querimba coast (ca. 10° 30’ to 12° 00’S, 40° 30’E, sea level) Mozambique.Hystrix africaeaustralisis in the subgenus Hystrix. It is sympatric with the similar H. cristata, in parts of southern Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Up to three subspecies have been identified, but none was recognized by J. A. J. Meester in 1986 or D. C. D. Happold in 2013. Monotypic.Distribution.S one-half of Africa, from S of the Republic of the Congo and S DR Congo E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and Tanzania (not in Zanzibar I), and S to South Africa, excluding Namibian coast.Descriptive notes.Head-body 630-805 mm, tail 105-130 mm, ear 39-48 mm, hindfoot 89-114 mm; weight 10-24.1 kg. The Cape Porcupine and the similarly sized Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) are the largest rodents in Africa. The Cape Porcupine is stout, heavily built, and well-bristled, with relatively short legs and short, well-hidden tail. There is no sexual dimorphism. Quills of several types on the Cape Porcupine are most notable. True quills are defensive quills; they are the thickest of modified hairs, circular in cross section, long (up to 300 mm) with very sharp points, and relatively inflexible. Their diameters are greatest at mid-lengths of quills and taper toward both ends. True quills carry microstructural “feathering” along tips, analogous to barbed quills seen in the North American Porcupine (Erethizondorsatum), which may aid in reducing force required to allow muscle penetration by quills. Tactile bristles, also circular in cross section, are very flexible. Their diameters are greatest near bases and smaller than diameters of defensive quills. Transitional quills are intermediate between true quills and tactile bristles in length, diameter, and flexibility. Spines are long (up to 500 mm), sharp,stiff, flattened, and grooved bristly hairs that cover most of the body. Rattle-quills, located only on tail, are circular in cross section, hollow, capsule shaped, and open at ends. They attach to tail by stalks at bases of quills. Spines and quills are distributed across posterior two-thirds of dorsum and flanks but not on ventrum. Quills along dorsum are banded black and white; black bands are broader with white tips. Longer quills have multiple repeating bands of black and white, with up to six white sections per quill. There is an erectile crest of coarse hairs, up to 500 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Hairs at front of crest are black at bases with white tips. Some Cape Porcupines have triangular patches of white bristles (flattened hair) on either side of neck. Head is rounded, with grayish brown, bristled face and stout, movable vibrissae. Small eyes are situated far back on head, and ears are inconspicuous and humanlike in shape. Nasal bones are 51-58% of occipito-nasal length, wide, and posteriorly extended almost to anterior ends of orbits. Frontal-to-nasal bone ratio is 49-68%. Upper incisors are smooth, and folds of enamel and dentine characterize cheekteeth. Rump is covered with short, flat, white bristles on dorsal and ventral sides. Shorttail is covered with short quills, mostly invisible beneath defensive quills on lower back and has rattle-quills that rattle when tail is shaken. There are 4-6 mammae. In the field, it is difficult to distinguish Cape Porcupines from Crested Porcupines; short quills on lower rump of the Cape Porcupine are white, but they are black on the Crested Porcupine. Skull differences are clear and well described by van Weers.Habitat.[.owland and montane tropical forests, savanna grassland, brushland, Acacia and Brachystegia (miombo) woodlands, and semiarid deserts, with broad daily and seasonal temperature changes, from sea level to elevations of ¢.2000 m. In South Africa, Cape Porcupines prefer Burkea—Acacia savanna, probably due to concentration of preferred foods. They are not found in swampy areas.Food and Feeding.The Cape Porcupine is omnivorous and eats subterranean tubers, bulbs, and roots; shoots; fruits; and stems. Osteophagy is common, particularly in phosphorous-limited areas. It might eat carrion. It is considered a pest by farmers; it will raid melon, pumpkin, and maize crops; uproot young trees; and damage young plantations by debarking and feeding on innerliving tissue of trees from ground level to c.0-5 m up the trunk. Cape Porcupines are ecosystem engineers because their foraging has landscape-level effects through food choice and physical effects of digging. Selective bark feeding in some natural savanna ecosystems may influence patterns of succession. Cape Porcupines dig circular, conical holes in the soil surface in search of tubers, insect larvae, and seeds, which creates sites for seedlings and allows water to infiltrate the soil crust. Digging by Cape Porcupines annually disturbs 0-34% ofthe soil surface and displace 1-6 m®/ha/year ofsoil acrossits distribution.Breeding.The Cape Porcupine,like the Crested Porcupine and the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), is monogamous. Sexual maturity is reached at 8-18 months of age for males and in the second year oflife for females. Males and females are reproductive throughout the year. In both captive and wild individuals in South Africa, most litters are born in August-March, corresponding to periods of summer rain; this timing probably maximizes neonatal survival, especially in arid regions that experience cold, dry winters. Females are polyestrous, with cycle lengths of 17-42 days. Sexual activity (lordosis, mounting, and ejaculation) occurs throughout estrus, pregnancy, and lactation, but actual copulation outside of estrus is hindered by presence of a vaginal closure membrane. This physical contact between sexes maintains cyclic ovarian activity and may strengthen pair bonds. Estrus begins when vaginal membrane opens, coinciding with a surge in 17B-estradiol. Copulation is typically preceded by the female approaching the male and occurs ¢.2-8 days after onset of estrus. The female adopts a receptive posture, with tail and rump raised and quills pointed away from the male. He mounts the female from behind, with his forepaws resting on her back. Intromission only occurs when the female is in estrus. After mating, a copulatory plug is formed. Gestation lasts 93-105 days, and females average onelitter per year, with 1-3 precocial young; 59% oflitters produce singletons and 30% twins. Newborns weigh 300-400 g and have soft defensive quills and closed, pointed rattle-quills at birth. Young nibble on solid foods by 9-14 days of age and begin to feed alone at 4-6 weeks of age, although they continue to nurse for 13-19 weeks when they weigh 2.5-4.7 kg. Lactation averages 101 days and includes c.110 days of anestrus during lactation. The father provides paternal care by accompanying young on foraging trips, grooming and huddling with them, and protecting them from threats. Although Cape Porcupines live in family groups, only the adult pair reproduces. Females are almost continuously exposed to sexually mature males. Subordinate females experience cyclic ovarian activity, but only the dominant female conceives. Mechanism of reproductive suppression of subordinate females is unknown, but progesterone concentrations, despite cyclic changes, remain insufficient for implantation. Social factors may impact ovarian function. Females separated from males in captivity experience impairment of ovarian function. Physical contact with males may be required to sustain regular follicular and luteal activities of females. Densities might influence whether or not females reproduce during their first year. Conception in sexually mature females is suppressed until after dispersal from her natal group. Cape Porcupineslive for about ten years in the wild and up to 20 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Cape Porcupines are nocturnal. They spend their days at rest in shelters in rock crevices, caves, or abandoned burrows of Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer), which they modify to suit their needs with their front claws. They may excavate their own holes or use termite mounds as dens. Cape Porcupines often bring bones into their shelters. They forage alone at night, although pairs forage near one another, spending less than 25% of their active periods more than 400 m apart and spending more than 50% of active time within 200 m of one another. A pair of Cape Porcupines foraging in proximity of one other could be mate guarding because it is not apparent that they cooperate in foraging or anti-predator defense. When alarmed, defensive action is to raise quills and shake the rattle-quills. If a threat does not subside, a Cape Porcupine might attack by backing rapidly toward the threat, stabbing it with long defensive quills that detach easily from skin.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cape Porcupines are monogamous and live in family groups typically consisting of an adult male-female pair and subadult and juvenile offspring. Mature offspring may remain in their natal groups when dispersal opportunities are limited; groups of up to 14 individuals have been observed sharing a single burrow. One family unit will irregularly use up to six different burrows. Den entrances can be 10 m apart, and main tunnels can be 20 m long. A living chamber is found c.2 m below ground. Home range is a large, non-exclusive area surrounding a smaller, exclusive core area (territory) that is defended by an adult pair. Males scent-mark more frequently than females and more often in feeding than non-feeding areas, and scent marking may thus play a larger role in territory defense. Territorial boundaries are neither permanent nor rigidly defined. Space use changes with season, but home ranges of adult pairs tend to include the same general area throughout the year, and most activity occurs in a fairly small proportion of the home range. Home ranges of adjacent groups overlap little; neighbors rarely encounter one another in areas of overlap. Home range size is smaller for individuals that forage on natural food vs. individuals that raid crops. Cape Porcupines that feed in natural areas also have larger home ranges in winter (c.116 ha) than summer (c.67 ha). On average, home ranges of males and females in mated pairs overlap ¢.75%. Cape Porcupines exhibit bi-parental care of offspring. Adult males accompany young on foraging excursions and defend against territory intruders. Group huddling among parents and offspring while sleeping in the burrow also provides thermoregulatory benefits, particularly for newborns that do not leave burrows for about nine weeks. Assistance with thermoregulation allows newborns more energy to allocate toward growth. The monogamous pair bond, unusual in mammals, may allow for territory maintenance. There is immediate burrow take-over by a new pair upon the death of one member of a pair. Group living and a monogamous mating system appear to increase territory holding and juvenile success. In absence of natural predation, population age structure is variable, changing between seasons and years. Population regulation is densitydependent. High-density populations of 25 ind/km? have been observed on riverine plains in the South African Karoo. Eight Cape Porcupines per square kilometer is a high density for semiarid regions. Population size appears to be limited by available den sites and territory size. Populations can also be limited by extrinsic factors such as predation; Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (Panthera leo) are primary predators of Cape Porcupines.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Cape Porcupines damage crops and are a source of accessible meat protein to indigenous people, leaving them vulnerable to hunting, trapping, and snaring. Their role as an ecosystem engineer indicates that their protection should be included in conservation plans. Although the Cape Porcupine can hybridize with the Crested Porcupine in captivity, hybridization does not occur in their natural zone of overlap in East Africa.Bibliography.van Aarde (1985, 1987, 1998), van Aarde & Skinner (1986), van Aarde & van Wyk (1991), Alexander (1956), Barthelmess (2006), Bragg et al. (2005), Corbet & van Aarde (1996), Dean & Milton (1991), De Graaff (1981), Duthie & Skinner (1986), Ferguson et al. (2010), Findlay (1977), Foley et al. (2014), Gooden & Augee (2015), Greaves & Khan (1978), Grubb (2008b), Haim et al. (1992), Happold (2013a), Lawton & Jones (1995), Macdonald (2009), Meester et al. (1986), Mohr (1964), Moreau et al. (1946), Morris & van Aarde (1985), Nowak (1999a), Roberts (1951), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Skinner et al. (1984), Storch (1990), Thomson (1974), de Villiers & van Aarde (1994), van Weers (1979), Yeaton (1988)." 03ACCF40BF15FFEA7B9FF5EAF9E8D88C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,445,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF15FFEA7B9FF5EAF9E8D88C.xml,Vulpes zerda,Vulpes,zerda,,,Renard fennec @fr | Fennek @de | Fenec @es,"Canis zerda Zimmermann, 1780,Sahara region.Previously placed in the genus Fennecus now included in the genus Vulpes. Two previously described races, saarensis and zaarensis are synonyms. Monotypic.",Widespread in the sandy deserts and semi-deserts of N Africa to N Sinai.,"Head-body 33-3-39- 5 cm, tail 12- 5-25 cm; weight 0-8- 1-87 kg.The Fennec Fox is the smallest canid, with extremely large ears that give it the greatest ear to body ratio in the family. The muzzle and legs are slender and delicate. Pelage is typically sandy or cream-colored, although it may have a light fawn, red or gray cast; underparts are paler. The ears are darker dorsally and white or whitish inside and on the edges. Eyes are large and dark; dark streaks extend from the inner eye down and outward to either side of the muzzle. Upperparts of limbs reportedly colored reddish-sandy in individuals from North Africa, whereas those from farther south are nearly white in these areas. The coat is very thick and long; dense fur on the feet extends to cover the pads. The tail is also well-furred, with a darker tip and a slightly darker spot covering the caudal gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. It has a vulpine skull, but with very large tympanic bullae. The canines are small and narrow. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Fennecs subsist in arid desert environments. Stable sand dunes are believed to be ideal habitat, although the foxes also live in very sparsely vegetated sand dunes near the Atlantic coast. Annual rainfall is less than 100 mmper year on the northern fringe of the Fennec’s distribution. On the southern fringe, it may be found up to the Sahelian areas that receive as much as 300 mmrainfall per year. In the Sahara, sparse vegetation is usually dominated by Aristida spp., and Ephedra alata in large sand dunes. On small sand dunes, it is dominated by Panicum turgidum, Zygophyllum spp., and sometimes by trees like Acacia spp. and Capparis decidua.","Fennecs are omnivorous, consuming insects, small rodents (e.g. Jaculus jaculus, Gerbillus spp., and Meriones spp.), lizards (e.g. Acanthodactylus spp.), geckos (e.g. Stenodactylus spp.), skinks (e.g. Scincus albifasciatus), eggs, small birds (e.g. larks and sandgrouse), and various fruits and tubers. Fennecs hunt alone. They have not been seen using the “mouse jump” hunting strategy typical of most fox species, but reportedly dig to find insects and small vertebrates. Like other foxes they cache food by burying it.","First mating is reported to occur at nine months to one year. Fennecs mate in January and February and give birth in March and April. They most commonly give birth once annually, but more than one litter per year is possible under some conditions. The copulatory tie is exceptionally long, lasting as much as two hours and forty-five minutes. Gestation is 50-52 days. Litter size ranges from 1-4, and weaning takes place at 61-70 days. Dens are always dug in sand, in open areas or places sheltered by plants such as Aristida pungens and Calligonum comosum. Dens may be huge and labyrinthine, especially in the most compacted soils, covering up to 120 m? and with as many as 15 entrances, and may be close together or even interconnected. In soft sand, dens are usually small and simple, with just one entrance and one tunnel leading to a chamber.","Primarily nocturnal, although crepuscular activity is also reported. In southern Morocco, animals were commonly active in winter until around midmorning.","Movements and home ranges are unknown. Fennecs are thought to be moderately social, with the basic social unit believed to be a mated pair and their offspring. Like some other canids, the young of the previous year may remain in the family even when a new litter is born. Play behavior is common, even among adults, although males show more aggression and urine-mark around the time of estrus. Captive Fennecs engage in high levels of social behavior, and typically rest in contact with each other.Breeding.First mating is reported to occur at nine months to one year. Fennecs mate in January and February and give birth in March and April. They most commonly give birth once annually, but more than one litter per year is possible under some conditions. The copulatory tie is exceptionally long, lasting as much as two hours and forty-five minutes. Gestation is 50-52 days. Litter size ranges from 1-4, and weaning takes place at 61-70 days. Dens are always dug in sand, in open areas or places sheltered by plants such as Aristida pungens and Calligonum comosum. Dens may be huge and labyrinthine, especially in the most compacted soils, covering up to 120 m? and with as many as 15 entrances, and may be close together or even interconnected. In soft sand, dens are usually small and simple, with just one entrance and one tunnel leading to a chamber.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Listed as “lower risk/least concern” in Morocco, which probably reflects the true status across their range. Legally protected in Morocco(including the Western Sahara). Current population size is unknown butis assumed to be adequate, based on observations that the Fennec Fox is still commonly trapped and sold commercially in northern Africa. In southern Morocco, Fennecs were commonly seen in all sandy areas away from permanent human settlements. The primary threat appears to be trapping for photographic exhibition, sale to the pet trade or tourists, and for fur by the indigenous people of North Africa. Though restricted to marginal areas, new permanent human settlements such as those in southern Moroccohave resulted in the disappearance of Fennecs in these areas.","Asa et al. (2004) | Bauman (2002) | Bekoff et al. (1981) | Bueler (1973) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Coetzee (1977) | Cuzin (1996) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Dragesco-Joffé (1993) | Ewer (1973) | Gangloff, L. (1972) | Gauthier-Pilters (1962, 1967) | Koenig (1970) | Nowak (1999) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Petter (1957) | Rosevear (1974) | Saint Girons (1962) | Saleh & Basuony (1998) | Stains (1974) | Valdespino (2000) | Valdespino et al. (2002) | Volf (1957)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331231/files/figure.png,"35.Fennec FoxVulpes zerdaFrench:Renard fennec/ German:Fennek/ Spanish:FenecTaxonomy.Canis zerda Zimmermann, 1780,Sahara region.Previously placed in the genus Fennecus now included in the genus Vulpes. Two previously described races, saarensis and zaarensis are synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the sandy deserts and semi-deserts of N Africa to N Sinai.Descriptive notes.Head-body 33-3-39- 5 cm, tail 12- 5-25 cm; weight 0-8- 1-87 kg.The Fennec Fox is the smallest canid, with extremely large ears that give it the greatest ear to body ratio in the family. The muzzle and legs are slender and delicate. Pelage is typically sandy or cream-colored, although it may have a light fawn, red or gray cast; underparts are paler. The ears are darker dorsally and white or whitish inside and on the edges. Eyes are large and dark; dark streaks extend from the inner eye down and outward to either side of the muzzle. Upperparts of limbs reportedly colored reddish-sandy in individuals from North Africa, whereas those from farther south are nearly white in these areas. The coat is very thick and long; dense fur on the feet extends to cover the pads. The tail is also well-furred, with a darker tip and a slightly darker spot covering the caudal gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. It has a vulpine skull, but with very large tympanic bullae. The canines are small and narrow. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Fennecs subsist in arid desert environments. Stable sand dunes are believed to be ideal habitat, although the foxes also live in very sparsely vegetated sand dunes near the Atlantic coast. Annual rainfall is less than 100 mmper year on the northern fringe of the Fennec’s distribution. On the southern fringe, it may be found up to the Sahelian areas that receive as much as 300 mmrainfall per year. In the Sahara, sparse vegetation is usually dominated by Aristida spp., and Ephedra alata in large sand dunes. On small sand dunes, it is dominated by Panicum turgidum, Zygophyllum spp., and sometimes by trees like Acacia spp. and Capparis decidua.Food and Feeding.Fennecs are omnivorous, consuming insects, small rodents (e.g. Jaculus jaculus, Gerbillus spp., and Meriones spp.), lizards (e.g. Acanthodactylus spp.), geckos (e.g. Stenodactylus spp.), skinks (e.g. Scincus albifasciatus), eggs, small birds (e.g. larks and sandgrouse), and various fruits and tubers. Fennecs hunt alone. They have not been seen using the “mouse jump” hunting strategy typical of most fox species, but reportedly dig to find insects and small vertebrates. Like other foxes they cache food by burying it.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, although crepuscular activity is also reported. In southern Morocco, animals were commonly active in winter until around midmorning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements and home ranges are unknown. Fennecs are thought to be moderately social, with the basic social unit believed to be a mated pair and their offspring. Like some other canids, the young of the previous year may remain in the family even when a new litter is born. Play behavior is common, even among adults, although males show more aggression and urine-mark around the time of estrus. Captive Fennecs engage in high levels of social behavior, and typically rest in contact with each other.Breeding.First mating is reported to occur at nine months to one year. Fennecs mate in January and February and give birth in March and April. They most commonly give birth once annually, but more than one litter per year is possible under some conditions. The copulatory tie is exceptionally long, lasting as much as two hours and forty-five minutes. Gestation is 50-52 days. Litter size ranges from 1-4, and weaning takes place at 61-70 days. Dens are always dug in sand, in open areas or places sheltered by plants such as Aristida pungens and Calligonum comosum. Dens may be huge and labyrinthine, especially in the most compacted soils, covering up to 120 m? and with as many as 15 entrances, and may be close together or even interconnected. In soft sand, dens are usually small and simple, with just one entrance and one tunnel leading to a chamber.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Listed as “lower risk/least concern” in Morocco, which probably reflects the true status across their range. Legally protected in Morocco(including the Western Sahara). Current population size is unknown butis assumed to be adequate, based on observations that the Fennec Fox is still commonly trapped and sold commercially in northern Africa. In southern Morocco, Fennecs were commonly seen in all sandy areas away from permanent human settlements. The primary threat appears to be trapping for photographic exhibition, sale to the pet trade or tourists, and for fur by the indigenous people of North Africa. Though restricted to marginal areas, new permanent human settlements such as those in southern Moroccohave resulted in the disappearance of Fennecs in these areas.Bibliography.Asa et al. (2004), Bauman (2002), Bekoff et al. (1981), Bueler (1973), Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Coetzee (1977), Cuzin (1996), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Dragesco-Joffé (1993), Ewer (1973), Gangloff, L. (1972), Gauthier-Pilters (1962, 1967), Koenig (1970), Nowak (1999), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Petter (1957), Rosevear (1974), Saint Girons (1962), Saleh & Basuony (1998), Stains (1974), Valdespino (2000), Valdespino et al. (2002), Volf (1957)." 03ACCF40BF15FFEB7E96F977F722D72C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,445,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF15FFEB7E96F977F722D72C.xml,Vulpes cana,Vulpes,cana,Blanford,1877,Renard de Blanford @fr | Afghanfuchs @de | Zorro persa @es | Royal Fox @en | King Fox @en | Afghan Fox @en,"Vulpes canus Blanford, 1877,Pakistan.Genetic analysis revealed that Blanford’s Fox and Fennec Fox (V. zerda) are consistently associated as sister taxa, and define a taxonomic grouping that previously had not been recognized. However, the two species diverged as much as 3-4 million years ago, which coincides with the appearance of desert regions in the Middle East and northern Africa. Monotypic.","Arid mountainous regions of the Middle East. Known populations in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. The species also ranges across much of Afghanistanand Iran, and surrounding regions in Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.","Head-body 38- 5-80 cmfor males and 38:5-76- 2 cmfor females, tail 26-35- 5 cmfor males and 29-35 cmfor females; weight 0-8- 1-4 kgfor males and 0-8- 1-6 kgfor females. A small fox with a long and very bushy tail. Males have 36% longer bodies and front legs than females. Head is orange buff, especially in winter. The face is slender with a distinctive dark band extending from the upper part of the sharply pointed muzzle to the internal angle of the eyes. The ears are pale brown on both sides with long white hairs along the antero-medial border. The body is brownishgray, fading to pale yellow on the belly. The winter coat is soft and woolly with a dense, black under wool. Its dorsal region is sprinkled with white-tipped hair. The summer coat is less dense, the fur is paler, and the white-tipped hairs are less apparent. Specimens from the eastern part of the distribution may be predominantly gray. A distinctive mid-dorsal black band extends from the nape of the neck caudally, becoming a mid-dorsal crest throughout the length of the tail. The tail is similar in color to the body, usually with a black tip, although in some individuals the tip is white. The feet are dorsally pale yellowish-white, while posteriorly they are dark gray. Unlike other fox species in the Middle East deserts, the blackish pads of the feet and digits are hairless and the claws are cat-like, curved, sharp, and semi-retractile. The dental formula is I 3/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.","Confined to dry, mountainous regions, generally below 2000 m. All the records collected on the Persian Plateau are from foothills and mountains in the vicinity of lower plains and basins, where the species’ habitat comprises the slopes of rocky mountains with stony plains and patches of cultivation. Appears to avoid higher mountain ranges and lower, warmer valleys, although the densest known population is found in the Judaean Desert, 100-350 mbelow sea level. In the Middle East, Blanford’s Foxes are confined to mountainous desert ranges and inhabit steep, rocky slopes, canyons, and cliffs. Blanford’s Foxes are not limited by access to water in the Arabian Desert, and in Israelthey inhabit the driest and hottest regions.","Blanford’s Foxes in Israelare primarily insectivorous and frugivorous. Invertebrates are the major food, beetles, grasshoppers, ants, and termites being eaten most often. They eat the fruits of two caperbush species, Capparis cartilaginea and C. spinosa, fruits and plant material of Phoenix dactylifera, Ochradenus baccatus, Fagonia mollis, and various species of Gramineae. Remains of vertebrates were present in about 10% of fecal samples analysed in one study. Blanford’s Foxes in Pakistanare largely frugivorous, feeding on Russian olives (Eleagnus bortensis), melons, and grapes. They are almost always solitary foragers, only occasionally foraging in pairs. Foraging behavior includes unhurried movements back and forth between rocky patches in a small area, sniffing and looking under large stones and occasionally digging, standing near a bush prior to circling the bush or pouncing upon prey within, and short, fast sprints after small terrestrial or low-flying prey. Food caching is rare or absent, unlike other fox species.","Blanford’s Foxes live in monogamous pairs. Females are monoestrous and come into estrus during January and February. Gestation period is about 50-60 days, and litter size is 1-3 pups. Females have 2-6 active teats, and the lactation period is 30- 45 days. Neonates are born with soft, black fur. The body mass of a sub-adult is reached in about 3—4 months (700-900 g). Young are entirely dependent upon their mother’s milk until they begin to forage for themselves. At two months of age the young start to forage, accompanied by one of the parents, and at three months of age they start to forage alone. Adult foxes have never been observed to carry food to the young. As in other small canids, food appears not to be regurgitated to the young. Males have been observed grooming and accompanying two- to four-month-old juveniles, but have not been seen feeding them or the female. Sexual maturity is reached at 10-12 months of age. Offspring often remain within their natal home range until autumn (October— November). Blanford’s Fox dens in Israelwere usually on a mountain slope and consisted of large rock and boulder piles or scree. The foxes appeared to use only available natural cavities and never dug burrows. Dens were used for rearing young during spring and for daytime resting throughout the year. During winter and spring, both members of a pair frequently occupied the same den, or adjacent dens at the same site, while during summer and autumn they often denned in separate locations. Frequent changes in den location from day to day were more common in summer and autumn.","Strictly nocturnal, likely an anti-predator response to diurnal raptors. The onset of activity is governed largely by light conditions, and closely follows sunset. Foxes are active about 8-9 hours per night, independent of the duration of darkness. Average distance travelled per night is approximately 9 km. Climatic conditions at night in the desert appear to have little direct effect on the activity of Blanford’s Foxes.","Radio-tracking studies in Israelindicated that Blanford’s Foxes were organized as strictly monogamous pairsin territories of about 1-6 km” that overlapped minimally. Three of five territories contained one non-breeding, yearling female during the mating season, but there was no evidence of polygyny.Breeding.Blanford’s Foxes live in monogamous pairs. Females are monoestrous and come into estrus during January and February. Gestation period is about 50-60 days, and litter size is 1-3 pups. Females have 2-6 active teats, and the lactation period is 30- 45 days. Neonates are born with soft, black fur. The body mass of a sub-adult is reached in about 3—4 months (700-900 g). Young are entirely dependent upon their mother’s milk until they begin to forage for themselves. At two months of age the young start to forage, accompanied by one of the parents, and at three months of age they start to forage alone. Adult foxes have never been observed to carry food to the young. As in other small canids, food appears not to be regurgitated to the young. Males have been observed grooming and accompanying two- to four-month-old juveniles, but have not been seen feeding them or the female. Sexual maturity is reached at 10-12 months of age. Offspring often remain within their natal home range until autumn (October— November). Blanford’s Fox dens in Israelwere usually on a mountain slope and consisted of large rock and boulder piles or scree. The foxes appeared to use only available natural cavities and never dug burrows. Dens were used for rearing young during spring and for daytime resting throughout the year. During winter and spring, both members of a pair frequently occupied the same den, or adjacent dens at the same site, while during summer and autumn they often denned in separate locations. Frequent changes in den location from day to day were more common in summer and autumn.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Fully protected in Israel. There is a ban on hunting in Jordanand Oman, but no legal protection is known for Egypt, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Afghanistan, or Pakistan. Fairly common in south-eastern Israel, where density has been estimated at 2 km?*in Ein Gedi, and 0-5 km?in Eilat. The threat from habitat loss in Israelis limited, as most of the area where this species occurs is designated as protected. Political developments may change the status of the northern Judaean Desert. Human development along the Dead Sea coasts may also pose a considerable threat to existing habitat. Similar concerns exist for the populations in the UAE. Military activities may affect populations in Afghanistan.","Al Khalili (1993) | Geffen (1994) | Geffen & Macdonald (1992, 1993) | Geffen, Dagan et al. (1992) | Geffen, Hefner, Macdonald & Ucko (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢, 1993) | Geffen, Hefner & Wright (2004) | Geffen, Mercure et al. (1992) | Harrison & Bates (1989, 1991) | Hassinger (1973) | llany (1983) | Lay (1967) | Mendelssohn et al. (1987) | Peters & Rodel (1994) | Roberts (1977) | Smith et al. (2003) | Wickens (1984)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331229/files/figure.png,"34.Blanford’s FoxVulpes canaFrench:Renard de Blanford/ German:Afghanfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro persaOther common names:Royal Fox, King Fox, Afghan FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes canus Blanford, 1877,Pakistan.Genetic analysis revealed that Blanford’s Fox and Fennec Fox (V. zerda) are consistently associated as sister taxa, and define a taxonomic grouping that previously had not been recognized. However, the two species diverged as much as 3-4 million years ago, which coincides with the appearance of desert regions in the Middle East and northern Africa. Monotypic.Distribution.Arid mountainous regions of the Middle East. Known populations in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. The species also ranges across much of Afghanistanand Iran, and surrounding regions in Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 38- 5-80 cmfor males and 38:5-76- 2 cmfor females, tail 26-35- 5 cmfor males and 29-35 cmfor females; weight 0-8- 1-4 kgfor males and 0-8- 1-6 kgfor females. A small fox with a long and very bushy tail. Males have 36% longer bodies and front legs than females. Head is orange buff, especially in winter. The face is slender with a distinctive dark band extending from the upper part of the sharply pointed muzzle to the internal angle of the eyes. The ears are pale brown on both sides with long white hairs along the antero-medial border. The body is brownishgray, fading to pale yellow on the belly. The winter coat is soft and woolly with a dense, black under wool. Its dorsal region is sprinkled with white-tipped hair. The summer coat is less dense, the fur is paler, and the white-tipped hairs are less apparent. Specimens from the eastern part of the distribution may be predominantly gray. A distinctive mid-dorsal black band extends from the nape of the neck caudally, becoming a mid-dorsal crest throughout the length of the tail. The tail is similar in color to the body, usually with a black tip, although in some individuals the tip is white. The feet are dorsally pale yellowish-white, while posteriorly they are dark gray. Unlike other fox species in the Middle East deserts, the blackish pads of the feet and digits are hairless and the claws are cat-like, curved, sharp, and semi-retractile. The dental formula is I 3/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.Habitat.Confined to dry, mountainous regions, generally below 2000 m. All the records collected on the Persian Plateau are from foothills and mountains in the vicinity of lower plains and basins, where the species’ habitat comprises the slopes of rocky mountains with stony plains and patches of cultivation. Appears to avoid higher mountain ranges and lower, warmer valleys, although the densest known population is found in the Judaean Desert, 100-350 mbelow sea level. In the Middle East, Blanford’s Foxes are confined to mountainous desert ranges and inhabit steep, rocky slopes, canyons, and cliffs. Blanford’s Foxes are not limited by access to water in the Arabian Desert, and in Israelthey inhabit the driest and hottest regions.Food and Feeding.Blanford’s Foxes in Israelare primarily insectivorous and frugivorous. Invertebrates are the major food, beetles, grasshoppers, ants, and termites being eaten most often. They eat the fruits of two caperbush species, Capparis cartilaginea and C. spinosa, fruits and plant material of Phoenix dactylifera, Ochradenus baccatus, Fagonia mollis, and various species of Gramineae. Remains of vertebrates were present in about 10% of fecal samples analysed in one study. Blanford’s Foxes in Pakistanare largely frugivorous, feeding on Russian olives (Eleagnus bortensis), melons, and grapes. They are almost always solitary foragers, only occasionally foraging in pairs. Foraging behavior includes unhurried movements back and forth between rocky patches in a small area, sniffing and looking under large stones and occasionally digging, standing near a bush prior to circling the bush or pouncing upon prey within, and short, fast sprints after small terrestrial or low-flying prey. Food caching is rare or absent, unlike other fox species.Activity patterns.Strictly nocturnal, likely an anti-predator response to diurnal raptors. The onset of activity is governed largely by light conditions, and closely follows sunset. Foxes are active about 8-9 hours per night, independent of the duration of darkness. Average distance travelled per night is approximately 9 km. Climatic conditions at night in the desert appear to have little direct effect on the activity of Blanford’s Foxes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Radio-tracking studies in Israelindicated that Blanford’s Foxes were organized as strictly monogamous pairsin territories of about 1-6 km” that overlapped minimally. Three of five territories contained one non-breeding, yearling female during the mating season, but there was no evidence of polygyny.Breeding.Blanford’s Foxes live in monogamous pairs. Females are monoestrous and come into estrus during January and February. Gestation period is about 50-60 days, and litter size is 1-3 pups. Females have 2-6 active teats, and the lactation period is 30- 45 days. Neonates are born with soft, black fur. The body mass of a sub-adult is reached in about 3—4 months (700-900 g). Young are entirely dependent upon their mother’s milk until they begin to forage for themselves. At two months of age the young start to forage, accompanied by one of the parents, and at three months of age they start to forage alone. Adult foxes have never been observed to carry food to the young. As in other small canids, food appears not to be regurgitated to the young. Males have been observed grooming and accompanying two- to four-month-old juveniles, but have not been seen feeding them or the female. Sexual maturity is reached at 10-12 months of age. Offspring often remain within their natal home range until autumn (October— November). Blanford’s Fox dens in Israelwere usually on a mountain slope and consisted of large rock and boulder piles or scree. The foxes appeared to use only available natural cavities and never dug burrows. Dens were used for rearing young during spring and for daytime resting throughout the year. During winter and spring, both members of a pair frequently occupied the same den, or adjacent dens at the same site, while during summer and autumn they often denned in separate locations. Frequent changes in den location from day to day were more common in summer and autumn.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Fully protected in Israel. There is a ban on hunting in Jordanand Oman, but no legal protection is known for Egypt, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Afghanistan, or Pakistan. Fairly common in south-eastern Israel, where density has been estimated at 2 km?*in Ein Gedi, and 0-5 km?in Eilat. The threat from habitat loss in Israelis limited, as most of the area where this species occurs is designated as protected. Political developments may change the status of the northern Judaean Desert. Human development along the Dead Sea coasts may also pose a considerable threat to existing habitat. Similar concerns exist for the populations in the UAE. Military activities may affect populations in Afghanistan.Bibliography.Al Khalili (1993), Geffen (1994), Geffen & Macdonald (1992, 1993), Geffen, Dagan et al. (1992), Geffen, Hefner, Macdonald & Ucko (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢, 1993), Geffen, Hefner & Wright (2004), Geffen, Mercure et al. (1992), Harrison & Bates (1989, 1991), Hassinger (1973), llany (1983), Lay (1967), Mendelssohn et al. (1987), Peters & Rodel (1994), Roberts (1977), Smith et al. (2003), Wickens (1984)." 03ACCF40BF16FFEB7BA7FC1EFE03DB98,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,444,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF16FFEB7BA7FC1EFE03DB98.xml,Vulpes chama,Vulpes,chama,,,Renard du Cap @fr | Kap-Fuchs @de | Zorro de El Cabo @es | Silver Fox @en,"Canis chama A. Smith, 1833, South Africa.Monotypic.","Widespread in the C and W regions of S Africa, reaching to about 15° Nin SW Angola. Occupies mainly arid and semi-arid areas, but also occurs in regions with higher precipitation and denser vegetation, such as the fynbos biome of South Africa’s Western Cape Province.Cape Foxes have expanded their range over recent decades to the SW, where the species reaches the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coastlines. May occur in SW Swaziland, and possibly also in Lesotho.","Head-body 45-61 cmfor males and 51-62 cmfor females, tail 30- 40-6 cmfor males and 25-39 cmfor females; weight 2-4-2 kgfor males and 2-4 kgfor females. One of the smallest canids and only vulpine fox occurring in southern Africa has a slender build and a black-tipped tail. The overall coloration of the upperparts is grizzled silver-gray, the lower limbs, head, and back of the long ears being reddish-brown to pale tawny-brown. There is some freckling of white hairs on the face, concentrated mainly on the cheeks; the fronts of the ears are also fringed with white hairs. The upper chest is fawny-red, with the underparts colored off-white to pale fawn. The upper region of the front legs is reddish-yellow, with a dark brown patch on the backs of the thighs of the hindlegs. The body pelage is soft, with a dense underfur of wavy hairs overlaid by a thick guard coat of predominantly black hairs; the guard hairs are light-colored at the base and have silvery bands. During the molting period, from October to December, much of the guard coat is lost, giving the foxes a rather dull and “naked” appearance. The claws of the front feet are long, sharp, and curved and there is pronounced hair growth between the foot-pads. The tail is very bushy and the overall impression is that of a black to very dark-brown tail. Females have one pair of inguinal and two pairs of abdominal mammae. The skull is narrow and elongated, with a narrow rostrum and a rather weak zygomatic arch. The canines are long, slender and strongly curved and the two upper molars are broad as an adaptation to crushing. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.Habitat.Mainly open country, including grassland with scattered thickets and lightly wooded areas, particularly in the dry Karoo regions of South Africa, the Kalahari Desert, and the fringes of the Namib Desert. Also in lowland fynbos in the Western Cape, as well as agricultural lands, where the foxes lie up in surviving pockets of natural vegetation during the day and forage on arable and cultivated fields at night. Along the eastern flank of the Namib Desert in Namibia, they occupy rock outcroppings and inselbergs, ranging out onto bare gravel plains at night. In Botswana, they have been recorded in Acacia scrubland, short grassland, and especially on the edges of shallow seasonal pans, as well as cleared and overgrazed areas. In the central Karoo of South Africathey occupy the plains as well as low, rocky ridges and isolated rock outcroppings. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they have been recorded at elevations of 1000-1500 m.Food and Feeding.The CapeFox consumes a wide range of food items, including small rodents (murids), hares, reptiles, birds, invertebrates, and some wild fruits. An analysis of the contents of 57 stomachs collected across western and central South Africaand Botswanashowed that rodents were the most commonly eaten mammal prey; beetles (larvae and adults) and grasshoppers comprised the majority of invertebrate intake. Birds and reptiles are occasionally included in the diet, but are probably less important. The largest wild prey species recorded are hares and spring hares. Cape Foxes will also scavenge and occasionally take young lambs and goats. Foraging is solitary, although foxes may occasionally gather in loose groupings to forage at an abundant food source. They obtain their prey mostly by digging rapidly with their front paws, often preceded by periods of intentlistening. Caching of prey is common.Activity patterns.CapeFoxes forage almost exclusively at night, peaking shortly after sundown and just before dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.CapeFoxes live in monogamous pairs. In the Free Stateof South Africa, they appear to have overlapping home ranges, that vary from 1-4-6 km” in size. Defended territory is believed to consist of a limited area around the den in which the female has herlitter. Vocal communication mainly consists of a high-pitched howl, ending with a sharp bark. Females may bark when a potential predator approaches a den occupied by pups. Facial expressions and tail positions play an important role in visual communication.Breeding.Breeding appears to be non-seasonal in some areas, and strongly seasonal in others. The majority of births take place in spring and summer (August to October). Juveniles and sub-adults have been recorded in the Western and Northern CapeProvinces during November and December. Gestation lasts about 52 days, and litter size 1s from one to six pups. Young are born in burrows dug by adults in sandy soil, or in enlarged spring hare or Aardvark burrows. Births have also been known to occur in crevices, cavities amongst boulders, and occasionally, dense vegetation. Although both parents feed the pups, the female is the main provider and no helpers are found at dens. Both parents will defend the pups against potential predators. Their habit of abandoning one den for another could serve to avoid the accumulation of parasites and to confuse potential predators. Pups first begin to hunt at about 16 weeks, and become independent and disperse at the age of about five months. Communal denning has been recorded in the southern Kalahari, and a litter of eight pups found in the Free Stateperhaps reflects a similar situation.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although treated as a pest across most of its range, it is partially protected in several South African provinces and is not listed as a problem species; no permit, however, is required to kill this fox in pest control operations, resulting in population reductions in some areas. Generally common to fairly abundant across much of its range, the species is considered to be stable. Population estimates are only available for South Africa’s Free State province, where average density was 0-3 foxes per km? yielding a total population estimate of 31,000 individuals.","Mainly open country, including grassland with scattered thickets and lightly wooded areas, particularly in the dry Karoo regions of South Africa, the Kalahari Desert, and the fringes of the Namib Desert. Also in lowland fynbos in the Western Cape, as well as agricultural lands, where the foxes lie up in surviving pockets of natural vegetation during the day and forage on arable and cultivated fields at night. Along the eastern flank of the Namib Desert in Namibia, they occupy rock outcroppings and inselbergs, ranging out onto bare gravel plains at night. In Botswana, they have been recorded in Acacia scrubland, short grassland, and especially on the edges of shallow seasonal pans, as well as cleared and overgrazed areas. In the central Karoo of South Africathey occupy the plains as well as low, rocky ridges and isolated rock outcroppings. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they have been recorded at elevations of 1000-1500 m.","The CapeFox consumes a wide range of food items, including small rodents (murids), hares, reptiles, birds, invertebrates, and some wild fruits. An analysis of the contents of 57 stomachs collected across western and central South Africaand Botswanashowed that rodents were the most commonly eaten mammal prey; beetles (larvae and adults) and grasshoppers comprised the majority of invertebrate intake. Birds and reptiles are occasionally included in the diet, but are probably less important. The largest wild prey species recorded are hares and spring hares. Cape Foxes will also scavenge and occasionally take young lambs and goats. Foraging is solitary, although foxes may occasionally gather in loose groupings to forage at an abundant food source. They obtain their prey mostly by digging rapidly with their front paws, often preceded by periods of intentlistening. Caching of prey is common.","Breeding appears to be non-seasonal in some areas, and strongly seasonal in others. The majority of births take place in spring and summer (August to October). Juveniles and sub-adults have been recorded in the Western and Northern CapeProvinces during November and December. Gestation lasts about 52 days, and litter size 1s from one to six pups. Young are born in burrows dug by adults in sandy soil, or in enlarged spring hare or Aardvark burrows. Births have also been known to occur in crevices, cavities amongst boulders, and occasionally, dense vegetation. Although both parents feed the pups, the female is the main provider and no helpers are found at dens. Both parents will defend the pups against potential predators. Their habit of abandoning one den for another could serve to avoid the accumulation of parasites and to confuse potential predators. Pups first begin to hunt at about 16 weeks, and become independent and disperse at the age of about five months. Communal denning has been recorded in the southern Kalahari, and a litter of eight pups found in the Free Stateperhaps reflects a similar situation.","CapeFoxes forage almost exclusively at night, peaking shortly after sundown and just before dawn.","CapeFoxes live in monogamous pairs. In the Free Stateof South Africa, they appear to have overlapping home ranges, that vary from 1-4-6 km” in size. Defended territory is believed to consist of a limited area around the den in which the female has herlitter. Vocal communication mainly consists of a high-pitched howl, ending with a sharp bark. Females may bark when a potential predator approaches a den occupied by pups. Facial expressions and tail positions play an important role in visual communication.Breeding.Breeding appears to be non-seasonal in some areas, and strongly seasonal in others. The majority of births take place in spring and summer (August to October). Juveniles and sub-adults have been recorded in the Western and Northern CapeProvinces during November and December. Gestation lasts about 52 days, and litter size 1s from one to six pups. Young are born in burrows dug by adults in sandy soil, or in enlarged spring hare or Aardvark burrows. Births have also been known to occur in crevices, cavities amongst boulders, and occasionally, dense vegetation. Although both parents feed the pups, the female is the main provider and no helpers are found at dens. Both parents will defend the pups against potential predators. Their habit of abandoning one den for another could serve to avoid the accumulation of parasites and to confuse potential predators. Pups first begin to hunt at about 16 weeks, and become independent and disperse at the age of about five months. Communal denning has been recorded in the southern Kalahari, and a litter of eight pups found in the Free Stateperhaps reflects a similar situation.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although treated as a pest across most of its range, it is partially protected in several South African provinces and is not listed as a problem species; no permit, however, is required to kill this fox in pest control operations, resulting in population reductions in some areas. Generally common to fairly abundant across much of its range, the species is considered to be stable. Population estimates are only available for South Africa’s Free State province, where average density was 0-3 foxes per km? yielding a total population estimate of 31,000 individuals. Habitat loss/changes are not a major factor influencing the conservation status of the CapeFox. In fact, in the Western Cape Provinceand elsewhere, changing agricultural practices have resulted in range extensions for the species. Expansion of semi-arid karroid vegetation during the process of desertification, especially eastwards, has also resulted in range extensions of this canid. The illegal but widespread and indiscriminate use of agricultural poisons on commercial farms poses the greatest threat.","Bester (1982) | Bothma (1966, 1971c) | Brand (1963) | Coetzee (1977, 1979) | Crawford-Cabral (1989) | Kok (1996) | Le Clus (1971) | Lynch (1975, 1994) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem (1998) | Roberts (1951) | Rowe-Rowe (1992b) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers (1971, 1983) | Stuart (1975, 1981) | Stuart & Stuart (2001, 2004) | Travassos (1968)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331227/files/figure.png,"33.CapeFoxVulpes chamaFrench:Renard du Cap/ German:Kap-Fuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de El CaboOther common names:Silver FoxTaxonomy.Canis chama A. Smith, 1833, South Africa.Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the C and W regions of S Africa, reaching to about 15° Nin SW Angola. Occupies mainly arid and semi-arid areas, but also occurs in regions with higher precipitation and denser vegetation, such as the fynbos biome of South Africa’s Western Cape Province.Cape Foxes have expanded their range over recent decades to the SW, where the species reaches the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coastlines. May occur in SW Swaziland, and possibly also in Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-61 cmfor males and 51-62 cmfor females, tail 30- 40-6 cmfor males and 25-39 cmfor females; weight 2-4-2 kgfor males and 2-4 kgfor females. One of the smallest canids and only vulpine fox occurring in southern Africa has a slender build and a black-tipped tail. The overall coloration of the upperparts is grizzled silver-gray, the lower limbs, head, and back of the long ears being reddish-brown to pale tawny-brown. There is some freckling of white hairs on the face, concentrated mainly on the cheeks; the fronts of the ears are also fringed with white hairs. The upper chest is fawny-red, with the underparts colored off-white to pale fawn. The upper region of the front legs is reddish-yellow, with a dark brown patch on the backs of the thighs of the hindlegs. The body pelage is soft, with a dense underfur of wavy hairs overlaid by a thick guard coat of predominantly black hairs; the guard hairs are light-colored at the base and have silvery bands. During the molting period, from October to December, much of the guard coat is lost, giving the foxes a rather dull and “naked” appearance. The claws of the front feet are long, sharp, and curved and there is pronounced hair growth between the foot-pads. The tail is very bushy and the overall impression is that of a black to very dark-brown tail. Females have one pair of inguinal and two pairs of abdominal mammae. The skull is narrow and elongated, with a narrow rostrum and a rather weak zygomatic arch. The canines are long, slender and strongly curved and the two upper molars are broad as an adaptation to crushing. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.Habitat.Mainly open country, including grassland with scattered thickets and lightly wooded areas, particularly in the dry Karoo regions of South Africa, the Kalahari Desert, and the fringes of the Namib Desert. Also in lowland fynbos in the Western Cape, as well as agricultural lands, where the foxes lie up in surviving pockets of natural vegetation during the day and forage on arable and cultivated fields at night. Along the eastern flank of the Namib Desert in Namibia, they occupy rock outcroppings and inselbergs, ranging out onto bare gravel plains at night. In Botswana, they have been recorded in Acacia scrubland, short grassland, and especially on the edges of shallow seasonal pans, as well as cleared and overgrazed areas. In the central Karoo of South Africathey occupy the plains as well as low, rocky ridges and isolated rock outcroppings. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they have been recorded at elevations of 1000-1500 m.Food and Feeding.The CapeFox consumes a wide range of food items, including small rodents (murids), hares, reptiles, birds, invertebrates, and some wild fruits. An analysis of the contents of 57 stomachs collected across western and central South Africaand Botswanashowed that rodents were the most commonly eaten mammal prey; beetles (larvae and adults) and grasshoppers comprised the majority of invertebrate intake. Birds and reptiles are occasionally included in the diet, but are probably less important. The largest wild prey species recorded are hares and spring hares. Cape Foxes will also scavenge and occasionally take young lambs and goats. Foraging is solitary, although foxes may occasionally gather in loose groupings to forage at an abundant food source. They obtain their prey mostly by digging rapidly with their front paws, often preceded by periods of intentlistening. Caching of prey is common.Activity patterns.CapeFoxes forage almost exclusively at night, peaking shortly after sundown and just before dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.CapeFoxes live in monogamous pairs. In the Free Stateof South Africa, they appear to have overlapping home ranges, that vary from 1-4-6 km” in size. Defended territory is believed to consist of a limited area around the den in which the female has herlitter. Vocal communication mainly consists of a high-pitched howl, ending with a sharp bark. Females may bark when a potential predator approaches a den occupied by pups. Facial expressions and tail positions play an important role in visual communication.Breeding.Breeding appears to be non-seasonal in some areas, and strongly seasonal in others. The majority of births take place in spring and summer (August to October). Juveniles and sub-adults have been recorded in the Western and Northern CapeProvinces during November and December. Gestation lasts about 52 days, and litter size 1s from one to six pups. Young are born in burrows dug by adults in sandy soil, or in enlarged spring hare or Aardvark burrows. Births have also been known to occur in crevices, cavities amongst boulders, and occasionally, dense vegetation. Although both parents feed the pups, the female is the main provider and no helpers are found at dens. Both parents will defend the pups against potential predators. Their habit of abandoning one den for another could serve to avoid the accumulation of parasites and to confuse potential predators. Pups first begin to hunt at about 16 weeks, and become independent and disperse at the age of about five months. Communal denning has been recorded in the southern Kalahari, and a litter of eight pups found in the Free Stateperhaps reflects a similar situation.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although treated as a pest across most of its range, it is partially protected in several South African provinces and is not listed as a problem species; no permit, however, is required to kill this fox in pest control operations, resulting in population reductions in some areas. Generally common to fairly abundant across much of its range, the species is considered to be stable. Population estimates are only available for South Africa’s Free State province, where average density was 0-3 foxes per km? yielding a total population estimate of 31,000 individuals. Habitat loss/changes are not a major factor influencing the conservation status of the CapeFox. In fact, in the Western Cape Provinceand elsewhere, changing agricultural practices have resulted in range extensions for the species. Expansion of semi-arid karroid vegetation during the process of desertification, especially eastwards, has also resulted in range extensions of this canid. The illegal but widespread and indiscriminate use of agricultural poisons on commercial farms poses the greatest threat.Bibliography.Bester (1982), Bothma (1966, 1971c), Brand (1963), Coetzee (1977, 1979), Crawford-Cabral (1989), Kok (1996), Le Clus (1971), Lynch (1975, 1994), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem (1998), Roberts (1951), Rowe-Rowe (1992b), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers (1971, 1983), Stuart (1975, 1981), Stuart & Stuart (2001, 2004), Travassos (1968)." -03ACCF40BF17FFE87B95F357F947DE42,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,443,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE87B95F357F947DE42.xml,Vulpes rueppellii,Vulpes,rueppellii,Frisch,1775,Renard de Rippell @fr | Sandfuchs @de | Zorro de Ruppell @es | Sand Fox @en | Rippell's Sand Fox @en,"Canis rüeppeliiSchinz, 1825, Sudan.Six subspecies are recognized.","V.r. rueppellii Schinz, 1825— Egyptand Sudan(Nubian Desert).V. r. caesia Thomas & Hinton, 1921— N & W Africa.V. r. cyrenaica Festa, 1921— SW Egypt, Lybia, extreme NW Sudan.V. r. sabaea Pocock, 1934— Arabian Peninsula and Middle East.V. r. somaliae Thomas, 1918— Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.V. r. zarudny: Birula, 1913— Baluchistan in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.","Head-body 40-55 cmfor males and 34:5-55-9 cmfor females, tail 25-1-38-7 cmfor males and 22-36-3 cmfor females; weight 1-1-2-3 kgfor males and 1-1- 1-8 kgfor females. One of the smaller Vulpesspecies, Ruppell’s Fox is slighter in build than the Red Fox, and has smaller limbs. The ears are long and large in relation to the head, rather similar to Fennec Fox, but lack darker markings on the back of the ears. Coat color is variable. The head is beige to a pale sand color. The ears and face are usually pale, with most animals having black whisker patches running up to the eye, although this too is variable. Dorsal pelage varies from pale sandy to grayish and even sometimes reddish, with a more orless silvery sheen due to black speckling. Flanks and underbody are usually paler. The legs are beige to fawn, and the plantar and digital pads are almost completely covered by hairs. The black speckling from the back culminates in a dense black patch at the base of the tail, which is bushy and usually tipped white, a useful diagnostic feature. The furis very fine and soft, thicker and darker in winter and lighter colored in summer. Females have three pairs of mammae. The braincase is rounded, the postorbital processes are blunt and narrow, the zygomatic arches are strong, and the bullae are relatively large (though not so expanded as in Fennec Fox). The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.Food and Feeding.Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.Activity patterns.Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia.","Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.","Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.","In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.","Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.","Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, direct and indirect persecution by hunting, and indiscriminate use of poisons, appear to be the main threats. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes, which are expanding their range following human settlement in the Negev Desert. Competitive pressure from Red Foxes may also be affecting populations in the United Arab Emirates.",Coetzee (1977) | Cuzin (1996) | Cuzin & Lenain (2004) | De Smet (1988) | Dragesco-Joffé (1993) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hufnagl (1972) | Kingdon (1997) | Kowalski (1988) | Lenain (2000) | Lindsay & Macdonald (1986) | Olfermann (1996) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Petter (1952) | Rosevear (1974) | Valverde (1957) | Yom-Tov & Mendelssohn (1988),,"32.Ruppell’s FoxVulpes rueppelliiFrench:Renard de Rippell/ German:Sandfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de RuppellOther common names:Sand Fox, Rippell's Sand FoxTaxonomy.Canis rüeppeliiSchinz, 1825, Sudan.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V.r. rueppellii Schinz, 1825— Egyptand Sudan(Nubian Desert).V. r. caesia Thomas & Hinton, 1921— N & W Africa.V. r. cyrenaica Festa, 1921— SW Egypt, Lybia, extreme NW Sudan.V. r. sabaea Pocock, 1934— Arabian Peninsula and Middle East.V. r. somaliae Thomas, 1918— Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.V. r. zarudny: Birula, 1913— Baluchistan in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-55 cmfor males and 34:5-55-9 cmfor females, tail 25-1-38-7 cmfor males and 22-36-3 cmfor females; weight 1-1-2-3 kgfor males and 1-1- 1-8 kgfor females. One of the smaller Vulpesspecies, Ruppell’s Fox is slighter in build than the Red Fox, and has smaller limbs. The ears are long and large in relation to the head, rather similar to Fennec Fox, but lack darker markings on the back of the ears. Coat color is variable. The head is beige to a pale sand color. The ears and face are usually pale, with most animals having black whisker patches running up to the eye, although this too is variable. Dorsal pelage varies from pale sandy to grayish and even sometimes reddish, with a more orless silvery sheen due to black speckling. Flanks and underbody are usually paler. The legs are beige to fawn, and the plantar and digital pads are almost completely covered by hairs. The black speckling from the back culminates in a dense black patch at the base of the tail, which is bushy and usually tipped white, a useful diagnostic feature. The furis very fine and soft, thicker and darker in winter and lighter colored in summer. Females have three pairs of mammae. The braincase is rounded, the postorbital processes are blunt and narrow, the zygomatic arches are strong, and the bullae are relatively large (though not so expanded as in Fennec Fox). The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.Food and Feeding.Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.Activity patterns.Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, direct and indirect persecution by hunting, and indiscriminate use of poisons, appear to be the main threats. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes, which are expanding their range following human settlement in the Negev Desert. Competitive pressure from Red Foxes may also be affecting populations in the United Arab Emirates.Bibliography.Coetzee (1977), Cuzin (1996), Cuzin & Lenain (2004), De Smet (1988), Dragesco-Joffé (1993), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hufnagl (1972), Kingdon (1997), Kowalski (1988), Lenain (2000), Lindsay & Macdonald (1986), Olfermann (1996), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Petter (1952), Rosevear (1974), Valverde (1957), Yom-Tov & Mendelssohn (1988)." -03ACCF40BF17FFE97B96FBEDF7C0D179,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,443,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE97B96FBEDF7C0D179.xml,Vulpes pallida,Vulpes,pallida,Frisch,1775,Renard pale @fr | Blassfuchs @de | Zorro palido @es | Pallid Fox @en | African Sand Fox @en,"Canis pallidus Cretzschmar, 1826,Sudan.Has been associated with V. rueppellic and V. zerda. It also has been suggested that these desert foxes are closely related to V. bengalensisand V. chama. Five races have been described, four of which are recognized here. Variation may be clinal.","V. p. pallida Cretzschmar, 1827— Sudan(Kordofan) to Eritrea, and Ethiopia.V. p. edwardsi Rochebrune, 1883— Mali, S Mauritania, and Senegal.V. p. harterti Thomas & Hinton, 1921— Burkina Faso, Niger, and N Nigeria.V. p. oertzeni Matschie, 1910— N Cameroon, Chad, and NE Nigeriato S Libyain the N and Sudan(Darfur province) in the S.","Head-body 38-55 cm,tail 23-29 cm; weight 2-3-6 kg. A small, very pale fox with longish legs and large ears. Pale face, elongated muzzle with relatively long whiskers, and a black eye-ring. Large ears, white inside and rufous-brown on the outer surface. Body creamy-white to sandy fawn, relatively thin coat, back sometimes flecked with black or rufous, with darker mid-dorsal line. Flanks paler than dorsal pelage, merging into white or buffy-white undersides, and legs rufous. Long, bushy tail, reddish brown with conspicuous black tip and a dark patch above tail gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a relatively short maxillary region, and well-developed upper molars in relation to relatively weak carnassial teeth. Bullae of the Pale Fox are slightly larger and the nasals appreciably longer than in Ruippell’s Fox. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Typically inhabits very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but its distribution extends southwards into moister Guinean savannahs to some extent. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats.","Well-developed molars suggest Pale Foxes are essentially herbivorous, eating mainly berries, wild fruit such as melons, and vegetable matter. They also feed on small rodents, ground-nesting birds, small reptiles, and invertebrates. Foraging habits are unknown.","Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.","Active from dusk till dawn, resting during the day in extensive burrows occupied by several individuals.","Movements and home ranges unknown. Little is known of their habits, but Pale Foxes are gregarious and have been observed in pairs and small family groups.Breeding.Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Threats are unknown, although occasional persecution due to livestock depredation (i.e. poultry) may take place.",Bueler (1973) | Coetzee (1977) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Haltenorth & Diller (1980) | Happold (1987) | Kingdon (1997) | Rosevear (1974) | Sillero-Zubiri (2004),,"31.Pale FoxVulpes pallidaFrench:Renard pale/ German:Blassfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro palidoOther common names:Pallid Fox, African Sand FoxTaxonomy.Canis pallidus Cretzschmar, 1826,Sudan.Has been associated with V. rueppellic and V. zerda. It also has been suggested that these desert foxes are closely related to V. bengalensisand V. chama. Five races have been described, four of which are recognized here. Variation may be clinal.Subspecies and Distribution.V. p. pallida Cretzschmar, 1827— Sudan(Kordofan) to Eritrea, and Ethiopia.V. p. edwardsi Rochebrune, 1883— Mali, S Mauritania, and Senegal.V. p. harterti Thomas & Hinton, 1921— Burkina Faso, Niger, and N Nigeria.V. p. oertzeni Matschie, 1910— N Cameroon, Chad, and NE Nigeriato S Libyain the N and Sudan(Darfur province) in the S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 38-55 cm,tail 23-29 cm; weight 2-3-6 kg. A small, very pale fox with longish legs and large ears. Pale face, elongated muzzle with relatively long whiskers, and a black eye-ring. Large ears, white inside and rufous-brown on the outer surface. Body creamy-white to sandy fawn, relatively thin coat, back sometimes flecked with black or rufous, with darker mid-dorsal line. Flanks paler than dorsal pelage, merging into white or buffy-white undersides, and legs rufous. Long, bushy tail, reddish brown with conspicuous black tip and a dark patch above tail gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a relatively short maxillary region, and well-developed upper molars in relation to relatively weak carnassial teeth. Bullae of the Pale Fox are slightly larger and the nasals appreciably longer than in Ruippell’s Fox. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typically inhabits very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but its distribution extends southwards into moister Guinean savannahs to some extent. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats.Food and Feeding.Well-developed molars suggest Pale Foxes are essentially herbivorous, eating mainly berries, wild fruit such as melons, and vegetable matter. They also feed on small rodents, ground-nesting birds, small reptiles, and invertebrates. Foraging habits are unknown.Activity patterns.Active from dusk till dawn, resting during the day in extensive burrows occupied by several individuals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements and home ranges unknown. Little is known of their habits, but Pale Foxes are gregarious and have been observed in pairs and small family groups.Breeding.Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Threats are unknown, although occasional persecution due to livestock depredation (i.e. poultry) may take place.Bibliography.Bueler (1973), Coetzee (1977), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Haltenorth & Diller (1980), Happold (1987), Kingdon (1997), Rosevear (1974), Sillero-Zubiri (2004)." +03ACCF40BF17FFE87B95F357F947DE42,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,443,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE87B95F357F947DE42.xml,Vulpes rueppellii,Vulpes,rueppellii,Frisch,1775,Renard de Rippell @fr | Sandfuchs @de | Zorro de Ruppell @es | Sand Fox @en | Rippell's Sand Fox @en,"Canis rüeppeliiSchinz, 1825, Sudan.Six subspecies are recognized.","V.r. rueppellii Schinz, 1825— Egyptand Sudan(Nubian Desert).V. r. caesia Thomas & Hinton, 1921— N & W Africa.V. r. cyrenaica Festa, 1921— SW Egypt, Lybia, extreme NW Sudan.V. r. sabaea Pocock, 1934— Arabian Peninsula and Middle East.V. r. somaliae Thomas, 1918— Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.V. r. zarudny: Birula, 1913— Baluchistan in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.","Head-body 40-55 cmfor males and 34:5-55-9 cmfor females, tail 25-1-38-7 cmfor males and 22-36-3 cmfor females; weight 1-1-2-3 kgfor males and 1-1- 1-8 kgfor females. One of the smaller Vulpesspecies, Ruppell’s Fox is slighter in build than the Red Fox, and has smaller limbs. The ears are long and large in relation to the head, rather similar to Fennec Fox, but lack darker markings on the back of the ears. Coat color is variable. The head is beige to a pale sand color. The ears and face are usually pale, with most animals having black whisker patches running up to the eye, although this too is variable. Dorsal pelage varies from pale sandy to grayish and even sometimes reddish, with a more orless silvery sheen due to black speckling. Flanks and underbody are usually paler. The legs are beige to fawn, and the plantar and digital pads are almost completely covered by hairs. The black speckling from the back culminates in a dense black patch at the base of the tail, which is bushy and usually tipped white, a useful diagnostic feature. The furis very fine and soft, thicker and darker in winter and lighter colored in summer. Females have three pairs of mammae. The braincase is rounded, the postorbital processes are blunt and narrow, the zygomatic arches are strong, and the bullae are relatively large (though not so expanded as in Fennec Fox). The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.Food and Feeding.Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.Activity patterns.Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia.","Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.","Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.","In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.","Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.","Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, direct and indirect persecution by hunting, and indiscriminate use of poisons, appear to be the main threats. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes, which are expanding their range following human settlement in the Negev Desert. Competitive pressure from Red Foxes may also be affecting populations in the United Arab Emirates.",Coetzee (1977) | Cuzin (1996) | Cuzin & Lenain (2004) | De Smet (1988) | Dragesco-Joffé (1993) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hufnagl (1972) | Kingdon (1997) | Kowalski (1988) | Lenain (2000) | Lindsay & Macdonald (1986) | Olfermann (1996) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Petter (1952) | Rosevear (1974) | Valverde (1957) | Yom-Tov & Mendelssohn (1988),https://zenodo.org/record/6331225/files/figure.png,"32.Ruppell’s FoxVulpes rueppelliiFrench:Renard de Rippell/ German:Sandfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de RuppellOther common names:Sand Fox, Rippell's Sand FoxTaxonomy.Canis rüeppeliiSchinz, 1825, Sudan.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V.r. rueppellii Schinz, 1825— Egyptand Sudan(Nubian Desert).V. r. caesia Thomas & Hinton, 1921— N & W Africa.V. r. cyrenaica Festa, 1921— SW Egypt, Lybia, extreme NW Sudan.V. r. sabaea Pocock, 1934— Arabian Peninsula and Middle East.V. r. somaliae Thomas, 1918— Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.V. r. zarudny: Birula, 1913— Baluchistan in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-55 cmfor males and 34:5-55-9 cmfor females, tail 25-1-38-7 cmfor males and 22-36-3 cmfor females; weight 1-1-2-3 kgfor males and 1-1- 1-8 kgfor females. One of the smaller Vulpesspecies, Ruppell’s Fox is slighter in build than the Red Fox, and has smaller limbs. The ears are long and large in relation to the head, rather similar to Fennec Fox, but lack darker markings on the back of the ears. Coat color is variable. The head is beige to a pale sand color. The ears and face are usually pale, with most animals having black whisker patches running up to the eye, although this too is variable. Dorsal pelage varies from pale sandy to grayish and even sometimes reddish, with a more orless silvery sheen due to black speckling. Flanks and underbody are usually paler. The legs are beige to fawn, and the plantar and digital pads are almost completely covered by hairs. The black speckling from the back culminates in a dense black patch at the base of the tail, which is bushy and usually tipped white, a useful diagnostic feature. The furis very fine and soft, thicker and darker in winter and lighter colored in summer. Females have three pairs of mammae. The braincase is rounded, the postorbital processes are blunt and narrow, the zygomatic arches are strong, and the bullae are relatively large (though not so expanded as in Fennec Fox). The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.Food and Feeding.Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.Activity patterns.Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, direct and indirect persecution by hunting, and indiscriminate use of poisons, appear to be the main threats. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes, which are expanding their range following human settlement in the Negev Desert. Competitive pressure from Red Foxes may also be affecting populations in the United Arab Emirates.Bibliography.Coetzee (1977), Cuzin (1996), Cuzin & Lenain (2004), De Smet (1988), Dragesco-Joffé (1993), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hufnagl (1972), Kingdon (1997), Kowalski (1988), Lenain (2000), Lindsay & Macdonald (1986), Olfermann (1996), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Petter (1952), Rosevear (1974), Valverde (1957), Yom-Tov & Mendelssohn (1988)." +03ACCF40BF17FFE97B96FBEDF7C0D179,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,443,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE97B96FBEDF7C0D179.xml,Vulpes pallida,Vulpes,pallida,Frisch,1775,Renard pale @fr | Blassfuchs @de | Zorro palido @es | Pallid Fox @en | African Sand Fox @en,"Canis pallidus Cretzschmar, 1826,Sudan.Has been associated with V. rueppellic and V. zerda. It also has been suggested that these desert foxes are closely related to V. bengalensisand V. chama. Five races have been described, four of which are recognized here. Variation may be clinal.","V. p. pallida Cretzschmar, 1827— Sudan(Kordofan) to Eritrea, and Ethiopia.V. p. edwardsi Rochebrune, 1883— Mali, S Mauritania, and Senegal.V. p. harterti Thomas & Hinton, 1921— Burkina Faso, Niger, and N Nigeria.V. p. oertzeni Matschie, 1910— N Cameroon, Chad, and NE Nigeriato S Libyain the N and Sudan(Darfur province) in the S.","Head-body 38-55 cm,tail 23-29 cm; weight 2-3-6 kg. A small, very pale fox with longish legs and large ears. Pale face, elongated muzzle with relatively long whiskers, and a black eye-ring. Large ears, white inside and rufous-brown on the outer surface. Body creamy-white to sandy fawn, relatively thin coat, back sometimes flecked with black or rufous, with darker mid-dorsal line. Flanks paler than dorsal pelage, merging into white or buffy-white undersides, and legs rufous. Long, bushy tail, reddish brown with conspicuous black tip and a dark patch above tail gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a relatively short maxillary region, and well-developed upper molars in relation to relatively weak carnassial teeth. Bullae of the Pale Fox are slightly larger and the nasals appreciably longer than in Ruippell’s Fox. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Typically inhabits very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but its distribution extends southwards into moister Guinean savannahs to some extent. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats.","Well-developed molars suggest Pale Foxes are essentially herbivorous, eating mainly berries, wild fruit such as melons, and vegetable matter. They also feed on small rodents, ground-nesting birds, small reptiles, and invertebrates. Foraging habits are unknown.","Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.","Active from dusk till dawn, resting during the day in extensive burrows occupied by several individuals.","Movements and home ranges unknown. Little is known of their habits, but Pale Foxes are gregarious and have been observed in pairs and small family groups.Breeding.Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Threats are unknown, although occasional persecution due to livestock depredation (i.e. poultry) may take place.",Bueler (1973) | Coetzee (1977) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Haltenorth & Diller (1980) | Happold (1987) | Kingdon (1997) | Rosevear (1974) | Sillero-Zubiri (2004),https://zenodo.org/record/6331223/files/figure.png,"31.Pale FoxVulpes pallidaFrench:Renard pale/ German:Blassfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro palidoOther common names:Pallid Fox, African Sand FoxTaxonomy.Canis pallidus Cretzschmar, 1826,Sudan.Has been associated with V. rueppellic and V. zerda. It also has been suggested that these desert foxes are closely related to V. bengalensisand V. chama. Five races have been described, four of which are recognized here. Variation may be clinal.Subspecies and Distribution.V. p. pallida Cretzschmar, 1827— Sudan(Kordofan) to Eritrea, and Ethiopia.V. p. edwardsi Rochebrune, 1883— Mali, S Mauritania, and Senegal.V. p. harterti Thomas & Hinton, 1921— Burkina Faso, Niger, and N Nigeria.V. p. oertzeni Matschie, 1910— N Cameroon, Chad, and NE Nigeriato S Libyain the N and Sudan(Darfur province) in the S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 38-55 cm,tail 23-29 cm; weight 2-3-6 kg. A small, very pale fox with longish legs and large ears. Pale face, elongated muzzle with relatively long whiskers, and a black eye-ring. Large ears, white inside and rufous-brown on the outer surface. Body creamy-white to sandy fawn, relatively thin coat, back sometimes flecked with black or rufous, with darker mid-dorsal line. Flanks paler than dorsal pelage, merging into white or buffy-white undersides, and legs rufous. Long, bushy tail, reddish brown with conspicuous black tip and a dark patch above tail gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a relatively short maxillary region, and well-developed upper molars in relation to relatively weak carnassial teeth. Bullae of the Pale Fox are slightly larger and the nasals appreciably longer than in Ruippell’s Fox. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typically inhabits very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but its distribution extends southwards into moister Guinean savannahs to some extent. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats.Food and Feeding.Well-developed molars suggest Pale Foxes are essentially herbivorous, eating mainly berries, wild fruit such as melons, and vegetable matter. They also feed on small rodents, ground-nesting birds, small reptiles, and invertebrates. Foraging habits are unknown.Activity patterns.Active from dusk till dawn, resting during the day in extensive burrows occupied by several individuals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements and home ranges unknown. Little is known of their habits, but Pale Foxes are gregarious and have been observed in pairs and small family groups.Breeding.Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Threats are unknown, although occasional persecution due to livestock depredation (i.e. poultry) may take place.Bibliography.Bueler (1973), Coetzee (1977), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Haltenorth & Diller (1980), Happold (1987), Kingdon (1997), Rosevear (1974), Sillero-Zubiri (2004)." 03ACCF40BF17FFE97E8FFD5DF87FD933,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,443,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE97E8FFD5DF87FD933.xml,Vulpes bengalensis,Vulpes,bengalensis,,,Renard du Bengale @fr | Bengalfuchs @de | Zorro bengali @es | Bengal Fox @en,"Canis bengalensis Shaw, 1800, Bengal, India.Monotypic.","Endemic to the Indian subcontinent. Ranges from the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepalto the S tip of the Indian peninsula, also in Bangladeshand Pakistan.","Head-body 39-57-5 cmfor males and 46-48 cmfor females, tail 24-7-32 cmfor males and 24-5-31-2 cmfor females; weight 2:7-3-2 kgfor males and over 1-8 kgfor females. Mediumsized, with typical vulpine appearance, though smaller than Red Foxes (V. vulpes). The pelage varies from yellowish gray to silver gray, but lacks the rusty red hair that is typical of the Red Fox. The dorsal region is darker than the underparts, which are a pale cream. The ears have darker brown hair on the back. The nose and lips are black, and the eyes have dark tear marks. The muzzle is pointed, with tan to black hair around the upper part. The winter coat can be quite luxuriant. The limbs are slender, with some rufous coloring, and the tail is more than half the body length and has a black tip. The tail is carried trailing during normal travel, kept horizontal when the fox is running, and raised to almost vertical when the fox makes sudden turns. Females have three pairs of mammae. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Prefers semi-arid plains, open scrub and grassland habitats where it can easily hunt and dig dens. Avoids dense forests, steep terrain, tall grasslands, and true deserts. The species is relatively abundant in areas of Indiawhere rainfall is low and the typical vegetation is scrub, thorn, or dry deciduous forests, or short grasslands.","Indian Foxes are omnivorous, opportunistic feeders. Their diet consists mainly of insects (e.g. crickets, winged termites, grasshoppers, ants, beetle grubs) and spiders, small rodents, including Soft-furred Field Rats (Millardia meltada), field mice (Musbooduga), and Indian Gerbils, and birds and their eggs, including indian mynahs (Acridotheres tristis), ashy-crowned finch larks (Eremopterix grisea) and gray partridges (Francolinus pondicerianus). Other prey species include ground lizards, rat snakes (Ptyas mucuosus), hedgehogs (Paraechinus nudiventris), and Indian Hares (Lepus naigricollis). Indian Foxes feed on fruits of ber (Ziziphus spp.), neem (Azadirachta indica), mango (Mangifera indica), jambu (Syizigium cumini), banyan (Ficus bengalenss), melons,fruits, and the shoots and pods of Cicer arietum. They have also been reported eating the freshly voided pellets of sheep. They forage alone.","December to January. During the breeding season, the male vocalizes intensively, mostly in early evening and early morning. The gestation period is 50-53 days and parturition occurs between January and March. Littersize is usually 2-4. Both parents bring food to the pups and guard the den, and helpers have not been observed. The parents take turns foraging and rarely is the den left unguarded. Post-natal care lasts approximately 4-5 months, after which the young disperse, usually at the onset of the monsoon (June/July in north-west India), when food is plentiful. Dens are used primarily during the pup-rearing period, and are excavated in open habitat, never in dense vegetation. Indian Foxes will usually excavate their own dens but occasionally they will appropriate and enlarge gerbil holes. Dens consist of a mosaic of tunnels in various stages of excavation, leading to a small chamber about 0-5- 1 mbelow the surface where the pups are born. A den complex will usually have from two to seven holes, though as many as 43 have been recorded. The holes and tunnels of a well-used den site in Gujaratcovered an area 10 x 8 m. Breeding sites are reused by breeding pairs in consecutive years. Pups are rarely moved between dens during the denning period, though once the pups become more mobile, they may use any of the numerous dens within their parents’ territory.","In most parts of their range Indian Foxes are crepuscular and nocturnal. However, they may also hunt at middayif the temperature is mild, as on rainy days.","The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and pair bonds may last for several years. Larger aggregations may exist when grown pups remain in the natal group for longer than normal. Two lactating females have been observed suckling pups in a single den during one year. Four adult-sized foxes were also observed resting together on two occasions. The common vocalization of the Indian Fox is a chattering cry that seems to have a major role in maintaining territoriality and may also be used as an alarm call. Foxes also growl, whimper, whine, and growl-bark. Indian Foxes scent-mark with droppings and urine.Breeding.December to January. During the breeding season, the male vocalizes intensively, mostly in early evening and early morning. The gestation period is 50-53 days and parturition occurs between January and March. Littersize is usually 2-4. Both parents bring food to the pups and guard the den, and helpers have not been observed. The parents take turns foraging and rarely is the den left unguarded. Post-natal care lasts approximately 4-5 months, after which the young disperse, usually at the onset of the monsoon (June/July in north-west India), when food is plentiful. Dens are used primarily during the pup-rearing period, and are excavated in open habitat, never in dense vegetation. Indian Foxes will usually excavate their own dens but occasionally they will appropriate and enlarge gerbil holes. Dens consist of a mosaic of tunnels in various stages of excavation, leading to a small chamber about 0-5- 1 mbelow the surface where the pups are born. A den complex will usually have from two to seven holes, though as many as 43 have been recorded. The holes and tunnels of a well-used den site in Gujaratcovered an area 10 x 8 m. Breeding sites are reused by breeding pairs in consecutive years. Pups are rarely moved between dens during the denning period, though once the pups become more mobile, they may use any of the numerous dens within their parents’ territory.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) prohibits hunting of all wildlife and lists the Indian Fox in Schedule II. Although the Indian Fox is widespread, it occurs at low densities throughoutits range, and populations can undergo major fluctuations in response to prey availability. Densities of breeding pairs may range from 0-15-0-1/km? during periods of peak rodent abundance to 0-01/km?® during periods of low rodent abundance. In more diverse and stable prey systems, Fox densities are more constant (0-04-0-06/km?®). In protected grasslands such as in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, Fox density was 1-:6/km?* and in unprotected areas only 0-4/km? in the latter area, the population declined five-fold due to an epidemic in 1995. The Indian Fox population is decreasing, due to loss of short grassland-scrub habitat to intensive agriculture and development projects, although the rate of decline remains unknown. In certain states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan, Indian Fox habitat is widespread, with minimal threats, but in other states, like Karnatakaand Tamil Nadu, habitats are limited and decreasing. In Tamil Nadu, humans are a major mortality factor, especially nomadic tribal people who kill foxes for their flesh, teeth, claws, and skin. People also often block fox dens with stones, and foxes are hunted using smoke, nets and dogs at dens. Indian Foxes are often killed on roads, and major highways in the semi-arid tracts are likely to become barriers to dispersal.",Acharjyo & Misra (1976) | Johnsingh (1978) | Johnsingh & Jhala (2004) | Manakadan & Rahmani (2000) | Mitchell (1977) | Mivart (1890a) | Prakash (1975) | Prater (1980) | Rahmani (1989) | Roberts (1977) | Rodgers et al. (2000) | Shrestha (1997) | Tripathi et al. (1992),https://zenodo.org/record/6331221/files/figure.png,"30.Indian FoxVulpes bengalensisFrench:Renard du Bengale/ German:Bengalfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro bengaliOther common names:Bengal FoxTaxonomy.Canis bengalensis Shaw, 1800, Bengal, India.Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Indian subcontinent. Ranges from the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepalto the S tip of the Indian peninsula, also in Bangladeshand Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 39-57-5 cmfor males and 46-48 cmfor females, tail 24-7-32 cmfor males and 24-5-31-2 cmfor females; weight 2:7-3-2 kgfor males and over 1-8 kgfor females. Mediumsized, with typical vulpine appearance, though smaller than Red Foxes (V. vulpes). The pelage varies from yellowish gray to silver gray, but lacks the rusty red hair that is typical of the Red Fox. The dorsal region is darker than the underparts, which are a pale cream. The ears have darker brown hair on the back. The nose and lips are black, and the eyes have dark tear marks. The muzzle is pointed, with tan to black hair around the upper part. The winter coat can be quite luxuriant. The limbs are slender, with some rufous coloring, and the tail is more than half the body length and has a black tip. The tail is carried trailing during normal travel, kept horizontal when the fox is running, and raised to almost vertical when the fox makes sudden turns. Females have three pairs of mammae. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Prefers semi-arid plains, open scrub and grassland habitats where it can easily hunt and dig dens. Avoids dense forests, steep terrain, tall grasslands, and true deserts. The species is relatively abundant in areas of Indiawhere rainfall is low and the typical vegetation is scrub, thorn, or dry deciduous forests, or short grasslands.Food and Feeding.Indian Foxes are omnivorous, opportunistic feeders. Their diet consists mainly of insects (e.g. crickets, winged termites, grasshoppers, ants, beetle grubs) and spiders, small rodents, including Soft-furred Field Rats (Millardia meltada), field mice (Musbooduga), and Indian Gerbils, and birds and their eggs, including indian mynahs (Acridotheres tristis), ashy-crowned finch larks (Eremopterix grisea) and gray partridges (Francolinus pondicerianus). Other prey species include ground lizards, rat snakes (Ptyas mucuosus), hedgehogs (Paraechinus nudiventris), and Indian Hares (Lepus naigricollis). Indian Foxes feed on fruits of ber (Ziziphus spp.), neem (Azadirachta indica), mango (Mangifera indica), jambu (Syizigium cumini), banyan (Ficus bengalenss), melons,fruits, and the shoots and pods of Cicer arietum. They have also been reported eating the freshly voided pellets of sheep. They forage alone.Activity patterns.In most parts of their range Indian Foxes are crepuscular and nocturnal. However, they may also hunt at middayif the temperature is mild, as on rainy days.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and pair bonds may last for several years. Larger aggregations may exist when grown pups remain in the natal group for longer than normal. Two lactating females have been observed suckling pups in a single den during one year. Four adult-sized foxes were also observed resting together on two occasions. The common vocalization of the Indian Fox is a chattering cry that seems to have a major role in maintaining territoriality and may also be used as an alarm call. Foxes also growl, whimper, whine, and growl-bark. Indian Foxes scent-mark with droppings and urine.Breeding.December to January. During the breeding season, the male vocalizes intensively, mostly in early evening and early morning. The gestation period is 50-53 days and parturition occurs between January and March. Littersize is usually 2-4. Both parents bring food to the pups and guard the den, and helpers have not been observed. The parents take turns foraging and rarely is the den left unguarded. Post-natal care lasts approximately 4-5 months, after which the young disperse, usually at the onset of the monsoon (June/July in north-west India), when food is plentiful. Dens are used primarily during the pup-rearing period, and are excavated in open habitat, never in dense vegetation. Indian Foxes will usually excavate their own dens but occasionally they will appropriate and enlarge gerbil holes. Dens consist of a mosaic of tunnels in various stages of excavation, leading to a small chamber about 0-5- 1 mbelow the surface where the pups are born. A den complex will usually have from two to seven holes, though as many as 43 have been recorded. The holes and tunnels of a well-used den site in Gujaratcovered an area 10 x 8 m. Breeding sites are reused by breeding pairs in consecutive years. Pups are rarely moved between dens during the denning period, though once the pups become more mobile, they may use any of the numerous dens within their parents’ territory.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) prohibits hunting of all wildlife and lists the Indian Fox in Schedule II. Although the Indian Fox is widespread, it occurs at low densities throughoutits range, and populations can undergo major fluctuations in response to prey availability. Densities of breeding pairs may range from 0-15-0-1/km? during periods of peak rodent abundance to 0-01/km?® during periods of low rodent abundance. In more diverse and stable prey systems, Fox densities are more constant (0-04-0-06/km?®). In protected grasslands such as in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, Fox density was 1-:6/km?* and in unprotected areas only 0-4/km? in the latter area, the population declined five-fold due to an epidemic in 1995. The Indian Fox population is decreasing, due to loss of short grassland-scrub habitat to intensive agriculture and development projects, although the rate of decline remains unknown. In certain states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan, Indian Fox habitat is widespread, with minimal threats, but in other states, like Karnatakaand Tamil Nadu, habitats are limited and decreasing. In Tamil Nadu, humans are a major mortality factor, especially nomadic tribal people who kill foxes for their flesh, teeth, claws, and skin. People also often block fox dens with stones, and foxes are hunted using smoke, nets and dogs at dens. Indian Foxes are often killed on roads, and major highways in the semi-arid tracts are likely to become barriers to dispersal.Bibliography.Acharjyo & Misra (1976), Johnsingh (1978), Johnsingh & Jhala (2004), Manakadan & Rahmani (2000), Mitchell (1977), Mivart (1890a), Prakash (1975), Prater (1980), Rahmani (1989), Roberts (1977), Rodgers et al. (2000), Shrestha (1997), Tripathi et al. (1992)." -03ACCF40BF21FFDF7E92F685F6CBD128,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,433,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF21FFDF7E92F685F6CBD128.xml,Urocyon littoralis,Urocyon,littoralis,Baird,1857,Renard insulaire @fr | German @en | nsel-Graufuchs @en | Cachalillo islefo @es | Other common names @en | sland Gray Fox @en | Channel @en | slands Fox @en,"Vulpes littoralis Baird, 1858,San Miguel Island, California, USA.Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, U. cinereoargenteusand U. lttoralis. The latter is believed to be a direct descendant of the former, having reached the Channel Islands either by chance over-water dispersal or human-assisted dispersal. A series of genetic analyses justifies the current classification of Island Foxes as a separate species and the recognition ofsix subspecies.","U. l. littoralis Baird, 1858— SW USA(San Miguel I).U. l. catalinae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Catalina I).U. l. clementae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(San Clemente I).U. l. dickey: Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(San Nicolas I).U. l. santacruzae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Cruz I).U. l. santarosae Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(Santa Rosa I).","Head-body 47-59 cmfor males and 45-6-63- 4 cmfor females, tail 14- 5-31 cmfor males and 11-5-29- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-4- 2-5 kgfor males an 1-3- 2-4 kgfor females. The Island Fox is the smallest North American canid. Males are significantly heavier than females. The head is gray with black patches on the sides of the muzzle, and the upper and lower lips are outlined in black. White patches on the muzzle extend behind the lateral black patches, to the cheek, and blend into the ventral surface of the neck, which is mostly white. There are small white patches on the side of the nose. Variable degrees of white and rufous color on the chest and belly. The body and tail are mostly gray, the tail with a conspicuous black stripe on the dorsal surface ending in a black tip. Pelage is relatively short. Eight mammae are present. Dental formulais 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Island Foxes typically have fewer caudal vertebrae (15-22) than the Northern Gray Fox (21-22).","Present in all habitats on the islands, including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland,riparian, and inland and coastal dune. Generally not found in areas highly degraded by human disturbance or overgrazing. Recently, Foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos); on those islands the foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover.","Island Foxes are omnivorous and feed on a wide variety of insects, vertebrates, fruits, terrestrial molluscs, and nearshore invertebrates. The relative abundance of insects, mammals, and plant material in the diet has been found to differ by habitat type, and by island, depending upon availability of food items. For example, North American Deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) occur at high densities on San MiguelIsland, where they constitute a large proportion of Fox diet. On Santa CruzIsland, Jerusalemcrickets (Stenopelmatusfuscus) are a principal prey. The fruits of the coastal prickly pear cactus (Opuntia littoralis) are a principal food on San Clemente Island. Bird remains in droppings are usually occur infrequently (3- 6%), except in San MiguelIsland where bird remains were found in 22% (n = 208). Island Foxes primarily forage alone, by coursing back and forth through suitable habitat patches and then moving past little-used habitats to other suitable habitat patches.","Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.","Island Foxes forage mostly at night, but also during the day.","Island Foxes typically form monogamous pairs occupying discrete territories. Full-grown young may remain within their natal range into their second year. The home ranges are among the smallest recorded for any canid, ranging between 0-15 and 0-9 km®*. On Santa CruzIsland, home ranges expanded when neighboring foxes were killed by golden eagles, suggesting that density of foxes and the spatial distribution of neighbors may influence territory size. Foxes communicate using visual, auditory and olfactory cues. Males have been observed chasing and fighting with other males. Foxes demarcate territory boundaries with latrine sites and have been observed urinating as frequently as every 6- 9 m.Breeding.Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.","CITES not listed. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Listed by the state of Californiaas “threatened”. Four of the six subspecies were also listed in 2004 as “ USAfederally endangered”, including santacruzae, santarosae, littoralis, and catalinae. In recent years there have been catastrophic population declines. Island Fox numbers fell from approximately 6000 individuals to less than 1500 in2002. The current primary threats to the species include golden eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands and the introduction of canine diseases, especially canine distemper virus (CDV), to all populations. An outbreak of CDV decimated the Santa Catalina Island Fox population from 1998-2000. All populations are small, several critically, and are thus especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes.","Collins (1991a, 1991b, 1993) | Collins & Laughrin (1979) | Coonan (2002) | Coonan & Rutz (2002) | Cooper et al. (2001) | Crooks & van Vuren (1995, 1996) | Elliot & Popper (1999) | Fausett (1982) | Garcelon, Roemer etal. (1999) | Garcelon, Wayne & Gonzales (1992) | Goeden et al. (1967) | Hall (1981) | Kovach & Dow (1981) | Laughrin (1973, 1977) | Moore & Collins (1995) | Roemer (1999) | Roemer & Wayne (2003) | Roemer, Coonan, Garcelon et al. (2001) | Roemer, Coonan, Munson & Wayne (2004) | Roemer, Donlan & Courchamp (2002) | Roemer, Garcelon etal. (1994) | Schmidt et al. (2002) | Suckling & Garcelon (2000) | Thompson et al. (1998) | Timm, Barker et al. (2002) | Timm, Stokely et al. (2000) | Wayne, Geffen et al. (1997) | Wayne, George et al. (1991)",,"21.Island FoxUrocyon littoralisFrench:Renard insulaire/ German:Insel-Graufuchs/ Spanish:Cachalillo islefoOther common names:Island Gray Fox, Channel Islands FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes littoralis Baird, 1858,San Miguel Island, California, USA.Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, U. cinereoargenteusand U. lttoralis. The latter is believed to be a direct descendant of the former, having reached the Channel Islands either by chance over-water dispersal or human-assisted dispersal. A series of genetic analyses justifies the current classification of Island Foxes as a separate species and the recognition ofsix subspecies.Subspecies and Distribution.U. l. littoralis Baird, 1858— SW USA(San Miguel I).U. l. catalinae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Catalina I).U. l. clementae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(San Clemente I).U. l. dickey: Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(San Nicolas I).U. l. santacruzae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Cruz I).U. l. santarosae Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(Santa Rosa I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-59 cmfor males and 45-6-63- 4 cmfor females, tail 14- 5-31 cmfor males and 11-5-29- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-4- 2-5 kgfor males an 1-3- 2-4 kgfor females. The Island Fox is the smallest North American canid. Males are significantly heavier than females. The head is gray with black patches on the sides of the muzzle, and the upper and lower lips are outlined in black. White patches on the muzzle extend behind the lateral black patches, to the cheek, and blend into the ventral surface of the neck, which is mostly white. There are small white patches on the side of the nose. Variable degrees of white and rufous color on the chest and belly. The body and tail are mostly gray, the tail with a conspicuous black stripe on the dorsal surface ending in a black tip. Pelage is relatively short. Eight mammae are present. Dental formulais 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Island Foxes typically have fewer caudal vertebrae (15-22) than the Northern Gray Fox (21-22).Habitat.Present in all habitats on the islands, including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland,riparian, and inland and coastal dune. Generally not found in areas highly degraded by human disturbance or overgrazing. Recently, Foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos); on those islands the foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover.Food and Feeding.Island Foxes are omnivorous and feed on a wide variety of insects, vertebrates, fruits, terrestrial molluscs, and nearshore invertebrates. The relative abundance of insects, mammals, and plant material in the diet has been found to differ by habitat type, and by island, depending upon availability of food items. For example, North American Deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) occur at high densities on San MiguelIsland, where they constitute a large proportion of Fox diet. On Santa CruzIsland, Jerusalemcrickets (Stenopelmatusfuscus) are a principal prey. The fruits of the coastal prickly pear cactus (Opuntia littoralis) are a principal food on San Clemente Island. Bird remains in droppings are usually occur infrequently (3- 6%), except in San MiguelIsland where bird remains were found in 22% (n = 208). Island Foxes primarily forage alone, by coursing back and forth through suitable habitat patches and then moving past little-used habitats to other suitable habitat patches.Activity patterns.Island Foxes forage mostly at night, but also during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Island Foxes typically form monogamous pairs occupying discrete territories. Full-grown young may remain within their natal range into their second year. The home ranges are among the smallest recorded for any canid, ranging between 0-15 and 0-9 km®*. On Santa CruzIsland, home ranges expanded when neighboring foxes were killed by golden eagles, suggesting that density of foxes and the spatial distribution of neighbors may influence territory size. Foxes communicate using visual, auditory and olfactory cues. Males have been observed chasing and fighting with other males. Foxes demarcate territory boundaries with latrine sites and have been observed urinating as frequently as every 6- 9 m.Breeding.Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Listed by the state of Californiaas “threatened”. Four of the six subspecies were also listed in 2004 as “ USAfederally endangered”, including santacruzae, santarosae, littoralis, and catalinae. In recent years there have been catastrophic population declines. Island Fox numbers fell from approximately 6000 individuals to less than 1500 in2002. The current primary threats to the species include golden eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands and the introduction of canine diseases, especially canine distemper virus (CDV), to all populations. An outbreak of CDV decimated the Santa Catalina Island Fox population from 1998-2000. All populations are small, several critically, and are thus especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes.Bibliography.Collins (1991a, 1991b, 1993), Collins & Laughrin (1979), Coonan (2002), Coonan & Rutz (2002), Cooper et al. (2001), Crooks & van Vuren (1995, 1996), Elliot & Popper (1999), Fausett (1982), Garcelon, Roemer etal. (1999), Garcelon, Wayne & Gonzales (1992), Goeden et al. (1967), Hall (1981), Kovach & Dow (1981), Laughrin (1973, 1977), Moore & Collins (1995), Roemer (1999), Roemer & Wayne (2003), Roemer, Coonan, Garcelon et al. (2001), Roemer, Coonan, Munson & Wayne (2004), Roemer, Donlan & Courchamp (2002), Roemer, Garcelon etal. (1994), Schmidt et al. (2002), Suckling & Garcelon (2000), Thompson et al. (1998), Timm, Barker et al. (2002), Timm, Stokely et al. (2000), Wayne, Geffen et al. (1997), Wayne, George et al. (1991)." +03ACCF40BF21FFDF7E92F685F6CBD128,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,433,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF21FFDF7E92F685F6CBD128.xml,Urocyon littoralis,Urocyon,littoralis,Baird,1857,Renard insulaire @fr | German @en | nsel-Graufuchs @en | Cachalillo islefo @es | Other common names @en | sland Gray Fox @en | Channel @en | slands Fox @en,"Vulpes littoralis Baird, 1858,San Miguel Island, California, USA.Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, U. cinereoargenteusand U. lttoralis. The latter is believed to be a direct descendant of the former, having reached the Channel Islands either by chance over-water dispersal or human-assisted dispersal. A series of genetic analyses justifies the current classification of Island Foxes as a separate species and the recognition ofsix subspecies.","U. l. littoralis Baird, 1858— SW USA(San Miguel I).U. l. catalinae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Catalina I).U. l. clementae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(San Clemente I).U. l. dickey: Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(San Nicolas I).U. l. santacruzae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Cruz I).U. l. santarosae Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(Santa Rosa I).","Head-body 47-59 cmfor males and 45-6-63- 4 cmfor females, tail 14- 5-31 cmfor males and 11-5-29- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-4- 2-5 kgfor males an 1-3- 2-4 kgfor females. The Island Fox is the smallest North American canid. Males are significantly heavier than females. The head is gray with black patches on the sides of the muzzle, and the upper and lower lips are outlined in black. White patches on the muzzle extend behind the lateral black patches, to the cheek, and blend into the ventral surface of the neck, which is mostly white. There are small white patches on the side of the nose. Variable degrees of white and rufous color on the chest and belly. The body and tail are mostly gray, the tail with a conspicuous black stripe on the dorsal surface ending in a black tip. Pelage is relatively short. Eight mammae are present. Dental formulais 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Island Foxes typically have fewer caudal vertebrae (15-22) than the Northern Gray Fox (21-22).","Present in all habitats on the islands, including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland,riparian, and inland and coastal dune. Generally not found in areas highly degraded by human disturbance or overgrazing. Recently, Foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos); on those islands the foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover.","Island Foxes are omnivorous and feed on a wide variety of insects, vertebrates, fruits, terrestrial molluscs, and nearshore invertebrates. The relative abundance of insects, mammals, and plant material in the diet has been found to differ by habitat type, and by island, depending upon availability of food items. For example, North American Deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) occur at high densities on San MiguelIsland, where they constitute a large proportion of Fox diet. On Santa CruzIsland, Jerusalemcrickets (Stenopelmatusfuscus) are a principal prey. The fruits of the coastal prickly pear cactus (Opuntia littoralis) are a principal food on San Clemente Island. Bird remains in droppings are usually occur infrequently (3- 6%), except in San MiguelIsland where bird remains were found in 22% (n = 208). Island Foxes primarily forage alone, by coursing back and forth through suitable habitat patches and then moving past little-used habitats to other suitable habitat patches.","Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.","Island Foxes forage mostly at night, but also during the day.","Island Foxes typically form monogamous pairs occupying discrete territories. Full-grown young may remain within their natal range into their second year. The home ranges are among the smallest recorded for any canid, ranging between 0-15 and 0-9 km®*. On Santa CruzIsland, home ranges expanded when neighboring foxes were killed by golden eagles, suggesting that density of foxes and the spatial distribution of neighbors may influence territory size. Foxes communicate using visual, auditory and olfactory cues. Males have been observed chasing and fighting with other males. Foxes demarcate territory boundaries with latrine sites and have been observed urinating as frequently as every 6- 9 m.Breeding.Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.","CITES not listed. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Listed by the state of Californiaas “threatened”. Four of the six subspecies were also listed in 2004 as “ USAfederally endangered”, including santacruzae, santarosae, littoralis, and catalinae. In recent years there have been catastrophic population declines. Island Fox numbers fell from approximately 6000 individuals to less than 1500 in2002. The current primary threats to the species include golden eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands and the introduction of canine diseases, especially canine distemper virus (CDV), to all populations. An outbreak of CDV decimated the Santa Catalina Island Fox population from 1998-2000. All populations are small, several critically, and are thus especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes.","Collins (1991a, 1991b, 1993) | Collins & Laughrin (1979) | Coonan (2002) | Coonan & Rutz (2002) | Cooper et al. (2001) | Crooks & van Vuren (1995, 1996) | Elliot & Popper (1999) | Fausett (1982) | Garcelon, Roemer etal. (1999) | Garcelon, Wayne & Gonzales (1992) | Goeden et al. (1967) | Hall (1981) | Kovach & Dow (1981) | Laughrin (1973, 1977) | Moore & Collins (1995) | Roemer (1999) | Roemer & Wayne (2003) | Roemer, Coonan, Garcelon et al. (2001) | Roemer, Coonan, Munson & Wayne (2004) | Roemer, Donlan & Courchamp (2002) | Roemer, Garcelon etal. (1994) | Schmidt et al. (2002) | Suckling & Garcelon (2000) | Thompson et al. (1998) | Timm, Barker et al. (2002) | Timm, Stokely et al. (2000) | Wayne, Geffen et al. (1997) | Wayne, George et al. (1991)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331203/files/figure.png,"21.Island FoxUrocyon littoralisFrench:Renard insulaire/ German:Insel-Graufuchs/ Spanish:Cachalillo islefoOther common names:Island Gray Fox, Channel Islands FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes littoralis Baird, 1858,San Miguel Island, California, USA.Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, U. cinereoargenteusand U. lttoralis. The latter is believed to be a direct descendant of the former, having reached the Channel Islands either by chance over-water dispersal or human-assisted dispersal. A series of genetic analyses justifies the current classification of Island Foxes as a separate species and the recognition ofsix subspecies.Subspecies and Distribution.U. l. littoralis Baird, 1858— SW USA(San Miguel I).U. l. catalinae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Catalina I).U. l. clementae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(San Clemente I).U. l. dickey: Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(San Nicolas I).U. l. santacruzae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Cruz I).U. l. santarosae Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(Santa Rosa I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-59 cmfor males and 45-6-63- 4 cmfor females, tail 14- 5-31 cmfor males and 11-5-29- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-4- 2-5 kgfor males an 1-3- 2-4 kgfor females. The Island Fox is the smallest North American canid. Males are significantly heavier than females. The head is gray with black patches on the sides of the muzzle, and the upper and lower lips are outlined in black. White patches on the muzzle extend behind the lateral black patches, to the cheek, and blend into the ventral surface of the neck, which is mostly white. There are small white patches on the side of the nose. Variable degrees of white and rufous color on the chest and belly. The body and tail are mostly gray, the tail with a conspicuous black stripe on the dorsal surface ending in a black tip. Pelage is relatively short. Eight mammae are present. Dental formulais 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Island Foxes typically have fewer caudal vertebrae (15-22) than the Northern Gray Fox (21-22).Habitat.Present in all habitats on the islands, including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland,riparian, and inland and coastal dune. Generally not found in areas highly degraded by human disturbance or overgrazing. Recently, Foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos); on those islands the foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover.Food and Feeding.Island Foxes are omnivorous and feed on a wide variety of insects, vertebrates, fruits, terrestrial molluscs, and nearshore invertebrates. The relative abundance of insects, mammals, and plant material in the diet has been found to differ by habitat type, and by island, depending upon availability of food items. For example, North American Deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) occur at high densities on San MiguelIsland, where they constitute a large proportion of Fox diet. On Santa CruzIsland, Jerusalemcrickets (Stenopelmatusfuscus) are a principal prey. The fruits of the coastal prickly pear cactus (Opuntia littoralis) are a principal food on San Clemente Island. Bird remains in droppings are usually occur infrequently (3- 6%), except in San MiguelIsland where bird remains were found in 22% (n = 208). Island Foxes primarily forage alone, by coursing back and forth through suitable habitat patches and then moving past little-used habitats to other suitable habitat patches.Activity patterns.Island Foxes forage mostly at night, but also during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Island Foxes typically form monogamous pairs occupying discrete territories. Full-grown young may remain within their natal range into their second year. The home ranges are among the smallest recorded for any canid, ranging between 0-15 and 0-9 km®*. On Santa CruzIsland, home ranges expanded when neighboring foxes were killed by golden eagles, suggesting that density of foxes and the spatial distribution of neighbors may influence territory size. Foxes communicate using visual, auditory and olfactory cues. Males have been observed chasing and fighting with other males. Foxes demarcate territory boundaries with latrine sites and have been observed urinating as frequently as every 6- 9 m.Breeding.Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Listed by the state of Californiaas “threatened”. Four of the six subspecies were also listed in 2004 as “ USAfederally endangered”, including santacruzae, santarosae, littoralis, and catalinae. In recent years there have been catastrophic population declines. Island Fox numbers fell from approximately 6000 individuals to less than 1500 in2002. The current primary threats to the species include golden eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands and the introduction of canine diseases, especially canine distemper virus (CDV), to all populations. An outbreak of CDV decimated the Santa Catalina Island Fox population from 1998-2000. All populations are small, several critically, and are thus especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes.Bibliography.Collins (1991a, 1991b, 1993), Collins & Laughrin (1979), Coonan (2002), Coonan & Rutz (2002), Cooper et al. (2001), Crooks & van Vuren (1995, 1996), Elliot & Popper (1999), Fausett (1982), Garcelon, Roemer etal. (1999), Garcelon, Wayne & Gonzales (1992), Goeden et al. (1967), Hall (1981), Kovach & Dow (1981), Laughrin (1973, 1977), Moore & Collins (1995), Roemer (1999), Roemer & Wayne (2003), Roemer, Coonan, Garcelon et al. (2001), Roemer, Coonan, Munson & Wayne (2004), Roemer, Donlan & Courchamp (2002), Roemer, Garcelon etal. (1994), Schmidt et al. (2002), Suckling & Garcelon (2000), Thompson et al. (1998), Timm, Barker et al. (2002), Timm, Stokely et al. (2000), Wayne, Geffen et al. (1997), Wayne, George et al. (1991)." 03ACCF40BF22FFDC7ED0F90CF928D8B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,432,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF22FFDC7ED0F90CF928D8B3.xml,Pseudalopex vetulus,Pseudalopex,vetulus,,,Renard chenu @fr | Brasilianischer Kampfuchs @de | Zorro brasileno @es | Small-toothed Dog @en,"Canis vetulus Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Monotypic.","Confined to Brazil, associated with the Cerrado habitats of the central Brazilian plateau.","Head-body 49-71-5 cmfor males and 51-66 cmfor females, tail 27-38 cmfor males and 25-31 cmfor females; weight 2-5-4 kgfor males and 3-3-6 kgfor females. Slender with a relatively short, pointed muzzle and large ears. Pelage coloris variable: the upperparts are pale gray, whereas the underparts are generally buff yellow to chestnut, including the neck, chest and a patch behind the ears. The anterior part of the neck is buff white, but the underside of the lower jaw is dark, almost black, as are both the tail base and tail tip; a dark spot on the dorsal surface of the tail base is variably present. Near melanic forms have been described. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Occurs in open cerrado habitats, but readily adapts to insectrich livestock pastures and agricultural fields. Rarely observed in densely wooded cerrado, floodplains, or dry or gallery forests.","Omnivorous, though the diet is mainly insects, particularly grounddwelling harvester termites (Synthermes spp. and Cornitermes spp.), recorded in 87% of feces across its geographical range. Dung beetles are consumed in great quantities when seasonally abundant. Other prey includes small mammals, grasshoppers, birds, and reptiles. Hoary Foxes tend to hunt as individuals or in loosely-knit pairs, with or without their juvenile offspring. Foraging group sizes of 3-5 were most common during periods of insect swarming. Hoary Foxes consume termites directly from the ground surface, or from the underside of dried cattle dung, which they flip over by pushing the dung along the ground at speed. Fox pups start eating insects at the age of at least two months. During the early rainy season, adult and young foxes catch flying ant and termite elates, as well as dung beetles.","In the wild, females produce litters of 4-5 offspring once a year during July and August. Pups are born in disused armadillo burrows, particularly dens of Euphractus sexcinctus. Offspring are cared for by the breeding male and female; there is no evidence that other foxes help. During late lactation, the female may visit the den a couple of times per night to nurse; in her absence, the male babysits, grooms, and guards the pups against potential predators. Post-weaning female contact declines substantially, whereas the male stays with the pups during hunting expeditions to insect patches close to the den. The estimated lactation period in the wild is three months. Juveniles of both sexes disperse when 9-10 months old and may establish home ranges adjacent to their natal territory.",Predominantly nocturnal.,"Monogamous. One study group living in pasture were an adult breeding pair and their five juvenileoffspring. They shared largely overlapping home ranges of 4-6 km® (range 4-5—4-6 km*). Contact rates of a single breeding pair estimated by radio-telemetry indicated that they spent up to 35% of their activity period in close proximity, though this varied substantially when they were rearing offspring (October to May). Spot sightings in different habitats and localities revealed that groups were composed of single animals on 75% of occasions, followed by pairs (30%), and groups larger than two (4%). Vocalizations are most common during the mating season and include a roar and threatening bark. Hoary Foxes urinate using a raised leg position; frequent urination in small quantities is typical of territory marking behavior.Breeding.In the wild, females produce litters of 4-5 offspring once a year during July and August. Pups are born in disused armadillo burrows, particularly dens of Euphractus sexcinctus. Offspring are cared for by the breeding male and female; there is no evidence that other foxes help. During late lactation, the female may visit the den a couple of times per night to nurse; in her absence, the male babysits, grooms, and guards the pups against potential predators. Post-weaning female contact declines substantially, whereas the male stays with the pups during hunting expeditions to insect patches close to the den. The estimated lactation period in the wild is three months. Juveniles of both sexes disperse when 9-10 months old and may establish home ranges adjacent to their natal territory.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in individual state faunal status accounts, but not listed in the Brazilian list of threatened mammals. No reliable data on population size, but considered locally abundant in the central highland cerrado biome, although populations appear smaller than those of the sympatric Crab-eating Fox, for which population estimates are similarly lacking. There is no specific hunting legislation for Hoary Foxes. The principal biome where Hoary Foxes occur is the cerrado, which is being destroyed at a rate of 3% each year, largely in the interests of agriculture (livestock and soybean). It appears that Hoary Foxes adapt to livestock pasture rich in termites and dung beetles. Breeding foxes are found in deforested wooded areas; thusit is possible that deforestation may not have a negative impact on the species. Areas of high human population density are unlikely to be suitable. Hoary Foxes are killed indiscriminately as predators of domestic fowl, although Crab-eating Foxes are probably more often the predators. Young foxes are often taken as pets. Some are killed by domestic dogs when dens are located in peri-urban areas. Road kills have been recorded.","Cabrera & Yepes (1960) | Coimbra-Filho (1966) | Costa& Courtenay (2003) | Courtenay & Maffei (2004) | Dalponte (1997, 2003) | Dalponte & Courtenay (2004) | Fonseca et al. (1994) | Juarez & Marinho (2002) | Silveira (1999) | Stains (1974)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331199/files/figure.png,"19.Hoary FoxPseudalopex vetulusFrench:Renard chenu/ German:Brasilianischer Kampfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro brasilenoOther common names:Small-toothed DogTaxonomy.Canis vetulus Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Monotypic.Distribution.Confined to Brazil, associated with the Cerrado habitats of the central Brazilian plateau.Descriptive notes.Head-body 49-71-5 cmfor males and 51-66 cmfor females, tail 27-38 cmfor males and 25-31 cmfor females; weight 2-5-4 kgfor males and 3-3-6 kgfor females. Slender with a relatively short, pointed muzzle and large ears. Pelage coloris variable: the upperparts are pale gray, whereas the underparts are generally buff yellow to chestnut, including the neck, chest and a patch behind the ears. The anterior part of the neck is buff white, but the underside of the lower jaw is dark, almost black, as are both the tail base and tail tip; a dark spot on the dorsal surface of the tail base is variably present. Near melanic forms have been described. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Occurs in open cerrado habitats, but readily adapts to insectrich livestock pastures and agricultural fields. Rarely observed in densely wooded cerrado, floodplains, or dry or gallery forests.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, though the diet is mainly insects, particularly grounddwelling harvester termites (Synthermes spp. and Cornitermes spp.), recorded in 87% of feces across its geographical range. Dung beetles are consumed in great quantities when seasonally abundant. Other prey includes small mammals, grasshoppers, birds, and reptiles. Hoary Foxes tend to hunt as individuals or in loosely-knit pairs, with or without their juvenile offspring. Foraging group sizes of 3-5 were most common during periods of insect swarming. Hoary Foxes consume termites directly from the ground surface, or from the underside of dried cattle dung, which they flip over by pushing the dung along the ground at speed. Fox pups start eating insects at the age of at least two months. During the early rainy season, adult and young foxes catch flying ant and termite elates, as well as dung beetles.Activity patterns.Predominantly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Monogamous. One study group living in pasture were an adult breeding pair and their five juvenileoffspring. They shared largely overlapping home ranges of 4-6 km® (range 4-5—4-6 km*). Contact rates of a single breeding pair estimated by radio-telemetry indicated that they spent up to 35% of their activity period in close proximity, though this varied substantially when they were rearing offspring (October to May). Spot sightings in different habitats and localities revealed that groups were composed of single animals on 75% of occasions, followed by pairs (30%), and groups larger than two (4%). Vocalizations are most common during the mating season and include a roar and threatening bark. Hoary Foxes urinate using a raised leg position; frequent urination in small quantities is typical of territory marking behavior.Breeding.In the wild, females produce litters of 4-5 offspring once a year during July and August. Pups are born in disused armadillo burrows, particularly dens of Euphractus sexcinctus. Offspring are cared for by the breeding male and female; there is no evidence that other foxes help. During late lactation, the female may visit the den a couple of times per night to nurse; in her absence, the male babysits, grooms, and guards the pups against potential predators. Post-weaning female contact declines substantially, whereas the male stays with the pups during hunting expeditions to insect patches close to the den. The estimated lactation period in the wild is three months. Juveniles of both sexes disperse when 9-10 months old and may establish home ranges adjacent to their natal territory.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in individual state faunal status accounts, but not listed in the Brazilian list of threatened mammals. No reliable data on population size, but considered locally abundant in the central highland cerrado biome, although populations appear smaller than those of the sympatric Crab-eating Fox, for which population estimates are similarly lacking. There is no specific hunting legislation for Hoary Foxes. The principal biome where Hoary Foxes occur is the cerrado, which is being destroyed at a rate of 3% each year, largely in the interests of agriculture (livestock and soybean). It appears that Hoary Foxes adapt to livestock pasture rich in termites and dung beetles. Breeding foxes are found in deforested wooded areas; thusit is possible that deforestation may not have a negative impact on the species. Areas of high human population density are unlikely to be suitable. Hoary Foxes are killed indiscriminately as predators of domestic fowl, although Crab-eating Foxes are probably more often the predators. Young foxes are often taken as pets. Some are killed by domestic dogs when dens are located in peri-urban areas. Road kills have been recorded.Bibliography.Cabrera & Yepes (1960), Coimbra-Filho (1966), Costa& Courtenay (2003), Courtenay & Maffei (2004), Dalponte (1997, 2003), Dalponte & Courtenay (2004), Fonseca et al. (1994), Juarez & Marinho (2002), Silveira (1999), Stains (1974)." -03ACCF40BF22FFDF7BDAF92EFD19D5CA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,432,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF22FFDF7BDAF92EFD19D5CA.xml,Urocyon cinereoargenteus,Urocyon,cinereoargenteus,,,Renard gris @fr | Graufuchs @de | Chacalillo gris @es | Tree Fox @en,"Canis cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775,eastern North America.Sufficiently distinct from vulpine foxes to warrant recognition as a separate genus. The Northern Gray Fox often clusters genetically with two other ancient lineages, the Raccoon Dog and the Bat-eared Fox, but the exact relationship is unclear. Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, the Northern Gray Fox and Island Fox (U. lttoralis). Up to sixteen subspecies are recognized.","U. c. cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775— E USA.U. c. borealis Merriam, 1903— SE Canadaand USA(New England).U. c. californicus Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).U. c. costaricensis Goodwin, 1938— Costa Rica.U. c. flornidanus Rhoads, 1895— Gulf of Mexico.U. c. fraterculus Elliot, 1896— Mexico(Yucatan).U. c. furvus G. M. Allen & Barbour, 1923— Panama.U. c. guatemalae G. S. Miller, 1899— S MexicoS to Nicaragua.U. c. madrensis Burt & Hooper, 1941— Mexico(S Sonora, SW Chihuahua& NW Durango).U. c. nigrirostris Lichtenstein, 1830— SW Mexico.U. c. ocythous Bangs, 1899— USA(Central Plains) and adjoining S Canada.U. c. orinomus Goldman, 1938— S Mexico(Isthmus of Tehuantepec).U. c. perunsularis Huey, 1928— NW Mexico(Baja California).U. c. scottit Mearns, 1891— N Mexicoand SW USA.U. c. townsend: Merriam, 1899— W USA(California& Oregon).U. c. venezuelae]. A. Allen, 1911— Colombia, Venezuela.","Head-body 56-66 cmfor males, 54-57-8 cmfor females,tail 33-3 44-3 cmfor males, 28-0-40-7 cmfor females; weight 3-4-5-5 kgfor males and 2-3-9 kgfor females. Medium-sized with a stocky body, moderately short legs and medium-sized ears. Coat grizzled gray on the back and sides with a dark longitudinal stripe on top of a black-tipped tail. Conspicuous cinnamon-rusty color on its neck, sides and limbs. Face with dark and white markings. There is also white on its ears, throat, chest, belly and hind limbs. The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur has a coarse appearance. The dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The posterior ventral border of the dentition has a prominent notch or “step”, and on the cranium, the temporal ridges are separated anteriorly but connect posteriorly to form a distinctive “U” shape.","Closely associated with deciduous and southern pine forests interspersed with old fields and scrubby woodlands in eastern North America. In the west, commonly found in mixed agricultural, woodland, chaparral, riparian landscapes, and shrub habitats. In Central America, occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats, and in South America forested montane habitats. Northern Gray Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the south-western USAand northern Mexicowhere cover is sufficient. They also live at the margins of some urban areas.","Omnivorous. During winter, prey consists largely of rabbits (Sylvilagus spp-) and rodents. In spring and summer it diversifies to include insects (e.g. grasshoppers), birds, and sometimes carrion. Northern Gray Foxes also feed on natural fruits and nuts, often consuming more of these foods in the fall as their availability increases.","Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.",Mostly nocturnal.,"Monogamy with occasional polygyny is probably most typical. The basic social unit is the mated pair and their offspring of the year; it is not known whether breeding pairs remain together during consecutive years. Offspring typically disperse at 9-10 months of age, and although long-distance dispersal (over 80 km) has been reported, young foxes may also return to and settle down near their natal ranges. Gray Foxes exhibit some territoriality, as home ranges of adjacent family groups may overlap, but core areas appear to be used exclusively by a single family. Home range size varies from 0-8 km? to 27- 6 km?. Foxes increase their home ranges during late fall and winter, possibly in response to changes in food resource availability. Scent marking consists of urine and feces depositions in conspicuous locations. The foxes communicate vocally with growls, alarm barks, screams, and “coos” and “mewing” sounds during greetings. Northern Gray Foxes engage in allogrooming, adults grooming juveniles and each other.Breeding.Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Common where it occurs, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by Coyotes and Bobcats. Reported densities range from 0-4/km?® in California to 1-5/km? in Florida. The Gray Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canadaand the USA. Trapping is legal throughout much of its range, and is likely to be the most important source of mortality where it occurs and probably limits populations locally.","Chamberlain (2002) | Chamberlain & Leopold (2000) | Cohen & Fox (1976) | Davis & Schmidly (1994) | Eisenberg (1989) | Farias, V. (2000) | Follman (1973, 1978) | Fox (1970) | Fritzell (1987) | Fritzell & Haroldson (1982) | Fuller & Cypher (2004) | Greenberg & Pelton (1994) | Grinnell et al. (1937) | Hall (1981) | Harrison (1997) | Nicholson (1982) | Nicholson & Hill (1981) | Nicholson et al. (1985) | Sullivan (1956) | Trapp & Hallberg (1975) | Wayne et al. (1997) | Wood (1958) | Yearsley & Samuel (1982)",,"20.Northern Gray FoxUrocyon cinereoargenteusFrench:Renard gris/ German:Graufuchs/ Spanish:Chacalillo grisOther common names:Tree FoxTaxonomy.Canis cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775,eastern North America.Sufficiently distinct from vulpine foxes to warrant recognition as a separate genus. The Northern Gray Fox often clusters genetically with two other ancient lineages, the Raccoon Dog and the Bat-eared Fox, but the exact relationship is unclear. Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, the Northern Gray Fox and Island Fox (U. lttoralis). Up to sixteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. c. cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775— E USA.U. c. borealis Merriam, 1903— SE Canadaand USA(New England).U. c. californicus Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).U. c. costaricensis Goodwin, 1938— Costa Rica.U. c. flornidanus Rhoads, 1895— Gulf of Mexico.U. c. fraterculus Elliot, 1896— Mexico(Yucatan).U. c. furvus G. M. Allen & Barbour, 1923— Panama.U. c. guatemalae G. S. Miller, 1899— S MexicoS to Nicaragua.U. c. madrensis Burt & Hooper, 1941— Mexico(S Sonora, SW Chihuahua& NW Durango).U. c. nigrirostris Lichtenstein, 1830— SW Mexico.U. c. ocythous Bangs, 1899— USA(Central Plains) and adjoining S Canada.U. c. orinomus Goldman, 1938— S Mexico(Isthmus of Tehuantepec).U. c. perunsularis Huey, 1928— NW Mexico(Baja California).U. c. scottit Mearns, 1891— N Mexicoand SW USA.U. c. townsend: Merriam, 1899— W USA(California& Oregon).U. c. venezuelae]. A. Allen, 1911— Colombia, Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 56-66 cmfor males, 54-57-8 cmfor females,tail 33-3 44-3 cmfor males, 28-0-40-7 cmfor females; weight 3-4-5-5 kgfor males and 2-3-9 kgfor females. Medium-sized with a stocky body, moderately short legs and medium-sized ears. Coat grizzled gray on the back and sides with a dark longitudinal stripe on top of a black-tipped tail. Conspicuous cinnamon-rusty color on its neck, sides and limbs. Face with dark and white markings. There is also white on its ears, throat, chest, belly and hind limbs. The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur has a coarse appearance. The dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The posterior ventral border of the dentition has a prominent notch or “step”, and on the cranium, the temporal ridges are separated anteriorly but connect posteriorly to form a distinctive “U” shape.Habitat.Closely associated with deciduous and southern pine forests interspersed with old fields and scrubby woodlands in eastern North America. In the west, commonly found in mixed agricultural, woodland, chaparral, riparian landscapes, and shrub habitats. In Central America, occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats, and in South America forested montane habitats. Northern Gray Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the south-western USAand northern Mexicowhere cover is sufficient. They also live at the margins of some urban areas.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous. During winter, prey consists largely of rabbits (Sylvilagus spp-) and rodents. In spring and summer it diversifies to include insects (e.g. grasshoppers), birds, and sometimes carrion. Northern Gray Foxes also feed on natural fruits and nuts, often consuming more of these foods in the fall as their availability increases.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Monogamy with occasional polygyny is probably most typical. The basic social unit is the mated pair and their offspring of the year; it is not known whether breeding pairs remain together during consecutive years. Offspring typically disperse at 9-10 months of age, and although long-distance dispersal (over 80 km) has been reported, young foxes may also return to and settle down near their natal ranges. Gray Foxes exhibit some territoriality, as home ranges of adjacent family groups may overlap, but core areas appear to be used exclusively by a single family. Home range size varies from 0-8 km? to 27- 6 km?. Foxes increase their home ranges during late fall and winter, possibly in response to changes in food resource availability. Scent marking consists of urine and feces depositions in conspicuous locations. The foxes communicate vocally with growls, alarm barks, screams, and “coos” and “mewing” sounds during greetings. Northern Gray Foxes engage in allogrooming, adults grooming juveniles and each other.Breeding.Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Common where it occurs, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by Coyotes and Bobcats. Reported densities range from 0-4/km?® in California to 1-5/km? in Florida. The Gray Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canadaand the USA. Trapping is legal throughout much of its range, and is likely to be the most important source of mortality where it occurs and probably limits populations locally.Bibliography.Chamberlain (2002), Chamberlain & Leopold (2000), Cohen & Fox (1976), Davis & Schmidly (1994), Eisenberg (1989), Farias, V. (2000), Follman (1973, 1978), Fox (1970), Fritzell (1987), Fritzell & Haroldson (1982), Fuller & Cypher (2004), Greenberg & Pelton (1994), Grinnell et al. (1937), Hall (1981), Harrison (1997), Nicholson (1982), Nicholson & Hill (1981), Nicholson et al. (1985), Sullivan (1956), Trapp & Hallberg (1975), Wayne et al. (1997), Wood (1958), Yearsley & Samuel (1982)." +03ACCF40BF22FFDF7BDAF92EFD19D5CA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,432,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF22FFDF7BDAF92EFD19D5CA.xml,Urocyon cinereoargenteus,Urocyon,cinereoargenteus,,,Renard gris @fr | Graufuchs @de | Chacalillo gris @es | Tree Fox @en,"Canis cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775,eastern North America.Sufficiently distinct from vulpine foxes to warrant recognition as a separate genus. The Northern Gray Fox often clusters genetically with two other ancient lineages, the Raccoon Dog and the Bat-eared Fox, but the exact relationship is unclear. Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, the Northern Gray Fox and Island Fox (U. lttoralis). Up to sixteen subspecies are recognized.","U. c. cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775— E USA.U. c. borealis Merriam, 1903— SE Canadaand USA(New England).U. c. californicus Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).U. c. costaricensis Goodwin, 1938— Costa Rica.U. c. flornidanus Rhoads, 1895— Gulf of Mexico.U. c. fraterculus Elliot, 1896— Mexico(Yucatan).U. c. furvus G. M. Allen & Barbour, 1923— Panama.U. c. guatemalae G. S. Miller, 1899— S MexicoS to Nicaragua.U. c. madrensis Burt & Hooper, 1941— Mexico(S Sonora, SW Chihuahua& NW Durango).U. c. nigrirostris Lichtenstein, 1830— SW Mexico.U. c. ocythous Bangs, 1899— USA(Central Plains) and adjoining S Canada.U. c. orinomus Goldman, 1938— S Mexico(Isthmus of Tehuantepec).U. c. perunsularis Huey, 1928— NW Mexico(Baja California).U. c. scottit Mearns, 1891— N Mexicoand SW USA.U. c. townsend: Merriam, 1899— W USA(California& Oregon).U. c. venezuelae]. A. Allen, 1911— Colombia, Venezuela.","Head-body 56-66 cmfor males, 54-57-8 cmfor females,tail 33-3 44-3 cmfor males, 28-0-40-7 cmfor females; weight 3-4-5-5 kgfor males and 2-3-9 kgfor females. Medium-sized with a stocky body, moderately short legs and medium-sized ears. Coat grizzled gray on the back and sides with a dark longitudinal stripe on top of a black-tipped tail. Conspicuous cinnamon-rusty color on its neck, sides and limbs. Face with dark and white markings. There is also white on its ears, throat, chest, belly and hind limbs. The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur has a coarse appearance. The dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The posterior ventral border of the dentition has a prominent notch or “step”, and on the cranium, the temporal ridges are separated anteriorly but connect posteriorly to form a distinctive “U” shape.","Closely associated with deciduous and southern pine forests interspersed with old fields and scrubby woodlands in eastern North America. In the west, commonly found in mixed agricultural, woodland, chaparral, riparian landscapes, and shrub habitats. In Central America, occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats, and in South America forested montane habitats. Northern Gray Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the south-western USAand northern Mexicowhere cover is sufficient. They also live at the margins of some urban areas.","Omnivorous. During winter, prey consists largely of rabbits (Sylvilagus spp-) and rodents. In spring and summer it diversifies to include insects (e.g. grasshoppers), birds, and sometimes carrion. Northern Gray Foxes also feed on natural fruits and nuts, often consuming more of these foods in the fall as their availability increases.","Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.",Mostly nocturnal.,"Monogamy with occasional polygyny is probably most typical. The basic social unit is the mated pair and their offspring of the year; it is not known whether breeding pairs remain together during consecutive years. Offspring typically disperse at 9-10 months of age, and although long-distance dispersal (over 80 km) has been reported, young foxes may also return to and settle down near their natal ranges. Gray Foxes exhibit some territoriality, as home ranges of adjacent family groups may overlap, but core areas appear to be used exclusively by a single family. Home range size varies from 0-8 km? to 27- 6 km?. Foxes increase their home ranges during late fall and winter, possibly in response to changes in food resource availability. Scent marking consists of urine and feces depositions in conspicuous locations. The foxes communicate vocally with growls, alarm barks, screams, and “coos” and “mewing” sounds during greetings. Northern Gray Foxes engage in allogrooming, adults grooming juveniles and each other.Breeding.Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Common where it occurs, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by Coyotes and Bobcats. Reported densities range from 0-4/km?® in California to 1-5/km? in Florida. The Gray Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canadaand the USA. Trapping is legal throughout much of its range, and is likely to be the most important source of mortality where it occurs and probably limits populations locally.","Chamberlain (2002) | Chamberlain & Leopold (2000) | Cohen & Fox (1976) | Davis & Schmidly (1994) | Eisenberg (1989) | Farias, V. (2000) | Follman (1973, 1978) | Fox (1970) | Fritzell (1987) | Fritzell & Haroldson (1982) | Fuller & Cypher (2004) | Greenberg & Pelton (1994) | Grinnell et al. (1937) | Hall (1981) | Harrison (1997) | Nicholson (1982) | Nicholson & Hill (1981) | Nicholson et al. (1985) | Sullivan (1956) | Trapp & Hallberg (1975) | Wayne et al. (1997) | Wood (1958) | Yearsley & Samuel (1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331201/files/figure.png,"20.Northern Gray FoxUrocyon cinereoargenteusFrench:Renard gris/ German:Graufuchs/ Spanish:Chacalillo grisOther common names:Tree FoxTaxonomy.Canis cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775,eastern North America.Sufficiently distinct from vulpine foxes to warrant recognition as a separate genus. The Northern Gray Fox often clusters genetically with two other ancient lineages, the Raccoon Dog and the Bat-eared Fox, but the exact relationship is unclear. Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, the Northern Gray Fox and Island Fox (U. lttoralis). Up to sixteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. c. cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775— E USA.U. c. borealis Merriam, 1903— SE Canadaand USA(New England).U. c. californicus Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).U. c. costaricensis Goodwin, 1938— Costa Rica.U. c. flornidanus Rhoads, 1895— Gulf of Mexico.U. c. fraterculus Elliot, 1896— Mexico(Yucatan).U. c. furvus G. M. Allen & Barbour, 1923— Panama.U. c. guatemalae G. S. Miller, 1899— S MexicoS to Nicaragua.U. c. madrensis Burt & Hooper, 1941— Mexico(S Sonora, SW Chihuahua& NW Durango).U. c. nigrirostris Lichtenstein, 1830— SW Mexico.U. c. ocythous Bangs, 1899— USA(Central Plains) and adjoining S Canada.U. c. orinomus Goldman, 1938— S Mexico(Isthmus of Tehuantepec).U. c. perunsularis Huey, 1928— NW Mexico(Baja California).U. c. scottit Mearns, 1891— N Mexicoand SW USA.U. c. townsend: Merriam, 1899— W USA(California& Oregon).U. c. venezuelae]. A. Allen, 1911— Colombia, Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 56-66 cmfor males, 54-57-8 cmfor females,tail 33-3 44-3 cmfor males, 28-0-40-7 cmfor females; weight 3-4-5-5 kgfor males and 2-3-9 kgfor females. Medium-sized with a stocky body, moderately short legs and medium-sized ears. Coat grizzled gray on the back and sides with a dark longitudinal stripe on top of a black-tipped tail. Conspicuous cinnamon-rusty color on its neck, sides and limbs. Face with dark and white markings. There is also white on its ears, throat, chest, belly and hind limbs. The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur has a coarse appearance. The dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The posterior ventral border of the dentition has a prominent notch or “step”, and on the cranium, the temporal ridges are separated anteriorly but connect posteriorly to form a distinctive “U” shape.Habitat.Closely associated with deciduous and southern pine forests interspersed with old fields and scrubby woodlands in eastern North America. In the west, commonly found in mixed agricultural, woodland, chaparral, riparian landscapes, and shrub habitats. In Central America, occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats, and in South America forested montane habitats. Northern Gray Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the south-western USAand northern Mexicowhere cover is sufficient. They also live at the margins of some urban areas.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous. During winter, prey consists largely of rabbits (Sylvilagus spp-) and rodents. In spring and summer it diversifies to include insects (e.g. grasshoppers), birds, and sometimes carrion. Northern Gray Foxes also feed on natural fruits and nuts, often consuming more of these foods in the fall as their availability increases.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Monogamy with occasional polygyny is probably most typical. The basic social unit is the mated pair and their offspring of the year; it is not known whether breeding pairs remain together during consecutive years. Offspring typically disperse at 9-10 months of age, and although long-distance dispersal (over 80 km) has been reported, young foxes may also return to and settle down near their natal ranges. Gray Foxes exhibit some territoriality, as home ranges of adjacent family groups may overlap, but core areas appear to be used exclusively by a single family. Home range size varies from 0-8 km? to 27- 6 km?. Foxes increase their home ranges during late fall and winter, possibly in response to changes in food resource availability. Scent marking consists of urine and feces depositions in conspicuous locations. The foxes communicate vocally with growls, alarm barks, screams, and “coos” and “mewing” sounds during greetings. Northern Gray Foxes engage in allogrooming, adults grooming juveniles and each other.Breeding.Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Common where it occurs, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by Coyotes and Bobcats. Reported densities range from 0-4/km?® in California to 1-5/km? in Florida. The Gray Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canadaand the USA. Trapping is legal throughout much of its range, and is likely to be the most important source of mortality where it occurs and probably limits populations locally.Bibliography.Chamberlain (2002), Chamberlain & Leopold (2000), Cohen & Fox (1976), Davis & Schmidly (1994), Eisenberg (1989), Farias, V. (2000), Follman (1973, 1978), Fox (1970), Fritzell (1987), Fritzell & Haroldson (1982), Fuller & Cypher (2004), Greenberg & Pelton (1994), Grinnell et al. (1937), Hall (1981), Harrison (1997), Nicholson (1982), Nicholson & Hill (1981), Nicholson et al. (1985), Sullivan (1956), Trapp & Hallberg (1975), Wayne et al. (1997), Wood (1958), Yearsley & Samuel (1982)." 03ACCF40BF23FFDC7B9DF844FC9ADB55,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,431,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF23FFDC7B9DF844FC9ADB55.xml,Pseudalopex sechurae,Pseudalopex,sechurae,,,Renard de Sechura @fr | Sechura-Fuchs @de | Zorro del Sechura @es | Sechura Desert Fox @en | Peruvian Desert Fox @en,"Canis sechurae Thomas, 1900, NW Peru.Monotypic.","Coastal zones of NW Peruand SW Ecuador, between 3° Sand 12° Slatitude.","Head-body 50-78 cmand tail 27-34 cmfor males; weight 2-6—4- 2 kgfor males. The smallest species of the genus Pseudalopex. The head is small, with relatively long ears (about two thirds the length of the head) and a short muzzle. Face is gray, and there is a rufous-brown ring around the eyes. The ears may be reddish on the back; the dark muzzle may have paler hairs around the lips. The pelage consists of pale underfur with agouti guard hairs; the underparts are fawn or cream-colored. There is sometimes a dark stripe down the back. The forelimbs (up to the elbows) and the hindlimbs (up to the heels) are usually reddish in color. The tail is relatively long and densely furred, ending in a dark tip. The dental formulais13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The carnassials are slightly smaller, and the grinding teeth larger, than in allied forms; the canines are “fox-like”.",Occupies a variety of habitats ranging from sandy deserts with low plant density to agricultural lands and dry forests. Few details of habitat preferences are known.,"The Sechuran Fox is a generalist omnivore that preferentially consumesvertebrate prey or carrion when available, but often depends predominantly on seeds or seed pods. Feces collected during late winter and early spring in the inland Sechuran Desert contained mainly the remnants of undigested seeds or seed pods of algarrobo (Prosopis juliflora), zapote (Capparis scabrida) and vizcacho (C. avicennifolia). The syrupy matrix surrounding the seeds may be the actual source of nourishment. In a germination experiment, seeds recovered from feces sprouted earlier than those gathered from the ground, suggesting that the foxes not only act as seed dispersers, but affect the ability of the seeds to germinate rapidly when sporadic rains occur. Fox droppings along the coast contained crabs and several bird species. Following El Nino rains, fox droppings revealed a dramatic dietary shift to grasshoppers and mice (Paralomys gerbillus) as these prey became more abundant. In central Peru, the main summer foods were insects, scorpions (Carica candicans), fruits, and rodents. The lack of standing water in the inland desert habitat suggests that the foxes can survive without drinking. However, they may lick condensation from vegetation on foggy mornings. No food caching has been recorded.",Few details of breeding behavior known. Births are reported to occur primarily in October and November.,"Primarily nocturnal. Radio-telemetry tracking indicated that individuals emerged from their rocky daytime sleeping dens before sunset and remained active through most of the night before re-entering the dens at dawn. The phases of the moon did not influence this activity pattern, perhaps because the foxes were consuming seeds and seed pods rather than hunting. Occasionally, they are seen during the day.","Little known. Groups larger than three individuals are rare, and usually only observed where food sources are concentrated. The home range of a radio-tracked adult male adjoined that of one adultfemale accompanied by two almost full-grown juveniles. However, they each foraged separately during the night and occupied separate dens during the day.Breeding.Few details of breeding behavior known. Births are reported to occur primarily in October and November.","CITES not listed. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. While the speciesis easily observed in rural areas and disturbed environments from the states of Piurato La Libertadin Peru, large population fluctuations due to disease and persecution are causes for concern. Footprint surveys in Piura, Peru, show an average of 12-6 foxes per km. The Sechuran Fox is uncommon in Ecuador. In Peru, hunting outside established areas and trade has been prohibited since 2000, but it has proven difficult to control trade in rural areas. The most important threats are the market for handicrafts and amulets that are made of Sechuran Fox parts, and persecution because of damage to livestock. In Peru, the attitude of rural inhabitants to the species is antagonistic (68-3% of correspondents) or indifferent (317%). The stated reasons for favoring persecution were predation on domestic fowl and guinea pigs (65% of correspondents), the consumption of vegetables or stored goods (13:3%), and belief that goat predation occurs (10%). The Sechuran Fox also faces some pressure in agricultural zones and from urbanization and habitat degradation; habitat loss is considered the principle threatto this species in Ecuador.",Asa & Cossios (2004) | Asa & Wallace (1990) | Birdseye (1956) | Cabrera (1931) | Centrode Datos para la Conservacion (1989) | Huey (1969) | Langguth (1975),https://zenodo.org/record/6331197/files/figure.png,"18.Sechuran FoxPseudalopex sechuraeFrench:Renard de Sechura/ German:Sechura-Fuchs/ Spanish:Zorro del SechuraOther common names:Sechura Desert Fox, Peruvian Desert FoxTaxonomy.Canis sechurae Thomas, 1900, NW Peru.Monotypic.Distribution.Coastal zones of NW Peruand SW Ecuador, between 3° Sand 12° Slatitude.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-78 cmand tail 27-34 cmfor males; weight 2-6—4- 2 kgfor males. The smallest species of the genus Pseudalopex. The head is small, with relatively long ears (about two thirds the length of the head) and a short muzzle. Face is gray, and there is a rufous-brown ring around the eyes. The ears may be reddish on the back; the dark muzzle may have paler hairs around the lips. The pelage consists of pale underfur with agouti guard hairs; the underparts are fawn or cream-colored. There is sometimes a dark stripe down the back. The forelimbs (up to the elbows) and the hindlimbs (up to the heels) are usually reddish in color. The tail is relatively long and densely furred, ending in a dark tip. The dental formulais13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The carnassials are slightly smaller, and the grinding teeth larger, than in allied forms; the canines are “fox-like”.Habitat.Occupies a variety of habitats ranging from sandy deserts with low plant density to agricultural lands and dry forests. Few details of habitat preferences are known.Food and Feeding.The Sechuran Fox is a generalist omnivore that preferentially consumesvertebrate prey or carrion when available, but often depends predominantly on seeds or seed pods. Feces collected during late winter and early spring in the inland Sechuran Desert contained mainly the remnants of undigested seeds or seed pods of algarrobo (Prosopis juliflora), zapote (Capparis scabrida) and vizcacho (C. avicennifolia). The syrupy matrix surrounding the seeds may be the actual source of nourishment. In a germination experiment, seeds recovered from feces sprouted earlier than those gathered from the ground, suggesting that the foxes not only act as seed dispersers, but affect the ability of the seeds to germinate rapidly when sporadic rains occur. Fox droppings along the coast contained crabs and several bird species. Following El Nino rains, fox droppings revealed a dramatic dietary shift to grasshoppers and mice (Paralomys gerbillus) as these prey became more abundant. In central Peru, the main summer foods were insects, scorpions (Carica candicans), fruits, and rodents. The lack of standing water in the inland desert habitat suggests that the foxes can survive without drinking. However, they may lick condensation from vegetation on foggy mornings. No food caching has been recorded.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal. Radio-telemetry tracking indicated that individuals emerged from their rocky daytime sleeping dens before sunset and remained active through most of the night before re-entering the dens at dawn. The phases of the moon did not influence this activity pattern, perhaps because the foxes were consuming seeds and seed pods rather than hunting. Occasionally, they are seen during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little known. Groups larger than three individuals are rare, and usually only observed where food sources are concentrated. The home range of a radio-tracked adult male adjoined that of one adultfemale accompanied by two almost full-grown juveniles. However, they each foraged separately during the night and occupied separate dens during the day.Breeding.Few details of breeding behavior known. Births are reported to occur primarily in October and November.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. While the speciesis easily observed in rural areas and disturbed environments from the states of Piurato La Libertadin Peru, large population fluctuations due to disease and persecution are causes for concern. Footprint surveys in Piura, Peru, show an average of 12-6 foxes per km. The Sechuran Fox is uncommon in Ecuador. In Peru, hunting outside established areas and trade has been prohibited since 2000, but it has proven difficult to control trade in rural areas. The most important threats are the market for handicrafts and amulets that are made of Sechuran Fox parts, and persecution because of damage to livestock. In Peru, the attitude of rural inhabitants to the species is antagonistic (68-3% of correspondents) or indifferent (317%). The stated reasons for favoring persecution were predation on domestic fowl and guinea pigs (65% of correspondents), the consumption of vegetables or stored goods (13:3%), and belief that goat predation occurs (10%). The Sechuran Fox also faces some pressure in agricultural zones and from urbanization and habitat degradation; habitat loss is considered the principle threatto this species in Ecuador.Bibliography.Asa & Cossios (2004), Asa & Wallace (1990), Birdseye (1956), Cabrera (1931), Centrode Datos para la Conservacion (1989), Huey (1969), Langguth (1975)." -03ACCF40BF23FFDD7E94FACCF89DDA8D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,431,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF23FFDD7E94FACCF89DDA8D.xml,Pseudalopex gymnocercus,Pseudalopex,gymnocercus,Burmeister,1856,Renard d'Azara @fr | Pampasfuchs @de | Zorro de La Pampa @es | Azara's Fox @en,"Procyon gymnocercus Fischer, 1814, Paraguay.Three subspecies have been proposed. Their geographic limits are not precise and it has been suggested that along their borders they could coexist and interbreed.","P. g. gymnocercus Fischer, 1814— subtropical grasslands of NE Argentina, SE Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.P.g. antiquus Ameghino, 1889— Pampas grasslands, monte scrublands, and open woodlands of C Argentina.P. g. lordi Massoia, 1982— Chaco-montane tropical forest ecotone in NW Argentina(Salta& JujuyProvinces).The subspecific status of the Pampas Fox from Entre Rios Provincein Argentinaremains unclear, and there are no data regarding the taxonomic position of Bolivian foxes.","Head-body 59- 7-74 cmfor males and 50- 5-72 cmfor females, tail 28-38 cmfor males and 25-41 cmfor females; weight 4-8 kgfor males and 3-5- 7 kgfor females. Medium-sized, smaller than Culpeo. The head, somewhat triangular in shape, is reddish with a pale gray to white ventral surface. Ears triangular, broad and relatively large, reddish on the outer surface and white on the inner surface. The rostrum is narrow, ventrally pale, black in the chin and reddish to black dorsally. The eyes are oblique in appearance. The body, back, and sides are gray, like the outer surface of the hindlimbs, which have a characteristic black spot on the lower rear side. There is a dark, almost black band along the back and tail. Thetail is relatively long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip. The outer surface of the front limbs and the distal surface of the hindlimbs are reddish. Smaller size and lack of interparietal crest distinguish its skull from that of the Culpeo. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the pampas grasslands of South America’s Southern Cone. It prefers open habitats, tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrublands and open woodlands. In drier habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the speciesis replaced by the South American Gray Fox. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox selects more open areas. Apparently it has been able to adapt to the habitat alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities.","Like most other medium-sized foxes, the Pampas Fox is a generalist and adaptable carnivore. Its diet shows great geographic variation and may include both wild and domestic vertebrates (particularly rodents and birds), fruit, insects, carrion, and garbage. Based on stomach contents, wild mammals and sheep appeared to be the two most common food items in Uruguay, while in La Pampa Province, Argentina, European Hares and rodents were the most common food items, followed by birds and carrion. In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, there was a high frequency of rodents and birds, but also of insects, fruits, and crabs. Seasonal and local variations in diet are likely connected to variations in food availability. The Pampas Fox is a solitary and opportunistic carnivore. Large, highly concentrated food resources (i.e. large mammal carcasses) may cause several individuals to gather, possibly beyond the borders of normal home ranges. Food caching behavior has been observed, apparently related to an increase in the availability of rodents.","In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.","Forages both day and night, although activity is mainly nocturnal in areas with severe hunting pressure.","Pampas Foxes are thought to form monogamous pairs, but they are solitary most of the time: 88% of observations in the Paraguayan Chacoand 93% in ArgentineLa Pampa Provincewere of single individuals. Pairs are frequently observed from the time of mating until pups leave the natal den. In a Sierra grassland area, the respective home ranges of two adultmales were estimated at 0-4 and 0-45 km*. Defecation-site features suggest that droppings are used in intraspecific communication. Long-distance calls, which peak in frequency during the breeding period, may serve to maintain contact between pair members, as well as play a role in territorial behavior. When pairs are raising pups, both adult foxes have been observed using a brief and repeated alarm call if they detect a potential threat to the young.Breeding.In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List and the ArgentinaRed List of Mammals. Abundant or common in most areas. In Argentinatrade was prohibited in 1987. However,it continues to be hunted. In Uruguayand Paraguaythe species is protected by law. In Argentinaand southern Brazilthe Pampas Fox was considered an important predator of sheep and goats, and was consequently persecuted by livestock ranchers. The Pampas Fox is currently threatened by the official implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) and the use of non-selective methods of capture. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any thorough studies on population abundance or the real damage thatthis species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is illegal. Most of the species’ range in the Pampas region has suffered massive habitat alteration due to extensive cattle ranching and agriculture. Although apparently able to withstand hunting pressure and habitat loss, the sum of these threats may nevertheless eventually cause the depletion of fox populations. Rural residents have traditionally hunted the Pampas Fox forits fur, an important source of income. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in north-west Argentina. In Uruguay, illegal trade is still widespread. Pampas Foxes are also frequently struck by cars in some areas.","Barquez et al. (1991) | Branch (1994) | Brooks (1992) | Cabrera (1958) | Cajal (1986) | Chebez (1994) | Cravino et al. (1997) | Crespo (1971) | Diaz & Ojeda (2000) | Farias, A.A. (2000) | Garcia, J. (1991) | Garcia, V.B. (2001) | Lucherini et al. (2004) | Massoia (1982) | Novaro & Funes (1994) | Redford & Eisenberg (1992) | Vuillermoz & Sapoznikow (1998) | Zunino et al. (1995)",,"17.Pampas FoxPseudalopex gymnocercusFrench:Renard d'Azara/ German:Pampasfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de La PampaOther common names:Azara's FoxTaxonomy.Procyon gymnocercus Fischer, 1814, Paraguay.Three subspecies have been proposed. Their geographic limits are not precise and it has been suggested that along their borders they could coexist and interbreed.Subspecies and Distribution.P. g. gymnocercus Fischer, 1814— subtropical grasslands of NE Argentina, SE Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.P.g. antiquus Ameghino, 1889— Pampas grasslands, monte scrublands, and open woodlands of C Argentina.P. g. lordi Massoia, 1982— Chaco-montane tropical forest ecotone in NW Argentina(Salta& JujuyProvinces).The subspecific status of the Pampas Fox from Entre Rios Provincein Argentinaremains unclear, and there are no data regarding the taxonomic position of Bolivian foxes.Descriptive notes.Head-body 59- 7-74 cmfor males and 50- 5-72 cmfor females, tail 28-38 cmfor males and 25-41 cmfor females; weight 4-8 kgfor males and 3-5- 7 kgfor females. Medium-sized, smaller than Culpeo. The head, somewhat triangular in shape, is reddish with a pale gray to white ventral surface. Ears triangular, broad and relatively large, reddish on the outer surface and white on the inner surface. The rostrum is narrow, ventrally pale, black in the chin and reddish to black dorsally. The eyes are oblique in appearance. The body, back, and sides are gray, like the outer surface of the hindlimbs, which have a characteristic black spot on the lower rear side. There is a dark, almost black band along the back and tail. Thetail is relatively long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip. The outer surface of the front limbs and the distal surface of the hindlimbs are reddish. Smaller size and lack of interparietal crest distinguish its skull from that of the Culpeo. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the pampas grasslands of South America’s Southern Cone. It prefers open habitats, tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrublands and open woodlands. In drier habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the speciesis replaced by the South American Gray Fox. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox selects more open areas. Apparently it has been able to adapt to the habitat alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities.Food and Feeding.Like most other medium-sized foxes, the Pampas Fox is a generalist and adaptable carnivore. Its diet shows great geographic variation and may include both wild and domestic vertebrates (particularly rodents and birds), fruit, insects, carrion, and garbage. Based on stomach contents, wild mammals and sheep appeared to be the two most common food items in Uruguay, while in La Pampa Province, Argentina, European Hares and rodents were the most common food items, followed by birds and carrion. In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, there was a high frequency of rodents and birds, but also of insects, fruits, and crabs. Seasonal and local variations in diet are likely connected to variations in food availability. The Pampas Fox is a solitary and opportunistic carnivore. Large, highly concentrated food resources (i.e. large mammal carcasses) may cause several individuals to gather, possibly beyond the borders of normal home ranges. Food caching behavior has been observed, apparently related to an increase in the availability of rodents.Activity patterns.Forages both day and night, although activity is mainly nocturnal in areas with severe hunting pressure.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pampas Foxes are thought to form monogamous pairs, but they are solitary most of the time: 88% of observations in the Paraguayan Chacoand 93% in ArgentineLa Pampa Provincewere of single individuals. Pairs are frequently observed from the time of mating until pups leave the natal den. In a Sierra grassland area, the respective home ranges of two adultmales were estimated at 0-4 and 0-45 km*. Defecation-site features suggest that droppings are used in intraspecific communication. Long-distance calls, which peak in frequency during the breeding period, may serve to maintain contact between pair members, as well as play a role in territorial behavior. When pairs are raising pups, both adult foxes have been observed using a brief and repeated alarm call if they detect a potential threat to the young.Breeding.In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List and the ArgentinaRed List of Mammals. Abundant or common in most areas. In Argentinatrade was prohibited in 1987. However,it continues to be hunted. In Uruguayand Paraguaythe species is protected by law. In Argentinaand southern Brazilthe Pampas Fox was considered an important predator of sheep and goats, and was consequently persecuted by livestock ranchers. The Pampas Fox is currently threatened by the official implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) and the use of non-selective methods of capture. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any thorough studies on population abundance or the real damage thatthis species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is illegal. Most of the species’ range in the Pampas region has suffered massive habitat alteration due to extensive cattle ranching and agriculture. Although apparently able to withstand hunting pressure and habitat loss, the sum of these threats may nevertheless eventually cause the depletion of fox populations. Rural residents have traditionally hunted the Pampas Fox forits fur, an important source of income. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in north-west Argentina. In Uruguay, illegal trade is still widespread. Pampas Foxes are also frequently struck by cars in some areas.Bibliography.Barquez et al. (1991), Branch (1994), Brooks (1992), Cabrera (1958), Cajal (1986), Chebez (1994), Cravino et al. (1997), Crespo (1971), Diaz & Ojeda (2000), Farias, A.A. (2000), Garcia, J. (1991), Garcia, V.B. (2001), Lucherini et al. (2004), Massoia (1982), Novaro & Funes (1994), Redford & Eisenberg (1992), Vuillermoz & Sapoznikow (1998), Zunino et al. (1995)." -03ACCF40BF24FFDD7ED2F43CFADFD812,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,430,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF24FFDD7ED2F43CFADFD812.xml,Pseudalopex griseus,Pseudalopex,griseus,,,Renard d’Argentine @fr | Argentinischer Kampfuchs @de | Zorro de Magallanes @es | Chilla @en | Small Gray Fox @en,"Vulpes griseus Gray, 1837, Chile.Formerly believed to include an island form, which since has been recognized as Darwin’s Fox. The Pampas Fox has recently been suggested to be conspecific with P. griseuson the basis of a craniometric and pelage-characters analysis, leading to the conclusion that P. gymnocercus and P. griseusare clinal variations of one single species, namely Lycalopex gymmnocercus. Four subspecies are recognized.","P. g. griseus Gray, 1837— Argentineand Chilean Patagonia.P. g. domeykoanus Philippi, 1901— N & C Chile, possibly S Peru.P. g. gracilis Burmeister, 1861— W Argentina(Monte Desert).P. g. maullinicus Philippi, 1903— S Argentineand Chilean temperate forests.Introduced (griseus) in Tierra del Fuego.","Head-body 50- 1-66 cm, tail 11-5-34- 7 cm; weight 2-5- 5 kg. A small fox with large ears and a rufescent head flecked with white. Well-marked black spot on chin. Coat brindled gray, made up of agouti guard hairs with pale underfur. Black patch across thighs. Legs and feet pale tawny. Underparts pale gray. Tail long and bushy, with dorsal line and tip black and a mixed pale tawny and black pattern on the underside. The cranium is small, lacking an interparietal crest. Teeth widely separated. The dental formulaisI13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Steppes, grasslands and scrublands. South American Gray Foxes generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3500-4000 m. Although they occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat open patches of low scrub. In Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat consists of shrubby steppe composed of coiron (Festuca spp., Stipa spp.) and nires (Nothofagus antarctica). Burning and destruction of forests for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for these foxes. In Torres del Paine National Park, 58% of twelve individuals monitored showed preferential use of matorral shrubland or Nothofagus thicket habitat within their home ranges. In the Mendozadesert, Argentina, they prefer the lower levels of shrubby sand dunes rather than higher sections. They tolerate a variety of climates, including hot and dry areas such as the Atacamacoastal desert in northern Chile(less than 2 mmaverage annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), the humid, temperate Valdivian forest (2000 mmaverage annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature), and the cold environment of Tierra del Fuego (c. 400 mmaverage annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature).","South American Gray Foxes are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a variety of foods, including mammals, arthropods, birds, reptiles, fruit, and carrion. Fruits ingested include berries of Cryptocarya alba and Lithraea caustica in Chile, pods of Prosopis spp., and the berry-like fruits of Prosopanche americana and of several Cactaceaein Argentina. A tendency to carnivory is apparent, however, since vertebrates, especially rodents, are reported to be the most important prey in most studies. Small mammals were the most frequently occurring vertebrate prey in most sites in the Chilean matorral and in the temperate rainforests of southern Chile. In Torres del Paine National Park, the European Hare was the most represented vertebrate prey, followed by carrion and akodontine rodents. In the ArgentinePatagonian steppe, carrion was the most important food item in 42 stomachs collected in winter (representing 62% of biomass ingested), followed by hares and cricetine rodents. In Argentina’s southern Patagonia, diet also consisted primarily of carrion, followed by birds, rodents, and fruit. Diet included invertebrates, carrion, birds, and rodents in Tierra del Fuego. In the harshest habitats ofits range, the foxes’ diets include increasingly higher proportions of non-mammal food as small mammal availability decreases. Lizards were the most consumed vertebrate prey in winter, the season of lowest small mammal availability in coastal northern Chile. Small-mammal consumption decreased from autumn to summer, and fruit consumption increased. In central Chile, berries appeared in 52% of the droppings (n = 127) collected in autumn, while in spring, when small mammal availability is highest, berries were present in only 18% of the feces (n = 62). In Mendoza (Monte desert), fruit was represented in 35% of feces (n = 116), followed by small mammals (19% frequency of occurrence). Foraging occurs mostly in open areas. Although hunting groups of up to 4-5 individuals have been reported, South American Gray Foxes mostly hunt solitarily, except perhaps at the end of the breeding season, when juveniles may join the parents in search of food. In Torres del Paine National Park, the most common foraging behavior consisted of slow walking, with abrupt, irregular turns through low vegetation. The same report noted that prey appear to be located by sound, sight, and smell. Mice are captured with a sudden leap or by rapidly digging holes. Scavenging is common, as well as defecation on and around Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and domestic goat carcasses. Caching behavior has also been reported.","Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.","Direct observations and prey activity patterns suggest that South American Gray Foxes are crepuscular, although they are commonly seen during the day. Radio-tracking showed that they were primarily nocturnal in Torres del Paine National Park, whereas they were active during both day and night in Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas.","The basic component of social organization in Torres del Paine National Park is the breeding monogamous pair, accompanied by occasional female helpers. Male dispersal and occasional polygyny is also reported. Solitary individuals were seen from March to July, while pairs comprised 42% of sightings during August. The male and female of an observed pair maintained an exclusive home range year-round, which did not overlap with home ranges of neighboring pairs. Intraspecific interactions were few and usually aggressive. Individual home range sizes (n = 23) averaged 2-0 km”.Breeding.Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “locally common” in Argentinaand stable in the southern half of the country where habitat is more favorable. Reported to have expanded their range in Tierra del Fuegosince being introduced there: in 1996 their density was estimated at 1 per km®. Hunting them and fur trading are legal in ArgentinePatagonia and Tierra del Fuego. All Chilean populations are currently protected by law, except for those from Tierra del Fuego. The main threat to South American Gray Fox populations in the past was commercial hunting for fur. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recentyears. Illegal killing still occurs in some regions,as the foxes are perceived to be voracious predators of small livestock, poultry and game. The usual means of hunting are by shooting, dogs, poison, snares, and foothold traps. Around 45% of the mortality documented in Torres del Paine National Park resulted from either poaching or dog attacks. Road kills are frequently observed in Argentina, especially in summer.","Cabrera (1958) | Campos & Ojeda (1997) | Duran et al. (1985) | Gonzalez del Solar & Rau(2004) | Gonzalez del Solar et al. (1997) | Jaksic, Jiménez et al. (1990) | Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980) | Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983) | Jayat et al. (1999) | Jiménez (1993) | Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996) | Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) | Mares et al. (1996) | Marquet et al. (1993) | Martinez et al. (1993) | Medel & Jaksic (1988) | Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000) | Rauet al. (1995) | Simonetti et al. (1984) | Yanez & Jaksic (1978) | Zunino et al. (1995)",,"16.South American Gray FoxPseudalopex griseusFrench:Renard d’Argentine/ German:Argentinischer Kampfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de MagallanesOther common names:Chilla, Small Gray FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes griseus Gray, 1837, Chile.Formerly believed to include an island form, which since has been recognized as Darwin’s Fox. The Pampas Fox has recently been suggested to be conspecific with P. griseuson the basis of a craniometric and pelage-characters analysis, leading to the conclusion that P. gymnocercus and P. griseusare clinal variations of one single species, namely Lycalopex gymmnocercus. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. g. griseus Gray, 1837— Argentineand Chilean Patagonia.P. g. domeykoanus Philippi, 1901— N & C Chile, possibly S Peru.P. g. gracilis Burmeister, 1861— W Argentina(Monte Desert).P. g. maullinicus Philippi, 1903— S Argentineand Chilean temperate forests.Introduced (griseus) in Tierra del Fuego.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50- 1-66 cm, tail 11-5-34- 7 cm; weight 2-5- 5 kg. A small fox with large ears and a rufescent head flecked with white. Well-marked black spot on chin. Coat brindled gray, made up of agouti guard hairs with pale underfur. Black patch across thighs. Legs and feet pale tawny. Underparts pale gray. Tail long and bushy, with dorsal line and tip black and a mixed pale tawny and black pattern on the underside. The cranium is small, lacking an interparietal crest. Teeth widely separated. The dental formulaisI13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands and scrublands. South American Gray Foxes generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3500-4000 m. Although they occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat open patches of low scrub. In Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat consists of shrubby steppe composed of coiron (Festuca spp., Stipa spp.) and nires (Nothofagus antarctica). Burning and destruction of forests for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for these foxes. In Torres del Paine National Park, 58% of twelve individuals monitored showed preferential use of matorral shrubland or Nothofagus thicket habitat within their home ranges. In the Mendozadesert, Argentina, they prefer the lower levels of shrubby sand dunes rather than higher sections. They tolerate a variety of climates, including hot and dry areas such as the Atacamacoastal desert in northern Chile(less than 2 mmaverage annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), the humid, temperate Valdivian forest (2000 mmaverage annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature), and the cold environment of Tierra del Fuego (c. 400 mmaverage annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature).Food and Feeding.South American Gray Foxes are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a variety of foods, including mammals, arthropods, birds, reptiles, fruit, and carrion. Fruits ingested include berries of Cryptocarya alba and Lithraea caustica in Chile, pods of Prosopis spp., and the berry-like fruits of Prosopanche americana and of several Cactaceaein Argentina. A tendency to carnivory is apparent, however, since vertebrates, especially rodents, are reported to be the most important prey in most studies. Small mammals were the most frequently occurring vertebrate prey in most sites in the Chilean matorral and in the temperate rainforests of southern Chile. In Torres del Paine National Park, the European Hare was the most represented vertebrate prey, followed by carrion and akodontine rodents. In the ArgentinePatagonian steppe, carrion was the most important food item in 42 stomachs collected in winter (representing 62% of biomass ingested), followed by hares and cricetine rodents. In Argentina’s southern Patagonia, diet also consisted primarily of carrion, followed by birds, rodents, and fruit. Diet included invertebrates, carrion, birds, and rodents in Tierra del Fuego. In the harshest habitats ofits range, the foxes’ diets include increasingly higher proportions of non-mammal food as small mammal availability decreases. Lizards were the most consumed vertebrate prey in winter, the season of lowest small mammal availability in coastal northern Chile. Small-mammal consumption decreased from autumn to summer, and fruit consumption increased. In central Chile, berries appeared in 52% of the droppings (n = 127) collected in autumn, while in spring, when small mammal availability is highest, berries were present in only 18% of the feces (n = 62). In Mendoza (Monte desert), fruit was represented in 35% of feces (n = 116), followed by small mammals (19% frequency of occurrence). Foraging occurs mostly in open areas. Although hunting groups of up to 4-5 individuals have been reported, South American Gray Foxes mostly hunt solitarily, except perhaps at the end of the breeding season, when juveniles may join the parents in search of food. In Torres del Paine National Park, the most common foraging behavior consisted of slow walking, with abrupt, irregular turns through low vegetation. The same report noted that prey appear to be located by sound, sight, and smell. Mice are captured with a sudden leap or by rapidly digging holes. Scavenging is common, as well as defecation on and around Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and domestic goat carcasses. Caching behavior has also been reported.Activity patterns.Direct observations and prey activity patterns suggest that South American Gray Foxes are crepuscular, although they are commonly seen during the day. Radio-tracking showed that they were primarily nocturnal in Torres del Paine National Park, whereas they were active during both day and night in Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic component of social organization in Torres del Paine National Park is the breeding monogamous pair, accompanied by occasional female helpers. Male dispersal and occasional polygyny is also reported. Solitary individuals were seen from March to July, while pairs comprised 42% of sightings during August. The male and female of an observed pair maintained an exclusive home range year-round, which did not overlap with home ranges of neighboring pairs. Intraspecific interactions were few and usually aggressive. Individual home range sizes (n = 23) averaged 2-0 km”.Breeding.Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “locally common” in Argentinaand stable in the southern half of the country where habitat is more favorable. Reported to have expanded their range in Tierra del Fuegosince being introduced there: in 1996 their density was estimated at 1 per km®. Hunting them and fur trading are legal in ArgentinePatagonia and Tierra del Fuego. All Chilean populations are currently protected by law, except for those from Tierra del Fuego. The main threat to South American Gray Fox populations in the past was commercial hunting for fur. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recentyears. Illegal killing still occurs in some regions,as the foxes are perceived to be voracious predators of small livestock, poultry and game. The usual means of hunting are by shooting, dogs, poison, snares, and foothold traps. Around 45% of the mortality documented in Torres del Paine National Park resulted from either poaching or dog attacks. Road kills are frequently observed in Argentina, especially in summer.Bibliography.Cabrera (1958), Campos & Ojeda (1997), Duran et al. (1985), Gonzalez del Solar & Rau(2004), Gonzalez del Solar et al. (1997), Jaksic, Jiménez et al. (1990), Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980), Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983), Jayat et al. (1999), Jiménez (1993), Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996), Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b, 1994c), Mares et al. (1996), Marquet et al. (1993), Martinez et al. (1993), Medel & Jaksic (1988), Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000), Rauet al. (1995), Simonetti et al. (1984), Yanez & Jaksic (1978), Zunino et al. (1995)." +03ACCF40BF23FFDD7E94FACCF89DDA8D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,431,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF23FFDD7E94FACCF89DDA8D.xml,Pseudalopex gymnocercus,Pseudalopex,gymnocercus,Burmeister,1856,Renard d'Azara @fr | Pampasfuchs @de | Zorro de La Pampa @es | Azara's Fox @en,"Procyon gymnocercus Fischer, 1814, Paraguay.Three subspecies have been proposed. Their geographic limits are not precise and it has been suggested that along their borders they could coexist and interbreed.","P. g. gymnocercus Fischer, 1814— subtropical grasslands of NE Argentina, SE Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.P.g. antiquus Ameghino, 1889— Pampas grasslands, monte scrublands, and open woodlands of C Argentina.P. g. lordi Massoia, 1982— Chaco-montane tropical forest ecotone in NW Argentina(Salta& JujuyProvinces).The subspecific status of the Pampas Fox from Entre Rios Provincein Argentinaremains unclear, and there are no data regarding the taxonomic position of Bolivian foxes.","Head-body 59- 7-74 cmfor males and 50- 5-72 cmfor females, tail 28-38 cmfor males and 25-41 cmfor females; weight 4-8 kgfor males and 3-5- 7 kgfor females. Medium-sized, smaller than Culpeo. The head, somewhat triangular in shape, is reddish with a pale gray to white ventral surface. Ears triangular, broad and relatively large, reddish on the outer surface and white on the inner surface. The rostrum is narrow, ventrally pale, black in the chin and reddish to black dorsally. The eyes are oblique in appearance. The body, back, and sides are gray, like the outer surface of the hindlimbs, which have a characteristic black spot on the lower rear side. There is a dark, almost black band along the back and tail. Thetail is relatively long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip. The outer surface of the front limbs and the distal surface of the hindlimbs are reddish. Smaller size and lack of interparietal crest distinguish its skull from that of the Culpeo. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the pampas grasslands of South America’s Southern Cone. It prefers open habitats, tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrublands and open woodlands. In drier habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the speciesis replaced by the South American Gray Fox. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox selects more open areas. Apparently it has been able to adapt to the habitat alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities.","Like most other medium-sized foxes, the Pampas Fox is a generalist and adaptable carnivore. Its diet shows great geographic variation and may include both wild and domestic vertebrates (particularly rodents and birds), fruit, insects, carrion, and garbage. Based on stomach contents, wild mammals and sheep appeared to be the two most common food items in Uruguay, while in La Pampa Province, Argentina, European Hares and rodents were the most common food items, followed by birds and carrion. In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, there was a high frequency of rodents and birds, but also of insects, fruits, and crabs. Seasonal and local variations in diet are likely connected to variations in food availability. The Pampas Fox is a solitary and opportunistic carnivore. Large, highly concentrated food resources (i.e. large mammal carcasses) may cause several individuals to gather, possibly beyond the borders of normal home ranges. Food caching behavior has been observed, apparently related to an increase in the availability of rodents.","In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.","Forages both day and night, although activity is mainly nocturnal in areas with severe hunting pressure.","Pampas Foxes are thought to form monogamous pairs, but they are solitary most of the time: 88% of observations in the Paraguayan Chacoand 93% in ArgentineLa Pampa Provincewere of single individuals. Pairs are frequently observed from the time of mating until pups leave the natal den. In a Sierra grassland area, the respective home ranges of two adultmales were estimated at 0-4 and 0-45 km*. Defecation-site features suggest that droppings are used in intraspecific communication. Long-distance calls, which peak in frequency during the breeding period, may serve to maintain contact between pair members, as well as play a role in territorial behavior. When pairs are raising pups, both adult foxes have been observed using a brief and repeated alarm call if they detect a potential threat to the young.Breeding.In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List and the ArgentinaRed List of Mammals. Abundant or common in most areas. In Argentinatrade was prohibited in 1987. However,it continues to be hunted. In Uruguayand Paraguaythe species is protected by law. In Argentinaand southern Brazilthe Pampas Fox was considered an important predator of sheep and goats, and was consequently persecuted by livestock ranchers. The Pampas Fox is currently threatened by the official implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) and the use of non-selective methods of capture. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any thorough studies on population abundance or the real damage thatthis species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is illegal. Most of the species’ range in the Pampas region has suffered massive habitat alteration due to extensive cattle ranching and agriculture. Although apparently able to withstand hunting pressure and habitat loss, the sum of these threats may nevertheless eventually cause the depletion of fox populations. Rural residents have traditionally hunted the Pampas Fox forits fur, an important source of income. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in north-west Argentina. In Uruguay, illegal trade is still widespread. Pampas Foxes are also frequently struck by cars in some areas.","Barquez et al. (1991) | Branch (1994) | Brooks (1992) | Cabrera (1958) | Cajal (1986) | Chebez (1994) | Cravino et al. (1997) | Crespo (1971) | Diaz & Ojeda (2000) | Farias, A.A. (2000) | Garcia, J. (1991) | Garcia, V.B. (2001) | Lucherini et al. (2004) | Massoia (1982) | Novaro & Funes (1994) | Redford & Eisenberg (1992) | Vuillermoz & Sapoznikow (1998) | Zunino et al. (1995)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331195/files/figure.png,"17.Pampas FoxPseudalopex gymnocercusFrench:Renard d'Azara/ German:Pampasfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de La PampaOther common names:Azara's FoxTaxonomy.Procyon gymnocercus Fischer, 1814, Paraguay.Three subspecies have been proposed. Their geographic limits are not precise and it has been suggested that along their borders they could coexist and interbreed.Subspecies and Distribution.P. g. gymnocercus Fischer, 1814— subtropical grasslands of NE Argentina, SE Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.P.g. antiquus Ameghino, 1889— Pampas grasslands, monte scrublands, and open woodlands of C Argentina.P. g. lordi Massoia, 1982— Chaco-montane tropical forest ecotone in NW Argentina(Salta& JujuyProvinces).The subspecific status of the Pampas Fox from Entre Rios Provincein Argentinaremains unclear, and there are no data regarding the taxonomic position of Bolivian foxes.Descriptive notes.Head-body 59- 7-74 cmfor males and 50- 5-72 cmfor females, tail 28-38 cmfor males and 25-41 cmfor females; weight 4-8 kgfor males and 3-5- 7 kgfor females. Medium-sized, smaller than Culpeo. The head, somewhat triangular in shape, is reddish with a pale gray to white ventral surface. Ears triangular, broad and relatively large, reddish on the outer surface and white on the inner surface. The rostrum is narrow, ventrally pale, black in the chin and reddish to black dorsally. The eyes are oblique in appearance. The body, back, and sides are gray, like the outer surface of the hindlimbs, which have a characteristic black spot on the lower rear side. There is a dark, almost black band along the back and tail. Thetail is relatively long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip. The outer surface of the front limbs and the distal surface of the hindlimbs are reddish. Smaller size and lack of interparietal crest distinguish its skull from that of the Culpeo. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the pampas grasslands of South America’s Southern Cone. It prefers open habitats, tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrublands and open woodlands. In drier habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the speciesis replaced by the South American Gray Fox. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox selects more open areas. Apparently it has been able to adapt to the habitat alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities.Food and Feeding.Like most other medium-sized foxes, the Pampas Fox is a generalist and adaptable carnivore. Its diet shows great geographic variation and may include both wild and domestic vertebrates (particularly rodents and birds), fruit, insects, carrion, and garbage. Based on stomach contents, wild mammals and sheep appeared to be the two most common food items in Uruguay, while in La Pampa Province, Argentina, European Hares and rodents were the most common food items, followed by birds and carrion. In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, there was a high frequency of rodents and birds, but also of insects, fruits, and crabs. Seasonal and local variations in diet are likely connected to variations in food availability. The Pampas Fox is a solitary and opportunistic carnivore. Large, highly concentrated food resources (i.e. large mammal carcasses) may cause several individuals to gather, possibly beyond the borders of normal home ranges. Food caching behavior has been observed, apparently related to an increase in the availability of rodents.Activity patterns.Forages both day and night, although activity is mainly nocturnal in areas with severe hunting pressure.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pampas Foxes are thought to form monogamous pairs, but they are solitary most of the time: 88% of observations in the Paraguayan Chacoand 93% in ArgentineLa Pampa Provincewere of single individuals. Pairs are frequently observed from the time of mating until pups leave the natal den. In a Sierra grassland area, the respective home ranges of two adultmales were estimated at 0-4 and 0-45 km*. Defecation-site features suggest that droppings are used in intraspecific communication. Long-distance calls, which peak in frequency during the breeding period, may serve to maintain contact between pair members, as well as play a role in territorial behavior. When pairs are raising pups, both adult foxes have been observed using a brief and repeated alarm call if they detect a potential threat to the young.Breeding.In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List and the ArgentinaRed List of Mammals. Abundant or common in most areas. In Argentinatrade was prohibited in 1987. However,it continues to be hunted. In Uruguayand Paraguaythe species is protected by law. In Argentinaand southern Brazilthe Pampas Fox was considered an important predator of sheep and goats, and was consequently persecuted by livestock ranchers. The Pampas Fox is currently threatened by the official implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) and the use of non-selective methods of capture. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any thorough studies on population abundance or the real damage thatthis species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is illegal. Most of the species’ range in the Pampas region has suffered massive habitat alteration due to extensive cattle ranching and agriculture. Although apparently able to withstand hunting pressure and habitat loss, the sum of these threats may nevertheless eventually cause the depletion of fox populations. Rural residents have traditionally hunted the Pampas Fox forits fur, an important source of income. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in north-west Argentina. In Uruguay, illegal trade is still widespread. Pampas Foxes are also frequently struck by cars in some areas.Bibliography.Barquez et al. (1991), Branch (1994), Brooks (1992), Cabrera (1958), Cajal (1986), Chebez (1994), Cravino et al. (1997), Crespo (1971), Diaz & Ojeda (2000), Farias, A.A. (2000), Garcia, J. (1991), Garcia, V.B. (2001), Lucherini et al. (2004), Massoia (1982), Novaro & Funes (1994), Redford & Eisenberg (1992), Vuillermoz & Sapoznikow (1998), Zunino et al. (1995)." +03ACCF40BF24FFDD7ED2F43CFADFD812,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,430,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF24FFDD7ED2F43CFADFD812.xml,Pseudalopex griseus,Pseudalopex,griseus,,,Renard d’Argentine @fr | Argentinischer Kampfuchs @de | Zorro de Magallanes @es | Chilla @en | Small Gray Fox @en,"Vulpes griseus Gray, 1837, Chile.Formerly believed to include an island form, which since has been recognized as Darwin’s Fox. The Pampas Fox has recently been suggested to be conspecific with P. griseuson the basis of a craniometric and pelage-characters analysis, leading to the conclusion that P. gymnocercus and P. griseusare clinal variations of one single species, namely Lycalopex gymmnocercus. Four subspecies are recognized.","P. g. griseus Gray, 1837— Argentineand Chilean Patagonia.P. g. domeykoanus Philippi, 1901— N & C Chile, possibly S Peru.P. g. gracilis Burmeister, 1861— W Argentina(Monte Desert).P. g. maullinicus Philippi, 1903— S Argentineand Chilean temperate forests.Introduced (griseus) in Tierra del Fuego.","Head-body 50- 1-66 cm, tail 11-5-34- 7 cm; weight 2-5- 5 kg. A small fox with large ears and a rufescent head flecked with white. Well-marked black spot on chin. Coat brindled gray, made up of agouti guard hairs with pale underfur. Black patch across thighs. Legs and feet pale tawny. Underparts pale gray. Tail long and bushy, with dorsal line and tip black and a mixed pale tawny and black pattern on the underside. The cranium is small, lacking an interparietal crest. Teeth widely separated. The dental formulaisI13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Steppes, grasslands and scrublands. South American Gray Foxes generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3500-4000 m. Although they occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat open patches of low scrub. In Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat consists of shrubby steppe composed of coiron (Festuca spp., Stipa spp.) and nires (Nothofagus antarctica). Burning and destruction of forests for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for these foxes. In Torres del Paine National Park, 58% of twelve individuals monitored showed preferential use of matorral shrubland or Nothofagus thicket habitat within their home ranges. In the Mendozadesert, Argentina, they prefer the lower levels of shrubby sand dunes rather than higher sections. They tolerate a variety of climates, including hot and dry areas such as the Atacamacoastal desert in northern Chile(less than 2 mmaverage annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), the humid, temperate Valdivian forest (2000 mmaverage annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature), and the cold environment of Tierra del Fuego (c. 400 mmaverage annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature).","South American Gray Foxes are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a variety of foods, including mammals, arthropods, birds, reptiles, fruit, and carrion. Fruits ingested include berries of Cryptocarya alba and Lithraea caustica in Chile, pods of Prosopis spp., and the berry-like fruits of Prosopanche americana and of several Cactaceaein Argentina. A tendency to carnivory is apparent, however, since vertebrates, especially rodents, are reported to be the most important prey in most studies. Small mammals were the most frequently occurring vertebrate prey in most sites in the Chilean matorral and in the temperate rainforests of southern Chile. In Torres del Paine National Park, the European Hare was the most represented vertebrate prey, followed by carrion and akodontine rodents. In the ArgentinePatagonian steppe, carrion was the most important food item in 42 stomachs collected in winter (representing 62% of biomass ingested), followed by hares and cricetine rodents. In Argentina’s southern Patagonia, diet also consisted primarily of carrion, followed by birds, rodents, and fruit. Diet included invertebrates, carrion, birds, and rodents in Tierra del Fuego. In the harshest habitats ofits range, the foxes’ diets include increasingly higher proportions of non-mammal food as small mammal availability decreases. Lizards were the most consumed vertebrate prey in winter, the season of lowest small mammal availability in coastal northern Chile. Small-mammal consumption decreased from autumn to summer, and fruit consumption increased. In central Chile, berries appeared in 52% of the droppings (n = 127) collected in autumn, while in spring, when small mammal availability is highest, berries were present in only 18% of the feces (n = 62). In Mendoza (Monte desert), fruit was represented in 35% of feces (n = 116), followed by small mammals (19% frequency of occurrence). Foraging occurs mostly in open areas. Although hunting groups of up to 4-5 individuals have been reported, South American Gray Foxes mostly hunt solitarily, except perhaps at the end of the breeding season, when juveniles may join the parents in search of food. In Torres del Paine National Park, the most common foraging behavior consisted of slow walking, with abrupt, irregular turns through low vegetation. The same report noted that prey appear to be located by sound, sight, and smell. Mice are captured with a sudden leap or by rapidly digging holes. Scavenging is common, as well as defecation on and around Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and domestic goat carcasses. Caching behavior has also been reported.","Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.","Direct observations and prey activity patterns suggest that South American Gray Foxes are crepuscular, although they are commonly seen during the day. Radio-tracking showed that they were primarily nocturnal in Torres del Paine National Park, whereas they were active during both day and night in Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas.","The basic component of social organization in Torres del Paine National Park is the breeding monogamous pair, accompanied by occasional female helpers. Male dispersal and occasional polygyny is also reported. Solitary individuals were seen from March to July, while pairs comprised 42% of sightings during August. The male and female of an observed pair maintained an exclusive home range year-round, which did not overlap with home ranges of neighboring pairs. Intraspecific interactions were few and usually aggressive. Individual home range sizes (n = 23) averaged 2-0 km”.Breeding.Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “locally common” in Argentinaand stable in the southern half of the country where habitat is more favorable. Reported to have expanded their range in Tierra del Fuegosince being introduced there: in 1996 their density was estimated at 1 per km®. Hunting them and fur trading are legal in ArgentinePatagonia and Tierra del Fuego. All Chilean populations are currently protected by law, except for those from Tierra del Fuego. The main threat to South American Gray Fox populations in the past was commercial hunting for fur. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recentyears. Illegal killing still occurs in some regions,as the foxes are perceived to be voracious predators of small livestock, poultry and game. The usual means of hunting are by shooting, dogs, poison, snares, and foothold traps. Around 45% of the mortality documented in Torres del Paine National Park resulted from either poaching or dog attacks. Road kills are frequently observed in Argentina, especially in summer.","Cabrera (1958) | Campos & Ojeda (1997) | Duran et al. (1985) | Gonzalez del Solar & Rau(2004) | Gonzalez del Solar et al. (1997) | Jaksic, Jiménez et al. (1990) | Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980) | Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983) | Jayat et al. (1999) | Jiménez (1993) | Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996) | Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) | Mares et al. (1996) | Marquet et al. (1993) | Martinez et al. (1993) | Medel & Jaksic (1988) | Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000) | Rauet al. (1995) | Simonetti et al. (1984) | Yanez & Jaksic (1978) | Zunino et al. (1995)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331193/files/figure.png,"16.South American Gray FoxPseudalopex griseusFrench:Renard d’Argentine/ German:Argentinischer Kampfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de MagallanesOther common names:Chilla, Small Gray FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes griseus Gray, 1837, Chile.Formerly believed to include an island form, which since has been recognized as Darwin’s Fox. The Pampas Fox has recently been suggested to be conspecific with P. griseuson the basis of a craniometric and pelage-characters analysis, leading to the conclusion that P. gymnocercus and P. griseusare clinal variations of one single species, namely Lycalopex gymmnocercus. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. g. griseus Gray, 1837— Argentineand Chilean Patagonia.P. g. domeykoanus Philippi, 1901— N & C Chile, possibly S Peru.P. g. gracilis Burmeister, 1861— W Argentina(Monte Desert).P. g. maullinicus Philippi, 1903— S Argentineand Chilean temperate forests.Introduced (griseus) in Tierra del Fuego.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50- 1-66 cm, tail 11-5-34- 7 cm; weight 2-5- 5 kg. A small fox with large ears and a rufescent head flecked with white. Well-marked black spot on chin. Coat brindled gray, made up of agouti guard hairs with pale underfur. Black patch across thighs. Legs and feet pale tawny. Underparts pale gray. Tail long and bushy, with dorsal line and tip black and a mixed pale tawny and black pattern on the underside. The cranium is small, lacking an interparietal crest. Teeth widely separated. The dental formulaisI13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands and scrublands. South American Gray Foxes generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3500-4000 m. Although they occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat open patches of low scrub. In Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat consists of shrubby steppe composed of coiron (Festuca spp., Stipa spp.) and nires (Nothofagus antarctica). Burning and destruction of forests for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for these foxes. In Torres del Paine National Park, 58% of twelve individuals monitored showed preferential use of matorral shrubland or Nothofagus thicket habitat within their home ranges. In the Mendozadesert, Argentina, they prefer the lower levels of shrubby sand dunes rather than higher sections. They tolerate a variety of climates, including hot and dry areas such as the Atacamacoastal desert in northern Chile(less than 2 mmaverage annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), the humid, temperate Valdivian forest (2000 mmaverage annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature), and the cold environment of Tierra del Fuego (c. 400 mmaverage annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature).Food and Feeding.South American Gray Foxes are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a variety of foods, including mammals, arthropods, birds, reptiles, fruit, and carrion. Fruits ingested include berries of Cryptocarya alba and Lithraea caustica in Chile, pods of Prosopis spp., and the berry-like fruits of Prosopanche americana and of several Cactaceaein Argentina. A tendency to carnivory is apparent, however, since vertebrates, especially rodents, are reported to be the most important prey in most studies. Small mammals were the most frequently occurring vertebrate prey in most sites in the Chilean matorral and in the temperate rainforests of southern Chile. In Torres del Paine National Park, the European Hare was the most represented vertebrate prey, followed by carrion and akodontine rodents. In the ArgentinePatagonian steppe, carrion was the most important food item in 42 stomachs collected in winter (representing 62% of biomass ingested), followed by hares and cricetine rodents. In Argentina’s southern Patagonia, diet also consisted primarily of carrion, followed by birds, rodents, and fruit. Diet included invertebrates, carrion, birds, and rodents in Tierra del Fuego. In the harshest habitats ofits range, the foxes’ diets include increasingly higher proportions of non-mammal food as small mammal availability decreases. Lizards were the most consumed vertebrate prey in winter, the season of lowest small mammal availability in coastal northern Chile. Small-mammal consumption decreased from autumn to summer, and fruit consumption increased. In central Chile, berries appeared in 52% of the droppings (n = 127) collected in autumn, while in spring, when small mammal availability is highest, berries were present in only 18% of the feces (n = 62). In Mendoza (Monte desert), fruit was represented in 35% of feces (n = 116), followed by small mammals (19% frequency of occurrence). Foraging occurs mostly in open areas. Although hunting groups of up to 4-5 individuals have been reported, South American Gray Foxes mostly hunt solitarily, except perhaps at the end of the breeding season, when juveniles may join the parents in search of food. In Torres del Paine National Park, the most common foraging behavior consisted of slow walking, with abrupt, irregular turns through low vegetation. The same report noted that prey appear to be located by sound, sight, and smell. Mice are captured with a sudden leap or by rapidly digging holes. Scavenging is common, as well as defecation on and around Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and domestic goat carcasses. Caching behavior has also been reported.Activity patterns.Direct observations and prey activity patterns suggest that South American Gray Foxes are crepuscular, although they are commonly seen during the day. Radio-tracking showed that they were primarily nocturnal in Torres del Paine National Park, whereas they were active during both day and night in Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic component of social organization in Torres del Paine National Park is the breeding monogamous pair, accompanied by occasional female helpers. Male dispersal and occasional polygyny is also reported. Solitary individuals were seen from March to July, while pairs comprised 42% of sightings during August. The male and female of an observed pair maintained an exclusive home range year-round, which did not overlap with home ranges of neighboring pairs. Intraspecific interactions were few and usually aggressive. Individual home range sizes (n = 23) averaged 2-0 km”.Breeding.Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “locally common” in Argentinaand stable in the southern half of the country where habitat is more favorable. Reported to have expanded their range in Tierra del Fuegosince being introduced there: in 1996 their density was estimated at 1 per km®. Hunting them and fur trading are legal in ArgentinePatagonia and Tierra del Fuego. All Chilean populations are currently protected by law, except for those from Tierra del Fuego. The main threat to South American Gray Fox populations in the past was commercial hunting for fur. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recentyears. Illegal killing still occurs in some regions,as the foxes are perceived to be voracious predators of small livestock, poultry and game. The usual means of hunting are by shooting, dogs, poison, snares, and foothold traps. Around 45% of the mortality documented in Torres del Paine National Park resulted from either poaching or dog attacks. Road kills are frequently observed in Argentina, especially in summer.Bibliography.Cabrera (1958), Campos & Ojeda (1997), Duran et al. (1985), Gonzalez del Solar & Rau(2004), Gonzalez del Solar et al. (1997), Jaksic, Jiménez et al. (1990), Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980), Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983), Jayat et al. (1999), Jiménez (1993), Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996), Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b, 1994c), Mares et al. (1996), Marquet et al. (1993), Martinez et al. (1993), Medel & Jaksic (1988), Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000), Rauet al. (1995), Simonetti et al. (1984), Yanez & Jaksic (1978), Zunino et al. (1995)." 03ACCF40BF25FFDA7B97FAA9FBEFD662,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,429,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF25FFDA7B97FAA9FBEFD662.xml,Pseudalopex fulvipes,Pseudalopex,fulvipes,Burmeister,1856,Renard de Darwin @fr | Darwin-Fuchs @de | Zorro chilote @es,"Vulpes fulvipes Martin, 1837,Chile.Known until recently only from the Island of Chiloé, Chile. Taxonomic status previously uncertain and confusing; was considered to be an island form of the South American Gray Fox (P griseus). However, the discovery of a mainland population in sympatry with the South American Gray Fox and the analysis of mitochondrial DNA of the three Chilean foxes (including P. culpaeus), provides strong evidence for considering the Darwin’s Fox as a legitimate species. It is now accepted that current populations of Darwin's Fox are relicts of a former, more widely distributed species. Similarities in pelage coloration between P. fulvipesand P. sechuraefrom the coastal desert of Peru(2000 kmto the north) support speculations of a phylogenetic relationship between these two species. Monotypic.","Endemic to Chile, with a disjunct distribution in the forests of Chiloé Island, and on the mainland coastal mountains in Nahuelbuta National Park. Evidence of a new population was foud recently at Punta Chan Chan, N of Valdivia.","Head-body 48-2-56- 1 cmfor males and 48-59- 1 cmfor females, tail 19-5-25- 5 cmfor males and 17- 5-25 cmfor females; weight 1-9- 3-95 kgfor males and 1-8- 3-7 kgfor females. A small, stout fox with an elongated body and short legs. Muzzle short and thin, extending into a rather rounded forehead. The agouti hair on the torso contributes to its dark appearance. Rufous markings on the ears and along the legs below the knees and elbows. White markings under the chin, along the lower mandible, on the underbelly and on the upper and inner part of the legs. The tail is dark gray, relatively short and quite bushy—all useful traits for distinguishing this species from congenerics. The skull is shorter and the auditory bulla smaller than the South American Gray Fox, but the dentition is heavier. Dental formulais 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M2/3=42.","Generally believed to be a forest obligate species found only in southern temperate rainforests. They inhabit dense Valdivian forest, which is very moist all year round. The forest is dominated by fruit-bearing trees in the family Mirtaceae; there are a few native conifers and several species of broad-leaved evergreens. Radio-tracking along a gradient of disturbance on Chiloé indicated that, in decreasing order, foxes use old-growth Valdivian forest followed by secondary forest followed by pastures and openings; about 70% of home ranges comprised old-growth forest. However, when compared to the availability of each forest gradient, foxes showed preference for secondary forest and avoided old growth. On the Pacific coast of Chiloé, Darwin’s Foxes live in a fragmented environment of coastal sand dunes and dense evergreen forest. On the northern part of the island, they use a relatively flat, fragmented landscape of broadleaf forest and cow pasture. The mainland population uses dense forest; animals are found with decreasing frequency in dense monkey-puzzle tree-southern beech (Araucaria-Nothofagus spp.) forest, open Nothofagus forest and open pasture, respectively.","Omnivorous, with a broad diet, and highly opportunistic. These traits facilitate its survival in a highly fluctuating environment with low prey availability. Fecal analysis showed that the mainland population ate primarily small mammals, followed, in decreasing levels of importance, by reptiles, insects, birds, and arachnids. The proportions of these prey classes fluctuated strongly according to season. Berries were also included in the diet, occurring in about. 20% of the feces. On the mainland Darwin’s Foxes rely heavily on the seeds of monkey-puzzle trees from March to May. On Chiloé,fecal analysis revealed that insects were the most abundant food item in the diet during the warm season, followed by amphibians, mammals, birds, and reptiles; 49% offeces contained seeds. During late summer and fall, the diet was almost entirely fruits of Mirtaceaetrees. Foxes may be considered a key species because of their role in dispersing the seeds of forest plants. An experiment indicated that a high percent age of the seeds of one tree species (Amomyrtus luma) collected from feces germinated underfield conditions. Darwin’s Foxes also eat carrion in small amounts, as evidenced by the remains (e.g. hair) of sheep, pigs, cattle, and horses in feces. Local settlers reported that lone foxes also kill Southern Pudu deer (Pudu puda; about 10 kgin weight) by biting their ankles and then the throat. In addition, coastal foxes feed on shellfish and shorebirds, and have been observed feeding on large brown algae on the beach.","On the mainland, lactating females have been caught in October and pups have been documented leaving the den area and venturing out with both parents in December. Litter size is estimated to be 2-3 pups. Weaning occurs in February. During this period the female spends relatively less time with the pups, and a greater proportion of their interactions are agonistic, whereas the male spends more time playing with and grooming the pups. A den was located in a rock cavity (2 mdeep) in Araucaria—Nothofagus forest with a bamboo understory, and a small pup was found denning in a hollow rotten log. During mating, males and females are together for a few days. During the first few weeks after parturition, females move little and apparently stay in the den.","Darwin’s Foxes seem to concentrate their activity during the daytime in forested areas. In Nahuelbuta, they forage mainly at night, when the sympatric and larger South American Gray Fox is less active. They have also been observed hunting ducks at midday in a coastal marsh.","In Chiloé¢, radio-tracking indicated that Darwin’s Foxes are solitary when not breeding, but will congregate at food sources, such as carcasses and seaweed stranded on beaches. A pair appears to be the basic social unit during the breeding season. Home ranges average about 1-6 km* for males and 1-5 km? for females. Given the very large range overlaps among neighboring foxes, and that individuals share their home range with an average of 4- 7 malesand 3- 3 females, Darwin’s Fox appears to be non-territorial. On the mainland, pairs persist throughout the year, and are often found in close proximity. In contrast with the Chiloé population, mainland pairs have been known to share their home ranges with offspring from previous years. All family members associate closely with each other, showing very little aggressive behavior towards one another. To date, no evidence has been reported of oldersiblings serving as helpers to new litters. The maintenance of a large family group may be influenced by a paucity of suitable territories for potentially dispersing juveniles. Dispersal appears to be delayed and may be opportunistic.Breeding.On the mainland, lactating females have been caught in October and pups have been documented leaving the den area and venturing out with both parents in December. Litter size is estimated to be 2-3 pups. Weaning occurs in February. During this period the female spends relatively less time with the pups, and a greater proportion of their interactions are agonistic, whereas the male spends more time playing with and grooming the pups. A den was located in a rock cavity (2 mdeep) in Araucaria—Nothofagus forest with a bamboo understory, and a small pup was found denning in a hollow rotten log. During mating, males and females are together for a few days. During the first few weeks after parturition, females move little and apparently stay in the den.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population size is currently estimated as less than 250 mature individuals with most of the foxes occurring in Chiloé Island. Protected by Chilean law since 1929, but enforcement is not always possible and some poaching occurs. The conservation status is “rare” on the mainland and “vulnerable” on Chiloé Island. More recently, Darwin’s Fox has been considered as “critical”, becoming the second most urgent Chilean terrestrial mammal conservation priority. The mainland population is reported to be vulnerable and its survival uncertain if current environmental trends continue. Although the species is protected in Nahuelbuta National Park, foxes are exposed to substantial mortality risks when they move to lower, unprotected private areas in search of milder conditions during the winter. Some foxes even breed in these areas. Unleashed dogs are common both on Chiloé and in Nahuelbuta and represent a significant conservation threat. Dogs have been reported to attack and kill foxes and are also vectors of potentially fatal diseases. The island population, being protected in Chiloé National Park, appears to be relatively safe. This 430 km® protected area encompasses most of the pristine rainforest on the island. However, although the park appears to have a sizable fox population, foxes also live in the surrounding areas where substantial forest cover remains. These areas are vulnerable and continuously subjected to logging, forest fragmentation, and poaching by locals.",Armesto et al. (1987) | Cabrera (1958) | Cofré & Marquet (1999) | Glade (1993) | Iriarte & Jaksic (1986) | IUCN (2008) | Jaksic et al. (1990) | Jiménez (2000) | Jiménez & McMahon (2004) | Jiménez et al. (1990) | Mc-Mahon (2002) | McMahon et al. (1999) | Medel et al. (1990) | Miller et al. (1983) | Osgood (1943) | Pine et al. (1979) | Redford & Eisenberg (1992) | Spotorno (1995) | Yahnke (1995) | Yahnke et al. (1996),https://zenodo.org/record/6331191/files/figure.png,"15.Darwin’s FoxPseudalopex fulvipesFrench:Renard de Darwin/ German:Darwin-Fuchs/ Spanish:Zorro chiloteTaxonomy.Vulpes fulvipes Martin, 1837,Chile.Known until recently only from the Island of Chiloé, Chile. Taxonomic status previously uncertain and confusing; was considered to be an island form of the South American Gray Fox (P griseus). However, the discovery of a mainland population in sympatry with the South American Gray Fox and the analysis of mitochondrial DNA of the three Chilean foxes (including P. culpaeus), provides strong evidence for considering the Darwin’s Fox as a legitimate species. It is now accepted that current populations of Darwin's Fox are relicts of a former, more widely distributed species. Similarities in pelage coloration between P. fulvipesand P. sechuraefrom the coastal desert of Peru(2000 kmto the north) support speculations of a phylogenetic relationship between these two species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Chile, with a disjunct distribution in the forests of Chiloé Island, and on the mainland coastal mountains in Nahuelbuta National Park. Evidence of a new population was foud recently at Punta Chan Chan, N of Valdivia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 48-2-56- 1 cmfor males and 48-59- 1 cmfor females, tail 19-5-25- 5 cmfor males and 17- 5-25 cmfor females; weight 1-9- 3-95 kgfor males and 1-8- 3-7 kgfor females. A small, stout fox with an elongated body and short legs. Muzzle short and thin, extending into a rather rounded forehead. The agouti hair on the torso contributes to its dark appearance. Rufous markings on the ears and along the legs below the knees and elbows. White markings under the chin, along the lower mandible, on the underbelly and on the upper and inner part of the legs. The tail is dark gray, relatively short and quite bushy—all useful traits for distinguishing this species from congenerics. The skull is shorter and the auditory bulla smaller than the South American Gray Fox, but the dentition is heavier. Dental formulais 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M2/3=42.Habitat.Generally believed to be a forest obligate species found only in southern temperate rainforests. They inhabit dense Valdivian forest, which is very moist all year round. The forest is dominated by fruit-bearing trees in the family Mirtaceae; there are a few native conifers and several species of broad-leaved evergreens. Radio-tracking along a gradient of disturbance on Chiloé indicated that, in decreasing order, foxes use old-growth Valdivian forest followed by secondary forest followed by pastures and openings; about 70% of home ranges comprised old-growth forest. However, when compared to the availability of each forest gradient, foxes showed preference for secondary forest and avoided old growth. On the Pacific coast of Chiloé, Darwin’s Foxes live in a fragmented environment of coastal sand dunes and dense evergreen forest. On the northern part of the island, they use a relatively flat, fragmented landscape of broadleaf forest and cow pasture. The mainland population uses dense forest; animals are found with decreasing frequency in dense monkey-puzzle tree-southern beech (Araucaria-Nothofagus spp.) forest, open Nothofagus forest and open pasture, respectively.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, with a broad diet, and highly opportunistic. These traits facilitate its survival in a highly fluctuating environment with low prey availability. Fecal analysis showed that the mainland population ate primarily small mammals, followed, in decreasing levels of importance, by reptiles, insects, birds, and arachnids. The proportions of these prey classes fluctuated strongly according to season. Berries were also included in the diet, occurring in about. 20% of the feces. On the mainland Darwin’s Foxes rely heavily on the seeds of monkey-puzzle trees from March to May. On Chiloé,fecal analysis revealed that insects were the most abundant food item in the diet during the warm season, followed by amphibians, mammals, birds, and reptiles; 49% offeces contained seeds. During late summer and fall, the diet was almost entirely fruits of Mirtaceaetrees. Foxes may be considered a key species because of their role in dispersing the seeds of forest plants. An experiment indicated that a high percent age of the seeds of one tree species (Amomyrtus luma) collected from feces germinated underfield conditions. Darwin’s Foxes also eat carrion in small amounts, as evidenced by the remains (e.g. hair) of sheep, pigs, cattle, and horses in feces. Local settlers reported that lone foxes also kill Southern Pudu deer (Pudu puda; about 10 kgin weight) by biting their ankles and then the throat. In addition, coastal foxes feed on shellfish and shorebirds, and have been observed feeding on large brown algae on the beach.On following pages: 16. South American Gray Fox (Pseudalopex griseus); 17. Pampas Fox (Pseudalopexgymnocercus); 18. Sechuran Fox (Pseudalopex sechurae); 19. Hoary Fox (Pseudalopex vetulus); 20. Northern Gray Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus); 21. Island Fox (Urocyon littoralis).Activity patterns.Darwin’s Foxes seem to concentrate their activity during the daytime in forested areas. In Nahuelbuta, they forage mainly at night, when the sympatric and larger South American Gray Fox is less active. They have also been observed hunting ducks at midday in a coastal marsh.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Chiloé¢, radio-tracking indicated that Darwin’s Foxes are solitary when not breeding, but will congregate at food sources, such as carcasses and seaweed stranded on beaches. A pair appears to be the basic social unit during the breeding season. Home ranges average about 1-6 km* for males and 1-5 km? for females. Given the very large range overlaps among neighboring foxes, and that individuals share their home range with an average of 4- 7 malesand 3- 3 females, Darwin’s Fox appears to be non-territorial. On the mainland, pairs persist throughout the year, and are often found in close proximity. In contrast with the Chiloé population, mainland pairs have been known to share their home ranges with offspring from previous years. All family members associate closely with each other, showing very little aggressive behavior towards one another. To date, no evidence has been reported of oldersiblings serving as helpers to new litters. The maintenance of a large family group may be influenced by a paucity of suitable territories for potentially dispersing juveniles. Dispersal appears to be delayed and may be opportunistic.Breeding.On the mainland, lactating females have been caught in October and pups have been documented leaving the den area and venturing out with both parents in December. Litter size is estimated to be 2-3 pups. Weaning occurs in February. During this period the female spends relatively less time with the pups, and a greater proportion of their interactions are agonistic, whereas the male spends more time playing with and grooming the pups. A den was located in a rock cavity (2 mdeep) in Araucaria—Nothofagus forest with a bamboo understory, and a small pup was found denning in a hollow rotten log. During mating, males and females are together for a few days. During the first few weeks after parturition, females move little and apparently stay in the den.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population size is currently estimated as less than 250 mature individuals with most of the foxes occurring in Chiloé Island. Protected by Chilean law since 1929, but enforcement is not always possible and some poaching occurs. The conservation status is “rare” on the mainland and “vulnerable” on Chiloé Island. More recently, Darwin’s Fox has been considered as “critical”, becoming the second most urgent Chilean terrestrial mammal conservation priority. The mainland population is reported to be vulnerable and its survival uncertain if current environmental trends continue. Although the species is protected in Nahuelbuta National Park, foxes are exposed to substantial mortality risks when they move to lower, unprotected private areas in search of milder conditions during the winter. Some foxes even breed in these areas. Unleashed dogs are common both on Chiloé and in Nahuelbuta and represent a significant conservation threat. Dogs have been reported to attack and kill foxes and are also vectors of potentially fatal diseases. The island population, being protected in Chiloé National Park, appears to be relatively safe. This 430 km® protected area encompasses most of the pristine rainforest on the island. However, although the park appears to have a sizable fox population, foxes also live in the surrounding areas where substantial forest cover remains. These areas are vulnerable and continuously subjected to logging, forest fragmentation, and poaching by locals.Bibliography.Armesto et al. (1987), Cabrera (1958), Cofré & Marquet (1999), Glade (1993), Iriarte & Jaksic (1986), IUCN (2008), Jaksic et al. (1990), Jiménez (2000), Jiménez & McMahon (2004), Jiménez et al. (1990), Mc-Mahon (2002), McMahon et al. (1999), Medel et al. (1990), Miller et al. (1983), Osgood (1943), Pine et al. (1979), Redford & Eisenberg (1992), Spotorno (1995), Yahnke (1995), Yahnke et al. (1996)." -03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,429,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6.xml,Pseudalopex culpaeus,Pseudalopex,culpaeus,,,Renard des Andes @fr | Andenfuchs @de | Zorro andino @es | Andean Fox @en,"Canis culpaeus Molina, 1782.Santiago Province, Chile.The taxonomic status of the Culpeo is still unresolved, despite a range of propositions for including it under Dusicyon, Canis, and Lycalopex. Six subspecies are recognized.","P. c. culpaeus Molina, 1782— W & C Argentinaand C Chile.P. c. andinus Thomas, 1914— altiplano of Bolivia, N Chile, and Peru.P.c. lycoides Philippi, 1895— Tierra del Fuego.P.c. magellanicus Gray, 1837— Argentinaand S Chile.P. c. reissu Hilzheimer, 1906— Ecuadorian Andes and extreme S Colombia(Narino).P. c. smithersi Thomas, 1914— Argentina(Cordoba Mts).","Head-body 44-5-92- 5 cmfor males and 49-89 cmfor females, tail 30-5-49- 3 cmfor males and 31-45 cmfor females; weight 3-4-13- 8 kgfor males and 3: 9-10 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Pseudalopex. The broad head and wide muzzle impart a powerful appearance. Males larger and on average 1-5 times heavier than females. White to light tawny chin and body underparts. Dorsal parts of the head, including the ears and neck, as well as legs and flanks are tawny or rufous. The rump is darker, ranging in color from tawny to dark gray, according to the subspecies. The tail is long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip and a dark dorsal patch near its base. Feet and legs are bright tawny with no black. Specimens from northern ranges (1.e. andinus) are lighter in color. Compared to the South American Gray Fox, Culpeos have longer canines and shorter second molars. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","The Culpeo ranges from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, to deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, and broadleaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses the entire range of habitat moisture gradients from the dry desert to broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentinait reaches elevations of up to 4800 m, where it occupies colder and dryer environments than any other South American canid.","Diet includes wild ungulates, domestic sheep (northern Patagonia), European Hares (Lepus europeus), European Rabbits, small mammals, lizards, birds, and insects. Although it is an opportunistic predator, the Culpeo is considered more carnivorous and a consumer of larger mammalian prey than the other South American foxes. Most trophic studies found seasonal differences in diet composition, probably in response to prey availability. In ArgentinePatagonia, Culpeos showed a preference for hares and selected among rodent species for those that may be more vulnerable. Culpeos in central Chileselected the largest small mammals available. Although the bulk of the diet consists of animal prey, Culpeos are often described as consumers offruits and berries and are therefore thought to disperse seeds of a variety of plant species. Highest fruit consumption occurs when small mammals are the least abundant. Culpeos tend to forage solitarily. Their foraging activity may be influenced by the nocturnal habits of their main prey, but also by persecution.","In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.","In Argentina, Magallanes, and the Chilean desert, and highland Peru(where it is intensively persecuted) the Culpeo is almost completely nocturnal. This contrasts with the diurnal activity shown in north-central Chile, where it is protected. Culpeos have been recorded moving linear distances of about 7 kmin north-western Patagonia, but desert-dwelling foxes in northern Chilehave been recorded moving three times as far.","Culpeos seem to be solitary foxes. Spatial studies throughout their range indicate that they have inter- and intra-sexual non-overlapping home ranges. Small areas of spatial overlap occur at sites of human refuse, but the foxes still segregate temporally. Females are apparently more spatially intolerant than males. In north-central Chile, home ranges of females averaged 8-9 km* and were 2-5 times larger than those of males. In contrast, Culpeo home ranges in Torres del Paine National Park (south Chile) were only 4-5 km? in size and similar for males and females. Desert-dwelling Culpeos show high variability in home range size, ranging from 10 km” for Culpeosliving in ravines to 800 km? for foxes associated with highland salt flats and lakes.Breeding.In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last. In Chilethe species is considered Insufficiently Known and the subspecies P. ¢. lycoides is considered Endangered. Despite being similarly decreed as “endangered” in Argentina, due to the number of Culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s, national trade and export of this product has remained legal. Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations. Recent estimates reported densities of 0-2-1-3 individuals/km? in north-western Patagonia, Argentina, and 0-3-1-3 individuals/km? in Chile. Hunting has been banned since 1980), although law enforcement is not strict. Although Culpeo fur exports were banned in Boliviain 1986, the species is not protected in that country. Culpeos are persecuted to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. They prey on newborn lambs and account for an estimated 60% of the attacks by predators in Patagonia. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may threaten Culpeos in some areas, and road kills occur frequently in Argentina.","Bustamante et al. (1992) | Cofré & Marquet (1999) | Corley et al. (1995) | Crespo (1975) | Crespo & de Carlo (1963) | Ebensperger et al. (1991) | Glade (1993) | Iriarte et al. (1989) | Jaksic & Yanez (1983) | Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980) | Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983) | Jiménez (1993) | Jiménez & Novaro (2004) | Jiménez, Yanez & Jaksic (1996) | Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996) | Johnson (1992) | Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b) | Langguth (1975) | Marquet et al. (1993) | Meserve et al. (1987) | Novaro (1995, 1997a, 1997b) | Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000) | Novaro, Funes, Rambeaud & Monsalvo (2000) | Romo (1995) | Salvatori et al. (1999) | Simonetti (1986) | Travaini, Juste et al. (2000) | Travaini, Zapata et al. (2000) | Wayne et al. (1989) | Yanez & Jaksic (1978) | Yanez & Rau(1980) | Zunino et al. (1995)",,"14.CulpeoPseudalopex culpaeusFrench:Renard des Andes/ German:Andenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro andinoOther common names:Andean FoxTaxonomy.Canis culpaeus Molina, 1782.Santiago Province, Chile.The taxonomic status of the Culpeo is still unresolved, despite a range of propositions for including it under Dusicyon, Canis, and Lycalopex. Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. c. culpaeus Molina, 1782— W & C Argentinaand C Chile.P. c. andinus Thomas, 1914— altiplano of Bolivia, N Chile, and Peru.P.c. lycoides Philippi, 1895— Tierra del Fuego.P.c. magellanicus Gray, 1837— Argentinaand S Chile.P. c. reissu Hilzheimer, 1906— Ecuadorian Andes and extreme S Colombia(Narino).P. c. smithersi Thomas, 1914— Argentina(Cordoba Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 44-5-92- 5 cmfor males and 49-89 cmfor females, tail 30-5-49- 3 cmfor males and 31-45 cmfor females; weight 3-4-13- 8 kgfor males and 3: 9-10 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Pseudalopex. The broad head and wide muzzle impart a powerful appearance. Males larger and on average 1-5 times heavier than females. White to light tawny chin and body underparts. Dorsal parts of the head, including the ears and neck, as well as legs and flanks are tawny or rufous. The rump is darker, ranging in color from tawny to dark gray, according to the subspecies. The tail is long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip and a dark dorsal patch near its base. Feet and legs are bright tawny with no black. Specimens from northern ranges (1.e. andinus) are lighter in color. Compared to the South American Gray Fox, Culpeos have longer canines and shorter second molars. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.The Culpeo ranges from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, to deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, and broadleaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses the entire range of habitat moisture gradients from the dry desert to broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentinait reaches elevations of up to 4800 m, where it occupies colder and dryer environments than any other South American canid.Food and Feeding.Diet includes wild ungulates, domestic sheep (northern Patagonia), European Hares (Lepus europeus), European Rabbits, small mammals, lizards, birds, and insects. Although it is an opportunistic predator, the Culpeo is considered more carnivorous and a consumer of larger mammalian prey than the other South American foxes. Most trophic studies found seasonal differences in diet composition, probably in response to prey availability. In ArgentinePatagonia, Culpeos showed a preference for hares and selected among rodent species for those that may be more vulnerable. Culpeos in central Chileselected the largest small mammals available. Although the bulk of the diet consists of animal prey, Culpeos are often described as consumers offruits and berries and are therefore thought to disperse seeds of a variety of plant species. Highest fruit consumption occurs when small mammals are the least abundant. Culpeos tend to forage solitarily. Their foraging activity may be influenced by the nocturnal habits of their main prey, but also by persecution.Activity patterns.In Argentina, Magallanes, and the Chilean desert, and highland Peru(where it is intensively persecuted) the Culpeo is almost completely nocturnal. This contrasts with the diurnal activity shown in north-central Chile, where it is protected. Culpeos have been recorded moving linear distances of about 7 kmin north-western Patagonia, but desert-dwelling foxes in northern Chilehave been recorded moving three times as far.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Culpeos seem to be solitary foxes. Spatial studies throughout their range indicate that they have inter- and intra-sexual non-overlapping home ranges. Small areas of spatial overlap occur at sites of human refuse, but the foxes still segregate temporally. Females are apparently more spatially intolerant than males. In north-central Chile, home ranges of females averaged 8-9 km* and were 2-5 times larger than those of males. In contrast, Culpeo home ranges in Torres del Paine National Park (south Chile) were only 4-5 km? in size and similar for males and females. Desert-dwelling Culpeos show high variability in home range size, ranging from 10 km” for Culpeosliving in ravines to 800 km? for foxes associated with highland salt flats and lakes.Breeding.In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last. In Chilethe species is considered Insufficiently Known and the subspecies P. ¢. lycoides is considered Endangered. Despite being similarly decreed as “endangered” in Argentina, due to the number of Culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s, national trade and export of this product has remained legal. Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations. Recent estimates reported densities of 0-2-1-3 individuals/km? in north-western Patagonia, Argentina, and 0-3-1-3 individuals/km? in Chile. Hunting has been banned since 1980), although law enforcement is not strict. Although Culpeo fur exports were banned in Boliviain 1986, the species is not protected in that country. Culpeos are persecuted to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. They prey on newborn lambs and account for an estimated 60% of the attacks by predators in Patagonia. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may threaten Culpeos in some areas, and road kills occur frequently in Argentina.Bibliography.Bustamante et al. (1992), Cofré & Marquet (1999), Corley et al. (1995), Crespo (1975), Crespo & de Carlo (1963), Ebensperger et al. (1991), Glade (1993), Iriarte et al. (1989), Jaksic & Yanez (1983), Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980), Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983), Jiménez (1993), Jiménez & Novaro (2004), Jiménez, Yanez & Jaksic (1996), Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996), Johnson (1992), Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b), Langguth (1975), Marquet et al. (1993), Meserve et al. (1987), Novaro (1995, 1997a, 1997b), Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000), Novaro, Funes, Rambeaud & Monsalvo (2000), Romo (1995), Salvatori et al. (1999), Simonetti (1986), Travaini, Juste et al. (2000), Travaini, Zapata et al. (2000), Wayne et al. (1989), Yanez & Jaksic (1978), Yanez & Rau(1980), Zunino et al. (1995)." +03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,429,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6.xml,Pseudalopex culpaeus,Pseudalopex,culpaeus,,,Renard des Andes @fr | Andenfuchs @de | Zorro andino @es | Andean Fox @en,"Canis culpaeus Molina, 1782.Santiago Province, Chile.The taxonomic status of the Culpeo is still unresolved, despite a range of propositions for including it under Dusicyon, Canis, and Lycalopex. Six subspecies are recognized.","P. c. culpaeus Molina, 1782— W & C Argentinaand C Chile.P. c. andinus Thomas, 1914— altiplano of Bolivia, N Chile, and Peru.P.c. lycoides Philippi, 1895— Tierra del Fuego.P.c. magellanicus Gray, 1837— Argentinaand S Chile.P. c. reissu Hilzheimer, 1906— Ecuadorian Andes and extreme S Colombia(Narino).P. c. smithersi Thomas, 1914— Argentina(Cordoba Mts).","Head-body 44-5-92- 5 cmfor males and 49-89 cmfor females, tail 30-5-49- 3 cmfor males and 31-45 cmfor females; weight 3-4-13- 8 kgfor males and 3: 9-10 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Pseudalopex. The broad head and wide muzzle impart a powerful appearance. Males larger and on average 1-5 times heavier than females. White to light tawny chin and body underparts. Dorsal parts of the head, including the ears and neck, as well as legs and flanks are tawny or rufous. The rump is darker, ranging in color from tawny to dark gray, according to the subspecies. The tail is long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip and a dark dorsal patch near its base. Feet and legs are bright tawny with no black. Specimens from northern ranges (1.e. andinus) are lighter in color. Compared to the South American Gray Fox, Culpeos have longer canines and shorter second molars. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","The Culpeo ranges from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, to deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, and broadleaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses the entire range of habitat moisture gradients from the dry desert to broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentinait reaches elevations of up to 4800 m, where it occupies colder and dryer environments than any other South American canid.","Diet includes wild ungulates, domestic sheep (northern Patagonia), European Hares (Lepus europeus), European Rabbits, small mammals, lizards, birds, and insects. Although it is an opportunistic predator, the Culpeo is considered more carnivorous and a consumer of larger mammalian prey than the other South American foxes. Most trophic studies found seasonal differences in diet composition, probably in response to prey availability. In ArgentinePatagonia, Culpeos showed a preference for hares and selected among rodent species for those that may be more vulnerable. Culpeos in central Chileselected the largest small mammals available. Although the bulk of the diet consists of animal prey, Culpeos are often described as consumers offruits and berries and are therefore thought to disperse seeds of a variety of plant species. Highest fruit consumption occurs when small mammals are the least abundant. Culpeos tend to forage solitarily. Their foraging activity may be influenced by the nocturnal habits of their main prey, but also by persecution.","In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.","In Argentina, Magallanes, and the Chilean desert, and highland Peru(where it is intensively persecuted) the Culpeo is almost completely nocturnal. This contrasts with the diurnal activity shown in north-central Chile, where it is protected. Culpeos have been recorded moving linear distances of about 7 kmin north-western Patagonia, but desert-dwelling foxes in northern Chilehave been recorded moving three times as far.","Culpeos seem to be solitary foxes. Spatial studies throughout their range indicate that they have inter- and intra-sexual non-overlapping home ranges. Small areas of spatial overlap occur at sites of human refuse, but the foxes still segregate temporally. Females are apparently more spatially intolerant than males. In north-central Chile, home ranges of females averaged 8-9 km* and were 2-5 times larger than those of males. In contrast, Culpeo home ranges in Torres del Paine National Park (south Chile) were only 4-5 km? in size and similar for males and females. Desert-dwelling Culpeos show high variability in home range size, ranging from 10 km” for Culpeosliving in ravines to 800 km? for foxes associated with highland salt flats and lakes.Breeding.In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last. In Chilethe species is considered Insufficiently Known and the subspecies P. ¢. lycoides is considered Endangered. Despite being similarly decreed as “endangered” in Argentina, due to the number of Culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s, national trade and export of this product has remained legal. Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations. Recent estimates reported densities of 0-2-1-3 individuals/km? in north-western Patagonia, Argentina, and 0-3-1-3 individuals/km? in Chile. Hunting has been banned since 1980), although law enforcement is not strict. Although Culpeo fur exports were banned in Boliviain 1986, the species is not protected in that country. Culpeos are persecuted to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. They prey on newborn lambs and account for an estimated 60% of the attacks by predators in Patagonia. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may threaten Culpeos in some areas, and road kills occur frequently in Argentina.","Bustamante et al. (1992) | Cofré & Marquet (1999) | Corley et al. (1995) | Crespo (1975) | Crespo & de Carlo (1963) | Ebensperger et al. (1991) | Glade (1993) | Iriarte et al. (1989) | Jaksic & Yanez (1983) | Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980) | Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983) | Jiménez (1993) | Jiménez & Novaro (2004) | Jiménez, Yanez & Jaksic (1996) | Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996) | Johnson (1992) | Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b) | Langguth (1975) | Marquet et al. (1993) | Meserve et al. (1987) | Novaro (1995, 1997a, 1997b) | Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000) | Novaro, Funes, Rambeaud & Monsalvo (2000) | Romo (1995) | Salvatori et al. (1999) | Simonetti (1986) | Travaini, Juste et al. (2000) | Travaini, Zapata et al. (2000) | Wayne et al. (1989) | Yanez & Jaksic (1978) | Yanez & Rau(1980) | Zunino et al. (1995)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331189/files/figure.png,"14.CulpeoPseudalopex culpaeusFrench:Renard des Andes/ German:Andenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro andinoOther common names:Andean FoxTaxonomy.Canis culpaeus Molina, 1782.Santiago Province, Chile.The taxonomic status of the Culpeo is still unresolved, despite a range of propositions for including it under Dusicyon, Canis, and Lycalopex. Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. c. culpaeus Molina, 1782— W & C Argentinaand C Chile.P. c. andinus Thomas, 1914— altiplano of Bolivia, N Chile, and Peru.P.c. lycoides Philippi, 1895— Tierra del Fuego.P.c. magellanicus Gray, 1837— Argentinaand S Chile.P. c. reissu Hilzheimer, 1906— Ecuadorian Andes and extreme S Colombia(Narino).P. c. smithersi Thomas, 1914— Argentina(Cordoba Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 44-5-92- 5 cmfor males and 49-89 cmfor females, tail 30-5-49- 3 cmfor males and 31-45 cmfor females; weight 3-4-13- 8 kgfor males and 3: 9-10 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Pseudalopex. The broad head and wide muzzle impart a powerful appearance. Males larger and on average 1-5 times heavier than females. White to light tawny chin and body underparts. Dorsal parts of the head, including the ears and neck, as well as legs and flanks are tawny or rufous. The rump is darker, ranging in color from tawny to dark gray, according to the subspecies. The tail is long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip and a dark dorsal patch near its base. Feet and legs are bright tawny with no black. Specimens from northern ranges (1.e. andinus) are lighter in color. Compared to the South American Gray Fox, Culpeos have longer canines and shorter second molars. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.The Culpeo ranges from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, to deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, and broadleaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses the entire range of habitat moisture gradients from the dry desert to broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentinait reaches elevations of up to 4800 m, where it occupies colder and dryer environments than any other South American canid.Food and Feeding.Diet includes wild ungulates, domestic sheep (northern Patagonia), European Hares (Lepus europeus), European Rabbits, small mammals, lizards, birds, and insects. Although it is an opportunistic predator, the Culpeo is considered more carnivorous and a consumer of larger mammalian prey than the other South American foxes. Most trophic studies found seasonal differences in diet composition, probably in response to prey availability. In ArgentinePatagonia, Culpeos showed a preference for hares and selected among rodent species for those that may be more vulnerable. Culpeos in central Chileselected the largest small mammals available. Although the bulk of the diet consists of animal prey, Culpeos are often described as consumers offruits and berries and are therefore thought to disperse seeds of a variety of plant species. Highest fruit consumption occurs when small mammals are the least abundant. Culpeos tend to forage solitarily. Their foraging activity may be influenced by the nocturnal habits of their main prey, but also by persecution.Activity patterns.In Argentina, Magallanes, and the Chilean desert, and highland Peru(where it is intensively persecuted) the Culpeo is almost completely nocturnal. This contrasts with the diurnal activity shown in north-central Chile, where it is protected. Culpeos have been recorded moving linear distances of about 7 kmin north-western Patagonia, but desert-dwelling foxes in northern Chilehave been recorded moving three times as far.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Culpeos seem to be solitary foxes. Spatial studies throughout their range indicate that they have inter- and intra-sexual non-overlapping home ranges. Small areas of spatial overlap occur at sites of human refuse, but the foxes still segregate temporally. Females are apparently more spatially intolerant than males. In north-central Chile, home ranges of females averaged 8-9 km* and were 2-5 times larger than those of males. In contrast, Culpeo home ranges in Torres del Paine National Park (south Chile) were only 4-5 km? in size and similar for males and females. Desert-dwelling Culpeos show high variability in home range size, ranging from 10 km” for Culpeosliving in ravines to 800 km? for foxes associated with highland salt flats and lakes.Breeding.In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last. In Chilethe species is considered Insufficiently Known and the subspecies P. ¢. lycoides is considered Endangered. Despite being similarly decreed as “endangered” in Argentina, due to the number of Culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s, national trade and export of this product has remained legal. Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations. Recent estimates reported densities of 0-2-1-3 individuals/km? in north-western Patagonia, Argentina, and 0-3-1-3 individuals/km? in Chile. Hunting has been banned since 1980), although law enforcement is not strict. Although Culpeo fur exports were banned in Boliviain 1986, the species is not protected in that country. Culpeos are persecuted to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. They prey on newborn lambs and account for an estimated 60% of the attacks by predators in Patagonia. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may threaten Culpeos in some areas, and road kills occur frequently in Argentina.Bibliography.Bustamante et al. (1992), Cofré & Marquet (1999), Corley et al. (1995), Crespo (1975), Crespo & de Carlo (1963), Ebensperger et al. (1991), Glade (1993), Iriarte et al. (1989), Jaksic & Yanez (1983), Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980), Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983), Jiménez (1993), Jiménez & Novaro (2004), Jiménez, Yanez & Jaksic (1996), Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996), Johnson (1992), Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b), Langguth (1975), Marquet et al. (1993), Meserve et al. (1987), Novaro (1995, 1997a, 1997b), Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000), Novaro, Funes, Rambeaud & Monsalvo (2000), Romo (1995), Salvatori et al. (1999), Simonetti (1986), Travaini, Juste et al. (2000), Travaini, Zapata et al. (2000), Wayne et al. (1989), Yanez & Jaksic (1978), Yanez & Rau(1980), Zunino et al. (1995)." 03ACCF40BF27FFD97E87FCAFF8E6D5A3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,427,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF27FFD97E87FCAFF8E6D5A3.xml,Atelocynus microtis,Atelocynus,microtis,Cabrera,1940,Renard a petites oreilles @fr | Kurzohrfuchs @de | Zorro orejicorto @es | Short-eared Fox @en,"Canis macrotis Sclater, 1883,Para, Brazil.Phylogenetic analysis showed A. microtisto be a distinct taxon most closely related to another monotypic Amazonian canid genus, Speothos, and this hypothesis is now widely accepted. Monotypic.","W lowland Amazonia. Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru.","Head-body 72-100 cm, tail 25-35 cm; weight 9-10 kg. The head is fox-like, with a long, slender muzzle and rounded, relatively short ears. The pelt color can range from black to brown to rufous gray. Pelage is often darkest in a dorsal line from the head to the tail. However, various color patterns are observed in different individuals, and it is not clear whether color varies with age, habitat, or molt; in Madre de Dios(Peru), both reddish and black individuals have been observed. The tail is bushy, particularly in comparison to the short pelage on the rest of the body, with a dark mid-dorsal band of thick erectile hairs and light-colored underside. The nasal bones are short; the forehead slightly convex; the frontal sinus small; the presphenoid very narrow with lateral wings and large bulla. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The lower third incisor is short and not caniniform. The upper canines are distinctively long, their tips projecting outside the closed mouth for about 50 mm. The upper molars are narrow for their length.","Favors undisturbed rainforest in the Amazonian lowlands. Recorded in a wide variety of lowland habitats, including terra firme forest, swamp forest, stands of bamboo, and primary succession along rivers. Sightings often associated with rivers and creeks, and there are reliable reports of Short-eared Dogs swimming in rivers. Records are very rare in areas with significant human disturbance, such as near towns or in agricultural areas. It is unclear whether the Short-eared Dog is able to utilize habitats outside wet lowland forests, although it has been documented at 1200 min the Ecuadoran Andes at the edge of cloud forest.","A generalist carnivore with fish the most important item in their diet, according to one study at Cocha Cashu, Peru(presentin 28% of 21 scat samples). Insects (mainly Coleoptera) were the second most frequently occurring item (17% of samples). Mammal remains, including agouti (Dasyprocta spp.), marsupials, and small rodents) were present in 13% ofthe scats and the remains offruits were found in 10%. Fruits of the palm Euterpe precatoria were found germinating in two scats, suggesting that Short-eared Dogs may facilitate seed dispersal for some species. Short-eared Dogs have been reported to eat fallen Brosimum fruits, and the Cofan Indians of Ecuadorreport that they are attracted to fallen bananas. Close to 4% of droppings contained the remains of frogs, including Osteocephalus taurinus, and this dietary habit is supported by independent observations elsewhere. Crabs (10-3% of samples), birds (10-3%), reptiles (3-4%), and vegetable fiber (3-4%) were other components of the diet at Cocha Cashu. The Short-eared Dog has been reported hunting alone and in pairs.","Breeding time is not known precisely, but pups have been found throughout the species’ range from April to December, suggesting that parturition occurs in the dry season. Three dens have been found inside hollow logs, one of them containing two adultsand two pups, and another with the female and two pups. Another den containing three pups was found in a Lowland Paca burrow.","Mostly diurnal, although it has also been photographed at night walking on trails of Madidi National Park, Bolivia, and one animal was captured in Colombiaswimming after a Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca) in a river at 03:00 h.","Ranging behavior and patterns remain largely unknown. The Short-eared Dog is mainly solitary. Three adult animals were observed to use a 1-6 kmstretch of white sandy beach in Peru, infrequently using and sharing latrines with Neotropical Otters. Both wild and captive males have been reported to bear a strong musky odor, which is hardly noticeable in females.Breeding.Breeding time is not known precisely, but pups have been found throughout the species’ range from April to December, suggesting that parturition occurs in the dry season. Three dens have been found inside hollow logs, one of them containing two adultsand two pups, and another with the female and two pups. Another den containing three pups was found in a Lowland Paca burrow.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The species is on the Brazilian list of endangered species and on the preliminary list of Colombian endangered species. The Short-eared Dog is notoriously rare, and sightings are uncommon across its range. However, this may not always have been the case; the first biologists to study the species found it relatively easy to trap during mammal surveys in Amazonian Peruin 1969, and specimens were collected around the same time in Peru's Manu Basin (now Manu National Park), suggesting that the species was also relatively common in that area at that time. For unknown reasons, it appears to have temporarily vanished from the region between 1970 and 1987. Over the last decade, it appears that it may be recovering in south Peruand east Ecuador, with increasing numbers of sightings in recent years at both sites. Between 1987 and 1999, biologists working in the Peruvian department of Madre de Dios, mostly in the vicinity of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, reported 15 encounters with Short-eared Dogs. Threats include diseases from domestic dogs and habitat loss. There are no reports of widespread persecution of the species. An ongoing distribution survey suggests that the Short-eared Dog is rare throughout its range and threatened by the large-scale forest conversion underway in Amazonia. There are no known reports of the species being hunted or trapped for its fur. The species avoids developed areas, and there are no known cases of road kills, so the impact of vehicles on population numbers is probably minimal.",Defler & Santacruz (1994) | Emmons & Feer (1997) | Grimwood (1969) | Hershkovitz (1961) | Leite & Williams (2004) | Nowak (1999) | Pacheco et al. (1995) | Parker & Bailey (1990) | Peres (1991) | Pitman et al. (2002) | Rodriguez (1998) | Terborgh et al. (1984),https://zenodo.org/record/6331187/files/figure.png,"13.Short-eared DogAtelocynus microtisFrench:Renard a petites oreilles/ German:Kurzohrfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro orejicortoOther common names:Short-eared FoxTaxonomy.Canis macrotis Sclater, 1883,Para, Brazil.Phylogenetic analysis showed A. microtisto be a distinct taxon most closely related to another monotypic Amazonian canid genus, Speothos, and this hypothesis is now widely accepted. Monotypic.Distribution.W lowland Amazonia. Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 72-100 cm, tail 25-35 cm; weight 9-10 kg. The head is fox-like, with a long, slender muzzle and rounded, relatively short ears. The pelt color can range from black to brown to rufous gray. Pelage is often darkest in a dorsal line from the head to the tail. However, various color patterns are observed in different individuals, and it is not clear whether color varies with age, habitat, or molt; in Madre de Dios(Peru), both reddish and black individuals have been observed. The tail is bushy, particularly in comparison to the short pelage on the rest of the body, with a dark mid-dorsal band of thick erectile hairs and light-colored underside. The nasal bones are short; the forehead slightly convex; the frontal sinus small; the presphenoid very narrow with lateral wings and large bulla. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The lower third incisor is short and not caniniform. The upper canines are distinctively long, their tips projecting outside the closed mouth for about 50 mm. The upper molars are narrow for their length.Habitat.Favors undisturbed rainforest in the Amazonian lowlands. Recorded in a wide variety of lowland habitats, including terra firme forest, swamp forest, stands of bamboo, and primary succession along rivers. Sightings often associated with rivers and creeks, and there are reliable reports of Short-eared Dogs swimming in rivers. Records are very rare in areas with significant human disturbance, such as near towns or in agricultural areas. It is unclear whether the Short-eared Dog is able to utilize habitats outside wet lowland forests, although it has been documented at 1200 min the Ecuadoran Andes at the edge of cloud forest.Food and Feeding.A generalist carnivore with fish the most important item in their diet, according to one study at Cocha Cashu, Peru(presentin 28% of 21 scat samples). Insects (mainly Coleoptera) were the second most frequently occurring item (17% of samples). Mammal remains, including agouti (Dasyprocta spp.), marsupials, and small rodents) were present in 13% ofthe scats and the remains offruits were found in 10%. Fruits of the palm Euterpe precatoria were found germinating in two scats, suggesting that Short-eared Dogs may facilitate seed dispersal for some species. Short-eared Dogs have been reported to eat fallen Brosimum fruits, and the Cofan Indians of Ecuadorreport that they are attracted to fallen bananas. Close to 4% of droppings contained the remains of frogs, including Osteocephalus taurinus, and this dietary habit is supported by independent observations elsewhere. Crabs (10-3% of samples), birds (10-3%), reptiles (3-4%), and vegetable fiber (3-4%) were other components of the diet at Cocha Cashu. The Short-eared Dog has been reported hunting alone and in pairs.Activity patterns.Mostly diurnal, although it has also been photographed at night walking on trails of Madidi National Park, Bolivia, and one animal was captured in Colombiaswimming after a Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca) in a river at 03:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ranging behavior and patterns remain largely unknown. The Short-eared Dog is mainly solitary. Three adult animals were observed to use a 1-6 kmstretch of white sandy beach in Peru, infrequently using and sharing latrines with Neotropical Otters. Both wild and captive males have been reported to bear a strong musky odor, which is hardly noticeable in females.Breeding.Breeding time is not known precisely, but pups have been found throughout the species’ range from April to December, suggesting that parturition occurs in the dry season. Three dens have been found inside hollow logs, one of them containing two adultsand two pups, and another with the female and two pups. Another den containing three pups was found in a Lowland Paca burrow.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The species is on the Brazilian list of endangered species and on the preliminary list of Colombian endangered species. The Short-eared Dog is notoriously rare, and sightings are uncommon across its range. However, this may not always have been the case; the first biologists to study the species found it relatively easy to trap during mammal surveys in Amazonian Peruin 1969, and specimens were collected around the same time in Peru's Manu Basin (now Manu National Park), suggesting that the species was also relatively common in that area at that time. For unknown reasons, it appears to have temporarily vanished from the region between 1970 and 1987. Over the last decade, it appears that it may be recovering in south Peruand east Ecuador, with increasing numbers of sightings in recent years at both sites. Between 1987 and 1999, biologists working in the Peruvian department of Madre de Dios, mostly in the vicinity of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, reported 15 encounters with Short-eared Dogs. Threats include diseases from domestic dogs and habitat loss. There are no reports of widespread persecution of the species. An ongoing distribution survey suggests that the Short-eared Dog is rare throughout its range and threatened by the large-scale forest conversion underway in Amazonia. There are no known reports of the species being hunted or trapped for its fur. The species avoids developed areas, and there are no known cases of road kills, so the impact of vehicles on population numbers is probably minimal.Bibliography.Defler & Santacruz (1994), Emmons & Feer (1997), Grimwood (1969), Hershkovitz (1961), Leite & Williams (2004), Nowak (1999), Pacheco et al. (1995), Parker & Bailey (1990), Peres (1991), Pitman et al. (2002), Rodriguez (1998), Terborgh et al. (1984)." -03ACCF40BF28FFD67EDEFDE5F6BCD8B1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,442,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF28FFD67EDEFDE5F6BCD8B1.xml,Vulpes corsac,Vulpes,corsac,,,Renard corsac @fr | Steppenfuchs @de | Zorro estepario @es | Corsac @en,"Canis corsac Linnaeus, 1768,northern Kazakhstan.It has been suggested that Canis eklonifrom northern Tibetis a subspecies of the Corsac Fox. However, C. ekloni is a junior synonym of V. ferrilata. Four subspecies are recognized.","V. c. corsac Linnaeus, 1768— N part of range to pre-Altai steppe.Vc. kalmykorum Ognev, 1935 — Volgo-Ural steppes and Volga Basin.V. c. scorodumovi Dorogostaiski, 1935— N China, Mongolia, and Russia(Transbaikalia).V. c. turemenicus Ognev, 1935— plains of C Asia and N Afghanistan, NE Iran, and Kazakhstan.","Head-body 45-59-5 cmfor males and 45-50 cmfor females, tail 19-30 cmfor males and 25-30 cmfor females; weight 1-6-3-2 kgfor males and 1-9-2-4 kgfor females. Typically vulpine in appearance. Males slightly bigger than females, but sexual dimorphism not pronounced. Head grayish-ocher or brown, ears banded brown on frontside, back of ears ocher-gray or reddish-brown. Breast, belly, and groin white or yellowish. Front of forelegs light yellow,sides rusty-yellow, hindlegs paler. Summer fur short and sparse, winter fur dense, soft and silky, straw-grayish with ocher. Awn hairs tipped silver-white. Tail about half body length or slightly more, grayish-brown, covered with dense bushy hair, tip dark, often black. Skull similar to that of V. vulpes, but smaller, shorter and wider, and with canine teeth more robust. The dental formula 813/38, C1/1,PM4/4.M2/3=42.","Typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas, and dense bush. In the western part of the range, Corsac Foxes occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall-grass steppes. They also occur in sandy habitats and shrubland semi-deserts, and in favorable years, in forested steppes. They avoid areas where depth of snow exceeds c. 15 cm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. Corsac Foxes appear to depend on ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) and marmots (Marmota spp.) for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for daytime refuge).","Generally opportunistic, with a highly variable diet throughout its range that probably changes in accordance with availability. The bulk of the diet often includes the most common rodents of an area. Birds, reptiles (lizards, snakes and young tortoises), and insects are also frequently consumed, especially in summer, as well as small amounts of vegetation (including fruit and seeds). During winter and periods of low prey abundance, scavenged Gray Wolf kills and carcasses of wild and domestic ungulates are a major source of food in some areas. Typical prey in western Siberia includes voles (Microtus gregalis, Arvicola terrestris), lemmings (Lagurus spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and jerboas (Allactaga spp.) Common winter prey also often includes Arctic Hares (Lepus timidus) and birds such as gray partridges (Perdix perdix) and snow buntings (Pleptrophenax nivalis). In the forest-steppe of Kazakhstan, the diet consists primarily of lemmings and sousliks. On the Ustyurt Plateau and in Turkmenistanthe main prey are gerbils (Meriones spp., Rhombomysopimus); in Transbaikalia and Mongolia, the main prey species are gerbils (Meriones spp.), jerboas (Allactaga spp. and Dipus spp.), hamsters (Cricetulus spp. and Phodopus spp.), Brandt's Voles (Lasiopodomys brandltii), Siberian Marmots (Marmota sibirica), and pikas (Ochotona spp.). The foxes are solitary foragers, although near carrion or the remains of wolf kills several Corsacs may gather together. The foxes hunt by stalking prey and making sudden short-distance attacks. They locate ground-nesting birds and other small prey by sound and smell. Despite their small size they can kill prey up to the size of young marmots, hares, ducks, pheasants, and geese.","Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.","Corsac Foxesare active mainly at night. Hunting starts in the evening and continues through the first part of the night, with a second peak of activity before dawn. Sometimes they are also active in daytime, especially during the summer months.","The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and monogamous pairs may persist for life. During winter, several Corsacs may gather in a single den, indicating a relatively high degree of sociality. Polygamous families may occur under favorable feeding conditions. In optimal habitats during years of high prey abundance, the home range of a family pair may be as small as 1 km?. In contrast, home ranges are significantly larger in habitats with low food abundance, and may reach 35-40 km?. Corsacs occupy dens, often the burrows of marmots, during the day. Dens provide shelter from weather, but may also serve as important refuges from predation by larger canids such as Wolves and Red Foxes. Scent marking is important for maintaining territories, and marking with urine and feces is most frequent near dens. Barking is the most common vocalization. Barks have many different tonal variations, and are used during courtship, territorial demonstrations, and alarm. They are higher in pitch than the barks of Red Foxes and sound similar to a cat’s mew. Close distance vocalizations include high-tone rhythmic sounds, peeping, chirping, and yelping.Breeding.Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current population status and the nature of major threats is unknown in most regions. Corsac Foxes were once considered ubiquitous across Central Asia, but notable declines have occurred in recent years following the collapse of the former Soviet Union. In Russiathe Corsac Fox is rare in most regions, but relatively common in western Siberia and Transbaikalia. The species is common between the Volga and Ural rivers, but probably declining in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and northern China. Corsac Foxes are rare in Tajikistanand Uzbekistanand the south-western portion of their range. In many countries, hunting them is legal during certain seasons, but enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations rarely occurs. Over-hunting and illegal poaching (even in protected areas) remains the most significant threat to the species. In Mongolia, increased hunting for furs in recent years has depleted populations throughout the country and led the species’ listing as “near threatened” in 2006.","Allen (1938) | Chirkova (1952) | Geptner et al. (1967) | Heptner & Naumov (1992) | Kadyrbaev & Sludskii (1981) | Murdoch et al. (2009, In press) | Ognev (1962) | Poyarkov & Ovsyanikov (2004) | Sidorov & Botvinkin (1987) | Sidorov & Polischuk (2002) | Sludskyi & Lazarev (1966) | Wingard & Zahler (2006)",,"28.Corsac FoxVulpes corsacFrench:Renard corsac/ German:Steppenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro esteparioOther common names:CorsacTaxonomy.Canis corsac Linnaeus, 1768,northern Kazakhstan.It has been suggested that Canis eklonifrom northern Tibetis a subspecies of the Corsac Fox. However, C. ekloni is a junior synonym of V. ferrilata. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. c. corsac Linnaeus, 1768— N part of range to pre-Altai steppe.Vc. kalmykorum Ognev, 1935 — Volgo-Ural steppes and Volga Basin.V. c. scorodumovi Dorogostaiski, 1935— N China, Mongolia, and Russia(Transbaikalia).V. c. turemenicus Ognev, 1935— plains of C Asia and N Afghanistan, NE Iran, and Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-59-5 cmfor males and 45-50 cmfor females, tail 19-30 cmfor males and 25-30 cmfor females; weight 1-6-3-2 kgfor males and 1-9-2-4 kgfor females. Typically vulpine in appearance. Males slightly bigger than females, but sexual dimorphism not pronounced. Head grayish-ocher or brown, ears banded brown on frontside, back of ears ocher-gray or reddish-brown. Breast, belly, and groin white or yellowish. Front of forelegs light yellow,sides rusty-yellow, hindlegs paler. Summer fur short and sparse, winter fur dense, soft and silky, straw-grayish with ocher. Awn hairs tipped silver-white. Tail about half body length or slightly more, grayish-brown, covered with dense bushy hair, tip dark, often black. Skull similar to that of V. vulpes, but smaller, shorter and wider, and with canine teeth more robust. The dental formula 813/38, C1/1,PM4/4.M2/3=42.Habitat.Typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas, and dense bush. In the western part of the range, Corsac Foxes occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall-grass steppes. They also occur in sandy habitats and shrubland semi-deserts, and in favorable years, in forested steppes. They avoid areas where depth of snow exceeds c. 15 cm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. Corsac Foxes appear to depend on ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) and marmots (Marmota spp.) for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for daytime refuge).Food and Feeding.Generally opportunistic, with a highly variable diet throughout its range that probably changes in accordance with availability. The bulk of the diet often includes the most common rodents of an area. Birds, reptiles (lizards, snakes and young tortoises), and insects are also frequently consumed, especially in summer, as well as small amounts of vegetation (including fruit and seeds). During winter and periods of low prey abundance, scavenged Gray Wolf kills and carcasses of wild and domestic ungulates are a major source of food in some areas. Typical prey in western Siberia includes voles (Microtus gregalis, Arvicola terrestris), lemmings (Lagurus spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and jerboas (Allactaga spp.) Common winter prey also often includes Arctic Hares (Lepus timidus) and birds such as gray partridges (Perdix perdix) and snow buntings (Pleptrophenax nivalis). In the forest-steppe of Kazakhstan, the diet consists primarily of lemmings and sousliks. On the Ustyurt Plateau and in Turkmenistanthe main prey are gerbils (Meriones spp., Rhombomysopimus); in Transbaikalia and Mongolia, the main prey species are gerbils (Meriones spp.), jerboas (Allactaga spp. and Dipus spp.), hamsters (Cricetulus spp. and Phodopus spp.), Brandt's Voles (Lasiopodomys brandltii), Siberian Marmots (Marmota sibirica), and pikas (Ochotona spp.). The foxes are solitary foragers, although near carrion or the remains of wolf kills several Corsacs may gather together. The foxes hunt by stalking prey and making sudden short-distance attacks. They locate ground-nesting birds and other small prey by sound and smell. Despite their small size they can kill prey up to the size of young marmots, hares, ducks, pheasants, and geese.Activity patterns.Corsac Foxesare active mainly at night. Hunting starts in the evening and continues through the first part of the night, with a second peak of activity before dawn. Sometimes they are also active in daytime, especially during the summer months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and monogamous pairs may persist for life. During winter, several Corsacs may gather in a single den, indicating a relatively high degree of sociality. Polygamous families may occur under favorable feeding conditions. In optimal habitats during years of high prey abundance, the home range of a family pair may be as small as 1 km?. In contrast, home ranges are significantly larger in habitats with low food abundance, and may reach 35-40 km?. Corsacs occupy dens, often the burrows of marmots, during the day. Dens provide shelter from weather, but may also serve as important refuges from predation by larger canids such as Wolves and Red Foxes. Scent marking is important for maintaining territories, and marking with urine and feces is most frequent near dens. Barking is the most common vocalization. Barks have many different tonal variations, and are used during courtship, territorial demonstrations, and alarm. They are higher in pitch than the barks of Red Foxes and sound similar to a cat’s mew. Close distance vocalizations include high-tone rhythmic sounds, peeping, chirping, and yelping.Breeding.Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current population status and the nature of major threats is unknown in most regions. Corsac Foxes were once considered ubiquitous across Central Asia, but notable declines have occurred in recent years following the collapse of the former Soviet Union. In Russiathe Corsac Fox is rare in most regions, but relatively common in western Siberia and Transbaikalia. The species is common between the Volga and Ural rivers, but probably declining in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and northern China. Corsac Foxes are rare in Tajikistanand Uzbekistanand the south-western portion of their range. In many countries, hunting them is legal during certain seasons, but enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations rarely occurs. Over-hunting and illegal poaching (even in protected areas) remains the most significant threat to the species. In Mongolia, increased hunting for furs in recent years has depleted populations throughout the country and led the species’ listing as “near threatened” in 2006.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Chirkova (1952), Geptner et al. (1967), Heptner & Naumov (1992), Kadyrbaev & Sludskii (1981), Murdoch et al. (2009, In press), Ognev (1962), Poyarkov & Ovsyanikov (2004), Sidorov & Botvinkin (1987), Sidorov & Polischuk (2002), Sludskyi & Lazarev (1966), Wingard & Zahler (2006)." +03ACCF40BF28FFD67EDEFDE5F6BCD8B1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,442,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF28FFD67EDEFDE5F6BCD8B1.xml,Vulpes corsac,Vulpes,corsac,,,Renard corsac @fr | Steppenfuchs @de | Zorro estepario @es | Corsac @en,"Canis corsac Linnaeus, 1768,northern Kazakhstan.It has been suggested that Canis eklonifrom northern Tibetis a subspecies of the Corsac Fox. However, C. ekloni is a junior synonym of V. ferrilata. Four subspecies are recognized.","V. c. corsac Linnaeus, 1768— N part of range to pre-Altai steppe.Vc. kalmykorum Ognev, 1935 — Volgo-Ural steppes and Volga Basin.V. c. scorodumovi Dorogostaiski, 1935— N China, Mongolia, and Russia(Transbaikalia).V. c. turemenicus Ognev, 1935— plains of C Asia and N Afghanistan, NE Iran, and Kazakhstan.","Head-body 45-59-5 cmfor males and 45-50 cmfor females, tail 19-30 cmfor males and 25-30 cmfor females; weight 1-6-3-2 kgfor males and 1-9-2-4 kgfor females. Typically vulpine in appearance. Males slightly bigger than females, but sexual dimorphism not pronounced. Head grayish-ocher or brown, ears banded brown on frontside, back of ears ocher-gray or reddish-brown. Breast, belly, and groin white or yellowish. Front of forelegs light yellow,sides rusty-yellow, hindlegs paler. Summer fur short and sparse, winter fur dense, soft and silky, straw-grayish with ocher. Awn hairs tipped silver-white. Tail about half body length or slightly more, grayish-brown, covered with dense bushy hair, tip dark, often black. Skull similar to that of V. vulpes, but smaller, shorter and wider, and with canine teeth more robust. The dental formula 813/38, C1/1,PM4/4.M2/3=42.","Typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas, and dense bush. In the western part of the range, Corsac Foxes occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall-grass steppes. They also occur in sandy habitats and shrubland semi-deserts, and in favorable years, in forested steppes. They avoid areas where depth of snow exceeds c. 15 cm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. Corsac Foxes appear to depend on ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) and marmots (Marmota spp.) for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for daytime refuge).","Generally opportunistic, with a highly variable diet throughout its range that probably changes in accordance with availability. The bulk of the diet often includes the most common rodents of an area. Birds, reptiles (lizards, snakes and young tortoises), and insects are also frequently consumed, especially in summer, as well as small amounts of vegetation (including fruit and seeds). During winter and periods of low prey abundance, scavenged Gray Wolf kills and carcasses of wild and domestic ungulates are a major source of food in some areas. Typical prey in western Siberia includes voles (Microtus gregalis, Arvicola terrestris), lemmings (Lagurus spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and jerboas (Allactaga spp.) Common winter prey also often includes Arctic Hares (Lepus timidus) and birds such as gray partridges (Perdix perdix) and snow buntings (Pleptrophenax nivalis). In the forest-steppe of Kazakhstan, the diet consists primarily of lemmings and sousliks. On the Ustyurt Plateau and in Turkmenistanthe main prey are gerbils (Meriones spp., Rhombomysopimus); in Transbaikalia and Mongolia, the main prey species are gerbils (Meriones spp.), jerboas (Allactaga spp. and Dipus spp.), hamsters (Cricetulus spp. and Phodopus spp.), Brandt's Voles (Lasiopodomys brandltii), Siberian Marmots (Marmota sibirica), and pikas (Ochotona spp.). The foxes are solitary foragers, although near carrion or the remains of wolf kills several Corsacs may gather together. The foxes hunt by stalking prey and making sudden short-distance attacks. They locate ground-nesting birds and other small prey by sound and smell. Despite their small size they can kill prey up to the size of young marmots, hares, ducks, pheasants, and geese.","Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.","Corsac Foxesare active mainly at night. Hunting starts in the evening and continues through the first part of the night, with a second peak of activity before dawn. Sometimes they are also active in daytime, especially during the summer months.","The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and monogamous pairs may persist for life. During winter, several Corsacs may gather in a single den, indicating a relatively high degree of sociality. Polygamous families may occur under favorable feeding conditions. In optimal habitats during years of high prey abundance, the home range of a family pair may be as small as 1 km?. In contrast, home ranges are significantly larger in habitats with low food abundance, and may reach 35-40 km?. Corsacs occupy dens, often the burrows of marmots, during the day. Dens provide shelter from weather, but may also serve as important refuges from predation by larger canids such as Wolves and Red Foxes. Scent marking is important for maintaining territories, and marking with urine and feces is most frequent near dens. Barking is the most common vocalization. Barks have many different tonal variations, and are used during courtship, territorial demonstrations, and alarm. They are higher in pitch than the barks of Red Foxes and sound similar to a cat’s mew. Close distance vocalizations include high-tone rhythmic sounds, peeping, chirping, and yelping.Breeding.Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current population status and the nature of major threats is unknown in most regions. Corsac Foxes were once considered ubiquitous across Central Asia, but notable declines have occurred in recent years following the collapse of the former Soviet Union. In Russiathe Corsac Fox is rare in most regions, but relatively common in western Siberia and Transbaikalia. The species is common between the Volga and Ural rivers, but probably declining in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and northern China. Corsac Foxes are rare in Tajikistanand Uzbekistanand the south-western portion of their range. In many countries, hunting them is legal during certain seasons, but enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations rarely occurs. Over-hunting and illegal poaching (even in protected areas) remains the most significant threat to the species. In Mongolia, increased hunting for furs in recent years has depleted populations throughout the country and led the species’ listing as “near threatened” in 2006.","Allen (1938) | Chirkova (1952) | Geptner et al. (1967) | Heptner & Naumov (1992) | Kadyrbaev & Sludskii (1981) | Murdoch et al. (2009, In press) | Ognev (1962) | Poyarkov & Ovsyanikov (2004) | Sidorov & Botvinkin (1987) | Sidorov & Polischuk (2002) | Sludskyi & Lazarev (1966) | Wingard & Zahler (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331217/files/figure.png,"28.Corsac FoxVulpes corsacFrench:Renard corsac/ German:Steppenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro esteparioOther common names:CorsacTaxonomy.Canis corsac Linnaeus, 1768,northern Kazakhstan.It has been suggested that Canis eklonifrom northern Tibetis a subspecies of the Corsac Fox. However, C. ekloni is a junior synonym of V. ferrilata. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. c. corsac Linnaeus, 1768— N part of range to pre-Altai steppe.Vc. kalmykorum Ognev, 1935 — Volgo-Ural steppes and Volga Basin.V. c. scorodumovi Dorogostaiski, 1935— N China, Mongolia, and Russia(Transbaikalia).V. c. turemenicus Ognev, 1935— plains of C Asia and N Afghanistan, NE Iran, and Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-59-5 cmfor males and 45-50 cmfor females, tail 19-30 cmfor males and 25-30 cmfor females; weight 1-6-3-2 kgfor males and 1-9-2-4 kgfor females. Typically vulpine in appearance. Males slightly bigger than females, but sexual dimorphism not pronounced. Head grayish-ocher or brown, ears banded brown on frontside, back of ears ocher-gray or reddish-brown. Breast, belly, and groin white or yellowish. Front of forelegs light yellow,sides rusty-yellow, hindlegs paler. Summer fur short and sparse, winter fur dense, soft and silky, straw-grayish with ocher. Awn hairs tipped silver-white. Tail about half body length or slightly more, grayish-brown, covered with dense bushy hair, tip dark, often black. Skull similar to that of V. vulpes, but smaller, shorter and wider, and with canine teeth more robust. The dental formula 813/38, C1/1,PM4/4.M2/3=42.Habitat.Typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas, and dense bush. In the western part of the range, Corsac Foxes occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall-grass steppes. They also occur in sandy habitats and shrubland semi-deserts, and in favorable years, in forested steppes. They avoid areas where depth of snow exceeds c. 15 cm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. Corsac Foxes appear to depend on ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) and marmots (Marmota spp.) for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for daytime refuge).Food and Feeding.Generally opportunistic, with a highly variable diet throughout its range that probably changes in accordance with availability. The bulk of the diet often includes the most common rodents of an area. Birds, reptiles (lizards, snakes and young tortoises), and insects are also frequently consumed, especially in summer, as well as small amounts of vegetation (including fruit and seeds). During winter and periods of low prey abundance, scavenged Gray Wolf kills and carcasses of wild and domestic ungulates are a major source of food in some areas. Typical prey in western Siberia includes voles (Microtus gregalis, Arvicola terrestris), lemmings (Lagurus spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and jerboas (Allactaga spp.) Common winter prey also often includes Arctic Hares (Lepus timidus) and birds such as gray partridges (Perdix perdix) and snow buntings (Pleptrophenax nivalis). In the forest-steppe of Kazakhstan, the diet consists primarily of lemmings and sousliks. On the Ustyurt Plateau and in Turkmenistanthe main prey are gerbils (Meriones spp., Rhombomysopimus); in Transbaikalia and Mongolia, the main prey species are gerbils (Meriones spp.), jerboas (Allactaga spp. and Dipus spp.), hamsters (Cricetulus spp. and Phodopus spp.), Brandt's Voles (Lasiopodomys brandltii), Siberian Marmots (Marmota sibirica), and pikas (Ochotona spp.). The foxes are solitary foragers, although near carrion or the remains of wolf kills several Corsacs may gather together. The foxes hunt by stalking prey and making sudden short-distance attacks. They locate ground-nesting birds and other small prey by sound and smell. Despite their small size they can kill prey up to the size of young marmots, hares, ducks, pheasants, and geese.Activity patterns.Corsac Foxesare active mainly at night. Hunting starts in the evening and continues through the first part of the night, with a second peak of activity before dawn. Sometimes they are also active in daytime, especially during the summer months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and monogamous pairs may persist for life. During winter, several Corsacs may gather in a single den, indicating a relatively high degree of sociality. Polygamous families may occur under favorable feeding conditions. In optimal habitats during years of high prey abundance, the home range of a family pair may be as small as 1 km?. In contrast, home ranges are significantly larger in habitats with low food abundance, and may reach 35-40 km?. Corsacs occupy dens, often the burrows of marmots, during the day. Dens provide shelter from weather, but may also serve as important refuges from predation by larger canids such as Wolves and Red Foxes. Scent marking is important for maintaining territories, and marking with urine and feces is most frequent near dens. Barking is the most common vocalization. Barks have many different tonal variations, and are used during courtship, territorial demonstrations, and alarm. They are higher in pitch than the barks of Red Foxes and sound similar to a cat’s mew. Close distance vocalizations include high-tone rhythmic sounds, peeping, chirping, and yelping.Breeding.Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current population status and the nature of major threats is unknown in most regions. Corsac Foxes were once considered ubiquitous across Central Asia, but notable declines have occurred in recent years following the collapse of the former Soviet Union. In Russiathe Corsac Fox is rare in most regions, but relatively common in western Siberia and Transbaikalia. The species is common between the Volga and Ural rivers, but probably declining in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and northern China. Corsac Foxes are rare in Tajikistanand Uzbekistanand the south-western portion of their range. In many countries, hunting them is legal during certain seasons, but enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations rarely occurs. Over-hunting and illegal poaching (even in protected areas) remains the most significant threat to the species. In Mongolia, increased hunting for furs in recent years has depleted populations throughout the country and led the species’ listing as “near threatened” in 2006.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Chirkova (1952), Geptner et al. (1967), Heptner & Naumov (1992), Kadyrbaev & Sludskii (1981), Murdoch et al. (2009, In press), Ognev (1962), Poyarkov & Ovsyanikov (2004), Sidorov & Botvinkin (1987), Sidorov & Polischuk (2002), Sludskyi & Lazarev (1966), Wingard & Zahler (2006)." 03ACCF40BF28FFE97BA5F990FB57DF83,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,442,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF28FFE97BA5F990FB57DF83.xml,Vulpes ferilata,Vulpes,ferilata,Frisch,1775,Renard du Tibet @fr | Tibet-Fuchs @de | Zorro tibetano @es | Sand Fox @en | Tibetan Sand Fox @en,"Vulpes ferrilatus Hodgson, 1842, near Lhasa, Tibet.Monotypic.","Widespread in the Tibetan Plateau from Ladakh in India, E across Chinaincluding parts of the Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, and Sichuanprovinces and all of the Xizang. In Nepal, N of the Himalaya, especially in the Mustang area.","Head-body 51-5-65 cmfor males and 49-61 cmfor females, tail 26-29 cmfor males and 22-26 cmfor females; weight 3-2—4-6 kgfor males and 3-4-1 kgfor females. Small and compact, with a soft, dense coat, a conspicuously narrow muzzle, and a bushy gray tail with a white tip. Tan to rufous-colored on the muzzle, crown, neck, back, and lower legs. The cheeks, sides, upper legs, and rump are gray. The back of the relatively short ears is tan to grayish tan and the inside is white. The undersides are whitish to pale gray.","Upland plains and hills from about 2500-5200 m. Found in treeless alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Most of the range lies in semi-arid to arid environments with average annual precipitation of 100-500 mm, most of which occurs in summer. The climate is harsh, with temperatures reaching +30 °C in summer and dropping to —40°C in winter.","Principal diet consists of pikas (Ochotona spp.) and rodents. An analysis of 113 droppings from north-western Tibetrevealed 95% Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) and small rodents (Pitymus, Alticola, and Cricetulus spp.). A further 2-7% consisted of Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni), probably scavenged, and the remainder was made up of insects, feathers, Ephedra berries, and other vegetation. Other reported prey items in the diet include Tibetan Woolly Hare (Lepus oiostolus), and a lizard species (Phrynocephalus spp.). Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana), musk deer (Moschus sp.), Bharal (Pseudois nayaur), and livestock were present in droppings from eastern Qinghai Province, China. The foxes mainly hunt alone by trotting through or stalking in Pika colonies.","Mating is thought to occur in February, with 2-5 young born in May. Main habitat factors associated with the location of 54 summer dens were, in order of importance: distance to water, slope degree, position along the slope, small mammal den numbers, and vegetation type. Most dens were located in grasslands (96%) with moderate slope.","Often hunts during the day, on account of the diurnal activity patterns of pikas and other main prey species.","Most aspects of the Tibetan Fox's reproductive and social behavior remain largely unknown. They are usually seen alone or in male-female pairs (of 90 foxes observed, all but six pairs were solitary), although one family of three adultsand two juvenileswas observed. Burrows are located at the base of boulders, along old beach lines, low on slopes, and other such sites. There may be one to four entrances to a den.Breeding.Mating is thought to occur in February, with 2-5 young born in May. Main habitat factors associated with the location of 54 summer dens were, in order of importance: distance to water, slope degree, position along the slope, small mammal den numbers, and vegetation type. Most dens were located in grasslands (96%) with moderate slope.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Species legally protected in several large Chinese reserves, but actual protection remains minimal, and there is no special protection outside reserves. Hunting pressure for fur is reported to be high on the entire Tibetan plateau since the 1960s. Over 300 foxes have been killed per year since the 1990s in Shiqu County, Sichuan Province, China. In general, Fox density appears to be low. Population abundanceis limited partly by prey availability and partly by human hunting pressure.",Clark et al. (2008) | Feng et al. (1986) | Gao et al. (1987) | Nowak (1999) | Piao (1989) | Schaller (1998) | Schaller & Ginsberg (2004) | Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2003) | Wu Wei et al. (2002) | Zheng (1985),https://zenodo.org/record/6331219/files/figure.png,"29.Tibetan FoxVulpes ferilataFrench:Renard du Tibet/ German:Tibet-Fuchs/ Spanish:Zorro tibetanoOther common names:Sand Fox, Tibetan Sand FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes ferrilatus Hodgson, 1842, near Lhasa, Tibet.Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the Tibetan Plateau from Ladakh in India, E across Chinaincluding parts of the Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, and Sichuanprovinces and all of the Xizang. In Nepal, N of the Himalaya, especially in the Mustang area.Descriptive notes.Head-body 51-5-65 cmfor males and 49-61 cmfor females, tail 26-29 cmfor males and 22-26 cmfor females; weight 3-2—4-6 kgfor males and 3-4-1 kgfor females. Small and compact, with a soft, dense coat, a conspicuously narrow muzzle, and a bushy gray tail with a white tip. Tan to rufous-colored on the muzzle, crown, neck, back, and lower legs. The cheeks, sides, upper legs, and rump are gray. The back of the relatively short ears is tan to grayish tan and the inside is white. The undersides are whitish to pale gray.Habitat.Upland plains and hills from about 2500-5200 m. Found in treeless alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Most of the range lies in semi-arid to arid environments with average annual precipitation of 100-500 mm, most of which occurs in summer. The climate is harsh, with temperatures reaching +30 °C in summer and dropping to —40°C in winter.Food and Feeding.Principal diet consists of pikas (Ochotona spp.) and rodents. An analysis of 113 droppings from north-western Tibetrevealed 95% Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) and small rodents (Pitymus, Alticola, and Cricetulus spp.). A further 2-7% consisted of Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni), probably scavenged, and the remainder was made up of insects, feathers, Ephedra berries, and other vegetation. Other reported prey items in the diet include Tibetan Woolly Hare (Lepus oiostolus), and a lizard species (Phrynocephalus spp.). Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana), musk deer (Moschus sp.), Bharal (Pseudois nayaur), and livestock were present in droppings from eastern Qinghai Province, China. The foxes mainly hunt alone by trotting through or stalking in Pika colonies.Activity patterns.Often hunts during the day, on account of the diurnal activity patterns of pikas and other main prey species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most aspects of the Tibetan Fox's reproductive and social behavior remain largely unknown. They are usually seen alone or in male-female pairs (of 90 foxes observed, all but six pairs were solitary), although one family of three adultsand two juvenileswas observed. Burrows are located at the base of boulders, along old beach lines, low on slopes, and other such sites. There may be one to four entrances to a den.Breeding.Mating is thought to occur in February, with 2-5 young born in May. Main habitat factors associated with the location of 54 summer dens were, in order of importance: distance to water, slope degree, position along the slope, small mammal den numbers, and vegetation type. Most dens were located in grasslands (96%) with moderate slope.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Species legally protected in several large Chinese reserves, but actual protection remains minimal, and there is no special protection outside reserves. Hunting pressure for fur is reported to be high on the entire Tibetan plateau since the 1960s. Over 300 foxes have been killed per year since the 1990s in Shiqu County, Sichuan Province, China. In general, Fox density appears to be low. Population abundanceis limited partly by prey availability and partly by human hunting pressure.Bibliography.Clark et al. (2008), Feng et al. (1986), Gao et al. (1987), Nowak (1999), Piao (1989), Schaller (1998), Schaller & Ginsberg (2004), Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2003), Wu Wei et al. (2002), Zheng (1985)." -03ACCF40BF29FFD67E8EFE80FAA9DF36,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,441,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF29FFD67E8EFE80FAA9DF36.xml,Vulpes vulpes,Vulpes,vulpes,Frisch,1775,Renard roux @fr | Rotfuchs @de | Zorro rojo @es | Silver Fox @en | Cross Fox @en,"Canis vulpes Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.The North American Red Fox, V. fulva, previously considered a separate species, is now considered conspecific with the Palaearctic V. vulpes. Forty-four subspecies were described on the basis of regional variation, but these have doubtful ecological significance as evidenced by successful introductions and re-introductions around the world.","V. v. vulpes Linnaeus, 1758— N Europe (Scandinavia).V. v. abietorum Merriam, 1900— SW Canada(Alberta& British Columbia).V. v. aegyptiacus Sonnini, 1816— Egypt, Israel, and Lybia.V. v. alascensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(NW Territories & Yukon).V. v. alpheraky: Satunin, 1906— Kazakhstan.V. v. anatolica Thomas, 1920— Turkey.V. v. arabica Thomas, 1902— Arabian peninsula.V. v. atlantica Wagner, 1841— Algeria(forested Atlas Mts).V. v. bangsi Merriam, 1900— NE Canada(Labrador).V. v. barbara Shaw, 1800— NW Africa (Barbary Coast).V. v. beringiana Middendorff, 1875— NE Siberia (shore of Bering Strait).V. v. cascadensis Merriam, 1900— NW USA(Cascade Mountains, Oregon& Washington).V. v. caucasica Dinnik, 1914— SW Russia(Caucasus).V. v. crucigera Bechstein, 1789— Europe through N & C Russia.V. v. daurica Ognev, 1931— E Russia(Amur, Siberia & Transbaikalia).V.v. deletrix Bangs, 1898— NE Canada(Newfoundland).V. v. dolichocrania Ognev, 1926— SE Siberia (S Ussuri).V. v. flavescens Gray, 1843— N Iran.V. v. fulva Desmarest, 1820— E USA.V. v. griffith: Blyth, 1854— Afghanistanand N Pakistan.V.v. harrimani Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kodiak I).V. v. hoole Swinhoe, 1870— S China(Fujianto Sichuan).V. v. ichnusae G. S. Miller, 1907— Corsicaand Sardinia.V. v. induta G. S. Miller, 1907— Cyprus.V. v. jakutensis Ognev, 1923— E Siberia (S of Yakutsk).V. v. japonica Gray, 1868— Japan.V. v. karagan Erxleben, 1777— Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kirgizstan.V. v. kenaiensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).V. v. kurdistanica Satunin, 1906— Armeniaand NE Turkey.V. v. macroura Baird, 1852— USA(Mountain States).V. v. montana Pearson, 1836— Himalayas form China(Yunnan) to C Pakistan.V. v. mecator Merriam, 1900— SW USA(California& Nevada).V. v. ochroxantha Ognev, 1926— E Russian Turkestan, Aksai, Kirgizstan, Semirechie.V. v. palaestina Thomas, 1920— Jordanand Lebanon.V.v. peculiosa Kishida, 1924— Korea.V. v. pusilla Blyth, 1854— NW Indiato Irak.V.v. regalis Merriam, 1900— N Great Plains of Canadaand USA.V. v. rubricosa Bangs, 1898— E Canada.V.v. schrencki Kishida, 1924— N Japan(Hokkaido) and NE Russia(Sakhalin).V. v. silacea G. S. Miller, 1907— Iberian Peninsula.V.v. splendidissima Kishida, 1924— E Russia(N & C Kurile Is).V. v. stepensis Brauner, 1914— steppes of S Russia.V. v. tobolica Ognev, 1926— Russia(lower basin of Ob River)V. v. tschiliensis Matschie, 1907— NE China.Foxes of European origin were introduced into E USAand Canadain the 17"" century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. Also introduced to Australiain 1800s, and the Falkland Islands(Malvinas).","Head-body 59-90 cmfor males and 45-68 cmfor females, tail 36-44 cmfor males and 28-49 cmfor females; weight 4-14 kgfor males and 3-7 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Vulpes, with an enormous geographical variation in size. Males generally larger than females. The species is substantially smaller in the Middle East deserts than in Europe. Smaller also in North America. Muzzle slender and pointed, white on upper lip. Ears large, pointed, erect and black-backed. Pelage is reddish-brown but may vary from brown to russet red to yellowish-gray. Three main color morphs: red,silver, and cross (grayish-brown with long black guard hairs down back and across shoulders). Throat and/or chest may have white markings. Legs long and slender. Lower legs black. Tail long, thick, and bushy, sometimes with white tip. Red Foxes in North America are comparatively light weight, rather long for their mass, and with considerable sexual dimorphism. British foxes are heavier but relatively short. European foxes are closer to the general average among populations. Body mass and length are positively related to latitude (i.e. Bergmann’s Rule), but this is a smaller effect than that related to geographical origin. Dental formula 13/3, C 1/1, PM 3/4, M 3/3 = 42.","Red Foxes recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert, grassland, and forest, as well as in cities. Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with mosaics of scrub, woodland and farmland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains, deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4500 m. Red Foxes flourish in urban areas, where they are most common in low-density residential suburbs and less common in areas dominated by industry or commerce. In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with humans, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas. Also in large cities, including Washington DC, London, Paris, and Stockholm.","Adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals, birds, fruit, and carrion. As predators, foxes typically kill birds and mammals up to about 3-5 kg. They cache food that is in excess of their requirements and have a highly developed memory for locations of hoards. They scavenge in rural areas (e.g. on deer and sheep carcasses in Europe and Canada, which may be the major food source in upland areas in winter), and in urban areas (on bird-feeding tables, compost heaps, and refuse). They are independent and thus generally solitary foragers, although individuals may forage in close proximity where resources are clumped.","Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.","Foraging is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, although more diurnal where undisturbed.","The basic social unit is a pair, but groups with up to six members (usually one adultmale and 2-5 probably related females) may share a territory, depending on habitat. Range size is habitat-dependent and can vary from less than 0-4 km? to over 40 km®. There are reports of overlapping home ranges in some urban and rural environments, and of drifting territories in other urban settings. Mating behavior is highly variable, either monogamous pairs, a single male with two breeding females that may or may not share a communal den, or a single breeding female with several non-breeding female helpers. There is always only one breeding male in the group, although additional matings do occur outside the group. Territorial males make frequent excursions beyond their territories during the mating season, during which itinerant males also make incursions into territories. There is socially-mediated suppression of reproduction amongst females, with lowest productivity tending to occur where fox density is high or food supply poor. Where food is not limited, social status itself can suppress reproduction, with only the dominant female breeding. Behavioral mechanisms by which this occurs include harassment of subordinates, infanticide and cannibalism of subordinate vixens’ pups. A hormonal mechanism whereby stress leads to lowered productivity through fetal reabsorption has also been identified. In populations where productivity is low, reproductive performance is suppressed consistently at all stages of pregnancy from conception to birth. Juveniles may disperse between six and twelve months of age, mostly between October and January. All or most males disperse, but the proportion of each sex dispersing varies among habitats and may depend on extent of mortality (e.g. due to rabies or control). Males typically disperse farther than females. Dispersal distances generally range from less than 5 kmto more than 50 km, but distances of up to 394 kmhave been recorded in the USA. Red Foxes communicate with facial expressions, vocalizations, and scent marking. Scent marking involves urine and feces, anal sac secretions, the violet or supracaudal gland (more active in males during breeding season), and glands around thelips, in the angle of the jaw, and between pads of the feet. Some 28 different categories of vocalization have been described, used to communicate over long distances and at close quarters.Breeding.Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. V. v. necatorin the Sierra Nevada, California(USA) is rare, possibly declining. The subspecies griffithi, montana, and pusilla (= leucopus) are listed as CITES Appendix III (India). Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the EU, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated. Red Fox density is highly variable, ranging within the UKfrom 0-025 individuals/km? in Scotlandto 30/km? in some urban areas where food is superabundant. Density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerlandis 3/km?. In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, the foxes occur at densities of 0-1/km?, and in southern Ontario, Canadaat 1/km? Threats include habitat degradation and fragmentation, exploitation and persecution, and government policies. Other threats come from local, national, or international socio-economic and political factors, such as increasing human population and thus increasing development. The Red fox’s versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure its persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. There are currently bounties in Pakistanto protect game birds such as houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii).","Ables (1975) | Baker & Harris (2004) | Cavallini (1995) | Doncaster& Macdonald (1991) | Englund (1970) | Harris (1977, 1989) | Harris & Rayner (1986) | Harris & Smith (1987) | Hatting (1956) | Heydon & Reynolds (2000) | Johnson & Hersteinsson (1993) | Lariviere & Pasitschniak-Arts (1996) | Macdonald (1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b, 1987) | Macdonald & Bacon (1982) | Macdonald & Newdick (1982) | Macdonald & Reynolds (2004) | Macdonald et al. (1999) | McIntosh (1963) | Meia (1994) | Meia & Weber (1996) | Voigt & Macdonald (1984)",,"27.Red FoxVulpes vulpesFrench:Renard roux/ German:Rotfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro rojoOther common names:Silver Fox, CrossFoxTaxonomy.Canis vulpes Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.The North American Red Fox, V. fulva, previously considered a separate species, is now considered conspecific with the Palaearctic V. vulpes. Forty-four subspecies were described on the basis of regional variation, but these have doubtful ecological significance as evidenced by successful introductions and re-introductions around the world.Subspecies and Distribution.V. v. vulpes Linnaeus, 1758— N Europe (Scandinavia).V. v. abietorum Merriam, 1900— SW Canada(Alberta& British Columbia).V. v. aegyptiacus Sonnini, 1816— Egypt, Israel, and Lybia.V. v. alascensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(NW Territories & Yukon).V. v. alpheraky: Satunin, 1906— Kazakhstan.V. v. anatolica Thomas, 1920— Turkey.V. v. arabica Thomas, 1902— Arabian peninsula.V. v. atlantica Wagner, 1841— Algeria(forested Atlas Mts).V. v. bangsi Merriam, 1900— NE Canada(Labrador).V. v. barbara Shaw, 1800— NW Africa (Barbary Coast).V. v. beringiana Middendorff, 1875— NE Siberia (shore of Bering Strait).V. v. cascadensis Merriam, 1900— NW USA(Cascade Mountains, Oregon& Washington).V. v. caucasica Dinnik, 1914— SW Russia(Caucasus).V. v. crucigera Bechstein, 1789— Europe through N & C Russia.V. v. daurica Ognev, 1931— E Russia(Amur, Siberia & Transbaikalia).V.v. deletrix Bangs, 1898— NE Canada(Newfoundland).V. v. dolichocrania Ognev, 1926— SE Siberia (S Ussuri).V. v. flavescens Gray, 1843— N Iran.V. v. fulva Desmarest, 1820— E USA.V. v. griffith: Blyth, 1854— Afghanistanand N Pakistan.V.v. harrimani Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kodiak I).V. v. hoole Swinhoe, 1870— S China(Fujianto Sichuan).V. v. ichnusae G. S. Miller, 1907— Corsicaand Sardinia.V. v. induta G. S. Miller, 1907— Cyprus.V. v. jakutensis Ognev, 1923— E Siberia (S of Yakutsk).V. v. japonica Gray, 1868— Japan.V. v. karagan Erxleben, 1777— Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kirgizstan.V. v. kenaiensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).V. v. kurdistanica Satunin, 1906— Armeniaand NE Turkey.V. v. macroura Baird, 1852— USA(Mountain States).V. v. montana Pearson, 1836— Himalayas form China(Yunnan) to C Pakistan.V. v. mecator Merriam, 1900— SW USA(California& Nevada).V. v. ochroxantha Ognev, 1926— E Russian Turkestan, Aksai, Kirgizstan, Semirechie.V. v. palaestina Thomas, 1920— Jordanand Lebanon.V.v. peculiosa Kishida, 1924— Korea.V. v. pusilla Blyth, 1854— NW Indiato Irak.V.v. regalis Merriam, 1900— N Great Plains of Canadaand USA.V. v. rubricosa Bangs, 1898— E Canada.V.v. schrencki Kishida, 1924— N Japan(Hokkaido) and NE Russia(Sakhalin).V. v. silacea G. S. Miller, 1907— Iberian Peninsula.V.v. splendidissima Kishida, 1924— E Russia(N & C Kurile Is).V. v. stepensis Brauner, 1914— steppes of S Russia.V. v. tobolica Ognev, 1926— Russia(lower basin of Ob River)V. v. tschiliensis Matschie, 1907— NE China.Foxes of European origin were introduced into E USAand Canadain the 17"" century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. Also introduced to Australiain 1800s, and the Falkland Islands(Malvinas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 59-90 cmfor males and 45-68 cmfor females, tail 36-44 cmfor males and 28-49 cmfor females; weight 4-14 kgfor males and 3-7 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Vulpes, with an enormous geographical variation in size. Males generally larger than females. The species is substantially smaller in the Middle East deserts than in Europe. Smaller also in North America. Muzzle slender and pointed, white on upper lip. Ears large, pointed, erect and black-backed. Pelage is reddish-brown but may vary from brown to russet red to yellowish-gray. Three main color morphs: red,silver, and cross (grayish-brown with long black guard hairs down back and across shoulders). Throat and/or chest may have white markings. Legs long and slender. Lower legs black. Tail long, thick, and bushy, sometimes with white tip. Red Foxes in North America are comparatively light weight, rather long for their mass, and with considerable sexual dimorphism. British foxes are heavier but relatively short. European foxes are closer to the general average among populations. Body mass and length are positively related to latitude (i.e. Bergmann’s Rule), but this is a smaller effect than that related to geographical origin. Dental formula 13/3, C 1/1, PM 3/4, M 3/3 = 42.Habitat.Red Foxes recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert, grassland, and forest, as well as in cities. Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with mosaics of scrub, woodland and farmland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains, deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4500 m. Red Foxes flourish in urban areas, where they are most common in low-density residential suburbs and less common in areas dominated by industry or commerce. In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with humans, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas. Also in large cities, including Washington DC, London, Paris, and Stockholm.Food and Feeding.Adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals, birds, fruit, and carrion. As predators, foxes typically kill birds and mammals up to about 3-5 kg. They cache food that is in excess of their requirements and have a highly developed memory for locations of hoards. They scavenge in rural areas (e.g. on deer and sheep carcasses in Europe and Canada, which may be the major food source in upland areas in winter), and in urban areas (on bird-feeding tables, compost heaps, and refuse). They are independent and thus generally solitary foragers, although individuals may forage in close proximity where resources are clumped.Activity patterns.Foraging is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, although more diurnal where undisturbed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is a pair, but groups with up to six members (usually one adultmale and 2-5 probably related females) may share a territory, depending on habitat. Range size is habitat-dependent and can vary from less than 0-4 km? to over 40 km®. There are reports of overlapping home ranges in some urban and rural environments, and of drifting territories in other urban settings. Mating behavior is highly variable, either monogamous pairs, a single male with two breeding females that may or may not share a communal den, or a single breeding female with several non-breeding female helpers. There is always only one breeding male in the group, although additional matings do occur outside the group. Territorial males make frequent excursions beyond their territories during the mating season, during which itinerant males also make incursions into territories. There is socially-mediated suppression of reproduction amongst females, with lowest productivity tending to occur where fox density is high or food supply poor. Where food is not limited, social status itself can suppress reproduction, with only the dominant female breeding. Behavioral mechanisms by which this occurs include harassment of subordinates, infanticide and cannibalism of subordinate vixens’ pups. A hormonal mechanism whereby stress leads to lowered productivity through fetal reabsorption has also been identified. In populations where productivity is low, reproductive performance is suppressed consistently at all stages of pregnancy from conception to birth. Juveniles may disperse between six and twelve months of age, mostly between October and January. All or most males disperse, but the proportion of each sex dispersing varies among habitats and may depend on extent of mortality (e.g. due to rabies or control). Males typically disperse farther than females. Dispersal distances generally range from less than 5 kmto more than 50 km, but distances of up to 394 kmhave been recorded in the USA. Red Foxes communicate with facial expressions, vocalizations, and scent marking. Scent marking involves urine and feces, anal sac secretions, the violet or supracaudal gland (more active in males during breeding season), and glands around thelips, in the angle of the jaw, and between pads of the feet. Some 28 different categories of vocalization have been described, used to communicate over long distances and at close quarters.Breeding.Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. V. v. necatorin the Sierra Nevada, California(USA) is rare, possibly declining. The subspecies griffithi, montana, and pusilla (= leucopus) are listed as CITES Appendix III (India). Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the EU, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated. Red Fox density is highly variable, ranging within the UKfrom 0-025 individuals/km? in Scotlandto 30/km? in some urban areas where food is superabundant. Density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerlandis 3/km?. In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, the foxes occur at densities of 0-1/km?, and in southern Ontario, Canadaat 1/km? Threats include habitat degradation and fragmentation, exploitation and persecution, and government policies. Other threats come from local, national, or international socio-economic and political factors, such as increasing human population and thus increasing development. The Red fox’s versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure its persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. There are currently bounties in Pakistanto protect game birds such as houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii).On following pages: 28. Corsac Fox(Vulpes corsac); 29. Tibetan Fox (Vulpes ferrilata); 30. Indian Fox (Vulpes bengalensis); 31. Pale Fox (Vulpes pallida); 32. Riippell's Fox (Vulpes rueppellii; 33. CapeFox (Vulpeschamal); 34. Blanford’s Fox (Vulpes cana); 35. Fennec Fox (Vulpes zerda).Bibliography.Ables (1975), Baker & Harris (2004), Cavallini (1995), Doncaster& Macdonald (1991), Englund (1970), Harris (1977, 1989), Harris & Rayner (1986), Harris & Smith (1987), Hatting (1956), Heydon & Reynolds (2000), Johnson & Hersteinsson (1993), Lariviere & Pasitschniak-Arts (1996), Macdonald (1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b, 1987), Macdonald & Bacon (1982), Macdonald & Newdick (1982), Macdonald & Reynolds (2004), Macdonald et al. (1999), McIntosh (1963), Meia (1994), Meia & Weber (1996), Voigt & Macdonald (1984)." -03ACCF40BF2CFFD27EDCF95DF82CD784,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,438,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2CFFD27EDCF95DF82CD784.xml,Vulpes macrotis,Vulpes,macrotis,Merriam,1888,Renard nain @fr | Wisten-Flinkfuchs @de | Zorro chico @es | Desert Fox @en,"Vulpes macrotis Merriam, 1888,California, USA.Has been considered conspecific with V. velox, based on morphometric similarities and protein-electrophoresis. Others have treated V. macrotisas a distinct species based on multivariate morphometric data and more recent mitochondrial DNA analysis. Nominal subspecies macrotis (Merriam, 1888)from sout-western Californiais extinct. Seven extant subspecies are recognized.","V. m. arsipus Elliot, 1904— NW Mexico (N Sonora) and SW USA(SE California& S Arizona).V. m. devius Nelson & Goldman, 1909— NW Mexico(S Baja California).V. m. muticus Merriam, 1902— SW USA(San Joaquin Valley of California).V. m. neomexicanus Merriam, 1902— N Mexico(NW Chihuahua) and C USA(Colorado, New Mexico& W Texas).V. m. nevadensis Goldman, 1931— USA(Great Basin).V. m. tenwirostris Nelson & Goldman, 1931— NW Mexico(N Baja California).V. m. zanser: Benson, 1938— N-C Mexico.","Head-body 48- 5-52 cmfor males and 45-5-53- 5 cmfor females, tail 28-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-7- 2-7 kgfor males and 1-6-2- 2 kgfor females. One of the smallest foxes on the American continent. The large ears are its most conspicuous characteristic. The fur is short, with yellowish to grayish head, back and sides; the shoulders and the outside of the legs, are brownishyellow. The belly and the inner side of legs are yellowish-white and the tip of the tail is black. The neck, legs and belly may have buffy highlights. The hair is dense between the foot-pads. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Mean cranial measurements from 35 specimensof race mutica were: condylobasal length 114- 4mm; zygomatic breadth 62- 1mm; palatal length 57- 8mm; interorbital breadth 23- 1mm; postorbital breadth 21- 4mm.","Arid and semi-arid regions including desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities. It is found at elevations ranging from 400-1900 m, although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain. They use agricultural lands to some extent and can successfully inhabit urban environments.","Kit Foxes primarily consume rodents, lagomorphs, and insects. Main prey includes kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), Blacktailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), and cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.). Other items consumed include birds, reptiles, and carrion. Plant material is rarely consumed, with the occasional exception of cactus fruits. Kit Foxes mostly forage solitarily.","Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.",Mainly nocturnal and occasionally crepuscular.,"Kit Foxes are primarily monogamous with occasional polygyny (i.e. multiple paternity litters detected) and pairs usually mate for life. Young from previous litters, usually females, may delay dispersal and remain in natal home ranges assisting with raising the current litter. Kit Foxes are not strongly territorial and home ranges of 2-5-11- 6 km* may overlap, although core areas generally are used exclusively by one family group. Kit Foxes sometimes bark at approaching predators or to recall pups, and they may emit a loud “chittering” call, during intraspecific encounters. Foxes also emit barking sequences, probably to contact or attract mates or potential mates.Breeding.Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.","CITES notlisted (considered a subspecies of V. velox). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in Mexico. In the USA, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (muticus) is listed federally as “endangered”, and as “threatened” in the State of California. In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as “endangered”. The species is common to rare. In the USA, abundance is largely unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable where there are no significant threats. The endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox is probably still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. Human-induced habitat transformation is probably causing a decline of Kit Fox populations in Mexico, where Prairie Dog towns supporting important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields. In Mexico, Kit Foxes are sometimes shot opportunistically, but are not actively persecuted.","Cotera (1996) | Cypher et al. (2000) | Dragoo et al. (1990) | Egoscue (1956, 1962, 1975) | Hall (1981) | Jiménez-Guzman & Lopez-Soto (1992) | Knapp (1978) | Koopman, Cypher & Scrivner (2000) | Koopman, Scrivner & Kato (1998) | List (1997) | List & Cypher (2004) | McGrew (1979) | Mercure et al. (1993) | Morrell (1972) | O'Farrell (1987) | Ralls et al. (2001) | Spiegel (1996) | US Fish & Wildlife Service (1998) | Warrick & Cypher (1998) | White & Ralls (1993) | White et al. (1995) | Zoellick et al. (1987)",,"26.Kit FoxVulpes macrotisFrench:Renard nain/ German:Wisten-Flinkfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro chicoOther common names:Desert FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes macrotis Merriam, 1888,California, USA.Has been considered conspecific with V. velox, based on morphometric similarities and protein-electrophoresis. Others have treated V. macrotisas a distinct species based on multivariate morphometric data and more recent mitochondrial DNA analysis. Nominal subspecies macrotis (Merriam, 1888)from sout-western Californiais extinct. Seven extant subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. m. arsipus Elliot, 1904— NW Mexico (N Sonora) and SW USA(SE California& S Arizona).V. m. devius Nelson & Goldman, 1909— NW Mexico(S Baja California).V. m. muticus Merriam, 1902— SW USA(San Joaquin Valley of California).V. m. neomexicanus Merriam, 1902— N Mexico(NW Chihuahua) and C USA(Colorado, New Mexico& W Texas).V. m. nevadensis Goldman, 1931— USA(Great Basin).V. m. tenwirostris Nelson & Goldman, 1931— NW Mexico(N Baja California).V. m. zanser: Benson, 1938— N-C Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 48- 5-52 cmfor males and 45-5-53- 5 cmfor females, tail 28-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-7- 2-7 kgfor males and 1-6-2- 2 kgfor females. One of the smallest foxes on the American continent. The large ears are its most conspicuous characteristic. The fur is short, with yellowish to grayish head, back and sides; the shoulders and the outside of the legs, are brownishyellow. The belly and the inner side of legs are yellowish-white and the tip of the tail is black. The neck, legs and belly may have buffy highlights. The hair is dense between the foot-pads. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Mean cranial measurements from 35 specimensof race mutica were: condylobasal length 114- 4mm; zygomatic breadth 62- 1mm; palatal length 57- 8mm; interorbital breadth 23- 1mm; postorbital breadth 21- 4mm.Habitat.Arid and semi-arid regions including desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities. It is found at elevations ranging from 400-1900 m, although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain. They use agricultural lands to some extent and can successfully inhabit urban environments.Food and Feeding.Kit Foxes primarily consume rodents, lagomorphs, and insects. Main prey includes kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), Blacktailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), and cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.). Other items consumed include birds, reptiles, and carrion. Plant material is rarely consumed, with the occasional exception of cactus fruits. Kit Foxes mostly forage solitarily.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and occasionally crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Kit Foxes are primarily monogamous with occasional polygyny (i.e. multiple paternity litters detected) and pairs usually mate for life. Young from previous litters, usually females, may delay dispersal and remain in natal home ranges assisting with raising the current litter. Kit Foxes are not strongly territorial and home ranges of 2-5-11- 6 km* may overlap, although core areas generally are used exclusively by one family group. Kit Foxes sometimes bark at approaching predators or to recall pups, and they may emit a loud “chittering” call, during intraspecific encounters. Foxes also emit barking sequences, probably to contact or attract mates or potential mates.Breeding.Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted (considered a subspecies of V. velox). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in Mexico. In the USA, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (muticus) is listed federally as “endangered”, and as “threatened” in the State of California. In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as “endangered”. The species is common to rare. In the USA, abundance is largely unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable where there are no significant threats. The endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox is probably still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. Human-induced habitat transformation is probably causing a decline of Kit Fox populations in Mexico, where Prairie Dog towns supporting important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields. In Mexico, Kit Foxes are sometimes shot opportunistically, but are not actively persecuted.Bibliography.Cotera (1996), Cypher et al. (2000), Dragoo et al. (1990), Egoscue (1956, 1962, 1975), Hall (1981), Jiménez-Guzman & Lopez-Soto (1992), Knapp (1978), Koopman, Cypher & Scrivner (2000), Koopman, Scrivner & Kato (1998), List (1997), List & Cypher (2004), McGrew (1979), Mercure et al. (1993), Morrell (1972), O'Farrell (1987), Ralls et al. (2001), Spiegel (1996), US Fish & Wildlife Service (1998), Warrick & Cypher (1998), White & Ralls (1993), White et al. (1995), Zoellick et al. (1987)." +03ACCF40BF29FFD67E8EFE80FAA9DF36,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,441,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF29FFD67E8EFE80FAA9DF36.xml,Vulpes vulpes,Vulpes,vulpes,Frisch,1775,Renard roux @fr | Rotfuchs @de | Zorro rojo @es | Silver Fox @en | Cross Fox @en,"Canis vulpes Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.The North American Red Fox, V. fulva, previously considered a separate species, is now considered conspecific with the Palaearctic V. vulpes. Forty-four subspecies were described on the basis of regional variation, but these have doubtful ecological significance as evidenced by successful introductions and re-introductions around the world.","V. v. vulpes Linnaeus, 1758— N Europe (Scandinavia).V. v. abietorum Merriam, 1900— SW Canada(Alberta& British Columbia).V. v. aegyptiacus Sonnini, 1816— Egypt, Israel, and Lybia.V. v. alascensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(NW Territories & Yukon).V. v. alpheraky: Satunin, 1906— Kazakhstan.V. v. anatolica Thomas, 1920— Turkey.V. v. arabica Thomas, 1902— Arabian peninsula.V. v. atlantica Wagner, 1841— Algeria(forested Atlas Mts).V. v. bangsi Merriam, 1900— NE Canada(Labrador).V. v. barbara Shaw, 1800— NW Africa (Barbary Coast).V. v. beringiana Middendorff, 1875— NE Siberia (shore of Bering Strait).V. v. cascadensis Merriam, 1900— NW USA(Cascade Mountains, Oregon& Washington).V. v. caucasica Dinnik, 1914— SW Russia(Caucasus).V. v. crucigera Bechstein, 1789— Europe through N & C Russia.V. v. daurica Ognev, 1931— E Russia(Amur, Siberia & Transbaikalia).V.v. deletrix Bangs, 1898— NE Canada(Newfoundland).V. v. dolichocrania Ognev, 1926— SE Siberia (S Ussuri).V. v. flavescens Gray, 1843— N Iran.V. v. fulva Desmarest, 1820— E USA.V. v. griffith: Blyth, 1854— Afghanistanand N Pakistan.V.v. harrimani Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kodiak I).V. v. hoole Swinhoe, 1870— S China(Fujianto Sichuan).V. v. ichnusae G. S. Miller, 1907— Corsicaand Sardinia.V. v. induta G. S. Miller, 1907— Cyprus.V. v. jakutensis Ognev, 1923— E Siberia (S of Yakutsk).V. v. japonica Gray, 1868— Japan.V. v. karagan Erxleben, 1777— Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kirgizstan.V. v. kenaiensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).V. v. kurdistanica Satunin, 1906— Armeniaand NE Turkey.V. v. macroura Baird, 1852— USA(Mountain States).V. v. montana Pearson, 1836— Himalayas form China(Yunnan) to C Pakistan.V. v. mecator Merriam, 1900— SW USA(California& Nevada).V. v. ochroxantha Ognev, 1926— E Russian Turkestan, Aksai, Kirgizstan, Semirechie.V. v. palaestina Thomas, 1920— Jordanand Lebanon.V.v. peculiosa Kishida, 1924— Korea.V. v. pusilla Blyth, 1854— NW Indiato Irak.V.v. regalis Merriam, 1900— N Great Plains of Canadaand USA.V. v. rubricosa Bangs, 1898— E Canada.V.v. schrencki Kishida, 1924— N Japan(Hokkaido) and NE Russia(Sakhalin).V. v. silacea G. S. Miller, 1907— Iberian Peninsula.V.v. splendidissima Kishida, 1924— E Russia(N & C Kurile Is).V. v. stepensis Brauner, 1914— steppes of S Russia.V. v. tobolica Ognev, 1926— Russia(lower basin of Ob River)V. v. tschiliensis Matschie, 1907— NE China.Foxes of European origin were introduced into E USAand Canadain the 17"" century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. Also introduced to Australiain 1800s, and the Falkland Islands(Malvinas).","Head-body 59-90 cmfor males and 45-68 cmfor females, tail 36-44 cmfor males and 28-49 cmfor females; weight 4-14 kgfor males and 3-7 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Vulpes, with an enormous geographical variation in size. Males generally larger than females. The species is substantially smaller in the Middle East deserts than in Europe. Smaller also in North America. Muzzle slender and pointed, white on upper lip. Ears large, pointed, erect and black-backed. Pelage is reddish-brown but may vary from brown to russet red to yellowish-gray. Three main color morphs: red,silver, and cross (grayish-brown with long black guard hairs down back and across shoulders). Throat and/or chest may have white markings. Legs long and slender. Lower legs black. Tail long, thick, and bushy, sometimes with white tip. Red Foxes in North America are comparatively light weight, rather long for their mass, and with considerable sexual dimorphism. British foxes are heavier but relatively short. European foxes are closer to the general average among populations. Body mass and length are positively related to latitude (i.e. Bergmann’s Rule), but this is a smaller effect than that related to geographical origin. Dental formula 13/3, C 1/1, PM 3/4, M 3/3 = 42.","Red Foxes recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert, grassland, and forest, as well as in cities. Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with mosaics of scrub, woodland and farmland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains, deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4500 m. Red Foxes flourish in urban areas, where they are most common in low-density residential suburbs and less common in areas dominated by industry or commerce. In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with humans, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas. Also in large cities, including Washington DC, London, Paris, and Stockholm.","Adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals, birds, fruit, and carrion. As predators, foxes typically kill birds and mammals up to about 3-5 kg. They cache food that is in excess of their requirements and have a highly developed memory for locations of hoards. They scavenge in rural areas (e.g. on deer and sheep carcasses in Europe and Canada, which may be the major food source in upland areas in winter), and in urban areas (on bird-feeding tables, compost heaps, and refuse). They are independent and thus generally solitary foragers, although individuals may forage in close proximity where resources are clumped.","Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.","Foraging is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, although more diurnal where undisturbed.","The basic social unit is a pair, but groups with up to six members (usually one adultmale and 2-5 probably related females) may share a territory, depending on habitat. Range size is habitat-dependent and can vary from less than 0-4 km? to over 40 km®. There are reports of overlapping home ranges in some urban and rural environments, and of drifting territories in other urban settings. Mating behavior is highly variable, either monogamous pairs, a single male with two breeding females that may or may not share a communal den, or a single breeding female with several non-breeding female helpers. There is always only one breeding male in the group, although additional matings do occur outside the group. Territorial males make frequent excursions beyond their territories during the mating season, during which itinerant males also make incursions into territories. There is socially-mediated suppression of reproduction amongst females, with lowest productivity tending to occur where fox density is high or food supply poor. Where food is not limited, social status itself can suppress reproduction, with only the dominant female breeding. Behavioral mechanisms by which this occurs include harassment of subordinates, infanticide and cannibalism of subordinate vixens’ pups. A hormonal mechanism whereby stress leads to lowered productivity through fetal reabsorption has also been identified. In populations where productivity is low, reproductive performance is suppressed consistently at all stages of pregnancy from conception to birth. Juveniles may disperse between six and twelve months of age, mostly between October and January. All or most males disperse, but the proportion of each sex dispersing varies among habitats and may depend on extent of mortality (e.g. due to rabies or control). Males typically disperse farther than females. Dispersal distances generally range from less than 5 kmto more than 50 km, but distances of up to 394 kmhave been recorded in the USA. Red Foxes communicate with facial expressions, vocalizations, and scent marking. Scent marking involves urine and feces, anal sac secretions, the violet or supracaudal gland (more active in males during breeding season), and glands around thelips, in the angle of the jaw, and between pads of the feet. Some 28 different categories of vocalization have been described, used to communicate over long distances and at close quarters.Breeding.Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. V. v. necatorin the Sierra Nevada, California(USA) is rare, possibly declining. The subspecies griffithi, montana, and pusilla (= leucopus) are listed as CITES Appendix III (India). Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the EU, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated. Red Fox density is highly variable, ranging within the UKfrom 0-025 individuals/km? in Scotlandto 30/km? in some urban areas where food is superabundant. Density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerlandis 3/km?. In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, the foxes occur at densities of 0-1/km?, and in southern Ontario, Canadaat 1/km? Threats include habitat degradation and fragmentation, exploitation and persecution, and government policies. Other threats come from local, national, or international socio-economic and political factors, such as increasing human population and thus increasing development. The Red fox’s versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure its persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. There are currently bounties in Pakistanto protect game birds such as houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii).","Ables (1975) | Baker & Harris (2004) | Cavallini (1995) | Doncaster& Macdonald (1991) | Englund (1970) | Harris (1977, 1989) | Harris & Rayner (1986) | Harris & Smith (1987) | Hatting (1956) | Heydon & Reynolds (2000) | Johnson & Hersteinsson (1993) | Lariviere & Pasitschniak-Arts (1996) | Macdonald (1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b, 1987) | Macdonald & Bacon (1982) | Macdonald & Newdick (1982) | Macdonald & Reynolds (2004) | Macdonald et al. (1999) | McIntosh (1963) | Meia (1994) | Meia & Weber (1996) | Voigt & Macdonald (1984)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331215/files/figure.png,"27.Red FoxVulpes vulpesFrench:Renard roux/ German:Rotfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro rojoOther common names:Silver Fox, CrossFoxTaxonomy.Canis vulpes Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.The North American Red Fox, V. fulva, previously considered a separate species, is now considered conspecific with the Palaearctic V. vulpes. Forty-four subspecies were described on the basis of regional variation, but these have doubtful ecological significance as evidenced by successful introductions and re-introductions around the world.Subspecies and Distribution.V. v. vulpes Linnaeus, 1758— N Europe (Scandinavia).V. v. abietorum Merriam, 1900— SW Canada(Alberta& British Columbia).V. v. aegyptiacus Sonnini, 1816— Egypt, Israel, and Lybia.V. v. alascensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(NW Territories & Yukon).V. v. alpheraky: Satunin, 1906— Kazakhstan.V. v. anatolica Thomas, 1920— Turkey.V. v. arabica Thomas, 1902— Arabian peninsula.V. v. atlantica Wagner, 1841— Algeria(forested Atlas Mts).V. v. bangsi Merriam, 1900— NE Canada(Labrador).V. v. barbara Shaw, 1800— NW Africa (Barbary Coast).V. v. beringiana Middendorff, 1875— NE Siberia (shore of Bering Strait).V. v. cascadensis Merriam, 1900— NW USA(Cascade Mountains, Oregon& Washington).V. v. caucasica Dinnik, 1914— SW Russia(Caucasus).V. v. crucigera Bechstein, 1789— Europe through N & C Russia.V. v. daurica Ognev, 1931— E Russia(Amur, Siberia & Transbaikalia).V.v. deletrix Bangs, 1898— NE Canada(Newfoundland).V. v. dolichocrania Ognev, 1926— SE Siberia (S Ussuri).V. v. flavescens Gray, 1843— N Iran.V. v. fulva Desmarest, 1820— E USA.V. v. griffith: Blyth, 1854— Afghanistanand N Pakistan.V.v. harrimani Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kodiak I).V. v. hoole Swinhoe, 1870— S China(Fujianto Sichuan).V. v. ichnusae G. S. Miller, 1907— Corsicaand Sardinia.V. v. induta G. S. Miller, 1907— Cyprus.V. v. jakutensis Ognev, 1923— E Siberia (S of Yakutsk).V. v. japonica Gray, 1868— Japan.V. v. karagan Erxleben, 1777— Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kirgizstan.V. v. kenaiensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).V. v. kurdistanica Satunin, 1906— Armeniaand NE Turkey.V. v. macroura Baird, 1852— USA(Mountain States).V. v. montana Pearson, 1836— Himalayas form China(Yunnan) to C Pakistan.V. v. mecator Merriam, 1900— SW USA(California& Nevada).V. v. ochroxantha Ognev, 1926— E Russian Turkestan, Aksai, Kirgizstan, Semirechie.V. v. palaestina Thomas, 1920— Jordanand Lebanon.V.v. peculiosa Kishida, 1924— Korea.V. v. pusilla Blyth, 1854— NW Indiato Irak.V.v. regalis Merriam, 1900— N Great Plains of Canadaand USA.V. v. rubricosa Bangs, 1898— E Canada.V.v. schrencki Kishida, 1924— N Japan(Hokkaido) and NE Russia(Sakhalin).V. v. silacea G. S. Miller, 1907— Iberian Peninsula.V.v. splendidissima Kishida, 1924— E Russia(N & C Kurile Is).V. v. stepensis Brauner, 1914— steppes of S Russia.V. v. tobolica Ognev, 1926— Russia(lower basin of Ob River)V. v. tschiliensis Matschie, 1907— NE China.Foxes of European origin were introduced into E USAand Canadain the 17"" century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. Also introduced to Australiain 1800s, and the Falkland Islands(Malvinas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 59-90 cmfor males and 45-68 cmfor females, tail 36-44 cmfor males and 28-49 cmfor females; weight 4-14 kgfor males and 3-7 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Vulpes, with an enormous geographical variation in size. Males generally larger than females. The species is substantially smaller in the Middle East deserts than in Europe. Smaller also in North America. Muzzle slender and pointed, white on upper lip. Ears large, pointed, erect and black-backed. Pelage is reddish-brown but may vary from brown to russet red to yellowish-gray. Three main color morphs: red,silver, and cross (grayish-brown with long black guard hairs down back and across shoulders). Throat and/or chest may have white markings. Legs long and slender. Lower legs black. Tail long, thick, and bushy, sometimes with white tip. Red Foxes in North America are comparatively light weight, rather long for their mass, and with considerable sexual dimorphism. British foxes are heavier but relatively short. European foxes are closer to the general average among populations. Body mass and length are positively related to latitude (i.e. Bergmann’s Rule), but this is a smaller effect than that related to geographical origin. Dental formula 13/3, C 1/1, PM 3/4, M 3/3 = 42.Habitat.Red Foxes recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert, grassland, and forest, as well as in cities. Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with mosaics of scrub, woodland and farmland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains, deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4500 m. Red Foxes flourish in urban areas, where they are most common in low-density residential suburbs and less common in areas dominated by industry or commerce. In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with humans, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas. Also in large cities, including Washington DC, London, Paris, and Stockholm.Food and Feeding.Adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals, birds, fruit, and carrion. As predators, foxes typically kill birds and mammals up to about 3-5 kg. They cache food that is in excess of their requirements and have a highly developed memory for locations of hoards. They scavenge in rural areas (e.g. on deer and sheep carcasses in Europe and Canada, which may be the major food source in upland areas in winter), and in urban areas (on bird-feeding tables, compost heaps, and refuse). They are independent and thus generally solitary foragers, although individuals may forage in close proximity where resources are clumped.Activity patterns.Foraging is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, although more diurnal where undisturbed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is a pair, but groups with up to six members (usually one adultmale and 2-5 probably related females) may share a territory, depending on habitat. Range size is habitat-dependent and can vary from less than 0-4 km? to over 40 km®. There are reports of overlapping home ranges in some urban and rural environments, and of drifting territories in other urban settings. Mating behavior is highly variable, either monogamous pairs, a single male with two breeding females that may or may not share a communal den, or a single breeding female with several non-breeding female helpers. There is always only one breeding male in the group, although additional matings do occur outside the group. Territorial males make frequent excursions beyond their territories during the mating season, during which itinerant males also make incursions into territories. There is socially-mediated suppression of reproduction amongst females, with lowest productivity tending to occur where fox density is high or food supply poor. Where food is not limited, social status itself can suppress reproduction, with only the dominant female breeding. Behavioral mechanisms by which this occurs include harassment of subordinates, infanticide and cannibalism of subordinate vixens’ pups. A hormonal mechanism whereby stress leads to lowered productivity through fetal reabsorption has also been identified. In populations where productivity is low, reproductive performance is suppressed consistently at all stages of pregnancy from conception to birth. Juveniles may disperse between six and twelve months of age, mostly between October and January. All or most males disperse, but the proportion of each sex dispersing varies among habitats and may depend on extent of mortality (e.g. due to rabies or control). Males typically disperse farther than females. Dispersal distances generally range from less than 5 kmto more than 50 km, but distances of up to 394 kmhave been recorded in the USA. Red Foxes communicate with facial expressions, vocalizations, and scent marking. Scent marking involves urine and feces, anal sac secretions, the violet or supracaudal gland (more active in males during breeding season), and glands around thelips, in the angle of the jaw, and between pads of the feet. Some 28 different categories of vocalization have been described, used to communicate over long distances and at close quarters.Breeding.Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. V. v. necatorin the Sierra Nevada, California(USA) is rare, possibly declining. The subspecies griffithi, montana, and pusilla (= leucopus) are listed as CITES Appendix III (India). Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the EU, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated. Red Fox density is highly variable, ranging within the UKfrom 0-025 individuals/km? in Scotlandto 30/km? in some urban areas where food is superabundant. Density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerlandis 3/km?. In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, the foxes occur at densities of 0-1/km?, and in southern Ontario, Canadaat 1/km? Threats include habitat degradation and fragmentation, exploitation and persecution, and government policies. Other threats come from local, national, or international socio-economic and political factors, such as increasing human population and thus increasing development. The Red fox’s versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure its persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. There are currently bounties in Pakistanto protect game birds such as houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii).On following pages: 28. Corsac Fox(Vulpes corsac); 29. Tibetan Fox (Vulpes ferrilata); 30. Indian Fox (Vulpes bengalensis); 31. Pale Fox (Vulpes pallida); 32. Riippell's Fox (Vulpes rueppellii; 33. CapeFox (Vulpeschamal); 34. Blanford’s Fox (Vulpes cana); 35. Fennec Fox (Vulpes zerda).Bibliography.Ables (1975), Baker & Harris (2004), Cavallini (1995), Doncaster& Macdonald (1991), Englund (1970), Harris (1977, 1989), Harris & Rayner (1986), Harris & Smith (1987), Hatting (1956), Heydon & Reynolds (2000), Johnson & Hersteinsson (1993), Lariviere & Pasitschniak-Arts (1996), Macdonald (1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b, 1987), Macdonald & Bacon (1982), Macdonald & Newdick (1982), Macdonald & Reynolds (2004), Macdonald et al. (1999), McIntosh (1963), Meia (1994), Meia & Weber (1996), Voigt & Macdonald (1984)." +03ACCF40BF2CFFD27EDCF95DF82CD784,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,438,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2CFFD27EDCF95DF82CD784.xml,Vulpes macrotis,Vulpes,macrotis,Merriam,1888,Renard nain @fr | Wisten-Flinkfuchs @de | Zorro chico @es | Desert Fox @en,"Vulpes macrotis Merriam, 1888,California, USA.Has been considered conspecific with V. velox, based on morphometric similarities and protein-electrophoresis. Others have treated V. macrotisas a distinct species based on multivariate morphometric data and more recent mitochondrial DNA analysis. Nominal subspecies macrotis (Merriam, 1888)from sout-western Californiais extinct. Seven extant subspecies are recognized.","V. m. arsipus Elliot, 1904— NW Mexico (N Sonora) and SW USA(SE California& S Arizona).V. m. devius Nelson & Goldman, 1909— NW Mexico(S Baja California).V. m. muticus Merriam, 1902— SW USA(San Joaquin Valley of California).V. m. neomexicanus Merriam, 1902— N Mexico(NW Chihuahua) and C USA(Colorado, New Mexico& W Texas).V. m. nevadensis Goldman, 1931— USA(Great Basin).V. m. tenwirostris Nelson & Goldman, 1931— NW Mexico(N Baja California).V. m. zanser: Benson, 1938— N-C Mexico.","Head-body 48- 5-52 cmfor males and 45-5-53- 5 cmfor females, tail 28-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-7- 2-7 kgfor males and 1-6-2- 2 kgfor females. One of the smallest foxes on the American continent. The large ears are its most conspicuous characteristic. The fur is short, with yellowish to grayish head, back and sides; the shoulders and the outside of the legs, are brownishyellow. The belly and the inner side of legs are yellowish-white and the tip of the tail is black. The neck, legs and belly may have buffy highlights. The hair is dense between the foot-pads. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Mean cranial measurements from 35 specimensof race mutica were: condylobasal length 114- 4mm; zygomatic breadth 62- 1mm; palatal length 57- 8mm; interorbital breadth 23- 1mm; postorbital breadth 21- 4mm.","Arid and semi-arid regions including desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities. It is found at elevations ranging from 400-1900 m, although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain. They use agricultural lands to some extent and can successfully inhabit urban environments.","Kit Foxes primarily consume rodents, lagomorphs, and insects. Main prey includes kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), Blacktailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), and cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.). Other items consumed include birds, reptiles, and carrion. Plant material is rarely consumed, with the occasional exception of cactus fruits. Kit Foxes mostly forage solitarily.","Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.",Mainly nocturnal and occasionally crepuscular.,"Kit Foxes are primarily monogamous with occasional polygyny (i.e. multiple paternity litters detected) and pairs usually mate for life. Young from previous litters, usually females, may delay dispersal and remain in natal home ranges assisting with raising the current litter. Kit Foxes are not strongly territorial and home ranges of 2-5-11- 6 km* may overlap, although core areas generally are used exclusively by one family group. Kit Foxes sometimes bark at approaching predators or to recall pups, and they may emit a loud “chittering” call, during intraspecific encounters. Foxes also emit barking sequences, probably to contact or attract mates or potential mates.Breeding.Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.","CITES notlisted (considered a subspecies of V. velox). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in Mexico. In the USA, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (muticus) is listed federally as “endangered”, and as “threatened” in the State of California. In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as “endangered”. The species is common to rare. In the USA, abundance is largely unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable where there are no significant threats. The endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox is probably still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. Human-induced habitat transformation is probably causing a decline of Kit Fox populations in Mexico, where Prairie Dog towns supporting important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields. In Mexico, Kit Foxes are sometimes shot opportunistically, but are not actively persecuted.","Cotera (1996) | Cypher et al. (2000) | Dragoo et al. (1990) | Egoscue (1956, 1962, 1975) | Hall (1981) | Jiménez-Guzman & Lopez-Soto (1992) | Knapp (1978) | Koopman, Cypher & Scrivner (2000) | Koopman, Scrivner & Kato (1998) | List (1997) | List & Cypher (2004) | McGrew (1979) | Mercure et al. (1993) | Morrell (1972) | O'Farrell (1987) | Ralls et al. (2001) | Spiegel (1996) | US Fish & Wildlife Service (1998) | Warrick & Cypher (1998) | White & Ralls (1993) | White et al. (1995) | Zoellick et al. (1987)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331213/files/figure.png,"26.Kit FoxVulpes macrotisFrench:Renard nain/ German:Wisten-Flinkfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro chicoOther common names:Desert FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes macrotis Merriam, 1888,California, USA.Has been considered conspecific with V. velox, based on morphometric similarities and protein-electrophoresis. Others have treated V. macrotisas a distinct species based on multivariate morphometric data and more recent mitochondrial DNA analysis. Nominal subspecies macrotis (Merriam, 1888)from sout-western Californiais extinct. Seven extant subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. m. arsipus Elliot, 1904— NW Mexico (N Sonora) and SW USA(SE California& S Arizona).V. m. devius Nelson & Goldman, 1909— NW Mexico(S Baja California).V. m. muticus Merriam, 1902— SW USA(San Joaquin Valley of California).V. m. neomexicanus Merriam, 1902— N Mexico(NW Chihuahua) and C USA(Colorado, New Mexico& W Texas).V. m. nevadensis Goldman, 1931— USA(Great Basin).V. m. tenwirostris Nelson & Goldman, 1931— NW Mexico(N Baja California).V. m. zanser: Benson, 1938— N-C Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 48- 5-52 cmfor males and 45-5-53- 5 cmfor females, tail 28-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-7- 2-7 kgfor males and 1-6-2- 2 kgfor females. One of the smallest foxes on the American continent. The large ears are its most conspicuous characteristic. The fur is short, with yellowish to grayish head, back and sides; the shoulders and the outside of the legs, are brownishyellow. The belly and the inner side of legs are yellowish-white and the tip of the tail is black. The neck, legs and belly may have buffy highlights. The hair is dense between the foot-pads. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Mean cranial measurements from 35 specimensof race mutica were: condylobasal length 114- 4mm; zygomatic breadth 62- 1mm; palatal length 57- 8mm; interorbital breadth 23- 1mm; postorbital breadth 21- 4mm.Habitat.Arid and semi-arid regions including desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities. It is found at elevations ranging from 400-1900 m, although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain. They use agricultural lands to some extent and can successfully inhabit urban environments.Food and Feeding.Kit Foxes primarily consume rodents, lagomorphs, and insects. Main prey includes kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), Blacktailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), and cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.). Other items consumed include birds, reptiles, and carrion. Plant material is rarely consumed, with the occasional exception of cactus fruits. Kit Foxes mostly forage solitarily.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and occasionally crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Kit Foxes are primarily monogamous with occasional polygyny (i.e. multiple paternity litters detected) and pairs usually mate for life. Young from previous litters, usually females, may delay dispersal and remain in natal home ranges assisting with raising the current litter. Kit Foxes are not strongly territorial and home ranges of 2-5-11- 6 km* may overlap, although core areas generally are used exclusively by one family group. Kit Foxes sometimes bark at approaching predators or to recall pups, and they may emit a loud “chittering” call, during intraspecific encounters. Foxes also emit barking sequences, probably to contact or attract mates or potential mates.Breeding.Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted (considered a subspecies of V. velox). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in Mexico. In the USA, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (muticus) is listed federally as “endangered”, and as “threatened” in the State of California. In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as “endangered”. The species is common to rare. In the USA, abundance is largely unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable where there are no significant threats. The endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox is probably still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. Human-induced habitat transformation is probably causing a decline of Kit Fox populations in Mexico, where Prairie Dog towns supporting important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields. In Mexico, Kit Foxes are sometimes shot opportunistically, but are not actively persecuted.Bibliography.Cotera (1996), Cypher et al. (2000), Dragoo et al. (1990), Egoscue (1956, 1962, 1975), Hall (1981), Jiménez-Guzman & Lopez-Soto (1992), Knapp (1978), Koopman, Cypher & Scrivner (2000), Koopman, Scrivner & Kato (1998), List (1997), List & Cypher (2004), McGrew (1979), Mercure et al. (1993), Morrell (1972), O'Farrell (1987), Ralls et al. (2001), Spiegel (1996), US Fish & Wildlife Service (1998), Warrick & Cypher (1998), White & Ralls (1993), White et al. (1995), Zoellick et al. (1987)." 03ACCF40BF2DFFD27B96FB9FFE1DDB8E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,437,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2DFFD27B96FB9FFE1DDB8E.xml,Vulpes velox,Vulpes,velox,,,Renard véloce @fr | Prarie-Flinkfuchs @de | Zorro veloz @es,"Canis velox Say, 1823,River Platte region, USA.Phenotypically and ecologically similar to V. macrotis; interbreeding occurs in western Texasand eastern New Mexico, and some suggest these foxes are conspecific. Both are closely related to Arctic Foxes, and some authorities place the latter under Vulpes. Although significant geographic variation exists among Swift Foxes, their classification into northern (hebes) and southern (velox) subspecies is probably unjustified. Monotypic.","Great Plains in S Canada(Alberta& Saskatchewan) and USA(Montana, and from N Wyomingand SW South Dakotato C New Mexico& NW Texas).","Head-body 50-54- 5 cmfor males and 47- 5-54 cmfor females,tail 25-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 2 cmfor females; weight 2- 2-5 kgfor males and 1-6- 2-3 kgfor females. One of the smallest canids; characteristic black patches on each side of the muzzle. The winter pelage is dark grayish across the back and sides extending to yellow-tan across the lowersides, legs, and the ventral surface of the tail. Black tail tip. The ventral fur is white with some buff on the chest. In summer, the fur is shorter and more rufous. The Swift Fox can be easily confused with the closely related Kit Fox. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Predominately short-grass and mixed-grass prairies in gently rolling or level terrain. In Kansas, Swift Foxes have been found to den and forage in fallow wheat fields. Survival rates between foxes in grassland and cropland sites were not significant ly different, suggesting that Swift Foxes may be able to adapt to such habitat in some cases. The distribution and density of dens are considered important components of Swift Fox habitat requirements, particularly in terms of evading Coyote predation or Red Fox competition.","Swift Foxes are opportunistic foragers, feeding on a variety of mammals, but also birds, insects, plants, and carrion. Leporids have been reported as a primary prey item in several studies. In South Dakota, mammals accounted for 49% of prey occurrences, with Black-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) as the primary prey item. In Kansasand Nebraska, murid rodents were the most frequently occurring prey. Insects also present, but likely to constitute only a small portion of biomass. Birds and their eggs are also consumed, as are plant materials, including prickly pear cactus fruit, wild plums, and sunflower seeds, which are consumed relatively frequently but most often in relatively small amounts. Swift Foxes are mostly solitary hunters. Caching of food has been observed.","Primarily monogamous, although additional female helpers are occasionally observed at den sites. Swift Foxes are monoestrous and the timing of breeding (December to March) is dependent upon latitude. The mean gestation period is 51 days and average litter sizes of 2-4-5-7 have been reported. In Colorado, litter sizes were greater for mated pairs with helpers than for those without. Pups open their eyes at 10-15 days, emerge from the natal den after approximately one month, and are weaned at 6-7 weeks of age. Both members of the pair provide for the young, and juveniles remain with the adults for 4-6 months. Swift Foxes are among the most burrowdependent canids and depend on dens throughout the year. They will excavate their own dens and modify the burrows of other species. Dens serve several functions, such as providing a refuge from predators, protection from extreme climate conditions in both summer and winter, and shelter for raising young.","Swift Foxes forage throughout the night, and show some crepuscular activity. They will hunt diurnal species such as birds and ground squirrels in the summer.","The typical social group consists of a mated pair with pups, although occasionally a trio or group of two malesand two or three femaleshave been reported, with one breeding female and non-breeding helpers. Home range size averages between 10- 4 km* and 32- 3 km”. They are territorial: an individual will nearly totally exclude same-sex individuals from its core activity area. Areas used by mated pairs have minimal overlap with areas used by adjacent pairs. Pups remain with the parents until dispersal; in a study only 33% ofjuveniles had left natal home ranges by 9-5 months of age while all recaptured individuals aged 18 months or older had dispersed. Vocal repertoire in captivity consists of courting/ territorial call, agonistic chatter, submissive whine, submissive chatter, precopulatory call, growls, excited yips and barks, and social yips.Breeding.Primarily monogamous, although additional female helpers are occasionally observed at den sites. Swift Foxes are monoestrous and the timing of breeding (December to March) is dependent upon latitude. The mean gestation period is 51 days and average litter sizes of 2-4-5-7 have been reported. In Colorado, litter sizes were greater for mated pairs with helpers than for those without. Pups open their eyes at 10-15 days, emerge from the natal den after approximately one month, and are weaned at 6-7 weeks of age. Both members of the pair provide for the young, and juveniles remain with the adults for 4-6 months. Swift Foxes are among the most burrowdependent canids and depend on dens throughout the year. They will excavate their own dens and modify the burrows of other species. Dens serve several functions, such as providing a refuge from predators, protection from extreme climate conditions in both summer and winter, and shelter for raising young.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Swift Fox has been down-listed from “extirpated” to “endangered” in Canadaas a result of reintroduction programs. Following their extirpation by 1938, reintroduction releases since 1983 have established a small Swift Fox population in Alberta, Saskatchewanand Montana, which now constitutes the northern extent of the species’ range. In the USA, the species was cited as “warranted, but precluded” from endangered status under the federal Endangered Species Act. Swift Foxes are primarily prairie specialists, and conversion of grassland to cropland threatens to reduce population sizes and further fragment populations. The conversion of native grassland prairies has been implicated as one of the most important factors in the contraction of the Swift Fox range. Landscape alteration likely influences local and seasonal prey availability, increases risk of predation on Swift Foxes, and leads to competition with other predators such as the Coyote and Red Fox. In Canada, expansion of the oil and gas industry and associated road development are impacting previously isolated prairie areas. Greater urbanization coupled with Coyote control may facilitate Red Fox expansion, which could lead to the competitive exclusion of Swift Foxes in established prairie areas. Landowners who are attempting to protect their livestock from Coyote depredation use poisons illegally and Swift Foxes readily consume such baits.","Andersen et al. (2003) | Asa & Valdespino (2003) | Avery (1989) | Cameron (1984) | Carbyn et al. (1994) | Covell (1992) | Egoscue (1979) | Harrison (2003) | Herrero et al. (1991) | Hillman & Sharps (1978) | Hines & Case (1991) | Jackson & Choate (2000) | Kamler, Ballard, Fish et al. (2003) | Kamler, Ballard, Gese et al. (2004) | Kamler, Ballard, Gilliland et al. (2003) | Kilgore (1969) | Kitchen et al. (1999) | Mercure et al. (1993) | Moehrenschlager (2000) | Moehrenschlager & Macdonald (2003) | Moehrenschlager & Moehrenschlager (2001) | Moehrenschlager & Sovada (2004) | Olson et al. (1997) | Pechacek et al. (2000) | Pruss (1994) | Rohwer & Kilgore (1973) | Schauster et al. (2002a, 2002b) | Sovada & Carbyn (2003) | Sovada, Anthony & Batt (2001) | Sovada, Roy, Bright & Gillis, (1998) | Sovada, Roy & Telesco (2001) | Sovada, Slivinski & Woodward (2003) | Stromberg & Boyce (1986) | Tannerfeldt et al. (2003) | Uresk & Sharps (1986) | Zimmerman (1998) | Zimmerman et al. (2003) | Zumbaugh et al. (1985)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331211/files/figure.png,"25.Swift FoxVulpes veloxFrench:Renard véloce/ German:Prarie-Flinkfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro velozTaxonomy.Canis velox Say, 1823,River Platte region, USA.Phenotypically and ecologically similar to V. macrotis; interbreeding occurs in western Texasand eastern New Mexico, and some suggest these foxes are conspecific. Both are closely related to Arctic Foxes, and some authorities place the latter under Vulpes. Although significant geographic variation exists among Swift Foxes, their classification into northern (hebes) and southern (velox) subspecies is probably unjustified. Monotypic.Distribution.Great Plains in S Canada(Alberta& Saskatchewan) and USA(Montana, and from N Wyomingand SW South Dakotato C New Mexico& NW Texas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-54- 5 cmfor males and 47- 5-54 cmfor females,tail 25-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 2 cmfor females; weight 2- 2-5 kgfor males and 1-6- 2-3 kgfor females. One of the smallest canids; characteristic black patches on each side of the muzzle. The winter pelage is dark grayish across the back and sides extending to yellow-tan across the lowersides, legs, and the ventral surface of the tail. Black tail tip. The ventral fur is white with some buff on the chest. In summer, the fur is shorter and more rufous. The Swift Fox can be easily confused with the closely related Kit Fox. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Predominately short-grass and mixed-grass prairies in gently rolling or level terrain. In Kansas, Swift Foxes have been found to den and forage in fallow wheat fields. Survival rates between foxes in grassland and cropland sites were not significant ly different, suggesting that Swift Foxes may be able to adapt to such habitat in some cases. The distribution and density of dens are considered important components of Swift Fox habitat requirements, particularly in terms of evading Coyote predation or Red Fox competition.Food and Feeding.Swift Foxes are opportunistic foragers, feeding on a variety of mammals, but also birds, insects, plants, and carrion. Leporids have been reported as a primary prey item in several studies. In South Dakota, mammals accounted for 49% of prey occurrences, with Black-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) as the primary prey item. In Kansasand Nebraska, murid rodents were the most frequently occurring prey. Insects also present, but likely to constitute only a small portion of biomass. Birds and their eggs are also consumed, as are plant materials, including prickly pear cactus fruit, wild plums, and sunflower seeds, which are consumed relatively frequently but most often in relatively small amounts. Swift Foxes are mostly solitary hunters. Caching of food has been observed.Activity patterns.Swift Foxes forage throughout the night, and show some crepuscular activity. They will hunt diurnal species such as birds and ground squirrels in the summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The typical social group consists of a mated pair with pups, although occasionally a trio or group of two malesand two or three femaleshave been reported, with one breeding female and non-breeding helpers. Home range size averages between 10- 4 km* and 32- 3 km”. They are territorial: an individual will nearly totally exclude same-sex individuals from its core activity area. Areas used by mated pairs have minimal overlap with areas used by adjacent pairs. Pups remain with the parents until dispersal; in a study only 33% ofjuveniles had left natal home ranges by 9-5 months of age while all recaptured individuals aged 18 months or older had dispersed. Vocal repertoire in captivity consists of courting/ territorial call, agonistic chatter, submissive whine, submissive chatter, precopulatory call, growls, excited yips and barks, and social yips.Breeding.Primarily monogamous, although additional female helpers are occasionally observed at den sites. Swift Foxes are monoestrous and the timing of breeding (December to March) is dependent upon latitude. The mean gestation period is 51 days and average litter sizes of 2-4-5-7 have been reported. In Colorado, litter sizes were greater for mated pairs with helpers than for those without. Pups open their eyes at 10-15 days, emerge from the natal den after approximately one month, and are weaned at 6-7 weeks of age. Both members of the pair provide for the young, and juveniles remain with the adults for 4-6 months. Swift Foxes are among the most burrowdependent canids and depend on dens throughout the year. They will excavate their own dens and modify the burrows of other species. Dens serve several functions, such as providing a refuge from predators, protection from extreme climate conditions in both summer and winter, and shelter for raising young.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Swift Fox has been down-listed from “extirpated” to “endangered” in Canadaas a result of reintroduction programs. Following their extirpation by 1938, reintroduction releases since 1983 have established a small Swift Fox population in Alberta, Saskatchewanand Montana, which now constitutes the northern extent of the species’ range. In the USA, the species was cited as “warranted, but precluded” from endangered status under the federal Endangered Species Act. Swift Foxes are primarily prairie specialists, and conversion of grassland to cropland threatens to reduce population sizes and further fragment populations. The conversion of native grassland prairies has been implicated as one of the most important factors in the contraction of the Swift Fox range. Landscape alteration likely influences local and seasonal prey availability, increases risk of predation on Swift Foxes, and leads to competition with other predators such as the Coyote and Red Fox. In Canada, expansion of the oil and gas industry and associated road development are impacting previously isolated prairie areas. Greater urbanization coupled with Coyote control may facilitate Red Fox expansion, which could lead to the competitive exclusion of Swift Foxes in established prairie areas. Landowners who are attempting to protect their livestock from Coyote depredation use poisons illegally and Swift Foxes readily consume such baits.Bibliography.Andersen et al. (2003), Asa & Valdespino (2003), Avery (1989), Cameron (1984), Carbyn et al. (1994), Covell (1992), Egoscue (1979), Harrison (2003), Herrero et al. (1991), Hillman & Sharps (1978), Hines & Case (1991), Jackson & Choate (2000), Kamler, Ballard, Fish et al. (2003), Kamler, Ballard, Gese et al. (2004), Kamler, Ballard, Gilliland et al. (2003), Kilgore (1969), Kitchen et al. (1999), Mercure et al. (1993), Moehrenschlager (2000), Moehrenschlager & Macdonald (2003), Moehrenschlager & Moehrenschlager (2001), Moehrenschlager & Sovada (2004), Olson et al. (1997), Pechacek et al. (2000), Pruss (1994), Rohwer & Kilgore (1973), Schauster et al. (2002a, 2002b), Sovada & Carbyn (2003), Sovada, Anthony & Batt (2001), Sovada, Roy, Bright & Gillis, (1998), Sovada, Roy & Telesco (2001), Sovada, Slivinski & Woodward (2003), Stromberg & Boyce (1986), Tannerfeldt et al. (2003), Uresk & Sharps (1986), Zimmerman (1998), Zimmerman et al. (2003), Zumbaugh et al. (1985)." -03ACCF40BF2EFFD37BA2F972F749DFFB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,436,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2EFFD37BA2F972F749DFFB.xml,Alopex lagopus,Alopex,lagopus,,,Renard arctique @fr | Polarfuchs @de | Zorro artico @es | Polar Fox @en,"Canis lagopus Linnaeus, 1758,Lapland, Sweden.Sometimes placed as subgenus of Vulpesor Canis. The most closely related species are V. veloxand V. macrotis, neither of which occur in the tundra. Four subspecies recognized.","A. l. lagopus Linnaeus, 1758— most of the circumpolar range, in all Arctic tundra habitats.A. l. beringensis Merriam, 1902— Russia(Commander Is).A. l. fuliginosus Bechstein, 1799— Iceland, Greenland, Svalbard.A.l. pribilofensis Merriam, 1902— Alaska(Pribilof Is).","Head-body 55-75 cm(males), 50-65 cm(females), tail 28-42- 5 cmfor males and 25- 5-32 cmfemales; weight 3-58- 4-23 kgfor males and 3-14- 3-69 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger than females. A small fox with rather short legs and a long fluffy tail. Thick and soft winter fur with dense underfur and long guard hairs. Occurs in two distinct color morphs, “blue” and “white”. Both morphs change seasonally: “blue” molts from chocolate brown in summer to paler brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, the “white” morph is almost pure white with a few dark hairs at the tip of the tail and along the spine; in summer,it is brown dorsally and pale gray to white on its underside. Color morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, “white” being recessive. The “blue” morph comprisesless than 1% of the population throughout most of its continental range, but comprises 25-30% in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland) and 65-70% in Iceland. The proportion of “blue” morphs also increases in coastal areas and on islands, where it can reach up to 100% (e.g. Mednyi Island, Russia; St. Paul Island, Alaska). Within each morph, there is considerable variation in appearance, which seems to be independent of the genetic locus for color morph. In Sweden, there occasionally are sand-colored foxes in summer, but they appear to be of the “white” morph without brown pigment, and in Iceland, cinnamon colored foxes of both the white and blue color morph occur. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Arctic and alpine tundra of Eurasia, North America, and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland, and Svalbard. Sub-Arctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands, and coastal Iceland.","The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger. In most inland areasit is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. Main prey include Lemmings, both Lemmus spp. and Dicrostonyx spp. In Fennoscandia, L. lemmus was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in feces) followed by birds (Passeriformes,Galliformes,and Caridriiformes, 34%) and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus, 21%). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (Lagopusspp.) are common prey, in addition to rodents and Reindeer. Changes in Fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles. Foxes living near icefree coasts have access to inland prey and also sea birds, seal carcasses, fish, and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy. In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Icelandfeed on seabirds (Uria aalge, U. lomvia), seal carcasses, and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on Ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer. In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally. Arctic Foxes forage singly, presumably the most efficient foraging technique in view of the species’ main prey base of rodents and birds. When food is abundant, they cache food forlater use. Caches can contain single prey items or a variety of items, and sometimes include lemmings or goose eggs.","Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.","Arctic Foxes remain active year round. They are primarily nocturnal, but exhibit flexible activity patterns, often in accordance with main prey species.","The basic social unit of the Arctic Fox is the breeding pair. Both parents take an active part in rearing the pups. For the first three weeks after birth, the pups are mostly dependent on milk and the female rarely leaves the natal den. During this time, the male provides food for the female. As meat increasingly forms a larger proportion of the pups’ diet, the roles of the parents become more similar and the female takes an active part in hunting and provisioning the pups. Non-breeding foxes, usually yearlings from the previous litter, may help. Supernumerary females generally emigrate before the pups attain independence of the den at 8-10 weeks. However, on Mednyi Island, there are permanent Arctic Fox groups comprising up to six adults, and complex social systems have also been observed on otherislands. Temporary groups of non-breeding individuals are also sometimes formed. Arctic Foxes normally are strongly territorial when breeding, with natal dens generally used by only one family group. Breeding pairs remain together in the same territory and use the same natal den for up to five years. Territories may include more than a single breeding pair, and closely related breeding pairs may even share a den. Home ranges in inland areas vary with lemming abundance (15-36 km?), but generally are smaller in coastal habitats (e.g. 5-21 km? in Alaska). On Svalbard, home range sizes range from 10 km? to as large as 125 km®. Home ranges of group members generally overlap widely with each other, but very little with those of neighboring groups. Scent marking of territories with urine is common. Vocalizations and postures such as an erected tail to attract the attention of conspecifics are common during territory disputes. In Alaska, seasonal migrations are reported when individuals leave breeding grounds in autumn, travel to the coast, and return in late winter or early spring. Large-scale emigrations have been recorded in Canada, Fennoscandia, and Russia. These may result from drastic reductions in food supplies, such as a population crash in lemmings.Breeding.Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Fox, however, is regionally threatened in Sweden(“endangered”), Finland(“critical”) and mainland Norway(“endangered”). In 1983, following the introduction of mange caused by ear canker mites (Otodectes cynotis) transmitted by dogs, the Mednyi Island foxes were listed in the Russian Red Data Book. The world population of Arctic Foxes is on the order of several hundred thousand animals. In most areas, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland, and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia), and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations appear to be declining further. In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have received total legal protection in Swedensince 1928, in Norwaysince 1930, and in Finlandsince 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE) and is therefore given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining population currently has no legal protection. In Norway(Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of trapping laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves. Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox; however, the decline of the fur industry has reduced the threat of over-exploitation for most populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred Blue Foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution, as occurs on St. Paul Island. Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.","Angerbjorn, Hersteinsson & Tannerfeldt (2004) | Angerbjorn, Stroman & Becker (1997) | Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt, Bjarvall et al. (1995) | Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt & Erlinge (1999) | Audet et al. (2002) | Chesemore (1975) | Dalerum et al. (2002) | Eberhardt, Garrott & Hanson (1983) | Eberhardt, Hanson et al. (1982) | Eimhagen et al. (2000) | Frafjord (1994) | Frafjord & Kruchenkova (1995) | Frafjord & Prestrud (1992) | Garrott & Eberhardt (1982, 1987) | Hersteinsson (1984) | Hersteinsson & Macdonald (1982, 1992, 1996) | Hersteinsson et al. (1989) | Kaikusalo & Angerbjorn (1995) | Macpherson (1969) | Nasimovic & Isakov (1985) | Ovsyanikov (1993) | Prestrud (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢) | Samelius & Lee (1998) | Tannerfeldt & Angerbjorn (1998)",,"24.Arctic FoxAlopex lagopusFrench:Renard arctique/ German:Polarfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro articoOther common names:Polar FoxTaxonomy.Canis lagopus Linnaeus, 1758,Lapland, Sweden.Sometimes placed as subgenus of Vulpesor Canis. The most closely related species are V. veloxand V. macrotis, neither of which occur in the tundra. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. l. lagopus Linnaeus, 1758— most of the circumpolar range, in all Arctic tundra habitats.A. l. beringensis Merriam, 1902— Russia(Commander Is).A. l. fuliginosus Bechstein, 1799— Iceland, Greenland, Svalbard.A.l. pribilofensis Merriam, 1902— Alaska(Pribilof Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-75 cm(males), 50-65 cm(females), tail 28-42- 5 cmfor males and 25- 5-32 cmfemales; weight 3-58- 4-23 kgfor males and 3-14- 3-69 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger than females. A small fox with rather short legs and a long fluffy tail. Thick and soft winter fur with dense underfur and long guard hairs. Occurs in two distinct color morphs, “blue” and “white”. Both morphs change seasonally: “blue” molts from chocolate brown in summer to paler brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, the “white” morph is almost pure white with a few dark hairs at the tip of the tail and along the spine; in summer,it is brown dorsally and pale gray to white on its underside. Color morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, “white” being recessive. The “blue” morph comprisesless than 1% of the population throughout most of its continental range, but comprises 25-30% in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland) and 65-70% in Iceland. The proportion of “blue” morphs also increases in coastal areas and on islands, where it can reach up to 100% (e.g. Mednyi Island, Russia; St. Paul Island, Alaska). Within each morph, there is considerable variation in appearance, which seems to be independent of the genetic locus for color morph. In Sweden, there occasionally are sand-colored foxes in summer, but they appear to be of the “white” morph without brown pigment, and in Iceland, cinnamon colored foxes of both the white and blue color morph occur. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Arctic and alpine tundra of Eurasia, North America, and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland, and Svalbard. Sub-Arctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands, and coastal Iceland.Food and Feeding.The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger. In most inland areasit is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. Main prey include Lemmings, both Lemmus spp. and Dicrostonyx spp. In Fennoscandia, L. lemmus was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in feces) followed by birds (Passeriformes,Galliformes,and Caridriiformes, 34%) and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus, 21%). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (Lagopusspp.) are common prey, in addition to rodents and Reindeer. Changes in Fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles. Foxes living near icefree coasts have access to inland prey and also sea birds, seal carcasses, fish, and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy. In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Icelandfeed on seabirds (Uria aalge, U. lomvia), seal carcasses, and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on Ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer. In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally. Arctic Foxes forage singly, presumably the most efficient foraging technique in view of the species’ main prey base of rodents and birds. When food is abundant, they cache food forlater use. Caches can contain single prey items or a variety of items, and sometimes include lemmings or goose eggs.Activity patterns.Arctic Foxes remain active year round. They are primarily nocturnal, but exhibit flexible activity patterns, often in accordance with main prey species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit of the Arctic Fox is the breeding pair. Both parents take an active part in rearing the pups. For the first three weeks after birth, the pups are mostly dependent on milk and the female rarely leaves the natal den. During this time, the male provides food for the female. As meat increasingly forms a larger proportion of the pups’ diet, the roles of the parents become more similar and the female takes an active part in hunting and provisioning the pups. Non-breeding foxes, usually yearlings from the previous litter, may help. Supernumerary females generally emigrate before the pups attain independence of the den at 8-10 weeks. However, on Mednyi Island, there are permanent Arctic Fox groups comprising up to six adults, and complex social systems have also been observed on otherislands. Temporary groups of non-breeding individuals are also sometimes formed. Arctic Foxes normally are strongly territorial when breeding, with natal dens generally used by only one family group. Breeding pairs remain together in the same territory and use the same natal den for up to five years. Territories may include more than a single breeding pair, and closely related breeding pairs may even share a den. Home ranges in inland areas vary with lemming abundance (15-36 km?), but generally are smaller in coastal habitats (e.g. 5-21 km? in Alaska). On Svalbard, home range sizes range from 10 km? to as large as 125 km®. Home ranges of group members generally overlap widely with each other, but very little with those of neighboring groups. Scent marking of territories with urine is common. Vocalizations and postures such as an erected tail to attract the attention of conspecifics are common during territory disputes. In Alaska, seasonal migrations are reported when individuals leave breeding grounds in autumn, travel to the coast, and return in late winter or early spring. Large-scale emigrations have been recorded in Canada, Fennoscandia, and Russia. These may result from drastic reductions in food supplies, such as a population crash in lemmings.Breeding.Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Fox, however, is regionally threatened in Sweden(“endangered”), Finland(“critical”) and mainland Norway(“endangered”). In 1983, following the introduction of mange caused by ear canker mites (Otodectes cynotis) transmitted by dogs, the Mednyi Island foxes were listed in the Russian Red Data Book. The world population of Arctic Foxes is on the order of several hundred thousand animals. In most areas, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland, and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia), and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations appear to be declining further. In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have received total legal protection in Swedensince 1928, in Norwaysince 1930, and in Finlandsince 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE) and is therefore given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining population currently has no legal protection. In Norway(Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of trapping laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves. Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox; however, the decline of the fur industry has reduced the threat of over-exploitation for most populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred Blue Foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution, as occurs on St. Paul Island. Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.Bibliography.Angerbjorn, Hersteinsson & Tannerfeldt (2004), Angerbjorn, Stroman & Becker (1997), Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt, Bjarvall et al. (1995), Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt & Erlinge (1999), Audet et al. (2002), Chesemore (1975), Dalerum et al. (2002), Eberhardt, Garrott & Hanson (1983), Eberhardt, Hanson et al. (1982), Eimhagen et al. (2000), Frafjord (1994), Frafjord & Kruchenkova (1995), Frafjord & Prestrud (1992), Garrott & Eberhardt (1982, 1987), Hersteinsson (1984), Hersteinsson & Macdonald (1982, 1992, 1996), Hersteinsson et al. (1989), Kaikusalo & Angerbjorn (1995), Macpherson (1969), Nasimovic & Isakov (1985), Ovsyanikov (1993), Prestrud (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢), Samelius & Lee (1998), Tannerfeldt & Angerbjorn (1998)." -03ACCF40BF2FFFD07B93F577F990D8DF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,435,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2FFFD07B93F577F990D8DF.xml,Otocyon megalotis,Otocyon,megalotis,,,Otocyon @fr | Loffelhund @de | Zorro orejudo @es,"Canis megalotis Desmarest, 1822, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Included by some authors in a separate subfamily, the Otocyoninae, on account ofits atypical dentition. More recently this species was considered to have affinities with the vulpine line. Occurs in two distinct populations that are geographically separated by about 1000 km. The two populations were probably connected during the Pleistocene. Two subspecies are recognized.On following pages: 24. Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus); 25. Swift Fox (Vulpes velox); 26. Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis).","O. m. megalotis Desmarest, 1822— S Africa.O. m. virgatus G. S. Miller, 1909— E Africa.","Head-body 46-2—-60- 7 cmfor males and 46-7-60- 7 cmfor females, tail 23-34 cmfor males and 27- 8-34 cmfor females; weight 3-4— 4-9 kgfor males and 3-2-5- 4 kgfor females. A small, slight animal with slender legs, a long bushy tail and conspicuouslylarge ears. Males are often slightly heavier than females. The back of the ears, front part of the snout, face mask, front and lower part of the back legs, and the mid-dorsal part of the tail are black. A whitish band extends from across the forehead up the first three quarters of the frontal rim of the ears. Some animals have a broad dark mid-dorsal band. Beige to honey-colored fur covers the lower jaw, the throat, chest, and underparts. The body and tail fur is thick and soft on the upper parts, with a black base and white tip, giving a grizzled or gray appearance. Bat-eared Foxes have 46-50 teeth, the largest number for any non-marsupial land mammal. They are unique amongst living eutherians (odontocetes excepted) in having four to five functional lower molars, and are the only modern canids with three to four upper molars.The milk dentition is typically canid, with unreduced carnassials. In adults, the carnassial shear is lost and molars become the most bunodont, verging on zalambdodont, of any canid. Supernumerary molars yield a dentition of 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3-4/4-5 = 46-50.","In southern Africa prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground, but foxes are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid or semi-arid shrub land and open arid savannah. The range of Bat-eared Foxes overlaps almost completely with that of termites of the Hodotermes and Microhodotermes genera that prevail in their diet. In East Africa Bat-eared Foxes are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries, but not on short-grass plains. Those areas occupied by Bateared Foxes usually contain more harvester termite (1. mossambicus) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates where beetles are likely to be found.","Insects are the primary food sources in open grassland and woodland edge habitats. Harvester termites and beetles are typically the most commonly consumed prey items. Diet is supplemented by orthopterans, beetle larvae, and ants. In open shrub savannahs, arachnids and fruit (consumed seasonally) may be among the more common food items. Small mammals, birds, eggs, and reptiles are eaten sporadically in southern Africa, but rarely in eastern Africa. There 1s seasonal variation in the proportion of particular taxa consumed: in the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food during the rainy season, when termite activity is reduced. When both beetles and termites are scarce, Bat-eared Foxes will dig up beetle larvae from the ground. Harvester termites and dung beetles are more abundant in areas inhabited by clusters of Bat-eared Fox families, and local differences in H. mossambicus density are inversely related to territory size. Although Fox water requirements may be met by the high water content of their insect prey or by berries during the summer, water is nevertheless a critical resource during lactation. Groups forage as a unit. Foraging techniques depend on prey type, but food is often located by walking slowly, nose close to the ground and ears cocked forward. Prey is detected mostly by sound and often excavated by digging. Foraging and feeding rates are higher when feeding on termite patches than on more dispersed insects. When feeding on termite patches, group members feed closely together, but when feeding on beetles, beetle larvae or grasshoppers, they can forage up to 200 mapart.","Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.","Changes in daily and seasonal H. mossambicus availability directly affect Bat-eared Fox activity patterns. Activity is mostly nocturnal in eastern Africa. In southern Africa, nocturnal foraging during summer gradually changes to an almost exclusively diurnal pattern in winter, in accordance with the activity changes of H. mossambicus. Diurnal foraging peaks when insect activity is highest. Bat-eared Fox groups in the Serengeti frequently patrol known Hodotermes patches in their territory after leaving the den in the evening.","In southern Africa Bat-eared Foxes live in monogamous pairs with their pups, while in eastern Africa they live in stable family groups consisting of a male and up to three closely related females with pups. Adult group size varies with the time of year, with a mean of 2-7 for southern Africa and 2-4 for eastern Africa; group size prior to pup dispersal is six. Additional females in extended family groups are usually philopatric daughters, sometimes from several generations, organized in an age-based hierarchy where all females breed. Young pups are taught to forage by the male, and social learning by pups also seemsto play a role. In the Serengeti, parents facilitate better access to H. mossambicus patches by regularly guiding the smaller and more vulnerable pups from the breeding den to “nocturnal feeding dens”. Nuclear family groups persist until cub dispersal. Home ranges vary from less than 1 km? to more than 3 km?. Home ranges overlap widely and may be clustered around harvester termite colonies. Territories are patrolled and urine-marked during part of the year. Group size determines the outcome of territorial conflicts. Territory inheritance is not uncommon in the Serengeti and neighboring groups can be closely related, with animals visiting each other from time to time. Foxes engage in frequent and extended allogrooming sessions, which increase markedly during courtship. Vigorous and extended social play is very common, including among adults after the young have dispersed. Communication is primarily visual, and often based on a variety of ear and tail positions. The unique “inverted U” position of the tail, for example,is indicative of variousstates of arousal including fear, play and alarm. Vocalizations are mostly soft and sparingly used, except when the Foxes are highly alarmed or excited during play.Breeding.Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. No current legal protection known. The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farmland. Primary threats are hunting for skins, persecution as erroneously perceived predators of young lambs, and road kills. Population numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability, breeding stage and disease. Rabies and canine distemper have been reported to cause drastic population declines in some areas.","Berry (1978) | Gittleman (1989) | Guilday (1962) | Kieser (1995) | Koop & Velimirov (1982) | Kuntzsch & Nel (1992) | Lamprecht (1979) | Le Clus (1971) | Maas (1993a, 1993b) | Maas & Macdonald (2004) | Mackie (1988) | Mackie & Nel (1989) | Malcolm (1986) | Nel (1978, 1990, 1993, 1999) | Nel & Bester (1983) | Nel & Maas (2004) | Nel & Mackie (1990) | Nel et al. (1984) | Pauw (2000) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers (1971) | Stuart (1981) | Waser (1980)",,"23.Bat-eared FoxOtocyon megalotisFrench:Otocyon/ German:Loffelhund/ Spanish:Zorro orejudoTaxonomy.Canis megalotis Desmarest, 1822, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Included by some authors in a separate subfamily, the Otocyoninae, on account ofits atypical dentition. More recently this species was considered to have affinities with the vulpine line. Occurs in two distinct populations that are geographically separated by about 1000 km. The two populations were probably connected during the Pleistocene. Two subspecies are recognized.On following pages: 24. Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus); 25. Swift Fox (Vulpes velox); 26. Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis).Subspecies and Distribution.O. m. megalotis Desmarest, 1822— S Africa.O. m. virgatus G. S. Miller, 1909— E Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 46-2—-60- 7 cmfor males and 46-7-60- 7 cmfor females, tail 23-34 cmfor males and 27- 8-34 cmfor females; weight 3-4— 4-9 kgfor males and 3-2-5- 4 kgfor females. A small, slight animal with slender legs, a long bushy tail and conspicuouslylarge ears. Males are often slightly heavier than females. The back of the ears, front part of the snout, face mask, front and lower part of the back legs, and the mid-dorsal part of the tail are black. A whitish band extends from across the forehead up the first three quarters of the frontal rim of the ears. Some animals have a broad dark mid-dorsal band. Beige to honey-colored fur covers the lower jaw, the throat, chest, and underparts. The body and tail fur is thick and soft on the upper parts, with a black base and white tip, giving a grizzled or gray appearance. Bat-eared Foxes have 46-50 teeth, the largest number for any non-marsupial land mammal. They are unique amongst living eutherians (odontocetes excepted) in having four to five functional lower molars, and are the only modern canids with three to four upper molars.The milk dentition is typically canid, with unreduced carnassials. In adults, the carnassial shear is lost and molars become the most bunodont, verging on zalambdodont, of any canid. Supernumerary molars yield a dentition of 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3-4/4-5 = 46-50.Habitat.In southern Africa prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground, but foxes are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid or semi-arid shrub land and open arid savannah. The range of Bat-eared Foxes overlaps almost completely with that of termites of the Hodotermes and Microhodotermes genera that prevail in their diet. In East Africa Bat-eared Foxes are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries, but not on short-grass plains. Those areas occupied by Bateared Foxes usually contain more harvester termite (1. mossambicus) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates where beetles are likely to be found.Food and Feeding.Insects are the primary food sources in open grassland and woodland edge habitats. Harvester termites and beetles are typically the most commonly consumed prey items. Diet is supplemented by orthopterans, beetle larvae, and ants. In open shrub savannahs, arachnids and fruit (consumed seasonally) may be among the more common food items. Small mammals, birds, eggs, and reptiles are eaten sporadically in southern Africa, but rarely in eastern Africa. There 1s seasonal variation in the proportion of particular taxa consumed: in the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food during the rainy season, when termite activity is reduced. When both beetles and termites are scarce, Bat-eared Foxes will dig up beetle larvae from the ground. Harvester termites and dung beetles are more abundant in areas inhabited by clusters of Bat-eared Fox families, and local differences in H. mossambicus density are inversely related to territory size. Although Fox water requirements may be met by the high water content of their insect prey or by berries during the summer, water is nevertheless a critical resource during lactation. Groups forage as a unit. Foraging techniques depend on prey type, but food is often located by walking slowly, nose close to the ground and ears cocked forward. Prey is detected mostly by sound and often excavated by digging. Foraging and feeding rates are higher when feeding on termite patches than on more dispersed insects. When feeding on termite patches, group members feed closely together, but when feeding on beetles, beetle larvae or grasshoppers, they can forage up to 200 mapart.Activity patterns.Changes in daily and seasonal H. mossambicus availability directly affect Bat-eared Fox activity patterns. Activity is mostly nocturnal in eastern Africa. In southern Africa, nocturnal foraging during summer gradually changes to an almost exclusively diurnal pattern in winter, in accordance with the activity changes of H. mossambicus. Diurnal foraging peaks when insect activity is highest. Bat-eared Fox groups in the Serengeti frequently patrol known Hodotermes patches in their territory after leaving the den in the evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Africa Bat-eared Foxes live in monogamous pairs with their pups, while in eastern Africa they live in stable family groups consisting of a male and up to three closely related females with pups. Adult group size varies with the time of year, with a mean of 2-7 for southern Africa and 2-4 for eastern Africa; group size prior to pup dispersal is six. Additional females in extended family groups are usually philopatric daughters, sometimes from several generations, organized in an age-based hierarchy where all females breed. Young pups are taught to forage by the male, and social learning by pups also seemsto play a role. In the Serengeti, parents facilitate better access to H. mossambicus patches by regularly guiding the smaller and more vulnerable pups from the breeding den to “nocturnal feeding dens”. Nuclear family groups persist until cub dispersal. Home ranges vary from less than 1 km? to more than 3 km?. Home ranges overlap widely and may be clustered around harvester termite colonies. Territories are patrolled and urine-marked during part of the year. Group size determines the outcome of territorial conflicts. Territory inheritance is not uncommon in the Serengeti and neighboring groups can be closely related, with animals visiting each other from time to time. Foxes engage in frequent and extended allogrooming sessions, which increase markedly during courtship. Vigorous and extended social play is very common, including among adults after the young have dispersed. Communication is primarily visual, and often based on a variety of ear and tail positions. The unique “inverted U” position of the tail, for example,is indicative of variousstates of arousal including fear, play and alarm. Vocalizations are mostly soft and sparingly used, except when the Foxes are highly alarmed or excited during play.Breeding.Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. No current legal protection known. The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farmland. Primary threats are hunting for skins, persecution as erroneously perceived predators of young lambs, and road kills. Population numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability, breeding stage and disease. Rabies and canine distemper have been reported to cause drastic population declines in some areas.Bibliography.Berry (1978), Gittleman (1989), Guilday (1962), Kieser (1995), Koop & Velimirov (1982), Kuntzsch & Nel (1992), Lamprecht (1979), Le Clus (1971), Maas (1993a, 1993b), Maas & Macdonald (2004), Mackie (1988), Mackie & Nel (1989), Malcolm (1986), Nel (1978, 1990, 1993, 1999), Nel & Bester (1983), Nel & Maas (2004), Nel & Mackie (1990), Nel et al. (1984), Pauw (2000), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers (1971), Stuart (1981), Waser (1980)." -03ACCF40BF2FFFD17E8FFE39F964D4DF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,435,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2FFFD17E8FFE39F964D4DF.xml,Nyctereutes procyonoides,Nyctereutes,procyonoides,,,Tanuki @fr | Marderhund @de | Perro mapache @es | Tanuki @en,"Canis procyonoides Gray, 1834,Canton, China.The Raccoon Dog lineage probably diverged from other canids as early as 7-10 million years ago. Some features of the skull resemble those of South American canids, especially the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous), but genetic studies have revealed that they are not close relatives. Six subspecies are recognized.","N. p. procyonoides Gray, 1834— W & SW Chinaand N Indochina.N. p. albus Hornaday, 1904— Japan(Hokkaido).N. p. koreensis Mori, 1922— Korean Peninsula.N. p. orestes Thomas, 1923— C & S China.N. p. ussuriensis Matschie, 1907— NE China, E Mongolia, and SE Russia.N. p. viverrinus Temminck, 1839— Japan.Introduced (ussuriensis) to the Baltic states, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, W Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, and Ukraine, occasionally seen in Austria, Bosnia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Switzerland.","Head-body 49-2-70- 5 cmfor males and 50- 5-69 cmfor females, tail 15-23 cmfor males and 15-20- 5 cmfor females; weight 2:9-12- 4 kgfor males and 3-12- 5 kgfor females. In autumn and winter, race ussuriensisis very fat and has thick fur, giving an expression of a round animal with short, thin legs. Black facial mask, small rounded ears, and pointed muzzle. Hair is long on cheeks. The body color varies from yellow to gray or reddish, with black hairs on the back and shoulders and also dorsally on the tail. Legs, feet, and chest are dark. Underhair is gray or reddish. The tail is rather short and covered with thick hair. In summer when the fur is thin and fat reserves small, the animal looks much slimmer than in autumn. Dental formula 1s13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; M, sometimes missing. Body size of race albusis smaller than that of ussuriensis. Race viverrinus is similar to albus but with somewhat shorter fur, shorter hindlegs, and generally darker color. Skull and teeth are smaller than those of ussuriensis. Mandible width and jaw height for the skull and the lower and upper molars clearly distinguish the two subspecies.","Typically found near water, and during autumn, habitat selection appears to be affected by reliance on fruits and berries. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to sub-alpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitats and is less likely to use Cryptomeria plantations throughout the year, although riparian areas are often used. In urban environments, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, they avoid dense forests in favor of open landscapes, especially damp meadows and agricultural land. In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favor moist forests and shores ofrivers and lakes, especially in early summer. In late summer and autumn they favor moist heaths with abundant berries. In the Finnish archipelago, however, they prefer barren pine forests, where they feed on crowberries (Empetrum nigrum).","Raccoon Dogs are omnivores and seasonal food habits shift as food availability changes. In most areas small rodents form the bulk of their diet in all seasons. Frogs, lizards, invertebrates, insects (including adults and larvae of Orthoptera, Coleoptera,Hemiptera,Diptera,Lepidoptera,Odonata), and birds and their eggs are also consumed, especially in early summer. Plants are eaten frequently; berries and fruits serve as an important and favored food source in late summer and autumn, when Raccoon Dogs decrease their food intake before entering winter dormancy. Oats, sweet corn, watermelon, and other agriculture products often are found in Raccoon Dog stomachs. Carrion, fish, and crustaceans are consumed when available. As opportunistic generalists, Raccoon Dogs forage by searching close to the ground and may also climb trees for fruits. They mainly forage in pairs, usually wandering some distance from each other.","Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.","Mainly nocturnal, leaving their dens 1-2 hours after sunset. When they have pups, females also forage during the daytime while the male is babysitting. In spring, Raccoon Dogs are also seen during daytime when sunbathing on south-facing slopes ofhills. In areas where winters are harsh they enter a form of hibernation (winter lethargy) in November and become active again in March. The Raccoon Dog is the only canid known to hibernate.","Both males and females defend their home range against individuals of the same sex. Home range size varies according to the abundance of food. The core areas of different pairs are fully exclusive, especially during the breeding season. Peripheral areas of home ranges may overlap to some extent. In autumn there is more overlap than in spring and summer. Different pairs seem to avoid each other even when their home ranges partially overlap. Resting sites may be shared with related family members, and latrine sites may be shared by several individuals. Home range sizes in Russiavary from 0-4- 20 km? (larger ranges in introduced populations in western Russia). In southern Finland, home ranges recorded by radio-tracking ranged from 2-8 to 7 km®. In Japan, home range size varies from as little as 0-07 km? in an urban setting to 6- 1 km? in a sub-alpine area. Strictly monogamous, the male and female form a permanent pair, sharing a home range and foraging together. Only if one of the pair dies will the remaining member form a new pair bond. Some non-paired adults may stay within the same area and/or share the resting or feeding sites or dens, but usually do not move together. Raccoon Dogs do not bark, but growl when menaced. In Japantheir vocalizations are higher in tone than those of a domestic dog and more or less resemble the sounds of a domestic cat.Breeding.Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is hunted legally, hunting is permitted year round (e.g. Sweden, Hungaryand Poland). However, in Finlandfemales with pups are protected in May, June, and July, in Belarushunting is allowed from October to February, and in Mongoliahunting requires a license and is allowed only from October to February. In Japan, hunting and trapping of the species also requires a license or other form of permission and is restricted to a designated hunting season. Species abundance is unknown in the Far East outside ofJapan, where it is considered common. In its European range the species is common to abundant, although rare in Denmarkand Sweden. Threats across its range include road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper, and rabies), and pollution.","Bannikov (1964) | Fukue (1991, 1993) | Helle & Kauhala (1995) | Ikeda (1982, 1983) | Kauhala (1992, 1996) | Kauhala & Auniola (2000) | Kauhala & Helle (1995) | Kauhala & Saeki (2004) | Kauhala, Helle & Pietila (1998) | Kauhala, Helle & Taskinen (1993) | Kauhala, Kaunisto & Helle (1993) | Kauhala, Laukkanen & von Rége (1998) | Korhonen (1988) | Korhonen et al. (1991) | Kowalczyk et al. (1999, 2000) | Kozlov (1952) | Nasimovic & Isakov (1985) | Saeki (2001) | Ward & Wurster-Hill (1990) | Wayne (1993) | Yachimori (1997) | Yamamoto (1984) | Yamsnamoto et al. (1994) | Yoshioka et al. (1990)",,"22.Raccoon DogNyctereutes procyonoidesFrench:Tanuki/ German:Marderhund/ Spanish:Perro mapacheOther common names:TanukiTaxonomy.Canis procyonoides Gray, 1834,Canton, China.The Raccoon Dog lineage probably diverged from other canids as early as 7-10 million years ago. Some features of the skull resemble those of South American canids, especially the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous), but genetic studies have revealed that they are not close relatives. Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N. p. procyonoides Gray, 1834— W & SW Chinaand N Indochina.N. p. albus Hornaday, 1904— Japan(Hokkaido).N. p. koreensis Mori, 1922— Korean Peninsula.N. p. orestes Thomas, 1923— C & S China.N. p. ussuriensis Matschie, 1907— NE China, E Mongolia, and SE Russia.N. p. viverrinus Temminck, 1839— Japan.Introduced (ussuriensis) to the Baltic states, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, W Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, and Ukraine, occasionally seen in Austria, Bosnia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Switzerland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 49-2-70- 5 cmfor males and 50- 5-69 cmfor females, tail 15-23 cmfor males and 15-20- 5 cmfor females; weight 2:9-12- 4 kgfor males and 3-12- 5 kgfor females. In autumn and winter, race ussuriensisis very fat and has thick fur, giving an expression of a round animal with short, thin legs. Black facial mask, small rounded ears, and pointed muzzle. Hair is long on cheeks. The body color varies from yellow to gray or reddish, with black hairs on the back and shoulders and also dorsally on the tail. Legs, feet, and chest are dark. Underhair is gray or reddish. The tail is rather short and covered with thick hair. In summer when the fur is thin and fat reserves small, the animal looks much slimmer than in autumn. Dental formula 1s13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; M, sometimes missing. Body size of race albusis smaller than that of ussuriensis. Race viverrinus is similar to albus but with somewhat shorter fur, shorter hindlegs, and generally darker color. Skull and teeth are smaller than those of ussuriensis. Mandible width and jaw height for the skull and the lower and upper molars clearly distinguish the two subspecies.Habitat.Typically found near water, and during autumn, habitat selection appears to be affected by reliance on fruits and berries. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to sub-alpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitats and is less likely to use Cryptomeria plantations throughout the year, although riparian areas are often used. In urban environments, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, they avoid dense forests in favor of open landscapes, especially damp meadows and agricultural land. In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favor moist forests and shores ofrivers and lakes, especially in early summer. In late summer and autumn they favor moist heaths with abundant berries. In the Finnish archipelago, however, they prefer barren pine forests, where they feed on crowberries (Empetrum nigrum).Food and Feeding.Raccoon Dogs are omnivores and seasonal food habits shift as food availability changes. In most areas small rodents form the bulk of their diet in all seasons. Frogs, lizards, invertebrates, insects (including adults and larvae of Orthoptera, Coleoptera,Hemiptera,Diptera,Lepidoptera,Odonata), and birds and their eggs are also consumed, especially in early summer. Plants are eaten frequently; berries and fruits serve as an important and favored food source in late summer and autumn, when Raccoon Dogs decrease their food intake before entering winter dormancy. Oats, sweet corn, watermelon, and other agriculture products often are found in Raccoon Dog stomachs. Carrion, fish, and crustaceans are consumed when available. As opportunistic generalists, Raccoon Dogs forage by searching close to the ground and may also climb trees for fruits. They mainly forage in pairs, usually wandering some distance from each other.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, leaving their dens 1-2 hours after sunset. When they have pups, females also forage during the daytime while the male is babysitting. In spring, Raccoon Dogs are also seen during daytime when sunbathing on south-facing slopes ofhills. In areas where winters are harsh they enter a form of hibernation (winter lethargy) in November and become active again in March. The Raccoon Dog is the only canid known to hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both males and females defend their home range against individuals of the same sex. Home range size varies according to the abundance of food. The core areas of different pairs are fully exclusive, especially during the breeding season. Peripheral areas of home ranges may overlap to some extent. In autumn there is more overlap than in spring and summer. Different pairs seem to avoid each other even when their home ranges partially overlap. Resting sites may be shared with related family members, and latrine sites may be shared by several individuals. Home range sizes in Russiavary from 0-4- 20 km? (larger ranges in introduced populations in western Russia). In southern Finland, home ranges recorded by radio-tracking ranged from 2-8 to 7 km®. In Japan, home range size varies from as little as 0-07 km? in an urban setting to 6- 1 km? in a sub-alpine area. Strictly monogamous, the male and female form a permanent pair, sharing a home range and foraging together. Only if one of the pair dies will the remaining member form a new pair bond. Some non-paired adults may stay within the same area and/or share the resting or feeding sites or dens, but usually do not move together. Raccoon Dogs do not bark, but growl when menaced. In Japantheir vocalizations are higher in tone than those of a domestic dog and more or less resemble the sounds of a domestic cat.Breeding.Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is hunted legally, hunting is permitted year round (e.g. Sweden, Hungaryand Poland). However, in Finlandfemales with pups are protected in May, June, and July, in Belarushunting is allowed from October to February, and in Mongoliahunting requires a license and is allowed only from October to February. In Japan, hunting and trapping of the species also requires a license or other form of permission and is restricted to a designated hunting season. Species abundance is unknown in the Far East outside ofJapan, where it is considered common. In its European range the species is common to abundant, although rare in Denmarkand Sweden. Threats across its range include road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper, and rabies), and pollution.Bibliography.Bannikov (1964), Fukue (1991, 1993), Helle & Kauhala (1995), Ikeda (1982, 1983), Kauhala (1992, 1996), Kauhala & Auniola (2000), Kauhala & Helle (1995), Kauhala & Saeki (2004), Kauhala, Helle & Pietila (1998), Kauhala, Helle & Taskinen (1993), Kauhala, Kaunisto & Helle (1993), Kauhala, Laukkanen & von Rége (1998), Korhonen (1988), Korhonen et al. (1991), Kowalczyk et al. (1999, 2000), Kozlov (1952), Nasimovic & Isakov (1985), Saeki (2001), Ward & Wurster-Hill (1990), Wayne (1993), Yachimori (1997), Yamamoto (1984), Yamsnamoto et al. (1994), Yoshioka et al. (1990)." +03ACCF40BF2EFFD37BA2F972F749DFFB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,436,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2EFFD37BA2F972F749DFFB.xml,Alopex lagopus,Alopex,lagopus,,,Renard arctique @fr | Polarfuchs @de | Zorro artico @es | Polar Fox @en,"Canis lagopus Linnaeus, 1758,Lapland, Sweden.Sometimes placed as subgenus of Vulpesor Canis. The most closely related species are V. veloxand V. macrotis, neither of which occur in the tundra. Four subspecies recognized.","A. l. lagopus Linnaeus, 1758— most of the circumpolar range, in all Arctic tundra habitats.A. l. beringensis Merriam, 1902— Russia(Commander Is).A. l. fuliginosus Bechstein, 1799— Iceland, Greenland, Svalbard.A.l. pribilofensis Merriam, 1902— Alaska(Pribilof Is).","Head-body 55-75 cm(males), 50-65 cm(females), tail 28-42- 5 cmfor males and 25- 5-32 cmfemales; weight 3-58- 4-23 kgfor males and 3-14- 3-69 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger than females. A small fox with rather short legs and a long fluffy tail. Thick and soft winter fur with dense underfur and long guard hairs. Occurs in two distinct color morphs, “blue” and “white”. Both morphs change seasonally: “blue” molts from chocolate brown in summer to paler brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, the “white” morph is almost pure white with a few dark hairs at the tip of the tail and along the spine; in summer,it is brown dorsally and pale gray to white on its underside. Color morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, “white” being recessive. The “blue” morph comprisesless than 1% of the population throughout most of its continental range, but comprises 25-30% in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland) and 65-70% in Iceland. The proportion of “blue” morphs also increases in coastal areas and on islands, where it can reach up to 100% (e.g. Mednyi Island, Russia; St. Paul Island, Alaska). Within each morph, there is considerable variation in appearance, which seems to be independent of the genetic locus for color morph. In Sweden, there occasionally are sand-colored foxes in summer, but they appear to be of the “white” morph without brown pigment, and in Iceland, cinnamon colored foxes of both the white and blue color morph occur. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Arctic and alpine tundra of Eurasia, North America, and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland, and Svalbard. Sub-Arctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands, and coastal Iceland.","The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger. In most inland areasit is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. Main prey include Lemmings, both Lemmus spp. and Dicrostonyx spp. In Fennoscandia, L. lemmus was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in feces) followed by birds (Passeriformes,Galliformes,and Caridriiformes, 34%) and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus, 21%). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (Lagopusspp.) are common prey, in addition to rodents and Reindeer. Changes in Fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles. Foxes living near icefree coasts have access to inland prey and also sea birds, seal carcasses, fish, and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy. In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Icelandfeed on seabirds (Uria aalge, U. lomvia), seal carcasses, and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on Ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer. In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally. Arctic Foxes forage singly, presumably the most efficient foraging technique in view of the species’ main prey base of rodents and birds. When food is abundant, they cache food forlater use. Caches can contain single prey items or a variety of items, and sometimes include lemmings or goose eggs.","Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.","Arctic Foxes remain active year round. They are primarily nocturnal, but exhibit flexible activity patterns, often in accordance with main prey species.","The basic social unit of the Arctic Fox is the breeding pair. Both parents take an active part in rearing the pups. For the first three weeks after birth, the pups are mostly dependent on milk and the female rarely leaves the natal den. During this time, the male provides food for the female. As meat increasingly forms a larger proportion of the pups’ diet, the roles of the parents become more similar and the female takes an active part in hunting and provisioning the pups. Non-breeding foxes, usually yearlings from the previous litter, may help. Supernumerary females generally emigrate before the pups attain independence of the den at 8-10 weeks. However, on Mednyi Island, there are permanent Arctic Fox groups comprising up to six adults, and complex social systems have also been observed on otherislands. Temporary groups of non-breeding individuals are also sometimes formed. Arctic Foxes normally are strongly territorial when breeding, with natal dens generally used by only one family group. Breeding pairs remain together in the same territory and use the same natal den for up to five years. Territories may include more than a single breeding pair, and closely related breeding pairs may even share a den. Home ranges in inland areas vary with lemming abundance (15-36 km?), but generally are smaller in coastal habitats (e.g. 5-21 km? in Alaska). On Svalbard, home range sizes range from 10 km? to as large as 125 km®. Home ranges of group members generally overlap widely with each other, but very little with those of neighboring groups. Scent marking of territories with urine is common. Vocalizations and postures such as an erected tail to attract the attention of conspecifics are common during territory disputes. In Alaska, seasonal migrations are reported when individuals leave breeding grounds in autumn, travel to the coast, and return in late winter or early spring. Large-scale emigrations have been recorded in Canada, Fennoscandia, and Russia. These may result from drastic reductions in food supplies, such as a population crash in lemmings.Breeding.Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Fox, however, is regionally threatened in Sweden(“endangered”), Finland(“critical”) and mainland Norway(“endangered”). In 1983, following the introduction of mange caused by ear canker mites (Otodectes cynotis) transmitted by dogs, the Mednyi Island foxes were listed in the Russian Red Data Book. The world population of Arctic Foxes is on the order of several hundred thousand animals. In most areas, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland, and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia), and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations appear to be declining further. In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have received total legal protection in Swedensince 1928, in Norwaysince 1930, and in Finlandsince 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE) and is therefore given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining population currently has no legal protection. In Norway(Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of trapping laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves. Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox; however, the decline of the fur industry has reduced the threat of over-exploitation for most populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred Blue Foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution, as occurs on St. Paul Island. Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.","Angerbjorn, Hersteinsson & Tannerfeldt (2004) | Angerbjorn, Stroman & Becker (1997) | Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt, Bjarvall et al. (1995) | Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt & Erlinge (1999) | Audet et al. (2002) | Chesemore (1975) | Dalerum et al. (2002) | Eberhardt, Garrott & Hanson (1983) | Eberhardt, Hanson et al. (1982) | Eimhagen et al. (2000) | Frafjord (1994) | Frafjord & Kruchenkova (1995) | Frafjord & Prestrud (1992) | Garrott & Eberhardt (1982, 1987) | Hersteinsson (1984) | Hersteinsson & Macdonald (1982, 1992, 1996) | Hersteinsson et al. (1989) | Kaikusalo & Angerbjorn (1995) | Macpherson (1969) | Nasimovic & Isakov (1985) | Ovsyanikov (1993) | Prestrud (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢) | Samelius & Lee (1998) | Tannerfeldt & Angerbjorn (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331209/files/figure.png,"24.Arctic FoxAlopex lagopusFrench:Renard arctique/ German:Polarfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro articoOther common names:Polar FoxTaxonomy.Canis lagopus Linnaeus, 1758,Lapland, Sweden.Sometimes placed as subgenus of Vulpesor Canis. The most closely related species are V. veloxand V. macrotis, neither of which occur in the tundra. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. l. lagopus Linnaeus, 1758— most of the circumpolar range, in all Arctic tundra habitats.A. l. beringensis Merriam, 1902— Russia(Commander Is).A. l. fuliginosus Bechstein, 1799— Iceland, Greenland, Svalbard.A.l. pribilofensis Merriam, 1902— Alaska(Pribilof Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-75 cm(males), 50-65 cm(females), tail 28-42- 5 cmfor males and 25- 5-32 cmfemales; weight 3-58- 4-23 kgfor males and 3-14- 3-69 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger than females. A small fox with rather short legs and a long fluffy tail. Thick and soft winter fur with dense underfur and long guard hairs. Occurs in two distinct color morphs, “blue” and “white”. Both morphs change seasonally: “blue” molts from chocolate brown in summer to paler brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, the “white” morph is almost pure white with a few dark hairs at the tip of the tail and along the spine; in summer,it is brown dorsally and pale gray to white on its underside. Color morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, “white” being recessive. The “blue” morph comprisesless than 1% of the population throughout most of its continental range, but comprises 25-30% in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland) and 65-70% in Iceland. The proportion of “blue” morphs also increases in coastal areas and on islands, where it can reach up to 100% (e.g. Mednyi Island, Russia; St. Paul Island, Alaska). Within each morph, there is considerable variation in appearance, which seems to be independent of the genetic locus for color morph. In Sweden, there occasionally are sand-colored foxes in summer, but they appear to be of the “white” morph without brown pigment, and in Iceland, cinnamon colored foxes of both the white and blue color morph occur. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Arctic and alpine tundra of Eurasia, North America, and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland, and Svalbard. Sub-Arctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands, and coastal Iceland.Food and Feeding.The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger. In most inland areasit is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. Main prey include Lemmings, both Lemmus spp. and Dicrostonyx spp. In Fennoscandia, L. lemmus was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in feces) followed by birds (Passeriformes,Galliformes,and Caridriiformes, 34%) and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus, 21%). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (Lagopusspp.) are common prey, in addition to rodents and Reindeer. Changes in Fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles. Foxes living near icefree coasts have access to inland prey and also sea birds, seal carcasses, fish, and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy. In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Icelandfeed on seabirds (Uria aalge, U. lomvia), seal carcasses, and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on Ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer. In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally. Arctic Foxes forage singly, presumably the most efficient foraging technique in view of the species’ main prey base of rodents and birds. When food is abundant, they cache food forlater use. Caches can contain single prey items or a variety of items, and sometimes include lemmings or goose eggs.Activity patterns.Arctic Foxes remain active year round. They are primarily nocturnal, but exhibit flexible activity patterns, often in accordance with main prey species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit of the Arctic Fox is the breeding pair. Both parents take an active part in rearing the pups. For the first three weeks after birth, the pups are mostly dependent on milk and the female rarely leaves the natal den. During this time, the male provides food for the female. As meat increasingly forms a larger proportion of the pups’ diet, the roles of the parents become more similar and the female takes an active part in hunting and provisioning the pups. Non-breeding foxes, usually yearlings from the previous litter, may help. Supernumerary females generally emigrate before the pups attain independence of the den at 8-10 weeks. However, on Mednyi Island, there are permanent Arctic Fox groups comprising up to six adults, and complex social systems have also been observed on otherislands. Temporary groups of non-breeding individuals are also sometimes formed. Arctic Foxes normally are strongly territorial when breeding, with natal dens generally used by only one family group. Breeding pairs remain together in the same territory and use the same natal den for up to five years. Territories may include more than a single breeding pair, and closely related breeding pairs may even share a den. Home ranges in inland areas vary with lemming abundance (15-36 km?), but generally are smaller in coastal habitats (e.g. 5-21 km? in Alaska). On Svalbard, home range sizes range from 10 km? to as large as 125 km®. Home ranges of group members generally overlap widely with each other, but very little with those of neighboring groups. Scent marking of territories with urine is common. Vocalizations and postures such as an erected tail to attract the attention of conspecifics are common during territory disputes. In Alaska, seasonal migrations are reported when individuals leave breeding grounds in autumn, travel to the coast, and return in late winter or early spring. Large-scale emigrations have been recorded in Canada, Fennoscandia, and Russia. These may result from drastic reductions in food supplies, such as a population crash in lemmings.Breeding.Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Fox, however, is regionally threatened in Sweden(“endangered”), Finland(“critical”) and mainland Norway(“endangered”). In 1983, following the introduction of mange caused by ear canker mites (Otodectes cynotis) transmitted by dogs, the Mednyi Island foxes were listed in the Russian Red Data Book. The world population of Arctic Foxes is on the order of several hundred thousand animals. In most areas, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland, and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia), and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations appear to be declining further. In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have received total legal protection in Swedensince 1928, in Norwaysince 1930, and in Finlandsince 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE) and is therefore given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining population currently has no legal protection. In Norway(Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of trapping laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves. Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox; however, the decline of the fur industry has reduced the threat of over-exploitation for most populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred Blue Foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution, as occurs on St. Paul Island. Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.Bibliography.Angerbjorn, Hersteinsson & Tannerfeldt (2004), Angerbjorn, Stroman & Becker (1997), Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt, Bjarvall et al. (1995), Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt & Erlinge (1999), Audet et al. (2002), Chesemore (1975), Dalerum et al. (2002), Eberhardt, Garrott & Hanson (1983), Eberhardt, Hanson et al. (1982), Eimhagen et al. (2000), Frafjord (1994), Frafjord & Kruchenkova (1995), Frafjord & Prestrud (1992), Garrott & Eberhardt (1982, 1987), Hersteinsson (1984), Hersteinsson & Macdonald (1982, 1992, 1996), Hersteinsson et al. (1989), Kaikusalo & Angerbjorn (1995), Macpherson (1969), Nasimovic & Isakov (1985), Ovsyanikov (1993), Prestrud (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢), Samelius & Lee (1998), Tannerfeldt & Angerbjorn (1998)." +03ACCF40BF2FFFD07B93F577F990D8DF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,435,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2FFFD07B93F577F990D8DF.xml,Otocyon megalotis,Otocyon,megalotis,,,Otocyon @fr | Loffelhund @de | Zorro orejudo @es,"Canis megalotis Desmarest, 1822, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Included by some authors in a separate subfamily, the Otocyoninae, on account ofits atypical dentition. More recently this species was considered to have affinities with the vulpine line. Occurs in two distinct populations that are geographically separated by about 1000 km. The two populations were probably connected during the Pleistocene. Two subspecies are recognized.On following pages: 24. Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus); 25. Swift Fox (Vulpes velox); 26. Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis).","O. m. megalotis Desmarest, 1822— S Africa.O. m. virgatus G. S. Miller, 1909— E Africa.","Head-body 46-2—-60- 7 cmfor males and 46-7-60- 7 cmfor females, tail 23-34 cmfor males and 27- 8-34 cmfor females; weight 3-4— 4-9 kgfor males and 3-2-5- 4 kgfor females. A small, slight animal with slender legs, a long bushy tail and conspicuouslylarge ears. Males are often slightly heavier than females. The back of the ears, front part of the snout, face mask, front and lower part of the back legs, and the mid-dorsal part of the tail are black. A whitish band extends from across the forehead up the first three quarters of the frontal rim of the ears. Some animals have a broad dark mid-dorsal band. Beige to honey-colored fur covers the lower jaw, the throat, chest, and underparts. The body and tail fur is thick and soft on the upper parts, with a black base and white tip, giving a grizzled or gray appearance. Bat-eared Foxes have 46-50 teeth, the largest number for any non-marsupial land mammal. They are unique amongst living eutherians (odontocetes excepted) in having four to five functional lower molars, and are the only modern canids with three to four upper molars.The milk dentition is typically canid, with unreduced carnassials. In adults, the carnassial shear is lost and molars become the most bunodont, verging on zalambdodont, of any canid. Supernumerary molars yield a dentition of 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3-4/4-5 = 46-50.","In southern Africa prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground, but foxes are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid or semi-arid shrub land and open arid savannah. The range of Bat-eared Foxes overlaps almost completely with that of termites of the Hodotermes and Microhodotermes genera that prevail in their diet. In East Africa Bat-eared Foxes are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries, but not on short-grass plains. Those areas occupied by Bateared Foxes usually contain more harvester termite (1. mossambicus) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates where beetles are likely to be found.","Insects are the primary food sources in open grassland and woodland edge habitats. Harvester termites and beetles are typically the most commonly consumed prey items. Diet is supplemented by orthopterans, beetle larvae, and ants. In open shrub savannahs, arachnids and fruit (consumed seasonally) may be among the more common food items. Small mammals, birds, eggs, and reptiles are eaten sporadically in southern Africa, but rarely in eastern Africa. There 1s seasonal variation in the proportion of particular taxa consumed: in the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food during the rainy season, when termite activity is reduced. When both beetles and termites are scarce, Bat-eared Foxes will dig up beetle larvae from the ground. Harvester termites and dung beetles are more abundant in areas inhabited by clusters of Bat-eared Fox families, and local differences in H. mossambicus density are inversely related to territory size. Although Fox water requirements may be met by the high water content of their insect prey or by berries during the summer, water is nevertheless a critical resource during lactation. Groups forage as a unit. Foraging techniques depend on prey type, but food is often located by walking slowly, nose close to the ground and ears cocked forward. Prey is detected mostly by sound and often excavated by digging. Foraging and feeding rates are higher when feeding on termite patches than on more dispersed insects. When feeding on termite patches, group members feed closely together, but when feeding on beetles, beetle larvae or grasshoppers, they can forage up to 200 mapart.","Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.","Changes in daily and seasonal H. mossambicus availability directly affect Bat-eared Fox activity patterns. Activity is mostly nocturnal in eastern Africa. In southern Africa, nocturnal foraging during summer gradually changes to an almost exclusively diurnal pattern in winter, in accordance with the activity changes of H. mossambicus. Diurnal foraging peaks when insect activity is highest. Bat-eared Fox groups in the Serengeti frequently patrol known Hodotermes patches in their territory after leaving the den in the evening.","In southern Africa Bat-eared Foxes live in monogamous pairs with their pups, while in eastern Africa they live in stable family groups consisting of a male and up to three closely related females with pups. Adult group size varies with the time of year, with a mean of 2-7 for southern Africa and 2-4 for eastern Africa; group size prior to pup dispersal is six. Additional females in extended family groups are usually philopatric daughters, sometimes from several generations, organized in an age-based hierarchy where all females breed. Young pups are taught to forage by the male, and social learning by pups also seemsto play a role. In the Serengeti, parents facilitate better access to H. mossambicus patches by regularly guiding the smaller and more vulnerable pups from the breeding den to “nocturnal feeding dens”. Nuclear family groups persist until cub dispersal. Home ranges vary from less than 1 km? to more than 3 km?. Home ranges overlap widely and may be clustered around harvester termite colonies. Territories are patrolled and urine-marked during part of the year. Group size determines the outcome of territorial conflicts. Territory inheritance is not uncommon in the Serengeti and neighboring groups can be closely related, with animals visiting each other from time to time. Foxes engage in frequent and extended allogrooming sessions, which increase markedly during courtship. Vigorous and extended social play is very common, including among adults after the young have dispersed. Communication is primarily visual, and often based on a variety of ear and tail positions. The unique “inverted U” position of the tail, for example,is indicative of variousstates of arousal including fear, play and alarm. Vocalizations are mostly soft and sparingly used, except when the Foxes are highly alarmed or excited during play.Breeding.Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. No current legal protection known. The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farmland. Primary threats are hunting for skins, persecution as erroneously perceived predators of young lambs, and road kills. Population numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability, breeding stage and disease. Rabies and canine distemper have been reported to cause drastic population declines in some areas.","Berry (1978) | Gittleman (1989) | Guilday (1962) | Kieser (1995) | Koop & Velimirov (1982) | Kuntzsch & Nel (1992) | Lamprecht (1979) | Le Clus (1971) | Maas (1993a, 1993b) | Maas & Macdonald (2004) | Mackie (1988) | Mackie & Nel (1989) | Malcolm (1986) | Nel (1978, 1990, 1993, 1999) | Nel & Bester (1983) | Nel & Maas (2004) | Nel & Mackie (1990) | Nel et al. (1984) | Pauw (2000) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers (1971) | Stuart (1981) | Waser (1980)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331207/files/figure.png,"23.Bat-eared FoxOtocyon megalotisFrench:Otocyon/ German:Loffelhund/ Spanish:Zorro orejudoTaxonomy.Canis megalotis Desmarest, 1822, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Included by some authors in a separate subfamily, the Otocyoninae, on account ofits atypical dentition. More recently this species was considered to have affinities with the vulpine line. Occurs in two distinct populations that are geographically separated by about 1000 km. The two populations were probably connected during the Pleistocene. Two subspecies are recognized.On following pages: 24. Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus); 25. Swift Fox (Vulpes velox); 26. Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis).Subspecies and Distribution.O. m. megalotis Desmarest, 1822— S Africa.O. m. virgatus G. S. Miller, 1909— E Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 46-2—-60- 7 cmfor males and 46-7-60- 7 cmfor females, tail 23-34 cmfor males and 27- 8-34 cmfor females; weight 3-4— 4-9 kgfor males and 3-2-5- 4 kgfor females. A small, slight animal with slender legs, a long bushy tail and conspicuouslylarge ears. Males are often slightly heavier than females. The back of the ears, front part of the snout, face mask, front and lower part of the back legs, and the mid-dorsal part of the tail are black. A whitish band extends from across the forehead up the first three quarters of the frontal rim of the ears. Some animals have a broad dark mid-dorsal band. Beige to honey-colored fur covers the lower jaw, the throat, chest, and underparts. The body and tail fur is thick and soft on the upper parts, with a black base and white tip, giving a grizzled or gray appearance. Bat-eared Foxes have 46-50 teeth, the largest number for any non-marsupial land mammal. They are unique amongst living eutherians (odontocetes excepted) in having four to five functional lower molars, and are the only modern canids with three to four upper molars.The milk dentition is typically canid, with unreduced carnassials. In adults, the carnassial shear is lost and molars become the most bunodont, verging on zalambdodont, of any canid. Supernumerary molars yield a dentition of 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3-4/4-5 = 46-50.Habitat.In southern Africa prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground, but foxes are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid or semi-arid shrub land and open arid savannah. The range of Bat-eared Foxes overlaps almost completely with that of termites of the Hodotermes and Microhodotermes genera that prevail in their diet. In East Africa Bat-eared Foxes are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries, but not on short-grass plains. Those areas occupied by Bateared Foxes usually contain more harvester termite (1. mossambicus) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates where beetles are likely to be found.Food and Feeding.Insects are the primary food sources in open grassland and woodland edge habitats. Harvester termites and beetles are typically the most commonly consumed prey items. Diet is supplemented by orthopterans, beetle larvae, and ants. In open shrub savannahs, arachnids and fruit (consumed seasonally) may be among the more common food items. Small mammals, birds, eggs, and reptiles are eaten sporadically in southern Africa, but rarely in eastern Africa. There 1s seasonal variation in the proportion of particular taxa consumed: in the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food during the rainy season, when termite activity is reduced. When both beetles and termites are scarce, Bat-eared Foxes will dig up beetle larvae from the ground. Harvester termites and dung beetles are more abundant in areas inhabited by clusters of Bat-eared Fox families, and local differences in H. mossambicus density are inversely related to territory size. Although Fox water requirements may be met by the high water content of their insect prey or by berries during the summer, water is nevertheless a critical resource during lactation. Groups forage as a unit. Foraging techniques depend on prey type, but food is often located by walking slowly, nose close to the ground and ears cocked forward. Prey is detected mostly by sound and often excavated by digging. Foraging and feeding rates are higher when feeding on termite patches than on more dispersed insects. When feeding on termite patches, group members feed closely together, but when feeding on beetles, beetle larvae or grasshoppers, they can forage up to 200 mapart.Activity patterns.Changes in daily and seasonal H. mossambicus availability directly affect Bat-eared Fox activity patterns. Activity is mostly nocturnal in eastern Africa. In southern Africa, nocturnal foraging during summer gradually changes to an almost exclusively diurnal pattern in winter, in accordance with the activity changes of H. mossambicus. Diurnal foraging peaks when insect activity is highest. Bat-eared Fox groups in the Serengeti frequently patrol known Hodotermes patches in their territory after leaving the den in the evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Africa Bat-eared Foxes live in monogamous pairs with their pups, while in eastern Africa they live in stable family groups consisting of a male and up to three closely related females with pups. Adult group size varies with the time of year, with a mean of 2-7 for southern Africa and 2-4 for eastern Africa; group size prior to pup dispersal is six. Additional females in extended family groups are usually philopatric daughters, sometimes from several generations, organized in an age-based hierarchy where all females breed. Young pups are taught to forage by the male, and social learning by pups also seemsto play a role. In the Serengeti, parents facilitate better access to H. mossambicus patches by regularly guiding the smaller and more vulnerable pups from the breeding den to “nocturnal feeding dens”. Nuclear family groups persist until cub dispersal. Home ranges vary from less than 1 km? to more than 3 km?. Home ranges overlap widely and may be clustered around harvester termite colonies. Territories are patrolled and urine-marked during part of the year. Group size determines the outcome of territorial conflicts. Territory inheritance is not uncommon in the Serengeti and neighboring groups can be closely related, with animals visiting each other from time to time. Foxes engage in frequent and extended allogrooming sessions, which increase markedly during courtship. Vigorous and extended social play is very common, including among adults after the young have dispersed. Communication is primarily visual, and often based on a variety of ear and tail positions. The unique “inverted U” position of the tail, for example,is indicative of variousstates of arousal including fear, play and alarm. Vocalizations are mostly soft and sparingly used, except when the Foxes are highly alarmed or excited during play.Breeding.Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. No current legal protection known. The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farmland. Primary threats are hunting for skins, persecution as erroneously perceived predators of young lambs, and road kills. Population numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability, breeding stage and disease. Rabies and canine distemper have been reported to cause drastic population declines in some areas.Bibliography.Berry (1978), Gittleman (1989), Guilday (1962), Kieser (1995), Koop & Velimirov (1982), Kuntzsch & Nel (1992), Lamprecht (1979), Le Clus (1971), Maas (1993a, 1993b), Maas & Macdonald (2004), Mackie (1988), Mackie & Nel (1989), Malcolm (1986), Nel (1978, 1990, 1993, 1999), Nel & Bester (1983), Nel & Maas (2004), Nel & Mackie (1990), Nel et al. (1984), Pauw (2000), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers (1971), Stuart (1981), Waser (1980)." +03ACCF40BF2FFFD17E8FFE39F964D4DF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,435,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2FFFD17E8FFE39F964D4DF.xml,Nyctereutes procyonoides,Nyctereutes,procyonoides,,,Tanuki @fr | Marderhund @de | Perro mapache @es | Tanuki @en,"Canis procyonoides Gray, 1834,Canton, China.The Raccoon Dog lineage probably diverged from other canids as early as 7-10 million years ago. Some features of the skull resemble those of South American canids, especially the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous), but genetic studies have revealed that they are not close relatives. Six subspecies are recognized.","N. p. procyonoides Gray, 1834— W & SW Chinaand N Indochina.N. p. albus Hornaday, 1904— Japan(Hokkaido).N. p. koreensis Mori, 1922— Korean Peninsula.N. p. orestes Thomas, 1923— C & S China.N. p. ussuriensis Matschie, 1907— NE China, E Mongolia, and SE Russia.N. p. viverrinus Temminck, 1839— Japan.Introduced (ussuriensis) to the Baltic states, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, W Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, and Ukraine, occasionally seen in Austria, Bosnia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Switzerland.","Head-body 49-2-70- 5 cmfor males and 50- 5-69 cmfor females, tail 15-23 cmfor males and 15-20- 5 cmfor females; weight 2:9-12- 4 kgfor males and 3-12- 5 kgfor females. In autumn and winter, race ussuriensisis very fat and has thick fur, giving an expression of a round animal with short, thin legs. Black facial mask, small rounded ears, and pointed muzzle. Hair is long on cheeks. The body color varies from yellow to gray or reddish, with black hairs on the back and shoulders and also dorsally on the tail. Legs, feet, and chest are dark. Underhair is gray or reddish. The tail is rather short and covered with thick hair. In summer when the fur is thin and fat reserves small, the animal looks much slimmer than in autumn. Dental formula 1s13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; M, sometimes missing. Body size of race albusis smaller than that of ussuriensis. Race viverrinus is similar to albus but with somewhat shorter fur, shorter hindlegs, and generally darker color. Skull and teeth are smaller than those of ussuriensis. Mandible width and jaw height for the skull and the lower and upper molars clearly distinguish the two subspecies.","Typically found near water, and during autumn, habitat selection appears to be affected by reliance on fruits and berries. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to sub-alpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitats and is less likely to use Cryptomeria plantations throughout the year, although riparian areas are often used. In urban environments, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, they avoid dense forests in favor of open landscapes, especially damp meadows and agricultural land. In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favor moist forests and shores ofrivers and lakes, especially in early summer. In late summer and autumn they favor moist heaths with abundant berries. In the Finnish archipelago, however, they prefer barren pine forests, where they feed on crowberries (Empetrum nigrum).","Raccoon Dogs are omnivores and seasonal food habits shift as food availability changes. In most areas small rodents form the bulk of their diet in all seasons. Frogs, lizards, invertebrates, insects (including adults and larvae of Orthoptera, Coleoptera,Hemiptera,Diptera,Lepidoptera,Odonata), and birds and their eggs are also consumed, especially in early summer. Plants are eaten frequently; berries and fruits serve as an important and favored food source in late summer and autumn, when Raccoon Dogs decrease their food intake before entering winter dormancy. Oats, sweet corn, watermelon, and other agriculture products often are found in Raccoon Dog stomachs. Carrion, fish, and crustaceans are consumed when available. As opportunistic generalists, Raccoon Dogs forage by searching close to the ground and may also climb trees for fruits. They mainly forage in pairs, usually wandering some distance from each other.","Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.","Mainly nocturnal, leaving their dens 1-2 hours after sunset. When they have pups, females also forage during the daytime while the male is babysitting. In spring, Raccoon Dogs are also seen during daytime when sunbathing on south-facing slopes ofhills. In areas where winters are harsh they enter a form of hibernation (winter lethargy) in November and become active again in March. The Raccoon Dog is the only canid known to hibernate.","Both males and females defend their home range against individuals of the same sex. Home range size varies according to the abundance of food. The core areas of different pairs are fully exclusive, especially during the breeding season. Peripheral areas of home ranges may overlap to some extent. In autumn there is more overlap than in spring and summer. Different pairs seem to avoid each other even when their home ranges partially overlap. Resting sites may be shared with related family members, and latrine sites may be shared by several individuals. Home range sizes in Russiavary from 0-4- 20 km? (larger ranges in introduced populations in western Russia). In southern Finland, home ranges recorded by radio-tracking ranged from 2-8 to 7 km®. In Japan, home range size varies from as little as 0-07 km? in an urban setting to 6- 1 km? in a sub-alpine area. Strictly monogamous, the male and female form a permanent pair, sharing a home range and foraging together. Only if one of the pair dies will the remaining member form a new pair bond. Some non-paired adults may stay within the same area and/or share the resting or feeding sites or dens, but usually do not move together. Raccoon Dogs do not bark, but growl when menaced. In Japantheir vocalizations are higher in tone than those of a domestic dog and more or less resemble the sounds of a domestic cat.Breeding.Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is hunted legally, hunting is permitted year round (e.g. Sweden, Hungaryand Poland). However, in Finlandfemales with pups are protected in May, June, and July, in Belarushunting is allowed from October to February, and in Mongoliahunting requires a license and is allowed only from October to February. In Japan, hunting and trapping of the species also requires a license or other form of permission and is restricted to a designated hunting season. Species abundance is unknown in the Far East outside ofJapan, where it is considered common. In its European range the species is common to abundant, although rare in Denmarkand Sweden. Threats across its range include road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper, and rabies), and pollution.","Bannikov (1964) | Fukue (1991, 1993) | Helle & Kauhala (1995) | Ikeda (1982, 1983) | Kauhala (1992, 1996) | Kauhala & Auniola (2000) | Kauhala & Helle (1995) | Kauhala & Saeki (2004) | Kauhala, Helle & Pietila (1998) | Kauhala, Helle & Taskinen (1993) | Kauhala, Kaunisto & Helle (1993) | Kauhala, Laukkanen & von Rége (1998) | Korhonen (1988) | Korhonen et al. (1991) | Kowalczyk et al. (1999, 2000) | Kozlov (1952) | Nasimovic & Isakov (1985) | Saeki (2001) | Ward & Wurster-Hill (1990) | Wayne (1993) | Yachimori (1997) | Yamamoto (1984) | Yamsnamoto et al. (1994) | Yoshioka et al. (1990)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331205/files/figure.png,"22.Raccoon DogNyctereutes procyonoidesFrench:Tanuki/ German:Marderhund/ Spanish:Perro mapacheOther common names:TanukiTaxonomy.Canis procyonoides Gray, 1834,Canton, China.The Raccoon Dog lineage probably diverged from other canids as early as 7-10 million years ago. Some features of the skull resemble those of South American canids, especially the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous), but genetic studies have revealed that they are not close relatives. Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N. p. procyonoides Gray, 1834— W & SW Chinaand N Indochina.N. p. albus Hornaday, 1904— Japan(Hokkaido).N. p. koreensis Mori, 1922— Korean Peninsula.N. p. orestes Thomas, 1923— C & S China.N. p. ussuriensis Matschie, 1907— NE China, E Mongolia, and SE Russia.N. p. viverrinus Temminck, 1839— Japan.Introduced (ussuriensis) to the Baltic states, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, W Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, and Ukraine, occasionally seen in Austria, Bosnia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Switzerland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 49-2-70- 5 cmfor males and 50- 5-69 cmfor females, tail 15-23 cmfor males and 15-20- 5 cmfor females; weight 2:9-12- 4 kgfor males and 3-12- 5 kgfor females. In autumn and winter, race ussuriensisis very fat and has thick fur, giving an expression of a round animal with short, thin legs. Black facial mask, small rounded ears, and pointed muzzle. Hair is long on cheeks. The body color varies from yellow to gray or reddish, with black hairs on the back and shoulders and also dorsally on the tail. Legs, feet, and chest are dark. Underhair is gray or reddish. The tail is rather short and covered with thick hair. In summer when the fur is thin and fat reserves small, the animal looks much slimmer than in autumn. Dental formula 1s13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; M, sometimes missing. Body size of race albusis smaller than that of ussuriensis. Race viverrinus is similar to albus but with somewhat shorter fur, shorter hindlegs, and generally darker color. Skull and teeth are smaller than those of ussuriensis. Mandible width and jaw height for the skull and the lower and upper molars clearly distinguish the two subspecies.Habitat.Typically found near water, and during autumn, habitat selection appears to be affected by reliance on fruits and berries. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to sub-alpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitats and is less likely to use Cryptomeria plantations throughout the year, although riparian areas are often used. In urban environments, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, they avoid dense forests in favor of open landscapes, especially damp meadows and agricultural land. In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favor moist forests and shores ofrivers and lakes, especially in early summer. In late summer and autumn they favor moist heaths with abundant berries. In the Finnish archipelago, however, they prefer barren pine forests, where they feed on crowberries (Empetrum nigrum).Food and Feeding.Raccoon Dogs are omnivores and seasonal food habits shift as food availability changes. In most areas small rodents form the bulk of their diet in all seasons. Frogs, lizards, invertebrates, insects (including adults and larvae of Orthoptera, Coleoptera,Hemiptera,Diptera,Lepidoptera,Odonata), and birds and their eggs are also consumed, especially in early summer. Plants are eaten frequently; berries and fruits serve as an important and favored food source in late summer and autumn, when Raccoon Dogs decrease their food intake before entering winter dormancy. Oats, sweet corn, watermelon, and other agriculture products often are found in Raccoon Dog stomachs. Carrion, fish, and crustaceans are consumed when available. As opportunistic generalists, Raccoon Dogs forage by searching close to the ground and may also climb trees for fruits. They mainly forage in pairs, usually wandering some distance from each other.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, leaving their dens 1-2 hours after sunset. When they have pups, females also forage during the daytime while the male is babysitting. In spring, Raccoon Dogs are also seen during daytime when sunbathing on south-facing slopes ofhills. In areas where winters are harsh they enter a form of hibernation (winter lethargy) in November and become active again in March. The Raccoon Dog is the only canid known to hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both males and females defend their home range against individuals of the same sex. Home range size varies according to the abundance of food. The core areas of different pairs are fully exclusive, especially during the breeding season. Peripheral areas of home ranges may overlap to some extent. In autumn there is more overlap than in spring and summer. Different pairs seem to avoid each other even when their home ranges partially overlap. Resting sites may be shared with related family members, and latrine sites may be shared by several individuals. Home range sizes in Russiavary from 0-4- 20 km? (larger ranges in introduced populations in western Russia). In southern Finland, home ranges recorded by radio-tracking ranged from 2-8 to 7 km®. In Japan, home range size varies from as little as 0-07 km? in an urban setting to 6- 1 km? in a sub-alpine area. Strictly monogamous, the male and female form a permanent pair, sharing a home range and foraging together. Only if one of the pair dies will the remaining member form a new pair bond. Some non-paired adults may stay within the same area and/or share the resting or feeding sites or dens, but usually do not move together. Raccoon Dogs do not bark, but growl when menaced. In Japantheir vocalizations are higher in tone than those of a domestic dog and more or less resemble the sounds of a domestic cat.Breeding.Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is hunted legally, hunting is permitted year round (e.g. Sweden, Hungaryand Poland). However, in Finlandfemales with pups are protected in May, June, and July, in Belarushunting is allowed from October to February, and in Mongoliahunting requires a license and is allowed only from October to February. In Japan, hunting and trapping of the species also requires a license or other form of permission and is restricted to a designated hunting season. Species abundance is unknown in the Far East outside ofJapan, where it is considered common. In its European range the species is common to abundant, although rare in Denmarkand Sweden. Threats across its range include road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper, and rabies), and pollution.Bibliography.Bannikov (1964), Fukue (1991, 1993), Helle & Kauhala (1995), Ikeda (1982, 1983), Kauhala (1992, 1996), Kauhala & Auniola (2000), Kauhala & Helle (1995), Kauhala & Saeki (2004), Kauhala, Helle & Pietila (1998), Kauhala, Helle & Taskinen (1993), Kauhala, Kaunisto & Helle (1993), Kauhala, Laukkanen & von Rége (1998), Korhonen (1988), Korhonen et al. (1991), Kowalczyk et al. (1999, 2000), Kozlov (1952), Nasimovic & Isakov (1985), Saeki (2001), Ward & Wurster-Hill (1990), Wayne (1993), Yachimori (1997), Yamamoto (1984), Yamsnamoto et al. (1994), Yoshioka et al. (1990)." 03ACCF40BF30FFC17BA7F8A4FC70D631,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,418,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF30FFC17BA7F8A4FC70D631.xml,Canis adustus,Canis,adustus,Sundevall,1847,Chacal rayé @fr | Streifenschakal @de | Chacal rayado @es,"Canis adustus Sundevall, 1847, South Africa.Concensus is lacking regarding number of subspecies, variously given as between three and seven. Many authorities have pointed out that, as with the Black-backed Jackal, subspecies are hard to distinguish, and the differences may be a consequence of individual variation.","W, C and S Africa; replaced in the arid SW and NW of the continent by the Black-backed Jackal and in N Africa by the Golden Jackal.","Head-body 65-5-77-5 cmfor males and 69-76 cmfor females, tail 30- 5-39 cmfor males and 31-41 cmfor females; weight 7- 3-12 kgfor males and 7-3-10 kgfor females. Medium-sized canid, overall gray to buff-gray in color, with a white side stripe blazed on the flanks, and a diagnostic white tip to the tail. Head is gray-bufty, ears dark buffy. The back is gray, darker than the underside, and the flanks are marked by the indistinct white stripes running from elbow to hip, with black lower margins. The boldness of markings, in particular the side stripes, varies greatly among individuals; those ofjuveniles are less well defined than those of adults. The legs are often rufous-tinged, and the predominantly black tail nearly always bears the distinctive white tip, possibly a “badge” of the species’ nocturnal status. The female has two pairs of inguinalteats. Skull flatter than that of Black-backed Jackal, with a longer and narrower rostrum, a distinct sagittal crest, and zygomatic arches of lighter build. As a result of the elongation of the rostrum, the third upper premolar lies almost in line with the others and not at an angle as in the Black-backed Jackal. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M2/3=42.","Occupies a range of habitats, including broad-leaved savannah zones, wooded habitats, bush, grassland, marshes, montane habitats up to 2700 m, abandoned cultivation and farms. Tends to avoid open savannah, thickly wooded areas, and arid zones, but does enter the equatorial forest belt in the wake of human settlement. Side-striped Jackals frequently occur near rural dwellings and farm buildings, and penetrate suburban and urban areas. Where Side-striped Jackals occur sympatrically with Golden and Black-backed Jackals, they may avoid competition by ecological segregation. In such areas of sympatry, Side-striped Jackals usually occupy areas of denser vegetation, and Black-backed and Golden Jackals dominate in the more open areas.","Omnivorous, with a diet that is responsive to both seasonal and local variation in food availability. On commercial farmland in the Zimbabwehighveld, they eat mainly wild fruit (30%) and small (less than 1 kg) to medium-sized (more than 1 kg) mammals (27% and 23%, respectively). The remainder of their diet comprises birds, invertebrates, cattle cake, grass, and carrion. In wildlife areas of western Zimbabwe, Side-stripedJackals feed largely on invertebrates during the wet season and small mammals up to the size of Spring hares (Pedetes capensis) during the dry months of the year. They scavenge extensively from safari camp rubbish dumps and occasionally from large carnivore kills (although they are often out-competed for this resource by Black-backed Jackals). In the Ngorongoro Crater, Side-striped Jackals have been recorded competing with Black-backed Jackals for Grant's Gazelle (Nanger granti) fawns. Their diet may consist exclusively of certain fruits when in season. Apparently less predatory than other jackals, although according to one authority this may not hold when prey is highly available. The species forages solitarily, although in western Zimbabwefamily groups have been observed feeding together on abundant resources, and as many as twelve have been counted at kills or scavenging offal outside towns. Jackals have been described foraging opportunistically, exploiting food-rich habitats by random walks, and they display an amazing ability to find food where none seems obvious to the human observer.","In Zimbabwe, mating occurs mostly during June and July, and the gestation period is about 60 days. Litters of 4-6 pups are born from August to November, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. Pup mortality is thought to be high. Abandoned Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes or excavated termitaria are common den sites, with the den chamber occurring 0-75— 1 mbelow the surface and 2-3 mfrom the entrance. The same pair may use such dens in consecutive years. After the pups are weaned, both parents assist in rearing them, returning at two- to three-hour intervals through the night to feed the pups on food that is probably regurgitated. The pups are aggressive towards each other, as evidenced by the degree of wounding observed. Yearold offspring remain in the parental territory while additional offspring are raised. It appears likely that alloparental care as observed in other jackals also occurs in this species, which may be more social than previously thought.","Primarily nocturnal, but can employ extremely flexible foraging strategies in areas where they are persecuted. May also adapt activity pattern to reduce competition when in sympatry with Black-backed Jackals.","Side-striped Jackals occur solitarily, in pairs and in family groups of up to seven individuals. The basis of the family unit is the mated pair, which has been known to be stable over several years. In game areas of western Zimbabwe, home ranges varied seasonally from 0-2 km? (hot dry season) to 1-2 km?* (cold dry season), whereas in highveld farmland, home ranges were seasonally stable and in excess of 4 km? (a third of the yearly total range). Sub-adults disperse from the natal territory, up to 12 kmin Zimbabwe's highveld farmland and 20 kmin game areas. In highveld farmland, territories are configured to encompass patches of grassland where resources are most available, and the structure of the habitat mosaic appears an important factor. Home ranges overlap by about 20% in highveld farmland and 33% in game areas. The residents use the core territory almost exclusively. Vocal repertoire is broad, including an explosive bark, growls, yaps, cackles, whines, screams, a croaking distress call, and a hooting howl. Calling occurs all year round, but is especially common between pair members during the mating period. Jackals from neighboring territories sometimes answer each other. Captive pups have been heard calling at eight weeks, but may start earlier.Breeding.In Zimbabwe, mating occurs mostly during June and July, and the gestation period is about 60 days. Litters of 4-6 pups are born from August to November, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. Pup mortality is thought to be high. Abandoned Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes or excavated termitaria are common den sites, with the den chamber occurring 0-75— 1 mbelow the surface and 2-3 mfrom the entrance. The same pair may use such dens in consecutive years. After the pups are weaned, both parents assist in rearing them, returning at two- to three-hour intervals through the night to feed the pups on food that is probably regurgitated. The pups are aggressive towards each other, as evidenced by the degree of wounding observed. Yearold offspring remain in the parental territory while additional offspring are raised. It appears likely that alloparental care as observed in other jackals also occurs in this species, which may be more social than previously thought.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of population abundance are not available, but from work undertaken in two diverse habitats in Zimbabwe, it seems reasonable to assume the species is common and to estimate a total population in excess of three million. The species appears well capable of exploiting urban and suburban habitats, a factor which may help to ensure its persistence. It is likely that the population is at least stable. Side-striped Jackals are persecuted because of their role in rabies transmission and their putative role as stock killers. In areas of high human population density, snaring may be the commonest cause of death in adult jackals. It is unlikely that this persecution has an effect on the overall population, but indiscriminate culling through poisoning could affect local abundance. The species’ dietary flexibility and ability to co-exist with humans on the periphery of settlements and towns suggests that populations are only vulnerable in cases of extreme habitat modification or intense disease epidemics.","Atkinson (1997a, 1997b) | Atkinson & Loveridge (2004) | Atkinson, Macdonald & Kamizola (2002) | Atkinson, Rhodes et al. (2002) | Estes (1991) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Kingdon (1997) | Loveridge (1999) | Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002, 2003) | Moehlman (1979, 1989) | Rowe-Rowe (1992b) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers (1971, 1983) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Stuart & Stuart (1988)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331173/files/figure.png,"6.Side-striped JackalCanis adustusFrench:Chacal rayé/ German:Streifenschakal/ Spanish:Chacal rayadoTaxonomy.Canis adustus Sundevall, 1847, South Africa.Concensus is lacking regarding number of subspecies, variously given as between three and seven. Many authorities have pointed out that, as with the Black-backed Jackal, subspecies are hard to distinguish, and the differences may be a consequence of individual variation.Distribution.W, C and S Africa; replaced in the arid SW and NW of the continent by the Black-backed Jackal and in N Africa by the Golden Jackal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-5-77-5 cmfor males and 69-76 cmfor females, tail 30- 5-39 cmfor males and 31-41 cmfor females; weight 7- 3-12 kgfor males and 7-3-10 kgfor females. Medium-sized canid, overall gray to buff-gray in color, with a white side stripe blazed on the flanks, and a diagnostic white tip to the tail. Head is gray-bufty, ears dark buffy. The back is gray, darker than the underside, and the flanks are marked by the indistinct white stripes running from elbow to hip, with black lower margins. The boldness of markings, in particular the side stripes, varies greatly among individuals; those ofjuveniles are less well defined than those of adults. The legs are often rufous-tinged, and the predominantly black tail nearly always bears the distinctive white tip, possibly a “badge” of the species’ nocturnal status. The female has two pairs of inguinalteats. Skull flatter than that of Black-backed Jackal, with a longer and narrower rostrum, a distinct sagittal crest, and zygomatic arches of lighter build. As a result of the elongation of the rostrum, the third upper premolar lies almost in line with the others and not at an angle as in the Black-backed Jackal. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M2/3=42.Habitat.Occupies a range of habitats, including broad-leaved savannah zones, wooded habitats, bush, grassland, marshes, montane habitats up to 2700 m, abandoned cultivation and farms. Tends to avoid open savannah, thickly wooded areas, and arid zones, but does enter the equatorial forest belt in the wake of human settlement. Side-striped Jackals frequently occur near rural dwellings and farm buildings, and penetrate suburban and urban areas. Where Side-striped Jackals occur sympatrically with Golden and Black-backed Jackals, they may avoid competition by ecological segregation. In such areas of sympatry, Side-striped Jackals usually occupy areas of denser vegetation, and Black-backed and Golden Jackals dominate in the more open areas.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, with a diet that is responsive to both seasonal and local variation in food availability. On commercial farmland in the Zimbabwehighveld, they eat mainly wild fruit (30%) and small (less than 1 kg) to medium-sized (more than 1 kg) mammals (27% and 23%, respectively). The remainder of their diet comprises birds, invertebrates, cattle cake, grass, and carrion. In wildlife areas of western Zimbabwe, Side-stripedJackals feed largely on invertebrates during the wet season and small mammals up to the size of Spring hares (Pedetes capensis) during the dry months of the year. They scavenge extensively from safari camp rubbish dumps and occasionally from large carnivore kills (although they are often out-competed for this resource by Black-backed Jackals). In the Ngorongoro Crater, Side-striped Jackals have been recorded competing with Black-backed Jackals for Grant's Gazelle (Nanger granti) fawns. Their diet may consist exclusively of certain fruits when in season. Apparently less predatory than other jackals, although according to one authority this may not hold when prey is highly available. The species forages solitarily, although in western Zimbabwefamily groups have been observed feeding together on abundant resources, and as many as twelve have been counted at kills or scavenging offal outside towns. Jackals have been described foraging opportunistically, exploiting food-rich habitats by random walks, and they display an amazing ability to find food where none seems obvious to the human observer.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but can employ extremely flexible foraging strategies in areas where they are persecuted. May also adapt activity pattern to reduce competition when in sympatry with Black-backed Jackals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Side-striped Jackals occur solitarily, in pairs and in family groups of up to seven individuals. The basis of the family unit is the mated pair, which has been known to be stable over several years. In game areas of western Zimbabwe, home ranges varied seasonally from 0-2 km? (hot dry season) to 1-2 km?* (cold dry season), whereas in highveld farmland, home ranges were seasonally stable and in excess of 4 km? (a third of the yearly total range). Sub-adults disperse from the natal territory, up to 12 kmin Zimbabwe's highveld farmland and 20 kmin game areas. In highveld farmland, territories are configured to encompass patches of grassland where resources are most available, and the structure of the habitat mosaic appears an important factor. Home ranges overlap by about 20% in highveld farmland and 33% in game areas. The residents use the core territory almost exclusively. Vocal repertoire is broad, including an explosive bark, growls, yaps, cackles, whines, screams, a croaking distress call, and a hooting howl. Calling occurs all year round, but is especially common between pair members during the mating period. Jackals from neighboring territories sometimes answer each other. Captive pups have been heard calling at eight weeks, but may start earlier.Breeding.In Zimbabwe, mating occurs mostly during June and July, and the gestation period is about 60 days. Litters of 4-6 pups are born from August to November, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. Pup mortality is thought to be high. Abandoned Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes or excavated termitaria are common den sites, with the den chamber occurring 0-75— 1 mbelow the surface and 2-3 mfrom the entrance. The same pair may use such dens in consecutive years. After the pups are weaned, both parents assist in rearing them, returning at two- to three-hour intervals through the night to feed the pups on food that is probably regurgitated. The pups are aggressive towards each other, as evidenced by the degree of wounding observed. Yearold offspring remain in the parental territory while additional offspring are raised. It appears likely that alloparental care as observed in other jackals also occurs in this species, which may be more social than previously thought.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of population abundance are not available, but from work undertaken in two diverse habitats in Zimbabwe, it seems reasonable to assume the species is common and to estimate a total population in excess of three million. The species appears well capable of exploiting urban and suburban habitats, a factor which may help to ensure its persistence. It is likely that the population is at least stable. Side-striped Jackals are persecuted because of their role in rabies transmission and their putative role as stock killers. In areas of high human population density, snaring may be the commonest cause of death in adult jackals. It is unlikely that this persecution has an effect on the overall population, but indiscriminate culling through poisoning could affect local abundance. The species’ dietary flexibility and ability to co-exist with humans on the periphery of settlements and towns suggests that populations are only vulnerable in cases of extreme habitat modification or intense disease epidemics.Bibliography.Atkinson (1997a, 1997b), Atkinson & Loveridge (2004), Atkinson, Macdonald & Kamizola (2002), Atkinson, Rhodes et al. (2002), Estes (1991), Fuller et al. (1989), Kingdon (1997), Loveridge (1999), Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002, 2003), Moehlman (1979, 1989), Rowe-Rowe (1992b), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers (1971, 1983), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Stuart & Stuart (1988)." 03ACCF40BF31FFCE7B99F4A8F7E6DBEA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,417,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF31FFCE7B99F4A8F7E6DBEA.xml,Canis aureus,Canis,aureus,Linnaeus,1758,Chacal doré @fr | Goldschakal @de | Chacal dorado @es | Asiatic Jackal @en | Common Jackal @en,"Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758, Iran.As many as twelve subspecies are distinguished across the range. However, there is much variation and populations need to be re-evaluated using modern molecular techniques.","Widespread in N and NE Africa, occurring from Senegalon the W coast of Africa to Egyptin the E, in a range that includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libyain the N to Nigeria, Chad, and Tanzaniain the S. They have expanded their range from the Arabian Peninsula into Western Europe, to Bulgaria, Austria, and NE Italyand E into Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, the entire Indian subcontinent, then E and S to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and parts of Indochina.","Head-body 76-84 cmfor males and 74-80 cmfor females, tail 20-24 cmfor males and 20-21 cmfor females; weight 7-6-9- 8 kgfor males and 6-5-7- 8 kgfor females. Medium-sized canid, considered the most typical representative of the genus Canis. Approximately 12% difference in body weight between sexes. Basic coat color is golden but varies seasonally from pale creamy yellow to a dark tawny hue. The pelage on the back is often a mixture of black, brown, and white hairs, giving the appearance of a dark saddle similar to that of Black-backed Jackals. Jackals inhabiting rocky, mountainous terrain may have grayer coats. The belly and underparts are a lighter pale ginger to cream. Unique paler markings on the throat and chest make it possible to differentiate individuals. Melanistic and piebald forms are sometimes reported. The tail is bushy with a tan to black tip. The legs are relatively long, and the feet slender with small pads. Females have four pairs of mammae. The skull is more similar to Coyote and Gray Wolf than to Black-backed Jackal, Side-striped Jackal, or Ethiopian Wolf. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.","Tolerance of arid zones and an omnivorous diet enable Golden Jackals to live in a wide variety of habitats. These range from the Sahel to the evergreen forests of Myanmarand Thailand. Golden Jackals occupy semi-desert, short to medium grasslands and savannahs in Africa, and forested, mangrove, agricultural, rural, and semi-urban habitats in Indiaand Bangladesh. Golden Jackals are opportunistic and will venture into human habitation at night to feed on garbage. They have been recorded at elevations of 3800 min the Bale Mountains of Ethiopiaand are well established around hill stations at 2000 min India.","An omnivorous and opportunistic forager, the Golden Jackal’s diet varies according to season and habitat. According to one study in east Africa, although they consume invertebrates and fruit, over 60% of Golden Jackal diet consisted of rodents, lizards, snakes, birds (from quail to flamingoes), hares, and Thomson's Gazelle (Eudorcas thomsoni). In India, over 60% of the diet comprised rodents, birds, and fruit in Bharatpur, while in Kanha over 80% ofthe diet consisted of rodents, reptiles, and fruit. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, India, scat analysis (n = 36) revealed that Golden Jackal diet included mainly mammals (45% occurrence, of which 36% was rodents), vegetable matter (20%), birds (19%), and reptiles and invertebrates (8% each). Golden Jackals often ingest large quantities of vegetable matter, and during the fruiting season in Indiathey feed intensively on the fruits of Ziziphus sp., Carissa carvanda, Syzigium cuminii, and pods of Prosopis juliflora and Cassia fistula. Single jackals typically hunt smaller prey like rodents, hares, and birds. They use their hearing to locate rodents in the grass and then leap in the air and pounce on them; they also dig out Indian Gerbils (7atera indica) from their burrows. They have been observed to hunt young, old, and infirm ungulates that are sometimes 4-5 times their body weight. Although Golden Jackals are able to hunt alone, cooperative hunting in small packs of 2—4 individuals is often more successful and permits them to kill larger prey, including antelope fawns and langur monkeys (Presbytis pileata and P. entellus). Groups of 5-18 Golden Jackals have been sighted scavenging on carcasses of large ungulates, and there is a report of similar aggregations on clumped food resources in Israel. In several areas of Indiaand Bangladesh, jackals subsist primarily by scavenging on carrion and garbage. They also cache food.","Reproductive activity occurs from February to March in Indiaand Turkmenistan, and from October to March in Israel. In Tanzania, mating typically occurs from October to December, with pups being born from December to March. Timing of births coincides with abundance of food supply; for example, at the beginning of the monsoon season in northern and central India, and with the calving of Thomson's Gazelle in the Serengeti. Females are typically monoestrous, but there is evidence in Tanzaniaof multiple litters. Gestation lasts about 63 days. Meanlitter size has been recorded as 5-7 (range 1-8) in Tanzania. In the Bhal area in Indiaaverage litter size was 3-6 (range 2-5). In Tanzania, two pups on average have been recorded emerging from the den at three weeks of age. Golden Jackals in Indiaexcavate their dens in late April to May, mainly in natural and man-made embankments, usually in scrub habitat. Rivulets, gullies, road, and check-dam embankments are prime denning habitats, and drainage pipes and culverts are also used. Dens may have 1-3 openings and typically are about 2-3 mlong and 0-5- 1 mdeep. In Tanzaniaboth parents and “helpers” (offspring from previous litters) provision and guard the new pups, which results in higher pup survival. The male also feeds his mate during her pregnancy, and both the male and “helpers” (i.e. other social group members) provision the female during the period of lactation.","Golden Jackals are mainly nocturnal, but have flexible activity patterns and may be active during the day. During Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) calving peaks in Velavadar National Park, India, for example, jackals were observed searching throughout the day for calves in hiding, searches intensifying during the early morning and late evening.","The social organization of Golden Jackals is extremely flexible and depends on the availability and distribution of food resources. The basic social unit is the breeding pair, which is sometimes accompanied by its current litter of pups and/or by offspring from formerlitters. In Tanzaniabreeding pairs usually form long-term bonds, and both members mark and defend their territories, hunt together, share food, and cooperatively rear the young. Of a total of 270 recorded jackal sightings in the Bhal and Kutch areas of Gujarat, India, 35% consisted of two individuals, 14% of three, 20% of more than three, and the rest of single individuals. Average group sizes have been reported as 2-5 (Serengeti, Tanzania) and 3 (Velavadar National Park, India). Scent marking by urination and defecation is common around denning areas and on intensively used trails, and is thought to play an important role in territorial defense. Recent telemetry data from the Bhal area in Indiasuggest that most breeding pairs are spaced well apart and likely maintain a core territory around their dens. Feeding ranges of several Golden Jackals in the Bhal overlapped. Jackals were observed to range over large distances in search of food and suitable habitat, and linear forays of 12-15 kmin a single night were not uncommon. Non-breeding members of a pack may stay near a distant food source like a carcass for several days prior to returning to their original range. Recorded home range sizes vary from 1- 1-20 km? depending on the distribution and abundance of food resources. Greeting ceremonies, grooming, and group vocalizations are common social interactions. Vocalizations consist of a complex howl repertoire beginning with two to three simple, low-pitched howls and culminating in a high-pitched staccato ofcalls. Jackals are easily induced to howl. A single howl usually evokes responses from several jackals in the vicinity. In the presence of large carnivores, Golden Jackals often emit a warning call that is very different from their normal howling repertoire. In India, howling is more frequent between December and April, a time when pair bonds are being established and breeding occurs, perhaps suggesting a role in mate attraction, mate guarding, or territory defense.Breeding.Reproductive activity occurs from February to March in Indiaand Turkmenistan, and from October to March in Israel. In Tanzania, mating typically occurs from October to December, with pups being born from December to March. Timing of births coincides with abundance of food supply; for example, at the beginning of the monsoon season in northern and central India, and with the calving of Thomson's Gazelle in the Serengeti. Females are typically monoestrous, but there is evidence in Tanzaniaof multiple litters. Gestation lasts about 63 days. Meanlitter size has been recorded as 5-7 (range 1-8) in Tanzania. In the Bhal area in Indiaaverage litter size was 3-6 (range 2-5). In Tanzania, two pups on average have been recorded emerging from the den at three weeks of age. Golden Jackals in Indiaexcavate their dens in late April to May, mainly in natural and man-made embankments, usually in scrub habitat. Rivulets, gullies, road, and check-dam embankments are prime denning habitats, and drainage pipes and culverts are also used. Dens may have 1-3 openings and typically are about 2-3 mlong and 0-5- 1 mdeep. In Tanzaniaboth parents and “helpers” (offspring from previous litters) provision and guard the new pups, which results in higher pup survival. The male also feeds his mate during her pregnancy, and both the male and “helpers” (i.e. other social group members) provision the female during the period of lactation.","CITES Appendix II (India). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jackals are on Schedule III of India’s Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and are afforded the least legal protection (mainly to control trade of pelts and tails). However, no hunting of any wildlife is permitted under the current legal system in India. Fairly common throughout its range, although considered to be steadily declining except in protected areas. High densities are observed in areas with abundant food and cover. Known density estimates for parts of Indiaenable a minimum population estimate of over 80,000 Golden Jackals for the Indian sub-continent. Population estimates for Africa are not available, but densities in the Serengeti National Park have been recorded as high as 4 adults/km?®. Traditional land use practices such as livestock rearing and dry farming are conducive to the survival of jackals and other wildlife, but are being steadily replaced by industrialization and intensive agriculture; similarly, wilderness areas and rural landscapes are being rapidly urbanized. Jackal populations adapt to some extent to these changes and may persist for a while, but will eventually disappear from such areas. There are no other known threats, except for local policies of extirpation and poisoning.","Coetzee (1977) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Genov & Wassiley (1989) | Golani & Keller (1975) | Golani & Mendelssohn (1971) | Jaeger et al. (1996) | Jerdon (1874) | Jhala & Moehliman (2004) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Kruuk (1972) | van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970) | Macdonald (1979a) | Moehliman (1983, 1986, 1989) | Moehlman & Hofer (1997) | Mukherjee (1998b) | Newton (1985) | Poche et al. (1987) | Prater (1980) | Rosevear (1974) | Sankar (1988) | Schaller (1967) | Sillero-Zubiri (1996) | Stanford (1989)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331171/files/figure.png,"5.Golden JackalCanis aureusFrench:Chacal doré/ German:Goldschakal/ Spanish:Chacal doradoOther common names:Asiatic Jackal, Common JackalTaxonomy.Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758, Iran.As many as twelve subspecies are distinguished across the range. However, there is much variation and populations need to be re-evaluated using modern molecular techniques.Distribution.Widespread in N and NE Africa, occurring from Senegalon the W coast of Africa to Egyptin the E, in a range that includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libyain the N to Nigeria, Chad, and Tanzaniain the S. They have expanded their range from the Arabian Peninsula into Western Europe, to Bulgaria, Austria, and NE Italyand E into Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, the entire Indian subcontinent, then E and S to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and parts of Indochina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76-84 cmfor males and 74-80 cmfor females, tail 20-24 cmfor males and 20-21 cmfor females; weight 7-6-9- 8 kgfor males and 6-5-7- 8 kgfor females. Medium-sized canid, considered the most typical representative of the genus Canis. Approximately 12% difference in body weight between sexes. Basic coat color is golden but varies seasonally from pale creamy yellow to a dark tawny hue. The pelage on the back is often a mixture of black, brown, and white hairs, giving the appearance of a dark saddle similar to that of Black-backed Jackals. Jackals inhabiting rocky, mountainous terrain may have grayer coats. The belly and underparts are a lighter pale ginger to cream. Unique paler markings on the throat and chest make it possible to differentiate individuals. Melanistic and piebald forms are sometimes reported. The tail is bushy with a tan to black tip. The legs are relatively long, and the feet slender with small pads. Females have four pairs of mammae. The skull is more similar to Coyote and Gray Wolf than to Black-backed Jackal, Side-striped Jackal, or Ethiopian Wolf. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.Habitat.Tolerance of arid zones and an omnivorous diet enable Golden Jackals to live in a wide variety of habitats. These range from the Sahel to the evergreen forests of Myanmarand Thailand. Golden Jackals occupy semi-desert, short to medium grasslands and savannahs in Africa, and forested, mangrove, agricultural, rural, and semi-urban habitats in Indiaand Bangladesh. Golden Jackals are opportunistic and will venture into human habitation at night to feed on garbage. They have been recorded at elevations of 3800 min the Bale Mountains of Ethiopiaand are well established around hill stations at 2000 min India.Food and Feeding.An omnivorous and opportunistic forager, the Golden Jackal’s diet varies according to season and habitat. According to one study in east Africa, although they consume invertebrates and fruit, over 60% of Golden Jackal diet consisted of rodents, lizards, snakes, birds (from quail to flamingoes), hares, and Thomson's Gazelle (Eudorcas thomsoni). In India, over 60% of the diet comprised rodents, birds, and fruit in Bharatpur, while in Kanha over 80% ofthe diet consisted of rodents, reptiles, and fruit. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, India, scat analysis (n = 36) revealed that Golden Jackal diet included mainly mammals (45% occurrence, of which 36% was rodents), vegetable matter (20%), birds (19%), and reptiles and invertebrates (8% each). Golden Jackals often ingest large quantities of vegetable matter, and during the fruiting season in Indiathey feed intensively on the fruits of Ziziphus sp., Carissa carvanda, Syzigium cuminii, and pods of Prosopis juliflora and Cassia fistula. Single jackals typically hunt smaller prey like rodents, hares, and birds. They use their hearing to locate rodents in the grass and then leap in the air and pounce on them; they also dig out Indian Gerbils (7atera indica) from their burrows. They have been observed to hunt young, old, and infirm ungulates that are sometimes 4-5 times their body weight. Although Golden Jackals are able to hunt alone, cooperative hunting in small packs of 2—4 individuals is often more successful and permits them to kill larger prey, including antelope fawns and langur monkeys (Presbytis pileata and P. entellus). Groups of 5-18 Golden Jackals have been sighted scavenging on carcasses of large ungulates, and there is a report of similar aggregations on clumped food resources in Israel. In several areas of Indiaand Bangladesh, jackals subsist primarily by scavenging on carrion and garbage. They also cache food.Activity patterns.Golden Jackals are mainly nocturnal, but have flexible activity patterns and may be active during the day. During Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) calving peaks in Velavadar National Park, India, for example, jackals were observed searching throughout the day for calves in hiding, searches intensifying during the early morning and late evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization of Golden Jackals is extremely flexible and depends on the availability and distribution of food resources. The basic social unit is the breeding pair, which is sometimes accompanied by its current litter of pups and/or by offspring from formerlitters. In Tanzaniabreeding pairs usually form long-term bonds, and both members mark and defend their territories, hunt together, share food, and cooperatively rear the young. Of a total of 270 recorded jackal sightings in the Bhal and Kutch areas of Gujarat, India, 35% consisted of two individuals, 14% of three, 20% of more than three, and the rest of single individuals. Average group sizes have been reported as 2-5 (Serengeti, Tanzania) and 3 (Velavadar National Park, India). Scent marking by urination and defecation is common around denning areas and on intensively used trails, and is thought to play an important role in territorial defense. Recent telemetry data from the Bhal area in Indiasuggest that most breeding pairs are spaced well apart and likely maintain a core territory around their dens. Feeding ranges of several Golden Jackals in the Bhal overlapped. Jackals were observed to range over large distances in search of food and suitable habitat, and linear forays of 12-15 kmin a single night were not uncommon. Non-breeding members of a pack may stay near a distant food source like a carcass for several days prior to returning to their original range. Recorded home range sizes vary from 1- 1-20 km? depending on the distribution and abundance of food resources. Greeting ceremonies, grooming, and group vocalizations are common social interactions. Vocalizations consist of a complex howl repertoire beginning with two to three simple, low-pitched howls and culminating in a high-pitched staccato ofcalls. Jackals are easily induced to howl. A single howl usually evokes responses from several jackals in the vicinity. In the presence of large carnivores, Golden Jackals often emit a warning call that is very different from their normal howling repertoire. In India, howling is more frequent between December and April, a time when pair bonds are being established and breeding occurs, perhaps suggesting a role in mate attraction, mate guarding, or territory defense.Breeding.Reproductive activity occurs from February to March in Indiaand Turkmenistan, and from October to March in Israel. In Tanzania, mating typically occurs from October to December, with pups being born from December to March. Timing of births coincides with abundance of food supply; for example, at the beginning of the monsoon season in northern and central India, and with the calving of Thomson's Gazelle in the Serengeti. Females are typically monoestrous, but there is evidence in Tanzaniaof multiple litters. Gestation lasts about 63 days. Meanlitter size has been recorded as 5-7 (range 1-8) in Tanzania. In the Bhal area in Indiaaverage litter size was 3-6 (range 2-5). In Tanzania, two pups on average have been recorded emerging from the den at three weeks of age. Golden Jackals in Indiaexcavate their dens in late April to May, mainly in natural and man-made embankments, usually in scrub habitat. Rivulets, gullies, road, and check-dam embankments are prime denning habitats, and drainage pipes and culverts are also used. Dens may have 1-3 openings and typically are about 2-3 mlong and 0-5- 1 mdeep. In Tanzaniaboth parents and “helpers” (offspring from previous litters) provision and guard the new pups, which results in higher pup survival. The male also feeds his mate during her pregnancy, and both the male and “helpers” (i.e. other social group members) provision the female during the period of lactation.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II (India). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jackals are on Schedule III of India’s Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and are afforded the least legal protection (mainly to control trade of pelts and tails). However, no hunting of any wildlife is permitted under the current legal system in India. Fairly common throughout its range, although considered to be steadily declining except in protected areas. High densities are observed in areas with abundant food and cover. Known density estimates for parts of Indiaenable a minimum population estimate of over 80,000 Golden Jackals for the Indian sub-continent. Population estimates for Africa are not available, but densities in the Serengeti National Park have been recorded as high as 4 adults/km?®. Traditional land use practices such as livestock rearing and dry farming are conducive to the survival of jackals and other wildlife, but are being steadily replaced by industrialization and intensive agriculture; similarly, wilderness areas and rural landscapes are being rapidly urbanized. Jackal populations adapt to some extent to these changes and may persist for a while, but will eventually disappear from such areas. There are no other known threats, except for local policies of extirpation and poisoning.Bibliography.Coetzee (1977), Fuller et al. (1989), Genov & Wassiley (1989), Golani & Keller (1975), Golani & Mendelssohn (1971), Jaeger et al. (1996), Jerdon (1874), Jhala & Moehliman (2004), Kingdon (1971-1982), Kruuk (1972), van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970), Macdonald (1979a), Moehliman (1983, 1986, 1989), Moehlman & Hofer (1997), Mukherjee (1998b), Newton (1985), Poche et al. (1987), Prater (1980), Rosevear (1974), Sankar (1988), Schaller (1967), Sillero-Zubiri (1996), Stanford (1989)." -03ACCF40BF32FFCF7BDBFD50F8B0D7E9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,416,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF32FFCF7BDBFD50F8B0D7E9.xml,Canis simensis,Canis,simensis,Ruppell,1835,Loup d'Abyssinie @fr | Athiopien-Wolf @de | Lobo etiope @es | Simien Fox @en | Simien Jackal @en | Abyssinian Wolf @en | Abyssinian Red Fox @en,"Canis simensis Ruppell, 1835,Ethiopia.Originally placed in the genus Simenia, C. simensiswas noted to be the most distinct species in the genus Canis, and was considered to bear close affinity to C. adustusand Dusicyon spp.The Ethiopian Wolf is not closely linked to the Vulpesgroup, despite having been called the Simien or Simenian Fox. Its other name of Simien or Ethiopian Jackal suggests a close relationship with jackals. Other, previously used vernacular names included Abyssinian Wolf and Red Fox, making clear the difficulty naturalists had in cataloguing this species. Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequencing suggested that C. simensisis more closely related to C. lupusand C. latransthan to any African canid, and that the species may have evolved from a Wolf-like ancestor crossing to northern Africa from Eurasia as recently as 100,000 years ago. There are fossils of wolf-like canids from the late Pleistocene in Eurasia, but unfortunately no fossil record of C. simensisitself. Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variability in C. simensisis small relative to other canid species, suggesting small population sizes may have characterized its recent evolution. Two subspecies are recognized.","C. s. stmensis Ruppell, 1835— NW of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.C. s. citernii de Beaux, 1922— SE of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.","Head-body 92-8-101- 2 cmfor males and 84- 1-96 cmfor females, tail 29-39- 6 cmfor males and 27-29- 7 cmfor females; weight 14-2-19- 3 kgfor males and 11-2-14- 2 kgfor females. A medium-sized canid with a reddish coat, distinctive white markings, long legs, and an elongated muzzle, resembling a Coyote in conformation and size. Males weigh 20% more than females. The face, ears and upper parts of the muzzle are red. Ears broad, pointed, and directed forward; the pinnae are thickly fringed with long white hairs growing inward from the edge. Palate, gums, and naked borders of the lips entirely black. Characteristic facial markings include a white ascending crescent below the eyes, and a small white spot on the cheeks. The throat, chest, and underparts are white, the ventral part of the neck with a distinctive white band. Pelage is soft and short, ocher to rusty red, with a dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The boundary between the red coat and the white markings is sharp and well defined. The contrast of white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes; the female’s coat is generally paler than the male’s. The long, slender legs are reddish outside, with inner aspect white. There is a short rufouscolored stripe at the base of the tail, which becomes a black stripe leading to a thick brush of black-tipped guard hairs. The skull is very flat in profile, with only a shallow angle between frontals and nasals. The neuro-cranium is low and narrow, thick, and almost cylindrical. Its width is 30% of the total skull length. Facial length is 58% ofthe total skull length. The inter-parietal crest is slightly developed, and the coronal ridge is linear. Teeth small and widely spaced, especially the premolars. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; m3 occasionally absent. Sharply pointed canines average 19 mmin length (14-22 mm); carnassials (P* and M,) are relatively small.Habitat.A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.Food and Feeding.Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.Activity patterns.In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas.","A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.","Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.","The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.","In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.","Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List.","CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas. Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered in the past by political instability is currently less severe and is associated with conflicts over livestock losses. Recent wolf population decline in Bale is mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shootings as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threatto all populations. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves’ specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem. In Bale, the Ethiopian Wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs. Although hybrids are currently confined to the Web Valley in West Bale, they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. To date there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside West Bale.","Ashenafi et al. (2005) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Gottelli & Sillero-Zubiri (1992) | Gottelli, Marino et al. (2004) | Gottelli, Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1994) | Haydon, Laurenson & Sillero-Zubiri (2002) | Haydon, Randall et al. (2006) | Marino (2003, 2004) | Marino et al. (2006) | Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (1994, 1995a, 1995b) | Sillero-Zubiri & Macdonald (1997, 1998) | Sillero-Zubiri & Marino (2004) | Sillero-Zubiri, Gottelli & Macdonald (1996) | Sillero-Zubiri, Johnson & Macdonald (1998) | Sillero-Zubiri, King & Macdonald (1996) | Sillero-Zubiri, Malcolm et al. (2000) | Sillero-Zubiri, Tattersall & Macdonald (1995a, 1995b)",,"4.Ethiopian WolfCanis simensisFrench:Loup d'Abyssinie/ German:Athiopien-Wolf/ Spanish:Lobo etiopeOther common names:Simien Fox, Simien Jackal, Abyssinian Wolf, Abyssinian Red FoxTaxonomy.Canis simensis Ruppell, 1835,Ethiopia.Originally placed in the genus Simenia, C. simensiswas noted to be the most distinct species in the genus Canis, and was considered to bear close affinity to C. adustusand Dusicyon spp.The Ethiopian Wolf is not closely linked to the Vulpesgroup, despite having been called the Simien or Simenian Fox. Its other name of Simien or Ethiopian Jackal suggests a close relationship with jackals. Other, previously used vernacular names included Abyssinian Wolf and Red Fox, making clear the difficulty naturalists had in cataloguing this species. Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequencing suggested that C. simensisis more closely related to C. lupusand C. latransthan to any African canid, and that the species may have evolved from a Wolf-like ancestor crossing to northern Africa from Eurasia as recently as 100,000 years ago. There are fossils of wolf-like canids from the late Pleistocene in Eurasia, but unfortunately no fossil record of C. simensisitself. Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variability in C. simensisis small relative to other canid species, suggesting small population sizes may have characterized its recent evolution. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. s. stmensis Ruppell, 1835— NW of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.C. s. citernii de Beaux, 1922— SE of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.Descriptive notes.Head-body 92-8-101- 2 cmfor males and 84- 1-96 cmfor females, tail 29-39- 6 cmfor males and 27-29- 7 cmfor females; weight 14-2-19- 3 kgfor males and 11-2-14- 2 kgfor females. A medium-sized canid with a reddish coat, distinctive white markings, long legs, and an elongated muzzle, resembling a Coyote in conformation and size. Males weigh 20% more than females. The face, ears and upper parts of the muzzle are red. Ears broad, pointed, and directed forward; the pinnae are thickly fringed with long white hairs growing inward from the edge. Palate, gums, and naked borders of the lips entirely black. Characteristic facial markings include a white ascending crescent below the eyes, and a small white spot on the cheeks. The throat, chest, and underparts are white, the ventral part of the neck with a distinctive white band. Pelage is soft and short, ocher to rusty red, with a dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The boundary between the red coat and the white markings is sharp and well defined. The contrast of white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes; the female’s coat is generally paler than the male’s. The long, slender legs are reddish outside, with inner aspect white. There is a short rufouscolored stripe at the base of the tail, which becomes a black stripe leading to a thick brush of black-tipped guard hairs. The skull is very flat in profile, with only a shallow angle between frontals and nasals. The neuro-cranium is low and narrow, thick, and almost cylindrical. Its width is 30% of the total skull length. Facial length is 58% ofthe total skull length. The inter-parietal crest is slightly developed, and the coronal ridge is linear. Teeth small and widely spaced, especially the premolars. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; m3 occasionally absent. Sharply pointed canines average 19 mmin length (14-22 mm); carnassials (P* and M,) are relatively small.Habitat.A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.Food and Feeding.Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.Activity patterns.In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas. Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered in the past by political instability is currently less severe and is associated with conflicts over livestock losses. Recent wolf population decline in Bale is mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shootings as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threatto all populations. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves’ specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem. In Bale, the Ethiopian Wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs. Although hybrids are currently confined to the Web Valley in West Bale, they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. To date there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside West Bale.Bibliography.Ashenafi et al. (2005), Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Gottelli & Sillero-Zubiri (1992), Gottelli, Marino et al. (2004), Gottelli, Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1994), Haydon, Laurenson & Sillero-Zubiri (2002), Haydon, Randall et al. (2006), Marino (2003, 2004), Marino et al. (2006), Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (1994, 1995a, 1995b), Sillero-Zubiri & Macdonald (1997, 1998), Sillero-Zubiri & Marino (2004), Sillero-Zubiri, Gottelli & Macdonald (1996), Sillero-Zubiri, Johnson & Macdonald (1998), Sillero-Zubiri, King & Macdonald (1996), Sillero-Zubiri, Malcolm et al. (2000), Sillero-Zubiri, Tattersall & Macdonald (1995a, 1995b)." -03ACCF40BF33FFCC7B9DFBDAF837DF7E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,415,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF33FFCC7B9DFBDAF837DF7E.xml,Canis latrans,Canis,latrans,Say,1823,Coyote @fr | Kojote @de | Coyote @es | Brush Wolf @en | Prairie Wolf @en,"Canis latrans Say, 1823, Nebraska, USA.The ancestral Coyote, C. lepophagus, is believed to have become widespread throughout North America by the late Pliocene. In the north-eastern USA, the eastern Coyote may be a subspecies with some introgression of wolf and dog genes. Nineteen subspecies have been recognized. However, the taxonomic validity of some subspecies is questionable.","C. l. latrans Say, 1823— S Canadaand USA(Great Plains region).C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839— SE Mexico.C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903— Mexico(N Baja California) and USA(S California).C. l. dickeyi Nelson, 1932— Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.C. l. frustror Woodhouse, 1850— USA(Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma& E Texas).C. l. goldmani Merriam, 1904— Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico.C. l. hondurensis Goldman, 1936— E Honduras.C.l.impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903— W Mexico.C.l.incolatus Hall, 1934— Alaska and NW Canada.C.l.jamesi Townsend, 1912— Mexico(Tiburon I, Baja California).C.l.lestes Merriam, 1897— SW Canadaand W USA(Intermountain Region & NW).C.l.mearnsi Merriam, 1897— NW Mexico and SW USA.C.l.microdon Merriam, 1897— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).C.l.ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829— W USA(W coast).C.l.peninsulae Merriam, 1897— Mexico(S Baja California).C.l.exensis Bailey, 1905— S USA(W Texas& New Mexico).C.l.thamnos Jackson, 1949— N-C Canadaand E USA.C.l.umpquensis Jackson, 1949— USA(NW coast).C.l.vigilis Merriam, 1897— SW Mexico.Coyotes did not originally occur on the USAE coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia(subspecies unknown).","Head-body 74-94 cmfor males and 74-94 cmfor females,tail 29— 36- 3 cmfor males and 26-34- 3 cmfor females; weight 7-8-15- 8 kgfor males and 7-7- 14- 5 kgfor females. Slender appearance with a long, pointed nose, large pointed ears, slender legs with small feet, and a bushy tail. Size varies geographically, although adult males are heavier and larger than adult females. Coyotes range in color from pure gray to rufous; melanistic Coyotes are rare. Fur texture and color varies geographically: northern subspecies have long coarse hair. Coyotes in the desert tend to be fulvous in color, while Coyotes at higher latitudes are darker and grayer. The belly and throat are paler than the rest of the body and have a mantle of darker hair over the shoulders. The tip of the tail is usually black. Hairs are about 50-90 mmlong, mane hairs tend to be 80-110 mmlong. Pelage during summer is shorter than in winter. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats throughout their range including prairie, forest, desert, mountain, and tropical ecosystems. Their ability to exploit human resources also allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit distribution in some desert environments.","Opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a wide variety of food items, ranging from fruit and insects to small mammals to large ungulates and live-stock, typically consuming items in relation to availability. Livestock and wild ungulates are often consumed as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur. Predation on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning. Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume refuse, pet food or other human-related items. Studies of predatory behavior show that Coyote age, habitat, and wind and snow conditions all influence their ability to capture small mammals. Coyotes hunt small mammals alone, even when pack size is large. When preying on native ungulates, cooperation among pack members may facilitate the capture of prey, but is not essential. Environmental factors are important to the success of an attack on adult ungulates, as is the presence of the alpha Coyote pair, and younger animals generally do not participate. The number of Coyotes is not as important as which individuals are involved in the attack. The outcome is also affected by the ability of the quarry to escape into water, its defensive abilities, and its nutritional state. In areas with an ungulate prey base in winter, competition with other sympatric carnivores for a carcass may be intense and there can even be competition among members of the same pack.","Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.","Coyotes may be active throughout the day, but they tend to be more active during the early morning and around sunset. Activity patterns change seasonally (e.g. during winter, when there is a change in the food base in some areas) or in response to human disturbance and persecution.","The basic social unit is the bonded alpha pair, which may breed for up to 10-12 years. Associate animals often remain in the pack and possibly inherit the pack or displace members of the breeding pair and become alphas themselves. Associates participate in territorial maintenance and pup rearing, but not to the extent of the alpha pair. Other Coyotes exist outside of the resident packs as transient or nomadic individuals. Transients travel alone over larger areas and do not breed, but will move into territories when vacancies occur. One factor that may affect Coyote sociality is prey size or prey biomass. In populations where rodents are the major prey, Coyotes tend to be in pairs or trios. In populations where Elk and deer are available, large packs of up to ten individuals may form. Coyotes are territorial, with a dominance hierarchy within each resident pack. The dominance hierarchy influences access to food resources within the pack. In captivity, pups show early development of aggressive behavior and engage in dominance fights when 19-24 days old. The process of establishing hierarchy within litters appears to last up to 4-5 months. Territoriality regulates Coyote numbers as packs space themselves across the landscape in relation to available food and habitat. Home range size varies with energetic requirements, physiographic makeup, habitat, and food distribution. Home range size is influenced by social organization, with transients using larger areas, and residents occupying distinct territories. Only packs (2-10 animals) maintain and defend territories, both by direct confrontation and indirectly with scent marking and howling. Fidelity to the home range is high and may persist for many years. Shifts in territorial boundaries may occur in response to the loss of one or both of the alpha pair. Pups, yearlings, and non-breeding adults of lower social rank may disperse from the natal site into adjacent areas or farther afield. Dispersal seems to be voluntary, as social and nutritional pressures intensify during winter when food becomes limited. Juveniles usually disperse during autumn and early winter. Pre-dispersal forays may occur. Coyotes communicate using auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile cues. Studies have identified different typesof vocalizations, seasonal patterns, and the influence of social status on vocalization rates. Howling plays a role in territorial maintenance and pack spacing by advertising boundaries and signaling the presence of alpha animals that will confront intruders and defend the territory. Scent marking contributes to territory maintenance and is performed mostly by alpha individuals. Scent marking may also be an indicator of sexual condition, maturity, or synchrony.Breeding.Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environments and occupy most developed habitats, including urban and agricultural areas. Hybridization with dogs and Gray Wolves may be occurring in Some areas.","Andelt (1985, 1987) | Bekoff (1978b) | Bekoff & Diamond (1976) | Bekoff & Gese (2003) | Bekoff & Wells (1986) | Bekoff et al. (1981) | Camenzind (1978) | Gese & Bekoff (2004) | Gese & Grothe (1995) | Gese et al. (1996a, 1996b, 1996¢) | Gier (1968) | Kitchen et al. (2000a, 2000b) | Knowlton et al. (1999) | Laundre & Keller (1984) | O'Donoghue et al. (1997) | Richens & Hugie (1974) | Thurber & Peterson (1991) | Todd & Keith (1983) | Wayne & Lehman (1992) | Young & Jackson (1951)",,"3.CoyoteCanis latransFrench:Coyote/ German:Kojote/ Spanish:CoyoteOther common names:Brush Wolf, Prairie WolfTaxonomy.Canis latrans Say, 1823, Nebraska, USA.The ancestral Coyote, C. lepophagus, is believed to have become widespread throughout North America by the late Pliocene. In the north-eastern USA, the eastern Coyote may be a subspecies with some introgression of wolf and dog genes. Nineteen subspecies have been recognized. However, the taxonomic validity of some subspecies is questionable.Subspecies and Distribution.C. l. latrans Say, 1823— S Canadaand USA(Great Plains region).C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839— SE Mexico.C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903— Mexico(N Baja California) and USA(S California).C. l. dickeyi Nelson, 1932— Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.C. l. frustror Woodhouse, 1850— USA(Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma& E Texas).C. l. goldmani Merriam, 1904— Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico.C. l. hondurensis Goldman, 1936— E Honduras.C.l.impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903— W Mexico.C.l.incolatus Hall, 1934— Alaska and NW Canada.C.l.jamesi Townsend, 1912— Mexico(Tiburon I, Baja California).C.l.lestes Merriam, 1897— SW Canadaand W USA(Intermountain Region & NW).C.l.mearnsi Merriam, 1897— NW Mexico and SW USA.C.l.microdon Merriam, 1897— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).C.l.ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829— W USA(W coast).C.l.peninsulae Merriam, 1897— Mexico(S Baja California).C.l.exensis Bailey, 1905— S USA(W Texas& New Mexico).C.l.thamnos Jackson, 1949— N-C Canadaand E USA.C.l.umpquensis Jackson, 1949— USA(NW coast).C.l.vigilis Merriam, 1897— SW Mexico.Coyotes did not originally occur on the USAE coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia(subspecies unknown).Descriptive notes.Head-body 74-94 cmfor males and 74-94 cmfor females,tail 29— 36- 3 cmfor males and 26-34- 3 cmfor females; weight 7-8-15- 8 kgfor males and 7-7- 14- 5 kgfor females. Slender appearance with a long, pointed nose, large pointed ears, slender legs with small feet, and a bushy tail. Size varies geographically, although adult males are heavier and larger than adult females. Coyotes range in color from pure gray to rufous; melanistic Coyotes are rare. Fur texture and color varies geographically: northern subspecies have long coarse hair. Coyotes in the desert tend to be fulvous in color, while Coyotes at higher latitudes are darker and grayer. The belly and throat are paler than the rest of the body and have a mantle of darker hair over the shoulders. The tip of the tail is usually black. Hairs are about 50-90 mmlong, mane hairs tend to be 80-110 mmlong. Pelage during summer is shorter than in winter. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats throughout their range including prairie, forest, desert, mountain, and tropical ecosystems. Their ability to exploit human resources also allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit distribution in some desert environments.Food and Feeding.Opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a wide variety of food items, ranging from fruit and insects to small mammals to large ungulates and live-stock, typically consuming items in relation to availability. Livestock and wild ungulates are often consumed as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur. Predation on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning. Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume refuse, pet food or other human-related items. Studies of predatory behavior show that Coyote age, habitat, and wind and snow conditions all influence their ability to capture small mammals. Coyotes hunt small mammals alone, even when pack size is large. When preying on native ungulates, cooperation among pack members may facilitate the capture of prey, but is not essential. Environmental factors are important to the success of an attack on adult ungulates, as is the presence of the alpha Coyote pair, and younger animals generally do not participate. The number of Coyotes is not as important as which individuals are involved in the attack. The outcome is also affected by the ability of the quarry to escape into water, its defensive abilities, and its nutritional state. In areas with an ungulate prey base in winter, competition with other sympatric carnivores for a carcass may be intense and there can even be competition among members of the same pack.On following pages: 4. Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis); 5. Golden Jackal (Canis aureus); 6. Side-striped Jackal (Canis adustus); 7. Black-backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas).Activity patterns.Coyotes may be active throughout the day, but they tend to be more active during the early morning and around sunset. Activity patterns change seasonally (e.g. during winter, when there is a change in the food base in some areas) or in response to human disturbance and persecution.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the bonded alpha pair, which may breed for up to 10-12 years. Associate animals often remain in the pack and possibly inherit the pack or displace members of the breeding pair and become alphas themselves. Associates participate in territorial maintenance and pup rearing, but not to the extent of the alpha pair. Other Coyotes exist outside of the resident packs as transient or nomadic individuals. Transients travel alone over larger areas and do not breed, but will move into territories when vacancies occur. One factor that may affect Coyote sociality is prey size or prey biomass. In populations where rodents are the major prey, Coyotes tend to be in pairs or trios. In populations where Elk and deer are available, large packs of up to ten individuals may form. Coyotes are territorial, with a dominance hierarchy within each resident pack. The dominance hierarchy influences access to food resources within the pack. In captivity, pups show early development of aggressive behavior and engage in dominance fights when 19-24 days old. The process of establishing hierarchy within litters appears to last up to 4-5 months. Territoriality regulates Coyote numbers as packs space themselves across the landscape in relation to available food and habitat. Home range size varies with energetic requirements, physiographic makeup, habitat, and food distribution. Home range size is influenced by social organization, with transients using larger areas, and residents occupying distinct territories. Only packs (2-10 animals) maintain and defend territories, both by direct confrontation and indirectly with scent marking and howling. Fidelity to the home range is high and may persist for many years. Shifts in territorial boundaries may occur in response to the loss of one or both of the alpha pair. Pups, yearlings, and non-breeding adults of lower social rank may disperse from the natal site into adjacent areas or farther afield. Dispersal seems to be voluntary, as social and nutritional pressures intensify during winter when food becomes limited. Juveniles usually disperse during autumn and early winter. Pre-dispersal forays may occur. Coyotes communicate using auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile cues. Studies have identified different typesof vocalizations, seasonal patterns, and the influence of social status on vocalization rates. Howling plays a role in territorial maintenance and pack spacing by advertising boundaries and signaling the presence of alpha animals that will confront intruders and defend the territory. Scent marking contributes to territory maintenance and is performed mostly by alpha individuals. Scent marking may also be an indicator of sexual condition, maturity, or synchrony.Breeding.Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environments and occupy most developed habitats, including urban and agricultural areas. Hybridization with dogs and Gray Wolves may be occurring in Some areas.Bibliography.Andelt (1985, 1987), Bekoff (1978b), Bekoff & Diamond (1976), Bekoff & Gese (2003), Bekoff & Wells (1986), Bekoff et al. (1981), Camenzind (1978), Gese & Bekoff (2004), Gese & Grothe (1995), Gese et al. (1996a, 1996b, 1996¢), Gier (1968), Kitchen et al. (2000a, 2000b), Knowlton et al. (1999), Laundre & Keller (1984), O'Donoghue et al. (1997), Richens & Hugie (1974), Thurber & Peterson (1991), Todd & Keith (1983), Wayne & Lehman (1992), Young & Jackson (1951)." +03ACCF40BF32FFCF7BDBFD50F8B0D7E9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,416,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF32FFCF7BDBFD50F8B0D7E9.xml,Canis simensis,Canis,simensis,Ruppell,1835,Loup d'Abyssinie @fr | Athiopien-Wolf @de | Lobo etiope @es | Simien Fox @en | Simien Jackal @en | Abyssinian Wolf @en | Abyssinian Red Fox @en,"Canis simensis Ruppell, 1835,Ethiopia.Originally placed in the genus Simenia, C. simensiswas noted to be the most distinct species in the genus Canis, and was considered to bear close affinity to C. adustusand Dusicyon spp.The Ethiopian Wolf is not closely linked to the Vulpesgroup, despite having been called the Simien or Simenian Fox. Its other name of Simien or Ethiopian Jackal suggests a close relationship with jackals. Other, previously used vernacular names included Abyssinian Wolf and Red Fox, making clear the difficulty naturalists had in cataloguing this species. Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequencing suggested that C. simensisis more closely related to C. lupusand C. latransthan to any African canid, and that the species may have evolved from a Wolf-like ancestor crossing to northern Africa from Eurasia as recently as 100,000 years ago. There are fossils of wolf-like canids from the late Pleistocene in Eurasia, but unfortunately no fossil record of C. simensisitself. Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variability in C. simensisis small relative to other canid species, suggesting small population sizes may have characterized its recent evolution. Two subspecies are recognized.","C. s. stmensis Ruppell, 1835— NW of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.C. s. citernii de Beaux, 1922— SE of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.","Head-body 92-8-101- 2 cmfor males and 84- 1-96 cmfor females, tail 29-39- 6 cmfor males and 27-29- 7 cmfor females; weight 14-2-19- 3 kgfor males and 11-2-14- 2 kgfor females. A medium-sized canid with a reddish coat, distinctive white markings, long legs, and an elongated muzzle, resembling a Coyote in conformation and size. Males weigh 20% more than females. The face, ears and upper parts of the muzzle are red. Ears broad, pointed, and directed forward; the pinnae are thickly fringed with long white hairs growing inward from the edge. Palate, gums, and naked borders of the lips entirely black. Characteristic facial markings include a white ascending crescent below the eyes, and a small white spot on the cheeks. The throat, chest, and underparts are white, the ventral part of the neck with a distinctive white band. Pelage is soft and short, ocher to rusty red, with a dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The boundary between the red coat and the white markings is sharp and well defined. The contrast of white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes; the female’s coat is generally paler than the male’s. The long, slender legs are reddish outside, with inner aspect white. There is a short rufouscolored stripe at the base of the tail, which becomes a black stripe leading to a thick brush of black-tipped guard hairs. The skull is very flat in profile, with only a shallow angle between frontals and nasals. The neuro-cranium is low and narrow, thick, and almost cylindrical. Its width is 30% of the total skull length. Facial length is 58% ofthe total skull length. The inter-parietal crest is slightly developed, and the coronal ridge is linear. Teeth small and widely spaced, especially the premolars. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; m3 occasionally absent. Sharply pointed canines average 19 mmin length (14-22 mm); carnassials (P* and M,) are relatively small.Habitat.A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.Food and Feeding.Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.Activity patterns.In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas.","A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.","Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.","The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.","In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.","Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List.","CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas. Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered in the past by political instability is currently less severe and is associated with conflicts over livestock losses. Recent wolf population decline in Bale is mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shootings as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threatto all populations. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves’ specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem. In Bale, the Ethiopian Wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs. Although hybrids are currently confined to the Web Valley in West Bale, they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. To date there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside West Bale.","Ashenafi et al. (2005) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Gottelli & Sillero-Zubiri (1992) | Gottelli, Marino et al. (2004) | Gottelli, Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1994) | Haydon, Laurenson & Sillero-Zubiri (2002) | Haydon, Randall et al. (2006) | Marino (2003, 2004) | Marino et al. (2006) | Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (1994, 1995a, 1995b) | Sillero-Zubiri & Macdonald (1997, 1998) | Sillero-Zubiri & Marino (2004) | Sillero-Zubiri, Gottelli & Macdonald (1996) | Sillero-Zubiri, Johnson & Macdonald (1998) | Sillero-Zubiri, King & Macdonald (1996) | Sillero-Zubiri, Malcolm et al. (2000) | Sillero-Zubiri, Tattersall & Macdonald (1995a, 1995b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331169/files/figure.png,"4.Ethiopian WolfCanis simensisFrench:Loup d'Abyssinie/ German:Athiopien-Wolf/ Spanish:Lobo etiopeOther common names:Simien Fox, Simien Jackal, Abyssinian Wolf, Abyssinian Red FoxTaxonomy.Canis simensis Ruppell, 1835,Ethiopia.Originally placed in the genus Simenia, C. simensiswas noted to be the most distinct species in the genus Canis, and was considered to bear close affinity to C. adustusand Dusicyon spp.The Ethiopian Wolf is not closely linked to the Vulpesgroup, despite having been called the Simien or Simenian Fox. Its other name of Simien or Ethiopian Jackal suggests a close relationship with jackals. Other, previously used vernacular names included Abyssinian Wolf and Red Fox, making clear the difficulty naturalists had in cataloguing this species. Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequencing suggested that C. simensisis more closely related to C. lupusand C. latransthan to any African canid, and that the species may have evolved from a Wolf-like ancestor crossing to northern Africa from Eurasia as recently as 100,000 years ago. There are fossils of wolf-like canids from the late Pleistocene in Eurasia, but unfortunately no fossil record of C. simensisitself. Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variability in C. simensisis small relative to other canid species, suggesting small population sizes may have characterized its recent evolution. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. s. stmensis Ruppell, 1835— NW of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.C. s. citernii de Beaux, 1922— SE of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.Descriptive notes.Head-body 92-8-101- 2 cmfor males and 84- 1-96 cmfor females, tail 29-39- 6 cmfor males and 27-29- 7 cmfor females; weight 14-2-19- 3 kgfor males and 11-2-14- 2 kgfor females. A medium-sized canid with a reddish coat, distinctive white markings, long legs, and an elongated muzzle, resembling a Coyote in conformation and size. Males weigh 20% more than females. The face, ears and upper parts of the muzzle are red. Ears broad, pointed, and directed forward; the pinnae are thickly fringed with long white hairs growing inward from the edge. Palate, gums, and naked borders of the lips entirely black. Characteristic facial markings include a white ascending crescent below the eyes, and a small white spot on the cheeks. The throat, chest, and underparts are white, the ventral part of the neck with a distinctive white band. Pelage is soft and short, ocher to rusty red, with a dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The boundary between the red coat and the white markings is sharp and well defined. The contrast of white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes; the female’s coat is generally paler than the male’s. The long, slender legs are reddish outside, with inner aspect white. There is a short rufouscolored stripe at the base of the tail, which becomes a black stripe leading to a thick brush of black-tipped guard hairs. The skull is very flat in profile, with only a shallow angle between frontals and nasals. The neuro-cranium is low and narrow, thick, and almost cylindrical. Its width is 30% of the total skull length. Facial length is 58% ofthe total skull length. The inter-parietal crest is slightly developed, and the coronal ridge is linear. Teeth small and widely spaced, especially the premolars. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; m3 occasionally absent. Sharply pointed canines average 19 mmin length (14-22 mm); carnassials (P* and M,) are relatively small.Habitat.A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.Food and Feeding.Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.Activity patterns.In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas. Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered in the past by political instability is currently less severe and is associated with conflicts over livestock losses. Recent wolf population decline in Bale is mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shootings as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threatto all populations. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves’ specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem. In Bale, the Ethiopian Wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs. Although hybrids are currently confined to the Web Valley in West Bale, they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. To date there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside West Bale.Bibliography.Ashenafi et al. (2005), Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Gottelli & Sillero-Zubiri (1992), Gottelli, Marino et al. (2004), Gottelli, Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1994), Haydon, Laurenson & Sillero-Zubiri (2002), Haydon, Randall et al. (2006), Marino (2003, 2004), Marino et al. (2006), Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (1994, 1995a, 1995b), Sillero-Zubiri & Macdonald (1997, 1998), Sillero-Zubiri & Marino (2004), Sillero-Zubiri, Gottelli & Macdonald (1996), Sillero-Zubiri, Johnson & Macdonald (1998), Sillero-Zubiri, King & Macdonald (1996), Sillero-Zubiri, Malcolm et al. (2000), Sillero-Zubiri, Tattersall & Macdonald (1995a, 1995b)." +03ACCF40BF33FFCC7B9DFBDAF837DF7E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,415,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF33FFCC7B9DFBDAF837DF7E.xml,Canis latrans,Canis,latrans,Say,1823,Coyote @fr | Kojote @de | Coyote @es | Brush Wolf @en | Prairie Wolf @en,"Canis latrans Say, 1823, Nebraska, USA.The ancestral Coyote, C. lepophagus, is believed to have become widespread throughout North America by the late Pliocene. In the north-eastern USA, the eastern Coyote may be a subspecies with some introgression of wolf and dog genes. Nineteen subspecies have been recognized. However, the taxonomic validity of some subspecies is questionable.","C. l. latrans Say, 1823— S Canadaand USA(Great Plains region).C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839— SE Mexico.C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903— Mexico(N Baja California) and USA(S California).C. l. dickeyi Nelson, 1932— Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.C. l. frustror Woodhouse, 1850— USA(Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma& E Texas).C. l. goldmani Merriam, 1904— Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico.C. l. hondurensis Goldman, 1936— E Honduras.C.l.impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903— W Mexico.C.l.incolatus Hall, 1934— Alaska and NW Canada.C.l.jamesi Townsend, 1912— Mexico(Tiburon I, Baja California).C.l.lestes Merriam, 1897— SW Canadaand W USA(Intermountain Region & NW).C.l.mearnsi Merriam, 1897— NW Mexico and SW USA.C.l.microdon Merriam, 1897— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).C.l.ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829— W USA(W coast).C.l.peninsulae Merriam, 1897— Mexico(S Baja California).C.l.exensis Bailey, 1905— S USA(W Texas& New Mexico).C.l.thamnos Jackson, 1949— N-C Canadaand E USA.C.l.umpquensis Jackson, 1949— USA(NW coast).C.l.vigilis Merriam, 1897— SW Mexico.Coyotes did not originally occur on the USAE coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia(subspecies unknown).","Head-body 74-94 cmfor males and 74-94 cmfor females,tail 29— 36- 3 cmfor males and 26-34- 3 cmfor females; weight 7-8-15- 8 kgfor males and 7-7- 14- 5 kgfor females. Slender appearance with a long, pointed nose, large pointed ears, slender legs with small feet, and a bushy tail. Size varies geographically, although adult males are heavier and larger than adult females. Coyotes range in color from pure gray to rufous; melanistic Coyotes are rare. Fur texture and color varies geographically: northern subspecies have long coarse hair. Coyotes in the desert tend to be fulvous in color, while Coyotes at higher latitudes are darker and grayer. The belly and throat are paler than the rest of the body and have a mantle of darker hair over the shoulders. The tip of the tail is usually black. Hairs are about 50-90 mmlong, mane hairs tend to be 80-110 mmlong. Pelage during summer is shorter than in winter. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats throughout their range including prairie, forest, desert, mountain, and tropical ecosystems. Their ability to exploit human resources also allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit distribution in some desert environments.","Opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a wide variety of food items, ranging from fruit and insects to small mammals to large ungulates and live-stock, typically consuming items in relation to availability. Livestock and wild ungulates are often consumed as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur. Predation on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning. Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume refuse, pet food or other human-related items. Studies of predatory behavior show that Coyote age, habitat, and wind and snow conditions all influence their ability to capture small mammals. Coyotes hunt small mammals alone, even when pack size is large. When preying on native ungulates, cooperation among pack members may facilitate the capture of prey, but is not essential. Environmental factors are important to the success of an attack on adult ungulates, as is the presence of the alpha Coyote pair, and younger animals generally do not participate. The number of Coyotes is not as important as which individuals are involved in the attack. The outcome is also affected by the ability of the quarry to escape into water, its defensive abilities, and its nutritional state. In areas with an ungulate prey base in winter, competition with other sympatric carnivores for a carcass may be intense and there can even be competition among members of the same pack.","Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.","Coyotes may be active throughout the day, but they tend to be more active during the early morning and around sunset. Activity patterns change seasonally (e.g. during winter, when there is a change in the food base in some areas) or in response to human disturbance and persecution.","The basic social unit is the bonded alpha pair, which may breed for up to 10-12 years. Associate animals often remain in the pack and possibly inherit the pack or displace members of the breeding pair and become alphas themselves. Associates participate in territorial maintenance and pup rearing, but not to the extent of the alpha pair. Other Coyotes exist outside of the resident packs as transient or nomadic individuals. Transients travel alone over larger areas and do not breed, but will move into territories when vacancies occur. One factor that may affect Coyote sociality is prey size or prey biomass. In populations where rodents are the major prey, Coyotes tend to be in pairs or trios. In populations where Elk and deer are available, large packs of up to ten individuals may form. Coyotes are territorial, with a dominance hierarchy within each resident pack. The dominance hierarchy influences access to food resources within the pack. In captivity, pups show early development of aggressive behavior and engage in dominance fights when 19-24 days old. The process of establishing hierarchy within litters appears to last up to 4-5 months. Territoriality regulates Coyote numbers as packs space themselves across the landscape in relation to available food and habitat. Home range size varies with energetic requirements, physiographic makeup, habitat, and food distribution. Home range size is influenced by social organization, with transients using larger areas, and residents occupying distinct territories. Only packs (2-10 animals) maintain and defend territories, both by direct confrontation and indirectly with scent marking and howling. Fidelity to the home range is high and may persist for many years. Shifts in territorial boundaries may occur in response to the loss of one or both of the alpha pair. Pups, yearlings, and non-breeding adults of lower social rank may disperse from the natal site into adjacent areas or farther afield. Dispersal seems to be voluntary, as social and nutritional pressures intensify during winter when food becomes limited. Juveniles usually disperse during autumn and early winter. Pre-dispersal forays may occur. Coyotes communicate using auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile cues. Studies have identified different typesof vocalizations, seasonal patterns, and the influence of social status on vocalization rates. Howling plays a role in territorial maintenance and pack spacing by advertising boundaries and signaling the presence of alpha animals that will confront intruders and defend the territory. Scent marking contributes to territory maintenance and is performed mostly by alpha individuals. Scent marking may also be an indicator of sexual condition, maturity, or synchrony.Breeding.Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environments and occupy most developed habitats, including urban and agricultural areas. Hybridization with dogs and Gray Wolves may be occurring in Some areas.","Andelt (1985, 1987) | Bekoff (1978b) | Bekoff & Diamond (1976) | Bekoff & Gese (2003) | Bekoff & Wells (1986) | Bekoff et al. (1981) | Camenzind (1978) | Gese & Bekoff (2004) | Gese & Grothe (1995) | Gese et al. (1996a, 1996b, 1996¢) | Gier (1968) | Kitchen et al. (2000a, 2000b) | Knowlton et al. (1999) | Laundre & Keller (1984) | O'Donoghue et al. (1997) | Richens & Hugie (1974) | Thurber & Peterson (1991) | Todd & Keith (1983) | Wayne & Lehman (1992) | Young & Jackson (1951)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331167/files/figure.png,"3.CoyoteCanis latransFrench:Coyote/ German:Kojote/ Spanish:CoyoteOther common names:Brush Wolf, Prairie WolfTaxonomy.Canis latrans Say, 1823, Nebraska, USA.The ancestral Coyote, C. lepophagus, is believed to have become widespread throughout North America by the late Pliocene. In the north-eastern USA, the eastern Coyote may be a subspecies with some introgression of wolf and dog genes. Nineteen subspecies have been recognized. However, the taxonomic validity of some subspecies is questionable.Subspecies and Distribution.C. l. latrans Say, 1823— S Canadaand USA(Great Plains region).C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839— SE Mexico.C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903— Mexico(N Baja California) and USA(S California).C. l. dickeyi Nelson, 1932— Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.C. l. frustror Woodhouse, 1850— USA(Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma& E Texas).C. l. goldmani Merriam, 1904— Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico.C. l. hondurensis Goldman, 1936— E Honduras.C.l.impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903— W Mexico.C.l.incolatus Hall, 1934— Alaska and NW Canada.C.l.jamesi Townsend, 1912— Mexico(Tiburon I, Baja California).C.l.lestes Merriam, 1897— SW Canadaand W USA(Intermountain Region & NW).C.l.mearnsi Merriam, 1897— NW Mexico and SW USA.C.l.microdon Merriam, 1897— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).C.l.ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829— W USA(W coast).C.l.peninsulae Merriam, 1897— Mexico(S Baja California).C.l.exensis Bailey, 1905— S USA(W Texas& New Mexico).C.l.thamnos Jackson, 1949— N-C Canadaand E USA.C.l.umpquensis Jackson, 1949— USA(NW coast).C.l.vigilis Merriam, 1897— SW Mexico.Coyotes did not originally occur on the USAE coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia(subspecies unknown).Descriptive notes.Head-body 74-94 cmfor males and 74-94 cmfor females,tail 29— 36- 3 cmfor males and 26-34- 3 cmfor females; weight 7-8-15- 8 kgfor males and 7-7- 14- 5 kgfor females. Slender appearance with a long, pointed nose, large pointed ears, slender legs with small feet, and a bushy tail. Size varies geographically, although adult males are heavier and larger than adult females. Coyotes range in color from pure gray to rufous; melanistic Coyotes are rare. Fur texture and color varies geographically: northern subspecies have long coarse hair. Coyotes in the desert tend to be fulvous in color, while Coyotes at higher latitudes are darker and grayer. The belly and throat are paler than the rest of the body and have a mantle of darker hair over the shoulders. The tip of the tail is usually black. Hairs are about 50-90 mmlong, mane hairs tend to be 80-110 mmlong. Pelage during summer is shorter than in winter. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats throughout their range including prairie, forest, desert, mountain, and tropical ecosystems. Their ability to exploit human resources also allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit distribution in some desert environments.Food and Feeding.Opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a wide variety of food items, ranging from fruit and insects to small mammals to large ungulates and live-stock, typically consuming items in relation to availability. Livestock and wild ungulates are often consumed as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur. Predation on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning. Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume refuse, pet food or other human-related items. Studies of predatory behavior show that Coyote age, habitat, and wind and snow conditions all influence their ability to capture small mammals. Coyotes hunt small mammals alone, even when pack size is large. When preying on native ungulates, cooperation among pack members may facilitate the capture of prey, but is not essential. Environmental factors are important to the success of an attack on adult ungulates, as is the presence of the alpha Coyote pair, and younger animals generally do not participate. The number of Coyotes is not as important as which individuals are involved in the attack. The outcome is also affected by the ability of the quarry to escape into water, its defensive abilities, and its nutritional state. In areas with an ungulate prey base in winter, competition with other sympatric carnivores for a carcass may be intense and there can even be competition among members of the same pack.On following pages: 4. Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis); 5. Golden Jackal (Canis aureus); 6. Side-striped Jackal (Canis adustus); 7. Black-backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas).Activity patterns.Coyotes may be active throughout the day, but they tend to be more active during the early morning and around sunset. Activity patterns change seasonally (e.g. during winter, when there is a change in the food base in some areas) or in response to human disturbance and persecution.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the bonded alpha pair, which may breed for up to 10-12 years. Associate animals often remain in the pack and possibly inherit the pack or displace members of the breeding pair and become alphas themselves. Associates participate in territorial maintenance and pup rearing, but not to the extent of the alpha pair. Other Coyotes exist outside of the resident packs as transient or nomadic individuals. Transients travel alone over larger areas and do not breed, but will move into territories when vacancies occur. One factor that may affect Coyote sociality is prey size or prey biomass. In populations where rodents are the major prey, Coyotes tend to be in pairs or trios. In populations where Elk and deer are available, large packs of up to ten individuals may form. Coyotes are territorial, with a dominance hierarchy within each resident pack. The dominance hierarchy influences access to food resources within the pack. In captivity, pups show early development of aggressive behavior and engage in dominance fights when 19-24 days old. The process of establishing hierarchy within litters appears to last up to 4-5 months. Territoriality regulates Coyote numbers as packs space themselves across the landscape in relation to available food and habitat. Home range size varies with energetic requirements, physiographic makeup, habitat, and food distribution. Home range size is influenced by social organization, with transients using larger areas, and residents occupying distinct territories. Only packs (2-10 animals) maintain and defend territories, both by direct confrontation and indirectly with scent marking and howling. Fidelity to the home range is high and may persist for many years. Shifts in territorial boundaries may occur in response to the loss of one or both of the alpha pair. Pups, yearlings, and non-breeding adults of lower social rank may disperse from the natal site into adjacent areas or farther afield. Dispersal seems to be voluntary, as social and nutritional pressures intensify during winter when food becomes limited. Juveniles usually disperse during autumn and early winter. Pre-dispersal forays may occur. Coyotes communicate using auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile cues. Studies have identified different typesof vocalizations, seasonal patterns, and the influence of social status on vocalization rates. Howling plays a role in territorial maintenance and pack spacing by advertising boundaries and signaling the presence of alpha animals that will confront intruders and defend the territory. Scent marking contributes to territory maintenance and is performed mostly by alpha individuals. Scent marking may also be an indicator of sexual condition, maturity, or synchrony.Breeding.Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environments and occupy most developed habitats, including urban and agricultural areas. Hybridization with dogs and Gray Wolves may be occurring in Some areas.Bibliography.Andelt (1985, 1987), Bekoff (1978b), Bekoff & Diamond (1976), Bekoff & Gese (2003), Bekoff & Wells (1986), Bekoff et al. (1981), Camenzind (1978), Gese & Bekoff (2004), Gese & Grothe (1995), Gese et al. (1996a, 1996b, 1996¢), Gier (1968), Kitchen et al. (2000a, 2000b), Knowlton et al. (1999), Laundre & Keller (1984), O'Donoghue et al. (1997), Richens & Hugie (1974), Thurber & Peterson (1991), Todd & Keith (1983), Wayne & Lehman (1992), Young & Jackson (1951)." 03ACCF40BF33FFCD7E94FE9CF883D907,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,415,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF33FFCD7E94FE9CF883D907.xml,Canis rufus,Canis,rufus,Audubon & Bachman,1851,Loup roux @fr | Rotwolf @de | Lobo rojo @es,"Canis rufus Audubon & Bachman, 1851,Texas, USA.The taxonomic status of the Red Wolf has been debated widely. Recent genetic and morphological evidence suggests the Red Wolf is a unique taxon, and not a hybrid of Gray Wolf and Coyote, as previously suggested. Three subspecies were initially recognized: rufus (Audubon & Bachman, 1851), gregory: (Goldman, 1937), and floridanus (Miller, 1912), of which only one, gregoryi, 1s believed to have survived. Genetic methodologies have not been applied to sub-specific designation, and current disagreement about the relatedness of wolves in eastern North America, if resolved, may alter currently accepted subspecific classification of C. rufus.","Red Wolves exist only as a reintroduced population in E North Carolina, USA.","Head-body 104-125 cmfor males and 99-120- 1 cmfor females, tail 33-46 cmfor males and 29- 5-44 cmfor females; weight 22-34- 1 kgfor males and 20-1-29- 7 kgfor females. Generally appears long-legged and rangy with proportionately large ears. Intermediate in size between the Coyote and the Gray Wolf. The Red Wolf's almond-shaped eyes, broad muzzle, and wide nose pad contribute to its wolf-like appearance. The muzzle tends to be very pale in color with an area of white around the lips extending up the sides of the muzzle. Coloration is typically brownish or cinnamon with gray and black shading on the back and tail. A black phase occurred historically butis probably extinct. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Very little is known about Red Wolf habitat because the species’ range was severely reduced by the time scientific investigations began. Given their wide historical distribution, Red Wolves probably utilized a large suite of habitat typesat one time. The last naturally occurring population utilized the coastal prairie marshes of south-western Louisianaand south-eastern Texas. However, many agree that this environment probably does not typify preferred Red Wolf habitat. There is evidence that the species was found in highest numbers in the once extensive bottomland river forests and swamps of the South-east. Red wolves reintroduced into North Carolina, and their descendants, have made extensive use of habitat typesranging from agricultural lands to pocosins, which are forest/wetland mosaics with an understory of evergreen shrubs. This suggests that Red Wolves are habitat generalists and can thrive in most settings where prey populations are adequate and persecution by humans is slight. This generalization is supported by one study in which low human density, wetland soil type, and distance from roads were the most important predictors of potential wolf habitat in North Carolina.","Mammals such as Coypu (Myocastor coypus), rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.), and rodents (Sigmodon hispidus, Oryzomys palustris, Ondatra zibethicus) are common in south-eastern Texasand appear to have been the primary prey of Red Wolves historically. Presently in North Carolina, White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Northern Raccoons, and rabbits are the primary prey species for the reintroduced population (86% of the diet). While it is not uncommon for Red Wolves to forage individually, there is also evidence of group hunting by pack members. Also, resource partitioning among members of a pack sometimes occurs. In one study of pack feeding, rodents were consumed more by juveniles than adults, and use of rodents diminished as the young wolves matured.","Red Wolves typically reach sexual maturity by 22 months of age, though breeding at ten months may occur. Mating usually takes place between February and March, gestation lasting 61-63 days. Peak whelping dates occur from mid-April to mid-May, producing litters of 1-10 pups. In a given year, a dominant pair produces one litter per pack. During the denning season, pregnant females may establish several dens. Some dens are shallow surface depressions located in dense vegetation for shelter at locations where the water table is high; other dens are deep burrows, often in windrows between agricultural fields or in canal banks. Dens have also been found in the hollowed out bases of large trees. Pups are often moved from one den to another before leaving the den altogether, and den attendance by male and female yearlings and adult pack members is common.",Mostly nocturnal with crepuscular peaks of activity. Hunting usually occurs at night or at dawn and dusk.,"Red Wolves normally live in extended family units or packs, typically including a dominant breeding pair and their offspring from previous years. Dispersal of offspring tends to occur before individuals reach two years of age. Group size in the reintroduced population ranges from a single breeding pair to twelve individuals. Red Wolves are territorial, and like other canids, appear to scent-mark boundaries to exclude non-group members from their territory. Home range size (46-226 km?) varies with habitat availability.Breeding.Red Wolves typically reach sexual maturity by 22 months of age, though breeding at ten months may occur. Mating usually takes place between February and March, gestation lasting 61-63 days. Peak whelping dates occur from mid-April to mid-May, producing litters of 1-10 pups. In a given year, a dominant pair produces one litter per pack. During the denning season, pregnant females may establish several dens. Some dens are shallow surface depressions located in dense vegetation for shelter at locations where the water table is high; other dens are deep burrows, often in windrows between agricultural fields or in canal banks. Dens have also been found in the hollowed out bases of large trees. Pups are often moved from one den to another before leaving the den altogether, and den attendance by male and female yearlings and adult pack members is common.","CITES notlisted. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extinct in the Wild by 1980, the Red Wolf was reintroduced by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1987 into eastern North Carolina. The Red Wolf is now common within the reintroduction area of roughly 6000 km*. However, the species’ abundance outside this area is unknown. Hybridization with Coyotes or Red Wolf/ Coyote hybrids is the primary threat to the species’ persistence in the wild. While hybridization with Coyotes was a factor in the Red Wolf's initial demise in the wild, it was not detected as a problem in North Carolinauntil approximately 1992. Indeed, the region was determined to be ideal for Red Wolf reintroductions because of a purported absence of Coyotes. However, during the 1990s the Coyote population apparently became well established in the area. In the absence of hybridization, recovery of the Red Wolf and subsequent removal of the species from the USAEndangered Species List is deemed possible. It is noteworthy that similar hybridization has been observed in the population of suspected Red Wolf-type wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. If these wolves are ultimately shown to be Red Wolf-type wolves, this will enhance the conservation status of the species and nearly triple the known number of Red Wolf-type wolves surviving in the wild. Human-induced mortality (vehicles and gunshot) can be significant. However, the threat this represents to the population is unclear. Most vehicle deaths occurred early in the reintroduction and were likely due to naive animals.","Carley (1975) | Goldman (1937) | Hahn (2002) | Kelly (2000) | Kelly, Beyer & Phillips (2004) | Kelly, Miller & Seal (1999) | Nowak (1979, 2002) | Paradiso & Nowak (1971, 1972) | Parker (1986) | Phillips & Henry (1992) | Phillips, Henry & Kelly (2003) | Phillips, Smith et al. (1995) | Riley & McBride (1972) | Shaw (1975) | US Fish & Wildlife Service (1990) | Wilson & Reeder (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331163/files/figure.png,"2.Red WolfCanis rufusFrench:Loup roux/ German:Rotwolf/ Spanish:Lobo rojoTaxonomy.Canis rufus Audubon & Bachman, 1851,Texas, USA.The taxonomic status of the Red Wolf has been debated widely. Recent genetic and morphological evidence suggests the Red Wolf is a unique taxon, and not a hybrid of Gray Wolf and Coyote, as previously suggested. Three subspecies were initially recognized: rufus (Audubon & Bachman, 1851), gregory: (Goldman, 1937), and floridanus (Miller, 1912), of which only one, gregoryi, 1s believed to have survived. Genetic methodologies have not been applied to sub-specific designation, and current disagreement about the relatedness of wolves in eastern North America, if resolved, may alter currently accepted subspecific classification of C. rufus.Distribution.Red Wolves exist only as a reintroduced population in E North Carolina, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 104-125 cmfor males and 99-120- 1 cmfor females, tail 33-46 cmfor males and 29- 5-44 cmfor females; weight 22-34- 1 kgfor males and 20-1-29- 7 kgfor females. Generally appears long-legged and rangy with proportionately large ears. Intermediate in size between the Coyote and the Gray Wolf. The Red Wolf's almond-shaped eyes, broad muzzle, and wide nose pad contribute to its wolf-like appearance. The muzzle tends to be very pale in color with an area of white around the lips extending up the sides of the muzzle. Coloration is typically brownish or cinnamon with gray and black shading on the back and tail. A black phase occurred historically butis probably extinct. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Very little is known about Red Wolf habitat because the species’ range was severely reduced by the time scientific investigations began. Given their wide historical distribution, Red Wolves probably utilized a large suite of habitat typesat one time. The last naturally occurring population utilized the coastal prairie marshes of south-western Louisianaand south-eastern Texas. However, many agree that this environment probably does not typify preferred Red Wolf habitat. There is evidence that the species was found in highest numbers in the once extensive bottomland river forests and swamps of the South-east. Red wolves reintroduced into North Carolina, and their descendants, have made extensive use of habitat typesranging from agricultural lands to pocosins, which are forest/wetland mosaics with an understory of evergreen shrubs. This suggests that Red Wolves are habitat generalists and can thrive in most settings where prey populations are adequate and persecution by humans is slight. This generalization is supported by one study in which low human density, wetland soil type, and distance from roads were the most important predictors of potential wolf habitat in North Carolina.Food and Feeding.Mammals such as Coypu (Myocastor coypus), rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.), and rodents (Sigmodon hispidus, Oryzomys palustris, Ondatra zibethicus) are common in south-eastern Texasand appear to have been the primary prey of Red Wolves historically. Presently in North Carolina, White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Northern Raccoons, and rabbits are the primary prey species for the reintroduced population (86% of the diet). While it is not uncommon for Red Wolves to forage individually, there is also evidence of group hunting by pack members. Also, resource partitioning among members of a pack sometimes occurs. In one study of pack feeding, rodents were consumed more by juveniles than adults, and use of rodents diminished as the young wolves matured.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal with crepuscular peaks of activity. Hunting usually occurs at night or at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Red Wolves normally live in extended family units or packs, typically including a dominant breeding pair and their offspring from previous years. Dispersal of offspring tends to occur before individuals reach two years of age. Group size in the reintroduced population ranges from a single breeding pair to twelve individuals. Red Wolves are territorial, and like other canids, appear to scent-mark boundaries to exclude non-group members from their territory. Home range size (46-226 km?) varies with habitat availability.Breeding.Red Wolves typically reach sexual maturity by 22 months of age, though breeding at ten months may occur. Mating usually takes place between February and March, gestation lasting 61-63 days. Peak whelping dates occur from mid-April to mid-May, producing litters of 1-10 pups. In a given year, a dominant pair produces one litter per pack. During the denning season, pregnant females may establish several dens. Some dens are shallow surface depressions located in dense vegetation for shelter at locations where the water table is high; other dens are deep burrows, often in windrows between agricultural fields or in canal banks. Dens have also been found in the hollowed out bases of large trees. Pups are often moved from one den to another before leaving the den altogether, and den attendance by male and female yearlings and adult pack members is common.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extinct in the Wild by 1980, the Red Wolf was reintroduced by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1987 into eastern North Carolina. The Red Wolf is now common within the reintroduction area of roughly 6000 km*. However, the species’ abundance outside this area is unknown. Hybridization with Coyotes or Red Wolf/ Coyote hybrids is the primary threat to the species’ persistence in the wild. While hybridization with Coyotes was a factor in the Red Wolf's initial demise in the wild, it was not detected as a problem in North Carolinauntil approximately 1992. Indeed, the region was determined to be ideal for Red Wolf reintroductions because of a purported absence of Coyotes. However, during the 1990s the Coyote population apparently became well established in the area. In the absence of hybridization, recovery of the Red Wolf and subsequent removal of the species from the USAEndangered Species List is deemed possible. It is noteworthy that similar hybridization has been observed in the population of suspected Red Wolf-type wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. If these wolves are ultimately shown to be Red Wolf-type wolves, this will enhance the conservation status of the species and nearly triple the known number of Red Wolf-type wolves surviving in the wild. Human-induced mortality (vehicles and gunshot) can be significant. However, the threat this represents to the population is unclear. Most vehicle deaths occurred early in the reintroduction and were likely due to naive animals.Bibliography.Carley (1975), Goldman (1937), Hahn (2002), Kelly (2000), Kelly, Beyer & Phillips (2004), Kelly, Miller & Seal (1999), Nowak (1979, 2002), Paradiso & Nowak (1971, 1972), Parker (1986), Phillips & Henry (1992), Phillips, Henry & Kelly (2003), Phillips, Smith et al. (1995), Riley & McBride (1972), Shaw (1975), US Fish & Wildlife Service (1990), Wilson & Reeder (2005)." -03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,413,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F.xml,Canis lupus,Canis,lupus,Linnaeus,1758,Loup gris @fr | Wolf @de | Lobo @es | Wolf @en | Timber Wolf @en | Tundra Wolf @en | Arctic Wolf @en,"Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia. Canis lycaonhas been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to Australiaby Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as C. antarticusor C. familiaris dingo. Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.","-_....r-..... _. - - __ ............C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758- Asia, Europe.C. l. albus Kerr, 1792— N Russia.C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935— Canadian High Arctic.C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Mexico, SW USA(extinct in the wild).C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804— C Russia.C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923— E-C Asia.C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793— SE Asia and Australasia.C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775— SE Canada, NE USA.C. l. nubilus Say, 1823— E-C Canadaand C USA.C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829— Alaska, NW Canada.C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831— Middle East and SW Asia to India.","Head-body 100-130 cmfor males and 87-117 cmfor females, tail 40-52 cmfor males and 35-50 cmfor females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to 62 kg. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts.","Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer Rangifer tarandus, deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from 100 mto more than 5 kmare the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6- 3 kgor more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey typesand over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in Australiacomposed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards (Ctenophorus nuchalis). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.","Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.","Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.","Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of 75-2500 km* depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (90-300 km?) occur in the deserts of south-western Australia. Elsewhere they range from 10-113 km? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about 250 km.Breeding.Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.","CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across Canadaand Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in Greenland(Denmark). Endangered in north-west USA, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other USArange states. Highly endangered in Mexico. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the USA, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the USA, and reintroduction in the western USA. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.","Boitani (1995) | Carbyn et al. (1995) | Corbett (1995, 2004) | Corbett & Newsome (1987) | Daniels & Corbett (2003) | Fuller (1989) | Harrington & Paquet (1982) | Koler-Matznick et al. (2000) | Mech (1970, 1974, 2002) | Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004) | Mech et al. (1998) | Nowak (1995) | Wilson et al. (2000) | Young & Goldman (1944)",,"1.Gray WolfCanis lupusFrench:Loup gris/ German:Wolf/ Spanish:LoboOther common names:Wolf, Timber Wolf, Tundra Wolf, Arctic WolfTaxonomy.Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia. Canis lycaonhas been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to Australiaby Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as C. antarticusor C. familiaris dingo. Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.Subspecies and Distribution.-_....r-..... _. - - __ ............C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758- Asia, Europe.C. l. albus Kerr, 1792— N Russia.C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935— Canadian High Arctic.C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Mexico, SW USA(extinct in the wild).C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804— C Russia.C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923— E-C Asia.C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793— SE Asia and Australasia.C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775— SE Canada, NE USA.C. l. nubilus Say, 1823— E-C Canadaand C USA.C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829— Alaska, NW Canada.C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831— Middle East and SW Asia to India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-130 cmfor males and 87-117 cmfor females, tail 40-52 cmfor males and 35-50 cmfor females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to 62 kg. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts.Food and Feeding.Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer Rangifer tarandus, deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from 100 mto more than 5 kmare the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6- 3 kgor more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey typesand over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in Australiacomposed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards (Ctenophorus nuchalis). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of 75-2500 km* depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (90-300 km?) occur in the deserts of south-western Australia. Elsewhere they range from 10-113 km? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about 250 km.Breeding.Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across Canadaand Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in Greenland(Denmark). Endangered in north-west USA, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other USArange states. Highly endangered in Mexico. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the USA, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the USA, and reintroduction in the western USA. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.Bibliography.Boitani (1995), Carbyn et al. (1995), Corbett (1995, 2004), Corbett & Newsome (1987), Daniels & Corbett (2003), Fuller (1989), Harrington & Paquet (1982), Koler-Matznick et al. (2000), Mech (1970, 1974, 2002), Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004), Mech et al. (1998), Nowak (1995), Wilson et al. (2000), Young & Goldman (1944)." +03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,413,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F.xml,Canis lupus,Canis,lupus,Linnaeus,1758,Loup gris @fr | Wolf @de | Lobo @es | Wolf @en | Timber Wolf @en | Tundra Wolf @en | Arctic Wolf @en,"Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia. Canis lycaonhas been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to Australiaby Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as C. antarticusor C. familiaris dingo. Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.","-_....r-..... _. - - __ ............C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758- Asia, Europe.C. l. albus Kerr, 1792— N Russia.C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935— Canadian High Arctic.C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Mexico, SW USA(extinct in the wild).C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804— C Russia.C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923— E-C Asia.C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793— SE Asia and Australasia.C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775— SE Canada, NE USA.C. l. nubilus Say, 1823— E-C Canadaand C USA.C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829— Alaska, NW Canada.C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831— Middle East and SW Asia to India.","Head-body 100-130 cmfor males and 87-117 cmfor females, tail 40-52 cmfor males and 35-50 cmfor females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to 62 kg. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts.","Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer Rangifer tarandus, deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from 100 mto more than 5 kmare the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6- 3 kgor more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey typesand over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in Australiacomposed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards (Ctenophorus nuchalis). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.","Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.","Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.","Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of 75-2500 km* depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (90-300 km?) occur in the deserts of south-western Australia. Elsewhere they range from 10-113 km? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about 250 km.Breeding.Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.","CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across Canadaand Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in Greenland(Denmark). Endangered in north-west USA, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other USArange states. Highly endangered in Mexico. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the USA, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the USA, and reintroduction in the western USA. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.","Boitani (1995) | Carbyn et al. (1995) | Corbett (1995, 2004) | Corbett & Newsome (1987) | Daniels & Corbett (2003) | Fuller (1989) | Harrington & Paquet (1982) | Koler-Matznick et al. (2000) | Mech (1970, 1974, 2002) | Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004) | Mech et al. (1998) | Nowak (1995) | Wilson et al. (2000) | Young & Goldman (1944)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331161/files/figure.png,"1.Gray WolfCanis lupusFrench:Loup gris/ German:Wolf/ Spanish:LoboOther common names:Wolf, Timber Wolf, Tundra Wolf, Arctic WolfTaxonomy.Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia. Canis lycaonhas been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to Australiaby Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as C. antarticusor C. familiaris dingo. Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.Subspecies and Distribution.-_....r-..... _. - - __ ............C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758- Asia, Europe.C. l. albus Kerr, 1792— N Russia.C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935— Canadian High Arctic.C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Mexico, SW USA(extinct in the wild).C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804— C Russia.C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923— E-C Asia.C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793— SE Asia and Australasia.C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775— SE Canada, NE USA.C. l. nubilus Say, 1823— E-C Canadaand C USA.C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829— Alaska, NW Canada.C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831— Middle East and SW Asia to India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-130 cmfor males and 87-117 cmfor females, tail 40-52 cmfor males and 35-50 cmfor females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to 62 kg. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts.Food and Feeding.Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer Rangifer tarandus, deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from 100 mto more than 5 kmare the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6- 3 kgor more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey typesand over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in Australiacomposed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards (Ctenophorus nuchalis). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of 75-2500 km* depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (90-300 km?) occur in the deserts of south-western Australia. Elsewhere they range from 10-113 km? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about 250 km.Breeding.Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across Canadaand Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in Greenland(Denmark). Endangered in north-west USA, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other USArange states. Highly endangered in Mexico. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the USA, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the USA, and reintroduction in the western USA. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.Bibliography.Boitani (1995), Carbyn et al. (1995), Corbett (1995, 2004), Corbett & Newsome (1987), Daniels & Corbett (2003), Fuller (1989), Harrington & Paquet (1982), Koler-Matznick et al. (2000), Mech (1970, 1974, 2002), Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004), Mech et al. (1998), Nowak (1995), Wilson et al. (2000), Young & Goldman (1944)." 03ACCF40BF37FFC97CECFD9CF863D827,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,352,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF37FFC97CECFD9CF863D827.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family CANIDAE (DOGS)• Small to quite large mammals with triangular heads, long, pointed muzzles, well-developed jaws, and prominent, roughly triangular pointed ears; muscular, deepchested body, long and slender limbs, and bushytail.• 45.8-182 cm.• Cosmopolitan, all regions except Antarcticaand many oceanic islands.• Occur in all major habitats, spanning tropical forests, woodland, savannah, deserts, alpine heathlands, and the Arctic; found at all altitudes from sea level to over 5000 m.• 13 genera, 35 species,at least 172 extant taxa.• 3 species Critically Endangered, 3 species Endangered; 1 species and 5 subspecies Extinct since 1600." -03ACCF40BF38FFD97EDEFB7AFEDADF34,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,426,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF38FFD97EDEFB7AFEDADF34.xml,Cerdocyon thous,Cerdocyon,thous,,,Renard crabier @fr | Savannenfuchs @de | Zorro cangrejero @es | Savannah Fox @en,"Canis thous Linnaeus, 1766.Suriname.Five subspecies are recognized.","C. t. thous Linnaeus, 1766— N Brazil, the Guianas, and SE Venezuela.C. t. aquilus Bangs, 1898— N Colombia, N Venezuela.C. t. azarae Wied-Neuwied, 1824— NE & C Brazil.C. t. entrerianus Burmeister, 1861— Argentina, Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.C. t. germanus G. M. Allen, 1923— Colombia(Bogota region).","Head-body 57-775 cmand tail 22-41 cm; weight 4-5-8-5 kg. Mediums-sized, tail moderately bushy, often with black tip and dark at base. No sexual dimorphism. Rostrum long and pointed, head relatively short and narrow. Pelage generally dark gray to black along dorsum down to midline; midline to ventrum including legs gray or black, sometimes with yellow to orange flecks; neck and underparts cream to buff white. Pelage notably bristly and coarse. Substantial inter- and intra-population pelage color variation including dark to almost black (e.g. northern Venezuela, Amazonia, central Brazil), silver gray (e.g. Venezuelan Llanos), and pale gray-yellow rufous (e.g. Ceara, Brazil). Continuous black dorsal line from neck to tail tip variably present. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 1/2 = 44.","Occupies most habitats including marshland, savannah, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savannah within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development(e.g. sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples), and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge. Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with individual fox’s social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajo, Brazil, preferred wooded savannah and regenerating scrub. In the central Llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges were generally located in open palm savannah (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32% of sightings). The foxes shifted to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest “vereidas” and less frequently in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%).","Omnivorous: diet includes fruit, vertebrates, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, birds, and carrion. An opportunistic predator; diet at any one location varies according to availability, season, and probably social status. In areas of human disturbance, a large proportion of the diet may comprise foods such as cultivated fruits, domestic fowl, and refuse. In the Venezuelan Llanos, the percent volume of food items from the contents of 104 fox stomachs from four different locations included: small mammals (26%), fruit (24%), amphibians (13%), insects (11%); the dry season diet was predominantly small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, with insect and fruit becoming more frequent in the wet season. In one Venezuelan location, land crabs (Dilocarcinus spp.) were the most frequently occurring dietary item in the rainy season, and in the Ibera Wetlands (Corrientes, Argentina), aquatic birds were identified in 87% of 23 fox scats collected in the vicinity of a bird breeding colony. Vertebrates were the most frequently encountered food item (69%) of 74 prey items identified in 22 scats collected at elevations of above 2600 min the eastern Colombian Andes, but were the least favored food item (15%) in feces collected from the lowland wooded savannahs of Marajo (Brazil), where cultivated and wild fruit (57%) and insects (86%) were more frequently encountered. Crab-eating Foxes hunt individually, but most commonly as pairs; 1-3 adultsized offspring may accompany them. Cooperative hunting apparently is rare. They will tolerate close proximity when foraging on concentrated, easily available food items such as turtle eggs, fruit, insects (e.g. termites), and sizeable carrion (e.g. goat carcass). The young start to hunt with the parents at about six weeks of age. Hunting strategies include spring-pouncing to capture vertebrates, ground-level lateral head movements to snatch insects, and directional maneuvers in pursuit of land crabs. The foxes in Marajo deliver a series of shoulder blows, with face up-turned, to some food items (e.g. toads, eggs) prior to comsuming them. In the same region, foxes search for and consume small stones from specific open gravel sites, presumably as a source of minerals. Foxes cache food items but do not regularly urine-mark them. They probably act as seed dispersers of a range of wild and cultivated plant species, as indicated by the presence of germinating seeds in their scats. Examples include Acacia aroma and Celtis tala (montane Chaco, Argentina), Butia capitata (Uruguay), Hovenia dulcis (Iguacu National Park, Brazil), Ficus spp. (south-eastern Brazil), Psidiumguineense, Humiria balsamifera, and Anacardium occidentale (Amazonian Brazil).","In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).",Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular.,"Social groups comprise a breeding pair and 1-5 offspring (older than one year). Family members usually travel around their home ranges in pairs or,if offspring are present, in loosely knit family groups. Separated foxes maintain contact by long distance, high-pitched, bird-like trill vocalizations. In Marajo, Brazil, territorial breeding pairs were located less than 100 mapart on a mean 54% (n = 7) of occasions during the period of activity, whereas close proximity of breeding adults and their adultsized offspring varied from 7-2% to 93-3% between given pairings. In Marajo, Braziladult foxes occupied stable territories of 5- 3 km? (range 0-5-10- 4 km?), whereas in pasture/eucalyptus habitats in Minas Gerais(Brazil), an adult male’s range was 2- 2 km? In dry forest sites in Santa Cruz, Boliviaan adult female and two adultmales occupied mean home ranges of 2- 2 km* (range 1-1-2- 8 km?). In the central Venezuelan Llanos, three adultfoxes and three adultfox pairs showed dry season home ranges (mean 0-7 km?*range 0-5- 1 km?) to be generally larger than wet season home ranges (mean 0-7 km? range 0-3- 1 km?). Shrinkage of fox range sizes in the wet season is thought to be in response to changes in the availability of dry habitats and/or prey density. Dispersing offspring established territories adjoining their natal range. The average distance between range centers was 2-4 km(range 1-9- 2-9 km). After dispersal, these foxes interacted amicably with kin members both inside and outside their natal ranges. Four male foxes returned to their natal range 3-13 months after their dispersal, in two cases following the death of their mate and in one case after breeding. Group latrines are not usual features of Crab-eating Fox society; however, a latrine comprising over 72 scats visited by at least four adultsized individuals was observed in Maraca Ecological Station, Brazil. The use of scat latrines located near resting sites has also been reported.Breeding.In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Crab-eating Foxes are considered common in most range countries, and populations are probably stable. The species is currently listed as “potentially vulnerable” in the ArgentineRed Data Book, but not listed as threatened in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. There is little documentation for populations in Suriname, French Guiana, and peripheral areas of lowland Amazon forest. No specific protective legislation exists for this species, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most range countries. Crab-eating Foxes are potentially threatened by pathogens from domestic dogs. The Crab-eating Fox is also perceived as a pest of poultry throughout much ofits range (and in Uruguayas a predator of lambs), and consequently is often shot, trapped, and poisoned indiscriminately. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not enforced. Trapping occurred extensively in dry forest regions in Boliviabefore the early 1980s, when single pelts were worth US$ 30, but the species currently has little commercial value as a furbearer. Crab-eating Foxes are also often killed by vehicles on roadways in some areas.","Biben (1982, 1983) | Bisbal (1988) | Bisbal & Ojasti (1980) | Brady (1978, 1979) | Cabrera (1931, 1958) | Cordero-Rodriguez & Nassar (1999) | Courtenay (1998) | Courtenay & Maffei (2004) | Courtenay, Macdonald et al. (1994) | Courtenay, Quinnell & Chalmers (2001) | Courtenay, Quinnell, Garcez & Dye (2002) | Courtenay, Santana et al. (1996) | Cravino, Calvar, Berruti et al. (1997) | Cravino, Calvar, Poetti et al. (2000) | Eisenberg et al. (1979) | Facure & Monteiro-Filho (1996) | Hill et al. (1997) | Macdonald & Courtenay (1996) | Maffei & Taber (2003) | Montgomery & Lubin (1978) | Motta-Junior et al. (1994) | Parera (1996) | Paz et al. (1995) | Sunquist et al. (1989)",,"12.Crab-eating FoxCerdocyon thousFrench:Renard crabier/ German:Savannenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro cangrejeroOther common names:Savannah FoxTaxonomy.Canis thous Linnaeus, 1766.Suriname.Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. t. thous Linnaeus, 1766— N Brazil, the Guianas, and SE Venezuela.C. t. aquilus Bangs, 1898— N Colombia, N Venezuela.C. t. azarae Wied-Neuwied, 1824— NE & C Brazil.C. t. entrerianus Burmeister, 1861— Argentina, Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.C. t. germanus G. M. Allen, 1923— Colombia(Bogota region).Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-775 cmand tail 22-41 cm; weight 4-5-8-5 kg. Mediums-sized, tail moderately bushy, often with black tip and dark at base. No sexual dimorphism. Rostrum long and pointed, head relatively short and narrow. Pelage generally dark gray to black along dorsum down to midline; midline to ventrum including legs gray or black, sometimes with yellow to orange flecks; neck and underparts cream to buff white. Pelage notably bristly and coarse. Substantial inter- and intra-population pelage color variation including dark to almost black (e.g. northern Venezuela, Amazonia, central Brazil), silver gray (e.g. Venezuelan Llanos), and pale gray-yellow rufous (e.g. Ceara, Brazil). Continuous black dorsal line from neck to tail tip variably present. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 1/2 = 44.Habitat.Occupies most habitats including marshland, savannah, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savannah within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development(e.g. sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples), and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge. Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with individual fox’s social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajo, Brazil, preferred wooded savannah and regenerating scrub. In the central Llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges were generally located in open palm savannah (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32% of sightings). The foxes shifted to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest “vereidas” and less frequently in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%).Food and Feeding.Omnivorous: diet includes fruit, vertebrates, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, birds, and carrion. An opportunistic predator; diet at any one location varies according to availability, season, and probably social status. In areas of human disturbance, a large proportion of the diet may comprise foods such as cultivated fruits, domestic fowl, and refuse. In the Venezuelan Llanos, the percent volume of food items from the contents of 104 fox stomachs from four different locations included: small mammals (26%), fruit (24%), amphibians (13%), insects (11%); the dry season diet was predominantly small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, with insect and fruit becoming more frequent in the wet season. In one Venezuelan location, land crabs (Dilocarcinus spp.) were the most frequently occurring dietary item in the rainy season, and in the Ibera Wetlands (Corrientes, Argentina), aquatic birds were identified in 87% of 23 fox scats collected in the vicinity of a bird breeding colony. Vertebrates were the most frequently encountered food item (69%) of 74 prey items identified in 22 scats collected at elevations of above 2600 min the eastern Colombian Andes, but were the least favored food item (15%) in feces collected from the lowland wooded savannahs of Marajo (Brazil), where cultivated and wild fruit (57%) and insects (86%) were more frequently encountered. Crab-eating Foxes hunt individually, but most commonly as pairs; 1-3 adultsized offspring may accompany them. Cooperative hunting apparently is rare. They will tolerate close proximity when foraging on concentrated, easily available food items such as turtle eggs, fruit, insects (e.g. termites), and sizeable carrion (e.g. goat carcass). The young start to hunt with the parents at about six weeks of age. Hunting strategies include spring-pouncing to capture vertebrates, ground-level lateral head movements to snatch insects, and directional maneuvers in pursuit of land crabs. The foxes in Marajo deliver a series of shoulder blows, with face up-turned, to some food items (e.g. toads, eggs) prior to comsuming them. In the same region, foxes search for and consume small stones from specific open gravel sites, presumably as a source of minerals. Foxes cache food items but do not regularly urine-mark them. They probably act as seed dispersers of a range of wild and cultivated plant species, as indicated by the presence of germinating seeds in their scats. Examples include Acacia aroma and Celtis tala (montane Chaco, Argentina), Butia capitata (Uruguay), Hovenia dulcis (Iguacu National Park, Brazil), Ficus spp. (south-eastern Brazil), Psidiumguineense, Humiria balsamifera, and Anacardium occidentale (Amazonian Brazil).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social groups comprise a breeding pair and 1-5 offspring (older than one year). Family members usually travel around their home ranges in pairs or,if offspring are present, in loosely knit family groups. Separated foxes maintain contact by long distance, high-pitched, bird-like trill vocalizations. In Marajo, Brazil, territorial breeding pairs were located less than 100 mapart on a mean 54% (n = 7) of occasions during the period of activity, whereas close proximity of breeding adults and their adultsized offspring varied from 7-2% to 93-3% between given pairings. In Marajo, Braziladult foxes occupied stable territories of 5- 3 km? (range 0-5-10- 4 km?), whereas in pasture/eucalyptus habitats in Minas Gerais(Brazil), an adult male’s range was 2- 2 km? In dry forest sites in Santa Cruz, Boliviaan adult female and two adultmales occupied mean home ranges of 2- 2 km* (range 1-1-2- 8 km?). In the central Venezuelan Llanos, three adultfoxes and three adultfox pairs showed dry season home ranges (mean 0-7 km?*range 0-5- 1 km?) to be generally larger than wet season home ranges (mean 0-7 km? range 0-3- 1 km?). Shrinkage of fox range sizes in the wet season is thought to be in response to changes in the availability of dry habitats and/or prey density. Dispersing offspring established territories adjoining their natal range. The average distance between range centers was 2-4 km(range 1-9- 2-9 km). After dispersal, these foxes interacted amicably with kin members both inside and outside their natal ranges. Four male foxes returned to their natal range 3-13 months after their dispersal, in two cases following the death of their mate and in one case after breeding. Group latrines are not usual features of Crab-eating Fox society; however, a latrine comprising over 72 scats visited by at least four adultsized individuals was observed in Maraca Ecological Station, Brazil. The use of scat latrines located near resting sites has also been reported.Breeding.In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Crab-eating Foxes are considered common in most range countries, and populations are probably stable. The species is currently listed as “potentially vulnerable” in the ArgentineRed Data Book, but not listed as threatened in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. There is little documentation for populations in Suriname, French Guiana, and peripheral areas of lowland Amazon forest. No specific protective legislation exists for this species, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most range countries. Crab-eating Foxes are potentially threatened by pathogens from domestic dogs. The Crab-eating Fox is also perceived as a pest of poultry throughout much ofits range (and in Uruguayas a predator of lambs), and consequently is often shot, trapped, and poisoned indiscriminately. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not enforced. Trapping occurred extensively in dry forest regions in Boliviabefore the early 1980s, when single pelts were worth US$ 30, but the species currently has little commercial value as a furbearer. Crab-eating Foxes are also often killed by vehicles on roadways in some areas.Bibliography.Biben (1982, 1983), Bisbal (1988), Bisbal & Ojasti (1980), Brady (1978, 1979), Cabrera (1931, 1958), Cordero-Rodriguez & Nassar (1999), Courtenay (1998), Courtenay & Maffei (2004), Courtenay, Macdonald et al. (1994), Courtenay, Quinnell & Chalmers (2001), Courtenay, Quinnell, Garcez & Dye (2002), Courtenay, Santana et al. (1996), Cravino, Calvar, Berruti et al. (1997), Cravino, Calvar, Poetti et al. (2000), Eisenberg et al. (1979), Facure & Monteiro-Filho (1996), Hill et al. (1997), Macdonald & Courtenay (1996), Maffei & Taber (2003), Montgomery & Lubin (1978), Motta-Junior et al. (1994), Parera (1996), Paz et al. (1995), Sunquist et al. (1989)." -03ACCF40BF39FFC67B89FCF4FAB4DEDB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,425,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF39FFC67B89FCF4FAB4DEDB.xml,Speothos venaticus,Speothos,venaticus,Lund,1839,Chien des buissons @fr | Waldhund @de | Zorro vinagre @es | Vinegar Dog @en | Savannah Dog @en,"Cynogale venatica Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.S. pacivorus, an extinct species, is known only from fossil deposits in Lagoa Santa caves in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and may not have existed past the Holocene. Three subspecies are recognized.","S. v. venaticus Lund, 1842— Argentina(Misiones), Bolivia, N & C Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.S. v. panamensis Goldman, 1912— Panama.S. v. wingei Ihering, 1911- SE Brazil.","Head-body 57- 5-75 cm, tail 12- 5-15 cm; weight 5-8 kg. Characterized by a long body, a short and sometimes stubbytail, and short legs. Broad face with short muzzle, small rounded ears, brown eyes. Head and neck are generally reddishtan or tawny, gradually darkening to black or dark brown hindquarters and legs. The underside is also dark and some individuals may show a pale white throat or chest patch. Coat patterns can be highly variable, from almost all black to very light blonde. Feet are partially webbed and tracks are nearly identical to those of the domestic dog. Bush Dogs are one of three canid species with trenchant heel dentition, a unicuspid talonid on the lower carnassial molar that increases the cutting blade length. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40.","The Bush Dog is a forest dweller, occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, and near available prey populations, especially Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1500 m) forested habitats, including primary and gallery forest, semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest. Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Braziland Paraguayand pampas (wet savannah) edge/riparian areas, and as far as 5700 mfrom forest habitat. Occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland, and fragmented cerrado ranchland.","Primarily carnivorous, Bush Dogs mainly hunt large rodents such as Lowland Pacas and agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.). Their diet often includes other small mammals (e.g. rats, Oryzomys spp. and Proechimys spp., rabbits, Sylvilagus brasiliensis, opossums, Didelphis spp. and the Nine-banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus). Other prey items include teju lizards (Tupinambis sp.), snakes, and possibly ground-nesting birds. Bush Dogs can engage in group hunting to take prey considerably larger than themselves, such as Capybaras (Hydrochoeris hydrochaeris), and rheas (Rhea americana), deer (Mazama spp.), and even South American Tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Bush Dogs hunt in packs of 2-8 animals (mean 4-5) employing a variety of cooperative hunting strategies. Prey is pursued relentlessly by the pack, even into deep water. In Boliviathe dogs hunt Mazama deer by attacking the legs until the animaltires and falls. Olfaction may play a large role when foraging. Some individuals may enter the burrow of a prey species while other pack members wait at possible escape routes.","The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.",Mostly diurnal; the pair and any family members spend the night in a den.,"Bush Dogs are considered the most social of the small canids, reportedly living in groups ranging from 2-12 individuals, with most observed groups including 2-6 members. The ability of a pack to hunt cooperatively appears to be a primary benefit of the Bush Dog’s social organization. Estimated home range is between 4-6 and 4-7 km*. A monogamous pair-bond is likely with the offspring from multiple yearsliving with the pair. Urine-marking may be important for the formation and maintenance of pair-bonds. Bush Dogs tend to be associated with strong smell, lending evidence that urine is a particularly effective intra-specific communication medium. Males extrude the penis and move laterally, creating a spray rather than a stream, and females drag their ano-genital region over a surface or display either a forelimb handstand or a squat. The raised posture allows urine to be deposited some 150 mmhigher than the spray of the male. Adult Bush Dog vocalizations have been classified as whines, repetitive whines, pulsed vocalization, screams, barks, and growls. Infants whine, grunt, growl, and bark; these vocalizations are thought to eitherelicit care or reduce aggression. The elaborate set of close-contact calls assists in communicating subtle changes in mood as well as changes in location.Breeding.The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Currently, the population is estimated to number fewer than 15,000 mature individuals. Appears naturally rare throughoutits range, independent of human disturbance. Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela, and is prohibited elsewhere in the range. Perceived threats include habitat conversion and human encroachment. Bush dogs are occasionally killed in Boliviaand Ecuadoras predators of chickens, and road kills have been documented in Brazil.",Aquino & Puertas (1997) | Beccaceci (1994) | Berta (1984) | Brady (1981) | Cabrera (1961a) | Chebez (2008) | Defler (1986a) | Deutsch (1983) | Driwa (1983) | Emmons (1998) | Gittleman & Harvey (1982) | IUCN (2008) | Kleiman (1972) | Macdonald (1996b) | Peres (1991) | Porton (1983) | Porton et al. (1987) | Silveira et al. (1998) | Strahl et al. (1992) | VanHumbeck & Perez (1998) | Zuercher & Villalba (2002) | Zuercher et al. (2004),,"11.Bush DogSpeothos venaticusFrench:Chien des buissons/ German:Waldhund/ Spanish:Zorro vinagreOther common names:Vinegar Dog, Savannah DogTaxonomy.Cynogale venatica Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.S. pacivorus, an extinct species, is known only from fossil deposits in Lagoa Santa caves in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and may not have existed past the Holocene. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. v. venaticus Lund, 1842— Argentina(Misiones), Bolivia, N & C Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.S. v. panamensis Goldman, 1912— Panama.S. v. wingei Ihering, 1911- SE Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57- 5-75 cm, tail 12- 5-15 cm; weight 5-8 kg. Characterized by a long body, a short and sometimes stubbytail, and short legs. Broad face with short muzzle, small rounded ears, brown eyes. Head and neck are generally reddishtan or tawny, gradually darkening to black or dark brown hindquarters and legs. The underside is also dark and some individuals may show a pale white throat or chest patch. Coat patterns can be highly variable, from almost all black to very light blonde. Feet are partially webbed and tracks are nearly identical to those of the domestic dog. Bush Dogs are one of three canid species with trenchant heel dentition, a unicuspid talonid on the lower carnassial molar that increases the cutting blade length. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40.Habitat.The Bush Dog is a forest dweller, occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, and near available prey populations, especially Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1500 m) forested habitats, including primary and gallery forest, semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest. Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Braziland Paraguayand pampas (wet savannah) edge/riparian areas, and as far as 5700 mfrom forest habitat. Occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland, and fragmented cerrado ranchland.Food and Feeding.Primarily carnivorous, Bush Dogs mainly hunt large rodents such as Lowland Pacas and agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.). Their diet often includes other small mammals (e.g. rats, Oryzomys spp. and Proechimys spp., rabbits, Sylvilagus brasiliensis, opossums, Didelphis spp. and the Nine-banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus). Other prey items include teju lizards (Tupinambis sp.), snakes, and possibly ground-nesting birds. Bush Dogs can engage in group hunting to take prey considerably larger than themselves, such as Capybaras (Hydrochoeris hydrochaeris), and rheas (Rhea americana), deer (Mazama spp.), and even South American Tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Bush Dogs hunt in packs of 2-8 animals (mean 4-5) employing a variety of cooperative hunting strategies. Prey is pursued relentlessly by the pack, even into deep water. In Boliviathe dogs hunt Mazama deer by attacking the legs until the animaltires and falls. Olfaction may play a large role when foraging. Some individuals may enter the burrow of a prey species while other pack members wait at possible escape routes.Activity patterns.Mostly diurnal; the pair and any family members spend the night in a den.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bush Dogs are considered the most social of the small canids, reportedly living in groups ranging from 2-12 individuals, with most observed groups including 2-6 members. The ability of a pack to hunt cooperatively appears to be a primary benefit of the Bush Dog’s social organization. Estimated home range is between 4-6 and 4-7 km*. A monogamous pair-bond is likely with the offspring from multiple yearsliving with the pair. Urine-marking may be important for the formation and maintenance of pair-bonds. Bush Dogs tend to be associated with strong smell, lending evidence that urine is a particularly effective intra-specific communication medium. Males extrude the penis and move laterally, creating a spray rather than a stream, and females drag their ano-genital region over a surface or display either a forelimb handstand or a squat. The raised posture allows urine to be deposited some 150 mmhigher than the spray of the male. Adult Bush Dog vocalizations have been classified as whines, repetitive whines, pulsed vocalization, screams, barks, and growls. Infants whine, grunt, growl, and bark; these vocalizations are thought to eitherelicit care or reduce aggression. The elaborate set of close-contact calls assists in communicating subtle changes in mood as well as changes in location.Breeding.The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Currently, the population is estimated to number fewer than 15,000 mature individuals. Appears naturally rare throughoutits range, independent of human disturbance. Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela, and is prohibited elsewhere in the range. Perceived threats include habitat conversion and human encroachment. Bush dogs are occasionally killed in Boliviaand Ecuadoras predators of chickens, and road kills have been documented in Brazil.Bibliography.Aquino & Puertas (1997), Beccaceci (1994), Berta (1984), Brady (1981), Cabrera (1961a), Chebez (2008), Defler (1986a), Deutsch (1983), Driwa (1983), Emmons (1998), Gittleman & Harvey (1982), IUCN (2008), Kleiman (1972), Macdonald (1996b), Peres (1991), Porton (1983), Porton et al. (1987), Silveira et al. (1998), Strahl et al. (1992), VanHumbeck & Perez (1998), Zuercher & Villalba (2002), Zuercher et al. (2004)." +03ACCF40BF38FFD97EDEFB7AFEDADF34,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,426,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF38FFD97EDEFB7AFEDADF34.xml,Cerdocyon thous,Cerdocyon,thous,,,Renard crabier @fr | Savannenfuchs @de | Zorro cangrejero @es | Savannah Fox @en,"Canis thous Linnaeus, 1766.Suriname.Five subspecies are recognized.","C. t. thous Linnaeus, 1766— N Brazil, the Guianas, and SE Venezuela.C. t. aquilus Bangs, 1898— N Colombia, N Venezuela.C. t. azarae Wied-Neuwied, 1824— NE & C Brazil.C. t. entrerianus Burmeister, 1861— Argentina, Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.C. t. germanus G. M. Allen, 1923— Colombia(Bogota region).","Head-body 57-775 cmand tail 22-41 cm; weight 4-5-8-5 kg. Mediums-sized, tail moderately bushy, often with black tip and dark at base. No sexual dimorphism. Rostrum long and pointed, head relatively short and narrow. Pelage generally dark gray to black along dorsum down to midline; midline to ventrum including legs gray or black, sometimes with yellow to orange flecks; neck and underparts cream to buff white. Pelage notably bristly and coarse. Substantial inter- and intra-population pelage color variation including dark to almost black (e.g. northern Venezuela, Amazonia, central Brazil), silver gray (e.g. Venezuelan Llanos), and pale gray-yellow rufous (e.g. Ceara, Brazil). Continuous black dorsal line from neck to tail tip variably present. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 1/2 = 44.","Occupies most habitats including marshland, savannah, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savannah within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development(e.g. sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples), and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge. Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with individual fox’s social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajo, Brazil, preferred wooded savannah and regenerating scrub. In the central Llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges were generally located in open palm savannah (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32% of sightings). The foxes shifted to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest “vereidas” and less frequently in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%).","Omnivorous: diet includes fruit, vertebrates, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, birds, and carrion. An opportunistic predator; diet at any one location varies according to availability, season, and probably social status. In areas of human disturbance, a large proportion of the diet may comprise foods such as cultivated fruits, domestic fowl, and refuse. In the Venezuelan Llanos, the percent volume of food items from the contents of 104 fox stomachs from four different locations included: small mammals (26%), fruit (24%), amphibians (13%), insects (11%); the dry season diet was predominantly small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, with insect and fruit becoming more frequent in the wet season. In one Venezuelan location, land crabs (Dilocarcinus spp.) were the most frequently occurring dietary item in the rainy season, and in the Ibera Wetlands (Corrientes, Argentina), aquatic birds were identified in 87% of 23 fox scats collected in the vicinity of a bird breeding colony. Vertebrates were the most frequently encountered food item (69%) of 74 prey items identified in 22 scats collected at elevations of above 2600 min the eastern Colombian Andes, but were the least favored food item (15%) in feces collected from the lowland wooded savannahs of Marajo (Brazil), where cultivated and wild fruit (57%) and insects (86%) were more frequently encountered. Crab-eating Foxes hunt individually, but most commonly as pairs; 1-3 adultsized offspring may accompany them. Cooperative hunting apparently is rare. They will tolerate close proximity when foraging on concentrated, easily available food items such as turtle eggs, fruit, insects (e.g. termites), and sizeable carrion (e.g. goat carcass). The young start to hunt with the parents at about six weeks of age. Hunting strategies include spring-pouncing to capture vertebrates, ground-level lateral head movements to snatch insects, and directional maneuvers in pursuit of land crabs. The foxes in Marajo deliver a series of shoulder blows, with face up-turned, to some food items (e.g. toads, eggs) prior to comsuming them. In the same region, foxes search for and consume small stones from specific open gravel sites, presumably as a source of minerals. Foxes cache food items but do not regularly urine-mark them. They probably act as seed dispersers of a range of wild and cultivated plant species, as indicated by the presence of germinating seeds in their scats. Examples include Acacia aroma and Celtis tala (montane Chaco, Argentina), Butia capitata (Uruguay), Hovenia dulcis (Iguacu National Park, Brazil), Ficus spp. (south-eastern Brazil), Psidiumguineense, Humiria balsamifera, and Anacardium occidentale (Amazonian Brazil).","In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).",Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular.,"Social groups comprise a breeding pair and 1-5 offspring (older than one year). Family members usually travel around their home ranges in pairs or,if offspring are present, in loosely knit family groups. Separated foxes maintain contact by long distance, high-pitched, bird-like trill vocalizations. In Marajo, Brazil, territorial breeding pairs were located less than 100 mapart on a mean 54% (n = 7) of occasions during the period of activity, whereas close proximity of breeding adults and their adultsized offspring varied from 7-2% to 93-3% between given pairings. In Marajo, Braziladult foxes occupied stable territories of 5- 3 km? (range 0-5-10- 4 km?), whereas in pasture/eucalyptus habitats in Minas Gerais(Brazil), an adult male’s range was 2- 2 km? In dry forest sites in Santa Cruz, Boliviaan adult female and two adultmales occupied mean home ranges of 2- 2 km* (range 1-1-2- 8 km?). In the central Venezuelan Llanos, three adultfoxes and three adultfox pairs showed dry season home ranges (mean 0-7 km?*range 0-5- 1 km?) to be generally larger than wet season home ranges (mean 0-7 km? range 0-3- 1 km?). Shrinkage of fox range sizes in the wet season is thought to be in response to changes in the availability of dry habitats and/or prey density. Dispersing offspring established territories adjoining their natal range. The average distance between range centers was 2-4 km(range 1-9- 2-9 km). After dispersal, these foxes interacted amicably with kin members both inside and outside their natal ranges. Four male foxes returned to their natal range 3-13 months after their dispersal, in two cases following the death of their mate and in one case after breeding. Group latrines are not usual features of Crab-eating Fox society; however, a latrine comprising over 72 scats visited by at least four adultsized individuals was observed in Maraca Ecological Station, Brazil. The use of scat latrines located near resting sites has also been reported.Breeding.In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Crab-eating Foxes are considered common in most range countries, and populations are probably stable. The species is currently listed as “potentially vulnerable” in the ArgentineRed Data Book, but not listed as threatened in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. There is little documentation for populations in Suriname, French Guiana, and peripheral areas of lowland Amazon forest. No specific protective legislation exists for this species, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most range countries. Crab-eating Foxes are potentially threatened by pathogens from domestic dogs. The Crab-eating Fox is also perceived as a pest of poultry throughout much ofits range (and in Uruguayas a predator of lambs), and consequently is often shot, trapped, and poisoned indiscriminately. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not enforced. Trapping occurred extensively in dry forest regions in Boliviabefore the early 1980s, when single pelts were worth US$ 30, but the species currently has little commercial value as a furbearer. Crab-eating Foxes are also often killed by vehicles on roadways in some areas.","Biben (1982, 1983) | Bisbal (1988) | Bisbal & Ojasti (1980) | Brady (1978, 1979) | Cabrera (1931, 1958) | Cordero-Rodriguez & Nassar (1999) | Courtenay (1998) | Courtenay & Maffei (2004) | Courtenay, Macdonald et al. (1994) | Courtenay, Quinnell & Chalmers (2001) | Courtenay, Quinnell, Garcez & Dye (2002) | Courtenay, Santana et al. (1996) | Cravino, Calvar, Berruti et al. (1997) | Cravino, Calvar, Poetti et al. (2000) | Eisenberg et al. (1979) | Facure & Monteiro-Filho (1996) | Hill et al. (1997) | Macdonald & Courtenay (1996) | Maffei & Taber (2003) | Montgomery & Lubin (1978) | Motta-Junior et al. (1994) | Parera (1996) | Paz et al. (1995) | Sunquist et al. (1989)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331185/files/figure.png,"12.Crab-eating FoxCerdocyon thousFrench:Renard crabier/ German:Savannenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro cangrejeroOther common names:Savannah FoxTaxonomy.Canis thous Linnaeus, 1766.Suriname.Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. t. thous Linnaeus, 1766— N Brazil, the Guianas, and SE Venezuela.C. t. aquilus Bangs, 1898— N Colombia, N Venezuela.C. t. azarae Wied-Neuwied, 1824— NE & C Brazil.C. t. entrerianus Burmeister, 1861— Argentina, Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.C. t. germanus G. M. Allen, 1923— Colombia(Bogota region).Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-775 cmand tail 22-41 cm; weight 4-5-8-5 kg. Mediums-sized, tail moderately bushy, often with black tip and dark at base. No sexual dimorphism. Rostrum long and pointed, head relatively short and narrow. Pelage generally dark gray to black along dorsum down to midline; midline to ventrum including legs gray or black, sometimes with yellow to orange flecks; neck and underparts cream to buff white. Pelage notably bristly and coarse. Substantial inter- and intra-population pelage color variation including dark to almost black (e.g. northern Venezuela, Amazonia, central Brazil), silver gray (e.g. Venezuelan Llanos), and pale gray-yellow rufous (e.g. Ceara, Brazil). Continuous black dorsal line from neck to tail tip variably present. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 1/2 = 44.Habitat.Occupies most habitats including marshland, savannah, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savannah within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development(e.g. sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples), and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge. Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with individual fox’s social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajo, Brazil, preferred wooded savannah and regenerating scrub. In the central Llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges were generally located in open palm savannah (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32% of sightings). The foxes shifted to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest “vereidas” and less frequently in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%).Food and Feeding.Omnivorous: diet includes fruit, vertebrates, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, birds, and carrion. An opportunistic predator; diet at any one location varies according to availability, season, and probably social status. In areas of human disturbance, a large proportion of the diet may comprise foods such as cultivated fruits, domestic fowl, and refuse. In the Venezuelan Llanos, the percent volume of food items from the contents of 104 fox stomachs from four different locations included: small mammals (26%), fruit (24%), amphibians (13%), insects (11%); the dry season diet was predominantly small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, with insect and fruit becoming more frequent in the wet season. In one Venezuelan location, land crabs (Dilocarcinus spp.) were the most frequently occurring dietary item in the rainy season, and in the Ibera Wetlands (Corrientes, Argentina), aquatic birds were identified in 87% of 23 fox scats collected in the vicinity of a bird breeding colony. Vertebrates were the most frequently encountered food item (69%) of 74 prey items identified in 22 scats collected at elevations of above 2600 min the eastern Colombian Andes, but were the least favored food item (15%) in feces collected from the lowland wooded savannahs of Marajo (Brazil), where cultivated and wild fruit (57%) and insects (86%) were more frequently encountered. Crab-eating Foxes hunt individually, but most commonly as pairs; 1-3 adultsized offspring may accompany them. Cooperative hunting apparently is rare. They will tolerate close proximity when foraging on concentrated, easily available food items such as turtle eggs, fruit, insects (e.g. termites), and sizeable carrion (e.g. goat carcass). The young start to hunt with the parents at about six weeks of age. Hunting strategies include spring-pouncing to capture vertebrates, ground-level lateral head movements to snatch insects, and directional maneuvers in pursuit of land crabs. The foxes in Marajo deliver a series of shoulder blows, with face up-turned, to some food items (e.g. toads, eggs) prior to comsuming them. In the same region, foxes search for and consume small stones from specific open gravel sites, presumably as a source of minerals. Foxes cache food items but do not regularly urine-mark them. They probably act as seed dispersers of a range of wild and cultivated plant species, as indicated by the presence of germinating seeds in their scats. Examples include Acacia aroma and Celtis tala (montane Chaco, Argentina), Butia capitata (Uruguay), Hovenia dulcis (Iguacu National Park, Brazil), Ficus spp. (south-eastern Brazil), Psidiumguineense, Humiria balsamifera, and Anacardium occidentale (Amazonian Brazil).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social groups comprise a breeding pair and 1-5 offspring (older than one year). Family members usually travel around their home ranges in pairs or,if offspring are present, in loosely knit family groups. Separated foxes maintain contact by long distance, high-pitched, bird-like trill vocalizations. In Marajo, Brazil, territorial breeding pairs were located less than 100 mapart on a mean 54% (n = 7) of occasions during the period of activity, whereas close proximity of breeding adults and their adultsized offspring varied from 7-2% to 93-3% between given pairings. In Marajo, Braziladult foxes occupied stable territories of 5- 3 km? (range 0-5-10- 4 km?), whereas in pasture/eucalyptus habitats in Minas Gerais(Brazil), an adult male’s range was 2- 2 km? In dry forest sites in Santa Cruz, Boliviaan adult female and two adultmales occupied mean home ranges of 2- 2 km* (range 1-1-2- 8 km?). In the central Venezuelan Llanos, three adultfoxes and three adultfox pairs showed dry season home ranges (mean 0-7 km?*range 0-5- 1 km?) to be generally larger than wet season home ranges (mean 0-7 km? range 0-3- 1 km?). Shrinkage of fox range sizes in the wet season is thought to be in response to changes in the availability of dry habitats and/or prey density. Dispersing offspring established territories adjoining their natal range. The average distance between range centers was 2-4 km(range 1-9- 2-9 km). After dispersal, these foxes interacted amicably with kin members both inside and outside their natal ranges. Four male foxes returned to their natal range 3-13 months after their dispersal, in two cases following the death of their mate and in one case after breeding. Group latrines are not usual features of Crab-eating Fox society; however, a latrine comprising over 72 scats visited by at least four adultsized individuals was observed in Maraca Ecological Station, Brazil. The use of scat latrines located near resting sites has also been reported.Breeding.In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Crab-eating Foxes are considered common in most range countries, and populations are probably stable. The species is currently listed as “potentially vulnerable” in the ArgentineRed Data Book, but not listed as threatened in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. There is little documentation for populations in Suriname, French Guiana, and peripheral areas of lowland Amazon forest. No specific protective legislation exists for this species, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most range countries. Crab-eating Foxes are potentially threatened by pathogens from domestic dogs. The Crab-eating Fox is also perceived as a pest of poultry throughout much ofits range (and in Uruguayas a predator of lambs), and consequently is often shot, trapped, and poisoned indiscriminately. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not enforced. Trapping occurred extensively in dry forest regions in Boliviabefore the early 1980s, when single pelts were worth US$ 30, but the species currently has little commercial value as a furbearer. Crab-eating Foxes are also often killed by vehicles on roadways in some areas.Bibliography.Biben (1982, 1983), Bisbal (1988), Bisbal & Ojasti (1980), Brady (1978, 1979), Cabrera (1931, 1958), Cordero-Rodriguez & Nassar (1999), Courtenay (1998), Courtenay & Maffei (2004), Courtenay, Macdonald et al. (1994), Courtenay, Quinnell & Chalmers (2001), Courtenay, Quinnell, Garcez & Dye (2002), Courtenay, Santana et al. (1996), Cravino, Calvar, Berruti et al. (1997), Cravino, Calvar, Poetti et al. (2000), Eisenberg et al. (1979), Facure & Monteiro-Filho (1996), Hill et al. (1997), Macdonald & Courtenay (1996), Maffei & Taber (2003), Montgomery & Lubin (1978), Motta-Junior et al. (1994), Parera (1996), Paz et al. (1995), Sunquist et al. (1989)." +03ACCF40BF39FFC67B89FCF4FAB4DEDB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,425,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF39FFC67B89FCF4FAB4DEDB.xml,Speothos venaticus,Speothos,venaticus,Lund,1839,Chien des buissons @fr | Waldhund @de | Zorro vinagre @es | Vinegar Dog @en | Savannah Dog @en,"Cynogale venatica Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.S. pacivorus, an extinct species, is known only from fossil deposits in Lagoa Santa caves in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and may not have existed past the Holocene. Three subspecies are recognized.","S. v. venaticus Lund, 1842— Argentina(Misiones), Bolivia, N & C Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.S. v. panamensis Goldman, 1912— Panama.S. v. wingei Ihering, 1911- SE Brazil.","Head-body 57- 5-75 cm, tail 12- 5-15 cm; weight 5-8 kg. Characterized by a long body, a short and sometimes stubbytail, and short legs. Broad face with short muzzle, small rounded ears, brown eyes. Head and neck are generally reddishtan or tawny, gradually darkening to black or dark brown hindquarters and legs. The underside is also dark and some individuals may show a pale white throat or chest patch. Coat patterns can be highly variable, from almost all black to very light blonde. Feet are partially webbed and tracks are nearly identical to those of the domestic dog. Bush Dogs are one of three canid species with trenchant heel dentition, a unicuspid talonid on the lower carnassial molar that increases the cutting blade length. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40.","The Bush Dog is a forest dweller, occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, and near available prey populations, especially Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1500 m) forested habitats, including primary and gallery forest, semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest. Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Braziland Paraguayand pampas (wet savannah) edge/riparian areas, and as far as 5700 mfrom forest habitat. Occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland, and fragmented cerrado ranchland.","Primarily carnivorous, Bush Dogs mainly hunt large rodents such as Lowland Pacas and agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.). Their diet often includes other small mammals (e.g. rats, Oryzomys spp. and Proechimys spp., rabbits, Sylvilagus brasiliensis, opossums, Didelphis spp. and the Nine-banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus). Other prey items include teju lizards (Tupinambis sp.), snakes, and possibly ground-nesting birds. Bush Dogs can engage in group hunting to take prey considerably larger than themselves, such as Capybaras (Hydrochoeris hydrochaeris), and rheas (Rhea americana), deer (Mazama spp.), and even South American Tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Bush Dogs hunt in packs of 2-8 animals (mean 4-5) employing a variety of cooperative hunting strategies. Prey is pursued relentlessly by the pack, even into deep water. In Boliviathe dogs hunt Mazama deer by attacking the legs until the animaltires and falls. Olfaction may play a large role when foraging. Some individuals may enter the burrow of a prey species while other pack members wait at possible escape routes.","The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.",Mostly diurnal; the pair and any family members spend the night in a den.,"Bush Dogs are considered the most social of the small canids, reportedly living in groups ranging from 2-12 individuals, with most observed groups including 2-6 members. The ability of a pack to hunt cooperatively appears to be a primary benefit of the Bush Dog’s social organization. Estimated home range is between 4-6 and 4-7 km*. A monogamous pair-bond is likely with the offspring from multiple yearsliving with the pair. Urine-marking may be important for the formation and maintenance of pair-bonds. Bush Dogs tend to be associated with strong smell, lending evidence that urine is a particularly effective intra-specific communication medium. Males extrude the penis and move laterally, creating a spray rather than a stream, and females drag their ano-genital region over a surface or display either a forelimb handstand or a squat. The raised posture allows urine to be deposited some 150 mmhigher than the spray of the male. Adult Bush Dog vocalizations have been classified as whines, repetitive whines, pulsed vocalization, screams, barks, and growls. Infants whine, grunt, growl, and bark; these vocalizations are thought to eitherelicit care or reduce aggression. The elaborate set of close-contact calls assists in communicating subtle changes in mood as well as changes in location.Breeding.The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Currently, the population is estimated to number fewer than 15,000 mature individuals. Appears naturally rare throughoutits range, independent of human disturbance. Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela, and is prohibited elsewhere in the range. Perceived threats include habitat conversion and human encroachment. Bush dogs are occasionally killed in Boliviaand Ecuadoras predators of chickens, and road kills have been documented in Brazil.",Aquino & Puertas (1997) | Beccaceci (1994) | Berta (1984) | Brady (1981) | Cabrera (1961a) | Chebez (2008) | Defler (1986a) | Deutsch (1983) | Driwa (1983) | Emmons (1998) | Gittleman & Harvey (1982) | IUCN (2008) | Kleiman (1972) | Macdonald (1996b) | Peres (1991) | Porton (1983) | Porton et al. (1987) | Silveira et al. (1998) | Strahl et al. (1992) | VanHumbeck & Perez (1998) | Zuercher & Villalba (2002) | Zuercher et al. (2004),https://zenodo.org/record/6331183/files/figure.png,"11.Bush DogSpeothos venaticusFrench:Chien des buissons/ German:Waldhund/ Spanish:Zorro vinagreOther common names:Vinegar Dog, Savannah DogTaxonomy.Cynogale venatica Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.S. pacivorus, an extinct species, is known only from fossil deposits in Lagoa Santa caves in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and may not have existed past the Holocene. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. v. venaticus Lund, 1842— Argentina(Misiones), Bolivia, N & C Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.S. v. panamensis Goldman, 1912— Panama.S. v. wingei Ihering, 1911- SE Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57- 5-75 cm, tail 12- 5-15 cm; weight 5-8 kg. Characterized by a long body, a short and sometimes stubbytail, and short legs. Broad face with short muzzle, small rounded ears, brown eyes. Head and neck are generally reddishtan or tawny, gradually darkening to black or dark brown hindquarters and legs. The underside is also dark and some individuals may show a pale white throat or chest patch. Coat patterns can be highly variable, from almost all black to very light blonde. Feet are partially webbed and tracks are nearly identical to those of the domestic dog. Bush Dogs are one of three canid species with trenchant heel dentition, a unicuspid talonid on the lower carnassial molar that increases the cutting blade length. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40.Habitat.The Bush Dog is a forest dweller, occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, and near available prey populations, especially Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1500 m) forested habitats, including primary and gallery forest, semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest. Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Braziland Paraguayand pampas (wet savannah) edge/riparian areas, and as far as 5700 mfrom forest habitat. Occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland, and fragmented cerrado ranchland.Food and Feeding.Primarily carnivorous, Bush Dogs mainly hunt large rodents such as Lowland Pacas and agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.). Their diet often includes other small mammals (e.g. rats, Oryzomys spp. and Proechimys spp., rabbits, Sylvilagus brasiliensis, opossums, Didelphis spp. and the Nine-banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus). Other prey items include teju lizards (Tupinambis sp.), snakes, and possibly ground-nesting birds. Bush Dogs can engage in group hunting to take prey considerably larger than themselves, such as Capybaras (Hydrochoeris hydrochaeris), and rheas (Rhea americana), deer (Mazama spp.), and even South American Tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Bush Dogs hunt in packs of 2-8 animals (mean 4-5) employing a variety of cooperative hunting strategies. Prey is pursued relentlessly by the pack, even into deep water. In Boliviathe dogs hunt Mazama deer by attacking the legs until the animaltires and falls. Olfaction may play a large role when foraging. Some individuals may enter the burrow of a prey species while other pack members wait at possible escape routes.Activity patterns.Mostly diurnal; the pair and any family members spend the night in a den.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bush Dogs are considered the most social of the small canids, reportedly living in groups ranging from 2-12 individuals, with most observed groups including 2-6 members. The ability of a pack to hunt cooperatively appears to be a primary benefit of the Bush Dog’s social organization. Estimated home range is between 4-6 and 4-7 km*. A monogamous pair-bond is likely with the offspring from multiple yearsliving with the pair. Urine-marking may be important for the formation and maintenance of pair-bonds. Bush Dogs tend to be associated with strong smell, lending evidence that urine is a particularly effective intra-specific communication medium. Males extrude the penis and move laterally, creating a spray rather than a stream, and females drag their ano-genital region over a surface or display either a forelimb handstand or a squat. The raised posture allows urine to be deposited some 150 mmhigher than the spray of the male. Adult Bush Dog vocalizations have been classified as whines, repetitive whines, pulsed vocalization, screams, barks, and growls. Infants whine, grunt, growl, and bark; these vocalizations are thought to eitherelicit care or reduce aggression. The elaborate set of close-contact calls assists in communicating subtle changes in mood as well as changes in location.Breeding.The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Currently, the population is estimated to number fewer than 15,000 mature individuals. Appears naturally rare throughoutits range, independent of human disturbance. Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela, and is prohibited elsewhere in the range. Perceived threats include habitat conversion and human encroachment. Bush dogs are occasionally killed in Boliviaand Ecuadoras predators of chickens, and road kills have been documented in Brazil.Bibliography.Aquino & Puertas (1997), Beccaceci (1994), Berta (1984), Brady (1981), Cabrera (1961a), Chebez (2008), Defler (1986a), Deutsch (1983), Driwa (1983), Emmons (1998), Gittleman & Harvey (1982), IUCN (2008), Kleiman (1972), Macdonald (1996b), Peres (1991), Porton (1983), Porton et al. (1987), Silveira et al. (1998), Strahl et al. (1992), VanHumbeck & Perez (1998), Zuercher & Villalba (2002), Zuercher et al. (2004)." 03ACCF40BF3AFFC77BA1F707F7BCDF51,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,424,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3AFFC77BA1F707F7BCDF51.xml,Chrysocyon brachyurus,Chrysocyon,brachyurus,Illiger,1815,Renard a criniere @fr | Mahnenwolf @de | Aguaraguazu @es,"Canis brachyurus Illiger, 1815.Typelocality not specified, but later restricted to Paraguay.The species was originally placed in the genus Canis, but is now widely included in the monotypic genus Chrysocyon. Monotypic.","Grasslands and scrub forest of C South America, from NE Brazilthrough the Chaco of Paraguayinto Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, W to Boliviaand Peruborder, and S into Uruguayand Argentinato the 30° Sparallel.","Head-body 95-115 cmand tail 38-50 cm; weight 20-5-30 kg. The Maned Wolf is hard to confuse with any other canid due to its long, thin legs, long reddish orange fur, and large ears. The English common name comes from the mane-like strip of black fur running from the back of the head to the shoulders, averaging 470 mmin length. Muzzle black, throat white, inner ears white, forelegs black, and most of distal part of hindlegs black. An average of 44% ofthe tail is white at the distal end, but the extent of white varies from 17-66% of the tail length. No underfur present. The adult dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","Favors tall grasslands, shrub habitats, woodland with an open canopy “cerrado”, and wet fields (which may be seasonally flooded). Some evidence indicates that they may prefer areas with low to medium shrub density. Maned Wolves are also seen in cultivated areas and pastures. Daytime resting areas include gallery forests, cerrado, and marshy areas near rivers. There is some evidence that they can utilize cultivated land for hunting and resting, but additional studies are essential to quantify how well the species tolerates intensive agricultural activity.","Omnivorous, consuming principally fruits and small- to mediumsized vertebrates. Numerous studies document a broadly varied diet of c. 50% plant and c. 50% animal material. The fruit Solanum lycocarpum grows throughout much of the range and is a primary food source; other important items include small mammals (Caviidae, Muridae,Echimydae) and armadillos (Dasypodidae), other fruits (Annonaceae, Myrtaceae, Palmae, Bromeliaceae, and others), birds (Tinamidae, Emberizidae, and others), reptiles, and arthropods. Although the frequency of plant and animal items found in fecal samples is approximately equal, the biomass of animal items is usually greater than that of plant items. Certain items, such as rodents and Solanum, are consumed year round, but diet varies with food availability. At least occasionally, Pampas Deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) are also consumed. In one study, deer occurred in 2:4% of 1673 fecal samples analyzed. Strategies for hunting animal prey include stalking with a final pounce, digging after burrowing animals, leaping into the air to capture flying birds and insects, and sprinting after fleeing deer. Approximately 21% of all hunting attempts end with the successful capture of prey, and the strategies do not differ in their success rates. Maned Wolves have been recorded feeding on Coypu that were caught in traps set by hunters, and have been observed scavenging opportunistically on road-kill carcasses.","Females enter estrus once per year for approximately five days. Peak breeding season is from April to June. There are numerous published accounts of breeding behavior in captivity, but little information is available from wild populations. In captivity, the frequency of vocalizations (roar-bark) and scent marking increases during the weeks prior to mating, and the amount of time a pair spends in close proximity increases significantly during the estrous period. Courtship is characterized by frequent approaches, mutual anogenital investigation, and playful interactions. Mounting may occur frequently during estrus; successful breeding includes a copulatory tie that may last several minutes. In Emas National Park, Brazil, a breeding pair observed at night for approximately three and a half hours foraged together and vocalized frequently whenever one partner was out of sight. The male marked with urine or feces wherever the female marked. A breeding display lasting ten minutes concluded in a two-minute copulatory tie, after which the pair continued to forage together. Gestation length is approximately 65 days, the majority of births occurring from June to September, during the dry season. One female gave birth to three pups in a bed of tall marsh grass. At 45 days of age the pups had notyet left the den and weighed 2 kg(females) and 2-25 kg(males). All dens found in the wild have been above ground, sheltered by natural features such as shrub canopies, rock crevices, gullies, and dry mounds in marshy, tall-grass areas. In captivity, an analysis of 361 births indicated that parturition peaks in June (winter), and the average litter size is three (range 1-7). Birth weights average 390-456 g(n = 8). In captive animals, nursing bouts begin to decline after the first month, and weaning is complete at c. 15 weeks. Pups begin consuming solids regurgitated by the parents at about four weeks of age; regurgitation has been recorded up to seven months after birth. Females with 7-14-week-old pups have been observed hunting for continuous periods of eight hours over 3 kmfrom their den sites and pups. Pups stay in the mother’s home range for approximately one year, when they begin to disperse. Juveniles attain sexual maturity at around the same time, but usually do not reproduce until the second year. One of the many unknown aspects of Maned Wolf behavioris the role the male plays in rearing pups. Pups have been seen accompanied by two adults, and a female with pups was seen accompanied by a male many times. In captivity, males increase pup survival rates and are frequently observed regurgitating to pups and grooming them. Nonetheless, direct confirmation of male parental care in the wild isstill lacking.",Nocturnal and crepuscular. May forage for up to eight consecutive hours.,"Maned Wolves appear to be facultatively monogamous. Pairs are not often seen together, although researchers have observed pairs resting, hunting, and traveling together. Home ranges ofpairs in Serra da Canastra National Park averaged 25-2 km? (21- 7-30 km? n = 3 pairs). Home ranges studied elsewhere are larger, averaging 57 km? (15:6-104-9 km? n = 5) in Aguas Emendadas Ecological Station and 49-0 km? (4-7-79-5 km? n = 5) in Emas National Park. Home range boundaries appear stable over time and are defended against adjacent pairs. Termite mounds are preferentially used as urine-markingsites, and more marks are placed on the upwind side of objects than on the downwind side. Floater individuals without territories appear to move along territory boundaries and do not scentmark. The most frequently heard vocalization is a loud roar-bark, which may occur during any time of the day or night throughout the year.Breeding.Females enter estrus once per year for approximately five days. Peak breeding season is from April to June. There are numerous published accounts of breeding behavior in captivity, but little information is available from wild populations. In captivity, the frequency of vocalizations (roar-bark) and scent marking increases during the weeks prior to mating, and the amount of time a pair spends in close proximity increases significantly during the estrous period. Courtship is characterized by frequent approaches, mutual anogenital investigation, and playful interactions. Mounting may occur frequently during estrus; successful breeding includes a copulatory tie that may last several minutes. In Emas National Park, Brazil, a breeding pair observed at night for approximately three and a half hours foraged together and vocalized frequently whenever one partner was out of sight. The male marked with urine or feces wherever the female marked. A breeding display lasting ten minutes concluded in a two-minute copulatory tie, after which the pair continued to forage together. Gestation length is approximately 65 days, the majority of births occurring from June to September, during the dry season. One female gave birth to three pups in a bed of tall marsh grass. At 45 days of age the pups had notyet left the den and weighed 2 kg(females) and 2-25 kg(males). All dens found in the wild have been above ground, sheltered by natural features such as shrub canopies, rock crevices, gullies, and dry mounds in marshy, tall-grass areas. In captivity, an analysis of 361 births indicated that parturition peaks in June (winter), and the average litter size is three (range 1-7). Birth weights average 390-456 g(n = 8). In captive animals, nursing bouts begin to decline after the first month, and weaning is complete at c. 15 weeks. Pups begin consuming solids regurgitated by the parents at about four weeks of age; regurgitation has been recorded up to seven months after birth. Females with 7-14-week-old pups have been observed hunting for continuous periods of eight hours over 3 kmfrom their den sites and pups. Pups stay in the mother’s home range for approximately one year, when they begin to disperse. Juveniles attain sexual maturity at around the same time, but usually do not reproduce until the second year. One of the many unknown aspects of Maned Wolf behavioris the role the male plays in rearing pups. Pups have been seen accompanied by two adults, and a female with pups was seen accompanied by a male many times. In captivity, males increase pup survival rates and are frequently observed regurgitating to pups and grooming them. Nonetheless, direct confirmation of male parental care in the wild isstill lacking.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Current global population is estimated to number c. 13,000 mature individuals. Maned Wolves are protected by law in many parts of their range, but enforcement is frequently problematic. Protected in Argentina(classified as “endangered” on the Red List) and included on the list of threatened animals in Brazil. Maned Wolves exist in low densities throughout their range, although in some areas of central Brazil, they appear to be more common. The most significant threat to Maned Wolf populations 1s habitat reduction, especially for agricultural conversion. The cerrado, for example, has been reduced to about 20% ofits original area, and only 1-5% is currently protected. In addition, habitat fragmentation causes the isolation of sub-populations.Road kills represent one of the main causes of mortality of Maned Wolves in Brazil, especially for young individuals and sub-adults.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Current global population is estimated to number c. 13,000 mature individuals. Maned Wolves are protected by law in many parts of their range, but enforcement is frequently problematic. Protected in Argentina(classified as “endangered” on the Red List) and included on the list of threatened animals in Brazil. Maned Wolves exist in low densities throughout their range, although in some areas of central Brazil, they appear to be more common. The most significant threat to Maned Wolf populations 1s habitat reduction, especially for agricultural conversion. The cerrado, for example, has been reduced to about 20% ofits original area, and only 1-5% is currently protected. In addition, habitat fragmentation causes the isolation of sub-populations.","Azevedo & Gastal (1997) | Bartmann & Nordhoff (1984) | Beccaceci (1992) | Bernardes et al. (1990) | Bestelmeyer (2000) | Bestelmeyer & Westbrook (1998) | Brady (1981) | Brady & Ditton (1979) | Cabrera (1958) | Carvalho & Vasconcellos (1995) | Chebez (2008) | Dietz (1984, 1985) | Fonseca et al. (1994) | IUCN (2008) | Jacomo (1999) | Juarez & Marinho (2002) | Langguth (1975) | Mones & Olazarri (1990) | Motta-Junior (1997) | Motta-Junior et al. (1996) | Ratter et al. (1997) | Richard et al. (1999) | Rodden, Rodrigues & Bestelmeyer (2004) | Rodden, Sorenson et al. (1996) | Santos (1999) | Silveira (1968, 1999) | VanGelder (1978)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331181/files/figure.png,"10.Maned WolfChrysocyon brachyurusFrench:Renard a criniere/ German:Mahnenwolf/ Spanish:AguaraguazuTaxonomy.Canis brachyurus Illiger, 1815.Typelocality not specified, but later restricted to Paraguay.The species was originally placed in the genus Canis, but is now widely included in the monotypic genus Chrysocyon. Monotypic.Distribution.Grasslands and scrub forest of C South America, from NE Brazilthrough the Chaco of Paraguayinto Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, W to Boliviaand Peruborder, and S into Uruguayand Argentinato the 30° Sparallel.Descriptive notes.Head-body 95-115 cmand tail 38-50 cm; weight 20-5-30 kg. The Maned Wolf is hard to confuse with any other canid due to its long, thin legs, long reddish orange fur, and large ears. The English common name comes from the mane-like strip of black fur running from the back of the head to the shoulders, averaging 470 mmin length. Muzzle black, throat white, inner ears white, forelegs black, and most of distal part of hindlegs black. An average of 44% ofthe tail is white at the distal end, but the extent of white varies from 17-66% of the tail length. No underfur present. The adult dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Favors tall grasslands, shrub habitats, woodland with an open canopy “cerrado”, and wet fields (which may be seasonally flooded). Some evidence indicates that they may prefer areas with low to medium shrub density. Maned Wolves are also seen in cultivated areas and pastures. Daytime resting areas include gallery forests, cerrado, and marshy areas near rivers. There is some evidence that they can utilize cultivated land for hunting and resting, but additional studies are essential to quantify how well the species tolerates intensive agricultural activity.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, consuming principally fruits and small- to mediumsized vertebrates. Numerous studies document a broadly varied diet of c. 50% plant and c. 50% animal material. The fruit Solanum lycocarpum grows throughout much of the range and is a primary food source; other important items include small mammals (Caviidae, Muridae,Echimydae) and armadillos (Dasypodidae), other fruits (Annonaceae, Myrtaceae, Palmae, Bromeliaceae, and others), birds (Tinamidae, Emberizidae, and others), reptiles, and arthropods. Although the frequency of plant and animal items found in fecal samples is approximately equal, the biomass of animal items is usually greater than that of plant items. Certain items, such as rodents and Solanum, are consumed year round, but diet varies with food availability. At least occasionally, Pampas Deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) are also consumed. In one study, deer occurred in 2:4% of 1673 fecal samples analyzed. Strategies for hunting animal prey include stalking with a final pounce, digging after burrowing animals, leaping into the air to capture flying birds and insects, and sprinting after fleeing deer. Approximately 21% of all hunting attempts end with the successful capture of prey, and the strategies do not differ in their success rates. Maned Wolves have been recorded feeding on Coypu that were caught in traps set by hunters, and have been observed scavenging opportunistically on road-kill carcasses.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and crepuscular. May forage for up to eight consecutive hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maned Wolves appear to be facultatively monogamous. Pairs are not often seen together, although researchers have observed pairs resting, hunting, and traveling together. Home ranges ofpairs in Serra da Canastra National Park averaged 25-2 km? (21- 7-30 km? n = 3 pairs). Home ranges studied elsewhere are larger, averaging 57 km? (15:6-104-9 km? n = 5) in Aguas Emendadas Ecological Station and 49-0 km? (4-7-79-5 km? n = 5) in Emas National Park. Home range boundaries appear stable over time and are defended against adjacent pairs. Termite mounds are preferentially used as urine-markingsites, and more marks are placed on the upwind side of objects than on the downwind side. Floater individuals without territories appear to move along territory boundaries and do not scentmark. The most frequently heard vocalization is a loud roar-bark, which may occur during any time of the day or night throughout the year.Breeding.Females enter estrus once per year for approximately five days. Peak breeding season is from April to June. There are numerous published accounts of breeding behavior in captivity, but little information is available from wild populations. In captivity, the frequency of vocalizations (roar-bark) and scent marking increases during the weeks prior to mating, and the amount of time a pair spends in close proximity increases significantly during the estrous period. Courtship is characterized by frequent approaches, mutual anogenital investigation, and playful interactions. Mounting may occur frequently during estrus; successful breeding includes a copulatory tie that may last several minutes. In Emas National Park, Brazil, a breeding pair observed at night for approximately three and a half hours foraged together and vocalized frequently whenever one partner was out of sight. The male marked with urine or feces wherever the female marked. A breeding display lasting ten minutes concluded in a two-minute copulatory tie, after which the pair continued to forage together. Gestation length is approximately 65 days, the majority of births occurring from June to September, during the dry season. One female gave birth to three pups in a bed of tall marsh grass. At 45 days of age the pups had notyet left the den and weighed 2 kg(females) and 2-25 kg(males). All dens found in the wild have been above ground, sheltered by natural features such as shrub canopies, rock crevices, gullies, and dry mounds in marshy, tall-grass areas. In captivity, an analysis of 361 births indicated that parturition peaks in June (winter), and the average litter size is three (range 1-7). Birth weights average 390-456 g(n = 8). In captive animals, nursing bouts begin to decline after the first month, and weaning is complete at c. 15 weeks. Pups begin consuming solids regurgitated by the parents at about four weeks of age; regurgitation has been recorded up to seven months after birth. Females with 7-14-week-old pups have been observed hunting for continuous periods of eight hours over 3 kmfrom their den sites and pups. Pups stay in the mother’s home range for approximately one year, when they begin to disperse. Juveniles attain sexual maturity at around the same time, but usually do not reproduce until the second year. One of the many unknown aspects of Maned Wolf behavioris the role the male plays in rearing pups. Pups have been seen accompanied by two adults, and a female with pups was seen accompanied by a male many times. In captivity, males increase pup survival rates and are frequently observed regurgitating to pups and grooming them. Nonetheless, direct confirmation of male parental care in the wild isstill lacking.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Current global population is estimated to number c. 13,000 mature individuals. Maned Wolves are protected by law in many parts of their range, but enforcement is frequently problematic. Protected in Argentina(classified as “endangered” on the Red List) and included on the list of threatened animals in Brazil. Maned Wolves exist in low densities throughout their range, although in some areas of central Brazil, they appear to be more common. The most significant threat to Maned Wolf populations 1s habitat reduction, especially for agricultural conversion. The cerrado, for example, has been reduced to about 20% ofits original area, and only 1-5% is currently protected. In addition, habitat fragmentation causes the isolation of sub-populations.Road kills represent one of the main causes of mortality of Maned Wolves in Brazil, especially for young individuals and sub-adults. Highways border many of the Conservation Units of the Brazilian cerrado, and drivers often do not respect speed limits. Reserves close to urban areas often have problems with domestic dogs, which pursue and may kill Maned Wolves and can also be an important vector of disease. Diseases may represent a significant cause of mortality in the wild, but there is very little information available on the health of wild populations. Domestic dogs also possibly compete with the Maned Wolffor food. Maned Wolves are not viewed as a serious threat to livestock, although they may occasionally be shot when caught raiding chicken pens. Hunting them is prohibited in Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia.Bibliography.Azevedo & Gastal (1997), Bartmann & Nordhoff (1984), Beccaceci (1992), Bernardes et al. (1990), Bestelmeyer (2000), Bestelmeyer & Westbrook (1998), Brady (1981), Brady & Ditton (1979), Cabrera (1958), Carvalho & Vasconcellos (1995), Chebez (2008), Dietz (1984, 1985), Fonseca et al. (1994), IUCN (2008), Jacomo (1999), Juarez & Marinho (2002), Langguth (1975), Mones & Olazarri (1990), Motta-Junior (1997), Motta-Junior et al. (1996), Ratter et al. (1997), Richard et al. (1999), Rodden, Rodrigues & Bestelmeyer (2004), Rodden, Sorenson et al. (1996), Santos (1999), Silveira (1968, 1999), VanGelder (1978)." 03ACCF40BF3BFFC47B94F4A2F587DA8C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,423,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3BFFC47B94F4A2F587DA8C.xml,Lycaon pictus,Lycaon,pictus,Brookes,1827,Lycaon @fr | Afrikanischer Wildhund @de | Licadn @es | Painted Hunting Dog @en,"Hyaena picta Temminck, 1820,coastal Mozambique.The former placement of Lycaonin its own subfamily, the Simoncyoninae, is no longer recognized, and recent molecular studies have supported the separation of this species into its own genus. The African Wild Dog has been grouped with Dhole and Bush Dog, but the morphological similarities among these species are no longer considered to indicate common ancestry. Genetic and morphological studies initially suggested the existence of separate subspecies in eastern and southern Africa. However, no geographical boundaries separated these proposed subspecies, and dogs sampled from the intermediate area showed a mixture of southern and eastern haplotypes, indicating a cline rather than distinct subspecies.On following pages: 10. Maned Wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus); 11. Bush Dog (Speothos venaticus), 12. Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous); 13. Short-eared Dog (Atelocynus microtis).","Sub-Saharan Africa; virtually eradicated from W Africa, and greatly reduced in C and NE Africa. The largest populations exist in Botswana, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe, which account for approximately half of the estimated number of African Wild Dogs remaining in the wild.Other populations occur in Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Sudan, and Zambia. Potential small populations (less than 100 individuals) may exist in Cameroon, Chad, Senegal, and Somalia.","Head-body 84:5-138- 5 cmfor males and 93-141 cmfor females, tail 32-42 cmfor males and 31-37 cmfor females; weight 21-34-5 kgfor males and 18-26-5 kgfor females. Males are slightly heavier than females, and are easily recognized by the conspicuous penis sheath. A large but lightly built canid, with long, slim legs and large, rounded ears. The coloration of the pelage is distinctive but highly variable, a combination of irregular black, yellow-brown, and white blotches on the back, sides, and legs. African Wild Dogs in north-eastern Africa are predominantly black, with small white and yellow patches. Dogs in southern Africa are lighter, with a mix of brown, black, and white. Pelage coloration is unique to each animal, and can thus be used to identify individuals. Head yellow-brown with a black mask, black ears, a black line following the sagittal crest, and a white-tipped tail. Hair is generally very short on the limbs and body and longer on the neck, sometimes giving a shaggy appearance at the throat. Females have six to eight pairs of mammae. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. As with Cuonand Speothosdeparture from the typical form of dentition within the Canidaeis apparent in the lower carnassial, where the inner cusp of the talonid is missing so that instead of forming a basin, this part of the tooth forms a subsidiary blade. This is indicative of a highly carnivorous diet.","Wild Dogs occupy a range of habitats including short-grass plains, semi-desert, bushy savannahs, and upland forest. Early studies in Tanzania’s Serengeti led to a belief that Wild Dogs were primarily an open-plains species, but they reach their highest densities in thicker bush (e.g. central Tanzania, western Zimbabweand northern Botswana). Several relict populations also occupy dense upland forest (e.g. Harenna Forest, Ethiopia; Ngare Ndare Forest, Kenya). Wild Dogs have been recorded in desert, although they appear unable to expand into the southern Kalahari or into montane habitats; they occur in some lowland forest areas. It appears that their current distribution is limited primarily by human activities and the availability of prey, rather than the loss of a specific habitat type.","Wild Dogs mostly hunt medium-sized antelope. In most areas their principal prey are Impala, Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Thomson's Gazelle, and Blue Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). They will give chase to larger species, such as Common Eland (7Tragelaphus oryx) and African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), but rarely kill these species. Warthogs (Phacochoerus spp.), dik-diks (Madoqua spp.), Steenbok (Raphicerus campestris), and duikers (Cephalophini) are important prey items in some areas. African Wild Dogs also take small prey opportunistically, such as hares, lizards, and bird eggs, but these make a very small contribution to their diet. African Wild Dogs live and hunt in packs. Hunts appear to be highly coordinated and are often preceded by a “social rally”. During chases, African Wild Dogs may run at speeds of up to 60 km/h, and are specially adapted to cope with the heat stress that this involves. After one dog has made the first grab of an antelope or other prey species, other pack members join and help drag the quarry to the ground. In some hunts, one pack member may restrain the head of the prey by biting its nose and holding on while others make the kill. Individuals may also chase and bring down prey alone. Hunting success is high in comparison with other large carnivore species (e.g. in the Serengeti, 70% of 133 African Wild Dog hunts ended in a kill). Social hunting gives each pack member a higher foraging success rate (measured as kg killed per km chased) relative to hunting alone. African Wild Dogs very rarely scavenge.","Fach pack includes a dominant pair that breeds each year. Subordinate females may breed on some occasions, but their pups rarely survive. Parental care involves all pack members. Such alloparental care is vital: small packs (less than four members) rarely manage to raise any pups. Cooperative care may even extend to caring for adopted pups. Whelping occurs once per year, and gestation lasts 71-73 days. Wild Dogs have large litters, averaging 10-11 pups, butlitters as large as 21 have been recorded. Pup sex ratios are male-biased in some populations. The pups each weigh approximately 300-350 gand are born in an underground den, which they use for the first three months of life. The dens are often those of Aardvarks, sometimes modified by warthogs or Spotted Hyenas. The mother is confined to the den during early lactation, and is reliant on other pack members to provision her during this time. Pack members feed the mother and pups (from four weeks of age) by regurgitating solid pieces of meat. Some also “babysit” the pups and chase predators off while the remainder of the pack is away hunting. Pups are generally fully weaned by eight weeks but continue to use a den for refuge until 12-16 weeks of age. They reach sexual maturity in their second year of life, but social suppression can mean that few animals breed at this age, or indeed at any age.",African Wild Dogs are mainly crepuscular and hunt during the early morning and early evening hours. They may also hunt occasionally at night when moonlight is ample. Activity appears to be limited by ambient temperature and availability of light.,"African Wild Dogs are intensely social, living in close association with each other in a pack. Pack size varies from a pair to as many as 30 adultsand yearlings, although typically packs include between four and nine adultsalong with yearlings and pups. Packs form when small same-sex subgroups (usually littermates) leave their natal groups and join subgroups of the opposite sex. Occasionally, new packs form by fission from larger groups, males and females emigrating together. Because African Wild Dogs are obligate social breeders, the pack, rather than the individual, should be considered the basic unit within the population. African Wild Dogs have large home ranges, for example 620 to 2460 km* in Serengeti, which are much larger than would be expected on the basis of their body size. Ranges in other areas, however, are typically between 400 and 600 km*. Ranges are defended infrequently but aggressively against neighboring packs, and African Wild Dogs may thus be considered territorial, especially as such areas are scent-marked. During the breeding season, when they are feeding young pups at a den, packs are confined to relatively small core areas (50-200 km?®), but outside the denning period they range widely. As a result, the large home ranges of this species translate into low population densities. African Wild Dogs dispersing from their natal packs may travel distances exceeding hundreds of kilometers. African Wild Dogs have a complex communication system that includes unique vocalizations.Breeding.Fach pack includes a dominant pair that breeds each year. Subordinate females may breed on some occasions, but their pups rarely survive. Parental care involves all pack members. Such alloparental care is vital: small packs (less than four members) rarely manage to raise any pups. Cooperative care may even extend to caring for adopted pups. Whelping occurs once per year, and gestation lasts 71-73 days. Wild Dogs have large litters, averaging 10-11 pups, butlitters as large as 21 have been recorded. Pup sex ratios are male-biased in some populations. The pups each weigh approximately 300-350 gand are born in an underground den, which they use for the first three months of life. The dens are often those of Aardvarks, sometimes modified by warthogs or Spotted Hyenas. The mother is confined to the den during early lactation, and is reliant on other pack members to provision her during this time. Pack members feed the mother and pups (from four weeks of age) by regurgitating solid pieces of meat. Some also “babysit” the pups and chase predators off while the remainder of the pack is away hunting. Pups are generally fully weaned by eight weeks but continue to use a den for refuge until 12-16 weeks of age. They reach sexual maturity in their second year of life, but social suppression can mean that few animals breed at this age, or indeed at any age.","CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Estimated population size is 3000 to 5500 remaining in the wild. Legally protected across much ofits range. However, this protection is rarely enforced and Wild Dogs are extinct in several countries despite stringent legal measures. African Wild Dogs survive mainly in small isolated populations in reserves and protected areas, which makes them more prone to extinction and less likely to recover from potentially catastrophic events (i.e. outbreaks of epidemic disease). More than half of the mortality of adults is caused directly by human activities, even in some of the largest and best protected areas. African Wild dogs using protected areas often range outside borders and into areas used by people. Here they encounter a myriad of threats including high-speed vehicles, guns, snares, and poisoning, as well as domestic dogs, which can be reservoirs of potentially lethal diseases. Rabies, in particular, probably spread from domestic dogs, caused the extinction of African Wild Dogs in the Serengeti ecosystem on the Kenya/ Tanzaniaborder in 1990-91 and is suspected to have caused the deaths of several packs in northern Botswanain 1995 and 1996. Canine distemper may also affect African Wild Dog populations, although exposure may not always be fatal. The status of African Wild Dogs in several areas, including West and Central Africa, remains largely unknown.","Creel & Creel (1995, 2002) | Creel, Creel, Mills & Monfort (1997) | Creel, Creel, Munson et al. (1997) | Fanshawe & Fitzgibbon (1993) | Fanshawe et al. (1997) | Frame et al. (1979) | Fuller, Kat et al. (1992) | Fuller, Mills et al. (1992) | Ginsberg & Woodroffe (1997) | Girman et al. (1997) | Malcolm & Marten (1982) | Malcolm & Sillero-Zubiri (2001) | McCreery & Robbins (2001) | McNutt (1996a, 1996b) | Mills & Biggs (1993) | Robbins (2000) | Taylor et al. (1971) | VanHeerden (1981) | Woodroffe, Ginsberg & Macdonald (1997) | Woodroffe, McNutt & Mills (2004)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331179/files/figure.png,"9.African Wild DogLycaon pictusFrench:Lycaon/ German:Afrikanischer Wildhund/ Spanish:LicadnOther common names:Painted Hunting DogTaxonomy.Hyaena picta Temminck, 1820,coastal Mozambique.The former placement of Lycaonin its own subfamily, the Simoncyoninae, is no longer recognized, and recent molecular studies have supported the separation of this species into its own genus. The African Wild Dog has been grouped with Dhole and Bush Dog, but the morphological similarities among these species are no longer considered to indicate common ancestry. Genetic and morphological studies initially suggested the existence of separate subspecies in eastern and southern Africa. However, no geographical boundaries separated these proposed subspecies, and dogs sampled from the intermediate area showed a mixture of southern and eastern haplotypes, indicating a cline rather than distinct subspecies.On following pages: 10. Maned Wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus); 11. Bush Dog (Speothos venaticus), 12. Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous); 13. Short-eared Dog (Atelocynus microtis).Distribution.Sub-Saharan Africa; virtually eradicated from W Africa, and greatly reduced in C and NE Africa. The largest populations exist in Botswana, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe, which account for approximately half of the estimated number of African Wild Dogs remaining in the wild.Other populations occur in Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Sudan, and Zambia. Potential small populations (less than 100 individuals) may exist in Cameroon, Chad, Senegal, and Somalia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 84:5-138- 5 cmfor males and 93-141 cmfor females, tail 32-42 cmfor males and 31-37 cmfor females; weight 21-34-5 kgfor males and 18-26-5 kgfor females. Males are slightly heavier than females, and are easily recognized by the conspicuous penis sheath. A large but lightly built canid, with long, slim legs and large, rounded ears. The coloration of the pelage is distinctive but highly variable, a combination of irregular black, yellow-brown, and white blotches on the back, sides, and legs. African Wild Dogs in north-eastern Africa are predominantly black, with small white and yellow patches. Dogs in southern Africa are lighter, with a mix of brown, black, and white. Pelage coloration is unique to each animal, and can thus be used to identify individuals. Head yellow-brown with a black mask, black ears, a black line following the sagittal crest, and a white-tipped tail. Hair is generally very short on the limbs and body and longer on the neck, sometimes giving a shaggy appearance at the throat. Females have six to eight pairs of mammae. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. As with Cuonand Speothosdeparture from the typical form of dentition within the Canidaeis apparent in the lower carnassial, where the inner cusp of the talonid is missing so that instead of forming a basin, this part of the tooth forms a subsidiary blade. This is indicative of a highly carnivorous diet.Habitat.Wild Dogs occupy a range of habitats including short-grass plains, semi-desert, bushy savannahs, and upland forest. Early studies in Tanzania’s Serengeti led to a belief that Wild Dogs were primarily an open-plains species, but they reach their highest densities in thicker bush (e.g. central Tanzania, western Zimbabweand northern Botswana). Several relict populations also occupy dense upland forest (e.g. Harenna Forest, Ethiopia; Ngare Ndare Forest, Kenya). Wild Dogs have been recorded in desert, although they appear unable to expand into the southern Kalahari or into montane habitats; they occur in some lowland forest areas. It appears that their current distribution is limited primarily by human activities and the availability of prey, rather than the loss of a specific habitat type.Food and Feeding.Wild Dogs mostly hunt medium-sized antelope. In most areas their principal prey are Impala, Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Thomson's Gazelle, and Blue Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). They will give chase to larger species, such as Common Eland (7Tragelaphus oryx) and African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), but rarely kill these species. Warthogs (Phacochoerus spp.), dik-diks (Madoqua spp.), Steenbok (Raphicerus campestris), and duikers (Cephalophini) are important prey items in some areas. African Wild Dogs also take small prey opportunistically, such as hares, lizards, and bird eggs, but these make a very small contribution to their diet. African Wild Dogs live and hunt in packs. Hunts appear to be highly coordinated and are often preceded by a “social rally”. During chases, African Wild Dogs may run at speeds of up to 60 km/h, and are specially adapted to cope with the heat stress that this involves. After one dog has made the first grab of an antelope or other prey species, other pack members join and help drag the quarry to the ground. In some hunts, one pack member may restrain the head of the prey by biting its nose and holding on while others make the kill. Individuals may also chase and bring down prey alone. Hunting success is high in comparison with other large carnivore species (e.g. in the Serengeti, 70% of 133 African Wild Dog hunts ended in a kill). Social hunting gives each pack member a higher foraging success rate (measured as kg killed per km chased) relative to hunting alone. African Wild Dogs very rarely scavenge.Activity patterns.African Wild Dogs are mainly crepuscular and hunt during the early morning and early evening hours. They may also hunt occasionally at night when moonlight is ample. Activity appears to be limited by ambient temperature and availability of light.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Wild Dogs are intensely social, living in close association with each other in a pack. Pack size varies from a pair to as many as 30 adultsand yearlings, although typically packs include between four and nine adultsalong with yearlings and pups. Packs form when small same-sex subgroups (usually littermates) leave their natal groups and join subgroups of the opposite sex. Occasionally, new packs form by fission from larger groups, males and females emigrating together. Because African Wild Dogs are obligate social breeders, the pack, rather than the individual, should be considered the basic unit within the population. African Wild Dogs have large home ranges, for example 620 to 2460 km* in Serengeti, which are much larger than would be expected on the basis of their body size. Ranges in other areas, however, are typically between 400 and 600 km*. Ranges are defended infrequently but aggressively against neighboring packs, and African Wild Dogs may thus be considered territorial, especially as such areas are scent-marked. During the breeding season, when they are feeding young pups at a den, packs are confined to relatively small core areas (50-200 km?®), but outside the denning period they range widely. As a result, the large home ranges of this species translate into low population densities. African Wild Dogs dispersing from their natal packs may travel distances exceeding hundreds of kilometers. African Wild Dogs have a complex communication system that includes unique vocalizations.Breeding.Fach pack includes a dominant pair that breeds each year. Subordinate females may breed on some occasions, but their pups rarely survive. Parental care involves all pack members. Such alloparental care is vital: small packs (less than four members) rarely manage to raise any pups. Cooperative care may even extend to caring for adopted pups. Whelping occurs once per year, and gestation lasts 71-73 days. Wild Dogs have large litters, averaging 10-11 pups, butlitters as large as 21 have been recorded. Pup sex ratios are male-biased in some populations. The pups each weigh approximately 300-350 gand are born in an underground den, which they use for the first three months of life. The dens are often those of Aardvarks, sometimes modified by warthogs or Spotted Hyenas. The mother is confined to the den during early lactation, and is reliant on other pack members to provision her during this time. Pack members feed the mother and pups (from four weeks of age) by regurgitating solid pieces of meat. Some also “babysit” the pups and chase predators off while the remainder of the pack is away hunting. Pups are generally fully weaned by eight weeks but continue to use a den for refuge until 12-16 weeks of age. They reach sexual maturity in their second year of life, but social suppression can mean that few animals breed at this age, or indeed at any age.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Estimated population size is 3000 to 5500 remaining in the wild. Legally protected across much ofits range. However, this protection is rarely enforced and Wild Dogs are extinct in several countries despite stringent legal measures. African Wild Dogs survive mainly in small isolated populations in reserves and protected areas, which makes them more prone to extinction and less likely to recover from potentially catastrophic events (i.e. outbreaks of epidemic disease). More than half of the mortality of adults is caused directly by human activities, even in some of the largest and best protected areas. African Wild dogs using protected areas often range outside borders and into areas used by people. Here they encounter a myriad of threats including high-speed vehicles, guns, snares, and poisoning, as well as domestic dogs, which can be reservoirs of potentially lethal diseases. Rabies, in particular, probably spread from domestic dogs, caused the extinction of African Wild Dogs in the Serengeti ecosystem on the Kenya/ Tanzaniaborder in 1990-91 and is suspected to have caused the deaths of several packs in northern Botswanain 1995 and 1996. Canine distemper may also affect African Wild Dog populations, although exposure may not always be fatal. The status of African Wild Dogs in several areas, including West and Central Africa, remains largely unknown.Bibliography.Creel & Creel (1995, 2002), Creel, Creel, Mills & Monfort (1997), Creel, Creel, Munson et al. (1997), Fanshawe & Fitzgibbon (1993), Fanshawe et al. (1997), Frame et al. (1979), Fuller, Kat et al. (1992), Fuller, Mills et al. (1992), Ginsberg & Woodroffe (1997), Girman et al. (1997), Malcolm & Marten (1982), Malcolm & Sillero-Zubiri (2001), McCreery & Robbins (2001), McNutt (1996a, 1996b), Mills & Biggs (1993), Robbins (2000), Taylor et al. (1971), VanHeerden (1981), Woodroffe, Ginsberg & Macdonald (1997), Woodroffe, McNutt & Mills (2004)." -03ACCF40BF3BFFC57E8DFE3DF7CED723,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,423,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3BFFC57E8DFE3DF7CED723.xml,Cuon alpinus,Cuon,alpinus,,,Dhole @fr | Asiatischer Wildhund @de | Cuén @es | Asiatic Wild Dog @en,"Canis alpinus Pallas, 1811.Amur region, former USSR.The genus Cuonis post-Pleistocene in origin, and related more closely to the extant jackals than to wolves. Although initially placed in the subfamily Simocyoninae, together with Lycaon pictusand Speothos venaticus, analysis of morphological, ecological and behavioral characteristics across 39 canid species showed that Cuonwas actually more similar to Canis, Dusicyon, and even Alopex, the resemblance with Speothosor Lycaonbeing based solely on skull and dental characteristics. Analysis of sequences from mitochondrial DNA provided further evidence for the taxonomic distinctiveness among Speothos, Cuon, and Lycaon. Eleven subspecies have been recognized, although many of those forms are doubtful. Three subspecies recongnized here.","C. a. alpinus Pallas, 1811— C Russiaand W Chinasouthward through Indiato Bhutanand Bangladesh.C. a. hesperius Afanas’ev & Zolotarev, 1935— E Russia, China, and SE Asia.C. a. sumatrensis Hardwicke, 1821— Sumatra and Java.","Head-body 88-1355 cmand tail 32-50 cm; weight 15-20 kgfor males and 10-13 kgfor females. Large canids, usually with a reddish or brown coat and a darker, bushy tail (sometimes with a white tip). Sexual dimorphism is not very distinct. Ears triangular, about half the length of the face, with rounded tips. The pinnae are usually whitish-fawn on the inside and reddish-brown on the outside. The muzzle is brown, relatively short, and slightly convex in profile. Nose black and eyes slightly hooded;irises are amber. The dorsal and lateral pelage is red to brown and the foreneck, chest, and undersides are often whitish or pale ginger colored. In the south and south-west of the Dhole’s range, their fur is shorter and rusty-red colored. In the north and north-east, the fur is longer, brownish-red, or yellowish-brown. The legs are notably shorter in some alpine regions and the coat is a yellowish-gray color in Himalayan regions. In Thailand, the coat is more uniformly brown, lacking the paler throat and chest. The toes are red, brown, and/or white; the hairless foretoe pads (on all feet) are joined at the base (near the main pad) unlike most domestic dogs. Dentition is unique within the Canidae, having one fewer lower molar teeth (13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40), with the heel of the lower carnassial M, crested and with a single cusp (all other canids within the range of Dhole have two cusps). There are usually six or seven pairs of mammae.","Dholes are found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including primary, secondary, and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland—scrub—forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions. In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest Dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation typeswhen compared to others in the same region. Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels, and suitability of breeding sites (i.e. in terms of proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures, and sufficient prey).","Diet includes beetles, rodents, birds, and occasionally grass and other plants like many other canids. However, Dholes hunt mainly vertebrate prey, with a preference for medium to large ungulates. They are also known to scavenge and occasionally have been observed eating carrion (e.g. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Gaur (Bos frontalis) carcasses). It has been suggested that such scavenging only occurs during periods of prey scarcity, particularly during the dry season. Grass is ingested, but may serve an anti-helminthic function rather than a nutritional one. Dholes are communal hunters, occasionally forming packs of over 30 animals, but are more often found in hunting groups of fewer than ten animals. Depending on prey availability, Dholes may also hunt alone or in pairs, taking smaller prey such as deer fawns or hares. During hunts, some Dholes may lie in ambush while others drive prey towards them. Dholes often drive deer into water, where they swim out to surround and capture them. It is common for certain individuals to take particular roles in the hunt, such as leading the chase or taking the first grab at the prey.","Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.","Primarily a crepuscular forager, but can hunt at any time of the day or night.","Dholes usually live in packs of 5-10 individuals, but groups of as many as 25 (including juveniles) have been recorded on a regular basis. Their ability to regurgitate small quantities of meat at will and thus transport food to pack-mates and neonates facilitates communal breeding, providing food for the pups, the mother, and other adult helpers that remain at the natal den. Group size and composition may vary under different environmental conditions, but most of the current data are from India. Packs have been reported to contain significantly more males than females, perhaps a reflection of female-biased dispersal. Pack members regularly play together, engaging in mock-fights, rolling, and allogrooming. Social rank is established by pushing and holding, but rarely by aggressive biting. Groups have a strong hierarchical structure, with a dominant male and female who are the main breeders. Pack members over-mark each other’s feces and urine on latrines throughout the group’s range. The ranges of neighboring packs often exhibit little overlap, though interactions between groups occur and can be either friendly or hostile. In India, reported home range size ranged from 40 to 83 km®. In Thailand, two radio-collared adult male Dholes occupied home range sizes of 12 km* and 49-5 km?. Dholes have a broad and unusual vocal repertoire that includes whines, mews, squeaks, growls, growl-barks, chattering calls, and screams. This large range of alarm calls may have evolved to alert pack members to danger from predators (e.g. Leopard, Tiger, Humans), and could serve to intimidate adversaries. A repetitive whistle-like contact call may allow dispersed pack members to identify one another and to regroup. Maintaining group cohesion in this way is likely to be highly adaptive in areas with other large predators.Breeding.Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.","CITES Appendix II. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Latest estimates state that fewer than 2500 mature individuals remain in the wild. Current wildlife decrees in Cambodiagive the Dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposalto list the species for full protection is under discussion. India’s 1972 Wildlife Act affords legal protection, specifying that permission is required to kill any individual unless in self-defense or if an individual is a man-killer. The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in Indiahas provided some protection for Dhole populations. In the former Soviet Union, Dholes received the status of “protected animal” in 1974; however, the poisoning and shooting of Gray Wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant Dhole populations. The Dhole is legally protected in Vietnam. Knowledge of Dhole abundance is limited to estimates of the number of packs within a few protected areas in southern and central India, where Dholes are generally thought to be abundant. Abundance is relatively lower in West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. In the rest of north-eastern India, Dholes are currently extinct or close to extinction. No remotely comparable information on density is available for any part of South-east Asia, and there are no empirical data on trends in this region. Threats include depletion of prey base, habitat loss and transformation, persecution by cattle grazers, and disease.","Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Cohen (1977, 1978) | Davidar (1973, 1975) | Durbin (1998) | Durbin et al. (2004) | Fox (1984) | IUCN (2008) | Johnsingh (1979, 1982, 1983) | Paulraj et al. (1992) | Thenius (1954) | Venkataraman (1998) | Venkataraman et al. (1995) | Wayne et al. (1997)",,"8.DholeCuon alpinusFrench:Dhole/ German:Asiatischer Wildhund/ Spanish:CuénOther common names:Asiatic Wild DogTaxonomy.Canis alpinus Pallas, 1811.Amur region, former USSR.The genus Cuonis post-Pleistocene in origin, and related more closely to the extant jackals than to wolves. Although initially placed in the subfamily Simocyoninae, together with Lycaon pictusand Speothos venaticus, analysis of morphological, ecological and behavioral characteristics across 39 canid species showed that Cuonwas actually more similar to Canis, Dusicyon, and even Alopex, the resemblance with Speothosor Lycaonbeing based solely on skull and dental characteristics. Analysis of sequences from mitochondrial DNA provided further evidence for the taxonomic distinctiveness among Speothos, Cuon, and Lycaon. Eleven subspecies have been recognized, although many of those forms are doubtful. Three subspecies recongnized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C. a. alpinus Pallas, 1811— C Russiaand W Chinasouthward through Indiato Bhutanand Bangladesh.C. a. hesperius Afanas’ev & Zolotarev, 1935— E Russia, China, and SE Asia.C. a. sumatrensis Hardwicke, 1821— Sumatra and Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-1355 cmand tail 32-50 cm; weight 15-20 kgfor males and 10-13 kgfor females. Large canids, usually with a reddish or brown coat and a darker, bushy tail (sometimes with a white tip). Sexual dimorphism is not very distinct. Ears triangular, about half the length of the face, with rounded tips. The pinnae are usually whitish-fawn on the inside and reddish-brown on the outside. The muzzle is brown, relatively short, and slightly convex in profile. Nose black and eyes slightly hooded;irises are amber. The dorsal and lateral pelage is red to brown and the foreneck, chest, and undersides are often whitish or pale ginger colored. In the south and south-west of the Dhole’s range, their fur is shorter and rusty-red colored. In the north and north-east, the fur is longer, brownish-red, or yellowish-brown. The legs are notably shorter in some alpine regions and the coat is a yellowish-gray color in Himalayan regions. In Thailand, the coat is more uniformly brown, lacking the paler throat and chest. The toes are red, brown, and/or white; the hairless foretoe pads (on all feet) are joined at the base (near the main pad) unlike most domestic dogs. Dentition is unique within the Canidae, having one fewer lower molar teeth (13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40), with the heel of the lower carnassial M, crested and with a single cusp (all other canids within the range of Dhole have two cusps). There are usually six or seven pairs of mammae.Habitat.Dholes are found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including primary, secondary, and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland—scrub—forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions. In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest Dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation typeswhen compared to others in the same region. Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels, and suitability of breeding sites (i.e. in terms of proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures, and sufficient prey).Food and Feeding.Diet includes beetles, rodents, birds, and occasionally grass and other plants like many other canids. However, Dholes hunt mainly vertebrate prey, with a preference for medium to large ungulates. They are also known to scavenge and occasionally have been observed eating carrion (e.g. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Gaur (Bos frontalis) carcasses). It has been suggested that such scavenging only occurs during periods of prey scarcity, particularly during the dry season. Grass is ingested, but may serve an anti-helminthic function rather than a nutritional one. Dholes are communal hunters, occasionally forming packs of over 30 animals, but are more often found in hunting groups of fewer than ten animals. Depending on prey availability, Dholes may also hunt alone or in pairs, taking smaller prey such as deer fawns or hares. During hunts, some Dholes may lie in ambush while others drive prey towards them. Dholes often drive deer into water, where they swim out to surround and capture them. It is common for certain individuals to take particular roles in the hunt, such as leading the chase or taking the first grab at the prey.Activity patterns.Primarily a crepuscular forager, but can hunt at any time of the day or night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dholes usually live in packs of 5-10 individuals, but groups of as many as 25 (including juveniles) have been recorded on a regular basis. Their ability to regurgitate small quantities of meat at will and thus transport food to pack-mates and neonates facilitates communal breeding, providing food for the pups, the mother, and other adult helpers that remain at the natal den. Group size and composition may vary under different environmental conditions, but most of the current data are from India. Packs have been reported to contain significantly more males than females, perhaps a reflection of female-biased dispersal. Pack members regularly play together, engaging in mock-fights, rolling, and allogrooming. Social rank is established by pushing and holding, but rarely by aggressive biting. Groups have a strong hierarchical structure, with a dominant male and female who are the main breeders. Pack members over-mark each other’s feces and urine on latrines throughout the group’s range. The ranges of neighboring packs often exhibit little overlap, though interactions between groups occur and can be either friendly or hostile. In India, reported home range size ranged from 40 to 83 km®. In Thailand, two radio-collared adult male Dholes occupied home range sizes of 12 km* and 49-5 km?. Dholes have a broad and unusual vocal repertoire that includes whines, mews, squeaks, growls, growl-barks, chattering calls, and screams. This large range of alarm calls may have evolved to alert pack members to danger from predators (e.g. Leopard, Tiger, Humans), and could serve to intimidate adversaries. A repetitive whistle-like contact call may allow dispersed pack members to identify one another and to regroup. Maintaining group cohesion in this way is likely to be highly adaptive in areas with other large predators.Breeding.Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Latest estimates state that fewer than 2500 mature individuals remain in the wild. Current wildlife decrees in Cambodiagive the Dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposalto list the species for full protection is under discussion. India’s 1972 Wildlife Act affords legal protection, specifying that permission is required to kill any individual unless in self-defense or if an individual is a man-killer. The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in Indiahas provided some protection for Dhole populations. In the former Soviet Union, Dholes received the status of “protected animal” in 1974; however, the poisoning and shooting of Gray Wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant Dhole populations. The Dhole is legally protected in Vietnam. Knowledge of Dhole abundance is limited to estimates of the number of packs within a few protected areas in southern and central India, where Dholes are generally thought to be abundant. Abundance is relatively lower in West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. In the rest of north-eastern India, Dholes are currently extinct or close to extinction. No remotely comparable information on density is available for any part of South-east Asia, and there are no empirical data on trends in this region. Threats include depletion of prey base, habitat loss and transformation, persecution by cattle grazers, and disease.Bibliography.Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Cohen (1977, 1978), Davidar (1973, 1975), Durbin (1998), Durbin et al. (2004), Fox (1984), IUCN (2008), Johnsingh (1979, 1982, 1983), Paulraj et al. (1992), Thenius (1954), Venkataraman (1998), Venkataraman et al. (1995), Wayne et al. (1997)." -03ACCF40BF3FFFC07E94F4ECF75BD906,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,419,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3FFFC07E94F4ECF75BD906.xml,Canis mesomelas,Canis,mesomelas,Schreber,1775,Chacal a dos noir @fr | Schabrackenschakal @de | Chacal dorsinegro @es | Silver-backed Jackal @en,"Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1775, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Different authors have recognized between two and six subspecies. However, considering the regional variation in the species, only two geographically isolated subspecies are recognized here.","C. m. mesomelas Schreber, 1775— S Africa.C. m. schmidti Noack, 1897— E Africa.","Head-body 69-90 cmfor males and 65-85 cmfor females,tail 27- 39-5 cmfor males and 26-38-1 cmfor females; weight 5-9-12 kgfor males and 6-2-9-9 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger and heavier than females. Somewhat foxlike in appearance, with a long, pointed muzzle. Diagnostic features include the dark saddle, black bushy tail and reddish flanks and limbs. The ears are large, erect, pointed, and constantly mobile. The overall body color is rufous brown, most intense on the ears, rump, and flanks. A black stripe midway up each flank slopes obliquely from behind the shoulder to the top of the rump; the dark saddle is broadest at the shoulders and tapers to a narrow point at the base of the tail. Anterior to this stripe, just behind the shoulder,is a small vertical stripe, diffuse in some individuals. Above the side markings, the back is marbled black and white giving an overall silver appearance in mature animals. Juveniles and sub-adults have similar markings, but these are drabber and only gain their full intensity at around two years of age. In the drier west and Namib coast in southern Africa the winter coat is a deep reddish brown (especially in males). The bushy tail is dark brown to black with a distinctive black sub-caudal marking. The markings, especially the side and shoulder stripes, are unique and can be used to identifiy individuals. Skull elongated, braincase pear-shaped, rostrum narrow, supra-occipital crest well-developed, bullae rounded, zygomatic arches broad and well-developed, and post-orbital bars incomplete. Dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Outer upper incisors larger, more pointed, and more caniniform than others. Upper canines long, curved, and pointed, with a sharp ridge on their posterior faces.","Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert, montane grassland, arid savannah and scrubland, open savannah, woodland savannah mosaics, and farmland. In general they show a preference for open habitats, tending to avoid dense vegetation. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3000 min the Drakensberg Mountains, and in localities receiving more than 2000 mmof rainfall. Where more than one jackal species occurs in sympatry the selection of habitat is partitioned. Black-backed Jackals preferentially use either open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal) or wooded savannah (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Blackbacked Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats.","Generalist feeders. Diet varies according to food availability. When the jackals occur in sympatry with other carnivores using the same prey base, food resources are partitioned. Dietary items typically include small- to medium-sized mammals (e.g. murids, spring hares, young ungulates), reptiles, birds and bird eggs, carrion, and human refuse, as well as invertebrates and plants. In coastal areas, Black-backed Jackals will eat beached marine mammals, seals, fish, and mussels. Invertebrates such as termites and insects are also commonly eaten. Pairs and small groups are often seen foraging together. Groups of between eight and ten aggregate at large carcasses of herbivores, and more than 80 have been recorded at seal colonies on the Namib Desert coast. Such aggregations are accompanied by aggressive behavior between territorial individuals. However, in the south-western Kalahari, where antelope carcasses are uncommon, groups of up to 15 pairs can feed in succession without much overt aggression. Matedjackal pairs will often cooperate in the capture of prey, resulting in a higher success rate. In Botswana, they occasionally form “packs” in order to hunt adult Impala (Aepyceros melampus), and there are also records of their taking adult antelope. On the Namib Desert coast they patrol beaches for beached marine refuse and move along sheltered paths between food-rich patches; the tops of coastal hummocks are used as feeding sites. In this environment, they frequently follow Brown Hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea), from a distance in the hope of securing the odd food item. Their large, mobile ears are used to locate invertebrate and small mammalian prey, which are then captured with a leap followed by an accurate pounce, in a similar manner to Red Foxes.","Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.","Mostly nocturnal, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution.","The monogamous mated pair, which appears to be a life-long association in most cases, is the basis of social structure, and if one member of a pair dies the other often will lose its territory. Blackbacked Jackals are territorial and use feces and urine to demarcate their territorial boundaries. Territories are spatially and temporally relatively stable, and intruders are aggressively expelled by territory holders. Water sources are shared with intruders, but the intruders perform submissive behaviorto territory holders, even to their pups. Density and group size is dependent on food biomass and dispersion. In South Africa, home range size averaged 18-2 km® (n = 14). In the more arid south-western Kalahari, adult ranges varied from 2:6-5-2 km? (n = 7) and mean sub-adult ranges were 6-3 km? (n = 4). In Zimbabwe, home ranges were largest in the cold, dry season (c. 1:0-1-3 km?*) and smaller in the hot dry season (c. 0-3-0-6 km?), while in the Rift Valley in Kenya, home ranges varied from 0-7-3-5 km®*. Home ranges are universally defended and mutually exclusive for pairs, with the exception of a population on the Namibian coast for which average home range size varied from 7-1-24-9 km* (n = 4). A high-pitched, whining howl is used to communicate with group members and is often used to call the group together in the early evening; this may also function in territorial advertisement. Howling often stimulates the same behavior in adjacent territories or in nearby individuals. A three- to five-syllable alarm call, consisting of an explosive yelp followed by a series of shorter high-pitched yelps, is used when disturbed and may be frantic and prolonged when the jackals are mobbing a Leopard (Panthera pardus). A low-pitched, gruff bark is used to warn pups of intruders near the den, and whines are used to call to pups. Also noted is use of a “clattering distress call” and a loud yelp when alarmed. Interestingly, Black-backed Jackals are much less vocal where they occur alongside the Golden Jackal, which is the only jackal species heard to howl in East Africa.Breeding.Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread, and in Namibiaand South Africathey are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. Also occur in many livestock-producing areas, where they are considered vermin; however, despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa, this species is still relatively abundant. Snaring and road accidents may be the commonest cause of jackal mortality in areas of high human density. Black-backed Jackals are persecuted as livestock killers and as carriers of rabies. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers.","Avery et al. (1987) | Bernard & Stuart (1992) | Bothma (1971a, 1971b) | Bothma et al. (1984) | Coetzee (1977) | Dreyer & Nel (1990) | Ferguson (1980) | Ferguson et al. (1983) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Hiscocks & Perrin (1988) | Kaunda (2000) | Kaunda & Skinner (2003) | Kingdon (1997) | Kok (1996) | Lamprecht (1978) | van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970) | Loveridge (1999) | Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002) | Loveridge & Nel (2004) | McKenzie (1990) | Meester et al. (1986) | Moehlman (1978, 1979, 1983, 1987) | Nel & Loutit (1986) | Oosthuizen et al. (1997) | Pienaar (1969) | Rowe-Rowe (1982, 1983) | Stuart (1976)",,"7.Black-backed JackalCanis mesomelasFrench:Chacal a dos noir/ German:Schabrackenschakal/ Spanish:Chacal dorsinegroOther common names:Silver-backed JackalTaxonomy.Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1775, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Different authors have recognized between two and six subspecies. However, considering the regional variation in the species, only two geographically isolated subspecies are recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C. m. mesomelas Schreber, 1775— S Africa.C. m. schmidti Noack, 1897— E Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 69-90 cmfor males and 65-85 cmfor females,tail 27- 39-5 cmfor males and 26-38-1 cmfor females; weight 5-9-12 kgfor males and 6-2-9-9 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger and heavier than females. Somewhat foxlike in appearance, with a long, pointed muzzle. Diagnostic features include the dark saddle, black bushy tail and reddish flanks and limbs. The ears are large, erect, pointed, and constantly mobile. The overall body color is rufous brown, most intense on the ears, rump, and flanks. A black stripe midway up each flank slopes obliquely from behind the shoulder to the top of the rump; the dark saddle is broadest at the shoulders and tapers to a narrow point at the base of the tail. Anterior to this stripe, just behind the shoulder,is a small vertical stripe, diffuse in some individuals. Above the side markings, the back is marbled black and white giving an overall silver appearance in mature animals. Juveniles and sub-adults have similar markings, but these are drabber and only gain their full intensity at around two years of age. In the drier west and Namib coast in southern Africa the winter coat is a deep reddish brown (especially in males). The bushy tail is dark brown to black with a distinctive black sub-caudal marking. The markings, especially the side and shoulder stripes, are unique and can be used to identifiy individuals. Skull elongated, braincase pear-shaped, rostrum narrow, supra-occipital crest well-developed, bullae rounded, zygomatic arches broad and well-developed, and post-orbital bars incomplete. Dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Outer upper incisors larger, more pointed, and more caniniform than others. Upper canines long, curved, and pointed, with a sharp ridge on their posterior faces.Habitat.Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert, montane grassland, arid savannah and scrubland, open savannah, woodland savannah mosaics, and farmland. In general they show a preference for open habitats, tending to avoid dense vegetation. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3000 min the Drakensberg Mountains, and in localities receiving more than 2000 mmof rainfall. Where more than one jackal species occurs in sympatry the selection of habitat is partitioned. Black-backed Jackals preferentially use either open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal) or wooded savannah (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Blackbacked Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats.Food and Feeding.Generalist feeders. Diet varies according to food availability. When the jackals occur in sympatry with other carnivores using the same prey base, food resources are partitioned. Dietary items typically include small- to medium-sized mammals (e.g. murids, spring hares, young ungulates), reptiles, birds and bird eggs, carrion, and human refuse, as well as invertebrates and plants. In coastal areas, Black-backed Jackals will eat beached marine mammals, seals, fish, and mussels. Invertebrates such as termites and insects are also commonly eaten. Pairs and small groups are often seen foraging together. Groups of between eight and ten aggregate at large carcasses of herbivores, and more than 80 have been recorded at seal colonies on the Namib Desert coast. Such aggregations are accompanied by aggressive behavior between territorial individuals. However, in the south-western Kalahari, where antelope carcasses are uncommon, groups of up to 15 pairs can feed in succession without much overt aggression. Matedjackal pairs will often cooperate in the capture of prey, resulting in a higher success rate. In Botswana, they occasionally form “packs” in order to hunt adult Impala (Aepyceros melampus), and there are also records of their taking adult antelope. On the Namib Desert coast they patrol beaches for beached marine refuse and move along sheltered paths between food-rich patches; the tops of coastal hummocks are used as feeding sites. In this environment, they frequently follow Brown Hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea), from a distance in the hope of securing the odd food item. Their large, mobile ears are used to locate invertebrate and small mammalian prey, which are then captured with a leap followed by an accurate pounce, in a similar manner to Red Foxes.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The monogamous mated pair, which appears to be a life-long association in most cases, is the basis of social structure, and if one member of a pair dies the other often will lose its territory. Blackbacked Jackals are territorial and use feces and urine to demarcate their territorial boundaries. Territories are spatially and temporally relatively stable, and intruders are aggressively expelled by territory holders. Water sources are shared with intruders, but the intruders perform submissive behaviorto territory holders, even to their pups. Density and group size is dependent on food biomass and dispersion. In South Africa, home range size averaged 18-2 km® (n = 14). In the more arid south-western Kalahari, adult ranges varied from 2:6-5-2 km? (n = 7) and mean sub-adult ranges were 6-3 km? (n = 4). In Zimbabwe, home ranges were largest in the cold, dry season (c. 1:0-1-3 km?*) and smaller in the hot dry season (c. 0-3-0-6 km?), while in the Rift Valley in Kenya, home ranges varied from 0-7-3-5 km®*. Home ranges are universally defended and mutually exclusive for pairs, with the exception of a population on the Namibian coast for which average home range size varied from 7-1-24-9 km* (n = 4). A high-pitched, whining howl is used to communicate with group members and is often used to call the group together in the early evening; this may also function in territorial advertisement. Howling often stimulates the same behavior in adjacent territories or in nearby individuals. A three- to five-syllable alarm call, consisting of an explosive yelp followed by a series of shorter high-pitched yelps, is used when disturbed and may be frantic and prolonged when the jackals are mobbing a Leopard (Panthera pardus). A low-pitched, gruff bark is used to warn pups of intruders near the den, and whines are used to call to pups. Also noted is use of a “clattering distress call” and a loud yelp when alarmed. Interestingly, Black-backed Jackals are much less vocal where they occur alongside the Golden Jackal, which is the only jackal species heard to howl in East Africa.Breeding.Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread, and in Namibiaand South Africathey are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. Also occur in many livestock-producing areas, where they are considered vermin; however, despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa, this species is still relatively abundant. Snaring and road accidents may be the commonest cause of jackal mortality in areas of high human density. Black-backed Jackals are persecuted as livestock killers and as carriers of rabies. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers.Bibliography.Avery et al. (1987), Bernard & Stuart (1992), Bothma (1971a, 1971b), Bothma et al. (1984), Coetzee (1977), Dreyer & Nel (1990), Ferguson (1980), Ferguson et al. (1983), Fuller et al. (1989), Hiscocks & Perrin (1988), Kaunda (2000), Kaunda & Skinner (2003), Kingdon (1997), Kok (1996), Lamprecht (1978), van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970), Loveridge (1999), Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002), Loveridge & Nel (2004), McKenzie (1990), Meester et al. (1986), Moehlman (1978, 1979, 1983, 1987), Nel & Loutit (1986), Oosthuizen et al. (1997), Pienaar (1969), Rowe-Rowe (1982, 1983), Stuart (1976)." +03ACCF40BF3BFFC57E8DFE3DF7CED723,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,423,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3BFFC57E8DFE3DF7CED723.xml,Cuon alpinus,Cuon,alpinus,,,Dhole @fr | Asiatischer Wildhund @de | Cuén @es | Asiatic Wild Dog @en,"Canis alpinus Pallas, 1811.Amur region, former USSR.The genus Cuonis post-Pleistocene in origin, and related more closely to the extant jackals than to wolves. Although initially placed in the subfamily Simocyoninae, together with Lycaon pictusand Speothos venaticus, analysis of morphological, ecological and behavioral characteristics across 39 canid species showed that Cuonwas actually more similar to Canis, Dusicyon, and even Alopex, the resemblance with Speothosor Lycaonbeing based solely on skull and dental characteristics. Analysis of sequences from mitochondrial DNA provided further evidence for the taxonomic distinctiveness among Speothos, Cuon, and Lycaon. Eleven subspecies have been recognized, although many of those forms are doubtful. Three subspecies recongnized here.","C. a. alpinus Pallas, 1811— C Russiaand W Chinasouthward through Indiato Bhutanand Bangladesh.C. a. hesperius Afanas’ev & Zolotarev, 1935— E Russia, China, and SE Asia.C. a. sumatrensis Hardwicke, 1821— Sumatra and Java.","Head-body 88-1355 cmand tail 32-50 cm; weight 15-20 kgfor males and 10-13 kgfor females. Large canids, usually with a reddish or brown coat and a darker, bushy tail (sometimes with a white tip). Sexual dimorphism is not very distinct. Ears triangular, about half the length of the face, with rounded tips. The pinnae are usually whitish-fawn on the inside and reddish-brown on the outside. The muzzle is brown, relatively short, and slightly convex in profile. Nose black and eyes slightly hooded;irises are amber. The dorsal and lateral pelage is red to brown and the foreneck, chest, and undersides are often whitish or pale ginger colored. In the south and south-west of the Dhole’s range, their fur is shorter and rusty-red colored. In the north and north-east, the fur is longer, brownish-red, or yellowish-brown. The legs are notably shorter in some alpine regions and the coat is a yellowish-gray color in Himalayan regions. In Thailand, the coat is more uniformly brown, lacking the paler throat and chest. The toes are red, brown, and/or white; the hairless foretoe pads (on all feet) are joined at the base (near the main pad) unlike most domestic dogs. Dentition is unique within the Canidae, having one fewer lower molar teeth (13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40), with the heel of the lower carnassial M, crested and with a single cusp (all other canids within the range of Dhole have two cusps). There are usually six or seven pairs of mammae.","Dholes are found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including primary, secondary, and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland—scrub—forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions. In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest Dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation typeswhen compared to others in the same region. Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels, and suitability of breeding sites (i.e. in terms of proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures, and sufficient prey).","Diet includes beetles, rodents, birds, and occasionally grass and other plants like many other canids. However, Dholes hunt mainly vertebrate prey, with a preference for medium to large ungulates. They are also known to scavenge and occasionally have been observed eating carrion (e.g. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Gaur (Bos frontalis) carcasses). It has been suggested that such scavenging only occurs during periods of prey scarcity, particularly during the dry season. Grass is ingested, but may serve an anti-helminthic function rather than a nutritional one. Dholes are communal hunters, occasionally forming packs of over 30 animals, but are more often found in hunting groups of fewer than ten animals. Depending on prey availability, Dholes may also hunt alone or in pairs, taking smaller prey such as deer fawns or hares. During hunts, some Dholes may lie in ambush while others drive prey towards them. Dholes often drive deer into water, where they swim out to surround and capture them. It is common for certain individuals to take particular roles in the hunt, such as leading the chase or taking the first grab at the prey.","Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.","Primarily a crepuscular forager, but can hunt at any time of the day or night.","Dholes usually live in packs of 5-10 individuals, but groups of as many as 25 (including juveniles) have been recorded on a regular basis. Their ability to regurgitate small quantities of meat at will and thus transport food to pack-mates and neonates facilitates communal breeding, providing food for the pups, the mother, and other adult helpers that remain at the natal den. Group size and composition may vary under different environmental conditions, but most of the current data are from India. Packs have been reported to contain significantly more males than females, perhaps a reflection of female-biased dispersal. Pack members regularly play together, engaging in mock-fights, rolling, and allogrooming. Social rank is established by pushing and holding, but rarely by aggressive biting. Groups have a strong hierarchical structure, with a dominant male and female who are the main breeders. Pack members over-mark each other’s feces and urine on latrines throughout the group’s range. The ranges of neighboring packs often exhibit little overlap, though interactions between groups occur and can be either friendly or hostile. In India, reported home range size ranged from 40 to 83 km®. In Thailand, two radio-collared adult male Dholes occupied home range sizes of 12 km* and 49-5 km?. Dholes have a broad and unusual vocal repertoire that includes whines, mews, squeaks, growls, growl-barks, chattering calls, and screams. This large range of alarm calls may have evolved to alert pack members to danger from predators (e.g. Leopard, Tiger, Humans), and could serve to intimidate adversaries. A repetitive whistle-like contact call may allow dispersed pack members to identify one another and to regroup. Maintaining group cohesion in this way is likely to be highly adaptive in areas with other large predators.Breeding.Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.","CITES Appendix II. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Latest estimates state that fewer than 2500 mature individuals remain in the wild. Current wildlife decrees in Cambodiagive the Dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposalto list the species for full protection is under discussion. India’s 1972 Wildlife Act affords legal protection, specifying that permission is required to kill any individual unless in self-defense or if an individual is a man-killer. The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in Indiahas provided some protection for Dhole populations. In the former Soviet Union, Dholes received the status of “protected animal” in 1974; however, the poisoning and shooting of Gray Wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant Dhole populations. The Dhole is legally protected in Vietnam. Knowledge of Dhole abundance is limited to estimates of the number of packs within a few protected areas in southern and central India, where Dholes are generally thought to be abundant. Abundance is relatively lower in West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. In the rest of north-eastern India, Dholes are currently extinct or close to extinction. No remotely comparable information on density is available for any part of South-east Asia, and there are no empirical data on trends in this region. Threats include depletion of prey base, habitat loss and transformation, persecution by cattle grazers, and disease.","Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Cohen (1977, 1978) | Davidar (1973, 1975) | Durbin (1998) | Durbin et al. (2004) | Fox (1984) | IUCN (2008) | Johnsingh (1979, 1982, 1983) | Paulraj et al. (1992) | Thenius (1954) | Venkataraman (1998) | Venkataraman et al. (1995) | Wayne et al. (1997)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331177/files/figure.png,"8.DholeCuon alpinusFrench:Dhole/ German:Asiatischer Wildhund/ Spanish:CuénOther common names:Asiatic Wild DogTaxonomy.Canis alpinus Pallas, 1811.Amur region, former USSR.The genus Cuonis post-Pleistocene in origin, and related more closely to the extant jackals than to wolves. Although initially placed in the subfamily Simocyoninae, together with Lycaon pictusand Speothos venaticus, analysis of morphological, ecological and behavioral characteristics across 39 canid species showed that Cuonwas actually more similar to Canis, Dusicyon, and even Alopex, the resemblance with Speothosor Lycaonbeing based solely on skull and dental characteristics. Analysis of sequences from mitochondrial DNA provided further evidence for the taxonomic distinctiveness among Speothos, Cuon, and Lycaon. Eleven subspecies have been recognized, although many of those forms are doubtful. Three subspecies recongnized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C. a. alpinus Pallas, 1811— C Russiaand W Chinasouthward through Indiato Bhutanand Bangladesh.C. a. hesperius Afanas’ev & Zolotarev, 1935— E Russia, China, and SE Asia.C. a. sumatrensis Hardwicke, 1821— Sumatra and Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-1355 cmand tail 32-50 cm; weight 15-20 kgfor males and 10-13 kgfor females. Large canids, usually with a reddish or brown coat and a darker, bushy tail (sometimes with a white tip). Sexual dimorphism is not very distinct. Ears triangular, about half the length of the face, with rounded tips. The pinnae are usually whitish-fawn on the inside and reddish-brown on the outside. The muzzle is brown, relatively short, and slightly convex in profile. Nose black and eyes slightly hooded;irises are amber. The dorsal and lateral pelage is red to brown and the foreneck, chest, and undersides are often whitish or pale ginger colored. In the south and south-west of the Dhole’s range, their fur is shorter and rusty-red colored. In the north and north-east, the fur is longer, brownish-red, or yellowish-brown. The legs are notably shorter in some alpine regions and the coat is a yellowish-gray color in Himalayan regions. In Thailand, the coat is more uniformly brown, lacking the paler throat and chest. The toes are red, brown, and/or white; the hairless foretoe pads (on all feet) are joined at the base (near the main pad) unlike most domestic dogs. Dentition is unique within the Canidae, having one fewer lower molar teeth (13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40), with the heel of the lower carnassial M, crested and with a single cusp (all other canids within the range of Dhole have two cusps). There are usually six or seven pairs of mammae.Habitat.Dholes are found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including primary, secondary, and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland—scrub—forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions. In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest Dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation typeswhen compared to others in the same region. Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels, and suitability of breeding sites (i.e. in terms of proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures, and sufficient prey).Food and Feeding.Diet includes beetles, rodents, birds, and occasionally grass and other plants like many other canids. However, Dholes hunt mainly vertebrate prey, with a preference for medium to large ungulates. They are also known to scavenge and occasionally have been observed eating carrion (e.g. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Gaur (Bos frontalis) carcasses). It has been suggested that such scavenging only occurs during periods of prey scarcity, particularly during the dry season. Grass is ingested, but may serve an anti-helminthic function rather than a nutritional one. Dholes are communal hunters, occasionally forming packs of over 30 animals, but are more often found in hunting groups of fewer than ten animals. Depending on prey availability, Dholes may also hunt alone or in pairs, taking smaller prey such as deer fawns or hares. During hunts, some Dholes may lie in ambush while others drive prey towards them. Dholes often drive deer into water, where they swim out to surround and capture them. It is common for certain individuals to take particular roles in the hunt, such as leading the chase or taking the first grab at the prey.Activity patterns.Primarily a crepuscular forager, but can hunt at any time of the day or night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dholes usually live in packs of 5-10 individuals, but groups of as many as 25 (including juveniles) have been recorded on a regular basis. Their ability to regurgitate small quantities of meat at will and thus transport food to pack-mates and neonates facilitates communal breeding, providing food for the pups, the mother, and other adult helpers that remain at the natal den. Group size and composition may vary under different environmental conditions, but most of the current data are from India. Packs have been reported to contain significantly more males than females, perhaps a reflection of female-biased dispersal. Pack members regularly play together, engaging in mock-fights, rolling, and allogrooming. Social rank is established by pushing and holding, but rarely by aggressive biting. Groups have a strong hierarchical structure, with a dominant male and female who are the main breeders. Pack members over-mark each other’s feces and urine on latrines throughout the group’s range. The ranges of neighboring packs often exhibit little overlap, though interactions between groups occur and can be either friendly or hostile. In India, reported home range size ranged from 40 to 83 km®. In Thailand, two radio-collared adult male Dholes occupied home range sizes of 12 km* and 49-5 km?. Dholes have a broad and unusual vocal repertoire that includes whines, mews, squeaks, growls, growl-barks, chattering calls, and screams. This large range of alarm calls may have evolved to alert pack members to danger from predators (e.g. Leopard, Tiger, Humans), and could serve to intimidate adversaries. A repetitive whistle-like contact call may allow dispersed pack members to identify one another and to regroup. Maintaining group cohesion in this way is likely to be highly adaptive in areas with other large predators.Breeding.Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Latest estimates state that fewer than 2500 mature individuals remain in the wild. Current wildlife decrees in Cambodiagive the Dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposalto list the species for full protection is under discussion. India’s 1972 Wildlife Act affords legal protection, specifying that permission is required to kill any individual unless in self-defense or if an individual is a man-killer. The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in Indiahas provided some protection for Dhole populations. In the former Soviet Union, Dholes received the status of “protected animal” in 1974; however, the poisoning and shooting of Gray Wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant Dhole populations. The Dhole is legally protected in Vietnam. Knowledge of Dhole abundance is limited to estimates of the number of packs within a few protected areas in southern and central India, where Dholes are generally thought to be abundant. Abundance is relatively lower in West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. In the rest of north-eastern India, Dholes are currently extinct or close to extinction. No remotely comparable information on density is available for any part of South-east Asia, and there are no empirical data on trends in this region. Threats include depletion of prey base, habitat loss and transformation, persecution by cattle grazers, and disease.Bibliography.Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Cohen (1977, 1978), Davidar (1973, 1975), Durbin (1998), Durbin et al. (2004), Fox (1984), IUCN (2008), Johnsingh (1979, 1982, 1983), Paulraj et al. (1992), Thenius (1954), Venkataraman (1998), Venkataraman et al. (1995), Wayne et al. (1997)." +03ACCF40BF3FFFC07E94F4ECF75BD906,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06,419,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3FFFC07E94F4ECF75BD906.xml,Canis mesomelas,Canis,mesomelas,Schreber,1775,Chacal a dos noir @fr | Schabrackenschakal @de | Chacal dorsinegro @es | Silver-backed Jackal @en,"Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1775, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Different authors have recognized between two and six subspecies. However, considering the regional variation in the species, only two geographically isolated subspecies are recognized here.","C. m. mesomelas Schreber, 1775— S Africa.C. m. schmidti Noack, 1897— E Africa.","Head-body 69-90 cmfor males and 65-85 cmfor females,tail 27- 39-5 cmfor males and 26-38-1 cmfor females; weight 5-9-12 kgfor males and 6-2-9-9 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger and heavier than females. Somewhat foxlike in appearance, with a long, pointed muzzle. Diagnostic features include the dark saddle, black bushy tail and reddish flanks and limbs. The ears are large, erect, pointed, and constantly mobile. The overall body color is rufous brown, most intense on the ears, rump, and flanks. A black stripe midway up each flank slopes obliquely from behind the shoulder to the top of the rump; the dark saddle is broadest at the shoulders and tapers to a narrow point at the base of the tail. Anterior to this stripe, just behind the shoulder,is a small vertical stripe, diffuse in some individuals. Above the side markings, the back is marbled black and white giving an overall silver appearance in mature animals. Juveniles and sub-adults have similar markings, but these are drabber and only gain their full intensity at around two years of age. In the drier west and Namib coast in southern Africa the winter coat is a deep reddish brown (especially in males). The bushy tail is dark brown to black with a distinctive black sub-caudal marking. The markings, especially the side and shoulder stripes, are unique and can be used to identifiy individuals. Skull elongated, braincase pear-shaped, rostrum narrow, supra-occipital crest well-developed, bullae rounded, zygomatic arches broad and well-developed, and post-orbital bars incomplete. Dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Outer upper incisors larger, more pointed, and more caniniform than others. Upper canines long, curved, and pointed, with a sharp ridge on their posterior faces.","Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert, montane grassland, arid savannah and scrubland, open savannah, woodland savannah mosaics, and farmland. In general they show a preference for open habitats, tending to avoid dense vegetation. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3000 min the Drakensberg Mountains, and in localities receiving more than 2000 mmof rainfall. Where more than one jackal species occurs in sympatry the selection of habitat is partitioned. Black-backed Jackals preferentially use either open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal) or wooded savannah (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Blackbacked Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats.","Generalist feeders. Diet varies according to food availability. When the jackals occur in sympatry with other carnivores using the same prey base, food resources are partitioned. Dietary items typically include small- to medium-sized mammals (e.g. murids, spring hares, young ungulates), reptiles, birds and bird eggs, carrion, and human refuse, as well as invertebrates and plants. In coastal areas, Black-backed Jackals will eat beached marine mammals, seals, fish, and mussels. Invertebrates such as termites and insects are also commonly eaten. Pairs and small groups are often seen foraging together. Groups of between eight and ten aggregate at large carcasses of herbivores, and more than 80 have been recorded at seal colonies on the Namib Desert coast. Such aggregations are accompanied by aggressive behavior between territorial individuals. However, in the south-western Kalahari, where antelope carcasses are uncommon, groups of up to 15 pairs can feed in succession without much overt aggression. Matedjackal pairs will often cooperate in the capture of prey, resulting in a higher success rate. In Botswana, they occasionally form “packs” in order to hunt adult Impala (Aepyceros melampus), and there are also records of their taking adult antelope. On the Namib Desert coast they patrol beaches for beached marine refuse and move along sheltered paths between food-rich patches; the tops of coastal hummocks are used as feeding sites. In this environment, they frequently follow Brown Hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea), from a distance in the hope of securing the odd food item. Their large, mobile ears are used to locate invertebrate and small mammalian prey, which are then captured with a leap followed by an accurate pounce, in a similar manner to Red Foxes.","Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.","Mostly nocturnal, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution.","The monogamous mated pair, which appears to be a life-long association in most cases, is the basis of social structure, and if one member of a pair dies the other often will lose its territory. Blackbacked Jackals are territorial and use feces and urine to demarcate their territorial boundaries. Territories are spatially and temporally relatively stable, and intruders are aggressively expelled by territory holders. Water sources are shared with intruders, but the intruders perform submissive behaviorto territory holders, even to their pups. Density and group size is dependent on food biomass and dispersion. In South Africa, home range size averaged 18-2 km® (n = 14). In the more arid south-western Kalahari, adult ranges varied from 2:6-5-2 km? (n = 7) and mean sub-adult ranges were 6-3 km? (n = 4). In Zimbabwe, home ranges were largest in the cold, dry season (c. 1:0-1-3 km?*) and smaller in the hot dry season (c. 0-3-0-6 km?), while in the Rift Valley in Kenya, home ranges varied from 0-7-3-5 km®*. Home ranges are universally defended and mutually exclusive for pairs, with the exception of a population on the Namibian coast for which average home range size varied from 7-1-24-9 km* (n = 4). A high-pitched, whining howl is used to communicate with group members and is often used to call the group together in the early evening; this may also function in territorial advertisement. Howling often stimulates the same behavior in adjacent territories or in nearby individuals. A three- to five-syllable alarm call, consisting of an explosive yelp followed by a series of shorter high-pitched yelps, is used when disturbed and may be frantic and prolonged when the jackals are mobbing a Leopard (Panthera pardus). A low-pitched, gruff bark is used to warn pups of intruders near the den, and whines are used to call to pups. Also noted is use of a “clattering distress call” and a loud yelp when alarmed. Interestingly, Black-backed Jackals are much less vocal where they occur alongside the Golden Jackal, which is the only jackal species heard to howl in East Africa.Breeding.Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.","CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread, and in Namibiaand South Africathey are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. Also occur in many livestock-producing areas, where they are considered vermin; however, despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa, this species is still relatively abundant. Snaring and road accidents may be the commonest cause of jackal mortality in areas of high human density. Black-backed Jackals are persecuted as livestock killers and as carriers of rabies. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers.","Avery et al. (1987) | Bernard & Stuart (1992) | Bothma (1971a, 1971b) | Bothma et al. (1984) | Coetzee (1977) | Dreyer & Nel (1990) | Ferguson (1980) | Ferguson et al. (1983) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Hiscocks & Perrin (1988) | Kaunda (2000) | Kaunda & Skinner (2003) | Kingdon (1997) | Kok (1996) | Lamprecht (1978) | van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970) | Loveridge (1999) | Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002) | Loveridge & Nel (2004) | McKenzie (1990) | Meester et al. (1986) | Moehlman (1978, 1979, 1983, 1987) | Nel & Loutit (1986) | Oosthuizen et al. (1997) | Pienaar (1969) | Rowe-Rowe (1982, 1983) | Stuart (1976)",https://zenodo.org/record/6331175/files/figure.png,"7.Black-backed JackalCanis mesomelasFrench:Chacal a dos noir/ German:Schabrackenschakal/ Spanish:Chacal dorsinegroOther common names:Silver-backed JackalTaxonomy.Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1775, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Different authors have recognized between two and six subspecies. However, considering the regional variation in the species, only two geographically isolated subspecies are recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C. m. mesomelas Schreber, 1775— S Africa.C. m. schmidti Noack, 1897— E Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 69-90 cmfor males and 65-85 cmfor females,tail 27- 39-5 cmfor males and 26-38-1 cmfor females; weight 5-9-12 kgfor males and 6-2-9-9 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger and heavier than females. Somewhat foxlike in appearance, with a long, pointed muzzle. Diagnostic features include the dark saddle, black bushy tail and reddish flanks and limbs. The ears are large, erect, pointed, and constantly mobile. The overall body color is rufous brown, most intense on the ears, rump, and flanks. A black stripe midway up each flank slopes obliquely from behind the shoulder to the top of the rump; the dark saddle is broadest at the shoulders and tapers to a narrow point at the base of the tail. Anterior to this stripe, just behind the shoulder,is a small vertical stripe, diffuse in some individuals. Above the side markings, the back is marbled black and white giving an overall silver appearance in mature animals. Juveniles and sub-adults have similar markings, but these are drabber and only gain their full intensity at around two years of age. In the drier west and Namib coast in southern Africa the winter coat is a deep reddish brown (especially in males). The bushy tail is dark brown to black with a distinctive black sub-caudal marking. The markings, especially the side and shoulder stripes, are unique and can be used to identifiy individuals. Skull elongated, braincase pear-shaped, rostrum narrow, supra-occipital crest well-developed, bullae rounded, zygomatic arches broad and well-developed, and post-orbital bars incomplete. Dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Outer upper incisors larger, more pointed, and more caniniform than others. Upper canines long, curved, and pointed, with a sharp ridge on their posterior faces.Habitat.Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert, montane grassland, arid savannah and scrubland, open savannah, woodland savannah mosaics, and farmland. In general they show a preference for open habitats, tending to avoid dense vegetation. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3000 min the Drakensberg Mountains, and in localities receiving more than 2000 mmof rainfall. Where more than one jackal species occurs in sympatry the selection of habitat is partitioned. Black-backed Jackals preferentially use either open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal) or wooded savannah (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Blackbacked Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats.Food and Feeding.Generalist feeders. Diet varies according to food availability. When the jackals occur in sympatry with other carnivores using the same prey base, food resources are partitioned. Dietary items typically include small- to medium-sized mammals (e.g. murids, spring hares, young ungulates), reptiles, birds and bird eggs, carrion, and human refuse, as well as invertebrates and plants. In coastal areas, Black-backed Jackals will eat beached marine mammals, seals, fish, and mussels. Invertebrates such as termites and insects are also commonly eaten. Pairs and small groups are often seen foraging together. Groups of between eight and ten aggregate at large carcasses of herbivores, and more than 80 have been recorded at seal colonies on the Namib Desert coast. Such aggregations are accompanied by aggressive behavior between territorial individuals. However, in the south-western Kalahari, where antelope carcasses are uncommon, groups of up to 15 pairs can feed in succession without much overt aggression. Matedjackal pairs will often cooperate in the capture of prey, resulting in a higher success rate. In Botswana, they occasionally form “packs” in order to hunt adult Impala (Aepyceros melampus), and there are also records of their taking adult antelope. On the Namib Desert coast they patrol beaches for beached marine refuse and move along sheltered paths between food-rich patches; the tops of coastal hummocks are used as feeding sites. In this environment, they frequently follow Brown Hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea), from a distance in the hope of securing the odd food item. Their large, mobile ears are used to locate invertebrate and small mammalian prey, which are then captured with a leap followed by an accurate pounce, in a similar manner to Red Foxes.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The monogamous mated pair, which appears to be a life-long association in most cases, is the basis of social structure, and if one member of a pair dies the other often will lose its territory. Blackbacked Jackals are territorial and use feces and urine to demarcate their territorial boundaries. Territories are spatially and temporally relatively stable, and intruders are aggressively expelled by territory holders. Water sources are shared with intruders, but the intruders perform submissive behaviorto territory holders, even to their pups. Density and group size is dependent on food biomass and dispersion. In South Africa, home range size averaged 18-2 km® (n = 14). In the more arid south-western Kalahari, adult ranges varied from 2:6-5-2 km? (n = 7) and mean sub-adult ranges were 6-3 km? (n = 4). In Zimbabwe, home ranges were largest in the cold, dry season (c. 1:0-1-3 km?*) and smaller in the hot dry season (c. 0-3-0-6 km?), while in the Rift Valley in Kenya, home ranges varied from 0-7-3-5 km®*. Home ranges are universally defended and mutually exclusive for pairs, with the exception of a population on the Namibian coast for which average home range size varied from 7-1-24-9 km* (n = 4). A high-pitched, whining howl is used to communicate with group members and is often used to call the group together in the early evening; this may also function in territorial advertisement. Howling often stimulates the same behavior in adjacent territories or in nearby individuals. A three- to five-syllable alarm call, consisting of an explosive yelp followed by a series of shorter high-pitched yelps, is used when disturbed and may be frantic and prolonged when the jackals are mobbing a Leopard (Panthera pardus). A low-pitched, gruff bark is used to warn pups of intruders near the den, and whines are used to call to pups. Also noted is use of a “clattering distress call” and a loud yelp when alarmed. Interestingly, Black-backed Jackals are much less vocal where they occur alongside the Golden Jackal, which is the only jackal species heard to howl in East Africa.Breeding.Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread, and in Namibiaand South Africathey are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. Also occur in many livestock-producing areas, where they are considered vermin; however, despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa, this species is still relatively abundant. Snaring and road accidents may be the commonest cause of jackal mortality in areas of high human density. Black-backed Jackals are persecuted as livestock killers and as carriers of rabies. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers.Bibliography.Avery et al. (1987), Bernard & Stuart (1992), Bothma (1971a, 1971b), Bothma et al. (1984), Coetzee (1977), Dreyer & Nel (1990), Ferguson (1980), Ferguson et al. (1983), Fuller et al. (1989), Hiscocks & Perrin (1988), Kaunda (2000), Kaunda & Skinner (2003), Kingdon (1997), Kok (1996), Lamprecht (1978), van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970), Loveridge (1999), Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002), Loveridge & Nel (2004), McKenzie (1990), Meester et al. (1986), Moehlman (1978, 1979, 1983, 1987), Nel & Loutit (1986), Oosthuizen et al. (1997), Pienaar (1969), Rowe-Rowe (1982, 1983), Stuart (1976)." 03AD87FAFF87F6698C673517F9F0F5B1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b,125,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFF87F6698C673517F9F0F5B1.xml,Notopteris neocaledonicus,Notopteris,neocaledonicus,Trouessart,1908,Notoptére de Nouvelle-Calédonie @fr | Neukaledonien-Langschwanzflughund @de | Notéptero de Nueva Caledonia @es | New Caledonian Blossom Bat @en,"Notopteris macdonaldi[sic] neocoledonica [sic] Trouessart, 1908, “la Roche d’Adio, dans la vallée de Nekliai, pres de Poya (Nouvelle-Calédonie) [= Adio Rock, inthe NekliaiValley, near Poya (New Caledonia)].”Widely used specific name neocaledonica has been changed for gender agreement. Notopteris neocaledonicushas been described as subspecies of N. macdonaldii, but the two are considered distinct based on size. Monotypic.",N & C New Caledonia.,"Head-body 93-101 mm, tail 43- 5-54 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 22 mm, forearm 58-60 mm. The New Caledonia[Long-tailed Fruit Bat has long rat-like tail disconnected from small uropatagium, very small tragus, wings that join over spine, and long tongue to collect nectar. It is smaller than the Fijian Long-tailed Fruit Bat (N. macdonaldii). Head is somewhat elongated and bare on most of long rostrum. Ears are relatively short but elongated, with narrowly pointed tips; eyes are large, with dark brownish irises. Dorsal pelage is grayish brown, with somewhat grizzled appearance, and darkest along head, neck, and shoulders. Lower back has only small light brown strip of fur along spine leading to tail and onto legs because wing membrane stretches onto lower back up to edge of spine, providing much greater wing surface area for maneuverability and gives lower back naked wrinkled appearance. Ventral pelage is paler than dorsum and generally light grayish or tannish brown. Wings are black, digits are pinkish brown, and index claw is absent. Tail is long, free from uropatagium, brown, and proportionately longer than in any other pteropodid. Skull is elongated and has infraorbital canal opening well forward on snout (as in most mammals) rather than immediately in front of eyes as in most other pteropodids. I', 1, P!, and P, are missing; molars and premolars are reduced and elongated; and C,is long and well developed.",Montane forest.,New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats are nectarivorous.,"Four female New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats with young gripping onto them, three lactating females without young, and three pregnant females were captured in December. Females captured in January had early embryos.","New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats are nocturnal. They are highly maneuverable fliers, allowing them to better avoid obstacles and also fly vertically. They roost in caves during the day but will temporarily roost in hollow trees while foraging at night. They will switch where they roost in the cave throughout the year, roosting in internal chambers throughout much of the year but closer to the entrance of the cave in March-April.",Roosts have had 200-300 New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bat is currently known from only a few caves in northern New Caledonia, with a single record in the central part of the island. It is considered uncommon and threatened by roost disturbance and (to a much lesser extent) hunting for consumption. Hunting is regulated by local wildlife laws and has been recorded in Riviere Bleue Provincial Park once. There are ongoing population, distribution, and ecology studies being overseen by the Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien.",Boissenin & Brescia (2007) | Brescia (2008a) | Brescia & Borel (2004) | Flannery (1995a) | Giannini & Simmons (2007a),,"115.New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit BatNotopteris neocaledonicusFrench:Notoptére de Nouvelle-Calédonie/ German:Neukaledonien-Langschwanzflughund/ Spanish:Notéptero de Nueva CaledoniaOther common names:New Caledonian Blossom BatTaxonomy.Notopteris macdonaldi[sic] neocoledonica [sic] Trouessart, 1908, “la Roche d’Adio, dans la vallée de Nekliai, pres de Poya (Nouvelle-Calédonie) [= Adio Rock, inthe NekliaiValley, near Poya (New Caledonia)].”Widely used specific name neocaledonica has been changed for gender agreement. Notopteris neocaledonicushas been described as subspecies of N. macdonaldii, but the two are considered distinct based on size. Monotypic.Distribution.N & C New Caledonia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 93-101 mm, tail 43- 5-54 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 22 mm, forearm 58-60 mm. The New Caledonia[Long-tailed Fruit Bat has long rat-like tail disconnected from small uropatagium, very small tragus, wings that join over spine, and long tongue to collect nectar. It is smaller than the Fijian Long-tailed Fruit Bat (N. macdonaldii). Head is somewhat elongated and bare on most of long rostrum. Ears are relatively short but elongated, with narrowly pointed tips; eyes are large, with dark brownish irises. Dorsal pelage is grayish brown, with somewhat grizzled appearance, and darkest along head, neck, and shoulders. Lower back has only small light brown strip of fur along spine leading to tail and onto legs because wing membrane stretches onto lower back up to edge of spine, providing much greater wing surface area for maneuverability and gives lower back naked wrinkled appearance. Ventral pelage is paler than dorsum and generally light grayish or tannish brown. Wings are black, digits are pinkish brown, and index claw is absent. Tail is long, free from uropatagium, brown, and proportionately longer than in any other pteropodid. Skull is elongated and has infraorbital canal opening well forward on snout (as in most mammals) rather than immediately in front of eyes as in most other pteropodids. I', 1, P!, and P, are missing; molars and premolars are reduced and elongated; and C,is long and well developed.Habitat.Montane forest.Food and Feeding.New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats are nectarivorous.Breeding.Four female New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats with young gripping onto them, three lactating females without young, and three pregnant females were captured in December. Females captured in January had early embryos.Activity patterns.New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats are nocturnal. They are highly maneuverable fliers, allowing them to better avoid obstacles and also fly vertically. They roost in caves during the day but will temporarily roost in hollow trees while foraging at night. They will switch where they roost in the cave throughout the year, roosting in internal chambers throughout much of the year but closer to the entrance of the cave in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Roosts have had 200-300 New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bat is currently known from only a few caves in northern New Caledonia, with a single record in the central part of the island. It is considered uncommon and threatened by roost disturbance and (to a much lesser extent) hunting for consumption. Hunting is regulated by local wildlife laws and has been recorded in Riviere Bleue Provincial Park once. There are ongoing population, distribution, and ecology studies being overseen by the Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien.Bibliography.Boissenin & Brescia (2007), Brescia (2008a), Brescia & Borel (2004), Flannery (1995a), Giannini & Simmons (2007a)." 03AD87FAFF88F6668CB235B8F593F81D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFF88F6668CB235B8F593F81D.xml,Acerodon humilis,Acerodon,humilis,K. Andersen,1909,Acérodon des Talaud @fr | Talaud-Flughund @de | Zorro volador de Talaud @es | Talaud Acerodon @en | Talaud Fruit Bat @en,"Acerodon humilis K. Andersen, 1909, “Lirong, Talaud Islands,” Indonesia.This species is monotypic.",Only known from Salebabu and Karakelong in the Talaud Is.,"Tailless, ear 24 mm, hindfoot 46 mm, forearm 140 mm, greatest length of skull 63 mm, tibia 57 mm(holotype). Ears of the Talaud Flying Fox have rounded tips and are shorter than muzzle. Dentition, ears, and color of head and body are similar to the Golden-capped Flying Fox (A. jubatus), but the Talaud Flying Fox is smaller and has no buffy nuchal patch. Throat is blackish seal-brown, with some silvery hairs mixed in. K. Andersen in 1912 noted that external features resemble co-occurring Sulawesian subspecies of the Island Flying Fox (Pteropus hypomelanusmacassaricus) and ears are similar in shape to the Island Flying Fox instead of long, subacutely pointed ears of other species of Acerodon. T. F. Flannery in 1995 suggested that the holotype had a mismatched skull, although this remains unclear and more research is needed. Russet color of mantle, sides of neck, and fore neck does not extend to crown, chest, or body. Uropatagium is reduced; calcar is small. Skull is typical pteropine, similar to that of the SulawesiFlying Fox (A. celebensis) but with lower rostrum and smaller orbits.",Suspected to be forest-dependent. The Talaud Islands consist of subtropical and tropical swamp forests.,The Talaud Flying Fox is presumably frugivorous.,No information.,Talaud Flying Foxes are nocturnal.,No information.,"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Talaud Flying Fox has a very restricted distribution and is known only from two islands, Salebabu and Karakelong. Forest habitat is severely fragmented due to logging. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢. 1500 km? and it has no legal protections.",Andersen (1912b) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Flannery (1995a) | Mildenstein (2016e) | Riley (2002),,"131.Talaud Flying FoxAcerodon humilisFrench:Acérodon des Talaud/ German:Talaud-Flughund/ Spanish:Zorro volador de TalaudOther common names:Talaud Acerodon, Talaud Fruit BatTaxonomy.Acerodon humilis K. Andersen, 1909, “Lirong, Talaud Islands,” Indonesia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Salebabu and Karakelong in the Talaud Is.Descriptive notes.Tailless, ear 24 mm, hindfoot 46 mm, forearm 140 mm, greatest length of skull 63 mm, tibia 57 mm(holotype). Ears of the Talaud Flying Fox have rounded tips and are shorter than muzzle. Dentition, ears, and color of head and body are similar to the Golden-capped Flying Fox (A. jubatus), but the Talaud Flying Fox is smaller and has no buffy nuchal patch. Throat is blackish seal-brown, with some silvery hairs mixed in. K. Andersen in 1912 noted that external features resemble co-occurring Sulawesian subspecies of the Island Flying Fox (Pteropus hypomelanusmacassaricus) and ears are similar in shape to the Island Flying Fox instead of long, subacutely pointed ears of other species of Acerodon. T. F. Flannery in 1995 suggested that the holotype had a mismatched skull, although this remains unclear and more research is needed. Russet color of mantle, sides of neck, and fore neck does not extend to crown, chest, or body. Uropatagium is reduced; calcar is small. Skull is typical pteropine, similar to that of the SulawesiFlying Fox (A. celebensis) but with lower rostrum and smaller orbits.Habitat.Suspected to be forest-dependent. The Talaud Islands consist of subtropical and tropical swamp forests.Food and Feeding.The Talaud Flying Fox is presumably frugivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Talaud Flying Foxes are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Talaud Flying Fox has a very restricted distribution and is known only from two islands, Salebabu and Karakelong. Forest habitat is severely fragmented due to logging. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢. 1500 km? and it has no legal protections.Bibliography.Andersen (1912b), Corbet & Hill (1992), Flannery (1995a), Mildenstein (2016e), Riley (2002)." 03AD87FAFF89F66789693EA7F755FAC6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b,135,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFF89F66789693EA7F755FAC6.xml,Acerodon leucotis,Acerodon,leucotis,Sanborn,1950,Acérodonde Palawan @fr | Palawan-Flughund @de | Zorro volador de Palawan @es | Palawan Fruit Bat @en,"Pleropus leucotis Sanborn, 1950, “Singay, Busuanga Island, Calamianes Group, Philippine Islands.”Two subspecies are recognized.","A. lL leucotis Sanborn, 1950— Calamian Is (Busuanga).A. l. obscurus Sanborn, 1950— Palawanand Balabac Is.","Tailless, ear 29-32 mm, hindfoot 46 mm, forearm 130-165 mm.Greatest lengths of skulls are 67-69 mm. Ears of the PalawanFlying Fox have rounded tips and are shorter than muzzle, with no reduction above. Ears are light brown to whitish, almost translucent, with white to whitish silvery cap between ears flecked with light brown hairs. Body is generally light tan brown, with variable patches of large white to whitish silvery patches above and below. Mantle is slightly more golden russet than body. Uropatagium is reduced; calcar is small. Skull is typical pteropine, with long postorbital processes, although not quite reaching zygomatic process. P' is often early deciduous.","Primary and dense secondary forests. The PalawanFlying Fox has been observed in several disturbed forest remnants with dense secondary forest, suggesting some degree of tolerance for disturbance. It was previously recorded at sea level, but its upper elevational limit is not known. Dense secondary forests that it currently uses are threatened by potential exploitation from agroforestry as palm oil and rubber plantations.",The PalawanFlying Fox eats mangoes and is also found in Ficus(Moraceae) trees. It has been recorded foraging at c¢. 8 mhigh in tree canopies.,"Reproduction of the PalawanFlying Fox is thought to be similar to that of other Acerodonflying foxes. It is suspected to live up to 6-8 years, suggesting an estimated generation time of 3-5 years.",PalawanFlying Foxes are nocturnal and have been found in small tents at the canopy level.,"In southern Palawan, the PalawanFlying Fox does not form largecolonies, which might be a consequence of overhunting that makes observations and tracking difficult.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Population of the PalawanFlying Fox is projected to decline more than 30% over three generations due to hunting and habitat loss. In southern Palawan, unsustainable hunting of flying foxes for food is the primary threat. Expansion of palm oil and rubber plantations into Palawanwill degrade potential roosting and foraging habitats. It has been found in protected areas on Palawan, but enforcement of existing laws restricting hunting and habitat protection are lacking.","Corbet & Hill (1992) | Esselstyn, Widmann & Heaney (2004) | Ingle & Heaney (1992) | Musser et al. (1982) | Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza, Esselstyn et al. (2008) | Sanborn (1950a)",,"133.PalawanFlying FoxAcerodon leucotisFrench:Acérodonde Palawan/ German:Palawan-Flughund/ Spanish:Zorro volador de PalawanOther common names:PalawanFruit BatTaxonomy.Pleropus leucotis Sanborn, 1950, “Singay, Busuanga Island, Calamianes Group, Philippine Islands.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. lL leucotis Sanborn, 1950— Calamian Is (Busuanga).A. l. obscurus Sanborn, 1950— Palawanand Balabac Is.Descriptive notes.Tailless, ear 29-32 mm, hindfoot 46 mm, forearm 130-165 mm.Greatest lengths of skulls are 67-69 mm. Ears of the PalawanFlying Fox have rounded tips and are shorter than muzzle, with no reduction above. Ears are light brown to whitish, almost translucent, with white to whitish silvery cap between ears flecked with light brown hairs. Body is generally light tan brown, with variable patches of large white to whitish silvery patches above and below. Mantle is slightly more golden russet than body. Uropatagium is reduced; calcar is small. Skull is typical pteropine, with long postorbital processes, although not quite reaching zygomatic process. P' is often early deciduous.Habitat.Primary and dense secondary forests. The PalawanFlying Fox has been observed in several disturbed forest remnants with dense secondary forest, suggesting some degree of tolerance for disturbance. It was previously recorded at sea level, but its upper elevational limit is not known. Dense secondary forests that it currently uses are threatened by potential exploitation from agroforestry as palm oil and rubber plantations.Food and Feeding.The PalawanFlying Fox eats mangoes and is also found in Ficus(Moraceae) trees. It has been recorded foraging at c¢. 8 mhigh in tree canopies.Breeding.Reproduction of the PalawanFlying Fox is thought to be similar to that of other Acerodonflying foxes. It is suspected to live up to 6-8 years, suggesting an estimated generation time of 3-5 years.Activity patterns.PalawanFlying Foxes are nocturnal and have been found in small tents at the canopy level.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Palawan, the PalawanFlying Fox does not form largecolonies, which might be a consequence of overhunting that makes observations and tracking difficult.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Population of the PalawanFlying Fox is projected to decline more than 30% over three generations due to hunting and habitat loss. In southern Palawan, unsustainable hunting of flying foxes for food is the primary threat. Expansion of palm oil and rubber plantations into Palawanwill degrade potential roosting and foraging habitats. It has been found in protected areas on Palawan, but enforcement of existing laws restricting hunting and habitat protection are lacking.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Esselstyn, Widmann & Heaney (2004), Ingle & Heaney (1992), Musser et al. (1982), Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza, Esselstyn et al. (2008), Sanborn (1950a)." @@ -595,57 +595,57 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03AD87FAFFFBF61589633272F902FD5A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b,121,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFFFBF61589633272F902FD5A.xml,Nyctimene rabori,Nyctimene,rabori,Heaney & Peterson,1984,Nyctimenedes Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Réhrennasenflughund @de | Nyctimeno de las Filipinas @es,"Nyctimene rabori Heaney & Peterson, 1984, 6 km W of Dumaguete City, Balinsasaye: (9°21'N, 123° 10°E), 835 m, Sibulan Municipality, Negros Oriental Province, Negros Islands, Philippines.Nyctimene raboriis in the cephalotesspecies group. Some authors have speculated that it is a synonym of N. cephalotes, but it is retained as a distinct species here until additional research is conducted. Monotypic.","Visayas on C Philippines(Sibuyan, Cebu, Negros, and probably Panay Is), and tentatively on Talaud Is (Karakelong I), and Sangihe Is (Siaoand Greater Sangihe); it may have a much wider distribution across much of the Philippines.","Head—body c. 113-124 mm, tail 19-30 mm, ear 18-21 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 73-81 mm; weight 60-74 g. Head of the Philippine Tube-nose Fruit Bat is broad, with deep face, broad, bluntly pointed ears, and tubular divergent nostrils. Eyes are large, with amberirises. Pelage is thick and woolly. Females are generally lighter than males, and young are intermediate in color. Dorsal pelage is light (females) to dark (males) brown, with distinctive thin dark blackish brown mid-dorsal stripe (3—4 mmthick) stretching from shoulders to rump. Head is more golden brown, and neck 1s brownish gray. Ventral pelage is light brown (females) to chocolate-brown (males). There is yellow spotting on wings, legs, and ears (ears sometimes not spotted); wings are brown to yellowish brown (substantially darker in males). Second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is short, black, and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are dark brown. Skull and mandible are robust, rostrum is short, sagittal crest is well developed, postorbital processes are strong, zygomatic arch is strongly arched dorsally, and posterior margin of palate is rounded and U-shaped. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; C, replaces incisors and is long and powerful; P,is elongated and longer than P, and P; and P* has very weak labial posterior cusp.","Primary and secondary forests, typically near water bodies, from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 1300 m. The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat occurs in degraded habitat on Negros and Cebu.","The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat mainly eats figs (Ficus, Moraceae).",Reproduction of the Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat occurs in May-June. Two young were captured in March on Cebu.,Philippine Tube-nose Fruit Bats are nocturnal.,No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat has a restricted distribution and is considered rare. Total population based on current known distribution and abundance estimates is probably less than 2500 individuals. It was previously thought to only occur in highquality primary forest, but it seems to tolerate degraded habitats on Negros and Cebu. Greatest threat is deforestation that has already destroyed much of its island habitat (especially Cebu). Deforestation rates have slowed in the Philippines, but only because there is such little forest left to cut down. Additional surveys and studies are needed to determine the full extent of its distribution and understand its ecology and threats.","Alburo (2017) | Bennett et al. (1997) | Bergmans (2001) | Carino (2004) | Heaney & Peterson (1984) | Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza, Heaney, Ingle et al. (2008) | Paguntalan & Jakosalem (2008) | Utzurrum (1995) | Vinciguerra & Muller (1993)",,"110.Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit BatNyctimene raboriFrench:Nyctimenedes Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Réhrennasenflughund/ Spanish:Nyctimeno de las FilipinasTaxonomy.Nyctimene rabori Heaney & Peterson, 1984, 6 km W of Dumaguete City, Balinsasaye: (9°21'N, 123° 10°E), 835 m, Sibulan Municipality, Negros Oriental Province, Negros Islands, Philippines.Nyctimene raboriis in the cephalotesspecies group. Some authors have speculated that it is a synonym of N. cephalotes, but it is retained as a distinct species here until additional research is conducted. Monotypic.Distribution.Visayas on C Philippines(Sibuyan, Cebu, Negros, and probably Panay Is), and tentatively on Talaud Is (Karakelong I), and Sangihe Is (Siaoand Greater Sangihe); it may have a much wider distribution across much of the Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head—body c. 113-124 mm, tail 19-30 mm, ear 18-21 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 73-81 mm; weight 60-74 g. Head of the Philippine Tube-nose Fruit Bat is broad, with deep face, broad, bluntly pointed ears, and tubular divergent nostrils. Eyes are large, with amberirises. Pelage is thick and woolly. Females are generally lighter than males, and young are intermediate in color. Dorsal pelage is light (females) to dark (males) brown, with distinctive thin dark blackish brown mid-dorsal stripe (3—4 mmthick) stretching from shoulders to rump. Head is more golden brown, and neck 1s brownish gray. Ventral pelage is light brown (females) to chocolate-brown (males). There is yellow spotting on wings, legs, and ears (ears sometimes not spotted); wings are brown to yellowish brown (substantially darker in males). Second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is short, black, and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are dark brown. Skull and mandible are robust, rostrum is short, sagittal crest is well developed, postorbital processes are strong, zygomatic arch is strongly arched dorsally, and posterior margin of palate is rounded and U-shaped. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; C, replaces incisors and is long and powerful; P,is elongated and longer than P, and P; and P* has very weak labial posterior cusp.Habitat.Primary and secondary forests, typically near water bodies, from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 1300 m. The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat occurs in degraded habitat on Negros and Cebu.Food and Feeding.The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat mainly eats figs (Ficus, Moraceae).Breeding.Reproduction of the Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat occurs in May-June. Two young were captured in March on Cebu.Activity patterns.Philippine Tube-nose Fruit Bats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat has a restricted distribution and is considered rare. Total population based on current known distribution and abundance estimates is probably less than 2500 individuals. It was previously thought to only occur in highquality primary forest, but it seems to tolerate degraded habitats on Negros and Cebu. Greatest threat is deforestation that has already destroyed much of its island habitat (especially Cebu). Deforestation rates have slowed in the Philippines, but only because there is such little forest left to cut down. Additional surveys and studies are needed to determine the full extent of its distribution and understand its ecology and threats.Bibliography.Alburo (2017), Bennett et al. (1997), Bergmans (2001), Carino (2004), Heaney & Peterson (1984), Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza, Heaney, Ingle et al. (2008), Paguntalan & Jakosalem (2008), Utzurrum (1995), Vinciguerra & Muller (1993)." 03AD87FAFFFEF6118CAF38BDFE93F642,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b,116,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFFFEF6118CAF38BDFE93F642.xml,Paranyctimene tenax,Paranyctimene,tenax,,,Nyctiméne de Nijhoff @fr | Standhafter Rohrennasenflughund @de | Paranyctimeno de Nijhoff @es,"Nyctimene (Paranyctimene) tenax Bergmans, 2001, “upstream of Anadea (about 07°36’S, 146° 37°E), 32 kmSSW of Wau, Morobe Province[Papua New Guinea], alt. 850 m.”Paranyctimene tenaxis very similar to P. raptor, and they are often confused; thus, distributional limits between the two species have not been fully differentiated. Two subspecies recognized.","P.t.tenaxBergmans,2001—presumablymuchofNewGuinea(possiblyfoundpri-marilyinSlowlands);distributionallimitsbetweenthisspeciesandtheUnstripedTube-noseFruitBat(FP.raptor)areuncer-tainandthusdistributiongivenhereistentative.P. t. marculus Bergmans, 2001— Waigeo I.","Tail 15-3-21- 5 mm, ear 11:6-12- 7 mm, hindfoot 11:5-13- 5 mm, forearm 51-54- 9 mm; weight 25- 5 g. The Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is very similar to the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (P. raptor) but can be distinguished by its larger average body and skull measurements and its more robust skull, along with some skull and dental differences. Rostrum is short, with long tubular divergent nostrils. Ears are somewhat elongated, with bluntly pointed tips and thickened along top edges. Eyes are large, with amberirises, and there is often greenish ring around eyes and darker fur behind nostrils. Dorsal pelage is dark brown, being grayish brown on head and fading to medium brown on back of head and darker medium to dark brown on back. Females are typically lighter overall than males, with slightly orangish hue to back of head. Unlike most species of Nyctimene, there is no dorsal stripe down middle of back. Ventral pelage is yellowish white, being more yellowish brown on flanks, genital region, upper arms, and legs. Ears are dark blackish brown, occasionally with a few yellow spots on edges. Wings and uropatagium are uniquely tinged dark lime-green, being browner near dark brown digits. Wings occasionally have some randomly dispersed small white dots. Second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is black and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are black. Skull and mandible are comparatively robust, rostrum is short and wide, post-dental palate is longer than in species of Nyctimeneand the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat, sagittal crest is well developed, and occipital crest 1s well developed. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; canines and premolars are considerably longer and more slender than in Nyctimene, lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; lower canines replace incisors and are long and powerful; P| is some distance from C, and next premolar (P,) and is within tooth row; P, is narrow; and P, and M, have close and basally touching inner and outer cusps.","Primary and secondary tropical moist forests, rural gardens, and swamps at an elevation of 850 m(type locality). Specimens attributed to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat and the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat have been recorded from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 1350 m.",Diets of the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are probably similar to those of the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat.,Records of pregnant females listed under the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat might apply to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat.,Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bats are nocturnal and roost in vegetation.,Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bats are largely solitary.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Distributional limits and threats to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are confused by the lack of taxonomic clarity between it and the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat. Additional studies are needed to clarify conservation status of both species.,"Bergmans (2001) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | Helgen (2007a) | Helgen, Opiang & Thomas (2009)",,"98.Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit BatParanyctimene tenaxFrench:Nyctiméne de Nijhoff/ German:Standhafter Rohrennasenflughund/ Spanish:Paranyctimeno de NijhoffTaxonomy.Nyctimene (Paranyctimene) tenax Bergmans, 2001, “upstream of Anadea (about 07°36’S, 146° 37°E), 32 kmSSW of Wau, Morobe Province[Papua New Guinea], alt. 850 m.”Paranyctimene tenaxis very similar to P. raptor, and they are often confused; thus, distributional limits between the two species have not been fully differentiated. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.t.tenaxBergmans,2001—presumablymuchofNewGuinea(possiblyfoundpri-marilyinSlowlands);distributionallimitsbetweenthisspeciesandtheUnstripedTube-noseFruitBat(FP.raptor)areuncer-tainandthusdistributiongivenhereistentative.P. t. marculus Bergmans, 2001— Waigeo I.Descriptive notes.Tail 15-3-21- 5 mm, ear 11:6-12- 7 mm, hindfoot 11:5-13- 5 mm, forearm 51-54- 9 mm; weight 25- 5 g. The Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is very similar to the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (P. raptor) but can be distinguished by its larger average body and skull measurements and its more robust skull, along with some skull and dental differences. Rostrum is short, with long tubular divergent nostrils. Ears are somewhat elongated, with bluntly pointed tips and thickened along top edges. Eyes are large, with amberirises, and there is often greenish ring around eyes and darker fur behind nostrils. Dorsal pelage is dark brown, being grayish brown on head and fading to medium brown on back of head and darker medium to dark brown on back. Females are typically lighter overall than males, with slightly orangish hue to back of head. Unlike most species of Nyctimene, there is no dorsal stripe down middle of back. Ventral pelage is yellowish white, being more yellowish brown on flanks, genital region, upper arms, and legs. Ears are dark blackish brown, occasionally with a few yellow spots on edges. Wings and uropatagium are uniquely tinged dark lime-green, being browner near dark brown digits. Wings occasionally have some randomly dispersed small white dots. Second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is black and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are black. Skull and mandible are comparatively robust, rostrum is short and wide, post-dental palate is longer than in species of Nyctimeneand the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat, sagittal crest is well developed, and occipital crest 1s well developed. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; canines and premolars are considerably longer and more slender than in Nyctimene, lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; lower canines replace incisors and are long and powerful; P| is some distance from C, and next premolar (P,) and is within tooth row; P, is narrow; and P, and M, have close and basally touching inner and outer cusps.Habitat.Primary and secondary tropical moist forests, rural gardens, and swamps at an elevation of 850 m(type locality). Specimens attributed to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat and the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat have been recorded from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 1350 m.Food and Feeding.Diets of the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are probably similar to those of the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat.Breeding.Records of pregnant females listed under the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat might apply to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat.Activity patterns.Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bats are nocturnal and roost in vegetation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bats are largely solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Distributional limits and threats to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are confused by the lack of taxonomic clarity between it and the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat. Additional studies are needed to clarify conservation status of both species.Bibliography.Bergmans (2001), Bonaccorso (1998), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), Helgen (2007a), Helgen, Opiang & Thomas (2009)." 03AD87FAFFFFF6168C673329FE08FD05,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b,117,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFFFFF6168C673329FE08FD05.xml,Nyctimene cyclotis,Nyctimene,cyclotis,K. Andersen,1910,Nyctimenea oreilles rondes @fr | Rundohr Réhrennasenflughund @de | Nyctimeno de orejas redondas @es | Round-eared Tube-nosed Bat @en,"Nyctimene cyclotis K. Andersen, 1910, “Arfak Mts. [Manokwari Division], N.W. New Guinea,” Indonesia.Nyctimene cyclotis1s currently in the cyclotisspecies group along with N. certansand N. wrightae. Nyctimene certansis sometimes considered a subspecies of N. cyclotis, but morphological studies have confirmed their specific status. Distribution is often recorded encompassing much of New Guinea, but this is now recognized as a distinct species, N. wrightae. Specimens collected in Mansuar and Waigeo islands have been recently attributed to N. cyclotisbased on morphological grounds, but these island populations are currently under revision. They are tentatively included under N. cyclotishere until they are thoroughly investigated. Monotypic.",NW New Guinea(Arfak Mts); also tentatively on Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo and Mansuar).,"Ear 13-5-13- 7 mm, hindfoot 12-14- 6 mm, forearm 54- 2-56 mm. Rostrum of the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is short, with long tubular divergent nostrils. Ears are rounded, with blunt tips, and thickened along tops; eyes are large, with dark reddish-brown irises. Dorsal pelage is grizzled grayish brown and browner on head, with almost indistinguishable ill-defined, short, thin dorsal stripe extending from mid-back to rump. Ventral pelage is paler dull cream. Wings and ears are dark brown; ears, tube nostrils, and wing digits have some yellow spotting. Second digit of wing is shorter in the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat than in the Mountain Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (N. certans); second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is short, black, and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are black. Skull and mandible are robust, and rostrum is short. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; C, replaces incisors and is long and powerful; P,is elongated and longer than P and P,; they have narrow and rounded dental arcade; and it differs from the Mountain Tube-nosed Fruit Bat by having relatively longer upper post-canine tooth row.",No specific information but probably montane tropical forests. All ecological accounts on the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are based on specimens that are now primarily attributed to the Happy Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (N. wrightae).,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is currently known from two male specimens collected more than 100 years ago from the Arfak Mountains. Virtually nothing is known about its ecology and threats.,"Donnellan et al. (1995) | Helgen (2007a) | Hutson, Suyanto, Helgen & Bonaccorso (2008a) | Irwin (2017) | Wiantoro (2011)",,"100.Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit BatNyctimene cyclotisFrench:Nyctimenea oreilles rondes/ German:RundohrRéhrennasenflughund/ Spanish:Nyctimeno de orejas redondasOther common names:Round-eared Tube-nosed BatTaxonomy.Nyctimene cyclotis K. Andersen, 1910, “Arfak Mts. [Manokwari Division], N.W. New Guinea,” Indonesia.Nyctimene cyclotis1s currently in the cyclotisspecies group along with N. certansand N. wrightae. Nyctimene certansis sometimes considered a subspecies of N. cyclotis, but morphological studies have confirmed their specific status. Distribution is often recorded encompassing much of New Guinea, but this is now recognized as a distinct species, N. wrightae. Specimens collected in Mansuar and Waigeo islands have been recently attributed to N. cyclotisbased on morphological grounds, but these island populations are currently under revision. They are tentatively included under N. cyclotishere until they are thoroughly investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.NW New Guinea(Arfak Mts); also tentatively on Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo and Mansuar).Descriptive notes.Ear 13-5-13- 7 mm, hindfoot 12-14- 6 mm, forearm 54- 2-56 mm. Rostrum of the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is short, with long tubular divergent nostrils. Ears are rounded, with blunt tips, and thickened along tops; eyes are large, with dark reddish-brown irises. Dorsal pelage is grizzled grayish brown and browner on head, with almost indistinguishable ill-defined, short, thin dorsal stripe extending from mid-back to rump. Ventral pelage is paler dull cream. Wings and ears are dark brown; ears, tube nostrils, and wing digits have some yellow spotting. Second digit of wing is shorter in the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat than in the Mountain Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (N. certans); second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is short, black, and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are black. Skull and mandible are robust, and rostrum is short. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; C, replaces incisors and is long and powerful; P,is elongated and longer than P and P,; they have narrow and rounded dental arcade; and it differs from the Mountain Tube-nosed Fruit Bat by having relatively longer upper post-canine tooth row.Habitat.No specific information but probably montane tropical forests. All ecological accounts on the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are based on specimens that are now primarily attributed to the Happy Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (N. wrightae).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is currently known from two male specimens collected more than 100 years ago from the Arfak Mountains. Virtually nothing is known about its ecology and threats.Bibliography.Donnellan et al. (1995), Helgen (2007a), Hutson, Suyanto, Helgen & Bonaccorso (2008a), Irwin (2017), Wiantoro (2011)." -03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,141,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.xml,Nannospalax ehrenbergi,Nannospalax,ehrenbergi,,,Spalax d'Ehrenberg @fr | Ehrenberg-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Oriente Medio @es | Ehrenberg’s Mole-rat @en | Palestine Mole-rat @en,"Spalax ehrenbergi Nehring, 1898,Jaffa (= Tel Aviv), Israel.Included in subgenus Nannospalax. Its distinct phylogenetic position relative to other forms in the genus Nannospalaxhas long been proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics and has since been strongly supported in molecular analyses. Nannospalax ehrenbergirepresents a superspecies composed of complex allopatric, parapatric, and occasionally sympatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Strongest evidence that multiple good species are present in this complex comes from detailed analysis of N. ehrenbergiin Israel and Palestine by E. Nevo and colleagues in 2001 and in related studies. Four species are clearly present in Israel and Palestine, and these species were each given new names by Nevo and colleagues: golani(diploid number 2n = 54) from the Golan Heights, galili(2n = 52) from north-east of the Sea of Galilee, carmeli(2n = 58) from the Sea of Galilee southward to northern West Bank in the east and farther south along coast to Tel Aviv, and judaei(2n = 60) from Tel Aviv and northern West Bank southward. These four species differ not only in karyotype but also (often subtly) in body and cranial measurements, tooth and bacular morphology, ear ossicle shape, pelage color, habitat specialization, genetics, brain size, basal metabolic rate, urine concentrating ability, water turnover rate, relative kidney size, physiological response to cold, respiratory and circulatory physiology, mortality in captivity, timing of daily activity, exploratory behavior, and even swimming posture. Many of these differences appear to be adaptive. These four species appear to be maintained, even in narrow regions of overlap, by chromosomal incompatibilities, bacular morphology, and various behavioral barriers to reproduction involving olfaction, vocalizations, seismic communication, and differing levels of aggression. These species within the N. ehrenbergisuperspecies have emerged as important model systems in evolutionary biology. A series of recent studies even suggests that sympatric speciation has taken place within galili, which suggests that these species warrant further division. Unfortunately, when Nevo and colleagues named golani, galili, carmeli, and judaei, they failed to account for the much older name ehrenbergi, noting only that its type locality, Tel Aviv, is found in the hybrid zone between carmeliand judaei. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 attempted to resolve the problem of ehrenbergisuperspecies taxonomy by adopting the four species of Nevo and colleagues and then applying the name ehrenbergito populations immediately surrounding the type locality, all populations south of Israel and Palestine, and all populations north of Israel and Palestine. In contrast to their many other taxonomic recommendations, the unorthodox solution of Musser and Carleton in 2005 to the ehrenbergitaxonomy problem has not been widely adopted in subsequent mammal checklists, most of which reluctantly treat N. ehrenbergias a single species. The name aegyptiacusby A. Nehring in 1898 is available for populations south of Israel and Palestine, and V. A. Topachevskii and others in 1969 recognized the North African forms as a distinct subspecies, aegyptiacus. B. Krystufek and V. Vohralik in 2009 noted that two names are available for populations north of Israel and Palestine, kirgisorumand intermedius, both named by Nehring in 1898. The name kirgisorumhas page priority, but acquisition and provenance of type material are disputed. It was originally reported as being from Kazakhstan, well out of the known distribution of Nannospalax, but has subsequently been suggested as being from Syria. Clearly more than just one species exists to the east and north of Israel and Palestine, and future work will yield even more names. Recent molecular work further elucidates relationships among forms within the ehrenbergisuperspecies: golaniand galiliappear to be sister taxa, carmeliand judaeiform a clade with aegyptiacus, and Turkish and other northern populations are paraphyletic with respect to the four species from Israel and Palestine. The latter finding supports the hypothesis that N. ehrenbergi, and perhaps the genus Nannospalax, had its origin in Anatolia. Various sources of evidence clearly support existence of multiple species within the ehrenbergisuperspecies, but unresolved taxonomic problems mean that it is still prudent to treat it as a single species. Monotypic.","NE Libya (N Cyrenaica), N Egypt, Israel, W Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, SE Turkey, and N Iraq.","Head-body 130-220 mm, no visible externaltail; weight 73-252 g. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are small; males are slightly larger than females. In Israel and Palestine, individuals in cool mesic environments are larger, but the reverse appears to be true in Turkey. Egyptian individuals are smaller than those found farther north, and Libyan individuals are smaller still. Pelage color varies by soil color; it has slate-gray hairs, with dull buff, brown, or reddish tips. When worn, pelage looks uniform gray. Bristly keel of cream or yellow extends from triangular nose pad halfway to ear openings. Forefeet are brown; hindfeet are covered in gray hairs. Incisors have 2-3 grooves. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are pale yellow. Including cartilaginous base, baculum is 5-7-5 mm long and varies in shape and size by cytotype. There are four nipples: 0 pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. More than 30 chromosomal forms are known with diploid numbers of 2n = 52, 54, 56, 58, and 60.","Usually coastal Mediterranean and interior steppe habitat but also forest clearings, sandy coastal plains, mountainous areas, and some rocky habitat from sea level to elevations up to 2200 m. Although the Middle East Blind Mole-rat is present where precipitation is very low,it is absent in true desert. It is absent from the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta area. North African populations are fragmented and located near the coast.","The Middle East Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on tubers and bulbs of a variety of plants but also eats aboveground green plant parts. These plants are usually accessed from tunnels belowground, but occasionally individuals emerge to clip plants aboveground and carry them to burrows. Seeds and insects also have been recorded. Stored food in caches can be 25 kg.","Female Middle East Blind Mole-rats breed once a year, although a second litter may occur in rare instances such as during a long rainy season or in close proximity to irrigation. Males and females can be rather aggressive at first interaction, but this aggression diminishes over time and copulation occurs. Gestation is 28-36 days. Females construct breeding mounds, with grass-lined nests with diameters of ¢.20 cm, located c¢.10 cm belowground. Peak births vary by region: early February at low elevations and early April at high elevations in Lebanon, early February and late March in Israel, and October-November in Egypt. Females give birth to 2-4 young that are 5 g and naked. Young disperse after c.2 months by digging tunnels adjacent to mothers’ burrows. At high densities, young may disperse aboveground. Females probably breed in their second year. Maximum life span in captivity is 20 years.","Middle East Blind Mole-rats are active year-round and ¢.50% of the day. During the rainy season, they appear to be diurnal and polyphasic. During dry season, they are nocturnal and monophasic. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is a chiseltooth digger. Although it can dislodge some material with head or forelimbs, almost all digging occurs with its lower incisors. Accumulated dirt is pushed to surface with head or back legs and ejected in mounds. More digging occurs in the rainy season when soil is easier to move. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat lives most ofits life underground, but it emerges and is active aboveground with some frequency in March-May and autumn. Aboveground activities include searching and foraging for food and dispersing.","Burrows of Middle East Blind Mole-rats are 10-40 m long and 10-40 cm deep in winter and up to 1-5 m deep in summer. They contain a nest, toilets, and food caches. Typical mounds are 15-20 cm high, but breeding mounds can be 40 cm high, 160 cm long, and 135 cm wide. The Middle East Blind Mole-ratis solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Fights may lead to death of the loser. Densities in Israel and Palestine are 0-91-1-8 ind/ha. Individuals communicate seismically by head drumming and using frequencies of 50-100 Hz. Sounds are received by neighboring individuals pressing mandibles to tunnel walls. If an individual is removed,its territory is generally occupied by another within hours or days. Predators include the Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), domestic cats, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the black kite (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), the golden eagle (A. chrysaetos), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon SMYrnensis).","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax ehrenbergi). The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is considered vulnerable in Turkey. It is present in agricultural areas and is considered a pest in some regions. Intensive agriculture is a threat. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some forms are found in protected areas, but it is probable that species exist within this complex that are not protected.","Coskun et al. (2012) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Hadid, Németh et al. (2012) | Hadid, Tzur et al. (2013) | Happold (2013d) | Kankilic et al. (2013) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | KryStufek, lvanitsakaya et al. (2012) | Li Kexin et al. (2015) | Lovy et al. (2015) | Méhely (1909) | Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov (1999) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nehring (1898) | Németh et al. (2016) | Nevo (1991, 2013) | Nevo et al. (2001) | Ranck (1968) | Schlitter, Shenbrot et al. (2008) | Shanas et al. (1995) | Singaravelan et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969)",,"28.Middle East Blind Mole-ratNannospalax ehrenbergiFrench:Spalax d'Ehrenberg/ German:Ehrenberg-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de Oriente MedioOther common names:Ehrenberg’s Mole-rat, Palestine Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax ehrenbergi Nehring, 1898,Jaffa (= Tel Aviv), Israel.Included in subgenus Nannospalax. Its distinct phylogenetic position relative to other forms in the genus Nannospalaxhas long been proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics and has since been strongly supported in molecular analyses. Nannospalax ehrenbergirepresents a superspecies composed of complex allopatric, parapatric, and occasionally sympatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Strongest evidence that multiple good species are present in this complex comes from detailed analysis of N. ehrenbergiin Israel and Palestine by E. Nevo and colleagues in 2001 and in related studies. Four species are clearly present in Israel and Palestine, and these species were each given new names by Nevo and colleagues: golani(diploid number 2n = 54) from the Golan Heights, galili(2n = 52) from north-east of the Sea of Galilee, carmeli(2n = 58) from the Sea of Galilee southward to northern West Bank in the east and farther south along coast to Tel Aviv, and judaei(2n = 60) from Tel Aviv and northern West Bank southward. These four species differ not only in karyotype but also (often subtly) in body and cranial measurements, tooth and bacular morphology, ear ossicle shape, pelage color, habitat specialization, genetics, brain size, basal metabolic rate, urine concentrating ability, water turnover rate, relative kidney size, physiological response to cold, respiratory and circulatory physiology, mortality in captivity, timing of daily activity, exploratory behavior, and even swimming posture. Many of these differences appear to be adaptive. These four species appear to be maintained, even in narrow regions of overlap, by chromosomal incompatibilities, bacular morphology, and various behavioral barriers to reproduction involving olfaction, vocalizations, seismic communication, and differing levels of aggression. These species within the N. ehrenbergisuperspecies have emerged as important model systems in evolutionary biology. A series of recent studies even suggests that sympatric speciation has taken place within galili, which suggests that these species warrant further division. Unfortunately, when Nevo and colleagues named golani, galili, carmeli, and judaei, they failed to account for the much older name ehrenbergi, noting only that its type locality, Tel Aviv, is found in the hybrid zone between carmeliand judaei. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 attempted to resolve the problem of ehrenbergisuperspecies taxonomy by adopting the four species of Nevo and colleagues and then applying the name ehrenbergito populations immediately surrounding the type locality, all populations south of Israel and Palestine, and all populations north of Israel and Palestine. In contrast to their many other taxonomic recommendations, the unorthodox solution of Musser and Carleton in 2005 to the ehrenbergitaxonomy problem has not been widely adopted in subsequent mammal checklists, most of which reluctantly treat N. ehrenbergias a single species. The name aegyptiacusby A. Nehring in 1898 is available for populations south of Israel and Palestine, and V. A. Topachevskii and others in 1969 recognized the North African forms as a distinct subspecies, aegyptiacus. B. Krystufek and V. Vohralik in 2009 noted that two names are available for populations north of Israel and Palestine, kirgisorumand intermedius, both named by Nehring in 1898. The name kirgisorumhas page priority, but acquisition and provenance of type material are disputed. It was originally reported as being from Kazakhstan, well out of the known distribution of Nannospalax, but has subsequently been suggested as being from Syria. Clearly more than just one species exists to the east and north of Israel and Palestine, and future work will yield even more names. Recent molecular work further elucidates relationships among forms within the ehrenbergisuperspecies: golaniand galiliappear to be sister taxa, carmeliand judaeiform a clade with aegyptiacus, and Turkish and other northern populations are paraphyletic with respect to the four species from Israel and Palestine. The latter finding supports the hypothesis that N. ehrenbergi, and perhaps the genus Nannospalax, had its origin in Anatolia. Various sources of evidence clearly support existence of multiple species within the ehrenbergisuperspecies, but unresolved taxonomic problems mean that it is still prudent to treat it as a single species. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Libya (N Cyrenaica), N Egypt, Israel, W Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, SE Turkey, and N Iraq.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-220 mm, no visible externaltail; weight 73-252 g. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are small; males are slightly larger than females. In Israel and Palestine, individuals in cool mesic environments are larger, but the reverse appears to be true in Turkey. Egyptian individuals are smaller than those found farther north, and Libyan individuals are smaller still. Pelage color varies by soil color; it has slate-gray hairs, with dull buff, brown, or reddish tips. When worn, pelage looks uniform gray. Bristly keel of cream or yellow extends from triangular nose pad halfway to ear openings. Forefeet are brown; hindfeet are covered in gray hairs. Incisors have 2-3 grooves. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are pale yellow. Including cartilaginous base, baculum is 5-7-5 mm long and varies in shape and size by cytotype. There are four nipples: 0 pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. More than 30 chromosomal forms are known with diploid numbers of 2n = 52, 54, 56, 58, and 60.Habitat.Usually coastal Mediterranean and interior steppe habitat but also forest clearings, sandy coastal plains, mountainous areas, and some rocky habitat from sea level to elevations up to 2200 m. Although the Middle East Blind Mole-rat is present where precipitation is very low,it is absent in true desert. It is absent from the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta area. North African populations are fragmented and located near the coast.Food and Feeding.The Middle East Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on tubers and bulbs of a variety of plants but also eats aboveground green plant parts. These plants are usually accessed from tunnels belowground, but occasionally individuals emerge to clip plants aboveground and carry them to burrows. Seeds and insects also have been recorded. Stored food in caches can be 25 kg.Breeding.Female Middle East Blind Mole-rats breed once a year, although a second litter may occur in rare instances such as during a long rainy season or in close proximity to irrigation. Males and females can be rather aggressive at first interaction, but this aggression diminishes over time and copulation occurs. Gestation is 28-36 days. Females construct breeding mounds, with grass-lined nests with diameters of ¢.20 cm, located c¢.10 cm belowground. Peak births vary by region: early February at low elevations and early April at high elevations in Lebanon, early February and late March in Israel, and October-November in Egypt. Females give birth to 2-4 young that are 5 g and naked. Young disperse after c.2 months by digging tunnels adjacent to mothers’ burrows. At high densities, young may disperse aboveground. Females probably breed in their second year. Maximum life span in captivity is 20 years.Activity patterns.Middle East Blind Mole-rats are active year-round and ¢.50% of the day. During the rainy season, they appear to be diurnal and polyphasic. During dry season, they are nocturnal and monophasic. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is a chiseltooth digger. Although it can dislodge some material with head or forelimbs, almost all digging occurs with its lower incisors. Accumulated dirt is pushed to surface with head or back legs and ejected in mounds. More digging occurs in the rainy season when soil is easier to move. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat lives most ofits life underground, but it emerges and is active aboveground with some frequency in March-May and autumn. Aboveground activities include searching and foraging for food and dispersing.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Middle East Blind Mole-rats are 10-40 m long and 10-40 cm deep in winter and up to 1-5 m deep in summer. They contain a nest, toilets, and food caches. Typical mounds are 15-20 cm high, but breeding mounds can be 40 cm high, 160 cm long, and 135 cm wide. The Middle East Blind Mole-ratis solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Fights may lead to death of the loser. Densities in Israel and Palestine are 0-91-1-8 ind/ha. Individuals communicate seismically by head drumming and using frequencies of 50-100 Hz. Sounds are received by neighboring individuals pressing mandibles to tunnel walls. If an individual is removed,its territory is generally occupied by another within hours or days. Predators include the Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), domestic cats, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the black kite (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), the golden eagle (A. chrysaetos), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon SMYrnensis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax ehrenbergi). The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is considered vulnerable in Turkey. It is present in agricultural areas and is considered a pest in some regions. Intensive agriculture is a threat. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some forms are found in protected areas, but it is probable that species exist within this complex that are not protected.Bibliography.Coskun et al. (2012), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Hadid, Németh et al. (2012), Hadid, Tzur et al. (2013), Happold (2013d), Kankilic et al. (2013), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), KryStufek, lvanitsakaya et al. (2012), Li Kexin et al. (2015), Lovy et al. (2015), Méhely (1909), Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov (1999), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nehring (1898), Németh et al. (2016), Nevo (1991, 2013), Nevo et al. (2001), Ranck (1968), Schlitter, Shenbrot et al. (2008), Shanas et al. (1995), Singaravelan et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969)." +03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,141,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.xml,Nannospalax ehrenbergi,Nannospalax,ehrenbergi,,,Spalax d'Ehrenberg @fr | Ehrenberg-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Oriente Medio @es | Ehrenberg’s Mole-rat @en | Palestine Mole-rat @en,"Spalax ehrenbergi Nehring, 1898,Jaffa (= Tel Aviv), Israel.Included in subgenus Nannospalax. Its distinct phylogenetic position relative to other forms in the genus Nannospalaxhas long been proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics and has since been strongly supported in molecular analyses. Nannospalax ehrenbergirepresents a superspecies composed of complex allopatric, parapatric, and occasionally sympatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Strongest evidence that multiple good species are present in this complex comes from detailed analysis of N. ehrenbergiin Israel and Palestine by E. Nevo and colleagues in 2001 and in related studies. Four species are clearly present in Israel and Palestine, and these species were each given new names by Nevo and colleagues: golani(diploid number 2n = 54) from the Golan Heights, galili(2n = 52) from north-east of the Sea of Galilee, carmeli(2n = 58) from the Sea of Galilee southward to northern West Bank in the east and farther south along coast to Tel Aviv, and judaei(2n = 60) from Tel Aviv and northern West Bank southward. These four species differ not only in karyotype but also (often subtly) in body and cranial measurements, tooth and bacular morphology, ear ossicle shape, pelage color, habitat specialization, genetics, brain size, basal metabolic rate, urine concentrating ability, water turnover rate, relative kidney size, physiological response to cold, respiratory and circulatory physiology, mortality in captivity, timing of daily activity, exploratory behavior, and even swimming posture. Many of these differences appear to be adaptive. These four species appear to be maintained, even in narrow regions of overlap, by chromosomal incompatibilities, bacular morphology, and various behavioral barriers to reproduction involving olfaction, vocalizations, seismic communication, and differing levels of aggression. These species within the N. ehrenbergisuperspecies have emerged as important model systems in evolutionary biology. A series of recent studies even suggests that sympatric speciation has taken place within galili, which suggests that these species warrant further division. Unfortunately, when Nevo and colleagues named golani, galili, carmeli, and judaei, they failed to account for the much older name ehrenbergi, noting only that its type locality, Tel Aviv, is found in the hybrid zone between carmeliand judaei. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 attempted to resolve the problem of ehrenbergisuperspecies taxonomy by adopting the four species of Nevo and colleagues and then applying the name ehrenbergito populations immediately surrounding the type locality, all populations south of Israel and Palestine, and all populations north of Israel and Palestine. In contrast to their many other taxonomic recommendations, the unorthodox solution of Musser and Carleton in 2005 to the ehrenbergitaxonomy problem has not been widely adopted in subsequent mammal checklists, most of which reluctantly treat N. ehrenbergias a single species. The name aegyptiacusby A. Nehring in 1898 is available for populations south of Israel and Palestine, and V. A. Topachevskii and others in 1969 recognized the North African forms as a distinct subspecies, aegyptiacus. B. Krystufek and V. Vohralik in 2009 noted that two names are available for populations north of Israel and Palestine, kirgisorumand intermedius, both named by Nehring in 1898. The name kirgisorumhas page priority, but acquisition and provenance of type material are disputed. It was originally reported as being from Kazakhstan, well out of the known distribution of Nannospalax, but has subsequently been suggested as being from Syria. Clearly more than just one species exists to the east and north of Israel and Palestine, and future work will yield even more names. Recent molecular work further elucidates relationships among forms within the ehrenbergisuperspecies: golaniand galiliappear to be sister taxa, carmeliand judaeiform a clade with aegyptiacus, and Turkish and other northern populations are paraphyletic with respect to the four species from Israel and Palestine. The latter finding supports the hypothesis that N. ehrenbergi, and perhaps the genus Nannospalax, had its origin in Anatolia. Various sources of evidence clearly support existence of multiple species within the ehrenbergisuperspecies, but unresolved taxonomic problems mean that it is still prudent to treat it as a single species. Monotypic.","NE Libya (N Cyrenaica), N Egypt, Israel, W Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, SE Turkey, and N Iraq.","Head-body 130-220 mm, no visible externaltail; weight 73-252 g. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are small; males are slightly larger than females. In Israel and Palestine, individuals in cool mesic environments are larger, but the reverse appears to be true in Turkey. Egyptian individuals are smaller than those found farther north, and Libyan individuals are smaller still. Pelage color varies by soil color; it has slate-gray hairs, with dull buff, brown, or reddish tips. When worn, pelage looks uniform gray. Bristly keel of cream or yellow extends from triangular nose pad halfway to ear openings. Forefeet are brown; hindfeet are covered in gray hairs. Incisors have 2-3 grooves. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are pale yellow. Including cartilaginous base, baculum is 5-7-5 mm long and varies in shape and size by cytotype. There are four nipples: 0 pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. More than 30 chromosomal forms are known with diploid numbers of 2n = 52, 54, 56, 58, and 60.","Usually coastal Mediterranean and interior steppe habitat but also forest clearings, sandy coastal plains, mountainous areas, and some rocky habitat from sea level to elevations up to 2200 m. Although the Middle East Blind Mole-rat is present where precipitation is very low,it is absent in true desert. It is absent from the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta area. North African populations are fragmented and located near the coast.","The Middle East Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on tubers and bulbs of a variety of plants but also eats aboveground green plant parts. These plants are usually accessed from tunnels belowground, but occasionally individuals emerge to clip plants aboveground and carry them to burrows. Seeds and insects also have been recorded. Stored food in caches can be 25 kg.","Female Middle East Blind Mole-rats breed once a year, although a second litter may occur in rare instances such as during a long rainy season or in close proximity to irrigation. Males and females can be rather aggressive at first interaction, but this aggression diminishes over time and copulation occurs. Gestation is 28-36 days. Females construct breeding mounds, with grass-lined nests with diameters of ¢.20 cm, located c¢.10 cm belowground. Peak births vary by region: early February at low elevations and early April at high elevations in Lebanon, early February and late March in Israel, and October-November in Egypt. Females give birth to 2-4 young that are 5 g and naked. Young disperse after c.2 months by digging tunnels adjacent to mothers’ burrows. At high densities, young may disperse aboveground. Females probably breed in their second year. Maximum life span in captivity is 20 years.","Middle East Blind Mole-rats are active year-round and ¢.50% of the day. During the rainy season, they appear to be diurnal and polyphasic. During dry season, they are nocturnal and monophasic. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is a chiseltooth digger. Although it can dislodge some material with head or forelimbs, almost all digging occurs with its lower incisors. Accumulated dirt is pushed to surface with head or back legs and ejected in mounds. More digging occurs in the rainy season when soil is easier to move. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat lives most ofits life underground, but it emerges and is active aboveground with some frequency in March-May and autumn. Aboveground activities include searching and foraging for food and dispersing.","Burrows of Middle East Blind Mole-rats are 10-40 m long and 10-40 cm deep in winter and up to 1-5 m deep in summer. They contain a nest, toilets, and food caches. Typical mounds are 15-20 cm high, but breeding mounds can be 40 cm high, 160 cm long, and 135 cm wide. The Middle East Blind Mole-ratis solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Fights may lead to death of the loser. Densities in Israel and Palestine are 0-91-1-8 ind/ha. Individuals communicate seismically by head drumming and using frequencies of 50-100 Hz. Sounds are received by neighboring individuals pressing mandibles to tunnel walls. If an individual is removed,its territory is generally occupied by another within hours or days. Predators include the Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), domestic cats, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the black kite (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), the golden eagle (A. chrysaetos), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon SMYrnensis).","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax ehrenbergi). The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is considered vulnerable in Turkey. It is present in agricultural areas and is considered a pest in some regions. Intensive agriculture is a threat. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some forms are found in protected areas, but it is probable that species exist within this complex that are not protected.","Coskun et al. (2012) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Hadid, Németh et al. (2012) | Hadid, Tzur et al. (2013) | Happold (2013d) | Kankilic et al. (2013) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | KryStufek, lvanitsakaya et al. (2012) | Li Kexin et al. (2015) | Lovy et al. (2015) | Méhely (1909) | Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov (1999) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nehring (1898) | Németh et al. (2016) | Nevo (1991, 2013) | Nevo et al. (2001) | Ranck (1968) | Schlitter, Shenbrot et al. (2008) | Shanas et al. (1995) | Singaravelan et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609165/files/figure.png,"28.Middle East Blind Mole-ratNannospalax ehrenbergiFrench:Spalax d'Ehrenberg/ German:Ehrenberg-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de Oriente MedioOther common names:Ehrenberg’s Mole-rat, Palestine Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax ehrenbergi Nehring, 1898,Jaffa (= Tel Aviv), Israel.Included in subgenus Nannospalax. Its distinct phylogenetic position relative to other forms in the genus Nannospalaxhas long been proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics and has since been strongly supported in molecular analyses. Nannospalax ehrenbergirepresents a superspecies composed of complex allopatric, parapatric, and occasionally sympatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Strongest evidence that multiple good species are present in this complex comes from detailed analysis of N. ehrenbergiin Israel and Palestine by E. Nevo and colleagues in 2001 and in related studies. Four species are clearly present in Israel and Palestine, and these species were each given new names by Nevo and colleagues: golani(diploid number 2n = 54) from the Golan Heights, galili(2n = 52) from north-east of the Sea of Galilee, carmeli(2n = 58) from the Sea of Galilee southward to northern West Bank in the east and farther south along coast to Tel Aviv, and judaei(2n = 60) from Tel Aviv and northern West Bank southward. These four species differ not only in karyotype but also (often subtly) in body and cranial measurements, tooth and bacular morphology, ear ossicle shape, pelage color, habitat specialization, genetics, brain size, basal metabolic rate, urine concentrating ability, water turnover rate, relative kidney size, physiological response to cold, respiratory and circulatory physiology, mortality in captivity, timing of daily activity, exploratory behavior, and even swimming posture. Many of these differences appear to be adaptive. These four species appear to be maintained, even in narrow regions of overlap, by chromosomal incompatibilities, bacular morphology, and various behavioral barriers to reproduction involving olfaction, vocalizations, seismic communication, and differing levels of aggression. These species within the N. ehrenbergisuperspecies have emerged as important model systems in evolutionary biology. A series of recent studies even suggests that sympatric speciation has taken place within galili, which suggests that these species warrant further division. Unfortunately, when Nevo and colleagues named golani, galili, carmeli, and judaei, they failed to account for the much older name ehrenbergi, noting only that its type locality, Tel Aviv, is found in the hybrid zone between carmeliand judaei. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 attempted to resolve the problem of ehrenbergisuperspecies taxonomy by adopting the four species of Nevo and colleagues and then applying the name ehrenbergito populations immediately surrounding the type locality, all populations south of Israel and Palestine, and all populations north of Israel and Palestine. In contrast to their many other taxonomic recommendations, the unorthodox solution of Musser and Carleton in 2005 to the ehrenbergitaxonomy problem has not been widely adopted in subsequent mammal checklists, most of which reluctantly treat N. ehrenbergias a single species. The name aegyptiacusby A. Nehring in 1898 is available for populations south of Israel and Palestine, and V. A. Topachevskii and others in 1969 recognized the North African forms as a distinct subspecies, aegyptiacus. B. Krystufek and V. Vohralik in 2009 noted that two names are available for populations north of Israel and Palestine, kirgisorumand intermedius, both named by Nehring in 1898. The name kirgisorumhas page priority, but acquisition and provenance of type material are disputed. It was originally reported as being from Kazakhstan, well out of the known distribution of Nannospalax, but has subsequently been suggested as being from Syria. Clearly more than just one species exists to the east and north of Israel and Palestine, and future work will yield even more names. Recent molecular work further elucidates relationships among forms within the ehrenbergisuperspecies: golaniand galiliappear to be sister taxa, carmeliand judaeiform a clade with aegyptiacus, and Turkish and other northern populations are paraphyletic with respect to the four species from Israel and Palestine. The latter finding supports the hypothesis that N. ehrenbergi, and perhaps the genus Nannospalax, had its origin in Anatolia. Various sources of evidence clearly support existence of multiple species within the ehrenbergisuperspecies, but unresolved taxonomic problems mean that it is still prudent to treat it as a single species. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Libya (N Cyrenaica), N Egypt, Israel, W Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, SE Turkey, and N Iraq.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-220 mm, no visible externaltail; weight 73-252 g. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are small; males are slightly larger than females. In Israel and Palestine, individuals in cool mesic environments are larger, but the reverse appears to be true in Turkey. Egyptian individuals are smaller than those found farther north, and Libyan individuals are smaller still. Pelage color varies by soil color; it has slate-gray hairs, with dull buff, brown, or reddish tips. When worn, pelage looks uniform gray. Bristly keel of cream or yellow extends from triangular nose pad halfway to ear openings. Forefeet are brown; hindfeet are covered in gray hairs. Incisors have 2-3 grooves. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are pale yellow. Including cartilaginous base, baculum is 5-7-5 mm long and varies in shape and size by cytotype. There are four nipples: 0 pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. More than 30 chromosomal forms are known with diploid numbers of 2n = 52, 54, 56, 58, and 60.Habitat.Usually coastal Mediterranean and interior steppe habitat but also forest clearings, sandy coastal plains, mountainous areas, and some rocky habitat from sea level to elevations up to 2200 m. Although the Middle East Blind Mole-rat is present where precipitation is very low,it is absent in true desert. It is absent from the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta area. North African populations are fragmented and located near the coast.Food and Feeding.The Middle East Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on tubers and bulbs of a variety of plants but also eats aboveground green plant parts. These plants are usually accessed from tunnels belowground, but occasionally individuals emerge to clip plants aboveground and carry them to burrows. Seeds and insects also have been recorded. Stored food in caches can be 25 kg.Breeding.Female Middle East Blind Mole-rats breed once a year, although a second litter may occur in rare instances such as during a long rainy season or in close proximity to irrigation. Males and females can be rather aggressive at first interaction, but this aggression diminishes over time and copulation occurs. Gestation is 28-36 days. Females construct breeding mounds, with grass-lined nests with diameters of ¢.20 cm, located c¢.10 cm belowground. Peak births vary by region: early February at low elevations and early April at high elevations in Lebanon, early February and late March in Israel, and October-November in Egypt. Females give birth to 2-4 young that are 5 g and naked. Young disperse after c.2 months by digging tunnels adjacent to mothers’ burrows. At high densities, young may disperse aboveground. Females probably breed in their second year. Maximum life span in captivity is 20 years.Activity patterns.Middle East Blind Mole-rats are active year-round and ¢.50% of the day. During the rainy season, they appear to be diurnal and polyphasic. During dry season, they are nocturnal and monophasic. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is a chiseltooth digger. Although it can dislodge some material with head or forelimbs, almost all digging occurs with its lower incisors. Accumulated dirt is pushed to surface with head or back legs and ejected in mounds. More digging occurs in the rainy season when soil is easier to move. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat lives most ofits life underground, but it emerges and is active aboveground with some frequency in March-May and autumn. Aboveground activities include searching and foraging for food and dispersing.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Middle East Blind Mole-rats are 10-40 m long and 10-40 cm deep in winter and up to 1-5 m deep in summer. They contain a nest, toilets, and food caches. Typical mounds are 15-20 cm high, but breeding mounds can be 40 cm high, 160 cm long, and 135 cm wide. The Middle East Blind Mole-ratis solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Fights may lead to death of the loser. Densities in Israel and Palestine are 0-91-1-8 ind/ha. Individuals communicate seismically by head drumming and using frequencies of 50-100 Hz. Sounds are received by neighboring individuals pressing mandibles to tunnel walls. If an individual is removed,its territory is generally occupied by another within hours or days. Predators include the Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), domestic cats, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the black kite (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), the golden eagle (A. chrysaetos), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon SMYrnensis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax ehrenbergi). The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is considered vulnerable in Turkey. It is present in agricultural areas and is considered a pest in some regions. Intensive agriculture is a threat. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some forms are found in protected areas, but it is probable that species exist within this complex that are not protected.Bibliography.Coskun et al. (2012), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Hadid, Németh et al. (2012), Hadid, Tzur et al. (2013), Happold (2013d), Kankilic et al. (2013), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), KryStufek, lvanitsakaya et al. (2012), Li Kexin et al. (2015), Lovy et al. (2015), Méhely (1909), Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov (1999), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nehring (1898), Németh et al. (2016), Nevo (1991, 2013), Nevo et al. (2001), Ranck (1968), Schlitter, Shenbrot et al. (2008), Shanas et al. (1995), Singaravelan et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969)." 03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,137,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.xml,Spalax istricus,Spalax,istricus,Mehely,1909,Spalax d'Olténie @fr | Oltenien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Oltenia @es,"Spalax istricus Méhely, 1909,Barza, Olt County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 designated three syntypes from three different localities. G. S. Miller in 1912 restricted the type locality to Barza, and G. Csorba and A. Demeter in 1991 designated the specimen from Barza as the lectotype. Spalax istricusisa member of the S. graecusspecies group, which is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna. Spalax istricuswas traditionally united with S. graecusand S. antiquus into a single species, S. graecus. Spalax istricuswas usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor united with S. antiquus as a distinct subspecies, S. g. istricus. In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibit considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiqguus, and S. istricusthat led to their conclusion that these represent three distinct species. Monotypic.",S Romania.,"Head-body c.242 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. Color of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat is variable; in the original description, it was referred to as reddish brown above and rust-colored below. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat differs from the other members of the S. graecusgroup in having a rostrum that is narrowed above but wider ventrally.","Steppes,fields, and orchards of Oltenia and Muntenia, Romania.",No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under S. graecus). Additional careful assessment of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat separate from the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat (S. graecus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus) is needed. The Oltenia Blind Mole-rat has not been recorded in 30 years and appears to be extremely rare or extinct.,Chisamera et al. (2014) | Csorba & Demeter (1991) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Krystufek (1999a) | Méhely (1909) | Miller (1912a) | Murariu & Torcea (1984) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008),https://zenodo.org/record/6609143/files/figure.png,"18.Oltenia Blind Mole-ratSpalax istricusFrench:Spalax d'Olténie/ German:Oltenien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de OlteniaTaxonomy.Spalax istricus Méhely, 1909,Barza, Olt County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 designated three syntypes from three different localities. G. S. Miller in 1912 restricted the type locality to Barza, and G. Csorba and A. Demeter in 1991 designated the specimen from Barza as the lectotype. Spalax istricusisa member of the S. graecusspecies group, which is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna. Spalax istricuswas traditionally united with S. graecusand S. antiquus into a single species, S. graecus. Spalax istricuswas usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor united with S. antiquus as a distinct subspecies, S. g. istricus. In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibit considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiqguus, and S. istricusthat led to their conclusion that these represent three distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.S Romania.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.242 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. Color of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat is variable; in the original description, it was referred to as reddish brown above and rust-colored below. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat differs from the other members of the S. graecusgroup in having a rostrum that is narrowed above but wider ventrally.Habitat.Steppes,fields, and orchards of Oltenia and Muntenia, Romania.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under S. graecus). Additional careful assessment of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat separate from the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat (S. graecus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus) is needed. The Oltenia Blind Mole-rat has not been recorded in 30 years and appears to be extremely rare or extinct.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Csorba & Demeter (1991), Hadid et al. (2012), Krystufek (1999a), Méhely (1909), Miller (1912a), Murariu & Torcea (1984), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)." -03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,137,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.xml,Tachyoryctes macrocephalus,Tachyoryctes,macrocephalus,,,Rat-taupe géant @fr | Riesenmaulwurfsratte @de | Rata de raices gigante @es | Big-headed Mole-rat @en | Giant Mole-rat @en,"Rhizomys macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842,Shoa, Ethiopia.Presence of 71. macrocephalusin the region known until 1995 as Shoa (= Shewa) Province, Ethiopia, is considered suspect. D. W. Yalden and M. J. Largen in 1992 suggested that type material was collected in Begemdir or Wollo Province in northern Ethiopia. No further records of 7. macrocephalushave been recorded from northern Ethiopia since the original description. In a cladistics analysis that included fossil and extant taxa, R. Lopez-Antonanzas and H. B. Wesselman in 2013 showed that the two living root rats are sister taxa with respect to the known fossil species 71. konjiti, 1 pliocaenicus, and 1. makooka. Two subspecies recognized.","T. m. macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842— N Ethiopia; no records since original description. T. m. hecki Neumann & Rummler, 1928— S Ethiopia, Bale Mts above 3000 m (Oromia Region).","Head-body 224-313 mm, tail 40-65 mm; weight 330-930 g. The Giant Root Rat is stocky and short-limbed, with relatively large head and shorttail. It has soft dense pelage that is silver, brown, or orange. Hairs are gray at bases. Up to three darker lines may be present on crown of head, and dark spot is present on eyelids. Interorbital width is narrow, causing eyes to be distinctively high on face. Subspecies heck: has longer (greater than 7 mm) anterior palatal foramen and zygomatic plate that slopes down to premaxillary-maxillary suture than the nominate subspecies. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.","Restricted to alpine grassland habitat at elevations of 3000-4150 m. The Giant Root Rat prefers soil depths greater than 50 cm in swamp shore grasslands and mixed herbaceous moorlands. Moist soils are preferred. In the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, the African Root Rat (7. splendens) is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m.","The Giant Root Rat feeds on grasses and forbs such as Festuca(Poaceae) and Alchemilla(Rosaceae). Food is gathered by opening a hole to the surface and consuming plant material within easy reach of the opening. An individual usually keeps its hindquarters in the opening to facilitate quick escape into the burrow. When food in an area is depleted, the Giant Root Ratseals the opening and creates a new burrow elsewhere. A mouthful of food is collected in short foraging bouts of 6-8 minutes and is taken belowground for consumption.",Little information is available. Female Giant Root Rats appear to have one young perlitter.,"The Giant Root Rat is diurnal and active from 08:00 h to 16:00 h. Aboveground activity comes in short bursts, roughly ten bouts in dry season adding up to an hour of activity, with fewer during rainy season.","Only a single Giant Root Rat is present in each burrow system. Burrows are up to 90 m long and 12-15 cm in cross section belowground, with openings c.8 cm. An individual's burrow system may be up to 360 m*. All burrow entrances are closed nightly. Densities of 6 ind/ha, 24 ind/ha, 60 ind/ha, and 90 ind/ha have been reported. The ground can feel spongy when Giant Root Rats occur at high densities because ofits burrows. It may reach 50-60% of total rodent biomass in certain locations. The Giant Root Rat is a preferred prey of the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), representing up to 47% (by volume) of its diet. Other predators include owls and probably raptors.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Root Rat can be present in very high concentrations, butits distribution is restricted and is dependent on a unique ecosystem. Much of its known distribution is in Bale Mountains National Park, but overgrazing by livestock threatens grasslands. It is not clear if the northern subspecies, macrocephalus, persists.","Corti & Lavrenchenko (2008) | Lopez-Antonanzas & Wesselman (2013) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a) | Yalden (1985, 2013a) | Yalden & Largen (1992)",,"17.Giant Root RatTachyoryctes macrocephalusFrench:Rat-taupe géant/ German:Riesenmaulwurfsratte/ Spanish:Rata de raices giganteOther common names:Big-headed Mole-rat, Giant Mole-ratTaxonomy.Rhizomys macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842,Shoa, Ethiopia.Presence of 71. macrocephalusin the region known until 1995 as Shoa (= Shewa) Province, Ethiopia, is considered suspect. D. W. Yalden and M. J. Largen in 1992 suggested that type material was collected in Begemdir or Wollo Province in northern Ethiopia. No further records of 7. macrocephalushave been recorded from northern Ethiopia since the original description. In a cladistics analysis that included fossil and extant taxa, R. Lopez-Antonanzas and H. B. Wesselman in 2013 showed that the two living root rats are sister taxa with respect to the known fossil species 71. konjiti, 1 pliocaenicus, and 1. makooka. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T. m. macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842— N Ethiopia; no records since original description. T. m. hecki Neumann & Rummler, 1928— S Ethiopia, Bale Mts above 3000 m (Oromia Region).Descriptive notes.Head-body 224-313 mm, tail 40-65 mm; weight 330-930 g. The Giant Root Rat is stocky and short-limbed, with relatively large head and shorttail. It has soft dense pelage that is silver, brown, or orange. Hairs are gray at bases. Up to three darker lines may be present on crown of head, and dark spot is present on eyelids. Interorbital width is narrow, causing eyes to be distinctively high on face. Subspecies heck: has longer (greater than 7 mm) anterior palatal foramen and zygomatic plate that slopes down to premaxillary-maxillary suture than the nominate subspecies. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.Habitat.Restricted to alpine grassland habitat at elevations of 3000-4150 m. The Giant Root Rat prefers soil depths greater than 50 cm in swamp shore grasslands and mixed herbaceous moorlands. Moist soils are preferred. In the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, the African Root Rat (7. splendens) is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m.Food and Feeding.The Giant Root Rat feeds on grasses and forbs such as Festuca(Poaceae) and Alchemilla(Rosaceae). Food is gathered by opening a hole to the surface and consuming plant material within easy reach of the opening. An individual usually keeps its hindquarters in the opening to facilitate quick escape into the burrow. When food in an area is depleted, the Giant Root Ratseals the opening and creates a new burrow elsewhere. A mouthful of food is collected in short foraging bouts of 6-8 minutes and is taken belowground for consumption.Breeding.Little information is available. Female Giant Root Rats appear to have one young perlitter.Activity patterns.The Giant Root Rat is diurnal and active from 08:00 h to 16:00 h. Aboveground activity comes in short bursts, roughly ten bouts in dry season adding up to an hour of activity, with fewer during rainy season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Only a single Giant Root Rat is present in each burrow system. Burrows are up to 90 m long and 12-15 cm in cross section belowground, with openings c.8 cm. An individual's burrow system may be up to 360 m*. All burrow entrances are closed nightly. Densities of 6 ind/ha, 24 ind/ha, 60 ind/ha, and 90 ind/ha have been reported. The ground can feel spongy when Giant Root Rats occur at high densities because ofits burrows. It may reach 50-60% of total rodent biomass in certain locations. The Giant Root Rat is a preferred prey of the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), representing up to 47% (by volume) of its diet. Other predators include owls and probably raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Root Rat can be present in very high concentrations, butits distribution is restricted and is dependent on a unique ecosystem. Much of its known distribution is in Bale Mountains National Park, but overgrazing by livestock threatens grasslands. It is not clear if the northern subspecies, macrocephalus, persists.Bibliography.Corti & Lavrenchenko (2008), Lopez-Antonanzas & Wesselman (2013), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a), Yalden (1985, 2013a), Yalden & Largen (1992)." -03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,137,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.xml,Spalax antiquus,Spalax,antiquus,,,Spalax de Méhely @fr | Mehely-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Méhely @es,"Spalax graecus antiguus Méhely, 1909,near Apahida, Cluj County, Romania;Nadaselu, Cluj County, Romania;Lechinta de Muresnear Targu Mures, Mures County, Romania;near Gherla, Cluj County, Romania;and near Someseni, Cluj County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 based his description on multiple fragmentary archaeological specimens. He designated twelve syntypes from five different localities, and no one has subsequently designated a lectotype or otherwise restricted the type locality. Consequently, the type locality encompasses the place of origin of all syntypes in accordance with Article 73.2.3 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until a lectotype is designated. Spalaxantiquus is a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna, and it is supported by mitochondrial data. Spalaxantiguus was traditionally united with S. graecusand S. istricusinto a single species (S. graecus). Spalaxantiquus was usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor a synonym of the subspecies S. g. ustricus. In an analysis of mtDNA A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat led them to conclude that these represented three distinct species. Monotypic.",C Romania.,"There are no specific measurements available. Mehely’s Blind Molerat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is buff, and venter and head are grayish, with some reddish hues throughout. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.",Grassy plains of the Carpathian Basin in Transylvania.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Confirmed predators of Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and domestic dog.","Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 argued that Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat should be ranked as endangered. Its extent of occurrence and habitat quality are predicted to decline over the next ten years, its area of occupancy is less than 500 km? and it is known to exist in no more than five locations. Four locations where it is present are partly protected. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat was once more common in the vast grasslands of the Carpathian basin, but this habitat was first converted to pasture and, more recently, to intensive modern agriculture and urbanized landscapes.","Chisamera et al. (2014) | Csorba et al. (2015) | Hadid et al. (2012) | KryStufek (1999a) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)",,"19.Mehely’s Blind Mole-ratSpalax antiquusFrench:Spalax de Méhely/ German:Mehely-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de MéhelyTaxonomy.Spalax graecus antiguus Méhely, 1909,near Apahida, Cluj County, Romania;Nadaselu, Cluj County, Romania;Lechinta de Muresnear Targu Mures, Mures County, Romania;near Gherla, Cluj County, Romania;and near Someseni, Cluj County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 based his description on multiple fragmentary archaeological specimens. He designated twelve syntypes from five different localities, and no one has subsequently designated a lectotype or otherwise restricted the type locality. Consequently, the type locality encompasses the place of origin of all syntypes in accordance with Article 73.2.3 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until a lectotype is designated. Spalaxantiquus is a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna, and it is supported by mitochondrial data. Spalaxantiguus was traditionally united with S. graecusand S. istricusinto a single species (S. graecus). Spalaxantiquus was usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor a synonym of the subspecies S. g. ustricus. In an analysis of mtDNA A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat led them to conclude that these represented three distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.C Romania.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. Mehely’s Blind Molerat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is buff, and venter and head are grayish, with some reddish hues throughout. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.Habitat.Grassy plains of the Carpathian Basin in Transylvania.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Confirmed predators of Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and domestic dog.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 argued that Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat should be ranked as endangered. Its extent of occurrence and habitat quality are predicted to decline over the next ten years, its area of occupancy is less than 500 km? and it is known to exist in no more than five locations. Four locations where it is present are partly protected. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat was once more common in the vast grasslands of the Carpathian basin, but this habitat was first converted to pasture and, more recently, to intensive modern agriculture and urbanized landscapes.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Csorba et al. (2015), Hadid et al. (2012), KryStufek (1999a), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)." -03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,138,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.xml,Spalax zemni,Spalax,zemni,,,Spalax de Podolie @fr | Podolien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Podolia @es | Podolian Mole-rat @en | Podolsk Mole-rat @en,"Glis zemni Erxleben, 1777,Ternopolskregion, Ukraine.Spalax zemniis frequently referred to as S. polonicusor S. podolicus, but zemninamed by J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 is the oldest available name. It includes the fossil form S. diluvii. Spalax zemniis the sister species to S. arenarius. Monotypic.",Ukraine.,"Head-body 200-310 mm, no visible external tail; weight 370-570 g. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat has slate gray pelage, with reddish trim. Head is lighter gray, and white stripe or spots may be present. Venteris gray. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","Undisturbed steppe but also roadsides, forest belts, and agricultural fields. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats can be found in sandy soils.","Podolsk Blind Mole-rats feed on alfalfa, chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), field bindweed (Convolvulus, Concolvulaceae), mallows (Malva, Malvaceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae).",No information.,Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are active year-round; digging continues throughout winter months.,"Burrows of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats contain feeding tunnels near the surface, deeper chambers, and 2-6 vertical tunnels connecting the two levels. Feeding tunnels are located at depths of 13-21 cm. Total length of feeding tunnels varies with age of burrow; it can range from 10 m in burrows of young individuals to 210 m in burrows of mature adults. Lower chambers are found at depths of 90-275 cm and include 1-2 nest chambers, 3-5 storage chambers, and toilets. Connecting tunnels can be complex and connect chambers in a circular manner. Mounds have diameters of 30-67 cm and heights of 10-23 cm. Densities are 1-8 ind/ha; in virgin steppe, density is ¢.8 ind/ha. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), the European Polecat (M. putorius), and the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus).","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are fragmented. Although they are found across a large geographic landscape, area of occupancy is only ¢.2000 km? The Podolsk Blind Mole-rat is threatened by loss of its natural steppe habitat due to cultivation and development.","Erxleben (1777) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (20169) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008b)",,"21.Podolsk Blind Mole-ratSpalax zemniFrench:Spalax de Podolie/ German:Podolien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de PodoliaOther common names:Podolian Mole-rat, Podolsk Mole-ratTaxonomy.Glis zemni Erxleben, 1777,Ternopolskregion, Ukraine.Spalax zemniis frequently referred to as S. polonicusor S. podolicus, but zemninamed by J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 is the oldest available name. It includes the fossil form S. diluvii. Spalax zemniis the sister species to S. arenarius. Monotypic.Distribution.Ukraine.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-310 mm, no visible external tail; weight 370-570 g. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat has slate gray pelage, with reddish trim. Head is lighter gray, and white stripe or spots may be present. Venteris gray. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Undisturbed steppe but also roadsides, forest belts, and agricultural fields. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats can be found in sandy soils.Food and Feeding.Podolsk Blind Mole-rats feed on alfalfa, chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), field bindweed (Convolvulus, Concolvulaceae), mallows (Malva, Malvaceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae).Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are active year-round; digging continues throughout winter months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats contain feeding tunnels near the surface, deeper chambers, and 2-6 vertical tunnels connecting the two levels. Feeding tunnels are located at depths of 13-21 cm. Total length of feeding tunnels varies with age of burrow; it can range from 10 m in burrows of young individuals to 210 m in burrows of mature adults. Lower chambers are found at depths of 90-275 cm and include 1-2 nest chambers, 3-5 storage chambers, and toilets. Connecting tunnels can be complex and connect chambers in a circular manner. Mounds have diameters of 30-67 cm and heights of 10-23 cm. Densities are 1-8 ind/ha; in virgin steppe, density is ¢.8 ind/ha. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), the European Polecat (M. putorius), and the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are fragmented. Although they are found across a large geographic landscape, area of occupancy is only ¢.2000 km? The Podolsk Blind Mole-rat is threatened by loss of its natural steppe habitat due to cultivation and development.Bibliography.Erxleben (1777), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Hadid et al. (2012), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (20169), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008b)." -03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,138,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.xml,Spalax graecus,Spalax,graecus,Nehring,1898,Spalax de Bucovine @fr | Bukowina-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Bucovina @es | Balkan Blind Mole-rat @en | Balkan Mole-rat @en,"Spalax graecus Nehring, 1898,vicinity of Athens, Greece. Corrected by V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 to the vicinity of Chernovtsy, Bukovina Region, Ukraine.Spalax graecusis a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position of sella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna and is supported by mitochondrial data. It was traditionally united with S. istricusand S. antiquus into a single species (S. graecus). In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiqguus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat lead them to conclude that these represent distinct species. Monotypic.",SW Ukraine and NE Romania.,"Head-body 217-280 mm, no visible external tail; weight 415-700 g. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is butt, and venter and head are grayish. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat differs from other members of the S. graecusspecies group in having nasals that extend posteriorly beyond premaxilla and a flat bottom of incisura corono-alveolaris. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.","Strands of perennial grasses, steppes, and agricultural fields in the hilly Bukovina region of Romania and Ukraine. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat can occur in roadsides, pastures, beet and potato fields, gardens, and forest edge but not deep forest. Itis currently known from 13 localities, bordered on the east by the Prut River and on the west by the Carpathian Mountains. Ecological niche modeling suggests that suitable habitat may be found at elevations of 39-848 m.","The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat feeds on a variety of plants including dropwort (Filipendulahexapetala, Rosaceae), yarrow (Achilleamillefolium, Asteraceae), plantain (Plantagomedia, Plantaginaceae), couch grass (Elytrigia repens, Poaceae), comfrey (Symphytumofficinale, Boraginaceae), and chicory (Cichoriumintybus, Asteraceae). Winter food stores weigh 0.4-12 kg.","Female Bukovina Blind Mole-rats breed in their second year. Breeding activity begins in January, peaks in February, and can continue into March. Females will give birth to 2—4 young in March-April. Young weigh 18-20 g and are weaned after c.3 weeks. They disperse aboveground in late April through May.",No information.,"Bukovina Blind Mole-rats are solitary. Burrows are constructed in relatively dry soil and usually reach maximum depths of 1 m (up to 3-5 m). Feeding tunnels occur at depths of 20-25 cm in spring and summer and 30-35 cm in winter. One or two nest chambers and multiple toilet and storage chambers are present. In the past, densities had been recorded at 1-10 ind/ ha in agricultural areas but up to 23 ind/ha under more natural conditions. Current densities in agricultural areas are closer to 0-2-2 ind/ha. Predators include foxes, mustelids, and, when dispersing, raptors.",Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The assessment includes the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (S. istricus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus). It has a small range of occupancy and has not been recorded in Romania since the 1960s or in Ukraine over the last 20-40 years. Additional conservation assessment of the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat separate from the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat is needed.,Chisamera et al. (2014) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Krystufek (1999a) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Méhely (1909) | Németh et al. (2013) | Puzachenko (2016b) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008),,"20.Bukovina Blind Mole-ratSpalax graecusFrench:Spalax de Bucovine/ German:Bukowina-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de BucovinaOther common names:Balkan Blind Mole-rat, Balkan Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax graecus Nehring, 1898,vicinity of Athens, Greece. Corrected by V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 to the vicinity of Chernovtsy, Bukovina Region, Ukraine.Spalax graecusis a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position of sella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna and is supported by mitochondrial data. It was traditionally united with S. istricusand S. antiquus into a single species (S. graecus). In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiqguus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat lead them to conclude that these represent distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Ukraine and NE Romania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217-280 mm, no visible external tail; weight 415-700 g. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is butt, and venter and head are grayish. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat differs from other members of the S. graecusspecies group in having nasals that extend posteriorly beyond premaxilla and a flat bottom of incisura corono-alveolaris. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.Habitat.Strands of perennial grasses, steppes, and agricultural fields in the hilly Bukovina region of Romania and Ukraine. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat can occur in roadsides, pastures, beet and potato fields, gardens, and forest edge but not deep forest. Itis currently known from 13 localities, bordered on the east by the Prut River and on the west by the Carpathian Mountains. Ecological niche modeling suggests that suitable habitat may be found at elevations of 39-848 m.Food and Feeding.The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat feeds on a variety of plants including dropwort (Filipendulahexapetala, Rosaceae), yarrow (Achilleamillefolium, Asteraceae), plantain (Plantagomedia, Plantaginaceae), couch grass (Elytrigia repens, Poaceae), comfrey (Symphytumofficinale, Boraginaceae), and chicory (Cichoriumintybus, Asteraceae). Winter food stores weigh 0.4-12 kg.Breeding.Female Bukovina Blind Mole-rats breed in their second year. Breeding activity begins in January, peaks in February, and can continue into March. Females will give birth to 2—4 young in March-April. Young weigh 18-20 g and are weaned after c.3 weeks. They disperse aboveground in late April through May.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bukovina Blind Mole-rats are solitary. Burrows are constructed in relatively dry soil and usually reach maximum depths of 1 m (up to 3-5 m). Feeding tunnels occur at depths of 20-25 cm in spring and summer and 30-35 cm in winter. One or two nest chambers and multiple toilet and storage chambers are present. In the past, densities had been recorded at 1-10 ind/ ha in agricultural areas but up to 23 ind/ha under more natural conditions. Current densities in agricultural areas are closer to 0-2-2 ind/ha. Predators include foxes, mustelids, and, when dispersing, raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The assessment includes the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (S. istricus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus). It has a small range of occupancy and has not been recorded in Romania since the 1960s or in Ukraine over the last 20-40 years. Additional conservation assessment of the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat separate from the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat is needed.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Hadid et al. (2012), Krystufek (1999a), Musser & Carleton (2005), Méhely (1909), Németh et al. (2013), Puzachenko (2016b), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)." -03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,138,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.xml,Spalax arenarius,Spalax,arenarius,Reshetnik,1939,Spalax des sables @fr | Sandblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de los arenales @es | Sandy Mole-rat @en,"Spalax arenarius Reshetnik, 1939,NW shore of Black Sea, Golaya Pristan, Nikolaev Region, Ukraine.Spalax arenariusis the sister species to S. zemni, and it has been treated as a subspecies or synonym of S. zemni, S. microphthalmus, and S. giganteusin the past. Its species status is supported by morphological features and is broadly accepted in recent texts. Monotypic.",E bank of the Dniepr River near its opening into the Black Sea (S Ukraine).,"Head-body 190-275 mm, no visible external tail; weight 380-660 g. Male Sandy Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large pale straw-yellow-gray. Front of head is lighter grayish white, and venter is pale mouse gray. Fringe of pale yellow-gray hair extends from nose to ears. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","Sparsely vegetated absinth (Ar temisia, Asteraceae)grass and absinthspurge (Euphorbiaceae) steppes. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is found in light, moderately wet, sandy soils with a low water table and is never found in moving sands, dry feather-grass steppe, or alkali soils.","Sandy Blind Mole-rats feed on a variety of plants including field eryngo (Eryngiumcampestre, Apiaceae), wormwood (Artemisiacampestris, Asteraceae), and goatsbeard (7 Tragopogonucrainicus, Asteraceae). Accumulated winter stores weigh 10-15 kg.","Breeding of the Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs once a year in March. Young are born in April-May, and lactation lasts c.1 month.",No information.,"Sandy Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Feeding tunnels can be 200 m long and occur at depths of 40-50 cm. Individual home ranges are more than 80 m?. Vertical shafts connect to chambers atjust over 1 m deep. Mounds are 35-93 cm in diameter and 20-45 cm in height. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs at densities of 5 ind/ha in optimal habitat and 0-9-1-2 ind/ha elsewhere. Predators include foxes, mustelids, domestic dogs, and raptors.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is protected in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve, but it faces conservation threats and is declining outside ofthis area. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.2000 km? and its area of occupancy is ¢.55 km?®. It is threatened by afforestation activities that are intended to stabilize the landscape and to support commercial forestry. Total population is estimated at 15,000-20,000 individuals, which are known from fewer than five localities.",Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2013) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (2016h) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina & Zagorodnyuk (2008),,"22.Sandy Blind Mole-ratSpalax arenariusFrench:Spalax des sables/ German:Sandblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de los arenalesOther common names:Sandy Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax arenarius Reshetnik, 1939,NW shore of Black Sea, Golaya Pristan, Nikolaev Region, Ukraine.Spalax arenariusis the sister species to S. zemni, and it has been treated as a subspecies or synonym of S. zemni, S. microphthalmus, and S. giganteusin the past. Its species status is supported by morphological features and is broadly accepted in recent texts. Monotypic.Distribution.E bank of the Dniepr River near its opening into the Black Sea (S Ukraine).Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-275 mm, no visible external tail; weight 380-660 g. Male Sandy Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large pale straw-yellow-gray. Front of head is lighter grayish white, and venter is pale mouse gray. Fringe of pale yellow-gray hair extends from nose to ears. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Sparsely vegetated absinth (Ar temisia, Asteraceae)grass and absinthspurge (Euphorbiaceae) steppes. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is found in light, moderately wet, sandy soils with a low water table and is never found in moving sands, dry feather-grass steppe, or alkali soils.Food and Feeding.Sandy Blind Mole-rats feed on a variety of plants including field eryngo (Eryngiumcampestre, Apiaceae), wormwood (Artemisiacampestris, Asteraceae), and goatsbeard (7 Tragopogonucrainicus, Asteraceae). Accumulated winter stores weigh 10-15 kg.Breeding.Breeding of the Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs once a year in March. Young are born in April-May, and lactation lasts c.1 month.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sandy Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Feeding tunnels can be 200 m long and occur at depths of 40-50 cm. Individual home ranges are more than 80 m?. Vertical shafts connect to chambers atjust over 1 m deep. Mounds are 35-93 cm in diameter and 20-45 cm in height. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs at densities of 5 ind/ha in optimal habitat and 0-9-1-2 ind/ha elsewhere. Predators include foxes, mustelids, domestic dogs, and raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is protected in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve, but it faces conservation threats and is declining outside ofthis area. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.2000 km? and its area of occupancy is ¢.55 km?®. It is threatened by afforestation activities that are intended to stabilize the landscape and to support commercial forestry. Total population is estimated at 15,000-20,000 individuals, which are known from fewer than five localities.Bibliography.Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Hadid et al. (2012), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2013), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (2016h), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina & Zagorodnyuk (2008)." -03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.xml,Spalax microphthalmus,Spalax,microphthalmus,Guldenstadt,1770,Grand Spalax @fr | Steppenblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega grande @es | Greater Mole-rat @en,"Spalax microphthalmus Guldenstadt, 1770,Novokhoper Steppe, Voronezhskaya Oblast, Russia.All members of the genus Spalaxhave at some time been treated as synonyms or subspecies of S. microphthalmus. 1. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012 treated S. microphthalmusas monotypic, but they noted the possibility that populations in the western part of its distribution may constitute a distinct subspecies. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 suggested that Ciscaucasian populations might be a distinct subspecies; the appropriate name for this form wouldappear to be typhlusby P. S. Pallas in 1779. M. Korobchenko and I. Zagorodnyuk in 2009 questioned inclusion of typhlusin microphthalmus, suggesting that it has affinities with giganteusand warrants recognition as a distinct species. Pending further study, they provisionally treated it as a distinct subspecies within S. microphthalmus. Two subspecies recognized.","S.m.microphthalmusGuldenstadt,1770—EUkraineandSWRussia.S. m. typhlus Pallas, 1779— Ciscaucasian Russia immediately E of the Sea of Azov.","Head—body 190-315 mm, no visible external tail; weight 120-818 g. Male Greater Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large and straw-graybrown, with lighter and grayer head and straw-brown venter. Roots of hairs are mouse gray, and individuals can have this color when tips of hairs are worn off. Small yellowish white patch may be present on forehead. Some specimens have white longitudinal stripe on head. Fringe of yellowish hair extends outward from nose toward ears. Juveniles are much grayer than adults. Thicker winter pelage is present from September to May orJune. Three pairs of nipples are present. Diploid numberis 2n = 60 or 62.","Flat steppes and forest steppes in the region between the Dniepr and Volga rivers, from roughly Mordovia southward into Ciscaucasia. Northern populations are fragmented. The Greater Blind Mole-rat prefers to dig in rich black soils and avoids loam and sand. It can be found in agricultural fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards, and forests.","The Greater Blind Mole-rat eats dandelion (7araxacum, Asteraceae), cow parsnip (Heracleum, Apiaceae), chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae). A higher ratio of leaves and shoots are eaten in spring than later in the year when roots and bulbs are preferred. Accumulated winterstores of food can weigh c.10-14 kg.",Greater Blind Mole-rats breed once a year. Females give birth to 2-5 young in late February to early May. Females usually breed in their second year. Life span is 2-54 years.,"Digging activities of Greater Blind Mole-rat are most pronounced in spring when food stores are depleted. They are active year-round, but in winter, they reduce activity, focusing in deeper areas. An individual traversing aboveground facing a threat will immediately begin to burrow.","Greater Blind Mole-rats are solitary; individuals may fight until one retreats or dies. Fighting usually involves bites to the face. Juveniles leave their mothers’ burrows and either create a separate adjacent burrow or disperse up to several hundred meters aboveground. Individuals of any age might travel aboveground in search of better locations for burrows, and males might travel aboveground in search of females. Burrow systems can take on a variety of shapes including almost linear, 1-2 central areas with feeding tunnels emerging as spokes, or more irregular arrangements. They vary widely in length but can be 100-450 m or more across. Feeding tunnels are 10-25 cm deep, and deeper chambers are found at depths of 120-320 cm. Upper and lower regions are connected by 2—4 vertical shafts. One or two nest chambers are present, and these are lined with grass and leaves. Usually 4-9 storerooms are present alongside multiple empty chambers. Multiple toilets are present, and these are sealed after filled. Mounds are variable in shape and size, with diameters of 20-240 cm (average 50 cm). They are located 1-2 m apart. A single individualis estimated to displace 0-2-0-3 m® of earth daily. Densities are 3-10 ind/ha and can be 20 ind/ha in good conditions but lower elsewhere. Populations do not usually exhibit extreme oscillations. Predators include the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans), and carnivorous mammals such as mustelids.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Broadly speaking, the Greater Blind Mole-rat has a large distribution in which it is abundant and common. It is found in protected areas. Many populations, particularly in the northern part ofits distribution, may be threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural practices. The Greater Blind Mole-rat can be an agricultural pest and is poisoned. It functions as an ecosystem engineer, affecting soil composition and plant communities. Its burrows are used by a variety of other animals such as small mammals and invertebrates.","Corbet (1978) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2016) | Nevo (1999) | Ognev (1947) | Pallas (1779) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016c) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008a)",,"23.Greater Blind Mole-ratSpalax microphthalmusFrench:Grand Spalax/ German:Steppenblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega grandeOther common names:Greater Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax microphthalmus Guldenstadt, 1770,Novokhoper Steppe, Voronezhskaya Oblast, Russia.All members of the genus Spalaxhave at some time been treated as synonyms or subspecies of S. microphthalmus. 1. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012 treated S. microphthalmusas monotypic, but they noted the possibility that populations in the western part of its distribution may constitute a distinct subspecies. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 suggested that Ciscaucasian populations might be a distinct subspecies; the appropriate name for this form wouldappear to be typhlusby P. S. Pallas in 1779. M. Korobchenko and I. Zagorodnyuk in 2009 questioned inclusion of typhlusin microphthalmus, suggesting that it has affinities with giganteusand warrants recognition as a distinct species. Pending further study, they provisionally treated it as a distinct subspecies within S. microphthalmus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.m.microphthalmusGuldenstadt,1770—EUkraineandSWRussia.S. m. typhlus Pallas, 1779— Ciscaucasian Russia immediately E of the Sea of Azov.Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-315 mm, no visible external tail; weight 120-818 g. Male Greater Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large and straw-graybrown, with lighter and grayer head and straw-brown venter. Roots of hairs are mouse gray, and individuals can have this color when tips of hairs are worn off. Small yellowish white patch may be present on forehead. Some specimens have white longitudinal stripe on head. Fringe of yellowish hair extends outward from nose toward ears. Juveniles are much grayer than adults. Thicker winter pelage is present from September to May orJune. Three pairs of nipples are present. Diploid numberis 2n = 60 or 62.Habitat.Flat steppes and forest steppes in the region between the Dniepr and Volga rivers, from roughly Mordovia southward into Ciscaucasia. Northern populations are fragmented. The Greater Blind Mole-rat prefers to dig in rich black soils and avoids loam and sand. It can be found in agricultural fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards, and forests.Food and Feeding.The Greater Blind Mole-rat eats dandelion (7araxacum, Asteraceae), cow parsnip (Heracleum, Apiaceae), chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae). A higher ratio of leaves and shoots are eaten in spring than later in the year when roots and bulbs are preferred. Accumulated winterstores of food can weigh c.10-14 kg.Breeding.Greater Blind Mole-rats breed once a year. Females give birth to 2-5 young in late February to early May. Females usually breed in their second year. Life span is 2-54 years.Activity patterns.Digging activities of Greater Blind Mole-rat are most pronounced in spring when food stores are depleted. They are active year-round, but in winter, they reduce activity, focusing in deeper areas. An individual traversing aboveground facing a threat will immediately begin to burrow.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Greater Blind Mole-rats are solitary; individuals may fight until one retreats or dies. Fighting usually involves bites to the face. Juveniles leave their mothers’ burrows and either create a separate adjacent burrow or disperse up to several hundred meters aboveground. Individuals of any age might travel aboveground in search of better locations for burrows, and males might travel aboveground in search of females. Burrow systems can take on a variety of shapes including almost linear, 1-2 central areas with feeding tunnels emerging as spokes, or more irregular arrangements. They vary widely in length but can be 100-450 m or more across. Feeding tunnels are 10-25 cm deep, and deeper chambers are found at depths of 120-320 cm. Upper and lower regions are connected by 2—4 vertical shafts. One or two nest chambers are present, and these are lined with grass and leaves. Usually 4-9 storerooms are present alongside multiple empty chambers. Multiple toilets are present, and these are sealed after filled. Mounds are variable in shape and size, with diameters of 20-240 cm (average 50 cm). They are located 1-2 m apart. A single individualis estimated to displace 0-2-0-3 m® of earth daily. Densities are 3-10 ind/ha and can be 20 ind/ha in good conditions but lower elsewhere. Populations do not usually exhibit extreme oscillations. Predators include the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans), and carnivorous mammals such as mustelids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Broadly speaking, the Greater Blind Mole-rat has a large distribution in which it is abundant and common. It is found in protected areas. Many populations, particularly in the northern part ofits distribution, may be threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural practices. The Greater Blind Mole-rat can be an agricultural pest and is poisoned. It functions as an ecosystem engineer, affecting soil composition and plant communities. Its burrows are used by a variety of other animals such as small mammals and invertebrates.Bibliography.Corbet (1978), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2016), Nevo (1999), Ognev (1947), Pallas (1779), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016c), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008a)." -03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.xml,Spalax giganteus,Spalax,giganteus,Nehring,1898,Spalax géant @fr | Riesenblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega gigante @es | Giant Mole-rat @en,"Spalax giganteus Nehring, 1898,near Makhachkala, W shore of Caspian Sea, Dagestan, Russia.Spalax uralensishad been widely regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia.","Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).","Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline.","Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.","Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.","Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.",Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.,"Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline. Habitat loss has been exacerbated by war,soil salinization, and agricultural practices such as irrigation, overgrazing, and plowing. Itis almost extinct in Chechnya and perhaps Dagestan. It can be a pest in orchards and fields.","Iliashenko & lliashenko (2000) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (1993, 2016e) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov & Sheftel (2008)",,"24.Giant Blind Mole-ratSpalax giganteusFrench:Spalax géant/ German:Riesenblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega giganteOther common names:Giant Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax giganteus Nehring, 1898,near Makhachkala, W shore of Caspian Sea, Dagestan, Russia.Spalax uralensishad been widely regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline. Habitat loss has been exacerbated by war,soil salinization, and agricultural practices such as irrigation, overgrazing, and plowing. Itis almost extinct in Chechnya and perhaps Dagestan. It can be a pest in orchards and fields.Bibliography.Iliashenko & lliashenko (2000), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (1993, 2016e), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov & Sheftel (2008)." -03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.xml,Nannospalax leucodon,Nannospalax,leucodon,,,Spalax de Hongrie @fr | \Westblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega pequena @es | Lesser Mole-rat @en,"Spalax typhlus leucodon Nordmann, 1840,near Odessa, Ukraine.Nannospalax leucodonis included in subgenus Mesospalax. It represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric and parapatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Numerous names have been applied to these various forms, many of which are nomen nuda or otherwise unavailable. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 treated N. leucodonas a single species with two subspecies: leucodonfrom eastern Hungary, Romania, Moldovia, and Ukraine and monticolafrom Hungary and Bulgaria, southward to Greece and European Turkey. At the other extreme, I. Savi¢ and colleagues in 1984 recognized 13 species and ten additional subspecies, granting named status to all known cytotypes. Genetic diversity among populations of N. leucodonappears to be lower than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, but to date, sampling has been restricted to the western part ofits distribution. Assessing species boundaries will probably require combining data on karyotypes with molecular phylogenetics because morphological data appear to be of limited use. Monotypic.","E Hungary, SW Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, SE Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece (including NE Aegean Is of Samothrace and Lemnos), and European Turkey.","Head—body 150-240 mm, no visible external tail; weight 162-504 g. Male Lesser Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. Color varies but is typically brownish to gray, with tinge of yellow, ginger, or yellow-red. Anterior of head is less brown and more gray. Ridge of longer white to yellow hair extends from sides of nose toward ears. Venter is mostly gray. White or yellow spots are common in northern populations but less so in other regions such as Turkey. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are yellow or white. Populations in Turkey are smaller. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 29 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 38-62.","Steppes, grasslands, meadows, and pastures from sea level to elevations up to 2400 m. Lesser Blind Mole-rats can be found in forest clearings, small fields adjacent to pasture, and orchards. They prefer deep, loose, and well-drained soil. They are usually absent in forest, wetlands, rocky areas, and heavily cultivated areas.","Lesser Blind Mole-rats feed primarily on bulbs, roots, and tubers, with supplements from green plant parts. Green plant matter is important for weaned juveniles and adults in late spring. Insects are also sometimes eaten. The Lesser Blind Mole-rat eats ¢.36:5% ofits body mass daily. Its energy budgetis 0-17 kcal/g/day except in winter when it increases to 0-22 kcal/g/day. Food caches of 6-20 kg have been reported.","Pregnant female Lesser Blind Mole-rats are most commonly captured in March. Gestation is 30 days. Young are born in March-April and weigh 6-6-5 g. Litter size is usually 2—4 young, but 1-6 young have been recorded. Young are weaned after 2-2-5 months; young males weigh 137 g while females weigh 121 g by the end of May. Females start breeding in their second year. In captivity, females live up to 3-5 years, and males live 4-5 years.","Activity of the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is polyphasic, with two peaks at 13:00-14:00 h and 01:00-02:00 h in some reports and three peaks at 11:00-13:00 h, 07:00-09:00 h, and 17:00-21:00 h in others.","Burrows of Lesser Blind Mole-rats have a main tunnel with secondary tunnels branching off. An individual digs c.1:7 m of tunnel daily, yielding 10 kg of excavated dirt. Total tunnel length is 65-195 m and spread over 194-1000 m?. Peripheral feeding tunnels are located at depths of 15-25 cm; deeper passages may reach 410 cm. Oval-shaped 28 x 18 x 16 cm nests are centrally located at depths of 25-50 cm; they are lined with grasses. Multiple food caches and toilet chambers are present. Mounds are located 21-30 m apart. Densities are usually 1-13 ind/ha, but 23 ind/ha have been recorded. Lesser Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Predators include the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis), the Ermine (M. erminea), the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmannii), domestic dog, domestic cat, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), and the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica).","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax leucodon). Species boundaries are poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, urbanization, and other development. The superspecies is found in protected areas, but several of the species in this complex are undoubtedly threatened, lack protection, and are in dire need of assessment as individual entities. For example, G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 evaluated conservation status of the N. leucodonsuperspecies in the Carpathian Basin, treating forms therein as four distinct species. They proposed that N. (leucodon) transylvanicus from north-eastern Hungary and north-western Romania warrants a status of vulnerable because area of occupancy is no more than 120 km?, it is known from under ten localities, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (l.) hungaricus from eastern Hungary and northern Serbia as endangered because extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is no more than 300 km?it is known from under five localities, more than 95% of the population is found at a single locality, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (lL) montanosyrmiensis from southern Hungary and northern Serbia as critically endangered because extent of occurrence is no more than 100 km? area of occupancy is less than 10 km?, it is known from only three localities, these populations continue to decline, and habitat size and quality continue to decline. Finally, they assessed N. (l.) syrmiensis from western Hungary and northern Serbia as data deficient because it has not been recorded in 30 years and is likely extinct. Similar detailed assessment is needed for the rest of the geographic distribution.","Bego et al. (2014) | Csorba et al. (2015) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009) | Krystufek (1999b) | Krystufek & Amori (2008) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Révay et al. (2009) | Nevo et al. (2001) | Ognev (1947) | Savi¢ et al. (1984) | Topachevskii (1969)",,"26.Lesser Blind Mole-ratNannospalax leucodonFrench:Spalax de Hongrie/ German:\Westblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega pequenaOther common names:Lesser Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax typhlus leucodon Nordmann, 1840,near Odessa, Ukraine.Nannospalax leucodonis included in subgenus Mesospalax. It represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric and parapatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Numerous names have been applied to these various forms, many of which are nomen nuda or otherwise unavailable. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 treated N. leucodonas a single species with two subspecies: leucodonfrom eastern Hungary, Romania, Moldovia, and Ukraine and monticolafrom Hungary and Bulgaria, southward to Greece and European Turkey. At the other extreme, I. Savi¢ and colleagues in 1984 recognized 13 species and ten additional subspecies, granting named status to all known cytotypes. Genetic diversity among populations of N. leucodonappears to be lower than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, but to date, sampling has been restricted to the western part ofits distribution. Assessing species boundaries will probably require combining data on karyotypes with molecular phylogenetics because morphological data appear to be of limited use. Monotypic.Distribution.E Hungary, SW Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, SE Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece (including NE Aegean Is of Samothrace and Lemnos), and European Turkey.Descriptive notes.Head—body 150-240 mm, no visible external tail; weight 162-504 g. Male Lesser Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. Color varies but is typically brownish to gray, with tinge of yellow, ginger, or yellow-red. Anterior of head is less brown and more gray. Ridge of longer white to yellow hair extends from sides of nose toward ears. Venter is mostly gray. White or yellow spots are common in northern populations but less so in other regions such as Turkey. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are yellow or white. Populations in Turkey are smaller. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 29 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 38-62.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands, meadows, and pastures from sea level to elevations up to 2400 m. Lesser Blind Mole-rats can be found in forest clearings, small fields adjacent to pasture, and orchards. They prefer deep, loose, and well-drained soil. They are usually absent in forest, wetlands, rocky areas, and heavily cultivated areas.Food and Feeding.Lesser Blind Mole-rats feed primarily on bulbs, roots, and tubers, with supplements from green plant parts. Green plant matter is important for weaned juveniles and adults in late spring. Insects are also sometimes eaten. The Lesser Blind Mole-rat eats ¢.36:5% ofits body mass daily. Its energy budgetis 0-17 kcal/g/day except in winter when it increases to 0-22 kcal/g/day. Food caches of 6-20 kg have been reported.Breeding.Pregnant female Lesser Blind Mole-rats are most commonly captured in March. Gestation is 30 days. Young are born in March-April and weigh 6-6-5 g. Litter size is usually 2—4 young, but 1-6 young have been recorded. Young are weaned after 2-2-5 months; young males weigh 137 g while females weigh 121 g by the end of May. Females start breeding in their second year. In captivity, females live up to 3-5 years, and males live 4-5 years.Activity patterns.Activity of the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is polyphasic, with two peaks at 13:00-14:00 h and 01:00-02:00 h in some reports and three peaks at 11:00-13:00 h, 07:00-09:00 h, and 17:00-21:00 h in others.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Lesser Blind Mole-rats have a main tunnel with secondary tunnels branching off. An individual digs c.1:7 m of tunnel daily, yielding 10 kg of excavated dirt. Total tunnel length is 65-195 m and spread over 194-1000 m?. Peripheral feeding tunnels are located at depths of 15-25 cm; deeper passages may reach 410 cm. Oval-shaped 28 x 18 x 16 cm nests are centrally located at depths of 25-50 cm; they are lined with grasses. Multiple food caches and toilet chambers are present. Mounds are located 21-30 m apart. Densities are usually 1-13 ind/ha, but 23 ind/ha have been recorded. Lesser Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Predators include the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis), the Ermine (M. erminea), the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmannii), domestic dog, domestic cat, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), and the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax leucodon). Species boundaries are poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, urbanization, and other development. The superspecies is found in protected areas, but several of the species in this complex are undoubtedly threatened, lack protection, and are in dire need of assessment as individual entities. For example, G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 evaluated conservation status of the N. leucodonsuperspecies in the Carpathian Basin, treating forms therein as four distinct species. They proposed that N. (leucodon) transylvanicus from north-eastern Hungary and north-western Romania warrants a status of vulnerable because area of occupancy is no more than 120 km?, it is known from under ten localities, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (l.) hungaricus from eastern Hungary and northern Serbia as endangered because extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is no more than 300 km?it is known from under five localities, more than 95% of the population is found at a single locality, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (lL) montanosyrmiensis from southern Hungary and northern Serbia as critically endangered because extent of occurrence is no more than 100 km? area of occupancy is less than 10 km?, it is known from only three localities, these populations continue to decline, and habitat size and quality continue to decline. Finally, they assessed N. (l.) syrmiensis from western Hungary and northern Serbia as data deficient because it has not been recorded in 30 years and is likely extinct. Similar detailed assessment is needed for the rest of the geographic distribution.Bibliography.Bego et al. (2014), Csorba et al. (2015), Hadid et al. (2012), Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009), Krystufek (1999b), Krystufek & Amori (2008), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Révay et al. (2009), Nevo et al. (2001), Ognev (1947), Savi¢ et al. (1984), Topachevskii (1969)." -03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.xml,Spalax uralensis,Spalax,uralensis,Tiflov & Usov,1939,Spalax de @fr | 'Oural @en | Kasachstan-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Kazajistan @es | Ural Blind Mole-rat @en,"Spalax uralensis Tiflov & Usov, 1939,Chingerlauz region, W Kazakhstan.Although originally described as a separate species, S. wuralensis was generally regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.W Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.Habitat.Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin.",W Kazakhstan.,"Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.","Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin. Distribution of the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is tied to presence ofits primary food source, Volga wild rye (Elymus giganteus, Poaceae).","The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat feeds on multiple plant species, but Volga wild rye represents the bulk of its diet. Food caches reach sizes of 2-5 kg.","Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats usually breed once a year in spring or summer, but females will occasionally have a second litter in autumn. Litter sizes are 2—6 young.",Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activity peaks in spring and is lowest in June.,Burrows of Kazakhstan Blind Molerats include feeding tunnels near the surface and deeperliving chambers. Burrows are 145-540 m long and 0-9-3 m deep. Densities are 0-26—1 ind/ha in marginal conditions and 4 ind/ha in quality habitat.,Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratis listed as rare with limited distribution (category 3) on the Red List of Kazakhstan. It is threatened by overgrazing and experiences declines in drought years.,"Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (1993, 2016e) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina (2008b)",,"25.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratSpalax uralensisFrench:Spalax de I'Oural/ German:Kasachstan-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de KazajistanOther common names:Ural Blind Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax uralensis Tiflov & Usov, 1939,Chingerlauz region, W Kazakhstan.Although originally described as a separate species, S. wuralensis was generally regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.W Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.Habitat.Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin. Distribution of the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is tied to presence ofits primary food source, Volga wild rye (Elymus giganteus, Poaceae).Food and Feeding.The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat feeds on multiple plant species, but Volga wild rye represents the bulk of its diet. Food caches reach sizes of 2-5 kg.Breeding.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats usually breed once a year in spring or summer, but females will occasionally have a second litter in autumn. Litter sizes are 2—6 young.Activity patterns.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activity peaks in spring and is lowest in June.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Kazakhstan Blind Molerats include feeding tunnels near the surface and deeperliving chambers. Burrows are 145-540 m long and 0-9-3 m deep. Densities are 0-26—1 ind/ha in marginal conditions and 4 ind/ha in quality habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratis listed as rare with limited distribution (category 3) on the Red List of Kazakhstan. It is threatened by overgrazing and experiences declines in drought years.Bibliography.Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (1993, 2016e), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina (2008b)." -03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.xml,Nannospalax xanthodon,Nannospalax,xanthodon,,,Spalax d’Anatolie @fr | Anatolien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Anatolia @es | Anatolian Mole-rat @en,"Spalax typhlus xanthodon Nordmann, 1840,Smyrna, Turkey.Nannospalaxxanthodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. The name nehringiby K. A. Satunin in 1898 is frequently used to represent this species, but xanthodon used by A. von Nordmann in 1840 has priority. Nannospalaxxanthodon has been treated as a synonym of N. leucodon, and the two are clearly related, but both forms are themselves composed of multiple species, and recognition of two, if not more, species has been common since V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 characterized differences in their morphology. Like N. leucodon, N. xanthodon represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Topachevskii recognized two subspecies, nehringifrom eastern Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, and a western subspecies found in the rest of Asian Turkey, which he listed as cilicicus, but is probably more appropriately the nominate xanthodon. Recent studies have uncovered a number of karyotypes across the distribution of N. xanthodon, and some have argued that each of these warrant species or subspecies recognition, or at least recognition as evolutionary significant units. Genetic diversity among populations of N. xanthodon is higher than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, and Y. Hadid and colleagues in 2012 concluded that it is paraphyletic with respect to N. leucodon, although with weak support. Specifically, they found several populations with 2n = 60 or 62, including vasvariinamed byJ. Szunyoghy in 1941, as sister to a clade uniting N. leucodonwith the remaining populations of N. xanthodon. Populations with 2n = 60 or 62 are spread widely across central Turkey, and several older names are available for forms in this region, but blind mole-rats from at least part of this area will probably warrant recognition as a distinct species. In an RFLP study, T. Kankili¢ and C. Giirpinar in 2014 suggested that N. labaume: may be the appropriate name for this taxon. Their results also suggested the presence of a more westerly distributed N. xanthodon and an eastern N. nehringiwhose range essentially corresponds to Topachevskii’s definition of N. [x.] nehringi. In a study of bacular morphology, Kankili¢ and colleagues in 2014 further supported division ofthis species into three species: N. xanthodon, N. nehringi, and N. labaumei. Although geographical boundaries of these probable species are not fully defined and status of some older names such as cilicicus named by L. Méhely in 1909 are notclear, available evidence suggests that superspecies N. xanthodon probably warrants division into at least these three species. Monotypic.","Asian Turkey, SW Georgia, NW Armenia, extreme NW Iran, and several E Aegean Is (Lesbos in Greece and Bozcaada and Gokceada in Turkey).","Head-body 143-248 mm, no visible external tail; weight 130-522 g. Male Anatolian Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is medium-sized, and on most of its body, individual hairs are slate-gray on most of the length, with terminal buff of gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown. Belly hairs are generally simply slate-gray but can range from almost black to whitish orsilver. Bristly keel of lighter yellowish hairs extends from large brownish triangular nose pad about halfway to ear openings. White hairs can line nose pad and lips, and white spots or streaks can be present elsewhere on head. Incisors are extrabuccal and can be white, yellow, or orange. Smaller upper incisors tend to be darker. Kankilic and colleagues in 2014 characterized differences in bacular morphologies across chromosomal races and probable species; mean lengths for individual cytotypes were 4-8-7-8 mm. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 25 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 36-62. Cytotypes do not appear to overlap geographically.","Mediterranean coastal environments, steppe, semi-deserts, and high-elevation pastures and meadows at elevations of 50-2900 m, most commonly 900-1600 m. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat avoids forest, rocky areas, and swamp and marsh habitat.","The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on underground plant parts, particularly bulbs, but also roots and tubers. Geraniumtuberosum (Geraniaceae) has been reported as its most important food item. Individuals eat 22-2-59-4% of their body weight daily. Food is stored in cache chambers in burrows, and quantity varies by season with smallest caches in summer. Mean caches are 741-1556 g, but 10 kg of potatoes, beets, and carrots have been found in a single burrow. Anatolian Blind Mole-rats can damage agricultural crops, but they are not particularly successful in fields with intensive plowing.","Female Anatolian Blind Mole-rats have one litter annually. In Armenia, breeding starts in January, and pregnant females have been found until May. Scrotal males are most common in March-April but have been found year-round. In Turkey, reproduction occurs in January-June and peaks in February. Gestation is 26 days, and littersize is 1-6 young, usually 2-3 young. At birth, young are 50-60 mm long and weigh 9-9-5 g. They are weaned at weights of c¢.115 g and leave nests by summer. Breeding individuals have a minimum body mass of 147 g for males and 167 g for females.",No information.,"Burrows of the Anatolian Blind Mole-rat include feeding tunnels, a nest chamber, food caches, and toilets. Feeding passages are 5-40 cm deep, and deeper passages are 80-150 cm. One or two nests are present; they are c.20 x 20 cm and are lined with dry plant material. Nests tend to be beneath largest mounds. Highest densities are 60 ind/ha. Predators include the little owl (Athene noctua), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the tawny owl (Strix aluco), and the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca). This species is solitary.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax nehringi) because species boundaries are so poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Anatolian Blind Mole-ratis relatively common and known from multiple protected areas. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some chromosomal forms, for example, are extremely restricted in geographical distribution. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rate faces threats from large-scale agricultural practices, overgrazing, and habitat fragmentation.","Bukhnikashvili et al. (2008) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Kankilic & Gurpinar (2014) | Kankili¢, Kankilig, Seker & Kivang (2014) | Kankilig, Kankilic, S6zen & Colak (2013) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2016) | von Nordmann (1840) | Ognev (1947) | Satunin (1898) | Szunyoghy (1941) | Topachevskii (1969)",,"27.Anatolian Blind Mole-ratNannospalax xanthodonFrench:Spalax d’Anatolie/ German:Anatolien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de AnatoliaOther common names:Anatolian Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax typhlus xanthodon Nordmann, 1840,Smyrna, Turkey.Nannospalaxxanthodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. The name nehringiby K. A. Satunin in 1898 is frequently used to represent this species, but xanthodon used by A. von Nordmann in 1840 has priority. Nannospalaxxanthodon has been treated as a synonym of N. leucodon, and the two are clearly related, but both forms are themselves composed of multiple species, and recognition of two, if not more, species has been common since V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 characterized differences in their morphology. Like N. leucodon, N. xanthodon represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Topachevskii recognized two subspecies, nehringifrom eastern Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, and a western subspecies found in the rest of Asian Turkey, which he listed as cilicicus, but is probably more appropriately the nominate xanthodon. Recent studies have uncovered a number of karyotypes across the distribution of N. xanthodon, and some have argued that each of these warrant species or subspecies recognition, or at least recognition as evolutionary significant units. Genetic diversity among populations of N. xanthodon is higher than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, and Y. Hadid and colleagues in 2012 concluded that it is paraphyletic with respect to N. leucodon, although with weak support. Specifically, they found several populations with 2n = 60 or 62, including vasvariinamed byJ. Szunyoghy in 1941, as sister to a clade uniting N. leucodonwith the remaining populations of N. xanthodon. Populations with 2n = 60 or 62 are spread widely across central Turkey, and several older names are available for forms in this region, but blind mole-rats from at least part of this area will probably warrant recognition as a distinct species. In an RFLP study, T. Kankili¢ and C. Giirpinar in 2014 suggested that N. labaume: may be the appropriate name for this taxon. Their results also suggested the presence of a more westerly distributed N. xanthodon and an eastern N. nehringiwhose range essentially corresponds to Topachevskii’s definition of N. [x.] nehringi. In a study of bacular morphology, Kankili¢ and colleagues in 2014 further supported division ofthis species into three species: N. xanthodon, N. nehringi, and N. labaumei. Although geographical boundaries of these probable species are not fully defined and status of some older names such as cilicicus named by L. Méhely in 1909 are notclear, available evidence suggests that superspecies N. xanthodon probably warrants division into at least these three species. Monotypic.Distribution.Asian Turkey, SW Georgia, NW Armenia, extreme NW Iran, and several E Aegean Is (Lesbos in Greece and Bozcaada and Gokceada in Turkey).Descriptive notes.Head-body 143-248 mm, no visible external tail; weight 130-522 g. Male Anatolian Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is medium-sized, and on most of its body, individual hairs are slate-gray on most of the length, with terminal buff of gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown. Belly hairs are generally simply slate-gray but can range from almost black to whitish orsilver. Bristly keel of lighter yellowish hairs extends from large brownish triangular nose pad about halfway to ear openings. White hairs can line nose pad and lips, and white spots or streaks can be present elsewhere on head. Incisors are extrabuccal and can be white, yellow, or orange. Smaller upper incisors tend to be darker. Kankilic and colleagues in 2014 characterized differences in bacular morphologies across chromosomal races and probable species; mean lengths for individual cytotypes were 4-8-7-8 mm. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 25 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 36-62. Cytotypes do not appear to overlap geographically.Habitat.Mediterranean coastal environments, steppe, semi-deserts, and high-elevation pastures and meadows at elevations of 50-2900 m, most commonly 900-1600 m. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat avoids forest, rocky areas, and swamp and marsh habitat.Food and Feeding.The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on underground plant parts, particularly bulbs, but also roots and tubers. Geraniumtuberosum (Geraniaceae) has been reported as its most important food item. Individuals eat 22-2-59-4% of their body weight daily. Food is stored in cache chambers in burrows, and quantity varies by season with smallest caches in summer. Mean caches are 741-1556 g, but 10 kg of potatoes, beets, and carrots have been found in a single burrow. Anatolian Blind Mole-rats can damage agricultural crops, but they are not particularly successful in fields with intensive plowing.Breeding.Female Anatolian Blind Mole-rats have one litter annually. In Armenia, breeding starts in January, and pregnant females have been found until May. Scrotal males are most common in March-April but have been found year-round. In Turkey, reproduction occurs in January-June and peaks in February. Gestation is 26 days, and littersize is 1-6 young, usually 2-3 young. At birth, young are 50-60 mm long and weigh 9-9-5 g. They are weaned at weights of c¢.115 g and leave nests by summer. Breeding individuals have a minimum body mass of 147 g for males and 167 g for females.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of the Anatolian Blind Mole-rat include feeding tunnels, a nest chamber, food caches, and toilets. Feeding passages are 5-40 cm deep, and deeper passages are 80-150 cm. One or two nests are present; they are c.20 x 20 cm and are lined with dry plant material. Nests tend to be beneath largest mounds. Highest densities are 60 ind/ha. Predators include the little owl (Athene noctua), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the tawny owl (Strix aluco), and the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca). This species is solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax nehringi) because species boundaries are so poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Anatolian Blind Mole-ratis relatively common and known from multiple protected areas. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some chromosomal forms, for example, are extremely restricted in geographical distribution. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rate faces threats from large-scale agricultural practices, overgrazing, and habitat fragmentation.Bibliography.Bukhnikashvili et al. (2008), Hadid et al. (2012), Kankilic & Gurpinar (2014), Kankili¢, Kankilig, Seker & Kivang (2014), Kankilig, Kankilic, S6zen & Colak (2013), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2016), von Nordmann (1840), Ognev (1947), Satunin (1898), Szunyoghy (1941), Topachevskii (1969)." -03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.xml,Eospalax rufescens,Eospalax,rufescens,,,Zokor roux @fr | Qin-Ling-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Qinling @es,"Myotalpa rufescens J. A. Allen, 1909,Taipai Shan, southern Shensi, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 reluctantly treated E. rufescensas synonymous with E. fontanieriicansusbased on limited and incomplete material. Fospalax rufescenshas been treated as conspecific with E. fontanieru, E. cansus, or E. bailey: (under the older name rufescens), but it had rarely been treated as a distinct species in its own right until recently. Various studies support distinctiveness of E. rufescensamong species of Fospalax based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. baileyr, but a sister relationship with E. cansushas also been suggested. Additional research is needed to assessits position within the genus Fospalax. Monotypic.","Qin Mts in S Gansu, S Shaanxi, and N Sichuan (C China).","Head-body c.186 mm, tail ¢.33 mm. No specific data available for body weight. The Qinling Zokoris dark gray to rufescent brown. Tail is brownish white and well-furred. Hindfeet are also well-furred. Nasals are long and slightly trapezoidal in shape, and incisive foramina extend well into maxilla. M? lacks a second re-entrant fold.",Grassy habitat and cropland at elevations above 2000 m in Qin Mountains.,No information.,No information.,No information.,The Qinling Zokor prefers to construct burrows in soft soils with few rocks on sunny slopes with sparse shrubs.,"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as data deficient on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Qinling Zokor seems to benefit from an intermediate level of human disturbance such as cleared land near highways. It is an agricultural pest.","Allen, G.M. (1940) | Allen, J.A. (1909) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Lu Qingbin et al. (2011) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Zhou Caiguan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)",,"8.Qinling ZokorEospalax rufescensFrench:Zokor roux/ German:Qin-Ling-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de QinlingTaxonomy.Myotalpa rufescens J. A. Allen, 1909,Taipai Shan, southern Shensi, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 reluctantly treated E. rufescensas synonymous with E. fontanieriicansusbased on limited and incomplete material. Fospalax rufescenshas been treated as conspecific with E. fontanieru, E. cansus, or E. bailey: (under the older name rufescens), but it had rarely been treated as a distinct species in its own right until recently. Various studies support distinctiveness of E. rufescensamong species of Fospalax based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. baileyr, but a sister relationship with E. cansushas also been suggested. Additional research is needed to assessits position within the genus Fospalax. Monotypic.Distribution.Qin Mts in S Gansu, S Shaanxi, and N Sichuan (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body c.186 mm, tail ¢.33 mm. No specific data available for body weight. The Qinling Zokoris dark gray to rufescent brown. Tail is brownish white and well-furred. Hindfeet are also well-furred. Nasals are long and slightly trapezoidal in shape, and incisive foramina extend well into maxilla. M? lacks a second re-entrant fold.Habitat.Grassy habitat and cropland at elevations above 2000 m in Qin Mountains.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Qinling Zokor prefers to construct burrows in soft soils with few rocks on sunny slopes with sparse shrubs.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as data deficient on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Qinling Zokor seems to benefit from an intermediate level of human disturbance such as cleared land near highways. It is an agricultural pest.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1940), Allen, J.A. (1909), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Lu Qingbin et al. (2011), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Zhou Caiguan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)." -03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.xml,Eospalax cansus,Eospalax,cansus,,,Zokor du Gansu @fr | Gansu-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Gansu @es,"Myotalpa cansus Lyon, 1907,“ Taocheo[= Chaozhou], Kan-su, northwestern China.”Although O. Thomas and others had treated them as a separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusas a subspecies of Jfontaniern and treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontaniern in the literature pertain to the better-studied FE. cansus. In recent years, various studies have supported treating E. cansusas a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. baileyibased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. cansuswithin Eospalax, but it does not appear to be closely related to E. fontanierii. Three distinct mitochondrial clades of E. cansushave been identified that correspond to central Shaanxi; Ningxia and south-eastern Gansu; and eastern Qinghai and south-western Gansu. These appear to roughly correspond to groupings recovered based on morphometric analysis of Lu Qingbin and colleagues in 2013. Additional research is required to determine if E. cansuswarrants division into subspecies or even multiple species. Monotypic.","Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei (C & E China).","Head-body 155-230 mm, tail 33-66 mm; weight 150-430 g. Male Gansu Zokors are larger than females, and populations at higher elevations tend to be larger. The Gansu Zokoris brownish, although slightly darker than Fontanier’s Zokor (E. fontanierii). Hairs are dark gray at bases. Unlike Fontanier’s Zokor, the Gansu Zokor usually lacks white blaze; when present, it is small. Tail and feet are sparsely haired. Immature individuals are gray. Median occipital crest is well-developed, and M? has two re-entrant folds.","Grassland, shrub-steppe, and forest at elevations of 1500-2500 m on the Loess Plateau. Burrows of Gansu Zokors have been excavated in areas with high concentrations of grasses, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae), and thyme (Thymus, Lamiaceae).",Gansu Zokors eat underground plant matter.,"Ganu Zokors breed primarily in April-July. As breeding approaches, males consume more food and increase digging activity, and their testes descend. When a captive male was placed in shared spaces with a female, the two initially acted aggressively, began to act more amicably, and finally mated. Courtship lasts ¢.25 days. Mating bouts appear to be most common in morning, last 10-30 minutes, and can continue for 8-10 days. Litter sizes are 1-5 young, usually 2-3 young.","When walking, claws of Gansu Zokors are folded undersoles offeet.","The Gansu Zokor lives almost entirely underground. Communication occurs seismically via call and head drumming; they squeal when frightened. Individuals clearly know status of neighboring individuals. If an individual is removed,its territory will be quickly occupied. This behavior appears to allow individuals to form overlappingburrow systems, allowing mates to find each other. Males have larger tunnel systems than females and are more aggressive. Predators include the Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii). Remains of the Gansu Zokor have also been found in owl pellets.","Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Gansu Zokor has a wide distribution and large population and is found in protected areas. Overgrazing is a common problem acrossits distribution, and research is needed to understand complex interactions among overgrazing, erosion, habitat restoration, and zokor activities. The Gansu Zokor is considered a pest because it is thought to exacerbate erosion and hinder forest restoration projects by feeding on seedlings. It is also an agricultural pest of several crops including soybeans.","Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Hongo et al. (1993) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Li Jingang, He Jianping & Wang Tingzheng (2001) | Li Jingang, Wang Tingzheng & He Jianping (2001) | Lu Qingbin et al. (2013) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Yang Chuanhua etal. (2012) | Zhang Tongzuo et al. (2013) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)",,"7.Gansu ZokorEospalax cansusFrench:Zokor du Gansu/ German:Gansu-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de GansuTaxonomy.Myotalpa cansus Lyon, 1907,“ Taocheo[= Chaozhou], Kan-su, northwestern China.”Although O. Thomas and others had treated them as a separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusas a subspecies of Jfontaniern and treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontaniern in the literature pertain to the better-studied FE. cansus. In recent years, various studies have supported treating E. cansusas a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. baileyibased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. cansuswithin Eospalax, but it does not appear to be closely related to E. fontanierii. Three distinct mitochondrial clades of E. cansushave been identified that correspond to central Shaanxi; Ningxia and south-eastern Gansu; and eastern Qinghai and south-western Gansu. These appear to roughly correspond to groupings recovered based on morphometric analysis of Lu Qingbin and colleagues in 2013. Additional research is required to determine if E. cansuswarrants division into subspecies or even multiple species. Monotypic.Distribution.Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei (C & E China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 155-230 mm, tail 33-66 mm; weight 150-430 g. Male Gansu Zokors are larger than females, and populations at higher elevations tend to be larger. The Gansu Zokoris brownish, although slightly darker than Fontanier’s Zokor (E. fontanierii). Hairs are dark gray at bases. Unlike Fontanier’s Zokor, the Gansu Zokor usually lacks white blaze; when present, it is small. Tail and feet are sparsely haired. Immature individuals are gray. Median occipital crest is well-developed, and M? has two re-entrant folds.Habitat.Grassland, shrub-steppe, and forest at elevations of 1500-2500 m on the Loess Plateau. Burrows of Gansu Zokors have been excavated in areas with high concentrations of grasses, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae), and thyme (Thymus, Lamiaceae).Food and Feeding.Gansu Zokors eat underground plant matter.Breeding.Ganu Zokors breed primarily in April-July. As breeding approaches, males consume more food and increase digging activity, and their testes descend. When a captive male was placed in shared spaces with a female, the two initially acted aggressively, began to act more amicably, and finally mated. Courtship lasts ¢.25 days. Mating bouts appear to be most common in morning, last 10-30 minutes, and can continue for 8-10 days. Litter sizes are 1-5 young, usually 2-3 young.Activity patterns.When walking, claws of Gansu Zokors are folded undersoles offeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gansu Zokor lives almost entirely underground. Communication occurs seismically via call and head drumming; they squeal when frightened. Individuals clearly know status of neighboring individuals. If an individual is removed,its territory will be quickly occupied. This behavior appears to allow individuals to form overlappingburrow systems, allowing mates to find each other. Males have larger tunnel systems than females and are more aggressive. Predators include the Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii). Remains of the Gansu Zokor have also been found in owl pellets.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Gansu Zokor has a wide distribution and large population and is found in protected areas. Overgrazing is a common problem acrossits distribution, and research is needed to understand complex interactions among overgrazing, erosion, habitat restoration, and zokor activities. The Gansu Zokor is considered a pest because it is thought to exacerbate erosion and hinder forest restoration projects by feeding on seedlings. It is also an agricultural pest of several crops including soybeans.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Hongo et al. (1993), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Li Jingang, He Jianping & Wang Tingzheng (2001), Li Jingang, Wang Tingzheng & He Jianping (2001), Lu Qingbin et al. (2013), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Yang Chuanhua etal. (2012), Zhang Tongzuo et al. (2013), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)." -03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.xml,Eospalax baileyi,Eospalax,baileyi,,,Zokor des plateaux @fr | Qinghai-Blindmull @de | Zocor de altiplano @es,"Myospalax baileyi Thomas, 1911,between Nagchuka(or Hokow) and Tatsienlu, Ramasong, W Szechwan, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated E. baileyias separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included it as a subspecies offontanieru. S. Y. Song in 1986 regarded baileyias a subspecies of rufescens. Many references to E. fontanieriiand E. rufescenspertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi. In recent years, various studies support treating E. bailey: as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. cansusbased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. rufescens. Four to six deeply divergent, geographically discrete, mitochondrial clades have been identified within E. baileyi, and these may show some overlap with the three morphological groups suggested by Tang Lizhou and colleagues in 2009. Additional research is required to determine if E. baileyiwarrants further division into multiple species or subspecies. Monotypic.","Qinghai, Gansu, and W Sichuan (China).","Head-body 160-235 mm,tail 33-61 mm; weight 173-490 g. Male Plateau Zokorsare larger than females. They are pale rufous-brown with pinkish buff. Tail is short and densely furred with whitish hairs. Feet are also hairy. Young are gray. Incisive foramina is restricted to premaxilla.","Alpine meadows, steppe meadows, shrubs, and farmland. at elevations of 2800-4500 m on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Plateau Zokor prefers moist soil and degraded grassland and avoids desert, irrigated land, and boulder fields. Microclimate of its burrows allows for less extreme temperature swings and milder temperatures overall. While aboveground January temperatures may be —4 to —=38°C, burrows maintain a temperature of 0-5°C. Humidity is high (79-87-3%) in these burrows compared to dry external climate (31-7-53-3%). Nevertheless, microclimate in burrows presents challenges. Oxygen levels are low (17-18:4% in burrow compared to 20-4% externally), and carbon dioxide levels are extremely high (0-22-1-5% in burrow compared to 0-03% outside). The Plateau Zokoris a subterranean and a high-elevation species, and it has substantially elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentration; it is extremely efficient at delivering oxygen to tissue. Oxygen pressure in arterial blood of the Plateau Zokoris 1-5 times higher than laboratory rats, and oxygen pressure in venous blood is 0-26 times that of lab rats.","Plateau Zokors feed on roots and shoots of forbs, grasses, and some shrubs. They prefer taproots and storage organs of plants such as Notopterygium forbesii (Apiaceae), Potentillaanserina (Rosaceae), Morina chinensis(Caprifoliaceae), and dandelions (Taraxacum, Asteraceae). Plants are accessed from feeding tunnels belowground. The Plateau Zokor will grab roots and pull the entire plant down into the tunnel system where it is consumed. All zokors have an adaptation in the thumb claw where it is shortened and wears away leaving a central gap. Under laboratory conditions, the Plateau Zokor uses this thumb claw to clean off taproots such as dandelions. The root is then held in both hands, resting in these thumb gaps,as it is consumed.","Male and female Plateau Zokors never share a burrow. Mating occursat the intersection of burrows of neighboring males and females. During the mating period, males will dig multiple long tunnels, presumably in hopes of entering female territories. Males and females mate with multiple partners during a single mating period. Females give birth once a year, usually in April-May. Litter sizes are about three young (1-5), and lactation lasts c.50 days.",Plateau Zokors live mostly belowground. They are active year-round but have higher activity levels in spring and autumn and lowest in winter. The Plateau Zokorsleeps very deeply and can be handled or subjected to loud noises without waking up.,"Burrows of Plateau Zokors are complex, with tunnel systems reaching ¢.100 m in length and depths of 0-8-1-5 m for males and 2-2-5 m for females. Burrow systems contain transportation and foraging tunnels, 1-2 nest chambers, food stores, and dead end tunnels. Soil is brought to the surface when digging, and their presence is evident by presence of mounds that can take up 15-20% of the surface above the burrow system. Dispersal is probably aboveground and male-biased, but this has not been observed directly. They are solitary and intolerant of one another, becoming aggressive when encountering others. Densities are 5-70 ind/ha and average 15 ind/ha. Predators include the Tibetan Fox (Vulpesferrilata), the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmannii), the Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bietr), Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul), the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), the upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) and the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) occasionally eat Plateau Zokors.","Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List whereit is treated as a distinct species. The Plateau Zokor has a wide distribution and large population. An annual eradication program was implemented in the 1990s, which reduced population size to less than one-third of its formersize. Livestock grazing appears to increase prevalence of Plateau Zokors because it leads to an increase in the types of plants with taproots they prefer. This increase in zokors may in turn further accelerate landscape deterioration, but the system is complex, and researchers debate positive and negative impacts. The Plateau Zokor is considered an ecosystem engineer. A single individual transfers more than 1000 kg of soil to the surface annually. Its burrowing activities mix and aerate soil, increase environmental heterogeneity, enhance infiltration of water into the soil, and thereby curtail erosion. These activities also lessen uptake of greenhouse gases and appear to facilitate spread of invasive plant species. Abandoned burrows are used as shelters by a variety of small mammals (such as the Root Vole, Microtusoeconomus, and Gansu Pika, Ochotona cansus), birds (such as the ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis, the black-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla adamsi, and several species of ground-sparrows such as Pyrgilauda blanfordi, P. davidiana, P. ruficollis, and P. taczanowski), amphibians and reptiles. Dried bone of Plateau Zokor, known as “Sailonggu,” is used in traditional Tibetan medicine as a treatment for inflammation. It is used as a medicinal replacement for Tiger (Panthera tigris) bone, which serves a similar function.","Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Li Wenjing et al. (2009) | Lin Gonghua, Li Wenjing et al. (2011) | Lin Gonghua, Zhao Fang et al. (2014) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Tang Lizhou, Wang Liuyang et al. (2010) | Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo, Lin Gonhua & Su Jianping (2010) | Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo & Su Jianping (2009) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wei Dengbang et al. (2006) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Yang Chuanhua et al. (2012) | Zhang Weiet al. (2014) | Zhang Yanming (2007a, 2007b) | Zeng Jinxiang et al. (1984) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008) | Zhou Caiquan et al. (2004)",,"9.Plateau ZokorEospalax baileyiFrench:Zokor des plateaux/ German:Qinghai-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de altiplanoTaxonomy.Myospalax baileyi Thomas, 1911,between Nagchuka(or Hokow) and Tatsienlu, Ramasong, W Szechwan, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated E. baileyias separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included it as a subspecies offontanieru. S. Y. Song in 1986 regarded baileyias a subspecies of rufescens. Many references to E. fontanieriiand E. rufescenspertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi. In recent years, various studies support treating E. bailey: as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. cansusbased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. rufescens. Four to six deeply divergent, geographically discrete, mitochondrial clades have been identified within E. baileyi, and these may show some overlap with the three morphological groups suggested by Tang Lizhou and colleagues in 2009. Additional research is required to determine if E. baileyiwarrants further division into multiple species or subspecies. Monotypic.Distribution.Qinghai, Gansu, and W Sichuan (China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-235 mm,tail 33-61 mm; weight 173-490 g. Male Plateau Zokorsare larger than females. They are pale rufous-brown with pinkish buff. Tail is short and densely furred with whitish hairs. Feet are also hairy. Young are gray. Incisive foramina is restricted to premaxilla.Habitat.Alpine meadows, steppe meadows, shrubs, and farmland. at elevations of 2800-4500 m on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Plateau Zokor prefers moist soil and degraded grassland and avoids desert, irrigated land, and boulder fields. Microclimate of its burrows allows for less extreme temperature swings and milder temperatures overall. While aboveground January temperatures may be —4 to —=38°C, burrows maintain a temperature of 0-5°C. Humidity is high (79-87-3%) in these burrows compared to dry external climate (31-7-53-3%). Nevertheless, microclimate in burrows presents challenges. Oxygen levels are low (17-18:4% in burrow compared to 20-4% externally), and carbon dioxide levels are extremely high (0-22-1-5% in burrow compared to 0-03% outside). The Plateau Zokoris a subterranean and a high-elevation species, and it has substantially elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentration; it is extremely efficient at delivering oxygen to tissue. Oxygen pressure in arterial blood of the Plateau Zokoris 1-5 times higher than laboratory rats, and oxygen pressure in venous blood is 0-26 times that of lab rats.Food and Feeding.Plateau Zokors feed on roots and shoots of forbs, grasses, and some shrubs. They prefer taproots and storage organs of plants such as Notopterygium forbesii (Apiaceae), Potentillaanserina (Rosaceae), Morina chinensis(Caprifoliaceae), and dandelions (Taraxacum, Asteraceae). Plants are accessed from feeding tunnels belowground. The Plateau Zokor will grab roots and pull the entire plant down into the tunnel system where it is consumed. All zokors have an adaptation in the thumb claw where it is shortened and wears away leaving a central gap. Under laboratory conditions, the Plateau Zokor uses this thumb claw to clean off taproots such as dandelions. The root is then held in both hands, resting in these thumb gaps,as it is consumed.Breeding.Male and female Plateau Zokors never share a burrow. Mating occursat the intersection of burrows of neighboring males and females. During the mating period, males will dig multiple long tunnels, presumably in hopes of entering female territories. Males and females mate with multiple partners during a single mating period. Females give birth once a year, usually in April-May. Litter sizes are about three young (1-5), and lactation lasts c.50 days.Activity patterns.Plateau Zokors live mostly belowground. They are active year-round but have higher activity levels in spring and autumn and lowest in winter. The Plateau Zokorsleeps very deeply and can be handled or subjected to loud noises without waking up.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Plateau Zokors are complex, with tunnel systems reaching ¢.100 m in length and depths of 0-8-1-5 m for males and 2-2-5 m for females. Burrow systems contain transportation and foraging tunnels, 1-2 nest chambers, food stores, and dead end tunnels. Soil is brought to the surface when digging, and their presence is evident by presence of mounds that can take up 15-20% of the surface above the burrow system. Dispersal is probably aboveground and male-biased, but this has not been observed directly. They are solitary and intolerant of one another, becoming aggressive when encountering others. Densities are 5-70 ind/ha and average 15 ind/ha. Predators include the Tibetan Fox (Vulpesferrilata), the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmannii), the Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bietr), Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul), the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), the upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) and the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) occasionally eat Plateau Zokors.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List whereit is treated as a distinct species. The Plateau Zokor has a wide distribution and large population. An annual eradication program was implemented in the 1990s, which reduced population size to less than one-third of its formersize. Livestock grazing appears to increase prevalence of Plateau Zokors because it leads to an increase in the types of plants with taproots they prefer. This increase in zokors may in turn further accelerate landscape deterioration, but the system is complex, and researchers debate positive and negative impacts. The Plateau Zokor is considered an ecosystem engineer. A single individual transfers more than 1000 kg of soil to the surface annually. Its burrowing activities mix and aerate soil, increase environmental heterogeneity, enhance infiltration of water into the soil, and thereby curtail erosion. These activities also lessen uptake of greenhouse gases and appear to facilitate spread of invasive plant species. Abandoned burrows are used as shelters by a variety of small mammals (such as the Root Vole, Microtusoeconomus, and Gansu Pika, Ochotona cansus), birds (such as the ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis, the black-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla adamsi, and several species of ground-sparrows such as Pyrgilauda blanfordi, P. davidiana, P. ruficollis, and P. taczanowski), amphibians and reptiles. Dried bone of Plateau Zokor, known as “Sailonggu,” is used in traditional Tibetan medicine as a treatment for inflammation. It is used as a medicinal replacement for Tiger (Panthera tigris) bone, which serves a similar function.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Li Wenjing et al. (2009), Lin Gonghua, Li Wenjing et al. (2011), Lin Gonghua, Zhao Fang et al. (2014), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Tang Lizhou, Wang Liuyang et al. (2010), Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo, Lin Gonhua & Su Jianping (2010), Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo & Su Jianping (2009), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wei Dengbang et al. (2006), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Yang Chuanhua et al. (2012), Zhang Weiet al. (2014), Zhang Yanming (2007a, 2007b), Zeng Jinxiang et al. (1984), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008), Zhou Caiquan et al. (2004)." -03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.xml,Eospalax smithii,Eospalax,smithii,,,Zokor de Smith @fr | Smith-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Smith @es,"Myospalax smithii Thomas, 1911,30 mi(48 km) SE of Tao-chou, Gansu, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 suggested that E. smith#2 may be a hybrid between E. rothschildix E. cansus, but subsequent authorities have not adopted this position. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. rothschildi. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. rufescensor E. baileyi. Monotypic.","Gansu, Ningxia, N Sichuan, and W Shaanxi (C China).","Head-body 162-255 mm,tail 34-39 mm; weight 180-460 g. Smith's Zokor has dark brown dorsal pelage, with slight cinnamon colored tips. Back of head is dark gray to velvety black, area around ears is dark brown, and vibrissae are black and white. White forehead blaze is present in some individuals. Venter is grayish brown, also mixed with cinnamon. Immature individuals are bluish gray, with sooty gray head. Temporal ridges are more pronounced, and auditory bullae are more flattened compared with other species of zokors.","Steppe, open fields, grassland, and cropland at elevations above 2000 m.",Smith’s Zokor eats primarily grasses.,"Breeding of Smith’s Zokor peaks in June-July, and offspring are born in May-September. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be as high as eight young. Females produce two litters annually.",No information.,Smith’s Zokors construct complex burrows in soft wetsoils.,"Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and as near threatened on the 2016 China Red List. Smith’s Zokor reportedly has a wide distribution and large population, does not face major threats, and is found in one or more protected areas.",Allen (1940) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya etal. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith (2008) | Smith & Johnston (2008c) | Su Junhu et al. (2014),,"11.Smith’s ZokorEospalax smithiiFrench:Zokor de Smith/ German:Smith-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de SmithTaxonomy.Myospalax smithii Thomas, 1911,30 mi(48 km) SE of Tao-chou, Gansu, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 suggested that E. smith#2 may be a hybrid between E. rothschildix E. cansus, but subsequent authorities have not adopted this position. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. rothschildi. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. rufescensor E. baileyi. Monotypic.Distribution.Gansu, Ningxia, N Sichuan, and W Shaanxi (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 162-255 mm,tail 34-39 mm; weight 180-460 g. Smith's Zokor has dark brown dorsal pelage, with slight cinnamon colored tips. Back of head is dark gray to velvety black, area around ears is dark brown, and vibrissae are black and white. White forehead blaze is present in some individuals. Venter is grayish brown, also mixed with cinnamon. Immature individuals are bluish gray, with sooty gray head. Temporal ridges are more pronounced, and auditory bullae are more flattened compared with other species of zokors.Habitat.Steppe, open fields, grassland, and cropland at elevations above 2000 m.Food and Feeding.Smith’s Zokor eats primarily grasses.Breeding.Breeding of Smith’s Zokor peaks in June-July, and offspring are born in May-September. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be as high as eight young. Females produce two litters annually.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Zokors construct complex burrows in soft wetsoils.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and as near threatened on the 2016 China Red List. Smith’s Zokor reportedly has a wide distribution and large population, does not face major threats, and is found in one or more protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya etal. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith (2008), Smith & Johnston (2008c), Su Junhu et al. (2014)." -03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.xml,Eospalax rothschildi,Eospalax,rothschildi,,,Zokor de Rothschild @fr | Rothschild-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Rothschild @es,"Myospalax rothschildi Thomas, 1911,40 miles(64 km) SE Taochow, Kansu, China.Eospalax rothschildihas been synonymized with E. fontanieriiby some authorities, butitis generally regarded as a distinct species. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. smithii. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. rothschildiwithin Eospalax, but it does not appearto be closely related to E. fontanierii. Two subspecies recognized.","E.r.rothschildiThomas,1911—SGansu,SShaanxi,andNSichuan(CChina).E. r. hubeinensis Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan, 1989— SE Shaanxi, W Henan, and W Hubei (C China).","Head-body 149-172 mm,tail 29-37 mm; weight 160-440 g. Male Rothschild’s Zokors can be slightly larger than females. They are small and grayish brown, with red-tipped fur. White blaze is present on forehead of some but not all individuals. Venter is light grayish brown. Tail is hairy and bicolored, grayish yellow above and white below. Backs of feet are well-furred, with light colored hairs. They are distinguished from other species of Eospalaxby smaller size, more slender claws, and smaller molars. Diploid numberis 2n = 58.","Forest, scrub, grassland, and cropland at elevations of 1000-3000 m.",Rothschilds Zokor feeds on a wide variety of grasses and roots and can be a crop pest.,"Rothschild’s Zokor breeds in spring, beginning in April. Females give birth to onelitter of 1-5 young/year.",No information.,Rothschild’s Zokors are known to construct complex burrows in soft soils.,"Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Rothschild’s Zokor has a wide distribution and large population, and it is found in protected areas.",Allen (1940) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith (2008b) | Smith & Johnston (2008b) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008),,"10.Rothschild’s ZokorEospalax rothschildiFrench:Zokor de Rothschild/ German:Rothschild-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de RothschildTaxonomy.Myospalax rothschildi Thomas, 1911,40 miles(64 km) SE Taochow, Kansu, China.Eospalax rothschildihas been synonymized with E. fontanieriiby some authorities, butitis generally regarded as a distinct species. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. smithii. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. rothschildiwithin Eospalax, but it does not appearto be closely related to E. fontanierii. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.rothschildiThomas,1911—SGansu,SShaanxi,andNSichuan(CChina).E. r. hubeinensis Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan, 1989— SE Shaanxi, W Henan, and W Hubei (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 149-172 mm,tail 29-37 mm; weight 160-440 g. Male Rothschild’s Zokors can be slightly larger than females. They are small and grayish brown, with red-tipped fur. White blaze is present on forehead of some but not all individuals. Venter is light grayish brown. Tail is hairy and bicolored, grayish yellow above and white below. Backs of feet are well-furred, with light colored hairs. They are distinguished from other species of Eospalaxby smaller size, more slender claws, and smaller molars. Diploid numberis 2n = 58.Habitat.Forest, scrub, grassland, and cropland at elevations of 1000-3000 m.Food and Feeding.Rothschilds Zokor feeds on a wide variety of grasses and roots and can be a crop pest.Breeding.Rothschild’s Zokor breeds in spring, beginning in April. Females give birth to onelitter of 1-5 young/year.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Rothschild’s Zokors are known to construct complex burrows in soft soils.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Rothschild’s Zokor has a wide distribution and large population, and it is found in protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith (2008b), Smith & Johnston (2008b), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)." -03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.xml,Rhizomys sinensis,Rhizomys,sinensis,Gray,1831,Rhizomys de Chine @fr | China-Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu de China @es,"Rhizomys sinensis Gray, 1831,near Canton, Guangdong, China.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Wang Yingxiang in 2003 treated ward: as a distinct species and named neowardi as a new subspecies of wardi. Subspecies vestitusis also sometimes treated as a distinct species. These approaches were not adopted by A. T. Smith in 2008, but presence of multiple species within what is currently recognized as R. sinensisseemslikely. Six subspecies recognized.","R.s.sinensisGray,1831—SEYunnan,Guangxi,andGuangdong(SChina).R.s.davidiThomas,1911—SChongqing,SHubei,Anhui,Zhejiang,SGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,andNEGuangdong(C&SEChina).R.s.pediculusWangYingxiang,2003—WYunnan(SWChina).R.s.reductusDaoVanTien&CaoVanSung,1990—NVietnam.R.s.vestitusMilne-Edwards,1871—SGansu,SShaanxi,Sichuan,NChongqing,andNHubei(CChina).R. s. wardi Thomas, 1921— NW Yunnan (SW China) and N Myanmar.","Head—body 216-450 mm,tail 50-96 mm; weight 1-9 kg. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is brownish gray or pinkish gray above, with darker forehead and sides of face. Dorsal pelage is soft, and venter is more sparsely haired. Throatis lighter than rest of venter. Upper incisors are extrabuccal and orange, and they rise perpendicularly from maxilla and then curve slightly inward toward tips. They are not proodont. Single thin sagittal crest is present. There are eight nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal.",Usually bamboo thickets but also pine forests at elevations of 1219-3962 m.,"Bamboo roots and shoots are primary foods of Chinese Bamboo Rats, but they also reportedly eat grass seeds and crops. They usually feed at night on the surface.",Reproduction of the Chinese Bamboo Rat peaks in spring but can occur year-round. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be up to eight. Young are naked and weaned after c.3 months.,"Chinese Bamboo Rats appear to leave their burrows to feed on nearby bamboo plants, primarily at night, but they are occasionally active in daytime. This dual subterranean and aboveground life is reflected in morphology of middle and inner ears that have adaptations found in subterranean and terrestrial mammals.","Burrows of Chinese Bamboo Rats are up to 45 m long and extend up to 20-30 cm below the surface. Burrows have 4-7 external entrances indicated by mounds 50-80 cm in diameter and 20-40 cm high. Den chamber of 20-25 cm is present. Burrows are abandoned after a year as an individual uses up food resources in the area. Predators include the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), the Leopard (P. pardus), and occasionally the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The Chinese Bamboo Rat might fiercely defend itself with its powerful incisors when cornered.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Subspecies vestitusis assessed separately as data deficient on the China Red List. It is a crop pest and can be found in agricultural areas. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and is hunted for food.,"Allen (1940) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lunde, Aplin & Musser (2008) | Plestilovéa et al. (2016) | Smith (2008) | Wang Yingxiang (2003)",,"12.Chinese Bamboo RatRhizomys sinensisFrench:Rhizomys de Chine/ German:China-Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu de ChinaTaxonomy.Rhizomys sinensis Gray, 1831,near Canton, Guangdong, China.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Wang Yingxiang in 2003 treated ward: as a distinct species and named neowardi as a new subspecies of wardi. Subspecies vestitusis also sometimes treated as a distinct species. These approaches were not adopted by A. T. Smith in 2008, but presence of multiple species within what is currently recognized as R. sinensisseemslikely. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.s.sinensisGray,1831—SEYunnan,Guangxi,andGuangdong(SChina).R.s.davidiThomas,1911—SChongqing,SHubei,Anhui,Zhejiang,SGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,andNEGuangdong(C&SEChina).R.s.pediculusWangYingxiang,2003—WYunnan(SWChina).R.s.reductusDaoVanTien&CaoVanSung,1990—NVietnam.R.s.vestitusMilne-Edwards,1871—SGansu,SShaanxi,Sichuan,NChongqing,andNHubei(CChina).R. s. wardi Thomas, 1921— NW Yunnan (SW China) and N Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Head—body 216-450 mm,tail 50-96 mm; weight 1-9 kg. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is brownish gray or pinkish gray above, with darker forehead and sides of face. Dorsal pelage is soft, and venter is more sparsely haired. Throatis lighter than rest of venter. Upper incisors are extrabuccal and orange, and they rise perpendicularly from maxilla and then curve slightly inward toward tips. They are not proodont. Single thin sagittal crest is present. There are eight nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal.Habitat.Usually bamboo thickets but also pine forests at elevations of 1219-3962 m.Food and Feeding.Bamboo roots and shoots are primary foods of Chinese Bamboo Rats, but they also reportedly eat grass seeds and crops. They usually feed at night on the surface.Breeding.Reproduction of the Chinese Bamboo Rat peaks in spring but can occur year-round. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be up to eight. Young are naked and weaned after c.3 months.Activity patterns.Chinese Bamboo Rats appear to leave their burrows to feed on nearby bamboo plants, primarily at night, but they are occasionally active in daytime. This dual subterranean and aboveground life is reflected in morphology of middle and inner ears that have adaptations found in subterranean and terrestrial mammals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Chinese Bamboo Rats are up to 45 m long and extend up to 20-30 cm below the surface. Burrows have 4-7 external entrances indicated by mounds 50-80 cm in diameter and 20-40 cm high. Den chamber of 20-25 cm is present. Burrows are abandoned after a year as an individual uses up food resources in the area. Predators include the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), the Leopard (P. pardus), and occasionally the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The Chinese Bamboo Rat might fiercely defend itself with its powerful incisors when cornered.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Subspecies vestitusis assessed separately as data deficient on the China Red List. It is a crop pest and can be found in agricultural areas. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and is hunted for food.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lunde, Aplin & Musser (2008), Plestilovéa et al. (2016), Smith (2008), Wang Yingxiang (2003)." -03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,135,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.xml,Rhizomys pruinosus,Rhizomys,pruinosus,Blyth,1851,Rhizomys grisonnant @fr | Graue Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu canosa @es,"Rhizomys pruinosus Blyth, 1851,Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, India.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Five subspecies recognized.","R.p.pruinosusBlyth,1851—Meghalaya,SAssam,extremeNEArunachalPradesh,Nagaland,Manipur,NTripura,andNMizoram(NEIndia),NWMyanmar,andWYunnan(SWChina).R.p.latoucheiThomas,1915—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver,includingGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,Guangxi,andGuangdong.R.p.pannosusThomas,1915—EMyanmar,Thailand,Laos,SCambodia,andVietnam.R.p.senexThomas,1915—NEMyanmarandSYunnan(SWChina).R. p. umbriceps Thomas, 1916— N Malay Peninsula S to Perak (N Malaysia). Also present in NW India (Himachal Pradesh), but subspecies involved not known.","Head-body 240-350 mm, tail 90-130 mm; weight 1.5-2.5 kg. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is grayish brown to chocolate-brown, with lighter venter. Intermittent long white-tipped guard hairs give grizzled appearance. Pelage is dense and soft. White-tipped hairs and dense pelage are less pronounced in the southern part of its distribution. Almost hairless tail is longer relative to head-body length than on the Chinese Bamboo Rat (R. sinensis). Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont; molars are orange. Rostrum is narrower than in the Chinese Bamboo Rat, and sagittal crest is lyre-shaped. There are 8-10 nipples: 1 or 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Minute, presumably non-functional, pair of pectoral nipples is present on some individuals. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.","Bamboo thickets, bamboo hillsides and montane forest, tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, grassland mixed with secondary forest, shrub forest, and, with less frequency, pine and fir forests. The Hoary Bamboo Ratis not common in agricultural areas or mature forest. In the northern parts of its distribution, it is found in bamboo thickets or beardgrass (Polypogon, Poaceae) at elevations of less than 1000 m in China and less than 1500 m in north-eastern India, especially where it overlaps with the Chinese Bamboo Rat, which lives at higher elevations. In the southern part ofits distribution, the Hoary Bamboo Rat is found at a broader range of elevations of 100-4000 m. In China, individuals appear to move among habitats seasonally, preferring large bamboo groves, secondary forest, and shrub forest in spring and summer and sparsely forested regions with silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis, Poaceae) or forked ferns (Dicranopteris, Gleicheniaceae) in autumn and winter.","Hoary Bamboo Rats feed on roots and shoots of bamboo, beardgrass,silvergrass, and occasionally other plant types. Individuals generally feed on plants within 5-10 m from their burrow entrance. Food may be eaten outside the burrow or dragged back into the burrow. Stalks are held in place by front paws, while outer layers are stripped by incisors. Food is consumed in a manner where upper incisors are held motionless, lower incisors plane the object, and food is chewed by molars. Small uneaten nubs remain after feeding. Captive individuals manually remove cylindrical fecal pellets using incisors and toss them into dung piles. Presumably similar behavior occurs in the wild either in a toilet chamber, or fecal pellets are brought to the toilet.","A female Hoary Bamboo Rat in estrus does not seal her burrow entrance, and a male moves in to breed. Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in November— December and March—June. Females line nest chambers with dry grass. After gestation of 22 days, a female gives birth to a litter of 1-5 young. Young are born naked and weigh 35-40 g at birth. Eyes open after 28-30 days, and offspring grow a coat ofjet black fur. Weaning takes place 56-78 days later, and females appear to reach sexual maturity at c.160 days.",The Hoary Bamboo Rat exits its burrow at night to feed on the surface. It appears to be less aggressive than the Chinese Bamboo Rat.,"Burrows of Hoary Bamboo Rats are relatively simple, containing a single entrance (rarely 2—4 entrances), characterized by a mound of dirt. A 1-2 m long tunnel connects the entrance to the nest chamber, which is 12 x 32 cm and often contains a store of food. A toilet chamberis located 20-40 cm from the nest chamber and a bolt-hole is present. Burrows are temporary; females with young may extend their time in a single burrow to just over a month. Burrows are primarily excavated with incisors; feet are used to push loosened dirt behind. The individual will then turn and push accumulated soil out of the entrance. Hoary Bamboo Rats are solitary except for breeding when males move into females’ burrows. Same-sex adult individuals are never found in the same burrow. Males forced to cohabit in artificial settings will fight and even kill each other. Conspecifics are attacked with bites to head, neck, and cheeks; wild males have been observed with scars in these areas.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas. It is hunted for food and faces habitat loss in parts of its distribution, particularly in western areas. Populations in India appear to be declining and warrant protection.","Agrawal (2000) | Allen (1940) | Aplin, Lunde & Molur (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Molur et al. (2005) | Smith (2008) | Tanomtong et al. (2013) | Xu Longhui (1984)",,"13.Hoary Bamboo RatRhizomys pruinosusFrench:Rhizomys grisonnant/ German:Graue Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu canosaTaxonomy.Rhizomys pruinosus Blyth, 1851,Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, India.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.p.pruinosusBlyth,1851—Meghalaya,SAssam,extremeNEArunachalPradesh,Nagaland,Manipur,NTripura,andNMizoram(NEIndia),NWMyanmar,andWYunnan(SWChina).R.p.latoucheiThomas,1915—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver,includingGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,Guangxi,andGuangdong.R.p.pannosusThomas,1915—EMyanmar,Thailand,Laos,SCambodia,andVietnam.R.p.senexThomas,1915—NEMyanmarandSYunnan(SWChina).R. p. umbriceps Thomas, 1916— N Malay Peninsula S to Perak (N Malaysia). Also present in NW India (Himachal Pradesh), but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head-body 240-350 mm, tail 90-130 mm; weight 1.5-2.5 kg. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is grayish brown to chocolate-brown, with lighter venter. Intermittent long white-tipped guard hairs give grizzled appearance. Pelage is dense and soft. White-tipped hairs and dense pelage are less pronounced in the southern part of its distribution. Almost hairless tail is longer relative to head-body length than on the Chinese Bamboo Rat (R. sinensis). Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont; molars are orange. Rostrum is narrower than in the Chinese Bamboo Rat, and sagittal crest is lyre-shaped. There are 8-10 nipples: 1 or 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Minute, presumably non-functional, pair of pectoral nipples is present on some individuals. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.Habitat.Bamboo thickets, bamboo hillsides and montane forest, tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, grassland mixed with secondary forest, shrub forest, and, with less frequency, pine and fir forests. The Hoary Bamboo Ratis not common in agricultural areas or mature forest. In the northern parts of its distribution, it is found in bamboo thickets or beardgrass (Polypogon, Poaceae) at elevations of less than 1000 m in China and less than 1500 m in north-eastern India, especially where it overlaps with the Chinese Bamboo Rat, which lives at higher elevations. In the southern part ofits distribution, the Hoary Bamboo Rat is found at a broader range of elevations of 100-4000 m. In China, individuals appear to move among habitats seasonally, preferring large bamboo groves, secondary forest, and shrub forest in spring and summer and sparsely forested regions with silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis, Poaceae) or forked ferns (Dicranopteris, Gleicheniaceae) in autumn and winter.Food and Feeding.Hoary Bamboo Rats feed on roots and shoots of bamboo, beardgrass,silvergrass, and occasionally other plant types. Individuals generally feed on plants within 5-10 m from their burrow entrance. Food may be eaten outside the burrow or dragged back into the burrow. Stalks are held in place by front paws, while outer layers are stripped by incisors. Food is consumed in a manner where upper incisors are held motionless, lower incisors plane the object, and food is chewed by molars. Small uneaten nubs remain after feeding. Captive individuals manually remove cylindrical fecal pellets using incisors and toss them into dung piles. Presumably similar behavior occurs in the wild either in a toilet chamber, or fecal pellets are brought to the toilet.Breeding.A female Hoary Bamboo Rat in estrus does not seal her burrow entrance, and a male moves in to breed. Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in November— December and March—June. Females line nest chambers with dry grass. After gestation of 22 days, a female gives birth to a litter of 1-5 young. Young are born naked and weigh 35-40 g at birth. Eyes open after 28-30 days, and offspring grow a coat ofjet black fur. Weaning takes place 56-78 days later, and females appear to reach sexual maturity at c.160 days.Activity patterns.The Hoary Bamboo Rat exits its burrow at night to feed on the surface. It appears to be less aggressive than the Chinese Bamboo Rat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Hoary Bamboo Rats are relatively simple, containing a single entrance (rarely 2—4 entrances), characterized by a mound of dirt. A 1-2 m long tunnel connects the entrance to the nest chamber, which is 12 x 32 cm and often contains a store of food. A toilet chamberis located 20-40 cm from the nest chamber and a bolt-hole is present. Burrows are temporary; females with young may extend their time in a single burrow to just over a month. Burrows are primarily excavated with incisors; feet are used to push loosened dirt behind. The individual will then turn and push accumulated soil out of the entrance. Hoary Bamboo Rats are solitary except for breeding when males move into females’ burrows. Same-sex adult individuals are never found in the same burrow. Males forced to cohabit in artificial settings will fight and even kill each other. Conspecifics are attacked with bites to head, neck, and cheeks; wild males have been observed with scars in these areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas. It is hunted for food and faces habitat loss in parts of its distribution, particularly in western areas. Populations in India appear to be declining and warrant protection.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Allen (1940), Aplin, Lunde & Molur (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Molur et al. (2005), Smith (2008), Tanomtong et al. (2013), Xu Longhui (1984)." -03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,136,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.xml,Cannomys badius,Cannomys,badius,,,Cannomys @fr | Kleine Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu pequena @es | Bay Bamboo Rat @en,"Rhizomys badius Hodgson, 1841,Nepal.It is the only species in the genus Cannomys, which is sister to Rhizomys. J. R. Ellerman in 1961 recognized castaneusnamed by E. Blyth in 1843, paternamed by O. Thomas in 1915, and plumbescens named by Thomas in 1915 as distinct subspecies on the basis of differences in head— body length and cranial measurements. V. C. Agrawal in 2000 did not recover evidence to support these differences and suggested that they be synonymized. Nevertheless, it seems likely that C. badiuswill be split into multiple subspecies, or even species, by future studies. Cannomyshas no fossil record. Monotypic.","E Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram (NE India), Bhutan, SE Bangladesh, Myanmar, SW Yunnan (SW China), N Laos, NW Vietnam, Thailand, and N Cambodia.","Head—body 147-265 mm,tail 47-96 mm; weight 210-800 g. The Lesser Bamboo Rat ranges from reddish cinnamon, red-brown to chestnut-brown, ashy gray, to purple-black. Venter is lighter. One or more white blazes can occur on top of head, and narrow white band can be present on chin. Eyes and ear pinnae are small, body is stocky, and legs are short. Tail is sparsely haired. Forelimbs are equipped with long, powerful claws. Incisors are red to yellow. The Lesser Bamboo Rat differs from species of Rhizomysin having much smaller body size, smooth instead of granular footpads, more protruding incisors, longer rostrum,larger auditory bullae, longer and more prominent sagittal crest, and the first molar largest and third molar smallest. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. A. Tanomtong and colleagues in 2011 demonstrated diploid number of 2n = 50, but other sources report 2n = 60.","Most strongly associated with bamboo thickets. The Lesser Bamboo Rat also occurs in grassy areas, montane forests, brush, and gardens, butit is absent in rice paddies. It has been observed from sea level to elevations of 4000 m.","The Lesser Bamboo Rat feeds on shoots, roots, and leaves from a variety of plants. It prefers young plants and shoots, particularly bamboo and cereals.",One to five naked Lesser Bamboo Rats are born per litter after gestation of 40-43 days. Young are weaned after ¢.8 weeks and are sexually mature after c.1 year.,The Lesser Bamboo Rat is nocturnal and leaves its burrow to feed. It moves slowly aboveground.It is primarily a chisel-tooth digger but also uses its front claws.,"Burrows of Lesser Bamboo Rats can be extensive, reaching lengths of ¢.58 m and depths of ¢.60 cm. Burrows are plugged in the day. Densities can reach 600 ind/ha. Predators include small carnivores.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and data deficient on the 2016 China Red List. The Lesser Bamboo Rat can be an agricultural pest, especially of tea and rubber, and is hunted for food. Certain populations may be threatened by habitat loss and overhunting. It is known from several protected areas.","Agrawal (2000) | Aplin, Lunde et al. (2008) | Blyth (1843) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman (1961) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nevo (1999) | Nowak (1999) | Smith (2008) | Tanomtong et al. (2011) | Thomas (1915b)",,"15.Lesser Bamboo RatCannomys badiusFrench:Cannomys/ German:Kleine Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu pequenaOther common names:Bay Bamboo RatTaxonomy.Rhizomys badius Hodgson, 1841,Nepal.It is the only species in the genus Cannomys, which is sister to Rhizomys. J. R. Ellerman in 1961 recognized castaneusnamed by E. Blyth in 1843, paternamed by O. Thomas in 1915, and plumbescens named by Thomas in 1915 as distinct subspecies on the basis of differences in head— body length and cranial measurements. V. C. Agrawal in 2000 did not recover evidence to support these differences and suggested that they be synonymized. Nevertheless, it seems likely that C. badiuswill be split into multiple subspecies, or even species, by future studies. Cannomyshas no fossil record. Monotypic.Distribution.E Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram (NE India), Bhutan, SE Bangladesh, Myanmar, SW Yunnan (SW China), N Laos, NW Vietnam, Thailand, and N Cambodia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 147-265 mm,tail 47-96 mm; weight 210-800 g. The Lesser Bamboo Rat ranges from reddish cinnamon, red-brown to chestnut-brown, ashy gray, to purple-black. Venter is lighter. One or more white blazes can occur on top of head, and narrow white band can be present on chin. Eyes and ear pinnae are small, body is stocky, and legs are short. Tail is sparsely haired. Forelimbs are equipped with long, powerful claws. Incisors are red to yellow. The Lesser Bamboo Rat differs from species of Rhizomysin having much smaller body size, smooth instead of granular footpads, more protruding incisors, longer rostrum,larger auditory bullae, longer and more prominent sagittal crest, and the first molar largest and third molar smallest. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. A. Tanomtong and colleagues in 2011 demonstrated diploid number of 2n = 50, but other sources report 2n = 60.Habitat.Most strongly associated with bamboo thickets. The Lesser Bamboo Rat also occurs in grassy areas, montane forests, brush, and gardens, butit is absent in rice paddies. It has been observed from sea level to elevations of 4000 m.Food and Feeding.The Lesser Bamboo Rat feeds on shoots, roots, and leaves from a variety of plants. It prefers young plants and shoots, particularly bamboo and cereals.Breeding.One to five naked Lesser Bamboo Rats are born per litter after gestation of 40-43 days. Young are weaned after ¢.8 weeks and are sexually mature after c.1 year.Activity patterns.The Lesser Bamboo Rat is nocturnal and leaves its burrow to feed. It moves slowly aboveground.It is primarily a chisel-tooth digger but also uses its front claws.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Lesser Bamboo Rats can be extensive, reaching lengths of ¢.58 m and depths of ¢.60 cm. Burrows are plugged in the day. Densities can reach 600 ind/ha. Predators include small carnivores.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and data deficient on the 2016 China Red List. The Lesser Bamboo Rat can be an agricultural pest, especially of tea and rubber, and is hunted for food. Certain populations may be threatened by habitat loss and overhunting. It is known from several protected areas.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Aplin, Lunde et al. (2008), Blyth (1843), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman (1961), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nevo (1999), Nowak (1999), Smith (2008), Tanomtong et al. (2011), Thomas (1915b)." +03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,137,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.xml,Tachyoryctes macrocephalus,Tachyoryctes,macrocephalus,,,Rat-taupe géant @fr | Riesenmaulwurfsratte @de | Rata de raices gigante @es | Big-headed Mole-rat @en | Giant Mole-rat @en,"Rhizomys macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842,Shoa, Ethiopia.Presence of 71. macrocephalusin the region known until 1995 as Shoa (= Shewa) Province, Ethiopia, is considered suspect. D. W. Yalden and M. J. Largen in 1992 suggested that type material was collected in Begemdir or Wollo Province in northern Ethiopia. No further records of 7. macrocephalushave been recorded from northern Ethiopia since the original description. In a cladistics analysis that included fossil and extant taxa, R. Lopez-Antonanzas and H. B. Wesselman in 2013 showed that the two living root rats are sister taxa with respect to the known fossil species 71. konjiti, 1 pliocaenicus, and 1. makooka. Two subspecies recognized.","T. m. macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842— N Ethiopia; no records since original description. T. m. hecki Neumann & Rummler, 1928— S Ethiopia, Bale Mts above 3000 m (Oromia Region).","Head-body 224-313 mm, tail 40-65 mm; weight 330-930 g. The Giant Root Rat is stocky and short-limbed, with relatively large head and shorttail. It has soft dense pelage that is silver, brown, or orange. Hairs are gray at bases. Up to three darker lines may be present on crown of head, and dark spot is present on eyelids. Interorbital width is narrow, causing eyes to be distinctively high on face. Subspecies heck: has longer (greater than 7 mm) anterior palatal foramen and zygomatic plate that slopes down to premaxillary-maxillary suture than the nominate subspecies. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.","Restricted to alpine grassland habitat at elevations of 3000-4150 m. The Giant Root Rat prefers soil depths greater than 50 cm in swamp shore grasslands and mixed herbaceous moorlands. Moist soils are preferred. In the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, the African Root Rat (7. splendens) is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m.","The Giant Root Rat feeds on grasses and forbs such as Festuca(Poaceae) and Alchemilla(Rosaceae). Food is gathered by opening a hole to the surface and consuming plant material within easy reach of the opening. An individual usually keeps its hindquarters in the opening to facilitate quick escape into the burrow. When food in an area is depleted, the Giant Root Ratseals the opening and creates a new burrow elsewhere. A mouthful of food is collected in short foraging bouts of 6-8 minutes and is taken belowground for consumption.",Little information is available. Female Giant Root Rats appear to have one young perlitter.,"The Giant Root Rat is diurnal and active from 08:00 h to 16:00 h. Aboveground activity comes in short bursts, roughly ten bouts in dry season adding up to an hour of activity, with fewer during rainy season.","Only a single Giant Root Rat is present in each burrow system. Burrows are up to 90 m long and 12-15 cm in cross section belowground, with openings c.8 cm. An individual's burrow system may be up to 360 m*. All burrow entrances are closed nightly. Densities of 6 ind/ha, 24 ind/ha, 60 ind/ha, and 90 ind/ha have been reported. The ground can feel spongy when Giant Root Rats occur at high densities because ofits burrows. It may reach 50-60% of total rodent biomass in certain locations. The Giant Root Rat is a preferred prey of the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), representing up to 47% (by volume) of its diet. Other predators include owls and probably raptors.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Root Rat can be present in very high concentrations, butits distribution is restricted and is dependent on a unique ecosystem. Much of its known distribution is in Bale Mountains National Park, but overgrazing by livestock threatens grasslands. It is not clear if the northern subspecies, macrocephalus, persists.","Corti & Lavrenchenko (2008) | Lopez-Antonanzas & Wesselman (2013) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a) | Yalden (1985, 2013a) | Yalden & Largen (1992)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609141/files/figure.png,"17.Giant Root RatTachyoryctes macrocephalusFrench:Rat-taupe géant/ German:Riesenmaulwurfsratte/ Spanish:Rata de raices giganteOther common names:Big-headed Mole-rat, Giant Mole-ratTaxonomy.Rhizomys macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842,Shoa, Ethiopia.Presence of 71. macrocephalusin the region known until 1995 as Shoa (= Shewa) Province, Ethiopia, is considered suspect. D. W. Yalden and M. J. Largen in 1992 suggested that type material was collected in Begemdir or Wollo Province in northern Ethiopia. No further records of 7. macrocephalushave been recorded from northern Ethiopia since the original description. In a cladistics analysis that included fossil and extant taxa, R. Lopez-Antonanzas and H. B. Wesselman in 2013 showed that the two living root rats are sister taxa with respect to the known fossil species 71. konjiti, 1 pliocaenicus, and 1. makooka. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T. m. macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842— N Ethiopia; no records since original description. T. m. hecki Neumann & Rummler, 1928— S Ethiopia, Bale Mts above 3000 m (Oromia Region).Descriptive notes.Head-body 224-313 mm, tail 40-65 mm; weight 330-930 g. The Giant Root Rat is stocky and short-limbed, with relatively large head and shorttail. It has soft dense pelage that is silver, brown, or orange. Hairs are gray at bases. Up to three darker lines may be present on crown of head, and dark spot is present on eyelids. Interorbital width is narrow, causing eyes to be distinctively high on face. Subspecies heck: has longer (greater than 7 mm) anterior palatal foramen and zygomatic plate that slopes down to premaxillary-maxillary suture than the nominate subspecies. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.Habitat.Restricted to alpine grassland habitat at elevations of 3000-4150 m. The Giant Root Rat prefers soil depths greater than 50 cm in swamp shore grasslands and mixed herbaceous moorlands. Moist soils are preferred. In the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, the African Root Rat (7. splendens) is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m.Food and Feeding.The Giant Root Rat feeds on grasses and forbs such as Festuca(Poaceae) and Alchemilla(Rosaceae). Food is gathered by opening a hole to the surface and consuming plant material within easy reach of the opening. An individual usually keeps its hindquarters in the opening to facilitate quick escape into the burrow. When food in an area is depleted, the Giant Root Ratseals the opening and creates a new burrow elsewhere. A mouthful of food is collected in short foraging bouts of 6-8 minutes and is taken belowground for consumption.Breeding.Little information is available. Female Giant Root Rats appear to have one young perlitter.Activity patterns.The Giant Root Rat is diurnal and active from 08:00 h to 16:00 h. Aboveground activity comes in short bursts, roughly ten bouts in dry season adding up to an hour of activity, with fewer during rainy season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Only a single Giant Root Rat is present in each burrow system. Burrows are up to 90 m long and 12-15 cm in cross section belowground, with openings c.8 cm. An individual's burrow system may be up to 360 m*. All burrow entrances are closed nightly. Densities of 6 ind/ha, 24 ind/ha, 60 ind/ha, and 90 ind/ha have been reported. The ground can feel spongy when Giant Root Rats occur at high densities because ofits burrows. It may reach 50-60% of total rodent biomass in certain locations. The Giant Root Rat is a preferred prey of the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), representing up to 47% (by volume) of its diet. Other predators include owls and probably raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Root Rat can be present in very high concentrations, butits distribution is restricted and is dependent on a unique ecosystem. Much of its known distribution is in Bale Mountains National Park, but overgrazing by livestock threatens grasslands. It is not clear if the northern subspecies, macrocephalus, persists.Bibliography.Corti & Lavrenchenko (2008), Lopez-Antonanzas & Wesselman (2013), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a), Yalden (1985, 2013a), Yalden & Largen (1992)." +03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,137,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.xml,Spalax antiquus,Spalax,antiquus,,,Spalax de Méhely @fr | Mehely-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Méhely @es,"Spalax graecus antiguus Méhely, 1909,near Apahida, Cluj County, Romania;Nadaselu, Cluj County, Romania;Lechinta de Muresnear Targu Mures, Mures County, Romania;near Gherla, Cluj County, Romania;and near Someseni, Cluj County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 based his description on multiple fragmentary archaeological specimens. He designated twelve syntypes from five different localities, and no one has subsequently designated a lectotype or otherwise restricted the type locality. Consequently, the type locality encompasses the place of origin of all syntypes in accordance with Article 73.2.3 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until a lectotype is designated. Spalaxantiquus is a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna, and it is supported by mitochondrial data. Spalaxantiguus was traditionally united with S. graecusand S. istricusinto a single species (S. graecus). Spalaxantiquus was usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor a synonym of the subspecies S. g. ustricus. In an analysis of mtDNA A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat led them to conclude that these represented three distinct species. Monotypic.",C Romania.,"There are no specific measurements available. Mehely’s Blind Molerat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is buff, and venter and head are grayish, with some reddish hues throughout. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.",Grassy plains of the Carpathian Basin in Transylvania.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Confirmed predators of Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and domestic dog.","Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 argued that Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat should be ranked as endangered. Its extent of occurrence and habitat quality are predicted to decline over the next ten years, its area of occupancy is less than 500 km? and it is known to exist in no more than five locations. Four locations where it is present are partly protected. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat was once more common in the vast grasslands of the Carpathian basin, but this habitat was first converted to pasture and, more recently, to intensive modern agriculture and urbanized landscapes.","Chisamera et al. (2014) | Csorba et al. (2015) | Hadid et al. (2012) | KryStufek (1999a) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609145/files/figure.png,"19.Mehely’s Blind Mole-ratSpalax antiquusFrench:Spalax de Méhely/ German:Mehely-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de MéhelyTaxonomy.Spalax graecus antiguus Méhely, 1909,near Apahida, Cluj County, Romania;Nadaselu, Cluj County, Romania;Lechinta de Muresnear Targu Mures, Mures County, Romania;near Gherla, Cluj County, Romania;and near Someseni, Cluj County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 based his description on multiple fragmentary archaeological specimens. He designated twelve syntypes from five different localities, and no one has subsequently designated a lectotype or otherwise restricted the type locality. Consequently, the type locality encompasses the place of origin of all syntypes in accordance with Article 73.2.3 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until a lectotype is designated. Spalaxantiquus is a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna, and it is supported by mitochondrial data. Spalaxantiguus was traditionally united with S. graecusand S. istricusinto a single species (S. graecus). Spalaxantiquus was usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor a synonym of the subspecies S. g. ustricus. In an analysis of mtDNA A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat led them to conclude that these represented three distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.C Romania.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. Mehely’s Blind Molerat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is buff, and venter and head are grayish, with some reddish hues throughout. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.Habitat.Grassy plains of the Carpathian Basin in Transylvania.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Confirmed predators of Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and domestic dog.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 argued that Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat should be ranked as endangered. Its extent of occurrence and habitat quality are predicted to decline over the next ten years, its area of occupancy is less than 500 km? and it is known to exist in no more than five locations. Four locations where it is present are partly protected. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat was once more common in the vast grasslands of the Carpathian basin, but this habitat was first converted to pasture and, more recently, to intensive modern agriculture and urbanized landscapes.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Csorba et al. (2015), Hadid et al. (2012), KryStufek (1999a), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)." +03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,138,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.xml,Spalax zemni,Spalax,zemni,,,Spalax de Podolie @fr | Podolien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Podolia @es | Podolian Mole-rat @en | Podolsk Mole-rat @en,"Glis zemni Erxleben, 1777,Ternopolskregion, Ukraine.Spalax zemniis frequently referred to as S. polonicusor S. podolicus, but zemninamed by J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 is the oldest available name. It includes the fossil form S. diluvii. Spalax zemniis the sister species to S. arenarius. Monotypic.",Ukraine.,"Head-body 200-310 mm, no visible external tail; weight 370-570 g. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat has slate gray pelage, with reddish trim. Head is lighter gray, and white stripe or spots may be present. Venteris gray. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","Undisturbed steppe but also roadsides, forest belts, and agricultural fields. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats can be found in sandy soils.","Podolsk Blind Mole-rats feed on alfalfa, chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), field bindweed (Convolvulus, Concolvulaceae), mallows (Malva, Malvaceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae).",No information.,Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are active year-round; digging continues throughout winter months.,"Burrows of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats contain feeding tunnels near the surface, deeper chambers, and 2-6 vertical tunnels connecting the two levels. Feeding tunnels are located at depths of 13-21 cm. Total length of feeding tunnels varies with age of burrow; it can range from 10 m in burrows of young individuals to 210 m in burrows of mature adults. Lower chambers are found at depths of 90-275 cm and include 1-2 nest chambers, 3-5 storage chambers, and toilets. Connecting tunnels can be complex and connect chambers in a circular manner. Mounds have diameters of 30-67 cm and heights of 10-23 cm. Densities are 1-8 ind/ha; in virgin steppe, density is ¢.8 ind/ha. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), the European Polecat (M. putorius), and the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus).","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are fragmented. Although they are found across a large geographic landscape, area of occupancy is only ¢.2000 km? The Podolsk Blind Mole-rat is threatened by loss of its natural steppe habitat due to cultivation and development.","Erxleben (1777) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (20169) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609149/files/figure.png,"21.Podolsk Blind Mole-ratSpalax zemniFrench:Spalax de Podolie/ German:Podolien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de PodoliaOther common names:Podolian Mole-rat, Podolsk Mole-ratTaxonomy.Glis zemni Erxleben, 1777,Ternopolskregion, Ukraine.Spalax zemniis frequently referred to as S. polonicusor S. podolicus, but zemninamed by J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 is the oldest available name. It includes the fossil form S. diluvii. Spalax zemniis the sister species to S. arenarius. Monotypic.Distribution.Ukraine.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-310 mm, no visible external tail; weight 370-570 g. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat has slate gray pelage, with reddish trim. Head is lighter gray, and white stripe or spots may be present. Venteris gray. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Undisturbed steppe but also roadsides, forest belts, and agricultural fields. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats can be found in sandy soils.Food and Feeding.Podolsk Blind Mole-rats feed on alfalfa, chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), field bindweed (Convolvulus, Concolvulaceae), mallows (Malva, Malvaceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae).Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are active year-round; digging continues throughout winter months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats contain feeding tunnels near the surface, deeper chambers, and 2-6 vertical tunnels connecting the two levels. Feeding tunnels are located at depths of 13-21 cm. Total length of feeding tunnels varies with age of burrow; it can range from 10 m in burrows of young individuals to 210 m in burrows of mature adults. Lower chambers are found at depths of 90-275 cm and include 1-2 nest chambers, 3-5 storage chambers, and toilets. Connecting tunnels can be complex and connect chambers in a circular manner. Mounds have diameters of 30-67 cm and heights of 10-23 cm. Densities are 1-8 ind/ha; in virgin steppe, density is ¢.8 ind/ha. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), the European Polecat (M. putorius), and the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are fragmented. Although they are found across a large geographic landscape, area of occupancy is only ¢.2000 km? The Podolsk Blind Mole-rat is threatened by loss of its natural steppe habitat due to cultivation and development.Bibliography.Erxleben (1777), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Hadid et al. (2012), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (20169), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008b)." +03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,138,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.xml,Spalax graecus,Spalax,graecus,Nehring,1898,Spalax de Bucovine @fr | Bukowina-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Bucovina @es | Balkan Blind Mole-rat @en | Balkan Mole-rat @en,"Spalax graecus Nehring, 1898,vicinity of Athens, Greece. Corrected by V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 to the vicinity of Chernovtsy, Bukovina Region, Ukraine.Spalax graecusis a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position of sella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna and is supported by mitochondrial data. It was traditionally united with S. istricusand S. antiquus into a single species (S. graecus). In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiqguus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat lead them to conclude that these represent distinct species. Monotypic.",SW Ukraine and NE Romania.,"Head-body 217-280 mm, no visible external tail; weight 415-700 g. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is butt, and venter and head are grayish. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat differs from other members of the S. graecusspecies group in having nasals that extend posteriorly beyond premaxilla and a flat bottom of incisura corono-alveolaris. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.","Strands of perennial grasses, steppes, and agricultural fields in the hilly Bukovina region of Romania and Ukraine. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat can occur in roadsides, pastures, beet and potato fields, gardens, and forest edge but not deep forest. Itis currently known from 13 localities, bordered on the east by the Prut River and on the west by the Carpathian Mountains. Ecological niche modeling suggests that suitable habitat may be found at elevations of 39-848 m.","The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat feeds on a variety of plants including dropwort (Filipendulahexapetala, Rosaceae), yarrow (Achilleamillefolium, Asteraceae), plantain (Plantagomedia, Plantaginaceae), couch grass (Elytrigia repens, Poaceae), comfrey (Symphytumofficinale, Boraginaceae), and chicory (Cichoriumintybus, Asteraceae). Winter food stores weigh 0.4-12 kg.","Female Bukovina Blind Mole-rats breed in their second year. Breeding activity begins in January, peaks in February, and can continue into March. Females will give birth to 2—4 young in March-April. Young weigh 18-20 g and are weaned after c.3 weeks. They disperse aboveground in late April through May.",No information.,"Bukovina Blind Mole-rats are solitary. Burrows are constructed in relatively dry soil and usually reach maximum depths of 1 m (up to 3-5 m). Feeding tunnels occur at depths of 20-25 cm in spring and summer and 30-35 cm in winter. One or two nest chambers and multiple toilet and storage chambers are present. In the past, densities had been recorded at 1-10 ind/ ha in agricultural areas but up to 23 ind/ha under more natural conditions. Current densities in agricultural areas are closer to 0-2-2 ind/ha. Predators include foxes, mustelids, and, when dispersing, raptors.",Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The assessment includes the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (S. istricus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus). It has a small range of occupancy and has not been recorded in Romania since the 1960s or in Ukraine over the last 20-40 years. Additional conservation assessment of the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat separate from the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat is needed.,Chisamera et al. (2014) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Krystufek (1999a) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Méhely (1909) | Németh et al. (2013) | Puzachenko (2016b) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008),https://zenodo.org/record/6609147/files/figure.png,"20.Bukovina Blind Mole-ratSpalax graecusFrench:Spalax de Bucovine/ German:Bukowina-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de BucovinaOther common names:Balkan Blind Mole-rat, Balkan Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax graecus Nehring, 1898,vicinity of Athens, Greece. Corrected by V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 to the vicinity of Chernovtsy, Bukovina Region, Ukraine.Spalax graecusis a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position of sella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna and is supported by mitochondrial data. It was traditionally united with S. istricusand S. antiquus into a single species (S. graecus). In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiqguus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat lead them to conclude that these represent distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Ukraine and NE Romania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217-280 mm, no visible external tail; weight 415-700 g. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is butt, and venter and head are grayish. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat differs from other members of the S. graecusspecies group in having nasals that extend posteriorly beyond premaxilla and a flat bottom of incisura corono-alveolaris. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.Habitat.Strands of perennial grasses, steppes, and agricultural fields in the hilly Bukovina region of Romania and Ukraine. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat can occur in roadsides, pastures, beet and potato fields, gardens, and forest edge but not deep forest. Itis currently known from 13 localities, bordered on the east by the Prut River and on the west by the Carpathian Mountains. Ecological niche modeling suggests that suitable habitat may be found at elevations of 39-848 m.Food and Feeding.The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat feeds on a variety of plants including dropwort (Filipendulahexapetala, Rosaceae), yarrow (Achilleamillefolium, Asteraceae), plantain (Plantagomedia, Plantaginaceae), couch grass (Elytrigia repens, Poaceae), comfrey (Symphytumofficinale, Boraginaceae), and chicory (Cichoriumintybus, Asteraceae). Winter food stores weigh 0.4-12 kg.Breeding.Female Bukovina Blind Mole-rats breed in their second year. Breeding activity begins in January, peaks in February, and can continue into March. Females will give birth to 2—4 young in March-April. Young weigh 18-20 g and are weaned after c.3 weeks. They disperse aboveground in late April through May.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bukovina Blind Mole-rats are solitary. Burrows are constructed in relatively dry soil and usually reach maximum depths of 1 m (up to 3-5 m). Feeding tunnels occur at depths of 20-25 cm in spring and summer and 30-35 cm in winter. One or two nest chambers and multiple toilet and storage chambers are present. In the past, densities had been recorded at 1-10 ind/ ha in agricultural areas but up to 23 ind/ha under more natural conditions. Current densities in agricultural areas are closer to 0-2-2 ind/ha. Predators include foxes, mustelids, and, when dispersing, raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The assessment includes the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (S. istricus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus). It has a small range of occupancy and has not been recorded in Romania since the 1960s or in Ukraine over the last 20-40 years. Additional conservation assessment of the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat separate from the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat is needed.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Hadid et al. (2012), Krystufek (1999a), Musser & Carleton (2005), Méhely (1909), Németh et al. (2013), Puzachenko (2016b), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)." +03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,138,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.xml,Spalax arenarius,Spalax,arenarius,Reshetnik,1939,Spalax des sables @fr | Sandblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de los arenales @es | Sandy Mole-rat @en,"Spalax arenarius Reshetnik, 1939,NW shore of Black Sea, Golaya Pristan, Nikolaev Region, Ukraine.Spalax arenariusis the sister species to S. zemni, and it has been treated as a subspecies or synonym of S. zemni, S. microphthalmus, and S. giganteusin the past. Its species status is supported by morphological features and is broadly accepted in recent texts. Monotypic.",E bank of the Dniepr River near its opening into the Black Sea (S Ukraine).,"Head-body 190-275 mm, no visible external tail; weight 380-660 g. Male Sandy Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large pale straw-yellow-gray. Front of head is lighter grayish white, and venter is pale mouse gray. Fringe of pale yellow-gray hair extends from nose to ears. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","Sparsely vegetated absinth (Ar temisia, Asteraceae)grass and absinthspurge (Euphorbiaceae) steppes. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is found in light, moderately wet, sandy soils with a low water table and is never found in moving sands, dry feather-grass steppe, or alkali soils.","Sandy Blind Mole-rats feed on a variety of plants including field eryngo (Eryngiumcampestre, Apiaceae), wormwood (Artemisiacampestris, Asteraceae), and goatsbeard (7 Tragopogonucrainicus, Asteraceae). Accumulated winter stores weigh 10-15 kg.","Breeding of the Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs once a year in March. Young are born in April-May, and lactation lasts c.1 month.",No information.,"Sandy Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Feeding tunnels can be 200 m long and occur at depths of 40-50 cm. Individual home ranges are more than 80 m?. Vertical shafts connect to chambers atjust over 1 m deep. Mounds are 35-93 cm in diameter and 20-45 cm in height. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs at densities of 5 ind/ha in optimal habitat and 0-9-1-2 ind/ha elsewhere. Predators include foxes, mustelids, domestic dogs, and raptors.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is protected in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve, but it faces conservation threats and is declining outside ofthis area. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.2000 km? and its area of occupancy is ¢.55 km?®. It is threatened by afforestation activities that are intended to stabilize the landscape and to support commercial forestry. Total population is estimated at 15,000-20,000 individuals, which are known from fewer than five localities.",Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2013) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (2016h) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina & Zagorodnyuk (2008),https://zenodo.org/record/6609151/files/figure.png,"22.Sandy Blind Mole-ratSpalax arenariusFrench:Spalax des sables/ German:Sandblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de los arenalesOther common names:Sandy Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax arenarius Reshetnik, 1939,NW shore of Black Sea, Golaya Pristan, Nikolaev Region, Ukraine.Spalax arenariusis the sister species to S. zemni, and it has been treated as a subspecies or synonym of S. zemni, S. microphthalmus, and S. giganteusin the past. Its species status is supported by morphological features and is broadly accepted in recent texts. Monotypic.Distribution.E bank of the Dniepr River near its opening into the Black Sea (S Ukraine).Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-275 mm, no visible external tail; weight 380-660 g. Male Sandy Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large pale straw-yellow-gray. Front of head is lighter grayish white, and venter is pale mouse gray. Fringe of pale yellow-gray hair extends from nose to ears. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Sparsely vegetated absinth (Ar temisia, Asteraceae)grass and absinthspurge (Euphorbiaceae) steppes. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is found in light, moderately wet, sandy soils with a low water table and is never found in moving sands, dry feather-grass steppe, or alkali soils.Food and Feeding.Sandy Blind Mole-rats feed on a variety of plants including field eryngo (Eryngiumcampestre, Apiaceae), wormwood (Artemisiacampestris, Asteraceae), and goatsbeard (7 Tragopogonucrainicus, Asteraceae). Accumulated winter stores weigh 10-15 kg.Breeding.Breeding of the Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs once a year in March. Young are born in April-May, and lactation lasts c.1 month.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sandy Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Feeding tunnels can be 200 m long and occur at depths of 40-50 cm. Individual home ranges are more than 80 m?. Vertical shafts connect to chambers atjust over 1 m deep. Mounds are 35-93 cm in diameter and 20-45 cm in height. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs at densities of 5 ind/ha in optimal habitat and 0-9-1-2 ind/ha elsewhere. Predators include foxes, mustelids, domestic dogs, and raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is protected in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve, but it faces conservation threats and is declining outside ofthis area. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.2000 km? and its area of occupancy is ¢.55 km?®. It is threatened by afforestation activities that are intended to stabilize the landscape and to support commercial forestry. Total population is estimated at 15,000-20,000 individuals, which are known from fewer than five localities.Bibliography.Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Hadid et al. (2012), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2013), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (2016h), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina & Zagorodnyuk (2008)." +03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.xml,Spalax microphthalmus,Spalax,microphthalmus,Guldenstadt,1770,Grand Spalax @fr | Steppenblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega grande @es | Greater Mole-rat @en,"Spalax microphthalmus Guldenstadt, 1770,Novokhoper Steppe, Voronezhskaya Oblast, Russia.All members of the genus Spalaxhave at some time been treated as synonyms or subspecies of S. microphthalmus. 1. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012 treated S. microphthalmusas monotypic, but they noted the possibility that populations in the western part of its distribution may constitute a distinct subspecies. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 suggested that Ciscaucasian populations might be a distinct subspecies; the appropriate name for this form wouldappear to be typhlusby P. S. Pallas in 1779. M. Korobchenko and I. Zagorodnyuk in 2009 questioned inclusion of typhlusin microphthalmus, suggesting that it has affinities with giganteusand warrants recognition as a distinct species. Pending further study, they provisionally treated it as a distinct subspecies within S. microphthalmus. Two subspecies recognized.","S.m.microphthalmusGuldenstadt,1770—EUkraineandSWRussia.S. m. typhlus Pallas, 1779— Ciscaucasian Russia immediately E of the Sea of Azov.","Head—body 190-315 mm, no visible external tail; weight 120-818 g. Male Greater Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large and straw-graybrown, with lighter and grayer head and straw-brown venter. Roots of hairs are mouse gray, and individuals can have this color when tips of hairs are worn off. Small yellowish white patch may be present on forehead. Some specimens have white longitudinal stripe on head. Fringe of yellowish hair extends outward from nose toward ears. Juveniles are much grayer than adults. Thicker winter pelage is present from September to May orJune. Three pairs of nipples are present. Diploid numberis 2n = 60 or 62.","Flat steppes and forest steppes in the region between the Dniepr and Volga rivers, from roughly Mordovia southward into Ciscaucasia. Northern populations are fragmented. The Greater Blind Mole-rat prefers to dig in rich black soils and avoids loam and sand. It can be found in agricultural fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards, and forests.","The Greater Blind Mole-rat eats dandelion (7araxacum, Asteraceae), cow parsnip (Heracleum, Apiaceae), chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae). A higher ratio of leaves and shoots are eaten in spring than later in the year when roots and bulbs are preferred. Accumulated winterstores of food can weigh c.10-14 kg.",Greater Blind Mole-rats breed once a year. Females give birth to 2-5 young in late February to early May. Females usually breed in their second year. Life span is 2-54 years.,"Digging activities of Greater Blind Mole-rat are most pronounced in spring when food stores are depleted. They are active year-round, but in winter, they reduce activity, focusing in deeper areas. An individual traversing aboveground facing a threat will immediately begin to burrow.","Greater Blind Mole-rats are solitary; individuals may fight until one retreats or dies. Fighting usually involves bites to the face. Juveniles leave their mothers’ burrows and either create a separate adjacent burrow or disperse up to several hundred meters aboveground. Individuals of any age might travel aboveground in search of better locations for burrows, and males might travel aboveground in search of females. Burrow systems can take on a variety of shapes including almost linear, 1-2 central areas with feeding tunnels emerging as spokes, or more irregular arrangements. They vary widely in length but can be 100-450 m or more across. Feeding tunnels are 10-25 cm deep, and deeper chambers are found at depths of 120-320 cm. Upper and lower regions are connected by 2—4 vertical shafts. One or two nest chambers are present, and these are lined with grass and leaves. Usually 4-9 storerooms are present alongside multiple empty chambers. Multiple toilets are present, and these are sealed after filled. Mounds are variable in shape and size, with diameters of 20-240 cm (average 50 cm). They are located 1-2 m apart. A single individualis estimated to displace 0-2-0-3 m® of earth daily. Densities are 3-10 ind/ha and can be 20 ind/ha in good conditions but lower elsewhere. Populations do not usually exhibit extreme oscillations. Predators include the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans), and carnivorous mammals such as mustelids.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Broadly speaking, the Greater Blind Mole-rat has a large distribution in which it is abundant and common. It is found in protected areas. Many populations, particularly in the northern part ofits distribution, may be threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural practices. The Greater Blind Mole-rat can be an agricultural pest and is poisoned. It functions as an ecosystem engineer, affecting soil composition and plant communities. Its burrows are used by a variety of other animals such as small mammals and invertebrates.","Corbet (1978) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2016) | Nevo (1999) | Ognev (1947) | Pallas (1779) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016c) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609153/files/figure.png,"23.Greater Blind Mole-ratSpalax microphthalmusFrench:Grand Spalax/ German:Steppenblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega grandeOther common names:Greater Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax microphthalmus Guldenstadt, 1770,Novokhoper Steppe, Voronezhskaya Oblast, Russia.All members of the genus Spalaxhave at some time been treated as synonyms or subspecies of S. microphthalmus. 1. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012 treated S. microphthalmusas monotypic, but they noted the possibility that populations in the western part of its distribution may constitute a distinct subspecies. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 suggested that Ciscaucasian populations might be a distinct subspecies; the appropriate name for this form wouldappear to be typhlusby P. S. Pallas in 1779. M. Korobchenko and I. Zagorodnyuk in 2009 questioned inclusion of typhlusin microphthalmus, suggesting that it has affinities with giganteusand warrants recognition as a distinct species. Pending further study, they provisionally treated it as a distinct subspecies within S. microphthalmus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.m.microphthalmusGuldenstadt,1770—EUkraineandSWRussia.S. m. typhlus Pallas, 1779— Ciscaucasian Russia immediately E of the Sea of Azov.Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-315 mm, no visible external tail; weight 120-818 g. Male Greater Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large and straw-graybrown, with lighter and grayer head and straw-brown venter. Roots of hairs are mouse gray, and individuals can have this color when tips of hairs are worn off. Small yellowish white patch may be present on forehead. Some specimens have white longitudinal stripe on head. Fringe of yellowish hair extends outward from nose toward ears. Juveniles are much grayer than adults. Thicker winter pelage is present from September to May orJune. Three pairs of nipples are present. Diploid numberis 2n = 60 or 62.Habitat.Flat steppes and forest steppes in the region between the Dniepr and Volga rivers, from roughly Mordovia southward into Ciscaucasia. Northern populations are fragmented. The Greater Blind Mole-rat prefers to dig in rich black soils and avoids loam and sand. It can be found in agricultural fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards, and forests.Food and Feeding.The Greater Blind Mole-rat eats dandelion (7araxacum, Asteraceae), cow parsnip (Heracleum, Apiaceae), chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae). A higher ratio of leaves and shoots are eaten in spring than later in the year when roots and bulbs are preferred. Accumulated winterstores of food can weigh c.10-14 kg.Breeding.Greater Blind Mole-rats breed once a year. Females give birth to 2-5 young in late February to early May. Females usually breed in their second year. Life span is 2-54 years.Activity patterns.Digging activities of Greater Blind Mole-rat are most pronounced in spring when food stores are depleted. They are active year-round, but in winter, they reduce activity, focusing in deeper areas. An individual traversing aboveground facing a threat will immediately begin to burrow.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Greater Blind Mole-rats are solitary; individuals may fight until one retreats or dies. Fighting usually involves bites to the face. Juveniles leave their mothers’ burrows and either create a separate adjacent burrow or disperse up to several hundred meters aboveground. Individuals of any age might travel aboveground in search of better locations for burrows, and males might travel aboveground in search of females. Burrow systems can take on a variety of shapes including almost linear, 1-2 central areas with feeding tunnels emerging as spokes, or more irregular arrangements. They vary widely in length but can be 100-450 m or more across. Feeding tunnels are 10-25 cm deep, and deeper chambers are found at depths of 120-320 cm. Upper and lower regions are connected by 2—4 vertical shafts. One or two nest chambers are present, and these are lined with grass and leaves. Usually 4-9 storerooms are present alongside multiple empty chambers. Multiple toilets are present, and these are sealed after filled. Mounds are variable in shape and size, with diameters of 20-240 cm (average 50 cm). They are located 1-2 m apart. A single individualis estimated to displace 0-2-0-3 m® of earth daily. Densities are 3-10 ind/ha and can be 20 ind/ha in good conditions but lower elsewhere. Populations do not usually exhibit extreme oscillations. Predators include the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans), and carnivorous mammals such as mustelids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Broadly speaking, the Greater Blind Mole-rat has a large distribution in which it is abundant and common. It is found in protected areas. Many populations, particularly in the northern part ofits distribution, may be threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural practices. The Greater Blind Mole-rat can be an agricultural pest and is poisoned. It functions as an ecosystem engineer, affecting soil composition and plant communities. Its burrows are used by a variety of other animals such as small mammals and invertebrates.Bibliography.Corbet (1978), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2016), Nevo (1999), Ognev (1947), Pallas (1779), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016c), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008a)." +03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.xml,Spalax giganteus,Spalax,giganteus,Nehring,1898,Spalax géant @fr | Riesenblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega gigante @es | Giant Mole-rat @en,"Spalax giganteus Nehring, 1898,near Makhachkala, W shore of Caspian Sea, Dagestan, Russia.Spalax uralensishad been widely regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia.","Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).","Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline.","Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.","Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.","Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.",Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.,"Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline. Habitat loss has been exacerbated by war,soil salinization, and agricultural practices such as irrigation, overgrazing, and plowing. Itis almost extinct in Chechnya and perhaps Dagestan. It can be a pest in orchards and fields.","Iliashenko & lliashenko (2000) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (1993, 2016e) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov & Sheftel (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609157/files/figure.png,"24.Giant Blind Mole-ratSpalax giganteusFrench:Spalax géant/ German:Riesenblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega giganteOther common names:Giant Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax giganteus Nehring, 1898,near Makhachkala, W shore of Caspian Sea, Dagestan, Russia.Spalax uralensishad been widely regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline. Habitat loss has been exacerbated by war,soil salinization, and agricultural practices such as irrigation, overgrazing, and plowing. Itis almost extinct in Chechnya and perhaps Dagestan. It can be a pest in orchards and fields.Bibliography.Iliashenko & lliashenko (2000), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (1993, 2016e), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov & Sheftel (2008)." +03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.xml,Nannospalax leucodon,Nannospalax,leucodon,,,Spalax de Hongrie @fr | \Westblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega pequena @es | Lesser Mole-rat @en,"Spalax typhlus leucodon Nordmann, 1840,near Odessa, Ukraine.Nannospalax leucodonis included in subgenus Mesospalax. It represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric and parapatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Numerous names have been applied to these various forms, many of which are nomen nuda or otherwise unavailable. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 treated N. leucodonas a single species with two subspecies: leucodonfrom eastern Hungary, Romania, Moldovia, and Ukraine and monticolafrom Hungary and Bulgaria, southward to Greece and European Turkey. At the other extreme, I. Savi¢ and colleagues in 1984 recognized 13 species and ten additional subspecies, granting named status to all known cytotypes. Genetic diversity among populations of N. leucodonappears to be lower than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, but to date, sampling has been restricted to the western part ofits distribution. Assessing species boundaries will probably require combining data on karyotypes with molecular phylogenetics because morphological data appear to be of limited use. Monotypic.","E Hungary, SW Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, SE Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece (including NE Aegean Is of Samothrace and Lemnos), and European Turkey.","Head—body 150-240 mm, no visible external tail; weight 162-504 g. Male Lesser Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. Color varies but is typically brownish to gray, with tinge of yellow, ginger, or yellow-red. Anterior of head is less brown and more gray. Ridge of longer white to yellow hair extends from sides of nose toward ears. Venter is mostly gray. White or yellow spots are common in northern populations but less so in other regions such as Turkey. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are yellow or white. Populations in Turkey are smaller. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 29 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 38-62.","Steppes, grasslands, meadows, and pastures from sea level to elevations up to 2400 m. Lesser Blind Mole-rats can be found in forest clearings, small fields adjacent to pasture, and orchards. They prefer deep, loose, and well-drained soil. They are usually absent in forest, wetlands, rocky areas, and heavily cultivated areas.","Lesser Blind Mole-rats feed primarily on bulbs, roots, and tubers, with supplements from green plant parts. Green plant matter is important for weaned juveniles and adults in late spring. Insects are also sometimes eaten. The Lesser Blind Mole-rat eats ¢.36:5% ofits body mass daily. Its energy budgetis 0-17 kcal/g/day except in winter when it increases to 0-22 kcal/g/day. Food caches of 6-20 kg have been reported.","Pregnant female Lesser Blind Mole-rats are most commonly captured in March. Gestation is 30 days. Young are born in March-April and weigh 6-6-5 g. Litter size is usually 2—4 young, but 1-6 young have been recorded. Young are weaned after 2-2-5 months; young males weigh 137 g while females weigh 121 g by the end of May. Females start breeding in their second year. In captivity, females live up to 3-5 years, and males live 4-5 years.","Activity of the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is polyphasic, with two peaks at 13:00-14:00 h and 01:00-02:00 h in some reports and three peaks at 11:00-13:00 h, 07:00-09:00 h, and 17:00-21:00 h in others.","Burrows of Lesser Blind Mole-rats have a main tunnel with secondary tunnels branching off. An individual digs c.1:7 m of tunnel daily, yielding 10 kg of excavated dirt. Total tunnel length is 65-195 m and spread over 194-1000 m?. Peripheral feeding tunnels are located at depths of 15-25 cm; deeper passages may reach 410 cm. Oval-shaped 28 x 18 x 16 cm nests are centrally located at depths of 25-50 cm; they are lined with grasses. Multiple food caches and toilet chambers are present. Mounds are located 21-30 m apart. Densities are usually 1-13 ind/ha, but 23 ind/ha have been recorded. Lesser Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Predators include the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis), the Ermine (M. erminea), the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmannii), domestic dog, domestic cat, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), and the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica).","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax leucodon). Species boundaries are poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, urbanization, and other development. The superspecies is found in protected areas, but several of the species in this complex are undoubtedly threatened, lack protection, and are in dire need of assessment as individual entities. For example, G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 evaluated conservation status of the N. leucodonsuperspecies in the Carpathian Basin, treating forms therein as four distinct species. They proposed that N. (leucodon) transylvanicus from north-eastern Hungary and north-western Romania warrants a status of vulnerable because area of occupancy is no more than 120 km?, it is known from under ten localities, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (l.) hungaricus from eastern Hungary and northern Serbia as endangered because extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is no more than 300 km?it is known from under five localities, more than 95% of the population is found at a single locality, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (lL) montanosyrmiensis from southern Hungary and northern Serbia as critically endangered because extent of occurrence is no more than 100 km? area of occupancy is less than 10 km?, it is known from only three localities, these populations continue to decline, and habitat size and quality continue to decline. Finally, they assessed N. (l.) syrmiensis from western Hungary and northern Serbia as data deficient because it has not been recorded in 30 years and is likely extinct. Similar detailed assessment is needed for the rest of the geographic distribution.","Bego et al. (2014) | Csorba et al. (2015) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009) | Krystufek (1999b) | Krystufek & Amori (2008) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Révay et al. (2009) | Nevo et al. (2001) | Ognev (1947) | Savi¢ et al. (1984) | Topachevskii (1969)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609161/files/figure.png,"26.Lesser Blind Mole-ratNannospalax leucodonFrench:Spalax de Hongrie/ German:\Westblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega pequenaOther common names:Lesser Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax typhlus leucodon Nordmann, 1840,near Odessa, Ukraine.Nannospalax leucodonis included in subgenus Mesospalax. It represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric and parapatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Numerous names have been applied to these various forms, many of which are nomen nuda or otherwise unavailable. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 treated N. leucodonas a single species with two subspecies: leucodonfrom eastern Hungary, Romania, Moldovia, and Ukraine and monticolafrom Hungary and Bulgaria, southward to Greece and European Turkey. At the other extreme, I. Savi¢ and colleagues in 1984 recognized 13 species and ten additional subspecies, granting named status to all known cytotypes. Genetic diversity among populations of N. leucodonappears to be lower than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, but to date, sampling has been restricted to the western part ofits distribution. Assessing species boundaries will probably require combining data on karyotypes with molecular phylogenetics because morphological data appear to be of limited use. Monotypic.Distribution.E Hungary, SW Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, SE Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece (including NE Aegean Is of Samothrace and Lemnos), and European Turkey.Descriptive notes.Head—body 150-240 mm, no visible external tail; weight 162-504 g. Male Lesser Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. Color varies but is typically brownish to gray, with tinge of yellow, ginger, or yellow-red. Anterior of head is less brown and more gray. Ridge of longer white to yellow hair extends from sides of nose toward ears. Venter is mostly gray. White or yellow spots are common in northern populations but less so in other regions such as Turkey. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are yellow or white. Populations in Turkey are smaller. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 29 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 38-62.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands, meadows, and pastures from sea level to elevations up to 2400 m. Lesser Blind Mole-rats can be found in forest clearings, small fields adjacent to pasture, and orchards. They prefer deep, loose, and well-drained soil. They are usually absent in forest, wetlands, rocky areas, and heavily cultivated areas.Food and Feeding.Lesser Blind Mole-rats feed primarily on bulbs, roots, and tubers, with supplements from green plant parts. Green plant matter is important for weaned juveniles and adults in late spring. Insects are also sometimes eaten. The Lesser Blind Mole-rat eats ¢.36:5% ofits body mass daily. Its energy budgetis 0-17 kcal/g/day except in winter when it increases to 0-22 kcal/g/day. Food caches of 6-20 kg have been reported.Breeding.Pregnant female Lesser Blind Mole-rats are most commonly captured in March. Gestation is 30 days. Young are born in March-April and weigh 6-6-5 g. Litter size is usually 2—4 young, but 1-6 young have been recorded. Young are weaned after 2-2-5 months; young males weigh 137 g while females weigh 121 g by the end of May. Females start breeding in their second year. In captivity, females live up to 3-5 years, and males live 4-5 years.Activity patterns.Activity of the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is polyphasic, with two peaks at 13:00-14:00 h and 01:00-02:00 h in some reports and three peaks at 11:00-13:00 h, 07:00-09:00 h, and 17:00-21:00 h in others.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Lesser Blind Mole-rats have a main tunnel with secondary tunnels branching off. An individual digs c.1:7 m of tunnel daily, yielding 10 kg of excavated dirt. Total tunnel length is 65-195 m and spread over 194-1000 m?. Peripheral feeding tunnels are located at depths of 15-25 cm; deeper passages may reach 410 cm. Oval-shaped 28 x 18 x 16 cm nests are centrally located at depths of 25-50 cm; they are lined with grasses. Multiple food caches and toilet chambers are present. Mounds are located 21-30 m apart. Densities are usually 1-13 ind/ha, but 23 ind/ha have been recorded. Lesser Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Predators include the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis), the Ermine (M. erminea), the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmannii), domestic dog, domestic cat, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), and the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax leucodon). Species boundaries are poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, urbanization, and other development. The superspecies is found in protected areas, but several of the species in this complex are undoubtedly threatened, lack protection, and are in dire need of assessment as individual entities. For example, G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 evaluated conservation status of the N. leucodonsuperspecies in the Carpathian Basin, treating forms therein as four distinct species. They proposed that N. (leucodon) transylvanicus from north-eastern Hungary and north-western Romania warrants a status of vulnerable because area of occupancy is no more than 120 km?, it is known from under ten localities, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (l.) hungaricus from eastern Hungary and northern Serbia as endangered because extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is no more than 300 km?it is known from under five localities, more than 95% of the population is found at a single locality, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (lL) montanosyrmiensis from southern Hungary and northern Serbia as critically endangered because extent of occurrence is no more than 100 km? area of occupancy is less than 10 km?, it is known from only three localities, these populations continue to decline, and habitat size and quality continue to decline. Finally, they assessed N. (l.) syrmiensis from western Hungary and northern Serbia as data deficient because it has not been recorded in 30 years and is likely extinct. Similar detailed assessment is needed for the rest of the geographic distribution.Bibliography.Bego et al. (2014), Csorba et al. (2015), Hadid et al. (2012), Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009), Krystufek (1999b), Krystufek & Amori (2008), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Révay et al. (2009), Nevo et al. (2001), Ognev (1947), Savi¢ et al. (1984), Topachevskii (1969)." +03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.xml,Spalax uralensis,Spalax,uralensis,Tiflov & Usov,1939,Spalax de @fr | 'Oural @en | Kasachstan-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Kazajistan @es | Ural Blind Mole-rat @en,"Spalax uralensis Tiflov & Usov, 1939,Chingerlauz region, W Kazakhstan.Although originally described as a separate species, S. wuralensis was generally regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.W Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.Habitat.Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin.",W Kazakhstan.,"Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.","Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin. Distribution of the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is tied to presence ofits primary food source, Volga wild rye (Elymus giganteus, Poaceae).","The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat feeds on multiple plant species, but Volga wild rye represents the bulk of its diet. Food caches reach sizes of 2-5 kg.","Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats usually breed once a year in spring or summer, but females will occasionally have a second litter in autumn. Litter sizes are 2—6 young.",Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activity peaks in spring and is lowest in June.,Burrows of Kazakhstan Blind Molerats include feeding tunnels near the surface and deeperliving chambers. Burrows are 145-540 m long and 0-9-3 m deep. Densities are 0-26—1 ind/ha in marginal conditions and 4 ind/ha in quality habitat.,Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratis listed as rare with limited distribution (category 3) on the Red List of Kazakhstan. It is threatened by overgrazing and experiences declines in drought years.,"Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (1993, 2016e) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina (2008b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609159/files/figure.png,"25.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratSpalax uralensisFrench:Spalax de I'Oural/ German:Kasachstan-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de KazajistanOther common names:Ural Blind Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax uralensis Tiflov & Usov, 1939,Chingerlauz region, W Kazakhstan.Although originally described as a separate species, S. wuralensis was generally regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.W Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.Habitat.Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin. Distribution of the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is tied to presence ofits primary food source, Volga wild rye (Elymus giganteus, Poaceae).Food and Feeding.The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat feeds on multiple plant species, but Volga wild rye represents the bulk of its diet. Food caches reach sizes of 2-5 kg.Breeding.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats usually breed once a year in spring or summer, but females will occasionally have a second litter in autumn. Litter sizes are 2—6 young.Activity patterns.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activity peaks in spring and is lowest in June.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Kazakhstan Blind Molerats include feeding tunnels near the surface and deeperliving chambers. Burrows are 145-540 m long and 0-9-3 m deep. Densities are 0-26—1 ind/ha in marginal conditions and 4 ind/ha in quality habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratis listed as rare with limited distribution (category 3) on the Red List of Kazakhstan. It is threatened by overgrazing and experiences declines in drought years.Bibliography.Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (1993, 2016e), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina (2008b)." +03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.xml,Nannospalax xanthodon,Nannospalax,xanthodon,,,Spalax d’Anatolie @fr | Anatolien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Anatolia @es | Anatolian Mole-rat @en,"Spalax typhlus xanthodon Nordmann, 1840,Smyrna, Turkey.Nannospalaxxanthodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. The name nehringiby K. A. Satunin in 1898 is frequently used to represent this species, but xanthodon used by A. von Nordmann in 1840 has priority. Nannospalaxxanthodon has been treated as a synonym of N. leucodon, and the two are clearly related, but both forms are themselves composed of multiple species, and recognition of two, if not more, species has been common since V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 characterized differences in their morphology. Like N. leucodon, N. xanthodon represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Topachevskii recognized two subspecies, nehringifrom eastern Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, and a western subspecies found in the rest of Asian Turkey, which he listed as cilicicus, but is probably more appropriately the nominate xanthodon. Recent studies have uncovered a number of karyotypes across the distribution of N. xanthodon, and some have argued that each of these warrant species or subspecies recognition, or at least recognition as evolutionary significant units. Genetic diversity among populations of N. xanthodon is higher than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, and Y. Hadid and colleagues in 2012 concluded that it is paraphyletic with respect to N. leucodon, although with weak support. Specifically, they found several populations with 2n = 60 or 62, including vasvariinamed byJ. Szunyoghy in 1941, as sister to a clade uniting N. leucodonwith the remaining populations of N. xanthodon. Populations with 2n = 60 or 62 are spread widely across central Turkey, and several older names are available for forms in this region, but blind mole-rats from at least part of this area will probably warrant recognition as a distinct species. In an RFLP study, T. Kankili¢ and C. Giirpinar in 2014 suggested that N. labaume: may be the appropriate name for this taxon. Their results also suggested the presence of a more westerly distributed N. xanthodon and an eastern N. nehringiwhose range essentially corresponds to Topachevskii’s definition of N. [x.] nehringi. In a study of bacular morphology, Kankili¢ and colleagues in 2014 further supported division ofthis species into three species: N. xanthodon, N. nehringi, and N. labaumei. Although geographical boundaries of these probable species are not fully defined and status of some older names such as cilicicus named by L. Méhely in 1909 are notclear, available evidence suggests that superspecies N. xanthodon probably warrants division into at least these three species. Monotypic.","Asian Turkey, SW Georgia, NW Armenia, extreme NW Iran, and several E Aegean Is (Lesbos in Greece and Bozcaada and Gokceada in Turkey).","Head-body 143-248 mm, no visible external tail; weight 130-522 g. Male Anatolian Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is medium-sized, and on most of its body, individual hairs are slate-gray on most of the length, with terminal buff of gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown. Belly hairs are generally simply slate-gray but can range from almost black to whitish orsilver. Bristly keel of lighter yellowish hairs extends from large brownish triangular nose pad about halfway to ear openings. White hairs can line nose pad and lips, and white spots or streaks can be present elsewhere on head. Incisors are extrabuccal and can be white, yellow, or orange. Smaller upper incisors tend to be darker. Kankilic and colleagues in 2014 characterized differences in bacular morphologies across chromosomal races and probable species; mean lengths for individual cytotypes were 4-8-7-8 mm. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 25 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 36-62. Cytotypes do not appear to overlap geographically.","Mediterranean coastal environments, steppe, semi-deserts, and high-elevation pastures and meadows at elevations of 50-2900 m, most commonly 900-1600 m. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat avoids forest, rocky areas, and swamp and marsh habitat.","The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on underground plant parts, particularly bulbs, but also roots and tubers. Geraniumtuberosum (Geraniaceae) has been reported as its most important food item. Individuals eat 22-2-59-4% of their body weight daily. Food is stored in cache chambers in burrows, and quantity varies by season with smallest caches in summer. Mean caches are 741-1556 g, but 10 kg of potatoes, beets, and carrots have been found in a single burrow. Anatolian Blind Mole-rats can damage agricultural crops, but they are not particularly successful in fields with intensive plowing.","Female Anatolian Blind Mole-rats have one litter annually. In Armenia, breeding starts in January, and pregnant females have been found until May. Scrotal males are most common in March-April but have been found year-round. In Turkey, reproduction occurs in January-June and peaks in February. Gestation is 26 days, and littersize is 1-6 young, usually 2-3 young. At birth, young are 50-60 mm long and weigh 9-9-5 g. They are weaned at weights of c¢.115 g and leave nests by summer. Breeding individuals have a minimum body mass of 147 g for males and 167 g for females.",No information.,"Burrows of the Anatolian Blind Mole-rat include feeding tunnels, a nest chamber, food caches, and toilets. Feeding passages are 5-40 cm deep, and deeper passages are 80-150 cm. One or two nests are present; they are c.20 x 20 cm and are lined with dry plant material. Nests tend to be beneath largest mounds. Highest densities are 60 ind/ha. Predators include the little owl (Athene noctua), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the tawny owl (Strix aluco), and the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca). This species is solitary.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax nehringi) because species boundaries are so poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Anatolian Blind Mole-ratis relatively common and known from multiple protected areas. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some chromosomal forms, for example, are extremely restricted in geographical distribution. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rate faces threats from large-scale agricultural practices, overgrazing, and habitat fragmentation.","Bukhnikashvili et al. (2008) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Kankilic & Gurpinar (2014) | Kankili¢, Kankilig, Seker & Kivang (2014) | Kankilig, Kankilic, S6zen & Colak (2013) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2016) | von Nordmann (1840) | Ognev (1947) | Satunin (1898) | Szunyoghy (1941) | Topachevskii (1969)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609163/files/figure.png,"27.Anatolian Blind Mole-ratNannospalax xanthodonFrench:Spalax d’Anatolie/ German:Anatolien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de AnatoliaOther common names:Anatolian Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax typhlus xanthodon Nordmann, 1840,Smyrna, Turkey.Nannospalaxxanthodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. The name nehringiby K. A. Satunin in 1898 is frequently used to represent this species, but xanthodon used by A. von Nordmann in 1840 has priority. Nannospalaxxanthodon has been treated as a synonym of N. leucodon, and the two are clearly related, but both forms are themselves composed of multiple species, and recognition of two, if not more, species has been common since V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 characterized differences in their morphology. Like N. leucodon, N. xanthodon represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Topachevskii recognized two subspecies, nehringifrom eastern Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, and a western subspecies found in the rest of Asian Turkey, which he listed as cilicicus, but is probably more appropriately the nominate xanthodon. Recent studies have uncovered a number of karyotypes across the distribution of N. xanthodon, and some have argued that each of these warrant species or subspecies recognition, or at least recognition as evolutionary significant units. Genetic diversity among populations of N. xanthodon is higher than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, and Y. Hadid and colleagues in 2012 concluded that it is paraphyletic with respect to N. leucodon, although with weak support. Specifically, they found several populations with 2n = 60 or 62, including vasvariinamed byJ. Szunyoghy in 1941, as sister to a clade uniting N. leucodonwith the remaining populations of N. xanthodon. Populations with 2n = 60 or 62 are spread widely across central Turkey, and several older names are available for forms in this region, but blind mole-rats from at least part of this area will probably warrant recognition as a distinct species. In an RFLP study, T. Kankili¢ and C. Giirpinar in 2014 suggested that N. labaume: may be the appropriate name for this taxon. Their results also suggested the presence of a more westerly distributed N. xanthodon and an eastern N. nehringiwhose range essentially corresponds to Topachevskii’s definition of N. [x.] nehringi. In a study of bacular morphology, Kankili¢ and colleagues in 2014 further supported division ofthis species into three species: N. xanthodon, N. nehringi, and N. labaumei. Although geographical boundaries of these probable species are not fully defined and status of some older names such as cilicicus named by L. Méhely in 1909 are notclear, available evidence suggests that superspecies N. xanthodon probably warrants division into at least these three species. Monotypic.Distribution.Asian Turkey, SW Georgia, NW Armenia, extreme NW Iran, and several E Aegean Is (Lesbos in Greece and Bozcaada and Gokceada in Turkey).Descriptive notes.Head-body 143-248 mm, no visible external tail; weight 130-522 g. Male Anatolian Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is medium-sized, and on most of its body, individual hairs are slate-gray on most of the length, with terminal buff of gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown. Belly hairs are generally simply slate-gray but can range from almost black to whitish orsilver. Bristly keel of lighter yellowish hairs extends from large brownish triangular nose pad about halfway to ear openings. White hairs can line nose pad and lips, and white spots or streaks can be present elsewhere on head. Incisors are extrabuccal and can be white, yellow, or orange. Smaller upper incisors tend to be darker. Kankilic and colleagues in 2014 characterized differences in bacular morphologies across chromosomal races and probable species; mean lengths for individual cytotypes were 4-8-7-8 mm. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 25 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 36-62. Cytotypes do not appear to overlap geographically.Habitat.Mediterranean coastal environments, steppe, semi-deserts, and high-elevation pastures and meadows at elevations of 50-2900 m, most commonly 900-1600 m. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat avoids forest, rocky areas, and swamp and marsh habitat.Food and Feeding.The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on underground plant parts, particularly bulbs, but also roots and tubers. Geraniumtuberosum (Geraniaceae) has been reported as its most important food item. Individuals eat 22-2-59-4% of their body weight daily. Food is stored in cache chambers in burrows, and quantity varies by season with smallest caches in summer. Mean caches are 741-1556 g, but 10 kg of potatoes, beets, and carrots have been found in a single burrow. Anatolian Blind Mole-rats can damage agricultural crops, but they are not particularly successful in fields with intensive plowing.Breeding.Female Anatolian Blind Mole-rats have one litter annually. In Armenia, breeding starts in January, and pregnant females have been found until May. Scrotal males are most common in March-April but have been found year-round. In Turkey, reproduction occurs in January-June and peaks in February. Gestation is 26 days, and littersize is 1-6 young, usually 2-3 young. At birth, young are 50-60 mm long and weigh 9-9-5 g. They are weaned at weights of c¢.115 g and leave nests by summer. Breeding individuals have a minimum body mass of 147 g for males and 167 g for females.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of the Anatolian Blind Mole-rat include feeding tunnels, a nest chamber, food caches, and toilets. Feeding passages are 5-40 cm deep, and deeper passages are 80-150 cm. One or two nests are present; they are c.20 x 20 cm and are lined with dry plant material. Nests tend to be beneath largest mounds. Highest densities are 60 ind/ha. Predators include the little owl (Athene noctua), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the tawny owl (Strix aluco), and the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca). This species is solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax nehringi) because species boundaries are so poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Anatolian Blind Mole-ratis relatively common and known from multiple protected areas. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some chromosomal forms, for example, are extremely restricted in geographical distribution. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rate faces threats from large-scale agricultural practices, overgrazing, and habitat fragmentation.Bibliography.Bukhnikashvili et al. (2008), Hadid et al. (2012), Kankilic & Gurpinar (2014), Kankili¢, Kankilig, Seker & Kivang (2014), Kankilig, Kankilic, S6zen & Colak (2013), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2016), von Nordmann (1840), Ognev (1947), Satunin (1898), Szunyoghy (1941), Topachevskii (1969)." +03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.xml,Eospalax rufescens,Eospalax,rufescens,,,Zokor roux @fr | Qin-Ling-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Qinling @es,"Myotalpa rufescens J. A. Allen, 1909,Taipai Shan, southern Shensi, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 reluctantly treated E. rufescensas synonymous with E. fontanieriicansusbased on limited and incomplete material. Fospalax rufescenshas been treated as conspecific with E. fontanieru, E. cansus, or E. bailey: (under the older name rufescens), but it had rarely been treated as a distinct species in its own right until recently. Various studies support distinctiveness of E. rufescensamong species of Fospalax based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. baileyr, but a sister relationship with E. cansushas also been suggested. Additional research is needed to assessits position within the genus Fospalax. Monotypic.","Qin Mts in S Gansu, S Shaanxi, and N Sichuan (C China).","Head-body c.186 mm, tail ¢.33 mm. No specific data available for body weight. The Qinling Zokoris dark gray to rufescent brown. Tail is brownish white and well-furred. Hindfeet are also well-furred. Nasals are long and slightly trapezoidal in shape, and incisive foramina extend well into maxilla. M? lacks a second re-entrant fold.",Grassy habitat and cropland at elevations above 2000 m in Qin Mountains.,No information.,No information.,No information.,The Qinling Zokor prefers to construct burrows in soft soils with few rocks on sunny slopes with sparse shrubs.,"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as data deficient on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Qinling Zokor seems to benefit from an intermediate level of human disturbance such as cleared land near highways. It is an agricultural pest.","Allen, G.M. (1940) | Allen, J.A. (1909) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Lu Qingbin et al. (2011) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Zhou Caiguan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609122/files/figure.png,"8.Qinling ZokorEospalax rufescensFrench:Zokor roux/ German:Qin-Ling-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de QinlingTaxonomy.Myotalpa rufescens J. A. Allen, 1909,Taipai Shan, southern Shensi, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 reluctantly treated E. rufescensas synonymous with E. fontanieriicansusbased on limited and incomplete material. Fospalax rufescenshas been treated as conspecific with E. fontanieru, E. cansus, or E. bailey: (under the older name rufescens), but it had rarely been treated as a distinct species in its own right until recently. Various studies support distinctiveness of E. rufescensamong species of Fospalax based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. baileyr, but a sister relationship with E. cansushas also been suggested. Additional research is needed to assessits position within the genus Fospalax. Monotypic.Distribution.Qin Mts in S Gansu, S Shaanxi, and N Sichuan (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body c.186 mm, tail ¢.33 mm. No specific data available for body weight. The Qinling Zokoris dark gray to rufescent brown. Tail is brownish white and well-furred. Hindfeet are also well-furred. Nasals are long and slightly trapezoidal in shape, and incisive foramina extend well into maxilla. M? lacks a second re-entrant fold.Habitat.Grassy habitat and cropland at elevations above 2000 m in Qin Mountains.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Qinling Zokor prefers to construct burrows in soft soils with few rocks on sunny slopes with sparse shrubs.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as data deficient on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Qinling Zokor seems to benefit from an intermediate level of human disturbance such as cleared land near highways. It is an agricultural pest.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1940), Allen, J.A. (1909), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Lu Qingbin et al. (2011), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Zhou Caiguan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)." +03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.xml,Eospalax cansus,Eospalax,cansus,,,Zokor du Gansu @fr | Gansu-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Gansu @es,"Myotalpa cansus Lyon, 1907,“ Taocheo[= Chaozhou], Kan-su, northwestern China.”Although O. Thomas and others had treated them as a separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusas a subspecies of Jfontaniern and treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontaniern in the literature pertain to the better-studied FE. cansus. In recent years, various studies have supported treating E. cansusas a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. baileyibased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. cansuswithin Eospalax, but it does not appear to be closely related to E. fontanierii. Three distinct mitochondrial clades of E. cansushave been identified that correspond to central Shaanxi; Ningxia and south-eastern Gansu; and eastern Qinghai and south-western Gansu. These appear to roughly correspond to groupings recovered based on morphometric analysis of Lu Qingbin and colleagues in 2013. Additional research is required to determine if E. cansuswarrants division into subspecies or even multiple species. Monotypic.","Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei (C & E China).","Head-body 155-230 mm, tail 33-66 mm; weight 150-430 g. Male Gansu Zokors are larger than females, and populations at higher elevations tend to be larger. The Gansu Zokoris brownish, although slightly darker than Fontanier’s Zokor (E. fontanierii). Hairs are dark gray at bases. Unlike Fontanier’s Zokor, the Gansu Zokor usually lacks white blaze; when present, it is small. Tail and feet are sparsely haired. Immature individuals are gray. Median occipital crest is well-developed, and M? has two re-entrant folds.","Grassland, shrub-steppe, and forest at elevations of 1500-2500 m on the Loess Plateau. Burrows of Gansu Zokors have been excavated in areas with high concentrations of grasses, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae), and thyme (Thymus, Lamiaceae).",Gansu Zokors eat underground plant matter.,"Ganu Zokors breed primarily in April-July. As breeding approaches, males consume more food and increase digging activity, and their testes descend. When a captive male was placed in shared spaces with a female, the two initially acted aggressively, began to act more amicably, and finally mated. Courtship lasts ¢.25 days. Mating bouts appear to be most common in morning, last 10-30 minutes, and can continue for 8-10 days. Litter sizes are 1-5 young, usually 2-3 young.","When walking, claws of Gansu Zokors are folded undersoles offeet.","The Gansu Zokor lives almost entirely underground. Communication occurs seismically via call and head drumming; they squeal when frightened. Individuals clearly know status of neighboring individuals. If an individual is removed,its territory will be quickly occupied. This behavior appears to allow individuals to form overlappingburrow systems, allowing mates to find each other. Males have larger tunnel systems than females and are more aggressive. Predators include the Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii). Remains of the Gansu Zokor have also been found in owl pellets.","Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Gansu Zokor has a wide distribution and large population and is found in protected areas. Overgrazing is a common problem acrossits distribution, and research is needed to understand complex interactions among overgrazing, erosion, habitat restoration, and zokor activities. The Gansu Zokor is considered a pest because it is thought to exacerbate erosion and hinder forest restoration projects by feeding on seedlings. It is also an agricultural pest of several crops including soybeans.","Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Hongo et al. (1993) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Li Jingang, He Jianping & Wang Tingzheng (2001) | Li Jingang, Wang Tingzheng & He Jianping (2001) | Lu Qingbin et al. (2013) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Yang Chuanhua etal. (2012) | Zhang Tongzuo et al. (2013) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609120/files/figure.png,"7.Gansu ZokorEospalax cansusFrench:Zokor du Gansu/ German:Gansu-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de GansuTaxonomy.Myotalpa cansus Lyon, 1907,“ Taocheo[= Chaozhou], Kan-su, northwestern China.”Although O. Thomas and others had treated them as a separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusas a subspecies of Jfontaniern and treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontaniern in the literature pertain to the better-studied FE. cansus. In recent years, various studies have supported treating E. cansusas a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. baileyibased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. cansuswithin Eospalax, but it does not appear to be closely related to E. fontanierii. Three distinct mitochondrial clades of E. cansushave been identified that correspond to central Shaanxi; Ningxia and south-eastern Gansu; and eastern Qinghai and south-western Gansu. These appear to roughly correspond to groupings recovered based on morphometric analysis of Lu Qingbin and colleagues in 2013. Additional research is required to determine if E. cansuswarrants division into subspecies or even multiple species. Monotypic.Distribution.Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei (C & E China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 155-230 mm, tail 33-66 mm; weight 150-430 g. Male Gansu Zokors are larger than females, and populations at higher elevations tend to be larger. The Gansu Zokoris brownish, although slightly darker than Fontanier’s Zokor (E. fontanierii). Hairs are dark gray at bases. Unlike Fontanier’s Zokor, the Gansu Zokor usually lacks white blaze; when present, it is small. Tail and feet are sparsely haired. Immature individuals are gray. Median occipital crest is well-developed, and M? has two re-entrant folds.Habitat.Grassland, shrub-steppe, and forest at elevations of 1500-2500 m on the Loess Plateau. Burrows of Gansu Zokors have been excavated in areas with high concentrations of grasses, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae), and thyme (Thymus, Lamiaceae).Food and Feeding.Gansu Zokors eat underground plant matter.Breeding.Ganu Zokors breed primarily in April-July. As breeding approaches, males consume more food and increase digging activity, and their testes descend. When a captive male was placed in shared spaces with a female, the two initially acted aggressively, began to act more amicably, and finally mated. Courtship lasts ¢.25 days. Mating bouts appear to be most common in morning, last 10-30 minutes, and can continue for 8-10 days. Litter sizes are 1-5 young, usually 2-3 young.Activity patterns.When walking, claws of Gansu Zokors are folded undersoles offeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gansu Zokor lives almost entirely underground. Communication occurs seismically via call and head drumming; they squeal when frightened. Individuals clearly know status of neighboring individuals. If an individual is removed,its territory will be quickly occupied. This behavior appears to allow individuals to form overlappingburrow systems, allowing mates to find each other. Males have larger tunnel systems than females and are more aggressive. Predators include the Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii). Remains of the Gansu Zokor have also been found in owl pellets.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Gansu Zokor has a wide distribution and large population and is found in protected areas. Overgrazing is a common problem acrossits distribution, and research is needed to understand complex interactions among overgrazing, erosion, habitat restoration, and zokor activities. The Gansu Zokor is considered a pest because it is thought to exacerbate erosion and hinder forest restoration projects by feeding on seedlings. It is also an agricultural pest of several crops including soybeans.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Hongo et al. (1993), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Li Jingang, He Jianping & Wang Tingzheng (2001), Li Jingang, Wang Tingzheng & He Jianping (2001), Lu Qingbin et al. (2013), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Yang Chuanhua etal. (2012), Zhang Tongzuo et al. (2013), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)." +03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,133,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.xml,Eospalax baileyi,Eospalax,baileyi,,,Zokor des plateaux @fr | Qinghai-Blindmull @de | Zocor de altiplano @es,"Myospalax baileyi Thomas, 1911,between Nagchuka(or Hokow) and Tatsienlu, Ramasong, W Szechwan, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated E. baileyias separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included it as a subspecies offontanieru. S. Y. Song in 1986 regarded baileyias a subspecies of rufescens. Many references to E. fontanieriiand E. rufescenspertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi. In recent years, various studies support treating E. bailey: as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. cansusbased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. rufescens. Four to six deeply divergent, geographically discrete, mitochondrial clades have been identified within E. baileyi, and these may show some overlap with the three morphological groups suggested by Tang Lizhou and colleagues in 2009. Additional research is required to determine if E. baileyiwarrants further division into multiple species or subspecies. Monotypic.","Qinghai, Gansu, and W Sichuan (China).","Head-body 160-235 mm,tail 33-61 mm; weight 173-490 g. Male Plateau Zokorsare larger than females. They are pale rufous-brown with pinkish buff. Tail is short and densely furred with whitish hairs. Feet are also hairy. Young are gray. Incisive foramina is restricted to premaxilla.","Alpine meadows, steppe meadows, shrubs, and farmland. at elevations of 2800-4500 m on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Plateau Zokor prefers moist soil and degraded grassland and avoids desert, irrigated land, and boulder fields. Microclimate of its burrows allows for less extreme temperature swings and milder temperatures overall. While aboveground January temperatures may be —4 to —=38°C, burrows maintain a temperature of 0-5°C. Humidity is high (79-87-3%) in these burrows compared to dry external climate (31-7-53-3%). Nevertheless, microclimate in burrows presents challenges. Oxygen levels are low (17-18:4% in burrow compared to 20-4% externally), and carbon dioxide levels are extremely high (0-22-1-5% in burrow compared to 0-03% outside). The Plateau Zokoris a subterranean and a high-elevation species, and it has substantially elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentration; it is extremely efficient at delivering oxygen to tissue. Oxygen pressure in arterial blood of the Plateau Zokoris 1-5 times higher than laboratory rats, and oxygen pressure in venous blood is 0-26 times that of lab rats.","Plateau Zokors feed on roots and shoots of forbs, grasses, and some shrubs. They prefer taproots and storage organs of plants such as Notopterygium forbesii (Apiaceae), Potentillaanserina (Rosaceae), Morina chinensis(Caprifoliaceae), and dandelions (Taraxacum, Asteraceae). Plants are accessed from feeding tunnels belowground. The Plateau Zokor will grab roots and pull the entire plant down into the tunnel system where it is consumed. All zokors have an adaptation in the thumb claw where it is shortened and wears away leaving a central gap. Under laboratory conditions, the Plateau Zokor uses this thumb claw to clean off taproots such as dandelions. The root is then held in both hands, resting in these thumb gaps,as it is consumed.","Male and female Plateau Zokors never share a burrow. Mating occursat the intersection of burrows of neighboring males and females. During the mating period, males will dig multiple long tunnels, presumably in hopes of entering female territories. Males and females mate with multiple partners during a single mating period. Females give birth once a year, usually in April-May. Litter sizes are about three young (1-5), and lactation lasts c.50 days.",Plateau Zokors live mostly belowground. They are active year-round but have higher activity levels in spring and autumn and lowest in winter. The Plateau Zokorsleeps very deeply and can be handled or subjected to loud noises without waking up.,"Burrows of Plateau Zokors are complex, with tunnel systems reaching ¢.100 m in length and depths of 0-8-1-5 m for males and 2-2-5 m for females. Burrow systems contain transportation and foraging tunnels, 1-2 nest chambers, food stores, and dead end tunnels. Soil is brought to the surface when digging, and their presence is evident by presence of mounds that can take up 15-20% of the surface above the burrow system. Dispersal is probably aboveground and male-biased, but this has not been observed directly. They are solitary and intolerant of one another, becoming aggressive when encountering others. Densities are 5-70 ind/ha and average 15 ind/ha. Predators include the Tibetan Fox (Vulpesferrilata), the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmannii), the Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bietr), Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul), the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), the upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) and the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) occasionally eat Plateau Zokors.","Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List whereit is treated as a distinct species. The Plateau Zokor has a wide distribution and large population. An annual eradication program was implemented in the 1990s, which reduced population size to less than one-third of its formersize. Livestock grazing appears to increase prevalence of Plateau Zokors because it leads to an increase in the types of plants with taproots they prefer. This increase in zokors may in turn further accelerate landscape deterioration, but the system is complex, and researchers debate positive and negative impacts. The Plateau Zokor is considered an ecosystem engineer. A single individual transfers more than 1000 kg of soil to the surface annually. Its burrowing activities mix and aerate soil, increase environmental heterogeneity, enhance infiltration of water into the soil, and thereby curtail erosion. These activities also lessen uptake of greenhouse gases and appear to facilitate spread of invasive plant species. Abandoned burrows are used as shelters by a variety of small mammals (such as the Root Vole, Microtusoeconomus, and Gansu Pika, Ochotona cansus), birds (such as the ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis, the black-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla adamsi, and several species of ground-sparrows such as Pyrgilauda blanfordi, P. davidiana, P. ruficollis, and P. taczanowski), amphibians and reptiles. Dried bone of Plateau Zokor, known as “Sailonggu,” is used in traditional Tibetan medicine as a treatment for inflammation. It is used as a medicinal replacement for Tiger (Panthera tigris) bone, which serves a similar function.","Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Li Wenjing et al. (2009) | Lin Gonghua, Li Wenjing et al. (2011) | Lin Gonghua, Zhao Fang et al. (2014) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Tang Lizhou, Wang Liuyang et al. (2010) | Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo, Lin Gonhua & Su Jianping (2010) | Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo & Su Jianping (2009) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wei Dengbang et al. (2006) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Yang Chuanhua et al. (2012) | Zhang Weiet al. (2014) | Zhang Yanming (2007a, 2007b) | Zeng Jinxiang et al. (1984) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008) | Zhou Caiquan et al. (2004)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609124/files/figure.png,"9.Plateau ZokorEospalax baileyiFrench:Zokor des plateaux/ German:Qinghai-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de altiplanoTaxonomy.Myospalax baileyi Thomas, 1911,between Nagchuka(or Hokow) and Tatsienlu, Ramasong, W Szechwan, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated E. baileyias separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included it as a subspecies offontanieru. S. Y. Song in 1986 regarded baileyias a subspecies of rufescens. Many references to E. fontanieriiand E. rufescenspertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi. In recent years, various studies support treating E. bailey: as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. cansusbased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. rufescens. Four to six deeply divergent, geographically discrete, mitochondrial clades have been identified within E. baileyi, and these may show some overlap with the three morphological groups suggested by Tang Lizhou and colleagues in 2009. Additional research is required to determine if E. baileyiwarrants further division into multiple species or subspecies. Monotypic.Distribution.Qinghai, Gansu, and W Sichuan (China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-235 mm,tail 33-61 mm; weight 173-490 g. Male Plateau Zokorsare larger than females. They are pale rufous-brown with pinkish buff. Tail is short and densely furred with whitish hairs. Feet are also hairy. Young are gray. Incisive foramina is restricted to premaxilla.Habitat.Alpine meadows, steppe meadows, shrubs, and farmland. at elevations of 2800-4500 m on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Plateau Zokor prefers moist soil and degraded grassland and avoids desert, irrigated land, and boulder fields. Microclimate of its burrows allows for less extreme temperature swings and milder temperatures overall. While aboveground January temperatures may be —4 to —=38°C, burrows maintain a temperature of 0-5°C. Humidity is high (79-87-3%) in these burrows compared to dry external climate (31-7-53-3%). Nevertheless, microclimate in burrows presents challenges. Oxygen levels are low (17-18:4% in burrow compared to 20-4% externally), and carbon dioxide levels are extremely high (0-22-1-5% in burrow compared to 0-03% outside). The Plateau Zokoris a subterranean and a high-elevation species, and it has substantially elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentration; it is extremely efficient at delivering oxygen to tissue. Oxygen pressure in arterial blood of the Plateau Zokoris 1-5 times higher than laboratory rats, and oxygen pressure in venous blood is 0-26 times that of lab rats.Food and Feeding.Plateau Zokors feed on roots and shoots of forbs, grasses, and some shrubs. They prefer taproots and storage organs of plants such as Notopterygium forbesii (Apiaceae), Potentillaanserina (Rosaceae), Morina chinensis(Caprifoliaceae), and dandelions (Taraxacum, Asteraceae). Plants are accessed from feeding tunnels belowground. The Plateau Zokor will grab roots and pull the entire plant down into the tunnel system where it is consumed. All zokors have an adaptation in the thumb claw where it is shortened and wears away leaving a central gap. Under laboratory conditions, the Plateau Zokor uses this thumb claw to clean off taproots such as dandelions. The root is then held in both hands, resting in these thumb gaps,as it is consumed.Breeding.Male and female Plateau Zokors never share a burrow. Mating occursat the intersection of burrows of neighboring males and females. During the mating period, males will dig multiple long tunnels, presumably in hopes of entering female territories. Males and females mate with multiple partners during a single mating period. Females give birth once a year, usually in April-May. Litter sizes are about three young (1-5), and lactation lasts c.50 days.Activity patterns.Plateau Zokors live mostly belowground. They are active year-round but have higher activity levels in spring and autumn and lowest in winter. The Plateau Zokorsleeps very deeply and can be handled or subjected to loud noises without waking up.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Plateau Zokors are complex, with tunnel systems reaching ¢.100 m in length and depths of 0-8-1-5 m for males and 2-2-5 m for females. Burrow systems contain transportation and foraging tunnels, 1-2 nest chambers, food stores, and dead end tunnels. Soil is brought to the surface when digging, and their presence is evident by presence of mounds that can take up 15-20% of the surface above the burrow system. Dispersal is probably aboveground and male-biased, but this has not been observed directly. They are solitary and intolerant of one another, becoming aggressive when encountering others. Densities are 5-70 ind/ha and average 15 ind/ha. Predators include the Tibetan Fox (Vulpesferrilata), the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmannii), the Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bietr), Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul), the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), the upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) and the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) occasionally eat Plateau Zokors.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List whereit is treated as a distinct species. The Plateau Zokor has a wide distribution and large population. An annual eradication program was implemented in the 1990s, which reduced population size to less than one-third of its formersize. Livestock grazing appears to increase prevalence of Plateau Zokors because it leads to an increase in the types of plants with taproots they prefer. This increase in zokors may in turn further accelerate landscape deterioration, but the system is complex, and researchers debate positive and negative impacts. The Plateau Zokor is considered an ecosystem engineer. A single individual transfers more than 1000 kg of soil to the surface annually. Its burrowing activities mix and aerate soil, increase environmental heterogeneity, enhance infiltration of water into the soil, and thereby curtail erosion. These activities also lessen uptake of greenhouse gases and appear to facilitate spread of invasive plant species. Abandoned burrows are used as shelters by a variety of small mammals (such as the Root Vole, Microtusoeconomus, and Gansu Pika, Ochotona cansus), birds (such as the ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis, the black-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla adamsi, and several species of ground-sparrows such as Pyrgilauda blanfordi, P. davidiana, P. ruficollis, and P. taczanowski), amphibians and reptiles. Dried bone of Plateau Zokor, known as “Sailonggu,” is used in traditional Tibetan medicine as a treatment for inflammation. It is used as a medicinal replacement for Tiger (Panthera tigris) bone, which serves a similar function.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Li Wenjing et al. (2009), Lin Gonghua, Li Wenjing et al. (2011), Lin Gonghua, Zhao Fang et al. (2014), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Tang Lizhou, Wang Liuyang et al. (2010), Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo, Lin Gonhua & Su Jianping (2010), Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo & Su Jianping (2009), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wei Dengbang et al. (2006), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Yang Chuanhua et al. (2012), Zhang Weiet al. (2014), Zhang Yanming (2007a, 2007b), Zeng Jinxiang et al. (1984), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008), Zhou Caiquan et al. (2004)." +03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.xml,Eospalax smithii,Eospalax,smithii,,,Zokor de Smith @fr | Smith-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Smith @es,"Myospalax smithii Thomas, 1911,30 mi(48 km) SE of Tao-chou, Gansu, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 suggested that E. smith#2 may be a hybrid between E. rothschildix E. cansus, but subsequent authorities have not adopted this position. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. rothschildi. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. rufescensor E. baileyi. Monotypic.","Gansu, Ningxia, N Sichuan, and W Shaanxi (C China).","Head-body 162-255 mm,tail 34-39 mm; weight 180-460 g. Smith's Zokor has dark brown dorsal pelage, with slight cinnamon colored tips. Back of head is dark gray to velvety black, area around ears is dark brown, and vibrissae are black and white. White forehead blaze is present in some individuals. Venter is grayish brown, also mixed with cinnamon. Immature individuals are bluish gray, with sooty gray head. Temporal ridges are more pronounced, and auditory bullae are more flattened compared with other species of zokors.","Steppe, open fields, grassland, and cropland at elevations above 2000 m.",Smith’s Zokor eats primarily grasses.,"Breeding of Smith’s Zokor peaks in June-July, and offspring are born in May-September. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be as high as eight young. Females produce two litters annually.",No information.,Smith’s Zokors construct complex burrows in soft wetsoils.,"Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and as near threatened on the 2016 China Red List. Smith’s Zokor reportedly has a wide distribution and large population, does not face major threats, and is found in one or more protected areas.",Allen (1940) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya etal. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith (2008) | Smith & Johnston (2008c) | Su Junhu et al. (2014),https://zenodo.org/record/6609128/files/figure.png,"11.Smith’s ZokorEospalax smithiiFrench:Zokor de Smith/ German:Smith-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de SmithTaxonomy.Myospalax smithii Thomas, 1911,30 mi(48 km) SE of Tao-chou, Gansu, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 suggested that E. smith#2 may be a hybrid between E. rothschildix E. cansus, but subsequent authorities have not adopted this position. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. rothschildi. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. rufescensor E. baileyi. Monotypic.Distribution.Gansu, Ningxia, N Sichuan, and W Shaanxi (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 162-255 mm,tail 34-39 mm; weight 180-460 g. Smith's Zokor has dark brown dorsal pelage, with slight cinnamon colored tips. Back of head is dark gray to velvety black, area around ears is dark brown, and vibrissae are black and white. White forehead blaze is present in some individuals. Venter is grayish brown, also mixed with cinnamon. Immature individuals are bluish gray, with sooty gray head. Temporal ridges are more pronounced, and auditory bullae are more flattened compared with other species of zokors.Habitat.Steppe, open fields, grassland, and cropland at elevations above 2000 m.Food and Feeding.Smith’s Zokor eats primarily grasses.Breeding.Breeding of Smith’s Zokor peaks in June-July, and offspring are born in May-September. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be as high as eight young. Females produce two litters annually.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Zokors construct complex burrows in soft wetsoils.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and as near threatened on the 2016 China Red List. Smith’s Zokor reportedly has a wide distribution and large population, does not face major threats, and is found in one or more protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya etal. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith (2008), Smith & Johnston (2008c), Su Junhu et al. (2014)." +03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.xml,Eospalax rothschildi,Eospalax,rothschildi,,,Zokor de Rothschild @fr | Rothschild-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Rothschild @es,"Myospalax rothschildi Thomas, 1911,40 miles(64 km) SE Taochow, Kansu, China.Eospalax rothschildihas been synonymized with E. fontanieriiby some authorities, butitis generally regarded as a distinct species. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. smithii. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. rothschildiwithin Eospalax, but it does not appearto be closely related to E. fontanierii. Two subspecies recognized.","E.r.rothschildiThomas,1911—SGansu,SShaanxi,andNSichuan(CChina).E. r. hubeinensis Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan, 1989— SE Shaanxi, W Henan, and W Hubei (C China).","Head-body 149-172 mm,tail 29-37 mm; weight 160-440 g. Male Rothschild’s Zokors can be slightly larger than females. They are small and grayish brown, with red-tipped fur. White blaze is present on forehead of some but not all individuals. Venter is light grayish brown. Tail is hairy and bicolored, grayish yellow above and white below. Backs of feet are well-furred, with light colored hairs. They are distinguished from other species of Eospalaxby smaller size, more slender claws, and smaller molars. Diploid numberis 2n = 58.","Forest, scrub, grassland, and cropland at elevations of 1000-3000 m.",Rothschilds Zokor feeds on a wide variety of grasses and roots and can be a crop pest.,"Rothschild’s Zokor breeds in spring, beginning in April. Females give birth to onelitter of 1-5 young/year.",No information.,Rothschild’s Zokors are known to construct complex burrows in soft soils.,"Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Rothschild’s Zokor has a wide distribution and large population, and it is found in protected areas.",Allen (1940) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith (2008b) | Smith & Johnston (2008b) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008),https://zenodo.org/record/6609126/files/figure.png,"10.Rothschild’s ZokorEospalax rothschildiFrench:Zokor de Rothschild/ German:Rothschild-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de RothschildTaxonomy.Myospalax rothschildi Thomas, 1911,40 miles(64 km) SE Taochow, Kansu, China.Eospalax rothschildihas been synonymized with E. fontanieriiby some authorities, butitis generally regarded as a distinct species. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. smithii. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. rothschildiwithin Eospalax, but it does not appearto be closely related to E. fontanierii. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.rothschildiThomas,1911—SGansu,SShaanxi,andNSichuan(CChina).E. r. hubeinensis Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan, 1989— SE Shaanxi, W Henan, and W Hubei (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 149-172 mm,tail 29-37 mm; weight 160-440 g. Male Rothschild’s Zokors can be slightly larger than females. They are small and grayish brown, with red-tipped fur. White blaze is present on forehead of some but not all individuals. Venter is light grayish brown. Tail is hairy and bicolored, grayish yellow above and white below. Backs of feet are well-furred, with light colored hairs. They are distinguished from other species of Eospalaxby smaller size, more slender claws, and smaller molars. Diploid numberis 2n = 58.Habitat.Forest, scrub, grassland, and cropland at elevations of 1000-3000 m.Food and Feeding.Rothschilds Zokor feeds on a wide variety of grasses and roots and can be a crop pest.Breeding.Rothschild’s Zokor breeds in spring, beginning in April. Females give birth to onelitter of 1-5 young/year.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Rothschild’s Zokors are known to construct complex burrows in soft soils.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Rothschild’s Zokor has a wide distribution and large population, and it is found in protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith (2008b), Smith & Johnston (2008b), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)." +03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,134,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.xml,Rhizomys sinensis,Rhizomys,sinensis,Gray,1831,Rhizomys de Chine @fr | China-Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu de China @es,"Rhizomys sinensis Gray, 1831,near Canton, Guangdong, China.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Wang Yingxiang in 2003 treated ward: as a distinct species and named neowardi as a new subspecies of wardi. Subspecies vestitusis also sometimes treated as a distinct species. These approaches were not adopted by A. T. Smith in 2008, but presence of multiple species within what is currently recognized as R. sinensisseemslikely. Six subspecies recognized.","R.s.sinensisGray,1831—SEYunnan,Guangxi,andGuangdong(SChina).R.s.davidiThomas,1911—SChongqing,SHubei,Anhui,Zhejiang,SGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,andNEGuangdong(C&SEChina).R.s.pediculusWangYingxiang,2003—WYunnan(SWChina).R.s.reductusDaoVanTien&CaoVanSung,1990—NVietnam.R.s.vestitusMilne-Edwards,1871—SGansu,SShaanxi,Sichuan,NChongqing,andNHubei(CChina).R. s. wardi Thomas, 1921— NW Yunnan (SW China) and N Myanmar.","Head—body 216-450 mm,tail 50-96 mm; weight 1-9 kg. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is brownish gray or pinkish gray above, with darker forehead and sides of face. Dorsal pelage is soft, and venter is more sparsely haired. Throatis lighter than rest of venter. Upper incisors are extrabuccal and orange, and they rise perpendicularly from maxilla and then curve slightly inward toward tips. They are not proodont. Single thin sagittal crest is present. There are eight nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal.",Usually bamboo thickets but also pine forests at elevations of 1219-3962 m.,"Bamboo roots and shoots are primary foods of Chinese Bamboo Rats, but they also reportedly eat grass seeds and crops. They usually feed at night on the surface.",Reproduction of the Chinese Bamboo Rat peaks in spring but can occur year-round. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be up to eight. Young are naked and weaned after c.3 months.,"Chinese Bamboo Rats appear to leave their burrows to feed on nearby bamboo plants, primarily at night, but they are occasionally active in daytime. This dual subterranean and aboveground life is reflected in morphology of middle and inner ears that have adaptations found in subterranean and terrestrial mammals.","Burrows of Chinese Bamboo Rats are up to 45 m long and extend up to 20-30 cm below the surface. Burrows have 4-7 external entrances indicated by mounds 50-80 cm in diameter and 20-40 cm high. Den chamber of 20-25 cm is present. Burrows are abandoned after a year as an individual uses up food resources in the area. Predators include the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), the Leopard (P. pardus), and occasionally the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The Chinese Bamboo Rat might fiercely defend itself with its powerful incisors when cornered.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Subspecies vestitusis assessed separately as data deficient on the China Red List. It is a crop pest and can be found in agricultural areas. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and is hunted for food.,"Allen (1940) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lunde, Aplin & Musser (2008) | Plestilovéa et al. (2016) | Smith (2008) | Wang Yingxiang (2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609130/files/figure.png,"12.Chinese Bamboo RatRhizomys sinensisFrench:Rhizomys de Chine/ German:China-Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu de ChinaTaxonomy.Rhizomys sinensis Gray, 1831,near Canton, Guangdong, China.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Wang Yingxiang in 2003 treated ward: as a distinct species and named neowardi as a new subspecies of wardi. Subspecies vestitusis also sometimes treated as a distinct species. These approaches were not adopted by A. T. Smith in 2008, but presence of multiple species within what is currently recognized as R. sinensisseemslikely. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.s.sinensisGray,1831—SEYunnan,Guangxi,andGuangdong(SChina).R.s.davidiThomas,1911—SChongqing,SHubei,Anhui,Zhejiang,SGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,andNEGuangdong(C&SEChina).R.s.pediculusWangYingxiang,2003—WYunnan(SWChina).R.s.reductusDaoVanTien&CaoVanSung,1990—NVietnam.R.s.vestitusMilne-Edwards,1871—SGansu,SShaanxi,Sichuan,NChongqing,andNHubei(CChina).R. s. wardi Thomas, 1921— NW Yunnan (SW China) and N Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Head—body 216-450 mm,tail 50-96 mm; weight 1-9 kg. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is brownish gray or pinkish gray above, with darker forehead and sides of face. Dorsal pelage is soft, and venter is more sparsely haired. Throatis lighter than rest of venter. Upper incisors are extrabuccal and orange, and they rise perpendicularly from maxilla and then curve slightly inward toward tips. They are not proodont. Single thin sagittal crest is present. There are eight nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal.Habitat.Usually bamboo thickets but also pine forests at elevations of 1219-3962 m.Food and Feeding.Bamboo roots and shoots are primary foods of Chinese Bamboo Rats, but they also reportedly eat grass seeds and crops. They usually feed at night on the surface.Breeding.Reproduction of the Chinese Bamboo Rat peaks in spring but can occur year-round. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be up to eight. Young are naked and weaned after c.3 months.Activity patterns.Chinese Bamboo Rats appear to leave their burrows to feed on nearby bamboo plants, primarily at night, but they are occasionally active in daytime. This dual subterranean and aboveground life is reflected in morphology of middle and inner ears that have adaptations found in subterranean and terrestrial mammals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Chinese Bamboo Rats are up to 45 m long and extend up to 20-30 cm below the surface. Burrows have 4-7 external entrances indicated by mounds 50-80 cm in diameter and 20-40 cm high. Den chamber of 20-25 cm is present. Burrows are abandoned after a year as an individual uses up food resources in the area. Predators include the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), the Leopard (P. pardus), and occasionally the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The Chinese Bamboo Rat might fiercely defend itself with its powerful incisors when cornered.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Subspecies vestitusis assessed separately as data deficient on the China Red List. It is a crop pest and can be found in agricultural areas. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and is hunted for food.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lunde, Aplin & Musser (2008), Plestilovéa et al. (2016), Smith (2008), Wang Yingxiang (2003)." +03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,135,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.xml,Rhizomys pruinosus,Rhizomys,pruinosus,Blyth,1851,Rhizomys grisonnant @fr | Graue Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu canosa @es,"Rhizomys pruinosus Blyth, 1851,Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, India.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Five subspecies recognized.","R.p.pruinosusBlyth,1851—Meghalaya,SAssam,extremeNEArunachalPradesh,Nagaland,Manipur,NTripura,andNMizoram(NEIndia),NWMyanmar,andWYunnan(SWChina).R.p.latoucheiThomas,1915—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver,includingGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,Guangxi,andGuangdong.R.p.pannosusThomas,1915—EMyanmar,Thailand,Laos,SCambodia,andVietnam.R.p.senexThomas,1915—NEMyanmarandSYunnan(SWChina).R. p. umbriceps Thomas, 1916— N Malay Peninsula S to Perak (N Malaysia). Also present in NW India (Himachal Pradesh), but subspecies involved not known.","Head-body 240-350 mm, tail 90-130 mm; weight 1.5-2.5 kg. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is grayish brown to chocolate-brown, with lighter venter. Intermittent long white-tipped guard hairs give grizzled appearance. Pelage is dense and soft. White-tipped hairs and dense pelage are less pronounced in the southern part of its distribution. Almost hairless tail is longer relative to head-body length than on the Chinese Bamboo Rat (R. sinensis). Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont; molars are orange. Rostrum is narrower than in the Chinese Bamboo Rat, and sagittal crest is lyre-shaped. There are 8-10 nipples: 1 or 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Minute, presumably non-functional, pair of pectoral nipples is present on some individuals. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.","Bamboo thickets, bamboo hillsides and montane forest, tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, grassland mixed with secondary forest, shrub forest, and, with less frequency, pine and fir forests. The Hoary Bamboo Ratis not common in agricultural areas or mature forest. In the northern parts of its distribution, it is found in bamboo thickets or beardgrass (Polypogon, Poaceae) at elevations of less than 1000 m in China and less than 1500 m in north-eastern India, especially where it overlaps with the Chinese Bamboo Rat, which lives at higher elevations. In the southern part ofits distribution, the Hoary Bamboo Rat is found at a broader range of elevations of 100-4000 m. In China, individuals appear to move among habitats seasonally, preferring large bamboo groves, secondary forest, and shrub forest in spring and summer and sparsely forested regions with silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis, Poaceae) or forked ferns (Dicranopteris, Gleicheniaceae) in autumn and winter.","Hoary Bamboo Rats feed on roots and shoots of bamboo, beardgrass,silvergrass, and occasionally other plant types. Individuals generally feed on plants within 5-10 m from their burrow entrance. Food may be eaten outside the burrow or dragged back into the burrow. Stalks are held in place by front paws, while outer layers are stripped by incisors. Food is consumed in a manner where upper incisors are held motionless, lower incisors plane the object, and food is chewed by molars. Small uneaten nubs remain after feeding. Captive individuals manually remove cylindrical fecal pellets using incisors and toss them into dung piles. Presumably similar behavior occurs in the wild either in a toilet chamber, or fecal pellets are brought to the toilet.","A female Hoary Bamboo Rat in estrus does not seal her burrow entrance, and a male moves in to breed. Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in November— December and March—June. Females line nest chambers with dry grass. After gestation of 22 days, a female gives birth to a litter of 1-5 young. Young are born naked and weigh 35-40 g at birth. Eyes open after 28-30 days, and offspring grow a coat ofjet black fur. Weaning takes place 56-78 days later, and females appear to reach sexual maturity at c.160 days.",The Hoary Bamboo Rat exits its burrow at night to feed on the surface. It appears to be less aggressive than the Chinese Bamboo Rat.,"Burrows of Hoary Bamboo Rats are relatively simple, containing a single entrance (rarely 2—4 entrances), characterized by a mound of dirt. A 1-2 m long tunnel connects the entrance to the nest chamber, which is 12 x 32 cm and often contains a store of food. A toilet chamberis located 20-40 cm from the nest chamber and a bolt-hole is present. Burrows are temporary; females with young may extend their time in a single burrow to just over a month. Burrows are primarily excavated with incisors; feet are used to push loosened dirt behind. The individual will then turn and push accumulated soil out of the entrance. Hoary Bamboo Rats are solitary except for breeding when males move into females’ burrows. Same-sex adult individuals are never found in the same burrow. Males forced to cohabit in artificial settings will fight and even kill each other. Conspecifics are attacked with bites to head, neck, and cheeks; wild males have been observed with scars in these areas.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas. It is hunted for food and faces habitat loss in parts of its distribution, particularly in western areas. Populations in India appear to be declining and warrant protection.","Agrawal (2000) | Allen (1940) | Aplin, Lunde & Molur (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Molur et al. (2005) | Smith (2008) | Tanomtong et al. (2013) | Xu Longhui (1984)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609133/files/figure.png,"13.Hoary Bamboo RatRhizomys pruinosusFrench:Rhizomys grisonnant/ German:Graue Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu canosaTaxonomy.Rhizomys pruinosus Blyth, 1851,Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, India.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.p.pruinosusBlyth,1851—Meghalaya,SAssam,extremeNEArunachalPradesh,Nagaland,Manipur,NTripura,andNMizoram(NEIndia),NWMyanmar,andWYunnan(SWChina).R.p.latoucheiThomas,1915—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver,includingGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,Guangxi,andGuangdong.R.p.pannosusThomas,1915—EMyanmar,Thailand,Laos,SCambodia,andVietnam.R.p.senexThomas,1915—NEMyanmarandSYunnan(SWChina).R. p. umbriceps Thomas, 1916— N Malay Peninsula S to Perak (N Malaysia). Also present in NW India (Himachal Pradesh), but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head-body 240-350 mm, tail 90-130 mm; weight 1.5-2.5 kg. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is grayish brown to chocolate-brown, with lighter venter. Intermittent long white-tipped guard hairs give grizzled appearance. Pelage is dense and soft. White-tipped hairs and dense pelage are less pronounced in the southern part of its distribution. Almost hairless tail is longer relative to head-body length than on the Chinese Bamboo Rat (R. sinensis). Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont; molars are orange. Rostrum is narrower than in the Chinese Bamboo Rat, and sagittal crest is lyre-shaped. There are 8-10 nipples: 1 or 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Minute, presumably non-functional, pair of pectoral nipples is present on some individuals. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.Habitat.Bamboo thickets, bamboo hillsides and montane forest, tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, grassland mixed with secondary forest, shrub forest, and, with less frequency, pine and fir forests. The Hoary Bamboo Ratis not common in agricultural areas or mature forest. In the northern parts of its distribution, it is found in bamboo thickets or beardgrass (Polypogon, Poaceae) at elevations of less than 1000 m in China and less than 1500 m in north-eastern India, especially where it overlaps with the Chinese Bamboo Rat, which lives at higher elevations. In the southern part ofits distribution, the Hoary Bamboo Rat is found at a broader range of elevations of 100-4000 m. In China, individuals appear to move among habitats seasonally, preferring large bamboo groves, secondary forest, and shrub forest in spring and summer and sparsely forested regions with silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis, Poaceae) or forked ferns (Dicranopteris, Gleicheniaceae) in autumn and winter.Food and Feeding.Hoary Bamboo Rats feed on roots and shoots of bamboo, beardgrass,silvergrass, and occasionally other plant types. Individuals generally feed on plants within 5-10 m from their burrow entrance. Food may be eaten outside the burrow or dragged back into the burrow. Stalks are held in place by front paws, while outer layers are stripped by incisors. Food is consumed in a manner where upper incisors are held motionless, lower incisors plane the object, and food is chewed by molars. Small uneaten nubs remain after feeding. Captive individuals manually remove cylindrical fecal pellets using incisors and toss them into dung piles. Presumably similar behavior occurs in the wild either in a toilet chamber, or fecal pellets are brought to the toilet.Breeding.A female Hoary Bamboo Rat in estrus does not seal her burrow entrance, and a male moves in to breed. Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in November— December and March—June. Females line nest chambers with dry grass. After gestation of 22 days, a female gives birth to a litter of 1-5 young. Young are born naked and weigh 35-40 g at birth. Eyes open after 28-30 days, and offspring grow a coat ofjet black fur. Weaning takes place 56-78 days later, and females appear to reach sexual maturity at c.160 days.Activity patterns.The Hoary Bamboo Rat exits its burrow at night to feed on the surface. It appears to be less aggressive than the Chinese Bamboo Rat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Hoary Bamboo Rats are relatively simple, containing a single entrance (rarely 2—4 entrances), characterized by a mound of dirt. A 1-2 m long tunnel connects the entrance to the nest chamber, which is 12 x 32 cm and often contains a store of food. A toilet chamberis located 20-40 cm from the nest chamber and a bolt-hole is present. Burrows are temporary; females with young may extend their time in a single burrow to just over a month. Burrows are primarily excavated with incisors; feet are used to push loosened dirt behind. The individual will then turn and push accumulated soil out of the entrance. Hoary Bamboo Rats are solitary except for breeding when males move into females’ burrows. Same-sex adult individuals are never found in the same burrow. Males forced to cohabit in artificial settings will fight and even kill each other. Conspecifics are attacked with bites to head, neck, and cheeks; wild males have been observed with scars in these areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas. It is hunted for food and faces habitat loss in parts of its distribution, particularly in western areas. Populations in India appear to be declining and warrant protection.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Allen (1940), Aplin, Lunde & Molur (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Molur et al. (2005), Smith (2008), Tanomtong et al. (2013), Xu Longhui (1984)." +03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,136,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.xml,Cannomys badius,Cannomys,badius,,,Cannomys @fr | Kleine Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu pequena @es | Bay Bamboo Rat @en,"Rhizomys badius Hodgson, 1841,Nepal.It is the only species in the genus Cannomys, which is sister to Rhizomys. J. R. Ellerman in 1961 recognized castaneusnamed by E. Blyth in 1843, paternamed by O. Thomas in 1915, and plumbescens named by Thomas in 1915 as distinct subspecies on the basis of differences in head— body length and cranial measurements. V. C. Agrawal in 2000 did not recover evidence to support these differences and suggested that they be synonymized. Nevertheless, it seems likely that C. badiuswill be split into multiple subspecies, or even species, by future studies. Cannomyshas no fossil record. Monotypic.","E Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram (NE India), Bhutan, SE Bangladesh, Myanmar, SW Yunnan (SW China), N Laos, NW Vietnam, Thailand, and N Cambodia.","Head—body 147-265 mm,tail 47-96 mm; weight 210-800 g. The Lesser Bamboo Rat ranges from reddish cinnamon, red-brown to chestnut-brown, ashy gray, to purple-black. Venter is lighter. One or more white blazes can occur on top of head, and narrow white band can be present on chin. Eyes and ear pinnae are small, body is stocky, and legs are short. Tail is sparsely haired. Forelimbs are equipped with long, powerful claws. Incisors are red to yellow. The Lesser Bamboo Rat differs from species of Rhizomysin having much smaller body size, smooth instead of granular footpads, more protruding incisors, longer rostrum,larger auditory bullae, longer and more prominent sagittal crest, and the first molar largest and third molar smallest. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. A. Tanomtong and colleagues in 2011 demonstrated diploid number of 2n = 50, but other sources report 2n = 60.","Most strongly associated with bamboo thickets. The Lesser Bamboo Rat also occurs in grassy areas, montane forests, brush, and gardens, butit is absent in rice paddies. It has been observed from sea level to elevations of 4000 m.","The Lesser Bamboo Rat feeds on shoots, roots, and leaves from a variety of plants. It prefers young plants and shoots, particularly bamboo and cereals.",One to five naked Lesser Bamboo Rats are born per litter after gestation of 40-43 days. Young are weaned after ¢.8 weeks and are sexually mature after c.1 year.,The Lesser Bamboo Rat is nocturnal and leaves its burrow to feed. It moves slowly aboveground.It is primarily a chisel-tooth digger but also uses its front claws.,"Burrows of Lesser Bamboo Rats can be extensive, reaching lengths of ¢.58 m and depths of ¢.60 cm. Burrows are plugged in the day. Densities can reach 600 ind/ha. Predators include small carnivores.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and data deficient on the 2016 China Red List. The Lesser Bamboo Rat can be an agricultural pest, especially of tea and rubber, and is hunted for food. Certain populations may be threatened by habitat loss and overhunting. It is known from several protected areas.","Agrawal (2000) | Aplin, Lunde et al. (2008) | Blyth (1843) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman (1961) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nevo (1999) | Nowak (1999) | Smith (2008) | Tanomtong et al. (2011) | Thomas (1915b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609137/files/figure.png,"15.Lesser Bamboo RatCannomys badiusFrench:Cannomys/ German:Kleine Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu pequenaOther common names:Bay Bamboo RatTaxonomy.Rhizomys badius Hodgson, 1841,Nepal.It is the only species in the genus Cannomys, which is sister to Rhizomys. J. R. Ellerman in 1961 recognized castaneusnamed by E. Blyth in 1843, paternamed by O. Thomas in 1915, and plumbescens named by Thomas in 1915 as distinct subspecies on the basis of differences in head— body length and cranial measurements. V. C. Agrawal in 2000 did not recover evidence to support these differences and suggested that they be synonymized. Nevertheless, it seems likely that C. badiuswill be split into multiple subspecies, or even species, by future studies. Cannomyshas no fossil record. Monotypic.Distribution.E Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram (NE India), Bhutan, SE Bangladesh, Myanmar, SW Yunnan (SW China), N Laos, NW Vietnam, Thailand, and N Cambodia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 147-265 mm,tail 47-96 mm; weight 210-800 g. The Lesser Bamboo Rat ranges from reddish cinnamon, red-brown to chestnut-brown, ashy gray, to purple-black. Venter is lighter. One or more white blazes can occur on top of head, and narrow white band can be present on chin. Eyes and ear pinnae are small, body is stocky, and legs are short. Tail is sparsely haired. Forelimbs are equipped with long, powerful claws. Incisors are red to yellow. The Lesser Bamboo Rat differs from species of Rhizomysin having much smaller body size, smooth instead of granular footpads, more protruding incisors, longer rostrum,larger auditory bullae, longer and more prominent sagittal crest, and the first molar largest and third molar smallest. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. A. Tanomtong and colleagues in 2011 demonstrated diploid number of 2n = 50, but other sources report 2n = 60.Habitat.Most strongly associated with bamboo thickets. The Lesser Bamboo Rat also occurs in grassy areas, montane forests, brush, and gardens, butit is absent in rice paddies. It has been observed from sea level to elevations of 4000 m.Food and Feeding.The Lesser Bamboo Rat feeds on shoots, roots, and leaves from a variety of plants. It prefers young plants and shoots, particularly bamboo and cereals.Breeding.One to five naked Lesser Bamboo Rats are born per litter after gestation of 40-43 days. Young are weaned after ¢.8 weeks and are sexually mature after c.1 year.Activity patterns.The Lesser Bamboo Rat is nocturnal and leaves its burrow to feed. It moves slowly aboveground.It is primarily a chisel-tooth digger but also uses its front claws.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Lesser Bamboo Rats can be extensive, reaching lengths of ¢.58 m and depths of ¢.60 cm. Burrows are plugged in the day. Densities can reach 600 ind/ha. Predators include small carnivores.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and data deficient on the 2016 China Red List. The Lesser Bamboo Rat can be an agricultural pest, especially of tea and rubber, and is hunted for food. Certain populations may be threatened by habitat loss and overhunting. It is known from several protected areas.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Aplin, Lunde et al. (2008), Blyth (1843), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman (1961), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nevo (1999), Nowak (1999), Smith (2008), Tanomtong et al. (2011), Thomas (1915b)." 03AE87DDFF9CBD10FE35FDCCFA64FAD1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,108,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9CBD10FE35FDCCFA64FAD1.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family SPALACIDAE(MUROID MOLE-RATS)• Small to medium-sized rodents with adaptations for subterranean life such as cylindrical bodies, enlarged incisors, and reduced tails, eyes, and ear pinnae.• 13-70 cm.• Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Indo-Malayan regions.• Steppes, grasslands, meadows, forests, bamboo thickets, and farmlands.• 7 genera, 28 species, 4H taxa.• 2 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." -03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,131,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.xml,Myospalax armandii,Myospalax,armandii,,,Zokor d Armand @fr | Armand-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Armand @es,"Siphneus armandii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Mongolianplateau (N Shanxi).Member of M. myospalaxspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax armandiiis the sister species of M. aspalax, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. armandiiis distinct from but closely related to M. aspalax. They are united into the aspalaxsuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.","E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), N Shanxi, N Hebei, W Liaoning, W Jilin, and S Heilongjiang (NE China), and SE Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia).","Head-body 140-233 mm, tail 48-69 mm; weight 225-422 g. Measurements are from A. T. Smith in 2008, which may include specimens of the Steppe Zokor (M. aspalax). Armand’s Zokor looks similar to the Steppe Zokor. It is grayish, with yellow or light brown tinge. Lips are white, and forehead and other parts of head and ears can have white spots. Venter is grayish white, and tail and feet have short white hairs. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","Steppe, meadows, and farmland.","Armand’s Zokor feeds on underground roots, rhizomes, leaves, and buds.",No information.,"Armand’s Zokor constructs burrows in rich, dark, soft soil.",No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. aspalaxin both).,"Allen (1940) | Chelomina et al. (2011) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlienko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar & Lkhagvasuren (2008) | Smith (2008b) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)",,"3.Armand’s ZokorMyospalax armandiiFrench:Zokor dArmand/ German:Armand-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de ArmandTaxonomy.Siphneus armandii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Mongolianplateau (N Shanxi).Member of M. myospalaxspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax armandiiis the sister species of M. aspalax, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. armandiiis distinct from but closely related to M. aspalax. They are united into the aspalaxsuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.Distribution.E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), N Shanxi, N Hebei, W Liaoning, W Jilin, and S Heilongjiang (NE China), and SE Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-233 mm, tail 48-69 mm; weight 225-422 g. Measurements are from A. T. Smith in 2008, which may include specimens of the Steppe Zokor (M. aspalax). Armand’s Zokor looks similar to the Steppe Zokor. It is grayish, with yellow or light brown tinge. Lips are white, and forehead and other parts of head and ears can have white spots. Venter is grayish white, and tail and feet have short white hairs. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Steppe, meadows, and farmland.Food and Feeding.Armand’s Zokor feeds on underground roots, rhizomes, leaves, and buds.Breeding.No information.On following pages: 4. Manchurian Zokor (Myospalax psilurus); 5. Khingan Zokor (Myospalax epsilanus); 6. Fontanier's Zokor (Eospalax baileyi); 10. Rothschild’s Zokor (Eospalax rothschildi); 11. Smith's Zokor (Eospalaxsmithi); 12. Chinese Bamboo sumatrensis); 15. Lesser Bamboo Rat (Cannomys badius); 16. African Root Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens); 17. Giant Root antiquus); 20. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat (Spalax graecus); 21. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat (Spalax zemni); 22. Sandy Blind Mole-rat giganteus); 25. Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (Spalax uralensis); 26. Lesser Blind Mole-rat (Nannospalax leucodon); 27. Anatolian (Eospalaxfontanieril); 7. Gansu Zokor (Eospalax cansus); 8. Qinling Zokor (Eospalaxrufescens); 9. Plateau Zokor Rat (Rhizomys sinensis); 13. Hoary Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys pruinosus); 14. Indomalayan Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys Rat(Tachyoryctes macrocephalus); 18. Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (Spalax istricus); 19. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (Spalax(Spalax arenarius); 23. Greater Blind Mole-rat (Spalax microphthalmus); 24. Giant Blind Mole-rat (Spalax BlindMole-rat (Nannospalaxxanthodon); 28. Middle East Blind Mole-rat (Nannospalax ehrenbergi).Activity patterns.Armand’s Zokor constructs burrows in rich, dark, soft soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. aspalaxin both).Bibliography.Allen (1940), Chelomina et al. (2011), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlienko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar & Lkhagvasuren (2008), Smith (2008b), Tarasov et al. (2011), Tsvirka et al. (2011)." -03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,132,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.xml,Myospalax psilurus,Myospalax,psilurus,,,Zokor mandchou @fr | Mandschurei-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Manchuria @es | North China Zokor @en | Transbaikal Zokor @en,"Siphneus psilurus Milne-Edwards, 1874,south of Beijing, Chihli (= Hebei), China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. It is the sister species of M. epsilanus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. psiluruswas more closely related to other species of Myospalaxthan to M. epsilanus, butthis idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. psilurusis distinct from but closely related to M. epsilanus. They were united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Populations from Primorsky Krai, Russia, had been assumed to be M. epsilanusuntil recently. Monotypic.",S Gansu to S Heilongjiang (NE China) and SW Primorsky Krai (Russia).,"Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 35-55 mm; weight 185-400 g. Measurements are taken from A. T. Smith in 2008 and probably include size ranges for the Khingan Zokor (M. epsilanus). The Manchurian Zokoris straw gray with slight reddish or yellow tones. Cheeks and forehead are ashy fawn. White blaze is present on back of head. Venter is grayer. Tail and feet are almost naked; long sparse white hairs are present. Incisive foramen of the Manchurian Zokor is longer than that of the Khingan Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.","Rivervalleys, fallow land, steppe woodland, and early succession forest, preferring steppe meadows.","Manchurian Zokors feed on roots, rhizomes, stems, bulbs, and shoots of a variety of plants. Small rodents (Apodemusand Phodopus) have been found in the stomachs of Manchurian Zokors.","Mating of Manchurian Zokors occursin late April to early May. One litter of 2-4 young is produced per year. Young are typically born in early May, weaned in early June, and remain with their mother through spring and early summer. By October,at a length of c.190 mm, juveniles establish their own small burrows near their mothers. Longer distance aboveground dispersal may take place the following spring.",Manchurian Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.,"Burrows of Manchurian Zokors include feeding tunnels located 12-20 cm belowground and a deeper (40-110 cm) section that includes a nest, storage chambers, and toilets. Active digging occurs in feeding tunnels while food is sought. Feeding tunnels are plugged when they are abandoned. Digging activity markedly increases in October when extra food is gathered for winter.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. epsilanus). Populations of Manchurian Zokor in Primorsky Krai, Russia, are declining.","Allen (1940) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016f) | Puzachenko, Pavlienko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar et al. (2008) | Smith (2008b) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)",,"4.Manchurian ZokorMyospalax psilurusFrench:Zokor mandchou/ German:Mandschurei-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de ManchuriaOther common names:North China Zokor, Transbaikal ZokorTaxonomy.Siphneus psilurus Milne-Edwards, 1874,south of Beijing, Chihli (= Hebei), China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. It is the sister species of M. epsilanus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. psiluruswas more closely related to other species of Myospalaxthan to M. epsilanus, butthis idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. psilurusis distinct from but closely related to M. epsilanus. They were united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Populations from Primorsky Krai, Russia, had been assumed to be M. epsilanusuntil recently. Monotypic.Distribution.S Gansu to S Heilongjiang (NE China) and SW Primorsky Krai (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 35-55 mm; weight 185-400 g. Measurements are taken from A. T. Smith in 2008 and probably include size ranges for the Khingan Zokor (M. epsilanus). The Manchurian Zokoris straw gray with slight reddish or yellow tones. Cheeks and forehead are ashy fawn. White blaze is present on back of head. Venter is grayer. Tail and feet are almost naked; long sparse white hairs are present. Incisive foramen of the Manchurian Zokor is longer than that of the Khingan Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.Habitat.Rivervalleys, fallow land, steppe woodland, and early succession forest, preferring steppe meadows.Food and Feeding.Manchurian Zokors feed on roots, rhizomes, stems, bulbs, and shoots of a variety of plants. Small rodents (Apodemusand Phodopus) have been found in the stomachs of Manchurian Zokors.Breeding.Mating of Manchurian Zokors occursin late April to early May. One litter of 2-4 young is produced per year. Young are typically born in early May, weaned in early June, and remain with their mother through spring and early summer. By October,at a length of c.190 mm, juveniles establish their own small burrows near their mothers. Longer distance aboveground dispersal may take place the following spring.Activity patterns.Manchurian Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Manchurian Zokors include feeding tunnels located 12-20 cm belowground and a deeper (40-110 cm) section that includes a nest, storage chambers, and toilets. Active digging occurs in feeding tunnels while food is sought. Feeding tunnels are plugged when they are abandoned. Digging activity markedly increases in October when extra food is gathered for winter.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. epsilanus). Populations of Manchurian Zokor in Primorsky Krai, Russia, are declining.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016f), Puzachenko, Pavlienko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar et al. (2008), Smith (2008b), Tarasov et al. (2011), Tsvirka et al. (2011)." -03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,132,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.xml,Myospalax epsilanus,Myospalax,epsilanus,Thomas,1912,Zokor des Khingan @fr | Hinggan-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Khingan @es,"Myospalax epsilanus Thomas, 1912,“ Khingan Mts., Manchuria, 3400 [= 1036 m],” Heilongjiang Province, China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated (along with M. psilurus) as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax epsilanusis the sister species of M. psilurus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. epsilanuswas sister to all other extant Myospalacinae, but this idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCRsupport the conclusion that M. epsilanusis distinct from but closely related to M. psilurus. They are united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. On the basis of differences in incisive foramen and molar morphology, A. Yu. Puzachenko and colleagues in 2014 suggested that a distinct subspecies may be present in Zabaykalsky Krai and E Mongolia, but it has not been named. Monotypic.","S Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia), E Mongolia, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol) and Heilongjiang (NE China).","Head-body 198-223 mm, tail ¢.43 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Khingan Zokoris slightly larger than the Manchurian Zokor (M. psilurus). It is straw gray-brown, with slight reddish tones. Nose and forehead are lighter and grayer. Chin and throat are whitish, and additional white patches can be present elsewhere on head. Venter is grayer. Tail is almost naked; hairs are sparse. Young are lighter than adults. Pterygoid fossa is deeper and M® is smaller compared with the Manchurian Zokor. Incisive foramen is shorter on the Khingan Zokor than the Manchurian Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.","River valleys, steppe-woodland, and mixed grassy meadows, preferring steppe and meadows. The Khingan Zokoris not as much of an agricultural pest as many other species of zokor.","The Khingan Zokor eats cereal rhizomes, stems, and shoots under natural conditions. Roots and shoots of other plant varieties constitute the remainder of the diet.",No information.,Khingan Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. psilurusin both). The Khingan Zokor is classified as “declining” in the Red Data Book of Russia (as M. psilurusepsilanus). It is threatened by habitat degradation as natural landscapes are converted to agriculture. It occurs in protected areas.,"Allen (1940) | lliashenko & lliashenko (2000) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016f) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar et al. (2008) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Thomas (1912a, 1912b) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)",,"5.Khingan ZokorMyospalax epsilanusFrench:Zokor des Khingan/ German:Hinggan-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de KhinganTaxonomy.Myospalax epsilanus Thomas, 1912,“ Khingan Mts., Manchuria, 3400 [= 1036 m],” Heilongjiang Province, China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated (along with M. psilurus) as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax epsilanusis the sister species of M. psilurus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. epsilanuswas sister to all other extant Myospalacinae, but this idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCRsupport the conclusion that M. epsilanusis distinct from but closely related to M. psilurus. They are united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. On the basis of differences in incisive foramen and molar morphology, A. Yu. Puzachenko and colleagues in 2014 suggested that a distinct subspecies may be present in Zabaykalsky Krai and E Mongolia, but it has not been named. Monotypic.Distribution.S Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia), E Mongolia, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol) and Heilongjiang (NE China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 198-223 mm, tail ¢.43 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Khingan Zokoris slightly larger than the Manchurian Zokor (M. psilurus). It is straw gray-brown, with slight reddish tones. Nose and forehead are lighter and grayer. Chin and throat are whitish, and additional white patches can be present elsewhere on head. Venter is grayer. Tail is almost naked; hairs are sparse. Young are lighter than adults. Pterygoid fossa is deeper and M® is smaller compared with the Manchurian Zokor. Incisive foramen is shorter on the Khingan Zokor than the Manchurian Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.Habitat.River valleys, steppe-woodland, and mixed grassy meadows, preferring steppe and meadows. The Khingan Zokoris not as much of an agricultural pest as many other species of zokor.Food and Feeding.The Khingan Zokor eats cereal rhizomes, stems, and shoots under natural conditions. Roots and shoots of other plant varieties constitute the remainder of the diet.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Khingan Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. psilurusin both). The Khingan Zokor is classified as “declining” in the Red Data Book of Russia (as M. psilurusepsilanus). It is threatened by habitat degradation as natural landscapes are converted to agriculture. It occurs in protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), lliashenko & lliashenko (2000), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016f), Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar et al. (2008), Tarasov et al. (2011), Thomas (1912a, 1912b), Tsvirka et al. (2011)." -03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,132,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.xml,Eospalax fontanierii,Eospalax,fontanierii,,,Zokor de Fontanier @fr | China-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Fontanier @es | Chinese Zokor @en,"Siphneus fontanierii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Kansu, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated them as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusand bailey: as subspecies of fontanieriiand treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontanieri pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyior E. cansus. In recent years, a variety of studies support treating E. fontanieriias a distinct species from these other forms based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data recover E. fontanieriias sister to a clade that contains all other species of Eospalaxwith moderate support. Monotypic.","N Shaanxi, Shanxi, W Hebei, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), E China.","Head-body 163-245 mm,tail 38-69 mm; weight 184-563 g. Male Fontanier’s Zokors are larger than females. They are large and gray to yellowish brown overall. Hairs are slate-gray at the base and tipped with a more brownish color that shine enough to give slightsilvered effect. Chin and throat are gray, and underside is slightly grayer than dorsum. Upper lips and muzzle are white or light, and distinctive white streak is usually present running down midline of head. Additional white patches may be present elsewhere on body. Tail is long and sparsely haired, nearly naked. Feet are also sparsely haired. Young are dark gray; hairs are paler at tips. M”* has three re-entrant folds. Diploid numberis 2n = 60.","Steppe, grassland, farmland, pastures, and lawns.","Fontanier’s Zokor feeds on roots and underparts of plants, usually accessing them from below. Food plants include Chinese artichoke (Stachyssieboldu, Lamiaceae), ladybells (Adenophora, Campanulaceae), Bupleurum(Apiaceae), great burnet (Sanguisorbaofficinalis, Rosaceae), Chinese red pine saplings (Pinustabuliformas, Pinaceae), and sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae). It builds up food stores during summer and autumn that are eaten in winter.","Reproduction of Fontanier’s Zokor peaks in March—June. Males and females are thoughtto live separately, only coming together during breeding, but they have been observed in the same burrow at other times. Litter sizes are 1-6 young, usually 2—4 young.","Underground activity of Fontanier’s Zokors peaks in morning and evening. When an individual ventures aboveground, it does so at night.","Burrows of Fontanier’s Zokors are elaborate with multiple chambers and tunnels, but little indication of a burrow’s presence might be visible aboveground. They are 66-127 m long. Food-finding, pathway, and communication tunnels are present along with toilet, nesting, and food storage chambers. Nest chamber is ¢.35 x 30 x 25 cm, lined with dry grasses and leaves, and located deep in the burrow system (c.93 cm deep). One to three storage chambers are present. Toilets tend to be located at the far ends of the system. When a toilet is full, it is blocked off, and another one is dug. Parts of the burrow may be abandoned over time; these are walled off. Specific communication tunnels are constructed wherein individuals communicate seismically with neighbors. Predators include the Altai Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (an assessment that includes E. cansus, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi) and the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. Fontanier’s Zokoris an agricultural pest and is the subject of control measures, including poison.","Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Gu Shougin (1981) | Fan Naichang & ShiYinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)",,"6.Fontanier’s ZokorEospalax fontanieriiFrench:Zokor de Fontanier/ German:China-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de FontanierOther common names:Chinese ZokorTaxonomy.Siphneus fontanierii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Kansu, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated them as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusand bailey: as subspecies of fontanieriiand treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontanieri pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyior E. cansus. In recent years, a variety of studies support treating E. fontanieriias a distinct species from these other forms based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data recover E. fontanieriias sister to a clade that contains all other species of Eospalaxwith moderate support. Monotypic.Distribution.N Shaanxi, Shanxi, W Hebei, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), E China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 163-245 mm,tail 38-69 mm; weight 184-563 g. Male Fontanier’s Zokors are larger than females. They are large and gray to yellowish brown overall. Hairs are slate-gray at the base and tipped with a more brownish color that shine enough to give slightsilvered effect. Chin and throat are gray, and underside is slightly grayer than dorsum. Upper lips and muzzle are white or light, and distinctive white streak is usually present running down midline of head. Additional white patches may be present elsewhere on body. Tail is long and sparsely haired, nearly naked. Feet are also sparsely haired. Young are dark gray; hairs are paler at tips. M”* has three re-entrant folds. Diploid numberis 2n = 60.Habitat.Steppe, grassland, farmland, pastures, and lawns.Food and Feeding.Fontanier’s Zokor feeds on roots and underparts of plants, usually accessing them from below. Food plants include Chinese artichoke (Stachyssieboldu, Lamiaceae), ladybells (Adenophora, Campanulaceae), Bupleurum(Apiaceae), great burnet (Sanguisorbaofficinalis, Rosaceae), Chinese red pine saplings (Pinustabuliformas, Pinaceae), and sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae). It builds up food stores during summer and autumn that are eaten in winter.Breeding.Reproduction of Fontanier’s Zokor peaks in March—June. Males and females are thoughtto live separately, only coming together during breeding, but they have been observed in the same burrow at other times. Litter sizes are 1-6 young, usually 2—4 young.Activity patterns.Underground activity of Fontanier’s Zokors peaks in morning and evening. When an individual ventures aboveground, it does so at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Fontanier’s Zokors are elaborate with multiple chambers and tunnels, but little indication of a burrow’s presence might be visible aboveground. They are 66-127 m long. Food-finding, pathway, and communication tunnels are present along with toilet, nesting, and food storage chambers. Nest chamber is ¢.35 x 30 x 25 cm, lined with dry grasses and leaves, and located deep in the burrow system (c.93 cm deep). One to three storage chambers are present. Toilets tend to be located at the far ends of the system. When a toilet is full, it is blocked off, and another one is dug. Parts of the burrow may be abandoned over time; these are walled off. Specific communication tunnels are constructed wherein individuals communicate seismically with neighbors. Predators include the Altai Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (an assessment that includes E. cansus, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi) and the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. Fontanier’s Zokoris an agricultural pest and is the subject of control measures, including poison.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Gu Shougin (1981), Fan Naichang & ShiYinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)." +03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,131,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.xml,Myospalax armandii,Myospalax,armandii,,,Zokor d Armand @fr | Armand-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Armand @es,"Siphneus armandii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Mongolianplateau (N Shanxi).Member of M. myospalaxspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax armandiiis the sister species of M. aspalax, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. armandiiis distinct from but closely related to M. aspalax. They are united into the aspalaxsuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.","E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), N Shanxi, N Hebei, W Liaoning, W Jilin, and S Heilongjiang (NE China), and SE Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia).","Head-body 140-233 mm, tail 48-69 mm; weight 225-422 g. Measurements are from A. T. Smith in 2008, which may include specimens of the Steppe Zokor (M. aspalax). Armand’s Zokor looks similar to the Steppe Zokor. It is grayish, with yellow or light brown tinge. Lips are white, and forehead and other parts of head and ears can have white spots. Venter is grayish white, and tail and feet have short white hairs. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","Steppe, meadows, and farmland.","Armand’s Zokor feeds on underground roots, rhizomes, leaves, and buds.",No information.,"Armand’s Zokor constructs burrows in rich, dark, soft soil.",No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. aspalaxin both).,"Allen (1940) | Chelomina et al. (2011) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlienko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar & Lkhagvasuren (2008) | Smith (2008b) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609110/files/figure.png,"3.Armand’s ZokorMyospalax armandiiFrench:Zokor dArmand/ German:Armand-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de ArmandTaxonomy.Siphneus armandii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Mongolianplateau (N Shanxi).Member of M. myospalaxspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax armandiiis the sister species of M. aspalax, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. armandiiis distinct from but closely related to M. aspalax. They are united into the aspalaxsuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.Distribution.E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), N Shanxi, N Hebei, W Liaoning, W Jilin, and S Heilongjiang (NE China), and SE Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-233 mm, tail 48-69 mm; weight 225-422 g. Measurements are from A. T. Smith in 2008, which may include specimens of the Steppe Zokor (M. aspalax). Armand’s Zokor looks similar to the Steppe Zokor. It is grayish, with yellow or light brown tinge. Lips are white, and forehead and other parts of head and ears can have white spots. Venter is grayish white, and tail and feet have short white hairs. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Steppe, meadows, and farmland.Food and Feeding.Armand’s Zokor feeds on underground roots, rhizomes, leaves, and buds.Breeding.No information.On following pages: 4. Manchurian Zokor (Myospalax psilurus); 5. Khingan Zokor (Myospalax epsilanus); 6. Fontanier's Zokor (Eospalax baileyi); 10. Rothschild’s Zokor (Eospalax rothschildi); 11. Smith's Zokor (Eospalaxsmithi); 12. Chinese Bamboo sumatrensis); 15. Lesser Bamboo Rat (Cannomys badius); 16. African Root Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens); 17. Giant Root antiquus); 20. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat (Spalax graecus); 21. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat (Spalax zemni); 22. Sandy Blind Mole-rat giganteus); 25. Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (Spalax uralensis); 26. Lesser Blind Mole-rat (Nannospalax leucodon); 27. Anatolian (Eospalaxfontanieril); 7. Gansu Zokor (Eospalax cansus); 8. Qinling Zokor (Eospalaxrufescens); 9. Plateau Zokor Rat (Rhizomys sinensis); 13. Hoary Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys pruinosus); 14. Indomalayan Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys Rat(Tachyoryctes macrocephalus); 18. Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (Spalax istricus); 19. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (Spalax(Spalax arenarius); 23. Greater Blind Mole-rat (Spalax microphthalmus); 24. Giant Blind Mole-rat (Spalax BlindMole-rat (Nannospalaxxanthodon); 28. Middle East Blind Mole-rat (Nannospalax ehrenbergi).Activity patterns.Armand’s Zokor constructs burrows in rich, dark, soft soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. aspalaxin both).Bibliography.Allen (1940), Chelomina et al. (2011), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlienko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar & Lkhagvasuren (2008), Smith (2008b), Tarasov et al. (2011), Tsvirka et al. (2011)." +03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,132,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.xml,Myospalax psilurus,Myospalax,psilurus,,,Zokor mandchou @fr | Mandschurei-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Manchuria @es | North China Zokor @en | Transbaikal Zokor @en,"Siphneus psilurus Milne-Edwards, 1874,south of Beijing, Chihli (= Hebei), China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. It is the sister species of M. epsilanus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. psiluruswas more closely related to other species of Myospalaxthan to M. epsilanus, butthis idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. psilurusis distinct from but closely related to M. epsilanus. They were united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Populations from Primorsky Krai, Russia, had been assumed to be M. epsilanusuntil recently. Monotypic.",S Gansu to S Heilongjiang (NE China) and SW Primorsky Krai (Russia).,"Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 35-55 mm; weight 185-400 g. Measurements are taken from A. T. Smith in 2008 and probably include size ranges for the Khingan Zokor (M. epsilanus). The Manchurian Zokoris straw gray with slight reddish or yellow tones. Cheeks and forehead are ashy fawn. White blaze is present on back of head. Venter is grayer. Tail and feet are almost naked; long sparse white hairs are present. Incisive foramen of the Manchurian Zokor is longer than that of the Khingan Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.","Rivervalleys, fallow land, steppe woodland, and early succession forest, preferring steppe meadows.","Manchurian Zokors feed on roots, rhizomes, stems, bulbs, and shoots of a variety of plants. Small rodents (Apodemusand Phodopus) have been found in the stomachs of Manchurian Zokors.","Mating of Manchurian Zokors occursin late April to early May. One litter of 2-4 young is produced per year. Young are typically born in early May, weaned in early June, and remain with their mother through spring and early summer. By October,at a length of c.190 mm, juveniles establish their own small burrows near their mothers. Longer distance aboveground dispersal may take place the following spring.",Manchurian Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.,"Burrows of Manchurian Zokors include feeding tunnels located 12-20 cm belowground and a deeper (40-110 cm) section that includes a nest, storage chambers, and toilets. Active digging occurs in feeding tunnels while food is sought. Feeding tunnels are plugged when they are abandoned. Digging activity markedly increases in October when extra food is gathered for winter.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. epsilanus). Populations of Manchurian Zokor in Primorsky Krai, Russia, are declining.","Allen (1940) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016f) | Puzachenko, Pavlienko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar et al. (2008) | Smith (2008b) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609112/files/figure.png,"4.Manchurian ZokorMyospalax psilurusFrench:Zokor mandchou/ German:Mandschurei-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de ManchuriaOther common names:North China Zokor, Transbaikal ZokorTaxonomy.Siphneus psilurus Milne-Edwards, 1874,south of Beijing, Chihli (= Hebei), China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. It is the sister species of M. epsilanus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. psiluruswas more closely related to other species of Myospalaxthan to M. epsilanus, butthis idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. psilurusis distinct from but closely related to M. epsilanus. They were united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Populations from Primorsky Krai, Russia, had been assumed to be M. epsilanusuntil recently. Monotypic.Distribution.S Gansu to S Heilongjiang (NE China) and SW Primorsky Krai (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 35-55 mm; weight 185-400 g. Measurements are taken from A. T. Smith in 2008 and probably include size ranges for the Khingan Zokor (M. epsilanus). The Manchurian Zokoris straw gray with slight reddish or yellow tones. Cheeks and forehead are ashy fawn. White blaze is present on back of head. Venter is grayer. Tail and feet are almost naked; long sparse white hairs are present. Incisive foramen of the Manchurian Zokor is longer than that of the Khingan Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.Habitat.Rivervalleys, fallow land, steppe woodland, and early succession forest, preferring steppe meadows.Food and Feeding.Manchurian Zokors feed on roots, rhizomes, stems, bulbs, and shoots of a variety of plants. Small rodents (Apodemusand Phodopus) have been found in the stomachs of Manchurian Zokors.Breeding.Mating of Manchurian Zokors occursin late April to early May. One litter of 2-4 young is produced per year. Young are typically born in early May, weaned in early June, and remain with their mother through spring and early summer. By October,at a length of c.190 mm, juveniles establish their own small burrows near their mothers. Longer distance aboveground dispersal may take place the following spring.Activity patterns.Manchurian Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Manchurian Zokors include feeding tunnels located 12-20 cm belowground and a deeper (40-110 cm) section that includes a nest, storage chambers, and toilets. Active digging occurs in feeding tunnels while food is sought. Feeding tunnels are plugged when they are abandoned. Digging activity markedly increases in October when extra food is gathered for winter.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. epsilanus). Populations of Manchurian Zokor in Primorsky Krai, Russia, are declining.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016f), Puzachenko, Pavlienko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar et al. (2008), Smith (2008b), Tarasov et al. (2011), Tsvirka et al. (2011)." +03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,132,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.xml,Myospalax epsilanus,Myospalax,epsilanus,Thomas,1912,Zokor des Khingan @fr | Hinggan-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Khingan @es,"Myospalax epsilanus Thomas, 1912,“ Khingan Mts., Manchuria, 3400 [= 1036 m],” Heilongjiang Province, China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated (along with M. psilurus) as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax epsilanusis the sister species of M. psilurus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. epsilanuswas sister to all other extant Myospalacinae, but this idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCRsupport the conclusion that M. epsilanusis distinct from but closely related to M. psilurus. They are united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. On the basis of differences in incisive foramen and molar morphology, A. Yu. Puzachenko and colleagues in 2014 suggested that a distinct subspecies may be present in Zabaykalsky Krai and E Mongolia, but it has not been named. Monotypic.","S Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia), E Mongolia, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol) and Heilongjiang (NE China).","Head-body 198-223 mm, tail ¢.43 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Khingan Zokoris slightly larger than the Manchurian Zokor (M. psilurus). It is straw gray-brown, with slight reddish tones. Nose and forehead are lighter and grayer. Chin and throat are whitish, and additional white patches can be present elsewhere on head. Venter is grayer. Tail is almost naked; hairs are sparse. Young are lighter than adults. Pterygoid fossa is deeper and M® is smaller compared with the Manchurian Zokor. Incisive foramen is shorter on the Khingan Zokor than the Manchurian Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.","River valleys, steppe-woodland, and mixed grassy meadows, preferring steppe and meadows. The Khingan Zokoris not as much of an agricultural pest as many other species of zokor.","The Khingan Zokor eats cereal rhizomes, stems, and shoots under natural conditions. Roots and shoots of other plant varieties constitute the remainder of the diet.",No information.,Khingan Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.,No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. psilurusin both). The Khingan Zokor is classified as “declining” in the Red Data Book of Russia (as M. psilurusepsilanus). It is threatened by habitat degradation as natural landscapes are converted to agriculture. It occurs in protected areas.,"Allen (1940) | lliashenko & lliashenko (2000) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016f) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar et al. (2008) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Thomas (1912a, 1912b) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609114/files/figure.png,"5.Khingan ZokorMyospalax epsilanusFrench:Zokor des Khingan/ German:Hinggan-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de KhinganTaxonomy.Myospalax epsilanus Thomas, 1912,“ Khingan Mts., Manchuria, 3400 [= 1036 m],” Heilongjiang Province, China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated (along with M. psilurus) as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax epsilanusis the sister species of M. psilurus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. epsilanuswas sister to all other extant Myospalacinae, but this idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCRsupport the conclusion that M. epsilanusis distinct from but closely related to M. psilurus. They are united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. On the basis of differences in incisive foramen and molar morphology, A. Yu. Puzachenko and colleagues in 2014 suggested that a distinct subspecies may be present in Zabaykalsky Krai and E Mongolia, but it has not been named. Monotypic.Distribution.S Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia), E Mongolia, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol) and Heilongjiang (NE China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 198-223 mm, tail ¢.43 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Khingan Zokoris slightly larger than the Manchurian Zokor (M. psilurus). It is straw gray-brown, with slight reddish tones. Nose and forehead are lighter and grayer. Chin and throat are whitish, and additional white patches can be present elsewhere on head. Venter is grayer. Tail is almost naked; hairs are sparse. Young are lighter than adults. Pterygoid fossa is deeper and M® is smaller compared with the Manchurian Zokor. Incisive foramen is shorter on the Khingan Zokor than the Manchurian Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.Habitat.River valleys, steppe-woodland, and mixed grassy meadows, preferring steppe and meadows. The Khingan Zokoris not as much of an agricultural pest as many other species of zokor.Food and Feeding.The Khingan Zokor eats cereal rhizomes, stems, and shoots under natural conditions. Roots and shoots of other plant varieties constitute the remainder of the diet.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Khingan Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. psilurusin both). The Khingan Zokor is classified as “declining” in the Red Data Book of Russia (as M. psilurusepsilanus). It is threatened by habitat degradation as natural landscapes are converted to agriculture. It occurs in protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), lliashenko & lliashenko (2000), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016f), Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar et al. (2008), Tarasov et al. (2011), Thomas (1912a, 1912b), Tsvirka et al. (2011)." +03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-04-6,hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa,132,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.xml,Eospalax fontanierii,Eospalax,fontanierii,,,Zokor de Fontanier @fr | China-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Fontanier @es | Chinese Zokor @en,"Siphneus fontanierii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Kansu, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated them as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusand bailey: as subspecies of fontanieriiand treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontanieri pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyior E. cansus. In recent years, a variety of studies support treating E. fontanieriias a distinct species from these other forms based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data recover E. fontanieriias sister to a clade that contains all other species of Eospalaxwith moderate support. Monotypic.","N Shaanxi, Shanxi, W Hebei, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), E China.","Head-body 163-245 mm,tail 38-69 mm; weight 184-563 g. Male Fontanier’s Zokors are larger than females. They are large and gray to yellowish brown overall. Hairs are slate-gray at the base and tipped with a more brownish color that shine enough to give slightsilvered effect. Chin and throat are gray, and underside is slightly grayer than dorsum. Upper lips and muzzle are white or light, and distinctive white streak is usually present running down midline of head. Additional white patches may be present elsewhere on body. Tail is long and sparsely haired, nearly naked. Feet are also sparsely haired. Young are dark gray; hairs are paler at tips. M”* has three re-entrant folds. Diploid numberis 2n = 60.","Steppe, grassland, farmland, pastures, and lawns.","Fontanier’s Zokor feeds on roots and underparts of plants, usually accessing them from below. Food plants include Chinese artichoke (Stachyssieboldu, Lamiaceae), ladybells (Adenophora, Campanulaceae), Bupleurum(Apiaceae), great burnet (Sanguisorbaofficinalis, Rosaceae), Chinese red pine saplings (Pinustabuliformas, Pinaceae), and sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae). It builds up food stores during summer and autumn that are eaten in winter.","Reproduction of Fontanier’s Zokor peaks in March—June. Males and females are thoughtto live separately, only coming together during breeding, but they have been observed in the same burrow at other times. Litter sizes are 1-6 young, usually 2—4 young.","Underground activity of Fontanier’s Zokors peaks in morning and evening. When an individual ventures aboveground, it does so at night.","Burrows of Fontanier’s Zokors are elaborate with multiple chambers and tunnels, but little indication of a burrow’s presence might be visible aboveground. They are 66-127 m long. Food-finding, pathway, and communication tunnels are present along with toilet, nesting, and food storage chambers. Nest chamber is ¢.35 x 30 x 25 cm, lined with dry grasses and leaves, and located deep in the burrow system (c.93 cm deep). One to three storage chambers are present. Toilets tend to be located at the far ends of the system. When a toilet is full, it is blocked off, and another one is dug. Parts of the burrow may be abandoned over time; these are walled off. Specific communication tunnels are constructed wherein individuals communicate seismically with neighbors. Predators include the Altai Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (an assessment that includes E. cansus, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi) and the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. Fontanier’s Zokoris an agricultural pest and is the subject of control measures, including poison.","Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Gu Shougin (1981) | Fan Naichang & ShiYinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/6609118/files/figure.png,"6.Fontanier’s ZokorEospalax fontanieriiFrench:Zokor de Fontanier/ German:China-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de FontanierOther common names:Chinese ZokorTaxonomy.Siphneus fontanierii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Kansu, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated them as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusand bailey: as subspecies of fontanieriiand treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontanieri pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyior E. cansus. In recent years, a variety of studies support treating E. fontanieriias a distinct species from these other forms based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data recover E. fontanieriias sister to a clade that contains all other species of Eospalaxwith moderate support. Monotypic.Distribution.N Shaanxi, Shanxi, W Hebei, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), E China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 163-245 mm,tail 38-69 mm; weight 184-563 g. Male Fontanier’s Zokors are larger than females. They are large and gray to yellowish brown overall. Hairs are slate-gray at the base and tipped with a more brownish color that shine enough to give slightsilvered effect. Chin and throat are gray, and underside is slightly grayer than dorsum. Upper lips and muzzle are white or light, and distinctive white streak is usually present running down midline of head. Additional white patches may be present elsewhere on body. Tail is long and sparsely haired, nearly naked. Feet are also sparsely haired. Young are dark gray; hairs are paler at tips. M”* has three re-entrant folds. Diploid numberis 2n = 60.Habitat.Steppe, grassland, farmland, pastures, and lawns.Food and Feeding.Fontanier’s Zokor feeds on roots and underparts of plants, usually accessing them from below. Food plants include Chinese artichoke (Stachyssieboldu, Lamiaceae), ladybells (Adenophora, Campanulaceae), Bupleurum(Apiaceae), great burnet (Sanguisorbaofficinalis, Rosaceae), Chinese red pine saplings (Pinustabuliformas, Pinaceae), and sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae). It builds up food stores during summer and autumn that are eaten in winter.Breeding.Reproduction of Fontanier’s Zokor peaks in March—June. Males and females are thoughtto live separately, only coming together during breeding, but they have been observed in the same burrow at other times. Litter sizes are 1-6 young, usually 2—4 young.Activity patterns.Underground activity of Fontanier’s Zokors peaks in morning and evening. When an individual ventures aboveground, it does so at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Fontanier’s Zokors are elaborate with multiple chambers and tunnels, but little indication of a burrow’s presence might be visible aboveground. They are 66-127 m long. Food-finding, pathway, and communication tunnels are present along with toilet, nesting, and food storage chambers. Nest chamber is ¢.35 x 30 x 25 cm, lined with dry grasses and leaves, and located deep in the burrow system (c.93 cm deep). One to three storage chambers are present. Toilets tend to be located at the far ends of the system. When a toilet is full, it is blocked off, and another one is dug. Parts of the burrow may be abandoned over time; these are walled off. Specific communication tunnels are constructed wherein individuals communicate seismically with neighbors. Predators include the Altai Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (an assessment that includes E. cansus, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi) and the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. Fontanier’s Zokoris an agricultural pest and is the subject of control measures, including poison.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Gu Shougin (1981), Fan Naichang & ShiYinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)." 03B0BC062412FFD4FA37EFE7F687F24D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Myzopodidae_388.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff89c47e2413ffd5ff87ea47ff90ffc9,393,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/BC/03B0BC062412FFD4FA37EFE7F687F24D.xml,Myzopoda aurita,Myzopoda,aurita,,,Myzopode de Madagascar @fr | Madagaskar-Haftscheibenfledermaus @de | Mizopoda de Madagascar @es | Madagascar Suckerfooted Bat @en,"Myzopoda aurita Milne-Edwards & A. Grandidier, 1878, “ Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.",E Madagascar.,"Total length 111-114 mm, tail 44-50 mm, ear 32-34 mm, hindfoot (without claw) 5-6 mm, forearm 46-49 mm; weight 9-9-5 g. The Eastern Sucker-footed Bat is characterized by sucker-like structures on wrists and ankles. Dorsal fur is slightly long, uniformly golden dark brown, and unicolored; venter is light brown, paler than dorsum. Wings and interfemoral membraneare dark brown. Ears are notably long, and pointed, with odd-shaped mushroom-like structure at bases. Tail protrudes beyond hind margin oftail membrane. Upperlips extend beyond limit of mandible and are flexible.","Lowland andlittoral forests, often toward edges or in degraded forests, and large stands oftraveler’s palms (Ravenalamadagascariensis, Strelitziaceae) associated with anthropogenicforest degradation, from sealevel to elevations of¢. 1000 m.","The Eastern Suckerfooted Bat specializes on Lepidoptera, which was present in 100%offeces from eleven individuals, followed byBlattodea (55%), Coleoptera (55%), and Araneae(9%). Presence of Araneaeindicates some form of gleaning ofpreyoffsurfaces.",Juvenile Eastern Sucker-footed Bats were captured only in February—March and October-November.,"Eastern Sucker-footed Bats are nocturnal. Vast majority of known roost sites of Eastern Sucker-footed Bats are in furled leaves oftraveler’s palms. They emit distinct complex FM echolocation calls, with 2-4 elements of increased amplitude and long call duration and maximumenergies at 24-42 kHz.","Radio-tagged Eastern Suckerfooted Bats in south-eastern Madagascarforaged in 4-108 ha that collectively included 70% open wooded anthropogenic grasslands, 8%degraded natural forest, 6%relatively intact humid forest, 5%coffee plantations, 4%rice paddy, 4% banana plantations, and 3%in close proximity to human habitation. Average maximum distance traveled from the roost site was 862 m, and greatest recorded distance was 1-8 km. At this locality, roost sites were only found in traveler’s palms. All 593 captured individuals were males that often changed their day roost sites. Females were captured a few kilometers from the roosts with males and at slightly lowerelevations.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Because the Eastern Suckerfooted Bat can be common in secondary habitats with large concentrations ofpioneering traveler’s palms, it seems adaptable to human degradation of natural eastern forest formations.","Bayliss & Hayes (1999) | Goodman (2011) | Goodman et al. (2014) | Jenkins et al. (2007) | Milne-Edwards & Grandidier (1878) | Peterson et al. (1995) | Ralisata (2018) | Ralisata, Andriamboavonjy et al. (2010) | Ralisata, Rakotondravony & Racey (2015) | Ramasindrazana et al. (2010) | Rasoanoro et al. (2015) | Riskin & Racey (2010) | Russ, Bennett et al. (2003) | Schliemann & Maas (1978) | Thomas (1904c)",https://zenodo.org/record/6418927/files/figure.png,"2.Eastern Sucker-footed BatMyzopoda auritaFrench:Myzopode de Madagascar/ German:Madagaskar-Haftscheibenfledermaus/ Spanish:Mizopoda de MadagascarOther common names:MadagascarSuckerfooted BatTaxonomy.Myzopoda aurita Milne-Edwards & A. Grandidier, 1878, “ Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Total length 111-114 mm, tail 44-50 mm, ear 32-34 mm, hindfoot (without claw) 5-6 mm, forearm 46-49 mm; weight 9-9-5 g. The Eastern Sucker-footed Bat is characterized by sucker-like structures on wrists and ankles. Dorsal fur is slightly long, uniformly golden dark brown, and unicolored; venter is light brown, paler than dorsum. Wings and interfemoral membraneare dark brown. Ears are notably long, and pointed, with odd-shaped mushroom-like structure at bases. Tail protrudes beyond hind margin oftail membrane. Upperlips extend beyond limit of mandible and are flexible.Habitat.Lowland andlittoral forests, often toward edges or in degraded forests, and large stands oftraveler’s palms (Ravenalamadagascariensis, Strelitziaceae) associated with anthropogenicforest degradation, from sealevel to elevations of¢. 1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Eastern Suckerfooted Bat specializes on Lepidoptera, which was present in 100%offeces from eleven individuals, followed byBlattodea (55%), Coleoptera (55%), and Araneae(9%). Presence of Araneaeindicates some form of gleaning ofpreyoffsurfaces.Breeding.Juvenile Eastern Sucker-footed Bats were captured only in February—March and October-November.Activity patterns.Eastern Sucker-footed Bats are nocturnal. Vast majority of known roost sites of Eastern Sucker-footed Bats are in furled leaves oftraveler’s palms. They emit distinct complex FM echolocation calls, with 2-4 elements of increased amplitude and long call duration and maximumenergies at 24-42 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Radio-tagged Eastern Suckerfooted Bats in south-eastern Madagascarforaged in 4-108 ha that collectively included 70% open wooded anthropogenic grasslands, 8%degraded natural forest, 6%relatively intact humid forest, 5%coffee plantations, 4%rice paddy, 4% banana plantations, and 3%in close proximity to human habitation. Average maximum distance traveled from the roost site was 862 m, and greatest recorded distance was 1-8 km. At this locality, roost sites were only found in traveler’s palms. All 593 captured individuals were males that often changed their day roost sites. Females were captured a few kilometers from the roosts with males and at slightly lowerelevations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Because the Eastern Suckerfooted Bat can be common in secondary habitats with large concentrations ofpioneering traveler’s palms, it seems adaptable to human degradation of natural eastern forest formations.Bibliography.Bayliss & Hayes (1999), Goodman (2011), Goodman et al. (2014), Jenkins et al. (2007), Milne-Edwards & Grandidier (1878), Peterson et al. (1995), Ralisata (2018), Ralisata, Andriamboavonjy et al. (2010), Ralisata, Rakotondravony & Racey (2015), Ramasindrazana et al. (2010), Rasoanoro et al. (2015), Riskin & Racey (2010), Russ, Bennett et al. (2003), Schliemann & Maas (1978), Thomas (1904c)." 03B0BC062412FFD4FF31EC79FBA6F24C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Myzopodidae_388.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff89c47e2413ffd5ff87ea47ff90ffc9,393,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/BC/03B0BC062412FFD4FF31EC79FBA6F24C.xml,Myzopoda schliemanni,Myzopoda,schliemanni,,,Myzopode de Schliemann @fr | Schliemann-Haftscheibenfledermaus @de | Mizopoda de Schliemann @es | Schliemann's Suckerfooted Bat @en,"Myzopoda schliemanni Goodman, Rakotondraparany & Kofoky, 2007, “Province de Mahajanga[Parc National d’Ankarafantsika], SF [Station Forestiere] d’Ampijoroa, Jardin Botanique A, 16°19.4’S, 46°48.4’E, 160 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.",NW Madagascar.,"Total length 92-107 mm, tail 44-47 mm, ear 30-32 mm, hindfoot (without claw) 5-6 mm, forearm 45-49 mm; weight 7-8-10-3 g. The Western Sucker-footed Bat is characterized by sucker-like structures on wrists and ankles. Dorsal fur is slightly long, uniformlylight brown, and unicolored; venter is mouse-gray. Wings and interfemoral membrane are dark brown. Ears are notably long and pointed, with odd-shaped mushroom-likestructure at bases. Tail protrudes beyond hind margin oftail membrane. Upper lips extend beyond limit of mandible and areflexible.","Lowland dry deciduous forests, often heavily degraded with remnant vegetation and stands of Bismarck palms (Bismarckianobilis, Arecaceae), foraging in open grasslands, particularly zones with marshland and open water, fromsealevel to ¢. 200 m.","Feces from 18 Western Sucker-footed Bats contained 65% Lepidoptera, 23% Coleoptera, and 11% Hymenoptera; no evidence of Hemiptera and Homoptera were found, and females tended to eat more lepidopterans than males. Another study foundthat Blattodea was widely consumed.","During transition between dry and wet seasons in late October to mid-December, more than 50%offemale Western Sucker-footed Bats captured were pregnant.","Western Sucker-footed Bats are nocturnal. Vast majority of known roost sites of Western Sucker-footed Bats are in furled fronds of Bismarck palms, although it roosted on the wall of a limestone cave on one occasion. They emit distinct complex FM echolocationcalls that have four elements with decreasing frequency and maximum energy at ¢.46-5 kHz.","Radio-tagged Western Suckerfooted Bats regularly changed their day roost sites. No sexual segregation based on knownsites forthis species is documented, and both sexes are represented at a given locality. Dayroost sites in Bismarck palms contained 1-32 individuals, and these roosting groups included breeding/maternity colonies of pregnant or lactating females or male bachelor colonies that group together during austral winter.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Because the Western Suckerfooted Bat can be common in secondary habitats with stands of Bismarck palms, it seems adaptable to human degradation of natural dry deciduous forest formations.","Goodman (2011) | Goodman, Rakotondraparany & Kofoky (2007) | Kofoky (2009) | Kofoky et al. (2006) | Rajemison & Goodman (2007) | Rakotoarivelo & Randrianandrianina (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6418925/files/figure.png,"1.Western Sucker-footed BatMyzopoda schliemanniFrench:Myzopode de Schliemann/ German:Schliemann-Haftscheibenfledermaus/ Spanish:Mizopoda de SchliemannOther common names:Schliemann's Suckerfooted BatTaxonomy.Myzopoda schliemanni Goodman, Rakotondraparany & Kofoky, 2007, “Province de Mahajanga[Parc National d’Ankarafantsika], SF [Station Forestiere] d’Ampijoroa, Jardin Botanique A, 16°19.4’S, 46°48.4’E, 160 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.NW Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Total length 92-107 mm, tail 44-47 mm, ear 30-32 mm, hindfoot (without claw) 5-6 mm, forearm 45-49 mm; weight 7-8-10-3 g. The Western Sucker-footed Bat is characterized by sucker-like structures on wrists and ankles. Dorsal fur is slightly long, uniformlylight brown, and unicolored; venter is mouse-gray. Wings and interfemoral membrane are dark brown. Ears are notably long and pointed, with odd-shaped mushroom-likestructure at bases. Tail protrudes beyond hind margin oftail membrane. Upper lips extend beyond limit of mandible and areflexible.Habitat.Lowland dry deciduous forests, often heavily degraded with remnant vegetation and stands of Bismarck palms (Bismarckianobilis, Arecaceae), foraging in open grasslands, particularly zones with marshland and open water, fromsealevel to ¢. 200 m.Food and Feeding.Feces from 18 Western Sucker-footed Bats contained 65% Lepidoptera, 23% Coleoptera, and 11% Hymenoptera; no evidence of Hemiptera and Homoptera were found, and females tended to eat more lepidopterans than males. Another study foundthat Blattodea was widely consumed.Breeding.During transition between dry and wet seasons in late October to mid-December, more than 50%offemale Western Sucker-footed Bats captured were pregnant.Activity patterns.Western Sucker-footed Bats are nocturnal. Vast majority of known roost sites of Western Sucker-footed Bats are in furled fronds of Bismarck palms, although it roosted on the wall of a limestone cave on one occasion. They emit distinct complex FM echolocationcalls that have four elements with decreasing frequency and maximum energy at ¢.46-5 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Radio-tagged Western Suckerfooted Bats regularly changed their day roost sites. No sexual segregation based on knownsites forthis species is documented, and both sexes are represented at a given locality. Dayroost sites in Bismarck palms contained 1-32 individuals, and these roosting groups included breeding/maternity colonies of pregnant or lactating females or male bachelor colonies that group together during austral winter.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Because the Western Suckerfooted Bat can be common in secondary habitats with stands of Bismarck palms, it seems adaptable to human degradation of natural dry deciduous forest formations.Bibliography.Goodman (2011), Goodman, Rakotondraparany & Kofoky (2007), Kofoky (2009), Kofoky et al. (2006), Rajemison & Goodman (2007), Rakotoarivelo & Randrianandrianina (2007)." 03B0BC062413FFD5FC8BEB8EF84CFB3A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Myzopodidae_388.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff89c47e2413ffd5ff87ea47ff90ffc9,388,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/BC/03B0BC062413FFD5FC8BEB8EF84CFB3A.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family MYZOPODIDAE(MADAGASCARSUCKER-FOOTED BATS)• Relatively small insectivorous bats, with distinctive sucker-like structure on wrists and ankles, as well as elon-gated ears with mushroom-like structure at their bases.• 9-11 cm.• Afrotropical Region (Madagascar).• Humid and dry deciduous forests, forest edges, and open areas with palms, and often marshy areas.• 1 genus, 2 species, 2 taxa.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600." 03B0E520E8105865FE7EABE6E367FB6B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,106,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8105865FE7EABE6E367FB6B.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family EQUIDAE(HORSES AND RELATIVES)• [Large mammals with large head, elongated face, long neck, large ears, eyes set to the side and high on the head, long, slender legs ending in a single hoof each, long tail, and mane erect or droopy when very long.• 200-300 cm.• Palearctic and Afrotropical Regions.• Mesic grassland to semi-arid savanna, arid lowland, and mountain desert.• 1 genus, 7 species, at least 19 extant taxa.• 2 species Critically Endangered, 2 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; 4 subspecies Extinct since 1600." -03B0E520E8125866FABEACFDEF26F67F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8125866FABEACFDEF26F67F.xml,Equus hemionus,Equus,hemionus,Pallas,1775,Hémione @fr | Asiatischer Halbesel @de | Onagro @es | Onager; Gobi Kulan (luteus) @en | Khur(khun @en | Kulan (kulan) @en | Mongolian Kulan (hemionus) @en | Persian Onager(onager) @en | Syrian Onager(hemippus) @en,"Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775,North-eastern boundary of Mongoliawith Russia, Transbaikalia, S. Chitinsk, 50° N, 115° E.The “Syrian Onager” race hemippus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1855)from Syriaand the Arabian Peninsula is extinct. The “Gobi Kulan” luteus is probably a synonym of the nominate race hemionus. Four extant subspecies recognized.","E.h.hemionusPallas,1775—SMongoliaandextendingintoNChina.E.h.khurLesson,1827—LittleRannofKutch,Gujarat,India.E.h.kulanGroves&Mazak,1967—KazakhstanandTurkmenistan(Badkhyzregion).E. h. onager Boddaert, 1785— two reserves in Iran(Touran and Bahram-e-Goor), Israel(Negev Desert), and Saudi Arabia(Taif).","Head-body 200-250 cm, tail 30-49 cm, shoulder height 126— 130 cm; weight 200-260 kg. Asiatic Wild Asses are characterized by reddish-brown coats in the summer that become paler brown, sandy, or even gray in the winter, depending on subspecies. The flanks and belly are white and some subspecies have a dark brown stripe running along the back. The mane is black and erect and consists of short bristly hair. The tail is short, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The legs are short and thin when compared to other equid species. The hooves are broader and rounder than those of the African Wild Ass (E. africanus) and are the most horse-like of all the asses. Males are slightly larger than females. The subspecies differ in skull morphology. The Transcaspian and Mongolian forms have narrower supraoccipital crests than the Iranian and Indian forms. The Asiatic Wild Ass can reach speeds up to 70 km/h.",Asiatic Wild Asses live in xeric habitats where rainfall is limited. Many of the subspecies live in flat semi-deserts with extremely hot days and cool nights.,"When grass is abundant, Asiatic Wild Asses are primarily grazers. During the dry season, or in the driest habitats, they will switch to browse, even consuming woody parts of plants. They also eat seedpods and will use their hooves to break apart woody material to reach succulent forbs. In Mongolia, asses often eat snow in the winter as a substitute for drinking water and have been known to dig holes 60 cmdeep to reach water in the summer.","Gestation in Asiatic Wild Asses is eleven months and breeding is highly seasonal. Births peak during April and September, depending on subspecies and location. Within any one population births occur within a 2-3 month period. Females reach puberty at three years of age and give birth to only one foal at a time. Foals generally stay with their mothers for two years.","Asiatic Wild Asses are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler. Although they obtain most of their water from food, they are almost always seen within 30 kmof water. Lactating females in particular need to drink frequently; at least once per day.","The ranging and social behavior of Asiatic Wild Asses is highly variable. Many populations show seasonal movements. Male Asiatic Wild Asses in Israelreturn each spring to breeding areas several weeks before females, typically to claim territories held the previous year. The territories of dominant males are generally distributed around water points. Males unable to defend territories either form all-male bachelor groups or remain on the winter grazing grounds. Females coalesce into groups on the breeding grounds, but the groups are fluid. When populations contain many territorial males, some females move frequently among territories, suggesting that some of them move in search of mating opportunities as well as key resources. Others, especially those with young foals, remain on the territory of one male. Some subspecies, such as the “ Khur” of India, exhibit the same types of social associations as do the Israeli Asiatic Wild Asses, but members of both sexes remain in one area year-round. Others, such as the “Kulan” of the Gobi, exhibit more horse-like social behavior, in which females and their offspring live in closed membership groups and travel to and from water with one male. Males in the Gobi population actively herd females if they stray too far, a behavior not seen in the Khurof the Little Rann of Kutch. Kulan males in the Gobi also defend females and their young from predators, suggesting that some interspecific variation in social organization is related to predation threat.","CITES Appendix I (subspecies hemionusand khur) and the rest listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Syrian Onager, went extinct in 1927. The largest population of Asiatic Wild Asses in the world is currently in southern Mongolia, and makes up almost 80% of the global population. The “Mongolian Kulan” population was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 + 898 infour areas. There are estimates of 4800-6000 Kulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but they may be a population migrating seasonally from Mongolia. The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur, estimated in 2004 at 3900, in the Little Rann of Kutch. Thisis the only subpopulation of the Asiatic Wild Ass that has steadily increased in size from 1976 to the present day. In 2005 the Kulan populations consisted of about 1300 animals in Turkmenistan(850-900 in Badkhyz Reserve and 445 inseven reintroduction sites). In 1991 the reintroduced population in Uzbekistanin Dzheiran Ecocentre numbered 34. There is limited information on the status of the “Persian Onager” in Iran, but recent estimates give a figure of 600 inthe two protected areas (471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, 96 inBahramgor Reserve in 1996, and four reintroduced animals in Yazd Provincein 2000). There were also five reintroduced onagers in Taif (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and a further 100 reintroduced animals in Israelin the same year. The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Asses has fallen in the last 16 years by 52%, the current estimate of mature individuals being 8358. Today in Iran, the Persian Onageris threatened by poaching, overgrazing by livestock, and by competition with livestock at watering points. Shrub removal also degrades the habitat. Khurare threatened by competition with livestock as well as other economic activity such as salt mining and canal building. Kulan have experienced rapid declines in numbers because of increased demand for bushmeat. The threat from pastoralists who complain that Kulan are reducing forage for livestock is increasing. Trophy hunting does not appear to be a problem.","Asa (2002) | Feh, Munkhtuya et al. (2001) | Feh, Shah et al. (2002) | Goyal et al. (1999) | Moehlman, Shah & Feh (2008) | Reading et al. (2001) | Saltz & Rubenstein (1995) | Saltz et al. (2000)",,"2.Asiatic Wild AssEquus hemionusFrench:Hémione/ German:Asiatischer Halbesel/ Spanish:OnagroOther common names:Onager; Gobi Kulan (luteus), Khur(khun, Kulan (kulan), Mongolian Kulan (hemionus), Persian Onager(onager), Syrian Onager(hemippus)Taxonomy.Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775,North-eastern boundary of Mongoliawith Russia, Transbaikalia, S. Chitinsk, 50° N, 115° E.The “Syrian Onager” race hemippus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1855)from Syriaand the Arabian Peninsula is extinct. The “Gobi Kulan” luteus is probably a synonym of the nominate race hemionus. Four extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.h.hemionusPallas,1775—SMongoliaandextendingintoNChina.E.h.khurLesson,1827—LittleRannofKutch,Gujarat,India.E.h.kulanGroves&Mazak,1967—KazakhstanandTurkmenistan(Badkhyzregion).E. h. onager Boddaert, 1785— two reserves in Iran(Touran and Bahram-e-Goor), Israel(Negev Desert), and Saudi Arabia(Taif).Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-250 cm, tail 30-49 cm, shoulder height 126— 130 cm; weight 200-260 kg. Asiatic Wild Asses are characterized by reddish-brown coats in the summer that become paler brown, sandy, or even gray in the winter, depending on subspecies. The flanks and belly are white and some subspecies have a dark brown stripe running along the back. The mane is black and erect and consists of short bristly hair. The tail is short, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The legs are short and thin when compared to other equid species. The hooves are broader and rounder than those of the African Wild Ass (E. africanus) and are the most horse-like of all the asses. Males are slightly larger than females. The subspecies differ in skull morphology. The Transcaspian and Mongolian forms have narrower supraoccipital crests than the Iranian and Indian forms. The Asiatic Wild Ass can reach speeds up to 70 km/h.Habitat.Asiatic Wild Asses live in xeric habitats where rainfall is limited. Many of the subspecies live in flat semi-deserts with extremely hot days and cool nights.Food and Feeding.When grass is abundant, Asiatic Wild Asses are primarily grazers. During the dry season, or in the driest habitats, they will switch to browse, even consuming woody parts of plants. They also eat seedpods and will use their hooves to break apart woody material to reach succulent forbs. In Mongolia, asses often eat snow in the winter as a substitute for drinking water and have been known to dig holes 60 cmdeep to reach water in the summer.On following pages 3 Tibetan Wıld Ass (Equus kiang), 4 African Wild Ass (Equus africanus), 5 Plains Zebra (Equus quagga),6Zebra Grevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi) 7Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra) pages (Equus), 5 (Equus quagga), Gravy’: Equus grevyı, (Equus zebra)Breeding.Gestation in Asiatic Wild Asses is eleven months and breeding is highly seasonal. Births peak during April and September, depending on subspecies and location. Within any one population births occur within a 2-3 month period. Females reach puberty at three years of age and give birth to only one foal at a time. Foals generally stay with their mothers for two years.Activity patterns.Asiatic Wild Asses are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler. Although they obtain most of their water from food, they are almost always seen within 30 kmof water. Lactating females in particular need to drink frequently; at least once per day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The ranging and social behavior of Asiatic Wild Asses is highly variable. Many populations show seasonal movements. Male Asiatic Wild Asses in Israelreturn each spring to breeding areas several weeks before females, typically to claim territories held the previous year. The territories of dominant males are generally distributed around water points. Males unable to defend territories either form all-male bachelor groups or remain on the winter grazing grounds. Females coalesce into groups on the breeding grounds, but the groups are fluid. When populations contain many territorial males, some females move frequently among territories, suggesting that some of them move in search of mating opportunities as well as key resources. Others, especially those with young foals, remain on the territory of one male. Some subspecies, such as the “ Khur” of India, exhibit the same types of social associations as do the Israeli Asiatic Wild Asses, but members of both sexes remain in one area year-round. Others, such as the “Kulan” of the Gobi, exhibit more horse-like social behavior, in which females and their offspring live in closed membership groups and travel to and from water with one male. Males in the Gobi population actively herd females if they stray too far, a behavior not seen in the Khurof the Little Rann of Kutch. Kulan males in the Gobi also defend females and their young from predators, suggesting that some interspecific variation in social organization is related to predation threat.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (subspecies hemionusand khur) and the rest listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Syrian Onager, went extinct in 1927. The largest population of Asiatic Wild Asses in the world is currently in southern Mongolia, and makes up almost 80% of the global population. The “Mongolian Kulan” population was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 + 898 infour areas. There are estimates of 4800-6000 Kulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but they may be a population migrating seasonally from Mongolia. The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur, estimated in 2004 at 3900, in the Little Rann of Kutch. Thisis the only subpopulation of the Asiatic Wild Ass that has steadily increased in size from 1976 to the present day. In 2005 the Kulan populations consisted of about 1300 animals in Turkmenistan(850-900 in Badkhyz Reserve and 445 inseven reintroduction sites). In 1991 the reintroduced population in Uzbekistanin Dzheiran Ecocentre numbered 34. There is limited information on the status of the “Persian Onager” in Iran, but recent estimates give a figure of 600 inthe two protected areas (471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, 96 inBahramgor Reserve in 1996, and four reintroduced animals in Yazd Provincein 2000). There were also five reintroduced onagers in Taif (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and a further 100 reintroduced animals in Israelin the same year. The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Asses has fallen in the last 16 years by 52%, the current estimate of mature individuals being 8358. Today in Iran, the Persian Onageris threatened by poaching, overgrazing by livestock, and by competition with livestock at watering points. Shrub removal also degrades the habitat. Khurare threatened by competition with livestock as well as other economic activity such as salt mining and canal building. Kulan have experienced rapid declines in numbers because of increased demand for bushmeat. The threat from pastoralists who complain that Kulan are reducing forage for livestock is increasing. Trophy hunting does not appear to be a problem.Bibliography.Asa (2002), Feh, Munkhtuya et al. (2001), Feh, Shah et al. (2002), Goyal et al. (1999), Moehlman, Shah & Feh (2008), Reading et al. (2001), Saltz & Rubenstein (1995), Saltz et al. (2000)." -03B0E520E8125867FFAAAB80EEA6F941,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8125867FFAAAB80EEA6F941.xml,Equus przewalskii,Equus,przewalskii,Poliakov,1881,Cheval de Przewalski @fr | Przewalski-Pferd @de | Caballo de Przewalski @es | Asian Wild Horse @en | Dzungarian Horse @en | Mongolian Wild Horse @en | Takhi @en,"Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881,Gutschen, Chinese—Russian border.The taxonomy of Prezwalski’s Horse is problematic and unresolved. C. P. Groves proposed that all horses surviving into modern times belonged to one species, E. ferus, with three subspecies: E. f. ferus(the “Tarpan”), E. f. sylvestrisat the eastern edge of Eastern Europe, and E. f. przewalskiiof Western Asia. Although feral descendants of the domestic Horse (E. caballus) roam freely in many locations around the world, Przewalski’s Horse is the only truly wild horse, although all its populations derive from reintroductions from zoos around the world. Analyses of nucleotide sequences on X and Y chromosomes place the two species in the same clade. Despite the fact that Prezwalski’s Horses have 66 chromosomes and domestic Horses have 64, introgression from interbreeding has occurred in the wild and in captivity. When coupled with the fact that Przewalski’s Horses have gone through a genetic bottleneck via captive breeding in zoos, the likelihood remains that it and the domestic Horse species today remain within the same clade. Monotypic.","Limited to small populations that have been reintroduced to the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal and Khomin Tal Nature Reserves of Mongolia, and the Ka La Mai Li Shan Nature Reserve of China.","Head-body 220-280 cm,tail 99-111 cm (including hair), shoulder height 120-146 cm; weight 200-300 kg. Przewalski’s Horses are stockier than domestic Horses and have long tails, thick black erect manes that only fall to the side when very long, chestnuts on both hind and forelimbs, and large rounded hooves. Their coats are a uniform dusty or dun color on the body and flanks; the belly and face are yellowish-white, and there are traces of yellowish-white stripes just above the hooves. Przewalski’s Horses have a relatively small skull, with a long diastema, and a long, rounded occipital crest.","The historic range of Przewalski’s Horse is not known. The last wild horse was seen in the very arid Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia, and there has been much debate about whether it was in its preferred habitat or justits last refuge. One view holds that of the three wild horse species that once inhabited the grasslands of Europe, Central Asia, and China, Przewalski’s Horse was the one that thrived at the easternmost edge of the range, where it encountered limited water and arid conditions as part of its natural habitat. Another view holds that these horses favored the more mesic grassland steppes of Mongolia, but as a result of more than a thousand years of competitive exclusion by nomadic pastoralists, they were forced into the deserts, where they fared poorly and died out. Domestic Horses do not fare well in dry climes, but ecological studies on feral horses show that some populations can survive in arid environments where food is scare and the best patches are often far from water. However, other studies show that populations survive and reproduce better in more mesic areas where vegetation is more abundant, more evenly distributed, and water is close to feeding areas. Grass and water are more plentiful in the mesic grasslands of Mongolia, but the winters there are harsher than in the Dzungarian Gobi. Today, populations of Przewalski’s Horses have been reintroduced into the mesic grasslands of central Mongoliaas well as arid areas on the edge of the Gobi Desert and the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, which lies adjacent to the painted desert of China. Populations continue to survive in both xeric and mesic areas, although the population in Chinarequires more active management than the ones in Mongolia.","Like feral horses, Przewalski’s Horses are grazers. They inhabit steppe vegetation, especially the grasslands and shrublands of Central Asia. In summer they consume high-quality forage near water. In the winter, however, they must subsist on more fibrous food that can be difficult to locate because of snow cover. Fortunately, strong winds often blow the snow away, making succulent vegetation available.","Females come into estrus for the first time at two years of age, but usually do not breed until three. Males reach sexual maturity at three years old, but do not mate until 5-6 years of age, when they are able to dominate enough males so they can maintain long-term associations with mature females. As in domestic horses, females commence cycling in spring and continue cycling throughout the summer. Since gestation is 11-12 months (330-350 days), periods of breeding and birthing coincide.","Przewalski’s Horses are active day and night, but generally sleep for four hours per day, mostly at night. In Mongolia, during the summer they are most active and move to streams and brooks to forage and drink. During the hottest times of the day they move up to ridge tops where cool breezes reduce attacks by biting flies. Przewalski’s Horses of the Khustain Nuruu National Park in Mongolia coexist with Gray Wolves (Canis lupus). Foals are at the highest risk, and when wolves are detected, females, both mothers and non-mothers, form a defensive circle around the foals. As long as three or more females are present, foal chances of survival are high.","Przewalski’s Horses exhibit many of the same behaviors as feral horses. Females live in family groups that associate with a single breeding male. These harems move within large home ranges that overlap those of other family groups. Males unable to form long-term associations with females live in all-male bachelor groups whose membership is more fluid than that of family groups. Competition among males over mating access to females is common, yet ritualized signaling before escalating to physical violenceis the norm. Males typically mark the urine of females with their own urine and they repeatedly defecate in communal dung piles along well-traveled routes as a way of indicating and assessing how recently other males were present. Both sexes disperse from their natal groups upon reaching sexual maturity. As populations expanded at release sites, home ranges changed from virtually non-overlapping areas of 200-1100 ha to overlapping ranges averaging 1000 ha in size. Ranges tend to be larger in summer.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It was classified as Extinct in the Wild until 2008, but since then a series of reintroductions have created free ranging populations in both mesic and arid environments in Mongoliaand China. It likely once roamed the steppes of Chinaand Central Asia; there are written accounts from Tibetfrom around 900 Ap. Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in Mongolia, but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shara-Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi. Since the late 1970s, matings of captive animals have been managed world-wide, with the goal of maintaining over 95% of the existing genetic diversity for the next 200 years. Preventing the rapid loss of genetic diversity has helped enhance the genetic potential of free ranging populations. In 2008 there were approximately 325 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia. All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program. In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) in Xinjianghas established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses. Since 2007 one harem group 1s roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi; another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter.","Ballou (1994) | Berger (1986) | Bokonyi (1974) | Boyd & Houpt (1994) | Boyd et al. (2008) | Dierendonck et al. (1996) | Groves (1994) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b) | Ryder & Chemnick (1990) | Zimmerman & Ryder (1995)",,"1.Przewalski’s HorseEquus przewalskiiFrench:Cheval de Przewalski/ German:Przewalski-Pferd/ Spanish:Caballo de PrzewalskiOther common names:Asian Wild Horse, Dzungarian Horse, Mongolian Wild Horse, TakhiTaxonomy.Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881,Gutschen, Chinese—Russian border.The taxonomy of Prezwalski’s Horse is problematic and unresolved. C. P. Groves proposed that all horses surviving into modern times belonged to one species, E. ferus, with three subspecies: E. f. ferus(the “Tarpan”), E. f. sylvestrisat the eastern edge of Eastern Europe, and E. f. przewalskiiof Western Asia. Although feral descendants of the domestic Horse (E. caballus) roam freely in many locations around the world, Przewalski’s Horse is the only truly wild horse, although all its populations derive from reintroductions from zoos around the world. Analyses of nucleotide sequences on X and Y chromosomes place the two species in the same clade. Despite the fact that Prezwalski’s Horses have 66 chromosomes and domestic Horses have 64, introgression from interbreeding has occurred in the wild and in captivity. When coupled with the fact that Przewalski’s Horses have gone through a genetic bottleneck via captive breeding in zoos, the likelihood remains that it and the domestic Horse species today remain within the same clade. Monotypic.Distribution.Limited to small populations that have been reintroduced to the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal and Khomin Tal Nature Reserves of Mongolia, and the Ka La Mai Li Shan Nature Reserve of China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-280 cm,tail 99-111 cm (including hair), shoulder height 120-146 cm; weight 200-300 kg. Przewalski’s Horses are stockier than domestic Horses and have long tails, thick black erect manes that only fall to the side when very long, chestnuts on both hind and forelimbs, and large rounded hooves. Their coats are a uniform dusty or dun color on the body and flanks; the belly and face are yellowish-white, and there are traces of yellowish-white stripes just above the hooves. Przewalski’s Horses have a relatively small skull, with a long diastema, and a long, rounded occipital crest.Habitat.The historic range of Przewalski’s Horse is not known. The last wild horse was seen in the very arid Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia, and there has been much debate about whether it was in its preferred habitat or justits last refuge. One view holds that of the three wild horse species that once inhabited the grasslands of Europe, Central Asia, and China, Przewalski’s Horse was the one that thrived at the easternmost edge of the range, where it encountered limited water and arid conditions as part of its natural habitat. Another view holds that these horses favored the more mesic grassland steppes of Mongolia, but as a result of more than a thousand years of competitive exclusion by nomadic pastoralists, they were forced into the deserts, where they fared poorly and died out. Domestic Horses do not fare well in dry climes, but ecological studies on feral horses show that some populations can survive in arid environments where food is scare and the best patches are often far from water. However, other studies show that populations survive and reproduce better in more mesic areas where vegetation is more abundant, more evenly distributed, and water is close to feeding areas. Grass and water are more plentiful in the mesic grasslands of Mongolia, but the winters there are harsher than in the Dzungarian Gobi. Today, populations of Przewalski’s Horses have been reintroduced into the mesic grasslands of central Mongoliaas well as arid areas on the edge of the Gobi Desert and the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, which lies adjacent to the painted desert of China. Populations continue to survive in both xeric and mesic areas, although the population in Chinarequires more active management than the ones in Mongolia.Food and Feeding.Like feral horses, Przewalski’s Horses are grazers. They inhabit steppe vegetation, especially the grasslands and shrublands of Central Asia. In summer they consume high-quality forage near water. In the winter, however, they must subsist on more fibrous food that can be difficult to locate because of snow cover. Fortunately, strong winds often blow the snow away, making succulent vegetation available.Breeding.Females come into estrus for the first time at two years of age, but usually do not breed until three. Males reach sexual maturity at three years old, but do not mate until 5-6 years of age, when they are able to dominate enough males so they can maintain long-term associations with mature females. As in domestic horses, females commence cycling in spring and continue cycling throughout the summer. Since gestation is 11-12 months (330-350 days), periods of breeding and birthing coincide.Activity patterns.Przewalski’s Horses are active day and night, but generally sleep for four hours per day, mostly at night. In Mongolia, during the summer they are most active and move to streams and brooks to forage and drink. During the hottest times of the day they move up to ridge tops where cool breezes reduce attacks by biting flies. Przewalski’s Horses of the Khustain Nuruu National Park in Mongolia coexist with Gray Wolves (Canis lupus). Foals are at the highest risk, and when wolves are detected, females, both mothers and non-mothers, form a defensive circle around the foals. As long as three or more females are present, foal chances of survival are high.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Przewalski’s Horses exhibit many of the same behaviors as feral horses. Females live in family groups that associate with a single breeding male. These harems move within large home ranges that overlap those of other family groups. Males unable to form long-term associations with females live in all-male bachelor groups whose membership is more fluid than that of family groups. Competition among males over mating access to females is common, yet ritualized signaling before escalating to physical violenceis the norm. Males typically mark the urine of females with their own urine and they repeatedly defecate in communal dung piles along well-traveled routes as a way of indicating and assessing how recently other males were present. Both sexes disperse from their natal groups upon reaching sexual maturity. As populations expanded at release sites, home ranges changed from virtually non-overlapping areas of 200-1100 ha to overlapping ranges averaging 1000 ha in size. Ranges tend to be larger in summer.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It was classified as Extinct in the Wild until 2008, but since then a series of reintroductions have created free ranging populations in both mesic and arid environments in Mongoliaand China. It likely once roamed the steppes of Chinaand Central Asia; there are written accounts from Tibetfrom around 900 Ap. Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in Mongolia, but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shara-Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi. Since the late 1970s, matings of captive animals have been managed world-wide, with the goal of maintaining over 95% of the existing genetic diversity for the next 200 years. Preventing the rapid loss of genetic diversity has helped enhance the genetic potential of free ranging populations. In 2008 there were approximately 325 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia. All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program. In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) in Xinjianghas established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses. Since 2007 one harem group 1s roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi; another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter.Bibliography.Ballou (1994), Berger (1986), Bokonyi (1974), Boyd & Houpt (1994), Boyd et al. (2008), Dierendonck et al. (1996), Groves (1994), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b), Ryder & Chemnick (1990), Zimmerman & Ryder (1995)." -03B0E520E8135861FA63A123EFB2F480,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8135861FA63A123EFB2F480.xml,Equus africanus,Equus,africanus,Heuglin & Fitzinger,1866,Ane sauvage @fr | Afrikanischer Wildesel @de | Asnosalvaje @es | Asno @es | Atlas Wild Ass (atlanticus) @en | Nubian Wild Ass (africanus) @en | Somali Wild Ass (somalicus) @en,"Asinusafricanus Heuglin & Fitzinger, 1866,Nubia. Restricted to Ain Saba, Eritrea, by Schlawe in 1980.The “Atlas Wild Ass” race atlanticus (Thomas, 1884)from North Africa is extinct. Two extant subspecies recognized.","E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct.E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea(Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia(Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somaliafrom the Meti and Erigavo in the N to NugaalValley and Shebelle River in the S.","Head-body 195-205 cm, tail 40-45 cm, shoulder height 115-125 cm; weight 270-280 kg. The African Wild Ass is the ancestor of the domestic Donkey (E. asinus). It is strong, lean, and muscular, with a fawn or gray coat dorsally and a white belly and legs. It has long ears, a stiff erect mane,a tail ending with a tuft of black hair, and extremely narrow hooves that appear designed for surefootedness rather than speed. The “Nubian Wild Ass” is gray with a shoulder stripe; the “ SomaliWild Ass”is gray and has both leg and shoulder stripes.",The African Wild Ass inhabits hilly and stony deserts as well as semi-desert grasslands and euphorbia and aloe shrublands that receive 100-200 mm of rainfall annually. Sandy habitats are avoided. Recorded up to 1500 mof elevation in Ethiopia.,"The African Wild Ass mostly grazes, eating grasses, especially Eragrostis, Dactyloctenium, and Chrysopogon when available, and tougher Panicum and Lasiurus species, as well as herbs and general browse. The asses use their incisors and hooves to break apart the tougher foods. Although they can sustain water losses of up to 30% of their body weight, they can replenish these losses within two to five minutes. Nevertheless, they need to drink water at least once every three days and most individuals are observed within 30 kmof a water source.","Although the age of first estrus has not been documented in African Wild Asses, in feral asses, first estrus occurs at about twelve months of age. Most females, however, give birth at 2-2-5 years of age and give birth to one foal every other year thereafter. Females cycle every 20-21 days until they conceive and gestation ranges from 330 to 365 days. Foals are independent soon after birth, often remaining alone for long periods as mothers seek water to maintain lactation. Foals begin grazing within weeks of birth but typically suckle for six months. Males tolerate other males within their territories even when females are present; dominance ensures that mating access is controlled mostly by territory holders. Breeding occurs during the wet season, with most births between October and February. The life span of wild asses is thought to be around 25-30 years.","The species is most active in the early morning, late afternoon, or at night, when the desert is cooler. During the hottest part of the day it seeks shade in nearby rocky hills whereit rests. Its body temperature can range from 35°C to 41-5°C, depending on ambient temperature. Females maintain higher body temperatures than males by sweating less, thus retaining water longer.","African Wild Asses live in small groups that are typically composed of fewer than five individuals. Associations are usually temporary, with the only permanent one consisting of a mother and her young. Gatherings occur at watering places or when searching for scarce forage. Low food availability and poor-quality forage prevent females from feeding in close proximity and associating consistently. Temporary groups vary in composition, sometimes containing only members of a single sex, sometimes members of both sexes. Breeding males defend large territories with essential resources, especially water, that females need. Males associate with females who enter their territories, and the better the territory, the longer females will stay, thus increasing a territorial male’s reproductive success. When conditions on a territory are not yet attractive to females, territorial males are found alone or occasionally in bachelor male groups. Territories are often 20 km? in size, with boundaries marked by conspicuous dung piles. Females range more widely, readily moving among male territories.","CITES I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly, the African Wild Ass was distributed across large stretches of northern Africa, but now only occupies a small part ofits historic range. The Atlas Wild Ass occupied the north-west region of Algeriaand adjacent parts of Moroccoand Tunisia, becoming extinct around 300 ap. Threats to its survival come from hunting for food and body parts used in traditional healing, competition with livestock for food and water, and possible interbreeding and introgression from the domestic donkey. Fewer than 600 individuals of the Somali Wild Ass are thoughtto survive in the wild. Only Eritrea, where up to 400 individuals may survive,is thought to have a stable population. Fewer than 160 are believed to survive in Ethiopia, and fewer than ten in Somalia. The Nubian Wild Ass was present in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the Red Sea, south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. However no sightings have been confirmed since the 1970s, and their survival in these regions is now in doubt.","Antonious (1938) | Groves & Willoughby (1981) | Kingdon (1997) | Maloiy (1970) | McCort (1980) | Moehlman (1998, 2002) | Moehiman, Yohannes et al. (2008) | Wilson & Reeder (1993) | Woodward (1979)",,"4.African Wild AssEquus africanusFrench:Ane sauvage/ German:Afrikanischer Wildesel/ Spanish:AsnosalvajeOther common names:Atlas Wild Ass (atlanticus), Nubian Wild Ass (africanus), SomaliWild Ass (somalicus)Taxonomy.Asinusafricanus Heuglin & Fitzinger, 1866,Nubia. Restricted to Ain Saba, Eritrea, by Schlawe in 1980.The “Atlas Wild Ass” race atlanticus (Thomas, 1884)from North Africa is extinct. Two extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct.E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea(Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia(Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somaliafrom the Meti and Erigavo in the N to NugaalValley and Shebelle River in the S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-205 cm, tail 40-45 cm, shoulder height 115-125 cm; weight 270-280 kg. The African Wild Ass is the ancestor of the domestic Donkey (E. asinus). It is strong, lean, and muscular, with a fawn or gray coat dorsally and a white belly and legs. It has long ears, a stiff erect mane,a tail ending with a tuft of black hair, and extremely narrow hooves that appear designed for surefootedness rather than speed. The “Nubian Wild Ass” is gray with a shoulder stripe; the “ SomaliWild Ass”is gray and has both leg and shoulder stripes.Habitat.The African Wild Ass inhabits hilly and stony deserts as well as semi-desert grasslands and euphorbia and aloe shrublands that receive 100-200 mm of rainfall annually. Sandy habitats are avoided. Recorded up to 1500 mof elevation in Ethiopia.Food and Feeding.The African Wild Ass mostly grazes, eating grasses, especially Eragrostis, Dactyloctenium, and Chrysopogon when available, and tougher Panicum and Lasiurus species, as well as herbs and general browse. The asses use their incisors and hooves to break apart the tougher foods. Although they can sustain water losses of up to 30% of their body weight, they can replenish these losses within two to five minutes. Nevertheless, they need to drink water at least once every three days and most individuals are observed within 30 kmof a water source.Breeding.Although the age of first estrus has not been documented in African Wild Asses, in feral asses, first estrus occurs at about twelve months of age. Most females, however, give birth at 2-2-5 years of age and give birth to one foal every other year thereafter. Females cycle every 20-21 days until they conceive and gestation ranges from 330 to 365 days. Foals are independent soon after birth, often remaining alone for long periods as mothers seek water to maintain lactation. Foals begin grazing within weeks of birth but typically suckle for six months. Males tolerate other males within their territories even when females are present; dominance ensures that mating access is controlled mostly by territory holders. Breeding occurs during the wet season, with most births between October and February. The life span of wild asses is thought to be around 25-30 years.Activity patterns.The species is most active in the early morning, late afternoon, or at night, when the desert is cooler. During the hottest part of the day it seeks shade in nearby rocky hills whereit rests. Its body temperature can range from 35°C to 41-5°C, depending on ambient temperature. Females maintain higher body temperatures than males by sweating less, thus retaining water longer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Wild Asses live in small groups that are typically composed of fewer than five individuals. Associations are usually temporary, with the only permanent one consisting of a mother and her young. Gatherings occur at watering places or when searching for scarce forage. Low food availability and poor-quality forage prevent females from feeding in close proximity and associating consistently. Temporary groups vary in composition, sometimes containing only members of a single sex, sometimes members of both sexes. Breeding males defend large territories with essential resources, especially water, that females need. Males associate with females who enter their territories, and the better the territory, the longer females will stay, thus increasing a territorial male’s reproductive success. When conditions on a territory are not yet attractive to females, territorial males are found alone or occasionally in bachelor male groups. Territories are often 20 km? in size, with boundaries marked by conspicuous dung piles. Females range more widely, readily moving among male territories.Status and Conservation.CITES I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly, the African Wild Ass was distributed across large stretches of northern Africa, but now only occupies a small part ofits historic range. The Atlas Wild Ass occupied the north-west region of Algeriaand adjacent parts of Moroccoand Tunisia, becoming extinct around 300 ap. Threats to its survival come from hunting for food and body parts used in traditional healing, competition with livestock for food and water, and possible interbreeding and introgression from the domestic donkey. Fewer than 600 individuals of the Somali Wild Ass are thoughtto survive in the wild. Only Eritrea, where up to 400 individuals may survive,is thought to have a stable population. Fewer than 160 are believed to survive in Ethiopia, and fewer than ten in Somalia. The Nubian Wild Ass was present in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the Red Sea, south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. However no sightings have been confirmed since the 1970s, and their survival in these regions is now in doubt.Bibliography.Antonious (1938), Groves & Willoughby (1981), Kingdon (1997), Maloiy (1970), McCort (1980), Moehlman (1998, 2002), Moehiman, Yohannes et al. (2008), Wilson & Reeder (1993), Woodward (1979)." -03B0E520E8135866FF1AA3CDEC6BF56D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8135866FF1AA3CDEC6BF56D.xml,Equus kiang,Equus,kiang,Moorcroft,1841,Kiang @fr | Kiang @de | Kiang @es | Kiang; Eastern Kiang(holdereri) @en | Southern Kiang(polyodon) @en | Western Kiang(kiang) @en,"Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841,Ladakh, state ofJammu and Kashmir, India.Three subspecies recognized.","E.k.kiangMoorcroft,1841—WChina(SWXinjiang,C&WXizang),NEPakistan(KhunjerabNationalPark),NIndia(Ladakh),andNNepal(Mustang).E.k.holderersMatschie,1911—WCChina(SEXinjiang,Quinghai,Gansu&EXizang).E. k. polyodon Hodgson, 1847— SW China(S Xizang) and N India(N Sikkim); also possibly in extreme N & NW Bhutan.","Head-body 182-214 cm, tail 32-45 cm, shoulder height 132-142 cm; weight 250-400 kg. Tibetan Wild Asses have large heads, thick muzzles, relatively long manes, and tails with long hairs not restricted to the tip. Their hooves are broad and rounded like the hooves of horses. Tibetan Wild Asses have dark chestnut-brown coats covering the upper flanks and thighs and white bellies, lower flanks, legs, and rump patches. The coat is paler in the winter and redder in the summer. The mane and the edges and tips of the ears are black. A dark brown dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the tail and each hoofis circled by a thin black ring. Chestnuts are found only on the forelegs. Males are slightly larger than females.","The Tibetan Wild Ass is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia at elevations from 2700 mto 5300 m. It rangesas far south as the Himalayas and north to the Kunlun-Arjin Shan Mountains. Tibetan Wild Asses inhabit three major vegetation zones: alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Alpine meadows are generally found at elevations below 4500 min areas where precipitation exceeds 400 mmper year. Vegetation in these meadows starts growing earlier than in the other areas and short sedges, such as Kobresia, and forbs cover about 25-30% of the surface. Alpine steppe is the most abundant habitat on the Tibetan Plateau, occurring at elevations between 4000 mand 5000 m. Precipitation is low and vegetation is sparse, covering less than 15% of the ground, with Stipa, Festuca, and Poa being the most common grasses. Desert steppe occurs at elevations greater than 5000 m. Although the vegetation of the desert steppe is similar to that of the alpine steppe, only 5% of the ground is covered in vegetation. Not surprisingly, the Tibetan Wild Ass occupies mostly alpine meadows and steppe. Almost 80% of Tibetan Wild Ass sightings are in the basins in these habitats. Most of the other sightings are on the hills. Open plains seem to be used as refuges from predators.","Tibetan Wild Asses are grazers, mostly concentrating on Stipa, which comprises up to 656% ofits diet in summer and up to 95% in winter. Small amounts of forbs and shrubs are also consumed, and in winter, digging for roots is also common. Waterholes are scarce in the summer and often frozen in the winter, when snow is eaten instead. When the vegetation is of high quality, Tibetan Wild Asses acquire most of their water from vegetation.","The mating season is late and short compared to other seasonally breeding equids, running from late July to the end of August. Gestation length appears to vary from eleven to twelve months. Females typically give birth to one foal every other year. Little is known about the age of sexual maturity in the wild, but it is likely that it is similar to the desert-living “Kulan” (E. hemionuskulan), which begins breeding between three and four years of age. The age of maturity in males is even less certain. In captivity one male showed no signs of sexual activity by 3-5 years of age. In the wild, males occasionally injure newborn foals while attempting to mate with their mothers.","Tibetan Wild Asses move seasonally among habitats. They disperse in small groups into the hills during the summer in search of high-quality food. As harsh winter conditions set in, they return to basins and flatlands at lower elevations, often forming large concentrations. In the summer, they move daily from lower areas where they spend the night to higher elevations as daytime temperatures rise.","Tibetan Wild Asses are typically found alone or in small groups. Aggregations of several hundred individuals occur, but these seem to be seasonally driven. During the summer, individuals disperse and scatter, but during winter groups coalesce. Tibetan Wild Ass groups are not cohesive. The only strong bond is between mothers and their foals. Adults come together for short periods and then disperse. Tibetan Wild Asses show the same fission-fusion social system as Asiatic Wild Asses (E. hemionus), African Wild Asses (E. africanus), and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). In this system lone males establish territories containing critical resources that females need. In the Ladakh region, territories are 0-5-5 km? in size. Young males unable to defend territories join all-male bachelor groups. Old males wander alone. Territorial males aggressively defend their territories. Ritualized displays involving a head-up, ears laid back, horizontaltail display are often accompanied by a wheezing bray. Long chases and contests involving rearing, kicking, and biting on the mane, neck, and tail occur when ritualized signals fail to determine dominance.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current global population of the Tibetan Wild Ass is estimated at 60,000-70,000 individuals, 90% of them in China. This Chinese population of approximately 56,000-68,500 individuals is divided between Qinghaiand Gansu(15,000), Xinjiang(4500-5500), and Xizang(37,000-48,000). The population outside Chinais estimated at 1600-2145. Within this wide range, Tibetan Wild Ass distribution is fragmented, and currently most populations are found in protected areas or areas which are under armyjurisdiction.","Feng Zuojian (1991a, 1991b) | Fox et al. (1991) | Goldstein & Beall (1989) | Groves & Mazak (1967) | Harris & Miller (1995) | Schaller (1998) | Schaller & Gu (1994) | Shah (2002) | Shah et al. (2008) | St. Louis & Coté(2009) | Zhang Chieh (1984)",,"3.Tibetan Wild AssEquus kiangFrench:Kiang/ German:Kiang/ Spanish:KiangOther common names:Kiang; Eastern Kiang(holdereri), Southern Kiang(polyodon), Western Kiang(kiang)Taxonomy.Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841,Ladakh, state ofJammu and Kashmir, India.Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.k.kiangMoorcroft,1841—WChina(SWXinjiang,C&WXizang),NEPakistan(KhunjerabNationalPark),NIndia(Ladakh),andNNepal(Mustang).E.k.holderersMatschie,1911—WCChina(SEXinjiang,Quinghai,Gansu&EXizang).E. k. polyodon Hodgson, 1847— SW China(S Xizang) and N India(N Sikkim); also possibly in extreme N & NW Bhutan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 182-214 cm, tail 32-45 cm, shoulder height 132-142 cm; weight 250-400 kg. Tibetan Wild Asses have large heads, thick muzzles, relatively long manes, and tails with long hairs not restricted to the tip. Their hooves are broad and rounded like the hooves of horses. Tibetan Wild Asses have dark chestnut-brown coats covering the upper flanks and thighs and white bellies, lower flanks, legs, and rump patches. The coat is paler in the winter and redder in the summer. The mane and the edges and tips of the ears are black. A dark brown dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the tail and each hoofis circled by a thin black ring. Chestnuts are found only on the forelegs. Males are slightly larger than females.Habitat.The Tibetan Wild Ass is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia at elevations from 2700 mto 5300 m. It rangesas far south as the Himalayas and north to the Kunlun-Arjin Shan Mountains. Tibetan Wild Asses inhabit three major vegetation zones: alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Alpine meadows are generally found at elevations below 4500 min areas where precipitation exceeds 400 mmper year. Vegetation in these meadows starts growing earlier than in the other areas and short sedges, such as Kobresia, and forbs cover about 25-30% of the surface. Alpine steppe is the most abundant habitat on the Tibetan Plateau, occurring at elevations between 4000 mand 5000 m. Precipitation is low and vegetation is sparse, covering less than 15% of the ground, with Stipa, Festuca, and Poa being the most common grasses. Desert steppe occurs at elevations greater than 5000 m. Although the vegetation of the desert steppe is similar to that of the alpine steppe, only 5% of the ground is covered in vegetation. Not surprisingly, the Tibetan Wild Ass occupies mostly alpine meadows and steppe. Almost 80% of Tibetan Wild Ass sightings are in the basins in these habitats. Most of the other sightings are on the hills. Open plains seem to be used as refuges from predators.Food and Feeding.Tibetan Wild Asses are grazers, mostly concentrating on Stipa, which comprises up to 656% ofits diet in summer and up to 95% in winter. Small amounts of forbs and shrubs are also consumed, and in winter, digging for roots is also common. Waterholes are scarce in the summer and often frozen in the winter, when snow is eaten instead. When the vegetation is of high quality, Tibetan Wild Asses acquire most of their water from vegetation.Breeding.The mating season is late and short compared to other seasonally breeding equids, running from late July to the end of August. Gestation length appears to vary from eleven to twelve months. Females typically give birth to one foal every other year. Little is known about the age of sexual maturity in the wild, but it is likely that it is similar to the desert-living “Kulan” (E. hemionuskulan), which begins breeding between three and four years of age. The age of maturity in males is even less certain. In captivity one male showed no signs of sexual activity by 3-5 years of age. In the wild, males occasionally injure newborn foals while attempting to mate with their mothers.Activity patterns.Tibetan Wild Asses move seasonally among habitats. They disperse in small groups into the hills during the summer in search of high-quality food. As harsh winter conditions set in, they return to basins and flatlands at lower elevations, often forming large concentrations. In the summer, they move daily from lower areas where they spend the night to higher elevations as daytime temperatures rise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tibetan Wild Asses are typically found alone or in small groups. Aggregations of several hundred individuals occur, but these seem to be seasonally driven. During the summer, individuals disperse and scatter, but during winter groups coalesce. Tibetan Wild Ass groups are not cohesive. The only strong bond is between mothers and their foals. Adults come together for short periods and then disperse. Tibetan Wild Asses show the same fission-fusion social system as Asiatic Wild Asses (E. hemionus), African Wild Asses (E. africanus), and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). In this system lone males establish territories containing critical resources that females need. In the Ladakh region, territories are 0-5-5 km? in size. Young males unable to defend territories join all-male bachelor groups. Old males wander alone. Territorial males aggressively defend their territories. Ritualized displays involving a head-up, ears laid back, horizontaltail display are often accompanied by a wheezing bray. Long chases and contests involving rearing, kicking, and biting on the mane, neck, and tail occur when ritualized signals fail to determine dominance.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current global population of the Tibetan Wild Ass is estimated at 60,000-70,000 individuals, 90% of them in China. This Chinese population of approximately 56,000-68,500 individuals is divided between Qinghaiand Gansu(15,000), Xinjiang(4500-5500), and Xizang(37,000-48,000). The population outside Chinais estimated at 1600-2145. Within this wide range, Tibetan Wild Ass distribution is fragmented, and currently most populations are found in protected areas or areas which are under armyjurisdiction.Bibliography.Feng Zuojian (1991a, 1991b), Fox et al. (1991), Goldstein & Beall (1989), Groves & Mazak (1967), Harris & Miller (1995), Schaller (1998), Schaller & Gu (1994), Shah (2002), Shah et al. (2008), St. Louis & Coté(2009), Zhang Chieh (1984)." -03B0E520E8145860FFB0A181E90EF9C9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,141,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8145860FFB0A181E90EF9C9.xml,Equus quagga,Equus,quagga,Boddaert,1785,Zebre de Burchell @fr | Steppenzebra @de | Cebra de Burchell @es | Common Zebra @en | Painted Quagga; Burchell's Zebra(burchell) @en | Chapman's Zebra(chapmanni) @en | Crawshay's Zebra(crawshaii) @en | Damara Zebra(antiquorum) @en | Grant's Zebra(boehmi) @en | Quagga(quagga) @en | Zambezi Zebra(selousi) @en,"Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785,South Africa, south of Vaal River.Revisions have been made to the taxonomy of the Plains Zebra, whose extant species complex was until recently named E.burchelli, with the extinct form designated as a distinct species, the “ Quagga” (FE. quagga), which occupied the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal rivers and west of the Drakensberg mountain range. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the ranges of Quaggas and “Burchell’s Zebra” (E. q. burchelli) overlapped in a narrow zone north of the Orange River, unlike the other Plains Zebrasubspecies whose ranges do not overlap, but they apparently did not interbreed. However, recent molecular analyses using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA demonstrate that the variation among living and extinct forms is no greater than among modern breeds of domestic Horses (FE. caballus). Thus the Plains Zebraand the extinct Quaggaare now considered a single species, E. quagga. The Plains Zebrashows a genetic and morphological cline from northern Kenyato southern Africa; generally, the farther south, the less the degree of stripe coverage, while body size increases. With the nominate subspecies’ demise, only six extant subspecies are recognized, located around three widely separated regional centres.","E.q.antiguorumC.H.Smith,1841—Angola,Namibia,andWBotswana.E.q.boehmiMatschie,1892—ZambiaWofLuangwaRiver,DRCongo,NTanzania,Uganda,Kenya,Ethiopia,andSomalia.E.q.burchelliGray,1824—CSouthAfrica.E.q.chapmanniLayard,1865—NSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandEBotswana.E.q.crawshaiDeWinton,1896—ZambiaEofLuangwaRiver,Malawi,SETanzania,andMozambique.E. q. selousi Pocock, 1897— E Zimbabweand W Mozambique.","Head-body 217-246 cm, tail 47-57 cm, shoulder height 127-140 cm; weight 175-320 kg. The Plains Zebrais a muscular horse with a short neck, barrel chest, and sturdy legs. The stripes are variable, but in general they are wide, broader than those of Mountain Zebras (LE. zebra) and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). Apart from Burchell’s and “Damara” Zebras,stripes cover the flanks and touch under the belly. Stripes on the rump are typically bold and wide in all subspecies except the Damara Zebra, where they are thin and often wavy. In Burchell’s and Damara Zebras, both southern African subspecies, there are often grayish shadow stripes in the center of the white stripes. In all subspecies, males are slightly larger than females and have stripes that are blacker than the browner ones of females.","Plains Zebras inhabit tropical, subtropical, and temperate grasslands, steppes, savannas, and woodlands, from sea level to 4300 mon Mount Kenya. Since Plains Zebras need to drink daily, they are restricted to habitats where water can be accessed within half a day’s walk. Only deserts, dense woodlands, and permanent wetlands are avoided.","Plains Zebraare true grazers. As hindgut fermenters, they require large quantities of food, so it is not surprising that they spend up to 20 hours per day foraging. Yet they are selective foragers, disproportionately consuming Perisetum and Themeda grasses when available. They can only forage in mesic areas where feeding sites and watering points are close together.","Plains Zebras give birth to one young after a gestation period of twelve months. Females generally stay near their groups when giving birth. When the foal is strong enough to move about, the mother and foal rejoin the group. Foals nurse for about six months, but begin feeding on grass by about one month of age. Females become sexually mature between two and three years of age, but often cycle without conceiving for the first year. Males generally only begin maintaining harems at five years of age.","Plains Zebras are active day and night and organize their daily activities around drinking. Most individuals need to drink once per day, but in very dry conditions, some drink more often. During the dry season the need for water constrains Plains Zebragroups from wandering more than 5-10 km from reliable water. After the rains, they spread out and range widely, seeking superior grazing areas located near transient water sources.","Because Plains Zebras are restricted to habitats where food and water are in close proximity, females of different reproductive classes can stay together. As a result, females, regardless of reproductive state, form groups and associate with a single male, who keeps away marauding males. By reducing sexual harassment, stallions provide females with a valuable material reward— increased foraging time. As in feral horses, females that associate with high-ranking males, or males rising rapidly in rank, can feed for up to six minutes longer per hour than females associating with less able males. Since Plains Zebras feed for up to 20 hours per day, females associating with the best males typically gain an additional two hours of foraging per day, thus increasing their fitness. Plains Zebraassociations are often large, consisting of hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals. Since these herds include both harem and bachelor male groups, Plains Zebras live in the most complex societies of all equids. Herd size varies. It depends directly on the abundance of vegetation, but also on the strength of a social factor—the degree of cuckolding pressure exerted by bachelor males. When vegetation is abundant, groups tend to be large. But the largest herds form when bachelor groups are large. By banding together, breeding stallions amortize costs and collectively dominate large bachelor associations. For females, harassment reduction helps maximize foraging. Apparently females find life in herds no different from life in isolated and unchallenged harems, thus permitting herds to form. Many Plains Zebrapopulations are seasonally migratory, traveling hundreds of kilometers as they track vegetation flushes induced by predictable seasonal shifts in rainfall. Others stay put when the migrants leave, suggesting that these strategies are alternative solutions, shaped by trade-offs between vegetation quality and quantity. At any one locale, migratory or resident populations also exhibit local movements among landscape zones. During the rains, Plains Zebras graze on hilltops where vegetation productivity is high and good visibility increases safety from predators. When the rains cease and grasses stop growing, the zebras seek habitats where food is more abundant, because of dietary demands associated with their relatively large body size. They move to valleys and basins where grass is abundant, even though it is fibrous and of low quality. Their grazing transforms these habitats. Residual moisture and increased light penetration induces vegetation growth, which benefits the zebras as well as wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) and Thompson's gazelles (Eudorcas spp.). As ruminants, these species require higher-quality vegetation than zebras. It is their good fortune that by the time they are forced to leave the hilltops, high-quality vegetation in the valleys is abundant enough to sustain them. Thus Plains Zebras play an important role as engineers stabilizing herbivore communities.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In 2002, total numbers were estimated at ¢.660,000. More than 75% of the world’s Plains Zebras are “Grant’s Zebras” (boehmi), some 200,000 of them in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. The two countries they inhabit, Kenyaand Tanzania, have extensive national park systems earning revenue from tourism, coupled with sophisticated government-supported monitoring systems. Wildlife-friendly ranching practices tend to protect even zebras living on private land in Kenya. Plains Zebras will probably not become threatened in these locales, but aerial survey data from Tanzaniasuggests a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s. Elsewhere, Grant’s Zebras and the other subspecies are faring less well. Civil strife in many countries has led to widespread poaching. Continued habitat conversion to agriculture and loss due to development isolate and threaten the demographic and genetic integrity of small populations. In the past Plains Zebras have shown resilience and an ability to bounce back quickly from population reductions. With the establishment of effective management, protection, and monitoring, most Plains Zebrapopulations are likely to survive. Current information on total population size is limited.","Bell (1971) | Bennett (1980) | George & Ryder (1986) | Groves (1974) | Hack & Lorenzen (2008) | Hack et al. (2202) | Higuchi et al. (1984) | Kgathi & Kalikawe (1993) | Kingdon (1979, 1997) | Klingel (1969) | Oakenful et al. (2000) | Ogawa (1975) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1989, 1994) | Rubenstein & Hack (2004) | Sinclair & Norton-Griffiths (1982) | Smuts (1975)",,"5.Plains ZebraEquus quaggaFrench:Zebre de Burchell/ German:Steppenzebra/ Spanish:Cebra de BurchellOther common names:Common Zebra, Painted Quagga; Burchell's Zebra(burchell), Chapman's Zebra(chapmanni), Crawshay's Zebra(crawshaii), Damara Zebra(antiquorum), Grant's Zebra(boehmi), Quagga(quagga), ZambeziZebra(selousi)Taxonomy.Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785,South Africa, south of Vaal River.Revisions have been made to the taxonomy of the Plains Zebra, whose extant species complex was until recently named E.burchelli, with the extinct form designated as a distinct species, the “ Quagga” (FE. quagga), which occupied the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal rivers and west of the Drakensberg mountain range. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the ranges of Quaggas and “Burchell’s Zebra” (E. q. burchelli) overlapped in a narrow zone north of the Orange River, unlike the other Plains Zebrasubspecies whose ranges do not overlap, but they apparently did not interbreed. However, recent molecular analyses using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA demonstrate that the variation among living and extinct forms is no greater than among modern breeds of domestic Horses (FE. caballus). Thus the Plains Zebraand the extinct Quaggaare now considered a single species, E. quagga. The Plains Zebrashows a genetic and morphological cline from northern Kenyato southern Africa; generally, the farther south, the less the degree of stripe coverage, while body size increases. With the nominate subspecies’ demise, only six extant subspecies are recognized, located around three widely separated regional centres.Subspecies and Distribution.E.q.antiguorumC.H.Smith,1841—Angola,Namibia,andWBotswana.E.q.boehmiMatschie,1892—ZambiaWofLuangwaRiver,DRCongo,NTanzania,Uganda,Kenya,Ethiopia,andSomalia.E.q.burchelliGray,1824—CSouthAfrica.E.q.chapmanniLayard,1865—NSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandEBotswana.E.q.crawshaiDeWinton,1896—ZambiaEofLuangwaRiver,Malawi,SETanzania,andMozambique.E. q. selousi Pocock, 1897— E Zimbabweand W Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217-246 cm, tail 47-57 cm, shoulder height 127-140 cm; weight 175-320 kg. The Plains Zebrais a muscular horse with a short neck, barrel chest, and sturdy legs. The stripes are variable, but in general they are wide, broader than those of Mountain Zebras (LE. zebra) and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). Apart from Burchell’s and “Damara” Zebras,stripes cover the flanks and touch under the belly. Stripes on the rump are typically bold and wide in all subspecies except the Damara Zebra, where they are thin and often wavy. In Burchell’s and Damara Zebras, both southern African subspecies, there are often grayish shadow stripes in the center of the white stripes. In all subspecies, males are slightly larger than females and have stripes that are blacker than the browner ones of females.Habitat.Plains Zebras inhabit tropical, subtropical, and temperate grasslands, steppes, savannas, and woodlands, from sea level to 4300 mon Mount Kenya. Since Plains Zebras need to drink daily, they are restricted to habitats where water can be accessed within half a day’s walk. Only deserts, dense woodlands, and permanent wetlands are avoided.Food and Feeding.Plains Zebraare true grazers. As hindgut fermenters, they require large quantities of food, so it is not surprising that they spend up to 20 hours per day foraging. Yet they are selective foragers, disproportionately consuming Perisetum and Themeda grasses when available. They can only forage in mesic areas where feeding sites and watering points are close together.Breeding.Plains Zebras give birth to one young after a gestation period of twelve months. Females generally stay near their groups when giving birth. When the foal is strong enough to move about, the mother and foal rejoin the group. Foals nurse for about six months, but begin feeding on grass by about one month of age. Females become sexually mature between two and three years of age, but often cycle without conceiving for the first year. Males generally only begin maintaining harems at five years of age.Activity patterns.Plains Zebras are active day and night and organize their daily activities around drinking. Most individuals need to drink once per day, but in very dry conditions, some drink more often. During the dry season the need for water constrains Plains Zebragroups from wandering more than 5-10 km from reliable water. After the rains, they spread out and range widely, seeking superior grazing areas located near transient water sources.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Because Plains Zebras are restricted to habitats where food and water are in close proximity, females of different reproductive classes can stay together. As a result, females, regardless of reproductive state, form groups and associate with a single male, who keeps away marauding males. By reducing sexual harassment, stallions provide females with a valuable material reward— increased foraging time. As in feral horses, females that associate with high-ranking males, or males rising rapidly in rank, can feed for up to six minutes longer per hour than females associating with less able males. Since Plains Zebras feed for up to 20 hours per day, females associating with the best males typically gain an additional two hours of foraging per day, thus increasing their fitness. Plains Zebraassociations are often large, consisting of hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals. Since these herds include both harem and bachelor male groups, Plains Zebras live in the most complex societies of all equids. Herd size varies. It depends directly on the abundance of vegetation, but also on the strength of a social factor—the degree of cuckolding pressure exerted by bachelor males. When vegetation is abundant, groups tend to be large. But the largest herds form when bachelor groups are large. By banding together, breeding stallions amortize costs and collectively dominate large bachelor associations. For females, harassment reduction helps maximize foraging. Apparently females find life in herds no different from life in isolated and unchallenged harems, thus permitting herds to form. Many Plains Zebrapopulations are seasonally migratory, traveling hundreds of kilometers as they track vegetation flushes induced by predictable seasonal shifts in rainfall. Others stay put when the migrants leave, suggesting that these strategies are alternative solutions, shaped by trade-offs between vegetation quality and quantity. At any one locale, migratory or resident populations also exhibit local movements among landscape zones. During the rains, Plains Zebras graze on hilltops where vegetation productivity is high and good visibility increases safety from predators. When the rains cease and grasses stop growing, the zebras seek habitats where food is more abundant, because of dietary demands associated with their relatively large body size. They move to valleys and basins where grass is abundant, even though it is fibrous and of low quality. Their grazing transforms these habitats. Residual moisture and increased light penetration induces vegetation growth, which benefits the zebras as well as wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) and Thompson's gazelles (Eudorcas spp.). As ruminants, these species require higher-quality vegetation than zebras. It is their good fortune that by the time they are forced to leave the hilltops, high-quality vegetation in the valleys is abundant enough to sustain them. Thus Plains Zebras play an important role as engineers stabilizing herbivore communities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In 2002, total numbers were estimated at ¢.660,000. More than 75% of the world’s Plains Zebras are “Grant’s Zebras” (boehmi), some 200,000 of them in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. The two countries they inhabit, Kenyaand Tanzania, have extensive national park systems earning revenue from tourism, coupled with sophisticated government-supported monitoring systems. Wildlife-friendly ranching practices tend to protect even zebras living on private land in Kenya. Plains Zebras will probably not become threatened in these locales, but aerial survey data from Tanzaniasuggests a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s. Elsewhere, Grant’s Zebras and the other subspecies are faring less well. Civil strife in many countries has led to widespread poaching. Continued habitat conversion to agriculture and loss due to development isolate and threaten the demographic and genetic integrity of small populations. In the past Plains Zebras have shown resilience and an ability to bounce back quickly from population reductions. With the establishment of effective management, protection, and monitoring, most Plains Zebrapopulations are likely to survive. Current information on total population size is limited.Bibliography.Bell (1971), Bennett (1980), George & Ryder (1986), Groves (1974), Hack & Lorenzen (2008), Hack et al. (2202), Higuchi et al. (1984), Kgathi & Kalikawe (1993), Kingdon (1979, 1997), Klingel (1969), Oakenful et al. (2000), Ogawa (1975), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1989, 1994), Rubenstein & Hack (2004), Sinclair & Norton-Griffiths (1982), Smuts (1975)." -03B0E520E8155860FF1AAC47ECEDF4E7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,142,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8155860FF1AAC47ECEDF4E7.xml,Equus grevyi,Equus,grevyi,Oustalet,1882,Zebre de Grévy @fr | Grévy-Zebra @de | Cebra de Grévy @es | Other common names @en | mperial Zebra @en,"Equus grevyi Oustalet, 1882,Ethiopia, Galla Country.Grevy’s Zebrawas described by French zoologist E. Oustalet and named after French President J. Grévy, who received the zebraas a gift from the Abyssinian government. Most DNA analyses agree that Grevy’s Zebrais in the same clade as the Plains Zebra(E.quagga), and the Mountain Zebra(FE. zebra). Most studies also concur that the Mountain Zebrawas the last species in the clade to evolve, but it remains unclear whether Grevy’s Zebraor the Plains Zebraappeared first, because there are so few nucleotide differences between them. The species differ in chromosome number, Grevy’s Zebras having 46 and Plains Zebras 44, but they are so close evolutionarily that fertile hybrids have appeared at the southern edge of the Grevy’s Zebra's range. Monotypic.",Ethiopiaand C & N Kenya; perhaps also in S Sudan.,"Head-body 250-275 cm, tail 38-75 cm, shoulder height 140-160 cm; weight 350-450 kg. Grevy’s Zebrais the largest of the equids, with a large head, long face, and elongated nostril openings. Its ears are large and round and can rotate independently in different directions. It has narrow stripes on its face, body, and rump; the stripes on the neck are slightly broader. The belly is white, as is the area around the base of the tail. Its muzzle is distinctively brown. It has an erect mane and the tail is tufted at the tip. Its hooves are large and rounded.","Grevy’s Zebrainhabits semi-arid grasslands and thornbush scrublands typified by acacias and commiphoras. It does not need to drink daily and lives in habitats intermediate between the arid habitats of the true desert-dwelling African Wild Ass (FE. africanus), and the more water dependant Plains Zebra, which inhabits mesic tropical grasslands. Lactating females stay in the most open areas around water; non-lactating females and territorial males prefer grassy areas with light tree cover. Bachelor males grade into areas of medium or moderate bush, but overall, Grevy’s Zebras avoid densely wooded areas except during periods of extreme drought.","Grevy’s Zebras are predominantly grazers, but browse can account for up to 30% oftheir diet during drought or when foraging on landscapes degraded by livestock. They move through habitats quickly, taking many steps per bite, selectively choosing certain grass species over others. As a result, when grazing herds of Grevy’s and Plains Zebras form, the herds don’t persist for long, since Grevy’s Zebras simply pass through them. Availability of water and individual water requirements ultimately determine where Grevy’s Zebras can forage. Since non-lactating females can go without water for up to five days, they typically range far from water, seeking out previously well-watered areas with large quantities of vegetation. Lactating females, with their need to produce milk, must drink daily. Thus they remain near water, feeding on closely cropped grazing lawns that offer forage of high nutritive quality even if the amount of available food is limited.","Grevy’s Zebras can breed year-round, but most births are timed to coincide with the arrival of the long rains that normally fall between April and June. Where Grevy’s Zebras reside, two rainy seasons are expected, since the intertropical convergence zone sweeps across the Equator twice per year. But often one or more of the rains fails. This severely limits the species’ ability to rebound after environmental or anthropogenic shocks. When females are in estrus they typically move through many male territories. Males only mate when on their own territories, and because females rarely stay with one male, Grevy’s Zebramales engage in post-copulatory sperm competition. Therefore, not surprisingly, they have larger testes than the other zebraspecies. To help ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible, when there are no females on their territories, territorial males wander widely in search of bachelor males and aggressively challenge them. By preemptively reinforcing dominance in low-risk settings, territorial males are able to devote more time to mating than to fighting when bachelors invade territories containing many females.","Grevy’s Zebras are opportunists and move great distances in search of food and water. Females and their young, as well as bachelor males, have large home ranges, often moving with the rains to areas where grass is growing or abundant. Territorial males tend to linger on their territories until well after all other zebras have left and only depart when conditions have deteriorated dramatically. During normal dry seasons, when all Grevy’s Zebras are dependent on water, concentrations of males and females develop. Given that Grevy’s Zebras often move 35 kmper day if food and water are widely separated, aggregations tend to split apart and are never very large. Sightings of a few hundred Grevy’s Zebras at a time are rare. Although the availability of food and water determine most movements, predation plays a role. Grevy’s Zebras avoid human settlements during the day because of stresses associated with human activity, but at night settlements are sought as refuges against predators.","Grevy’s Zebras differ socially from the other two species of zebras; they do notlive in closed-membership family groups, or harems. Like the asses, Grevy’s Zebras live in open-membership groups in which the only long-lasting bond is between mothers and their young. Adult females come together at water sources and good grazing sites and continue to travel together as long as their needs can be satisfied. When they cannot, such as when lactating females need to return daily to water and those without young or with older young do not, then the social ties that bind females become severed and groups dissolve. Given that both types of females are sexually active, and males cannot simultaneously associate with both, dominant males instead establish territories adjacent to water. In this way high-status males have mating access to both lactating and non-lactating females whenever they come to water. Less dominant males also establish territories, but in areas of abundant vegetation far from water, where they gain access to the subset of females searching for quality foraging areas. Territories can be as large as 10 km?, the largest of any equid. Males of the lowest rank are unable to maintain territories, so they join bachelor groups. They range widely, grow quickly, and by interacting with many males they improve their fighting ability.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Grevy’s Zebras exist only in the Horn of Africa. According to recent surveys, an estimated 2000-2300 live in Kenya, around 150 inEthiopia, and there may be a few in southern Sudan. Historically Grevy’s Zebras ranged more widely, from Somaliato western Ethiopia, Djbouti, and Eritrea, and from southern Ethiopiasouth tojust north and west of Mount Kenya. Extensive hunting ceased at the start of the 1980s, yet populations of Grevy’s Zebras did not rebound. They are still decreasing and from 1988 to 2007, the global population declined approximately 55%. Increasing competition with the livestock of pastoral herders for water and forage appears to be the culprit. As human populations and their herds grew, water disappeared more quickly than in the past. In addition, the presence of humans and livestock prevented the zebras from accessing drinking sites during the day. Constrained lactation, in addition to greater predation risks associated with night-time drinking, reduced infant and juvenile survival. Since less than 5% of Grevy’s Zebra’s current range is located within protected areas, the best hope for enhancing population growth involves encouraging communities to better manage rangelands, as well as increasing the value of Grevy’s Zebras by training community members to become scouts or ambassadors and hiring them to help monitor Grevy’s Zebrapopulation dynamics and harmful human impacts.","Cordingley et al. (2009) | Ginsberg & Rubenstein (1990) | Groves (2002) | Kingdon (1997) | Klingel (1974) | Low et al. (2009) | Moehlman, Rubenstein & Kebede (2008) | Rowen & Ginsberg (1992) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1994) | Sundaresan et al. (2008)",,"6.Grevy’s ZebraEquus grevyiFrench:Zebre de Grévy/ German:Grévy-Zebra/ Spanish:Cebra de GrévyOther common names:Imperial ZebraTaxonomy.Equus grevyi Oustalet, 1882,Ethiopia, Galla Country.Grevy’s Zebrawas described by French zoologist E. Oustalet and named after French President J. Grévy, who received the zebraas a gift from the Abyssinian government. Most DNA analyses agree that Grevy’s Zebrais in the same clade as the Plains Zebra(E.quagga), and the Mountain Zebra(FE. zebra). Most studies also concur that the Mountain Zebrawas the last species in the clade to evolve, but it remains unclear whether Grevy’s Zebraor the Plains Zebraappeared first, because there are so few nucleotide differences between them. The species differ in chromosome number, Grevy’s Zebras having 46 and Plains Zebras 44, but they are so close evolutionarily that fertile hybrids have appeared at the southern edge of the Grevy’s Zebra's range. Monotypic.Distribution.Ethiopiaand C & N Kenya; perhaps also in S Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-275 cm, tail 38-75 cm, shoulder height 140-160 cm; weight 350-450 kg. Grevy’s Zebrais the largest of the equids, with a large head, long face, and elongated nostril openings. Its ears are large and round and can rotate independently in different directions. It has narrow stripes on its face, body, and rump; the stripes on the neck are slightly broader. The belly is white, as is the area around the base of the tail. Its muzzle is distinctively brown. It has an erect mane and the tail is tufted at the tip. Its hooves are large and rounded.Habitat.Grevy’s Zebrainhabits semi-arid grasslands and thornbush scrublands typified by acacias and commiphoras. It does not need to drink daily and lives in habitats intermediate between the arid habitats of the true desert-dwelling African Wild Ass (FE. africanus), and the more water dependant Plains Zebra, which inhabits mesic tropical grasslands. Lactating females stay in the most open areas around water; non-lactating females and territorial males prefer grassy areas with light tree cover. Bachelor males grade into areas of medium or moderate bush, but overall, Grevy’s Zebras avoid densely wooded areas except during periods of extreme drought.Food and Feeding.Grevy’s Zebras are predominantly grazers, but browse can account for up to 30% oftheir diet during drought or when foraging on landscapes degraded by livestock. They move through habitats quickly, taking many steps per bite, selectively choosing certain grass species over others. As a result, when grazing herds of Grevy’s and Plains Zebras form, the herds don’t persist for long, since Grevy’s Zebras simply pass through them. Availability of water and individual water requirements ultimately determine where Grevy’s Zebras can forage. Since non-lactating females can go without water for up to five days, they typically range far from water, seeking out previously well-watered areas with large quantities of vegetation. Lactating females, with their need to produce milk, must drink daily. Thus they remain near water, feeding on closely cropped grazing lawns that offer forage of high nutritive quality even if the amount of available food is limited.Breeding.Grevy’s Zebras can breed year-round, but most births are timed to coincide with the arrival of the long rains that normally fall between April and June. Where Grevy’s Zebras reside, two rainy seasons are expected, since the intertropical convergence zone sweeps across the Equator twice per year. But often one or more of the rains fails. This severely limits the species’ ability to rebound after environmental or anthropogenic shocks. When females are in estrus they typically move through many male territories. Males only mate when on their own territories, and because females rarely stay with one male, Grevy’s Zebramales engage in post-copulatory sperm competition. Therefore, not surprisingly, they have larger testes than the other zebraspecies. To help ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible, when there are no females on their territories, territorial males wander widely in search of bachelor males and aggressively challenge them. By preemptively reinforcing dominance in low-risk settings, territorial males are able to devote more time to mating than to fighting when bachelors invade territories containing many females.Activity patterns.Grevy’s Zebras are opportunists and move great distances in search of food and water. Females and their young, as well as bachelor males, have large home ranges, often moving with the rains to areas where grass is growing or abundant. Territorial males tend to linger on their territories until well after all other zebras have left and only depart when conditions have deteriorated dramatically. During normal dry seasons, when all Grevy’s Zebras are dependent on water, concentrations of males and females develop. Given that Grevy’s Zebras often move 35 kmper day if food and water are widely separated, aggregations tend to split apart and are never very large. Sightings of a few hundred Grevy’s Zebras at a time are rare. Although the availability of food and water determine most movements, predation plays a role. Grevy’s Zebras avoid human settlements during the day because of stresses associated with human activity, but at night settlements are sought as refuges against predators.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Grevy’s Zebras differ socially from the other two species of zebras; they do notlive in closed-membership family groups, or harems. Like the asses, Grevy’s Zebras live in open-membership groups in which the only long-lasting bond is between mothers and their young. Adult females come together at water sources and good grazing sites and continue to travel together as long as their needs can be satisfied. When they cannot, such as when lactating females need to return daily to water and those without young or with older young do not, then the social ties that bind females become severed and groups dissolve. Given that both types of females are sexually active, and males cannot simultaneously associate with both, dominant males instead establish territories adjacent to water. In this way high-status males have mating access to both lactating and non-lactating females whenever they come to water. Less dominant males also establish territories, but in areas of abundant vegetation far from water, where they gain access to the subset of females searching for quality foraging areas. Territories can be as large as 10 km?, the largest of any equid. Males of the lowest rank are unable to maintain territories, so they join bachelor groups. They range widely, grow quickly, and by interacting with many males they improve their fighting ability.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Grevy’s Zebras exist only in the Horn of Africa. According to recent surveys, an estimated 2000-2300 live in Kenya, around 150 inEthiopia, and there may be a few in southern Sudan. Historically Grevy’s Zebras ranged more widely, from Somaliato western Ethiopia, Djbouti, and Eritrea, and from southern Ethiopiasouth tojust north and west of Mount Kenya. Extensive hunting ceased at the start of the 1980s, yet populations of Grevy’s Zebras did not rebound. They are still decreasing and from 1988 to 2007, the global population declined approximately 55%. Increasing competition with the livestock of pastoral herders for water and forage appears to be the culprit. As human populations and their herds grew, water disappeared more quickly than in the past. In addition, the presence of humans and livestock prevented the zebras from accessing drinking sites during the day. Constrained lactation, in addition to greater predation risks associated with night-time drinking, reduced infant and juvenile survival. Since less than 5% of Grevy’s Zebra’s current range is located within protected areas, the best hope for enhancing population growth involves encouraging communities to better manage rangelands, as well as increasing the value of Grevy’s Zebras by training community members to become scouts or ambassadors and hiring them to help monitor Grevy’s Zebrapopulation dynamics and harmful human impacts.Bibliography.Cordingley et al. (2009), Ginsberg & Rubenstein (1990), Groves (2002), Kingdon (1997), Klingel (1974), Low et al. (2009), Moehlman, Rubenstein & Kebede (2008), Rowen & Ginsberg (1992), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1994), Sundaresan et al. (2008)." -03B0E520E8155863FA60A155ED43F996,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,142,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8155863FA60A155ED43F996.xml,Equus zebra,Equus,zebra,Linnaeus,1758,Zebre de montagne @fr | Bergzebra @de | Cebrade montana @es | Cebra @es | Cape Mountain Zebra(zebra) @en | Hartmann's Mountain Zebra(hartmannae) @en,"Equus zebra Linnaeus, 1758,South Africa, south-western Cape Province.Two subspecies recognized.","E.z.zebraLinnaeus,1758—SSouthAfrica(S&WedgeofthecentralplateauintheEasternandWesternCapeProvinces).E. z. hartmannae Matschie, 1898— W Namibia(mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the Namibian central plateau); possibly in SW Angola.","Head-body 210-260 cm, tail 40-55 cm, shoulder height 115-150 cm; weight 240-380 kg. The Mountain Zebracan be distinguished from other zebraspecies by the dewlap under its neck. The pattern of striping is also intermediate between the other two species. The stripes are half as wide as and more numerous than those of Plains Zebras (FE. quagga) and the belly is white as in Grevy’s Zebras (FE. grevyi). Mountain Zebras have a “waffle-iron” pattern on the rump near the root of the tail. On the rump, the narrow stripes change to broad and bold stripes, more like those of “Grant’s Zebra” (E. boehmi). The “ CapeMountain Zebra” is smaller than “Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra” and it has slightly wider stripes.Habitat.As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.Food and Feeding.Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola.","As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.","Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.","Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.",Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.,"Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.","CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola. Habitat conversion to agriculture, competition with domestic livestock, hunting, and persecution are the main threats facing Mountain Zebras. Crossbreeding between the two subspecies is considered a potential threat in South Africa, where both subspecies occur,since this would mix and disrupt the genetic diversity of the species. Crossbreeding with Plains Zebras is also a potential threat just asit is for Grevy’s Zebras. CapeMountain Zebras suffered devastating declines because of trophy hunting and land conversion to agriculture in South Africaduring the 19"" and early 20™ centuries. By the 1930s they were on the brink of extinction—a 1937 census countedjust 45 individuals. Since the establishment of national parks in the locations where the few surviving individuals remained, the population has increased to around 1400. CapeMountain Zebras now live in 17 provincial nature reserves and national parks, the largest being the Addo Elephant and the CapePeninsula National Parks. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebraalso suffered massive population declines during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily due to persecution from an expanding livestock industry. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras continue to come into conflict with livestock farmers, particularly during drought years when resources are in short supply. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebrais a protected species in Namibiaand any use requires permits. The Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism therefore has encouraged the commercial use of Mountain Zebras to provide an incentive for promoting tolerance. Numbers are increasing on communal land and overall numbers are in the range of 30,000. Today, populations are isolated, inhabiting the Mkambati and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserves, Amaqwati Tribal Resource Area, and Richtersveld National Park. The animals are also present on numerous private estates in the Northern and Eastern CapeProvinces of South Africa, as well as in fenced, protected areas, and game farms in Namibia.","Kingdon (1997) | Lloyd (1984) | Millar (1970a, 1970b) | Novellie (2008) | Novellie et al (2002) | Penzhorn (1975)",,"7.Mountain ZebraEquus zebraFrench:Zebre de montagne/ German:Bergzebra/ Spanish:Cebrade montanaOther common names:CapeMountain Zebra(zebra), Hartmann's Mountain Zebra(hartmannae)Taxonomy.Equus zebra Linnaeus, 1758,South Africa, south-western Cape Province.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.z.zebraLinnaeus,1758—SSouthAfrica(S&WedgeofthecentralplateauintheEasternandWesternCapeProvinces).E. z. hartmannae Matschie, 1898— W Namibia(mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the Namibian central plateau); possibly in SW Angola.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-260 cm, tail 40-55 cm, shoulder height 115-150 cm; weight 240-380 kg. The Mountain Zebracan be distinguished from other zebraspecies by the dewlap under its neck. The pattern of striping is also intermediate between the other two species. The stripes are half as wide as and more numerous than those of Plains Zebras (FE. quagga) and the belly is white as in Grevy’s Zebras (FE. grevyi). Mountain Zebras have a “waffle-iron” pattern on the rump near the root of the tail. On the rump, the narrow stripes change to broad and bold stripes, more like those of “Grant’s Zebra” (E. boehmi). The “ CapeMountain Zebra” is smaller than “Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra” and it has slightly wider stripes.Habitat.As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.Food and Feeding.Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola. Habitat conversion to agriculture, competition with domestic livestock, hunting, and persecution are the main threats facing Mountain Zebras. Crossbreeding between the two subspecies is considered a potential threat in South Africa, where both subspecies occur,since this would mix and disrupt the genetic diversity of the species. Crossbreeding with Plains Zebras is also a potential threat just asit is for Grevy’s Zebras. CapeMountain Zebras suffered devastating declines because of trophy hunting and land conversion to agriculture in South Africaduring the 19"" and early 20™ centuries. By the 1930s they were on the brink of extinction—a 1937 census countedjust 45 individuals. Since the establishment of national parks in the locations where the few surviving individuals remained, the population has increased to around 1400. CapeMountain Zebras now live in 17 provincial nature reserves and national parks, the largest being the Addo Elephant and the CapePeninsula National Parks. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebraalso suffered massive population declines during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily due to persecution from an expanding livestock industry. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras continue to come into conflict with livestock farmers, particularly during drought years when resources are in short supply. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebrais a protected species in Namibiaand any use requires permits. The Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism therefore has encouraged the commercial use of Mountain Zebras to provide an incentive for promoting tolerance. Numbers are increasing on communal land and overall numbers are in the range of 30,000. Today, populations are isolated, inhabiting the Mkambati and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserves, Amaqwati Tribal Resource Area, and Richtersveld National Park. The animals are also present on numerous private estates in the Northern and Eastern CapeProvinces of South Africa, as well as in fenced, protected areas, and game farms in Namibia.Bibliography.Kingdon (1997), Lloyd (1984), Millar (1970a, 1970b), Novellie (2008), Novellie et al (2002), Penzhorn (1975)." -03B887D96B28FFBEFAA37CACF7E58B01,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,543,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B28FFBEFAA37CACF7E58B01.xml,Phocoena phocoena,Phocoena,phocoena,,,Marsouin commun @fr | Schweinswal @de | Marsopa comun @es | Common Porpoise @en | Sea-hog @en | Sea-pig; Atlantic Harbor Porpoise @en | North Atlantic Harbor Porpoise (phocoena); Black Sea Harbor Porpoise (relicta); Eastern North Pacific Harbor Porpoise @en | Eastern Pacific Harbor Porpoise (vomerina) @en,"Delphinus phocaena Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Oceano Europao & Balthico” (= Baltic Sea, “Swedish Seas”).In addition to the subspecies listed below, there is also an unnamed subspecies recognized from the western North Pacific Ocean. Three subspecies recognized.","P.p.phocoenaLinnaeus,1758—coastalwatersoftheNAtlanticOcean.P.p.relictaAbel,1905—coastalwatersoftheBlackSea,theAzovandMarmaraseas(isolatedpopulation).AfewstragglersfromthispopulationshowupperiodicallyintheAegeanSea,buttheydonotoccurthroughoutmostoftheMediterraneanSea.P.p. vomerina Gill, 1865— coastal waters of the NE Pacific Ocean.A still unnamed form is present in the coastal waters of the NW Pacific Ocean.","Total length 130-200 cm; weight 45-75 kg. Harbor Porpoises are small cetaceans, growing to a maximum length of only ¢.200 cm. Most adults are less than 180 cm long. Body is robust, with small appendages. There are small tubercles (or denticles) on the leading edge of the dorsal fin and sometimes also on flippers. Beak is very short and poorly defined, and dorsalfin is low, triangular, and wide-based. Color pattern is somewhat bland at first appearance, but it is actually more complex when analyzed in detail. Body is generally counter-shaded, with a dark gray back and white belly. Generally, dark and pale regions blend into each other, but margins between the two are often splotchy and streaked. Appendages are all dark, and there is a dark stripe running from gape to flipper, and there are also dark streaks on the lower jaw. There is a great deal of individual variation in color pattern, but no obvious differences among different populations have been identified. Thirty-four records of anomalously white individuals (three patterns have been observed, some perhaps albinos) have been recorded in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Newborns have a muted color pattern, generally of subdued tones of dark and pale gray. Tooth counts generally are 19-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby.","Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby. Habitat of the Harbor Porpoise is cool temperate to subpolar waters, generally with low water temperatures.","Harbor Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, although their main prey appears to vary on regional and seasonal scales. In the North Atlantic, they feed primarily on clupeoids and gadoids, while in the North Pacific, they prey largely on engraulids and scorpaenids. They eat a wide variety offish and cephalopods, although the diet in any specific area may be dominated by just a few species. Harbor Porpoises feed heavily on small schooling fish that occur in the water column, such as herring and sprat (Clupeidae), capelin (Mallotus), hake (Merluccius), and mackerel (Scomber, Scombridae); they also consume market squid (Loligo) in some areas. Although many of these prey species occur in the water column, many of the other prey species are benthic or demersal. Benthic invertebrates are sometimes also consumed, but these are generally considered to be secondarily ingested. In the north-eastern Atlantic, there has apparently been a long-term shift from predation on declining stocks of clupeid fish (mainly herring, Clupea harengus) to sand lance (Ammodytidae) and gadoid fish.","Reproductive biology of the Harbor Porpoise has been studied more extensively than for any other member of the family, due to the large number of specimens that have been available from strandings and incidental catches in fisheries. Mating system of the Harbor Porpoise is thought to be promiscuous. Anatomical evidence (Harbor Porpoises have some of the largest testes relative to body mass of any mammal species) has for some time suggested that sperm competition may be the primary way that males compete to inseminate females. Recent behavioral observations of Harbor Porpoises in the San Francisco Bay area (USA) appear to support this idea. Young are typically born in April-August (late spring through mid-summer), after gestation of ¢.10-11 months. Offspring are weaned before they reach one year of age. Sexual maturity occurs at 3—4 years of age and lengths of 120-150 cm. There is geographic variation in these parameters among different populations, and densitydependent variation has also been documented. Harbor Porpoises regularly interbreed and produce hybrids with Dall’s Porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) in the inshore waters of the Pacific Northwest (Washington State, USA and southern British Columbia, Canada) and occasionally elsewhere where the two species are sympatric. It is virtually always the case that the mother is a Dall’s Porpoise and the father is a Harbor Porpoise, and this is what would be predicted, based on their respective mating systems (Dall’s are considered polygynous, with males apparently not using sperm competition, but guarding females to prevent insemination by other males). Harbor Porpoiseslive into their 20s, although in some areas most individuals may die before they reach twelve years of age.","Harbor Porpoises are shy and unobtrusive animals, with a low surfacing profile and not a great deal of aerial behavior. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and in many cases, they appear to actively avoid motorized vessels. There are exceptions to this, and at least in the San Francisco Bay area, they may be more approachable. These individuals sometimes lie nearly motionless at the surface for several seconds, and it is not clear why they do this. The typical surfacing pattern is a slow roll, in which the individual does not create any splash. At times, they do move faster and surface with a sloppy splash (this is called “pop-splashing,” and the splash looks very different from the more V-shaped splash of a rooster-tailing Dall’s Porpoise). Diving behavior of Harbor Porpoises has been studied with time-depth recording tags. Although most dives last less than one minute, Harbor Porpoises have been found to be capable of diving to depths of at least 220 m and for periods of more than five minutes.","Singles or small groups of less than a half-dozen Harbor Porpoises are most commonly seen, although they do aggregate, at times, into loose groupings of 50 to several hundred individuals. This occurs mostly when feeding on an aggregated food source or during migration, and these large groups generally have little structure. Movement patterns of individual Harbor Porpoises are not very well known, but it is known that they are capable of large-scale movements of many hundreds to thousands of kilometers. On the other hand, repeated sightings of identifiable individuals in San Francisco Bay show that some populations may have more limited movements. Not much is known about social organization of Harbor Porpoises, but most bonds outside the mother—offspring pair appear to be weak, and there do not seem to be any other long-term associations.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List. The subspecies relictais classified as Endangered, and the Baltic Sea population, which only numbers ¢.500-600 individuals,is classified as Critically Endangered. Other subspecies have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. There has been a long and somewhat tragic history of human interactions with Harbor Porpoises. Hunting has occurred in many different parts ofits distribution, especially in northern European waters. Major hunts have occurred in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Bay of Fundy, and in the waters off western Greenland (the latter is still active). Many of these caused depletion of local populations. More recently, bycatch from fisheries, especially in various forms of gillnets or trammel nets, has been responsible for threatening existence of populations throughout the distribution of the Harbor Porpoise. The largest mortality has occurred in fisheries in the Gulf of Maine, western Greenland, North Sea, and Celtic Shelf, but smaller kills have occurred almost everywhere the Harbor Porpoise occurs. It is believed that Harbor Porpoises can normally detect gillnets at distances necessary to avoid entanglement, but accidents may happen due to attention shifts or auditory masking. Use of acoustic alarms (“pingers”) and other mitigation measures have managed to reduce mortality in many areas, but the only way to eliminate bycatch completely is to eliminate gillnets. Catches of Harbor Porpoises in trawls, set nets, herring weirs, pound nets, cod traps, and even anti-submarine nets have also been documented and have taken their toll. Other threats include detrimental effects of environmental contaminants, vessel traffic, anthropogenic noise impacts, prey depletion, and habitat deterioration or destruction. The Harbor Porpoise is not rare and not endangered. Globally, there may be more than 675,000 Harbor Porpoises. Nevertheless, particular populations in many areas have been impacted by human activities and quite a few of these are indeed threatened and in need of protection.","Amano (1996) | Andersen et al. (2001) | Barlow & Hanan (1995) | Berggren & Wang (2008) | Bjerge (2003) | Bjerge & Tolley (2009) | Borrell et al. (2007) | Carretta et al. (2001) | Caswell et al. (1998) | Dahlheim et al. (2000) | Fontaine & Barrette (1997) | Forney (1999) | Frantzis et al. (2001) | Goodson & Sturtivant (1996) | Haelters et al. (2012) | Hammond et al. (2002) | Heide-Jergensen & Lockyer (1999) | Jepson et al. (2005) | Keener et al. (2011) | Kompanje & van Leeuwen (2009) | Koschinski (2002) | Larrat et al. (2012) | Larsen (1997) | Lockyer (2003) | Lockyer & Andreasen (2004) | Lockyer & Kinze (2003) | McLellan et al. (2002) | Nielsen et al. (2012) | Northridge (1996) | Palka (2008) | Read (1999b) | Read & Hohn (1995) | Read & Westgate (1997) | Rosel (1997) | Rosel et al. (2003) | Schofield et al. (2008) | Siebert et al. (2006) | Sonntag et al. (1999) | Stenson (2003) | Teilmann (2003) | Thomsen et al. (2007) | Tolley & Rosel (2006) | Tonay et al. (2012) | Verfuld et al. (2007) | Viaud-Martinez et al. (2007) | Westgate & Read (1998) | Westgate & Tolley (1999) | Westgate, Read, Berggren et al. (1995) | Westgate, Read, Cox et al. (1998) | Willis et al. (2004) | Woodley (1995)",,"6.Harbor PorpoisePhocoena phocoenaFrench:Marsouin commun/ German:Schweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa comunOther common names:Common Porpoise, Sea-hog, Sea-pig; Atlantic Harbor Porpoise, North Atlantic Harbor Porpoise (phocoena); Black Sea Harbor Porpoise (relicta); Eastern North Pacific Harbor Porpoise, Eastern Pacific Harbor Porpoise (vomerina)Taxonomy.Delphinus phocaena Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Oceano Europao & Balthico” (= Baltic Sea, “Swedish Seas”).In addition to the subspecies listed below, there is also an unnamed subspecies recognized from the western North Pacific Ocean. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.p.phocoenaLinnaeus,1758—coastalwatersoftheNAtlanticOcean.P.p.relictaAbel,1905—coastalwatersoftheBlackSea,theAzovandMarmaraseas(isolatedpopulation).AfewstragglersfromthispopulationshowupperiodicallyintheAegeanSea,buttheydonotoccurthroughoutmostoftheMediterraneanSea.P.p. vomerina Gill, 1865— coastal waters of the NE Pacific Ocean.A still unnamed form is present in the coastal waters of the NW Pacific Ocean.Descriptive notes.Total length 130-200 cm; weight 45-75 kg. Harbor Porpoises are small cetaceans, growing to a maximum length of only ¢.200 cm. Most adults are less than 180 cm long. Body is robust, with small appendages. There are small tubercles (or denticles) on the leading edge of the dorsal fin and sometimes also on flippers. Beak is very short and poorly defined, and dorsalfin is low, triangular, and wide-based. Color pattern is somewhat bland at first appearance, but it is actually more complex when analyzed in detail. Body is generally counter-shaded, with a dark gray back and white belly. Generally, dark and pale regions blend into each other, but margins between the two are often splotchy and streaked. Appendages are all dark, and there is a dark stripe running from gape to flipper, and there are also dark streaks on the lower jaw. There is a great deal of individual variation in color pattern, but no obvious differences among different populations have been identified. Thirty-four records of anomalously white individuals (three patterns have been observed, some perhaps albinos) have been recorded in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Newborns have a muted color pattern, generally of subdued tones of dark and pale gray. Tooth counts generally are 19-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby. Habitat of the Harbor Porpoise is cool temperate to subpolar waters, generally with low water temperatures.Food and Feeding.Harbor Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, although their main prey appears to vary on regional and seasonal scales. In the North Atlantic, they feed primarily on clupeoids and gadoids, while in the North Pacific, they prey largely on engraulids and scorpaenids. They eat a wide variety offish and cephalopods, although the diet in any specific area may be dominated by just a few species. Harbor Porpoises feed heavily on small schooling fish that occur in the water column, such as herring and sprat (Clupeidae), capelin (Mallotus), hake (Merluccius), and mackerel (Scomber, Scombridae); they also consume market squid (Loligo) in some areas. Although many of these prey species occur in the water column, many of the other prey species are benthic or demersal. Benthic invertebrates are sometimes also consumed, but these are generally considered to be secondarily ingested. In the north-eastern Atlantic, there has apparently been a long-term shift from predation on declining stocks of clupeid fish (mainly herring, Clupea harengus) to sand lance (Ammodytidae) and gadoid fish.Breeding.Reproductive biology of the Harbor Porpoise has been studied more extensively than for any other member of the family, due to the large number of specimens that have been available from strandings and incidental catches in fisheries. Mating system of the Harbor Porpoise is thought to be promiscuous. Anatomical evidence (Harbor Porpoises have some of the largest testes relative to body mass of any mammal species) has for some time suggested that sperm competition may be the primary way that males compete to inseminate females. Recent behavioral observations of Harbor Porpoises in the San Francisco Bay area (USA) appear to support this idea. Young are typically born in April-August (late spring through mid-summer), after gestation of ¢.10-11 months. Offspring are weaned before they reach one year of age. Sexual maturity occurs at 3—4 years of age and lengths of 120-150 cm. There is geographic variation in these parameters among different populations, and densitydependent variation has also been documented. Harbor Porpoises regularly interbreed and produce hybrids with Dall’s Porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) in the inshore waters of the Pacific Northwest (Washington State, USA and southern British Columbia, Canada) and occasionally elsewhere where the two species are sympatric. It is virtually always the case that the mother is a Dall’s Porpoise and the father is a Harbor Porpoise, and this is what would be predicted, based on their respective mating systems (Dall’s are considered polygynous, with males apparently not using sperm competition, but guarding females to prevent insemination by other males). Harbor Porpoiseslive into their 20s, although in some areas most individuals may die before they reach twelve years of age.Activity patterns.Harbor Porpoises are shy and unobtrusive animals, with a low surfacing profile and not a great deal of aerial behavior. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and in many cases, they appear to actively avoid motorized vessels. There are exceptions to this, and at least in the San Francisco Bay area, they may be more approachable. These individuals sometimes lie nearly motionless at the surface for several seconds, and it is not clear why they do this. The typical surfacing pattern is a slow roll, in which the individual does not create any splash. At times, they do move faster and surface with a sloppy splash (this is called “pop-splashing,” and the splash looks very different from the more V-shaped splash of a rooster-tailing Dall’s Porpoise). Diving behavior of Harbor Porpoises has been studied with time-depth recording tags. Although most dives last less than one minute, Harbor Porpoises have been found to be capable of diving to depths of at least 220 m and for periods of more than five minutes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Singles or small groups of less than a half-dozen Harbor Porpoises are most commonly seen, although they do aggregate, at times, into loose groupings of 50 to several hundred individuals. This occurs mostly when feeding on an aggregated food source or during migration, and these large groups generally have little structure. Movement patterns of individual Harbor Porpoises are not very well known, but it is known that they are capable of large-scale movements of many hundreds to thousands of kilometers. On the other hand, repeated sightings of identifiable individuals in San Francisco Bay show that some populations may have more limited movements. Not much is known about social organization of Harbor Porpoises, but most bonds outside the mother—offspring pair appear to be weak, and there do not seem to be any other long-term associations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List. The subspecies relictais classified as Endangered, and the Baltic Sea population, which only numbers ¢.500-600 individuals,is classified as Critically Endangered. Other subspecies have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. There has been a long and somewhat tragic history of human interactions with Harbor Porpoises. Hunting has occurred in many different parts ofits distribution, especially in northern European waters. Major hunts have occurred in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Bay of Fundy, and in the waters off western Greenland (the latter is still active). Many of these caused depletion of local populations. More recently, bycatch from fisheries, especially in various forms of gillnets or trammel nets, has been responsible for threatening existence of populations throughout the distribution of the Harbor Porpoise. The largest mortality has occurred in fisheries in the Gulf of Maine, western Greenland, North Sea, and Celtic Shelf, but smaller kills have occurred almost everywhere the Harbor Porpoise occurs. It is believed that Harbor Porpoises can normally detect gillnets at distances necessary to avoid entanglement, but accidents may happen due to attention shifts or auditory masking. Use of acoustic alarms (“pingers”) and other mitigation measures have managed to reduce mortality in many areas, but the only way to eliminate bycatch completely is to eliminate gillnets. Catches of Harbor Porpoises in trawls, set nets, herring weirs, pound nets, cod traps, and even anti-submarine nets have also been documented and have taken their toll. Other threats include detrimental effects of environmental contaminants, vessel traffic, anthropogenic noise impacts, prey depletion, and habitat deterioration or destruction. The Harbor Porpoise is not rare and not endangered. Globally, there may be more than 675,000 Harbor Porpoises. Nevertheless, particular populations in many areas have been impacted by human activities and quite a few of these are indeed threatened and in need of protection.Bibliography.Amano (1996), Andersen et al. (2001), Barlow & Hanan (1995), Berggren & Wang (2008), Bjerge (2003), Bjerge & Tolley (2009), Borrell et al. (2007), Carretta et al. (2001), Caswell et al. (1998), Dahlheim et al. (2000), Fontaine & Barrette (1997), Forney (1999), Frantzis et al. (2001), Goodson & Sturtivant (1996), Haelters et al. (2012), Hammond et al. (2002), Heide-Jergensen & Lockyer (1999), Jepson et al. (2005), Keener et al. (2011), Kompanje & van Leeuwen (2009), Koschinski (2002), Larrat et al. (2012), Larsen (1997), Lockyer (2003), Lockyer & Andreasen (2004), Lockyer & Kinze (2003), McLellan et al. (2002), Nielsen et al. (2012), Northridge (1996), Palka (2008), Read (1999b), Read & Hohn (1995), Read & Westgate (1997), Rosel (1997), Rosel et al. (2003), Schofield et al. (2008), Siebert et al. (2006), Sonntag et al. (1999), Stenson (2003), Teilmann (2003), Thomsen et al. (2007), Tolley & Rosel (2006), Tonay et al. (2012), Verfuld et al. (2007), Viaud-Martinez et al. (2007), Westgate & Read (1998), Westgate & Tolley (1999), Westgate, Read, Berggren et al. (1995), Westgate, Read, Cox et al. (1998), Willis et al. (2004), Woodley (1995)." +03B0E520E8125866FABEACFDEF26F67F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8125866FABEACFDEF26F67F.xml,Equus hemionus,Equus,hemionus,Pallas,1775,Hémione @fr | Asiatischer Halbesel @de | Onagro @es | Onager; Gobi Kulan (luteus) @en | Khur(khun @en | Kulan (kulan) @en | Mongolian Kulan (hemionus) @en | Persian Onager(onager) @en | Syrian Onager(hemippus) @en,"Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775,North-eastern boundary of Mongoliawith Russia, Transbaikalia, S. Chitinsk, 50° N, 115° E.The “Syrian Onager” race hemippus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1855)from Syriaand the Arabian Peninsula is extinct. The “Gobi Kulan” luteus is probably a synonym of the nominate race hemionus. Four extant subspecies recognized.","E.h.hemionusPallas,1775—SMongoliaandextendingintoNChina.E.h.khurLesson,1827—LittleRannofKutch,Gujarat,India.E.h.kulanGroves&Mazak,1967—KazakhstanandTurkmenistan(Badkhyzregion).E. h. onager Boddaert, 1785— two reserves in Iran(Touran and Bahram-e-Goor), Israel(Negev Desert), and Saudi Arabia(Taif).","Head-body 200-250 cm, tail 30-49 cm, shoulder height 126— 130 cm; weight 200-260 kg. Asiatic Wild Asses are characterized by reddish-brown coats in the summer that become paler brown, sandy, or even gray in the winter, depending on subspecies. The flanks and belly are white and some subspecies have a dark brown stripe running along the back. The mane is black and erect and consists of short bristly hair. The tail is short, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The legs are short and thin when compared to other equid species. The hooves are broader and rounder than those of the African Wild Ass (E. africanus) and are the most horse-like of all the asses. Males are slightly larger than females. The subspecies differ in skull morphology. The Transcaspian and Mongolian forms have narrower supraoccipital crests than the Iranian and Indian forms. The Asiatic Wild Ass can reach speeds up to 70 km/h.",Asiatic Wild Asses live in xeric habitats where rainfall is limited. Many of the subspecies live in flat semi-deserts with extremely hot days and cool nights.,"When grass is abundant, Asiatic Wild Asses are primarily grazers. During the dry season, or in the driest habitats, they will switch to browse, even consuming woody parts of plants. They also eat seedpods and will use their hooves to break apart woody material to reach succulent forbs. In Mongolia, asses often eat snow in the winter as a substitute for drinking water and have been known to dig holes 60 cmdeep to reach water in the summer.","Gestation in Asiatic Wild Asses is eleven months and breeding is highly seasonal. Births peak during April and September, depending on subspecies and location. Within any one population births occur within a 2-3 month period. Females reach puberty at three years of age and give birth to only one foal at a time. Foals generally stay with their mothers for two years.","Asiatic Wild Asses are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler. Although they obtain most of their water from food, they are almost always seen within 30 kmof water. Lactating females in particular need to drink frequently; at least once per day.","The ranging and social behavior of Asiatic Wild Asses is highly variable. Many populations show seasonal movements. Male Asiatic Wild Asses in Israelreturn each spring to breeding areas several weeks before females, typically to claim territories held the previous year. The territories of dominant males are generally distributed around water points. Males unable to defend territories either form all-male bachelor groups or remain on the winter grazing grounds. Females coalesce into groups on the breeding grounds, but the groups are fluid. When populations contain many territorial males, some females move frequently among territories, suggesting that some of them move in search of mating opportunities as well as key resources. Others, especially those with young foals, remain on the territory of one male. Some subspecies, such as the “ Khur” of India, exhibit the same types of social associations as do the Israeli Asiatic Wild Asses, but members of both sexes remain in one area year-round. Others, such as the “Kulan” of the Gobi, exhibit more horse-like social behavior, in which females and their offspring live in closed membership groups and travel to and from water with one male. Males in the Gobi population actively herd females if they stray too far, a behavior not seen in the Khurof the Little Rann of Kutch. Kulan males in the Gobi also defend females and their young from predators, suggesting that some interspecific variation in social organization is related to predation threat.","CITES Appendix I (subspecies hemionusand khur) and the rest listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Syrian Onager, went extinct in 1927. The largest population of Asiatic Wild Asses in the world is currently in southern Mongolia, and makes up almost 80% of the global population. The “Mongolian Kulan” population was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 + 898 infour areas. There are estimates of 4800-6000 Kulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but they may be a population migrating seasonally from Mongolia. The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur, estimated in 2004 at 3900, in the Little Rann of Kutch. Thisis the only subpopulation of the Asiatic Wild Ass that has steadily increased in size from 1976 to the present day. In 2005 the Kulan populations consisted of about 1300 animals in Turkmenistan(850-900 in Badkhyz Reserve and 445 inseven reintroduction sites). In 1991 the reintroduced population in Uzbekistanin Dzheiran Ecocentre numbered 34. There is limited information on the status of the “Persian Onager” in Iran, but recent estimates give a figure of 600 inthe two protected areas (471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, 96 inBahramgor Reserve in 1996, and four reintroduced animals in Yazd Provincein 2000). There were also five reintroduced onagers in Taif (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and a further 100 reintroduced animals in Israelin the same year. The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Asses has fallen in the last 16 years by 52%, the current estimate of mature individuals being 8358. Today in Iran, the Persian Onageris threatened by poaching, overgrazing by livestock, and by competition with livestock at watering points. Shrub removal also degrades the habitat. Khurare threatened by competition with livestock as well as other economic activity such as salt mining and canal building. Kulan have experienced rapid declines in numbers because of increased demand for bushmeat. The threat from pastoralists who complain that Kulan are reducing forage for livestock is increasing. Trophy hunting does not appear to be a problem.","Asa (2002) | Feh, Munkhtuya et al. (2001) | Feh, Shah et al. (2002) | Goyal et al. (1999) | Moehlman, Shah & Feh (2008) | Reading et al. (2001) | Saltz & Rubenstein (1995) | Saltz et al. (2000)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719784/files/figure.png,"2.Asiatic Wild AssEquus hemionusFrench:Hémione/ German:Asiatischer Halbesel/ Spanish:OnagroOther common names:Onager; Gobi Kulan (luteus), Khur(khun, Kulan (kulan), Mongolian Kulan (hemionus), Persian Onager(onager), Syrian Onager(hemippus)Taxonomy.Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775,North-eastern boundary of Mongoliawith Russia, Transbaikalia, S. Chitinsk, 50° N, 115° E.The “Syrian Onager” race hemippus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1855)from Syriaand the Arabian Peninsula is extinct. The “Gobi Kulan” luteus is probably a synonym of the nominate race hemionus. Four extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.h.hemionusPallas,1775—SMongoliaandextendingintoNChina.E.h.khurLesson,1827—LittleRannofKutch,Gujarat,India.E.h.kulanGroves&Mazak,1967—KazakhstanandTurkmenistan(Badkhyzregion).E. h. onager Boddaert, 1785— two reserves in Iran(Touran and Bahram-e-Goor), Israel(Negev Desert), and Saudi Arabia(Taif).Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-250 cm, tail 30-49 cm, shoulder height 126— 130 cm; weight 200-260 kg. Asiatic Wild Asses are characterized by reddish-brown coats in the summer that become paler brown, sandy, or even gray in the winter, depending on subspecies. The flanks and belly are white and some subspecies have a dark brown stripe running along the back. The mane is black and erect and consists of short bristly hair. The tail is short, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The legs are short and thin when compared to other equid species. The hooves are broader and rounder than those of the African Wild Ass (E. africanus) and are the most horse-like of all the asses. Males are slightly larger than females. The subspecies differ in skull morphology. The Transcaspian and Mongolian forms have narrower supraoccipital crests than the Iranian and Indian forms. The Asiatic Wild Ass can reach speeds up to 70 km/h.Habitat.Asiatic Wild Asses live in xeric habitats where rainfall is limited. Many of the subspecies live in flat semi-deserts with extremely hot days and cool nights.Food and Feeding.When grass is abundant, Asiatic Wild Asses are primarily grazers. During the dry season, or in the driest habitats, they will switch to browse, even consuming woody parts of plants. They also eat seedpods and will use their hooves to break apart woody material to reach succulent forbs. In Mongolia, asses often eat snow in the winter as a substitute for drinking water and have been known to dig holes 60 cmdeep to reach water in the summer.On following pages 3 Tibetan Wıld Ass (Equus kiang), 4 African Wild Ass (Equus africanus), 5 Plains Zebra (Equus quagga),6Zebra Grevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi) 7Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra) pages (Equus), 5 (Equus quagga), Gravy’: Equus grevyı, (Equus zebra)Breeding.Gestation in Asiatic Wild Asses is eleven months and breeding is highly seasonal. Births peak during April and September, depending on subspecies and location. Within any one population births occur within a 2-3 month period. Females reach puberty at three years of age and give birth to only one foal at a time. Foals generally stay with their mothers for two years.Activity patterns.Asiatic Wild Asses are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler. Although they obtain most of their water from food, they are almost always seen within 30 kmof water. Lactating females in particular need to drink frequently; at least once per day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The ranging and social behavior of Asiatic Wild Asses is highly variable. Many populations show seasonal movements. Male Asiatic Wild Asses in Israelreturn each spring to breeding areas several weeks before females, typically to claim territories held the previous year. The territories of dominant males are generally distributed around water points. Males unable to defend territories either form all-male bachelor groups or remain on the winter grazing grounds. Females coalesce into groups on the breeding grounds, but the groups are fluid. When populations contain many territorial males, some females move frequently among territories, suggesting that some of them move in search of mating opportunities as well as key resources. Others, especially those with young foals, remain on the territory of one male. Some subspecies, such as the “ Khur” of India, exhibit the same types of social associations as do the Israeli Asiatic Wild Asses, but members of both sexes remain in one area year-round. Others, such as the “Kulan” of the Gobi, exhibit more horse-like social behavior, in which females and their offspring live in closed membership groups and travel to and from water with one male. Males in the Gobi population actively herd females if they stray too far, a behavior not seen in the Khurof the Little Rann of Kutch. Kulan males in the Gobi also defend females and their young from predators, suggesting that some interspecific variation in social organization is related to predation threat.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (subspecies hemionusand khur) and the rest listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Syrian Onager, went extinct in 1927. The largest population of Asiatic Wild Asses in the world is currently in southern Mongolia, and makes up almost 80% of the global population. The “Mongolian Kulan” population was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 + 898 infour areas. There are estimates of 4800-6000 Kulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but they may be a population migrating seasonally from Mongolia. The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur, estimated in 2004 at 3900, in the Little Rann of Kutch. Thisis the only subpopulation of the Asiatic Wild Ass that has steadily increased in size from 1976 to the present day. In 2005 the Kulan populations consisted of about 1300 animals in Turkmenistan(850-900 in Badkhyz Reserve and 445 inseven reintroduction sites). In 1991 the reintroduced population in Uzbekistanin Dzheiran Ecocentre numbered 34. There is limited information on the status of the “Persian Onager” in Iran, but recent estimates give a figure of 600 inthe two protected areas (471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, 96 inBahramgor Reserve in 1996, and four reintroduced animals in Yazd Provincein 2000). There were also five reintroduced onagers in Taif (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and a further 100 reintroduced animals in Israelin the same year. The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Asses has fallen in the last 16 years by 52%, the current estimate of mature individuals being 8358. Today in Iran, the Persian Onageris threatened by poaching, overgrazing by livestock, and by competition with livestock at watering points. Shrub removal also degrades the habitat. Khurare threatened by competition with livestock as well as other economic activity such as salt mining and canal building. Kulan have experienced rapid declines in numbers because of increased demand for bushmeat. The threat from pastoralists who complain that Kulan are reducing forage for livestock is increasing. Trophy hunting does not appear to be a problem.Bibliography.Asa (2002), Feh, Munkhtuya et al. (2001), Feh, Shah et al. (2002), Goyal et al. (1999), Moehlman, Shah & Feh (2008), Reading et al. (2001), Saltz & Rubenstein (1995), Saltz et al. (2000)." +03B0E520E8125867FFAAAB80EEA6F941,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,139,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8125867FFAAAB80EEA6F941.xml,Equus przewalskii,Equus,przewalskii,Poliakov,1881,Cheval de Przewalski @fr | Przewalski-Pferd @de | Caballo de Przewalski @es | Asian Wild Horse @en | Dzungarian Horse @en | Mongolian Wild Horse @en | Takhi @en,"Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881,Gutschen, Chinese—Russian border.The taxonomy of Prezwalski’s Horse is problematic and unresolved. C. P. Groves proposed that all horses surviving into modern times belonged to one species, E. ferus, with three subspecies: E. f. ferus(the “Tarpan”), E. f. sylvestrisat the eastern edge of Eastern Europe, and E. f. przewalskiiof Western Asia. Although feral descendants of the domestic Horse (E. caballus) roam freely in many locations around the world, Przewalski’s Horse is the only truly wild horse, although all its populations derive from reintroductions from zoos around the world. Analyses of nucleotide sequences on X and Y chromosomes place the two species in the same clade. Despite the fact that Prezwalski’s Horses have 66 chromosomes and domestic Horses have 64, introgression from interbreeding has occurred in the wild and in captivity. When coupled with the fact that Przewalski’s Horses have gone through a genetic bottleneck via captive breeding in zoos, the likelihood remains that it and the domestic Horse species today remain within the same clade. Monotypic.","Limited to small populations that have been reintroduced to the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal and Khomin Tal Nature Reserves of Mongolia, and the Ka La Mai Li Shan Nature Reserve of China.","Head-body 220-280 cm,tail 99-111 cm (including hair), shoulder height 120-146 cm; weight 200-300 kg. Przewalski’s Horses are stockier than domestic Horses and have long tails, thick black erect manes that only fall to the side when very long, chestnuts on both hind and forelimbs, and large rounded hooves. Their coats are a uniform dusty or dun color on the body and flanks; the belly and face are yellowish-white, and there are traces of yellowish-white stripes just above the hooves. Przewalski’s Horses have a relatively small skull, with a long diastema, and a long, rounded occipital crest.","The historic range of Przewalski’s Horse is not known. The last wild horse was seen in the very arid Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia, and there has been much debate about whether it was in its preferred habitat or justits last refuge. One view holds that of the three wild horse species that once inhabited the grasslands of Europe, Central Asia, and China, Przewalski’s Horse was the one that thrived at the easternmost edge of the range, where it encountered limited water and arid conditions as part of its natural habitat. Another view holds that these horses favored the more mesic grassland steppes of Mongolia, but as a result of more than a thousand years of competitive exclusion by nomadic pastoralists, they were forced into the deserts, where they fared poorly and died out. Domestic Horses do not fare well in dry climes, but ecological studies on feral horses show that some populations can survive in arid environments where food is scare and the best patches are often far from water. However, other studies show that populations survive and reproduce better in more mesic areas where vegetation is more abundant, more evenly distributed, and water is close to feeding areas. Grass and water are more plentiful in the mesic grasslands of Mongolia, but the winters there are harsher than in the Dzungarian Gobi. Today, populations of Przewalski’s Horses have been reintroduced into the mesic grasslands of central Mongoliaas well as arid areas on the edge of the Gobi Desert and the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, which lies adjacent to the painted desert of China. Populations continue to survive in both xeric and mesic areas, although the population in Chinarequires more active management than the ones in Mongolia.","Like feral horses, Przewalski’s Horses are grazers. They inhabit steppe vegetation, especially the grasslands and shrublands of Central Asia. In summer they consume high-quality forage near water. In the winter, however, they must subsist on more fibrous food that can be difficult to locate because of snow cover. Fortunately, strong winds often blow the snow away, making succulent vegetation available.","Females come into estrus for the first time at two years of age, but usually do not breed until three. Males reach sexual maturity at three years old, but do not mate until 5-6 years of age, when they are able to dominate enough males so they can maintain long-term associations with mature females. As in domestic horses, females commence cycling in spring and continue cycling throughout the summer. Since gestation is 11-12 months (330-350 days), periods of breeding and birthing coincide.","Przewalski’s Horses are active day and night, but generally sleep for four hours per day, mostly at night. In Mongolia, during the summer they are most active and move to streams and brooks to forage and drink. During the hottest times of the day they move up to ridge tops where cool breezes reduce attacks by biting flies. Przewalski’s Horses of the Khustain Nuruu National Park in Mongolia coexist with Gray Wolves (Canis lupus). Foals are at the highest risk, and when wolves are detected, females, both mothers and non-mothers, form a defensive circle around the foals. As long as three or more females are present, foal chances of survival are high.","Przewalski’s Horses exhibit many of the same behaviors as feral horses. Females live in family groups that associate with a single breeding male. These harems move within large home ranges that overlap those of other family groups. Males unable to form long-term associations with females live in all-male bachelor groups whose membership is more fluid than that of family groups. Competition among males over mating access to females is common, yet ritualized signaling before escalating to physical violenceis the norm. Males typically mark the urine of females with their own urine and they repeatedly defecate in communal dung piles along well-traveled routes as a way of indicating and assessing how recently other males were present. Both sexes disperse from their natal groups upon reaching sexual maturity. As populations expanded at release sites, home ranges changed from virtually non-overlapping areas of 200-1100 ha to overlapping ranges averaging 1000 ha in size. Ranges tend to be larger in summer.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It was classified as Extinct in the Wild until 2008, but since then a series of reintroductions have created free ranging populations in both mesic and arid environments in Mongoliaand China. It likely once roamed the steppes of Chinaand Central Asia; there are written accounts from Tibetfrom around 900 Ap. Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in Mongolia, but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shara-Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi. Since the late 1970s, matings of captive animals have been managed world-wide, with the goal of maintaining over 95% of the existing genetic diversity for the next 200 years. Preventing the rapid loss of genetic diversity has helped enhance the genetic potential of free ranging populations. In 2008 there were approximately 325 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia. All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program. In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) in Xinjianghas established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses. Since 2007 one harem group 1s roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi; another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter.","Ballou (1994) | Berger (1986) | Bokonyi (1974) | Boyd & Houpt (1994) | Boyd et al. (2008) | Dierendonck et al. (1996) | Groves (1994) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b) | Ryder & Chemnick (1990) | Zimmerman & Ryder (1995)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719780/files/figure.png,"1.Przewalski’s HorseEquus przewalskiiFrench:Cheval de Przewalski/ German:Przewalski-Pferd/ Spanish:Caballo de PrzewalskiOther common names:Asian Wild Horse, Dzungarian Horse, Mongolian Wild Horse, TakhiTaxonomy.Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881,Gutschen, Chinese—Russian border.The taxonomy of Prezwalski’s Horse is problematic and unresolved. C. P. Groves proposed that all horses surviving into modern times belonged to one species, E. ferus, with three subspecies: E. f. ferus(the “Tarpan”), E. f. sylvestrisat the eastern edge of Eastern Europe, and E. f. przewalskiiof Western Asia. Although feral descendants of the domestic Horse (E. caballus) roam freely in many locations around the world, Przewalski’s Horse is the only truly wild horse, although all its populations derive from reintroductions from zoos around the world. Analyses of nucleotide sequences on X and Y chromosomes place the two species in the same clade. Despite the fact that Prezwalski’s Horses have 66 chromosomes and domestic Horses have 64, introgression from interbreeding has occurred in the wild and in captivity. When coupled with the fact that Przewalski’s Horses have gone through a genetic bottleneck via captive breeding in zoos, the likelihood remains that it and the domestic Horse species today remain within the same clade. Monotypic.Distribution.Limited to small populations that have been reintroduced to the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal and Khomin Tal Nature Reserves of Mongolia, and the Ka La Mai Li Shan Nature Reserve of China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-280 cm,tail 99-111 cm (including hair), shoulder height 120-146 cm; weight 200-300 kg. Przewalski’s Horses are stockier than domestic Horses and have long tails, thick black erect manes that only fall to the side when very long, chestnuts on both hind and forelimbs, and large rounded hooves. Their coats are a uniform dusty or dun color on the body and flanks; the belly and face are yellowish-white, and there are traces of yellowish-white stripes just above the hooves. Przewalski’s Horses have a relatively small skull, with a long diastema, and a long, rounded occipital crest.Habitat.The historic range of Przewalski’s Horse is not known. The last wild horse was seen in the very arid Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia, and there has been much debate about whether it was in its preferred habitat or justits last refuge. One view holds that of the three wild horse species that once inhabited the grasslands of Europe, Central Asia, and China, Przewalski’s Horse was the one that thrived at the easternmost edge of the range, where it encountered limited water and arid conditions as part of its natural habitat. Another view holds that these horses favored the more mesic grassland steppes of Mongolia, but as a result of more than a thousand years of competitive exclusion by nomadic pastoralists, they were forced into the deserts, where they fared poorly and died out. Domestic Horses do not fare well in dry climes, but ecological studies on feral horses show that some populations can survive in arid environments where food is scare and the best patches are often far from water. However, other studies show that populations survive and reproduce better in more mesic areas where vegetation is more abundant, more evenly distributed, and water is close to feeding areas. Grass and water are more plentiful in the mesic grasslands of Mongolia, but the winters there are harsher than in the Dzungarian Gobi. Today, populations of Przewalski’s Horses have been reintroduced into the mesic grasslands of central Mongoliaas well as arid areas on the edge of the Gobi Desert and the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, which lies adjacent to the painted desert of China. Populations continue to survive in both xeric and mesic areas, although the population in Chinarequires more active management than the ones in Mongolia.Food and Feeding.Like feral horses, Przewalski’s Horses are grazers. They inhabit steppe vegetation, especially the grasslands and shrublands of Central Asia. In summer they consume high-quality forage near water. In the winter, however, they must subsist on more fibrous food that can be difficult to locate because of snow cover. Fortunately, strong winds often blow the snow away, making succulent vegetation available.Breeding.Females come into estrus for the first time at two years of age, but usually do not breed until three. Males reach sexual maturity at three years old, but do not mate until 5-6 years of age, when they are able to dominate enough males so they can maintain long-term associations with mature females. As in domestic horses, females commence cycling in spring and continue cycling throughout the summer. Since gestation is 11-12 months (330-350 days), periods of breeding and birthing coincide.Activity patterns.Przewalski’s Horses are active day and night, but generally sleep for four hours per day, mostly at night. In Mongolia, during the summer they are most active and move to streams and brooks to forage and drink. During the hottest times of the day they move up to ridge tops where cool breezes reduce attacks by biting flies. Przewalski’s Horses of the Khustain Nuruu National Park in Mongolia coexist with Gray Wolves (Canis lupus). Foals are at the highest risk, and when wolves are detected, females, both mothers and non-mothers, form a defensive circle around the foals. As long as three or more females are present, foal chances of survival are high.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Przewalski’s Horses exhibit many of the same behaviors as feral horses. Females live in family groups that associate with a single breeding male. These harems move within large home ranges that overlap those of other family groups. Males unable to form long-term associations with females live in all-male bachelor groups whose membership is more fluid than that of family groups. Competition among males over mating access to females is common, yet ritualized signaling before escalating to physical violenceis the norm. Males typically mark the urine of females with their own urine and they repeatedly defecate in communal dung piles along well-traveled routes as a way of indicating and assessing how recently other males were present. Both sexes disperse from their natal groups upon reaching sexual maturity. As populations expanded at release sites, home ranges changed from virtually non-overlapping areas of 200-1100 ha to overlapping ranges averaging 1000 ha in size. Ranges tend to be larger in summer.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It was classified as Extinct in the Wild until 2008, but since then a series of reintroductions have created free ranging populations in both mesic and arid environments in Mongoliaand China. It likely once roamed the steppes of Chinaand Central Asia; there are written accounts from Tibetfrom around 900 Ap. Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in Mongolia, but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shara-Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi. Since the late 1970s, matings of captive animals have been managed world-wide, with the goal of maintaining over 95% of the existing genetic diversity for the next 200 years. Preventing the rapid loss of genetic diversity has helped enhance the genetic potential of free ranging populations. In 2008 there were approximately 325 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia. All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program. In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) in Xinjianghas established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses. Since 2007 one harem group 1s roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi; another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter.Bibliography.Ballou (1994), Berger (1986), Bokonyi (1974), Boyd & Houpt (1994), Boyd et al. (2008), Dierendonck et al. (1996), Groves (1994), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b), Ryder & Chemnick (1990), Zimmerman & Ryder (1995)." +03B0E520E8135861FA63A123EFB2F480,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8135861FA63A123EFB2F480.xml,Equus africanus,Equus,africanus,Heuglin & Fitzinger,1866,Ane sauvage @fr | Afrikanischer Wildesel @de | Asnosalvaje @es | Asno @es | Atlas Wild Ass (atlanticus) @en | Nubian Wild Ass (africanus) @en | Somali Wild Ass (somalicus) @en,"Asinusafricanus Heuglin & Fitzinger, 1866,Nubia. Restricted to Ain Saba, Eritrea, by Schlawe in 1980.The “Atlas Wild Ass” race atlanticus (Thomas, 1884)from North Africa is extinct. Two extant subspecies recognized.","E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct.E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea(Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia(Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somaliafrom the Meti and Erigavo in the N to NugaalValley and Shebelle River in the S.","Head-body 195-205 cm, tail 40-45 cm, shoulder height 115-125 cm; weight 270-280 kg. The African Wild Ass is the ancestor of the domestic Donkey (E. asinus). It is strong, lean, and muscular, with a fawn or gray coat dorsally and a white belly and legs. It has long ears, a stiff erect mane,a tail ending with a tuft of black hair, and extremely narrow hooves that appear designed for surefootedness rather than speed. The “Nubian Wild Ass” is gray with a shoulder stripe; the “ SomaliWild Ass”is gray and has both leg and shoulder stripes.",The African Wild Ass inhabits hilly and stony deserts as well as semi-desert grasslands and euphorbia and aloe shrublands that receive 100-200 mm of rainfall annually. Sandy habitats are avoided. Recorded up to 1500 mof elevation in Ethiopia.,"The African Wild Ass mostly grazes, eating grasses, especially Eragrostis, Dactyloctenium, and Chrysopogon when available, and tougher Panicum and Lasiurus species, as well as herbs and general browse. The asses use their incisors and hooves to break apart the tougher foods. Although they can sustain water losses of up to 30% of their body weight, they can replenish these losses within two to five minutes. Nevertheless, they need to drink water at least once every three days and most individuals are observed within 30 kmof a water source.","Although the age of first estrus has not been documented in African Wild Asses, in feral asses, first estrus occurs at about twelve months of age. Most females, however, give birth at 2-2-5 years of age and give birth to one foal every other year thereafter. Females cycle every 20-21 days until they conceive and gestation ranges from 330 to 365 days. Foals are independent soon after birth, often remaining alone for long periods as mothers seek water to maintain lactation. Foals begin grazing within weeks of birth but typically suckle for six months. Males tolerate other males within their territories even when females are present; dominance ensures that mating access is controlled mostly by territory holders. Breeding occurs during the wet season, with most births between October and February. The life span of wild asses is thought to be around 25-30 years.","The species is most active in the early morning, late afternoon, or at night, when the desert is cooler. During the hottest part of the day it seeks shade in nearby rocky hills whereit rests. Its body temperature can range from 35°C to 41-5°C, depending on ambient temperature. Females maintain higher body temperatures than males by sweating less, thus retaining water longer.","African Wild Asses live in small groups that are typically composed of fewer than five individuals. Associations are usually temporary, with the only permanent one consisting of a mother and her young. Gatherings occur at watering places or when searching for scarce forage. Low food availability and poor-quality forage prevent females from feeding in close proximity and associating consistently. Temporary groups vary in composition, sometimes containing only members of a single sex, sometimes members of both sexes. Breeding males defend large territories with essential resources, especially water, that females need. Males associate with females who enter their territories, and the better the territory, the longer females will stay, thus increasing a territorial male’s reproductive success. When conditions on a territory are not yet attractive to females, territorial males are found alone or occasionally in bachelor male groups. Territories are often 20 km? in size, with boundaries marked by conspicuous dung piles. Females range more widely, readily moving among male territories.","CITES I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly, the African Wild Ass was distributed across large stretches of northern Africa, but now only occupies a small part ofits historic range. The Atlas Wild Ass occupied the north-west region of Algeriaand adjacent parts of Moroccoand Tunisia, becoming extinct around 300 ap. Threats to its survival come from hunting for food and body parts used in traditional healing, competition with livestock for food and water, and possible interbreeding and introgression from the domestic donkey. Fewer than 600 individuals of the Somali Wild Ass are thoughtto survive in the wild. Only Eritrea, where up to 400 individuals may survive,is thought to have a stable population. Fewer than 160 are believed to survive in Ethiopia, and fewer than ten in Somalia. The Nubian Wild Ass was present in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the Red Sea, south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. However no sightings have been confirmed since the 1970s, and their survival in these regions is now in doubt.","Antonious (1938) | Groves & Willoughby (1981) | Kingdon (1997) | Maloiy (1970) | McCort (1980) | Moehlman (1998, 2002) | Moehiman, Yohannes et al. (2008) | Wilson & Reeder (1993) | Woodward (1979)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719790/files/figure.png,"4.African Wild AssEquus africanusFrench:Ane sauvage/ German:Afrikanischer Wildesel/ Spanish:AsnosalvajeOther common names:Atlas Wild Ass (atlanticus), Nubian Wild Ass (africanus), SomaliWild Ass (somalicus)Taxonomy.Asinusafricanus Heuglin & Fitzinger, 1866,Nubia. Restricted to Ain Saba, Eritrea, by Schlawe in 1980.The “Atlas Wild Ass” race atlanticus (Thomas, 1884)from North Africa is extinct. Two extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct.E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea(Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia(Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somaliafrom the Meti and Erigavo in the N to NugaalValley and Shebelle River in the S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-205 cm, tail 40-45 cm, shoulder height 115-125 cm; weight 270-280 kg. The African Wild Ass is the ancestor of the domestic Donkey (E. asinus). It is strong, lean, and muscular, with a fawn or gray coat dorsally and a white belly and legs. It has long ears, a stiff erect mane,a tail ending with a tuft of black hair, and extremely narrow hooves that appear designed for surefootedness rather than speed. The “Nubian Wild Ass” is gray with a shoulder stripe; the “ SomaliWild Ass”is gray and has both leg and shoulder stripes.Habitat.The African Wild Ass inhabits hilly and stony deserts as well as semi-desert grasslands and euphorbia and aloe shrublands that receive 100-200 mm of rainfall annually. Sandy habitats are avoided. Recorded up to 1500 mof elevation in Ethiopia.Food and Feeding.The African Wild Ass mostly grazes, eating grasses, especially Eragrostis, Dactyloctenium, and Chrysopogon when available, and tougher Panicum and Lasiurus species, as well as herbs and general browse. The asses use their incisors and hooves to break apart the tougher foods. Although they can sustain water losses of up to 30% of their body weight, they can replenish these losses within two to five minutes. Nevertheless, they need to drink water at least once every three days and most individuals are observed within 30 kmof a water source.Breeding.Although the age of first estrus has not been documented in African Wild Asses, in feral asses, first estrus occurs at about twelve months of age. Most females, however, give birth at 2-2-5 years of age and give birth to one foal every other year thereafter. Females cycle every 20-21 days until they conceive and gestation ranges from 330 to 365 days. Foals are independent soon after birth, often remaining alone for long periods as mothers seek water to maintain lactation. Foals begin grazing within weeks of birth but typically suckle for six months. Males tolerate other males within their territories even when females are present; dominance ensures that mating access is controlled mostly by territory holders. Breeding occurs during the wet season, with most births between October and February. The life span of wild asses is thought to be around 25-30 years.Activity patterns.The species is most active in the early morning, late afternoon, or at night, when the desert is cooler. During the hottest part of the day it seeks shade in nearby rocky hills whereit rests. Its body temperature can range from 35°C to 41-5°C, depending on ambient temperature. Females maintain higher body temperatures than males by sweating less, thus retaining water longer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Wild Asses live in small groups that are typically composed of fewer than five individuals. Associations are usually temporary, with the only permanent one consisting of a mother and her young. Gatherings occur at watering places or when searching for scarce forage. Low food availability and poor-quality forage prevent females from feeding in close proximity and associating consistently. Temporary groups vary in composition, sometimes containing only members of a single sex, sometimes members of both sexes. Breeding males defend large territories with essential resources, especially water, that females need. Males associate with females who enter their territories, and the better the territory, the longer females will stay, thus increasing a territorial male’s reproductive success. When conditions on a territory are not yet attractive to females, territorial males are found alone or occasionally in bachelor male groups. Territories are often 20 km? in size, with boundaries marked by conspicuous dung piles. Females range more widely, readily moving among male territories.Status and Conservation.CITES I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly, the African Wild Ass was distributed across large stretches of northern Africa, but now only occupies a small part ofits historic range. The Atlas Wild Ass occupied the north-west region of Algeriaand adjacent parts of Moroccoand Tunisia, becoming extinct around 300 ap. Threats to its survival come from hunting for food and body parts used in traditional healing, competition with livestock for food and water, and possible interbreeding and introgression from the domestic donkey. Fewer than 600 individuals of the Somali Wild Ass are thoughtto survive in the wild. Only Eritrea, where up to 400 individuals may survive,is thought to have a stable population. Fewer than 160 are believed to survive in Ethiopia, and fewer than ten in Somalia. The Nubian Wild Ass was present in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the Red Sea, south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. However no sightings have been confirmed since the 1970s, and their survival in these regions is now in doubt.Bibliography.Antonious (1938), Groves & Willoughby (1981), Kingdon (1997), Maloiy (1970), McCort (1980), Moehlman (1998, 2002), Moehiman, Yohannes et al. (2008), Wilson & Reeder (1993), Woodward (1979)." +03B0E520E8135866FF1AA3CDEC6BF56D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,140,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8135866FF1AA3CDEC6BF56D.xml,Equus kiang,Equus,kiang,Moorcroft,1841,Kiang @fr | Kiang @de | Kiang @es | Kiang; Eastern Kiang(holdereri) @en | Southern Kiang(polyodon) @en | Western Kiang(kiang) @en,"Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841,Ladakh, state ofJammu and Kashmir, India.Three subspecies recognized.","E.k.kiangMoorcroft,1841—WChina(SWXinjiang,C&WXizang),NEPakistan(KhunjerabNationalPark),NIndia(Ladakh),andNNepal(Mustang).E.k.holderersMatschie,1911—WCChina(SEXinjiang,Quinghai,Gansu&EXizang).E. k. polyodon Hodgson, 1847— SW China(S Xizang) and N India(N Sikkim); also possibly in extreme N & NW Bhutan.","Head-body 182-214 cm, tail 32-45 cm, shoulder height 132-142 cm; weight 250-400 kg. Tibetan Wild Asses have large heads, thick muzzles, relatively long manes, and tails with long hairs not restricted to the tip. Their hooves are broad and rounded like the hooves of horses. Tibetan Wild Asses have dark chestnut-brown coats covering the upper flanks and thighs and white bellies, lower flanks, legs, and rump patches. The coat is paler in the winter and redder in the summer. The mane and the edges and tips of the ears are black. A dark brown dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the tail and each hoofis circled by a thin black ring. Chestnuts are found only on the forelegs. Males are slightly larger than females.","The Tibetan Wild Ass is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia at elevations from 2700 mto 5300 m. It rangesas far south as the Himalayas and north to the Kunlun-Arjin Shan Mountains. Tibetan Wild Asses inhabit three major vegetation zones: alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Alpine meadows are generally found at elevations below 4500 min areas where precipitation exceeds 400 mmper year. Vegetation in these meadows starts growing earlier than in the other areas and short sedges, such as Kobresia, and forbs cover about 25-30% of the surface. Alpine steppe is the most abundant habitat on the Tibetan Plateau, occurring at elevations between 4000 mand 5000 m. Precipitation is low and vegetation is sparse, covering less than 15% of the ground, with Stipa, Festuca, and Poa being the most common grasses. Desert steppe occurs at elevations greater than 5000 m. Although the vegetation of the desert steppe is similar to that of the alpine steppe, only 5% of the ground is covered in vegetation. Not surprisingly, the Tibetan Wild Ass occupies mostly alpine meadows and steppe. Almost 80% of Tibetan Wild Ass sightings are in the basins in these habitats. Most of the other sightings are on the hills. Open plains seem to be used as refuges from predators.","Tibetan Wild Asses are grazers, mostly concentrating on Stipa, which comprises up to 656% ofits diet in summer and up to 95% in winter. Small amounts of forbs and shrubs are also consumed, and in winter, digging for roots is also common. Waterholes are scarce in the summer and often frozen in the winter, when snow is eaten instead. When the vegetation is of high quality, Tibetan Wild Asses acquire most of their water from vegetation.","The mating season is late and short compared to other seasonally breeding equids, running from late July to the end of August. Gestation length appears to vary from eleven to twelve months. Females typically give birth to one foal every other year. Little is known about the age of sexual maturity in the wild, but it is likely that it is similar to the desert-living “Kulan” (E. hemionuskulan), which begins breeding between three and four years of age. The age of maturity in males is even less certain. In captivity one male showed no signs of sexual activity by 3-5 years of age. In the wild, males occasionally injure newborn foals while attempting to mate with their mothers.","Tibetan Wild Asses move seasonally among habitats. They disperse in small groups into the hills during the summer in search of high-quality food. As harsh winter conditions set in, they return to basins and flatlands at lower elevations, often forming large concentrations. In the summer, they move daily from lower areas where they spend the night to higher elevations as daytime temperatures rise.","Tibetan Wild Asses are typically found alone or in small groups. Aggregations of several hundred individuals occur, but these seem to be seasonally driven. During the summer, individuals disperse and scatter, but during winter groups coalesce. Tibetan Wild Ass groups are not cohesive. The only strong bond is between mothers and their foals. Adults come together for short periods and then disperse. Tibetan Wild Asses show the same fission-fusion social system as Asiatic Wild Asses (E. hemionus), African Wild Asses (E. africanus), and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). In this system lone males establish territories containing critical resources that females need. In the Ladakh region, territories are 0-5-5 km? in size. Young males unable to defend territories join all-male bachelor groups. Old males wander alone. Territorial males aggressively defend their territories. Ritualized displays involving a head-up, ears laid back, horizontaltail display are often accompanied by a wheezing bray. Long chases and contests involving rearing, kicking, and biting on the mane, neck, and tail occur when ritualized signals fail to determine dominance.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current global population of the Tibetan Wild Ass is estimated at 60,000-70,000 individuals, 90% of them in China. This Chinese population of approximately 56,000-68,500 individuals is divided between Qinghaiand Gansu(15,000), Xinjiang(4500-5500), and Xizang(37,000-48,000). The population outside Chinais estimated at 1600-2145. Within this wide range, Tibetan Wild Ass distribution is fragmented, and currently most populations are found in protected areas or areas which are under armyjurisdiction.","Feng Zuojian (1991a, 1991b) | Fox et al. (1991) | Goldstein & Beall (1989) | Groves & Mazak (1967) | Harris & Miller (1995) | Schaller (1998) | Schaller & Gu (1994) | Shah (2002) | Shah et al. (2008) | St. Louis & Coté(2009) | Zhang Chieh (1984)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719788/files/figure.png,"3.Tibetan Wild AssEquus kiangFrench:Kiang/ German:Kiang/ Spanish:KiangOther common names:Kiang; Eastern Kiang(holdereri), Southern Kiang(polyodon), Western Kiang(kiang)Taxonomy.Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841,Ladakh, state ofJammu and Kashmir, India.Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.k.kiangMoorcroft,1841—WChina(SWXinjiang,C&WXizang),NEPakistan(KhunjerabNationalPark),NIndia(Ladakh),andNNepal(Mustang).E.k.holderersMatschie,1911—WCChina(SEXinjiang,Quinghai,Gansu&EXizang).E. k. polyodon Hodgson, 1847— SW China(S Xizang) and N India(N Sikkim); also possibly in extreme N & NW Bhutan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 182-214 cm, tail 32-45 cm, shoulder height 132-142 cm; weight 250-400 kg. Tibetan Wild Asses have large heads, thick muzzles, relatively long manes, and tails with long hairs not restricted to the tip. Their hooves are broad and rounded like the hooves of horses. Tibetan Wild Asses have dark chestnut-brown coats covering the upper flanks and thighs and white bellies, lower flanks, legs, and rump patches. The coat is paler in the winter and redder in the summer. The mane and the edges and tips of the ears are black. A dark brown dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the tail and each hoofis circled by a thin black ring. Chestnuts are found only on the forelegs. Males are slightly larger than females.Habitat.The Tibetan Wild Ass is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia at elevations from 2700 mto 5300 m. It rangesas far south as the Himalayas and north to the Kunlun-Arjin Shan Mountains. Tibetan Wild Asses inhabit three major vegetation zones: alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Alpine meadows are generally found at elevations below 4500 min areas where precipitation exceeds 400 mmper year. Vegetation in these meadows starts growing earlier than in the other areas and short sedges, such as Kobresia, and forbs cover about 25-30% of the surface. Alpine steppe is the most abundant habitat on the Tibetan Plateau, occurring at elevations between 4000 mand 5000 m. Precipitation is low and vegetation is sparse, covering less than 15% of the ground, with Stipa, Festuca, and Poa being the most common grasses. Desert steppe occurs at elevations greater than 5000 m. Although the vegetation of the desert steppe is similar to that of the alpine steppe, only 5% of the ground is covered in vegetation. Not surprisingly, the Tibetan Wild Ass occupies mostly alpine meadows and steppe. Almost 80% of Tibetan Wild Ass sightings are in the basins in these habitats. Most of the other sightings are on the hills. Open plains seem to be used as refuges from predators.Food and Feeding.Tibetan Wild Asses are grazers, mostly concentrating on Stipa, which comprises up to 656% ofits diet in summer and up to 95% in winter. Small amounts of forbs and shrubs are also consumed, and in winter, digging for roots is also common. Waterholes are scarce in the summer and often frozen in the winter, when snow is eaten instead. When the vegetation is of high quality, Tibetan Wild Asses acquire most of their water from vegetation.Breeding.The mating season is late and short compared to other seasonally breeding equids, running from late July to the end of August. Gestation length appears to vary from eleven to twelve months. Females typically give birth to one foal every other year. Little is known about the age of sexual maturity in the wild, but it is likely that it is similar to the desert-living “Kulan” (E. hemionuskulan), which begins breeding between three and four years of age. The age of maturity in males is even less certain. In captivity one male showed no signs of sexual activity by 3-5 years of age. In the wild, males occasionally injure newborn foals while attempting to mate with their mothers.Activity patterns.Tibetan Wild Asses move seasonally among habitats. They disperse in small groups into the hills during the summer in search of high-quality food. As harsh winter conditions set in, they return to basins and flatlands at lower elevations, often forming large concentrations. In the summer, they move daily from lower areas where they spend the night to higher elevations as daytime temperatures rise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tibetan Wild Asses are typically found alone or in small groups. Aggregations of several hundred individuals occur, but these seem to be seasonally driven. During the summer, individuals disperse and scatter, but during winter groups coalesce. Tibetan Wild Ass groups are not cohesive. The only strong bond is between mothers and their foals. Adults come together for short periods and then disperse. Tibetan Wild Asses show the same fission-fusion social system as Asiatic Wild Asses (E. hemionus), African Wild Asses (E. africanus), and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). In this system lone males establish territories containing critical resources that females need. In the Ladakh region, territories are 0-5-5 km? in size. Young males unable to defend territories join all-male bachelor groups. Old males wander alone. Territorial males aggressively defend their territories. Ritualized displays involving a head-up, ears laid back, horizontaltail display are often accompanied by a wheezing bray. Long chases and contests involving rearing, kicking, and biting on the mane, neck, and tail occur when ritualized signals fail to determine dominance.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current global population of the Tibetan Wild Ass is estimated at 60,000-70,000 individuals, 90% of them in China. This Chinese population of approximately 56,000-68,500 individuals is divided between Qinghaiand Gansu(15,000), Xinjiang(4500-5500), and Xizang(37,000-48,000). The population outside Chinais estimated at 1600-2145. Within this wide range, Tibetan Wild Ass distribution is fragmented, and currently most populations are found in protected areas or areas which are under armyjurisdiction.Bibliography.Feng Zuojian (1991a, 1991b), Fox et al. (1991), Goldstein & Beall (1989), Groves & Mazak (1967), Harris & Miller (1995), Schaller (1998), Schaller & Gu (1994), Shah (2002), Shah et al. (2008), St. Louis & Coté(2009), Zhang Chieh (1984)." +03B0E520E8145860FFB0A181E90EF9C9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,141,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8145860FFB0A181E90EF9C9.xml,Equus quagga,Equus,quagga,Boddaert,1785,Zebre de Burchell @fr | Steppenzebra @de | Cebra de Burchell @es | Common Zebra @en | Painted Quagga; Burchell's Zebra(burchell) @en | Chapman's Zebra(chapmanni) @en | Crawshay's Zebra(crawshaii) @en | Damara Zebra(antiquorum) @en | Grant's Zebra(boehmi) @en | Quagga(quagga) @en | Zambezi Zebra(selousi) @en,"Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785,South Africa, south of Vaal River.Revisions have been made to the taxonomy of the Plains Zebra, whose extant species complex was until recently named E.burchelli, with the extinct form designated as a distinct species, the “ Quagga” (FE. quagga), which occupied the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal rivers and west of the Drakensberg mountain range. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the ranges of Quaggas and “Burchell’s Zebra” (E. q. burchelli) overlapped in a narrow zone north of the Orange River, unlike the other Plains Zebrasubspecies whose ranges do not overlap, but they apparently did not interbreed. However, recent molecular analyses using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA demonstrate that the variation among living and extinct forms is no greater than among modern breeds of domestic Horses (FE. caballus). Thus the Plains Zebraand the extinct Quaggaare now considered a single species, E. quagga. The Plains Zebrashows a genetic and morphological cline from northern Kenyato southern Africa; generally, the farther south, the less the degree of stripe coverage, while body size increases. With the nominate subspecies’ demise, only six extant subspecies are recognized, located around three widely separated regional centres.","E.q.antiguorumC.H.Smith,1841—Angola,Namibia,andWBotswana.E.q.boehmiMatschie,1892—ZambiaWofLuangwaRiver,DRCongo,NTanzania,Uganda,Kenya,Ethiopia,andSomalia.E.q.burchelliGray,1824—CSouthAfrica.E.q.chapmanniLayard,1865—NSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandEBotswana.E.q.crawshaiDeWinton,1896—ZambiaEofLuangwaRiver,Malawi,SETanzania,andMozambique.E. q. selousi Pocock, 1897— E Zimbabweand W Mozambique.","Head-body 217-246 cm, tail 47-57 cm, shoulder height 127-140 cm; weight 175-320 kg. The Plains Zebrais a muscular horse with a short neck, barrel chest, and sturdy legs. The stripes are variable, but in general they are wide, broader than those of Mountain Zebras (LE. zebra) and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). Apart from Burchell’s and “Damara” Zebras,stripes cover the flanks and touch under the belly. Stripes on the rump are typically bold and wide in all subspecies except the Damara Zebra, where they are thin and often wavy. In Burchell’s and Damara Zebras, both southern African subspecies, there are often grayish shadow stripes in the center of the white stripes. In all subspecies, males are slightly larger than females and have stripes that are blacker than the browner ones of females.","Plains Zebras inhabit tropical, subtropical, and temperate grasslands, steppes, savannas, and woodlands, from sea level to 4300 mon Mount Kenya. Since Plains Zebras need to drink daily, they are restricted to habitats where water can be accessed within half a day’s walk. Only deserts, dense woodlands, and permanent wetlands are avoided.","Plains Zebraare true grazers. As hindgut fermenters, they require large quantities of food, so it is not surprising that they spend up to 20 hours per day foraging. Yet they are selective foragers, disproportionately consuming Perisetum and Themeda grasses when available. They can only forage in mesic areas where feeding sites and watering points are close together.","Plains Zebras give birth to one young after a gestation period of twelve months. Females generally stay near their groups when giving birth. When the foal is strong enough to move about, the mother and foal rejoin the group. Foals nurse for about six months, but begin feeding on grass by about one month of age. Females become sexually mature between two and three years of age, but often cycle without conceiving for the first year. Males generally only begin maintaining harems at five years of age.","Plains Zebras are active day and night and organize their daily activities around drinking. Most individuals need to drink once per day, but in very dry conditions, some drink more often. During the dry season the need for water constrains Plains Zebragroups from wandering more than 5-10 km from reliable water. After the rains, they spread out and range widely, seeking superior grazing areas located near transient water sources.","Because Plains Zebras are restricted to habitats where food and water are in close proximity, females of different reproductive classes can stay together. As a result, females, regardless of reproductive state, form groups and associate with a single male, who keeps away marauding males. By reducing sexual harassment, stallions provide females with a valuable material reward— increased foraging time. As in feral horses, females that associate with high-ranking males, or males rising rapidly in rank, can feed for up to six minutes longer per hour than females associating with less able males. Since Plains Zebras feed for up to 20 hours per day, females associating with the best males typically gain an additional two hours of foraging per day, thus increasing their fitness. Plains Zebraassociations are often large, consisting of hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals. Since these herds include both harem and bachelor male groups, Plains Zebras live in the most complex societies of all equids. Herd size varies. It depends directly on the abundance of vegetation, but also on the strength of a social factor—the degree of cuckolding pressure exerted by bachelor males. When vegetation is abundant, groups tend to be large. But the largest herds form when bachelor groups are large. By banding together, breeding stallions amortize costs and collectively dominate large bachelor associations. For females, harassment reduction helps maximize foraging. Apparently females find life in herds no different from life in isolated and unchallenged harems, thus permitting herds to form. Many Plains Zebrapopulations are seasonally migratory, traveling hundreds of kilometers as they track vegetation flushes induced by predictable seasonal shifts in rainfall. Others stay put when the migrants leave, suggesting that these strategies are alternative solutions, shaped by trade-offs between vegetation quality and quantity. At any one locale, migratory or resident populations also exhibit local movements among landscape zones. During the rains, Plains Zebras graze on hilltops where vegetation productivity is high and good visibility increases safety from predators. When the rains cease and grasses stop growing, the zebras seek habitats where food is more abundant, because of dietary demands associated with their relatively large body size. They move to valleys and basins where grass is abundant, even though it is fibrous and of low quality. Their grazing transforms these habitats. Residual moisture and increased light penetration induces vegetation growth, which benefits the zebras as well as wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) and Thompson's gazelles (Eudorcas spp.). As ruminants, these species require higher-quality vegetation than zebras. It is their good fortune that by the time they are forced to leave the hilltops, high-quality vegetation in the valleys is abundant enough to sustain them. Thus Plains Zebras play an important role as engineers stabilizing herbivore communities.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In 2002, total numbers were estimated at ¢.660,000. More than 75% of the world’s Plains Zebras are “Grant’s Zebras” (boehmi), some 200,000 of them in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. The two countries they inhabit, Kenyaand Tanzania, have extensive national park systems earning revenue from tourism, coupled with sophisticated government-supported monitoring systems. Wildlife-friendly ranching practices tend to protect even zebras living on private land in Kenya. Plains Zebras will probably not become threatened in these locales, but aerial survey data from Tanzaniasuggests a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s. Elsewhere, Grant’s Zebras and the other subspecies are faring less well. Civil strife in many countries has led to widespread poaching. Continued habitat conversion to agriculture and loss due to development isolate and threaten the demographic and genetic integrity of small populations. In the past Plains Zebras have shown resilience and an ability to bounce back quickly from population reductions. With the establishment of effective management, protection, and monitoring, most Plains Zebrapopulations are likely to survive. Current information on total population size is limited.","Bell (1971) | Bennett (1980) | George & Ryder (1986) | Groves (1974) | Hack & Lorenzen (2008) | Hack et al. (2202) | Higuchi et al. (1984) | Kgathi & Kalikawe (1993) | Kingdon (1979, 1997) | Klingel (1969) | Oakenful et al. (2000) | Ogawa (1975) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1989, 1994) | Rubenstein & Hack (2004) | Sinclair & Norton-Griffiths (1982) | Smuts (1975)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719794/files/figure.png,"5.Plains ZebraEquus quaggaFrench:Zebre de Burchell/ German:Steppenzebra/ Spanish:Cebra de BurchellOther common names:Common Zebra, Painted Quagga; Burchell's Zebra(burchell), Chapman's Zebra(chapmanni), Crawshay's Zebra(crawshaii), Damara Zebra(antiquorum), Grant's Zebra(boehmi), Quagga(quagga), ZambeziZebra(selousi)Taxonomy.Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785,South Africa, south of Vaal River.Revisions have been made to the taxonomy of the Plains Zebra, whose extant species complex was until recently named E.burchelli, with the extinct form designated as a distinct species, the “ Quagga” (FE. quagga), which occupied the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal rivers and west of the Drakensberg mountain range. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the ranges of Quaggas and “Burchell’s Zebra” (E. q. burchelli) overlapped in a narrow zone north of the Orange River, unlike the other Plains Zebrasubspecies whose ranges do not overlap, but they apparently did not interbreed. However, recent molecular analyses using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA demonstrate that the variation among living and extinct forms is no greater than among modern breeds of domestic Horses (FE. caballus). Thus the Plains Zebraand the extinct Quaggaare now considered a single species, E. quagga. The Plains Zebrashows a genetic and morphological cline from northern Kenyato southern Africa; generally, the farther south, the less the degree of stripe coverage, while body size increases. With the nominate subspecies’ demise, only six extant subspecies are recognized, located around three widely separated regional centres.Subspecies and Distribution.E.q.antiguorumC.H.Smith,1841—Angola,Namibia,andWBotswana.E.q.boehmiMatschie,1892—ZambiaWofLuangwaRiver,DRCongo,NTanzania,Uganda,Kenya,Ethiopia,andSomalia.E.q.burchelliGray,1824—CSouthAfrica.E.q.chapmanniLayard,1865—NSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandEBotswana.E.q.crawshaiDeWinton,1896—ZambiaEofLuangwaRiver,Malawi,SETanzania,andMozambique.E. q. selousi Pocock, 1897— E Zimbabweand W Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217-246 cm, tail 47-57 cm, shoulder height 127-140 cm; weight 175-320 kg. The Plains Zebrais a muscular horse with a short neck, barrel chest, and sturdy legs. The stripes are variable, but in general they are wide, broader than those of Mountain Zebras (LE. zebra) and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). Apart from Burchell’s and “Damara” Zebras,stripes cover the flanks and touch under the belly. Stripes on the rump are typically bold and wide in all subspecies except the Damara Zebra, where they are thin and often wavy. In Burchell’s and Damara Zebras, both southern African subspecies, there are often grayish shadow stripes in the center of the white stripes. In all subspecies, males are slightly larger than females and have stripes that are blacker than the browner ones of females.Habitat.Plains Zebras inhabit tropical, subtropical, and temperate grasslands, steppes, savannas, and woodlands, from sea level to 4300 mon Mount Kenya. Since Plains Zebras need to drink daily, they are restricted to habitats where water can be accessed within half a day’s walk. Only deserts, dense woodlands, and permanent wetlands are avoided.Food and Feeding.Plains Zebraare true grazers. As hindgut fermenters, they require large quantities of food, so it is not surprising that they spend up to 20 hours per day foraging. Yet they are selective foragers, disproportionately consuming Perisetum and Themeda grasses when available. They can only forage in mesic areas where feeding sites and watering points are close together.Breeding.Plains Zebras give birth to one young after a gestation period of twelve months. Females generally stay near their groups when giving birth. When the foal is strong enough to move about, the mother and foal rejoin the group. Foals nurse for about six months, but begin feeding on grass by about one month of age. Females become sexually mature between two and three years of age, but often cycle without conceiving for the first year. Males generally only begin maintaining harems at five years of age.Activity patterns.Plains Zebras are active day and night and organize their daily activities around drinking. Most individuals need to drink once per day, but in very dry conditions, some drink more often. During the dry season the need for water constrains Plains Zebragroups from wandering more than 5-10 km from reliable water. After the rains, they spread out and range widely, seeking superior grazing areas located near transient water sources.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Because Plains Zebras are restricted to habitats where food and water are in close proximity, females of different reproductive classes can stay together. As a result, females, regardless of reproductive state, form groups and associate with a single male, who keeps away marauding males. By reducing sexual harassment, stallions provide females with a valuable material reward— increased foraging time. As in feral horses, females that associate with high-ranking males, or males rising rapidly in rank, can feed for up to six minutes longer per hour than females associating with less able males. Since Plains Zebras feed for up to 20 hours per day, females associating with the best males typically gain an additional two hours of foraging per day, thus increasing their fitness. Plains Zebraassociations are often large, consisting of hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals. Since these herds include both harem and bachelor male groups, Plains Zebras live in the most complex societies of all equids. Herd size varies. It depends directly on the abundance of vegetation, but also on the strength of a social factor—the degree of cuckolding pressure exerted by bachelor males. When vegetation is abundant, groups tend to be large. But the largest herds form when bachelor groups are large. By banding together, breeding stallions amortize costs and collectively dominate large bachelor associations. For females, harassment reduction helps maximize foraging. Apparently females find life in herds no different from life in isolated and unchallenged harems, thus permitting herds to form. Many Plains Zebrapopulations are seasonally migratory, traveling hundreds of kilometers as they track vegetation flushes induced by predictable seasonal shifts in rainfall. Others stay put when the migrants leave, suggesting that these strategies are alternative solutions, shaped by trade-offs between vegetation quality and quantity. At any one locale, migratory or resident populations also exhibit local movements among landscape zones. During the rains, Plains Zebras graze on hilltops where vegetation productivity is high and good visibility increases safety from predators. When the rains cease and grasses stop growing, the zebras seek habitats where food is more abundant, because of dietary demands associated with their relatively large body size. They move to valleys and basins where grass is abundant, even though it is fibrous and of low quality. Their grazing transforms these habitats. Residual moisture and increased light penetration induces vegetation growth, which benefits the zebras as well as wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) and Thompson's gazelles (Eudorcas spp.). As ruminants, these species require higher-quality vegetation than zebras. It is their good fortune that by the time they are forced to leave the hilltops, high-quality vegetation in the valleys is abundant enough to sustain them. Thus Plains Zebras play an important role as engineers stabilizing herbivore communities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In 2002, total numbers were estimated at ¢.660,000. More than 75% of the world’s Plains Zebras are “Grant’s Zebras” (boehmi), some 200,000 of them in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. The two countries they inhabit, Kenyaand Tanzania, have extensive national park systems earning revenue from tourism, coupled with sophisticated government-supported monitoring systems. Wildlife-friendly ranching practices tend to protect even zebras living on private land in Kenya. Plains Zebras will probably not become threatened in these locales, but aerial survey data from Tanzaniasuggests a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s. Elsewhere, Grant’s Zebras and the other subspecies are faring less well. Civil strife in many countries has led to widespread poaching. Continued habitat conversion to agriculture and loss due to development isolate and threaten the demographic and genetic integrity of small populations. In the past Plains Zebras have shown resilience and an ability to bounce back quickly from population reductions. With the establishment of effective management, protection, and monitoring, most Plains Zebrapopulations are likely to survive. Current information on total population size is limited.Bibliography.Bell (1971), Bennett (1980), George & Ryder (1986), Groves (1974), Hack & Lorenzen (2008), Hack et al. (2202), Higuchi et al. (1984), Kgathi & Kalikawe (1993), Kingdon (1979, 1997), Klingel (1969), Oakenful et al. (2000), Ogawa (1975), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1989, 1994), Rubenstein & Hack (2004), Sinclair & Norton-Griffiths (1982), Smuts (1975)." +03B0E520E8155860FF1AAC47ECEDF4E7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,142,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8155860FF1AAC47ECEDF4E7.xml,Equus grevyi,Equus,grevyi,Oustalet,1882,Zebre de Grévy @fr | Grévy-Zebra @de | Cebra de Grévy @es | Other common names @en | mperial Zebra @en,"Equus grevyi Oustalet, 1882,Ethiopia, Galla Country.Grevy’s Zebrawas described by French zoologist E. Oustalet and named after French President J. Grévy, who received the zebraas a gift from the Abyssinian government. Most DNA analyses agree that Grevy’s Zebrais in the same clade as the Plains Zebra(E.quagga), and the Mountain Zebra(FE. zebra). Most studies also concur that the Mountain Zebrawas the last species in the clade to evolve, but it remains unclear whether Grevy’s Zebraor the Plains Zebraappeared first, because there are so few nucleotide differences between them. The species differ in chromosome number, Grevy’s Zebras having 46 and Plains Zebras 44, but they are so close evolutionarily that fertile hybrids have appeared at the southern edge of the Grevy’s Zebra's range. Monotypic.",Ethiopiaand C & N Kenya; perhaps also in S Sudan.,"Head-body 250-275 cm, tail 38-75 cm, shoulder height 140-160 cm; weight 350-450 kg. Grevy’s Zebrais the largest of the equids, with a large head, long face, and elongated nostril openings. Its ears are large and round and can rotate independently in different directions. It has narrow stripes on its face, body, and rump; the stripes on the neck are slightly broader. The belly is white, as is the area around the base of the tail. Its muzzle is distinctively brown. It has an erect mane and the tail is tufted at the tip. Its hooves are large and rounded.","Grevy’s Zebrainhabits semi-arid grasslands and thornbush scrublands typified by acacias and commiphoras. It does not need to drink daily and lives in habitats intermediate between the arid habitats of the true desert-dwelling African Wild Ass (FE. africanus), and the more water dependant Plains Zebra, which inhabits mesic tropical grasslands. Lactating females stay in the most open areas around water; non-lactating females and territorial males prefer grassy areas with light tree cover. Bachelor males grade into areas of medium or moderate bush, but overall, Grevy’s Zebras avoid densely wooded areas except during periods of extreme drought.","Grevy’s Zebras are predominantly grazers, but browse can account for up to 30% oftheir diet during drought or when foraging on landscapes degraded by livestock. They move through habitats quickly, taking many steps per bite, selectively choosing certain grass species over others. As a result, when grazing herds of Grevy’s and Plains Zebras form, the herds don’t persist for long, since Grevy’s Zebras simply pass through them. Availability of water and individual water requirements ultimately determine where Grevy’s Zebras can forage. Since non-lactating females can go without water for up to five days, they typically range far from water, seeking out previously well-watered areas with large quantities of vegetation. Lactating females, with their need to produce milk, must drink daily. Thus they remain near water, feeding on closely cropped grazing lawns that offer forage of high nutritive quality even if the amount of available food is limited.","Grevy’s Zebras can breed year-round, but most births are timed to coincide with the arrival of the long rains that normally fall between April and June. Where Grevy’s Zebras reside, two rainy seasons are expected, since the intertropical convergence zone sweeps across the Equator twice per year. But often one or more of the rains fails. This severely limits the species’ ability to rebound after environmental or anthropogenic shocks. When females are in estrus they typically move through many male territories. Males only mate when on their own territories, and because females rarely stay with one male, Grevy’s Zebramales engage in post-copulatory sperm competition. Therefore, not surprisingly, they have larger testes than the other zebraspecies. To help ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible, when there are no females on their territories, territorial males wander widely in search of bachelor males and aggressively challenge them. By preemptively reinforcing dominance in low-risk settings, territorial males are able to devote more time to mating than to fighting when bachelors invade territories containing many females.","Grevy’s Zebras are opportunists and move great distances in search of food and water. Females and their young, as well as bachelor males, have large home ranges, often moving with the rains to areas where grass is growing or abundant. Territorial males tend to linger on their territories until well after all other zebras have left and only depart when conditions have deteriorated dramatically. During normal dry seasons, when all Grevy’s Zebras are dependent on water, concentrations of males and females develop. Given that Grevy’s Zebras often move 35 kmper day if food and water are widely separated, aggregations tend to split apart and are never very large. Sightings of a few hundred Grevy’s Zebras at a time are rare. Although the availability of food and water determine most movements, predation plays a role. Grevy’s Zebras avoid human settlements during the day because of stresses associated with human activity, but at night settlements are sought as refuges against predators.","Grevy’s Zebras differ socially from the other two species of zebras; they do notlive in closed-membership family groups, or harems. Like the asses, Grevy’s Zebras live in open-membership groups in which the only long-lasting bond is between mothers and their young. Adult females come together at water sources and good grazing sites and continue to travel together as long as their needs can be satisfied. When they cannot, such as when lactating females need to return daily to water and those without young or with older young do not, then the social ties that bind females become severed and groups dissolve. Given that both types of females are sexually active, and males cannot simultaneously associate with both, dominant males instead establish territories adjacent to water. In this way high-status males have mating access to both lactating and non-lactating females whenever they come to water. Less dominant males also establish territories, but in areas of abundant vegetation far from water, where they gain access to the subset of females searching for quality foraging areas. Territories can be as large as 10 km?, the largest of any equid. Males of the lowest rank are unable to maintain territories, so they join bachelor groups. They range widely, grow quickly, and by interacting with many males they improve their fighting ability.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Grevy’s Zebras exist only in the Horn of Africa. According to recent surveys, an estimated 2000-2300 live in Kenya, around 150 inEthiopia, and there may be a few in southern Sudan. Historically Grevy’s Zebras ranged more widely, from Somaliato western Ethiopia, Djbouti, and Eritrea, and from southern Ethiopiasouth tojust north and west of Mount Kenya. Extensive hunting ceased at the start of the 1980s, yet populations of Grevy’s Zebras did not rebound. They are still decreasing and from 1988 to 2007, the global population declined approximately 55%. Increasing competition with the livestock of pastoral herders for water and forage appears to be the culprit. As human populations and their herds grew, water disappeared more quickly than in the past. In addition, the presence of humans and livestock prevented the zebras from accessing drinking sites during the day. Constrained lactation, in addition to greater predation risks associated with night-time drinking, reduced infant and juvenile survival. Since less than 5% of Grevy’s Zebra’s current range is located within protected areas, the best hope for enhancing population growth involves encouraging communities to better manage rangelands, as well as increasing the value of Grevy’s Zebras by training community members to become scouts or ambassadors and hiring them to help monitor Grevy’s Zebrapopulation dynamics and harmful human impacts.","Cordingley et al. (2009) | Ginsberg & Rubenstein (1990) | Groves (2002) | Kingdon (1997) | Klingel (1974) | Low et al. (2009) | Moehlman, Rubenstein & Kebede (2008) | Rowen & Ginsberg (1992) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1994) | Sundaresan et al. (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719796/files/figure.png,"6.Grevy’s ZebraEquus grevyiFrench:Zebre de Grévy/ German:Grévy-Zebra/ Spanish:Cebra de GrévyOther common names:Imperial ZebraTaxonomy.Equus grevyi Oustalet, 1882,Ethiopia, Galla Country.Grevy’s Zebrawas described by French zoologist E. Oustalet and named after French President J. Grévy, who received the zebraas a gift from the Abyssinian government. Most DNA analyses agree that Grevy’s Zebrais in the same clade as the Plains Zebra(E.quagga), and the Mountain Zebra(FE. zebra). Most studies also concur that the Mountain Zebrawas the last species in the clade to evolve, but it remains unclear whether Grevy’s Zebraor the Plains Zebraappeared first, because there are so few nucleotide differences between them. The species differ in chromosome number, Grevy’s Zebras having 46 and Plains Zebras 44, but they are so close evolutionarily that fertile hybrids have appeared at the southern edge of the Grevy’s Zebra's range. Monotypic.Distribution.Ethiopiaand C & N Kenya; perhaps also in S Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-275 cm, tail 38-75 cm, shoulder height 140-160 cm; weight 350-450 kg. Grevy’s Zebrais the largest of the equids, with a large head, long face, and elongated nostril openings. Its ears are large and round and can rotate independently in different directions. It has narrow stripes on its face, body, and rump; the stripes on the neck are slightly broader. The belly is white, as is the area around the base of the tail. Its muzzle is distinctively brown. It has an erect mane and the tail is tufted at the tip. Its hooves are large and rounded.Habitat.Grevy’s Zebrainhabits semi-arid grasslands and thornbush scrublands typified by acacias and commiphoras. It does not need to drink daily and lives in habitats intermediate between the arid habitats of the true desert-dwelling African Wild Ass (FE. africanus), and the more water dependant Plains Zebra, which inhabits mesic tropical grasslands. Lactating females stay in the most open areas around water; non-lactating females and territorial males prefer grassy areas with light tree cover. Bachelor males grade into areas of medium or moderate bush, but overall, Grevy’s Zebras avoid densely wooded areas except during periods of extreme drought.Food and Feeding.Grevy’s Zebras are predominantly grazers, but browse can account for up to 30% oftheir diet during drought or when foraging on landscapes degraded by livestock. They move through habitats quickly, taking many steps per bite, selectively choosing certain grass species over others. As a result, when grazing herds of Grevy’s and Plains Zebras form, the herds don’t persist for long, since Grevy’s Zebras simply pass through them. Availability of water and individual water requirements ultimately determine where Grevy’s Zebras can forage. Since non-lactating females can go without water for up to five days, they typically range far from water, seeking out previously well-watered areas with large quantities of vegetation. Lactating females, with their need to produce milk, must drink daily. Thus they remain near water, feeding on closely cropped grazing lawns that offer forage of high nutritive quality even if the amount of available food is limited.Breeding.Grevy’s Zebras can breed year-round, but most births are timed to coincide with the arrival of the long rains that normally fall between April and June. Where Grevy’s Zebras reside, two rainy seasons are expected, since the intertropical convergence zone sweeps across the Equator twice per year. But often one or more of the rains fails. This severely limits the species’ ability to rebound after environmental or anthropogenic shocks. When females are in estrus they typically move through many male territories. Males only mate when on their own territories, and because females rarely stay with one male, Grevy’s Zebramales engage in post-copulatory sperm competition. Therefore, not surprisingly, they have larger testes than the other zebraspecies. To help ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible, when there are no females on their territories, territorial males wander widely in search of bachelor males and aggressively challenge them. By preemptively reinforcing dominance in low-risk settings, territorial males are able to devote more time to mating than to fighting when bachelors invade territories containing many females.Activity patterns.Grevy’s Zebras are opportunists and move great distances in search of food and water. Females and their young, as well as bachelor males, have large home ranges, often moving with the rains to areas where grass is growing or abundant. Territorial males tend to linger on their territories until well after all other zebras have left and only depart when conditions have deteriorated dramatically. During normal dry seasons, when all Grevy’s Zebras are dependent on water, concentrations of males and females develop. Given that Grevy’s Zebras often move 35 kmper day if food and water are widely separated, aggregations tend to split apart and are never very large. Sightings of a few hundred Grevy’s Zebras at a time are rare. Although the availability of food and water determine most movements, predation plays a role. Grevy’s Zebras avoid human settlements during the day because of stresses associated with human activity, but at night settlements are sought as refuges against predators.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Grevy’s Zebras differ socially from the other two species of zebras; they do notlive in closed-membership family groups, or harems. Like the asses, Grevy’s Zebras live in open-membership groups in which the only long-lasting bond is between mothers and their young. Adult females come together at water sources and good grazing sites and continue to travel together as long as their needs can be satisfied. When they cannot, such as when lactating females need to return daily to water and those without young or with older young do not, then the social ties that bind females become severed and groups dissolve. Given that both types of females are sexually active, and males cannot simultaneously associate with both, dominant males instead establish territories adjacent to water. In this way high-status males have mating access to both lactating and non-lactating females whenever they come to water. Less dominant males also establish territories, but in areas of abundant vegetation far from water, where they gain access to the subset of females searching for quality foraging areas. Territories can be as large as 10 km?, the largest of any equid. Males of the lowest rank are unable to maintain territories, so they join bachelor groups. They range widely, grow quickly, and by interacting with many males they improve their fighting ability.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Grevy’s Zebras exist only in the Horn of Africa. According to recent surveys, an estimated 2000-2300 live in Kenya, around 150 inEthiopia, and there may be a few in southern Sudan. Historically Grevy’s Zebras ranged more widely, from Somaliato western Ethiopia, Djbouti, and Eritrea, and from southern Ethiopiasouth tojust north and west of Mount Kenya. Extensive hunting ceased at the start of the 1980s, yet populations of Grevy’s Zebras did not rebound. They are still decreasing and from 1988 to 2007, the global population declined approximately 55%. Increasing competition with the livestock of pastoral herders for water and forage appears to be the culprit. As human populations and their herds grew, water disappeared more quickly than in the past. In addition, the presence of humans and livestock prevented the zebras from accessing drinking sites during the day. Constrained lactation, in addition to greater predation risks associated with night-time drinking, reduced infant and juvenile survival. Since less than 5% of Grevy’s Zebra’s current range is located within protected areas, the best hope for enhancing population growth involves encouraging communities to better manage rangelands, as well as increasing the value of Grevy’s Zebras by training community members to become scouts or ambassadors and hiring them to help monitor Grevy’s Zebrapopulation dynamics and harmful human impacts.Bibliography.Cordingley et al. (2009), Ginsberg & Rubenstein (1990), Groves (2002), Kingdon (1997), Klingel (1974), Low et al. (2009), Moehlman, Rubenstein & Kebede (2008), Rowen & Ginsberg (1992), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1994), Sundaresan et al. (2008)." +03B0E520E8155863FA60A155ED43F996,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7,142,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8155863FA60A155ED43F996.xml,Equus zebra,Equus,zebra,Linnaeus,1758,Zebre de montagne @fr | Bergzebra @de | Cebrade montana @es | Cebra @es | Cape Mountain Zebra(zebra) @en | Hartmann's Mountain Zebra(hartmannae) @en,"Equus zebra Linnaeus, 1758,South Africa, south-western Cape Province.Two subspecies recognized.","E.z.zebraLinnaeus,1758—SSouthAfrica(S&WedgeofthecentralplateauintheEasternandWesternCapeProvinces).E. z. hartmannae Matschie, 1898— W Namibia(mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the Namibian central plateau); possibly in SW Angola.","Head-body 210-260 cm, tail 40-55 cm, shoulder height 115-150 cm; weight 240-380 kg. The Mountain Zebracan be distinguished from other zebraspecies by the dewlap under its neck. The pattern of striping is also intermediate between the other two species. The stripes are half as wide as and more numerous than those of Plains Zebras (FE. quagga) and the belly is white as in Grevy’s Zebras (FE. grevyi). Mountain Zebras have a “waffle-iron” pattern on the rump near the root of the tail. On the rump, the narrow stripes change to broad and bold stripes, more like those of “Grant’s Zebra” (E. boehmi). The “ CapeMountain Zebra” is smaller than “Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra” and it has slightly wider stripes.Habitat.As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.Food and Feeding.Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola.","As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.","Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.","Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.",Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.,"Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.","CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola. Habitat conversion to agriculture, competition with domestic livestock, hunting, and persecution are the main threats facing Mountain Zebras. Crossbreeding between the two subspecies is considered a potential threat in South Africa, where both subspecies occur,since this would mix and disrupt the genetic diversity of the species. Crossbreeding with Plains Zebras is also a potential threat just asit is for Grevy’s Zebras. CapeMountain Zebras suffered devastating declines because of trophy hunting and land conversion to agriculture in South Africaduring the 19"" and early 20™ centuries. By the 1930s they were on the brink of extinction—a 1937 census countedjust 45 individuals. Since the establishment of national parks in the locations where the few surviving individuals remained, the population has increased to around 1400. CapeMountain Zebras now live in 17 provincial nature reserves and national parks, the largest being the Addo Elephant and the CapePeninsula National Parks. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebraalso suffered massive population declines during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily due to persecution from an expanding livestock industry. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras continue to come into conflict with livestock farmers, particularly during drought years when resources are in short supply. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebrais a protected species in Namibiaand any use requires permits. The Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism therefore has encouraged the commercial use of Mountain Zebras to provide an incentive for promoting tolerance. Numbers are increasing on communal land and overall numbers are in the range of 30,000. Today, populations are isolated, inhabiting the Mkambati and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserves, Amaqwati Tribal Resource Area, and Richtersveld National Park. The animals are also present on numerous private estates in the Northern and Eastern CapeProvinces of South Africa, as well as in fenced, protected areas, and game farms in Namibia.","Kingdon (1997) | Lloyd (1984) | Millar (1970a, 1970b) | Novellie (2008) | Novellie et al (2002) | Penzhorn (1975)",https://zenodo.org/record/5719798/files/figure.png,"7.Mountain ZebraEquus zebraFrench:Zebre de montagne/ German:Bergzebra/ Spanish:Cebrade montanaOther common names:CapeMountain Zebra(zebra), Hartmann's Mountain Zebra(hartmannae)Taxonomy.Equus zebra Linnaeus, 1758,South Africa, south-western Cape Province.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.z.zebraLinnaeus,1758—SSouthAfrica(S&WedgeofthecentralplateauintheEasternandWesternCapeProvinces).E. z. hartmannae Matschie, 1898— W Namibia(mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the Namibian central plateau); possibly in SW Angola.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-260 cm, tail 40-55 cm, shoulder height 115-150 cm; weight 240-380 kg. The Mountain Zebracan be distinguished from other zebraspecies by the dewlap under its neck. The pattern of striping is also intermediate between the other two species. The stripes are half as wide as and more numerous than those of Plains Zebras (FE. quagga) and the belly is white as in Grevy’s Zebras (FE. grevyi). Mountain Zebras have a “waffle-iron” pattern on the rump near the root of the tail. On the rump, the narrow stripes change to broad and bold stripes, more like those of “Grant’s Zebra” (E. boehmi). The “ CapeMountain Zebra” is smaller than “Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra” and it has slightly wider stripes.Habitat.As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.Food and Feeding.Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola. Habitat conversion to agriculture, competition with domestic livestock, hunting, and persecution are the main threats facing Mountain Zebras. Crossbreeding between the two subspecies is considered a potential threat in South Africa, where both subspecies occur,since this would mix and disrupt the genetic diversity of the species. Crossbreeding with Plains Zebras is also a potential threat just asit is for Grevy’s Zebras. CapeMountain Zebras suffered devastating declines because of trophy hunting and land conversion to agriculture in South Africaduring the 19"" and early 20™ centuries. By the 1930s they were on the brink of extinction—a 1937 census countedjust 45 individuals. Since the establishment of national parks in the locations where the few surviving individuals remained, the population has increased to around 1400. CapeMountain Zebras now live in 17 provincial nature reserves and national parks, the largest being the Addo Elephant and the CapePeninsula National Parks. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebraalso suffered massive population declines during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily due to persecution from an expanding livestock industry. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras continue to come into conflict with livestock farmers, particularly during drought years when resources are in short supply. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebrais a protected species in Namibiaand any use requires permits. The Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism therefore has encouraged the commercial use of Mountain Zebras to provide an incentive for promoting tolerance. Numbers are increasing on communal land and overall numbers are in the range of 30,000. Today, populations are isolated, inhabiting the Mkambati and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserves, Amaqwati Tribal Resource Area, and Richtersveld National Park. The animals are also present on numerous private estates in the Northern and Eastern CapeProvinces of South Africa, as well as in fenced, protected areas, and game farms in Namibia.Bibliography.Kingdon (1997), Lloyd (1984), Millar (1970a, 1970b), Novellie (2008), Novellie et al (2002), Penzhorn (1975)." +03B887D96B28FFBEFAA37CACF7E58B01,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,543,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B28FFBEFAA37CACF7E58B01.xml,Phocoena phocoena,Phocoena,phocoena,,,Marsouin commun @fr | Schweinswal @de | Marsopa comun @es | Common Porpoise @en | Sea-hog @en | Sea-pig; Atlantic Harbor Porpoise @en | North Atlantic Harbor Porpoise (phocoena); Black Sea Harbor Porpoise (relicta); Eastern North Pacific Harbor Porpoise @en | Eastern Pacific Harbor Porpoise (vomerina) @en,"Delphinus phocaena Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Oceano Europao & Balthico” (= Baltic Sea, “Swedish Seas”).In addition to the subspecies listed below, there is also an unnamed subspecies recognized from the western North Pacific Ocean. Three subspecies recognized.","P.p.phocoenaLinnaeus,1758—coastalwatersoftheNAtlanticOcean.P.p.relictaAbel,1905—coastalwatersoftheBlackSea,theAzovandMarmaraseas(isolatedpopulation).AfewstragglersfromthispopulationshowupperiodicallyintheAegeanSea,buttheydonotoccurthroughoutmostoftheMediterraneanSea.P.p. vomerina Gill, 1865— coastal waters of the NE Pacific Ocean.A still unnamed form is present in the coastal waters of the NW Pacific Ocean.","Total length 130-200 cm; weight 45-75 kg. Harbor Porpoises are small cetaceans, growing to a maximum length of only ¢.200 cm. Most adults are less than 180 cm long. Body is robust, with small appendages. There are small tubercles (or denticles) on the leading edge of the dorsal fin and sometimes also on flippers. Beak is very short and poorly defined, and dorsalfin is low, triangular, and wide-based. Color pattern is somewhat bland at first appearance, but it is actually more complex when analyzed in detail. Body is generally counter-shaded, with a dark gray back and white belly. Generally, dark and pale regions blend into each other, but margins between the two are often splotchy and streaked. Appendages are all dark, and there is a dark stripe running from gape to flipper, and there are also dark streaks on the lower jaw. There is a great deal of individual variation in color pattern, but no obvious differences among different populations have been identified. Thirty-four records of anomalously white individuals (three patterns have been observed, some perhaps albinos) have been recorded in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Newborns have a muted color pattern, generally of subdued tones of dark and pale gray. Tooth counts generally are 19-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby.","Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby. Habitat of the Harbor Porpoise is cool temperate to subpolar waters, generally with low water temperatures.","Harbor Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, although their main prey appears to vary on regional and seasonal scales. In the North Atlantic, they feed primarily on clupeoids and gadoids, while in the North Pacific, they prey largely on engraulids and scorpaenids. They eat a wide variety offish and cephalopods, although the diet in any specific area may be dominated by just a few species. Harbor Porpoises feed heavily on small schooling fish that occur in the water column, such as herring and sprat (Clupeidae), capelin (Mallotus), hake (Merluccius), and mackerel (Scomber, Scombridae); they also consume market squid (Loligo) in some areas. Although many of these prey species occur in the water column, many of the other prey species are benthic or demersal. Benthic invertebrates are sometimes also consumed, but these are generally considered to be secondarily ingested. In the north-eastern Atlantic, there has apparently been a long-term shift from predation on declining stocks of clupeid fish (mainly herring, Clupea harengus) to sand lance (Ammodytidae) and gadoid fish.","Reproductive biology of the Harbor Porpoise has been studied more extensively than for any other member of the family, due to the large number of specimens that have been available from strandings and incidental catches in fisheries. Mating system of the Harbor Porpoise is thought to be promiscuous. Anatomical evidence (Harbor Porpoises have some of the largest testes relative to body mass of any mammal species) has for some time suggested that sperm competition may be the primary way that males compete to inseminate females. Recent behavioral observations of Harbor Porpoises in the San Francisco Bay area (USA) appear to support this idea. Young are typically born in April-August (late spring through mid-summer), after gestation of ¢.10-11 months. Offspring are weaned before they reach one year of age. Sexual maturity occurs at 3—4 years of age and lengths of 120-150 cm. There is geographic variation in these parameters among different populations, and densitydependent variation has also been documented. Harbor Porpoises regularly interbreed and produce hybrids with Dall’s Porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) in the inshore waters of the Pacific Northwest (Washington State, USA and southern British Columbia, Canada) and occasionally elsewhere where the two species are sympatric. It is virtually always the case that the mother is a Dall’s Porpoise and the father is a Harbor Porpoise, and this is what would be predicted, based on their respective mating systems (Dall’s are considered polygynous, with males apparently not using sperm competition, but guarding females to prevent insemination by other males). Harbor Porpoiseslive into their 20s, although in some areas most individuals may die before they reach twelve years of age.","Harbor Porpoises are shy and unobtrusive animals, with a low surfacing profile and not a great deal of aerial behavior. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and in many cases, they appear to actively avoid motorized vessels. There are exceptions to this, and at least in the San Francisco Bay area, they may be more approachable. These individuals sometimes lie nearly motionless at the surface for several seconds, and it is not clear why they do this. The typical surfacing pattern is a slow roll, in which the individual does not create any splash. At times, they do move faster and surface with a sloppy splash (this is called “pop-splashing,” and the splash looks very different from the more V-shaped splash of a rooster-tailing Dall’s Porpoise). Diving behavior of Harbor Porpoises has been studied with time-depth recording tags. Although most dives last less than one minute, Harbor Porpoises have been found to be capable of diving to depths of at least 220 m and for periods of more than five minutes.","Singles or small groups of less than a half-dozen Harbor Porpoises are most commonly seen, although they do aggregate, at times, into loose groupings of 50 to several hundred individuals. This occurs mostly when feeding on an aggregated food source or during migration, and these large groups generally have little structure. Movement patterns of individual Harbor Porpoises are not very well known, but it is known that they are capable of large-scale movements of many hundreds to thousands of kilometers. On the other hand, repeated sightings of identifiable individuals in San Francisco Bay show that some populations may have more limited movements. Not much is known about social organization of Harbor Porpoises, but most bonds outside the mother—offspring pair appear to be weak, and there do not seem to be any other long-term associations.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List. The subspecies relictais classified as Endangered, and the Baltic Sea population, which only numbers ¢.500-600 individuals,is classified as Critically Endangered. Other subspecies have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. There has been a long and somewhat tragic history of human interactions with Harbor Porpoises. Hunting has occurred in many different parts ofits distribution, especially in northern European waters. Major hunts have occurred in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Bay of Fundy, and in the waters off western Greenland (the latter is still active). Many of these caused depletion of local populations. More recently, bycatch from fisheries, especially in various forms of gillnets or trammel nets, has been responsible for threatening existence of populations throughout the distribution of the Harbor Porpoise. The largest mortality has occurred in fisheries in the Gulf of Maine, western Greenland, North Sea, and Celtic Shelf, but smaller kills have occurred almost everywhere the Harbor Porpoise occurs. It is believed that Harbor Porpoises can normally detect gillnets at distances necessary to avoid entanglement, but accidents may happen due to attention shifts or auditory masking. Use of acoustic alarms (“pingers”) and other mitigation measures have managed to reduce mortality in many areas, but the only way to eliminate bycatch completely is to eliminate gillnets. Catches of Harbor Porpoises in trawls, set nets, herring weirs, pound nets, cod traps, and even anti-submarine nets have also been documented and have taken their toll. Other threats include detrimental effects of environmental contaminants, vessel traffic, anthropogenic noise impacts, prey depletion, and habitat deterioration or destruction. The Harbor Porpoise is not rare and not endangered. Globally, there may be more than 675,000 Harbor Porpoises. Nevertheless, particular populations in many areas have been impacted by human activities and quite a few of these are indeed threatened and in need of protection.","Amano (1996) | Andersen et al. (2001) | Barlow & Hanan (1995) | Berggren & Wang (2008) | Bjerge (2003) | Bjerge & Tolley (2009) | Borrell et al. (2007) | Carretta et al. (2001) | Caswell et al. (1998) | Dahlheim et al. (2000) | Fontaine & Barrette (1997) | Forney (1999) | Frantzis et al. (2001) | Goodson & Sturtivant (1996) | Haelters et al. (2012) | Hammond et al. (2002) | Heide-Jergensen & Lockyer (1999) | Jepson et al. (2005) | Keener et al. (2011) | Kompanje & van Leeuwen (2009) | Koschinski (2002) | Larrat et al. (2012) | Larsen (1997) | Lockyer (2003) | Lockyer & Andreasen (2004) | Lockyer & Kinze (2003) | McLellan et al. (2002) | Nielsen et al. (2012) | Northridge (1996) | Palka (2008) | Read (1999b) | Read & Hohn (1995) | Read & Westgate (1997) | Rosel (1997) | Rosel et al. (2003) | Schofield et al. (2008) | Siebert et al. (2006) | Sonntag et al. (1999) | Stenson (2003) | Teilmann (2003) | Thomsen et al. (2007) | Tolley & Rosel (2006) | Tonay et al. (2012) | Verfuld et al. (2007) | Viaud-Martinez et al. (2007) | Westgate & Read (1998) | Westgate & Tolley (1999) | Westgate, Read, Berggren et al. (1995) | Westgate, Read, Cox et al. (1998) | Willis et al. (2004) | Woodley (1995)",https://zenodo.org/record/6607341/files/figure.png,"6.Harbor PorpoisePhocoena phocoenaFrench:Marsouin commun/ German:Schweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa comunOther common names:Common Porpoise, Sea-hog, Sea-pig; Atlantic Harbor Porpoise, North Atlantic Harbor Porpoise (phocoena); Black Sea Harbor Porpoise (relicta); Eastern North Pacific Harbor Porpoise, Eastern Pacific Harbor Porpoise (vomerina)Taxonomy.Delphinus phocaena Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Oceano Europao & Balthico” (= Baltic Sea, “Swedish Seas”).In addition to the subspecies listed below, there is also an unnamed subspecies recognized from the western North Pacific Ocean. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.p.phocoenaLinnaeus,1758—coastalwatersoftheNAtlanticOcean.P.p.relictaAbel,1905—coastalwatersoftheBlackSea,theAzovandMarmaraseas(isolatedpopulation).AfewstragglersfromthispopulationshowupperiodicallyintheAegeanSea,buttheydonotoccurthroughoutmostoftheMediterraneanSea.P.p. vomerina Gill, 1865— coastal waters of the NE Pacific Ocean.A still unnamed form is present in the coastal waters of the NW Pacific Ocean.Descriptive notes.Total length 130-200 cm; weight 45-75 kg. Harbor Porpoises are small cetaceans, growing to a maximum length of only ¢.200 cm. Most adults are less than 180 cm long. Body is robust, with small appendages. There are small tubercles (or denticles) on the leading edge of the dorsal fin and sometimes also on flippers. Beak is very short and poorly defined, and dorsalfin is low, triangular, and wide-based. Color pattern is somewhat bland at first appearance, but it is actually more complex when analyzed in detail. Body is generally counter-shaded, with a dark gray back and white belly. Generally, dark and pale regions blend into each other, but margins between the two are often splotchy and streaked. Appendages are all dark, and there is a dark stripe running from gape to flipper, and there are also dark streaks on the lower jaw. There is a great deal of individual variation in color pattern, but no obvious differences among different populations have been identified. Thirty-four records of anomalously white individuals (three patterns have been observed, some perhaps albinos) have been recorded in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Newborns have a muted color pattern, generally of subdued tones of dark and pale gray. Tooth counts generally are 19-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby. Habitat of the Harbor Porpoise is cool temperate to subpolar waters, generally with low water temperatures.Food and Feeding.Harbor Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, although their main prey appears to vary on regional and seasonal scales. In the North Atlantic, they feed primarily on clupeoids and gadoids, while in the North Pacific, they prey largely on engraulids and scorpaenids. They eat a wide variety offish and cephalopods, although the diet in any specific area may be dominated by just a few species. Harbor Porpoises feed heavily on small schooling fish that occur in the water column, such as herring and sprat (Clupeidae), capelin (Mallotus), hake (Merluccius), and mackerel (Scomber, Scombridae); they also consume market squid (Loligo) in some areas. Although many of these prey species occur in the water column, many of the other prey species are benthic or demersal. Benthic invertebrates are sometimes also consumed, but these are generally considered to be secondarily ingested. In the north-eastern Atlantic, there has apparently been a long-term shift from predation on declining stocks of clupeid fish (mainly herring, Clupea harengus) to sand lance (Ammodytidae) and gadoid fish.Breeding.Reproductive biology of the Harbor Porpoise has been studied more extensively than for any other member of the family, due to the large number of specimens that have been available from strandings and incidental catches in fisheries. Mating system of the Harbor Porpoise is thought to be promiscuous. Anatomical evidence (Harbor Porpoises have some of the largest testes relative to body mass of any mammal species) has for some time suggested that sperm competition may be the primary way that males compete to inseminate females. Recent behavioral observations of Harbor Porpoises in the San Francisco Bay area (USA) appear to support this idea. Young are typically born in April-August (late spring through mid-summer), after gestation of ¢.10-11 months. Offspring are weaned before they reach one year of age. Sexual maturity occurs at 3—4 years of age and lengths of 120-150 cm. There is geographic variation in these parameters among different populations, and densitydependent variation has also been documented. Harbor Porpoises regularly interbreed and produce hybrids with Dall’s Porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) in the inshore waters of the Pacific Northwest (Washington State, USA and southern British Columbia, Canada) and occasionally elsewhere where the two species are sympatric. It is virtually always the case that the mother is a Dall’s Porpoise and the father is a Harbor Porpoise, and this is what would be predicted, based on their respective mating systems (Dall’s are considered polygynous, with males apparently not using sperm competition, but guarding females to prevent insemination by other males). Harbor Porpoiseslive into their 20s, although in some areas most individuals may die before they reach twelve years of age.Activity patterns.Harbor Porpoises are shy and unobtrusive animals, with a low surfacing profile and not a great deal of aerial behavior. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and in many cases, they appear to actively avoid motorized vessels. There are exceptions to this, and at least in the San Francisco Bay area, they may be more approachable. These individuals sometimes lie nearly motionless at the surface for several seconds, and it is not clear why they do this. The typical surfacing pattern is a slow roll, in which the individual does not create any splash. At times, they do move faster and surface with a sloppy splash (this is called “pop-splashing,” and the splash looks very different from the more V-shaped splash of a rooster-tailing Dall’s Porpoise). Diving behavior of Harbor Porpoises has been studied with time-depth recording tags. Although most dives last less than one minute, Harbor Porpoises have been found to be capable of diving to depths of at least 220 m and for periods of more than five minutes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Singles or small groups of less than a half-dozen Harbor Porpoises are most commonly seen, although they do aggregate, at times, into loose groupings of 50 to several hundred individuals. This occurs mostly when feeding on an aggregated food source or during migration, and these large groups generally have little structure. Movement patterns of individual Harbor Porpoises are not very well known, but it is known that they are capable of large-scale movements of many hundreds to thousands of kilometers. On the other hand, repeated sightings of identifiable individuals in San Francisco Bay show that some populations may have more limited movements. Not much is known about social organization of Harbor Porpoises, but most bonds outside the mother—offspring pair appear to be weak, and there do not seem to be any other long-term associations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List. The subspecies relictais classified as Endangered, and the Baltic Sea population, which only numbers ¢.500-600 individuals,is classified as Critically Endangered. Other subspecies have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. There has been a long and somewhat tragic history of human interactions with Harbor Porpoises. Hunting has occurred in many different parts ofits distribution, especially in northern European waters. Major hunts have occurred in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Bay of Fundy, and in the waters off western Greenland (the latter is still active). Many of these caused depletion of local populations. More recently, bycatch from fisheries, especially in various forms of gillnets or trammel nets, has been responsible for threatening existence of populations throughout the distribution of the Harbor Porpoise. The largest mortality has occurred in fisheries in the Gulf of Maine, western Greenland, North Sea, and Celtic Shelf, but smaller kills have occurred almost everywhere the Harbor Porpoise occurs. It is believed that Harbor Porpoises can normally detect gillnets at distances necessary to avoid entanglement, but accidents may happen due to attention shifts or auditory masking. Use of acoustic alarms (“pingers”) and other mitigation measures have managed to reduce mortality in many areas, but the only way to eliminate bycatch completely is to eliminate gillnets. Catches of Harbor Porpoises in trawls, set nets, herring weirs, pound nets, cod traps, and even anti-submarine nets have also been documented and have taken their toll. Other threats include detrimental effects of environmental contaminants, vessel traffic, anthropogenic noise impacts, prey depletion, and habitat deterioration or destruction. The Harbor Porpoise is not rare and not endangered. Globally, there may be more than 675,000 Harbor Porpoises. Nevertheless, particular populations in many areas have been impacted by human activities and quite a few of these are indeed threatened and in need of protection.Bibliography.Amano (1996), Andersen et al. (2001), Barlow & Hanan (1995), Berggren & Wang (2008), Bjerge (2003), Bjerge & Tolley (2009), Borrell et al. (2007), Carretta et al. (2001), Caswell et al. (1998), Dahlheim et al. (2000), Fontaine & Barrette (1997), Forney (1999), Frantzis et al. (2001), Goodson & Sturtivant (1996), Haelters et al. (2012), Hammond et al. (2002), Heide-Jergensen & Lockyer (1999), Jepson et al. (2005), Keener et al. (2011), Kompanje & van Leeuwen (2009), Koschinski (2002), Larrat et al. (2012), Larsen (1997), Lockyer (2003), Lockyer & Andreasen (2004), Lockyer & Kinze (2003), McLellan et al. (2002), Nielsen et al. (2012), Northridge (1996), Palka (2008), Read (1999b), Read & Hohn (1995), Read & Westgate (1997), Rosel (1997), Rosel et al. (2003), Schofield et al. (2008), Siebert et al. (2006), Sonntag et al. (1999), Stenson (2003), Teilmann (2003), Thomsen et al. (2007), Tolley & Rosel (2006), Tonay et al. (2012), Verfuld et al. (2007), Viaud-Martinez et al. (2007), Westgate & Read (1998), Westgate & Tolley (1999), Westgate, Read, Berggren et al. (1995), Westgate, Read, Cox et al. (1998), Willis et al. (2004), Woodley (1995)." 03B887D96B28FFBFFFA97DBDF6F08C43,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,543,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B28FFBFFFA97DBDF6F08C43.xml,Phocoena sinus,Phocoena,sinus,Norris & McFarland,1958,Marsouin de Californie @fr | Kalifornien-Schweinswal @de | Vaquita marina @es | Cochito @en | Gulf of California Porpoise @en | Gulf Porpoise @en,"Phocoena sinus Norris & McFarland, 1958, “from the northeast shore of Punta San Felipe, Baja California Norte, Gulf of California, Mexico.”This species is monotypic.","N Gulf of California (also called the Sea of Cortez) in N Mexico, the smallest known distribution of any marine cetacean.","Total length 120-150 cm; weight 30-48 kg. Few fresh specimens of the Vaquita have been measured fully and weighed. Dorsalfin is relatively tall for a porpoise ofthis genus (up to 15 cm, or c.10% ofthe total body length). Head is blunt, with little or no beak, as in other species of the genus. General body color is dark brownish-gray on back, fading to pale gray or white on belly. There are black patches around eyes and around lips. There is also a darker chin-to-flipper stripe. Neonates are born darker than adults and gradually get paler in color as they age. Tooth counts generally are 16-22 in each half of each jaw.","Very specific habitat in the northern Gulf of California, although there are some suggestions the distribution of the Vaquita may have extended somewhatfarther south in the past, before it was badly depleted by gillnet fishing. The current range of the Vaquita is characterized by moderately shallow waters (mostly less than 40 m deep) just south of the mouth of the Colorado River. These waters are murky and sedimentladen. They are biologically very productive, with high chlorophyll levels, and can reach very high temperatures in summer and autumn.","The Vaquita appears to be an opportunistic feeder, eating a variety of small benthic and demersal fish species. Some cephalopods and crustaceans are also eaten. Although only a handful of stomachs have been examined to determine feeding habits, the Vaquita appears to feed mostly on several species of grunts and croakers (Sciaenidae). They also occasionally feed on squid (e.g. Lolliguncula).","Very little is known about reproduction of the Vaquita because there has only been a single study (using small samples) of its life history. Porpoises, in general, reach sexual maturity at 3-6 years of age, and females appear to give birth every other year (unusual for porpoises that usually have annual reproduction). Gestation is ¢.10-11 months. Breeding of the Vaquita appears to be strongly seasonal, with most births occurring in March-April. The oldest known Vaquita was 21 years old, but they may sometimes live a bit beyond this age.","There have been no detailed studies of the behavior of the Vaquita, and all that has been learned comes from opportunistic sightings or those that occurred during other types of studies. Vaquitas are generally considered to be elusive and difficult to approach. They have a low, cryptic surfacing pattern that generally does not produce any splash or visible blow. They tend to stay many hundreds of meters away from large, motorized vessels, but they may occasionally approach smaller, idling vessels. When foraging, they generally surface 3-5 times and then perform a longer dive that may last several minutes. Their surfacing behavior is very unpredictable. They do not ride bow waves of boats and have never been observed breaching or performing other aerial displays.","Essentially nothing is known of individual movements or home range patterns of Vaquitas because specimens have never been tagged. Photo-identification of individuals is possible, and although it has not been used much to date, such studies in the future may shed some light on this issue. Porpoises are generally observed alone or in small groups of 2-4 individuals (often consisting of several mother—offspring pairs). Vaquitas occasionally gather into large foraging aggregations that may consist of up to ten or more individuals, but these groups havelittle or no cohesion. These aggregations are presumably related to good feeding opportunities.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Vaquita is also listed as endangered on nationallegislation in Mexico and the USA. It is currently considered by many to be the most endangered marine mammal species in the world. The entire population of the Vaquita was estimated at 245 individuals in 2008, and this represents a nearly 8% annual decline in numbers estimated by the same methods in 1997. If this decline has continued, then the Vaquita would number less than 200 individuals in 2013. There are a number of potential threats, but only entanglement in gillnets has been documented as the definite cause of death for most specimens examined. Until recently, the major culprit was the fishery for totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi, a sea bass found in the northern Gulf of California), but in the last couple of decades, other gillnetfisheries have become more prominent within the distribution of the Vaquita. Targets of these fisheries include several species of finfish, sharks, rays, and in particular shrimps. The Mexican government has embarked on an ambitious program to save the Vaquita, involving elimination of gillnetfishing within its distribution. New fishing gear (mini trawl nets) has been developed to replace gillnets that cause most mortality, but implementation has been slow. Mortality in gillnets continues, and it 1s uncertain whether it can be reduced to insignificant levels in time to save the Vaquita—the next 5-10 years will be critical. The new presidential administration in Mexico appears to be genuinely supportive of conservation of the Vaquita.","Barlow et al. (2010) | D'/Agrosa et al. (2000) | Gerrodette & Rojas-Bracho (2011) | Gerrodette et al. (2011) | Jaramillo-Legorreta (2008) | Jaramillo-Legorreta, Rojas-Bracho, Brownell et al. (2007) | Jaramillo-Legor reta, Rojas-Bracho & Gerrodette (1999) | Jefferson & Curry (1994) | Jefferson, Olson et al. (2009) | Ortega-Ortiz et al. (2000) | Rojas-Bracho & Fueyo (2010) | Rojas-Bracho & Jaramillo-Legorreta (2009) | Rojas-Bracho & Reeves (2013) | Rojas-Bracho & Taylor (1999) | Rojas-Bracho et al. (2006) | Silber (1990, 1991) | Silber & Norris (1991) | Silber et al. (1994) | Taylor & Rojas-Bracho (1999) | Vidal (1990) | Villa-Ramirez et al. (1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/6607339/files/figure.png,"5.VaquitaPhocoena sinusFrench:Marsouin de Californie/ German:Kalifornien-Schweinswal/ Spanish:Vaquita marinaOther common names:Cochito, Gulf of California Porpoise, Gulf PorpoiseTaxonomy.Phocoena sinus Norris & McFarland, 1958, “from the northeast shore of Punta San Felipe, Baja California Norte, Gulf of California, Mexico.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Gulf of California (also called the Sea of Cortez) in N Mexico, the smallest known distribution of any marine cetacean.Descriptive notes.Total length 120-150 cm; weight 30-48 kg. Few fresh specimens of the Vaquita have been measured fully and weighed. Dorsalfin is relatively tall for a porpoise ofthis genus (up to 15 cm, or c.10% ofthe total body length). Head is blunt, with little or no beak, as in other species of the genus. General body color is dark brownish-gray on back, fading to pale gray or white on belly. There are black patches around eyes and around lips. There is also a darker chin-to-flipper stripe. Neonates are born darker than adults and gradually get paler in color as they age. Tooth counts generally are 16-22 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Very specific habitat in the northern Gulf of California, although there are some suggestions the distribution of the Vaquita may have extended somewhatfarther south in the past, before it was badly depleted by gillnet fishing. The current range of the Vaquita is characterized by moderately shallow waters (mostly less than 40 m deep) just south of the mouth of the Colorado River. These waters are murky and sedimentladen. They are biologically very productive, with high chlorophyll levels, and can reach very high temperatures in summer and autumn.Food and Feeding.The Vaquita appears to be an opportunistic feeder, eating a variety of small benthic and demersal fish species. Some cephalopods and crustaceans are also eaten. Although only a handful of stomachs have been examined to determine feeding habits, the Vaquita appears to feed mostly on several species of grunts and croakers (Sciaenidae). They also occasionally feed on squid (e.g. Lolliguncula).Breeding.Very little is known about reproduction of the Vaquita because there has only been a single study (using small samples) of its life history. Porpoises, in general, reach sexual maturity at 3-6 years of age, and females appear to give birth every other year (unusual for porpoises that usually have annual reproduction). Gestation is ¢.10-11 months. Breeding of the Vaquita appears to be strongly seasonal, with most births occurring in March-April. The oldest known Vaquita was 21 years old, but they may sometimes live a bit beyond this age.Activity patterns.There have been no detailed studies of the behavior of the Vaquita, and all that has been learned comes from opportunistic sightings or those that occurred during other types of studies. Vaquitas are generally considered to be elusive and difficult to approach. They have a low, cryptic surfacing pattern that generally does not produce any splash or visible blow. They tend to stay many hundreds of meters away from large, motorized vessels, but they may occasionally approach smaller, idling vessels. When foraging, they generally surface 3-5 times and then perform a longer dive that may last several minutes. Their surfacing behavior is very unpredictable. They do not ride bow waves of boats and have never been observed breaching or performing other aerial displays.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Essentially nothing is known of individual movements or home range patterns of Vaquitas because specimens have never been tagged. Photo-identification of individuals is possible, and although it has not been used much to date, such studies in the future may shed some light on this issue. Porpoises are generally observed alone or in small groups of 2-4 individuals (often consisting of several mother—offspring pairs). Vaquitas occasionally gather into large foraging aggregations that may consist of up to ten or more individuals, but these groups havelittle or no cohesion. These aggregations are presumably related to good feeding opportunities.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Vaquita is also listed as endangered on nationallegislation in Mexico and the USA. It is currently considered by many to be the most endangered marine mammal species in the world. The entire population of the Vaquita was estimated at 245 individuals in 2008, and this represents a nearly 8% annual decline in numbers estimated by the same methods in 1997. If this decline has continued, then the Vaquita would number less than 200 individuals in 2013. There are a number of potential threats, but only entanglement in gillnets has been documented as the definite cause of death for most specimens examined. Until recently, the major culprit was the fishery for totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi, a sea bass found in the northern Gulf of California), but in the last couple of decades, other gillnetfisheries have become more prominent within the distribution of the Vaquita. Targets of these fisheries include several species of finfish, sharks, rays, and in particular shrimps. The Mexican government has embarked on an ambitious program to save the Vaquita, involving elimination of gillnetfishing within its distribution. New fishing gear (mini trawl nets) has been developed to replace gillnets that cause most mortality, but implementation has been slow. Mortality in gillnets continues, and it 1s uncertain whether it can be reduced to insignificant levels in time to save the Vaquita—the next 5-10 years will be critical. The new presidential administration in Mexico appears to be genuinely supportive of conservation of the Vaquita.Bibliography.Barlow et al. (2010), D'/Agrosa et al. (2000), Gerrodette & Rojas-Bracho (2011), Gerrodette et al. (2011), Jaramillo-Legorreta (2008), Jaramillo-Legorreta, Rojas-Bracho, Brownell et al. (2007), Jaramillo-Legor reta, Rojas-Bracho & Gerrodette (1999), Jefferson & Curry (1994), Jefferson, Olson et al. (2009), Ortega-Ortiz et al. (2000), Rojas-Bracho & Fueyo (2010), Rojas-Bracho & Jaramillo-Legorreta (2009), Rojas-Bracho & Reeves (2013), Rojas-Bracho & Taylor (1999), Rojas-Bracho et al. (2006), Silber (1990, 1991), Silber & Norris (1991), Silber et al. (1994), Taylor & Rojas-Bracho (1999), Vidal (1990), Villa-Ramirez et al. (1993)." -03B887D96B29FFBDFA6C7A28F60D8BEB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,544,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B29FFBDFA6C7A28F60D8BEB.xml,Phocoenoides dalli,Phocoenoides,dalli,True,1885,,"Phocaena dalli True, 1885, USA, Alaska, “in the strait west of Adakh [sic] Island, one of the Aleutian group.”Two subspecies are recognized.","P. d. dalli True, 1885 — cool temperate regions of the N Pacific Ocean from Japan to Alaska and S to N Baja California, Mexico. P d. truee Andrews, 1911 — NW Pacific ÚCCZUI waters ¢.35-534° N, including the Okhotsk Sea.","Total length 165-240 cm; weight 60-200 kg. Dall’s Porpoise is the largest member of the family, reaching lengths of up to 240 cm for males and 220 cm for females. It is very stocky, with a very small head and small appendages. There is a very slight, poorly defined beak. Dorsal fin is wide-based and triangular, and in males,it is extremely canted forward. Tailstock is deepened, exceedingly in adult males. Flukes may have a convex trailing edge, especially in adult males. Color pattern is contrasting black and white, with a large, ventrally continuous, white flank patch (extending farther forward in the subspecies truei) and white frosting on upper margins of dorsal fin and trailing edge of flukes. In newborns, color pattern is muted, consisting of various shades of gray, and frosting on fin and flukes is absent. Color pattern becomes bolder as individuals age, and frosting (or trim) begins to appear in the first year of age. Tooth counts generally are 23-28 in each half of each jaw.","Deep, cold waters. Dall’s Porpoises are generally found far offshore, but they do occur in nearshore waters where there is water deeper than 100-200 m nearby. They are commonly seen in the inshore waters of north-western USA (Washington, Alaska) and west Canada (British Columbia), where they inhabit deep channels and passes.","Dall’s Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, taking a wide variety of prey items. These include mostly mid-water and surface-living fish and cephalopods, such as herring (Clupea), anchovies (Engraulis), sardines (Sardinops, Clupeidae), hake (Merluccius), sauries (Cololabis, Scomberesocidae), lanternfish (Myctophidae), and gonatid squid (Gonatidae). They occasionally consume invertebrates such as krill, decapods, and various species of shrimps, but these latter items are not considered to be their primary prey.","Dall’s Porpoise is a seasonal breeder, with all populations known to have a very strong birthing peak in summer. Age and length at sexual maturity appear to vary among different populations, but they generally occur at 4-7 years of age and lengths of 170-190 cm for females and 3-5-8 years and 180-200 cm for males. Gestation lasts c.11 months, and offspring are generally nursed for less than one year. Mating system of Dall’s Porpoise is strongly polygynous, with males apparently using their sexually dimorphic morphologic characters to compete directly for females, and then guarding the female from other potential suitors. In inshore waters of Washington, where they overlap in distribution with Harbor Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), the two species regularly appear to interbreed and produce hybrids, and this also is known to occur elsewhere in their distributions. In these cases, a Dall’s Porpoise is generally the maternal parent. Longevity is rarely much greater than 20 years.","Dall’s Porpoise is an active, energetic species. It may be the fastest swimmer of the cetaceans, at least for short bursts. They are most frequently seen swimming very quickly and throwing up a large V-shaped rooster-tail of spray as they surface to breathe at high speed, bringing only very little of their body above the surface. When riding bow waves of vessels, which they do frequently, they rooster-tail on virtually every surfacing, but at other times, they slow down and surface in a slow roll, with no splash. Breaching, spy hopping, and other types of aerial displays are not common, and they very rarely porpoise completely clear of the water.","Dall’s Porpoises are most commonly found as singletons and pairs, or in small groups of up to a dozen. They occasionally gather in large groups of several dozens or even hundreds (although these opportunistic aggregations do not have any particular structure). Groups of up to several thousand have been reported, but there is some doubt as to correct species identification in these cases. Seasonal movements of population segments of Dall’s Porpoises are known, with increased densities near shore and in more southern areas in winter, and corresponding northern and offshore shifts in summer. Little is known about home ranges or movements of individual Dall’s Porpoises because specimens have rarely been identified, either through photo-identification studies or tagging work. Based on what little is known, however, it would appear that they can undergorather extensive movements of at least several hundred kilometers in pelagic portions of their distribution.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last, reflecting the large numbers that occur throughout the North Pacific Ocean. The subspecies dalli and true: have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Dall’s Porpoise has been hunted heavily in Japanese waters, where they are the main target species of a harpoon fishery based in Hokkaido. Meatis used for human consumption and pet food. It has also been incidentally killed in very large numbers in several pelagic driftnet fisheries that have operated in waters ofJapan, Russia, and the USA (Alaska). Other potential threats include occasional kills in trawl nets, environmental contamination, anthropogenic noise disturbance, and habitat deterioration, but fishery kills are major factors affecting populations. Several populations in the western Pacific have been depleted by these kills, and their future is uncertain because Japan has often set kill quotas that are unsustainable, ignoring advice from their own nationals and the international community. The total number of Dall’s Porpoises in the North Pacific may be over 1-2 million individuals. Specific populations are estimated at 104,000 in waters offJapan, 554,000 in the Okhotsk Sea, 83,000 off Alaska, and 100,000 off the US West Coast.","Amano & Hayano (2007) | Amano & Miyazaki (1996) | Curry (1992) | Escorza-Trevino et al. (2004) | Ferrero & Walker (1999) | Forney & Barlow (1998) | Hanson & Baird (1998) | Houck & Jefferson (1999) | Jefferson (1990, 1991, 2009c) | Kajiwara et al. (2002) | Kasuya (1978) | Kubota et al. (2005) | Miller (1990) | Miyashita (1991) | Ohizumi et al. (2003) | Rosel et al. (1995) | Szczepaniak et al. (1992) | Temte (1991) | Turnock & Buckland (1995) | Turnock et al. (1995) | Walker (1996, 2001) | Willis & Dill (2007) | Willis et al. (2004) | Yang Jian et al. (2007)",,"7.Dall’s9 Porpoise. Phocoenoides dalli.French: Marsouin de Dall / German: Weilflanken-Schweinswal / Spanish: Marsopa de DallOther common names: Dall Porpoise, True Porpoise; Dalli-type Dall's Porpoise (dalli); Truei-type Dall’s Porpoise, True's Porpoise (true)Taxonomy.Phocaena dalli True, 1885, USA, Alaska, “in the strait west of Adakh [sic] Island, one of the Aleutian group.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. d. dalli True, 1885 — cool temperate regions of the N Pacific Ocean from Japan to Alaska and S to N Baja California, Mexico. P d. truee Andrews, 1911 — NW Pacific ÚCCZUI waters ¢.35-534° N, including the Okhotsk Sea.Descriptive notes.Total length 165-240 cm; weight 60-200 kg. Dall’s Porpoise is the largest member of the family, reaching lengths of up to 240 cm for males and 220 cm for females. It is very stocky, with a very small head and small appendages. There is a very slight, poorly defined beak. Dorsal fin is wide-based and triangular, and in males,it is extremely canted forward. Tailstock is deepened, exceedingly in adult males. Flukes may have a convex trailing edge, especially in adult males. Color pattern is contrasting black and white, with a large, ventrally continuous, white flank patch (extending farther forward in the subspecies truei) and white frosting on upper margins of dorsal fin and trailing edge of flukes. In newborns, color pattern is muted, consisting of various shades of gray, and frosting on fin and flukes is absent. Color pattern becomes bolder as individuals age, and frosting (or trim) begins to appear in the first year of age. Tooth counts generally are 23-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Deep, cold waters. Dall’s Porpoises are generally found far offshore, but they do occur in nearshore waters where there is water deeper than 100-200 m nearby. They are commonly seen in the inshore waters of north-western USA (Washington, Alaska) and west Canada (British Columbia), where they inhabit deep channels and passes.Food and Feeding.Dall’s Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, taking a wide variety of prey items. These include mostly mid-water and surface-living fish and cephalopods, such as herring (Clupea), anchovies (Engraulis), sardines (Sardinops, Clupeidae), hake (Merluccius), sauries (Cololabis, Scomberesocidae), lanternfish (Myctophidae), and gonatid squid (Gonatidae). They occasionally consume invertebrates such as krill, decapods, and various species of shrimps, but these latter items are not considered to be their primary prey.Breeding.Dall’s Porpoise is a seasonal breeder, with all populations known to have a very strong birthing peak in summer. Age and length at sexual maturity appear to vary among different populations, but they generally occur at 4-7 years of age and lengths of 170-190 cm for females and 3-5-8 years and 180-200 cm for males. Gestation lasts c.11 months, and offspring are generally nursed for less than one year. Mating system of Dall’s Porpoise is strongly polygynous, with males apparently using their sexually dimorphic morphologic characters to compete directly for females, and then guarding the female from other potential suitors. In inshore waters of Washington, where they overlap in distribution with Harbor Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), the two species regularly appear to interbreed and produce hybrids, and this also is known to occur elsewhere in their distributions. In these cases, a Dall’s Porpoise is generally the maternal parent. Longevity is rarely much greater than 20 years.Activity patterns.Dall’s Porpoise is an active, energetic species. It may be the fastest swimmer of the cetaceans, at least for short bursts. They are most frequently seen swimming very quickly and throwing up a large V-shaped rooster-tail of spray as they surface to breathe at high speed, bringing only very little of their body above the surface. When riding bow waves of vessels, which they do frequently, they rooster-tail on virtually every surfacing, but at other times, they slow down and surface in a slow roll, with no splash. Breaching, spy hopping, and other types of aerial displays are not common, and they very rarely porpoise completely clear of the water.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dall’s Porpoises are most commonly found as singletons and pairs, or in small groups of up to a dozen. They occasionally gather in large groups of several dozens or even hundreds (although these opportunistic aggregations do not have any particular structure). Groups of up to several thousand have been reported, but there is some doubt as to correct species identification in these cases. Seasonal movements of population segments of Dall’s Porpoises are known, with increased densities near shore and in more southern areas in winter, and corresponding northern and offshore shifts in summer. Little is known about home ranges or movements of individual Dall’s Porpoises because specimens have rarely been identified, either through photo-identification studies or tagging work. Based on what little is known, however, it would appear that they can undergorather extensive movements of at least several hundred kilometers in pelagic portions of their distribution.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last, reflecting the large numbers that occur throughout the North Pacific Ocean. The subspecies dalli and true: have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Dall’s Porpoise has been hunted heavily in Japanese waters, where they are the main target species of a harpoon fishery based in Hokkaido. Meatis used for human consumption and pet food. It has also been incidentally killed in very large numbers in several pelagic driftnet fisheries that have operated in waters ofJapan, Russia, and the USA (Alaska). Other potential threats include occasional kills in trawl nets, environmental contamination, anthropogenic noise disturbance, and habitat deterioration, but fishery kills are major factors affecting populations. Several populations in the western Pacific have been depleted by these kills, and their future is uncertain because Japan has often set kill quotas that are unsustainable, ignoring advice from their own nationals and the international community. The total number of Dall’s Porpoises in the North Pacific may be over 1-2 million individuals. Specific populations are estimated at 104,000 in waters offJapan, 554,000 in the Okhotsk Sea, 83,000 off Alaska, and 100,000 off the US West Coast.Bibliography.Amano & Hayano (2007), Amano & Miyazaki (1996), Curry (1992), Escorza-Trevino et al. (2004), Ferrero & Walker (1999), Forney & Barlow (1998), Hanson & Baird (1998), Houck & Jefferson (1999), Jefferson (1990, 1991, 2009c), Kajiwara et al. (2002), Kasuya (1978), Kubota et al. (2005), Miller (1990), Miyashita (1991), Ohizumi et al. (2003), Rosel et al. (1995), Szczepaniak et al. (1992), Temte (1991), Turnock & Buckland (1995), Turnock et al. (1995), Walker (1996, 2001), Willis & Dill (2007), Willis et al. (2004), Yang Jian et al. (2007)." +03B887D96B29FFBDFA6C7A28F60D8BEB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,544,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B29FFBDFA6C7A28F60D8BEB.xml,Phocoenoides dalli,Phocoenoides,dalli,True,1885,,"Phocaena dalli True, 1885, USA, Alaska, “in the strait west of Adakh [sic] Island, one of the Aleutian group.”Two subspecies are recognized.","P. d. dalli True, 1885 — cool temperate regions of the N Pacific Ocean from Japan to Alaska and S to N Baja California, Mexico. P d. truee Andrews, 1911 — NW Pacific ÚCCZUI waters ¢.35-534° N, including the Okhotsk Sea.","Total length 165-240 cm; weight 60-200 kg. Dall’s Porpoise is the largest member of the family, reaching lengths of up to 240 cm for males and 220 cm for females. It is very stocky, with a very small head and small appendages. There is a very slight, poorly defined beak. Dorsal fin is wide-based and triangular, and in males,it is extremely canted forward. Tailstock is deepened, exceedingly in adult males. Flukes may have a convex trailing edge, especially in adult males. Color pattern is contrasting black and white, with a large, ventrally continuous, white flank patch (extending farther forward in the subspecies truei) and white frosting on upper margins of dorsal fin and trailing edge of flukes. In newborns, color pattern is muted, consisting of various shades of gray, and frosting on fin and flukes is absent. Color pattern becomes bolder as individuals age, and frosting (or trim) begins to appear in the first year of age. Tooth counts generally are 23-28 in each half of each jaw.","Deep, cold waters. Dall’s Porpoises are generally found far offshore, but they do occur in nearshore waters where there is water deeper than 100-200 m nearby. They are commonly seen in the inshore waters of north-western USA (Washington, Alaska) and west Canada (British Columbia), where they inhabit deep channels and passes.","Dall’s Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, taking a wide variety of prey items. These include mostly mid-water and surface-living fish and cephalopods, such as herring (Clupea), anchovies (Engraulis), sardines (Sardinops, Clupeidae), hake (Merluccius), sauries (Cololabis, Scomberesocidae), lanternfish (Myctophidae), and gonatid squid (Gonatidae). They occasionally consume invertebrates such as krill, decapods, and various species of shrimps, but these latter items are not considered to be their primary prey.","Dall’s Porpoise is a seasonal breeder, with all populations known to have a very strong birthing peak in summer. Age and length at sexual maturity appear to vary among different populations, but they generally occur at 4-7 years of age and lengths of 170-190 cm for females and 3-5-8 years and 180-200 cm for males. Gestation lasts c.11 months, and offspring are generally nursed for less than one year. Mating system of Dall’s Porpoise is strongly polygynous, with males apparently using their sexually dimorphic morphologic characters to compete directly for females, and then guarding the female from other potential suitors. In inshore waters of Washington, where they overlap in distribution with Harbor Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), the two species regularly appear to interbreed and produce hybrids, and this also is known to occur elsewhere in their distributions. In these cases, a Dall’s Porpoise is generally the maternal parent. Longevity is rarely much greater than 20 years.","Dall’s Porpoise is an active, energetic species. It may be the fastest swimmer of the cetaceans, at least for short bursts. They are most frequently seen swimming very quickly and throwing up a large V-shaped rooster-tail of spray as they surface to breathe at high speed, bringing only very little of their body above the surface. When riding bow waves of vessels, which they do frequently, they rooster-tail on virtually every surfacing, but at other times, they slow down and surface in a slow roll, with no splash. Breaching, spy hopping, and other types of aerial displays are not common, and they very rarely porpoise completely clear of the water.","Dall’s Porpoises are most commonly found as singletons and pairs, or in small groups of up to a dozen. They occasionally gather in large groups of several dozens or even hundreds (although these opportunistic aggregations do not have any particular structure). Groups of up to several thousand have been reported, but there is some doubt as to correct species identification in these cases. Seasonal movements of population segments of Dall’s Porpoises are known, with increased densities near shore and in more southern areas in winter, and corresponding northern and offshore shifts in summer. Little is known about home ranges or movements of individual Dall’s Porpoises because specimens have rarely been identified, either through photo-identification studies or tagging work. Based on what little is known, however, it would appear that they can undergorather extensive movements of at least several hundred kilometers in pelagic portions of their distribution.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last, reflecting the large numbers that occur throughout the North Pacific Ocean. The subspecies dalli and true: have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Dall’s Porpoise has been hunted heavily in Japanese waters, where they are the main target species of a harpoon fishery based in Hokkaido. Meatis used for human consumption and pet food. It has also been incidentally killed in very large numbers in several pelagic driftnet fisheries that have operated in waters ofJapan, Russia, and the USA (Alaska). Other potential threats include occasional kills in trawl nets, environmental contamination, anthropogenic noise disturbance, and habitat deterioration, but fishery kills are major factors affecting populations. Several populations in the western Pacific have been depleted by these kills, and their future is uncertain because Japan has often set kill quotas that are unsustainable, ignoring advice from their own nationals and the international community. The total number of Dall’s Porpoises in the North Pacific may be over 1-2 million individuals. Specific populations are estimated at 104,000 in waters offJapan, 554,000 in the Okhotsk Sea, 83,000 off Alaska, and 100,000 off the US West Coast.","Amano & Hayano (2007) | Amano & Miyazaki (1996) | Curry (1992) | Escorza-Trevino et al. (2004) | Ferrero & Walker (1999) | Forney & Barlow (1998) | Hanson & Baird (1998) | Houck & Jefferson (1999) | Jefferson (1990, 1991, 2009c) | Kajiwara et al. (2002) | Kasuya (1978) | Kubota et al. (2005) | Miller (1990) | Miyashita (1991) | Ohizumi et al. (2003) | Rosel et al. (1995) | Szczepaniak et al. (1992) | Temte (1991) | Turnock & Buckland (1995) | Turnock et al. (1995) | Walker (1996, 2001) | Willis & Dill (2007) | Willis et al. (2004) | Yang Jian et al. (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6607343/files/figure.png,"7.Dall’s9 Porpoise. Phocoenoides dalli.French: Marsouin de Dall / German: Weilflanken-Schweinswal / Spanish: Marsopa de DallOther common names: Dall Porpoise, True Porpoise; Dalli-type Dall's Porpoise (dalli); Truei-type Dall’s Porpoise, True's Porpoise (true)Taxonomy.Phocaena dalli True, 1885, USA, Alaska, “in the strait west of Adakh [sic] Island, one of the Aleutian group.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. d. dalli True, 1885 — cool temperate regions of the N Pacific Ocean from Japan to Alaska and S to N Baja California, Mexico. P d. truee Andrews, 1911 — NW Pacific ÚCCZUI waters ¢.35-534° N, including the Okhotsk Sea.Descriptive notes.Total length 165-240 cm; weight 60-200 kg. Dall’s Porpoise is the largest member of the family, reaching lengths of up to 240 cm for males and 220 cm for females. It is very stocky, with a very small head and small appendages. There is a very slight, poorly defined beak. Dorsal fin is wide-based and triangular, and in males,it is extremely canted forward. Tailstock is deepened, exceedingly in adult males. Flukes may have a convex trailing edge, especially in adult males. Color pattern is contrasting black and white, with a large, ventrally continuous, white flank patch (extending farther forward in the subspecies truei) and white frosting on upper margins of dorsal fin and trailing edge of flukes. In newborns, color pattern is muted, consisting of various shades of gray, and frosting on fin and flukes is absent. Color pattern becomes bolder as individuals age, and frosting (or trim) begins to appear in the first year of age. Tooth counts generally are 23-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Deep, cold waters. Dall’s Porpoises are generally found far offshore, but they do occur in nearshore waters where there is water deeper than 100-200 m nearby. They are commonly seen in the inshore waters of north-western USA (Washington, Alaska) and west Canada (British Columbia), where they inhabit deep channels and passes.Food and Feeding.Dall’s Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, taking a wide variety of prey items. These include mostly mid-water and surface-living fish and cephalopods, such as herring (Clupea), anchovies (Engraulis), sardines (Sardinops, Clupeidae), hake (Merluccius), sauries (Cololabis, Scomberesocidae), lanternfish (Myctophidae), and gonatid squid (Gonatidae). They occasionally consume invertebrates such as krill, decapods, and various species of shrimps, but these latter items are not considered to be their primary prey.Breeding.Dall’s Porpoise is a seasonal breeder, with all populations known to have a very strong birthing peak in summer. Age and length at sexual maturity appear to vary among different populations, but they generally occur at 4-7 years of age and lengths of 170-190 cm for females and 3-5-8 years and 180-200 cm for males. Gestation lasts c.11 months, and offspring are generally nursed for less than one year. Mating system of Dall’s Porpoise is strongly polygynous, with males apparently using their sexually dimorphic morphologic characters to compete directly for females, and then guarding the female from other potential suitors. In inshore waters of Washington, where they overlap in distribution with Harbor Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), the two species regularly appear to interbreed and produce hybrids, and this also is known to occur elsewhere in their distributions. In these cases, a Dall’s Porpoise is generally the maternal parent. Longevity is rarely much greater than 20 years.Activity patterns.Dall’s Porpoise is an active, energetic species. It may be the fastest swimmer of the cetaceans, at least for short bursts. They are most frequently seen swimming very quickly and throwing up a large V-shaped rooster-tail of spray as they surface to breathe at high speed, bringing only very little of their body above the surface. When riding bow waves of vessels, which they do frequently, they rooster-tail on virtually every surfacing, but at other times, they slow down and surface in a slow roll, with no splash. Breaching, spy hopping, and other types of aerial displays are not common, and they very rarely porpoise completely clear of the water.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dall’s Porpoises are most commonly found as singletons and pairs, or in small groups of up to a dozen. They occasionally gather in large groups of several dozens or even hundreds (although these opportunistic aggregations do not have any particular structure). Groups of up to several thousand have been reported, but there is some doubt as to correct species identification in these cases. Seasonal movements of population segments of Dall’s Porpoises are known, with increased densities near shore and in more southern areas in winter, and corresponding northern and offshore shifts in summer. Little is known about home ranges or movements of individual Dall’s Porpoises because specimens have rarely been identified, either through photo-identification studies or tagging work. Based on what little is known, however, it would appear that they can undergorather extensive movements of at least several hundred kilometers in pelagic portions of their distribution.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last, reflecting the large numbers that occur throughout the North Pacific Ocean. The subspecies dalli and true: have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Dall’s Porpoise has been hunted heavily in Japanese waters, where they are the main target species of a harpoon fishery based in Hokkaido. Meatis used for human consumption and pet food. It has also been incidentally killed in very large numbers in several pelagic driftnet fisheries that have operated in waters ofJapan, Russia, and the USA (Alaska). Other potential threats include occasional kills in trawl nets, environmental contamination, anthropogenic noise disturbance, and habitat deterioration, but fishery kills are major factors affecting populations. Several populations in the western Pacific have been depleted by these kills, and their future is uncertain because Japan has often set kill quotas that are unsustainable, ignoring advice from their own nationals and the international community. The total number of Dall’s Porpoises in the North Pacific may be over 1-2 million individuals. Specific populations are estimated at 104,000 in waters offJapan, 554,000 in the Okhotsk Sea, 83,000 off Alaska, and 100,000 off the US West Coast.Bibliography.Amano & Hayano (2007), Amano & Miyazaki (1996), Curry (1992), Escorza-Trevino et al. (2004), Ferrero & Walker (1999), Forney & Barlow (1998), Hanson & Baird (1998), Houck & Jefferson (1999), Jefferson (1990, 1991, 2009c), Kajiwara et al. (2002), Kasuya (1978), Kubota et al. (2005), Miller (1990), Miyashita (1991), Ohizumi et al. (2003), Rosel et al. (1995), Szczepaniak et al. (1992), Temte (1991), Turnock & Buckland (1995), Turnock et al. (1995), Walker (1996, 2001), Willis & Dill (2007), Willis et al. (2004), Yang Jian et al. (2007)." 03B887D96B2CFFBBFDFC7B25F9D88C18,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,528,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2CFFBBFDFC7B25F9D88C18.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family PHOCOENIDAE(PORPOISES)• Small, relatively robust but slender porpoises with short and poorly defined beaks; small spade-shaped teeth.• 120-240 cm.• All oceans and some rivers in East and South Asia.• Shoreward of the continental shelf, mostly shallow waters less than 180 m deep; two species occur in deep, oceanic waters (hundreds to thousands of meters deep), and two in rivers.• 3 genera, 7 species, 11 taxa.• 1 species Critically Endangered, 2 Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." -03B887D96B2EFFB8FAA27A34FD7D8FF6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,541,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2EFFB8FAA27A34FD7D8FF6.xml,Neophocaena asiaeorientalis,Neophocaena,asiaeorientalis,,,Marsouin du Yangzi @fr | Ostlicher Glattschweinswal @de | Marsopa sin aleta asiaticoriental @es | Finless Porpoise; Yangtze Finless Porpoise (asiaeorientalis); East Asian Finless Porpoise (sunameri) @en,"Neomeris asiaeorientalis Pilleri & Gihr, 1972, “Yangtze, Prov. Kiangsu, Shanghai, China.”Two subspecies are recognized.","N.a.asiaeorientalisPilleri&Gihr,1972—middleandlowerreachesoftheYangtzeRiver,CChina.N. a. sunameri Pilleri & Gihr, 1975— shallow marine waters of E Asia; records are known from Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan. Occurrence in North Korea is not documented butis strongly suspected, and a stranding record from the island of Okinawa, S Japan, is considered to be extralimital.","Total length 130-227 cm; weight 40-72 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise is the larger species, with a total body length up to 227 cm, although this may be an outlier because most specimens are much smaller. There is no dorsal fin, but the tubercled patch is narrow, 0.2-1.2 cm, occasionally up to 2-4 cm, in width at its widest point. Dorsal ridge is high (up to 5:5 cm), is covered with 1-10 rows of tubercles, and originates at or anterior to the mid-length of the back. There is no beak, and head is blunt, with a steep forehead. Especially in the Yangtze River, body of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a very soft and “mushy” texture, different from most cetaceans. Coloration tends to be much paler than in the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise (N. phocaenoides). Adults range from pale cream to dark gray, but they are a moderate shade of gray in most populations. Newborns are dark gray and get paler as they age. Compared with their congeners, skull of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a relatively long and narrow rostrum (length 77-97 mm, with a mean of 86-8 mm). Adult condylobasal skull lengths are 210-295 mm. Teeth are small, and tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 16-21 in the upper row and 15-20 in the lower row.","Shallow, temperate waters of eastern Asia. Both marine and fresh waters are inhabited, and there is a population of Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises found exclusively in the freshwaters of China’s largestriver, the Yangtze. Althoughit tends to occur mostly very near shore, it has a greater tendency than the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise to be found in offshore waters. Shallow, offshore (more than 240 km from shore, but less than 200 m deep) regions of the Yellow and Bohai seas are inhabited by the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise.","Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic; others are benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish (families such as Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, Engraulidae, Sciaenidae, Gobiidae, and Atherinidae), cephalopods (Octopodidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, and Loliginidae), and crustaceans (mostly shrimps). Available data also indicate that Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises in the Yangtze River feed on fish and shrimps.","Life history of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has been relatively well studied, largely due to the abundance of specimens available from large bycatches in various fisheries. Newborns are ¢.73-79 cm long and are born mostly in spring and summer, although births in some populations can occur in autumn and winter. Sexual maturity of males occurs at 3-6 years of age and lengths of 132-145 cm, and at c.4-6 years and 132-140 cm for females, with some variation among populations. Gestation lasts ¢.10-11 months. Most individuals appear to reach a maximum age of ¢.20-25 years, but they can live as long as 33 years.","Both species of finless porpoises are very cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not appear to leap from the water very frequently, individuals have been observed performing “tail stands” in the Yangtze River. They can be very active at times and will often chase fish at very high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. There are reports of mother porpoises carrying young on their backs (supposedly with the offspring lying on the roughened dorsal ridge), but these reports are somewhat questionable. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and they may move away with rooster-tail-type splashes when they are startled by a motor boat.","Not much is known about individual movements or home range patterns of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise because few studies have been able to track individual movements through tagging or individual identification work. Nonetheless, moderately extensive movements in the Yangtze River are known or suspected. Seasonal shifts in abundance are known from some waters of China and Japan, although these do not appear to qualify as well-defined migrations. Group sizes tend to be small. Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises generally occuras singles or in small groups of up to ten individuals or so. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities, but these groups do not have a cohesive structure.","CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The nominate subspecies asiaeorientalisis classified as Critically Endangered, and the subspecies sunamerihas not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Vulnerable status is due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. In particular, populations in the Yangtze River and the Inland Sea ofJapan have suffered dramatic declines in recent decades, and the future of both populationsis in serious doubt. Although the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has an extensive distribution, no global assessment of abundance has been attempted. There are, however, thought to be somewhat more than 1800 individuals in the Yangtze River and 5000-10,000 individuals in 5-6 different populations in Japanese waters. In the Yellow Sea of Korea, c.21,500 individuals were estimated to occur in offshore waters and ¢.5500 in coastal waters, but these estimates are thought to be low. They are faced with a number of threats, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution and noise disturbance. As for the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, the major threat to the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise may come from entanglement in equipment of various fisheries, especially those using gillnets and related trammel nets.","Akamatsu et al. (2010) | Amano (2009) | Amano et al. (1992) | Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (1995a, 1995b, 1995c) | Jefferson & Hung (2004) | Kasuya (1999b) | Kasuya et al. (2002) | Li Songhai et al. (2010) | Mei Zhigang et al. (2012) | Park Kyum-Joon et al. (2007) | Reeves et al. (1997) | Shirakihara, K. et al. (2007) | Shirakihara, M., Shirakihara & Takemura (1994) | Shirakihara, M., Takemura & Shirakihara (1993) | Tanabe et al. (1998) | Wang Ding (2009) | Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008) | Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010) | Wang Peilie (1992) | Wei Zhuo, Wang Ding et al. (2002) | Wei Zhuo, Zhang Xianfeng et al. (2003) | Yamada & Okamoto (2000) | Yoshida (2002) | Yoshida et al. (1998) | Zhang Chang-lk et al. (2004) | Zhao Xiujiang et al. (2008) | Zheng Jinsong et al. (2005) | Zhou Kaiya, Yang Guang et al. (1998)",,"2.Narrow-ridged Finless PorpoiseNeophocaena asiaeorientalisFrench:Marsouin du Yangzi/ German:Ostlicher Glattschweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa sin aleta asiaticorientalOther common names:Finless Porpoise; Yangtze Finless Porpoise (asiaeorientalis); East Asian Finless Porpoise (sunameri)Taxonomy.Neomeris asiaeorientalis Pilleri & Gihr, 1972, “Yangtze, Prov. Kiangsu, Shanghai, China.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.a.asiaeorientalisPilleri&Gihr,1972—middleandlowerreachesoftheYangtzeRiver,CChina.N. a. sunameri Pilleri & Gihr, 1975— shallow marine waters of E Asia; records are known from Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan. Occurrence in North Korea is not documented butis strongly suspected, and a stranding record from the island of Okinawa, S Japan, is considered to be extralimital.Descriptive notes.Total length 130-227 cm; weight 40-72 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise is the larger species, with a total body length up to 227 cm, although this may be an outlier because most specimens are much smaller. There is no dorsal fin, but the tubercled patch is narrow, 0.2-1.2 cm, occasionally up to 2-4 cm, in width at its widest point. Dorsal ridge is high (up to 5:5 cm), is covered with 1-10 rows of tubercles, and originates at or anterior to the mid-length of the back. There is no beak, and head is blunt, with a steep forehead. Especially in the Yangtze River, body of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a very soft and “mushy” texture, different from most cetaceans. Coloration tends to be much paler than in the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise (N. phocaenoides). Adults range from pale cream to dark gray, but they are a moderate shade of gray in most populations. Newborns are dark gray and get paler as they age. Compared with their congeners, skull of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a relatively long and narrow rostrum (length 77-97 mm, with a mean of 86-8 mm). Adult condylobasal skull lengths are 210-295 mm. Teeth are small, and tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 16-21 in the upper row and 15-20 in the lower row.Habitat.Shallow, temperate waters of eastern Asia. Both marine and fresh waters are inhabited, and there is a population of Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises found exclusively in the freshwaters of China’s largestriver, the Yangtze. Althoughit tends to occur mostly very near shore, it has a greater tendency than the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise to be found in offshore waters. Shallow, offshore (more than 240 km from shore, but less than 200 m deep) regions of the Yellow and Bohai seas are inhabited by the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise.Food and Feeding.Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic; others are benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish (families such as Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, Engraulidae, Sciaenidae, Gobiidae, and Atherinidae), cephalopods (Octopodidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, and Loliginidae), and crustaceans (mostly shrimps). Available data also indicate that Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises in the Yangtze River feed on fish and shrimps.Breeding.Life history of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has been relatively well studied, largely due to the abundance of specimens available from large bycatches in various fisheries. Newborns are ¢.73-79 cm long and are born mostly in spring and summer, although births in some populations can occur in autumn and winter. Sexual maturity of males occurs at 3-6 years of age and lengths of 132-145 cm, and at c.4-6 years and 132-140 cm for females, with some variation among populations. Gestation lasts ¢.10-11 months. Most individuals appear to reach a maximum age of ¢.20-25 years, but they can live as long as 33 years.Activity patterns.Both species of finless porpoises are very cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not appear to leap from the water very frequently, individuals have been observed performing “tail stands” in the Yangtze River. They can be very active at times and will often chase fish at very high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. There are reports of mother porpoises carrying young on their backs (supposedly with the offspring lying on the roughened dorsal ridge), but these reports are somewhat questionable. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and they may move away with rooster-tail-type splashes when they are startled by a motor boat.On following pages: 3. Spectacled Porpoise (Phocoena dioptrica); 4. Burmeister's Porpoise (Phocoena spinipinnis); 5. Vaquita (Phocoena sinus); 6. Harbor Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena); 7. Dall's Porpoise (Phocoenoidesdall).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Not much is known about individual movements or home range patterns of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise because few studies have been able to track individual movements through tagging or individual identification work. Nonetheless, moderately extensive movements in the Yangtze River are known or suspected. Seasonal shifts in abundance are known from some waters of China and Japan, although these do not appear to qualify as well-defined migrations. Group sizes tend to be small. Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises generally occuras singles or in small groups of up to ten individuals or so. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities, but these groups do not have a cohesive structure.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The nominate subspecies asiaeorientalisis classified as Critically Endangered, and the subspecies sunamerihas not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Vulnerable status is due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. In particular, populations in the Yangtze River and the Inland Sea ofJapan have suffered dramatic declines in recent decades, and the future of both populationsis in serious doubt. Although the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has an extensive distribution, no global assessment of abundance has been attempted. There are, however, thought to be somewhat more than 1800 individuals in the Yangtze River and 5000-10,000 individuals in 5-6 different populations in Japanese waters. In the Yellow Sea of Korea, c.21,500 individuals were estimated to occur in offshore waters and ¢.5500 in coastal waters, but these estimates are thought to be low. They are faced with a number of threats, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution and noise disturbance. As for the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, the major threat to the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise may come from entanglement in equipment of various fisheries, especially those using gillnets and related trammel nets.Bibliography.Akamatsu et al. (2010), Amano (2009), Amano et al. (1992), Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (1995a, 1995b, 1995c), Jefferson & Hung (2004), Kasuya (1999b), Kasuya et al. (2002), Li Songhai et al. (2010), Mei Zhigang et al. (2012), Park Kyum-Joon et al. (2007), Reeves et al. (1997), Shirakihara, K. et al. (2007), Shirakihara, M., Shirakihara & Takemura (1994), Shirakihara, M., Takemura & Shirakihara (1993), Tanabe et al. (1998), Wang Ding (2009), Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008), Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010), Wang Peilie (1992), Wei Zhuo, Wang Ding et al. (2002), Wei Zhuo, Zhang Xianfeng et al. (2003), Yamada & Okamoto (2000), Yoshida (2002), Yoshida et al. (1998), Zhang Chang-lk et al. (2004), Zhao Xiujiang et al. (2008), Zheng Jinsong et al. (2005), Zhou Kaiya, Yang Guang et al. (1998)." +03B887D96B2EFFB8FAA27A34FD7D8FF6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,541,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2EFFB8FAA27A34FD7D8FF6.xml,Neophocaena asiaeorientalis,Neophocaena,asiaeorientalis,,,Marsouin du Yangzi @fr | Ostlicher Glattschweinswal @de | Marsopa sin aleta asiaticoriental @es | Finless Porpoise; Yangtze Finless Porpoise (asiaeorientalis); East Asian Finless Porpoise (sunameri) @en,"Neomeris asiaeorientalis Pilleri & Gihr, 1972, “Yangtze, Prov. Kiangsu, Shanghai, China.”Two subspecies are recognized.","N.a.asiaeorientalisPilleri&Gihr,1972—middleandlowerreachesoftheYangtzeRiver,CChina.N. a. sunameri Pilleri & Gihr, 1975— shallow marine waters of E Asia; records are known from Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan. Occurrence in North Korea is not documented butis strongly suspected, and a stranding record from the island of Okinawa, S Japan, is considered to be extralimital.","Total length 130-227 cm; weight 40-72 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise is the larger species, with a total body length up to 227 cm, although this may be an outlier because most specimens are much smaller. There is no dorsal fin, but the tubercled patch is narrow, 0.2-1.2 cm, occasionally up to 2-4 cm, in width at its widest point. Dorsal ridge is high (up to 5:5 cm), is covered with 1-10 rows of tubercles, and originates at or anterior to the mid-length of the back. There is no beak, and head is blunt, with a steep forehead. Especially in the Yangtze River, body of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a very soft and “mushy” texture, different from most cetaceans. Coloration tends to be much paler than in the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise (N. phocaenoides). Adults range from pale cream to dark gray, but they are a moderate shade of gray in most populations. Newborns are dark gray and get paler as they age. Compared with their congeners, skull of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a relatively long and narrow rostrum (length 77-97 mm, with a mean of 86-8 mm). Adult condylobasal skull lengths are 210-295 mm. Teeth are small, and tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 16-21 in the upper row and 15-20 in the lower row.","Shallow, temperate waters of eastern Asia. Both marine and fresh waters are inhabited, and there is a population of Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises found exclusively in the freshwaters of China’s largestriver, the Yangtze. Althoughit tends to occur mostly very near shore, it has a greater tendency than the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise to be found in offshore waters. Shallow, offshore (more than 240 km from shore, but less than 200 m deep) regions of the Yellow and Bohai seas are inhabited by the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise.","Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic; others are benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish (families such as Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, Engraulidae, Sciaenidae, Gobiidae, and Atherinidae), cephalopods (Octopodidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, and Loliginidae), and crustaceans (mostly shrimps). Available data also indicate that Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises in the Yangtze River feed on fish and shrimps.","Life history of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has been relatively well studied, largely due to the abundance of specimens available from large bycatches in various fisheries. Newborns are ¢.73-79 cm long and are born mostly in spring and summer, although births in some populations can occur in autumn and winter. Sexual maturity of males occurs at 3-6 years of age and lengths of 132-145 cm, and at c.4-6 years and 132-140 cm for females, with some variation among populations. Gestation lasts ¢.10-11 months. Most individuals appear to reach a maximum age of ¢.20-25 years, but they can live as long as 33 years.","Both species of finless porpoises are very cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not appear to leap from the water very frequently, individuals have been observed performing “tail stands” in the Yangtze River. They can be very active at times and will often chase fish at very high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. There are reports of mother porpoises carrying young on their backs (supposedly with the offspring lying on the roughened dorsal ridge), but these reports are somewhat questionable. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and they may move away with rooster-tail-type splashes when they are startled by a motor boat.","Not much is known about individual movements or home range patterns of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise because few studies have been able to track individual movements through tagging or individual identification work. Nonetheless, moderately extensive movements in the Yangtze River are known or suspected. Seasonal shifts in abundance are known from some waters of China and Japan, although these do not appear to qualify as well-defined migrations. Group sizes tend to be small. Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises generally occuras singles or in small groups of up to ten individuals or so. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities, but these groups do not have a cohesive structure.","CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The nominate subspecies asiaeorientalisis classified as Critically Endangered, and the subspecies sunamerihas not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Vulnerable status is due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. In particular, populations in the Yangtze River and the Inland Sea ofJapan have suffered dramatic declines in recent decades, and the future of both populationsis in serious doubt. Although the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has an extensive distribution, no global assessment of abundance has been attempted. There are, however, thought to be somewhat more than 1800 individuals in the Yangtze River and 5000-10,000 individuals in 5-6 different populations in Japanese waters. In the Yellow Sea of Korea, c.21,500 individuals were estimated to occur in offshore waters and ¢.5500 in coastal waters, but these estimates are thought to be low. They are faced with a number of threats, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution and noise disturbance. As for the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, the major threat to the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise may come from entanglement in equipment of various fisheries, especially those using gillnets and related trammel nets.","Akamatsu et al. (2010) | Amano (2009) | Amano et al. (1992) | Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (1995a, 1995b, 1995c) | Jefferson & Hung (2004) | Kasuya (1999b) | Kasuya et al. (2002) | Li Songhai et al. (2010) | Mei Zhigang et al. (2012) | Park Kyum-Joon et al. (2007) | Reeves et al. (1997) | Shirakihara, K. et al. (2007) | Shirakihara, M., Shirakihara & Takemura (1994) | Shirakihara, M., Takemura & Shirakihara (1993) | Tanabe et al. (1998) | Wang Ding (2009) | Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008) | Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010) | Wang Peilie (1992) | Wei Zhuo, Wang Ding et al. (2002) | Wei Zhuo, Zhang Xianfeng et al. (2003) | Yamada & Okamoto (2000) | Yoshida (2002) | Yoshida et al. (1998) | Zhang Chang-lk et al. (2004) | Zhao Xiujiang et al. (2008) | Zheng Jinsong et al. (2005) | Zhou Kaiya, Yang Guang et al. (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6607333/files/figure.png,"2.Narrow-ridged Finless PorpoiseNeophocaena asiaeorientalisFrench:Marsouin du Yangzi/ German:Ostlicher Glattschweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa sin aleta asiaticorientalOther common names:Finless Porpoise; Yangtze Finless Porpoise (asiaeorientalis); East Asian Finless Porpoise (sunameri)Taxonomy.Neomeris asiaeorientalis Pilleri & Gihr, 1972, “Yangtze, Prov. Kiangsu, Shanghai, China.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.a.asiaeorientalisPilleri&Gihr,1972—middleandlowerreachesoftheYangtzeRiver,CChina.N. a. sunameri Pilleri & Gihr, 1975— shallow marine waters of E Asia; records are known from Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan. Occurrence in North Korea is not documented butis strongly suspected, and a stranding record from the island of Okinawa, S Japan, is considered to be extralimital.Descriptive notes.Total length 130-227 cm; weight 40-72 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise is the larger species, with a total body length up to 227 cm, although this may be an outlier because most specimens are much smaller. There is no dorsal fin, but the tubercled patch is narrow, 0.2-1.2 cm, occasionally up to 2-4 cm, in width at its widest point. Dorsal ridge is high (up to 5:5 cm), is covered with 1-10 rows of tubercles, and originates at or anterior to the mid-length of the back. There is no beak, and head is blunt, with a steep forehead. Especially in the Yangtze River, body of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a very soft and “mushy” texture, different from most cetaceans. Coloration tends to be much paler than in the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise (N. phocaenoides). Adults range from pale cream to dark gray, but they are a moderate shade of gray in most populations. Newborns are dark gray and get paler as they age. Compared with their congeners, skull of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a relatively long and narrow rostrum (length 77-97 mm, with a mean of 86-8 mm). Adult condylobasal skull lengths are 210-295 mm. Teeth are small, and tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 16-21 in the upper row and 15-20 in the lower row.Habitat.Shallow, temperate waters of eastern Asia. Both marine and fresh waters are inhabited, and there is a population of Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises found exclusively in the freshwaters of China’s largestriver, the Yangtze. Althoughit tends to occur mostly very near shore, it has a greater tendency than the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise to be found in offshore waters. Shallow, offshore (more than 240 km from shore, but less than 200 m deep) regions of the Yellow and Bohai seas are inhabited by the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise.Food and Feeding.Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic; others are benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish (families such as Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, Engraulidae, Sciaenidae, Gobiidae, and Atherinidae), cephalopods (Octopodidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, and Loliginidae), and crustaceans (mostly shrimps). Available data also indicate that Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises in the Yangtze River feed on fish and shrimps.Breeding.Life history of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has been relatively well studied, largely due to the abundance of specimens available from large bycatches in various fisheries. Newborns are ¢.73-79 cm long and are born mostly in spring and summer, although births in some populations can occur in autumn and winter. Sexual maturity of males occurs at 3-6 years of age and lengths of 132-145 cm, and at c.4-6 years and 132-140 cm for females, with some variation among populations. Gestation lasts ¢.10-11 months. Most individuals appear to reach a maximum age of ¢.20-25 years, but they can live as long as 33 years.Activity patterns.Both species of finless porpoises are very cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not appear to leap from the water very frequently, individuals have been observed performing “tail stands” in the Yangtze River. They can be very active at times and will often chase fish at very high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. There are reports of mother porpoises carrying young on their backs (supposedly with the offspring lying on the roughened dorsal ridge), but these reports are somewhat questionable. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and they may move away with rooster-tail-type splashes when they are startled by a motor boat.On following pages: 3. Spectacled Porpoise (Phocoena dioptrica); 4. Burmeister's Porpoise (Phocoena spinipinnis); 5. Vaquita (Phocoena sinus); 6. Harbor Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena); 7. Dall's Porpoise (Phocoenoidesdall).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Not much is known about individual movements or home range patterns of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise because few studies have been able to track individual movements through tagging or individual identification work. Nonetheless, moderately extensive movements in the Yangtze River are known or suspected. Seasonal shifts in abundance are known from some waters of China and Japan, although these do not appear to qualify as well-defined migrations. Group sizes tend to be small. Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises generally occuras singles or in small groups of up to ten individuals or so. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities, but these groups do not have a cohesive structure.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The nominate subspecies asiaeorientalisis classified as Critically Endangered, and the subspecies sunamerihas not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Vulnerable status is due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. In particular, populations in the Yangtze River and the Inland Sea ofJapan have suffered dramatic declines in recent decades, and the future of both populationsis in serious doubt. Although the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has an extensive distribution, no global assessment of abundance has been attempted. There are, however, thought to be somewhat more than 1800 individuals in the Yangtze River and 5000-10,000 individuals in 5-6 different populations in Japanese waters. In the Yellow Sea of Korea, c.21,500 individuals were estimated to occur in offshore waters and ¢.5500 in coastal waters, but these estimates are thought to be low. They are faced with a number of threats, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution and noise disturbance. As for the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, the major threat to the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise may come from entanglement in equipment of various fisheries, especially those using gillnets and related trammel nets.Bibliography.Akamatsu et al. (2010), Amano (2009), Amano et al. (1992), Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (1995a, 1995b, 1995c), Jefferson & Hung (2004), Kasuya (1999b), Kasuya et al. (2002), Li Songhai et al. (2010), Mei Zhigang et al. (2012), Park Kyum-Joon et al. (2007), Reeves et al. (1997), Shirakihara, K. et al. (2007), Shirakihara, M., Shirakihara & Takemura (1994), Shirakihara, M., Takemura & Shirakihara (1993), Tanabe et al. (1998), Wang Ding (2009), Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008), Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010), Wang Peilie (1992), Wei Zhuo, Wang Ding et al. (2002), Wei Zhuo, Zhang Xianfeng et al. (2003), Yamada & Okamoto (2000), Yoshida (2002), Yoshida et al. (1998), Zhang Chang-lk et al. (2004), Zhao Xiujiang et al. (2008), Zheng Jinsong et al. (2005), Zhou Kaiya, Yang Guang et al. (1998)." 03B887D96B2EFFB9FFAA788AF6DB8BC9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,541,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2EFFB9FFAA788AF6DB8BC9.xml,Neophocaena phocaenoides,Neophocaena,phocaenoides,,,Marsouin aptere @fr | Glattschweinswal @de | Marsopa sin aleta indopacifica @es | Black Finless Porpoise @en | Finless Black Porpoise @en | Finless-backed Black Porpoise @en | @en | ndian Dolphin @en | ndian Finless Porpoise @en | Little @en | ndian Porpoise @en | Wide-ridged Finless Porpoise @en,"Delphinus phocenoides G. Cuvier, 1829, “au Cap” (= South Africa, Western Cape Prov., Cape of Good Hope). Almost certainly erroneous; unknown today from the coast of Africa.This species is monotypic.","Shallow, coastal waters of tropical and subtropical S & E Asia, from the Persian Gulf E to the S East China Sea and S to the Sunda Is. There are no records from Oman and the Philippines, although the species is expected eventually to be found in both locations.","Total length 135-171 cm; weight 30-55 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is the smaller, reaching a known maximum total body length of only 171 cm. There is no dorsal fin, but there is a dorsal structure (often called a “ridge” or “groove” in the literature) that is lower and wider than in the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise (N. asiacorientalis); it is 4.8-12 cm wide, with 10-17 (occasionally as few as nine or up to 25) roughly longitudinal rows of tubercles. Even in young Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises, the dorsal structure is wider than in adults of the other species of porpoises. The ridge begins posterior to the mid-length of the body. Head of the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is blunt with no beak, and its body is relatively slender. Adult coloration is dark gray to nearly black, although newborns are much paler than adults, often a creamy gray. Adult condylobasal skull length is 181-245 mm. The rostrum is relatively wide and short; its length is 62-92 mm, with a mean of 74-6 mm. Tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 15-22 in the upper row and 16-22 in the lower row.","Shallow, warm waters near the coast. The Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is often found in high densities in and near estuaries of large rivers. Although it is tropical, there is a record of its occurrence from the Yellow/Bohai Sea area, although thisis considered extralimital. It penetrates into the Indus River for ¢.60 km and into the Brahmaputra River for ¢.40 km from their mouths.","Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic and others benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish in the families Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, and Engraulidae, plus cephalopods (squid and cuttlefish) and crustaceans.","Reproduction of the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises has been studied more extensively than in most other species of porpoises. The population that has been best studied is from the area around Hong Kong, where reproduction is strongly seasonal, with most births taking place from October (autumn) to January (winter). Sexual maturity of males occurs at 4-5 years of age and lengths of 138-154 cm, and at 5-6 years and 137-150 cm for females. Gestation appears to last c.11 months, and newborns are ¢.70-80 cm in length. Both species of finless porpoises appear to live up to 20 years, but some individuals in waters near Hong Kong have apparently lived to over 30 years of age.","Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises are cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not often appear to leap from the water, they can be very active at times and will often chase fish at high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. They have more mobility of the neck than do other porpoise species. They do not ride bow waves of vessels.","There is virtually nothing known about individual movements and home ranges of Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises because no studies have successfully identified or tagged individuals. In some areas, such as around Hong Kong, there are seasonal shifts in abundance, with higher densities near shore in winter and spring, and lower densities in summer and autumn (when individuals are presumed to spend more time farther offshore). As in other porpoise species, Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises generally occur as singles or in small groups of up to c.6 individuals. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities.","CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise was recently evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List (previous assessmentslisted all finless porpoises as a single species). Its classification as Vulnerable was due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. Although it has an extensive distribution throughout south-eastern Asia, and there are clearly many thousands of Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises, no global population assessment has been attempted. A number of threats face the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution. The major threat, however, comes from entanglement in equipment of variousfisheries, especially gillnets, and this may be threatening the viability of some populations. The population that occurs in waters near Hong Kong is one of the only ones for which robust estimates of abundance have been made, and it appears to number at least 220 individuals. About 1400 Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises occur in waters off Bangladesh.","Amano (2009) | Amano et al. (1992) | Fajardo-Mellor et al. (2006) | Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (19953, 1995b, 1995c¢) | Goold & Jefferson (2002) | Jefferson (2002) | Jefferson & Braulik (1999) | Jefferson & Hung (2004) | Jefferson, Curry & Kinoshita (2002) | Jefferson, Hung et al. (2002) | Jefferson, Robertson & Wang (2002) | Kasuya, (1999b) | Parsons (1998) | Parsons & Jefferson (2000) | Parsons & Wang (1998) | Preen (2004) | Reeves et al. (1997) | Smith & Tun Mya-Than (2008) | Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008) | Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010) | Wang Peilie (1992) | Yang Guang, Ren Wenhua et al. (2002) | Zhou Kaiya etal. (1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/6607331/files/figure.png,"1.Indo-Pacific Finless PorpoiseNeophocaena phocaenoidesFrench:Marsouin aptere/ German:Glattschweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa sin aleta indopacificaOther common names:Black Finless Porpoise, Finless Black Porpoise, Finless-backed Black Porpoise, Indian Dolphin, Indian Finless Porpoise, Little Indian Porpoise, Wide-ridged Finless PorpoiseTaxonomy.Delphinus phocenoides G. Cuvier, 1829, “au Cap” (= South Africa, Western Cape Prov., Cape of Good Hope). Almost certainly erroneous; unknown today from the coast of Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Shallow, coastal waters of tropical and subtropical S & E Asia, from the Persian Gulf E to the S East China Sea and S to the Sunda Is. There are no records from Oman and the Philippines, although the species is expected eventually to be found in both locations.Descriptive notes.Total length 135-171 cm; weight 30-55 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is the smaller, reaching a known maximum total body length of only 171 cm. There is no dorsal fin, but there is a dorsal structure (often called a “ridge” or “groove” in the literature) that is lower and wider than in the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise (N. asiacorientalis); it is 4.8-12 cm wide, with 10-17 (occasionally as few as nine or up to 25) roughly longitudinal rows of tubercles. Even in young Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises, the dorsal structure is wider than in adults of the other species of porpoises. The ridge begins posterior to the mid-length of the body. Head of the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is blunt with no beak, and its body is relatively slender. Adult coloration is dark gray to nearly black, although newborns are much paler than adults, often a creamy gray. Adult condylobasal skull length is 181-245 mm. The rostrum is relatively wide and short; its length is 62-92 mm, with a mean of 74-6 mm. Tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 15-22 in the upper row and 16-22 in the lower row.Habitat.Shallow, warm waters near the coast. The Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is often found in high densities in and near estuaries of large rivers. Although it is tropical, there is a record of its occurrence from the Yellow/Bohai Sea area, although thisis considered extralimital. It penetrates into the Indus River for ¢.60 km and into the Brahmaputra River for ¢.40 km from their mouths.Food and Feeding.Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic and others benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish in the families Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, and Engraulidae, plus cephalopods (squid and cuttlefish) and crustaceans.Breeding.Reproduction of the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises has been studied more extensively than in most other species of porpoises. The population that has been best studied is from the area around Hong Kong, where reproduction is strongly seasonal, with most births taking place from October (autumn) to January (winter). Sexual maturity of males occurs at 4-5 years of age and lengths of 138-154 cm, and at 5-6 years and 137-150 cm for females. Gestation appears to last c.11 months, and newborns are ¢.70-80 cm in length. Both species of finless porpoises appear to live up to 20 years, but some individuals in waters near Hong Kong have apparently lived to over 30 years of age.Activity patterns.Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises are cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not often appear to leap from the water, they can be very active at times and will often chase fish at high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. They have more mobility of the neck than do other porpoise species. They do not ride bow waves of vessels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is virtually nothing known about individual movements and home ranges of Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises because no studies have successfully identified or tagged individuals. In some areas, such as around Hong Kong, there are seasonal shifts in abundance, with higher densities near shore in winter and spring, and lower densities in summer and autumn (when individuals are presumed to spend more time farther offshore). As in other porpoise species, Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises generally occur as singles or in small groups of up to c.6 individuals. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise was recently evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List (previous assessmentslisted all finless porpoises as a single species). Its classification as Vulnerable was due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. Although it has an extensive distribution throughout south-eastern Asia, and there are clearly many thousands of Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises, no global population assessment has been attempted. A number of threats face the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution. The major threat, however, comes from entanglement in equipment of variousfisheries, especially gillnets, and this may be threatening the viability of some populations. The population that occurs in waters near Hong Kong is one of the only ones for which robust estimates of abundance have been made, and it appears to number at least 220 individuals. About 1400 Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises occur in waters off Bangladesh.Bibliography.Amano (2009), Amano et al. (1992), Fajardo-Mellor et al. (2006), Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (19953, 1995b, 1995c¢), Goold & Jefferson (2002), Jefferson (2002), Jefferson & Braulik (1999), Jefferson & Hung (2004), Jefferson, Curry & Kinoshita (2002), Jefferson, Hung et al. (2002), Jefferson, Robertson & Wang (2002), Kasuya, (1999b), Parsons (1998), Parsons & Jefferson (2000), Parsons & Wang (1998), Preen (2004), Reeves et al. (1997), Smith & Tun Mya-Than (2008), Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008), Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010), Wang Peilie (1992), Yang Guang, Ren Wenhua et al. (2002), Zhou Kaiya etal. (1993)." 03B887D96B2FFFB8FF137123F8358C69,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,542,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2FFFB8FF137123F8358C69.xml,Phocoena dioptrica,Phocoena,dioptrica,Lahille,1912,Marsouin a lunettes @fr | Brillenschweinswal @de | Marsopa de anteojos @es | Spectacled Dolphin @en,"Phocaena dioptrica Lahille, 1912, Argentina, Buenos Aires, “capturado en Punta Colares, cerca de Quilmes.”This species is monotypic.","Southern Hemisphere (E South America from S Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Is (= Malvinas), South Georgia Is, Kerguelen Is, Heard I, Macquarie I, Auckland Is, and Tasmania).Although previously thought to be exclusively coastal, like other members of the genus, recent sightings in oceanic waters of the Antarctic and subantarctic zones suggest that the species actually has a circumpolar distribution and may be largely oceanic.","Total length 150-224 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Spectacled Porpoises are relatively large members of the genus, reaching total body lengths of 224 cm for males and 204 cm for females. Males are larger than females and also have much larger dorsal fins, which become oval-shaped and proportionately very large. Leading and trailing edges of dorsalfins are both convex. Females and young have dorsal fins more typical in size and shape for the genus. There is only a slight or no beak, and flippers are small, with rounded tips. Color patternis striking, two-tone black and white. Dorsal surface and upper sides are black, and belly and lowersides are white. Boundary between the two is very distinct and runs along flanks. A white “spectacle” surrounds each eye. There are black lip and eye patches, and several dark stripes from the gape that run toward the flipper. A faint gray post-dorsal fin saddle may be visible in good lighting. Newborns have a much paler dorsal surface than adults. Tooth counts generally are 17-23 in each half of each jaw.","Variable habitats, including very deep, oceanic waters, but also in some rivers and turbid channels near shore. Spectacled Porpoises appear to prefer cold waters, with temperatures of 1-10°C, but in fact,little is known of the ecology ofthis elusive species. The southernmost sighting of Spectacled Porpoisesis currently 64° 34” S.","Only a very small handful of stomachs from Spectacled Porpoises have been examined, so very little is understood about their feeding habits or preferences. From what is known, they appear to be opportunistic, feeding on prey items ranging from anchovies (Engraulis) and other small schooling fish to stomatopods and even algae (although the latter items may have been ingested incidentally just before stranding).","There is no specific information available for this species, but births appear to occur primarily in spring and summer.","Numbers of live sightings of Spectacled Porpoises at sea are very limited, and all of these have been opportunistic, so not much is known about their activity patterns. They have inconspicuous surfacing patterns and generally do not ride bow waves or leap clear of the water, although they have been enticed to occasionally surface quickly alongside the bow of research vessels.","Groupsizes of Spectacled Porpoises are generally small, usually singletons, pairs, and trios. Occasionally groups of up to five individuals have been observed. Mother—offspring pairs are usually seen in the company of at least one attending adult male, and this may be suggestive of a mateguarding mating system, as is observed in Dall’s Porpoise (Phocoenoides dall).","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Just like virtually everything else about the Spectacled Porpoise, little 1s known of its conservation status. There are no estimates of abundance, and virtually nothing is known about its population structure. The first-ever molecular work on the Spectacled Porpoise indicated a large population off Tierra del Fuego. Some individuals are caught in gillnets when in coastal waters, and there is a record of an individual caught in a mid-water trawl net. They were sometimes harpooned,at least in the past, by Native Fuegians and whalers. The Spectacled Porpoises is not considered endangered or threatened at this point.","Best (2007) | Curry et al. (1994) | Evans, K. et al. (2001) | Goodall (1995, 2009c) | Goodall & Schiavini (1995) | Olavarria (2006) | Perrin et al. (2000) | Pimperet al. (2012) | Pinedo et al. (2002) | Rosel et al. (1995) | Sekiguchi et al. (2006) | Van Waerebeek et al. (2010)",https://zenodo.org/record/6607335/files/figure.png,"3.Spectacled PorpoisePhocoena dioptricaFrench:Marsouin a lunettes/ German:Brillenschweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa de anteojosOther common names:Spectacled DolphinTaxonomy.Phocaena dioptrica Lahille, 1912, Argentina, Buenos Aires, “capturado en Punta Colares, cerca de Quilmes.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Southern Hemisphere (E South America from S Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Is (= Malvinas), South Georgia Is, Kerguelen Is, Heard I, Macquarie I, Auckland Is, and Tasmania).Although previously thought to be exclusively coastal, like other members of the genus, recent sightings in oceanic waters of the Antarctic and subantarctic zones suggest that the species actually has a circumpolar distribution and may be largely oceanic.Descriptive notes.Total length 150-224 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Spectacled Porpoises are relatively large members of the genus, reaching total body lengths of 224 cm for males and 204 cm for females. Males are larger than females and also have much larger dorsal fins, which become oval-shaped and proportionately very large. Leading and trailing edges of dorsalfins are both convex. Females and young have dorsal fins more typical in size and shape for the genus. There is only a slight or no beak, and flippers are small, with rounded tips. Color patternis striking, two-tone black and white. Dorsal surface and upper sides are black, and belly and lowersides are white. Boundary between the two is very distinct and runs along flanks. A white “spectacle” surrounds each eye. There are black lip and eye patches, and several dark stripes from the gape that run toward the flipper. A faint gray post-dorsal fin saddle may be visible in good lighting. Newborns have a much paler dorsal surface than adults. Tooth counts generally are 17-23 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Variable habitats, including very deep, oceanic waters, but also in some rivers and turbid channels near shore. Spectacled Porpoises appear to prefer cold waters, with temperatures of 1-10°C, but in fact,little is known of the ecology ofthis elusive species. The southernmost sighting of Spectacled Porpoisesis currently 64° 34” S.Food and Feeding.Only a very small handful of stomachs from Spectacled Porpoises have been examined, so very little is understood about their feeding habits or preferences. From what is known, they appear to be opportunistic, feeding on prey items ranging from anchovies (Engraulis) and other small schooling fish to stomatopods and even algae (although the latter items may have been ingested incidentally just before stranding).Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but births appear to occur primarily in spring and summer.Activity patterns.Numbers of live sightings of Spectacled Porpoises at sea are very limited, and all of these have been opportunistic, so not much is known about their activity patterns. They have inconspicuous surfacing patterns and generally do not ride bow waves or leap clear of the water, although they have been enticed to occasionally surface quickly alongside the bow of research vessels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Groupsizes of Spectacled Porpoises are generally small, usually singletons, pairs, and trios. Occasionally groups of up to five individuals have been observed. Mother—offspring pairs are usually seen in the company of at least one attending adult male, and this may be suggestive of a mateguarding mating system, as is observed in Dall’s Porpoise (Phocoenoides dall).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Just like virtually everything else about the Spectacled Porpoise, little 1s known of its conservation status. There are no estimates of abundance, and virtually nothing is known about its population structure. The first-ever molecular work on the Spectacled Porpoise indicated a large population off Tierra del Fuego. Some individuals are caught in gillnets when in coastal waters, and there is a record of an individual caught in a mid-water trawl net. They were sometimes harpooned,at least in the past, by Native Fuegians and whalers. The Spectacled Porpoises is not considered endangered or threatened at this point.Bibliography.Best (2007), Curry et al. (1994), Evans, K. et al. (2001), Goodall (1995, 2009c), Goodall & Schiavini (1995), Olavarria (2006), Perrin et al. (2000), Pimperet al. (2012), Pinedo et al. (2002), Rosel et al. (1995), Sekiguchi et al. (2006), Van Waerebeek et al. (2010)." 03B887D96B2FFFBFFA6C7C95FD288D52,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900,542,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2FFFBFFA6C7C95FD288D52.xml,Phocoena spinipinnis,Phocoena,spinipinnis,Burmeister,1865,Marsouin de Burmeister @fr | Burmeister-Schweinswal @de | Marsopa espinosa @es | Black Porpoise @en,"Phocaena spinipinnis Burmeister, 1865, Argentina, Buenos Aires, “captured in the mouth of the River Plata.”This species is monotypic.","Near-shore waters of South America, from N Peru (5° S) S to Cape Horn and up the Atlantic coast to S Brazil (28° 50” S). Records from Uruguay and Brazil may be associated with N extrusions ofcold water.","Total length 150-200 cm; weight 50-105 kg. Burmeister’s Porpoises regularly reach lengths of up to 185 cm (although individuals up to 200 cm long have been reported from Uruguay), and males are slightly larger than females. Body shapeis generally typical of that of phocoenids, with a moderately robust form. Head has a very short, poorly defined beak. Flippers are broad-based with rounded tips, and flukes are typical of other small cetaceans. Dorsal fin is unique; it rises at a very shallow angle from the posterior portion of the back and is narrow, with a convex trailing edge and a slightly concave or straight leading edge. There are several small tubercles along leading edge of dorsal fin, and sometimes on flippers, which give Burmeister’s Porpoise its scientific name. Coloration is generally uniform dark gray, with a slightly paler belly. There are subtle stripes, streaks, and patches on the head, including dark eye and lip patches, a dark chin-to-flipper stripe, and pale streaks on chin and undersides. Flipper stripes are asymmetrical, being narrower and extending farther forward on the right side. Tooth counts generally are 10-23 in each half of each jaw.","Shallow coastal waters from very near the shoreline up to 50 km offshore. Burmeister’s Porpoises occur in some open-ocean waters but also in enclosed bays, channels, and fjords, and they have even been seen upstream in some rivers. They inhabit cooler waters, and water temperature may limit their northern distribution.","Burmeister’s Porpoises feed on a variety of pelagic and demersal fish and invertebrate species, including anchovies (Engraulisand Anchoa), hake (Merluccius), sardines (Sardinopsor Sciaena), silversides (Odontesthes), sculpin (Normanichthys), squid (such as Loligo), and shrimps. In the central coast of Peru, fish generally make up the majority of the prey items (98%).","Life history of Burmeister’s Porpoise has not been well studied, but sexual maturity appears to occur at lengths of ¢.160 cm in males and c.155 cm in females. Gestation lasts ¢.11-12 months. There are apparently protracted summer birthing peaks in most populations, and in Peru (where they have been best studied), most births occur in late summerto early autumn.","Very little is known about behavior and activities of Burmeister’s Porpoises, which have not been the subject of many ecological studies. Like other porpoises, they appear to be shy and inconspicuous, often avoiding vessels. They do not bow ride, and aerial behavior appears to be rather rare.","They live in small groups that generally number up to six individuals. On occasion, aggregations of up to 70 individuals have been reported, but these are presumably opportunistic. Although little is known for certain,it is expected that social bonds are largely short term and transitory. Essentially nothing is known about individual movements or ranging patterns of Burmeister’s Porpoises because no tagging or photo-identification studies have been conducted.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Although very little is known about stock structure in Burmeister’s Porpoises, there appear to be separate populations in Peruvian and Chilean-Argentine waters. Nevertheless, it is not clear if there is a distributional gap separating them. Burmeister’s Porpoises have been hunted with harpoons and nets in Peru and Chile, and the meat is mostly used for human consumption (at least in Peru) and shark and crab bait. These direct kills have been supplemented with incidental kills in gillnets. In Peru, up to 2000 porpoises/year may be killed. Like all members of the family, Burmeister’s Porpoises are vulnerable to gillnet entanglement, and these kills are thought to threaten some populations. Other potential threats include mortality in other fisheries, environmental contamination, and habitat alteration. Essentially nothing is known about abundance or population trends of Burmeister’s Porpoises, but the Peruvian population appears threatened by the high kill rates.","Beilis et al. (2000) | Brownell & Clapham (1999b) | Corcuera et al. (1995) | Garcia-Godos et al. (2007) | Goodall, Norris et al. (1995) | Goodall, Wirsig et al. (1995) | Heinrich et al. (2008) | Molina-Schiller et al. (2005) | Reyes (2009) | Reyes & Van Waerebeek (1995) | Rosa et al. (2005) | Van Bressem et al. (2007) | Van Waerebeek & Reyes (1990, 1994) | Van Waerebeek et al. (2002)",https://zenodo.org/record/6607337/files/figure.png,"4.Burmeister’s PorpoisePhocoena spinipinnisFrench:Marsouin de Burmeister/ German:Burmeister-Schweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa espinosaOther common names:Black PorpoiseTaxonomy.Phocaena spinipinnis Burmeister, 1865, Argentina, Buenos Aires, “captured in the mouth of the River Plata.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Near-shore waters of South America, from N Peru (5° S) S to Cape Horn and up the Atlantic coast to S Brazil (28° 50” S). Records from Uruguay and Brazil may be associated with N extrusions ofcold water.Descriptive notes.Total length 150-200 cm; weight 50-105 kg. Burmeister’s Porpoises regularly reach lengths of up to 185 cm (although individuals up to 200 cm long have been reported from Uruguay), and males are slightly larger than females. Body shapeis generally typical of that of phocoenids, with a moderately robust form. Head has a very short, poorly defined beak. Flippers are broad-based with rounded tips, and flukes are typical of other small cetaceans. Dorsal fin is unique; it rises at a very shallow angle from the posterior portion of the back and is narrow, with a convex trailing edge and a slightly concave or straight leading edge. There are several small tubercles along leading edge of dorsal fin, and sometimes on flippers, which give Burmeister’s Porpoise its scientific name. Coloration is generally uniform dark gray, with a slightly paler belly. There are subtle stripes, streaks, and patches on the head, including dark eye and lip patches, a dark chin-to-flipper stripe, and pale streaks on chin and undersides. Flipper stripes are asymmetrical, being narrower and extending farther forward on the right side. Tooth counts generally are 10-23 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow coastal waters from very near the shoreline up to 50 km offshore. Burmeister’s Porpoises occur in some open-ocean waters but also in enclosed bays, channels, and fjords, and they have even been seen upstream in some rivers. They inhabit cooler waters, and water temperature may limit their northern distribution.Food and Feeding.Burmeister’s Porpoises feed on a variety of pelagic and demersal fish and invertebrate species, including anchovies (Engraulisand Anchoa), hake (Merluccius), sardines (Sardinopsor Sciaena), silversides (Odontesthes), sculpin (Normanichthys), squid (such as Loligo), and shrimps. In the central coast of Peru, fish generally make up the majority of the prey items (98%).Breeding.Life history of Burmeister’s Porpoise has not been well studied, but sexual maturity appears to occur at lengths of ¢.160 cm in males and c.155 cm in females. Gestation lasts ¢.11-12 months. There are apparently protracted summer birthing peaks in most populations, and in Peru (where they have been best studied), most births occur in late summerto early autumn.Activity patterns.Very little is known about behavior and activities of Burmeister’s Porpoises, which have not been the subject of many ecological studies. Like other porpoises, they appear to be shy and inconspicuous, often avoiding vessels. They do not bow ride, and aerial behavior appears to be rather rare.Movements, Home range and Social organization.They live in small groups that generally number up to six individuals. On occasion, aggregations of up to 70 individuals have been reported, but these are presumably opportunistic. Although little is known for certain,it is expected that social bonds are largely short term and transitory. Essentially nothing is known about individual movements or ranging patterns of Burmeister’s Porpoises because no tagging or photo-identification studies have been conducted.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Although very little is known about stock structure in Burmeister’s Porpoises, there appear to be separate populations in Peruvian and Chilean-Argentine waters. Nevertheless, it is not clear if there is a distributional gap separating them. Burmeister’s Porpoises have been hunted with harpoons and nets in Peru and Chile, and the meat is mostly used for human consumption (at least in Peru) and shark and crab bait. These direct kills have been supplemented with incidental kills in gillnets. In Peru, up to 2000 porpoises/year may be killed. Like all members of the family, Burmeister’s Porpoises are vulnerable to gillnet entanglement, and these kills are thought to threaten some populations. Other potential threats include mortality in other fisheries, environmental contamination, and habitat alteration. Essentially nothing is known about abundance or population trends of Burmeister’s Porpoises, but the Peruvian population appears threatened by the high kill rates.Bibliography.Beilis et al. (2000), Brownell & Clapham (1999b), Corcuera et al. (1995), Garcia-Godos et al. (2007), Goodall, Norris et al. (1995), Goodall, Wirsig et al. (1995), Heinrich et al. (2008), Molina-Schiller et al. (2005), Reyes (2009), Reyes & Van Waerebeek (1995), Rosa et al. (2005), Van Bressem et al. (2007), Van Waerebeek & Reyes (1990, 1994), Van Waerebeek et al. (2002)." 03BD878F341A3F0CFFB0F9DBF6B5FC64,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Ornithorhynchidae_0058.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84fff7341b3f0dffdeff8fffbaf10b,67,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD878F341A3F0CFFB0F9DBF6B5FC64.xml,Ornithorhynchus anatinus,Ornithorhynchus,anatinus,,,,"Platypus anatinus Shaw, 1799,“ In Australasia.”The type locality of P. anatinus is often given as “Australia, New South Wales, New Holland (= Sydney),” which did not appear in Shaw’s original publication, and seems to be a subsequent amalgamation of information from various sources. Following the witnessing by Governor J. Hunter of a Platypusbeing speared by aboriginal people in a freshwater lagoon around 60 km north-west of the penal colony ofPort Jackson (now Sydney) in 1797, a number of specimens ofthis strange small furred and amphibious animal were transported to England and to Europe. In 1799, one of these specimens (now the type specimen held in the Natural History Museum in London) was described by G. Shaw and named Platypusanatinus. The German anatomist J. F. Blumenbach independently described another specimen, which in 1800 he named Ornithorhynchusparadoxus. The name Platypushad already been given to a genus of beetles, so Blumenbach’s Ornithorhynchuswas accepted as the genus but anatinus was deemed to have priority over paradoxusas the species name. Monotypic.","E Australian mainland, including the states of Victoria, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, and Queensland (N up to near Cooktown), Tasmania, and King I. Introduced into W Kangaroo I.","Head-body 40-63 cm (males) and 37-55 cm (females); weight 0.8-3 kg (males) and 0.6-1.7 kg (females). The Platypusis sexually dimorphic, with males ¢.25% larger than females. There is a clinal increase in body size from north to south, with Tasmanian populations exhibiting larger body size and weight. Some populations also exhibit size variations, apparently not related to latitudinal distribution. For example, individuals from rivers flowing inland from the Great Dividing Range in New South Wales and Victoria are often larger than those found in streams flowing toward the coast in these states. The Platypushas dense, waterproof, and insulating pelage, dark brown to reddish-brown above and pale brown to silvery-cream ventrally. It has a streamlined body shape and distinctive bill. Eyes and ear openings are in single grooves on each side of head. Limbs are short, forefeet are webbed and have broad nails, and hindfeet are partially webbed with sharp claws. Males have a spur of c.1-5 cm in length on ankle region of both hindlimbs. Tail is broad, flat, and sparsely furred, with coarser hairs than body pelage.","Permanent freshwater streams and shallow lakes, isolated pools in ephemeral streams, water storage lakes, weir pools, other artificial ponds, and freshwater wetlands and their adjacent riparian zones from tropical rainforest lowlands to the high elevations of Tasmania and the Australian Alps. Platypuses occasionally occur in upper brackish reaches of estuaries.","Small benthic macroinvertebrate species are predominant food sources ofPlatypuses. Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, and Plecoptera are the dominant insect groups consumed, but adults of free-swimming species such as small freshwater crustaceans or hemipterans and occasionally tadpoles or small fish are also taken.","Platypuses are seasonal breeders, and pre-copulatory behavior, mating, and nest building occur in late winter to early spring. Normal number of eggs is two (1-3), and eggs measure c.14 x 17 mm. Females construct nesting burrows that are used to incubate and nurse their young. Gestation is c.21 days, and incubation ofeggs last c.10 days. Lactation lasts c.4 months, with juveniles emerging from nesting burrows in late summer. Breeding is earlier in the north and later in the south. Both sexes are capable of breeding in second season after independence, but many begin breeding later and not all females breed each year. Platypuses are long-lived, surviving 7-14 years (but up to 21 years) in captivity and in the wild.","Foraging activity of Platypuses consists of multiple short dives and is predominantly nocturnal. Most individuals seek shelter in burrows during the day, emerging in the late afternoon and reentering burrows in the early morning. The extent of diurnal foraging can vary within and between populations and with the seasons.",Home ranges of Platypuses are predominantly linear and extend from hundreds of meters to several kilometers. Males appear to have larger and more exclusive home ranges than females. The social system of Platypuses is largely unknown.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Platypuses were historically found in the mountain ranges north and south ofthe city of Adelaide in South Australia but apart from their presence in a small intrusion ofthe Glenelg River across the Victorian border, are represented in this state only by a population introduced between 1929 and 1946 on the western end of Kangaroo Island. There is no evidence that the Platypusever occurred naturally in Western Australia, and several limited introduction attempts appear to have been unsuccessful. The Platypusis a commonspecies over most ofits distribution, except in the state of South Australia where it is considered endangered. Its dependence on persistent water bodies makes it vulnerable to adverse impacts of water extraction, agriculture, mining, and urbanization. Platypuses are caught and drownedin fishing gear, traps, and nets, used legally and illegally to capture freshwater fish and crayfish. Mortality also occurs as a result of entanglement in rubbish, road kill, and attack by exotic Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and feral dogs. A recent review recommended that the Platypusbe given the status of near threatened under Australian law, due to declines in some local populations, especially in the state of Victoria. Such declines are likely to be exacerbated byclimate change.","Abbott (2008) | Bethge (2002) | Bethge et al. (2003, 2009) | Blumenbach (1800) | Bohringer & Rowe (1977) | Carrick et al. (2008) | De-La-Warr & Serena (1999) | Evans et al. (1994) | Faragheret al. (1979) | Fleay (1980) | Furlan (2012) | Furlan, Griffiths, Gust, Armistead et al. (2011) | Furlan, Griffiths, Gust, Handasyde et al. (2013) | Fur lan, Umina et al. (2010) | Gardner & Serena (1995) | Gongora et al. (2012) | Grant (1982, 1983, 2004a, 2004b, 2007) | Grant & Dawson (1978a, 1978b) | Grant & Temple-Smith (2003) | Grant et al. (2004) | Griffiths (1978) | Grigg etal. (1992) | Grus et al. (2007) | Gust & Handasyde (1995) | Hamilton-Smith (1968) | Hawkins & Battaglia (2009) | Holland & Jackson (2002) | Hulbert & Grant (1983) | Klamt et al. (2011) | Kolomyjec (2010) | Kolomyjec et al. (2009) | Long et al. (2002) | Lunney, Dickman et al. (2008) | Macgillivray (1827) | Mahoney (1988) | McLachlan-Troup et al. (2010) | Munks et al. (2004) | Otley et al. (2000) | Pettigrew et al. (1998) | Pian et al. (2013) | Proske & Gregory (2003, 2004) | Robinson (1954) | Serena & Williams (1998, 2010, 2012) | Serena et al. (1998) | Scheich et al. (1986) | Shaw (1799) | Temple-Smith (1973) | Temple-Smith & Grant (2002) | Thomas (1923b) | Troughton (1965a) | Whittington, C.M. et al. (2008) | Whittington, R.J. & Grant (1984) | Williams et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621679/files/figure.png,"PlatypusOrnithorhynchus anatinusFrench: Ornithorynque / German: Schnabeltier / Spanish: OrnitorrincoOther common names: Duck-billed PlatypusTaxonomy.Platypus anatinus Shaw, 1799,“ In Australasia.”The type locality of P. anatinus is often given as “Australia, New South Wales, New Holland (= Sydney),” which did not appear in Shaw’s original publication, and seems to be a subsequent amalgamation of information from various sources. Following the witnessing by Governor J. Hunter of a Platypusbeing speared by aboriginal people in a freshwater lagoon around 60 km north-west of the penal colony ofPort Jackson (now Sydney) in 1797, a number of specimens ofthis strange small furred and amphibious animal were transported to England and to Europe. In 1799, one of these specimens (now the type specimen held in the Natural History Museum in London) was described by G. Shaw and named Platypusanatinus. The German anatomist J. F. Blumenbach independently described another specimen, which in 1800 he named Ornithorhynchusparadoxus. The name Platypushad already been given to a genus of beetles, so Blumenbach’s Ornithorhynchuswas accepted as the genus but anatinus was deemed to have priority over paradoxusas the species name. Monotypic.Distribution.E Australian mainland, including the states of Victoria, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, and Queensland (N up to near Cooktown), Tasmania, and King I. Introduced into W Kangaroo I.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-63 cm (males) and 37-55 cm (females); weight 0.8-3 kg (males) and 0.6-1.7 kg (females). The Platypusis sexually dimorphic, with males ¢.25% larger than females. There is a clinal increase in body size from north to south, with Tasmanian populations exhibiting larger body size and weight. Some populations also exhibit size variations, apparently not related to latitudinal distribution. For example, individuals from rivers flowing inland from the Great Dividing Range in New South Wales and Victoria are often larger than those found in streams flowing toward the coast in these states. The Platypushas dense, waterproof, and insulating pelage, dark brown to reddish-brown above and pale brown to silvery-cream ventrally. It has a streamlined body shape and distinctive bill. Eyes and ear openings are in single grooves on each side of head. Limbs are short, forefeet are webbed and have broad nails, and hindfeet are partially webbed with sharp claws. Males have a spur of c.1-5 cm in length on ankle region of both hindlimbs. Tail is broad, flat, and sparsely furred, with coarser hairs than body pelage.Habitat.Permanent freshwater streams and shallow lakes, isolated pools in ephemeral streams, water storage lakes, weir pools, other artificial ponds, and freshwater wetlands and their adjacent riparian zones from tropical rainforest lowlands to the high elevations of Tasmania and the Australian Alps. Platypuses occasionally occur in upper brackish reaches of estuaries.Food and Feeding.Small benthic macroinvertebrate species are predominant food sources ofPlatypuses. Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, and Plecoptera are the dominant insect groups consumed, but adults of free-swimming species such as small freshwater crustaceans or hemipterans and occasionally tadpoles or small fish are also taken.Breeding.Platypuses are seasonal breeders, and pre-copulatory behavior, mating, and nest building occur in late winter to early spring. Normal number of eggs is two (1-3), and eggs measure c.14 x 17 mm. Females construct nesting burrows that are used to incubate and nurse their young. Gestation is c.21 days, and incubation ofeggs last c.10 days. Lactation lasts c.4 months, with juveniles emerging from nesting burrows in late summer. Breeding is earlier in the north and later in the south. Both sexes are capable of breeding in second season after independence, but many begin breeding later and not all females breed each year. Platypuses are long-lived, surviving 7-14 years (but up to 21 years) in captivity and in the wild.Activity patterns.Foraging activity of Platypuses consists of multiple short dives and is predominantly nocturnal. Most individuals seek shelter in burrows during the day, emerging in the late afternoon and reentering burrows in the early morning. The extent of diurnal foraging can vary within and between populations and with the seasons.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Platypuses are predominantly linear and extend from hundreds of meters to several kilometers. Males appear to have larger and more exclusive home ranges than females. The social system of Platypuses is largely unknown.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Platypuses were historically found in the mountain ranges north and south ofthe city of Adelaide in South Australia but apart from their presence in a small intrusion ofthe Glenelg River across the Victorian border, are represented in this state only by a population introduced between 1929 and 1946 on the western end of Kangaroo Island. There is no evidence that the Platypusever occurred naturally in Western Australia, and several limited introduction attempts appear to have been unsuccessful. The Platypusis a commonspecies over most ofits distribution, except in the state of South Australia where it is considered endangered. Its dependence on persistent water bodies makes it vulnerable to adverse impacts of water extraction, agriculture, mining, and urbanization. Platypuses are caught and drownedin fishing gear, traps, and nets, used legally and illegally to capture freshwater fish and crayfish. Mortality also occurs as a result of entanglement in rubbish, road kill, and attack by exotic Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and feral dogs. A recent review recommended that the Platypusbe given the status of near threatened under Australian law, due to declines in some local populations, especially in the state of Victoria. Such declines are likely to be exacerbated byclimate change.Bibliography.Abbott (2008), Bethge (2002), Bethge et al. (2003, 2009), Blumenbach (1800), Bohringer & Rowe (1977), Carrick et al. (2008), De-La-Warr & Serena (1999), Evans et al. (1994), Faragheret al. (1979), Fleay (1980), Furlan (2012), Furlan, Griffiths, Gust, Armistead et al. (2011), Furlan, Griffiths, Gust, Handasyde et al. (2013), Fur lan, Umina et al. (2010), Gardner & Serena (1995), Gongora et al. (2012), Grant (1982, 1983, 2004a, 2004b, 2007), Grant & Dawson (1978a, 1978b), Grant & Temple-Smith (2003), Grant et al. (2004), Griffiths (1978), Grigg etal. (1992), Grus et al. (2007), Gust & Handasyde (1995), Hamilton-Smith (1968), Hawkins & Battaglia (2009), Holland & Jackson (2002), Hulbert & Grant (1983), Klamt et al. (2011), Kolomyjec (2010), Kolomyjec et al. (2009), Long et al. (2002), Lunney, Dickman et al. (2008), Macgillivray (1827), Mahoney (1988), McLachlan-Troup et al. (2010), Munks et al. (2004), Otley et al. (2000), Pettigrew et al. (1998), Pian et al. (2013), Proske & Gregory (2003, 2004), Robinson (1954), Serena & Williams (1998, 2010, 2012), Serena et al. (1998), Scheich et al. (1986), Shaw (1799), Temple-Smith (1973), Temple-Smith & Grant (2002), Thomas (1923b), Troughton (1965a), Whittington, C.M. et al. (2008), Whittington, R.J. & Grant (1984), Williams et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014b)." 03BD878F341B3F0DFE43FD9EF866F5F4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Ornithorhynchidae_0058.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84fff7341b3f0dffdeff8fffbaf10b,66,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD878F341B3F0DFE43FD9EF866F5F4.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family ORNITHORHYNCHIDAE(PLATYPUS)* Small-sized streamlined, semi-aquatic, egg-laying mammal, with distinctive pliable bill covered with naked moist skin, short limbs, broad flat tail, conspicuously webbed forefeet, and dense fine underfur and coarse overlaying guard hairs.e 40-60 cm.Australasian Region.Inland freshwater bodies and associated riparian zones.1 genus, 1 species, 1 taxon.No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600." -03BD87A2C660A212F8A5FB65F7915168,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,249,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C660A212F8A5FB65F7915168.xml,Hipposideros ater,Hipposideros,ater,Templeton,1848,Phyllorhine sombre @fr | Dunkle Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido sombreado @es | Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Dusky Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros ater Templeton, 1848, “Colombo,” Sri Lanka.Hipposideros aterwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group (13 species). Phylogenetic analyses suggested specimens referred to this species from throughout the range include cryptic species; e.g. in Borneo, and further revision of this widespread species is needed. Seven subspecies recognized.","H.a.aterTempleton,1848-IndiaandSriLanka.H.a.amboinensisPeters,1871—AmbonI,Moluccas.H.a.antricolaPeters,1861—Philippines.H.a.aruensisj.E.Gray,1858—NewGuinea,BismarckArchipelago,WoodlarkI,andEAustralia(Queensland).H.a.gilbertiD.H.Johnson,1959-WesternAustraliaandNorthernTerritory,Australia.H.a.naUamalaensis.Srinivasulu&B.Srinivasulu,2006-EasternGhats,AndhraPradesh,India.H. a. saevus K. Andersen, 1918-Myanmar S to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, N Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Is (Baliand Lombok), Sulawesi, Moluccas, and Kai Is. Range of this subspecies is tentative and needs revision.","Head-body 35-45 mm, tail 17-28 mm, forearm 17-43 mm; weight 4-5-10 g. Forearm length variable between populations, 34-38 mm (Indian subcontinent) and 36-43 mm (PapuaNew Guinea). Noseleaf of the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat has no supplementary leaflet. Shape of intemarial septum varies between populations, from triangular to parallel-sided, or a swollen bump. Pelage color is variable from dull yellow to golden-orange to gray to dark brown; base of hair is paler than tip. Skull is small; sagittal crest is present but not well developed. P4 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is a very small, thin, straight shaft with simple blunt base and tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.",,"The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat combines aerial-hawking and foliagegleaning tactics to find insect prey. Its known diet includes beetles, moths, gnats, and mosquitoes.","In India, females were found pregnant in mid-November to mid-December and gave birth to a single offspring from late May to June, continuing to lactate until mid-August. Females reach sexual maturity within one year. In Sri Lanka, pregnant females were captured in mid-March. In PapuaNew Guinea, pregnant females were found in late October, and a young was found in early December. In Australia, newborn young were observed in October-November. Individual males can be found at maternity roosts.","The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat emerges rather late in the evening and flies low down. It roosts in caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, abandoned mines or hollow trees. During the day, it spends time grooming and cleaning fur and membranes. Call frequency of F segment is 163-169 kHz in India, and 154-164 kHz in PapuaNew Guinea.","The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly (particularly males), or in small groups, in caves, with numbers of up to a few hundred individuals; bats maintain a space of c.lO cm from each other. The species can share a roost with other bat species, but tends to hang apart from them.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species and is found in several protected areas.,"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Heaney et al. (2008) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2006)",,"62.Dusky Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros aterFrench:Phyllorhine sombre/ German:Dunkle Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido sombreadoOther common names:Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat, Dusky Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros ater Templeton, 1848, “Colombo,” Sri Lanka.Hipposideros aterwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group (13 species). Phylogenetic analyses suggested specimens referred to this species from throughout the range include cryptic species; e.g. in Borneo, and further revision of this widespread species is needed. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.aterTempleton,1848-IndiaandSriLanka.H.a.amboinensisPeters,1871—AmbonI,Moluccas.H.a.antricolaPeters,1861—Philippines.H.a.aruensisj.E.Gray,1858—NewGuinea,BismarckArchipelago,WoodlarkI,andEAustralia(Queensland).H.a.gilbertiD.H.Johnson,1959-WesternAustraliaandNorthernTerritory,Australia.H.a.naUamalaensis.Srinivasulu&B.Srinivasulu,2006-EasternGhats,AndhraPradesh,India.H. a. saevus K. Andersen, 1918-Myanmar S to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, N Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Is (Baliand Lombok), Sulawesi, Moluccas, and Kai Is. Range of this subspecies is tentative and needs revision.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-45 mm, tail 17-28 mm, forearm 17-43 mm; weight 4-5-10 g. Forearm length variable between populations, 34-38 mm (Indian subcontinent) and 36-43 mm (PapuaNew Guinea). Noseleaf of the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat has no supplementary leaflet. Shape of intemarial septum varies between populations, from triangular to parallel-sided, or a swollen bump. Pelage color is variable from dull yellow to golden-orange to gray to dark brown; base of hair is paler than tip. Skull is small; sagittal crest is present but not well developed. P4 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is a very small, thin, straight shaft with simple blunt base and tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, understory of rainforest, dry evergreen forest, and secondary forest.Food and Feeding.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat combines aerial-hawking and foliagegleaning tactics to find insect prey. Its known diet includes beetles, moths, gnats, and mosquitoes.Breeding.In India, females were found pregnant in mid-November to mid-December and gave birth to a single offspring from late May to June, continuing to lactate until mid-August. Females reach sexual maturity within one year. In Sri Lanka, pregnant females were captured in mid-March. In PapuaNew Guinea, pregnant females were found in late October, and a young was found in early December. In Australia, newborn young were observed in October-November. Individual males can be found at maternity roosts.Activity patterns.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat emerges rather late in the evening and flies low down. It roosts in caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, abandoned mines or hollow trees. During the day, it spends time grooming and cleaning fur and membranes. Call frequency of F segment is 163-169 kHz in India, and 154-164 kHz in PapuaNew Guinea.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly (particularly males), or in small groups, in caves, with numbers of up to a few hundred individuals; bats maintain a space of c.lO cm from each other. The species can share a roost with other bat species, but tends to hang apart from them.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species and is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bonaccorso (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Heaney eta/. (2008), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2006)." +03BD87A2C660A212F8A5FB65F7915168,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,249,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C660A212F8A5FB65F7915168.xml,Hipposideros ater,Hipposideros,ater,Templeton,1848,Phyllorhine sombre @fr | Dunkle Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido sombreado @es | Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Dusky Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros ater Templeton, 1848, “Colombo,” Sri Lanka.Hipposideros aterwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group (13 species). Phylogenetic analyses suggested specimens referred to this species from throughout the range include cryptic species; e.g. in Borneo, and further revision of this widespread species is needed. Seven subspecies recognized.","H.a.aterTempleton,1848-IndiaandSriLanka.H.a.amboinensisPeters,1871—AmbonI,Moluccas.H.a.antricolaPeters,1861—Philippines.H.a.aruensisj.E.Gray,1858—NewGuinea,BismarckArchipelago,WoodlarkI,andEAustralia(Queensland).H.a.gilbertiD.H.Johnson,1959-WesternAustraliaandNorthernTerritory,Australia.H.a.naUamalaensis.Srinivasulu&B.Srinivasulu,2006-EasternGhats,AndhraPradesh,India.H. a. saevus K. Andersen, 1918-Myanmar S to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, N Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Is (Baliand Lombok), Sulawesi, Moluccas, and Kai Is. Range of this subspecies is tentative and needs revision.","Head-body 35-45 mm, tail 17-28 mm, forearm 17-43 mm; weight 4-5-10 g. Forearm length variable between populations, 34-38 mm (Indian subcontinent) and 36-43 mm (PapuaNew Guinea). Noseleaf of the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat has no supplementary leaflet. Shape of intemarial septum varies between populations, from triangular to parallel-sided, or a swollen bump. Pelage color is variable from dull yellow to golden-orange to gray to dark brown; base of hair is paler than tip. Skull is small; sagittal crest is present but not well developed. P4 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is a very small, thin, straight shaft with simple blunt base and tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.",,"The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat combines aerial-hawking and foliagegleaning tactics to find insect prey. Its known diet includes beetles, moths, gnats, and mosquitoes.","In India, females were found pregnant in mid-November to mid-December and gave birth to a single offspring from late May to June, continuing to lactate until mid-August. Females reach sexual maturity within one year. In Sri Lanka, pregnant females were captured in mid-March. In PapuaNew Guinea, pregnant females were found in late October, and a young was found in early December. In Australia, newborn young were observed in October-November. Individual males can be found at maternity roosts.","The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat emerges rather late in the evening and flies low down. It roosts in caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, abandoned mines or hollow trees. During the day, it spends time grooming and cleaning fur and membranes. Call frequency of F segment is 163-169 kHz in India, and 154-164 kHz in PapuaNew Guinea.","The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly (particularly males), or in small groups, in caves, with numbers of up to a few hundred individuals; bats maintain a space of c.lO cm from each other. The species can share a roost with other bat species, but tends to hang apart from them.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species and is found in several protected areas.,"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Heaney et al. (2008) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2006)",https://zenodo.org/record/6470435/files/figure.png,"62.Dusky Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros aterFrench:Phyllorhine sombre/ German:Dunkle Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido sombreadoOther common names:Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat, Dusky Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros ater Templeton, 1848, “Colombo,” Sri Lanka.Hipposideros aterwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group (13 species). Phylogenetic analyses suggested specimens referred to this species from throughout the range include cryptic species; e.g. in Borneo, and further revision of this widespread species is needed. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.aterTempleton,1848-IndiaandSriLanka.H.a.amboinensisPeters,1871—AmbonI,Moluccas.H.a.antricolaPeters,1861—Philippines.H.a.aruensisj.E.Gray,1858—NewGuinea,BismarckArchipelago,WoodlarkI,andEAustralia(Queensland).H.a.gilbertiD.H.Johnson,1959-WesternAustraliaandNorthernTerritory,Australia.H.a.naUamalaensis.Srinivasulu&B.Srinivasulu,2006-EasternGhats,AndhraPradesh,India.H. a. saevus K. Andersen, 1918-Myanmar S to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, N Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Is (Baliand Lombok), Sulawesi, Moluccas, and Kai Is. Range of this subspecies is tentative and needs revision.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-45 mm, tail 17-28 mm, forearm 17-43 mm; weight 4-5-10 g. Forearm length variable between populations, 34-38 mm (Indian subcontinent) and 36-43 mm (PapuaNew Guinea). Noseleaf of the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat has no supplementary leaflet. Shape of intemarial septum varies between populations, from triangular to parallel-sided, or a swollen bump. Pelage color is variable from dull yellow to golden-orange to gray to dark brown; base of hair is paler than tip. Skull is small; sagittal crest is present but not well developed. P4 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is a very small, thin, straight shaft with simple blunt base and tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, understory of rainforest, dry evergreen forest, and secondary forest.Food and Feeding.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat combines aerial-hawking and foliagegleaning tactics to find insect prey. Its known diet includes beetles, moths, gnats, and mosquitoes.Breeding.In India, females were found pregnant in mid-November to mid-December and gave birth to a single offspring from late May to June, continuing to lactate until mid-August. Females reach sexual maturity within one year. In Sri Lanka, pregnant females were captured in mid-March. In PapuaNew Guinea, pregnant females were found in late October, and a young was found in early December. In Australia, newborn young were observed in October-November. Individual males can be found at maternity roosts.Activity patterns.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat emerges rather late in the evening and flies low down. It roosts in caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, abandoned mines or hollow trees. During the day, it spends time grooming and cleaning fur and membranes. Call frequency of F segment is 163-169 kHz in India, and 154-164 kHz in PapuaNew Guinea.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly (particularly males), or in small groups, in caves, with numbers of up to a few hundred individuals; bats maintain a space of c.lO cm from each other. The species can share a roost with other bat species, but tends to hang apart from them.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species and is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bonaccorso (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Heaney eta/. (2008), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2006)." 03BD87A2C660A212FF52F3F7F35547D7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,249,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C660A212FF52F3F7F35547D7.xml,Hipposideros tephrus,Hipposideros,tephrus,Cabrera,1906,Phyllorhine cendrée @fr | Maghreb-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Magreb @es | Ash Gray Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Hipposideros [sic] tephrusa ­ brera, 1906, Mogador, Morocco.Hipposideros tephrusbelongs to the ruberspecies group. It was previously considered a subspecies of H. coffer. Monotypic.","Extent of this species’ distribution is not yet known; recorded with certainty in Morocco, Senegal, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. It is thought to be continuously distributed from Mauritaniaand SenegalE to South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. However, boundary between this species and the morphologically identical H. coffer is not known.","Head-body 45-50 mm, tail 27—35 mm, ear 12—15 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm. The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short, with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and fluffy, gray or brown gray dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph also occurs that is typically reddish golden.",Inhabits riparian forest in arid savanna and woodland. Occurs in the Sahelzone and further south in Sudanian savanna.,The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be insectivorous.,"Based on observations in northern Nigeria(which probably refer to this species), a single young is bom in a restricted season: mating appears to take place in November at the end of the rainy season, with births in late April at the beginning of the rainy season. Females lactate for two months, until late June.","The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in a variety of situations including caves, and holes in the ground. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.140-150 kHz.","Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bats may roost in large colonies of up to 1000 individuals. Roosting colonies include adult males and females. At one cave in Nigeria, males apparendy dispersed away from a large colony at the time of parturition, effectively resulting in the cave forming a maternity roost for the remaining females.","Classified as Least Concern on 7%♂ IUCN Red List. Due to its wide distribution and large populations, the Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat is unlikely to become threatened in the near future.",Aellen (1952) | Bernard & Happold (2013b) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hill (1963a) | Koopman (1989) | Koopman et al. (1995) | Nader (1982) | Vallo et al. (2008) | Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017),,"61.Maghreb Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros tephrusFrench:Phyllorhine cendrée IGerman:Maghreb-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MagrebOther common names:Ash Gray Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros [sic] tephrusa ­ brera, 1906, Mogador, Morocco.Hipposideros tephrusbelongs to the ruberspecies group. It was previously considered a subspecies of H. coffer. Monotypic.Distribution.Extent of this species’ distribution is not yet known; recorded with certainty in Morocco, Senegal, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. It is thought to be continuously distributed from Mauritaniaand SenegalE to South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. However, boundary between this species and the morphologically identical H. coffer is not known.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-50 mm, tail 27—35 mm, ear 12—15 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm. The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short, with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and fluffy, gray or brown gray dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph also occurs that is typically reddish golden.Habitat.Inhabits riparian forest in arid savanna and woodland. Occurs in the Sahelzone and further south in Sudanian savanna.Food and Feeding.The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be insectivorous.Breeding.Based on observations in northern Nigeria(which probably refer to this species), a single young is bom in a restricted season: mating appears to take place in November at the end of the rainy season, with births in late April at the beginning of the rainy season. Females lactate for two months, until late June.Activity patterns.The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in a variety of situations including caves, and holes in the ground. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.140-150 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bats may roost in large colonies of up to 1000 individuals. Roosting colonies include adult males and females. At one cave in Nigeria, males apparendy dispersed away from a large colony at the time of parturition, effectively resulting in the cave forming a maternity roost for the remaining females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 7%♂ IUCN Red List. Due to its wide distribution and large populations, the Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat is unlikely to become threatened in the near future.Bibliography.Aellen (1952), Bernard & Happold (2013b), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hill (1963a), Koopman (1989), Koopman et al. (1995), Nader (1982), Vallo et al. (2008), Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017)." 03BD87A2C661A213F87DFC7EF2EC4DE2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,250,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A213F87DFC7EF2EC4DE2.xml,Hipposideros cineraceus,Hipposideros,cineraceus,Blyth,1853,Petite Phyllorhine @fr | Aschgraue Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido pequeno @es | Ashy Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Ashy Roundleaf Bat @en | Least Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros cineraceus Blyth, 1853, near Pind Dadan Khan, Salt Range, Punjab, Pakistan.Hipposideros cineraceuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Taxonomic revision of specimens referred to this species is needed; it may prove to comprise more taxa, with at least one undescribed species. Two subspecies recognized.","H.c.cineraceusBlyth,1853—NPakistan,NIndia,mainlandSEAsia,MalayPeninsula(includingLangkawiI),Sumatra,KrakatauI,Borneo,andKangeanIs.H. c. wrightiK. H. Taylor, 1934-Luzon I, Philippines.","Forearm 32—36 mm. Noseleaf of the Least Leaf-nosed Bat is narrow, pink or pale brown in color, and lacks supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is buffy brown or pale brown, with whitish bases. Skull is small with rostral chambers not inflated. P3 is small and slightly or fully extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, 1-8-2, 5 mmin length, shaft being narrow and straight with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","The Least Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps or along trails in understory of various types of forest, from primary lowland rainforest at sea level to dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, mangrove or bamboo forests, secondary or disturbed forests, or hill forest up to 1480 m. It is common in limestone karst throughout its range.",The Least Leaf-nosed Bat can be found commuting through orchards and rubber and oil-palm plantations from its roosts to its foraging grounds. It feeds on small insects in the forest understory.,"In Malay Peninsula, females were found pregnant in April, June and September. Females give birth to a single offspring in March; peak lactation is between April and June.","The Least Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, old buildings, abandoned mines, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 134—156 kHz.","The Least Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small groups of a few individuals to a colony size of up to a few hundred, in caves. In large caves, it can be found together with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats (H. bicolor), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), and Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats (77. pendleburyi).",Classified as Least Concern on 77w IUCN Red List. The Least Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species. Potential threats include habitat loss and unregulated tourism.,"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal & Kingston (2008b) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005)",,"65.Least Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros cineraceusFrench:Petite Phyllorhine/ German:Aschgraue Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido pequenoOther common names:Ashy Leaf-nosed Bat, Ashy Roundleaf Bat, Least Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros cineraceus Blyth, 1853, near Pind Dadan Khan, Salt Range, Punjab, Pakistan.Hipposideros cineraceuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Taxonomic revision of specimens referred to this species is needed; it may prove to comprise more taxa, with at least one undescribed species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cineraceusBlyth,1853—NPakistan,NIndia,mainlandSEAsia,MalayPeninsula(includingLangkawiI),Sumatra,KrakatauI,Borneo,andKangeanIs.H. c. wrightiK. H. Taylor, 1934-Luzon I, Philippines.Descriptive notes.Forearm 32—36 mm. Noseleaf of the Least Leaf-nosed Bat is narrow, pink or pale brown in color, and lacks supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is buffy brown or pale brown, with whitish bases. Skull is small with rostral chambers not inflated. P3 is small and slightly or fully extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, 1-8-2, 5 mmin length, shaft being narrow and straight with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Least Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps or along trails in understory of various types of forest, from primary lowland rainforest at sea level to dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, mangrove or bamboo forests, secondary or disturbed forests, or hill forest up to 1480 m. It is common in limestone karst throughout its range.Food and Feeding.The Least Leaf-nosed Bat can be found commuting through orchards and rubber and oil-palm plantations from its roosts to its foraging grounds. It feeds on small insects in the forest understory.Breeding.In Malay Peninsula, females were found pregnant in April, June and September. Females give birth to a single offspring in March; peak lactation is between April and June.Activity patterns.The Least Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, old buildings, abandoned mines, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 134—156 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Least Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small groups of a few individuals to a colony size of up to a few hundred, in caves. In large caves, it can be found together with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats (H. bicolor), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), and Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats (77. pendleburyi).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77w IUCN Red List. The Least Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species. Potential threats include habitat loss and unregulated tourism.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal & Kingston (2008b), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010), Heaney et al. (1998), Kingston et al. (2006), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C661A213FF2FF357F4E14030,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,250,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A213FF2FF357F4E14030.xml,Hipposideros breviceps,Hipposideros,breviceps,Tate,1941,Phyllorhine des Mentawai @fr | Kurzkopf-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Mentawai @es | Short-headed Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros breviceps Tate, 1941, “North Pagi [Island], Mentawi Islands, lowlands,” Sumatra, Indonesia.Hipposideros brevicepswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.","Reported only from North Pagai I, Mentawai Is, off W Sumatra.","Head—body 42 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7 mm, forearm 43 mm. The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat (H. galeritus), with ears slightly less haired. Noseleaf is small and presents two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Anterior leaflet is longer than posterior one. Anterior noseleaf has no medial emargination. Posterior leaf has semicircular upper margin with small projection, and has medial septum and two lateral septa forming four cells. Ears are large, triangular and haired for one-half of their length. Dorsal pelage is brownish-black, with paler color at base of each hair; ventral part is covered by grayish-brownish fur, with paler hair base.",Presumably forest areas.,Diet of the Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based on insects.,Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.,The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat presumably roosts in caves.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is only known from 37 specimens collected in 1941, and population size, trends, ecology, and threats are still unknown. It is thought that one of its possible threats might be habitat loss due to wood extraction. Further studies are required in order to assess the conservation status of this species accurately, and establish adequate management measures.",Hill (1963a) | Huang & Sigit (2016) | Tate (1941a),https://zenodo.org/record/3749163/files/figure.png,"64.Short-headed Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros brevicepsFrench:Phyllorhine des Mentawai/ German:Kurzkopf-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MentawaiOther common names:Short-headed Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros breviceps Tate, 1941, “North Pagi [Island], Mentawi Islands, lowlands,” Sumatra, Indonesia.Hipposideros brevicepswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Reported only from North Pagai I, Mentawai Is, off W Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head—body 42 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7 mm, forearm 43 mm. The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat (H. galeritus), with ears slightly less haired. Noseleaf is small and presents two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Anterior leaflet is longer than posterior one. Anterior noseleaf has no medial emargination. Posterior leaf has semicircular upper margin with small projection, and has medial septum and two lateral septa forming four cells. Ears are large, triangular and haired for one-half of their length. Dorsal pelage is brownish-black, with paler color at base of each hair; ventral part is covered by grayish-brownish fur, with paler hair base.Habitat.Presumably forest areas.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based on insects.Breeding.Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.Activity patterns.The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat presumably roosts in caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is only known from 37 specimens collected in 1941, and population size, trends, ecology, and threats are still unknown. It is thought that one of its possible threats might be habitat loss due to wood extraction. Further studies are required in order to assess the conservation status of this species accurately, and establish adequate management measures.Bibliography.Hill (1963a), Huang & Sigit (2016), Tate (1941a)." -03BD87A2C661A213FF37FEFFFBCE4F27,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,250,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A213FF37FEFFFBCE4F27.xml,Hipposideros bicolor,Hipposideros,bicolor,Temminck,1834,Phyllorhine bicolore @fr | Zweifarb-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido bicolor @es | Bicolored Roundleaf Bat @en,"Rhinolophus bicolor Temminck, 1834, “ Java, Amboina en op Timor.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1941 to “ Javaand Timor.”Hipposideros bicolorwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now in the new aterspecies group. Seven subspecies recognized.","H. b. bicolor Temminck, 1834-Borneo, Java, and W Lesser Sunda Is.H.b.atroxK.Andersen,1918—SThailand,MalayPeninsula(includingTarutaoandTiomanIs),Sumatra,andBangkaIs.H.b.erigensLawrence,1939-Philippines(Luzon,Mindoro,andBoholIs)H.b.hilliKitchener,1996—TimorI,ELesserSundas..H.b.majorK.Andersen,1918-NiasandEngganoIs,offWSumatra.H.b.selatanKitchener,1996—SavuandRotiIs,ELesserSundas.H. b. tanimbarensis Kitchener, 1996— Tanimbar Is (Selaru).Previous records from TaiwanI, Laos, and Vietnammay prove to be misidentifications and need further verification.","Forearm 43-48 mm. Noseleaf of the Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat has one thin supplementary leaflet on each side. Anterior leaf is somewhat rounded. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is grayish brown to dark brown, or reddish brown. Skull is small; sagittal crest is moderately developed. P3 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, c. 3 mmin length, with thin, curved shaft with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, and the understory of primary rainforest, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, and secondary forest. It can be found in orchards, rubber and oil-palm plantations near roosting caves. It is abundant in lowland forests in limestone karst habitat and can be found up to 600 m.","The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small insects in forest gaps and along trails or over water bodies; it feeds in the understory, c. 3 maboveground.","In peninsular Thailand, females were found pregnant in March-May and the young with lactating females were observed in late April-June.","The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 127—135 kHz.","Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small to large groups, in caves; these can be shared with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (W. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. pendleburyi), and also various Rhinolophus species.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat is fairly common and is found in several protected areas.,"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates & Gumal (2008) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Murray et al. (2018) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005) | Tate (1941a)",,"63.Bicolored Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros bicolorFrench:Phyllorhine bicolore/ German:Zweifarb-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido bicolorOther common names:Bicolored Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus bicolor Temminck, 1834, “ Java, Amboina en op Timor.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1941 to “ Javaand Timor.”Hipposideros bicolorwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now in the new aterspecies group. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. b. bicolor Temminck, 1834-Borneo, Java, and W Lesser Sunda Is.H.b.atroxK.Andersen,1918—SThailand,MalayPeninsula(includingTarutaoandTiomanIs),Sumatra,andBangkaIs.H.b.erigensLawrence,1939-Philippines(Luzon,Mindoro,andBoholIs)H.b.hilliKitchener,1996—TimorI,ELesserSundas..H.b.majorK.Andersen,1918-NiasandEngganoIs,offWSumatra.H.b.selatanKitchener,1996—SavuandRotiIs,ELesserSundas.H. b. tanimbarensis Kitchener, 1996— Tanimbar Is (Selaru).Previous records from TaiwanI, Laos, and Vietnammay prove to be misidentifications and need further verification.Descriptive notes.Forearm 43-48 mm. Noseleaf of the Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat has one thin supplementary leaflet on each side. Anterior leaf is somewhat rounded. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is grayish brown to dark brown, or reddish brown. Skull is small; sagittal crest is moderately developed. P3 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, c. 3 mmin length, with thin, curved shaft with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, and the understory of primary rainforest, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, and secondary forest. It can be found in orchards, rubber and oil-palm plantations near roosting caves. It is abundant in lowland forests in limestone karst habitat and can be found up to 600 m.Food and Feeding.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small insects in forest gaps and along trails or over water bodies; it feeds in the understory, c. 3 maboveground.Breeding.In peninsular Thailand, females were found pregnant in March-May and the young with lactating females were observed in late April-June.Activity patterns.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 127—135 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small to large groups, in caves; these can be shared with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (W. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. pendleburyi), and also various Rhinolophus species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat is fairly common and is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates & Gumal (2008), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010), Heaney et al. (1998), Kingston et al. (2006), Murray et al. (2018), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005), Tate (1941a)." +03BD87A2C661A213FF37FEFFFBCE4F27,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,250,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A213FF37FEFFFBCE4F27.xml,Hipposideros bicolor,Hipposideros,bicolor,Temminck,1834,Phyllorhine bicolore @fr | Zweifarb-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido bicolor @es | Bicolored Roundleaf Bat @en,"Rhinolophus bicolor Temminck, 1834, “ Java, Amboina en op Timor.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1941 to “ Javaand Timor.”Hipposideros bicolorwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now in the new aterspecies group. Seven subspecies recognized.","H. b. bicolor Temminck, 1834-Borneo, Java, and W Lesser Sunda Is.H.b.atroxK.Andersen,1918—SThailand,MalayPeninsula(includingTarutaoandTiomanIs),Sumatra,andBangkaIs.H.b.erigensLawrence,1939-Philippines(Luzon,Mindoro,andBoholIs)H.b.hilliKitchener,1996—TimorI,ELesserSundas..H.b.majorK.Andersen,1918-NiasandEngganoIs,offWSumatra.H.b.selatanKitchener,1996—SavuandRotiIs,ELesserSundas.H. b. tanimbarensis Kitchener, 1996— Tanimbar Is (Selaru).Previous records from TaiwanI, Laos, and Vietnammay prove to be misidentifications and need further verification.","Forearm 43-48 mm. Noseleaf of the Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat has one thin supplementary leaflet on each side. Anterior leaf is somewhat rounded. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is grayish brown to dark brown, or reddish brown. Skull is small; sagittal crest is moderately developed. P3 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, c. 3 mmin length, with thin, curved shaft with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, and the understory of primary rainforest, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, and secondary forest. It can be found in orchards, rubber and oil-palm plantations near roosting caves. It is abundant in lowland forests in limestone karst habitat and can be found up to 600 m.","The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small insects in forest gaps and along trails or over water bodies; it feeds in the understory, c. 3 maboveground.","In peninsular Thailand, females were found pregnant in March-May and the young with lactating females were observed in late April-June.","The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 127—135 kHz.","Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small to large groups, in caves; these can be shared with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (W. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. pendleburyi), and also various Rhinolophus species.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat is fairly common and is found in several protected areas.,"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates & Gumal (2008) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Murray et al. (2018) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005) | Tate (1941a)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749161/files/figure.png,"63.Bicolored Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros bicolorFrench:Phyllorhine bicolore/ German:Zweifarb-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido bicolorOther common names:Bicolored Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus bicolor Temminck, 1834, “ Java, Amboina en op Timor.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1941 to “ Javaand Timor.”Hipposideros bicolorwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now in the new aterspecies group. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. b. bicolor Temminck, 1834-Borneo, Java, and W Lesser Sunda Is.H.b.atroxK.Andersen,1918—SThailand,MalayPeninsula(includingTarutaoandTiomanIs),Sumatra,andBangkaIs.H.b.erigensLawrence,1939-Philippines(Luzon,Mindoro,andBoholIs)H.b.hilliKitchener,1996—TimorI,ELesserSundas..H.b.majorK.Andersen,1918-NiasandEngganoIs,offWSumatra.H.b.selatanKitchener,1996—SavuandRotiIs,ELesserSundas.H. b. tanimbarensis Kitchener, 1996— Tanimbar Is (Selaru).Previous records from TaiwanI, Laos, and Vietnammay prove to be misidentifications and need further verification.Descriptive notes.Forearm 43-48 mm. Noseleaf of the Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat has one thin supplementary leaflet on each side. Anterior leaf is somewhat rounded. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is grayish brown to dark brown, or reddish brown. Skull is small; sagittal crest is moderately developed. P3 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, c. 3 mmin length, with thin, curved shaft with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, and the understory of primary rainforest, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, and secondary forest. It can be found in orchards, rubber and oil-palm plantations near roosting caves. It is abundant in lowland forests in limestone karst habitat and can be found up to 600 m.Food and Feeding.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small insects in forest gaps and along trails or over water bodies; it feeds in the understory, c. 3 maboveground.Breeding.In peninsular Thailand, females were found pregnant in March-May and the young with lactating females were observed in late April-June.Activity patterns.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 127—135 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small to large groups, in caves; these can be shared with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (W. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. pendleburyi), and also various Rhinolophus species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat is fairly common and is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates & Gumal (2008), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010), Heaney et al. (1998), Kingston et al. (2006), Murray et al. (2018), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005), Tate (1941a)." 03BD87A2C661A21CF87EF08BF6A640F5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,250,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A21CF87EF08BF6A640F5.xml,Hipposideros coronatus,Hipposideros,coronatus,,,Phyllorhine de Mindanao @fr | Grosse Mindanao-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Mindanao @es | Large Mindanao Roundleaf Bat @en,"PhyUorhina coronata Peters, 1871, Mainit, Surigao del Norte Province, Mindanao, Philippines.Hipposideros coronatuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its taxonomy requires further study; its position in the phylogeny is uncertain. Monotypic.","Endemic to Philippines, known only from scattered records on Luzon, Polillo, Bohol, Samar, and Mindanao Is.","Head-body 81-83 mm, tail 27-29 mm, ear 16-6 mm, hindfoot 9-3 mm, forearm 48-8 mm; weight 9-5 g. Ears of the Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat are short and slighdy concave below rounded tip. Tail is long. Noseleaf is simple without supplementary lateral leaflets. Upper margin of posterior leaf is semicircular and it has no vertical septa. Dorsal pelage is brownish and occasionally orange, with paler hair base; ventral part presents light brown or yellowish fur.Habitat.Limestone caves and forest habitats, as well as more degraded areas, such as secondary lowland forests and agricultural land.Food and Feeding.Diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Maternity colonies of Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bats are located in caves. Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.Activity patterns.The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat has been found sharing roosts with other bat species (Miniopterus, Rhinolophus, Myotis, and Eonycteris).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to the lack of information about population size, trends, distribution, and ecology.","Limestone caves and forest habitats, as well as more degraded areas, such as secondary lowland forests and agricultural land.",Diet is probably based on insects.,Maternity colonies of Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bats are located in caves. Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.,The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves.,"The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat has been found sharing roosts with other bat species (Miniopterus, Rhinolophus, Myotis, and Eonycteris).","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to the lack of information about population size, trends, distribution, and ecology. Habitat loss and degradation, and disturbance at roosts are probably the main threats to the Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat. Further research is needed in order to assess the conservation status of this species adequately.","Bennett et al. (2002) | Cabauatan et al. (2014) | Ingle & Heaney (1992) | Phelps, Heaney & Sedlock (2016) | Sedlock, Jose et al. (2014)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749167/files/figure.png,"66.Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros coronatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Mindanao/ German:Grosse Mindanao-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MindanaoOther common names:Large Mindanao Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.PhyUorhina coronata Peters, 1871, Mainit, Surigao del Norte Province, Mindanao, Philippines.Hipposideros coronatuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its taxonomy requires further study; its position in the phylogeny is uncertain. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Philippines, known only from scattered records on Luzon, Polillo, Bohol, Samar, and Mindanao Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 81-83 mm, tail 27-29 mm, ear 16-6 mm, hindfoot 9-3 mm, forearm 48-8 mm; weight 9-5 g. Ears of the Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat are short and slighdy concave below rounded tip. Tail is long. Noseleaf is simple without supplementary lateral leaflets. Upper margin of posterior leaf is semicircular and it has no vertical septa. Dorsal pelage is brownish and occasionally orange, with paler hair base; ventral part presents light brown or yellowish fur.Habitat.Limestone caves and forest habitats, as well as more degraded areas, such as secondary lowland forests and agricultural land.Food and Feeding.Diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Maternity colonies of Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bats are located in caves. Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.Activity patterns.The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat has been found sharing roosts with other bat species (Miniopterus, Rhinolophus, Myotis, and Eonycteris).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to the lack of information about population size, trends, distribution, and ecology. Habitat loss and degradation, and disturbance at roosts are probably the main threats to the Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat. Further research is needed in order to assess the conservation status of this species adequately.Bibliography.Bennett eta/. (2002), Cabauatan eta/. (2014), Ingle & Heaney (1992), Phelps, Heaney & Sedlock (2016), Sedlock, Jose eta/. (2014)." 03BD87A2C662A210F899FEF7F5EF4982,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,247,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C662A210F899FEF7F5EF4982.xml,Hipposideros beatus,Hipposideros,beatus,K. Andersen,1906,Phyllorhine du Benito @fr | Benito-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Benito @es | Benito Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposiderus [sic] beatus K. Andersen, 1906, “ 15 miles[= 24 km] from Benito River,” Rfo Muni, Equatorial Guinea.Hipposideros beatuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group. Validity of subspecies has not been tested with molecular data. Two subspecies recognized.","H. b. beatus K Andersen, 1906— patchily in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.H. b. maximus Verschuren, 1957patchily in Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and extreme NW Uganda.","Head-body 43-50 mm, tail 20-31 mm, ear 12-17 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 39-48 mm; weight 6-9 g. The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and short, dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally.","Inhabits lowland rainforest, and is usually associated with rivers and streams. May also occupy riparian forest in Guineasavanna.",The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.,"In Gabon, mating seems to occur in June-July with births of single young four months later in October—November. Females reach sexual maturity at six months, males at one year of age.","The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day under boulders and eroded roots of trees, in hollow trees, in holes in the ground, culverts under roads, and cavities under small rocks. It does not roost in large, deep caves. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.130-140 kHz.","Benito Leaf-nosed Bats roost singly, in pairs or in small family groups, typically numbering 3-4 individuals. In one study in Gabon, these family groups consisted of a mated pair with one young from the current year and one from the previous breeding season. These pairs broke up at the beginning of the next breeding season when new pairings were formed.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. At present, the only significant threat appears to be the loss of rainforest The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat is present in several protected areas and forest reserves.","Brosset (1966b, 1982) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Happold, D.C.D. (1987) | Happold, M. (2013v) | Hill (1963a) | Koopman (1984a) | Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016) | Rosevear (1965) | Schütter et al. (1982) | Thom & Kerbis Peterhans (2009) | Verschuren (1957)",,"56.Benito Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros beatusFrench:Phyllorhine du Benito/ German:Benito-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de BenitoOther common names:Benito Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] beatus K. Andersen, 1906, “ 15 miles[= 24 km] from Benito River,” Rfo Muni, Equatorial Guinea.Hipposideros beatuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group. Validity of subspecies has not been tested with molecular data. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. b. beatus K Andersen, 1906— patchily in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.H. b. maximus Verschuren, 1957patchily in Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and extreme NW Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 43-50 mm, tail 20-31 mm, ear 12-17 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 39-48 mm; weight 6-9 g. The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and short, dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally.Habitat.Inhabits lowland rainforest, and is usually associated with rivers and streams. May also occupy riparian forest in Guineasavanna.Food and Feeding.The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.Breeding.In Gabon, mating seems to occur in June-July with births of single young four months later in October—November. Females reach sexual maturity at six months, males at one year of age.Activity patterns.The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day under boulders and eroded roots of trees, in hollow trees, in holes in the ground, culverts under roads, and cavities under small rocks. It does not roost in large, deep caves. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.130-140 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Benito Leaf-nosed Bats roost singly, in pairs or in small family groups, typically numbering 3-4 individuals. In one study in Gabon, these family groups consisted of a mated pair with one young from the current year and one from the previous breeding season. These pairs broke up at the beginning of the next breeding season when new pairings were formed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. At present, the only significant threat appears to be the loss of rainforest The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat is present in several protected areas and forest reserves.Bibliography.Brosset (1966b, 1982), Grubb eta/. (1998), Happold, D.C.D. (1987), Happold, M. (2013v), Hill (1963a), Koopman (1984a), Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016), Rosevear (1965), Schütter et al. (1982), Thom & Kerbis Peterhans (2009), Verschuren (1957)." 03BD87A2C662A210FF52F514FBEA516B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,247,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C662A210FF52F514FBEA516B.xml,Hipposideros abae,Hipposideros,abae,J. A. Allen,1917,Phyllorhine d'Aba @fr | Aba-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Aba @es | Aba Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros abae J. A. Allen, 1917, “Aba, Uele district, Belgian Congo[= DR Congo].”Hipposideros abaewas formerly included in the speorisspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group (7 species). Monotypic.",Patchily in Africa N of the equator from GuineaBissauand GuineaE to South Sudanand extreme NW Uganda.,"Head—body 60-70 mm, tail 28—40 mm, ear 18-24 mm, hindfoot 7—13 mm, forearm 54—65 mm; weight 17— 19 g. The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has three lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in males only. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and short, dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists, which is bright orange or rusty brown dorsally and paler ventrally.","Inhabits Guineasavanna, including derived savanna, dry forest, and recently cleared rainforest. Apparently avoids intact rainforest.",No information.,Births of single young have been reported in March throughout its range.,"The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves, under boulders, and in burrows of mammals.","The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large colonies of up to several hundred individuals. In one study, sex ratio was 1:2 with females doubling males. The species may share its roost with a number of other Hipposideridaeand Rhinolophus.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and relatively common with no major known conservation threats.,"Decher (1997) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Happold, D.C.D. (1987) | Happold, M. (2013u) | Hill (1963a) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Rosevear (1965) | Schütter et al. (1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749145/files/figure.png,"55.Aba Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros abaeFrench:Phyllorhine d'Aba/ German:Aba-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de AbaOther common names:Aba Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros abae J. A. Allen, 1917, “Aba, Uele district, Belgian Congo[= DR Congo].”Hipposideros abaewas formerly included in the speorisspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group (7 species). Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily in Africa N of the equator from GuineaBissauand GuineaE to South Sudanand extreme NW Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head—body 60-70 mm, tail 28—40 mm, ear 18-24 mm, hindfoot 7—13 mm, forearm 54—65 mm; weight 17— 19 g. The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has three lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in males only. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and short, dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists, which is bright orange or rusty brown dorsally and paler ventrally.Habitat.Inhabits Guineasavanna, including derived savanna, dry forest, and recently cleared rainforest. Apparently avoids intact rainforest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Births of single young have been reported in March throughout its range.Activity patterns.The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves, under boulders, and in burrows of mammals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large colonies of up to several hundred individuals. In one study, sex ratio was 1:2 with females doubling males. The species may share its roost with a number of other Hipposideridaeand Rhinolophus.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and relatively common with no major known conservation threats.Bibliography.Decher (1997), Grubb eta/. (1998), Happold, D.C.D. (1987), Happold, M. (2013u), Hill (1963a), Koch-Weser (1984), Rosevear (1965), Schütter eta/. (1982)." @@ -654,15 +654,15 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03BD87A2C663A211FF31F628F2CF4179,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C663A211FF31F628F2CF4179.xml,Hipposideros fuliginosus,Hipposideros,fuliginosus,,,Phyllorhine fuligineuse @fr | Temminck-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido tiznado @es | Sooty Roundleaf Bat @en,"PhyUorrhina /uliginosa Temminck, 1853, “La côte de Guiné[= coast of Guinea].”Hipposideros fuliginosuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group. There has been considerable confusion in the literature regarding the distinguishing features of this species, but this has recently been resolved. Monotypic.","Patchily across tropical Africa with records in Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, extreme SE Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, extreme S Central African Republic, N DR Congo, and SW Uganda.","Head-body 80-100 mm, tail 29-40 mm, ear 17-20 mm, hindfoot 11—13 mm, forearm 51—60 mm; weight 18—20 g. The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is relatively coarse and dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists which is bright orange or rusty brown. Thumb and thumb claw are well developed compared with other similarsized species of Hipposideros.","Lowland rainforest, extending up to 1300 mabove sea level in Guineaand Uganda. The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat also occurs in riparian forest in the rainforest-savanna transition zone.","The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be insectivorous. In one study, average capture height was 1-7 m aboveground, indicating that it was mainly foraging in the understory.","Based on observations in Ivory Coast, it would appear that there is a single restricted season during which Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat young are bom (young feeding on milk in March and May).",The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in hollow tree trunks. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.120 kHz.,"Sooty Leaf-nosed Bats roost in groups of up to 40 bats, comprising adult males and females, and perhaps also subadults orjuveniles. They may share their roosts with the West and Central African form of H. ruber(sensu lato).",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The most important threat to the Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat is probably loss of pristine rainforest.,Aellen (1952) | ahr (2013k) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Hill (1963a) | Koopman (1989) | Koopman et al. (1995) | Monadjem & ahr (2007) | Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans (2009) | Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017),https://zenodo.org/record/3749151/files/figure.png,"58.Sooty Leaf-nosedBat Hipposideros fuliginosusFrench:Phyllorhine fuligineuse/ German:Temminck-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido tiznadoOther common names:Sooty Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.PhyUorrhina /uliginosa Temminck, 1853, “La côte de Guiné[= coast of Guinea].”Hipposideros fuliginosuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group. There has been considerable confusion in the literature regarding the distinguishing features of this species, but this has recently been resolved. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily across tropical Africa with records in Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, extreme SE Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, extreme S Central African Republic, N DR Congo, and SW Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 80-100 mm, tail 29-40 mm, ear 17-20 mm, hindfoot 11—13 mm, forearm 51—60 mm; weight 18—20 g. The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is relatively coarse and dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists which is bright orange or rusty brown. Thumb and thumb claw are well developed compared with other similarsized species of Hipposideros.Habitat.Lowland rainforest, extending up to 1300 mabove sea level in Guineaand Uganda. The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat also occurs in riparian forest in the rainforest-savanna transition zone.Food and Feeding.The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be insectivorous. In one study, average capture height was 1-7 m aboveground, indicating that it was mainly foraging in the understory.Breeding.Based on observations in Ivory Coast, it would appear that there is a single restricted season during which Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat young are bom (young feeding on milk in March and May).Activity patterns.The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in hollow tree trunks. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.120 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sooty Leaf-nosed Bats roost in groups of up to 40 bats, comprising adult males and females, and perhaps also subadults orjuveniles. They may share their roosts with the West and Central African form of H. ruber(sensu lato).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The most important threat to the Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat is probably loss of pristine rainforest.Bibliography.Aellen (1952), ahr (2013k), Grubb eta/. (1998), Hill (1963a), Koopman (1989), Koopman et al. (1995), Monadjem & ahr (2007),Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans (2009), Van Cakenberghe eta/. (2017)." 03BD87A2C663A212F880F5BFFC194F46,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,248,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C663A212F880F5BFFC194F46.xml,Hipposideros ruber,Hipposideros,ruber,,,Phyllorhine de Noack @fr | Noack-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Noack @es | Noack's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Phyllorhina rubra Noack, 1893, Ngerengere River, Eastern Province, Tanzania.Hipposideros ruberwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ru&erspecies group. There has been much confusion in the literature regarding the taxonomic status of this species, particularly with respect to its relationship with the savanna H. cofferspecies complex. Recent molecular work shows deep divergence between several lineages within this complex. The savanna species H. coffer and H. tephrusare clearly distinct from the rainforest species, based on both morphology and molecular sequences. However, there are at least three distinct species within the rainforest complex. The species Ä ruber(sensu stricto) refers to populations in East Africa. Populations in Central and West Africa refer to different, but as yet unnamed taxa. They have been referred to as separate lineages in the literature, but almost certainly are valid species. This confusion needs urgent attention. Many subspecies have been described but it is not clear what their status is, taxonomy requires reassessment.","Widely in tropical Africa, but boundaries of each lineage (presumably separate species) are not known; this species complex occurs almost continuously from Senegal, Gambia, and GuineaE to S Sudanand Ethiopia, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Tanzania, with isolated populations in NW Angola, Zambia, Malawi, and N Mozambique; also on Principe and Sâo ToméIs.","Head-body 52-62 mm, tail 30-41 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 47-55 mm; weight 9-12 g. No obvious sexual differences in pelage or size, although males tend to average slightly larger than females, but with considerable overlap. Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in males. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and fluffy, dark grayish brown or dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists, which is bright rusty brown or golden dorsally and paler ventrally.","Typically lowland rainforest, as well as riparian forest and secondary forest. Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat does not occur in drier savannas except along rivers. Locally, it occurs at higher elevations—e.g. up to 1000 mon Mount Nimba. It may utilize agricultural land but typically under semi-natural habitats where some indigenous trees and well-developed undergrowth vegetation persists.","Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominandy on beedes but it may also take a variety of other arthropods. It typically forages in cluttered vegetation, departing from the day roost at sunset and returning with bulging stomach two hours later. It may forage within agricultural land, particularly where these are intermixed with natural vegetation.","Breeding of Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat is seasonal, with births of single young occurring at different times in different populations. In Liberia, Central African Republic, and northern DR Congo, young are bom in March-April. In contrast, in Tanzania, which refers to H. ruber(sensu stricto), copulation and fertilization occur in June-July followed by retarded development, births in December and lactation through to February. In Gabon, this species appears to have two birthing seasons in March and October, although there is confusion over the exact species that was studied.","Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a variety of cavities and structures including caves, hollow trees, holes in the ground, old mines, culverts under roads, and abandoned houses. Like its congeners, it has a low wing loading and low aspect ratio, allowing it to fly in cluttered environments such as thickets, and to take off from the ground. It is active throughout the year. Bats emerge from day roost at sunset and are active throughout the night, but with three peaks of activity corresponding to the first two hours after sunset, an hour around midnight and the hour before sunrise. Males tend to fly for a longer period per night than females. Echolocation call includes a F component that is highly variable and may be distincdy different in different lineages—e.g. at Mount Nimba, in Liberia, one lineage had an echolocation call at 128 kHz, whereas the second lineage called at 148 kHz. Published accounts of echolocation calls of the H. rubercomplex typically fall within this range of variation.","Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in small to very large colonies of over 500 individuals. Individual bats hang separately from the ceiling of the roost but in close proximity to other group-members. In Ghana, mean home range size of 13 radio-tracked bats was 36 ha, and these overlapped extensively between individuals; the foraging area was 50% of the home range. Mean maximum foraging distance from the day roost was 1 • 1 kmbut extended up to 2-6 km for some individuals, which is within the range predicted for a bat of this size. It occasionally shares its roosting sites with other bat species including various Rhinolophus spp., Hipposideros spp.and the Angolan Soft-fùrred Fruit Bat (Lissonycteris angolensis).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat complex has a wide distribution, utilizes many different structures as day roosts, and usually occurs in good numbers.","Anciaux de Faveaux (1978) | Bernard & Cumming (1997) | Brosset (1968) | Brosset & Saint Girons (1980) | Denys et al. (2013) | ahr & Ebigbo (2003) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Guillén-Servent et al. (2000) | Happold, D.C.D. (1987) | Happold, D.C.D. & Happold (1990) | Happold, M. (2013aa) | Hill (1963a) | Jones et al. (1993) | Kock et al. (2002) | Koopman (1989) | Koopman et al. (1995) | Monadjem & Fahr (2007) | Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016) | Monadjem, Richards, Taylor, Denys et al. (2013) | Monadjem, Schoeman et al. (2010) | Monadjem, Taylor et al. (2010) | Nkrumah, Vallo, Klose, Ripperger, Badu, Dorsten et al. (2016) | Nkrumah, Vallo, Klose, Ripperger, Badu, Gloza-Rausch et al. (2016) | Patterson & Webala (2012) | Rosevear (1965) | Schütter et al. (1982) | Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans(2009) | Vallo, Benda et al. (2011) | Vallo, Guillén-Servent étal. (2008) | Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017) | Verschuren (1957,1977,1982) | Wolton et al. (1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749155/files/figure.png,"60.Noack’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros ruberFrench:Phyllorhine de Noack IGerman:Noack-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de NoackOther common names:Noack's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina rubra Noack, 1893, Ngerengere River, Eastern Province, Tanzania.Hipposideros ruberwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ru&erspecies group. There has been much confusion in the literature regarding the taxonomic status of this species, particularly with respect to its relationship with the savanna H. cofferspecies complex. Recent molecular work shows deep divergence between several lineages within this complex. The savanna species H. coffer and H. tephrusare clearly distinct from the rainforest species, based on both morphology and molecular sequences. However, there are at least three distinct species within the rainforest complex. The species Ä ruber(sensu stricto) refers to populations in East Africa. Populations in Central and West Africa refer to different, but as yet unnamed taxa. They have been referred to as separate lineages in the literature, but almost certainly are valid species. This confusion needs urgent attention. Many subspecies have been described but it is not clear what their status is, taxonomy requires reassessment.Distribution.Widely in tropical Africa, but boundaries of each lineage (presumably separate species) are not known; this species complex occurs almost continuously from Senegal, Gambia, and GuineaE to S Sudanand Ethiopia, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Tanzania, with isolated populations in NW Angola, Zambia, Malawi, and N Mozambique; also on Principe and Sâo ToméIs.Descriptive notes.Head-body 52-62 mm, tail 30-41 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 47-55 mm; weight 9-12 g. No obvious sexual differences in pelage or size, although males tend to average slightly larger than females, but with considerable overlap. Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in males. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and fluffy, dark grayish brown or dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists, which is bright rusty brown or golden dorsally and paler ventrally.Habitat.Typically lowland rainforest, as well as riparian forest and secondary forest. Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat does not occur in drier savannas except along rivers. Locally, it occurs at higher elevations—e.g. up to 1000 mon Mount Nimba. It may utilize agricultural land but typically under semi-natural habitats where some indigenous trees and well-developed undergrowth vegetation persists.Food and Feeding.Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominandy on beedes but it may also take a variety of other arthropods. It typically forages in cluttered vegetation, departing from the day roost at sunset and returning with bulging stomach two hours later. It may forage within agricultural land, particularly where these are intermixed with natural vegetation.Breeding.Breeding of Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat is seasonal, with births of single young occurring at different times in different populations. In Liberia, Central African Republic, and northern DR Congo, young are bom in March-April. In contrast, in Tanzania, which refers to H. ruber(sensu stricto), copulation and fertilization occur in June-July followed by retarded development, births in December and lactation through to February. In Gabon, this species appears to have two birthing seasons in March and October, although there is confusion over the exact species that was studied.Activity patterns.Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a variety of cavities and structures including caves, hollow trees, holes in the ground, old mines, culverts under roads, and abandoned houses. Like its congeners, it has a low wing loading and low aspect ratio, allowing it to fly in cluttered environments such as thickets, and to take off from the ground. It is active throughout the year. Bats emerge from day roost at sunset and are active throughout the night, but with three peaks of activity corresponding to the first two hours after sunset, an hour around midnight and the hour before sunrise. Males tend to fly for a longer period per night than females. Echolocation call includes a F component that is highly variable and may be distincdy different in different lineages—e.g. at Mount Nimba, in Liberia, one lineage had an echolocation call at 128 kHz, whereas the second lineage called at 148 kHz. Published accounts of echolocation calls of the H. rubercomplex typically fall within this range of variation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in small to very large colonies of over 500 individuals. Individual bats hang separately from the ceiling of the roost but in close proximity to other group-members. In Ghana, mean home range size of 13 radio-tracked bats was 36 ha, and these overlapped extensively between individuals; the foraging area was 50% of the home range. Mean maximum foraging distance from the day roost was 1 • 1 kmbut extended up to 2-6 km for some individuals, which is within the range predicted for a bat of this size. It occasionally shares its roosting sites with other bat species including various Rhinolophus spp., Hipposideros spp.and the Angolan Soft-fùrred Fruit Bat (Lissonycteris angolensis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat complex has a wide distribution, utilizes many different structures as day roosts, and usually occurs in good numbers.Bibliography.Anciaux de Faveaux (1978), Bernard & Cumming (1997), Brosset (1968), Brosset & Saint Girons (1980), Denys et al. (2013), ahr & Ebigbo (2003), Grubb et al. (1998), Guillén-Servent et al. (2000), Happold, D.C.D. (1987), Happold, D.C.D. & Happold (1990), Happold, M. (2013aa), Hill (1963a), Jones et al. (1993), Kock et al. (2002), Koopman (1989), Koopman et al. (1995), Monadjem & Fahr (2007), Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016), Monadjem, Richards, Taylor, Denys et al. (2013), Monadjem, Schoeman et al. (2010), Monadjem, Taylor et al. (2010), Nkrumah, Vallo, Klose, Ripperger, Badu, Dorsten et al. (2016), Nkrumah, Vallo, Klose, Ripperger, Badu, Gloza-Rausch et al. (2016), Patterson & Webala (2012), Rosevear (1965), Schütter et al. (1982), Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans(2009), Vallo, Benda et al. (2011), Vallo, Guillén-Servent étal. (2008), Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017), Verschuren (1957,1977,1982),Wolton et al. (1982)." 03BD87A2C664A216FF55EFC7F2B844F7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,245,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A216FF55EFC7F2B844F7.xml,Hipposideros marisae,Hipposideros,marisae,Aellen,1954,Phyllorhine d'Aellen @fr | Aellen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Aellen @es | Aellen's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros marisae Aellen, 1954, White Leopard Rock, Duékoué, Ivory Coast.Hipposideros marisaewas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.",,"Head—body 41—47 mm, tail 19-21 mm, ear 15-17 mm, hindfoot 6-8 mm, forearm 38—42 mm; weight 5 g. There are no obvious sexual differences in pelage or size. Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. A frontal sac is present in both sexes posterior to noseleaf. Intemarial septum is swollen and partially covering the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally.",Tropical forest in lowland and hilly situations.,"Exact diet of Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.",No information.,Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat rests up in caves and old mine adits. Echolocation call includes a F component at 146 kHz.,"Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly or in small groups, typically consisting of 2-6 individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideros.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small, fragmented distribution, which is under threat of deforestation. Disturbance ofits cave roosting sites is another threat.","Fahr (2013h) | Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016) | Rosevear (1965) | Wolton et al. (1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749133/files/figure.png,"49.Aellen’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros marisaeFrench:Phyllorhine d'Aellen/ German:Aellen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de AellenOther common names:Aellen's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros marisae Aellen, 1954, White Leopard Rock, Duékoué, Ivory Coast.Hipposideros marisaewas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Very patchily in W Africa with records in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory CoastDescriptive notes.Head—body 41—47 mm, tail 19-21 mm, ear 15-17 mm, hindfoot 6-8 mm, forearm 38—42 mm; weight 5 g. There are no obvious sexual differences in pelage or size. Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. A frontal sac is present in both sexes posterior to noseleaf. Intemarial septum is swollen and partially covering the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally.Habitat.Tropical forest in lowland and hilly situations.Food and Feeding.Exact diet of Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat rests up in caves and old mine adits. Echolocation call includes a F component at 146 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly or in small groups, typically consisting of 2-6 individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideros.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small, fragmented distribution, which is under threat of deforestation. Disturbance ofits cave roosting sites is another threat.Bibliography.Fahr (2013h), Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016), Rosevear (1965), Wolton et al. (1982)." -03BD87A2C664A216FF55F87CFDE04CB7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,245,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A216FF55F87CFDE04CB7.xml,Hipposideros jonesi,Hipposideros,jonesi,Hayman,1947,,"Hipposideros jonesi Hayman, 1947, Makeni, Sierra Leone.Hipposiderosjonesi was previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.","Patchily in W Africa with records from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria.","Head-body 50— 55 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 21-28 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 44—50 mm; weight 4—8 g. Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is greatly swollen and partially covers the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. An orange morph exists, which is orangish-brown to cinnamon throughout.","Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forest, woodland, and savanna habitats, including montane areas; it apparendy avoids the wetter rainforest zones. Presence of appropriate caves appears to be the most important determinant of this species’ habitat requirements.","The exact diet ofJones’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.","In Ghana, a single lactating female was collected in March.",Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat uses caves and disused mines as roost sites. Echolocation call includes a F component at 46-48 kHz.,"Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large mixed-sex colonies of up to several hundred individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideridae, as well as with Rhinolophusand Nycteris species.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, based on its fragmented distribution and the fact that for roosting it relies on specific caves, which are under threat of disturbance.","Eisentraut & Knorr (1957) | Fahr (20131) | Happold (1987) | Hayman (1947c, 1964) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Rosevear (1965)",,"48 Jones ’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros jonesiFrench: Phyllorhine de Jones/ German: Jones-Rundblattnase/ Spanish: Hiposidérido de JonesOther common names: Jones's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros jonesi Hayman, 1947, Makeni, Sierra Leone.Hipposiderosjonesi was previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily in W Africa with records from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50— 55 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 21-28 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 44—50 mm; weight 4—8 g. Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is greatly swollen and partially covers the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. An orange morph exists, which is orangish-brown to cinnamon throughout.Habitat.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forest, woodland, and savanna habitats, including montane areas; it apparendy avoids the wetter rainforest zones. Presence of appropriate caves appears to be the most important determinant of this species’ habitat requirements.Food and Feeding.The exact diet ofJones’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.Breeding.In Ghana, a single lactating female was collected in March.Activity patterns.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat uses caves and disused mines as roost sites. Echolocation call includes a F component at 46-48 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large mixed-sex colonies of up to several hundred individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideridae, as well as with Rhinolophusand Nycteris species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, based on its fragmented distribution and the fact that for roosting it relies on specific caves, which are under threat of disturbance.Bibliography.Eisentraut & Knorr (1957), Fahr (20131), Happold (1987), Hayman (1947c, 1964), Koch-Weser (1984), Rosevear (1965)." +03BD87A2C664A216FF55F87CFDE04CB7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,245,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A216FF55F87CFDE04CB7.xml,Hipposideros jonesi,Hipposideros,jonesi,Hayman,1947,,"Hipposideros jonesi Hayman, 1947, Makeni, Sierra Leone.Hipposiderosjonesi was previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.","Patchily in W Africa with records from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria.","Head-body 50— 55 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 21-28 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 44—50 mm; weight 4—8 g. Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is greatly swollen and partially covers the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. An orange morph exists, which is orangish-brown to cinnamon throughout.","Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forest, woodland, and savanna habitats, including montane areas; it apparendy avoids the wetter rainforest zones. Presence of appropriate caves appears to be the most important determinant of this species’ habitat requirements.","The exact diet ofJones’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.","In Ghana, a single lactating female was collected in March.",Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat uses caves and disused mines as roost sites. Echolocation call includes a F component at 46-48 kHz.,"Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large mixed-sex colonies of up to several hundred individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideridae, as well as with Rhinolophusand Nycteris species.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, based on its fragmented distribution and the fact that for roosting it relies on specific caves, which are under threat of disturbance.","Eisentraut & Knorr (1957) | Fahr (20131) | Happold (1987) | Hayman (1947c, 1964) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Rosevear (1965)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749131/files/figure.png,"48 Jones ’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros jonesiFrench: Phyllorhine de Jones/ German: Jones-Rundblattnase/ Spanish: Hiposidérido de JonesOther common names: Jones's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros jonesi Hayman, 1947, Makeni, Sierra Leone.Hipposiderosjonesi was previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily in W Africa with records from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50— 55 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 21-28 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 44—50 mm; weight 4—8 g. Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is greatly swollen and partially covers the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. An orange morph exists, which is orangish-brown to cinnamon throughout.Habitat.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forest, woodland, and savanna habitats, including montane areas; it apparendy avoids the wetter rainforest zones. Presence of appropriate caves appears to be the most important determinant of this species’ habitat requirements.Food and Feeding.The exact diet ofJones’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.Breeding.In Ghana, a single lactating female was collected in March.Activity patterns.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat uses caves and disused mines as roost sites. Echolocation call includes a F component at 46-48 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large mixed-sex colonies of up to several hundred individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideridae, as well as with Rhinolophusand Nycteris species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, based on its fragmented distribution and the fact that for roosting it relies on specific caves, which are under threat of disturbance.Bibliography.Eisentraut & Knorr (1957), Fahr (20131), Happold (1987), Hayman (1947c, 1964), Koch-Weser (1984), Rosevear (1965)." 03BD87A2C664A216FF55FEE8FA6E443F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,245,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A216FF55FEE8FA6E443F.xml,Hipposideros curtus,Hipposideros,curtus,G. M. Allen,1921,Phyllorhine à queue courte @fr | Kurzschwanz-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de cola corta @es | Short-tailed Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros curtus G. M. Allen, 1921, Sakbayeme, Cameroon.Hipposideros curtuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group (4 species). Monotypic.","Patchily in Cameroonand Equatorial Guinea, including Bioko I.","Head—body 50-55 mm, tail 18-23 mm, ear 15-22 mm, hindfoot 7—8 mm, forearm 42—47 mm. Muzzle of the Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is usually present in both sexes posterior to noseleaf. Intemarial septum is swollen and partially covering the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, sepiabrown dorsally, and slightly lighter ventrally.",,,,,Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bats roost singly or in small groups.,,"Happold, M. (2013x) | Hill (1963a) | Rosevear (1965) | Sanderson (1940)",,"47.Short-tailed Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros curtusFrench:Phyllorhine à queue courte/ German:Kurzschwanz-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de cola cortaOther common names:Short-tailed Roundleaf BatTaxonomy. Hipposideros curtus G. M. Allen, 1921, Sakbayeme, Cameroon.Hipposideros curtuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group (4 species). Monotypic.Distribution. Patchily in Cameroonand Equatorial Guinea, including Bioko I.Descriptive notes. Head—body 50-55 mm, tail 18-23 mm, ear 15-22 mm, hindfoot 7—8 mm, forearm 42—47 mm. Muzzle of the Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is usually present in both sexes posterior to noseleaf. Intemarial septum is swollen and partially covering the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, sepiabrown dorsally, and slightly lighter ventrally.Habitat. Restricted to lowland (0-500 m) forests.Food and Feeding. No information.Breeding. No information.Activity patterns. The Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in caves and under boulders.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bats roost singly or in small groups.Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, because of habitat loss due to logging, and perhaps disturbance at roost sites.Bibliography. Happold, M. (2013x), Hill (1963a), Rosevear (1965), Sanderson (1940)." 03BD87A2C664A217F898F784FEDD41AC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,245,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A217F898F784FEDD41AC.xml,Hipposideros speoris,Hipposideros,speoris,,,Phyllorhine de Schneider @fr | Schneider-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Schneider @es | Schneider's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Vespertilio speoris Schneiderin Schreber, 1800, Tranquebar, Madras, India.Hipposideros speorisbelongs to the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.",Indiaand Sri Lanka.,"Head—body 46-62 mm, ear 12-19 mm, forearm 45-54 mm. Ears of Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat are relatively short. Noseleaf has three supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide posterior leaf into four cells. Males have frontal sac behind posterior leaf, whereas it is a tuft of hairs in females. Pelage varies from gray to bright orangebrown or yellowish-brown. Skull length is 18-20-5 mm, with weak rostral inflation and weak sagittal crest. C1 and j are large. P2 is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small and simple, with narrow shaft and blunt tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","Dry plains to forested hillsides. Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages either in dry, flat areas or forested hills up to 1385 m.","Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds in groups of 10-15 individuals on insects near the ground. Diet includes mosquitoes, flies, beetles, and other low-flying insects. After leaving the roost, it has been found to revisit it several times during the night.","In Maharashtra, mating was observed from late December to mid-March. Females were found pregnant in May-July, giving birth to a single young from mid-May to midJune. Lactating females were captured until mid-September. However, reproductive cycle can be variable between sites—e.g. breeding season starts in mid-November in Bangalore; females give birth in September and October in Tamil Nadu. A single young was carried by its mother until its weight rose to 6 g. Females reach sexual maturity in 7-5-8 months, but this takes 16-17 months for males. Penis and scrotum of males are enlarged and thickened during the breeding season.","Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat can be found roosting in small crevices caves, tunnels, temples, and abandoned buildings. Echolocation of individuals from southern Indiais a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 131-135 kHz.","Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bats are gregarious. Colony size can be as small as a few individuals to hundreds or even thousands. Males and females cohabit at the roost, and the size of the colonies is constant throughout the year. Roosts of this species were shared with FulvusLeaf-nosed Bats {H. fulvus), Indian Rufous Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus rouxii), and Greater Asian False-Vampires (Lyrodermalyrd).On following pages: 51. Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros calcaratus); 52. awn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros galeritus); 55. Aba Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros abae); 56. Benito Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros beatus}; 57. Sundevall's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lamottei); 60. Noack's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros ruber}; 61. Maghreb Leaf-nosed (Hipposiderosbicoloi}; 64. Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros breviceps}; 65. Least Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros cervinus}; 53. Cox's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros coxi}; 54. Cantor's Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscaffed: 58. Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros fuliginosus); 59. Lamotte ’s Bat (Hipposideros tephrus}; 62. Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosatei]; 63. Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat cineraceus); 66. Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros coronatus}.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List, because it has a wide distribution and large colony sizes. Potential threats are hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.","Bates & Harrison (1997) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu (2008b) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749135/files/figure.png,"50.Schneider’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros speorisFrench:Phyllorhine de Schneider/ German:Schneider-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de SchneiderOther common names:Schneider's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Vespertilio speoris Schneiderin Schreber, 1800, Tranquebar, Madras, India.Hipposideros speorisbelongs to the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Indiaand Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 46-62 mm, ear 12-19 mm, forearm 45-54 mm. Ears of Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat are relatively short. Noseleaf has three supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide posterior leaf into four cells. Males have frontal sac behind posterior leaf, whereas it is a tuft of hairs in females. Pelage varies from gray to bright orangebrown or yellowish-brown. Skull length is 18-20-5 mm, with weak rostral inflation and weak sagittal crest. C1 and j are large. P2 is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small and simple, with narrow shaft and blunt tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Dry plains to forested hillsides. Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages either in dry, flat areas or forested hills up to 1385 m.Food and Feeding.Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds in groups of 10-15 individuals on insects near the ground. Diet includes mosquitoes, flies, beetles, and other low-flying insects. After leaving the roost, it has been found to revisit it several times during the night.Breeding.In Maharashtra, mating was observed from late December to mid-March. Females were found pregnant in May-July, giving birth to a single young from mid-May to midJune. Lactating females were captured until mid-September. However, reproductive cycle can be variable between sites—e.g. breeding season starts in mid-November in Bangalore; females give birth in September and October in Tamil Nadu. A single young was carried by its mother until its weight rose to 6 g. Females reach sexual maturity in 7-5-8 months, but this takes 16-17 months for males. Penis and scrotum of males are enlarged and thickened during the breeding season.Activity patterns.Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat can be found roosting in small crevices caves, tunnels, temples, and abandoned buildings. Echolocation of individuals from southern Indiais a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 131-135 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bats are gregarious. Colony size can be as small as a few individuals to hundreds or even thousands. Males and females cohabit at the roost, and the size of the colonies is constant throughout the year. Roosts of this species were shared with FulvusLeaf-nosed Bats {H. fulvus), Indian Rufous Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus rouxii), and Greater Asian False-Vampires (Lyrodermalyrd).On following pages: 51. Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros calcaratus); 52. awn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros galeritus); 55. Aba Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros abae); 56. Benito Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros beatus}; 57. Sundevall's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lamottei); 60. Noack's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros ruber}; 61. Maghreb Leaf-nosed (Hipposiderosbicoloi}; 64. Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros breviceps}; 65. Least Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros cervinus}; 53. Cox's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros coxi}; 54. Cantor's Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscaffed: 58. Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros fuliginosus); 59. Lamotte ’s Bat (Hipposideros tephrus}; 62. Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosatei]; 63. Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat cineraceus); 66. Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros coronatus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List, because it has a wide distribution and large colony sizes. Potential threats are hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Corbet & Hill (1992), Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu (2008b), Simmons (2005)." -03BD87A2C665A210F87BEF57FC2F4967,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,246,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A210F87BEF57FC2F4967.xml,Hipposideros galeritus,Hipposideros,galeritus,Cantor,1846,Phyllorhine de Cantor @fr | Cantor-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Cantor @es | Cantor's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposiderosgaleritus Cantor, 1846, “ Pinang[= Penang],” Malaysia.Hipposideros galerituswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","H. g. galeritus Cantor, 1846-SE Thailand, S Laos, C & S Vietnam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao and Penang Is), Sumatra, and Bangka I.H. g. brachyotis Dobson, 1874-India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.H. g. insolens Lyon, 1911— Borneo.H. g. longicauda Peters, 1861-W & Java.Also present on Sanana I (Sula Is), but subspecies involved not known.","Head—body 45—59-5 mm, tail 29-5— 37 mm, ear 14-5— 17 mm, hindfoot 4-9— 8 mm, forearm 45—51-3 mm; weight 8-6 g. Females are normally larger than males. Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat has relatively short triangular ears; antitragus is as much as one-third of ear length. Noseleaf is simple and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in anterior leaf. Upper margin of intermediate leaf is slightly convex. Posterior leaf has a semicircular upper margin and presents three septa, forming four cells on frontal surface. Frontal sac is well developed in males. Tail is long. Pelage is brownish-grayish and sometimes reddish on dorsum; on ventral area fur is paler.Habitat.Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.Breeding.Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.Activity patterns.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance.",Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.,"Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.","Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.","Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.","Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance. Habitat loss and transformation, and disturbance to roosting sites are probably threats.","Debata & Palita (2017) | Debata et al. (2015) | Francis, Kingston et al. (2008) | Hill (1971c) | Jenkins & Hill (1981) | Kaur et al. (2017) | Vestjens & Hall (1977)",,"54.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros galeritusFrench:Phyllorhine de Cantor/ German:Cantor-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de CantorOther common names:Cantor's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderosgaleritus Cantor, 1846, “ Pinang[= Penang],” Malaysia.Hipposideros galerituswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. g. galeritus Cantor, 1846-SE Thailand, S Laos, C & S Vietnam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao and Penang Is), Sumatra, and Bangka I.H. g. brachyotis Dobson, 1874-India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.H. g. insolens Lyon, 1911— Borneo.H. g. longicauda Peters, 1861-W & Java.Also present on Sanana I (Sula Is), but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 45—59-5 mm, tail 29-5— 37 mm, ear 14-5— 17 mm, hindfoot 4-9— 8 mm, forearm 45—51-3 mm; weight 8-6 g. Females are normally larger than males. Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat has relatively short triangular ears; antitragus is as much as one-third of ear length. Noseleaf is simple and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in anterior leaf. Upper margin of intermediate leaf is slightly convex. Posterior leaf has a semicircular upper margin and presents three septa, forming four cells on frontal surface. Frontal sac is well developed in males. Tail is long. Pelage is brownish-grayish and sometimes reddish on dorsum; on ventral area fur is paler.Habitat.Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.Breeding.Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.Activity patterns.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance. Habitat loss and transformation, and disturbance to roosting sites are probably threats.Bibliography.Debata & Palita (2017), Debata eta/. (2015), Francis, Kingston eta/. (2008), Hill (1971c), Jenkins & Hill (1981), Kaur eta/. (2017), Vestjens & Hall (1977)." +03BD87A2C665A210F87BEF57FC2F4967,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,246,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A210F87BEF57FC2F4967.xml,Hipposideros galeritus,Hipposideros,galeritus,Cantor,1846,Phyllorhine de Cantor @fr | Cantor-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Cantor @es | Cantor's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposiderosgaleritus Cantor, 1846, “ Pinang[= Penang],” Malaysia.Hipposideros galerituswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","H. g. galeritus Cantor, 1846-SE Thailand, S Laos, C & S Vietnam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao and Penang Is), Sumatra, and Bangka I.H. g. brachyotis Dobson, 1874-India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.H. g. insolens Lyon, 1911— Borneo.H. g. longicauda Peters, 1861-W & Java.Also present on Sanana I (Sula Is), but subspecies involved not known.","Head—body 45—59-5 mm, tail 29-5— 37 mm, ear 14-5— 17 mm, hindfoot 4-9— 8 mm, forearm 45—51-3 mm; weight 8-6 g. Females are normally larger than males. Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat has relatively short triangular ears; antitragus is as much as one-third of ear length. Noseleaf is simple and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in anterior leaf. Upper margin of intermediate leaf is slightly convex. Posterior leaf has a semicircular upper margin and presents three septa, forming four cells on frontal surface. Frontal sac is well developed in males. Tail is long. Pelage is brownish-grayish and sometimes reddish on dorsum; on ventral area fur is paler.Habitat.Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.Breeding.Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.Activity patterns.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance.",Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.,"Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.","Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.","Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.","Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance. Habitat loss and transformation, and disturbance to roosting sites are probably threats.","Debata & Palita (2017) | Debata et al. (2015) | Francis, Kingston et al. (2008) | Hill (1971c) | Jenkins & Hill (1981) | Kaur et al. (2017) | Vestjens & Hall (1977)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749143/files/figure.png,"54.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros galeritusFrench:Phyllorhine de Cantor/ German:Cantor-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de CantorOther common names:Cantor's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderosgaleritus Cantor, 1846, “ Pinang[= Penang],” Malaysia.Hipposideros galerituswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. g. galeritus Cantor, 1846-SE Thailand, S Laos, C & S Vietnam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao and Penang Is), Sumatra, and Bangka I.H. g. brachyotis Dobson, 1874-India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.H. g. insolens Lyon, 1911— Borneo.H. g. longicauda Peters, 1861-W & Java.Also present on Sanana I (Sula Is), but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 45—59-5 mm, tail 29-5— 37 mm, ear 14-5— 17 mm, hindfoot 4-9— 8 mm, forearm 45—51-3 mm; weight 8-6 g. Females are normally larger than males. Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat has relatively short triangular ears; antitragus is as much as one-third of ear length. Noseleaf is simple and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in anterior leaf. Upper margin of intermediate leaf is slightly convex. Posterior leaf has a semicircular upper margin and presents three septa, forming four cells on frontal surface. Frontal sac is well developed in males. Tail is long. Pelage is brownish-grayish and sometimes reddish on dorsum; on ventral area fur is paler.Habitat.Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.Breeding.Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.Activity patterns.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance. Habitat loss and transformation, and disturbance to roosting sites are probably threats.Bibliography.Debata & Palita (2017), Debata eta/. (2015), Francis, Kingston eta/. (2008), Hill (1971c), Jenkins & Hill (1981), Kaur eta/. (2017), Vestjens & Hall (1977)." 03BD87A2C665A217F87DF82FF6FE5327,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,246,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217F87DF82FF6FE5327.xml,Hipposideros coxi,Hipposideros,coxi,Shelford,1901,Phyllorhine de Cox @fr | Cox-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Cox @es | Cox's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposiderus [sic] coxi Shelford, 1901, “Mount Penrisen, Sarawak, Borneo [Malaysia], 4200 feet[= 1280 m].”Hipposideros coxiwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Monotypic.","Known only from a few localities in W Borneo (N & SW Sarawak), including Gunung Mulu, Bako, and Tanjung Datu national parks, Mt Penrissen, and Bau Limestone area; it has been reported in Central Kalimantan based on acoustic surveys, but this requires confirmation.",Forearm 53—55 mm. Ears of Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat are covered with hairs. Noseleaf is enlarged with two lateral leaflets. Anterior leaf fully covers muzzle. Intermediate leaf is bulbous and thickened. Posterior is large with swollen thick bump in middle. Wing membrane is dark. Pelage color is dark brown with ventral side paler.,"Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps understory, e.g. trails. It has been netted in mangrove forest near rock crevices. It occurs in lowlands, from sea level up to a hill cave at 1200 m.","Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during gleaning.",No information.,"Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of46-52 kHz.","Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, typically in small groups of 2-5 individuals. At Wind Cave, Sarawak, it was recorded roosting on the cave ceiling in a group of less than 20 individuals near an opening.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCNRed List. Cox’s Leafnosed Bat is endemic to Borneo and is rare; its population is very small and decreasing (area of occupancy is less than 500 km2). Besides habitat loss, the main threats include mining and bird-nest harvesting. Recorded in Bako, Tanjung Datu, and Gunung Mulu national parks and Wind and Fairy cave reserves.",Corbet & Hill (1992) | Khan et al. (2008) | MacArthur (2016a) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Rosli et al. (2018) | Simmons (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/3749141/files/figure.png,"53.Cox’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros coxiFrench:Phyllorhine de Cox/ German:Cox-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de CoxOther common names:Cox's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] coxi Shelford, 1901, “Mount Penrisen, Sarawak, Borneo [Malaysia], 4200 feet[= 1280 m].”Hipposideros coxiwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from a few localities in W Borneo (N & SW Sarawak), including Gunung Mulu, Bako, and Tanjung Datu national parks, Mt Penrissen, and Bau Limestone area; it has been reported in Central Kalimantan based on acoustic surveys, but this requires confirmation.Descriptive notes.Forearm 53—55 mm. Ears of Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat are covered with hairs. Noseleaf is enlarged with two lateral leaflets. Anterior leaf fully covers muzzle. Intermediate leaf is bulbous and thickened. Posterior is large with swollen thick bump in middle. Wing membrane is dark. Pelage color is dark brown with ventral side paler.Habitat.Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps understory, e.g. trails. It has been netted in mangrove forest near rock crevices. It occurs in lowlands, from sea level up to a hill cave at 1200 m.Food and Feeding.Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during gleaning.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of46-52 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, typically in small groups of 2-5 individuals. At Wind Cave, Sarawak, it was recorded roosting on the cave ceiling in a group of less than 20 individuals near an opening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCNRed List. Cox’s Leafnosed Bat is endemic to Borneo and is rare; its population is very small and decreasing (area of occupancy is less than 500 km2). Besides habitat loss, the main threats include mining and bird-nest harvesting. Recorded in Bako, Tanjung Datu, and Gunung Mulu national parks and Wind and Fairy cave reserves.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Khan eta/. (2008), MacArthur (2016a), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Rosli et al. (2018), Simmons (2005)." -03BD87A2C665A217FF28FCCDFE7A4F99,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,246,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217FF28FCCDFE7A4F99.xml,Hipposideros calcaratus,Hipposideros,calcaratus,Dobson,1877,Phyllorhine à éperons @fr | Sporn-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de espolones @es | Spurred Roundleaf Bat @en,"Phyllorhina calcarata Dobson, 1877, “Duke-of-York Island and adjacent coasts of New Irelandand New Britain,” PapuaNew Guinea.Hipposideros calcaratuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group (species). Two subspecies recognized.","H. c. calcaratus Dobson, 1877— Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Is, Trobriand Is (Kiriwina), D’Entrecasteaux Is (Normanby), and Misima I; probably on other inshore Is of New Guinea.H. c. cupidus K. Andersen, 1918mainland New Guineaand Yapen I.","Head—body 49-4— 70 mm, tail 31-44 mm, ear 16-5— 25 mm, hindfoot 7-9— 12 mm, forearm 46-2—55-8 mm; weight 11-5 g. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat has large, funnel-shaped ears, with slighdy rounded tips. Noseleaf is simple, without supplementary leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a medial and well-developed protuberance. Posterior leaf is long, with three vertical septa. There is a small protuberance above each eye and behind both laterals of posterior noseleaf. Frontal sac of males is relatively small. Wing membrane is attached to side of foot. Pelage is long and soft, with dark brown on dorsum, and paler colors over shoulders; fur is whitish-grayish on ventral part, and naked wing membranes are blackish brown. This species can occasionally present a reddish or orange coloration.",Forests and wet lowlands from sea level to 1000 m.,"Diet of the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is based on insects; it probably hunts mainly Blattodea and Orthoptera. Its foraging habitat is still unknown, but forest areas and river bodies are possible feeding zones.","Breeding colonies have been reported in caves, with aggregations of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Females give birth to one or two offspring in May-June or October—November.","The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and other underground cavities. Echolocation call includes a F component of 125-130 kHz.",The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and can be found in large colonies.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is common within its range. Although the trends are unknown, it is thought that the overall population is large. No major threats to this species are known at present, although habitat loss and human disturbance could be of some importance.",Bonaccorso & Reardon (2008f) | Hill (1971c) | Lavery et al. (2014) | Smith & Hill (1981) | Vestjens & Hall (1977),,"51.Spurred Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros calcaratusFrench:Phyllorhine à éperons/ German:Sporn-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de espolonesOther common names:Spurred Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina calcarata Dobson, 1877, “Duke-of-York Island and adjacent coasts of New Irelandand New Britain,” PapuaNew Guinea.Hipposideros calcaratuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group (species). Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. c. calcaratus Dobson, 1877— Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Is, Trobriand Is (Kiriwina), D’Entrecasteaux Is (Normanby), and Misima I; probably on other inshore Is of New Guinea.H. c. cupidus K. Andersen, 1918mainland New Guineaand Yapen I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 49-4— 70 mm, tail 31-44 mm, ear 16-5— 25 mm, hindfoot 7-9— 12 mm, forearm 46-2—55-8 mm; weight 11-5 g. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat has large, funnel-shaped ears, with slighdy rounded tips. Noseleaf is simple, without supplementary leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a medial and well-developed protuberance. Posterior leaf is long, with three vertical septa. There is a small protuberance above each eye and behind both laterals of posterior noseleaf. Frontal sac of males is relatively small. Wing membrane is attached to side of foot. Pelage is long and soft, with dark brown on dorsum, and paler colors over shoulders; fur is whitish-grayish on ventral part, and naked wing membranes are blackish brown. This species can occasionally present a reddish or orange coloration.Habitat.Forests and wet lowlands from sea level to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is based on insects; it probably hunts mainly Blattodea and Orthoptera. Its foraging habitat is still unknown, but forest areas and river bodies are possible feeding zones.Breeding.Breeding colonies have been reported in caves, with aggregations of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Females give birth to one or two offspring in May-June or October—November.Activity patterns.The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and other underground cavities. Echolocation call includes a F component of 125-130 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and can be found in large colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is common within its range. Although the trends are unknown, it is thought that the overall population is large. No major threats to this species are known at present, although habitat loss and human disturbance could be of some importance.Bibliography.Bonaccorso & Reardon (2008f), Hill (1971c), Lavery eta/. (2014), Smith & Hill (1981), Vestjens & Hall (1977)." -03BD87A2C665A217FF2BF2D6F7904401,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,246,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217FF2BF2D6F7904401.xml,Hipposideros cervinus,Hipposideros,cervinus,,,Phyllorhine de Gould @fr | Rehbraune Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Gould @es | awn Horseshoe Bat @en | awn Roundleaf Bat @en | Fawn-colored Roundleaf Bat @en | Gould's Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Rhinolophus ceruinus Gould, 1854, Cape York and Albany Island, Queensland, Australia.Hipposideros ceruinuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Future taxonomic study may prove that the Malay Peninsula population represents a different taxon. Two subspecies recognized.","H. c. ceruinus Gould, 1854-Sulawesi and adjacent Is, Talaud, Moluccas, Kai, and Aru Is, New Guinea(including Waigeo and Yapen Is), Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagos, NE Australia(Cape York Peninsula and Moa and Albany Is), Solomon Is, and Vanuatu.H. c. labuanensisTomes, 1859-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (includingMentawai, Enggano, and Bangka Is), Borneo, Kangean Is, and Philippines(Palawanand Mindanao Is).","Head—body 50—55 mm, tail 21—31 mm, ear 14-17-5 mm, forearm 44—53 mm; weight 6-9 g. There are no other specific measurements available. The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat is a small to medium-sized Hipposideros. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide the posterior leaf into four cells. Pelage color is variable from grayish brown or yellowish brown to bright orange; ventral side is paler than the dorsal.","The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat usually roosts in caves but can also be found in other habitats, e.g. abandoned mines and tree hollows. It forages in lowland forest understory from sea level up to 1400 m.","The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during the gleaning.","In Madang Province, PapuaNew Guinea, females give birth to a single young twice a year, with lactation peaks in March and September. Pregnant females were captured in July-September. Females become sexually mature in c.8—9 months. In peninsular Malaysia, lactating females were found throughout the year, with peak pregnancy in February—March.","The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat emerges from the roost at sunset, and sets off, flying fast within 3 mof the ground, for its foraging grounds. It is a cavedwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 144—145 kHz, with the FM segment dropping to 120 kHz. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency is 126 kHz.","Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats roost gregariously. Colony size can be thousands of individuals. In Niah Caves, Borneo, colony size was estimated at up to 250,000 individuals. The species can be found sharing the roost with Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. bicolor) and antor ’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. galeritus).","Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. This species is common to abundant in caves throughout its range, and forms large colonies.","Bonaccorso (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrumgsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal, Hall & Bonaccorso (2008) | Francis (2008a) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005)",,"52.Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros cervinusFrench:Phyllorhine de Gould/ German:Rehbraune Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de GouldOther common names:awn Horseshoe Bat, awn Roundleaf Bat, Fawn-colored Roundleaf Bat, Gould's Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus ceruinus Gould, 1854, Cape York and Albany Island, Queensland, Australia.Hipposideros ceruinuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Future taxonomic study may prove that the Malay Peninsula population represents a different taxon. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. c. ceruinus Gould, 1854-Sulawesi and adjacent Is, Talaud, Moluccas, Kai, and Aru Is, New Guinea(including Waigeo and Yapen Is), Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagos, NE Australia(Cape York Peninsula and Moa and Albany Is), Solomon Is, and Vanuatu.H. c. labuanensisTomes, 1859-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (includingMentawai, Enggano, and Bangka Is), Borneo, Kangean Is, and Philippines(Palawanand Mindanao Is).Descriptive notes.Head—body 50—55 mm, tail 21—31 mm, ear 14-17-5 mm, forearm 44—53 mm; weight 6-9 g. There are no other specific measurements available. The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat is a small to medium-sized Hipposideros. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide the posterior leaf into four cells. Pelage color is variable from grayish brown or yellowish brown to bright orange; ventral side is paler than the dorsal.Habitat.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat usually roosts in caves but can also be found in other habitats, e.g. abandoned mines and tree hollows. It forages in lowland forest understory from sea level up to 1400 m.Food and Feeding.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during the gleaning.Breeding.In Madang Province, PapuaNew Guinea, females give birth to a single young twice a year, with lactation peaks in March and September. Pregnant females were captured in July-September. Females become sexually mature in c.8—9 months. In peninsular Malaysia, lactating females were found throughout the year, with peak pregnancy in February—March.Activity patterns.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat emerges from the roost at sunset, and sets off, flying fast within 3 mof the ground, for its foraging grounds. It is a cavedwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 144—145 kHz, with the FM segment dropping to 120 kHz. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency is 126 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats roost gregariously. Colony size can be thousands of individuals. In Niah Caves, Borneo, colony size was estimated at up to 250,000 individuals. The species can be found sharing the roost with Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. bicolor) and antor ’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. galeritus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. This species is common to abundant in caves throughout its range, and forms large colonies.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrumgsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal, Hall & Bonaccorso (2008), Francis (2008a), Heaney eta/. (1998), Kingston eta/. (2006), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005)." +03BD87A2C665A217FF28FCCDFE7A4F99,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,246,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217FF28FCCDFE7A4F99.xml,Hipposideros calcaratus,Hipposideros,calcaratus,Dobson,1877,Phyllorhine à éperons @fr | Sporn-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de espolones @es | Spurred Roundleaf Bat @en,"Phyllorhina calcarata Dobson, 1877, “Duke-of-York Island and adjacent coasts of New Irelandand New Britain,” PapuaNew Guinea.Hipposideros calcaratuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group (species). Two subspecies recognized.","H. c. calcaratus Dobson, 1877— Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Is, Trobriand Is (Kiriwina), D’Entrecasteaux Is (Normanby), and Misima I; probably on other inshore Is of New Guinea.H. c. cupidus K. Andersen, 1918mainland New Guineaand Yapen I.","Head—body 49-4— 70 mm, tail 31-44 mm, ear 16-5— 25 mm, hindfoot 7-9— 12 mm, forearm 46-2—55-8 mm; weight 11-5 g. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat has large, funnel-shaped ears, with slighdy rounded tips. Noseleaf is simple, without supplementary leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a medial and well-developed protuberance. Posterior leaf is long, with three vertical septa. There is a small protuberance above each eye and behind both laterals of posterior noseleaf. Frontal sac of males is relatively small. Wing membrane is attached to side of foot. Pelage is long and soft, with dark brown on dorsum, and paler colors over shoulders; fur is whitish-grayish on ventral part, and naked wing membranes are blackish brown. This species can occasionally present a reddish or orange coloration.",Forests and wet lowlands from sea level to 1000 m.,"Diet of the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is based on insects; it probably hunts mainly Blattodea and Orthoptera. Its foraging habitat is still unknown, but forest areas and river bodies are possible feeding zones.","Breeding colonies have been reported in caves, with aggregations of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Females give birth to one or two offspring in May-June or October—November.","The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and other underground cavities. Echolocation call includes a F component of 125-130 kHz.",The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and can be found in large colonies.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is common within its range. Although the trends are unknown, it is thought that the overall population is large. No major threats to this species are known at present, although habitat loss and human disturbance could be of some importance.",Bonaccorso & Reardon (2008f) | Hill (1971c) | Lavery et al. (2014) | Smith & Hill (1981) | Vestjens & Hall (1977),https://zenodo.org/record/3749137/files/figure.png,"51.Spurred Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros calcaratusFrench:Phyllorhine à éperons/ German:Sporn-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de espolonesOther common names:Spurred Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina calcarata Dobson, 1877, “Duke-of-York Island and adjacent coasts of New Irelandand New Britain,” PapuaNew Guinea.Hipposideros calcaratuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group (species). Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. c. calcaratus Dobson, 1877— Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Is, Trobriand Is (Kiriwina), D’Entrecasteaux Is (Normanby), and Misima I; probably on other inshore Is of New Guinea.H. c. cupidus K. Andersen, 1918mainland New Guineaand Yapen I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 49-4— 70 mm, tail 31-44 mm, ear 16-5— 25 mm, hindfoot 7-9— 12 mm, forearm 46-2—55-8 mm; weight 11-5 g. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat has large, funnel-shaped ears, with slighdy rounded tips. Noseleaf is simple, without supplementary leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a medial and well-developed protuberance. Posterior leaf is long, with three vertical septa. There is a small protuberance above each eye and behind both laterals of posterior noseleaf. Frontal sac of males is relatively small. Wing membrane is attached to side of foot. Pelage is long and soft, with dark brown on dorsum, and paler colors over shoulders; fur is whitish-grayish on ventral part, and naked wing membranes are blackish brown. This species can occasionally present a reddish or orange coloration.Habitat.Forests and wet lowlands from sea level to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is based on insects; it probably hunts mainly Blattodea and Orthoptera. Its foraging habitat is still unknown, but forest areas and river bodies are possible feeding zones.Breeding.Breeding colonies have been reported in caves, with aggregations of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Females give birth to one or two offspring in May-June or October—November.Activity patterns.The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and other underground cavities. Echolocation call includes a F component of 125-130 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and can be found in large colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is common within its range. Although the trends are unknown, it is thought that the overall population is large. No major threats to this species are known at present, although habitat loss and human disturbance could be of some importance.Bibliography.Bonaccorso & Reardon (2008f), Hill (1971c), Lavery eta/. (2014), Smith & Hill (1981), Vestjens & Hall (1977)." +03BD87A2C665A217FF2BF2D6F7904401,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,246,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217FF2BF2D6F7904401.xml,Hipposideros cervinus,Hipposideros,cervinus,,,Phyllorhine de Gould @fr | Rehbraune Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Gould @es | awn Horseshoe Bat @en | awn Roundleaf Bat @en | Fawn-colored Roundleaf Bat @en | Gould's Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Rhinolophus ceruinus Gould, 1854, Cape York and Albany Island, Queensland, Australia.Hipposideros ceruinuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Future taxonomic study may prove that the Malay Peninsula population represents a different taxon. Two subspecies recognized.","H. c. ceruinus Gould, 1854-Sulawesi and adjacent Is, Talaud, Moluccas, Kai, and Aru Is, New Guinea(including Waigeo and Yapen Is), Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagos, NE Australia(Cape York Peninsula and Moa and Albany Is), Solomon Is, and Vanuatu.H. c. labuanensisTomes, 1859-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (includingMentawai, Enggano, and Bangka Is), Borneo, Kangean Is, and Philippines(Palawanand Mindanao Is).","Head—body 50—55 mm, tail 21—31 mm, ear 14-17-5 mm, forearm 44—53 mm; weight 6-9 g. There are no other specific measurements available. The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat is a small to medium-sized Hipposideros. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide the posterior leaf into four cells. Pelage color is variable from grayish brown or yellowish brown to bright orange; ventral side is paler than the dorsal.","The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat usually roosts in caves but can also be found in other habitats, e.g. abandoned mines and tree hollows. It forages in lowland forest understory from sea level up to 1400 m.","The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during the gleaning.","In Madang Province, PapuaNew Guinea, females give birth to a single young twice a year, with lactation peaks in March and September. Pregnant females were captured in July-September. Females become sexually mature in c.8—9 months. In peninsular Malaysia, lactating females were found throughout the year, with peak pregnancy in February—March.","The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat emerges from the roost at sunset, and sets off, flying fast within 3 mof the ground, for its foraging grounds. It is a cavedwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 144—145 kHz, with the FM segment dropping to 120 kHz. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency is 126 kHz.","Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats roost gregariously. Colony size can be thousands of individuals. In Niah Caves, Borneo, colony size was estimated at up to 250,000 individuals. The species can be found sharing the roost with Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. bicolor) and antor ’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. galeritus).","Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. This species is common to abundant in caves throughout its range, and forms large colonies.","Bonaccorso (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrumgsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal, Hall & Bonaccorso (2008) | Francis (2008a) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749139/files/figure.png,"52.Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros cervinusFrench:Phyllorhine de Gould/ German:Rehbraune Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de GouldOther common names:awn Horseshoe Bat, awn Roundleaf Bat, Fawn-colored Roundleaf Bat, Gould's Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus ceruinus Gould, 1854, Cape York and Albany Island, Queensland, Australia.Hipposideros ceruinuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Future taxonomic study may prove that the Malay Peninsula population represents a different taxon. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. c. ceruinus Gould, 1854-Sulawesi and adjacent Is, Talaud, Moluccas, Kai, and Aru Is, New Guinea(including Waigeo and Yapen Is), Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagos, NE Australia(Cape York Peninsula and Moa and Albany Is), Solomon Is, and Vanuatu.H. c. labuanensisTomes, 1859-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (includingMentawai, Enggano, and Bangka Is), Borneo, Kangean Is, and Philippines(Palawanand Mindanao Is).Descriptive notes.Head—body 50—55 mm, tail 21—31 mm, ear 14-17-5 mm, forearm 44—53 mm; weight 6-9 g. There are no other specific measurements available. The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat is a small to medium-sized Hipposideros. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide the posterior leaf into four cells. Pelage color is variable from grayish brown or yellowish brown to bright orange; ventral side is paler than the dorsal.Habitat.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat usually roosts in caves but can also be found in other habitats, e.g. abandoned mines and tree hollows. It forages in lowland forest understory from sea level up to 1400 m.Food and Feeding.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during the gleaning.Breeding.In Madang Province, PapuaNew Guinea, females give birth to a single young twice a year, with lactation peaks in March and September. Pregnant females were captured in July-September. Females become sexually mature in c.8—9 months. In peninsular Malaysia, lactating females were found throughout the year, with peak pregnancy in February—March.Activity patterns.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat emerges from the roost at sunset, and sets off, flying fast within 3 mof the ground, for its foraging grounds. It is a cavedwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 144—145 kHz, with the FM segment dropping to 120 kHz. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency is 126 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats roost gregariously. Colony size can be thousands of individuals. In Niah Caves, Borneo, colony size was estimated at up to 250,000 individuals. The species can be found sharing the roost with Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. bicolor) and antor ’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. galeritus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. This species is common to abundant in caves throughout its range, and forms large colonies.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrumgsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal, Hall & Bonaccorso (2008), Francis (2008a), Heaney eta/. (1998), Kingston eta/. (2006), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C666A214FF55F782F74F4BFC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,243,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C666A214FF55F782F74F4BFC.xml,Hipposideros pelingensis,Hipposideros,pelingensis,Shamel,1940,Phyllorhine de Peleng @fr | Peleng-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Peleng @es | Peleng Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros pelingensis Shamel, 1940, “Island of Peleng, Celebes[= east of Sulawesi],”Indonesia.Hipposideros pelingensisis in the diademaspecies group. It was previously considered a subspecies of H. dinops. Further taxonomic research is needed. Monotypic.","Sulawesiand adjacent Peleng, Buton, and Kabaena Is, also on Tukangbesi Is (Wangi-wangi, Kaledupa, and Tornea).","Forearm 93-4—96-9 mm; weight 50 g. The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (M dinops) but has shorter tibia. Ears are large and triangular, slightly concave below tip. Noseleaf is well developed, anterior leaf with three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a small protuberance in central part. Upper margin of posterior noseleaf is semicircular and three vertical septa form four cells on frontal surface. Fur is pale brown with brownishyellowish stripes along the sides.",The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported near karst areas and agricultural lands. It is found from the sea level up to 1000 m.,Diet of the Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based on insects. The species has been observed foraging over farmland.,No information.,The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported roosting in caves. Echolocation call includes a F component of52—57 kHz.,"The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be gregarious, forming colonies of hundreds or even thousands of individuals, in caves.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Although the Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is locally common, limestone extraction and human disturbance at roosts could constitute important threats to its population, which is probably decreasing already, or likely to do so in the near future.","Hill (1963a, 1983) | Hutson, Schütter & Kingston (2008) | Murray et al. (2012) | Patterson et al. (2017) | Shamel (1940)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749127/files/figure.png,"46.Peleng Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pelingensisFrench:Phyllorhine de Peleng/ German:Peleng-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de PelengOther common names:Peleng Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros pelingensis Shamel, 1940, “Island of Peleng, Celebes[= east of Sulawesi],”Indonesia.Hipposideros pelingensisis in the diademaspecies group. It was previously considered a subspecies of H. dinops. Further taxonomic research is needed. Monotypic.Distribution.Sulawesiand adjacent Peleng, Buton, and Kabaena Is, also on Tukangbesi Is (Wangi-wangi, Kaledupa, and Tornea).Descriptive notes.Forearm 93-4—96-9 mm; weight 50 g. The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (M dinops) but has shorter tibia. Ears are large and triangular, slightly concave below tip. Noseleaf is well developed, anterior leaf with three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a small protuberance in central part. Upper margin of posterior noseleaf is semicircular and three vertical septa form four cells on frontal surface. Fur is pale brown with brownishyellowish stripes along the sides.Habitat.The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported near karst areas and agricultural lands. It is found from the sea level up to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based on insects. The species has been observed foraging over farmland.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported roosting in caves. Echolocation call includes a F component of52—57 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be gregarious, forming colonies of hundreds or even thousands of individuals, in caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Although the Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is locally common, limestone extraction and human disturbance at roosts could constitute important threats to its population, which is probably decreasing already, or likely to do so in the near future.Bibliography.Hill (1963a, 1983), Hutson, Schütter & Kingston (2008), Murray et al. (2012), Patterson et al. (2017), Shamel (1940)." -03BD87A2C668A21AF898FEA4F2CA4B5E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,257,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AF898FEA4F2CA4B5E.xml,Hipposideros pomona,Hipposideros,pomona,K Andersen,1918,Phyllorhine pomone @fr | Pomona-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido pomona @es | Pomona Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros pomona K Andersen, 1918, “Haleri, N[orth]. Coorg [= Kodagu],” Karnataka State, south-western India.Hipposideros pomonawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.","S India(Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).","Ear 18—19 mm, forearm 38—39 mm. Pelage of the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with hairs paler at base; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.",,The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat feeds in gaps of the forest understory.,No information.,"The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, or hollow trees. Call frequency is 123-128 kHz.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. As the revised species is now restricted to southern India, its population status needs to be re-assessed. The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is likely to qualify to be listed under threatened category and may require conservation measures.","Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Francis (2008a) | Simmons (2005) | Wordley et al. (2014)",,"85.Pomona Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pomonaFrench:Phyllorhine pomone IGerman:Pomona-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido pomonaOther common names:Pomona Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros pomona K Andersen, 1918, “Haleri, N[orth]. Coorg [= Kodagu],” Karnataka State, south-western India.Hipposideros pomonawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.S India(Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).Descriptive notes.Ear 18—19 mm, forearm 38—39 mm. Pelage of the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with hairs paler at base; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.Habitat No information.Food and Feeding.The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat feeds in gaps of the forest understory.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, or hollow trees. Call frequency is 123-128 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. As the revised species is now restricted to southern India, its population status needs to be re-assessed. The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is likely to qualify to be listed under threatened category and may require conservation measures.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a), Corbet & Hill (1992), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook eta/. (2010), Francis (2008a), Simmons (2005), Wordley eta/. (2014)." +03BD87A2C668A21AF898FEA4F2CA4B5E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,257,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AF898FEA4F2CA4B5E.xml,Hipposideros pomona,Hipposideros,pomona,K Andersen,1918,Phyllorhine pomone @fr | Pomona-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido pomona @es | Pomona Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros pomona K Andersen, 1918, “Haleri, N[orth]. Coorg [= Kodagu],” Karnataka State, south-western India.Hipposideros pomonawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.","S India(Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).","Ear 18—19 mm, forearm 38—39 mm. Pelage of the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with hairs paler at base; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.",,The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat feeds in gaps of the forest understory.,No information.,"The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, or hollow trees. Call frequency is 123-128 kHz.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. As the revised species is now restricted to southern India, its population status needs to be re-assessed. The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is likely to qualify to be listed under threatened category and may require conservation measures.","Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Francis (2008a) | Simmons (2005) | Wordley et al. (2014)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749207/files/figure.png,"85.Pomona Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pomonaFrench:Phyllorhine pomone IGerman:Pomona-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido pomonaOther common names:Pomona Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros pomona K Andersen, 1918, “Haleri, N[orth]. Coorg [= Kodagu],” Karnataka State, south-western India.Hipposideros pomonawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.S India(Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).Descriptive notes.Ear 18—19 mm, forearm 38—39 mm. Pelage of the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with hairs paler at base; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.Habitat No information.Food and Feeding.The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat feeds in gaps of the forest understory.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, or hollow trees. Call frequency is 123-128 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. As the revised species is now restricted to southern India, its population status needs to be re-assessed. The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is likely to qualify to be listed under threatened category and may require conservation measures.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a), Corbet & Hill (1992), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook eta/. (2010), Francis (2008a), Simmons (2005), Wordley eta/. (2014)." 03BD87A2C668A21AF89AF71DF3CE5141,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,257,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AF89AF71DF3CE5141.xml,Hipposideros pygmaeus,Hipposideros,pygmaeus,,,Phyllorhine pygmée @fr | Kleine Philippinen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido filipino pequeno @es | Philippine Pygmy Roundleaf Bat @en,"Rhinolophus pygmaeus Waterhouse, 1843, “ Philippine Islands.”Hipposideros pygmaeuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","Endemic to Philippines(S Luzon, Polillo, Marinduque, Samar, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, and N Mindanao).","Head—body 57—73 mm, tail 18—27 mm, ear 11—15 mm, hindfoot 6—8 mm, forearm 37—41 mm; weight 4 g. Ears of the Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat are triangular, with a broad base, and concave below tip; they are haired for half of their length. Noseleaf is large and complex. Anterior noseleaf is broad and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Unlike posterior pair of leaflets, anterior pair meets beneath anterior noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf has no median emarginations. Posterior leaf is broad, with semicircular upper margin and with three vertical septa, which from four cells. Frontal sac only present in males. Fur is dark brown with whitish bases on dorsum; on ventral part pelage is brown, darker at base of hairs.",Primary and secondary lowland forest. The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported from sea level up to 200 m.,"The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in cluttered areas of forest Common prey of this species includes Araneae, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Blattodea, and Psocoptera.",Maternity colonies are found in caves.,The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed bat has been reported roosting in limestone caves and other underground habitats. Call frequency of the F segment is c.95-5 kHz.,"The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat is a gregarious species and has been observed in caves, usually roosting in small groups, although large numbers have been reported in some caves.","Classified as Least Concern on IUCNRed List. The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat has a relatively wide distribution and its population is thought to be large. In addition, it is considered to be tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. Potential threats to this species could be disturbance at roosts, cave destruction, deforestation and mining, as well as local hunting in some areas. This species is hunted for food in parts of its range, although this does not seem to heavily harm the species.","Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998) | Heaney, Balete, Ong, Rosell-Ambal,Tabaranza & Esselstyn (2008) | Hill (1963a) | Ingle & Heaney (1992) | Phelps, Jose et al. (2016) | Tate (1941a)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749209/files/figure.png,"86.Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pygmaeusFrench:Phyllorhine pygmée/ German:Kleine Philippinen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido filipino pequenoOther common names:Philippine Pygmy Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus pygmaeus Waterhouse, 1843, “ Philippine Islands.”Hipposideros pygmaeuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Philippines(S Luzon, Polillo, Marinduque, Samar, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, and N Mindanao).Descriptive notes.Head—body 57—73 mm, tail 18—27 mm, ear 11—15 mm, hindfoot 6—8 mm, forearm 37—41 mm; weight 4 g. Ears of the Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat are triangular, with a broad base, and concave below tip; they are haired for half of their length. Noseleaf is large and complex. Anterior noseleaf is broad and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Unlike posterior pair of leaflets, anterior pair meets beneath anterior noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf has no median emarginations. Posterior leaf is broad, with semicircular upper margin and with three vertical septa, which from four cells. Frontal sac only present in males. Fur is dark brown with whitish bases on dorsum; on ventral part pelage is brown, darker at base of hairs.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland forest. The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported from sea level up to 200 m.Food and Feeding.The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in cluttered areas of forest Common prey of this species includes Araneae, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Blattodea, and Psocoptera.Breeding.Maternity colonies are found in caves.Activity patterns.The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed bat has been reported roosting in limestone caves and other underground habitats. Call frequency of the F segment is c.95-5 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat is a gregarious species and has been observed in caves, usually roosting in small groups, although large numbers have been reported in some caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCNRed List. The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat has a relatively wide distribution and its population is thought to be large. In addition, it is considered to be tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. Potential threats to this species could be disturbance at roosts, cave destruction, deforestation and mining, as well as local hunting in some areas. This species is hunted for food in parts of its range, although this does not seem to heavily harm the species.Bibliography.Heaney, Balete, Dolar eta/. (1998), Heaney, Balete, Ong, Rosell-Ambal,Tabaranza & Esselstyn (2008), Hill (1963a), Ingle & Heaney (1992), Phelps, Jose eta/. (2016),Tate (1941a)." 03BD87A2C668A21AFF48F5F3F8EB514E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,257,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AFF48F5F3F8EB514E.xml,Hipposideros papua,Hipposideros,papua,Thomas & Doria,1886,Phyllorhine papoue @fr | Biak-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Biak @es | Biak Roundleaf Bat @en | Geelvink Bay Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"PhyUorhina papua Thomas & Doria, 1886, “Rorido nell’ Isoladi Misori [= Biak Island], Baja del Geelvink [= Cenderawasih Bay], nella N. Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Hipposideros papuawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","Moluccas(Halmahera and Bacan), West Papuan Is (Gebe), Schouten Is (Numfor, Supiori, and Biak), and W New Guinea(Bird’s Head Peninsula).","Head—body 48-9—58-9 mm, tail 22-34-8 mm, ear 13-3—17-8 mm, hindfoot 6-5—7-7 mm, forearm 49-5—52-7 mm; weight 9-3—10-1 g. The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat has large triangular ears that are slighdy concave below tip. Anterior noseleaf is large, with three supplementary lateral leaflets (the third one very small or absent in some cases). Upper margin of posterior noseleaf is semicircular and has three vertical septa, which separate four cells on frontal surface. A frontal sac is present in males and absent in females. Pelage is dark brown on dorsum and paler on ventral part.",The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in primary tropical moist woodland habitats at elevations of 100-300 m.,The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in primary forests. Its diet is based on insects.,No information.,The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. Call frequency of the F segment is c.123 kHz.,The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and has been observed in caves roosting in small groups.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although it occurs in a relatively small range, the Biak Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively common species within this, and its population is thought to be stable. The main potential threats to this species might be roost disturbance and habitat degradation.","Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Helgen (2008b) | Tate (1941a) | Wiantoro (2011)",,"84.Biak Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros papuaFrench:Phyllorhine papoue/ German:Biak-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de BiakOther common names:Biak Roundleaf Bat, Geelvink BayLeaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.PhyUorhina papua Thomas & Doria, 1886, “Rorido nell’ Isoladi Misori [= Biak Island], Baja del Geelvink [= Cenderawasih Bay], nella N. Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Hipposideros papuawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Moluccas(Halmahera and Bacan), West Papuan Is (Gebe), Schouten Is (Numfor, Supiori, and Biak), and W New Guinea(Bird’s Head Peninsula).Descriptive notes.Head—body 48-9—58-9 mm, tail 22-34-8 mm, ear 13-3—17-8 mm, hindfoot 6-5—7-7 mm, forearm 49-5—52-7 mm; weight 9-3—10-1 g. The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat has large triangular ears that are slighdy concave below tip. Anterior noseleaf is large, with three supplementary lateral leaflets (the third one very small or absent in some cases). Upper margin of posterior noseleaf is semicircular and has three vertical septa, which separate four cells on frontal surface. A frontal sac is present in males and absent in females. Pelage is dark brown on dorsum and paler on ventral part.Habitat.The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in primary tropical moist woodland habitats at elevations of 100-300 m.Food and Feeding.The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in primary forests. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. Call frequency of the F segment is c.123 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and has been observed in caves roosting in small groups.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although it occurs in a relatively small range, the Biak Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively common species within this, and its population is thought to be stable. The main potential threats to this species might be roost disturbance and habitat degradation.Bibliography.Bates, Rossiter eta/. (2007), Bonaccorso (1998), Helgen (2008b),Tate (1941a), Wiantoro (2011)." 03BD87A2C668A21AFF50FC16FEFE4ABD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,257,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AFF50FC16FEFE4ABD.xml,Hipposideros orbiculus,Hipposideros,orbiculus,"Francis, Kock & Habersetzer",1999,Phyllorhine à petit disque @fr | Kleinblatt-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de disco pequeno @es | Orbiculus Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros orbiculus Francis, Kock & Habersetzer, 1999, “Abai Siat, SE Kota Baru, 01°02’ S, 101°43’ E, Sumatera Barat, Sumatra, Indonesia.”Hipposideros orbiculuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.",Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra.,"Tail 26-34 mm, ear 20-23-5 mm, forearm 46-49 mm; weight 9-3-10-3 g. Ears of the OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat are large and rounded. Pelage is dark chocolate-brown. Noseleaf is broad and covers muzzle, with no lateral supplementary leaflet Intemarial septum is medium-sized and disk-shaped.",,No information.,No information.,"The OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in drainage pipes. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency of 80 kHz has been recorded.",No information.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The population status of the OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat is unknown, but is doubtless decreasing due to deforestation.","Francis (2008a) | Francis, Bates et al. (2016) | Francis, Kock & Habersetzer (1999) | Simmons (2005)",,"83.Orbiculus Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros orbiculusFrench:Phyllorhine à petit disque/ German:Kleinblatt-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de disco pequenoOther common names:Orbiculus Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros orbiculus Francis, Kock & Habersetzer, 1999, “Abai Siat, SE Kota Baru, 01°02’ S, 101°43’ E, Sumatera Barat, Sumatra, Indonesia.”Hipposideros orbiculuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Tail 26-34 mm, ear 20-23-5 mm, forearm 46-49 mm; weight 9-3-10-3 g. Ears of the OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat are large and rounded. Pelage is dark chocolate-brown. Noseleaf is broad and covers muzzle, with no lateral supplementary leaflet Intemarial septum is medium-sized and disk-shaped.Habitat The OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat appears to be a lowland-forest species. It has been captured in rubber plantations, in primary forest, and in peat-swamp forest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in drainage pipes. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency of 80 kHz has been recorded.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The population status of the OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat is unknown, but is doubtless decreasing due to deforestation.Bibliography.Francis (2008a), Francis, Bates et al. (2016), Francis, Kock & Habersetzer (1999), Simmons (2005)." @@ -672,7 +672,7 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03BD87A2C66AA218FF5CF7A2FD465305,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,255,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66AA218FF5CF7A2FD465305.xml,Hipposideros hypophyllus,Hipposideros,hypophyllus,Kock & Bhat,1994,Phyllorhine du Kolar @fr | Kolar-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Kolar @es | Kolar Roundleaf Bat @en | Leafletted Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Hipposideros hypophyllus Kock & Bhat, 1994, “Hanumanahalli village, 15 kmE of Kolar Town, 13°09’N-78°07’E, Kolar District]., Bangalore Region, Karnataka, India.”Hipposideros hypophylluswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","Endemic to S India(Kolar district, Karnataka), known only from type locality. Previously also on nearby Therahalli, where now absent.","Head-body 40-9—41-7 mm, tail 23-3-24-3 mm, ear 16-7-17-7 mm, hindfoot 6-7-6-9 mm, forearm 38-49 mm. Ears of the Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat are broad. Noseleaf has two lateral supplementary leaflets. Anterior leaf is smoothly rounded, with no emargination. Intemarial septum is broader at base and forms a narrow triangle at tip. Dorsal pelage is grayish brown or rufous brown; ventral area is white to fulvous-white. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.",Tropical dry shrubland near villages and agricultural fields. The Kolar Leafnosed Bat can be found at elevations of up to 570 m.,No information.,Pregnant and lactating females were found in late summer.,"The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat was documented to accumulate fat in winter, suggesting it may use torpor in colder months. Entire known population of this species roosts in a narrow, inaccessible, subterranean cave on a monolithic granite hill. Echolocation call frequency is 103-105 kHz.","The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat shares roosts with Durga Das’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. durgadasi), FulvusLeaf-nosed Bats {H. fulvus), and Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. speoris).","Classified as Critically Endangered on IUCNRed List. The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat is very rare and found in only one cave, with a population of less than 200 individuals. The major threat is habitat loss due to granite mining.","Chakravarty et al. (2016) | Kock & Bhat(1994) | Srinivasulu, Srinivasulu & Kaur (2016) | Srinivasulu, Srinivasulu, Kaur, Shah et al. (2014)",,"75.Kolar Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros hypophyllusFrench:Phyllorhine du Kolar/ German:Kolar-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de KolarOther common names:Kolar Roundleaf Bat, Leafletted Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros hypophyllus Kock & Bhat, 1994, “Hanumanahalli village, 15 kmE of Kolar Town, 13°09’N-78°07’E, Kolar District]., Bangalore Region, Karnataka, India.”Hipposideros hypophylluswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S India(Kolar district, Karnataka), known only from type locality. Previously also on nearby Therahalli, where now absent.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-9—41-7 mm, tail 23-3-24-3 mm, ear 16-7-17-7 mm, hindfoot 6-7-6-9 mm, forearm 38-49 mm. Ears of the Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat are broad. Noseleaf has two lateral supplementary leaflets. Anterior leaf is smoothly rounded, with no emargination. Intemarial septum is broader at base and forms a narrow triangle at tip. Dorsal pelage is grayish brown or rufous brown; ventral area is white to fulvous-white. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Tropical dry shrubland near villages and agricultural fields. The Kolar Leafnosed Bat can be found at elevations of up to 570 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Pregnant and lactating females were found in late summer.Activity patterns.The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat was documented to accumulate fat in winter, suggesting it may use torpor in colder months. Entire known population of this species roosts in a narrow, inaccessible, subterranean cave on a monolithic granite hill. Echolocation call frequency is 103-105 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat shares roosts with Durga Das’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. durgadasi), FulvusLeaf-nosed Bats {H. fulvus), and Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. speoris).Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on IUCNRed List. The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat is very rare and found in only one cave, with a population of less than 200 individuals. The major threat is habitat loss due to granite mining.Bibliography.Chakravarty et al. (2016), Kock & Bhat(1994), Srinivasulu, Srinivasulu & Kaur (2016), Srinivasulu, Srinivasulu, Kaur, Shah et al. (2014)." 03BD87A2C66AA218FF5DEF31F3984475,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,255,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66AA218FF5DEF31F3984475.xml,Hipposideros khaokhouayensis,Hipposideros,khaokhouayensis,Guillen-Servent & Francis,2006,Phyllorhine du Khao Khouay @fr | Phou-Khao-Khouay-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Khao Khouay @es | Phou Khao Khouay Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros khaokhouayensis Guillén-Servent & Francis, 2006, “ TakLeukwaterfall, along Nam (river) Leuk, in Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity ConservationArea, Saisombun Special Zone, Central Lao PDR, 18°23’N, 103°04’E, 180 melevation.” Hipposideros khaokhouayensiswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.","Endemic to Laos, known only from type locality and Ban Nampe, C.I 1 kmNE of Vang Vieng, Vang Vieng district, Vientiane Province.","Ear 24—26 mm, forearm 46-49 mm. Noseleaf of the Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat is narrow and without lateral supplementary leaflet Intemarial septum forms an intermediate-sized disk shape. Anterior leaf has narrow emargination. Dorsal pelage is generally mid-brown, with individual hairs white at base, brown in the middle, and pale at tip; ventral side is paler. Rostrum is inflated with large posterolateral chamber. Sagittal crest is moderately developed.",The Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat was captured in patches of intact and disturbed evergreen forests both near and far from caves it is known to occupy. It can be found at elevations of 180—400 m.,No information.,Lactating female was captured in May-June.,The Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation call frequency is 87-91 kHz.,No information.,Classified as Vulnerable on IUCN Red List. The major threat to the Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat is habitat loss; this is aggravated by lack of law enforcement.,Bates & Francis (2008a) | Francis (2008a) | Guillén-Servent & Francis (2006),,"76.Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros khaokhouayensisFrench:Phyllorhine du Khao Khouay IGerman:Phou-Khao-Khouay-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de Khao KhouayOther common names:Phou Khao Khouay Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros khaokhouayensis Guillén-Servent & Francis, 2006, “ TakLeukwaterfall, along Nam (river) Leuk, in Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity ConservationArea, Saisombun Special Zone, Central Lao PDR, 18°23’N, 103°04’E, 180 melevation.” Hipposideros khaokhouayensiswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Laos, known only from type locality and Ban Nampe, C.I 1 kmNE of Vang Vieng, Vang Vieng district, Vientiane Province.Descriptive notes.Ear 24—26 mm, forearm 46-49 mm. Noseleaf of the Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat is narrow and without lateral supplementary leaflet Intemarial septum forms an intermediate-sized disk shape. Anterior leaf has narrow emargination. Dorsal pelage is generally mid-brown, with individual hairs white at base, brown in the middle, and pale at tip; ventral side is paler. Rostrum is inflated with large posterolateral chamber. Sagittal crest is moderately developed.Habitat.The Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat was captured in patches of intact and disturbed evergreen forests both near and far from caves it is known to occupy. It can be found at elevations of 180—400 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Lactating female was captured in May-June.Activity patterns.The Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation call frequency is 87-91 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on IUCN Red List. The major threat to the Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat is habitat loss; this is aggravated by lack of law enforcement.Bibliography.Bates & Francis (2008a), Francis (2008a), Guillén-Servent & Francis (2006)." 03BD87A2C66AA219F8B6EF7FF92245DD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,255,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66AA219F8B6EF7FF92245DD.xml,Hipposideros macrobullatus,Hipposideros,macrobullatus,Tate,1941,Phyllorhine de Tate @fr | Heinrich-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido orejudo @es | Big-eared Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros bicolor macrobullotus Tate, 1941, “Talassa (Maros), South Celebes[= Sulawesi, Indonesia]; 300 meters.”Hipposideros macrobullatuswas described as a subspecies of H. bicolor, but is currendy considered a distinct species. It was formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","Known only from three localities in Indonesia(SW Sulawesi, Kangean, and Seram Is).","Ear 23 mm, forearm 40-42 mm. Ears of the Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat are large. Pelage is brown or reddishbrown, with a whitish base to each hair. Skull is distinctly characterized by large bullae.Habitat.Elevational range is not known: type specimen was collected at 300 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to roost in caves and tree hollows, and to forage in woodland.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Other species collected from the same locality include Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros galeritus) and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H diadema).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Bigeared Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species.",Elevational range is not known: type specimen was collected at 300 m.,No information.,No information.,"The Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to roost in caves and tree hollows, and to forage in woodland.",Other species collected from the same locality include Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros galeritus) and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H diadema).,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Bigeared Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species. Habitat loss and cave disturbance are considered the major threats to this species.,"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Hutson, Schütter & Kingston (2016a) | Simmons (2005) | Tate (1941a)",,"78.Big-eared Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros macrobullatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Tate/ German:Heinrich-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido orejudoOther common names:Big-eared Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros bicolor macrobullotus Tate, 1941, “Talassa (Maros), South Celebes[= Sulawesi, Indonesia]; 300 meters.”Hipposideros macrobullatuswas described as a subspecies of H. bicolor, but is currendy considered a distinct species. It was formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from three localities in Indonesia(SW Sulawesi, Kangean, and Seram Is).Descriptive notes.Ear 23 mm, forearm 40-42 mm. Ears of the Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat are large. Pelage is brown or reddishbrown, with a whitish base to each hair. Skull is distinctly characterized by large bullae.Habitat.Elevational range is not known: type specimen was collected at 300 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to roost in caves and tree hollows, and to forage in woodland.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Other species collected from the same locality include Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros galeritus) and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H diadema).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Bigeared Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species. Habitat loss and cave disturbance are considered the major threats to this species.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Hutson, Schütter & Kingston (2016a), Simmons (2005), Tate (1941a)." -03BD87A2C66BA219F877F9AEF50A4F20,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,256,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA219F877F9AEF50A4F20.xml,Hipposideros nicobarulae,Hipposideros,nicobarulae,G. S. Miller,1902,Phyllorhine des Nicobar @fr | Nikobaren-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Nicobar @es | Nicobar Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros nicobarulae G. S. Miller, 1902, “Little Nicobar Island,”India.Hipposideros nicobarulaeis in the aterspecies group, and was previously considered a subspecies of H. ater. Based on detailed morphometric and craniodental studies, it was raised to species level by B. Douangboubpha and colleagues in 2011. Monotypic.","Nicobar Is, India.","Ear 15-19 mm, forearm 38-42 mm. Noseleaf of the Nicobar Leafnosed Bat is without lateral supplementary leaflet. Anterior leaf has deep emargination. Intemarial septum is swollen, broader at base and narrower at tip. Rostrum is inflated but only moderately. P2 is small and extruded. Baculum is very small, with a curved shaft and simple base and tips.",No information.,No information.,No information.,The Nicobar Leaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in caves and deserted buildings.,No information.,"Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ater), which is classified as Least Concern.","Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Simmons (2005)",,"81.Nicobar Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros nicobarulaeFrench:Phyllorhine des Nicobar/ German:Nikobaren-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de NicobarOther common names:Nicobar Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros nicobarulae G. S. Miller, 1902, “Little Nicobar Island,”India.Hipposideros nicobarulaeis in the aterspecies group, and was previously considered a subspecies of H. ater. Based on detailed morphometric and craniodental studies, it was raised to species level by B. Douangboubpha and colleagues in 2011. Monotypic.Distribution.Nicobar Is, India.Descriptive notes.Ear 15-19 mm, forearm 38-42 mm. Noseleaf of the Nicobar Leafnosed Bat is without lateral supplementary leaflet. Anterior leaf has deep emargination. Intemarial septum is swollen, broader at base and narrower at tip. Rostrum is inflated but only moderately. P2 is small and extruded. Baculum is very small, with a curved shaft and simple base and tips.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Nicobar Leaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in caves and deserted buildings.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ater), which is classified as Least Concern.Bibliography.Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Corbet & Hill (1992), Simmons (2005)" +03BD87A2C66BA219F877F9AEF50A4F20,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,256,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA219F877F9AEF50A4F20.xml,Hipposideros nicobarulae,Hipposideros,nicobarulae,G. S. Miller,1902,Phyllorhine des Nicobar @fr | Nikobaren-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Nicobar @es | Nicobar Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros nicobarulae G. S. Miller, 1902, “Little Nicobar Island,”India.Hipposideros nicobarulaeis in the aterspecies group, and was previously considered a subspecies of H. ater. Based on detailed morphometric and craniodental studies, it was raised to species level by B. Douangboubpha and colleagues in 2011. Monotypic.","Nicobar Is, India.","Ear 15-19 mm, forearm 38-42 mm. Noseleaf of the Nicobar Leafnosed Bat is without lateral supplementary leaflet. Anterior leaf has deep emargination. Intemarial septum is swollen, broader at base and narrower at tip. Rostrum is inflated but only moderately. P2 is small and extruded. Baculum is very small, with a curved shaft and simple base and tips.",No information.,No information.,No information.,The Nicobar Leaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in caves and deserted buildings.,No information.,"Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ater), which is classified as Least Concern.","Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749197/files/figure.png,"81.Nicobar Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros nicobarulaeFrench:Phyllorhine des Nicobar/ German:Nikobaren-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de NicobarOther common names:Nicobar Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros nicobarulae G. S. Miller, 1902, “Little Nicobar Island,”India.Hipposideros nicobarulaeis in the aterspecies group, and was previously considered a subspecies of H. ater. Based on detailed morphometric and craniodental studies, it was raised to species level by B. Douangboubpha and colleagues in 2011. Monotypic.Distribution.Nicobar Is, India.Descriptive notes.Ear 15-19 mm, forearm 38-42 mm. Noseleaf of the Nicobar Leafnosed Bat is without lateral supplementary leaflet. Anterior leaf has deep emargination. Intemarial septum is swollen, broader at base and narrower at tip. Rostrum is inflated but only moderately. P2 is small and extruded. Baculum is very small, with a curved shaft and simple base and tips.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Nicobar Leaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in caves and deserted buildings.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ater), which is classified as Least Concern.Bibliography.Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Corbet & Hill (1992), Simmons (2005)" 03BD87A2C66BA219FF1AEE0AF4234680,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,256,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA219FF1AEE0AF4234680.xml,Hipposideros nequam,Hipposideros,nequam,K. Andersen,1918,Phyllorhine de Malaisie @fr | Malaya-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido malayo @es | Malayan Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros nequam K. Andersen, 1918, “Klang, Selangor,” Malaysia.Hipposideros nequamwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.",Known only from type locality in Peninsular Malaysia.,"Ear 19 mm, forearm 46 mm. Noseleaf of the Malayan Leafnosed Bat is large, 6 mmin width and 8 mmin length. P2 is small, and is situated in tooth row.",No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. The Malayan Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known only from a single specimen.",Corbet & Hill (1992) | Senawi et al. (2016) | Simmons (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/3749195/files/figure.png,"80.Malayan Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros nequamFrench:Phyllorhine de Malaisie/ German:Malaya-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido malayoOther common names:Malayan Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros nequam K. Andersen, 1918, “Klang, Selangor,” Malaysia.Hipposideros nequamwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from type locality in Peninsular Malaysia.Descriptive notes.Ear 19 mm, forearm 46 mm. Noseleaf of the Malayan Leafnosed Bat is large, 6 mmin width and 8 mmin length. P2 is small, and is situated in tooth row.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. The Malayan Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known only from a single specimen.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Senawi eta/. (2016), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C66BA219FF23F89FFE325265,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,256,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA219FF23F89FFE325265.xml,Hipposideros maggietaylorae,Hipposideros,maggietaylorae,J. D. Smith & Hill,1981,Phyllorhine de Taylor @fr | Maggie-Taylor-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Maggie Taylor @es | Maggie Taylor's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros maggietaylorae J. D. Smith & Hill, 1981, “Lengmebung Cave, 1.3 km south and 3 kmeast Lakuramau Plantation, 80 m, New Ireland Island, New IrelandProv[ince]., PapuaNew Guinea(lat. 2° 54’Slong. 151° 16’E).”Hipposideros maggietayloraeis traditionally confused with H. calcaratus. It was formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its true position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Two subspecies recognized.","H.m.maggietaylorae].D.Smith&Hill,1981—BismarckArchipelago.H. m. erroris]. D. Smith & Hill, 1981-New Guinea, mainland PapuaNew Guineaand Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo and Batanta); it probably occurs in other Indonesian West Papuaareas.","Head—body 57-80 mm, tail 30-44 mm, ear 13-5-22 mm, hindfoot 9—17 mm, forearm 50-4-67-2 mm; weight 13-23 g. Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is morphologically very similar to the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat {H. calcaratus).Ears are relatively short, triangular and with rounded tips. Antitragus is short and slightly convex. Noseleaf is simple and supplementary leaflets are absent. Intermediate leaf has two ridges (which hold a vibrissa) lateral to medial ridge. Posterior leaf is relatively small and presents three vertical septa. There is a frontal sac, which is more pronounced in males. Pelage is long, shaggy, and grayish-brownish on dorsum, whitish-grayish on ventral part; fur covering head is darker; pelage can be orange-reddish in some cases. Juveniles are entirely gray..",Tropical and subtropical dry forest and moist lowland forest. It can also occur in more degraded habitats such as surrounding rural areas. Altitudinal occurrence ranges from sea level up to 380 m.,"Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in dense vegetation of both primary and secondary tropical humid forest, sclerophyll woodlands and rural gardens. Its diet is based on insects.",No information.,"Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, mines, galleries, tunnels, and even hollow trees. Characteristic F of its echolocation call is 121 kHz.","Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming colonies of several individuals (usually more than 50).","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List because it is a common species within its extensive range. In addition, it has a certain degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. Its population size is probably large and relatively stable. No important threats have been reported.",Bonaccorso (1998) | Bonaccorso & Leary (2008c) | Robson et al. (2012) | Smith & Hill (1981) | Whitmore (2015),,"79.Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros maggietayloraeFrench:Phyllorhine de Taylor/ German:Maggie-Taylor-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de Maggie TaylorOther common names:MaggieTaylor's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros maggietaylorae J. D. Smith & Hill, 1981, “Lengmebung Cave, 1.3 km south and 3 kmeast Lakuramau Plantation, 80 m, New Ireland Island, New IrelandProv[ince]., PapuaNew Guinea(lat. 2° 54’Slong. 151° 16’E).”Hipposideros maggietayloraeis traditionally confused with H. calcaratus. It was formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its true position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.maggietaylorae].D.Smith&Hill,1981—BismarckArchipelago.H. m. erroris]. D. Smith & Hill, 1981-New Guinea, mainland PapuaNew Guineaand Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo and Batanta); it probably occurs in other Indonesian West Papuaareas.Descriptive notes.Head—body 57-80 mm, tail 30-44 mm, ear 13-5-22 mm, hindfoot 9—17 mm, forearm 50-4-67-2 mm; weight 13-23 g. Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is morphologically very similar to the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat {H. calcaratus).Ears are relatively short, triangular and with rounded tips. Antitragus is short and slightly convex. Noseleaf is simple and supplementary leaflets are absent. Intermediate leaf has two ridges (which hold a vibrissa) lateral to medial ridge. Posterior leaf is relatively small and presents three vertical septa. There is a frontal sac, which is more pronounced in males. Pelage is long, shaggy, and grayish-brownish on dorsum, whitish-grayish on ventral part; fur covering head is darker; pelage can be orange-reddish in some cases. Juveniles are entirely gray..Habitat.Tropical and subtropical dry forest and moist lowland forest. It can also occur in more degraded habitats such as surrounding rural areas. Altitudinal occurrence ranges from sea level up to 380 m.Food and Feeding.Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in dense vegetation of both primary and secondary tropical humid forest, sclerophyll woodlands and rural gardens. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, mines, galleries, tunnels, and even hollow trees. Characteristic F of its echolocation call is 121 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming colonies of several individuals (usually more than 50).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List because it is a common species within its extensive range. In addition, it has a certain degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. Its population size is probably large and relatively stable. No important threats have been reported.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Bonaccorso & Leary (2008c), Robson eta/. (2012), Smith & Hill (1981), Whitmore (2015)." 03BD87A2C66BA21AF877F349FDE14058,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,256,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA21AF877F349FDE14058.xml,Hipposideros obscurus,Hipposideros,obscurus,,,Phyllorhine obscure @fr | Philippinen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido filipino @es | Philippines Forest Roundleaf Bat @en,"Phyllorhina obscura Peters, 1861, “Paracali [= Paracali, Camarines Norte Province], Luzon,” Philippines.Hipposideros obscuruswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.",Endemic to Philippines.,"Head-body c.53-58 mm, tail 19-24 mm, ear 18-22 mm, hindfoot 10-12 mm, forearm 42-48 mm; weight 7-12 g. Males are larger than females. On the dorsal side, pelage of the Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is dark brown at tips and base, paler in middle of each hair; on ventral side, pelage is darker at base and paler at tips; pelage on head often has reddish hue. Noseleaf is broad; two pairs of leaflets are distinctly present, lateral to anterior noseleaf. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 24 and FN = 44.",The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forest from lowland to montane and mossy forest up to 1100 m.,"The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is usually found feeding on insects, in the understory of lowland forest.",Females give birth to a single offspring.,"The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, mine shafts, hollow trees and logs, and among tree buttresses. Call frequency is 138-145 kHz.",No information.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is rather common throughout its range. Forest conversion may be causing the population to decrease but in general it is not currently at risk. It is found in several protected areas.,"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Heaney, Balete, Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza & Gomez (2008) | Sedlock (2001) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749199/files/figure.png,"82.Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros obscurusFrench:Phyllorhine obscure/ German:Philippinen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido filipinoOther common names:PhilippinesForest Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina obscura Peters, 1861, “Paracali [= Paracali, Camarines Norte Province], Luzon,” Philippines.Hipposideros obscuruswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.53-58 mm, tail 19-24 mm, ear 18-22 mm, hindfoot 10-12 mm, forearm 42-48 mm; weight 7-12 g. Males are larger than females. On the dorsal side, pelage of the Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is dark brown at tips and base, paler in middle of each hair; on ventral side, pelage is darker at base and paler at tips; pelage on head often has reddish hue. Noseleaf is broad; two pairs of leaflets are distinctly present, lateral to anterior noseleaf. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 24 and FN = 44.Habitat.The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forest from lowland to montane and mossy forest up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is usually found feeding on insects, in the understory of lowland forest.Breeding.Females give birth to a single offspring.Activity patterns.The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, mine shafts, hollow trees and logs, and among tree buttresses. Call frequency is 138-145 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is rather common throughout its range. Forest conversion may be causing the population to decrease but in general it is not currently at risk. It is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Heaney, Balete, Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza & Gomez (2008), Sedlock (2001), Simmons (2005)." @@ -685,21 +685,21 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03BD87A2C66DA21FFF2BFC71FE1B4872,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,254,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66DA21FFF2BFC71FE1B4872.xml,Hipposideros einnaythu,Hipposideros,einnaythu,,,Phyllorhine des maisons!German @fr | Hiposidérido de Myanmar @es | House-dwelling Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros einnaythu Douangboubpha et al, 2011, “Kan TharYar Beach, Gwa Township, Rakhine State, Myanmar(17°44’00”N, 94°32’30”E).”Hipposideros einnaythuis in the aterspecies group. Specimens of this species were previously referred to H. atratus and H.fulvus. Future surveys and revision of museum specimens may prove it to be more widespread than currently known. Monotypic.","W Myanmar, known only from type locality (Rakhine State) and in Tanintharyi Region(Tharabwin Village, Myeik, and TanintharyiVillage).","Forearm 39-5—40-3 mm. Noseleaf of the House-dwelling Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively large with rounded anterior leaf. It has one pair of supplementary leaflets. Intemarial septum is distinctly swollen in middle with a narrow, bluntly pointed tip. Pelage is uniformly dark brown dorsally, slightly paler on ventral part. Braincase and sagittal crest are low. Zygomata are slender with moderate dorsal process.","The House-dwelling Leaf-nosed Bat was originally discovered flying around a bathroom before dusk. Surrounding habitats included a beach, a patch of palm trees, and dense vegetation.",No information.,No information.,,One of the specimens was found roosting alone in a human settlement.,Notassessed on The IUCNRed List due to its recent recognition as a species. This is a rare and very poorly known bat.,"Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010)",,"71.House-dwelling Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros einnaythuFrench:Phyllorhine des maisons!German:Myanmar-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de MyanmarOther common names:House-dwelling Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros einnaythu Douangboubpha et al, 2011, “Kan TharYar Beach, Gwa Township, Rakhine State, Myanmar(17°44’00”N, 94°32’30”E).”Hipposideros einnaythuis in the aterspecies group. Specimens of this species were previously referred to H. atratus and H.fulvus. Future surveys and revision of museum specimens may prove it to be more widespread than currently known. Monotypic.Distribution.W Myanmar, known only from type locality (Rakhine State) and in Tanintharyi Region(Tharabwin Village, Myeik, and TanintharyiVillage).Descriptive notes.Forearm 39-5—40-3 mm. Noseleaf of the House-dwelling Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively large with rounded anterior leaf. It has one pair of supplementary leaflets. Intemarial septum is distinctly swollen in middle with a narrow, bluntly pointed tip. Pelage is uniformly dark brown dorsally, slightly paler on ventral part. Braincase and sagittal crest are low. Zygomata are slender with moderate dorsal process.Habitat.The House-dwelling Leaf-nosed Bat was originally discovered flying around a bathroom before dusk. Surrounding habitats included a beach, a patch of palm trees, and dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activitypatterns.All known specimens of this species were collected from human habitation; e.g. a house roof.Movements, Home range and Social organization.One of the specimens was found roosting alone in a human settlement.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCNRed List due to its recent recognition as a species. This is a rare and very poorly known bat.Bibliography.Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook eta/. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray eta/. (2010)." 03BD87A2C66DA21FFF2CF407F3FD471C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,254,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66DA21FFF2CF407F3FD471C.xml,Hipposideros gentilis,Hipposideros,gentilis,K Andersen,1918,Phyllorhine d’Andersen @fr | Andersen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Andersen @es | Andersen's Roundleaf Bat @en | Exotic Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Hipposideros gentilis K Andersen, 1918, “Thayetmyo, Burma[= Myanmar].”Previously considered a subspecies of H. pomona, but here considered distinct based on its larger size. Its true position in the phylogeny is unknown, and its taxonomy requires further study. Subspecific limits remain unclear, and they may prove to be two distinct species with an overlapping range. Two subspecies recognized.","H.g.gentilisKAndersen,1918-Nepal,NEIndia,Bangladesh,Myanmar,Thailand,PeninsularMalaysia,andAndamanIs.H. g. sinensis K. Andersen, 1918-S & SE China(including HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.","Head-body 36 mm, tail 28-35 mm, ear 18-25 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 38-43 mm. Dorsal pelage of Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with paler bases; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.","Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat was captured in primary and secondary forests; also in orchards, and robber and oil-palm plantations. It is common in karst habitats throughout its range.",Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat was captured c.0-5-3 m aboveground in gaps in the forest understory.,Females were found pregnant and lactating from March to June.,"Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, hollow trees, pipes, and old houses. Call frequency is 120-140 kHz.","Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small groups of a few individuals or in colonies of several hundreds. In Thailand, it shares the same caves—but different chambers—with Least Leaf-nosed Bats {H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), ThailandLeaf-nosed Bats (Ä halophyllus), Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bats (Ä ZyZri), Dobson’s Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus yunanensis), and Kitti’s Hog-nosed Bats {Craseonycteristhonglongyai).","Notassessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, where it is included under the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat (AE /jowcwzz) as Least Concern. Limestone mining, and quarrying may be threats for some populations outside protected areas.","Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Francis (2008a) | Simmons (2005)",,"72.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros gentilisFrench:Phyllorhine d’Andersen/ German:Andersen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de AndersenOther common names:Andersen's Roundleaf Bat, Exotic Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros gentilis K Andersen, 1918, “Thayetmyo, Burma[= Myanmar].”Previously considered a subspecies of H. pomona, but here considered distinct based on its larger size. Its true position in the phylogeny is unknown, and its taxonomy requires further study. Subspecific limits remain unclear, and they may prove to be two distinct species with an overlapping range. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.g.gentilisKAndersen,1918-Nepal,NEIndia,Bangladesh,Myanmar,Thailand,PeninsularMalaysia,andAndamanIs.H. g. sinensis K. Andersen, 1918-S & SE China(including HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36 mm, tail 28-35 mm, ear 18-25 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 38-43 mm. Dorsal pelage of Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with paler bases; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.Habitat.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat was captured in primary and secondary forests; also in orchards, and robber and oil-palm plantations. It is common in karst habitats throughout its range.Food and Feeding.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat was captured c.0-5-3 m aboveground in gaps in the forest understory.Breeding.Females were found pregnant and lactating from March to June.Activity patterns.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, hollow trees, pipes, and old houses. Call frequency is 120-140 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small groups of a few individuals or in colonies of several hundreds. In Thailand, it shares the same caves—but different chambers—with Least Leaf-nosed Bats {H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), ThailandLeaf-nosed Bats (Ä halophyllus), Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bats (Ä ZyZri), Dobson’s Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus yunanensis), and Kitti’s Hog-nosed Bats {Craseonycteristhonglongyai).Status and Conservation.Notassessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, where it is included under the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat (AE /jowcwzz) as Least Concern. Limestone mining, and quarrying may be threats for some populations outside protected areas.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a), Corbet & Hill (1992), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook eta/. (2010), Francis (2008a), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C670A202F894FBAEF2635154,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,233,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C670A202F894FBAEF2635154.xml,Macronycteris vittatus,Macronycteris,vittatus,,,Phyllorhine rayée @fr | Gestreifte Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de rayas @es,"Phyllorrhina vittata Peters, 1852, Ibo Island, Cap Delgado Province, Mozambique.Macronycteris vittatuswas previously considered conspecific with M. gigasand M. commersonii(under the latter name), and this has created much confusion in the records from old literature. It includes tnarungenris as a synonym. It is not clear whether there are any subspecies within this taxon as it is currently understood. Monotypic.","Widespread in the savanna regions of Africa, patchily N of the equator from Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya; S of the equator recorded from SE DR Congo, Tanzania, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa; also in ZanzibarArchipelago (Pemba, Unguja, and Mafia Is).","Head-body 97-122 mm, tail 22-39 mm, ear 23-35 mm, hindfoot 17-25 mm, forearm 84-106 mm; weight 51-180 g. Males are larger than females with latter being a richer reddish brown. The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, pale brown to reddish brown dorsally with patches of frosting particularly on head and nape. Fur is somewhat paler ventrally with frosting. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. This species is difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but is slightly smaller and paler. Karyotype is 2n = 52 (South Africa).","Wooded savanna and coastal forest, but may extend into drier savannas along rivers.","The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on large beetles (Coleoptera), which it captures by sallying out from a perch; the bat then returns to its perch, where prey is consumed. Perches are in tall trees and typically C. 6 maboveground. The bat scans through an arc of 180° and flies out to intercept prey passing within 10 m. Bats appear to get most of their foraging done within the first hour after sunset. They accumulate large reserves offat during the wet season.","A single young is bom during a restricted breeding season, which varies geographically. For 4-5 months leading up to the mating season males aggressively defend territories, with many males being wounded during these conflicts. Territorial behavior ends after the mating season. In Zimbabwe, mating takes place in June-July, during the dry season, and births occur in October-November, at the beginning of the rains. In Kenya, mating takes place inJuly-August and young are bom during the wet season in March-April. Females lactate for at least 13 weeks, and young can fly short distances at about two weeks of age. Females form maternity roosts after mating and while suckling their young.","The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but also in tall trees, usually in forested areas. During the cool dry season, it may remain inactive (but not torpid) at its roost for several days presumably taking advantage of accumulated fat reserves. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.62-66 kHz.","Some populations are migratory, for example in Kenyawhere they migrate between coastal areas and inland sites to take advantage of differences in rainfall (and presumably insect food supply). Individuals apparently forage singly, flying relatively short distances between roosting and foraging sites. Striped Leaf-nosed Bats typically roost in colonies of a few hundred individuals, but some roosts comprise tens of thousands.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros vittatus) due to the fact that a large proportion of the global population roosts as large colonies in just a handful of caves, where this species is disturbed and hunted for food.","Aggundey & Schütter (1984) | Aldridge & Rautenbach (1987) | Bernard & Cumming (1997) | Churchill et al. (1997) | Cockle et al. (1998) | Cooper-Bohannon et al. (2016) | Cotterill & Fergusson (1999) | Decher et al. (2010) | ahr & Kalko (2011) | Fenton (1985b) | Fenton & Bell (1981) | Foley, Goodman et al. (2017) | Foley, Thong Vu Dinh et al. (2015) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Hill (1963a) | McWilliam (1982) | Mickleburgh, Hutson, Bergmans & Cotterill (2008c) | Monadjem, Richards,Taylor, Denys et al. (2013) | Monadjem, Schoeman et al. (2010) | Monadjem, Taylor et al. (2010) | Patterson & Webala (2012) | Pye (1972) | Rautenbach et al. (1993) | Shapiro et al. (2016) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers (1971) | Vaughan (1977) | Whitaker & Black (1976)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749071/files/figure.png,"17.Striped Leaf-nosed BatMacronycteris vittatusFrench:Phyllorhine rayée/ German:Gestreifte Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Macronicterio de rayasTaxonomy.Phyllorrhina vittata Peters, 1852, Ibo Island, Cap Delgado Province, Mozambique.Macronycteris vittatuswas previously considered conspecific with M. gigasand M. commersonii(under the latter name), and this has created much confusion in the records from old literature. It includes tnarungenris as a synonym. It is not clear whether there are any subspecies within this taxon as it is currently understood. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the savanna regions of Africa, patchily N of the equator from Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya; S of the equator recorded from SE DR Congo, Tanzania, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa; also in ZanzibarArchipelago (Pemba, Unguja, and Mafia Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 97-122 mm, tail 22-39 mm, ear 23-35 mm, hindfoot 17-25 mm, forearm 84-106 mm; weight 51-180 g. Males are larger than females with latter being a richer reddish brown. The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, pale brown to reddish brown dorsally with patches of frosting particularly on head and nape. Fur is somewhat paler ventrally with frosting. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. This species is difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but is slightly smaller and paler. Karyotype is 2n = 52 (South Africa).Habitat.Wooded savanna and coastal forest, but may extend into drier savannas along rivers.Food and Feeding.The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on large beetles (Coleoptera), which it captures by sallying out from a perch; the bat then returns to its perch, where prey is consumed. Perches are in tall trees and typically C. 6 maboveground. The bat scans through an arc of 180° and flies out to intercept prey passing within 10 m. Bats appear to get most of their foraging done within the first hour after sunset. They accumulate large reserves offat during the wet season.Breeding.A single young is bom during a restricted breeding season, which varies geographically. For 4-5 months leading up to the mating season males aggressively defend territories, with many males being wounded during these conflicts. Territorial behavior ends after the mating season. In Zimbabwe, mating takes place in June-July, during the dry season, and births occur in October-November, at the beginning of the rains. In Kenya, mating takes place inJuly-August and young are bom during the wet season in March-April. Females lactate for at least 13 weeks, and young can fly short distances at about two weeks of age. Females form maternity roosts after mating and while suckling their young.Activity patterns.The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but also in tall trees, usually in forested areas. During the cool dry season, it may remain inactive (but not torpid) at its roost for several days presumably taking advantage of accumulated fat reserves. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.62-66 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Some populations are migratory, for example in Kenyawhere they migrate between coastal areas and inland sites to take advantage of differences in rainfall (and presumably insect food supply). Individuals apparently forage singly, flying relatively short distances between roosting and foraging sites. Striped Leaf-nosed Bats typically roost in colonies of a few hundred individuals, but some roosts comprise tens of thousands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros vittatus) due to the fact that a large proportion of the global population roosts as large colonies in just a handful of caves, where this species is disturbed and hunted for food.Bibliography.Aggundey & Schütter (1984), Aldridge & Rautenbach (1987), Bernard & Cumming (1997), Churchill eta/. (1997), Cockle eta/. (1998), Cooper-Bohannon eta/. (2016), Cotterill & Fergusson (1999), Decher eta/. (2010), ahr & Kalko (2011), Fenton (1985b), Fenton & Bell (1981), Foley, Goodman eta/. (2017), Foley, Thong Vu Dinh eta/. (2015), Goodman, Schoeman eta/. (2016), Hill (1963a), McWilliam (1982), Mickleburgh, Hutson, Bergmans & Cotterill (2008c), Monadjem, Richards,Taylor, Denys eta/. (2013), Monadjem, Schoeman eta/. (2010), Monadjem, Taylor eta/. (2010), Patterson & Webala (2012), Pye (1972), Rautenbach eta/. (1993), Shapiro eta/. (2016), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers (1971), Vaughan (1977), Whitaker & Black (1976)." -03BD87A2C670A202FF4AF1BFF4A1408C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,233,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C670A202FF4AF1BFF4A1408C.xml,Macronycteris thomensis,Macronycteris,thomensis,,,Phyllorhine de Sao Tomé @fr | Sâo-Tomé-Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de Sao Tomé @es | Sao Tome Roundleaf Bat @en,"Phyllorhina [sic] commersoni [sic] var. thomensis Bocage, 1891, Säo Tomé Island, Säo Tomé and Principe.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to Sâo ToméI.,"Head-body 102-106 mm, tail 29-30 mm, ear 25-35 mm.Males are larger than females. The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, uniform blackish brown dorsally, and paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but slightly smaller.",,No information.,No information.,The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves and disused mines that it may share with Sundevall’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscoffer). Echolocation call is not known.,Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bats may roost in colonies of up to 100 individuals.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros thomensis). The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat is a common species, and it appears to be facing no major threats.","Bocage (1891) | Foley et al. (2017) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Juste & Ibänez (1994b) | Monadjem, Juste et al. (2017) | Russo et al. (2011) | Simmons (2005)",,"16.Sao TomeLeaf-nosed BatMacronycteris thomensisFrench: Phyllorhine deSao Tomé/ German:Sâo-Tomé-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Macronicterio de Sao ToméOther common names:SaoTome Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina [sic] commersoni [sic] var. thomensis Bocage, 1891, Säo Tomé Island, Säo Tomé and Principe.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Sâo ToméI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 102-106 mm, tail 29-30 mm, ear 25-35 mm.Males are larger than females. The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, uniform blackish brown dorsally, and paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but slightly smaller.Habitat Lowland rainforest, secondary forest, degraded forest, and certain plantations.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves and disused mines that it may share with Sundevall’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscoffer). Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bats may roost in colonies of up to 100 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros thomensis). The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat is a common species, and it appears to be facing no major threats.Bibliography.Bocage (1891), Foley eta/. (2017), Goodman, Schoeman eta/. (2016), Juste & Ibänez (1994b), Monadjem, Juste et al. (2017), Russo eta/. (2011), Simmons (2005)." +03BD87A2C670A202FF4AF1BFF4A1408C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,233,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C670A202FF4AF1BFF4A1408C.xml,Macronycteris thomensis,Macronycteris,thomensis,,,Phyllorhine de Sao Tomé @fr | Sâo-Tomé-Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de Sao Tomé @es | Sao Tome Roundleaf Bat @en,"Phyllorhina [sic] commersoni [sic] var. thomensis Bocage, 1891, Säo Tomé Island, Säo Tomé and Principe.This species is monotypic.",Endemic to Sâo ToméI.,"Head-body 102-106 mm, tail 29-30 mm, ear 25-35 mm.Males are larger than females. The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, uniform blackish brown dorsally, and paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but slightly smaller.",,No information.,No information.,The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves and disused mines that it may share with Sundevall’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscoffer). Echolocation call is not known.,Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bats may roost in colonies of up to 100 individuals.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros thomensis). The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat is a common species, and it appears to be facing no major threats.","Bocage (1891) | Foley et al. (2017) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Juste & Ibänez (1994b) | Monadjem, Juste et al. (2017) | Russo et al. (2011) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749069/files/figure.png,"16.Sao TomeLeaf-nosed BatMacronycteris thomensisFrench: Phyllorhine deSao Tomé/ German:Sâo-Tomé-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Macronicterio de Sao ToméOther common names:SaoTome Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina [sic] commersoni [sic] var. thomensis Bocage, 1891, Säo Tomé Island, Säo Tomé and Principe.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Sâo ToméI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 102-106 mm, tail 29-30 mm, ear 25-35 mm.Males are larger than females. The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, uniform blackish brown dorsally, and paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but slightly smaller.Habitat Lowland rainforest, secondary forest, degraded forest, and certain plantations.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves and disused mines that it may share with Sundevall’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscoffer). Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bats may roost in colonies of up to 100 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros thomensis). The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat is a common species, and it appears to be facing no major threats.Bibliography.Bocage (1891), Foley eta/. (2017), Goodman, Schoeman eta/. (2016), Juste & Ibänez (1994b), Monadjem, Juste et al. (2017), Russo eta/. (2011), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C670A202FF4DFD68FDAD4EFE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,233,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C670A202FF4DFD68FDAD4EFE.xml,Macronycteris gigas,Macronycteris,gigas,,,Phyllorhine géante @fr | Riesenrundblattnase @de | Macronicterio gigante Other common names @es,"Rhinolophus gigas Wagner, 1845, “ Benguela,” Angola.Macronycteris gigaswas previously considered conspecific with M. vittatusand M. commersonii(under the latter name), and this has created much confusion in the records from old literature. Monotypic.","Widely distributed throughout tropical Africa from SenegalE to extreme W Ugandaand E DR Congo, with isolated populations in W Angola, SE Kenya, and N, NE & SE Tanzania; also on Bioko I.","Head-body 98-115 mm, tail 25-50 mm, ear 24-36 mm, hindfoot 18-28 mm, forearm 95-124 mm; weight 85-138 g. Males are larger than females. The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species of Macronycteris. It has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three or four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, medium to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally; it has numerous flecks and paler markings. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. An orange morph exists which is rusty brown throughout Difficult to distinguish from the Striped Leaf-nosed Bat (M. vittatus), but is significantly larger and generally darker.","The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits lowland and coastal rainforest, and extends into wooded savanna, where it occurs in gallery forest. It occurs at elevations up to 1500 m, at Mount Nimba, Liberia.","The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding on a variety of insects including large beetles (Coleoptera) and winged termites (Isoptera). It puts on significant amounts of fat at the end of the rainy season.","In Gabon, mating takes place inJune and the single young is bom in October, during the rainy season. Young bats can fly at 30-35 days of age and are fully grown at two months, but only become sexually mature after two years. In coastal Kenya, mating takes place inJuly-August, with births in November.","The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but it may also roost in hollow trees and may hang in thick vegetation. Echolocation call includes a F component at 54—56 kHz.",Giant Leaf-nosed Bats roost in colonies of a few tens to a few hundred individuals. Pregnant females segregate into maternity roosts for only a few days. Some populations are migratory (e.g. in Kenyathey migrate from the coast inland in October and again in May to take advantage of the wet season’s arrival).,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros gigas). Although the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread, it is locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss (significant deforestation), cave disturbance, and subsistence hunting for food.","Brosset (1966b, 1969) | Brosset & Saint Girons (1980) | Decher & Fahr (2007) | Happold, D.C.D. (1987) | Happold, M. (2013y) | Lang & Chapin (1917a, 1917b) | McWilliam (1982) | Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016) | Monadjem, Richards,Taylor, Denys et al. (2013) | Monadjem, Schoeman et al. (2010) | Monadjem,Taylor et al. (2010) | Porter et al. (2010) | Pye (1972) | Rosevear (1965) | Schütter et al. (1982) | Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans (2009) | Wolton et al. (1982)",,"15.Giant Leaf-nosed BatMacronycteris gigasFrench:Phyllorhine géante/ German:Riesenrundblattnase/ Spanish:Macronicterio giganteOther common names:Giant Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus gigas Wagner, 1845, “ Benguela,” Angola.Macronycteris gigaswas previously considered conspecific with M. vittatusand M. commersonii(under the latter name), and this has created much confusion in the records from old literature. Monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed throughout tropical Africa from SenegalE to extreme W Ugandaand E DR Congo, with isolated populations in W Angola, SE Kenya, and N, NE & SE Tanzania; also on Bioko I.Descriptive notes.Head-body 98-115 mm, tail 25-50 mm, ear 24-36 mm, hindfoot 18-28 mm, forearm 95-124 mm; weight 85-138 g. Males are larger than females. The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species of Macronycteris. It has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three or four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, medium to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally; it has numerous flecks and paler markings. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. An orange morph exists which is rusty brown throughout Difficult to distinguish from the Striped Leaf-nosed Bat (M. vittatus), but is significantly larger and generally darker.Habitat.The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits lowland and coastal rainforest, and extends into wooded savanna, where it occurs in gallery forest. It occurs at elevations up to 1500 m, at Mount Nimba, Liberia.Food and Feeding.The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding on a variety of insects including large beetles (Coleoptera) and winged termites (Isoptera). It puts on significant amounts of fat at the end of the rainy season.Breeding.In Gabon, mating takes place inJune and the single young is bom in October, during the rainy season. Young bats can fly at 30-35 days of age and are fully grown at two months, but only become sexually mature after two years. In coastal Kenya, mating takes place inJuly-August, with births in November.Activity patterns.The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but it may also roost in hollow trees and may hang in thick vegetation. Echolocation call includes a F component at 54—56 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Leaf-nosed Bats roost in colonies of a few tens to a few hundred individuals. Pregnant females segregate into maternity roosts for only a few days. Some populations are migratory (e.g. in Kenyathey migrate from the coast inland in October and again in May to take advantage of the wet season’s arrival).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros gigas). Although the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread, it is locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss (significant deforestation), cave disturbance, and subsistence hunting for food.Bibliography.Brosset (1966b, 1969), Brosset & Saint Girons (1980), Decher & Fahr (2007), Happold, D.C.D. (1987), Happold, M. (2013y), Lang & Chapin (1917a, 1917b), McWilliam (1982), Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016), Monadjem, Richards,Taylor, Denys eta/. (2013), Monadjem, Schoeman eta/. (2010), Monadjem,Taylor et al. (2010), Porter et al. (2010), Pye (1972), Rosevear (1965), Schütter et al. (1982), Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans (2009), Wolton eta/. (1982)." -03BD87A2C671A203F880F704F55B5165,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,234,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C671A203F880F704F55B5165.xml,Aselliscus tricuspidatus,Aselliscus,tricuspidatus,,,Phyllorhine de Temminck @fr | Temminck-Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselisco de Temminck @es | Temminck’s Asian Trident Bat @en | Trident Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Rhinolophus tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835, Amboina, Molucca Islands, Indonesia.Four subspecies are recognized.","A. t. tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835— Moluccas.A. t. koopmani Schütter, S. L. Wilhams & Hill, 1983— Bismarck Archipelago, D’Entrecasteaux Is, Kiriwina I, Misima I, Woodlark I, and Solomon Is.A. t. novaeguinae Schütter, S. L. Williams & Hill, 1983-E New Guineaand Misool, Numfor, Supiori, Biak, and Yapen Is.A. t. novehebridensis Sanborn & Nicholson, 1950-Vanuatu (Espiritu Santo, Aore, and Malekula Is).","Head-body 36-49 mm, tail 16-9-27 mm, ear 10-3-15 mm, hindfoot 6-3-8-1 mm, forearm 36-5-44-7 mm; weight 4-6 g. As in its sister species Stoliczka’s Trident Bat (A. stoliczkanus), Temminck’s Trident Bat has tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf; intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Forearm and tail are larger than in Stoliczka’s Trident Bat. Ears are short, pointed, and narrow. Tail is long and extended, surpassing uropatagium. Fur is brown or brown-orange with whitish base on dorsum, and brownish yellow in the ventral part.","Lowland tropical forest. Temminck’s Trident Bat appears to be a lowland species, mainly occurring from sea level to 600 m, although it has been acoustically recorded at above 900 min PapuaNew Guinea.",Temminck’s Trident Bat is thought to forage in tropical and subtropical forest. Its diet is based on insects.,Females can give birth to one or two offspring each year.,"Temminck’s Trident Bat is known to roost in caves, tunnels, and other cavities. Echolocation call frequency is c. 115 kHz.","Temminck’s Trident Bats aggregate in small groups of 40-50 individuals, with individuals sometimes separated 30-40 cm from each other. They have also been observed roosting in colonies of several hundred.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Population of Temminck’s Trident Bat seems to be stable, and it is probably not greatly fragmented. There appear to be no major threats to this species, although habitat loss and disturbance of roosts by tourism might be increasingly affecting these animate1","Aplin & Opiang (2009) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Bonaccorso, Leary & Hamilton (2008b) | Leary & Pennay (2011) | Li Gang et al. (2007) | Robson et al. (2012)",,"20.Temminck’s Trident BatAselliscus tricuspidatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Temminck/ German:Temminck-Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aselisco deTemminckOther common names:Temminck’s Asian Trident Bat, Trident Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835, Amboina, Molucca Islands, Indonesia.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. t. tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835— Moluccas.A. t. koopmani Schütter, S. L. Wilhams & Hill, 1983— Bismarck Archipelago, D’Entrecasteaux Is, Kiriwina I, Misima I, Woodlark I, and Solomon Is.A. t. novaeguinae Schütter, S. L. Williams & Hill, 1983-E New Guineaand Misool, Numfor, Supiori, Biak, and Yapen Is.A. t. novehebridensis Sanborn & Nicholson, 1950-Vanuatu (Espiritu Santo, Aore, and Malekula Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-49 mm, tail 16-9-27 mm, ear 10-3-15 mm, hindfoot 6-3-8-1 mm, forearm 36-5-44-7 mm; weight 4-6 g. As in its sister species Stoliczka’s Trident Bat (A. stoliczkanus), Temminck’s Trident Bat has tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf; intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Forearm and tail are larger than in Stoliczka’s Trident Bat. Ears are short, pointed, and narrow. Tail is long and extended, surpassing uropatagium. Fur is brown or brown-orange with whitish base on dorsum, and brownish yellow in the ventral part.Habitat.Lowland tropical forest. Temminck’s Trident Bat appears to be a lowland species, mainly occurring from sea level to 600 m, although it has been acoustically recorded at above 900 min PapuaNew Guinea.Food and Feeding.Temminck’s Trident Bat is thought to forage in tropical and subtropical forest. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.Females can give birth to one or two offspring each year.Activity patterns.Temminck’s Trident Bat is known to roost in caves, tunnels, and other cavities. Echolocation call frequency is c. 115 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Temminck’s Trident Bats aggregate in small groups of 40-50 individuals, with individuals sometimes separated 30-40 cm from each other. They have also been observed roosting in colonies of several hundred.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Population of Temminck’s Trident Bat seems to be stable, and it is probably not greatly fragmented. There appear to be no major threats to this species, although habitat loss and disturbance of roosts by tourism might be increasingly affecting these animate1.Bibliography.Aplin & Opiang (2009), Bonaccorso (1998), Bonaccorso, Leary & Hamilton (2008b), Leary & Pennay (2011), Li Gang eta/. (2007), Robson eta/. (2012)." +03BD87A2C671A203F880F704F55B5165,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,234,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C671A203F880F704F55B5165.xml,Aselliscus tricuspidatus,Aselliscus,tricuspidatus,,,Phyllorhine de Temminck @fr | Temminck-Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselisco de Temminck @es | Temminck’s Asian Trident Bat @en | Trident Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Rhinolophus tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835, Amboina, Molucca Islands, Indonesia.Four subspecies are recognized.","A. t. tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835— Moluccas.A. t. koopmani Schütter, S. L. Wilhams & Hill, 1983— Bismarck Archipelago, D’Entrecasteaux Is, Kiriwina I, Misima I, Woodlark I, and Solomon Is.A. t. novaeguinae Schütter, S. L. Williams & Hill, 1983-E New Guineaand Misool, Numfor, Supiori, Biak, and Yapen Is.A. t. novehebridensis Sanborn & Nicholson, 1950-Vanuatu (Espiritu Santo, Aore, and Malekula Is).","Head-body 36-49 mm, tail 16-9-27 mm, ear 10-3-15 mm, hindfoot 6-3-8-1 mm, forearm 36-5-44-7 mm; weight 4-6 g. As in its sister species Stoliczka’s Trident Bat (A. stoliczkanus), Temminck’s Trident Bat has tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf; intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Forearm and tail are larger than in Stoliczka’s Trident Bat. Ears are short, pointed, and narrow. Tail is long and extended, surpassing uropatagium. Fur is brown or brown-orange with whitish base on dorsum, and brownish yellow in the ventral part.","Lowland tropical forest. Temminck’s Trident Bat appears to be a lowland species, mainly occurring from sea level to 600 m, although it has been acoustically recorded at above 900 min PapuaNew Guinea.",Temminck’s Trident Bat is thought to forage in tropical and subtropical forest. Its diet is based on insects.,Females can give birth to one or two offspring each year.,"Temminck’s Trident Bat is known to roost in caves, tunnels, and other cavities. Echolocation call frequency is c. 115 kHz.","Temminck’s Trident Bats aggregate in small groups of 40-50 individuals, with individuals sometimes separated 30-40 cm from each other. They have also been observed roosting in colonies of several hundred.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Population of Temminck’s Trident Bat seems to be stable, and it is probably not greatly fragmented. There appear to be no major threats to this species, although habitat loss and disturbance of roosts by tourism might be increasingly affecting these animate1","Aplin & Opiang (2009) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Bonaccorso, Leary & Hamilton (2008b) | Leary & Pennay (2011) | Li Gang et al. (2007) | Robson et al. (2012)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749077/files/figure.png,"20.Temminck’s Trident BatAselliscus tricuspidatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Temminck/ German:Temminck-Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aselisco deTemminckOther common names:Temminck’s Asian Trident Bat, Trident Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835, Amboina, Molucca Islands, Indonesia.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. t. tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835— Moluccas.A. t. koopmani Schütter, S. L. Wilhams & Hill, 1983— Bismarck Archipelago, D’Entrecasteaux Is, Kiriwina I, Misima I, Woodlark I, and Solomon Is.A. t. novaeguinae Schütter, S. L. Williams & Hill, 1983-E New Guineaand Misool, Numfor, Supiori, Biak, and Yapen Is.A. t. novehebridensis Sanborn & Nicholson, 1950-Vanuatu (Espiritu Santo, Aore, and Malekula Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-49 mm, tail 16-9-27 mm, ear 10-3-15 mm, hindfoot 6-3-8-1 mm, forearm 36-5-44-7 mm; weight 4-6 g. As in its sister species Stoliczka’s Trident Bat (A. stoliczkanus), Temminck’s Trident Bat has tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf; intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Forearm and tail are larger than in Stoliczka’s Trident Bat. Ears are short, pointed, and narrow. Tail is long and extended, surpassing uropatagium. Fur is brown or brown-orange with whitish base on dorsum, and brownish yellow in the ventral part.Habitat.Lowland tropical forest. Temminck’s Trident Bat appears to be a lowland species, mainly occurring from sea level to 600 m, although it has been acoustically recorded at above 900 min PapuaNew Guinea.Food and Feeding.Temminck’s Trident Bat is thought to forage in tropical and subtropical forest. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.Females can give birth to one or two offspring each year.Activity patterns.Temminck’s Trident Bat is known to roost in caves, tunnels, and other cavities. Echolocation call frequency is c. 115 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Temminck’s Trident Bats aggregate in small groups of 40-50 individuals, with individuals sometimes separated 30-40 cm from each other. They have also been observed roosting in colonies of several hundred.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Population of Temminck’s Trident Bat seems to be stable, and it is probably not greatly fragmented. There appear to be no major threats to this species, although habitat loss and disturbance of roosts by tourism might be increasingly affecting these animate1.Bibliography.Aplin & Opiang (2009), Bonaccorso (1998), Bonaccorso, Leary & Hamilton (2008b), Leary & Pennay (2011), Li Gang eta/. (2007), Robson eta/. (2012)." 03BD87A2C671A203FF38F106F4624B76,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,234,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C671A203FF38F106F4624B76.xml,Aselliscus stoliczkanus,Aselliscus,stoliczkanus,,,Phyllorhine de Stoliczka @fr | Stoliczka-Dreizackblattnase @de | Aseliseo de Stoliczka @es | Stoliczka's Asian Trident Bat @en,"Asellia stoliczkana Dobson, 1871, PenangIsland, Malaysia.It is suspected that this could be a species complex: further genetic and morphological research is needed. Taxa trifidus and wheeleri are here treated as synonyms. Monotypic.","From NE Myanmarand S ChinaS to S Thailand, C Laos, and C Vietnam; also on Penang and Tioman Is.","Head-body 40-50 mm, tail 33-44 mm, ear 10—13 mm, hindfoot 9—10 mm, forearm 39-45-6 mm; weight 6-9 g. As in its sister species, Temminck’s Trident Bat (A. tricuspidatus), Stoliczka’s Trident Bat has a tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf. Intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Stoliczka’s Trident Bat has slightly shorter forearm and tail than Temminck’s Trident Bat. Pelage is reddish brown on dorsum and grayish or white-gray in ventral part.Juveniles can be darker than adults. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","Stoliczka’s Trident Bat occurs at low densities in limestone areas, often roosting in smaller caves than other bat species, with high levels of humidity to maintain water balance. It has been reported not only in primary forest, but also in agricultural lands and other human-degraded habitats.","Stoliczka’s Trident Bat forages both in cluttered microhabitats and strongly disturbed areas. Its diet is based predominantly on insects, especially lepidopterans, hemipterans, beetles, and odonates, varying depending on the seasonal availability of prey. Its flight is slow, allowing a high capacity of maneuver, especially when hunting in closed environments. Due to its small size, predation by other bat species might occur.",Reproductive females have been captured in May-June in Laosand Vietnam.,"During winter, Stoliczka’s Trident Bat hibernates in longer caves, which provide more stable microclimates with relatively low temperatures. Echolocation call frequency is c.120-125 kHz.","Stoliczka’s Trident Bats have been observed roosting in groups of 10—20 individuals, and sometimes separated from each other by few centimeters. They can share roosts with other bat species in larger caves as compared with single-species caves.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population size and trends of Stoliczka’s Trident Bat are still unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented and it is not declining markedly. Despite its generally low densities, this species can be locally common; it is present in several protected areas. There are no major threats for this species, but habitat destruction due to limestone mining and disturbance of roosts by tourism are increasingly affecting these animals.","Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Furey (2008) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Li Gang et al. (2007) | Tu Vuong Tan, Csorba et al. (2015) | Zhang Zongxiao et al. (2016)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749075/files/figure.png,"19.Stoliczka’s Trident BatAselliscus stoliczkanusFrench:Phyllorhine de Stoliczka/ German:Stoliczka-Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aseliseo de StoliczkaOther common names:Stoliczka's Asian Trident BatTaxonomy.Asellia stoliczkana Dobson, 1871, PenangIsland, Malaysia.It is suspected that this could be a species complex: further genetic and morphological research is needed. Taxa trifidus and wheeleri are here treated as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.From NE Myanmarand S ChinaS to S Thailand, C Laos, and C Vietnam; also on Penang and Tioman Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-50 mm, tail 33-44 mm, ear 10—13 mm, hindfoot 9—10 mm, forearm 39-45-6 mm; weight 6-9 g. As in its sister species, Temminck’s Trident Bat (A. tricuspidatus), Stoliczka’s Trident Bat has a tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf. Intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Stoliczka’s Trident Bat has slightly shorter forearm and tail than Temminck’s Trident Bat. Pelage is reddish brown on dorsum and grayish or white-gray in ventral part.Juveniles can be darker than adults. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Stoliczka’s Trident Bat occurs at low densities in limestone areas, often roosting in smaller caves than other bat species, with high levels of humidity to maintain water balance. It has been reported not only in primary forest, but also in agricultural lands and other human-degraded habitats.Food and Feeding.Stoliczka’s Trident Bat forages both in cluttered microhabitats and strongly disturbed areas. Its diet is based predominantly on insects, especially lepidopterans, hemipterans, beetles, and odonates, varying depending on the seasonal availability of prey. Its flight is slow, allowing a high capacity of maneuver, especially when hunting in closed environments. Due to its small size, predation by other bat species might occur.Breeding.Reproductive females have been captured in May-June in Laosand Vietnam.Activity patterns.During winter, Stoliczka’s Trident Bat hibernates in longer caves, which provide more stable microclimates with relatively low temperatures. Echolocation call frequency is c.120-125 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Stoliczka’s Trident Bats have been observed roosting in groups of 10—20 individuals, and sometimes separated from each other by few centimeters. They can share roosts with other bat species in larger caves as compared with single-species caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population size and trends of Stoliczka’s Trident Bat are still unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented and it is not declining markedly. Despite its generally low densities, this species can be locally common; it is present in several protected areas. There are no major threats for this species, but habitat destruction due to limestone mining and disturbance of roosts by tourism are increasingly affecting these animals.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Furey (2008), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Li Gang et al. (2007), Tu Vuong Tan, Csorba et al. (2015), Zhang Zongxiao et al. (2016)." 03BD87A2C671A203FF3CFDBBFEF54D68,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,234,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C671A203FF3CFDBBFEF54D68.xml,Aselliscus dongbacanus,Aselliscus,dongbacanus,"Vuong, Csorba, Gorfol, Arai, N. T. Son, H. T. Thanh & Hasanin",2015,Phyllorhine du Dong Bac @fr | Dong-Bac-Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselisco de Dong Bac @es | Dong Bac Trident Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Large Trident Bat @en,"Aselliscusdongbacana [sic] Vuong et aL, 2015, “Na Phong cave, Ba Be National Park, Bac Kan province, Vietnam(22°23’N, 105°36’E, entrance altitude: 280 ma.s.l.).”Widely used specific name dongbacana has been changed for gender agreement. This species was previously placed in. stoliczkanus, from which it is distinguishable in genetics; it is rather larger in selected morphological and dental measurements.Monotypic.","Recorded from different karst and mountainous areas in NE Vietnam, including some offshore Is.","Head-body 35-47 mm, tail 36-42 mm, ear 8-12 mm, hindfoot 5-6 mm, forearm c.42-8 mm; weight 4-8 g. General pelage color varies from dark to light brown on dorsal surface and from brownish gray to dirty white on ventral surface. In all hairs, distal one-third is darker than remaining part. Muzzle is short with a small noseleaf. Anterior leaf is small with slighdy upward margins; there is a distinct median notch on its anterior edge. There are two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets; of these, first is more developed. Anterior noseleaf and two supplementary leaflets are thin and naked. Outer parts of anterior noseleaf and each of lateral leaflets are darker than their inner parts. Intermediate leaf has a slighdy swollen median septum. Its width is substantially narrower than both anterior and posterior leaves. Upper border of posterior leaf is divided into three distinct points. Pinna of each ear has pointed tip and a slighdy convex anterior margin. On its posterior margin, upper one-half is deeply concave whereas remainder is convex. Dental formula for all members of Aselliscusis 1 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.","Karst habitats between sea level up to 500 m, or more, on both mainland and offshore islands in northern Vietnam.",No information.,Annual breeding season of the Dong BacTrident Bat is variably from March to August: pregnant females were captured from March until July and lactating females fromJune to August.,The Dong BacTrident Bat roosts during the day in caves. Both sexes depart from the roosts for several hours after sunset. The species uses the typical multiharmonic calls of hipposiderid bats with the maximum energy in the second harmonic. Each signal comprises three components: a very short initial FM component; followed by a dominant F component; and a terminal FM component. Frequency values for the second harmonic are 120-7-133-2 kHz.,"Dong BacTrident Bats roost in small groups of several dozen individuals. It was usually recorded from the same caves as other species including Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats {Hipposideros alongensis), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats {H. armiger), Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bats {H. khaokhouayensis), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. larvatus), PomonaLeaf-nosed Bats {H. pomond), Marshall’s Horseshoe Bats {RhinolophusmarshaUz), Pearson’s Horseshoe Bats {R. pearsonii), and Least Horseshoe Bats (7tpusiUus). It appears in the roosts in every season of the year; it forages in different habitats ranging from fruit tree gardens to secondary and primary forests.","Notassessed on The IUCN Red List due to its recent recognition as a species. The Dong BacTrident Bat would be threatened by disturbance at roost sites in caves, and at foraging habitats.","Furey, Mackie & Racey et al. (2009, 2011) | Thong Vu Dinh (2011) | Tu Vuong Tan, Csorba et al. (2015)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749073/files/figure.png,"18.Dong BacTrident BatAselliscus dongbacanusFrench:Phyllorhine du Dong Bac/ German:Dong-Bac-Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aselisco de Dong BacOther common names:Dong BacTrident Leaf-nosed Bat, Large Trident BatTaxonomy.Aselliscusdongbacana [sic] Vuong et aL, 2015, “Na Phong cave, Ba Be National Park, Bac Kan province, Vietnam(22°23’N, 105°36’E, entrance altitude: 280 ma.s.l.).”Widely used specific name dongbacana has been changed for gender agreement. This species was previously placed in. stoliczkanus, from which it is distinguishable in genetics; it is rather larger in selected morphological and dental measurements.Monotypic.Distribution.Recorded from different karst and mountainous areas in NE Vietnam, including some offshore Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-47 mm, tail 36-42 mm, ear 8-12 mm, hindfoot 5-6 mm, forearm c.42-8 mm; weight 4-8 g. General pelage color varies from dark to light brown on dorsal surface and from brownish gray to dirty white on ventral surface. In all hairs, distal one-third is darker than remaining part. Muzzle is short with a small noseleaf. Anterior leaf is small with slighdy upward margins; there is a distinct median notch on its anterior edge. There are two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets; of these, first is more developed. Anterior noseleaf and two supplementary leaflets are thin and naked. Outer parts of anterior noseleaf and each of lateral leaflets are darker than their inner parts. Intermediate leaf has a slighdy swollen median septum. Its width is substantially narrower than both anterior and posterior leaves. Upper border of posterior leaf is divided into three distinct points. Pinna of each ear has pointed tip and a slighdy convex anterior margin. On its posterior margin, upper one-half is deeply concave whereas remainder is convex. Dental formula for all members of Aselliscusis 1 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Karst habitats between sea level up to 500 m, or more, on both mainland and offshore islands in northern Vietnam.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Annual breeding season of the Dong BacTrident Bat is variably from March to August: pregnant females were captured from March until July and lactating females fromJune to August.Activity patterns.The Dong BacTrident Bat roosts during the day in caves. Both sexes depart from the roosts for several hours after sunset. The species uses the typical multiharmonic calls of hipposiderid bats with the maximum energy in the second harmonic. Each signal comprises three components: a very short initial FM component; followed by a dominant F component; and a terminal FM component. Frequency values for the second harmonic are 120-7-133-2 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dong BacTrident Bats roost in small groups of several dozen individuals. It was usually recorded from the same caves as other species including Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats {Hipposideros alongensis), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats {H. armiger), Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bats {H. khaokhouayensis), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. larvatus), PomonaLeaf-nosed Bats {H. pomond), Marshall’s Horseshoe Bats {RhinolophusmarshaUz), Pearson’s Horseshoe Bats {R. pearsonii), and Least Horseshoe Bats (7tpusiUus). It appears in the roosts in every season of the year; it forages in different habitats ranging from fruit tree gardens to secondary and primary forests.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List due to its recent recognition as a species. The Dong BacTrident Bat would be threatened by disturbance at roost sites in caves, and at foraging habitats.Bibliography.Furey, Mackie & Racey et al. (2009, 2011), Thong Vu Dinh (2011), Tu Vuong Tan, Csorba et al. (2015)." 03BD87A2C672A200F89DFECCF4D84ED7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,231,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C672A200F89DFECCF4D84ED7.xml,Doryrhina semoni,Doryrhina,semoni,,,Phyllorhine de Semon @fr | Semon-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Semon @es | Semon's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros semoni Matschie, 1903, Cooktown, Queensland, Australia.This species is monotypic.","E New Guineaand NE Australia, where it has been reported in several locations of coastal Queenslandfrom the E side of Cape York Peninsula to S of Cooktown; S limit of its distribution is not clear, as there are acoustic reports from other distant areas, such as in the Kroombit Tops National Park.","Head-body 40-50 mm, tail 22-28 mm, ear 18-20 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 38-424 mm; weight 6—10 g. As in the case of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (Z). wollastoni) and the Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat (D. muscinus), Semon’s Leafnosed Bat presents two supplementary leaflets: anterior leaflet is short and broad and posterior leaflet extends beneath anterior leaf onto upper lip. It also presents processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. Median process of posterior leaf is large and club-shaped. Its ears are notably long and well developed with pointed tips, and its rostrum is markedly inflated. Its dark grayish pelage is long and presents a curled appearance, being paler on ventral area.Habitat.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat is found in a wide variety of habitats, from rainforest to savanna forest and dry open areas, at elevations from the sea level up to 1400 m.Food and Feeding.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat usually feeds on insects, especially moths; it also takes beetles, as well as spiders. It hunts prey from the ground, low vegetation or surfaces such as rocks or tree trunks. It has a slow flight, with considerable ability to maneuver, and usually flies within 1—2 mof the ground, foraging within dense vegetation and scrub.Breeding.Females are probably mature in their first year, and give birth probably in early November. Each female produces a single young, but it is thought that in a few cases there may be twins. Generation length is estimated at 6-7 years.Activity patterns.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in many different places such as in caves, mines, abandoned buildings, road culverts, fissures, and tree hollows. Some authors have suggested that this species is more tree-dweller than cave-dweller, inhabiting caves probably during the drier periods. Males and females have been suggested to have different echolocation call frequencies, being c.75 kHz and 95 kHz, respectively.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats have been found roosting alone or in small aggregations. Movement patterns between roosts or habitats have not yet been studied. It may use vegetation strips in rainforests, following rivers and watercourses to move within large dense forest areas. Migration has not been reported.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros semoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented.","Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat is found in a wide variety of habitats, from rainforest to savanna forest and dry open areas, at elevations from the sea level up to 1400 m.","Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat usually feeds on insects, especially moths; it also takes beetles, as well as spiders. It hunts prey from the ground, low vegetation or surfaces such as rocks or tree trunks. It has a slow flight, with considerable ability to maneuver, and usually flies within 1—2 mof the ground, foraging within dense vegetation and scrub.","Females are probably mature in their first year, and give birth probably in early November. Each female produces a single young, but it is thought that in a few cases there may be twins. Generation length is estimated at 6-7 years.","Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in many different places such as in caves, mines, abandoned buildings, road culverts, fissures, and tree hollows. Some authors have suggested that this species is more tree-dweller than cave-dweller, inhabiting caves probably during the drier periods. Males and females have been suggested to have different echolocation call frequencies, being c.75 kHz and 95 kHz, respectively.","Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats have been found roosting alone or in small aggregations. Movement patterns between roosts or habitats have not yet been studied. It may use vegetation strips in rainforests, following rivers and watercourses to move within large dense forest areas. Migration has not been reported.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros semoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented. Habitat loss and fragmentation might be threats for this species, although no major risks have been yet identified. Predation by feral cats has been reported and inappropriate fire management could also become a threat for this species in Australia. In fact, a Recovery Plan has been established for Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats, as it is considered a threatened species under Australian legislation. In PapuaNew Guinea, it is probably widely distributed, as much intact habitat remains. However, it has been suggested that it may occur at low densities, as the species has not been captured or recorded in recent surveys. In addition, its echolocation call might be confused with those of other bat species, which could easily give an erroneous idea of its true range. More research is needed to study and assess its ecology and population status.",Armstrong & Aplin (2017f) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Churchill (1998) | Coles (1993) | Flannery & Colgan (1993) | Hall (2008c) | Oliveira & Schulz (1997) | Vestjens & Hall (1977),https://zenodo.org/record/3749057/files/figure.png,"10.Semon’s Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina semoniFrench:Phyllorhine de Semon/ German:Semon-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Doryrina de SemonOther common names:Semon's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros semoni Matschie, 1903, Cooktown, Queensland, Australia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.E New Guineaand NE Australia, where it has been reported in several locations of coastal Queenslandfrom the E side of Cape York Peninsula to S of Cooktown; S limit of its distribution is not clear, as there are acoustic reports from other distant areas, such as in the Kroombit Tops National Park.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-50 mm, tail 22-28 mm, ear 18-20 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 38-424 mm; weight 6—10 g. As in the case of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (Z). wollastoni) and the Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat (D. muscinus), Semon’s Leafnosed Bat presents two supplementary leaflets: anterior leaflet is short and broad and posterior leaflet extends beneath anterior leaf onto upper lip. It also presents processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. Median process of posterior leaf is large and club-shaped. Its ears are notably long and well developed with pointed tips, and its rostrum is markedly inflated. Its dark grayish pelage is long and presents a curled appearance, being paler on ventral area.Habitat.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat is found in a wide variety of habitats, from rainforest to savanna forest and dry open areas, at elevations from the sea level up to 1400 m.Food and Feeding.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat usually feeds on insects, especially moths; it also takes beetles, as well as spiders. It hunts prey from the ground, low vegetation or surfaces such as rocks or tree trunks. It has a slow flight, with considerable ability to maneuver, and usually flies within 1—2 mof the ground, foraging within dense vegetation and scrub.Breeding.Females are probably mature in their first year, and give birth probably in early November. Each female produces a single young, but it is thought that in a few cases there may be twins. Generation length is estimated at 6-7 years.Activity patterns.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in many different places such as in caves, mines, abandoned buildings, road culverts, fissures, and tree hollows. Some authors have suggested that this species is more tree-dweller than cave-dweller, inhabiting caves probably during the drier periods. Males and females have been suggested to have different echolocation call frequencies, being c.75 kHz and 95 kHz, respectively.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats have been found roosting alone or in small aggregations. Movement patterns between roosts or habitats have not yet been studied. It may use vegetation strips in rainforests, following rivers and watercourses to move within large dense forest areas. Migration has not been reported.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros semoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented. Habitat loss and fragmentation might be threats for this species, although no major risks have been yet identified. Predation by feral cats has been reported and inappropriate fire management could also become a threat for this species in Australia. In fact, a Recovery Plan has been established for Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats, as it is considered a threatened species under Australian legislation. In PapuaNew Guinea, it is probably widely distributed, as much intact habitat remains. However, it has been suggested that it may occur at low densities, as the species has not been captured or recorded in recent surveys. In addition, its echolocation call might be confused with those of other bat species, which could easily give an erroneous idea of its true range. More research is needed to study and assess its ecology and population status.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2017f), Bonaccorso (1998), Churchill (1998), Coles (1993), Flannery & Colgan (1993), Hall (2008c), Oliveira & Schulz (1997), Vestjens & Hall (1977)." 03BD87A2C672A200FF5AF605FE6052B8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,231,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C672A200FF5AF605FE6052B8.xml,Doryrhina muscinus,Doryrhina,muscinus,,,Phyllorhine de Fly River @fr | Fly-River-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Fly River @es | Fly River Roundleaf Bat @en,"PhyUorhina [sic] muscina Thomas & Doria, 1886, “Fly River,” Western Province, PapuaNew Guinea.This species is monotypic.","Endemic to New Guinea, mostly along the Central Range, including PapuaProvinceof Indonesiaand Sandaun, Western, Chimbu, Gulf, and Central provinces of PapuaNew Guinea.","Head—body 44-52 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 18 mm, hindfoot 7-4- 11 mm, forearm 45-47 mm. Like Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat (D. wollastoni), the Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet, extended beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. Both species also present club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat differs from Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat in its lack of posterior leaf, and in its nearly flat rostrum profile. This species is brownish.Habitat.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat occupies lowland tropical forest rather than the caves typical for its congeners. Altitudinal range was reckoned to extend from sea level up to 750 m, but a more recent study suggested its presence up to 2400 m, based on acoustic registrations. However, its echolocation call might be confused with that of Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, which is a more montane species.Food and Feeding.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.Breeding.This species probably reproduces in forests, as it does not inhabit caves.Activity patterns.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in tree holes. Small aggregations of this species have been observed roosting in hollow trees and, on one occasion, inside a curled banana leaf. Echolocation call frequency is c.89— 90 kHzMovements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros muscinus). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented.","The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat occupies lowland tropical forest rather than the caves typical for its congeners. Altitudinal range was reckoned to extend from sea level up to 750 m, but a more recent study suggested its presence up to 2400 m, based on acoustic registrations. However, its echolocation call might be confused with that of Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, which is a more montane species.",The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.,"This species probably reproduces in forests, as it does not inhabit caves.","The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in tree holes. Small aggregations of this species have been observed roosting in hollow trees and, on one occasion, inside a curled banana leaf. Echolocation call frequency is c.89— 90 kHz",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros muscinus). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented. Habitat loss and fragmentation might be the major threats for this species, although large areas of intact forest still remain within its range. It is thought to be more tolerant to habitat modification than other congeneric cave-dwellers. More research is needed to study and assess its ecology and population status.","Armstrong & Aplin (2017d) | Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015) | Decher & Fahr (2005) | Flannery I Colgan (1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749055/files/figure.png,"9.Fly RiverLeaf-nosed BatDoryrhina muscinusFrench:Phyllorhine de Fly River/ German:Fly-River-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Doryrina de Fly RiverOther common names:Fly RiverRoundleaf BatTaxonomy.PhyUorhina [sic] muscina Thomas & Doria, 1886, “Fly River,” Western Province, PapuaNew Guinea.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to New Guinea, mostly along the Central Range, including PapuaProvinceof Indonesiaand Sandaun, Western, Chimbu, Gulf, and Central provinces of PapuaNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head—body 44-52 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 18 mm, hindfoot 7-4- 11 mm, forearm 45-47 mm. Like Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat (D. wollastoni), the Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet, extended beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. Both species also present club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat differs from Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat in its lack of posterior leaf, and in its nearly flat rostrum profile. This species is brownish.Habitat.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat occupies lowland tropical forest rather than the caves typical for its congeners. Altitudinal range was reckoned to extend from sea level up to 750 m, but a more recent study suggested its presence up to 2400 m, based on acoustic registrations. However, its echolocation call might be confused with that of Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, which is a more montane species.Food and Feeding.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.Breeding.This species probably reproduces in forests, as it does not inhabit caves.Activity patterns.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in tree holes. Small aggregations of this species have been observed roosting in hollow trees and, on one occasion, inside a curled banana leaf. Echolocation call frequency is c.89— 90 kHzMovements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros muscinus). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented. Habitat loss and fragmentation might be the major threats for this species, although large areas of intact forest still remain within its range. It is thought to be more tolerant to habitat modification than other congeneric cave-dwellers. More research is needed to study and assess its ecology and population status.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2017d), Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015), Decher & Fahr (2005), Flannery I Colgan (1993)." 03BD87A2C672A201F8ADF264FEB245CC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,231,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C672A201F8ADF264FEB245CC.xml,Doryrhina stenotis,Doryrhina,stenotis,,,Phyllorhine à oreilles fines @fr | Nördliche Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina nortena @es | Narrow-eared Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Narrow-eared Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros stenotis Thomas, 1913, “Mary River,” Northern Territory, Australia.This species is monotypic.","Endemic to Australia, including NE Western Australia, N Northern Territory, and NW Queensland(Mt Isa); also on several offshore Is such as Boongaree, Koolan, and Bathurst Is.","Head-body 40-46 mm, tail 26-27 mm, ear 19-21 mm, forearm 42—46 mm; weight 4-6-6-4 g. The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat {D. semoni), but considerably smaller. Both species present complex noseleafwith two supplementary leaflets: anterior leaflet is short and broad, and posterior leaflet extends beneath anterior leaf onto upper lip. The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat also presents processes in intermediate and posterior leaves, but differs by having median process of posterior leaf less prominent. Ears are long with pointed tips, and rostral eminences are moderately inflated. Fur is brownish dorsally, paler ventrally.Habitat.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and occupies a wide variety of habitats. It has been recorded in areas with sandstone cliffs, escarpments, gorges and waterholes, tall open forest, floodplains, and open meadows. Elevational range is unknown.Food and Feeding.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat forages both in woodland and on open hilly plains, flying slowly with frequent changes of direction and great ability to maneuver. It mainly hunts flying insects close to the vegetation.Breeding.Between October and January, females give birth to a single young. Northern Leaf-nosed Bats form maternity colonies.Activity patterns.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat can roost in sandstone and limestone caves, abandoned mines, crevices and boulder caves. It is thought that this species prefers low humidity, roosting near to cave entrances. This species emits echolocation calls at 102-106 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Northern Leaf-nosed Bats have been observed roosting alone, in pairs, or in small maternity colonies of 6-12 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros stenotis). Population size and trends are unknown; population is probably not greatly fragmented and is not declining markedly. No major threats are known, although destruction and disturbance of roosts are increasing.","The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and occupies a wide variety of habitats. It has been recorded in areas with sandstone cliffs, escarpments, gorges and waterholes, tall open forest, floodplains, and open meadows. Elevational range is unknown.","The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat forages both in woodland and on open hilly plains, flying slowly with frequent changes of direction and great ability to maneuver. It mainly hunts flying insects close to the vegetation.","Between October and January, females give birth to a single young. Northern Leaf-nosed Bats form maternity colonies.","The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat can roost in sandstone and limestone caves, abandoned mines, crevices and boulder caves. It is thought that this species prefers low humidity, roosting near to cave entrances. This species emits echolocation calls at 102-106 kHz.","Northern Leaf-nosed Bats have been observed roosting alone, in pairs, or in small maternity colonies of 6-12 individuals.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros stenotis). Population size and trends are unknown; population is probably not greatly fragmented and is not declining markedly. No major threats are known, although destruction and disturbance of roosts are increasing. Habitat loss and degradation might also be significant, as well as reported predation by feral cats.",Churchill (2008) | Duncan et al. (1999) | Flannery & Colgan (1993) | Hourigan (2011) | Menkhorst & Knight (2001) | Milne & Hall (2008) | Schulz & Menkhorst (1986) | Thomson & McKenzie (2008) | Woinarski et al. (2014),https://zenodo.org/record/3749059/files/figure.png,"11.Northern Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina stenotisFrench:Phyllorhine à oreilles fines/ German:Nördliche Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Doryrina nortenaOther common names:Narrow-eared Leaf-nosed Bat, Narrow-eared Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros stenotis Thomas, 1913, “Mary River,” Northern Territory, Australia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Australia, including NE Western Australia, N Northern Territory, and NW Queensland(Mt Isa); also on several offshore Is such as Boongaree, Koolan, and Bathurst Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-46 mm, tail 26-27 mm, ear 19-21 mm, forearm 42—46 mm; weight 4-6-6-4 g. The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat {D. semoni), but considerably smaller. Both species present complex noseleafwith two supplementary leaflets: anterior leaflet is short and broad, and posterior leaflet extends beneath anterior leaf onto upper lip. The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat also presents processes in intermediate and posterior leaves, but differs by having median process of posterior leaf less prominent. Ears are long with pointed tips, and rostral eminences are moderately inflated. Fur is brownish dorsally, paler ventrally.Habitat.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and occupies a wide variety of habitats. It has been recorded in areas with sandstone cliffs, escarpments, gorges and waterholes, tall open forest, floodplains, and open meadows. Elevational range is unknown.Food and Feeding.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat forages both in woodland and on open hilly plains, flying slowly with frequent changes of direction and great ability to maneuver. It mainly hunts flying insects close to the vegetation.Breeding.Between October and January, females give birth to a single young. Northern Leaf-nosed Bats form maternity colonies.Activity patterns.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat can roost in sandstone and limestone caves, abandoned mines, crevices and boulder caves. It is thought that this species prefers low humidity, roosting near to cave entrances. This species emits echolocation calls at 102-106 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Northern Leaf-nosed Bats have been observed roosting alone, in pairs, or in small maternity colonies of 6-12 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros stenotis). Population size and trends are unknown; population is probably not greatly fragmented and is not declining markedly. No major threats are known, although destruction and disturbance of roosts are increasing. Habitat loss and degradation might also be significant, as well as reported predation by feral cats.Bibliography.Churchill (2008), Duncan et al. (1999), Flannery & Colgan (1993), Hourigan (2011), Menkhorst & Knight (2001), Milne & Hall (2008), Schulz & Menkhorst (1986), Thomson & McKenzie (2008), Woinarski et al. (2014)." 03BD87A2C673A201FF20EE16F31C481E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,232,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C673A201FF20EE16F31C481E.xml,Macronycteris commersonii,Macronycteris,commersonii,,,Phyllorhine de Commerson @fr | Commerson-Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de Commerson @es | Commerson's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Rhinolophus commersonii É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, “fort Dauphin, île de Madagascar.” Based on neotype selection, identified by Goodman and colleagues in 2016 as “ Madagascar: Province de Fianarantsoa, Parc National de l’lsalo, along Sahanafa River, near foot of Bevato Mountain, 28 kmsouth-east of Berenty-Betsileo, 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6’E, 550 ma.s.l.”Widely used specific epithet commersoni changed as the original name is valid and thus retained. Monotypic.","Endemic to Madagascar, where it is widely distributed.","Head-body 104—110 mm, tail 31-45 mm, ear 29-31 mm, hindfoot 13—18 mm, forearm 80—103 mm; weight 39-5— 98 g. Males are larger than females. Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three or four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, reddish brown to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. It is difficult to distinguish from the MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (M cryptaualorond), but is slightly larger. Dental formula for all members of Macronycterisis 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 and FN = 60.","Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forested and wooded habitats, including degraded forest and the ecotone between forest and agricultural landscapes. It occurs at elevations up to 1350 m.","Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on large beetles (Coleoptera) and, to a lesser degree, on bugs (Hemiptera). A large variety of other insects are taken in smaller amounts, and even possibly small vertebrates (e.g. frogs). It forages by sallying out from a perch to capture prey, which is returned to the perch to be consumed. It puts on significant amounts of fat at the end of the rainy season.","Females segregate into maternity roosts during the birthing season, with males and non-reproductive females roosting together in separate caves.","Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but may occasionally also use tall forest trees. Echolocation call includes a GF component at C.65 kHz.","Some populations are thought to be migratory, as individuals disappear seasonally from certain caves.",Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCNRed List (as Tfrpposideros commersoni) because of extensive hunting pressure. This is partially mitigated by its widespread distribution and tolerance of habitat degradation.,"Bader et al. (2015) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Eger & Mitchell (2003) | Foley, Goodman et al. (2017) | Foley, Thong Vu Dinh et al. (2015) | Goodman (2006, 2011) | Goodman, Andriafidison et al. (2005) | Good man, Ratrimomanarivo et al. (2008) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Hill (1963a) | Jenkins & Racey (2008) | Kofoky, Andriafidison et al. (2007) | Kofoky, Randrianandrianina et al. (2009) | Raharinantenaina et al. (2008) | Rakotoarivelo, Ralisata et al. (2009) | Rakotoarivelo, Ranaivoson et al. (2007) | Rakotoarivelo, Willows-Munro et al. (2015) | Ramasindrazana et al. (2015) | Ranivo & Goodman (2007) | Razakarivony et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749063/files/figure.png,"13.Commerson’s Leaf-nosed BatMacronycteris commersoniiFrench:Phyllorhine de Commerson/ German:Commerson-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Macronicterio de CommersonOther common names:Commerson's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus commersonii É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, “fort Dauphin, île de Madagascar.” Based on neotype selection, identified by Goodman and colleagues in 2016 as “ Madagascar: Province de Fianarantsoa, Parc National de l’lsalo, along Sahanafa River, near foot of Bevato Mountain, 28 kmsouth-east of Berenty-Betsileo, 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6’E, 550 ma.s.l.”Widely used specific epithet commersoni changed as the original name is valid and thus retained. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Madagascar, where it is widely distributed.Descriptive notes.Head-body 104—110 mm, tail 31-45 mm, ear 29-31 mm, hindfoot 13—18 mm, forearm 80—103 mm; weight 39-5— 98 g. Males are larger than females. Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three or four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, reddish brown to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. It is difficult to distinguish from the MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (M cryptaualorond), but is slightly larger. Dental formula for all members of Macronycterisis 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 and FN = 60.Habitat.Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forested and wooded habitats, including degraded forest and the ecotone between forest and agricultural landscapes. It occurs at elevations up to 1350 m.Food and Feeding.Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on large beetles (Coleoptera) and, to a lesser degree, on bugs (Hemiptera). A large variety of other insects are taken in smaller amounts, and even possibly small vertebrates (e.g. frogs). It forages by sallying out from a perch to capture prey, which is returned to the perch to be consumed. It puts on significant amounts of fat at the end of the rainy season.Breeding.Females segregate into maternity roosts during the birthing season, with males and non-reproductive females roosting together in separate caves.Activity patterns.Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but may occasionally also use tall forest trees. Echolocation call includes a GF component at C.65 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Some populations are thought to be migratory, as individuals disappear seasonally from certain caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCNRed List (as Tfrpposideros commersoni) because of extensive hunting pressure. This is partially mitigated by its widespread distribution and tolerance of habitat degradation.Bibliography.Bader eta/. (2015), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Eger & Mitchell (2003), Foley, Goodman eta/. (2017), Foley, Thong Vu Dinh eta/. (2015), Goodman (2006, 2011), Goodman, Andriafidison eta/. (2005), Good man, Ratrimomanarivo et al. (2008), Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016), Hill (1963a), Jenkins & Racey (2008), Kofoky, Andriafidison et al. (2007), Kofoky, Randrianandrianina et al. (2009), Raharinantenaina et al. (2008), Rakotoarivelo, Ralisata et al. (2009), Rakotoarivelo, Ranaivoson et al. (2007), Rakotoarivelo, Willows-Munro et al. (2015), Ramasindrazana et al. (2015), Ranivo & Goodman (2007), Razakarivony et al. (2005)." -03BD87A2C673A201FF20F962F9C25353,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,232,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C673A201FF20F962F9C25353.xml,Doryrhina wollastoni,Doryrhina,wollastoni,,,Phyllorhine de Wollaston @fr | Wollaston-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Wollaston @es | Wollaston's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros wollastoni Thomas, 1913, “Utakwa River, S.W. New Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Three subspecies are recognized.","D. w. wollastoni Thomas, 1913known only from Utakwa River, Fakfak regency, West PapuaProvince, Indonesia.D. w. fasensis Flannery & Colgan, 1993known only from North Coastal Range, N Sandaun Province, PapuaNew Guinea.D. w. parnabyi Flannery & Colgan, 1993— Central Range in Sandaun, Western, Southern Highlands, Chimbu, Gulf, and Morobeprovinces, mostly reported near Tifalmin and Telefomin, PapuaNew Guinea.","Head-body 40-8-45-3 mm, tail 27 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7-8-1 mm, forearm 44 mm; weight 8 g. Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet extending beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. It has club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The characteristic that differentiates Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat from other conspecifics is presence of supplementary structure on posterior leaf, which is of similar height to the posterior leaf. Its rostrum eminences are notably inflated. Fur coloration on dorsum is brownish, while ventral part is brownish grayish.","Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in different habitats of both primary forest (montane Nothofagus, Nothofagaceae, forest, oak forest, and hill forest) and secondary forest. Altitudinal range is very wide (30-2440 m).",Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably feeds on insects.,"No information, but reproduction probably occurs in caves.",Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in deeper and wetter caves in limestone areas. Call frequency is c.82 kHz.,Small colonies of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bats have been observed roosting in caves. This species often shares roosts with Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bats (D. corynophyllus).,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros wollastoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented. Loss or disturbance of cave roosts might be one of the major threats for Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, as well as foraging habitat loss and degradation. Further research is needed to study and understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.","Armstrong & Aplin (2009, 2017f) | Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015) | Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Bonaceorso (1998) | Decher & Fahr (2005) | lannery & Colgan (1993) | Thomas (1913b)",,"12.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina wollastoniFrench:Phyllorhine de Wollaston/ German:Wollaston-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina de WollastonOther common names:Wollaston's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros wollastoni Thomas, 1913, “Utakwa River, S.W. New Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D. w. wollastoni Thomas, 1913known only from Utakwa River, Fakfak regency, West PapuaProvince, Indonesia.D. w. fasensis Flannery & Colgan, 1993known only from North Coastal Range, N Sandaun Province, PapuaNew Guinea.D. w. parnabyi Flannery & Colgan, 1993— Central Range in Sandaun, Western, Southern Highlands, Chimbu, Gulf, and Morobeprovinces, mostly reported near Tifalmin and Telefomin, PapuaNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-8-45-3 mm, tail 27 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7-8-1 mm, forearm 44 mm; weight 8 g. Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet extending beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. It has club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The characteristic that differentiates Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat from other conspecifics is presence of supplementary structure on posterior leaf, which is of similar height to the posterior leaf. Its rostrum eminences are notably inflated. Fur coloration on dorsum is brownish, while ventral part is brownish grayish.Habitat.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in different habitats of both primary forest (montane Nothofagus, Nothofagaceae, forest, oak forest, and hill forest) and secondary forest. Altitudinal range is very wide (30-2440 m).Food and Feeding.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably feeds on insects.Breeding.No information, but reproduction probably occurs in caves.Activity patterns.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in deeper and wetter caves in limestone areas. Call frequency is c.82 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Small colonies of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bats have been observed roosting in caves. This species often shares roosts with Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bats (D. corynophyllus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros wollastoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented. Loss or disturbance of cave roosts might be one of the major threats for Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, as well as foraging habitat loss and degradation. Further research is needed to study and understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2009, 2017f), Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015), Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007), Bonaceorso (1998), Decher & Fahr (2005), lannery & Colgan (1993), Thomas (1913b)." +03BD87A2C673A201FF20F962F9C25353,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,232,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C673A201FF20F962F9C25353.xml,Doryrhina wollastoni,Doryrhina,wollastoni,,,Phyllorhine de Wollaston @fr | Wollaston-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Wollaston @es | Wollaston's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros wollastoni Thomas, 1913, “Utakwa River, S.W. New Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Three subspecies are recognized.","D. w. wollastoni Thomas, 1913known only from Utakwa River, Fakfak regency, West PapuaProvince, Indonesia.D. w. fasensis Flannery & Colgan, 1993known only from North Coastal Range, N Sandaun Province, PapuaNew Guinea.D. w. parnabyi Flannery & Colgan, 1993— Central Range in Sandaun, Western, Southern Highlands, Chimbu, Gulf, and Morobeprovinces, mostly reported near Tifalmin and Telefomin, PapuaNew Guinea.","Head-body 40-8-45-3 mm, tail 27 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7-8-1 mm, forearm 44 mm; weight 8 g. Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet extending beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. It has club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The characteristic that differentiates Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat from other conspecifics is presence of supplementary structure on posterior leaf, which is of similar height to the posterior leaf. Its rostrum eminences are notably inflated. Fur coloration on dorsum is brownish, while ventral part is brownish grayish.","Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in different habitats of both primary forest (montane Nothofagus, Nothofagaceae, forest, oak forest, and hill forest) and secondary forest. Altitudinal range is very wide (30-2440 m).",Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably feeds on insects.,"No information, but reproduction probably occurs in caves.",Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in deeper and wetter caves in limestone areas. Call frequency is c.82 kHz.,Small colonies of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bats have been observed roosting in caves. This species often shares roosts with Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bats (D. corynophyllus).,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros wollastoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented. Loss or disturbance of cave roosts might be one of the major threats for Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, as well as foraging habitat loss and degradation. Further research is needed to study and understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.","Armstrong & Aplin (2009, 2017f) | Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015) | Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Bonaceorso (1998) | Decher & Fahr (2005) | lannery & Colgan (1993) | Thomas (1913b)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749061/files/figure.png,"12.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina wollastoniFrench:Phyllorhine de Wollaston/ German:Wollaston-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina de WollastonOther common names:Wollaston's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros wollastoni Thomas, 1913, “Utakwa River, S.W. New Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D. w. wollastoni Thomas, 1913known only from Utakwa River, Fakfak regency, West PapuaProvince, Indonesia.D. w. fasensis Flannery & Colgan, 1993known only from North Coastal Range, N Sandaun Province, PapuaNew Guinea.D. w. parnabyi Flannery & Colgan, 1993— Central Range in Sandaun, Western, Southern Highlands, Chimbu, Gulf, and Morobeprovinces, mostly reported near Tifalmin and Telefomin, PapuaNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-8-45-3 mm, tail 27 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7-8-1 mm, forearm 44 mm; weight 8 g. Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet extending beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. It has club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The characteristic that differentiates Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat from other conspecifics is presence of supplementary structure on posterior leaf, which is of similar height to the posterior leaf. Its rostrum eminences are notably inflated. Fur coloration on dorsum is brownish, while ventral part is brownish grayish.Habitat.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in different habitats of both primary forest (montane Nothofagus, Nothofagaceae, forest, oak forest, and hill forest) and secondary forest. Altitudinal range is very wide (30-2440 m).Food and Feeding.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably feeds on insects.Breeding.No information, but reproduction probably occurs in caves.Activity patterns.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in deeper and wetter caves in limestone areas. Call frequency is c.82 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Small colonies of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bats have been observed roosting in caves. This species often shares roosts with Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bats (D. corynophyllus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros wollastoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented. Loss or disturbance of cave roosts might be one of the major threats for Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, as well as foraging habitat loss and degradation. Further research is needed to study and understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2009, 2017f), Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015), Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007), Bonaceorso (1998), Decher & Fahr (2005), lannery & Colgan (1993), Thomas (1913b)." 03BD87A2C673A202F875F45CFA1E41C2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,232,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C673A202F875F45CFA1E41C2.xml,Macronycteris cryptovalorona,Macronycteris,cryptovalorona,,,Phyllorhine cryptique @fr | Madagaskar-Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de Madagascar @es | Cryptic Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Madagascar Cryptic Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros cryptovalorona Goodman et al, 2016, “ Madagascar: Province de Fianarantsoa, Parc National de l’lsalo, along Sahanafa River, near foot of Bevato, 28 kmsouth-east of Berenty-Betsileo, 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6’E, 550 ma.s.l.”This species is monotypic.","Endemic to Madagascar, where it is just known from type locality and Androimpano Cave, near Itampolo, Toliara Province.","Head—body 89—92 mm, tail 30—34 mm, ear 26—27 mm, hindfoot 15-18 mm, forearm 80-81 mm; weight 26-42-5 g. The MadagascarCryptic Leafnosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, reddish brown to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Slightly smaller than Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat (M commersonii), but otherwise difficult to distinguish.",Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush.,No information.,No information.,"The MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to roost in caves. Echolocation call is not known, but bats captured at Isalo National Park and originally identified as Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat (but possibly belonging to the MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat) had a F component at c.76 kHz.",No information.,"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List due to its recent recognition as a species. Due to its restricted distribution and the fact that Macronycteris speciesare under intensive hunting pressure in Madagascar, the MadagascarCryptic Leafnosed Bat may well be threatened.","Foley, Goodman et al. (2017) | Foley, Thong Vu Dinh et al. (2015) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Rakotoarivelo et al. (2015) | Ramasindrazana et al. (2015) | Ranivo & Goodman (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749065/files/figure.png,"14.MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed BatMacronycteris cryptovaloronaFrench:Phyllorhine cryptique IGerman:Madagaskar-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Macronicterio de MadagascarOther common names:Cryptic Leaf-nosed Bat, MadagascarCryptic Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros cryptovalorona Goodman et al, 2016, “ Madagascar: Province de Fianarantsoa, Parc National de l’lsalo, along Sahanafa River, near foot of Bevato, 28 kmsouth-east of Berenty-Betsileo, 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6’E, 550 ma.s.l.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Madagascar, where it is just known from type locality and Androimpano Cave, near Itampolo, Toliara Province.Descriptive notes.Head—body 89—92 mm, tail 30—34 mm, ear 26—27 mm, hindfoot 15-18 mm, forearm 80-81 mm; weight 26-42-5 g. The MadagascarCryptic Leafnosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, reddish brown to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Slightly smaller than Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat (M commersonii), but otherwise difficult to distinguish.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to roost in caves. Echolocation call is not known, but bats captured at Isalo National Park and originally identified as Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat (but possibly belonging to the MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat) had a F component at c.76 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List due to its recent recognition as a species. Due to its restricted distribution and the fact that Macronycteris speciesare under intensive hunting pressure in Madagascar, the MadagascarCryptic Leafnosed Bat may well be threatened.Bibliography.Foley, Goodman eta/. (2017), Foley, Thong Vu Dinh eta/. (2015), Goodman, Schoeman eta/. (2016), Rakotoarivelo eta/. (2015), Ramasindrazana eta/. (2015), Ranivo & Goodman (2007)." 03BD87A2C674A206FF45FDB9FA6E4B85,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,229,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A206FF45FDB9FA6E4B85.xml,Asellia arabica,Asellia,arabica,"Benda, Vallo & Reiter",2011,Aselliad Arabie @fr | Südarabische Dreizackblattnase @de | Asellia de Arabia @es | Arabian Trident Bat @en | Yemeni Trident Bat @en,"Asellia arabica Benda, Vallo & Reiter, 2011, “ Republic of Yemen, Province of Al Mahra, oasis of Hawf (easternmost edge of the country), 16°39’N, 53°03’E, 410 ma.s.l.”This recendy described species was previously included in. tridens, from which it is distinct both in molecular and morphological features. Monotypic.","Endemic to S Arabian Peninsula, recorded from a narrow coastal strip in SE Yemenand SW Oman.","Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 43-1-46-5 mm; weight 6-13 g. Muzzle of the Arabian Trident Leafnosed Bat is relatively short with large, distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Dental formula for all members of all species of Aselliais I 1/2, C 1/1, P 1/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 28.",Coastal arid savanna and shrubland of southern Arabian Peninsula.,No information.,No information.,The Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves and rock caverns. Echolocation call is not known.,Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small groups of up to 30 individuals.,Classified as Data Deficient on 77ie IUCNRed List. This recently described species may be threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance at roost sites.,"Benda (2017a) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011) | Harrison & Bates (1991)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749041/files/figure.png,"1.Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia arabicaFrench:AselliadArabie IGerman:Südarabische Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Asellia de ArabiaOther common names:Arabian Trident Bat, Yemeni Trident BatTaxonomy.Asellia arabica Benda, Vallo & Reiter, 2011, “ Republic of Yemen, Province of Al Mahra, oasis of Hawf (easternmost edge of the country), 16°39’N, 53°03’E, 410 ma.s.l.”This recendy described species was previously included in. tridens, from which it is distinct both in molecular and morphological features. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S Arabian Peninsula, recorded from a narrow coastal strip in SE Yemenand SW Oman.Descriptive notes.Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 43-1-46-5 mm; weight 6-13 g. Muzzle of the Arabian Trident Leafnosed Bat is relatively short with large, distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Dental formula for all members of all species of Aselliais I 1/2, C 1/1, P 1/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 28.Habitat.Coastal arid savanna and shrubland of southern Arabian Peninsula.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves and rock caverns. Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small groups of up to 30 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on 77ie IUCNRed List. This recently described species may be threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance at roost sites.Bibliography.Benda (2017a), Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011), Harrison & Bates (1991)." 03BD87A2C674A206FF49F065F83845F1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,229,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A206FF49F065F83845F1.xml,Asellia patrizii,Asellia,patrizii,De Beaux,1931,Asellia de Patrizi @fr | Patrizi-Dreizackblattnase @de | Asellia de Patrizi @es | Asellia de Patrizi @en | German @en | Patrizi's Trident Bat @en,"Asellia patrizii De Beaux, 1931, “Zona di Gaarre,” Dancalia, Ethiopia.This species is monotypic.","Recorded from a handful of localities in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and offshore islands in the Red Sea.","Head-body 42—46 mm, tail 13-20 mm, ear 12-16 mm, hindfoot 6 mm, forearm 38-43 mm; weight 3—4 g. Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the smallest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally.","Low-lying arid and semi-desert shrubland, up to 1000 m.",Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.,No information.,"Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves, lava tunnels, and anthropogenic structures. Echolocation call is not known.","In one cave, both males and females were present.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although very few specimens have been collected, Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat occurs across a relatively large area with a low human population and in habitat that is not currently under threat. There may be some disturbance at roosting sites.","Aulagnier (2013a) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011) | Monadjem, Bergmans, Mickleburgh & Hutson (2017a)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749045/files/figure.png,"3.Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia patriziiFrench:Asellia de Patrizi IGerman:Patrizi-Dreizackblattnase ISpanish:Asellia de PatriziOther common names:Patrizi's Trident BatTaxonomy.Asellia patrizii De Beaux, 1931, “Zona di Gaarre,” Dancalia, Ethiopia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Recorded from a handful of localities in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and offshore islands in the Red Sea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 42—46 mm, tail 13-20 mm, ear 12-16 mm, hindfoot 6 mm, forearm 38-43 mm; weight 3—4 g. Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the smallest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally.Habitat.Low-lying arid and semi-desert shrubland, up to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves, lava tunnels, and anthropogenic structures. Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In one cave, both males and females were present.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although very few specimens have been collected, Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat occurs across a relatively large area with a low human population and in habitat that is not currently under threat. There may be some disturbance at roosting sites.Bibliography.Aulagnier (2013a), Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011), Monadjem, Bergmans, Mickleburgh & Hutson (2017a)." 03BD87A2C674A206FF4DF6AAFA214CD4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,229,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A206FF4DF6AAFA214CD4.xml,Asellia italosomalica,Asellia,italosomalica,De Beaux,1931,Aselliade Somalie @fr | Somalische Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselliade Somalia @es | Horn-of-Africa Trident Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Somalian Trident Bat @en,"Asellia tridens italo-somalica De Beaux, 1931, “Oddur,” Somalia.This species was previously considered a subspecies of. tridens, but recent molecular and morphometric work support its treatment as a separate species. Monotypic.",Endemic to Somaliaand Yemen(SocotraI).,"Head—body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8—10 mm, forearm 43-4—48-2 mm; weight 6—13 g. Muzzle of the Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large, distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally.",Low-lying arid and semi-desert shrubland.,No information.,No information.,The Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves. Echolocation call is not known.,"Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small groups, typically ofseveral dozen individuals; however, c.1000 individuals have been found roosting in a cave on Socotra.",Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. This newly recognized species may be threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance at roost sites.,"Benda (2017b) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter et al. (2011) | Harrison & Bates (1991)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749043/files/figure.png,"2.Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia italosomalicaFrench:Aselliade Somalie/ German:Somalische Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aselliade SomaliaOther common names:Horn-of-Africa Trident Leaf-nosed Bat, Somalian Trident BatTaxonomy.Asellia tridens italo-somalica De Beaux, 1931, “Oddur,” Somalia.This species was previously considered a subspecies of. tridens, but recent molecular and morphometric work support its treatment as a separate species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Somaliaand Yemen(SocotraI).Descriptive notes.Head—body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8—10 mm, forearm 43-4—48-2 mm; weight 6—13 g. Muzzle of the Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large, distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally.Habitat.Low-lying arid and semi-desert shrubland.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves. Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small groups, typically ofseveral dozen individuals; however, c.1000 individuals have been found roosting in a cave on Socotra.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. This newly recognized species may be threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance at roost sites.Bibliography.Benda (2017b), Benda, Vallo & Reiter et al. (2011), Harrison & Bates (1991)." -03BD87A2C674A207F890F8BFFCE1472F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,229,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A207F890F8BFFCE1472F.xml,Asellia tridens,Asellia,tridens,,,Aselliatrident @fr | Nordafrikanische Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselliatridente @es | Geoffroy’s Trident Bat @en,"Rhinolophus tridens É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, near Luxor, Egypt.Up to four subspecies have at times been recognized within this species, but recent molecular work suggests the existence of just two. Two subspecies recognized.","A. t. tridens E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813widespread in N Africa, from Morocco, Mauritania, and SenegalE to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Somalia.A. t. murraianaj. Anderson, 1881widely in the Middle East, including Syria, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Arabian Peninsula, and Iran, and E to W Afghanistanand S Pakistan.","Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 45-55 mm; weight 6-13 g. Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 50 and FN = 62.","Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of desert and semi-desert habitats where it is mostly associated with oases and dry riverbeds. It generally occurs at low elevations, but may occur up to 2000 m.","Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat forages by flying low and hawking a variety of large insects including beetles, moths, flies, and grasshoppers.","Apparently, Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is a seasonal breeder, giving birth to a single young in the boreal summer. In Africa, pregnant females have been reported in April and May, and dependent young in July. In the Middle East, females are pregnant in April-June, with births in June-July followed by 40 days of lactation.","Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a wide range of situations including caves, mines, rock caverns, underground irrigation channels, and anthropogenic structures such as buildings, cellars, and tombs. It typically departs from its roost shortly after sunset, with males showing two peaks of activity during the night but females only one; both sexes have the greatest activity period in the hour immediately after sunset, with males showing a second peak in the early hours of the morning. Echolocation call includes a variable CF component of 115-120 kHz that varies individually and is negatively correlated with the size of the bat.","Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to very large colonies, with up to 5000 individuals having been reported from a cave in Iran. Roosts are usually occupied by this species alone, although it may occasionally share its roost with other bats including the Egyptian Rousette (Rousettusaegyptiacus), the Persian Trident Bat {Triaenopspersicus), and mouse-tailed bats {Rhinopoma spp.). Numbers of bats roosting typically vary with season, and sexual segregation has also been reported. Pregnant females form maternity roosts. Throughout much of the Middle East, bats disappear during the boreal winter, reappearing in April-May presumably because they migrate between summer and winter sites. Both sexes put on fat in the boreal autumn before migration. Bats move c.1-5-2 km between roosting and foraging sites.On following pages: 5. Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina camerunensis}; 6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina corynophyllus); 7. CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina cyclops); 8. Hill's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinaedwardshillil; 9. Fly River Leaf-nosed Bat {Doryrhina muscinus); 10. Semon's Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina semoni); 11. Northern Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina stenotis}; 12. Wollaston's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinawollastom); 13. Commerson's Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscommersoniii; 14. MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscryptovalorona); 15. Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris gigas); 16. SaoTome Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris thomensis}; 17. Striped Leafnosed Bat (Macronycteris vittatus); 18. Dong BacTrident Bat (Aselliscus dongbacanus); 19. Stoliczka's Trident Bat (AselliscusstoliczkanusY, 20. Temminck ’s Trident Bat (Aselliscus tricuspidatus); 21. East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithii); 22. Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops robinsoni); 23. Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat (Anthops ornatus}.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red, List. Its large distribution, often in remote areas and harsh landscapes, suggests that this species ought to be relatively secure.","Al-Robaae (1966) | Amichai et al. (2013) | Aulagnier (2013b) | Benda, Andreas et al. (2006) | Benda, Dietz et al. (2008) | Benda, Faizolâhi et al. (2012) | Benda, Lucan et al. (2010) | Benda, Spitzenberger et al. (2014) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Bray & Benda (2016) | Brasset & Caubère (1960) | De-Blase (1980) | Feldman et al. (2000) | Gustafson & Schnitzler (1979) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Jones et al. (1993) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Kock (1969d) | Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) | Fye (1972) | Qumsiyeh (1985) | Qumsiyeh & Schütter (1981) | Whitaker et al. (1994)",,"4.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia tridensFrench:Aselliatrident/ German:Nordafrikanische Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:AselliatridenteOther common names:Geoffroy’s Trident BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus tridens É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, near Luxor, Egypt.Up to four subspecies have at times been recognized within this species, but recent molecular work suggests the existence of just two. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. t. tridens E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813widespread in N Africa, from Morocco, Mauritania, and SenegalE to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Somalia.A. t. murraianaj. Anderson, 1881widely in the Middle East, including Syria, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Arabian Peninsula, and Iran, and E to W Afghanistanand S Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 45-55 mm; weight 6-13 g. Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 50 and FN = 62.Habitat.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of desert and semi-desert habitats where it is mostly associated with oases and dry riverbeds. It generally occurs at low elevations, but may occur up to 2000 m.Food and Feeding.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat forages by flying low and hawking a variety of large insects including beetles, moths, flies, and grasshoppers.Breeding.Apparently, Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is a seasonal breeder, giving birth to a single young in the boreal summer. In Africa, pregnant females have been reported in April and May, and dependent young in July. In the Middle East, females are pregnant in April-June, with births in June-July followed by 40 days of lactation.Activity patterns.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a wide range of situations including caves, mines, rock caverns, underground irrigation channels, and anthropogenic structures such as buildings, cellars, and tombs. It typically departs from its roost shortly after sunset, with males showing two peaks of activity during the night but females only one; both sexes have the greatest activity period in the hour immediately after sunset, with males showing a second peak in the early hours of the morning. Echolocation call includes a variable CF component of 115-120 kHz that varies individually and is negatively correlated with the size of the bat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to very large colonies, with up to 5000 individuals having been reported from a cave in Iran. Roosts are usually occupied by this species alone, although it may occasionally share its roost with other bats including the Egyptian Rousette (Rousettusaegyptiacus), the Persian Trident Bat {Triaenopspersicus), and mouse-tailed bats {Rhinopoma spp.). Numbers of bats roosting typically vary with season, and sexual segregation has also been reported. Pregnant females form maternity roosts. Throughout much of the Middle East, bats disappear during the boreal winter, reappearing in April-May presumably because they migrate between summer and winter sites. Both sexes put on fat in the boreal autumn before migration. Bats move c.1-5-2 km between roosting and foraging sites.On following pages: 5. Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina camerunensis}; 6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina corynophyllus); 7. CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina cyclops); 8. Hill's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinaedwardshillil; 9. Fly River Leaf-nosed Bat {Doryrhina muscinus); 10. Semon's Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina semoni); 11. Northern Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina stenotis}; 12. Wollaston's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinawollastom); 13. Commerson's Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscommersoniii; 14. MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscryptovalorona); 15. Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris gigas); 16. SaoTome Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris thomensis}; 17. Striped Leafnosed Bat (Macronycteris vittatus); 18. Dong BacTrident Bat (Aselliscus dongbacanus); 19. Stoliczka's Trident Bat (AselliscusstoliczkanusY, 20. Temminck ’s Trident Bat (Aselliscus tricuspidatus); 21. East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithii); 22. Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops robinsoni); 23. Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat (Anthops ornatus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red, List. Its large distribution, often in remote areas and harsh landscapes, suggests that this species ought to be relatively secure.Bibliography.Al-Robaae (1966), Amichai et al. (2013), Aulagnier (2013b), Benda, Andreas et al. (2006), Benda, Dietz et al. (2008), Benda, Faizolâhi et al. (2012), Benda, Lucan et al. (2010), Benda, Spitzenberger et al. (2014), Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Bray & Benda (2016), Brasset & Caubère (1960), De-Blase (1980), Feldman et al. (2000), Gustafson & Schnitzler (1979), Harrison & Bates (1991), Jones et al. (1993), Koch-Weser (1984), Kock (1969d), Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991), Fye (1972), Qumsiyeh (1985), Qumsiyeh & Schütter (1981), Whitaker et al. (1994)." +03BD87A2C674A207F890F8BFFCE1472F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,229,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A207F890F8BFFCE1472F.xml,Asellia tridens,Asellia,tridens,,,Aselliatrident @fr | Nordafrikanische Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselliatridente @es | Geoffroy’s Trident Bat @en,"Rhinolophus tridens É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, near Luxor, Egypt.Up to four subspecies have at times been recognized within this species, but recent molecular work suggests the existence of just two. Two subspecies recognized.","A. t. tridens E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813widespread in N Africa, from Morocco, Mauritania, and SenegalE to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Somalia.A. t. murraianaj. Anderson, 1881widely in the Middle East, including Syria, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Arabian Peninsula, and Iran, and E to W Afghanistanand S Pakistan.","Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 45-55 mm; weight 6-13 g. Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 50 and FN = 62.","Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of desert and semi-desert habitats where it is mostly associated with oases and dry riverbeds. It generally occurs at low elevations, but may occur up to 2000 m.","Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat forages by flying low and hawking a variety of large insects including beetles, moths, flies, and grasshoppers.","Apparently, Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is a seasonal breeder, giving birth to a single young in the boreal summer. In Africa, pregnant females have been reported in April and May, and dependent young in July. In the Middle East, females are pregnant in April-June, with births in June-July followed by 40 days of lactation.","Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a wide range of situations including caves, mines, rock caverns, underground irrigation channels, and anthropogenic structures such as buildings, cellars, and tombs. It typically departs from its roost shortly after sunset, with males showing two peaks of activity during the night but females only one; both sexes have the greatest activity period in the hour immediately after sunset, with males showing a second peak in the early hours of the morning. Echolocation call includes a variable CF component of 115-120 kHz that varies individually and is negatively correlated with the size of the bat.","Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to very large colonies, with up to 5000 individuals having been reported from a cave in Iran. Roosts are usually occupied by this species alone, although it may occasionally share its roost with other bats including the Egyptian Rousette (Rousettusaegyptiacus), the Persian Trident Bat {Triaenopspersicus), and mouse-tailed bats {Rhinopoma spp.). Numbers of bats roosting typically vary with season, and sexual segregation has also been reported. Pregnant females form maternity roosts. Throughout much of the Middle East, bats disappear during the boreal winter, reappearing in April-May presumably because they migrate between summer and winter sites. Both sexes put on fat in the boreal autumn before migration. Bats move c.1-5-2 km between roosting and foraging sites.On following pages: 5. Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina camerunensis}; 6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina corynophyllus); 7. CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina cyclops); 8. Hill's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinaedwardshillil; 9. Fly River Leaf-nosed Bat {Doryrhina muscinus); 10. Semon's Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina semoni); 11. Northern Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina stenotis}; 12. Wollaston's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinawollastom); 13. Commerson's Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscommersoniii; 14. MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscryptovalorona); 15. Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris gigas); 16. SaoTome Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris thomensis}; 17. Striped Leafnosed Bat (Macronycteris vittatus); 18. Dong BacTrident Bat (Aselliscus dongbacanus); 19. Stoliczka's Trident Bat (AselliscusstoliczkanusY, 20. Temminck ’s Trident Bat (Aselliscus tricuspidatus); 21. East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithii); 22. Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops robinsoni); 23. Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat (Anthops ornatus}.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red, List. Its large distribution, often in remote areas and harsh landscapes, suggests that this species ought to be relatively secure.","Al-Robaae (1966) | Amichai et al. (2013) | Aulagnier (2013b) | Benda, Andreas et al. (2006) | Benda, Dietz et al. (2008) | Benda, Faizolâhi et al. (2012) | Benda, Lucan et al. (2010) | Benda, Spitzenberger et al. (2014) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Bray & Benda (2016) | Brasset & Caubère (1960) | De-Blase (1980) | Feldman et al. (2000) | Gustafson & Schnitzler (1979) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Jones et al. (1993) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Kock (1969d) | Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) | Fye (1972) | Qumsiyeh (1985) | Qumsiyeh & Schütter (1981) | Whitaker et al. (1994)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749047/files/figure.png,"4.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia tridensFrench:Aselliatrident/ German:Nordafrikanische Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:AselliatridenteOther common names:Geoffroy’s Trident BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus tridens É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, near Luxor, Egypt.Up to four subspecies have at times been recognized within this species, but recent molecular work suggests the existence of just two. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. t. tridens E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813widespread in N Africa, from Morocco, Mauritania, and SenegalE to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Somalia.A. t. murraianaj. Anderson, 1881widely in the Middle East, including Syria, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Arabian Peninsula, and Iran, and E to W Afghanistanand S Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 45-55 mm; weight 6-13 g. Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 50 and FN = 62.Habitat.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of desert and semi-desert habitats where it is mostly associated with oases and dry riverbeds. It generally occurs at low elevations, but may occur up to 2000 m.Food and Feeding.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat forages by flying low and hawking a variety of large insects including beetles, moths, flies, and grasshoppers.Breeding.Apparently, Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is a seasonal breeder, giving birth to a single young in the boreal summer. In Africa, pregnant females have been reported in April and May, and dependent young in July. In the Middle East, females are pregnant in April-June, with births in June-July followed by 40 days of lactation.Activity patterns.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a wide range of situations including caves, mines, rock caverns, underground irrigation channels, and anthropogenic structures such as buildings, cellars, and tombs. It typically departs from its roost shortly after sunset, with males showing two peaks of activity during the night but females only one; both sexes have the greatest activity period in the hour immediately after sunset, with males showing a second peak in the early hours of the morning. Echolocation call includes a variable CF component of 115-120 kHz that varies individually and is negatively correlated with the size of the bat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to very large colonies, with up to 5000 individuals having been reported from a cave in Iran. Roosts are usually occupied by this species alone, although it may occasionally share its roost with other bats including the Egyptian Rousette (Rousettusaegyptiacus), the Persian Trident Bat {Triaenopspersicus), and mouse-tailed bats {Rhinopoma spp.). Numbers of bats roosting typically vary with season, and sexual segregation has also been reported. Pregnant females form maternity roosts. Throughout much of the Middle East, bats disappear during the boreal winter, reappearing in April-May presumably because they migrate between summer and winter sites. Both sexes put on fat in the boreal autumn before migration. Bats move c.1-5-2 km between roosting and foraging sites.On following pages: 5. Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina camerunensis}; 6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina corynophyllus); 7. CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina cyclops); 8. Hill's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinaedwardshillil; 9. Fly River Leaf-nosed Bat {Doryrhina muscinus); 10. Semon's Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina semoni); 11. Northern Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina stenotis}; 12. Wollaston's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinawollastom); 13. Commerson's Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscommersoniii; 14. MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscryptovalorona); 15. Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris gigas); 16. SaoTome Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris thomensis}; 17. Striped Leafnosed Bat (Macronycteris vittatus); 18. Dong BacTrident Bat (Aselliscus dongbacanus); 19. Stoliczka's Trident Bat (AselliscusstoliczkanusY, 20. Temminck ’s Trident Bat (Aselliscus tricuspidatus); 21. East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithii); 22. Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops robinsoni); 23. Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat (Anthops ornatus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red, List. Its large distribution, often in remote areas and harsh landscapes, suggests that this species ought to be relatively secure.Bibliography.Al-Robaae (1966), Amichai et al. (2013), Aulagnier (2013b), Benda, Andreas et al. (2006), Benda, Dietz et al. (2008), Benda, Faizolâhi et al. (2012), Benda, Lucan et al. (2010), Benda, Spitzenberger et al. (2014), Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Bray & Benda (2016), Brasset & Caubère (1960), De-Blase (1980), Feldman et al. (2000), Gustafson & Schnitzler (1979), Harrison & Bates (1991), Jones et al. (1993), Koch-Weser (1984), Kock (1969d), Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991), Fye (1972), Qumsiyeh (1985), Qumsiyeh & Schütter (1981), Whitaker et al. (1994)." 03BD87A2C675A200F87CEEF1F91D4A77,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,230,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C675A200F87CEEF1F91D4A77.xml,Doryrhina edwardshilli,Doryrhina,edwardshilli,,,Phyllorhine d'Edwards Hill @fr | Hill-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Edwards Hill @es | Hill's Roundleaf Bat @en,"HipposiderosedwardshiUi Flannery & Colgan, 1993, “Imonda Station (3°20’S141°10’E), Bewani Mountains, PapuaNew Guineaat an altitude of 240 m.”This species is monotypic.","New Guinea, known only from three zones of the Bewani Mts, North Coastal Range, Sandaun Province.","Head-body 50-6 mm, tail 11-1-15 mm, ear 19-3-21-3 mm, hindfoot 8-2 mm, forearm 49-6-51 mm; weight 11 g. Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat is similar to the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (D. corynophyUus), but with darkish brown or reddish fur on dorsum, and more cinnamon color on ventral area; subadults can present grayish coloration. Fur is markedly shorter than on the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat: c.8-7 mm long on mid-back. Noseleaf differs in lower club being less pronounced, shorter and laterally flattened, as compared with that of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat.","Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-roosting species reported in low hills. It can be present in forest and also in more modified and artificial environments such as gardens or rural village areas, although it always needs cave roosts nearby. It has only been reported at altitudes of c.200-300 m, which accounts for its restricted range.","Insects constitute its main food. Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported foraging in forests, rural village areas, and gardens.",No information.,No information.,"Unlike the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat, Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat has not been found sharing caves with Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (D. wollastoni).","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as HipposiderosedwardshiUi). Population size and trends of Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat remain unknown. Main threats probably include habitat degradation and transformation of native forest to agricultural lands around Bewani Mountains. In addition, the fact that the North Coastal Range is not limestone might reduce the roost availability, restricting the potential range (100—2000 km2) even more. More research on this species is needed to assess its population status accurately and to discover details of its ecology.",Armstrong & Aplin (2017c) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Decher & ahr (2005) | lannery & Colgan (1993),https://zenodo.org/record/3749215/files/figure.png,"8.Hill’s Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina edwardshilliFrench:Phyllorhine d'Edwards Hill/ German:Hill-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina de Edwards HillOther common names:Hill's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.HipposiderosedwardshiUi Flannery & Colgan, 1993, “Imonda Station (3°20’S141°10’E), Bewani Mountains, PapuaNew Guineaat an altitude of 240 m.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.New Guinea, known only from three zones of the Bewani Mts, North Coastal Range, Sandaun Province.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-6 mm, tail 11-1-15 mm, ear 19-3-21-3 mm, hindfoot 8-2 mm, forearm 49-6-51 mm; weight 11 g. Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat is similar to the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (D. corynophyUus), but with darkish brown or reddish fur on dorsum, and more cinnamon color on ventral area; subadults can present grayish coloration. Fur is markedly shorter than on the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat: c.8-7 mm long on mid-back. Noseleaf differs in lower club being less pronounced, shorter and laterally flattened, as compared with that of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat.Habitat.Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-roosting species reported in low hills. It can be present in forest and also in more modified and artificial environments such as gardens or rural village areas, although it always needs cave roosts nearby. It has only been reported at altitudes of c.200-300 m, which accounts for its restricted range.Food and Feeding.Insects constitute its main food. Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported foraging in forests, rural village areas, and gardens.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Unlike the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat, Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat has not been found sharing caves with Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (D. wollastoni).Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as HipposiderosedwardshiUi). Population size and trends of Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat remain unknown. Main threats probably include habitat degradation and transformation of native forest to agricultural lands around Bewani Mountains. In addition, the fact that the North Coastal Range is not limestone might reduce the roost availability, restricting the potential range (100—2000 km2) even more. More research on this species is needed to assess its population status accurately and to discover details of its ecology.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2017c), Bonaccorso (1998), Decher & ahr (2005), lannery & Colgan (1993)." 03BD87A2C675A207F87BF8D5F50853B9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,230,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C675A207F87BF8D5F50853B9.xml,Doryrhina cyclops,Doryrhina,cyclops,,,Phyllorhine cyclope @fr | Zyklopen-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina ciclope @es | Cyclops Roundleaf Bat @en,"PhyUorrhina cyclops Temminck, 1853, Boutry River, Ghana.This species is monotypic.","Widespread in tropical Africa from SenegalE to extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, W Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, with isolated populations in W & SE Kenyaand NE Tanzania; also on Bioko I.","Head—body 70—95 mm, tail 18—36 mm, ear 28—38 mm, hindfoot 18—22 mm, forearm 59—75 mm; weight 21—45 g. The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleafwith two median club-shaped processes. Pelage is dense, long and soft, blackish brown with pale frosting dorsally, somewhat paler with inconspicuous frosting ventrally. Ears are long, narrow and pointed at tip. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. An anal sac is present between penis and anus in males. Females do not have this sac but fur around vagina has been replaced by long stiff hairs. This species is difficult to distinguish from the Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (D. caTzzmznmris) but is slighdy smaller.","The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat inhabits lowland rainforest up to 2000 mor more, but also occurs in the transition zone between rainforest and savanna mosaic, and even extends into Guineawoodland, where relict and gallery forests are present.","The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on moths (particularly hawk moths of the family Sphingidae), but it may feed on a variety of other insects including Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. It forages by sallying out from a perch on a branch or twig typically less than 6 maboveground. Captured prey is returned to the perch where it is consumed.","The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat gives birth to a single young that is bom immediately prior to, or during, the local rainy season.","The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in the hollow trunks of large trees, but may occasionally also use anthropogenic structures such as disused mines. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.60 kHz.","The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat regularly shares its roost with other bats, as well as rodents (including anomalures). Based on recapture rates, it has been estimated that its home range is small, in the order of several hectares. It roosts singly or in small groups of up to 18 individuals. Groups typically consist of 1-3 males and several females.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros cyclops). It has a wide distribution and occurs in several protected areas and forest reserves. However, its dependence on large trees for day roosts is of concern for this species in logged forests.","Aellen (1952) | Cockle et al. (1998) | Decher & Fahr (2005) | Eisentraut (1956, 1973) | Fahr (2013j) | Hill (1963a) | Juste & Ibânez (1994b) | Lang & Chapin (1917a, 1917b) | Patterson & Webala (2012) | Schütter et al. (1986) | Thom & Kerbis Peterhans (2009) | Verschuren (1957)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749053/files/figure.png,"7.Cyclops Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina cyclopsFrench:Phyllorhine cyclope IGerman:Zyklopen-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina ciclopeOther common names:Cyclops RoundleafBatTaxonomy.PhyUorrhina cyclops Temminck, 1853, Boutry River, Ghana.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in tropical Africa from SenegalE to extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, W Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, with isolated populations in W & SE Kenyaand NE Tanzania; also on Bioko I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 70—95 mm, tail 18—36 mm, ear 28—38 mm, hindfoot 18—22 mm, forearm 59—75 mm; weight 21—45 g. The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleafwith two median club-shaped processes. Pelage is dense, long and soft, blackish brown with pale frosting dorsally, somewhat paler with inconspicuous frosting ventrally. Ears are long, narrow and pointed at tip. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. An anal sac is present between penis and anus in males. Females do not have this sac but fur around vagina has been replaced by long stiff hairs. This species is difficult to distinguish from the Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (D. caTzzmznmris) but is slighdy smaller.Habitat.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat inhabits lowland rainforest up to 2000 mor more, but also occurs in the transition zone between rainforest and savanna mosaic, and even extends into Guineawoodland, where relict and gallery forests are present.Food and Feeding.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on moths (particularly hawk moths of the family Sphingidae), but it may feed on a variety of other insects including Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. It forages by sallying out from a perch on a branch or twig typically less than 6 maboveground. Captured prey is returned to the perch where it is consumed.Breeding.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat gives birth to a single young that is bom immediately prior to, or during, the local rainy season.Activity patterns.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in the hollow trunks of large trees, but may occasionally also use anthropogenic structures such as disused mines. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.60 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat regularly shares its roost with other bats, as well as rodents (including anomalures). Based on recapture rates, it has been estimated that its home range is small, in the order of several hectares. It roosts singly or in small groups of up to 18 individuals. Groups typically consist of 1-3 males and several females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros cyclops). It has a wide distribution and occurs in several protected areas and forest reserves. However, its dependence on large trees for day roosts is of concern for this species in logged forests.Bibliography.Aellen (1952), Cockle et al. (1998), Decher & Fahr (2005), Eisentraut (1956, 1973), Fahr (2013j), Hill (1963a), Juste & Ibânez (1994b), Lang & Chapin (1917a, 1917b), Patterson & Webala (2012), Schütter et al. (1986), Thom & Kerbis Peterhans (2009), Verschuren (1957)." 03BD87A2C675A207FF22F275F58845A3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,230,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C675A207FF22F275F58845A3.xml,Doryrhina corynophyllus,Doryrhina,corynophyllus,,,Phyllorhine de Telefomin @fr | Telefomin-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Telefomin @es | Telefomin Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros corynophyllus Hill, 1985, “Inum Tem (Cave), 3 kmENE of Telefomin, West Sepik Province, PapuaNew Guinea, 1800 m, c. 5°10’S, 141°35’E.”This species is monotypic.","Known only from a small area around Tifalmin and Telefomin in Sandaun Province, W PapuaNew Guinea, and also collected in Tembagapura region, PapuaProvince, Indonesia. Even so, its echolocation calls have been recorded in other areas and it is thought that this species has a larger distribution, probably occurring throughout the Central Range ofNew Guinea.","Head—body 54-9-63 mm, tail 9—12 mm, ear 18-9—22-6 mm, hindfoot 9-5—11-9 mm, forearm 48-54-6 mm; weight 14-5— 17 g. The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat has an elongated rostrum and relatively long hair, which is densely distributed even on face and muzzle. Brownish colors are present on dorsum, with paler silver on ventral area. Fur is long (c.14-2 mm). Ears are relatively long, distally narrowed, and convex on anterior or medial margin of ear, without antitragal lobe. Noseleaf covers much of muzzle, with two lateral leaflets. Anterior leaf has no median emargination, intermedian leaf is elevated laterally, and posterior leaf is high. Median processes of intermediate and posterior leaves are well developed and club-shaped. Lower club is very long and tubular.","The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat is found in deep limestone caves, usually located at elevations of 1600—1800 m. It also occurs in forests and in other subterranean cavities. The altitudinal range of this species is very wide, ranging from close to sea level up to 2700 m.",The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in forest habitats.,The breeding biology of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat is largely unknown; it is probably similar to that ofWollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (D. woUastoni).,Activity patterns of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat are probably similar to those ofWollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat.,The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat may be found either solitarily or in small groups. It sometimes shares caves with Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat (subspecies pamabyi) in the Telefomin area.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros corynophyllus). Current population trends are unknown, but population is probably not strongly fragmented. Forest loss and modification might be the major threats for the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat, although large areas of intact forest still remain within its range. More research is needed to study and assess the ecology and population status of this species.",Armstrong & Aplin (2017b) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Decher & ahr (2005) | lannery & Colgan (1993) | lannery & Seri (1990) | Helgen (2007a) | Hill (1985),https://zenodo.org/record/3749051/files/figure.png,"6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina corynophyllusFrench:Phyllorhine deTelefomin/ German:Telefomin-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina deTelefominOther common names:Telefomin Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros corynophyllus Hill, 1985, “Inum Tem (Cave), 3 kmENE of Telefomin, West Sepik Province, PapuaNew Guinea, 1800 m, c. 5°10’S, 141°35’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Known only from a small area around Tifalmin and Telefomin in Sandaun Province, W PapuaNew Guinea, and also collected in Tembagapura region, PapuaProvince, Indonesia. Even so, its echolocation calls have been recorded in other areas and it is thought that this species has a larger distribution, probably occurring throughout the Central Range ofNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head—body 54-9-63 mm, tail 9—12 mm, ear 18-9—22-6 mm, hindfoot 9-5—11-9 mm, forearm 48-54-6 mm; weight 14-5— 17 g. The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat has an elongated rostrum and relatively long hair, which is densely distributed even on face and muzzle. Brownish colors are present on dorsum, with paler silver on ventral area. Fur is long (c.14-2 mm). Ears are relatively long, distally narrowed, and convex on anterior or medial margin of ear, without antitragal lobe. Noseleaf covers much of muzzle, with two lateral leaflets. Anterior leaf has no median emargination, intermedian leaf is elevated laterally, and posterior leaf is high. Median processes of intermediate and posterior leaves are well developed and club-shaped. Lower club is very long and tubular.Habitat.The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat is found in deep limestone caves, usually located at elevations of 1600—1800 m. It also occurs in forests and in other subterranean cavities. The altitudinal range of this species is very wide, ranging from close to sea level up to 2700 m.Food and Feeding.The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in forest habitats.Breeding.The breeding biology of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat is largely unknown; it is probably similar to that ofWollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (D. woUastoni).Activity patterns.Activity patterns of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat are probably similar to those ofWollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat may be found either solitarily or in small groups. It sometimes shares caves with Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat (subspecies pamabyi) in the Telefomin area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros corynophyllus). Current population trends are unknown, but population is probably not strongly fragmented. Forest loss and modification might be the major threats for the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat, although large areas of intact forest still remain within its range. More research is needed to study and assess the ecology and population status of this species.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2017b), Bonaccorso (1998), Decher & ahr (2005), lannery & Colgan (1993), lannery & Seri (1990), Helgen (2007a), Hill (1985)." @@ -708,74 +708,74 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03BD87A2C678A20AFF4AF83BFC745253,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,241,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C678A20AFF4AF83BFC745253.xml,Hipposideros demissus,Hipposideros,demissus,K. Andersen,1909,Phyllorhine de Makira @fr | Makira-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Makira @es | Makira Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposiderus [sic] demissus K. Andersen, 1909, “Yanuta, San Christoval [= San Cristobal Island],” Solomon Islands. Hipposideros demissusis in the diademaspecies group along (8 species). It was initially described as a distinct species. Subsequently, J. E. Hill in 1963 and. J. Phillips in 1967 suggested reclassifying it as a subspecies of H. diadema, but more recently D.J. Kitchener and colleagues in 1992 and T. F. Flannery in 1995 supported the status of H. demissusas a separate species, based on its noticeably distinct morphological traits. In addition, T. H. Lavery and colleagues in 2014 found strong genetic differences between H. diademaand H. demissus, and recommended that further genetic analyses of these taxa were required to clarify their taxonomy. Monotypic.","Endemic to Makira (= San Cristobal) I, Solomon Is.","Head-body 64*8-70* 3 mm, tail 34*1-42* 6 mm, ear 20*6-24* 5 mm, forearm 66* 9 mm; weight 27 g. Ears of the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Posterior noseleaf has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. In central part of intermediate noseleaf there is a small protuberance. Posterior noseleaf has a semicircular upper margin and there are four cells on frontal surface, divided by three vertical septa. Tail is long, surpassing uropatagium. In adult males, pelage is yellowish-brownish or greyish on dorsum, with whitish coloration in central portion of each hair. In adult females, pelage can be bright orange. Ventral part is slighdy paler.","The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat has been reported in caves, along streams, in secondary forest, and also in disturbed habitats such as cacao plantations.",The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat may forage in both disturbed and undisturbed habitats and its diet is probably based on insects.,"Breeding biology of the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is still unknown. o date, only a few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves.",The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. The F part of its echolocation call is 69*3 kHz.,"The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming large groups at some roosts.",Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List due to its restricted range. Population trends of this species are unknown. One of its major threats might be the disturbance of its roosts. Cyclones are also suspected of being a threat to this species. More research focused on the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is needed in order to assess its ecology and threats adequately.,"Davies et al. (2016) | Flannery (1995a) | Hamilton (2008b) | Hill (1963a) | Kitchener, How, Cooper & Suyanto (1992) | Lavery et al. (2014) | Phillips (1967)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749113/files/figure.png,"39.MakiraLeaf-nosed BatHipposideros demissusFrench:Phyllorhine de Makira/ German:Makira-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MakiraOther common names:MakiraRoundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] demissus K. Andersen, 1909, “Yanuta, San Christoval [= San Cristobal Island],” Solomon Islands. Hipposideros demissusis in the diademaspecies group along (8 species). It was initially described as a distinct species. Subsequently, J. E. Hill in 1963 and. J. Phillips in 1967 suggested reclassifying it as a subspecies of H. diadema, but more recently D.J. Kitchener and colleagues in 1992 and T. F. Flannery in 1995 supported the status of H. demissusas a separate species, based on its noticeably distinct morphological traits. In addition, T. H. Lavery and colleagues in 2014 found strong genetic differences between H. diademaand H. demissus, and recommended that further genetic analyses of these taxa were required to clarify their taxonomy. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Makira (= San Cristobal) I, Solomon Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 64*8-70* 3 mm, tail 34*1-42* 6 mm, ear 20*6-24* 5 mm, forearm 66* 9 mm; weight 27 g. Ears of the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Posterior noseleaf has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. In central part of intermediate noseleaf there is a small protuberance. Posterior noseleaf has a semicircular upper margin and there are four cells on frontal surface, divided by three vertical septa. Tail is long, surpassing uropatagium. In adult males, pelage is yellowish-brownish or greyish on dorsum, with whitish coloration in central portion of each hair. In adult females, pelage can be bright orange. Ventral part is slighdy paler.Habitat.The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat has been reported in caves, along streams, in secondary forest, and also in disturbed habitats such as cacao plantations.Food and Feeding.The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat may forage in both disturbed and undisturbed habitats and its diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Breeding biology of the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is still unknown. o date, only a few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves.Activity patterns.The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. The F part of its echolocation call is 69*3 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming large groups at some roosts.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List due to its restricted range. Population trends of this species are unknown. One of its major threats might be the disturbance of its roosts. Cyclones are also suspected of being a threat to this species. More research focused on the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is needed in order to assess its ecology and threats adequately.Bibliography.Davies et al. (2016), Flannery (1995a), Hamilton (2008b), Hill (1963a), Kitchener, How, Cooper & Suyanto (1992), Lavery et al. (2014), Phillips (1967)." 03BD87A2C678A20AFF4EEE1BF55E48CD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,241,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C678A20AFF4EEE1BF55E48CD.xml,Hipposideros diadema,Hipposideros,diadema,,,Phyllorhine à diadème @fr | Diadem-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de diadema @es | Diadem Roundleaf Bat @en,"Rhinolophus diadema É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, “Timor [Island].”Hipposideros diademais in the diademaspecies group. Many subspecies have been described (anderseni, ceramensis, custos, enganus, euotis, griseus, masoni, mirandus, natunensis, nicobarensis, nobilis, oceanitis, reginae, speculator, trobrius, vicarious), several of them of dubious validity; validity, diagnoses, and ranges of prospective subspecies require review.","Mainland SE Asia, Philippines, Indonesian Archipelago, New Guinea(including Bismarck Archipelago), Solomon Is, and NE Australia; also on N Nicobar Is.","Head—body 66-100 mm, tail 32—51 mm, ear 28—32 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 58—96 mm; weight 22—57 g. Forearm length can be variable between populations, from as small as 58 mm(Nicobar Islands) to as large as 96 mm(Thailand). Pelage on upperparts is dark brown with distinctive white or yellowish white patches on shoulders and sides ofback; fur on underparts is grayish white. Noseleafis yellowish brown. Posterior noseleafis thick and tall. There are 3-4 lateral leaflets on each cheek. Skull is heavily built with large canine, inflated rostral swellings and well-developed sagittal crest P2 is small and extruded from tooth row so C1 and P4 are in contact, or almost. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat has been recorded in a wide range of habitats, from lowland primary forest at sea level to agricultural areas and disturbed forests up to 1210 m.","The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest understory, in gaps, and over streams in forest. It feeds on insects (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and various orthopteroids were the most common in fecal pellets) and occasionally on birds. It is known to feed by hanging from a perch and waiting for prey to pass by, then flying to snatch it and returning right away to the perch.","Females give birth to a single young. In peninsular Thailand, females with young were found in the maternity roost in April.","This species roosts in caves, crevices, and hollow trees. In peninsular Thailand, the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat was observed to remain in the cave late, until 20:00 h, being the last species that emerged from the roost Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 58-62 kHz (Malay Peninsula) and 64—66 kHz (Borneo).","The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in large colonies in caves. A maternity colony may number several hundred individuals. In southern Myanmar, at least 5000 individuals of this species have been estimated to be sharing a cave with Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats {H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. laruatus), Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. gentilis), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (77. cineraceus), and Large Long-fingered Bats (Afinio/?tenw magnater).","Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat is found in several protected areas throughout its range but may be locally at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.","Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Kingston et al. (2008) | Francis (2008a) | Pavey & Burwell (1997) | Simmons (2005)",,"40.Diadem Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros diademaFrench:Phyllorhine à diadème/ German:Diadem-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de diademaOther common names:Diadem Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus diadema É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, “Timor [Island].”Hipposideros diademais in the diademaspecies group. Many subspecies have been described (anderseni, ceramensis, custos, enganus, euotis, griseus, masoni, mirandus, natunensis, nicobarensis, nobilis, oceanitis, reginae, speculator, trobrius, vicarious), several of them of dubious validity; validity, diagnoses, and ranges of prospective subspecies require review.Distribution.Mainland SE Asia, Philippines, Indonesian Archipelago, New Guinea(including Bismarck Archipelago), Solomon Is, and NE Australia; also on N Nicobar Is.Descriptive notes.Head—body 66-100 mm, tail 32—51 mm, ear 28—32 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 58—96 mm; weight 22—57 g. Forearm length can be variable between populations, from as small as 58 mm(Nicobar Islands) to as large as 96 mm(Thailand). Pelage on upperparts is dark brown with distinctive white or yellowish white patches on shoulders and sides ofback; fur on underparts is grayish white. Noseleafis yellowish brown. Posterior noseleafis thick and tall. There are 3-4 lateral leaflets on each cheek. Skull is heavily built with large canine, inflated rostral swellings and well-developed sagittal crest P2 is small and extruded from tooth row so C1 and P4 are in contact, or almost. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat has been recorded in a wide range of habitats, from lowland primary forest at sea level to agricultural areas and disturbed forests up to 1210 m.Food and Feeding.The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest understory, in gaps, and over streams in forest. It feeds on insects (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and various orthopteroids were the most common in fecal pellets) and occasionally on birds. It is known to feed by hanging from a perch and waiting for prey to pass by, then flying to snatch it and returning right away to the perch.Breeding.Females give birth to a single young. In peninsular Thailand, females with young were found in the maternity roost in April.Activity patterns.This species roosts in caves, crevices, and hollow trees. In peninsular Thailand, the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat was observed to remain in the cave late, until 20:00 h, being the last species that emerged from the roost Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 58-62 kHz (Malay Peninsula) and 64—66 kHz (Borneo).Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in large colonies in caves. A maternity colony may number several hundred individuals. In southern Myanmar, at least 5000 individuals of this species have been estimated to be sharing a cave with Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats {H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. laruatus), Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. gentilis), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (77. cineraceus), and Large Long-fingered Bats (Afinio/?tenw magnater).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat is found in several protected areas throughout its range but may be locally at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Kingston eta/. (2008), Francis (2008a), Pavey & Burwell (1997), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C678A20BF8A6F46DFA7F40E9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,241,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C678A20BF8A6F46DFA7F40E9.xml,Hipposideros dinops,Hipposideros,dinops,K Andersen,1905,Phyllorhine féroce @fr | Salomonen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Andersen @es | Fierce Roundleaf Bat @en | Giant Horseshoe Bat @en,"Hipposiderus [sic] dinops K Andersen, 1905, “Rubiana [= Roviana Lagoon], a minute inlet very near western coast of New Georgia, Solomon Islands.”Hipposideros dinopsis in the diademaspecies group. Many authors have considered this species to include pelingensisas a subspecies, but these taxa are separated by 1800 kmand are diagnosably different. Here H. pelingensisis considered a good species, following N. B. Simmons in 2005.Monotypic.","Solomon Is (Bougainville, New Georgia, Santa Isabel, SanJorge, Malaita, and Guadalcanal).","Head-body 88-105 mm, tail 54-63 mm, ear 31-35 mm, forearm 86*1-98* 9 mm; weight 78 g. Ears of the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Noseleaf is well developed and has three supplementary lateral leaflets, of which the third is the smallest. Anterior leaf is large and has no central emargination. Intermediate leaf is expanded and presents a protuberance in middle. Upper border of posterior leafis semicircular with a small projection, and has medial septum and two lateral septa forming four cells. Males present a frontal sac. Fur is whitish or white with light brown spots on dorsum, while ventral fur is yellowishbrownish.",The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed over forest habitats and tropical moist lowland. It has been reported from sea level up to 400 m.,The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.,No information.,The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat occupies caves. Its CF echolocation call frequency ranges at 52-55 kHz.,The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting both alone and in small groups of up to twelve individuals.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List, due to the lack of information on its population status. The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and it has only been reported from a few localities. The overall population is thought to be decreasing. Further research on ecology and threats is needed in order to establish adequate conservation measures.",Bonaccorso (1998) | Hamilton (2008c) | Hill (1963a) | Simmons (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/3749117/files/figure.png,"41.Fierce Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros dinopsFrench:Phyllorhine féroce/ German:Salomonen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de AndersenOther common names:Fierce Roundleaf Bat, Giant Horseshoe BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] dinops K Andersen, 1905, “Rubiana [= Roviana Lagoon], a minute inlet very near western coast of New Georgia, Solomon Islands.”Hipposideros dinopsis in the diademaspecies group. Many authors have considered this species to include pelingensisas a subspecies, but these taxa are separated by 1800 kmand are diagnosably different. Here H. pelingensisis considered a good species, following N. B. Simmons in 2005.Monotypic.Distribution.Solomon Is (Bougainville, New Georgia, Santa Isabel, SanJorge, Malaita, and Guadalcanal).Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-105 mm, tail 54-63 mm, ear 31-35 mm, forearm 86*1-98* 9 mm; weight 78 g. Ears of the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Noseleaf is well developed and has three supplementary lateral leaflets, of which the third is the smallest. Anterior leaf is large and has no central emargination. Intermediate leaf is expanded and presents a protuberance in middle. Upper border of posterior leafis semicircular with a small projection, and has medial septum and two lateral septa forming four cells. Males present a frontal sac. Fur is whitish or white with light brown spots on dorsum, while ventral fur is yellowishbrownish.Habitat.The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed over forest habitats and tropical moist lowland. It has been reported from sea level up to 400 m.Food and Feeding.The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat occupies caves. Its CF echolocation call frequency ranges at 52-55 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting both alone and in small groups of up to twelve individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List, due to the lack of information on its population status. The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and it has only been reported from a few localities. The overall population is thought to be decreasing. Further research on ecology and threats is needed in order to establish adequate conservation measures.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Hamilton (2008c), Hill (1963a), Simmons (2005)." -03BD87A2C679A20BF87CF9AFF2B24DAE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,242,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A20BF87CF9AFF2B24DAE.xml,Hipposideros lankadiva,Hipposideros,lankadiva,Kelaart,1850,Phyllorhine indienne @fr | German @en | ndien-Rundblattnase @en | Hiposidérido indio @es | Other common names @en | ndian Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850, Kandy, Sri Lanka.Hipposideros lankadivais in the diademaspecies group. Three subspecies are recognized.","H. I. lankadiva Helaart, 1850-Sri Lanka.H. l. gyi Bates et aL, 2015-NE India, Bangladesh, and N Myanmar.H. l. indus K. Andersen, 1918— peninsular India.","Tail 35-58 mm, ear 19-5-30 mm, hindfoot 11-7-20 mm, forearm 75—99 mm. Greatest skulls lengths are 31-1—36-1 mm. Pelage on dorsum is pale cream to fulvous brown; ventral area is paler. There are three or four lateral leaflets on cheek, but fourth (outer) is very small or sometimes absent. Skull is robust There is no depression on rostral region. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 is massive; P2is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.",The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forests gaps from lower hills up to elevations of 1000m.,"The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is known as an aerial-hawking bat, feeding in mid-air. Diet consists mostly of Coleoptera.","Copulation has been recorded in August and September. Females give birth to a single young once a year; they were found pregnant from February to May, and giving birth and carrying young between May andJune.","The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and temples. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 68-8-70-7 kHz (Myanmar).","Colony size can be from 50 up to several thousand individuals. The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat can be found sharing a cave with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires {Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelata}, and Stoliczka’s Trident Bats (AstfZZiscus stoliczkanus}.","Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List. Although the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread in the Indian subcontinent, only very few colonies have been recorded. It may be at risk due to hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.","Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bates et al. (2015) | Bhat& Sreenivasan (1981) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Eckrich & Neuweiler (1988) | Francis (2008a) | Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu et al. (2008a) | Simmons (2005)",,"44.Indian Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros lankadivaFrench:Phyllorhine indienne/ German:Indien-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido indioOther common names:Indian Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850, Kandy, Sri Lanka.Hipposideros lankadivais in the diademaspecies group. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. I. lankadiva Helaart, 1850-Sri Lanka.H. l. gyi Bates et aL, 2015-NE India, Bangladesh, and N Myanmar.H. l. indus K. Andersen, 1918— peninsular India.Descriptive notes.Tail 35-58 mm, ear 19-5-30 mm, hindfoot 11-7-20 mm, forearm 75—99 mm. Greatest skulls lengths are 31-1—36-1 mm. Pelage on dorsum is pale cream to fulvous brown; ventral area is paler. There are three or four lateral leaflets on cheek, but fourth (outer) is very small or sometimes absent. Skull is robust There is no depression on rostral region. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 is massive; P2is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forests gaps from lower hills up to elevations of 1000m.Food and Feeding.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is known as an aerial-hawking bat, feeding in mid-air. Diet consists mostly of Coleoptera.Breeding.Copulation has been recorded in August and September. Females give birth to a single young once a year; they were found pregnant from February to May, and giving birth and carrying young between May andJune.Activity patterns.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and temples. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 68-8-70-7 kHz (Myanmar).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Colony size can be from 50 up to several thousand individuals. The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat can be found sharing a cave with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires {Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelata}, and Stoliczka’s Trident Bats (AstfZZiscus stoliczkanus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List. Although the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread in the Indian subcontinent, only very few colonies have been recorded. It may be at risk due to hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bates et al. (2015), Bhat& Sreenivasan (1981), Corbet & Hill (1992), Eckrich & Neuweiler (1988), Francis (2008a), Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu et al. (2008a), Simmons (2005)." +03BD87A2C679A20BF87CF9AFF2B24DAE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,242,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A20BF87CF9AFF2B24DAE.xml,Hipposideros lankadiva,Hipposideros,lankadiva,Kelaart,1850,Phyllorhine indienne @fr | German @en | ndien-Rundblattnase @en | Hiposidérido indio @es | Other common names @en | ndian Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850, Kandy, Sri Lanka.Hipposideros lankadivais in the diademaspecies group. Three subspecies are recognized.","H. I. lankadiva Helaart, 1850-Sri Lanka.H. l. gyi Bates et aL, 2015-NE India, Bangladesh, and N Myanmar.H. l. indus K. Andersen, 1918— peninsular India.","Tail 35-58 mm, ear 19-5-30 mm, hindfoot 11-7-20 mm, forearm 75—99 mm. Greatest skulls lengths are 31-1—36-1 mm. Pelage on dorsum is pale cream to fulvous brown; ventral area is paler. There are three or four lateral leaflets on cheek, but fourth (outer) is very small or sometimes absent. Skull is robust There is no depression on rostral region. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 is massive; P2is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.",The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forests gaps from lower hills up to elevations of 1000m.,"The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is known as an aerial-hawking bat, feeding in mid-air. Diet consists mostly of Coleoptera.","Copulation has been recorded in August and September. Females give birth to a single young once a year; they were found pregnant from February to May, and giving birth and carrying young between May andJune.","The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and temples. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 68-8-70-7 kHz (Myanmar).","Colony size can be from 50 up to several thousand individuals. The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat can be found sharing a cave with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires {Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelata}, and Stoliczka’s Trident Bats (AstfZZiscus stoliczkanus}.","Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List. Although the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread in the Indian subcontinent, only very few colonies have been recorded. It may be at risk due to hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.","Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bates et al. (2015) | Bhat& Sreenivasan (1981) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Eckrich & Neuweiler (1988) | Francis (2008a) | Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu et al. (2008a) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749123/files/figure.png,"44.Indian Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros lankadivaFrench:Phyllorhine indienne/ German:Indien-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido indioOther common names:Indian Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850, Kandy, Sri Lanka.Hipposideros lankadivais in the diademaspecies group. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. I. lankadiva Helaart, 1850-Sri Lanka.H. l. gyi Bates et aL, 2015-NE India, Bangladesh, and N Myanmar.H. l. indus K. Andersen, 1918— peninsular India.Descriptive notes.Tail 35-58 mm, ear 19-5-30 mm, hindfoot 11-7-20 mm, forearm 75—99 mm. Greatest skulls lengths are 31-1—36-1 mm. Pelage on dorsum is pale cream to fulvous brown; ventral area is paler. There are three or four lateral leaflets on cheek, but fourth (outer) is very small or sometimes absent. Skull is robust There is no depression on rostral region. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 is massive; P2is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forests gaps from lower hills up to elevations of 1000m.Food and Feeding.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is known as an aerial-hawking bat, feeding in mid-air. Diet consists mostly of Coleoptera.Breeding.Copulation has been recorded in August and September. Females give birth to a single young once a year; they were found pregnant from February to May, and giving birth and carrying young between May andJune.Activity patterns.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and temples. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 68-8-70-7 kHz (Myanmar).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Colony size can be from 50 up to several thousand individuals. The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat can be found sharing a cave with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires {Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelata}, and Stoliczka’s Trident Bats (AstfZZiscus stoliczkanus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List. Although the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread in the Indian subcontinent, only very few colonies have been recorded. It may be at risk due to hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bates et al. (2015), Bhat& Sreenivasan (1981), Corbet & Hill (1992), Eckrich & Neuweiler (1988), Francis (2008a), Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu et al. (2008a), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C679A20BFF34FB87FA4D488D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,242,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A20BFF34FB87FA4D488D.xml,Hipposideros inexpectatus,Hipposideros,inexpectatus,Laurie & Hill,1954,Phyllorhine à crête @fr | Sulawesi-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido crestado @es | Crested Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros inexpectatus Laurie & Hill, 1954, “Posso (= Poso), north Celebes[= Sulawesi],” Indonesia.Hipposideros inexpectatusis in the diademaspecies group. Monotypic.",N & C Sulawesi.,"Forearm 100-8 mm. No other specific measurements are available. The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat is has similar morphological characters to the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Ä dmops). Ears are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Anterior noseleaf is well developed and has four supplementary lateral leaflets. Fourth is tiny and third is small. Intermediate noseleaf is swollen and has weak medium crest. Upper margin ofposterior leaf is semicircular. There is a central septum with two lateral and less pronounced septa, which form four cells on frontal surface. Pelage coloration has not been well described as all the known specimens have been preserved in alcohol for many years; it is probably similar to that ofthe Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat, whitish-brownish on dorsum and yellowishbrownish on ventral area.",,The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in open areas. Its diet is based on insects.,Maternity colonies may be located in caves.,No information.,"The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be gregarious, forming colonies of many individuals in caves.","Classified as Data Deficient on T/ze IUCN Red List, due to the lack of information available. No recent captures or registers of the Crested Leafnosed Bat are known. Population trends are also unknown, as are population size, distribution, ecology, and threats. More research on this species is required in order to define adequate management and conservation measures.",Hill (1963a) | Kingston (2016) | Laurie & Hill (1954) | Pacifici et al. (2013),https://zenodo.org/record/3749119/files/figure.png,"42.Crested Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros inexpectatusFrench:Phyllorhine à crête IGerman:Sulawesi-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido crestadoOther common names:Crested Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros inexpectatus Laurie & Hill, 1954, “Posso (= Poso), north Celebes[= Sulawesi],” Indonesia.Hipposideros inexpectatusis in the diademaspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.N & C Sulawesi.Descriptive notes.Forearm 100-8 mm. No other specific measurements are available. The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat is has similar morphological characters to the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Ä dmops). Ears are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Anterior noseleaf is well developed and has four supplementary lateral leaflets. Fourth is tiny and third is small. Intermediate noseleaf is swollen and has weak medium crest. Upper margin ofposterior leaf is semicircular. There is a central septum with two lateral and less pronounced septa, which form four cells on frontal surface. Pelage coloration has not been well described as all the known specimens have been preserved in alcohol for many years; it is probably similar to that ofthe Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat, whitish-brownish on dorsum and yellowishbrownish on ventral area.Habitat Notwell known but the Crested Leaf-nosed Bat probably occurs in areas with suitable availability of caves and other subterranean roosts.Food and Feeding.The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in open areas. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.Maternity colonies may be located in caves.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be gregarious, forming colonies of many individuals in caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on T/ze IUCN Red List, due to the lack of information available. No recent captures or registers of the Crested Leafnosed Bat are known. Population trends are also unknown, as are population size, distribution, ecology, and threats. More research on this species is required in order to define adequate management and conservation measures.Bibliography.Hill (1963a), Kingston (2016), Laurie & Hill (1954), Pacifici et al. (2013)." 03BD87A2C679A20BFF35F3A2F6D04680,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,242,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A20BFF35F3A2F6D04680.xml,Hipposideros inornatus,Hipposideros,inornatus,McKean,1970,Phyllorhine de l Arnhem @fr | Arnhem-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Arnhem @es | Arnhem Roundleaf Bat @en | Mc Kean's Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Hipposideros diadema inomatus McKean, 1970, “Deaf Adder Creek, where it emerges from the Arnhem Land Plateau, 55 miles[= 89 km] due south of Oenpelli, N.T. [= Northern Territory, Australia], lat. 13°06’S. long. 132°56’E.”Hipposideros inomatusis in the diademaspecies group. It has often been considered a subspecies of H. diadema, with opinions frequently changing. Further genetic analyses are needed to clarify the taxonomy of this taxon. Monotypic.","Endemic to a small area in N Northern Territory, N Australia, including few sites in Kakadu National Park and its surroundings, as well as a cave in Litchfield National Park.","Head-body 66-77 mm, tail 32-46 mm, ear 23-27 mm, forearm 68-74 mm; weight 22-35 g. The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat has wide triangular ears, long tail, and well-developed noseleaf. Anterior leaf is large and presents 3—4 pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Posterior leaf is also large, with three vertical septa that form four noticeable cells on frontal surface. Its fur is brownish or grayish-brownish on dorsum, occasionally orange; paler on ventral part.Habitat.The Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in sandstone areas, close to streams, riparian forests and secondary forest.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amhem Leaf-nosed bat is based on insects, predominantly moths, beetles, leafhoppers, and cockroaches. It is thought to forage close to cliffs and in many different habitats such as riparian forest, rainforest, eucalypt forest, and open sandy areas.Breeding.The breeding biology of this species is still unknown. At the moment, only few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves. Amhem Leaf-nosed Bats are estimated to become sexually mature at c.1-2 years; generation length may be c.6-7 years.Activity patterns.The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in cool, humid caves and unused mines.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In 2014, J. C. Z. Woinarski and colleagues estimated the area of occurrence for the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat at 2100 km2, but 10 km2 when considering only caves and mines. This species is thought to be gregarious, forming groups in different caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List, due to its restricted range and few known roosting sites. In Australia, the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat is protected under law. Its total population size is unknown, but probably does not exceed a total of 300 individuals. Some authors claim that this rare species is stable and secure within its home range, whereas others affirm that it is declining, although not strongly.","The Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in sandstone areas, close to streams, riparian forests and secondary forest.","Diet of the Amhem Leaf-nosed bat is based on insects, predominantly moths, beetles, leafhoppers, and cockroaches. It is thought to forage close to cliffs and in many different habitats such as riparian forest, rainforest, eucalypt forest, and open sandy areas.","The breeding biology of this species is still unknown. At the moment, only few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves. Amhem Leaf-nosed Bats are estimated to become sexually mature at c.1-2 years; generation length may be c.6-7 years.","The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in cool, humid caves and unused mines.","In 2014, J. C. Z. Woinarski and colleagues estimated the area of occurrence for the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat at 2100 km2, but 10 km2 when considering only caves and mines. This species is thought to be gregarious, forming groups in different caves.","Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List, due to its restricted range and few known roosting sites. In Australia, the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat is protected under law. Its total population size is unknown, but probably does not exceed a total of 300 individuals. Some authors claim that this rare species is stable and secure within its home range, whereas others affirm that it is declining, although not strongly. Habitat loss and disturbance of its roosting sites could be threatening its populations.",Churchill (2008) | Duncan et al. (1999) | McKean (1970) | Richards & Milne (2008) | Woinarski (2004) | Woinarski et al. (2014),https://zenodo.org/record/3749121/files/figure.png,"43.Amhem Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros inornatusFrench:Phyllorhine de lArnhem/ German:Arnhem-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de ArnhemOther common names:Arnhem Roundleaf Bat, McKean's Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros diadema inomatus McKean, 1970, “Deaf Adder Creek, where it emerges from the Arnhem Land Plateau, 55 miles[= 89 km] due south of Oenpelli, N.T. [= Northern Territory, Australia], lat. 13°06’S. long. 132°56’E.”Hipposideros inomatusis in the diademaspecies group. It has often been considered a subspecies of H. diadema, with opinions frequently changing. Further genetic analyses are needed to clarify the taxonomy of this taxon. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to a small area in N Northern Territory, N Australia, including few sites in Kakadu National Park and its surroundings, as well as a cave in Litchfield National Park.Descriptive notes.Head-body 66-77 mm, tail 32-46 mm, ear 23-27 mm, forearm 68-74 mm; weight 22-35 g. The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat has wide triangular ears, long tail, and well-developed noseleaf. Anterior leaf is large and presents 3—4 pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Posterior leaf is also large, with three vertical septa that form four noticeable cells on frontal surface. Its fur is brownish or grayish-brownish on dorsum, occasionally orange; paler on ventral part.Habitat.The Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in sandstone areas, close to streams, riparian forests and secondary forest.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amhem Leaf-nosed bat is based on insects, predominantly moths, beetles, leafhoppers, and cockroaches. It is thought to forage close to cliffs and in many different habitats such as riparian forest, rainforest, eucalypt forest, and open sandy areas.Breeding.The breeding biology of this species is still unknown. At the moment, only few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves. Amhem Leaf-nosed Bats are estimated to become sexually mature at c.1-2 years; generation length may be c.6-7 years.Activity patterns.The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in cool, humid caves and unused mines.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In 2014, J. C. Z. Woinarski and colleagues estimated the area of occurrence for the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat at 2100 km2, but 10 km2 when considering only caves and mines. This species is thought to be gregarious, forming groups in different caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List, due to its restricted range and few known roosting sites. In Australia, the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat is protected under law. Its total population size is unknown, but probably does not exceed a total of 300 individuals. Some authors claim that this rare species is stable and secure within its home range, whereas others affirm that it is declining, although not strongly. Habitat loss and disturbance of its roosting sites could be threatening its populations.Bibliography.Churchill (2008), Duncan et al. (1999), McKean (1970), Richards & Milne (2008), Woinarski (2004), Woinarski et al. (2014)." 03BD87A2C679A214F878F0CFFBBC44ED,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,242,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A214F878F0CFFBBC44ED.xml,Hipposideros lekaguli,Hipposideros,lekaguli,Thonglongya & Hill,1974,Phyllorhine de Lekagul @fr | Lekagul-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Lekagul @es | Large Asian Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros fefcagufö Thonglongya & Hill, 1974, “Phu Nam Tok Tap Kwang, Kaeng Khoi, Saraburi, Thailandc. 14° 34’ N., 101° 09’ E.”Hipposideros lekaguliis in the diademaspecies group. The population in the Philippinesmay prove to be, at least, a distinct subspecies; taxonomic revision is needed. Monotypic.","S Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and Philippines(Luzon and Mindoro Is).","Forearm 64-79 mm. Mainland South-eastAsian populations are larger (forearm 71-79 mm) than those ofPhilippines (forearm 64-72 mm). Ears ofthe Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat are large and broad, with a triangular tip. Noseleaf is large and complex——anterior leaf is large and almost covers muzzle; intermediate noseleaf is large and thickened, with distinct median projection; posterior leaf is trilobed and forms three large protruding pockets. Pelage on upperparts is grayish brown or grayish white; underparts are dull creamy white. Skull is robust, with rostral part inflated. Sagittal crest is poorly developed. C1 is large; P2 is small and slightly extruded from the tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats forage in primary or disturbed forests and agricultural areas at low elevation, typically in gaps or over water bodies.","The Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat is an aerial-hawking bat, feeding on insects up in the air. Diet is mosdy composed of Coleoptera.","Females were found pregnant in March-April, giving birth and then carrying young between May and June.","Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of45—46 kHz.","Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats roost in colonies. Colony size ranges from a few individuals up to 500 individuals. This species shares caves with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires (Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelaea), Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bats {H. larvatus), and Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Ä pendleburyi).","Classified as Near Threatened on 7%♂ IUCN Red List. The population size of the Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat has been decreasing during recent decades. The major threats are hunting, unregulated activities associated with tourism, limestone mining, and quarrying.","Balete et al. (1995) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal & Kingston (2008a) | Francis (2008a) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749125/files/figure.png,"45.Large Asian Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros lekaguliFrench:Phyllorhine de Lekagul/ German:Lekagul-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de LekagulOther common names:Large Asian Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros fefcagufö Thonglongya & Hill, 1974, “Phu Nam Tok Tap Kwang, Kaeng Khoi, Saraburi, Thailandc. 14° 34’ N., 101° 09’ E.”Hipposideros lekaguliis in the diademaspecies group. The population in the Philippinesmay prove to be, at least, a distinct subspecies; taxonomic revision is needed. Monotypic.Distribution.S Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and Philippines(Luzon and Mindoro Is).Descriptive notes.Forearm 64-79 mm. Mainland South-eastAsian populations are larger (forearm 71-79 mm) than those ofPhilippines (forearm 64-72 mm). Ears ofthe Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat are large and broad, with a triangular tip. Noseleaf is large and complex——anterior leaf is large and almost covers muzzle; intermediate noseleaf is large and thickened, with distinct median projection; posterior leaf is trilobed and forms three large protruding pockets. Pelage on upperparts is grayish brown or grayish white; underparts are dull creamy white. Skull is robust, with rostral part inflated. Sagittal crest is poorly developed. C1 is large; P2 is small and slightly extruded from the tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats forage in primary or disturbed forests and agricultural areas at low elevation, typically in gaps or over water bodies.Food and Feeding.The Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat is an aerial-hawking bat, feeding on insects up in the air. Diet is mosdy composed of Coleoptera.Breeding.Females were found pregnant in March-April, giving birth and then carrying young between May and June.Activity patterns.Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of45—46 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats roost in colonies. Colony size ranges from a few individuals up to 500 individuals. This species shares caves with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires (Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelaea), Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bats {H. larvatus), and Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Ä pendleburyi).Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on 7%♂ IUCN Red List. The population size of the Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat has been decreasing during recent decades. The major threats are hunting, unregulated activities associated with tourism, limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Balete eta/. (1995), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal & Kingston (2008a), Francis (2008a), Heaney eta/. (1998), Simmons (2005)." -03BD87A2C67AA208F89EF856F2434C79,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,239,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA208F89EF856F2434C79.xml,Hipposideros madurae,Hipposideros,madurae,Kitchener & Maryanto,1993,Phyllorhine de Madura @fr | Madura-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Madura @es | Maduran Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros modura« Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “Sampang, Pulau Madura [= Madura Island], nr NE Java(7° 13’S; 113° 15’E); altitude 0-30 m,” Indonesia.Hipposideros maduraeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously included in H. larvatusbut is now regarded as a distinct species, based mainly on its generally smaller skull. Two subspecies recognized.","H.m.wiodwoeKitchener&Maryanto,1993-MaduraI,offNEJava.H. m. jenningsi Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-E Java.","Tail 23-6-30-9 mm, ear 19-6-21-2 mm, forearm 53-58 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 20-21 mm, tibia 17-21 mm. The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros larvatus), but has smaller body. As in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, there are three supplementary leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is dark brown to reddish-brown. Baculum has two distinct prongs but is short and oval in shape rather than elongate as in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat.","In east-centralJava, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat was found in limestone caves near villages. It has been recorded from below 1000 m.",No information.,No information.,The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is known to roost in limestone caves.,Maduran Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies.,"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. It is currently known from the eastern part ofJava, but surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it also occurs in the western part of the island or further east. As a cave-dwelling bat, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat may be at risk due to limestone quarrying.","Hutson, Schütter, Kingston & Maryanto (2008) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Simmons (2005)",,"33.Maduran Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros maduraeFrench:Phyllorhine de Madura/ German:Madura-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MaduraOther common names:Maduran Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros modura« Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “Sampang, Pulau Madura [= Madura Island], nr NE Java(7° 13’S; 113° 15’E); altitude 0-30 m,” Indonesia.Hipposideros maduraeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously included in H. larvatusbut is now regarded as a distinct species, based mainly on its generally smaller skull. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.wiodwoeKitchener&Maryanto,1993-MaduraI,offNEJava.H. m. jenningsi Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-E Java.Descriptive notes.Tail 23-6-30-9 mm, ear 19-6-21-2 mm, forearm 53-58 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 20-21 mm, tibia 17-21 mm. The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros larvatus), but has smaller body. As in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, there are three supplementary leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is dark brown to reddish-brown. Baculum has two distinct prongs but is short and oval in shape rather than elongate as in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat.Habitat.In east-centralJava, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat was found in limestone caves near villages. It has been recorded from below 1000 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is known to roost in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maduran Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. It is currently known from the eastern part ofJava, but surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it also occurs in the western part of the island or further east. As a cave-dwelling bat, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat may be at risk due to limestone quarrying.Bibliography.Hutson, Schütter, Kingston & Maryanto (2008), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Simmons (2005)." +03BD87A2C67AA208F89EF856F2434C79,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,239,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA208F89EF856F2434C79.xml,Hipposideros madurae,Hipposideros,madurae,Kitchener & Maryanto,1993,Phyllorhine de Madura @fr | Madura-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Madura @es | Maduran Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros modura« Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “Sampang, Pulau Madura [= Madura Island], nr NE Java(7° 13’S; 113° 15’E); altitude 0-30 m,” Indonesia.Hipposideros maduraeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously included in H. larvatusbut is now regarded as a distinct species, based mainly on its generally smaller skull. Two subspecies recognized.","H.m.wiodwoeKitchener&Maryanto,1993-MaduraI,offNEJava.H. m. jenningsi Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-E Java.","Tail 23-6-30-9 mm, ear 19-6-21-2 mm, forearm 53-58 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 20-21 mm, tibia 17-21 mm. The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros larvatus), but has smaller body. As in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, there are three supplementary leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is dark brown to reddish-brown. Baculum has two distinct prongs but is short and oval in shape rather than elongate as in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat.","In east-centralJava, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat was found in limestone caves near villages. It has been recorded from below 1000 m.",No information.,No information.,The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is known to roost in limestone caves.,Maduran Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies.,"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. It is currently known from the eastern part ofJava, but surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it also occurs in the western part of the island or further east. As a cave-dwelling bat, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat may be at risk due to limestone quarrying.","Hutson, Schütter, Kingston & Maryanto (2008) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749103/files/figure.png,"33.Maduran Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros maduraeFrench:Phyllorhine de Madura/ German:Madura-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MaduraOther common names:Maduran Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros modura« Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “Sampang, Pulau Madura [= Madura Island], nr NE Java(7° 13’S; 113° 15’E); altitude 0-30 m,” Indonesia.Hipposideros maduraeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously included in H. larvatusbut is now regarded as a distinct species, based mainly on its generally smaller skull. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.wiodwoeKitchener&Maryanto,1993-MaduraI,offNEJava.H. m. jenningsi Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-E Java.Descriptive notes.Tail 23-6-30-9 mm, ear 19-6-21-2 mm, forearm 53-58 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 20-21 mm, tibia 17-21 mm. The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros larvatus), but has smaller body. As in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, there are three supplementary leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is dark brown to reddish-brown. Baculum has two distinct prongs but is short and oval in shape rather than elongate as in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat.Habitat.In east-centralJava, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat was found in limestone caves near villages. It has been recorded from below 1000 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is known to roost in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maduran Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. It is currently known from the eastern part ofJava, but surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it also occurs in the western part of the island or further east. As a cave-dwelling bat, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat may be at risk due to limestone quarrying.Bibliography.Hutson, Schütter, Kingston & Maryanto (2008), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C67AA208FF57F253F4564418,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,239,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA208FF57F253F4564418.xml,Hipposideros larvatus,Hipposideros,larvatus,,,Phyllorhine de Horsfield @fr | Horsfield-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Horsfield @es | Horsfield’s Roundleaf Bat @en | @en | ntermediate Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Rhinolophus larvatus Horsfield, 1823, Java, Indonesia.Hipposideros larvatusis in the larvatusspecies group. Clarification is needed of differentiating characters and geographic limits with H. grandis, particularly the taxon leptophyllus. Monotypic.","NE India, NE Bangladesh, S China(including HainanI), mainland SE Asia, Sumatra (including Simeulue, Nias, and Mentawai Is), Borneo, Java, Kangean, Bali, and many offshore Is.","Head-body 52-75 mm, tail 32-35 mm, ear 21-25 mm, hindfoot 7—12 mm, forearm 50—67 mm; weight 15—23 g. Greatest skull lengths are 20-4— 22-8 mm, tibia 18-4—24-8 mm. Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bat is very similar to the Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (77. grandis) but smaller. Ears are broad with pointed tip. There are three supplementary leaflets on each side of noseleaf. Posterior noseleaf is as broad as width of anterior leaf. Thickened and swollen structure behind posterior leaf is well defined in males. Pelage is dark gray-brown to orange-reddish brown. In skull, rostral chambers are well inflated. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 and C1 are large. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in the forest understory, and at edges and gaps in the vegetation.",Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the forest understory.,"As in many other Hipposideros, females were usually found pregnant in March—May and lactating in April-July. Young were sighted attached to females at the roost in April-June.",Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat can be found roosting in limestone or sandstone caves or man-made underground tunnels. Echolocation calls typically have F components terminating with a FM tail. The range of the frequency of the F part can be variable between populations (89-100 kHz).,"Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies of up to 800 individuals, in caves. It is often found in the same cave with other species; for example, in Thailandit is found together with the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (77. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. pendleburyi), and the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat (77. armigef). Local movements of this species have been observed in several places in Myanmarand Thailand. Colonies are usually dramatically reduced, or totally missing from the known roosts from December to April, the bats returning in May orJune; this may reflect movements to the breeding colony.","Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List, but some populations could be at risk locally due to cave-bat hunting by local people. Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a common species in limestone habitats, and populations appear to be generally stable. It is recorded in several protected areas.","Bates, Bumrungsri, Suyanto, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)",,"32.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros larvatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Horsfield/ German:Horsfield-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de HorsfieldOther common names:Horsfield’s Roundleaf Bat, Intermediate Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus larvatus Horsfield, 1823, Java, Indonesia.Hipposideros larvatusis in the larvatusspecies group. Clarification is needed of differentiating characters and geographic limits with H. grandis, particularly the taxon leptophyllus. Monotypic.Distribution.NE India, NE Bangladesh, S China(including HainanI), mainland SE Asia, Sumatra (including Simeulue, Nias, and Mentawai Is), Borneo, Java, Kangean, Bali, and many offshore Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 52-75 mm, tail 32-35 mm, ear 21-25 mm, hindfoot 7—12 mm, forearm 50—67 mm; weight 15—23 g. Greatest skull lengths are 20-4— 22-8 mm, tibia 18-4—24-8 mm. Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bat is very similar to the Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (77. grandis) but smaller. Ears are broad with pointed tip. There are three supplementary leaflets on each side of noseleaf. Posterior noseleaf is as broad as width of anterior leaf. Thickened and swollen structure behind posterior leaf is well defined in males. Pelage is dark gray-brown to orange-reddish brown. In skull, rostral chambers are well inflated. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 and C1 are large. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in the forest understory, and at edges and gaps in the vegetation.Food and Feeding.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the forest understory.Breeding.As in many other Hipposideros, females were usually found pregnant in March—May and lactating in April-July. Young were sighted attached to females at the roost in April-June.Activity patterns.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat can be found roosting in limestone or sandstone caves or man-made underground tunnels. Echolocation calls typically have F components terminating with a FM tail. The range of the frequency of the F part can be variable between populations (89-100 kHz).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies of up to 800 individuals, in caves. It is often found in the same cave with other species; for example, in Thailandit is found together with the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (77. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. pendleburyi), and the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat (77. armigef). Local movements of this species have been observed in several places in Myanmarand Thailand. Colonies are usually dramatically reduced, or totally missing from the known roosts from December to April, the bats returning in May orJune; this may reflect movements to the breeding colony.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List, but some populations could be at risk locally due to cave-bat hunting by local people. Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a common species in limestone habitats, and populations appear to be generally stable. It is recorded in several protected areas.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Suyanto, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C67AA208FF57FB47FB1E4E1A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,239,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA208FF57FB47FB1E4E1A.xml,Hipposideros grandis,Hipposideros,grandis,G. M. Allen,1936,Grande Phyllorhine @fr | Grosse Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido grande @es | Grand Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros larvatits grandis G. M. Allen, 1936, “Akanti [= Hkamti], upper Chindwin River, Upper Burma[= Myanmar], 500 feet[= 152 m].”Hipposideros grandisis in the larvatusspecies group (5 species). Taxonomic status of this species needs further revision for the clarification of differentiating characters and geographic limits with H. larvatus, particularly the taxon leptophyllus of Assam, north-east India. Monotypic.","S China(Yunnan), Myanmar, NW Thailand, N Laos, and NW Vietnam.","Head-body 69-80 mm, tail 30-45 mm, ear 22-23 mm, hindfoot 10-15 mm, forearm 59-62 mm; weight 17-18 g. The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {H. larvatus) but generally larger. Pelage is dark brown to orange-reddish brown. There are three supplementary leaflets on each side of noseleaf. Thickened and swollen structure behind posterior leaf is well defined in males. Skull is generally similar to that of Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, but rather heavily built. Rostral chambers are gready inflated with a pronounced supraorbital depression. C1 and! are large. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row.","The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat can be found in primary forest to semideciduous forest, and disturbed habitats such as orchards. It forages in vegetation around limestone outcrops, in forest understory and open spaces in orchards.",The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in forest understory.,"In Myanmar, females were found lactating in April-May.","The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation calls typically have F components terminating with a FM tail. Based on data from upper Myanmar, near the type locality, the frequency of the F part is 86-91 kHz.","In upper Myanmar, the Grand Leafnosed Bat forms small to very large colonies of up to 300 individuals, in caves. Other species that were found in the same roosting cave include the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat (H. lankadiva) and unknown small Rhinolophus.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although the taxonomic status remains unclear, and it is usually confused with Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bat, the Grand Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to be widespread in Indochina.","Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2016) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Dobson (1874) | Francis (20.08a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005) | Thabah et al. (2006)",,"31.Grand Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros grandisFrench:Grande Phyllorhine/ German:Grosse Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido grandeOther common names:Grand Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros larvatits grandis G. M. Allen, 1936, “Akanti [= Hkamti], upper Chindwin River, Upper Burma[= Myanmar], 500 feet[= 152 m].”Hipposideros grandisis in the larvatusspecies group (5 species). Taxonomic status of this species needs further revision for the clarification of differentiating characters and geographic limits with H. larvatus, particularly the taxon leptophyllus of Assam, north-east India. Monotypic.Distribution.S China(Yunnan), Myanmar, NW Thailand, N Laos, and NW Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 69-80 mm, tail 30-45 mm, ear 22-23 mm, hindfoot 10-15 mm, forearm 59-62 mm; weight 17-18 g. The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {H. larvatus) but generally larger. Pelage is dark brown to orange-reddish brown. There are three supplementary leaflets on each side of noseleaf. Thickened and swollen structure behind posterior leaf is well defined in males. Skull is generally similar to that of Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, but rather heavily built. Rostral chambers are gready inflated with a pronounced supraorbital depression. C1 and! are large. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row.Habitat.The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat can be found in primary forest to semideciduous forest, and disturbed habitats such as orchards. It forages in vegetation around limestone outcrops, in forest understory and open spaces in orchards.Food and Feeding.The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in forest understory.Breeding.In Myanmar, females were found lactating in April-May.Activity patterns.The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation calls typically have F components terminating with a FM tail. Based on data from upper Myanmar, near the type locality, the frequency of the F part is 86-91 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In upper Myanmar, the Grand Leafnosed Bat forms small to very large colonies of up to 300 individuals, in caves. Other species that were found in the same roosting cave include the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat (H. lankadiva) and unknown small Rhinolophus.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although the taxonomic status remains unclear, and it is usually confused with Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bat, the Grand Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to be widespread in Indochina.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2016), Corbet & Hill (1992), Dobson (1874), Francis (20.08a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005),Thabah eta/. (2006)" 03BD87A2C67AA209F8A7F031FA57453A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,239,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA209F8A7F031FA57453A.xml,Hipposideros sorenseni,Hipposideros,sorenseni,Kitchener & Maryanto,1993,Phyllorhine de Sorensen @fr | Sorensen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Sorensen @es | Sorensen's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros sorenseni Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “ GuaKramat (s holy cave), Pangandaran, W[est]. Java(c. 7° 41’S, 108° 40’E).”Hipposideros sorenseniis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was initially allocated to H. larvatus. Monotypic.",Known only from the type locality in WGJava.,"Head-body 50-2-60 mm, tail 30-1-36-2 mm, ear 20-2-22-8 mm, forearm 55-4-60-2 mm. Greatest lengths of skulls are 21-1-22-1 mm, tibia 21-4-23-3 mm. Ears of Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat are large and triangular, slightly concave before reaching tip. Anterior noseleaf has small depression in center and three supplementary lateral leaflets. Nasal septum is slighdy inflated. Upper border of posterior leaf is semicircular and there are three septa forming four noticeable cells on frontal surface, delimited by three vertical septa. Pelage is brownish reddish, with whitish at base of each hair; fur is grayish in ventral part. Baculum is large and robust. Both males and females present frontal sexual sac.",Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in caves as well as over ricefields and other agricultural land. Altitudinal range is thought to be up to 1000 m.,"Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages over different types of plantation, feeding predominandy on insects.",Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms breeding colonies.,This species is a cave-dweller.,"Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bats seem to be gregarious, forming colonies of several individuals.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because this species is only found in a small area. Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been and is protected in its whole area of occurrence. Although it is abundant within its small range, the increasing disturbance of its roosts might be threatening its survival.",Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Maryanto et al. (2008) | Simmons (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/3749105/files/figure.png,"34.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros sorenseniFrench:Phyllorhine de Sorensen/ German:Sorensen-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de SorensenOther common names:Sorensen's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros sorenseni Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “ GuaKramat (s holy cave), Pangandaran, W[est]. Java(c. 7° 41’S, 108° 40’E).”Hipposideros sorenseniis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was initially allocated to H. larvatus. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in WGJava.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-2-60 mm, tail 30-1-36-2 mm, ear 20-2-22-8 mm, forearm 55-4-60-2 mm. Greatest lengths of skulls are 21-1-22-1 mm, tibia 21-4-23-3 mm. Ears of Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat are large and triangular, slightly concave before reaching tip. Anterior noseleaf has small depression in center and three supplementary lateral leaflets. Nasal septum is slighdy inflated. Upper border of posterior leaf is semicircular and there are three septa forming four noticeable cells on frontal surface, delimited by three vertical septa. Pelage is brownish reddish, with whitish at base of each hair; fur is grayish in ventral part. Baculum is large and robust. Both males and females present frontal sexual sac.Habitat.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in caves as well as over ricefields and other agricultural land. Altitudinal range is thought to be up to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages over different types of plantation, feeding predominandy on insects.Breeding.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms breeding colonies.Activity patterns.This species is a cave-dweller.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bats seem to be gregarious, forming colonies of several individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because this species is only found in a small area. Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been and is protected in its whole area of occurrence. Although it is abundant within its small range, the increasing disturbance of its roosts might be threatening its survival.Bibliography.Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Maryanto et al. (2008), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C67BA209F87BF8BBF3664DD5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA209F87BF8BBF3664DD5.xml,Hipposideros pratti,Hipposideros,pratti,Thomas,1891,Phyllorhine de Pratt @fr | Pratt-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Pratt @es | Pratt's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposiderus [sic] pratti Thomas, 1891, “Kia-ting-fu [= Kiatingfu], Western Sze-chuen [= Sichuan], China.”Hipposideros prattiis in the prattispecies group. Monotypic.","C, E & S China(including HainanI) and N Vietnam; a record from N Myanmarhas not been confirmed.","Head-body 91-110 mm, tail 50-62 mm, ear 33-38 mm, hindfoot 15-22 mm, forearm 79-89 mm.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a large Hipposideros. It has “shield” (enlarged fleshy lobes, behind posterior noseleaf) as in the Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (77. lylei), but much smaller; in females, in particular, it looks like a ridge rather than a shield. Posterior and anterior noseleaves are similar in width but notjoined. There are two lateral leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is reddish brown, and paler on ventral side. In skull, sagittal is well developed; rostral chambers are somewhat flattened, less inflated than those of the Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat and the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (77. scutinazKs). P2 is small and slightly extruded from tooth row.",,Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of primary and disturbed lowland forest.,Females with young were captured in earlyJuly.,"Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 58-62 kHz.",Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bats roost in large colonies; a maternity colony may have several hundred individuals. The species has been found in a mixed colony with the larger Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat (77. armiger).,Classified as Least Concern on 7%e IUCN Red List. Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and locally common in south China.,"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Francis & Bates (2008a) | Niu Huiling et al. (2007) | Robinson et al. (2003) | Simmons (2005) | Smith &XieYan (2008) | Zhang Libiao, Jones et al. (2009)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749111/files/figure.png,"37.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros prattiFrench:Phyllorhine de Pratt/ German:Pratt-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de PrattOther common names:Pratt's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] pratti Thomas, 1891, “Kia-ting-fu [= Kiatingfu], Western Sze-chuen [= Sichuan], China.”Hipposideros prattiis in the prattispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.C, E & S China(including HainanI) and N Vietnam; a record from N Myanmarhas not been confirmed.Descriptive notes.Head-body 91-110 mm, tail 50-62 mm, ear 33-38 mm, hindfoot 15-22 mm, forearm 79-89 mm.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a large Hipposideros. It has “shield” (enlarged fleshy lobes, behind posterior noseleaf) as in the Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (77. lylei), but much smaller; in females, in particular, it looks like a ridge rather than a shield. Posterior and anterior noseleaves are similar in width but notjoined. There are two lateral leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is reddish brown, and paler on ventral side. In skull, sagittal is well developed; rostral chambers are somewhat flattened, less inflated than those of the Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat and the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (77. scutinazKs). P2 is small and slightly extruded from tooth row.Habitat Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species.Food and Feeding.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of primary and disturbed lowland forest.Breeding.Females with young were captured in earlyJuly.Activity patterns.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 58-62 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bats roost in large colonies; a maternity colony may have several hundred individuals. The species has been found in a mixed colony with the larger Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat (77. armiger).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 7%e IUCN Red List. Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and locally common in south China.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Francis & Bates (2008a), Niu Huiling eta/. (2007), Robinson eta/. (2003), Simmons (2005), Smith &XieYan (2008), Zhang Libiao, Jones eta/. (2009)." 03BD87A2C67BA209FF35F162F5CB45F1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA209FF35F162F5CB45F1.xml,Hipposideros lylei,Hipposideros,lylei,Thomas,1913,Phyllorhine de Lyle @fr | Lyle-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Lyle @es | Shield-faced Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros lylei Thomas, 1913, “Chiengdao Cave, 50 miles[= 80 km] north of Chiengmai [= Chiang Mai, northern Thailand]. Alt. 350 m.”Hipposideros lyleiis in the prattispecies group (3 species). Monotypic.","S China(Yunnan), E & S Myanmar, W & S Thailand, N Vietnam, and Malay Peninsula; a record from Laoshas not been confirmed but the species is very likely to occur there.","Head-body 72-95 mm, tail 48-55 mm, ear 30 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 73—84 mm. The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat has enlarged fleshy lobes projecting behind posterior noseleaf. Tip is terminated into two projections around forehead. Noseleaf is very large in adult males but much smaller in females and immatures. There are two lateral leaflets on each cheek. Ears are large with triangular tip, and without antitragus. Pelage is uniformly pale gray to fight brown, or sometimes paler on ventral side. In skull, sagittal crest and zygomata are moderately developed. P2 is small and usually slightly extruded from tooth row.",Primary forest as well as some disturbed and fragmented zones in limestone areas.,The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of primary and disturbed lowland forest,"The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat has been found pregnant in February and March, and young are found attached to females in late March-April.","The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 70-75 kHz.","The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat is usually found sharing caves and mixing in the same large colonies with other large Hipposideros, such as Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (77. armiger), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (77. diadema), and Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (77.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Shieldfaced Leaf-nosed Bat is recorded in several protected areas throughout its range. However, like other South-eastAsian cave-dwelling bats, it might be at risk because of human disturbance or limestone mining, and quarrying.","Bates, Bumrungsri & Francis (2008b) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005) | Thomas et al. (2013)",,"36.Shield-faced Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros lyleiFrench:Phyllorhine de Lyle IGerman:Lyle-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de LyleOther common names:Shield-faced Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros lylei Thomas, 1913, “Chiengdao Cave, 50 miles[= 80 km] north of Chiengmai [= Chiang Mai, northern Thailand]. Alt. 350 m.”Hipposideros lyleiis in the prattispecies group (3 species). Monotypic.Distribution.S China(Yunnan), E & S Myanmar, W & S Thailand, N Vietnam, and Malay Peninsula; a record from Laoshas not been confirmed but the species is very likely to occur there.Descriptive notes.Head-body 72-95 mm, tail 48-55 mm, ear 30 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 73—84 mm. The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat has enlarged fleshy lobes projecting behind posterior noseleaf. Tip is terminated into two projections around forehead. Noseleaf is very large in adult males but much smaller in females and immatures. There are two lateral leaflets on each cheek. Ears are large with triangular tip, and without antitragus. Pelage is uniformly pale gray to fight brown, or sometimes paler on ventral side. In skull, sagittal crest and zygomata are moderately developed. P2 is small and usually slightly extruded from tooth row.Habitat.Primary forest as well as some disturbed and fragmented zones in limestone areas.Food and Feeding.The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of primary and disturbed lowland forestBreeding.The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat has been found pregnant in February and March, and young are found attached to females in late March-April.Activity patterns.The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 70-75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat is usually found sharing caves and mixing in the same large colonies with other large Hipposideros, such as Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (77. armiger), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (77. diadema), and Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (77. laruatus), but it is never abundantStatus and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Shieldfaced Leaf-nosed Bat is recorded in several protected areas throughout its range. However, like other South-eastAsian cave-dwelling bats, it might be at risk because of human disturbance or limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri & Francis (2008b), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005),Thomas eta/. (2013)." -03BD87A2C67BA209FF37F972F9854DCD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA209FF37F972F9854DCD.xml,Hipposideros sumbae,Hipposideros,sumbae,Oey,1960,Phyllorhine de Sumba @fr | Sumba-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Samba @es | Sumba Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros laruatus sumbae Oey, 1960, Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, from cave (c. 9°55’S, 120°41’E).Hipposideros sumbaeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously regarded as a subspecies of H. larvatus, but based on its smaller size it is currently considered a distinct species. Three subspecies recognized.","H s. sumbae Oey, 1960— Sumba I 77. s. rotiensis Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Roti and W Timor Is..H. s. sumbawae Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Sumbawa and FloresIs.Specimens from Savu and Semau Is have been included in this species but it is unknown to which subspecies they belong.","Tail 24-32-5 mm, ear 19-1-23-8 mm, forearm 48-57 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 19-2—21-3 mm. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. Zaraztus), having three supplementary leaflets on each cheek and also fur color similar but slightly darker; however, its skull is generally smaller. Baculum is very short, somewhat ovoid in shape, with robust basal part and two short distal prongs.","The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is found in caves and under the roofs of houses, at low elevations (below 1000 m).",The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.,No information.,Sumban Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves.,The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is suggested to roost in large colonies.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is a locally common species. However, as a cave-dwelling bat, it might be at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.","Hutson, Schütter & Suyanto (2008) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Simmons (2005)",,"35.Sumban Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros sumbaeFrench:Phyllorhine de Sumba IGerman:Sumba-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de SambaOther common names:Sumba Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros laruatus sumbae Oey, 1960, Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, from cave (c. 9°55’S, 120°41’E).Hipposideros sumbaeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously regarded as a subspecies of H. larvatus, but based on its smaller size it is currently considered a distinct species. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H s. sumbae Oey, 1960— Sumba I 77. s. rotiensis Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Roti and W Timor Is..H. s. sumbawae Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Sumbawa and FloresIs.Specimens from Savu and Semau Is have been included in this species but it is unknown to which subspecies they belong.Descriptive notes.Tail 24-32-5 mm, ear 19-1-23-8 mm, forearm 48-57 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 19-2—21-3 mm. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. Zaraztus), having three supplementary leaflets on each cheek and also fur color similar but slightly darker; however, its skull is generally smaller. Baculum is very short, somewhat ovoid in shape, with robust basal part and two short distal prongs.Habitat.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is found in caves and under the roofs of houses, at low elevations (below 1000 m).Food and Feeding.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Sumban Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is suggested to roost in large colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is a locally common species. However, as a cave-dwelling bat, it might be at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Hutson, Schütter & Suyanto (2008), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Simmons (2005)." +03BD87A2C67BA209FF37F972F9854DCD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA209FF37F972F9854DCD.xml,Hipposideros sumbae,Hipposideros,sumbae,Oey,1960,Phyllorhine de Sumba @fr | Sumba-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Samba @es | Sumba Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros laruatus sumbae Oey, 1960, Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, from cave (c. 9°55’S, 120°41’E).Hipposideros sumbaeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously regarded as a subspecies of H. larvatus, but based on its smaller size it is currently considered a distinct species. Three subspecies recognized.","H s. sumbae Oey, 1960— Sumba I 77. s. rotiensis Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Roti and W Timor Is..H. s. sumbawae Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Sumbawa and FloresIs.Specimens from Savu and Semau Is have been included in this species but it is unknown to which subspecies they belong.","Tail 24-32-5 mm, ear 19-1-23-8 mm, forearm 48-57 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 19-2—21-3 mm. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. Zaraztus), having three supplementary leaflets on each cheek and also fur color similar but slightly darker; however, its skull is generally smaller. Baculum is very short, somewhat ovoid in shape, with robust basal part and two short distal prongs.","The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is found in caves and under the roofs of houses, at low elevations (below 1000 m).",The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.,No information.,Sumban Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves.,The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is suggested to roost in large colonies.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is a locally common species. However, as a cave-dwelling bat, it might be at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.","Hutson, Schütter & Suyanto (2008) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749107/files/figure.png,"35.Sumban Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros sumbaeFrench:Phyllorhine de Sumba IGerman:Sumba-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de SambaOther common names:Sumba Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros laruatus sumbae Oey, 1960, Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, from cave (c. 9°55’S, 120°41’E).Hipposideros sumbaeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously regarded as a subspecies of H. larvatus, but based on its smaller size it is currently considered a distinct species. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H s. sumbae Oey, 1960— Sumba I 77. s. rotiensis Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Roti and W Timor Is..H. s. sumbawae Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Sumbawa and FloresIs.Specimens from Savu and Semau Is have been included in this species but it is unknown to which subspecies they belong.Descriptive notes.Tail 24-32-5 mm, ear 19-1-23-8 mm, forearm 48-57 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 19-2—21-3 mm. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. Zaraztus), having three supplementary leaflets on each cheek and also fur color similar but slightly darker; however, its skull is generally smaller. Baculum is very short, somewhat ovoid in shape, with robust basal part and two short distal prongs.Habitat.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is found in caves and under the roofs of houses, at low elevations (below 1000 m).Food and Feeding.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Sumban Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is suggested to roost in large colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is a locally common species. However, as a cave-dwelling bat, it might be at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Hutson, Schütter & Suyanto (2008), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C67BA20AF882F09AFA924472,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA20AF882F09AFA924472.xml,Hipposideros scutinares,Hipposideros,scutinares,,,Phyllorhine à blason @fr | Nasenschild-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de escudo @es | Shield-nosed Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros scutinares M. F. Robinson et al., 2003, “Ban Khankeo (formerly known as Ban Phahôm), along the upper Nam Hinboun, Bolikhamsai Province, KhammouanLimestone NBCA, Lao PDR, 17°58’N, 104°49’E.”Hipposideros scutinaresis in the prattispecies group. Monotypic.",Endemic to C Laosand adjacent C Vietnam.,"Tail 50-4—54-3 mm, ear 27*6-29* 4 mm, hindfoot 15—18* 8 mm, forearm 77*9-82* 7 mm; weight 42 g. Ears of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat are well developed, haired in one-third of their length and with a slightly concave shape below tip. On dorsum, fur is brown or orange-reddish at base, followed by a brown-yellowish color in central portion of each hair, with brown tips; in ventral part, fur is brown-reddish at base with brown-yellow tips. In middle of anterior noseleaf there is a small emargination. There are two supplementary lateral leaflets. Lateral borders of anterior and posterior leaves are joined. To rear of posterior noseleaf there is a protuberance on each side of frontal sac; shape of this protuberance reminds supplementary lateral leaflet and is more noticeable in males. Rostrum eminences are slighdy inflated.Habitat.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in caves in limestone areas, karst, and cliffs. It has also been reported in evergreen forest, and deciduous forest with bushes and bamboo. It occurs in primary forests as well as in more degraded habitats including agricultural land, such as ricefields, reaching altitudes of 160 m.Food and Feeding.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in primary forests, as well as agricultural lands and other disturbed habitats. Its diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Breeding colonies are located only in caves. No other information is known as yet about the breeding biology of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat.Activity patterns.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation call frequency of this species is c.63*6 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small geographic range. Reported only in eight areas, six in Laosand two from adjacent Vietnam. The population of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably decreasing, its population size being estimated at 10,000 individuals or less.","The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in caves in limestone areas, karst, and cliffs. It has also been reported in evergreen forest, and deciduous forest with bushes and bamboo. It occurs in primary forests as well as in more degraded habitats including agricultural land, such as ricefields, reaching altitudes of 160 m.","The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in primary forests, as well as agricultural lands and other disturbed habitats. Its diet is probably based on insects.",Breeding colonies are located only in caves. No other information is known as yet about the breeding biology of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat.,The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation call frequency of this species is c.63*6 kHz.,No information.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small geographic range. Reported only in eight areas, six in Laosand two from adjacent Vietnam. The population of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably decreasing, its population size being estimated at 10,000 individuals or less. Habitat loss could be the most important threat to this species.",Francis & Bates (2008b) | Robinson et al. (2003) | Thomas et al. (2013),https://zenodo.org/record/3749218/files/figure.png,"38.Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros scutinaresFrench:Phyllorhine à blason IGerman:Nasenschild-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de escudoOther common names:Shield-nosed Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros scutinares M. F. Robinson et al., 2003, “Ban Khankeo (formerly known as Ban Phahôm), along the upper Nam Hinboun, Bolikhamsai Province, KhammouanLimestone NBCA, Lao PDR, 17°58’N, 104°49’E.”Hipposideros scutinaresis in the prattispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C Laosand adjacent C Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Tail 50-4—54-3 mm, ear 27*6-29* 4 mm, hindfoot 15—18* 8 mm, forearm 77*9-82* 7 mm; weight 42 g. Ears of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat are well developed, haired in one-third of their length and with a slightly concave shape below tip. On dorsum, fur is brown or orange-reddish at base, followed by a brown-yellowish color in central portion of each hair, with brown tips; in ventral part, fur is brown-reddish at base with brown-yellow tips. In middle of anterior noseleaf there is a small emargination. There are two supplementary lateral leaflets. Lateral borders of anterior and posterior leaves are joined. To rear of posterior noseleaf there is a protuberance on each side of frontal sac; shape of this protuberance reminds supplementary lateral leaflet and is more noticeable in males. Rostrum eminences are slighdy inflated.Habitat.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in caves in limestone areas, karst, and cliffs. It has also been reported in evergreen forest, and deciduous forest with bushes and bamboo. It occurs in primary forests as well as in more degraded habitats including agricultural land, such as ricefields, reaching altitudes of 160 m.Food and Feeding.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in primary forests, as well as agricultural lands and other disturbed habitats. Its diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Breeding colonies are located only in caves. No other information is known as yet about the breeding biology of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat.Activity patterns.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation call frequency of this species is c.63*6 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small geographic range. Reported only in eight areas, six in Laosand two from adjacent Vietnam. The population of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably decreasing, its population size being estimated at 10,000 individuals or less. Habitat loss could be the most important threat to this species.Bibliography.Francis & Bates (2008b), Robinson et al. (2003), Thomas et al. (2013)." -03BD87A2C67CA20EF89EFC3DF79F4EBC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,237,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EF89EFC3DF79F4EBC.xml,Hipposideros alongensis,Hipposideros,alongensis,Bourret,1942,Phyllorhine d'Halong @fr | Halong-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Halong @es | Halong Bay Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Ha Long Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros larvatus alongensis Bourret, 1942, Ha Long Bay, north-east Vietnam.Hipposideros alongensisis in the armigerspecies group along (5 species). This species was initially classified as a subspecies of H. larvatus. Subsequently, it was reclassified as a distinct species by G. Topal in 1975, who then reclassified again it as a subspecies of H. turpis. The recent study of Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated through genetic analyses that the three former subspecies of H. turpisinstead constituted three different species. Two subspecies recognized.","H.a.alongensisBourret,1942—CatBaI,H.a.LongBay,NEVietnam.H. a. sungi Thong et al, 2012scattered localities in mainland NE Vietnam(Na H.a. Nature Reserve and Ba Be and Cue Phuong national parks).","Ear 18-29 mm, forearm 68-1-76 mm; weight 22-5— 35 g. The two subspecies are very similar, sungi being slightly larger than nominotypical alongensis. Pelage of the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is bicolored; fur is dark brown on dorsum, and brownish or grayish on ventral part. This species presents a well-defined antitragus. It has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in its noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf is narrower than anterior and posterior ones. Posterior leaf has a well-developed fold on upper margin, and its upperpart is wider than base. Four noticeable cells are formed by three vertical septa on frontal part. Males present a protuberance behind posterior leaf, which becomes more noticeable during breeding season. Baculum is small with fork-like bifid tip.","The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat occurs in limestone karst areas, commonly inhabiting caves and woodlands, from primary forest to more degraded habitats.",Details of its diet are unknown. The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat forages in both primary forest and disturbed woodland areas.,"The reproductive period is in summer and autumn, generally from May to September. Several females have been captured carrying their offspring during May and June, meaning that they must have given birth somewhat earlier. Males are reproductively active in August and September.","Subspecies differ in echolocation call, F part being 73-3 kHz in sungi and 79-3 kHz in alongensis.","Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats can aggregate, forming large colonies of 300-500 bats. Some authors have suggested that this species changes its roosts seasonally.","Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. As its overall range is much smaller than that previously attributed to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat, the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be less secure.","Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a) | Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012) | Topé I (1975, 1993)",,"26.Ha Long Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros alongensisFrench:Phyllorhine d'Halong/ German:Halong-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de HalongOther common names:Halong BayLeaf-nosed Bat, Ha Long Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros larvatus alongensis Bourret, 1942, Ha Long Bay, north-east Vietnam.Hipposideros alongensisis in the armigerspecies group along (5 species). This species was initially classified as a subspecies of H. larvatus. Subsequently, it was reclassified as a distinct species by G. Topal in 1975, who then reclassified again it as a subspecies of H. turpis. The recent study of Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated through genetic analyses that the three former subspecies of H. turpisinstead constituted three different species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.alongensisBourret,1942—CatBaI,H.a.LongBay,NEVietnam.H. a. sungi Thong et al, 2012scattered localities in mainland NE Vietnam(Na H.a. Nature Reserve and Ba Be and Cue Phuong national parks).Descriptive notes.Ear 18-29 mm, forearm 68-1-76 mm; weight 22-5— 35 g. The two subspecies are very similar, sungi being slightly larger than nominotypical alongensis. Pelage of the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is bicolored; fur is dark brown on dorsum, and brownish or grayish on ventral part. This species presents a well-defined antitragus. It has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in its noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf is narrower than anterior and posterior ones. Posterior leaf has a well-developed fold on upper margin, and its upperpart is wider than base. Four noticeable cells are formed by three vertical septa on frontal part. Males present a protuberance behind posterior leaf, which becomes more noticeable during breeding season. Baculum is small with fork-like bifid tip.Habitat.The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat occurs in limestone karst areas, commonly inhabiting caves and woodlands, from primary forest to more degraded habitats.Food and Feeding.Details of its diet are unknown. The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat forages in both primary forest and disturbed woodland areas.Breeding.The reproductive period is in summer and autumn, generally from May to September. Several females have been captured carrying their offspring during May and June, meaning that they must have given birth somewhat earlier. Males are reproductively active in August and September.Activity patterns.Subspecies differ in echolocation call, F part being 73-3 kHz in sungi and 79-3 kHz in alongensis.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats can aggregate, forming large colonies of 300-500 bats. Some authors have suggested that this species changes its roosts seasonally.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. As its overall range is much smaller than that previously attributed to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat, the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be less secure.Bibliography.Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a), Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012), Topé I (1975, 1993)." +03BD87A2C67CA20EF89EFC3DF79F4EBC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,237,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EF89EFC3DF79F4EBC.xml,Hipposideros alongensis,Hipposideros,alongensis,Bourret,1942,Phyllorhine d'Halong @fr | Halong-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Halong @es | Halong Bay Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Ha Long Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros larvatus alongensis Bourret, 1942, Ha Long Bay, north-east Vietnam.Hipposideros alongensisis in the armigerspecies group along (5 species). This species was initially classified as a subspecies of H. larvatus. Subsequently, it was reclassified as a distinct species by G. Topal in 1975, who then reclassified again it as a subspecies of H. turpis. The recent study of Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated through genetic analyses that the three former subspecies of H. turpisinstead constituted three different species. Two subspecies recognized.","H.a.alongensisBourret,1942—CatBaI,H.a.LongBay,NEVietnam.H. a. sungi Thong et al, 2012scattered localities in mainland NE Vietnam(Na H.a. Nature Reserve and Ba Be and Cue Phuong national parks).","Ear 18-29 mm, forearm 68-1-76 mm; weight 22-5— 35 g. The two subspecies are very similar, sungi being slightly larger than nominotypical alongensis. Pelage of the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is bicolored; fur is dark brown on dorsum, and brownish or grayish on ventral part. This species presents a well-defined antitragus. It has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in its noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf is narrower than anterior and posterior ones. Posterior leaf has a well-developed fold on upper margin, and its upperpart is wider than base. Four noticeable cells are formed by three vertical septa on frontal part. Males present a protuberance behind posterior leaf, which becomes more noticeable during breeding season. Baculum is small with fork-like bifid tip.","The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat occurs in limestone karst areas, commonly inhabiting caves and woodlands, from primary forest to more degraded habitats.",Details of its diet are unknown. The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat forages in both primary forest and disturbed woodland areas.,"The reproductive period is in summer and autumn, generally from May to September. Several females have been captured carrying their offspring during May and June, meaning that they must have given birth somewhat earlier. Males are reproductively active in August and September.","Subspecies differ in echolocation call, F part being 73-3 kHz in sungi and 79-3 kHz in alongensis.","Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats can aggregate, forming large colonies of 300-500 bats. Some authors have suggested that this species changes its roosts seasonally.","Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. As its overall range is much smaller than that previously attributed to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat, the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be less secure.","Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a) | Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012) | Topé I (1975, 1993)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749089/files/figure.png,"26.Ha Long Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros alongensisFrench:Phyllorhine d'Halong/ German:Halong-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de HalongOther common names:Halong BayLeaf-nosed Bat, Ha Long Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros larvatus alongensis Bourret, 1942, Ha Long Bay, north-east Vietnam.Hipposideros alongensisis in the armigerspecies group along (5 species). This species was initially classified as a subspecies of H. larvatus. Subsequently, it was reclassified as a distinct species by G. Topal in 1975, who then reclassified again it as a subspecies of H. turpis. The recent study of Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated through genetic analyses that the three former subspecies of H. turpisinstead constituted three different species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.alongensisBourret,1942—CatBaI,H.a.LongBay,NEVietnam.H. a. sungi Thong et al, 2012scattered localities in mainland NE Vietnam(Na H.a. Nature Reserve and Ba Be and Cue Phuong national parks).Descriptive notes.Ear 18-29 mm, forearm 68-1-76 mm; weight 22-5— 35 g. The two subspecies are very similar, sungi being slightly larger than nominotypical alongensis. Pelage of the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is bicolored; fur is dark brown on dorsum, and brownish or grayish on ventral part. This species presents a well-defined antitragus. It has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in its noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf is narrower than anterior and posterior ones. Posterior leaf has a well-developed fold on upper margin, and its upperpart is wider than base. Four noticeable cells are formed by three vertical septa on frontal part. Males present a protuberance behind posterior leaf, which becomes more noticeable during breeding season. Baculum is small with fork-like bifid tip.Habitat.The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat occurs in limestone karst areas, commonly inhabiting caves and woodlands, from primary forest to more degraded habitats.Food and Feeding.Details of its diet are unknown. The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat forages in both primary forest and disturbed woodland areas.Breeding.The reproductive period is in summer and autumn, generally from May to September. Several females have been captured carrying their offspring during May and June, meaning that they must have given birth somewhat earlier. Males are reproductively active in August and September.Activity patterns.Subspecies differ in echolocation call, F part being 73-3 kHz in sungi and 79-3 kHz in alongensis.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats can aggregate, forming large colonies of 300-500 bats. Some authors have suggested that this species changes its roosts seasonally.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. As its overall range is much smaller than that previously attributed to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat, the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be less secure.Bibliography.Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a), Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012), Topé I (1975, 1993)." 03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4AFDB5FE3C4AE4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,237,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4AFDB5FE3C4AE4.xml,Hipposideros megalotis,Hipposideros,megalotis,Heuglin,1862,Phyllorhine à grandes oreilles @fr | Grossohr-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de grandes orejas @es | Ethiopian Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Ethiopian Large-eared Roundleaf Bat @en,"PhyUarrhina megalotis Heuglin, 1862, Keren, Bogos Land, Eritrea.Hipposideros megalotisis the sole member of the megalotisspecies group, and has in the past been placed in a separate genus or subgenus, Syndesmotis. Monotypic.","Patchily recorded from the W coast of Saudi Arabia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya.","Head-body 35 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 18—25 mm, hindfoot 5-6 mm, forearm 34-39 mm; weight 5 g. Muzzle of the Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has no lateral leaflets. Frontal sac is absent Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large and, unusually for Hipposideros, they arejoined at base. Fur is reddish brown-gray dorsally, cream or whitish ventrally; an orange morph also occurs and is typically bright cinnamon in color. Dental formula is 11/2, C 1/1, P 1/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 28.","Affomontane vegetation, including bushland, wooded grassland, and arid savanna.",No information.,A pregnant female with one embryo was collected in December in Kenya.,"The Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat has been recorded roosting in a lava tube at Mount Suswa, where fewer than 100 adults were hanging from the ceiling. It is also known to use anthropogenic structures as day roosts.",No information.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat has a relatively wide distribution, although it has only rarely been observed, and never in large numbers.",Gaucher & Brosset (1990) | Happold (2013z) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hill (1963a) | Kingdon (1974) | Kock & Hillman (1975) | Largen et al. (1974) | Legendre (1982) | Patterson & Webala (2012) | Pearch et al. (2001) | Tate (1941a),https://zenodo.org/record/3749085/files/figure.png,"24.Large-eared Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros megalotisFrench:Phyllorhine à grandes oreilles IGerman:Grossohr-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de grandes orejasOther common names:Ethiopian Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat, Ethiopian Large-eared Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.PhyUarrhina megalotis Heuglin, 1862, Keren, Bogos Land, Eritrea.Hipposideros megalotisis the sole member of the megalotisspecies group, and has in the past been placed in a separate genus or subgenus, Syndesmotis. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily recorded from the W coast of Saudi Arabia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 18—25 mm, hindfoot 5-6 mm, forearm 34-39 mm; weight 5 g. Muzzle of the Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has no lateral leaflets. Frontal sac is absent Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large and, unusually for Hipposideros, they arejoined at base. Fur is reddish brown-gray dorsally, cream or whitish ventrally; an orange morph also occurs and is typically bright cinnamon in color. Dental formula is 11/2, C 1/1, P 1/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 28.Habitat.Affomontane vegetation, including bushland, wooded grassland, and arid savanna.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A pregnant female with one embryo was collected in December in Kenya.Activity patterns.The Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat has been recorded roosting in a lava tube at Mount Suswa, where fewer than 100 adults were hanging from the ceiling. It is also known to use anthropogenic structures as day roosts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat has a relatively wide distribution, although it has only rarely been observed, and never in large numbers.Bibliography.Gaucher & Brosset (1990), Happold (2013z), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hill (1963a), Kingdon (1974), Kock & Hillman (1975), Largen et al. (1974), Legendre (1982), Patterson & Webala (2012), Pearch et al. (2001), Tate (1941a)." -03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4BF595F4A8407C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,237,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4BF595F4A8407C.xml,Hipposideros boeadii,Hipposideros,boeadii,Bates,2007,Phyllorhine de Boeadi @fr | Boeadi-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Boeadi @es | Boeadi's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros boeadii Bateset al, 2007, “Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, South-East Sulawesi(04°22’S, 121°44’E),” Indonesia.Hipposideros boeadiiis the sole member of the boeadiispecies group. Monotypic.",Known only from type locality in SE Sulawesi.,"Tail 16-21 mm, ear 16' 8—18 mm, hindfoot 6'9—8' 7 mm, forearm 40-2-43-1 mm; weight 6-8-8-5 g.Ears of Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat are rounded. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets; inner is short whereas outer reaches midline anteriorly. Tail is very short. Hair is uniformly reddish brown. Rostrum is moderately inflated with slight depression in midline. Anterior and posteromedial rostral chambers are equally inflated. Zygoma is broad and robust.Jugal bone has well-developed dorsal projection. Sagittal crest is well developed anteriorly. C1 is moderately large. P2 is very small and extruded, so C1 and P4 are almost in contact. Dental formula for all members of this genus (except the Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat, Hipposideros megalotis) is 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.","Lowland rainforests. The forest where individuals were captured was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge had a high incidence of bamboo and rattan. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat was found in the same area as New GuineaBroad-eared Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus euryotis), SulawesiHorseshoe Bats (AE celebensis), Fawncolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. ceruinus), H. cf. ater, Hardwicke’s Woolly Bats {Kerivoula hardwickii), Papillose Woolly Bats (K. papillosa), Peters’s Trumpet-eared Bats (Phoniscus jagorii), and FloresTube-nosed Bats (Murinaflorium).",Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of lowland rainforest.,No information.,"Echolocation calls are typical CF, with frequency of maximum energy of the F portion of 116-6 kHz (114-2—118-3 kHz). Duration of F portion is 2-5-4 milliseconds, whereas the duration of the FM tail is of 1-1-5 milliseconds.",No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known from the single record of seven specimens collected from the type locality.","Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Chiozza & Bates (2016)",,"25.Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros boeadiiFrench:Phyllorhine de Boeadi IGerman:Boeadi-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de BoeadiOther common names:Boeadi's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros boeadii Bateset al, 2007, “Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, South-East Sulawesi(04°22’S, 121°44’E),” Indonesia.Hipposideros boeadiiis the sole member of the boeadiispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from type locality in SE Sulawesi.Descriptive notes.Tail 16-21 mm, ear 16' 8—18 mm, hindfoot 6'9—8' 7 mm, forearm 40-2-43-1 mm; weight 6-8-8-5 g.Ears of Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat are rounded. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets; inner is short whereas outer reaches midline anteriorly. Tail is very short. Hair is uniformly reddish brown. Rostrum is moderately inflated with slight depression in midline. Anterior and posteromedial rostral chambers are equally inflated. Zygoma is broad and robust.Jugal bone has well-developed dorsal projection. Sagittal crest is well developed anteriorly. C1 is moderately large. P2 is very small and extruded, so C1 and P4 are almost in contact. Dental formula for all members of this genus (except the Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat, Hipposideros megalotis) is 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Lowland rainforests. The forest where individuals were captured was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge had a high incidence of bamboo and rattan. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat was found in the same area as New GuineaBroad-eared Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus euryotis), SulawesiHorseshoe Bats (AE celebensis), Fawncolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. ceruinus), H. cf. ater, Hardwicke’s Woolly Bats {Kerivoula hardwickii), Papillose Woolly Bats (K. papillosa), Peters’s Trumpet-eared Bats (Phoniscus jagorii), and FloresTube-nosed Bats (Murinaflorium).Food and Feeding.Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of lowland rainforest.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Echolocation calls are typical CF, with frequency of maximum energy of the F portion of 116-6 kHz (114-2—118-3 kHz). Duration of F portion is 2-5-4 milliseconds, whereas the duration of the FM tail is of 1-1-5 milliseconds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known from the single record of seven specimens collected from the type locality.Bibliography.Bates, Rossiter eta/. (2007), Chiozza & Bates (2016)." -03BD87A2C67CA20FF899F1F9FC2A4A21,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,237,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20FF899F1F9FC2A4A21.xml,Hipposideros armiger,Hipposideros,armiger,Hodgson,1835,Phyllorhine de @fr | 'Himalaya @en | Grosse Himalaya-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Himalaya @es | Great Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Great Roundleaf Bat @en,"Rhinolphus [sic] armiger Hodgson, 1835, “Nipal [= Nepal].”Hipposideros armigeris in the armigerspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","H. a. armiger Hodgson, 1835-N India, Nepal, Myanmar, C & S China(including HainanI), and mainland SE Asia except Vietnam.H. a. fujianensis Zhen, 1987-SE China(Fujian).H. a. terasensis Kishida, 1924— TaiwanI.On following pages: 28. Griffin's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosgriffin/}; 29. Pendlebury's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros grandis}; 32. Horsfield's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros larvatus}; 33. Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros maduraesumbae}; 36. Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lylei}; 37. Pratt's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros pratti}; 38. 40. Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema}; 41. Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros dinops}; 42. Crested Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lankadiva}; 45. Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lekaguli}; 46. Peleng Leaf-nosed pendleburyi); 30. Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros turpis}; 31. Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros}; 34. Sorensen's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderossorensenl); 35. Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosShield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros scutinares}; 39. MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros demissus}; Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inexpectatus}; 43. Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inornatus}; 44. Indian Bat (Hipposideros pelingensis}.H. a. traninhensis Bourret, 1942— Vietnam.","Head—body 80— 110 mm, tail 48-70 mm, ear 30-35 mm, hindfoot 13-17 mm, forearm 85—103 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat are large and have a pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long, with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, outer one being very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are gready inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations.","The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mostly o leoptera and Hymenoptera, in forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fast in open spaces, perhaps while commuting to and from foraging sites.",Females were found pregnant from January to early May. Young Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats were seen attached to females in the roost from February to June.,"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat often roosts in large numbers in caves. Its echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65—75 kHz.","The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c. 10-20 cm from other individuals. It is often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros species, such as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-feced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.,"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Hughes et al. (2010) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)",,"27.Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros armigerFrench:Phyllorhine de I'Himalaya IGerman:Grosse Himalaya-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de HimalayaOther common names:Great Leaf-nosed Bat, Great Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolphus [sic] armiger Hodgson, 1835, “Nipal [= Nepal].”Hipposideros armigeris in the armigerspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. a. armiger Hodgson, 1835-N India, Nepal, Myanmar, C & S China(including HainanI), and mainland SE Asia except Vietnam.H. a. fujianensis Zhen, 1987-SE China(Fujian).H. a. terasensis Kishida, 1924— TaiwanI.On following pages: 28. Griffin's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosgriffin/}; 29. Pendlebury's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros grandis}; 32. Horsfield's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros larvatus}; 33. Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros maduraesumbae}; 36. Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lylei}; 37. Pratt's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros pratti}; 38. 40. Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema}; 41. Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros dinops}; 42. Crested Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lankadiva}; 45. Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lekaguli}; 46. Peleng Leaf-nosed pendleburyi); 30. Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros turpis}; 31. Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros}; 34. Sorensen's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderossorensenl); 35. Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosShield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros scutinares}; 39. MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros demissus}; Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inexpectatus}; 43. Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inornatus}; 44. Indian Bat (Hipposideros pelingensis}.H. a. traninhensis Bourret, 1942— Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80— 110 mm, tail 48-70 mm, ear 30-35 mm, hindfoot 13-17 mm, forearm 85—103 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat are large and have a pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long, with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, outer one being very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are gready inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations.Food and Feeding.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mostly o leoptera and Hymenoptera, in forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fast in open spaces, perhaps while commuting to and from foraging sites.Breeding.Females were found pregnant from January to early May. Young Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats were seen attached to females in the roost from February to June.Activity patterns.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat often roosts in large numbers in caves. Its echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65—75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c. 10-20 cm from other individuals. It is often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros species, such as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-feced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Hughes eta/. (2010), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005)." +03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4BF595F4A8407C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,237,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4BF595F4A8407C.xml,Hipposideros boeadii,Hipposideros,boeadii,Bates,2007,Phyllorhine de Boeadi @fr | Boeadi-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Boeadi @es | Boeadi's Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros boeadii Bateset al, 2007, “Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, South-East Sulawesi(04°22’S, 121°44’E),” Indonesia.Hipposideros boeadiiis the sole member of the boeadiispecies group. Monotypic.",Known only from type locality in SE Sulawesi.,"Tail 16-21 mm, ear 16' 8—18 mm, hindfoot 6'9—8' 7 mm, forearm 40-2-43-1 mm; weight 6-8-8-5 g.Ears of Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat are rounded. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets; inner is short whereas outer reaches midline anteriorly. Tail is very short. Hair is uniformly reddish brown. Rostrum is moderately inflated with slight depression in midline. Anterior and posteromedial rostral chambers are equally inflated. Zygoma is broad and robust.Jugal bone has well-developed dorsal projection. Sagittal crest is well developed anteriorly. C1 is moderately large. P2 is very small and extruded, so C1 and P4 are almost in contact. Dental formula for all members of this genus (except the Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat, Hipposideros megalotis) is 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.","Lowland rainforests. The forest where individuals were captured was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge had a high incidence of bamboo and rattan. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat was found in the same area as New GuineaBroad-eared Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus euryotis), SulawesiHorseshoe Bats (AE celebensis), Fawncolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. ceruinus), H. cf. ater, Hardwicke’s Woolly Bats {Kerivoula hardwickii), Papillose Woolly Bats (K. papillosa), Peters’s Trumpet-eared Bats (Phoniscus jagorii), and FloresTube-nosed Bats (Murinaflorium).",Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of lowland rainforest.,No information.,"Echolocation calls are typical CF, with frequency of maximum energy of the F portion of 116-6 kHz (114-2—118-3 kHz). Duration of F portion is 2-5-4 milliseconds, whereas the duration of the FM tail is of 1-1-5 milliseconds.",No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known from the single record of seven specimens collected from the type locality.","Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Chiozza & Bates (2016)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749087/files/figure.png,"25.Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros boeadiiFrench:Phyllorhine de Boeadi IGerman:Boeadi-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de BoeadiOther common names:Boeadi's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros boeadii Bateset al, 2007, “Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, South-East Sulawesi(04°22’S, 121°44’E),” Indonesia.Hipposideros boeadiiis the sole member of the boeadiispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from type locality in SE Sulawesi.Descriptive notes.Tail 16-21 mm, ear 16' 8—18 mm, hindfoot 6'9—8' 7 mm, forearm 40-2-43-1 mm; weight 6-8-8-5 g.Ears of Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat are rounded. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets; inner is short whereas outer reaches midline anteriorly. Tail is very short. Hair is uniformly reddish brown. Rostrum is moderately inflated with slight depression in midline. Anterior and posteromedial rostral chambers are equally inflated. Zygoma is broad and robust.Jugal bone has well-developed dorsal projection. Sagittal crest is well developed anteriorly. C1 is moderately large. P2 is very small and extruded, so C1 and P4 are almost in contact. Dental formula for all members of this genus (except the Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat, Hipposideros megalotis) is 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Lowland rainforests. The forest where individuals were captured was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge had a high incidence of bamboo and rattan. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat was found in the same area as New GuineaBroad-eared Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus euryotis), SulawesiHorseshoe Bats (AE celebensis), Fawncolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. ceruinus), H. cf. ater, Hardwicke’s Woolly Bats {Kerivoula hardwickii), Papillose Woolly Bats (K. papillosa), Peters’s Trumpet-eared Bats (Phoniscus jagorii), and FloresTube-nosed Bats (Murinaflorium).Food and Feeding.Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of lowland rainforest.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Echolocation calls are typical CF, with frequency of maximum energy of the F portion of 116-6 kHz (114-2—118-3 kHz). Duration of F portion is 2-5-4 milliseconds, whereas the duration of the FM tail is of 1-1-5 milliseconds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known from the single record of seven specimens collected from the type locality.Bibliography.Bates, Rossiter eta/. (2007), Chiozza & Bates (2016)." +03BD87A2C67CA20FF899F1F9FC2A4A21,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,237,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20FF899F1F9FC2A4A21.xml,Hipposideros armiger,Hipposideros,armiger,Hodgson,1835,Phyllorhine de @fr | 'Himalaya @en | Grosse Himalaya-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Himalaya @es | Great Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Great Roundleaf Bat @en,"Rhinolphus [sic] armiger Hodgson, 1835, “Nipal [= Nepal].”Hipposideros armigeris in the armigerspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","H. a. armiger Hodgson, 1835-N India, Nepal, Myanmar, C & S China(including HainanI), and mainland SE Asia except Vietnam.H. a. fujianensis Zhen, 1987-SE China(Fujian).H. a. terasensis Kishida, 1924— TaiwanI.On following pages: 28. Griffin's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosgriffin/}; 29. Pendlebury's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros grandis}; 32. Horsfield's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros larvatus}; 33. Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros maduraesumbae}; 36. Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lylei}; 37. Pratt's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros pratti}; 38. 40. Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema}; 41. Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros dinops}; 42. Crested Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lankadiva}; 45. Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lekaguli}; 46. Peleng Leaf-nosed pendleburyi); 30. Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros turpis}; 31. Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros}; 34. Sorensen's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderossorensenl); 35. Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosShield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros scutinares}; 39. MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros demissus}; Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inexpectatus}; 43. Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inornatus}; 44. Indian Bat (Hipposideros pelingensis}.H. a. traninhensis Bourret, 1942— Vietnam.","Head—body 80— 110 mm, tail 48-70 mm, ear 30-35 mm, hindfoot 13-17 mm, forearm 85—103 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat are large and have a pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long, with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, outer one being very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are gready inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations.","The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mostly o leoptera and Hymenoptera, in forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fast in open spaces, perhaps while commuting to and from foraging sites.",Females were found pregnant from January to early May. Young Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats were seen attached to females in the roost from February to June.,"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat often roosts in large numbers in caves. Its echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65—75 kHz.","The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c. 10-20 cm from other individuals. It is often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros species, such as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-feced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.,"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Hughes et al. (2010) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6470379/files/figure.png,"27.Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros armigerFrench:Phyllorhine de I'Himalaya IGerman:Grosse Himalaya-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de HimalayaOther common names:Great Leaf-nosed Bat, Great Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolphus [sic] armiger Hodgson, 1835, “Nipal [= Nepal].”Hipposideros armigeris in the armigerspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. a. armiger Hodgson, 1835-N India, Nepal, Myanmar, C & S China(including HainanI), and mainland SE Asia except Vietnam.H. a. fujianensis Zhen, 1987-SE China(Fujian).H. a. terasensis Kishida, 1924— TaiwanI.On following pages: 28. Griffin's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosgriffin/}; 29. Pendlebury's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros grandis}; 32. Horsfield's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros larvatus}; 33. Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros maduraesumbae}; 36. Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lylei}; 37. Pratt's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros pratti}; 38. 40. Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema}; 41. Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros dinops}; 42. Crested Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lankadiva}; 45. Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lekaguli}; 46. Peleng Leaf-nosed pendleburyi); 30. Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros turpis}; 31. Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros}; 34. Sorensen's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderossorensenl); 35. Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosShield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros scutinares}; 39. MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros demissus}; Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inexpectatus}; 43. Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inornatus}; 44. Indian Bat (Hipposideros pelingensis}.H. a. traninhensis Bourret, 1942— Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80— 110 mm, tail 48-70 mm, ear 30-35 mm, hindfoot 13-17 mm, forearm 85—103 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat are large and have a pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long, with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, outer one being very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are gready inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations.Food and Feeding.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mostly o leoptera and Hymenoptera, in forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fast in open spaces, perhaps while commuting to and from foraging sites.Breeding.Females were found pregnant from January to early May. Young Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats were seen attached to females in the roost from February to June.Activity patterns.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat often roosts in large numbers in caves. Its echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65—75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c. 10-20 cm from other individuals. It is often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros species, such as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-feced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Hughes eta/. (2010), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C67DA208F885F482FD224729,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,238,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67DA208F885F482FD224729.xml,Hipposideros turpis,Hipposideros,turpis,Bangs,1901,Phyllorhine des Ryukyu @fr | Ryukyu-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Ryukyu @es | Lesser Great Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Lesser Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros turpis Bangs, 1901, “Ishigaki Island, southern group of Liu Kiu Islands,’’ Japan.Hipposideros turpisis in the armigerspecies group. This species was traditionally considered to include three subspecies, turpis, alongensis, and pendleburyi. Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated that all three were distinct species. Monotypic.","Endemic to Japan, known only from Yaeyama Is (Yonaguni, Iriomote, Ishigaki, and Hateruma).","Head-body 69-88 mm, tail 42-51 mm, ear 26-5-28 mm, hindfoot 13-4— 18 mm, forearm 64—73-2 mm; weight 25—33-2 g. The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat presents an anterior noseleaf narrowed in mid part, with three depressions on its anterior border. As in the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat (H. alongensis), it presents four pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets, second pair being most developed. Intermediate leaf is attached with inflated intemarial septum. Posterior leaf is narrower than intermediate, and presents four noticeable cells on frontal surface, separated by three vertical septa. Dorsal fur is brownish reddish, ventral fur is paler. Baculum is short and inverted-Y-shaped.","The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is known to inhabit limestone caves, unused mines and even air-raid shelters in the Yaeyama Islands.",Diet of the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based mainly on insects.,"Female Lesser Leaf-nosed Bats give birth from mid-May to midJune, depending on the temperature and climatic conditions between February and May. The mating period occurs some weeks after the birth of the previous offspring.",Call frequency ranges at 77-4-83-6 kHz.,"The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is normally gregarious, forming large colonies of up to 10,000 individuals..","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, when the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat was still thought to comprise three subspecies. No assessments of their conservation status have yet been carried out since the three subspecies were reclassified as distinct species. As this species was initially listed as Near Threatened, the current status should be, at least, within the same category, although its more restricted range probably suggests a more precarious status. The main threat to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat might be disturbance of caves and other roosts. It has been reported that on Iriomote Island, the principal breeding colonies have been visited by people for several years; in addition, this species is also threatened by forest clearance, wood extraction and the expansion of agricultural lands. Strong declines have been reported on other islands of the archipelago. Collection of new data and further research are needed to understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.","Abe et al. (2005) | Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a) | Ohdachi et al. (2009) | Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012)",,"30.Lesser Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros turpisFrench:Phyllorhine des Ryukyu IGerman:Ryukyu-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de RyukyuOther common names:Lesser Great Leaf-nosed Bat, Lesser Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros turpis Bangs, 1901, “Ishigaki Island, southern group of Liu Kiu Islands,’’ Japan.Hipposideros turpisis in the armigerspecies group. This species was traditionally considered to include three subspecies, turpis, alongensis, and pendleburyi. Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated that all three were distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Japan, known only from Yaeyama Is (Yonaguni, Iriomote, Ishigaki, and Hateruma).Descriptive notes.Head-body 69-88 mm, tail 42-51 mm, ear 26-5-28 mm, hindfoot 13-4— 18 mm, forearm 64—73-2 mm; weight 25—33-2 g. The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat presents an anterior noseleaf narrowed in mid part, with three depressions on its anterior border. As in the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat (H. alongensis), it presents four pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets, second pair being most developed. Intermediate leaf is attached with inflated intemarial septum. Posterior leaf is narrower than intermediate, and presents four noticeable cells on frontal surface, separated by three vertical septa. Dorsal fur is brownish reddish, ventral fur is paler. Baculum is short and inverted-Y-shaped.Habitat.The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is known to inhabit limestone caves, unused mines and even air-raid shelters in the Yaeyama Islands.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based mainly on insects.Breeding.Female Lesser Leaf-nosed Bats give birth from mid-May to midJune, depending on the temperature and climatic conditions between February and May. The mating period occurs some weeks after the birth of the previous offspring.Activity patterns.Call frequency ranges at 77-4-83-6 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is normally gregarious, forming large colonies of up to 10,000 individuals..Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, when the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat was still thought to comprise three subspecies. No assessments of their conservation status have yet been carried out since the three subspecies were reclassified as distinct species. As this species was initially listed as Near Threatened, the current status should be, at least, within the same category, although its more restricted range probably suggests a more precarious status. The main threat to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat might be disturbance of caves and other roosts. It has been reported that on Iriomote Island, the principal breeding colonies have been visited by people for several years; in addition, this species is also threatened by forest clearance, wood extraction and the expansion of agricultural lands. Strong declines have been reported on other islands of the archipelago. Collection of new data and further research are needed to understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.Bibliography Abe et al. (2005), Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a), Ohdachi et al. (2009), Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012)." 03BD87A2C67DA20FF87DFECAF79849EC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,238,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67DA20FF87DFECAF79849EC.xml,Hipposideros pendleburyi,Hipposideros,pendleburyi,Chasen,1936,Phyllorhine de Pendlebury @fr | Pendlebury-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Pendlebury @es | Pendlebury’s Roundleaf Bat @en,"Hipposideros pendleburyi Chasen, 1936, “cave near the foot of Khao Ram, Nakon Sri Tamarat, Peninsular Siam[= Thailand].”Hipposideros pendleburyiis in the armigerspecies group. Monotypic.",Peninsular Thailand.,"Tail 48-70 mm, ear 30—35 mm, forearm 75—81 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat re large with pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, with outer one very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are greatly inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact.","Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations.","Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, in the forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fest in open spaces, possibly commuting to and from foraging sites.",Females were found pregnant fromJanuary to early May. Young were sighted attached to females in the roost from February to June.,"Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, often in large numbers. Echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65-75 kHz.","Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c.10-20 cm from other individuals. They are often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros speciessuch as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (Ä diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).","Notassessed on The IUCNRed List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.",Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Puechmaille et a/. (2009) | Simmons (2005),,"29.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pendleburyiFrench:Phyllorhine de Pendlebury/ German:Pendlebury-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de PendleburyOther common names:Pendlebury’s Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros pendleburyi Chasen, 1936, “cave near the foot of Khao Ram, Nakon Sri Tamarat, Peninsular Siam[= Thailand].”Hipposideros pendleburyiis in the armigerspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Peninsular Thailand.Descriptive notes.Tail 48-70 mm, ear 30—35 mm, forearm 75—81 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat re large with pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, with outer one very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are greatly inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact.Habitat.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations.Food and Feeding.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, in the forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fest in open spaces, possibly commuting to and from foraging sites.Breeding.Females were found pregnant fromJanuary to early May. Young were sighted attached to females in the roost from February to June.Activity patterns.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, often in large numbers. Echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65-75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c.10-20 cm from other individuals. They are often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros speciessuch as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (Ä diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCNRed List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Puechmaille et a/. (2009), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C67DA20FFF31F64EFB1C5151,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,238,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67DA20FFF31F64EFB1C5151.xml,Hipposideros griffini,Hipposideros,griffini,"Thong, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Dietz, Csorba, Bates, Teeling & Schnitzler",2012,Phyllorhine de Griffin @fr | Griffin-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Griffin @es | Griffin's Roundleaf Bat @en,"HipposiderosgriffiniThong et aL, 2012, “Cat Ba National Park, Cat Ba Island, Ha Long Bay, Vietnam, 20°48’N, 107°0TE, 248 mabove sea level (m a.s.l.).”Hipposideros griffiniis in the armigerspecies group. Monotypic.","NE & C Vietnam, known only from Cat Ba I, Ha Long Bay (Haiphong Province) and Chu Mom Ray National Park (Kon Turn Province).","Ear 27-5-30 mm, hindfoot 14-1-15-8 mm, forearm 83-3-90 mm; weight 44 g. Pelage of Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat is brownish or grayish, being darker on dorsum than on ventral area; on each hair, distal part is also darker than basal portion. This species presents four pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Second pair of leaflets is longest and widest. Fourth pair of leaflets is shortest and least pronounced, whereas posterior part of third leaflet is merged with an excrescence. Upper edge of posterior leaf is cusp-shaped. Ears are triangular and tail is long. Males present a noticeable excrescence and a sexual sac, which become more pronounced during breeding season.","Both primary and degraded forest. Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in karstic mountain areas, as well as in lowlands.","Foraging behavior and diet are still unknown for Griffin’s Leafnosed Bat, but it probably forages in primary as well as disturbed forests; its diet may be based on insects.",One young was captured in June. Males have been reported breeding in August at Chu Mom Ray National Park.,"Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported roosting in rock piles, crevices, caves, old mines, and hollow trees. Echolocation call frequency is c.76-6— 79-2 kHz.",Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts alone or in pairs.,Notassessed on 7%e IUCNRed List due to its recent recognition as a species. More research on the ecology and population size and trends of Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat is needed to permit the establishment of adequate conservation and management measures.,"Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Dietz et al. (2012)",,"28.Griffin’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros griffiniFrench:Phyllorhine de Griffin/ German:Griffin-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de GriffinOther common names:Griffin's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.HipposiderosgriffiniThong et aL, 2012, “Cat Ba National Park, Cat Ba Island, Ha Long Bay, Vietnam, 20°48’N, 107°0TE, 248 mabove sea level (m a.s.l.).”Hipposideros griffiniis in the armigerspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.NE & C Vietnam, known only from Cat Ba I, Ha Long Bay (Haiphong Province) and Chu Mom Ray National Park (Kon Turn Province).Descriptive notes.Ear 27-5-30 mm, hindfoot 14-1-15-8 mm, forearm 83-3-90 mm; weight 44 g. Pelage of Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat is brownish or grayish, being darker on dorsum than on ventral area; on each hair, distal part is also darker than basal portion. This species presents four pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Second pair of leaflets is longest and widest. Fourth pair of leaflets is shortest and least pronounced, whereas posterior part of third leaflet is merged with an excrescence. Upper edge of posterior leaf is cusp-shaped. Ears are triangular and tail is long. Males present a noticeable excrescence and a sexual sac, which become more pronounced during breeding season.Habitat.Both primary and degraded forest. Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in karstic mountain areas, as well as in lowlands.Food and Feeding.Foraging behavior and diet are still unknown for Griffin’s Leafnosed Bat, but it probably forages in primary as well as disturbed forests; its diet may be based on insects.Breeding.One young was captured in June. Males have been reported breeding in August at Chu Mom Ray National Park.Activity patterns.Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported roosting in rock piles, crevices, caves, old mines, and hollow trees. Echolocation call frequency is c.76-6— 79-2 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts alone or in pairs.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on 7%e IUCNRed List due to its recent recognition as a species. More research on the ecology and population size and trends of Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat is needed to permit the establishment of adequate conservation and management measures.Bibliography.Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Dietz et al. (2012)" 03BD87A2C67EA20CF8A3F817F2CE4DB8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,235,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67EA20CF8A3F817F2CE4DB8.xml,Anthops omatus,Anthops,omatus,Thomas,1888,Anthopse des Salomen @fr | Blumennasenfledermaus @de | Anthops de Salomon @es | lower-faced Bat @en,"Anthops omatus Thomas, 1888, “Aola, Guadalcanar [= GuadalcanalIsland], Solomon Islands.”This species is monotypic.","Solomon Is (Buka, Bougainville, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, Florida, and Guadacanal).","Head—body 46-6— 61 mm, tail 3-6-5 mm, ear 16-5-22 mm, hindfoot 9-5— 11 mm, forearm 48—53 mm; weight 8 g. The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat has complex noseleaf with two supplementary leaflets and tridentate margin in posterior leaf, which is composed of three projections that rise, forming spherical cups. Tail is short, not reaching half of external border of membrane. On dorsum, base of pelage is black turning to silver and finishing again with black; fur of ventral part is also black-based changing to silver. Dental formula is I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.","Reported in primary lowland tropical forest as well as around human villages, flying close to buildings and houses. It can occur from sea level up to 200 m.",The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be a foliage-gleaning insectivore.,"Females probably give birth around November, as a female with a neonate was captured in this month.","The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat has not yet been encountered roosting in caves, and may be a tree-dweller. Echolocation call frequency is c.75 kHz.",No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. Population size and trends of the Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat are not yet known. Even so, there is probably not a strong fragmentation of its population. There seem to be no major threats to this species, although it might be increasingly affected by habitat loss. More research is needed to assess and study its population status and ecology.",Bonaccorso (1998) | Collen (2012) | Hamilton (2008a) | Lavery et al. (2013) | Miller (1907),https://zenodo.org/record/3749083/files/figure.png,"23.Solomons Leaf-nosed BatAnthops omatusFrench:Anthopse des Salomen/ German:Blumennasenfledermaus/ Spanish:Anthops de SalomonOther common names:lower-faced BatTaxonomy.Anthops omatus Thomas, 1888, “Aola, Guadalcanar [= GuadalcanalIsland], Solomon Islands.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Solomon Is (Buka, Bougainville, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, Florida, and Guadacanal).Descriptive notes.Head—body 46-6— 61 mm, tail 3-6-5 mm, ear 16-5-22 mm, hindfoot 9-5— 11 mm, forearm 48—53 mm; weight 8 g. The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat has complex noseleaf with two supplementary leaflets and tridentate margin in posterior leaf, which is composed of three projections that rise, forming spherical cups. Tail is short, not reaching half of external border of membrane. On dorsum, base of pelage is black turning to silver and finishing again with black; fur of ventral part is also black-based changing to silver. Dental formula is I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Reported in primary lowland tropical forest as well as around human villages, flying close to buildings and houses. It can occur from sea level up to 200 m.Food and Feeding.The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be a foliage-gleaning insectivore.Breeding.Females probably give birth around November, as a female with a neonate was captured in this month.Activity patterns.The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat has not yet been encountered roosting in caves, and may be a tree-dweller. Echolocation call frequency is c.75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. Population size and trends of the Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat are not yet known. Even so, there is probably not a strong fragmentation of its population. There seem to be no major threats to this species, although it might be increasingly affected by habitat loss. More research is needed to assess and study its population status and ecology.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Collen (2012), Hamilton (2008a), Lavery eta/. (2013), Miller (1907)." -03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5BFDBBFB7848A4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,235,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5BFDBBFB7848A4.xml,Coelops frithii,Coelops,frithii,Blyth,1848,East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat Coelops frithii @en | Phyllorhine de rith @fr | Ostasiatische Schwanzlose Blattnase @de | Coelopsde rith @es | East Asian Tailless Roundleaf Bat @en | Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Coelops jrithii Blyth, 1848, “Soonderbuns [= Sunderbans] of Lower Bengal,” India.Taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as diagnostic and geographical limits of each taxon are still unclear. Five subspecies are currendy recognized.","C. f. jrithii Blyth, 1848-NE India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and possibly N Thailand. C. f. bemsteini Peters, 1862— Sumatra, Java, and Bali.C.f. formosanus Horikawa, 1928— TaiwanI.C. f. inflatus G. S. Miller, 1928-SE & S China(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.C. f. sinicus G. M. Allen, 1928— C China(Sichuan) Specimens from Malay Peninsula are not yet assigned to any subspecies.","Head—body 38-50 mm, forearm 34 44 mm; weight 3-7 g. Ears of the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat are very large and rounded with antitragus at base. Noseleaf is distinct, with a large anterior leaf that covers muzzle, and divided by deep median emargination. There are two well developed supplementary lappets, rounded and elongated, projecting forwards under anterior leaf and extending beyond muzzle. Intermediate leaf possesses moderately developed median process. Pelage is long and soft, dark gray, or brown to chestnut-brown on dorsal side; ventral side is paler, brownish or ashy gray. Tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small; braincase is bulbous. In contrast to Hipposideros species, rostral swellings are flattened. Zygoma is without dorsal process. C1 is large, with well-developed posterior cusp. P2 is small and lies within the tooth row. Baculum is very small, with a bilobed base and slightly expanded tip. Dental formula for all members of Coelopsis I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.",Associated with forest habitats. Recorded from sea level up to 1370 m.,"The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous. Its highfrequency echolocation suggests that its prey is probably small insects, captured within cluttered space of forest habitats; prey also captured very close to water surface.",No information.,"The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollow trees. Echolocation is of very high frequency, 350 kHz.",East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies of 16 individuals or less.,Classified as Least Concern on T/ie IUCN Red List. The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively widespread species but rather rare.,"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Molur (2008) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)",,"21.East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosedBat Coelops frithiiFrench:Phyllorhine de rith/ German:Ostasiatische Schwanzlose Blattnase/ Spanish:Coelopsde rithOther common names:East Asian Tailless Roundleaf Bat, Tailless Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Coelops jrithii Blyth, 1848, “Soonderbuns [= Sunderbans] of Lower Bengal,” India.Taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as diagnostic and geographical limits of each taxon are still unclear. Five subspecies are currendy recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. f. jrithii Blyth, 1848-NE India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and possibly N Thailand. C. f. bemsteini Peters, 1862— Sumatra, Java, and Bali.C.f. formosanus Horikawa, 1928— TaiwanI.C. f. inflatus G. S. Miller, 1928-SE & S China(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.C. f. sinicus G. M. Allen, 1928— C China(Sichuan) Specimens from Malay Peninsula are not yet assigned to any subspecies.Descriptive notes.Head—body 38-50 mm, forearm 34 44 mm; weight 3-7 g. Ears of the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat are very large and rounded with antitragus at base. Noseleaf is distinct, with a large anterior leaf that covers muzzle, and divided by deep median emargination. There are two well developed supplementary lappets, rounded and elongated, projecting forwards under anterior leaf and extending beyond muzzle. Intermediate leaf possesses moderately developed median process. Pelage is long and soft, dark gray, or brown to chestnut-brown on dorsal side; ventral side is paler, brownish or ashy gray. Tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small; braincase is bulbous. In contrast to Hipposideros species, rostral swellings are flattened. Zygoma is without dorsal process. C1 is large, with well-developed posterior cusp. P2 is small and lies within the tooth row. Baculum is very small, with a bilobed base and slightly expanded tip. Dental formula for all members of Coelopsis I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Associated with forest habitats. Recorded from sea level up to 1370 m.Food and Feeding.The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous. Its highfrequency echolocation suggests that its prey is probably small insects, captured within cluttered space of forest habitats; prey also captured very close to water surface.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollow trees. Echolocation is of very high frequency, 350 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies of 16 individuals or less.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on T/ie IUCN Red List. The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively widespread species but rather rare.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Molur (2008), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005)." +03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5BFDBBFB7848A4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,235,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5BFDBBFB7848A4.xml,Coelops frithii,Coelops,frithii,Blyth,1848,East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat Coelops frithii @en | Phyllorhine de rith @fr | Ostasiatische Schwanzlose Blattnase @de | Coelopsde rith @es | East Asian Tailless Roundleaf Bat @en | Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat @en,"Coelops jrithii Blyth, 1848, “Soonderbuns [= Sunderbans] of Lower Bengal,” India.Taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as diagnostic and geographical limits of each taxon are still unclear. Five subspecies are currendy recognized.","C. f. jrithii Blyth, 1848-NE India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and possibly N Thailand. C. f. bemsteini Peters, 1862— Sumatra, Java, and Bali.C.f. formosanus Horikawa, 1928— TaiwanI.C. f. inflatus G. S. Miller, 1928-SE & S China(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.C. f. sinicus G. M. Allen, 1928— C China(Sichuan) Specimens from Malay Peninsula are not yet assigned to any subspecies.","Head—body 38-50 mm, forearm 34 44 mm; weight 3-7 g. Ears of the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat are very large and rounded with antitragus at base. Noseleaf is distinct, with a large anterior leaf that covers muzzle, and divided by deep median emargination. There are two well developed supplementary lappets, rounded and elongated, projecting forwards under anterior leaf and extending beyond muzzle. Intermediate leaf possesses moderately developed median process. Pelage is long and soft, dark gray, or brown to chestnut-brown on dorsal side; ventral side is paler, brownish or ashy gray. Tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small; braincase is bulbous. In contrast to Hipposideros species, rostral swellings are flattened. Zygoma is without dorsal process. C1 is large, with well-developed posterior cusp. P2 is small and lies within the tooth row. Baculum is very small, with a bilobed base and slightly expanded tip. Dental formula for all members of Coelopsis I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.",Associated with forest habitats. Recorded from sea level up to 1370 m.,"The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous. Its highfrequency echolocation suggests that its prey is probably small insects, captured within cluttered space of forest habitats; prey also captured very close to water surface.",No information.,"The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollow trees. Echolocation is of very high frequency, 350 kHz.",East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies of 16 individuals or less.,Classified as Least Concern on T/ie IUCN Red List. The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively widespread species but rather rare.,"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Molur (2008) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3749079/files/figure.png,"21.East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosedBat Coelops frithiiFrench:Phyllorhine de rith/ German:Ostasiatische Schwanzlose Blattnase/ Spanish:Coelopsde rithOther common names:East Asian Tailless Roundleaf Bat, Tailless Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Coelops jrithii Blyth, 1848, “Soonderbuns [= Sunderbans] of Lower Bengal,” India.Taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as diagnostic and geographical limits of each taxon are still unclear. Five subspecies are currendy recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. f. jrithii Blyth, 1848-NE India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and possibly N Thailand. C. f. bemsteini Peters, 1862— Sumatra, Java, and Bali.C.f. formosanus Horikawa, 1928— TaiwanI.C. f. inflatus G. S. Miller, 1928-SE & S China(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.C. f. sinicus G. M. Allen, 1928— C China(Sichuan) Specimens from Malay Peninsula are not yet assigned to any subspecies.Descriptive notes.Head—body 38-50 mm, forearm 34 44 mm; weight 3-7 g. Ears of the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat are very large and rounded with antitragus at base. Noseleaf is distinct, with a large anterior leaf that covers muzzle, and divided by deep median emargination. There are two well developed supplementary lappets, rounded and elongated, projecting forwards under anterior leaf and extending beyond muzzle. Intermediate leaf possesses moderately developed median process. Pelage is long and soft, dark gray, or brown to chestnut-brown on dorsal side; ventral side is paler, brownish or ashy gray. Tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small; braincase is bulbous. In contrast to Hipposideros species, rostral swellings are flattened. Zygoma is without dorsal process. C1 is large, with well-developed posterior cusp. P2 is small and lies within the tooth row. Baculum is very small, with a bilobed base and slightly expanded tip. Dental formula for all members of Coelopsis I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Associated with forest habitats. Recorded from sea level up to 1370 m.Food and Feeding.The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous. Its highfrequency echolocation suggests that its prey is probably small insects, captured within cluttered space of forest habitats; prey also captured very close to water surface.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollow trees. Echolocation is of very high frequency, 350 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies of 16 individuals or less.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on T/ie IUCN Red List. The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively widespread species but rather rare.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Molur (2008), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005)." 03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5DF3D4F7BA4553,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346,235,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5DF3D4F7BA4553.xml,Coelops robinsoni,Coelops,robinsoni,Bonhote,1908,Phyllorhine de Robinson @fr | Malaiische Schwanzlose Blattnase @de | Coelops de Robinson @es | Malayan Tailless Roundleaf Bat @en,"Coelops robinsoni Bonhote, 1908, “Gunong [= Mount] Tahan at 500 ft.[= 152 m], Pahang,”Peninsular Malaysia.The taxon hirsutus of the Philippinesmay prove to be a distinct species but revision is required. Monotypic.","Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao I), Borneo.","Head-body 32-34 mm, ear 12-14 mm, forearm 34—37 mm; weight 3-5— 5 g. The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is similar to the East Asian Tailless Leafnosed Bat (C. frithii), but smaller. Anterior leaf is round and wide, with deep median emargination dividing anterior leaf into two lobes. Supplementary lappets under anterior leaf are well developed, wide and rounded, and project forward covering muzzle. Pelage is long and soft, brown to dark brown on dorsal side, and brown or slightly gray on ventral side. As in the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat, tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small with bulbous braincase. Rostral part is abruptly elevated. Upper tooth rows are almost parallel.",Primary and secondary forest,The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest understory.,No information.,The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollows of large trees.,No information.,"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is rather rare and poorly known. The species is probably affected by deforestation in many parts of its range due to logging, expanding agriculture, and plantations and fire. Population is currently declining due to widescale deforestation within its range.",Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Heaney (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Miller (1910) | Simmons (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/3749081/files/figure.png,"22.Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed BatCoelops robinsoniFrench:Phyllorhine de Robinson/ German:Malaiische Schwanzlose Blattnase/ Spanish:Coelops de RobinsonOther common names:Malayan Tailless Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Coelops robinsoni Bonhote, 1908, “Gunong [= Mount] Tahan at 500 ft.[= 152 m], Pahang,”Peninsular Malaysia.The taxon hirsutus of the Philippinesmay prove to be a distinct species but revision is required. Monotypic.Distribution.Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao I), Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 32-34 mm, ear 12-14 mm, forearm 34—37 mm; weight 3-5— 5 g. The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is similar to the East Asian Tailless Leafnosed Bat (C. frithii), but smaller. Anterior leaf is round and wide, with deep median emargination dividing anterior leaf into two lobes. Supplementary lappets under anterior leaf are well developed, wide and rounded, and project forward covering muzzle. Pelage is long and soft, brown to dark brown on dorsal side, and brown or slightly gray on ventral side. As in the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat, tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small with bulbous braincase. Rostral part is abruptly elevated. Upper tooth rows are almost parallel.Habitat.Primary and secondary forestFood and Feeding.The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest understory.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollows of large trees.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is rather rare and poorly known. The species is probably affected by deforestation in many parts of its range due to logging, expanding agriculture, and plantations and fire. Population is currently declining due to widescale deforestation within its range.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Heaney (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Miller (1910), Simmons (2005)." 03C08797A1608004DF19285BFD68F44F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5,277,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1608004DF19285BFD68F44F.xml,Anomalurus beecrofty,Anomalurus,beecrofti,Waterhouse,1843,Anomalure de Beecroft @fr | Beecroft-Dornschwanzérnchen @de | Anomaluro de Beecroft @es | Beecroft's Flying Squirrel @en | Beecroft's Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Beecroft's Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en,"Anomalurus beecrofti Fraser, 1853, “Fernando Po” (Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, West Africa).Some authors have placed A. beecroftiin the genus Anomalurops, named by P. Matschie in 1914, by itself due to various skull characteristics. Three subspecies have been recognized including beecroftifrom Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, named by L. Fraser in 1853; argenteus from Senegal to Cameroon, named by H. Schwann in 1904; and fulgensfrom Gabon, named by J. E. Gray in 1869. These subspecies typically are not recognized in recent publications. Monotypic.","Widely distributed in W & C Africa, from Senegal to Gabon, E DR Congo and Bioko I, also isolated records in NW Angola, NW Zambia, and W Uganda.","Head—body 250-310 mm, tail 160-260 mm; weight 640-660 g. Beecroft’s Anomalureis large and similar in appearance to the smaller Lesser Anomalure (A. pusillus), which has relatively uniform dorsal fur and black-tipped tail. Lord Derby’s Anomalure (A. derbianus) is also similar to Beecroft’s Anomalure, but it has black or brown eye mask, muzzle, and area surrounding ears. Dorsal pelage of Beecroft’s Anomalure is thick, fleecy, and lightly waved; fur at base of tail is smooth-haired, with a slight terminal tuft. Ventral region and underside of gliding membrane are well furred. Color varies considerably but most commonly is silver-gray on back, with a central stripe of golden brown from neck over larger part of back. Ventral side is basically grayish or yellowish; throat and chest are orange. Color variation can be defined by extent of golden brown stripe on back and amount of orange on ventral side. Beecroft’s Anomalure often has a white spot on its forehead but does not have a dark mask around eyes. Tail is narrower than in other species of anomalures and has up to nine pairs of scales on its underside at its base.","Tropical moist forest and dry forests, preferring swamp forests and areas with abundant palms. Beecroft’s Anomalures are also commonly found in disturbed forest such as cultivated groves of African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). They occur from sea level to elevations of 2500 m.","Beecroft’s Anomalures eat leaves, bark, and fruit from a variety of trees and occasionally insects. They feed on pulp offruit of the African oil palm, which they manage to access despite the protection of short spines.","Young Beecroft’s Anomalures are born singly and are carried by their mothers when they are small. There appears to be a prolonged breeding season at the end of the wet season. One pregnant female was captured in July in Cameroon; two females, each with one young, were obtained in early October and late January.","Beecroft’s Anomalures are nocturnal, and during the day, they rest in tree holes located in upper strata or hide among leaves and twigs that form densecongregations. They may also rest in junctions between palm fronds, or cling to sheltered undersides of major tree branches close to the trunk, where their mottled coat helps to camouflage them away from predators. A jaw fragment of Beecroft’s Anomalures was found in a Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) fecal sample in the Tenkere area in Sierra Leone. Other likely predators include crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), long-tailed hawks (Urotriorchis macrourus), and pythons (Pythonidae).","Beecroft’s Anomalures are typically found alone, which suggest they are solitary. The only record of a vocalization is something between a hoot and a whistle.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Beecroft’s Anomalures are difficult to observe, they appear be relatively common in suitable habitats but may be declining locally in some areas.","Allen, G.M. & Coolidge (1930) | Allen, J.A. (1922) | Alp & Kitchener (1993) | Bates (1905) | Dekeyser & Villiers (1951) | Delany (1975) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Fraser (1853) | Gray (1869) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Happold (1987) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson &Thorington (2012) | Kingdon (1997, 2013b) | Matschie (1914) | Rosevear (1969) | Sanderson (1940) | Schunke (2005) | Schwann (1904)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584336/files/figure.png,"1.Beecroft’s AnomalureAnomalurus beecroftyFrench:Anomalure de Beecroft/ German:Beecroft-Dornschwanzérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro de BeecroftOther common names:Beecroft's Flying Squirrel, Beecroft's Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Beecroft's Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Anomalurus beecrofti Fraser, 1853, “Fernando Po” (Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, West Africa).Some authors have placed A. beecroftiin the genus Anomalurops, named by P. Matschie in 1914, by itself due to various skull characteristics. Three subspecies have been recognized including beecroftifrom Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, named by L. Fraser in 1853; argenteus from Senegal to Cameroon, named by H. Schwann in 1904; and fulgensfrom Gabon, named by J. E. Gray in 1869. These subspecies typically are not recognized in recent publications. Monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in W & C Africa, from Senegal to Gabon, E DR Congo and Bioko I, also isolated records in NW Angola, NW Zambia, and W Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head—body 250-310 mm, tail 160-260 mm; weight 640-660 g. Beecroft’s Anomalureis large and similar in appearance to the smaller Lesser Anomalure (A. pusillus), which has relatively uniform dorsal fur and black-tipped tail. Lord Derby’s Anomalure (A. derbianus) is also similar to Beecroft’s Anomalure, but it has black or brown eye mask, muzzle, and area surrounding ears. Dorsal pelage of Beecroft’s Anomalure is thick, fleecy, and lightly waved; fur at base of tail is smooth-haired, with a slight terminal tuft. Ventral region and underside of gliding membrane are well furred. Color varies considerably but most commonly is silver-gray on back, with a central stripe of golden brown from neck over larger part of back. Ventral side is basically grayish or yellowish; throat and chest are orange. Color variation can be defined by extent of golden brown stripe on back and amount of orange on ventral side. Beecroft’s Anomalure often has a white spot on its forehead but does not have a dark mask around eyes. Tail is narrower than in other species of anomalures and has up to nine pairs of scales on its underside at its base.Habitat.Tropical moist forest and dry forests, preferring swamp forests and areas with abundant palms. Beecroft’s Anomalures are also commonly found in disturbed forest such as cultivated groves of African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). They occur from sea level to elevations of 2500 m.Food and Feeding.Beecroft’s Anomalures eat leaves, bark, and fruit from a variety of trees and occasionally insects. They feed on pulp offruit of the African oil palm, which they manage to access despite the protection of short spines.Breeding.Young Beecroft’s Anomalures are born singly and are carried by their mothers when they are small. There appears to be a prolonged breeding season at the end of the wet season. One pregnant female was captured in July in Cameroon; two females, each with one young, were obtained in early October and late January.Activity patterns.Beecroft’s Anomalures are nocturnal, and during the day, they rest in tree holes located in upper strata or hide among leaves and twigs that form densecongregations. They may also rest in junctions between palm fronds, or cling to sheltered undersides of major tree branches close to the trunk, where their mottled coat helps to camouflage them away from predators. A jaw fragment of Beecroft’s Anomalures was found in a Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) fecal sample in the Tenkere area in Sierra Leone. Other likely predators include crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), long-tailed hawks (Urotriorchis macrourus), and pythons (Pythonidae).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Beecroft’s Anomalures are typically found alone, which suggest they are solitary. The only record of a vocalization is something between a hoot and a whistle.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Beecroft’s Anomalures are difficult to observe, they appear be relatively common in suitable habitats but may be declining locally in some areas.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. & Coolidge (1930), Allen, J.A. (1922), Alp & Kitchener (1993), Bates (1905), Dekeyser & Villiers (1951), Delany (1975), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Fraser (1853), Gray (1869), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Happold (1987), Jackson (2012), Jackson &Thorington (2012), Kingdon (1997, 2013b), Matschie (1914), Rosevear (1969), Sanderson (1940), Schunke (2005), Schwann (1904)." 03C08797A1608005DF11265DFC59FBDE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5,277,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1608005DF11265DFC59FBDE.xml,Anomalurus derbianus,Anomalurus,derbianus,,,Anomalure de Derby @fr | Lord-Derby-Dornschwanzhérnchen @de | Anomaluro de Lord Derby @es | Derby's Flying Squirrel @en | Lord Derby's Flying Squirrel @en | Lord Derby's Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Lord Derby's Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en,"Pteromys derbianus Gray, 1842, “W. Africa, Sierra Leone.”Although numerous forms have been attributed to A. derbianus, they are junior synonyms, and no subspecies are recognized. Monotypic.","W, C & E Africa, from Sierra Leone E to Uganda and SW Kenya, and S to Tanzania, N Mozambique, N Malawi, Zambia, and N Angola, also on Bioko I.Not yet recorded in Benin where may occur and possibly on Zanzibar I.","Head-body 260-400 mm, tail 220-330 mm; weight 0-45—1-1 kg. Lord Derby’s Anomalure shows the highest variability in color in the family; it varies geographically and within populations. Lord Derby’s Anomalures range in color from more or less uniformly brownish to those with reddish backs, dark gray patagia, black ears, and silverfish stripes on nose. Head typically has a black-to-brown mask around eyes, muzzle, and surrounding the ears. Gliding membranes, which stretch between limbs and onto base of tail, are similarly colored above but black bristles reinforce edge of membrane behind elbow strut. Ventral surface is much less variable and patagium is generally white, but sometimes underside of membrane between hindlegs is brownish to blackish. Base oftail has 12-14 scales. Primary variation among Lord Derby’s Anomaluresis in gray or russet tints on back and shoulders. Face is relatively short and round; naked pinkish ears are set in a surrounding bed of dense velvet-black fur. Bristles covering hind claws are black.","Variety of forest types from moist rainforests to relatively dry savanna woodlands from sea level up to elevations of ¢.2400 m. In the south-eastern part of its wide distribution, Lord Derby’s Anomalure is known to occur in savanna woodland. Although they can be common in undisturbed forest, they may also nest within dead trees in areas that have been cleared and burned for agriculture, as long as trees are within gliding distance to nearby forest.","Bark of trunk and main branches of several genera of trees appear to be the dietary staple of Lord Derby’s Anomalure. Feeding individuals appear to focus on bark wounds caused by falling branches, elephanttusks, and growth splits. As a consequence of this feeding behavior, some trees such as beli (Julbernardiapellegriniana, Fabaceae) may lose all their bark on their trunks and main branches over a number of years. Loss of bark appears to be tolerated by the tree because they are able rapidly to regrow their cambium layer, suggesting that these rodents and trees have coevolved. Lord Derby’s Anomalures eat fruits of Carapa(Meliaceae) and Syzygium(Myrtaceae), leaves of Cynometra(Fabaceae) and Myrianthus(Moraceae), and bark of various trees, including those of the genera Neoboutonia(Euphorbiaceae) Cynometra, Pentaclethra(Fabaceae), Klainedoxa(Irvingiaceae), Carapa, Syzygium, and Strombosia (Olacaceae) and Strombosia (Olacaceae). Elsewhere, they eat fruits, flowers, leaves, nuts, and occasional insects such as ants and termites.","Breeding of Lord Derby’s Anomalures appears to be seasonal in drier areas but not in the main forest block. In some areas, females are known to segregate to give birth and rear young. Pregnant females have been taken in Cameroon in June-July when rains begin, so young are probably born toward the end of rains in September— November. Other observations in Tanzania found well-grown young in May-June during the early dry season. In Equatorial Guinea, lactating females have been collected in February-May, and in Uganda and Kenya, four births were recorded in January, two pregnancies in March, and a lactating female in May. Vaginas of pregnant females are firmly sealed with hard plugs after mating. Generally only one young is born at a time, although there are records of 2-3 young. Offspring remain on a ledge high up in a hollow tree until almost fully grown. Both parents bring offspring well-masticated food, carried in their mouth and cheeks—swollen by a wad as large as a tangerine.","Lord Derby’s Anomalure is nocturnal, with individuals resting in hollow trees during the day, preferably in virgin forest. These hollows can be up to 40 m above the ground (in some woodlands they occupy empty beehives). One radiocollared individual in Gabon had one primary nesting tree hollow and five secondary hollows. They tend to nest alone or in pairs of one female and a young. Other observations suggest that up to eight individuals may share a denning tree, but little is known about their social behavior. Lord Derby’s Anomalures also appear to be sedentary, living in the same hole all year, except when fruit is ripe in another area. Individuals retain use of their dens over very long periods, but seasonal shifts have been recorded. Along with a threatening or defensive hiss and growl, Lord Derby’s Anomalures also purr and twitter. They like to sunbathe in early morning and more rarely in the evening. Pruning in closed-canopy forest is often less frequent or conspicuous than in more open or sunlit areas. Where light breaks through close to a food tree, intense pruning of young trees may help maintain access to a ready food supply by killing or maiming competing trees and keeping flight-paths open. Night is spent moving in lower branches oftall trees and smaller growth, often not more than 9 m above the ground. While resting, a Lord Derby’s Anomalure orientatesitself with head upward and body parallel with the bole of the tree.","When leaping from one tree to another, membranes of Lord Derby's Anomalures are curved such that an individual assumes shape of a small umbrella. They prefer to land on trunks rather than branches of trees. Immediately before reaching a tree trunk, head is actually at a lower level than tail, but at the last second, forelegs are thrown back over shoulders, head comes up, and tail sweeps up to meet it over the back. An individual instantly assumes a vertical position in midair. Momentum carries it to an upright trunk, to which it instantly adheres, and it invariably commences an ascent using its front two feet together and then pulling up the two hindfeet and arching its back like a giant loop-caterpillar. Backward-directed scales at base of the tail and forwardly directed claws on hindfeet dig into the three bark, thus forming a rigid tripod to support the individual while forefeet are released and moved upward. Glides of more than 40 m by Lord Derby’s Anomalures have been recorded at an estimated glide angle of 24° from horizontal. Species of Anomaluruscan gallop up the smooth bark of a giant forest tree with great speed. Distance traveled per night averages 540 m; home range averages 3-4 ha for females and 3-3 ha for males. A radio-collared female had a home range of 3-4 ha; 50% of locations in a small central area comprised 11:3% of her home range. Densities of Lord Derby’s Anomalures are 27-54 ind/km?. Blue Monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) prey on Lord Derby’s Anomalures in Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda.On following pages: 3. Pel's Anomalure (Anomalurus pelii); 4. Lesser Anomalure (Anomalurus pusillus); 5. Long-eared Anomalure (Zenkerella insignis).Pygmy Anomalure (Idiurus macrotis); 6. Zenker's Pygmy Anomalure (/diurus zenkeri); 7.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although localized populations of Lord Derby’s Anomalures may be at risk from logging and forest clearance,it is common and widespread. It is also used in traditional medicine.","Allen (1922) | Delany (1975) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Fairgrieve (1997) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Jones (1971) | Julliot et al. (1998) | Kingdon (1974, 1997) | Rahm (1969) | Sanderson (1940) | Schunke (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584338/files/figure.png,"2.Lord Derby’s AnomalureAnomalurus derbianusFrench:Anomalure de Derby/ German:Lord-Derby-Dornschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro de Lord DerbyOther common names:Derby's Flying Squirrel, Lord Derby's Flying Squirrel, Lord Derby's Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Lord Derby's Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Pteromys derbianus Gray, 1842, “W. Africa, Sierra Leone.”Although numerous forms have been attributed to A. derbianus, they are junior synonyms, and no subspecies are recognized. Monotypic.Distribution.W, C & E Africa, from Sierra Leone E to Uganda and SW Kenya, and S to Tanzania, N Mozambique, N Malawi, Zambia, and N Angola, also on Bioko I.Not yet recorded in Benin where may occur and possibly on Zanzibar I.Descriptive notes.Head-body 260-400 mm, tail 220-330 mm; weight 0-45—1-1 kg. Lord Derby’s Anomalure shows the highest variability in color in the family; it varies geographically and within populations. Lord Derby’s Anomalures range in color from more or less uniformly brownish to those with reddish backs, dark gray patagia, black ears, and silverfish stripes on nose. Head typically has a black-to-brown mask around eyes, muzzle, and surrounding the ears. Gliding membranes, which stretch between limbs and onto base of tail, are similarly colored above but black bristles reinforce edge of membrane behind elbow strut. Ventral surface is much less variable and patagium is generally white, but sometimes underside of membrane between hindlegs is brownish to blackish. Base oftail has 12-14 scales. Primary variation among Lord Derby’s Anomaluresis in gray or russet tints on back and shoulders. Face is relatively short and round; naked pinkish ears are set in a surrounding bed of dense velvet-black fur. Bristles covering hind claws are black.Habitat.Variety of forest types from moist rainforests to relatively dry savanna woodlands from sea level up to elevations of ¢.2400 m. In the south-eastern part of its wide distribution, Lord Derby’s Anomalure is known to occur in savanna woodland. Although they can be common in undisturbed forest, they may also nest within dead trees in areas that have been cleared and burned for agriculture, as long as trees are within gliding distance to nearby forest.Food and Feeding.Bark of trunk and main branches of several genera of trees appear to be the dietary staple of Lord Derby’s Anomalure. Feeding individuals appear to focus on bark wounds caused by falling branches, elephanttusks, and growth splits. As a consequence of this feeding behavior, some trees such as beli (Julbernardiapellegriniana, Fabaceae) may lose all their bark on their trunks and main branches over a number of years. Loss of bark appears to be tolerated by the tree because they are able rapidly to regrow their cambium layer, suggesting that these rodents and trees have coevolved. Lord Derby’s Anomalures eat fruits of Carapa(Meliaceae) and Syzygium(Myrtaceae), leaves of Cynometra(Fabaceae) and Myrianthus(Moraceae), and bark of various trees, including those of the genera Neoboutonia(Euphorbiaceae) Cynometra, Pentaclethra(Fabaceae), Klainedoxa(Irvingiaceae), Carapa, Syzygium, and Strombosia (Olacaceae) and Strombosia (Olacaceae). Elsewhere, they eat fruits, flowers, leaves, nuts, and occasional insects such as ants and termites.Breeding.Breeding of Lord Derby’s Anomalures appears to be seasonal in drier areas but not in the main forest block. In some areas, females are known to segregate to give birth and rear young. Pregnant females have been taken in Cameroon in June-July when rains begin, so young are probably born toward the end of rains in September— November. Other observations in Tanzania found well-grown young in May-June during the early dry season. In Equatorial Guinea, lactating females have been collected in February-May, and in Uganda and Kenya, four births were recorded in January, two pregnancies in March, and a lactating female in May. Vaginas of pregnant females are firmly sealed with hard plugs after mating. Generally only one young is born at a time, although there are records of 2-3 young. Offspring remain on a ledge high up in a hollow tree until almost fully grown. Both parents bring offspring well-masticated food, carried in their mouth and cheeks—swollen by a wad as large as a tangerine.Activity patterns.Lord Derby’s Anomalure is nocturnal, with individuals resting in hollow trees during the day, preferably in virgin forest. These hollows can be up to 40 m above the ground (in some woodlands they occupy empty beehives). One radiocollared individual in Gabon had one primary nesting tree hollow and five secondary hollows. They tend to nest alone or in pairs of one female and a young. Other observations suggest that up to eight individuals may share a denning tree, but little is known about their social behavior. Lord Derby’s Anomalures also appear to be sedentary, living in the same hole all year, except when fruit is ripe in another area. Individuals retain use of their dens over very long periods, but seasonal shifts have been recorded. Along with a threatening or defensive hiss and growl, Lord Derby’s Anomalures also purr and twitter. They like to sunbathe in early morning and more rarely in the evening. Pruning in closed-canopy forest is often less frequent or conspicuous than in more open or sunlit areas. Where light breaks through close to a food tree, intense pruning of young trees may help maintain access to a ready food supply by killing or maiming competing trees and keeping flight-paths open. Night is spent moving in lower branches oftall trees and smaller growth, often not more than 9 m above the ground. While resting, a Lord Derby’s Anomalure orientatesitself with head upward and body parallel with the bole of the tree.Movements, Home range and Social organization.When leaping from one tree to another, membranes of Lord Derby's Anomalures are curved such that an individual assumes shape of a small umbrella. They prefer to land on trunks rather than branches of trees. Immediately before reaching a tree trunk, head is actually at a lower level than tail, but at the last second, forelegs are thrown back over shoulders, head comes up, and tail sweeps up to meet it over the back. An individual instantly assumes a vertical position in midair. Momentum carries it to an upright trunk, to which it instantly adheres, and it invariably commences an ascent using its front two feet together and then pulling up the two hindfeet and arching its back like a giant loop-caterpillar. Backward-directed scales at base of the tail and forwardly directed claws on hindfeet dig into the three bark, thus forming a rigid tripod to support the individual while forefeet are released and moved upward. Glides of more than 40 m by Lord Derby’s Anomalures have been recorded at an estimated glide angle of 24° from horizontal. Species of Anomaluruscan gallop up the smooth bark of a giant forest tree with great speed. Distance traveled per night averages 540 m; home range averages 3-4 ha for females and 3-3 ha for males. A radio-collared female had a home range of 3-4 ha; 50% of locations in a small central area comprised 11:3% of her home range. Densities of Lord Derby’s Anomalures are 27-54 ind/km?. Blue Monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) prey on Lord Derby’s Anomalures in Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda.On following pages: 3. Pel's Anomalure (Anomalurus pelii); 4. Lesser Anomalure (Anomalurus pusillus); 5. Long-eared Anomalure (Zenkerella insignis).Pygmy Anomalure (Idiurus macrotis); 6. Zenker's Pygmy Anomalure (/diurus zenkeri); 7. CameroonStatus and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although localized populations of Lord Derby’s Anomalures may be at risk from logging and forest clearance,it is common and widespread. It is also used in traditional medicine.Bibliography.Allen (1922), Delany (1975), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Fairgrieve (1997), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Jones (1971), Julliot et al. (1998), Kingdon (1974, 1997), Rahm (1969), Sanderson (1940), Schunke (2005)." 03C08797A1618002DACB233AFDA3F9C5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5,278,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1618002DACB233AFDA3F9C5.xml,Idiurus macrotis,Idiurus,macrotis,Miller,1898,Anomalure a oreilles longues @fr | Gro RRohr-Gleitbilch @de | Anomaluro de orejas grandes @es | Long-eared Flying Squirrel @en | Long-eared Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en,"Idiurus macrotis Miller, 1898, “Efulen, Cameroon district, West Africa.”This species is monotypic.","W & C Africa, distribution disjunct, recorded from Sierra Leone to W Ghana, from SE Nigeria to N Gabon, and in NE DR Congo to Ituri Forest; also historical records from W of Lake Victoria in W Tanzania. It may be more continuously distributed throughoutits range than currently recorded.","Head-body 70-120 mm, tail 130-190 mm; weight 23-35 g. The Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is a very small anomalure thatis slightly more robustly build than Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure (1. zenkeri). It is pale gray with a brownish sheen on upper surface and paler on under surface. Hairs are blackish-gray at the base. Ears and face are somewhat longer than those of Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure; tail is proportionately shorter, with similar short,stiff hairs on underside. Dense, short fur covers the rest of the tail of the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure.",[Lowland and mid-elevation tropical rainforest but might also be found in dense woodland.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure appears to be mainly frugivorous but probably eats sap. Captive individuals readily eat palm nuts.",There is no information available for this species.,"Long-eared Pygmy Anomalures are nocturnal. During the day, they sleep in large hollow trees in deciduous forests during the day. They typically emerge to commence between 18:15 h and 19:00 h and continue until 06:00 h in the morning.","The Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is gregarious. Groups of 6-10 individuals have been recorded in Sierra Leone, while groups up to 40 individuals have been seen in Gabon. Hollows of Long-eared Pygmy Anomalures are used by other species of anomalures including Beecroft’s Anomalure (Anomalurus beecrofti), Lord Derby’s Anomalure (A. derbianus), Pel’s Anomalure (A. pelii), Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure, or other species such as bats. A translocated male Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure was radio-tracked during 48 hours and found to travel 790 m per night. In 1998, C. Julliott and colleagues found densities of 164-437 ind/km?*. Glides of the Longeared have were described by G. Durrell in 1954 as launching from the tree “without any apparent effort at jumping; one minute they were clinging spreadeagled to the bark, the next they were in the air. Their tiny legs were stretched out, and the membranes along their sides were taut. They swooped and drifted through the tumbling clouds of smoke with all the assurance and skill of hawking swallows, twisting and banking with incredible skill and apparently little or no movement of the body... I saw one leave the trunk of the tree at a height of about thirty feet. He glided across the dell in a straight and steady swoop, and landed on a tree about a hundred and fifty feet away, losing little if any height in the process.” Durrell also observed individuals gliding in a series of diminishing spirals and landing on a tree trunk lower down.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overall distribution of the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is similar to that of Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure in eastern parts of their distributions, but according to T. Haltenorth and H. Diller in 1977, the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is rarer. Nevertheless,it is widespread and appears to have no major conservation threats, although deforestation occurs in parts of its distribution.","Allen (1922) | Durrell (1954) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Jackson & Schouten (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Julliot et al. (1998) | Kingdon (1997) | Schunke (2005) | Schunke & Hutterer (2001, 2007) | Stafford & Thorington (2013a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584344/files/figure.png,"5.Long-eared Pygmy AnomalureIdiurus macrotisFrench:Anomalure a oreilles longues/ German:GroRRohr-Gleitbilch/ Spanish:Anomaluro de orejas grandesOther common names:Long-eared Flying Squirrel, Long-eared Scaly-tailed Flying SquirrelTaxonomy.Idiurus macrotis Miller, 1898, “Efulen, Cameroon district, West Africa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.W & C Africa, distribution disjunct, recorded from Sierra Leone to W Ghana, from SE Nigeria to N Gabon, and in NE DR Congo to Ituri Forest; also historical records from W of Lake Victoria in W Tanzania. It may be more continuously distributed throughoutits range than currently recorded.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-120 mm, tail 130-190 mm; weight 23-35 g. The Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is a very small anomalure thatis slightly more robustly build than Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure (1. zenkeri). It is pale gray with a brownish sheen on upper surface and paler on under surface. Hairs are blackish-gray at the base. Ears and face are somewhat longer than those of Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure; tail is proportionately shorter, with similar short,stiff hairs on underside. Dense, short fur covers the rest of the tail of the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure.Habitat.[Lowland and mid-elevation tropical rainforest but might also be found in dense woodland.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure appears to be mainly frugivorous but probably eats sap. Captive individuals readily eat palm nuts.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Long-eared Pygmy Anomalures are nocturnal. During the day, they sleep in large hollow trees in deciduous forests during the day. They typically emerge to commence between 18:15 h and 19:00 h and continue until 06:00 h in the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is gregarious. Groups of 6-10 individuals have been recorded in Sierra Leone, while groups up to 40 individuals have been seen in Gabon. Hollows of Long-eared Pygmy Anomalures are used by other species of anomalures including Beecroft’s Anomalure (Anomalurus beecrofti), Lord Derby’s Anomalure (A. derbianus), Pel’s Anomalure (A. pelii), Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure, or other species such as bats. A translocated male Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure was radio-tracked during 48 hours and found to travel 790 m per night. In 1998, C. Julliott and colleagues found densities of 164-437 ind/km?*. Glides of the Longeared have were described by G. Durrell in 1954 as launching from the tree “without any apparent effort at jumping; one minute they were clinging spreadeagled to the bark, the next they were in the air. Their tiny legs were stretched out, and the membranes along their sides were taut. They swooped and drifted through the tumbling clouds of smoke with all the assurance and skill of hawking swallows, twisting and banking with incredible skill and apparently little or no movement of the body... I saw one leave the trunk of the tree at a height of about thirty feet. He glided across the dell in a straight and steady swoop, and landed on a tree about a hundred and fifty feet away, losing little if any height in the process.” Durrell also observed individuals gliding in a series of diminishing spirals and landing on a tree trunk lower down.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overall distribution of the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is similar to that of Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure in eastern parts of their distributions, but according to T. Haltenorth and H. Diller in 1977, the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is rarer. Nevertheless,it is widespread and appears to have no major conservation threats, although deforestation occurs in parts of its distribution.Bibliography.Allen (1922), Durrell (1954), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Jackson & Schouten (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Julliot et al. (1998), Kingdon (1997), Schunke (2005), Schunke & Hutterer (2001, 2007), Stafford & Thorington (2013a)." 03C08797A1618005DAC4285EF894F7FD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5,278,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1618005DAC4285EF894F7FD.xml,Anomalurus pusillus,Anomalurus,pusillus,Thomas,1887,Anomalure pygmée @fr | Zwerg-Dornschwanzhérnchen @de | Anomaluro enano @es | Dwarf Anomalure @en | Dwarf Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Dwarf Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en | Little Flying Squirrel @en,"Anomalurus pusillus Thomas, 1887, “Bellima and Tingasi, Monbuttu” (= Niangara, DR Congo).This species is monotypic.","Found in isolated populations in Liberia, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, NW Gabon, W Republic of the Congo, SW Central African Republic, and N DR Congo; may also occur in W Uganda.","Head-body 190-260 mm, tail 120-200 mm; weight 170-300 g. The Lesser Anomalure is the smallest species of Anomalurus, with dorsal color varying from near black, grizzled gray, to mottled tan or olive brown. Membrane adjoining tail is usually yellower, and lateral membranes are dark gray. Head of the Lesser Anomalure is gray without borders around ears. Undersideis pale yellowish white, without a tinge of rufus; bristles covering hind claws have a rufus tinge. Unlike other species of Anomalurus, the Lesser Anomalure is similar in appearance throughoutits distribution.","Limited information available but only found in rainforest in Gabon and DR Congo. Most records of Lesser Anomalures have been at low elevations, but there is one record from montane forests at 2200 m.","Diet of the Lesser Anomalure appears to include bark and fruits. Drupes of parasol trees (Musanga, Urticaceae) are eaten.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,Lesser Anomalures appear to nest alone. Density is only ¢.5 ind/km?.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major threats to the Lesser Anomalure include loss of habitat as a result of conversion to agricultural and logging for timber. In some regions, they are hunted for bushmeat, but this is not thought to be a significant conservation threat.",Delany (1975) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Julliot et al. (1998) | Kingdon (1997 2013d) | Rahm (1969) | Rahm & Christiaensen (1963) | Schunke (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6584342/files/figure.png,"4.Lesser AnomalureAnomalurus pusillusFrench:Anomalure pygmée/ German:Zwerg-Dornschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro enanoOther common names:Dwarf Anomalure, Dwarf Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Dwarf Scaly-tailed Squirrel, Little Flying SquirrelTaxonomy.Anomalurus pusillus Thomas, 1887, “Bellima and Tingasi, Monbuttu” (= Niangara, DR Congo).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Found in isolated populations in Liberia, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, NW Gabon, W Republic of the Congo, SW Central African Republic, and N DR Congo; may also occur in W Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-260 mm, tail 120-200 mm; weight 170-300 g. The Lesser Anomalure is the smallest species of Anomalurus, with dorsal color varying from near black, grizzled gray, to mottled tan or olive brown. Membrane adjoining tail is usually yellower, and lateral membranes are dark gray. Head of the Lesser Anomalure is gray without borders around ears. Undersideis pale yellowish white, without a tinge of rufus; bristles covering hind claws have a rufus tinge. Unlike other species of Anomalurus, the Lesser Anomalure is similar in appearance throughoutits distribution.Habitat.Limited information available but only found in rainforest in Gabon and DR Congo. Most records of Lesser Anomalures have been at low elevations, but there is one record from montane forests at 2200 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Lesser Anomalure appears to include bark and fruits. Drupes of parasol trees (Musanga, Urticaceae) are eaten.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Lesser Anomalures appear to nest alone. Density is only ¢.5 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major threats to the Lesser Anomalure include loss of habitat as a result of conversion to agricultural and logging for timber. In some regions, they are hunted for bushmeat, but this is not thought to be a significant conservation threat.Bibliography.Delany (1975), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Julliot et al. (1998), Kingdon (1997 2013d), Rahm (1969), Rahm & Christiaensen (1963), Schunke (2005)." -03C08797A1618005DFC12E2CF9C8FE4D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5,278,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1618005DFC12E2CF9C8FE4D.xml,Anomalurus pelii,Anomalurus,pelii,Schlegel & S. Müller,1845,Anomalure de Pel @fr | Pel-Dornschwanzhérnchen @de | Anomaluro de Pel @es | Pel’s Flying Squirrel @en | Pel’s Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Pel’s Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en,"Pteromys pelii Schlegel & S. Miiller, 1845, “Daboerom, aan de Goudkust” (= Dabacrom, Ghana, West Africa).Three subspecies are recognized.","A.p.peliiSchlegel&Muller,1845—EIvoryCoast(EofBandamaRiver)andGhana(WofVoltaRiver).A.p.auzembergeriMatschie,1914—ELiberiaandextremeWIvoryCoast(WoftheSassandraRiver).A. p. peralbus Schunke & Hutterer, 2005— Ivory Coast between Sassandra and Bandama rivers.","Head-body 400-460 mm, tail 320-450 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. Pel’s Anomalure is the largest species of anomalures and is immediately identified by its distinctive black color on dorsal surface, with varying degrees of white. The nominate subspecies peliihas a narrow white border on dorsal surface ofits patagium and a narrow border on the interfemoral membrane. Tail and hindfeet are whitish, forefeet are blackish, and there is a white patch at base of each ear. Patagium of the subspecies auzembergeriis black on dorsal surface without a white border, interfemoral membrane is black without a white border, and tail is black; there is no white patch at base of each ear and forefeet and hindfeet are black. Dorsal surface of patagium of the subspecies peralbus has a very wide white border that almost reaches the body; there is a wide white border on the interfemoral membrane;tail is white; there is a large white patch at base of each ear; and forefeet and hindfeet are white.","Moist, low-elevation primary forests, with numerous tall emergents and annual rainfall of 1400-3900 mm.","Diet of Pel’s Anomalure consists of bark, supplemented by fruits, especially from African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae), leaves, and flowers.","Pel’s Anomalures have two breeding seasons in April and September and produce 1-4 young/litter, more often 2-3.",Pel’s Anomalures are nocturnal and spend the day asleep in tree hollows or hollow branches. Nests include sticks and small branches. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability oftree holes. One Pel’s Anomalure was found a hollow of Terminalia superba(Combretaceae). Pel’s Anomalures emerge from their dens well after sunset and return to them before sunrise.,"Primary social organization of Pel’s Anomalure consists of a female and her single offspring, but there are records suggesting that up to six individuals can be found together in a sleeping tree hollow. When disturbed in their den, they are known to make several noises including growls and hisses; they snap their teeth, greatly amplified in the tree hollow. Contact calls of Pel’s Anomalures are described as deep hoots. These sounds may deter predators including birds of prey, primates, small carnivores, and hornbills (Bucerotidae) that may compete for nest holes. Bold color of Pel’s Anomalure suggests that aggressiveness and large size may make it less vulnerable to predation than smaller species of anomalures. Likely predators include African harrier-hawks (Polyboroides typus), crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), hornbills, snakes, and African Palm Civets (Nandinia binotata).","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is likely that most populations of Pel’s Anomalures are threatened by the rapid rate of forest degradation in West Africa; surveys are needed to assess their status. To the Mbuti Pygmies in north-eastern DR Congo, skin of species of Anomalurusis burned and ground into a powder to make the drug “Bau,” which is blown into the face ofvictims at night, who then become unable to defend themselves.","Adams (1894) | Cansdale (1946) | Carpaneto & Germi (1989) | Corbet & Hill (1991) | Dieterlen (1993) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Honacki et al. (1982) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Kingdon (1997) | Rosevear (1969) | Schunke (2005) | Schunke & Hutterer (2004b, 2005)",,"3.Pel’s AnomalureAnomalurus peliiFrench:Anomalure de Pel/ German:Pel-Dornschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro de PelOther common names:Pel’s Flying Squirrel, Pel’s Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Pel’s Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Pteromys pelii Schlegel & S. Miiller, 1845, “Daboerom, aan de Goudkust” (= Dabacrom, Ghana, West Africa).Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.p.peliiSchlegel&Muller,1845—EIvoryCoast(EofBandamaRiver)andGhana(WofVoltaRiver).A.p.auzembergeriMatschie,1914—ELiberiaandextremeWIvoryCoast(WoftheSassandraRiver).A. p. peralbus Schunke & Hutterer, 2005— Ivory Coast between Sassandra and Bandama rivers.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-460 mm, tail 320-450 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. Pel’s Anomalure is the largest species of anomalures and is immediately identified by its distinctive black color on dorsal surface, with varying degrees of white. The nominate subspecies peliihas a narrow white border on dorsal surface ofits patagium and a narrow border on the interfemoral membrane. Tail and hindfeet are whitish, forefeet are blackish, and there is a white patch at base of each ear. Patagium of the subspecies auzembergeriis black on dorsal surface without a white border, interfemoral membrane is black without a white border, and tail is black; there is no white patch at base of each ear and forefeet and hindfeet are black. Dorsal surface of patagium of the subspecies peralbus has a very wide white border that almost reaches the body; there is a wide white border on the interfemoral membrane;tail is white; there is a large white patch at base of each ear; and forefeet and hindfeet are white.Habitat.Moist, low-elevation primary forests, with numerous tall emergents and annual rainfall of 1400-3900 mm.Food and Feeding.Diet of Pel’s Anomalure consists of bark, supplemented by fruits, especially from African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae), leaves, and flowers.Breeding.Pel’s Anomalures have two breeding seasons in April and September and produce 1-4 young/litter, more often 2-3.Activity patterns.Pel’s Anomalures are nocturnal and spend the day asleep in tree hollows or hollow branches. Nests include sticks and small branches. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability oftree holes. One Pel’s Anomalure was found a hollow of Terminalia superba(Combretaceae). Pel’s Anomalures emerge from their dens well after sunset and return to them before sunrise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Primary social organization of Pel’s Anomalure consists of a female and her single offspring, but there are records suggesting that up to six individuals can be found together in a sleeping tree hollow. When disturbed in their den, they are known to make several noises including growls and hisses; they snap their teeth, greatly amplified in the tree hollow. Contact calls of Pel’s Anomalures are described as deep hoots. These sounds may deter predators including birds of prey, primates, small carnivores, and hornbills (Bucerotidae) that may compete for nest holes. Bold color of Pel’s Anomalure suggests that aggressiveness and large size may make it less vulnerable to predation than smaller species of anomalures. Likely predators include African harrier-hawks (Polyboroides typus), crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), hornbills, snakes, and African Palm Civets (Nandinia binotata). 2Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is likely that most populations of Pel’s Anomalures are threatened by the rapid rate of forest degradation in West Africa; surveys are needed to assess their status. To the Mbuti Pygmies in north-eastern DR Congo, skin of species of Anomalurusis burned and ground into a powder to make the drug “Bau,” which is blown into the face ofvictims at night, who then become unable to defend themselves.Bibliography.Adams (1894), Cansdale (1946), Carpaneto & Germi (1989), Corbet & Hill (1991), Dieterlen (1993), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Honacki et al. (1982), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Kingdon (1997), Rosevear (1969), Schunke (2005), Schunke & Hutterer (2004b, 2005)." +03C08797A1618005DFC12E2CF9C8FE4D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5,278,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1618005DFC12E2CF9C8FE4D.xml,Anomalurus pelii,Anomalurus,pelii,Schlegel & S. Müller,1845,Anomalure de Pel @fr | Pel-Dornschwanzhérnchen @de | Anomaluro de Pel @es | Pel’s Flying Squirrel @en | Pel’s Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Pel’s Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en,"Pteromys pelii Schlegel & S. Miiller, 1845, “Daboerom, aan de Goudkust” (= Dabacrom, Ghana, West Africa).Three subspecies are recognized.","A.p.peliiSchlegel&Muller,1845—EIvoryCoast(EofBandamaRiver)andGhana(WofVoltaRiver).A.p.auzembergeriMatschie,1914—ELiberiaandextremeWIvoryCoast(WoftheSassandraRiver).A. p. peralbus Schunke & Hutterer, 2005— Ivory Coast between Sassandra and Bandama rivers.","Head-body 400-460 mm, tail 320-450 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. Pel’s Anomalure is the largest species of anomalures and is immediately identified by its distinctive black color on dorsal surface, with varying degrees of white. The nominate subspecies peliihas a narrow white border on dorsal surface ofits patagium and a narrow border on the interfemoral membrane. Tail and hindfeet are whitish, forefeet are blackish, and there is a white patch at base of each ear. Patagium of the subspecies auzembergeriis black on dorsal surface without a white border, interfemoral membrane is black without a white border, and tail is black; there is no white patch at base of each ear and forefeet and hindfeet are black. Dorsal surface of patagium of the subspecies peralbus has a very wide white border that almost reaches the body; there is a wide white border on the interfemoral membrane;tail is white; there is a large white patch at base of each ear; and forefeet and hindfeet are white.","Moist, low-elevation primary forests, with numerous tall emergents and annual rainfall of 1400-3900 mm.","Diet of Pel’s Anomalure consists of bark, supplemented by fruits, especially from African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae), leaves, and flowers.","Pel’s Anomalures have two breeding seasons in April and September and produce 1-4 young/litter, more often 2-3.",Pel’s Anomalures are nocturnal and spend the day asleep in tree hollows or hollow branches. Nests include sticks and small branches. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability oftree holes. One Pel’s Anomalure was found a hollow of Terminalia superba(Combretaceae). Pel’s Anomalures emerge from their dens well after sunset and return to them before sunrise.,"Primary social organization of Pel’s Anomalure consists of a female and her single offspring, but there are records suggesting that up to six individuals can be found together in a sleeping tree hollow. When disturbed in their den, they are known to make several noises including growls and hisses; they snap their teeth, greatly amplified in the tree hollow. Contact calls of Pel’s Anomalures are described as deep hoots. These sounds may deter predators including birds of prey, primates, small carnivores, and hornbills (Bucerotidae) that may compete for nest holes. Bold color of Pel’s Anomalure suggests that aggressiveness and large size may make it less vulnerable to predation than smaller species of anomalures. Likely predators include African harrier-hawks (Polyboroides typus), crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), hornbills, snakes, and African Palm Civets (Nandinia binotata).","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is likely that most populations of Pel’s Anomalures are threatened by the rapid rate of forest degradation in West Africa; surveys are needed to assess their status. To the Mbuti Pygmies in north-eastern DR Congo, skin of species of Anomalurusis burned and ground into a powder to make the drug “Bau,” which is blown into the face ofvictims at night, who then become unable to defend themselves.","Adams (1894) | Cansdale (1946) | Carpaneto & Germi (1989) | Corbet & Hill (1991) | Dieterlen (1993) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Honacki et al. (1982) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Kingdon (1997) | Rosevear (1969) | Schunke (2005) | Schunke & Hutterer (2004b, 2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584340/files/figure.png,"3.Pel’s AnomalureAnomalurus peliiFrench:Anomalure de Pel/ German:Pel-Dornschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro de PelOther common names:Pel’s Flying Squirrel, Pel’s Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Pel’s Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Pteromys pelii Schlegel & S. Miiller, 1845, “Daboerom, aan de Goudkust” (= Dabacrom, Ghana, West Africa).Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.p.peliiSchlegel&Muller,1845—EIvoryCoast(EofBandamaRiver)andGhana(WofVoltaRiver).A.p.auzembergeriMatschie,1914—ELiberiaandextremeWIvoryCoast(WoftheSassandraRiver).A. p. peralbus Schunke & Hutterer, 2005— Ivory Coast between Sassandra and Bandama rivers.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-460 mm, tail 320-450 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. Pel’s Anomalure is the largest species of anomalures and is immediately identified by its distinctive black color on dorsal surface, with varying degrees of white. The nominate subspecies peliihas a narrow white border on dorsal surface ofits patagium and a narrow border on the interfemoral membrane. Tail and hindfeet are whitish, forefeet are blackish, and there is a white patch at base of each ear. Patagium of the subspecies auzembergeriis black on dorsal surface without a white border, interfemoral membrane is black without a white border, and tail is black; there is no white patch at base of each ear and forefeet and hindfeet are black. Dorsal surface of patagium of the subspecies peralbus has a very wide white border that almost reaches the body; there is a wide white border on the interfemoral membrane;tail is white; there is a large white patch at base of each ear; and forefeet and hindfeet are white.Habitat.Moist, low-elevation primary forests, with numerous tall emergents and annual rainfall of 1400-3900 mm.Food and Feeding.Diet of Pel’s Anomalure consists of bark, supplemented by fruits, especially from African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae), leaves, and flowers.Breeding.Pel’s Anomalures have two breeding seasons in April and September and produce 1-4 young/litter, more often 2-3.Activity patterns.Pel’s Anomalures are nocturnal and spend the day asleep in tree hollows or hollow branches. Nests include sticks and small branches. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability oftree holes. One Pel’s Anomalure was found a hollow of Terminalia superba(Combretaceae). Pel’s Anomalures emerge from their dens well after sunset and return to them before sunrise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Primary social organization of Pel’s Anomalure consists of a female and her single offspring, but there are records suggesting that up to six individuals can be found together in a sleeping tree hollow. When disturbed in their den, they are known to make several noises including growls and hisses; they snap their teeth, greatly amplified in the tree hollow. Contact calls of Pel’s Anomalures are described as deep hoots. These sounds may deter predators including birds of prey, primates, small carnivores, and hornbills (Bucerotidae) that may compete for nest holes. Bold color of Pel’s Anomalure suggests that aggressiveness and large size may make it less vulnerable to predation than smaller species of anomalures. Likely predators include African harrier-hawks (Polyboroides typus), crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), hornbills, snakes, and African Palm Civets (Nandinia binotata). 2Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is likely that most populations of Pel’s Anomalures are threatened by the rapid rate of forest degradation in West Africa; surveys are needed to assess their status. To the Mbuti Pygmies in north-eastern DR Congo, skin of species of Anomalurusis burned and ground into a powder to make the drug “Bau,” which is blown into the face ofvictims at night, who then become unable to defend themselves.Bibliography.Adams (1894), Cansdale (1946), Carpaneto & Germi (1989), Corbet & Hill (1991), Dieterlen (1993), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Honacki et al. (1982), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Kingdon (1997), Rosevear (1969), Schunke (2005), Schunke & Hutterer (2004b, 2005)." 03C08797A1628006DEAD2878F879FB44,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5,270,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1628006DEAD2878F879FB44.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family ANOMALURIDAE(ANOMALURES)• Small to large-sized arboreal, mainly gliding, rodents with long, fine fur and a gliding membrane or patagium in all except one non-gliding species.• 15-90 cm.• Afrotropical Region.Montane, lowlands rainforests, and woodlands.3 genera, 7 species, 9 taxa.No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600." 03C08797A1668002DA212F49F8DEF5F0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5,279,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1668002DA212F49F8DEF5F0.xml,Zenkerella insignis,Zenkerella,insignis,Matschie,1898,Anomalure aptére @fr | Dornschwanzbilch @de | Anomaluro de Camerun @es | Cameroon Scaly-tail @en | Cameroon Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en | Flightless Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en,"Zenkerella insignis Matschie, 1898, “Kamerun, Afr. Occ., Yaunde” (= Yaoundé, Cameroon, West Africa).This species is monotypic.","C Africa in S Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko I), N Gabon, N & W Republic of the Congo, and SW Central African Republic. It may also occur within DR Congo.","Head-body 180-930 mm, tail 150-180 mm; weight 180— 220 g. It is a medium-sized anomalure, but it does not have a gliding membrane. Dorsal surface is slate gray with ochertints; ventral surface is very pale gray. Tail is bushy and black in color, with a terminaltuft.",Rainforest and semideciduous forest.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Some authors suggest that the Cameroon Anomalure is diurnal because it does not glide and gliding rodents tend to be nocturnal. Other authors, however, suggest that it is nocturnal and nests in tree hollows during the day.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Cameroon Anomalure appears to be arboreal and ground dwelling.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Deforestation may be a conservation threat in parts of the distribution of the Cameroon Anomalure, although further research is needed to determineits status.",Aellen & Perret (1958) | Bates (1905) | Happold (1987) | Kingdon (1997) | Pérez del Val et al. (1995) | Roche (1972) | Stafford & Thorington (2013c),https://zenodo.org/record/6584348/files/figure.png,"7.Cameroon AnomalureZenkerella insignisFrench:Anomalure aptére/ German:Dornschwanzbilch/ Spanish:Anomaluro de CamerunOther common names:Cameroon Scaly-tail, Cameroon Scaly-tailed Squirrel, Flightless Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Zenkerella insignis Matschie, 1898, “Kamerun, Afr. Occ., Yaunde” (= Yaoundé, Cameroon, West Africa).This species is monotypic.Distribution.C Africa in S Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko I), N Gabon, N & W Republic of the Congo, and SW Central African Republic. It may also occur within DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-930 mm, tail 150-180 mm; weight 180— 220 g. It is a medium-sized anomalure, but it does not have a gliding membrane. Dorsal surface is slate gray with ochertints; ventral surface is very pale gray. Tail is bushy and black in color, with a terminaltuft.Habitat.Rainforest and semideciduous forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Some authors suggest that the Cameroon Anomalure is diurnal because it does not glide and gliding rodents tend to be nocturnal. Other authors, however, suggest that it is nocturnal and nests in tree hollows during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Cameroon Anomalure appears to be arboreal and ground dwelling.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Deforestation may be a conservation threat in parts of the distribution of the Cameroon Anomalure, although further research is needed to determineits status.Bibliography.Aellen & Perret (1958), Bates (1905), Happold (1987), Kingdon (1997), Pérez del Val et al. (1995), Roche (1972), Stafford & Thorington (2013c)." 03C08797A1668002DF1C2C27F8A8FBF0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5,279,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1668002DF1C2C27F8A8FBF0.xml,Idiurus zenker,Idiurus,zenker,Matschie,1894,Anomalure de Zenker @fr | Zenker-Gleitbilch @de | Anomaluro pequeno @es | Pygmy Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Zenker’s Flying Squirrel @en,"I diurus zenkeri Matschie, 1894, “Yaunde-Station” (= Yaoundé, Cameroon, West Africa).This species is monotypic.","C Africa, in Cameroon (SW and Mt Cameroon), Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic, and Republic of the Congo border (Ngotto Forest), and in NE DR Congo (from the Aruwimi and Congo rivers to the foothills of Ruwenzori and Kivu). It may also occur in the extreme W of Uganda.","Head—body 60-90 mm, tail 70-130 mm; weight 14-17 g. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is the smallest species of anomalures. Dorsal fur is medium brown, with a dark gray base; ventral fur is a similar color to dorsal pelage. Vibrissae are ¢.35 mm in length. Tail is ¢.130% of head-body length and has two lines of short hairs placed laterally on each side. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure has a long thin tail (longer than head-body length) thatis fringed on underside by two rows of short stiff hairs.",[.owland and montane equatorial moist forests.,"Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure feeds on insects, nuts, oil-palm fruits, and possibly exudates or nectar. Notched upper incisors project out of the mouth, which suggests that some food requires sharp chiseling.",There is no information available for this species.,"Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure roosts in hollow trees, or occasionally under bark, in small groups, but it can be found in colonies of up to 100 individuals. They nest in trees, including species of Gilbertiodendron(Fabaceae), Klainedoxa(Irvingiaceae), Paramacrolobium, Pentaclethra, and Pseudoprosopis(all Fabaceae). They share their hollows with Pel’s Anomalure (Anomaluruspeli), the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure (I. macrotis), and the Cyclops Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros cyclops).","Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is a very efficient, fast, and agile glider. It might travel several kilometers in a night to feed. It emits a shrill, mouse-like squeak.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is widespread, and its major conservation threat includes localized deforestation in parts of its distribution.","Allen (1922) | Delany (1975) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Kingdon (1997) | Rahm (1966) | Rosevear (1969) | Sanderson (1940) | Schunke (2005) | Schunke & Hutterer (2001, 2007) | Stafford & Thorington (2013b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584346/files/figure.png,"6.Zenker’s Pygmy AnomalureIdiurus zenkerFrench:Anomalure de Zenker/ German:Zenker-Gleitbilch/ Spanish:Anomaluro pequenoOther common names:Pygmy Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Zenker’s Flying SquirrelTaxonomy.I diurus zenkeri Matschie, 1894, “Yaunde-Station” (= Yaoundé, Cameroon, West Africa).This species is monotypic.Distribution.C Africa, in Cameroon (SW and Mt Cameroon), Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic, and Republic of the Congo border (Ngotto Forest), and in NE DR Congo (from the Aruwimi and Congo rivers to the foothills of Ruwenzori and Kivu). It may also occur in the extreme W of Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head—body 60-90 mm, tail 70-130 mm; weight 14-17 g. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is the smallest species of anomalures. Dorsal fur is medium brown, with a dark gray base; ventral fur is a similar color to dorsal pelage. Vibrissae are ¢.35 mm in length. Tail is ¢.130% of head-body length and has two lines of short hairs placed laterally on each side. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure has a long thin tail (longer than head-body length) thatis fringed on underside by two rows of short stiff hairs.Habitat.[.owland and montane equatorial moist forests.Food and Feeding.Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure feeds on insects, nuts, oil-palm fruits, and possibly exudates or nectar. Notched upper incisors project out of the mouth, which suggests that some food requires sharp chiseling.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure roosts in hollow trees, or occasionally under bark, in small groups, but it can be found in colonies of up to 100 individuals. They nest in trees, including species of Gilbertiodendron(Fabaceae), Klainedoxa(Irvingiaceae), Paramacrolobium, Pentaclethra, and Pseudoprosopis(all Fabaceae). They share their hollows with Pel’s Anomalure (Anomaluruspeli), the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure (I. macrotis), and the Cyclops Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros cyclops).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is a very efficient, fast, and agile glider. It might travel several kilometers in a night to feed. It emits a shrill, mouse-like squeak.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is widespread, and its major conservation threat includes localized deforestation in parts of its distribution.Bibliography.Allen (1922), Delany (1975), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Kingdon (1997), Rahm (1966), Rosevear (1969), Sanderson (1940), Schunke (2005), Schunke & Hutterer (2001, 2007), Stafford & Thorington (2013b)." -03C1502EA8586828FA4078B3F66AF6EE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,430,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA8586828FA4078B3F66AF6EE.xml,Aotus azarae,Aotus,azarae,,,Douroucouli de d'Azara @fr | Azara-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Azara Other common names @es,"Simia azarae Humboldt, 1812,Paraguay. Restricted by Elliot in 1913 to the right bank of Rio Paraguayin northeastern Argentina.Three subspecies are recognized.","A. a. azarae Humboldt, 1812— SC Brazil(Pantanal), S Bolivia(Banados del Izozog), Paraguay(S & W Chaco, W of the Rio Paraguay), and N Argentina(provinces of Chaco& Formosa).A. a. boliviensis Elliot, 1907 — SE Peru(S of the rios Madre de Diosand Inambari) and BoliviaE of the Andes (from the Rio Madre de Dios S to the Banados del Izozog in the border region with Paraguay). A. a. infulatus Kuhl, 1820 — Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas (but with a small enclave in the SE tip of Amapa State), including Marajo and Caviana Is, extending E in the state of Maranhaoas far as the Rio Parnaiba, S along the W bank of Rio Tocantinsto the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, W limits are marked by the rios Tapajos and Juruena.","Head-body 34 cm (males) and 33 cm (females), tail ¢.31 cm; weight 990-1580 g (males, nominate subspecies) and 1010-1450 g (female nominate subspecies). Azara’s Night Monkey is a highly variable red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 49 in males and 50 in females. An interscapular whorl is generally present. In the subspecies azarae, fur is long, thick, and shaggy, grayish to pale buffyagouti above and pale whitish-orange below. Face stripes are narrow. Basal hairs of the distal one-quarter of tail are orange. In the “Bolivian Night Monkey” (A. a. bolivienss), fur is relatively short, with an olive tone above and contrastingly grayer on limbs. Face stripes are very narrow except where the middle one expands on the crown; the black temporal stripe is poorly defined, the black malar stripe is faint or absent, and there is usually a whitish band between the eyes and temporal stripe. There is a conspicuous whorl between the shoulder blades. The “Feline Night Monkey” (A. a. infulatus) is like the Bolivian Night Monkey, but the white on its face is more prominent. There is generally no whitish band between the eyes and the temporal stripe as with the Bolivian Night Monkey. Temporal stripes are black, well defined, and continuous with the malar stripe. The tail tends to be reddish throughout its length except for the black tip. Orange of underparts extends to or above the ventral one-half of side of neck and to mid-tibia or ankle. Color of the throat varies from orange, with the anterior one-half grayish agouti to entirely orange. Sometimes there is an interscapular whorl, sometimes not.","Deciduous, gallery, riparian, and secondary forest of the Chaco in Paraguay, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Group sizes of Azara’s Night Monkey are smaller in the more xeric regions of the Chacocompared with humid (mesic) regions. Seasonality in these environments is strong, and temperatures range between —=5°C and 47°C. The Feline Night Monkey has been recorded in Orbignya (Arecaceae) palm forest (the Zona dos Cocais in Maranhao), forest patches and gallery forests in the “cerrado” (bush savanna) of central Brazil, and the “caatinga” (deciduous scrub and forest) in north-eastern Brazil. It also occurs in mangrove forest.","Diet of Azara’s Night Monkey is composed of fruits, nectar, flowers, leaves, fungi, and insects. Feeding ecology of the nominate subspecies has been studied in the subtropical dry forest of Paraguay. Azara’s Night Monkeys there were more folivorous than the Black-headed Night Monkey (A. nigriceps) in Peru, concentrating on leaves of small trees and vines for 46% of their feeding time and with fruit being only 16% of the diet (as opposed to 60%), and nectar and flowers 33%. At times of fruit shortage, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat more flowers, nectar, fig fruits, and insects, rather than leaves. Flowers can also be seasonally important, for example those of Tabebuiaipe (Bignoniaceae). Azara’s Night Monkeys have been seen to catch cicadas during the day.","Breeding of Azara’s Night Monkey is seasonal; births peak in January-February in Paraguayand October-November in Argentina. In Argentina, adult body mass is reached at about four years of age, and the onset of reproduction occurs at about six years. In the nominate subspecies azarae, females have a reproductive cycle of ¢.22 days in the wild and 25 days in captivity. Captive and wild females of the subspecies azaraehave a gestation period of ¢.120-130 days. Infants are mostly carried by the male from when they are about ten days old. The median interbirth interval is 370 days (range 345-426 days, n = 13). As has been found for other night monkeys, mating is infrequent. During three years of study and more than 2000 hours of observations, mating was recorded only eight times in five groups. Itis rapid and discreet, and therefore difficult to observe. Although all night monkeys are believed to be monogamous (there is never more than one breeding female and always only one male in the groups), a long-term study of known individuals in a population of the subspecies azaraein northern Argentinashowed considerable turnover of resident adults.","In Paraguay, the nominate subspecies is partially diurnal, foraging during the day for periods of one to three hours. Large raptors such as the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the Guianacrested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) are rare there, and the principal, potential, avian predator is the great horned owl (Bubo virgintanus). When traveling at night, they are quieter than is typical for night monkeys of the Amazonian forest possibly because of this. Temperature may be another factor promoting diurnal activity. Low temperatures do not completely inhibit their traveling and foraging, but when night-time temperatures are 5°-10°C, they forage in the late afternoon at temperatures of 25°-30°C. Diurnal foraging and traveling increases when the weather is cooler. A field study of the subspecies Bolivian Night Monkey in Beni, Bolivia, recorded an activity budget of 31% foraging, 49% resting, and 20% traveling. Groups travel longer during full-moon nights than new-moon nights, and ambient temperature also influences distances moved during full-moon nights.","Social structure of Azara’s Night Monkey consists of one adult male and one adult female per group, with a mean group size of 2-3-4 individuals. Subadults are often observed in groups of the nominate subspecies azaraein Argentina. Group density of the subspecies azaraehas been reported at 5-5-16 groups/km? in Argentina. In Paraguay, group density has been estimated at 4 groups/km”. For the Bolivian Night Monkey, there is one report of 68-9 groups/ km?, but the census was taken in an island offorest of only 0-33 ha. Home-range size has been reported to vary from 5 ha to 10 ha. Mean daily movement is estimated at 378-5 m, with mean diurnal movement of 199 m and mean nocturnal movement of 420 m. The population of the subspecies azaraein Guaycolec Ranch, Formosa Province, Argentina, has ¢.25-30% of adults living solitarily. Both males and females disperse. Subadults are often on the periphery of a social group’s home range prior to emigration in the subspecies azarae. Turnover of resident adults is frequent, with 14 of 15 pairs replacing at least one adult in a three-year period. Aggressive interactions in this population are observed between groups during the day and night. Paternal care and provisioning have been observed, with males carrying an infant 84% of the time after the first week oflife. The adult male also plays, grooms, and shares food with the infant. In the subspecies azarae, males and females share food in the wild with infants and mates. Individuals in the population at Guaycolec often travel on the ground when they cross from one patch of forest to the other, sometimes for distances up to 100 m.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Subspecies azaraeand boliviensis are classified as Least Concern and subspecies infulatus is classified as Near Threatened because of logging and the widespread conversion of forest for commercial agriculture, especially for soy beans, and for cattle pasture throughout its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para over the last two decades. The range of Azara’s Night Monkey coincides with the most devastated areas of the Brazilian Amazon. The subspecies azaraeoccurs in the national parks of Rio Pilcomayo in Argentinaand Kaa-lya del Gran Chacoin Bolivia, and in the Defensores del Chaco, and Tinfunqué national parks in Paraguay. The Bolivian Night Monkey occurs in Amboro, Carrasco, Isiboro Sécure, Madidi, and Noel Kempff Mercado national parks and Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve in Bolivia. The Feline Night Monkey occurs in Pantanal Matogrossense and Araguaia national parks and Gurupi and Tapirapé biological reserves in Brazil.","Arditi (1992) | Arditi & Placci (1990) | Defler et al. (2001) | Dixson (1983, 1994) | Fernandes (1993) | Fernandez-Duque (2003, 2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012) | Fernandez-Duque & Bravo (1997) | Fernandez-Duque & Erkert (2004, 2006) | Fernandez-Duque & Huntington (2002) | Fernandez-Duque, Rotundo & Ramirez-Llorens (2002) | Fernandez-Dugue, Rotundo & Sloan (2001) | Fernandez-Duque, Wallace & Rylands (2008) | Garcia & Braza (1987, 1989, 1993) | Giménez & Fernandez-Duque (2003) | Huck & Fernandez-Duque (2011) | Huck et al. (2011) | Hunter et al. (1979) | Jantschke et al. (1998) | Ma, Elliott et al. (1976) | Ma, Jones et al. (1976) | Mudry, Colillas & de Salum (1984) | Mudry, Slavutsky & Labal de Vinuesa (1990) | Pieczarka & Nagamachi (1988) | Pieczarka et al. (1993) | Rathbun & Gache (1980) | Rotundo et al. (2005) | Silva & Fernandes (1999) | Silva & Nunes (1995) | Smith & Jungers (1997) | Stallings et al. (1989) | Welker et al. (1998) | Wolovich & Evans (2007) | Wolovich, Perea-Rodriguez & Fernandez-Duque (2008) | Wright (1981, 1985, 1989, 1994) | Zunino (1985) | Zunino et al. (1986)",,"11. Azara’s Night Monkey Aotus azaraeFrench:Douroucouli de d'Azara/ German:Azara-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de AzaraOther common names:Azara's Owl Monkey; Bolivian Night Monkey (boliviensis), Feline Night Monkey (infulatus)Taxonomy.Simia azarae Humboldt, 1812,Paraguay. Restricted by Elliot in 1913 to the right bank of Rio Paraguayin northeastern Argentina.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. a. azarae Humboldt, 1812— SC Brazil(Pantanal), S Bolivia(Banados del Izozog), Paraguay(S & W Chaco, W of the Rio Paraguay), and N Argentina(provinces of Chaco& Formosa).A. a. boliviensis Elliot, 1907 — SE Peru(S of the rios Madre de Diosand Inambari) and BoliviaE of the Andes (from the Rio Madre de Dios S to the Banados del Izozog in the border region with Paraguay). A. a. infulatus Kuhl, 1820 — Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas (but with a small enclave in the SE tip of Amapa State), including Marajo and Caviana Is, extending E in the state of Maranhaoas far as the Rio Parnaiba, S along the W bank of Rio Tocantinsto the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, W limits are marked by the rios Tapajos and Juruena.Descriptive notes.Head-body 34 cm (males) and 33 cm (females), tail ¢.31 cm; weight 990-1580 g (males, nominate subspecies) and 1010-1450 g (female nominate subspecies). Azara’s Night Monkey is a highly variable red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 49 in males and 50 in females. An interscapular whorl is generally present. In the subspecies azarae, fur is long, thick, and shaggy, grayish to pale buffyagouti above and pale whitish-orange below. Face stripes are narrow. Basal hairs of the distal one-quarter of tail are orange. In the “Bolivian Night Monkey” (A. a. bolivienss), fur is relatively short, with an olive tone above and contrastingly grayer on limbs. Face stripes are very narrow except where the middle one expands on the crown; the black temporal stripe is poorly defined, the black malar stripe is faint or absent, and there is usually a whitish band between the eyes and temporal stripe. There is a conspicuous whorl between the shoulder blades. The “Feline Night Monkey” (A. a. infulatus) is like the Bolivian Night Monkey, but the white on its face is more prominent. There is generally no whitish band between the eyes and the temporal stripe as with the Bolivian Night Monkey. Temporal stripes are black, well defined, and continuous with the malar stripe. The tail tends to be reddish throughout its length except for the black tip. Orange of underparts extends to or above the ventral one-half of side of neck and to mid-tibia or ankle. Color of the throat varies from orange, with the anterior one-half grayish agouti to entirely orange. Sometimes there is an interscapular whorl, sometimes not.Habitat.Deciduous, gallery, riparian, and secondary forest of the Chaco in Paraguay, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Group sizes of Azara’s Night Monkey are smaller in the more xeric regions of the Chacocompared with humid (mesic) regions. Seasonality in these environments is strong, and temperatures range between —=5°C and 47°C. The Feline Night Monkey has been recorded in Orbignya (Arecaceae) palm forest (the Zona dos Cocais in Maranhao), forest patches and gallery forests in the “cerrado” (bush savanna) of central Brazil, and the “caatinga” (deciduous scrub and forest) in north-eastern Brazil. It also occurs in mangrove forest.Food and Feeding.Diet of Azara’s Night Monkey is composed of fruits, nectar, flowers, leaves, fungi, and insects. Feeding ecology of the nominate subspecies has been studied in the subtropical dry forest of Paraguay. Azara’s Night Monkeys there were more folivorous than the Black-headed Night Monkey (A. nigriceps) in Peru, concentrating on leaves of small trees and vines for 46% of their feeding time and with fruit being only 16% of the diet (as opposed to 60%), and nectar and flowers 33%. At times of fruit shortage, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat more flowers, nectar, fig fruits, and insects, rather than leaves. Flowers can also be seasonally important, for example those of Tabebuiaipe (Bignoniaceae). Azara’s Night Monkeys have been seen to catch cicadas during the day.Breeding.Breeding of Azara’s Night Monkey is seasonal; births peak in January-February in Paraguayand October-November in Argentina. In Argentina, adult body mass is reached at about four years of age, and the onset of reproduction occurs at about six years. In the nominate subspecies azarae, females have a reproductive cycle of ¢.22 days in the wild and 25 days in captivity. Captive and wild females of the subspecies azaraehave a gestation period of ¢.120-130 days. Infants are mostly carried by the male from when they are about ten days old. The median interbirth interval is 370 days (range 345-426 days, n = 13). As has been found for other night monkeys, mating is infrequent. During three years of study and more than 2000 hours of observations, mating was recorded only eight times in five groups. Itis rapid and discreet, and therefore difficult to observe. Although all night monkeys are believed to be monogamous (there is never more than one breeding female and always only one male in the groups), a long-term study of known individuals in a population of the subspecies azaraein northern Argentinashowed considerable turnover of resident adults.Activity patterns.In Paraguay, the nominate subspecies is partially diurnal, foraging during the day for periods of one to three hours. Large raptors such as the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the Guianacrested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) are rare there, and the principal, potential, avian predator is the great horned owl (Bubo virgintanus). When traveling at night, they are quieter than is typical for night monkeys of the Amazonian forest possibly because of this. Temperature may be another factor promoting diurnal activity. Low temperatures do not completely inhibit their traveling and foraging, but when night-time temperatures are 5°-10°C, they forage in the late afternoon at temperatures of 25°-30°C. Diurnal foraging and traveling increases when the weather is cooler. A field study of the subspecies Bolivian Night Monkey in Beni, Bolivia, recorded an activity budget of 31% foraging, 49% resting, and 20% traveling. Groups travel longer during full-moon nights than new-moon nights, and ambient temperature also influences distances moved during full-moon nights.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social structure of Azara’s Night Monkey consists of one adult male and one adult female per group, with a mean group size of 2-3-4 individuals. Subadults are often observed in groups of the nominate subspecies azaraein Argentina. Group density of the subspecies azaraehas been reported at 5-5-16 groups/km? in Argentina. In Paraguay, group density has been estimated at 4 groups/km”. For the Bolivian Night Monkey, there is one report of 68-9 groups/ km?, but the census was taken in an island offorest of only 0-33 ha. Home-range size has been reported to vary from 5 ha to 10 ha. Mean daily movement is estimated at 378-5 m, with mean diurnal movement of 199 m and mean nocturnal movement of 420 m. The population of the subspecies azaraein Guaycolec Ranch, Formosa Province, Argentina, has ¢.25-30% of adults living solitarily. Both males and females disperse. Subadults are often on the periphery of a social group’s home range prior to emigration in the subspecies azarae. Turnover of resident adults is frequent, with 14 of 15 pairs replacing at least one adult in a three-year period. Aggressive interactions in this population are observed between groups during the day and night. Paternal care and provisioning have been observed, with males carrying an infant 84% of the time after the first week oflife. The adult male also plays, grooms, and shares food with the infant. In the subspecies azarae, males and females share food in the wild with infants and mates. Individuals in the population at Guaycolec often travel on the ground when they cross from one patch of forest to the other, sometimes for distances up to 100 m.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Subspecies azaraeand boliviensis are classified as Least Concern and subspecies infulatus is classified as Near Threatened because of logging and the widespread conversion of forest for commercial agriculture, especially for soy beans, and for cattle pasture throughout its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para over the last two decades. The range of Azara’s Night Monkey coincides with the most devastated areas of the Brazilian Amazon. The subspecies azaraeoccurs in the national parks of Rio Pilcomayo in Argentinaand Kaa-lya del Gran Chacoin Bolivia, and in the Defensores del Chaco, and Tinfunqué national parks in Paraguay. The Bolivian Night Monkey occurs in Amboro, Carrasco, Isiboro Sécure, Madidi, and Noel Kempff Mercado national parks and Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve in Bolivia. The Feline Night Monkey occurs in Pantanal Matogrossense and Araguaia national parks and Gurupi and Tapirapé biological reserves in Brazil.Bibliography.Arditi (1992), Arditi & Placci (1990), Defler et al. (2001), Dixson (1983, 1994), Fernandes (1993), Fernandez-Duque (2003, 2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012), Fernandez-Duque & Bravo (1997), Fernandez-Duque & Erkert (2004, 2006), Fernandez-Duque & Huntington (2002), Fernandez-Duque, Rotundo & Ramirez-Llorens (2002), Fernandez-Dugue, Rotundo & Sloan (2001), Fernandez-Duque, Wallace & Rylands (2008), Garcia & Braza (1987, 1989, 1993), Giménez & Fernandez-Duque (2003), Huck & Fernandez-Duque (2011), Huck et al. (2011), Hunter et al. (1979), Jantschke et al. (1998), Ma, Elliott et al. (1976), Ma, Jones et al. (1976), Mudry, Colillas & de Salum (1984), Mudry, Slavutsky & Labal de Vinuesa (1990), Pieczarka & Nagamachi (1988), Pieczarka et al. (1993), Rathbun & Gache (1980), Rotundo et al. (2005), Silva & Fernandes (1999), Silva & Nunes (1995), Smith & Jungers (1997), Stallings et al. (1989), Welker et al. (1998), Wolovich & Evans (2007), Wolovich, Perea-Rodriguez & Fernandez-Duque (2008), Wright (1981, 1985, 1989, 1994), Zunino (1985), Zunino et al. (1986)." -03C1502EA858682BFF797804F9A4F65D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,430,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA858682BFF797804F9A4F65D.xml,Aotus nigriceps,Aotus,nigriceps,Dollman,1909,Douroucouli de Dollman @fr | Schwarzkopf-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de cabeza negra Other common names @es,"Aotus nigriceps Dollman, 1909,Peru, Chanchamayo, 1000 m.Populations on either side of the Rio Jurua differ somewhat from each other. Those on the right bank are gray-backed, while those on the left have a reddishbrown back and resemble A. nancymaae. Monotypic.","Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas-Solimoes and W of the Rio TapajosJuruena to the right bank of the Rio Guaporé and the left (N) bank of the Rio Madre de Dios in N Bolivia, also in SE PeruW to the Rio Huallaga and N as far the Rio Cushabatay at about 07° S.","Head—body 35-42 cm,tail 35-44 cm; weight ¢.875 g (males) and c.1040 g (females). The Black-headed Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 51 in males and 52 in females. It is iron-gray above with a brownish agouti on the dorsum. The underside is orange with white tones, extending to the neck, throat, chin, and sides of the jaw and to the inner surfaces of the wrists and ankles. The cap is black, face stripes are broad, and areas of white on the face are conspicuous. The interscapular whorl is absent.","Primary tropical forest, swamp forest, and seasonally flooded forest.","Black-headed Night Monkeys eatfruits, which account for ¢.60% of their diet, but they also eat nectar, young leaves and buds,insects, and spiders. In Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, they tend to feed more in large trees with larger crowns (more than 11 m in diameter) than sympatric diurnal titi monkeys (similar in size and also living in small monogamous groups) that customarily follow a regular foraging circuit to find small quantities of fruits in smaller crowned trees. Associated with their use of larger-crowned trees, Blackheaded Night Monkeys travel and forage higher up in the forest canopy than the titi monkeys, which spend more than 50% their time in the lower canopy and understory, perhaps due to the titi monkeys susceptibility to predation by diurnal raptors. Diets of Black-headed Night Monkeys and titi monkeys include many bitter or spicy (e.g. Lauraceae) and unripe fruits not generally eaten by other monkeys. Black-headed Night Monkeys forage for insects, especially at dawn and dusk, searching along branches and among foliage. They are adept at catching insects in mid-air and eat moths, beetles, and particularly orthopterans (katydids and grasshoppers of 6-10 cm in length, which call and are active at night and more easily located). Black-headed Night Monkeys are more insectivorous than titi monkeys that supplement the fruit part of their diet more with leaves. When fruits are scarce at the end of the wet season and in the early dry season, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat mostly figs, nectar, and insects. Their consumption of figs is facilitated by the lack of competition from the diurnal primates.","In Peru, a seasonal peak in births of Black-headed Night Monkeys occurs between August and February during the rainy season, when fruit is abundant.","Black-headed Night Monkeys spend ¢.50% of the night active, with maximallevels of activity when the full moon is near the meridian. An activity budget generally consists of 53% foraging, 21% traveling, 22% resting, and 4% agonistic. They are very regular in their activity periods, consistently beginning their day about 13 minutes after sunset and reentering their sleeping sites about 15 minutes before sunrise.","Social structure of the Black-headed Night Monkey consists of one adult female and one adult male. Group size ranges from two to five, with a mean of four individuals. In a study at Cocha Cashu, homerange size was 7-14 ha with a mean of 9:2 ha (n = = 9 groups). The distance travelled at night averaged 708 m. They traveled twice as far on moonlit nights than on darker nights. Average distance moved on nights with a new moon was 436 m compared to 780 m on a night with a full moon. On dark and rainy nights, travel was slow and curtailed. They traveled farther at dawn and dusk than at other times. They repeatedly used the same routes through the trees indicating that this helped them to navigate in the dark. Principal predators of the Black-headed Night Monkey in the Amazon are diurnal raptors, which explain their propensity to use tree holes for sleeping during the day. Alternate sleeping sites are in very dense foliage, vines, and lianas where they are well hidden. Good sleeping sites appear to be uncommon and are reused frequently; travel during the night is generally circular, returning before sunrise to the sleeping site that they used the previous day. For 60 nights over a year, a group of Black-headed Night Monkeys usedjust five sites, and one of them was used more than 30 times. Both males and females emigrate. A density estimate for Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, was 36-40 ind/km?.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although the Black-headed Night Monkey is not generally hunted for food, considerable numbers of them were captured and exported to biomedical research laboratories in the 1970s because of their use in research on malaria and in oncology. There is evidence that there is a continuing illegal trade of these monkeys even today. They occur in Manuripe-Heath National Reserve in Boliviaand Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru. The Brazilian national parks of Amazonia, Juruena, Pacaas Novos, and Serra do Divisor are within its known range, as are Abufari, Guaporé, and Jaru biological reserves and Rio Acre Ecological Station.","Aquino & Encarnacion (1994a) | Bicca-Marques & Garber (2004) | Collins (1994) | Cornejo & Palacios (2008b) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Peres (1993) | Wright (1978, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1994)",,"10. Black-headed Night Monkey Aotus nigricepsFrench:Douroucouli de Dollman/ German:Schwarzkopf-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de cabeza negraOther common names:Black-headed Owl Monkey, Night Monkey, Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus nigriceps Dollman, 1909,Peru, Chanchamayo, 1000 m.Populations on either side of the Rio Jurua differ somewhat from each other. Those on the right bank are gray-backed, while those on the left have a reddishbrown back and resemble A. nancymaae. Monotypic.Distribution.Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas-Solimoes and W of the Rio TapajosJuruena to the right bank of the Rio Guaporé and the left (N) bank of the Rio Madre de Dios in N Bolivia, also in SE PeruW to the Rio Huallaga and N as far the Rio Cushabatay at about 07° S.Descriptive notes.Head—body 35-42 cm,tail 35-44 cm; weight ¢.875 g (males) and c.1040 g (females). The Black-headed Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 51 in males and 52 in females. It is iron-gray above with a brownish agouti on the dorsum. The underside is orange with white tones, extending to the neck, throat, chin, and sides of the jaw and to the inner surfaces of the wrists and ankles. The cap is black, face stripes are broad, and areas of white on the face are conspicuous. The interscapular whorl is absent.Habitat.Primary tropical forest, swamp forest, and seasonally flooded forest.Food and Feeding.Black-headed Night Monkeys eatfruits, which account for ¢.60% of their diet, but they also eat nectar, young leaves and buds,insects, and spiders. In Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, they tend to feed more in large trees with larger crowns (more than 11 m in diameter) than sympatric diurnal titi monkeys (similar in size and also living in small monogamous groups) that customarily follow a regular foraging circuit to find small quantities of fruits in smaller crowned trees. Associated with their use of larger-crowned trees, Blackheaded Night Monkeys travel and forage higher up in the forest canopy than the titi monkeys, which spend more than 50% their time in the lower canopy and understory, perhaps due to the titi monkeys susceptibility to predation by diurnal raptors. Diets of Black-headed Night Monkeys and titi monkeys include many bitter or spicy (e.g. Lauraceae) and unripe fruits not generally eaten by other monkeys. Black-headed Night Monkeys forage for insects, especially at dawn and dusk, searching along branches and among foliage. They are adept at catching insects in mid-air and eat moths, beetles, and particularly orthopterans (katydids and grasshoppers of 6-10 cm in length, which call and are active at night and more easily located). Black-headed Night Monkeys are more insectivorous than titi monkeys that supplement the fruit part of their diet more with leaves. When fruits are scarce at the end of the wet season and in the early dry season, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat mostly figs, nectar, and insects. Their consumption of figs is facilitated by the lack of competition from the diurnal primates.Breeding.In Peru, a seasonal peak in births of Black-headed Night Monkeys occurs between August and February during the rainy season, when fruit is abundant.Activity patterns.Black-headed Night Monkeys spend ¢.50% of the night active, with maximallevels of activity when the full moon is near the meridian. An activity budget generally consists of 53% foraging, 21% traveling, 22% resting, and 4% agonistic. They are very regular in their activity periods, consistently beginning their day about 13 minutes after sunset and reentering their sleeping sites about 15 minutes before sunrise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social structure of the Black-headed Night Monkey consists of one adult female and one adult male. Group size ranges from two to five, with a mean of four individuals. In a study at Cocha Cashu, homerange size was 7-14 ha with a mean of 9:2 ha (n = = 9 groups). The distance travelled at night averaged 708 m. They traveled twice as far on moonlit nights than on darker nights. Average distance moved on nights with a new moon was 436 m compared to 780 m on a night with a full moon. On dark and rainy nights, travel was slow and curtailed. They traveled farther at dawn and dusk than at other times. They repeatedly used the same routes through the trees indicating that this helped them to navigate in the dark. Principal predators of the Black-headed Night Monkey in the Amazon are diurnal raptors, which explain their propensity to use tree holes for sleeping during the day. Alternate sleeping sites are in very dense foliage, vines, and lianas where they are well hidden. Good sleeping sites appear to be uncommon and are reused frequently; travel during the night is generally circular, returning before sunrise to the sleeping site that they used the previous day. For 60 nights over a year, a group of Black-headed Night Monkeys usedjust five sites, and one of them was used more than 30 times. Both males and females emigrate. A density estimate for Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, was 36-40 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although the Black-headed Night Monkey is not generally hunted for food, considerable numbers of them were captured and exported to biomedical research laboratories in the 1970s because of their use in research on malaria and in oncology. There is evidence that there is a continuing illegal trade of these monkeys even today. They occur in Manuripe-Heath National Reserve in Boliviaand Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru. The Brazilian national parks of Amazonia, Juruena, Pacaas Novos, and Serra do Divisor are within its known range, as are Abufari, Guaporé, and Jaru biological reserves and Rio Acre Ecological Station.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacion (1994a), Bicca-Marques & Garber (2004), Collins (1994), Cornejo & Palacios (2008b), Hershkovitz (1983), Maldonado et al. (2009), Peres (1993), Wright (1978, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1994)." -03C1502EA859682AFA8B732DF6E8F454,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,429,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682AFA8B732DF6E8F454.xml,Aotus miconax,Aotus,miconax,Thomas,1927,Douroucouli des Andes @fr | Anden-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno andino Other common names @es,"Aotus miconax Thomas, 1927,Peru, Amazonas, San Nicolas, 1372 m above sea level.This species is monotypic.","A Peruvian endemic, confined to a small area S of the Rio Maranonand W of the Rio Huallaga to about 10° S.","Head-body 39-4 cm, tail 22 cm (measurements from the type specimen). The Andean Night Monkeyis a red-necked species. Its upper sides are light gray with a brownish tint, often quite infused with red-brown. Its underside is pale orange, extending forward as far as the chin and on the inner sides of the limbs, but not extending above the ventral one-half of the side of neck or to the ankle. Outer surface of body is dominantly brownish to buffy agouti. The tail is bushy; its upper side is blackish, and the lower side reddish orange. Facial pattern is inconspicuous. An interscapular whorlis absent.","Primary and secondary humid lower montane cloud forest at elevations of 800-2788 m. Temperature range in these habitats is 15°C-19°C, and annual rainfall is ¢.1500-3000 mm.","Diet of the Andean Night Monkey includes fruits, young leaves and leaf buds, flowers (Melastomataceae), and insects. Studies in La Esperanza in the Bongara Province, Amazonas, Peru, have recorded them eating fruits of at least twelve species, including Ficus(Moraceae), two species of Inga(Fabaceae), Solanum(Solanaceae), Neosprucea montana (Flacourticeae), Styloceraslaurifolium (Buxaceae), two species of Cecropia(Urticaceae), and Bunchosiaarmeniaca (Malpighiaceae). The Andean Night Monkeys there evidently eat more buds and young leaves (30% of their diet) than has been found for Azara’s Night Monkey (A. azarae)—not typical of other species of night monkeys that tend to be more insectivorous.","There is a record of a birth in April, but otherwise there is no information available for this species.","The Andean Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. An activity budget recorded at La Esperanza, involving more than ten hours of observation, was 48-8% traveling, 37-8% feeding, and 13-4% resting.","Groups of 2-6 individuals have been observed in the Cordillerade Colan and in the private reserves of Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva and Huiquilla in the northern part ofits distribution. Sleeping sites have been recorded at heights of 6-9 m in dense vegetation of branches, epiphytes, and lianas. Calls (recorded) of the black-banded owl (Strix huhula) elicit warning vocalizations and mobbing behavior by the Andean Night Monkey. Groups are able to live in small forest patches near and among houses and occasionally go to the ground to reach other forest patches or isolated trees in fruit, risking attack by dogs.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is listed as Endangered on the Peruvian threatened species list published by decree in 2004. The Andean Night Monkey is threatened because of the widespread destruction of its forests for farmland and pasture since the early 1970s throughout its limited distribution. For many years, the Peruvian departments of San Martinand Amazonashave had the highest rates of deforestation and immigration in the country. The Andean Night Monkey is not hunted for food and can be locally quite common. Individuals are sometimes caught when their sleeping trees are cut down, and they are occasionally kept as pets. Andean Night Monkeys are known to occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and possibly Tingo Maria National Park and Cordillerade Colan Reserved Zone.","Aquino & Encarnacién (1994a) | Butchart et al. (1995) | Cornejo, Aquino & Jiménez (2008) | Fernandez-Duque (2007, 2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hershkovitz (1977, 1983) | Heymann (2004) | Marchena et al. (2011) | Shanee & Shanee (2008, 2011c) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994) | Young & Leon (1999)",,"8. Andean Night Monkey Aotus miconaxFrench:Douroucouli des Andes/ German:Anden-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno andinoOther common names:Andean Owl Monkey, Peruvian Night Monkey, Peruvian Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus miconax Thomas, 1927,Peru, Amazonas, San Nicolas, 1372 m above sea level.This species is monotypic.Distribution.A Peruvian endemic, confined to a small area S of the Rio Maranonand W of the Rio Huallaga to about 10° S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 39-4 cm, tail 22 cm (measurements from the type specimen). The Andean Night Monkeyis a red-necked species. Its upper sides are light gray with a brownish tint, often quite infused with red-brown. Its underside is pale orange, extending forward as far as the chin and on the inner sides of the limbs, but not extending above the ventral one-half of the side of neck or to the ankle. Outer surface of body is dominantly brownish to buffy agouti. The tail is bushy; its upper side is blackish, and the lower side reddish orange. Facial pattern is inconspicuous. An interscapular whorlis absent.Habitat.Primary and secondary humid lower montane cloud forest at elevations of 800-2788 m. Temperature range in these habitats is 15°C-19°C, and annual rainfall is ¢.1500-3000 mm.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Andean Night Monkey includes fruits, young leaves and leaf buds, flowers (Melastomataceae), and insects. Studies in La Esperanza in the Bongara Province, Amazonas, Peru, have recorded them eating fruits of at least twelve species, including Ficus(Moraceae), two species of Inga(Fabaceae), Solanum(Solanaceae), Neosprucea montana (Flacourticeae), Styloceraslaurifolium (Buxaceae), two species of Cecropia(Urticaceae), and Bunchosiaarmeniaca (Malpighiaceae). The Andean Night Monkeys there evidently eat more buds and young leaves (30% of their diet) than has been found for Azara’s Night Monkey (A. azarae)—not typical of other species of night monkeys that tend to be more insectivorous.Breeding.There is a record of a birth in April, but otherwise there is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Andean Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. An activity budget recorded at La Esperanza, involving more than ten hours of observation, was 48-8% traveling, 37-8% feeding, and 13-4% resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Groups of 2-6 individuals have been observed in the Cordillerade Colan and in the private reserves of Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva and Huiquilla in the northern part ofits distribution. Sleeping sites have been recorded at heights of 6-9 m in dense vegetation of branches, epiphytes, and lianas. Calls (recorded) of the black-banded owl (Strix huhula) elicit warning vocalizations and mobbing behavior by the Andean Night Monkey. Groups are able to live in small forest patches near and among houses and occasionally go to the ground to reach other forest patches or isolated trees in fruit, risking attack by dogs.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is listed as Endangered on the Peruvian threatened species list published by decree in 2004. The Andean Night Monkey is threatened because of the widespread destruction of its forests for farmland and pasture since the early 1970s throughout its limited distribution. For many years, the Peruvian departments of San Martinand Amazonashave had the highest rates of deforestation and immigration in the country. The Andean Night Monkey is not hunted for food and can be locally quite common. Individuals are sometimes caught when their sleeping trees are cut down, and they are occasionally kept as pets. Andean Night Monkeys are known to occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and possibly Tingo Maria National Park and Cordillerade Colan Reserved Zone.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacién (1994a), Butchart et al. (1995), Cornejo, Aquino & Jiménez (2008), Fernandez-Duque (2007, 2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hershkovitz (1977, 1983), Heymann (2004), Marchena et al. (2011), Shanee & Shanee (2008, 2011c), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994), Young & Leon (1999)." -03C1502EA859682AFF807839F6B1FDD3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,429,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682AFF807839F6B1FDD3.xml,Aotus jorgehernandezi,Aotus,jorgehernandezi,Defler & Bueno,2007,Douroucouli de Hernandez @fr | Hernandez-Camacho-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Hernandez-Camacho Other common names @es,"Aotus jorgehernandezi Defler & Bueno, 2007,type locality uncertain, a captive animal in Quindio Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border of Quindioand Riseralda.This species is monotypic.","The range is unknown, but it is believed to occur on the W slopes and foothills of the Andes of W Colombia, in the region of Quindioand Riseralda.","No body measurements are available, but it is similar in size to other night monkeys. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The face has two discrete supraocular white patches separated by a broad black frontal stripe. Subocular white bands of fur are separated by a thin black malar stripe on each side of the head. Ventral parts of the arms from the wrists running up into the chest and belly are of thick white fur.",Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information for this species, but Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is likely nocturnal and arboreal.",There is no information available for this species.,"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it may occur in Tatama National Natural Park in Colombia.",Defler & Bueno (2007) | Morales-Jiménez & Link (2008b) | Yunis et al. (1977),,"7. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night MonkeyAotus jorgehernandeziFrench:Douroucouli de Hernandez/ German:Hernandez-Camacho-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de Hernandez-CamachoOther common names:Hernandez-Camacho’s Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus jorgehernandezi Defler & Bueno, 2007,type locality uncertain, a captive animal in Quindio Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border of Quindioand Riseralda.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The range is unknown, but it is believed to occur on the W slopes and foothills of the Andes of W Colombia, in the region of Quindioand Riseralda.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available, but it is similar in size to other night monkeys. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The face has two discrete supraocular white patches separated by a broad black frontal stripe. Subocular white bands of fur are separated by a thin black malar stripe on each side of the head. Ventral parts of the arms from the wrists running up into the chest and belly are of thick white fur.Habitat.Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is likely nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it may occur in Tatama National Natural Park in Colombia.Bibliography.Defler & Bueno (2007), Morales-Jiménez & Link (2008b), Yunis et al. (1977)." -03C1502EA859682BFA887AABFBB0F6CB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,429,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682BFA887AABFBB0F6CB.xml,Aotus nancymaae,Aotus,nancymaae,Hershkovitz,1983,Douroucouli du Loreto @fr | Nancy-Ma-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Nancy Ma Other common names @es,"Aotus nancymai Hershkovitz, 1983,right bank of Rio Samiria above Estacion Pithecia, Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria, Loreto, Peru, elevation ¢.130 m.This species is monotypic.","W Brazil(S of the Rio Solimoes from the Rio Javari on the Peruvian border E possibly as far as the Rio Jandiatuba) and NE Peru(from the Javari W to the Rio Huallaga), also found N of the Maranon in an enclave between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza to c.03° S.","Head-body 29-34 cm, tail 35-42 cm; weight 794-5 g (male average, n = 32) and 780-2 g (female average, n = 24). Ma’s Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 54. Upperparts of the body are grayish-agouti, with a darkened mid-dorsal zone and a pale orange underside; the latter color extends up the sides of the neck and inner limbs. Proximal part of the tail is also orange with, usually, a blackish stripe above; the underside of the tail is blackish. Face is grayish-white, crown stripes are narrow and dark brown, and sides of the throat and jaw are colored like the body. An interscapular whorl is absent.","[Lowland tropical forest including seasonally flooded forest at elevations of 60-130 m. Densities of Ma’s Night Monkeys are lower in terra firma forest because of a relative paucity of tree holes, their preferred sleeping sites, compared with lowland swamp and seasonally inundated forests. Trees in terra firma forest are predominantly hardwoods that provide fewer hollows for sleeping. Lowland swamp and inundated forests have a predominance of softwood that more easily form hollows and abundant dense vine tangles that these monkeys also use as sleeping sites.","In captivity, Ma’s Night Monkeys eat insects, geckos,lizards, and on one occasion, a small bird. Food sharing is prevalent in captivity.","A peak in births has been estimated to be between December and March in the wet season, but captive populations breed throughout the year when photoperiod is kept constant. Age at first reproduction is about 40 months. Single offspring are the rule, and twinning in captivity only occurred in one of 169 births in one study and one in 287 births in a second study. Interbirth intervals in captive females are 9-11 months. In captivity, pregnant females may mate.",Ma’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal.,"Field research on the Rio Tahuayo, north-eastern Peru, in 1978-1979 found social groups of 2-5 individuals (average 3-4), including a breeding pair and its offspring. In one instance, a third adult was seen traveling some 20-30 m from a group; it was eventually attacked and chased off by the breeding pair. Density at Rio Tahuayo was estimated at 8-7 groups/km? or 25 ind/km?. An analysis of the population structure found a lack ofjuveniles (450-575 g), indicating poor survival ofthis age category. Density estimates obtained for Ma’s Night Monkey in nine other localities from 1982 to 1985 were 3-9-13-2 groups/km? or 16-54-2 ind/km?.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major identified threats, but their capture for use in medical research continues. Perubanned trade in primatesin 1973 and became a signatory to CITES in 1975. Between 1994 and 2007, registered exports of Ma’s Night Monkey from Perutotaled 1059 animals, but it is still being exported illegally, with Peruvian and Brazilian Ma’s Night Monkeys and Black-headed Night Monkeys (A. nigriceps) appearing in Colombiawhere they do not otherwise occur. Ma’s Night Monkey occurs in the Jutai-Solimoes Ecological Station in Braziland Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve and ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo in Peru.","Aquino & Encarnacion (1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1994a) | Aquino et al. (1990, 1992) | Bolen & Green (1997) | Cornejo & Palacios (2008a) | Feged et al. (2002) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Gozalo & Montoya (1990) | Held & Wolfle (1994) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Kumamoto & Houck (2001) | Malaga, Weller, Buschbom et al. (1997) | Mélaga, Weller, Montoya et al. (1991) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Nino-Vasquez et al. (2000) | Pieczarka et al. (1992) | Wolovich & Evans (2007) | Wolovich et al. (2008a, 2010) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)",,"9. Ma’s Night Monkey Aotus nancymaaeFrench:Douroucouli du Loreto/ German:Nancy-Ma-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de Nancy MaOther common names:Nancy Ma's Night Monkey, Nancy Ma's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus nancymai Hershkovitz, 1983,right bank of Rio Samiria above Estacion Pithecia, Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria, Loreto, Peru, elevation ¢.130 m.This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Brazil(S of the Rio Solimoes from the Rio Javari on the Peruvian border E possibly as far as the Rio Jandiatuba) and NE Peru(from the Javari W to the Rio Huallaga), also found N of the Maranon in an enclave between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza to c.03° S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 29-34 cm, tail 35-42 cm; weight 794-5 g (male average, n = 32) and 780-2 g (female average, n = 24). Ma’s Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 54. Upperparts of the body are grayish-agouti, with a darkened mid-dorsal zone and a pale orange underside; the latter color extends up the sides of the neck and inner limbs. Proximal part of the tail is also orange with, usually, a blackish stripe above; the underside of the tail is blackish. Face is grayish-white, crown stripes are narrow and dark brown, and sides of the throat and jaw are colored like the body. An interscapular whorl is absent.Habitat.[Lowland tropical forest including seasonally flooded forest at elevations of 60-130 m. Densities of Ma’s Night Monkeys are lower in terra firma forest because of a relative paucity of tree holes, their preferred sleeping sites, compared with lowland swamp and seasonally inundated forests. Trees in terra firma forest are predominantly hardwoods that provide fewer hollows for sleeping. Lowland swamp and inundated forests have a predominance of softwood that more easily form hollows and abundant dense vine tangles that these monkeys also use as sleeping sites.Food and Feeding.In captivity, Ma’s Night Monkeys eat insects, geckos,lizards, and on one occasion, a small bird. Food sharing is prevalent in captivity.Breeding.A peak in births has been estimated to be between December and March in the wet season, but captive populations breed throughout the year when photoperiod is kept constant. Age at first reproduction is about 40 months. Single offspring are the rule, and twinning in captivity only occurred in one of 169 births in one study and one in 287 births in a second study. Interbirth intervals in captive females are 9-11 months. In captivity, pregnant females may mate.Activity patterns.Ma’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Field research on the Rio Tahuayo, north-eastern Peru, in 1978-1979 found social groups of 2-5 individuals (average 3-4), including a breeding pair and its offspring. In one instance, a third adult was seen traveling some 20-30 m from a group; it was eventually attacked and chased off by the breeding pair. Density at Rio Tahuayo was estimated at 8-7 groups/km? or 25 ind/km?. An analysis of the population structure found a lack ofjuveniles (450-575 g), indicating poor survival ofthis age category. Density estimates obtained for Ma’s Night Monkey in nine other localities from 1982 to 1985 were 3-9-13-2 groups/km? or 16-54-2 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major identified threats, but their capture for use in medical research continues. Perubanned trade in primatesin 1973 and became a signatory to CITES in 1975. Between 1994 and 2007, registered exports of Ma’s Night Monkey from Perutotaled 1059 animals, but it is still being exported illegally, with Peruvian and Brazilian Ma’s Night Monkeys and Black-headed Night Monkeys (A. nigriceps) appearing in Colombiawhere they do not otherwise occur. Ma’s Night Monkey occurs in the Jutai-Solimoes Ecological Station in Braziland Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve and ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo in Peru.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacion (1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1994a), Aquino et al. (1990, 1992), Bolen & Green (1997), Cornejo & Palacios (2008a), Feged et al. (2002), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Gozalo & Montoya (1990), Held & Wolfle (1994), Hershkovitz (1983), Kumamoto & Houck (2001), Malaga, Weller, Buschbom et al. (1997), Mélaga, Weller, Montoya et al. (1991), Maldonado et al. (2009), Nino-Vasquez et al. (2000), Pieczarka et al. (1992), Wolovich & Evans (2007), Wolovich et al. (2008a, 2010), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)." +03C1502EA8586828FA4078B3F66AF6EE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,430,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA8586828FA4078B3F66AF6EE.xml,Aotus azarae,Aotus,azarae,,,Douroucouli de d'Azara @fr | Azara-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Azara Other common names @es,"Simia azarae Humboldt, 1812,Paraguay. Restricted by Elliot in 1913 to the right bank of Rio Paraguayin northeastern Argentina.Three subspecies are recognized.","A. a. azarae Humboldt, 1812— SC Brazil(Pantanal), S Bolivia(Banados del Izozog), Paraguay(S & W Chaco, W of the Rio Paraguay), and N Argentina(provinces of Chaco& Formosa).A. a. boliviensis Elliot, 1907 — SE Peru(S of the rios Madre de Diosand Inambari) and BoliviaE of the Andes (from the Rio Madre de Dios S to the Banados del Izozog in the border region with Paraguay). A. a. infulatus Kuhl, 1820 — Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas (but with a small enclave in the SE tip of Amapa State), including Marajo and Caviana Is, extending E in the state of Maranhaoas far as the Rio Parnaiba, S along the W bank of Rio Tocantinsto the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, W limits are marked by the rios Tapajos and Juruena.","Head-body 34 cm (males) and 33 cm (females), tail ¢.31 cm; weight 990-1580 g (males, nominate subspecies) and 1010-1450 g (female nominate subspecies). Azara’s Night Monkey is a highly variable red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 49 in males and 50 in females. An interscapular whorl is generally present. In the subspecies azarae, fur is long, thick, and shaggy, grayish to pale buffyagouti above and pale whitish-orange below. Face stripes are narrow. Basal hairs of the distal one-quarter of tail are orange. In the “Bolivian Night Monkey” (A. a. bolivienss), fur is relatively short, with an olive tone above and contrastingly grayer on limbs. Face stripes are very narrow except where the middle one expands on the crown; the black temporal stripe is poorly defined, the black malar stripe is faint or absent, and there is usually a whitish band between the eyes and temporal stripe. There is a conspicuous whorl between the shoulder blades. The “Feline Night Monkey” (A. a. infulatus) is like the Bolivian Night Monkey, but the white on its face is more prominent. There is generally no whitish band between the eyes and the temporal stripe as with the Bolivian Night Monkey. Temporal stripes are black, well defined, and continuous with the malar stripe. The tail tends to be reddish throughout its length except for the black tip. Orange of underparts extends to or above the ventral one-half of side of neck and to mid-tibia or ankle. Color of the throat varies from orange, with the anterior one-half grayish agouti to entirely orange. Sometimes there is an interscapular whorl, sometimes not.","Deciduous, gallery, riparian, and secondary forest of the Chaco in Paraguay, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Group sizes of Azara’s Night Monkey are smaller in the more xeric regions of the Chacocompared with humid (mesic) regions. Seasonality in these environments is strong, and temperatures range between —=5°C and 47°C. The Feline Night Monkey has been recorded in Orbignya (Arecaceae) palm forest (the Zona dos Cocais in Maranhao), forest patches and gallery forests in the “cerrado” (bush savanna) of central Brazil, and the “caatinga” (deciduous scrub and forest) in north-eastern Brazil. It also occurs in mangrove forest.","Diet of Azara’s Night Monkey is composed of fruits, nectar, flowers, leaves, fungi, and insects. Feeding ecology of the nominate subspecies has been studied in the subtropical dry forest of Paraguay. Azara’s Night Monkeys there were more folivorous than the Black-headed Night Monkey (A. nigriceps) in Peru, concentrating on leaves of small trees and vines for 46% of their feeding time and with fruit being only 16% of the diet (as opposed to 60%), and nectar and flowers 33%. At times of fruit shortage, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat more flowers, nectar, fig fruits, and insects, rather than leaves. Flowers can also be seasonally important, for example those of Tabebuiaipe (Bignoniaceae). Azara’s Night Monkeys have been seen to catch cicadas during the day.","Breeding of Azara’s Night Monkey is seasonal; births peak in January-February in Paraguayand October-November in Argentina. In Argentina, adult body mass is reached at about four years of age, and the onset of reproduction occurs at about six years. In the nominate subspecies azarae, females have a reproductive cycle of ¢.22 days in the wild and 25 days in captivity. Captive and wild females of the subspecies azaraehave a gestation period of ¢.120-130 days. Infants are mostly carried by the male from when they are about ten days old. The median interbirth interval is 370 days (range 345-426 days, n = 13). As has been found for other night monkeys, mating is infrequent. During three years of study and more than 2000 hours of observations, mating was recorded only eight times in five groups. Itis rapid and discreet, and therefore difficult to observe. Although all night monkeys are believed to be monogamous (there is never more than one breeding female and always only one male in the groups), a long-term study of known individuals in a population of the subspecies azaraein northern Argentinashowed considerable turnover of resident adults.","In Paraguay, the nominate subspecies is partially diurnal, foraging during the day for periods of one to three hours. Large raptors such as the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the Guianacrested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) are rare there, and the principal, potential, avian predator is the great horned owl (Bubo virgintanus). When traveling at night, they are quieter than is typical for night monkeys of the Amazonian forest possibly because of this. Temperature may be another factor promoting diurnal activity. Low temperatures do not completely inhibit their traveling and foraging, but when night-time temperatures are 5°-10°C, they forage in the late afternoon at temperatures of 25°-30°C. Diurnal foraging and traveling increases when the weather is cooler. A field study of the subspecies Bolivian Night Monkey in Beni, Bolivia, recorded an activity budget of 31% foraging, 49% resting, and 20% traveling. Groups travel longer during full-moon nights than new-moon nights, and ambient temperature also influences distances moved during full-moon nights.","Social structure of Azara’s Night Monkey consists of one adult male and one adult female per group, with a mean group size of 2-3-4 individuals. Subadults are often observed in groups of the nominate subspecies azaraein Argentina. Group density of the subspecies azaraehas been reported at 5-5-16 groups/km? in Argentina. In Paraguay, group density has been estimated at 4 groups/km”. For the Bolivian Night Monkey, there is one report of 68-9 groups/ km?, but the census was taken in an island offorest of only 0-33 ha. Home-range size has been reported to vary from 5 ha to 10 ha. Mean daily movement is estimated at 378-5 m, with mean diurnal movement of 199 m and mean nocturnal movement of 420 m. The population of the subspecies azaraein Guaycolec Ranch, Formosa Province, Argentina, has ¢.25-30% of adults living solitarily. Both males and females disperse. Subadults are often on the periphery of a social group’s home range prior to emigration in the subspecies azarae. Turnover of resident adults is frequent, with 14 of 15 pairs replacing at least one adult in a three-year period. Aggressive interactions in this population are observed between groups during the day and night. Paternal care and provisioning have been observed, with males carrying an infant 84% of the time after the first week oflife. The adult male also plays, grooms, and shares food with the infant. In the subspecies azarae, males and females share food in the wild with infants and mates. Individuals in the population at Guaycolec often travel on the ground when they cross from one patch of forest to the other, sometimes for distances up to 100 m.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Subspecies azaraeand boliviensis are classified as Least Concern and subspecies infulatus is classified as Near Threatened because of logging and the widespread conversion of forest for commercial agriculture, especially for soy beans, and for cattle pasture throughout its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para over the last two decades. The range of Azara’s Night Monkey coincides with the most devastated areas of the Brazilian Amazon. The subspecies azaraeoccurs in the national parks of Rio Pilcomayo in Argentinaand Kaa-lya del Gran Chacoin Bolivia, and in the Defensores del Chaco, and Tinfunqué national parks in Paraguay. The Bolivian Night Monkey occurs in Amboro, Carrasco, Isiboro Sécure, Madidi, and Noel Kempff Mercado national parks and Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve in Bolivia. The Feline Night Monkey occurs in Pantanal Matogrossense and Araguaia national parks and Gurupi and Tapirapé biological reserves in Brazil.","Arditi (1992) | Arditi & Placci (1990) | Defler et al. (2001) | Dixson (1983, 1994) | Fernandes (1993) | Fernandez-Duque (2003, 2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012) | Fernandez-Duque & Bravo (1997) | Fernandez-Duque & Erkert (2004, 2006) | Fernandez-Duque & Huntington (2002) | Fernandez-Duque, Rotundo & Ramirez-Llorens (2002) | Fernandez-Dugue, Rotundo & Sloan (2001) | Fernandez-Duque, Wallace & Rylands (2008) | Garcia & Braza (1987, 1989, 1993) | Giménez & Fernandez-Duque (2003) | Huck & Fernandez-Duque (2011) | Huck et al. (2011) | Hunter et al. (1979) | Jantschke et al. (1998) | Ma, Elliott et al. (1976) | Ma, Jones et al. (1976) | Mudry, Colillas & de Salum (1984) | Mudry, Slavutsky & Labal de Vinuesa (1990) | Pieczarka & Nagamachi (1988) | Pieczarka et al. (1993) | Rathbun & Gache (1980) | Rotundo et al. (2005) | Silva & Fernandes (1999) | Silva & Nunes (1995) | Smith & Jungers (1997) | Stallings et al. (1989) | Welker et al. (1998) | Wolovich & Evans (2007) | Wolovich, Perea-Rodriguez & Fernandez-Duque (2008) | Wright (1981, 1985, 1989, 1994) | Zunino (1985) | Zunino et al. (1986)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726996/files/figure.png,"11. Azara’s Night Monkey Aotus azaraeFrench:Douroucouli de d'Azara/ German:Azara-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de AzaraOther common names:Azara's Owl Monkey; Bolivian Night Monkey (boliviensis), Feline Night Monkey (infulatus)Taxonomy.Simia azarae Humboldt, 1812,Paraguay. Restricted by Elliot in 1913 to the right bank of Rio Paraguayin northeastern Argentina.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. a. azarae Humboldt, 1812— SC Brazil(Pantanal), S Bolivia(Banados del Izozog), Paraguay(S & W Chaco, W of the Rio Paraguay), and N Argentina(provinces of Chaco& Formosa).A. a. boliviensis Elliot, 1907 — SE Peru(S of the rios Madre de Diosand Inambari) and BoliviaE of the Andes (from the Rio Madre de Dios S to the Banados del Izozog in the border region with Paraguay). A. a. infulatus Kuhl, 1820 — Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas (but with a small enclave in the SE tip of Amapa State), including Marajo and Caviana Is, extending E in the state of Maranhaoas far as the Rio Parnaiba, S along the W bank of Rio Tocantinsto the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, W limits are marked by the rios Tapajos and Juruena.Descriptive notes.Head-body 34 cm (males) and 33 cm (females), tail ¢.31 cm; weight 990-1580 g (males, nominate subspecies) and 1010-1450 g (female nominate subspecies). Azara’s Night Monkey is a highly variable red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 49 in males and 50 in females. An interscapular whorl is generally present. In the subspecies azarae, fur is long, thick, and shaggy, grayish to pale buffyagouti above and pale whitish-orange below. Face stripes are narrow. Basal hairs of the distal one-quarter of tail are orange. In the “Bolivian Night Monkey” (A. a. bolivienss), fur is relatively short, with an olive tone above and contrastingly grayer on limbs. Face stripes are very narrow except where the middle one expands on the crown; the black temporal stripe is poorly defined, the black malar stripe is faint or absent, and there is usually a whitish band between the eyes and temporal stripe. There is a conspicuous whorl between the shoulder blades. The “Feline Night Monkey” (A. a. infulatus) is like the Bolivian Night Monkey, but the white on its face is more prominent. There is generally no whitish band between the eyes and the temporal stripe as with the Bolivian Night Monkey. Temporal stripes are black, well defined, and continuous with the malar stripe. The tail tends to be reddish throughout its length except for the black tip. Orange of underparts extends to or above the ventral one-half of side of neck and to mid-tibia or ankle. Color of the throat varies from orange, with the anterior one-half grayish agouti to entirely orange. Sometimes there is an interscapular whorl, sometimes not.Habitat.Deciduous, gallery, riparian, and secondary forest of the Chaco in Paraguay, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Group sizes of Azara’s Night Monkey are smaller in the more xeric regions of the Chacocompared with humid (mesic) regions. Seasonality in these environments is strong, and temperatures range between —=5°C and 47°C. The Feline Night Monkey has been recorded in Orbignya (Arecaceae) palm forest (the Zona dos Cocais in Maranhao), forest patches and gallery forests in the “cerrado” (bush savanna) of central Brazil, and the “caatinga” (deciduous scrub and forest) in north-eastern Brazil. It also occurs in mangrove forest.Food and Feeding.Diet of Azara’s Night Monkey is composed of fruits, nectar, flowers, leaves, fungi, and insects. Feeding ecology of the nominate subspecies has been studied in the subtropical dry forest of Paraguay. Azara’s Night Monkeys there were more folivorous than the Black-headed Night Monkey (A. nigriceps) in Peru, concentrating on leaves of small trees and vines for 46% of their feeding time and with fruit being only 16% of the diet (as opposed to 60%), and nectar and flowers 33%. At times of fruit shortage, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat more flowers, nectar, fig fruits, and insects, rather than leaves. Flowers can also be seasonally important, for example those of Tabebuiaipe (Bignoniaceae). Azara’s Night Monkeys have been seen to catch cicadas during the day.Breeding.Breeding of Azara’s Night Monkey is seasonal; births peak in January-February in Paraguayand October-November in Argentina. In Argentina, adult body mass is reached at about four years of age, and the onset of reproduction occurs at about six years. In the nominate subspecies azarae, females have a reproductive cycle of ¢.22 days in the wild and 25 days in captivity. Captive and wild females of the subspecies azaraehave a gestation period of ¢.120-130 days. Infants are mostly carried by the male from when they are about ten days old. The median interbirth interval is 370 days (range 345-426 days, n = 13). As has been found for other night monkeys, mating is infrequent. During three years of study and more than 2000 hours of observations, mating was recorded only eight times in five groups. Itis rapid and discreet, and therefore difficult to observe. Although all night monkeys are believed to be monogamous (there is never more than one breeding female and always only one male in the groups), a long-term study of known individuals in a population of the subspecies azaraein northern Argentinashowed considerable turnover of resident adults.Activity patterns.In Paraguay, the nominate subspecies is partially diurnal, foraging during the day for periods of one to three hours. Large raptors such as the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the Guianacrested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) are rare there, and the principal, potential, avian predator is the great horned owl (Bubo virgintanus). When traveling at night, they are quieter than is typical for night monkeys of the Amazonian forest possibly because of this. Temperature may be another factor promoting diurnal activity. Low temperatures do not completely inhibit their traveling and foraging, but when night-time temperatures are 5°-10°C, they forage in the late afternoon at temperatures of 25°-30°C. Diurnal foraging and traveling increases when the weather is cooler. A field study of the subspecies Bolivian Night Monkey in Beni, Bolivia, recorded an activity budget of 31% foraging, 49% resting, and 20% traveling. Groups travel longer during full-moon nights than new-moon nights, and ambient temperature also influences distances moved during full-moon nights.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social structure of Azara’s Night Monkey consists of one adult male and one adult female per group, with a mean group size of 2-3-4 individuals. Subadults are often observed in groups of the nominate subspecies azaraein Argentina. Group density of the subspecies azaraehas been reported at 5-5-16 groups/km? in Argentina. In Paraguay, group density has been estimated at 4 groups/km”. For the Bolivian Night Monkey, there is one report of 68-9 groups/ km?, but the census was taken in an island offorest of only 0-33 ha. Home-range size has been reported to vary from 5 ha to 10 ha. Mean daily movement is estimated at 378-5 m, with mean diurnal movement of 199 m and mean nocturnal movement of 420 m. The population of the subspecies azaraein Guaycolec Ranch, Formosa Province, Argentina, has ¢.25-30% of adults living solitarily. Both males and females disperse. Subadults are often on the periphery of a social group’s home range prior to emigration in the subspecies azarae. Turnover of resident adults is frequent, with 14 of 15 pairs replacing at least one adult in a three-year period. Aggressive interactions in this population are observed between groups during the day and night. Paternal care and provisioning have been observed, with males carrying an infant 84% of the time after the first week oflife. The adult male also plays, grooms, and shares food with the infant. In the subspecies azarae, males and females share food in the wild with infants and mates. Individuals in the population at Guaycolec often travel on the ground when they cross from one patch of forest to the other, sometimes for distances up to 100 m.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Subspecies azaraeand boliviensis are classified as Least Concern and subspecies infulatus is classified as Near Threatened because of logging and the widespread conversion of forest for commercial agriculture, especially for soy beans, and for cattle pasture throughout its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para over the last two decades. The range of Azara’s Night Monkey coincides with the most devastated areas of the Brazilian Amazon. The subspecies azaraeoccurs in the national parks of Rio Pilcomayo in Argentinaand Kaa-lya del Gran Chacoin Bolivia, and in the Defensores del Chaco, and Tinfunqué national parks in Paraguay. The Bolivian Night Monkey occurs in Amboro, Carrasco, Isiboro Sécure, Madidi, and Noel Kempff Mercado national parks and Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve in Bolivia. The Feline Night Monkey occurs in Pantanal Matogrossense and Araguaia national parks and Gurupi and Tapirapé biological reserves in Brazil.Bibliography.Arditi (1992), Arditi & Placci (1990), Defler et al. (2001), Dixson (1983, 1994), Fernandes (1993), Fernandez-Duque (2003, 2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012), Fernandez-Duque & Bravo (1997), Fernandez-Duque & Erkert (2004, 2006), Fernandez-Duque & Huntington (2002), Fernandez-Duque, Rotundo & Ramirez-Llorens (2002), Fernandez-Dugue, Rotundo & Sloan (2001), Fernandez-Duque, Wallace & Rylands (2008), Garcia & Braza (1987, 1989, 1993), Giménez & Fernandez-Duque (2003), Huck & Fernandez-Duque (2011), Huck et al. (2011), Hunter et al. (1979), Jantschke et al. (1998), Ma, Elliott et al. (1976), Ma, Jones et al. (1976), Mudry, Colillas & de Salum (1984), Mudry, Slavutsky & Labal de Vinuesa (1990), Pieczarka & Nagamachi (1988), Pieczarka et al. (1993), Rathbun & Gache (1980), Rotundo et al. (2005), Silva & Fernandes (1999), Silva & Nunes (1995), Smith & Jungers (1997), Stallings et al. (1989), Welker et al. (1998), Wolovich & Evans (2007), Wolovich, Perea-Rodriguez & Fernandez-Duque (2008), Wright (1981, 1985, 1989, 1994), Zunino (1985), Zunino et al. (1986)." +03C1502EA858682BFF797804F9A4F65D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,430,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA858682BFF797804F9A4F65D.xml,Aotus nigriceps,Aotus,nigriceps,Dollman,1909,Douroucouli de Dollman @fr | Schwarzkopf-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de cabeza negra Other common names @es,"Aotus nigriceps Dollman, 1909,Peru, Chanchamayo, 1000 m.Populations on either side of the Rio Jurua differ somewhat from each other. Those on the right bank are gray-backed, while those on the left have a reddishbrown back and resemble A. nancymaae. Monotypic.","Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas-Solimoes and W of the Rio TapajosJuruena to the right bank of the Rio Guaporé and the left (N) bank of the Rio Madre de Dios in N Bolivia, also in SE PeruW to the Rio Huallaga and N as far the Rio Cushabatay at about 07° S.","Head—body 35-42 cm,tail 35-44 cm; weight ¢.875 g (males) and c.1040 g (females). The Black-headed Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 51 in males and 52 in females. It is iron-gray above with a brownish agouti on the dorsum. The underside is orange with white tones, extending to the neck, throat, chin, and sides of the jaw and to the inner surfaces of the wrists and ankles. The cap is black, face stripes are broad, and areas of white on the face are conspicuous. The interscapular whorl is absent.","Primary tropical forest, swamp forest, and seasonally flooded forest.","Black-headed Night Monkeys eatfruits, which account for ¢.60% of their diet, but they also eat nectar, young leaves and buds,insects, and spiders. In Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, they tend to feed more in large trees with larger crowns (more than 11 m in diameter) than sympatric diurnal titi monkeys (similar in size and also living in small monogamous groups) that customarily follow a regular foraging circuit to find small quantities of fruits in smaller crowned trees. Associated with their use of larger-crowned trees, Blackheaded Night Monkeys travel and forage higher up in the forest canopy than the titi monkeys, which spend more than 50% their time in the lower canopy and understory, perhaps due to the titi monkeys susceptibility to predation by diurnal raptors. Diets of Black-headed Night Monkeys and titi monkeys include many bitter or spicy (e.g. Lauraceae) and unripe fruits not generally eaten by other monkeys. Black-headed Night Monkeys forage for insects, especially at dawn and dusk, searching along branches and among foliage. They are adept at catching insects in mid-air and eat moths, beetles, and particularly orthopterans (katydids and grasshoppers of 6-10 cm in length, which call and are active at night and more easily located). Black-headed Night Monkeys are more insectivorous than titi monkeys that supplement the fruit part of their diet more with leaves. When fruits are scarce at the end of the wet season and in the early dry season, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat mostly figs, nectar, and insects. Their consumption of figs is facilitated by the lack of competition from the diurnal primates.","In Peru, a seasonal peak in births of Black-headed Night Monkeys occurs between August and February during the rainy season, when fruit is abundant.","Black-headed Night Monkeys spend ¢.50% of the night active, with maximallevels of activity when the full moon is near the meridian. An activity budget generally consists of 53% foraging, 21% traveling, 22% resting, and 4% agonistic. They are very regular in their activity periods, consistently beginning their day about 13 minutes after sunset and reentering their sleeping sites about 15 minutes before sunrise.","Social structure of the Black-headed Night Monkey consists of one adult female and one adult male. Group size ranges from two to five, with a mean of four individuals. In a study at Cocha Cashu, homerange size was 7-14 ha with a mean of 9:2 ha (n = = 9 groups). The distance travelled at night averaged 708 m. They traveled twice as far on moonlit nights than on darker nights. Average distance moved on nights with a new moon was 436 m compared to 780 m on a night with a full moon. On dark and rainy nights, travel was slow and curtailed. They traveled farther at dawn and dusk than at other times. They repeatedly used the same routes through the trees indicating that this helped them to navigate in the dark. Principal predators of the Black-headed Night Monkey in the Amazon are diurnal raptors, which explain their propensity to use tree holes for sleeping during the day. Alternate sleeping sites are in very dense foliage, vines, and lianas where they are well hidden. Good sleeping sites appear to be uncommon and are reused frequently; travel during the night is generally circular, returning before sunrise to the sleeping site that they used the previous day. For 60 nights over a year, a group of Black-headed Night Monkeys usedjust five sites, and one of them was used more than 30 times. Both males and females emigrate. A density estimate for Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, was 36-40 ind/km?.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although the Black-headed Night Monkey is not generally hunted for food, considerable numbers of them were captured and exported to biomedical research laboratories in the 1970s because of their use in research on malaria and in oncology. There is evidence that there is a continuing illegal trade of these monkeys even today. They occur in Manuripe-Heath National Reserve in Boliviaand Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru. The Brazilian national parks of Amazonia, Juruena, Pacaas Novos, and Serra do Divisor are within its known range, as are Abufari, Guaporé, and Jaru biological reserves and Rio Acre Ecological Station.","Aquino & Encarnacion (1994a) | Bicca-Marques & Garber (2004) | Collins (1994) | Cornejo & Palacios (2008b) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Peres (1993) | Wright (1978, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1994)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726992/files/figure.png,"10. Black-headed Night Monkey Aotus nigricepsFrench:Douroucouli de Dollman/ German:Schwarzkopf-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de cabeza negraOther common names:Black-headed Owl Monkey, Night Monkey, Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus nigriceps Dollman, 1909,Peru, Chanchamayo, 1000 m.Populations on either side of the Rio Jurua differ somewhat from each other. Those on the right bank are gray-backed, while those on the left have a reddishbrown back and resemble A. nancymaae. Monotypic.Distribution.Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas-Solimoes and W of the Rio TapajosJuruena to the right bank of the Rio Guaporé and the left (N) bank of the Rio Madre de Dios in N Bolivia, also in SE PeruW to the Rio Huallaga and N as far the Rio Cushabatay at about 07° S.Descriptive notes.Head—body 35-42 cm,tail 35-44 cm; weight ¢.875 g (males) and c.1040 g (females). The Black-headed Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 51 in males and 52 in females. It is iron-gray above with a brownish agouti on the dorsum. The underside is orange with white tones, extending to the neck, throat, chin, and sides of the jaw and to the inner surfaces of the wrists and ankles. The cap is black, face stripes are broad, and areas of white on the face are conspicuous. The interscapular whorl is absent.Habitat.Primary tropical forest, swamp forest, and seasonally flooded forest.Food and Feeding.Black-headed Night Monkeys eatfruits, which account for ¢.60% of their diet, but they also eat nectar, young leaves and buds,insects, and spiders. In Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, they tend to feed more in large trees with larger crowns (more than 11 m in diameter) than sympatric diurnal titi monkeys (similar in size and also living in small monogamous groups) that customarily follow a regular foraging circuit to find small quantities of fruits in smaller crowned trees. Associated with their use of larger-crowned trees, Blackheaded Night Monkeys travel and forage higher up in the forest canopy than the titi monkeys, which spend more than 50% their time in the lower canopy and understory, perhaps due to the titi monkeys susceptibility to predation by diurnal raptors. Diets of Black-headed Night Monkeys and titi monkeys include many bitter or spicy (e.g. Lauraceae) and unripe fruits not generally eaten by other monkeys. Black-headed Night Monkeys forage for insects, especially at dawn and dusk, searching along branches and among foliage. They are adept at catching insects in mid-air and eat moths, beetles, and particularly orthopterans (katydids and grasshoppers of 6-10 cm in length, which call and are active at night and more easily located). Black-headed Night Monkeys are more insectivorous than titi monkeys that supplement the fruit part of their diet more with leaves. When fruits are scarce at the end of the wet season and in the early dry season, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat mostly figs, nectar, and insects. Their consumption of figs is facilitated by the lack of competition from the diurnal primates.Breeding.In Peru, a seasonal peak in births of Black-headed Night Monkeys occurs between August and February during the rainy season, when fruit is abundant.Activity patterns.Black-headed Night Monkeys spend ¢.50% of the night active, with maximallevels of activity when the full moon is near the meridian. An activity budget generally consists of 53% foraging, 21% traveling, 22% resting, and 4% agonistic. They are very regular in their activity periods, consistently beginning their day about 13 minutes after sunset and reentering their sleeping sites about 15 minutes before sunrise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social structure of the Black-headed Night Monkey consists of one adult female and one adult male. Group size ranges from two to five, with a mean of four individuals. In a study at Cocha Cashu, homerange size was 7-14 ha with a mean of 9:2 ha (n = = 9 groups). The distance travelled at night averaged 708 m. They traveled twice as far on moonlit nights than on darker nights. Average distance moved on nights with a new moon was 436 m compared to 780 m on a night with a full moon. On dark and rainy nights, travel was slow and curtailed. They traveled farther at dawn and dusk than at other times. They repeatedly used the same routes through the trees indicating that this helped them to navigate in the dark. Principal predators of the Black-headed Night Monkey in the Amazon are diurnal raptors, which explain their propensity to use tree holes for sleeping during the day. Alternate sleeping sites are in very dense foliage, vines, and lianas where they are well hidden. Good sleeping sites appear to be uncommon and are reused frequently; travel during the night is generally circular, returning before sunrise to the sleeping site that they used the previous day. For 60 nights over a year, a group of Black-headed Night Monkeys usedjust five sites, and one of them was used more than 30 times. Both males and females emigrate. A density estimate for Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, was 36-40 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although the Black-headed Night Monkey is not generally hunted for food, considerable numbers of them were captured and exported to biomedical research laboratories in the 1970s because of their use in research on malaria and in oncology. There is evidence that there is a continuing illegal trade of these monkeys even today. They occur in Manuripe-Heath National Reserve in Boliviaand Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru. The Brazilian national parks of Amazonia, Juruena, Pacaas Novos, and Serra do Divisor are within its known range, as are Abufari, Guaporé, and Jaru biological reserves and Rio Acre Ecological Station.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacion (1994a), Bicca-Marques & Garber (2004), Collins (1994), Cornejo & Palacios (2008b), Hershkovitz (1983), Maldonado et al. (2009), Peres (1993), Wright (1978, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1994)." +03C1502EA859682AFA8B732DF6E8F454,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,429,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682AFA8B732DF6E8F454.xml,Aotus miconax,Aotus,miconax,Thomas,1927,Douroucouli des Andes @fr | Anden-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno andino Other common names @es,"Aotus miconax Thomas, 1927,Peru, Amazonas, San Nicolas, 1372 m above sea level.This species is monotypic.","A Peruvian endemic, confined to a small area S of the Rio Maranonand W of the Rio Huallaga to about 10° S.","Head-body 39-4 cm, tail 22 cm (measurements from the type specimen). The Andean Night Monkeyis a red-necked species. Its upper sides are light gray with a brownish tint, often quite infused with red-brown. Its underside is pale orange, extending forward as far as the chin and on the inner sides of the limbs, but not extending above the ventral one-half of the side of neck or to the ankle. Outer surface of body is dominantly brownish to buffy agouti. The tail is bushy; its upper side is blackish, and the lower side reddish orange. Facial pattern is inconspicuous. An interscapular whorlis absent.","Primary and secondary humid lower montane cloud forest at elevations of 800-2788 m. Temperature range in these habitats is 15°C-19°C, and annual rainfall is ¢.1500-3000 mm.","Diet of the Andean Night Monkey includes fruits, young leaves and leaf buds, flowers (Melastomataceae), and insects. Studies in La Esperanza in the Bongara Province, Amazonas, Peru, have recorded them eating fruits of at least twelve species, including Ficus(Moraceae), two species of Inga(Fabaceae), Solanum(Solanaceae), Neosprucea montana (Flacourticeae), Styloceraslaurifolium (Buxaceae), two species of Cecropia(Urticaceae), and Bunchosiaarmeniaca (Malpighiaceae). The Andean Night Monkeys there evidently eat more buds and young leaves (30% of their diet) than has been found for Azara’s Night Monkey (A. azarae)—not typical of other species of night monkeys that tend to be more insectivorous.","There is a record of a birth in April, but otherwise there is no information available for this species.","The Andean Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. An activity budget recorded at La Esperanza, involving more than ten hours of observation, was 48-8% traveling, 37-8% feeding, and 13-4% resting.","Groups of 2-6 individuals have been observed in the Cordillerade Colan and in the private reserves of Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva and Huiquilla in the northern part ofits distribution. Sleeping sites have been recorded at heights of 6-9 m in dense vegetation of branches, epiphytes, and lianas. Calls (recorded) of the black-banded owl (Strix huhula) elicit warning vocalizations and mobbing behavior by the Andean Night Monkey. Groups are able to live in small forest patches near and among houses and occasionally go to the ground to reach other forest patches or isolated trees in fruit, risking attack by dogs.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is listed as Endangered on the Peruvian threatened species list published by decree in 2004. The Andean Night Monkey is threatened because of the widespread destruction of its forests for farmland and pasture since the early 1970s throughout its limited distribution. For many years, the Peruvian departments of San Martinand Amazonashave had the highest rates of deforestation and immigration in the country. The Andean Night Monkey is not hunted for food and can be locally quite common. Individuals are sometimes caught when their sleeping trees are cut down, and they are occasionally kept as pets. Andean Night Monkeys are known to occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and possibly Tingo Maria National Park and Cordillerade Colan Reserved Zone.","Aquino & Encarnacién (1994a) | Butchart et al. (1995) | Cornejo, Aquino & Jiménez (2008) | Fernandez-Duque (2007, 2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hershkovitz (1977, 1983) | Heymann (2004) | Marchena et al. (2011) | Shanee & Shanee (2008, 2011c) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994) | Young & Leon (1999)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726986/files/figure.png,"8. Andean Night Monkey Aotus miconaxFrench:Douroucouli des Andes/ German:Anden-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno andinoOther common names:Andean Owl Monkey, Peruvian Night Monkey, Peruvian Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus miconax Thomas, 1927,Peru, Amazonas, San Nicolas, 1372 m above sea level.This species is monotypic.Distribution.A Peruvian endemic, confined to a small area S of the Rio Maranonand W of the Rio Huallaga to about 10° S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 39-4 cm, tail 22 cm (measurements from the type specimen). The Andean Night Monkeyis a red-necked species. Its upper sides are light gray with a brownish tint, often quite infused with red-brown. Its underside is pale orange, extending forward as far as the chin and on the inner sides of the limbs, but not extending above the ventral one-half of the side of neck or to the ankle. Outer surface of body is dominantly brownish to buffy agouti. The tail is bushy; its upper side is blackish, and the lower side reddish orange. Facial pattern is inconspicuous. An interscapular whorlis absent.Habitat.Primary and secondary humid lower montane cloud forest at elevations of 800-2788 m. Temperature range in these habitats is 15°C-19°C, and annual rainfall is ¢.1500-3000 mm.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Andean Night Monkey includes fruits, young leaves and leaf buds, flowers (Melastomataceae), and insects. Studies in La Esperanza in the Bongara Province, Amazonas, Peru, have recorded them eating fruits of at least twelve species, including Ficus(Moraceae), two species of Inga(Fabaceae), Solanum(Solanaceae), Neosprucea montana (Flacourticeae), Styloceraslaurifolium (Buxaceae), two species of Cecropia(Urticaceae), and Bunchosiaarmeniaca (Malpighiaceae). The Andean Night Monkeys there evidently eat more buds and young leaves (30% of their diet) than has been found for Azara’s Night Monkey (A. azarae)—not typical of other species of night monkeys that tend to be more insectivorous.Breeding.There is a record of a birth in April, but otherwise there is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Andean Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. An activity budget recorded at La Esperanza, involving more than ten hours of observation, was 48-8% traveling, 37-8% feeding, and 13-4% resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Groups of 2-6 individuals have been observed in the Cordillerade Colan and in the private reserves of Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva and Huiquilla in the northern part ofits distribution. Sleeping sites have been recorded at heights of 6-9 m in dense vegetation of branches, epiphytes, and lianas. Calls (recorded) of the black-banded owl (Strix huhula) elicit warning vocalizations and mobbing behavior by the Andean Night Monkey. Groups are able to live in small forest patches near and among houses and occasionally go to the ground to reach other forest patches or isolated trees in fruit, risking attack by dogs.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is listed as Endangered on the Peruvian threatened species list published by decree in 2004. The Andean Night Monkey is threatened because of the widespread destruction of its forests for farmland and pasture since the early 1970s throughout its limited distribution. For many years, the Peruvian departments of San Martinand Amazonashave had the highest rates of deforestation and immigration in the country. The Andean Night Monkey is not hunted for food and can be locally quite common. Individuals are sometimes caught when their sleeping trees are cut down, and they are occasionally kept as pets. Andean Night Monkeys are known to occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and possibly Tingo Maria National Park and Cordillerade Colan Reserved Zone.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacién (1994a), Butchart et al. (1995), Cornejo, Aquino & Jiménez (2008), Fernandez-Duque (2007, 2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hershkovitz (1977, 1983), Heymann (2004), Marchena et al. (2011), Shanee & Shanee (2008, 2011c), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994), Young & Leon (1999)." +03C1502EA859682AFF807839F6B1FDD3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,429,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682AFF807839F6B1FDD3.xml,Aotus jorgehernandezi,Aotus,jorgehernandezi,Defler & Bueno,2007,Douroucouli de Hernandez @fr | Hernandez-Camacho-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Hernandez-Camacho Other common names @es,"Aotus jorgehernandezi Defler & Bueno, 2007,type locality uncertain, a captive animal in Quindio Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border of Quindioand Riseralda.This species is monotypic.","The range is unknown, but it is believed to occur on the W slopes and foothills of the Andes of W Colombia, in the region of Quindioand Riseralda.","No body measurements are available, but it is similar in size to other night monkeys. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The face has two discrete supraocular white patches separated by a broad black frontal stripe. Subocular white bands of fur are separated by a thin black malar stripe on each side of the head. Ventral parts of the arms from the wrists running up into the chest and belly are of thick white fur.",Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information for this species, but Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is likely nocturnal and arboreal.",There is no information available for this species.,"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it may occur in Tatama National Natural Park in Colombia.",Defler & Bueno (2007) | Morales-Jiménez & Link (2008b) | Yunis et al. (1977),https://zenodo.org/record/5726984/files/figure.png,"7. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night MonkeyAotus jorgehernandeziFrench:Douroucouli de Hernandez/ German:Hernandez-Camacho-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de Hernandez-CamachoOther common names:Hernandez-Camacho’s Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus jorgehernandezi Defler & Bueno, 2007,type locality uncertain, a captive animal in Quindio Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border of Quindioand Riseralda.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The range is unknown, but it is believed to occur on the W slopes and foothills of the Andes of W Colombia, in the region of Quindioand Riseralda.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available, but it is similar in size to other night monkeys. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The face has two discrete supraocular white patches separated by a broad black frontal stripe. Subocular white bands of fur are separated by a thin black malar stripe on each side of the head. Ventral parts of the arms from the wrists running up into the chest and belly are of thick white fur.Habitat.Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is likely nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it may occur in Tatama National Natural Park in Colombia.Bibliography.Defler & Bueno (2007), Morales-Jiménez & Link (2008b), Yunis et al. (1977)." +03C1502EA859682BFA887AABFBB0F6CB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,429,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682BFA887AABFBB0F6CB.xml,Aotus nancymaae,Aotus,nancymaae,Hershkovitz,1983,Douroucouli du Loreto @fr | Nancy-Ma-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Nancy Ma Other common names @es,"Aotus nancymai Hershkovitz, 1983,right bank of Rio Samiria above Estacion Pithecia, Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria, Loreto, Peru, elevation ¢.130 m.This species is monotypic.","W Brazil(S of the Rio Solimoes from the Rio Javari on the Peruvian border E possibly as far as the Rio Jandiatuba) and NE Peru(from the Javari W to the Rio Huallaga), also found N of the Maranon in an enclave between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza to c.03° S.","Head-body 29-34 cm, tail 35-42 cm; weight 794-5 g (male average, n = 32) and 780-2 g (female average, n = 24). Ma’s Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 54. Upperparts of the body are grayish-agouti, with a darkened mid-dorsal zone and a pale orange underside; the latter color extends up the sides of the neck and inner limbs. Proximal part of the tail is also orange with, usually, a blackish stripe above; the underside of the tail is blackish. Face is grayish-white, crown stripes are narrow and dark brown, and sides of the throat and jaw are colored like the body. An interscapular whorl is absent.","[Lowland tropical forest including seasonally flooded forest at elevations of 60-130 m. Densities of Ma’s Night Monkeys are lower in terra firma forest because of a relative paucity of tree holes, their preferred sleeping sites, compared with lowland swamp and seasonally inundated forests. Trees in terra firma forest are predominantly hardwoods that provide fewer hollows for sleeping. Lowland swamp and inundated forests have a predominance of softwood that more easily form hollows and abundant dense vine tangles that these monkeys also use as sleeping sites.","In captivity, Ma’s Night Monkeys eat insects, geckos,lizards, and on one occasion, a small bird. Food sharing is prevalent in captivity.","A peak in births has been estimated to be between December and March in the wet season, but captive populations breed throughout the year when photoperiod is kept constant. Age at first reproduction is about 40 months. Single offspring are the rule, and twinning in captivity only occurred in one of 169 births in one study and one in 287 births in a second study. Interbirth intervals in captive females are 9-11 months. In captivity, pregnant females may mate.",Ma’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal.,"Field research on the Rio Tahuayo, north-eastern Peru, in 1978-1979 found social groups of 2-5 individuals (average 3-4), including a breeding pair and its offspring. In one instance, a third adult was seen traveling some 20-30 m from a group; it was eventually attacked and chased off by the breeding pair. Density at Rio Tahuayo was estimated at 8-7 groups/km? or 25 ind/km?. An analysis of the population structure found a lack ofjuveniles (450-575 g), indicating poor survival ofthis age category. Density estimates obtained for Ma’s Night Monkey in nine other localities from 1982 to 1985 were 3-9-13-2 groups/km? or 16-54-2 ind/km?.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major identified threats, but their capture for use in medical research continues. Perubanned trade in primatesin 1973 and became a signatory to CITES in 1975. Between 1994 and 2007, registered exports of Ma’s Night Monkey from Perutotaled 1059 animals, but it is still being exported illegally, with Peruvian and Brazilian Ma’s Night Monkeys and Black-headed Night Monkeys (A. nigriceps) appearing in Colombiawhere they do not otherwise occur. Ma’s Night Monkey occurs in the Jutai-Solimoes Ecological Station in Braziland Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve and ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo in Peru.","Aquino & Encarnacion (1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1994a) | Aquino et al. (1990, 1992) | Bolen & Green (1997) | Cornejo & Palacios (2008a) | Feged et al. (2002) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Gozalo & Montoya (1990) | Held & Wolfle (1994) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Kumamoto & Houck (2001) | Malaga, Weller, Buschbom et al. (1997) | Mélaga, Weller, Montoya et al. (1991) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Nino-Vasquez et al. (2000) | Pieczarka et al. (1992) | Wolovich & Evans (2007) | Wolovich et al. (2008a, 2010) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726990/files/figure.png,"9. Ma’s Night Monkey Aotus nancymaaeFrench:Douroucouli du Loreto/ German:Nancy-Ma-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de Nancy MaOther common names:Nancy Ma's Night Monkey, Nancy Ma's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus nancymai Hershkovitz, 1983,right bank of Rio Samiria above Estacion Pithecia, Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria, Loreto, Peru, elevation ¢.130 m.This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Brazil(S of the Rio Solimoes from the Rio Javari on the Peruvian border E possibly as far as the Rio Jandiatuba) and NE Peru(from the Javari W to the Rio Huallaga), also found N of the Maranon in an enclave between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza to c.03° S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 29-34 cm, tail 35-42 cm; weight 794-5 g (male average, n = 32) and 780-2 g (female average, n = 24). Ma’s Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 54. Upperparts of the body are grayish-agouti, with a darkened mid-dorsal zone and a pale orange underside; the latter color extends up the sides of the neck and inner limbs. Proximal part of the tail is also orange with, usually, a blackish stripe above; the underside of the tail is blackish. Face is grayish-white, crown stripes are narrow and dark brown, and sides of the throat and jaw are colored like the body. An interscapular whorl is absent.Habitat.[Lowland tropical forest including seasonally flooded forest at elevations of 60-130 m. Densities of Ma’s Night Monkeys are lower in terra firma forest because of a relative paucity of tree holes, their preferred sleeping sites, compared with lowland swamp and seasonally inundated forests. Trees in terra firma forest are predominantly hardwoods that provide fewer hollows for sleeping. Lowland swamp and inundated forests have a predominance of softwood that more easily form hollows and abundant dense vine tangles that these monkeys also use as sleeping sites.Food and Feeding.In captivity, Ma’s Night Monkeys eat insects, geckos,lizards, and on one occasion, a small bird. Food sharing is prevalent in captivity.Breeding.A peak in births has been estimated to be between December and March in the wet season, but captive populations breed throughout the year when photoperiod is kept constant. Age at first reproduction is about 40 months. Single offspring are the rule, and twinning in captivity only occurred in one of 169 births in one study and one in 287 births in a second study. Interbirth intervals in captive females are 9-11 months. In captivity, pregnant females may mate.Activity patterns.Ma’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Field research on the Rio Tahuayo, north-eastern Peru, in 1978-1979 found social groups of 2-5 individuals (average 3-4), including a breeding pair and its offspring. In one instance, a third adult was seen traveling some 20-30 m from a group; it was eventually attacked and chased off by the breeding pair. Density at Rio Tahuayo was estimated at 8-7 groups/km? or 25 ind/km?. An analysis of the population structure found a lack ofjuveniles (450-575 g), indicating poor survival ofthis age category. Density estimates obtained for Ma’s Night Monkey in nine other localities from 1982 to 1985 were 3-9-13-2 groups/km? or 16-54-2 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major identified threats, but their capture for use in medical research continues. Perubanned trade in primatesin 1973 and became a signatory to CITES in 1975. Between 1994 and 2007, registered exports of Ma’s Night Monkey from Perutotaled 1059 animals, but it is still being exported illegally, with Peruvian and Brazilian Ma’s Night Monkeys and Black-headed Night Monkeys (A. nigriceps) appearing in Colombiawhere they do not otherwise occur. Ma’s Night Monkey occurs in the Jutai-Solimoes Ecological Station in Braziland Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve and ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo in Peru.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacion (1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1994a), Aquino et al. (1990, 1992), Bolen & Green (1997), Cornejo & Palacios (2008a), Feged et al. (2002), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Gozalo & Montoya (1990), Held & Wolfle (1994), Hershkovitz (1983), Kumamoto & Houck (2001), Malaga, Weller, Buschbom et al. (1997), Mélaga, Weller, Montoya et al. (1991), Maldonado et al. (2009), Nino-Vasquez et al. (2000), Pieczarka et al. (1992), Wolovich & Evans (2007), Wolovich et al. (2008a, 2010), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)." 03C1502EA85D682EFDD27303F82CFA94,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,414,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85D682EFDD27303F82CFA94.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family AOTIDAE(NIGHT MONKEYS)* Small to medium-sized monkeys with small, rounded head, large, globose eyes, inconspicuous ears, white to off-white hair above eyes and around muzzle, variously distinct triradiate, black stripes on head, and long tail.60-90 cmvv ... z u ...• Neotropical Region.• Moist tropical and subtropical, submontane and montane, dry deciduous and semi-deciduous, gallery and Chacoan forests.• 1 genus, 11 species, 13 taxa.• 4 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." -03C1502EA85E682AFA427982FDEFF6C5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,428,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682AFA427982FDEFF6C5.xml,Aotus vociferans,Aotus,vociferans,,,Douroucouli de Spix @fr | Spix-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Spix Other common names @es,"Nyctipithecus vociferans Spix, 1823,Tabatinga, upper Rio Maranon, Peru.Censuses along the Rio Nanay and upper Rio Napo and in north-eastern Peru, within the supposed range of A. vociferans, have recorded individuals that differ in appearance and genotype. Monotypic.","Widespread in the upper Amazon, extending from NW Brazil(W of rios Negro, upper Uaupés, and Amazonas-Solimoes) into SE Colombia(S of the Rio Tomo in the Orinoco Basin, and perhaps the upper Rio Guyabero), and S into the Ecuadorian Amazon and NE Peru(to the N bank of the rios Maranon and Amazonas, W as far as the Rio Chinchipe); it occurs also S of the Rio Solimoes in a small area on the lower Rio Purus. Ma’s Night Monkey (A. nancymaae) replaces it in a small enclave N of the Rio Maranon between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza.","Head-body 35-45 cm, tail 31-47 cm; weight ¢.708 g (males) and c.698 g (females). Four males from Colombiaaveraged 697-5 g (range 568-800 g). Spix’s Night Monkeyis a gray-necked species, with a diploid number of chromosomes of 46-48. It 1s brown-toned above, with an off-white underside (having the merest trace of orange); this color extends to wrists, ankles, and the chin. Hands and feet are black. The proximal one-third to one-half of the ventral side ofthe tail is reddish or gray-red; the rest ofthe tail is black. Crown stripes are thick and brownish, with white above the eyes restricted to two small patches grading into the agouti crown. Temporal stripes are nearly always united behind, and the malar stripe ranges from well defined to absent. There is an interscapular whorl of centrifugal hairs. The gular gland is more or less circular. The face is white except for the chin.","Tall tropical lowland forest in seasonally flooded forest, swamp forest, and terra firma forest at elevations of 200-900 m. In the Cordillera del Condor of Ecuadorand Peru, Spix’s Night Monkey occurs at elevations up to 1550 m. As found for Ma'’s Night Monkey, population densities of Spix’s Night Monkey in upland terra firma forest tend to be lower (0-6-3-5 groups/km?) than in swampy and inundated forest (5-9-12:5 groups/km?)— believed to be a result of reduced availability of tree holes in terra firma forest.","Spix’s Night Monkeys primarily eat fruit, which makes up ¢.83% of the diet. They also eat flowers, accounting for up to 17% of the diet at certain times of the year.","Records from a captive colony of wild-caught Spix’s Night Monkeys in Iquitos, Peru, provided the following statistics: age atfirst birth averaged about two years, although some individuals began breeding at three years old; the youngest age at conception was 31 months, based on a gestation of 4-5-5 months; interbirth intervals averaged 12-4 months (SD + 6-2 months); ¢.75% of 148 births in the colony occurred between December and May, nearly 60% of them between December and March.","An 18-month study in the Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, found Spix’s Night Monkeys to be entirely nocturnal. They became active at dusk between 18:00 h and 19:20 h and returned to their sleeping tree between 05:00 h and 06:00 h.","Spix’s Night Monkeys have a monogamous breeding system. Groups consist of two to five individuals, with an average of three individuals per group. The home range of a group studied in Yasuni National Park was 6-3 ha. The group traveled on average 645 m each night (range 150-1358 m), but travel distances were greater on moonlit nights (average 795 m) than on dark nights with a new moon (average 495 m). The group used only five known sleeping holes during 81 days of study; it used a particular tree for a few days before moving to another. Two of the sleeping sites accounted for 78% of the records. Trees were generally large, but groups also slept in palm crowns on some occasions. A study of night monkeysleeping sites in various localities in northern Perufound most of them in tree holes, sometimes hidden by vines and lianas, and sometimes exposed along banks of creeks, channels or oxbow lakes. They also slept among foliar sheaths in crowns of palms such as buriti (Mauritiaflexuosa), Astrocaryum, and Iriartea. Occasionally they shared their holes with other mammals: the Kinkajou (Polos flavus), the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (Isothrix bistriata), tree porcupines (Coendou), the Browneared Woolly Opossum (Caluromys lanatus), and bats. Densities of 0-6-12-5 groups/ km? (27-9-38-9 ind/km?) have been reported for seven localities in northern Peru.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Spix’s Night Monkeys are wide-ranging and relatively abundant in the western Amazon. There are numerous protected areas where it occurs: Jau National Park, Juami-Japura Ecological Reserve, and two large sustainable development reserves— Amana and Mamiraua in Brazil, and national natural parks of Amacayacu, Cahuinari, Serrania de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, La Paya, Serrania de Chiribiquete, besides Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in the Colombian Amazon. In Ecuador, it occurs in Yasuni and Sumaco-Napo Galeras national parks, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Cuyabeno Reserve, and Limoncocha Biological Reserve.","Aquino & Encarnacién (1986a, 1988, 1994a) | Aquino et al. (1990) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Fernandez-Duque, Di Fiore & Carrillo-Bilbao (2008) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Gozalo & Montoya (1990) | Hernandez-Camacho & Defler (1985) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Ma etal. (1985) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Montoya et al. (1995) | Pieczarka et al. (1992) | Puertas et al. (1992, 1995) | Tirira (2007) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)",,"6. Spix’s Night Monkey Aotus vociferansFrench:Douroucouli de Spix/ German:Spix-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de SpixOther common names:Noisy Night Monkey, Spix's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Nyctipithecus vociferans Spix, 1823,Tabatinga, upper Rio Maranon, Peru.Censuses along the Rio Nanay and upper Rio Napo and in north-eastern Peru, within the supposed range of A. vociferans, have recorded individuals that differ in appearance and genotype. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the upper Amazon, extending from NW Brazil(W of rios Negro, upper Uaupés, and Amazonas-Solimoes) into SE Colombia(S of the Rio Tomo in the Orinoco Basin, and perhaps the upper Rio Guyabero), and S into the Ecuadorian Amazon and NE Peru(to the N bank of the rios Maranon and Amazonas, W as far as the Rio Chinchipe); it occurs also S of the Rio Solimoes in a small area on the lower Rio Purus. Ma’s Night Monkey (A. nancymaae) replaces it in a small enclave N of the Rio Maranon between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-45 cm, tail 31-47 cm; weight ¢.708 g (males) and c.698 g (females). Four males from Colombiaaveraged 697-5 g (range 568-800 g). Spix’s Night Monkeyis a gray-necked species, with a diploid number of chromosomes of 46-48. It 1s brown-toned above, with an off-white underside (having the merest trace of orange); this color extends to wrists, ankles, and the chin. Hands and feet are black. The proximal one-third to one-half of the ventral side ofthe tail is reddish or gray-red; the rest ofthe tail is black. Crown stripes are thick and brownish, with white above the eyes restricted to two small patches grading into the agouti crown. Temporal stripes are nearly always united behind, and the malar stripe ranges from well defined to absent. There is an interscapular whorl of centrifugal hairs. The gular gland is more or less circular. The face is white except for the chin.Habitat.Tall tropical lowland forest in seasonally flooded forest, swamp forest, and terra firma forest at elevations of 200-900 m. In the Cordillera del Condor of Ecuadorand Peru, Spix’s Night Monkey occurs at elevations up to 1550 m. As found for Ma'’s Night Monkey, population densities of Spix’s Night Monkey in upland terra firma forest tend to be lower (0-6-3-5 groups/km?) than in swampy and inundated forest (5-9-12:5 groups/km?)— believed to be a result of reduced availability of tree holes in terra firma forest.Food and Feeding.Spix’s Night Monkeys primarily eat fruit, which makes up ¢.83% of the diet. They also eat flowers, accounting for up to 17% of the diet at certain times of the year.Breeding.Records from a captive colony of wild-caught Spix’s Night Monkeys in Iquitos, Peru, provided the following statistics: age atfirst birth averaged about two years, although some individuals began breeding at three years old; the youngest age at conception was 31 months, based on a gestation of 4-5-5 months; interbirth intervals averaged 12-4 months (SD + 6-2 months); ¢.75% of 148 births in the colony occurred between December and May, nearly 60% of them between December and March.Activity patterns.An 18-month study in the Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, found Spix’s Night Monkeys to be entirely nocturnal. They became active at dusk between 18:00 h and 19:20 h and returned to their sleeping tree between 05:00 h and 06:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Spix’s Night Monkeys have a monogamous breeding system. Groups consist of two to five individuals, with an average of three individuals per group. The home range of a group studied in Yasuni National Park was 6-3 ha. The group traveled on average 645 m each night (range 150-1358 m), but travel distances were greater on moonlit nights (average 795 m) than on dark nights with a new moon (average 495 m). The group used only five known sleeping holes during 81 days of study; it used a particular tree for a few days before moving to another. Two of the sleeping sites accounted for 78% of the records. Trees were generally large, but groups also slept in palm crowns on some occasions. A study of night monkeysleeping sites in various localities in northern Perufound most of them in tree holes, sometimes hidden by vines and lianas, and sometimes exposed along banks of creeks, channels or oxbow lakes. They also slept among foliar sheaths in crowns of palms such as buriti (Mauritiaflexuosa), Astrocaryum, and Iriartea. Occasionally they shared their holes with other mammals: the Kinkajou (Polos flavus), the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (Isothrix bistriata), tree porcupines (Coendou), the Browneared Woolly Opossum (Caluromys lanatus), and bats. Densities of 0-6-12-5 groups/ km? (27-9-38-9 ind/km?) have been reported for seven localities in northern Peru.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Spix’s Night Monkeys are wide-ranging and relatively abundant in the western Amazon. There are numerous protected areas where it occurs: Jau National Park, Juami-Japura Ecological Reserve, and two large sustainable development reserves— Amana and Mamiraua in Brazil, and national natural parks of Amacayacu, Cahuinari, Serrania de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, La Paya, Serrania de Chiribiquete, besides Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in the Colombian Amazon. In Ecuador, it occurs in Yasuni and Sumaco-Napo Galeras national parks, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Cuyabeno Reserve, and Limoncocha Biological Reserve.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacién (1986a, 1988, 1994a), Aquino et al. (1990), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Fernandez-Duque, Di Fiore & Carrillo-Bilbao (2008), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Gozalo & Montoya (1990), Hernandez-Camacho & Defler (1985), Hershkovitz (1983), Ma etal. (1985), Maldonado et al. (2009), Montoya et al. (1995), Pieczarka et al. (1992), Puertas et al. (1992, 1995), Tirira (2007), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)." -03C1502EA85E682DFF7875D8FF6CF344,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,428,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682DFF7875D8FF6CF344.xml,Aotus brumbacki,Aotus,brumbacki,Hershkovitz,1983,Douroucouli de Brumback @fr | Brumback-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Brumback Other common names @es,"Aotus brumbacki Hershkovitz, 1983,Rio Paraguayarea. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1983 to the Villavicencio region, Department of Meta, Colombia.Previously considered a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that its karyotype is distinct. Monotypic.","Poorly known, NC Colombiain the E of Boyaca Department, E to the highlands of Metato at least 1500 m above sea level. It is unclear if this species occupies an enclave within the range of the Lemurine Night Monkey (A. lemurinus) or if it replaces it in the NE part ofits distribution.","No body measurements are available. Brumback’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number for both sexes of 50. Its dorsum is grayish-buffy agouti with a dark brown mid-dorsal zone, and the underside is pale orange, the tone extending to the elbows, knees, and lower throat. The entire side of the neck, including the area behind and below the ear, is grayish agouti or brownish agouti, like the flank and outer sides of the arms. There are well-marked, thin, brownish-black temporal stripes. The white above the eyes is yellowish, and the white on the face extends to the chin. The gular gland is long (5 cm) and thin. A short, longitudinal interscapular crest, with raised hairs,is directed backward and laterally— believed to be unique in the genus.","Closed canopy forest and gallery forest up to an elevation of 1500 m, but typically thought of as a lowland species. Brumback’s Night Monkeys sleep in hollow trees or dense vegetation.","On the right bank of the Rio Duda in Tinigua National Natural Park, Colombia, Brumback’s Night Monkeys eat fruit (59%), insects and other invertebrates (28%), and flowers (13%).","There is no specific information on this species, but a birth peak appears to occur in October.","Brumback’s Night Monkeys are nocturnal and arboreal. The activity pattern is 33% resting, 32% traveling, 16% vocalizing, 15% foraging, and 3% engaging in social activity.","Social groups of Brumback’s Night Monkey consist of an adult pair and their infants, juveniles, and subadults, with a mean group size of three individuals. Home-range size of 17-5 ha over six months has been observed, with a mean nightly travel distance of 837 m over 53 nights.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The only place whereit is known to occur for certain is in the forests around Villavicencio, Meta Department, Colombia. There is widespread deforestation throughout its supposed distribution, and populations are thought to have declined by 30% over the past 24 years. The night monkey in Tinigua National Natural Park is believed to be Brumback’s Night Monkey, and it may also occur in the national natural parks of El Cocuy, El Tuparro, and La Macarena.","Defler (2003, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Solano (1995, 1996) | Uribe (1989)",,"4. Brumback’s Night Monkey Aotus brumbackiFrench:Douroucouli de Brumback/ German:Brumback-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de BrumbackOther common names:Brumback's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus brumbacki Hershkovitz, 1983,Rio Paraguayarea. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1983 to the Villavicencio region, Department of Meta, Colombia.Previously considered a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that its karyotype is distinct. Monotypic.Distribution.Poorly known, NC Colombiain the E of Boyaca Department, E to the highlands of Metato at least 1500 m above sea level. It is unclear if this species occupies an enclave within the range of the Lemurine Night Monkey (A. lemurinus) or if it replaces it in the NE part ofits distribution.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available. Brumback’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number for both sexes of 50. Its dorsum is grayish-buffy agouti with a dark brown mid-dorsal zone, and the underside is pale orange, the tone extending to the elbows, knees, and lower throat. The entire side of the neck, including the area behind and below the ear, is grayish agouti or brownish agouti, like the flank and outer sides of the arms. There are well-marked, thin, brownish-black temporal stripes. The white above the eyes is yellowish, and the white on the face extends to the chin. The gular gland is long (5 cm) and thin. A short, longitudinal interscapular crest, with raised hairs,is directed backward and laterally— believed to be unique in the genus.Habitat.Closed canopy forest and gallery forest up to an elevation of 1500 m, but typically thought of as a lowland species. Brumback’s Night Monkeys sleep in hollow trees or dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.On the right bank of the Rio Duda in Tinigua National Natural Park, Colombia, Brumback’s Night Monkeys eat fruit (59%), insects and other invertebrates (28%), and flowers (13%).Breeding.There is no specific information on this species, but a birth peak appears to occur in October.Activity patterns.Brumback’s Night Monkeys are nocturnal and arboreal. The activity pattern is 33% resting, 32% traveling, 16% vocalizing, 15% foraging, and 3% engaging in social activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social groups of Brumback’s Night Monkey consist of an adult pair and their infants, juveniles, and subadults, with a mean group size of three individuals. Home-range size of 17-5 ha over six months has been observed, with a mean nightly travel distance of 837 m over 53 nights.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The only place whereit is known to occur for certain is in the forests around Villavicencio, Meta Department, Colombia. There is widespread deforestation throughout its supposed distribution, and populations are thought to have declined by 30% over the past 24 years. The night monkey in Tinigua National Natural Park is believed to be Brumback’s Night Monkey, and it may also occur in the national natural parks of El Cocuy, El Tuparro, and La Macarena.Bibliography.Defler (2003, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Hershkovitz (1983), Solano (1995, 1996), Uribe (1989)." -03C1502EA85E682DFF7D7D84F59CF74D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,428,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682DFF7D7D84F59CF74D.xml,Aotus trivirgatus,Aotus,trivirgatus,,,Douroucouli de Humboldt @fr | Ostlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Humboldt Other common names @es,"Simia trivirgatus Humboldt, 1812,Forests of the Rio Cassiquiare, near the foot of Mount Duida, Amazonas, Venezuela.Undal the revision by P. Hershkovitz in 1983, the genus was considered to be monotypic, with A. trivirgatusas the only species. In his catalogue published in 1957, A. Cabrera listed nine subspecies, and W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1960 listed ten. Many of these are now considered distinct species. Some publications up to the 1980s and early 1990sstill referred to all night monkeys as belonging to this one species. Monotypic.","N Brazil(N of the rios Negro and Amazonasand W of the Rio Trombetas), SC Venezuela(N to middle Orinoco E at least as far as the Rio Caura) and E Colombia(T. Defler reports sightings from the middle Rio Caquetaabove the mouth of the Miriti-Parana and the lower Rio Inirida to the N); as such, Humboldt’s Night Monkey may be sympatric with Spix’s Night Monkey (A. vociferans) in some parts of Colombia.","Head-body 30-38 cm,tail 33-40 cm; weight ¢.813 g (males) and c.736 g (females). Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to mainly brownish agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy-agouti. Innersides of the limbs, extending to the wrists and ankle, are similar in colorto the orange-buffy of the chest and belly. The facial pattern is quite inconspicuous, triradiate stripes are brown, and the face is rather grayish compared with the usual white of other night monkeys. Hands and feet are dark brown. Humboldt’s Night Monkey can be distinguished from other night monkeys by its parallel temporal stripes and the lack of an interscapular whorl or crest.","Tropical forests, including dry forest.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Humboldt’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. Climbing, leaping, and quadrupedal and suspensory locomotion have been reported.","Similar to all the night monkeys, Humboldt’s Night Monkey is monogamous, with the male carrying and provisioning young. A home range of size of 3-1 ha and a mean night range of 252 m have been reported, but these numbers are based on data from a single group.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a wide-ranging species and generally not hunted. There are a number of protected areas within its range: Pico da Neblina National Park, biological reserves of Rio Trombetas and Uatuma, and ecological stations of Anavilhanas, Caracarai, and Niquia in Braziland national parks ofJaua-Sarisarinama, Parima-Tapirapeco, Duida-Marahuaca, and Yapacana in southern Venezuela.","Bodini & Pérez-Hernandez (1987) | Brumback (1973, 1974, 1975b) | Brumback et al. (1971) | Cabrera (1957) | Cicmanec & Campbell (1977) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Dixson (1982, 1983) | Egozcue (1971) | Erkert (1976) | Fernandes (1993) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hanson & Montagna (1962) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Hill (1960) | Linares (1998) | Napier (1976) | Smith & Jungers (1997) | Sussman & Phillips-Conroy (1995) | Torres et al. (1998) | Wright (1978, 1981, 1984, 1990) | Yunis et al. (1977) | Zito et al. (2003)",,"5. Humboldt’s Night Monkey Aotus trivirgatusFrench:Douroucouli de Humboldt/ German:Ostlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de HumboldtOther common names:Douroucouli, Northern Gray-necked Owl Monkey, Northern Night Monkey, Three-striped Night Monkey, Three-striped Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Simia trivirgatus Humboldt, 1812,Forests of the Rio Cassiquiare, near the foot of Mount Duida, Amazonas, Venezuela.Undal the revision by P. Hershkovitz in 1983, the genus was considered to be monotypic, with A. trivirgatusas the only species. In his catalogue published in 1957, A. Cabrera listed nine subspecies, and W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1960 listed ten. Many of these are now considered distinct species. Some publications up to the 1980s and early 1990sstill referred to all night monkeys as belonging to this one species. Monotypic.Distribution.N Brazil(N of the rios Negro and Amazonasand W of the Rio Trombetas), SC Venezuela(N to middle Orinoco E at least as far as the Rio Caura) and E Colombia(T. Defler reports sightings from the middle Rio Caquetaabove the mouth of the Miriti-Parana and the lower Rio Inirida to the N); as such, Humboldt’s Night Monkey may be sympatric with Spix’s Night Monkey (A. vociferans) in some parts of Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-38 cm,tail 33-40 cm; weight ¢.813 g (males) and c.736 g (females). Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to mainly brownish agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy-agouti. Innersides of the limbs, extending to the wrists and ankle, are similar in colorto the orange-buffy of the chest and belly. The facial pattern is quite inconspicuous, triradiate stripes are brown, and the face is rather grayish compared with the usual white of other night monkeys. Hands and feet are dark brown. Humboldt’s Night Monkey can be distinguished from other night monkeys by its parallel temporal stripes and the lack of an interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Tropical forests, including dry forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Humboldt’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. Climbing, leaping, and quadrupedal and suspensory locomotion have been reported.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Similar to all the night monkeys, Humboldt’s Night Monkey is monogamous, with the male carrying and provisioning young. A home range of size of 3-1 ha and a mean night range of 252 m have been reported, but these numbers are based on data from a single group.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a wide-ranging species and generally not hunted. There are a number of protected areas within its range: Pico da Neblina National Park, biological reserves of Rio Trombetas and Uatuma, and ecological stations of Anavilhanas, Caracarai, and Niquia in Braziland national parks ofJaua-Sarisarinama, Parima-Tapirapeco, Duida-Marahuaca, and Yapacana in southern Venezuela.Bibliography.Bodini & Pérez-Hernandez (1987), Brumback (1973, 1974, 1975b), Brumback et al. (1971), Cabrera (1957), Cicmanec & Campbell (1977), Defler (2003b, 2004), Dixson (1982, 1983), Egozcue (1971), Erkert (1976), Fernandes (1993), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hanson & Montagna (1962), Hershkovitz (1983), Hill (1960), Linares (1998), Napier (1976), Smith & Jungers (1997), Sussman & Phillips-Conroy (1995), Torres et al. (1998), Wright (1978, 1981, 1984, 1990), Yunis et al. (1977), Zito et al. (2003)." -03C1502EA85F682CFFBB70C8FD7DF59E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,427,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682CFFBB70C8FD7DF59E.xml,Aotus lemurinus,Aotus,lemurinus,Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,1843,Douroucouli @fr | émurien @en | Nordlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de vientre gris Other common names @es,"Aotus lemurinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843,Colombia, Santa Fé de Bogota.According to T. Defler and coworkers, the karyotype of A. hershkovitzi described by Ramirez-Cerquera in 1983, from the upper Rio Cusiana, Boyaca, Colombia, was 2n = 58 (listed by C. P. Groves in his 2001 book Primate Taxonomy), which was in fact that of true A. lemurinus. Further cytogenetic studies by Defler and M. Bueno concluded that the A. lemurinusdefined in P. Hershkovitz’s 1983 revision was in fact three karyotypically well-defined species: night monkeys of the lowlands of Panamaand the Choco regionof Colombiawere A. zonalis; those of the MagdalenaValley were A. griseimembra; and only those from the slopes of the Andean cordilleras above elevations of 1000-1500 m were A. lemurinus. Monotypic.","A montane species of the Andes range at elevations above 1000-1500 m in Colombia, in the upper Rio CaucaValley and slopes of Cordillera Oriental (not in the MagdalenaValley, occupied by the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and extending S through the humid subtropical forests of the Cordillera Oriental into Ecuador; perhaps N along the Sierra de Perija into Venezuela, but this has not been confirmed.","Head-body average 30-6 cm (males, n = 5) and 32-5 cm (females, n = 7), tail average 34-3 cm (males, n = 5) and 34-1 cm (females, n = 7); weight 800 g (one male) and 1050 g (one lactating female). The Lemurine Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 58 for both sexes. Rather shaggy and long-haired, coloration of the upperparts is variable but often grayish to buffy-agouti, with at most a poorly defined brownish medial dorsal band. The ventral side ofthe tail is red nearly to the tip, which is reddish-black. The underside is yellowish to pale orange. Inner sides of limbs are entirely grayish agouti, like the outersides, or they may have yellowish to pale orange tone extending from the chest and belly to usually no further than the mid-arm or mid-leg. Facial pattern is variable, and hands and feet are dark. Temporal stripes may be separate or united behind the head. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.",Tropical and high-elevation forest at 1000-3200 m above sea level.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the diet is likely composed ofundoubtedly comprises fruits, insects, and nectar.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.",There is no information available for this species.,"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The range ofthis species has long suffered widespread deforestation and expanding illicit coffee production. Although believed to be threatened, little is known of its actual conservation status, and censuses of populations are needed. The national natural parks of Tama and Puracé in Colombiaare within its range, and it is occurs in Llanganates and Sumaco Napo-Galeras national parks and the Cofan-Bermejo Ecological Reserve in Ecuador.","Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler et al. (2001) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hernandéz-Camacho & Cooper (1976) | Hernandéz-Camacho & Defler (1985) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Ramirez (1983) | Tirira (2007) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)",,"1. Lemurine Night Monkey Aotus lemurinusFrench:Douroucouli Iémurien/ German:Nordlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de vientre grisOther common names:Colombian Night Monkey, Gray-bellied Night Monkey, Lemurine Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus lemurinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843,Colombia, Santa Fé de Bogota.According to T. Defler and coworkers, the karyotype of A. hershkovitzi described by Ramirez-Cerquera in 1983, from the upper Rio Cusiana, Boyaca, Colombia, was 2n = 58 (listed by C. P. Groves in his 2001 book Primate Taxonomy), which was in fact that of true A. lemurinus. Further cytogenetic studies by Defler and M. Bueno concluded that the A. lemurinusdefined in P. Hershkovitz’s 1983 revision was in fact three karyotypically well-defined species: night monkeys of the lowlands of Panamaand the Choco regionof Colombiawere A. zonalis; those of the MagdalenaValley were A. griseimembra; and only those from the slopes of the Andean cordilleras above elevations of 1000-1500 m were A. lemurinus. Monotypic.Distribution.A montane species of the Andes range at elevations above 1000-1500 m in Colombia, in the upper Rio CaucaValley and slopes of Cordillera Oriental (not in the MagdalenaValley, occupied by the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and extending S through the humid subtropical forests of the Cordillera Oriental into Ecuador; perhaps N along the Sierra de Perija into Venezuela, but this has not been confirmed.Descriptive notes.Head-body average 30-6 cm (males, n = 5) and 32-5 cm (females, n = 7), tail average 34-3 cm (males, n = 5) and 34-1 cm (females, n = 7); weight 800 g (one male) and 1050 g (one lactating female). The Lemurine Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 58 for both sexes. Rather shaggy and long-haired, coloration of the upperparts is variable but often grayish to buffy-agouti, with at most a poorly defined brownish medial dorsal band. The ventral side ofthe tail is red nearly to the tip, which is reddish-black. The underside is yellowish to pale orange. Inner sides of limbs are entirely grayish agouti, like the outersides, or they may have yellowish to pale orange tone extending from the chest and belly to usually no further than the mid-arm or mid-leg. Facial pattern is variable, and hands and feet are dark. Temporal stripes may be separate or united behind the head. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Tropical and high-elevation forest at 1000-3200 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the diet is likely composed ofundoubtedly comprises fruits, insects, and nectar.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The range ofthis species has long suffered widespread deforestation and expanding illicit coffee production. Although believed to be threatened, little is known of its actual conservation status, and censuses of populations are needed. The national natural parks of Tama and Puracé in Colombiaare within its range, and it is occurs in Llanganates and Sumaco Napo-Galeras national parks and the Cofan-Bermejo Ecological Reserve in Ecuador.Bibliography.Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler et al. (2001), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hernandéz-Camacho & Cooper (1976), Hernandéz-Camacho & Defler (1985), Hershkovitz (1983), Ramirez (1983), Tirira (2007), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)." -03C1502EA85F682CFFBD7BF0F824FA2D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,427,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682CFFBD7BF0F824FA2D.xml,Aotus griseimembra,Aotus,griseimembra,Elliot,1912,Douroucouli a bras gris @fr | Elliot-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de patas grises Other common names @es,"Aotus griseimembra Elliot, 1912,Hacienda Cincinnati, Santa Marta, and Rio Sinu Cereté, Bolivar, Colombia.This species is monotypic.","N Colombiaand NW Venezuela, where it occurs in the Rio MagdalenaValley and N lowlands in Colombia, including the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and basins of the rios Sinu and San Jorge, extending into Venezuelain the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo and the Sierra de Perija.","Head-body ¢.48 cm, tail c.42 cm; weight 800-1000 g. The Graylegged Night Monkey is one of the gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 52-54. Hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to brownish-agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy, with at a poorly- defined brownish medial dorsal band. The chest, belly, and inner surfaces of the legs (as far as the knees and elbows) are brownish or yellowish to pale orange. Pelage is relatively short and adpressed. Facial pattern is inconspicuous, and dorsal parts of the hands and feet are light coftee-brown, with darker hair tips. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.",Primary and secondary tropical lowland forest. The Gray-legged Night Monkey has also been observed in coffee plantations.,There is no information available for this species.,Mean interbirth intervals of c¢.13 months and a gestation of 133 days have been reported for the Gray-legged Night Monkey in captivity.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.","Group size is 2-4 individuals, typically with an adult pair and their offspring. A density of 150 ind/km® has been reported in a census conducted in northern Colombia, but this unusually high density may be explained by the fact that data were collected in a forest remnant that may have served as a refuge.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Magdalena Valley has been settled and farmed for centuries. Deforestation is widespread, and Gray-legged Night Monkeys are restricted to small and isolated forest fragments. Due to this and its use in biomedical research, it is considered the most threatened of Colombian night monkeys. The Gray-legged Night Monkey occurs in the national natural parks of Catatumbo-Bari, Islade Salamanca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and Tayrona, and the fauna and flora sanctuaries of Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Iguaque.","Brumback (1975a) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Dixson & Fleming (1981) | Dixson et al. (1980) | Erkert & Grober (1986) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Green (1978) | Handley (1976) | Hunter et al. (1979) | Kumamoto & Houck (2001) | Rauth-Widmann et al. (1996) | Umana et al. (1984) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994) | Yunis et al. (1977)",,"2. Gray-legged Night Monkey Aotus griseimembraFrench:Douroucouli a bras gris/ German:Elliot-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de patas grisesOther common names:Gray-handed Night Monkey, Yellow-bellied Night Monkey, Yellow-bellied Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus griseimembra Elliot, 1912,Hacienda Cincinnati, Santa Marta, and Rio Sinu Cereté, Bolivar, Colombia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Colombiaand NW Venezuela, where it occurs in the Rio MagdalenaValley and N lowlands in Colombia, including the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and basins of the rios Sinu and San Jorge, extending into Venezuelain the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo and the Sierra de Perija.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.48 cm, tail c.42 cm; weight 800-1000 g. The Graylegged Night Monkey is one of the gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 52-54. Hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to brownish-agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy, with at a poorly- defined brownish medial dorsal band. The chest, belly, and inner surfaces of the legs (as far as the knees and elbows) are brownish or yellowish to pale orange. Pelage is relatively short and adpressed. Facial pattern is inconspicuous, and dorsal parts of the hands and feet are light coftee-brown, with darker hair tips. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Primary and secondary tropical lowland forest. The Gray-legged Night Monkey has also been observed in coffee plantations.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Mean interbirth intervals of c¢.13 months and a gestation of 133 days have been reported for the Gray-legged Night Monkey in captivity.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Group size is 2-4 individuals, typically with an adult pair and their offspring. A density of 150 ind/km® has been reported in a census conducted in northern Colombia, but this unusually high density may be explained by the fact that data were collected in a forest remnant that may have served as a refuge.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Magdalena Valley has been settled and farmed for centuries. Deforestation is widespread, and Gray-legged Night Monkeys are restricted to small and isolated forest fragments. Due to this and its use in biomedical research, it is considered the most threatened of Colombian night monkeys. The Gray-legged Night Monkey occurs in the national natural parks of Catatumbo-Bari, Islade Salamanca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and Tayrona, and the fauna and flora sanctuaries of Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Iguaque.Bibliography.Brumback (1975a), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Dixson & Fleming (1981), Dixson et al. (1980), Erkert & Grober (1986), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Green (1978), Handley (1976), Hunter et al. (1979), Kumamoto & Houck (2001), Rauth-Widmann et al. (1996), Umana et al. (1984), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994), Yunis et al. (1977)." -03C1502EA85F682DFA857722FCDEFBA1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,427,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682DFA857722FCDEFBA1.xml,Aotus zonalis,Aotus,zonalis,Goldman,1914,Douroucouli du Panama @fr | Panama-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Panama Other common names @es,"Aotus zonalis Goldman, 1914,Panama, Gatun, Canal Zone.J. Hernandez-Camacho and R. Cooper in 1976 and C. P. Groves in 2001 recognized this form as a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that night monkeys from Panamaand the Chocoin Colombiaare a separate species, A. zonalis. Monotypic.","NW Colombiain the Pacific lowlands (E to the Sinu Valley, S towards the Ecuadorian border, and N into Cordoba Department, perhaps as far as Valdivia where it would overlap with the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and most of Panama(along the Pacific coast W to the Rio San Pedro in Veraguasand on the Atlantic side W as far as the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro); it is absent from SW Panama(Chiriqui), and its occurrence in SE Costa Ricais uncertain.","Head—body ¢.30 cm, tail ¢.36 cm; weight 889 g (males, n = 6) and 916 g (females, n = 11). The Panamanian Night Monkey is a gray-necked species with a diploid chromosome number of 55-56. Body color is brownish in the Canal Zone and Colombia, but it grades into paler and grayer tones along the upper Rio Tuira, eastern Panama. Hair is short and adpressed. The Panamanian Night Monkey is similar to the Gray-legged Night Monkey, exceptfor its dark brown or blackish hands and feet.","Lowland forest, up to elevations of 650 m. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, they usually move and feed at heights of 7 m in the lower canopy and up to 30 m in highest parts of the forest canopy. Panamanian Night Monkeys have not been seen traveling on the ground.","Based on an analysis of stomach contents, the Panamanian Night Monkey eats fruits (65%), leaves (30%), and insects (5%) %), based on the stomach contents.","Night monkeys are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and their offspring and sometimes a subadult. Similar to studies of other species of captive Aotus, captive and wild Panamanian Night Monkeys on the island of Barro Colorado, mate infrequently; it is rapid, and inconspicuous, lacking any evident soliciting behaviors or postures. The newborn is carried by the mother for the first week or so, but then it is transferred to the father, who subsequently carries it most of the time, returning it to the mother only for suckling.","The Panamanian Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. A radiotracking study of a young male followed for nine nights on Barro Colorado indicated two peaks of activity during the night. It became active at dusk (17:00-18:15 h), remaining active with gradually increasing periods of inactivity until about midnight when it would rest for 1-2 hours and then start feeding and foraging until dawn;it returned to its daytime nest at ¢.06:00 h.","The Panamanian Night Monkey lives in family groups of 4-5 individuals. Groups are territorial and meet rarely. When they do meet at a fruiting tree, for example, they are quite aggressive. Following a slow approach, they leap at the opponent, hitting and attempting to bite it. Aggression is generally directed at individuals of the same sex.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Little is known about the Panamanian Night Monkey, so its conservation status is uncertain. Threats are poorly known, but deforestation and conversion to agriculture are likely among them. The Panamanian Night Monkey is protected in the national natural parks of Ensenada de Utria, Farallones de Cali, Las Orquideas, Los Katios, Munchique, Paramillo, and Tatama in Colombia. In Panama, it is protected in the national parks of Altos de Campana, Camino de Cruces, Cerro Hoya, Chagres, Darién, IslaBastimentos, Portobelo, Sarigua, and Soberania and, among other protected areas, the Reserva Forestal Canglon, the Bosque Protector San Lorenzo, and the Barro Colorado Nature Monument.","Baldwin & Baldwin (1976a) | Crile & Quiring (1940) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Ford (1994a, 1994b, 2006) | Hall (1981) | Hladik et al. (1971) | Ma et al. (1978) | Montoya et al. (1995) | Moynihan (1964, 1976) | de Rodaniche (1954) | Rylands et al. (2006) | Svensson et al. (2010) | Thorington et al. (1976) | Timm (1988) | Uribe (1989) | Wilson (2001) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)",,"3. Panamanian Night Monkey Aotus zonalisFrench:Douroucouli du Panama/ German:Panama-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de PanamaOther common names:Chocd Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus zonalis Goldman, 1914,Panama, Gatun, Canal Zone.J. Hernandez-Camacho and R. Cooper in 1976 and C. P. Groves in 2001 recognized this form as a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that night monkeys from Panamaand the Chocoin Colombiaare a separate species, A. zonalis. Monotypic.Distribution.NW Colombiain the Pacific lowlands (E to the Sinu Valley, S towards the Ecuadorian border, and N into Cordoba Department, perhaps as far as Valdivia where it would overlap with the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and most of Panama(along the Pacific coast W to the Rio San Pedro in Veraguasand on the Atlantic side W as far as the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro); it is absent from SW Panama(Chiriqui), and its occurrence in SE Costa Ricais uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head—body ¢.30 cm, tail ¢.36 cm; weight 889 g (males, n = 6) and 916 g (females, n = 11). The Panamanian Night Monkey is a gray-necked species with a diploid chromosome number of 55-56. Body color is brownish in the Canal Zone and Colombia, but it grades into paler and grayer tones along the upper Rio Tuira, eastern Panama. Hair is short and adpressed. The Panamanian Night Monkey is similar to the Gray-legged Night Monkey, exceptfor its dark brown or blackish hands and feet.Habitat.Lowland forest, up to elevations of 650 m. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, they usually move and feed at heights of 7 m in the lower canopy and up to 30 m in highest parts of the forest canopy. Panamanian Night Monkeys have not been seen traveling on the ground.Food and Feeding.Based on an analysis of stomach contents, the Panamanian Night Monkey eats fruits (65%), leaves (30%), and insects (5%) %), based on the stomach contents.Breeding.Night monkeys are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and their offspring and sometimes a subadult. Similar to studies of other species of captive Aotus, captive and wild Panamanian Night Monkeys on the island of Barro Colorado, mate infrequently; it is rapid, and inconspicuous, lacking any evident soliciting behaviors or postures. The newborn is carried by the mother for the first week or so, but then it is transferred to the father, who subsequently carries it most of the time, returning it to the mother only for suckling.Activity patterns.The Panamanian Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. A radiotracking study of a young male followed for nine nights on Barro Colorado indicated two peaks of activity during the night. It became active at dusk (17:00-18:15 h), remaining active with gradually increasing periods of inactivity until about midnight when it would rest for 1-2 hours and then start feeding and foraging until dawn;it returned to its daytime nest at ¢.06:00 h.On following pages 4 Brumback s Nıgm Monkey (Aorus brumbeckı) 5 Humboldt s Nıght Monkey (Aorus mvırgaruså 6 Spıx s Nıght Monkey (Aotus vocılerıns) 7 Hernández-Camacho s Nıght Monkey (Actus l°f96hemandezù B Andean Nıght Monkey (Actus mıoonvd 9 Ma s Nıght Monkey (Actus nencyrrıaee) 10 Black-needed Nıght Monkey (Actus mgnœps) Azara s Nngh! Monkey (Actus azaradMovements, Home range and Social organization.The Panamanian Night Monkey lives in family groups of 4-5 individuals. Groups are territorial and meet rarely. When they do meet at a fruiting tree, for example, they are quite aggressive. Following a slow approach, they leap at the opponent, hitting and attempting to bite it. Aggression is generally directed at individuals of the same sex.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Little is known about the Panamanian Night Monkey, so its conservation status is uncertain. Threats are poorly known, but deforestation and conversion to agriculture are likely among them. The Panamanian Night Monkey is protected in the national natural parks of Ensenada de Utria, Farallones de Cali, Las Orquideas, Los Katios, Munchique, Paramillo, and Tatama in Colombia. In Panama, it is protected in the national parks of Altos de Campana, Camino de Cruces, Cerro Hoya, Chagres, Darién, IslaBastimentos, Portobelo, Sarigua, and Soberania and, among other protected areas, the Reserva Forestal Canglon, the Bosque Protector San Lorenzo, and the Barro Colorado Nature Monument.Bibliography.Baldwin & Baldwin (1976a), Crile & Quiring (1940), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Ford (1994a, 1994b, 2006), Hall (1981), Hladik et al. (1971), Ma et al. (1978), Montoya et al. (1995), Moynihan (1964, 1976), de Rodaniche (1954), Rylands et al. (2006), Svensson et al. (2010), Thorington et al. (1976), Timm (1988), Uribe (1989), Wilson (2001), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)." +03C1502EA85E682AFA427982FDEFF6C5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,428,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682AFA427982FDEFF6C5.xml,Aotus vociferans,Aotus,vociferans,,,Douroucouli de Spix @fr | Spix-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Spix Other common names @es,"Nyctipithecus vociferans Spix, 1823,Tabatinga, upper Rio Maranon, Peru.Censuses along the Rio Nanay and upper Rio Napo and in north-eastern Peru, within the supposed range of A. vociferans, have recorded individuals that differ in appearance and genotype. Monotypic.","Widespread in the upper Amazon, extending from NW Brazil(W of rios Negro, upper Uaupés, and Amazonas-Solimoes) into SE Colombia(S of the Rio Tomo in the Orinoco Basin, and perhaps the upper Rio Guyabero), and S into the Ecuadorian Amazon and NE Peru(to the N bank of the rios Maranon and Amazonas, W as far as the Rio Chinchipe); it occurs also S of the Rio Solimoes in a small area on the lower Rio Purus. Ma’s Night Monkey (A. nancymaae) replaces it in a small enclave N of the Rio Maranon between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza.","Head-body 35-45 cm, tail 31-47 cm; weight ¢.708 g (males) and c.698 g (females). Four males from Colombiaaveraged 697-5 g (range 568-800 g). Spix’s Night Monkeyis a gray-necked species, with a diploid number of chromosomes of 46-48. It 1s brown-toned above, with an off-white underside (having the merest trace of orange); this color extends to wrists, ankles, and the chin. Hands and feet are black. The proximal one-third to one-half of the ventral side ofthe tail is reddish or gray-red; the rest ofthe tail is black. Crown stripes are thick and brownish, with white above the eyes restricted to two small patches grading into the agouti crown. Temporal stripes are nearly always united behind, and the malar stripe ranges from well defined to absent. There is an interscapular whorl of centrifugal hairs. The gular gland is more or less circular. The face is white except for the chin.","Tall tropical lowland forest in seasonally flooded forest, swamp forest, and terra firma forest at elevations of 200-900 m. In the Cordillera del Condor of Ecuadorand Peru, Spix’s Night Monkey occurs at elevations up to 1550 m. As found for Ma'’s Night Monkey, population densities of Spix’s Night Monkey in upland terra firma forest tend to be lower (0-6-3-5 groups/km?) than in swampy and inundated forest (5-9-12:5 groups/km?)— believed to be a result of reduced availability of tree holes in terra firma forest.","Spix’s Night Monkeys primarily eat fruit, which makes up ¢.83% of the diet. They also eat flowers, accounting for up to 17% of the diet at certain times of the year.","Records from a captive colony of wild-caught Spix’s Night Monkeys in Iquitos, Peru, provided the following statistics: age atfirst birth averaged about two years, although some individuals began breeding at three years old; the youngest age at conception was 31 months, based on a gestation of 4-5-5 months; interbirth intervals averaged 12-4 months (SD + 6-2 months); ¢.75% of 148 births in the colony occurred between December and May, nearly 60% of them between December and March.","An 18-month study in the Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, found Spix’s Night Monkeys to be entirely nocturnal. They became active at dusk between 18:00 h and 19:20 h and returned to their sleeping tree between 05:00 h and 06:00 h.","Spix’s Night Monkeys have a monogamous breeding system. Groups consist of two to five individuals, with an average of three individuals per group. The home range of a group studied in Yasuni National Park was 6-3 ha. The group traveled on average 645 m each night (range 150-1358 m), but travel distances were greater on moonlit nights (average 795 m) than on dark nights with a new moon (average 495 m). The group used only five known sleeping holes during 81 days of study; it used a particular tree for a few days before moving to another. Two of the sleeping sites accounted for 78% of the records. Trees were generally large, but groups also slept in palm crowns on some occasions. A study of night monkeysleeping sites in various localities in northern Perufound most of them in tree holes, sometimes hidden by vines and lianas, and sometimes exposed along banks of creeks, channels or oxbow lakes. They also slept among foliar sheaths in crowns of palms such as buriti (Mauritiaflexuosa), Astrocaryum, and Iriartea. Occasionally they shared their holes with other mammals: the Kinkajou (Polos flavus), the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (Isothrix bistriata), tree porcupines (Coendou), the Browneared Woolly Opossum (Caluromys lanatus), and bats. Densities of 0-6-12-5 groups/ km? (27-9-38-9 ind/km?) have been reported for seven localities in northern Peru.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Spix’s Night Monkeys are wide-ranging and relatively abundant in the western Amazon. There are numerous protected areas where it occurs: Jau National Park, Juami-Japura Ecological Reserve, and two large sustainable development reserves— Amana and Mamiraua in Brazil, and national natural parks of Amacayacu, Cahuinari, Serrania de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, La Paya, Serrania de Chiribiquete, besides Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in the Colombian Amazon. In Ecuador, it occurs in Yasuni and Sumaco-Napo Galeras national parks, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Cuyabeno Reserve, and Limoncocha Biological Reserve.","Aquino & Encarnacién (1986a, 1988, 1994a) | Aquino et al. (1990) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Fernandez-Duque, Di Fiore & Carrillo-Bilbao (2008) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Gozalo & Montoya (1990) | Hernandez-Camacho & Defler (1985) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Ma etal. (1985) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Montoya et al. (1995) | Pieczarka et al. (1992) | Puertas et al. (1992, 1995) | Tirira (2007) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726980/files/figure.png,"6. Spix’s Night Monkey Aotus vociferansFrench:Douroucouli de Spix/ German:Spix-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de SpixOther common names:Noisy Night Monkey, Spix's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Nyctipithecus vociferans Spix, 1823,Tabatinga, upper Rio Maranon, Peru.Censuses along the Rio Nanay and upper Rio Napo and in north-eastern Peru, within the supposed range of A. vociferans, have recorded individuals that differ in appearance and genotype. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the upper Amazon, extending from NW Brazil(W of rios Negro, upper Uaupés, and Amazonas-Solimoes) into SE Colombia(S of the Rio Tomo in the Orinoco Basin, and perhaps the upper Rio Guyabero), and S into the Ecuadorian Amazon and NE Peru(to the N bank of the rios Maranon and Amazonas, W as far as the Rio Chinchipe); it occurs also S of the Rio Solimoes in a small area on the lower Rio Purus. Ma’s Night Monkey (A. nancymaae) replaces it in a small enclave N of the Rio Maranon between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-45 cm, tail 31-47 cm; weight ¢.708 g (males) and c.698 g (females). Four males from Colombiaaveraged 697-5 g (range 568-800 g). Spix’s Night Monkeyis a gray-necked species, with a diploid number of chromosomes of 46-48. It 1s brown-toned above, with an off-white underside (having the merest trace of orange); this color extends to wrists, ankles, and the chin. Hands and feet are black. The proximal one-third to one-half of the ventral side ofthe tail is reddish or gray-red; the rest ofthe tail is black. Crown stripes are thick and brownish, with white above the eyes restricted to two small patches grading into the agouti crown. Temporal stripes are nearly always united behind, and the malar stripe ranges from well defined to absent. There is an interscapular whorl of centrifugal hairs. The gular gland is more or less circular. The face is white except for the chin.Habitat.Tall tropical lowland forest in seasonally flooded forest, swamp forest, and terra firma forest at elevations of 200-900 m. In the Cordillera del Condor of Ecuadorand Peru, Spix’s Night Monkey occurs at elevations up to 1550 m. As found for Ma'’s Night Monkey, population densities of Spix’s Night Monkey in upland terra firma forest tend to be lower (0-6-3-5 groups/km?) than in swampy and inundated forest (5-9-12:5 groups/km?)— believed to be a result of reduced availability of tree holes in terra firma forest.Food and Feeding.Spix’s Night Monkeys primarily eat fruit, which makes up ¢.83% of the diet. They also eat flowers, accounting for up to 17% of the diet at certain times of the year.Breeding.Records from a captive colony of wild-caught Spix’s Night Monkeys in Iquitos, Peru, provided the following statistics: age atfirst birth averaged about two years, although some individuals began breeding at three years old; the youngest age at conception was 31 months, based on a gestation of 4-5-5 months; interbirth intervals averaged 12-4 months (SD + 6-2 months); ¢.75% of 148 births in the colony occurred between December and May, nearly 60% of them between December and March.Activity patterns.An 18-month study in the Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, found Spix’s Night Monkeys to be entirely nocturnal. They became active at dusk between 18:00 h and 19:20 h and returned to their sleeping tree between 05:00 h and 06:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Spix’s Night Monkeys have a monogamous breeding system. Groups consist of two to five individuals, with an average of three individuals per group. The home range of a group studied in Yasuni National Park was 6-3 ha. The group traveled on average 645 m each night (range 150-1358 m), but travel distances were greater on moonlit nights (average 795 m) than on dark nights with a new moon (average 495 m). The group used only five known sleeping holes during 81 days of study; it used a particular tree for a few days before moving to another. Two of the sleeping sites accounted for 78% of the records. Trees were generally large, but groups also slept in palm crowns on some occasions. A study of night monkeysleeping sites in various localities in northern Perufound most of them in tree holes, sometimes hidden by vines and lianas, and sometimes exposed along banks of creeks, channels or oxbow lakes. They also slept among foliar sheaths in crowns of palms such as buriti (Mauritiaflexuosa), Astrocaryum, and Iriartea. Occasionally they shared their holes with other mammals: the Kinkajou (Polos flavus), the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (Isothrix bistriata), tree porcupines (Coendou), the Browneared Woolly Opossum (Caluromys lanatus), and bats. Densities of 0-6-12-5 groups/ km? (27-9-38-9 ind/km?) have been reported for seven localities in northern Peru.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Spix’s Night Monkeys are wide-ranging and relatively abundant in the western Amazon. There are numerous protected areas where it occurs: Jau National Park, Juami-Japura Ecological Reserve, and two large sustainable development reserves— Amana and Mamiraua in Brazil, and national natural parks of Amacayacu, Cahuinari, Serrania de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, La Paya, Serrania de Chiribiquete, besides Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in the Colombian Amazon. In Ecuador, it occurs in Yasuni and Sumaco-Napo Galeras national parks, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Cuyabeno Reserve, and Limoncocha Biological Reserve.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacién (1986a, 1988, 1994a), Aquino et al. (1990), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Fernandez-Duque, Di Fiore & Carrillo-Bilbao (2008), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Gozalo & Montoya (1990), Hernandez-Camacho & Defler (1985), Hershkovitz (1983), Ma etal. (1985), Maldonado et al. (2009), Montoya et al. (1995), Pieczarka et al. (1992), Puertas et al. (1992, 1995), Tirira (2007), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)." +03C1502EA85E682DFF7875D8FF6CF344,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,428,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682DFF7875D8FF6CF344.xml,Aotus brumbacki,Aotus,brumbacki,Hershkovitz,1983,Douroucouli de Brumback @fr | Brumback-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Brumback Other common names @es,"Aotus brumbacki Hershkovitz, 1983,Rio Paraguayarea. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1983 to the Villavicencio region, Department of Meta, Colombia.Previously considered a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that its karyotype is distinct. Monotypic.","Poorly known, NC Colombiain the E of Boyaca Department, E to the highlands of Metato at least 1500 m above sea level. It is unclear if this species occupies an enclave within the range of the Lemurine Night Monkey (A. lemurinus) or if it replaces it in the NE part ofits distribution.","No body measurements are available. Brumback’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number for both sexes of 50. Its dorsum is grayish-buffy agouti with a dark brown mid-dorsal zone, and the underside is pale orange, the tone extending to the elbows, knees, and lower throat. The entire side of the neck, including the area behind and below the ear, is grayish agouti or brownish agouti, like the flank and outer sides of the arms. There are well-marked, thin, brownish-black temporal stripes. The white above the eyes is yellowish, and the white on the face extends to the chin. The gular gland is long (5 cm) and thin. A short, longitudinal interscapular crest, with raised hairs,is directed backward and laterally— believed to be unique in the genus.","Closed canopy forest and gallery forest up to an elevation of 1500 m, but typically thought of as a lowland species. Brumback’s Night Monkeys sleep in hollow trees or dense vegetation.","On the right bank of the Rio Duda in Tinigua National Natural Park, Colombia, Brumback’s Night Monkeys eat fruit (59%), insects and other invertebrates (28%), and flowers (13%).","There is no specific information on this species, but a birth peak appears to occur in October.","Brumback’s Night Monkeys are nocturnal and arboreal. The activity pattern is 33% resting, 32% traveling, 16% vocalizing, 15% foraging, and 3% engaging in social activity.","Social groups of Brumback’s Night Monkey consist of an adult pair and their infants, juveniles, and subadults, with a mean group size of three individuals. Home-range size of 17-5 ha over six months has been observed, with a mean nightly travel distance of 837 m over 53 nights.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The only place whereit is known to occur for certain is in the forests around Villavicencio, Meta Department, Colombia. There is widespread deforestation throughout its supposed distribution, and populations are thought to have declined by 30% over the past 24 years. The night monkey in Tinigua National Natural Park is believed to be Brumback’s Night Monkey, and it may also occur in the national natural parks of El Cocuy, El Tuparro, and La Macarena.","Defler (2003, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Solano (1995, 1996) | Uribe (1989)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726974/files/figure.png,"4. Brumback’s Night Monkey Aotus brumbackiFrench:Douroucouli de Brumback/ German:Brumback-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de BrumbackOther common names:Brumback's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus brumbacki Hershkovitz, 1983,Rio Paraguayarea. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1983 to the Villavicencio region, Department of Meta, Colombia.Previously considered a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that its karyotype is distinct. Monotypic.Distribution.Poorly known, NC Colombiain the E of Boyaca Department, E to the highlands of Metato at least 1500 m above sea level. It is unclear if this species occupies an enclave within the range of the Lemurine Night Monkey (A. lemurinus) or if it replaces it in the NE part ofits distribution.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available. Brumback’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number for both sexes of 50. Its dorsum is grayish-buffy agouti with a dark brown mid-dorsal zone, and the underside is pale orange, the tone extending to the elbows, knees, and lower throat. The entire side of the neck, including the area behind and below the ear, is grayish agouti or brownish agouti, like the flank and outer sides of the arms. There are well-marked, thin, brownish-black temporal stripes. The white above the eyes is yellowish, and the white on the face extends to the chin. The gular gland is long (5 cm) and thin. A short, longitudinal interscapular crest, with raised hairs,is directed backward and laterally— believed to be unique in the genus.Habitat.Closed canopy forest and gallery forest up to an elevation of 1500 m, but typically thought of as a lowland species. Brumback’s Night Monkeys sleep in hollow trees or dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.On the right bank of the Rio Duda in Tinigua National Natural Park, Colombia, Brumback’s Night Monkeys eat fruit (59%), insects and other invertebrates (28%), and flowers (13%).Breeding.There is no specific information on this species, but a birth peak appears to occur in October.Activity patterns.Brumback’s Night Monkeys are nocturnal and arboreal. The activity pattern is 33% resting, 32% traveling, 16% vocalizing, 15% foraging, and 3% engaging in social activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social groups of Brumback’s Night Monkey consist of an adult pair and their infants, juveniles, and subadults, with a mean group size of three individuals. Home-range size of 17-5 ha over six months has been observed, with a mean nightly travel distance of 837 m over 53 nights.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The only place whereit is known to occur for certain is in the forests around Villavicencio, Meta Department, Colombia. There is widespread deforestation throughout its supposed distribution, and populations are thought to have declined by 30% over the past 24 years. The night monkey in Tinigua National Natural Park is believed to be Brumback’s Night Monkey, and it may also occur in the national natural parks of El Cocuy, El Tuparro, and La Macarena.Bibliography.Defler (2003, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Hershkovitz (1983), Solano (1995, 1996), Uribe (1989)." +03C1502EA85E682DFF7D7D84F59CF74D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,428,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682DFF7D7D84F59CF74D.xml,Aotus trivirgatus,Aotus,trivirgatus,,,Douroucouli de Humboldt @fr | Ostlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Humboldt Other common names @es,"Simia trivirgatus Humboldt, 1812,Forests of the Rio Cassiquiare, near the foot of Mount Duida, Amazonas, Venezuela.Undal the revision by P. Hershkovitz in 1983, the genus was considered to be monotypic, with A. trivirgatusas the only species. In his catalogue published in 1957, A. Cabrera listed nine subspecies, and W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1960 listed ten. Many of these are now considered distinct species. Some publications up to the 1980s and early 1990sstill referred to all night monkeys as belonging to this one species. Monotypic.","N Brazil(N of the rios Negro and Amazonasand W of the Rio Trombetas), SC Venezuela(N to middle Orinoco E at least as far as the Rio Caura) and E Colombia(T. Defler reports sightings from the middle Rio Caquetaabove the mouth of the Miriti-Parana and the lower Rio Inirida to the N); as such, Humboldt’s Night Monkey may be sympatric with Spix’s Night Monkey (A. vociferans) in some parts of Colombia.","Head-body 30-38 cm,tail 33-40 cm; weight ¢.813 g (males) and c.736 g (females). Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to mainly brownish agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy-agouti. Innersides of the limbs, extending to the wrists and ankle, are similar in colorto the orange-buffy of the chest and belly. The facial pattern is quite inconspicuous, triradiate stripes are brown, and the face is rather grayish compared with the usual white of other night monkeys. Hands and feet are dark brown. Humboldt’s Night Monkey can be distinguished from other night monkeys by its parallel temporal stripes and the lack of an interscapular whorl or crest.","Tropical forests, including dry forest.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Humboldt’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. Climbing, leaping, and quadrupedal and suspensory locomotion have been reported.","Similar to all the night monkeys, Humboldt’s Night Monkey is monogamous, with the male carrying and provisioning young. A home range of size of 3-1 ha and a mean night range of 252 m have been reported, but these numbers are based on data from a single group.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a wide-ranging species and generally not hunted. There are a number of protected areas within its range: Pico da Neblina National Park, biological reserves of Rio Trombetas and Uatuma, and ecological stations of Anavilhanas, Caracarai, and Niquia in Braziland national parks ofJaua-Sarisarinama, Parima-Tapirapeco, Duida-Marahuaca, and Yapacana in southern Venezuela.","Bodini & Pérez-Hernandez (1987) | Brumback (1973, 1974, 1975b) | Brumback et al. (1971) | Cabrera (1957) | Cicmanec & Campbell (1977) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Dixson (1982, 1983) | Egozcue (1971) | Erkert (1976) | Fernandes (1993) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hanson & Montagna (1962) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Hill (1960) | Linares (1998) | Napier (1976) | Smith & Jungers (1997) | Sussman & Phillips-Conroy (1995) | Torres et al. (1998) | Wright (1978, 1981, 1984, 1990) | Yunis et al. (1977) | Zito et al. (2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726978/files/figure.png,"5. Humboldt’s Night Monkey Aotus trivirgatusFrench:Douroucouli de Humboldt/ German:Ostlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de HumboldtOther common names:Douroucouli, Northern Gray-necked Owl Monkey, Northern Night Monkey, Three-striped Night Monkey, Three-striped Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Simia trivirgatus Humboldt, 1812,Forests of the Rio Cassiquiare, near the foot of Mount Duida, Amazonas, Venezuela.Undal the revision by P. Hershkovitz in 1983, the genus was considered to be monotypic, with A. trivirgatusas the only species. In his catalogue published in 1957, A. Cabrera listed nine subspecies, and W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1960 listed ten. Many of these are now considered distinct species. Some publications up to the 1980s and early 1990sstill referred to all night monkeys as belonging to this one species. Monotypic.Distribution.N Brazil(N of the rios Negro and Amazonasand W of the Rio Trombetas), SC Venezuela(N to middle Orinoco E at least as far as the Rio Caura) and E Colombia(T. Defler reports sightings from the middle Rio Caquetaabove the mouth of the Miriti-Parana and the lower Rio Inirida to the N); as such, Humboldt’s Night Monkey may be sympatric with Spix’s Night Monkey (A. vociferans) in some parts of Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-38 cm,tail 33-40 cm; weight ¢.813 g (males) and c.736 g (females). Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to mainly brownish agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy-agouti. Innersides of the limbs, extending to the wrists and ankle, are similar in colorto the orange-buffy of the chest and belly. The facial pattern is quite inconspicuous, triradiate stripes are brown, and the face is rather grayish compared with the usual white of other night monkeys. Hands and feet are dark brown. Humboldt’s Night Monkey can be distinguished from other night monkeys by its parallel temporal stripes and the lack of an interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Tropical forests, including dry forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Humboldt’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. Climbing, leaping, and quadrupedal and suspensory locomotion have been reported.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Similar to all the night monkeys, Humboldt’s Night Monkey is monogamous, with the male carrying and provisioning young. A home range of size of 3-1 ha and a mean night range of 252 m have been reported, but these numbers are based on data from a single group.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a wide-ranging species and generally not hunted. There are a number of protected areas within its range: Pico da Neblina National Park, biological reserves of Rio Trombetas and Uatuma, and ecological stations of Anavilhanas, Caracarai, and Niquia in Braziland national parks ofJaua-Sarisarinama, Parima-Tapirapeco, Duida-Marahuaca, and Yapacana in southern Venezuela.Bibliography.Bodini & Pérez-Hernandez (1987), Brumback (1973, 1974, 1975b), Brumback et al. (1971), Cabrera (1957), Cicmanec & Campbell (1977), Defler (2003b, 2004), Dixson (1982, 1983), Egozcue (1971), Erkert (1976), Fernandes (1993), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hanson & Montagna (1962), Hershkovitz (1983), Hill (1960), Linares (1998), Napier (1976), Smith & Jungers (1997), Sussman & Phillips-Conroy (1995), Torres et al. (1998), Wright (1978, 1981, 1984, 1990), Yunis et al. (1977), Zito et al. (2003)." +03C1502EA85F682CFFBB70C8FD7DF59E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,427,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682CFFBB70C8FD7DF59E.xml,Aotus lemurinus,Aotus,lemurinus,Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,1843,Douroucouli @fr | émurien @en | Nordlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de vientre gris Other common names @es,"Aotus lemurinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843,Colombia, Santa Fé de Bogota.According to T. Defler and coworkers, the karyotype of A. hershkovitzi described by Ramirez-Cerquera in 1983, from the upper Rio Cusiana, Boyaca, Colombia, was 2n = 58 (listed by C. P. Groves in his 2001 book Primate Taxonomy), which was in fact that of true A. lemurinus. Further cytogenetic studies by Defler and M. Bueno concluded that the A. lemurinusdefined in P. Hershkovitz’s 1983 revision was in fact three karyotypically well-defined species: night monkeys of the lowlands of Panamaand the Choco regionof Colombiawere A. zonalis; those of the MagdalenaValley were A. griseimembra; and only those from the slopes of the Andean cordilleras above elevations of 1000-1500 m were A. lemurinus. Monotypic.","A montane species of the Andes range at elevations above 1000-1500 m in Colombia, in the upper Rio CaucaValley and slopes of Cordillera Oriental (not in the MagdalenaValley, occupied by the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and extending S through the humid subtropical forests of the Cordillera Oriental into Ecuador; perhaps N along the Sierra de Perija into Venezuela, but this has not been confirmed.","Head-body average 30-6 cm (males, n = 5) and 32-5 cm (females, n = 7), tail average 34-3 cm (males, n = 5) and 34-1 cm (females, n = 7); weight 800 g (one male) and 1050 g (one lactating female). The Lemurine Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 58 for both sexes. Rather shaggy and long-haired, coloration of the upperparts is variable but often grayish to buffy-agouti, with at most a poorly defined brownish medial dorsal band. The ventral side ofthe tail is red nearly to the tip, which is reddish-black. The underside is yellowish to pale orange. Inner sides of limbs are entirely grayish agouti, like the outersides, or they may have yellowish to pale orange tone extending from the chest and belly to usually no further than the mid-arm or mid-leg. Facial pattern is variable, and hands and feet are dark. Temporal stripes may be separate or united behind the head. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.",Tropical and high-elevation forest at 1000-3200 m above sea level.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the diet is likely composed ofundoubtedly comprises fruits, insects, and nectar.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.",There is no information available for this species.,"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The range ofthis species has long suffered widespread deforestation and expanding illicit coffee production. Although believed to be threatened, little is known of its actual conservation status, and censuses of populations are needed. The national natural parks of Tama and Puracé in Colombiaare within its range, and it is occurs in Llanganates and Sumaco Napo-Galeras national parks and the Cofan-Bermejo Ecological Reserve in Ecuador.","Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler et al. (2001) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hernandéz-Camacho & Cooper (1976) | Hernandéz-Camacho & Defler (1985) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Ramirez (1983) | Tirira (2007) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726964/files/figure.png,"1. Lemurine Night Monkey Aotus lemurinusFrench:Douroucouli Iémurien/ German:Nordlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de vientre grisOther common names:Colombian Night Monkey, Gray-bellied Night Monkey, Lemurine Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus lemurinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843,Colombia, Santa Fé de Bogota.According to T. Defler and coworkers, the karyotype of A. hershkovitzi described by Ramirez-Cerquera in 1983, from the upper Rio Cusiana, Boyaca, Colombia, was 2n = 58 (listed by C. P. Groves in his 2001 book Primate Taxonomy), which was in fact that of true A. lemurinus. Further cytogenetic studies by Defler and M. Bueno concluded that the A. lemurinusdefined in P. Hershkovitz’s 1983 revision was in fact three karyotypically well-defined species: night monkeys of the lowlands of Panamaand the Choco regionof Colombiawere A. zonalis; those of the MagdalenaValley were A. griseimembra; and only those from the slopes of the Andean cordilleras above elevations of 1000-1500 m were A. lemurinus. Monotypic.Distribution.A montane species of the Andes range at elevations above 1000-1500 m in Colombia, in the upper Rio CaucaValley and slopes of Cordillera Oriental (not in the MagdalenaValley, occupied by the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and extending S through the humid subtropical forests of the Cordillera Oriental into Ecuador; perhaps N along the Sierra de Perija into Venezuela, but this has not been confirmed.Descriptive notes.Head-body average 30-6 cm (males, n = 5) and 32-5 cm (females, n = 7), tail average 34-3 cm (males, n = 5) and 34-1 cm (females, n = 7); weight 800 g (one male) and 1050 g (one lactating female). The Lemurine Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 58 for both sexes. Rather shaggy and long-haired, coloration of the upperparts is variable but often grayish to buffy-agouti, with at most a poorly defined brownish medial dorsal band. The ventral side ofthe tail is red nearly to the tip, which is reddish-black. The underside is yellowish to pale orange. Inner sides of limbs are entirely grayish agouti, like the outersides, or they may have yellowish to pale orange tone extending from the chest and belly to usually no further than the mid-arm or mid-leg. Facial pattern is variable, and hands and feet are dark. Temporal stripes may be separate or united behind the head. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Tropical and high-elevation forest at 1000-3200 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the diet is likely composed ofundoubtedly comprises fruits, insects, and nectar.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The range ofthis species has long suffered widespread deforestation and expanding illicit coffee production. Although believed to be threatened, little is known of its actual conservation status, and censuses of populations are needed. The national natural parks of Tama and Puracé in Colombiaare within its range, and it is occurs in Llanganates and Sumaco Napo-Galeras national parks and the Cofan-Bermejo Ecological Reserve in Ecuador.Bibliography.Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler et al. (2001), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hernandéz-Camacho & Cooper (1976), Hernandéz-Camacho & Defler (1985), Hershkovitz (1983), Ramirez (1983), Tirira (2007), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)." +03C1502EA85F682CFFBD7BF0F824FA2D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,427,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682CFFBD7BF0F824FA2D.xml,Aotus griseimembra,Aotus,griseimembra,Elliot,1912,Douroucouli a bras gris @fr | Elliot-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de patas grises Other common names @es,"Aotus griseimembra Elliot, 1912,Hacienda Cincinnati, Santa Marta, and Rio Sinu Cereté, Bolivar, Colombia.This species is monotypic.","N Colombiaand NW Venezuela, where it occurs in the Rio MagdalenaValley and N lowlands in Colombia, including the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and basins of the rios Sinu and San Jorge, extending into Venezuelain the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo and the Sierra de Perija.","Head-body ¢.48 cm, tail c.42 cm; weight 800-1000 g. The Graylegged Night Monkey is one of the gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 52-54. Hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to brownish-agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy, with at a poorly- defined brownish medial dorsal band. The chest, belly, and inner surfaces of the legs (as far as the knees and elbows) are brownish or yellowish to pale orange. Pelage is relatively short and adpressed. Facial pattern is inconspicuous, and dorsal parts of the hands and feet are light coftee-brown, with darker hair tips. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.",Primary and secondary tropical lowland forest. The Gray-legged Night Monkey has also been observed in coffee plantations.,There is no information available for this species.,Mean interbirth intervals of c¢.13 months and a gestation of 133 days have been reported for the Gray-legged Night Monkey in captivity.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.","Group size is 2-4 individuals, typically with an adult pair and their offspring. A density of 150 ind/km® has been reported in a census conducted in northern Colombia, but this unusually high density may be explained by the fact that data were collected in a forest remnant that may have served as a refuge.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Magdalena Valley has been settled and farmed for centuries. Deforestation is widespread, and Gray-legged Night Monkeys are restricted to small and isolated forest fragments. Due to this and its use in biomedical research, it is considered the most threatened of Colombian night monkeys. The Gray-legged Night Monkey occurs in the national natural parks of Catatumbo-Bari, Islade Salamanca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and Tayrona, and the fauna and flora sanctuaries of Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Iguaque.","Brumback (1975a) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Dixson & Fleming (1981) | Dixson et al. (1980) | Erkert & Grober (1986) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Green (1978) | Handley (1976) | Hunter et al. (1979) | Kumamoto & Houck (2001) | Rauth-Widmann et al. (1996) | Umana et al. (1984) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994) | Yunis et al. (1977)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726968/files/figure.png,"2. Gray-legged Night Monkey Aotus griseimembraFrench:Douroucouli a bras gris/ German:Elliot-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de patas grisesOther common names:Gray-handed Night Monkey, Yellow-bellied Night Monkey, Yellow-bellied Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus griseimembra Elliot, 1912,Hacienda Cincinnati, Santa Marta, and Rio Sinu Cereté, Bolivar, Colombia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Colombiaand NW Venezuela, where it occurs in the Rio MagdalenaValley and N lowlands in Colombia, including the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and basins of the rios Sinu and San Jorge, extending into Venezuelain the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo and the Sierra de Perija.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.48 cm, tail c.42 cm; weight 800-1000 g. The Graylegged Night Monkey is one of the gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 52-54. Hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to brownish-agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy, with at a poorly- defined brownish medial dorsal band. The chest, belly, and inner surfaces of the legs (as far as the knees and elbows) are brownish or yellowish to pale orange. Pelage is relatively short and adpressed. Facial pattern is inconspicuous, and dorsal parts of the hands and feet are light coftee-brown, with darker hair tips. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Primary and secondary tropical lowland forest. The Gray-legged Night Monkey has also been observed in coffee plantations.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Mean interbirth intervals of c¢.13 months and a gestation of 133 days have been reported for the Gray-legged Night Monkey in captivity.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Group size is 2-4 individuals, typically with an adult pair and their offspring. A density of 150 ind/km® has been reported in a census conducted in northern Colombia, but this unusually high density may be explained by the fact that data were collected in a forest remnant that may have served as a refuge.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Magdalena Valley has been settled and farmed for centuries. Deforestation is widespread, and Gray-legged Night Monkeys are restricted to small and isolated forest fragments. Due to this and its use in biomedical research, it is considered the most threatened of Colombian night monkeys. The Gray-legged Night Monkey occurs in the national natural parks of Catatumbo-Bari, Islade Salamanca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and Tayrona, and the fauna and flora sanctuaries of Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Iguaque.Bibliography.Brumback (1975a), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Dixson & Fleming (1981), Dixson et al. (1980), Erkert & Grober (1986), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Green (1978), Handley (1976), Hunter et al. (1979), Kumamoto & Houck (2001), Rauth-Widmann et al. (1996), Umana et al. (1984), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994), Yunis et al. (1977)." +03C1502EA85F682DFA857722FCDEFBA1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",,hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3,427,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682DFA857722FCDEFBA1.xml,Aotus zonalis,Aotus,zonalis,Goldman,1914,Douroucouli du Panama @fr | Panama-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Panama Other common names @es,"Aotus zonalis Goldman, 1914,Panama, Gatun, Canal Zone.J. Hernandez-Camacho and R. Cooper in 1976 and C. P. Groves in 2001 recognized this form as a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that night monkeys from Panamaand the Chocoin Colombiaare a separate species, A. zonalis. Monotypic.","NW Colombiain the Pacific lowlands (E to the Sinu Valley, S towards the Ecuadorian border, and N into Cordoba Department, perhaps as far as Valdivia where it would overlap with the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and most of Panama(along the Pacific coast W to the Rio San Pedro in Veraguasand on the Atlantic side W as far as the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro); it is absent from SW Panama(Chiriqui), and its occurrence in SE Costa Ricais uncertain.","Head—body ¢.30 cm, tail ¢.36 cm; weight 889 g (males, n = 6) and 916 g (females, n = 11). The Panamanian Night Monkey is a gray-necked species with a diploid chromosome number of 55-56. Body color is brownish in the Canal Zone and Colombia, but it grades into paler and grayer tones along the upper Rio Tuira, eastern Panama. Hair is short and adpressed. The Panamanian Night Monkey is similar to the Gray-legged Night Monkey, exceptfor its dark brown or blackish hands and feet.","Lowland forest, up to elevations of 650 m. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, they usually move and feed at heights of 7 m in the lower canopy and up to 30 m in highest parts of the forest canopy. Panamanian Night Monkeys have not been seen traveling on the ground.","Based on an analysis of stomach contents, the Panamanian Night Monkey eats fruits (65%), leaves (30%), and insects (5%) %), based on the stomach contents.","Night monkeys are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and their offspring and sometimes a subadult. Similar to studies of other species of captive Aotus, captive and wild Panamanian Night Monkeys on the island of Barro Colorado, mate infrequently; it is rapid, and inconspicuous, lacking any evident soliciting behaviors or postures. The newborn is carried by the mother for the first week or so, but then it is transferred to the father, who subsequently carries it most of the time, returning it to the mother only for suckling.","The Panamanian Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. A radiotracking study of a young male followed for nine nights on Barro Colorado indicated two peaks of activity during the night. It became active at dusk (17:00-18:15 h), remaining active with gradually increasing periods of inactivity until about midnight when it would rest for 1-2 hours and then start feeding and foraging until dawn;it returned to its daytime nest at ¢.06:00 h.","The Panamanian Night Monkey lives in family groups of 4-5 individuals. Groups are territorial and meet rarely. When they do meet at a fruiting tree, for example, they are quite aggressive. Following a slow approach, they leap at the opponent, hitting and attempting to bite it. Aggression is generally directed at individuals of the same sex.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Little is known about the Panamanian Night Monkey, so its conservation status is uncertain. Threats are poorly known, but deforestation and conversion to agriculture are likely among them. The Panamanian Night Monkey is protected in the national natural parks of Ensenada de Utria, Farallones de Cali, Las Orquideas, Los Katios, Munchique, Paramillo, and Tatama in Colombia. In Panama, it is protected in the national parks of Altos de Campana, Camino de Cruces, Cerro Hoya, Chagres, Darién, IslaBastimentos, Portobelo, Sarigua, and Soberania and, among other protected areas, the Reserva Forestal Canglon, the Bosque Protector San Lorenzo, and the Barro Colorado Nature Monument.","Baldwin & Baldwin (1976a) | Crile & Quiring (1940) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Ford (1994a, 1994b, 2006) | Hall (1981) | Hladik et al. (1971) | Ma et al. (1978) | Montoya et al. (1995) | Moynihan (1964, 1976) | de Rodaniche (1954) | Rylands et al. (2006) | Svensson et al. (2010) | Thorington et al. (1976) | Timm (1988) | Uribe (1989) | Wilson (2001) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)",https://zenodo.org/record/5726972/files/figure.png,"3. Panamanian Night Monkey Aotus zonalisFrench:Douroucouli du Panama/ German:Panama-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de PanamaOther common names:Chocd Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus zonalis Goldman, 1914,Panama, Gatun, Canal Zone.J. Hernandez-Camacho and R. Cooper in 1976 and C. P. Groves in 2001 recognized this form as a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that night monkeys from Panamaand the Chocoin Colombiaare a separate species, A. zonalis. Monotypic.Distribution.NW Colombiain the Pacific lowlands (E to the Sinu Valley, S towards the Ecuadorian border, and N into Cordoba Department, perhaps as far as Valdivia where it would overlap with the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and most of Panama(along the Pacific coast W to the Rio San Pedro in Veraguasand on the Atlantic side W as far as the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro); it is absent from SW Panama(Chiriqui), and its occurrence in SE Costa Ricais uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head—body ¢.30 cm, tail ¢.36 cm; weight 889 g (males, n = 6) and 916 g (females, n = 11). The Panamanian Night Monkey is a gray-necked species with a diploid chromosome number of 55-56. Body color is brownish in the Canal Zone and Colombia, but it grades into paler and grayer tones along the upper Rio Tuira, eastern Panama. Hair is short and adpressed. The Panamanian Night Monkey is similar to the Gray-legged Night Monkey, exceptfor its dark brown or blackish hands and feet.Habitat.Lowland forest, up to elevations of 650 m. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, they usually move and feed at heights of 7 m in the lower canopy and up to 30 m in highest parts of the forest canopy. Panamanian Night Monkeys have not been seen traveling on the ground.Food and Feeding.Based on an analysis of stomach contents, the Panamanian Night Monkey eats fruits (65%), leaves (30%), and insects (5%) %), based on the stomach contents.Breeding.Night monkeys are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and their offspring and sometimes a subadult. Similar to studies of other species of captive Aotus, captive and wild Panamanian Night Monkeys on the island of Barro Colorado, mate infrequently; it is rapid, and inconspicuous, lacking any evident soliciting behaviors or postures. The newborn is carried by the mother for the first week or so, but then it is transferred to the father, who subsequently carries it most of the time, returning it to the mother only for suckling.Activity patterns.The Panamanian Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. A radiotracking study of a young male followed for nine nights on Barro Colorado indicated two peaks of activity during the night. It became active at dusk (17:00-18:15 h), remaining active with gradually increasing periods of inactivity until about midnight when it would rest for 1-2 hours and then start feeding and foraging until dawn;it returned to its daytime nest at ¢.06:00 h.On following pages 4 Brumback s Nıgm Monkey (Aorus brumbeckı) 5 Humboldt s Nıght Monkey (Aorus mvırgaruså 6 Spıx s Nıght Monkey (Aotus vocılerıns) 7 Hernández-Camacho s Nıght Monkey (Actus l°f96hemandezù B Andean Nıght Monkey (Actus mıoonvd 9 Ma s Nıght Monkey (Actus nencyrrıaee) 10 Black-needed Nıght Monkey (Actus mgnœps) Azara s Nngh! Monkey (Actus azaradMovements, Home range and Social organization.The Panamanian Night Monkey lives in family groups of 4-5 individuals. Groups are territorial and meet rarely. When they do meet at a fruiting tree, for example, they are quite aggressive. Following a slow approach, they leap at the opponent, hitting and attempting to bite it. Aggression is generally directed at individuals of the same sex.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Little is known about the Panamanian Night Monkey, so its conservation status is uncertain. Threats are poorly known, but deforestation and conversion to agriculture are likely among them. The Panamanian Night Monkey is protected in the national natural parks of Ensenada de Utria, Farallones de Cali, Las Orquideas, Los Katios, Munchique, Paramillo, and Tatama in Colombia. In Panama, it is protected in the national parks of Altos de Campana, Camino de Cruces, Cerro Hoya, Chagres, Darién, IslaBastimentos, Portobelo, Sarigua, and Soberania and, among other protected areas, the Reserva Forestal Canglon, the Bosque Protector San Lorenzo, and the Barro Colorado Nature Monument.Bibliography.Baldwin & Baldwin (1976a), Crile & Quiring (1940), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Ford (1994a, 1994b, 2006), Hall (1981), Hladik et al. (1971), Ma et al. (1978), Montoya et al. (1995), Moynihan (1964, 1976), de Rodaniche (1954), Rylands et al. (2006), Svensson et al. (2010), Thorington et al. (1976), Timm (1988), Uribe (1989), Wilson (2001), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)." 03C187E32B15FFC0630AFC0DF6F2B2B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c,131,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B15FFC0630AFC0DF6F2B2B3.xml,Bradypus tridactylus,Bradypus,tridactylus,Linnaeus,1758,Paresseux a trois doigts @fr | \Wei Rkehl-Faultier @de | Perezoso tridactilo de garganta péalida @es | Pale-throated Sloth @en,"Bradypus tridactylus Linnaeus, 1758, “America meridionalis arboribus.”Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to Suriname. This species is monotypic.","N South America, from E Venezuela (E & S of the Orinoco River), E through the Guianas to N Brazil (W to the Amazon River Delta and bounded in the S by the Amazon River).","Head-body 450-755 mm, tail 22-110 mm, ear 5-21 mm, hindfoot 40-120 mm; weight 3.4-6.5 kg. Adult males are smaller than females. The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth has long, coarse, dark gray hair with black spots, especially around back and shoulders. Pelage is greenish because of algae that grows along cracks of hair shafts. Throat and head are yellowish. Males have dorsal speculum with orange-yellow patch and broad black central stripe. Males and females have small vestigial tails. Females have two mammae on their chests. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 52 and FN = 56.","Tropical forests with diverse tree species and complex horizontal and vertical cover. Although seldom seen, the Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth is abundant throughout its distribution.","The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore, consuming leaves from the canopy of overstory trees. Its diet has been reported to almost exclusively contain leaves of Cecropia spp.(Urticaceae), butit also eats leaves of Ceibasamauma (Malvaceae), Elizabethaparaensis (Fabaceae), and Heveaviridis (Euphorbiaceae). The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth has one of the slowest rates of digestion and fermentation because of the large volume of digesta it retains in its gut and its low metabolic rate.","Breeding of the Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths is seasonal. Pregnancy, inferred from timing of births and assuming six-month gestation, occurs in August— February. One very small young is born per litter, and births appear to occur during the long rainy season (March—June). Interbirth interval is c.12 months, and age of independence for juveniles is ¢.5 months. Young cling to venters of their mothers. They sample leaves as early as three weeks old but do not consume substantial amounts of leaves until they are c.5 weeks old. Young are closely associated with their mothers for the first year oflife.","Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths are strictly arboreal and do notlive outside of the forest. Similar to their congeners, they have limited activity; one individual was observed resting/inactive for 18-5 hours/day, hanging upside down from branches. While sleeping, they are most often seated in crooks of trees on horizontal branches, with their heads tucked into their chests under their arms. They have been observed sunning themselves in tree canopies. The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth swims well and can use rivers as dispersal corridors.","Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths are primarily solitary, although groups of up to three individuals have been observed. Individuals can be aggressive—primarily with their claws—to conspecifics if they occupy the same tree. They can reach high densities within Neotropical forests. In Suriname, it was the most abundant non-volant mammal and constituted a large proportion of total mammalian biomass in the forests.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Palethroated Three-toed Sloth has a relatively wide distribution, occurs in protected areas, and is rarely targeted for consumption or human use. Clearing of Neotropical forests is detrimental to Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths because they are vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation.","Beebe (1926) | Eisenberg & Thorington (1973) | Foley et al. (1995) | Hayssen (2009b) | Richard-Hansen & Taube (1997) | Taube, Keravec et al. (2001) | Taube, Vié et al. (1999) | Thomas (1911b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621620/files/figure.png,"3.Pale-throated Three-toed SlothBradypus tridactylusFrench:Paresseux a trois doigts/ German:\WeiRkehl-Faultier/ Spanish:Perezoso tridactilo de garganta péalidaOther common names:Pale-throated SlothTaxonomy.Bradypus tridactylus Linnaeus, 1758, “America meridionalis arboribus.”Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to Suriname. This species is monotypic.Distribution.N South America, from E Venezuela (E & S of the Orinoco River), E through the Guianas to N Brazil (W to the Amazon River Delta and bounded in the S by the Amazon River).Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-755 mm, tail 22-110 mm, ear 5-21 mm, hindfoot 40-120 mm; weight 3.4-6.5 kg. Adult males are smaller than females. The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth has long, coarse, dark gray hair with black spots, especially around back and shoulders. Pelage is greenish because of algae that grows along cracks of hair shafts. Throat and head are yellowish. Males have dorsal speculum with orange-yellow patch and broad black central stripe. Males and females have small vestigial tails. Females have two mammae on their chests. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 52 and FN = 56.Habitat.Tropical forests with diverse tree species and complex horizontal and vertical cover. Although seldom seen, the Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth is abundant throughout its distribution.Food and Feeding.The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore, consuming leaves from the canopy of overstory trees. Its diet has been reported to almost exclusively contain leaves of Cecropia spp.(Urticaceae), butit also eats leaves of Ceibasamauma (Malvaceae), Elizabethaparaensis (Fabaceae), and Heveaviridis (Euphorbiaceae). The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth has one of the slowest rates of digestion and fermentation because of the large volume of digesta it retains in its gut and its low metabolic rate.Breeding.Breeding of the Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths is seasonal. Pregnancy, inferred from timing of births and assuming six-month gestation, occurs in August— February. One very small young is born per litter, and births appear to occur during the long rainy season (March—June). Interbirth interval is c.12 months, and age of independence for juveniles is ¢.5 months. Young cling to venters of their mothers. They sample leaves as early as three weeks old but do not consume substantial amounts of leaves until they are c.5 weeks old. Young are closely associated with their mothers for the first year oflife.Activity patterns.Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths are strictly arboreal and do notlive outside of the forest. Similar to their congeners, they have limited activity; one individual was observed resting/inactive for 18-5 hours/day, hanging upside down from branches. While sleeping, they are most often seated in crooks of trees on horizontal branches, with their heads tucked into their chests under their arms. They have been observed sunning themselves in tree canopies. The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth swims well and can use rivers as dispersal corridors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths are primarily solitary, although groups of up to three individuals have been observed. Individuals can be aggressive—primarily with their claws—to conspecifics if they occupy the same tree. They can reach high densities within Neotropical forests. In Suriname, it was the most abundant non-volant mammal and constituted a large proportion of total mammalian biomass in the forests.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Palethroated Three-toed Sloth has a relatively wide distribution, occurs in protected areas, and is rarely targeted for consumption or human use. Clearing of Neotropical forests is detrimental to Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths because they are vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation.Bibliography.Beebe (1926), Eisenberg & Thorington (1973), Foley et al. (1995), Hayssen (2009b), Richard-Hansen & Taube (1997), Taube, Keravec et al. (2001), Taube, Vié et al. (1999), Thomas (1911b)." 03C187E32B15FFC06615F835F588BD3F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c,131,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B15FFC06615F835F588BD3F.xml,Bradypus pygmaeus,Bradypus,pygmaeus,Anderson & Handley,2001,Paresseux nain @fr | Zwergfaultier @de | Perezoso tridactilo pigmeo @es | Pygmy Sloth @en,"Bradypus pygmaeusR. P. An- derson & Handley, 2001, “Panama: Bocas del Toro: Isla Escudo de Veraguas, West Point.”Taxonomic status unclear; it was described as a species based on morphometric analyses, notably a smaller body size, but results of recent molecular studies are conflicting and could be a pygmy form of B. variegatus. Monotypic.","Restricted to the Escudo de Veraguas I, 18 km offshore from the Valiente Peninsula, on the Caribbean coast of Panama.","Head-body 485-530 mm, tail 45-60 mm, ear 10 mm, hindfoot 94-110 mm; weight 2:5.3-5 kg. The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth is similar in color to the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth (B. variegatus); it is gray with long, coarse hair, covered with algae causing hair to appear green. The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth has dark orbital stripe over lighter colored and browner face. Males have dorsal speculum of shorter cream to orange hair. Forelimbs and hindlimbs have three large and distinct claws.","[sland mangrove forests. Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are believed to be primarily associated with red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae) that occur along the margins of Isla Escudo de Veraguas. A few sloths have been observed in interior, upland forests of the island. More systematic efforts are needed to survey interior forests to determine the degree to which Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are associated with mangrove and other tree species.","The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth has been observed eating leaves from mangroves and other species (e.g. Cecropia spp., Urticaceae).",No information.,"Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal, but terrestrial and even swiming locomotion has been recorded.","One study of Pygmy Three-toed Sloths systematically searched all mangrove stands (10-7 ha in total on the island) and located 79 individuals for a density of 7-4 ind/ha. The island is 430 ha, butit is unknown to what extent upland forests are used by Pygmy Three-toed Sloths. A study recently compared sleep characteristics between Pygmy Three-toed Sloths and Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths and found that while both species slept for the same amount of time (9-10 hours/day), the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth preferred to sleep at night; Pygmy Three-toed Sloths showed no preference. It was suggested that the difference could be the result of different predation risk, with island Pygmy Three-toed Sloths being exposed to less risk than mainland Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Given the extremely limited distribution of the Pygmy Three-toed Sloth on a single, small island and uncertainty around the overall population size, exact distribution, and threats of habitat loss from visitors to the island, the viability of the population is unclear.",Anderson & Handley (2001) | Hayssen (2008) | Kaviar et al. (2012) | Voirin (2015) | Voirin et al. (2014),https://zenodo.org/record/6621616/files/figure.png,"2.Pygmy Three-toed SlothBradypus pygmaeusFrench:Paresseux nain/ German:Zwergfaultier/ Spanish:Perezoso tridactilo pigmeoOther common names:Pygmy SlothTaxonomy.Bradypus pygmaeusR. P. An- derson & Handley, 2001, “Panama: Bocas del Toro: Isla Escudo de Veraguas, West Point.”Taxonomic status unclear; it was described as a species based on morphometric analyses, notably a smaller body size, but results of recent molecular studies are conflicting and could be a pygmy form of B. variegatus. Monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to the Escudo de Veraguas I, 18 km offshore from the Valiente Peninsula, on the Caribbean coast of Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 485-530 mm, tail 45-60 mm, ear 10 mm, hindfoot 94-110 mm; weight 2:5.3-5 kg. The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth is similar in color to the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth (B. variegatus); it is gray with long, coarse hair, covered with algae causing hair to appear green. The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth has dark orbital stripe over lighter colored and browner face. Males have dorsal speculum of shorter cream to orange hair. Forelimbs and hindlimbs have three large and distinct claws.Habitat.[sland mangrove forests. Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are believed to be primarily associated with red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae) that occur along the margins of Isla Escudo de Veraguas. A few sloths have been observed in interior, upland forests of the island. More systematic efforts are needed to survey interior forests to determine the degree to which Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are associated with mangrove and other tree species.Food and Feeding.The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth has been observed eating leaves from mangroves and other species (e.g. Cecropia spp., Urticaceae).Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal, but terrestrial and even swiming locomotion has been recorded.Movements, Home range and Social organization.One study of Pygmy Three-toed Sloths systematically searched all mangrove stands (10-7 ha in total on the island) and located 79 individuals for a density of 7-4 ind/ha. The island is 430 ha, butit is unknown to what extent upland forests are used by Pygmy Three-toed Sloths. A study recently compared sleep characteristics between Pygmy Three-toed Sloths and Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths and found that while both species slept for the same amount of time (9-10 hours/day), the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth preferred to sleep at night; Pygmy Three-toed Sloths showed no preference. It was suggested that the difference could be the result of different predation risk, with island Pygmy Three-toed Sloths being exposed to less risk than mainland Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Given the extremely limited distribution of the Pygmy Three-toed Sloth on a single, small island and uncertainty around the overall population size, exact distribution, and threats of habitat loss from visitors to the island, the viability of the population is unclear.Bibliography.Anderson & Handley (2001), Hayssen (2008), Kaviar et al. (2012), Voirin (2015), Voirin et al. (2014)." 03C187E32B15FFC16316F299F936B84E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c,131,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B15FFC16316F299F936B84E.xml,Bradypus torquatus,Bradypus,torquatus,Illiger,1811,Paresseux a criniere @fr | Kragenfaultier @de | Perezoso tridactilo de crin @es | Brazilian Three-toed Sloth @en | Maned Sloth @en,"Bradypus torquatus Illiger, 1811, type locality not given. Restricted by R. M. Wetzel and F. D. de Avila-Pires in 1980 to “the Atlantic drainage of Bahia, Espirito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro,” Brazil and further restricted by S. M. Vaz in 2003 to areas around Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Two distinct and disjunct phylogeographic groups of B. torquatushave been identified (a northern and a southern clade), but taxonomic distinctions need additional research. Monotypic.","Discontinuous range in Coastal Atlantic Forests of E Brazil, from Sergipe and E Bahia S to S Espirito Santo, N Rio de Janeiro, and E Minas Geraisstates.","Head—body 590-752 mm, tail 40-54 mm, ear 8-22 mm, hindfoot 100-115 mm; weight 4.6-10.1 kg. Male Maned Three-toed Sloths are smaller in body mass and length than females. It is the largest species of extant Bradypusand is brown with long, coarse hair, often has mutualistic algae. Adult males and females have black manes around dorsal regions of neck, but they are longer and darker in males. Unlike other species of Bradypus, male Maned Three-toed Sloths do not have dorsal speculum. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 50 and FN = 64.Habitat.Wet complex tropical forests, with most records from evergreen forests but some from semideciduous forests, at elevations up to 1000 m. Given limited dispersal behavior of the Maned three-toed Sloth, individuals have been detected in small forest fragments (20 ha). It is also found in regenerating secondary forests and shady agroecosystems.Food and Feeding.The Maned Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore. Leaves from 21 species of Neotropical plants (16 species of trees and five lianas) are consumed—a small proportion oftotal trees available, suggesting a selective diet. Micropholisvenulosa (Sapotaceae), Mandevilla sp.(Apocynaceae, a liana), Ficus sp.(Moraceae), and Prunus sp.(Rosaceae) constitute the most important species. Like other sloths, Maned Threetoed Sloths prefer to eat young leaves, usually making up more than two-thirds of leaves an individual consumes.Breeding.Timing of breeding of Maned Three-toed Sloths is based on a handful of observations. Young are born at the end of the rainy season (February-April), and births occur at regular twelve-month intervals. Infants consume leaves as early as two weeks old, but nursing continues until infants are 2-4 months old. At 9-11 months old, juveniles disperse from or are abandoned by their mothers; they disperse to establish their own home ranges.Activity patterns.Maned Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal. They spend ¢.75% of the day resting or sleeping, 12% feeding, and 11% moving. Autogrooming peaks in early morning, followed by increases in moving and foraging. These activities decline in the afternoon when resting increases. During the dry season (April-September), Maned Three-toed Sloths spend significantly less time resting and more time feeding compared with the wet season (October-March). They are active diurnally and nocturnally, although more regular activity occurs during the day. Nevertheless, at Poco das Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, Maned Three-toed Sloths were primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like congeners, Maned Three-toed Sloths climb slowly and positioning themselves on undersides of branches. During the day, individuals move an average of only 17 m (range 0-306 m); at night, they move even less, an average of 5 m (0-45 m). Maned Three-toed Sloths move an average of 24 m in 24 hours, but individuals are capable of longer forays, with the longest single movement recorded of more than 300 m in 5-5 hours. Similar to other species of three-toed sloths, individuals descend to the forest floor to defecate. Home ranges have been estimated at 2-8-5-9 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","Wet complex tropical forests, with most records from evergreen forests but some from semideciduous forests, at elevations up to 1000 m. Given limited dispersal behavior of the Maned three-toed Sloth, individuals have been detected in small forest fragments (20 ha). It is also found in regenerating secondary forests and shady agroecosystems.","The Maned Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore. Leaves from 21 species of Neotropical plants (16 species of trees and five lianas) are consumed—a small proportion oftotal trees available, suggesting a selective diet. Micropholisvenulosa (Sapotaceae), Mandevilla sp.(Apocynaceae, a liana), Ficus sp.(Moraceae), and Prunus sp.(Rosaceae) constitute the most important species. Like other sloths, Maned Threetoed Sloths prefer to eat young leaves, usually making up more than two-thirds of leaves an individual consumes.","Timing of breeding of Maned Three-toed Sloths is based on a handful of observations. Young are born at the end of the rainy season (February-April), and births occur at regular twelve-month intervals. Infants consume leaves as early as two weeks old, but nursing continues until infants are 2-4 months old. At 9-11 months old, juveniles disperse from or are abandoned by their mothers; they disperse to establish their own home ranges.","Maned Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal. They spend ¢.75% of the day resting or sleeping, 12% feeding, and 11% moving. Autogrooming peaks in early morning, followed by increases in moving and foraging. These activities decline in the afternoon when resting increases. During the dry season (April-September), Maned Three-toed Sloths spend significantly less time resting and more time feeding compared with the wet season (October-March). They are active diurnally and nocturnally, although more regular activity occurs during the day. Nevertheless, at Poco das Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, Maned Three-toed Sloths were primarily nocturnal.","Like congeners, Maned Three-toed Sloths climb slowly and positioning themselves on undersides of branches. During the day, individuals move an average of only 17 m (range 0-306 m); at night, they move even less, an average of 5 m (0-45 m). Maned Three-toed Sloths move an average of 24 m in 24 hours, but individuals are capable of longer forays, with the longest single movement recorded of more than 300 m in 5-5 hours. Similar to other species of three-toed sloths, individuals descend to the forest floor to defecate. Home ranges have been estimated at 2-8-5-9 ha.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and fragmentation are leading threats to the Maned Three-toed Sloth. It has a restricted distribution in the Atlantic Forest region, which is also one of the most populated areas of Brazil. Consequently, up to 90-95% ofthe forest has been lost, and what remains is highly fragmented. Potential available habitat for the Maned Three-toed Sloth is now less than 1000 km* and continues to shrink because of ongoing habitat loss and degradation.","Chiarello (1998a, 1998b) | Hayssen (2009a) | Hirsch & Chiarello (2012) | Lara-Ruiz & Chiarello (2005) | Lara-Ruiz et al. (2008) | Moraes-Barros et al. (2006) | Pinder (1993) | Svartman (2012) | Vaz (2003) | Wetzel & de Avila-Pires (1980)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621622/files/figure.png,"4.Maned Three-toed SlothBradypus torquatusFrench:Paresseux a criniere/ German:Kragenfaultier/ Spanish:Perezoso tridactilo de crinOther common names:Brazilian Three-toed Sloth, Maned SlothTaxonomy.Bradypus torquatus Illiger, 1811, type locality not given. Restricted by R. M. Wetzel and F. D. de Avila-Pires in 1980 to “the Atlantic drainage of Bahia, Espirito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro,” Brazil and further restricted by S. M. Vaz in 2003 to areas around Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Two distinct and disjunct phylogeographic groups of B. torquatushave been identified (a northern and a southern clade), but taxonomic distinctions need additional research. Monotypic.Distribution.Discontinuous range in Coastal Atlantic Forests of E Brazil, from Sergipe and E Bahia S to S Espirito Santo, N Rio de Janeiro, and E Minas Geraisstates.Descriptive notes.Head—body 590-752 mm, tail 40-54 mm, ear 8-22 mm, hindfoot 100-115 mm; weight 4.6-10.1 kg. Male Maned Three-toed Sloths are smaller in body mass and length than females. It is the largest species of extant Bradypusand is brown with long, coarse hair, often has mutualistic algae. Adult males and females have black manes around dorsal regions of neck, but they are longer and darker in males. Unlike other species of Bradypus, male Maned Three-toed Sloths do not have dorsal speculum. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 50 and FN = 64.Habitat.Wet complex tropical forests, with most records from evergreen forests but some from semideciduous forests, at elevations up to 1000 m. Given limited dispersal behavior of the Maned three-toed Sloth, individuals have been detected in small forest fragments (20 ha). It is also found in regenerating secondary forests and shady agroecosystems.Food and Feeding.The Maned Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore. Leaves from 21 species of Neotropical plants (16 species of trees and five lianas) are consumed—a small proportion oftotal trees available, suggesting a selective diet. Micropholisvenulosa (Sapotaceae), Mandevilla sp.(Apocynaceae, a liana), Ficus sp.(Moraceae), and Prunus sp.(Rosaceae) constitute the most important species. Like other sloths, Maned Threetoed Sloths prefer to eat young leaves, usually making up more than two-thirds of leaves an individual consumes.Breeding.Timing of breeding of Maned Three-toed Sloths is based on a handful of observations. Young are born at the end of the rainy season (February-April), and births occur at regular twelve-month intervals. Infants consume leaves as early as two weeks old, but nursing continues until infants are 2-4 months old. At 9-11 months old, juveniles disperse from or are abandoned by their mothers; they disperse to establish their own home ranges.Activity patterns.Maned Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal. They spend ¢.75% of the day resting or sleeping, 12% feeding, and 11% moving. Autogrooming peaks in early morning, followed by increases in moving and foraging. These activities decline in the afternoon when resting increases. During the dry season (April-September), Maned Three-toed Sloths spend significantly less time resting and more time feeding compared with the wet season (October-March). They are active diurnally and nocturnally, although more regular activity occurs during the day. Nevertheless, at Poco das Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, Maned Three-toed Sloths were primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like congeners, Maned Three-toed Sloths climb slowly and positioning themselves on undersides of branches. During the day, individuals move an average of only 17 m (range 0-306 m); at night, they move even less, an average of 5 m (0-45 m). Maned Three-toed Sloths move an average of 24 m in 24 hours, but individuals are capable of longer forays, with the longest single movement recorded of more than 300 m in 5-5 hours. Similar to other species of three-toed sloths, individuals descend to the forest floor to defecate. Home ranges have been estimated at 2-8-5-9 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and fragmentation are leading threats to the Maned Three-toed Sloth. It has a restricted distribution in the Atlantic Forest region, which is also one of the most populated areas of Brazil. Consequently, up to 90-95% ofthe forest has been lost, and what remains is highly fragmented. Potential available habitat for the Maned Three-toed Sloth is now less than 1000 km* and continues to shrink because of ongoing habitat loss and degradation.Bibliography.Chiarello (1998a, 1998b), Hayssen (2009a), Hirsch & Chiarello (2012), Lara-Ruiz & Chiarello (2005), Lara-Ruiz et al. (2008), Moraes-Barros et al. (2006), Pinder (1993), Svartman (2012), Vaz (2003), Wetzel & de Avila-Pires (1980)." 03C187E32B16FFC066C8F742FE10B913,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c,130,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B16FFC066C8F742FE10B913.xml,Bradypus variegatus,Bradypus,variegatus,Schinz,1825,Paresseux a gorge brune @fr | Dreifinger-Faultier @de | Perezoso tridactilo de garganta marrén @es | Bolivian Three-toed Sloth @en | Brown-throated Sloth @en,"Bradypus variegatus Schinz,1825, “Stidamerika.”Restricted by R. Mertens in 1925 to “Brasilien (wahr- scheinlich Bahia)” (= Brazil, probablyBahia).There have been up to nine subspecies recognized, but given their distribution, geographical variability, cryptic nature, and lack of clearly differentiated forms, the actual number is unclear, and subspecific taxonomyrequires reassessment.","From Honduras SE throughout Central America to Colombia and W & S Venezuela, and S into Ecuador, Peru, most of Brazil, N Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentina.","Head-body 519-540 mm, tail 52-55 mm, ear 8-22 mm, hindfoot 85-180 mm; weight 3.7-6 kg. Adult Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths weigh less than they appear due to long and thick pelage. Males are slightly smaller (less than 10%) than females. They are gray, with long, coarse hair, but hair is often covered with mutualistic algae (and other microbiota), causing it to have green tinge. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has a dark orbital stripe over a lighter colored and browner face, giving the appearance of a mask. Males have dorsal speculum of shorter cream to orange colored hair, with dark stripe running vertically down the center of it. Contrasting dorsalstripe appears to become accentuated with age and is sometimes accompanied by black spots on either side. Males and females have small vestigial tails. Forelimbs and hindlimbs have three large and distinctive claws. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has long forelimbs (370-450 mm) and relatively short hindlimbs (320-370 mm). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54-55 and FN = 56-58.","Tropical forests with diversity oftree species and complex horizontal andvertical cover. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth can reach high densities in agricultural landscapes if overhead canopy trees are maintained. It is a generalist and uses manydifferent tree species, although individuals will specialize on a few species of trees and even spend a disproportionate amount of time resting and foraging within a few individual trees, or “modal” trees, in their home ranges. In an agricultural landscape in Costa Rica, Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths were strongly dependent on intact tropical forest and two species oftrees in the nettle family (Cecropra obtusifolia and Coussapoavillosa, Urticaceae). In general, trees that have crowns exposed to sunlight and those that contain masses oflianas are selected.","The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore, consuming leaves in canopies oftrees. Individuals typically consume leaves in trees where they spend a considerable amount oftime. Diets vary spatially and overall include leaves from more than 50 plant species. They prefer and mostly consume young leaves, presumably because of their nutritional value. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has one of the slowest rates ofdigestion. Nevertheless, estimated leaf removal rate is 5-1 g ofleaves/kg/day. Sloths, in general, are foregut-fermenting mammals, and the Brownthroated Three-toed Sloth possess a unique gut community dominated bythe bacterial phyla Proteobacteria and Firmicutes. Three-toed sloths possess a highly conserved, low-diversity foregut community, with highly abundant species of Neisseria bacteria.","The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth is polygynous, with males excluding male competitors from their core home ranges. In one study in Costa Rica, only 25% of resident adult males sired offspring, and one individual male sired 50% of all juveniles. Sedentary lifestyle of the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth appears to facilitate polygyny because multiple females can persist within small patches of habitat and be monopolized by a single male. Females appear to use important mating strategies by switching mates among breeding seasons and shifting their home ranges during estrus. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth breeds seasonally. Gestation is ¢.6 months in length, and females give birth to one young over a six-month period that peaks in late February. Neonates are dependent on their mothers, clinging to their venters for 100 days or more. This relatively short time to offspring independence allows females to breed in most years; on average, nearly 75%ofadult females produce young in the wild, and this frequency appears to vary little from year-to-year. Juvenile survival can be high but is lowest immediately following maternal independence.","Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths are active diurnally and nocturnally, but they are more often active during daylight hours and generally avoid activity during the crepuscular periods of the day. Adults usually sleep for 15-18 hours/day, either holding on to a tree with their claws or resting in the crotch of a tree with their heads tucked into their chests. Three-toed sloths have a high degree of heterothermy in their body temperature, and therefore, they behaviorally adjust to ambient temperatures throughout the day. Individuals can be observed in the mornings ascending to the top of the canopy, presumably to warm in full sunlight, and descending into shade as daytime temperatures increase. During rainstorms, Brown-throated Threetoed Sloths do not seek shelter but typically rest in place.","Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths climb slow and deliberately and position themselves on undersides of branches with their bodies perpendicular to branches when moving. In a single day, an individual only moves an average of 40 m and is often found on the same tree. Once a week, individuals descend to the forest floor. While on the ground, they create shallow depressions with their vestigial tails and defecate. This ritualized behavior reinforces sloth moth (Pyralidae) colonization of fur and increases nitrogen and phosphorous levels in sloth fur contributing to algal growth. Home range sizes do not differ between sexes or by breeding status and are 0-1-19 ha. Most adult male Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths maintain exclusive use of core areas in their home ranges. Home ranges of males overlap with many females but not each other, and home ranges of adult females overlap each other. Juveniles strongly selectfor forest cover during dispersal, avoiding agricultural habitat types.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has the widest distribution of the four species of Bradypusand occurs across various forest types. It occurs in protected areas and is rarely targeted for consumption or other human uses, although occasionally it is hunted in Central America and South America by indigenous groups and for the pet trade. Clearing of tropical forests for crops grown in monoculturesis particularly detrimental because these plantations retain little forest structure. Brown-throated Threetoed Sloths are more vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation than other sloths, especially two-toed sloths (Choloepus spp.). Nevertheless, previous work has shown that shade-grown agriculture, like that found in certain types of cacao plantations embedded within an agroecosystem, can support viable populations of the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth, if immigration from surrounding forests is maintained. In particular, intact riparian forests provide critical movement corridors for maintaining connectivity of populations in modified tropical landscapes.","Dill-McFarland et al. (2016) | Garcés-Restrepo et al. (2017) | Hayssen (2010) | Mendoza etal. (2015) | Mertens (1925) | Montgomery & Sunquist (1978) | Moraes-Barros etal. (2010) | Noss et al. (2008) | Pauli & Peery (2012) | Pauli, Mendoza et al. (2014) | Pauli, Peery et al. (2016) | Peery & Pauli (2014) | Sunquist & Montgomery (1973b) | Svartman (2012)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621614/files/figure.png,"1.Brown-throated Three-toed SlothBradypus variegatusFrench:Paresseux a gorge brune/ German:Dreifinger-Faultier/ Spanish:Perezoso tridactilo de garganta marrénOther common names:Bolivian Three-toed Sloth, Brown-throated SlothTaxonomy.Bradypus variegatus Schinz,1825, “Stidamerika.”Restricted by R. Mertens in 1925 to “Brasilien (wahr- scheinlich Bahia)” (= Brazil, probablyBahia).There have been up to nine subspecies recognized, but given their distribution, geographical variability, cryptic nature, and lack of clearly differentiated forms, the actual number is unclear, and subspecific taxonomyrequires reassessment.Distribution.From Honduras SE throughout Central America to Colombia and W & S Venezuela, and S into Ecuador, Peru, most of Brazil, N Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 519-540 mm, tail 52-55 mm, ear 8-22 mm, hindfoot 85-180 mm; weight 3.7-6 kg. Adult Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths weigh less than they appear due to long and thick pelage. Males are slightly smaller (less than 10%) than females. They are gray, with long, coarse hair, but hair is often covered with mutualistic algae (and other microbiota), causing it to have green tinge. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has a dark orbital stripe over a lighter colored and browner face, giving the appearance of a mask. Males have dorsal speculum of shorter cream to orange colored hair, with dark stripe running vertically down the center of it. Contrasting dorsalstripe appears to become accentuated with age and is sometimes accompanied by black spots on either side. Males and females have small vestigial tails. Forelimbs and hindlimbs have three large and distinctive claws. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has long forelimbs (370-450 mm) and relatively short hindlimbs (320-370 mm). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54-55 and FN = 56-58.Habitat.Tropical forests with diversity oftree species and complex horizontal andvertical cover. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth can reach high densities in agricultural landscapes if overhead canopy trees are maintained. It is a generalist and uses manydifferent tree species, although individuals will specialize on a few species of trees and even spend a disproportionate amount of time resting and foraging within a few individual trees, or “modal” trees, in their home ranges. In an agricultural landscape in Costa Rica, Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths were strongly dependent on intact tropical forest and two species oftrees in the nettle family (Cecropra obtusifolia and Coussapoavillosa, Urticaceae). In general, trees that have crowns exposed to sunlight and those that contain masses oflianas are selected.Food and Feeding.The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore, consuming leaves in canopies oftrees. Individuals typically consume leaves in trees where they spend a considerable amount oftime. Diets vary spatially and overall include leaves from more than 50 plant species. They prefer and mostly consume young leaves, presumably because of their nutritional value. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has one of the slowest rates ofdigestion. Nevertheless, estimated leaf removal rate is 5-1 g ofleaves/kg/day. Sloths, in general, are foregut-fermenting mammals, and the Brownthroated Three-toed Sloth possess a unique gut community dominated bythe bacterial phyla Proteobacteria and Firmicutes. Three-toed sloths possess a highly conserved, low-diversity foregut community, with highly abundant species of Neisseria bacteria.Breeding.The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth is polygynous, with males excluding male competitors from their core home ranges. In one study in Costa Rica, only 25% of resident adult males sired offspring, and one individual male sired 50% of all juveniles. Sedentary lifestyle of the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth appears to facilitate polygyny because multiple females can persist within small patches of habitat and be monopolized by a single male. Females appear to use important mating strategies by switching mates among breeding seasons and shifting their home ranges during estrus. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth breeds seasonally. Gestation is ¢.6 months in length, and females give birth to one young over a six-month period that peaks in late February. Neonates are dependent on their mothers, clinging to their venters for 100 days or more. This relatively short time to offspring independence allows females to breed in most years; on average, nearly 75%ofadult females produce young in the wild, and this frequency appears to vary little from year-to-year. Juvenile survival can be high but is lowest immediately following maternal independence.Activity patterns.Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths are active diurnally and nocturnally, but they are more often active during daylight hours and generally avoid activity during the crepuscular periods of the day. Adults usually sleep for 15-18 hours/day, either holding on to a tree with their claws or resting in the crotch of a tree with their heads tucked into their chests. Three-toed sloths have a high degree of heterothermy in their body temperature, and therefore, they behaviorally adjust to ambient temperatures throughout the day. Individuals can be observed in the mornings ascending to the top of the canopy, presumably to warm in full sunlight, and descending into shade as daytime temperatures increase. During rainstorms, Brown-throated Threetoed Sloths do not seek shelter but typically rest in place.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths climb slow and deliberately and position themselves on undersides of branches with their bodies perpendicular to branches when moving. In a single day, an individual only moves an average of 40 m and is often found on the same tree. Once a week, individuals descend to the forest floor. While on the ground, they create shallow depressions with their vestigial tails and defecate. This ritualized behavior reinforces sloth moth (Pyralidae) colonization of fur and increases nitrogen and phosphorous levels in sloth fur contributing to algal growth. Home range sizes do not differ between sexes or by breeding status and are 0-1-19 ha. Most adult male Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths maintain exclusive use of core areas in their home ranges. Home ranges of males overlap with many females but not each other, and home ranges of adult females overlap each other. Juveniles strongly selectfor forest cover during dispersal, avoiding agricultural habitat types.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has the widest distribution of the four species of Bradypusand occurs across various forest types. It occurs in protected areas and is rarely targeted for consumption or other human uses, although occasionally it is hunted in Central America and South America by indigenous groups and for the pet trade. Clearing of tropical forests for crops grown in monoculturesis particularly detrimental because these plantations retain little forest structure. Brown-throated Threetoed Sloths are more vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation than other sloths, especially two-toed sloths (Choloepus spp.). Nevertheless, previous work has shown that shade-grown agriculture, like that found in certain types of cacao plantations embedded within an agroecosystem, can support viable populations of the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth, if immigration from surrounding forests is maintained. In particular, intact riparian forests provide critical movement corridors for maintaining connectivity of populations in modified tropical landscapes.Bibliography.Dill-McFarland et al. (2016), Garcés-Restrepo et al. (2017), Hayssen (2010), Mendoza etal. (2015), Mertens (1925), Montgomery & Sunquist (1978), Moraes-Barros etal. (2010), Noss et al. (2008), Pauli & Peery (2012), Pauli, Mendoza et al. (2014), Pauli, Peery et al. (2016), Peery & Pauli (2014), Sunquist & Montgomery (1973b), Svartman (2012)." 03C187E32B17FFC2672EFDF5F9FEBB2A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c,118,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B17FFC2672EFDF5F9FEBB2A.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family BRADYPODIDAE(THREE-TOED SLOTHS)• Medium-sized arboreal folivores with long limbs, three long Class on forelimbs and hindlimbs, short vestigial tails, and foregutfermenting digestive systems.• 55-85 cm.• Neotropical Region.• Low-elevation tropical forests.• 1 genus, 4 species, 4 taxa.• | species Critically Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." 03C36F2EFFFA347FFDF74172F84E0404,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ailuridae_0498.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffa1756fffa347fff8e4379ff81011f,498,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C3/6F/03C36F2EFFFA347FFDF74172F84E0404.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family AILURIDAE(RED PANDA)• Small to medium mammals with round head, short muzzle, large and pointed ears, and bushytail; muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges of ears white, eyes with small dark patches, and tail with alternate red and buff colored rings.• 79-122 cm.• Mountains of Central Asia.• Forested mountainous areas; typically deciduous and coniferous forests with bamboo-thicket understory.• 1 genus, 1 species, 2 taxa.• | species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." -03C36F2EFFFB347EFF11441DF6EF0C5F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ailuridae_0498.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffa1756fffa347fff8e4379ff81011f,503,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C3/6F/03C36F2EFFFB347EFF11441DF6EF0C5F.xml,Ailurus fulgens,Ailurus,fulgens,Cuvier,1825,Panda roux @fr | Kleiner Panda @de | Panda rojo @es | Lesser Panda @en | Fire Fox @en | Golden Dog @en | Bear Cat @en,"Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825, Nepal. Two subspecies recognized.","A. f. fulgens Cuvier, 1825 — E Himalayas in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sikkim; China(S & SE Xizang& NW Yunnan), NE India(Meghalaya), and N Myanmar.A. f. styani Thomas, 1902 — China(W Sichuan& N Yunnan).","Head-body 51-73 cm, tail 28-49 cm; weight 3-6 kg. Head round, muzzle short, ears large and pointed. Muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges ofears white, eyes with small dark patches. Dorsal pelage chestnut brown, ventral pelage and limbs black. Tail bushy, with alternate red and buff colored rings. Feet with hairysoles, and claws semi-retractile. Females have eight mammae. Forepaw with elongated radial sesamoid. Skull robust, with broad zygomatic arches and large occipital condyles. Teeth heavily cusped, with elaborate crown patterns. Compared with fulgens, styani is distinguishable by its longer winter coat, darker bodycolor, larger skull, and more robust teeth.","Temperate forests of mountains at elevations of 1500-4800 m. In Meghalayaof India, in tropical forests at much lower elevations, between 700-1400 m. Typically in forests with bamboo-thicket understory. High bamboo cover, bamboo height, and canopy cover are important; preferred habitats have a high density ofshrubs, fallen logs, and tree stumps, yielding easy access to bambooleaves.","Diet largely vegetarian, 80-90% consisting of bamboo leaves, new shoots important in spring, fruits eaten in late summer and autumn. Usually feeds on the most nutritious bamboospecies in its habitat. Also eats roots, lichens, small vertebrates, birds eggs, insects and grubs.","Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.","Captive animals are nocturnal and crepuscular, and exhibit a polyphasic activity pattern throughout the night. In the wild, the Red Panda was thought to be most active at dawn, dusk, and at night, but several recent studies have consistently shown it is more active in the daytime than at night. In Wolong Nature Reserve, China, a subadult female, a female, and a male were reported to be active 36:5%, 49%, and 45% of the time, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve, bordering the former reserve on the north, six radio-collared Red Pandas had an average dailyactivity rate of 48-6%, with two peaks from 7:00 h to 10:00 h and from 17:00 h to 18:00 h. Generally, numerous periods ofrest are interspersed with frequent activity periods.","A subadult female in Wolong Reserve occupied a home range of 3-43 km, with a mean linear daily movement of 481 m.Subsequent research in the same area showedthat a female and a male possessed home ranges of 0-94 km* and 1-11 km?®, with a daily distance movedof 235 mand 325 m, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Reserve, the daily movement distance was 461 mand the home range covered 2-34 km” for six collared individuals. Intrasexual and intersexual overlapping of home ranges occurred extensively. Perhaps due to difference in habitat quality and population density, both the females and males in Langtang Nature Reserve, Nepal, had larger home ranges (1-02 to 9-62 km*) than those in Sichuan, China. Several studies reported that Red Pandas live in groups ofthree to five individuals with blood relationships. Other studies found the Red Panda solitary outside the breeding season, with territories well posted by scent marking. Olfactory communication is the primary methodof conveying social signals, through the secretions from anogenital glands deposited in the environment. Secretions from foreskin glands and glands on the soles of the feet can impart an individual’s information, too. Red Pandas leave droppings in groups, and their repeatedly-used defecation sites (latrines) probably facilitate communication among neighbors.Breeding.Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.","CITESApendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. Global population estimatedat 16,000-20,000, in estimated area of 69,900 Km?. In China, the population decreased byup to 40% due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, trade, forest fires, road construction, and otherdisturbances during the past 50 years, and became extinct in Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghaiprovinces. Protected in all countries where it now occurs with 43, 20, 5, and 7 protected areas established in China, India, Bhutan, and Nepal, respectively.","Bininda-Edmonds (2004) | Choudhury (2001) | Dawkins (1888) | Endo et al. (1999) | Flynn & Nedbal (1998) | Flynn et al. (2000) | Fox et al. (1996) | Hu (1991) | Hu & Wang (1984) | IUCN(2008) | Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988a) | Li, C. et al. (2003) | Li, M. et al. (2004) | Liu et al. (2003, 2004) | MacClintock (1988) | Nowak (1999) | Pen (1962) | Pradhan et al. (2001) | Rabinowitz & Khaing (1998) | Reid, Hu & Huang (1991) | Roberts & Gittleman (1984) | Spanner et al. (1997) | Tedford & Gustavson (1977) | Wei, Feng, Wang & Hu (1999, 2000) | Wei, Feng, Wang & Li (1999) | Wei, Feng, Wang, Zhou & Hu (1999) | Wei, LUet al. (2005) | Wei, Wang et al. (2000) | Yonzon & Hunter (1991a, 1991b) | Zhang, Wei, Li & Hu (2006) | Zhang, Wei, Li, Zhang. et al. (2004)",,"Red PandaAilurus fulgensFrench: Panda roux/ German: Kleiner Panda/ Spanish: Panda rojoOther common names: Lesser Panda, Fire Fox, Golden Dog, Bear CatTaxonomy.Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825, Nepal. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. f. fulgens Cuvier, 1825 — E Himalayas in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sikkim; China(S & SE Xizang& NW Yunnan), NE India(Meghalaya), and N Myanmar.A. f. styani Thomas, 1902 — China(W Sichuan& N Yunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body 51-73 cm, tail 28-49 cm; weight 3-6 kg. Head round, muzzle short, ears large and pointed. Muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges ofears white, eyes with small dark patches. Dorsal pelage chestnut brown, ventral pelage and limbs black. Tail bushy, with alternate red and buff colored rings. Feet with hairysoles, and claws semi-retractile. Females have eight mammae. Forepaw with elongated radial sesamoid. Skull robust, with broad zygomatic arches and large occipital condyles. Teeth heavily cusped, with elaborate crown patterns. Compared with fulgens, styani is distinguishable by its longer winter coat, darker bodycolor, larger skull, and more robust teeth.Habitat.Temperate forests of mountains at elevations of 1500-4800 m. In Meghalayaof India, in tropical forests at much lower elevations, between 700-1400 m. Typically in forests with bamboo-thicket understory. High bamboo cover, bamboo height, and canopy cover are important; preferred habitats have a high density ofshrubs, fallen logs, and tree stumps, yielding easy access to bambooleaves.Food and Feeding.Diet largely vegetarian, 80-90% consisting of bamboo leaves, new shoots important in spring, fruits eaten in late summer and autumn. Usually feeds on the most nutritious bamboospecies in its habitat. Also eats roots, lichens, small vertebrates, birds eggs, insects and grubs.Activity patterns.Captive animals are nocturnal and crepuscular, and exhibit a polyphasic activity pattern throughout the night. In the wild, the Red Panda was thought to be most active at dawn, dusk, and at night, but several recent studies have consistently shown it is more active in the daytime than at night. In Wolong Nature Reserve, China, a subadult female, a female, and a male were reported to be active 36:5%, 49%, and 45% of the time, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve, bordering the former reserve on the north, six radio-collared Red Pandas had an average dailyactivity rate of 48-6%, with two peaks from 7:00 h to 10:00 h and from 17:00 h to 18:00 h. Generally, numerous periods ofrest are interspersed with frequent activity periods.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A subadult female in Wolong Reserve occupied a home range of 3-43 km, with a mean linear daily movement of 481 m.Subsequent research in the same area showedthat a female and a male possessed home ranges of 0-94 km* and 1-11 km?®, with a daily distance movedof 235 mand 325 m, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Reserve, the daily movement distance was 461 mand the home range covered 2-34 km” for six collared individuals. Intrasexual and intersexual overlapping of home ranges occurred extensively. Perhaps due to difference in habitat quality and population density, both the females and males in Langtang Nature Reserve, Nepal, had larger home ranges (1-02 to 9-62 km*) than those in Sichuan, China. Several studies reported that Red Pandas live in groups ofthree to five individuals with blood relationships. Other studies found the Red Panda solitary outside the breeding season, with territories well posted by scent marking. Olfactory communication is the primary methodof conveying social signals, through the secretions from anogenital glands deposited in the environment. Secretions from foreskin glands and glands on the soles of the feet can impart an individual’s information, too. Red Pandas leave droppings in groups, and their repeatedly-used defecation sites (latrines) probably facilitate communication among neighbors.Breeding.Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.Status and Conservation.CITESApendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. Global population estimatedat 16,000-20,000, in estimated area of 69,900 Km?. In China, the population decreased byup to 40% due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, trade, forest fires, road construction, and otherdisturbances during the past 50 years, and became extinct in Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghaiprovinces. Protected in all countries where it now occurs with 43, 20, 5, and 7 protected areas established in China, India, Bhutan, and Nepal, respectively.Bibliography.Bininda-Edmonds (2004), Choudhury (2001), Dawkins (1888), Endo et al. (1999), Flynn & Nedbal (1998), Flynn et al. (2000), Fox et al. (1996), Hu (1991), Hu & Wang (1984), IUCN(2008), Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988a), Li, C. et al. (2003), Li, M. et al. (2004), Liu et al. (2003, 2004), MacClintock (1988), Nowak (1999), Pen (1962), Pradhan et al. (2001), Rabinowitz & Khaing (1998), Reid, Hu & Huang (1991), Roberts & Gittleman (1984), Spanner et al. (1997), Tedford & Gustavson (1977), Wei, Feng, Wang & Hu (1999, 2000), Wei, Feng, Wang & Li (1999), Wei, Feng, Wang, Zhou & Hu (1999), Wei, LUet al. (2005), Wei, Wang et al. (2000), Yonzon & Hunter (1991a, 1991b), Zhang, Wei, Li & Hu (2006), Zhang, Wei, Li, Zhang. et al. (2004)." -03C587E31E78FF93FA55FE4F95CFF679,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,330,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E78FF93FA55FE4F95CFF679.xml,Tragulus kanchil,Tragulus,kanchil,,,Chevrotain kanchil @fr | Kleinkantschil @de | Ciervoratén pequeno @es | Kancil @en,"Moschus kanchil Raffles, 1822, Bengkulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review, and the authors were unable to assess the validity of all taxa. This includes Sfulvicollis from the MalaccaStrait islands (Bengkalis, Padang, Rupat, Tebingtinggi, and Rangsam); pallidus from the small island of Laut, north of Bunguran, Natuna islands group; carimatae from Karimata Island, west of Borneo; lampensis from Lanbi Kyun (= Lampi) Islandin the Mergui Archipelago; insularis from Phuket (= Junk Seylon), Ko Sirae (= Sireh) and Ko Yao Yai (= Panjang) islands; and lancavensis from Langkawi Island. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.","T.k.kanchilRaffles,1822—Sumatra,islandsoffESumatra(Mendol&Berhala).T.k.abruptusChasen,1935—SubiI,oftWBorneo.T.k.affinisGray,1861—Vietnam,Laos,SE&EThailand,Cambodia.T.k.anambensisChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(MatakI).T.k.angustiaeKloss,1918—SMyanmar,SWThaimainland(probablylimitedtoWoftheChaoPhrayaRiver).T.k.everettiBonhote,1903—NatunaIs(Bunguran),offWBorneo.T.k.fulviventerGray,1836—SMalayPeninsula(Sof7°N).T.k.hosetBonhote,1903—Borneo(Sarawak,West,Central,East&SouthKalimantan).T.k.klossiChasen,1935—NBorneo(NEastKalimantan,E&CSabah,andpossiblyWSabahandBrunei.T.k.luteicollisLyon,1906—BangkaI,offESumatra.T.k.pidonisChasen,1940—KohPipidonI(=PhiPhiDon),offWMalayPeninsula.T.k.ravulusMiller,1903—islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(KohAdang&KohRawi).T.k.ravusMiller,1902—SThailand,NMalayPeninsula.T.k.rubeusMiller,1903—RiauArchipelago(BintanI).T.k.siantanicusChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(SiantanI).T. k. subrufus Miller, 1903— Lingga Archipelago (Lingga & Singkep Is).The range on the Asian mainland is poorly known and could occur as far north as China(S Yunnan). As stated in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of some areas of Borneo (W Sabah, Brunei& N Sarawak) and several other islands remains unclear.","Head—body 37-56 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 1.5-2. 5 kg. Thisis a small chevrotain species that was recently split from 7. javanicus. It is separated from the larger 1. napuprimarily by its smaller size, the number of throat stripes, the visibility of the nape line, and the lack of mottling of the upperparts. There is some degree of melanism in 7. kanchilspecimens from small islands, leading to the development of extra dark, transverse lines, which makes the throat pattern hard to distinguish from that of 1. napu. The degree of erythrism (reddish pigmentation) and melanism is, however, less pronounced than in 7. napu. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","Tall forest in lowlands, amidst undergrowth on edges of heavy lowland forest. It has been suggested that 7. kanchiloccurs primarily in hilly areas, but other sources stated that the species was absent from areas above 250 min Sarawak, whereas 7. napuoccurred much higher. This species also occurs in cultivated areas up to 600 min elevation. The habitat of this species could be described as a mosaic ofriverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps, with stands of dense bamboo or palms for daytime resting. In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest, and they can be quite common in monocultural tree plantations in a matrix of secondary forest stands. Even though the evidence is somewhat ambiguous,it appears that this species prefers disturbed forests to primary ones. A review of encounter rates in various parts of the species’ range suggested that the distribution of 7. kanchilis perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features and microhabitats. What these features are remains unresolved, but their water requirements are important, as authors note commonness in riverine areas with surprising regularity. The habitat use of this species with respect to edge—interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult.","The speciesis largely frugivorous, but also feeds on shoots, young leaves, and fallen fruits. Fruit mass of consumed fruits varied from 1 gto 5 gand seed mass from 0-01 g to 0-5 g. On Borneo, the species feeds on a range offruiting species, including Polyanthia sumatrana, Diospyros macrophylla, Endospermumpeltatum, Quercus sp., Garcinia forbesi and G. parviflora, Litsea caulocarpa and L. orocola, Notaphoebe sp., Dialumimdum, Aglaia sp., Chisocheton sp., Dysoxylum sp., Lansium sp., Artocarpus dadah, Ficus spp., Dimocarpus longan, Paranephelium xestophyllum, and Microros antidesmifolia.","Males mark their territories and their females with an intermandibular scent gland located under the chin. They chase and fight one another for prolonged periods, slashing with the elongated canine teeth. These teeth are razor sharp and local hunters in Borneo report that sometimes males fight to the death. Mating occurs throughout the year in some areas. In Vietnamthe species mates in November-December and gives birth in April-May. The species is polygynous. Females are almost continuously pregnant. Gestation has been estimated at 140-177 days, the mother produces 2-3 young per year, and fawns are kept hidden.",Diurnal to cathemeral.,"A study of this species in the Malaysian state of Sabahsuggested thatit is mostly solitary, with 93-9% of the observations being single animals and the remainder pairs or a female with one or two young. In apparent contrast with this statement, camera trap photos of the species often show two adult animals together. Further studies are needed to determine the social organization of the species and how this varies spatially as well temporally. Population densities on Borneo were estimated at 21-39 ind/km?, with density positively correlated with fruit mass, seed mass, and total fruit resources. The species does not appearto be territorial. The core areas of neighboring animals were completely separate among same-sex individuals, but overlapped widely among opposite-sex individuals. The results suggest that this species is mostly monogamous, although apparently males can also be polygamous. The core area of a paired female overlapped not only with the core area of the paired male, but also with that of another neighboring male. This suggests that males tolerate the presence of females in their core areas and that paired males do not control the movement of paired females into the home ranges of other males. Females establish new home ranges when giving birth. Home range size for females was estimated at 4-4 ha and for males 5-9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the differ ence between males and females was not significant. Mean daily distance travelled for males was 519-1 m (+ 88-8 m), that for females 573-8 m (+ 219-7 m). In a Bornean study area, the density was negatively correlated with pioneer trees, grass, and herbs, suggesting that the species is negatively influenced by the effects of timber harvest, although, as pointed at above, this remains ambiguous. Data from Indochina, suggest that the species is quite tolerant of forest disturbance and may even be considered an edge species that benefits from disturbance. Further studies are needed to elucidate this issue.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and locally common, and at least in non-Sundaic areas persists in environments of very heavy forest degradation, fragmentation, and hunting. The presumed short generation length of the species (under five years) also influences assessment. Thus although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area. The IUCN review points out several major uncertainties in the conservation status assessment. Firstly, there are few modern records of Tragulusfrom both the Sundaic and non-Sundaic portions of the range that have been identified conclusively as to species. Secondly, the conflicting nature of the information available concerning the effects of hunting (harvest levels are locally very high) and habitat destruction makes it difficult to estimate population declines. Thirdly, there are strong indications that in its non-Sundaic range (i.e. Asian mainland) it is localized in occurrence, a pattern for which the reasons remain opaque, but which might be the result of hunting. And fourthly, the apparent restriction to lowland forest, at least in Borneo, suggests that with the rapidly dwindling lowland forests in this part ofits range, the species is losing habitat and its range might decrease and become fragmented. The species apparently has become extinct in Bangladeshdue to high hunting and trapping pressure, although in many other areas it seems to survive despite local poaching and trapping.","Caldecott (1988) | Davison (1980) | Duckworth (1997) | Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Endo (2004) | Heydon (1994) | Heydon & Bulloh (1997) | Kim et al. (2004) | Liat (1973) | Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005) | Matsubayashi et al. (2003, 2006) | Medway (1978) | Meijaard (2003) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2005) | Miura & Idris (1999) | Nolan et al. (1995) | O'Brien et al. (2003) | Payne et al. (1985)",,"5.Lesser Indo-Malayan ChevrotainTragulus kanchilFrench:Chevrotain kanchil/ German:Kleinkantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén pequenoOther common names:KancilTaxonomy.Moschus kanchil Raffles, 1822, Bengkulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review, and the authors were unable to assess the validity of all taxa. This includes Sfulvicollis from the MalaccaStrait islands (Bengkalis, Padang, Rupat, Tebingtinggi, and Rangsam); pallidus from the small island of Laut, north of Bunguran, Natuna islands group; carimatae from Karimata Island, west of Borneo; lampensis from Lanbi Kyun (= Lampi) Islandin the Mergui Archipelago; insularis from Phuket (= Junk Seylon), Ko Sirae (= Sireh) and Ko Yao Yai (= Panjang) islands; and lancavensis from Langkawi Island. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.k.kanchilRaffles,1822—Sumatra,islandsoffESumatra(Mendol&Berhala).T.k.abruptusChasen,1935—SubiI,oftWBorneo.T.k.affinisGray,1861—Vietnam,Laos,SE&EThailand,Cambodia.T.k.anambensisChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(MatakI).T.k.angustiaeKloss,1918—SMyanmar,SWThaimainland(probablylimitedtoWoftheChaoPhrayaRiver).T.k.everettiBonhote,1903—NatunaIs(Bunguran),offWBorneo.T.k.fulviventerGray,1836—SMalayPeninsula(Sof7°N).T.k.hosetBonhote,1903—Borneo(Sarawak,West,Central,East&SouthKalimantan).T.k.klossiChasen,1935—NBorneo(NEastKalimantan,E&CSabah,andpossiblyWSabahandBrunei.T.k.luteicollisLyon,1906—BangkaI,offESumatra.T.k.pidonisChasen,1940—KohPipidonI(=PhiPhiDon),offWMalayPeninsula.T.k.ravulusMiller,1903—islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(KohAdang&KohRawi).T.k.ravusMiller,1902—SThailand,NMalayPeninsula.T.k.rubeusMiller,1903—RiauArchipelago(BintanI).T.k.siantanicusChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(SiantanI).T. k. subrufus Miller, 1903— Lingga Archipelago (Lingga & Singkep Is).The range on the Asian mainland is poorly known and could occur as far north as China(S Yunnan). As stated in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of some areas of Borneo (W Sabah, Brunei& N Sarawak) and several other islands remains unclear.Descriptive notes.Head—body 37-56 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 1.5-2. 5 kg. Thisis a small chevrotain species that was recently split from 7. javanicus. It is separated from the larger 1. napuprimarily by its smaller size, the number of throat stripes, the visibility of the nape line, and the lack of mottling of the upperparts. There is some degree of melanism in 7. kanchilspecimens from small islands, leading to the development of extra dark, transverse lines, which makes the throat pattern hard to distinguish from that of 1. napu. The degree of erythrism (reddish pigmentation) and melanism is, however, less pronounced than in 7. napu. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Tall forest in lowlands, amidst undergrowth on edges of heavy lowland forest. It has been suggested that 7. kanchiloccurs primarily in hilly areas, but other sources stated that the species was absent from areas above 250 min Sarawak, whereas 7. napuoccurred much higher. This species also occurs in cultivated areas up to 600 min elevation. The habitat of this species could be described as a mosaic ofriverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps, with stands of dense bamboo or palms for daytime resting. In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest, and they can be quite common in monocultural tree plantations in a matrix of secondary forest stands. Even though the evidence is somewhat ambiguous,it appears that this species prefers disturbed forests to primary ones. A review of encounter rates in various parts of the species’ range suggested that the distribution of 7. kanchilis perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features and microhabitats. What these features are remains unresolved, but their water requirements are important, as authors note commonness in riverine areas with surprising regularity. The habitat use of this species with respect to edge—interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult.Food and Feeding.The speciesis largely frugivorous, but also feeds on shoots, young leaves, and fallen fruits. Fruit mass of consumed fruits varied from 1 gto 5 gand seed mass from 0-01 g to 0-5 g. On Borneo, the species feeds on a range offruiting species, including Polyanthia sumatrana, Diospyros macrophylla, Endospermumpeltatum, Quercus sp., Garcinia forbesi and G. parviflora, Litsea caulocarpa and L. orocola, Notaphoebe sp., Dialumimdum, Aglaia sp., Chisocheton sp., Dysoxylum sp., Lansium sp., Artocarpus dadah, Ficus spp., Dimocarpus longan, Paranephelium xestophyllum, and Microros antidesmifolia.Breeding.Males mark their territories and their females with an intermandibular scent gland located under the chin. They chase and fight one another for prolonged periods, slashing with the elongated canine teeth. These teeth are razor sharp and local hunters in Borneo report that sometimes males fight to the death. Mating occurs throughout the year in some areas. In Vietnamthe species mates in November-December and gives birth in April-May. The species is polygynous. Females are almost continuously pregnant. Gestation has been estimated at 140-177 days, the mother produces 2-3 young per year, and fawns are kept hidden.Activity patterns.Diurnal to cathemeral.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A study of this species in the Malaysian state of Sabahsuggested thatit is mostly solitary, with 93-9% of the observations being single animals and the remainder pairs or a female with one or two young. In apparent contrast with this statement, camera trap photos of the species often show two adult animals together. Further studies are needed to determine the social organization of the species and how this varies spatially as well temporally. Population densities on Borneo were estimated at 21-39 ind/km?, with density positively correlated with fruit mass, seed mass, and total fruit resources. The species does not appearto be territorial. The core areas of neighboring animals were completely separate among same-sex individuals, but overlapped widely among opposite-sex individuals. The results suggest that this species is mostly monogamous, although apparently males can also be polygamous. The core area of a paired female overlapped not only with the core area of the paired male, but also with that of another neighboring male. This suggests that males tolerate the presence of females in their core areas and that paired males do not control the movement of paired females into the home ranges of other males. Females establish new home ranges when giving birth. Home range size for females was estimated at 4-4 ha and for males 5-9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the differ ence between males and females was not significant. Mean daily distance travelled for males was 519-1 m (+ 88-8 m), that for females 573-8 m (+ 219-7 m). In a Bornean study area, the density was negatively correlated with pioneer trees, grass, and herbs, suggesting that the species is negatively influenced by the effects of timber harvest, although, as pointed at above, this remains ambiguous. Data from Indochina, suggest that the species is quite tolerant of forest disturbance and may even be considered an edge species that benefits from disturbance. Further studies are needed to elucidate this issue.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and locally common, and at least in non-Sundaic areas persists in environments of very heavy forest degradation, fragmentation, and hunting. The presumed short generation length of the species (under five years) also influences assessment. Thus although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area. The IUCN review points out several major uncertainties in the conservation status assessment. Firstly, there are few modern records of Tragulusfrom both the Sundaic and non-Sundaic portions of the range that have been identified conclusively as to species. Secondly, the conflicting nature of the information available concerning the effects of hunting (harvest levels are locally very high) and habitat destruction makes it difficult to estimate population declines. Thirdly, there are strong indications that in its non-Sundaic range (i.e. Asian mainland) it is localized in occurrence, a pattern for which the reasons remain opaque, but which might be the result of hunting. And fourthly, the apparent restriction to lowland forest, at least in Borneo, suggests that with the rapidly dwindling lowland forests in this part ofits range, the species is losing habitat and its range might decrease and become fragmented. The species apparently has become extinct in Bangladeshdue to high hunting and trapping pressure, although in many other areas it seems to survive despite local poaching and trapping.Bibliography.Caldecott (1988), Davison (1980), Duckworth (1997), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Endo (2004), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Kim et al. (2004), Liat (1973), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Matsubayashi et al. (2003, 2006), Medway (1978), Meijaard (2003), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2005), Miura & Idris (1999), Nolan et al. (1995), O'Brien et al. (2003), Payne et al. (1985)." +03C36F2EFFFB347EFF11441DF6EF0C5F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Ailuridae_0498.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffa1756fffa347fff8e4379ff81011f,503,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C3/6F/03C36F2EFFFB347EFF11441DF6EF0C5F.xml,Ailurus fulgens,Ailurus,fulgens,Cuvier,1825,Panda roux @fr | Kleiner Panda @de | Panda rojo @es | Lesser Panda @en | Fire Fox @en | Golden Dog @en | Bear Cat @en,"Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825, Nepal. Two subspecies recognized.","A. f. fulgens Cuvier, 1825 — E Himalayas in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sikkim; China(S & SE Xizang& NW Yunnan), NE India(Meghalaya), and N Myanmar.A. f. styani Thomas, 1902 — China(W Sichuan& N Yunnan).","Head-body 51-73 cm, tail 28-49 cm; weight 3-6 kg. Head round, muzzle short, ears large and pointed. Muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges ofears white, eyes with small dark patches. Dorsal pelage chestnut brown, ventral pelage and limbs black. Tail bushy, with alternate red and buff colored rings. Feet with hairysoles, and claws semi-retractile. Females have eight mammae. Forepaw with elongated radial sesamoid. Skull robust, with broad zygomatic arches and large occipital condyles. Teeth heavily cusped, with elaborate crown patterns. Compared with fulgens, styani is distinguishable by its longer winter coat, darker bodycolor, larger skull, and more robust teeth.","Temperate forests of mountains at elevations of 1500-4800 m. In Meghalayaof India, in tropical forests at much lower elevations, between 700-1400 m. Typically in forests with bamboo-thicket understory. High bamboo cover, bamboo height, and canopy cover are important; preferred habitats have a high density ofshrubs, fallen logs, and tree stumps, yielding easy access to bambooleaves.","Diet largely vegetarian, 80-90% consisting of bamboo leaves, new shoots important in spring, fruits eaten in late summer and autumn. Usually feeds on the most nutritious bamboospecies in its habitat. Also eats roots, lichens, small vertebrates, birds eggs, insects and grubs.","Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.","Captive animals are nocturnal and crepuscular, and exhibit a polyphasic activity pattern throughout the night. In the wild, the Red Panda was thought to be most active at dawn, dusk, and at night, but several recent studies have consistently shown it is more active in the daytime than at night. In Wolong Nature Reserve, China, a subadult female, a female, and a male were reported to be active 36:5%, 49%, and 45% of the time, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve, bordering the former reserve on the north, six radio-collared Red Pandas had an average dailyactivity rate of 48-6%, with two peaks from 7:00 h to 10:00 h and from 17:00 h to 18:00 h. Generally, numerous periods ofrest are interspersed with frequent activity periods.","A subadult female in Wolong Reserve occupied a home range of 3-43 km, with a mean linear daily movement of 481 m.Subsequent research in the same area showedthat a female and a male possessed home ranges of 0-94 km* and 1-11 km?®, with a daily distance movedof 235 mand 325 m, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Reserve, the daily movement distance was 461 mand the home range covered 2-34 km” for six collared individuals. Intrasexual and intersexual overlapping of home ranges occurred extensively. Perhaps due to difference in habitat quality and population density, both the females and males in Langtang Nature Reserve, Nepal, had larger home ranges (1-02 to 9-62 km*) than those in Sichuan, China. Several studies reported that Red Pandas live in groups ofthree to five individuals with blood relationships. Other studies found the Red Panda solitary outside the breeding season, with territories well posted by scent marking. Olfactory communication is the primary methodof conveying social signals, through the secretions from anogenital glands deposited in the environment. Secretions from foreskin glands and glands on the soles of the feet can impart an individual’s information, too. Red Pandas leave droppings in groups, and their repeatedly-used defecation sites (latrines) probably facilitate communication among neighbors.Breeding.Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.","CITESApendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. Global population estimatedat 16,000-20,000, in estimated area of 69,900 Km?. In China, the population decreased byup to 40% due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, trade, forest fires, road construction, and otherdisturbances during the past 50 years, and became extinct in Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghaiprovinces. Protected in all countries where it now occurs with 43, 20, 5, and 7 protected areas established in China, India, Bhutan, and Nepal, respectively.","Bininda-Edmonds (2004) | Choudhury (2001) | Dawkins (1888) | Endo et al. (1999) | Flynn & Nedbal (1998) | Flynn et al. (2000) | Fox et al. (1996) | Hu (1991) | Hu & Wang (1984) | IUCN(2008) | Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988a) | Li, C. et al. (2003) | Li, M. et al. (2004) | Liu et al. (2003, 2004) | MacClintock (1988) | Nowak (1999) | Pen (1962) | Pradhan et al. (2001) | Rabinowitz & Khaing (1998) | Reid, Hu & Huang (1991) | Roberts & Gittleman (1984) | Spanner et al. (1997) | Tedford & Gustavson (1977) | Wei, Feng, Wang & Hu (1999, 2000) | Wei, Feng, Wang & Li (1999) | Wei, Feng, Wang, Zhou & Hu (1999) | Wei, LUet al. (2005) | Wei, Wang et al. (2000) | Yonzon & Hunter (1991a, 1991b) | Zhang, Wei, Li & Hu (2006) | Zhang, Wei, Li, Zhang. et al. (2004)",https://zenodo.org/record/5680928/files/figure.png,"Red PandaAilurus fulgensFrench: Panda roux/ German: Kleiner Panda/ Spanish: Panda rojoOther common names: Lesser Panda, Fire Fox, Golden Dog, Bear CatTaxonomy.Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825, Nepal. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. f. fulgens Cuvier, 1825 — E Himalayas in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sikkim; China(S & SE Xizang& NW Yunnan), NE India(Meghalaya), and N Myanmar.A. f. styani Thomas, 1902 — China(W Sichuan& N Yunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body 51-73 cm, tail 28-49 cm; weight 3-6 kg. Head round, muzzle short, ears large and pointed. Muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges ofears white, eyes with small dark patches. Dorsal pelage chestnut brown, ventral pelage and limbs black. Tail bushy, with alternate red and buff colored rings. Feet with hairysoles, and claws semi-retractile. Females have eight mammae. Forepaw with elongated radial sesamoid. Skull robust, with broad zygomatic arches and large occipital condyles. Teeth heavily cusped, with elaborate crown patterns. Compared with fulgens, styani is distinguishable by its longer winter coat, darker bodycolor, larger skull, and more robust teeth.Habitat.Temperate forests of mountains at elevations of 1500-4800 m. In Meghalayaof India, in tropical forests at much lower elevations, between 700-1400 m. Typically in forests with bamboo-thicket understory. High bamboo cover, bamboo height, and canopy cover are important; preferred habitats have a high density ofshrubs, fallen logs, and tree stumps, yielding easy access to bambooleaves.Food and Feeding.Diet largely vegetarian, 80-90% consisting of bamboo leaves, new shoots important in spring, fruits eaten in late summer and autumn. Usually feeds on the most nutritious bamboospecies in its habitat. Also eats roots, lichens, small vertebrates, birds eggs, insects and grubs.Activity patterns.Captive animals are nocturnal and crepuscular, and exhibit a polyphasic activity pattern throughout the night. In the wild, the Red Panda was thought to be most active at dawn, dusk, and at night, but several recent studies have consistently shown it is more active in the daytime than at night. In Wolong Nature Reserve, China, a subadult female, a female, and a male were reported to be active 36:5%, 49%, and 45% of the time, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve, bordering the former reserve on the north, six radio-collared Red Pandas had an average dailyactivity rate of 48-6%, with two peaks from 7:00 h to 10:00 h and from 17:00 h to 18:00 h. Generally, numerous periods ofrest are interspersed with frequent activity periods.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A subadult female in Wolong Reserve occupied a home range of 3-43 km, with a mean linear daily movement of 481 m.Subsequent research in the same area showedthat a female and a male possessed home ranges of 0-94 km* and 1-11 km?®, with a daily distance movedof 235 mand 325 m, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Reserve, the daily movement distance was 461 mand the home range covered 2-34 km” for six collared individuals. Intrasexual and intersexual overlapping of home ranges occurred extensively. Perhaps due to difference in habitat quality and population density, both the females and males in Langtang Nature Reserve, Nepal, had larger home ranges (1-02 to 9-62 km*) than those in Sichuan, China. Several studies reported that Red Pandas live in groups ofthree to five individuals with blood relationships. Other studies found the Red Panda solitary outside the breeding season, with territories well posted by scent marking. Olfactory communication is the primary methodof conveying social signals, through the secretions from anogenital glands deposited in the environment. Secretions from foreskin glands and glands on the soles of the feet can impart an individual’s information, too. Red Pandas leave droppings in groups, and their repeatedly-used defecation sites (latrines) probably facilitate communication among neighbors.Breeding.Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.Status and Conservation.CITESApendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. Global population estimatedat 16,000-20,000, in estimated area of 69,900 Km?. In China, the population decreased byup to 40% due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, trade, forest fires, road construction, and otherdisturbances during the past 50 years, and became extinct in Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghaiprovinces. Protected in all countries where it now occurs with 43, 20, 5, and 7 protected areas established in China, India, Bhutan, and Nepal, respectively.Bibliography.Bininda-Edmonds (2004), Choudhury (2001), Dawkins (1888), Endo et al. (1999), Flynn & Nedbal (1998), Flynn et al. (2000), Fox et al. (1996), Hu (1991), Hu & Wang (1984), IUCN(2008), Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988a), Li, C. et al. (2003), Li, M. et al. (2004), Liu et al. (2003, 2004), MacClintock (1988), Nowak (1999), Pen (1962), Pradhan et al. (2001), Rabinowitz & Khaing (1998), Reid, Hu & Huang (1991), Roberts & Gittleman (1984), Spanner et al. (1997), Tedford & Gustavson (1977), Wei, Feng, Wang & Hu (1999, 2000), Wei, Feng, Wang & Li (1999), Wei, Feng, Wang, Zhou & Hu (1999), Wei, LUet al. (2005), Wei, Wang et al. (2000), Yonzon & Hunter (1991a, 1991b), Zhang, Wei, Li & Hu (2006), Zhang, Wei, Li, Zhang. et al. (2004)." +03C587E31E78FF93FA55FE4F95CFF679,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,330,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E78FF93FA55FE4F95CFF679.xml,Tragulus kanchil,Tragulus,kanchil,,,Chevrotain kanchil @fr | Kleinkantschil @de | Ciervoratén pequeno @es | Kancil @en,"Moschus kanchil Raffles, 1822, Bengkulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review, and the authors were unable to assess the validity of all taxa. This includes Sfulvicollis from the MalaccaStrait islands (Bengkalis, Padang, Rupat, Tebingtinggi, and Rangsam); pallidus from the small island of Laut, north of Bunguran, Natuna islands group; carimatae from Karimata Island, west of Borneo; lampensis from Lanbi Kyun (= Lampi) Islandin the Mergui Archipelago; insularis from Phuket (= Junk Seylon), Ko Sirae (= Sireh) and Ko Yao Yai (= Panjang) islands; and lancavensis from Langkawi Island. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.","T.k.kanchilRaffles,1822—Sumatra,islandsoffESumatra(Mendol&Berhala).T.k.abruptusChasen,1935—SubiI,oftWBorneo.T.k.affinisGray,1861—Vietnam,Laos,SE&EThailand,Cambodia.T.k.anambensisChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(MatakI).T.k.angustiaeKloss,1918—SMyanmar,SWThaimainland(probablylimitedtoWoftheChaoPhrayaRiver).T.k.everettiBonhote,1903—NatunaIs(Bunguran),offWBorneo.T.k.fulviventerGray,1836—SMalayPeninsula(Sof7°N).T.k.hosetBonhote,1903—Borneo(Sarawak,West,Central,East&SouthKalimantan).T.k.klossiChasen,1935—NBorneo(NEastKalimantan,E&CSabah,andpossiblyWSabahandBrunei.T.k.luteicollisLyon,1906—BangkaI,offESumatra.T.k.pidonisChasen,1940—KohPipidonI(=PhiPhiDon),offWMalayPeninsula.T.k.ravulusMiller,1903—islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(KohAdang&KohRawi).T.k.ravusMiller,1902—SThailand,NMalayPeninsula.T.k.rubeusMiller,1903—RiauArchipelago(BintanI).T.k.siantanicusChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(SiantanI).T. k. subrufus Miller, 1903— Lingga Archipelago (Lingga & Singkep Is).The range on the Asian mainland is poorly known and could occur as far north as China(S Yunnan). As stated in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of some areas of Borneo (W Sabah, Brunei& N Sarawak) and several other islands remains unclear.","Head—body 37-56 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 1.5-2. 5 kg. Thisis a small chevrotain species that was recently split from 7. javanicus. It is separated from the larger 1. napuprimarily by its smaller size, the number of throat stripes, the visibility of the nape line, and the lack of mottling of the upperparts. There is some degree of melanism in 7. kanchilspecimens from small islands, leading to the development of extra dark, transverse lines, which makes the throat pattern hard to distinguish from that of 1. napu. The degree of erythrism (reddish pigmentation) and melanism is, however, less pronounced than in 7. napu. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","Tall forest in lowlands, amidst undergrowth on edges of heavy lowland forest. It has been suggested that 7. kanchiloccurs primarily in hilly areas, but other sources stated that the species was absent from areas above 250 min Sarawak, whereas 7. napuoccurred much higher. This species also occurs in cultivated areas up to 600 min elevation. The habitat of this species could be described as a mosaic ofriverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps, with stands of dense bamboo or palms for daytime resting. In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest, and they can be quite common in monocultural tree plantations in a matrix of secondary forest stands. Even though the evidence is somewhat ambiguous,it appears that this species prefers disturbed forests to primary ones. A review of encounter rates in various parts of the species’ range suggested that the distribution of 7. kanchilis perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features and microhabitats. What these features are remains unresolved, but their water requirements are important, as authors note commonness in riverine areas with surprising regularity. The habitat use of this species with respect to edge—interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult.","The speciesis largely frugivorous, but also feeds on shoots, young leaves, and fallen fruits. Fruit mass of consumed fruits varied from 1 gto 5 gand seed mass from 0-01 g to 0-5 g. On Borneo, the species feeds on a range offruiting species, including Polyanthia sumatrana, Diospyros macrophylla, Endospermumpeltatum, Quercus sp., Garcinia forbesi and G. parviflora, Litsea caulocarpa and L. orocola, Notaphoebe sp., Dialumimdum, Aglaia sp., Chisocheton sp., Dysoxylum sp., Lansium sp., Artocarpus dadah, Ficus spp., Dimocarpus longan, Paranephelium xestophyllum, and Microros antidesmifolia.","Males mark their territories and their females with an intermandibular scent gland located under the chin. They chase and fight one another for prolonged periods, slashing with the elongated canine teeth. These teeth are razor sharp and local hunters in Borneo report that sometimes males fight to the death. Mating occurs throughout the year in some areas. In Vietnamthe species mates in November-December and gives birth in April-May. The species is polygynous. Females are almost continuously pregnant. Gestation has been estimated at 140-177 days, the mother produces 2-3 young per year, and fawns are kept hidden.",Diurnal to cathemeral.,"A study of this species in the Malaysian state of Sabahsuggested thatit is mostly solitary, with 93-9% of the observations being single animals and the remainder pairs or a female with one or two young. In apparent contrast with this statement, camera trap photos of the species often show two adult animals together. Further studies are needed to determine the social organization of the species and how this varies spatially as well temporally. Population densities on Borneo were estimated at 21-39 ind/km?, with density positively correlated with fruit mass, seed mass, and total fruit resources. The species does not appearto be territorial. The core areas of neighboring animals were completely separate among same-sex individuals, but overlapped widely among opposite-sex individuals. The results suggest that this species is mostly monogamous, although apparently males can also be polygamous. The core area of a paired female overlapped not only with the core area of the paired male, but also with that of another neighboring male. This suggests that males tolerate the presence of females in their core areas and that paired males do not control the movement of paired females into the home ranges of other males. Females establish new home ranges when giving birth. Home range size for females was estimated at 4-4 ha and for males 5-9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the differ ence between males and females was not significant. Mean daily distance travelled for males was 519-1 m (+ 88-8 m), that for females 573-8 m (+ 219-7 m). In a Bornean study area, the density was negatively correlated with pioneer trees, grass, and herbs, suggesting that the species is negatively influenced by the effects of timber harvest, although, as pointed at above, this remains ambiguous. Data from Indochina, suggest that the species is quite tolerant of forest disturbance and may even be considered an edge species that benefits from disturbance. Further studies are needed to elucidate this issue.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and locally common, and at least in non-Sundaic areas persists in environments of very heavy forest degradation, fragmentation, and hunting. The presumed short generation length of the species (under five years) also influences assessment. Thus although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area. The IUCN review points out several major uncertainties in the conservation status assessment. Firstly, there are few modern records of Tragulusfrom both the Sundaic and non-Sundaic portions of the range that have been identified conclusively as to species. Secondly, the conflicting nature of the information available concerning the effects of hunting (harvest levels are locally very high) and habitat destruction makes it difficult to estimate population declines. Thirdly, there are strong indications that in its non-Sundaic range (i.e. Asian mainland) it is localized in occurrence, a pattern for which the reasons remain opaque, but which might be the result of hunting. And fourthly, the apparent restriction to lowland forest, at least in Borneo, suggests that with the rapidly dwindling lowland forests in this part ofits range, the species is losing habitat and its range might decrease and become fragmented. The species apparently has become extinct in Bangladeshdue to high hunting and trapping pressure, although in many other areas it seems to survive despite local poaching and trapping.","Caldecott (1988) | Davison (1980) | Duckworth (1997) | Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Endo (2004) | Heydon (1994) | Heydon & Bulloh (1997) | Kim et al. (2004) | Liat (1973) | Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005) | Matsubayashi et al. (2003, 2006) | Medway (1978) | Meijaard (2003) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2005) | Miura & Idris (1999) | Nolan et al. (1995) | O'Brien et al. (2003) | Payne et al. (1985)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721293/files/figure.png,"5.Lesser Indo-Malayan ChevrotainTragulus kanchilFrench:Chevrotain kanchil/ German:Kleinkantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén pequenoOther common names:KancilTaxonomy.Moschus kanchil Raffles, 1822, Bengkulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review, and the authors were unable to assess the validity of all taxa. This includes Sfulvicollis from the MalaccaStrait islands (Bengkalis, Padang, Rupat, Tebingtinggi, and Rangsam); pallidus from the small island of Laut, north of Bunguran, Natuna islands group; carimatae from Karimata Island, west of Borneo; lampensis from Lanbi Kyun (= Lampi) Islandin the Mergui Archipelago; insularis from Phuket (= Junk Seylon), Ko Sirae (= Sireh) and Ko Yao Yai (= Panjang) islands; and lancavensis from Langkawi Island. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.k.kanchilRaffles,1822—Sumatra,islandsoffESumatra(Mendol&Berhala).T.k.abruptusChasen,1935—SubiI,oftWBorneo.T.k.affinisGray,1861—Vietnam,Laos,SE&EThailand,Cambodia.T.k.anambensisChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(MatakI).T.k.angustiaeKloss,1918—SMyanmar,SWThaimainland(probablylimitedtoWoftheChaoPhrayaRiver).T.k.everettiBonhote,1903—NatunaIs(Bunguran),offWBorneo.T.k.fulviventerGray,1836—SMalayPeninsula(Sof7°N).T.k.hosetBonhote,1903—Borneo(Sarawak,West,Central,East&SouthKalimantan).T.k.klossiChasen,1935—NBorneo(NEastKalimantan,E&CSabah,andpossiblyWSabahandBrunei.T.k.luteicollisLyon,1906—BangkaI,offESumatra.T.k.pidonisChasen,1940—KohPipidonI(=PhiPhiDon),offWMalayPeninsula.T.k.ravulusMiller,1903—islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(KohAdang&KohRawi).T.k.ravusMiller,1902—SThailand,NMalayPeninsula.T.k.rubeusMiller,1903—RiauArchipelago(BintanI).T.k.siantanicusChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(SiantanI).T. k. subrufus Miller, 1903— Lingga Archipelago (Lingga & Singkep Is).The range on the Asian mainland is poorly known and could occur as far north as China(S Yunnan). As stated in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of some areas of Borneo (W Sabah, Brunei& N Sarawak) and several other islands remains unclear.Descriptive notes.Head—body 37-56 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 1.5-2. 5 kg. Thisis a small chevrotain species that was recently split from 7. javanicus. It is separated from the larger 1. napuprimarily by its smaller size, the number of throat stripes, the visibility of the nape line, and the lack of mottling of the upperparts. There is some degree of melanism in 7. kanchilspecimens from small islands, leading to the development of extra dark, transverse lines, which makes the throat pattern hard to distinguish from that of 1. napu. The degree of erythrism (reddish pigmentation) and melanism is, however, less pronounced than in 7. napu. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Tall forest in lowlands, amidst undergrowth on edges of heavy lowland forest. It has been suggested that 7. kanchiloccurs primarily in hilly areas, but other sources stated that the species was absent from areas above 250 min Sarawak, whereas 7. napuoccurred much higher. This species also occurs in cultivated areas up to 600 min elevation. The habitat of this species could be described as a mosaic ofriverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps, with stands of dense bamboo or palms for daytime resting. In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest, and they can be quite common in monocultural tree plantations in a matrix of secondary forest stands. Even though the evidence is somewhat ambiguous,it appears that this species prefers disturbed forests to primary ones. A review of encounter rates in various parts of the species’ range suggested that the distribution of 7. kanchilis perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features and microhabitats. What these features are remains unresolved, but their water requirements are important, as authors note commonness in riverine areas with surprising regularity. The habitat use of this species with respect to edge—interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult.Food and Feeding.The speciesis largely frugivorous, but also feeds on shoots, young leaves, and fallen fruits. Fruit mass of consumed fruits varied from 1 gto 5 gand seed mass from 0-01 g to 0-5 g. On Borneo, the species feeds on a range offruiting species, including Polyanthia sumatrana, Diospyros macrophylla, Endospermumpeltatum, Quercus sp., Garcinia forbesi and G. parviflora, Litsea caulocarpa and L. orocola, Notaphoebe sp., Dialumimdum, Aglaia sp., Chisocheton sp., Dysoxylum sp., Lansium sp., Artocarpus dadah, Ficus spp., Dimocarpus longan, Paranephelium xestophyllum, and Microros antidesmifolia.Breeding.Males mark their territories and their females with an intermandibular scent gland located under the chin. They chase and fight one another for prolonged periods, slashing with the elongated canine teeth. These teeth are razor sharp and local hunters in Borneo report that sometimes males fight to the death. Mating occurs throughout the year in some areas. In Vietnamthe species mates in November-December and gives birth in April-May. The species is polygynous. Females are almost continuously pregnant. Gestation has been estimated at 140-177 days, the mother produces 2-3 young per year, and fawns are kept hidden.Activity patterns.Diurnal to cathemeral.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A study of this species in the Malaysian state of Sabahsuggested thatit is mostly solitary, with 93-9% of the observations being single animals and the remainder pairs or a female with one or two young. In apparent contrast with this statement, camera trap photos of the species often show two adult animals together. Further studies are needed to determine the social organization of the species and how this varies spatially as well temporally. Population densities on Borneo were estimated at 21-39 ind/km?, with density positively correlated with fruit mass, seed mass, and total fruit resources. The species does not appearto be territorial. The core areas of neighboring animals were completely separate among same-sex individuals, but overlapped widely among opposite-sex individuals. The results suggest that this species is mostly monogamous, although apparently males can also be polygamous. The core area of a paired female overlapped not only with the core area of the paired male, but also with that of another neighboring male. This suggests that males tolerate the presence of females in their core areas and that paired males do not control the movement of paired females into the home ranges of other males. Females establish new home ranges when giving birth. Home range size for females was estimated at 4-4 ha and for males 5-9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the differ ence between males and females was not significant. Mean daily distance travelled for males was 519-1 m (+ 88-8 m), that for females 573-8 m (+ 219-7 m). In a Bornean study area, the density was negatively correlated with pioneer trees, grass, and herbs, suggesting that the species is negatively influenced by the effects of timber harvest, although, as pointed at above, this remains ambiguous. Data from Indochina, suggest that the species is quite tolerant of forest disturbance and may even be considered an edge species that benefits from disturbance. Further studies are needed to elucidate this issue.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and locally common, and at least in non-Sundaic areas persists in environments of very heavy forest degradation, fragmentation, and hunting. The presumed short generation length of the species (under five years) also influences assessment. Thus although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area. The IUCN review points out several major uncertainties in the conservation status assessment. Firstly, there are few modern records of Tragulusfrom both the Sundaic and non-Sundaic portions of the range that have been identified conclusively as to species. Secondly, the conflicting nature of the information available concerning the effects of hunting (harvest levels are locally very high) and habitat destruction makes it difficult to estimate population declines. Thirdly, there are strong indications that in its non-Sundaic range (i.e. Asian mainland) it is localized in occurrence, a pattern for which the reasons remain opaque, but which might be the result of hunting. And fourthly, the apparent restriction to lowland forest, at least in Borneo, suggests that with the rapidly dwindling lowland forests in this part ofits range, the species is losing habitat and its range might decrease and become fragmented. The species apparently has become extinct in Bangladeshdue to high hunting and trapping pressure, although in many other areas it seems to survive despite local poaching and trapping.Bibliography.Caldecott (1988), Davison (1980), Duckworth (1997), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Endo (2004), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Kim et al. (2004), Liat (1973), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Matsubayashi et al. (2003, 2006), Medway (1978), Meijaard (2003), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2005), Miura & Idris (1999), Nolan et al. (1995), O'Brien et al. (2003), Payne et al. (1985)." 03C587E31E78FF94FF2DFA1E965AFE2D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,330,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E78FF94FF2DFA1E965AFE2D.xml,Tragulus versicolor,Tragulus,versicolor,Thomas,1910,Chevrotain du Vietnam @fr | Annam-Kantschil @de | Ciervoratdn plateado @es,"Tragulus versicolor Thomas, 1910, Nhatrang, Annam, Viet Nam. This species 1 monotypic.","If still extant, the species would likely occur in Vietnam, and possibly in neighboring Cambodiaand Laos. The true distribution of the species is unknown, because there has been very little awareness of the species. Surveys have not sought it, because many have assumed that only one species, Tragulus kanchil, occurs in most of Indochina.","Head-body 40 cm, tail 5 cm, hindfoot 11 cm, ear 3-5 cm; weight 1-7 kg (all measurements from one specimen). The upperparts of 7. versicolorhave a characteristic shabrack or saddlecloth appearance. The fur on the back is uniformly grayish-silver and relatively dense; the hairs are conspicuously tipped with white. The area of the neck and shoulders, although quite uniform in color, is visibly separated from the back in having more brownish and less dense fur. Thesides of the neck possess a somewhat different pattern of pelage structure. The fur of the neck appears to have a coarser, less spiny appearance compared to the sympatric 7. kanchil. This coarse hair was one of the characteristics used to describe the species initially. There are no dark lines from the eye to the nose. Some specimens have a throat pattern with three white and two colored stripes, which are characters of 7. kanchil, whereas there are others with the napwlike five white and four dark stripes. The white area of the underparts in 1. versicolorcontinues uninterrupted from the chin towards the groin area, and there is no transverse brownish collar below the throat, unlike most other Tragulus species.Also, there are no darker-colored markings along the sides and midlines of the belly, which are characteristic of 71. kanchilin Vietnam. The skull of 7. versicoloris significantly smaller than in all other Tragulus species, but relatively wide, with wide bullae and very long nasals. Compared to T. napuand T. kanchil, the large auditory bullae are much more rounded and inflated. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","Because no specimens have been traced to specific habitats, and there are no observations of the species in the wild, nothing is known about its habitat preferences.",Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There is no information on the current range or population status of 7. versicolorbecause of a lack of survey work for the species in appropriate areas of Vietnam. Therefore the species cannot be assessed against range size or population trend criteria. No strong ecological correlates are sufficiently known to allow assessment of population trends through habitat trends. The species’ resilience to hunting is not known. Although there is only one record since 1907, there is no reason to consider it a possibly Extinct candidate, because the paucity of records is assumed to reflect the lack of suitable surveys. A more informed judgment when sufficient data are available is likely to indicate that it is threatened. The population is almost certainly declining due to severe hunting pressure for ground-dwelling mammals, resulting in population reductions of even the most resilient species; it may be found to warrant a very high threat category, particularly as there is no evidence of presence in high altitudes.","Kuznetsov & Borissenko (2004) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2004) | Thomas (1910) | Timmins et al. (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721291/files/figure.png,"4.Silver-backed ChevrotainTragulus versicolorFrench:Chevrotain du Vietnam/ German:Annam-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratdn plateadoTaxonomy.Tragulus versicolor Thomas, 1910, Nhatrang, Annam, Viet Nam. This species 1 monotypic.Distribution.If still extant, the species would likely occur in Vietnam, and possibly in neighboring Cambodiaand Laos. The true distribution of the species is unknown, because there has been very little awareness of the species. Surveys have not sought it, because many have assumed that only one species, Tragulus kanchil, occurs in most of Indochina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40 cm, tail 5 cm, hindfoot 11 cm, ear 3-5 cm; weight 1-7 kg (all measurements from one specimen). The upperparts of 7. versicolorhave a characteristic shabrack or saddlecloth appearance. The fur on the back is uniformly grayish-silver and relatively dense; the hairs are conspicuously tipped with white. The area of the neck and shoulders, although quite uniform in color, is visibly separated from the back in having more brownish and less dense fur. Thesides of the neck possess a somewhat different pattern of pelage structure. The fur of the neck appears to have a coarser, less spiny appearance compared to the sympatric 7. kanchil. This coarse hair was one of the characteristics used to describe the species initially. There are no dark lines from the eye to the nose. Some specimens have a throat pattern with three white and two colored stripes, which are characters of 7. kanchil, whereas there are others with the napwlike five white and four dark stripes. The white area of the underparts in 1. versicolorcontinues uninterrupted from the chin towards the groin area, and there is no transverse brownish collar below the throat, unlike most other Tragulus species.Also, there are no darker-colored markings along the sides and midlines of the belly, which are characteristic of 71. kanchilin Vietnam. The skull of 7. versicoloris significantly smaller than in all other Tragulus species, but relatively wide, with wide bullae and very long nasals. Compared to T. napuand T. kanchil, the large auditory bullae are much more rounded and inflated. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Because no specimens have been traced to specific habitats, and there are no observations of the species in the wild, nothing is known about its habitat preferences.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There is no information on the current range or population status of 7. versicolorbecause of a lack of survey work for the species in appropriate areas of Vietnam. Therefore the species cannot be assessed against range size or population trend criteria. No strong ecological correlates are sufficiently known to allow assessment of population trends through habitat trends. The species’ resilience to hunting is not known. Although there is only one record since 1907, there is no reason to consider it a possibly Extinct candidate, because the paucity of records is assumed to reflect the lack of suitable surveys. A more informed judgment when sufficient data are available is likely to indicate that it is threatened. The population is almost certainly declining due to severe hunting pressure for ground-dwelling mammals, resulting in population reductions of even the most resilient species; it may be found to warrant a very high threat category, particularly as there is no evidence of presence in high altitudes.Bibliography.Kuznetsov & Borissenko (2004), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2004), Thomas (1910), Timmins et al. (2008)." 03C587E31E79FF94FA80FB05947FFB19,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,329,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E79FF94FA80FB05947FFB19.xml,Moschiola indica,Moschiola,indica,,,Chevrotain indien @fr | German @en | ndien-Kantschil @en | Ciervoratén indio @es,"Meminna indica Gray, 1843,“Eastern Ghats”, India.This species is monotypic.",Peninsular Indiaand possibly S Nepal.,"Head-body 55-59 cm, tail 2-5 cm; weight 3 kg. Moschiola speciesdiffer from 7 Tragulus, and resemble Hyemoschusin the pattern of the pelage on the flanks and in lacking a large gland between the mandiblesat the front of the lower law.The Indian Chevrotain is a relatively large chevrotain species, with long hindlegs and broad skull, especially across rostrum. The pelage is dull brown; stripes and spots are a very clear white; the upper row of spots forms a continuous stripe on the shoulder, but disintegrates into spots halfway back along the body, and other longitudinalstripes are broken completely into rows of elongated spots; the three spot-rows across croup and rump are partly fused to stripes; crown and forehead are dark brown; underside pale beige, becoming creamy medially. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","Tropical deciduous and moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Peninsular Indian hills, plains, and plateaus, but also seen in tall elephant grass Cymbopogon. The species also occurs in montane forests up to around 1850 melevation. It has been observed that the species often occurs along forest streams and rivers. In the Eastern Ghats it was observed that M. indicawas very common, especially around the streams and “nullahs” (intermitent watercourses) which are essential for this species.","Very little is known about the ecology and behavior of the Indian Chevrotain, and much of the information is in the form of anecdotal observations and sight records. It seems to mostly eat fruits and herbs, with fruit consumption of Terminalia bellerica, Gmelina arborea, and Garuga pinnata being reported; these are all common in the deciduous forests of India. In a study of fruit predation of the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) M. indicaand the Chital (Axis axis) were the most frequent frugivores, accounting for over 95% of fruit removal, with murid rodents accounting for less than 1%. The Indian Chevrotain is a frequent prey of Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) but apparently rarely eaten by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Golden Jackals (Canis aureus). Among the small carnivores, the Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii) is known to prey on the Indian Chevrotain, while the forest eagle owl (Bubo nipalensis) has been reported to predate on young ofthis species.","Mating apparently occurs inJune andJuly, with births taking place at the end of the rainy season, which normally runs from July to October during the south-west monsoon. The gestation period is about five months, and there are one or two young, with twins apparently being more common than in other tragulids. Mean weight at birth is 319 g. Maximum reported life span in captivity is six years and nine months.",Their activity appears to be mostly crepuscular and nocturnal.,"There are no published estimates of population densities and population status of M. indica. As in other tragulids, the species is mostly encountered alone or rarely in pairs. During the day, the chevrotains stay concealed in dens that may be in hollows at the base of trees or in rocky crevices. They are also reported to be able to climb up sloping tree boles. Sometimes the species is encountered resting in leaf litter on the forest floor, where its dappled pelage acts as effective camouflage during the day. But like other chevrotains the Indian species seems to shun the light, and appears to be most active at night or around dusk and dawn.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In India, M. indicaappears to have been widespread, with records as far north as 28° N, but the present stronghold of the species is the forests of the Western Ghats. The historic presence of a tragulid was recently confirmed for Nepaland possibly parts of northern India. Because of the general biogeographic patterns in this country the species was thought to be most likely M. indica, although without any specimens and with a lack of knowledge of the taxonomic status of tragulids reported from areas such as Bangladesh, there is a small chance that one of the Tragulusspecies once occurred in Nepal. Either way, no recent confirmed records of tragulids exist from Nepal, and if still extant the taxon is likely endangered in that country. Indian Chevrotains are among the most frequently hunted animals in the forests where they occur. The chevrotains are actively hunted using hunting dogs to locate and flush out the animals and kill them. Even women and childrenjoin with men in hunting during the day. The team of hunters beats bushes and flushes animals toward nets held by people; there the animals are caught and killed. In addition, low wire snares with many nooses may be placed along the ground across trails to catch passing chevrotains. Traps are used for night hunting. Much of the hunting is for direct consumption, although wild meatis also sold in local markets in many places. Based on interview surveys in one district, over 75% of the interviewed hunters reported the Indian Chevrotain to be their most commonly hunted prey, with a similar percentage believing that overhunting was the main reason for the species’ decline.",Baral et al. (2009) | Champion (1929) | Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Gokula (1997) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Krishnan (1972) | Kumara & Singh (2004) | Madhukumar (2002) | Madhusudan & Karanth (2002) | Mathew (2002) | Mudappa (1999) | Nandini (2005) | Nowak (1999) | Raman (2004) | Stockley (1930) | Tehsin (1980),https://zenodo.org/record/5721287/files/figure.png,"3.Indian ChevrotainMoschiola indicaFrench:Chevrotain indien/ German:Indien-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén indioTaxonomy.Meminna indica Gray, 1843,“Eastern Ghats”, India.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Peninsular Indiaand possibly S Nepal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-59 cm, tail 2-5 cm; weight 3 kg. Moschiola speciesdiffer from 7 Tragulus, and resemble Hyemoschusin the pattern of the pelage on the flanks and in lacking a large gland between the mandiblesat the front of the lower law.The Indian Chevrotain is a relatively large chevrotain species, with long hindlegs and broad skull, especially across rostrum. The pelage is dull brown; stripes and spots are a very clear white; the upper row of spots forms a continuous stripe on the shoulder, but disintegrates into spots halfway back along the body, and other longitudinalstripes are broken completely into rows of elongated spots; the three spot-rows across croup and rump are partly fused to stripes; crown and forehead are dark brown; underside pale beige, becoming creamy medially. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Tropical deciduous and moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Peninsular Indian hills, plains, and plateaus, but also seen in tall elephant grass Cymbopogon. The species also occurs in montane forests up to around 1850 melevation. It has been observed that the species often occurs along forest streams and rivers. In the Eastern Ghats it was observed that M. indicawas very common, especially around the streams and “nullahs” (intermitent watercourses) which are essential for this species.Food and Feeding.Very little is known about the ecology and behavior of the Indian Chevrotain, and much of the information is in the form of anecdotal observations and sight records. It seems to mostly eat fruits and herbs, with fruit consumption of Terminalia bellerica, Gmelina arborea, and Garuga pinnata being reported; these are all common in the deciduous forests of India. In a study of fruit predation of the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) M. indicaand the Chital (Axis axis) were the most frequent frugivores, accounting for over 95% of fruit removal, with murid rodents accounting for less than 1%. The Indian Chevrotain is a frequent prey of Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) but apparently rarely eaten by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Golden Jackals (Canis aureus). Among the small carnivores, the Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii) is known to prey on the Indian Chevrotain, while the forest eagle owl (Bubo nipalensis) has been reported to predate on young ofthis species.Breeding.Mating apparently occurs inJune andJuly, with births taking place at the end of the rainy season, which normally runs from July to October during the south-west monsoon. The gestation period is about five months, and there are one or two young, with twins apparently being more common than in other tragulids. Mean weight at birth is 319 g. Maximum reported life span in captivity is six years and nine months.Activity patterns.Their activity appears to be mostly crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There are no published estimates of population densities and population status of M. indica. As in other tragulids, the species is mostly encountered alone or rarely in pairs. During the day, the chevrotains stay concealed in dens that may be in hollows at the base of trees or in rocky crevices. They are also reported to be able to climb up sloping tree boles. Sometimes the species is encountered resting in leaf litter on the forest floor, where its dappled pelage acts as effective camouflage during the day. But like other chevrotains the Indian species seems to shun the light, and appears to be most active at night or around dusk and dawn.On following pages 4 Sı ver-backed Chevrolarn (Tragulusversrcolorl 5 Lesser lndo-Malayan Chevrotam (fiagulus lndo-Malayan Chevromın (Traga/us napul 9 Balabac Chevrotam (Tragulusmgrrcansl 10 Water Chevrotaın (Hyemoschuskanchm 6 Northern Chevrotam (Traguluswı/lıamsonı) 7 Jovan Chevrolaın (Tragulusnvomcusl 8 Greater ıquancus)Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In India, M. indicaappears to have been widespread, with records as far north as 28° N, but the present stronghold of the species is the forests of the Western Ghats. The historic presence of a tragulid was recently confirmed for Nepaland possibly parts of northern India. Because of the general biogeographic patterns in this country the species was thought to be most likely M. indica, although without any specimens and with a lack of knowledge of the taxonomic status of tragulids reported from areas such as Bangladesh, there is a small chance that one of the Tragulusspecies once occurred in Nepal. Either way, no recent confirmed records of tragulids exist from Nepal, and if still extant the taxon is likely endangered in that country. Indian Chevrotains are among the most frequently hunted animals in the forests where they occur. The chevrotains are actively hunted using hunting dogs to locate and flush out the animals and kill them. Even women and childrenjoin with men in hunting during the day. The team of hunters beats bushes and flushes animals toward nets held by people; there the animals are caught and killed. In addition, low wire snares with many nooses may be placed along the ground across trails to catch passing chevrotains. Traps are used for night hunting. Much of the hunting is for direct consumption, although wild meatis also sold in local markets in many places. Based on interview surveys in one district, over 75% of the interviewed hunters reported the Indian Chevrotain to be their most commonly hunted prey, with a similar percentage believing that overhunting was the main reason for the species’ decline.Bibliography.Baral et al. (2009), Champion (1929), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Gokula (1997), Hayssen et al. (1993), Krishnan (1972), Kumara & Singh (2004), Madhukumar (2002), Madhusudan & Karanth (2002), Mathew (2002), Mudappa (1999), Nandini (2005), Nowak (1999), Raman (2004), Stockley (1930), Tehsin (1980)." 03C587E31E79FF95FF96FE12934EF7F0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,329,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E79FF95FF96FE12934EF7F0.xml,Moschiola meminna,Moschiola,meminna,Erxleben,1777,Chevrotain meminna @fr | Ceylon-Kantschil @de | Ciervoratén manchado @es,"Moschus meminna Erxleben, 1777.Type locality selected by Groves & Meijaard in 2005 as Wariyapola, 7° 37’ N, 80° 13’ E, North Central Province, Sri Lanka.This species is monotypic.",Dry Zone of Sri Lanka.,"Head-body 55-60 cm, tail 2-5 cm; adult weight 2-45 kg. Color and pattern much as in M. indica, but upper row ofspots does not extensively fuse into a continuousstripe on the shoulder. Size small, hindlegs relatively long. The following are diagnostic cf. M. indica: zygomatic breadth less than 5 cm, occipital height (from basion) less than 2-75 cm, width across canine alveoli less than 1-5 cm, braincase breadth less than 3-3 cm; and the following is diagnostic cf. M. kathygre. hindfoot greater than 12 cm.","There is little information specific to the species’ habitat other than that this chevrotain lives in deciduous vegetation formations. It is basically a forest species, being found commonly in all forest types within the dry zone, but also in coconut plantations and home gardens. It is seldom far from water. A report of Sri Lankachevrotain densities of around 0-58 ind/km? is likely to concern the Dry Zone species, but the original source has not been traced and without clarification of the underlying methodology and assumptions leading to the estimate,its reliability is unknown.",Nothing known.,Nothing known. One captive specimen lived 14-5 years.,"Little known but presumably similar to M. indica, i.e. mostly crepuscular and nocturnal.",Nothing known.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The justification for this listing is that a number of well-secured protected areas within the Dry Zone support chevrotains. Also, the effects of forest degradation and fragmentation on this chevrotain are probably not severe, given its ability to survive in home gardens and coconut plantations. Sri Lankan chevrotains are commonly hunted with firearms for their meat in areas where conservation management was suspended during the civil war, but it seems unlikely that this occurs at sufficient levels to restrain population numbers within reasonably-sized blocks of remaining habitat. In the Dry Zone they remain fairly common in forests even outside protected areas, despite widespread hunting. Hunting techniques that could be dangerous for chevrotains include a lot of trap guns in the forest and the use oflive electric wires, taken off posts, dragged through the forest, and set in rice paddies.",Dubost (2001) | Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972) | Groves & Meijaard (2005) | Santiapillai & Wijeyamohan (2003),https://zenodo.org/record/5721281/files/figure.png,"1.White-spotted ChevrotainMoschiola meminnaFrench:Chevrotain meminna/ German:Ceylon-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén manchadoTaxonomy.Moschus meminna Erxleben, 1777.Type locality selected by Groves & Meijaard in 2005 as Wariyapola, 7° 37’ N, 80° 13’ E, North Central Province, Sri Lanka.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Dry Zone of Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-60 cm, tail 2-5 cm; adult weight 2-45 kg. Color and pattern much as in M. indica, but upper row ofspots does not extensively fuse into a continuousstripe on the shoulder. Size small, hindlegs relatively long. The following are diagnostic cf. M. indica: zygomatic breadth less than 5 cm, occipital height (from basion) less than 2-75 cm, width across canine alveoli less than 1-5 cm, braincase breadth less than 3-3 cm; and the following is diagnostic cf. M. kathygre. hindfoot greater than 12 cm.Habitat.There is little information specific to the species’ habitat other than that this chevrotain lives in deciduous vegetation formations. It is basically a forest species, being found commonly in all forest types within the dry zone, but also in coconut plantations and home gardens. It is seldom far from water. A report of Sri Lankachevrotain densities of around 0-58 ind/km? is likely to concern the Dry Zone species, but the original source has not been traced and without clarification of the underlying methodology and assumptions leading to the estimate,its reliability is unknown.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known. One captive specimen lived 14-5 years.Activity patterns.Little known but presumably similar to M. indica, i.e. mostly crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The justification for this listing is that a number of well-secured protected areas within the Dry Zone support chevrotains. Also, the effects of forest degradation and fragmentation on this chevrotain are probably not severe, given its ability to survive in home gardens and coconut plantations. Sri Lankan chevrotains are commonly hunted with firearms for their meat in areas where conservation management was suspended during the civil war, but it seems unlikely that this occurs at sufficient levels to restrain population numbers within reasonably-sized blocks of remaining habitat. In the Dry Zone they remain fairly common in forests even outside protected areas, despite widespread hunting. Hunting techniques that could be dangerous for chevrotains include a lot of trap guns in the forest and the use oflive electric wires, taken off posts, dragged through the forest, and set in rice paddies.Bibliography.Dubost (2001), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972), Groves & Meijaard (2005), Santiapillai & Wijeyamohan (2003)." 03C587E31E79FF95FF99F70C9971FBF2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,329,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E79FF95FF99F70C9971FBF2.xml,Moschiola kathygre,Moschiola,kathygre,,,Chevrotain kathygre @fr | Ceylon-Gelbstreifenkantschil @de | Ciervoraton rayado @es,"Moschiola kathygre Groves & Meijaard, 2005, eastern side of the Sri Lankan Wet Zone, some 30 kmsouth-east of Kandy, Sri Lanka.This species is monotypic.","Wet Zone of Sri Lanka, from Sinharaja Forest Reserve through the lowlands around Colombo north to Katagamuwa on the border of the Dry Zone at 6° 24’ N, 81° 25’ E, and into the highlands at least to the Kandy District.","Head-body 43-51 cm, tail 1-3 cm; weight unknown. The color of M. kathygre is much warmer, more ocherous brown than M. indicaand M. meminna; spots and stripes are yellowed, not white; it has at least two tolerably complete longitudinal stripes along the flanks, with an elongated spot-row between them, and two spot-rows above them; the upperstripe curves round on the shoulder to be continuous with the anterior transverse stripes; it has two bold stripes over the haunch, and a third stripe farther back under the tail; the haunch is more densely spotted than M. meminna, and crown and nose are less darkened. On the undersideis a sharp differentiation between a white median strip and the pale ocher of the rest of underside; the lower halves of the hindlimbs are darker. The size of M. kathygre is small compared to M. indica, and hindlegs are relatively short. The following measurements are diagnostic cf. M. indica: tail length max. 2-6 cm, width across canine alveoli greater than 5 cm, least breadth across maxilla maximum 1: 42 cm, braincase breadth maximum 3-3 cm; and the following measurementis diagnostic cf. both M. indicaand M. meminna: hindfoot length maximum 11-5 cm. Compared to both other species, rostrum breadth is less relative to skull length; compared to M. meminna, bullae are narrower, especially relative to interbullar distance. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","Forests and forested grasslands, with lakes and rivers of the Sri Lankan wet zone. It apparently also still occurs in urban scrub forest, freely enters rice paddies,is apparently more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, and occurs in rubber plantations and home gardens. All this strongly suggests significant ecological flexibility in this species.",Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The extent of occurrence of M. kathygreis probably about 15,000 km? within which it probably has an area of occupancy (in terms of available habitat) of about 1500 km®. On this basis the species could potentially be listed as Vulnerable. However, even though the species is frequently hunted with firearms, there is no suspicion that this is a species prone to wild fluctuations in numbers, it occurs in more than ten locations, and there is no evidence for an ongoing decline in numbers. Changes in the wet zone forest cover cannot be used to infer a decline because of the species’ wide habitat adaptability.",Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Groves & Meijaard (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/5721283/files/figure.png,"2.Yellow-striped ChevrotainMoschiola kathygreFrench:Chevrotain kathygre/ German:Ceylon-Gelbstreifenkantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoraton rayadoTaxonomy.Moschiola kathygre Groves & Meijaard, 2005, eastern side of the Sri Lankan Wet Zone, some 30 kmsouth-east of Kandy, Sri Lanka.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Wet Zone of Sri Lanka, from Sinharaja Forest Reserve through the lowlands around Colombo north to Katagamuwa on the border of the Dry Zone at 6° 24’ N, 81° 25’ E, and into the highlands at least to the Kandy District.Descriptive notes.Head-body 43-51 cm, tail 1-3 cm; weight unknown. The color of M. kathygre is much warmer, more ocherous brown than M. indicaand M. meminna; spots and stripes are yellowed, not white; it has at least two tolerably complete longitudinal stripes along the flanks, with an elongated spot-row between them, and two spot-rows above them; the upperstripe curves round on the shoulder to be continuous with the anterior transverse stripes; it has two bold stripes over the haunch, and a third stripe farther back under the tail; the haunch is more densely spotted than M. meminna, and crown and nose are less darkened. On the undersideis a sharp differentiation between a white median strip and the pale ocher of the rest of underside; the lower halves of the hindlimbs are darker. The size of M. kathygre is small compared to M. indica, and hindlegs are relatively short. The following measurements are diagnostic cf. M. indica: tail length max. 2-6 cm, width across canine alveoli greater than 5 cm, least breadth across maxilla maximum 1: 42 cm, braincase breadth maximum 3-3 cm; and the following measurementis diagnostic cf. both M. indicaand M. meminna: hindfoot length maximum 11-5 cm. Compared to both other species, rostrum breadth is less relative to skull length; compared to M. meminna, bullae are narrower, especially relative to interbullar distance. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Forests and forested grasslands, with lakes and rivers of the Sri Lankan wet zone. It apparently also still occurs in urban scrub forest, freely enters rice paddies,is apparently more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, and occurs in rubber plantations and home gardens. All this strongly suggests significant ecological flexibility in this species.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The extent of occurrence of M. kathygreis probably about 15,000 km? within which it probably has an area of occupancy (in terms of available habitat) of about 1500 km®. On this basis the species could potentially be listed as Vulnerable. However, even though the species is frequently hunted with firearms, there is no suspicion that this is a species prone to wild fluctuations in numbers, it occurs in more than ten locations, and there is no evidence for an ongoing decline in numbers. Changes in the wet zone forest cover cannot be used to infer a decline because of the species’ wide habitat adaptability.Bibliography.Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Groves & Meijaard (2005)." -03C587E31E7DFF90FA9AF7A994F1F4AF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,333,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7DFF90FA9AF7A994F1F4AF.xml,Hyemoschus aquaticus,Hyemoschus,aquaticus,Ogilby,1841,Chevrotain aquatique @fr | Hirschferkel @de | Ciervoratén acuatico @es,"Moschus aquaticus Ogilby, 1841,Bulham Creek, Sierra Leone.The Water Chevrotain is thought to be the most ancestral of the extant tragulids, with its lineage separating from the species in Asia about 35 million years ago. Morphologically Hyemoschusshows many similarities with the Pliocene genus Dorcatherium of Africa and Europe, and both genera are quite distinct from the Asian Tragulusand Moschiolaspecies. Geographic variation in Hyemoschusis poorly understood. Three subspecies have been named, but the validity of these names is questionable, and craniometrically these taxa are indistinguishable.","H.a.aquaticusOgilby,1841—WAfricafromGuineaandSierraLeonetoGhana.H.a.bates:Lydekker,1906—Nigeria,Cameroon,andpresumablyneighboringcountries.H. a. cottoni Lydekker, 1906— Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and presumably Uganda.The Water Chevrotain reportedly has a disjunct distribution, occurring in coastal forests from West Africa and in the rainforests of Central Africa from Nigeriato DR Congo, marginally entering Uganda. It has been listed for the following countries in Central Africa: Angola(Cabinda), Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, and Uganda(Semliki Valley). A record from Angola’s Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River,is the southernmost record of the species. The species’ status in some countries remains unclear. It is apparently absent from the Republic of Beninand Togo(but the speciesis listed as probable in the Ot Basin in Togo); its supposed occurrence in GuineaBissauand Senegalremains unsupported by evidence. The species was listed for Sierra Leone, although its presence had been called into question. Photographic evidence seems to clarify that the species occurs in Sierra Leone. In 1850, a specimen was recorded from Gambia, but the present status of the species is unclear. Local people report the species from the Boké Préfecture in NW Guinea, which might be the northernmost area from which the species has been recently reported. Extensive field and market surveys there and in the southern Guineasavanna belt did notfind evidence for the species’ presence.","Head—body 60-102 cm, tail 7.2-10. 9 cm; weight 7-16 kg, with considerable regional variation in size. The Water Chevrotain has a stocky, rounded body and thin legs. Its hindquarters are powerfully muscled, and much higher than the shoulders, giving the body a sloped appearance. The neck is short and thick, and the small head is narrow and pointed, ending in a pointed, leathery nose with slit-like nostrils. The ears are rounded, but apparently quite long compared to other chevrotain species. Unusual for chevrotains and for ungulates in general, female Water Chevrotains are larger than males, weighing on average over 2 kgmore than the males. The shorthaired coat is an overall rich chestnut brown color above and white on the undersides. The body is marked with horizontal white stripes running along the sides from the shoulder to the rump, with white spots on the back arranged in curved vertical rows. Such color patterns presumably provide camouflage during the day through their resemblance to dimpled sunlight on the dark forest undergrowth. There appears to be considerable variation in color and arrangement of the spots and lines, but it is unclear whether this variation allows for the consistent grouping of geographic variants. The chin, throat, and chest are white, covered in coarse hair, and broken up by bold transverse brown stripes that connect to the brown of the flanks. A dark brown lateral band separates the white of the throat stripes from the white of the chest. The tail is pale brown above and has fluffy white fur underneath. The legs are darkish brown. Neither sex has horns or antlers. However, as in other chevrotains, the upper canines are well developed and saber-like in males, flanking the mouth on either side of the lower jaw. Females also have enlarged canines, but they are shorter and blunter than in males. Male Water Chevrotains possess unique glands under the chin in the angle of the lower jaw. Like its Asian cousins, the Water Chevrotain is a good swimmer and can dive underwater or walk along the river bottom to elude predators. It can close its nostrils to keep water out. The species will rarely stray far from a water source, and it will retreat to water and jump in when threatened. When walking, the head is held low, allowing the Water Chevrotain to penetrate virtually impassable thickets and creating a nearly perfectly cone-shaped profile. The efficiency of this tunneling profile is enhanced by a shield of thick, reinforced skin on the dorsal surface, which protects the back from injuries inflicted by dense, resistant vegetation. This thick skin extends to the rump and throat.","Like other chevrotains, Hyemoschusis confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat it concentrates in areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. The species is, however, not a swamp specialist, and is often found in mature upland forest areas. Its range is thought to be limited by climatic factors: the species prefers habitats with very low seasonality and rainfall equal to or greater than 1500 mm/year, and it does not occur in areas that are even moderately seasonally arid. The species forages in clearings, floodplains, and along river banks at night, and retires to a hiding spot in dense cover during the day.","The Water Chevrotain is primarily a frugivore, and it has been suggested that year-round availability of fruits could be a key limiting habitat factor. Stomach content analysis of 19 animals in Gabonrevealed that fruits comprise 68-7% of all foods eaten, which appears to be less than its Asian cousins. The rest of the diet includes leaves (9-9%), petioles and stems (20-5%), animal matter (0-14%), flowers (0-7%), and fungi (0-13%). Compared to duikers—small frugivores that share its habitat—the Water Chevrotain eats relatively little fruit and fungi, but many more succulent stems, and year-round fruit availability might not be as crucial a determinant for the species’ presence as suggested by a few ecological studies. At least 76 species of fruits have been identified in the species’ diet, with preferred species including Cylindropsis parvifolia(Apocynaceae), Bombax buonopozense (Bombacaceae), Alchornea cordifolia(Euphorbiaceae), Coelocaryon preussiand Pycnanthus angolensis(Myristicaceae), and Cissus dinklager (Vitaceae). In addition to these fruits, figs (Ficus spp.), Pseudospondias fruits, palm nuts (Elaeis), and breadfruit (Treculia) are consumed, as well as the fruits of gingers and arrowroots. Most fruits consumed are small to medium-sized, with a diameter between 0-5 cm and 2 cm. Water Chevrotains also feed on insects; they actively hunt for ants by licking the ground along ant trails. Apparently crabs, carrion, and scavenged fish also feature in the species’ diet. The Water Chevrotain consumes significantly less animal matter and fungus during the dry season,as well as 44% fewer fruit species. Young individuals that are still nursing eat smaller amounts offruit than adults (only 48:4% of the diet) and a larger proportion ofleaves (31:3%).","Due to the secretive nature of this species, little is known aboutits life cycle, and reports about breeding behavior often vary considerably. Olfactory communication is important in this species, and feces and urine are deposited anywhere. Both sexes announce their presence with these excrements, which are mixed with an excretion from the anal (male and female) and preputial (male) glands. The interramal gland is occasionally used for marking twigs. The Water Chevrotain also communicates through vocalizations, including an alarm bark. When fighting, females produce a high pulsing chatter. As with pigs, male Water Chevrotains typically vocalize through a closed mouth, when following a female in estrus. While being followed, a receptive female will stop at each cry, allowing the male to lick her rump. After several repetitions of this, the male mounts. An estrous female will mate with a male with whom she shares a home range. She gives birth to one, or occasionally two precocial fawns. Reported gestation lengths range from four to nine months, and it is unclear whether there are errors in these estimates or that indeed this wide range occurs under natural conditions. In Gabon, births occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in births in January and July-August, at the beginning of the twice-annual dry seasons. Infants are usually found separate from their mothers, “lying up” for the first three months of life. During this initial hiding period, the mother will visit her offspring periodically to suckle, at which time small infants are also washed using the tongue. Lactation lasts 3-6 months. The young disperse from the mother’s home range when they reach sexual maturity at 9-26 months of age. Maximum longevity is normally eight years of age, but the species has a potential lifespan of 11-13 years.","The species is thought to be exclusively nocturnal in the wild, being active almost always between dusk and dawn. In a captive population in Monrovia Zoo, Liberia, activity patterns showed that the species was active 4% of the day and 67% of the night.","The Water Chevrotain is mainly solitary. Male territories overlap those of females, but the males are rarely aggressive toward each other, unlike some of the Tragulusspecies from Asia, in which males frequently fight other males. Although Water Chevrotains do occasionally fight, using their tusks as weapons, they apparently prefer to avoid each other and keep to themselves. Fights are typically short in duration. Two competing males will rush at each other with their mouths open, poke at each other with their muzzles, and bite, using the canines in the upper jaw and incisors in the lower jaw. Females also fight but less frequently than males. Adult females occupy home ranges averaging 13-14 ha in size, and are typically accompanied by their latest offspring. Females usually remain in the same home range for life after they reach maturity. Males, on the other hand, are less sedentary, usually occupying an area for less than a year before moving on. The home ranges of males are typically larger than those of females, averaging 20-30 ha in size and overlapping with the home ranges of at least two females. In Gabon, recorded population densities were between 7-7 ind/km?® and 28 ind/km?, but in the Republic of the Congo, average densities appear to be lower, between 1-5 ind/km?® and 5 ind/ km?*. Whether such variation is due to ecological factors or caused by factors such as hunting is unclear. In West Africa, the species is apparently much rarer and densities presumably lower.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, with the main threats being habitat loss, through agriculture and expanding human development, and hunting for bushmeat. Due to its secretive nature, there is little information on its status in individual countries within its extensive range, although there is some evidence that it is declining in specific areas. In the Niger Delta, the species was described originally as widespread in almost all freshwater habitats, but is now rare in all but the most remote areas, and rapidly becoming extinct in upland areas. The species is hunted for human consumption throughout its range. In Liberia, for example, the Water Chevrotain ranked second in a taste preference survey in eight urban communities. In south-west Cameroon, one animal fetches about US$ 6 inlocal markets, giving some idea of the commercial value of such species in places where most people earn less than US$ 1/day. In the central Ituri Forest, DR Congo, Water Chevrotains are regularly caught by net hunters, and consistently represent about 5% of the total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years. Hunting appears to vary seasonally with the majority of animals entering markets in Equatorial Guineaat the start of the wet season.",,,"10.Water ChevrotainHyemoschus aquaticusFrench:Chevrotain aquatique/ German:Hirschferkel/ Spanish:Ciervoratén acuaticoTaxonomy.Moschus aquaticus Ogilby, 1841,Bulham Creek, Sierra Leone.The Water Chevrotain is thought to be the most ancestral of the extant tragulids, with its lineage separating from the species in Asia about 35 million years ago. Morphologically Hyemoschusshows many similarities with the Pliocene genus Dorcatherium of Africa and Europe, and both genera are quite distinct from the Asian Tragulusand Moschiolaspecies. Geographic variation in Hyemoschusis poorly understood. Three subspecies have been named, but the validity of these names is questionable, and craniometrically these taxa are indistinguishable.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.aquaticusOgilby,1841—WAfricafromGuineaandSierraLeonetoGhana.H.a.bates:Lydekker,1906—Nigeria,Cameroon,andpresumablyneighboringcountries.H. a. cottoni Lydekker, 1906— Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and presumably Uganda.The Water Chevrotain reportedly has a disjunct distribution, occurring in coastal forests from West Africa and in the rainforests of Central Africa from Nigeriato DR Congo, marginally entering Uganda. It has been listed for the following countries in Central Africa: Angola(Cabinda), Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, and Uganda(Semliki Valley). A record from Angola’s Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River,is the southernmost record of the species. The species’ status in some countries remains unclear. It is apparently absent from the Republic of Beninand Togo(but the speciesis listed as probable in the Ot Basin in Togo); its supposed occurrence in GuineaBissauand Senegalremains unsupported by evidence. The species was listed for Sierra Leone, although its presence had been called into question. Photographic evidence seems to clarify that the species occurs in Sierra Leone. In 1850, a specimen was recorded from Gambia, but the present status of the species is unclear. Local people report the species from the Boké Préfecture in NW Guinea, which might be the northernmost area from which the species has been recently reported. Extensive field and market surveys there and in the southern Guineasavanna belt did notfind evidence for the species’ presence.Descriptive notes.Head—body 60-102 cm, tail 7.2-10. 9 cm; weight 7-16 kg, with considerable regional variation in size. The Water Chevrotain has a stocky, rounded body and thin legs. Its hindquarters are powerfully muscled, and much higher than the shoulders, giving the body a sloped appearance. The neck is short and thick, and the small head is narrow and pointed, ending in a pointed, leathery nose with slit-like nostrils. The ears are rounded, but apparently quite long compared to other chevrotain species. Unusual for chevrotains and for ungulates in general, female Water Chevrotains are larger than males, weighing on average over 2 kgmore than the males. The shorthaired coat is an overall rich chestnut brown color above and white on the undersides. The body is marked with horizontal white stripes running along the sides from the shoulder to the rump, with white spots on the back arranged in curved vertical rows. Such color patterns presumably provide camouflage during the day through their resemblance to dimpled sunlight on the dark forest undergrowth. There appears to be considerable variation in color and arrangement of the spots and lines, but it is unclear whether this variation allows for the consistent grouping of geographic variants. The chin, throat, and chest are white, covered in coarse hair, and broken up by bold transverse brown stripes that connect to the brown of the flanks. A dark brown lateral band separates the white of the throat stripes from the white of the chest. The tail is pale brown above and has fluffy white fur underneath. The legs are darkish brown. Neither sex has horns or antlers. However, as in other chevrotains, the upper canines are well developed and saber-like in males, flanking the mouth on either side of the lower jaw. Females also have enlarged canines, but they are shorter and blunter than in males. Male Water Chevrotains possess unique glands under the chin in the angle of the lower jaw. Like its Asian cousins, the Water Chevrotain is a good swimmer and can dive underwater or walk along the river bottom to elude predators. It can close its nostrils to keep water out. The species will rarely stray far from a water source, and it will retreat to water and jump in when threatened. When walking, the head is held low, allowing the Water Chevrotain to penetrate virtually impassable thickets and creating a nearly perfectly cone-shaped profile. The efficiency of this tunneling profile is enhanced by a shield of thick, reinforced skin on the dorsal surface, which protects the back from injuries inflicted by dense, resistant vegetation. This thick skin extends to the rump and throat.Habitat.Like other chevrotains, Hyemoschusis confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat it concentrates in areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. The species is, however, not a swamp specialist, and is often found in mature upland forest areas. Its range is thought to be limited by climatic factors: the species prefers habitats with very low seasonality and rainfall equal to or greater than 1500 mm/year, and it does not occur in areas that are even moderately seasonally arid. The species forages in clearings, floodplains, and along river banks at night, and retires to a hiding spot in dense cover during the day.Food and Feeding.The Water Chevrotain is primarily a frugivore, and it has been suggested that year-round availability of fruits could be a key limiting habitat factor. Stomach content analysis of 19 animals in Gabonrevealed that fruits comprise 68-7% of all foods eaten, which appears to be less than its Asian cousins. The rest of the diet includes leaves (9-9%), petioles and stems (20-5%), animal matter (0-14%), flowers (0-7%), and fungi (0-13%). Compared to duikers—small frugivores that share its habitat—the Water Chevrotain eats relatively little fruit and fungi, but many more succulent stems, and year-round fruit availability might not be as crucial a determinant for the species’ presence as suggested by a few ecological studies. At least 76 species of fruits have been identified in the species’ diet, with preferred species including Cylindropsis parvifolia(Apocynaceae), Bombax buonopozense (Bombacaceae), Alchornea cordifolia(Euphorbiaceae), Coelocaryon preussiand Pycnanthus angolensis(Myristicaceae), and Cissus dinklager (Vitaceae). In addition to these fruits, figs (Ficus spp.), Pseudospondias fruits, palm nuts (Elaeis), and breadfruit (Treculia) are consumed, as well as the fruits of gingers and arrowroots. Most fruits consumed are small to medium-sized, with a diameter between 0-5 cm and 2 cm. Water Chevrotains also feed on insects; they actively hunt for ants by licking the ground along ant trails. Apparently crabs, carrion, and scavenged fish also feature in the species’ diet. The Water Chevrotain consumes significantly less animal matter and fungus during the dry season,as well as 44% fewer fruit species. Young individuals that are still nursing eat smaller amounts offruit than adults (only 48:4% of the diet) and a larger proportion ofleaves (31:3%).Breeding.Due to the secretive nature of this species, little is known aboutits life cycle, and reports about breeding behavior often vary considerably. Olfactory communication is important in this species, and feces and urine are deposited anywhere. Both sexes announce their presence with these excrements, which are mixed with an excretion from the anal (male and female) and preputial (male) glands. The interramal gland is occasionally used for marking twigs. The Water Chevrotain also communicates through vocalizations, including an alarm bark. When fighting, females produce a high pulsing chatter. As with pigs, male Water Chevrotains typically vocalize through a closed mouth, when following a female in estrus. While being followed, a receptive female will stop at each cry, allowing the male to lick her rump. After several repetitions of this, the male mounts. An estrous female will mate with a male with whom she shares a home range. She gives birth to one, or occasionally two precocial fawns. Reported gestation lengths range from four to nine months, and it is unclear whether there are errors in these estimates or that indeed this wide range occurs under natural conditions. In Gabon, births occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in births in January and July-August, at the beginning of the twice-annual dry seasons. Infants are usually found separate from their mothers, “lying up” for the first three months of life. During this initial hiding period, the mother will visit her offspring periodically to suckle, at which time small infants are also washed using the tongue. Lactation lasts 3-6 months. The young disperse from the mother’s home range when they reach sexual maturity at 9-26 months of age. Maximum longevity is normally eight years of age, but the species has a potential lifespan of 11-13 years.Activity patterns.The species is thought to be exclusively nocturnal in the wild, being active almost always between dusk and dawn. In a captive population in Monrovia Zoo, Liberia, activity patterns showed that the species was active 4% of the day and 67% of the night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Water Chevrotain is mainly solitary. Male territories overlap those of females, but the males are rarely aggressive toward each other, unlike some of the Tragulusspecies from Asia, in which males frequently fight other males. Although Water Chevrotains do occasionally fight, using their tusks as weapons, they apparently prefer to avoid each other and keep to themselves. Fights are typically short in duration. Two competing males will rush at each other with their mouths open, poke at each other with their muzzles, and bite, using the canines in the upper jaw and incisors in the lower jaw. Females also fight but less frequently than males. Adult females occupy home ranges averaging 13-14 ha in size, and are typically accompanied by their latest offspring. Females usually remain in the same home range for life after they reach maturity. Males, on the other hand, are less sedentary, usually occupying an area for less than a year before moving on. The home ranges of males are typically larger than those of females, averaging 20-30 ha in size and overlapping with the home ranges of at least two females. In Gabon, recorded population densities were between 7-7 ind/km?® and 28 ind/km?, but in the Republic of the Congo, average densities appear to be lower, between 1-5 ind/km?® and 5 ind/ km?*. Whether such variation is due to ecological factors or caused by factors such as hunting is unclear. In West Africa, the species is apparently much rarer and densities presumably lower.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, with the main threats being habitat loss, through agriculture and expanding human development, and hunting for bushmeat. Due to its secretive nature, there is little information on its status in individual countries within its extensive range, although there is some evidence that it is declining in specific areas. In the Niger Delta, the species was described originally as widespread in almost all freshwater habitats, but is now rare in all but the most remote areas, and rapidly becoming extinct in upland areas. The species is hunted for human consumption throughout its range. In Liberia, for example, the Water Chevrotain ranked second in a taste preference survey in eight urban communities. In south-west Cameroon, one animal fetches about US$ 6 inlocal markets, giving some idea of the commercial value of such species in places where most people earn less than US$ 1/day. In the central Ituri Forest, DR Congo, Water Chevrotains are regularly caught by net hunters, and consistently represent about 5% of the total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years. Hunting appears to vary seasonally with the majority of animals entering markets in Equatorial Guineaat the start of the wet season.BibliographyAnsell (1974), Barnett & Prangley (1997), Barnett et al. (1996), Barrie & Camara (2006), Blench (2007), Coe (1975), Crawford-Cabral & Verissimo (2005), Dubost (1975, 1978, 1979, 1984, 2001), Dubost & Feer (1992), East (1999), Gautier-Hion, Duplantier et al. (1985), Gautier-Hion, Emmons et al. (1980), Gray (1850), Happold (1973), Hart (1986), Hoyt (2004), Huffman (2010), Institute of Applied Ecology (1998), IUCN/ SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008), Juste et al. (1995), Kingdon (1997), Newing (2001), Nowak (1999), Pickford et al. (2004), Rahm & Christiaense (1966), Robin (1990), Sidney (1965), Steel (1994), Willcox & Nambu (2007)." +03C587E31E7DFF90FA9AF7A994F1F4AF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,333,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7DFF90FA9AF7A994F1F4AF.xml,Hyemoschus aquaticus,Hyemoschus,aquaticus,Ogilby,1841,Chevrotain aquatique @fr | Hirschferkel @de | Ciervoratén acuatico @es,"Moschus aquaticus Ogilby, 1841,Bulham Creek, Sierra Leone.The Water Chevrotain is thought to be the most ancestral of the extant tragulids, with its lineage separating from the species in Asia about 35 million years ago. Morphologically Hyemoschusshows many similarities with the Pliocene genus Dorcatherium of Africa and Europe, and both genera are quite distinct from the Asian Tragulusand Moschiolaspecies. Geographic variation in Hyemoschusis poorly understood. Three subspecies have been named, but the validity of these names is questionable, and craniometrically these taxa are indistinguishable.","H.a.aquaticusOgilby,1841—WAfricafromGuineaandSierraLeonetoGhana.H.a.bates:Lydekker,1906—Nigeria,Cameroon,andpresumablyneighboringcountries.H. a. cottoni Lydekker, 1906— Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and presumably Uganda.The Water Chevrotain reportedly has a disjunct distribution, occurring in coastal forests from West Africa and in the rainforests of Central Africa from Nigeriato DR Congo, marginally entering Uganda. It has been listed for the following countries in Central Africa: Angola(Cabinda), Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, and Uganda(Semliki Valley). A record from Angola’s Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River,is the southernmost record of the species. The species’ status in some countries remains unclear. It is apparently absent from the Republic of Beninand Togo(but the speciesis listed as probable in the Ot Basin in Togo); its supposed occurrence in GuineaBissauand Senegalremains unsupported by evidence. The species was listed for Sierra Leone, although its presence had been called into question. Photographic evidence seems to clarify that the species occurs in Sierra Leone. In 1850, a specimen was recorded from Gambia, but the present status of the species is unclear. Local people report the species from the Boké Préfecture in NW Guinea, which might be the northernmost area from which the species has been recently reported. Extensive field and market surveys there and in the southern Guineasavanna belt did notfind evidence for the species’ presence.","Head—body 60-102 cm, tail 7.2-10. 9 cm; weight 7-16 kg, with considerable regional variation in size. The Water Chevrotain has a stocky, rounded body and thin legs. Its hindquarters are powerfully muscled, and much higher than the shoulders, giving the body a sloped appearance. The neck is short and thick, and the small head is narrow and pointed, ending in a pointed, leathery nose with slit-like nostrils. The ears are rounded, but apparently quite long compared to other chevrotain species. Unusual for chevrotains and for ungulates in general, female Water Chevrotains are larger than males, weighing on average over 2 kgmore than the males. The shorthaired coat is an overall rich chestnut brown color above and white on the undersides. The body is marked with horizontal white stripes running along the sides from the shoulder to the rump, with white spots on the back arranged in curved vertical rows. Such color patterns presumably provide camouflage during the day through their resemblance to dimpled sunlight on the dark forest undergrowth. There appears to be considerable variation in color and arrangement of the spots and lines, but it is unclear whether this variation allows for the consistent grouping of geographic variants. The chin, throat, and chest are white, covered in coarse hair, and broken up by bold transverse brown stripes that connect to the brown of the flanks. A dark brown lateral band separates the white of the throat stripes from the white of the chest. The tail is pale brown above and has fluffy white fur underneath. The legs are darkish brown. Neither sex has horns or antlers. However, as in other chevrotains, the upper canines are well developed and saber-like in males, flanking the mouth on either side of the lower jaw. Females also have enlarged canines, but they are shorter and blunter than in males. Male Water Chevrotains possess unique glands under the chin in the angle of the lower jaw. Like its Asian cousins, the Water Chevrotain is a good swimmer and can dive underwater or walk along the river bottom to elude predators. It can close its nostrils to keep water out. The species will rarely stray far from a water source, and it will retreat to water and jump in when threatened. When walking, the head is held low, allowing the Water Chevrotain to penetrate virtually impassable thickets and creating a nearly perfectly cone-shaped profile. The efficiency of this tunneling profile is enhanced by a shield of thick, reinforced skin on the dorsal surface, which protects the back from injuries inflicted by dense, resistant vegetation. This thick skin extends to the rump and throat.","Like other chevrotains, Hyemoschusis confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat it concentrates in areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. The species is, however, not a swamp specialist, and is often found in mature upland forest areas. Its range is thought to be limited by climatic factors: the species prefers habitats with very low seasonality and rainfall equal to or greater than 1500 mm/year, and it does not occur in areas that are even moderately seasonally arid. The species forages in clearings, floodplains, and along river banks at night, and retires to a hiding spot in dense cover during the day.","The Water Chevrotain is primarily a frugivore, and it has been suggested that year-round availability of fruits could be a key limiting habitat factor. Stomach content analysis of 19 animals in Gabonrevealed that fruits comprise 68-7% of all foods eaten, which appears to be less than its Asian cousins. The rest of the diet includes leaves (9-9%), petioles and stems (20-5%), animal matter (0-14%), flowers (0-7%), and fungi (0-13%). Compared to duikers—small frugivores that share its habitat—the Water Chevrotain eats relatively little fruit and fungi, but many more succulent stems, and year-round fruit availability might not be as crucial a determinant for the species’ presence as suggested by a few ecological studies. At least 76 species of fruits have been identified in the species’ diet, with preferred species including Cylindropsis parvifolia(Apocynaceae), Bombax buonopozense (Bombacaceae), Alchornea cordifolia(Euphorbiaceae), Coelocaryon preussiand Pycnanthus angolensis(Myristicaceae), and Cissus dinklager (Vitaceae). In addition to these fruits, figs (Ficus spp.), Pseudospondias fruits, palm nuts (Elaeis), and breadfruit (Treculia) are consumed, as well as the fruits of gingers and arrowroots. Most fruits consumed are small to medium-sized, with a diameter between 0-5 cm and 2 cm. Water Chevrotains also feed on insects; they actively hunt for ants by licking the ground along ant trails. Apparently crabs, carrion, and scavenged fish also feature in the species’ diet. The Water Chevrotain consumes significantly less animal matter and fungus during the dry season,as well as 44% fewer fruit species. Young individuals that are still nursing eat smaller amounts offruit than adults (only 48:4% of the diet) and a larger proportion ofleaves (31:3%).","Due to the secretive nature of this species, little is known aboutits life cycle, and reports about breeding behavior often vary considerably. Olfactory communication is important in this species, and feces and urine are deposited anywhere. Both sexes announce their presence with these excrements, which are mixed with an excretion from the anal (male and female) and preputial (male) glands. The interramal gland is occasionally used for marking twigs. The Water Chevrotain also communicates through vocalizations, including an alarm bark. When fighting, females produce a high pulsing chatter. As with pigs, male Water Chevrotains typically vocalize through a closed mouth, when following a female in estrus. While being followed, a receptive female will stop at each cry, allowing the male to lick her rump. After several repetitions of this, the male mounts. An estrous female will mate with a male with whom she shares a home range. She gives birth to one, or occasionally two precocial fawns. Reported gestation lengths range from four to nine months, and it is unclear whether there are errors in these estimates or that indeed this wide range occurs under natural conditions. In Gabon, births occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in births in January and July-August, at the beginning of the twice-annual dry seasons. Infants are usually found separate from their mothers, “lying up” for the first three months of life. During this initial hiding period, the mother will visit her offspring periodically to suckle, at which time small infants are also washed using the tongue. Lactation lasts 3-6 months. The young disperse from the mother’s home range when they reach sexual maturity at 9-26 months of age. Maximum longevity is normally eight years of age, but the species has a potential lifespan of 11-13 years.","The species is thought to be exclusively nocturnal in the wild, being active almost always between dusk and dawn. In a captive population in Monrovia Zoo, Liberia, activity patterns showed that the species was active 4% of the day and 67% of the night.","The Water Chevrotain is mainly solitary. Male territories overlap those of females, but the males are rarely aggressive toward each other, unlike some of the Tragulusspecies from Asia, in which males frequently fight other males. Although Water Chevrotains do occasionally fight, using their tusks as weapons, they apparently prefer to avoid each other and keep to themselves. Fights are typically short in duration. Two competing males will rush at each other with their mouths open, poke at each other with their muzzles, and bite, using the canines in the upper jaw and incisors in the lower jaw. Females also fight but less frequently than males. Adult females occupy home ranges averaging 13-14 ha in size, and are typically accompanied by their latest offspring. Females usually remain in the same home range for life after they reach maturity. Males, on the other hand, are less sedentary, usually occupying an area for less than a year before moving on. The home ranges of males are typically larger than those of females, averaging 20-30 ha in size and overlapping with the home ranges of at least two females. In Gabon, recorded population densities were between 7-7 ind/km?® and 28 ind/km?, but in the Republic of the Congo, average densities appear to be lower, between 1-5 ind/km?® and 5 ind/ km?*. Whether such variation is due to ecological factors or caused by factors such as hunting is unclear. In West Africa, the species is apparently much rarer and densities presumably lower.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, with the main threats being habitat loss, through agriculture and expanding human development, and hunting for bushmeat. Due to its secretive nature, there is little information on its status in individual countries within its extensive range, although there is some evidence that it is declining in specific areas. In the Niger Delta, the species was described originally as widespread in almost all freshwater habitats, but is now rare in all but the most remote areas, and rapidly becoming extinct in upland areas. The species is hunted for human consumption throughout its range. In Liberia, for example, the Water Chevrotain ranked second in a taste preference survey in eight urban communities. In south-west Cameroon, one animal fetches about US$ 6 inlocal markets, giving some idea of the commercial value of such species in places where most people earn less than US$ 1/day. In the central Ituri Forest, DR Congo, Water Chevrotains are regularly caught by net hunters, and consistently represent about 5% of the total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years. Hunting appears to vary seasonally with the majority of animals entering markets in Equatorial Guineaat the start of the wet season.",,https://zenodo.org/record/5721309/files/figure.png,"10.Water ChevrotainHyemoschus aquaticusFrench:Chevrotain aquatique/ German:Hirschferkel/ Spanish:Ciervoratén acuaticoTaxonomy.Moschus aquaticus Ogilby, 1841,Bulham Creek, Sierra Leone.The Water Chevrotain is thought to be the most ancestral of the extant tragulids, with its lineage separating from the species in Asia about 35 million years ago. Morphologically Hyemoschusshows many similarities with the Pliocene genus Dorcatherium of Africa and Europe, and both genera are quite distinct from the Asian Tragulusand Moschiolaspecies. Geographic variation in Hyemoschusis poorly understood. Three subspecies have been named, but the validity of these names is questionable, and craniometrically these taxa are indistinguishable.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.aquaticusOgilby,1841—WAfricafromGuineaandSierraLeonetoGhana.H.a.bates:Lydekker,1906—Nigeria,Cameroon,andpresumablyneighboringcountries.H. a. cottoni Lydekker, 1906— Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and presumably Uganda.The Water Chevrotain reportedly has a disjunct distribution, occurring in coastal forests from West Africa and in the rainforests of Central Africa from Nigeriato DR Congo, marginally entering Uganda. It has been listed for the following countries in Central Africa: Angola(Cabinda), Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, and Uganda(Semliki Valley). A record from Angola’s Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River,is the southernmost record of the species. The species’ status in some countries remains unclear. It is apparently absent from the Republic of Beninand Togo(but the speciesis listed as probable in the Ot Basin in Togo); its supposed occurrence in GuineaBissauand Senegalremains unsupported by evidence. The species was listed for Sierra Leone, although its presence had been called into question. Photographic evidence seems to clarify that the species occurs in Sierra Leone. In 1850, a specimen was recorded from Gambia, but the present status of the species is unclear. Local people report the species from the Boké Préfecture in NW Guinea, which might be the northernmost area from which the species has been recently reported. Extensive field and market surveys there and in the southern Guineasavanna belt did notfind evidence for the species’ presence.Descriptive notes.Head—body 60-102 cm, tail 7.2-10. 9 cm; weight 7-16 kg, with considerable regional variation in size. The Water Chevrotain has a stocky, rounded body and thin legs. Its hindquarters are powerfully muscled, and much higher than the shoulders, giving the body a sloped appearance. The neck is short and thick, and the small head is narrow and pointed, ending in a pointed, leathery nose with slit-like nostrils. The ears are rounded, but apparently quite long compared to other chevrotain species. Unusual for chevrotains and for ungulates in general, female Water Chevrotains are larger than males, weighing on average over 2 kgmore than the males. The shorthaired coat is an overall rich chestnut brown color above and white on the undersides. The body is marked with horizontal white stripes running along the sides from the shoulder to the rump, with white spots on the back arranged in curved vertical rows. Such color patterns presumably provide camouflage during the day through their resemblance to dimpled sunlight on the dark forest undergrowth. There appears to be considerable variation in color and arrangement of the spots and lines, but it is unclear whether this variation allows for the consistent grouping of geographic variants. The chin, throat, and chest are white, covered in coarse hair, and broken up by bold transverse brown stripes that connect to the brown of the flanks. A dark brown lateral band separates the white of the throat stripes from the white of the chest. The tail is pale brown above and has fluffy white fur underneath. The legs are darkish brown. Neither sex has horns or antlers. However, as in other chevrotains, the upper canines are well developed and saber-like in males, flanking the mouth on either side of the lower jaw. Females also have enlarged canines, but they are shorter and blunter than in males. Male Water Chevrotains possess unique glands under the chin in the angle of the lower jaw. Like its Asian cousins, the Water Chevrotain is a good swimmer and can dive underwater or walk along the river bottom to elude predators. It can close its nostrils to keep water out. The species will rarely stray far from a water source, and it will retreat to water and jump in when threatened. When walking, the head is held low, allowing the Water Chevrotain to penetrate virtually impassable thickets and creating a nearly perfectly cone-shaped profile. The efficiency of this tunneling profile is enhanced by a shield of thick, reinforced skin on the dorsal surface, which protects the back from injuries inflicted by dense, resistant vegetation. This thick skin extends to the rump and throat.Habitat.Like other chevrotains, Hyemoschusis confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat it concentrates in areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. The species is, however, not a swamp specialist, and is often found in mature upland forest areas. Its range is thought to be limited by climatic factors: the species prefers habitats with very low seasonality and rainfall equal to or greater than 1500 mm/year, and it does not occur in areas that are even moderately seasonally arid. The species forages in clearings, floodplains, and along river banks at night, and retires to a hiding spot in dense cover during the day.Food and Feeding.The Water Chevrotain is primarily a frugivore, and it has been suggested that year-round availability of fruits could be a key limiting habitat factor. Stomach content analysis of 19 animals in Gabonrevealed that fruits comprise 68-7% of all foods eaten, which appears to be less than its Asian cousins. The rest of the diet includes leaves (9-9%), petioles and stems (20-5%), animal matter (0-14%), flowers (0-7%), and fungi (0-13%). Compared to duikers—small frugivores that share its habitat—the Water Chevrotain eats relatively little fruit and fungi, but many more succulent stems, and year-round fruit availability might not be as crucial a determinant for the species’ presence as suggested by a few ecological studies. At least 76 species of fruits have been identified in the species’ diet, with preferred species including Cylindropsis parvifolia(Apocynaceae), Bombax buonopozense (Bombacaceae), Alchornea cordifolia(Euphorbiaceae), Coelocaryon preussiand Pycnanthus angolensis(Myristicaceae), and Cissus dinklager (Vitaceae). In addition to these fruits, figs (Ficus spp.), Pseudospondias fruits, palm nuts (Elaeis), and breadfruit (Treculia) are consumed, as well as the fruits of gingers and arrowroots. Most fruits consumed are small to medium-sized, with a diameter between 0-5 cm and 2 cm. Water Chevrotains also feed on insects; they actively hunt for ants by licking the ground along ant trails. Apparently crabs, carrion, and scavenged fish also feature in the species’ diet. The Water Chevrotain consumes significantly less animal matter and fungus during the dry season,as well as 44% fewer fruit species. Young individuals that are still nursing eat smaller amounts offruit than adults (only 48:4% of the diet) and a larger proportion ofleaves (31:3%).Breeding.Due to the secretive nature of this species, little is known aboutits life cycle, and reports about breeding behavior often vary considerably. Olfactory communication is important in this species, and feces and urine are deposited anywhere. Both sexes announce their presence with these excrements, which are mixed with an excretion from the anal (male and female) and preputial (male) glands. The interramal gland is occasionally used for marking twigs. The Water Chevrotain also communicates through vocalizations, including an alarm bark. When fighting, females produce a high pulsing chatter. As with pigs, male Water Chevrotains typically vocalize through a closed mouth, when following a female in estrus. While being followed, a receptive female will stop at each cry, allowing the male to lick her rump. After several repetitions of this, the male mounts. An estrous female will mate with a male with whom she shares a home range. She gives birth to one, or occasionally two precocial fawns. Reported gestation lengths range from four to nine months, and it is unclear whether there are errors in these estimates or that indeed this wide range occurs under natural conditions. In Gabon, births occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in births in January and July-August, at the beginning of the twice-annual dry seasons. Infants are usually found separate from their mothers, “lying up” for the first three months of life. During this initial hiding period, the mother will visit her offspring periodically to suckle, at which time small infants are also washed using the tongue. Lactation lasts 3-6 months. The young disperse from the mother’s home range when they reach sexual maturity at 9-26 months of age. Maximum longevity is normally eight years of age, but the species has a potential lifespan of 11-13 years.Activity patterns.The species is thought to be exclusively nocturnal in the wild, being active almost always between dusk and dawn. In a captive population in Monrovia Zoo, Liberia, activity patterns showed that the species was active 4% of the day and 67% of the night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Water Chevrotain is mainly solitary. Male territories overlap those of females, but the males are rarely aggressive toward each other, unlike some of the Tragulusspecies from Asia, in which males frequently fight other males. Although Water Chevrotains do occasionally fight, using their tusks as weapons, they apparently prefer to avoid each other and keep to themselves. Fights are typically short in duration. Two competing males will rush at each other with their mouths open, poke at each other with their muzzles, and bite, using the canines in the upper jaw and incisors in the lower jaw. Females also fight but less frequently than males. Adult females occupy home ranges averaging 13-14 ha in size, and are typically accompanied by their latest offspring. Females usually remain in the same home range for life after they reach maturity. Males, on the other hand, are less sedentary, usually occupying an area for less than a year before moving on. The home ranges of males are typically larger than those of females, averaging 20-30 ha in size and overlapping with the home ranges of at least two females. In Gabon, recorded population densities were between 7-7 ind/km?® and 28 ind/km?, but in the Republic of the Congo, average densities appear to be lower, between 1-5 ind/km?® and 5 ind/ km?*. Whether such variation is due to ecological factors or caused by factors such as hunting is unclear. In West Africa, the species is apparently much rarer and densities presumably lower.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, with the main threats being habitat loss, through agriculture and expanding human development, and hunting for bushmeat. Due to its secretive nature, there is little information on its status in individual countries within its extensive range, although there is some evidence that it is declining in specific areas. In the Niger Delta, the species was described originally as widespread in almost all freshwater habitats, but is now rare in all but the most remote areas, and rapidly becoming extinct in upland areas. The species is hunted for human consumption throughout its range. In Liberia, for example, the Water Chevrotain ranked second in a taste preference survey in eight urban communities. In south-west Cameroon, one animal fetches about US$ 6 inlocal markets, giving some idea of the commercial value of such species in places where most people earn less than US$ 1/day. In the central Ituri Forest, DR Congo, Water Chevrotains are regularly caught by net hunters, and consistently represent about 5% of the total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years. Hunting appears to vary seasonally with the majority of animals entering markets in Equatorial Guineaat the start of the wet season.BibliographyAnsell (1974), Barnett & Prangley (1997), Barnett et al. (1996), Barrie & Camara (2006), Blench (2007), Coe (1975), Crawford-Cabral & Verissimo (2005), Dubost (1975, 1978, 1979, 1984, 2001), Dubost & Feer (1992), East (1999), Gautier-Hion, Duplantier et al. (1985), Gautier-Hion, Emmons et al. (1980), Gray (1850), Happold (1973), Hart (1986), Hoyt (2004), Huffman (2010), Institute of Applied Ecology (1998), IUCN/ SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008), Juste et al. (1995), Kingdon (1997), Newing (2001), Nowak (1999), Pickford et al. (2004), Rahm & Christiaense (1966), Robin (1990), Sidney (1965), Steel (1994), Willcox & Nambu (2007)." 03C587E31E7DFF91FF95F8F49822F887,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,333,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7DFF91FF95F8F49822F887.xml,Tragulus nigricans,Tragulus,nigricans,Thomas,1892,Chevrotain de Balabac @fr | Balabac-Kantschil @de | Ciervoratén de Balabac @es | Pilandok @en,"Tragulus nigricans Thomas, 1892,Balabac, Philippines.This species was resurrected as a distinct species in 2004 based on skull morphology. 1. nigricanswas originally allied with 1"" napudue to similarities in body size and markings. Skull measurements demonstrate clear differentiation between T. nigricans, 1. napu, and 1. kanchil, the species from nearby Borneo and surrounding small islands. 7. nigricansis a restricted area species endemic to the Philippines, and there are no subspecies. It has been suggested that the chevrotain population of Pulau Banggi (Malaysia), which lies midway between Balabac and the Bornean mainland, and which was almost certainly (and perhaps repeatedly) connected to both by former (late Pleistocene) land bridges, might belong to this species. Recent morphometric study of specimens from Pulau Banggi indicates its distinctiveness from both 7. napuand 1. nigricans, suggesting that morphometrically the Pulau Banggi population is more closely related to 7. kanchil. Throat patterns and coloration of the upperparts, however, suggests a napurelated taxon, and for now the subspecies T. napu bangueiis retained for the Banggi population. Monotypic.","Balabac, Ramos, and Bugsuk Is, Palawan region, Phillipines. In the late 1990s, a small stock of eight Balabac Chevrotains escaped from their enclosures on Calauit Island, a small island off the coast of Busuanga Island, north of Palawan, where the species had been maintained and bred since 1982. These animals were reported to have increased to at least 21 free-living individuals by 2006. Apparently the species was also introduced to the larger island of Palawan. No recent records confirm that it is still extant there, although unconfirmed reports suggest that it may survive in southern Palawan.","Head-body 40-47. 5 cm, tail 6.5-8. 5 cm, shoulder height 18 cm; weight unknown. The Balabac Chevrotain is very small in stature, and smaller than its apparent close relative 71. napufrom neighboring Borneo. T. nigricansis one of the most darkly-colored chevrotains, with an overall dark brown coat. The upperparts are broadly washed with black, and the neck is mixed black and fulvous. Each individual hair has sections of different colors. The base is generally pale, ranging from white to ashy brown, the mid-section is tawny, orange, or brown, and there is a long black tip. The abdominal region is generally orange-brown in color. The lower abdomen, groin, and insides of the thighs are white. The hindlegs have a white stripe on the front that extends from the upper thigh to the tarsal joint; the rest of the leg is fulvous in color. The inner surfaces of the front legs are white, and this coloration extends across the chest in between the front legs as a whitish patch. The tail is dark brown with a white tip. The most striking markings of the Balabac Chevrotain are on the throat, with three narrow white stripes beginning from a white patch under the chin and extending down towards the chest. In contrast to these white stripes, the rest of the throat is jet black; in some specimens the black coloration even overtakes and obscures the stripes. Towards the chest, these black and white markings disappear into a broad brown band that crosses the lower throat. The head itself is generally darker in color than the rest of the body. Broad rufous or fulvous eyebrow stripes extend from the anterior corners of the eyes to the base of ears. The bridge of the nose and forehead are dark brown, becoming increasingly infused with black towards the crown of the head. The sides of the head are more fulvous. A naked glandular patch on underside of the jaw is bordered with white, which runs into the white patch at the top of the throat. Dental formula is 10/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","7. nigricansinhabits both primary and secondary forests as well as shrubland on Balabac Island, using both large blocks of forest and smaller fragments. It may frequent mangroves and more open areas to forage. Dense vegetation within the forest interior provides shelter for this species during the daytime.","It is reported that 7. nigricansfeeds mostly on leaves, which would set it aside from most other chevrotain species, which are primarily frugivorous. One photograph of a captive animal shows it feeding on grass-like leaves, which would confirm the above observation.","There is apparently a distinct breeding season, but it is unclear when this occurs and whether it coincides with the distinct dry and wet seasons in the species’ range. Litter size is reportedly almost always one, rarely two.","Reported to be nocturnal. These chevrotains leave their shaded resting spots at night, entering into clearings to feed. Most encounters between humans and the Balabac Chevrotain occur along roads at night, when their eye shine is frequently observed from vehicles.",Nothing known.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, and is probably the most range-restricted of all chevrotain species. The species is subject to poaching for food, using guns or snares, and there is minor domestic trade in live animals for local zoos and private collectors. The species is also affected by habitat loss due to conversion of former habitat to coconut plantations and other agriculture.","Allen & White (1910) | Huffman (2009) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Oliver (1992) | Oliver et al. (2008) | Rabor (1977) | Rico & Oliver (2008) | Sanborn (1952) | Timm & Birney (1980)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721329/files/figure.png,"9.Balabac ChevrotainTragulus nigricansFrench:Chevrotain de Balabac/ German:Balabac-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén de BalabacOther common names:PilandokTaxonomy.Tragulus nigricans Thomas, 1892,Balabac, Philippines.This species was resurrected as a distinct species in 2004 based on skull morphology. 1. nigricanswas originally allied with 1"" napudue to similarities in body size and markings. Skull measurements demonstrate clear differentiation between T. nigricans, 1. napu, and 1. kanchil, the species from nearby Borneo and surrounding small islands. 7. nigricansis a restricted area species endemic to the Philippines, and there are no subspecies. It has been suggested that the chevrotain population of Pulau Banggi (Malaysia), which lies midway between Balabac and the Bornean mainland, and which was almost certainly (and perhaps repeatedly) connected to both by former (late Pleistocene) land bridges, might belong to this species. Recent morphometric study of specimens from Pulau Banggi indicates its distinctiveness from both 7. napuand 1. nigricans, suggesting that morphometrically the Pulau Banggi population is more closely related to 7. kanchil. Throat patterns and coloration of the upperparts, however, suggests a napurelated taxon, and for now the subspecies T. napu bangueiis retained for the Banggi population. Monotypic.Distribution.Balabac, Ramos, and Bugsuk Is, Palawan region, Phillipines. In the late 1990s, a small stock of eight Balabac Chevrotains escaped from their enclosures on Calauit Island, a small island off the coast of Busuanga Island, north of Palawan, where the species had been maintained and bred since 1982. These animals were reported to have increased to at least 21 free-living individuals by 2006. Apparently the species was also introduced to the larger island of Palawan. No recent records confirm that it is still extant there, although unconfirmed reports suggest that it may survive in southern Palawan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-47. 5 cm, tail 6.5-8. 5 cm, shoulder height 18 cm; weight unknown. The Balabac Chevrotain is very small in stature, and smaller than its apparent close relative 71. napufrom neighboring Borneo. T. nigricansis one of the most darkly-colored chevrotains, with an overall dark brown coat. The upperparts are broadly washed with black, and the neck is mixed black and fulvous. Each individual hair has sections of different colors. The base is generally pale, ranging from white to ashy brown, the mid-section is tawny, orange, or brown, and there is a long black tip. The abdominal region is generally orange-brown in color. The lower abdomen, groin, and insides of the thighs are white. The hindlegs have a white stripe on the front that extends from the upper thigh to the tarsal joint; the rest of the leg is fulvous in color. The inner surfaces of the front legs are white, and this coloration extends across the chest in between the front legs as a whitish patch. The tail is dark brown with a white tip. The most striking markings of the Balabac Chevrotain are on the throat, with three narrow white stripes beginning from a white patch under the chin and extending down towards the chest. In contrast to these white stripes, the rest of the throat is jet black; in some specimens the black coloration even overtakes and obscures the stripes. Towards the chest, these black and white markings disappear into a broad brown band that crosses the lower throat. The head itself is generally darker in color than the rest of the body. Broad rufous or fulvous eyebrow stripes extend from the anterior corners of the eyes to the base of ears. The bridge of the nose and forehead are dark brown, becoming increasingly infused with black towards the crown of the head. The sides of the head are more fulvous. A naked glandular patch on underside of the jaw is bordered with white, which runs into the white patch at the top of the throat. Dental formula is 10/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.7. nigricansinhabits both primary and secondary forests as well as shrubland on Balabac Island, using both large blocks of forest and smaller fragments. It may frequent mangroves and more open areas to forage. Dense vegetation within the forest interior provides shelter for this species during the daytime.Food and Feeding.It is reported that 7. nigricansfeeds mostly on leaves, which would set it aside from most other chevrotain species, which are primarily frugivorous. One photograph of a captive animal shows it feeding on grass-like leaves, which would confirm the above observation.Breeding.There is apparently a distinct breeding season, but it is unclear when this occurs and whether it coincides with the distinct dry and wet seasons in the species’ range. Litter size is reportedly almost always one, rarely two.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal. These chevrotains leave their shaded resting spots at night, entering into clearings to feed. Most encounters between humans and the Balabac Chevrotain occur along roads at night, when their eye shine is frequently observed from vehicles.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, and is probably the most range-restricted of all chevrotain species. The species is subject to poaching for food, using guns or snares, and there is minor domestic trade in live animals for local zoos and private collectors. The species is also affected by habitat loss due to conversion of former habitat to coconut plantations and other agriculture.Bibliography.Allen & White (1910), Huffman (2009), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Oliver (1992), Oliver et al. (2008), Rabor (1977), Rico & Oliver (2008), Sanborn (1952), Timm & Birney (1980)." -03C587E31E7EFF91FF53F7D79400F884,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,332,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7EFF91FF53F7D79400F884.xml,Tragulus napu,Tragulus,napu,F. Cuvier,1822,Chevrotain napu @fr | Grofskantschil @de | Ciervoraton grande @es,"Moschus napu F. Cuvier, 1822,Sumatra, Indonesia.Restricted by Sody in 1931 to southern Sumatra.Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review and the authors were unable to assess the validity ofall taxa. In addition to the subspecies below several other taxa have been described for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. This includes nigrocinctus from MalaccaStrait islands (Kundur and Karimun Besar = Great Karimon); bullitonus from Belitung Island (which might be a subspecies of 1. kanchil); amoenus from Musala Island; and several subspecies from island taxa west of Sumatra, including brevipes from Bangkaru Island, russulus and batuanus from Tanahbala and Tanahmasa islands, pinius from Pini Island. All these taxa require further study to determine their taxonomic status. Seven subspecies presently recognized.","T.n.napuF.Cuvier,1822—SMyanmar,Thai/MalayPeninsula,islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(Langkawi&Pangkor),Borneo,SSumatra,BangkaI,islandsoffBorneo(Laut&Serasan).T.n.bangue:Chasen&Kloss,1931—BanggiIandBalembanganI,offNBorneo.T.n.bunguranensisMiller,1901—NatunaIs(=Bunguran),oftWBorneo.T.n.neubronneriSody,1931—NSumatra.T.n.nmiasisLyon,1916—NiasI,offWSumatra.T.n.rufulusMiller,1900—TiomanI,offEMalayPeninsula,RiauandLinggaArchipelagos.T. n. terutus Thomas & Wroughton, 1909— Terutau I, off W Malay Peninsula.The species was recently reconfirmed for Singapore. Maps that include Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laosin the distribution range are based on the earlier assumption that 7. versicolorwas a subspecies of 1. napu. Subsequent studies have indicated that 7. versicoloris a distinct species, and that the range of 1. naputherefore does not extend into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. The northern limit on the Thai-Malay peninsula is not well defined. Specimens of 1. napuhave been collected from as far north as Bankachon in southern Myanmar(10° 08” N), but despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kui Buri National Park, Thailand(12° N), 7. napuhas not been photographed there. At the northern margin ofits range, it is generally rare. It has been reported, for example, that during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani Province; about 9° N, 98° 45’ E), only six 7. napuwere rescued compared with 172 71. kanchil. This area is the transition zone from wetter evergreen forest to drier deciduous types, and it might be that 7° napuis not well adapted to the drier forest types towards the northern limit ofits range. There are unconfirmed reports of the species on Java, where it may have been confused with one of the two color morphs of 7. javanicus. As explained in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of several islands remains unclear.","Head-body 42:5-68 cm, tail 8-5 cm, shoulder height 30-35 cm; weight 3-5—4-5 kg. 1. napuis one of the largest Asian chevrotains. The pelage is orangeybrown in color; the hindquarters are lightly mottled with black. The underparts and legs are paler. The underside of the chin is white, and there are a series of white markings on the neck. The head is triangular in shape, and the large black nose is naked. The eyes are very large, and the ears are medium-sized, lightly covered with black hair. The body is rounded, and the rear quarters are higher than the front. The legs are extremely thin and delicate, being about the diameter of a pencil. Compared to the partly sympatric 1. kanchil, skin patterns of 7. napuare more mottled and 7. napuhas pale lines on the throat and neck, whereas 7. kanchilnormally has three strong white lines on the throat and has uniformly colored upperparts. There is, however, considerable variation within each species in the coloration and striping patterns (also see other Tragulusspecies accounts), especially on the many small islands where the species occur. In several instances it is nearly impossible to determine whether a taxon is more closely related to 7. napuor to T. kanchil. In fact, until an in-depth taxonomic review was recently conducted, 7! napuwas sometimes considered to be a sibling species of 1. kanchil. The pelage coloration in 7. napuis more variable than in 7 kanchil, with varying degrees of melanism and erythrism. Specimens from the larger islands (Borneo and Sumatra) and the Asian mainland and Malay Peninsula are generally dull yellowish-brown, with a mottled appearance. On several islands, 7. naputypically has a red-brown color. Even the nape-stripe is red-brown, somewhat darker than the orange-red neck. The lines from the eye to nose are deep black, and the red-brown back is mixed with black. From studies of hair and skins and from information in the literature it appears that increased redness is the result of fewer all-black and black-tipped hairs in the coat and possibly also an actual increased redness in the hair pigment. The color pattern of the primitive type of 1. napuon the mainland can be summarized as follows: a mixed brown and black neck, the black concentrating along the nape to form an evident napestripe; and a normal throat pattern with a median white longitudinal stripe, on each side of which is a similar stripe, the three meeting in a broad white mass; the space between median and lateral stripes is brown, as in the side of the neck, or somewhat darker; a brown transverse band or collar separates the stripes from the white of the chest. The two lines of variation are toward predominance of yellowish-brown or toward predominance of black. This species was readily differentiated from members of the 1. javanicus/ kanchilgroup by its larger size, relatively small auditory bullae and, in most specimens, the distinct coat coloration. The analysis of skull measurements suggested that within this species there are three geographical groups, none of which is distinct enough to be assigned to species level. Dental formula: 10/3, C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","Primary and secondary evergreen rain forest. It has been suggested that the foot morphology of 7. napuindicates a preference for more swampy habitats than 7. javanicus/ 1. kanchil. Another source, from Borneo, however, claims that 7. napuis a hill species, found at no great elevation but never on swamps, plains and less often on river banks than 7. kanchil. T. napuseems to be scarcer in logged forest than in primary forest, with an 86% decline in density being reported following timber harvest. Daily home range use also appears to be more extensive in secondary forest. The sensitivity to logging is probably a consequence of diet constraints that limit the species’ ability to compensate for the reduced abundance of selected fruits in disturbed forest by utilizing browsing. In twelve-year-old logged forest, fewer trees remained belonging to genera eaten by 7. napu. On Tioman Island, of the coast of the Malay Peninsula, densities increased away from human settlements probably in direct relationship to hunting pressure; also 83% of observations on this island were in primary forests and 17% in secondary forests or rubber estates.","This species is mostly frugivorous, although few details on feeding are known. In captivity they eat most fruits and readily take to bananas, though their favorite food was mentioned to be the fruits and particularly the flowers of “Buah Simpoh” (presumably a Dillenia species). It has been asserted that 7. napuare prone to kill chickens, but no direct evidence for this was found.","The species is possibly polygynous; there is no distinct mating season and females give birth throughout the year in Peninsular Malaysia; one or rarely two young are born. The gestation period is 152-155 days. Weaning occurs at 2-3 months. The young reach sexual maturity at 4-5 months, and maximum life span in captivity is reported to be up to 14 years. 1. napuwas observed to stamp with one or both hindfeet when slightly alarmed. Other individuals would or would not stamp in response. Both males and females mark objects with the intermandibular gland. Males mark much more frequently than females. Males often lick the urine of females; less frequently, females lick the urine of males. Males court both receptive and unreceptive females. Courting males mark the female on the back or rump with the intermandibular gland and emit a series of squeaks. Females have a postpartum estrus and return to estrus at approximately 14day intervals unless they become pregnant. Females of 7. napuhave the potential to be pregnant throughout adult life, often with only 85-155 minutes passing between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and they are able to stand after 30 minutes. Mothers spend little time with infants. They emit a vocalization that sounds like the squeak of courting males. Both mothers and infants emit a higher-pitched vocalization. Intense agonistic behavior was seen only when strange individuals were introduced into established groups. Males fight by facing each other and biting each other on the ears, neck, and shoulders with their large upper canines. Fighting males usually hold the tail in a vertical position, exposing the white ventral surface, and may emit loud growls. If one male flees, the other pursues and attempts to bite him on the neck and body.","7. napuis reported to be cathemeral (active day and night), but there are few data to support this.","The density of 7. napuin one Borneo site was positively correlated with large strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and negatively correlated with grass and herbs and vine tangle. In primary forest densities vary from 37-72 ind/km?®. On Tioman Island, densities ranged from 27-8 ind/km? to 312-5 ind/ km? The home range in primary forest is about 7 ha. Home range and core area size do not differ according to sex, but are determined by body size of the individuals. The species is mostly solitary, with a mean group size of 1-37 individuals. Recent observations indicate that the species escapes predators by hiding under water in forest streams.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and at least locally common in the Sundaic region and, at least on Borneo, it appears that this species is resilient to hunting, although probably not to habitat degradation. Better data would allow a more confident assessment. Its wide altitudinal tolerance (presumed to be up to 1000 mabove sea level) means that it has large populations above the elevation where very rapid forest loss is occurring. The presumed short generation length of the species, which is likely underfive years, also influences assessment, because it means that the species could quickly recover from local declines. Thus, although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area to threaten its survival.","Azlan & Engkamat (2006) | Chasen (1940) | Chua et al. (2009) | Dobroruka (1972) | van Dort (1986, 1988) | Duckworth (1994, 1997) | Heydon (1994) | Heydon & Bulloh (1997) | Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2010) | Miura & Idris (1999) | Nakhasathien (1989) | Payne et al. (1985) | Ralls et al. (1975) | Smit-van Dort (1989) | Timmins et al. (2008) | Yasuma (1994, 1996) | Yasuma & Andau (2000)",,"8.Greater Indo-Malayan ChevrotainTragulus napuFrench:Chevrotain napu/ German:Grofskantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoraton grandeTaxonomy.Moschus napu F. Cuvier, 1822,Sumatra, Indonesia.Restricted by Sody in 1931 to southern Sumatra.Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review and the authors were unable to assess the validity ofall taxa. In addition to the subspecies below several other taxa have been described for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. This includes nigrocinctus from MalaccaStrait islands (Kundur and Karimun Besar = Great Karimon); bullitonus from Belitung Island (which might be a subspecies of 1. kanchil); amoenus from Musala Island; and several subspecies from island taxa west of Sumatra, including brevipes from Bangkaru Island, russulus and batuanus from Tanahbala and Tanahmasa islands, pinius from Pini Island. All these taxa require further study to determine their taxonomic status. Seven subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.n.napuF.Cuvier,1822—SMyanmar,Thai/MalayPeninsula,islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(Langkawi&Pangkor),Borneo,SSumatra,BangkaI,islandsoffBorneo(Laut&Serasan).T.n.bangue:Chasen&Kloss,1931—BanggiIandBalembanganI,offNBorneo.T.n.bunguranensisMiller,1901—NatunaIs(=Bunguran),oftWBorneo.T.n.neubronneriSody,1931—NSumatra.T.n.nmiasisLyon,1916—NiasI,offWSumatra.T.n.rufulusMiller,1900—TiomanI,offEMalayPeninsula,RiauandLinggaArchipelagos.T. n. terutus Thomas & Wroughton, 1909— Terutau I, off W Malay Peninsula.The species was recently reconfirmed for Singapore. Maps that include Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laosin the distribution range are based on the earlier assumption that 7. versicolorwas a subspecies of 1. napu. Subsequent studies have indicated that 7. versicoloris a distinct species, and that the range of 1. naputherefore does not extend into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. The northern limit on the Thai-Malay peninsula is not well defined. Specimens of 1. napuhave been collected from as far north as Bankachon in southern Myanmar(10° 08” N), but despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kui Buri National Park, Thailand(12° N), 7. napuhas not been photographed there. At the northern margin ofits range, it is generally rare. It has been reported, for example, that during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani Province; about 9° N, 98° 45’ E), only six 7. napuwere rescued compared with 172 71. kanchil. This area is the transition zone from wetter evergreen forest to drier deciduous types, and it might be that 7° napuis not well adapted to the drier forest types towards the northern limit ofits range. There are unconfirmed reports of the species on Java, where it may have been confused with one of the two color morphs of 7. javanicus. As explained in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of several islands remains unclear.Descriptive notes.Head-body 42:5-68 cm, tail 8-5 cm, shoulder height 30-35 cm; weight 3-5—4-5 kg. 1. napuis one of the largest Asian chevrotains. The pelage is orangeybrown in color; the hindquarters are lightly mottled with black. The underparts and legs are paler. The underside of the chin is white, and there are a series of white markings on the neck. The head is triangular in shape, and the large black nose is naked. The eyes are very large, and the ears are medium-sized, lightly covered with black hair. The body is rounded, and the rear quarters are higher than the front. The legs are extremely thin and delicate, being about the diameter of a pencil. Compared to the partly sympatric 1. kanchil, skin patterns of 7. napuare more mottled and 7. napuhas pale lines on the throat and neck, whereas 7. kanchilnormally has three strong white lines on the throat and has uniformly colored upperparts. There is, however, considerable variation within each species in the coloration and striping patterns (also see other Tragulusspecies accounts), especially on the many small islands where the species occur. In several instances it is nearly impossible to determine whether a taxon is more closely related to 7. napuor to T. kanchil. In fact, until an in-depth taxonomic review was recently conducted, 7! napuwas sometimes considered to be a sibling species of 1. kanchil. The pelage coloration in 7. napuis more variable than in 7 kanchil, with varying degrees of melanism and erythrism. Specimens from the larger islands (Borneo and Sumatra) and the Asian mainland and Malay Peninsula are generally dull yellowish-brown, with a mottled appearance. On several islands, 7. naputypically has a red-brown color. Even the nape-stripe is red-brown, somewhat darker than the orange-red neck. The lines from the eye to nose are deep black, and the red-brown back is mixed with black. From studies of hair and skins and from information in the literature it appears that increased redness is the result of fewer all-black and black-tipped hairs in the coat and possibly also an actual increased redness in the hair pigment. The color pattern of the primitive type of 1. napuon the mainland can be summarized as follows: a mixed brown and black neck, the black concentrating along the nape to form an evident napestripe; and a normal throat pattern with a median white longitudinal stripe, on each side of which is a similar stripe, the three meeting in a broad white mass; the space between median and lateral stripes is brown, as in the side of the neck, or somewhat darker; a brown transverse band or collar separates the stripes from the white of the chest. The two lines of variation are toward predominance of yellowish-brown or toward predominance of black. This species was readily differentiated from members of the 1. javanicus/ kanchilgroup by its larger size, relatively small auditory bullae and, in most specimens, the distinct coat coloration. The analysis of skull measurements suggested that within this species there are three geographical groups, none of which is distinct enough to be assigned to species level. Dental formula: 10/3, C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Primary and secondary evergreen rain forest. It has been suggested that the foot morphology of 7. napuindicates a preference for more swampy habitats than 7. javanicus/ 1. kanchil. Another source, from Borneo, however, claims that 7. napuis a hill species, found at no great elevation but never on swamps, plains and less often on river banks than 7. kanchil. T. napuseems to be scarcer in logged forest than in primary forest, with an 86% decline in density being reported following timber harvest. Daily home range use also appears to be more extensive in secondary forest. The sensitivity to logging is probably a consequence of diet constraints that limit the species’ ability to compensate for the reduced abundance of selected fruits in disturbed forest by utilizing browsing. In twelve-year-old logged forest, fewer trees remained belonging to genera eaten by 7. napu. On Tioman Island, of the coast of the Malay Peninsula, densities increased away from human settlements probably in direct relationship to hunting pressure; also 83% of observations on this island were in primary forests and 17% in secondary forests or rubber estates.Food and Feeding.This species is mostly frugivorous, although few details on feeding are known. In captivity they eat most fruits and readily take to bananas, though their favorite food was mentioned to be the fruits and particularly the flowers of “Buah Simpoh” (presumably a Dillenia species). It has been asserted that 7. napuare prone to kill chickens, but no direct evidence for this was found.Breeding.The species is possibly polygynous; there is no distinct mating season and females give birth throughout the year in Peninsular Malaysia; one or rarely two young are born. The gestation period is 152-155 days. Weaning occurs at 2-3 months. The young reach sexual maturity at 4-5 months, and maximum life span in captivity is reported to be up to 14 years. 1. napuwas observed to stamp with one or both hindfeet when slightly alarmed. Other individuals would or would not stamp in response. Both males and females mark objects with the intermandibular gland. Males mark much more frequently than females. Males often lick the urine of females; less frequently, females lick the urine of males. Males court both receptive and unreceptive females. Courting males mark the female on the back or rump with the intermandibular gland and emit a series of squeaks. Females have a postpartum estrus and return to estrus at approximately 14day intervals unless they become pregnant. Females of 7. napuhave the potential to be pregnant throughout adult life, often with only 85-155 minutes passing between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and they are able to stand after 30 minutes. Mothers spend little time with infants. They emit a vocalization that sounds like the squeak of courting males. Both mothers and infants emit a higher-pitched vocalization. Intense agonistic behavior was seen only when strange individuals were introduced into established groups. Males fight by facing each other and biting each other on the ears, neck, and shoulders with their large upper canines. Fighting males usually hold the tail in a vertical position, exposing the white ventral surface, and may emit loud growls. If one male flees, the other pursues and attempts to bite him on the neck and body.Activity patterns.7. napuis reported to be cathemeral (active day and night), but there are few data to support this.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The density of 7. napuin one Borneo site was positively correlated with large strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and negatively correlated with grass and herbs and vine tangle. In primary forest densities vary from 37-72 ind/km?®. On Tioman Island, densities ranged from 27-8 ind/km? to 312-5 ind/ km? The home range in primary forest is about 7 ha. Home range and core area size do not differ according to sex, but are determined by body size of the individuals. The species is mostly solitary, with a mean group size of 1-37 individuals. Recent observations indicate that the species escapes predators by hiding under water in forest streams.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and at least locally common in the Sundaic region and, at least on Borneo, it appears that this species is resilient to hunting, although probably not to habitat degradation. Better data would allow a more confident assessment. Its wide altitudinal tolerance (presumed to be up to 1000 mabove sea level) means that it has large populations above the elevation where very rapid forest loss is occurring. The presumed short generation length of the species, which is likely underfive years, also influences assessment, because it means that the species could quickly recover from local declines. Thus, although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area to threaten its survival.Bibliography.Azlan & Engkamat (2006), Chasen (1940), Chua et al. (2009), Dobroruka (1972), van Dort (1986, 1988), Duckworth (1994, 1997), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2010), Miura & Idris (1999), Nakhasathien (1989), Payne et al. (1985), Ralls et al. (1975), Smit-van Dort (1989), Timmins et al. (2008), Yasuma (1994, 1996), Yasuma & Andau (2000)." +03C587E31E7EFF91FF53F7D79400F884,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,332,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7EFF91FF53F7D79400F884.xml,Tragulus napu,Tragulus,napu,F. Cuvier,1822,Chevrotain napu @fr | Grofskantschil @de | Ciervoraton grande @es,"Moschus napu F. Cuvier, 1822,Sumatra, Indonesia.Restricted by Sody in 1931 to southern Sumatra.Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review and the authors were unable to assess the validity ofall taxa. In addition to the subspecies below several other taxa have been described for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. This includes nigrocinctus from MalaccaStrait islands (Kundur and Karimun Besar = Great Karimon); bullitonus from Belitung Island (which might be a subspecies of 1. kanchil); amoenus from Musala Island; and several subspecies from island taxa west of Sumatra, including brevipes from Bangkaru Island, russulus and batuanus from Tanahbala and Tanahmasa islands, pinius from Pini Island. All these taxa require further study to determine their taxonomic status. Seven subspecies presently recognized.","T.n.napuF.Cuvier,1822—SMyanmar,Thai/MalayPeninsula,islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(Langkawi&Pangkor),Borneo,SSumatra,BangkaI,islandsoffBorneo(Laut&Serasan).T.n.bangue:Chasen&Kloss,1931—BanggiIandBalembanganI,offNBorneo.T.n.bunguranensisMiller,1901—NatunaIs(=Bunguran),oftWBorneo.T.n.neubronneriSody,1931—NSumatra.T.n.nmiasisLyon,1916—NiasI,offWSumatra.T.n.rufulusMiller,1900—TiomanI,offEMalayPeninsula,RiauandLinggaArchipelagos.T. n. terutus Thomas & Wroughton, 1909— Terutau I, off W Malay Peninsula.The species was recently reconfirmed for Singapore. Maps that include Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laosin the distribution range are based on the earlier assumption that 7. versicolorwas a subspecies of 1. napu. Subsequent studies have indicated that 7. versicoloris a distinct species, and that the range of 1. naputherefore does not extend into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. The northern limit on the Thai-Malay peninsula is not well defined. Specimens of 1. napuhave been collected from as far north as Bankachon in southern Myanmar(10° 08” N), but despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kui Buri National Park, Thailand(12° N), 7. napuhas not been photographed there. At the northern margin ofits range, it is generally rare. It has been reported, for example, that during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani Province; about 9° N, 98° 45’ E), only six 7. napuwere rescued compared with 172 71. kanchil. This area is the transition zone from wetter evergreen forest to drier deciduous types, and it might be that 7° napuis not well adapted to the drier forest types towards the northern limit ofits range. There are unconfirmed reports of the species on Java, where it may have been confused with one of the two color morphs of 7. javanicus. As explained in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of several islands remains unclear.","Head-body 42:5-68 cm, tail 8-5 cm, shoulder height 30-35 cm; weight 3-5—4-5 kg. 1. napuis one of the largest Asian chevrotains. The pelage is orangeybrown in color; the hindquarters are lightly mottled with black. The underparts and legs are paler. The underside of the chin is white, and there are a series of white markings on the neck. The head is triangular in shape, and the large black nose is naked. The eyes are very large, and the ears are medium-sized, lightly covered with black hair. The body is rounded, and the rear quarters are higher than the front. The legs are extremely thin and delicate, being about the diameter of a pencil. Compared to the partly sympatric 1. kanchil, skin patterns of 7. napuare more mottled and 7. napuhas pale lines on the throat and neck, whereas 7. kanchilnormally has three strong white lines on the throat and has uniformly colored upperparts. There is, however, considerable variation within each species in the coloration and striping patterns (also see other Tragulusspecies accounts), especially on the many small islands where the species occur. In several instances it is nearly impossible to determine whether a taxon is more closely related to 7. napuor to T. kanchil. In fact, until an in-depth taxonomic review was recently conducted, 7! napuwas sometimes considered to be a sibling species of 1. kanchil. The pelage coloration in 7. napuis more variable than in 7 kanchil, with varying degrees of melanism and erythrism. Specimens from the larger islands (Borneo and Sumatra) and the Asian mainland and Malay Peninsula are generally dull yellowish-brown, with a mottled appearance. On several islands, 7. naputypically has a red-brown color. Even the nape-stripe is red-brown, somewhat darker than the orange-red neck. The lines from the eye to nose are deep black, and the red-brown back is mixed with black. From studies of hair and skins and from information in the literature it appears that increased redness is the result of fewer all-black and black-tipped hairs in the coat and possibly also an actual increased redness in the hair pigment. The color pattern of the primitive type of 1. napuon the mainland can be summarized as follows: a mixed brown and black neck, the black concentrating along the nape to form an evident napestripe; and a normal throat pattern with a median white longitudinal stripe, on each side of which is a similar stripe, the three meeting in a broad white mass; the space between median and lateral stripes is brown, as in the side of the neck, or somewhat darker; a brown transverse band or collar separates the stripes from the white of the chest. The two lines of variation are toward predominance of yellowish-brown or toward predominance of black. This species was readily differentiated from members of the 1. javanicus/ kanchilgroup by its larger size, relatively small auditory bullae and, in most specimens, the distinct coat coloration. The analysis of skull measurements suggested that within this species there are three geographical groups, none of which is distinct enough to be assigned to species level. Dental formula: 10/3, C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","Primary and secondary evergreen rain forest. It has been suggested that the foot morphology of 7. napuindicates a preference for more swampy habitats than 7. javanicus/ 1. kanchil. Another source, from Borneo, however, claims that 7. napuis a hill species, found at no great elevation but never on swamps, plains and less often on river banks than 7. kanchil. T. napuseems to be scarcer in logged forest than in primary forest, with an 86% decline in density being reported following timber harvest. Daily home range use also appears to be more extensive in secondary forest. The sensitivity to logging is probably a consequence of diet constraints that limit the species’ ability to compensate for the reduced abundance of selected fruits in disturbed forest by utilizing browsing. In twelve-year-old logged forest, fewer trees remained belonging to genera eaten by 7. napu. On Tioman Island, of the coast of the Malay Peninsula, densities increased away from human settlements probably in direct relationship to hunting pressure; also 83% of observations on this island were in primary forests and 17% in secondary forests or rubber estates.","This species is mostly frugivorous, although few details on feeding are known. In captivity they eat most fruits and readily take to bananas, though their favorite food was mentioned to be the fruits and particularly the flowers of “Buah Simpoh” (presumably a Dillenia species). It has been asserted that 7. napuare prone to kill chickens, but no direct evidence for this was found.","The species is possibly polygynous; there is no distinct mating season and females give birth throughout the year in Peninsular Malaysia; one or rarely two young are born. The gestation period is 152-155 days. Weaning occurs at 2-3 months. The young reach sexual maturity at 4-5 months, and maximum life span in captivity is reported to be up to 14 years. 1. napuwas observed to stamp with one or both hindfeet when slightly alarmed. Other individuals would or would not stamp in response. Both males and females mark objects with the intermandibular gland. Males mark much more frequently than females. Males often lick the urine of females; less frequently, females lick the urine of males. Males court both receptive and unreceptive females. Courting males mark the female on the back or rump with the intermandibular gland and emit a series of squeaks. Females have a postpartum estrus and return to estrus at approximately 14day intervals unless they become pregnant. Females of 7. napuhave the potential to be pregnant throughout adult life, often with only 85-155 minutes passing between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and they are able to stand after 30 minutes. Mothers spend little time with infants. They emit a vocalization that sounds like the squeak of courting males. Both mothers and infants emit a higher-pitched vocalization. Intense agonistic behavior was seen only when strange individuals were introduced into established groups. Males fight by facing each other and biting each other on the ears, neck, and shoulders with their large upper canines. Fighting males usually hold the tail in a vertical position, exposing the white ventral surface, and may emit loud growls. If one male flees, the other pursues and attempts to bite him on the neck and body.","7. napuis reported to be cathemeral (active day and night), but there are few data to support this.","The density of 7. napuin one Borneo site was positively correlated with large strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and negatively correlated with grass and herbs and vine tangle. In primary forest densities vary from 37-72 ind/km?®. On Tioman Island, densities ranged from 27-8 ind/km? to 312-5 ind/ km? The home range in primary forest is about 7 ha. Home range and core area size do not differ according to sex, but are determined by body size of the individuals. The species is mostly solitary, with a mean group size of 1-37 individuals. Recent observations indicate that the species escapes predators by hiding under water in forest streams.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and at least locally common in the Sundaic region and, at least on Borneo, it appears that this species is resilient to hunting, although probably not to habitat degradation. Better data would allow a more confident assessment. Its wide altitudinal tolerance (presumed to be up to 1000 mabove sea level) means that it has large populations above the elevation where very rapid forest loss is occurring. The presumed short generation length of the species, which is likely underfive years, also influences assessment, because it means that the species could quickly recover from local declines. Thus, although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area to threaten its survival.","Azlan & Engkamat (2006) | Chasen (1940) | Chua et al. (2009) | Dobroruka (1972) | van Dort (1986, 1988) | Duckworth (1994, 1997) | Heydon (1994) | Heydon & Bulloh (1997) | Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2010) | Miura & Idris (1999) | Nakhasathien (1989) | Payne et al. (1985) | Ralls et al. (1975) | Smit-van Dort (1989) | Timmins et al. (2008) | Yasuma (1994, 1996) | Yasuma & Andau (2000)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721327/files/figure.png,"8.Greater Indo-Malayan ChevrotainTragulus napuFrench:Chevrotain napu/ German:Grofskantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoraton grandeTaxonomy.Moschus napu F. Cuvier, 1822,Sumatra, Indonesia.Restricted by Sody in 1931 to southern Sumatra.Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review and the authors were unable to assess the validity ofall taxa. In addition to the subspecies below several other taxa have been described for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. This includes nigrocinctus from MalaccaStrait islands (Kundur and Karimun Besar = Great Karimon); bullitonus from Belitung Island (which might be a subspecies of 1. kanchil); amoenus from Musala Island; and several subspecies from island taxa west of Sumatra, including brevipes from Bangkaru Island, russulus and batuanus from Tanahbala and Tanahmasa islands, pinius from Pini Island. All these taxa require further study to determine their taxonomic status. Seven subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.n.napuF.Cuvier,1822—SMyanmar,Thai/MalayPeninsula,islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(Langkawi&Pangkor),Borneo,SSumatra,BangkaI,islandsoffBorneo(Laut&Serasan).T.n.bangue:Chasen&Kloss,1931—BanggiIandBalembanganI,offNBorneo.T.n.bunguranensisMiller,1901—NatunaIs(=Bunguran),oftWBorneo.T.n.neubronneriSody,1931—NSumatra.T.n.nmiasisLyon,1916—NiasI,offWSumatra.T.n.rufulusMiller,1900—TiomanI,offEMalayPeninsula,RiauandLinggaArchipelagos.T. n. terutus Thomas & Wroughton, 1909— Terutau I, off W Malay Peninsula.The species was recently reconfirmed for Singapore. Maps that include Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laosin the distribution range are based on the earlier assumption that 7. versicolorwas a subspecies of 1. napu. Subsequent studies have indicated that 7. versicoloris a distinct species, and that the range of 1. naputherefore does not extend into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. The northern limit on the Thai-Malay peninsula is not well defined. Specimens of 1. napuhave been collected from as far north as Bankachon in southern Myanmar(10° 08” N), but despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kui Buri National Park, Thailand(12° N), 7. napuhas not been photographed there. At the northern margin ofits range, it is generally rare. It has been reported, for example, that during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani Province; about 9° N, 98° 45’ E), only six 7. napuwere rescued compared with 172 71. kanchil. This area is the transition zone from wetter evergreen forest to drier deciduous types, and it might be that 7° napuis not well adapted to the drier forest types towards the northern limit ofits range. There are unconfirmed reports of the species on Java, where it may have been confused with one of the two color morphs of 7. javanicus. As explained in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of several islands remains unclear.Descriptive notes.Head-body 42:5-68 cm, tail 8-5 cm, shoulder height 30-35 cm; weight 3-5—4-5 kg. 1. napuis one of the largest Asian chevrotains. The pelage is orangeybrown in color; the hindquarters are lightly mottled with black. The underparts and legs are paler. The underside of the chin is white, and there are a series of white markings on the neck. The head is triangular in shape, and the large black nose is naked. The eyes are very large, and the ears are medium-sized, lightly covered with black hair. The body is rounded, and the rear quarters are higher than the front. The legs are extremely thin and delicate, being about the diameter of a pencil. Compared to the partly sympatric 1. kanchil, skin patterns of 7. napuare more mottled and 7. napuhas pale lines on the throat and neck, whereas 7. kanchilnormally has three strong white lines on the throat and has uniformly colored upperparts. There is, however, considerable variation within each species in the coloration and striping patterns (also see other Tragulusspecies accounts), especially on the many small islands where the species occur. In several instances it is nearly impossible to determine whether a taxon is more closely related to 7. napuor to T. kanchil. In fact, until an in-depth taxonomic review was recently conducted, 7! napuwas sometimes considered to be a sibling species of 1. kanchil. The pelage coloration in 7. napuis more variable than in 7 kanchil, with varying degrees of melanism and erythrism. Specimens from the larger islands (Borneo and Sumatra) and the Asian mainland and Malay Peninsula are generally dull yellowish-brown, with a mottled appearance. On several islands, 7. naputypically has a red-brown color. Even the nape-stripe is red-brown, somewhat darker than the orange-red neck. The lines from the eye to nose are deep black, and the red-brown back is mixed with black. From studies of hair and skins and from information in the literature it appears that increased redness is the result of fewer all-black and black-tipped hairs in the coat and possibly also an actual increased redness in the hair pigment. The color pattern of the primitive type of 1. napuon the mainland can be summarized as follows: a mixed brown and black neck, the black concentrating along the nape to form an evident napestripe; and a normal throat pattern with a median white longitudinal stripe, on each side of which is a similar stripe, the three meeting in a broad white mass; the space between median and lateral stripes is brown, as in the side of the neck, or somewhat darker; a brown transverse band or collar separates the stripes from the white of the chest. The two lines of variation are toward predominance of yellowish-brown or toward predominance of black. This species was readily differentiated from members of the 1. javanicus/ kanchilgroup by its larger size, relatively small auditory bullae and, in most specimens, the distinct coat coloration. The analysis of skull measurements suggested that within this species there are three geographical groups, none of which is distinct enough to be assigned to species level. Dental formula: 10/3, C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Primary and secondary evergreen rain forest. It has been suggested that the foot morphology of 7. napuindicates a preference for more swampy habitats than 7. javanicus/ 1. kanchil. Another source, from Borneo, however, claims that 7. napuis a hill species, found at no great elevation but never on swamps, plains and less often on river banks than 7. kanchil. T. napuseems to be scarcer in logged forest than in primary forest, with an 86% decline in density being reported following timber harvest. Daily home range use also appears to be more extensive in secondary forest. The sensitivity to logging is probably a consequence of diet constraints that limit the species’ ability to compensate for the reduced abundance of selected fruits in disturbed forest by utilizing browsing. In twelve-year-old logged forest, fewer trees remained belonging to genera eaten by 7. napu. On Tioman Island, of the coast of the Malay Peninsula, densities increased away from human settlements probably in direct relationship to hunting pressure; also 83% of observations on this island were in primary forests and 17% in secondary forests or rubber estates.Food and Feeding.This species is mostly frugivorous, although few details on feeding are known. In captivity they eat most fruits and readily take to bananas, though their favorite food was mentioned to be the fruits and particularly the flowers of “Buah Simpoh” (presumably a Dillenia species). It has been asserted that 7. napuare prone to kill chickens, but no direct evidence for this was found.Breeding.The species is possibly polygynous; there is no distinct mating season and females give birth throughout the year in Peninsular Malaysia; one or rarely two young are born. The gestation period is 152-155 days. Weaning occurs at 2-3 months. The young reach sexual maturity at 4-5 months, and maximum life span in captivity is reported to be up to 14 years. 1. napuwas observed to stamp with one or both hindfeet when slightly alarmed. Other individuals would or would not stamp in response. Both males and females mark objects with the intermandibular gland. Males mark much more frequently than females. Males often lick the urine of females; less frequently, females lick the urine of males. Males court both receptive and unreceptive females. Courting males mark the female on the back or rump with the intermandibular gland and emit a series of squeaks. Females have a postpartum estrus and return to estrus at approximately 14day intervals unless they become pregnant. Females of 7. napuhave the potential to be pregnant throughout adult life, often with only 85-155 minutes passing between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and they are able to stand after 30 minutes. Mothers spend little time with infants. They emit a vocalization that sounds like the squeak of courting males. Both mothers and infants emit a higher-pitched vocalization. Intense agonistic behavior was seen only when strange individuals were introduced into established groups. Males fight by facing each other and biting each other on the ears, neck, and shoulders with their large upper canines. Fighting males usually hold the tail in a vertical position, exposing the white ventral surface, and may emit loud growls. If one male flees, the other pursues and attempts to bite him on the neck and body.Activity patterns.7. napuis reported to be cathemeral (active day and night), but there are few data to support this.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The density of 7. napuin one Borneo site was positively correlated with large strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and negatively correlated with grass and herbs and vine tangle. In primary forest densities vary from 37-72 ind/km?®. On Tioman Island, densities ranged from 27-8 ind/km? to 312-5 ind/ km? The home range in primary forest is about 7 ha. Home range and core area size do not differ according to sex, but are determined by body size of the individuals. The species is mostly solitary, with a mean group size of 1-37 individuals. Recent observations indicate that the species escapes predators by hiding under water in forest streams.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and at least locally common in the Sundaic region and, at least on Borneo, it appears that this species is resilient to hunting, although probably not to habitat degradation. Better data would allow a more confident assessment. Its wide altitudinal tolerance (presumed to be up to 1000 mabove sea level) means that it has large populations above the elevation where very rapid forest loss is occurring. The presumed short generation length of the species, which is likely underfive years, also influences assessment, because it means that the species could quickly recover from local declines. Thus, although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area to threaten its survival.Bibliography.Azlan & Engkamat (2006), Chasen (1940), Chua et al. (2009), Dobroruka (1972), van Dort (1986, 1988), Duckworth (1994, 1997), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2010), Miura & Idris (1999), Nakhasathien (1989), Payne et al. (1985), Ralls et al. (1975), Smit-van Dort (1989), Timmins et al. (2008), Yasuma (1994, 1996), Yasuma & Andau (2000)." 03C587E31E7FFF92FA98F95A93D2F7A4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,331,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7FFF92FA98F95A93D2F7A4.xml,Tragulus javanicus,Tragulus,javanicus,,,Chevrotain de Java @fr | Java-Kantschil @de | Ciervoratén de Java @es,"Cervus javanicus Osbeck, 1765,Udjung Kulon Peninsula, Java, Indonesia.Craniometrical analysis indicates that there may be two distinct chevrotain taxa on Java. The data are, however, inconclusive. Further research, particularly on skin patterns ofJavan Chevrotain, is required. None of the specimens originally used to describe two subspecies, the gray-necked form pelandoc (from the north coast of West Java Province) and the red-necked form focalinus (from the western part ofJava and to the southern coast), were included in a recent taxonomic review of the genus. An earlier review found all kinds of forms that were intermediate between the two supposed Javan subspecies and concluded that there was probably only one taxon on Java. Monotypic.","Java. Several biogeographic reviews failed to list the genus for Bali, an island directly east of Javawith strong biogeographic affinities to the latter. A sighting was, however, reported from BaliBaratNational Park, in a birdwatching trip report. Given the live-animal trade of this species on Java, further records are needed to confirm whether or not there is a native population of the genus on Bali. If there is, biogeographic considerations suggest it would be most closely related to the Javan population and quite probably conspecific.","Head-body 50-53 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 1.7-2. 1 kg. Compared to 1. kanchil, T: javanicusis distinguished by its narrow auditory bullae, narrow braincase, and longer and higher mandibles. Compared with 7. kanchilfrom nearby Sumatra, the rostrum is shorter and the auditory bullae are narrower. Two different taxa of chevrotain have been described from Java, a gray-necked form and a red-necked form. The gray-necked form was distinguished from all other 7. javanicuslike chevrotains by the great width and distinctness of the tawny superciliary stripes and by the grizzled gray neck, which is strikingly contrasted with the tawny body and head; in addition, the nape stripe is absent, although the dark crown sometimesslightly extends onto the nape. The red-necked form, described on the basis of five specimens in the Zoological Museum of the Humboldt University in Berlin, has an orange-brown ground color,slightly grizzled with black. All five specimens had a clear, almost black, nape stripe. The cheeks and the sides of the neck are orange-buff, as opposed to the gray in the gray-necked form. This species was described as having a remarkably long tongue, which “it brings with ease to behind its ears,” but presumably this is a generic rather than species-specific characteristic. Dental formulais 10/3; C1/1; P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","Preferred habitat of the Javan Chevrotain includes evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest. The species has been reported in the drier semi-deciduous forests of eastern Java, butit seems to be rarer there than in the wetter forests of central and west Java. One habitat-use study suggested that 7. javanicususes dense bushes and stands of Salacca zalacca palms during the day. It generally remains not far from rivers. This suggests that chevrotains there might be an “edge” species, apparently preferring areas with thick understory vegetation, such as that along riverbanks. This would not be unusual within the genus (see other Tragulusaccounts). The species occurs from sea level to about 1600 mabove sea level in the mountains.","In captivity Javan Chevrotains refuse grass as fodder and do not feed on any grasses that grow in their cages. Instead they are kept on banana peels, jackfruit, and the left-overs of rambutan and mangosteen fruits. In captivity, they are partial to leaves of a number of Acalypha(Euphorbiaceae) species, including A. marginata and A. wilkesiana, as well as leaves of Laeucaena glauca, Ipomoea batatas, I. reptans, and Manihot utilissima. In the wild, the species reportedly feeds on fallen fruit, including wild figs (Ficus spp.), and the leaves and buds of a variety of plants.","Males ofthis species are reported to produce unusual screams during the mating season. In captivity they have been observed to fight to the death. With bared teeth (lips withdrawn) males circled each other, and by approaching from the side, tried to get underneath the opponentto stab or slice with their canines. As a result, the belly of one victim was ripped open, causing its entrails to spill. The female had calmly observed the fight, lying down with the front legs folded underneath her body; mating with the winning male took place soon after. Females in captivity developed bold patches, sometimes chafed and bloody, after mating, apparently caused by the sharp hooves of the male during copulation. Gestation lasts several months, after which one young is born, “the size of a rat”, dark brown, with a very small head and thin legs. Young can run and jump soon after birth, and suckle only occasionally, only at night and very briefly. The young soon start eating the same leaves and fruits as older animals. Neither male nor female parent made any apparent effort to protect their young. A specimen of 7. javanicussuccessfully bred with a chevrotain from Bangka Island (presumably 7 kanchilluteicollis) and produced a young with intermediate characteristics.","Observations in captivity suggest that the species is nocturnal, and during the day rests in a quiet, cool, shaded spot. It becomes active around 16:00 h or 17:00 h in the afternoon.",Nothing known.,"The account of 7. javanicuson The IUCN Red List states that the speciesis classified as Data Deficient, partly reflecting the lack of clarity over how many species of chevrotain occur onJava and therefore how much of the available information about the genus refers to 1. javanicus. The authors mention that there are fair indications of a decline, perhaps a major one, and a category such as Vulnerable is quite likely to be applicable. The species is hunted for meat and is also often sold as a pet, for example in markets in West Java. In the 1920s it was reported that the species was commonly trapped using snares, but no recent information on this is available. Dedicated field investigations (throughoutJava) ofstatus are urgently warranted, and the Red List status of the species should be reviewed regularly in light of current uncertainty and concerns.","Dakkus (1932) | Dobroruka (1967) | Doctors van Leeuwen (1921) | van Dort (1986, 1988) | Duckworth et al. (2008) | Farida (2003) | Groves & Meijaard (2005) | Hoogerwerf (1970) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Supraptomo (1953) | van der Vegte (1938)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721299/files/figure.png,"7.Javan ChevrotainTragulus javanicusFrench:Chevrotain de Java/ German:Java-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén de JavaTaxonomy.Cervus javanicus Osbeck, 1765,Udjung Kulon Peninsula, Java, Indonesia.Craniometrical analysis indicates that there may be two distinct chevrotain taxa on Java. The data are, however, inconclusive. Further research, particularly on skin patterns ofJavan Chevrotain, is required. None of the specimens originally used to describe two subspecies, the gray-necked form pelandoc (from the north coast of West Java Province) and the red-necked form focalinus (from the western part ofJava and to the southern coast), were included in a recent taxonomic review of the genus. An earlier review found all kinds of forms that were intermediate between the two supposed Javan subspecies and concluded that there was probably only one taxon on Java. Monotypic.Distribution.Java. Several biogeographic reviews failed to list the genus for Bali, an island directly east of Javawith strong biogeographic affinities to the latter. A sighting was, however, reported from BaliBaratNational Park, in a birdwatching trip report. Given the live-animal trade of this species on Java, further records are needed to confirm whether or not there is a native population of the genus on Bali. If there is, biogeographic considerations suggest it would be most closely related to the Javan population and quite probably conspecific.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-53 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 1.7-2. 1 kg. Compared to 1. kanchil, T: javanicusis distinguished by its narrow auditory bullae, narrow braincase, and longer and higher mandibles. Compared with 7. kanchilfrom nearby Sumatra, the rostrum is shorter and the auditory bullae are narrower. Two different taxa of chevrotain have been described from Java, a gray-necked form and a red-necked form. The gray-necked form was distinguished from all other 7. javanicuslike chevrotains by the great width and distinctness of the tawny superciliary stripes and by the grizzled gray neck, which is strikingly contrasted with the tawny body and head; in addition, the nape stripe is absent, although the dark crown sometimesslightly extends onto the nape. The red-necked form, described on the basis of five specimens in the Zoological Museum of the Humboldt University in Berlin, has an orange-brown ground color,slightly grizzled with black. All five specimens had a clear, almost black, nape stripe. The cheeks and the sides of the neck are orange-buff, as opposed to the gray in the gray-necked form. This species was described as having a remarkably long tongue, which “it brings with ease to behind its ears,” but presumably this is a generic rather than species-specific characteristic. Dental formulais 10/3; C1/1; P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Preferred habitat of the Javan Chevrotain includes evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest. The species has been reported in the drier semi-deciduous forests of eastern Java, butit seems to be rarer there than in the wetter forests of central and west Java. One habitat-use study suggested that 7. javanicususes dense bushes and stands of Salacca zalacca palms during the day. It generally remains not far from rivers. This suggests that chevrotains there might be an “edge” species, apparently preferring areas with thick understory vegetation, such as that along riverbanks. This would not be unusual within the genus (see other Tragulusaccounts). The species occurs from sea level to about 1600 mabove sea level in the mountains.Food and Feeding.In captivity Javan Chevrotains refuse grass as fodder and do not feed on any grasses that grow in their cages. Instead they are kept on banana peels, jackfruit, and the left-overs of rambutan and mangosteen fruits. In captivity, they are partial to leaves of a number of Acalypha(Euphorbiaceae) species, including A. marginata and A. wilkesiana, as well as leaves of Laeucaena glauca, Ipomoea batatas, I. reptans, and Manihot utilissima. In the wild, the species reportedly feeds on fallen fruit, including wild figs (Ficus spp.), and the leaves and buds of a variety of plants.Breeding.Males ofthis species are reported to produce unusual screams during the mating season. In captivity they have been observed to fight to the death. With bared teeth (lips withdrawn) males circled each other, and by approaching from the side, tried to get underneath the opponentto stab or slice with their canines. As a result, the belly of one victim was ripped open, causing its entrails to spill. The female had calmly observed the fight, lying down with the front legs folded underneath her body; mating with the winning male took place soon after. Females in captivity developed bold patches, sometimes chafed and bloody, after mating, apparently caused by the sharp hooves of the male during copulation. Gestation lasts several months, after which one young is born, “the size of a rat”, dark brown, with a very small head and thin legs. Young can run and jump soon after birth, and suckle only occasionally, only at night and very briefly. The young soon start eating the same leaves and fruits as older animals. Neither male nor female parent made any apparent effort to protect their young. A specimen of 7. javanicussuccessfully bred with a chevrotain from Bangka Island (presumably 7 kanchilluteicollis) and produced a young with intermediate characteristics.Activity patterns.Observations in captivity suggest that the species is nocturnal, and during the day rests in a quiet, cool, shaded spot. It becomes active around 16:00 h or 17:00 h in the afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.The account of 7. javanicuson The IUCN Red List states that the speciesis classified as Data Deficient, partly reflecting the lack of clarity over how many species of chevrotain occur onJava and therefore how much of the available information about the genus refers to 1. javanicus. The authors mention that there are fair indications of a decline, perhaps a major one, and a category such as Vulnerable is quite likely to be applicable. The species is hunted for meat and is also often sold as a pet, for example in markets in West Java. In the 1920s it was reported that the species was commonly trapped using snares, but no recent information on this is available. Dedicated field investigations (throughoutJava) ofstatus are urgently warranted, and the Red List status of the species should be reviewed regularly in light of current uncertainty and concerns.Bibliography.Dakkus (1932), Dobroruka (1967), Doctors van Leeuwen (1921), van Dort (1986, 1988), Duckworth et al. (2008), Farida (2003), Groves & Meijaard (2005), Hoogerwerf (1970), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Supraptomo (1953), van der Vegte (1938)." 03C587E31E7FFF93FF91F5FA9914F916,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81,331,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7FFF93FF91F5FA9914F916.xml,Tragulus williamsoni,Tragulus,williamsoni,Kloss,1916,Chevrotain de Williamson @fr | Thailand Kantschil @de | Ciervoratén de Tailandia @es,"Tragulus williamsoni Kloss, 1916,Meh Lem, Thailand.The recent reallocation of 1. williamsonito species level was based on one specimen from northern Thailand, because the skull dimensions exceeded those of any other T. kanchitlike chevrotains from the Asian mainland. Recently, two additional specimens from Mengla, Yunnan, Chinahave been identified that appear to support the species-level designation of this taxon. This, however, requires further careful study, because even though the two Chinese skulls are similar in size to the specimen from northern Thailand, verification of the measurements is still required. The taxonomic uncertainty of 71. williamsoniis compounded by the lack of available specimens of chevrotains from close to the type locality of T. williamson: with which to test for conspecificity with 7. kanchiland, if the taxon is validated, to determine whetherit is sympatric or parapatric with 7. kanchil. More material is needed for both 7. williamsoniand 1. kanchil, if it occurs there, from the northern parts of Thailand, adjacent southern China, and possibly northern Laosas well as northern Myanmar, to make an informed judgment. Monotypic.","Thailandand southern China, mainly the Sanchahe part of the Mengman region and the Darongshu of the Longmen region, both in S. Yunnan, but possibly more widespread with potential presence in Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar.","No measurements available. The type specimen of this species was described as larger than other 7. kanchilspecimens from the Asian mainland, but with color patterns similar to 7. k. affinis. Photos of this type specimen show uniformly colored pale brown upperparts, with a barely visible darker nape streak; the species was described as being like 7. k. affinis but larger and with the upperparts deeper ochraceous and only moderately annulated with brown. Throat patterns are as in 7 k. affinis, with clearly defined white chin and neck stripes and a reddish-brown transverse throat band that separates the white neck and chin from the white chest (unlike in 7 versicolor, in which this dark band is discontinuous, and the white neck and chin and white chest thus connected). Dental formulais10/3; C1/1;P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","A recent study in Yunnanshowed that the species prefers valleys along banks of rivers or streams in low altitude, where they tend to use middle and lower slopes with the favorite fruit trees Ficus hirtal, Baccaurea samiflora, Alpinia kwangsiensis, and Phrynium capitatum. These plants occur along banks ofrivers or streams. Chevrotain habitat use was mostly affected by tall tree coverage, shrub coverage, and herb coverage, and distance to water.","Based on its habitat use and tree preferences in Yunnan, the diet of T. williamsoniappears to contain significant amounts offruit.",Nothing known.,Nothing known.,Nothing known.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, The species’ status cannot be assessed due to taxonomic uncertainty and a paucity of data on extent of occurrence, threats, habitat preferences and altitudinal range. Hunting is heavy in the species’ likely range and habitat perturbation is increasing there. The lack of understanding of the population-level effects on the species rule out inferential application of decline-based criteria. On the IUCN assessmentit is suggested that even modest additional information would allow categorization of the species, and thatit would likely warrant either Near Threatened or one of the threatened categories.","Aidong Luo et al. (1999) | Cao Mingl et al. (2010) | Kloss (1916, 1918) | Meijaard & Groves (20044, 2004b) | Shi Liming & Chen Yuze (1989) | Timmins et al. (2008)",https://zenodo.org/record/5721297/files/figure.png,"6.Northern ChevrotainTragulus williamsoniFrench:Chevrotain de Williamson/ German:ThailandKantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén de TailandiaTaxonomy.Tragulus williamsoni Kloss, 1916,Meh Lem, Thailand.The recent reallocation of 1. williamsonito species level was based on one specimen from northern Thailand, because the skull dimensions exceeded those of any other T. kanchitlike chevrotains from the Asian mainland. Recently, two additional specimens from Mengla, Yunnan, Chinahave been identified that appear to support the species-level designation of this taxon. This, however, requires further careful study, because even though the two Chinese skulls are similar in size to the specimen from northern Thailand, verification of the measurements is still required. The taxonomic uncertainty of 71. williamsoniis compounded by the lack of available specimens of chevrotains from close to the type locality of T. williamson: with which to test for conspecificity with 7. kanchiland, if the taxon is validated, to determine whetherit is sympatric or parapatric with 7. kanchil. More material is needed for both 7. williamsoniand 1. kanchil, if it occurs there, from the northern parts of Thailand, adjacent southern China, and possibly northern Laosas well as northern Myanmar, to make an informed judgment. Monotypic.Distribution.Thailandand southern China, mainly the Sanchahe part of the Mengman region and the Darongshu of the Longmen region, both in S. Yunnan, but possibly more widespread with potential presence in Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar.Descriptive notes.No measurements available. The type specimen of this species was described as larger than other 7. kanchilspecimens from the Asian mainland, but with color patterns similar to 7. k. affinis. Photos of this type specimen show uniformly colored pale brown upperparts, with a barely visible darker nape streak; the species was described as being like 7. k. affinis but larger and with the upperparts deeper ochraceous and only moderately annulated with brown. Throat patterns are as in 7 k. affinis, with clearly defined white chin and neck stripes and a reddish-brown transverse throat band that separates the white neck and chin from the white chest (unlike in 7 versicolor, in which this dark band is discontinuous, and the white neck and chin and white chest thus connected). Dental formulais10/3; C1/1;P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.A recent study in Yunnanshowed that the species prefers valleys along banks of rivers or streams in low altitude, where they tend to use middle and lower slopes with the favorite fruit trees Ficus hirtal, Baccaurea samiflora, Alpinia kwangsiensis, and Phrynium capitatum. These plants occur along banks ofrivers or streams. Chevrotain habitat use was mostly affected by tall tree coverage, shrub coverage, and herb coverage, and distance to water.Food and Feeding.Based on its habitat use and tree preferences in Yunnan, the diet of T. williamsoniappears to contain significant amounts offruit.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, The species’ status cannot be assessed due to taxonomic uncertainty and a paucity of data on extent of occurrence, threats, habitat preferences and altitudinal range. Hunting is heavy in the species’ likely range and habitat perturbation is increasing there. The lack of understanding of the population-level effects on the species rule out inferential application of decline-based criteria. On the IUCN assessmentit is suggested that even modest additional information would allow categorization of the species, and thatit would likely warrant either Near Threatened or one of the threatened categories.Bibliography.Aidong Luo et al. (1999), Cao Mingl et al. (2010), Kloss (1916, 1918), Meijaard & Groves (20044, 2004b), Shi Liming & Chen Yuze (1989), Timmins et al. (2008)." 03C5A071FFC2FFE9FA085FBD5EE9FD5D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,599,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC2FFE9FA085FBD5EE9FD5D.xml,Phyllomys mantiqueirensis,Phyllomys,mantiqueirensis,Leite,2003,Rat-épineux de la Mantiqueira @fr | Serra-da-Mantiqueira-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Mantiqueira @es | Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat @en,"Phyllomys mantiqueirensis Leite, 2003, “Fazenda da Onca, 13 km SW Delfim Moreira, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°36’S 45°20°W, 1850 m.”This species is monotypic.","SE Brazil, Mantiqueira Mts in Minas Gerais State.","Head-body 217 mm, tail 216 mm; weight 207 g. The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is mediumsized and has brownish-gray upper parts.Dorsal pelt is soft, densely furred, with hairy tail that is tufted at tip. Aristiforms on rump are blackish distally, average 24 mm in length, and very thin. Belly is pale brown, with white-based cream-yellow—tipped hairs. Soft tail is equal to head-body length, covered with brown hairs darker than grayish body color; hairs become more abundant and longer from base totip oftail. Tail tuft is 30 mm long and very distinct. Interorbital region is narrow; lacrimal process is well developed. Rostrum is short and broad; incisive foramina are small and oval-shaped. Mandible has slim and long coronoid process and deep sigmoid notch.","Steep slopes in cool montane rainforest at an elevation of 1850 m (based on only one specimen). This habitat is very distinct, specific, and naturally restricted. It is known only from the type locality where open overstory is composed of short (10 m) canopy trees and tall emergent araucarias (Araucaria angustifolia, Araucariaceae). Dense understory is composed of ferns, bamboos, vines, lianas, shrubs, and lichens. Type specimen was collected on a 2m high liana connecting two trees.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra de Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra de Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","There is no specific information are available for this species, but the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is probably nocturnal.",The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is estimated to be less than 100 km?, it is known from only a single location, and there has been continuing decline in quality and availability of habitat. It is currently protected from indiscriminate exploitation at the type locality, which belongs to the Brazilian Army. Nevertheless, it is probably restricted to high-elevation mixed evergreen araucaria forests in the Serra da Mantiqueira, a very specific and naturally restricted habitat. Additional ecological studies ofthis Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.",Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6623890/files/figure.png,"92.Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mantiqueirensisFrench:Rat-épineux de la Mantiqueira/ German:Serra-da-Mantiqueira-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de MantiqueiraOther common names:Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Phyllomys mantiqueirensis Leite, 2003, “Fazenda da Onca, 13 km SW Delfim Moreira, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°36’S 45°20°W, 1850 m.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, Mantiqueira Mts in Minas Gerais State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217 mm, tail 216 mm; weight 207 g. The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is mediumsized and has brownish-gray upper parts.Dorsal pelt is soft, densely furred, with hairy tail that is tufted at tip. Aristiforms on rump are blackish distally, average 24 mm in length, and very thin. Belly is pale brown, with white-based cream-yellow—tipped hairs. Soft tail is equal to head-body length, covered with brown hairs darker than grayish body color; hairs become more abundant and longer from base totip oftail. Tail tuft is 30 mm long and very distinct. Interorbital region is narrow; lacrimal process is well developed. Rostrum is short and broad; incisive foramina are small and oval-shaped. Mandible has slim and long coronoid process and deep sigmoid notch.Habitat.Steep slopes in cool montane rainforest at an elevation of 1850 m (based on only one specimen). This habitat is very distinct, specific, and naturally restricted. It is known only from the type locality where open overstory is composed of short (10 m) canopy trees and tall emergent araucarias (Araucaria angustifolia, Araucariaceae). Dense understory is composed of ferns, bamboos, vines, lianas, shrubs, and lichens. Type specimen was collected on a 2m high liana connecting two trees.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra de Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information are available for this species, but the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is probably nocturnal.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsMovements, Home range and Social organization.The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is estimated to be less than 100 km?, it is known from only a single location, and there has been continuing decline in quality and availability of habitat. It is currently protected from indiscriminate exploitation at the type locality, which belongs to the Brazilian Army. Nevertheless, it is probably restricted to high-elevation mixed evergreen araucaria forests in the Serra da Mantiqueira, a very specific and naturally restricted habitat. Additional ecological studies ofthis Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFC2FFF6FF005B695BB6F48C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,599,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC2FFF6FF005B695BB6F48C.xml,Phyllomys unicolor,Phyllomys,unicolor,,,Rat-épineux unicolore @fr | Einfarb-Klistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica unincolor @es | Short-furred Atlantic Tree-rat @en | Unicolored Atlantic Tree-rat @en,"Loncheres wunicolor Wagner, 1842, “Brasilia.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Colonia Leopoldina [now Helvécia], 50 km SW Caravelas, Bahia, Brazil, 17°48’S 39°39'W, elev. 59 m.”Phyllomys unicolorwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","E Brazil, known only from the type locality in S Bahia State.","Head-body 280 mm,tail 202 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Unicolored Tree-rat is the second largest species of Phyllomys, and it has uniform pale rusty red-brown upper parts. Venter becomes gradually buffy. Dorsal pelt is composed of rather short and stiff guard hairs on dorsum (20 mm). Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and thin (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Tail is 73% of head-body length and is rusty. Tail is covered with long (5 mm) hairs covering scales. Tail hairs become longer toward end, wheretip is slightly tufted. Hindfeet are short and broad and bear stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are yellowish. Ears are nearly naked and short, with hair tufts near anterior edges. Skull of the Unicolored Tree-ratis robust and flat dorsally; rostrum is short and robust. Jugal is broad dorso-ventrally, and jugal fossa is deeply concave and has strong beaded ventral lip, with tip of fossa reaching anteriorly to ventral maxillojugal suture. Rounded post-orbital process is present and mainly formed byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends ventrally below lower edge level of external auditory meatus. Tympanic bulla is conspicuously inflated. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior edge offirst lamina of third upper molar. Upper tooth rows are extremely wide (13-9 mm) and parallel. Upperincisors are broad, orthodont, and orange. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally.","Broadleaf evergreen rainforests near the coast. The Unicolored Tree-ratis only known from a single type specimen collected in the 19"" century.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Unicolored Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information are available for this species, but Unicolored Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Unicolored Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Unicolored Tree-rat is known only from the single specimen collected in a lowland broadleaf evergreen rainforest, which is now highly reduced at the type locality, Helvecia, Bahia State, Brazil. Additional studies near the type locality are needed to locate remaining populations of this poorly known and very distinct tree-rat.",Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Wagner (1842) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6623886/files/figure.png,"90.Unicolored Tree-ratPhyllomys unicolorFrench:Rat-épineux unicolore/ German:Einfarb-Klistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica unincolorOther common names:Short-furred Atlantic Tree-rat, Unicolored Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Loncheres wunicolor Wagner, 1842, “Brasilia.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Colonia Leopoldina [now Helvécia], 50 km SW Caravelas, Bahia, Brazil, 17°48’S 39°39'W, elev. 59 m.”Phyllomys unicolorwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil, known only from the type locality in S Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 280 mm,tail 202 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Unicolored Tree-rat is the second largest species of Phyllomys, and it has uniform pale rusty red-brown upper parts. Venter becomes gradually buffy. Dorsal pelt is composed of rather short and stiff guard hairs on dorsum (20 mm). Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and thin (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Tail is 73% of head-body length and is rusty. Tail is covered with long (5 mm) hairs covering scales. Tail hairs become longer toward end, wheretip is slightly tufted. Hindfeet are short and broad and bear stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are yellowish. Ears are nearly naked and short, with hair tufts near anterior edges. Skull of the Unicolored Tree-ratis robust and flat dorsally; rostrum is short and robust. Jugal is broad dorso-ventrally, and jugal fossa is deeply concave and has strong beaded ventral lip, with tip of fossa reaching anteriorly to ventral maxillojugal suture. Rounded post-orbital process is present and mainly formed byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends ventrally below lower edge level of external auditory meatus. Tympanic bulla is conspicuously inflated. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior edge offirst lamina of third upper molar. Upper tooth rows are extremely wide (13-9 mm) and parallel. Upperincisors are broad, orthodont, and orange. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen rainforests near the coast. The Unicolored Tree-ratis only known from a single type specimen collected in the 19"" century.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Unicolored Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information are available for this species, but Unicolored Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Unicolored Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Unicolored Tree-rat is known only from the single specimen collected in a lowland broadleaf evergreen rainforest, which is now highly reduced at the type locality, Helvecia, Bahia State, Brazil. Additional studies near the type locality are needed to locate remaining populations of this poorly known and very distinct tree-rat.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookBibliography.Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Wagner (1842), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFC2FFF6FF0B5368527EF8FE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,599,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC2FFF6FF0B5368527EF8FE.xml,Phyllomys pattoni,Phyllomys,pattoni,Emmons,2002,Rat-épineux a flancs roux @fr | Patton-Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Patton @es | Rusty-sided Atlantic Tree-rat @en,"Phyllomys pattoni Emmons et al., 2002, “Mangue do Caritoti, Caravelas, Bahia, Brazil, 17°43°30” S 39°15’35”""W: at sea level.”The name P. pattoniwas given to specimens erroneously identified as P. brasiliensisfor more than a century. These specimens had previously been identified as Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","E Brazil, along the coast from Paraiba to NE Sao Paulo states.","Head-body 209-241 mm, tail 190-223 mm; weight 150-380 g. Upper part of Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is dark brown and covered by abundant rustytipped spines. Spines are light gray at bases, darkening toward middle parts and having orange tips. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with short (23 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms, most of them lacking typical whip-like tips present in most other species of Phyllomys. Tail is slightly shorter than head-body length, covered with scattered hairs, leaving scalesvisible;tail tip is not tufted. Skull of Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed and beaded supraorbital ledges. Interorbital region diverges posteriorly and lacks post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching one-third of Jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and composed ofjugal and squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are bullet-shaped. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are short and narrow. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally.","Mostly coastal broadleaf evergreen rainforests, sometimes associated with mangroves, but also semideciduous forest inland, from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is broadly distributed and locally common, occurring in primary and secondary habitats, including protected areas. It also occurs in highly disturbed urban areas, where it is sympatric with invasive rodents such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus). Its habitat is highly fragmented and reduced in some parts ofits distribution.","One stomach of a Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat contained plant material, and gut morphology is indicative of an herbivorous diet. Its small intestine is the longest found among four arboreal echimyid genera, indicating possibility of more diverse diets, including fruits, leaves, and insects.","Pregnant Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rats carrying two embryos were caught in February at Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro, and in August at Vicosa, Minas Gerais. A Juvenile was collected in March at Ilhéus, Bahia. It is reported to build nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is probably nocturnal.",Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat occursis highly fragmented and reduced. Nevertheless, Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is widely distributed, often detected in field studies, and abundant in collections. Its distribution includes several large protected areas, including urban forests and mangroves.","Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Paresque et al. (2004) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623888/files/figure.png,"91.Patton’s Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys pattoniFrench:Rat-épineux a flancs roux/ German:Patton-Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de PattonOther common names:Rusty-sided Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Phyllomys pattoni Emmons et al., 2002, “Mangue do Caritoti, Caravelas, Bahia, Brazil, 17°43°30” S 39°15’35”""W: at sea level.”The name P. pattoniwas given to specimens erroneously identified as P. brasiliensisfor more than a century. These specimens had previously been identified as Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil, along the coast from Paraiba to NE Sao Paulo states.638Descriptive notes.Head-body 209-241 mm, tail 190-223 mm; weight 150-380 g. Upper part of Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is dark brown and covered by abundant rustytipped spines. Spines are light gray at bases, darkening toward middle parts and having orange tips. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with short (23 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms, most of them lacking typical whip-like tips present in most other species of Phyllomys. Tail is slightly shorter than head-body length, covered with scattered hairs, leaving scalesvisible;tail tip is not tufted. Skull of Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed and beaded supraorbital ledges. Interorbital region diverges posteriorly and lacks post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching one-third of Jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and composed ofjugal and squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are bullet-shaped. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are short and narrow. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally.Habitat.Mostly coastal broadleaf evergreen rainforests, sometimes associated with mangroves, but also semideciduous forest inland, from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is broadly distributed and locally common, occurring in primary and secondary habitats, including protected areas. It also occurs in highly disturbed urban areas, where it is sympatric with invasive rodents such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus). Its habitat is highly fragmented and reduced in some parts ofits distribution.Food and Feeding.One stomach of a Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat contained plant material, and gut morphology is indicative of an herbivorous diet. Its small intestine is the longest found among four arboreal echimyid genera, indicating possibility of more diverse diets, including fruits, leaves, and insects.Breeding.Pregnant Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rats carrying two embryos were caught in February at Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro, and in August at Vicosa, Minas Gerais. A Juvenile was collected in March at Ilhéus, Bahia. It is reported to build nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat occursis highly fragmented and reduced. Nevertheless, Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is widely distributed, often detected in field studies, and abundant in collections. Its distribution includes several large protected areas, including urban forests and mangroves.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Paresque et al. (2004), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFC3FFF6FAD65F325927FC82,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,598,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC3FFF6FAD65F325927FC82.xml,Phyllomys lamarum,Phyllomys,lamarum,,,Rat-épineux pale @fr | Helle Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica palida @es | Nelomys lamarum Thomas @en | 1916 @en | “Lamarao @en | Bahia @en | about 70 miles N @en | E Brazil @en | NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states @en,"Nelomys lamarum Thomas, 1916, “Lamarao, Bahia, about 70 miles N.W. of Bahia city [= Salvador]. Alt. 300 mm [sic].” Amended by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “LLamarao, about 70 miles NW of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 11°47’S 38°53’W,elev. 300 m.”Phyllomyslamarumwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. It is closely related to P. brasiliensis, divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event.","E Brazil, NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states.","Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 180-233 mm; weight 135-290 g. The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has yellow-brown upper parts, with speckled pattern due to short (24 mm) and wide (1-3 mm) aristiforms. Dorsal pelage has bicolored spines, pale at bases and darkening toward ends where they become orange and terminate in dark, thin, whip-like tips. Belly is pale brown, with white patches ranging from buff-white to pure white. There is typical fulvous lateral line separating dorsum from venter. Tail is slender and usually ¢.98% of head-body length. It is thinly furred with pale brownish hairs, making tail scalesstill visible through its entire length. Skull of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with straight edges; post-orbital process is absent or inconspicuous. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height smaller than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly composed ofjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms angle more than 60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Ventral spine is present on jaw atjunction between mandibular rami and angular process.",Semideciduous forests.,"Habitat.Semideciduous forests.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.On following pages: 90. Unicolored Tree-rat (Phyllomysunicolon; 91. Patton's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomyspatton); 92. Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys mantiqueirensis); 93. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys lundi): 94. Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys kerri); 95. Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys medius); 96. Giant Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys thomasi); 97. Drab Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys dasythrix); 98. Southern Atlantic Treerat (Phyllomyssulinus); 99. Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys nigrispinus).FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats occurs is highly reduced and fragmented due to human activities. It occurs at Estacao Ecolégica de Acaua (a state park) in Minas Gerais State. Additional ecological studies of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.,"Araujo et al. (2014) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"89.Pallid Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys lamarumFrench:Rat-épineux pale/ German:Helle Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica palidaTaxonomy.Nelomys lamarum Thomas, 1916, “Lamarao, Bahia, about 70 miles N.W. of Bahia city [= Salvador]. Alt. 300 mm [sic].” Amended by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “LLamarao, about 70 miles NW of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 11°47’S 38°53’W,elev. 300 m.”Phyllomyslamarumwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. It is closely related to P. brasiliensis, divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. MonotypicDistribution.E Brazil, NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 180-233 mm; weight 135-290 g. The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has yellow-brown upper parts, with speckled pattern due to short (24 mm) and wide (1-3 mm) aristiforms. Dorsal pelage has bicolored spines, pale at bases and darkening toward ends where they become orange and terminate in dark, thin, whip-like tips. Belly is pale brown, with white patches ranging from buff-white to pure white. There is typical fulvous lateral line separating dorsum from venter. Tail is slender and usually ¢.98% of head-body length. It is thinly furred with pale brownish hairs, making tail scalesstill visible through its entire length. Skull of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with straight edges; post-orbital process is absent or inconspicuous. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height smaller than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly composed ofjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms angle more than 60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Ventral spine is present on jaw atjunction between mandibular rami and angular process.Habitat.Semideciduous forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.On following pages: 90. Unicolored Tree-rat (Phyllomysunicolon; 91. Patton's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomyspatton); 92. Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys mantiqueirensis); 93. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys lundi): 94. Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys kerri); 95. Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys medius); 96. Giant Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys thomasi); 97. Drab Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys dasythrix); 98. Southern Atlantic Treerat (Phyllomyssulinus); 99. Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys nigrispinus).FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats occurs is highly reduced and fragmented due to human activities. It occurs at Estacao Ecolégica de Acaua (a state park) in Minas Gerais State. Additional ecological studies of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Araujo et al. (2014), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFC3FFF6FAD65F325927FC82,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,598,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC3FFF6FAD65F325927FC82.xml,Phyllomys lamarum,Phyllomys,lamarum,,,Rat-épineux pale @fr | Helle Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica palida @es | Nelomys lamarum Thomas @en | 1916 @en | “Lamarao @en | Bahia @en | about 70 miles N @en | E Brazil @en | NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states @en,"Nelomys lamarum Thomas, 1916, “Lamarao, Bahia, about 70 miles N.W. of Bahia city [= Salvador]. Alt. 300 mm [sic].” Amended by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “LLamarao, about 70 miles NW of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 11°47’S 38°53’W,elev. 300 m.”Phyllomyslamarumwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. It is closely related to P. brasiliensis, divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event.","E Brazil, NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states.","Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 180-233 mm; weight 135-290 g. The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has yellow-brown upper parts, with speckled pattern due to short (24 mm) and wide (1-3 mm) aristiforms. Dorsal pelage has bicolored spines, pale at bases and darkening toward ends where they become orange and terminate in dark, thin, whip-like tips. Belly is pale brown, with white patches ranging from buff-white to pure white. There is typical fulvous lateral line separating dorsum from venter. Tail is slender and usually ¢.98% of head-body length. It is thinly furred with pale brownish hairs, making tail scalesstill visible through its entire length. Skull of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with straight edges; post-orbital process is absent or inconspicuous. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height smaller than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly composed ofjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms angle more than 60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Ventral spine is present on jaw atjunction between mandibular rami and angular process.",Semideciduous forests.,"Habitat.Semideciduous forests.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.On following pages: 90. Unicolored Tree-rat (Phyllomysunicolon; 91. Patton's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomyspatton); 92. Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys mantiqueirensis); 93. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys lundi): 94. Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys kerri); 95. Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys medius); 96. Giant Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys thomasi); 97. Drab Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys dasythrix); 98. Southern Atlantic Treerat (Phyllomyssulinus); 99. Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys nigrispinus).FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats occurs is highly reduced and fragmented due to human activities. It occurs at Estacao Ecolégica de Acaua (a state park) in Minas Gerais State. Additional ecological studies of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.,"Araujo et al. (2014) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623920/files/figure.png,"89.Pallid Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys lamarumFrench:Rat-épineux pale/ German:Helle Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica palidaTaxonomy.Nelomys lamarum Thomas, 1916, “Lamarao, Bahia, about 70 miles N.W. of Bahia city [= Salvador]. Alt. 300 mm [sic].” Amended by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “LLamarao, about 70 miles NW of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 11°47’S 38°53’W,elev. 300 m.”Phyllomyslamarumwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. It is closely related to P. brasiliensis, divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. MonotypicDistribution.E Brazil, NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 180-233 mm; weight 135-290 g. The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has yellow-brown upper parts, with speckled pattern due to short (24 mm) and wide (1-3 mm) aristiforms. Dorsal pelage has bicolored spines, pale at bases and darkening toward ends where they become orange and terminate in dark, thin, whip-like tips. Belly is pale brown, with white patches ranging from buff-white to pure white. There is typical fulvous lateral line separating dorsum from venter. Tail is slender and usually ¢.98% of head-body length. It is thinly furred with pale brownish hairs, making tail scalesstill visible through its entire length. Skull of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with straight edges; post-orbital process is absent or inconspicuous. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height smaller than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly composed ofjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms angle more than 60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Ventral spine is present on jaw atjunction between mandibular rami and angular process.Habitat.Semideciduous forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.On following pages: 90. Unicolored Tree-rat (Phyllomysunicolon; 91. Patton's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomyspatton); 92. Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys mantiqueirensis); 93. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys lundi): 94. Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys kerri); 95. Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys medius); 96. Giant Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys thomasi); 97. Drab Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys dasythrix); 98. Southern Atlantic Treerat (Phyllomyssulinus); 99. Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys nigrispinus).FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats occurs is highly reduced and fragmented due to human activities. It occurs at Estacao Ecolégica de Acaua (a state park) in Minas Gerais State. Additional ecological studies of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Araujo et al. (2014), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFC3FFF7FFCE525C5DCFF960,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,598,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC3FFF7FFCE525C5DCFF960.xml,Phyllomys brasiliensis,Phyllomys,brasiliensis,Lund,1840,Rat-épineux du Brésil @fr | Brasilien-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Brasil @es | Orange-brown Atlantic Tree-rat @en,"Phyllomys brasiliensis Lund, 1840, “Lapa das Quatro Bocas,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Phyllomys brasiliensiswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheresand Echimys. The name P. brasiliensiswas incorrectly applied to several museum specimens that were later formally described and named as P. pattoni. Phyllomys brasiliensisis closely related to P. lamarum; divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, Paraopeba and das Velhas rivers in Minas Gerais State.","Head-body 210-212 mm, tail 171 mm; weight 240 g. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized; it has a spiny dorsal pelt, orange-brown and sprinkled with black. Rump is spiny, with wide (1-3 mm) and long (27 mm) aristiform hairs that have orange whip-like tips. Venter is creamy and yellowish, with cream-white axillary and inguinal regions; some white-based hairs are present on midline. Tail is ¢.81% of head-body length. Tail is furred with short brown hairs, but tail scales are visible, except at tip where hairs are longer. Skull of the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region slightly divergent posteriorly, with slightly developed post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slender or slightly robust, with maximum height equal or inferior to jugal length. Spinose process of zygoma without squamosal contribution. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends below horizontal midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel, only slightly diverging posteriorly in old individuals. Molar teeth are long and narrow, with palatal width equals width offirst upper molar. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally, and ventral spine is present posterior to junction of mandibular rami.",Mixed habitats of semideciduous forest and woodland savanna (cerrado) in Atlantic Forest at elevations of 500-800 m. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has limited distribution in Atlantic Forest.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest folivorous diet.","A pregnant Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat carrying one embryo was caught in September at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.",The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is less than 5000 km?. It is known from only three localities in Minas Gerais State. Fragmentation is ongoing, dramatically reducing quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies ofthis Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623882/files/figure.png,"88.Brazilian Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys brasiliensisFrench:Rat-épineux du Brésil/ German:Brasilien-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de BrasilOther common names:Orange-brown Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Phyllomys brasiliensis Lund, 1840, “Lapa das Quatro Bocas,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Phyllomys brasiliensiswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheresand Echimys. The name P. brasiliensiswas incorrectly applied to several museum specimens that were later formally described and named as P. pattoni. Phyllomys brasiliensisis closely related to P. lamarum; divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, Paraopeba and das Velhas rivers in Minas Gerais State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-212 mm, tail 171 mm; weight 240 g. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized; it has a spiny dorsal pelt, orange-brown and sprinkled with black. Rump is spiny, with wide (1-3 mm) and long (27 mm) aristiform hairs that have orange whip-like tips. Venter is creamy and yellowish, with cream-white axillary and inguinal regions; some white-based hairs are present on midline. Tail is ¢.81% of head-body length. Tail is furred with short brown hairs, but tail scales are visible, except at tip where hairs are longer. Skull of the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region slightly divergent posteriorly, with slightly developed post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slender or slightly robust, with maximum height equal or inferior to jugal length. Spinose process of zygoma without squamosal contribution. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends below horizontal midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel, only slightly diverging posteriorly in old individuals. Molar teeth are long and narrow, with palatal width equals width offirst upper molar. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally, and ventral spine is present posterior to junction of mandibular rami.Habitat.Mixed habitats of semideciduous forest and woodland savanna (cerrado) in Atlantic Forest at elevations of 500-800 m. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has limited distribution in Atlantic Forest.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest folivorous diet.Breeding.A pregnant Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat carrying one embryo was caught in September at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is less than 5000 km?. It is known from only three localities in Minas Gerais State. Fragmentation is ongoing, dramatically reducing quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies ofthis Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Patton et al. (2015), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFC3FFF7FFD459BB595CF599,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,598,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC3FFF7FFD459BB595CF599.xml,Phyllomys blainvilii,Phyllomys,blainvilii,,,Rat-épineux doré @fr | Goldfarbige Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica dorada @es,"Nelomys blainvilii Jordan, 1837, “une petite ile sur les cotes du Brésil, pres de Bahia.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Seabra, Bahia, Brazil, ca. 12°25’S, 41°46'W.”Phyllomys blainviliiwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","NE Brazil, from S Ceara to N Minas Geraisstates.","Head-body 175-220 mm, tail 192-270 mm; weight 150-320 g. Dorsum of the Golden Atlantic Treerat is ocherous brown, with black streak hairs, and it becomes paler on sides. Dorsum is moderately spiny, with wide (1 mm) and long (24 mm) aristiform hairs that have; dark middle part and orange whip-like tips. Venter is pale cream, with hint of yellowish. Tail is robust and 120% of head-body length. Tail is densely furred, with long darkish or yellowish hairs; tail scales are hidden under these hairs and tuft of 15 mm is present at tip of tail. Darker tail usually contrasts with paler body color. Skull of the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges and interorbital region with straight borders diverging posteriorly. Zygomatic arch is slender or slightly robust, with maximum height less than or nearly equal to jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal and small part of squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends below horizontal midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa forms 45° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior edge of third upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are long and narrow, with palatal width greater than width of M'. Jaw has an angular process deflected laterally.","Primary and secondary semideciduous upland forest habitats within the xeric shrubland caatinga, including locally fragmented forests. The Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has a wide distribution, butits area of occupancy is patchy and might represent less than 20,000 km2. It is supposed to be locally common and occurs in forest patches along the Rio Sao Francisco.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth and gut morphology that suggest a folivorous diet.","The Golden Altlantic Tree-rat nests in tree hollows, and litter sizes are 1-4 embryos. Pregnant females were caught in October at Crato, Ceara State and February-March at Bom Jesus da Lapa, Bahia State. Young Golden Atlantic Tree-rats at different age categories were collected in October-May at different sites in north-eastern Brazil.","There is no specific information available for this species, but specimen collection data suggest that Golden Atlantic Tree-rats might be nocturnal.",The Golden Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and has been reported to live in small groups.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat are needed. Its wide distribution, local abundance, and recurrent occurrence in patchy habitats make it unlikely that populations are declining at nearly the level required forlisting it as a threatened species.","Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Jourdan (1837) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623880/files/figure.png,"87.Golden Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys blainviliiFrench:Rat-épineux doré/ German:Goldfarbige Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica doradaTaxonomy.Nelomys blainvilii Jordan, 1837, “une petite ile sur les cotes du Brésil, pres de Bahia.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Seabra, Bahia, Brazil, ca. 12°25’S, 41°46'W.”Phyllomys blainviliiwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Brazil, from S Ceara to N Minas Geraisstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 175-220 mm, tail 192-270 mm; weight 150-320 g. Dorsum of the Golden Atlantic Treerat is ocherous brown, with black streak hairs, and it becomes paler on sides. Dorsum is moderately spiny, with wide (1 mm) and long (24 mm) aristiform hairs that have; dark middle part and orange whip-like tips. Venter is pale cream, with hint of yellowish. Tail is robust and 120% of head-body length. Tail is densely furred, with long darkish or yellowish hairs; tail scales are hidden under these hairs and tuft of 15 mm is present at tip of tail. Darker tail usually contrasts with paler body color. Skull of the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges and interorbital region with straight borders diverging posteriorly. Zygomatic arch is slender or slightly robust, with maximum height less than or nearly equal to jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal and small part of squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends below horizontal midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa forms 45° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior edge of third upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are long and narrow, with palatal width greater than width of M'. Jaw has an angular process deflected laterally.Habitat.Primary and secondary semideciduous upland forest habitats within the xeric shrubland caatinga, including locally fragmented forests. The Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has a wide distribution, butits area of occupancy is patchy and might represent less than 20,000 km2. It is supposed to be locally common and occurs in forest patches along the Rio Sao Francisco.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth and gut morphology that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.The Golden Altlantic Tree-rat nests in tree hollows, and litter sizes are 1-4 embryos. Pregnant females were caught in October at Crato, Ceara State and February-March at Bom Jesus da Lapa, Bahia State. Young Golden Atlantic Tree-rats at different age categories were collected in October-May at different sites in north-eastern Brazil.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but specimen collection data suggest that Golden Atlantic Tree-rats might be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Golden Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and has been reported to live in small groups.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat are needed. Its wide distribution, local abundance, and recurrent occurrence in patchy habitats make it unlikely that populations are declining at nearly the level required forlisting it as a threatened species..Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Jourdan (1837), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFC4FFF0FA775C625C71F484,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,593,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC4FFF0FA775C625C71F484.xml,Echimys saturnus,Echimys,saturnus,Thomas,1928,Rat-épineux noir @fr | Dunkle Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola oscura @es | Dark Spiny Tree-rat @en,"Echimys saturnus Thomas, 1928, “Rio Napo, Oriente of Ecuador. Alt. 3300"" [= 1005 m].”This species is monotypic.",E Andean foothills and adjacent Amazonian lowlands in E Ecuador and N Peru.,"Head-body 272-335 mm, tail 295-383 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Dark Tree-rat is medium-sized, with glossy dorsal fur of brown tones that contains abundant bristles, with flat spines on mid-back but not over rump. Head and mid-back have typical glossy black color. Under parts are white, white-spotted, or whitish with buff tinge; chin is dark. Tail is ¢.140% of headbody length and densely haired from base to tip. Tail is longitudinally bicolored, with its base glossy black and distal white part of varying length. Ears are short and covered by hairs of head. Hindfeet are brown above, with strong claws on each digit. Some melanistic specimens have been reported in museum collections.","Pre-montane and lowland rainforest at elevations of 230-1005 m. Dark Treerats have been camera-trapped on the ground along stream edges, both partially in water or moving either toward or away from a water channel.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dark Tree-rat is likely folivorous—frugivorous and might also include insects in its diet, as do other species of Echimys.",Female Dark Tree-rats have been found with two embryos.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dark Tree-rat appears to be strictly nocturnal.","Dark Tree-rats were camera-trapped nine times during 297 nights at one locality in Ecuador. Pictures showed eightsolitary individuals and a group ofthree individuals. Potential solitary habits are similar to that of the White-faced Tree-rat (E. chrysurus). The group of three individuals might have been a female with two young moving together, apparently in a straight line by following the white-tippedtail of the leading individual.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Dark Tree-rat, an Andean endemic, are needed to assess its conservation status.","Blake et al. (2010) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons & Stark (1979) | lack-Ximenes et al. (2005) | Patton et al. (2015) | Thomas (1928a) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623862/files/figure.png,"81.Dark Tree-ratEchimys saturnusFrench:Rat-épineux noir/ German:Dunkle Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola oscuraOther common names:Dark Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Echimys saturnus Thomas, 1928, “Rio Napo, Oriente of Ecuador. Alt. 3300"" [= 1005 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Andean foothills and adjacent Amazonian lowlands in E Ecuador and N Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 272-335 mm, tail 295-383 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Dark Tree-rat is medium-sized, with glossy dorsal fur of brown tones that contains abundant bristles, with flat spines on mid-back but not over rump. Head and mid-back have typical glossy black color. Under parts are white, white-spotted, or whitish with buff tinge; chin is dark. Tail is ¢.140% of headbody length and densely haired from base to tip. Tail is longitudinally bicolored, with its base glossy black and distal white part of varying length. Ears are short and covered by hairs of head. Hindfeet are brown above, with strong claws on each digit. Some melanistic specimens have been reported in museum collections.Habitat.Pre-montane and lowland rainforest at elevations of 230-1005 m. Dark Treerats have been camera-trapped on the ground along stream edges, both partially in water or moving either toward or away from a water channel.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dark Tree-rat is likely folivorous—frugivorous and might also include insects in its diet, as do other species of Echimys.Breeding.Female Dark Tree-rats have been found with two embryos.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dark Tree-rat appears to be strictly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dark Tree-rats were camera-trapped nine times during 297 nights at one locality in Ecuador. Pictures showed eightsolitary individuals and a group ofthree individuals. Potential solitary habits are similar to that of the White-faced Tree-rat (E. chrysurus). The group of three individuals might have been a female with two young moving together, apparently in a straight line by following the white-tippedtail of the leading individual.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Dark Tree-rat, an Andean endemic, are needed to assess its conservation status.Bibliography.Blake et al. (2010), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons & Stark (1979), lack-Ximenes et al. (2005), Patton et al. (2015), Thomas (1928a), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFC4FFF0FF735EB153B2FCC9,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,593,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC4FFF0FF735EB153B2FCC9.xml,Toromys grandis,Toromys,grandis,,,Toromys géant @fr | Schwarze Tororatte @de | Rata arboricola grande @es | Giant Armored Tree-rat @en | Giant Tree-rat @en,"Loncheres grandis Wagner, 1845, “vom Amazonenstrom.” Restricted by J. Moojen in 1952 to “Manaquiri, lower Rio Solimoes, Amazonas, Brazil.”Toromys grandiswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Makalata. Monotypic.","Lower Brazilian Amazon at both sides of the Amazon River, from its confluence with the Rio Negro to its mouth at Caviana I.","Head—body 303 mm, tail 285 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Black Toro is a large arboreal species. Dorsum and flanks have uniform mix of black and golden guard hairs, with darker mid-dorsum. Venteris yellowish gold, sometimes with median yellowish gold midline; hairs are bicolored, light brown at bases, and golden or yellow at tips. Dorsal pelt has coarse, harsh, flexible, and stiff bristles (aristiforms and setiforms). Head is black, sprinkled with golden tint. Furry tail is 80-90% of head-body length and covered with short black hairs, hiding tail scales. Tail hairs decrease in density from proximal to distal end. Hindfeet are broad and have stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are dark brown or black, sprinkled with gold bicolored hairs. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Plantar and palmar surfaces between pads are covered with tubercular rugosities. Ears are black, rounded, and hairy externally. Skull of the Black Toro is short, robust, and broad. Rostrum is distinguished by typical medial constriction of nasal bones when viewed dorsally. Squamosotympanic fenestra is narrow horizontal slit. It has extended and well-developed supraorbital region, with shelf-like supraorbital edge that curves upon frontal bone. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and situated at mid-part of auditory meatus opening and does not extend beyond lower edge of meatus. Maxillary vein passage is located within foramen. Tympanic bulla is not inflated, with auditory meatus situated high near squamosal bone and with short auditory tubes having outward orientation. Basioccipital is narrow and short. Wide mesopterygoid fossa reach M* and M’ contact zone and make 60° angle with posterior edge of M* lamina. Incisive foramina are short and slit-like. Tooth rows are parallel, with uneven loph size occlusal patterns. Upper cheekteeth are square to rectangular and longer than wide. Tooth row is somewhat longer than in species of Pattonomys. Lower dP, is tetralophodont. On tooth rows, anteroloph, protoloph, and metaloph are connected by slender mure, as in species of Pattonomys. Lowerincisors are not strongly curved, and upperincisors are opisthodont. Angular process of jaw is slender, with well-developped massteric ridge and wide condyle..",Floodplain and riverine rainforests near sea level.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro is reportedly folivorous.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro is reported to be nocturnal.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro has been reported to nest in tree hollows in riverine habitats.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Black Toro might be affected by deforestation, but it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened habitats in the Amazonian region. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to Black Toro are needed.","Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons, Leite & Patton (2015b, 2015d) | lack-Ximenes et al. (2005) | Moojen (1952b) | Wagner(1845) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623860/files/figure.png,"80.Black ToroToromys grandisFrench:Toromys géant/ German:Schwarze Tororatte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola grandeOther common names:Giant Armored Tree-rat, Giant Tree-ratTaxonomy.Loncheres grandis Wagner, 1845, “vom Amazonenstrom.” Restricted by J. Moojen in 1952 to “Manaquiri, lower Rio Solimoes, Amazonas, Brazil.”Toromys grandiswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Makalata. Monotypic.Distribution.Lower Brazilian Amazon at both sides of the Amazon River, from its confluence with the Rio Negro to its mouth at Caviana I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 303 mm, tail 285 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Black Toro is a large arboreal species. Dorsum and flanks have uniform mix of black and golden guard hairs, with darker mid-dorsum. Venteris yellowish gold, sometimes with median yellowish gold midline; hairs are bicolored, light brown at bases, and golden or yellow at tips. Dorsal pelt has coarse, harsh, flexible, and stiff bristles (aristiforms and setiforms). Head is black, sprinkled with golden tint. Furry tail is 80-90% of head-body length and covered with short black hairs, hiding tail scales. Tail hairs decrease in density from proximal to distal end. Hindfeet are broad and have stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are dark brown or black, sprinkled with gold bicolored hairs. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Plantar and palmar surfaces between pads are covered with tubercular rugosities. Ears are black, rounded, and hairy externally. Skull of the Black Toro is short, robust, and broad. Rostrum is distinguished by typical medial constriction of nasal bones when viewed dorsally. Squamosotympanic fenestra is narrow horizontal slit. It has extended and well-developed supraorbital region, with shelf-like supraorbital edge that curves upon frontal bone. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and situated at mid-part of auditory meatus opening and does not extend beyond lower edge of meatus. Maxillary vein passage is located within foramen. Tympanic bulla is not inflated, with auditory meatus situated high near squamosal bone and with short auditory tubes having outward orientation. Basioccipital is narrow and short. Wide mesopterygoid fossa reach M* and M’ contact zone and make 60° angle with posterior edge of M* lamina. Incisive foramina are short and slit-like. Tooth rows are parallel, with uneven loph size occlusal patterns. Upper cheekteeth are square to rectangular and longer than wide. Tooth row is somewhat longer than in species of Pattonomys. Lower dP, is tetralophodont. On tooth rows, anteroloph, protoloph, and metaloph are connected by slender mure, as in species of Pattonomys. Lowerincisors are not strongly curved, and upperincisors are opisthodont. Angular process of jaw is slender, with well-developped massteric ridge and wide condyle.. theWorld of Mammals the of Handbook632FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 38Species AccountsHabitat.Floodplain and riverine rainforests near sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro is reportedly folivorous.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro is reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro has been reported to nest in tree hollows in riverine habitats.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Black Toro might be affected by deforestation, but it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened habitats in the Amazonian region. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to Black Toro are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons, Leite & Patton (2015b, 2015d), lack-Ximenes et al. (2005), Moojen (1952b), Wagner(1845), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFC4FFF3FA74535D58BBF6AC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,593,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC4FFF3FA74535D58BBF6AC.xml,Echimys chrysurus,Echimys,chrysurus,Zimmermann,1780,Rat-épineux a face blanche @fr | \Wei Rnasen-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de cara blanca @es | \White-faced Spiny Tree-rat @en,"Myoxus chrysurus Zimmermann, 1780, “Surinam [= Suriname],” based on Allamand’s (1778) “lérot a queue dorée.”Generic assignment of E. chrysurusvaried extensively in the 18"" and 19™ centuries; it was initially assigned to Hystrix and subsequently to Myoxus, Glis, the South American Loncheres, Nelomysand appropriately to Echimys. Monotypic.","The Guianas and Guianan region of NE Brazil and E Amazon Basin E of the Rio Negro and N of the Amazon River, but extending S of the Amazon to the E of the Rio Xingu in E Brazil.","Head-body 242-333 mm, tail 250-395 mm; weight up to 760 g. The White-faced Tree-rat is large, with dark gray-brown dorsum densely covered with large spines from neck to rump. Remainder of pelage is composed ofstiff and harsh bristles. Throat, chin, and inguinal areas are white, and white stripe occurs on chest; all other ventral parts are gray-brown, not very different from upper parts. Pale yellowish to whitish blaze extends down center of head from crown to nose; it may completely cover face, appear as narrow stripe, or otherwise be present only as small white tuft on crown. Eyes are dark brown, with weak typical red eye shine. Cheeks, sides of crown, and chin are usually dark brown or reddish. Ears are small, slightly haired, and brown. Tail is c.120% of head-body length, fully haired from base to tip, and longitudinally bicolored with dusky basal part and white distal end covering two-thirds of its length. Feet are broad, with powerful claws on all digits, and gray-brown above. Skull of the White-faced Treerat is similar among species of Echimys, but quite distinct compared with other genera by virtue of small to medium bullae, small auditory meatus, short auditory tube thatis oriented laterally, and external meatus short and positioned close to squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short; squamosotympanic fenestra is small and nearly circular and located anteriorly compared with auditory meatus; premaxillary septum of incisive foramina is incomplete posteriorly; and jugal fossa is broad and deep below post-orbital process. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge, outside fossa of anterior ascending branch ofjaw. Tooth rows are parallel and rectangular, and very high-crowned cheekteeth are longer than wide. Upper teeth have two U-shaped lophs of similar orientations that fuse with wear. Lower dP, is divided into three lophids: anteroconid-anterolophid, metalophid, and enterolophid-posterolophid. Lower molars are similar to other arboreal echimyids that have sigmoid lophid shapes.","Mature lowland rainforest, primarily middle and upperstrata, especially vinecovered areas, but also open forest, from sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.","Stomach contents and field observations of White-faced Tree-rats indicate a frugivorous—folivorous diet, but some insects are eaten. Analysis of the 6""°C isotope in White-faced Tree-rats in comparison to more terrestrial rodent species suggested a primary diet of C, plants, with potential consumption ofa significant proportion of arthropods.",A female White-faced Tree-rat was found with two embryos.,White-faced Tree-rats are strictly arboreal and nocturnal.,"White-faced Tree-rats usually move slowly along branches, but speed increases under duress from human disturbance or predators. Mean distance traveled was estimated at 294 m/night based on tracking data and nest locations.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitefaced Tree-rat has a wide distribution, and ease of capture and common sightings by zoologists and general extent ofits natural habitat make it presumably less prone to threats from human activity. Additional ecological studies, however, are encouraged in view ofrarity of specimens in museum collections, preference for mature primary forest, and general lack of focused fieldwork.","Allen (1899a) | Cuvier (1809) | Desmarest (1817) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Eisenberg & Thor ington (1973) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840) | Gloger (1841-1842) | lack-Ximenes et al. (2005) | llliger (1811) | Jourdan (1837) | Link (1795) | Mares (1982) | Mauffrey (1999) | Mauffrey & Catzeflis (2003) | Mauffrey et al. (2007) | Miles et al. (1981) | Miranda-Ribeiro (1914) | von Olfers (1818) | Patton et al. (2015) | Richard-Hansen et al. (1999) | von Schreiber (1792) | Thomas (1916b) | Treviranus (1803) | Wagner (1840) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Zimmermann (1780)",,"82.White-faced Tree-ratEchimys chrysurusFrench:Rat-épineux a face blanche/ German:\WeiRnasen-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cara blancaOther common names:\White-faced Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Myoxus chrysurus Zimmermann, 1780, “Surinam [= Suriname],” based on Allamand’s (1778) “lérot a queue dorée.”Generic assignment of E. chrysurusvaried extensively in the 18"" and 19™ centuries; it was initially assigned to Hystrix and subsequently to Myoxus, Glis, the South American Loncheres, Nelomysand appropriately to Echimys. Monotypic.Distribution.The Guianas and Guianan region of NE Brazil and E Amazon Basin E of the Rio Negro and N of the Amazon River, but extending S of the Amazon to the E of the Rio Xingu in E Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 242-333 mm, tail 250-395 mm; weight up to 760 g. The White-faced Tree-rat is large, with dark gray-brown dorsum densely covered with large spines from neck to rump. Remainder of pelage is composed ofstiff and harsh bristles. Throat, chin, and inguinal areas are white, and white stripe occurs on chest; all other ventral parts are gray-brown, not very different from upper parts. Pale yellowish to whitish blaze extends down center of head from crown to nose; it may completely cover face, appear as narrow stripe, or otherwise be present only as small white tuft on crown. Eyes are dark brown, with weak typical red eye shine. Cheeks, sides of crown, and chin are usually dark brown or reddish. Ears are small, slightly haired, and brown. Tail is c.120% of head-body length, fully haired from base to tip, and longitudinally bicolored with dusky basal part and white distal end covering two-thirds of its length. Feet are broad, with powerful claws on all digits, and gray-brown above. Skull of the White-faced Treerat is similar among species of Echimys, but quite distinct compared with other genera by virtue of small to medium bullae, small auditory meatus, short auditory tube thatis oriented laterally, and external meatus short and positioned close to squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short; squamosotympanic fenestra is small and nearly circular and located anteriorly compared with auditory meatus; premaxillary septum of incisive foramina is incomplete posteriorly; and jugal fossa is broad and deep below post-orbital process. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge, outside fossa of anterior ascending branch ofjaw. Tooth rows are parallel and rectangular, and very high-crowned cheekteeth are longer than wide. Upper teeth have two U-shaped lophs of similar orientations that fuse with wear. Lower dP, is divided into three lophids: anteroconid-anterolophid, metalophid, and enterolophid-posterolophid. Lower molars are similar to other arboreal echimyids that have sigmoid lophid shapes.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 38Species AccountsHabitat.Mature lowland rainforest, primarily middle and upperstrata, especially vinecovered areas, but also open forest, from sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents and field observations of White-faced Tree-rats indicate a frugivorous—folivorous diet, but some insects are eaten. Analysis of the 6""°C isotope in White-faced Tree-rats in comparison to more terrestrial rodent species suggested a primary diet of C, plants, with potential consumption ofa significant proportion of arthropods.Breeding.A female White-faced Tree-rat was found with two embryos.Activity patterns.White-faced Tree-rats are strictly arboreal and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.White-faced Tree-rats usually move slowly along branches, but speed increases under duress from human disturbance or predators. Mean distance traveled was estimated at 294 m/night based on tracking data and nest locations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitefaced Tree-rat has a wide distribution, and ease of capture and common sightings by zoologists and general extent ofits natural habitat make it presumably less prone to threats from human activity. Additional ecological studies, however, are encouraged in view ofrarity of specimens in museum collections, preference for mature primary forest, and general lack of focused fieldwork.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Cuvier (1809), Desmarest (1817), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Eisenberg & Thor ington (1973), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840), Gloger (1841-1842), lack-Ximenes et al. (2005), llliger (1811), Jourdan (1837), Link (1795), Mares (1982), Mauffrey (1999), Mauffrey & Catzeflis (2003), Mauffrey et al. (2007), Miles et al. (1981), Miranda-Ribeiro (1914), von Olfers (1818), Patton et al. (2015), Richard-Hansen et al. (1999), von Schreiber (1792), Thomas (1916b), Treviranus (1803), Wagner (1840), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Zimmermann (1780)." +03C5A071FFC4FFF3FA74535D58BBF6AC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,593,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC4FFF3FA74535D58BBF6AC.xml,Echimys chrysurus,Echimys,chrysurus,Zimmermann,1780,Rat-épineux a face blanche @fr | \Wei Rnasen-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de cara blanca @es | \White-faced Spiny Tree-rat @en,"Myoxus chrysurus Zimmermann, 1780, “Surinam [= Suriname],” based on Allamand’s (1778) “lérot a queue dorée.”Generic assignment of E. chrysurusvaried extensively in the 18"" and 19™ centuries; it was initially assigned to Hystrix and subsequently to Myoxus, Glis, the South American Loncheres, Nelomysand appropriately to Echimys. Monotypic.","The Guianas and Guianan region of NE Brazil and E Amazon Basin E of the Rio Negro and N of the Amazon River, but extending S of the Amazon to the E of the Rio Xingu in E Brazil.","Head-body 242-333 mm, tail 250-395 mm; weight up to 760 g. The White-faced Tree-rat is large, with dark gray-brown dorsum densely covered with large spines from neck to rump. Remainder of pelage is composed ofstiff and harsh bristles. Throat, chin, and inguinal areas are white, and white stripe occurs on chest; all other ventral parts are gray-brown, not very different from upper parts. Pale yellowish to whitish blaze extends down center of head from crown to nose; it may completely cover face, appear as narrow stripe, or otherwise be present only as small white tuft on crown. Eyes are dark brown, with weak typical red eye shine. Cheeks, sides of crown, and chin are usually dark brown or reddish. Ears are small, slightly haired, and brown. Tail is c.120% of head-body length, fully haired from base to tip, and longitudinally bicolored with dusky basal part and white distal end covering two-thirds of its length. Feet are broad, with powerful claws on all digits, and gray-brown above. Skull of the White-faced Treerat is similar among species of Echimys, but quite distinct compared with other genera by virtue of small to medium bullae, small auditory meatus, short auditory tube thatis oriented laterally, and external meatus short and positioned close to squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short; squamosotympanic fenestra is small and nearly circular and located anteriorly compared with auditory meatus; premaxillary septum of incisive foramina is incomplete posteriorly; and jugal fossa is broad and deep below post-orbital process. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge, outside fossa of anterior ascending branch ofjaw. Tooth rows are parallel and rectangular, and very high-crowned cheekteeth are longer than wide. Upper teeth have two U-shaped lophs of similar orientations that fuse with wear. Lower dP, is divided into three lophids: anteroconid-anterolophid, metalophid, and enterolophid-posterolophid. Lower molars are similar to other arboreal echimyids that have sigmoid lophid shapes.","Mature lowland rainforest, primarily middle and upperstrata, especially vinecovered areas, but also open forest, from sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.","Stomach contents and field observations of White-faced Tree-rats indicate a frugivorous—folivorous diet, but some insects are eaten. Analysis of the 6""°C isotope in White-faced Tree-rats in comparison to more terrestrial rodent species suggested a primary diet of C, plants, with potential consumption ofa significant proportion of arthropods.",A female White-faced Tree-rat was found with two embryos.,White-faced Tree-rats are strictly arboreal and nocturnal.,"White-faced Tree-rats usually move slowly along branches, but speed increases under duress from human disturbance or predators. Mean distance traveled was estimated at 294 m/night based on tracking data and nest locations.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitefaced Tree-rat has a wide distribution, and ease of capture and common sightings by zoologists and general extent ofits natural habitat make it presumably less prone to threats from human activity. Additional ecological studies, however, are encouraged in view ofrarity of specimens in museum collections, preference for mature primary forest, and general lack of focused fieldwork.","Allen (1899a) | Cuvier (1809) | Desmarest (1817) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Eisenberg & Thor ington (1973) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840) | Gloger (1841-1842) | lack-Ximenes et al. (2005) | llliger (1811) | Jourdan (1837) | Link (1795) | Mares (1982) | Mauffrey (1999) | Mauffrey & Catzeflis (2003) | Mauffrey et al. (2007) | Miles et al. (1981) | Miranda-Ribeiro (1914) | von Olfers (1818) | Patton et al. (2015) | Richard-Hansen et al. (1999) | von Schreiber (1792) | Thomas (1916b) | Treviranus (1803) | Wagner (1840) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Zimmermann (1780)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623864/files/figure.png,"82.White-faced Tree-ratEchimys chrysurusFrench:Rat-épineux a face blanche/ German:\WeiRnasen-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cara blancaOther common names:\White-faced Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Myoxus chrysurus Zimmermann, 1780, “Surinam [= Suriname],” based on Allamand’s (1778) “lérot a queue dorée.”Generic assignment of E. chrysurusvaried extensively in the 18"" and 19™ centuries; it was initially assigned to Hystrix and subsequently to Myoxus, Glis, the South American Loncheres, Nelomysand appropriately to Echimys. Monotypic.Distribution.The Guianas and Guianan region of NE Brazil and E Amazon Basin E of the Rio Negro and N of the Amazon River, but extending S of the Amazon to the E of the Rio Xingu in E Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 242-333 mm, tail 250-395 mm; weight up to 760 g. The White-faced Tree-rat is large, with dark gray-brown dorsum densely covered with large spines from neck to rump. Remainder of pelage is composed ofstiff and harsh bristles. Throat, chin, and inguinal areas are white, and white stripe occurs on chest; all other ventral parts are gray-brown, not very different from upper parts. Pale yellowish to whitish blaze extends down center of head from crown to nose; it may completely cover face, appear as narrow stripe, or otherwise be present only as small white tuft on crown. Eyes are dark brown, with weak typical red eye shine. Cheeks, sides of crown, and chin are usually dark brown or reddish. Ears are small, slightly haired, and brown. Tail is c.120% of head-body length, fully haired from base to tip, and longitudinally bicolored with dusky basal part and white distal end covering two-thirds of its length. Feet are broad, with powerful claws on all digits, and gray-brown above. Skull of the White-faced Treerat is similar among species of Echimys, but quite distinct compared with other genera by virtue of small to medium bullae, small auditory meatus, short auditory tube thatis oriented laterally, and external meatus short and positioned close to squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short; squamosotympanic fenestra is small and nearly circular and located anteriorly compared with auditory meatus; premaxillary septum of incisive foramina is incomplete posteriorly; and jugal fossa is broad and deep below post-orbital process. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge, outside fossa of anterior ascending branch ofjaw. Tooth rows are parallel and rectangular, and very high-crowned cheekteeth are longer than wide. Upper teeth have two U-shaped lophs of similar orientations that fuse with wear. Lower dP, is divided into three lophids: anteroconid-anterolophid, metalophid, and enterolophid-posterolophid. Lower molars are similar to other arboreal echimyids that have sigmoid lophid shapes.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 38Species AccountsHabitat.Mature lowland rainforest, primarily middle and upperstrata, especially vinecovered areas, but also open forest, from sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents and field observations of White-faced Tree-rats indicate a frugivorous—folivorous diet, but some insects are eaten. Analysis of the 6""°C isotope in White-faced Tree-rats in comparison to more terrestrial rodent species suggested a primary diet of C, plants, with potential consumption ofa significant proportion of arthropods.Breeding.A female White-faced Tree-rat was found with two embryos.Activity patterns.White-faced Tree-rats are strictly arboreal and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.White-faced Tree-rats usually move slowly along branches, but speed increases under duress from human disturbance or predators. Mean distance traveled was estimated at 294 m/night based on tracking data and nest locations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitefaced Tree-rat has a wide distribution, and ease of capture and common sightings by zoologists and general extent ofits natural habitat make it presumably less prone to threats from human activity. Additional ecological studies, however, are encouraged in view ofrarity of specimens in museum collections, preference for mature primary forest, and general lack of focused fieldwork.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Cuvier (1809), Desmarest (1817), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Eisenberg & Thor ington (1973), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840), Gloger (1841-1842), lack-Ximenes et al. (2005), llliger (1811), Jourdan (1837), Link (1795), Mares (1982), Mauffrey (1999), Mauffrey & Catzeflis (2003), Mauffrey et al. (2007), Miles et al. (1981), Miranda-Ribeiro (1914), von Olfers (1818), Patton et al. (2015), Richard-Hansen et al. (1999), von Schreiber (1792), Thomas (1916b), Treviranus (1803), Wagner (1840), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Zimmermann (1780)." 03C5A071FFC5FFF0FAE2535359D2F9FB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,592,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC5FFF0FAE2535359D2F9FB.xml,Toromys rhipidurus,Toromys,rhipidurus,,,Toromys du Pérou @fr | Peru-Tororatte @de | Rata arboricola de Peru @es | Peruvian Armored Tree-rat @en | Peruvian Tree-rat @en,"Echimys rhipidurus Thomas, 1928, “Pebas, 300° [= 92 m],” Loreto, Peru.Toromys rhipiduruswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Makalata. Monotypic.",W Amazonia in Peru. An unconfirmed record from E Ecuador.,"Head—body 210-260 mm, tail 180-215 mm; weight 315 g. The Peruvian Toro is the smallest species of Toromys. Dorsum and flanks have uniform blending of reddish and yellowish brown pelt, abundantly streaked with black hairs. Forequarters and head are grayish or yellowish and slightly contrast with dorsum. Dorsal pelt is glossy and mix of narrow, flexible, and stiff bristles (aristiforms and setiforms), with tips drawn out into hair-like processes. These sharp and flat bristles are lacking from flank and side of body. Rump is sometimes lightly sprinkled with few white speckles and white tipped spines, but it usually lacks white or pale tip spines as seen on species of Pattonomys. Venter is yellowish gold, sometimes with median yellowish gold midline and bicolored hairs, light brown at bases, and golden or yellow at tips. Robust tail is 7095% of head—body length. Tail is covered with short reddish and yellowish brown hairs on first 35 mm ofits length, and glossy black dark brown or grayish bristly hairs subsequently cover it, and tail scales are visible. Hindfeet are short and broad and have stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are dark brown or black and sprinkled with gold bicolored hairs. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Ventral surface of tail base and thighs are bright rust-red to dull. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet, hindfeet, and limbs are rusty or reddish compared with dorsum. Plantar and palmar surfaces between pads are covered with tubercular rugosities. Rounded ears are small and naked. Crania of the Peruvian Toro is similar to that of the Black Toro (1. grandis), differing by its smaller size, broader rostrum, shorter tooth rows, less inflated and smaller auditory bulla, narrower zygomatic arches, smaller basicranium, and wider incisor blade. Additionally, the Peruvian Toro has a petrosal wedge separating the auditory meatus from squamosal bone.",[Lowland riverine rainforests at elevations from c. 90 m to 160 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Peruvian Toro is reportedly folivorous.",There is no information available for this species.,Thereis specific information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Peruvian Toro is arboreal.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to the Peruvian Toro are needed.","Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons, Leite & Patton (2015b, 2015d) | Sanborn (1949) | Thomas (1928b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"79.Peruvian ToroToromys rhipidurusFrench:Toromys du Pérou/ German:Peru-Tororatte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de PeruOther common names:Peruvian Armored Tree-rat, Peruvian Tree-ratTaxonomy.Echimys rhipidurus Thomas, 1928, “Pebas, 300° [= 92 m],” Loreto, Peru.Toromys rhipiduruswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Makalata. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazonia in Peru. An unconfirmed record from E Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head—body 210-260 mm, tail 180-215 mm; weight 315 g. The Peruvian Toro is the smallest species of Toromys. Dorsum and flanks have uniform blending of reddish and yellowish brown pelt, abundantly streaked with black hairs. Forequarters and head are grayish or yellowish and slightly contrast with dorsum. Dorsal pelt is glossy and mix of narrow, flexible, and stiff bristles (aristiforms and setiforms), with tips drawn out into hair-like processes. These sharp and flat bristles are lacking from flank and side of body. Rump is sometimes lightly sprinkled with few white speckles and white tipped spines, but it usually lacks white or pale tip spines as seen on species of Pattonomys. Venter is yellowish gold, sometimes with median yellowish gold midline and bicolored hairs, light brown at bases, and golden or yellow at tips. Robust tail is 7095% of head—body length. Tail is covered with short reddish and yellowish brown hairs on first 35 mm ofits length, and glossy black dark brown or grayish bristly hairs subsequently cover it, and tail scales are visible. Hindfeet are short and broad and have stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are dark brown or black and sprinkled with gold bicolored hairs. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Ventral surface of tail base and thighs are bright rust-red to dull. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet, hindfeet, and limbs are rusty or reddish compared with dorsum. Plantar and palmar surfaces between pads are covered with tubercular rugosities. Rounded ears are small and naked. Crania of the Peruvian Toro is similar to that of the Black Toro (1. grandis), differing by its smaller size, broader rostrum, shorter tooth rows, less inflated and smaller auditory bulla, narrower zygomatic arches, smaller basicranium, and wider incisor blade. Additionally, the Peruvian Toro has a petrosal wedge separating the auditory meatus from squamosal bone.Habitat.[Lowland riverine rainforests at elevations from c. 90 m to 160 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Peruvian Toro is reportedly folivorous.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Thereis specific information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Peruvian Toro is arboreal.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to the Peruvian Toro are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons, Leite & Patton (2015b, 2015d), Sanborn (1949), Thomas (1928b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFC5FFF1FAE55B2352D0F5DC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,592,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC5FFF1FAE55B2352D0F5DC.xml,Pattonomys occasius,Pattonomys,occasius,,,Rat-épineux a queue nue @fr | Nacktschwanz-Tupfelbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola desnuda @es | Bare-tailed Armored Tree-rat @en,"Echimys occasius Thomas, 1921,“Gualea, west of Pichincha. Alt. 4000’ [= 1219 m],” Pichincha, Ecuador. According to L. H. Emmons in 2005, the type locality on the western slope of the Andesis very likely an error.This species is monotypic.",W Amazon Basin of E Ecuador and E Peru.,"Head-body 218 mm, tail 225 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Bare-tailed Tree-rat is the smallest and most distinct species of Pattonomys. It has dark buff-brown upper parts, streaked with dark brown. Venter is clear creamy orange, often with white thoracic and abdominal regions. Dorsal pelage is heavily spined, especially over rump. Dark-brown spines are long sharp, flexible, and wide but differ from other species of Pattonomysby having a pale rusty rather than white tips on rump, while remaining completely gray brown on flanks. Spine tips are blunt and lack hair-like process extending from tips. Fine, soft, and sparse orange hairs occur between spines over body. Head is covered with stiff but thin bristles. Ears are short and naked, and muzzle and cheeks are reddish. Vibrissae are fine, thin, and long, with mystacial vibrissae reaching posterior to shoulders. Body hair extends onto base of tail for 10-20 mm; rest oftail is conspicuously naked and scaly. Robusttail is 103-110% of head-body length and dark brown. Thighs and tail base are dull brown. Hindfeet are short and broad and have stout claws; dorsal surface is brown. Females have two pairs of lateral mammae. Skull is smaller than other species of Pattonomys, auditory bullae are not inflated, and supraorbital ridges are very weakly developed.",l.owland Amazonian rainforest at elevations of 120-575 m (based on fewer than ten specimens in museum collections).,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Bare-tailed Tree-rat is likely herbivorous, feeding on fruits, seeds, and other plant materials.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Bare-tailed Tree-rat has been reported to be nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to the Bare-tailed Speckled Tree-rat are needed.","Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1921c¢, 1928b) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624583/files/figure.png,"78.Bare-tailed Tree-ratPattonomys occasiusFrench:Rat-épineux a queue nue/ German:Nacktschwanz-Tupfelbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola desnudaOther common names:Bare-tailed Armored Tree-ratTaxonomy. Echimys occasius Thomas, 1921,“Gualea, west of Pichincha. Alt. 4000’ [= 1219 m],” Pichincha, Ecuador. According to L. H. Emmons in 2005, the type locality on the western slope of the Andesis very likely an error.This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin of E Ecuador and E Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 218 mm, tail 225 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Bare-tailed Tree-rat is the smallest and most distinct species of Pattonomys. It has dark buff-brown upper parts, streaked with dark brown. Venter is clear creamy orange, often with white thoracic and abdominal regions. Dorsal pelage is heavily spined, especially over rump. Dark-brown spines are long sharp, flexible, and wide but differ from other species of Pattonomysby having a pale rusty rather than white tips on rump, while remaining completely gray brown on flanks. Spine tips are blunt and lack hair-like process extending from tips. Fine, soft, and sparse orange hairs occur between spines over body. Head is covered with stiff but thin bristles. Ears are short and naked, and muzzle and cheeks are reddish. Vibrissae are fine, thin, and long, with mystacial vibrissae reaching posterior to shoulders. Body hair extends onto base of tail for 10-20 mm; rest oftail is conspicuously naked and scaly. Robusttail is 103-110% of head-body length and dark brown. Thighs and tail base are dull brown. Hindfeet are short and broad and have stout claws; dorsal surface is brown. Females have two pairs of lateral mammae. Skull is smaller than other species of Pattonomys, auditory bullae are not inflated, and supraorbital ridges are very weakly developed.Habitat.l.owland Amazonian rainforest at elevations of 120-575 m (based on fewer than ten specimens in museum collections).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Bare-tailed Tree-rat is likely herbivorous, feeding on fruits, seeds, and other plant materials.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Bare-tailed Tree-rat has been reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to the Bare-tailed Speckled Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1921c¢, 1928b), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFC5FFF1FFDE510C5223FD71,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,592,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC5FFF1FFDE510C5223FD71.xml,Pattonomys punctatus,Pattonomys,punctatus,,,Rat-épineux ponctué @fr | Orinoco-Tupfelbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola del Orinoco @es | Loncheres punctatus Thomas @en | 1899 @en | “Caicara @en | Orinoco @en | ” Bolivar @en | Ven-ezuela @en,"Loncheres punctatus Thomas, 1899, “Caicara, Orinoco,” Bolivar, Ven-ezuela.This species is monotypic.",Middle Orinoco River Basin in C Venezuela.,"Head-body 236 mm, tail 233 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is one of the largest species of Pattonomys. Fur is spiny, with wide spines reaching 20 mm over back. Overall color is pale gray, with whitish speckles and rufous tint due to hairs with reddish tips but gray bases. Spines on rump are grayish, white basally and tipped with white. Fur on head is coarsely mixed black and white; ears are covered with fine black hairs around their edges, with small tuft of whitish hairs on antitragus and distinct white post-auricular patch. Venter is white, sharply contrasting from gray flanks. Inner surfaces of thighs are white, and outer ones are gray. Forefeet and hindfeet are gray above, with hindfeet white along medial margins; toes are white. Tail is 96-99% of head-body length, thinly haired with visible scales, and uniformly brown from base to tip, only slightly paler below. Skull has nasals equal in length to premaxillary processes, flattened frontal region, broadly expanded supraoccipital ridges, and narrow rather than spatulate hamular processes. Based on the few available specimens, cranial dimensions of the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat appear to be largest among species of Pattonomys.",Mainly tropical dry forests in the upper Los Llanos of the central Orinoco Basin from sea level to elevations of ¢.100 m (based on only a few known localities).,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is probably herbivorous.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is reportedly nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat are needed.","Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935, 1939) | Thomas (1899b) | Trouessart (1904) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623852/files/figure.png,"77.Orinocan Speckled Tree-ratPattonomys punctatusFrench:Rat-épineux ponctué/ German:Orinoco-Tupfelbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola del OrinocoTaxonomy.Loncheres punctatus Thomas, 1899, “Caicara, Orinoco,” Bolivar, Ven-ezuela.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Middle Orinoco River Basin in C Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 236 mm, tail 233 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is one of the largest species of Pattonomys. Fur is spiny, with wide spines reaching 20 mm over back. Overall color is pale gray, with whitish speckles and rufous tint due to hairs with reddish tips but gray bases. Spines on rump are grayish, white basally and tipped with white. Fur on head is coarsely mixed black and white; ears are covered with fine black hairs around their edges, with small tuft of whitish hairs on antitragus and distinct white post-auricular patch. Venter is white, sharply contrasting from gray flanks. Inner surfaces of thighs are white, and outer ones are gray. Forefeet and hindfeet are gray above, with hindfeet white along medial margins; toes are white. Tail is 96-99% of head-body length, thinly haired with visible scales, and uniformly brown from base to tip, only slightly paler below. Skull has nasals equal in length to premaxillary processes, flattened frontal region, broadly expanded supraoccipital ridges, and narrow rather than spatulate hamular processes. Based on the few available specimens, cranial dimensions of the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat appear to be largest among species of Pattonomys.631Habitat.Mainly tropical dry forests in the upper Los Llanos of the central Orinoco Basin from sea level to elevations of ¢.100 m (based on only a few known localities).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is probably herbivorous.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is reportedly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935, 1939), Thomas (1899b), Trouessart (1904), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." @@ -792,77 +792,77 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03C5A071FFCBFFFFFFD759A85A8AF32A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,590,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCBFFFFFFD759A85A8AF32A.xml,Diplomys labilis,Diplomys,labilis,Bangs,1901,Rat-épineux du Panama @fr | Panama-Baumstachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de Centroamérica @es | Rufous Soft-furred Spiny-rat @en | Rufous Tree-rat @en,"Loncheres labilis Bangs, 1901, “San Miguel Island, [Archipiélago de las Perlas], Panama.”Diplomys labilishas been variously placed in the genera Echimysor Phyllomysby early authors; O. Thomas in 1916 was the first to assign it to Diplomys. Two subspecies recognized.","D. I. labilis Bangs, 1901— San Miguel I, Pearl Is (off SC Panama).D. l. darlingi Goldman, 1912— from C Panama to the Choco and Antioquia departments of W Colombia and S along Pacific coast to NW Ecuador.","Head-body 340 mm, tail 200 mm; weight up to 492 g. The Central American Rufous Tree-rat is larger than the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat (D. caniceps). Its fur is stiff but soft, without bristles or spines. Upper parts are ocherous buff to bright rusty, with some black-tipped hairs. Face has grayish mask. Vibrissae are streaked at bases by distinctive white vertical stripes. Whitish stripe of hairs is present around edge of pinnae and behind ears. Ears are otherwise dark, rounded, and short, divided by large anterior lobe and smaller posterior lobe, edged by small fringe of longer hairs. Vibrissae are long, extending toward shoulders. Ventral colors are quite variable, ranging from dark to pale rufous. Face is marked with small pale spots above eyes, contrasting a black eye ring. Tail is robust, 70-100% of head-body length, unicolored brownish, and covered by short hairs that become longer toward tip. The Central American Rufous Tree-rat has distinct short tuft of hair at tip of tail. Like in the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat,tail scales are not visible beneath hair cover. Hindfeet and front feet are silvery gray above. Skull and teeth of the Central American Rufous Tree-rat are typical of Diplomysbut with three major differences compared with the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat: narrower palate, premaxilla sometimes extending anteriorly beyond the nasals, and tooth rows that are parallel.","Evergreen and deciduous forests, mangroves, cultivated plantations, and second-growth forests at elevations of 300-1500 m. The arboreal Central American Rufous Tree-rat occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforests of north-western Colombia, southern Panama and northern Ecuador. A study of ectoparasites based on 77 captured specimens indicated preference for disturbed forests near agricultural plots of corn, yucca, coffee, and citrus fruits. It was mainly captured in trees preserved to provide shade for crops. All individuals were obtained from tree holes well above the ground and in trees mainly near rivers and covered with epiphytes that otherwise housed a large arboreal mammal community.","Captive Central America Rufous Tree-rats in Panama have been reported to feed on leaves, seeds, and fruits, thus suggesting a generalized frugivorous and folivorous diet.","Female Central American Rufous Tree-rats give birth to precocial large, fully haired, and well-developed young of 30-40 g. One female was found with a near term fetus, weighting 59-5 g, or 12% of her 492g body weight. Pregnant females have been collected in January, March-May, August-September, and November. Recorded litter sizes are 1-2 young (mean 1-2). Nests are built in tree holes.","The Central American Rufous Tree-ratis strictly nocturnal. During the day, individuals sleep individually or in pairs of adults in their tree hole nests.","The Central American Rufous Tree-rat has been reported to move slowly and avoid detection by remaining motionless for long time periods. Itis an agile climber. Local people comment that individuals may stick out their heads from their tree holes when disturbed. Central American Rufous Tree-rats have been reported to live in pairs that might travel and forage together at night. Captive individuals have been reported to be very aggressive, especially compared with their more gentle terrestrial and sympatric echimyid relatives, Hoplomysand Proechimys. Central American Rufous Tree-rats emit high-pitched calls when disturbed.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Parasitological surveys in Panama suggest that the Central American Rufous Tree-rat is abundant near disturbed habitat. Because much of its distribution has been logged, additional ecological studies of the Central American Rufous Tree-rat are needed because of its rarity in collections and lack offield studies.","Alberico et al. (2000) | Allen (1916b) | Bangs (1901) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Goldman (1912a, 1912b) | Hall (1981) | Handley (1966) | Méndez (1967) | Patton et al. (2015) | Paynter (1993) | Tesh (1970) | Thomas (1916a, 1916b) | Tirira (2007) | Trouessart (1904) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"71.Central American Rufous Tree-ratDiplomys labilisFrench:Rat-épineux du Panama/ German:Panama-Baumstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de CentroaméricaOther common names:Rufous Soft-furred Spiny-rat, Rufous Tree-ratTaxonomy.Loncheres labilis Bangs, 1901, “San Miguel Island, [Archipiélago de las Perlas], Panama.”Diplomys labilishas been variously placed in the genera Echimysor Phyllomysby early authors; O. Thomas in 1916 was the first to assign it to Diplomys. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D. I. labilis Bangs, 1901— San Miguel I, Pearl Is (off SC Panama).D. l. darlingi Goldman, 1912— from C Panama to the Choco and Antioquia departments of W Colombia and S along Pacific coast to NW Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-body 340 mm, tail 200 mm; weight up to 492 g. The Central American Rufous Tree-rat is larger than the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat (D. caniceps). Its fur is stiff but soft, without bristles or spines. Upper parts are ocherous buff to bright rusty, with some black-tipped hairs. Face has grayish mask. Vibrissae are streaked at bases by distinctive white vertical stripes. Whitish stripe of hairs is present around edge of pinnae and behind ears. Ears are otherwise dark, rounded, and short, divided by large anterior lobe and smaller posterior lobe, edged by small fringe of longer hairs. Vibrissae are long, extending toward shoulders. Ventral colors are quite variable, ranging from dark to pale rufous. Face is marked with small pale spots above eyes, contrasting a black eye ring. Tail is robust, 70-100% of head-body length, unicolored brownish, and covered by short hairs that become longer toward tip. The Central American Rufous Tree-rat has distinct short tuft of hair at tip of tail. Like in the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat,tail scales are not visible beneath hair cover. Hindfeet and front feet are silvery gray above. Skull and teeth of the Central American Rufous Tree-rat are typical of Diplomysbut with three major differences compared with the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat: narrower palate, premaxilla sometimes extending anteriorly beyond the nasals, and tooth rows that are parallel.Habitat.Evergreen and deciduous forests, mangroves, cultivated plantations, and second-growth forests at elevations of 300-1500 m. The arboreal Central American Rufous Tree-rat occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforests of north-western Colombia, southern Panama and northern Ecuador. A study of ectoparasites based on 77 captured specimens indicated preference for disturbed forests near agricultural plots of corn, yucca, coffee, and citrus fruits. It was mainly captured in trees preserved to provide shade for crops. All individuals were obtained from tree holes well above the ground and in trees mainly near rivers and covered with epiphytes that otherwise housed a large arboreal mammal community.Food and Feeding.Captive Central America Rufous Tree-rats in Panama have been reported to feed on leaves, seeds, and fruits, thus suggesting a generalized frugivorous and folivorous diet.Breeding.Female Central American Rufous Tree-rats give birth to precocial large, fully haired, and well-developed young of 30-40 g. One female was found with a near term fetus, weighting 59-5 g, or 12% of her 492g body weight. Pregnant females have been collected in January, March-May, August-September, and November. Recorded litter sizes are 1-2 young (mean 1-2). Nests are built in tree holes.Activity patterns.The Central American Rufous Tree-ratis strictly nocturnal. During the day, individuals sleep individually or in pairs of adults in their tree hole nests.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Central American Rufous Tree-rat has been reported to move slowly and avoid detection by remaining motionless for long time periods. Itis an agile climber. Local people comment that individuals may stick out their heads from their tree holes when disturbed. Central American Rufous Tree-rats have been reported to live in pairs that might travel and forage together at night. Captive individuals have been reported to be very aggressive, especially compared with their more gentle terrestrial and sympatric echimyid relatives, Hoplomysand Proechimys. Central American Rufous Tree-rats emit high-pitched calls when disturbed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Parasitological surveys in Panama suggest that the Central American Rufous Tree-rat is abundant near disturbed habitat. Because much of its distribution has been logged, additional ecological studies of the Central American Rufous Tree-rat are needed because of its rarity in collections and lack offield studies.Bibliography.Alberico et al. (2000), Allen (1916b), Bangs (1901), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Goldman (1912a, 1912b), Hall (1981), Handley (1966), Méndez (1967), Patton et al. (2015), Paynter (1993), Tesh (1970), Thomas (1916a, 1916b), Tirira (2007), Trouessart (1904), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)" 03C5A071FFCCFFF8FA7F591952B4F790,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,585,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCCFFF8FA7F591952B4F790.xml,Mesomys stimulax,Mesomys,stimulax,Thomas,1911,Rat-épineux du Para @fr | Para-Amazonas-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de Para @es | Central Brazil Spiny Tree-rat @en | Surinam Spiny Tree-rat @en,"Mesomys stimulax Thomas, 1911, “Cameta, Lower Tocantins,”Para, Brazil. Mesomys stimulaxwas considered a subspecies of a polytypic M. hispidusby earlier authors. It is now recognized as a distinct species. Future studies may associate Rio Tapajos populations with M. hispidus; if so, distribution of M. stimulaxwould be limited to the region between Rio Xin-gu and Rio Tocantins. Monotypic.","E Amazon Basin of Brazil, S of the Amazon River, from the Rio Tapajos to the Rio Tocantins in Para State.","Head-body 154-196 mm, tail 122-199 mm; weight up to 139 g. The Para Spiny Tree-rat is smaller than most Amazonian populations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys hispidus). It differs from the latter byits buffier and paler overall dorsal pelage and distinct venter with white patches on throat, axilla, chest, and inguinal region; otherwise, belly is fawn colored. Tail is 79-101% of head-body length,is brown along its entire length, and terminates in very short tuft. Ears are short, rounded, and black, surrounded by long hairs. Forefeet and hindfeet are dorsally whitish, without buffy suffusion. Skull of the Para Spiny Tree-rat is small, with smaller proportions compared with western Amazonian populations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat, from which it can be distinguished by its shorter muzzle, nasal sides mesially parallel and narrower anteriorly rather than broader, and smaller tympanic bullae. Holotype has distinct incisive foramina, with premaxillary part converging anteriorly to narrow, straight-sided point and posterior part narrowing to form shallowgrooves on anterior palate. Mesopterygoid fossa is straight-sided rather than bowed outward. Chromosomal complement is identical to that of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat: 2n = 60 and FN = 116.","Amazonian rainforest, uniformly in trees of terra firma forests at 4-10 m above the ground from sea level to elevations of ¢.250 m.","Habitat.Amazonian rainforest, uniformly in trees of terra firma forests at 4-10 m above the ground from sea level to elevations of ¢.250 m.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. There is no information available for this species Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).",,"Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","Cabrera (1961) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Orlando et al. (2003) | Patton et al. (2015) | Upham et al. (2013) | Voss et al. (2001) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"64.Para Spiny Tree-ratMesomys stimulaxFrench:Rat-épineux du Para/ German:Para-Amazonas-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de ParaOther common names:Central Brazil Spiny Tree-rat, Surinam Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Mesomys stimulax Thomas, 1911, “Cameta, Lower Tocantins,”Para, Brazil. Mesomys stimulaxwas considered a subspecies of a polytypic M. hispidusby earlier authors. It is now recognized as a distinct species. Future studies may associate Rio Tapajos populations with M. hispidus; if so, distribution of M. stimulaxwould be limited to the region between Rio Xin-gu and Rio Tocantins. Monotypic.Distribution.E Amazon Basin of Brazil, S of the Amazon River, from the Rio Tapajos to the Rio Tocantins in Para State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 154-196 mm, tail 122-199 mm; weight up to 139 g. The Para Spiny Tree-rat is smaller than most Amazonian populations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys hispidus). It differs from the latter byits buffier and paler overall dorsal pelage and distinct venter with white patches on throat, axilla, chest, and inguinal region; otherwise, belly is fawn colored. Tail is 79-101% of head-body length,is brown along its entire length, and terminates in very short tuft. Ears are short, rounded, and black, surrounded by long hairs. Forefeet and hindfeet are dorsally whitish, without buffy suffusion. Skull of the Para Spiny Tree-rat is small, with smaller proportions compared with western Amazonian populations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat, from which it can be distinguished by its shorter muzzle, nasal sides mesially parallel and narrower anteriorly rather than broader, and smaller tympanic bullae. Holotype has distinct incisive foramina, with premaxillary part converging anteriorly to narrow, straight-sided point and posterior part narrowing to form shallowgrooves on anterior palate. Mesopterygoid fossa is straight-sided rather than bowed outward. Chromosomal complement is identical to that of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat: 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Amazonian rainforest, uniformly in trees of terra firma forests at 4-10 m above the ground from sea level to elevations of ¢.250 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFCCFFF8FF795DDD5935F21F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,585,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCCFFF8FF795DDD5935F21F.xml,Mesomys occultus,Mesomys,occultus,"Patton, da Silva & Malcolm",2000,Rat-épineux furtif @fr | Blischelschwanz-Amazonas-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola oculta @es | Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat @en,"Mesomys occultus Patton, da Silva & Malcolm, 2000, “Colocacao ViraVolta, left bank Rio Jurud on Igarapé Arabidi, affluent of Parana Breu, Amazonas,Brazil (3°17’S, 66°14°'W).”This species is monotypic.","W Amazon Basin of W Brazil, S of the Amazon River, in the lower Jurua and Urucu rivers in Amazonas State.","Head-body 167 mm, tail 183 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Hidden Spiny Tree-rat is sympatric with Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (M. lispidus) at both known localities, sharing substantial morphological similarity but sharply different karyotypes and deeply divergent mtDNA genomes. It is equivalent to Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat in size, color, color pattern, and degree of spine development in dorsal fur, but it differs by its spines on neck and shoulders, with orange mid-bands. Hairs along tail are thin and colorless, and tuft of hairs at tail tip are longer, averaging greater than 30 mm. At base oftail, central pigmented hair of each scale is elongated rather than spine line. Cranially, the Hidden Spiny Treerat is unique in having shorter and wider incisive foramina with shorter premaxillary septum, less conspicuous grooves on anterior palate, and flatter and broader paroccipital processes. Otherwise, skulls of these two sympatric species are exceedingly similar. Four labial folds are present on dP, M', and M?, with the fourth very small and usually lost with wear. M? usually has only three labial folds or, if four, middle two may coalesce into a Y-branched structure. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 54.","Upland Amazonian rainforest. The Hidden Spiny Tree-rat is arboreal and was collected in trees in terra firma forests, at 1-5, 9-6, and 15-4 m above the ground.","Diet and foraging habits of the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat are presumably similar to those ofits close relative, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat. These two species are syntopic, living side-by-side in the same local forests; potential competitive interactions involving space use and food overlap warrant detailed study.","A single pregnant Hidden Spiny Tree-rat, captured in June, had a single embryo with crown—rump length of 35 mmActvity patterns. There is no information available for this species.",,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat, but one locality of occurrence is adjacent to an oil drilling station. There might be opposing negative (habitat loss or degradation) or positive (minimization of whole-sale forest clear-cutting) forces affecting the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat. No protected areas are included in its distribution. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat are needed.","Emmons (2005) | Orlando et al. (2003) | Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623814/files/figure.png,"63.Hidden Spiny Tree-ratMesomys occultusFrench:Rat-épineux furtif/ German:Blischelschwanz-Amazonas-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola ocultaOther common names:Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Mesomys occultus Patton, da Silva & Malcolm, 2000, “Colocacao ViraVolta, left bank Rio Jurud on Igarapé Arabidi, affluent of Parana Breu, Amazonas,Brazil (3°17’S, 66°14°'W).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin of W Brazil, S of the Amazon River, in the lower Jurua and Urucu rivers in Amazonas State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 167 mm, tail 183 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Hidden Spiny Tree-rat is sympatric with Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (M. lispidus) at both known localities, sharing substantial morphological similarity but sharply different karyotypes and deeply divergent mtDNA genomes. It is equivalent to Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat in size, color, color pattern, and degree of spine development in dorsal fur, but it differs by its spines on neck and shoulders, with orange mid-bands. Hairs along tail are thin and colorless, and tuft of hairs at tail tip are longer, averaging greater than 30 mm. At base oftail, central pigmented hair of each scale is elongated rather than spine line. Cranially, the Hidden Spiny Treerat is unique in having shorter and wider incisive foramina with shorter premaxillary septum, less conspicuous grooves on anterior palate, and flatter and broader paroccipital processes. Otherwise, skulls of these two sympatric species are exceedingly similar. Four labial folds are present on dP, M', and M?, with the fourth very small and usually lost with wear. M? usually has only three labial folds or, if four, middle two may coalesce into a Y-branched structure. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 54.Habitat.Upland Amazonian rainforest. The Hidden Spiny Tree-rat is arboreal and was collected in trees in terra firma forests, at 1-5, 9-6, and 15-4 m above the ground.Food and Feeding.Diet and foraging habits of the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat are presumably similar to those ofits close relative, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat. These two species are syntopic, living side-by-side in the same local forests; potential competitive interactions involving space use and food overlap warrant detailed study.Breeding.A single pregnant Hidden Spiny Tree-rat, captured in June, had a single embryo with crown—rump length of 35 mmActvity patterns. There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat, but one locality of occurrence is adjacent to an oil drilling station. There might be opposing negative (habitat loss or degradation) or positive (minimization of whole-sale forest clear-cutting) forces affecting the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat. No protected areas are included in its distribution. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), Upham et al. (2013), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFCCFFFBFA03511B5813F90F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,585,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCCFFFBFA03511B5813F90F.xml,Dactylomys dactylinus,Dactylomys,dactylinus,,,Coro-coro d Amazonie @fr | Amazonas-Fingerratte @de | Rata de bambu del Amazonas @es,"Echimys dactylinus Desmarest, 1817, no type locality given. Restricted byO. Thomas in 1912 “upper Amazon Area.” Dactylomys dactylinusincludes typus as a synonym. An adequate review of geographical patterning of extensive morphological variation present across the large distribution of D. dactylinushas not been under-taken. Three subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.","D.d.dactylinusDesmarest,1817—UpperAmazonofSEColombia,SVenezuela,NEPeru,WBrazil,andNWBolivia,butwithundefinedlimits.D.d.canescensThomas,1912—LowerAmazonofC&EBrazil.D. d. modestus.onnberg, 1921— Upper Amazon of E Ecuador.","Head—body 315 mm, tail 389 mm; weight up to 325 g. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is large, with relatively soft furred, yellowish to olivaceous, and characterized by distinct pale mid-facial stripe over muzzle and extending posteriorly between eyes and ears onto nape of neck. Stripe contrasts sharply with grizzled yellowish to blackish dorsum, which in turn is streaked with black hairs. Sides become progressively more fulvous, with posterior outer thighs and sides of base oftail bright burnt orange. Ventral color is whitish, with hairs white to bases. Dorsal hairs are black or chestnut at roots, with subterminal black and pale or yellow tips. Head stripe is paler than that of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis). Long mystacial black vibrissae extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae. Apart from its basal part (first 60 mm oftail), tail is naked, not bicolored at base, covered with large pentagonal scales (5 annuli/cm), and overall ¢.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are colorless and short from furred tail base to tip. Forefeet have four digits, with digits two and three distinctly longer and nails instead of claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Amazon Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch are mainly composed ofjugal bone. In contrast to the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, paroccipital processes of the Amazon Bamboo Rat are oriented vertically and do not closely follow bullar curvature. There is no nerve canal in infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind M?, and upper molar rows diverge antero-posteriorly, with dP* nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 94 and FN = 144.","Amazonian lowlands in cane thickets, seasonally inundated (varzea) forests, bamboo stands, and multi-strata tropical evergreen forest from sea level to elevations of ¢.300m. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is found at lower elevations than the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, but they both might co-occur in headwater habitats.",Field observations of foraging Amazon Bamboo Rats indicate that they eat bamboo parts.,"One female Amazon Bamboo Rat was collected on Rio Jurua (Brazil) during the high-water season in June with two embryos, one with crown—rump length of97 mm.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Amazon Bamboo Rat is nocturnal.","Vocalizations of Amazon Bamboo Rats recorded along Rio Jurua consisted of series of 5-10 short staccato pulses. In Ecuador, recorded pulses reached a mean of 42, which were produced during 14second calls. Field observations suggest that Amazon Bamboo Rats are social, with family groups foraging together in single bamboo stands.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Amazon Bamboo Ratis widely distributed and is known to occur in a variety of bamboo and riparian forest habitats. It also occurs in several protected areas.,"Allen (1900, 1914b, 1916a) | Aniskin (1993) | Anthony (1920) | Bezerra et al. (2007) | Desmarest (1817) | Deville (1852) | Didier (1962) | Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1981, 1984, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838b) | Jentink (1891) | LaVal (1976) | Layne (1960) | Linares (1998) | Lonnberg (1921) | Moraes-Santos et al. (1999) | Ojasti et al. (1992) | Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | Silva, J.S. & Nunes (2000) | da Silva, M.N.F. & Patton (1993, 1998) | Thomas (1912b) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"65.Amazon Bamboo RatDactylomys dactylinusFrench:Coro-coro dAmazonie/ German:Amazonas-Fingerratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu del AmazonasTaxonomy.Echimys dactylinus Desmarest, 1817, no type locality given. Restricted byO. Thomas in 1912 “upper Amazon Area.” Dactylomys dactylinusincludes typus as a synonym. An adequate review of geographical patterning of extensive morphological variation present across the large distribution of D. dactylinushas not been under-taken. Three subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.Subspecies and Distribution.D.d.dactylinusDesmarest,1817—UpperAmazonofSEColombia,SVenezuela,NEPeru,WBrazil,andNWBolivia,butwithundefinedlimits.D.d.canescensThomas,1912—LowerAmazonofC&EBrazil.D. d. modestus.onnberg, 1921— Upper Amazon of E Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head—body 315 mm, tail 389 mm; weight up to 325 g. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is large, with relatively soft furred, yellowish to olivaceous, and characterized by distinct pale mid-facial stripe over muzzle and extending posteriorly between eyes and ears onto nape of neck. Stripe contrasts sharply with grizzled yellowish to blackish dorsum, which in turn is streaked with black hairs. Sides become progressively more fulvous, with posterior outer thighs and sides of base oftail bright burnt orange. Ventral color is whitish, with hairs white to bases. Dorsal hairs are black or chestnut at roots, with subterminal black and pale or yellow tips. Head stripe is paler than that of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis). Long mystacial black vibrissae extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae. Apart from its basal part (first 60 mm oftail), tail is naked, not bicolored at base, covered with large pentagonal scales (5 annuli/cm), and overall ¢.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are colorless and short from furred tail base to tip. Forefeet have four digits, with digits two and three distinctly longer and nails instead of claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Amazon Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch are mainly composed ofjugal bone. In contrast to the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, paroccipital processes of the Amazon Bamboo Rat are oriented vertically and do not closely follow bullar curvature. There is no nerve canal in infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind M?, and upper molar rows diverge antero-posteriorly, with dP* nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 94 and FN = 144.Habitat.Amazonian lowlands in cane thickets, seasonally inundated (varzea) forests, bamboo stands, and multi-strata tropical evergreen forest from sea level to elevations of ¢.300m. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is found at lower elevations than the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, but they both might co-occur in headwater habitats.Food and Feeding.Field observations of foraging Amazon Bamboo Rats indicate that they eat bamboo parts.Breeding.One female Amazon Bamboo Rat was collected on Rio Jurua (Brazil) during the high-water season in June with two embryos, one with crown—rump length of97 mm.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Amazon Bamboo Rat is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Vocalizations of Amazon Bamboo Rats recorded along Rio Jurua consisted of series of 5-10 short staccato pulses. In Ecuador, recorded pulses reached a mean of 42, which were produced during 14second calls. Field observations suggest that Amazon Bamboo Rats are social, with family groups foraging together in single bamboo stands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Amazon Bamboo Ratis widely distributed and is known to occur in a variety of bamboo and riparian forest habitats. It also occurs in several protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1900, 1914b, 1916a), Aniskin (1993), Anthony (1920), Bezerra et al. (2007), Desmarest (1817), Deville (1852), Didier (1962), Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1981, 1984, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838b), Jentink (1891), LaVal (1976), Layne (1960), Linares (1998), Lonnberg (1921), Moraes-Santos et al. (1999), Ojasti et al. (1992), Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), Silva, J.S. & Nunes (2000), da Silva, M.N.F. & Patton (1993, 1998), Thomas (1912b), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFCCFFFBFA03511B5813F90F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,585,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCCFFFBFA03511B5813F90F.xml,Dactylomys dactylinus,Dactylomys,dactylinus,,,Coro-coro d Amazonie @fr | Amazonas-Fingerratte @de | Rata de bambu del Amazonas @es,"Echimys dactylinus Desmarest, 1817, no type locality given. Restricted byO. Thomas in 1912 “upper Amazon Area.” Dactylomys dactylinusincludes typus as a synonym. An adequate review of geographical patterning of extensive morphological variation present across the large distribution of D. dactylinushas not been under-taken. Three subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.","D.d.dactylinusDesmarest,1817—UpperAmazonofSEColombia,SVenezuela,NEPeru,WBrazil,andNWBolivia,butwithundefinedlimits.D.d.canescensThomas,1912—LowerAmazonofC&EBrazil.D. d. modestus.onnberg, 1921— Upper Amazon of E Ecuador.","Head—body 315 mm, tail 389 mm; weight up to 325 g. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is large, with relatively soft furred, yellowish to olivaceous, and characterized by distinct pale mid-facial stripe over muzzle and extending posteriorly between eyes and ears onto nape of neck. Stripe contrasts sharply with grizzled yellowish to blackish dorsum, which in turn is streaked with black hairs. Sides become progressively more fulvous, with posterior outer thighs and sides of base oftail bright burnt orange. Ventral color is whitish, with hairs white to bases. Dorsal hairs are black or chestnut at roots, with subterminal black and pale or yellow tips. Head stripe is paler than that of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis). Long mystacial black vibrissae extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae. Apart from its basal part (first 60 mm oftail), tail is naked, not bicolored at base, covered with large pentagonal scales (5 annuli/cm), and overall ¢.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are colorless and short from furred tail base to tip. Forefeet have four digits, with digits two and three distinctly longer and nails instead of claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Amazon Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch are mainly composed ofjugal bone. In contrast to the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, paroccipital processes of the Amazon Bamboo Rat are oriented vertically and do not closely follow bullar curvature. There is no nerve canal in infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind M?, and upper molar rows diverge antero-posteriorly, with dP* nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 94 and FN = 144.","Amazonian lowlands in cane thickets, seasonally inundated (varzea) forests, bamboo stands, and multi-strata tropical evergreen forest from sea level to elevations of ¢.300m. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is found at lower elevations than the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, but they both might co-occur in headwater habitats.",Field observations of foraging Amazon Bamboo Rats indicate that they eat bamboo parts.,"One female Amazon Bamboo Rat was collected on Rio Jurua (Brazil) during the high-water season in June with two embryos, one with crown—rump length of97 mm.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Amazon Bamboo Rat is nocturnal.","Vocalizations of Amazon Bamboo Rats recorded along Rio Jurua consisted of series of 5-10 short staccato pulses. In Ecuador, recorded pulses reached a mean of 42, which were produced during 14second calls. Field observations suggest that Amazon Bamboo Rats are social, with family groups foraging together in single bamboo stands.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Amazon Bamboo Ratis widely distributed and is known to occur in a variety of bamboo and riparian forest habitats. It also occurs in several protected areas.,"Allen (1900, 1914b, 1916a) | Aniskin (1993) | Anthony (1920) | Bezerra et al. (2007) | Desmarest (1817) | Deville (1852) | Didier (1962) | Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1981, 1984, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838b) | Jentink (1891) | LaVal (1976) | Layne (1960) | Linares (1998) | Lonnberg (1921) | Moraes-Santos et al. (1999) | Ojasti et al. (1992) | Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | Silva, J.S. & Nunes (2000) | da Silva, M.N.F. & Patton (1993, 1998) | Thomas (1912b) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623816/files/figure.png,"65.Amazon Bamboo RatDactylomys dactylinusFrench:Coro-coro dAmazonie/ German:Amazonas-Fingerratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu del AmazonasTaxonomy.Echimys dactylinus Desmarest, 1817, no type locality given. Restricted byO. Thomas in 1912 “upper Amazon Area.” Dactylomys dactylinusincludes typus as a synonym. An adequate review of geographical patterning of extensive morphological variation present across the large distribution of D. dactylinushas not been under-taken. Three subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.Subspecies and Distribution.D.d.dactylinusDesmarest,1817—UpperAmazonofSEColombia,SVenezuela,NEPeru,WBrazil,andNWBolivia,butwithundefinedlimits.D.d.canescensThomas,1912—LowerAmazonofC&EBrazil.D. d. modestus.onnberg, 1921— Upper Amazon of E Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head—body 315 mm, tail 389 mm; weight up to 325 g. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is large, with relatively soft furred, yellowish to olivaceous, and characterized by distinct pale mid-facial stripe over muzzle and extending posteriorly between eyes and ears onto nape of neck. Stripe contrasts sharply with grizzled yellowish to blackish dorsum, which in turn is streaked with black hairs. Sides become progressively more fulvous, with posterior outer thighs and sides of base oftail bright burnt orange. Ventral color is whitish, with hairs white to bases. Dorsal hairs are black or chestnut at roots, with subterminal black and pale or yellow tips. Head stripe is paler than that of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis). Long mystacial black vibrissae extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae. Apart from its basal part (first 60 mm oftail), tail is naked, not bicolored at base, covered with large pentagonal scales (5 annuli/cm), and overall ¢.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are colorless and short from furred tail base to tip. Forefeet have four digits, with digits two and three distinctly longer and nails instead of claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Amazon Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch are mainly composed ofjugal bone. In contrast to the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, paroccipital processes of the Amazon Bamboo Rat are oriented vertically and do not closely follow bullar curvature. There is no nerve canal in infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind M?, and upper molar rows diverge antero-posteriorly, with dP* nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 94 and FN = 144.Habitat.Amazonian lowlands in cane thickets, seasonally inundated (varzea) forests, bamboo stands, and multi-strata tropical evergreen forest from sea level to elevations of ¢.300m. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is found at lower elevations than the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, but they both might co-occur in headwater habitats.Food and Feeding.Field observations of foraging Amazon Bamboo Rats indicate that they eat bamboo parts.Breeding.One female Amazon Bamboo Rat was collected on Rio Jurua (Brazil) during the high-water season in June with two embryos, one with crown—rump length of97 mm.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Amazon Bamboo Rat is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Vocalizations of Amazon Bamboo Rats recorded along Rio Jurua consisted of series of 5-10 short staccato pulses. In Ecuador, recorded pulses reached a mean of 42, which were produced during 14second calls. Field observations suggest that Amazon Bamboo Rats are social, with family groups foraging together in single bamboo stands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Amazon Bamboo Ratis widely distributed and is known to occur in a variety of bamboo and riparian forest habitats. It also occurs in several protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1900, 1914b, 1916a), Aniskin (1993), Anthony (1920), Bezerra et al. (2007), Desmarest (1817), Deville (1852), Didier (1962), Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1981, 1984, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838b), Jentink (1891), LaVal (1976), Layne (1960), Linares (1998), Lonnberg (1921), Moraes-Santos et al. (1999), Ojasti et al. (1992), Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), Silva, J.S. & Nunes (2000), da Silva, M.N.F. & Patton (1993, 1998), Thomas (1912b), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFCDFFF8FADC52EE5B85FA1F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,584,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCDFFF8FADC52EE5B85FA1F.xml,Mesomys leniceps,Mesomys,leniceps,Thomas,1926,Rat-épineux du Pérou @fr | Langhaar Amazonas-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de pelo largo @es | Peru Spiny Tree-rat @en | Woolly-headed Spiny Tree-rat @en,"Mesomys leniceps Thomas, 1926, “Yambrashbamba, Amazonas, 1830 m,” Peru. Mesomys lenicepsmay only represent a regional variant of the widespread M. hispidus. Monotypic.",E Andean slopes of N Peru (Amazonas and San Martin regions).,"Head-body 180 mm, tail 214 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat has brownish and rusty-red dorsal fur that is not as spiny as other species of Mesomys. Spines average 20 mm in length, are freely mixed with softer hairs within the fur, and lack distinct pale tips of other speciesof Mesomys. Head of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is hairier than back, slightly “hispid” to the touch. Venter is hairier, rich ocherous overall but with large white patches in axillary and inguinal areas. Forefeet and hindfeet are pale buff above with white digits. Tail is 118% of head-body length and brown along its length; body hair extends farther onto base oftail than in other species (25 mm on average). Tail scales are also smaller, and scalar hairs are more appressed to the shaft. Long tuft of hairs extends distally from tail tip.","of Mesomys. Head of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is hairier than back, slightly “hispid” to the touch. Venter is hairier, rich ocherous overall but with large white patches in axillary and inguinal areas. Forefeet and hindfeet are pale buff above with white digits. Tail is 118% of head-body length and brown along its length; body hair extends farther onto base oftail than in other species (25 mm on average). Tail scales are also smaller, and scalar hairs are more appressed to the shaft. Long tuft of hairs extends distally from tail tip. Skull of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is similar to those of the Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat and other species of Mesomysbut differs from the latter in several features, including more slender rostrum, nasals that do not extend behind premaxillary process, incisive foramina that are posteriorly narrowed,jugal and frontal bones around anterior orbital foramina slender such that height of zygoma itself is distinctly narrower, anteroposteriorly divergent molar tooth rows, and cheekteeth that decrease notably in size from dP* to M” Known only from upper montane rainforest on the eastern slope of the northern Andes in Peru at elevations of 1554-1980 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species.","Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. There is no information available for this species.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Habitats in vicinity ofthe type locality of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat are under strong pressure from human expansion and related logging activities. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Long Haired Spiny Tree-rat are needed.","Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1926b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623810/files/figure.png,"62.Long-haired Spiny Tree-ratMesomys lenicepsFrench:Rat-épineux du Pérou/ German:LanghaarAmazonas-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de pelo largoOther common names:Peru Spiny Tree-rat, Woolly-headed Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Mesomys leniceps Thomas, 1926, “Yambrashbamba, Amazonas, 1830 m,” Peru. Mesomys lenicepsmay only represent a regional variant of the widespread M. hispidus. Monotypic.Distribution.E Andean slopes of N Peru (Amazonas and San Martin regions).Descriptive notes.Head-body 180 mm, tail 214 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat has brownish and rusty-red dorsal fur that is not as spiny as other species of Mesomys. Spines average 20 mm in length, are freely mixed with softer hairs within the fur, and lack distinct pale tips of other speciesof Mesomys. Head of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is hairier than back, slightly “hispid” to the touch. Venter is hairier, rich ocherous overall but with large white patches in axillary and inguinal areas. Forefeet and hindfeet are pale buff above with white digits. Tail is 118% of head-body length and brown along its length; body hair extends farther onto base oftail than in other species (25 mm on average). Tail scales are also smaller, and scalar hairs are more appressed to the shaft. Long tuft of hairs extends distally from tail tip. Skull of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is similar to those of the Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat and other species of Mesomysbut differs from the latter in several features, including more slender rostrum, nasals that do not extend behind premaxillary process, incisive foramina that are posteriorly narrowed,jugal and frontal bones around anterior orbital foramina slender such that height of zygoma itself is distinctly narrower, anteroposteriorly divergent molar tooth rows, and cheekteeth that decrease notably in size from dP* to M” Habitat.Known only from upper montane rainforest on the eastern slope of the northern Andes in Peru at elevations of 1554-1980 m.ts.= day.* if LeFood and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Habitats in vicinity ofthe type locality of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat are under strong pressure from human expansion and related logging activities. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Long Haired Spiny Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1926b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Upham et al. (2013), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFCDFFF9FFDA53835D0CF536,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,584,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCDFFF9FFDA53835D0CF536.xml,Mesomys hispidus,Mesomys,hispidus,,,Rat-épineux arboricole @fr | Amazonas-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de Ferreira @es | Spiny Tree-rat @en,"Echimys hispidus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1939 to “Borba, Rio Madeira, Brazil.”Mesomys hispidusincludes ecaudatus, named byJ. A. Wagner in 1845, ferrugineus named by A. Gunther in 1877, and spicatus named by O. Thomas in 1924. This highly variable and geographically widespread speciesis subdivided into at least six reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades that differ in certain morphological attributes. A thorough evaluation of character variation is thus likely to elevate several of these geographical units to species status, some of which may correspond to currently available names now regarded as synonyms, while others will need formal description. Monotypic.","Amazon Basin from S & E Colombia, S Venezuela, E Ecuador, E Peru, and N Bolivia, E through Brazil to Rio Tapajos (S of the Amazon River), but to the Atlantic seaboard in Amapa State and the Guianas N ofthis river.","Head-body 171-186 mm, tail 160-192 mm; weight up to 160 g. Sizes of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats vary substantially, being smaller in the Guianan part of its distribution (mean headbody 161 mm) and becoming much larger in western Amazonia (head-body 178-186 mm). Otherwise, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is characterized overall by spiny dorsal fur and long, moderately hairy tail that terminates in short hairy tuft 5-21 mm in length. Upper parts are uniform pale to medium brown, with mid-back often streaked with black. Pelage consists of very conspicuous short, wide, flat, but flexible spines from shoulder to rump, each with pale tip. Eyes are large, and eye shine is moderately bright yellow. Vibrissae are long and fine, reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Tail is robust, uniformly brown, and thinly covered with long, red-brown hairs that do not hide scales. Under parts are uniformly pinkish orange, contrasting sharply with color of sides. Hindfeet are short and broad, each digit has sharp and strongly curved claw, and soles are pink and have large plantar pads. Skulls ofall species of Mesomysare similar to that of the Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat (Lonchothrix emiliae), with short and robust but proportionally narrower rostrum, parallel-sided nasal bones, and low-crowned, rounded cheekteeth with lateral folds that isolate into fossettes with wear. Skull of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is very similar to that of the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat (M. occultus), except that it has proportionally shorter rostrum and palate, longer and narrower incisive foramina that have an absolutely longer premaxillary septum, and dP*~ M* with more strongly developed fourth fold. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 116.","Submontane and lowland Amazonian rainforests and montane forest on the eastern Andean slopes in Peru, more commonly in upland flooded forest than in the varzea seasonally flooded plain in Rio Jurua region in Brazil, and semideciduous forest in Bolivia, from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Nearly 97% of all captures atsites along the Rio Jurud were in canopy traps, only 3% were trapped on the ground. Thus, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is predominantly an arboreal specialist that lives in a variety of forest types, including natural and human-disturbed habitats where some arboreal components remain. It may also be common near fallen logs and in villages close to forests where individuals can be found in house rafters.","Stomach contents of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats include insects, plant materials, and fruit pulp. Intestines are proportionally shorter than those of the echimyid bamboo specialists (Dactylomys) or Atlantic Forest herbivores (Phyllomys).","Litters of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats have 1-3 young, but most females have single young. Pregnant females were caught throughout the year at localities along the Rio Jurua (Brazil). Male adults consistently had enlarged testes averaging 20 x 9 mm and swollen vesicular glands (18 mm in length); in contrast, testes ofjuveniles maximally measured 10 x 5 mm and vesicular glands were less than 10 mm long.",Trapping data and direct observations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats indicate that it is nocturnal.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including human-disturbed landscapes that retain some tree cover, and even in human dwellings. Its distribution also encompasses several large national parks or other protected areas, especially in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. Detailed field studies focused on life history, behavior, and other aspects of population ecology are needed. Effort should be directed to delineating species limits within this broadly distributed and highly variable taxon.","Allen (1899a) | Cabrera (1961) | Desmarest (1817) | Eisenberg (1989) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Fischer (1829) | Goeldi (1897) | Giinther (1877a) | Handley (1976) | Hice & Velazco (2012) | Leal-Mesquita (1991) | Orlando et al. (2003) | Patton, Pardifas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (1994, 2000) | Stephens & Traylor (1983) | Tate (1935, 1939) | Thomas (1924b) | Voss et al. (2001) | Wagner (1843, 1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623812/files/figure.png,"61.Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-ratMesomys hispidusFrench:Rat-épineux arboricole/ German:Amazonas-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de FerreiraOther common names:Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Echimys hispidus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1939 to “Borba, Rio Madeira, Brazil.”Mesomys hispidusincludes ecaudatus, named byJ. A. Wagner in 1845, ferrugineus named by A. Gunther in 1877, and spicatus named by O. Thomas in 1924. This highly variable and geographically widespread speciesis subdivided into at least six reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades that differ in certain morphological attributes. A thorough evaluation of character variation is thus likely to elevate several of these geographical units to species status, some of which may correspond to currently available names now regarded as synonyms, while others will need formal description. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin from S & E Colombia, S Venezuela, E Ecuador, E Peru, and N Bolivia, E through Brazil to Rio Tapajos (S of the Amazon River), but to the Atlantic seaboard in Amapa State and the Guianas N ofthis river.Descriptive notes.Head-body 171-186 mm, tail 160-192 mm; weight up to 160 g. Sizes of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats vary substantially, being smaller in the Guianan part of its distribution (mean headbody 161 mm) and becoming much larger in western Amazonia (head-body 178-186 mm). Otherwise, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is characterized overall by spiny dorsal fur and long, moderately hairy tail that terminates in short hairy tuft 5-21 mm in length. Upper parts are uniform pale to medium brown, with mid-back often streaked with black. Pelage consists of very conspicuous short, wide, flat, but flexible spines from shoulder to rump, each with pale tip. Eyes are large, and eye shine is moderately bright yellow. Vibrissae are long and fine, reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Tail is robust, uniformly brown, and thinly covered with long, red-brown hairs that do not hide scales. Under parts are uniformly pinkish orange, contrasting sharply with color of sides. Hindfeet are short and broad, each digit has sharp and strongly curved claw, and soles are pink and have large plantar pads. Skulls ofall species of Mesomysare similar to that of the Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat (Lonchothrix emiliae), with short and robust but proportionally narrower rostrum, parallel-sided nasal bones, and low-crowned, rounded cheekteeth with lateral folds that isolate into fossettes with wear. Skull of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is very similar to that of the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat (M. occultus), except that it has proportionally shorter rostrum and palate, longer and narrower incisive foramina that have an absolutely longer premaxillary septum, and dP*~ M* with more strongly developed fourth fold. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Submontane and lowland Amazonian rainforests and montane forest on the eastern Andean slopes in Peru, more commonly in upland flooded forest than in the varzea seasonally flooded plain in Rio Jurua region in Brazil, and semideciduous forest in Bolivia, from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Nearly 97% of all captures atsites along the Rio Jurud were in canopy traps, only 3% were trapped on the ground. Thus, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is predominantly an arboreal specialist that lives in a variety of forest types, including natural and human-disturbed habitats where some arboreal components remain. It may also be common near fallen logs and in villages close to forests where individuals can be found in house rafters.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats include insects, plant materials, and fruit pulp. Intestines are proportionally shorter than those of the echimyid bamboo specialists (Dactylomys) or Atlantic Forest herbivores (Phyllomys).Breeding.Litters of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats have 1-3 young, but most females have single young. Pregnant females were caught throughout the year at localities along the Rio Jurua (Brazil). Male adults consistently had enlarged testes averaging 20 x 9 mm and swollen vesicular glands (18 mm in length); in contrast, testes ofjuveniles maximally measured 10 x 5 mm and vesicular glands were less than 10 mm long.Activity patterns.Trapping data and direct observations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats indicate that it is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including human-disturbed landscapes that retain some tree cover, and even in human dwellings. Its distribution also encompasses several large national parks or other protected areas, especially in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. Detailed field studies focused on life history, behavior, and other aspects of population ecology are needed. Effort should be directed to delineating species limits within this broadly distributed and highly variable taxon.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Cabrera (1961), Desmarest (1817), Eisenberg (1989), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Fischer (1829), Goeldi (1897), Giinther (1877a), Handley (1976), Hice & Velazco (2012), Leal-Mesquita (1991), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton, Pardifas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (1994, 2000), Stephens & Traylor (1983), Tate (1935, 1939), Thomas (1924b), Voss et al. (2001), Wagner (1843, 1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFCEFFFAFF6C5DF35D58F61F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,587,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCEFFFAFF6C5DF35D58F61F.xml,Kannabateomys amblyonyx,Kannabateomys,amblyonyx,,,,"Dactylomys amblyonyx Wagner, 1845, “ Ypanema.” Restricted by L. P. Costa and colleagues in 2003 to Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.Two subspecies are recognized.","K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.","Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126..","Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).","Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookHabitat.Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).Most important food items of Atlantic Bamboo Rats include large terminal or small lateral shoots, dry bamboo stems or sheets and leaves, or small green branches. They can consume 100 g (fresh weight) of bamboo tissues per night—a food rich in water and cyanide toxins and low nutritive content. While feeding, individuals remove outer, hard, and spiny sheet from culms using their incisors while holding branches with specialized hands and feet, and subsequently consuming inner tissues of shoots by directed chewing. They also forage on dry, spineless sheets found at bases of lateral branches, holding them with their forefeet while chewing. Leaves are cut at petioles from bases of lateral branches with incisors, while holding the branch with one hand, and then held by the other forefoot during consumption. A large shoot can weight 1600 g (including sheet) and at least one-fourth of the inner part can be eaten in a single night. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat has a simple, acidic stomach to detoxify bamboo cyanides. These bamboo rats can be located at night from piles of partially consumed bamboo materials that have fallen on the ground and by grinding sounds made while an individual masticates hard materials.","Young Atlantic Bamboo Rats are born precocial and large-sized. One 600g female was found with two near-term embryos weighting 60 g and 62 g in February. Juveniles have delayed dispersal, staying in parents’ home ranges until near or at adult size. Individuals usually build large nests in bamboo thickets, although no such nests are apparently constructed with any introduced bamboo species in Brazil.","Atlantic Bamboo Rats are arboreal and mainly active at night, but they have been observed feeding and calling at sunset.","Atlantic Bamboo Rats are agile and rapid climbers, moving through complex bamboo by grasping stems and shoots with their specialized hands and feet. Mean distance traveled per night was 259 m using radio-telemetry. Large bamboo nests may serve as diurnal restsites, but individuals have also been observed perched and resting on horizontal branches. Some rare radiotracked individuals were observed at bases of bamboo clumps well below their normal rest sites, possibly to avoid predators (e.g. capuchin monkeys, Cebus sp.). In the Biological Reserve of Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State (south-eastern Brazil), home ranges are 0-09 ha for males and 0-06 ha for females. Densities reached 1-5 ind/km?, Only one radio-tracked male had a home range of 0-16 ha. Males and females used an average of 3-5 restsites, with two sites used less than 50% of the time. These rest sites were usually located at extreme perimeters of home ranges. Some radio-tracked Atlantic Bamboo Rats opportunistically expanded their home ranges when individuals in adjoining home ranges were removed. In Rio Grande do Sul State of southern Brazil, density was estimated at 4-3 ind/km?. Individuals are usually difficult to locate in the canopy and are rarely seen below 3 m. Most reported sightings result from vocalizations or noise generated by feeding individuals. Usually individual callers sat at culms and produced sounds, while throwing muzzles forward at each note. Calling is most common during the night but sometimes begins at sunset. Calls are characterized by series of similar notes produced over similar time intervals. Frequency of these calls is 4 kHz, each note is 0-2 seconds long, and vocalizations might last from less than a second to several minutes. Role of vocalizations is not clearly understood, but it is likely related to predator presence or space and resource defense. Atlantic Bamboo Rats mainly rely on slowly renewed and sparsely dispersed large bamboo shoots, and males and females are likely territorial, particularly females during pregnancy and lactation. Atlantic Bamboo Rats are thought to be socially monogamous, expressed in part by reduced sexual polymorphism, bi-parental care, and delayedjuvenile dispersal. After weaning, both sexes show parental care including food provisioning, grooming, and huddling. Monogamy, however, might be flexible depending on availabilities of food resources because females have reduced home ranges and are confined to widely spaced bamboo patches—two attributes that decrease possible male defense and might promote polygamy. Extensive bi-parental care might also reduce risk of inexperienced young falling from trees and increase availability of low-energy bamboo food.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat is rarely seen, difficult to locate, and even more difficult to trap. It has been reported to colonize new areas with introduced bamboo species and where little natural vegetation persists, but most museum specimens come from primary or secondary forests in highland areas. In view of a highly specialized bamboo-related ecology, this endemic Atlantic Forest species requires additional surveys and research to document possible conservation needs.","Costa et al. (2003) | Crespo (1982) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Franceschi et al. (2008) | Hensel (1872a) | Jentink (1891) | Kierulff et al. (1991) | Leite & Patton (2002) | Olmos (1992) | Olmos et al. (1993) | Patton et al. (2015) | da Silva, FA. (2014) | da Silva, FA. et al. (2012) | Silva, L.EB.M. (1993) | Silva, R.B. et al. (2008) | Stallings et al. (1994) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1903b) | Wagner (1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"68.Atlantic Bamboo RatKannabateomys amblyonyxFrench: Rat-épineux des bambous / German: Bambus-Fingerratte / Spanish: Rata de bambu atléanticaOther common names: Southern Bamboo RatTaxonomy. Dactylomys amblyonyx Wagner, 1845, “ Ypanema.” Restricted by L. P. Costa and colleagues in 2003 to Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookHabitat.Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).Food and Feeding.Most important food items of Atlantic Bamboo Rats include large terminal or small lateral shoots, dry bamboo stems or sheets and leaves, or small green branches. They can consume 100 g (fresh weight) of bamboo tissues per night—a food rich in water and cyanide toxins and low nutritive content. While feeding, individuals remove outer, hard, and spiny sheet from culms using their incisors while holding branches with specialized hands and feet, and subsequently consuming inner tissues of shoots by directed chewing. They also forage on dry, spineless sheets found at bases of lateral branches, holding them with their forefeet while chewing. Leaves are cut at petioles from bases of lateral branches with incisors, while holding the branch with one hand, and then held by the other forefoot during consumption. A large shoot can weight 1600 g (including sheet) and at least one-fourth of the inner part can be eaten in a single night. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat has a simple, acidic stomach to detoxify bamboo cyanides. These bamboo rats can be located at night from piles of partially consumed bamboo materials that have fallen on the ground and by grinding sounds made while an individual masticates hard materials.Breeding.Young Atlantic Bamboo Rats are born precocial and large-sized. One 600g female was found with two near-term embryos weighting 60 g and 62 g in February. Juveniles have delayed dispersal, staying in parents’ home ranges until near or at adult size. Individuals usually build large nests in bamboo thickets, although no such nests are apparently constructed with any introduced bamboo species in Brazil.Activity patterns.Atlantic Bamboo Rats are arboreal and mainly active at night, but they have been observed feeding and calling at sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Atlantic Bamboo Rats are agile and rapid climbers, moving through complex bamboo by grasping stems and shoots with their specialized hands and feet. Mean distance traveled per night was 259 m using radio-telemetry. Large bamboo nests may serve as diurnal restsites, but individuals have also been observed perched and resting on horizontal branches. Some rare radiotracked individuals were observed at bases of bamboo clumps well below their normal rest sites, possibly to avoid predators (e.g. capuchin monkeys, Cebus sp.). In the Biological Reserve of Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State (south-eastern Brazil), home ranges are 0-09 ha for males and 0-06 ha for females. Densities reached 1-5 ind/km?, Only one radio-tracked male had a home range of 0-16 ha. Males and females used an average of 3-5 restsites, with two sites used less than 50% of the time. These rest sites were usually located at extreme perimeters of home ranges. Some radio-tracked Atlantic Bamboo Rats opportunistically expanded their home ranges when individuals in adjoining home ranges were removed. In Rio Grande do Sul State of southern Brazil, density was estimated at 4-3 ind/km?. Individuals are usually difficult to locate in the canopy and are rarely seen below 3 m. Most reported sightings result from vocalizations or noise generated by feeding individuals. Usually individual callers sat at culms and produced sounds, while throwing muzzles forward at each note. Calling is most common during the night but sometimes begins at sunset. Calls are characterized by series of similar notes produced over similar time intervals. Frequency of these calls is 4 kHz, each note is 0-2 seconds long, and vocalizations might last from less than a second to several minutes. Role of vocalizations is not clearly understood, but it is likely related to predator presence or space and resource defense. Atlantic Bamboo Rats mainly rely on slowly renewed and sparsely dispersed large bamboo shoots, and males and females are likely territorial, particularly females during pregnancy and lactation. Atlantic Bamboo Rats are thought to be socially monogamous, expressed in part by reduced sexual polymorphism, bi-parental care, and delayedjuvenile dispersal. After weaning, both sexes show parental care including food provisioning, grooming, and huddling. Monogamy, however, might be flexible depending on availabilities of food resources because females have reduced home ranges and are confined to widely spaced bamboo patches—two attributes that decrease possible male defense and might promote polygamy. Extensive bi-parental care might also reduce risk of inexperienced young falling from trees and increase availability of low-energy bamboo food.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat is rarely seen, difficult to locate, and even more difficult to trap. It has been reported to colonize new areas with introduced bamboo species and where little natural vegetation persists, but most museum specimens come from primary or secondary forests in highland areas. In view of a highly specialized bamboo-related ecology, this endemic Atlantic Forest species requires additional surveys and research to document possible conservation needs.Bibliography.Costa et al. (2003), Crespo (1982), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Franceschi et al. (2008), Hensel (1872a), Jentink (1891), Kierulff et al. (1991), Leite & Patton (2002), Olmos (1992), Olmos et al. (1993), Patton et al. (2015), da Silva, FA. (2014), da Silva, FA. et al. (2012), Silva, L.EB.M. (1993), Silva, R.B. et al. (2008), Stallings et al. (1994), Tate (1935), Thomas (1903b), Wagner (1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFCEFFFAFF6C5DF35D58F61F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,587,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCEFFFAFF6C5DF35D58F61F.xml,Kannabateomys amblyonyx,Kannabateomys,amblyonyx,,,,"Dactylomys amblyonyx Wagner, 1845, “ Ypanema.” Restricted by L. P. Costa and colleagues in 2003 to Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.Two subspecies are recognized.","K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.","Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126..","Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).","Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookHabitat.Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).Most important food items of Atlantic Bamboo Rats include large terminal or small lateral shoots, dry bamboo stems or sheets and leaves, or small green branches. They can consume 100 g (fresh weight) of bamboo tissues per night—a food rich in water and cyanide toxins and low nutritive content. While feeding, individuals remove outer, hard, and spiny sheet from culms using their incisors while holding branches with specialized hands and feet, and subsequently consuming inner tissues of shoots by directed chewing. They also forage on dry, spineless sheets found at bases of lateral branches, holding them with their forefeet while chewing. Leaves are cut at petioles from bases of lateral branches with incisors, while holding the branch with one hand, and then held by the other forefoot during consumption. A large shoot can weight 1600 g (including sheet) and at least one-fourth of the inner part can be eaten in a single night. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat has a simple, acidic stomach to detoxify bamboo cyanides. These bamboo rats can be located at night from piles of partially consumed bamboo materials that have fallen on the ground and by grinding sounds made while an individual masticates hard materials.","Young Atlantic Bamboo Rats are born precocial and large-sized. One 600g female was found with two near-term embryos weighting 60 g and 62 g in February. Juveniles have delayed dispersal, staying in parents’ home ranges until near or at adult size. Individuals usually build large nests in bamboo thickets, although no such nests are apparently constructed with any introduced bamboo species in Brazil.","Atlantic Bamboo Rats are arboreal and mainly active at night, but they have been observed feeding and calling at sunset.","Atlantic Bamboo Rats are agile and rapid climbers, moving through complex bamboo by grasping stems and shoots with their specialized hands and feet. Mean distance traveled per night was 259 m using radio-telemetry. Large bamboo nests may serve as diurnal restsites, but individuals have also been observed perched and resting on horizontal branches. Some rare radiotracked individuals were observed at bases of bamboo clumps well below their normal rest sites, possibly to avoid predators (e.g. capuchin monkeys, Cebus sp.). In the Biological Reserve of Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State (south-eastern Brazil), home ranges are 0-09 ha for males and 0-06 ha for females. Densities reached 1-5 ind/km?, Only one radio-tracked male had a home range of 0-16 ha. Males and females used an average of 3-5 restsites, with two sites used less than 50% of the time. These rest sites were usually located at extreme perimeters of home ranges. Some radio-tracked Atlantic Bamboo Rats opportunistically expanded their home ranges when individuals in adjoining home ranges were removed. In Rio Grande do Sul State of southern Brazil, density was estimated at 4-3 ind/km?. Individuals are usually difficult to locate in the canopy and are rarely seen below 3 m. Most reported sightings result from vocalizations or noise generated by feeding individuals. Usually individual callers sat at culms and produced sounds, while throwing muzzles forward at each note. Calling is most common during the night but sometimes begins at sunset. Calls are characterized by series of similar notes produced over similar time intervals. Frequency of these calls is 4 kHz, each note is 0-2 seconds long, and vocalizations might last from less than a second to several minutes. Role of vocalizations is not clearly understood, but it is likely related to predator presence or space and resource defense. Atlantic Bamboo Rats mainly rely on slowly renewed and sparsely dispersed large bamboo shoots, and males and females are likely territorial, particularly females during pregnancy and lactation. Atlantic Bamboo Rats are thought to be socially monogamous, expressed in part by reduced sexual polymorphism, bi-parental care, and delayedjuvenile dispersal. After weaning, both sexes show parental care including food provisioning, grooming, and huddling. Monogamy, however, might be flexible depending on availabilities of food resources because females have reduced home ranges and are confined to widely spaced bamboo patches—two attributes that decrease possible male defense and might promote polygamy. Extensive bi-parental care might also reduce risk of inexperienced young falling from trees and increase availability of low-energy bamboo food.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat is rarely seen, difficult to locate, and even more difficult to trap. It has been reported to colonize new areas with introduced bamboo species and where little natural vegetation persists, but most museum specimens come from primary or secondary forests in highland areas. In view of a highly specialized bamboo-related ecology, this endemic Atlantic Forest species requires additional surveys and research to document possible conservation needs.","Costa et al. (2003) | Crespo (1982) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Franceschi et al. (2008) | Hensel (1872a) | Jentink (1891) | Kierulff et al. (1991) | Leite & Patton (2002) | Olmos (1992) | Olmos et al. (1993) | Patton et al. (2015) | da Silva, FA. (2014) | da Silva, FA. et al. (2012) | Silva, L.EB.M. (1993) | Silva, R.B. et al. (2008) | Stallings et al. (1994) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1903b) | Wagner (1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623824/files/figure.png,"68.Atlantic Bamboo RatKannabateomys amblyonyxFrench: Rat-épineux des bambous / German: Bambus-Fingerratte / Spanish: Rata de bambu atléanticaOther common names: Southern Bamboo RatTaxonomy. Dactylomys amblyonyx Wagner, 1845, “ Ypanema.” Restricted by L. P. Costa and colleagues in 2003 to Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookHabitat.Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).Food and Feeding.Most important food items of Atlantic Bamboo Rats include large terminal or small lateral shoots, dry bamboo stems or sheets and leaves, or small green branches. They can consume 100 g (fresh weight) of bamboo tissues per night—a food rich in water and cyanide toxins and low nutritive content. While feeding, individuals remove outer, hard, and spiny sheet from culms using their incisors while holding branches with specialized hands and feet, and subsequently consuming inner tissues of shoots by directed chewing. They also forage on dry, spineless sheets found at bases of lateral branches, holding them with their forefeet while chewing. Leaves are cut at petioles from bases of lateral branches with incisors, while holding the branch with one hand, and then held by the other forefoot during consumption. A large shoot can weight 1600 g (including sheet) and at least one-fourth of the inner part can be eaten in a single night. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat has a simple, acidic stomach to detoxify bamboo cyanides. These bamboo rats can be located at night from piles of partially consumed bamboo materials that have fallen on the ground and by grinding sounds made while an individual masticates hard materials.Breeding.Young Atlantic Bamboo Rats are born precocial and large-sized. One 600g female was found with two near-term embryos weighting 60 g and 62 g in February. Juveniles have delayed dispersal, staying in parents’ home ranges until near or at adult size. Individuals usually build large nests in bamboo thickets, although no such nests are apparently constructed with any introduced bamboo species in Brazil.Activity patterns.Atlantic Bamboo Rats are arboreal and mainly active at night, but they have been observed feeding and calling at sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Atlantic Bamboo Rats are agile and rapid climbers, moving through complex bamboo by grasping stems and shoots with their specialized hands and feet. Mean distance traveled per night was 259 m using radio-telemetry. Large bamboo nests may serve as diurnal restsites, but individuals have also been observed perched and resting on horizontal branches. Some rare radiotracked individuals were observed at bases of bamboo clumps well below their normal rest sites, possibly to avoid predators (e.g. capuchin monkeys, Cebus sp.). In the Biological Reserve of Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State (south-eastern Brazil), home ranges are 0-09 ha for males and 0-06 ha for females. Densities reached 1-5 ind/km?, Only one radio-tracked male had a home range of 0-16 ha. Males and females used an average of 3-5 restsites, with two sites used less than 50% of the time. These rest sites were usually located at extreme perimeters of home ranges. Some radio-tracked Atlantic Bamboo Rats opportunistically expanded their home ranges when individuals in adjoining home ranges were removed. In Rio Grande do Sul State of southern Brazil, density was estimated at 4-3 ind/km?. Individuals are usually difficult to locate in the canopy and are rarely seen below 3 m. Most reported sightings result from vocalizations or noise generated by feeding individuals. Usually individual callers sat at culms and produced sounds, while throwing muzzles forward at each note. Calling is most common during the night but sometimes begins at sunset. Calls are characterized by series of similar notes produced over similar time intervals. Frequency of these calls is 4 kHz, each note is 0-2 seconds long, and vocalizations might last from less than a second to several minutes. Role of vocalizations is not clearly understood, but it is likely related to predator presence or space and resource defense. Atlantic Bamboo Rats mainly rely on slowly renewed and sparsely dispersed large bamboo shoots, and males and females are likely territorial, particularly females during pregnancy and lactation. Atlantic Bamboo Rats are thought to be socially monogamous, expressed in part by reduced sexual polymorphism, bi-parental care, and delayedjuvenile dispersal. After weaning, both sexes show parental care including food provisioning, grooming, and huddling. Monogamy, however, might be flexible depending on availabilities of food resources because females have reduced home ranges and are confined to widely spaced bamboo patches—two attributes that decrease possible male defense and might promote polygamy. Extensive bi-parental care might also reduce risk of inexperienced young falling from trees and increase availability of low-energy bamboo food.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat is rarely seen, difficult to locate, and even more difficult to trap. It has been reported to colonize new areas with introduced bamboo species and where little natural vegetation persists, but most museum specimens come from primary or secondary forests in highland areas. In view of a highly specialized bamboo-related ecology, this endemic Atlantic Forest species requires additional surveys and research to document possible conservation needs.Bibliography.Costa et al. (2003), Crespo (1982), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Franceschi et al. (2008), Hensel (1872a), Jentink (1891), Kierulff et al. (1991), Leite & Patton (2002), Olmos (1992), Olmos et al. (1993), Patton et al. (2015), da Silva, FA. (2014), da Silva, FA. et al. (2012), Silva, L.EB.M. (1993), Silva, R.B. et al. (2008), Stallings et al. (1994), Tate (1935), Thomas (1903b), Wagner (1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFCEFFFDFA7652905EB1FAB0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,587,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCEFFFDFA7652905EB1FAB0.xml,Olallamys albicauda,Olallamys,albicauda,,,Rat-épineux a queue blanche @fr | Olalla-Ratte @de | Rata olalla de cola blanca @es | Colombian Soft-furred Spiny-rat @en,"Thrinacodus albicauda Gunther, 1879, “vicinity of Medellin, ColombianConfederation,” Antioquia, Colombia.L. H. Emmons replaced Gunther’s Thrinacodus with Olallamysin 1988 after recognizing that Gunther’s genus group name was a homonym of an earlier described genus of cartilaginous fish. Two subspecies recognized.","O. a. albicauda Gunther, 1879— E Andes Range in C Colombia.626O. a. apolinariJ. A. Allen, 1914— C Andes Range in Colombia.","Head—body 150-180 mm, tail 255-260 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The White-tailed Olalla Rat is arboreal, with soft fur and without spines or bristles, smaller than its congener the Greedy Olalla Rat (O. edax). Dorsal pelt is shaded with reddish and brownish hues; belly is pure yellowish and contrasts slightly with dorsum. Tail is ¢.160% of head-body length, sparsely furred, and longitudinally bicolored, with proximal end reddish brown and distally white. Compared with species of Dactylomysand the Atlantic Bamboo Rat (Kannabateomysamblyonyx), forefeet and hindfeet have claws instead of nails, except for presence of asymmetrical nail on digit two of hindfeet. Compared with other dactylomyinae members, both species of Olallamyshave smaller crania and distinct cheekteeth with well-separated lophs and lophids on molars, due to junction between flexus and flexid. Species of Olallamysshare anteriorly convergent upper tooth rows with species of Dactylomys, and both genera are distinguished from the Atlantic Bamboo Rat by this feature.","Bamboo patches in primary montane rainforest of the Central and Eastern Andes Range in Colombia at elevations of 2300-3300 m. The White-tailed Olalla Rat likely also occupies disturbed forests where bamboo thickets (Chusquea sp., Poaceae) are abundant, based on its presence in scats of the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyonthous, Canidae).",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-tailed Olalla Rat is probably nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the White-tailed Olalla Rat—a rare mountain endemic—are needed.,"Allen (1914a) | Cabrera (1961) | Delgado (2009) | Delgado & Zurc (2005) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1988, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Gunther (1877a) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623826/files/figure.png,"69.White-tailed Olalla RatOlallamys albicaudaFrench:Rat-épineux a queue blanche/ German:Olalla-Ratte/ Spanish:Rata olalla de cola blancaOther common names:Colombian Soft-furred Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Thrinacodus albicauda Gunther, 1879, “vicinity of Medellin, ColombianConfederation,” Antioquia, Colombia.L. H. Emmons replaced Gunther’s Thrinacodus with Olallamysin 1988 after recognizing that Gunther’s genus group name was a homonym of an earlier described genus of cartilaginous fish. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O. a. albicauda Gunther, 1879— E Andes Range in C Colombia.626O. a. apolinariJ. A. Allen, 1914— C Andes Range in Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 150-180 mm, tail 255-260 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The White-tailed Olalla Rat is arboreal, with soft fur and without spines or bristles, smaller than its congener the Greedy Olalla Rat (O. edax). Dorsal pelt is shaded with reddish and brownish hues; belly is pure yellowish and contrasts slightly with dorsum. Tail is ¢.160% of head-body length, sparsely furred, and longitudinally bicolored, with proximal end reddish brown and distally white. Compared with species of Dactylomysand the Atlantic Bamboo Rat (Kannabateomysamblyonyx), forefeet and hindfeet have claws instead of nails, except for presence of asymmetrical nail on digit two of hindfeet. Compared with other dactylomyinae members, both species of Olallamyshave smaller crania and distinct cheekteeth with well-separated lophs and lophids on molars, due to junction between flexus and flexid. Species of Olallamysshare anteriorly convergent upper tooth rows with species of Dactylomys, and both genera are distinguished from the Atlantic Bamboo Rat by this feature.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 37Species AccountsHabitat.Bamboo patches in primary montane rainforest of the Central and Eastern Andes Range in Colombia at elevations of 2300-3300 m. The White-tailed Olalla Rat likely also occupies disturbed forests where bamboo thickets (Chusquea sp., Poaceae) are abundant, based on its presence in scats of the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyonthous, Canidae).Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-tailed Olalla Rat is probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the White-tailed Olalla Rat—a rare mountain endemic—are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1914a), Cabrera (1961), Delgado (2009), Delgado & Zurc (2005), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1988, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Gunther (1877a), Patton et al. (2015), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFCFFFFAFAF1524F58FAFB7F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,586,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCFFFFAFAF1524F58FAFB7F.xml,Dactylomys peruanus,Dactylomys,peruanus,J. A. Allen,1900,Coro-coro du Pérou @fr | Peru-Fingerratte @de | Rata de bambu de Peru @es | Peruvian Bamboo Rat @en,"Dactylomys peruanusJ. A. Al-len, 1900, “Juliaca, Peru, altitude 6000 feet [1828 m].”Corrected by J. A. Allen in 1901 to “Inca mines [= Santo Domingo Mine], about 200 miles north of Juliaca, on the east side of the Andes, on the Inam-bary [Inambari] River, Puno, Peru.”This species is monotypic.",E Andean slopes from C Peru to W Bolivia.,"Head-body 240 mm, tail 320 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Montane Bamboo Rat is small, with distinct, very soft fur without any harsh bristles as found in congeners. Ears are small and nearly hidden underfur. Tail is ¢.130% of head-body length and is heavily furred along base, becoming more lightly furred distally, where it ends in distinct dark tufted tip. This tail feature is also unique among congeners. Dorsum is olivaceous, with grayish brown muzzle and forehead but without stripe over top of head. Dorsal hairs are bicolored, buffy at the tips and buffy gray at bases. Rump and flanks are paler due to hairs with longer buffy tips. Color of thighs and lateral tail base ranges from that of dorsum to bright orange. Overall, venter is whitish, but mid-venter may be dusky, washed with buff. Similar to several mountain rodent species,fur is soft, nearly woolly, with long hairs on wrist and heel. Blackish vibrissae are very long and extend backward to shoulder level. Skull of the Montane Bamboo Rat is smaller but similar to that of other species of Dactylomys. Paraoccipital processes are oriented anteriorly and in contact with auditory bulla as in the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis).",,,,,"In the Willkapampa (= Vilcabamba) region of Peru, Montane Bamboo Rats were reported to make bird-like calls.",,"Allen (1900, 1901, 1916b) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | SalazarBravo & Emmons (2003) | Thomas (1927c¢) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623822/files/figure.png,"67.Montane Bamboo RatDactylomys peruanusFrench:Coro-coro du Pérou/ German:Peru-Fingerratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu de PeruOther common names:Peruvian Bamboo RatTaxonomy.Dactylomys peruanusJ. A. Al-len, 1900, “Juliaca, Peru, altitude 6000 feet [1828 m].”Corrected by J. A. Allen in 1901 to “Inca mines [= Santo Domingo Mine], about 200 miles north of Juliaca, on the east side of the Andes, on the Inam-bary [Inambari] River, Puno, Peru.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Andean slopes from C Peru to W Bolivia.Descriptive notes. Head-body 240 mm, tail 320 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Montane Bamboo Rat is small, with distinct, very soft fur without any harsh bristles as found in congeners. Ears are small and nearly hidden underfur. Tail is ¢.130% of head-body length and is heavily furred along base, becoming more lightly furred distally, where it ends in distinct dark tufted tip. This tail feature is also unique among congeners. Dorsum is olivaceous, with grayish brown muzzle and forehead but without stripe over top of head. Dorsal hairs are bicolored, buffy at the tips and buffy gray at bases. Rump and flanks are paler due to hairs with longer buffy tips. Color of thighs and lateral tail base ranges from that of dorsum to bright orange. Overall, venter is whitish, but mid-venter may be dusky, washed with buff. Similar to several mountain rodent species,fur is soft, nearly woolly, with long hairs on wrist and heel. Blackish vibrissae are very long and extend backward to shoulder level. Skull of the Montane Bamboo Rat is smaller but similar to that of other species of Dactylomys. Paraoccipital processes are oriented anteriorly and in contact with auditory bulla as in the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis).625FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 37Species AccountsHabitat. Mossy cloud forest where it appears restricted to bamboo thickets at elevations of 1000-3300 m. Type specimen of the Montane Bamboo Rat was collected on the ground along a creek at night. Individuals have been observed in wet bamboo forest of Chusquea sp.(Poaceae) within Machu Picchu Historical Sanctuary, Peru.Food and Feeding. Stomach contents suggest that bamboo leaves are the major food item of Montane Bamboo Rats.Breeding. There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but the Montane Bamboo Rat is nocturnal like other bamboo rats.Movements, Home range and Social organization. In the Willkapampa (= Vilcabamba) region of Peru, Montane Bamboo Rats were reported to make bird-like calls.Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Montane Bamboo Rat are needed to adequately assess its conservation status.Bibliography. Allen (1900, 1901, 1916b), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), SalazarBravo & Emmons (2003), Thomas (1927c¢), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick. (2005)." 03C5A071FFCFFFFBFFEE5EED524CF66A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,586,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCFFFFBFFEE5EED524CF66A.xml,Dactylomys boliviensis,Dactylomys,boliviensis,Anthony,1920,Coro-coro de Bolivie @fr | Bolivien-Fingerratte @de | Rata de bambu de Bolivia @es,"Dactylomys boliviensis Anthony, 1920, “Mission San Antonio, Rio Chmore [sic, Chimoré], Prov. Cochabamba, Boliv-1a, altitude 1300 feet [400 m].”Some authors regarded boliviensisas a valid subspecies or simple synonym of D. dactylinus, but recent morphological and molecular studies strongly support D. boliviensisas a distinct species. Monotypic.","SW Amazon Basin, from C Peru S to C Bolivia and E to W Brazil (C Rio Jurua).","Head-body 270-290 mm, tail 410 mm; weight up to 600 g. The Bolivian Bamboo Rat is large, olivaceous, arboreal, and characterized by distinct dark mid-dorsal stripe of tricolor hairs (black-brown-black) between head and rump. Its fur is soft, grizzled grayish olivaceus, streaked with black on dorsum but paler on side, with sparse whitish fur on belly. Head is grizzled gray with white striped hairs; olivaceous black stripe hair patch (black might be absent) surrounded by pale-tipped hairs occurs between eyes, nose, ears, and nape; mystacial black vibrissae are short and do not extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae, as they do on the Amazon Bamboo Rat (D. dactylinus). Apart from the initial 65 mm or so of well-furred tail base, long bicolored tail is naked, covered with small scales (with 6 annuli/cm), and overall c.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are dark brown or black at base oftail but become colorless toward tip of tail; scales are less pentagonal than those of the Amazon Bamboo Rat. Forefeet of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat have four digits, with digit two and three distinctly longer than lateral ones; each digit has a nail rather than a claw. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, proportionally broadened supraorbital ledges with well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Jugal is primary component of post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch. Paraoccipital processes are oriented anteriorly and curved to follow contour of each bulla. No nerve canal is present on floor of infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind the M’. Upper molar tooth rows diverge antero-posteriorly so that dP*s are nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 118 and FN = 168.","Amazonian lowlands, primarily within riparian communities with large cane thickets and bamboo patches (e.g. Guadua spp., Poaceae) at known elevations of 200-1000 m. In Peru, some specimens were collected in a thicket of Bambusa(Poaceae) bamboo and small trees. The Bolivian Bamboo Rat occurred at higher elevations than the Amazon Bamboo Rat, but the possibility that they overlap in headwater habitats needs further study.","Stomach contents of Bolivian Bamboo Rats from La Reserva, Bolivia, indicate an exclusively bamboo diet, with remains of sprouts and epidermis present. Field observations of foraging behavior indicate that the Bolivian Bamboo Rat removes the sheet of a bamboo shoot to access inner parts, putting aside piles of unconsumed material. Other observations include some traces of bamboo leaf consumption and gnawed holes on bamboo stems near internodes.",One pregnant Bolivian Bamboo Rat was collected with two well-developed embryos weighing 74 g and 82 g in July.,"The Bolivian Bamboo Rat is nocturnal, with activity usually starting at dusk and terminating an hour or so before dawn. During the day, individuals use rest sites in dense vegetation on perimeter of their home range. In Bolivia, three rest sites were recorded for one individual: one in a Attalea(Arecaceae) palm in riparian forest near the water edge and two at 10-25 m high in dense vines surrounding tree trunks.","The Bolivian Bamboo Ratis a slow, precise, and cautious climber, and it is difficult to locate in dense vegetation. Field observations are scarce, but one individual from Cocha Cashu, Madre de Dios (Peru), was radio-tracked for six nights. It was recorded 157 times in a home range of 0-23 ha within a 0-43ha bamboo forest patch. It moved a mean of 61-9 m/night (range 45-68 m), and mean total path length based on two points per hour was estimated at 227 m (range 169-284 m). Movements of this individual were slow (mean displacement of 18-9 m/h). Vocalizations of Bolivian Bamboo Rat are loud and high-pitched and often mistaken for an anuran. Calling Bolivian Bamboo Rats were seen sitting cross-wise over their haunches on tree branches, vines, or branch forks, with their front feet either grasping a branch or tucked close to their chest. Dorsal hairs at base of tail were slightly erected, and tail hung free below body. At each call pulse, mouth was open, and head was positioned forward. In headwaters of Rio Jurua (Brazil), individuals produced series of 15-25 short staccato pulses/ call, with a maximum of 45. In La Reserva (Bolivia), calls from males and females were recorded between 19:00 h and 04:00 h, most frequently between 22:00 h and 02:45 h. Two types of sounds were recorded: long distance high amplitude calls (“L.” calls) and gruntlike pulses of narrower frequency range and lower amplitude that carried over short hearing distances (“A” calls). Short distance “A” calls were produced singly or in a long series lasting 20 minutes or more. In Cocha Cashu, individuals were located only in bamboo stands. Along the Rio Tambopata, Madre de Dios (Peru), Bolivian Bamboo Rats called from within large bamboo patch several kilometers from the main river course. The radiotagged male at Cocha Cashu produced “L” calls twice over four nights of observation between 19:47 h and 22:18 h and again between 00:45 h and 02:00 h. No other individuals made “L” calls from within this male’s home range. Other nights, this same individual produced ten “A” calls, soliciting similar calls by another individual from within its home range about one-half the time. A female replied on two occasions and two other individuals on separate occasions from spots less than 20-50 m from the radio-tagged male. At Cocha Cashu, calls lacked the initial burst and had a mean of 29 pulses. Initial pulses were about three times as long as those of Amazon Bamboo Rats in Ecuador and had no harmonics below 500 Hz. Calls of Bolivian Bamboo Rats at Tombopata were similar to those from Cocha Cashu but had a higher mean of 44 pulses. Individuals also presumably communicate with chemical signals; at Cocha Cashu, two individuals were observed rubbing their sternal glands on a branch just prior to vocalizing.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification is based primarily on the general diversity of riparian forest habitats occupied by Bolivian Bamboo Rats. Despite its loud vocalizations, it is rarely seen and is very difficult to trap alive. Most museum specimens were collected using shotguns in lowland primary and secondary rainforests. More ecological and conservation-directed surveys are needed for this secretive species.","Anthony (1920) | Calouro (1999) | Didier (1962) | Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004) | Dunnum et al. (2001) | Eisenberg (1989) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1981, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Jentink (1891) | Patton, Pardinas & D’Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | Salazar-Bravo et al. (1994) | da Silva & Patton (1993) | Vanderhoff (2014) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"66.Bolivian Bamboo RatDactylomys boliviensisFrench:Coro-coro de Bolivie/ German:Bolivien-Fingerratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu de BoliviaTaxonomy.Dactylomys boliviensis Anthony, 1920, “Mission San Antonio, Rio Chmore [sic, Chimoré], Prov. Cochabamba, Boliv-1a, altitude 1300 feet [400 m].”Some authors regarded boliviensisas a valid subspecies or simple synonym of D. dactylinus, but recent morphological and molecular studies strongly support D. boliviensisas a distinct species. Monotypic. Distribution. SW Amazon Basin, from C Peru S to C Bolivia and E to W Brazil (C Rio Jurua).Descriptive notes.Head-body 270-290 mm, tail 410 mm; weight up to 600 g. The Bolivian Bamboo Rat is large, olivaceous, arboreal, and characterized by distinct dark mid-dorsal stripe of tricolor hairs (black-brown-black) between head and rump. Its fur is soft, grizzled grayish olivaceus, streaked with black on dorsum but paler on side, with sparse whitish fur on belly. Head is grizzled gray with white striped hairs; olivaceous black stripe hair patch (black might be absent) surrounded by pale-tipped hairs occurs between eyes, nose, ears, and nape; mystacial black vibrissae are short and do not extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae, as they do on the Amazon Bamboo Rat (D. dactylinus). Apart from the initial 65 mm or so of well-furred tail base, long bicolored tail is naked, covered with small scales (with 6 annuli/cm), and overall c.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are dark brown or black at base oftail but become colorless toward tip of tail; scales are less pentagonal than those of the Amazon Bamboo Rat. Forefeet of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat have four digits, with digit two and three distinctly longer than lateral ones; each digit has a nail rather than a claw. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, proportionally broadened supraorbital ledges with well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Jugal is primary component of post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch. Paraoccipital processes are oriented anteriorly and curved to follow contour of each bulla. No nerve canal is present on floor of infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind the M’. Upper molar tooth rows diverge antero-posteriorly so that dP*s are nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 118 and FN = 168.Habitat.Amazonian lowlands, primarily within riparian communities with large cane thickets and bamboo patches (e.g. Guadua spp., Poaceae) at known elevations of 200-1000 m. In Peru, some specimens were collected in a thicket of Bambusa(Poaceae) bamboo and small trees. The Bolivian Bamboo Rat occurred at higher elevations than the Amazon Bamboo Rat, but the possibility that they overlap in headwater habitats needs further study.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of Bolivian Bamboo Rats from La Reserva, Bolivia, indicate an exclusively bamboo diet, with remains of sprouts and epidermis present. Field observations of foraging behavior indicate that the Bolivian Bamboo Rat removes the sheet of a bamboo shoot to access inner parts, putting aside piles of unconsumed material. Other observations include some traces of bamboo leaf consumption and gnawed holes on bamboo stems near internodes.Breeding.One pregnant Bolivian Bamboo Rat was collected with two well-developed embryos weighing 74 g and 82 g in July.Activity patterns.The Bolivian Bamboo Rat is nocturnal, with activity usually starting at dusk and terminating an hour or so before dawn. During the day, individuals use rest sites in dense vegetation on perimeter of their home range. In Bolivia, three rest sites were recorded for one individual: one in a Attalea(Arecaceae) palm in riparian forest near the water edge and two at 10-25 m high in dense vines surrounding tree trunks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Bolivian Bamboo Ratis a slow, precise, and cautious climber, and it is difficult to locate in dense vegetation. Field observations are scarce, but one individual from Cocha Cashu, Madre de Dios (Peru), was radio-tracked for six nights. It was recorded 157 times in a home range of 0-23 ha within a 0-43ha bamboo forest patch. It moved a mean of 61-9 m/night (range 45-68 m), and mean total path length based on two points per hour was estimated at 227 m (range 169-284 m). Movements of this individual were slow (mean displacement of 18-9 m/h). Vocalizations of Bolivian Bamboo Rat are loud and high-pitched and often mistaken for an anuran. Calling Bolivian Bamboo Rats were seen sitting cross-wise over their haunches on tree branches, vines, or branch forks, with their front feet either grasping a branch or tucked close to their chest. Dorsal hairs at base of tail were slightly erected, and tail hung free below body. At each call pulse, mouth was open, and head was positioned forward. In headwaters of Rio Jurua (Brazil), individuals produced series of 15-25 short staccato pulses/ call, with a maximum of 45. In La Reserva (Bolivia), calls from males and females were recorded between 19:00 h and 04:00 h, most frequently between 22:00 h and 02:45 h. Two types of sounds were recorded: long distance high amplitude calls (“L.” calls) and gruntlike pulses of narrower frequency range and lower amplitude that carried over short hearing distances (“A” calls). Short distance “A” calls were produced singly or in a long series lasting 20 minutes or more. In Cocha Cashu, individuals were located only in bamboo stands. Along the Rio Tambopata, Madre de Dios (Peru), Bolivian Bamboo Rats called from within large bamboo patch several kilometers from the main river course. The radiotagged male at Cocha Cashu produced “L” calls twice over four nights of observation between 19:47 h and 22:18 h and again between 00:45 h and 02:00 h. No other individuals made “L” calls from within this male’s home range. Other nights, this same individual produced ten “A” calls, soliciting similar calls by another individual from within its home range about one-half the time. A female replied on two occasions and two other individuals on separate occasions from spots less than 20-50 m from the radio-tagged male. At Cocha Cashu, calls lacked the initial burst and had a mean of 29 pulses. Initial pulses were about three times as long as those of Amazon Bamboo Rats in Ecuador and had no harmonics below 500 Hz. Calls of Bolivian Bamboo Rats at Tombopata were similar to those from Cocha Cashu but had a higher mean of 44 pulses. Individuals also presumably communicate with chemical signals; at Cocha Cashu, two individuals were observed rubbing their sternal glands on a branch just prior to vocalizing.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification is based primarily on the general diversity of riparian forest habitats occupied by Bolivian Bamboo Rats. Despite its loud vocalizations, it is rarely seen and is very difficult to trap alive. Most museum specimens were collected using shotguns in lowland primary and secondary rainforests. More ecological and conservation-directed surveys are needed for this secretive species.Bibliography.Anthony (1920), Calouro (1999), Didier (1962), Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004), Dunnum et al. (2001), Eisenberg (1989), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1981, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Jentink (1891), Patton, Pardinas & D’Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), Salazar-Bravo et al. (1994), da Silva & Patton (1993), Vanderhoff (2014), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFDCFFE8FA115B565305F3BE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,601,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDCFFE8FA115B565305F3BE.xml,Phyllomys sulinus,Phyllomys,sulinus,"Leite, Christoff & Fagundes",2008,Rat-épineux austral @fr | Sldliche Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica meridional @es,"Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01”""W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.","SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.","Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.","Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,,Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011),,"98.Southern Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys sulinusFrench:Rat-épineux austral/ German:Sldliche Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica meridionalTaxonomy. Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01”""W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but it is supposed to be abundant in the most intact sections of Atlantic Forest. Given its wide distribution, and supposedly large population, it is unlikely to be declining in the near future. Additional ecological studies of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011)." +03C5A071FFDCFFE8FA115B565305F3BE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,601,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDCFFE8FA115B565305F3BE.xml,Phyllomys sulinus,Phyllomys,sulinus,"Leite, Christoff & Fagundes",2008,Rat-épineux austral @fr | Sldliche Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica meridional @es,"Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01”""W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.","SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.","Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.","Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,,Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011),https://zenodo.org/record/6623902/files/figure.png,"98.Southern Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys sulinusFrench:Rat-épineux austral/ German:Sldliche Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica meridionalTaxonomy. Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01”""W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but it is supposed to be abundant in the most intact sections of Atlantic Forest. Given its wide distribution, and supposedly large population, it is unlikely to be declining in the near future. Additional ecological studies of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011)." 03C5A071FFDCFFE8FF0D501653C6FC82,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,601,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDCFFE8FF0D501653C6FC82.xml,Phyllomys dasythrix,Phyllomys,dasythrix,Hensel,1872,Rat-épineux bistre @fr | Distere Klistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica apagada @es,"Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel, 1872, “Rio Grande do Sul, Stid-Brasiliens.” Restricted L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 30°04’S 51°07'W.”Phyllomys dasythrixwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. It is closely related to P. sulinus; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Monotypic.","S Brazil, in Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.","Head—body 180-195 mm,tail 205-225 mm; weight 250 g. Pelt of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is soft, with long and fine aristiforms on rump, blackish distally and paler at bases with the thin whip-like tips. Tail is nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface, and it lacks a terminal tuft. Skull of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has weakly developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometime with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose postorbital process is short, formed by squamosal bone only. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel. Molar teeth are large, with palatal width less than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw not deflected laterally.",,,,,The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary. It builds leaf nests in tree hollows. Predation by the Crabeating Fox (Cerdocyonthous) has been documented.,,"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Patton et al. (2015) | Ped6 et al. (2006) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623900/files/figure.png,"97.Drab Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys dasythrixFrench:Rat-épineux bistre/ German:Distere Klistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica apagadaTaxonomy. Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel, 1872, “Rio Grande do Sul, Stid-Brasiliens.” Restricted L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 30°04’S 51°07'W.”Phyllomys dasythrixwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. It is closely related to P. sulinus; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Monotypic.Distribution. S Brazil, in Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.Descriptive notes. Head—body 180-195 mm,tail 205-225 mm; weight 250 g. Pelt of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is soft, with long and fine aristiforms on rump, blackish distally and paler at bases with the thin whip-like tips. Tail is nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface, and it lacks a terminal tuft. Skull of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has weakly developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometime with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose postorbital process is short, formed by squamosal bone only. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel. Molar teeth are large, with palatal width less than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw not deflected laterally.Habitat. Semideciduous forest and potentially in evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forest inland from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available forthis species, but Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. A young Drab Atlantic Tree-rat was collected in February at Sao Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Drab Atlantic Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Atlantic tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary. It builds leaf nests in tree hollows. Predation by the Crabeating Fox (Cerdocyonthous) has been documented.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has been recently split from the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat (P. sulinus), and this resulted in a smaller extent of occurrence (10,000 km?). Moreover, the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is known from only seven localities where habitat fragmentation has been reported. Specialists suggest that it should be listed in a higher risk category (Vulnerable) in future revisions of The IUCN Red List.Bibliography. Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011), Patton et al. (2015), Ped6 et al. (2006), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFDCFFEBFA17547B5EE6FD5C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,601,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDCFFEBFA17547B5EE6FD5C.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"99.Black-spined Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys nigrispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a dos noir/ German:Schwarzstachel-Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negroTaxonomy.Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37°'W,elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsMovements, Home range and Social organization.The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is estimated to be less than 100 km?, it is known from only a single location, and there has been continuing decline in quality and availability of habitat. It is currently protected from indiscriminate exploitation at the type locality, which belongs to the Brazilian Army. Nevertheless, it is probably restricted to high-elevation mixed evergreen araucaria forests in the Serra da Mantiqueira, a very specific and naturally restricted habitat. Additional ecological studies of this Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFDDFFE8FACE542C5E36F84E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,600,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE8FACE542C5E36F84E.xml,Phyllomys thomasi,Phyllomys,thomasi,,,Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao @fr | Riesen-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica gigante @es | Thomas's Atlantic Tree-rat @en,"Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21’'W.”639Phyllomys thomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).","Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upper part, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases, becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",,,,,The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,,"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | von lhering (1897) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1952b) | Olmos (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"96.Giant Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys thomasiFrench:Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao/ German:Riesen-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica giganteOther common names:Thomas's Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy. Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21’'W.”639Phyllomys thomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsDistribution. SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).Descriptive notes. Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upper part, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases, becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen rainforests over rugged topography on Sao Sebastiao Island from sea level to elevation of 1379 m.Food and Feeding. A captive female Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was fed fruit for a few days and refused green fodder.Breeding. A nest of a Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was 13 m up in a fork of a tree and was constructed of interwoven dried and twisted leaves, forming roughly an oval dome with its base measuring 38 x 30 x 20 cm.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Giant Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is endemic to Sao Sebastiao Island, which is 336 km?, 80% covered by Atlantic rainforest, and protected as a state park. As many insular species, habitat of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is threatened by ongoing pressure from increasing human population and introduction of invasive species (cats and dogs). There is no infor mation on its population or abundance. Additional ecological studies of the poorly known Giant Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), von lhering (1897), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1952b), Olmos (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)" -03C5A071FFDDFFE9FACC5C2C524BF449,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,600,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE9FACC5C2C524BF449.xml,Phyllomys medius,Phyllomys,medius,,,Rat-épineux a long poil @fr | Langhaar Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largo @es,"Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes. Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north.","SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.","Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",,,,,The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,,"Davis (1945b) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Thomas (1909a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"95.Long-furred Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mediusFrench:Rat-épineux a long poil/ German:LanghaarKistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largoTaxonomy. Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes. Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground,in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Davis (1945b), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Thomas (1909a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFDDFFE8FACE542C5E36F84E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,600,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE8FACE542C5E36F84E.xml,Phyllomys thomasi,Phyllomys,thomasi,,,Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao @fr | Riesen-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica gigante @es | Thomas's Atlantic Tree-rat @en,"Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21’'W.”639Phyllomys thomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).","Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upper part, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases, becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",,,,,The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,,"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | von lhering (1897) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1952b) | Olmos (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623898/files/figure.png,"96.Giant Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys thomasiFrench:Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao/ German:Riesen-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica giganteOther common names:Thomas's Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy. Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21’'W.”639Phyllomys thomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsDistribution. SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).Descriptive notes. Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upper part, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases, becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen rainforests over rugged topography on Sao Sebastiao Island from sea level to elevation of 1379 m.Food and Feeding. A captive female Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was fed fruit for a few days and refused green fodder.Breeding. A nest of a Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was 13 m up in a fork of a tree and was constructed of interwoven dried and twisted leaves, forming roughly an oval dome with its base measuring 38 x 30 x 20 cm.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Giant Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is endemic to Sao Sebastiao Island, which is 336 km?, 80% covered by Atlantic rainforest, and protected as a state park. As many insular species, habitat of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is threatened by ongoing pressure from increasing human population and introduction of invasive species (cats and dogs). There is no infor mation on its population or abundance. Additional ecological studies of the poorly known Giant Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), von lhering (1897), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1952b), Olmos (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)" +03C5A071FFDDFFE9FACC5C2C524BF449,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,600,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE9FACC5C2C524BF449.xml,Phyllomys medius,Phyllomys,medius,,,Rat-épineux a long poil @fr | Langhaar Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largo @es,"Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes. Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north.","SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.","Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",,,,,The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,,"Davis (1945b) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Thomas (1909a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623896/files/figure.png,"95.Long-furred Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mediusFrench:Rat-épineux a long poil/ German:LanghaarKistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largoTaxonomy. Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes. Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground,in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Davis (1945b), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Thomas (1909a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFDDFFE9FFC85B1B5EEBF6FC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,600,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE9FFC85B1B5EEBF6FC.xml,Phyllomys lundi,Phyllomys,lundi,Leite,2003,Rat-épineux de Lund @fr | Lund-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Lund @es,"Phyllomys lundi Leite, 2003, “Fazenda do Bené, 4 km SE Passa Vinte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°14’S 44°12’W, 680 m.” This species is monotypic.","SE Brazil, SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.","Head-body 184-209 mm, tail 200-204 mm; weight 145 g. Lund’s Adantic Treerat is among the smallest species of Atlantic tree-rats. It has orange upper part, mixed with black hairs, and neck and thighs are predominantly orange. Spines are conspicuous from neck to tail. Venter is creamy, with white base hairs. Tail is brown, 100-110% of head-body length, and hairy throughoutits length. Forefeet have distinct yellow-brown fur, graywhite on digits. Dorsal parts of hindfeet are furred, with short gold-cream hairs and toes covered with silvery hairs. Skull of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is gracile, with long and narrow rostrum, and typical wide and convex interorbital region. Lower M, is characterized by three transverse laminae. Jaw has short coronoid process and shallow sigmoid notch.",,,,,Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,,Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6623892/files/figure.png,"93.Lund’s Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys lundiFrench:Rat-épineux de Lund/ German:Lund-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de LundTaxonomy. Phyllomys lundi Leite, 2003, “Fazenda do Bené, 4 km SE Passa Vinte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°14’S 44°12’W, 680 m.” This species is monotypic.Distribution. SE Brazil, SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.Descriptive notes. Head-body 184-209 mm, tail 200-204 mm; weight 145 g. Lund’s Adantic Treerat is among the smallest species of Atlantic tree-rats. It has orange upper part, mixed with black hairs, and neck and thighs are predominantly orange. Spines are conspicuous from neck to tail. Venter is creamy, with white base hairs. Tail is brown, 100-110% of head-body length, and hairy throughoutits length. Forefeet have distinct yellow-brown fur, graywhite on digits. Dorsal parts of hindfeet are furred, with short gold-cream hairs and toes covered with silvery hairs. Skull of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is gracile, with long and narrow rostrum, and typical wide and convex interorbital region. Lower M, is characterized by three transverse laminae. Jaw has short coronoid process and shallow sigmoid notch.Habitat. Second-growth, broadleaf evergreen rainforests with sparse understory, canopies reaching 20 m, and emergent trees reaching 32 m (based on known localities). Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats were caught on lianas or tree branches using traps set 1-5 m above the ground near streams. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has reduced distribution and small area of occurrence.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information are available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has been found in the protected area Reserva Biologica de Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Its extent of occurrence is small, less than 5000 km?2. It is known from only two localities in highly fragmented forest, and there is continuing decline in quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFDDFFE9FFCB51B85DA1FC48,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,600,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE9FFCB51B85DA1FC48.xml,Phyllomys kerri,Phyllomys,kerri,,,Rat-épineux de Kerr @fr | Kerr Klstenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Kerr @es,"Echimys (Phyllomys) kerriMoojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo, Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys.","SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State..","Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",,,,,Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,,"Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1950, 1952b) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"94.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys kerriFrench:Rat-épineux de Kerr/ German:KerrKlstenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de KerrTaxonomy. Echimys (Phyllomys) kerriMoojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo, Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic Distribution. SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State..Descriptive notes. Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1950, 1952b), Patton et al. (2015), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFDEFFEAFA115B695305F3BF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,603,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDEFFEAFA115B695305F3BF.xml,Phyllomys sulinus,Phyllomys,sulinus,"Leite, Christoff & Fagundes",2008,"Rat-épineux austral @fr | Sidliche Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica meridional @es | Phyllomys sulinus Leite @en | Christoff & Fagundes @en | 2008 @en | “South bank of the Uruguay River @en | municipality of Aratiba @en | Rio Grande do Sul @en | Brazil @en | 27°23’39”S 52°18°01""W @en | 420 m elevation @en","Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01""W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.",,"Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.","Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but it is supposed to be abundant in the most intact sections of Atlantic Forest. Given its wide distribution, and supposedly large population, it is unlikely to be declining in the near future. Additional ecological studies of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.",Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011),https://zenodo.org/record/6623916/files/figure.png,"98.Southern Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys sulinusFrench:Rat-épineux austral/ German:Sidliche Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica meridionalTaxonomy.Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01""W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul statesDescriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but it is supposed to be abundant in the most intact sections of Atlantic Forest. Given its wide distribution, and supposedly large population, it is unlikely to be declining in the near future. Additional ecological studies of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011)." 03C5A071FFDEFFEAFF0D502953C7FC83,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,603,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDEFFEAFF0D502953C7FC83.xml,Phyllomys dasythrix,Phyllomys,dasythrix,Hensel,1872,Rat-épineux bistre @fr | Distere Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica apagada @es | Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel @en | 1872 @en | “Rio Grande do Sul @en | Stid-Brasiliens @en,"Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel, 1872, “Rio Grande do Sul, Stid-Brasiliens.” Restricted LL. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 30°04’S 51°07'W.”Phyllomys dasythrixwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelo-mys. It is closely related to P. sulinus; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Monotypic..","S Brazil, in Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.","Head—body 180-195 mm, tail 205-225 mm; weight 250 g. Pelt of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is soft, with long and fine aristiforms on rump, blackish distally and paler at bases with the thin whip-like tips. Tail is nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface, and it lacks a terminal tuft. Skull of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has weakly developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometime with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose postorbital process is short, formed by squamosal bone only. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel. Molar teeth are large, with palatal width less than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw not deflected laterally.",Semideciduous forest and potentially in evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forest inland from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","A young Drab Atlantic Tree-rat was collected in February at Sao Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Drab Atlantic Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Atlantic tree-rats are nocturnal.",The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary. It builds leaf nests in tree hollows. Predation by the Crabeating Fox (Cerdocyonthous) has been documented.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has been recently split from the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat (P. sulinus), and this resulted in a smaller extent of occurrence (10,000 km?). Moreover, the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is known from only seven localities where habitat fragmentation has been reported. Specialists suggest that it should be listed in a higherrisk category (Vulnerable) in future revisions of The IUCN Red List.","Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Patton et al. (2015) | Pedo et al. (2006) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"97.Drab Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys dasythrixFrench:Rat-épineux bistre/ German:Distere Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica apagadaTaxonomy.Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel, 1872, “Rio Grande do Sul, Stid-Brasiliens.” Restricted LL. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 30°04’S 51°07'W.”Phyllomys dasythrixwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelo-mys. It is closely related to P. sulinus; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Monotypic.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookDistribution.S Brazil, in Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-195 mm, tail 205-225 mm; weight 250 g. Pelt of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is soft, with long and fine aristiforms on rump, blackish distally and paler at bases with the thin whip-like tips. Tail is nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface, and it lacks a terminal tuft. Skull of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has weakly developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometime with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose postorbital process is short, formed by squamosal bone only. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel. Molar teeth are large, with palatal width less than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw not deflected laterally.Habitat.Semideciduous forest and potentially in evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forest inland from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.640FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A young Drab Atlantic Tree-rat was collected in February at Sao Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Drab Atlantic Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Atlantic tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary. It builds leaf nests in tree hollows. Predation by the Crabeating Fox (Cerdocyonthous) has been documented.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has been recently split from the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat (P. sulinus), and this resulted in a smaller extent of occurrence (10,000 km?). Moreover, the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is known from only seven localities where habitat fragmentation has been reported. Specialists suggest that it should be listed in a higherrisk category (Vulnerable) in future revisions of The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011), Patton et al. (2015), Pedo et al. (2006), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFDEFFEDFA17547D53E1FBB6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,603,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDEFFEDFA17547D53E1FBB6.xml,Phyllomys nigrispinus,Phyllomys,nigrispinus,,,Rat-épineux a dos noir @fr | Schwarzstachel-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negro @es,"Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L.. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37'W, elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsPhyllomys nigrispinuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina states.","Head-body 195-262 mm, tail 198-260 mm; weight 250-400 g. Upper part of the Black-spined Atlantic Treerat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms that are black tipped with thin whip-like tips on rump. Belly varies from buffy white to yellow-gray; hairs have whitish bases. Tail is c.112% of head—body length, nearly naked with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface;tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with inconspicuous or absent post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slenderto slightly robust, with maximum height ranging from one-fourth to one-third ofjugal length; postorbital process rounded or spinose, composed primarily of jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and reaches ventral level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M? orfirst lamina of M®. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel and wide. Palatal width is equal to or wider than M' width. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",Coastal evergreen rainforests and inland semideciduous forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available forthis species, but Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.",The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat occurs in protected areas, and it is locally common in pristine forests. Additional ecological studies of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Moojen (1952b) | Leiner & Silva (2012) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Umetsu et al. (2006) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"99.Black-spined Adantic Tree-ratPhyllomys nigrispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a dos noir/ German:Schwarzstachel-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negroTaxonomy.Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L.. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37'W, elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsPhyllomys nigrispinuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-262 mm, tail 198-260 mm; weight 250-400 g. Upper part of the Black-spined Atlantic Treerat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms that are black tipped with thin whip-like tips on rump. Belly varies from buffy white to yellow-gray; hairs have whitish bases. Tail is c.112% of head—body length, nearly naked with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface;tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with inconspicuous or absent post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slenderto slightly robust, with maximum height ranging from one-fourth to one-third ofjugal length; postorbital process rounded or spinose, composed primarily of jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and reaches ventral level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M? orfirst lamina of M®. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel and wide. Palatal width is equal to or wider than M' width. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal evergreen rainforests and inland semideciduous forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available forthis species, but Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat occurs in protected areas, and it is locally common in pristine forests. Additional ecological studies of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Moojen (1952b), Leiner & Silva (2012), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Umetsu et al. (2006), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFDEFFEDFA17547D53E1FBB6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,603,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDEFFEDFA17547D53E1FBB6.xml,Phyllomys nigrispinus,Phyllomys,nigrispinus,,,Rat-épineux a dos noir @fr | Schwarzstachel-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negro @es,"Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L.. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37'W, elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsPhyllomys nigrispinuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina states.","Head-body 195-262 mm, tail 198-260 mm; weight 250-400 g. Upper part of the Black-spined Atlantic Treerat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms that are black tipped with thin whip-like tips on rump. Belly varies from buffy white to yellow-gray; hairs have whitish bases. Tail is c.112% of head—body length, nearly naked with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface;tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with inconspicuous or absent post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slenderto slightly robust, with maximum height ranging from one-fourth to one-third ofjugal length; postorbital process rounded or spinose, composed primarily of jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and reaches ventral level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M? orfirst lamina of M®. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel and wide. Palatal width is equal to or wider than M' width. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",Coastal evergreen rainforests and inland semideciduous forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available forthis species, but Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.",The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat occurs in protected areas, and it is locally common in pristine forests. Additional ecological studies of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Moojen (1952b) | Leiner & Silva (2012) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Umetsu et al. (2006) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623918/files/figure.png,"99.Black-spined Adantic Tree-ratPhyllomys nigrispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a dos noir/ German:Schwarzstachel-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negroTaxonomy.Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L.. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37'W, elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsPhyllomys nigrispinuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-262 mm, tail 198-260 mm; weight 250-400 g. Upper part of the Black-spined Atlantic Treerat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms that are black tipped with thin whip-like tips on rump. Belly varies from buffy white to yellow-gray; hairs have whitish bases. Tail is c.112% of head—body length, nearly naked with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface;tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with inconspicuous or absent post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slenderto slightly robust, with maximum height ranging from one-fourth to one-third ofjugal length; postorbital process rounded or spinose, composed primarily of jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and reaches ventral level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M? orfirst lamina of M®. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel and wide. Palatal width is equal to or wider than M' width. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal evergreen rainforests and inland semideciduous forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available forthis species, but Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat occurs in protected areas, and it is locally common in pristine forests. Additional ecological studies of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Moojen (1952b), Leiner & Silva (2012), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Umetsu et al. (2006), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFDFFFEAFACE542C5E36F848,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,602,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEAFACE542C5E36F848.xml,Phyllomys thomasi,Phyllomys,thomasi,,,Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao @fr | Riesen-Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica gigante @es | Thomas's Atlantic Tree-rat @en,"Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21°'W.”Phyllomysthomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).","Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upperpart, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",Broadleaf evergreen rainforests over rugged topography on Sao Sebastiao Island from sea level to elevation of 1379 m.,A captive female Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was fed fruit for a few days and refused green fodder.,"A nest of a Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was 13 m up in a fork of a tree and was constructed of interwoven dried and twisted leaves, forming roughly an oval dome with its base measuring 38 x 30 x 20 cm.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Giant Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is endemic to Sao Sebastiao Island, which is 336 km?, 80% covered by Atlantic rainforest, and protected as a state park. As many insular species, habitat of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is threatened by ongoing pressure from increasing human population and introduction of invasive species (cats and dogs). There is no infor mation on its population or abundance. Additional ecological studies of the poorly known Giant Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | von Ihering (1897) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1952b) | Olmos (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624585/files/figure.png,"96.Giant Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys thomasiFrench:Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao/ German:Riesen-Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica giganteOther common names:Thomas's Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21°'W.”Phyllomysthomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).Descriptive notes.Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upperpart, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.,Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen rainforests over rugged topography on Sao Sebastiao Island from sea level to elevation of 1379 m.Food and Feeding.A captive female Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was fed fruit for a few days and refused green fodder.Breeding.A nest of a Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was 13 m up in a fork of a tree and was constructed of interwoven dried and twisted leaves, forming roughly an oval dome with its base measuring 38 x 30 x 20 cm.,.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Giant Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is endemic to Sao Sebastiao Island, which is 336 km?, 80% covered by Atlantic rainforest, and protected as a state park. As many insular species, habitat of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is threatened by ongoing pressure from increasing human population and introduction of invasive species (cats and dogs). There is no infor mation on its population or abundance. Additional ecological studies of the poorly known Giant Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), von Ihering (1897), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1952b), Olmos (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)" -03C5A071FFDFFFEBFAD35C2D5248F449,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,602,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFAD35C2D5248F449.xml,Phyllomys medius,Phyllomys,medius,,,Rat-épineux a long poil @fr | Langhaar-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largo @es | Loncheres medius Thomas @en | 1909 @en | “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar @en | Parana @en | S[outhern] @en,"Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.”Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north.","SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.","Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground, in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","Davis (1945b) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Thomas (1909a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"95.Long-furred Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mediusFrench:Rat-épineux a long poil/ German:Langhaar-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largoTaxonomy.Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.”Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground, in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Davis (1945b), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Thomas (1909a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFDFFFEBFAD35C2D5248F449,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,602,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFAD35C2D5248F449.xml,Phyllomys medius,Phyllomys,medius,,,Rat-épineux a long poil @fr | Langhaar-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largo @es | Loncheres medius Thomas @en | 1909 @en | “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar @en | Parana @en | S[outhern] @en,"Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.”Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north.","SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.","Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.",Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground, in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","Davis (1945b) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Thomas (1909a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623908/files/figure.png,"95.Long-furred Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mediusFrench:Rat-épineux a long poil/ German:Langhaar-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largoTaxonomy.Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.”Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground, in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Davis (1945b), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Thomas (1909a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFC85B185EE8F6F3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,602,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFC85B185EE8F6F3.xml,Phyllomys lundi,Phyllomys,lundi,Leite,2003,Rat-épineux de Lund @fr | Lund-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Lund @es,"Phyllomys lund: Leite, 2003, “Fazenda do Bené, 4 km SE Passa Vinte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°14’S 44°12°’W, 680 m.”This species is monotypic.","SE Brazil, SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.","Head-body 184-209 mm, tail 200-204 mm; weight 145 g. Lund’s Atantic Treerat is among the smallest species of Atlantic tree-rats. It has orange upper part, mixed with black hairs, and neck and thighs are predominantly orange. Spines are conspicuous from neck to tail. Venter is creamy, with white base hairs. Tail is brown, 100-110% of head-body length, and hairy throughoutits length. Forefeet have distinct yellow-brown fur, graywhite on digits. Dorsal parts of hindfeet are furred, with short gold-cream hairs and toes covered with silvery hairs. Skull of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is gracile, with long and narrow rostrum, and typical wide and convex interorbital region. Lower M,is characterized by three transverse laminae. Jaw has short coronoid process and shallow sigmoid notch.","Second-growth, broadleaf evergreen rainforests with sparse understory, canopies reaching 20 m, and emergent trees reaching 32 m (based on known localities). Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats were caught on lianas or tree branches using traps set 1-5 m above the ground near streams. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has reduced distribution and small area of occurrence.","Habitat.Second-growth, broadleaf evergreen rainforests with sparse understory, canopies reaching 20 m, and emergent trees reaching 32 m (based on known localities). Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats were caught on lianas or tree branches using traps set 1-5 m above the ground near streams. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has reduced distribution and small area of occurrence.There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information are available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.LLund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","There is no specific information are available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",LLund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has been found in the protected area Reserva Biologica de Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Its extent of occurrence is small, less than 5000 km? It is known from only two localities in highly fragmented forest, and there is continuing decline in quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.",Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),,"93.Lund’s Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys lundiFrench:Rat-épineux de Lund/ German:Lund-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de LundTaxonomy.Phyllomys lund: Leite, 2003, “Fazenda do Bené, 4 km SE Passa Vinte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°14’S 44°12°’W, 680 m.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 184-209 mm, tail 200-204 mm; weight 145 g. Lund’s Atantic Treerat is among the smallest species of Atlantic tree-rats. It has orange upper part, mixed with black hairs, and neck and thighs are predominantly orange. Spines are conspicuous from neck to tail. Venter is creamy, with white base hairs. Tail is brown, 100-110% of head-body length, and hairy throughoutits length. Forefeet have distinct yellow-brown fur, graywhite on digits. Dorsal parts of hindfeet are furred, with short gold-cream hairs and toes covered with silvery hairs. Skull of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is gracile, with long and narrow rostrum, and typical wide and convex interorbital region. Lower M,is characterized by three transverse laminae. Jaw has short coronoid process and shallow sigmoid notch.Habitat.Second-growth, broadleaf evergreen rainforests with sparse understory, canopies reaching 20 m, and emergent trees reaching 32 m (based on known localities). Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats were caught on lianas or tree branches using traps set 1-5 m above the ground near streams. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has reduced distribution and small area of occurrence.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information are available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.LLund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has been found in the protected area Reserva Biologica de Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Its extent of occurrence is small, less than 5000 km? It is known from only two localities in highly fragmented forest, and there is continuing decline in quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFCA51B95DDEFC48,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,602,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFCA51B95DDEFC48.xml,Phyllomys kerri,Phyllomys,kerri,,,Rat-épineux de Kerr @fr | Kerr Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Kerr @es | Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen @en | 1950 @en | “Ubatuba @en | S[ao] @en,"Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo,Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerlyclassified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State.","Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","There is no specific information available forthis species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.,"Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1950, 1952b) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"94.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys kerriFrench:Rat-épineux de Kerr/ German:KerrKistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de KerrTaxonomy.Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo,Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerlyclassified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State.Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available forthis species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1950, 1952b), Patton et al. (2015), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFCA51B95DDEFC48,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,602,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFCA51B95DDEFC48.xml,Phyllomys kerri,Phyllomys,kerri,,,Rat-épineux de Kerr @fr | Kerr Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Kerr @es | Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen @en | 1950 @en | “Ubatuba @en | S[ao] @en,"Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo,Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerlyclassified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State.","Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","There is no specific information available forthis species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.",Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.,"Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1950, 1952b) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623906/files/figure.png,"94.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys kerriFrench:Rat-épineux de Kerr/ German:KerrKistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de KerrTaxonomy.Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo,Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerlyclassified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State.Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available forthis species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1950, 1952b), Patton et al. (2015), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFE0FFD4FA0A5BD953EFF3BD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,565,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE0FFD4FA0A5BD953EFF3BD.xml,Thrichomys apereoides,Thrichomys,apereoides,,,Punaré commun @fr | Lagoa-Santa-Punaré @de | Punaré de Lagoa Santa @es | Common Punare @en,"Echimys apereoides Lund, 1839, “Rio das Velhas Floddal,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Danish naturalist P. W. Lund initially described apereoidesunder the name Echimys apereoidesbut renamed it Echimys antricolain 1840. In 1880, E. L. Trouessart listed antricola in his erection of the genus Thrichomys, but in 1904, he recognized that apereoideshad priority. F. F. Nascimento and colleagues in 2013 documented that specimens from Bahia State with the same diploid number but 52 autosomal arms (FN = 52) belonged to a separate molecular clade, which they referred to as 1 aff. apereoidesthat was distinct but currently undescribed species. Monotypic.",EC Brazil (Bahia and Minas Geraisstates).,"Head-body 197-209 mm, tail 164-179 mm; weight 210-300 g. Greatest skull length of the Lagoa Santa Punare averages 55-6 mm. Dorsal coloris brownish gray, ventral hairs are completely white or with a light gray bases, sharply contrasting with dorsal color. Dorsal tail hairs are dark brown; ventral hairs are whitish gray. Skull is most similar to that of the Sao Lourenco Punare (7. laurentius), sharing elongated incisive foramina without lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and thin hamular processes of pterygoid bones that are pointed at tips. The Lagoa Santa Punare differs from of the Sao Lourenco Punare by having pronounced lateral flange on posterior margins of incisive foramina, Ushaped mesopterygoid fossa, and keeled palate with well-developed and deep palatal grooves. Chromosome complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 50-52.","Southern Caatinga to northern Cerrado ecoregions at elevations of 890— 1110 m. Lagoa Santa Punares are found primarily in xeric and rocky environments, including human modified habitats where they can be important agricultural pests. They can occupy caves and human dwellings.","The Lagoa Santa Punare is omnivorous, with arthropods and seeds comprising its main food items. Large seeds are severely damaged by chewing but small seeds pass through the gut, permitting germination. The Lagoa Santa Punares might be important dispersers of small-seed plants.","Female Lagoa Santa Punares have 2-3 litters/year, with average litter size of 3-1 young (range 1-6 young). Gestation is ¢.89 days. Sexual maturity is reached at 7-9 months ofage.",The Lagoa Santa Punare is crepuscular to nocturnal.,"Size of daily home ranges of Lagoa Santa Punares vary with sex and age; they are smallest for subadult males and largest for adult males and intermediate for subadult and adult females. Space use also varies between wet and dry seasons for both sexes; wet season ranges are distinctly larger for both sexes. Males and females moveless on leaflitter in the dry season, but they move aboveground equally regardless of season.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of Lagoa Santa Punares are unknown, but assessments were made before elevation of some member populations to full species status. It has been found in Pleistocene cave deposits.","de Almeida et al. (2013) | Bonvicino et al. (2008) | Lund (1839a, 1839b, 1840) | Moojen (1952b) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Pessoba, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Trouessart (1880, 1904)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623712/files/figure.png,"26.Lagoa Santa PunareThrichomys apereoidesFrench:Punaré commun/ German:Lagoa-Santa-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de Lagoa SantaOther common names:Common PunareTaxonomy.Echimys apereoides Lund, 1839, “Rio das Velhas Floddal,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Danish naturalist P. W. Lund initially described apereoidesunder the name Echimys apereoidesbut renamed it Echimys antricolain 1840. In 1880, E. L. Trouessart listed antricola in his erection of the genus Thrichomys, but in 1904, he recognized that apereoideshad priority. F. F. Nascimento and colleagues in 2013 documented that specimens from Bahia State with the same diploid number but 52 autosomal arms (FN = 52) belonged to a separate molecular clade, which they referred to as 1 aff. apereoidesthat was distinct but currently undescribed species. Monotypic.Distribution.EC Brazil (Bahia and Minas Geraisstates).Descriptive notes.Head-body 197-209 mm, tail 164-179 mm; weight 210-300 g. Greatest skull length of the Lagoa Santa Punare averages 55-6 mm. Dorsal coloris brownish gray, ventral hairs are completely white or with a light gray bases, sharply contrasting with dorsal color. Dorsal tail hairs are dark brown; ventral hairs are whitish gray. Skull is most similar to that of the Sao Lourenco Punare (7. laurentius), sharing elongated incisive foramina without lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and thin hamular processes of pterygoid bones that are pointed at tips. The Lagoa Santa Punare differs from of the Sao Lourenco Punare by having pronounced lateral flange on posterior margins of incisive foramina, Ushaped mesopterygoid fossa, and keeled palate with well-developed and deep palatal grooves. Chromosome complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 50-52.Habitat.Southern Caatinga to northern Cerrado ecoregions at elevations of 890— 1110 m. Lagoa Santa Punares are found primarily in xeric and rocky environments, including human modified habitats where they can be important agricultural pests. They can occupy caves and human dwellings.Food and Feeding.The Lagoa Santa Punare is omnivorous, with arthropods and seeds comprising its main food items. Large seeds are severely damaged by chewing but small seeds pass through the gut, permitting germination. The Lagoa Santa Punares might be important dispersers of small-seed plants.Breeding.Female Lagoa Santa Punares have 2-3 litters/year, with average litter size of 3-1 young (range 1-6 young). Gestation is ¢.89 days. Sexual maturity is reached at 7-9 months ofage.Activity patterns.The Lagoa Santa Punare is crepuscular to nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Size of daily home ranges of Lagoa Santa Punares vary with sex and age; they are smallest for subadult males and largest for adult males and intermediate for subadult and adult females. Space use also varies between wet and dry seasons for both sexes; wet season ranges are distinctly larger for both sexes. Males and females moveless on leaflitter in the dry season, but they move aboveground equally regardless of season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of Lagoa Santa Punares are unknown, but assessments were made before elevation of some member populations to full species status. It has been found in Pleistocene cave deposits.Bibliography.de Almeida et al. (2013), Bonvicino et al. (2008), Lund (1839a, 1839b, 1840), Moojen (1952b), Nascimento et al. (2013), Pessoba, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Trouessart (1880, 1904)." 03C5A071FFE0FFD4FF0950495DBBFC1D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,565,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE0FFD4FF0950495DBBFC1D.xml,Thrichomys inermis,Thrichomys,inermis,,,Punaré des plateaux @fr | Jacobina-Punaré @de | Punaré de Jacobina @es | Highlands Punare @en | Rabudo @en,"Echimys inermis Pictet, 1843, “la Jacobine (dans les montagnes de las Almas, province de Bahia),”Jacobina, Bahia, Brazil.Swiss zoologist F. J. Pictet in 1843 originally placed this new species in Echimys; E. L. Trouessart in 1880 allocated it to Thrichomys. Samples from Tocantins State in the Northern Caatinga ecoregion, also with chromosome complement of 2n = 26 and FN = 48, belonged to a separate molecular clade that F. F. Nascimento and colleagues in 2013 referred to as 7. aff. inermisand suggested as a distinct, undescribed species. Monotypic.","C Brazil, from C Bahia State W to C Tocantins State.","Head-body 181-223 mm, tail 111-200 mm; weight 350 g. The Jacobina Punare is the smallest species of Thrichomys. Greatest skull length averages 50-6 mm. Dorsum is ash-gray, tinged with yellow; dorsal tail hairs are blackish brown, and ventral hairs are whitish gray. Distinct cranial characteristics that Jacobina Punare share with Foster’s Punare (7. foster) and the Pantanal Punare (1. pachyurus) include wide incisive foramina with slight lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and broadened, rectangular hamular processes of pterygoid bones. Features distinguishing the Jacobina Punare from Foster’s Punare and the Pantanal Punare are slender skull, small and not inflated bullae, dorso-ventrally narrow jugals, paroccipital processes appressed to each bulla, and narrow plate (c.0-7 mm) between oval and masticatory foramina. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 26 and FN = 48.","Central Caatinga ecoregion at elevations of 260-1030 m. TheJacobina Punare is common in granite or sandstone outcrops, locally called “lajeiros” or “lajedos,” that provide crevices for temporary and secure shelter. Rocky habitats provide cool refuge during heat of day and warmth during cold nights. Nests are placed in crevices or tree cavities and are constructed of cotton, straw, or dry leaves. Individuals have been captured at the mouths of caves.","No dietary information from field-caught Jacobina Punares has been reported, but those in the laboratory adjust food intake and relative urine volume while increasing urine osmolality when exposed to water scarcity.",Female Jacobina Punares have been recorded with 2-4 embryos in February—March.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Population trends of the Jacobina Punare are unknown, butit is considered common. It has notable tolerance to landscape modifications throughoutits distribution. It is hunted locally and may be affected byfire.","Bonvicino et al. (2008) | Moojen (1952b) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Pesséa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Pictet (1843) | Trouessart (1880, 1904)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623706/files/figure.png,"25.Jacobina PunareThrichomys inermisFrench:Punaré des plateaux/ German:Jacobina-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de JacobinaOther common names:Highlands Punare, RabudoTaxonomy.Echimys inermis Pictet, 1843, “la Jacobine (dans les montagnes de las Almas, province de Bahia),”Jacobina, Bahia, Brazil.Swiss zoologist F. J. Pictet in 1843 originally placed this new species in Echimys; E. L. Trouessart in 1880 allocated it to Thrichomys. Samples from Tocantins State in the Northern Caatinga ecoregion, also with chromosome complement of 2n = 26 and FN = 48, belonged to a separate molecular clade that F. F. Nascimento and colleagues in 2013 referred to as 7. aff. inermisand suggested as a distinct, undescribed species. Monotypic.Distribution.C Brazil, from C Bahia State W to C Tocantins State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 181-223 mm, tail 111-200 mm; weight 350 g. The Jacobina Punare is the smallest species of Thrichomys. Greatest skull length averages 50-6 mm. Dorsum is ash-gray, tinged with yellow; dorsal tail hairs are blackish brown, and ventral hairs are whitish gray. Distinct cranial characteristics that Jacobina Punare share with Foster’s Punare (7. foster) and the Pantanal Punare (1. pachyurus) include wide incisive foramina with slight lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and broadened, rectangular hamular processes of pterygoid bones. Features distinguishing the Jacobina Punare from Foster’s Punare and the Pantanal Punare are slender skull, small and not inflated bullae, dorso-ventrally narrow jugals, paroccipital processes appressed to each bulla, and narrow plate (c.0-7 mm) between oval and masticatory foramina. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 26 and FN = 48.Habitat.Central Caatinga ecoregion at elevations of 260-1030 m. TheJacobina Punare is common in granite or sandstone outcrops, locally called “lajeiros” or “lajedos,” that provide crevices for temporary and secure shelter. Rocky habitats provide cool refuge during heat of day and warmth during cold nights. Nests are placed in crevices or tree cavities and are constructed of cotton, straw, or dry leaves. Individuals have been captured at the mouths of caves.Food and Feeding.No dietary information from field-caught Jacobina Punares has been reported, but those in the laboratory adjust food intake and relative urine volume while increasing urine osmolality when exposed to water scarcity.Breeding.Female Jacobina Punares have been recorded with 2-4 embryos in February—March.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Population trends of the Jacobina Punare are unknown, butit is considered common. It has notable tolerance to landscape modifications throughoutits distribution. It is hunted locally and may be affected byfire.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (2008), Moojen (1952b), Nascimento et al. (2013), Pesséa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Pictet (1843), Trouessart (1880, 1904)." 03C5A071FFE0FFD7FA16547A5B84F8F0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,565,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE0FFD7FA16547A5B84F8F0.xml,Thrichomys pachyurus,Thrichomys,pachyurus,,,Punaré du Paraguay @fr | Pantanal-Punaré @de | Punaré de Paraguay @es | Paraguayan Punare @en,"Isothrix pachyura Wagner, 1845, “Cuyaba [= Cuiaba],” Mato Grosso, Brazil.Austrian naturalist J. A. Wagner in 1845 placed this species in the genus Isothrix, the Amazonian brush-tailed rats, where it continued to be listed even by A. Cabrera in 1961, although in 1880 E. L. Trouessart had correctly assigned pachyurato Thrichomys. L.. M. Pesso6a and colleagues in their 2015 review of the genus included T. fosterias a synonym based on shared qualitative craniodental characters and mapped individuals from localities in central Brazil with chromosomal complement of 2n = 30 and FN = 56 as Thrichomys sp.Monotypic.","W Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sulstates), extreme E Bolivia (Santa Cruz Department), and most of Paraguay.","There are no specific measurements available, but the Pantanal Punare is among the largest species of Thrichomys, with greatest skull length averaging 55-4 mm. Chromosome complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 56. External and cranial characteristics are similar to those of Foster’s Punare (7. fosteri), with the two species distinguished primarily by karyotype and DNA sequences.","Northern and central Cerrado ecoregions at elevations of 130-1190 m, being lowest in northern extreme of the distribution. Pantanal Punares occur in dry forest patches, including aggregations of Attaleaphalerata (Arecaceae) palms. In seasonally wet Pantanal devoid of rocky areas, individuals have been caught in traps set in trees 1-5 m above ground during the rainy season.","Pantanal Punares are known to feed on palm fruits, eating mesocarp flesh and seeds.","Reproduction of the Pantanal Punare is concentrated in the dry season, which corresponds to a period of higher resource availability, greater habitat availability, and higher population density coupled with reduced individual crowding. Compared with the Sao Lourenco Punare (7. laurentius), the Pantanal Punare has smaller litter sizes (average 2-5) with larger birth weights; females also become reproductively active later and at larger masses.",There is no specific information for this species.,Home ranges of the Pantanal Punares estimated from grid trapping and radio-tracking are 0-26-2-9 ha (mean = 0-85 ha).,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend of the Pantanal Punare is unknown, but it is considered common throughout its distribution. No major conservation threats have been reported.","Andreazzi et al. (2012) | Cabrera (1961) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Oliveira-Santos et al. (2013) | Pessoa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Pittker et al. (2012) | Santos-Filho et al. (2012) | Teixeira et al. (2005) | Trouessart (1880) | Wagner (1845)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623714/files/figure.png,"27.Pantanal PunareThrichomys pachyurusFrench:Punaré du Paraguay/ German:Pantanal-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de ParaguayOther common names:Paraguayan PunareTaxonomy.Isothrix pachyura Wagner, 1845, “Cuyaba [= Cuiaba],” Mato Grosso, Brazil.Austrian naturalist J. A. Wagner in 1845 placed this species in the genus Isothrix, the Amazonian brush-tailed rats, where it continued to be listed even by A. Cabrera in 1961, although in 1880 E. L. Trouessart had correctly assigned pachyurato Thrichomys. L.. M. Pesso6a and colleagues in their 2015 review of the genus included T. fosterias a synonym based on shared qualitative craniodental characters and mapped individuals from localities in central Brazil with chromosomal complement of 2n = 30 and FN = 56 as Thrichomys sp.Monotypic.Distribution.W Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sulstates), extreme E Bolivia (Santa Cruz Department), and most of Paraguay.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available, but the Pantanal Punare is among the largest species of Thrichomys, with greatest skull length averaging 55-4 mm. Chromosome complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 56. External and cranial characteristics are similar to those of Foster’s Punare (7. fosteri), with the two species distinguished primarily by karyotype and DNA sequences.Habitat.Northern and central Cerrado ecoregions at elevations of 130-1190 m, being lowest in northern extreme of the distribution. Pantanal Punares occur in dry forest patches, including aggregations of Attaleaphalerata (Arecaceae) palms. In seasonally wet Pantanal devoid of rocky areas, individuals have been caught in traps set in trees 1-5 m above ground during the rainy season.Food and Feeding.Pantanal Punares are known to feed on palm fruits, eating mesocarp flesh and seeds.Breeding.Reproduction of the Pantanal Punare is concentrated in the dry season, which corresponds to a period of higher resource availability, greater habitat availability, and higher population density coupled with reduced individual crowding. Compared with the Sao Lourenco Punare (7. laurentius), the Pantanal Punare has smaller litter sizes (average 2-5) with larger birth weights; females also become reproductively active later and at larger masses.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of the Pantanal Punares estimated from grid trapping and radio-tracking are 0-26-2-9 ha (mean = 0-85 ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend of the Pantanal Punare is unknown, but it is considered common throughout its distribution. No major conservation threats have been reported.Bibliography.Andreazzi et al. (2012), Cabrera (1961), Nascimento et al. (2013), Oliveira-Santos et al. (2013), Pessoa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Pittker et al. (2012), Santos-Filho et al. (2012), Teixeira et al. (2005), Trouessart (1880), Wagner (1845)." 03C5A071FFE1FFD4FAC3549E58B2F86E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,564,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE1FFD4FAC3549E58B2F86E.xml,Thrichomys laurentius,Thrichomys,laurentius,Thomas,1904,Punaré de Sao Lorenco @fr | Laurentius-Punaré @de | Punaré de San Lorenzo @es,"Thrichomys laurentius Thomas, 1904, “Sao Lourenco [= Sao Lorenco da Mata], near Pernambuco, Alt. 50 m,” Pernambuco, Brazil.This species is monotypic.","NE Brazil, from Ceara and Rio Grande do Norte states, S to C Bahia State.","Head-body 125-240 mm, tail 135-214 mm; weight 120-365 g. The Sao Lourenco Punare is medium-sized relative to others in the genus. Greatest skull length averages 53-8 mm. Dorsal color is yellowish gray; ventral hairs are completely white or with light gray bases. Skull is most similar to that of the Lagoa Santa Punare (7. apereoides), sharing elongated incisive foramina without lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and thin hamular processes of pterygoid bones that are pointed at tips. The Sao Lourenco Punare differs from the Lagoa Santa Punare by lacking pronounced lateral flange on posterior margins of incisive foramina, V-shaped mesopterygoid fossa, and almost flat palate without median keel and only shallow palatal grooves. Chromosome complement of specimens from Bahia State is 2n = 30 with 54 autosomal arms; specimens with 2n = 30 and FN = 56 from central Brazil may represent an undescribed species.",Northern Caatinga ecoregion at elevations from near sea level at 15 m to nearly 800 m.,"Dry season diet of the Sao Lourenco Punare includes buds of the bromeliad (Bromelialacinosa, Bromeliaceae) and cactus (Cereus Jjamacaru, Cactaceae), nuts of Attaleapalms (Arecaceae), and pads of prickly pear cactus (Opuntiapalmadora), an important source of water.","Reproductive activity of Sao Lourenco Punares in Pernambuco State occurred year-round, with peak in September—-December. Adult females had 2-3 litters/ year, with an interbirth interval of 4-6 months. Litter size averaged 3-1 young but varied from 1-6 young. In Ceara State, pregnant females were captured in July, with 1-4 young (two most common). Littersizes in captive individuals were 1-7 young, averaging 3-2. Liter size generally increased with female age, and gestation lasted 95-98 days. Milk of the Sao Lourenco Punare is high in fat, perhaps an adaptation to minimize water loss in its arid environment. Neonates are precocial, born at an average weight of 2-1 g, eyes and ears open,fully furred body, and erupted upper and lower incisors; motor coordination is sufficient to permit young to eat solid food within a few hours following birth.","Activity of Sao Lourenco Punares peaks at dusk, but individuals remain active during short periods of day and night.","Home ranges of female Sao Lourenco Punares rarely overlap, but those of males overlap with multiple females; male home ranges are relatively exclusive.",Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.,"Bonvicino et al. (2008) | Moojen (1952b) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Pessda, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Teixeira etal. (2005) | Thomas (1904a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623704/files/figure.png,"24.Sao Lourenco PunareThrichomys laurentiusFrench:Punaré de Sao Lorenco/ German:Laurentius-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de San LorenzoTaxonomy.Thrichomys laurentius Thomas, 1904, “Sao Lourenco [= Sao Lorenco da Mata], near Pernambuco, Alt. 50 m,” Pernambuco, Brazil.This species is monotypic.Distribution.NE Brazil, from Ceara and Rio Grande do Norte states, S to C Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-240 mm, tail 135-214 mm; weight 120-365 g. The Sao Lourenco Punare is medium-sized relative to others in the genus. Greatest skull length averages 53-8 mm. Dorsal color is yellowish gray; ventral hairs are completely white or with light gray bases. Skull is most similar to that of the Lagoa Santa Punare (7. apereoides), sharing elongated incisive foramina without lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and thin hamular processes of pterygoid bones that are pointed at tips. The Sao Lourenco Punare differs from the Lagoa Santa Punare by lacking pronounced lateral flange on posterior margins of incisive foramina, V-shaped mesopterygoid fossa, and almost flat palate without median keel and only shallow palatal grooves. Chromosome complement of specimens from Bahia State is 2n = 30 with 54 autosomal arms; specimens with 2n = 30 and FN = 56 from central Brazil may represent an undescribed species.Habitat.Northern Caatinga ecoregion at elevations from near sea level at 15 m to nearly 800 m.Food and Feeding.Dry season diet of the Sao Lourenco Punare includes buds of the bromeliad (Bromelialacinosa, Bromeliaceae) and cactus (Cereus Jjamacaru, Cactaceae), nuts of Attaleapalms (Arecaceae), and pads of prickly pear cactus (Opuntiapalmadora), an important source of water.Breeding.Reproductive activity of Sao Lourenco Punares in Pernambuco State occurred year-round, with peak in September—-December. Adult females had 2-3 litters/ year, with an interbirth interval of 4-6 months. Litter size averaged 3-1 young but varied from 1-6 young. In Ceara State, pregnant females were captured in July, with 1-4 young (two most common). Littersizes in captive individuals were 1-7 young, averaging 3-2. Liter size generally increased with female age, and gestation lasted 95-98 days. Milk of the Sao Lourenco Punare is high in fat, perhaps an adaptation to minimize water loss in its arid environment. Neonates are precocial, born at an average weight of 2-1 g, eyes and ears open,fully furred body, and erupted upper and lower incisors; motor coordination is sufficient to permit young to eat solid food within a few hours following birth.Activity patterns.Activity of Sao Lourenco Punares peaks at dusk, but individuals remain active during short periods of day and night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of female Sao Lourenco Punares rarely overlap, but those of males overlap with multiple females; male home ranges are relatively exclusive.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (2008), Moojen (1952b), Nascimento et al. (2013), Pessda, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Teixeira etal. (2005), Thomas (1904a)." -03C5A071FFE1FFD5FAD0590F5265F573,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,564,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE1FFD5FAD0590F5265F573.xml,Trinomys gratiosus,Trinomys,gratiosus,,,Rat-épineux gracieux @fr | Zierliche Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa gracil @es,"Proechimys iheringi gratiosus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Caixa Dagua, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brazil; altitude 750 meters.”J. Moojen described three taxa in 1948 as subspecies of Proechimys iheringi gratiosus, bonafider, and panema. M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000; transferred all to Trinomys, elevated gratiosusto species status, and treated bonafidei as a subspecies of T. iheringi. L.. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 included panema as a junior synonym of the nominate subspecies gratiosus. Two subspecies recognized.","T.g.gratiosusMoojen,1948—SEBrazil,coastalEspiritoSantoandNERiodeJaneirostates,andinlandtoSMinasGeraisStateandItatiaiaNationalParkinNWRiodeJaneiroState.T. g. bonafidei Moojen, 1948— SE Brazil, coastal ranges of Rio de Janeiro State.","Head-body 163-232 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 162-270 g. Upper parts of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are ocherous buff and contrast with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 90% of headbody length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiformsare darker along mid-dorsal region,so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body.Aristiforms are long, up to 27 mm, relatively narrow, and relatively soft; they are gray at bases and blacken toward tips. Setiforms on mid-dorsal region are gray basally, also blacken toward tips, but possess sub-distal ocherous band. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white on dorsal surfaces. Skull of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is slender, lacks conspicuousridges, and averages 50-6 mm. Incisive foramina are large (3-3-5-9 mm long), premaxillary part of septum is broad and extends more than one-half length of foramina opening, maxillary part is very constricted, septum is often incomplete, and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, involving only squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and inflated. Baculum has pronounced dorso-ventral curvature of proximal one-third, has lateral indentation near distal end, and broadens near proximal end but tapers at tip; distal end possesses weak medial depression and without distal wings. Both subspecies have the same 2n = 56, FN = 108, with large submetacentric Xchromosomes and small metacentric Y-chromosomes.","Atlantic Forest at elevations above 600 m; subspecies bonefidei occurs in Alto Parana Atlantic Forest, Campos Rupestres Montane Savanna, and Serra do Mar coastal forests ecoregions, within primary and secondary evergreen forest with elevated humidity and dense overstory with trees with crowns at least 20 m in height. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.","Females of subspecies bonafidei were captured in April and September, with 1-2 embryos.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no majorthreats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is among the better preserved of the many forest types in the broad Atlantic Forest.","Carvalho & Salles (2004) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Leite (2003) | Moojen (1948) | Pessoa, dos Reis & Pessba (1996) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)",,"23.Gracile Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys gratiosusFrench:Rat-épineux gracieux/ German:Zierliche Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa gracilTaxonomy.Proechimys iheringi gratiosus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Caixa Dagua, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brazil; altitude 750 meters.”J. Moojen described three taxa in 1948 as subspecies of Proechimys iheringi gratiosus, bonafider, and panema. M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000; transferred all to Trinomys, elevated gratiosusto species status, and treated bonafidei as a subspecies of T. iheringi. L.. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 included panema as a junior synonym of the nominate subspecies gratiosus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.g.gratiosusMoojen,1948—SEBrazil,coastalEspiritoSantoandNERiodeJaneirostates,andinlandtoSMinasGeraisStateandItatiaiaNationalParkinNWRiodeJaneiroState.T. g. bonafidei Moojen, 1948— SE Brazil, coastal ranges of Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 163-232 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 162-270 g. Upper parts of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are ocherous buff and contrast with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 90% of headbody length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiformsare darker along mid-dorsal region,so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body.Aristiforms are long, up to 27 mm, relatively narrow, and relatively soft; they are gray at bases and blacken toward tips. Setiforms on mid-dorsal region are gray basally, also blacken toward tips, but possess sub-distal ocherous band. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white on dorsal surfaces. Skull of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is slender, lacks conspicuousridges, and averages 50-6 mm. Incisive foramina are large (3-3-5-9 mm long), premaxillary part of septum is broad and extends more than one-half length of foramina opening, maxillary part is very constricted, septum is often incomplete, and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, involving only squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and inflated. Baculum has pronounced dorso-ventral curvature of proximal one-third, has lateral indentation near distal end, and broadens near proximal end but tapers at tip; distal end possesses weak medial depression and without distal wings. Both subspecies have the same 2n = 56, FN = 108, with large submetacentric Xchromosomes and small metacentric Y-chromosomes.Habitat.Atlantic Forest at elevations above 600 m; subspecies bonefidei occurs in Alto Parana Atlantic Forest, Campos Rupestres Montane Savanna, and Serra do Mar coastal forests ecoregions, within primary and secondary evergreen forest with elevated humidity and dense overstory with trees with crowns at least 20 m in height. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.Females of subspecies bonafidei were captured in April and September, with 1-2 embryos.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no majorthreats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is among the better preserved of the many forest types in the broad Atlantic Forest.Bibliography.Carvalho & Salles (2004), Lara & Patton (2000), Leite (2003), Moojen (1948), Pessoa, dos Reis & Pessba (1996), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)." +03C5A071FFE1FFD5FAD0590F5265F573,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,564,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE1FFD5FAD0590F5265F573.xml,Trinomys gratiosus,Trinomys,gratiosus,,,Rat-épineux gracieux @fr | Zierliche Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa gracil @es,"Proechimys iheringi gratiosus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Caixa Dagua, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brazil; altitude 750 meters.”J. Moojen described three taxa in 1948 as subspecies of Proechimys iheringi gratiosus, bonafider, and panema. M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000; transferred all to Trinomys, elevated gratiosusto species status, and treated bonafidei as a subspecies of T. iheringi. L.. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 included panema as a junior synonym of the nominate subspecies gratiosus. Two subspecies recognized.","T.g.gratiosusMoojen,1948—SEBrazil,coastalEspiritoSantoandNERiodeJaneirostates,andinlandtoSMinasGeraisStateandItatiaiaNationalParkinNWRiodeJaneiroState.T. g. bonafidei Moojen, 1948— SE Brazil, coastal ranges of Rio de Janeiro State.","Head-body 163-232 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 162-270 g. Upper parts of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are ocherous buff and contrast with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 90% of headbody length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiformsare darker along mid-dorsal region,so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body.Aristiforms are long, up to 27 mm, relatively narrow, and relatively soft; they are gray at bases and blacken toward tips. Setiforms on mid-dorsal region are gray basally, also blacken toward tips, but possess sub-distal ocherous band. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white on dorsal surfaces. Skull of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is slender, lacks conspicuousridges, and averages 50-6 mm. Incisive foramina are large (3-3-5-9 mm long), premaxillary part of septum is broad and extends more than one-half length of foramina opening, maxillary part is very constricted, septum is often incomplete, and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, involving only squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and inflated. Baculum has pronounced dorso-ventral curvature of proximal one-third, has lateral indentation near distal end, and broadens near proximal end but tapers at tip; distal end possesses weak medial depression and without distal wings. Both subspecies have the same 2n = 56, FN = 108, with large submetacentric Xchromosomes and small metacentric Y-chromosomes.","Atlantic Forest at elevations above 600 m; subspecies bonefidei occurs in Alto Parana Atlantic Forest, Campos Rupestres Montane Savanna, and Serra do Mar coastal forests ecoregions, within primary and secondary evergreen forest with elevated humidity and dense overstory with trees with crowns at least 20 m in height. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.","Females of subspecies bonafidei were captured in April and September, with 1-2 embryos.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no majorthreats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is among the better preserved of the many forest types in the broad Atlantic Forest.","Carvalho & Salles (2004) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Leite (2003) | Moojen (1948) | Pessoa, dos Reis & Pessba (1996) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623702/files/figure.png,"23.Gracile Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys gratiosusFrench:Rat-épineux gracieux/ German:Zierliche Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa gracilTaxonomy.Proechimys iheringi gratiosus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Caixa Dagua, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brazil; altitude 750 meters.”J. Moojen described three taxa in 1948 as subspecies of Proechimys iheringi gratiosus, bonafider, and panema. M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000; transferred all to Trinomys, elevated gratiosusto species status, and treated bonafidei as a subspecies of T. iheringi. L.. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 included panema as a junior synonym of the nominate subspecies gratiosus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.g.gratiosusMoojen,1948—SEBrazil,coastalEspiritoSantoandNERiodeJaneirostates,andinlandtoSMinasGeraisStateandItatiaiaNationalParkinNWRiodeJaneiroState.T. g. bonafidei Moojen, 1948— SE Brazil, coastal ranges of Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 163-232 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 162-270 g. Upper parts of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are ocherous buff and contrast with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 90% of headbody length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiformsare darker along mid-dorsal region,so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body.Aristiforms are long, up to 27 mm, relatively narrow, and relatively soft; they are gray at bases and blacken toward tips. Setiforms on mid-dorsal region are gray basally, also blacken toward tips, but possess sub-distal ocherous band. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white on dorsal surfaces. Skull of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is slender, lacks conspicuousridges, and averages 50-6 mm. Incisive foramina are large (3-3-5-9 mm long), premaxillary part of septum is broad and extends more than one-half length of foramina opening, maxillary part is very constricted, septum is often incomplete, and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, involving only squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and inflated. Baculum has pronounced dorso-ventral curvature of proximal one-third, has lateral indentation near distal end, and broadens near proximal end but tapers at tip; distal end possesses weak medial depression and without distal wings. Both subspecies have the same 2n = 56, FN = 108, with large submetacentric Xchromosomes and small metacentric Y-chromosomes.Habitat.Atlantic Forest at elevations above 600 m; subspecies bonefidei occurs in Alto Parana Atlantic Forest, Campos Rupestres Montane Savanna, and Serra do Mar coastal forests ecoregions, within primary and secondary evergreen forest with elevated humidity and dense overstory with trees with crowns at least 20 m in height. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.Females of subspecies bonafidei were captured in April and September, with 1-2 embryos.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no majorthreats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is among the better preserved of the many forest types in the broad Atlantic Forest.Bibliography.Carvalho & Salles (2004), Lara & Patton (2000), Leite (2003), Moojen (1948), Pessoa, dos Reis & Pessba (1996), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)." 03C5A071FFE1FFD5FFCF5A935B57F219,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,564,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE1FFD5FFCF5A935B57F219.xml,Trinomys iheringi,Trinomys,iheringi,,,Rat-épineux d'lhering @fr | |hering-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de @es | hering @en | |hering’s Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | lhering’s Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys iheringi Thomas, 1911, “Island of Sao Sebastiao, off Sao Paulo, Brazil.”Trinomys iheringiwas originally placed in the subgenus Proechimysby O. Thomas and again by J. R. Ellerman in 1940, transferred to the subgenus Trinomysin 1948 by J. Moojen, and finally treated as a full species in the elevated genus Trinomysby M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000. MonoWDi ic.","SE Brazil, littoral and plateau areas of SW Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo states, including Ilha Grande off the S coast of Rio de Janeiro State.","Head-body 185-220 mm,tail 170-224 mm; weight 139-233 g. Upperparts of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat are cinnamon-buff, gradually lightening on sides, but contrasting with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 87% of head—body length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiforms are darker along mid-dorsal region, so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body. Aristiforms are narrow and soft, up to 23 mm; setiforms on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but with sub-distal cinnamon-buff zone. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Skull is elongated and slender, but it has conspicuous ridges, averaging 51 mm. Incisive foramina are oval, short (length 3-7 mm, c.48% of diastema), and constricted posteriorly. Septum is always columnar in shape and complete, with short maxillary part and vomer that is not visible ventrally. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded and formed by jugal and squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, and not inflated. Upper molariform teeth of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat have three primary folds, with rudimentary fourth fold on M?: lowerteeth also have three folds, first are smaller than the others. Baculum is shorter than those of most other species (6-7 mm), lacks any dorso-ventral curvature or lateral indentations; distal end is evenly rounded, lacking distal wings or median depression; and proximal end is rounded. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60-65 due to presence of B-chromosomes; excluding these latter elements, FN = 116. X-chromosomeis large submetacentric, and Y-chromosome is minute metacentric. Presence of B-chromosomes and minute Y-chromosome differentiate the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat from Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat (71. dimidiatus).","Atlantic Forest biome, primarily in the Serra do Mar Coastal Forest ecoregion, at elevations above 600 m. The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat occurs in primary and secondary evergreen forests with elevated humidity and dense overstory and trees at least 20 m high. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent.","The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat has been reported to be a scatter hoarder of, at least in one study, seeds of the understory palm Astrocaryumaculeatissimum (Arecaceae). Otherwise, it probably eats a variety of fruits, seeds, and insects.","Reported litters of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat have only 1-2 embryos. On Ilha do Cardoso, Sao Paulo State, reproduction and survival of females were directly related to food availability, particularly fruit, and rainfall; individuals reproduced yearround and without any seasonal pattern, although with a slight peak at the end of the dry season and beginning of the next wet season. As a result, adults were most abundant during middle to end of the rainy season.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","Home ranges of Sao Paulo Spinyrats are large, especially compared with other rodent species of equivalent size that inhabit similar rainforests. Males use larger areas than females, and female ranges are exclusive—attributes suggesting polygynous mating system. Home ranges average 1-1 ha for males and 0-86 ha for females. Available forest cover, fruit productivity, resource competition, and overabundance of mesopredators might limit local population size.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat has a wide distribution and presumably large population sizes. Population trends are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no major threats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is better preserved among varied forest types in Atlantic Forest.","Bergallo (1994, 1995) | Bergallo & Magnusson (1999) | Bergallo et al. (2004) | Bovendorp et al. (2013) | Donatti et al. (2009) | Ellerman (1940) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Moojen (1948) | Pess6a & dos Reis (1996) | Thomas (1911Db)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623700/files/figure.png,"22.Sao Paulo Spiny-ratTrinomys iheringiFrench:Rat-épineux d'lhering/ German:|hering-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de IheringOther common names:|hering’s Atlantic Spiny-rat, lhering’s Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys iheringi Thomas, 1911, “Island of Sao Sebastiao, off Sao Paulo, Brazil.”Trinomys iheringiwas originally placed in the subgenus Proechimysby O. Thomas and again by J. R. Ellerman in 1940, transferred to the subgenus Trinomysin 1948 by J. Moojen, and finally treated as a full species in the elevated genus Trinomysby M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000. MonoWDi ic.Distribution.SE Brazil, littoral and plateau areas of SW Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo states, including Ilha Grande off the S coast of Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 185-220 mm,tail 170-224 mm; weight 139-233 g. Upperparts of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat are cinnamon-buff, gradually lightening on sides, but contrasting with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 87% of head—body length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiforms are darker along mid-dorsal region, so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body. Aristiforms are narrow and soft, up to 23 mm; setiforms on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but with sub-distal cinnamon-buff zone. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Skull is elongated and slender, but it has conspicuous ridges, averaging 51 mm. Incisive foramina are oval, short (length 3-7 mm, c.48% of diastema), and constricted posteriorly. Septum is always columnar in shape and complete, with short maxillary part and vomer that is not visible ventrally. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded and formed by jugal and squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, and not inflated. Upper molariform teeth of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat have three primary folds, with rudimentary fourth fold on M?: lowerteeth also have three folds, first are smaller than the others. Baculum is shorter than those of most other species (6-7 mm), lacks any dorso-ventral curvature or lateral indentations; distal end is evenly rounded, lacking distal wings or median depression; and proximal end is rounded. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60-65 due to presence of B-chromosomes; excluding these latter elements, FN = 116. X-chromosomeis large submetacentric, and Y-chromosome is minute metacentric. Presence of B-chromosomes and minute Y-chromosome differentiate the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat from Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat (71. dimidiatus).Habitat.Atlantic Forest biome, primarily in the Serra do Mar Coastal Forest ecoregion, at elevations above 600 m. The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat occurs in primary and secondary evergreen forests with elevated humidity and dense overstory and trees at least 20 m high. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent.Food and Feeding.The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat has been reported to be a scatter hoarder of, at least in one study, seeds of the understory palm Astrocaryumaculeatissimum (Arecaceae). Otherwise, it probably eats a variety of fruits, seeds, and insects.Breeding.Reported litters of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat have only 1-2 embryos. On Ilha do Cardoso, Sao Paulo State, reproduction and survival of females were directly related to food availability, particularly fruit, and rainfall; individuals reproduced yearround and without any seasonal pattern, although with a slight peak at the end of the dry season and beginning of the next wet season. As a result, adults were most abundant during middle to end of the rainy season.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Sao Paulo Spinyrats are large, especially compared with other rodent species of equivalent size that inhabit similar rainforests. Males use larger areas than females, and female ranges are exclusive—attributes suggesting polygynous mating system. Home ranges average 1-1 ha for males and 0-86 ha for females. Available forest cover, fruit productivity, resource competition, and overabundance of mesopredators might limit local population size.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat has a wide distribution and presumably large population sizes. Population trends are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no major threats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is better preserved among varied forest types in Atlantic Forest.Bibliography.Bergallo (1994, 1995), Bergallo & Magnusson (1999), Bergallo et al. (2004), Bovendorp et al. (2013), Donatti et al. (2009), Ellerman (1940), Lara & Patton (2000), Moojen (1948), Pess6a & dos Reis (1996), Thomas (1911Db)." -03C5A071FFE2FFC9FA0A524052CDF92B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,567,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE2FFC9FA0A524052CDF92B.xml,Hoplomys gymnurus,Hoplomys,gymnurus,,,Rat-épineux cuirassé @fr | Lanzenratte @de | Rata acorazada @es,"Echimys gymnurus Thomas, 1897, “Cachavi [= Cachabi], [Esmeraldas,] N. Ecuador,altitude 170 metres.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to 00°58’N, 78°48’W.Four subspecies are recognized.","H.g.gymnurusThomas,1897—NWEcuadorandSWColombia(Chocébioregion).H.g.goethalsiGoldman,1912—SCostaRicatoWColombia;boundarywithgymnuruspoorlyunderstood.H.g.trueiJ.A.Allen,1908—EHonduras,ENicaragua,andNCostaRica.H. g. wetmoret Handley, 1959— Isla Escudo de Veraguas (off NC Panama).","Head-body 212-320 mm, tail 114-240 mm; weight 220-820 g. The Armored Rat is large-bodied, with stout body, short and thick legs, relatively narrow and elongated hindfeet, nearly naked and proportionately shorttail (60-70% of head-body length), and short rounded ears. Most characteristic external features are broad, flat, and stiffen spines that cover dorsum from behind shouldersto flanks and rump. These spines are 26-33 mm in length and 1.7-2-2 mm in width, and they tend to obscure soft underfur. Spines are tipped black along mid-dorsum but may have pale tips on sides, which gives lateral aspect of skin distinct speckled pattern. As with other species of echimyids with well-developed spines (e.g. Lonchothrix, Mesomys, some Proechimys, and some Trinomys), those of Hoplomysextend down sides to junction with ventral fur. Color varies geographically, ranging from reddish orange dorsally in the southern part of the distribution to more yellowish in the north. Young Armored Rats are more typically dull brown dorsally. Individuals vary with regard to presence or absence of black ocular and crown areas. Venter is predominantly white, although there may be partial or complete dark brown collar across throat and buff lateral bands separating ventral from flank colors; some individuals have fully buffventer. Some Panamanian specimens are melanistic, almost black, with dark brown venters, variably spotted with white. Skull is conformed as in most non-fossorial eumysopine genera: relatively narrow in shape with elongated rostrum, concave interorbital region, and round cheekteeth with deeply oblique lateral folds that do not transect crown and become isolated as fossettes with wear. Prominent temporal ridges are present, supraorbital shelf is beaded, rostrum narrows toward tip, auditory bullae are very small, and floor of infraorbital foramen is typically flat, although slight groove that marks passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve is present in some individuals. Size, flatness, and ridging of skull of Hoplomysincrease with age (as judged by tooth eruption and wear), with growth apparently continuing well after all teeth are erupted and fully functional. As a result, skulls of “adults” exhibit considerable range in overall size—a characteristic of other eumysopine genera, most notably Proechimysand Trinomys. In the original description, Hoplomyswas diagnosed by combination of its impressively broad and stiff dorsal spines and enamel pattern with all maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth possessing four well developed and obliquely positioned folds, a character that was contrasted with three folds typical of Proechimys. In nearly all craniodental and pelage characteristics, Hoplomysis either indistinguishable from or only at the extreme end of a continuum represented by the diverse species of Proechimys. For example, counterfold formula of Hoplomysdoes vary, particularly in lower molars (from 4/4, 4/4, 4/4, 4/4 to, rarely, 4/4, 4/3, 4/3, 4/3), and some species of Proechimysalso exhibit four counterfolds on most, or all cheekteeth (most notably Tome’s Spinyrat, P. semispinosus, and the Napo Spiny-rat, P. quadruplicatus). Moreover, some species of Proechimysapproach Hoplomysin aristiform spine development, such as the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides), which has been placed in Hoplomysby some authors, and the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (P. echinothrix), which has aristiform spines nearly as long and broad (22 x 1-4 mm, on average).","Near streams in lowland and mid-elevation evergreen rainforest from Choco and Central American regions from sea level to elevations of ¢.1250 m. The Armored Rat might also occur in low-lying habitats such as palm swamps or wet cultivated areas. It is found in very moist habitats and primary or secondary rainforests. It occurs sympatrically with Tomes’s Spiny-rat in some areas. Compared with Tomes’s Spiny-rat, the Armored Rat is more associated with rocky habitats and mature moist and tall forests. Individuals occupy burrows systems near water, which are horizontal, might be 2 m long, and have nest chamber made of shredded vegetation.","The Armored Rat primarily feeds on fruits, seeds, and insects (e.g. beetles and orthopterans), and some green plant materials were found in some stomach contents.","In central Panama, sex ratio of the Armored Rat was estimated at 1:1. It is sexually dimorphic with males 38% heavier than females. A maximum litter size of two young has been reported. The Armored Rat seems to be most reproductively active in April-August, but some pregnant females were collected in October and December in central Panama.","The Armored Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, and it occupies burrows as resting sites during the day.","Local abundance of the Armored Rat appears highest in very moist and wet habitats, but it is less common than Tomes'’s Spiny-rat when the two morphologically similar taxa co-occur. Higher densities of Armored Rats were recorded in primary forest compared with secondary rainforest. Adult male and female Armored Rats were more closely associated than were those of sympatric Tomes’s Spiny-rat, suggesting monogamous or polygamous mating system. A mark-recapture study revealed a strong seasonal effect on density, being higher in May-June (1-69-2-89 ind/ha) and lower in October-December (0-69-0-89 ind/ha) in central Panama, which likely reflects reproductive seasonality keyed to variation in precipitation and ambient temperature.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Armored Rat is widespread and present in several primary and secondary rainforest habitats. Its distribution includes a number of protected parks, and overall it appears unlikely to be declining. Local people do hunt Armored Rats for food in central Panama. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Armored Rat are needed.","Adler (2011) | Adler et al. (1998) | Alfaro (1896) | Allen (1899b) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Goldman (1912a, 1912b, 1920) | Gonzalez & Alberico (1993) | Handley (1959) | Patton (1987) | Patton et al. (2015) | Paynter (1993) | Tesh (1970) | Thomas (1897) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"31.Armored RatHoplomys gymnurusFrench:Rat-épineux cuirassé/ German:Lanzenratte/ Spanish:Rata acorazadaTaxonomy.Echimys gymnurus Thomas, 1897, “Cachavi [= Cachabi], [Esmeraldas,] N. Ecuador,altitude 170 metres.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to 00°58’N, 78°48’W.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.g.gymnurusThomas,1897—NWEcuadorandSWColombia(Chocébioregion).H.g.goethalsiGoldman,1912—SCostaRicatoWColombia;boundarywithgymnuruspoorlyunderstood.H.g.trueiJ.A.Allen,1908—EHonduras,ENicaragua,andNCostaRica.H. g. wetmoret Handley, 1959— Isla Escudo de Veraguas (off NC Panama).Descriptive notes.Head-body 212-320 mm, tail 114-240 mm; weight 220-820 g. The Armored Rat is large-bodied, with stout body, short and thick legs, relatively narrow and elongated hindfeet, nearly naked and proportionately shorttail (60-70% of head-body length), and short rounded ears. Most characteristic external features are broad, flat, and stiffen spines that cover dorsum from behind shouldersto flanks and rump. These spines are 26-33 mm in length and 1.7-2-2 mm in width, and they tend to obscure soft underfur. Spines are tipped black along mid-dorsum but may have pale tips on sides, which gives lateral aspect of skin distinct speckled pattern. As with other species of echimyids with well-developed spines (e.g. Lonchothrix, Mesomys, some Proechimys, and some Trinomys), those of Hoplomysextend down sides to junction with ventral fur. Color varies geographically, ranging from reddish orange dorsally in the southern part of the distribution to more yellowish in the north. Young Armored Rats are more typically dull brown dorsally. Individuals vary with regard to presence or absence of black ocular and crown areas. Venter is predominantly white, although there may be partial or complete dark brown collar across throat and buff lateral bands separating ventral from flank colors; some individuals have fully buffventer. Some Panamanian specimens are melanistic, almost black, with dark brown venters, variably spotted with white. Skull is conformed as in most non-fossorial eumysopine genera: relatively narrow in shape with elongated rostrum, concave interorbital region, and round cheekteeth with deeply oblique lateral folds that do not transect crown and become isolated as fossettes with wear. Prominent temporal ridges are present, supraorbital shelf is beaded, rostrum narrows toward tip, auditory bullae are very small, and floor of infraorbital foramen is typically flat, although slight groove that marks passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve is present in some individuals. Size, flatness, and ridging of skull of Hoplomysincrease with age (as judged by tooth eruption and wear), with growth apparently continuing well after all teeth are erupted and fully functional. As a result, skulls of “adults” exhibit considerable range in overall size—a characteristic of other eumysopine genera, most notably Proechimysand Trinomys. In the original description, Hoplomyswas diagnosed by combination of its impressively broad and stiff dorsal spines and enamel pattern with all maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth possessing four well developed and obliquely positioned folds, a character that was contrasted with three folds typical of Proechimys. In nearly all craniodental and pelage characteristics, Hoplomysis either indistinguishable from or only at the extreme end of a continuum represented by the diverse species of Proechimys. For example, counterfold formula of Hoplomysdoes vary, particularly in lower molars (from 4/4, 4/4, 4/4, 4/4 to, rarely, 4/4, 4/3, 4/3, 4/3), and some species of Proechimysalso exhibit four counterfolds on most, or all cheekteeth (most notably Tome’s Spinyrat, P. semispinosus, and the Napo Spiny-rat, P. quadruplicatus). Moreover, some species of Proechimysapproach Hoplomysin aristiform spine development, such as the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides), which has been placed in Hoplomysby some authors, and the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (P. echinothrix), which has aristiform spines nearly as long and broad (22 x 1-4 mm, on average).Habitat.Near streams in lowland and mid-elevation evergreen rainforest from Choco and Central American regions from sea level to elevations of ¢.1250 m. The Armored Rat might also occur in low-lying habitats such as palm swamps or wet cultivated areas. It is found in very moist habitats and primary or secondary rainforests. It occurs sympatrically with Tomes’s Spiny-rat in some areas. Compared with Tomes’s Spiny-rat, the Armored Rat is more associated with rocky habitats and mature moist and tall forests. Individuals occupy burrows systems near water, which are horizontal, might be 2 m long, and have nest chamber made of shredded vegetation.Food and Feeding.The Armored Rat primarily feeds on fruits, seeds, and insects (e.g. beetles and orthopterans), and some green plant materials were found in some stomach contents.Breeding.In central Panama, sex ratio of the Armored Rat was estimated at 1:1. It is sexually dimorphic with males 38% heavier than females. A maximum litter size of two young has been reported. The Armored Rat seems to be most reproductively active in April-August, but some pregnant females were collected in October and December in central Panama.Activity patterns.The Armored Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, and it occupies burrows as resting sites during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Local abundance of the Armored Rat appears highest in very moist and wet habitats, but it is less common than Tomes'’s Spiny-rat when the two morphologically similar taxa co-occur. Higher densities of Armored Rats were recorded in primary forest compared with secondary rainforest. Adult male and female Armored Rats were more closely associated than were those of sympatric Tomes’s Spiny-rat, suggesting monogamous or polygamous mating system. A mark-recapture study revealed a strong seasonal effect on density, being higher in May-June (1-69-2-89 ind/ha) and lower in October-December (0-69-0-89 ind/ha) in central Panama, which likely reflects reproductive seasonality keyed to variation in precipitation and ambient temperature.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Armored Rat is widespread and present in several primary and secondary rainforest habitats. Its distribution includes a number of protected parks, and overall it appears unlikely to be declining. Local people do hunt Armored Rats for food in central Panama. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Armored Rat are needed.Bibliography.Adler (2011), Adler et al. (1998), Alfaro (1896), Allen (1899b), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Goldman (1912a, 1912b, 1920), Gonzalez & Alberico (1993), Handley (1959), Patton (1987), Patton et al. (2015), Paynter (1993), Tesh (1970), Thomas (1897), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFE3FFD6FAC555005D02F6AC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,566,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE3FFD6FAC555005D02F6AC.xml,Myocastor coypus,Myocastor,coypus,,,Ragondin @fr | Nutria @de | Coipu @es | Nutria @en,"Mus coypus Molina, 1782, “Chili.” Restricted by C. A. Woods and colleagues in 1992 to “Rio Maipo, Santiago Province, Chile.”Myocastor coypusincludes bonariensis, castoroides, popelairi, chilensis, albomaculatus, dorsalis, santaecruzae, and melanops as synonyms. Four subspecies recognized.","M.c.coypusMolina,1782—Chilemainland.M.c.bonariensisE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1805—Bolivia,Paraguay,NArgentina,SEBrazil,andUruguay.M.c.melanopsOsgood,1943—ChiloéI(CChile).M. c. santacruzae Hollister, 1914— Argentina, from the Chaco S to Patagonia. Introduced widely into N South America, S North America, Europe, Central Asia, and East Africa.","Head-body 472-575 mm,tail 340-405 mm; weight up to 6-7 kg. The Coypu is large-bodied, robust, heavy, and adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. Ears are small, nearly hidden by thick fur; mouth is closable behind incisors;tail is ¢.72% of head-body length, round,thick, scaly, and sparsely haired; limbs are short; forefeet with five clawed digits, but pollex greatly reduced; hindfeet with well-developed claws on all five digits, webbing joining first four digits, fifth digit unwebbed and used for grooming; and pelage is soft and thick, with dense underfur covered by elongated guard hairs. Sebaceous glands are located near corner of mouth and near anus. Female Coypushave four pair of mammae, each lateral in position and located high on sides. Skull is long and broad, flat in lateral profile, and has broad, deep, and elongated rostrum. Sagittal crestis well developed; zygomatic arches are broad and flaring; jugal is thick but does not approach lacrimal; andjugal fossa is reduced. Infraorbital foramen is large, without distinct groove on ventral surface, indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Stems of internal carotid artery and stapedial artery are missing. Angular process of mandible is strongly deflected, and coronoid processis vestigial. All cheekteeth, above and below, are flatcrowned and extremely hypsodont but not hypselodont. Upper tooth rows converge anteriorly but not to the degree as in species of Dactylomys, and they are inclined outward. Upper cheekteeth have two labial and three lingual folds; lower cheekteeth have one labial and three lingual folds, although dP, has an additional anterior lake (fossette). Re-entrantfolds of upper and lower cheekteeth become lakes with wear. Incisors are broad and deep, with enamel strongly pigmented orange. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 76.","Slow-moving streams, lakes, swamps, freshwater marshes,irrigation channels, and even brackish water, with sufficient succulent vegetation. Coypusare aquatic; they are semi-fossorial and build complex burrows. They are primarily a lowland animal but may occur up to 1200 m in the Andes.","Coypusfeed preferentially on semi-aquatic and aquatic plants but opportunistically may consume waterside terrestrial vegetation, especially in winter. Dietary items include stems, leaves, roots, and sometime bark; they sometimes use immersed branches or logs as feeding platforms. Forepaws are used to manipulate and hold food items. In Chile, Coypusconsumed 700-1500 g (mean 1100 g) of plant matter per day, which represent daily intake equalto ¢.25% of body mass. Where populations occur near agricultural plots, individuals can be responsible for considerable damage by consuming cereals or other cultivated plants. Coypusare coprophagous in natural and captive situations, an activity usually performed at night.","Given large body mass and shortlife span (averaging 6-3 years), the Coypu has long gestation of 127-139 days. Age atfirst parturition is 6-15 months; parturition is usually followed by estrus within two days postpartum, with mean postpartum interval of 2-1 weeks. The Coypuis polyestrous, and length of estrus is 5-60 days, with some healthy females showing no sign of estrus over the course of several months. This variation may be related to ovulation induced by coitus. Cholesterol and ketosteroid levels increase incrementally as ovaries of young females develop. During estrus, amounts of these hormones increase in adrenal cortex and ovary. In pregnant females, these hormones are present only in very small amounts. There are 3-17 corpora lutea, usually a higher number than actual implanted embryos, suggesting that the Coypu is polyovular. In introduced populations in the USA, Coypusare non-seasonal breeders, with peak birth rates in December—January and June-July in Louisiana and January, March, May, and October in Oregon. Mean litters in Oregon had 3-6 young (maximum 1-12 young), with a decline in winter. Litters are larger in regions with higher habitat productivity. For unknown reasons, embryos are almost always implanted in left horn of the uterus. Mean body mass of young at birth is nearly 225 g, and neonates rapidly grow during the first five months oflife (growth rates of 0-0116-0-0120 g/day). Neonatal growth rate may be affected by temperature and habitat disturbances. Lactation of feral Coypu in England lasts 7-7 weeks. In captivity, young nursed for c¢.2 months and were able to survive if weaned after 32 days. Milk of the Coypu contains 41:5% dry matter, 27-9% fat, 13-7% protein, and 0-5% sugar, with the remainder being ash. In Maryland, USA, annual productivity was 8-1 young/female,likely related to food availability and abundance, predator abundance, weather conditions, and diseases. When environmental conditions remain stable and good, meanlittersize was 2-7 young, and females produced an average of 15 young/year. Females Coypusmay “practice” birth control by spontaneous abortion when litter size is small or iflitter consists only of female embryos. In these cases, link between embryo disc and decidua basalis is destroyed, leading to death of an embryo and its disc destruction (up to 25% reabsorptions).","The Coypu is essentially nocturnal, with activity usually initiated at dusk and ending before daylight in early morning. Most daily activity is spent feeding, swimming, and grooming. During hottest period of the day, Coypussleep in their burrows, in the sun, in the water, or on their feeding platforms. Individuals build burrows with multiple entrances; some tunnels are 6 m in length (range 1-6 m).","Individual Coypususually stay in only one area throughout their lives, but some local emigration has been observed during freezing weather in particularly harsh winters. Otherwise, daily movements are typically less than 45 m; 50% of tagged males were recaptured within a radius of 91-4 m; 80% of all movements were within a radius lesser than 400 m and 20% within radii of 400-1250 m. Radio-collared individuals during a two-year study in the Netherlands moved no more than 300 m in water and 50 m on land, but more extreme movements were observed in young adults, who moved as far as 120 m downstream. Densities were 0-1 ind/ha in unfavorable habitats and 25 ind/ha in more swampy or riverine habitats. A study in France revealed that 40% of suitable habitats was unoccupied in winter. Population size was largely affected by winter cold, affecting reproduction success and adult survival. In suitable French habitats, local densities were 9-1 ind/ha in May and 2-4 ind/ha in November. Densities have also been correlated with habitat quality, especially local population levels, in Florida, where densities were 24-7 ind/ ha in unpolluted waterways but only 5-9 ind/ha in sewage polluted ponds. Within their native distribution in north-eastern Argentina, Coypuslivein social groups with a mean of eleven individuals per group; in captivity, group sizes are 3-13 individuals. These groups usually have one dominant adult male, with several socially subordinated adults, subadult females and males, and juveniles. Most subordinated individuals are related offspring from a single female. Some subgroups of subadults and juveniles were also recorded. Alpha males and alpha females have been identified in several studies, with the female apparently dominant over the male except when pregnant or lactating young. Young adults are frequently expelled from groups and might be occasionally found as solitary individuals. Several amicable and cooperative behaviors are commonly observed among Coypus. They are believed to have polygynous mating system, with a dominant male mating with multiple females per social group. In France, female home range was determined to be quite constant (2-5-5-9 ha), despite density variation, and with broad individual overlap. A similar pattern was observed in Louisiana where home ranges were 2:5-5-7 ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Coypu is widespread and abundant within its native habitat in southern South America. At high density, Coypuscan damage agricultural crops but only limitedly. It is also regarded as a pest in some regions due to destruction ofriverbanks, disruption of drainage systems, damage to crops (e.g. rice, sunflower, corn, cowbane, great water dock, and diverse crop roots), and damage to native plant communities. Its wide distribution in its native and introduced lands, occurrence in several national parks over in its native distribution but also in Europe and North America support the current listing. Due to its invasive nature, several eradication programs have been implemented in Palearctic and Nearctic areas but not in its native distribution. Invasive status of the Coypu has made it one of the most studied species of echimyids.","Abbas (1991) | Bertolino et al. (2005) | Borgnia et al. (2000) | Bounds (2000) | Brown (1975) | Burrow (1815) | Carter & Leonard (2002) | Colares et al. (2010) | Corriale et al. (2006) | DAdamo et al. (2000) | Desmarest (1826) | Doncaster & Micol (1989, 1990) | Ehrlich (1966, 1967) | Felipe et al. (1998) | Fischer (1829) | Fitzinger (1867) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803, 1804, 1827) | Gosling (1974, 1979, 1981) | Gosling & Baker (1982) | Gosling, Baker & Clarke (1988) | Gosling, Guyon & Wright (1980) | Gray (1827) | Guichén & Cassini(2005) | Guichén, Benitez et al. (2003) | Guichén, Borgnia et al. (2003) | Harris & Webert (1962) | Hollister (1914a) | llliger (1815) | Kerr (1792) | Lesson (1842) | Link (1795) | Lund (1840, 1841) | Lund & Couto (1950) | Marelli (1931) | Molina(1782) | Newson (1966) | Oken (1816) | Osgood (1943) | Reggiani, Boitani, D’Antoni & De Stefano (1993) | Reggiani, Boitani & De Stefano (1995) | Thomas (1881) | Wesmael (1841) | Willner et al. (1979) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Woods et al. (1992)",,"30.CoypuMyocastor coypusFrench:Ragondin/ German:Nutria/ Spanish:CoipuOther common names:NutriaTaxonomy.Mus coypus Molina, 1782, “Chili.” Restricted by C. A. Woods and colleagues in 1992 to “Rio Maipo, Santiago Province, Chile.”Myocastor coypusincludes bonariensis, castoroides, popelairi, chilensis, albomaculatus, dorsalis, santaecruzae, and melanops as synonyms. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.c.coypusMolina,1782—Chilemainland.M.c.bonariensisE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1805—Bolivia,Paraguay,NArgentina,SEBrazil,andUruguay.M.c.melanopsOsgood,1943—ChiloéI(CChile).M. c. santacruzae Hollister, 1914— Argentina, from the Chaco S to Patagonia. Introduced widely into N South America, S North America, Europe, Central Asia, and East Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 472-575 mm,tail 340-405 mm; weight up to 6-7 kg. The Coypu is large-bodied, robust, heavy, and adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. Ears are small, nearly hidden by thick fur; mouth is closable behind incisors;tail is ¢.72% of head-body length, round,thick, scaly, and sparsely haired; limbs are short; forefeet with five clawed digits, but pollex greatly reduced; hindfeet with well-developed claws on all five digits, webbing joining first four digits, fifth digit unwebbed and used for grooming; and pelage is soft and thick, with dense underfur covered by elongated guard hairs. Sebaceous glands are located near corner of mouth and near anus. Female Coypushave four pair of mammae, each lateral in position and located high on sides. Skull is long and broad, flat in lateral profile, and has broad, deep, and elongated rostrum. Sagittal crestis well developed; zygomatic arches are broad and flaring; jugal is thick but does not approach lacrimal; andjugal fossa is reduced. Infraorbital foramen is large, without distinct groove on ventral surface, indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Stems of internal carotid artery and stapedial artery are missing. Angular process of mandible is strongly deflected, and coronoid processis vestigial. All cheekteeth, above and below, are flatcrowned and extremely hypsodont but not hypselodont. Upper tooth rows converge anteriorly but not to the degree as in species of Dactylomys, and they are inclined outward. Upper cheekteeth have two labial and three lingual folds; lower cheekteeth have one labial and three lingual folds, although dP, has an additional anterior lake (fossette). Re-entrantfolds of upper and lower cheekteeth become lakes with wear. Incisors are broad and deep, with enamel strongly pigmented orange. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 76.Habitat.Slow-moving streams, lakes, swamps, freshwater marshes,irrigation channels, and even brackish water, with sufficient succulent vegetation. Coypusare aquatic; they are semi-fossorial and build complex burrows. They are primarily a lowland animal but may occur up to 1200 m in the Andes.Food and Feeding.Coypusfeed preferentially on semi-aquatic and aquatic plants but opportunistically may consume waterside terrestrial vegetation, especially in winter. Dietary items include stems, leaves, roots, and sometime bark; they sometimes use immersed branches or logs as feeding platforms. Forepaws are used to manipulate and hold food items. In Chile, Coypusconsumed 700-1500 g (mean 1100 g) of plant matter per day, which represent daily intake equalto ¢.25% of body mass. Where populations occur near agricultural plots, individuals can be responsible for considerable damage by consuming cereals or other cultivated plants. Coypusare coprophagous in natural and captive situations, an activity usually performed at night.Breeding.Given large body mass and shortlife span (averaging 6-3 years), the Coypu has long gestation of 127-139 days. Age atfirst parturition is 6-15 months; parturition is usually followed by estrus within two days postpartum, with mean postpartum interval of 2-1 weeks. The Coypuis polyestrous, and length of estrus is 5-60 days, with some healthy females showing no sign of estrus over the course of several months. This variation may be related to ovulation induced by coitus. Cholesterol and ketosteroid levels increase incrementally as ovaries of young females develop. During estrus, amounts of these hormones increase in adrenal cortex and ovary. In pregnant females, these hormones are present only in very small amounts. There are 3-17 corpora lutea, usually a higher number than actual implanted embryos, suggesting that the Coypu is polyovular. In introduced populations in the USA, Coypusare non-seasonal breeders, with peak birth rates in December—January and June-July in Louisiana and January, March, May, and October in Oregon. Mean litters in Oregon had 3-6 young (maximum 1-12 young), with a decline in winter. Litters are larger in regions with higher habitat productivity. For unknown reasons, embryos are almost always implanted in left horn of the uterus. Mean body mass of young at birth is nearly 225 g, and neonates rapidly grow during the first five months oflife (growth rates of 0-0116-0-0120 g/day). Neonatal growth rate may be affected by temperature and habitat disturbances. Lactation of feral Coypu in England lasts 7-7 weeks. In captivity, young nursed for c¢.2 months and were able to survive if weaned after 32 days. Milk of the Coypu contains 41:5% dry matter, 27-9% fat, 13-7% protein, and 0-5% sugar, with the remainder being ash. In Maryland, USA, annual productivity was 8-1 young/female,likely related to food availability and abundance, predator abundance, weather conditions, and diseases. When environmental conditions remain stable and good, meanlittersize was 2-7 young, and females produced an average of 15 young/year. Females Coypusmay “practice” birth control by spontaneous abortion when litter size is small or iflitter consists only of female embryos. In these cases, link between embryo disc and decidua basalis is destroyed, leading to death of an embryo and its disc destruction (up to 25% reabsorptions).Activity patterns.The Coypu is essentially nocturnal, with activity usually initiated at dusk and ending before daylight in early morning. Most daily activity is spent feeding, swimming, and grooming. During hottest period of the day, Coypussleep in their burrows, in the sun, in the water, or on their feeding platforms. Individuals build burrows with multiple entrances; some tunnels are 6 m in length (range 1-6 m).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individual Coypususually stay in only one area throughout their lives, but some local emigration has been observed during freezing weather in particularly harsh winters. Otherwise, daily movements are typically less than 45 m; 50% of tagged males were recaptured within a radius of 91-4 m; 80% of all movements were within a radius lesser than 400 m and 20% within radii of 400-1250 m. Radio-collared individuals during a two-year study in the Netherlands moved no more than 300 m in water and 50 m on land, but more extreme movements were observed in young adults, who moved as far as 120 m downstream. Densities were 0-1 ind/ha in unfavorable habitats and 25 ind/ha in more swampy or riverine habitats. A study in France revealed that 40% of suitable habitats was unoccupied in winter. Population size was largely affected by winter cold, affecting reproduction success and adult survival. In suitable French habitats, local densities were 9-1 ind/ha in May and 2-4 ind/ha in November. Densities have also been correlated with habitat quality, especially local population levels, in Florida, where densities were 24-7 ind/ ha in unpolluted waterways but only 5-9 ind/ha in sewage polluted ponds. Within their native distribution in north-eastern Argentina, Coypuslivein social groups with a mean of eleven individuals per group; in captivity, group sizes are 3-13 individuals. These groups usually have one dominant adult male, with several socially subordinated adults, subadult females and males, and juveniles. Most subordinated individuals are related offspring from a single female. Some subgroups of subadults and juveniles were also recorded. Alpha males and alpha females have been identified in several studies, with the female apparently dominant over the male except when pregnant or lactating young. Young adults are frequently expelled from groups and might be occasionally found as solitary individuals. Several amicable and cooperative behaviors are commonly observed among Coypus. They are believed to have polygynous mating system, with a dominant male mating with multiple females per social group. In France, female home range was determined to be quite constant (2-5-5-9 ha), despite density variation, and with broad individual overlap. A similar pattern was observed in Louisiana where home ranges were 2:5-5-7 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Coypu is widespread and abundant within its native habitat in southern South America. At high density, Coypuscan damage agricultural crops but only limitedly. It is also regarded as a pest in some regions due to destruction ofriverbanks, disruption of drainage systems, damage to crops (e.g. rice, sunflower, corn, cowbane, great water dock, and diverse crop roots), and damage to native plant communities. Its wide distribution in its native and introduced lands, occurrence in several national parks over in its native distribution but also in Europe and North America support the current listing. Due to its invasive nature, several eradication programs have been implemented in Palearctic and Nearctic areas but not in its native distribution. Invasive status of the Coypu has made it one of the most studied species of echimyids.Bibliography.Abbas (1991), Bertolino et al. (2005), Borgnia et al. (2000), Bounds (2000), Brown (1975), Burrow (1815), Carter & Leonard (2002), Colares et al. (2010), Corriale et al. (2006), DAdamo et al. (2000), Desmarest (1826), Doncaster & Micol (1989, 1990), Ehrlich (1966, 1967), Felipe et al. (1998), Fischer (1829), Fitzinger (1867), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803, 1804, 1827), Gosling (1974, 1979, 1981), Gosling & Baker (1982), Gosling, Baker & Clarke (1988), Gosling, Guyon & Wright (1980), Gray (1827), Guichén & Cassini(2005), Guichén, Benitez et al. (2003), Guichén, Borgnia et al. (2003), Harris & Webert (1962), Hollister (1914a), llliger (1815), Kerr (1792), Lesson (1842), Link (1795), Lund (1840, 1841), Lund & Couto (1950), Marelli (1931), Molina(1782), Newson (1966), Oken (1816), Osgood (1943), Reggiani, Boitani, D’Antoni & De Stefano (1993), Reggiani, Boitani & De Stefano (1995), Thomas (1881), Wesmael (1841), Willner et al. (1979), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Woods et al. (1992)." +03C5A071FFE2FFC9FA0A524052CDF92B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,567,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE2FFC9FA0A524052CDF92B.xml,Hoplomys gymnurus,Hoplomys,gymnurus,,,Rat-épineux cuirassé @fr | Lanzenratte @de | Rata acorazada @es,"Echimys gymnurus Thomas, 1897, “Cachavi [= Cachabi], [Esmeraldas,] N. Ecuador,altitude 170 metres.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to 00°58’N, 78°48’W.Four subspecies are recognized.","H.g.gymnurusThomas,1897—NWEcuadorandSWColombia(Chocébioregion).H.g.goethalsiGoldman,1912—SCostaRicatoWColombia;boundarywithgymnuruspoorlyunderstood.H.g.trueiJ.A.Allen,1908—EHonduras,ENicaragua,andNCostaRica.H. g. wetmoret Handley, 1959— Isla Escudo de Veraguas (off NC Panama).","Head-body 212-320 mm, tail 114-240 mm; weight 220-820 g. The Armored Rat is large-bodied, with stout body, short and thick legs, relatively narrow and elongated hindfeet, nearly naked and proportionately shorttail (60-70% of head-body length), and short rounded ears. Most characteristic external features are broad, flat, and stiffen spines that cover dorsum from behind shouldersto flanks and rump. These spines are 26-33 mm in length and 1.7-2-2 mm in width, and they tend to obscure soft underfur. Spines are tipped black along mid-dorsum but may have pale tips on sides, which gives lateral aspect of skin distinct speckled pattern. As with other species of echimyids with well-developed spines (e.g. Lonchothrix, Mesomys, some Proechimys, and some Trinomys), those of Hoplomysextend down sides to junction with ventral fur. Color varies geographically, ranging from reddish orange dorsally in the southern part of the distribution to more yellowish in the north. Young Armored Rats are more typically dull brown dorsally. Individuals vary with regard to presence or absence of black ocular and crown areas. Venter is predominantly white, although there may be partial or complete dark brown collar across throat and buff lateral bands separating ventral from flank colors; some individuals have fully buffventer. Some Panamanian specimens are melanistic, almost black, with dark brown venters, variably spotted with white. Skull is conformed as in most non-fossorial eumysopine genera: relatively narrow in shape with elongated rostrum, concave interorbital region, and round cheekteeth with deeply oblique lateral folds that do not transect crown and become isolated as fossettes with wear. Prominent temporal ridges are present, supraorbital shelf is beaded, rostrum narrows toward tip, auditory bullae are very small, and floor of infraorbital foramen is typically flat, although slight groove that marks passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve is present in some individuals. Size, flatness, and ridging of skull of Hoplomysincrease with age (as judged by tooth eruption and wear), with growth apparently continuing well after all teeth are erupted and fully functional. As a result, skulls of “adults” exhibit considerable range in overall size—a characteristic of other eumysopine genera, most notably Proechimysand Trinomys. In the original description, Hoplomyswas diagnosed by combination of its impressively broad and stiff dorsal spines and enamel pattern with all maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth possessing four well developed and obliquely positioned folds, a character that was contrasted with three folds typical of Proechimys. In nearly all craniodental and pelage characteristics, Hoplomysis either indistinguishable from or only at the extreme end of a continuum represented by the diverse species of Proechimys. For example, counterfold formula of Hoplomysdoes vary, particularly in lower molars (from 4/4, 4/4, 4/4, 4/4 to, rarely, 4/4, 4/3, 4/3, 4/3), and some species of Proechimysalso exhibit four counterfolds on most, or all cheekteeth (most notably Tome’s Spinyrat, P. semispinosus, and the Napo Spiny-rat, P. quadruplicatus). Moreover, some species of Proechimysapproach Hoplomysin aristiform spine development, such as the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides), which has been placed in Hoplomysby some authors, and the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (P. echinothrix), which has aristiform spines nearly as long and broad (22 x 1-4 mm, on average).","Near streams in lowland and mid-elevation evergreen rainforest from Choco and Central American regions from sea level to elevations of ¢.1250 m. The Armored Rat might also occur in low-lying habitats such as palm swamps or wet cultivated areas. It is found in very moist habitats and primary or secondary rainforests. It occurs sympatrically with Tomes’s Spiny-rat in some areas. Compared with Tomes’s Spiny-rat, the Armored Rat is more associated with rocky habitats and mature moist and tall forests. Individuals occupy burrows systems near water, which are horizontal, might be 2 m long, and have nest chamber made of shredded vegetation.","The Armored Rat primarily feeds on fruits, seeds, and insects (e.g. beetles and orthopterans), and some green plant materials were found in some stomach contents.","In central Panama, sex ratio of the Armored Rat was estimated at 1:1. It is sexually dimorphic with males 38% heavier than females. A maximum litter size of two young has been reported. The Armored Rat seems to be most reproductively active in April-August, but some pregnant females were collected in October and December in central Panama.","The Armored Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, and it occupies burrows as resting sites during the day.","Local abundance of the Armored Rat appears highest in very moist and wet habitats, but it is less common than Tomes'’s Spiny-rat when the two morphologically similar taxa co-occur. Higher densities of Armored Rats were recorded in primary forest compared with secondary rainforest. Adult male and female Armored Rats were more closely associated than were those of sympatric Tomes’s Spiny-rat, suggesting monogamous or polygamous mating system. A mark-recapture study revealed a strong seasonal effect on density, being higher in May-June (1-69-2-89 ind/ha) and lower in October-December (0-69-0-89 ind/ha) in central Panama, which likely reflects reproductive seasonality keyed to variation in precipitation and ambient temperature.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Armored Rat is widespread and present in several primary and secondary rainforest habitats. Its distribution includes a number of protected parks, and overall it appears unlikely to be declining. Local people do hunt Armored Rats for food in central Panama. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Armored Rat are needed.","Adler (2011) | Adler et al. (1998) | Alfaro (1896) | Allen (1899b) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Goldman (1912a, 1912b, 1920) | Gonzalez & Alberico (1993) | Handley (1959) | Patton (1987) | Patton et al. (2015) | Paynter (1993) | Tesh (1970) | Thomas (1897) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623724/files/figure.png,"31.Armored RatHoplomys gymnurusFrench:Rat-épineux cuirassé/ German:Lanzenratte/ Spanish:Rata acorazadaTaxonomy.Echimys gymnurus Thomas, 1897, “Cachavi [= Cachabi], [Esmeraldas,] N. Ecuador,altitude 170 metres.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to 00°58’N, 78°48’W.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.g.gymnurusThomas,1897—NWEcuadorandSWColombia(Chocébioregion).H.g.goethalsiGoldman,1912—SCostaRicatoWColombia;boundarywithgymnuruspoorlyunderstood.H.g.trueiJ.A.Allen,1908—EHonduras,ENicaragua,andNCostaRica.H. g. wetmoret Handley, 1959— Isla Escudo de Veraguas (off NC Panama).Descriptive notes.Head-body 212-320 mm, tail 114-240 mm; weight 220-820 g. The Armored Rat is large-bodied, with stout body, short and thick legs, relatively narrow and elongated hindfeet, nearly naked and proportionately shorttail (60-70% of head-body length), and short rounded ears. Most characteristic external features are broad, flat, and stiffen spines that cover dorsum from behind shouldersto flanks and rump. These spines are 26-33 mm in length and 1.7-2-2 mm in width, and they tend to obscure soft underfur. Spines are tipped black along mid-dorsum but may have pale tips on sides, which gives lateral aspect of skin distinct speckled pattern. As with other species of echimyids with well-developed spines (e.g. Lonchothrix, Mesomys, some Proechimys, and some Trinomys), those of Hoplomysextend down sides to junction with ventral fur. Color varies geographically, ranging from reddish orange dorsally in the southern part of the distribution to more yellowish in the north. Young Armored Rats are more typically dull brown dorsally. Individuals vary with regard to presence or absence of black ocular and crown areas. Venter is predominantly white, although there may be partial or complete dark brown collar across throat and buff lateral bands separating ventral from flank colors; some individuals have fully buffventer. Some Panamanian specimens are melanistic, almost black, with dark brown venters, variably spotted with white. Skull is conformed as in most non-fossorial eumysopine genera: relatively narrow in shape with elongated rostrum, concave interorbital region, and round cheekteeth with deeply oblique lateral folds that do not transect crown and become isolated as fossettes with wear. Prominent temporal ridges are present, supraorbital shelf is beaded, rostrum narrows toward tip, auditory bullae are very small, and floor of infraorbital foramen is typically flat, although slight groove that marks passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve is present in some individuals. Size, flatness, and ridging of skull of Hoplomysincrease with age (as judged by tooth eruption and wear), with growth apparently continuing well after all teeth are erupted and fully functional. As a result, skulls of “adults” exhibit considerable range in overall size—a characteristic of other eumysopine genera, most notably Proechimysand Trinomys. In the original description, Hoplomyswas diagnosed by combination of its impressively broad and stiff dorsal spines and enamel pattern with all maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth possessing four well developed and obliquely positioned folds, a character that was contrasted with three folds typical of Proechimys. In nearly all craniodental and pelage characteristics, Hoplomysis either indistinguishable from or only at the extreme end of a continuum represented by the diverse species of Proechimys. For example, counterfold formula of Hoplomysdoes vary, particularly in lower molars (from 4/4, 4/4, 4/4, 4/4 to, rarely, 4/4, 4/3, 4/3, 4/3), and some species of Proechimysalso exhibit four counterfolds on most, or all cheekteeth (most notably Tome’s Spinyrat, P. semispinosus, and the Napo Spiny-rat, P. quadruplicatus). Moreover, some species of Proechimysapproach Hoplomysin aristiform spine development, such as the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides), which has been placed in Hoplomysby some authors, and the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (P. echinothrix), which has aristiform spines nearly as long and broad (22 x 1-4 mm, on average).Habitat.Near streams in lowland and mid-elevation evergreen rainforest from Choco and Central American regions from sea level to elevations of ¢.1250 m. The Armored Rat might also occur in low-lying habitats such as palm swamps or wet cultivated areas. It is found in very moist habitats and primary or secondary rainforests. It occurs sympatrically with Tomes’s Spiny-rat in some areas. Compared with Tomes’s Spiny-rat, the Armored Rat is more associated with rocky habitats and mature moist and tall forests. Individuals occupy burrows systems near water, which are horizontal, might be 2 m long, and have nest chamber made of shredded vegetation.Food and Feeding.The Armored Rat primarily feeds on fruits, seeds, and insects (e.g. beetles and orthopterans), and some green plant materials were found in some stomach contents.Breeding.In central Panama, sex ratio of the Armored Rat was estimated at 1:1. It is sexually dimorphic with males 38% heavier than females. A maximum litter size of two young has been reported. The Armored Rat seems to be most reproductively active in April-August, but some pregnant females were collected in October and December in central Panama.Activity patterns.The Armored Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, and it occupies burrows as resting sites during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Local abundance of the Armored Rat appears highest in very moist and wet habitats, but it is less common than Tomes'’s Spiny-rat when the two morphologically similar taxa co-occur. Higher densities of Armored Rats were recorded in primary forest compared with secondary rainforest. Adult male and female Armored Rats were more closely associated than were those of sympatric Tomes’s Spiny-rat, suggesting monogamous or polygamous mating system. A mark-recapture study revealed a strong seasonal effect on density, being higher in May-June (1-69-2-89 ind/ha) and lower in October-December (0-69-0-89 ind/ha) in central Panama, which likely reflects reproductive seasonality keyed to variation in precipitation and ambient temperature.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Armored Rat is widespread and present in several primary and secondary rainforest habitats. Its distribution includes a number of protected parks, and overall it appears unlikely to be declining. Local people do hunt Armored Rats for food in central Panama. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Armored Rat are needed.Bibliography.Adler (2011), Adler et al. (1998), Alfaro (1896), Allen (1899b), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Goldman (1912a, 1912b, 1920), Gonzalez & Alberico (1993), Handley (1959), Patton (1987), Patton et al. (2015), Paynter (1993), Tesh (1970), Thomas (1897), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFE3FFD6FAC555005D02F6AC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,566,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE3FFD6FAC555005D02F6AC.xml,Myocastor coypus,Myocastor,coypus,,,Ragondin @fr | Nutria @de | Coipu @es | Nutria @en,"Mus coypus Molina, 1782, “Chili.” Restricted by C. A. Woods and colleagues in 1992 to “Rio Maipo, Santiago Province, Chile.”Myocastor coypusincludes bonariensis, castoroides, popelairi, chilensis, albomaculatus, dorsalis, santaecruzae, and melanops as synonyms. Four subspecies recognized.","M.c.coypusMolina,1782—Chilemainland.M.c.bonariensisE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1805—Bolivia,Paraguay,NArgentina,SEBrazil,andUruguay.M.c.melanopsOsgood,1943—ChiloéI(CChile).M. c. santacruzae Hollister, 1914— Argentina, from the Chaco S to Patagonia. Introduced widely into N South America, S North America, Europe, Central Asia, and East Africa.","Head-body 472-575 mm,tail 340-405 mm; weight up to 6-7 kg. The Coypu is large-bodied, robust, heavy, and adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. Ears are small, nearly hidden by thick fur; mouth is closable behind incisors;tail is ¢.72% of head-body length, round,thick, scaly, and sparsely haired; limbs are short; forefeet with five clawed digits, but pollex greatly reduced; hindfeet with well-developed claws on all five digits, webbing joining first four digits, fifth digit unwebbed and used for grooming; and pelage is soft and thick, with dense underfur covered by elongated guard hairs. Sebaceous glands are located near corner of mouth and near anus. Female Coypushave four pair of mammae, each lateral in position and located high on sides. Skull is long and broad, flat in lateral profile, and has broad, deep, and elongated rostrum. Sagittal crestis well developed; zygomatic arches are broad and flaring; jugal is thick but does not approach lacrimal; andjugal fossa is reduced. Infraorbital foramen is large, without distinct groove on ventral surface, indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Stems of internal carotid artery and stapedial artery are missing. Angular process of mandible is strongly deflected, and coronoid processis vestigial. All cheekteeth, above and below, are flatcrowned and extremely hypsodont but not hypselodont. Upper tooth rows converge anteriorly but not to the degree as in species of Dactylomys, and they are inclined outward. Upper cheekteeth have two labial and three lingual folds; lower cheekteeth have one labial and three lingual folds, although dP, has an additional anterior lake (fossette). Re-entrantfolds of upper and lower cheekteeth become lakes with wear. Incisors are broad and deep, with enamel strongly pigmented orange. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 76.","Slow-moving streams, lakes, swamps, freshwater marshes,irrigation channels, and even brackish water, with sufficient succulent vegetation. Coypusare aquatic; they are semi-fossorial and build complex burrows. They are primarily a lowland animal but may occur up to 1200 m in the Andes.","Coypusfeed preferentially on semi-aquatic and aquatic plants but opportunistically may consume waterside terrestrial vegetation, especially in winter. Dietary items include stems, leaves, roots, and sometime bark; they sometimes use immersed branches or logs as feeding platforms. Forepaws are used to manipulate and hold food items. In Chile, Coypusconsumed 700-1500 g (mean 1100 g) of plant matter per day, which represent daily intake equalto ¢.25% of body mass. Where populations occur near agricultural plots, individuals can be responsible for considerable damage by consuming cereals or other cultivated plants. Coypusare coprophagous in natural and captive situations, an activity usually performed at night.","Given large body mass and shortlife span (averaging 6-3 years), the Coypu has long gestation of 127-139 days. Age atfirst parturition is 6-15 months; parturition is usually followed by estrus within two days postpartum, with mean postpartum interval of 2-1 weeks. The Coypuis polyestrous, and length of estrus is 5-60 days, with some healthy females showing no sign of estrus over the course of several months. This variation may be related to ovulation induced by coitus. Cholesterol and ketosteroid levels increase incrementally as ovaries of young females develop. During estrus, amounts of these hormones increase in adrenal cortex and ovary. In pregnant females, these hormones are present only in very small amounts. There are 3-17 corpora lutea, usually a higher number than actual implanted embryos, suggesting that the Coypu is polyovular. In introduced populations in the USA, Coypusare non-seasonal breeders, with peak birth rates in December—January and June-July in Louisiana and January, March, May, and October in Oregon. Mean litters in Oregon had 3-6 young (maximum 1-12 young), with a decline in winter. Litters are larger in regions with higher habitat productivity. For unknown reasons, embryos are almost always implanted in left horn of the uterus. Mean body mass of young at birth is nearly 225 g, and neonates rapidly grow during the first five months oflife (growth rates of 0-0116-0-0120 g/day). Neonatal growth rate may be affected by temperature and habitat disturbances. Lactation of feral Coypu in England lasts 7-7 weeks. In captivity, young nursed for c¢.2 months and were able to survive if weaned after 32 days. Milk of the Coypu contains 41:5% dry matter, 27-9% fat, 13-7% protein, and 0-5% sugar, with the remainder being ash. In Maryland, USA, annual productivity was 8-1 young/female,likely related to food availability and abundance, predator abundance, weather conditions, and diseases. When environmental conditions remain stable and good, meanlittersize was 2-7 young, and females produced an average of 15 young/year. Females Coypusmay “practice” birth control by spontaneous abortion when litter size is small or iflitter consists only of female embryos. In these cases, link between embryo disc and decidua basalis is destroyed, leading to death of an embryo and its disc destruction (up to 25% reabsorptions).","The Coypu is essentially nocturnal, with activity usually initiated at dusk and ending before daylight in early morning. Most daily activity is spent feeding, swimming, and grooming. During hottest period of the day, Coypussleep in their burrows, in the sun, in the water, or on their feeding platforms. Individuals build burrows with multiple entrances; some tunnels are 6 m in length (range 1-6 m).","Individual Coypususually stay in only one area throughout their lives, but some local emigration has been observed during freezing weather in particularly harsh winters. Otherwise, daily movements are typically less than 45 m; 50% of tagged males were recaptured within a radius of 91-4 m; 80% of all movements were within a radius lesser than 400 m and 20% within radii of 400-1250 m. Radio-collared individuals during a two-year study in the Netherlands moved no more than 300 m in water and 50 m on land, but more extreme movements were observed in young adults, who moved as far as 120 m downstream. Densities were 0-1 ind/ha in unfavorable habitats and 25 ind/ha in more swampy or riverine habitats. A study in France revealed that 40% of suitable habitats was unoccupied in winter. Population size was largely affected by winter cold, affecting reproduction success and adult survival. In suitable French habitats, local densities were 9-1 ind/ha in May and 2-4 ind/ha in November. Densities have also been correlated with habitat quality, especially local population levels, in Florida, where densities were 24-7 ind/ ha in unpolluted waterways but only 5-9 ind/ha in sewage polluted ponds. Within their native distribution in north-eastern Argentina, Coypuslivein social groups with a mean of eleven individuals per group; in captivity, group sizes are 3-13 individuals. These groups usually have one dominant adult male, with several socially subordinated adults, subadult females and males, and juveniles. Most subordinated individuals are related offspring from a single female. Some subgroups of subadults and juveniles were also recorded. Alpha males and alpha females have been identified in several studies, with the female apparently dominant over the male except when pregnant or lactating young. Young adults are frequently expelled from groups and might be occasionally found as solitary individuals. Several amicable and cooperative behaviors are commonly observed among Coypus. They are believed to have polygynous mating system, with a dominant male mating with multiple females per social group. In France, female home range was determined to be quite constant (2-5-5-9 ha), despite density variation, and with broad individual overlap. A similar pattern was observed in Louisiana where home ranges were 2:5-5-7 ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Coypu is widespread and abundant within its native habitat in southern South America. At high density, Coypuscan damage agricultural crops but only limitedly. It is also regarded as a pest in some regions due to destruction ofriverbanks, disruption of drainage systems, damage to crops (e.g. rice, sunflower, corn, cowbane, great water dock, and diverse crop roots), and damage to native plant communities. Its wide distribution in its native and introduced lands, occurrence in several national parks over in its native distribution but also in Europe and North America support the current listing. Due to its invasive nature, several eradication programs have been implemented in Palearctic and Nearctic areas but not in its native distribution. Invasive status of the Coypu has made it one of the most studied species of echimyids.","Abbas (1991) | Bertolino et al. (2005) | Borgnia et al. (2000) | Bounds (2000) | Brown (1975) | Burrow (1815) | Carter & Leonard (2002) | Colares et al. (2010) | Corriale et al. (2006) | DAdamo et al. (2000) | Desmarest (1826) | Doncaster & Micol (1989, 1990) | Ehrlich (1966, 1967) | Felipe et al. (1998) | Fischer (1829) | Fitzinger (1867) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803, 1804, 1827) | Gosling (1974, 1979, 1981) | Gosling & Baker (1982) | Gosling, Baker & Clarke (1988) | Gosling, Guyon & Wright (1980) | Gray (1827) | Guichén & Cassini(2005) | Guichén, Benitez et al. (2003) | Guichén, Borgnia et al. (2003) | Harris & Webert (1962) | Hollister (1914a) | llliger (1815) | Kerr (1792) | Lesson (1842) | Link (1795) | Lund (1840, 1841) | Lund & Couto (1950) | Marelli (1931) | Molina(1782) | Newson (1966) | Oken (1816) | Osgood (1943) | Reggiani, Boitani, D’Antoni & De Stefano (1993) | Reggiani, Boitani & De Stefano (1995) | Thomas (1881) | Wesmael (1841) | Willner et al. (1979) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Woods et al. (1992)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623722/files/figure.png,"30.CoypuMyocastor coypusFrench:Ragondin/ German:Nutria/ Spanish:CoipuOther common names:NutriaTaxonomy.Mus coypus Molina, 1782, “Chili.” Restricted by C. A. Woods and colleagues in 1992 to “Rio Maipo, Santiago Province, Chile.”Myocastor coypusincludes bonariensis, castoroides, popelairi, chilensis, albomaculatus, dorsalis, santaecruzae, and melanops as synonyms. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.c.coypusMolina,1782—Chilemainland.M.c.bonariensisE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1805—Bolivia,Paraguay,NArgentina,SEBrazil,andUruguay.M.c.melanopsOsgood,1943—ChiloéI(CChile).M. c. santacruzae Hollister, 1914— Argentina, from the Chaco S to Patagonia. Introduced widely into N South America, S North America, Europe, Central Asia, and East Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 472-575 mm,tail 340-405 mm; weight up to 6-7 kg. The Coypu is large-bodied, robust, heavy, and adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. Ears are small, nearly hidden by thick fur; mouth is closable behind incisors;tail is ¢.72% of head-body length, round,thick, scaly, and sparsely haired; limbs are short; forefeet with five clawed digits, but pollex greatly reduced; hindfeet with well-developed claws on all five digits, webbing joining first four digits, fifth digit unwebbed and used for grooming; and pelage is soft and thick, with dense underfur covered by elongated guard hairs. Sebaceous glands are located near corner of mouth and near anus. Female Coypushave four pair of mammae, each lateral in position and located high on sides. Skull is long and broad, flat in lateral profile, and has broad, deep, and elongated rostrum. Sagittal crestis well developed; zygomatic arches are broad and flaring; jugal is thick but does not approach lacrimal; andjugal fossa is reduced. Infraorbital foramen is large, without distinct groove on ventral surface, indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Stems of internal carotid artery and stapedial artery are missing. Angular process of mandible is strongly deflected, and coronoid processis vestigial. All cheekteeth, above and below, are flatcrowned and extremely hypsodont but not hypselodont. Upper tooth rows converge anteriorly but not to the degree as in species of Dactylomys, and they are inclined outward. Upper cheekteeth have two labial and three lingual folds; lower cheekteeth have one labial and three lingual folds, although dP, has an additional anterior lake (fossette). Re-entrantfolds of upper and lower cheekteeth become lakes with wear. Incisors are broad and deep, with enamel strongly pigmented orange. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 76.Habitat.Slow-moving streams, lakes, swamps, freshwater marshes,irrigation channels, and even brackish water, with sufficient succulent vegetation. Coypusare aquatic; they are semi-fossorial and build complex burrows. They are primarily a lowland animal but may occur up to 1200 m in the Andes.Food and Feeding.Coypusfeed preferentially on semi-aquatic and aquatic plants but opportunistically may consume waterside terrestrial vegetation, especially in winter. Dietary items include stems, leaves, roots, and sometime bark; they sometimes use immersed branches or logs as feeding platforms. Forepaws are used to manipulate and hold food items. In Chile, Coypusconsumed 700-1500 g (mean 1100 g) of plant matter per day, which represent daily intake equalto ¢.25% of body mass. Where populations occur near agricultural plots, individuals can be responsible for considerable damage by consuming cereals or other cultivated plants. Coypusare coprophagous in natural and captive situations, an activity usually performed at night.Breeding.Given large body mass and shortlife span (averaging 6-3 years), the Coypu has long gestation of 127-139 days. Age atfirst parturition is 6-15 months; parturition is usually followed by estrus within two days postpartum, with mean postpartum interval of 2-1 weeks. The Coypuis polyestrous, and length of estrus is 5-60 days, with some healthy females showing no sign of estrus over the course of several months. This variation may be related to ovulation induced by coitus. Cholesterol and ketosteroid levels increase incrementally as ovaries of young females develop. During estrus, amounts of these hormones increase in adrenal cortex and ovary. In pregnant females, these hormones are present only in very small amounts. There are 3-17 corpora lutea, usually a higher number than actual implanted embryos, suggesting that the Coypu is polyovular. In introduced populations in the USA, Coypusare non-seasonal breeders, with peak birth rates in December—January and June-July in Louisiana and January, March, May, and October in Oregon. Mean litters in Oregon had 3-6 young (maximum 1-12 young), with a decline in winter. Litters are larger in regions with higher habitat productivity. For unknown reasons, embryos are almost always implanted in left horn of the uterus. Mean body mass of young at birth is nearly 225 g, and neonates rapidly grow during the first five months oflife (growth rates of 0-0116-0-0120 g/day). Neonatal growth rate may be affected by temperature and habitat disturbances. Lactation of feral Coypu in England lasts 7-7 weeks. In captivity, young nursed for c¢.2 months and were able to survive if weaned after 32 days. Milk of the Coypu contains 41:5% dry matter, 27-9% fat, 13-7% protein, and 0-5% sugar, with the remainder being ash. In Maryland, USA, annual productivity was 8-1 young/female,likely related to food availability and abundance, predator abundance, weather conditions, and diseases. When environmental conditions remain stable and good, meanlittersize was 2-7 young, and females produced an average of 15 young/year. Females Coypusmay “practice” birth control by spontaneous abortion when litter size is small or iflitter consists only of female embryos. In these cases, link between embryo disc and decidua basalis is destroyed, leading to death of an embryo and its disc destruction (up to 25% reabsorptions).Activity patterns.The Coypu is essentially nocturnal, with activity usually initiated at dusk and ending before daylight in early morning. Most daily activity is spent feeding, swimming, and grooming. During hottest period of the day, Coypussleep in their burrows, in the sun, in the water, or on their feeding platforms. Individuals build burrows with multiple entrances; some tunnels are 6 m in length (range 1-6 m).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individual Coypususually stay in only one area throughout their lives, but some local emigration has been observed during freezing weather in particularly harsh winters. Otherwise, daily movements are typically less than 45 m; 50% of tagged males were recaptured within a radius of 91-4 m; 80% of all movements were within a radius lesser than 400 m and 20% within radii of 400-1250 m. Radio-collared individuals during a two-year study in the Netherlands moved no more than 300 m in water and 50 m on land, but more extreme movements were observed in young adults, who moved as far as 120 m downstream. Densities were 0-1 ind/ha in unfavorable habitats and 25 ind/ha in more swampy or riverine habitats. A study in France revealed that 40% of suitable habitats was unoccupied in winter. Population size was largely affected by winter cold, affecting reproduction success and adult survival. In suitable French habitats, local densities were 9-1 ind/ha in May and 2-4 ind/ha in November. Densities have also been correlated with habitat quality, especially local population levels, in Florida, where densities were 24-7 ind/ ha in unpolluted waterways but only 5-9 ind/ha in sewage polluted ponds. Within their native distribution in north-eastern Argentina, Coypuslivein social groups with a mean of eleven individuals per group; in captivity, group sizes are 3-13 individuals. These groups usually have one dominant adult male, with several socially subordinated adults, subadult females and males, and juveniles. Most subordinated individuals are related offspring from a single female. Some subgroups of subadults and juveniles were also recorded. Alpha males and alpha females have been identified in several studies, with the female apparently dominant over the male except when pregnant or lactating young. Young adults are frequently expelled from groups and might be occasionally found as solitary individuals. Several amicable and cooperative behaviors are commonly observed among Coypus. They are believed to have polygynous mating system, with a dominant male mating with multiple females per social group. In France, female home range was determined to be quite constant (2-5-5-9 ha), despite density variation, and with broad individual overlap. A similar pattern was observed in Louisiana where home ranges were 2:5-5-7 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Coypu is widespread and abundant within its native habitat in southern South America. At high density, Coypuscan damage agricultural crops but only limitedly. It is also regarded as a pest in some regions due to destruction ofriverbanks, disruption of drainage systems, damage to crops (e.g. rice, sunflower, corn, cowbane, great water dock, and diverse crop roots), and damage to native plant communities. Its wide distribution in its native and introduced lands, occurrence in several national parks over in its native distribution but also in Europe and North America support the current listing. Due to its invasive nature, several eradication programs have been implemented in Palearctic and Nearctic areas but not in its native distribution. Invasive status of the Coypu has made it one of the most studied species of echimyids.Bibliography.Abbas (1991), Bertolino et al. (2005), Borgnia et al. (2000), Bounds (2000), Brown (1975), Burrow (1815), Carter & Leonard (2002), Colares et al. (2010), Corriale et al. (2006), DAdamo et al. (2000), Desmarest (1826), Doncaster & Micol (1989, 1990), Ehrlich (1966, 1967), Felipe et al. (1998), Fischer (1829), Fitzinger (1867), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803, 1804, 1827), Gosling (1974, 1979, 1981), Gosling & Baker (1982), Gosling, Baker & Clarke (1988), Gosling, Guyon & Wright (1980), Gray (1827), Guichén & Cassini(2005), Guichén, Benitez et al. (2003), Guichén, Borgnia et al. (2003), Harris & Webert (1962), Hollister (1914a), llliger (1815), Kerr (1792), Lesson (1842), Link (1795), Lund (1840, 1841), Lund & Couto (1950), Marelli (1931), Molina(1782), Newson (1966), Oken (1816), Osgood (1943), Reggiani, Boitani, D’Antoni & De Stefano (1993), Reggiani, Boitani & De Stefano (1995), Thomas (1881), Wesmael (1841), Willner et al. (1979), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Woods et al. (1992)." 03C5A071FFE3FFD7FAD059A35C87F468,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,566,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE3FFD7FAD059A35C87F468.xml,Callistomys pictus,Callistomys,pictus,,,Rat-épineux coloré @fr | Schwarzweile Baumratte @de | Rata arboricola pintada @es,"Nelomys pictus Pictet, 1843, “Bahia.” Restricted by J. Moojen in 1952 to probably from Fazenda Almada in the region north of the city of Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil.This species is monotypic.","SE Brazil, in coastal Atlantic Forest near [1héus and Itabuna, Bahia State.","Head-body 250-295 mm, tail 273-325 mm; weight up to 480 g. The Painted Tree-rat is large, softfurred, and arboreal, with striking black (or brown) and white pelage pattern. Fur is dense and long, with hairs of uneven length. Guard hairs are soft and slender, lacking spines or bristles. Underfur is dense, long, and wavy. Dorsal hairs are brownish at their bases, with black or white tips; black-tipped hairs cover crown of head, shoulders, and dorsum. White-tipped hairs cover neck, shoulders, and flanks. Robusttail is 109-111% of head-body length, densely covered with short black hairs for most of its length but with terminal partsilky white above and golden yellow below. Ears are small and inconspicuous. Forefeet and hindfeet are short, stout, and broad, with elongated toes and stout claws. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Cranially, jugals are expanded dorso-ventrally; lateral jugal fossa is wide and diffuse anteriorly, not coming to sharp point, with anterior edge offossa positioned above dP*, anteriorto line extending from posterior border of ascending maxillary process of zygomatic arch. Superior zygomatic root of maxillary is expanded posteriorly. Tympanic auditory bullae are inflated, and large auditory meatus is positioned at end of strongly developed auditory tube. Angular process of mandible is strongly projected ventrally with respect to inferior projection of symphysis, such that an angle drawn between ventral posterior tip of angular process and occlusal plane of tooth row, with apex at anterior edge of occlusal surface of P, is greater than 30°. All cheekteeth have three roots; upper and lower cheekteeth are high crowned; P4 and M1 are unilaterally hypsodont (lingual side of crown higher than labial side, crown curved outward); P4-M3 are tetralophodont, with three labial folds and one lingual fold; hypoflexi and mesoflexi are deep, with P4 completely divided byjoined hypoflexus-metaflexus into two, U-shaped lophs, with no mure; M'~* have narrow mure connecting protocone and hypocone. Hypoflexids of dP—M, are set at a strong oblique angle, medial end offlexid extend farther anterior then labial end. Lower premolars are tetralophodont; anteroconid and protoconid united, enclosing anteroexternal flexid as slit-like fossetid; anterior one-half of tooth approximates triangle with its axis slightly tipped anterolabially; and hypoflexids and metaflexids do notjoin (P, is not divided by a continuous flexid). Lower incisorsare robust and strongly curved. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 42 and FN = 76.",[Lowland evergreen forest in Atlantic Forest. The Painted Tree-rat can occur in disturbed habitats like cacao plantations.,"Based on field observations and interviews with local people, the Painted Tree-rat is primarily herbivorous, consuming leaves even from cacao trees in plantations.",There is no information available for this species.,The Painted Tree-rat is primarily arboreal and nocturnal.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Painted Treerat has a highly restricted distribution (15,000 km?®) within what is now severely fragmented habitat in Atlantic Forest. It is known from only 13 specimens in museum collections and from the subfossil record of Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Its population has presumably suffered continuous decline. Based on interviews with local people, the Painted Tree-rat was apparently abundant in the past and is now very difficult to locate. Some uncertain records suggest that it may occur in secondary or other highly degraded forest patches. As a rainforest species occurring near human habitation, the Painted Tree-rat has likely been severely affected by deforestation and hunting and is not known to occur in any protected areas. The Painted Tree-rat would clearly benefit from hunting restrictions, habitat restoration, and a captive breeding program with the goal of eventual reintroduction. Additional studies into distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Painted Tree-rat are needed.","Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons & Vucetich (1998) | Moojen (1952b) | Patton et al. (2015) | Pictet (1841, 1843) | Tate (1935) | Vaz (2002) | Ventura et al. (2008) | Waterhouse (1848) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623718/files/figure.png,"29.Painted Tree-ratCallistomys pictusFrench:Rat-épineux coloré/ German:Schwarzweile Baumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola pintadaTaxonomy.Nelomys pictus Pictet, 1843, “Bahia.” Restricted by J. Moojen in 1952 to probably from Fazenda Almada in the region north of the city of Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil.This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, in coastal Atlantic Forest near [1héus and Itabuna, Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-295 mm, tail 273-325 mm; weight up to 480 g. The Painted Tree-rat is large, softfurred, and arboreal, with striking black (or brown) and white pelage pattern. Fur is dense and long, with hairs of uneven length. Guard hairs are soft and slender, lacking spines or bristles. Underfur is dense, long, and wavy. Dorsal hairs are brownish at their bases, with black or white tips; black-tipped hairs cover crown of head, shoulders, and dorsum. White-tipped hairs cover neck, shoulders, and flanks. Robusttail is 109-111% of head-body length, densely covered with short black hairs for most of its length but with terminal partsilky white above and golden yellow below. Ears are small and inconspicuous. Forefeet and hindfeet are short, stout, and broad, with elongated toes and stout claws. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Cranially, jugals are expanded dorso-ventrally; lateral jugal fossa is wide and diffuse anteriorly, not coming to sharp point, with anterior edge offossa positioned above dP*, anteriorto line extending from posterior border of ascending maxillary process of zygomatic arch. Superior zygomatic root of maxillary is expanded posteriorly. Tympanic auditory bullae are inflated, and large auditory meatus is positioned at end of strongly developed auditory tube. Angular process of mandible is strongly projected ventrally with respect to inferior projection of symphysis, such that an angle drawn between ventral posterior tip of angular process and occlusal plane of tooth row, with apex at anterior edge of occlusal surface of P, is greater than 30°. All cheekteeth have three roots; upper and lower cheekteeth are high crowned; P4 and M1 are unilaterally hypsodont (lingual side of crown higher than labial side, crown curved outward); P4-M3 are tetralophodont, with three labial folds and one lingual fold; hypoflexi and mesoflexi are deep, with P4 completely divided byjoined hypoflexus-metaflexus into two, U-shaped lophs, with no mure; M'~* have narrow mure connecting protocone and hypocone. Hypoflexids of dP—M, are set at a strong oblique angle, medial end offlexid extend farther anterior then labial end. Lower premolars are tetralophodont; anteroconid and protoconid united, enclosing anteroexternal flexid as slit-like fossetid; anterior one-half of tooth approximates triangle with its axis slightly tipped anterolabially; and hypoflexids and metaflexids do notjoin (P, is not divided by a continuous flexid). Lower incisorsare robust and strongly curved. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 42 and FN = 76.Habitat.[Lowland evergreen forest in Atlantic Forest. The Painted Tree-rat can occur in disturbed habitats like cacao plantations.Food and Feeding.Based on field observations and interviews with local people, the Painted Tree-rat is primarily herbivorous, consuming leaves even from cacao trees in plantations.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Painted Tree-rat is primarily arboreal and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Painted Treerat has a highly restricted distribution (15,000 km?®) within what is now severely fragmented habitat in Atlantic Forest. It is known from only 13 specimens in museum collections and from the subfossil record of Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Its population has presumably suffered continuous decline. Based on interviews with local people, the Painted Tree-rat was apparently abundant in the past and is now very difficult to locate. Some uncertain records suggest that it may occur in secondary or other highly degraded forest patches. As a rainforest species occurring near human habitation, the Painted Tree-rat has likely been severely affected by deforestation and hunting and is not known to occur in any protected areas. The Painted Tree-rat would clearly benefit from hunting restrictions, habitat restoration, and a captive breeding program with the goal of eventual reintroduction. Additional studies into distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Painted Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons & Vucetich (1998), Moojen (1952b), Patton et al. (2015), Pictet (1841, 1843), Tate (1935), Vaz (2002), Ventura et al. (2008), Waterhouse (1848), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFE3FFD7FFC45FA559B3F21E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,566,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE3FFD7FFC45FA559B3F21E.xml,Thrichomys fosteri,Thrichomys,fosteri,Thomas,1903,Punaré de Foster @fr | Foster-Punaré @de | Punaré de Foster @es,"Thrichomys fosteri Thomas, 1903, “Sapucay,” Paraguari, Paraguay.Thrichomys foster: was considered a subspecies of T. apereoides(sensu lato) by S. Anderson in 1997. It was included as a junior synonym of T. pachyurusby L. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015, butits karyotype differs from that species (2n = 34, FN = 64 vs. 2n = 30, FN = 56) and its position as a molecular clade basal to one collectively joining 7T. apereoides, T. laurentius, and T. pachyurus. Monotypic.",SC Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sulstates) and Paraguay.,"Head—body 119-225 mm, tail 111-200 mm; weight 350 g. Dorsum of Foster’s Punare is generally ash-gray, with ventral hairs completely white or light gray at bases; dorsal tail hairs are blackish brown, sharply contrasting color of middorsum; and underside oftail is whitish gray. Its shares distinct cranial characteristics with the Jacobina Punare (7. inermis) and the Pantanal Punare (71. pachyurus), including wide incisive foramina with slight lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and broadened, rectangular hamular processes of pterygoid bones. Foster's Punare (7. foster) and the Pantanal Punare have broad, robust skulls, large and inflated auditory bullae, wide jugal dorso-ventrally, paroccipital processes that are not appressed to each bulla, and wide plates (c.2 mm) between oval and masticatory foramina; this combination of characteristics separate both species from the Jacobina Punare.",Southern Cerrado ecoregion at elevations of 90-370 m. Foster’s Punare is considered a rocky outcrop specialist within dry forest communities.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,Not assessed on The IUCN Red Lust.,"Anderson (1997) | Bonvicino et al. (2008) | Fredericksen et al. (2003) | Moojen (1952b) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Pessoa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Thomas (1903a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623716/files/figure.png,"28.Foster’s PunareThrichomys fosteriFrench:Punaré de Foster/ German:Foster-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de FosterTaxonomy.Thrichomys fosteri Thomas, 1903, “Sapucay,” Paraguari, Paraguay.Thrichomys foster: was considered a subspecies of T. apereoides(sensu lato) by S. Anderson in 1997. It was included as a junior synonym of T. pachyurusby L. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015, butits karyotype differs from that species (2n = 34, FN = 64 vs. 2n = 30, FN = 56) and its position as a molecular clade basal to one collectively joining 7T. apereoides, T. laurentius, and T. pachyurus. Monotypic.Distribution.SC Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sulstates) and Paraguay.Descriptive notes.Head—body 119-225 mm, tail 111-200 mm; weight 350 g. Dorsum of Foster’s Punare is generally ash-gray, with ventral hairs completely white or light gray at bases; dorsal tail hairs are blackish brown, sharply contrasting color of middorsum; and underside oftail is whitish gray. Its shares distinct cranial characteristics with the Jacobina Punare (7. inermis) and the Pantanal Punare (71. pachyurus), including wide incisive foramina with slight lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and broadened, rectangular hamular processes of pterygoid bones. Foster's Punare (7. foster) and the Pantanal Punare have broad, robust skulls, large and inflated auditory bullae, wide jugal dorso-ventrally, paroccipital processes that are not appressed to each bulla, and wide plates (c.2 mm) between oval and masticatory foramina; this combination of characteristics separate both species from the Jacobina Punare.Habitat.Southern Cerrado ecoregion at elevations of 90-370 m. Foster’s Punare is considered a rocky outcrop specialist within dry forest communities.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Anderson (1997), Bonvicino et al. (2008), Fredericksen et al. (2003), Moojen (1952b), Nascimento et al. (2013), Pessoa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Thomas (1903a)." -03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A538C5C43F7BD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,561,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A538C5C43F7BD.xml,Trinomys eliasi,Trinomys,eliasi,,,Rat-épineux d'Elias @fr | Elias-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Elias @es | Elias’s Atlantic Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys eliasi Pessoa & dos Reis, 1993, “Restinga da Barra de Marica (22°31’S, 47°17°'W), Municipio de Marica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.”Trinomys eliasiwas originally placed in Proechimysand subsequently listed as a species in the subgenus Trinomys; first use of current name combination was by M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Three reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades have been identified, with estimated temporal splits in the early Pleistocene (c.2-1 million years ago) and late Pleistocene (c.0-6 million years ago), suggesting that recognition of additional taxa may be warranted. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, E & NE Rio de Janeiro State.","Head-body 170- 244 mm, tail 150-220 mm; weight 100- 290 g. Dorsum of Elias’s Spiny-rat is ocherous buff, finely lined with blackish brown; it gradually becomes paler on sides and contrasts sharply with white venter. Tail is bicolored, brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length; it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at its tip. Dorsal aristiform hairs are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. Elias’s Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outer thighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 and without dot-like supernumerary elements.",,,,,"Few data are available for Elias’s Spiny-rat, but females and juveniles are occasionally captured in the same trap, suggesting that young may follow their mothers during foraging bouts.",,"Allen (1899a) | Brito & Figueiredo (2003) | Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947) | Glnther (1877a) | Lara et al. (1996) | Moojen (1948) | Pessba & dos Reis (1993) | Pessba, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | Tavares et al. (2015)",,"15.Elias’s Spiny-ratTrinomys eliasiFrench:Rat-épineux d'Elias/ German:Elias-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de EliasOther common names:Elias’s Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys eliasi Pessoa & dos Reis, 1993, “Restinga da Barra de Marica (22°31’S, 47°17°'W), Municipio de Marica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.”Trinomys eliasiwas originally placed in Proechimysand subsequently listed as a species in the subgenus Trinomys; first use of current name combination was by M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Three reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades have been identified, with estimated temporal splits in the early Pleistocene (c.2-1 million years ago) and late Pleistocene (c.0-6 million years ago), suggesting that recognition of additional taxa may be warranted. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, E & NE Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes. Head-body 170- 244 mm, tail 150-220 mm; weight 100- 290 g. Dorsum of Elias’s Spiny-rat is ocherous buff, finely lined with blackish brown; it gradually becomes paler on sides and contrasts sharply with white venter. Tail is bicolored, brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length; it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at its tip. Dorsal aristiform hairs are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. Elias’s Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outer thighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 and without dot-like supernumerary elements.Habitat. Prefers semideciduous and evergreen moist forests in the Atlantic Forest, most commonly on forest floor in dense, vine undergrowth and in and around fallen trees and complex tree roots. Elias’s Spiny-rat also occurs exclusively in forest patches within coastal sandy lowlands at sea level, otherwise characterized by open vegetation dominated by species of Myrtaceae, Erythoxilaceae, Bromeliaceae, Cactaceae, and Mimosaceae.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Elias’s Spiny-rat probably feeds on various plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding. Elias’s Spiny-rats reproduce throughout the year, except in April, with the largest proportion of sexually active individuals in January.Activity patterns. Elias’s Spiny-rat is reported to be crepuscular but probably is also nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Few data are available for Elias’s Spiny-rat, but females and juveniles are occasionally captured in the same trap, suggesting that young may follow their mothers during foraging bouts.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Elias’s Spinyrat has a small and highly fragmented distribution, in which extent and quality of habitat continues to decline. It occurs at only three known localities, and only one apparently affords sufficient protection. Continued habitat destruction is the major conservation threat to Elias’s Spiny-rat.Bibliography. Allen (1899a), Brito & Figueiredo (2003), Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947), Glnther (1877a), Lara et al. (1996), Moojen (1948), Pessba & dos Reis (1993), Pessba, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), Tavares et al. (2015)." -03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A59AF5B17F4A8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,561,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A59AF5B17F4A8.xml,Trinomys albispinus,Trinomys,albispinus,,,Rat-épineux a poils blancs @fr | \Weil3stachel-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de espinas blancas @es | \White-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat @en,"Echimys albispinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838, “ile Deos, sur la cote du Brésil, pres de Bahia.”Restricted by J. Moojen in 1948 to Itaparica, near Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.Trinomys albispinuswas originally placed in Echimyswith other spinose echimyids; 1: albispinusand related species were transferred by J. A. Allen in 1899 to his newly named Proechimysand subsequently by O. Thomas in 1921 to Trinomys, as a subgenus of Allen’s Proechimys. In 2000, M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton elevated Trinomysto generic status by documenting that its members were phyletically unrelated to true Proechimys. In 1999, L. M. Pessoa and R. E. Strauss relegated serotinus named by Thomas in 1921, until then uniformly regarded as a distinct subspecies, to the synonymy of the nominate subspecies albispinus. Two subspecies recognized.","1 a. albispinus1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838 — E Brazil, coastal and interior parts of Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Sergipe states.1 a. minor dos Reis & Pessoa, 1995 — E Brazil, interior upland areas of Bahia State.","Head-body 153-190 mm, tail 148-175 mm; weight 120-230 g. The White-spined Spiny-rat is small, marked by wide and stiff guard hairs, and distinguished generally from congeners by smaller body and skull size, presence of lanceolate and clavate guard hairs, and whitish aristiforms on back, sides, and rump and at base oftail. Dorsal pelage is ocherous-tawny, gradually changing to ocherous buff on sides; ventral pelage and inner sides of legs are totally white and thus sharply delimited from sides. Forefeet and hindfeet are whitish dorsally. Tail is bicolored, blackish above and white below, and lacks hairy pencil at its tip. Cranially, skull is short and smooth relative to those of other species; cranial length averages 45 mm. Unique craniodental features include incisive foramina with incomplete septum, premaxillary part at level lower than maxillary part, and simplified molars withjust a single counterfold, although both dP* and dP, occasionally with two. Baculum is long, averaging 11-4 mm, with paddle-shaped proximal end and distinct distal wings. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.","Subspecies albispinus(including serotinus) occurs in climax forest with low percentage of deciduous trees on the coast to primarily climax forest of mainly deciduous trees inland. This is part of the Caatinga ecoregion, which is a dry area characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions and vegetation including species of Cactaceaeand Bromeliaceae. Subspecies minor occurs in the Morro do Chapéu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range, an area characterized by rock formations produced by geosyncline of Precambrian age. Vegetation is characteristically savanna at elevations of 800-1000 m but grades into grassland at 1000-1100 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat presumably feeds on various plant parts, including fruit and seeds, and arthropods.","Female White-spined Spiny-rats are pregnant in January-June, and litters have 2—4 young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the White-spined Spiny-rat are unknown, but it is considered locally common. A major conservation threat is habitat destruction resulting in degraded, fragmented forest patches. The White-spined Spiny-rat occurs in protected areas in Sergipe State, Brazil.","Allen (1899a) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838a) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Moojen (1948) | Pessba & dos Reis (2002) | Pess6a & Strauss (1999) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | dos Reis & Pessba (1995) | Thomas (19214)",,"14.White-spined Spiny-ratTrinomys albispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a poils blancs/ German:\Weil3stachel-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de espinas blancasOther common names:\White-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys albispinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838, “ile Deos, sur la cote du Brésil, pres de Bahia.”Restricted by J. Moojen in 1948 to Itaparica, near Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.Trinomys albispinuswas originally placed in Echimyswith other spinose echimyids; 1: albispinusand related species were transferred by J. A. Allen in 1899 to his newly named Proechimysand subsequently by O. Thomas in 1921 to Trinomys, as a subgenus of Allen’s Proechimys. In 2000, M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton elevated Trinomysto generic status by documenting that its members were phyletically unrelated to true Proechimys. In 1999, L. M. Pessoa and R. E. Strauss relegated serotinus named by Thomas in 1921, until then uniformly regarded as a distinct subspecies, to the synonymy of the nominate subspecies albispinus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.1 a. albispinus1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838 — E Brazil, coastal and interior parts of Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Sergipe states.1 a. minor dos Reis & Pessoa, 1995 — E Brazil, interior upland areas of Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 153-190 mm, tail 148-175 mm; weight 120-230 g. The White-spined Spiny-rat is small, marked by wide and stiff guard hairs, and distinguished generally from congeners by smaller body and skull size, presence of lanceolate and clavate guard hairs, and whitish aristiforms on back, sides, and rump and at base oftail. Dorsal pelage is ocherous-tawny, gradually changing to ocherous buff on sides; ventral pelage and inner sides of legs are totally white and thus sharply delimited from sides. Forefeet and hindfeet are whitish dorsally. Tail is bicolored, blackish above and white below, and lacks hairy pencil at its tip. Cranially, skull is short and smooth relative to those of other species; cranial length averages 45 mm. Unique craniodental features include incisive foramina with incomplete septum, premaxillary part at level lower than maxillary part, and simplified molars withjust a single counterfold, although both dP* and dP, occasionally with two. Baculum is long, averaging 11-4 mm, with paddle-shaped proximal end and distinct distal wings. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Subspecies albispinus(including serotinus) occurs in climax forest with low percentage of deciduous trees on the coast to primarily climax forest of mainly deciduous trees inland. This is part of the Caatinga ecoregion, which is a dry area characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions and vegetation including species of Cactaceaeand Bromeliaceae. Subspecies minor occurs in the Morro do Chapéu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range, an area characterized by rock formations produced by geosyncline of Precambrian age. Vegetation is characteristically savanna at elevations of 800-1000 m but grades into grassland at 1000-1100 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat presumably feeds on various plant parts, including fruit and seeds, and arthropods.Breeding.Female White-spined Spiny-rats are pregnant in January-June, and litters have 2—4 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the White-spined Spiny-rat are unknown, but it is considered locally common. A major conservation threat is habitat destruction resulting in degraded, fragmented forest patches. The White-spined Spiny-rat occurs in protected areas in Sergipe State, Brazil.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838a), Lara & Patton (2000), Moojen (1948), Pessba & dos Reis (2002), Pess6a & Strauss (1999), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), dos Reis & Pessba (1995), Thomas (19214)." +03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A538C5C43F7BD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,561,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A538C5C43F7BD.xml,Trinomys eliasi,Trinomys,eliasi,,,Rat-épineux d'Elias @fr | Elias-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Elias @es | Elias’s Atlantic Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys eliasi Pessoa & dos Reis, 1993, “Restinga da Barra de Marica (22°31’S, 47°17°'W), Municipio de Marica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.”Trinomys eliasiwas originally placed in Proechimysand subsequently listed as a species in the subgenus Trinomys; first use of current name combination was by M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Three reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades have been identified, with estimated temporal splits in the early Pleistocene (c.2-1 million years ago) and late Pleistocene (c.0-6 million years ago), suggesting that recognition of additional taxa may be warranted. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, E & NE Rio de Janeiro State.","Head-body 170- 244 mm, tail 150-220 mm; weight 100- 290 g. Dorsum of Elias’s Spiny-rat is ocherous buff, finely lined with blackish brown; it gradually becomes paler on sides and contrasts sharply with white venter. Tail is bicolored, brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length; it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at its tip. Dorsal aristiform hairs are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. Elias’s Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outer thighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 and without dot-like supernumerary elements.",,,,,"Few data are available for Elias’s Spiny-rat, but females and juveniles are occasionally captured in the same trap, suggesting that young may follow their mothers during foraging bouts.",,"Allen (1899a) | Brito & Figueiredo (2003) | Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947) | Glnther (1877a) | Lara et al. (1996) | Moojen (1948) | Pessba & dos Reis (1993) | Pessba, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | Tavares et al. (2015)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623685/files/figure.png,"15.Elias’s Spiny-ratTrinomys eliasiFrench:Rat-épineux d'Elias/ German:Elias-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de EliasOther common names:Elias’s Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys eliasi Pessoa & dos Reis, 1993, “Restinga da Barra de Marica (22°31’S, 47°17°'W), Municipio de Marica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.”Trinomys eliasiwas originally placed in Proechimysand subsequently listed as a species in the subgenus Trinomys; first use of current name combination was by M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Three reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades have been identified, with estimated temporal splits in the early Pleistocene (c.2-1 million years ago) and late Pleistocene (c.0-6 million years ago), suggesting that recognition of additional taxa may be warranted. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, E & NE Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes. Head-body 170- 244 mm, tail 150-220 mm; weight 100- 290 g. Dorsum of Elias’s Spiny-rat is ocherous buff, finely lined with blackish brown; it gradually becomes paler on sides and contrasts sharply with white venter. Tail is bicolored, brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length; it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at its tip. Dorsal aristiform hairs are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. Elias’s Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outer thighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 and without dot-like supernumerary elements.Habitat. Prefers semideciduous and evergreen moist forests in the Atlantic Forest, most commonly on forest floor in dense, vine undergrowth and in and around fallen trees and complex tree roots. Elias’s Spiny-rat also occurs exclusively in forest patches within coastal sandy lowlands at sea level, otherwise characterized by open vegetation dominated by species of Myrtaceae, Erythoxilaceae, Bromeliaceae, Cactaceae, and Mimosaceae.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Elias’s Spiny-rat probably feeds on various plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding. Elias’s Spiny-rats reproduce throughout the year, except in April, with the largest proportion of sexually active individuals in January.Activity patterns. Elias’s Spiny-rat is reported to be crepuscular but probably is also nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Few data are available for Elias’s Spiny-rat, but females and juveniles are occasionally captured in the same trap, suggesting that young may follow their mothers during foraging bouts.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Elias’s Spinyrat has a small and highly fragmented distribution, in which extent and quality of habitat continues to decline. It occurs at only three known localities, and only one apparently affords sufficient protection. Continued habitat destruction is the major conservation threat to Elias’s Spiny-rat.Bibliography. Allen (1899a), Brito & Figueiredo (2003), Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947), Glnther (1877a), Lara et al. (1996), Moojen (1948), Pessba & dos Reis (1993), Pessba, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), Tavares et al. (2015)." +03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A59AF5B17F4A8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,561,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A59AF5B17F4A8.xml,Trinomys albispinus,Trinomys,albispinus,,,Rat-épineux a poils blancs @fr | \Weil3stachel-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de espinas blancas @es | \White-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat @en,"Echimys albispinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838, “ile Deos, sur la cote du Brésil, pres de Bahia.”Restricted by J. Moojen in 1948 to Itaparica, near Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.Trinomys albispinuswas originally placed in Echimyswith other spinose echimyids; 1: albispinusand related species were transferred by J. A. Allen in 1899 to his newly named Proechimysand subsequently by O. Thomas in 1921 to Trinomys, as a subgenus of Allen’s Proechimys. In 2000, M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton elevated Trinomysto generic status by documenting that its members were phyletically unrelated to true Proechimys. In 1999, L. M. Pessoa and R. E. Strauss relegated serotinus named by Thomas in 1921, until then uniformly regarded as a distinct subspecies, to the synonymy of the nominate subspecies albispinus. Two subspecies recognized.","1 a. albispinus1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838 — E Brazil, coastal and interior parts of Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Sergipe states.1 a. minor dos Reis & Pessoa, 1995 — E Brazil, interior upland areas of Bahia State.","Head-body 153-190 mm, tail 148-175 mm; weight 120-230 g. The White-spined Spiny-rat is small, marked by wide and stiff guard hairs, and distinguished generally from congeners by smaller body and skull size, presence of lanceolate and clavate guard hairs, and whitish aristiforms on back, sides, and rump and at base oftail. Dorsal pelage is ocherous-tawny, gradually changing to ocherous buff on sides; ventral pelage and inner sides of legs are totally white and thus sharply delimited from sides. Forefeet and hindfeet are whitish dorsally. Tail is bicolored, blackish above and white below, and lacks hairy pencil at its tip. Cranially, skull is short and smooth relative to those of other species; cranial length averages 45 mm. Unique craniodental features include incisive foramina with incomplete septum, premaxillary part at level lower than maxillary part, and simplified molars withjust a single counterfold, although both dP* and dP, occasionally with two. Baculum is long, averaging 11-4 mm, with paddle-shaped proximal end and distinct distal wings. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.","Subspecies albispinus(including serotinus) occurs in climax forest with low percentage of deciduous trees on the coast to primarily climax forest of mainly deciduous trees inland. This is part of the Caatinga ecoregion, which is a dry area characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions and vegetation including species of Cactaceaeand Bromeliaceae. Subspecies minor occurs in the Morro do Chapéu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range, an area characterized by rock formations produced by geosyncline of Precambrian age. Vegetation is characteristically savanna at elevations of 800-1000 m but grades into grassland at 1000-1100 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat presumably feeds on various plant parts, including fruit and seeds, and arthropods.","Female White-spined Spiny-rats are pregnant in January-June, and litters have 2—4 young.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the White-spined Spiny-rat are unknown, but it is considered locally common. A major conservation threat is habitat destruction resulting in degraded, fragmented forest patches. The White-spined Spiny-rat occurs in protected areas in Sergipe State, Brazil.","Allen (1899a) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838a) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Moojen (1948) | Pessba & dos Reis (2002) | Pess6a & Strauss (1999) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | dos Reis & Pessba (1995) | Thomas (19214)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623683/files/figure.png,"14.White-spined Spiny-ratTrinomys albispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a poils blancs/ German:\Weil3stachel-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de espinas blancasOther common names:\White-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys albispinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838, “ile Deos, sur la cote du Brésil, pres de Bahia.”Restricted by J. Moojen in 1948 to Itaparica, near Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.Trinomys albispinuswas originally placed in Echimyswith other spinose echimyids; 1: albispinusand related species were transferred by J. A. Allen in 1899 to his newly named Proechimysand subsequently by O. Thomas in 1921 to Trinomys, as a subgenus of Allen’s Proechimys. In 2000, M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton elevated Trinomysto generic status by documenting that its members were phyletically unrelated to true Proechimys. In 1999, L. M. Pessoa and R. E. Strauss relegated serotinus named by Thomas in 1921, until then uniformly regarded as a distinct subspecies, to the synonymy of the nominate subspecies albispinus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.1 a. albispinus1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838 — E Brazil, coastal and interior parts of Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Sergipe states.1 a. minor dos Reis & Pessoa, 1995 — E Brazil, interior upland areas of Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 153-190 mm, tail 148-175 mm; weight 120-230 g. The White-spined Spiny-rat is small, marked by wide and stiff guard hairs, and distinguished generally from congeners by smaller body and skull size, presence of lanceolate and clavate guard hairs, and whitish aristiforms on back, sides, and rump and at base oftail. Dorsal pelage is ocherous-tawny, gradually changing to ocherous buff on sides; ventral pelage and inner sides of legs are totally white and thus sharply delimited from sides. Forefeet and hindfeet are whitish dorsally. Tail is bicolored, blackish above and white below, and lacks hairy pencil at its tip. Cranially, skull is short and smooth relative to those of other species; cranial length averages 45 mm. Unique craniodental features include incisive foramina with incomplete septum, premaxillary part at level lower than maxillary part, and simplified molars withjust a single counterfold, although both dP* and dP, occasionally with two. Baculum is long, averaging 11-4 mm, with paddle-shaped proximal end and distinct distal wings. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Subspecies albispinus(including serotinus) occurs in climax forest with low percentage of deciduous trees on the coast to primarily climax forest of mainly deciduous trees inland. This is part of the Caatinga ecoregion, which is a dry area characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions and vegetation including species of Cactaceaeand Bromeliaceae. Subspecies minor occurs in the Morro do Chapéu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range, an area characterized by rock formations produced by geosyncline of Precambrian age. Vegetation is characteristically savanna at elevations of 800-1000 m but grades into grassland at 1000-1100 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat presumably feeds on various plant parts, including fruit and seeds, and arthropods.Breeding.Female White-spined Spiny-rats are pregnant in January-June, and litters have 2—4 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the White-spined Spiny-rat are unknown, but it is considered locally common. A major conservation threat is habitat destruction resulting in degraded, fragmented forest patches. The White-spined Spiny-rat occurs in protected areas in Sergipe State, Brazil.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838a), Lara & Patton (2000), Moojen (1948), Pessba & dos Reis (2002), Pess6a & Strauss (1999), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), dos Reis & Pessba (1995), Thomas (19214)." 03C5A071FFE4FFD3FA7C507B5EF4FB08,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,561,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD3FA7C507B5EF4FB08.xml,Trinomys paratus,Trinomys,paratus,,,Rat-épineux hérissé @fr | Lanzen-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de espinas duras @es | Spiked Atlantic Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys (Trinomys) iheringi paratus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Capela de Sao Braz, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brasil; altitude 630 meters.”Trinomys paratuswas originally described as a subspecies of “ Proechimys” iheringiand placed in the subgenus 7 Trinomys. Later Trinomyswas elevated to generic status by M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000 and paratuswas treated as a full species in the 2015 review of this genus by L. M. Pessoa and colleagues. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, known only from a few localities in the S one-half of Espirito Santo and EC Minas Gerais states.","Head-body 187-246 mm, tail 171-235 mm; weight 195-350 g. Dorsum of the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from cinnamon to blackish brown, becoming paler on sides, but sharply contrasting white venter. Tail length is about the same as head-body length; it is markedly bicolored dark above and white below and terminates in conspicuous pencil of hairs at its tip. Aristiform hairs are most rigid and large among congeners, very long and wide over mid-dorsum, averaging 24-2 mm in length and 1-6 mm in width, and are whitish or pale buff basally, gradually becoming sepia along shaft and terminating with black tips. Mid-dorsal setiform hairs are white or pale buff basally, merging into sepia toward tips but are interrupted by light brownish olive intermediate zone. Setiforms over rump display same general color pattern but are overall paler. Skull is large, elongated, and stout, with well-marked ridges;it averages 52-4 mm. Incisive foramina are fusiform to oval and medium in size, occupying ¢.40% of diastema; septum is complete and columnar,its long premaxillary part constituting ¢.75% of foraminal opening length; maxillary part is small but wide; and vomeris notvisible in ventral view. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed and often slightly pointed,typically composed ofjugal and squamosal. Auditory bullae are large, smooth, and slightly inflated. Upper cheekteeth have one major fold and two counterfolds. Baculum is geographically variable but generally elongated and moderate to thin (average length 9-8 mm), with slight dorso-ventral curvature and without distal expansions or apical wings; proximal end is only slightly broader than shaft and somewhat rectangular; distal end is concave. Karyotype is unknown.","Atlantic Forest at elevations below 400 m. Type series was collected in submontane region of undisturbed, moist, and dense forest, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat also inhabits lowland moist forests, coastal sand vegetation (restingas) close to the littoral zone, and inland semideciduous forest.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on various plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is probably primarily nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There is an absence of recent information on extent of occurrence, threats, local population status, and ecological requirements of the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat. Much ofits original distribution has been heavily converted to agriculture and pasture.","Lara & Patton (2000) | Moojen (1948) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623687/files/figure.png,"16.Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys paratusFrench:Rat-épineux hérissé/ German:Lanzen-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de espinas durasOther common names:Spiked Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys (Trinomys) iheringi paratus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Capela de Sao Braz, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brasil; altitude 630 meters.”Trinomys paratuswas originally described as a subspecies of “ Proechimys” iheringiand placed in the subgenus 7 Trinomys. Later Trinomyswas elevated to generic status by M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000 and paratuswas treated as a full species in the 2015 review of this genus by L. M. Pessoa and colleagues. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, known only from a few localities in the S one-half of Espirito Santo and EC Minas Gerais states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 187-246 mm, tail 171-235 mm; weight 195-350 g. Dorsum of the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from cinnamon to blackish brown, becoming paler on sides, but sharply contrasting white venter. Tail length is about the same as head-body length; it is markedly bicolored dark above and white below and terminates in conspicuous pencil of hairs at its tip. Aristiform hairs are most rigid and large among congeners, very long and wide over mid-dorsum, averaging 24-2 mm in length and 1-6 mm in width, and are whitish or pale buff basally, gradually becoming sepia along shaft and terminating with black tips. Mid-dorsal setiform hairs are white or pale buff basally, merging into sepia toward tips but are interrupted by light brownish olive intermediate zone. Setiforms over rump display same general color pattern but are overall paler. Skull is large, elongated, and stout, with well-marked ridges;it averages 52-4 mm. Incisive foramina are fusiform to oval and medium in size, occupying ¢.40% of diastema; septum is complete and columnar,its long premaxillary part constituting ¢.75% of foraminal opening length; maxillary part is small but wide; and vomeris notvisible in ventral view. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed and often slightly pointed,typically composed ofjugal and squamosal. Auditory bullae are large, smooth, and slightly inflated. Upper cheekteeth have one major fold and two counterfolds. Baculum is geographically variable but generally elongated and moderate to thin (average length 9-8 mm), with slight dorso-ventral curvature and without distal expansions or apical wings; proximal end is only slightly broader than shaft and somewhat rectangular; distal end is concave. Karyotype is unknown.Habitat.Atlantic Forest at elevations below 400 m. Type series was collected in submontane region of undisturbed, moist, and dense forest, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat also inhabits lowland moist forests, coastal sand vegetation (restingas) close to the littoral zone, and inland semideciduous forest.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on various plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is probably primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There is an absence of recent information on extent of occurrence, threats, local population status, and ecological requirements of the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat. Much ofits original distribution has been heavily converted to agriculture and pasture.Bibliography.Lara & Patton (2000), Moojen (1948), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)." 03C5A071FFE5FFD1FADB5B8D5D03F309,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,560,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE5FFD1FADB5B8D5D03F309.xml,Euryzygomatomys spinosus,Euryzygomatomys,spinosus,,,Rat-épineux guira @fr | Guiara @de | Rata guira @es | Fischer's Guiara @en,"Rattus spinosus Fischer, 1814, “ peuplade d’Atira, un peu plus de huit lieues (44 kilometres), a 1’'Orient de I’Assomption [= Atyra, 44 km E of Asuncion, Cordillera],” Paraguay.Euryzygomatomys spinosuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, Hypudaeus, Echinomys, and Mesomys. It includes guiara, brachyurus, and catellus as synonyms. Monotypic.","SE & S Brazil (from Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo to Rio Grande do Sul), NE Argentina (Misiones), and S Paraguay.","Head-body 163-205 mm, tail 60-64 mm; weight 180-210 g. The Guiara is medium-sized and is characterized by fusiform body covered, with brown to black spiny dorsal pelage, short limbs, short ears, and short tail—typical of subterranean rodents. Tail is less than 50% of head-body length and is sparsely covered with short hair. Dorsal pelage varies from yellow-brown to dark brown, with black guard hairs. Body sides are lighter in color, and venter varies from white to slightly yellowish, except for more ferruginous throat. Manus has long and powerful claws, probably adapted for digging; pes has shorter claws. Skull is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone is truncated. Auditory meatus is medium-sized, with partial contact between ectotympanic and squamosal, restricted to posterior portion of dorsal margin of ectotympanic, and forming cleft between these two bones. Incisive foramina are short and oval. Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Incisors are large, heavy, but not grooved. All upper and lower cheekteeth are semicircular in outline. Dentition of the Guiara is unique, characterized by very deep reentrant flexi/flexids, forming elongate fossettes/ fossettids, and by anterior fossette and metafossette sub-equal in size. All upper and lower cheekteeth possess three transverse lophs/lophids. A fourth lophid may be visible on unworn lower teeth.",,,,,"The Guiara is semi-fossorial, but little 1s known aboutits ecology and behavior.",,Bonvicino & Bezerra (2015) | Goncalves et al. (2007) | Loss et al. (2015) | Moojen (1952b) | Redford & Eisenberg (1992) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6623681/files/figure.png,"13.GuiaraEuryzygomatomys spinosusFrench:Rat-épineux guira/ German:Guiara/ Spanish:Rata guiraOther common names:Fischer's GuiaraTaxonomy. Rattus spinosus Fischer, 1814, “ peuplade d’Atira, un peu plus de huit lieues (44 kilometres), a 1’'Orient de I’Assomption [= Atyra, 44 km E of Asuncion, Cordillera],” Paraguay.Euryzygomatomys spinosuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, Hypudaeus, Echinomys, and Mesomys. It includes guiara, brachyurus, and catellus as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil (from Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo to Rio Grande do Sul), NE Argentina (Misiones), and S Paraguay.Descriptive notes. Head-body 163-205 mm, tail 60-64 mm; weight 180-210 g. The Guiara is medium-sized and is characterized by fusiform body covered, with brown to black spiny dorsal pelage, short limbs, short ears, and short tail—typical of subterranean rodents. Tail is less than 50% of head-body length and is sparsely covered with short hair. Dorsal pelage varies from yellow-brown to dark brown, with black guard hairs. Body sides are lighter in color, and venter varies from white to slightly yellowish, except for more ferruginous throat. Manus has long and powerful claws, probably adapted for digging; pes has shorter claws. Skull is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone is truncated. Auditory meatus is medium-sized, with partial contact between ectotympanic and squamosal, restricted to posterior portion of dorsal margin of ectotympanic, and forming cleft between these two bones. Incisive foramina are short and oval. Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Incisors are large, heavy, but not grooved. All upper and lower cheekteeth are semicircular in outline. Dentition of the Guiara is unique, characterized by very deep reentrant flexi/flexids, forming elongate fossettes/ fossettids, and by anterior fossette and metafossette sub-equal in size. All upper and lower cheekteeth possess three transverse lophs/lophids. A fourth lophid may be visible on unworn lower teeth.Habitat. Variety of habitats in the Atlantic Forest, but also in adjacent cerrado, from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. Guiaras are habitat generalists and occur in Pinustaeda (Pinaceae) plantations, exotic grasslands (Melinisminutiflora, Poaceae), highland forests and grasslands, secondary vegetation, dry grasslands, wet meadows, forest edges, and agriculturalfields..Food and Feeding. Dentition of the Guiara suggests herbivorous diet. Consumption of P. taeda has been documented in southern Brazil. Leaves of the invasive exotic grass M. minutiflora have been consumed in south-eastern Brazil. Fecal analysis of two specimens collected in cerrado indicated consumption of vegetative parts of plants (leaves and steams) and also insects (Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Hemiptera), suggesting omnivorous diet.Breeding. Pregnant Guiaras carrying 1-3 embryos have been reported in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. One of them was pregnant in November. Given subterranean habits of the Guiara, it probably nests underground.Activity patterns. The Guiara is probably nocturnal. It is preyed on by the American barn owl (7yto alba furcata), which is mainly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Guiara is semi-fossorial, but little 1s known aboutits ecology and behavior.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Guiara is usually not abundant in mammal surveys, but it is widespread, occurring in wide variety of habitats, including human-impacted areas.Bibliography. Bonvicino & Bezerra (2015), Goncalves et al. (2007), Loss et al. (2015), Moojen (1952b), Redford & Eisenberg (1992), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFE5FFD1FFD059FF53E7FDE2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,560,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE5FFD1FFD059FF53E7FDE2.xml,Clyomys laticeps,Clyomys,laticeps,,,Rat-épineux a téte large @fr | Breitkopf-Stachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de cabeza ancha @es,"Echimys laticeps Thomas, 1909, “Lagoa Santa, on the Rio Sao Francisco, Minas Gerais,”Brazil.Clyomys laticepswas placed originally in Echimys, but O. Thomas in 1916 designated laticepsas the type species of the new genus Clyomys. In the most recent review in 2015, A. M. R. Bezerra and C. R. Bonvicino regarded whartoni (named by J. Moojen in 1952 as a subspecies of laticeps) and bishopt (named by F. D. de AvilaPires and M. R. C. Wutke in 1981 as a full species), as synonyms of Thomas's laticeps. Monotypic.","C Brazilian states of Bahia, Distrito Federal, Goias, and Minas Gerais, extending S into Sao Paulo State and W to Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul states, and into E Paraguay.","Head-body 150-295 mm, tail 48-89 mm; weight 100-350 g. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is medium-sized and semi-fossorial, with short ears, short limbs, long and powerful fore claws, short tail (¢.33% of head-body length) sparsely covered with hair only partially covering underlying scales, and coarse and spinose fur. General color varies from grizzled rufous and black to grizzled yellow and black dorsally, and whitish to buffy ventrally, with or without grayish or pale rufous patches in gular region. Skull of the Broad-headed Spiny-rat is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone and inferior projection of premaxillary are short, and well-developed canal for nerve passage is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Auditory bullae are hypertrophied, extending posteriorly beyond paraoccipital processes when viewed from behind. Incisive foramina are narrow and elongate, and mesopterygoid fossa extends to middle of M* Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Incisors are robust, upper cheekteeth have three roots and three transverse lophs, and mandibular teeth also have three lophs. Male phallus is subcylindrical, elongated, and straight, with longitudinal grooves on sides, small spines covering epidermis and extending into the intromittent (external) sac, and lappet extending only slight beyond the crater. Baculum is simple, long, narrow, and slightly concave at proximal end. Karyotype is variable: specimens from Sao Paulo State are 2n = 34 and FN = 58 or 60; those from Distrito Federal are 2n = 34 and FN = 62; those from Mato Grosso do Sul State are 2n = 34 and FN = 58; and those from Goias State are 2n = 32 and FN = 54.","Savanna with considerable structural complexity including unflooded grassland and shrubby vegetation with ground cover of grasses and areas of the Paraguayan Chaco, a drier western extension of the cerrado. In the dry season, Broad-headed Spiny-rats occupy areas with partially continuous canopy of 2-3 m tall, with discontinuous herbaceous cover; in the wet season, they occur in areas with partially continuous herbaceous cover, 0-2-1 m tall, but with 10-30% arboreal cover. Density may be positively influenced by abundance of understory palms.","Broad-headed Spiny-rats are herbivorous, consuming mostly monocots, and they store plant parts in burrow systems. They can be important consumers and dispersers of palm seeds, particularly those of Attaleageraensis, A. phalerata, and Syagrus petraea(all Arecaceae). In one comparative study, the Broad-headed Spiny-rat had the most specialized diet and microhabitat requirements of the assemblage of coexisting rodent species.","Pregnant Broad-headed Spiny-rats have been captured, with single embryos, in June-December, primarily during the dry season but extending into the wet season. Juveniles have been recorded in the wet season (December—April).","The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is stated by some to be diurnal, but nocturnal foraging excursions on the ground have been documented. Like many fossorial-to-subterranean species, activity pattern is likely to be without an explicit diel pattern. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat exhibits a low resting O, metabolism and tolerance to hypoxia, both characteristics of other fossorial mammals.","The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is semi-fossorial and colonial, digging complex burrow systems to maximum depths of 1-5 m and with lateral extensions up to 37 m. There is a strong relationship between presence of Clyomysand burrows of armadillos (Cingulata) in some parts of its distribution.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. “Bishop’s Fossorial Spiny-rat” (C. bishopi) is treated here as a synonym of the Broadheaded Spiny-rat but is classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List because of the absence of recent information, with the caution that its taxonomic status needed clarification. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is patchily distributed but locally abundant. There are no documented conservation threats, but habitat conversion to agriculture, especially in the southern part of its distribution, may be detrimental.","de Almeida & Galetti (2007) | de Avila-Pires & Wutke (1981) | Barros et al. (2004) | Bezerra & Bonvicino (2015b) | Bezerra & de Oliveira (2010) | Bueno et al. (2004) | Camilo-Alves & Mourao (2010) | de Carvalho & Bueno (1975) | Lacher & Alho (1989) | Moojen (1952b) | Thomas (1909a, 1916b) | Vieira (1997 2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623679/files/figure.png,"12.Broad-headed Spiny-ratClyomys laticepsFrench:Rat-épineux a téte large/ German:Breitkopf-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de cabeza anchaTaxonomy.Echimys laticeps Thomas, 1909, “Lagoa Santa, on the Rio Sao Francisco, Minas Gerais,”Brazil.Clyomys laticepswas placed originally in Echimys, but O. Thomas in 1916 designated laticepsas the type species of the new genus Clyomys. In the most recent review in 2015, A. M. R. Bezerra and C. R. Bonvicino regarded whartoni (named by J. Moojen in 1952 as a subspecies of laticeps) and bishopt (named by F. D. de AvilaPires and M. R. C. Wutke in 1981 as a full species), as synonyms of Thomas's laticeps. Monotypic.Distribution.C Brazilian states of Bahia, Distrito Federal, Goias, and Minas Gerais, extending S into Sao Paulo State and W to Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul states, and into E Paraguay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-295 mm, tail 48-89 mm; weight 100-350 g. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is medium-sized and semi-fossorial, with short ears, short limbs, long and powerful fore claws, short tail (¢.33% of head-body length) sparsely covered with hair only partially covering underlying scales, and coarse and spinose fur. General color varies from grizzled rufous and black to grizzled yellow and black dorsally, and whitish to buffy ventrally, with or without grayish or pale rufous patches in gular region. Skull of the Broad-headed Spiny-rat is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone and inferior projection of premaxillary are short, and well-developed canal for nerve passage is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Auditory bullae are hypertrophied, extending posteriorly beyond paraoccipital processes when viewed from behind. Incisive foramina are narrow and elongate, and mesopterygoid fossa extends to middle of M* Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Incisors are robust, upper cheekteeth have three roots and three transverse lophs, and mandibular teeth also have three lophs. Male phallus is subcylindrical, elongated, and straight, with longitudinal grooves on sides, small spines covering epidermis and extending into the intromittent (external) sac, and lappet extending only slight beyond the crater. Baculum is simple, long, narrow, and slightly concave at proximal end. Karyotype is variable: specimens from Sao Paulo State are 2n = 34 and FN = 58 or 60; those from Distrito Federal are 2n = 34 and FN = 62; those from Mato Grosso do Sul State are 2n = 34 and FN = 58; and those from Goias State are 2n = 32 and FN = 54.Habitat.Savanna with considerable structural complexity including unflooded grassland and shrubby vegetation with ground cover of grasses and areas of the Paraguayan Chaco, a drier western extension of the cerrado. In the dry season, Broad-headed Spiny-rats occupy areas with partially continuous canopy of 2-3 m tall, with discontinuous herbaceous cover; in the wet season, they occur in areas with partially continuous herbaceous cover, 0-2-1 m tall, but with 10-30% arboreal cover. Density may be positively influenced by abundance of understory palms.Food and Feeding.Broad-headed Spiny-rats are herbivorous, consuming mostly monocots, and they store plant parts in burrow systems. They can be important consumers and dispersers of palm seeds, particularly those of Attaleageraensis, A. phalerata, and Syagrus petraea(all Arecaceae). In one comparative study, the Broad-headed Spiny-rat had the most specialized diet and microhabitat requirements of the assemblage of coexisting rodent species.Breeding.Pregnant Broad-headed Spiny-rats have been captured, with single embryos, in June-December, primarily during the dry season but extending into the wet season. Juveniles have been recorded in the wet season (December—April).Activity patterns.The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is stated by some to be diurnal, but nocturnal foraging excursions on the ground have been documented. Like many fossorial-to-subterranean species, activity pattern is likely to be without an explicit diel pattern. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat exhibits a low resting O, metabolism and tolerance to hypoxia, both characteristics of other fossorial mammals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is semi-fossorial and colonial, digging complex burrow systems to maximum depths of 1-5 m and with lateral extensions up to 37 m. There is a strong relationship between presence of Clyomysand burrows of armadillos (Cingulata) in some parts of its distribution.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. “Bishop’s Fossorial Spiny-rat” (C. bishopi) is treated here as a synonym of the Broadheaded Spiny-rat but is classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List because of the absence of recent information, with the caution that its taxonomic status needed clarification. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is patchily distributed but locally abundant. There are no documented conservation threats, but habitat conversion to agriculture, especially in the southern part of its distribution, may be detrimental.Bibliography.de Almeida & Galetti (2007), de Avila-Pires & Wutke (1981), Barros et al. (2004), Bezerra & Bonvicino (2015b), Bezerra & de Oliveira (2010), Bueno et al. (2004), Camilo-Alves & Mourao (2010), de Carvalho & Bueno (1975), Lacher & Alho (1989), Moojen (1952b), Thomas (1909a, 1916b), Vieira (1997 2003)." 03C5A071FFE6FFD2FF0A5125529EFB55,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,563,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE6FFD2FF0A5125529EFB55.xml,Trinomys mirapitanga,Trinomys,mirapitanga,"Lara, Patton & Hingst-Zaher",2002,Rat-épineux des mirapitangas @fr | Mirapitanga-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de dorso 0Scuro @es | Dark-caped Atlantic Spiny-rat @en,"Trinomys mirapitanga Lara, Patton & Hingst-Zaher, 2002, “Estacao Ecologica do Pau Brasil, 16 km W Porto Seguro, Bahia, Brazil, 16°22’S 39°11'W,40 m alt.”This species is monotypic.","E Brazil, S coast of Bahia State.","Head-body mean 216— 225 mm,tail 185-201 mm; weight 259 g. The Pau Brasil Spiny-rat is medium-sized compared with congeners. Overall color is much darker along mid-dorsal region than in other species, forming dark cape on middle of back that contrasts with much paler sides. Aristiforms on mid-back are smoky-gray at bases, have ocherous buff mid-zone, and are dark brown attips. Lateral setiform hairs typically have four color bands, drabgray at bases followed by smoky-gray and ocherous buff, and terminating in blacktips. Bicolored tail is ¢.80% of head-body length, covered with short hairs. Aristiforms are long (mean 24-9 mm), wide (1-5 mm) at mid-dorsum,shorter, and slightly narrower laterally. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Skull is large, averaging 52-4 mm in length. Incisive foramina are oval, short (c.30% of diastema), and constrict posteriorly; septum is complete and columnar; and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, with jugal and squamosal contributions;it never forms sharp spine. Auditory bullae are smooth and of moderate size. Upper molariform teeth have three primary folds, with rudimentary fourth on M?; lower teeth also have three folds, the first smallest. Baculum is shorter than most other species of Trinomys(length 7-9 mm in one available adult male); has weakly developed distal wings and broad basal expansion that are strongly flexed ventrally; and median trough is evident along dorsal surface of basal part. Karyotype is unknown.","[Lowland secondary forest in Atlantic Forest; elevation of the two known localities are 20 m and 40 m. Holotype and two paratypes were collected in a biological reserve established to protect one of the largest remaining stands of brazilwood, or pernambuco tree (Caesalpiniaechinata, Fabaceae), an important commercial species for wood products and dye that has been heavily exploited.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Pau Brasil Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.",There is no information available forthis species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pau Brasil Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Pau Brasil Spiny-rat has a small distribution, and there is an absence of data on local status or ecological requirements. One of the two known populations is within Pau Brasil National Park, a reserve established to protect brazilwood.","Lara et al. (2002) | Pessb6a, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)",,"20.Pau Brasil Spiny-ratTrinomys mirapitangaFrench:Rat-épineux des mirapitangas/ German:Mirapitanga-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de dorso 0ScuroOther common names:Dark-caped Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Trinomys mirapitanga Lara, Patton & Hingst-Zaher, 2002, “Estacao Ecologica do Pau Brasil, 16 km W Porto Seguro, Bahia, Brazil, 16°22’S 39°11'W,40 m alt.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil, S coast of Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body mean 216— 225 mm,tail 185-201 mm; weight 259 g. The Pau Brasil Spiny-rat is medium-sized compared with congeners. Overall color is much darker along mid-dorsal region than in other species, forming dark cape on middle of back that contrasts with much paler sides. Aristiforms on mid-back are smoky-gray at bases, have ocherous buff mid-zone, and are dark brown attips. Lateral setiform hairs typically have four color bands, drabgray at bases followed by smoky-gray and ocherous buff, and terminating in blacktips. Bicolored tail is ¢.80% of head-body length, covered with short hairs. Aristiforms are long (mean 24-9 mm), wide (1-5 mm) at mid-dorsum,shorter, and slightly narrower laterally. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Skull is large, averaging 52-4 mm in length. Incisive foramina are oval, short (c.30% of diastema), and constrict posteriorly; septum is complete and columnar; and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, with jugal and squamosal contributions;it never forms sharp spine. Auditory bullae are smooth and of moderate size. Upper molariform teeth have three primary folds, with rudimentary fourth on M?; lower teeth also have three folds, the first smallest. Baculum is shorter than most other species of Trinomys(length 7-9 mm in one available adult male); has weakly developed distal wings and broad basal expansion that are strongly flexed ventrally; and median trough is evident along dorsal surface of basal part. Karyotype is unknown.Habitat.[Lowland secondary forest in Atlantic Forest; elevation of the two known localities are 20 m and 40 m. Holotype and two paratypes were collected in a biological reserve established to protect one of the largest remaining stands of brazilwood, or pernambuco tree (Caesalpiniaechinata, Fabaceae), an important commercial species for wood products and dye that has been heavily exploited.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pau Brasil Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.There is no information available forthis species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pau Brasil Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Pau Brasil Spiny-rat has a small distribution, and there is an absence of data on local status or ecological requirements. One of the two known populations is within Pau Brasil National Park, a reserve established to protect brazilwood.Bibliography.Lara et al. (2002), Pessb6a, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)." 03C5A071FFE6FFD2FF7E590A585DF776,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,563,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE6FFD2FF7E590A585DF776.xml,Trinomys moojeni,Trinomys,moojeni,,,Rat-épineux de Moojen @fr | Moojen-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Moojen @es | Moojen’s Atlantic Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys moojeni Pessoa, de Oliveira & dos Reis, 1992, “Mata do Dr. Daniel, Conceicao do Mato Dentro, Minas Gerais, Brazil; 19° 01°S, 43° 25°'W.”Trinomys moojeniwas originally placed in the genus Proechimysbut transferred to Trinomysby M. C. Lara and colleagues in 2002. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, S Espinhaco Mts in EC Minas Gerais State.","Head-body 151-180 mm, tail 144-172 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Moojen’s Spiny-rat is medium-sized compared with congeners;it is distinct by being much darker along mid-dorsal region, forming dark cape on middle of back that contrasts with much paler sides. Aristiforms on mid-back are smoky-gray at bases, have ocherous buff mid-zone, and are dark brown at tips. Lateral setiform hairs typically have four bands of color, drab-gray at bases followed by smoky-gray and ocherous buff, and terminating in black tips. Aristiforms are long (mean 20-4 mm), narrow (0-6 mm) at mid-dorsum, and shorter (mean 15-9 mm) and slightly narrowerlaterally (0-5 mm). Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Bicoloredtail is ¢.80% of head-body length, covered with short hairs. Skull is slender and of moderate size, averaging 50-2 mm in length. Incisive foramina are oval, long (c.40% of diastema), and wide posteriorly; septum is incomplete and almost formed by the premaxillae with a reduced maxillar part. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, with jugal and squamosal equal contributions. Auditory bullae are smooth and small. Upper molariform teeth have two primary folds; lower teeth also have two folds. Baculum is short than most other species of Trinomys(length 6:6 mm); it has slight dorso-ventral curvature, tapered lateral indentation near the midshaft;straight proximal end and paddle shaped, weakly-developed distal wings; and median trough is evident along dorsal surface of basal part. Karyotype is 2n = 56 FN = 106.",Montane forest at border between Cerrado ecoregion and Atlantic Forest above elevations of 1000 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Moojen’s Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.",Evidence from one study suggests the lack of defined mating season of Moojen’s Spiny-rat.,There is no information available for this species.,Female Moojen’s Spiny-rats are philopatric; males disperse from their natal areas. Females are also thoughtto be territorial. Both sexes vary in numbers seasonally.,Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Moojen'’s Spiny-rat has a small distribution and is only known from two localities. Populations continue to decline due to habitat degradation and loss; frequent fires are also a major threat. One of two known current localities of Moojen’s Spiny-rat is in a protected area.,"Cordeiro & Talamoni (2006) | Lara et al. (2002) | Pesséa, de Oliveira & dos Reis (1992) | Pesséa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623695/files/figure.png,"19.Moojen’s Spiny-ratTrinomys moojeniFrench:Rat-épineux de Moojen/ German:Moojen-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de MoojenOther common names:Moojen’s Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys moojeni Pessoa, de Oliveira & dos Reis, 1992, “Mata do Dr. Daniel, Conceicao do Mato Dentro, Minas Gerais, Brazil; 19° 01°S, 43° 25°'W.”Trinomys moojeniwas originally placed in the genus Proechimysbut transferred to Trinomysby M. C. Lara and colleagues in 2002. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, S Espinhaco Mts in EC Minas Gerais State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 151-180 mm, tail 144-172 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Moojen’s Spiny-rat is medium-sized compared with congeners;it is distinct by being much darker along mid-dorsal region, forming dark cape on middle of back that contrasts with much paler sides. Aristiforms on mid-back are smoky-gray at bases, have ocherous buff mid-zone, and are dark brown at tips. Lateral setiform hairs typically have four bands of color, drab-gray at bases followed by smoky-gray and ocherous buff, and terminating in black tips. Aristiforms are long (mean 20-4 mm), narrow (0-6 mm) at mid-dorsum, and shorter (mean 15-9 mm) and slightly narrowerlaterally (0-5 mm). Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Bicoloredtail is ¢.80% of head-body length, covered with short hairs. Skull is slender and of moderate size, averaging 50-2 mm in length. Incisive foramina are oval, long (c.40% of diastema), and wide posteriorly; septum is incomplete and almost formed by the premaxillae with a reduced maxillar part. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, with jugal and squamosal equal contributions. Auditory bullae are smooth and small. Upper molariform teeth have two primary folds; lower teeth also have two folds. Baculum is short than most other species of Trinomys(length 6:6 mm); it has slight dorso-ventral curvature, tapered lateral indentation near the midshaft;straight proximal end and paddle shaped, weakly-developed distal wings; and median trough is evident along dorsal surface of basal part. Karyotype is 2n = 56 FN = 106.Habitat.Montane forest at border between Cerrado ecoregion and Atlantic Forest above elevations of 1000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Moojen’s Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.Evidence from one study suggests the lack of defined mating season of Moojen’s Spiny-rat.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Female Moojen’s Spiny-rats are philopatric; males disperse from their natal areas. Females are also thoughtto be territorial. Both sexes vary in numbers seasonally.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Moojen'’s Spiny-rat has a small distribution and is only known from two localities. Populations continue to decline due to habitat degradation and loss; frequent fires are also a major threat. One of two known current localities of Moojen’s Spiny-rat is in a protected area.Bibliography.Cordeiro & Talamoni (2006), Lara et al. (2002), Pesséa, de Oliveira & dos Reis (1992), Pesséa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)." 03C5A071FFE6FFD5FA0A5D01589EFDC5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,563,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE6FFD5FA0A5D01589EFDC5.xml,Trinomys dimidiatus,Trinomys,dimidiatus,,,Rat-épineux de Rio de Janeiro @fr | Rio-de-Janeiroa-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa atlantica @es | Soft-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | Atlantic Spiny-rat @en,"Echimys dimidiatus Gunther, 1877; no type locality given. Identified by L. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 as “Parque Nacional da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.”J. A. Allen transferred Gunther's dimidiatusto Proechimysin 1899, and J. Moojen placed it in the subgenus Trinomysin 1948; first use of current name combination stems from M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Monotypic.","SE Brazil, Rio de Janeiro State and N coastal border of Sao Paulo State.","Head-body 170-244 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 100-290 g. Dorsum of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is ocherous buff,finely lined with blackish brown, gradually becoming paler on sides and contrasting sharply with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Dorsal aristiforms are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiforms on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by an ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. The Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outerthighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 that lacks dot-like supernumerary elements. Baculum is medium-sized, with average length of 7-6 mm, elongate and straight shaft with evenly rounded proximal and distal ends, and no distal wings.","Atlantic Forest biome from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Typical habitat of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is the relatively open interior of climax evergreen forest characterized by sparse vegetation near the ground and marked middle layer comprised predominantly of species of Anonaceae, Melastomataceae, Myrsinaceae, and Rubiaceaeunder larger trees up to 30 m in height and covered with lianas and epiphytes. Individuals are commonly trapped in moist places and shelter or nest on the ground, usually under boulders, at bases of trees, or near fallen logs where litter accumulates, and typically close to water sources.","On Ilha Grande off the Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats ate fruit and seeds of the invasive jackfruit tree, Artocarpusheterophyllus (Moraceae). Otherwise, they probably eat a variety of fruits, seeds, and insects.","Breeding Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats have been observed in March-May and September—-November. Litters have 1-5 young, most commonly two. Captive individuals survived for more than two years; one captive individual, already an adult when caught,lived for an additional 3-1 years.","There is no specific information availablefor this species, but the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","Adult pairs of males and females, sometimes with young, have been found in the same nest, suggesting monogamous mating system. Densities of Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats on Ilha Grande coast were 1-19 ind/ha. Individuals exhibited territorial tendencies, and young and subadult individuals dispersed from natal areas.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats are unknown, butit is regarded as locally common. A primary major threat would be continued deforestation, but Rio de Janeiro Spinyrats occur in several municipal, state, and federal reserves.","Allen (1899a) | Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947) | Glinther (1877a) | Lara et al. (1996) | Mello et al. (2015) | Moojen (1948) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623697/files/figure.png,"21.Rio de Janeiro Spiny-ratTrinomys dimidiatusFrench:Rat-épineux de Rio de Janeiro/ German:Rio-de-Janeiroa-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa atlanticaOther common names:Soft-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat, Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys dimidiatus Gunther, 1877; no type locality given. Identified by L. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 as “Parque Nacional da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.”J. A. Allen transferred Gunther's dimidiatusto Proechimysin 1899, and J. Moojen placed it in the subgenus Trinomysin 1948; first use of current name combination stems from M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, Rio de Janeiro State and N coastal border of Sao Paulo State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-244 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 100-290 g. Dorsum of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is ocherous buff,finely lined with blackish brown, gradually becoming paler on sides and contrasting sharply with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Dorsal aristiforms are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiforms on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by an ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. The Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outerthighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 that lacks dot-like supernumerary elements. Baculum is medium-sized, with average length of 7-6 mm, elongate and straight shaft with evenly rounded proximal and distal ends, and no distal wings.Habitat.Atlantic Forest biome from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Typical habitat of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is the relatively open interior of climax evergreen forest characterized by sparse vegetation near the ground and marked middle layer comprised predominantly of species of Anonaceae, Melastomataceae, Myrsinaceae, and Rubiaceaeunder larger trees up to 30 m in height and covered with lianas and epiphytes. Individuals are commonly trapped in moist places and shelter or nest on the ground, usually under boulders, at bases of trees, or near fallen logs where litter accumulates, and typically close to water sources.Food and Feeding.On Ilha Grande off the Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats ate fruit and seeds of the invasive jackfruit tree, Artocarpusheterophyllus (Moraceae). Otherwise, they probably eat a variety of fruits, seeds, and insects.Breeding.Breeding Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats have been observed in March-May and September—-November. Litters have 1-5 young, most commonly two. Captive individuals survived for more than two years; one captive individual, already an adult when caught,lived for an additional 3-1 years.Activity patterns.There is no specific information availablefor this species, but the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult pairs of males and females, sometimes with young, have been found in the same nest, suggesting monogamous mating system. Densities of Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats on Ilha Grande coast were 1-19 ind/ha. Individuals exhibited territorial tendencies, and young and subadult individuals dispersed from natal areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats are unknown, butit is regarded as locally common. A primary major threat would be continued deforestation, but Rio de Janeiro Spinyrats occur in several municipal, state, and federal reserves.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947), Glinther (1877a), Lara et al. (1996), Mello et al. (2015), Moojen (1948), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)." -03C5A071FFE7FFD3FACD5B5A5366F217,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,562,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE7FFD3FACD5B5A5366F217.xml,Trinomys setosus,Trinomys,setosus,,,Rat-épineux velu @fr | Haarige Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa peluda @es | Hairy Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | Hairy Spiny-rat @en,"Echimys setosus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique.” Restricted byJ. Moojen in 1948 to “(southern?) Bahia,” Brazil.Nomenclatural history of Trinomys setosusis complex, with many names used in earlier literature, now listed in synonymies of myosurus, leptosoma, cinnamomeus, Sfuliginosus, and denigratus. Two subspecies recognized.","T.s.setosusDesmarest,1817—EBrazil,coastalBahiaandEspiritoSantostates,andEMinasGeraisState.T. s. elegans Lund, 1839— SE Brazil, interior SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.","Head—body 180-226 mm,tail 168-230 mm; weight 113-235 g. Dorsum of the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from brownish olive to cinnamon, gradually changing to olive or pale cinnamon on sides and outer thighs, and contrasting with white venter. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length;it is bicolored, brownish above and white below, and terminates in conspicuous whitish or cinnamon hairy pencil at its tip. In northernmost part ofits distribution, individuals tend to have very spiny appearance, but those in more southerly localities have softer pelage. Aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum are long (17-22 mm), wide in sefosus (mean 1-1 mm) but narrowerin elegans (mean 0-7 mm). Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are gray basally, gradually blackening to tips but interrupted by middle cinnamon zone. Skull is large (average length 51-3 mm) and lacks conspicuous ridges. Incisive foramina are lyreshaped, long, and narrow (length averages c.44% of diastema), usually lacking conspicuous constriction at posterior end; septum is complete, with elongated premaxillary part that touches maxillary part, which is reduced to a small process. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, markedly spiniform but slender, and formed only by jugal. Auditory bullae are large and inflated. Upper premolars have two counterfolds; upper molars have 1-3 counterfolds. Bacular morphology varies within and between subspecies. Baculum of setosusmay have dorso-ventrally curved shaft on proximal one-third, with lateral indentation near middle, broadening near proximal end and around tip, with concave distal end without either median depression or apical wings; others have narrow shaft that lacks any curvature or lateral indentations, rounded proximal end, and thin and concave distal end. In elegans, shaftis straight with any curvature or lateral indentations and has straight proximal end withoutlateral expansions and distal end without median depression or wings. Karyotype is variable, with differences apportioned between the two subspecies: sefosus is characterized by 2n = 56, FN = 108 and elegans by 2n = 56, FN = 104. X-chromosome in both subspecies is large acrocentric, and Y-chromosome is also acrocentric but one of the smallest elements in the complement.","Atlantic Forest in coastal evergreen forests to interior, semideciduous forests at southern margins of Cerrado ecoregion and nearly always near water bodies. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is reportedly a good swimmer and is known to construct nests in grass along lake margins.","The Elegantspined Atlantic Spiny-rat is primarily frugivorous, but it also opportunistically feeds on both insects and seeds.","In coastal forests of Bahia State, a single female Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat captured in January gave birth to two young, weighing 27-8 g at birth; youngof-the-year have been captured in January-May, suggesting that breeding continues at least throughout those months. Breeding in semideciduous, interior forests is yearround, with peaks in mid-dry and mid-rainy seasons.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat has a wide distribution;it is locally abundant across a variety of habitats from savanna edge to forests. There are no known major conservation threats, and it occurs in multiple protected areas.","Brants (1827) | Desmarest (1817) | da Fonseca & Kierulff (1989) | Lichtenstein (1820, 1830) | Moojen (1948, 1952b) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | Wagner (1843)",,"18.Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys setosusFrench:Rat-épineux velu/ German:Haarige Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa peludaOther common names:Hairy Atlantic Spiny-rat, Hairy Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys setosus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique.” Restricted byJ. Moojen in 1948 to “(southern?) Bahia,” Brazil.Nomenclatural history of Trinomys setosusis complex, with many names used in earlier literature, now listed in synonymies of myosurus, leptosoma, cinnamomeus, Sfuliginosus, and denigratus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.s.setosusDesmarest,1817—EBrazil,coastalBahiaandEspiritoSantostates,andEMinasGeraisState.T. s. elegans Lund, 1839— SE Brazil, interior SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-226 mm,tail 168-230 mm; weight 113-235 g. Dorsum of the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from brownish olive to cinnamon, gradually changing to olive or pale cinnamon on sides and outer thighs, and contrasting with white venter. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length;it is bicolored, brownish above and white below, and terminates in conspicuous whitish or cinnamon hairy pencil at its tip. In northernmost part ofits distribution, individuals tend to have very spiny appearance, but those in more southerly localities have softer pelage. Aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum are long (17-22 mm), wide in sefosus (mean 1-1 mm) but narrowerin elegans (mean 0-7 mm). Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are gray basally, gradually blackening to tips but interrupted by middle cinnamon zone. Skull is large (average length 51-3 mm) and lacks conspicuous ridges. Incisive foramina are lyreshaped, long, and narrow (length averages c.44% of diastema), usually lacking conspicuous constriction at posterior end; septum is complete, with elongated premaxillary part that touches maxillary part, which is reduced to a small process. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, markedly spiniform but slender, and formed only by jugal. Auditory bullae are large and inflated. Upper premolars have two counterfolds; upper molars have 1-3 counterfolds. Bacular morphology varies within and between subspecies. Baculum of setosusmay have dorso-ventrally curved shaft on proximal one-third, with lateral indentation near middle, broadening near proximal end and around tip, with concave distal end without either median depression or apical wings; others have narrow shaft that lacks any curvature or lateral indentations, rounded proximal end, and thin and concave distal end. In elegans, shaftis straight with any curvature or lateral indentations and has straight proximal end withoutlateral expansions and distal end without median depression or wings. Karyotype is variable, with differences apportioned between the two subspecies: sefosus is characterized by 2n = 56, FN = 108 and elegans by 2n = 56, FN = 104. X-chromosome in both subspecies is large acrocentric, and Y-chromosome is also acrocentric but one of the smallest elements in the complement.Habitat.Atlantic Forest in coastal evergreen forests to interior, semideciduous forests at southern margins of Cerrado ecoregion and nearly always near water bodies. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is reportedly a good swimmer and is known to construct nests in grass along lake margins.Food and Feeding.The Elegantspined Atlantic Spiny-rat is primarily frugivorous, but it also opportunistically feeds on both insects and seeds.Breeding.In coastal forests of Bahia State, a single female Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat captured in January gave birth to two young, weighing 27-8 g at birth; youngof-the-year have been captured in January-May, suggesting that breeding continues at least throughout those months. Breeding in semideciduous, interior forests is yearround, with peaks in mid-dry and mid-rainy seasons.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat has a wide distribution;it is locally abundant across a variety of habitats from savanna edge to forests. There are no known major conservation threats, and it occurs in multiple protected areas.Bibliography.Brants (1827), Desmarest (1817), da Fonseca & Kierulff (1989), Lichtenstein (1820, 1830), Moojen (1948, 1952b), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), Wagner (1843)." +03C5A071FFE7FFD3FACD5B5A5366F217,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,562,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE7FFD3FACD5B5A5366F217.xml,Trinomys setosus,Trinomys,setosus,,,Rat-épineux velu @fr | Haarige Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa peluda @es | Hairy Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | Hairy Spiny-rat @en,"Echimys setosus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique.” Restricted byJ. Moojen in 1948 to “(southern?) Bahia,” Brazil.Nomenclatural history of Trinomys setosusis complex, with many names used in earlier literature, now listed in synonymies of myosurus, leptosoma, cinnamomeus, Sfuliginosus, and denigratus. Two subspecies recognized.","T.s.setosusDesmarest,1817—EBrazil,coastalBahiaandEspiritoSantostates,andEMinasGeraisState.T. s. elegans Lund, 1839— SE Brazil, interior SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.","Head—body 180-226 mm,tail 168-230 mm; weight 113-235 g. Dorsum of the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from brownish olive to cinnamon, gradually changing to olive or pale cinnamon on sides and outer thighs, and contrasting with white venter. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length;it is bicolored, brownish above and white below, and terminates in conspicuous whitish or cinnamon hairy pencil at its tip. In northernmost part ofits distribution, individuals tend to have very spiny appearance, but those in more southerly localities have softer pelage. Aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum are long (17-22 mm), wide in sefosus (mean 1-1 mm) but narrowerin elegans (mean 0-7 mm). Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are gray basally, gradually blackening to tips but interrupted by middle cinnamon zone. Skull is large (average length 51-3 mm) and lacks conspicuous ridges. Incisive foramina are lyreshaped, long, and narrow (length averages c.44% of diastema), usually lacking conspicuous constriction at posterior end; septum is complete, with elongated premaxillary part that touches maxillary part, which is reduced to a small process. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, markedly spiniform but slender, and formed only by jugal. Auditory bullae are large and inflated. Upper premolars have two counterfolds; upper molars have 1-3 counterfolds. Bacular morphology varies within and between subspecies. Baculum of setosusmay have dorso-ventrally curved shaft on proximal one-third, with lateral indentation near middle, broadening near proximal end and around tip, with concave distal end without either median depression or apical wings; others have narrow shaft that lacks any curvature or lateral indentations, rounded proximal end, and thin and concave distal end. In elegans, shaftis straight with any curvature or lateral indentations and has straight proximal end withoutlateral expansions and distal end without median depression or wings. Karyotype is variable, with differences apportioned between the two subspecies: sefosus is characterized by 2n = 56, FN = 108 and elegans by 2n = 56, FN = 104. X-chromosome in both subspecies is large acrocentric, and Y-chromosome is also acrocentric but one of the smallest elements in the complement.","Atlantic Forest in coastal evergreen forests to interior, semideciduous forests at southern margins of Cerrado ecoregion and nearly always near water bodies. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is reportedly a good swimmer and is known to construct nests in grass along lake margins.","The Elegantspined Atlantic Spiny-rat is primarily frugivorous, but it also opportunistically feeds on both insects and seeds.","In coastal forests of Bahia State, a single female Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat captured in January gave birth to two young, weighing 27-8 g at birth; youngof-the-year have been captured in January-May, suggesting that breeding continues at least throughout those months. Breeding in semideciduous, interior forests is yearround, with peaks in mid-dry and mid-rainy seasons.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat has a wide distribution;it is locally abundant across a variety of habitats from savanna edge to forests. There are no known major conservation threats, and it occurs in multiple protected areas.","Brants (1827) | Desmarest (1817) | da Fonseca & Kierulff (1989) | Lichtenstein (1820, 1830) | Moojen (1948, 1952b) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | Wagner (1843)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623693/files/figure.png,"18.Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys setosusFrench:Rat-épineux velu/ German:Haarige Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa peludaOther common names:Hairy Atlantic Spiny-rat, Hairy Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys setosus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique.” Restricted byJ. Moojen in 1948 to “(southern?) Bahia,” Brazil.Nomenclatural history of Trinomys setosusis complex, with many names used in earlier literature, now listed in synonymies of myosurus, leptosoma, cinnamomeus, Sfuliginosus, and denigratus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.s.setosusDesmarest,1817—EBrazil,coastalBahiaandEspiritoSantostates,andEMinasGeraisState.T. s. elegans Lund, 1839— SE Brazil, interior SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-226 mm,tail 168-230 mm; weight 113-235 g. Dorsum of the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from brownish olive to cinnamon, gradually changing to olive or pale cinnamon on sides and outer thighs, and contrasting with white venter. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length;it is bicolored, brownish above and white below, and terminates in conspicuous whitish or cinnamon hairy pencil at its tip. In northernmost part ofits distribution, individuals tend to have very spiny appearance, but those in more southerly localities have softer pelage. Aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum are long (17-22 mm), wide in sefosus (mean 1-1 mm) but narrowerin elegans (mean 0-7 mm). Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are gray basally, gradually blackening to tips but interrupted by middle cinnamon zone. Skull is large (average length 51-3 mm) and lacks conspicuous ridges. Incisive foramina are lyreshaped, long, and narrow (length averages c.44% of diastema), usually lacking conspicuous constriction at posterior end; septum is complete, with elongated premaxillary part that touches maxillary part, which is reduced to a small process. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, markedly spiniform but slender, and formed only by jugal. Auditory bullae are large and inflated. Upper premolars have two counterfolds; upper molars have 1-3 counterfolds. Bacular morphology varies within and between subspecies. Baculum of setosusmay have dorso-ventrally curved shaft on proximal one-third, with lateral indentation near middle, broadening near proximal end and around tip, with concave distal end without either median depression or apical wings; others have narrow shaft that lacks any curvature or lateral indentations, rounded proximal end, and thin and concave distal end. In elegans, shaftis straight with any curvature or lateral indentations and has straight proximal end withoutlateral expansions and distal end without median depression or wings. Karyotype is variable, with differences apportioned between the two subspecies: sefosus is characterized by 2n = 56, FN = 108 and elegans by 2n = 56, FN = 104. X-chromosome in both subspecies is large acrocentric, and Y-chromosome is also acrocentric but one of the smallest elements in the complement.Habitat.Atlantic Forest in coastal evergreen forests to interior, semideciduous forests at southern margins of Cerrado ecoregion and nearly always near water bodies. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is reportedly a good swimmer and is known to construct nests in grass along lake margins.Food and Feeding.The Elegantspined Atlantic Spiny-rat is primarily frugivorous, but it also opportunistically feeds on both insects and seeds.Breeding.In coastal forests of Bahia State, a single female Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat captured in January gave birth to two young, weighing 27-8 g at birth; youngof-the-year have been captured in January-May, suggesting that breeding continues at least throughout those months. Breeding in semideciduous, interior forests is yearround, with peaks in mid-dry and mid-rainy seasons.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat has a wide distribution;it is locally abundant across a variety of habitats from savanna edge to forests. There are no known major conservation threats, and it occurs in multiple protected areas.Bibliography.Brants (1827), Desmarest (1817), da Fonseca & Kierulff (1989), Lichtenstein (1820, 1830), Moojen (1948, 1952b), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), Wagner (1843)." 03C5A071FFE7FFD3FFC45CEC5D5EFC98,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,562,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE7FFD3FFC45CEC5D5EFC98.xml,Trinomys yonenagae,Trinomys,yonenagae,,,Rat-épineux d'Yonenaga @fr | Yonenaga-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Yonenaga @es | Yonenaga's Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | Torch-tail Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys yonenagae da Rocha, 1995, “Ibiraba, Bahia, Brazil (10°48’S, 42°50'W).”This species is monotypic.","E Brazil, left bank of the middle Rio Sao Francisco in NW Bahia State.","Head-body 141-195 mm, tail 169-225 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is small to medium-sized, with generally paler dorsum than congeners, pale cinnamon mixed with darker hairs on mid-dorsum, gradually lightening on sides, and only slightly contrasting with white venter. Tail is markedly bicolored, brownish above and white below, and long, averaging 120% of head-body length. Tail terminates in distinctively long hairy pencil, with hairs extending more than 30 mm beyondits tip. Pelage overall is relatively soft, with aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum of medium length (16-19 mm) and narrow (maximum width ¢.0-06 mm). Hindfeet are especially long compared with other congeners (mean length 44 mm). Skull is moderate in length and relatively narrow, more robust in parieto-occipital region where it is marked by ridges but becomes progressively more slender and delicate toward rostrum. Average skull length is 44-7 mm. Incisive foramina are an elongated oval, occupying c.45% of diastema; septum is complete with premaxillary part occupying ¢.75%; and vomeris not visible in ventral view. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed and typically formed only by jugal. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is unique among its congeners in having laminar inflection ofjugal. Auditory bullae are large, smooth, and distinctly very inflated. Upper cheekteeth are the most simplified in the genus, with only single major fold and counterfold. Baculum is elongated (mean length 8-1 mm) and slender, with slight dorso-ventral curvature and slight lateral indentations near distal end but broadening proximally; distal end has median depression and apical wings, and proximal end is pointed. Karyotype is 2n = 54, FN = 104, with a large acrocentric X-chromosome and small metacentric Y-chromosome. Morphological and behavioral traits of Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat are very distinct relative to forest-dwelling congeners. These traits are broadly shared with other rodents inhabiting semiarid conditions elsewhere in the world and include medium-to-small body size, greatly inflated tympanic bullae, long hindfeet, long and strongly penciled tail, asymmetrical limb coordination, colonial behavior, and burrow-dwelling habits.","Semiarid sandy dune habitat characterized by sparse vegetative cover in the Caatinga ecoregion. This is a very unique habitat for species of Trinomys. Local herbaceous vegetation is mainly spiny bromeliads and cacti, but the genus Eugenia(Myrtaceae) can comprise 35% of shrub and tree species.",Diet of Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is almost exclusively seeds of Eugenia(Myrtaceae).,There is no information available for this species.,Captive Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats have regular circadian pattern of nocturnal activity.,"Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats live in self-dug burrow systems, with mean of9-9 occupied burrows per hectare. Each burrow system has 1-13 entrances. Adults of both sexes share a burrow system, and in some cases, the same nest within a burrow system. Perhaps unsurprisingly, therefore, intensity of interand intrasexualaffiliative behavior is high in laboratory experiments, with affiliation mediated by acoustic communication by both sexes and regardless of whether individuals belong to same or different social groups. Female Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats spend more time near familiar males than unfamiliar males—a pattern interpreted as social monogamy. Home ranges average 5-6 m? for males and 6-7 m? for females; those of the two sexes overlap extensively suggesting a promiscuous mating system. Patchy distribution of preferred food plants, coupled with propensity to cache food, might be important components in burrow sharing. Individuals might use secretions from anal scent glands as communication signals in social interactions. In captive studies, individuals use stop-and-go search strategy—a pattern of locomotion characterized by notable vigilance.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat has very limited distribution, highly restricted to sand dune habitat that faces continued threat from commercial sand extraction.","de Freitas, Carvalho et al. (2010) | de Freitas, El-Hani & da Rocha (2008) | Manaf & de Oliveira (2009) | Manaf, de Brito-Gitirana & de Oliveira (2003) | Manaf, Morato & de Oliveira (2003) | da Rocha (1995) | da Rocha et al. (2007) | Santos & Lacey (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623691/files/figure.png,"17.Yonenaga’s Spiny-ratTrinomys yonenagaeFrench:Rat-épineux d'Yonenaga/ German:Yonenaga-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de YonenagaOther common names:Yonenaga's Atlantic Spiny-rat, Torch-tail Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys yonenagae da Rocha, 1995, “Ibiraba, Bahia, Brazil (10°48’S, 42°50'W).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil, left bank of the middle Rio Sao Francisco in NW Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 141-195 mm, tail 169-225 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is small to medium-sized, with generally paler dorsum than congeners, pale cinnamon mixed with darker hairs on mid-dorsum, gradually lightening on sides, and only slightly contrasting with white venter. Tail is markedly bicolored, brownish above and white below, and long, averaging 120% of head-body length. Tail terminates in distinctively long hairy pencil, with hairs extending more than 30 mm beyondits tip. Pelage overall is relatively soft, with aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum of medium length (16-19 mm) and narrow (maximum width ¢.0-06 mm). Hindfeet are especially long compared with other congeners (mean length 44 mm). Skull is moderate in length and relatively narrow, more robust in parieto-occipital region where it is marked by ridges but becomes progressively more slender and delicate toward rostrum. Average skull length is 44-7 mm. Incisive foramina are an elongated oval, occupying c.45% of diastema; septum is complete with premaxillary part occupying ¢.75%; and vomeris not visible in ventral view. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed and typically formed only by jugal. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is unique among its congeners in having laminar inflection ofjugal. Auditory bullae are large, smooth, and distinctly very inflated. Upper cheekteeth are the most simplified in the genus, with only single major fold and counterfold. Baculum is elongated (mean length 8-1 mm) and slender, with slight dorso-ventral curvature and slight lateral indentations near distal end but broadening proximally; distal end has median depression and apical wings, and proximal end is pointed. Karyotype is 2n = 54, FN = 104, with a large acrocentric X-chromosome and small metacentric Y-chromosome. Morphological and behavioral traits of Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat are very distinct relative to forest-dwelling congeners. These traits are broadly shared with other rodents inhabiting semiarid conditions elsewhere in the world and include medium-to-small body size, greatly inflated tympanic bullae, long hindfeet, long and strongly penciled tail, asymmetrical limb coordination, colonial behavior, and burrow-dwelling habits.Habitat.Semiarid sandy dune habitat characterized by sparse vegetative cover in the Caatinga ecoregion. This is a very unique habitat for species of Trinomys. Local herbaceous vegetation is mainly spiny bromeliads and cacti, but the genus Eugenia(Myrtaceae) can comprise 35% of shrub and tree species.Food and Feeding.Diet of Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is almost exclusively seeds of Eugenia(Myrtaceae).Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Captive Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats have regular circadian pattern of nocturnal activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats live in self-dug burrow systems, with mean of9-9 occupied burrows per hectare. Each burrow system has 1-13 entrances. Adults of both sexes share a burrow system, and in some cases, the same nest within a burrow system. Perhaps unsurprisingly, therefore, intensity of interand intrasexualaffiliative behavior is high in laboratory experiments, with affiliation mediated by acoustic communication by both sexes and regardless of whether individuals belong to same or different social groups. Female Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats spend more time near familiar males than unfamiliar males—a pattern interpreted as social monogamy. Home ranges average 5-6 m? for males and 6-7 m? for females; those of the two sexes overlap extensively suggesting a promiscuous mating system. Patchy distribution of preferred food plants, coupled with propensity to cache food, might be important components in burrow sharing. Individuals might use secretions from anal scent glands as communication signals in social interactions. In captive studies, individuals use stop-and-go search strategy—a pattern of locomotion characterized by notable vigilance.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat has very limited distribution, highly restricted to sand dune habitat that faces continued threat from commercial sand extraction.Bibliography.de Freitas, Carvalho et al. (2010), de Freitas, El-Hani & da Rocha (2008), Manaf & de Oliveira (2009), Manaf, de Brito-Gitirana & de Oliveira (2003), Manaf, Morato & de Oliveira (2003), da Rocha (1995), da Rocha et al. (2007), Santos & Lacey (2011)." 03C5A071FFE8FFDCFA7F5E795281F394,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,557,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE8FFDCFA7F5E795281F394.xml,Mesocapromys nanus,Mesocapromys,nanus,,,Hutia nain @fr | Zwerghutia @de | Jutia enana @es,"Capromys nana G. M. Allen, 1917, “Sierra de Hato Nuevo, Province of Matanzas, Cuba.”This species is monotypic.","SW Cuba, in Ciénaga de Zapata, Matanzas Province, but now possibly extinct, as it has not been detected since 1978.","Head-body 205 mm, tail 164 mm; weight 400-450 g. The Dwarf Hutia is the smallest hutia and among the darkest of all hutia species. Dorsum is dark ferruginous or dark brown-rufous that contrasts conspicuously with slightly paler venter; urogenital area is pale. Head is uniformly dark ferruginous or dark brownrufous but becomes paler around muzzle. Prehensile tail is similar in color to dorsum and c.83% of head-body length. Foot and hand pads are whitish and slightly pinkish. Hand has four digits with reduced pollex, and foot has five digits, including reduced hallux. Foot and hand pads have tiny hexagonal footpads. Females possess two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. Cranial conformation is similar to that of the small-sized Eared Hutia (Mesocapromys auritus), but proportions are distinctly smaller. Jaw of the Dwarf Hutia is also smallerin size; cheekteeth are notably small.",Grasslands of Cladiumjamaicense (Cyperaceae). Dwarf Hutias are likely scansorial.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dwarf Hutia is likely nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Dwarf Hutia may be extinct, so urgent ecological studies are needed to verify its status; it has not been found in the wild since 1978. Fossil record suggests that the Dwarf Hutia was widespread prior to human arrival on Cuba.","Allen (1917) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Camacho et al. (1994) | Varona (1970, 1974, 1980a) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623671/files/figure.png,"8.Dwarf HutiaMesocapromys nanusFrench:Hutia nain/ German:Zwerghutia/ Spanish:Jutia enanaTaxonomy.Capromys nana G. M. Allen, 1917, “Sierra de Hato Nuevo, Province of Matanzas, Cuba.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.SW Cuba, in Ciénaga de Zapata, Matanzas Province, but now possibly extinct, as it has not been detected since 1978.Descriptive notes.Head-body 205 mm, tail 164 mm; weight 400-450 g. The Dwarf Hutia is the smallest hutia and among the darkest of all hutia species. Dorsum is dark ferruginous or dark brown-rufous that contrasts conspicuously with slightly paler venter; urogenital area is pale. Head is uniformly dark ferruginous or dark brownrufous but becomes paler around muzzle. Prehensile tail is similar in color to dorsum and c.83% of head-body length. Foot and hand pads are whitish and slightly pinkish. Hand has four digits with reduced pollex, and foot has five digits, including reduced hallux. Foot and hand pads have tiny hexagonal footpads. Females possess two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. Cranial conformation is similar to that of the small-sized Eared Hutia (Mesocapromys auritus), but proportions are distinctly smaller. Jaw of the Dwarf Hutia is also smallerin size; cheekteeth are notably small.Habitat.Grasslands of Cladiumjamaicense (Cyperaceae). Dwarf Hutias are likely scansorial.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dwarf Hutia is likely nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Dwarf Hutia may be extinct, so urgent ecological studies are needed to verify its status; it has not been found in the wild since 1978. Fossil record suggests that the Dwarf Hutia was widespread prior to human arrival on Cuba.Bibliography.Allen (1917), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Camacho et al. (1994), Varona (1970, 1974, 1980a), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001)." 03C5A071FFE8FFDCFF755D53520CF9B3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,557,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE8FFDCFF755D53520CF9B3.xml,Mesocapromys melanurus,Mesocapromys,melanurus,,,Hutia a queue noire @fr | Schwarzschwanz-Zwerghutia @de | Jutia de cola negra @es | Bushy-tailed Hutia @en,"Capromys melanurus Poey, 1865, “Manzanillo,”Granma Province, Cuba.In 2005 C. A. Woods and C. W. Kilpatrick argued that “ Mysateleswas paraphyletic and that the affinities of melanurusare with taxa of the genus Mesocapromysrather than with Mysateles.” This designation is not widely accepted (e.g. G. Silva and colleagues in 2007), hence this species is treated here under Mysateles. Recent molecular results from N. S. Upham and B. D. Patterson in 2015 confirmed the M. melanurusgeneric status, which is close to the other Mesocapromysspecies. This species includes arboricolus and rufescens as synonyms. Monotypic.","E Cuba, W limit to Malagueta Bay and Cauto Estuary, but distribution poorly known.","Head—body 309-378 mm,tail 212-322 mm; weight up to 1-6 kg. The Black-tailed Hutia has dark fur compared with other Cuban hutias. It has long and woolly hairs that are intermixed dark brown or nearly blackish long guard hairs and fine light brown bases and blond tips of short underfur. Neck and chin contrast with dorsum by being significantly paler. Venter has patches of yellowish-whitish color, varyingly covering entire under parts, or placed only along midline, over entire venter except ventral part of neck, only between legs, or in other patterns. Brushytail is ¢.80% of head-body length and is covered with long black hairs emerging uniformly from tail scales, which remain visible to the eye. Proportionately, the Black-tailed Hutia has longer tail than all other Cuban hutias. It has prehensile tail like the Prehensile-tailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis), but usually more laterally flattened, with reduced density due to tail hair loss, especially on mid-ventral and mid-dorsal parts. Compared with species of Capromys, the Black-tailed Hutia has whitish or pinkish plantar and palmar pads covered with tiny hexagonal tubercles. Hand has four digits including reduced pollex. Hindfoot has five digits, with hallux well separated from other digits. Compared with species of Capromys, Mysateles, and Mesocapromys, the Black-tailed Hutia has contrasting scrotal wrinkles that are more evident in urogenital area between anus and penis. Cranially, compared with the Prehensile-tailed Hutia, squamosal upper part is not as protuberant; post-orbital process is also more slender and less developed; frontal bones are slightly more swollen; zygomatic arch appears more slender; incisor alveoli have thinner mandibular symphysis; and angular process is longer and more slender. Skull seems to have straight or wavy dorsalline in lateral view, and naso-intermaxillary sutures have aboral convergences and greater distance between temporal line and paracondylar process. Paroccipital processes are more slender and abut closer to tympanic bulla.","Montane rainforests and semideciduous forest on limestone or calcareous substrates, both mixed with cultivated areas. At Palma del Perro and Arroyo Colorado, the Black-tailed Hutia was found in secondary montane sclerophyl forests close to limestone areas, including areas disturbed by human activity. It also occurred in mango plantations (Mangifera indica, Anacardiaceae), mountain immortelle (Erythrina poeppigiana, Fabaceae), macaguey (Guapiraobtusata, Nyctaginaceae), sapodilla (Manilkarazapota, Sapotaceae), and balsam torch wood (Amyrisbalsamifera, Rutaceae), which they use for nesting and food. The Black-tailed Hutia is found in trees and limestone cavities.","Black-tailed Hutias primarily feed on fruit trees and reportedly consumed petioles ofcitrus trees. In Guisa (Granma Province), they feed on 17 plant species, with most of their food items being cultivated plants. In their native habitats, they reportedly relied on cockspur (Pisoniaaculeata, Nyctaginaceae), leaves of monkey apple (Clusiarosea, Clusiaceae), ramoon (Trophisracemosa, Moraceae), and the Cuban native Erythrina poeppigiana(Rosaceae). Rosidaeand Dilleniidae are the major groups of plant families eaten and were estimated to represent 41-6% and 25% ofthe diet, respectively.","Black-tailed Hutias have litters of 1-2 young. A pregnant female collected in March 1988 had embryos measuring 91-8 mm. Most uterine scare counts were two, with a single case of three scares. Reproduction peaks in February-March, with pregnancy rates of 100% in February but only 80% in March. Up to 50% oflactating females has been pregnant when caught, suggesting postpartum estrus. Sexual maturity of females was correlated with body size; females weighing 450-500 g had corpora lutea and perforated vaginas. Females apparently super-ovulate because up to 44 corpora lutea have been counted. Sexual maturity of males was not achieved until body weights were at least 870 g; at smaller weights, spermatozoids were not found in epididymis.","During the day, Black-tailed Hutias hide in cavities, tree holes, or ground holes. They are strictly nocturnal, being primarily active between 22:00 h and 04:00 h, but they begin their nightly activity at sunset. They climb trees but appear to be less arboreal than Prehensile-tailed Hutias. They vocalize while climbing and feeding.","The Black-tailed Hutia is abundant in Cuba and often considered to be a pest by local people. In and around Parque Nacional Alejandro von Humboldt, they may be more abundant in cultivated fields than in natural habitats. Population trends are highly influenced by hunting pressure in the Guisa area. They are known to be social, commonly observed in opposite-sex pairs, or what are apparently family groups. Males appeared to be more abundant, based on sex ratio estimates and skewed field sampling, which may suggest a polygamous mating system.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. It is now illegalto huntall species of hutias on Cuba, which limits harvest for human consumption and allows for increased hutia densities. Eastern Cuba has the highest proportion of preserved habitats, ideal areas for conservation of the Black-tailed Hutia. Nevertheless, due to illegal hunting, populations there seem to have decreased dramatically since the 1980s.","Allen (1891) | Borroto & Camacho (2012) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Camacho et al. (1994) | Kratochvil et al. (1980) | Silva et al. (2007a) | Upham & Patterson (2015) | Varona (1974, 1979) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Woods et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623669/files/figure.png,"7.Black-tailed HutiaMesocapromys melanurusFrench:Hutia a queue noire/ German:Schwarzschwanz-Zwerghutia/ Spanish:Jutia de cola negraOther common names:Bushy-tailed HutiaTaxonomy.Capromys melanurus Poey, 1865, “Manzanillo,”Granma Province, Cuba.In 2005 C. A. Woods and C. W. Kilpatrick argued that “ Mysateleswas paraphyletic and that the affinities of melanurusare with taxa of the genus Mesocapromysrather than with Mysateles.” This designation is not widely accepted (e.g. G. Silva and colleagues in 2007), hence this species is treated here under Mysateles. Recent molecular results from N. S. Upham and B. D. Patterson in 2015 confirmed the M. melanurusgeneric status, which is close to the other Mesocapromysspecies. This species includes arboricolus and rufescens as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Cuba, W limit to Malagueta Bay and Cauto Estuary, but distribution poorly known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 309-378 mm,tail 212-322 mm; weight up to 1-6 kg. The Black-tailed Hutia has dark fur compared with other Cuban hutias. It has long and woolly hairs that are intermixed dark brown or nearly blackish long guard hairs and fine light brown bases and blond tips of short underfur. Neck and chin contrast with dorsum by being significantly paler. Venter has patches of yellowish-whitish color, varyingly covering entire under parts, or placed only along midline, over entire venter except ventral part of neck, only between legs, or in other patterns. Brushytail is ¢.80% of head-body length and is covered with long black hairs emerging uniformly from tail scales, which remain visible to the eye. Proportionately, the Black-tailed Hutia has longer tail than all other Cuban hutias. It has prehensile tail like the Prehensile-tailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis), but usually more laterally flattened, with reduced density due to tail hair loss, especially on mid-ventral and mid-dorsal parts. Compared with species of Capromys, the Black-tailed Hutia has whitish or pinkish plantar and palmar pads covered with tiny hexagonal tubercles. Hand has four digits including reduced pollex. Hindfoot has five digits, with hallux well separated from other digits. Compared with species of Capromys, Mysateles, and Mesocapromys, the Black-tailed Hutia has contrasting scrotal wrinkles that are more evident in urogenital area between anus and penis. Cranially, compared with the Prehensile-tailed Hutia, squamosal upper part is not as protuberant; post-orbital process is also more slender and less developed; frontal bones are slightly more swollen; zygomatic arch appears more slender; incisor alveoli have thinner mandibular symphysis; and angular process is longer and more slender. Skull seems to have straight or wavy dorsalline in lateral view, and naso-intermaxillary sutures have aboral convergences and greater distance between temporal line and paracondylar process. Paroccipital processes are more slender and abut closer to tympanic bulla.Habitat.Montane rainforests and semideciduous forest on limestone or calcareous substrates, both mixed with cultivated areas. At Palma del Perro and Arroyo Colorado, the Black-tailed Hutia was found in secondary montane sclerophyl forests close to limestone areas, including areas disturbed by human activity. It also occurred in mango plantations (Mangifera indica, Anacardiaceae), mountain immortelle (Erythrina poeppigiana, Fabaceae), macaguey (Guapiraobtusata, Nyctaginaceae), sapodilla (Manilkarazapota, Sapotaceae), and balsam torch wood (Amyrisbalsamifera, Rutaceae), which they use for nesting and food. The Black-tailed Hutia is found in trees and limestone cavities.Food and Feeding.Black-tailed Hutias primarily feed on fruit trees and reportedly consumed petioles ofcitrus trees. In Guisa (Granma Province), they feed on 17 plant species, with most of their food items being cultivated plants. In their native habitats, they reportedly relied on cockspur (Pisoniaaculeata, Nyctaginaceae), leaves of monkey apple (Clusiarosea, Clusiaceae), ramoon (Trophisracemosa, Moraceae), and the Cuban native Erythrina poeppigiana(Rosaceae). Rosidaeand Dilleniidae are the major groups of plant families eaten and were estimated to represent 41-6% and 25% ofthe diet, respectively.Breeding.Black-tailed Hutias have litters of 1-2 young. A pregnant female collected in March 1988 had embryos measuring 91-8 mm. Most uterine scare counts were two, with a single case of three scares. Reproduction peaks in February-March, with pregnancy rates of 100% in February but only 80% in March. Up to 50% oflactating females has been pregnant when caught, suggesting postpartum estrus. Sexual maturity of females was correlated with body size; females weighing 450-500 g had corpora lutea and perforated vaginas. Females apparently super-ovulate because up to 44 corpora lutea have been counted. Sexual maturity of males was not achieved until body weights were at least 870 g; at smaller weights, spermatozoids were not found in epididymis.Activity patterns.During the day, Black-tailed Hutias hide in cavities, tree holes, or ground holes. They are strictly nocturnal, being primarily active between 22:00 h and 04:00 h, but they begin their nightly activity at sunset. They climb trees but appear to be less arboreal than Prehensile-tailed Hutias. They vocalize while climbing and feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Black-tailed Hutia is abundant in Cuba and often considered to be a pest by local people. In and around Parque Nacional Alejandro von Humboldt, they may be more abundant in cultivated fields than in natural habitats. Population trends are highly influenced by hunting pressure in the Guisa area. They are known to be social, commonly observed in opposite-sex pairs, or what are apparently family groups. Males appeared to be more abundant, based on sex ratio estimates and skewed field sampling, which may suggest a polygamous mating system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. It is now illegalto huntall species of hutias on Cuba, which limits harvest for human consumption and allows for increased hutia densities. Eastern Cuba has the highest proportion of preserved habitats, ideal areas for conservation of the Black-tailed Hutia. Nevertheless, due to illegal hunting, populations there seem to have decreased dramatically since the 1980s.Bibliography.Allen (1891), Borroto & Camacho (2012), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Camacho et al. (1994), Kratochvil et al. (1980), Silva et al. (2007a), Upham & Patterson (2015), Varona (1974, 1979), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Woods et al. (2001)." -03C5A071FFE8FFDFFA7C55045B5EF5C3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,557,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE8FFDFFA7C55045B5EF5C3.xml,Mysateles prehensilis,Mysateles,prehensilis,,,Hutia & queue préhensile @fr | Langschwanzhutia @de | Jutia de cola prensil @es | Cuban Prehensile-tailed Hutia; Chapman's Prehensile-tailed Hutia (gundlachi) @en,"Capromys prehensilis Poeppig, 1824, “in sylvis versus oram Cubae australe obvia [= wooded south coast, Cuba].”Three subspecies are recognized.","M.p.prehensilisPoeppig,1824—Cubamainland.M.p.gundlachiChapman,1901—NIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).M. p. meridionalis Varona, 1986— S Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).","Head—body 329-452 mm,tail 250-355 mm; weight up to 2-8 kg. Dorsal fur of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is grayish brown, with soft guard hairs. Venter, chin, and limb under parts are pure white. Face is usually pale white, with golden or pale brownish gray hairs on front, being brighter toward muzzle. White extends on side of head and reaches anteriorly to muzzle and posteriorly to back of ears. Darker rings are usually present around eyes and extend anterior to eyes to muzzle and posteriorly to ears. Ears are proportionally longer than those of the Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus), with longer hairs on their surfaces. Prehensile tail is 75-78% of head-body length;it is covered with hairs similar in color to dorsum but with whitish ventral parts on proximal one-third of tail. Feet and hands are whitish. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is cranially very similar to the Black-tailed Hutia, but its teeth are slightly broader and shorter. Skull of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is also absolutely and proportionately larger than that of the Black-tailed Hutia. Upper parts of squamosal and supraorbital are slightly protuberant compared with the Black-tailed Hutia; frontal bones are not as swollen, and basioccipital is wider. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 54-56.","Primary and secondary lowland rainforests and montane gallery forests, especially near rivers and streams. Subspecies gundlachi is found in coastal and mangrove habitats, apparently due to destruction of its native habitat. It is the most arboreal hutia, using vines and lianas as support while climbing and nesting in tree holes. Individuals are rarely seen near the ground in open habitats, close to secondary forest.","The Prehensile-tailed Hutia eats leaves, bark, and fruit. On northern parts of Isla de la Juventud, subspecies gundlachi foraged on 15 species in pine stands and savanna, with preferences for species from the subclass Rosidaebut also including Byrsonimacrassifolia (Malpighiaceae), Colpothrinaxwright: (Arecaceae), Mataybaoppositifolia (Sapindaceae), and Syzygiumjambos (Myrtaceae). In western Cuba, nominate subspecies foraged on 15 plant species from eleven families, with preferences for Ficus sp.(Moraceae), M. oppositifolia, Ocoteafloribunda (Lauraceae), and Spondiasmombin (Anacardiaceae), but most of them belonged to Rosidae(57:6%). These plants were used in pine, gallery, and secondary forests.","Litters of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia have 2-3 young, and gestation lasts 90-120 days. Embryos have been found in subspecies of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia in January-February, May, October, and December, suggesting breeding throughout the year. Young are weaned at around three months of age.","Prehensile-tailed Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hide during the day in nesting sites, usually in trees.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is reported to be highly social.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is the second most abundant hutia on Cuba and can be very abundant in local forests. Nevertheless, its habitat is highly fragmented, which may pose serious problems for this species. Populations seem to be declining due to human activity, primarily agricultural expansion. Some populations on Cuba have declined by c.30%—an observation that may require reclassification to Vulnerable in the future.","Abreu & Garcia(1990) | Abreu & Manojina (1989) | Balseiro et al. (2015) | Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990) | Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990) | Borroto & Camacho (2012) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Bucher (1937) | Chapman (1901) | Gundlach (1877) | Kratochvil et al. (1980) | Lora (1895) | Mohr (1939) | Rivero & Borroto (2012) | Silva et al. (2007a) | Varona (1974, 1986) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)",,"9.Prehensile-tailed HutiaMysateles prehensilisFrench:Hutia & queue préhensile/ German:Langschwanzhutia/ Spanish:Jutia de cola prensilOther common names:Cuban Prehensile-tailed Hutia; Chapman's Prehensile-tailed Hutia (gundlachi)Taxonomy.Capromys prehensilis Poeppig, 1824, “in sylvis versus oram Cubae australe obvia [= wooded south coast, Cuba].”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.p.prehensilisPoeppig,1824—Cubamainland.M.p.gundlachiChapman,1901—NIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).M. p. meridionalis Varona, 1986— S Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head—body 329-452 mm,tail 250-355 mm; weight up to 2-8 kg. Dorsal fur of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is grayish brown, with soft guard hairs. Venter, chin, and limb under parts are pure white. Face is usually pale white, with golden or pale brownish gray hairs on front, being brighter toward muzzle. White extends on side of head and reaches anteriorly to muzzle and posteriorly to back of ears. Darker rings are usually present around eyes and extend anterior to eyes to muzzle and posteriorly to ears. Ears are proportionally longer than those of the Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus), with longer hairs on their surfaces. Prehensile tail is 75-78% of head-body length;it is covered with hairs similar in color to dorsum but with whitish ventral parts on proximal one-third of tail. Feet and hands are whitish. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is cranially very similar to the Black-tailed Hutia, but its teeth are slightly broader and shorter. Skull of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is also absolutely and proportionately larger than that of the Black-tailed Hutia. Upper parts of squamosal and supraorbital are slightly protuberant compared with the Black-tailed Hutia; frontal bones are not as swollen, and basioccipital is wider. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 54-56.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforests and montane gallery forests, especially near rivers and streams. Subspecies gundlachi is found in coastal and mangrove habitats, apparently due to destruction of its native habitat. It is the most arboreal hutia, using vines and lianas as support while climbing and nesting in tree holes. Individuals are rarely seen near the ground in open habitats, close to secondary forest.Food and Feeding.The Prehensile-tailed Hutia eats leaves, bark, and fruit. On northern parts of Isla de la Juventud, subspecies gundlachi foraged on 15 species in pine stands and savanna, with preferences for species from the subclass Rosidaebut also including Byrsonimacrassifolia (Malpighiaceae), Colpothrinaxwright: (Arecaceae), Mataybaoppositifolia (Sapindaceae), and Syzygiumjambos (Myrtaceae). In western Cuba, nominate subspecies foraged on 15 plant species from eleven families, with preferences for Ficus sp.(Moraceae), M. oppositifolia, Ocoteafloribunda (Lauraceae), and Spondiasmombin (Anacardiaceae), but most of them belonged to Rosidae(57:6%). These plants were used in pine, gallery, and secondary forests.Breeding.Litters of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia have 2-3 young, and gestation lasts 90-120 days. Embryos have been found in subspecies of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia in January-February, May, October, and December, suggesting breeding throughout the year. Young are weaned at around three months of age.Activity patterns.Prehensile-tailed Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hide during the day in nesting sites, usually in trees.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is reported to be highly social.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is the second most abundant hutia on Cuba and can be very abundant in local forests. Nevertheless, its habitat is highly fragmented, which may pose serious problems for this species. Populations seem to be declining due to human activity, primarily agricultural expansion. Some populations on Cuba have declined by c.30%—an observation that may require reclassification to Vulnerable in the future.Bibliography.Abreu & Garcia(1990), Abreu & Manojina (1989), Balseiro et al. (2015), Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990), Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990), Borroto & Camacho (2012), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Bucher (1937), Chapman (1901), Gundlach (1877), Kratochvil et al. (1980), Lora (1895), Mohr (1939), Rivero & Borroto (2012), Silva et al. (2007a), Varona (1974, 1986), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001)." +03C5A071FFE8FFDFFA7C55045B5EF5C3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,557,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE8FFDFFA7C55045B5EF5C3.xml,Mysateles prehensilis,Mysateles,prehensilis,,,Hutia & queue préhensile @fr | Langschwanzhutia @de | Jutia de cola prensil @es | Cuban Prehensile-tailed Hutia; Chapman's Prehensile-tailed Hutia (gundlachi) @en,"Capromys prehensilis Poeppig, 1824, “in sylvis versus oram Cubae australe obvia [= wooded south coast, Cuba].”Three subspecies are recognized.","M.p.prehensilisPoeppig,1824—Cubamainland.M.p.gundlachiChapman,1901—NIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).M. p. meridionalis Varona, 1986— S Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).","Head—body 329-452 mm,tail 250-355 mm; weight up to 2-8 kg. Dorsal fur of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is grayish brown, with soft guard hairs. Venter, chin, and limb under parts are pure white. Face is usually pale white, with golden or pale brownish gray hairs on front, being brighter toward muzzle. White extends on side of head and reaches anteriorly to muzzle and posteriorly to back of ears. Darker rings are usually present around eyes and extend anterior to eyes to muzzle and posteriorly to ears. Ears are proportionally longer than those of the Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus), with longer hairs on their surfaces. Prehensile tail is 75-78% of head-body length;it is covered with hairs similar in color to dorsum but with whitish ventral parts on proximal one-third of tail. Feet and hands are whitish. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is cranially very similar to the Black-tailed Hutia, but its teeth are slightly broader and shorter. Skull of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is also absolutely and proportionately larger than that of the Black-tailed Hutia. Upper parts of squamosal and supraorbital are slightly protuberant compared with the Black-tailed Hutia; frontal bones are not as swollen, and basioccipital is wider. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 54-56.","Primary and secondary lowland rainforests and montane gallery forests, especially near rivers and streams. Subspecies gundlachi is found in coastal and mangrove habitats, apparently due to destruction of its native habitat. It is the most arboreal hutia, using vines and lianas as support while climbing and nesting in tree holes. Individuals are rarely seen near the ground in open habitats, close to secondary forest.","The Prehensile-tailed Hutia eats leaves, bark, and fruit. On northern parts of Isla de la Juventud, subspecies gundlachi foraged on 15 species in pine stands and savanna, with preferences for species from the subclass Rosidaebut also including Byrsonimacrassifolia (Malpighiaceae), Colpothrinaxwright: (Arecaceae), Mataybaoppositifolia (Sapindaceae), and Syzygiumjambos (Myrtaceae). In western Cuba, nominate subspecies foraged on 15 plant species from eleven families, with preferences for Ficus sp.(Moraceae), M. oppositifolia, Ocoteafloribunda (Lauraceae), and Spondiasmombin (Anacardiaceae), but most of them belonged to Rosidae(57:6%). These plants were used in pine, gallery, and secondary forests.","Litters of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia have 2-3 young, and gestation lasts 90-120 days. Embryos have been found in subspecies of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia in January-February, May, October, and December, suggesting breeding throughout the year. Young are weaned at around three months of age.","Prehensile-tailed Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hide during the day in nesting sites, usually in trees.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is reported to be highly social.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is the second most abundant hutia on Cuba and can be very abundant in local forests. Nevertheless, its habitat is highly fragmented, which may pose serious problems for this species. Populations seem to be declining due to human activity, primarily agricultural expansion. Some populations on Cuba have declined by c.30%—an observation that may require reclassification to Vulnerable in the future.","Abreu & Garcia(1990) | Abreu & Manojina (1989) | Balseiro et al. (2015) | Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990) | Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990) | Borroto & Camacho (2012) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Bucher (1937) | Chapman (1901) | Gundlach (1877) | Kratochvil et al. (1980) | Lora (1895) | Mohr (1939) | Rivero & Borroto (2012) | Silva et al. (2007a) | Varona (1974, 1986) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623673/files/figure.png,"9.Prehensile-tailed HutiaMysateles prehensilisFrench:Hutia & queue préhensile/ German:Langschwanzhutia/ Spanish:Jutia de cola prensilOther common names:Cuban Prehensile-tailed Hutia; Chapman's Prehensile-tailed Hutia (gundlachi)Taxonomy.Capromys prehensilis Poeppig, 1824, “in sylvis versus oram Cubae australe obvia [= wooded south coast, Cuba].”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.p.prehensilisPoeppig,1824—Cubamainland.M.p.gundlachiChapman,1901—NIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).M. p. meridionalis Varona, 1986— S Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head—body 329-452 mm,tail 250-355 mm; weight up to 2-8 kg. Dorsal fur of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is grayish brown, with soft guard hairs. Venter, chin, and limb under parts are pure white. Face is usually pale white, with golden or pale brownish gray hairs on front, being brighter toward muzzle. White extends on side of head and reaches anteriorly to muzzle and posteriorly to back of ears. Darker rings are usually present around eyes and extend anterior to eyes to muzzle and posteriorly to ears. Ears are proportionally longer than those of the Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus), with longer hairs on their surfaces. Prehensile tail is 75-78% of head-body length;it is covered with hairs similar in color to dorsum but with whitish ventral parts on proximal one-third of tail. Feet and hands are whitish. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is cranially very similar to the Black-tailed Hutia, but its teeth are slightly broader and shorter. Skull of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is also absolutely and proportionately larger than that of the Black-tailed Hutia. Upper parts of squamosal and supraorbital are slightly protuberant compared with the Black-tailed Hutia; frontal bones are not as swollen, and basioccipital is wider. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 54-56.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforests and montane gallery forests, especially near rivers and streams. Subspecies gundlachi is found in coastal and mangrove habitats, apparently due to destruction of its native habitat. It is the most arboreal hutia, using vines and lianas as support while climbing and nesting in tree holes. Individuals are rarely seen near the ground in open habitats, close to secondary forest.Food and Feeding.The Prehensile-tailed Hutia eats leaves, bark, and fruit. On northern parts of Isla de la Juventud, subspecies gundlachi foraged on 15 species in pine stands and savanna, with preferences for species from the subclass Rosidaebut also including Byrsonimacrassifolia (Malpighiaceae), Colpothrinaxwright: (Arecaceae), Mataybaoppositifolia (Sapindaceae), and Syzygiumjambos (Myrtaceae). In western Cuba, nominate subspecies foraged on 15 plant species from eleven families, with preferences for Ficus sp.(Moraceae), M. oppositifolia, Ocoteafloribunda (Lauraceae), and Spondiasmombin (Anacardiaceae), but most of them belonged to Rosidae(57:6%). These plants were used in pine, gallery, and secondary forests.Breeding.Litters of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia have 2-3 young, and gestation lasts 90-120 days. Embryos have been found in subspecies of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia in January-February, May, October, and December, suggesting breeding throughout the year. Young are weaned at around three months of age.Activity patterns.Prehensile-tailed Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hide during the day in nesting sites, usually in trees.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is reported to be highly social.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is the second most abundant hutia on Cuba and can be very abundant in local forests. Nevertheless, its habitat is highly fragmented, which may pose serious problems for this species. Populations seem to be declining due to human activity, primarily agricultural expansion. Some populations on Cuba have declined by c.30%—an observation that may require reclassification to Vulnerable in the future.Bibliography.Abreu & Garcia(1990), Abreu & Manojina (1989), Balseiro et al. (2015), Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990), Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990), Borroto & Camacho (2012), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Bucher (1937), Chapman (1901), Gundlach (1877), Kratochvil et al. (1980), Lora (1895), Mohr (1939), Rivero & Borroto (2012), Silva et al. (2007a), Varona (1974, 1986), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001)." 03C5A071FFE9FFDCFADC5156593CFA86,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,556,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE9FFDCFADC5156593CFA86.xml,Mesocapromys auritus,Mesocapromys,auritus,,,Hutia oreillard @fr | Langohr-Zwerghutia @de | Jutia de orejas grandes @es | Large-eared Hutia @en,"Capromys auritus Varona, 1970, “Cuba, Las Villas Province, Archipiélago de Sabana, Cayo Fragoso (22°41°N, 79°27'W).”This species is monotypic.",Cayo Fragoso in the Sabana Archipelago (off NC coast of Cuba). Introduced into both Cayo Pasaje and Cayo Sagra in 1988 (NC Cuba).,"Head-body 287 mm, tail 198 mm; weight up to 1 kg. The Eared Hutia is medium-sized and has an agouti dorsum. It is paler on lowerlateral sides and has long whitish guard hairs on flank and limbs. Head is uniformly gray-agouti and is similar to dorsal color. Prehensile tail is c.69-74% of head-body length and sharply contrasts with dorsum, being much paler and rufous or orange, with short black stripe at distal dorsal end. Venteris white from chin to scrotum, with some more grayish underfur. Inguinal area is pale. Foot and hand pads are whitish or slightly pinkish, and are covered by tiny hexagonal bumps. Hands have four digits and a reduced pollex, and feet have similar colors with five digits, including reduced hallux. Females have two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. Cranial conformation is similar to that of other small and medium-sized species of Mesocapromys. Jaw has distinctly longer coronoid and angular processes than other Mesocapromys. Dorsal part of skull is flatter, and rostrum and dental width are broader than other Mesocapromys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 36 and FN = 64.","On the ground in sandy areas, flooded mangroves, and other forest habitats. The Eared Hutia builds nests with sticks from red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). Nests are large (197 x 281 cm) to small (61 x 42 cm), depending on habitat. It is mainly terrestrial.","Eared Hutias feed on parts of red mangrove, white mangrove (Lagunculariaracemosa, Combretaceae), and occasionally black mangrove (Avicenniagerminans, Acanthaceae). They are known to forage near the ground and include bark from branches at bases oftrees; they sometimes use these branches to build ground nests.","Little is known about reproductive biology of the Eared Hutia. It is reported to be reproductively active throughout the year, producing offspring with a 1:1 sex ratio. One neonate weighed 61 g and was 210 mm in length.",The Eared Hutia is crepuscular and nocturnal; it reportedly becomes active one hour before sunset.,The Eared Hutia is social and lives in a family group within stick nests placed on the ground.,"Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Eared Hutia has been introduced to small islands off the Cuban coast that serve as refuges for this rare, mangrove specialist. Additional ecological studies are required to understand its rarity, why it disappeared from mainland Cuba, and likely negative interactions with introduced Roof Rats (Rattus rattus) and Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), especially because of their use of the stick nests of Eared Hutias. Refuge areas that were estimated to have 115 nests (600-800 estimated individuals) in 1990 increased to 330 nests (660— 1320 individuals) by 2009. Some optimistic counts recently recorded 2500 individuals.","Allen (1891) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Hernandez & Carnero (1992) | Hernandez & Sanchez (1987) | Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989, 1994) | Varona (1970, 1974) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623667/files/figure.png,"6.Eared HutiaMesocapromys auritusFrench:Hutia oreillard/ German:Langohr-Zwerghutia/ Spanish:Jutia de orejas grandesOther common names:Large-eared HutiaTaxonomy.Capromys auritus Varona, 1970, “Cuba, Las Villas Province, Archipiélago de Sabana, Cayo Fragoso (22°41°N, 79°27'W).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Cayo Fragoso in the Sabana Archipelago (off NC coast of Cuba). Introduced into both Cayo Pasaje and Cayo Sagra in 1988 (NC Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head-body 287 mm, tail 198 mm; weight up to 1 kg. The Eared Hutia is medium-sized and has an agouti dorsum. It is paler on lowerlateral sides and has long whitish guard hairs on flank and limbs. Head is uniformly gray-agouti and is similar to dorsal color. Prehensile tail is c.69-74% of head-body length and sharply contrasts with dorsum, being much paler and rufous or orange, with short black stripe at distal dorsal end. Venteris white from chin to scrotum, with some more grayish underfur. Inguinal area is pale. Foot and hand pads are whitish or slightly pinkish, and are covered by tiny hexagonal bumps. Hands have four digits and a reduced pollex, and feet have similar colors with five digits, including reduced hallux. Females have two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. Cranial conformation is similar to that of other small and medium-sized species of Mesocapromys. Jaw has distinctly longer coronoid and angular processes than other Mesocapromys. Dorsal part of skull is flatter, and rostrum and dental width are broader than other Mesocapromys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 36 and FN = 64.Habitat.On the ground in sandy areas, flooded mangroves, and other forest habitats. The Eared Hutia builds nests with sticks from red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). Nests are large (197 x 281 cm) to small (61 x 42 cm), depending on habitat. It is mainly terrestrial.Food and Feeding.Eared Hutias feed on parts of red mangrove, white mangrove (Lagunculariaracemosa, Combretaceae), and occasionally black mangrove (Avicenniagerminans, Acanthaceae). They are known to forage near the ground and include bark from branches at bases oftrees; they sometimes use these branches to build ground nests.Breeding.Little is known about reproductive biology of the Eared Hutia. It is reported to be reproductively active throughout the year, producing offspring with a 1:1 sex ratio. One neonate weighed 61 g and was 210 mm in length.Activity patterns.The Eared Hutia is crepuscular and nocturnal; it reportedly becomes active one hour before sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Eared Hutia is social and lives in a family group within stick nests placed on the ground.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Eared Hutia has been introduced to small islands off the Cuban coast that serve as refuges for this rare, mangrove specialist. Additional ecological studies are required to understand its rarity, why it disappeared from mainland Cuba, and likely negative interactions with introduced Roof Rats (Rattus rattus) and Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), especially because of their use of the stick nests of Eared Hutias. Refuge areas that were estimated to have 115 nests (600-800 estimated individuals) in 1990 increased to 330 nests (660— 1320 individuals) by 2009. Some optimistic counts recently recorded 2500 individuals.Bibliography.Allen (1891), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Hernandez & Carnero (1992), Hernandez & Sanchez (1987), Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980), Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989, 1994), Varona (1970, 1974), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001)." 03C5A071FFE9FFDDFFD854285C55F681,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,556,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE9FFDDFFD854285C55F681.xml,Mesocapromys angelcabrerai,Mesocapromys,angelcabrerai,Varona,1979,Hutia de Cabrera @fr | Cabrera-Zwerghutia @de | Jutia de Cabrera @es,"Mesocapromys angelcabrerai Varona, 1979, “Cayos de Ana Maria, al Sur de Camagtiey (21°30’N, 78°40°'W), Cuba.”This species is monotypic.",S Cuba (Ciego de Avila Province) in the coastal mainland E of Jacaro and in Cayos Ana Maria and Cayos Salinas around Canal Pasa Seca (off S Cuba). Introduced to Cayo La Loma in 2005 (off S Cuba).,"Head-body 252 mm, tail 176 mm; weight up to 483 g. Cabrera’s Hutia is small and has dark agouti dorsal color and whitish venter. Larger number of rufous or gray hairs, with a darker subapical dorsal band interspersed through dorsal pelage, makes Cabrera’s Hutia darker than other species of Mesocapromys. Head is uniformly agouti and is similar in color to dorsum. Prehensile tail is ¢.70% of head-body length and does not contrast with dorsum, being agouti along its length, butit has short black stripe on its dorsal terminus. Venteris white or buff-white from chin to scrotum, with some more whitish underfur. Urogenital area is similarly pale. Ears of Cabrera’s Hutia are proportionally large compared with head length. Foot and hand pads are whitish orslightly pinkish and are covered by tiny hexagonal processes. Hand has reduced pollex and four digits; hindfoot hasfive digits, including reduced hallux. Females have two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. As other small or mid-sized species of Mesocapromys, skull has wing-like pterygoids, rear sutures ofincisive foramina, and paraoccipital process with length shorter or equal to tympanic bulla. Jaw has distinct short coronoid and thinner angular processes compared with other Mesocapromys; coronoid process is placed lower than condyle. Dorsal part of skull is convex, rostrum is short and narrow, and maxillary tooth rows are slightly bowed laterally outward. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 36 and FN = 64.","Exclusively on the ground in red mangrove (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae) habitats. Cabrera’s Hutias build nests with sticks from red mangroves. Ground nests are large (74 x 65 cm) or (20 x 30 cm), depending on patch size of available habitat. Cabrera’s Hutia is mainly terrestrial but might also climb, aided by its prehensile tail.","Cabrera’s Hutias feed almost exclusively on red mangrove at or near the ground or while positioned on limbs. Leaves are apparently preferred, but bark from small and larger branches and trunk is also eaten.","Cabrera’s Hutia is reported to reproduce through the year, producing young with a 1:1 sex ratio and possibly two litters per year. Females reach sexual maturity at a weight of ¢.340 g and head-body length near 383 mm; males reach sexual maturity at a slightly lower body mass of ¢.300 g.","Cabrera’s Hutia is crepuscular or nocturnal, initiating activity an hour before sunset. On rare occasions,it may be active during the day.","Cabrera’s Hutia is social and lives in family groups of 2—4 individuals, occasionally up to six individuals.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Cabrera’s Hutia was reintroduced to new small islands off Cuba, which serve as refuge for this rare and endangered red mangrove specialist. Further ecological studies of Cabrera’s Hutias are required because ofits rarity, its disappearance from Cuba, and competition with introduced Roof Rats (Rattus rattus), especially use of their stick nests. Occurrence on small refuge islands makes Cabrera’s Hutia a rather fragile taxa for which much remains to be known. Fortunately, limited size of the social group and construction ofstick nests make Cabrera’s Hutia relatively easy to survey and count. Numbers of nests were estimated at 177 in 2007 and increased slightly to 190 (380-760 individuals) by 2009. Nevertheless,its reliance on red mangrove habitat means that human disturbances such as fire, hunting, or exotic introductions have lead to its near extirpation in its native habitat.","Allen (1891) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Camacho et al. (1994) | Chapman (1901) | Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980) | Silva et al. (2007b) | Varona (1974, 1979) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods etal. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623665/files/figure.png,"5.Cabrera’s HutiaMesocapromys angelcabreraiFrench:Hutia de Cabrera/ German:Cabrera-Zwerghutia/ Spanish:Jutia de CabreraTaxonomy.Mesocapromys angelcabrerai Varona, 1979, “Cayos de Ana Maria, al Sur de Camagtiey (21°30’N, 78°40°'W), Cuba.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.S Cuba (Ciego de Avila Province) in the coastal mainland E of Jacaro and in Cayos Ana Maria and Cayos Salinas around Canal Pasa Seca (off S Cuba). Introduced to Cayo La Loma in 2005 (off S Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head-body 252 mm, tail 176 mm; weight up to 483 g. Cabrera’s Hutia is small and has dark agouti dorsal color and whitish venter. Larger number of rufous or gray hairs, with a darker subapical dorsal band interspersed through dorsal pelage, makes Cabrera’s Hutia darker than other species of Mesocapromys. Head is uniformly agouti and is similar in color to dorsum. Prehensile tail is ¢.70% of head-body length and does not contrast with dorsum, being agouti along its length, butit has short black stripe on its dorsal terminus. Venteris white or buff-white from chin to scrotum, with some more whitish underfur. Urogenital area is similarly pale. Ears of Cabrera’s Hutia are proportionally large compared with head length. Foot and hand pads are whitish orslightly pinkish and are covered by tiny hexagonal processes. Hand has reduced pollex and four digits; hindfoot hasfive digits, including reduced hallux. Females have two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. As other small or mid-sized species of Mesocapromys, skull has wing-like pterygoids, rear sutures ofincisive foramina, and paraoccipital process with length shorter or equal to tympanic bulla. Jaw has distinct short coronoid and thinner angular processes compared with other Mesocapromys; coronoid process is placed lower than condyle. Dorsal part of skull is convex, rostrum is short and narrow, and maxillary tooth rows are slightly bowed laterally outward. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 36 and FN = 64.Habitat.Exclusively on the ground in red mangrove (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae) habitats. Cabrera’s Hutias build nests with sticks from red mangroves. Ground nests are large (74 x 65 cm) or (20 x 30 cm), depending on patch size of available habitat. Cabrera’s Hutia is mainly terrestrial but might also climb, aided by its prehensile tail.Food and Feeding.Cabrera’s Hutias feed almost exclusively on red mangrove at or near the ground or while positioned on limbs. Leaves are apparently preferred, but bark from small and larger branches and trunk is also eaten.Breeding.Cabrera’s Hutia is reported to reproduce through the year, producing young with a 1:1 sex ratio and possibly two litters per year. Females reach sexual maturity at a weight of ¢.340 g and head-body length near 383 mm; males reach sexual maturity at a slightly lower body mass of ¢.300 g.Activity patterns.Cabrera’s Hutia is crepuscular or nocturnal, initiating activity an hour before sunset. On rare occasions,it may be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cabrera’s Hutia is social and lives in family groups of 2—4 individuals, occasionally up to six individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Cabrera’s Hutia was reintroduced to new small islands off Cuba, which serve as refuge for this rare and endangered red mangrove specialist. Further ecological studies of Cabrera’s Hutias are required because ofits rarity, its disappearance from Cuba, and competition with introduced Roof Rats (Rattus rattus), especially use of their stick nests. Occurrence on small refuge islands makes Cabrera’s Hutia a rather fragile taxa for which much remains to be known. Fortunately, limited size of the social group and construction ofstick nests make Cabrera’s Hutia relatively easy to survey and count. Numbers of nests were estimated at 177 in 2007 and increased slightly to 190 (380-760 individuals) by 2009. Nevertheless,its reliance on red mangrove habitat means that human disturbances such as fire, hunting, or exotic introductions have lead to its near extirpation in its native habitat.Bibliography.Allen (1891), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Camacho et al. (1994), Chapman (1901), Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980), Silva et al. (2007b), Varona (1974, 1979), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods etal. (2001)." 03C5A071FFEBFFDFFAD55D1D5DE4F205,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,558,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEBFFDFFAD55D1D5DE4F205.xml,Carterodon sulcidens,Carterodon,sulcidens,,,Rat-épineux du Cerrado @fr | Furchenzahn-Stachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de dientes con surcos @es | Owl's Spiny-rat @en,"Echimys sulcidens Lund, 1838, “bassin du Rio das Velhas.” Amended by P. W. Lund in 1841 as “Rio das Velhas Floddal,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Carterodon sulcidenshas been formerly classified in genera Echimys, Nelomys, and Aulacodus. Monotypic.","C & W Brazil, from Minas Gerais, through Goias and Distrito Federal to Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul.","Head-body 135-250 mm, tail 656-92 mm; weight 92-195 g. Dorsum ofthe distinct, medium-sized Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is covered with dense and soft hairs (setiforms), intermixed with soft spines (aristiforms). Body is adapted to semi-fossorial habits; it has short limbs with long and powerful claws, short ears, and very short tail ¢.50% of head-body length. Tail is covered with short hairs partially covering scales. Overall pelage is predominantly brownish and grizzled, with black aristiforms on dorsal surface and pale brown hairs on throat and abdominal surface, showing gradual color transition on sides. Skull of the Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone is well developed. Auditory meatus is medium-sized, with partial contact between ectotympanic and squamosal, restricted to posterior part of dorsal margin of ectotympanic, and forming cleft between these two bones. Incisive foramina are short and oval. Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Upper incisors are large and grooved, which is a unique feature among extant echimyids. Maxillary cheekteeth are unilateral hypsodont and nearly parallel to palate. Upper and lower premolar and molar surfaces are semicircular and have three distinctive transverse lophs/lophids. A fourth lophid may be visible on unworn lowerteeth.","Tropical savanna and grasslands at elevations of 250-1100 m. Most specimens of Groove-toothed Spiny-rats with associated habitat data have been collected in open areas of the Cerrado ecoregion. It has wide distribution but is represented by specimens from only twelve localities. Given its rarity, it might be associated with a specific microhabitat, and thus its area of occupancy might be small and patchy.",The Groove-toothed Spiny-rat is strictly herbivorous from direct observations and tooth morphology.,"Pregnant and juvenile Groove-toothed Spiny-rats were collected during dry (August) and wet (December) seasons. Litters with 1-2 embryos have been reported at Serra do Roncador, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Grass nests 30 cm deep within burrows have been recorded at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.","There is no information available for this species, but the Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is probably nocturnal.","The Groove-toothed Spiny-rat is semi-fossorial. It is preyed on by the American barn owl (7yto alba furcata), which is mainly nocturnal.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, a recent study suggested that the Groove-toothed Spiny-rat should be listed as Vulnerable based on an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km?, severely fragmented distribution, and current presence at no more than ten localities. Most of these localities are highly impacted by agricultural activities, urbanization, and hydroelectric dams.",Bezerra & Bonvicino (2015a) | Bezerra et al. (2011) | Bishop (1974) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Lund (1841) | Moojen (1952b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6623677/files/figure.png,"11.Groove-toothed Spiny-ratCarterodon sulcidensFrench:Rat-épineux du Cerrado/ German:Furchenzahn-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de dientes con surcosOther common names:Owl's Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys sulcidens Lund, 1838, “bassin du Rio das Velhas.” Amended by P. W. Lund in 1841 as “Rio das Velhas Floddal,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Carterodon sulcidenshas been formerly classified in genera Echimys, Nelomys, and Aulacodus. Monotypic.Distribution.C & W Brazil, from Minas Gerais, through Goias and Distrito Federal to Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-250 mm, tail 656-92 mm; weight 92-195 g. Dorsum ofthe distinct, medium-sized Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is covered with dense and soft hairs (setiforms), intermixed with soft spines (aristiforms). Body is adapted to semi-fossorial habits; it has short limbs with long and powerful claws, short ears, and very short tail ¢.50% of head-body length. Tail is covered with short hairs partially covering scales. Overall pelage is predominantly brownish and grizzled, with black aristiforms on dorsal surface and pale brown hairs on throat and abdominal surface, showing gradual color transition on sides. Skull of the Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone is well developed. Auditory meatus is medium-sized, with partial contact between ectotympanic and squamosal, restricted to posterior part of dorsal margin of ectotympanic, and forming cleft between these two bones. Incisive foramina are short and oval. Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Upper incisors are large and grooved, which is a unique feature among extant echimyids. Maxillary cheekteeth are unilateral hypsodont and nearly parallel to palate. Upper and lower premolar and molar surfaces are semicircular and have three distinctive transverse lophs/lophids. A fourth lophid may be visible on unworn lowerteeth.Habitat.Tropical savanna and grasslands at elevations of 250-1100 m. Most specimens of Groove-toothed Spiny-rats with associated habitat data have been collected in open areas of the Cerrado ecoregion. It has wide distribution but is represented by specimens from only twelve localities. Given its rarity, it might be associated with a specific microhabitat, and thus its area of occupancy might be small and patchy.Food and Feeding.The Groove-toothed Spiny-rat is strictly herbivorous from direct observations and tooth morphology.Breeding.Pregnant and juvenile Groove-toothed Spiny-rats were collected during dry (August) and wet (December) seasons. Litters with 1-2 embryos have been reported at Serra do Roncador, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Grass nests 30 cm deep within burrows have been recorded at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species, but the Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Groove-toothed Spiny-rat is semi-fossorial. It is preyed on by the American barn owl (7yto alba furcata), which is mainly nocturnal.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, a recent study suggested that the Groove-toothed Spiny-rat should be listed as Vulnerable based on an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km?, severely fragmented distribution, and current presence at no more than ten localities. Most of these localities are highly impacted by agricultural activities, urbanization, and hydroelectric dams.Bibliography.Bezerra & Bonvicino (2015a), Bezerra et al. (2011), Bishop (1974), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Lund (1841), Moojen (1952b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFEBFFDFFFD2529652E9FC23,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,558,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEBFFDFFFD2529652E9FC23.xml,Mysateles garridoi,Mysateles,garridoi,Varona,1970,Hutia de Garrido @fr | Garrido-Langschwanzhutia @de | Jutia de Garrido @es | Garrido's Hutia @en,"Mysateles garridoi Varona, 1970, “Cayo Maja, junto al extremo norocciden2) Jen [= north-western extremity of] Cayo Largo, Banco de los Jardines y Jardinillos,Archipiélago de los Canarreos,” Cuba.Mysateles garridoiwas previously included in the genus Capromys. Monotypic.","NW Cayo Largo del Sur, Canarreos Archipelago (off SW Cuba).","Head-body 350 mm, tail 215 mm; weight 1.2-1.3 kg. Because the skin of the Garrido Tree Hutia was lost and there was only one specimen,very little is known about its external features. It was described to have a darker pelt, blackish plantar pads, and blackish genital skin compared with Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides). Cranial morphology of the Garrido Tree Hutia is close to Desmarest’s Hutia, and size of its skull and braincase is between Desmarest’s Hutia and the Prehensiletailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis).",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Garrido Tree Hutia seems to be distinct from other species of Mysateles, but there is no information aboutits habitats and even uncertainty aboutits type locality. In 1971, O. H. Garrido described distinct excrement pellets of the Garrido Tree Hutia, and in 2012, R. Borroto and colleagues found similar pellets from Cayo Largo del Sur. Additional systematic and ecological studies of the Garrido Tree Hutia are required to confirm its current conservation status.","Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Garrido (1971) | Varona (1970) | Woods (1989) | Woods et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623675/files/figure.png,"10.Garrido Tree HutiaMysateles garridoiFrench:Hutia de Garrido/ German:Garrido-Langschwanzhutia/ Spanish:Jutia de GarridoOther common names:Garrido's HutiaTaxonomy.Mysateles garridoi Varona, 1970, “Cayo Maja, junto al extremo norocciden2) Jen [= north-western extremity of] Cayo Largo, Banco de los Jardines y Jardinillos,Archipiélago de los Canarreos,” Cuba.Mysateles garridoiwas previously included in the genus Capromys. Monotypic.Distribution.NW Cayo Largo del Sur, Canarreos Archipelago (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head-body 350 mm, tail 215 mm; weight 1.2-1.3 kg. Because the skin of the Garrido Tree Hutia was lost and there was only one specimen,very little is known about its external features. It was described to have a darker pelt, blackish plantar pads, and blackish genital skin compared with Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides). Cranial morphology of the Garrido Tree Hutia is close to Desmarest’s Hutia, and size of its skull and braincase is between Desmarest’s Hutia and the Prehensiletailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis).Habitat.There is no information available for this species.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Garrido Tree Hutia seems to be distinct from other species of Mysateles, but there is no information aboutits habitats and even uncertainty aboutits type locality. In 1971, O. H. Garrido described distinct excrement pellets of the Garrido Tree Hutia, and in 2012, R. Borroto and colleagues found similar pellets from Cayo Largo del Sur. Additional systematic and ecological studies of the Garrido Tree Hutia are required to confirm its current conservation status.Bibliography.Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Garrido (1971), Varona (1970), Woods (1989), Woods et al. (2001)." 03C5A071FFEDFFD9FCF75A53526DFA28,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,552,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEDFFD9FCF75A53526DFA28.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family ECHIMYIDAE(HUTIAS, SOUTH AMERICAN SPINY-RATS AND COYPU)• Small to large rodents; omnivorous or herbivorous, with highly variable cheekteeth morphologies; spiny, harsh, or soft pelages; and locomotion includes arboreal, terrestrial, semi-fossorial, semi-aquatic, and scansorial lineages.• • 20-100 cm.• Neotropical Region.• Lowland and highland forested habitats, lowland open dry habitats, and wetlands.• 27 genera, 99 species, at least 130 extant taxa.• 6 species Critically Endangered, 10 species Endangered, b species Vulnerable; 10 Extinct since 1600." 03C5A071FFEEFFDAFF775DA2507BFB0B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,555,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEEFFDAFF775DA2507BFB0B.xml,Geocapromys ingrahami,Geocapromys,ingrahami,,,Hutia des Bahamas @fr | Bahama-Ferkelratte @de | Jutia de Bahamas @es | Bahaman Hutia @en | Bahamian Hutia @en,"Capromys ingrahami J. A. Allen, 1891, “Plana Keys, Bahamas.”This species is monotypic.","Bahamas, only known from the type locality in East Plana Cay. Introduced into Little Wax Cay in 1973 and on Warderick Wells Cay in 1981, also in Bahamas.","Head-body 280-320 mm, tail 55 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Ingraham’s Hutia is small, with soft, pale grayish, brownish, or buff dorsal fur. Lateral lower parts of ears and cheeks are usually paler or brighter. Venter is brighter than dorsum. Unlike the Jamaican Hutia (G. brownii), cream spots are usually absent, or only rarely present, on venter and are rarely present, which is distinctive, between front limbs and hindlimbs. Tail length is equal to or longer than hindfeet and ¢.20% of head-body length. Ears are naked, with two long tufts on dorsal margins. Skull has no inflated frontal. Alveolar length of maxillary tooth is less than 165 mm. Basicranium is broad and dorso-ventrally curved compared with that of the Jamaican Hutia. Zygomatic arch is situated above cheekteeth laterally, with a jugal spine. Sagittal and temporal crests are weakly developed. Long jugular process is curved anteriorly and reaches mid-level of bulla tympanica. Tympanic bullae are inflated, and palatal spine is absent. Teeth similar in shape to those of the Jamaican Hutia.","Semiarid habitats of woody shrubs and thickets on East Plana Cay coral atoll. Ingraham’s Hutia lives in underground crevices or caves and under leaf piles ofsilver palm trees (Coccothrinaxargentata, Arecaceae). It does not nest or burrow but has scansorial locomotion and is a good climber.","Ingraham’s Hutias forage in trees, primarily on leaves, but they eat large amounts of phloem by eating bark. In Little Wax Key, they have overexploited their habitat and caused local extirpation of four tracheophytic species. Diets includes more than 40 plant species, with main food items including leaves of Coccolobadiversifolia (Polygonaceae), Manilkarabahamensis (Sapotaceae), Sophora tomentosa(Fabaceae), and Zanthoxylumcoriaceum (Rutaceae). Diets in other studies have contained 44-4% of the subclass Asteridae, including Boraginaceae(Tournefortia gnaphalodes), Convolvulaceae(Ipomoeabatatas), Oleaceae(Forestierasegregata), and Rubiaceae(Strumpfiamaritima); 33-3% of the subclass Rosidaesuch as Combretaceae(Conocarpuserectus), Euphorbiaceae(Phyllanthus epiphyllanthus and Crotonlucidus); 11-1% Papaya (Caricapapaya, Caricaceae); and 11-1% cactus. Ingraham’s Hutias also occasionally forage on algae on the beach, sea shoal, and human leftovers. They apparently stand on hindlimbs to reach leaves on low-lying shrubs and use their hand pads to manipulate and grasp food. They seem to be adapted to arid habitats by being able to resist water stress and requiring less water than rainforest hutia species. Ingraham’s Hutias may also be able to tolerate drinking saltwater for more than a week.",Ingraham’s Hutias breed throughout the year. Litter size is apparently only a single young that can weigh up to 80 g.,Ingraham’s Hutia is strictly nocturnal and spends most ofits active period foraging.,"A previously captured female Ingraham’s Hutia was recaptured five years later only 20 m from its initial capture site on East Plana Cay Island. Both data points suggested relatively long life spans during which individuals move very little. On East Plana Cay Island over several years, density was high at up to 30 ind/ha. Despite high density, no conflicting or antagonistic behaviors were observed. Ingraham’s Hutia is primarily solitary and nocturnal, butit is non-territorial and has high intraspecific social tolerance; it may often occur in pairs (15 pairs were kept in captivity). Male Ingraham’s Hutias tend to be antagonistic toward other males, particularly when females are in estrus. Marking behavior was studied in laboratory. Ingraham’s Hutias use urine signaling and individuals seem to preferentially mark those previously marked rather than unmarked individuals. Both sexes mark wood sticks, and reproductive condition (estrus) was not a significant factor in marking behavior. Male Ingraham’s Hutias have more odorous urine than females. Overall, urine marking appears to be non-agonistic, which might be important for social organization.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Ingraham’s Hutia is poorly known and needs to be appropriately assessed. It has been extirpated from its native island and has been extirpated over most ofits distribution. Nevertheless, it may be locally abundant on the three small islands where it remains. Population sizes 25-30 years ago were estimated at 12,000 individuals on East Plana Key but only 1200 individuals on Little Wax Key. Updated ecological studies are required to confirm current conservation status of Ingraham’s Hutia.","Allen (1891) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Buden (1986) | Chapman (1901) | Clough (1972, 1974) | Howe (1974) | Jordan (1989) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods etal. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623661/files/figure.png,"3.Ingraham’s HutiaGeocapromys ingrahamiFrench:Hutia des Bahamas/ German:Bahama-Ferkelratte/ Spanish:Jutia de BahamasOther common names:Bahaman Hutia, Bahamian HutiaTaxonomy.Capromys ingrahami J. A. Allen, 1891, “Plana Keys, Bahamas.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Bahamas, only known from the type locality in East Plana Cay. Introduced into Little Wax Cay in 1973 and on Warderick Wells Cay in 1981, also in Bahamas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 280-320 mm, tail 55 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Ingraham’s Hutia is small, with soft, pale grayish, brownish, or buff dorsal fur. Lateral lower parts of ears and cheeks are usually paler or brighter. Venter is brighter than dorsum. Unlike the Jamaican Hutia (G. brownii), cream spots are usually absent, or only rarely present, on venter and are rarely present, which is distinctive, between front limbs and hindlimbs. Tail length is equal to or longer than hindfeet and ¢.20% of head-body length. Ears are naked, with two long tufts on dorsal margins. Skull has no inflated frontal. Alveolar length of maxillary tooth is less than 165 mm. Basicranium is broad and dorso-ventrally curved compared with that of the Jamaican Hutia. Zygomatic arch is situated above cheekteeth laterally, with a jugal spine. Sagittal and temporal crests are weakly developed. Long jugular process is curved anteriorly and reaches mid-level of bulla tympanica. Tympanic bullae are inflated, and palatal spine is absent. Teeth similar in shape to those of the Jamaican Hutia.Habitat.Semiarid habitats of woody shrubs and thickets on East Plana Cay coral atoll. Ingraham’s Hutia lives in underground crevices or caves and under leaf piles ofsilver palm trees (Coccothrinaxargentata, Arecaceae). It does not nest or burrow but has scansorial locomotion and is a good climber.Food and Feeding.Ingraham’s Hutias forage in trees, primarily on leaves, but they eat large amounts of phloem by eating bark. In Little Wax Key, they have overexploited their habitat and caused local extirpation of four tracheophytic species. Diets includes more than 40 plant species, with main food items including leaves of Coccolobadiversifolia (Polygonaceae), Manilkarabahamensis (Sapotaceae), Sophora tomentosa(Fabaceae), and Zanthoxylumcoriaceum (Rutaceae). Diets in other studies have contained 44-4% of the subclass Asteridae, including Boraginaceae(Tournefortia gnaphalodes), Convolvulaceae(Ipomoeabatatas), Oleaceae(Forestierasegregata), and Rubiaceae(Strumpfiamaritima); 33-3% of the subclass Rosidaesuch as Combretaceae(Conocarpuserectus), Euphorbiaceae(Phyllanthus epiphyllanthus and Crotonlucidus); 11-1% Papaya (Caricapapaya, Caricaceae); and 11-1% cactus. Ingraham’s Hutias also occasionally forage on algae on the beach, sea shoal, and human leftovers. They apparently stand on hindlimbs to reach leaves on low-lying shrubs and use their hand pads to manipulate and grasp food. They seem to be adapted to arid habitats by being able to resist water stress and requiring less water than rainforest hutia species. Ingraham’s Hutias may also be able to tolerate drinking saltwater for more than a week.Breeding.Ingraham’s Hutias breed throughout the year. Litter size is apparently only a single young that can weigh up to 80 g.Activity patterns.Ingraham’s Hutia is strictly nocturnal and spends most ofits active period foraging.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A previously captured female Ingraham’s Hutia was recaptured five years later only 20 m from its initial capture site on East Plana Cay Island. Both data points suggested relatively long life spans during which individuals move very little. On East Plana Cay Island over several years, density was high at up to 30 ind/ha. Despite high density, no conflicting or antagonistic behaviors were observed. Ingraham’s Hutia is primarily solitary and nocturnal, butit is non-territorial and has high intraspecific social tolerance; it may often occur in pairs (15 pairs were kept in captivity). Male Ingraham’s Hutias tend to be antagonistic toward other males, particularly when females are in estrus. Marking behavior was studied in laboratory. Ingraham’s Hutias use urine signaling and individuals seem to preferentially mark those previously marked rather than unmarked individuals. Both sexes mark wood sticks, and reproductive condition (estrus) was not a significant factor in marking behavior. Male Ingraham’s Hutias have more odorous urine than females. Overall, urine marking appears to be non-agonistic, which might be important for social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Ingraham’s Hutia is poorly known and needs to be appropriately assessed. It has been extirpated from its native island and has been extirpated over most ofits distribution. Nevertheless, it may be locally abundant on the three small islands where it remains. Population sizes 25-30 years ago were estimated at 12,000 individuals on East Plana Key but only 1200 individuals on Little Wax Key. Updated ecological studies are required to confirm current conservation status of Ingraham’s Hutia.Bibliography.Allen (1891), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Buden (1986), Chapman (1901), Clough (1972, 1974), Howe (1974), Jordan (1989), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods etal. (2001)." -03C5A071FFEEFFDDFA7A5DA05864F487,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,555,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEEFFDDFA7A5DA05864F487.xml,Capromys pilorides,Capromys,pilorides,,,Hutia pilori @fr | Hutiaconga @de | Jutia de Desmarest @es | Cuban Hutia @en,"Isodon pilorides Say, 1822, “South America or one of the West Indian islands.”Capromys piloridesincludesfourniere, acevedo, and intermedius as synonyms. Subspecies gundlachianus was erroneously elevated to species status, based on sequence divergence of a specimen from Cayo Ballenato del Medio, but this specimen was from a locality outside the known distribution of C. pilorides. Five subspecies recognized.","C.p.piloridesSay,1822—Cubamainland.C.p.ciprianoiBorroto,Camacho&Ramos,1992—SIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).C.p.doceleguasVarona,1980—JardinesdelaReinaArchipelago(offSCCuba).C.p.gundlachianusVarona,1983—SabanaArchipelago(offNCCuba).C. p. relictus G. M. Allen, 1911— N Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).","Head—body 305-625 mm,tail 131-315 mm; weight up to 7 kg. Pelage of Desmarest’s Hutia ranges from white to dark grayish. Back part of rump and proximal part oftail are paler than remaining parts of dorsum, with grayish or yellowish pale colors. Guard hairs are long and soft. Dorsal pelage is also often brownish gray, with mixture of yellowish or golden guard hairs. Underfur is usually paler, with short soft hairs. Some populations, such as subspecies gundlachianus, have significantly darker pelt. Venter might be whitish or grayish. Head is usually gray or with paler hair around muzzle, cheeks, and area between eyes. Color of front and top of head are similar to dorsum. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length and is covered by thin and short scale hairs, colored similar to rump, that extend toward end oftail. Tail is robust, wide, and uniformly colored, with buff to rusty brown sometimes with darker colors. Slightly divided ears are large, with long extending hairs rising from outer and inner surfaces. Dark footpads are not well developed and are nearly smooth. Head and outer surfaces of hindlegs range from blackish to pale buff or from black and deep rusty. Five toes are narrow and long, with hallux well separated from other four digits. On hands, pollex is reduced with tiny pads and nail well discriminated by four fingers that are slightly enlarged distally due to broad plantar pads. Palmar and plantar surfaces are very distinct, being blackish compared with whitish parts of all other Cuban hutias. Skull is broad and robust, having broad postorbital process and stocky rostrum. Zygomatic arch is very robust, which makes temporal fossa smaller than in other genera of hutias. Paroccipital processes are broad and more elongated than other species of hutias and extend well below tympanic bullae (but not as pronounced as hutias from Hispaniola). Angular and ascending condylar processes are broader and more robust than other Cuban hutias. Cheekteeth converge less anteriorly than in other genera of hutias, but they are similarly shaped with quadratic outline and characteristic epsilon molar loph pattern. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 64.","Nearly all Cuban habitats, including cultivated areas, secondary and primary habitats, montane forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semideciduous forests, low marshy areas, and some mangroves forest, particularly red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). This wide trophic habitat spectrum makes Desmarest’s Hutia s one of the most adaptable echimyids. Some populations have specializations for red mangrove habitats, where they become nearly arboreal compared with their terrestrial and scansorial counterparts in other Cuban habitats. Usually, Desmarest’s Hutias favor limestone cliffs or karst systems where they can find suitable resting sites. In forest habitats, they most commonly use tree cavities as shelters, but they also build nests in vines or liana tangles among branches.","Desmarest’s Hutias usually forage on tender leaves,leaving leaf petioles on trees and primarily focusing on limbs. They also consume marine crustaceans, mollusks, and algae. They were reported to hunt and eat small Anolis lizards (A. porcatus and A. sagrei), human leftovers, and different food items encountered on their home ranges. Desmarest’s Hutias that live in red mangroves are strictly arboreal and specialize on red mangrove leaves. Several populations occur on small keys, where they are often seen swimming or foraging near the water. R. Borroto and C. A. Woods in 2012 followed populations of the different subspecies, recording detailed records of their foraging behaviors and proportions of plant items consumed. In southern Isla de la Juventud, subspecies ciprianoiforaged on 14 plant families, including 14 species, preferring species in the subclass Rosidae(65%). In coastal and sub-coastal vegetation communities in the Cabo Corrientes Natural Reserve, subspecies piloridesforaged on 15 families, including 20 species, also preferring Rosidae(45%) but also eating substantial proportions of Arecidae (20%) and Dilleniidae (15%). In secondary habitats in Sierra del Chorillo, piloridesforaged on 35 species, including 22 shrubs, with Rosidae(50-8%) and Asteridae(21%) being the most common food items. Coprophagy also appears to be common.","Gestation of Desmarest’s Hutia lasts 75-153 days, with an interbirth interval of c.16 days. Three litters per year can occur if conditions are good and food is not limited, but two litters were common in several studies. Litter sizes are 1-3 young, with rare cases of 4-6 embryos; near-term young weigh up to 250 g. Uterine scares typically numbered two, but three were reported in one case. Young nursed for c.153 days and become sexually mature at about ten months old. Desmarest’s Hutias have no special reproductive seasons, and females become pregnant throughout the year. Sexual maturity of females was correlated to body size; individuals weighing more than 2-1 kg had marked corpora lutea and perforated vagina. Ovaries from female Desmarest’s Hutias have high numbers of corpora lutea on very small ovaries that were three times smaller than those of Bushy-tailed Hutias (Mesocapromys melanurus): 0-8-2-5 mm for Desmarest’s Hutia vs. 2-7-1 mm in Bushy-tailed Hutias.","Desmarest’s Hutia is essentially nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity. Individuals are occasionally seen moving about during the day, especially in captivity. In some areas, individuals are arboreal and diurnal, staying at the sun and foraging on leaves on the ground. The activity patterns vary depending on habitats occupied.","Movements of Desmarest’s Hutia have not been studied in detail, but some individuals were reported to move long distances. It is the most abundant species of hutias in the Greater Antilles. Several cases of overpopulation were reported on Cuba and small islands where humans have introduced Desmarest’s Hutias. Densities range from 17-20 ind/ha in the Sabana Archipelago and 47-50 ind/ha on the Cuba mainland to as high as 92-130 ind/ha inJardines de la Reina Archipelago. In places with several feral or invasive species, or in highly fragmented habitats, densities are considerably lower, reaching only 1-7 ind/ha. Desmarest’s Hutia is reportedly social, living in gregarious family groups where grooming behavior is common and communication between individuals is maintained while foraging.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification of Desmarest’s Hutia results from its relatively large distribution that includes some protected areas and its ability to maintain high densities. Nevertheless, status of some subspecies is poorly known and requires additional investigations for accurate conservation assessment and, if necessary, action. Desmarest’s Hutias are important in the lives of Cuban people, serving as a significant source of meat for local people; they are often kept as pets. Impacts of local hunting or use as pets are unknown, and populations in the most disturbed areas should be surveyed to determine appropriate conservation measures for Desmarest’s Hutia.","Abreu & Manojina (1989) | Allen (1891) | Angulo & Alvarez (1948) | Angulo & Roque (1948) | Arredondo (1958) | Berovides & Comas (1991, 1993, 1997a, 1997b) | Berovides & Sanchez (1987) | Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990) | Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Bouza et al. (1990) | Bucher (1937) | Chapman (1901) | Comas & Berovides (1990) | Cornide etal. (1989) | Desmarest (1822) | Garrido (1971) | Gonzalez & Manojina (1990) | Gundlach (1877) | Kilpatrick et al. (2012) | Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980) | Lora (1895) | Manojina (1987a, 1987b) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Abreu (1989) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989) | Mohr (1939) | Rysavy (1967) | Say (1822) | Smith, C.H. (1842) | Smith, R. & Berovides (1984) | Taylor (1970) | Varona (1970, 1979, 1980a, 1980b) | Woods (1989) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)",,"4.Desmarest’s HutiaCapromys piloridesFrench:Hutia pilori/ German:Hutiaconga/ Spanish:Jutia de DesmarestOther common names:Cuban HutiaTaxonomy.Isodon pilorides Say, 1822, “South America or one of the West Indian islands.”Capromys piloridesincludesfourniere, acevedo, and intermedius as synonyms. Subspecies gundlachianus was erroneously elevated to species status, based on sequence divergence of a specimen from Cayo Ballenato del Medio, but this specimen was from a locality outside the known distribution of C. pilorides. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.p.piloridesSay,1822—Cubamainland.C.p.ciprianoiBorroto,Camacho&Ramos,1992—SIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).C.p.doceleguasVarona,1980—JardinesdelaReinaArchipelago(offSCCuba).C.p.gundlachianusVarona,1983—SabanaArchipelago(offNCCuba).C. p. relictus G. M. Allen, 1911— N Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head—body 305-625 mm,tail 131-315 mm; weight up to 7 kg. Pelage of Desmarest’s Hutia ranges from white to dark grayish. Back part of rump and proximal part oftail are paler than remaining parts of dorsum, with grayish or yellowish pale colors. Guard hairs are long and soft. Dorsal pelage is also often brownish gray, with mixture of yellowish or golden guard hairs. Underfur is usually paler, with short soft hairs. Some populations, such as subspecies gundlachianus, have significantly darker pelt. Venter might be whitish or grayish. Head is usually gray or with paler hair around muzzle, cheeks, and area between eyes. Color of front and top of head are similar to dorsum. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length and is covered by thin and short scale hairs, colored similar to rump, that extend toward end oftail. Tail is robust, wide, and uniformly colored, with buff to rusty brown sometimes with darker colors. Slightly divided ears are large, with long extending hairs rising from outer and inner surfaces. Dark footpads are not well developed and are nearly smooth. Head and outer surfaces of hindlegs range from blackish to pale buff or from black and deep rusty. Five toes are narrow and long, with hallux well separated from other four digits. On hands, pollex is reduced with tiny pads and nail well discriminated by four fingers that are slightly enlarged distally due to broad plantar pads. Palmar and plantar surfaces are very distinct, being blackish compared with whitish parts of all other Cuban hutias. Skull is broad and robust, having broad postorbital process and stocky rostrum. Zygomatic arch is very robust, which makes temporal fossa smaller than in other genera of hutias. Paroccipital processes are broad and more elongated than other species of hutias and extend well below tympanic bullae (but not as pronounced as hutias from Hispaniola). Angular and ascending condylar processes are broader and more robust than other Cuban hutias. Cheekteeth converge less anteriorly than in other genera of hutias, but they are similarly shaped with quadratic outline and characteristic epsilon molar loph pattern. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 64.Habitat.Nearly all Cuban habitats, including cultivated areas, secondary and primary habitats, montane forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semideciduous forests, low marshy areas, and some mangroves forest, particularly red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). This wide trophic habitat spectrum makes Desmarest’s Hutia s one of the most adaptable echimyids. Some populations have specializations for red mangrove habitats, where they become nearly arboreal compared with their terrestrial and scansorial counterparts in other Cuban habitats. Usually, Desmarest’s Hutias favor limestone cliffs or karst systems where they can find suitable resting sites. In forest habitats, they most commonly use tree cavities as shelters, but they also build nests in vines or liana tangles among branches.Food and Feeding.Desmarest’s Hutias usually forage on tender leaves,leaving leaf petioles on trees and primarily focusing on limbs. They also consume marine crustaceans, mollusks, and algae. They were reported to hunt and eat small Anolis lizards (A. porcatus and A. sagrei), human leftovers, and different food items encountered on their home ranges. Desmarest’s Hutias that live in red mangroves are strictly arboreal and specialize on red mangrove leaves. Several populations occur on small keys, where they are often seen swimming or foraging near the water. R. Borroto and C. A. Woods in 2012 followed populations of the different subspecies, recording detailed records of their foraging behaviors and proportions of plant items consumed. In southern Isla de la Juventud, subspecies ciprianoiforaged on 14 plant families, including 14 species, preferring species in the subclass Rosidae(65%). In coastal and sub-coastal vegetation communities in the Cabo Corrientes Natural Reserve, subspecies piloridesforaged on 15 families, including 20 species, also preferring Rosidae(45%) but also eating substantial proportions of Arecidae (20%) and Dilleniidae (15%). In secondary habitats in Sierra del Chorillo, piloridesforaged on 35 species, including 22 shrubs, with Rosidae(50-8%) and Asteridae(21%) being the most common food items. Coprophagy also appears to be common.Breeding.Gestation of Desmarest’s Hutia lasts 75-153 days, with an interbirth interval of c.16 days. Three litters per year can occur if conditions are good and food is not limited, but two litters were common in several studies. Litter sizes are 1-3 young, with rare cases of 4-6 embryos; near-term young weigh up to 250 g. Uterine scares typically numbered two, but three were reported in one case. Young nursed for c.153 days and become sexually mature at about ten months old. Desmarest’s Hutias have no special reproductive seasons, and females become pregnant throughout the year. Sexual maturity of females was correlated to body size; individuals weighing more than 2-1 kg had marked corpora lutea and perforated vagina. Ovaries from female Desmarest’s Hutias have high numbers of corpora lutea on very small ovaries that were three times smaller than those of Bushy-tailed Hutias (Mesocapromys melanurus): 0-8-2-5 mm for Desmarest’s Hutia vs. 2-7-1 mm in Bushy-tailed Hutias.Activity patterns.Desmarest’s Hutia is essentially nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity. Individuals are occasionally seen moving about during the day, especially in captivity. In some areas, individuals are arboreal and diurnal, staying at the sun and foraging on leaves on the ground. The activity patterns vary depending on habitats occupied.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements of Desmarest’s Hutia have not been studied in detail, but some individuals were reported to move long distances. It is the most abundant species of hutias in the Greater Antilles. Several cases of overpopulation were reported on Cuba and small islands where humans have introduced Desmarest’s Hutias. Densities range from 17-20 ind/ha in the Sabana Archipelago and 47-50 ind/ha on the Cuba mainland to as high as 92-130 ind/ha inJardines de la Reina Archipelago. In places with several feral or invasive species, or in highly fragmented habitats, densities are considerably lower, reaching only 1-7 ind/ha. Desmarest’s Hutia is reportedly social, living in gregarious family groups where grooming behavior is common and communication between individuals is maintained while foraging.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification of Desmarest’s Hutia results from its relatively large distribution that includes some protected areas and its ability to maintain high densities. Nevertheless, status of some subspecies is poorly known and requires additional investigations for accurate conservation assessment and, if necessary, action. Desmarest’s Hutias are important in the lives of Cuban people, serving as a significant source of meat for local people; they are often kept as pets. Impacts of local hunting or use as pets are unknown, and populations in the most disturbed areas should be surveyed to determine appropriate conservation measures for Desmarest’s Hutia.Bibliography.Abreu & Manojina (1989), Allen (1891), Angulo & Alvarez (1948), Angulo & Roque (1948), Arredondo (1958), Berovides & Comas (1991, 1993, 1997a, 1997b), Berovides & Sanchez (1987), Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990), Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Bouza et al. (1990), Bucher (1937), Chapman (1901), Comas & Berovides (1990), Cornide etal. (1989), Desmarest (1822), Garrido (1971), Gonzalez & Manojina (1990), Gundlach (1877), Kilpatrick et al. (2012), Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980), Lora (1895), Manojina (1987a, 1987b), Manojina, Gonzalez & Abreu (1989), Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989), Mohr (1939), Rysavy (1967), Say (1822), Smith, C.H. (1842), Smith, R. & Berovides (1984), Taylor (1970), Varona (1970, 1979, 1980a, 1980b), Woods (1989), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001)." +03C5A071FFEEFFDDFA7A5DA05864F487,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,555,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEEFFDDFA7A5DA05864F487.xml,Capromys pilorides,Capromys,pilorides,,,Hutia pilori @fr | Hutiaconga @de | Jutia de Desmarest @es | Cuban Hutia @en,"Isodon pilorides Say, 1822, “South America or one of the West Indian islands.”Capromys piloridesincludesfourniere, acevedo, and intermedius as synonyms. Subspecies gundlachianus was erroneously elevated to species status, based on sequence divergence of a specimen from Cayo Ballenato del Medio, but this specimen was from a locality outside the known distribution of C. pilorides. Five subspecies recognized.","C.p.piloridesSay,1822—Cubamainland.C.p.ciprianoiBorroto,Camacho&Ramos,1992—SIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).C.p.doceleguasVarona,1980—JardinesdelaReinaArchipelago(offSCCuba).C.p.gundlachianusVarona,1983—SabanaArchipelago(offNCCuba).C. p. relictus G. M. Allen, 1911— N Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).","Head—body 305-625 mm,tail 131-315 mm; weight up to 7 kg. Pelage of Desmarest’s Hutia ranges from white to dark grayish. Back part of rump and proximal part oftail are paler than remaining parts of dorsum, with grayish or yellowish pale colors. Guard hairs are long and soft. Dorsal pelage is also often brownish gray, with mixture of yellowish or golden guard hairs. Underfur is usually paler, with short soft hairs. Some populations, such as subspecies gundlachianus, have significantly darker pelt. Venter might be whitish or grayish. Head is usually gray or with paler hair around muzzle, cheeks, and area between eyes. Color of front and top of head are similar to dorsum. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length and is covered by thin and short scale hairs, colored similar to rump, that extend toward end oftail. Tail is robust, wide, and uniformly colored, with buff to rusty brown sometimes with darker colors. Slightly divided ears are large, with long extending hairs rising from outer and inner surfaces. Dark footpads are not well developed and are nearly smooth. Head and outer surfaces of hindlegs range from blackish to pale buff or from black and deep rusty. Five toes are narrow and long, with hallux well separated from other four digits. On hands, pollex is reduced with tiny pads and nail well discriminated by four fingers that are slightly enlarged distally due to broad plantar pads. Palmar and plantar surfaces are very distinct, being blackish compared with whitish parts of all other Cuban hutias. Skull is broad and robust, having broad postorbital process and stocky rostrum. Zygomatic arch is very robust, which makes temporal fossa smaller than in other genera of hutias. Paroccipital processes are broad and more elongated than other species of hutias and extend well below tympanic bullae (but not as pronounced as hutias from Hispaniola). Angular and ascending condylar processes are broader and more robust than other Cuban hutias. Cheekteeth converge less anteriorly than in other genera of hutias, but they are similarly shaped with quadratic outline and characteristic epsilon molar loph pattern. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 64.","Nearly all Cuban habitats, including cultivated areas, secondary and primary habitats, montane forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semideciduous forests, low marshy areas, and some mangroves forest, particularly red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). This wide trophic habitat spectrum makes Desmarest’s Hutia s one of the most adaptable echimyids. Some populations have specializations for red mangrove habitats, where they become nearly arboreal compared with their terrestrial and scansorial counterparts in other Cuban habitats. Usually, Desmarest’s Hutias favor limestone cliffs or karst systems where they can find suitable resting sites. In forest habitats, they most commonly use tree cavities as shelters, but they also build nests in vines or liana tangles among branches.","Desmarest’s Hutias usually forage on tender leaves,leaving leaf petioles on trees and primarily focusing on limbs. They also consume marine crustaceans, mollusks, and algae. They were reported to hunt and eat small Anolis lizards (A. porcatus and A. sagrei), human leftovers, and different food items encountered on their home ranges. Desmarest’s Hutias that live in red mangroves are strictly arboreal and specialize on red mangrove leaves. Several populations occur on small keys, where they are often seen swimming or foraging near the water. R. Borroto and C. A. Woods in 2012 followed populations of the different subspecies, recording detailed records of their foraging behaviors and proportions of plant items consumed. In southern Isla de la Juventud, subspecies ciprianoiforaged on 14 plant families, including 14 species, preferring species in the subclass Rosidae(65%). In coastal and sub-coastal vegetation communities in the Cabo Corrientes Natural Reserve, subspecies piloridesforaged on 15 families, including 20 species, also preferring Rosidae(45%) but also eating substantial proportions of Arecidae (20%) and Dilleniidae (15%). In secondary habitats in Sierra del Chorillo, piloridesforaged on 35 species, including 22 shrubs, with Rosidae(50-8%) and Asteridae(21%) being the most common food items. Coprophagy also appears to be common.","Gestation of Desmarest’s Hutia lasts 75-153 days, with an interbirth interval of c.16 days. Three litters per year can occur if conditions are good and food is not limited, but two litters were common in several studies. Litter sizes are 1-3 young, with rare cases of 4-6 embryos; near-term young weigh up to 250 g. Uterine scares typically numbered two, but three were reported in one case. Young nursed for c.153 days and become sexually mature at about ten months old. Desmarest’s Hutias have no special reproductive seasons, and females become pregnant throughout the year. Sexual maturity of females was correlated to body size; individuals weighing more than 2-1 kg had marked corpora lutea and perforated vagina. Ovaries from female Desmarest’s Hutias have high numbers of corpora lutea on very small ovaries that were three times smaller than those of Bushy-tailed Hutias (Mesocapromys melanurus): 0-8-2-5 mm for Desmarest’s Hutia vs. 2-7-1 mm in Bushy-tailed Hutias.","Desmarest’s Hutia is essentially nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity. Individuals are occasionally seen moving about during the day, especially in captivity. In some areas, individuals are arboreal and diurnal, staying at the sun and foraging on leaves on the ground. The activity patterns vary depending on habitats occupied.","Movements of Desmarest’s Hutia have not been studied in detail, but some individuals were reported to move long distances. It is the most abundant species of hutias in the Greater Antilles. Several cases of overpopulation were reported on Cuba and small islands where humans have introduced Desmarest’s Hutias. Densities range from 17-20 ind/ha in the Sabana Archipelago and 47-50 ind/ha on the Cuba mainland to as high as 92-130 ind/ha inJardines de la Reina Archipelago. In places with several feral or invasive species, or in highly fragmented habitats, densities are considerably lower, reaching only 1-7 ind/ha. Desmarest’s Hutia is reportedly social, living in gregarious family groups where grooming behavior is common and communication between individuals is maintained while foraging.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification of Desmarest’s Hutia results from its relatively large distribution that includes some protected areas and its ability to maintain high densities. Nevertheless, status of some subspecies is poorly known and requires additional investigations for accurate conservation assessment and, if necessary, action. Desmarest’s Hutias are important in the lives of Cuban people, serving as a significant source of meat for local people; they are often kept as pets. Impacts of local hunting or use as pets are unknown, and populations in the most disturbed areas should be surveyed to determine appropriate conservation measures for Desmarest’s Hutia.","Abreu & Manojina (1989) | Allen (1891) | Angulo & Alvarez (1948) | Angulo & Roque (1948) | Arredondo (1958) | Berovides & Comas (1991, 1993, 1997a, 1997b) | Berovides & Sanchez (1987) | Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990) | Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Bouza et al. (1990) | Bucher (1937) | Chapman (1901) | Comas & Berovides (1990) | Cornide etal. (1989) | Desmarest (1822) | Garrido (1971) | Gonzalez & Manojina (1990) | Gundlach (1877) | Kilpatrick et al. (2012) | Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980) | Lora (1895) | Manojina (1987a, 1987b) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Abreu (1989) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989) | Mohr (1939) | Rysavy (1967) | Say (1822) | Smith, C.H. (1842) | Smith, R. & Berovides (1984) | Taylor (1970) | Varona (1970, 1979, 1980a, 1980b) | Woods (1989) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623663/files/figure.png,"4.Desmarest’s HutiaCapromys piloridesFrench:Hutia pilori/ German:Hutiaconga/ Spanish:Jutia de DesmarestOther common names:Cuban HutiaTaxonomy.Isodon pilorides Say, 1822, “South America or one of the West Indian islands.”Capromys piloridesincludesfourniere, acevedo, and intermedius as synonyms. Subspecies gundlachianus was erroneously elevated to species status, based on sequence divergence of a specimen from Cayo Ballenato del Medio, but this specimen was from a locality outside the known distribution of C. pilorides. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.p.piloridesSay,1822—Cubamainland.C.p.ciprianoiBorroto,Camacho&Ramos,1992—SIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).C.p.doceleguasVarona,1980—JardinesdelaReinaArchipelago(offSCCuba).C.p.gundlachianusVarona,1983—SabanaArchipelago(offNCCuba).C. p. relictus G. M. Allen, 1911— N Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head—body 305-625 mm,tail 131-315 mm; weight up to 7 kg. Pelage of Desmarest’s Hutia ranges from white to dark grayish. Back part of rump and proximal part oftail are paler than remaining parts of dorsum, with grayish or yellowish pale colors. Guard hairs are long and soft. Dorsal pelage is also often brownish gray, with mixture of yellowish or golden guard hairs. Underfur is usually paler, with short soft hairs. Some populations, such as subspecies gundlachianus, have significantly darker pelt. Venter might be whitish or grayish. Head is usually gray or with paler hair around muzzle, cheeks, and area between eyes. Color of front and top of head are similar to dorsum. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length and is covered by thin and short scale hairs, colored similar to rump, that extend toward end oftail. Tail is robust, wide, and uniformly colored, with buff to rusty brown sometimes with darker colors. Slightly divided ears are large, with long extending hairs rising from outer and inner surfaces. Dark footpads are not well developed and are nearly smooth. Head and outer surfaces of hindlegs range from blackish to pale buff or from black and deep rusty. Five toes are narrow and long, with hallux well separated from other four digits. On hands, pollex is reduced with tiny pads and nail well discriminated by four fingers that are slightly enlarged distally due to broad plantar pads. Palmar and plantar surfaces are very distinct, being blackish compared with whitish parts of all other Cuban hutias. Skull is broad and robust, having broad postorbital process and stocky rostrum. Zygomatic arch is very robust, which makes temporal fossa smaller than in other genera of hutias. Paroccipital processes are broad and more elongated than other species of hutias and extend well below tympanic bullae (but not as pronounced as hutias from Hispaniola). Angular and ascending condylar processes are broader and more robust than other Cuban hutias. Cheekteeth converge less anteriorly than in other genera of hutias, but they are similarly shaped with quadratic outline and characteristic epsilon molar loph pattern. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 64.Habitat.Nearly all Cuban habitats, including cultivated areas, secondary and primary habitats, montane forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semideciduous forests, low marshy areas, and some mangroves forest, particularly red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). This wide trophic habitat spectrum makes Desmarest’s Hutia s one of the most adaptable echimyids. Some populations have specializations for red mangrove habitats, where they become nearly arboreal compared with their terrestrial and scansorial counterparts in other Cuban habitats. Usually, Desmarest’s Hutias favor limestone cliffs or karst systems where they can find suitable resting sites. In forest habitats, they most commonly use tree cavities as shelters, but they also build nests in vines or liana tangles among branches.Food and Feeding.Desmarest’s Hutias usually forage on tender leaves,leaving leaf petioles on trees and primarily focusing on limbs. They also consume marine crustaceans, mollusks, and algae. They were reported to hunt and eat small Anolis lizards (A. porcatus and A. sagrei), human leftovers, and different food items encountered on their home ranges. Desmarest’s Hutias that live in red mangroves are strictly arboreal and specialize on red mangrove leaves. Several populations occur on small keys, where they are often seen swimming or foraging near the water. R. Borroto and C. A. Woods in 2012 followed populations of the different subspecies, recording detailed records of their foraging behaviors and proportions of plant items consumed. In southern Isla de la Juventud, subspecies ciprianoiforaged on 14 plant families, including 14 species, preferring species in the subclass Rosidae(65%). In coastal and sub-coastal vegetation communities in the Cabo Corrientes Natural Reserve, subspecies piloridesforaged on 15 families, including 20 species, also preferring Rosidae(45%) but also eating substantial proportions of Arecidae (20%) and Dilleniidae (15%). In secondary habitats in Sierra del Chorillo, piloridesforaged on 35 species, including 22 shrubs, with Rosidae(50-8%) and Asteridae(21%) being the most common food items. Coprophagy also appears to be common.Breeding.Gestation of Desmarest’s Hutia lasts 75-153 days, with an interbirth interval of c.16 days. Three litters per year can occur if conditions are good and food is not limited, but two litters were common in several studies. Litter sizes are 1-3 young, with rare cases of 4-6 embryos; near-term young weigh up to 250 g. Uterine scares typically numbered two, but three were reported in one case. Young nursed for c.153 days and become sexually mature at about ten months old. Desmarest’s Hutias have no special reproductive seasons, and females become pregnant throughout the year. Sexual maturity of females was correlated to body size; individuals weighing more than 2-1 kg had marked corpora lutea and perforated vagina. Ovaries from female Desmarest’s Hutias have high numbers of corpora lutea on very small ovaries that were three times smaller than those of Bushy-tailed Hutias (Mesocapromys melanurus): 0-8-2-5 mm for Desmarest’s Hutia vs. 2-7-1 mm in Bushy-tailed Hutias.Activity patterns.Desmarest’s Hutia is essentially nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity. Individuals are occasionally seen moving about during the day, especially in captivity. In some areas, individuals are arboreal and diurnal, staying at the sun and foraging on leaves on the ground. The activity patterns vary depending on habitats occupied.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements of Desmarest’s Hutia have not been studied in detail, but some individuals were reported to move long distances. It is the most abundant species of hutias in the Greater Antilles. Several cases of overpopulation were reported on Cuba and small islands where humans have introduced Desmarest’s Hutias. Densities range from 17-20 ind/ha in the Sabana Archipelago and 47-50 ind/ha on the Cuba mainland to as high as 92-130 ind/ha inJardines de la Reina Archipelago. In places with several feral or invasive species, or in highly fragmented habitats, densities are considerably lower, reaching only 1-7 ind/ha. Desmarest’s Hutia is reportedly social, living in gregarious family groups where grooming behavior is common and communication between individuals is maintained while foraging.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification of Desmarest’s Hutia results from its relatively large distribution that includes some protected areas and its ability to maintain high densities. Nevertheless, status of some subspecies is poorly known and requires additional investigations for accurate conservation assessment and, if necessary, action. Desmarest’s Hutias are important in the lives of Cuban people, serving as a significant source of meat for local people; they are often kept as pets. Impacts of local hunting or use as pets are unknown, and populations in the most disturbed areas should be surveyed to determine appropriate conservation measures for Desmarest’s Hutia.Bibliography.Abreu & Manojina (1989), Allen (1891), Angulo & Alvarez (1948), Angulo & Roque (1948), Arredondo (1958), Berovides & Comas (1991, 1993, 1997a, 1997b), Berovides & Sanchez (1987), Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990), Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Bouza et al. (1990), Bucher (1937), Chapman (1901), Comas & Berovides (1990), Cornide etal. (1989), Desmarest (1822), Garrido (1971), Gonzalez & Manojina (1990), Gundlach (1877), Kilpatrick et al. (2012), Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980), Lora (1895), Manojina (1987a, 1987b), Manojina, Gonzalez & Abreu (1989), Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989), Mohr (1939), Rysavy (1967), Say (1822), Smith, C.H. (1842), Smith, R. & Berovides (1984), Taylor (1970), Varona (1970, 1979, 1980a, 1980b), Woods (1989), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001)." 03C5A071FFEFFFDAFADA59F35BFFFAF7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,554,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEFFFDAFADA59F35BFFFAF7.xml,Geocapromys brownii,Geocapromys,brownii,Chapman,1901,Hutia de Jamaique @fr | Jamaika-Ferkelratte @de | Jutia de Jamaica @es | Brown's Hutia @en | @en | ndian Coney @en | Jamaican Coney @en,"Capromys brownii Fischer, 1830, “Jamaica.”Geocapromys browniiincludes brachyurus as a synonym. Monotypic.","W, E & S Jamaica, Cockpit Country (SW Trelawny, extreme N Sain Elizabeth, and extreme E Saint James parishes), John Crow and Blue Mts (Portland Parish), Mount Diablo and Croft’s Hill (Saint Thomas Parish), and Harris Savanna and Brazilletto Mts (Clarendon Parish).","Head-body 372-448 mm, tail 40-64 mm; weight up to 2 kg. The Jamaican Hutia is robust, with large head, short ears, and tail. Dorsum and rump are blackish brown to reddish brown. Venter and lower parts are uniformly dusky brown. Fur is coarse and dense with short hairs (20-25 mm) and few longer guard hairs sparsely distributed on body. Ears are black and tipped with ring of golden brown or bright gray hairs. Two tufts of longer hairs are present behind and above auditory meatus on inner dorsal margins of pinna; otherwise, ears are densely covered with short and fine hairs. Tapering tail is stiff and ¢.84% of head-body length, with tail scale harboring short and bristly hairs. Tail is bicolored black above and grayish brown below. Feet are covered with stiff and short black hairs; soles are also blackish with rasp-like warts. Hallux is set far back and well differentiated from other toes. Multiple tubercles cover plantar and palmar pads. On the hand, pollex is a vestigial tubercle with a blunt nail. There are two pairs of mammae midway on each side of thorax. Skulls of all Geocapromyshave anteriorly converging cheekteeth; roots of lower incisors anterior to dP, alveoli; broad vertically or posteriorly oriented superior zygomatic roots of maxilla; labial inclination of occlusal jugal teeth surfaces; anteroflexid with more inclined angles compared with other mesoand posteroflexids, with a large chewing surface on labial side; and presence of anteroflexid with small third re-entrant angle on surface of dP,. Skull is 15-20% larger than skulls of other species of Geocapromys. Zygomatic arch is broad anteriorly, with arch placed well below orbit and overlapping in lateral view with upper molar row. Frontal apophyse of infraorbital foramen is wide. Jugal spine is huge, and jugal fossa is wide (especially anterior part of the zygomatic arch). Zygomatic root of zygomatic arch is also broad, with slight posterior extension. On the antero-medial part of orbit, parietal bone is inflated, making an inflated structure likely due to a sinus in this region. As a result, anterior part of frontal is wider than posterior part. Indeed, frontal bone is reduced posteriorly due to constriction near their fronto-parietal suture. Sagittal crest can be more or less developed for insertion of temporalis muscles. Paraoccipital process has a well-developed lambdoid crest. Tympanic bullae are not inflated, without nares constriction. Upper tooth rows are slightly converging anteriorly. Jaw is strong, with deep mandibular symphysis. Masseteric ridge is well developed and starts below the first lower molar, continues toward end of the spinous angular process, and ends with slight outer lateral deflection. A triangular coronoid process expands anteriorly above M, or M,; condyle process is lower than occlusal plane of lower molar in other species of Geocapromys. Incisors are fronted with orange enamel and are recumbently curved. Cheekteeth are hypsodont and rootless and have flat occlusal plane inclined labially at 30° angle. Upper cheekteeth have trilophodont occlusal pattern, as in several arboreal echimyids, and with more squarish molar shape. Upper molars have two labial and one lingual flexi; lower molars have one labial and one lingual fold, with dP, having and extra small anterolingual flexid. Baculum has distinct dimensions compared with all hutias from Cuba and Hispaniola, with its width 2-3 times greater than that of the larger Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 88 and FN = 136.","Restricted to karst areas, nesting in caves, crevices, and tunnels. Density of the Jamaican Hutia appears to be higher in remote hills and mountainous regions with these karst geologic formations.","Jamaican Hutias forage on bark, shoots, and fruits and den in rock crevices, exposed roots, and foliage of a variety of plant species. They eat parts of at least 57 different plants but also opportunistically feed on human leftovers and freeliving arthropods. Captive Jamaican Hutias drink freshwater more often than species of other genera like Capromysor Plagiodontia.","Captive Jamaican Hutias reportedly had 1-2 young at a time, rarely three. Litter size averaged 1-5 neonates at the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust. Gestation is ¢.123 days, and interbirth interval is c.168 days. Females first gave birth at approximately one year old, with males reaching sexual maturity later. Neonates appear capable of adult movement and eat plant materials only 30 hours after birth. Hunters and other local people report a similarlitter size and non-seasonal breeding in the wild.","Jamaican Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hid during the day in burrows, tunnels, or limestone crevices. They are secretive and very difficult to see at night.","The Jamaican Hutia uses a semiplantigrade waddling gait, with terrestrial locomotion and abilities to jump between rocks and over crevices of karst habitats. Jamaican Hutias live in groups of 2-10 individuals. These groups are usually familial units that live communally in cavities or crevices; size of resting site 1s one factor determining group size. Most harvested individuals are singletons or pairs, probably dispersers from natal family groups and likely using nesting sites more accessible to hunters. Jamaican Hutias do not build or dig nests and resting sites; they use natural cavities or crevices. Familial groups always stay in contact during the day and come back to the same site each night. Social behaviors include cohesive contact during foraging, continuous vocalization among individuals, playing, and affiliative grooming.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Despite being protected, Jamaican Hutias are hunted in many areas in Jamaica, but habitat loss due to agricultural expansion is the most important conservation threat, with direct threats to resting sites in limestone areas. Jamaican Hutias are known to occur at only 16 sites, and although they can be fairly abundant in some areas, habitat loss has severely fragmented their distribution resulting in very small and threatened populations. Introduced species like Roof Rats (Rattus rattus), domestic dogs, and mongoose also represent major threats to this species. Its population trend and distribution has been severely reduced to small density populations. Additional ecological studies are required to confirm the current conservation status of this species.","Allen, G.M. (1917) | Allen, J.A. (1891) | Anderson et al. (1983) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto et al. (1992) | Chapman (1901) | Clough (1972) | George & Weir (1972a) | Hall (1981) | Hill (1851) | Kilpatrick et al. (2012) | Koopman & Williams (1951) | Lawrence (1934) | Mittermeier (1972) | Mohr (1939) | Oliver (1982) | Pocock (1926) | True (1889b) | Varona (1974) | Williams (1952) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623659/files/figure.png,"2.Jamaican HutiaGeocapromys browniiFrench:Hutia de Jamaique/ German:Jamaika-Ferkelratte/ Spanish:Jutia de JamaicaOther common names:Brown's Hutia, Indian Coney, Jamaican ConeyTaxonomy.Capromys brownii Fischer, 1830, “Jamaica.”Geocapromys browniiincludes brachyurus as a synonym. Monotypic.Distribution.W, E & S Jamaica, Cockpit Country (SW Trelawny, extreme N Sain Elizabeth, and extreme E Saint James parishes), John Crow and Blue Mts (Portland Parish), Mount Diablo and Croft’s Hill (Saint Thomas Parish), and Harris Savanna and Brazilletto Mts (Clarendon Parish).Descriptive notes.Head-body 372-448 mm, tail 40-64 mm; weight up to 2 kg. The Jamaican Hutia is robust, with large head, short ears, and tail. Dorsum and rump are blackish brown to reddish brown. Venter and lower parts are uniformly dusky brown. Fur is coarse and dense with short hairs (20-25 mm) and few longer guard hairs sparsely distributed on body. Ears are black and tipped with ring of golden brown or bright gray hairs. Two tufts of longer hairs are present behind and above auditory meatus on inner dorsal margins of pinna; otherwise, ears are densely covered with short and fine hairs. Tapering tail is stiff and ¢.84% of head-body length, with tail scale harboring short and bristly hairs. Tail is bicolored black above and grayish brown below. Feet are covered with stiff and short black hairs; soles are also blackish with rasp-like warts. Hallux is set far back and well differentiated from other toes. Multiple tubercles cover plantar and palmar pads. On the hand, pollex is a vestigial tubercle with a blunt nail. There are two pairs of mammae midway on each side of thorax. Skulls of all Geocapromyshave anteriorly converging cheekteeth; roots of lower incisors anterior to dP, alveoli; broad vertically or posteriorly oriented superior zygomatic roots of maxilla; labial inclination of occlusal jugal teeth surfaces; anteroflexid with more inclined angles compared with other mesoand posteroflexids, with a large chewing surface on labial side; and presence of anteroflexid with small third re-entrant angle on surface of dP,. Skull is 15-20% larger than skulls of other species of Geocapromys. Zygomatic arch is broad anteriorly, with arch placed well below orbit and overlapping in lateral view with upper molar row. Frontal apophyse of infraorbital foramen is wide. Jugal spine is huge, and jugal fossa is wide (especially anterior part of the zygomatic arch). Zygomatic root of zygomatic arch is also broad, with slight posterior extension. On the antero-medial part of orbit, parietal bone is inflated, making an inflated structure likely due to a sinus in this region. As a result, anterior part of frontal is wider than posterior part. Indeed, frontal bone is reduced posteriorly due to constriction near their fronto-parietal suture. Sagittal crest can be more or less developed for insertion of temporalis muscles. Paraoccipital process has a well-developed lambdoid crest. Tympanic bullae are not inflated, without nares constriction. Upper tooth rows are slightly converging anteriorly. Jaw is strong, with deep mandibular symphysis. Masseteric ridge is well developed and starts below the first lower molar, continues toward end of the spinous angular process, and ends with slight outer lateral deflection. A triangular coronoid process expands anteriorly above M, or M,; condyle process is lower than occlusal plane of lower molar in other species of Geocapromys. Incisors are fronted with orange enamel and are recumbently curved. Cheekteeth are hypsodont and rootless and have flat occlusal plane inclined labially at 30° angle. Upper cheekteeth have trilophodont occlusal pattern, as in several arboreal echimyids, and with more squarish molar shape. Upper molars have two labial and one lingual flexi; lower molars have one labial and one lingual fold, with dP, having and extra small anterolingual flexid. Baculum has distinct dimensions compared with all hutias from Cuba and Hispaniola, with its width 2-3 times greater than that of the larger Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 88 and FN = 136.Habitat.Restricted to karst areas, nesting in caves, crevices, and tunnels. Density of the Jamaican Hutia appears to be higher in remote hills and mountainous regions with these karst geologic formations.Food and Feeding.Jamaican Hutias forage on bark, shoots, and fruits and den in rock crevices, exposed roots, and foliage of a variety of plant species. They eat parts of at least 57 different plants but also opportunistically feed on human leftovers and freeliving arthropods. Captive Jamaican Hutias drink freshwater more often than species of other genera like Capromysor Plagiodontia.Breeding.Captive Jamaican Hutias reportedly had 1-2 young at a time, rarely three. Litter size averaged 1-5 neonates at the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust. Gestation is ¢.123 days, and interbirth interval is c.168 days. Females first gave birth at approximately one year old, with males reaching sexual maturity later. Neonates appear capable of adult movement and eat plant materials only 30 hours after birth. Hunters and other local people report a similarlitter size and non-seasonal breeding in the wild.On following pages: 3. Ingraham’s Hutia (Geocapromys ingrahami); 4. Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides); 5. Cabrera’s Hutia (Mesocapromys angelcabrerai); 6. Eared Hutia (Mesocapromys auritus); 7. Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus); 8. Dwarf Hutia (Mesocapromys nanus); 9. Prehensile-tailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis); 10. Garrido Tree Hutia (Mysatelesgarridol); 11. Groove-toothed Spiny-rat (Carterodon sulcidens).Activity patterns.Jamaican Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hid during the day in burrows, tunnels, or limestone crevices. They are secretive and very difficult to see at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Jamaican Hutia uses a semiplantigrade waddling gait, with terrestrial locomotion and abilities to jump between rocks and over crevices of karst habitats. Jamaican Hutias live in groups of 2-10 individuals. These groups are usually familial units that live communally in cavities or crevices; size of resting site 1s one factor determining group size. Most harvested individuals are singletons or pairs, probably dispersers from natal family groups and likely using nesting sites more accessible to hunters. Jamaican Hutias do not build or dig nests and resting sites; they use natural cavities or crevices. Familial groups always stay in contact during the day and come back to the same site each night. Social behaviors include cohesive contact during foraging, continuous vocalization among individuals, playing, and affiliative grooming.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Despite being protected, Jamaican Hutias are hunted in many areas in Jamaica, but habitat loss due to agricultural expansion is the most important conservation threat, with direct threats to resting sites in limestone areas. Jamaican Hutias are known to occur at only 16 sites, and although they can be fairly abundant in some areas, habitat loss has severely fragmented their distribution resulting in very small and threatened populations. Introduced species like Roof Rats (Rattus rattus), domestic dogs, and mongoose also represent major threats to this species. Its population trend and distribution has been severely reduced to small density populations. Additional ecological studies are required to confirm the current conservation status of this species.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1917), Allen, J.A. (1891), Anderson et al. (1983), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto et al. (1992), Chapman (1901), Clough (1972), George & Weir (1972a), Hall (1981), Hill (1851), Kilpatrick et al. (2012), Koopman & Williams (1951), Lawrence (1934), Mittermeier (1972), Mohr (1939), Oliver (1982), Pocock (1926), True (1889b), Varona (1974), Williams (1952), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001)." -03C5A071FFEFFFDBFFD15A4059CEF379,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,554,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEFFFDBFFD15A4059CEF379.xml,Plagiodontia aedium,Plagiodontia,aedium,F. Cuvier,1836,Hutia de Saint-Domingue @fr | Zaguti @de | Jutia de la Espanola @es | Cuvier’s Hutia @en | Hispanolan Hutia @en,"Plagiodontia aedium F. Cuvier, 1836, “Saint-Dominguie.”Three subspecies are recognized.","P. a. aedium F. Cuvier, 1836— SW Haiti (Massif de la Hotte).P.a.bondiTurveyetal.,2015—SEHait(MassifdelaSelle),andSWDominicanRepublic(SierradeBaoruco).P. a. hylaeum Miller, 1927— N Dominican Republic.","Head—body 312-405 mm,tail 125-153 mm; weight up to 1-8 kg. Dorsum of the Hispaniolan Hutia is dark brown and contrasts with slightly paler venter. Hand and footpads are dark, as on Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), either fuscous or light orange brown. Albinistic individuals are known, with pinkish eyes and unpigmented feet, hands, and tail. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length, nearly naked, and dark chocolate. Ears are short (c.15 mm). Dorsum of forefeet and hindfeet are covered with short, dark chocolate hairs; plantar and palmar surfaces are dark pinkish. All digits bear long, slender claws. Skull is very distinct, wide, robust, and massive. Paraoccipital process is wide and large, not typically of echimyid-like rodents. Rostrum is wide, and palatal roof of rostrum is not flat but has a distinct 15° slope. In lateral view, cheekteeth are also inclined with the dP* placed in a lower position compared with M’. Tympanic bullae are not inflated. Mesoperygoid fossa is not wide, and pterygoid region is quite reduced compared with molar size. Post-orbital processes are well developed. Cheekteeth have a typical oblique hypselodont pattern.Jaw also massive, with large condyle and short angular process. Coronoid processis situated well behind M, and more dorsal compared with all other hutias. Cranially, the Hispaniolan Hutia is one of the most distinct hutias due to its sigmoid upper cheekteeth and low mandibular foramen. Cheekteeth are notflat and do not converge anteriorly. There is no hook on dorso-medial side of zygomatic arch dorsal part. The dP4 are replaced laterally. Hypselodont teeth have thin layer of cement. Incisors are procumbent. Pterygoid fossa is medial to M”. There is no supraorbital ridge.","Rocky places, usually sheltering near the ground, but may occur either on the ground in disturbed habitats or in trees in primary montane habitats. The Hispaniolan Hutia favors crevices and tree holes as resting sites. It is reportedly more common near tree holes and large root system oftrees such as Didymopanax tremulus (Araliaceae). In the Dominican Republic, it has been reported to build nests in strangler figs (Ficus, Moraceae).","The Hispaniolan Hutia primarily feeds on plants, including cultivars, and has been reported to cause damage to farms. Its natural diet includes bark of twigs and branches on upper parts of trees. In Haiti, individuals favor avocados (e.g. Perseaanomala, Lauraceae) and also feed on its bark, leaves, buds, and fruit. Robust cranial structure, gut morphology, and jaw muscles suggest that it specializes on bark consumption. It was reported to forage on 20 species of plants in Haiti. Opportunistically, captive individuals also ate lizards (Anolis sp.).","The Hispaniolan Hutia breeds only once a year. Pregnant females were only caught in January-February. A lactating female was collected in September. Neonatal weights were 200-350 g, with young primarily recorded in November—January from camera traps. Larger juveniles were collected in May and September, suggesting that parturition might occur in autumn. Gestation was reported to be 119 days and litter size was typically one young, rarely two.","Hispaniolan Hutias are strictly nocturnal, emerging from their crevices or tree holes at night.","Little is known about the social behavior of Hispaniolan Hutias. Recent studies with camera traps revealed groups of individuals resting and foraging together, with grooming and amicable behaviors.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Compared with Desmarest’s Hutia, the limited reproductive cycle of the Hispaniolan Hutia might hamperits ability to adapt to human activities and environmental changes. It is extremely susceptible to habitat degradation, hunting, and competition with or predation by invasive species. Nevertheless, the Hispaniolan Hutia occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including highly disturbed habitats and human settlements. Ecological studies are required to clarify its status and better delineate taxonomic units in need of conservation.","Anderson (1965) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Cuvier (1836) | Johnson (1948) | Mohr (1939) | Turvey et al. (2015) | Woods (1981, 1989) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)",,"1.Hispaniolan HutiaPlagiodontia aediumFrench:Hutia de Saint-Domingue/ German:Zaguti/ Spanish:Jutia de la EspanolaOther common names:Cuvier’s Hutia, Hispanolan HutiaTaxonomy.Plagiodontia aedium F. Cuvier, 1836, “Saint-Dominguie.”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. a. aedium F. Cuvier, 1836— SW Haiti (Massif de la Hotte).P.a.bondiTurveyetal.,2015—SEHait(MassifdelaSelle),andSWDominicanRepublic(SierradeBaoruco).P. a. hylaeum Miller, 1927— N Dominican Republic.Descriptive notes.Head—body 312-405 mm,tail 125-153 mm; weight up to 1-8 kg. Dorsum of the Hispaniolan Hutia is dark brown and contrasts with slightly paler venter. Hand and footpads are dark, as on Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), either fuscous or light orange brown. Albinistic individuals are known, with pinkish eyes and unpigmented feet, hands, and tail. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length, nearly naked, and dark chocolate. Ears are short (c.15 mm). Dorsum of forefeet and hindfeet are covered with short, dark chocolate hairs; plantar and palmar surfaces are dark pinkish. All digits bear long, slender claws. Skull is very distinct, wide, robust, and massive. Paraoccipital process is wide and large, not typically of echimyid-like rodents. Rostrum is wide, and palatal roof of rostrum is not flat but has a distinct 15° slope. In lateral view, cheekteeth are also inclined with the dP* placed in a lower position compared with M’. Tympanic bullae are not inflated. Mesoperygoid fossa is not wide, and pterygoid region is quite reduced compared with molar size. Post-orbital processes are well developed. Cheekteeth have a typical oblique hypselodont pattern.Jaw also massive, with large condyle and short angular process. Coronoid processis situated well behind M, and more dorsal compared with all other hutias. Cranially, the Hispaniolan Hutia is one of the most distinct hutias due to its sigmoid upper cheekteeth and low mandibular foramen. Cheekteeth are notflat and do not converge anteriorly. There is no hook on dorso-medial side of zygomatic arch dorsal part. The dP4 are replaced laterally. Hypselodont teeth have thin layer of cement. Incisors are procumbent. Pterygoid fossa is medial to M”. There is no supraorbital ridge.Habitat.Rocky places, usually sheltering near the ground, but may occur either on the ground in disturbed habitats or in trees in primary montane habitats. The Hispaniolan Hutia favors crevices and tree holes as resting sites. It is reportedly more common near tree holes and large root system oftrees such as Didymopanax tremulus (Araliaceae). In the Dominican Republic, it has been reported to build nests in strangler figs (Ficus, Moraceae).Food and Feeding.The Hispaniolan Hutia primarily feeds on plants, including cultivars, and has been reported to cause damage to farms. Its natural diet includes bark of twigs and branches on upper parts of trees. In Haiti, individuals favor avocados (e.g. Perseaanomala, Lauraceae) and also feed on its bark, leaves, buds, and fruit. Robust cranial structure, gut morphology, and jaw muscles suggest that it specializes on bark consumption. It was reported to forage on 20 species of plants in Haiti. Opportunistically, captive individuals also ate lizards (Anolis sp.).Breeding.The Hispaniolan Hutia breeds only once a year. Pregnant females were only caught in January-February. A lactating female was collected in September. Neonatal weights were 200-350 g, with young primarily recorded in November—January from camera traps. Larger juveniles were collected in May and September, suggesting that parturition might occur in autumn. Gestation was reported to be 119 days and litter size was typically one young, rarely two.Activity patterns.Hispaniolan Hutias are strictly nocturnal, emerging from their crevices or tree holes at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known about the social behavior of Hispaniolan Hutias. Recent studies with camera traps revealed groups of individuals resting and foraging together, with grooming and amicable behaviors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Compared with Desmarest’s Hutia, the limited reproductive cycle of the Hispaniolan Hutia might hamperits ability to adapt to human activities and environmental changes. It is extremely susceptible to habitat degradation, hunting, and competition with or predation by invasive species. Nevertheless, the Hispaniolan Hutia occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including highly disturbed habitats and human settlements. Ecological studies are required to clarify its status and better delineate taxonomic units in need of conservation.Bibliography.Anderson (1965), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Cuvier (1836), Johnson (1948), Mohr (1939), Turvey et al. (2015), Woods (1981, 1989), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001)." +03C5A071FFEFFFDBFFD15A4059CEF379,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,554,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEFFFDBFFD15A4059CEF379.xml,Plagiodontia aedium,Plagiodontia,aedium,F. Cuvier,1836,Hutia de Saint-Domingue @fr | Zaguti @de | Jutia de la Espanola @es | Cuvier’s Hutia @en | Hispanolan Hutia @en,"Plagiodontia aedium F. Cuvier, 1836, “Saint-Dominguie.”Three subspecies are recognized.","P. a. aedium F. Cuvier, 1836— SW Haiti (Massif de la Hotte).P.a.bondiTurveyetal.,2015—SEHait(MassifdelaSelle),andSWDominicanRepublic(SierradeBaoruco).P. a. hylaeum Miller, 1927— N Dominican Republic.","Head—body 312-405 mm,tail 125-153 mm; weight up to 1-8 kg. Dorsum of the Hispaniolan Hutia is dark brown and contrasts with slightly paler venter. Hand and footpads are dark, as on Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), either fuscous or light orange brown. Albinistic individuals are known, with pinkish eyes and unpigmented feet, hands, and tail. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length, nearly naked, and dark chocolate. Ears are short (c.15 mm). Dorsum of forefeet and hindfeet are covered with short, dark chocolate hairs; plantar and palmar surfaces are dark pinkish. All digits bear long, slender claws. Skull is very distinct, wide, robust, and massive. Paraoccipital process is wide and large, not typically of echimyid-like rodents. Rostrum is wide, and palatal roof of rostrum is not flat but has a distinct 15° slope. In lateral view, cheekteeth are also inclined with the dP* placed in a lower position compared with M’. Tympanic bullae are not inflated. Mesoperygoid fossa is not wide, and pterygoid region is quite reduced compared with molar size. Post-orbital processes are well developed. Cheekteeth have a typical oblique hypselodont pattern.Jaw also massive, with large condyle and short angular process. Coronoid processis situated well behind M, and more dorsal compared with all other hutias. Cranially, the Hispaniolan Hutia is one of the most distinct hutias due to its sigmoid upper cheekteeth and low mandibular foramen. Cheekteeth are notflat and do not converge anteriorly. There is no hook on dorso-medial side of zygomatic arch dorsal part. The dP4 are replaced laterally. Hypselodont teeth have thin layer of cement. Incisors are procumbent. Pterygoid fossa is medial to M”. There is no supraorbital ridge.","Rocky places, usually sheltering near the ground, but may occur either on the ground in disturbed habitats or in trees in primary montane habitats. The Hispaniolan Hutia favors crevices and tree holes as resting sites. It is reportedly more common near tree holes and large root system oftrees such as Didymopanax tremulus (Araliaceae). In the Dominican Republic, it has been reported to build nests in strangler figs (Ficus, Moraceae).","The Hispaniolan Hutia primarily feeds on plants, including cultivars, and has been reported to cause damage to farms. Its natural diet includes bark of twigs and branches on upper parts of trees. In Haiti, individuals favor avocados (e.g. Perseaanomala, Lauraceae) and also feed on its bark, leaves, buds, and fruit. Robust cranial structure, gut morphology, and jaw muscles suggest that it specializes on bark consumption. It was reported to forage on 20 species of plants in Haiti. Opportunistically, captive individuals also ate lizards (Anolis sp.).","The Hispaniolan Hutia breeds only once a year. Pregnant females were only caught in January-February. A lactating female was collected in September. Neonatal weights were 200-350 g, with young primarily recorded in November—January from camera traps. Larger juveniles were collected in May and September, suggesting that parturition might occur in autumn. Gestation was reported to be 119 days and litter size was typically one young, rarely two.","Hispaniolan Hutias are strictly nocturnal, emerging from their crevices or tree holes at night.","Little is known about the social behavior of Hispaniolan Hutias. Recent studies with camera traps revealed groups of individuals resting and foraging together, with grooming and amicable behaviors.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Compared with Desmarest’s Hutia, the limited reproductive cycle of the Hispaniolan Hutia might hamperits ability to adapt to human activities and environmental changes. It is extremely susceptible to habitat degradation, hunting, and competition with or predation by invasive species. Nevertheless, the Hispaniolan Hutia occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including highly disturbed habitats and human settlements. Ecological studies are required to clarify its status and better delineate taxonomic units in need of conservation.","Anderson (1965) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Cuvier (1836) | Johnson (1948) | Mohr (1939) | Turvey et al. (2015) | Woods (1981, 1989) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623657/files/figure.png,"1.Hispaniolan HutiaPlagiodontia aediumFrench:Hutia de Saint-Domingue/ German:Zaguti/ Spanish:Jutia de la EspanolaOther common names:Cuvier’s Hutia, Hispanolan HutiaTaxonomy.Plagiodontia aedium F. Cuvier, 1836, “Saint-Dominguie.”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. a. aedium F. Cuvier, 1836— SW Haiti (Massif de la Hotte).P.a.bondiTurveyetal.,2015—SEHait(MassifdelaSelle),andSWDominicanRepublic(SierradeBaoruco).P. a. hylaeum Miller, 1927— N Dominican Republic.Descriptive notes.Head—body 312-405 mm,tail 125-153 mm; weight up to 1-8 kg. Dorsum of the Hispaniolan Hutia is dark brown and contrasts with slightly paler venter. Hand and footpads are dark, as on Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), either fuscous or light orange brown. Albinistic individuals are known, with pinkish eyes and unpigmented feet, hands, and tail. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length, nearly naked, and dark chocolate. Ears are short (c.15 mm). Dorsum of forefeet and hindfeet are covered with short, dark chocolate hairs; plantar and palmar surfaces are dark pinkish. All digits bear long, slender claws. Skull is very distinct, wide, robust, and massive. Paraoccipital process is wide and large, not typically of echimyid-like rodents. Rostrum is wide, and palatal roof of rostrum is not flat but has a distinct 15° slope. In lateral view, cheekteeth are also inclined with the dP* placed in a lower position compared with M’. Tympanic bullae are not inflated. Mesoperygoid fossa is not wide, and pterygoid region is quite reduced compared with molar size. Post-orbital processes are well developed. Cheekteeth have a typical oblique hypselodont pattern.Jaw also massive, with large condyle and short angular process. Coronoid processis situated well behind M, and more dorsal compared with all other hutias. Cranially, the Hispaniolan Hutia is one of the most distinct hutias due to its sigmoid upper cheekteeth and low mandibular foramen. Cheekteeth are notflat and do not converge anteriorly. There is no hook on dorso-medial side of zygomatic arch dorsal part. The dP4 are replaced laterally. Hypselodont teeth have thin layer of cement. Incisors are procumbent. Pterygoid fossa is medial to M”. There is no supraorbital ridge.Habitat.Rocky places, usually sheltering near the ground, but may occur either on the ground in disturbed habitats or in trees in primary montane habitats. The Hispaniolan Hutia favors crevices and tree holes as resting sites. It is reportedly more common near tree holes and large root system oftrees such as Didymopanax tremulus (Araliaceae). In the Dominican Republic, it has been reported to build nests in strangler figs (Ficus, Moraceae).Food and Feeding.The Hispaniolan Hutia primarily feeds on plants, including cultivars, and has been reported to cause damage to farms. Its natural diet includes bark of twigs and branches on upper parts of trees. In Haiti, individuals favor avocados (e.g. Perseaanomala, Lauraceae) and also feed on its bark, leaves, buds, and fruit. Robust cranial structure, gut morphology, and jaw muscles suggest that it specializes on bark consumption. It was reported to forage on 20 species of plants in Haiti. Opportunistically, captive individuals also ate lizards (Anolis sp.).Breeding.The Hispaniolan Hutia breeds only once a year. Pregnant females were only caught in January-February. A lactating female was collected in September. Neonatal weights were 200-350 g, with young primarily recorded in November—January from camera traps. Larger juveniles were collected in May and September, suggesting that parturition might occur in autumn. Gestation was reported to be 119 days and litter size was typically one young, rarely two.Activity patterns.Hispaniolan Hutias are strictly nocturnal, emerging from their crevices or tree holes at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known about the social behavior of Hispaniolan Hutias. Recent studies with camera traps revealed groups of individuals resting and foraging together, with grooming and amicable behaviors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Compared with Desmarest’s Hutia, the limited reproductive cycle of the Hispaniolan Hutia might hamperits ability to adapt to human activities and environmental changes. It is extremely susceptible to habitat degradation, hunting, and competition with or predation by invasive species. Nevertheless, the Hispaniolan Hutia occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including highly disturbed habitats and human settlements. Ecological studies are required to clarify its status and better delineate taxonomic units in need of conservation.Bibliography.Anderson (1965), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Cuvier (1836), Johnson (1948), Mohr (1939), Turvey et al. (2015), Woods (1981, 1989), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001)." 03C5A071FFF2FFC6FA0D5D1A5218F4FD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,583,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF2FFC6FA0D5D1A5218F4FD.xml,Isothrix sinnamariensis,Isothrix,sinnamariensis,Vie et al.,1996,Rat-épineux du Sinnamary @fr | Sinnamary-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de Sinnamary @es | sothrix sinnamariensis Vié et al @en,"Isothrix sinnamariensis Vié et al., 1996, “Sinnamary River right bank, 21 km upstream from the Petit Saut Dam, French Guiana (4°56-80’N-53°1-90’""W—altitude below 20 m).”This species is monotypic.",Coast of French Guiana SW to S Suriname and Guyana.,"Head-body 212-215 mm, tail 262 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat is small, similar in most respects to the Plain Brush-tailed Rat (1. pagurus). Dorsum is dark brown, somewhat more reddish brown over rump and hindquarters. Nose is slightly reddish brown. There are small black spots behind eyes, from which long vibrissae emanate. Ears are rounded and short, with small tufts of hair on inner and outer surfaces. Female Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rats have four pairs of lateral nipples and two inguinal ones. Tail is long and 124% of head-body length. Basal part oftail has short muff of dense hairs but otherwise is covered along its entire length by curled hairs, terminating in tuft of long hairs (35 mm) that coil downward. Patch of white hairs is present in ventral urogenital area. Hindfeet are broad, each digit possessing strong claws partially covered by short, pale hairs at base. It has typical craniodental characteristics of other species of Isothrixbut differs from its close relative, the Plain Brush-tailed Rat, by its somewhat shorter maxillary tooth rows. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 28 and FN = 42.","[Lowland rainforest in seasonally inundated and non-flooded, tall upland forests and non-flooded tall hill evergreen forest from near sea level to elevations of ¢.270 m. The Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat is arboreal and builds nest in trees.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Flooding from filling of the Petit Saut Dam destroyed habitat of the type locality of the Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat in French Guiana. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Lim & Joemratie (2011) | Patton etal. (2015) | Vie et al. (1996) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623806/files/figure.png,"59.Sinnamary Brush-tailed RatIsothrix sinnamariensisFrench:Rat-épineux du Sinnamary/ German:Sinnamary-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de SinnamaryTaxonomy.Isothrix sinnamariensis Vié et al., 1996, “Sinnamary River right bank, 21 km upstream from the Petit Saut Dam, French Guiana (4°56-80’N-53°1-90’""W—altitude below 20 m).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Coast of French Guiana SW to S Suriname and Guyana.Descriptive notes.Head-body 212-215 mm, tail 262 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat is small, similar in most respects to the Plain Brush-tailed Rat (1. pagurus). Dorsum is dark brown, somewhat more reddish brown over rump and hindquarters. Nose is slightly reddish brown. There are small black spots behind eyes, from which long vibrissae emanate. Ears are rounded and short, with small tufts of hair on inner and outer surfaces. Female Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rats have four pairs of lateral nipples and two inguinal ones. Tail is long and 124% of head-body length. Basal part oftail has short muff of dense hairs but otherwise is covered along its entire length by curled hairs, terminating in tuft of long hairs (35 mm) that coil downward. Patch of white hairs is present in ventral urogenital area. Hindfeet are broad, each digit possessing strong claws partially covered by short, pale hairs at base. It has typical craniodental characteristics of other species of Isothrixbut differs from its close relative, the Plain Brush-tailed Rat, by its somewhat shorter maxillary tooth rows. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 28 and FN = 42.Habitat.[Lowland rainforest in seasonally inundated and non-flooded, tall upland forests and non-flooded tall hill evergreen forest from near sea level to elevations of ¢.270 m. The Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat is arboreal and builds nest in trees.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Flooding from filling of the Petit Saut Dam destroyed habitat of the type locality of the Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat in French Guiana. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Lim & Joemratie (2011), Patton etal. (2015), Vie et al. (1996), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF2FFC6FF0953835003FB5E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,583,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF2FFC6FF0953835003FB5E.xml,Isothrix pagurus,Isothrix,pagurus,Wagner,1845,Rat-épineux a queue de brosse @fr | Schlichte Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo lisa @es,"Isothrix pagurus Wagner, 1845, “Borba,” Rio Madeira, Amazonas, Brazil.This species is monotypic.","Central Amazon Basin of Brazil (Amazonas and Para states), from the left bank of the lower Rio Negro to the mouth of the Rio Pitinga N of the Amazon River axis, and from the lower Rio Madeira to lower Rio Tapajos on the S side of the main Amazon trunk.","Head-body 170-234 mm, tail 170-233 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Plain Brush-tailed Rat is a small species of Isothrix. Dorsum is grizzled yellow to gray-brown from forehead to mid-back; rump and flanks are russet. Snout and area around eyes are reddish. There is no black supraorbital stripe over crown. Tail of the Plain Brush-tailed Rat is nearly equal to head-body length (96-114%); it is darker at base but becomes distinctly paler toward tip: and it completely lacks black hairs of species in the I. bistriatacomplex. It has the typical Isothrixcraniodental characteristics. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 22 and FN = 38.","Lowland, seasonally inundated forest, primarily blackwater or igap6 from near sea level to elevations of c.115 m. Most Plain Brush-tailed Rats have been obtained in mature rainforest, where they are arboreal and build nests in living and dead trees.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Plain Brush-tailed Rat occurs in some protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Plain Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1888) | Trouessart (1897 1904) | Wagner (1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623798/files/figure.png,"58.Plain Brush-tailed RatIsothrix pagurusFrench:Rat-épineux a queue de brosse/ German:Schlichte Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo lisaTaxonomy.Isothrix pagurus Wagner, 1845, “Borba,” Rio Madeira, Amazonas, Brazil.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Central Amazon Basin of Brazil (Amazonas and Para states), from the left bank of the lower Rio Negro to the mouth of the Rio Pitinga N of the Amazon River axis, and from the lower Rio Madeira to lower Rio Tapajos on the S side of the main Amazon trunk.622Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-234 mm, tail 170-233 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Plain Brush-tailed Rat is a small species of Isothrix. Dorsum is grizzled yellow to gray-brown from forehead to mid-back; rump and flanks are russet. Snout and area around eyes are reddish. There is no black supraorbital stripe over crown. Tail of the Plain Brush-tailed Rat is nearly equal to head-body length (96-114%); it is darker at base but becomes distinctly paler toward tip: and it completely lacks black hairs of species in the I. bistriatacomplex. It has the typical Isothrixcraniodental characteristics. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 22 and FN = 38.Habitat.Lowland, seasonally inundated forest, primarily blackwater or igap6 from near sea level to elevations of c.115 m. Most Plain Brush-tailed Rats have been obtained in mature rainforest, where they are arboreal and build nests in living and dead trees.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Plain Brush-tailed Rat occurs in some protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Plain Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1888), Trouessart (1897 1904), Wagner (1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF2FFC6FF095B8558A8F4D6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,583,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF2FFC6FF095B8558A8F4D6.xml,Isothrix bistriata,Isothrix,bistriata,Wagner,1845,Rat-épineux couronné @fr | Zweistreifen-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de corona amarilla @es,"Isothrix bistriata Wagner, 1845, “Rio Guapore.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and J. L. Patton in 2015 to “Isla Leomil, Rio Guaporé, Beni, Bolivia.”Isothrix bistriataincludes Lasiuromys villosusnamed by M. E. Deville in 1852 and I. bistriata boliviensisnamed by F. Petter and H. Cuenca in 1982. Monotypic.","W Amazon Basin in E Ecua-dor E Peru, W Brazil, and N Bolivia; prob-ably also in SE Colombia.","Head—body 214-275 mm, tail 215-271 mm; weight 300-530 g. The Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat is one of the largest species of Isothrix, with soft, lax, and long fur. Dorsum is grizzled yellow-brown to olive, mixed with black hairs. Two conspicuous supraorbital black or brown stripes extend over head onto nape; these stripes surround pale creamy patch on rostrum and forehead. Color and intensity of creamy patch and its surrounding stripes increase with age. Compared with its congeners, the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (/. orinoct) and the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat (I. negrensis), black supraorbital stripes of the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat do not fuse behind head but remain separate. Venteris buff or pale yellow. Tail length is usually 87-6-108-6% of head-body length. Tail is entirely haired and golden or rust colored on basal one-third, usually becoming black distally. In some individuals, distal part may range from pale yellow to white. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.",Seasonally flooded floodplain forests (either igapo or varzea) at elevations of 100-250 m. Most specimens of Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats have been obtained in traps placed in the canopy and a few directly from tree holes.,There is no information available for this species.,"Based on placental scars, Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats have litters of 1-2 young. Pregnant females were caught throughout the year along Rio Jurua in Brazil. A lactating female was collected in August with a juvenile weighting 49 g. Presumably reproductively active adult males had enlarged testes averaging 24 x 12 mm and swollen vesicular glands ¢.25 mm in length.",There is no information available for this species.,"Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats are known to nest in holes on trunks of large trees, with pairs of adult observed at several different localities. They are vocal, and indigenous people have seen them calling from tree branches and entrances of their nest holes at night.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened habitats in the Amazonian region. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","Deville (1852) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons & Patton (2015b) | Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Petter & Cuenca (1982) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1899d, 1916b, 1924b, 1928a) | Trouessart (1897) | Upham et al. (2013) | Wagner (1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623796/files/figure.png,"57.Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed RatIsothrix bistriataFrench:Rat-épineux couronné/ German:Zweistreifen-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de corona amarillaTaxonomy.Isothrix bistriata Wagner, 1845, “Rio Guapore.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and J. L. Patton in 2015 to “Isla Leomil, Rio Guaporé, Beni, Bolivia.”Isothrix bistriataincludes Lasiuromys villosusnamed by M. E. Deville in 1852 and I. bistriata boliviensisnamed by F. Petter and H. Cuenca in 1982. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin in E Ecua-dor E Peru, W Brazil, and N Bolivia; prob-ably also in SE Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 214-275 mm, tail 215-271 mm; weight 300-530 g. The Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat is one of the largest species of Isothrix, with soft, lax, and long fur. Dorsum is grizzled yellow-brown to olive, mixed with black hairs. Two conspicuous supraorbital black or brown stripes extend over head onto nape; these stripes surround pale creamy patch on rostrum and forehead. Color and intensity of creamy patch and its surrounding stripes increase with age. Compared with its congeners, the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (/. orinoct) and the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat (I. negrensis), black supraorbital stripes of the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat do not fuse behind head but remain separate. Venteris buff or pale yellow. Tail length is usually 87-6-108-6% of head-body length. Tail is entirely haired and golden or rust colored on basal one-third, usually becoming black distally. In some individuals, distal part may range from pale yellow to white. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Seasonally flooded floodplain forests (either igapo or varzea) at elevations of 100-250 m. Most specimens of Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats have been obtained in traps placed in the canopy and a few directly from tree holes.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Based on placental scars, Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats have litters of 1-2 young. Pregnant females were caught throughout the year along Rio Jurua in Brazil. A lactating female was collected in August with a juvenile weighting 49 g. Presumably reproductively active adult males had enlarged testes averaging 24 x 12 mm and swollen vesicular glands ¢.25 mm in length.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats are known to nest in holes on trunks of large trees, with pairs of adult observed at several different localities. They are vocal, and indigenous people have seen them calling from tree branches and entrances of their nest holes at night.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened habitats in the Amazonian region. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat are needed.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookBibliography.Deville (1852), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons & Patton (2015b), Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Petter & Cuenca (1982), Tate (1935), Thomas (1899d, 1916b, 1924b, 1928a), Trouessart (1897), Upham et al. (2013), Wagner (1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF2FFF9FA0D547E5F74F5E8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,583,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF2FFF9FA0D547E5F74F5E8.xml,Lonchothrix emiliae,Lonchothrix,emiliae,Thomas,1920,Rat-épineux d'Emilie @fr | Blischelschwanz-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola de penacho @es | Tuft-tailed Spiny-rat @en,"Lonchothrix emiliae Thomas, 1920, “Villa Braga, on the left bank of the Rio Tapajos, just above the first rapids,”Para, Brazil.This species is monotypic.","C Amazonian Brazil S of the Amazon River, from the lower reaches of the Rio Madeira, Rio Tapajos, and Rio Xingu.","Head-body 155-220 mm, tail 150-230 mm; weight up to 300 g. The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is small and densely covered by long, flexible, and wide spiny hairs (aristiforms). Dorsum is gray-brown, head is blackish with golden tint, and rump and sides have more yellowish or pale yellowish tones. Venter is whitish, grayish, or buff and usually with buffy central midline. Throat has white-tipped hairs, and chest is pale gray-brown. Robusttail is 96-104% of head-body length and is covered with short, dark, flat, and evenly spaced scale hairs, but tail scales remain still visible. Tail has long terminal tuft of coarse red brown hairs (up to 45 mm). Hindfeet are short and broad, with each digit bearing stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are whitish or pale yellowish; palmar and plantar surfaces are pinkish. Brown ears are short, naked, and hidden by spines on head. Skull of the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is short, robust, and broad. Rostrum is short, and nasal bones have parallel sides. Muzzle is usually broader than in species ofits sister genus, Mesomys. The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat has well-developed squarish interorbital region; well-developed incisive foramina, wider and longer than in species of Mesomys, and shortlateral process of supraoccipital located at mid-part of auditory meatus but not extending below its lower edge. Meatus itself is situated near squamosal, with its short auditory tubes oriented outward; typmpanic bullae are not inflated; mesopterygoid fossa is narrow, with its palatal bridge reaching middle of M* hamular processes of pterygoid bones are narrow, not spatulate; and maxillary vein passage is located within foramen. Upper cheekteeth are round with single, short labial flexus and four well-developed lingual ones; these become isolated as fossettes with wear, similar to species of Mesomysand “eumysopine” genera (e.g. Proechimys). Lower dP, has single lingual fold and four oblique labial ones, and lower molars have single lingual and three labial folds.","Lowland Amazonian rainforest habitat and mature and secondary (or “capoeira”) forest where tree heights are 5-10 m at elevations below 100 m. Near Alter do Chao, Santarem, the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat was collected in habitats such as white sand grasslands, gallery forest, and rainforest close to human cultivated areas;it has even been captured and observed in wooden houses.","Stomach contents of Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rats included unidentified yellowish plant mass and fruit pulp, presumably of Byrsonima sp.(Malpighiaceae), which is a common small tree encountered at the site of collection. The Tuftedtailed Spiny Tree-rat is arboreal and appears primarily frugivorous or herbivorous, but it might eat some insects.",Pregnant Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat was caught in March near Jacareacanga (Para State). Litter sizes of two young have been reported.,"The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is primarily nocturnal, although in one study, individuals moved and fed around a house during late afternoon (18:30 h and later).","Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rats vocalize and feed 67 m up in trees and wooden structures. They are clearly arboreal and live in high capoeira vegetation. They were reported to build nests in tree holes and abandoned buildings. Individuals will remain motionless in the light of a flashlight for several minutes before returning to their nocturnal movements. Most observed individuals were solitary, although a pair was observed on one occasion, possibly a female with a small juvenile.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. One might expect a rainforest species such as the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat to be negatively affected by deforestation. Nevertheless,it occurs in various habitats and several national parks, and it seems to do well in disturbed habitats close to human habitation. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat are needed.","Aniskin (1993) | Auricchio (2001) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Lara et al. (1996) | Leite & Patton (2002) | Patton et al. (2015) | Thomas (1920c) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623808/files/figure.png,"60.Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-ratLonchothrix emiliaeFrench:Rat-épineux d'Emilie/ German:Blischelschwanz-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola de penachoOther common names:Tuft-tailed Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Lonchothrix emiliae Thomas, 1920, “Villa Braga, on the left bank of the Rio Tapajos, just above the first rapids,”Para, Brazil.This species is monotypic.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 37Species AccountsDistribution.C Amazonian Brazil S of the Amazon River, from the lower reaches of the Rio Madeira, Rio Tapajos, and Rio Xingu.Descriptive notes.Head-body 155-220 mm, tail 150-230 mm; weight up to 300 g. The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is small and densely covered by long, flexible, and wide spiny hairs (aristiforms). Dorsum is gray-brown, head is blackish with golden tint, and rump and sides have more yellowish or pale yellowish tones. Venter is whitish, grayish, or buff and usually with buffy central midline. Throat has white-tipped hairs, and chest is pale gray-brown. Robusttail is 96-104% of head-body length and is covered with short, dark, flat, and evenly spaced scale hairs, but tail scales remain still visible. Tail has long terminal tuft of coarse red brown hairs (up to 45 mm). Hindfeet are short and broad, with each digit bearing stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are whitish or pale yellowish; palmar and plantar surfaces are pinkish. Brown ears are short, naked, and hidden by spines on head. Skull of the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is short, robust, and broad. Rostrum is short, and nasal bones have parallel sides. Muzzle is usually broader than in species ofits sister genus, Mesomys. The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat has well-developed squarish interorbital region; well-developed incisive foramina, wider and longer than in species of Mesomys, and shortlateral process of supraoccipital located at mid-part of auditory meatus but not extending below its lower edge. Meatus itself is situated near squamosal, with its short auditory tubes oriented outward; typmpanic bullae are not inflated; mesopterygoid fossa is narrow, with its palatal bridge reaching middle of M* hamular processes of pterygoid bones are narrow, not spatulate; and maxillary vein passage is located within foramen. Upper cheekteeth are round with single, short labial flexus and four well-developed lingual ones; these become isolated as fossettes with wear, similar to species of Mesomysand “eumysopine” genera (e.g. Proechimys). Lower dP, has single lingual fold and four oblique labial ones, and lower molars have single lingual and three labial folds.Habitat.Lowland Amazonian rainforest habitat and mature and secondary (or “capoeira”) forest where tree heights are 5-10 m at elevations below 100 m. Near Alter do Chao, Santarem, the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat was collected in habitats such as white sand grasslands, gallery forest, and rainforest close to human cultivated areas;it has even been captured and observed in wooden houses.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rats included unidentified yellowish plant mass and fruit pulp, presumably of Byrsonima sp.(Malpighiaceae), which is a common small tree encountered at the site of collection. The Tuftedtailed Spiny Tree-rat is arboreal and appears primarily frugivorous or herbivorous, but it might eat some insects.Breeding.Pregnant Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat was caught in March near Jacareacanga (Para State). Litter sizes of two young have been reported.Activity patterns.The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is primarily nocturnal, although in one study, individuals moved and fed around a house during late afternoon (18:30 h and later).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rats vocalize and feed 67 m up in trees and wooden structures. They are clearly arboreal and live in high capoeira vegetation. They were reported to build nests in tree holes and abandoned buildings. Individuals will remain motionless in the light of a flashlight for several minutes before returning to their nocturnal movements. Most observed individuals were solitary, although a pair was observed on one occasion, possibly a female with a small juvenile.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. One might expect a rainforest species such as the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat to be negatively affected by deforestation. Nevertheless,it occurs in various habitats and several national parks, and it seems to do well in disturbed habitats close to human habitation. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Aniskin (1993), Auricchio (2001), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Lara et al. (1996), Leite & Patton (2002), Patton et al. (2015), Thomas (1920c), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFF3FFC6FACD5FA658A9FCD4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,582,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF3FFC6FACD5FA658A9FCD4.xml,Isothrix negrensis,Isothrix,negrensis,Thomas,1920,Rat-épineux du Rio Negro @fr | Rio Negro-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de Rio Negro @es,"Isothrix bistriala negrensis Thomas, 1920, “Aca Acajutuba, lower on the Rio Negro, near its mouth”(= a little above Manaus on the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil).Isothrix negrensiswas initially described and subsequently regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriataby earlier workers, but C. R. Bonvicino and colleagues in 2003 elevated it to full species, largely based on karyotypic differences and reciprocally monophyletic molecular clade structure. Monotypic.","Amazon Basin of extreme E Colombia and NW Brazil through the Rio Negro Basin, and S of the Amazon River from the lower Rio Jurua E to near the Rio Madeira.","Head—body 203-292 mm, tail 182-271 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is a large species of Isothrix, similar in appearance to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (1. bistriata) but differing from that species primarily by its light and marked post-auricular patches and shorter light crown-patch, which ends at middle of ears rather than extending down nape. Ears are buffy rather than whitish. Compared with the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (1. ornoci), ramp of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is more ocherous, and dorsum is slightly darker. Venter is ocherous buff. Tail is 107% of head-body length. Craniodental characteristics of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are similar to other species of Isothrix, but shorter diastema and deeper cranial vault (when viewed from the side) distinguish it from the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat and the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 112.",Seasonally inundated habitats in blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea from near sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened in the Amazonian region, and much ofits distribution occurs in protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","Bonvicino et al. (2003) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1920d) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"56.Rio Negro Brush-tailed RatIsothrix negrensisFrench:Rat-épineux du Rio Negro/ German:Rio Negro-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de Rio NegroTaxonomy.Isothrix bistriala negrensis Thomas, 1920, “Aca Acajutuba, lower on the Rio Negro, near its mouth”(= a little above Manaus on the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil).Isothrix negrensiswas initially described and subsequently regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriataby earlier workers, but C. R. Bonvicino and colleagues in 2003 elevated it to full species, largely based on karyotypic differences and reciprocally monophyletic molecular clade structure. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin of extreme E Colombia and NW Brazil through the Rio Negro Basin, and S of the Amazon River from the lower Rio Jurua E to near the Rio Madeira.Descriptive notes.Head—body 203-292 mm, tail 182-271 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is a large species of Isothrix, similar in appearance to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (1. bistriata) but differing from that species primarily by its light and marked post-auricular patches and shorter light crown-patch, which ends at middle of ears rather than extending down nape. Ears are buffy rather than whitish. Compared with the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (1. ornoci), ramp of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is more ocherous, and dorsum is slightly darker. Venter is ocherous buff. Tail is 107% of head-body length. Craniodental characteristics of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are similar to other species of Isothrix, but shorter diastema and deeper cranial vault (when viewed from the side) distinguish it from the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat and the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 112.Habitat.Seasonally inundated habitats in blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea from near sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.On following pages: 57. Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix bistriata); 58. Plain Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix pagurus); 59. Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix sinnamariensis); 60. Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat (Lonchothrix emiliae); 61. Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomyshispidus); 62. Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomysleniceps); 63. Hidden Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys occultus); 64. Para Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys stimulax); 65. Amazon Bamboo Rat (Dactylomysdactylinus); 66. Bolivian Bamboo Rat (Dactylomysboliviensis); 67. Montane Bamboo Rat (Dactylomys peruanus); 68. Atlantic Bamboo Rat (Kannabateomysamblyonyx); 69. White-tailed Olalla Rat (Olallamys albicauda); 70. Greedy Olalla Rat (Olallamys edax).621Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened in the Amazonian region, and much ofits distribution occurs in protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (2003), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1920d), Upham et al. (2013), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFF3FFC6FACD5FA658A9FCD4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,582,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF3FFC6FACD5FA658A9FCD4.xml,Isothrix negrensis,Isothrix,negrensis,Thomas,1920,Rat-épineux du Rio Negro @fr | Rio Negro-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de Rio Negro @es,"Isothrix bistriala negrensis Thomas, 1920, “Aca Acajutuba, lower on the Rio Negro, near its mouth”(= a little above Manaus on the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil).Isothrix negrensiswas initially described and subsequently regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriataby earlier workers, but C. R. Bonvicino and colleagues in 2003 elevated it to full species, largely based on karyotypic differences and reciprocally monophyletic molecular clade structure. Monotypic.","Amazon Basin of extreme E Colombia and NW Brazil through the Rio Negro Basin, and S of the Amazon River from the lower Rio Jurua E to near the Rio Madeira.","Head—body 203-292 mm, tail 182-271 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is a large species of Isothrix, similar in appearance to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (1. bistriata) but differing from that species primarily by its light and marked post-auricular patches and shorter light crown-patch, which ends at middle of ears rather than extending down nape. Ears are buffy rather than whitish. Compared with the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (1. ornoci), ramp of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is more ocherous, and dorsum is slightly darker. Venter is ocherous buff. Tail is 107% of head-body length. Craniodental characteristics of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are similar to other species of Isothrix, but shorter diastema and deeper cranial vault (when viewed from the side) distinguish it from the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat and the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 112.",Seasonally inundated habitats in blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea from near sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened in the Amazonian region, and much ofits distribution occurs in protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","Bonvicino et al. (2003) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1920d) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623792/files/figure.png,"56.Rio Negro Brush-tailed RatIsothrix negrensisFrench:Rat-épineux du Rio Negro/ German:Rio Negro-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de Rio NegroTaxonomy.Isothrix bistriala negrensis Thomas, 1920, “Aca Acajutuba, lower on the Rio Negro, near its mouth”(= a little above Manaus on the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil).Isothrix negrensiswas initially described and subsequently regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriataby earlier workers, but C. R. Bonvicino and colleagues in 2003 elevated it to full species, largely based on karyotypic differences and reciprocally monophyletic molecular clade structure. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin of extreme E Colombia and NW Brazil through the Rio Negro Basin, and S of the Amazon River from the lower Rio Jurua E to near the Rio Madeira.Descriptive notes.Head—body 203-292 mm, tail 182-271 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is a large species of Isothrix, similar in appearance to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (1. bistriata) but differing from that species primarily by its light and marked post-auricular patches and shorter light crown-patch, which ends at middle of ears rather than extending down nape. Ears are buffy rather than whitish. Compared with the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (1. ornoci), ramp of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is more ocherous, and dorsum is slightly darker. Venter is ocherous buff. Tail is 107% of head-body length. Craniodental characteristics of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are similar to other species of Isothrix, but shorter diastema and deeper cranial vault (when viewed from the side) distinguish it from the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat and the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 112.Habitat.Seasonally inundated habitats in blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea from near sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.On following pages: 57. Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix bistriata); 58. Plain Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix pagurus); 59. Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix sinnamariensis); 60. Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat (Lonchothrix emiliae); 61. Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomyshispidus); 62. Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomysleniceps); 63. Hidden Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys occultus); 64. Para Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys stimulax); 65. Amazon Bamboo Rat (Dactylomysdactylinus); 66. Bolivian Bamboo Rat (Dactylomysboliviensis); 67. Montane Bamboo Rat (Dactylomys peruanus); 68. Atlantic Bamboo Rat (Kannabateomysamblyonyx); 69. White-tailed Olalla Rat (Olallamys albicauda); 70. Greedy Olalla Rat (Olallamys edax).621Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened in the Amazonian region, and much ofits distribution occurs in protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (2003), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1920d), Upham et al. (2013), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF3FFC7FAD1591D53ECF8F1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,582,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF3FFC7FAD1591D53ECF8F1.xml,Isothrix orinoci,Isothrix,orinoci,,,Rat-épineux de @fr | 'Orénoque @en | Orinoco-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo del Orinoco @es,"Loncheres bistriatus orinoci Thomas, 1899, “Maipure, upper Orinoco,”Vichada, Colombia.Isothrixorinoct was long regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriata, but L. H. Emmons in 2005 elevated it to species status. Monotypic.",Amazon Basin of the upper Orinoco and Casiquiare rivers of extreme E Colombia and S Venezuela; it might occur in adjacent N Brazil.,"Head-body 207-257 mm, tail 168-278 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat is smaller than but similar to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (I. bistriata) and the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat (1. negrensis). The Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat is distinct in having bright yellow stripe over head between eyes and ears, dulling to grizzled gray, passing on each side without sharp contrast into dark supraorbital lines, which themselves coalesce on neck immediately behind head to form broad, black band. Prominent bright yellow stripe does not contrast significantly with black lines. Ears are dulled gray, but prominent white post-auricular patches contrast sharply with blacking nuchal part of coalesced supraorbital lines. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length (82-108%) and is similar to that of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat. Skull of the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat conforms to other species of Isothrix, but rostrum is shorter and nasal bones are proportionally longer compared with the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat and the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat.","owland evergreen forest, mostly in trees and rarely on the ground. Most collecting localities of Orinoco Brush-tailed Rats are near rivers and streams. Elevational range is primarily 100-260 m but also upward to top of Cerro Duido in Venezuela at 1600 m.","Habitat..owland evergreen forest, mostly in trees and rarely on the ground. Most collecting localities of Orinoco Brush-tailed Rats are near rivers and streams. Elevational range is primarily 100-260 m but also upward to top of Cerro Duido in Venezuela at 1600 m.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under I. bistriata). Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Pittier & Tate (1932) | Thomas (1899d) | Trouessart (1904) | Tate (1935) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623790/files/figure.png,"55.Orinoco Brush-tailed RatIsothrix orinociFrench:Rat-épineux de I'Orénoque/ German:Orinoco-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo del OrinocoTaxonomy.Loncheres bistriatus orinoci Thomas, 1899, “Maipure, upper Orinoco,”Vichada, Colombia.Isothrixorinoct was long regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriata, but L. H. Emmons in 2005 elevated it to species status. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin of the upper Orinoco and Casiquiare rivers of extreme E Colombia and S Venezuela; it might occur in adjacent N Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 207-257 mm, tail 168-278 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat is smaller than but similar to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (I. bistriata) and the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat (1. negrensis). The Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat is distinct in having bright yellow stripe over head between eyes and ears, dulling to grizzled gray, passing on each side without sharp contrast into dark supraorbital lines, which themselves coalesce on neck immediately behind head to form broad, black band. Prominent bright yellow stripe does not contrast significantly with black lines. Ears are dulled gray, but prominent white post-auricular patches contrast sharply with blacking nuchal part of coalesced supraorbital lines. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length (82-108%) and is similar to that of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat. Skull of the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat conforms to other species of Isothrix, but rostrum is shorter and nasal bones are proportionally longer compared with the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat and the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat.Habitat..owland evergreen forest, mostly in trees and rarely on the ground. Most collecting localities of Orinoco Brush-tailed Rats are near rivers and streams. Elevational range is primarily 100-260 m but also upward to top of Cerro Duido in Venezuela at 1600 m.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under I. bistriata). Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Pittier & Tate (1932), Thomas (1899d), Trouessart (1904), Tate (1935), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF3FFC7FFCE5A0D5BF8F330,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,582,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF3FFC7FFCE5A0D5BF8F330.xml,Isothrix barbarabrownae,Isothrix,barbarabrownae,Wagner,1845,Rat-épineux de Brown @fr | Barbara Brown-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de Barbara Brown @es,"Isothrix barbarabrownae Patterson & Velazco, 2006, “Km 138.5 on the Carretera Paucartambo-Shintuya, near ‘Suecia’ (a roadside restaurant), 1900 m, Provincia de Paucartambo, Departamento de Cuzco, Peru,” in the Cultural Zone of the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve at 13°6:032’S, 71°34-124’W.This species is monotypic.","SE Peru, known only from the type locality in the Cultural Zone of the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve.","There are no specific measurements available. Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat is known only from the holotype, a subadult specimen without erupted third molars; neither external measurements nor weight were provided in the original description. Furis lax and long, with hairs reaching 20 mm on back and 10 mm on venter. Dorsal pelage is agouti, gray at base, cinnamon or reddish brown for most of its length, with blackish tips; muzzle is grayish; and crown of head is colored similarly to back, thus lacking differentially colored stripe that characterizes most other species of Isothrix. White-tipped hairs cover flank, neck, and shoulders, and ventral color is only indistinctly separated from that on flanks. Crest of longer hairs is present in supraorbital region. Underfur is also dense, long, and wavy. Tail is densely furred along its entire length, covered by hairs 10 mm long and oriented perpendicularly to its axis. Tail color varies along its length from cinnamon at base, black through mid-part, and white at terminus. Scales remain slightly visible. Forehead and cheeks are washed with snuff brown color. Ear pinnae are burnt umber and mostly naked, except for elongated tuft on crown. Eyelids are fleshy, except for an elongate tuft of hairs. The single specimen retains craniodental characteristics typical of other species of Isothrix: rostrum is short and broad; zygomatic arch is bowed strongly outward and anterior to squamosal; auditory bullae are only slightly inflated and bear medium-sized meatus with distinctively short auditory tube that strongly slants forward. There is distinct slit between basisphenoid and presphenoid sutures. Squamosotympanic fenestra is long and openly rounded vacuity, posteriorly reaching base of supraoccipital process, which is connected to another slit-shaped vacuity along presphenoid and thus shaped like an apostrophe. Pterygoid region has no shelf behind base of hamular processes on wall of buccinator foramen. Mesopterygoid fossa is deep, extending forward to level of second molars. Incisive foramina are wide and broad. Jaws have strongly developed masseteric bases and pterygoid crests. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge and not contained within fossa. Maxillary cheekteeth are short and small compared with skull length. Cheekteeth are sub-circular with occlusal plane nearly parallel to palate. Hypoflexis(ids) of maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth are oval to sub-circular with mure. Loph (id)s just aside hypoflexi(id)s are curved around to molar edge, giving typical shape to teeth of all species of Isothrix. Lower dP, is pentalophodont, with short hypoflexid, mure, and parallel flexids. Distinct skull characteristics of Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat include more compact skull, non-swollen braincase, shallower temporal fossa, narrow and triangular infraorbital foramina, incisive foramina with well-developed maxillary septum, narrow palate, broad foramen magnum with distinct medial notch, and small auditory bullae.","Montane and elfin forest habitats at elevations of ¢.1850 m. Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat is presumably arboreal but was collected on the ground near a road bordered with ferns, mosses, and bryophytes near aforest. A second individual was sighted at night near the road in a rocky crevice with dry grasses.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat are needed, but the single known locality is within a protected zone.","Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008) | Patton et al. (2015) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623778/files/figure.png,"54.Barbara Brown’s Brush-tailed RatIsothrix barbarabrownaeFrench:Rat-épineux de Brown/ German:Barbara Brown-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de Barbara BrownTaxonomy.Isothrix barbarabrownae Patterson & Velazco, 2006, “Km 138.5 on the Carretera Paucartambo-Shintuya, near ‘Suecia’ (a roadside restaurant), 1900 m, Provincia de Paucartambo, Departamento de Cuzco, Peru,” in the Cultural Zone of the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve at 13°6:032’S, 71°34-124’W.This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Peru, known only from the type locality in the Cultural Zone of the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat is known only from the holotype, a subadult specimen without erupted third molars; neither external measurements nor weight were provided in the original description. Furis lax and long, with hairs reaching 20 mm on back and 10 mm on venter. Dorsal pelage is agouti, gray at base, cinnamon or reddish brown for most of its length, with blackish tips; muzzle is grayish; and crown of head is colored similarly to back, thus lacking differentially colored stripe that characterizes most other species of Isothrix. White-tipped hairs cover flank, neck, and shoulders, and ventral color is only indistinctly separated from that on flanks. Crest of longer hairs is present in supraorbital region. Underfur is also dense, long, and wavy. Tail is densely furred along its entire length, covered by hairs 10 mm long and oriented perpendicularly to its axis. Tail color varies along its length from cinnamon at base, black through mid-part, and white at terminus. Scales remain slightly visible. Forehead and cheeks are washed with snuff brown color. Ear pinnae are burnt umber and mostly naked, except for elongated tuft on crown. Eyelids are fleshy, except for an elongate tuft of hairs. The single specimen retains craniodental characteristics typical of other species of Isothrix: rostrum is short and broad; zygomatic arch is bowed strongly outward and anterior to squamosal; auditory bullae are only slightly inflated and bear medium-sized meatus with distinctively short auditory tube that strongly slants forward. There is distinct slit between basisphenoid and presphenoid sutures. Squamosotympanic fenestra is long and openly rounded vacuity, posteriorly reaching base of supraoccipital process, which is connected to another slit-shaped vacuity along presphenoid and thus shaped like an apostrophe. Pterygoid region has no shelf behind base of hamular processes on wall of buccinator foramen. Mesopterygoid fossa is deep, extending forward to level of second molars. Incisive foramina are wide and broad. Jaws have strongly developed masseteric bases and pterygoid crests. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge and not contained within fossa. Maxillary cheekteeth are short and small compared with skull length. Cheekteeth are sub-circular with occlusal plane nearly parallel to palate. Hypoflexis(ids) of maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth are oval to sub-circular with mure. Loph (id)s just aside hypoflexi(id)s are curved around to molar edge, giving typical shape to teeth of all species of Isothrix. Lower dP, is pentalophodont, with short hypoflexid, mure, and parallel flexids. Distinct skull characteristics of Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat include more compact skull, non-swollen braincase, shallower temporal fossa, narrow and triangular infraorbital foramina, incisive foramina with well-developed maxillary septum, narrow palate, broad foramen magnum with distinct medial notch, and small auditory bullae.Habitat.Montane and elfin forest habitats at elevations of ¢.1850 m. Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat is presumably arboreal but was collected on the ground near a road bordered with ferns, mosses, and bryophytes near aforest. A second individual was sighted at night near the road in a rocky crevice with dry grasses.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat are needed, but the single known locality is within a protected zone.Bibliography.Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF01590A5B1EF58A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,577,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF01590A5B1EF58A.xml,Proechimys mincae,Proechimys,mincae,,,Rat-épineux de Minca @fr | Minca-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Minca @es,"Echimys mincae J. A. Allen, 1899, “Minca, Santa Marta District,” Magdalena, Colombia.Proechimys mincaeisa member of the trinitatisspecies group. Monotypic.","N Colombia, Lower Rio Magdalena Valley in low-elevation areas of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.","Head-body 220-230 mm, tail 200-210 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Minca Spiny-rat is moderately large, with proportionately long tail (¢.90% of headbody length). Dorsum is reddish brown speckled with black, becoming slightly paler on sides; venteris white from chin to inguinal region but varyingly bordered by light buff margins. White inner thigh stripe passes weakly across ankle to be confluent with basically dirty white dorsal surface of hindfoot, with toes only slightly darker. All plantar pads are enlarged and well developed, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal in size. Tail is bicolored, brownish gray above and pale cream below. It is thinly haired with large, irregularly shaped scales, that are readily visible to the eye; scale annuli average 8-9/cm. Aristiform spines are long (20-22 mm) and thin (0-6— 0-8 mm) but stiff, giving pelage raspy texture when brushed. Tip of each aristiform may terminate in short, whip-like extension or be blunt. Skull of the Minca Spiny-rat is similar to those of most species of Proechimys: elongated, relatively narrow, and with tapering rostrum. Temporal region of braincase is smooth, lacking virtually any evidence of ridges extending posterior to supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are wide and with somewhat rounded sides giving opening an oval shape; posterolateral flanges are non-existent or so weakly developed that anterior palate lacks grooves; premaxillary part of septum is well developed and long, filling more than one-half the distance of opening, but either does not or only rarely contacts greatly attenuated maxillary part; mid-palate may have small medial ridge, but small maxillary part of septum lacks any hint of keel; and vomer can often be seen in ventral view. Groove marking passage of infraorbital nerve and defined by lateral flange is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, opens at an angle averaging 57°, and penetrates posterior palate to level of M2. Cheekteeth are relatively simple, with never more than three folds above, but often only two on M? and especially M*lower cheekteeth typically have three folds on dP, but only two on each molar; counterfold formula is 3-3-2(3)-2(3) /3-2-2-2. Baculum of the Minca Spiny-rat is long (length 7-:3-9-9 mm) and stout (proximal width 2:4-2-9 mm);distal width 2:4-2-9 mm), similar in size and shape to that of other species in the trinitatisspecies group, except for that of the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 48 and FN = 68.",Tropical forests around lower flanks of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia from sea level to elevations of ¢.500 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Minca Spiny-rat presumably eats fruit, seeds, and other plant parts.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Minca Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats of Minca Spiny-rat are needed.","Allen (1899a, 1899b) | Eisenberg (1989) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623760/files/figure.png,"47.Minca Spiny-ratProechimys mincaeFrench:Rat-épineux de Minca/ German:Minca-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de MincaTaxonomy.Echimys mincae J. A. Allen, 1899, “Minca, Santa Marta District,” Magdalena, Colombia.Proechimys mincaeisa member of the trinitatisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.N Colombia, Lower Rio Magdalena Valley in low-elevation areas of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm, tail 200-210 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Minca Spiny-rat is moderately large, with proportionately long tail (¢.90% of headbody length). Dorsum is reddish brown speckled with black, becoming slightly paler on sides; venteris white from chin to inguinal region but varyingly bordered by light buff margins. White inner thigh stripe passes weakly across ankle to be confluent with basically dirty white dorsal surface of hindfoot, with toes only slightly darker. All plantar pads are enlarged and well developed, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal in size. Tail is bicolored, brownish gray above and pale cream below. It is thinly haired with large, irregularly shaped scales, that are readily visible to the eye; scale annuli average 8-9/cm. Aristiform spines are long (20-22 mm) and thin (0-6— 0-8 mm) but stiff, giving pelage raspy texture when brushed. Tip of each aristiform may terminate in short, whip-like extension or be blunt. Skull of the Minca Spiny-rat is similar to those of most species of Proechimys: elongated, relatively narrow, and with tapering rostrum. Temporal region of braincase is smooth, lacking virtually any evidence of ridges extending posterior to supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are wide and with somewhat rounded sides giving opening an oval shape; posterolateral flanges are non-existent or so weakly developed that anterior palate lacks grooves; premaxillary part of septum is well developed and long, filling more than one-half the distance of opening, but either does not or only rarely contacts greatly attenuated maxillary part; mid-palate may have small medial ridge, but small maxillary part of septum lacks any hint of keel; and vomer can often be seen in ventral view. Groove marking passage of infraorbital nerve and defined by lateral flange is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, opens at an angle averaging 57°, and penetrates posterior palate to level of M2. Cheekteeth are relatively simple, with never more than three folds above, but often only two on M? and especially M*lower cheekteeth typically have three folds on dP, but only two on each molar; counterfold formula is 3-3-2(3)-2(3) /3-2-2-2. Baculum of the Minca Spiny-rat is long (length 7-:3-9-9 mm) and stout (proximal width 2:4-2-9 mm);distal width 2:4-2-9 mm), similar in size and shape to that of other species in the trinitatisspecies group, except for that of the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 48 and FN = 68.Habitat.Tropical forests around lower flanks of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia from sea level to elevations of ¢.500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Minca Spiny-rat presumably eats fruit, seeds, and other plant parts.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Minca Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats of Minca Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1899a, 1899b), Eisenberg (1989), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF085261522DF468,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,577,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF085261522DF468.xml,Proechimys guairae,Proechimys,guairae,Thomas,1901,Rat-épineux de La Guaira @fr | Guaira-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de La Guaira @es | La Guaira Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys guairae Thomas, 1901, “La Guaira,” Vargas, Venezuela.Proechimys guairaeis a member of the innitatisspecies group. It includes ochraceus and poliopusas synonyms. It is highly variable in karyotype and has been divided into regional “races,” three of which correspond to formal taxa (at specific or subspecific levels), but others are yet to be defined and diagnosed. Three subspecies recognized.","P.g.guairaeThomas,1901—N&CVenezuela,inCordilleraCentral,EAndeanfoothills,andWLosLlanos.P.g.ochraceusOsgood,1912—NEColombiaandNWVenezuela,inNEMaracaiboLakeandSistemaCoriano.P.g. poliopus Osgood, 1914— NE Colombia and W Venezuela, in W & S Maracaibo Lake, W Andean foothills, and the upper Los Llanos.","Head-body 210-240 mm,tail 170-200 mm; weight 340-400 g. The Guaira Spiny-rat is medium to large-bodied, with absolutely and proportionately long tail for a species of Proechimys(average c¢.85% of head—body length). Dorsum is light reddish brown, lined with black along southern slopes of the Cordillera de Mérida, but distinctly paler and more yellowish brown in drier forests around Lake Maracaibo. Ventral color is white from chin to inguinal region, including white inner thighs where stripe may be continuous across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. As a consequence, hindfeet are pale above but often have lateral light brown stripe extending from ankle to cover digits. Plantar pads of hindfeet are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads large and sub-equalin size. Tail is bicolored, light brown above and pale below, lightly haired so that large scales are obvious to the eye; scale annuli average 7-8 annuli/cm. Pelage is coarse but relatively soft to the touch, with long (20-22 mm) and narrow (0-5-0-7 mm) aristiform spines tipped with whip-like extensions. Skull of the Guaira Spiny-rat is unremarkable, sharing conformational shape of most species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are undeveloped or present only as weak and short posterior extension from supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are broad and long, oval to slightly teardrop in shape, and with weakly developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming slight moderate grooves; premaxillary part of septum is narrow, extends at least to midpoint of opening but may be only weakly connected to maxillary part, or not at all; maxillary part is thin and attenuated, slightly keeled so that medial ridge may be present on anterior palate; and vomeris visible between premaxillary and maxillary septal elements in ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be either smooth or with slight groove developed by short lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa varies from narrow to moderate in width, with an angle 47-55°, butit penetrates typically to at least the posterior margins of M? and commonly even deeper. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and comprised ofjugal alone or by equal contributions ofjugal and squamosal. Three folds are uniformly present on dP*, M', and M?, with M?* having either 2-3 folds in about equal proportions within samples. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on dP, and two folds on molar series. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/3-(2)3-(2)3-(2)3. Baculum has same elongated, narrow shape and generalsize as other species in the trinitatisspecies group, and ¢.10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide, with bulbous base notched at midline and weakly developed apical wings. Chromosome complement is highly variable: 2n = 62 and FN = 72 at Apure, 2n = 48-50 and FN = 72 at Barinas, 2n = 46 and FN = 72 in nominate subspecies guairae, 2n = 44 and FN = 76 in subspecies ocherous, and 2n = 42 and FN = 76 in subspecies poliopus.","Primary and secondary dry tropical forests and human agricultural croplands from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m. Guaira Spiny-rats have been trapped amidst roots of wild pineapple (Ananas, Bromeliaceae) in arid forests of the north-eastern slope of Lake Maracaibo.","There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat probably feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.","At one site in coastal Venezuela, reproductively active adult Guaira Spinyrats were trapped throughout a two-year sampling period, butjuveniles were only present at the beginning of the rainy season and otherwise absent during the dry season. Breeding was thus posited to be year-round. One recaptured female was pregnant at least three times during the year.","There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.","In coastal Venezuela, average home ranges of male Guaira Spiny-rats were three times as large as the average female home range. Females had exclusive home ranges, but those of males overlapped broadly with other individuals of both sexes. Overall population densities were 1 ind/ha to nearly 4 ind/ha, with effective density estimates of 3-20 ind/ha. Similar densities have been reported at another Venezuelan site. These overall patterns suggested that female Guaira Spiny-rats were territorial and the social system was promiscuous or polygynous mating system.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, subspecies poliopusis listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as P. poliopus). Although it is relatively abundant in its restricted distribution ofless than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten localities, and extent and quality of its habitat are apparently declining, even in protected areas that are extractive preserves. Otherwise, the Guaira Spiny-rat is viewed as widespread, occupying broad variety of forest types, including those modified by humans; it occurs in several national parks and is not judged to be declining overall despite human alteration. Additional studies of the Guaira Spiny-rat, particularly the area occupied by poliopus, are needed.","Aguilera (1999) | Aguilera et al. (1995) | Benado et al. (1979) | Eisenberg (1989) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Osgood (1912, 1914) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Reig & Useche (1976) | Reig et al. (1980) | Thomas (1901b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"48.Guaira Spiny-ratProechimys guairaeFrench:Rat-épineux de La Guaira/ German:Guaira-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de La GuairaOther common names:La Guaira Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys guairae Thomas, 1901, “La Guaira,” Vargas, Venezuela.Proechimys guairaeis a member of the innitatisspecies group. It includes ochraceus and poliopusas synonyms. It is highly variable in karyotype and has been divided into regional “races,” three of which correspond to formal taxa (at specific or subspecific levels), but others are yet to be defined and diagnosed. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.g.guairaeThomas,1901—N&CVenezuela,inCordilleraCentral,EAndeanfoothills,andWLosLlanos.P.g.ochraceusOsgood,1912—NEColombiaandNWVenezuela,inNEMaracaiboLakeandSistemaCoriano.P.g. poliopus Osgood, 1914— NE Colombia and W Venezuela, in W & S Maracaibo Lake, W Andean foothills, and the upper Los Llanos.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-240 mm,tail 170-200 mm; weight 340-400 g. The Guaira Spiny-rat is medium to large-bodied, with absolutely and proportionately long tail for a species of Proechimys(average c¢.85% of head—body length). Dorsum is light reddish brown, lined with black along southern slopes of the Cordillera de Mérida, but distinctly paler and more yellowish brown in drier forests around Lake Maracaibo. Ventral color is white from chin to inguinal region, including white inner thighs where stripe may be continuous across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. As a consequence, hindfeet are pale above but often have lateral light brown stripe extending from ankle to cover digits. Plantar pads of hindfeet are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads large and sub-equalin size. Tail is bicolored, light brown above and pale below, lightly haired so that large scales are obvious to the eye; scale annuli average 7-8 annuli/cm. Pelage is coarse but relatively soft to the touch, with long (20-22 mm) and narrow (0-5-0-7 mm) aristiform spines tipped with whip-like extensions. Skull of the Guaira Spiny-rat is unremarkable, sharing conformational shape of most species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are undeveloped or present only as weak and short posterior extension from supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are broad and long, oval to slightly teardrop in shape, and with weakly developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming slight moderate grooves; premaxillary part of septum is narrow, extends at least to midpoint of opening but may be only weakly connected to maxillary part, or not at all; maxillary part is thin and attenuated, slightly keeled so that medial ridge may be present on anterior palate; and vomeris visible between premaxillary and maxillary septal elements in ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be either smooth or with slight groove developed by short lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa varies from narrow to moderate in width, with an angle 47-55°, butit penetrates typically to at least the posterior margins of M? and commonly even deeper. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and comprised ofjugal alone or by equal contributions ofjugal and squamosal. Three folds are uniformly present on dP*, M', and M?, with M?* having either 2-3 folds in about equal proportions within samples. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on dP, and two folds on molar series. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/3-(2)3-(2)3-(2)3. Baculum has same elongated, narrow shape and generalsize as other species in the trinitatisspecies group, and ¢.10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide, with bulbous base notched at midline and weakly developed apical wings. Chromosome complement is highly variable: 2n = 62 and FN = 72 at Apure, 2n = 48-50 and FN = 72 at Barinas, 2n = 46 and FN = 72 in nominate subspecies guairae, 2n = 44 and FN = 76 in subspecies ocherous, and 2n = 42 and FN = 76 in subspecies poliopus.Habitat.Primary and secondary dry tropical forests and human agricultural croplands from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m. Guaira Spiny-rats have been trapped amidst roots of wild pineapple (Ananas, Bromeliaceae) in arid forests of the north-eastern slope of Lake Maracaibo.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat probably feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.At one site in coastal Venezuela, reproductively active adult Guaira Spinyrats were trapped throughout a two-year sampling period, butjuveniles were only present at the beginning of the rainy season and otherwise absent during the dry season. Breeding was thus posited to be year-round. One recaptured female was pregnant at least three times during the year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In coastal Venezuela, average home ranges of male Guaira Spiny-rats were three times as large as the average female home range. Females had exclusive home ranges, but those of males overlapped broadly with other individuals of both sexes. Overall population densities were 1 ind/ha to nearly 4 ind/ha, with effective density estimates of 3-20 ind/ha. Similar densities have been reported at another Venezuelan site. These overall patterns suggested that female Guaira Spiny-rats were territorial and the social system was promiscuous or polygynous mating system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, subspecies poliopusis listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as P. poliopus). Although it is relatively abundant in its restricted distribution ofless than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten localities, and extent and quality of its habitat are apparently declining, even in protected areas that are extractive preserves. Otherwise, the Guaira Spiny-rat is viewed as widespread, occupying broad variety of forest types, including those modified by humans; it occurs in several national parks and is not judged to be declining overall despite human alteration. Additional studies of the Guaira Spiny-rat, particularly the area occupied by poliopus, are needed.Bibliography.Aguilera (1999), Aguilera et al. (1995), Benado et al. (1979), Eisenberg (1989), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Hershkovitz (1948), Osgood (1912, 1914), Patton & Leite (2015), Reig & Useche (1976), Reig et al. (1980), Thomas (1901b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF085261522DF468,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,577,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF085261522DF468.xml,Proechimys guairae,Proechimys,guairae,Thomas,1901,Rat-épineux de La Guaira @fr | Guaira-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de La Guaira @es | La Guaira Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys guairae Thomas, 1901, “La Guaira,” Vargas, Venezuela.Proechimys guairaeis a member of the innitatisspecies group. It includes ochraceus and poliopusas synonyms. It is highly variable in karyotype and has been divided into regional “races,” three of which correspond to formal taxa (at specific or subspecific levels), but others are yet to be defined and diagnosed. Three subspecies recognized.","P.g.guairaeThomas,1901—N&CVenezuela,inCordilleraCentral,EAndeanfoothills,andWLosLlanos.P.g.ochraceusOsgood,1912—NEColombiaandNWVenezuela,inNEMaracaiboLakeandSistemaCoriano.P.g. poliopus Osgood, 1914— NE Colombia and W Venezuela, in W & S Maracaibo Lake, W Andean foothills, and the upper Los Llanos.","Head-body 210-240 mm,tail 170-200 mm; weight 340-400 g. The Guaira Spiny-rat is medium to large-bodied, with absolutely and proportionately long tail for a species of Proechimys(average c¢.85% of head—body length). Dorsum is light reddish brown, lined with black along southern slopes of the Cordillera de Mérida, but distinctly paler and more yellowish brown in drier forests around Lake Maracaibo. Ventral color is white from chin to inguinal region, including white inner thighs where stripe may be continuous across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. As a consequence, hindfeet are pale above but often have lateral light brown stripe extending from ankle to cover digits. Plantar pads of hindfeet are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads large and sub-equalin size. Tail is bicolored, light brown above and pale below, lightly haired so that large scales are obvious to the eye; scale annuli average 7-8 annuli/cm. Pelage is coarse but relatively soft to the touch, with long (20-22 mm) and narrow (0-5-0-7 mm) aristiform spines tipped with whip-like extensions. Skull of the Guaira Spiny-rat is unremarkable, sharing conformational shape of most species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are undeveloped or present only as weak and short posterior extension from supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are broad and long, oval to slightly teardrop in shape, and with weakly developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming slight moderate grooves; premaxillary part of septum is narrow, extends at least to midpoint of opening but may be only weakly connected to maxillary part, or not at all; maxillary part is thin and attenuated, slightly keeled so that medial ridge may be present on anterior palate; and vomeris visible between premaxillary and maxillary septal elements in ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be either smooth or with slight groove developed by short lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa varies from narrow to moderate in width, with an angle 47-55°, butit penetrates typically to at least the posterior margins of M? and commonly even deeper. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and comprised ofjugal alone or by equal contributions ofjugal and squamosal. Three folds are uniformly present on dP*, M', and M?, with M?* having either 2-3 folds in about equal proportions within samples. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on dP, and two folds on molar series. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/3-(2)3-(2)3-(2)3. Baculum has same elongated, narrow shape and generalsize as other species in the trinitatisspecies group, and ¢.10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide, with bulbous base notched at midline and weakly developed apical wings. Chromosome complement is highly variable: 2n = 62 and FN = 72 at Apure, 2n = 48-50 and FN = 72 at Barinas, 2n = 46 and FN = 72 in nominate subspecies guairae, 2n = 44 and FN = 76 in subspecies ocherous, and 2n = 42 and FN = 76 in subspecies poliopus.","Primary and secondary dry tropical forests and human agricultural croplands from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m. Guaira Spiny-rats have been trapped amidst roots of wild pineapple (Ananas, Bromeliaceae) in arid forests of the north-eastern slope of Lake Maracaibo.","There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat probably feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.","At one site in coastal Venezuela, reproductively active adult Guaira Spinyrats were trapped throughout a two-year sampling period, butjuveniles were only present at the beginning of the rainy season and otherwise absent during the dry season. Breeding was thus posited to be year-round. One recaptured female was pregnant at least three times during the year.","There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.","In coastal Venezuela, average home ranges of male Guaira Spiny-rats were three times as large as the average female home range. Females had exclusive home ranges, but those of males overlapped broadly with other individuals of both sexes. Overall population densities were 1 ind/ha to nearly 4 ind/ha, with effective density estimates of 3-20 ind/ha. Similar densities have been reported at another Venezuelan site. These overall patterns suggested that female Guaira Spiny-rats were territorial and the social system was promiscuous or polygynous mating system.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, subspecies poliopusis listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as P. poliopus). Although it is relatively abundant in its restricted distribution ofless than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten localities, and extent and quality of its habitat are apparently declining, even in protected areas that are extractive preserves. Otherwise, the Guaira Spiny-rat is viewed as widespread, occupying broad variety of forest types, including those modified by humans; it occurs in several national parks and is not judged to be declining overall despite human alteration. Additional studies of the Guaira Spiny-rat, particularly the area occupied by poliopus, are needed.","Aguilera (1999) | Aguilera et al. (1995) | Benado et al. (1979) | Eisenberg (1989) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Osgood (1912, 1914) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Reig & Useche (1976) | Reig et al. (1980) | Thomas (1901b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623762/files/figure.png,"48.Guaira Spiny-ratProechimys guairaeFrench:Rat-épineux de La Guaira/ German:Guaira-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de La GuairaOther common names:La Guaira Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys guairae Thomas, 1901, “La Guaira,” Vargas, Venezuela.Proechimys guairaeis a member of the innitatisspecies group. It includes ochraceus and poliopusas synonyms. It is highly variable in karyotype and has been divided into regional “races,” three of which correspond to formal taxa (at specific or subspecific levels), but others are yet to be defined and diagnosed. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.g.guairaeThomas,1901—N&CVenezuela,inCordilleraCentral,EAndeanfoothills,andWLosLlanos.P.g.ochraceusOsgood,1912—NEColombiaandNWVenezuela,inNEMaracaiboLakeandSistemaCoriano.P.g. poliopus Osgood, 1914— NE Colombia and W Venezuela, in W & S Maracaibo Lake, W Andean foothills, and the upper Los Llanos.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-240 mm,tail 170-200 mm; weight 340-400 g. The Guaira Spiny-rat is medium to large-bodied, with absolutely and proportionately long tail for a species of Proechimys(average c¢.85% of head—body length). Dorsum is light reddish brown, lined with black along southern slopes of the Cordillera de Mérida, but distinctly paler and more yellowish brown in drier forests around Lake Maracaibo. Ventral color is white from chin to inguinal region, including white inner thighs where stripe may be continuous across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. As a consequence, hindfeet are pale above but often have lateral light brown stripe extending from ankle to cover digits. Plantar pads of hindfeet are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads large and sub-equalin size. Tail is bicolored, light brown above and pale below, lightly haired so that large scales are obvious to the eye; scale annuli average 7-8 annuli/cm. Pelage is coarse but relatively soft to the touch, with long (20-22 mm) and narrow (0-5-0-7 mm) aristiform spines tipped with whip-like extensions. Skull of the Guaira Spiny-rat is unremarkable, sharing conformational shape of most species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are undeveloped or present only as weak and short posterior extension from supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are broad and long, oval to slightly teardrop in shape, and with weakly developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming slight moderate grooves; premaxillary part of septum is narrow, extends at least to midpoint of opening but may be only weakly connected to maxillary part, or not at all; maxillary part is thin and attenuated, slightly keeled so that medial ridge may be present on anterior palate; and vomeris visible between premaxillary and maxillary septal elements in ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be either smooth or with slight groove developed by short lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa varies from narrow to moderate in width, with an angle 47-55°, butit penetrates typically to at least the posterior margins of M? and commonly even deeper. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and comprised ofjugal alone or by equal contributions ofjugal and squamosal. Three folds are uniformly present on dP*, M', and M?, with M?* having either 2-3 folds in about equal proportions within samples. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on dP, and two folds on molar series. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/3-(2)3-(2)3-(2)3. Baculum has same elongated, narrow shape and generalsize as other species in the trinitatisspecies group, and ¢.10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide, with bulbous base notched at midline and weakly developed apical wings. Chromosome complement is highly variable: 2n = 62 and FN = 72 at Apure, 2n = 48-50 and FN = 72 at Barinas, 2n = 46 and FN = 72 in nominate subspecies guairae, 2n = 44 and FN = 76 in subspecies ocherous, and 2n = 42 and FN = 76 in subspecies poliopus.Habitat.Primary and secondary dry tropical forests and human agricultural croplands from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m. Guaira Spiny-rats have been trapped amidst roots of wild pineapple (Ananas, Bromeliaceae) in arid forests of the north-eastern slope of Lake Maracaibo.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat probably feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.At one site in coastal Venezuela, reproductively active adult Guaira Spinyrats were trapped throughout a two-year sampling period, butjuveniles were only present at the beginning of the rainy season and otherwise absent during the dry season. Breeding was thus posited to be year-round. One recaptured female was pregnant at least three times during the year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In coastal Venezuela, average home ranges of male Guaira Spiny-rats were three times as large as the average female home range. Females had exclusive home ranges, but those of males overlapped broadly with other individuals of both sexes. Overall population densities were 1 ind/ha to nearly 4 ind/ha, with effective density estimates of 3-20 ind/ha. Similar densities have been reported at another Venezuelan site. These overall patterns suggested that female Guaira Spiny-rats were territorial and the social system was promiscuous or polygynous mating system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, subspecies poliopusis listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as P. poliopus). Although it is relatively abundant in its restricted distribution ofless than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten localities, and extent and quality of its habitat are apparently declining, even in protected areas that are extractive preserves. Otherwise, the Guaira Spiny-rat is viewed as widespread, occupying broad variety of forest types, including those modified by humans; it occurs in several national parks and is not judged to be declining overall despite human alteration. Additional studies of the Guaira Spiny-rat, particularly the area occupied by poliopus, are needed.Bibliography.Aguilera (1999), Aguilera et al. (1995), Benado et al. (1979), Eisenberg (1989), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Hershkovitz (1948), Osgood (1912, 1914), Patton & Leite (2015), Reig & Useche (1976), Reig et al. (1980), Thomas (1901b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF4FFC3FA11544C598BF4F6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,577,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF4FFC3FA11544C598BF4F6.xml,Proechimys trinitatis,Proechimys,trinitatis,,,Rat-épineux de Trinidad @fr | Trinidad-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Trinidad @es,"Echimys trinitatis |. A. Allen & Chapman, 1893, “Princestown [= Prince Town], Trinidad,” Trinidad and Tobago.Proechimys trinitatisis a member of the trinitatisspecies group. It includes wurichi as a synonym. Mainland wrichi has often been regarded a species distinct from the nominotypical insular trinitatis. Monotypic.",Trinidad I and adjacent coastal lowlands of N Venezuela.,"Head-body 265-270 mm, tail 200-210 mm; weight 460 g.The Trinidad Spiny-rat is moderately large, with proportionately long tail (75-80% of head-body length). Dorsum is brownish orange, heavily mixed with black, only slightly paler on sides and contrasting with pure white venter. White inner thigh stripe may continue across ankle to medial side of hindfoot surface, which is otherwise brownish. Plantar pads of hindfoot are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered very sparsely with short hairs so that it appears quite naked to the eye. Tail scales are large, almost oval in shape, and only 6—7 annuli/cm along mid-tail. Pelage is relatively soft to the touch; aristiform spines are long (20-22 mm) and thin (0-:3-0-5 mm) and terminate in extended whip-like tips. Overall shape of skull of the Trinidad Spiny-rat is similar to most other species of Proechimys, relatively narrow and elongated, with long and tapering rostrum. Weak temporal ridges that extend back to mid-parietal from supraorbital ledges are present in older individuals but are less obvious in younger individuals. Incisive foramina are wide and oval in general shape, with only weak posterolateral flanges, if present at all, so that anterior palate is either flat or weakly groove; premaxillary part of septum is variable in size laterally and may extend virtually entire length of opening or only to a point; maxillary part is narrow and weakly developed, barely in contact with premaxilla, and only weakly keeled, typically without extending onto anterior palate as a continuing medial ridge; and vomer part of septum is usually not visible ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved and bordered laterally by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively narrow, forming angle of ¢.53°, and deep, typically penetrating to anterior edge of M? or posterior edge of M*. Post-orbital process of zygoma is weakly to moderately developed and composed entirely of squamosal. Paroccipital processes are distinctly broad, flattened, and tightly appressed to bulla, more so than in any other species of Proechimys. Upper cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on each, except that M’ occasionally has only two; lower cheekteeth all have three folds, less commonly molars may have only two; counterfold pattern is 3-3-3—(2) /3—-(2)—-(2)-(2). Baculum is elongated (length 9-7-10-5 mm) but moderately wide (proximal width 3-1-3-2 mm; distal width 3-1-3-3 mm), with slightly expanded base with median notch, straight sides, and slight apical wings. It is similar to those of other species within the trinitatisspecies group. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 62 and FN = 80 in Venezuela and on Trinidad Island.","Open evergreen, seasonal marsh forest with dominant lower canopy of mostly palms (Arecaceae) and emergent upper canopy of hardwood trees, interior secondary rainforest on Trinidad, and coastal lowlands and montane areas of north-eastern Venezuela from near sea level to elevations of ¢.1300 m.",Diet of the Trinidad Spiny-rat consists primarily of fruit and seeds and opportunistically includes small leaves and even arthropods.,"Captive breeding of Trinidad Spiny-rats from Trinidad indicated gestation of 62-64 days, mean litter size of 2-4, mean birth weight of 24-7 g, and achievement of reproductive maturity within c¢.5 months of birth.",Trapping data suggest that the Trinidad Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.,"In field studies in marsh forest on Trinidad, monthly average densities were 1-5 ind/ha-2-1 ind/ha; average home range size was 0-17 ha; 95% of all individuals moved less than 95 m over successive trapping events; and home ranges of males and females overlapped ¢.47%. In sum, these data suggest likely polygynous mating system. In captivity, average life spans were 20-41 months. Individuals were also docile when housed alone but became quite aggressive when kept together, often inflicting wounds on one another. This captive observation suggests that Trinidad Spiny-rats are solitary in the wild.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Trinidad Spiny-rat was abundant during 1970 surveys in Trinidad, where it occurred in a large protected area. Little is known about the Trinidad Spiny-rat in coastal Venezuela. Therefore, adequate surveys are needed to appropriately assess current conservation status of the Trinidad Spiny-rat in both parts ofits distribution.","Allen & Chapman (1893) | Benado et al. (1979) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Everard & Tikasingh (1973) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Reig, Barros et al. (1980) | Reig, Tranier & Barros (1979) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623766/files/figure.png,"49.Trinidad Spiny-ratProechimys trinitatisFrench:Rat-épineux de Trinidad/ German:Trinidad-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de TrinidadTaxonomy.Echimys trinitatis |. A. Allen & Chapman, 1893, “Princestown [= Prince Town], Trinidad,” Trinidad and Tobago.Proechimys trinitatisis a member of the trinitatisspecies group. It includes wurichi as a synonym. Mainland wrichi has often been regarded a species distinct from the nominotypical insular trinitatis. Monotypic.Distribution.Trinidad I and adjacent coastal lowlands of N Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 265-270 mm, tail 200-210 mm; weight 460 g.The Trinidad Spiny-rat is moderately large, with proportionately long tail (75-80% of head-body length). Dorsum is brownish orange, heavily mixed with black, only slightly paler on sides and contrasting with pure white venter. White inner thigh stripe may continue across ankle to medial side of hindfoot surface, which is otherwise brownish. Plantar pads of hindfoot are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered very sparsely with short hairs so that it appears quite naked to the eye. Tail scales are large, almost oval in shape, and only 6—7 annuli/cm along mid-tail. Pelage is relatively soft to the touch; aristiform spines are long (20-22 mm) and thin (0-:3-0-5 mm) and terminate in extended whip-like tips. Overall shape of skull of the Trinidad Spiny-rat is similar to most other species of Proechimys, relatively narrow and elongated, with long and tapering rostrum. Weak temporal ridges that extend back to mid-parietal from supraorbital ledges are present in older individuals but are less obvious in younger individuals. Incisive foramina are wide and oval in general shape, with only weak posterolateral flanges, if present at all, so that anterior palate is either flat or weakly groove; premaxillary part of septum is variable in size laterally and may extend virtually entire length of opening or only to a point; maxillary part is narrow and weakly developed, barely in contact with premaxilla, and only weakly keeled, typically without extending onto anterior palate as a continuing medial ridge; and vomer part of septum is usually not visible ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved and bordered laterally by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively narrow, forming angle of ¢.53°, and deep, typically penetrating to anterior edge of M? or posterior edge of M*. Post-orbital process of zygoma is weakly to moderately developed and composed entirely of squamosal. Paroccipital processes are distinctly broad, flattened, and tightly appressed to bulla, more so than in any other species of Proechimys. Upper cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on each, except that M’ occasionally has only two; lower cheekteeth all have three folds, less commonly molars may have only two; counterfold pattern is 3-3-3—(2) /3—-(2)—-(2)-(2). Baculum is elongated (length 9-7-10-5 mm) but moderately wide (proximal width 3-1-3-2 mm; distal width 3-1-3-3 mm), with slightly expanded base with median notch, straight sides, and slight apical wings. It is similar to those of other species within the trinitatisspecies group. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 62 and FN = 80 in Venezuela and on Trinidad Island.Habitat.Open evergreen, seasonal marsh forest with dominant lower canopy of mostly palms (Arecaceae) and emergent upper canopy of hardwood trees, interior secondary rainforest on Trinidad, and coastal lowlands and montane areas of north-eastern Venezuela from near sea level to elevations of ¢.1300 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Trinidad Spiny-rat consists primarily of fruit and seeds and opportunistically includes small leaves and even arthropods.Breeding.Captive breeding of Trinidad Spiny-rats from Trinidad indicated gestation of 62-64 days, mean litter size of 2-4, mean birth weight of 24-7 g, and achievement of reproductive maturity within c¢.5 months of birth.Activity patterns.Trapping data suggest that the Trinidad Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In field studies in marsh forest on Trinidad, monthly average densities were 1-5 ind/ha-2-1 ind/ha; average home range size was 0-17 ha; 95% of all individuals moved less than 95 m over successive trapping events; and home ranges of males and females overlapped ¢.47%. In sum, these data suggest likely polygynous mating system. In captivity, average life spans were 20-41 months. Individuals were also docile when housed alone but became quite aggressive when kept together, often inflicting wounds on one another. This captive observation suggests that Trinidad Spiny-rats are solitary in the wild.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Trinidad Spiny-rat was abundant during 1970 surveys in Trinidad, where it occurred in a large protected area. Little is known about the Trinidad Spiny-rat in coastal Venezuela. Therefore, adequate surveys are needed to appropriately assess current conservation status of the Trinidad Spiny-rat in both parts ofits distribution.Bibliography.Allen & Chapman (1893), Benado et al. (1979), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Everard & Tikasingh (1973), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Reig, Barros et al. (1980), Reig, Tranier & Barros (1979), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF5FFC1FAC85C105DF9F216,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,576,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF5FFC1FAC85C105DF9F216.xml,Proechimys chrysaeolus,Proechimys,chrysaeolus,,,Rat-épineux du Boyaca @fr | Boyaca-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Boyaca @es,"Echimys chrysaeolus Thomas, 1898, “Muzo, N of Bogota,” Cundinamarca, Colombia.Proechimys chrysaeolusbelongs to the trinitatisspecies group. It includes magdalenae as a synonym. Taxonomic relationships between typical chrysaeolusand magdalenae remain unresolved; these two taxa may represent valid races or even distinct species. Monotypic.","N Colombia, lower Cauca and Magdalena valleys W of E Andes Range.","Head—body 210-220 mm,tail 145-160 mm; weight 370 g. The Boyaca Spiny-rat is medium-sized relative to other species of Proechimys. Dorsum is dark yellowish to reddish brown, speckled with black hairs on back;sides are only marginally paler than mid-back but abruptly contrasting with venter, which is white from chin to inguinal region. Broad and dark angle band from few white hairs on dorsal surfaces of hindfeet interrupts white inner thigh stripes. Hindfootvaries in dorsal color butis typically dark or may have silvery hairs across metatarsals; toes are always dark brown. All plantar pads are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal in size. Tail is dark brown above and pale below, sparsely haired, and naked to the eye, with scale annuli forming distinct rings, more so than in most other species of Proechimys, with 10-13 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff and bristly to the touch, with well-developed aristiform hairs averaging 20-22 mm in length and 0-9-1-1 mm in width, terminating with very short whip-like or blunt tip. Skull of the Boyaca Spiny-rat is robust, but long and narrow, with particularly elongated rostrum. Temporal ridge is absent or only weakly developed, extending onto anterior parietals from supraorbital ledge,if present. Incisive foramina are oval to teardrop in shape and taperslightly with weak posterolateral flanges extending onto anterior palate forming shallow groove; premaxillary part of septum is well developed, broad, and extendsat least one-half the length of opening; maxillary part may be broad or narrow but always contacts premaxillary part so that vomer is not visible in ventral view; and maxillary part of septum is non-keeled so that palate lacks median ridge. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be entirely smooth or with only moderately developed groove resulting from slight lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately narrow, with angle averaging 59° and depth penetrating to middle of M?, on average. Counterfold pattern of all maxillary cheekteeth is uniformly 3-3-3-3; that of the lower cheekteeth varies slightly because dP, typically has three folds or rarely four, M, always with three folds, and M, and M, have 2-3 folds in about equal frequencies. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3/3(4)— 3-2(3)-2(3). Baculum is long (averaging c.10 mm) but relatively broad (2-5-2-8 mm in width) and has bulbous base with median depression and slightly developed apical wings with median notch at distal end. It is similar in size and shape to other members of the trinitatisspecies group and also to baculum of the Pacific Spiny-rat (P. decumanus). Chromosomal complementis 2n = 32 and FN = 54.Habitats. Primary rainforest at elevations of 50-900 m.Food and Feeding.The Boyaca Spiny-rat forages on fruit, seeds, few arthropods, and leaves.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is reportedly solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List.",,"The Boyaca Spiny-rat forages on fruit, seeds, few arthropods, and leaves.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is reportedly solitary.","Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Habitat of the type locality of the Boyaca Spiny-rat has been severely altered by agriculture, mining, and logging; these activities are widespread overits distribution. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats to the Boyaca Spiny Spiny-rat are needed to properly access its conservation status.","Allen (1899a) | Bueno et al. (1989) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Thomas (1914) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623758/files/figure.png,"46.Boyaca Spiny-ratProechimys chrysaeolusFrench:Rat-épineux du Boyaca/ German:Boyaca-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de BoyacaTaxonomy.Echimys chrysaeolus Thomas, 1898, “Muzo, N of Bogota,” Cundinamarca, Colombia.Proechimys chrysaeolusbelongs to the trinitatisspecies group. It includes magdalenae as a synonym. Taxonomic relationships between typical chrysaeolusand magdalenae remain unresolved; these two taxa may represent valid races or even distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.N Colombia, lower Cauca and Magdalena valleys W of E Andes Range.Descriptive notes.Head—body 210-220 mm,tail 145-160 mm; weight 370 g. The Boyaca Spiny-rat is medium-sized relative to other species of Proechimys. Dorsum is dark yellowish to reddish brown, speckled with black hairs on back;sides are only marginally paler than mid-back but abruptly contrasting with venter, which is white from chin to inguinal region. Broad and dark angle band from few white hairs on dorsal surfaces of hindfeet interrupts white inner thigh stripes. Hindfootvaries in dorsal color butis typically dark or may have silvery hairs across metatarsals; toes are always dark brown. All plantar pads are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal in size. Tail is dark brown above and pale below, sparsely haired, and naked to the eye, with scale annuli forming distinct rings, more so than in most other species of Proechimys, with 10-13 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff and bristly to the touch, with well-developed aristiform hairs averaging 20-22 mm in length and 0-9-1-1 mm in width, terminating with very short whip-like or blunt tip. Skull of the Boyaca Spiny-rat is robust, but long and narrow, with particularly elongated rostrum. Temporal ridge is absent or only weakly developed, extending onto anterior parietals from supraorbital ledge,if present. Incisive foramina are oval to teardrop in shape and taperslightly with weak posterolateral flanges extending onto anterior palate forming shallow groove; premaxillary part of septum is well developed, broad, and extendsat least one-half the length of opening; maxillary part may be broad or narrow but always contacts premaxillary part so that vomer is not visible in ventral view; and maxillary part of septum is non-keeled so that palate lacks median ridge. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be entirely smooth or with only moderately developed groove resulting from slight lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately narrow, with angle averaging 59° and depth penetrating to middle of M?, on average. Counterfold pattern of all maxillary cheekteeth is uniformly 3-3-3-3; that of the lower cheekteeth varies slightly because dP, typically has three folds or rarely four, M, always with three folds, and M, and M, have 2-3 folds in about equal frequencies. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3/3(4)— 3-2(3)-2(3). Baculum is long (averaging c.10 mm) but relatively broad (2-5-2-8 mm in width) and has bulbous base with median depression and slightly developed apical wings with median notch at distal end. It is similar in size and shape to other members of the trinitatisspecies group and also to baculum of the Pacific Spiny-rat (P. decumanus). Chromosomal complementis 2n = 32 and FN = 54.Habitats. Primary rainforest at elevations of 50-900 m.Food and Feeding.The Boyaca Spiny-rat forages on fruit, seeds, few arthropods, and leaves.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is reportedly solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Habitat of the type locality of the Boyaca Spiny-rat has been severely altered by agriculture, mining, and logging; these activities are widespread overits distribution. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats to the Boyaca Spiny Spiny-rat are needed to properly access its conservation status.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Bueno et al. (1989), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Hershkovitz (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Thomas (1914), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF5FFC1FFC75DFF53D3FC44,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,576,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF5FFC1FFC75DFF53D3FC44.xml,Proechimys gardneri,Proechimys,gardneri,da Silva,1998,Rat-épineux de Gardner @fr | Gardner Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Gardner @es,"Proechimys gardneri da Silva, 1998, “Altamira, right bank Rio Jurua, 68°54’W, 6°35’S, Amazonas, Brazil.”Proechimys gardneriis a member of the gardnerispecies group. Monotypic.",Amazon Basin of W Brazil between Rio Madeira and Rio Jurua and extreme N Bolivia.,"Head-body 154—209 mm, tail 88-152 mm; weight 110-180 g. Gardner’s Spiny-rat is one of three small-bodied species of Proechimysfrom western Amazonia. It has short ears (21 mm), short hindfeet (40 mm), and proportionately mid-length tail (c.70% of head-body length). Overall body color is reddish brown or auburn, coarsely streaked with varying amounts of black on dorsum and sides; compared with most other sympatric species of spiny-rats, dorsum looks darker, especially over rump, due to presence of heavy, dark brown aristiform spines. These spines are short (length 17-18 mm) and moderately wide (0-9-1 mm), terminate with distinctly blunt tip, and provide distinctly coarse, or stiff, texture to dorsal pelage. Venter and chin are pure white, and most specimens have white lips. Inner surfaces of hindlimbs are pure white and extend across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet so that ankles do not have complete circular dark bands. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are yellowish white, not pure white, often with distal parts of toes brownish. Plantar surfaces of hindfeet have all six tubercles. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and cream to white below; scales are relatively small (averaging 11 annuli/cm at mid-length) but not completely hidden by hair. Skull of Gardner’s Spiny-rat is small and delicate and has relatively long and narrow rostrum and beaded supraorbital ledge above orbits, which extends posteriorly as weakly developed ridge on anterior parietals. Post-orbital process of zygomais obsolete. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking ventral groove. Incisive foramina are ovate to slightly lyrate in shape, with posterolateral margins lying flat or only weakly flanged, and thus outlining only very shallow groove on anterior palate; maxillary part of septum is dorsoventrally compressed posteriorly and narrowed anteriorly, visible over almost one-half the length of foraminal opening, and fully connected to premaxillary part, which is broad and usually about one-half the length of foramen; and vomeris not visible on ventral margin of septum. Palate is smooth, lacking median ridge. Mesopterygoid fossa is long and moderately narrow, with angle of indentation averaging 61° and penetrating palate to middle of M?. Cheekteeth are remarkably small, with tooth row averaging only 7-5 mm in length. All upper teeth typically have three folds, with two occasionally present on M®. Lower dP, has four (occasionally three) folds, M| and M, consistently have three, and M, might have either two or three. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/(3)4-3-3-2(3). Baculum is massive and relatively long (length 6-5-8-6 mm), especially in relation to overall body size, with short, broad (distal width 3-1-4-2 mm), and distolaterally directed apical extensions separated by shallow median depression. Mid-shaft is relatively broad, and base is thick and expanded (proximal width 4-7-5-1 mm). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 54 from middle Rio Madeira (Brazil) and 2n = 40 and FN = 56 from Rio Jurua (Brazil).","Known only from upland, non-seasonally flooded (terra firma) Amazonian rainforest.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Gardner’s Spiny-rat likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.","Breeding female Gardner’s Spiny-rats were collected only in the rainy season along the Rio Jurua (W Brazil), but age structure based on tooth wear suggested that breeding extends into the dry season, a likelihood thatis supported by presence ofjuvenile and subadults in July at Bolivian sites. Modallitter size was 2 (range 1-3).","There is no specific information available for this species, but Gardner’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Gardner’s Spiny-rat is distributed over a reasonably large area of primarily undisturbed primary forest, but it is known from only a few specimens and a few localities, none of which are within protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Gardner’s Spiny-rat are needed.",Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton et al. (2000) | da Silva (1998) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6623756/files/figure.png,"45.Gardner’s Spiny-ratProechimys gardneriFrench:Rat-épineux de Gardner/ German:GardnerKurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de GardnerTaxonomy.Proechimys gardneri da Silva, 1998, “Altamira, right bank Rio Jurua, 68°54’W, 6°35’S, Amazonas, Brazil.”Proechimys gardneriis a member of the gardnerispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin of W Brazil between Rio Madeira and Rio Jurua and extreme N Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 154—209 mm, tail 88-152 mm; weight 110-180 g. Gardner’s Spiny-rat is one of three small-bodied species of Proechimysfrom western Amazonia. It has short ears (21 mm), short hindfeet (40 mm), and proportionately mid-length tail (c.70% of head-body length). Overall body color is reddish brown or auburn, coarsely streaked with varying amounts of black on dorsum and sides; compared with most other sympatric species of spiny-rats, dorsum looks darker, especially over rump, due to presence of heavy, dark brown aristiform spines. These spines are short (length 17-18 mm) and moderately wide (0-9-1 mm), terminate with distinctly blunt tip, and provide distinctly coarse, or stiff, texture to dorsal pelage. Venter and chin are pure white, and most specimens have white lips. Inner surfaces of hindlimbs are pure white and extend across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet so that ankles do not have complete circular dark bands. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are yellowish white, not pure white, often with distal parts of toes brownish. Plantar surfaces of hindfeet have all six tubercles. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and cream to white below; scales are relatively small (averaging 11 annuli/cm at mid-length) but not completely hidden by hair. Skull of Gardner’s Spiny-rat is small and delicate and has relatively long and narrow rostrum and beaded supraorbital ledge above orbits, which extends posteriorly as weakly developed ridge on anterior parietals. Post-orbital process of zygomais obsolete. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking ventral groove. Incisive foramina are ovate to slightly lyrate in shape, with posterolateral margins lying flat or only weakly flanged, and thus outlining only very shallow groove on anterior palate; maxillary part of septum is dorsoventrally compressed posteriorly and narrowed anteriorly, visible over almost one-half the length of foraminal opening, and fully connected to premaxillary part, which is broad and usually about one-half the length of foramen; and vomeris not visible on ventral margin of septum. Palate is smooth, lacking median ridge. Mesopterygoid fossa is long and moderately narrow, with angle of indentation averaging 61° and penetrating palate to middle of M?. Cheekteeth are remarkably small, with tooth row averaging only 7-5 mm in length. All upper teeth typically have three folds, with two occasionally present on M®. Lower dP, has four (occasionally three) folds, M| and M, consistently have three, and M, might have either two or three. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/(3)4-3-3-2(3). Baculum is massive and relatively long (length 6-5-8-6 mm), especially in relation to overall body size, with short, broad (distal width 3-1-4-2 mm), and distolaterally directed apical extensions separated by shallow median depression. Mid-shaft is relatively broad, and base is thick and expanded (proximal width 4-7-5-1 mm). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 54 from middle Rio Madeira (Brazil) and 2n = 40 and FN = 56 from Rio Jurua (Brazil).Habitat.Known only from upland, non-seasonally flooded (terra firma) Amazonian rainforest.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Gardner’s Spiny-rat likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.Breeding female Gardner’s Spiny-rats were collected only in the rainy season along the Rio Jurua (W Brazil), but age structure based on tooth wear suggested that breeding extends into the dry season, a likelihood thatis supported by presence ofjuvenile and subadults in July at Bolivian sites. Modallitter size was 2 (range 1-3).Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Gardner’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Gardner’s Spiny-rat is distributed over a reasonably large area of primarily undisturbed primary forest, but it is known from only a few specimens and a few localities, none of which are within protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Gardner’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Patton & Leite (2015), Patton et al. (2000), da Silva (1998), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFF6FFC2FF745E4C5DF0FA42,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,579,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF6FFC2FF745E4C5DF0FA42.xml,Proechimys longicaudatus,Proechimys,longicaudatus,,,Rat-épineux longicaude @fr | Langschwanz-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de cola larga @es,"Echimys longicaudatus Rengger, 1830, “Northern Paraguay.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1903 to “the 21* parallel of latitude, therefore not far south of Corumba,” Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil.Proechimys longicaudatusis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. It includes myosurus, myosrurus, lewcomystax, villacauda, and ribeiroi as synonyms. Monotypic.","SC Brazil, E Bolivia, and N Paraguay.","Head-body 220-250 mm, tail 131-150 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is medium-sized, similar to other members of the longicaudatusspecies group in its proportionally short tail (60-63% of head-body length), but differs in its distinctly pale reddish or yellowish brown pelage, streaked with dark brown, that contrasts sharply with dark reddish brown mixed with black appearance of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) and Cuvier’s Spinyrat (P. cuvierr). Venter is pure white, without hint of buffy overtones. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet can be highly variable, from uniformly white, including toes (most specimens), to mostly dusky, or dusky laterally and white medially. Dark ankle band may or may not separate white inner thigh from white foot. Tail is bicolored and thinly haired, with obvious scales and scale annuli averaging 9-10/cm at mid-length. Fur is relatively soft to the touch, with aristiforms narrow (0-6—0-7 mm), rather short (17-18 mm), and terminating with long whip-like tips. Cranially, the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is similar in nearly all features to other members of this species complex, butits skull is generally smaller than that of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat or Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Temporal ridge varies from weakly continuous across parietals or is limited to simple posterior extension of supraorbital ledge. Lyrate shape of incisive foramina are as in the Short-tailed Spiny-rat and Cuvier’s Spiny-rat, with typically well-developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming deep groves, and expanded and long premaxillary part of septum with short, often thin, but typically keeled maxillary part that continues as median ridge onto anterior palate; and vomer part of septum is short but exposed. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, without groove for infraorbital nerve. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed, with equal contributions of Jugal and squamosal. Mesopterygoid fossa is broad (angle averages 78°) but penetrates posterior palate to middle of M®. All maxillary cheekteeth have three counterfolds; mandibular cheekteeth vary from three (rarely four) on P, to 2-3 folds on each lower molar. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Population samples of Long-tailed Spiny-rats have a higher percentage of individuals with two folds on lower molars than those of other species in the group. This pattern fits a general trend of decreasing counterfold number across species, or their populations, along environmental gradient from extremely wet forests (trans-Amazonian Choco and western Amazon) to dry forests (eastern Amazonia and central Brazil). Other examples ofthis trend are the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) in the western Amazon vs. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) in the east, or specimens of Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus) from the Choco in western Colombia vs. those in southern Ecuador (isolated subspecies rosa). Baculum of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is robust, long (length 1-1-1 mm), and wide (proximal width 0-3-0-5 mm; distal width 0-51-0-52 mm), with short, stout apical wings. In these general features,it is virtually identical to the Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50.",Dry tropical rainforest and mid-savanna and grassland habitat near shaded areas at elevations of 50-1000 m. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is present in primary and secondary habitats and has been reported to den in termite mounds and armadillo burrows.,"There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is presumably eats fruits, seeds, and other plant parts.","In longitudinal trapping studies in eastern Bolivia, reproduction of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence in early September after a hiatus, based on first appearance of lactating and late-gestation females and shortly before young began to appear in traps. Pregnancies, however, have been recorded in Bolivian specimens in March and August.","There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is generally regarded as terrestrial and nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Longtailed Spiny-rat is widespread, but its primary dry tropical forest habitat has been severely declining in recent decades due to agricultural expansion in Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay; also in Brazil pipelines bisect remaining habitat patches. Critical evaluation of current, range-wide population numbers and connectivity are required to properly determine current conservation status of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat.","Anderson (1997) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2009) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840) | Lichtenstein (1830) | Miranda-Ribeiro (1914) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Pictet (1841) | Rengger (1830) | Thomas (1901a, 1903b) | Wagner (1843) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"52.Long-tailed Spiny-ratProechimys longicaudatusFrench:Rat-épineux longicaude/ German:Langschwanz-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de cola largaTaxonomy.Echimys longicaudatus Rengger, 1830, “Northern Paraguay.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1903 to “the 21* parallel of latitude, therefore not far south of Corumba,” Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil.Proechimys longicaudatusis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. It includes myosurus, myosrurus, lewcomystax, villacauda, and ribeiroi as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.SC Brazil, E Bolivia, and N Paraguay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-250 mm, tail 131-150 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is medium-sized, similar to other members of the longicaudatusspecies group in its proportionally short tail (60-63% of head-body length), but differs in its distinctly pale reddish or yellowish brown pelage, streaked with dark brown, that contrasts sharply with dark reddish brown mixed with black appearance of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) and Cuvier’s Spinyrat (P. cuvierr). Venter is pure white, without hint of buffy overtones. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet can be highly variable, from uniformly white, including toes (most specimens), to mostly dusky, or dusky laterally and white medially. Dark ankle band may or may not separate white inner thigh from white foot. Tail is bicolored and thinly haired, with obvious scales and scale annuli averaging 9-10/cm at mid-length. Fur is relatively soft to the touch, with aristiforms narrow (0-6—0-7 mm), rather short (17-18 mm), and terminating with long whip-like tips. Cranially, the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is similar in nearly all features to other members of this species complex, butits skull is generally smaller than that of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat or Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Temporal ridge varies from weakly continuous across parietals or is limited to simple posterior extension of supraorbital ledge. Lyrate shape of incisive foramina are as in the Short-tailed Spiny-rat and Cuvier’s Spiny-rat, with typically well-developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming deep groves, and expanded and long premaxillary part of septum with short, often thin, but typically keeled maxillary part that continues as median ridge onto anterior palate; and vomer part of septum is short but exposed. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, without groove for infraorbital nerve. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed, with equal contributions of Jugal and squamosal. Mesopterygoid fossa is broad (angle averages 78°) but penetrates posterior palate to middle of M®. All maxillary cheekteeth have three counterfolds; mandibular cheekteeth vary from three (rarely four) on P, to 2-3 folds on each lower molar. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Population samples of Long-tailed Spiny-rats have a higher percentage of individuals with two folds on lower molars than those of other species in the group. This pattern fits a general trend of decreasing counterfold number across species, or their populations, along environmental gradient from extremely wet forests (trans-Amazonian Choco and western Amazon) to dry forests (eastern Amazonia and central Brazil). Other examples ofthis trend are the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) in the western Amazon vs. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) in the east, or specimens of Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus) from the Choco in western Colombia vs. those in southern Ecuador (isolated subspecies rosa). Baculum of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is robust, long (length 1-1-1 mm), and wide (proximal width 0-3-0-5 mm; distal width 0-51-0-52 mm), with short, stout apical wings. In these general features,it is virtually identical to the Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50.Habitat.Dry tropical rainforest and mid-savanna and grassland habitat near shaded areas at elevations of 50-1000 m. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is present in primary and secondary habitats and has been reported to den in termite mounds and armadillo burrows.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is presumably eats fruits, seeds, and other plant parts.Breeding.In longitudinal trapping studies in eastern Bolivia, reproduction of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence in early September after a hiatus, based on first appearance of lactating and late-gestation females and shortly before young began to appear in traps. Pregnancies, however, have been recorded in Bolivian specimens in March and August.Activity patterns.There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is generally regarded as terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Longtailed Spiny-rat is widespread, but its primary dry tropical forest habitat has been severely declining in recent decades due to agricultural expansion in Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay; also in Brazil pipelines bisect remaining habitat patches. Critical evaluation of current, range-wide population numbers and connectivity are required to properly determine current conservation status of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat.Bibliography.Anderson (1997), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2009), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840), Lichtenstein (1830), Miranda-Ribeiro (1914), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Pictet (1841), Rengger (1830), Thomas (1901a, 1903b), Wagner (1843), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFF6FFC2FF745E4C5DF0FA42,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,579,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF6FFC2FF745E4C5DF0FA42.xml,Proechimys longicaudatus,Proechimys,longicaudatus,,,Rat-épineux longicaude @fr | Langschwanz-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de cola larga @es,"Echimys longicaudatus Rengger, 1830, “Northern Paraguay.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1903 to “the 21* parallel of latitude, therefore not far south of Corumba,” Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil.Proechimys longicaudatusis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. It includes myosurus, myosrurus, lewcomystax, villacauda, and ribeiroi as synonyms. Monotypic.","SC Brazil, E Bolivia, and N Paraguay.","Head-body 220-250 mm, tail 131-150 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is medium-sized, similar to other members of the longicaudatusspecies group in its proportionally short tail (60-63% of head-body length), but differs in its distinctly pale reddish or yellowish brown pelage, streaked with dark brown, that contrasts sharply with dark reddish brown mixed with black appearance of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) and Cuvier’s Spinyrat (P. cuvierr). Venter is pure white, without hint of buffy overtones. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet can be highly variable, from uniformly white, including toes (most specimens), to mostly dusky, or dusky laterally and white medially. Dark ankle band may or may not separate white inner thigh from white foot. Tail is bicolored and thinly haired, with obvious scales and scale annuli averaging 9-10/cm at mid-length. Fur is relatively soft to the touch, with aristiforms narrow (0-6—0-7 mm), rather short (17-18 mm), and terminating with long whip-like tips. Cranially, the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is similar in nearly all features to other members of this species complex, butits skull is generally smaller than that of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat or Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Temporal ridge varies from weakly continuous across parietals or is limited to simple posterior extension of supraorbital ledge. Lyrate shape of incisive foramina are as in the Short-tailed Spiny-rat and Cuvier’s Spiny-rat, with typically well-developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming deep groves, and expanded and long premaxillary part of septum with short, often thin, but typically keeled maxillary part that continues as median ridge onto anterior palate; and vomer part of septum is short but exposed. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, without groove for infraorbital nerve. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed, with equal contributions of Jugal and squamosal. Mesopterygoid fossa is broad (angle averages 78°) but penetrates posterior palate to middle of M®. All maxillary cheekteeth have three counterfolds; mandibular cheekteeth vary from three (rarely four) on P, to 2-3 folds on each lower molar. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Population samples of Long-tailed Spiny-rats have a higher percentage of individuals with two folds on lower molars than those of other species in the group. This pattern fits a general trend of decreasing counterfold number across species, or their populations, along environmental gradient from extremely wet forests (trans-Amazonian Choco and western Amazon) to dry forests (eastern Amazonia and central Brazil). Other examples ofthis trend are the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) in the western Amazon vs. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) in the east, or specimens of Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus) from the Choco in western Colombia vs. those in southern Ecuador (isolated subspecies rosa). Baculum of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is robust, long (length 1-1-1 mm), and wide (proximal width 0-3-0-5 mm; distal width 0-51-0-52 mm), with short, stout apical wings. In these general features,it is virtually identical to the Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50.",Dry tropical rainforest and mid-savanna and grassland habitat near shaded areas at elevations of 50-1000 m. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is present in primary and secondary habitats and has been reported to den in termite mounds and armadillo burrows.,"There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is presumably eats fruits, seeds, and other plant parts.","In longitudinal trapping studies in eastern Bolivia, reproduction of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence in early September after a hiatus, based on first appearance of lactating and late-gestation females and shortly before young began to appear in traps. Pregnancies, however, have been recorded in Bolivian specimens in March and August.","There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is generally regarded as terrestrial and nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Longtailed Spiny-rat is widespread, but its primary dry tropical forest habitat has been severely declining in recent decades due to agricultural expansion in Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay; also in Brazil pipelines bisect remaining habitat patches. Critical evaluation of current, range-wide population numbers and connectivity are required to properly determine current conservation status of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat.","Anderson (1997) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2009) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840) | Lichtenstein (1830) | Miranda-Ribeiro (1914) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Pictet (1841) | Rengger (1830) | Thomas (1901a, 1903b) | Wagner (1843) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623774/files/figure.png,"52.Long-tailed Spiny-ratProechimys longicaudatusFrench:Rat-épineux longicaude/ German:Langschwanz-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de cola largaTaxonomy.Echimys longicaudatus Rengger, 1830, “Northern Paraguay.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1903 to “the 21* parallel of latitude, therefore not far south of Corumba,” Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil.Proechimys longicaudatusis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. It includes myosurus, myosrurus, lewcomystax, villacauda, and ribeiroi as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.SC Brazil, E Bolivia, and N Paraguay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-250 mm, tail 131-150 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is medium-sized, similar to other members of the longicaudatusspecies group in its proportionally short tail (60-63% of head-body length), but differs in its distinctly pale reddish or yellowish brown pelage, streaked with dark brown, that contrasts sharply with dark reddish brown mixed with black appearance of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) and Cuvier’s Spinyrat (P. cuvierr). Venter is pure white, without hint of buffy overtones. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet can be highly variable, from uniformly white, including toes (most specimens), to mostly dusky, or dusky laterally and white medially. Dark ankle band may or may not separate white inner thigh from white foot. Tail is bicolored and thinly haired, with obvious scales and scale annuli averaging 9-10/cm at mid-length. Fur is relatively soft to the touch, with aristiforms narrow (0-6—0-7 mm), rather short (17-18 mm), and terminating with long whip-like tips. Cranially, the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is similar in nearly all features to other members of this species complex, butits skull is generally smaller than that of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat or Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Temporal ridge varies from weakly continuous across parietals or is limited to simple posterior extension of supraorbital ledge. Lyrate shape of incisive foramina are as in the Short-tailed Spiny-rat and Cuvier’s Spiny-rat, with typically well-developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming deep groves, and expanded and long premaxillary part of septum with short, often thin, but typically keeled maxillary part that continues as median ridge onto anterior palate; and vomer part of septum is short but exposed. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, without groove for infraorbital nerve. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed, with equal contributions of Jugal and squamosal. Mesopterygoid fossa is broad (angle averages 78°) but penetrates posterior palate to middle of M®. All maxillary cheekteeth have three counterfolds; mandibular cheekteeth vary from three (rarely four) on P, to 2-3 folds on each lower molar. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Population samples of Long-tailed Spiny-rats have a higher percentage of individuals with two folds on lower molars than those of other species in the group. This pattern fits a general trend of decreasing counterfold number across species, or their populations, along environmental gradient from extremely wet forests (trans-Amazonian Choco and western Amazon) to dry forests (eastern Amazonia and central Brazil). Other examples ofthis trend are the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) in the western Amazon vs. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) in the east, or specimens of Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus) from the Choco in western Colombia vs. those in southern Ecuador (isolated subspecies rosa). Baculum of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is robust, long (length 1-1-1 mm), and wide (proximal width 0-3-0-5 mm; distal width 0-51-0-52 mm), with short, stout apical wings. In these general features,it is virtually identical to the Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50.Habitat.Dry tropical rainforest and mid-savanna and grassland habitat near shaded areas at elevations of 50-1000 m. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is present in primary and secondary habitats and has been reported to den in termite mounds and armadillo burrows.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is presumably eats fruits, seeds, and other plant parts.Breeding.In longitudinal trapping studies in eastern Bolivia, reproduction of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence in early September after a hiatus, based on first appearance of lactating and late-gestation females and shortly before young began to appear in traps. Pregnancies, however, have been recorded in Bolivian specimens in March and August.Activity patterns.There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is generally regarded as terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Longtailed Spiny-rat is widespread, but its primary dry tropical forest habitat has been severely declining in recent decades due to agricultural expansion in Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay; also in Brazil pipelines bisect remaining habitat patches. Critical evaluation of current, range-wide population numbers and connectivity are required to properly determine current conservation status of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat.Bibliography.Anderson (1997), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2009), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840), Lichtenstein (1830), Miranda-Ribeiro (1914), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Pictet (1841), Rengger (1830), Thomas (1901a, 1903b), Wagner (1843), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF6FFC5FA785E165FDBFBDF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,579,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF6FFC5FA785E165FDBFBDF.xml,Proechimys cuvieri,Proechimys,cuvieri,Petter,1978,Rat-épineux de Cuvier @fr | Cuvier Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Cuvier @es,"Proechimys cuvieri Petter, 1978, “Saul (S21), Guyane francaise,” French Guiana.Proechimys cuvieriis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. Monotypic.","Amazon Basin from E Ecuador, NE Peru, SE Colombia, and W Brazil E to the Amazon River mouth and N through the Guianan Region of E Ven-ezuela, and the Guianas.","Head-body 211-234 mm, tail 144-168 mm; weight 260-420 g. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is moderate-sized, closely similar in external and craniodental characteristics to sympatric samples of the Shorttailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) in the western part ofits distribution, but markedly distinct from sympatric Guyenne Spiny-rat (P. guyannensis) in the Guianan region. Overall color is dark reddish orange, with midline of back darker than sides, which contrast sharply with white venter. Specimens from western Brazil may have slight fulvous edge to ventral fur in some individuals, but generally bright white contrasts sharply with typically buffy venter of sympatric Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Dorsal surface of hindfoot of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is dark on toes and lateral margins, but short hairs above metatarsals are silver, or at least distinctly paler in color than toes. This also generally contrasts with color pattern of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat, where dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are overall dark and dull. Tail averages 70% of head—body length, is sharply bicolored, and clothed in long, slightly curved and dark hairs that give it distinctly shaggy appearance—rather remarkable for a species of Proechimys. Nevertheless, tail scales are visible to the eye; scale annuli average 9-12/cm at mid-tail. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, with well-developed aristiform spines averaging 0-9 mm in width and 20-21 mm in length. Some geographical variation in spine development is apparent, with narrower spines in those from the Guianan region and tips with whip-like extensions in those from south of the Amazon in eastern Brazil; rather blunt tipped spines characterize samples from elsewhere. Head, rump, and sides are devoid of spines, as with most species of Proechimys. Skull of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with long but relatively broad rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledges but with weakly developed temporal ridges. Incisive foramina are lyrate in shape, with only moderate posterior constrictions; posterolateral margins are flanged but not as strongly as in species such as the Short-tailed Spiny-rat, and extend onto palate forming only weak grooves; premaxillary part of septum is long and typically in contact with maxillary part, which may be either keeled or smooth; and vomer is slightly to well exposed ventrally. Groove on floor of infraorbital foramen is absent or only weakly developed,as is lateral flange ofthis groove. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed and formed completely by squamosal, or with only minimal jugal contribution. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad but penetrates posterior palate into M?, with mean angles of 66-73°, depending on geographical sample. Cheekteeth are large, with length of maxillary tooth row greater or equal to 8:2 mm. Three folds are typically present on all four upper and lower cheekteeth, although some variation in number exists among geographical samples. In particular, dP, may have either 3—4 folds, and M, may likewise have either two or three folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3 / 3(4)-3-3-(2)3. Baculum is short (length 6-1-8-:6 mm) and broad (proximal width 5-3-6-7 mm; distal width 5-2-7-4 mm), with short shaft, expanded base, and deep medial notch at distal end that results in distinct apical extensions. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 46-48..","Primarily lowland, non-seasonally flooded or terra firma rainforests but seasonally available parts of otherwise inundated rainforest from near sea level to elevations of ¢.500 m. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat also occurs in abandon gardens and second-growth forests. It is usually more abundant than the Guyenne Spiny-rat in early successional forest and edge-dominated habitats in the Guianan region. In French Guiana, most Cuvier’s Spiny-rats were captured on the ground, but two were captured in liana tangles up to 1 m aboveground. There it was found in well-drained primary forest, creekside forest, and secondary vegetation beside logs, at bases of trees, amongstilt roots, on top of logs, and under masses of fallen branches. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is broadly sympatric with the Guyenne Spiny-rat throughout the Guianan region and northern Brazilian Amazon, and it may co-occur with up to four other species of Proechimysalong Rio Jurua in western Brazil, including actual syntopy with up to three other species on the same terra firma trap lines.","Cuvier’s Spiny-rat has been reported to eat fruit, insect and seeds.","In Rio Jurua in western Brazil, adult male Cuvier’s Spiny-rats were reproductively active at least from August to March, over the end of the dry season and beginning of the annual rainy season. Pregnant females were found only during the wet season in February-March, and a lactating female was obtained in August. Young individuals were trapped in most months between August and June. These data are insufficient to know if breeding is largely confined to the rainy season or extends over most of the year. Reported litter size was two embryos. In French Guiana, breeding was recorded year-round.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.","In French Guiana, Cuvier’s Spinyrats were monitored with radio-telemetry and fluorescent tracking. Male home ranges averaged at least twice the size of females; female home ranges were exclusive of other females; and male home ranges overlapped extensively with other residents of both sexes. These data suggested that Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is polygynous or promiscuous.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in several forest types, including those modified by humans, and in protected areas. It is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Cuvier’s Spinyrat are needed.","Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Guillotin (1982) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Petter (1978) | Reig et al. (1980) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623776/files/figure.png,"53.Cuvier’s Spiny-ratProechimys cuvieriFrench:Rat-épineux de Cuvier/ German:CuvierKurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de CuvierTaxonomy.Proechimys cuvieri Petter, 1978, “Saul (S21), Guyane francaise,” French Guiana.Proechimys cuvieriis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin from E Ecuador, NE Peru, SE Colombia, and W Brazil E to the Amazon River mouth and N through the Guianan Region of E Ven-ezuela, and the Guianas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 211-234 mm, tail 144-168 mm; weight 260-420 g. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is moderate-sized, closely similar in external and craniodental characteristics to sympatric samples of the Shorttailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) in the western part ofits distribution, but markedly distinct from sympatric Guyenne Spiny-rat (P. guyannensis) in the Guianan region. Overall color is dark reddish orange, with midline of back darker than sides, which contrast sharply with white venter. Specimens from western Brazil may have slight fulvous edge to ventral fur in some individuals, but generally bright white contrasts sharply with typically buffy venter of sympatric Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Dorsal surface of hindfoot of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is dark on toes and lateral margins, but short hairs above metatarsals are silver, or at least distinctly paler in color than toes. This also generally contrasts with color pattern of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat, where dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are overall dark and dull. Tail averages 70% of head—body length, is sharply bicolored, and clothed in long, slightly curved and dark hairs that give it distinctly shaggy appearance—rather remarkable for a species of Proechimys. Nevertheless, tail scales are visible to the eye; scale annuli average 9-12/cm at mid-tail. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, with well-developed aristiform spines averaging 0-9 mm in width and 20-21 mm in length. Some geographical variation in spine development is apparent, with narrower spines in those from the Guianan region and tips with whip-like extensions in those from south of the Amazon in eastern Brazil; rather blunt tipped spines characterize samples from elsewhere. Head, rump, and sides are devoid of spines, as with most species of Proechimys. Skull of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with long but relatively broad rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledges but with weakly developed temporal ridges. Incisive foramina are lyrate in shape, with only moderate posterior constrictions; posterolateral margins are flanged but not as strongly as in species such as the Short-tailed Spiny-rat, and extend onto palate forming only weak grooves; premaxillary part of septum is long and typically in contact with maxillary part, which may be either keeled or smooth; and vomer is slightly to well exposed ventrally. Groove on floor of infraorbital foramen is absent or only weakly developed,as is lateral flange ofthis groove. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed and formed completely by squamosal, or with only minimal jugal contribution. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad but penetrates posterior palate into M?, with mean angles of 66-73°, depending on geographical sample. Cheekteeth are large, with length of maxillary tooth row greater or equal to 8:2 mm. Three folds are typically present on all four upper and lower cheekteeth, although some variation in number exists among geographical samples. In particular, dP, may have either 3—4 folds, and M, may likewise have either two or three folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3 / 3(4)-3-3-(2)3. Baculum is short (length 6-1-8-:6 mm) and broad (proximal width 5-3-6-7 mm; distal width 5-2-7-4 mm), with short shaft, expanded base, and deep medial notch at distal end that results in distinct apical extensions. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 46-48..theWorldof Mammals the of Handbook618Habitat.Primarily lowland, non-seasonally flooded or terra firma rainforests but seasonally available parts of otherwise inundated rainforest from near sea level to elevations of ¢.500 m. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat also occurs in abandon gardens and second-growth forests. It is usually more abundant than the Guyenne Spiny-rat in early successional forest and edge-dominated habitats in the Guianan region. In French Guiana, most Cuvier’s Spiny-rats were captured on the ground, but two were captured in liana tangles up to 1 m aboveground. There it was found in well-drained primary forest, creekside forest, and secondary vegetation beside logs, at bases of trees, amongstilt roots, on top of logs, and under masses of fallen branches. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is broadly sympatric with the Guyenne Spiny-rat throughout the Guianan region and northern Brazilian Amazon, and it may co-occur with up to four other species of Proechimysalong Rio Jurua in western Brazil, including actual syntopy with up to three other species on the same terra firma trap lines.Food and Feeding.Cuvier’s Spiny-rat has been reported to eat fruit, insect and seeds.Breeding.In Rio Jurua in western Brazil, adult male Cuvier’s Spiny-rats were reproductively active at least from August to March, over the end of the dry season and beginning of the annual rainy season. Pregnant females were found only during the wet season in February-March, and a lactating female was obtained in August. Young individuals were trapped in most months between August and June. These data are insufficient to know if breeding is largely confined to the rainy season or extends over most of the year. Reported litter size was two embryos. In French Guiana, breeding was recorded year-round.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In French Guiana, Cuvier’s Spinyrats were monitored with radio-telemetry and fluorescent tracking. Male home ranges averaged at least twice the size of females; female home ranges were exclusive of other females; and male home ranges overlapped extensively with other residents of both sexes. These data suggested that Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is polygynous or promiscuous.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in several forest types, including those modified by humans, and in protected areas. It is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Cuvier’s Spinyrat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Guillotin (1982), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Petter (1978), Reig et al. (1980), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF7FFC2FAD95E4F585DFA6F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,578,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF7FFC2FAD95E4F585DFA6F.xml,Proechimys brevicauda,Proechimys,brevicauda,,,Rat-épineux a queue courte @fr | Kurzschwanz-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de cola corta @es | Huallaga Spiny-rat @en,"Echimys brevicauda Gunther, 1877, “Chamicuros, Huallaga river,” Loreto, Peru.Proechimys brevicaudais a member of the longicaudatusspecies group. It includes bolivianus, securus, gularis, and elassopus as synonyms. It is variable in color pattern and karyotype over its known distribution and might require taxonomic revision. Monotypic.","W Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, NW Bolivia, and W Brazil (Acre and possibly Amazonas states).","Head-body 189-253 mm, tail 137-167 mm; weight 240-490 g. The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is moderately sized, with reddish brown overall dorsal color, dark feet, and short (c.65% of head-body length) and weakly bicolored tail. Overall color of head, back, and rump is reddish brown, generally not as dark along midline as in Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri). Fulvous lateral stripe characteristically separates darker dorsal pelage from lighter venter, but venter is variously colored in different parts of its distribution, being brownish or grayish in parts of eastern Ecuador (as in the named form gularisby O. Thomas in 1911), reddish buff throughout most of northern and central Peru and western Brazil, and clear white in most individuals from southern Peru and Bolivia. Fulvous lateral stripe continues across ankle to small paler patch at proximal base of metatarsal area on dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. Otherwise, upper surfaces of hindfeet, including all five toes, are uniformly dark. Tail of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat is sparsely haired, much less so and with distinctly shorter hairs than that of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat; scale annuli average 9-10/cm at mid-length. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, but aristiform hairs are less well developed than in Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Lengths are 18-20 mm, and widths are 0-6—0-8 mm; distinct tapering tips are present on all aristiforms. Cranially, the Short-tailed Spiny-rat is similar to the two other species within the longicaudatusspecies group, being of moderate size with elongated but relatively broad rostrum. Temporal ridge is moderately to weakly developed, often with anterior parietal part separated from posterior lambdoidal part. Incisive foramina are typically strongly lyrate in shape, distally flanged so that anterior palate is deeply grooved with median ridge and complete and keeled septum. Post-orbital process of zygomais nearly obsolete and comprised predominantly byjugal. Mesopterygoid fossa is shallow, generally only barely reaching posterior margins of M?, and wide (angles are 73-80° among geographical specimens). Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking groove indicative of infraorbital nerve. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth is uniformly 3-3-3-3 above and 3(4)—(2)3-(2)3-(2)3 below. In rare individuals, M* and M? may have remnant fourth fold, and southern specimens exhibit higher frequencies of only two folds on M,. Baculum is massive, long (length 7-8-11-7 mm), and wide (proximal width 3:7-5-1 mm; distal width 4-6-5-9 mm), with slight but broad apical wings and expanded base. Rather massive size of baculum make phallusitself long and distinctly heavy or broad in appearance, so much so that palpating phallus in live males 1s an easy way to distinguish the Short-tailed Spiny-rat from sympatric congeners in the field. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 28 and FN = 48 in southern Peru, 2n = 30 and FN = 48 in Ecuador and northern Peru, and 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50 in central Peru and western Brazil.",Lowland Amazonian rainforest in non-seasonally flooded forest (terra firma) in primary and disturbed habitats including secondary growth and garden plots at elevations of 200-1800 m. The Short-tailed Spiny-rat also occurs on lowerslopes of the eastern slope of the Andes in Peru and Ecuador.,"The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is presumably herbivorous, feeding mostly on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts. It consumes commonly grown local garden products, such as yucca and plantains.","Breeding of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence at the end of the prolonged dry season (November—-December), with reproduction primarily limited to adults of both sexes. In western Brazil, 39% of a sample of 69 females collected in February-March was pregnant; modal litter size was two young (range 1-4). Details as to parity, age at first reproduction, presence of a postpartum estrus, and length of defined breeding season are unavailable.","The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is easily observed scurrying through leaf litter at night, and all trapping records indicate strictly nocturnal activity pattern.","Densities of Short-tailed Spiny-rats can reach very high levels, even in highly localized indigenous garden plots, suggesting that tolerance of conspecifics is high and home rangesizes are limited and overlap extensively.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in multiple forest types, including those highly degraded. It also occurs in protected parks and is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Short-tailed Spiny-rat are needed.","Allen (1902) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gunther (1877a) | Osgood (1944) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Thomas (19014, 1911b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623772/files/figure.png,"51.Short-tailed Spiny-ratProechimys brevicaudaFrench:Rat-épineux a queue courte/ German:Kurzschwanz-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de cola cortaOther common names:Huallaga Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys brevicauda Gunther, 1877, “Chamicuros, Huallaga river,” Loreto, Peru.Proechimys brevicaudais a member of the longicaudatusspecies group. It includes bolivianus, securus, gularis, and elassopus as synonyms. It is variable in color pattern and karyotype over its known distribution and might require taxonomic revision. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, NW Bolivia, and W Brazil (Acre and possibly Amazonas states).Descriptive notes.Head-body 189-253 mm, tail 137-167 mm; weight 240-490 g. The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is moderately sized, with reddish brown overall dorsal color, dark feet, and short (c.65% of head-body length) and weakly bicolored tail. Overall color of head, back, and rump is reddish brown, generally not as dark along midline as in Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri). Fulvous lateral stripe characteristically separates darker dorsal pelage from lighter venter, but venter is variously colored in different parts of its distribution, being brownish or grayish in parts of eastern Ecuador (as in the named form gularisby O. Thomas in 1911), reddish buff throughout most of northern and central Peru and western Brazil, and clear white in most individuals from southern Peru and Bolivia. Fulvous lateral stripe continues across ankle to small paler patch at proximal base of metatarsal area on dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. Otherwise, upper surfaces of hindfeet, including all five toes, are uniformly dark. Tail of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat is sparsely haired, much less so and with distinctly shorter hairs than that of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat; scale annuli average 9-10/cm at mid-length. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, but aristiform hairs are less well developed than in Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Lengths are 18-20 mm, and widths are 0-6—0-8 mm; distinct tapering tips are present on all aristiforms. Cranially, the Short-tailed Spiny-rat is similar to the two other species within the longicaudatusspecies group, being of moderate size with elongated but relatively broad rostrum. Temporal ridge is moderately to weakly developed, often with anterior parietal part separated from posterior lambdoidal part. Incisive foramina are typically strongly lyrate in shape, distally flanged so that anterior palate is deeply grooved with median ridge and complete and keeled septum. Post-orbital process of zygomais nearly obsolete and comprised predominantly byjugal. Mesopterygoid fossa is shallow, generally only barely reaching posterior margins of M?, and wide (angles are 73-80° among geographical specimens). Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking groove indicative of infraorbital nerve. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth is uniformly 3-3-3-3 above and 3(4)—(2)3-(2)3-(2)3 below. In rare individuals, M* and M? may have remnant fourth fold, and southern specimens exhibit higher frequencies of only two folds on M,. Baculum is massive, long (length 7-8-11-7 mm), and wide (proximal width 3:7-5-1 mm; distal width 4-6-5-9 mm), with slight but broad apical wings and expanded base. Rather massive size of baculum make phallusitself long and distinctly heavy or broad in appearance, so much so that palpating phallus in live males 1s an easy way to distinguish the Short-tailed Spiny-rat from sympatric congeners in the field. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 28 and FN = 48 in southern Peru, 2n = 30 and FN = 48 in Ecuador and northern Peru, and 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50 in central Peru and western Brazil.Habitat.Lowland Amazonian rainforest in non-seasonally flooded forest (terra firma) in primary and disturbed habitats including secondary growth and garden plots at elevations of 200-1800 m. The Short-tailed Spiny-rat also occurs on lowerslopes of the eastern slope of the Andes in Peru and Ecuador.Food and Feeding.The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is presumably herbivorous, feeding mostly on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts. It consumes commonly grown local garden products, such as yucca and plantains.Breeding.Breeding of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence at the end of the prolonged dry season (November—-December), with reproduction primarily limited to adults of both sexes. In western Brazil, 39% of a sample of 69 females collected in February-March was pregnant; modal litter size was two young (range 1-4). Details as to parity, age at first reproduction, presence of a postpartum estrus, and length of defined breeding season are unavailable.Activity patterns.The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is easily observed scurrying through leaf litter at night, and all trapping records indicate strictly nocturnal activity pattern.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Densities of Short-tailed Spiny-rats can reach very high levels, even in highly localized indigenous garden plots, suggesting that tolerance of conspecifics is high and home rangesizes are limited and overlap extensively.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in multiple forest types, including those highly degraded. It also occurs in protected parks and is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Short-tailed Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1902), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gunther (1877a), Osgood (1944), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Thomas (19014, 1911b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF7FFC3FFD053A253B8FA69,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,578,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF7FFC3FFD053A253B8FA69.xml,Proechimys hoplomyoides,Proechimys,hoplomyoides,,,Rat-épineux du Roraima @fr | Guyana-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Guayana @es | Guyanan Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys cayennensis hoplomyoides Tate, 1939, “Rondon Camp, Mt. Roraima, 6800 feet [2073 m],” Bolivar, Venezuela.Proechimys hoplomyoidesbelongs to the trinitatisspecies group. Monotypic.","S & SE Venezuela, in Amazonian and Guianan Shield tepui areas; possibly also in adjacent areas of W Guyana and N Brazil.","Head—body 213 mm, tail 154 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Guianan Spiny-rat is moderate to large. Dorsum is blackish brown; fur is heavily spined, with broad and stiff aristiforms. Venter is whitish. Tail is moderately long butstill shorter than head-body length (72%). Skull is relatively long and narrow; supraorbital ledges are weakly developed and do not extend onto temporal region as distinct ridges; incisive foramina are somewhat lyre-shaped with weakly developed posterolateral margins that define grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is enlarged, encompassing at least one-half of foraminal opening, but maxillary part is attenuated and does not contact premaxilla; floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking groove indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve; and mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and deeply penetrating, extending at least to posterior onehalf of M*. Counterfold pattern is simple, with three folds on each upper and lower tooth; counterfold formula is 3-3—-3-3 for maxillary and mandibular teeth. Baculum is long and relatively narrow (length 11-6 mm, proximal width 2:5 mm, and distal width 0-18 mm in the single specimen available). Karyotype is unknown.","Known only from evergreen rainforest, including indigenous garden plots and creek-side and riverine forests, at elevations of 130-2300 m.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Guianan Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Guianan Spiny-rat is known from only six specimens from four separate localities. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats to the Guianan Spiny-rat are needed for a proper conservation assessment.","Eisenberg (1989) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Handley (1976) | Linares (1998) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Tate (1939) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623770/files/figure.png,"50.Guianan Spiny-ratProechimys hoplomyoidesFrench:Rat-épineux du Roraima/ German:Guyana-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de GuayanaOther common names:Guyanan Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys cayennensis hoplomyoides Tate, 1939, “Rondon Camp, Mt. Roraima, 6800 feet [2073 m],” Bolivar, Venezuela.Proechimys hoplomyoidesbelongs to the trinitatisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.S & SE Venezuela, in Amazonian and Guianan Shield tepui areas; possibly also in adjacent areas of W Guyana and N Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head—body 213 mm, tail 154 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Guianan Spiny-rat is moderate to large. Dorsum is blackish brown; fur is heavily spined, with broad and stiff aristiforms. Venter is whitish. Tail is moderately long butstill shorter than head-body length (72%). Skull is relatively long and narrow; supraorbital ledges are weakly developed and do not extend onto temporal region as distinct ridges; incisive foramina are somewhat lyre-shaped with weakly developed posterolateral margins that define grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is enlarged, encompassing at least one-half of foraminal opening, but maxillary part is attenuated and does not contact premaxilla; floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking groove indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve; and mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and deeply penetrating, extending at least to posterior onehalf of M*. Counterfold pattern is simple, with three folds on each upper and lower tooth; counterfold formula is 3-3—-3-3 for maxillary and mandibular teeth. Baculum is long and relatively narrow (length 11-6 mm, proximal width 2:5 mm, and distal width 0-18 mm in the single specimen available). Karyotype is unknown.Habitat.Known only from evergreen rainforest, including indigenous garden plots and creek-side and riverine forests, at elevations of 130-2300 m.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Guianan Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Guianan Spiny-rat is known from only six specimens from four separate localities. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats to the Guianan Spiny-rat are needed for a proper conservation assessment.Bibliography.Eisenberg (1989), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Handley (1976), Linares (1998), Patton (1987), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Tate (1939), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFF8FFCCFF7352735375F515,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,573,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF8FFCCFF7352735375F515.xml,Proechimys steerei,Proechimys,steerei,Goldman,1911,Rat-épineux de Steere @fr | Steere-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Steere @es,"Proechimys steerei Goldman, 1911, “ Rio Purus, a southern tributary of the Amazon, in north-western [Amazonas], Brazil.” Restricted by E. A. Goldman in 1912 to “Hyutana-han [= Huitanaa], a small village of rubber gatherers, on the north side of the Rio Purus, in the upper part ofits course.”Proechimys steereiis a member of the goeldii species group. It includes kermiti, pachita, hilda, rattinus, and lminalis as synonyms.*®.Sl a.= —= —: we AMonotypic.","Amazon Basin in E Peru (S of the Rio Maranon), NW Bolivia, and W Brazil, largely S of the Amazon River and E to beyond the Rio Purus, but extending N of the Amazon River in the Imeri region W of the lower Rio Negro.","Head—body 215-493 mm,tail 120-207 mm; weight 300-800 g. Steere’s Spiny-rat is one of the largest species of terrestrial spiny-rats. Its ears and hindfeet are large, and tail is c.65% of head-body length, bicolored dark above and pale below, and covered with fine hairs but with scales conspicuous to the eye. There are typically 8 annuli/cm. Dorsum is light reddish brown, only faintly streaked with darker hairs. Steere’s Spiny-rats vary in the degree to which they are darkened along midline, but in general, they lack dark midline characteristic of most specimens of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicates). Venteris pure white, and texture of ventral fur is thicker and more velvety both to the eye and touch than in other species of Proechimys. Aristiform hairs of dorsum are distinctly narrow, short, and lax, markedly softer compared with all other sympatric species of Proechimysand the other two species in the goelditspecies group. Spines average only c¢.15 mm in length and 0-5 mm in width. Color of dorsal surface of hindfootis characteristic, with pale to dark brown outer band and whitish inner band along length of foot from tarsal joint to end oftoes. Skull of Steere’s Spiny-ratis large, with long and narrow rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledge that extends onto parietals as weakly developed ridge. Incisive foramina are lyrate to oval in outline, with slightly to strongly flanged posterolateral margins that form groovesextending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part is distinctly narrow; both parts of septum are in contact in most specimens; and vomer usually is not visible. Groove is present on floor of infraorbital foramen, butlateral flange is only weakly developed. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad (averaging 67°) but penetrates to midpoint of M’. Counterfold pattern is 3(4)-3(4)-3(4)—(3)4/4-3-3-3. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-7 mm) and of moderate width (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with parallel or slightly concave sides; it is similar in size and shape to those of the Napo Spiny-rat and Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (P. goeldii). Phallus is remarkably small, particularly so for an animal as large as Steere’s Spiny-rat, with prepuce extending as narrow tube and terminating by characteristic tuft of hairs, rather than being rounded and blunt as in most male Proechimys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 40-42.","Seasonally flooded rainforest in the dry season, such as blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea, but margins of adjacent terra firma forest in the wet season, including secondary forests, abandoned garden plots, riverine margins, and flooded grass patches within forests at elevations of 50-400 m. Overits entire distribution, Steere’s Spiny-rat is the only species present in igapo or varzea.","Steere’s Spiny-rat feeds mainly on fruit, fungi, and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material and arthropods. Consumption of sporocarps of micorrhizal fungi and seeds suggest that Steere’s Spiny-rat may play a key ecological role in seed and fungal dispersal in forests.","Autopsy data from Steere’s Spiny-rats collected during a year-long survey along the Rio Jurua in western Brazil indicate that it has a higher reproductive output than most other species of Proechimys, perhaps correlated with ephemeral availability of its primary, seasonally flooded habitat. Both sexes reached sexual maturity at an early age, well before complete molt into their adult pelage; pregnant females, on average, were younger (based on tooth wear) than those of adjacent, terra firma species; almost all females participated in breeding with a large proportion (20%) exhibiting evidence of postpartum estrus (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation); and litter sizes were high for a species of Proechimys(mean = 3 young, range 1-7).",Trapping records indicate that Steere’s Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Steere’s Spiny-rat is widespread and specializes in riverine, seasonally flooded forest that is not under threat from agricultural expansion. It is part of the fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas and is unlikely to be declining. Expansion of illegal gold mining along many major river systems through its distribution, especially in south-eastern Peru, might impact varzea habitat, and focused field studies are needed to assess this possible threat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Steere’s Spiny-rat are needed.","Allen (1915a) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Goldman (1911b, 1912a, 1912b, 1912c¢) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Janos et al. (1995) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Ribeiro (2006) | Thomas (1911a, 1923b, 1924b, 1926b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"39.Steere’s Spiny-ratProechimys steereiFrench:Rat-épineux de Steere/ German:Steere-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de SteereRn SeTaxonomy. Proechimys steerei Goldman, 1911, “ Rio Purus, a southern tributary of the Amazon, in north-western [Amazonas], Brazil.” Restricted by E. A. Goldman in 1912 to “Hyutana-han [= Huitanaa], a small village of rubber gatherers, on the north side of the Rio Purus, in the upper part ofits course.”Proechimys steereiis a member of the goeldii species group. It includes kermiti, pachita, hilda, rattinus, and lminalis as synonyms.*®.Sl a.= —= —: we AMonotypic.“Distribution.Amazon Basin in E Peru (S of the Rio Maranon), NW Bolivia, and W Brazil, largely S of the Amazon River and E to beyond the Rio Purus, but extending N of the Amazon River in the Imeri region W of the lower Rio Negro.=Descriptive notes.Head—body 215-493 mm,tail 120-207 mm; weight 300-800 g. Steere’s Spiny-rat is one of the largest species of terrestrial spiny-rats. Its ears and hindfeet are large, and tail is c.65% of head-body length, bicolored dark above and pale below, and covered with fine hairs but with scales conspicuous to the eye. There are typically 8 annuli/cm. Dorsum is light reddish brown, only faintly streaked with darker hairs. Steere’s Spiny-rats vary in the degree to which they are darkened along midline, but in general, they lack dark midline characteristic of most specimens of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicates). Venteris pure white, and texture of ventral fur is thicker and more velvety both to the eye and touch than in other species of Proechimys. Aristiform hairs of dorsum are distinctly narrow, short, and lax, markedly softer compared with all other sympatric species of Proechimysand the other two species in the goelditspecies group. Spines average only c¢.15 mm in length and 0-5 mm in width. Color of dorsal surface of hindfootis characteristic, with pale to dark brown outer band and whitish inner band along length of foot from tarsal joint to end oftoes. Skull of Steere’s Spiny-ratis large, with long and narrow rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledge that extends onto parietals as weakly developed ridge. Incisive foramina are lyrate to oval in outline, with slightly to strongly flanged posterolateral margins that form groovesextending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part is distinctly narrow; both parts of septum are in contact in most specimens; and vomer usually is not visible. Groove is present on floor of infraorbital foramen, butlateral flange is only weakly developed. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad (averaging 67°) but penetrates to midpoint of M’. Counterfold pattern is 3(4)-3(4)-3(4)—(3)4/4-3-3-3. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-7 mm) and of moderate width (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with parallel or slightly concave sides; it is similar in size and shape to those of the Napo Spiny-rat and Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (P. goeldii). Phallus is remarkably small, particularly so for an animal as large as Steere’s Spiny-rat, with prepuce extending as narrow tube and terminating by characteristic tuft of hairs, rather than being rounded and blunt as in most male Proechimys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 40-42.Habitat.Seasonally flooded rainforest in the dry season, such as blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea, but margins of adjacent terra firma forest in the wet season, including secondary forests, abandoned garden plots, riverine margins, and flooded grass patches within forests at elevations of 50-400 m. Overits entire distribution, Steere’s Spiny-rat is the only species present in igapo or varzea.Food and Feeding.Steere’s Spiny-rat feeds mainly on fruit, fungi, and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material and arthropods. Consumption of sporocarps of micorrhizal fungi and seeds suggest that Steere’s Spiny-rat may play a key ecological role in seed and fungal dispersal in forests.Breeding.Autopsy data from Steere’s Spiny-rats collected during a year-long survey along the Rio Jurua in western Brazil indicate that it has a higher reproductive output than most other species of Proechimys, perhaps correlated with ephemeral availability of its primary, seasonally flooded habitat. Both sexes reached sexual maturity at an early age, well before complete molt into their adult pelage; pregnant females, on average, were younger (based on tooth wear) than those of adjacent, terra firma species; almost all females participated in breeding with a large proportion (20%) exhibiting evidence of postpartum estrus (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation); and litter sizes were high for a species of Proechimys(mean = 3 young, range 1-7).Activity patterns.Trapping records indicate that Steere’s Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Steere’s Spiny-rat is widespread and specializes in riverine, seasonally flooded forest that is not under threat from agricultural expansion. It is part of the fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas and is unlikely to be declining. Expansion of illegal gold mining along many major river systems through its distribution, especially in south-eastern Peru, might impact varzea habitat, and focused field studies are needed to assess this possible threat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Steere’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1915a), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Goldman (1911b, 1912a, 1912b, 1912c¢), Hershkovitz (1948), Janos et al. (1995), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Ribeiro (2006), Thomas (1911a, 1923b, 1924b, 1926b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFF8FFCFFA7552C05824F64C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,573,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF8FFCFFA7552C05824F64C.xml,Proechimys goeldii,Proechimys,goeldii,Thomas,1905,Rat-épineux de Goeldi @fr | Goeldi-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Goeldi @es,"Proechimys goeldii Thomas, 1905, “ Santarem [Santarém |, Lower Ama-zon,” Rio Tapajos, Para, Brazil. Identified by M. Guntert and colleagues in 1993 as “Santarém, Barras de Tapajoz” (holotype specimen).Proechimys goeldiiis a member of the goeldi+ species group. It includes hyleae, nesiotes, and leioprimma as synonyms. Monotypic.","E Amazon Basin of Brazil, mostly E of the Rio Madeira and S of the Amazon River, largely in the drainages of the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia, reaching the cerrado biome in Mato Grosso State.","Head—body 188-271 mm, tail 100-171 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is a geographically variable; general size varies from large to medium, ears are long, hindfeet are large, and tail averages c.68% of head-body length. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, strongly mixed with black especially over mid-back and rump, but specimens from more southern localities are distinctly paler and more orangish red. Venter is clear white from chin to inguinal region; inner thighs are white but separated from dorsal foot color by dark band. Dorsal surface of hindfootis bicolored, with dark lateral band and light inner band—a pattern characteristic of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) and Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer). All plantar pads of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar large and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered with short, sparsely distributed hairs so that it appears naked to the eye. Tail scales are rather small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Aristiform spinesare stout and stiff, averaging 18-20 mm in length and up to 1-1 mm in width, and typically terminate in blunt tips. Skull of Goeldi’s Spinyrat is similar in most respects to the other two species in the goelditspecies group. It is large and elongate,is broad across zygomatic arches, and has relatively long but broad rostrum. Older individuals have weakly continuous temporal ridges, extending from supraorbital ledge across parietals. Incisive foramina are broadly open, weakly lyreshaped or parallel sided, with posterior margins slightly flanged and extending onto anterior palate forming grooves; premaxillary part of septum is short, usually less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part varies greatly, often weak and attenuate, perhaps not in contact with premaxillary part, or even spatulate and filling much of posterior opening; maxillary part, however, has slight keel that continues onto palate as median ridge; and vomeris typically enclosed in premaxillary sheath and thus not visible. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be smooth, lacking any evidence of groove or with groove defined by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, with angle of indentation averaging 65°, but penetrates posterior palate to about midpoint of M?. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and involves mostly squamosal. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies, with number of folds decreasing from west to east and from north to south. Western specimens typically have upper cheekteeth with 3—4(3)—4(3)-3 and lower cheekteeth with 4(rarely 3)-3-3-3 folds; eastern and southern samples have reduced counterfold number of 3-3-3-3 above and 3 (rarely 4)-3-3-3 or 2 below. Baculum of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is generally the same size and shape as those of the other members ofthis group, averaging slightly more than 8 mm in length and nearly 3 mm in width. Sides are straight and parallel, base is slightly expanded, and tip shows only faint development ofapical wings or median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 15 and FN = 16 in Jurudna, Mato Grosso, Brazil and 2n = 24 and FN = 44 in Rio Xingu.","Seasonally flooded blackwater (igap6) and whitewater (varzea) rainforest, both primary and secondary, and typically along river margins from near sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.",Pregnant Goeldi’s Spiny-rats have been found in January at localities on Rio Tapajos and Rio Tocantins.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-1di’s Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is thought to be an abundant and present in undisturbed and deforested areas and other habitats highly modified by agricultural expansion throughoutits distribution. Apparentreliance on seasonally flooded forests, however, may protect Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rats from continued human expansion. Nevertheless, population studies on impact of habitat degradation are necessary to adequately assess its conservation status.","Bonvicino et al. (1996) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gintert et al. (1993) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Thomas (1905a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",,"40.Goeld1’s Spiny-ratProechimys goeldiiFrench:Rat-épineux de Goeldi/ German:Goeldi-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de GoeldiTaxonomy. Proechimys goeldii Thomas, 1905, “ Santarem [Santarém |, Lower Ama-zon,” Rio Tapajos, Para, Brazil. Identified by M. Guntert and colleagues in 1993 as “Santarém, Barras de Tapajoz” (holotype specimen).Proechimys goeldiiis a member of the goeldi+ species group. It includes hyleae, nesiotes, and leioprimma as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Amazon Basin of Brazil, mostly E of the Rio Madeira and S of the Amazon River, largely in the drainages of the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia, reaching the cerrado biome in Mato Grosso State.Descriptive notes.Head—body 188-271 mm, tail 100-171 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is a geographically variable; general size varies from large to medium, ears are long, hindfeet are large, and tail averages c.68% of head-body length. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, strongly mixed with black especially over mid-back and rump, but specimens from more southern localities are distinctly paler and more orangish red. Venter is clear white from chin to inguinal region; inner thighs are white but separated from dorsal foot color by dark band. Dorsal surface of hindfootis bicolored, with dark lateral band and light inner band—a pattern characteristic of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) and Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer). All plantar pads of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar large and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered with short, sparsely distributed hairs so that it appears naked to the eye. Tail scales are rather small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Aristiform spinesare stout and stiff, averaging 18-20 mm in length and up to 1-1 mm in width, and typically terminate in blunt tips. Skull of Goeldi’s Spinyrat is similar in most respects to the other two species in the goelditspecies group. It is large and elongate,is broad across zygomatic arches, and has relatively long but broad rostrum. Older individuals have weakly continuous temporal ridges, extending from supraorbital ledge across parietals. Incisive foramina are broadly open, weakly lyreshaped or parallel sided, with posterior margins slightly flanged and extending onto anterior palate forming grooves; premaxillary part of septum is short, usually less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part varies greatly, often weak and attenuate, perhaps not in contact with premaxillary part, or even spatulate and filling much of posterior opening; maxillary part, however, has slight keel that continues onto palate as median ridge; and vomeris typically enclosed in premaxillary sheath and thus not visible. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be smooth, lacking any evidence of groove or with groove defined by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, with angle of indentation averaging 65°, but penetrates posterior palate to about midpoint of M?. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and involves mostly squamosal. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies, with number of folds decreasing from west to east and from north to south. Western specimens typically have upper cheekteeth with 3—4(3)—4(3)-3 and lower cheekteeth with 4(rarely 3)-3-3-3 folds; eastern and southern samples have reduced counterfold number of 3-3-3-3 above and 3 (rarely 4)-3-3-3 or 2 below. Baculum of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is generally the same size and shape as those of the other members ofthis group, averaging slightly more than 8 mm in length and nearly 3 mm in width. Sides are straight and parallel, base is slightly expanded, and tip shows only faint development ofapical wings or median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 15 and FN = 16 in Jurudna, Mato Grosso, Brazil and 2n = 24 and FN = 44 in Rio Xingu.Habitat.Seasonally flooded blackwater (igap6) and whitewater (varzea) rainforest, both primary and secondary, and typically along river margins from near sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.Pregnant Goeldi’s Spiny-rats have been found in January at localities on Rio Tapajos and Rio Tocantins.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-1di’s Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is thought to be an abundant and present in undisturbed and deforested areas and other habitats highly modified by agricultural expansion throughoutits distribution. Apparentreliance on seasonally flooded forests, however, may protect Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rats from continued human expansion. Nevertheless, population studies on impact of habitat degradation are necessary to adequately assess its conservation status.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (1996), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gintert et al. (1993), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Thomas (1905a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFF8FFCCFF7352735375F515,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,573,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF8FFCCFF7352735375F515.xml,Proechimys steerei,Proechimys,steerei,Goldman,1911,Rat-épineux de Steere @fr | Steere-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Steere @es,"Proechimys steerei Goldman, 1911, “ Rio Purus, a southern tributary of the Amazon, in north-western [Amazonas], Brazil.” Restricted by E. A. Goldman in 1912 to “Hyutana-han [= Huitanaa], a small village of rubber gatherers, on the north side of the Rio Purus, in the upper part ofits course.”Proechimys steereiis a member of the goeldii species group. It includes kermiti, pachita, hilda, rattinus, and lminalis as synonyms.*®.Sl a.= —= —: we AMonotypic.","Amazon Basin in E Peru (S of the Rio Maranon), NW Bolivia, and W Brazil, largely S of the Amazon River and E to beyond the Rio Purus, but extending N of the Amazon River in the Imeri region W of the lower Rio Negro.","Head—body 215-493 mm,tail 120-207 mm; weight 300-800 g. Steere’s Spiny-rat is one of the largest species of terrestrial spiny-rats. Its ears and hindfeet are large, and tail is c.65% of head-body length, bicolored dark above and pale below, and covered with fine hairs but with scales conspicuous to the eye. There are typically 8 annuli/cm. Dorsum is light reddish brown, only faintly streaked with darker hairs. Steere’s Spiny-rats vary in the degree to which they are darkened along midline, but in general, they lack dark midline characteristic of most specimens of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicates). Venteris pure white, and texture of ventral fur is thicker and more velvety both to the eye and touch than in other species of Proechimys. Aristiform hairs of dorsum are distinctly narrow, short, and lax, markedly softer compared with all other sympatric species of Proechimysand the other two species in the goelditspecies group. Spines average only c¢.15 mm in length and 0-5 mm in width. Color of dorsal surface of hindfootis characteristic, with pale to dark brown outer band and whitish inner band along length of foot from tarsal joint to end oftoes. Skull of Steere’s Spiny-ratis large, with long and narrow rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledge that extends onto parietals as weakly developed ridge. Incisive foramina are lyrate to oval in outline, with slightly to strongly flanged posterolateral margins that form groovesextending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part is distinctly narrow; both parts of septum are in contact in most specimens; and vomer usually is not visible. Groove is present on floor of infraorbital foramen, butlateral flange is only weakly developed. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad (averaging 67°) but penetrates to midpoint of M’. Counterfold pattern is 3(4)-3(4)-3(4)—(3)4/4-3-3-3. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-7 mm) and of moderate width (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with parallel or slightly concave sides; it is similar in size and shape to those of the Napo Spiny-rat and Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (P. goeldii). Phallus is remarkably small, particularly so for an animal as large as Steere’s Spiny-rat, with prepuce extending as narrow tube and terminating by characteristic tuft of hairs, rather than being rounded and blunt as in most male Proechimys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 40-42.","Seasonally flooded rainforest in the dry season, such as blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea, but margins of adjacent terra firma forest in the wet season, including secondary forests, abandoned garden plots, riverine margins, and flooded grass patches within forests at elevations of 50-400 m. Overits entire distribution, Steere’s Spiny-rat is the only species present in igapo or varzea.","Steere’s Spiny-rat feeds mainly on fruit, fungi, and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material and arthropods. Consumption of sporocarps of micorrhizal fungi and seeds suggest that Steere’s Spiny-rat may play a key ecological role in seed and fungal dispersal in forests.","Autopsy data from Steere’s Spiny-rats collected during a year-long survey along the Rio Jurua in western Brazil indicate that it has a higher reproductive output than most other species of Proechimys, perhaps correlated with ephemeral availability of its primary, seasonally flooded habitat. Both sexes reached sexual maturity at an early age, well before complete molt into their adult pelage; pregnant females, on average, were younger (based on tooth wear) than those of adjacent, terra firma species; almost all females participated in breeding with a large proportion (20%) exhibiting evidence of postpartum estrus (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation); and litter sizes were high for a species of Proechimys(mean = 3 young, range 1-7).",Trapping records indicate that Steere’s Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Steere’s Spiny-rat is widespread and specializes in riverine, seasonally flooded forest that is not under threat from agricultural expansion. It is part of the fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas and is unlikely to be declining. Expansion of illegal gold mining along many major river systems through its distribution, especially in south-eastern Peru, might impact varzea habitat, and focused field studies are needed to assess this possible threat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Steere’s Spiny-rat are needed.","Allen (1915a) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Goldman (1911b, 1912a, 1912b, 1912c¢) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Janos et al. (1995) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Ribeiro (2006) | Thomas (1911a, 1923b, 1924b, 1926b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623744/files/figure.png,"39.Steere’s Spiny-ratProechimys steereiFrench:Rat-épineux de Steere/ German:Steere-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de SteereRn SeTaxonomy. Proechimys steerei Goldman, 1911, “ Rio Purus, a southern tributary of the Amazon, in north-western [Amazonas], Brazil.” Restricted by E. A. Goldman in 1912 to “Hyutana-han [= Huitanaa], a small village of rubber gatherers, on the north side of the Rio Purus, in the upper part ofits course.”Proechimys steereiis a member of the goeldii species group. It includes kermiti, pachita, hilda, rattinus, and lminalis as synonyms.*®.Sl a.= —= —: we AMonotypic.“Distribution.Amazon Basin in E Peru (S of the Rio Maranon), NW Bolivia, and W Brazil, largely S of the Amazon River and E to beyond the Rio Purus, but extending N of the Amazon River in the Imeri region W of the lower Rio Negro.=Descriptive notes.Head—body 215-493 mm,tail 120-207 mm; weight 300-800 g. Steere’s Spiny-rat is one of the largest species of terrestrial spiny-rats. Its ears and hindfeet are large, and tail is c.65% of head-body length, bicolored dark above and pale below, and covered with fine hairs but with scales conspicuous to the eye. There are typically 8 annuli/cm. Dorsum is light reddish brown, only faintly streaked with darker hairs. Steere’s Spiny-rats vary in the degree to which they are darkened along midline, but in general, they lack dark midline characteristic of most specimens of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicates). Venteris pure white, and texture of ventral fur is thicker and more velvety both to the eye and touch than in other species of Proechimys. Aristiform hairs of dorsum are distinctly narrow, short, and lax, markedly softer compared with all other sympatric species of Proechimysand the other two species in the goelditspecies group. Spines average only c¢.15 mm in length and 0-5 mm in width. Color of dorsal surface of hindfootis characteristic, with pale to dark brown outer band and whitish inner band along length of foot from tarsal joint to end oftoes. Skull of Steere’s Spiny-ratis large, with long and narrow rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledge that extends onto parietals as weakly developed ridge. Incisive foramina are lyrate to oval in outline, with slightly to strongly flanged posterolateral margins that form groovesextending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part is distinctly narrow; both parts of septum are in contact in most specimens; and vomer usually is not visible. Groove is present on floor of infraorbital foramen, butlateral flange is only weakly developed. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad (averaging 67°) but penetrates to midpoint of M’. Counterfold pattern is 3(4)-3(4)-3(4)—(3)4/4-3-3-3. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-7 mm) and of moderate width (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with parallel or slightly concave sides; it is similar in size and shape to those of the Napo Spiny-rat and Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (P. goeldii). Phallus is remarkably small, particularly so for an animal as large as Steere’s Spiny-rat, with prepuce extending as narrow tube and terminating by characteristic tuft of hairs, rather than being rounded and blunt as in most male Proechimys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 40-42.Habitat.Seasonally flooded rainforest in the dry season, such as blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea, but margins of adjacent terra firma forest in the wet season, including secondary forests, abandoned garden plots, riverine margins, and flooded grass patches within forests at elevations of 50-400 m. Overits entire distribution, Steere’s Spiny-rat is the only species present in igapo or varzea.Food and Feeding.Steere’s Spiny-rat feeds mainly on fruit, fungi, and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material and arthropods. Consumption of sporocarps of micorrhizal fungi and seeds suggest that Steere’s Spiny-rat may play a key ecological role in seed and fungal dispersal in forests.Breeding.Autopsy data from Steere’s Spiny-rats collected during a year-long survey along the Rio Jurua in western Brazil indicate that it has a higher reproductive output than most other species of Proechimys, perhaps correlated with ephemeral availability of its primary, seasonally flooded habitat. Both sexes reached sexual maturity at an early age, well before complete molt into their adult pelage; pregnant females, on average, were younger (based on tooth wear) than those of adjacent, terra firma species; almost all females participated in breeding with a large proportion (20%) exhibiting evidence of postpartum estrus (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation); and litter sizes were high for a species of Proechimys(mean = 3 young, range 1-7).Activity patterns.Trapping records indicate that Steere’s Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Steere’s Spiny-rat is widespread and specializes in riverine, seasonally flooded forest that is not under threat from agricultural expansion. It is part of the fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas and is unlikely to be declining. Expansion of illegal gold mining along many major river systems through its distribution, especially in south-eastern Peru, might impact varzea habitat, and focused field studies are needed to assess this possible threat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Steere’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1915a), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Goldman (1911b, 1912a, 1912b, 1912c¢), Hershkovitz (1948), Janos et al. (1995), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Ribeiro (2006), Thomas (1911a, 1923b, 1924b, 1926b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFF8FFCFFA7552C05824F64C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,573,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF8FFCFFA7552C05824F64C.xml,Proechimys goeldii,Proechimys,goeldii,Thomas,1905,Rat-épineux de Goeldi @fr | Goeldi-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Goeldi @es,"Proechimys goeldii Thomas, 1905, “ Santarem [Santarém |, Lower Ama-zon,” Rio Tapajos, Para, Brazil. Identified by M. Guntert and colleagues in 1993 as “Santarém, Barras de Tapajoz” (holotype specimen).Proechimys goeldiiis a member of the goeldi+ species group. It includes hyleae, nesiotes, and leioprimma as synonyms. Monotypic.","E Amazon Basin of Brazil, mostly E of the Rio Madeira and S of the Amazon River, largely in the drainages of the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia, reaching the cerrado biome in Mato Grosso State.","Head—body 188-271 mm, tail 100-171 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is a geographically variable; general size varies from large to medium, ears are long, hindfeet are large, and tail averages c.68% of head-body length. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, strongly mixed with black especially over mid-back and rump, but specimens from more southern localities are distinctly paler and more orangish red. Venter is clear white from chin to inguinal region; inner thighs are white but separated from dorsal foot color by dark band. Dorsal surface of hindfootis bicolored, with dark lateral band and light inner band—a pattern characteristic of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) and Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer). All plantar pads of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar large and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered with short, sparsely distributed hairs so that it appears naked to the eye. Tail scales are rather small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Aristiform spinesare stout and stiff, averaging 18-20 mm in length and up to 1-1 mm in width, and typically terminate in blunt tips. Skull of Goeldi’s Spinyrat is similar in most respects to the other two species in the goelditspecies group. It is large and elongate,is broad across zygomatic arches, and has relatively long but broad rostrum. Older individuals have weakly continuous temporal ridges, extending from supraorbital ledge across parietals. Incisive foramina are broadly open, weakly lyreshaped or parallel sided, with posterior margins slightly flanged and extending onto anterior palate forming grooves; premaxillary part of septum is short, usually less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part varies greatly, often weak and attenuate, perhaps not in contact with premaxillary part, or even spatulate and filling much of posterior opening; maxillary part, however, has slight keel that continues onto palate as median ridge; and vomeris typically enclosed in premaxillary sheath and thus not visible. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be smooth, lacking any evidence of groove or with groove defined by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, with angle of indentation averaging 65°, but penetrates posterior palate to about midpoint of M?. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and involves mostly squamosal. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies, with number of folds decreasing from west to east and from north to south. Western specimens typically have upper cheekteeth with 3—4(3)—4(3)-3 and lower cheekteeth with 4(rarely 3)-3-3-3 folds; eastern and southern samples have reduced counterfold number of 3-3-3-3 above and 3 (rarely 4)-3-3-3 or 2 below. Baculum of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is generally the same size and shape as those of the other members ofthis group, averaging slightly more than 8 mm in length and nearly 3 mm in width. Sides are straight and parallel, base is slightly expanded, and tip shows only faint development ofapical wings or median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 15 and FN = 16 in Jurudna, Mato Grosso, Brazil and 2n = 24 and FN = 44 in Rio Xingu.","Seasonally flooded blackwater (igap6) and whitewater (varzea) rainforest, both primary and secondary, and typically along river margins from near sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.",Pregnant Goeldi’s Spiny-rats have been found in January at localities on Rio Tapajos and Rio Tocantins.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-1di’s Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is thought to be an abundant and present in undisturbed and deforested areas and other habitats highly modified by agricultural expansion throughoutits distribution. Apparentreliance on seasonally flooded forests, however, may protect Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rats from continued human expansion. Nevertheless, population studies on impact of habitat degradation are necessary to adequately assess its conservation status.","Bonvicino et al. (1996) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gintert et al. (1993) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Thomas (1905a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623746/files/figure.png,"40.Goeld1’s Spiny-ratProechimys goeldiiFrench:Rat-épineux de Goeldi/ German:Goeldi-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de GoeldiTaxonomy. Proechimys goeldii Thomas, 1905, “ Santarem [Santarém |, Lower Ama-zon,” Rio Tapajos, Para, Brazil. Identified by M. Guntert and colleagues in 1993 as “Santarém, Barras de Tapajoz” (holotype specimen).Proechimys goeldiiis a member of the goeldi+ species group. It includes hyleae, nesiotes, and leioprimma as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Amazon Basin of Brazil, mostly E of the Rio Madeira and S of the Amazon River, largely in the drainages of the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia, reaching the cerrado biome in Mato Grosso State.Descriptive notes.Head—body 188-271 mm, tail 100-171 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is a geographically variable; general size varies from large to medium, ears are long, hindfeet are large, and tail averages c.68% of head-body length. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, strongly mixed with black especially over mid-back and rump, but specimens from more southern localities are distinctly paler and more orangish red. Venter is clear white from chin to inguinal region; inner thighs are white but separated from dorsal foot color by dark band. Dorsal surface of hindfootis bicolored, with dark lateral band and light inner band—a pattern characteristic of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) and Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer). All plantar pads of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar large and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered with short, sparsely distributed hairs so that it appears naked to the eye. Tail scales are rather small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Aristiform spinesare stout and stiff, averaging 18-20 mm in length and up to 1-1 mm in width, and typically terminate in blunt tips. Skull of Goeldi’s Spinyrat is similar in most respects to the other two species in the goelditspecies group. It is large and elongate,is broad across zygomatic arches, and has relatively long but broad rostrum. Older individuals have weakly continuous temporal ridges, extending from supraorbital ledge across parietals. Incisive foramina are broadly open, weakly lyreshaped or parallel sided, with posterior margins slightly flanged and extending onto anterior palate forming grooves; premaxillary part of septum is short, usually less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part varies greatly, often weak and attenuate, perhaps not in contact with premaxillary part, or even spatulate and filling much of posterior opening; maxillary part, however, has slight keel that continues onto palate as median ridge; and vomeris typically enclosed in premaxillary sheath and thus not visible. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be smooth, lacking any evidence of groove or with groove defined by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, with angle of indentation averaging 65°, but penetrates posterior palate to about midpoint of M?. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and involves mostly squamosal. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies, with number of folds decreasing from west to east and from north to south. Western specimens typically have upper cheekteeth with 3—4(3)—4(3)-3 and lower cheekteeth with 4(rarely 3)-3-3-3 folds; eastern and southern samples have reduced counterfold number of 3-3-3-3 above and 3 (rarely 4)-3-3-3 or 2 below. Baculum of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is generally the same size and shape as those of the other members ofthis group, averaging slightly more than 8 mm in length and nearly 3 mm in width. Sides are straight and parallel, base is slightly expanded, and tip shows only faint development ofapical wings or median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 15 and FN = 16 in Jurudna, Mato Grosso, Brazil and 2n = 24 and FN = 44 in Rio Xingu.Habitat.Seasonally flooded blackwater (igap6) and whitewater (varzea) rainforest, both primary and secondary, and typically along river margins from near sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.Pregnant Goeldi’s Spiny-rats have been found in January at localities on Rio Tapajos and Rio Tocantins.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-1di’s Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is thought to be an abundant and present in undisturbed and deforested areas and other habitats highly modified by agricultural expansion throughoutits distribution. Apparentreliance on seasonally flooded forests, however, may protect Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rats from continued human expansion. Nevertheless, population studies on impact of habitat degradation are necessary to adequately assess its conservation status.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (1996), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gintert et al. (1993), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Thomas (1905a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF9FFCCFAE0527E585CF5A6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,572,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF9FFCCFAE0527E585CF5A6.xml,Proechimys quadruplicatus,Proechimys,quadruplicatus,Hershkovitz,1948,Rat-épineux du Napo @fr | Napo-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Napo @es | Venezuelan Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys quadruplicatus Hershkovitz, 1948, “Llunchi, an island in the Rio Napo, about 18 kilometers below the mouth of the Rio Coca, [Orellano,] eastern Ecuador.”Proechimys quadruplicatusis a member of the goeldirspecies group. It includes amphichoricus as a synonym. Monotypic.","W Amazon Basin in S & E Colombia, S Venezuela, NW Brazil, E Ecuador, and N Peru, largely N of the Amazon River and E to the left bank of the Rio Negro at Manaus.","Head-body 211-295 mm, tail 125-202 mm; weight 300-700 g. The Napo Spiny-rat is similar in all external and cranial characteristics to Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer), but its karyotype and mtDNA sequences differ. These two species are so alike that, at least until adequate analyses of morphological characteristics are made, identification may rest solely on either chromosomes or molecules, or on general distributions. The Napo Spiny-rat is large-bodied and has proportionately short tail (¢.70% of head-body length). Overall color is ocherous orange, although it darkens considerably along midline from head to rump. Venter may be pure white or lightly washed pale buff; pale thigh stripe is usually confluent with dorsal surface of hindfoot, which itself is characteristically bicolored, with an external dark longitudinal band encompassing digits four and five and contrasted with a pale internal band encompassing at least digits one and two, and usually three. Tail is bicolored but not as sharply so as in sympatric Simons’s Spiny-rat (P. simonsi). Tail appears nearly naked from a distance because scales are large and conspicuous, averaging 8 annuli/cm at mid-length. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, with well-developed aristiform spines ¢.20 mm long and c.1 mm wide and terminating in weakly developed whip-like tip. Distal one-third of spines are black, which gives an overall darkened tone to midline of back and rump. Spines are most well developed over mid-back, less so in shoulder region or over rump. Skull of the Napo Spiny-rat is large and elongated, with long rostrum and heavy supraorbital ridges that extend posteriorly onto parietals as distinct ridges, especially in older individuals. Incisive foramina vary from weakly lyre-shaped to oval, with lateral margins either tapering slightly posteriorly or parallelsided; premaxilla part of septum is short, usually one-half or less the length of foramen; maxillary part varies greatly, most commonly weak and attenuate, often not in contact with premaxillary part, but sometimes broadly spatulate and filling much of foramen; maxillary part may be slightly ridged butis never keeled, and only rarely does this ridge extend onto anterior palate; and posterolateral margins of foramen are only moderately flanged so that only moderately developed grooves are present on the anterior palate. Moderately developed groove is present in the floor of infraorbital foramen, although its development varies among individuals. Mesopterygoid fossa of the Napo Spiny-rat is narrower than either that of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) or Steere’s Spiny-rat, with angle averaging 61° and extending anteriorly to middle of M”. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies slightly, 4(3)—4(3)-4(3)—4(3) /4-3(4)-3(4)-3, but characteristic four folds upon which Hershkovitz based his name quadruplicatusis the most common condition present in all samples. Counterfold pattern of holotype of amphichoricus, however,is 3-3-3-3/3-3-3-3, which characterizes ¢.50% ofall specimens examined from southern Venezuela and adjacent Brazil. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-:3 mm) and stout (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with nearly straight sides and only slightly flared apical wings and expanded base, similar to those of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat and Steere’s Spiny-rat. Rather short baculum of the Napo Spiny-rat defines a notably small phallus for such a large-bodied rat and particularly contrasts with actually larger phalli in nearly all other species of Proechimys, except for Steere’s Spiny-rat. Significance of these differences in phallic size is unknown. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 26 and FN = 42 in southern Venezuela and 2n = 28 and FN = 42-44 in eastern Ecuador, northern Peru, and north-western Brazil.",Seasonally flooded forest (varzea and igapo) during dry season and margins of upland forest during the wet season.,There is no information available for this species.,"Pregnant Napo Spiny-rats were trapped in northern Peru (Rio Santiago) in July-August, with modal embryo counts of one (range 1-2).",The Napo Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.,"The Napo Spiny-rat shifts its use of microhabitats during the flood season, moving into terra firma forests otherwise occupied by the Guyenne Spiny-rat (FP. guyannensis) in southern Venezuela and northcentral Brazil or the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda), Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri), and Simons’s Spiny-rat in northern Peru.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Napo Spiny-rat is widespread and present in several forest types and protected parks in north-western Amazonia that is sparsely populated by humans. As a result, it is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Napo Spiny-rat are needed.","Eisenberg (1989) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623742/files/figure.png,"38.Napo Spiny-ratProechimys quadruplicatusFrench:Rat-épineux du Napo/ German:Napo-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de NapoOther common names:Venezuelan Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys quadruplicatus Hershkovitz, 1948, “Llunchi, an island in the Rio Napo, about 18 kilometers below the mouth of the Rio Coca, [Orellano,] eastern Ecuador.”Proechimys quadruplicatusis a member of the goeldirspecies group. It includes amphichoricus as a synonym. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin in S & E Colombia, S Venezuela, NW Brazil, E Ecuador, and N Peru, largely N of the Amazon River and E to the left bank of the Rio Negro at Manaus.Descriptive notes.Head-body 211-295 mm, tail 125-202 mm; weight 300-700 g. The Napo Spiny-rat is similar in all external and cranial characteristics to Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer), but its karyotype and mtDNA sequences differ. These two species are so alike that, at least until adequate analyses of morphological characteristics are made, identification may rest solely on either chromosomes or molecules, or on general distributions. The Napo Spiny-rat is large-bodied and has proportionately short tail (¢.70% of head-body length). Overall color is ocherous orange, although it darkens considerably along midline from head to rump. Venter may be pure white or lightly washed pale buff; pale thigh stripe is usually confluent with dorsal surface of hindfoot, which itself is characteristically bicolored, with an external dark longitudinal band encompassing digits four and five and contrasted with a pale internal band encompassing at least digits one and two, and usually three. Tail is bicolored but not as sharply so as in sympatric Simons’s Spiny-rat (P. simonsi). Tail appears nearly naked from a distance because scales are large and conspicuous, averaging 8 annuli/cm at mid-length. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, with well-developed aristiform spines ¢.20 mm long and c.1 mm wide and terminating in weakly developed whip-like tip. Distal one-third of spines are black, which gives an overall darkened tone to midline of back and rump. Spines are most well developed over mid-back, less so in shoulder region or over rump. Skull of the Napo Spiny-rat is large and elongated, with long rostrum and heavy supraorbital ridges that extend posteriorly onto parietals as distinct ridges, especially in older individuals. Incisive foramina vary from weakly lyre-shaped to oval, with lateral margins either tapering slightly posteriorly or parallelsided; premaxilla part of septum is short, usually one-half or less the length of foramen; maxillary part varies greatly, most commonly weak and attenuate, often not in contact with premaxillary part, but sometimes broadly spatulate and filling much of foramen; maxillary part may be slightly ridged butis never keeled, and only rarely does this ridge extend onto anterior palate; and posterolateral margins of foramen are only moderately flanged so that only moderately developed grooves are present on the anterior palate. Moderately developed groove is present in the floor of infraorbital foramen, although its development varies among individuals. Mesopterygoid fossa of the Napo Spiny-rat is narrower than either that of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) or Steere’s Spiny-rat, with angle averaging 61° and extending anteriorly to middle of M”. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies slightly, 4(3)—4(3)-4(3)—4(3) /4-3(4)-3(4)-3, but characteristic four folds upon which Hershkovitz based his name quadruplicatusis the most common condition present in all samples. Counterfold pattern of holotype of amphichoricus, however,is 3-3-3-3/3-3-3-3, which characterizes ¢.50% ofall specimens examined from southern Venezuela and adjacent Brazil. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-:3 mm) and stout (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with nearly straight sides and only slightly flared apical wings and expanded base, similar to those of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat and Steere’s Spiny-rat. Rather short baculum of the Napo Spiny-rat defines a notably small phallus for such a large-bodied rat and particularly contrasts with actually larger phalli in nearly all other species of Proechimys, except for Steere’s Spiny-rat. Significance of these differences in phallic size is unknown. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 26 and FN = 42 in southern Venezuela and 2n = 28 and FN = 42-44 in eastern Ecuador, northern Peru, and north-western Brazil.Habitat.Seasonally flooded forest (varzea and igapo) during dry season and margins of upland forest during the wet season.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Pregnant Napo Spiny-rats were trapped in northern Peru (Rio Santiago) in July-August, with modal embryo counts of one (range 1-2).Activity patterns.The Napo Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Napo Spiny-rat shifts its use of microhabitats during the flood season, moving into terra firma forests otherwise occupied by the Guyenne Spiny-rat (FP. guyannensis) in southern Venezuela and northcentral Brazil or the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda), Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri), and Simons’s Spiny-rat in northern Peru.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Napo Spiny-rat is widespread and present in several forest types and protected parks in north-western Amazonia that is sparsely populated by humans. As a result, it is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Napo Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg (1989), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Hershkovitz (1948), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFF9FFCDFAE6591B5CAAF5BB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,572,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF9FFCDFAE6591B5CAAF5BB.xml,Proechimys oconnelli,Proechimys,oconnelli,J. A. Allen,1913,Rat-épineux d'O’Connell @fr | O'Connell-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de O'Connell @es,"Proechimys oconnelli J. A. Allen, 1913, “Villavicencio (alt. 1600 ft.), [Meta,] Colombia.”Proechimys oconnelliis a member of the semispinosus-species group. Monotypic.",C Colombia (headwaters of Meta and Guaviare rivers E of E Andes Range).,"Head-body 250 mm, tail 175 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is moderately large-bodied, with medium length tail (c.70% of head—body length). Dorsal color is orange rufous, finely lined with black, paler on sides than mid-back and rump. Venter is pure white, sharply defined against color of sides. Pale inner thigh stripe is continuous across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is two-toned, pale cream on inner one-half and light brown on outer one-half, with dark color typically extending to fourth andfifth toes. Plantar pads are moderate in size, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and creamy white below, and thinly clothed with short, fine hairs. Visible scale annuli are relatively wide, averaging 9 annuli/cm along mid-length oftail. Pelage is neither distinctly nor heavily spiny because aristiforms are weakly developed, long (18-21 mm) and thin (0-8-0-9 mm), and tipped with long whip-like filament. Skull of O’Connell’s Spinyrat is unremarkable, with elongated and tapering rostrum. Temporal ridge is either non-existent or only weakly developed, extending posteriorly from supraorbital ledge onto parietals. In this aspect, O’Connell’s Spiny-rat contrasts sharply with its presumptive sister species, Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus). Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete but formed completely by jugal. Incisive foramina are angular to lyrate in shape, with moderately developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming grooves on either side of midline and despite only moderate development of maxillary keel and median palatal ridge. Premaxillary part of septum is well developed and elongated, encompassing more than one-half the opening; premaxillary part is well developed and always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely encased and notvisible in ventral aspect. Floor of infraorbital foramen has obvious groove formed by distinct lateral flange that supports passage of maxillary nerve. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderate in width, with angle averaging 63°, and penetrates to middle of M?. Upper and lower cheekteeth are simplified, with three folds on each upper tooth and dP, and 2-3 folds on lower molars. Counterfold pattern is 3-3-3-3/3-(2)-(2)-2(3). Baculum of O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is of medium length (length 8:2-8-4 mm) but broad (proximal width 4-9 mm; distal width 4-4-5-3 mm), similar to that of Tomes’s Spiny-rat in its blunt and thickened base but without distal apical extensions. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 52.",Cis-Andean tropical evergreen forest on eastern slopes of the Eastern Andes Range and Sierra de Macarena at elevations of 170-700 m.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is presumably nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Lack of published studies on biology of O’Connell’s Spiny-rat underscores need for fieldwork designed to understand local abundance, habitat requirements, and potential threats before a proper conservation status can be identified.","Allen (1913) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Tate (1939) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623738/files/figure.png,"37.O’Connell’s Spiny-ratProechimys oconnelliFrench:Rat-épineux d'O’Connell/ German:O'Connell-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de O'ConnellTaxonomy.Proechimys oconnelli J. A. Allen, 1913, “Villavicencio (alt. 1600 ft.), [Meta,] Colombia.”Proechimys oconnelliis a member of the semispinosus-species group. Monotypic.Distribution.C Colombia (headwaters of Meta and Guaviare rivers E of E Andes Range).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250 mm, tail 175 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is moderately large-bodied, with medium length tail (c.70% of head—body length). Dorsal color is orange rufous, finely lined with black, paler on sides than mid-back and rump. Venter is pure white, sharply defined against color of sides. Pale inner thigh stripe is continuous across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is two-toned, pale cream on inner one-half and light brown on outer one-half, with dark color typically extending to fourth andfifth toes. Plantar pads are moderate in size, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and creamy white below, and thinly clothed with short, fine hairs. Visible scale annuli are relatively wide, averaging 9 annuli/cm along mid-length oftail. Pelage is neither distinctly nor heavily spiny because aristiforms are weakly developed, long (18-21 mm) and thin (0-8-0-9 mm), and tipped with long whip-like filament. Skull of O’Connell’s Spinyrat is unremarkable, with elongated and tapering rostrum. Temporal ridge is either non-existent or only weakly developed, extending posteriorly from supraorbital ledge onto parietals. In this aspect, O’Connell’s Spiny-rat contrasts sharply with its presumptive sister species, Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus). Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete but formed completely by jugal. Incisive foramina are angular to lyrate in shape, with moderately developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming grooves on either side of midline and despite only moderate development of maxillary keel and median palatal ridge. Premaxillary part of septum is well developed and elongated, encompassing more than one-half the opening; premaxillary part is well developed and always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely encased and notvisible in ventral aspect. Floor of infraorbital foramen has obvious groove formed by distinct lateral flange that supports passage of maxillary nerve. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderate in width, with angle averaging 63°, and penetrates to middle of M?. Upper and lower cheekteeth are simplified, with three folds on each upper tooth and dP, and 2-3 folds on lower molars. Counterfold pattern is 3-3-3-3/3-(2)-(2)-2(3). Baculum of O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is of medium length (length 8:2-8-4 mm) but broad (proximal width 4-9 mm; distal width 4-4-5-3 mm), similar to that of Tomes’s Spiny-rat in its blunt and thickened base but without distal apical extensions. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 52.Habitat.Cis-Andean tropical evergreen forest on eastern slopes of the Eastern Andes Range and Sierra de Macarena at elevations of 170-700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is presumably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Lack of published studies on biology of O’Connell’s Spiny-rat underscores need for fieldwork designed to understand local abundance, habitat requirements, and potential threats before a proper conservation status can be identified.Bibliography.Allen (1913), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Hershkovitz (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Tate (1939), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFFAFFC1FA7F50B35ED9FA39,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,575,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFAFFC1FA7F50B35ED9FA39.xml,Proechimys kulinae,Proechimys,kulinae,da Silva,1998,Rat-épineux des Kulinas @fr | Kulina-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Kulina @es,"Proechimys kulinae da Silva, 1998, “Seringal Condor, left bank Rio Jurua, 70°51°W, 6°45’S, Amazonas, Brazil.”Proechimys kulinaeis a memberof the gardnerrspecies group. Monotypic.",W Amazon Basin in NE Peru (S of the Amazon River) and W Brazil (middle Rio Jurua).,"Head-body 144—190 mm, tail 95-140 mm; weight 130-170 g.The Kulina Spiny-rat is one of the smallest species of Proechimys, certainly the smallest in the western Amazon. It is ofslight build, with short ears (20 mm), short hindfeet (41 mm), and tail ¢.70% of head-body length. Dorsal color is uniform reddish brown, coarsely streaked with varying amounts of black on dorsum and sides. Venter, chin, and undersurfaces of forelimb and hindlimbs are pure white; upper lips are dark and generally lack patches of white hair; tarsal joint is either ringed by dark and rusty hair, ortarsal ring is interrupted by white hair confluent with that of undersurfaces of hindlimbs. Dorsal surface of hindfoot, including digits, is white, with golden tones in some individuals. Only five tubercles are typically present on plantar surfaces, with hypothenar pad lacking in most specimens. Tail appears almost naked, is distinctly bicolored with dark brown above and white below, and has larger scales than other species in the group (averaging 9 annuli/cm at mid-length). Dorsal pelage is spiny to the touch,interspersed with moderately thick (0-8-0-9 mm) but short (17-18 mm) dark brown aristiform hairs that form darkermedial band contrasting with sides of body. Tip of each aristiform is blunt. Skull of the Kulina Spiny-ratis relatively small, has short and narrow rostrum, and well-developed supraorbital ledges extend onto anterior parts of parietals. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed and formed mostly by squamosal. Floor of infraorbital foramenis generally smooth, without demonstrable groove for maxillary nerve. Incisive foramina are mostly square to oval in shape, with nearly flat posterolateral margins; anterior palate is smooth, lacking grooves extending posteriorly from incisive foramina and median ridge; premaxillary part of septum is short, extending for less than one-half the length of foramen; maxillary part is variable, attenuate to expanded anteriorly, and usually in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is either completely enclosed or only barely visible. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow, with angle of indentation averaging 57°; it is moderately deep, usually extending well into M®. All upper cheekteeth have three lateral folds, although M? may, on occasion, have only two. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with four folds on dP, three on M and M,, and only two on M,. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3(2) /4-3-3-2. Baculum is elongate (length 5-4-8-2 mm) and relatively narrow (proximal width 1-6 2.1 mm, distal width 1-7-2-6 mm), with stout and short apical extensions; proximal and distal ends are about equal width. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 52 in eastern Peru.",Primary and secondary lowland rainforest in seasonally non-inundated regions (terra firma) at elevations of 120-180 m.,There is no information available for this species.,"In the Rio Jurua Basin, all Kulina Spiny-rats were captured in dry season months; five of 18 adult females were pregnant, each containing 1-2 embryos (modal count of one). It is not known if breeding also extends into the rainy season.","There is no specific information available for this species, but trapping records of Kulina Spiny-rats suggest nocturnal habits.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Kulina Spinyrats are known from very few localities, one of which is within the Javari Indigeneous Territory in western Brazil. Overall, distribution of the Kulina Spiny-rat covers mostly pristine areas under no apparent threats, but additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats are needed to properly evaluate its conservation status.",Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton et al. (2000) | da Silva (1998) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6623754/files/figure.png,"44.Kulina Spiny-ratProechimys kulinaeFrench:Rat-épineux des Kulinas/ German:Kulina-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de KulinaTaxonomy.Proechimys kulinae da Silva, 1998, “Seringal Condor, left bank Rio Jurua, 70°51°W, 6°45’S, Amazonas, Brazil.”Proechimys kulinaeis a memberof the gardnerrspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin in NE Peru (S of the Amazon River) and W Brazil (middle Rio Jurua).Descriptive notes.Head-body 144—190 mm, tail 95-140 mm; weight 130-170 g.The Kulina Spiny-rat is one of the smallest species of Proechimys, certainly the smallest in the western Amazon. It is ofslight build, with short ears (20 mm), short hindfeet (41 mm), and tail ¢.70% of head-body length. Dorsal color is uniform reddish brown, coarsely streaked with varying amounts of black on dorsum and sides. Venter, chin, and undersurfaces of forelimb and hindlimbs are pure white; upper lips are dark and generally lack patches of white hair; tarsal joint is either ringed by dark and rusty hair, ortarsal ring is interrupted by white hair confluent with that of undersurfaces of hindlimbs. Dorsal surface of hindfoot, including digits, is white, with golden tones in some individuals. Only five tubercles are typically present on plantar surfaces, with hypothenar pad lacking in most specimens. Tail appears almost naked, is distinctly bicolored with dark brown above and white below, and has larger scales than other species in the group (averaging 9 annuli/cm at mid-length). Dorsal pelage is spiny to the touch,interspersed with moderately thick (0-8-0-9 mm) but short (17-18 mm) dark brown aristiform hairs that form darkermedial band contrasting with sides of body. Tip of each aristiform is blunt. Skull of the Kulina Spiny-ratis relatively small, has short and narrow rostrum, and well-developed supraorbital ledges extend onto anterior parts of parietals. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed and formed mostly by squamosal. Floor of infraorbital foramenis generally smooth, without demonstrable groove for maxillary nerve. Incisive foramina are mostly square to oval in shape, with nearly flat posterolateral margins; anterior palate is smooth, lacking grooves extending posteriorly from incisive foramina and median ridge; premaxillary part of septum is short, extending for less than one-half the length of foramen; maxillary part is variable, attenuate to expanded anteriorly, and usually in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is either completely enclosed or only barely visible. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow, with angle of indentation averaging 57°; it is moderately deep, usually extending well into M®. All upper cheekteeth have three lateral folds, although M? may, on occasion, have only two. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with four folds on dP, three on M and M,, and only two on M,. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3(2) /4-3-3-2. Baculum is elongate (length 5-4-8-2 mm) and relatively narrow (proximal width 1-6 2.1 mm, distal width 1-7-2-6 mm), with stout and short apical extensions; proximal and distal ends are about equal width. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 52 in eastern Peru.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforest in seasonally non-inundated regions (terra firma) at elevations of 120-180 m.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.In the Rio Jurua Basin, all Kulina Spiny-rats were captured in dry season months; five of 18 adult females were pregnant, each containing 1-2 embryos (modal count of one). It is not known if breeding also extends into the rainy season.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but trapping records of Kulina Spiny-rats suggest nocturnal habits.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Kulina Spinyrats are known from very few localities, one of which is within the Javari Indigeneous Territory in western Brazil. Overall, distribution of the Kulina Spiny-rat covers mostly pristine areas under no apparent threats, but additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats are needed to properly evaluate its conservation status.Bibliography.Patton & Leite (2015), Patton et al. (2000), da Silva (1998), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." @@ -870,71 +870,71 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03C5A071FFFBFFCEFADB52985834F414,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,574,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFBFFCEFADB52985834F414.xml,Proechimys roberti,Proechimys,roberti,J. A. Allen,1899,Rat-épineux de Robert @fr | Robert-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Robert @es | Roberto’s Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys roberti Thomas, 1901, “Rio Jordao, SW. Minas Geraes [sic], Altitude 960 metres,” Araguari, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Proechimys robertiis a member of the guyannensisspecies group. It includes ors, boimensis, and arescens as synonyms. Monotypic.","Amazonian lowlands of E Brazil S of the Amazon River, extending S to the cerrado biome in EC Brazil, primarily in the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia fluvial systems of Para, Maranhao, Tocantins, Minas Gerais, Goias, and Mato Grosso states.","Head-body 200-230 mm, tail 160 mm; weight 170-240 g. Robert's Spiny-rat is moderately sized, similar in size to the Guyenne Spiny-rat (P. guyannensis), with which it shares a number of morphological attributes, but it has a distinctly shorter tail (average c.70% of head-body length). Dorsal color ranges from reddish brown in the northern part ofits distribution in Amazonia proper to pale buff at the southern terminus of its distribution in dry forests and gallery forests of cerrado—a difference in color that reinforced specific status of Robert’s Spiny-rat when O. Thomas described onis in 1904 from near the mouth of the Amazon a few years later. Venter is white from chin to inguinal region, but white of inner thighs is discontinuous, broken by dark ankle bands, with pale surface of hindfeet. In many specimens, brownish patch extends from tarsusto lateral toes. Pads on plantar surface of hindfoot are only moderately developed, but thenar and hypothenar are present and sub-equal in size. As in the Guyenne Spinyrat, tail of Robert’s Spiny-rat is very sparsely covered with short hairs so that is appears naked to the eye. Scales are large, defining 9-10 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff to the touch, although much softer in southern samples; aristiform development is, however, moderate; spines are relatively short (20 mm in length) and narrow (0-6-0-8 mm in width), and each terminates in long whip-like tip. Difference in softness of pelage between Amazonian and cerrado specimens is mostly in aristiform density, not in any appreciable difference in spine width or other features. Skull of Robert’s Spiny-rat is medium-sized but rather narrow, with distinctly narrowed, tapering rostrum, similar in most respects to that of the Guyenne Spiny-rat. Slight temporal ridges extend posteriorly onto parietals from supraorbital ledge in older individuals, but most specimens lack ridges altogether. Incisive foramina cannot be distinguished from those of the Guyenne Spiny-rat by any single feature. They are relatively wide and ovalto teardrop in shape, with little or no posterolateral flange so that anterior palate is either flat of only weakly grooved; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the opening, and either connected to very attenuate maxillary part or separated from the latter entirely; maxillary part is non-keeled, so that anterior palate is without medial ridge; and vomer might be visible ventrally but not always. Floor of infraorbital foramen is eitherflat or with only hint of groove formed by weakly developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is intermediate in width, with angle averaging 64—67°; it penetrates posterior palate to anterior one-half of M®. Postorbital process of zygomais weakly to moderately developed and formed completely by squamosal. Three folds characterize all upper cheekteeth except M?, which may have only two. Number of folds on lower cheekteeth is more variable, with three (occasionally four) on P, and either two (usually) or three on each lower molar; counterfold count 3-3-3-3(2)/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). As with otherspecies of spiny-rats whose populations occur in various forest types, southernmost samples of Robert’s Spiny-rat in the drier cerrado forests typically have simpler teeth, with higher proportions of individuals with only two folds on lower molars. Baculum of Robert’s Spiny-rat is relatively short (5-4—6-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-7-2-3 mm; distal width 1:3-1-8 mm), with general features as described above for the Guyenne Spiny-rat, except specimens from the southern part of its distribution tend to be smaller in length and width. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 54-56, with minor regional differences in numbers of small biarmed vs. uniarmed autosomal pairs.","Well-drained forests, cerrado gallery forests, sometimes creek-side and gallery forests, but more commonly primary forests from near sea level to elevations of c.1000 m. Robert’s Spiny-rat may be sympatric with Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri) in primary forests. Some have suggested that Robert’s Spiny-rat favors microhabitats with abundant babassu palms (Attalea speciosa, Arecaceae). Sympatry with Goeldi’s Spinyrat (P. goeldii) has been documented along southern margins of the Amazon River in eastern Brazil and also with the Long-tailed Spiny-rat (P. longicaudatus) in dry forests of cerrado in central Brazil.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but Robert’s Spiny-rat is probably nocturnal and terrestrial.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Robert’s Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in a diverse set of forested habitats, some of which are in protected parks or indigenous areas, including Chapada dos Veadeiros and Brasilia national parks. Although much of eastern Amazonian and southern cerrado parts of its distribution have been severely impacted by forest loss, Robert’s Spiny-rat is not believed to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Robert’s Spiny-rat are needed.","Alho (1981) | Allen (1916a) | Bonvicino, Lindbergh & Maroja (2002) | Bonvicino, Otazu & Vilela (2005) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Machado et al. (2005) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Ribeiro (2006) | Thomas (1901a, 1904b) | Valim & Linardi (2008) | Weksler et al. (2001) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623750/files/figure.png,"42.Robert’s Spiny-ratProechimys robertiFrench:Rat-épineux de Robert/ German:Robert-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de RobertOther common names:Roberto’s Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys roberti Thomas, 1901, “Rio Jordao, SW. Minas Geraes [sic], Altitude 960 metres,” Araguari, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Proechimys robertiis a member of the guyannensisspecies group. It includes ors, boimensis, and arescens as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazonian lowlands of E Brazil S of the Amazon River, extending S to the cerrado biome in EC Brazil, primarily in the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia fluvial systems of Para, Maranhao, Tocantins, Minas Gerais, Goias, and Mato Grosso states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-230 mm, tail 160 mm; weight 170-240 g. Robert's Spiny-rat is moderately sized, similar in size to the Guyenne Spiny-rat (P. guyannensis), with which it shares a number of morphological attributes, but it has a distinctly shorter tail (average c.70% of head-body length). Dorsal color ranges from reddish brown in the northern part ofits distribution in Amazonia proper to pale buff at the southern terminus of its distribution in dry forests and gallery forests of cerrado—a difference in color that reinforced specific status of Robert’s Spiny-rat when O. Thomas described onis in 1904 from near the mouth of the Amazon a few years later. Venter is white from chin to inguinal region, but white of inner thighs is discontinuous, broken by dark ankle bands, with pale surface of hindfeet. In many specimens, brownish patch extends from tarsusto lateral toes. Pads on plantar surface of hindfoot are only moderately developed, but thenar and hypothenar are present and sub-equal in size. As in the Guyenne Spinyrat, tail of Robert’s Spiny-rat is very sparsely covered with short hairs so that is appears naked to the eye. Scales are large, defining 9-10 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff to the touch, although much softer in southern samples; aristiform development is, however, moderate; spines are relatively short (20 mm in length) and narrow (0-6-0-8 mm in width), and each terminates in long whip-like tip. Difference in softness of pelage between Amazonian and cerrado specimens is mostly in aristiform density, not in any appreciable difference in spine width or other features. Skull of Robert’s Spiny-rat is medium-sized but rather narrow, with distinctly narrowed, tapering rostrum, similar in most respects to that of the Guyenne Spiny-rat. Slight temporal ridges extend posteriorly onto parietals from supraorbital ledge in older individuals, but most specimens lack ridges altogether. Incisive foramina cannot be distinguished from those of the Guyenne Spiny-rat by any single feature. They are relatively wide and ovalto teardrop in shape, with little or no posterolateral flange so that anterior palate is either flat of only weakly grooved; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the opening, and either connected to very attenuate maxillary part or separated from the latter entirely; maxillary part is non-keeled, so that anterior palate is without medial ridge; and vomer might be visible ventrally but not always. Floor of infraorbital foramen is eitherflat or with only hint of groove formed by weakly developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is intermediate in width, with angle averaging 64—67°; it penetrates posterior palate to anterior one-half of M®. Postorbital process of zygomais weakly to moderately developed and formed completely by squamosal. Three folds characterize all upper cheekteeth except M?, which may have only two. Number of folds on lower cheekteeth is more variable, with three (occasionally four) on P, and either two (usually) or three on each lower molar; counterfold count 3-3-3-3(2)/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). As with otherspecies of spiny-rats whose populations occur in various forest types, southernmost samples of Robert’s Spiny-rat in the drier cerrado forests typically have simpler teeth, with higher proportions of individuals with only two folds on lower molars. Baculum of Robert’s Spiny-rat is relatively short (5-4—6-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-7-2-3 mm; distal width 1:3-1-8 mm), with general features as described above for the Guyenne Spiny-rat, except specimens from the southern part of its distribution tend to be smaller in length and width. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 54-56, with minor regional differences in numbers of small biarmed vs. uniarmed autosomal pairs.Habitat.Well-drained forests, cerrado gallery forests, sometimes creek-side and gallery forests, but more commonly primary forests from near sea level to elevations of c.1000 m. Robert’s Spiny-rat may be sympatric with Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri) in primary forests. Some have suggested that Robert’s Spiny-rat favors microhabitats with abundant babassu palms (Attalea speciosa, Arecaceae). Sympatry with Goeldi’s Spinyrat (P. goeldii) has been documented along southern margins of the Amazon River in eastern Brazil and also with the Long-tailed Spiny-rat (P. longicaudatus) in dry forests of cerrado in central Brazil.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Robert’s Spiny-rat is probably nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Robert’s Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in a diverse set of forested habitats, some of which are in protected parks or indigenous areas, including Chapada dos Veadeiros and Brasilia national parks. Although much of eastern Amazonian and southern cerrado parts of its distribution have been severely impacted by forest loss, Robert’s Spiny-rat is not believed to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Robert’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Alho (1981), Allen (1916a), Bonvicino, Lindbergh & Maroja (2002), Bonvicino, Otazu & Vilela (2005), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Hershkovitz (1948), Machado et al. (2005), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Ribeiro (2006), Thomas (1901a, 1904b), Valim & Linardi (2008), Weksler et al. (2001), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFFBFFCFFFD0521652F2F5DC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,574,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFBFFCFFFD0521652F2F5DC.xml,Proechimys guyannensis,Proechimys,guyannensis,,,Rat-épineux de Guyane @fr | Cayenne-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Cayena @es | Cayenne Spiny-rat @en,"Mus guyannensis E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803, “Cayenne,” French Guiana.Proechimys guyannensisis a member of the guyannensisspecies group. It includes cherriei, vacillator, warreni, riparum, and arabupu as synonyms. It is currently regarded as monotypic, but this geographically highly variable taxon requires focused attention to determine its status, at subspecific or specific levels of its formally named taxa and its diversity of karyotypic forms.","Amazon Basin in S & E Venezuela, the Guianas, and NE Brazil (E of Rio Negro and N of Amazon River).","Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 110-186 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is moderately sized, with relatively long tail for a member of the genus (77-87% of head-body length). Samples across the northern Guianan region are light reddish to yellowish brown, lined with black along mid-back, distinctly paler on lowersides, with abrupt pure white venter from chin to inguinal region. White innerthigh stripes are typically continuous across ankle to dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is light colored with only slight brown patch on tarsus below first digit; all digits tend to be white. Plantar pads on hindfeet are only moderately developed, but thenar and hypothenar are present and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, light brown above and cream below. Hairs on tail are sparsely distributed and very short, so that tail appears completely naked to the eye. Tail scales are small, and annuli consequently narrow, ranging 11-14 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff to the touch, particular along mid-back, with aristiform spines rather short (16-19 mm long) and stout (0-9-1 mm wide); tip is either blunt or terminates with a very short filament. Skull of the Guyenne Spiny-rat conforms to that of virtually all spiny-rats in general shape, but because body size is moderate, skull appears small and rather delicate and lacks heavy ridging that may be present in skulls of larger species of Proechimys. As a result, temporalridges are generally poorly developed,if at all, maximally with just short and weak posterior extensions from supraorbital ledges. Incisive foramina are oval or teardrop in shape, with either no or only weakly developed posterolateral flanges so that anterior palate is typically flat or only very slightly grooved; premaxillary part of septum is short, occupying less than onehalf the opening and usually not in contact with very attenuate and non-keeled maxillary part; anterior palate lacks any medial ridging; and vomeris typically not visible in ventral view. Foraminal shape and structure are especially similar to those of Robert's Spiny-rat (P. roberti) and Simons’s Spiny-rat (P. simonsi). Floor of infraorbital foramen may either lack evidence of groove or have moderately developed lateral flange indicating passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Width of mesopterygoid fossa varies widely among geographical specimens, but it is generally narrow (angle less than 58°); fossa penetrates palate to level of posterior one-half of M? in nearly all specimens. Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete or only weakly developed;it is formed entirely by squamosal. Number offolds on upper cheekteeth is relatively constant, with three characterizing dP*, M', and M?, and either three or less (commonly two) on M?; lower cheekteeth are more variable, with dP, having three folds and M, to M,typically only two, occasionally three. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3—(2) /3-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Compared with sympatric Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri), cheekteeth of the Guyenne Spiny-rat are also notably small in size, with tooth row less or equal to 8 mm in length. Baculum is relatively long (length 6-4-8-9 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-3 mm; distal width 2-2.4 mm), and shaftis straight with little dorsoventral curvature and only a slight taper distally, and minimal lateral indentations. Proximal end is usually evenly rounded and paddle-shaped; distal tip shows only slight development of apical wings and moderate median depression. Chromosome complementis highly variable: 2n = 46 and FN = 50 from Rio Anaua and Rio Branco, Roraima (Brazil); 2n = 44 and FN = 52 from Manaus (Brazil); 2n = 40 and FN = 54 from Cayenne (French Guiana); 2n = 40 and FN = 50 from Icabaru (Bolivar, Venezuela); and 2n = 38 and FN = 52 from upper Rio Negro to RioJari Basin on the Para~Amapa State boundary (Brazil).","Well-drained lowland forests, sometimes in gallery forest in otherwise more open areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.500m. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is more common in primary forests but ranges into secondary forest and other human disturbed communities. It might occur sympatrically with Cuvier’s Spiny-rat.",The Guyenne Spiny-rat is mainly frugivorous but also feeds on seeds and fungi.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Guyenne Spiny-rat is reportedly a seasonal breeder.","There is no specific information available for this species, but anecdotal evidence suggest that the Guyenne Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.",There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in various forest types, including severely disturbed areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservations threats to Guyenne spiny-rat are needed.","Allen (1899a) | Desmarest (1817) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Reig et al. (1980) | Thomas (1899a, 1903b, 1905b) | Wagner (1843) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623748/files/figure.png,"41.Guyenne Spiny-ratProechimys guyannensisFrench:Rat-épineux de Guyane/ German:Cayenne-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de CayenaOther common names:Cayenne Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Mus guyannensis E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803, “Cayenne,” French Guiana.Proechimys guyannensisis a member of the guyannensisspecies group. It includes cherriei, vacillator, warreni, riparum, and arabupu as synonyms. It is currently regarded as monotypic, but this geographically highly variable taxon requires focused attention to determine its status, at subspecific or specific levels of its formally named taxa and its diversity of karyotypic forms.Distribution.Amazon Basin in S & E Venezuela, the Guianas, and NE Brazil (E of Rio Negro and N of Amazon River).Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 110-186 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is moderately sized, with relatively long tail for a member of the genus (77-87% of head-body length). Samples across the northern Guianan region are light reddish to yellowish brown, lined with black along mid-back, distinctly paler on lowersides, with abrupt pure white venter from chin to inguinal region. White innerthigh stripes are typically continuous across ankle to dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is light colored with only slight brown patch on tarsus below first digit; all digits tend to be white. Plantar pads on hindfeet are only moderately developed, but thenar and hypothenar are present and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, light brown above and cream below. Hairs on tail are sparsely distributed and very short, so that tail appears completely naked to the eye. Tail scales are small, and annuli consequently narrow, ranging 11-14 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff to the touch, particular along mid-back, with aristiform spines rather short (16-19 mm long) and stout (0-9-1 mm wide); tip is either blunt or terminates with a very short filament. Skull of the Guyenne Spiny-rat conforms to that of virtually all spiny-rats in general shape, but because body size is moderate, skull appears small and rather delicate and lacks heavy ridging that may be present in skulls of larger species of Proechimys. As a result, temporalridges are generally poorly developed,if at all, maximally with just short and weak posterior extensions from supraorbital ledges. Incisive foramina are oval or teardrop in shape, with either no or only weakly developed posterolateral flanges so that anterior palate is typically flat or only very slightly grooved; premaxillary part of septum is short, occupying less than onehalf the opening and usually not in contact with very attenuate and non-keeled maxillary part; anterior palate lacks any medial ridging; and vomeris typically not visible in ventral view. Foraminal shape and structure are especially similar to those of Robert's Spiny-rat (P. roberti) and Simons’s Spiny-rat (P. simonsi). Floor of infraorbital foramen may either lack evidence of groove or have moderately developed lateral flange indicating passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Width of mesopterygoid fossa varies widely among geographical specimens, but it is generally narrow (angle less than 58°); fossa penetrates palate to level of posterior one-half of M? in nearly all specimens. Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete or only weakly developed;it is formed entirely by squamosal. Number offolds on upper cheekteeth is relatively constant, with three characterizing dP*, M', and M?, and either three or less (commonly two) on M?; lower cheekteeth are more variable, with dP, having three folds and M, to M,typically only two, occasionally three. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3—(2) /3-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Compared with sympatric Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri), cheekteeth of the Guyenne Spiny-rat are also notably small in size, with tooth row less or equal to 8 mm in length. Baculum is relatively long (length 6-4-8-9 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-3 mm; distal width 2-2.4 mm), and shaftis straight with little dorsoventral curvature and only a slight taper distally, and minimal lateral indentations. Proximal end is usually evenly rounded and paddle-shaped; distal tip shows only slight development of apical wings and moderate median depression. Chromosome complementis highly variable: 2n = 46 and FN = 50 from Rio Anaua and Rio Branco, Roraima (Brazil); 2n = 44 and FN = 52 from Manaus (Brazil); 2n = 40 and FN = 54 from Cayenne (French Guiana); 2n = 40 and FN = 50 from Icabaru (Bolivar, Venezuela); and 2n = 38 and FN = 52 from upper Rio Negro to RioJari Basin on the Para~Amapa State boundary (Brazil).Habitat.Well-drained lowland forests, sometimes in gallery forest in otherwise more open areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.500m. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is more common in primary forests but ranges into secondary forest and other human disturbed communities. It might occur sympatrically with Cuvier’s Spiny-rat.Food and Feeding.The Guyenne Spiny-rat is mainly frugivorous but also feeds on seeds and fungi.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Guyenne Spiny-rat is reportedly a seasonal breeder.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but anecdotal evidence suggest that the Guyenne Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in various forest types, including severely disturbed areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservations threats to Guyenne spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Desmarest (1817), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Reig et al. (1980), Thomas (1899a, 1903b, 1905b), Wagner (1843), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFFEFFCAFF0251F75396F8FC,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,571,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFEFFCAFF0251F75396F8FC.xml,Proechimys echinothrix,Proechimys,echinothrix,da Silva,1998,Rat-épineux du Jurua @fr | German @en | gel-Kurzstachelratte @en | Rata espinosa de espinas rigidas @es,"Proechimys echinothrix da Silva, 1998, “Colocacao Viravolta, left bank Rio Jurua on Igarapé Arabidi, affluent of Parana Breu, 66°14°W, 3°17’S, Amazonas,Brazil.”This species is monotypic.","W Amazon Basin of Brazil, on both sides of the Amazon River W of the Rio Negro and Rio Madeira, possibly extending along the upper Rio Negro into Colombia.","Head-body 141-245 mm, tail 106-209 mm; weight 240-280 g. The Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is moderately large in overall size; it has distinctly robust body, long ears (24 mm), proportionately short tail (averaging c.77% of head-body length), and large hindfeet (48 mm). Overall, dorsal color is uniformly reddish brown, coarsely streaked on back and sides with varying amounts of black; interspersed heavy, dark brown guard hairs make mid-dorsum appear somewhat darker, but this grades evenly onto brighter and paler sides of body. Aristiform hairs are long (averaging 21 mm) and much broader (1-4-1-6 mm) than those of any other sympatric species, with distinctly strong and blunt tips that are conspicuous to the eye and touch, especially in mid-dorsal region. Venter and inner surface of limbs are pure white. Tail is indistinctly bicolored, dark above and white below. It is well haired, with scales nearly completely obscured from view. Scales are small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Hindfeet are nearly unicolored white on dorsal surfaces. All six pads are present on plantar surface of hindfeet, but hypothenar is weakly developed in relation to thenar pad. Skull of the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is moderately large, rostrum long and narrow, and well-developed supraorbital ledges extend over orbits but are discontinuous across parietals as weakly developed temporal ridges. Zygoma usually lacks post-orbital process or,if present, is low and rounded with equal contributions by jugal and squamosal. Well-developed groove with lateral flange is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Incisive foramina are ovate to lyrate in general shape, with posterolateral margins mostly flat or only weakly flanged, and thus with very shallow grooves extending onto anterior palate that lacks median ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long and narrow, extending between one-half to two-thirds the length of opening; maxillary part is typically attenuate and has weak to no contact with premaxillary part; and vomeris visible in most specimens. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderate in depth but broad, with angle of indentation averaging c.70° and penetrating palate to front of M?, Median numberoflateral folds on all upper cheekteeth is three, but M, occasionally only has two. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3 / 3-3-3—(2) 3. Baculum is massive, relatively short (length 8-3-8-6 mm) but broad (distal width 4-2-5-1 mm; proximal width 4-8-5-4 mm); its shaft is broad with thick and expanded base, and distal end has pair of divergent apical extensions that are separated by shallow median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","Non-flooded, or terra firma, lowland evergreen rainforest, and along margins of flooded varzea and igapo forest.","There is no specific information for this species, but the Stiff spined Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.","Along the Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant Stiff-spined Spiny-rats were trapped in wet and dry seasons; modal litter size was 2 (range 1-3).",Trapping data suggest that the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Stiff spined Spiny-rat is uncommon at any locality where it has been trapped, butit has a relatively wide distribution over mostly undisturbed forest and occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Amana and Mamiraua sustainable development reserves and Jau National Park). Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Stiffspined Spiny-rat are needed.",Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton et al. (2000) | da Silva (1998) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6623732/files/figure.png,"35.Suff-spined Spiny-ratProechimys echinothrixFrench:Rat-épineux du Jurua/ German:Igel-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de espinas rigidasTaxonomy.Proechimys echinothrix da Silva, 1998, “Colocacao Viravolta, left bank Rio Jurua on Igarapé Arabidi, affluent of Parana Breu, 66°14°W, 3°17’S, Amazonas,Brazil.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin of Brazil, on both sides of the Amazon River W of the Rio Negro and Rio Madeira, possibly extending along the upper Rio Negro into Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 141-245 mm, tail 106-209 mm; weight 240-280 g. The Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is moderately large in overall size; it has distinctly robust body, long ears (24 mm), proportionately short tail (averaging c.77% of head-body length), and large hindfeet (48 mm). Overall, dorsal color is uniformly reddish brown, coarsely streaked on back and sides with varying amounts of black; interspersed heavy, dark brown guard hairs make mid-dorsum appear somewhat darker, but this grades evenly onto brighter and paler sides of body. Aristiform hairs are long (averaging 21 mm) and much broader (1-4-1-6 mm) than those of any other sympatric species, with distinctly strong and blunt tips that are conspicuous to the eye and touch, especially in mid-dorsal region. Venter and inner surface of limbs are pure white. Tail is indistinctly bicolored, dark above and white below. It is well haired, with scales nearly completely obscured from view. Scales are small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Hindfeet are nearly unicolored white on dorsal surfaces. All six pads are present on plantar surface of hindfeet, but hypothenar is weakly developed in relation to thenar pad. Skull of the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is moderately large, rostrum long and narrow, and well-developed supraorbital ledges extend over orbits but are discontinuous across parietals as weakly developed temporal ridges. Zygoma usually lacks post-orbital process or,if present, is low and rounded with equal contributions by jugal and squamosal. Well-developed groove with lateral flange is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Incisive foramina are ovate to lyrate in general shape, with posterolateral margins mostly flat or only weakly flanged, and thus with very shallow grooves extending onto anterior palate that lacks median ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long and narrow, extending between one-half to two-thirds the length of opening; maxillary part is typically attenuate and has weak to no contact with premaxillary part; and vomeris visible in most specimens. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderate in depth but broad, with angle of indentation averaging c.70° and penetrating palate to front of M?, Median numberoflateral folds on all upper cheekteeth is three, but M, occasionally only has two. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3 / 3-3-3—(2) 3. Baculum is massive, relatively short (length 8-3-8-6 mm) but broad (distal width 4-2-5-1 mm; proximal width 4-8-5-4 mm); its shaft is broad with thick and expanded base, and distal end has pair of divergent apical extensions that are separated by shallow median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Non-flooded, or terra firma, lowland evergreen rainforest, and along margins of flooded varzea and igapo forest.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but the Stiff spined Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.Along the Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant Stiff-spined Spiny-rats were trapped in wet and dry seasons; modal litter size was 2 (range 1-3).Activity patterns.Trapping data suggest that the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Stiff spined Spiny-rat is uncommon at any locality where it has been trapped, butit has a relatively wide distribution over mostly undisturbed forest and occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Amana and Mamiraua sustainable development reserves and Jau National Park). Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Stiffspined Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Patton & Leite (2015), Patton et al. (2000), da Silva (1998), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C5A071FFFEFFCDFA055FB858FEF205,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,571,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFEFFCDFA055FB858FEF205.xml,Proechimys semispinosus,Proechimys,semispinosus,,,Rat-épineux de Tomes @fr | Tomes-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Tomes @es | Gorgona @en | sland Spiny-rat (gorgonae) @en,"Echimys semispinosus Tomes, 1860, “Gualaquiza, SE Ecuador.” Amended by A. L. Gardner in 1983 to “Esmeraldas, province Esmeraldas, on the Pacific coast of Ecuador.”Proechimys semispinosusis a member of the semispinosus-species group. As currently understood, it is polytypic; subspecies boundaries, and thus status, on the mainland of Colombia and Ecuador have not been fully ascertained. The form calidiornamed by O. Thomas in 1911 is considered a synonym of the nominate subspecies and the form chiriguinusnamed by Thomas in 1900 a synonym of panamensis, Echinomys semispinosusnamed by F. W. True in 1889 is included in the subspecies centralis. Ten subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.","P.s.semispinosusTomes,1860—NWEcuador(EsmeraldasProvince).P.s.burrusBangs,1901—SanMiguelI,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.centralisThomas,1896—EHonduras,E&CNicaragua,andN&ECostaRica.P.s.colombianusThomas,1914—WColombia(Pacificlowlands).P.s.goldmaniBole,1937—SWPanama(AzueroPeninsula).P.s.gorgonaeBangs,1905—GorgonaI(offSWColombia).P.s.ignotusKellogg,1946—IslaSanJosé,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.panamensisThomas,1900—SWCostaRicathroughmostofPanamaandpossiblyextendingintoNWColombia.P.s.rosaThomas,1900—SWEcuador.P.s. rubellus Hollister, 1914— C Costa Rica (Angostura Valley, Cartago Province).","Head-body 290 mm, tail 240 mm; weight 0-26—c.1 kg. Tomes’s Spinyrat is moderately variable in weight geographically, larger in Central America and northern Colombia than in the southern part ofits distribution in Ecuador. Tail length also varies proportionally from ¢.63% of head-body length in the north to ¢.70% in the south. Dorsal color is rather consistently dark reddish brown, laterally speckled with black; sides are only slightly lighter but still contrasting sharply with uniformly white venter. Pale inner thigh stripe does not continue across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is uniformly dark. Plantar pads are well developed, and thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and pale below, particularly in northern specimens but less bicolored in southern samples from north-western Ecuador. Hairiness of tail varies among individuals, with some moderately covered with elongated hairs such that tail scales are nearly hidden from view while other individuals from the same population have more typical sparsely haired tails. Scale annuli are well developed and usually obvious to the eye, averaging 7-8 annuli/cm. Dorsal pelageis stiff to the touch, but aristiform development also varies from north to south. These spines are of equal length (19-21 mm) in all populations, but vary in width and hencestiffness (0-9-1-1 mm in northern samples and 0-6-0-8 mm in southern ones). Nevertheless, each aristiform terminates in elongated, filamentlike, not blunt, tip. Skull is large and broad across zygomatic arches, and rostrum is elongated and narrowed. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is uniquely characterized among spiny-rats by its well-developed temporal ridges extending from supraorbital ledge across length of parietals. Only rarely is this ridge interrupted into anterior and posterior segments. Incisive foramina of most specimens are rather narrow, with almost parallel sides, or weakly lyre-shaped; posterolateral margins are usually strongly flanged, creating deep grooves extending onto anterior palate despite only moderate development of medial ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long, encompassing nearly entire length of opening; maxillary part varies from well developed to attenuate, is only weakly keeled at best, and is nearly always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely hidden from ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen has groove supporting infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve and is formed by well-developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is of moderate width, but angle becomes broader from north to south (57-62°). In contrast to O’Connell’s Spiny-rat (PF. oconnelli), post-orbital process of zygoma of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is moderately well developed and more commonly formed byjugal (especially in northern samples, less so in southern ones). Counterfold pattern is similar to that of species of the goelditspecies group, with four folds commonly present on all upper cheekteeth and M,, and less commonly on M, and even M,. Nevertheless, fold number decreases in samples from northern Colombia to southern Ecuador (subspecies rosa), where four folds are rare on all teeth and two folds may be found on M? and all lower molars. Therefore, counterfold formula is 4(3)-4(3)—4(3)-4(3-2) /4-4(3-2)-4(3-2)—4(3-2). Baculum is massive, long (length 8:5-9-7 mm), and broad (proximal width 4-2—4-9 mm; distal width 5-1-6:2 mm), with deeply concave margins, broadly expanded and thickened base, and wide distal part with well-developed apical wings separated by median depression. Chromosomal complements are 2n = 30 and FN = 54 in Costa Rica; 2n = 30 and FN = 50-54 in Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador; and 2n = 30 and FN = 56 in Pacific lowlands and Gorgona Island, Colombia.",,"Diet of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is mainly fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of other plant material, insects, and fungi. Large seeds and palm nuts are usually carried to a secure feeding place such as a hole. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is an important disperser of several tropical fruit species.Breeding. Pregnant Tomes’s Spiny-rats give birth to precocious young; litters are 1-5 young. In Panama, they breed throughout the year, with females potentially producing four successive litters.",,,"Tomes’s Spiny-rats nest in burrows or cavities under logs, usually in dense vegetation. Insular populations were reported to have midto high density on five islands in Gatun Lake, central Panama. Male home ranges were estimated to be larger than those of females, but home ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively indicating no territoriality. Adults also had small home ranges with greater spatial overlap through rainy seasons when resources were most abundant. In general, degree of overlap was positively correlated with population density. In cases of high density, adults potentially shared diurnal resting sites such as burrows, which were not individual specific. A negative correlation between home range size and density suggested that abundance of food resources had an influence on home range size and degree of overlap. Mating system of Tomes’s Spiny-rat also varied with density and resource abundance, being mostly monogamous on lowdensity islands but polygynous or promiscuous on high-density islands. Seasonality was also a significantly correlated with home range and spatial overlap; overlap increased throughout the rainy season due to an increase in abundance of fruit, providing a greater chance of mating than in the dry season.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is widespread and abundant; it is present in multiple forest types across its known distribution and occurs in several protected areas; and it is unlikely to be declining. Increased forest conversion with spread of large-scale agriculture oflarge parts ofits distribution, however, suggest that continued studies are needed to assess conservation status over the next few decades. Despite being common, few detailed population studies of Tomes’s Spiny-rat beyond those in central Panama have ever been undertaken.","Adler (1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2011) | Adler & Beatty (1997) | Adler & Kestell (1998) | Adler & Lambert (1997) | Adler & Seamon (1991) | Adler, Endries & Piotter (1997) | Adler, Tomblin & Lambert (1998) | Alho (1981) | Allen (1899b) | Bangs (1901) | Bole (1937) | Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Endries & Adler (2005) | Gardner (1983) | Goldman (1920) | Hollister (1914a, 1914b) | Kellogg (1946) | Lambert & Adler (2000) | Mangan & Adler (1999) | McKee & Adler (2002) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Seamon & Adler (1999) | Thomas (1882, 1900a, 1911b) | Tomblin & Adler (1998) | Tomes (1860) | Travi et al. (2002) | True (1889a)",,"36.Tomes’s Spiny-ratProechimys semispinosusFrench:Rat-épineux de Tomes/ German:Tomes-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de TomesOther common names:Gorgona Island Spiny-rat (gorgonae)Taxonomy.Echimys semispinosus Tomes, 1860, “Gualaquiza, SE Ecuador.” Amended by A. L. Gardner in 1983 to “Esmeraldas, province Esmeraldas, on the Pacific coast of Ecuador.”Proechimys semispinosusis a member of the semispinosus-species group. As currently understood, it is polytypic; subspecies boundaries, and thus status, on the mainland of Colombia and Ecuador have not been fully ascertained. The form calidiornamed by O. Thomas in 1911 is considered a synonym of the nominate subspecies and the form chiriguinusnamed by Thomas in 1900 a synonym of panamensis, Echinomys semispinosusnamed by F. W. True in 1889 is included in the subspecies centralis. Ten subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.Subspecies and Distribution.P.s.semispinosusTomes,1860—NWEcuador(EsmeraldasProvince).P.s.burrusBangs,1901—SanMiguelI,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.centralisThomas,1896—EHonduras,E&CNicaragua,andN&ECostaRica.P.s.colombianusThomas,1914—WColombia(Pacificlowlands).P.s.goldmaniBole,1937—SWPanama(AzueroPeninsula).P.s.gorgonaeBangs,1905—GorgonaI(offSWColombia).P.s.ignotusKellogg,1946—IslaSanJosé,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.panamensisThomas,1900—SWCostaRicathroughmostofPanamaandpossiblyextendingintoNWColombia.P.s.rosaThomas,1900—SWEcuador.P.s. rubellus Hollister, 1914— C Costa Rica (Angostura Valley, Cartago Province).Descriptive notes. Head-body 290 mm, tail 240 mm; weight 0-26—c.1 kg. Tomes’s Spinyrat is moderately variable in weight geographically, larger in Central America and northern Colombia than in the southern part ofits distribution in Ecuador. Tail length also varies proportionally from ¢.63% of head-body length in the north to ¢.70% in the south. Dorsal color is rather consistently dark reddish brown, laterally speckled with black; sides are only slightly lighter but still contrasting sharply with uniformly white venter. Pale inner thigh stripe does not continue across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is uniformly dark. Plantar pads are well developed, and thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and pale below, particularly in northern specimens but less bicolored in southern samples from north-western Ecuador. Hairiness of tail varies among individuals, with some moderately covered with elongated hairs such that tail scales are nearly hidden from view while other individuals from the same population have more typical sparsely haired tails. Scale annuli are well developed and usually obvious to the eye, averaging 7-8 annuli/cm. Dorsal pelageis stiff to the touch, but aristiform development also varies from north to south. These spines are of equal length (19-21 mm) in all populations, but vary in width and hencestiffness (0-9-1-1 mm in northern samples and 0-6-0-8 mm in southern ones). Nevertheless, each aristiform terminates in elongated, filamentlike, not blunt, tip. Skull is large and broad across zygomatic arches, and rostrum is elongated and narrowed. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is uniquely characterized among spiny-rats by its well-developed temporal ridges extending from supraorbital ledge across length of parietals. Only rarely is this ridge interrupted into anterior and posterior segments. Incisive foramina of most specimens are rather narrow, with almost parallel sides, or weakly lyre-shaped; posterolateral margins are usually strongly flanged, creating deep grooves extending onto anterior palate despite only moderate development of medial ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long, encompassing nearly entire length of opening; maxillary part varies from well developed to attenuate, is only weakly keeled at best, and is nearly always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely hidden from ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen has groove supporting infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve and is formed by well-developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is of moderate width, but angle becomes broader from north to south (57-62°). In contrast to O’Connell’s Spiny-rat (PF. oconnelli), post-orbital process of zygoma of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is moderately well developed and more commonly formed byjugal (especially in northern samples, less so in southern ones). Counterfold pattern is similar to that of species of the goelditspecies group, with four folds commonly present on all upper cheekteeth and M,, and less commonly on M, and even M,. Nevertheless, fold number decreases in samples from northern Colombia to southern Ecuador (subspecies rosa), where four folds are rare on all teeth and two folds may be found on M? and all lower molars. Therefore, counterfold formula is 4(3)-4(3)—4(3)-4(3-2) /4-4(3-2)-4(3-2)—4(3-2). Baculum is massive, long (length 8:5-9-7 mm), and broad (proximal width 4-2—4-9 mm; distal width 5-1-6:2 mm), with deeply concave margins, broadly expanded and thickened base, and wide distal part with well-developed apical wings separated by median depression. Chromosomal complements are 2n = 30 and FN = 54 in Costa Rica; 2n = 30 and FN = 50-54 in Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador; and 2n = 30 and FN = 56 in Pacific lowlands and Gorgona Island, Colombia.Habitat. Primary lowland rainforest and secondary growth, mostly along riparian corridors and low-lying habitats, from sea level to elevations of ¢.500m. Tomes’s Spiny-rat enters tropical deciduous forest in the southern tip of its distribution. It has also been reported in disturbed habitats such as logged or otherwise fragmented forests.Food and Feeding.Diet of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is mainly fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of other plant material, insects, and fungi. Large seeds and palm nuts are usually carried to a secure feeding place such as a hole. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is an important disperser of several tropical fruit species.Breeding. Pregnant Tomes’s Spiny-rats give birth to precocious young; litters are 1-5 young. In Panama, they breed throughout the year, with females potentially producing four successive litters.Activity patterns. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tomes’s Spiny-rats nest in burrows or cavities under logs, usually in dense vegetation. Insular populations were reported to have midto high density on five islands in Gatun Lake, central Panama. Male home ranges were estimated to be larger than those of females, but home ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively indicating no territoriality. Adults also had small home ranges with greater spatial overlap through rainy seasons when resources were most abundant. In general, degree of overlap was positively correlated with population density. In cases of high density, adults potentially shared diurnal resting sites such as burrows, which were not individual specific. A negative correlation between home range size and density suggested that abundance of food resources had an influence on home range size and degree of overlap. Mating system of Tomes’s Spiny-rat also varied with density and resource abundance, being mostly monogamous on lowdensity islands but polygynous or promiscuous on high-density islands. Seasonality was also a significantly correlated with home range and spatial overlap; overlap increased throughout the rainy season due to an increase in abundance of fruit, providing a greater chance of mating than in the dry season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is widespread and abundant; it is present in multiple forest types across its known distribution and occurs in several protected areas; and it is unlikely to be declining. Increased forest conversion with spread of large-scale agriculture oflarge parts ofits distribution, however, suggest that continued studies are needed to assess conservation status over the next few decades. Despite being common, few detailed population studies of Tomes’s Spiny-rat beyond those in central Panama have ever been undertaken.Bibliography. Adler (1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2011), Adler & Beatty (1997), Adler & Kestell (1998), Adler & Lambert (1997), Adler & Seamon (1991), Adler, Endries & Piotter (1997), Adler, Tomblin & Lambert (1998), Alho (1981), Allen (1899b), Bangs (1901), Bole (1937), Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Endries & Adler (2005), Gardner (1983), Goldman (1920), Hollister (1914a, 1914b), Kellogg (1946), Lambert & Adler (2000), Mangan & Adler (1999), McKee & Adler (2002), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Seamon & Adler (1999), Thomas (1882, 1900a, 1911b), Tomblin & Adler (1998), Tomes (1860), Travi et al. (2002), True (1889a)." -03C5A071FFFFFFCAFAD952CD5F2BF621,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,570,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFFFFCAFAD952CD5F2BF621.xml,Proechimys simonsi,Proechimys,simonsi,Thomas,1900,Rat-épineux de Simons @fr | Simons-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Simons @es | Hendee's Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys simonsi Thomas, 1900, “Perené River, Junin Province, Peru, Altitude 800 m.”Proechimys simonsiincludes hendeei and nigrofulvus as synonyms. Monotypic.","E Andean slopes and Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, N Bolivia, and W Brazil.","Head-body 165-275 mm, tail 118-231 mm; weight 160-400 g. Simons’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with very characteristic elongated body, long and narrow face, long ears, absolutely and proportionately long tail (¢.85% of headbody length), and long narrow hindfeet.On following pages: 35. Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (Proechimys echinothrix); 36. Tomes'’s Spiny-rat (Proechimys semispinosus); 37. O'Connell's Spiny-rat (Proechimys oconnelli); 38. Napo Spiny-rat (Proechimys quadruplicatus); 39. Steere’s Spiny-rat (Proechimyssteerei); 40. Goeldi's Spiny-rat (Proechimys goeldii); 41. Guyenne Spiny-rat (Proechimys guyannensis); 42. Robert's Spiny-rat (Proechimysrobert); 43. Patton's Spiny-rat (Proechimyspattoni); 44. Kulina Spiny-rat (Proechimys kulinae); 45. Gardner's Spiny-rat (Proechimys gardneri); 46. Boyaca Spiny-rat (Proechimys chrysaeolus); 47. Minca Spiny-rat (Proechimys mincae); 48. Guaira Spiny-rat (Proechimysguairae); 49. Trinidad Spiny-rat (Proechimys trinitatis); 50. Guianan Spiny-rat (Proechimys hoplomyoides); 51. Short-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys brevicauda); 52. Long-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys longicaudatus); 53. Cuvier's Spiny-rat (Proechimyscuvier).Tail is sharply bicolored, dark above and white below; it is covered by sparse, fine hair, although small scales are conspicuous to the eye, with 9-13 annuli/cm. Middorsal color is darker than that of sides, reddish brown in tone, coarsely streaked with black hairs, and interspersed by dark brown aristiforms. Aristiform hairs are long (22-24 mm) and thin (0-2-0-4 mm) and terminate in distinctly whip-like tip. Venter, chin, sides of upper lips, and undersides of forelimbs and hindlimbs are pure white, with white of inner legs typically extending across tarsal joints onto hindfeet, which are also usually white above. Simons’s Spiny-rat lacks hypothenar pads on plantar surfaces of hindfeet. Skull is large, rostrum is distinctly long and narrow, and supraorbital ridges are well developed but do not extend onto parietals as temporal ridge. Oval shape of incisive foramina is diagnostic; this shape is occasionally slightly elongated, but posterior margins are never strongly constricted so that flat posterolateral margins lack grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short and rounded and usually no more than one-half the length of opening; and attenuate maxillary part usually is not in contact with premaxillary part. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved, with moderately developed lateral flange defining passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Anterior border of mesopterygoid fossa is acutely angled (49-53°) and penetrates deeply into posterior palate, reaching anterior one-half of M’ or middle of M?*dP* and M' typically have three folds while M? and M?® have 3-4 folds. Number offolds, particularly on dP,, varies from north to south from four to three, while M -M;typically have three folds, although M, may have only two folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3(4)-3(4) /(3)-3-3—(2). Baculum is long (length 8:4-10-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-5 mm; distal width 1-5-1-9 mm), with rounded and slightly broadened base. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 56-58 in eastern Ecuador, northern and southern Peru, and western Brazil.","Upland, non-seasonally flooded rainforest (terra firma) in the western Amazon Basin and extending into lower montane forest on eastern Andean slopes at elevations of 50-2000 m. Simons’s Spiny-rat occurs in undisturbed primary rainforest and secondary or disturbed forest habitats such as garden plots.",There is no information available for this species.,"In Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant and lactating females were collected throughout most of the year, suggesting continuous breeding. Mean litter size of Simons’s Spiny-rat was two young (range 1-3). Males and females reached sexual maturity after they were fully grown and had molted into their adult pelage. Postpartum estrus was evident in only a few females (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation), and high proportion of adult females (30%) exhibited no prior evidence of mating.","Trapping data of Simons’s Spiny-rat indicate that it is relatively common, terrestrial, and nocturnal.","In southern Peru, female Simons’s Spiny-rats seemed to be territorial, which might explain late sexual maturity.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Simons’s Spiny-rat is widespread and common, present in many different forest types across wide elevational distribution, and part of the mammalian fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas. There is no evidence that its numbers are declining. Nevertheless, additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Simon’s Spiny-rat are needed.","Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Moojen (1948) | Osgood (1944) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Patton et al. (2000) | Thomas (1900b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623730/files/figure.png,"34.Simons’s Spiny-ratProechimys simonsiFrench:Rat-épineux de Simons/ German:Simons-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de SimonsOther common names:Hendee's Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys simonsi Thomas, 1900, “Perené River, Junin Province, Peru, Altitude 800 m.”Proechimys simonsiincludes hendeei and nigrofulvus as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Andean slopes and Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, N Bolivia, and W Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 165-275 mm, tail 118-231 mm; weight 160-400 g. Simons’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with very characteristic elongated body, long and narrow face, long ears, absolutely and proportionately long tail (¢.85% of headbody length), and long narrow hindfeet.On following pages: 35. Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (Proechimys echinothrix); 36. Tomes'’s Spiny-rat (Proechimys semispinosus); 37. O'Connell's Spiny-rat (Proechimys oconnelli); 38. Napo Spiny-rat (Proechimys quadruplicatus); 39. Steere’s Spiny-rat (Proechimyssteerei); 40. Goeldi's Spiny-rat (Proechimys goeldii); 41. Guyenne Spiny-rat (Proechimys guyannensis); 42. Robert's Spiny-rat (Proechimysrobert); 43. Patton's Spiny-rat (Proechimyspattoni); 44. Kulina Spiny-rat (Proechimys kulinae); 45. Gardner's Spiny-rat (Proechimys gardneri); 46. Boyaca Spiny-rat (Proechimys chrysaeolus); 47. Minca Spiny-rat (Proechimys mincae); 48. Guaira Spiny-rat (Proechimysguairae); 49. Trinidad Spiny-rat (Proechimys trinitatis); 50. Guianan Spiny-rat (Proechimys hoplomyoides); 51. Short-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys brevicauda); 52. Long-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys longicaudatus); 53. Cuvier's Spiny-rat (Proechimyscuvier).Tail is sharply bicolored, dark above and white below; it is covered by sparse, fine hair, although small scales are conspicuous to the eye, with 9-13 annuli/cm. Middorsal color is darker than that of sides, reddish brown in tone, coarsely streaked with black hairs, and interspersed by dark brown aristiforms. Aristiform hairs are long (22-24 mm) and thin (0-2-0-4 mm) and terminate in distinctly whip-like tip. Venter, chin, sides of upper lips, and undersides of forelimbs and hindlimbs are pure white, with white of inner legs typically extending across tarsal joints onto hindfeet, which are also usually white above. Simons’s Spiny-rat lacks hypothenar pads on plantar surfaces of hindfeet. Skull is large, rostrum is distinctly long and narrow, and supraorbital ridges are well developed but do not extend onto parietals as temporal ridge. Oval shape of incisive foramina is diagnostic; this shape is occasionally slightly elongated, but posterior margins are never strongly constricted so that flat posterolateral margins lack grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short and rounded and usually no more than one-half the length of opening; and attenuate maxillary part usually is not in contact with premaxillary part. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved, with moderately developed lateral flange defining passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Anterior border of mesopterygoid fossa is acutely angled (49-53°) and penetrates deeply into posterior palate, reaching anterior one-half of M’ or middle of M?*dP* and M' typically have three folds while M? and M?® have 3-4 folds. Number offolds, particularly on dP,, varies from north to south from four to three, while M -M;typically have three folds, although M, may have only two folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3(4)-3(4) /(3)-3-3—(2). Baculum is long (length 8:4-10-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-5 mm; distal width 1-5-1-9 mm), with rounded and slightly broadened base. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 56-58 in eastern Ecuador, northern and southern Peru, and western Brazil.Habitat.Upland, non-seasonally flooded rainforest (terra firma) in the western Amazon Basin and extending into lower montane forest on eastern Andean slopes at elevations of 50-2000 m. Simons’s Spiny-rat occurs in undisturbed primary rainforest and secondary or disturbed forest habitats such as garden plots.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.In Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant and lactating females were collected throughout most of the year, suggesting continuous breeding. Mean litter size of Simons’s Spiny-rat was two young (range 1-3). Males and females reached sexual maturity after they were fully grown and had molted into their adult pelage. Postpartum estrus was evident in only a few females (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation), and high proportion of adult females (30%) exhibited no prior evidence of mating.Activity patterns.Trapping data of Simons’s Spiny-rat indicate that it is relatively common, terrestrial, and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Peru, female Simons’s Spiny-rats seemed to be territorial, which might explain late sexual maturity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Simons’s Spiny-rat is widespread and common, present in many different forest types across wide elevational distribution, and part of the mammalian fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas. There is no evidence that its numbers are declining. Nevertheless, additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Simon’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Moojen (1948), Osgood (1944), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Patton et al. (2000), Thomas (1900b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." +03C5A071FFFEFFCDFA055FB858FEF205,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,571,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFEFFCDFA055FB858FEF205.xml,Proechimys semispinosus,Proechimys,semispinosus,,,Rat-épineux de Tomes @fr | Tomes-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Tomes @es | Gorgona @en | sland Spiny-rat (gorgonae) @en,"Echimys semispinosus Tomes, 1860, “Gualaquiza, SE Ecuador.” Amended by A. L. Gardner in 1983 to “Esmeraldas, province Esmeraldas, on the Pacific coast of Ecuador.”Proechimys semispinosusis a member of the semispinosus-species group. As currently understood, it is polytypic; subspecies boundaries, and thus status, on the mainland of Colombia and Ecuador have not been fully ascertained. The form calidiornamed by O. Thomas in 1911 is considered a synonym of the nominate subspecies and the form chiriguinusnamed by Thomas in 1900 a synonym of panamensis, Echinomys semispinosusnamed by F. W. True in 1889 is included in the subspecies centralis. Ten subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.","P.s.semispinosusTomes,1860—NWEcuador(EsmeraldasProvince).P.s.burrusBangs,1901—SanMiguelI,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.centralisThomas,1896—EHonduras,E&CNicaragua,andN&ECostaRica.P.s.colombianusThomas,1914—WColombia(Pacificlowlands).P.s.goldmaniBole,1937—SWPanama(AzueroPeninsula).P.s.gorgonaeBangs,1905—GorgonaI(offSWColombia).P.s.ignotusKellogg,1946—IslaSanJosé,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.panamensisThomas,1900—SWCostaRicathroughmostofPanamaandpossiblyextendingintoNWColombia.P.s.rosaThomas,1900—SWEcuador.P.s. rubellus Hollister, 1914— C Costa Rica (Angostura Valley, Cartago Province).","Head-body 290 mm, tail 240 mm; weight 0-26—c.1 kg. Tomes’s Spinyrat is moderately variable in weight geographically, larger in Central America and northern Colombia than in the southern part ofits distribution in Ecuador. Tail length also varies proportionally from ¢.63% of head-body length in the north to ¢.70% in the south. Dorsal color is rather consistently dark reddish brown, laterally speckled with black; sides are only slightly lighter but still contrasting sharply with uniformly white venter. Pale inner thigh stripe does not continue across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is uniformly dark. Plantar pads are well developed, and thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and pale below, particularly in northern specimens but less bicolored in southern samples from north-western Ecuador. Hairiness of tail varies among individuals, with some moderately covered with elongated hairs such that tail scales are nearly hidden from view while other individuals from the same population have more typical sparsely haired tails. Scale annuli are well developed and usually obvious to the eye, averaging 7-8 annuli/cm. Dorsal pelageis stiff to the touch, but aristiform development also varies from north to south. These spines are of equal length (19-21 mm) in all populations, but vary in width and hencestiffness (0-9-1-1 mm in northern samples and 0-6-0-8 mm in southern ones). Nevertheless, each aristiform terminates in elongated, filamentlike, not blunt, tip. Skull is large and broad across zygomatic arches, and rostrum is elongated and narrowed. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is uniquely characterized among spiny-rats by its well-developed temporal ridges extending from supraorbital ledge across length of parietals. Only rarely is this ridge interrupted into anterior and posterior segments. Incisive foramina of most specimens are rather narrow, with almost parallel sides, or weakly lyre-shaped; posterolateral margins are usually strongly flanged, creating deep grooves extending onto anterior palate despite only moderate development of medial ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long, encompassing nearly entire length of opening; maxillary part varies from well developed to attenuate, is only weakly keeled at best, and is nearly always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely hidden from ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen has groove supporting infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve and is formed by well-developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is of moderate width, but angle becomes broader from north to south (57-62°). In contrast to O’Connell’s Spiny-rat (PF. oconnelli), post-orbital process of zygoma of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is moderately well developed and more commonly formed byjugal (especially in northern samples, less so in southern ones). Counterfold pattern is similar to that of species of the goelditspecies group, with four folds commonly present on all upper cheekteeth and M,, and less commonly on M, and even M,. Nevertheless, fold number decreases in samples from northern Colombia to southern Ecuador (subspecies rosa), where four folds are rare on all teeth and two folds may be found on M? and all lower molars. Therefore, counterfold formula is 4(3)-4(3)—4(3)-4(3-2) /4-4(3-2)-4(3-2)—4(3-2). Baculum is massive, long (length 8:5-9-7 mm), and broad (proximal width 4-2—4-9 mm; distal width 5-1-6:2 mm), with deeply concave margins, broadly expanded and thickened base, and wide distal part with well-developed apical wings separated by median depression. Chromosomal complements are 2n = 30 and FN = 54 in Costa Rica; 2n = 30 and FN = 50-54 in Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador; and 2n = 30 and FN = 56 in Pacific lowlands and Gorgona Island, Colombia.",,"Diet of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is mainly fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of other plant material, insects, and fungi. Large seeds and palm nuts are usually carried to a secure feeding place such as a hole. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is an important disperser of several tropical fruit species.Breeding. Pregnant Tomes’s Spiny-rats give birth to precocious young; litters are 1-5 young. In Panama, they breed throughout the year, with females potentially producing four successive litters.",,,"Tomes’s Spiny-rats nest in burrows or cavities under logs, usually in dense vegetation. Insular populations were reported to have midto high density on five islands in Gatun Lake, central Panama. Male home ranges were estimated to be larger than those of females, but home ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively indicating no territoriality. Adults also had small home ranges with greater spatial overlap through rainy seasons when resources were most abundant. In general, degree of overlap was positively correlated with population density. In cases of high density, adults potentially shared diurnal resting sites such as burrows, which were not individual specific. A negative correlation between home range size and density suggested that abundance of food resources had an influence on home range size and degree of overlap. Mating system of Tomes’s Spiny-rat also varied with density and resource abundance, being mostly monogamous on lowdensity islands but polygynous or promiscuous on high-density islands. Seasonality was also a significantly correlated with home range and spatial overlap; overlap increased throughout the rainy season due to an increase in abundance of fruit, providing a greater chance of mating than in the dry season.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is widespread and abundant; it is present in multiple forest types across its known distribution and occurs in several protected areas; and it is unlikely to be declining. Increased forest conversion with spread of large-scale agriculture oflarge parts ofits distribution, however, suggest that continued studies are needed to assess conservation status over the next few decades. Despite being common, few detailed population studies of Tomes’s Spiny-rat beyond those in central Panama have ever been undertaken.","Adler (1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2011) | Adler & Beatty (1997) | Adler & Kestell (1998) | Adler & Lambert (1997) | Adler & Seamon (1991) | Adler, Endries & Piotter (1997) | Adler, Tomblin & Lambert (1998) | Alho (1981) | Allen (1899b) | Bangs (1901) | Bole (1937) | Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Endries & Adler (2005) | Gardner (1983) | Goldman (1920) | Hollister (1914a, 1914b) | Kellogg (1946) | Lambert & Adler (2000) | Mangan & Adler (1999) | McKee & Adler (2002) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Seamon & Adler (1999) | Thomas (1882, 1900a, 1911b) | Tomblin & Adler (1998) | Tomes (1860) | Travi et al. (2002) | True (1889a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623736/files/figure.png,"36.Tomes’s Spiny-ratProechimys semispinosusFrench:Rat-épineux de Tomes/ German:Tomes-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de TomesOther common names:Gorgona Island Spiny-rat (gorgonae)Taxonomy.Echimys semispinosus Tomes, 1860, “Gualaquiza, SE Ecuador.” Amended by A. L. Gardner in 1983 to “Esmeraldas, province Esmeraldas, on the Pacific coast of Ecuador.”Proechimys semispinosusis a member of the semispinosus-species group. As currently understood, it is polytypic; subspecies boundaries, and thus status, on the mainland of Colombia and Ecuador have not been fully ascertained. The form calidiornamed by O. Thomas in 1911 is considered a synonym of the nominate subspecies and the form chiriguinusnamed by Thomas in 1900 a synonym of panamensis, Echinomys semispinosusnamed by F. W. True in 1889 is included in the subspecies centralis. Ten subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.Subspecies and Distribution.P.s.semispinosusTomes,1860—NWEcuador(EsmeraldasProvince).P.s.burrusBangs,1901—SanMiguelI,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.centralisThomas,1896—EHonduras,E&CNicaragua,andN&ECostaRica.P.s.colombianusThomas,1914—WColombia(Pacificlowlands).P.s.goldmaniBole,1937—SWPanama(AzueroPeninsula).P.s.gorgonaeBangs,1905—GorgonaI(offSWColombia).P.s.ignotusKellogg,1946—IslaSanJosé,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.panamensisThomas,1900—SWCostaRicathroughmostofPanamaandpossiblyextendingintoNWColombia.P.s.rosaThomas,1900—SWEcuador.P.s. rubellus Hollister, 1914— C Costa Rica (Angostura Valley, Cartago Province).Descriptive notes. Head-body 290 mm, tail 240 mm; weight 0-26—c.1 kg. Tomes’s Spinyrat is moderately variable in weight geographically, larger in Central America and northern Colombia than in the southern part ofits distribution in Ecuador. Tail length also varies proportionally from ¢.63% of head-body length in the north to ¢.70% in the south. Dorsal color is rather consistently dark reddish brown, laterally speckled with black; sides are only slightly lighter but still contrasting sharply with uniformly white venter. Pale inner thigh stripe does not continue across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is uniformly dark. Plantar pads are well developed, and thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and pale below, particularly in northern specimens but less bicolored in southern samples from north-western Ecuador. Hairiness of tail varies among individuals, with some moderately covered with elongated hairs such that tail scales are nearly hidden from view while other individuals from the same population have more typical sparsely haired tails. Scale annuli are well developed and usually obvious to the eye, averaging 7-8 annuli/cm. Dorsal pelageis stiff to the touch, but aristiform development also varies from north to south. These spines are of equal length (19-21 mm) in all populations, but vary in width and hencestiffness (0-9-1-1 mm in northern samples and 0-6-0-8 mm in southern ones). Nevertheless, each aristiform terminates in elongated, filamentlike, not blunt, tip. Skull is large and broad across zygomatic arches, and rostrum is elongated and narrowed. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is uniquely characterized among spiny-rats by its well-developed temporal ridges extending from supraorbital ledge across length of parietals. Only rarely is this ridge interrupted into anterior and posterior segments. Incisive foramina of most specimens are rather narrow, with almost parallel sides, or weakly lyre-shaped; posterolateral margins are usually strongly flanged, creating deep grooves extending onto anterior palate despite only moderate development of medial ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long, encompassing nearly entire length of opening; maxillary part varies from well developed to attenuate, is only weakly keeled at best, and is nearly always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely hidden from ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen has groove supporting infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve and is formed by well-developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is of moderate width, but angle becomes broader from north to south (57-62°). In contrast to O’Connell’s Spiny-rat (PF. oconnelli), post-orbital process of zygoma of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is moderately well developed and more commonly formed byjugal (especially in northern samples, less so in southern ones). Counterfold pattern is similar to that of species of the goelditspecies group, with four folds commonly present on all upper cheekteeth and M,, and less commonly on M, and even M,. Nevertheless, fold number decreases in samples from northern Colombia to southern Ecuador (subspecies rosa), where four folds are rare on all teeth and two folds may be found on M? and all lower molars. Therefore, counterfold formula is 4(3)-4(3)—4(3)-4(3-2) /4-4(3-2)-4(3-2)—4(3-2). Baculum is massive, long (length 8:5-9-7 mm), and broad (proximal width 4-2—4-9 mm; distal width 5-1-6:2 mm), with deeply concave margins, broadly expanded and thickened base, and wide distal part with well-developed apical wings separated by median depression. Chromosomal complements are 2n = 30 and FN = 54 in Costa Rica; 2n = 30 and FN = 50-54 in Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador; and 2n = 30 and FN = 56 in Pacific lowlands and Gorgona Island, Colombia.Habitat. Primary lowland rainforest and secondary growth, mostly along riparian corridors and low-lying habitats, from sea level to elevations of ¢.500m. Tomes’s Spiny-rat enters tropical deciduous forest in the southern tip of its distribution. It has also been reported in disturbed habitats such as logged or otherwise fragmented forests.Food and Feeding.Diet of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is mainly fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of other plant material, insects, and fungi. Large seeds and palm nuts are usually carried to a secure feeding place such as a hole. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is an important disperser of several tropical fruit species.Breeding. Pregnant Tomes’s Spiny-rats give birth to precocious young; litters are 1-5 young. In Panama, they breed throughout the year, with females potentially producing four successive litters.Activity patterns. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tomes’s Spiny-rats nest in burrows or cavities under logs, usually in dense vegetation. Insular populations were reported to have midto high density on five islands in Gatun Lake, central Panama. Male home ranges were estimated to be larger than those of females, but home ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively indicating no territoriality. Adults also had small home ranges with greater spatial overlap through rainy seasons when resources were most abundant. In general, degree of overlap was positively correlated with population density. In cases of high density, adults potentially shared diurnal resting sites such as burrows, which were not individual specific. A negative correlation between home range size and density suggested that abundance of food resources had an influence on home range size and degree of overlap. Mating system of Tomes’s Spiny-rat also varied with density and resource abundance, being mostly monogamous on lowdensity islands but polygynous or promiscuous on high-density islands. Seasonality was also a significantly correlated with home range and spatial overlap; overlap increased throughout the rainy season due to an increase in abundance of fruit, providing a greater chance of mating than in the dry season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is widespread and abundant; it is present in multiple forest types across its known distribution and occurs in several protected areas; and it is unlikely to be declining. Increased forest conversion with spread of large-scale agriculture oflarge parts ofits distribution, however, suggest that continued studies are needed to assess conservation status over the next few decades. Despite being common, few detailed population studies of Tomes’s Spiny-rat beyond those in central Panama have ever been undertaken.Bibliography. Adler (1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2011), Adler & Beatty (1997), Adler & Kestell (1998), Adler & Lambert (1997), Adler & Seamon (1991), Adler, Endries & Piotter (1997), Adler, Tomblin & Lambert (1998), Alho (1981), Allen (1899b), Bangs (1901), Bole (1937), Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Endries & Adler (2005), Gardner (1983), Goldman (1920), Hollister (1914a, 1914b), Kellogg (1946), Lambert & Adler (2000), Mangan & Adler (1999), McKee & Adler (2002), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Seamon & Adler (1999), Thomas (1882, 1900a, 1911b), Tomblin & Adler (1998), Tomes (1860), Travi et al. (2002), True (1889a)." +03C5A071FFFFFFCAFAD952CD5F2BF621,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,570,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFFFFCAFAD952CD5F2BF621.xml,Proechimys simonsi,Proechimys,simonsi,Thomas,1900,Rat-épineux de Simons @fr | Simons-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Simons @es | Hendee's Spiny-rat @en,"Proechimys simonsi Thomas, 1900, “Perené River, Junin Province, Peru, Altitude 800 m.”Proechimys simonsiincludes hendeei and nigrofulvus as synonyms. Monotypic.","E Andean slopes and Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, N Bolivia, and W Brazil.","Head-body 165-275 mm, tail 118-231 mm; weight 160-400 g. Simons’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with very characteristic elongated body, long and narrow face, long ears, absolutely and proportionately long tail (¢.85% of headbody length), and long narrow hindfeet.On following pages: 35. Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (Proechimys echinothrix); 36. Tomes'’s Spiny-rat (Proechimys semispinosus); 37. O'Connell's Spiny-rat (Proechimys oconnelli); 38. Napo Spiny-rat (Proechimys quadruplicatus); 39. Steere’s Spiny-rat (Proechimyssteerei); 40. Goeldi's Spiny-rat (Proechimys goeldii); 41. Guyenne Spiny-rat (Proechimys guyannensis); 42. Robert's Spiny-rat (Proechimysrobert); 43. Patton's Spiny-rat (Proechimyspattoni); 44. Kulina Spiny-rat (Proechimys kulinae); 45. Gardner's Spiny-rat (Proechimys gardneri); 46. Boyaca Spiny-rat (Proechimys chrysaeolus); 47. Minca Spiny-rat (Proechimys mincae); 48. Guaira Spiny-rat (Proechimysguairae); 49. Trinidad Spiny-rat (Proechimys trinitatis); 50. Guianan Spiny-rat (Proechimys hoplomyoides); 51. Short-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys brevicauda); 52. Long-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys longicaudatus); 53. Cuvier's Spiny-rat (Proechimyscuvier).Tail is sharply bicolored, dark above and white below; it is covered by sparse, fine hair, although small scales are conspicuous to the eye, with 9-13 annuli/cm. Middorsal color is darker than that of sides, reddish brown in tone, coarsely streaked with black hairs, and interspersed by dark brown aristiforms. Aristiform hairs are long (22-24 mm) and thin (0-2-0-4 mm) and terminate in distinctly whip-like tip. Venter, chin, sides of upper lips, and undersides of forelimbs and hindlimbs are pure white, with white of inner legs typically extending across tarsal joints onto hindfeet, which are also usually white above. Simons’s Spiny-rat lacks hypothenar pads on plantar surfaces of hindfeet. Skull is large, rostrum is distinctly long and narrow, and supraorbital ridges are well developed but do not extend onto parietals as temporal ridge. Oval shape of incisive foramina is diagnostic; this shape is occasionally slightly elongated, but posterior margins are never strongly constricted so that flat posterolateral margins lack grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short and rounded and usually no more than one-half the length of opening; and attenuate maxillary part usually is not in contact with premaxillary part. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved, with moderately developed lateral flange defining passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Anterior border of mesopterygoid fossa is acutely angled (49-53°) and penetrates deeply into posterior palate, reaching anterior one-half of M’ or middle of M?*dP* and M' typically have three folds while M? and M?® have 3-4 folds. Number offolds, particularly on dP,, varies from north to south from four to three, while M -M;typically have three folds, although M, may have only two folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3(4)-3(4) /(3)-3-3—(2). Baculum is long (length 8:4-10-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-5 mm; distal width 1-5-1-9 mm), with rounded and slightly broadened base. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 56-58 in eastern Ecuador, northern and southern Peru, and western Brazil.","Upland, non-seasonally flooded rainforest (terra firma) in the western Amazon Basin and extending into lower montane forest on eastern Andean slopes at elevations of 50-2000 m. Simons’s Spiny-rat occurs in undisturbed primary rainforest and secondary or disturbed forest habitats such as garden plots.",There is no information available for this species.,"In Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant and lactating females were collected throughout most of the year, suggesting continuous breeding. Mean litter size of Simons’s Spiny-rat was two young (range 1-3). Males and females reached sexual maturity after they were fully grown and had molted into their adult pelage. Postpartum estrus was evident in only a few females (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation), and high proportion of adult females (30%) exhibited no prior evidence of mating.","Trapping data of Simons’s Spiny-rat indicate that it is relatively common, terrestrial, and nocturnal.","In southern Peru, female Simons’s Spiny-rats seemed to be territorial, which might explain late sexual maturity.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Simons’s Spiny-rat is widespread and common, present in many different forest types across wide elevational distribution, and part of the mammalian fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas. There is no evidence that its numbers are declining. Nevertheless, additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Simon’s Spiny-rat are needed.","Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Moojen (1948) | Osgood (1944) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Patton et al. (2000) | Thomas (1900b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624579/files/figure.png,"34.Simons’s Spiny-ratProechimys simonsiFrench:Rat-épineux de Simons/ German:Simons-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de SimonsOther common names:Hendee's Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys simonsi Thomas, 1900, “Perené River, Junin Province, Peru, Altitude 800 m.”Proechimys simonsiincludes hendeei and nigrofulvus as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Andean slopes and Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, N Bolivia, and W Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 165-275 mm, tail 118-231 mm; weight 160-400 g. Simons’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with very characteristic elongated body, long and narrow face, long ears, absolutely and proportionately long tail (¢.85% of headbody length), and long narrow hindfeet.On following pages: 35. Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (Proechimys echinothrix); 36. Tomes'’s Spiny-rat (Proechimys semispinosus); 37. O'Connell's Spiny-rat (Proechimys oconnelli); 38. Napo Spiny-rat (Proechimys quadruplicatus); 39. Steere’s Spiny-rat (Proechimyssteerei); 40. Goeldi's Spiny-rat (Proechimys goeldii); 41. Guyenne Spiny-rat (Proechimys guyannensis); 42. Robert's Spiny-rat (Proechimysrobert); 43. Patton's Spiny-rat (Proechimyspattoni); 44. Kulina Spiny-rat (Proechimys kulinae); 45. Gardner's Spiny-rat (Proechimys gardneri); 46. Boyaca Spiny-rat (Proechimys chrysaeolus); 47. Minca Spiny-rat (Proechimys mincae); 48. Guaira Spiny-rat (Proechimysguairae); 49. Trinidad Spiny-rat (Proechimys trinitatis); 50. Guianan Spiny-rat (Proechimys hoplomyoides); 51. Short-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys brevicauda); 52. Long-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys longicaudatus); 53. Cuvier's Spiny-rat (Proechimyscuvier).Tail is sharply bicolored, dark above and white below; it is covered by sparse, fine hair, although small scales are conspicuous to the eye, with 9-13 annuli/cm. Middorsal color is darker than that of sides, reddish brown in tone, coarsely streaked with black hairs, and interspersed by dark brown aristiforms. Aristiform hairs are long (22-24 mm) and thin (0-2-0-4 mm) and terminate in distinctly whip-like tip. Venter, chin, sides of upper lips, and undersides of forelimbs and hindlimbs are pure white, with white of inner legs typically extending across tarsal joints onto hindfeet, which are also usually white above. Simons’s Spiny-rat lacks hypothenar pads on plantar surfaces of hindfeet. Skull is large, rostrum is distinctly long and narrow, and supraorbital ridges are well developed but do not extend onto parietals as temporal ridge. Oval shape of incisive foramina is diagnostic; this shape is occasionally slightly elongated, but posterior margins are never strongly constricted so that flat posterolateral margins lack grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short and rounded and usually no more than one-half the length of opening; and attenuate maxillary part usually is not in contact with premaxillary part. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved, with moderately developed lateral flange defining passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Anterior border of mesopterygoid fossa is acutely angled (49-53°) and penetrates deeply into posterior palate, reaching anterior one-half of M’ or middle of M?*dP* and M' typically have three folds while M? and M?® have 3-4 folds. Number offolds, particularly on dP,, varies from north to south from four to three, while M -M;typically have three folds, although M, may have only two folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3(4)-3(4) /(3)-3-3—(2). Baculum is long (length 8:4-10-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-5 mm; distal width 1-5-1-9 mm), with rounded and slightly broadened base. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 56-58 in eastern Ecuador, northern and southern Peru, and western Brazil.Habitat.Upland, non-seasonally flooded rainforest (terra firma) in the western Amazon Basin and extending into lower montane forest on eastern Andean slopes at elevations of 50-2000 m. Simons’s Spiny-rat occurs in undisturbed primary rainforest and secondary or disturbed forest habitats such as garden plots.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.In Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant and lactating females were collected throughout most of the year, suggesting continuous breeding. Mean litter size of Simons’s Spiny-rat was two young (range 1-3). Males and females reached sexual maturity after they were fully grown and had molted into their adult pelage. Postpartum estrus was evident in only a few females (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation), and high proportion of adult females (30%) exhibited no prior evidence of mating.Activity patterns.Trapping data of Simons’s Spiny-rat indicate that it is relatively common, terrestrial, and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Peru, female Simons’s Spiny-rats seemed to be territorial, which might explain late sexual maturity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Simons’s Spiny-rat is widespread and common, present in many different forest types across wide elevational distribution, and part of the mammalian fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas. There is no evidence that its numbers are declining. Nevertheless, additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Simon’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Moojen (1948), Osgood (1944), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Patton et al. (2000), Thomas (1900b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFFFFFCBFADB59185CE5F5EE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,570,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFFFFCBFADB59185CE5F5EE.xml,Proechimys decumanus,Proechimys,decumanus,,,Rat-épineux cotier @fr | Pazifik-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa del Pacifico @es,"Echimys decumanus Thomas, 1899, “Chongon, Guayas Province, west of Guayaquil, Ecuador.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to “ca. 100 m, 25 km west of Guayaquil.”This species is monotypic.",Pacific coastal lowlands of Ecuador and NW Peru.,"Head-body 260-300 mm, tail 196 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Pacific Spiny-ratis large-bodied, with proportionately shorttail (¢.65% of head—body length). Dorsal color is coarsely grizzled sandy fawn; sides are paler and grayer; face is grizzled gray; and venter and inner sides of forearms and hips are pure white, with hairs white to bases. Upper surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are white, or slightly washed yellow, and white on inner thighs is continuous across ankle to foot. Plantar pads of hindfeet are large, particularly thenar and hypothenar pads. Tail is bicolored, dark above and pale below, and uniformly but thinly haired with scale annuli narrow (averaging 13 annuli/cm) and visible to the eye. Aristiform spines are long (length 25-27 mm), thin (width 0-5 mm), and tipped with long flexible filament. As a result, pelage is inconspicuously spiny to the eye and touch. Skull of the Pacific Spiny-rat is large and elongated, but rostrum is short and broad. Temporal ridges are moderately developed and either continuous or interrupted across parietals from posterior end of supraorbital flange. Incisive foramina are oval to slightly lyrate in shape and large, with weakly developed posterolateral flanges and weak grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is long, but tapers posteriorly and is in direct contact with maxillary part, which is varyingly developed as either thin, spiculate bone or broad shelf, often perforated by small foramen, and with either no or only limited keel that extends onto anterior palate; and vomer is not visible along septum. Floor of infraorbital foramen is flat, rarely with limited evidence of lateral flange indicating passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately deep, reaching to anterior one-half of M?, and rather narrow, with its angle averaging 53°. Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete. Cheekteeth are simple, typically with three counterfolds on all upper teeth (although rarely only two on M?), and with three folds on dP, and M, but only two folds on M, and M,. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-(2)3 / 3-3-2-2. Baculum is long but stout, among the longest of any species of Proechimys, with average length of 10-12 mm and maximal width 2-8-3-8 mm. In size and shape, baculum of the Pacific Spiny-rat is most similar to those of members of the trinitatisspecies group, with almost parallel sides, rounded base, and only slightly expanded distal tip with weak median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 54.","Dry lowland, semideciduous rainforest along the coast and lower foothills of western slope of the Andes from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat is assumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat is presumed to be a solitary.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This ranking is somewhat puzzling because the Pacific Spiny-rat has very limited distribution, and its semideciduous forest habitat is being heavily altered by human activity. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Pacific Spiny-rat are needed.","Allen (1899a) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Paynter (1993) | Thomas (1899b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623728/files/figure.png,"33.Pacific Spiny-ratProechimys decumanusFrench:Rat-épineux cotier/ German:Pazifik-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa del PacificoTaxonomy.Echimys decumanus Thomas, 1899, “Chongon, Guayas Province, west of Guayaquil, Ecuador.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to “ca. 100 m, 25 km west of Guayaquil.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Pacific coastal lowlands of Ecuador and NW Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 260-300 mm, tail 196 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Pacific Spiny-ratis large-bodied, with proportionately shorttail (¢.65% of head—body length). Dorsal color is coarsely grizzled sandy fawn; sides are paler and grayer; face is grizzled gray; and venter and inner sides of forearms and hips are pure white, with hairs white to bases. Upper surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are white, or slightly washed yellow, and white on inner thighs is continuous across ankle to foot. Plantar pads of hindfeet are large, particularly thenar and hypothenar pads. Tail is bicolored, dark above and pale below, and uniformly but thinly haired with scale annuli narrow (averaging 13 annuli/cm) and visible to the eye. Aristiform spines are long (length 25-27 mm), thin (width 0-5 mm), and tipped with long flexible filament. As a result, pelage is inconspicuously spiny to the eye and touch. Skull of the Pacific Spiny-rat is large and elongated, but rostrum is short and broad. Temporal ridges are moderately developed and either continuous or interrupted across parietals from posterior end of supraorbital flange. Incisive foramina are oval to slightly lyrate in shape and large, with weakly developed posterolateral flanges and weak grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is long, but tapers posteriorly and is in direct contact with maxillary part, which is varyingly developed as either thin, spiculate bone or broad shelf, often perforated by small foramen, and with either no or only limited keel that extends onto anterior palate; and vomer is not visible along septum. Floor of infraorbital foramen is flat, rarely with limited evidence of lateral flange indicating passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately deep, reaching to anterior one-half of M?, and rather narrow, with its angle averaging 53°. Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete. Cheekteeth are simple, typically with three counterfolds on all upper teeth (although rarely only two on M?), and with three folds on dP, and M, but only two folds on M, and M,. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-(2)3 / 3-3-2-2. Baculum is long but stout, among the longest of any species of Proechimys, with average length of 10-12 mm and maximal width 2-8-3-8 mm. In size and shape, baculum of the Pacific Spiny-rat is most similar to those of members of the trinitatisspecies group, with almost parallel sides, rounded base, and only slightly expanded distal tip with weak median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 54.Habitat.Dry lowland, semideciduous rainforest along the coast and lower foothills of western slope of the Andes from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat is assumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat is presumed to be a solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This ranking is somewhat puzzling because the Pacific Spiny-rat has very limited distribution, and its semideciduous forest habitat is being heavily altered by human activity. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Pacific Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Paynter (1993), Thomas (1899b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." 03C5A071FFFFFFCBFFD759A7592DF3EE,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94,570,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFFFFCBFFD759A7592DF3EE.xml,Proechimys canicollis,Proechimys,canicollis,,,Rat-épineux de Colombie @fr | Kolumbien-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Colombia @es,"Echimys canicollis J. A. Allen, 1899, “Bonda, Santa Marta District.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1997 to “Rio Manzanares, where joined Quebrada Matogiro, 9 miles East of Santa Marta,” Magdalena, Colombia.This species is monotypic.","NE Colombia and NW Venezuela, from the lower Rio Madgalena Valley E to the W margin of Maracaibo Lake.","Head-body 225 mm, tail 168 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Colombian Spiny-rat is moderate-sized, with proportionately shorttail (75% of head-body length). Pelage is only sparsely intermixed with weakly developed spines, giving body distinctly soft appearance. Aristiforms are long (22-25 mm) and quite narrow (0-02-0-03 mm), and they terminate in long whip-like tips. Dorsal color is pale yellowish brown or pale golden brown, sprinkled with black tipped spines on back and paler and grayer spines on sides. Top of head and nape are grayish, varied with black; sides of head and neck are clear gray, extending onto sides of throat but becoming paler on cheeks. Ventrum is white along midline from throat to inguinal region, but gray lateral bands encroach mid-ventrally from sides, and chin and jowls are gray, completely so in some individuals. Insides of limbs are white and may be continuous across ankle to meet whitish gray upper surfaces of hindfeet. Ears are broad but short, brown in color, and appear naked. Tail of the Colombian Spiny-ratis indistinctly bicolored, blackish above and dull flesh colored below; it is moderately haired, with hairs partially concealing narrow scale annuli that are 13-16 annuli/cm. Skull of Colombian Spiny-rat is moderate in size and, except for distinctly short and broad rostrum, conforms to general shape of other species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are absent or only weakly extend from supraorbital ledge onto anterior parietals. Incisive foramina are broad and oval, with weakly developed postero-lateral flanges and thus anterior palate that exhibits only faint grooves; premaxillary part of septum is broad and long and occupies at least one-half of opening; maxillary part is moderately to weakly developed, always in contact with premaxilla, and sometimes with keel that extends limitedly onto anterior palate; vomer part of septum is usually hidden from view. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, with only occasionally barely perceptible groove. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively deep, extends to anterior one-half of M? and terminates in acute angle averaging 54°. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately well developed and may be comprised completely, or mostly, by either squamosal orjugal in about equal frequency. Cheekteeth are simplest of any species of Proechimys, with very uniform counterfold pattern of 3-2-2-2 for upper series and 2-2-2-2 for lower series. The Colombian Spiny-rat is the only species of Proechimyswith only two folds on dP,. Baculum is relatively short (length 7-7-8-1 mm) and stout (proximal width 2:6-2-8 mm; distal width 2:6-2-8 mm) and has rounded base, weakly concave sides, and rather flat distal tip, with only weakly developed apical wings. It is similar in general size and characteristics to those of members of the goeldir-species group. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 44.","Dry tropical evergreen and deciduous forests and human landscapes, such as croplands and orchards, in Caribbean lowlands and adjacent foothills of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Sierra de Perija from sea level to elevations of ¢.1700 m. The Colombian Spiny-rat is terrestrial.","Diet of the Colombian Spiny-rat was reported to include fruit, fungi, and seeds.",There is no information available for this species.,"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Colombian Spiny-rat is presumably nocturnal.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Colombian Spiny-rat is probably solitary.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Colombian Spiny-rat is common overits limited distribution, tolerant to habitat disturbance, and present in several protected parks; it is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Colombian Spiny-rat are needed.","Aguilera & Corti (1994) | Aguilera, Reig & Pérez-Zapata (1995) | Aguilera, Sanginés & Pérez-Zapata (1998) | Allen (1899a, 1899b, 1904) | Benado et al. (1979) | Corti et al. (2001) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Garagna et al. (1997) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Paynter (1997) | Reig et al. (1980) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6623726/files/figure.png,"32.Colombian Spiny-ratProechimys canicollisFrench:Rat-épineux de Colombie/ German:Kolumbien-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de ColombiaTaxonomy.Echimys canicollis J. A. Allen, 1899, “Bonda, Santa Marta District.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1997 to “Rio Manzanares, where joined Quebrada Matogiro, 9 miles East of Santa Marta,” Magdalena, Colombia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.NE Colombia and NW Venezuela, from the lower Rio Madgalena Valley E to the W margin of Maracaibo Lake.Descriptive notes.Head-body 225 mm, tail 168 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Colombian Spiny-rat is moderate-sized, with proportionately shorttail (75% of head-body length). Pelage is only sparsely intermixed with weakly developed spines, giving body distinctly soft appearance. Aristiforms are long (22-25 mm) and quite narrow (0-02-0-03 mm), and they terminate in long whip-like tips. Dorsal color is pale yellowish brown or pale golden brown, sprinkled with black tipped spines on back and paler and grayer spines on sides. Top of head and nape are grayish, varied with black; sides of head and neck are clear gray, extending onto sides of throat but becoming paler on cheeks. Ventrum is white along midline from throat to inguinal region, but gray lateral bands encroach mid-ventrally from sides, and chin and jowls are gray, completely so in some individuals. Insides of limbs are white and may be continuous across ankle to meet whitish gray upper surfaces of hindfeet. Ears are broad but short, brown in color, and appear naked. Tail of the Colombian Spiny-ratis indistinctly bicolored, blackish above and dull flesh colored below; it is moderately haired, with hairs partially concealing narrow scale annuli that are 13-16 annuli/cm. Skull of Colombian Spiny-rat is moderate in size and, except for distinctly short and broad rostrum, conforms to general shape of other species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are absent or only weakly extend from supraorbital ledge onto anterior parietals. Incisive foramina are broad and oval, with weakly developed postero-lateral flanges and thus anterior palate that exhibits only faint grooves; premaxillary part of septum is broad and long and occupies at least one-half of opening; maxillary part is moderately to weakly developed, always in contact with premaxilla, and sometimes with keel that extends limitedly onto anterior palate; vomer part of septum is usually hidden from view. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, with only occasionally barely perceptible groove. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively deep, extends to anterior one-half of M? and terminates in acute angle averaging 54°. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately well developed and may be comprised completely, or mostly, by either squamosal orjugal in about equal frequency. Cheekteeth are simplest of any species of Proechimys, with very uniform counterfold pattern of 3-2-2-2 for upper series and 2-2-2-2 for lower series. The Colombian Spiny-rat is the only species of Proechimyswith only two folds on dP,. Baculum is relatively short (length 7-7-8-1 mm) and stout (proximal width 2:6-2-8 mm; distal width 2:6-2-8 mm) and has rounded base, weakly concave sides, and rather flat distal tip, with only weakly developed apical wings. It is similar in general size and characteristics to those of members of the goeldir-species group. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 44.Habitat.Dry tropical evergreen and deciduous forests and human landscapes, such as croplands and orchards, in Caribbean lowlands and adjacent foothills of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Sierra de Perija from sea level to elevations of ¢.1700 m. The Colombian Spiny-rat is terrestrial.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Colombian Spiny-rat was reported to include fruit, fungi, and seeds.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Colombian Spiny-rat is presumably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Colombian Spiny-rat is probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Colombian Spiny-rat is common overits limited distribution, tolerant to habitat disturbance, and present in several protected parks; it is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Colombian Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Aguilera & Corti (1994), Aguilera, Reig & Pérez-Zapata (1995), Aguilera, Sanginés & Pérez-Zapata (1998), Allen (1899a, 1899b, 1904), Benado et al. (1979), Corti et al. (2001), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Garagna et al. (1997), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Paynter (1997), Reig et al. (1980), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)." -03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,345,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728.xml,Moschus moschiferus,Moschus,moschiferus,Linnaeus,1758,Porte-musc de Sibérie @fr | Sibirien-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero siberiano @es,"Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758,Tatary towards China= Altai Mountains.Three subspecies recognized.","M.m.moschiferusLinnaeus,1758—ERussia(Altairegion,NalongtheYenisei,reaching69°N,thendowntothemiddleflowoftheLena;E&SEslopesoftheVerkhoyanskRange;StanovoyRange,butdoesnotreachtheSeaofOkhotskorthefloodzonesoftheAmur),EKazakhstan,Mongolia,andNChina(NENeiMongol&NWHeilongjiang,formerlyalsoinNXinjiangbutsupposedlyextincttheresinceearly20""century).M.m.parvipesHollister,1911—RussianFarEast,KoreanPeninsula,andNEChina(SHeilongjiang,EJilin,ELiaoning,Hebei&Shanxi).M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1929— Sakhalin.","Head-body 65-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, shoulder height 56-61 cm; weight 7-17 kg. Skull length in the Siberian subspeciesis c¢. 14:5-15. 8 cm; in the other two subspecies rather smaller, 14-15 cm. The pelage is softer,less quilly, than in other species. Individual hairs on the upperparts are dark with a white subterminal band and/ortip, producing an overall color of dark grayish, usually with whitish spots where the white tips cluster together. Underside paler, grayish-brown. Neck brownish, head more grayish, and may be either paler or darker than body. Ears dark brown or black, paler at base. A pair of narrow creamy or white stripes (made up of white-tipped hairs) from chin down neck to chest. The pale spots are variably visible, but always prominent in young. In the skull, the snoutis long but does not form as much as half of the total skull length; the lacrimal bone is shorter than it is high; braincase is elongated; the orbits tubular. Diploid chromosome number is 58; some animals have dot-sized satellite chromosomes situated in the upper part of the fourth pair of autosomes. Deciduous canines in both sexes are replaced by permanent canines, prominent only in males, at six months. The limbs are more elongated than in most other species; the metatarsal is about 111% of the skull length, the metacarpal 84%. Relatively, however, the hindlimbs are greatly elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length (always more than 167 mm) being around 132% of the metacarpal (whose length is always more than 126 mm), and the forelimbs as a whole are 25-30% shorter than the hindlimbs. The metapodials are also very slender, the width of the distal head of the metacarpal being less than 14-5% ofits length, that of the metatarsal less than 12-5% of its length. Russian authors have reported that the musk of the Siberian Musk-deer contains no muscone, which on the face of it would seem to make it much less valuable for perfumes and for medicinal uses. The differences between the subspecies are in size and coloration. Subspecies parvipes and sachalinensis are considerably smaller and darker on average than is moschiferus, and most but not all specimens can be distinguished, though there is a doubt whether most parvipes and sachalinensis can really be differentiated from each other.","Siberian Musk-deer live in mountain taiga; in the Altaiand Sayan ranges, they are found between 300 mand 1600 m, and farther north, in Yakutia and north-eastern Russia, they live in rhododendron shrub, in light coniferous forest, and in floodland poplar-willow forests. In the northernmost part of the range, Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and foxes (Vulpes spp.) are the main predators, in that order; in Yakutia, the Yellow-throated Marten (Mantesflavigula) tends to be the most important. They are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including mites and fleas, and in the Far East, 100% are infested with larvae of Cordylobia inexspectata(Calliphoridae), a fly related to blowflies, a single individual musk-deer having as many as 2000 larvae.","In the northern part of the range, Siberian Musk-deer feed on lichens all year round, these forming 60-91% of the weight of stomach contents; in winter, they also eat sprigs of small bushes, conifer needles, moss, dry grass, and rhododendron leaves; in spring and summer, they eat vascular plants.","Body mass is lowest in June and at its maximum in autumn, when rutting begins. Testis volumeis at its maximum in the early rut (November-December), and the musk gland is at its maximum in November. The full rut takes place in December—January, less frequently February-March. Three-quarters of the females breed every year, the rest only once in two or three years or less. The pre-copulation phase, as judged by the male’s reaction to female urine marks, lasts 15-18 days; the true mating period lasts only 52-64 hours, and the phase of estrus when copulation occurs lastsjust 12-24 hours. Gestation is 182-194 days, with a mean of 187. During courtship, a male first leaves musk marks on the female’s home range, then gradually approaches, then pursues her. Before copulation, the male smells the female’s genitals and occasionally makes the flehmen gesture (corners of the mouth open, pulling back the midline of the upper lip to permit passage of olfactory molecules into the vomeronasal organ); most females rub the side of the neck of the male with their caudal area and look back. A series of copulations takes place, interspersed with resting or feeding. Most births (70%) occur in the first ten days ofJune. The newborns weigh 460-635 g. Meanlitter size overall is 1:7-1-8; i.e. there is a preponderance of twins. In different regions, the rate of multiple births seems slightly different: in East Sayan, twelve triplet, 50 twin, and 28 singleton births were recorded; in Yakutia,six twin and three singleton births. The sex ratio at birth in twins in the Altai regionis 73-82% male; overall, however, sex ratios at birth are equal. Births occur during the day. Neonates stand 16-28 minutes after birth, walk after 28-47 minutes, and suckle after 11-92 minutes. They lie hidden for 12-15 days, and are on their own 80-90% of the time, the mother returning to feed them just once or twice a day for the first month, and after that only once a day. They begin to eat lichen and grass at 15-18 days. Lactation lasts on average four months, occasionally up to six months. The mother—young socialties last till the end of lactation. Juvenile mortality during first three or four months varies from 10-14% in the Far East to 17% in Transbaikalia. Males reach sexual maturity at 10-18 months, females at 8-9 months. Some females remain fertile until 7-12 years of age; in captivity, they remain fertile for longer, up to age 15-17. Mean life expectancy in nature is 5-7 years, which of course reflects the high infant and juvenile mortality, as adults in the wild may live to twelve years.","They are active, nervous animals; sudden high lookout jumps are made, especially by females. Most activity takes place at dusk and dawn. A musk-deer can travel 3-7 km during night foraging, usually returning to the same lair every morning. An individual’s home range will be between 200 ha and 300 ha in size, and muskdeer observe the boundaries quite strictly. In the second half of winter the extent of the home range is ratherless, and seasonal migrations,if they exist at all, are minimal.","Like other musk-deer, males are territorial. Fights between territory owners involve striking with the forelegs and sometimes slashing with the canines. Apparently unlike other musk-deer, they live in pairs with the young of the year, although the female’s home range in and around the territory is not coterminous with the male’s. The territory is maintained by the male, who patrols it, marking the boundaries with caudal gland secretions and feces, and physically chasing away intruders. Sometimes the territory also contains satellite males up to two years old, who assist in maintaining the territory and may take over if the dominant male dies. Young males leave their natal territories in October to April (i.e. during orafter the rut), and young females from April to June before the adult female gives birth. Family groups form “metapopulations” in areas of relatively high population density separated from each other by low-density areas. Solitary individuals form 13-30% of the total. Not all of the home range is defended; the home ranges of males overlap by 3-6% in Altai, and in Far East by up to 15%; those of females, by as much as 17%. In winter, the overlap increases and can be as much as 40-70% of neighboring home ranges. The average population density is around 0-6 ind/km?, but this may increase to up to 4-8-5 ind/km?* when conditions are favorable.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. By the end of the 1990s, populations in Russiawere estimated at about 70,000, having been reduced by 50% to 75% since 1989. In 1999 the Sakhalinpopulation was estimated at about 600-650, and declining, the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000, and that in the Russian Far East as perhaps as much as 150,000. Although apparently less endangered than the Chinese species, the Siberian Musk-deer is still in danger of extinction unless stringent measures are taken.",Flerov (1952) | MacKinnon (2008) | Nyambayar et al. (2008) | Prihodko (2003) | Sokolov etal. (1987),,"1.Siberian Musk-deerMoschus moschiferusFrench:Porte-musc de Sibérie/ German:Sibirien-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero siberianoTaxonomy.Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758,Tatary towards China= Altai Mountains.Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.m.moschiferusLinnaeus,1758—ERussia(Altairegion,NalongtheYenisei,reaching69°N,thendowntothemiddleflowoftheLena;E&SEslopesoftheVerkhoyanskRange;StanovoyRange,butdoesnotreachtheSeaofOkhotskorthefloodzonesoftheAmur),EKazakhstan,Mongolia,andNChina(NENeiMongol&NWHeilongjiang,formerlyalsoinNXinjiangbutsupposedlyextincttheresinceearly20""century).M.m.parvipesHollister,1911—RussianFarEast,KoreanPeninsula,andNEChina(SHeilongjiang,EJilin,ELiaoning,Hebei&Shanxi).M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1929— Sakhalin.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, shoulder height 56-61 cm; weight 7-17 kg. Skull length in the Siberian subspeciesis c¢. 14:5-15. 8 cm; in the other two subspecies rather smaller, 14-15 cm. The pelage is softer,less quilly, than in other species. Individual hairs on the upperparts are dark with a white subterminal band and/ortip, producing an overall color of dark grayish, usually with whitish spots where the white tips cluster together. Underside paler, grayish-brown. Neck brownish, head more grayish, and may be either paler or darker than body. Ears dark brown or black, paler at base. A pair of narrow creamy or white stripes (made up of white-tipped hairs) from chin down neck to chest. The pale spots are variably visible, but always prominent in young. In the skull, the snoutis long but does not form as much as half of the total skull length; the lacrimal bone is shorter than it is high; braincase is elongated; the orbits tubular. Diploid chromosome number is 58; some animals have dot-sized satellite chromosomes situated in the upper part of the fourth pair of autosomes. Deciduous canines in both sexes are replaced by permanent canines, prominent only in males, at six months. The limbs are more elongated than in most other species; the metatarsal is about 111% of the skull length, the metacarpal 84%. Relatively, however, the hindlimbs are greatly elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length (always more than 167 mm) being around 132% of the metacarpal (whose length is always more than 126 mm), and the forelimbs as a whole are 25-30% shorter than the hindlimbs. The metapodials are also very slender, the width of the distal head of the metacarpal being less than 14-5% ofits length, that of the metatarsal less than 12-5% of its length. Russian authors have reported that the musk of the Siberian Musk-deer contains no muscone, which on the face of it would seem to make it much less valuable for perfumes and for medicinal uses. The differences between the subspecies are in size and coloration. Subspecies parvipes and sachalinensis are considerably smaller and darker on average than is moschiferus, and most but not all specimens can be distinguished, though there is a doubt whether most parvipes and sachalinensis can really be differentiated from each other.Habitat.Siberian Musk-deer live in mountain taiga; in the Altaiand Sayan ranges, they are found between 300 mand 1600 m, and farther north, in Yakutia and north-eastern Russia, they live in rhododendron shrub, in light coniferous forest, and in floodland poplar-willow forests. In the northernmost part of the range, Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and foxes (Vulpes spp.) are the main predators, in that order; in Yakutia, the Yellow-throated Marten (Mantesflavigula) tends to be the most important. They are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including mites and fleas, and in the Far East, 100% are infested with larvae of Cordylobia inexspectata(Calliphoridae), a fly related to blowflies, a single individual musk-deer having as many as 2000 larvae.Food and Feeding.In the northern part of the range, Siberian Musk-deer feed on lichens all year round, these forming 60-91% of the weight of stomach contents; in winter, they also eat sprigs of small bushes, conifer needles, moss, dry grass, and rhododendron leaves; in spring and summer, they eat vascular plants.Breeding.Body mass is lowest in June and at its maximum in autumn, when rutting begins. Testis volumeis at its maximum in the early rut (November-December), and the musk gland is at its maximum in November. The full rut takes place in December—January, less frequently February-March. Three-quarters of the females breed every year, the rest only once in two or three years or less. The pre-copulation phase, as judged by the male’s reaction to female urine marks, lasts 15-18 days; the true mating period lasts only 52-64 hours, and the phase of estrus when copulation occurs lastsjust 12-24 hours. Gestation is 182-194 days, with a mean of 187. During courtship, a male first leaves musk marks on the female’s home range, then gradually approaches, then pursues her. Before copulation, the male smells the female’s genitals and occasionally makes the flehmen gesture (corners of the mouth open, pulling back the midline of the upper lip to permit passage of olfactory molecules into the vomeronasal organ); most females rub the side of the neck of the male with their caudal area and look back. A series of copulations takes place, interspersed with resting or feeding. Most births (70%) occur in the first ten days ofJune. The newborns weigh 460-635 g. Meanlitter size overall is 1:7-1-8; i.e. there is a preponderance of twins. In different regions, the rate of multiple births seems slightly different: in East Sayan, twelve triplet, 50 twin, and 28 singleton births were recorded; in Yakutia,six twin and three singleton births. The sex ratio at birth in twins in the Altai regionis 73-82% male; overall, however, sex ratios at birth are equal. Births occur during the day. Neonates stand 16-28 minutes after birth, walk after 28-47 minutes, and suckle after 11-92 minutes. They lie hidden for 12-15 days, and are on their own 80-90% of the time, the mother returning to feed them just once or twice a day for the first month, and after that only once a day. They begin to eat lichen and grass at 15-18 days. Lactation lasts on average four months, occasionally up to six months. The mother—young socialties last till the end of lactation. Juvenile mortality during first three or four months varies from 10-14% in the Far East to 17% in Transbaikalia. Males reach sexual maturity at 10-18 months, females at 8-9 months. Some females remain fertile until 7-12 years of age; in captivity, they remain fertile for longer, up to age 15-17. Mean life expectancy in nature is 5-7 years, which of course reflects the high infant and juvenile mortality, as adults in the wild may live to twelve years.Activity patterns.They are active, nervous animals; sudden high lookout jumps are made, especially by females. Most activity takes place at dusk and dawn. A musk-deer can travel 3-7 km during night foraging, usually returning to the same lair every morning. An individual’s home range will be between 200 ha and 300 ha in size, and muskdeer observe the boundaries quite strictly. In the second half of winter the extent of the home range is ratherless, and seasonal migrations,if they exist at all, are minimal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other musk-deer, males are territorial. Fights between territory owners involve striking with the forelegs and sometimes slashing with the canines. Apparently unlike other musk-deer, they live in pairs with the young of the year, although the female’s home range in and around the territory is not coterminous with the male’s. The territory is maintained by the male, who patrols it, marking the boundaries with caudal gland secretions and feces, and physically chasing away intruders. Sometimes the territory also contains satellite males up to two years old, who assist in maintaining the territory and may take over if the dominant male dies. Young males leave their natal territories in October to April (i.e. during orafter the rut), and young females from April to June before the adult female gives birth. Family groups form “metapopulations” in areas of relatively high population density separated from each other by low-density areas. Solitary individuals form 13-30% of the total. Not all of the home range is defended; the home ranges of males overlap by 3-6% in Altai, and in Far East by up to 15%; those of females, by as much as 17%. In winter, the overlap increases and can be as much as 40-70% of neighboring home ranges. The average population density is around 0-6 ind/km?, but this may increase to up to 4-8-5 ind/km?* when conditions are favorable.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. By the end of the 1990s, populations in Russiawere estimated at about 70,000, having been reduced by 50% to 75% since 1989. In 1999 the Sakhalinpopulation was estimated at about 600-650, and declining, the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000, and that in the Russian Far East as perhaps as much as 150,000. Although apparently less endangered than the Chinese species, the Siberian Musk-deer is still in danger of extinction unless stringent measures are taken.Bibliography.Flerov (1952), MacKinnon (2008), Nyambayar et al. (2008), Prihodko (2003), Sokolov etal. (1987)." -03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,345,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607.xml,Moschus chrysogaster,Moschus,chrysogaster,Hodgson,1839,Porte-musc alpin @fr | Gelbbauch-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero dorado @es,"Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions,” probably from the Tibetan Plateau, north of the Himalayas.Two subspecies recognized.","M.c.chrysogasterHodgson,1839—alpinezoneat2800-4000mofNIndia(includingSikkim),Nepal,andBhutan.M. c. sifanicus Büchner, 1891— alpine zone at 3500-4800 mof C & S China(S Ningxia, Qinghai, S Gansu, W Sichuan, SE Xizang& NW Yunnan).","Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, height at shoulder, 50-60 cm; weight 11-18 kg. One of the largest species of musk-deer. Skull length in subspecies sifanicus is 1516-5 cm and in the nominotypical subspecies 14:5-16 cm. Overall color striated reddish or yellowish-gray; paler on flanks; underside reddish-creamy-gray, as are the inner surfaces of the limbs and the midline of the throat, but there are no white stripes on the neck. There is an orange eye ring. Individual hairs are brown with a red-yellow subterminal band. Ears are pale brown, tipped with yellow, and gray inside. Throat with a single broad, ill-defined creamy longitudinal band. Legs paler than body on lower segments, grayish-yellow, somewhat darkened down front surfaces. Rump paler than back, yellowish, with a black patch on buttocks. Young spotted. A faint dorsal stripe. Hair bases long, milky gray or brown. Winter hairs 34-42 mm long on withers, 55-64 mm on rump. The face is greatly elongated, constituting more than half the skull length; the lachrymal length is much longer than its height. Limbs are elongated, but not as much as those of the Siberian species: metacarpal length 109-119 mm, metatarsal 128-148 mm. The metapodials are sturdier than those of the Siberian Musk-deer, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal is more than 15-5%, of the metatarsal more than 14-5% of their lengths. The hindlimbs are slightly less elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length is 124-128% of that of the metacarpal. The metatarsal length is 90-95% of skull length, the metacarpal 72-77%.On following pages 3 Hrmalayan Musk-deer (Moschus Ieuoogaston, 4 Kashmır Musk-deer (Moschuscuprousl.","Once found throughout the “dwarf bush zone” in suitable areas of the Tibetan Plateau, nowadays due to human disturbance the habitat is fragmented and populations are isolated on separate mountains. Chinese Alpine Musk-deer live in highelevation bush, where the mean annual temperature is around 3-7°C and often falls below freezing; they prefer shrubby habitats to meadows. They inhabit shaded slopes with better shelter and less disturbance, the steeper slopes at greater than 30°. The elevation of their habitat is typically 4000-4500 m, only sometimes going below 4000 m. Annual rainfall varies from about 200 mmto as much as 450 mmor more. Musk-deer population density varies from 3-9 ind/km? in the more arid habitats to 71-11 ind/km? where the rainfall is highest; density is lower where there is heavy snow cover. Densities in dwarf forest and shrub are highest, but more continuous dense shrub is avoided, and patchy shrub has the highest densities among habitat types. Where there are more competitors, such as Serow and Goral, and more grazing by domestic herds, and of course more poaching, densities are again lower.","The diet contains the leaves of 46 species (mostly shrubs and forbs), flowers of 30 species, shoots and stems of 16 species, and seeds ofsix species; the proportion of leaves and tender shoots is highest in spring and summer, of buds and flowers higher in late summer, and of the leaves, twigs, and seeds of forbs and shrubs higher later in the year.","In the Xinglong Mountain National Nature Reserve, east of QinghaiLake, births occur from May to July, when rainfall and temperature are highest; the younger females (less than two years old) have their birth season more spread out than the more mature females. Compared to the wild, in captivity the birth season is longer and begins later. The twinning rate is lower than in the Siberian Musk-deer, only two in twelve births. The neonates weigh 700-750 g at three days old. Lactation lasts for two months; the young begin browsing at 20 days.","Very little is known about activity patterns, but they have been reported to sleep during the day in a form, which is made by scraping out a shallow depression in the ground, which just fits the body when the animalis crouching low.","The social organization seems to be rather different from that of the Siberian Musk-deer. Males and females seem not to be associated in pairs, nor are there “satellite” males; instead the home ranges of the dominant males overlap those of females, but the other males occupy separate home ranges. Home range in summeris smaller than in autumn; the home ranges of males average 35-5 ha in July to September, and expand to 47-17 ha (i.e. by 63-4%) in October to early November, the rutting season; female ranges enlarge from 28-95 ha to 40-76 ha (a 40-8% increase).","CITES Appendix I, except Chinese populations which are listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a probable population decline caused by overexploitation, shrinkage in distribution, and habitat destruction and degradation. Although data are lacking regarding recent population levels, the high levels of harvesting and habitat loss do not bode well. A poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 wild individuals in Chinain the 1960s and 1970s and no more than 100,000 within Chinain the 1990s.","Grubb (1982) | Liu Zhixiao & Sheng Helin (2008) | Liu Zhixiao et al. (2002) | Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Shi Zemei & Jiang Yingwen (2005) | Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Xia Lin et al. (2003) | Yang Qisen et al. (1998) | Zhang Hongmao & Hu Jinchu (2000)",,"2.Alpine Musk-deerMoschus chrysogasterFrench:Porte-musc alpin/ German:Gelbbauch-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero doradoTaxonomy.Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions,” probably from the Tibetan Plateau, north of the Himalayas.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.c.chrysogasterHodgson,1839—alpinezoneat2800-4000mofNIndia(includingSikkim),Nepal,andBhutan.M. c. sifanicus Büchner, 1891— alpine zone at 3500-4800 mof C & S China(S Ningxia, Qinghai, S Gansu, W Sichuan, SE Xizang& NW Yunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, height at shoulder, 50-60 cm; weight 11-18 kg. One of the largest species of musk-deer. Skull length in subspecies sifanicus is 1516-5 cm and in the nominotypical subspecies 14:5-16 cm. Overall color striated reddish or yellowish-gray; paler on flanks; underside reddish-creamy-gray, as are the inner surfaces of the limbs and the midline of the throat, but there are no white stripes on the neck. There is an orange eye ring. Individual hairs are brown with a red-yellow subterminal band. Ears are pale brown, tipped with yellow, and gray inside. Throat with a single broad, ill-defined creamy longitudinal band. Legs paler than body on lower segments, grayish-yellow, somewhat darkened down front surfaces. Rump paler than back, yellowish, with a black patch on buttocks. Young spotted. A faint dorsal stripe. Hair bases long, milky gray or brown. Winter hairs 34-42 mm long on withers, 55-64 mm on rump. The face is greatly elongated, constituting more than half the skull length; the lachrymal length is much longer than its height. Limbs are elongated, but not as much as those of the Siberian species: metacarpal length 109-119 mm, metatarsal 128-148 mm. The metapodials are sturdier than those of the Siberian Musk-deer, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal is more than 15-5%, of the metatarsal more than 14-5% of their lengths. The hindlimbs are slightly less elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length is 124-128% of that of the metacarpal. The metatarsal length is 90-95% of skull length, the metacarpal 72-77%.On following pages 3 Hrmalayan Musk-deer (Moschus Ieuoogaston, 4 Kashmır Musk-deer (Moschuscuprousl. 5 Black Musk-deer (Moschus fuscus) 6 AnhuıMusk-deer (Moschusınhuıensısl, 7 Forest Musk-deer (Moschus berezovskıı)Habitat.Once found throughout the “dwarf bush zone” in suitable areas of the Tibetan Plateau, nowadays due to human disturbance the habitat is fragmented and populations are isolated on separate mountains. Chinese Alpine Musk-deer live in highelevation bush, where the mean annual temperature is around 3-7°C and often falls below freezing; they prefer shrubby habitats to meadows. They inhabit shaded slopes with better shelter and less disturbance, the steeper slopes at greater than 30°. The elevation of their habitat is typically 4000-4500 m, only sometimes going below 4000 m. Annual rainfall varies from about 200 mmto as much as 450 mmor more. Musk-deer population density varies from 3-9 ind/km? in the more arid habitats to 71-11 ind/km? where the rainfall is highest; density is lower where there is heavy snow cover. Densities in dwarf forest and shrub are highest, but more continuous dense shrub is avoided, and patchy shrub has the highest densities among habitat types. Where there are more competitors, such as Serow and Goral, and more grazing by domestic herds, and of course more poaching, densities are again lower.Food and Feeding.The diet contains the leaves of 46 species (mostly shrubs and forbs), flowers of 30 species, shoots and stems of 16 species, and seeds ofsix species; the proportion of leaves and tender shoots is highest in spring and summer, of buds and flowers higher in late summer, and of the leaves, twigs, and seeds of forbs and shrubs higher later in the year.Breeding.In the Xinglong Mountain National Nature Reserve, east of QinghaiLake, births occur from May to July, when rainfall and temperature are highest; the younger females (less than two years old) have their birth season more spread out than the more mature females. Compared to the wild, in captivity the birth season is longer and begins later. The twinning rate is lower than in the Siberian Musk-deer, only two in twelve births. The neonates weigh 700-750 g at three days old. Lactation lasts for two months; the young begin browsing at 20 days.Activity patterns.Very little is known about activity patterns, but they have been reported to sleep during the day in a form, which is made by scraping out a shallow depression in the ground, which just fits the body when the animalis crouching low.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization seems to be rather different from that of the Siberian Musk-deer. Males and females seem not to be associated in pairs, nor are there “satellite” males; instead the home ranges of the dominant males overlap those of females, but the other males occupy separate home ranges. Home range in summeris smaller than in autumn; the home ranges of males average 35-5 ha in July to September, and expand to 47-17 ha (i.e. by 63-4%) in October to early November, the rutting season; female ranges enlarge from 28-95 ha to 40-76 ha (a 40-8% increase).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, except Chinese populations which are listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a probable population decline caused by overexploitation, shrinkage in distribution, and habitat destruction and degradation. Although data are lacking regarding recent population levels, the high levels of harvesting and habitat loss do not bode well. A poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 wild individuals in Chinain the 1960s and 1970s and no more than 100,000 within Chinain the 1990s.Bibliography.Grubb (1982), Liu Zhixiao & Sheng Helin (2008), Liu Zhixiao et al. (2002), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Shi Zemei & Jiang Yingwen (2005), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Xia Lin et al. (2003), Yang Qisen et al. (1998), Zhang Hongmao & Hu Jinchu (2000)." +03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,345,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728.xml,Moschus moschiferus,Moschus,moschiferus,Linnaeus,1758,Porte-musc de Sibérie @fr | Sibirien-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero siberiano @es,"Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758,Tatary towards China= Altai Mountains.Three subspecies recognized.","M.m.moschiferusLinnaeus,1758—ERussia(Altairegion,NalongtheYenisei,reaching69°N,thendowntothemiddleflowoftheLena;E&SEslopesoftheVerkhoyanskRange;StanovoyRange,butdoesnotreachtheSeaofOkhotskorthefloodzonesoftheAmur),EKazakhstan,Mongolia,andNChina(NENeiMongol&NWHeilongjiang,formerlyalsoinNXinjiangbutsupposedlyextincttheresinceearly20""century).M.m.parvipesHollister,1911—RussianFarEast,KoreanPeninsula,andNEChina(SHeilongjiang,EJilin,ELiaoning,Hebei&Shanxi).M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1929— Sakhalin.","Head-body 65-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, shoulder height 56-61 cm; weight 7-17 kg. Skull length in the Siberian subspeciesis c¢. 14:5-15. 8 cm; in the other two subspecies rather smaller, 14-15 cm. The pelage is softer,less quilly, than in other species. Individual hairs on the upperparts are dark with a white subterminal band and/ortip, producing an overall color of dark grayish, usually with whitish spots where the white tips cluster together. Underside paler, grayish-brown. Neck brownish, head more grayish, and may be either paler or darker than body. Ears dark brown or black, paler at base. A pair of narrow creamy or white stripes (made up of white-tipped hairs) from chin down neck to chest. The pale spots are variably visible, but always prominent in young. In the skull, the snoutis long but does not form as much as half of the total skull length; the lacrimal bone is shorter than it is high; braincase is elongated; the orbits tubular. Diploid chromosome number is 58; some animals have dot-sized satellite chromosomes situated in the upper part of the fourth pair of autosomes. Deciduous canines in both sexes are replaced by permanent canines, prominent only in males, at six months. The limbs are more elongated than in most other species; the metatarsal is about 111% of the skull length, the metacarpal 84%. Relatively, however, the hindlimbs are greatly elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length (always more than 167 mm) being around 132% of the metacarpal (whose length is always more than 126 mm), and the forelimbs as a whole are 25-30% shorter than the hindlimbs. The metapodials are also very slender, the width of the distal head of the metacarpal being less than 14-5% ofits length, that of the metatarsal less than 12-5% of its length. Russian authors have reported that the musk of the Siberian Musk-deer contains no muscone, which on the face of it would seem to make it much less valuable for perfumes and for medicinal uses. The differences between the subspecies are in size and coloration. Subspecies parvipes and sachalinensis are considerably smaller and darker on average than is moschiferus, and most but not all specimens can be distinguished, though there is a doubt whether most parvipes and sachalinensis can really be differentiated from each other.","Siberian Musk-deer live in mountain taiga; in the Altaiand Sayan ranges, they are found between 300 mand 1600 m, and farther north, in Yakutia and north-eastern Russia, they live in rhododendron shrub, in light coniferous forest, and in floodland poplar-willow forests. In the northernmost part of the range, Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and foxes (Vulpes spp.) are the main predators, in that order; in Yakutia, the Yellow-throated Marten (Mantesflavigula) tends to be the most important. They are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including mites and fleas, and in the Far East, 100% are infested with larvae of Cordylobia inexspectata(Calliphoridae), a fly related to blowflies, a single individual musk-deer having as many as 2000 larvae.","In the northern part of the range, Siberian Musk-deer feed on lichens all year round, these forming 60-91% of the weight of stomach contents; in winter, they also eat sprigs of small bushes, conifer needles, moss, dry grass, and rhododendron leaves; in spring and summer, they eat vascular plants.","Body mass is lowest in June and at its maximum in autumn, when rutting begins. Testis volumeis at its maximum in the early rut (November-December), and the musk gland is at its maximum in November. The full rut takes place in December—January, less frequently February-March. Three-quarters of the females breed every year, the rest only once in two or three years or less. The pre-copulation phase, as judged by the male’s reaction to female urine marks, lasts 15-18 days; the true mating period lasts only 52-64 hours, and the phase of estrus when copulation occurs lastsjust 12-24 hours. Gestation is 182-194 days, with a mean of 187. During courtship, a male first leaves musk marks on the female’s home range, then gradually approaches, then pursues her. Before copulation, the male smells the female’s genitals and occasionally makes the flehmen gesture (corners of the mouth open, pulling back the midline of the upper lip to permit passage of olfactory molecules into the vomeronasal organ); most females rub the side of the neck of the male with their caudal area and look back. A series of copulations takes place, interspersed with resting or feeding. Most births (70%) occur in the first ten days ofJune. The newborns weigh 460-635 g. Meanlitter size overall is 1:7-1-8; i.e. there is a preponderance of twins. In different regions, the rate of multiple births seems slightly different: in East Sayan, twelve triplet, 50 twin, and 28 singleton births were recorded; in Yakutia,six twin and three singleton births. The sex ratio at birth in twins in the Altai regionis 73-82% male; overall, however, sex ratios at birth are equal. Births occur during the day. Neonates stand 16-28 minutes after birth, walk after 28-47 minutes, and suckle after 11-92 minutes. They lie hidden for 12-15 days, and are on their own 80-90% of the time, the mother returning to feed them just once or twice a day for the first month, and after that only once a day. They begin to eat lichen and grass at 15-18 days. Lactation lasts on average four months, occasionally up to six months. The mother—young socialties last till the end of lactation. Juvenile mortality during first three or four months varies from 10-14% in the Far East to 17% in Transbaikalia. Males reach sexual maturity at 10-18 months, females at 8-9 months. Some females remain fertile until 7-12 years of age; in captivity, they remain fertile for longer, up to age 15-17. Mean life expectancy in nature is 5-7 years, which of course reflects the high infant and juvenile mortality, as adults in the wild may live to twelve years.","They are active, nervous animals; sudden high lookout jumps are made, especially by females. Most activity takes place at dusk and dawn. A musk-deer can travel 3-7 km during night foraging, usually returning to the same lair every morning. An individual’s home range will be between 200 ha and 300 ha in size, and muskdeer observe the boundaries quite strictly. In the second half of winter the extent of the home range is ratherless, and seasonal migrations,if they exist at all, are minimal.","Like other musk-deer, males are territorial. Fights between territory owners involve striking with the forelegs and sometimes slashing with the canines. Apparently unlike other musk-deer, they live in pairs with the young of the year, although the female’s home range in and around the territory is not coterminous with the male’s. The territory is maintained by the male, who patrols it, marking the boundaries with caudal gland secretions and feces, and physically chasing away intruders. Sometimes the territory also contains satellite males up to two years old, who assist in maintaining the territory and may take over if the dominant male dies. Young males leave their natal territories in October to April (i.e. during orafter the rut), and young females from April to June before the adult female gives birth. Family groups form “metapopulations” in areas of relatively high population density separated from each other by low-density areas. Solitary individuals form 13-30% of the total. Not all of the home range is defended; the home ranges of males overlap by 3-6% in Altai, and in Far East by up to 15%; those of females, by as much as 17%. In winter, the overlap increases and can be as much as 40-70% of neighboring home ranges. The average population density is around 0-6 ind/km?, but this may increase to up to 4-8-5 ind/km?* when conditions are favorable.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. By the end of the 1990s, populations in Russiawere estimated at about 70,000, having been reduced by 50% to 75% since 1989. In 1999 the Sakhalinpopulation was estimated at about 600-650, and declining, the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000, and that in the Russian Far East as perhaps as much as 150,000. Although apparently less endangered than the Chinese species, the Siberian Musk-deer is still in danger of extinction unless stringent measures are taken.",Flerov (1952) | MacKinnon (2008) | Nyambayar et al. (2008) | Prihodko (2003) | Sokolov etal. (1987),https://zenodo.org/record/5720523/files/figure.png,"1.Siberian Musk-deerMoschus moschiferusFrench:Porte-musc de Sibérie/ German:Sibirien-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero siberianoTaxonomy.Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758,Tatary towards China= Altai Mountains.Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.m.moschiferusLinnaeus,1758—ERussia(Altairegion,NalongtheYenisei,reaching69°N,thendowntothemiddleflowoftheLena;E&SEslopesoftheVerkhoyanskRange;StanovoyRange,butdoesnotreachtheSeaofOkhotskorthefloodzonesoftheAmur),EKazakhstan,Mongolia,andNChina(NENeiMongol&NWHeilongjiang,formerlyalsoinNXinjiangbutsupposedlyextincttheresinceearly20""century).M.m.parvipesHollister,1911—RussianFarEast,KoreanPeninsula,andNEChina(SHeilongjiang,EJilin,ELiaoning,Hebei&Shanxi).M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1929— Sakhalin.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, shoulder height 56-61 cm; weight 7-17 kg. Skull length in the Siberian subspeciesis c¢. 14:5-15. 8 cm; in the other two subspecies rather smaller, 14-15 cm. The pelage is softer,less quilly, than in other species. Individual hairs on the upperparts are dark with a white subterminal band and/ortip, producing an overall color of dark grayish, usually with whitish spots where the white tips cluster together. Underside paler, grayish-brown. Neck brownish, head more grayish, and may be either paler or darker than body. Ears dark brown or black, paler at base. A pair of narrow creamy or white stripes (made up of white-tipped hairs) from chin down neck to chest. The pale spots are variably visible, but always prominent in young. In the skull, the snoutis long but does not form as much as half of the total skull length; the lacrimal bone is shorter than it is high; braincase is elongated; the orbits tubular. Diploid chromosome number is 58; some animals have dot-sized satellite chromosomes situated in the upper part of the fourth pair of autosomes. Deciduous canines in both sexes are replaced by permanent canines, prominent only in males, at six months. The limbs are more elongated than in most other species; the metatarsal is about 111% of the skull length, the metacarpal 84%. Relatively, however, the hindlimbs are greatly elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length (always more than 167 mm) being around 132% of the metacarpal (whose length is always more than 126 mm), and the forelimbs as a whole are 25-30% shorter than the hindlimbs. The metapodials are also very slender, the width of the distal head of the metacarpal being less than 14-5% ofits length, that of the metatarsal less than 12-5% of its length. Russian authors have reported that the musk of the Siberian Musk-deer contains no muscone, which on the face of it would seem to make it much less valuable for perfumes and for medicinal uses. The differences between the subspecies are in size and coloration. Subspecies parvipes and sachalinensis are considerably smaller and darker on average than is moschiferus, and most but not all specimens can be distinguished, though there is a doubt whether most parvipes and sachalinensis can really be differentiated from each other.Habitat.Siberian Musk-deer live in mountain taiga; in the Altaiand Sayan ranges, they are found between 300 mand 1600 m, and farther north, in Yakutia and north-eastern Russia, they live in rhododendron shrub, in light coniferous forest, and in floodland poplar-willow forests. In the northernmost part of the range, Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and foxes (Vulpes spp.) are the main predators, in that order; in Yakutia, the Yellow-throated Marten (Mantesflavigula) tends to be the most important. They are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including mites and fleas, and in the Far East, 100% are infested with larvae of Cordylobia inexspectata(Calliphoridae), a fly related to blowflies, a single individual musk-deer having as many as 2000 larvae.Food and Feeding.In the northern part of the range, Siberian Musk-deer feed on lichens all year round, these forming 60-91% of the weight of stomach contents; in winter, they also eat sprigs of small bushes, conifer needles, moss, dry grass, and rhododendron leaves; in spring and summer, they eat vascular plants.Breeding.Body mass is lowest in June and at its maximum in autumn, when rutting begins. Testis volumeis at its maximum in the early rut (November-December), and the musk gland is at its maximum in November. The full rut takes place in December—January, less frequently February-March. Three-quarters of the females breed every year, the rest only once in two or three years or less. The pre-copulation phase, as judged by the male’s reaction to female urine marks, lasts 15-18 days; the true mating period lasts only 52-64 hours, and the phase of estrus when copulation occurs lastsjust 12-24 hours. Gestation is 182-194 days, with a mean of 187. During courtship, a male first leaves musk marks on the female’s home range, then gradually approaches, then pursues her. Before copulation, the male smells the female’s genitals and occasionally makes the flehmen gesture (corners of the mouth open, pulling back the midline of the upper lip to permit passage of olfactory molecules into the vomeronasal organ); most females rub the side of the neck of the male with their caudal area and look back. A series of copulations takes place, interspersed with resting or feeding. Most births (70%) occur in the first ten days ofJune. The newborns weigh 460-635 g. Meanlitter size overall is 1:7-1-8; i.e. there is a preponderance of twins. In different regions, the rate of multiple births seems slightly different: in East Sayan, twelve triplet, 50 twin, and 28 singleton births were recorded; in Yakutia,six twin and three singleton births. The sex ratio at birth in twins in the Altai regionis 73-82% male; overall, however, sex ratios at birth are equal. Births occur during the day. Neonates stand 16-28 minutes after birth, walk after 28-47 minutes, and suckle after 11-92 minutes. They lie hidden for 12-15 days, and are on their own 80-90% of the time, the mother returning to feed them just once or twice a day for the first month, and after that only once a day. They begin to eat lichen and grass at 15-18 days. Lactation lasts on average four months, occasionally up to six months. The mother—young socialties last till the end of lactation. Juvenile mortality during first three or four months varies from 10-14% in the Far East to 17% in Transbaikalia. Males reach sexual maturity at 10-18 months, females at 8-9 months. Some females remain fertile until 7-12 years of age; in captivity, they remain fertile for longer, up to age 15-17. Mean life expectancy in nature is 5-7 years, which of course reflects the high infant and juvenile mortality, as adults in the wild may live to twelve years.Activity patterns.They are active, nervous animals; sudden high lookout jumps are made, especially by females. Most activity takes place at dusk and dawn. A musk-deer can travel 3-7 km during night foraging, usually returning to the same lair every morning. An individual’s home range will be between 200 ha and 300 ha in size, and muskdeer observe the boundaries quite strictly. In the second half of winter the extent of the home range is ratherless, and seasonal migrations,if they exist at all, are minimal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other musk-deer, males are territorial. Fights between territory owners involve striking with the forelegs and sometimes slashing with the canines. Apparently unlike other musk-deer, they live in pairs with the young of the year, although the female’s home range in and around the territory is not coterminous with the male’s. The territory is maintained by the male, who patrols it, marking the boundaries with caudal gland secretions and feces, and physically chasing away intruders. Sometimes the territory also contains satellite males up to two years old, who assist in maintaining the territory and may take over if the dominant male dies. Young males leave their natal territories in October to April (i.e. during orafter the rut), and young females from April to June before the adult female gives birth. Family groups form “metapopulations” in areas of relatively high population density separated from each other by low-density areas. Solitary individuals form 13-30% of the total. Not all of the home range is defended; the home ranges of males overlap by 3-6% in Altai, and in Far East by up to 15%; those of females, by as much as 17%. In winter, the overlap increases and can be as much as 40-70% of neighboring home ranges. The average population density is around 0-6 ind/km?, but this may increase to up to 4-8-5 ind/km?* when conditions are favorable.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. By the end of the 1990s, populations in Russiawere estimated at about 70,000, having been reduced by 50% to 75% since 1989. In 1999 the Sakhalinpopulation was estimated at about 600-650, and declining, the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000, and that in the Russian Far East as perhaps as much as 150,000. Although apparently less endangered than the Chinese species, the Siberian Musk-deer is still in danger of extinction unless stringent measures are taken.Bibliography.Flerov (1952), MacKinnon (2008), Nyambayar et al. (2008), Prihodko (2003), Sokolov etal. (1987)." +03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,345,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607.xml,Moschus chrysogaster,Moschus,chrysogaster,Hodgson,1839,Porte-musc alpin @fr | Gelbbauch-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero dorado @es,"Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions,” probably from the Tibetan Plateau, north of the Himalayas.Two subspecies recognized.","M.c.chrysogasterHodgson,1839—alpinezoneat2800-4000mofNIndia(includingSikkim),Nepal,andBhutan.M. c. sifanicus Büchner, 1891— alpine zone at 3500-4800 mof C & S China(S Ningxia, Qinghai, S Gansu, W Sichuan, SE Xizang& NW Yunnan).","Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, height at shoulder, 50-60 cm; weight 11-18 kg. One of the largest species of musk-deer. Skull length in subspecies sifanicus is 1516-5 cm and in the nominotypical subspecies 14:5-16 cm. Overall color striated reddish or yellowish-gray; paler on flanks; underside reddish-creamy-gray, as are the inner surfaces of the limbs and the midline of the throat, but there are no white stripes on the neck. There is an orange eye ring. Individual hairs are brown with a red-yellow subterminal band. Ears are pale brown, tipped with yellow, and gray inside. Throat with a single broad, ill-defined creamy longitudinal band. Legs paler than body on lower segments, grayish-yellow, somewhat darkened down front surfaces. Rump paler than back, yellowish, with a black patch on buttocks. Young spotted. A faint dorsal stripe. Hair bases long, milky gray or brown. Winter hairs 34-42 mm long on withers, 55-64 mm on rump. The face is greatly elongated, constituting more than half the skull length; the lachrymal length is much longer than its height. Limbs are elongated, but not as much as those of the Siberian species: metacarpal length 109-119 mm, metatarsal 128-148 mm. The metapodials are sturdier than those of the Siberian Musk-deer, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal is more than 15-5%, of the metatarsal more than 14-5% of their lengths. The hindlimbs are slightly less elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length is 124-128% of that of the metacarpal. The metatarsal length is 90-95% of skull length, the metacarpal 72-77%.On following pages 3 Hrmalayan Musk-deer (Moschus Ieuoogaston, 4 Kashmır Musk-deer (Moschuscuprousl.","Once found throughout the “dwarf bush zone” in suitable areas of the Tibetan Plateau, nowadays due to human disturbance the habitat is fragmented and populations are isolated on separate mountains. Chinese Alpine Musk-deer live in highelevation bush, where the mean annual temperature is around 3-7°C and often falls below freezing; they prefer shrubby habitats to meadows. They inhabit shaded slopes with better shelter and less disturbance, the steeper slopes at greater than 30°. The elevation of their habitat is typically 4000-4500 m, only sometimes going below 4000 m. Annual rainfall varies from about 200 mmto as much as 450 mmor more. Musk-deer population density varies from 3-9 ind/km? in the more arid habitats to 71-11 ind/km? where the rainfall is highest; density is lower where there is heavy snow cover. Densities in dwarf forest and shrub are highest, but more continuous dense shrub is avoided, and patchy shrub has the highest densities among habitat types. Where there are more competitors, such as Serow and Goral, and more grazing by domestic herds, and of course more poaching, densities are again lower.","The diet contains the leaves of 46 species (mostly shrubs and forbs), flowers of 30 species, shoots and stems of 16 species, and seeds ofsix species; the proportion of leaves and tender shoots is highest in spring and summer, of buds and flowers higher in late summer, and of the leaves, twigs, and seeds of forbs and shrubs higher later in the year.","In the Xinglong Mountain National Nature Reserve, east of QinghaiLake, births occur from May to July, when rainfall and temperature are highest; the younger females (less than two years old) have their birth season more spread out than the more mature females. Compared to the wild, in captivity the birth season is longer and begins later. The twinning rate is lower than in the Siberian Musk-deer, only two in twelve births. The neonates weigh 700-750 g at three days old. Lactation lasts for two months; the young begin browsing at 20 days.","Very little is known about activity patterns, but they have been reported to sleep during the day in a form, which is made by scraping out a shallow depression in the ground, which just fits the body when the animalis crouching low.","The social organization seems to be rather different from that of the Siberian Musk-deer. Males and females seem not to be associated in pairs, nor are there “satellite” males; instead the home ranges of the dominant males overlap those of females, but the other males occupy separate home ranges. Home range in summeris smaller than in autumn; the home ranges of males average 35-5 ha in July to September, and expand to 47-17 ha (i.e. by 63-4%) in October to early November, the rutting season; female ranges enlarge from 28-95 ha to 40-76 ha (a 40-8% increase).","CITES Appendix I, except Chinese populations which are listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a probable population decline caused by overexploitation, shrinkage in distribution, and habitat destruction and degradation. Although data are lacking regarding recent population levels, the high levels of harvesting and habitat loss do not bode well. A poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 wild individuals in Chinain the 1960s and 1970s and no more than 100,000 within Chinain the 1990s.","Grubb (1982) | Liu Zhixiao & Sheng Helin (2008) | Liu Zhixiao et al. (2002) | Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Shi Zemei & Jiang Yingwen (2005) | Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Xia Lin et al. (2003) | Yang Qisen et al. (1998) | Zhang Hongmao & Hu Jinchu (2000)",https://zenodo.org/record/5720525/files/figure.png,"2.Alpine Musk-deerMoschus chrysogasterFrench:Porte-musc alpin/ German:Gelbbauch-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero doradoTaxonomy.Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions,” probably from the Tibetan Plateau, north of the Himalayas.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.c.chrysogasterHodgson,1839—alpinezoneat2800-4000mofNIndia(includingSikkim),Nepal,andBhutan.M. c. sifanicus Büchner, 1891— alpine zone at 3500-4800 mof C & S China(S Ningxia, Qinghai, S Gansu, W Sichuan, SE Xizang& NW Yunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, height at shoulder, 50-60 cm; weight 11-18 kg. One of the largest species of musk-deer. Skull length in subspecies sifanicus is 1516-5 cm and in the nominotypical subspecies 14:5-16 cm. Overall color striated reddish or yellowish-gray; paler on flanks; underside reddish-creamy-gray, as are the inner surfaces of the limbs and the midline of the throat, but there are no white stripes on the neck. There is an orange eye ring. Individual hairs are brown with a red-yellow subterminal band. Ears are pale brown, tipped with yellow, and gray inside. Throat with a single broad, ill-defined creamy longitudinal band. Legs paler than body on lower segments, grayish-yellow, somewhat darkened down front surfaces. Rump paler than back, yellowish, with a black patch on buttocks. Young spotted. A faint dorsal stripe. Hair bases long, milky gray or brown. Winter hairs 34-42 mm long on withers, 55-64 mm on rump. The face is greatly elongated, constituting more than half the skull length; the lachrymal length is much longer than its height. Limbs are elongated, but not as much as those of the Siberian species: metacarpal length 109-119 mm, metatarsal 128-148 mm. The metapodials are sturdier than those of the Siberian Musk-deer, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal is more than 15-5%, of the metatarsal more than 14-5% of their lengths. The hindlimbs are slightly less elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length is 124-128% of that of the metacarpal. The metatarsal length is 90-95% of skull length, the metacarpal 72-77%.On following pages 3 Hrmalayan Musk-deer (Moschus Ieuoogaston, 4 Kashmır Musk-deer (Moschuscuprousl. 5 Black Musk-deer (Moschus fuscus) 6 AnhuıMusk-deer (Moschusınhuıensısl, 7 Forest Musk-deer (Moschus berezovskıı)Habitat.Once found throughout the “dwarf bush zone” in suitable areas of the Tibetan Plateau, nowadays due to human disturbance the habitat is fragmented and populations are isolated on separate mountains. Chinese Alpine Musk-deer live in highelevation bush, where the mean annual temperature is around 3-7°C and often falls below freezing; they prefer shrubby habitats to meadows. They inhabit shaded slopes with better shelter and less disturbance, the steeper slopes at greater than 30°. The elevation of their habitat is typically 4000-4500 m, only sometimes going below 4000 m. Annual rainfall varies from about 200 mmto as much as 450 mmor more. Musk-deer population density varies from 3-9 ind/km? in the more arid habitats to 71-11 ind/km? where the rainfall is highest; density is lower where there is heavy snow cover. Densities in dwarf forest and shrub are highest, but more continuous dense shrub is avoided, and patchy shrub has the highest densities among habitat types. Where there are more competitors, such as Serow and Goral, and more grazing by domestic herds, and of course more poaching, densities are again lower.Food and Feeding.The diet contains the leaves of 46 species (mostly shrubs and forbs), flowers of 30 species, shoots and stems of 16 species, and seeds ofsix species; the proportion of leaves and tender shoots is highest in spring and summer, of buds and flowers higher in late summer, and of the leaves, twigs, and seeds of forbs and shrubs higher later in the year.Breeding.In the Xinglong Mountain National Nature Reserve, east of QinghaiLake, births occur from May to July, when rainfall and temperature are highest; the younger females (less than two years old) have their birth season more spread out than the more mature females. Compared to the wild, in captivity the birth season is longer and begins later. The twinning rate is lower than in the Siberian Musk-deer, only two in twelve births. The neonates weigh 700-750 g at three days old. Lactation lasts for two months; the young begin browsing at 20 days.Activity patterns.Very little is known about activity patterns, but they have been reported to sleep during the day in a form, which is made by scraping out a shallow depression in the ground, which just fits the body when the animalis crouching low.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization seems to be rather different from that of the Siberian Musk-deer. Males and females seem not to be associated in pairs, nor are there “satellite” males; instead the home ranges of the dominant males overlap those of females, but the other males occupy separate home ranges. Home range in summeris smaller than in autumn; the home ranges of males average 35-5 ha in July to September, and expand to 47-17 ha (i.e. by 63-4%) in October to early November, the rutting season; female ranges enlarge from 28-95 ha to 40-76 ha (a 40-8% increase).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, except Chinese populations which are listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a probable population decline caused by overexploitation, shrinkage in distribution, and habitat destruction and degradation. Although data are lacking regarding recent population levels, the high levels of harvesting and habitat loss do not bode well. A poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 wild individuals in Chinain the 1960s and 1970s and no more than 100,000 within Chinain the 1990s.Bibliography.Grubb (1982), Liu Zhixiao & Sheng Helin (2008), Liu Zhixiao et al. (2002), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Shi Zemei & Jiang Yingwen (2005), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Xia Lin et al. (2003), Yang Qisen et al. (1998), Zhang Hongmao & Hu Jinchu (2000)." 03C6E250FFB9F058FF7BF5D01AA9FDEB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,346,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB9F058FF7BF5D01AA9FDEB.xml,Moschus leucogaster,Moschus,leucogaster,,,Porte-musc de | @fr | 'Himalaya @en | Himalaya-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero himalayo @es | Ciervo @es,"Moschus leucogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions.” Probably from the Himalayan slopes of Nepal.The similarity between Himalayan (M. leucogaster) and Alpine (M. chrysogaster) Musk-deers has often led to them being confused and regarded as conspecific. At present, no subspecies are recognized, but there does appear to be geographical variation, or possibly the species should even be split into two or more distinct species.","Known from the southern slopes of Himalayas in N India(including Sikkim), Nepal, and Bhutan.","Head-body 86-100 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 13-18 kg. A large muskdeer; skull length is 15.3-16 cm. In the typical form ofthis species, from western Nepal, the upperparts are brownish-yellow, weaklystriated; the head gray-brown; the ears brown with grayish-white rims, and gray-white inside; some individuals have a faint grayish eye ring. The legs and rump are dark. Bases of the dorsal hairs are pure white. There is no neck-stripe; the throatis all dark. The interramal region is grayish-white, as is the underside, from chest to groin. Juveniles are clearly spotted. The facial skeleton is somewhat elongated; the lacrimal is longer than it is high, similar to the Alpine Musk-deer. There is a different looking form of this musk-deer, either a separate subspecies (or even a different species?) from Zhangmu (28° N, 87° E) in the forest zone of southern Tibet (Xizang): it is dark, without hair-banding, but the bases of the hairs are still white; the ears, limbs, and neck are all dark; the posterior aspect of the rump is orange-white; and the skull differs in having the nasal bones anteriorly expanded. In the Khumjung area in Nepalthere is another type of musk-deer related to this species. In this population, known only from a few specimens collected on one of the Everest expeditions, the neck is somewhat paler; the throatis pale with a poorly marked stripe on either side; the chin and interramal region are creamy white; the ears are gray basally, black terminally; the buttocks are yellow-brown; the legs are mostly black; the chest is black, and the belly is more grayish. The skull also differs somewhat from M. leucogaster. There is a third unnamed form, related to this species, known from Kulu district and elsewhere in north Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, at 3000 mor more, and from neighboring regions of Nepal; this, which has been called the “pepper-and-salt” form, is brown or red-agouti, sometimes forming a “saddle.” There is often pale spotting; the throatis pale brown, with a pair of pale gray or whitish stripes along either side from the throat to the insides of the forelegs; the lower limbs are paler than the body because of white speckling; the buttocks and tail are paler; the ears are dark gray or brown with a whitish border, and white inside. Hair bases are yellow; the tips of the hairs are dark brown, and there is a white or orange bandjust below the tips. The belly is brown, paler than the rest of the body; the head is gray, flecked with white, and there are orange patches above and below the eyes. The skull is unknown. It is ironic that the only field study of a Himalayan Musk-deer was made in the Kedarnath Wild Life Sanctuary in the Garhwal region, Uttarakhand, and applies to this unnamed “pepper-and-salt” form, which may be distinct and not referable to M. leucogasterat all. In other words, it may be that along the Himalayas there is in fact a series of different species, rather than just a single species.","Himalayan Musk-deer of this species or species-group inhabit the evergreen oak and birch forests of the Himalayan slopes of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Nepalas far east as the lower slopes of Mount Everest, between 3000 mand 4300 m. In Sikkim, where the treeline is higher because of the more evenly humid climate, they live between 2500 mand 4400 m; in Bhutanand Arunachal Pradesh, the habitat 1s between 2600 mand 3000 min thick bamboo forest. In Kedarnath, musk-deer tend to be in the open pastures on northern slopes at night. These slopes are warmer, more sheltered, and less exposed during the night. They are found on warmer, more sunny southern slopes during the day, when they rest more in shrub cover. The preferred slope angle is 30—-40°.","Diet in winter consists 39% of leaves of trees and shrubs (half of this being Rhododendron), 16% forbs (half of this being Senecio), 7% grasses, 2% ferns, 15% moss, and 21% lichen. In spring and summer, the diet consists mostly of forbs and lichen; it is mostly forbs and leaves in autumn. This contrasts with the Siberian Muskdeer, whose diet is so heavily composed oflichen.","Latrines are most frequently used during the autumn rut. The milky-yellow musk, which is produced most strongly between May and July, may be conveyed in the urine of males, and stains it pink or red because it mixes with slough from the inner wall of the sac. Pasting on stems by the caudal gland occurs throughout the winter range, especially during the rut. Gestation length is 196-198 days; the newborn weigh 600 g. The twinning rate of only one in six births seems lower than other species, except perhaps the Alpine Musk-deer.","Overall, 41% of the time is spent active, mainly at night, 59% resting, mainly by day. They are relatively silent, but hiss when alarmed; they squeal when captured or attacked by a predator. Males make a metallic rustling noise, probably by tooth grinding, in aggressive interactions. There is a contact bleat of the young to its mother. Stotting, like a gazelle,is frequent during vigilance behavior. Females seem to be more wary than males, and often flee for up to 100 mbefore stopping and looking back; males have a shorter median flight distance, but they hiss less and tend to look back more when fleeing. In males, the flight distance seems to be greater (30 m) in autumn, in the rut, than in winter and spring, when it is only 15-20 m.","Scent marking includes defecation at latrines by both sexes, and secretion of musk and pasting with the caudal gland by males. Latrines occur throughout the home range and are most frequently used during the autumn rut—and perhaps not used at all in summer. In autumn, these musk-deer seem often to cover the feces with debris (earth, old pellets, and leaflitter), probably helping to keep them moist and smelly; the amount of droppingsis greater in covered than in uncovered latrines. Both sexes make them, but a male’s winter range has about 40 latrines, whereas the winter range of one female had only 23. Some latrines seem to be used exclusively by one individual, others by more than one, probably corresponding with the degree of overlap between two animals’ home ranges. Latrines may also be visitedjust to inspect them, without using them, and they can be located even when covered in snow. Both sexes scrape with the forefeet before and after defecation, but the feces are then covered, so they are not trodden underfoot and do not act to mark trails. The density varies from 3-4 ind/km? in Kedarnath up to 5-6 ind/km? in SagarmathaNational Park, Nepal, where there is more food available in winter because there is less snow. The home range of a two-year-old male in Kedarnath was 15 ha, whereas that of an older male was twice as large, 31-6 ha; an adult female occupied 26-8 ha, comparable to the adult male. Males act territorially, defending their borders by fighting.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a population decline estimated to be more than 50% over the last three generations inferred from overexploitation, which is characteristic of the genus. The species has a relatively restricted range, so its population is unlikely to be large, even if there is only one species ofthis group. According to Michael Green, the potential habitat on the south side of the Himalayas could support about 200,000 musk-deer, but the population in the 1980s was probably only about 30,000, and at least 4000 adult males were killed each year. The current status is unknown.","Green (1985, 1986, 1987) | Groves et al. (1995) | Grubb (1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/5720527/files/figure.png,"3.Himalayan Musk-deerMoschus leucogasterFrench:Porte-musc de |I'Himalaya/ German:Himalaya-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero himalayoTaxonomy.Moschus leucogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions.” Probably from the Himalayan slopes of Nepal.The similarity between Himalayan (M. leucogaster) and Alpine (M. chrysogaster) Musk-deers has often led to them being confused and regarded as conspecific. At present, no subspecies are recognized, but there does appear to be geographical variation, or possibly the species should even be split into two or more distinct species.Distribution.Known from the southern slopes of Himalayas in N India(including Sikkim), Nepal, and Bhutan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 86-100 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 13-18 kg. A large muskdeer; skull length is 15.3-16 cm. In the typical form ofthis species, from western Nepal, the upperparts are brownish-yellow, weaklystriated; the head gray-brown; the ears brown with grayish-white rims, and gray-white inside; some individuals have a faint grayish eye ring. The legs and rump are dark. Bases of the dorsal hairs are pure white. There is no neck-stripe; the throatis all dark. The interramal region is grayish-white, as is the underside, from chest to groin. Juveniles are clearly spotted. The facial skeleton is somewhat elongated; the lacrimal is longer than it is high, similar to the Alpine Musk-deer. There is a different looking form of this musk-deer, either a separate subspecies (or even a different species?) from Zhangmu (28° N, 87° E) in the forest zone of southern Tibet (Xizang): it is dark, without hair-banding, but the bases of the hairs are still white; the ears, limbs, and neck are all dark; the posterior aspect of the rump is orange-white; and the skull differs in having the nasal bones anteriorly expanded. In the Khumjung area in Nepalthere is another type of musk-deer related to this species. In this population, known only from a few specimens collected on one of the Everest expeditions, the neck is somewhat paler; the throatis pale with a poorly marked stripe on either side; the chin and interramal region are creamy white; the ears are gray basally, black terminally; the buttocks are yellow-brown; the legs are mostly black; the chest is black, and the belly is more grayish. The skull also differs somewhat from M. leucogaster. There is a third unnamed form, related to this species, known from Kulu district and elsewhere in north Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, at 3000 mor more, and from neighboring regions of Nepal; this, which has been called the “pepper-and-salt” form, is brown or red-agouti, sometimes forming a “saddle.” There is often pale spotting; the throatis pale brown, with a pair of pale gray or whitish stripes along either side from the throat to the insides of the forelegs; the lower limbs are paler than the body because of white speckling; the buttocks and tail are paler; the ears are dark gray or brown with a whitish border, and white inside. Hair bases are yellow; the tips of the hairs are dark brown, and there is a white or orange bandjust below the tips. The belly is brown, paler than the rest of the body; the head is gray, flecked with white, and there are orange patches above and below the eyes. The skull is unknown. It is ironic that the only field study of a Himalayan Musk-deer was made in the Kedarnath Wild Life Sanctuary in the Garhwal region, Uttarakhand, and applies to this unnamed “pepper-and-salt” form, which may be distinct and not referable to M. leucogasterat all. In other words, it may be that along the Himalayas there is in fact a series of different species, rather than just a single species.Habitat.Himalayan Musk-deer of this species or species-group inhabit the evergreen oak and birch forests of the Himalayan slopes of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Nepalas far east as the lower slopes of Mount Everest, between 3000 mand 4300 m. In Sikkim, where the treeline is higher because of the more evenly humid climate, they live between 2500 mand 4400 m; in Bhutanand Arunachal Pradesh, the habitat 1s between 2600 mand 3000 min thick bamboo forest. In Kedarnath, musk-deer tend to be in the open pastures on northern slopes at night. These slopes are warmer, more sheltered, and less exposed during the night. They are found on warmer, more sunny southern slopes during the day, when they rest more in shrub cover. The preferred slope angle is 30—-40°.Food and Feeding.Diet in winter consists 39% of leaves of trees and shrubs (half of this being Rhododendron), 16% forbs (half of this being Senecio), 7% grasses, 2% ferns, 15% moss, and 21% lichen. In spring and summer, the diet consists mostly of forbs and lichen; it is mostly forbs and leaves in autumn. This contrasts with the Siberian Muskdeer, whose diet is so heavily composed oflichen.Breeding.Latrines are most frequently used during the autumn rut. The milky-yellow musk, which is produced most strongly between May and July, may be conveyed in the urine of males, and stains it pink or red because it mixes with slough from the inner wall of the sac. Pasting on stems by the caudal gland occurs throughout the winter range, especially during the rut. Gestation length is 196-198 days; the newborn weigh 600 g. The twinning rate of only one in six births seems lower than other species, except perhaps the Alpine Musk-deer.Activity patterns.Overall, 41% of the time is spent active, mainly at night, 59% resting, mainly by day. They are relatively silent, but hiss when alarmed; they squeal when captured or attacked by a predator. Males make a metallic rustling noise, probably by tooth grinding, in aggressive interactions. There is a contact bleat of the young to its mother. Stotting, like a gazelle,is frequent during vigilance behavior. Females seem to be more wary than males, and often flee for up to 100 mbefore stopping and looking back; males have a shorter median flight distance, but they hiss less and tend to look back more when fleeing. In males, the flight distance seems to be greater (30 m) in autumn, in the rut, than in winter and spring, when it is only 15-20 m.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Scent marking includes defecation at latrines by both sexes, and secretion of musk and pasting with the caudal gland by males. Latrines occur throughout the home range and are most frequently used during the autumn rut—and perhaps not used at all in summer. In autumn, these musk-deer seem often to cover the feces with debris (earth, old pellets, and leaflitter), probably helping to keep them moist and smelly; the amount of droppingsis greater in covered than in uncovered latrines. Both sexes make them, but a male’s winter range has about 40 latrines, whereas the winter range of one female had only 23. Some latrines seem to be used exclusively by one individual, others by more than one, probably corresponding with the degree of overlap between two animals’ home ranges. Latrines may also be visitedjust to inspect them, without using them, and they can be located even when covered in snow. Both sexes scrape with the forefeet before and after defecation, but the feces are then covered, so they are not trodden underfoot and do not act to mark trails. The density varies from 3-4 ind/km? in Kedarnath up to 5-6 ind/km? in SagarmathaNational Park, Nepal, where there is more food available in winter because there is less snow. The home range of a two-year-old male in Kedarnath was 15 ha, whereas that of an older male was twice as large, 31-6 ha; an adult female occupied 26-8 ha, comparable to the adult male. Males act territorially, defending their borders by fighting.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a population decline estimated to be more than 50% over the last three generations inferred from overexploitation, which is characteristic of the genus. The species has a relatively restricted range, so its population is unlikely to be large, even if there is only one species ofthis group. According to Michael Green, the potential habitat on the south side of the Himalayas could support about 200,000 musk-deer, but the population in the 1980s was probably only about 30,000, and at least 4000 adult males were killed each year. The current status is unknown.Bibliography.Green (1985, 1986, 1987), Groves et al. (1995), Grubb (1982)." 03C6E250FFBAF05CFDE7FD8F1F6DFAAB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,336,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBAF05CFDE7FD8F1F6DFAAB.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family MOSCHIDAE(MUSK-DEER)• Small, hornless ruminants with hindquarters considerably higher than forequarters, long, rabbit-like, upright ears, long limbs, small tail, and thick, grayish or brownish hairs, standing erect on upperparts of body; male with long, slender, curved upper canines, large glandular sac on belly, and glandulartail.• 70-100 cm.• Palearctic and Indo-Malayan Regions.• Forest and alpine scrub in mountains and hilly country.• 1 genus, 7 species, 13 taxa.• 6 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." 03C6E250FFBEF058FAC6FC461016F63D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,347,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF058FAC6FC461016F63D.xml,Moschus anhuiensis,Moschus,anhuiensis,"Wang, Hu & Yan",1982,Porte-musc d'Anhui @fr | Anhui-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero de Anhui @es,"Moschus anhuiensis Wang, Hu & Yan, 1982,Changling region(31° 10’ N, 115° 53’ E, altitude 500 m), Jinzhai county, Anhui province, China.First proposed as a subspecies of M. moschiferus, this taxon was first transferred to M. berezouskii, then given species rank. Skulls of this species are metrically unlike those of any other, and cytochrome b has consistent differences from other species, and it is probably the sister species to all others except for M. moschiferus. Monotypic.",Appears to be restricted to SW Anhui.,"Head—body 69.6-76. 5 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height less than 50 cm, hip height less than 60 cm; weight 7.1-9. 7 kg. A small species; skull length is 14.1-14. 9 cm, with a mean of 14-38 cm. Gray-brown in color, with dense but not well-marked pale spots on the body. A neck-stripe is present. Lachrymal length is shorter than its height. Ears are darker than body. Hairs long, 38 mmon withers, 54 mmon rump.","Little is known of the typical habitat ofthis species, except that it is found in forested regions at low elevations, below 500 m.",Very little is known ofits way oflife and there are no data on food habits.,"Females reach sexual maturity quickly, and are able to breed in their first year. This species is more likely to have twins than singletons.","No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.","No information available, but likely similar to the Forest Musk-deer.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population estimates are on the order of only 700 to 800 individuals living in the wild. The distribution of the species is very limited, likely only a little over 5000 km?. This speciesis classified as Endangered in the Chinese Red List and on the First Category of State Key Protected Wildlife List in China. Protection of habitatis needed, as well as better enforcement of hunting regulations. It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a clear need to determine the population size, natural history, and the extent of threats to the species.",Groves & Feng Zuojian (1986) | Su Bing et al. (2001) | Wang Qishan etal. (1982),https://zenodo.org/record/5720539/files/figure.png,"6.Anhui Musk-deerMoschus anhuiensisFrench:Porte-musc d'Anhui/ German:Anhui-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero de AnhuiTaxonomy.Moschus anhuiensis Wang, Hu & Yan, 1982,Changling region(31° 10’ N, 115° 53’ E, altitude 500 m), Jinzhai county, Anhui province, China.First proposed as a subspecies of M. moschiferus, this taxon was first transferred to M. berezouskii, then given species rank. Skulls of this species are metrically unlike those of any other, and cytochrome b has consistent differences from other species, and it is probably the sister species to all others except for M. moschiferus. Monotypic.Distribution.Appears to be restricted to SW Anhui.Descriptive notes.Head—body 69.6-76. 5 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height less than 50 cm, hip height less than 60 cm; weight 7.1-9. 7 kg. A small species; skull length is 14.1-14. 9 cm, with a mean of 14-38 cm. Gray-brown in color, with dense but not well-marked pale spots on the body. A neck-stripe is present. Lachrymal length is shorter than its height. Ears are darker than body. Hairs long, 38 mmon withers, 54 mmon rump.Habitat.Little is known of the typical habitat ofthis species, except that it is found in forested regions at low elevations, below 500 m.Food and Feeding.Very little is known ofits way oflife and there are no data on food habits.Breeding.Females reach sexual maturity quickly, and are able to breed in their first year. This species is more likely to have twins than singletons.Activity patterns.No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information available, but likely similar to the Forest Musk-deer.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population estimates are on the order of only 700 to 800 individuals living in the wild. The distribution of the species is very limited, likely only a little over 5000 km?. This speciesis classified as Endangered in the Chinese Red List and on the First Category of State Key Protected Wildlife List in China. Protection of habitatis needed, as well as better enforcement of hunting regulations. It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a clear need to determine the population size, natural history, and the extent of threats to the species.Bibliography.Groves & Feng Zuojian (1986), Su Bing et al. (2001), Wang Qishan etal. (1982)." 03C6E250FFBEF058FF33F7711EAAFCFD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,347,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF058FF33F7711EAAFCFD.xml,Moschus fuscus,Moschus,fuscus,Li,1981,Porte-musc noir @fr | Schwarzes Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero negro @es,"Moschus fuscus Li, 1981,Babo, Gongshan, Yunnan, 3500 m.Monotypic.","S China, in SE Xizang(Zayu County, 28° 25’ N, 97° 06’ E) and NW Yunnan(Gongshan County, 26° 30’ N, 98° 50’ E), NE India(Sikkim), Bhutanand N Myanmar(Dchpu L’kha; Adung-Seingku valleys). It is likely on geographic grounds that it occurs in Arunachal Pradesh, NE India, and thatthis speciesis the one that has been found at over 4000 min the Khumbu region of Mt Everest and Tserping, in NW Nepal.","Head-body 73-80 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Skull length 13-5—-14-5 cm. Blackish-brown all over, much darker than any other species, with no neck or throat markings, but very occasionally traces of yellowish spotting on body. The neck may be paler than the body; the throat has no longitudinal lines running down it, but often has two incomplete yellow collars. Underside is dark like the upper side. Rump with ochery tones, but buttocks black. Juvenile is agouti-banded, but the adult hairs are solid-colored except for very short white bases. Hair is long, 32-46 mm on withers, 51-63 mm on rump. Muzzle is short, less than half the length of the skull, but the lacrimal is longer than it is high. Limbs are more elongated than in M. berezouskii, despite the smaller skull. Metacarpal 88-101 mm, metatarsal 126-135 mm, so the hindlimb is even more elongated than in M. berezouskii; the metatarsal length is 152% of the metacarpal, and 96% of skull length, the metacarpal 63% of skull length. The hooves are elongated: 27-29 mm in one specimen (maximum in other speciesis 24 mm). Khumbu region specimens have a slightly paler underside and interramal region than those from Chinaand Myanmar.","This speciesis said to live in shady coniferous forest at 2200-4600 m above sea level, extending into the alpine zone.","The diet is mainly grasses, mosses, and tender shoots of a variety of plants, but no details are available.",Nothing known.,"No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.",No information available.,"This species is listed on CITES Appendix I in most countries in its range, and on Appendix II in China. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is on the ChinaKey List as category II and the ChinaRed List as Endangered. This species has gained some protection in Myanmarthrough the creation of Khakaborazi National Park, but poaching remains a problem in many areas.",Groves et al. (1995) | Li Zhixiang (1981),https://zenodo.org/record/5720535/files/figure.png,"5.Black Musk-deerMoschus fuscusFrench:Porte-musc noir/ German:Schwarzes Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero negroTaxonomy.Moschus fuscus Li, 1981,Babo, Gongshan, Yunnan, 3500 m.Monotypic.Distribution.S China, in SE Xizang(Zayu County, 28° 25’ N, 97° 06’ E) and NW Yunnan(Gongshan County, 26° 30’ N, 98° 50’ E), NE India(Sikkim), Bhutanand N Myanmar(Dchpu L’kha; Adung-Seingku valleys). It is likely on geographic grounds that it occurs in Arunachal Pradesh, NE India, and thatthis speciesis the one that has been found at over 4000 min the Khumbu region of Mt Everest and Tserping, in NW Nepal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 73-80 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Skull length 13-5—-14-5 cm. Blackish-brown all over, much darker than any other species, with no neck or throat markings, but very occasionally traces of yellowish spotting on body. The neck may be paler than the body; the throat has no longitudinal lines running down it, but often has two incomplete yellow collars. Underside is dark like the upper side. Rump with ochery tones, but buttocks black. Juvenile is agouti-banded, but the adult hairs are solid-colored except for very short white bases. Hair is long, 32-46 mm on withers, 51-63 mm on rump. Muzzle is short, less than half the length of the skull, but the lacrimal is longer than it is high. Limbs are more elongated than in M. berezouskii, despite the smaller skull. Metacarpal 88-101 mm, metatarsal 126-135 mm, so the hindlimb is even more elongated than in M. berezouskii; the metatarsal length is 152% of the metacarpal, and 96% of skull length, the metacarpal 63% of skull length. The hooves are elongated: 27-29 mm in one specimen (maximum in other speciesis 24 mm). Khumbu region specimens have a slightly paler underside and interramal region than those from Chinaand Myanmar.Habitat.This speciesis said to live in shady coniferous forest at 2200-4600 m above sea level, extending into the alpine zone.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly grasses, mosses, and tender shoots of a variety of plants, but no details are available.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information available.Status and Conservation.This species is listed on CITES Appendix I in most countries in its range, and on Appendix II in China. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is on the ChinaKey List as category II and the ChinaRed List as Endangered. This species has gained some protection in Myanmarthrough the creation of Khakaborazi National Park, but poaching remains a problem in many areas.Bibliography.Groves et al. (1995), Li Zhixiang (1981)." 03C6E250FFBEF058FFCCFDAD1BF5F7A7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,347,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF058FFCCFDAD1BF5F7A7.xml,Moschus cupreus,Moschus,cupreus,Grubb,1982,Porte-musc du Cachemire @fr | Kaschmir-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero de Cachemira @es,"Moschus cupreus Grubb, 1982,Kashmir.Initially considered to be a subspecies of the Alpine Musk-deer M. chrysogaster. Monotypic.",Afghanistan(Nuristan Province) and Kashmir (NE Pakistanand NW India).,"Head—body 85-100 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 12-17 kg. Skull length is 15-15. 5 cm. Gray brown, often vaguely spotted, with a conspicuous coppery reddish unspeckled dorsal “saddle”; rump very dark gray; underside light gray; throat white; lower segments of limbs whitish. Ears dark brown, white at base, with frosted rims. Hairs with long white bases; 33-38 mm long on withers, 37-58 mm on rump. As in Himalayan and Alpine Musk-deer, the lachrymal is longer than it is high.","Musk-deer of what is probably this species live in conifer and oak forests at 1500-3000 m in Nuristan, Afghanistan. In Pakistan, they are known from subalpine shrub between 3000 mand 4000 min Gilgit-Baltistan; in Dachigam National Park and elsewhere in Kashmir, it lives between 2710 mand 3110 m, and in Pir Panjal Range somewhat lower, between 2530 mand 2650 m.","Nothing is known about the way oflife ofthis species, but it is not likely to differ greatly from that of M. leucogasterand relatives.",Nothing known.,"No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to stay in more dense cover during the day, and use more open areas at night when they are more active.","Nothing known, but probably similar to M. leucogaster.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Conservation measures are uncertain for this species given its limited range. The value of the musk suggests that conservation will require effective anti-poaching activity. It may occur in some protected areas in Indiaand Pakistan. The Government of Afghanistanhas listed M. cupreuson their Protected Species List, banning all hunting and trading ofthis species in that country.",Groves et al. (1995) | Grubb (1982),https://zenodo.org/record/5720531/files/figure.png,"4.Kashmir Musk-deerMoschus cupreusFrench:Porte-musc du Cachemire/ German:Kaschmir-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero de CachemiraTaxonomy.Moschus cupreus Grubb, 1982,Kashmir.Initially considered to be a subspecies of the Alpine Musk-deer M. chrysogaster. Monotypic.Distribution.Afghanistan(Nuristan Province) and Kashmir (NE Pakistanand NW India).Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-100 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 12-17 kg. Skull length is 15-15. 5 cm. Gray brown, often vaguely spotted, with a conspicuous coppery reddish unspeckled dorsal “saddle”; rump very dark gray; underside light gray; throat white; lower segments of limbs whitish. Ears dark brown, white at base, with frosted rims. Hairs with long white bases; 33-38 mm long on withers, 37-58 mm on rump. As in Himalayan and Alpine Musk-deer, the lachrymal is longer than it is high.Habitat.Musk-deer of what is probably this species live in conifer and oak forests at 1500-3000 m in Nuristan, Afghanistan. In Pakistan, they are known from subalpine shrub between 3000 mand 4000 min Gilgit-Baltistan; in Dachigam National Park and elsewhere in Kashmir, it lives between 2710 mand 3110 m, and in Pir Panjal Range somewhat lower, between 2530 mand 2650 m.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known about the way oflife ofthis species, but it is not likely to differ greatly from that of M. leucogasterand relatives.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to stay in more dense cover during the day, and use more open areas at night when they are more active.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known, but probably similar to M. leucogaster.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Conservation measures are uncertain for this species given its limited range. The value of the musk suggests that conservation will require effective anti-poaching activity. It may occur in some protected areas in Indiaand Pakistan. The Government of Afghanistanhas listed M. cupreuson their Protected Species List, banning all hunting and trading ofthis species in that country.Bibliography.Groves et al. (1995), Grubb (1982)." -03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,347,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66.xml,Moschus berezovskii,Moschus,berezovskii,Flerov,1929,Porte-musc de forét @fr | China-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero de bosque @es,"Moschus berezovskii Flerov, 1929,Ho-tzi-how Pass, near Lungan, Sichuan.Flerov, when he described this species, regarded it as an enigmatic species of apparently restricted distribution in the alpine zone of Sichuan. It was not until the 1960s that it was shown that this is not in fact an alpine zone species at all, but is a forest animal, widespread in the forested areas of south-eastern China. Four subspecies recognized.","M.b.berezovskiiFlerov,1929—SNingxia,SGansu,SEQuinghai,SShaanxi,WHenan,Sichuan,andSXizang;between500and2500m.M.b.bijiangensisWang&Li,1993—NWYunnantoSEXizang(ZayuCounty).M. b. caobangis Dao, 1969— S Yunnan (Mile County & Nujiang Langcang), Guangxi, Guangdong, and N Vietnam(Cao Bang Province); between 50 mand 400 m. Presence uncertain in N Laos.M. b. yunguiensis Wang & Ma, 1993— from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau margins NE to W Hubei(Yichang).","Head-body 70-80 cm, tail 3-4 cm, height at shoulder less than 50 cm; weight 6-9 kg. Skull length is 14-15 cm in the nominotypical subspecies, but only 13.2-14. 5 cmin subspecies bijiangensis and yunguiensis, and only 12:5-13-5 mm in caobangis, the smallest of all musk-deer. Hair bases are short, gray-white; the throat has three wide longitudinal stripes, white to orange in color, the lateral pair running from the jaw angles to the brisket. The central stripe is shorter, and all three may sometimes be broken. The haunch is yellower, but the rump is nearly black; the limbs are dark down the front surface. The underside is yellow. The ears are orange at the base, black at the tip, and white inside. The hair is 73-87 mm long on the withers, 45-68 mm on the rump, varying according to season. The facial skeleton is relatively short; the lachrymalis shorter than itis high. The limbs are relatively short: metacarpal length 73-89 mm, metatarsal 103-120 mm. The metatarsal is 135-139% of the metacarpal, so the hindlimb is relatively longer than in most other taxa. The metapodials are relatively short (the metatarsal only 80-81% of the skull length, the metacarpal only 59%) and robust, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal being more than 18% ofits length, of the metatarsal more than 15-5%. M. b. caobangis is very pale in color, limbs dark only from knee and hocks downward, but buttocks and ear tips are black. Hair shorter, 21-30 mm on withers, 38-47 mm on rump. M. b. byiangensis 1s paler than nominotypical M. b. berezouskii, fulvous-brown, with a grayish-white ventral surface; toothrow averaging slightly shorter. M. b. yunguiensis is somewhat smaller than nominotypical M. b. berezouski.","Lives predominantly in forests with mixed coniferous and broadleaved trees, usually below 3500 m, and often almost at sea level. In pure broadleafforest its population density is lower, and in shrub lowerstill; it goes into bamboo forest, but does not go into grassy areas or the “dwarf bush zone.” It is always found on relatively steep slopes, and does not like slopes under 10°. On northern slopes,it is found in forests between 1700 mand 2100 m, whereas on south-facing slopes,its highest density is in woodlands between 2100 mand 2450 m.","They feed on twigs, shoots, lichens, moss, grasses, and leaves. Their leaping ability allows them to forage on the lower branches oftrees.","Dominant females (dominance is calculated by the frequency of one animal supplanting others) give birth from April 25 to May 25, low-ranking femaleslater, from May 15 to June 25. Birthweight is less than in other musk-deer, ranging from 350-558 g. Twinning is extremely high: 137 twin litters and 59 singletons are recorded. Juvenile mortality is high, about 50%, up to age two, but this differs according to the dominance rank of the mother. The survival rate of the offspring of dominant females is 100%; of females of the second rank, 56%; of the third rank, 43%; and of the fourth rank, 25%. In general, 30% of musk-deer survive to age 6, 20% to age 10%, just 10% to age 15.","They are most active between dusk and dawn, but alternately rest and feed.","The social organization, territoriality, etc., of this species are poorly known. The juvenile sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but after that males predominate until old age. The sex ratio in young adults (2-5-9 years) is 1-77:1, and in older adults (9-14-5 years) 2-8:1, whereas in aged individuals (14-5-20 years)itis 1:2. Young adults, at about 6-8 years of age, are the prime breeders. The mean generation length is 6-5-10 years.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. By the early 1990s a decline from earlier levels was noticeable, and there had almost certainly been local extinctions; it remains relatively numerous only in western Sichuanand north-west Yunnan. Population sizes are very difficult to even estimate in musk-deer, but Prof Sheng Helin, from a lifetime’s experience, suggested that in 1992 there would be about 200,000 inthe whole of China, split of course among at least five species, and it is evident that the population continues to decline. In Vietnam, Do Tuoc estimated the population to have been some 200 inthe late 1990s, but here too there has been a decline.","Guo Jian et al. (2001) | Hu Zhongjun et al. (2007) | Wang Yingxiang & Harris (2008) | Wang Yingxlang et al. (1993) | Wong Yu et al. (2006) | Xu Zhenggiang & Xu Hongfa (2002) | Yang Qisen, Hu Jinchu & Peng Jitai (1990) | Yang Qisen, Meng Xiuxiang et al. (2003)",,"7.Forest Musk-deerMoschus berezovskiiFrench:Porte-musc de forét/ German:China-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero de bosqueTaxonomy.Moschus berezovskii Flerov, 1929,Ho-tzi-how Pass, near Lungan, Sichuan.Flerov, when he described this species, regarded it as an enigmatic species of apparently restricted distribution in the alpine zone of Sichuan. It was not until the 1960s that it was shown that this is not in fact an alpine zone species at all, but is a forest animal, widespread in the forested areas of south-eastern China. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.b.berezovskiiFlerov,1929—SNingxia,SGansu,SEQuinghai,SShaanxi,WHenan,Sichuan,andSXizang;between500and2500m.M.b.bijiangensisWang&Li,1993—NWYunnantoSEXizang(ZayuCounty).M. b. caobangis Dao, 1969— S Yunnan (Mile County & Nujiang Langcang), Guangxi, Guangdong, and N Vietnam(Cao Bang Province); between 50 mand 400 m. Presence uncertain in N Laos.M. b. yunguiensis Wang & Ma, 1993— from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau margins NE to W Hubei(Yichang).Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-80 cm, tail 3-4 cm, height at shoulder less than 50 cm; weight 6-9 kg. Skull length is 14-15 cm in the nominotypical subspecies, but only 13.2-14. 5 cmin subspecies bijiangensis and yunguiensis, and only 12:5-13-5 mm in caobangis, the smallest of all musk-deer. Hair bases are short, gray-white; the throat has three wide longitudinal stripes, white to orange in color, the lateral pair running from the jaw angles to the brisket. The central stripe is shorter, and all three may sometimes be broken. The haunch is yellower, but the rump is nearly black; the limbs are dark down the front surface. The underside is yellow. The ears are orange at the base, black at the tip, and white inside. The hair is 73-87 mm long on the withers, 45-68 mm on the rump, varying according to season. The facial skeleton is relatively short; the lachrymalis shorter than itis high. The limbs are relatively short: metacarpal length 73-89 mm, metatarsal 103-120 mm. The metatarsal is 135-139% of the metacarpal, so the hindlimb is relatively longer than in most other taxa. The metapodials are relatively short (the metatarsal only 80-81% of the skull length, the metacarpal only 59%) and robust, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal being more than 18% ofits length, of the metatarsal more than 15-5%. M. b. caobangis is very pale in color, limbs dark only from knee and hocks downward, but buttocks and ear tips are black. Hair shorter, 21-30 mm on withers, 38-47 mm on rump. M. b. byiangensis 1s paler than nominotypical M. b. berezouskii, fulvous-brown, with a grayish-white ventral surface; toothrow averaging slightly shorter. M. b. yunguiensis is somewhat smaller than nominotypical M. b. berezouski.Habitat.Lives predominantly in forests with mixed coniferous and broadleaved trees, usually below 3500 m, and often almost at sea level. In pure broadleafforest its population density is lower, and in shrub lowerstill; it goes into bamboo forest, but does not go into grassy areas or the “dwarf bush zone.” It is always found on relatively steep slopes, and does not like slopes under 10°. On northern slopes,it is found in forests between 1700 mand 2100 m, whereas on south-facing slopes,its highest density is in woodlands between 2100 mand 2450 m.Food and Feeding.They feed on twigs, shoots, lichens, moss, grasses, and leaves. Their leaping ability allows them to forage on the lower branches oftrees.Breeding.Dominant females (dominance is calculated by the frequency of one animal supplanting others) give birth from April 25 to May 25, low-ranking femaleslater, from May 15 to June 25. Birthweight is less than in other musk-deer, ranging from 350-558 g. Twinning is extremely high: 137 twin litters and 59 singletons are recorded. Juvenile mortality is high, about 50%, up to age two, but this differs according to the dominance rank of the mother. The survival rate of the offspring of dominant females is 100%; of females of the second rank, 56%; of the third rank, 43%; and of the fourth rank, 25%. In general, 30% of musk-deer survive to age 6, 20% to age 10%, just 10% to age 15.Activity patterns.They are most active between dusk and dawn, but alternately rest and feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization, territoriality, etc., of this species are poorly known. The juvenile sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but after that males predominate until old age. The sex ratio in young adults (2-5-9 years) is 1-77:1, and in older adults (9-14-5 years) 2-8:1, whereas in aged individuals (14-5-20 years)itis 1:2. Young adults, at about 6-8 years of age, are the prime breeders. The mean generation length is 6-5-10 years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. By the early 1990s a decline from earlier levels was noticeable, and there had almost certainly been local extinctions; it remains relatively numerous only in western Sichuanand north-west Yunnan. Population sizes are very difficult to even estimate in musk-deer, but Prof Sheng Helin, from a lifetime’s experience, suggested that in 1992 there would be about 200,000 inthe whole of China, split of course among at least five species, and it is evident that the population continues to decline. In Vietnam, Do Tuoc estimated the population to have been some 200 inthe late 1990s, but here too there has been a decline.Bibliography.Guo Jian et al. (2001), Hu Zhongjun et al. (2007), Wang Yingxiang & Harris (2008), Wang Yingxlang et al. (1993), Wong Yu et al. (2006), Xu Zhenggiang & Xu Hongfa (2002), Yang Qisen, Hu Jinchu & Peng Jitai (1990), Yang Qisen, Meng Xiuxiang et al. (2003)," -03C90D76FFF8FF98F13CAE6EF88A781C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Aplodontiidae_0642.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff0750efff9ff99f15fa822fff9741c,647,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/0D/03C90D76FFF8FF98F13CAE6EF88A781C.xml,Aplodontia rufa,Aplodontia,rufa,,,Aplodonte @fr | Stummelschwanzhérnchen @de | Castor de montana @es | Boomer @en | Sewellel; Point Arena Mountain Beaver (nigra) @en | Point Reyes Mountain Beaver (phaea) @en,"Anisonyx? rufa Rafinesque, 1817, “neighborhood of the Columbiariver,” Pacific Northwest, North America.The boundaries of the subspecies were recently revised in a study of the population genetics within the species. In 2013 A. J. Piaggio and colleagues determined that the formerly recognized subspecies rainiert was nested within rufa, but that rufanorth of the Columbia River represents a distinct population from those to the south, resulting in the resurrection of the subspecies olympica. This study also revised the geographic boundaries for the subspecies pacifica. Seven subspecies recognized.","A.r.rufaRafinesque,1817—NWUSA,fromNOregon(justSofColumbiaRiver)tocoastalSOregonandNCalifornia.A.r.californicaPeters,1865—SierraNevadaMtsinECaliforniaandextremeWNevada.A.r.humboldtianaTaylor,1916—HumboldtCounty,coastalNWCalifornia.A.r.nigraTaylor,1914—PointA.r.,MendocinoCounty,coastalNCalifornia.A.r.olympicaMerriam,1899—SWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(WWashington),fromtheFraserRiverStotheColumbiaRiver.A.r.pacificaMerriam,1899—NWcoastofOregonfromthemouthoftheColumbiaRiverStoNewport.A. r. phaea Merriam, 1899— Point Reyes, Marin County, coastal N California.","Head-body 230-430 mm, tail 20-55 mm, ear 13-30 mm, hindfoot 48-63 mm; weight 0.6-1.4 kg. Female Mountain Beavers are ¢.8-10% smaller than males. Pelage is uniformly dark brown, with long guard hairs and short underfur. The Mountain Beaver has a thick, heavily built body with short limbs, long claws (especially on the manus), and small eyes and ears. Head is broad and flat with wide, robust incisors and ever-growing cheekteeth. There are five digits on manus and pes.","Moist temperate forests and forest openings, especially in secondary growth where undergrowth is tangled and thick. Mountain Beavers are found more frequently in deciduous than coniferous forests. The Mountain Beaver generally constructs its burrow close to water sources, often allowing it to flood parts of the tunnel system.","The Mountain Beaveris primarily folivorous. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and sword fern (Polystichum munitum) are staples of their diet yearround, but they also eat leaves, bark, and twigs of a variety of other plants as available, apparently specializing in plants toxic to other herbivores. When other food sources are scarce in winter, conifer stems and needles are important sources of food, despite their poor food quality. The Mountain Beaver will pull entire plants underground for consumption, but it will also climb a few metersinto trees to collect and eat stems and leaves. In autumn, hay piles are constructed outside burrow entrances that are used for nesting material and food. The Mountain Beaver also requires abundant water because its inability to concentrate urine limits dehydration tolerance.","Mountain Beavers breed once a year, in winter, with estrus generally synchronized among females in a population. Young are born in early spring in litters of 2-4 offspring; they are weaned after 6-8 weeks and emerge aboveground soon after weaning. It takes c.2 years to reach adulthood. Life span is estimated at 5-6 years.","The Mountain Beaver, like many fossorial animals, is cathemeral, being active for several bouts of foraging in a 24hour period;it seems to be most active at night. It does not hibernate, although it is rarely active aboveground in winter.","Mountain Beavers have small home ranges, with males’ home ranges averaging 0-32 ha and females’ averaging only 0-17 ha. Individuals rarely range far from burrow entrances and spend the majority of their time underground. Even when juveniles disperse from their nests, distance traveled is less than 1 km. The Mountain Beaver is solitary and does not seem to have any social organization.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. At the species level, the Mountain Beaver is oflittle conservation concern; populations on the Pacific Northwest coast and in the Sierra Nevada are quite healthy. The “Point Reyes Mountain Beaver” (phaeassp.) is considered vulnerable by the State of California, given its small distribution and surrounding human development; this vulnerability was challenged in 1995 when a wildfire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned an area of Mountain Beaver habitat. Mortality of Mountain Beavers in the burned area was ¢.99%, and recovery will take an estimated 15-20 years. The “Point Arena Mountain Beaver” (nigrassp.) is listed under the US Endangered Species Act as endangered because habitat loss in the small area it inhabits around Point Arena has led to small population sizes.","Camp (1918) | Carraway & Verts (1993) | Cox & Faulkes (2014) | Dice (1932) | Druzinsky (2010) | Fellers et al. (2004) | Furlong (1906) | Hooven (1977) | Hopkins (2005, 2008) | Hubbard (1922) | Ingles (1965) | Johnson (1970) | Lovejoy & Black (1974) | Lovejoy et al. (1978) | Martin (1971) | Maser et al. (1981) | Merzenich et al. (1973) | Nolte et al. (1993) | Nowak (1999a) | O'Brien (1988) | Piaggio et al. (2013) | Rafinesque (1817) | Richardson (1829b) | Scheffer, TH. (1929) | Scheffer, V.B. (1942) | Schmidt-Nielsen & Pfeiffer (1970) | Servheen (1978) | Seton (1929) | Sinclair (1904) | Voth (1968) | Zielinski et al. (2013)",,"Mountain BeaverAplodontia rufaFrench:Aplodonte/ German:Stummelschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Castor de montanaOther common names:Boomer, Sewellel; Point Arena Mountain Beaver (nigra), Point Reyes Mountain Beaver (phaea)Taxonomy.Anisonyx? rufa Rafinesque, 1817, “neighborhood of the Columbiariver,” Pacific Northwest, North America.The boundaries of the subspecies were recently revised in a study of the population genetics within the species. In 2013 A. J. Piaggio and colleagues determined that the formerly recognized subspecies rainiert was nested within rufa, but that rufanorth of the Columbia River represents a distinct population from those to the south, resulting in the resurrection of the subspecies olympica. This study also revised the geographic boundaries for the subspecies pacifica. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.r.rufaRafinesque,1817—NWUSA,fromNOregon(justSofColumbiaRiver)tocoastalSOregonandNCalifornia.A.r.californicaPeters,1865—SierraNevadaMtsinECaliforniaandextremeWNevada.A.r.humboldtianaTaylor,1916—HumboldtCounty,coastalNWCalifornia.A.r.nigraTaylor,1914—PointA.r.,MendocinoCounty,coastalNCalifornia.A.r.olympicaMerriam,1899—SWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(WWashington),fromtheFraserRiverStotheColumbiaRiver.A.r.pacificaMerriam,1899—NWcoastofOregonfromthemouthoftheColumbiaRiverStoNewport.A. r. phaea Merriam, 1899— Point Reyes, Marin County, coastal N California.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-430 mm, tail 20-55 mm, ear 13-30 mm, hindfoot 48-63 mm; weight 0.6-1.4 kg. Female Mountain Beavers are ¢.8-10% smaller than males. Pelage is uniformly dark brown, with long guard hairs and short underfur. The Mountain Beaver has a thick, heavily built body with short limbs, long claws (especially on the manus), and small eyes and ears. Head is broad and flat with wide, robust incisors and ever-growing cheekteeth. There are five digits on manus and pes.Habitat.Moist temperate forests and forest openings, especially in secondary growth where undergrowth is tangled and thick. Mountain Beavers are found more frequently in deciduous than coniferous forests. The Mountain Beaver generally constructs its burrow close to water sources, often allowing it to flood parts of the tunnel system.Food and Feeding.The Mountain Beaveris primarily folivorous. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and sword fern (Polystichum munitum) are staples of their diet yearround, but they also eat leaves, bark, and twigs of a variety of other plants as available, apparently specializing in plants toxic to other herbivores. When other food sources are scarce in winter, conifer stems and needles are important sources of food, despite their poor food quality. The Mountain Beaver will pull entire plants underground for consumption, but it will also climb a few metersinto trees to collect and eat stems and leaves. In autumn, hay piles are constructed outside burrow entrances that are used for nesting material and food. The Mountain Beaver also requires abundant water because its inability to concentrate urine limits dehydration tolerance.Breeding.Mountain Beavers breed once a year, in winter, with estrus generally synchronized among females in a population. Young are born in early spring in litters of 2-4 offspring; they are weaned after 6-8 weeks and emerge aboveground soon after weaning. It takes c.2 years to reach adulthood. Life span is estimated at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.The Mountain Beaver, like many fossorial animals, is cathemeral, being active for several bouts of foraging in a 24hour period;it seems to be most active at night. It does not hibernate, although it is rarely active aboveground in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Beavers have small home ranges, with males’ home ranges averaging 0-32 ha and females’ averaging only 0-17 ha. Individuals rarely range far from burrow entrances and spend the majority of their time underground. Even when juveniles disperse from their nests, distance traveled is less than 1 km. The Mountain Beaver is solitary and does not seem to have any social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. At the species level, the Mountain Beaver is oflittle conservation concern; populations on the Pacific Northwest coast and in the Sierra Nevada are quite healthy. The “Point Reyes Mountain Beaver” (phaeassp.) is considered vulnerable by the State of California, given its small distribution and surrounding human development; this vulnerability was challenged in 1995 when a wildfire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned an area of Mountain Beaver habitat. Mortality of Mountain Beavers in the burned area was ¢.99%, and recovery will take an estimated 15-20 years. The “Point Arena Mountain Beaver” (nigrassp.) is listed under the US Endangered Species Act as endangered because habitat loss in the small area it inhabits around Point Arena has led to small population sizes.Bibliography.Camp (1918), Carraway & Verts (1993), Cox & Faulkes (2014), Dice (1932), Druzinsky (2010), Fellers et al. (2004), Furlong (1906), Hooven (1977), Hopkins (2005, 2008), Hubbard (1922), Ingles (1965), Johnson (1970), Lovejoy & Black (1974), Lovejoy et al. (1978), Martin (1971), Maser et al. (1981), Merzenich et al. (1973), Nolte et al. (1993), Nowak (1999a), O'Brien (1988), Piaggio et al. (2013), Rafinesque (1817), Richardson (1829b), Scheffer, TH. (1929), Scheffer, V.B. (1942), Schmidt-Nielsen & Pfeiffer (1970), Servheen (1978), Seton (1929), Sinclair (1904), Voth (1968), Zielinski et al. (2013)." +03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-77-4,hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9,347,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66.xml,Moschus berezovskii,Moschus,berezovskii,Flerov,1929,Porte-musc de forét @fr | China-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero de bosque @es,"Moschus berezovskii Flerov, 1929,Ho-tzi-how Pass, near Lungan, Sichuan.Flerov, when he described this species, regarded it as an enigmatic species of apparently restricted distribution in the alpine zone of Sichuan. It was not until the 1960s that it was shown that this is not in fact an alpine zone species at all, but is a forest animal, widespread in the forested areas of south-eastern China. Four subspecies recognized.","M.b.berezovskiiFlerov,1929—SNingxia,SGansu,SEQuinghai,SShaanxi,WHenan,Sichuan,andSXizang;between500and2500m.M.b.bijiangensisWang&Li,1993—NWYunnantoSEXizang(ZayuCounty).M. b. caobangis Dao, 1969— S Yunnan (Mile County & Nujiang Langcang), Guangxi, Guangdong, and N Vietnam(Cao Bang Province); between 50 mand 400 m. Presence uncertain in N Laos.M. b. yunguiensis Wang & Ma, 1993— from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau margins NE to W Hubei(Yichang).","Head-body 70-80 cm, tail 3-4 cm, height at shoulder less than 50 cm; weight 6-9 kg. Skull length is 14-15 cm in the nominotypical subspecies, but only 13.2-14. 5 cmin subspecies bijiangensis and yunguiensis, and only 12:5-13-5 mm in caobangis, the smallest of all musk-deer. Hair bases are short, gray-white; the throat has three wide longitudinal stripes, white to orange in color, the lateral pair running from the jaw angles to the brisket. The central stripe is shorter, and all three may sometimes be broken. The haunch is yellower, but the rump is nearly black; the limbs are dark down the front surface. The underside is yellow. The ears are orange at the base, black at the tip, and white inside. The hair is 73-87 mm long on the withers, 45-68 mm on the rump, varying according to season. The facial skeleton is relatively short; the lachrymalis shorter than itis high. The limbs are relatively short: metacarpal length 73-89 mm, metatarsal 103-120 mm. The metatarsal is 135-139% of the metacarpal, so the hindlimb is relatively longer than in most other taxa. The metapodials are relatively short (the metatarsal only 80-81% of the skull length, the metacarpal only 59%) and robust, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal being more than 18% ofits length, of the metatarsal more than 15-5%. M. b. caobangis is very pale in color, limbs dark only from knee and hocks downward, but buttocks and ear tips are black. Hair shorter, 21-30 mm on withers, 38-47 mm on rump. M. b. byiangensis 1s paler than nominotypical M. b. berezouskii, fulvous-brown, with a grayish-white ventral surface; toothrow averaging slightly shorter. M. b. yunguiensis is somewhat smaller than nominotypical M. b. berezouski.","Lives predominantly in forests with mixed coniferous and broadleaved trees, usually below 3500 m, and often almost at sea level. In pure broadleafforest its population density is lower, and in shrub lowerstill; it goes into bamboo forest, but does not go into grassy areas or the “dwarf bush zone.” It is always found on relatively steep slopes, and does not like slopes under 10°. On northern slopes,it is found in forests between 1700 mand 2100 m, whereas on south-facing slopes,its highest density is in woodlands between 2100 mand 2450 m.","They feed on twigs, shoots, lichens, moss, grasses, and leaves. Their leaping ability allows them to forage on the lower branches oftrees.","Dominant females (dominance is calculated by the frequency of one animal supplanting others) give birth from April 25 to May 25, low-ranking femaleslater, from May 15 to June 25. Birthweight is less than in other musk-deer, ranging from 350-558 g. Twinning is extremely high: 137 twin litters and 59 singletons are recorded. Juvenile mortality is high, about 50%, up to age two, but this differs according to the dominance rank of the mother. The survival rate of the offspring of dominant females is 100%; of females of the second rank, 56%; of the third rank, 43%; and of the fourth rank, 25%. In general, 30% of musk-deer survive to age 6, 20% to age 10%, just 10% to age 15.","They are most active between dusk and dawn, but alternately rest and feed.","The social organization, territoriality, etc., of this species are poorly known. The juvenile sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but after that males predominate until old age. The sex ratio in young adults (2-5-9 years) is 1-77:1, and in older adults (9-14-5 years) 2-8:1, whereas in aged individuals (14-5-20 years)itis 1:2. Young adults, at about 6-8 years of age, are the prime breeders. The mean generation length is 6-5-10 years.","CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. By the early 1990s a decline from earlier levels was noticeable, and there had almost certainly been local extinctions; it remains relatively numerous only in western Sichuanand north-west Yunnan. Population sizes are very difficult to even estimate in musk-deer, but Prof Sheng Helin, from a lifetime’s experience, suggested that in 1992 there would be about 200,000 inthe whole of China, split of course among at least five species, and it is evident that the population continues to decline. In Vietnam, Do Tuoc estimated the population to have been some 200 inthe late 1990s, but here too there has been a decline.","Guo Jian et al. (2001) | Hu Zhongjun et al. (2007) | Wang Yingxiang & Harris (2008) | Wang Yingxlang et al. (1993) | Wong Yu et al. (2006) | Xu Zhenggiang & Xu Hongfa (2002) | Yang Qisen, Hu Jinchu & Peng Jitai (1990) | Yang Qisen, Meng Xiuxiang et al. (2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/5720543/files/figure.png,"7.Forest Musk-deerMoschus berezovskiiFrench:Porte-musc de forét/ German:China-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero de bosqueTaxonomy.Moschus berezovskii Flerov, 1929,Ho-tzi-how Pass, near Lungan, Sichuan.Flerov, when he described this species, regarded it as an enigmatic species of apparently restricted distribution in the alpine zone of Sichuan. It was not until the 1960s that it was shown that this is not in fact an alpine zone species at all, but is a forest animal, widespread in the forested areas of south-eastern China. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.b.berezovskiiFlerov,1929—SNingxia,SGansu,SEQuinghai,SShaanxi,WHenan,Sichuan,andSXizang;between500and2500m.M.b.bijiangensisWang&Li,1993—NWYunnantoSEXizang(ZayuCounty).M. b. caobangis Dao, 1969— S Yunnan (Mile County & Nujiang Langcang), Guangxi, Guangdong, and N Vietnam(Cao Bang Province); between 50 mand 400 m. Presence uncertain in N Laos.M. b. yunguiensis Wang & Ma, 1993— from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau margins NE to W Hubei(Yichang).Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-80 cm, tail 3-4 cm, height at shoulder less than 50 cm; weight 6-9 kg. Skull length is 14-15 cm in the nominotypical subspecies, but only 13.2-14. 5 cmin subspecies bijiangensis and yunguiensis, and only 12:5-13-5 mm in caobangis, the smallest of all musk-deer. Hair bases are short, gray-white; the throat has three wide longitudinal stripes, white to orange in color, the lateral pair running from the jaw angles to the brisket. The central stripe is shorter, and all three may sometimes be broken. The haunch is yellower, but the rump is nearly black; the limbs are dark down the front surface. The underside is yellow. The ears are orange at the base, black at the tip, and white inside. The hair is 73-87 mm long on the withers, 45-68 mm on the rump, varying according to season. The facial skeleton is relatively short; the lachrymalis shorter than itis high. The limbs are relatively short: metacarpal length 73-89 mm, metatarsal 103-120 mm. The metatarsal is 135-139% of the metacarpal, so the hindlimb is relatively longer than in most other taxa. The metapodials are relatively short (the metatarsal only 80-81% of the skull length, the metacarpal only 59%) and robust, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal being more than 18% ofits length, of the metatarsal more than 15-5%. M. b. caobangis is very pale in color, limbs dark only from knee and hocks downward, but buttocks and ear tips are black. Hair shorter, 21-30 mm on withers, 38-47 mm on rump. M. b. byiangensis 1s paler than nominotypical M. b. berezouskii, fulvous-brown, with a grayish-white ventral surface; toothrow averaging slightly shorter. M. b. yunguiensis is somewhat smaller than nominotypical M. b. berezouski.Habitat.Lives predominantly in forests with mixed coniferous and broadleaved trees, usually below 3500 m, and often almost at sea level. In pure broadleafforest its population density is lower, and in shrub lowerstill; it goes into bamboo forest, but does not go into grassy areas or the “dwarf bush zone.” It is always found on relatively steep slopes, and does not like slopes under 10°. On northern slopes,it is found in forests between 1700 mand 2100 m, whereas on south-facing slopes,its highest density is in woodlands between 2100 mand 2450 m.Food and Feeding.They feed on twigs, shoots, lichens, moss, grasses, and leaves. Their leaping ability allows them to forage on the lower branches oftrees.Breeding.Dominant females (dominance is calculated by the frequency of one animal supplanting others) give birth from April 25 to May 25, low-ranking femaleslater, from May 15 to June 25. Birthweight is less than in other musk-deer, ranging from 350-558 g. Twinning is extremely high: 137 twin litters and 59 singletons are recorded. Juvenile mortality is high, about 50%, up to age two, but this differs according to the dominance rank of the mother. The survival rate of the offspring of dominant females is 100%; of females of the second rank, 56%; of the third rank, 43%; and of the fourth rank, 25%. In general, 30% of musk-deer survive to age 6, 20% to age 10%, just 10% to age 15.Activity patterns.They are most active between dusk and dawn, but alternately rest and feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization, territoriality, etc., of this species are poorly known. The juvenile sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but after that males predominate until old age. The sex ratio in young adults (2-5-9 years) is 1-77:1, and in older adults (9-14-5 years) 2-8:1, whereas in aged individuals (14-5-20 years)itis 1:2. Young adults, at about 6-8 years of age, are the prime breeders. The mean generation length is 6-5-10 years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. By the early 1990s a decline from earlier levels was noticeable, and there had almost certainly been local extinctions; it remains relatively numerous only in western Sichuanand north-west Yunnan. Population sizes are very difficult to even estimate in musk-deer, but Prof Sheng Helin, from a lifetime’s experience, suggested that in 1992 there would be about 200,000 inthe whole of China, split of course among at least five species, and it is evident that the population continues to decline. In Vietnam, Do Tuoc estimated the population to have been some 200 inthe late 1990s, but here too there has been a decline.Bibliography.Guo Jian et al. (2001), Hu Zhongjun et al. (2007), Wang Yingxiang & Harris (2008), Wang Yingxlang et al. (1993), Wong Yu et al. (2006), Xu Zhenggiang & Xu Hongfa (2002), Yang Qisen, Hu Jinchu & Peng Jitai (1990), Yang Qisen, Meng Xiuxiang et al. (2003)," +03C90D76FFF8FF98F13CAE6EF88A781C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Aplodontiidae_0642.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff0750efff9ff99f15fa822fff9741c,647,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/0D/03C90D76FFF8FF98F13CAE6EF88A781C.xml,Aplodontia rufa,Aplodontia,rufa,,,Aplodonte @fr | Stummelschwanzhérnchen @de | Castor de montana @es | Boomer @en | Sewellel; Point Arena Mountain Beaver (nigra) @en | Point Reyes Mountain Beaver (phaea) @en,"Anisonyx? rufa Rafinesque, 1817, “neighborhood of the Columbiariver,” Pacific Northwest, North America.The boundaries of the subspecies were recently revised in a study of the population genetics within the species. In 2013 A. J. Piaggio and colleagues determined that the formerly recognized subspecies rainiert was nested within rufa, but that rufanorth of the Columbia River represents a distinct population from those to the south, resulting in the resurrection of the subspecies olympica. This study also revised the geographic boundaries for the subspecies pacifica. Seven subspecies recognized.","A.r.rufaRafinesque,1817—NWUSA,fromNOregon(justSofColumbiaRiver)tocoastalSOregonandNCalifornia.A.r.californicaPeters,1865—SierraNevadaMtsinECaliforniaandextremeWNevada.A.r.humboldtianaTaylor,1916—HumboldtCounty,coastalNWCalifornia.A.r.nigraTaylor,1914—PointA.r.,MendocinoCounty,coastalNCalifornia.A.r.olympicaMerriam,1899—SWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(WWashington),fromtheFraserRiverStotheColumbiaRiver.A.r.pacificaMerriam,1899—NWcoastofOregonfromthemouthoftheColumbiaRiverStoNewport.A. r. phaea Merriam, 1899— Point Reyes, Marin County, coastal N California.","Head-body 230-430 mm, tail 20-55 mm, ear 13-30 mm, hindfoot 48-63 mm; weight 0.6-1.4 kg. Female Mountain Beavers are ¢.8-10% smaller than males. Pelage is uniformly dark brown, with long guard hairs and short underfur. The Mountain Beaver has a thick, heavily built body with short limbs, long claws (especially on the manus), and small eyes and ears. Head is broad and flat with wide, robust incisors and ever-growing cheekteeth. There are five digits on manus and pes.","Moist temperate forests and forest openings, especially in secondary growth where undergrowth is tangled and thick. Mountain Beavers are found more frequently in deciduous than coniferous forests. The Mountain Beaver generally constructs its burrow close to water sources, often allowing it to flood parts of the tunnel system.","The Mountain Beaveris primarily folivorous. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and sword fern (Polystichum munitum) are staples of their diet yearround, but they also eat leaves, bark, and twigs of a variety of other plants as available, apparently specializing in plants toxic to other herbivores. When other food sources are scarce in winter, conifer stems and needles are important sources of food, despite their poor food quality. The Mountain Beaver will pull entire plants underground for consumption, but it will also climb a few metersinto trees to collect and eat stems and leaves. In autumn, hay piles are constructed outside burrow entrances that are used for nesting material and food. The Mountain Beaver also requires abundant water because its inability to concentrate urine limits dehydration tolerance.","Mountain Beavers breed once a year, in winter, with estrus generally synchronized among females in a population. Young are born in early spring in litters of 2-4 offspring; they are weaned after 6-8 weeks and emerge aboveground soon after weaning. It takes c.2 years to reach adulthood. Life span is estimated at 5-6 years.","The Mountain Beaver, like many fossorial animals, is cathemeral, being active for several bouts of foraging in a 24hour period;it seems to be most active at night. It does not hibernate, although it is rarely active aboveground in winter.","Mountain Beavers have small home ranges, with males’ home ranges averaging 0-32 ha and females’ averaging only 0-17 ha. Individuals rarely range far from burrow entrances and spend the majority of their time underground. Even when juveniles disperse from their nests, distance traveled is less than 1 km. The Mountain Beaver is solitary and does not seem to have any social organization.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. At the species level, the Mountain Beaver is oflittle conservation concern; populations on the Pacific Northwest coast and in the Sierra Nevada are quite healthy. The “Point Reyes Mountain Beaver” (phaeassp.) is considered vulnerable by the State of California, given its small distribution and surrounding human development; this vulnerability was challenged in 1995 when a wildfire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned an area of Mountain Beaver habitat. Mortality of Mountain Beavers in the burned area was ¢.99%, and recovery will take an estimated 15-20 years. The “Point Arena Mountain Beaver” (nigrassp.) is listed under the US Endangered Species Act as endangered because habitat loss in the small area it inhabits around Point Arena has led to small population sizes.","Camp (1918) | Carraway & Verts (1993) | Cox & Faulkes (2014) | Dice (1932) | Druzinsky (2010) | Fellers et al. (2004) | Furlong (1906) | Hooven (1977) | Hopkins (2005, 2008) | Hubbard (1922) | Ingles (1965) | Johnson (1970) | Lovejoy & Black (1974) | Lovejoy et al. (1978) | Martin (1971) | Maser et al. (1981) | Merzenich et al. (1973) | Nolte et al. (1993) | Nowak (1999a) | O'Brien (1988) | Piaggio et al. (2013) | Rafinesque (1817) | Richardson (1829b) | Scheffer, TH. (1929) | Scheffer, V.B. (1942) | Schmidt-Nielsen & Pfeiffer (1970) | Servheen (1978) | Seton (1929) | Sinclair (1904) | Voth (1968) | Zielinski et al. (2013)",https://zenodo.org/record/6584475/files/figure.png,"Mountain BeaverAplodontia rufaFrench:Aplodonte/ German:Stummelschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Castor de montanaOther common names:Boomer, Sewellel; Point Arena Mountain Beaver (nigra), Point Reyes Mountain Beaver (phaea)Taxonomy.Anisonyx? rufa Rafinesque, 1817, “neighborhood of the Columbiariver,” Pacific Northwest, North America.The boundaries of the subspecies were recently revised in a study of the population genetics within the species. In 2013 A. J. Piaggio and colleagues determined that the formerly recognized subspecies rainiert was nested within rufa, but that rufanorth of the Columbia River represents a distinct population from those to the south, resulting in the resurrection of the subspecies olympica. This study also revised the geographic boundaries for the subspecies pacifica. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.r.rufaRafinesque,1817—NWUSA,fromNOregon(justSofColumbiaRiver)tocoastalSOregonandNCalifornia.A.r.californicaPeters,1865—SierraNevadaMtsinECaliforniaandextremeWNevada.A.r.humboldtianaTaylor,1916—HumboldtCounty,coastalNWCalifornia.A.r.nigraTaylor,1914—PointA.r.,MendocinoCounty,coastalNCalifornia.A.r.olympicaMerriam,1899—SWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(WWashington),fromtheFraserRiverStotheColumbiaRiver.A.r.pacificaMerriam,1899—NWcoastofOregonfromthemouthoftheColumbiaRiverStoNewport.A. r. phaea Merriam, 1899— Point Reyes, Marin County, coastal N California.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-430 mm, tail 20-55 mm, ear 13-30 mm, hindfoot 48-63 mm; weight 0.6-1.4 kg. Female Mountain Beavers are ¢.8-10% smaller than males. Pelage is uniformly dark brown, with long guard hairs and short underfur. The Mountain Beaver has a thick, heavily built body with short limbs, long claws (especially on the manus), and small eyes and ears. Head is broad and flat with wide, robust incisors and ever-growing cheekteeth. There are five digits on manus and pes.Habitat.Moist temperate forests and forest openings, especially in secondary growth where undergrowth is tangled and thick. Mountain Beavers are found more frequently in deciduous than coniferous forests. The Mountain Beaver generally constructs its burrow close to water sources, often allowing it to flood parts of the tunnel system.Food and Feeding.The Mountain Beaveris primarily folivorous. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and sword fern (Polystichum munitum) are staples of their diet yearround, but they also eat leaves, bark, and twigs of a variety of other plants as available, apparently specializing in plants toxic to other herbivores. When other food sources are scarce in winter, conifer stems and needles are important sources of food, despite their poor food quality. The Mountain Beaver will pull entire plants underground for consumption, but it will also climb a few metersinto trees to collect and eat stems and leaves. In autumn, hay piles are constructed outside burrow entrances that are used for nesting material and food. The Mountain Beaver also requires abundant water because its inability to concentrate urine limits dehydration tolerance.Breeding.Mountain Beavers breed once a year, in winter, with estrus generally synchronized among females in a population. Young are born in early spring in litters of 2-4 offspring; they are weaned after 6-8 weeks and emerge aboveground soon after weaning. It takes c.2 years to reach adulthood. Life span is estimated at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.The Mountain Beaver, like many fossorial animals, is cathemeral, being active for several bouts of foraging in a 24hour period;it seems to be most active at night. It does not hibernate, although it is rarely active aboveground in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Beavers have small home ranges, with males’ home ranges averaging 0-32 ha and females’ averaging only 0-17 ha. Individuals rarely range far from burrow entrances and spend the majority of their time underground. Even when juveniles disperse from their nests, distance traveled is less than 1 km. The Mountain Beaver is solitary and does not seem to have any social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. At the species level, the Mountain Beaver is oflittle conservation concern; populations on the Pacific Northwest coast and in the Sierra Nevada are quite healthy. The “Point Reyes Mountain Beaver” (phaeassp.) is considered vulnerable by the State of California, given its small distribution and surrounding human development; this vulnerability was challenged in 1995 when a wildfire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned an area of Mountain Beaver habitat. Mortality of Mountain Beavers in the burned area was ¢.99%, and recovery will take an estimated 15-20 years. The “Point Arena Mountain Beaver” (nigrassp.) is listed under the US Endangered Species Act as endangered because habitat loss in the small area it inhabits around Point Arena has led to small population sizes.Bibliography.Camp (1918), Carraway & Verts (1993), Cox & Faulkes (2014), Dice (1932), Druzinsky (2010), Fellers et al. (2004), Furlong (1906), Hooven (1977), Hopkins (2005, 2008), Hubbard (1922), Ingles (1965), Johnson (1970), Lovejoy & Black (1974), Lovejoy et al. (1978), Martin (1971), Maser et al. (1981), Merzenich et al. (1973), Nolte et al. (1993), Nowak (1999a), O'Brien (1988), Piaggio et al. (2013), Rafinesque (1817), Richardson (1829b), Scheffer, TH. (1929), Scheffer, V.B. (1942), Schmidt-Nielsen & Pfeiffer (1970), Servheen (1978), Seton (1929), Sinclair (1904), Voth (1968), Zielinski et al. (2013)." 03C90D76FFF9FF99F023AA36F80E710A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-941892-3-4,hbmw_6_Aplodontiidae_0642.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff0750efff9ff99f15fa822fff9741c,642,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/0D/03C90D76FFF9FF99F023AA36F80E710A.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family APLODONTIIDAE(MOUNTAIN BEAVER)• Fairly large-sized, burrowing rodent with short limbs and tail, small ears, ever-growing cheekteeth, protrogomorph jaw muscle attachments, and wide flat skull.• 25-50 cm.• Nearctic Region.• • Moist forested temperate habitats from sea level to tim• berline, particularly near streams in second growth, where undergrowth is thick and tangled.•] genus, 1 species, 7 taxa.•• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600." -03C91729FFD1FFB2FD68DC65F8391432,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,391,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD1FFB2FD68DC65F8391432.xml,Perameles bougainuille,Perameles,bougainville,Quoy & Gaimard,1824,Bandicoot de Bougainville @fr | Streifen-Langnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut listado occidental @es | Barred Bandicoot @en | Little Marl @en | Marl @en | Saddle-backed Bandicoot @en | Shark Bay Striped Bandicoot @en | West Australian Striped Bandicoot @en | Zebra Rat @en,"Perameles bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824,“la presqu’ile Péron [= Peron Peninsula], Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia.Extinct form known as the Desert Bandicoot (P. eremiana), previously considered a subspecies of present species, is now accorded separate species status. Two other subspecies described (myosurus and notina), but recent research does not support recognition of these. Race fasciatanamed by J. E. Gray in 1841 (S arid and semi-arid regions from Nullarbor, Western Australia, east to western New South Wales and north-western Victoria) now extinct. One extant subspecies recognized.","P. b. bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824— Bernier I and Dorre I, in Shark Bay, Western Australia.Nominate race reintroducedto Heirisson Prong and Faure I (Shark Bay) and to the Arid Recovery Project area in South Australia.","Head—body 17.3-22.6 cm, tail 8.1-10.6 cm; weight 165-300 g. Females, unusually for peramelids,slightly larger (9-3% heavier) than males. Measurements are for populations on Bernier and Dorre islands; mainland animals (now extinct) were larger. Dorsal fur is gray to fawn-gray, with alternating dark and pale bars running down flanks, while ventralfur, like feet, is white. Ears are long and held erect, and base of tail is sometimes thickened by fat storage. Although similar in appearance to recently extinct Desert Bandicoot, present species has more gray tones in the pelage, a shortertail, and less hairy feet than its desert-dwelling relative.","On Bernier and Dorre occupies coastal scrub, low heathland and hummockgrass formations, and may also be active on beaches above the strandline. On mainland, this species was found on sandy and stony soils in dense heathland, open shrubland, open woodland, thickets of Allocasuarina(Casuarinaceae), and dense forest vegetation in riparian areas. Nest constructed from grass or other locally sourced materials within deep depression that is dug under cover of dense shrubs; only one opening may be present, but flimsy construction of nest allows animals to burst through at any point if disturbed.","Insects, other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and occasionally small vertebrates are eaten, shifts between seasons probably reflecting changes in food availability. Like other peramelids,this species obtainsits food on orjust below the ground surface, digging conical holes to 20-25 cm to obtain buried prey.","Females on Bernier and Dorre carry young in wetter winter months between March and October, with breeding apparently initiated by first substantial rains in autumn. Litter size is 1-3 (average 1-8), larger females carrying largest litters. Females produce at least two litters per breeding season, the newly born young attaching to nipples that have not been recently used; eight nipples are present, arranged in a circular pattern. Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months, with maturity in males delayed by a further month. Recruitment after pouch life into adult population is low (0-16-7%), suggesting that post-weaning mortality rates are high. Reproductive events were probably similar in mainland populations of this bandicoot, although some accounts describelitters of 1-4 young being produced between May and August.","Animals rest by day in their nest and emerge at dusk to begin foraging. Activity continues until dawn in winter, but may cease several hours before daybreak in summer.","Recaptures of animals made during live-trapping studies on Bernier and Dorre islands show that movements over eleven days averaged 185 m for females and 226 m for males. Overnight movements of more than 1 km also have been recorded, but are exceptional. Home range areas appear to vary with population density: at low density home ranges average 14-2 ha for males and 6-2 ha for females, whereas at high density the respective averages are 2-5 ha and 1-4 ha. There is some evidence that home ranges of males overlap more than do those of females. It is not certain how animals maintain their home ranges but, as with most peramelids, individuals nest and forage separately, and fight vigorously if placed in confinement with each other. Longevity of more than four years has been recorded in island populations.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Mainland race fasciata, once widespread across S Australia, is extinct. Nominate bougainvilleis restricted to a small fraction ofits former range, which included Dirk Hartog and Faure islands, and extended widely through southern, central, and north-western arid areas of Western Australia. Current population probably fewer than 10,000 mature individuals: combined total of perhaps c.5000 on Bernier and Dorre islands, where considered abundant and numbers appear to be stable; reintroduced populations include minimum of 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, more than 20 on Faure, and c.40 in Arid Recovery. Declines were probably driven by several interacting processes, including loss and conversion of habitat for agricultural or pastoral usage, changed fire regimes, disease, competition with feral herbivores and, perhaps most importantly, predation by feral cats (Felis catus) and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Despite its gloomy status, the very few sites that now support this bandicoot are protected from predators (three sites in Western Australia are offshore islands; the site in South Australia is a predator-free reserve). All sites are regularly monitored and managed and, in consequence, numbers have increased. Plans are being made to remove the feral cat from several islands off the coast of Western Australia, and this would allow further translocations to take place. Present island populations are not necessarily problemfree. On Bernier, for example, an unknown virus has emerged that causes sometimes fatal carcinomas and papillomas, and genetic diversity is likely to be low. Nonetheless, increases in population size and recognition that this peramelid is not subject to extreme fluctuations in population size have led to recent proposals that the species be more correctly listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","Abbott (2006) | Ashby et al. (1990) | Burbidge et al. (1988) | Dickman, Pressey et al. (1993) | Finlayson (1961a) | Freedman (1967) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gray (1841) | Groves (2005c) | Kemper (1990) | Legge et al. (2012) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Moseby et al. (2011) | Richards (2012b) | Short, Richards & Turner (1998) | Short, Turner et al. (1997) | Smith & Hughes (2008) | Westerman & Krajewski (2000) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014i, 2014) | Woolford et al. (2007)",,"4.Western Barred BandicootPerameles bougainuilleFrench:Bandicoot de Bougainville/ German:Streifen-Langnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut listado occidentalOther common names:Barred Bandicoot, Little Marl, Marl, Saddle-backed Bandicoot, Shark Bay Striped Bandicoot, West Australian Striped Bandicoot, Zebra RatTaxonomy.Perameles bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824,“la presqu’ile Péron [= Peron Peninsula], Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia.Extinct form known as the Desert Bandicoot (P. eremiana), previously considered a subspecies of present species, is now accorded separate species status. Two other subspecies described (myosurus and notina), but recent research does not support recognition of these. Race fasciatanamed by J. E. Gray in 1841 (S arid and semi-arid regions from Nullarbor, Western Australia, east to western New South Wales and north-western Victoria) now extinct. One extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. b. bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824— Bernier I and Dorre I, in Shark Bay, Western Australia.Nominate race reintroducedto Heirisson Prong and Faure I (Shark Bay) and to the Arid Recovery Project area in South Australia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 17.3-22.6 cm, tail 8.1-10.6 cm; weight 165-300 g. Females, unusually for peramelids,slightly larger (9-3% heavier) than males. Measurements are for populations on Bernier and Dorre islands; mainland animals (now extinct) were larger. Dorsal fur is gray to fawn-gray, with alternating dark and pale bars running down flanks, while ventralfur, like feet, is white. Ears are long and held erect, and base of tail is sometimes thickened by fat storage. Although similar in appearance to recently extinct Desert Bandicoot, present species has more gray tones in the pelage, a shortertail, and less hairy feet than its desert-dwelling relative.Habitat.On Bernier and Dorre occupies coastal scrub, low heathland and hummockgrass formations, and may also be active on beaches above the strandline. On mainland, this species was found on sandy and stony soils in dense heathland, open shrubland, open woodland, thickets of Allocasuarina(Casuarinaceae), and dense forest vegetation in riparian areas. Nest constructed from grass or other locally sourced materials within deep depression that is dug under cover of dense shrubs; only one opening may be present, but flimsy construction of nest allows animals to burst through at any point if disturbed.Food and Feeding.Insects, other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and occasionally small vertebrates are eaten, shifts between seasons probably reflecting changes in food availability. Like other peramelids,this species obtainsits food on orjust below the ground surface, digging conical holes to 20-25 cm to obtain buried prey.Breeding.Females on Bernier and Dorre carry young in wetter winter months between March and October, with breeding apparently initiated by first substantial rains in autumn. Litter size is 1-3 (average 1-8), larger females carrying largest litters. Females produce at least two litters per breeding season, the newly born young attaching to nipples that have not been recently used; eight nipples are present, arranged in a circular pattern. Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months, with maturity in males delayed by a further month. Recruitment after pouch life into adult population is low (0-16-7%), suggesting that post-weaning mortality rates are high. Reproductive events were probably similar in mainland populations of this bandicoot, although some accounts describelitters of 1-4 young being produced between May and August.Activity patterns.Animals rest by day in their nest and emerge at dusk to begin foraging. Activity continues until dawn in winter, but may cease several hours before daybreak in summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Recaptures of animals made during live-trapping studies on Bernier and Dorre islands show that movements over eleven days averaged 185 m for females and 226 m for males. Overnight movements of more than 1 km also have been recorded, but are exceptional. Home range areas appear to vary with population density: at low density home ranges average 14-2 ha for males and 6-2 ha for females, whereas at high density the respective averages are 2-5 ha and 1-4 ha. There is some evidence that home ranges of males overlap more than do those of females. It is not certain how animals maintain their home ranges but, as with most peramelids, individuals nest and forage separately, and fight vigorously if placed in confinement with each other. Longevity of more than four years has been recorded in island populations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Mainland race fasciata, once widespread across S Australia, is extinct. Nominate bougainvilleis restricted to a small fraction ofits former range, which included Dirk Hartog and Faure islands, and extended widely through southern, central, and north-western arid areas of Western Australia. Current population probably fewer than 10,000 mature individuals: combined total of perhaps c.5000 on Bernier and Dorre islands, where considered abundant and numbers appear to be stable; reintroduced populations include minimum of 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, more than 20 on Faure, and c.40 in Arid Recovery. Declines were probably driven by several interacting processes, including loss and conversion of habitat for agricultural or pastoral usage, changed fire regimes, disease, competition with feral herbivores and, perhaps most importantly, predation by feral cats (Felis catus) and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Despite its gloomy status, the very few sites that now support this bandicoot are protected from predators (three sites in Western Australia are offshore islands; the site in South Australia is a predator-free reserve). All sites are regularly monitored and managed and, in consequence, numbers have increased. Plans are being made to remove the feral cat from several islands off the coast of Western Australia, and this would allow further translocations to take place. Present island populations are not necessarily problemfree. On Bernier, for example, an unknown virus has emerged that causes sometimes fatal carcinomas and papillomas, and genetic diversity is likely to be low. Nonetheless, increases in population size and recognition that this peramelid is not subject to extreme fluctuations in population size have led to recent proposals that the species be more correctly listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Abbott (2006), Ashby et al. (1990), Burbidge et al. (1988), Dickman, Pressey et al. (1993), Finlayson (1961a), Freedman (1967), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gray (1841), Groves (2005c), Kemper (1990), Legge et al. (2012), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Moseby et al. (2011), Richards (2012b), Short, Richards & Turner (1998), Short, Turner et al. (1997), Smith & Hughes (2008), Westerman & Krajewski (2000), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014i, 2014), Woolford et al. (2007)." +03C91729FFD1FFB2FD68DC65F8391432,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,391,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD1FFB2FD68DC65F8391432.xml,Perameles bougainuille,Perameles,bougainville,Quoy & Gaimard,1824,Bandicoot de Bougainville @fr | Streifen-Langnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut listado occidental @es | Barred Bandicoot @en | Little Marl @en | Marl @en | Saddle-backed Bandicoot @en | Shark Bay Striped Bandicoot @en | West Australian Striped Bandicoot @en | Zebra Rat @en,"Perameles bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824,“la presqu’ile Péron [= Peron Peninsula], Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia.Extinct form known as the Desert Bandicoot (P. eremiana), previously considered a subspecies of present species, is now accorded separate species status. Two other subspecies described (myosurus and notina), but recent research does not support recognition of these. Race fasciatanamed by J. E. Gray in 1841 (S arid and semi-arid regions from Nullarbor, Western Australia, east to western New South Wales and north-western Victoria) now extinct. One extant subspecies recognized.","P. b. bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824— Bernier I and Dorre I, in Shark Bay, Western Australia.Nominate race reintroducedto Heirisson Prong and Faure I (Shark Bay) and to the Arid Recovery Project area in South Australia.","Head—body 17.3-22.6 cm, tail 8.1-10.6 cm; weight 165-300 g. Females, unusually for peramelids,slightly larger (9-3% heavier) than males. Measurements are for populations on Bernier and Dorre islands; mainland animals (now extinct) were larger. Dorsal fur is gray to fawn-gray, with alternating dark and pale bars running down flanks, while ventralfur, like feet, is white. Ears are long and held erect, and base of tail is sometimes thickened by fat storage. Although similar in appearance to recently extinct Desert Bandicoot, present species has more gray tones in the pelage, a shortertail, and less hairy feet than its desert-dwelling relative.","On Bernier and Dorre occupies coastal scrub, low heathland and hummockgrass formations, and may also be active on beaches above the strandline. On mainland, this species was found on sandy and stony soils in dense heathland, open shrubland, open woodland, thickets of Allocasuarina(Casuarinaceae), and dense forest vegetation in riparian areas. Nest constructed from grass or other locally sourced materials within deep depression that is dug under cover of dense shrubs; only one opening may be present, but flimsy construction of nest allows animals to burst through at any point if disturbed.","Insects, other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and occasionally small vertebrates are eaten, shifts between seasons probably reflecting changes in food availability. Like other peramelids,this species obtainsits food on orjust below the ground surface, digging conical holes to 20-25 cm to obtain buried prey.","Females on Bernier and Dorre carry young in wetter winter months between March and October, with breeding apparently initiated by first substantial rains in autumn. Litter size is 1-3 (average 1-8), larger females carrying largest litters. Females produce at least two litters per breeding season, the newly born young attaching to nipples that have not been recently used; eight nipples are present, arranged in a circular pattern. Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months, with maturity in males delayed by a further month. Recruitment after pouch life into adult population is low (0-16-7%), suggesting that post-weaning mortality rates are high. Reproductive events were probably similar in mainland populations of this bandicoot, although some accounts describelitters of 1-4 young being produced between May and August.","Animals rest by day in their nest and emerge at dusk to begin foraging. Activity continues until dawn in winter, but may cease several hours before daybreak in summer.","Recaptures of animals made during live-trapping studies on Bernier and Dorre islands show that movements over eleven days averaged 185 m for females and 226 m for males. Overnight movements of more than 1 km also have been recorded, but are exceptional. Home range areas appear to vary with population density: at low density home ranges average 14-2 ha for males and 6-2 ha for females, whereas at high density the respective averages are 2-5 ha and 1-4 ha. There is some evidence that home ranges of males overlap more than do those of females. It is not certain how animals maintain their home ranges but, as with most peramelids, individuals nest and forage separately, and fight vigorously if placed in confinement with each other. Longevity of more than four years has been recorded in island populations.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Mainland race fasciata, once widespread across S Australia, is extinct. Nominate bougainvilleis restricted to a small fraction ofits former range, which included Dirk Hartog and Faure islands, and extended widely through southern, central, and north-western arid areas of Western Australia. Current population probably fewer than 10,000 mature individuals: combined total of perhaps c.5000 on Bernier and Dorre islands, where considered abundant and numbers appear to be stable; reintroduced populations include minimum of 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, more than 20 on Faure, and c.40 in Arid Recovery. Declines were probably driven by several interacting processes, including loss and conversion of habitat for agricultural or pastoral usage, changed fire regimes, disease, competition with feral herbivores and, perhaps most importantly, predation by feral cats (Felis catus) and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Despite its gloomy status, the very few sites that now support this bandicoot are protected from predators (three sites in Western Australia are offshore islands; the site in South Australia is a predator-free reserve). All sites are regularly monitored and managed and, in consequence, numbers have increased. Plans are being made to remove the feral cat from several islands off the coast of Western Australia, and this would allow further translocations to take place. Present island populations are not necessarily problemfree. On Bernier, for example, an unknown virus has emerged that causes sometimes fatal carcinomas and papillomas, and genetic diversity is likely to be low. Nonetheless, increases in population size and recognition that this peramelid is not subject to extreme fluctuations in population size have led to recent proposals that the species be more correctly listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","Abbott (2006) | Ashby et al. (1990) | Burbidge et al. (1988) | Dickman, Pressey et al. (1993) | Finlayson (1961a) | Freedman (1967) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gray (1841) | Groves (2005c) | Kemper (1990) | Legge et al. (2012) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Moseby et al. (2011) | Richards (2012b) | Short, Richards & Turner (1998) | Short, Turner et al. (1997) | Smith & Hughes (2008) | Westerman & Krajewski (2000) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014i, 2014) | Woolford et al. (2007)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621754/files/figure.png,"4.Western Barred BandicootPerameles bougainuilleFrench:Bandicoot de Bougainville/ German:Streifen-Langnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut listado occidentalOther common names:Barred Bandicoot, Little Marl, Marl, Saddle-backed Bandicoot, Shark Bay Striped Bandicoot, West Australian Striped Bandicoot, Zebra RatTaxonomy.Perameles bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824,“la presqu’ile Péron [= Peron Peninsula], Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia.Extinct form known as the Desert Bandicoot (P. eremiana), previously considered a subspecies of present species, is now accorded separate species status. Two other subspecies described (myosurus and notina), but recent research does not support recognition of these. Race fasciatanamed by J. E. Gray in 1841 (S arid and semi-arid regions from Nullarbor, Western Australia, east to western New South Wales and north-western Victoria) now extinct. One extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. b. bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824— Bernier I and Dorre I, in Shark Bay, Western Australia.Nominate race reintroducedto Heirisson Prong and Faure I (Shark Bay) and to the Arid Recovery Project area in South Australia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 17.3-22.6 cm, tail 8.1-10.6 cm; weight 165-300 g. Females, unusually for peramelids,slightly larger (9-3% heavier) than males. Measurements are for populations on Bernier and Dorre islands; mainland animals (now extinct) were larger. Dorsal fur is gray to fawn-gray, with alternating dark and pale bars running down flanks, while ventralfur, like feet, is white. Ears are long and held erect, and base of tail is sometimes thickened by fat storage. Although similar in appearance to recently extinct Desert Bandicoot, present species has more gray tones in the pelage, a shortertail, and less hairy feet than its desert-dwelling relative.Habitat.On Bernier and Dorre occupies coastal scrub, low heathland and hummockgrass formations, and may also be active on beaches above the strandline. On mainland, this species was found on sandy and stony soils in dense heathland, open shrubland, open woodland, thickets of Allocasuarina(Casuarinaceae), and dense forest vegetation in riparian areas. Nest constructed from grass or other locally sourced materials within deep depression that is dug under cover of dense shrubs; only one opening may be present, but flimsy construction of nest allows animals to burst through at any point if disturbed.Food and Feeding.Insects, other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and occasionally small vertebrates are eaten, shifts between seasons probably reflecting changes in food availability. Like other peramelids,this species obtainsits food on orjust below the ground surface, digging conical holes to 20-25 cm to obtain buried prey.Breeding.Females on Bernier and Dorre carry young in wetter winter months between March and October, with breeding apparently initiated by first substantial rains in autumn. Litter size is 1-3 (average 1-8), larger females carrying largest litters. Females produce at least two litters per breeding season, the newly born young attaching to nipples that have not been recently used; eight nipples are present, arranged in a circular pattern. Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months, with maturity in males delayed by a further month. Recruitment after pouch life into adult population is low (0-16-7%), suggesting that post-weaning mortality rates are high. Reproductive events were probably similar in mainland populations of this bandicoot, although some accounts describelitters of 1-4 young being produced between May and August.Activity patterns.Animals rest by day in their nest and emerge at dusk to begin foraging. Activity continues until dawn in winter, but may cease several hours before daybreak in summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Recaptures of animals made during live-trapping studies on Bernier and Dorre islands show that movements over eleven days averaged 185 m for females and 226 m for males. Overnight movements of more than 1 km also have been recorded, but are exceptional. Home range areas appear to vary with population density: at low density home ranges average 14-2 ha for males and 6-2 ha for females, whereas at high density the respective averages are 2-5 ha and 1-4 ha. There is some evidence that home ranges of males overlap more than do those of females. It is not certain how animals maintain their home ranges but, as with most peramelids, individuals nest and forage separately, and fight vigorously if placed in confinement with each other. Longevity of more than four years has been recorded in island populations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Mainland race fasciata, once widespread across S Australia, is extinct. Nominate bougainvilleis restricted to a small fraction ofits former range, which included Dirk Hartog and Faure islands, and extended widely through southern, central, and north-western arid areas of Western Australia. Current population probably fewer than 10,000 mature individuals: combined total of perhaps c.5000 on Bernier and Dorre islands, where considered abundant and numbers appear to be stable; reintroduced populations include minimum of 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, more than 20 on Faure, and c.40 in Arid Recovery. Declines were probably driven by several interacting processes, including loss and conversion of habitat for agricultural or pastoral usage, changed fire regimes, disease, competition with feral herbivores and, perhaps most importantly, predation by feral cats (Felis catus) and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Despite its gloomy status, the very few sites that now support this bandicoot are protected from predators (three sites in Western Australia are offshore islands; the site in South Australia is a predator-free reserve). All sites are regularly monitored and managed and, in consequence, numbers have increased. Plans are being made to remove the feral cat from several islands off the coast of Western Australia, and this would allow further translocations to take place. Present island populations are not necessarily problemfree. On Bernier, for example, an unknown virus has emerged that causes sometimes fatal carcinomas and papillomas, and genetic diversity is likely to be low. Nonetheless, increases in population size and recognition that this peramelid is not subject to extreme fluctuations in population size have led to recent proposals that the species be more correctly listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Abbott (2006), Ashby et al. (1990), Burbidge et al. (1988), Dickman, Pressey et al. (1993), Finlayson (1961a), Freedman (1967), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gray (1841), Groves (2005c), Kemper (1990), Legge et al. (2012), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Moseby et al. (2011), Richards (2012b), Short, Richards & Turner (1998), Short, Turner et al. (1997), Smith & Hughes (2008), Westerman & Krajewski (2000), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014i, 2014), Woolford et al. (2007)." 03C91729FFD1FFB3F86ADAD3FC481A62,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,391,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD1FFB3F86ADAD3FC481A62.xml,Perameles gunn,Perameles,gunnii,Gray,1838,Bandicoot de Gunn @fr | Tasmanien-Langnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut listado oriental @es | Gunn's Bandicoot @en | Tasmanian Barred Bandicoot @en,"Perameles gunnii Gray, 1838,“ Van Diemen’s Land[= Tasmania],” Australia.There is considerable debate over whether mainland and Tasmanian populations of this species should each be accorded subspecific status. Early work reported minor morphological differences between the two forms, but some authors have considered these too small to warrant subspecific distinction. Genetic differences and additional separation based on analysis of nDNA and mtDNA, however, suggest that subspecific recognition is warranted. Since original description was based on Tasmanian specimens, the mainland Australian population requires formal description and naming. Currently treated as monotypic.",N & E Tasmania including Bruny I; persists also (very small numbers) in extreme SE Australia (S Victoria).,"Head-body 27-35 cm,tail 7-11 cm; weight 0.5-1.1 kg (Victoria), 0.5-1.4 kg (Tasmania). Adult males weigh at least 10% more than adult females. Dorsal fur is a grizzled fawnish brown to gray above, with 3-4 conspicuous and highly distinctive pale bars running from mid-flank region to rump. Ventral fur is light slate-gray, feet and upper surface oftail white, and ears are long and held erect.","Prefers open grassland habitats that also provide some access to denser cover for shelter. In Victoria, it inhabited perennial tussock grassland mixed with areas of savanna woodland and, until recently, could be found in semi-natural situations such as golf courses, gardens, parks, and farmland near urban settlement. In Tasmania, this bandicoot occurs in native and exotic grasslands, woodland, and open forest with a grassy understory, and also in farmland and cultivated cropland. Nest is lined and constructed from grass and other debris in depression on ground surface or under cover of shrubs.","Some food is taken from the ground surface, including seeds, fallen fruits, insects, and small vertebrates, and some is excavated. Animals use their strong and stoutly clawed forefeet to dig conical holes to depths of 15-20 cm, uncovering earthworms, larvae, bulbs, tubers, roots, and subterranean fungi. Diet changes seasonally, reflecting shifts in the availability of different foods throughoutthe year.","Reproductive activity usually begins in winter and continues to early summer, presumably when food resources are most readily available, but in Victoria some females have been recorded breeding year-round. Females carry litters of 1-5 young (2-3 more usual), with larger litters usually produced in spring rather than at other times. Eight nipples are present, young in successive litters within a season attaching to nipples that have regressed in size from previous use. Gestation is just 12-5 days; young leave the pouch at 48-53 days, and are weaned at c.60 days. Females may mate while lactating and give birth to a furtherlitter just after weaning the preceding one, thus allowing 2-3 litters to be produced within a season. Sexual maturity is achieved by females at ¢.3 months and by males at 4-5 months, and some animals may breed in the season oftheir birth. Despite the high reproductive rate and production of 10-12 young peryear, usually few young (10-15%) are recruited into adult population owing to high rates of mortality after pouch-exit and weaning.","This bandicootis strictly nocturnal. Individuals emerge at dusk or after dark and exhibit several peaks of activity during the night. Most time is spent in foraging, but males probably spend relatively more time than females in patrolling their home ranges. Animals return to their nests before dawn.","Like most other peramelids, this species is solitary except for brief periods of courtship and mating and when females have dependent young. Home ranges of males are usually large, averaging 13-20 ha in Victoria and ¢.26 ha in Tasmania, and encompass those of several females. In contrast, female ranges average 2-5-4 ha. There is some overlap in the ranges occupied by each sex, but core areas are usually discrete and separate. It is not clear how individuals maintain the integrity of their range boundaries, but direct aggression may play a role. Population densities of ¢.2 ind/ha have been reported in Victoria and 0-3-2-4 ind/ha in Tasmania, although densities in Tasmania may rise to 8:5 ind/ha in optimal habitat.","Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Exhibits a decreasing population trend. Historically, this species occurred from southeastern South Australia east to Melbourne area of Victoria, but in this region it now persists, in very small numbers, only in southern Victoria. It is known also from subfossil material from Flinders and Hunter islands, in Bass Strait, but no longer occurs there. In Tasmania, it has declined to low numbers in the Midlands region in recent decades, and its distributional strongholds now are in south-eastern and north-western Tasmania. It occurs also on Bruny Island and has been introduced to Maria Island. Declines in the Midlands were driven by loss of habitat and the intensification of agricultural and pastoral activity, and probably also by increased predation pressure that arose from predators switching their focus from the European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) to the Eastern Barred Bandicoot after rabbit-control began, in 1950s. There is also concern that, as populations of the native Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) continue to crash following the spread of a contagious facial tumor disease, numbers of feral cats (Felis catus) are increasing and placing bandicoots and other native animals under great stress. Introduction of the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) to Tasmania, in what was probably a deliberate act of “bioterrorism” in late 1990s, will, if this carnivore becomes established, act further to drive populations of present species to very low levels. In Victoria, this peramelid occupied a shrinking range for much of 20"" century before the last known wild population was extirpated, in 2002. Many factors have been attributed to the decline, including loss of habitat for agriculture or development, habitat degradation due to livestock and introduced feral herbivores such as the European Rabbit, deliberate persecution from landholders, inadvertent poisoning through pesticides and herbicides, diseases such as toxoplasmosis, and predation by introduced carnivores. Predation appears to have been the prime cause of its final expiration in the wild in mainland Australia. Fortunately, however, before it was lost altogether, a few individuals were removed from the wild for breeding in captivity, and these have provided the founders for subsequent reintroduction attempts. The Victorian form now persists in three sites where it is protected from predation: Mount Rothwell Biodiversity Interpretation Centre, Hamilton Community Parklands, and Woodlands Historic Park. It has been reintroduced to a furtherfive sites but, after initial breeding successes, combinations of drought and predation from feral cat and, especially, Red Fox drove these populations to extinction. In 2012, the bandicoot was introduced to French Island, the largest island in Victoria (170 km?), in a pilot trial. Males were sterilized and animals retrapped at the conclusion of the trial; a decision about a broader-scale release is yet to be made. French Island has suitable habitat for this peramelid and has the major advantage that it is fox-free. Recovery efforts in Victoria have been intensive for more than 25 years, and involve many dedicated individuals and organizations. As a result, the mainland form is likely to be kept in existence for the foreseeable future, albeit in wildlife parks, zoological gardens, and predator-free compounds. Until the scourge of the cat and the Red Fox can be overcome, large wild populations are very unlikely to be seen again. The Near Threatened classification for this species on The [UCN Red List was made in 2008. It is unlikely to receive such a sanguine assessment when it is reviewed again in future.","Bryant & Jackson (1999) | Dickman (2012) | Driessen et al. (1996) | Dufty (1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1995) | Freedman (1967) | Freedman & Joffe (1967) | Green (2007) | Heinsohn (1966) | Hill et al. (2010) | Hocking (1990) | Kemper (1990) | Lyne (1951) | Mallick, Driessen & Hocking (1997 2000) | Mallick, Haseler et al. (1997) | Mallick, Hocking & Driessen (1997, 1998) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Obendorf & Munday (1990) | Opie et al. (1990) | Reimer & Hindell (1996) | Robinson et al. (1993) | Seebeck (1979, 2001) | Sherwin & Brown (1990) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Watson & Halley (2000) | Westerman & Krajewski (2000) | Westerman etal. (2012) | Winnard & Coulson (2008) | Woinarski et al. (2014k, 20141, 2014m)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621756/files/figure.png,"5.Eastern Barred BandicootPerameles gunnFrench:Bandicoot de Gunn/ German:Tasmanien-Langnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut listado orientalOther common names:Gunn's Bandicoot, Tasmanian Barred BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles gunnii Gray, 1838,“ Van Diemen’s Land[= Tasmania],” Australia.There is considerable debate over whether mainland and Tasmanian populations of this species should each be accorded subspecific status. Early work reported minor morphological differences between the two forms, but some authors have considered these too small to warrant subspecific distinction. Genetic differences and additional separation based on analysis of nDNA and mtDNA, however, suggest that subspecific recognition is warranted. Since original description was based on Tasmanian specimens, the mainland Australian population requires formal description and naming. Currently treated as monotypic.Distribution.N & E Tasmania including Bruny I; persists also (very small numbers) in extreme SE Australia (S Victoria).Descriptive notes.Head-body 27-35 cm,tail 7-11 cm; weight 0.5-1.1 kg (Victoria), 0.5-1.4 kg (Tasmania). Adult males weigh at least 10% more than adult females. Dorsal fur is a grizzled fawnish brown to gray above, with 3-4 conspicuous and highly distinctive pale bars running from mid-flank region to rump. Ventral fur is light slate-gray, feet and upper surface oftail white, and ears are long and held erect.Habitat.Prefers open grassland habitats that also provide some access to denser cover for shelter. In Victoria, it inhabited perennial tussock grassland mixed with areas of savanna woodland and, until recently, could be found in semi-natural situations such as golf courses, gardens, parks, and farmland near urban settlement. In Tasmania, this bandicoot occurs in native and exotic grasslands, woodland, and open forest with a grassy understory, and also in farmland and cultivated cropland. Nest is lined and constructed from grass and other debris in depression on ground surface or under cover of shrubs.Food and Feeding.Some food is taken from the ground surface, including seeds, fallen fruits, insects, and small vertebrates, and some is excavated. Animals use their strong and stoutly clawed forefeet to dig conical holes to depths of 15-20 cm, uncovering earthworms, larvae, bulbs, tubers, roots, and subterranean fungi. Diet changes seasonally, reflecting shifts in the availability of different foods throughoutthe year.Breeding.Reproductive activity usually begins in winter and continues to early summer, presumably when food resources are most readily available, but in Victoria some females have been recorded breeding year-round. Females carry litters of 1-5 young (2-3 more usual), with larger litters usually produced in spring rather than at other times. Eight nipples are present, young in successive litters within a season attaching to nipples that have regressed in size from previous use. Gestation is just 12-5 days; young leave the pouch at 48-53 days, and are weaned at c.60 days. Females may mate while lactating and give birth to a furtherlitter just after weaning the preceding one, thus allowing 2-3 litters to be produced within a season. Sexual maturity is achieved by females at ¢.3 months and by males at 4-5 months, and some animals may breed in the season oftheir birth. Despite the high reproductive rate and production of 10-12 young peryear, usually few young (10-15%) are recruited into adult population owing to high rates of mortality after pouch-exit and weaning.Activity patterns.This bandicootis strictly nocturnal. Individuals emerge at dusk or after dark and exhibit several peaks of activity during the night. Most time is spent in foraging, but males probably spend relatively more time than females in patrolling their home ranges. Animals return to their nests before dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like most other peramelids, this species is solitary except for brief periods of courtship and mating and when females have dependent young. Home ranges of males are usually large, averaging 13-20 ha in Victoria and ¢.26 ha in Tasmania, and encompass those of several females. In contrast, female ranges average 2-5-4 ha. There is some overlap in the ranges occupied by each sex, but core areas are usually discrete and separate. It is not clear how individuals maintain the integrity of their range boundaries, but direct aggression may play a role. Population densities of ¢.2 ind/ha have been reported in Victoria and 0-3-2-4 ind/ha in Tasmania, although densities in Tasmania may rise to 8:5 ind/ha in optimal habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Exhibits a decreasing population trend. Historically, this species occurred from southeastern South Australia east to Melbourne area of Victoria, but in this region it now persists, in very small numbers, only in southern Victoria. It is known also from subfossil material from Flinders and Hunter islands, in Bass Strait, but no longer occurs there. In Tasmania, it has declined to low numbers in the Midlands region in recent decades, and its distributional strongholds now are in south-eastern and north-western Tasmania. It occurs also on Bruny Island and has been introduced to Maria Island. Declines in the Midlands were driven by loss of habitat and the intensification of agricultural and pastoral activity, and probably also by increased predation pressure that arose from predators switching their focus from the European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) to the Eastern Barred Bandicoot after rabbit-control began, in 1950s. There is also concern that, as populations of the native Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) continue to crash following the spread of a contagious facial tumor disease, numbers of feral cats (Felis catus) are increasing and placing bandicoots and other native animals under great stress. Introduction of the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) to Tasmania, in what was probably a deliberate act of “bioterrorism” in late 1990s, will, if this carnivore becomes established, act further to drive populations of present species to very low levels. In Victoria, this peramelid occupied a shrinking range for much of 20"" century before the last known wild population was extirpated, in 2002. Many factors have been attributed to the decline, including loss of habitat for agriculture or development, habitat degradation due to livestock and introduced feral herbivores such as the European Rabbit, deliberate persecution from landholders, inadvertent poisoning through pesticides and herbicides, diseases such as toxoplasmosis, and predation by introduced carnivores. Predation appears to have been the prime cause of its final expiration in the wild in mainland Australia. Fortunately, however, before it was lost altogether, a few individuals were removed from the wild for breeding in captivity, and these have provided the founders for subsequent reintroduction attempts. The Victorian form now persists in three sites where it is protected from predation: Mount Rothwell Biodiversity Interpretation Centre, Hamilton Community Parklands, and Woodlands Historic Park. It has been reintroduced to a furtherfive sites but, after initial breeding successes, combinations of drought and predation from feral cat and, especially, Red Fox drove these populations to extinction. In 2012, the bandicoot was introduced to French Island, the largest island in Victoria (170 km?), in a pilot trial. Males were sterilized and animals retrapped at the conclusion of the trial; a decision about a broader-scale release is yet to be made. French Island has suitable habitat for this peramelid and has the major advantage that it is fox-free. Recovery efforts in Victoria have been intensive for more than 25 years, and involve many dedicated individuals and organizations. As a result, the mainland form is likely to be kept in existence for the foreseeable future, albeit in wildlife parks, zoological gardens, and predator-free compounds. Until the scourge of the cat and the Red Fox can be overcome, large wild populations are very unlikely to be seen again. The Near Threatened classification for this species on The [UCN Red List was made in 2008. It is unlikely to receive such a sanguine assessment when it is reviewed again in future.Bibliography.Bryant & Jackson (1999), Dickman (2012), Driessen et al. (1996), Dufty (1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1995), Freedman (1967), Freedman & Joffe (1967), Green (2007), Heinsohn (1966), Hill et al. (2010), Hocking (1990), Kemper (1990), Lyne (1951), Mallick, Driessen & Hocking (1997 2000), Mallick, Haseler et al. (1997), Mallick, Hocking & Driessen (1997, 1998), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Obendorf & Munday (1990), Opie et al. (1990), Reimer & Hindell (1996), Robinson et al. (1993), Seebeck (1979, 2001), Sherwin & Brown (1990), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Watson & Halley (2000), Westerman & Krajewski (2000), Westerman etal. (2012), Winnard & Coulson (2008), Woinarski et al. (2014k, 20141, 2014m)." -03C91729FFD3FFB0F893DED9F5841BCF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,393,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD3FFB0F893DED9F5841BCF.xml,Peroryctes raffrayana,Peroryctes,raffrayana,,,Bandicoot de Raffray @fr | Gro Rer Neuguinea-Nasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de Raffray @es | Long-legged Bandicoot @en,"Perameles raffrayana Milne- Edwards, 1878,“ Amberbaki,” Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop), Manokwari Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.Two subspecies are recognized.","P.r.raffrayanaMilne-Edwards,1878—mostofNewGuinea,includingYapenI,inCenderawasih(=Geelvink)Bay.P.r. rothschildi Forster, 1913— Huon Peninsula, in NE New Guinea.","Head-body 27:5-39.2 cm, tail 13.2-17.9 cm; weight 0-65.1-1 kg. Adult males at least 20% heavier than females. Adult of nominate race has dorsal fur coarse and dull, dark brown in color; adult rothschild: retains some rufous tones. Ventral fur is pure white, unlike that of almost all other peramelids exceptfor the variably sized pure white patch on the chest of the Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum). Ears are prominent, and tail dark and almost hairless. Juveniles of both subspecies are rich reddish tan, and darken with age.","Evidently prefers undisturbed primary forest at altitudes of 1000-2000 m. It is absent from woodland and savanna habitats of the Trans-Fly and probably also from low-lying floodplain of Sepik River. Despite its preference for undisturbed forest, this bandicoot may occur also in mature secondary forest and old gardens, and has been recorded in lowland rainforest at altitudes as low as 50-60 m. On Huon Peninsula it has been recorded at 3900 m; here, trees are stunted or absent, and vegetation is dominated by herbs, shrubs, tree ferns, and tussock grassland. Nest sites have not been described in any detail, but anecdotal accounts suggest that the animals rest temporarily under piles of leaf litter and other debris in sheltered sites on forest floor.","Has been anecdotally reported to eat figs and fallen pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). There is no quantitative information on the diet but, as with many other peramelids,it is assumed to be omnivorous.","Females with pouch young have been collected during March, June, August-September, November, and December. Although these records were obtained throughout the range of the species in New Guinea, they suggest that breeding can occur year-round. Females have eight nipples in a rear-facing pouch, and carry litters of one or two young.","Radio-tracking of a single male showed the animal to be inactive on eight of ten occasions when it was located by day, but active on all ten occasions when tracked between 19:00 h and 02:00 h. General reports from trappers also indicate that this bandicoot is most likely to be captured after becoming active in the early evening between 19:00 h and 21:00 h.","A large (1 kg) male of this species was shown by radio-tracking to move an average linear distance of 87 m between daytime shelters and to occupy a range of 2-7 ha. It is likely that this bandicootis socially intolerant, as are all peramelids that have been sufficiently well studied, but Daribi people (Chimbu Province) believe that the species nests communally.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This is an uncommon but widespread species. Because of its broad distribution and occurrence in areas that are formally protected or not disturbed,it is assumed to be reasonably secure. It is a favored game species in many areas, but there is no clear evidence that hunting depletes local populations or constitutes a major threat.","Aplin et al. (2010) | Brass (1956, 1964) | Cuthbert & Denny (2014) | Dwyer (1983) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Van Deusen (1972) | Van Deusen & Jones (1967) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)",,"8.Raffray’s BandicootPeroryctes raffrayanaFrench:Bandicoot de Raffray/ German:GroRer Neuguinea-Nasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de RaffrayOther common names:Long-legged BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles raffrayana Milne- Edwards, 1878,“ Amberbaki,” Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop), Manokwari Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.raffrayanaMilne-Edwards,1878—mostofNewGuinea,includingYapenI,inCenderawasih(=Geelvink)Bay.P.r. rothschildi Forster, 1913— Huon Peninsula, in NE New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27:5-39.2 cm, tail 13.2-17.9 cm; weight 0-65.1-1 kg. Adult males at least 20% heavier than females. Adult of nominate race has dorsal fur coarse and dull, dark brown in color; adult rothschild: retains some rufous tones. Ventral fur is pure white, unlike that of almost all other peramelids exceptfor the variably sized pure white patch on the chest of the Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum). Ears are prominent, and tail dark and almost hairless. Juveniles of both subspecies are rich reddish tan, and darken with age.Habitat.Evidently prefers undisturbed primary forest at altitudes of 1000-2000 m. It is absent from woodland and savanna habitats of the Trans-Fly and probably also from low-lying floodplain of Sepik River. Despite its preference for undisturbed forest, this bandicoot may occur also in mature secondary forest and old gardens, and has been recorded in lowland rainforest at altitudes as low as 50-60 m. On Huon Peninsula it has been recorded at 3900 m; here, trees are stunted or absent, and vegetation is dominated by herbs, shrubs, tree ferns, and tussock grassland. Nest sites have not been described in any detail, but anecdotal accounts suggest that the animals rest temporarily under piles of leaf litter and other debris in sheltered sites on forest floor.Food and Feeding.Has been anecdotally reported to eat figs and fallen pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). There is no quantitative information on the diet but, as with many other peramelids,it is assumed to be omnivorous.Breeding.Females with pouch young have been collected during March, June, August-September, November, and December. Although these records were obtained throughout the range of the species in New Guinea, they suggest that breeding can occur year-round. Females have eight nipples in a rear-facing pouch, and carry litters of one or two young.Activity patterns.Radio-tracking of a single male showed the animal to be inactive on eight of ten occasions when it was located by day, but active on all ten occasions when tracked between 19:00 h and 02:00 h. General reports from trappers also indicate that this bandicoot is most likely to be captured after becoming active in the early evening between 19:00 h and 21:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A large (1 kg) male of this species was shown by radio-tracking to move an average linear distance of 87 m between daytime shelters and to occupy a range of 2-7 ha. It is likely that this bandicootis socially intolerant, as are all peramelids that have been sufficiently well studied, but Daribi people (Chimbu Province) believe that the species nests communally.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This is an uncommon but widespread species. Because of its broad distribution and occurrence in areas that are formally protected or not disturbed,it is assumed to be reasonably secure. It is a favored game species in many areas, but there is no clear evidence that hunting depletes local populations or constitutes a major threat.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (2010), Brass (1956, 1964), Cuthbert & Denny (2014), Dwyer (1983), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Van Deusen (1972), Van Deusen & Jones (1967), Ziegler (1977, 1982)." +03C91729FFD3FFB0F893DED9F5841BCF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,393,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD3FFB0F893DED9F5841BCF.xml,Peroryctes raffrayana,Peroryctes,raffrayana,,,Bandicoot de Raffray @fr | Gro Rer Neuguinea-Nasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de Raffray @es | Long-legged Bandicoot @en,"Perameles raffrayana Milne- Edwards, 1878,“ Amberbaki,” Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop), Manokwari Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.Two subspecies are recognized.","P.r.raffrayanaMilne-Edwards,1878—mostofNewGuinea,includingYapenI,inCenderawasih(=Geelvink)Bay.P.r. rothschildi Forster, 1913— Huon Peninsula, in NE New Guinea.","Head-body 27:5-39.2 cm, tail 13.2-17.9 cm; weight 0-65.1-1 kg. Adult males at least 20% heavier than females. Adult of nominate race has dorsal fur coarse and dull, dark brown in color; adult rothschild: retains some rufous tones. Ventral fur is pure white, unlike that of almost all other peramelids exceptfor the variably sized pure white patch on the chest of the Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum). Ears are prominent, and tail dark and almost hairless. Juveniles of both subspecies are rich reddish tan, and darken with age.","Evidently prefers undisturbed primary forest at altitudes of 1000-2000 m. It is absent from woodland and savanna habitats of the Trans-Fly and probably also from low-lying floodplain of Sepik River. Despite its preference for undisturbed forest, this bandicoot may occur also in mature secondary forest and old gardens, and has been recorded in lowland rainforest at altitudes as low as 50-60 m. On Huon Peninsula it has been recorded at 3900 m; here, trees are stunted or absent, and vegetation is dominated by herbs, shrubs, tree ferns, and tussock grassland. Nest sites have not been described in any detail, but anecdotal accounts suggest that the animals rest temporarily under piles of leaf litter and other debris in sheltered sites on forest floor.","Has been anecdotally reported to eat figs and fallen pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). There is no quantitative information on the diet but, as with many other peramelids,it is assumed to be omnivorous.","Females with pouch young have been collected during March, June, August-September, November, and December. Although these records were obtained throughout the range of the species in New Guinea, they suggest that breeding can occur year-round. Females have eight nipples in a rear-facing pouch, and carry litters of one or two young.","Radio-tracking of a single male showed the animal to be inactive on eight of ten occasions when it was located by day, but active on all ten occasions when tracked between 19:00 h and 02:00 h. General reports from trappers also indicate that this bandicoot is most likely to be captured after becoming active in the early evening between 19:00 h and 21:00 h.","A large (1 kg) male of this species was shown by radio-tracking to move an average linear distance of 87 m between daytime shelters and to occupy a range of 2-7 ha. It is likely that this bandicootis socially intolerant, as are all peramelids that have been sufficiently well studied, but Daribi people (Chimbu Province) believe that the species nests communally.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This is an uncommon but widespread species. Because of its broad distribution and occurrence in areas that are formally protected or not disturbed,it is assumed to be reasonably secure. It is a favored game species in many areas, but there is no clear evidence that hunting depletes local populations or constitutes a major threat.","Aplin et al. (2010) | Brass (1956, 1964) | Cuthbert & Denny (2014) | Dwyer (1983) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Van Deusen (1972) | Van Deusen & Jones (1967) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621766/files/figure.png,"8.Raffray’s BandicootPeroryctes raffrayanaFrench:Bandicoot de Raffray/ German:GroRer Neuguinea-Nasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de RaffrayOther common names:Long-legged BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles raffrayana Milne- Edwards, 1878,“ Amberbaki,” Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop), Manokwari Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.raffrayanaMilne-Edwards,1878—mostofNewGuinea,includingYapenI,inCenderawasih(=Geelvink)Bay.P.r. rothschildi Forster, 1913— Huon Peninsula, in NE New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27:5-39.2 cm, tail 13.2-17.9 cm; weight 0-65.1-1 kg. Adult males at least 20% heavier than females. Adult of nominate race has dorsal fur coarse and dull, dark brown in color; adult rothschild: retains some rufous tones. Ventral fur is pure white, unlike that of almost all other peramelids exceptfor the variably sized pure white patch on the chest of the Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum). Ears are prominent, and tail dark and almost hairless. Juveniles of both subspecies are rich reddish tan, and darken with age.Habitat.Evidently prefers undisturbed primary forest at altitudes of 1000-2000 m. It is absent from woodland and savanna habitats of the Trans-Fly and probably also from low-lying floodplain of Sepik River. Despite its preference for undisturbed forest, this bandicoot may occur also in mature secondary forest and old gardens, and has been recorded in lowland rainforest at altitudes as low as 50-60 m. On Huon Peninsula it has been recorded at 3900 m; here, trees are stunted or absent, and vegetation is dominated by herbs, shrubs, tree ferns, and tussock grassland. Nest sites have not been described in any detail, but anecdotal accounts suggest that the animals rest temporarily under piles of leaf litter and other debris in sheltered sites on forest floor.Food and Feeding.Has been anecdotally reported to eat figs and fallen pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). There is no quantitative information on the diet but, as with many other peramelids,it is assumed to be omnivorous.Breeding.Females with pouch young have been collected during March, June, August-September, November, and December. Although these records were obtained throughout the range of the species in New Guinea, they suggest that breeding can occur year-round. Females have eight nipples in a rear-facing pouch, and carry litters of one or two young.Activity patterns.Radio-tracking of a single male showed the animal to be inactive on eight of ten occasions when it was located by day, but active on all ten occasions when tracked between 19:00 h and 02:00 h. General reports from trappers also indicate that this bandicoot is most likely to be captured after becoming active in the early evening between 19:00 h and 21:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A large (1 kg) male of this species was shown by radio-tracking to move an average linear distance of 87 m between daytime shelters and to occupy a range of 2-7 ha. It is likely that this bandicootis socially intolerant, as are all peramelids that have been sufficiently well studied, but Daribi people (Chimbu Province) believe that the species nests communally.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This is an uncommon but widespread species. Because of its broad distribution and occurrence in areas that are formally protected or not disturbed,it is assumed to be reasonably secure. It is a favored game species in many areas, but there is no clear evidence that hunting depletes local populations or constitutes a major threat.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (2010), Brass (1956, 1964), Cuthbert & Denny (2014), Dwyer (1983), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Van Deusen (1972), Van Deusen & Jones (1967), Ziegler (1977, 1982)." 03C91729FFD5FFB6FE08DD77F891140D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,362,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD5FFB6FE08DD77F891140D.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family PERAMELIDAE(BANDICOOTS ECHYMIPERAS)• Small to medium-sized marsupials, with long pointed snouts, rather small mouse-like ears, short tails and short limbs.• 25-80 cm.• Australasian Region.• Low heathland, grassland, and woodland to denser forest and treeless subalpine habitat, from lowlands to mountain areas.• 6 genera, 18 species, at least 35 extant taxa.• 4 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; 1 species and 1 subspecies Extinct since 1600." -03C91729FFD6FFB2FDB2D4CDFCBF1092,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,390,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD6FFB2FDB2D4CDFCBF1092.xml,Isoodon macrourus,Isoodon,macrourus,,,Bandicoot a longue queue @fr | Gro Rer Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto septentrional @es | Brindled Bandicoot @en | Giant Brindled Bandicoot @en | Large Northern Bandicoot @en | Northern Shortnosed Bandicoot @en | Short-nosed Bandicoot @en,"Perameles macroura Gould, 1842,“ Port Essington,” Northern Territory, Australia.Three subspecies are recognized.","I.m.macrourusGould,1842—NNorthernTerritoryandNWesternAustralia,includingmanylargeislandsnearNcoast(e.g.GrooteEylandt,TiwiIs).I.m.moresbyensisRamsay,1877—NewGuinea.I. m. torosus Ramsay, 1877— N Queensland (Cape York) S, including Fraser I, Moreton I, North Stradbroke I and South Stradbroke, to Hawkesbury River, in CE New South Wales.","Head-body 30-47 cm, tail 8-21.5 cm; weight 0.5-3.1 kg. Adult males 80-90% heavier than females. Largest member of genus. Dorsal fur is light to dark brown, interspersed with black spiny bristle hairs that give animals a sleek but grizzled appearance. Ventral fur is light gray or off-white and less spiky than dorsal pelage. Tail is covered with short, dark hair, ears are naked and held erect; both tail and ears of males may be scarred from fighting.","Occurs in grassland, woodland, open forest and on occasion rainforest in both Australia and New Guinea, and successfully exploits gardens and other disturbed habitats if sufficient ground coveris available to allow access. Prefers ground cover comprising dense shrubs or tall grass in southern parts ofits range, but readily uses areas with sparse ground in monsoon tropical regions in northern Australia and New Guinea. In drier parts of range in Australia, this species persists in marshy areas with heavy ground cover, and penetrates west in Queensland to about the 625mm rainfall isohyet by moving along densely vegetated riparian corridors. Nest usually a simple scrape under a dome of sticks, leaf litter, and other debris, with two or more openings; individuals may also use logs, grass tussocks, or crevices in rocks for shelter.","Omnivorous, and eats wide variety of invertebrates, small vertebrates such as lizards and birds, and their eggs, also fruits, seeds, plant roots, storage organs, and green plant material, as well as underground fungi. Like other members of the genus, this bandicoot forages on ground surface but also uses its powerful forelimbsto dig for food, leaving behind characteristically conical holes that may descend to depth of 30 cm. The diet varies with locality and season, suggesting that animals track and eat different prey types according to their availability.","Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months and males by six months. Breeding can occur year-round, but in southern parts of range there is usually a hiatus in reproductive activity over winter between April and July and in northern regions during dry season between May and July. Gestation is 12-5 days, and young leave the pouch at 50 days and are weaned at 60 days or less. Litter size 1-7, but more usually 3—4, with larger litters borne by females in southern areas compared with those in northern Australia or New Guinea. Relatively large litter size, rapid growth, and rapid development of this species mean thatit is one of the most fecund of the peramelids. In Darwin area of Northern Territory, one study described females as producing up to fourlitters at intervals of 54 days over the breeding season. As in other members of genus, this bandicoot has eight nipples in a backward-facing pouch, use of individual nipples alternating between successive litters.","Individuals emerge after dark and are active for most of night, covering wide range of habitats in their search for food; males may patrol areas on edge of their home range, especially during the long breeding season. The day is usually spent in resting in the nest or under shelter, but occasional movements have been recorded in early morning orjust before dusk in rugged sandstone country on Groote Eylandt.","Both sexes are solitary. Males and females tolerate each other briefly when females are in estrus, but otherwise interactions are characterized by aggression, chases, and fights. Both sexes produce secretions from glands behind the ears and rub them on ground or vegetation during encounters, perhaps using them as “keep-away” signals to reduce likelihood of further encounters. Home ranges relatively small compared with those of its two smaller congeners, averaging 2-7 ha (maximum 6 ha) in one study in abandoned pasture-shrubland area and 1-5 ha in another study in remnant vegetation within limits of city of Brisbane. Population densities can be correspondingly large, ranging from 0-2 ind/ ha to 2:6 ind/ha in New South Wales and southern Queensland, but lower densities of 0-05 ind/ha to 0-7 ind/ha appear to be more typical in tropical regions. Lower densities, larger ranges and more seasonal breeding in northern compared with southern Australia may reflect less abundant and more strongly seasonal food resources in monsoonal tropics compared with mid-latitude habitats. Corresponding differences in recruitment of young into adult population might be expected between regional areas, but limited evidence suggests that recruitment rates are usually 10-15%. Higher recruitment of young, however, follows disturbances such as fire and mechanical damage to habitat and, as with the Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus), the life-history strategy of present species has been interpreted as one that allows rapid colonization of newly created habitat.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend stable. This bandicoot is not considered to be at currentrisk as it occupies an extensive geographical range, has a large overall population, and occurs in many protected areas. Declines have occurred in drier, inland areas near S edge of range of race torosus. While the species continues to decline owing to development, habitat loss, and changes in fire regimes, and overhunting for bushmeat in New Guinea, the declines are mostly local. The larger size of this bandicoot means that it is at less risk of predation from the feral cat (Felis catus), although it still falls prey to Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and wild dogs (Canis). Historical declines in inland pastoral areas were not extensive, and these appear to have slowed or halted. All subspecies appear to be secure.","Ashby et al. (1990) | Brass (1956) | Close et al. (1990) | Cockburn (1990) | Dickman (2014) | FitzGibbon, Putland & Goldizen (2007) | FitzGibbon, Wilson & Goldizen (2011) | Flannery (1995a) | Friend, G.R. (1990) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gemmell (1982, 1990a,1990b) | Gordon (1971, 1974) | Gordon et al. (1990) | Groves (2005¢) | Hall (1983, 1990) | Johnson & Southgate (1990) | Keiper & Johnson (2004) | Lyne (1974) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | Menzies (2011) | Pardon et al. (2003) | Pope et al. (2001) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Vernes & Pope (2009) | Waithman (1979) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Zenger et al. (2005)",,"3.Northern Brown BandicootIsoodon macrourusFrench:Bandicoot a longue queue/ German:GroRer Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto septentrionalOther common names:Brindled Bandicoot, Giant Brindled Bandicoot, Large Northern Bandicoot, Northern Shortnosed Bandicoot, Short-nosed BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles macroura Gould, 1842,“ Port Essington,” Northern Territory, Australia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I.m.macrourusGould,1842—NNorthernTerritoryandNWesternAustralia,includingmanylargeislandsnearNcoast(e.g.GrooteEylandt,TiwiIs).I.m.moresbyensisRamsay,1877—NewGuinea.I. m. torosus Ramsay, 1877— N Queensland (Cape York) S, including Fraser I, Moreton I, North Stradbroke I and South Stradbroke, to Hawkesbury River, in CE New South Wales.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-47 cm, tail 8-21.5 cm; weight 0.5-3.1 kg. Adult males 80-90% heavier than females. Largest member of genus. Dorsal fur is light to dark brown, interspersed with black spiny bristle hairs that give animals a sleek but grizzled appearance. Ventral fur is light gray or off-white and less spiky than dorsal pelage. Tail is covered with short, dark hair, ears are naked and held erect; both tail and ears of males may be scarred from fighting.Habitat.Occurs in grassland, woodland, open forest and on occasion rainforest in both Australia and New Guinea, and successfully exploits gardens and other disturbed habitats if sufficient ground coveris available to allow access. Prefers ground cover comprising dense shrubs or tall grass in southern parts ofits range, but readily uses areas with sparse ground in monsoon tropical regions in northern Australia and New Guinea. In drier parts of range in Australia, this species persists in marshy areas with heavy ground cover, and penetrates west in Queensland to about the 625mm rainfall isohyet by moving along densely vegetated riparian corridors. Nest usually a simple scrape under a dome of sticks, leaf litter, and other debris, with two or more openings; individuals may also use logs, grass tussocks, or crevices in rocks for shelter.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, and eats wide variety of invertebrates, small vertebrates such as lizards and birds, and their eggs, also fruits, seeds, plant roots, storage organs, and green plant material, as well as underground fungi. Like other members of the genus, this bandicoot forages on ground surface but also uses its powerful forelimbsto dig for food, leaving behind characteristically conical holes that may descend to depth of 30 cm. The diet varies with locality and season, suggesting that animals track and eat different prey types according to their availability.Breeding.Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months and males by six months. Breeding can occur year-round, but in southern parts of range there is usually a hiatus in reproductive activity over winter between April and July and in northern regions during dry season between May and July. Gestation is 12-5 days, and young leave the pouch at 50 days and are weaned at 60 days or less. Litter size 1-7, but more usually 3—4, with larger litters borne by females in southern areas compared with those in northern Australia or New Guinea. Relatively large litter size, rapid growth, and rapid development of this species mean thatit is one of the most fecund of the peramelids. In Darwin area of Northern Territory, one study described females as producing up to fourlitters at intervals of 54 days over the breeding season. As in other members of genus, this bandicoot has eight nipples in a backward-facing pouch, use of individual nipples alternating between successive litters.Activity patterns.Individuals emerge after dark and are active for most of night, covering wide range of habitats in their search for food; males may patrol areas on edge of their home range, especially during the long breeding season. The day is usually spent in resting in the nest or under shelter, but occasional movements have been recorded in early morning orjust before dusk in rugged sandstone country on Groote Eylandt.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both sexes are solitary. Males and females tolerate each other briefly when females are in estrus, but otherwise interactions are characterized by aggression, chases, and fights. Both sexes produce secretions from glands behind the ears and rub them on ground or vegetation during encounters, perhaps using them as “keep-away” signals to reduce likelihood of further encounters. Home ranges relatively small compared with those of its two smaller congeners, averaging 2-7 ha (maximum 6 ha) in one study in abandoned pasture-shrubland area and 1-5 ha in another study in remnant vegetation within limits of city of Brisbane. Population densities can be correspondingly large, ranging from 0-2 ind/ ha to 2:6 ind/ha in New South Wales and southern Queensland, but lower densities of 0-05 ind/ha to 0-7 ind/ha appear to be more typical in tropical regions. Lower densities, larger ranges and more seasonal breeding in northern compared with southern Australia may reflect less abundant and more strongly seasonal food resources in monsoonal tropics compared with mid-latitude habitats. Corresponding differences in recruitment of young into adult population might be expected between regional areas, but limited evidence suggests that recruitment rates are usually 10-15%. Higher recruitment of young, however, follows disturbances such as fire and mechanical damage to habitat and, as with the Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus), the life-history strategy of present species has been interpreted as one that allows rapid colonization of newly created habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend stable. This bandicoot is not considered to be at currentrisk as it occupies an extensive geographical range, has a large overall population, and occurs in many protected areas. Declines have occurred in drier, inland areas near S edge of range of race torosus. While the species continues to decline owing to development, habitat loss, and changes in fire regimes, and overhunting for bushmeat in New Guinea, the declines are mostly local. The larger size of this bandicoot means that it is at less risk of predation from the feral cat (Felis catus), although it still falls prey to Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and wild dogs (Canis). Historical declines in inland pastoral areas were not extensive, and these appear to have slowed or halted. All subspecies appear to be secure.Bibliography.Ashby et al. (1990), Brass (1956), Close et al. (1990), Cockburn (1990), Dickman (2014), FitzGibbon, Putland & Goldizen (2007), FitzGibbon, Wilson & Goldizen (2011), Flannery (1995a), Friend, G.R. (1990), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gemmell (1982, 1990a,1990b), Gordon (1971, 1974), Gordon et al. (1990), Groves (2005¢), Hall (1983, 1990), Johnson & Southgate (1990), Keiper & Johnson (2004), Lyne (1974), Lyne & Mort (1981), Menzies (2011), Pardon et al. (2003), Pope et al. (2001), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Vernes & Pope (2009), Waithman (1979), Westerman et al. (2012), Zenger et al. (2005)." -03C91729FFD7FFB4FD91DD78F5BF1734,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,389,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD7FFB4FD91DD78F5BF1734.xml,Isoodon obesulus,Isoodon,obesulus,,,Bandicoot obése @fr | Kleiner Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto meridional @es | Brown Bandicoot @en | Short-nosed Bandicoot @en | Southern Short-nosed Bandicoot; Nuyts Southern Brown Bandicoot (nauticus) @en,"Didelphis obesula Shaw, 1797,“New Holland.” Restricted by T. Iredale & E. Le G. Troughton in 1934 to “Sydney, N.S.W. [= New South Wales],” Australia.Further restricted by J. M. Dixon in 1981 to “1-5 km south of the Hawkesbury River, 7-5 km from the Coal and Candle Creek Road turnoff on the West Head Road, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, north of Sydney, New South Wales, Lat. 33° 36’ S; Long. 151° 16” E,” Australia.This species has been split at various times into 3-5 geographically separated subspecies, but most contention surrounds the status of present species with respect to the closely related I. auratus. In some morphological and mtDNA analyses the latter has been grouped with Western Australian subspecies fusciventer, which would give this form a large and almost continuous historical distribution throughout Western Australia and most of the central part of the continent. More recent analyses incorporating additional nuclear-gene sequences suggest, however, that I. auratusis sufficiently distinct to warrant separation from I. obesulus, and this arrangement is followed here. Same analyses also hint at a closer relationship between the north-eastern subspecies peninsulae and I. auratusthan between former taxon and other forms of I. obesulus, and show little divergence between nominate obesulusand Tasmanian race affinis. Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis morphologically distinct from the nominate form, butis sometimes subsumed within latter. Pending further work, affinis, fusciventer, nauticus, and peninsulae are treated here as subspecies of 1. obesulus. Five subspecies recognized.","I.o.obesulusShaw,1797—NewSouthWales,Victoria,mainlandSouthAustralia,andKangarooI. o.o.affinisWaterhouse,1846—Tasmania.I.o.fusciventerGray,1841—WesternAustralia.I.o.nauticusThomas,1922—NuytsArchipelago,SouthAustralia.I. o. peninsulae Thomas, 1922— N Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula.","Head-body 28-36 cm, tail 9-14.5 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Males up to 40% heavier than females. Dorsal fur is dark brown or dark gray, and has a grizzled appearance owing to presence of black spiny bristle hairs. Ventral furis light gray and softer than stiff dorsal hair, and often has a creamy or yellowish tinge. Tail is covered in short, dark hairs. Older animals may have a stubby tail, ragged ears, and patches of missing fur (from fighting).","Diverse forest, woodland, heath and shrub communities, often where these occur on sandy soils. It occurs also on the edges of swamps and in riparian habitats where dense ground-level vegetation is present, creating tunnels and runs or using those constructed by other mammals. Recently burnt sites may be exploited for the regenerating food and shelter resources that they provide. Simple nests are formed under dense vegetation, under the skirts of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp., Xanthorrhoeaceae), and occasionally in shallow burrows; plantlitter, soil, and other debris may be used as construction materials to help enclose the nest. This species used to occur in more open habitats, but is probably restricted to areas with dense ground cover that provide shelter from introduced predators such as the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the domestic cat (Felis catus).","Insects, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents), bird eggs, fruit, green plant material, and fungi are all eaten. In several studies invertebrates have been the dominant food item, but the relative importance of each food type varies with season and locality. Most foraging occurs at night, animals using their hearing to detect surface-active prey and their sense of smell to detect buried prey. Digs characteristic conical holes in topsoil when buried prey has been located, providing a ready and reliable means of determining whether the species is present at a site.","Females attain sexual maturity at 4-5 months and males at six months. Breeding usually takes place from mid-winter to mid-summer, but can occur yearround. Gestation is c.14 days, and the 1-6 young (average 2-8) are weaned at 60 days. Females have eight nipples housed in a backward-facing pouch; different nipples are used by neonates of alternate litters, allowing time for recently used nipples to regress to a size that allows newly born young to attach to them. Recruitment of young into adult population is typically of the order of 5-15%.","In the wild, usually nocturnal. Animals emerge an hour or more after dusk and appear to spend most of their active time in foraging. Captive individuals are strictly nocturnal and have been recorded as spending 71% of the 24hour day at rest in their nests.","Like other peramelids, this species is solitary and intolerant of conspecifics except for brief encounters during courtship and copulation, and when females are with dependent young. Some evidence that males maintain territories incorporating resource-rich patches of habitat and tolerate presence of young females within them, but banish older females to poorer-quality habitats. Population densities range from 0-1 ind/ha in poor-quality habitat to 5 ind/ha in sites with abundant food and few predators; home ranges usually of the order of 1-2 ha, but may exceed 6 ha in areas with sparse resources. Although few young usually recruited to the adult population, this species’ high reproductive rate may allow it swiftly to colonize newly created habitats in the wake of wildfires and other disturbances.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Shows a decreasing population trend. With the exception of races affinis and perhaps nauticus, the distributions of all subspecies have been fragmented and reduced in recent decades, this being especially marked in south-eastern Australia. The species occurs in conservation reserves throughout its range, but is susceptible to predation from introduced Red Fox and feral cat, and to loss of habitat in non-reserved areas. Nominate subspecies and Tasmanian endemic race affiniscan be considered near threatened owing to depressive effects of predators and habitat loss or alteration, and Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis vulnerable owing to the small size and restricted area of its population. Cape York subspecies peninsulae has small area of occupancy, but is abundant within its small range and considered to be of least concern. Likewise, race fusciventerin Western Australia is considered to be of least concern; it has declined in the past, but has achieved partial recovery since mid-1990s owing to large-scale and highly successful campaigns to reduce Red Fox numbers. Programs to reduce impacts of introduced predators are currently underway also in Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales, and these should help to guard the security of the species in future.","Ashby et al. (1990) | Broughton & Dickman (1991) | Brown & Main (2012) | Close et al. (1990) | Coates & Wright (2003) | Coates et al. (2008) | Cockburn (1990) | Copley et al. (1990) | Dexter & Murray (2009) | Dickman (1988b, 2012, 2014) | Dixon (1981) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gordon etal. (1990) | Green (2007) | Groves (2005c) | Haby, Conran & Carthew (2013) | Heinsohn (1966) | Hocking (1990) | Hope (2012) | Iredale & Troughton (1934) | Keiper & Johnson (2004) | Kemper (1990) | Larcombe (2003) | Li You et al. (2014) | Lobert (1990) | Lobert & Lee (1990) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | McKenzie (1967) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Morris et al. (1998) | Nagy et al. (1991) | Pope et al. (2001) | Quin (1988) | Stoddart & Braithwaite (1979) | Thomas (1990) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Warburton, Grégoire et al. (2013) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014e, 2014f, 2014g, 2014h) | Zenger et al. (2005)",,"1.Southern Brown BandicootIsoodon obesulusFrench:Bandicoot obése/ German:Kleiner Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto meridionalOther common names:Brown Bandicoot, Short-nosed Bandicoot, Southern Short-nosed Bandicoot; Nuyts Southern Brown Bandicoot (nauticus)Taxonomy.Didelphis obesula Shaw, 1797,“New Holland.” Restricted by T. Iredale & E. Le G. Troughton in 1934 to “Sydney, N.S.W. [= New South Wales],” Australia.Further restricted by J. M. Dixon in 1981 to “1-5 km south of the Hawkesbury River, 7-5 km from the Coal and Candle Creek Road turnoff on the West Head Road, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, north of Sydney, New South Wales, Lat. 33° 36’ S; Long. 151° 16” E,” Australia.This species has been split at various times into 3-5 geographically separated subspecies, but most contention surrounds the status of present species with respect to the closely related I. auratus. In some morphological and mtDNA analyses the latter has been grouped with Western Australian subspecies fusciventer, which would give this form a large and almost continuous historical distribution throughout Western Australia and most of the central part of the continent. More recent analyses incorporating additional nuclear-gene sequences suggest, however, that I. auratusis sufficiently distinct to warrant separation from I. obesulus, and this arrangement is followed here. Same analyses also hint at a closer relationship between the north-eastern subspecies peninsulae and I. auratusthan between former taxon and other forms of I. obesulus, and show little divergence between nominate obesulusand Tasmanian race affinis. Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis morphologically distinct from the nominate form, butis sometimes subsumed within latter. Pending further work, affinis, fusciventer, nauticus, and peninsulae are treated here as subspecies of 1. obesulus. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I.o.obesulusShaw,1797—NewSouthWales,Victoria,mainlandSouthAustralia,andKangarooI. o.o.affinisWaterhouse,1846—Tasmania.I.o.fusciventerGray,1841—WesternAustralia.I.o.nauticusThomas,1922—NuytsArchipelago,SouthAustralia.I. o. peninsulae Thomas, 1922— N Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-36 cm, tail 9-14.5 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Males up to 40% heavier than females. Dorsal fur is dark brown or dark gray, and has a grizzled appearance owing to presence of black spiny bristle hairs. Ventral furis light gray and softer than stiff dorsal hair, and often has a creamy or yellowish tinge. Tail is covered in short, dark hairs. Older animals may have a stubby tail, ragged ears, and patches of missing fur (from fighting).Habitat.Diverse forest, woodland, heath and shrub communities, often where these occur on sandy soils. It occurs also on the edges of swamps and in riparian habitats where dense ground-level vegetation is present, creating tunnels and runs or using those constructed by other mammals. Recently burnt sites may be exploited for the regenerating food and shelter resources that they provide. Simple nests are formed under dense vegetation, under the skirts of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp., Xanthorrhoeaceae), and occasionally in shallow burrows; plantlitter, soil, and other debris may be used as construction materials to help enclose the nest. This species used to occur in more open habitats, but is probably restricted to areas with dense ground cover that provide shelter from introduced predators such as the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the domestic cat (Felis catus).Food and Feeding.Insects, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents), bird eggs, fruit, green plant material, and fungi are all eaten. In several studies invertebrates have been the dominant food item, but the relative importance of each food type varies with season and locality. Most foraging occurs at night, animals using their hearing to detect surface-active prey and their sense of smell to detect buried prey. Digs characteristic conical holes in topsoil when buried prey has been located, providing a ready and reliable means of determining whether the species is present at a site.Breeding.Females attain sexual maturity at 4-5 months and males at six months. Breeding usually takes place from mid-winter to mid-summer, but can occur yearround. Gestation is c.14 days, and the 1-6 young (average 2-8) are weaned at 60 days. Females have eight nipples housed in a backward-facing pouch; different nipples are used by neonates of alternate litters, allowing time for recently used nipples to regress to a size that allows newly born young to attach to them. Recruitment of young into adult population is typically of the order of 5-15%.Activity patterns.In the wild, usually nocturnal. Animals emerge an hour or more after dusk and appear to spend most of their active time in foraging. Captive individuals are strictly nocturnal and have been recorded as spending 71% of the 24hour day at rest in their nests.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other peramelids, this species is solitary and intolerant of conspecifics except for brief encounters during courtship and copulation, and when females are with dependent young. Some evidence that males maintain territories incorporating resource-rich patches of habitat and tolerate presence of young females within them, but banish older females to poorer-quality habitats. Population densities range from 0-1 ind/ha in poor-quality habitat to 5 ind/ha in sites with abundant food and few predators; home ranges usually of the order of 1-2 ha, but may exceed 6 ha in areas with sparse resources. Although few young usually recruited to the adult population, this species’ high reproductive rate may allow it swiftly to colonize newly created habitats in the wake of wildfires and other disturbances.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Shows a decreasing population trend. With the exception of races affinis and perhaps nauticus, the distributions of all subspecies have been fragmented and reduced in recent decades, this being especially marked in south-eastern Australia. The species occurs in conservation reserves throughout its range, but is susceptible to predation from introduced Red Fox and feral cat, and to loss of habitat in non-reserved areas. Nominate subspecies and Tasmanian endemic race affiniscan be considered near threatened owing to depressive effects of predators and habitat loss or alteration, and Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis vulnerable owing to the small size and restricted area of its population. Cape York subspecies peninsulae has small area of occupancy, but is abundant within its small range and considered to be of least concern. Likewise, race fusciventerin Western Australia is considered to be of least concern; it has declined in the past, but has achieved partial recovery since mid-1990s owing to large-scale and highly successful campaigns to reduce Red Fox numbers. Programs to reduce impacts of introduced predators are currently underway also in Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales, and these should help to guard the security of the species in future.Bibliography.Ashby et al. (1990), Broughton & Dickman (1991), Brown & Main (2012), Close et al. (1990), Coates & Wright (2003), Coates et al. (2008), Cockburn (1990), Copley et al. (1990), Dexter & Murray (2009), Dickman (1988b, 2012, 2014), Dixon (1981), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gordon etal. (1990), Green (2007), Groves (2005c), Haby, Conran & Carthew (2013), Heinsohn (1966), Hocking (1990), Hope (2012), Iredale & Troughton (1934), Keiper & Johnson (2004), Kemper (1990), Larcombe (2003), Li You et al. (2014), Lobert (1990), Lobert & Lee (1990), Lyne & Mort (1981), McKenzie (1967), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Morris et al. (1998), Nagy et al. (1991), Pope et al. (2001), Quin (1988), Stoddart & Braithwaite (1979), Thomas (1990), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Warburton, Grégoire et al. (2013), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014e, 2014f, 2014g, 2014h), Zenger et al. (2005)." -03C91729FFD7FFB5F86CD9D3FCB41A01,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,389,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD7FFB5F86CD9D3FCB41A01.xml,Isoodon auratus,Isoodon,auratus,,,Bandicoot doré @fr | Goldbrauner Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto dorado @es | Northern Golden Bandicoot @en | Northern Golden-backed Bandicoot @en,"Perameles auratus [sic] Ramsay, 1887,“ Derby, N. W. Australia.” (= Western Australia, Australia).Recent molecular analyses confirm this taxon as being distinct from I. obesulusand distinguish two forms within it that correspond to subspecies auratusand barrowensis. As noted above, the same analyses suggest that these subspecies cluster with I. o. peninsulae (or even I. peninsulae), and further work may see this form grouped within the “Golden Bandicoot clade.” A further race, arnhemensis, has been distinguished on basis ofits larger size and slight differences in shape ofits skull; it has not, however, been subject to any genetic or molecular analysis, and is not accepted by all authorities. Three subspecies tentatively recognized here.","I.a.auratusRamsay,1887—NWKimberleyandseveralsmallislandsoffKimberleycoast.I.a.arnhemensisLyne&Mort,1981—CapeArnhem,NENorthernTerritory.I. a. barrowensis Thomas, 1901— Barrow I and Middle I, Western Australia.Occurs also (subspecies uncertain) on Marchinbar I, in Wessel Group, Northern Territory, and introduced recently to two further islands in Wessel Group. Barrow I race barrowensisintroduced to nearby Hermite I, to Doole I (in Exmouth Gulf), and to Lorna Glen (mainland of C Western Australia) in recentyears.","Head-body 19-29.5 cm, tail 8.4-12.1 cm; weight 300-670 g for I. a. auratus, 250-600 g for I. a. barrowensis. Males 40-50% heavier than females. Smallest member of genus. Dorsal fur is golden brown, but has grizzled appearance owing to overlay of long, stiff guard hairs; ventral fur is cream or white. Tail is covered in short, orange to dark brown hairs.","Prior to its final disappearance from arid regions in mid-20"" century, occurred on sandy soils dominated by hummock grass or low shrubs. In its remnant mainland distribution it occurs in tussock grassland and low woodland dominated by Acacia(Fabaceae) and Eucalyptus spp.(Myrtaceae), often on sandy soils, but also on rugged sandstone habitats. Shows a strong association with hummock grass on Barrow Island, often burrowing under hummocks for shelter, but on Marchinbar Island prefers low heath or shrubland on sand or sandstone. Sometimes found in vine thicket and patches of rainforest, but these do not appear to be preferred habitats. Nest can be a shallow scrape under rock or other shelter, or simple structure constructed from grass and other local materials; constructed on ground surface, under grass hummock and dense shrubs or, on Barrow, in limestone cave. Individuals use different shelters on different days, and visit varied habitats by night when foraging, but generally occupy stable ranges that change little between seasons.","Invertebrates represent a larger part of diet compared with those of both larger congeners, with beetles, termites, ants, centipedes, and insect larvae consumed. In addition, it eats seeds, roots, tubers, fruits, and other plant material, especially in dry season, and small rodents and lizards also may be eaten. Perhaps because of the diverse habitats that it uses for foraging, including ocean beaches, this species includes in its diet items that are unusual for peramelids, such as washed-up cephalopods and turtle eggs. Conical-shaped pits in sandy soils indicate where foraging has taken place.","Females reproduce throughout year in all localities where repeated sampling has been carried out, but proportion of females giving birth increases during wet season in summer or after significant rain at other times. Rainfall probably increases availability of food for this species, and also provides free water that assists mothers in maintaining water balance during lactation. Females have eight nipples in a rearopening pouch and carry 2-3 young at a time. One or two young may survive to weaning, but rate of recruitment to adult population is not known. Age at sexual maturity is 6-7 months. There is no information for this species on length of gestation or time to weaning, but these traits are likely to be similar to those of better-studied Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus).","Rests by day in a nest or temporary shelter and emerges after dusk when conditions are dark. Radio-tracking studies indicate that activity can be maintained continuously throughout the night, although animals are usually most active 3—4 hours after dusk and in the hour or so before dawn. Up to 10 ha may be covered each night, although 1-5 ha is more usual. Animals return to their shelters before daybreak.","Limited research on Barrow Island and Marchinbar Island shows that males occupy larger home ranges (4-4-35-6 ha) than females (1-7-12-7 ha). On Marchinbar, home range areas tended to be larger during dry season than in wet season and ranges of the sexes overlapped. On Barrow, male ranges overlapped with those of females but not with each other. Individuals appear to be generally aggressive toward each other and fight if placed in close proximity. Despite this social intolerance, population densities can be high. Marchinbar supports ¢.0-07 ind/ha and Barrow c.0-3 ind/ha, but density may rise to 10 ind/ha in productive areas on the coast, where island food resources are high and subsidies are available from nearby beaches.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species was once widespread in interior of Australia, but is now confined to high-rainfall areas of north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins islands), Barrow Island and Middle Island, off Pilbara coast, all in Western Australia, with an isolated outpost on Marchinbar Island, off N Northern Territory. It is considered to have a declining population trend. Sparsely distributed on mainland Western Australia, where population declines recently recorded. No estimates available for Augustus or Uwins, but the species is said to be sparse on former and relatively common on latter. It appears to be secure on Barrow, where at least 20,000 individuals estimated, and reasonably safe on Middle (c.1000) and Marchinbar (c.1400). Introductions or reintroductions from these populations to two small Wessel Group islands (Guluwuru and Raragala islands) off N Northern Territory, and to Doole Island, Hermite Island, and Lorna Glen in Western Australia, should provide insurance that these forms will remain secure. These sites are conservation reserves or Indigenous Protected Areas and are monitored on a regular or ad hoc basis. Mainland populations of this bandicoot continue to decline owing to predation from domestic or feral cats (Felis catus), habitat loss due to such practices as mining, and inappropriate changes to the fire regime that reduce vegetation cover and expose animals to increased risk of predation. Monitoring takes place at some mainland sites such as Mitchell Plateau and Artesian Range Sanctuary, in Western Australia, with active research and management in place at latter site to mitigate effects of changed fire regimes. Long-term security of this peramelid most likely to occurif cats and other invasive species, such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus), are prevented from establishing on key islands, and if means of managing cat impacts on a broad scale can be found for the remnant populations that persist in mainland areas.","Bradshaw et al. (1994) | Burbidge et al. (1988) | Close et al. (1990) | Cockburn (1990) | Dahl (1897) | Ellis et al. (1991) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Groves (2005c¢) | Johnson & Southgate (1990) | Jones et al. (2009) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | McKenzie, Morris & Dickman (2008) | Ottewell et al. (2014) | Palmer et al. (2003) | Pope et al. (2001) | Southgate et al. (1996) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski, Burbidge & Harrison (2014d) | Woinarski, Palmer et al. (1999) | Woinarski, Pavey et al. (2007) | Zenger et al. (2005)",,"2.Golden BandicootIsoodon auratusFrench:Bandicoot doré/ German:Goldbrauner Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto doradoOther common names:Northern Golden Bandicoot, Northern Golden-backed BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles auratus [sic] Ramsay, 1887,“ Derby, N. W. Australia.” (= Western Australia, Australia).Recent molecular analyses confirm this taxon as being distinct from I. obesulusand distinguish two forms within it that correspond to subspecies auratusand barrowensis. As noted above, the same analyses suggest that these subspecies cluster with I. o. peninsulae (or even I. peninsulae), and further work may see this form grouped within the “Golden Bandicoot clade.” A further race, arnhemensis, has been distinguished on basis ofits larger size and slight differences in shape ofits skull; it has not, however, been subject to any genetic or molecular analysis, and is not accepted by all authorities. Three subspecies tentatively recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.I.a.auratusRamsay,1887—NWKimberleyandseveralsmallislandsoffKimberleycoast.I.a.arnhemensisLyne&Mort,1981—CapeArnhem,NENorthernTerritory.I. a. barrowensis Thomas, 1901— Barrow I and Middle I, Western Australia.Occurs also (subspecies uncertain) on Marchinbar I, in Wessel Group, Northern Territory, and introduced recently to two further islands in Wessel Group. Barrow I race barrowensisintroduced to nearby Hermite I, to Doole I (in Exmouth Gulf), and to Lorna Glen (mainland of C Western Australia) in recentyears.Descriptive notes.Head-body 19-29.5 cm, tail 8.4-12.1 cm; weight 300-670 g for I. a. auratus, 250-600 g for I. a. barrowensis. Males 40-50% heavier than females. Smallest member of genus. Dorsal fur is golden brown, but has grizzled appearance owing to overlay of long, stiff guard hairs; ventral fur is cream or white. Tail is covered in short, orange to dark brown hairs.Habitat.Prior to its final disappearance from arid regions in mid-20"" century, occurred on sandy soils dominated by hummock grass or low shrubs. In its remnant mainland distribution it occurs in tussock grassland and low woodland dominated by Acacia(Fabaceae) and Eucalyptus spp.(Myrtaceae), often on sandy soils, but also on rugged sandstone habitats. Shows a strong association with hummock grass on Barrow Island, often burrowing under hummocks for shelter, but on Marchinbar Island prefers low heath or shrubland on sand or sandstone. Sometimes found in vine thicket and patches of rainforest, but these do not appear to be preferred habitats. Nest can be a shallow scrape under rock or other shelter, or simple structure constructed from grass and other local materials; constructed on ground surface, under grass hummock and dense shrubs or, on Barrow, in limestone cave. Individuals use different shelters on different days, and visit varied habitats by night when foraging, but generally occupy stable ranges that change little between seasons.On following pages: 3. Northern Brown Bandicoot (/soodon macrourus); 4. Western Barred Bandicoot (Peramelesbougainville); 5. Eastern Barred Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii); 6. Long-nosed Bandicoot (Perameles nasuta), 7. Giant Bandicoot (Peroryctes broadbenti); 8. Raffray’s Bandicoot (Peroryctes raffrayana).Food and Feeding.Invertebrates represent a larger part of diet compared with those of both larger congeners, with beetles, termites, ants, centipedes, and insect larvae consumed. In addition, it eats seeds, roots, tubers, fruits, and other plant material, especially in dry season, and small rodents and lizards also may be eaten. Perhaps because of the diverse habitats that it uses for foraging, including ocean beaches, this species includes in its diet items that are unusual for peramelids, such as washed-up cephalopods and turtle eggs. Conical-shaped pits in sandy soils indicate where foraging has taken place.Breeding.Females reproduce throughout year in all localities where repeated sampling has been carried out, but proportion of females giving birth increases during wet season in summer or after significant rain at other times. Rainfall probably increases availability of food for this species, and also provides free water that assists mothers in maintaining water balance during lactation. Females have eight nipples in a rearopening pouch and carry 2-3 young at a time. One or two young may survive to weaning, but rate of recruitment to adult population is not known. Age at sexual maturity is 6-7 months. There is no information for this species on length of gestation or time to weaning, but these traits are likely to be similar to those of better-studied Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus).Activity patterns.Rests by day in a nest or temporary shelter and emerges after dusk when conditions are dark. Radio-tracking studies indicate that activity can be maintained continuously throughout the night, although animals are usually most active 3—4 hours after dusk and in the hour or so before dawn. Up to 10 ha may be covered each night, although 1-5 ha is more usual. Animals return to their shelters before daybreak.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Limited research on Barrow Island and Marchinbar Island shows that males occupy larger home ranges (4-4-35-6 ha) than females (1-7-12-7 ha). On Marchinbar, home range areas tended to be larger during dry season than in wet season and ranges of the sexes overlapped. On Barrow, male ranges overlapped with those of females but not with each other. Individuals appear to be generally aggressive toward each other and fight if placed in close proximity. Despite this social intolerance, population densities can be high. Marchinbar supports ¢.0-07 ind/ha and Barrow c.0-3 ind/ha, but density may rise to 10 ind/ha in productive areas on the coast, where island food resources are high and subsidies are available from nearby beaches.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species was once widespread in interior of Australia, but is now confined to high-rainfall areas of north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins islands), Barrow Island and Middle Island, off Pilbara coast, all in Western Australia, with an isolated outpost on Marchinbar Island, off N Northern Territory. It is considered to have a declining population trend. Sparsely distributed on mainland Western Australia, where population declines recently recorded. No estimates available for Augustus or Uwins, but the species is said to be sparse on former and relatively common on latter. It appears to be secure on Barrow, where at least 20,000 individuals estimated, and reasonably safe on Middle (c.1000) and Marchinbar (c.1400). Introductions or reintroductions from these populations to two small Wessel Group islands (Guluwuru and Raragala islands) off N Northern Territory, and to Doole Island, Hermite Island, and Lorna Glen in Western Australia, should provide insurance that these forms will remain secure. These sites are conservation reserves or Indigenous Protected Areas and are monitored on a regular or ad hoc basis. Mainland populations of this bandicoot continue to decline owing to predation from domestic or feral cats (Felis catus), habitat loss due to such practices as mining, and inappropriate changes to the fire regime that reduce vegetation cover and expose animals to increased risk of predation. Monitoring takes place at some mainland sites such as Mitchell Plateau and Artesian Range Sanctuary, in Western Australia, with active research and management in place at latter site to mitigate effects of changed fire regimes. Long-term security of this peramelid most likely to occurif cats and other invasive species, such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus), are prevented from establishing on key islands, and if means of managing cat impacts on a broad scale can be found for the remnant populations that persist in mainland areas.Bibliography.Bradshaw et al. (1994), Burbidge et al. (1988), Close et al. (1990), Cockburn (1990), Dahl (1897), Ellis et al. (1991), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Groves (2005c¢), Johnson & Southgate (1990), Jones et al. (2009), Lyne & Mort (1981), McKenzie, Morris & Dickman (2008), Ottewell et al. (2014), Palmer et al. (2003), Pope et al. (2001), Southgate et al. (1996), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski, Burbidge & Harrison (2014d), Woinarski, Palmer et al. (1999), Woinarski, Pavey et al. (2007), Zenger et al. (2005)." -03C91729FFDCFFBCF8A6DD76FD8213C6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,396,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDCFFBCF8A6DD76FD8213C6.xml,Echymipera rufescens,Echymipera,rufescens,,,Bandicoot roux @fr | Roter Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de hocico largo @es | Rufescent Bandicoot @en | Rufous Spiny Bandicoot @en,"Perameles rufescens Peters & Doria, 1875,“Insulae Kei [= Kai Island],” Indonesia.Taxonomic status of several insular populations is in need of revision; taxonomic position of populations on Aru Islands and Kai Islands and those on D’Entrecasteaux Islands remains particularly uncertain. Two subspecies generally recognized.","E.r.rufescensPeters&Doria,1875—WPapuanIs(Misool),NewGuinea(includingYapenIandD’EntrecasteauxArchipelago),KaiIs,andAruIs.E. r. australis Tate, 1948— Cape York, NE Australia.","Head-body 21.5-54.5 cm,tail 7.5-11.5 cm; weight 0.3-3 kg. The subspecies australis is smaller of the two subspecies, males attaining head-body length of up to 48 cm and weight of up to 2-2 kg, compared with 54-5 cm and 3 kg, respectively, for nominate rufescens, a small form of latter occurs in Sepik region and a much larger form in Gulf Province. In both subspecies body weight of males may average 70% more than that of females, although occasional females may approach male body size. Dorsal fur is tawny, dark brown or rufous with characteristically stiff, broad, spiky hairs that give pelage a brindled appearance; ventral fur is pale. Crown of head is dark, often black, grading to pale gray on face and throat but with no hint of striping; snout is notably elongated, ears are short and round, and tail short, black, and naked. This species is variable in size and color, with small individuals similar in appearance to female Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara) and the Common Echymipera(E. kalubu); can be distinguished from these two byits usually more rufous toning and the presence of a small black pad on hindfoot.","In New Guinea occurs in grassland, scrub, lowland rainforest, and foothill forest at altitudes from sea level to 1200 m, occasionally to 2100 m; found also in generally drier and more disturbed habitats than other species in genus. It occupies similar habitats in Australia, but occurs there also in coastal closed heath and extends into drier country along gallery forest, from sea level to 800 m. May rest in logs or under leaflitter in sheltered sites in a similar manner to that of other peramelids, but present species also shows considerable propensity to construct burrows. In Australia, burrow complexes may be 50-80 cm deep, cover up to 3 m? in area, and have two or more entrances.","In the most detailed study of the diet of this echymipera, at Iron Range, on Cape York Peninsula,fruits and seeds comprised ¢.27% of diet, followed by invertebrates (26%), fungi (19%), and the remains ofleafy plants (18%); other foods included plant roots and soil, grass, and small vertebrates. Pronounced seasonal variation in the amount of each food type consumed probably reflected changes in food availability. More limited information for New Guinea suggests that diet there is similar. Food obtained from forest floor or by excavation; as with many other peramelids, this species’ presence can often be detected by the finding of conical holes 20-30 cm deep that the animals have dug with their powerful forelimbs.","In Iron Range study, females carried pouch young between November and May, 80-100% of females carrying young during peak of wet season from January to March. Litter size was 1-4 (average 2-8), larger females carrying more young and producing up to two litters per season. Females produced on average 4-9 young per year. Females have eight nipples. Reproductive effort appears similar, or perhaps spread over longer period, in New Guinea, where females recorded as carrying young in pouch in May, October, March, and August. Growth of young appears to be slower than in other peramelids that have been well studied; young leave pouch at c.65 days, are weaned at 70 days, and become sexually mature at 4-5 months.","Rests by day, and is believed to be strictly nocturnal in both its Australian and its New Guinean ranges.","There is some evidence that animals make repeated use of the same paths through vegetation and that range areas are of the order of 1-2 ha. Captive individuals are intensely intolerant of each other, and males, in particular, often bear scars and wounds inflicted in fights. Despite such mutual intolerance, local population density can be high if resources are available. At Iron Range, 48 resident animals were present on a grid of 2-25 ha, equating ostensibly to a density of 21 ind/ha; true density would have been less than this as the grid probably sampled an area greater than 2-25 ha, but would still have exceeded 10 ind/ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Has a decreasing population trend. In New Guinea, nominate subspecies is considered to be uncommon in most parts of its range, although it can achieve high abundance locally if conditionsare suitable. It has a large geographical range, occurs in a number of protected areas, and may be tolerant of at least some habitat disturbance. It is, nonetheless, a favored game species and is susceptible to overhunting. There is also anecdotal evidence that it is susceptible to the gross habitat disturbance that accompanies mining and the forest-firing and clearing that precedes production of commercial crops such as oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). Thus, while nominate rufescensis declining in some areas, the overall rate of decline appears slow and the subspecies cannot be considered at risk. In Australia, subspecies australis appears to be secure. It faces no obvious or immediate threats, has not declined in its distributional range, and remains locally abundantin suitable habitat.","Collins (1973) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Gordon & Lawrie (1978) | Gordon et al. (1990) | Groves (2005¢c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Menzies (2011) | Shevill & Johnson (2007) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)",,"13.Long-nosed EchymiperaEchymipera rufescensFrench:Bandicoot roux/ German:Roter Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de hocico largoOther common names:Rufescent Bandicoot, Rufous Spiny BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles rufescens Peters & Doria, 1875,“Insulae Kei [= Kai Island],” Indonesia.Taxonomic status of several insular populations is in need of revision; taxonomic position of populations on Aru Islands and Kai Islands and those on D’Entrecasteaux Islands remains particularly uncertain. Two subspecies generally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.rufescensPeters&Doria,1875—WPapuanIs(Misool),NewGuinea(includingYapenIandD’EntrecasteauxArchipelago),KaiIs,andAruIs.E. r. australis Tate, 1948— Cape York, NE Australia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 21.5-54.5 cm,tail 7.5-11.5 cm; weight 0.3-3 kg. The subspecies australis is smaller of the two subspecies, males attaining head-body length of up to 48 cm and weight of up to 2-2 kg, compared with 54-5 cm and 3 kg, respectively, for nominate rufescens, a small form of latter occurs in Sepik region and a much larger form in Gulf Province. In both subspecies body weight of males may average 70% more than that of females, although occasional females may approach male body size. Dorsal fur is tawny, dark brown or rufous with characteristically stiff, broad, spiky hairs that give pelage a brindled appearance; ventral fur is pale. Crown of head is dark, often black, grading to pale gray on face and throat but with no hint of striping; snout is notably elongated, ears are short and round, and tail short, black, and naked. This species is variable in size and color, with small individuals similar in appearance to female Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara) and the Common Echymipera(E. kalubu); can be distinguished from these two byits usually more rufous toning and the presence of a small black pad on hindfoot.Habitat.In New Guinea occurs in grassland, scrub, lowland rainforest, and foothill forest at altitudes from sea level to 1200 m, occasionally to 2100 m; found also in generally drier and more disturbed habitats than other species in genus. It occupies similar habitats in Australia, but occurs there also in coastal closed heath and extends into drier country along gallery forest, from sea level to 800 m. May rest in logs or under leaflitter in sheltered sites in a similar manner to that of other peramelids, but present species also shows considerable propensity to construct burrows. In Australia, burrow complexes may be 50-80 cm deep, cover up to 3 m? in area, and have two or more entrances.Food and Feeding.In the most detailed study of the diet of this echymipera, at Iron Range, on Cape York Peninsula,fruits and seeds comprised ¢.27% of diet, followed by invertebrates (26%), fungi (19%), and the remains ofleafy plants (18%); other foods included plant roots and soil, grass, and small vertebrates. Pronounced seasonal variation in the amount of each food type consumed probably reflected changes in food availability. More limited information for New Guinea suggests that diet there is similar. Food obtained from forest floor or by excavation; as with many other peramelids, this species’ presence can often be detected by the finding of conical holes 20-30 cm deep that the animals have dug with their powerful forelimbs.Breeding.In Iron Range study, females carried pouch young between November and May, 80-100% of females carrying young during peak of wet season from January to March. Litter size was 1-4 (average 2-8), larger females carrying more young and producing up to two litters per season. Females produced on average 4-9 young per year. Females have eight nipples. Reproductive effort appears similar, or perhaps spread over longer period, in New Guinea, where females recorded as carrying young in pouch in May, October, March, and August. Growth of young appears to be slower than in other peramelids that have been well studied; young leave pouch at c.65 days, are weaned at 70 days, and become sexually mature at 4-5 months.Activity patterns.Rests by day, and is believed to be strictly nocturnal in both its Australian and its New Guinean ranges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is some evidence that animals make repeated use of the same paths through vegetation and that range areas are of the order of 1-2 ha. Captive individuals are intensely intolerant of each other, and males, in particular, often bear scars and wounds inflicted in fights. Despite such mutual intolerance, local population density can be high if resources are available. At Iron Range, 48 resident animals were present on a grid of 2-25 ha, equating ostensibly to a density of 21 ind/ha; true density would have been less than this as the grid probably sampled an area greater than 2-25 ha, but would still have exceeded 10 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Has a decreasing population trend. In New Guinea, nominate subspecies is considered to be uncommon in most parts of its range, although it can achieve high abundance locally if conditionsare suitable. It has a large geographical range, occurs in a number of protected areas, and may be tolerant of at least some habitat disturbance. It is, nonetheless, a favored game species and is susceptible to overhunting. There is also anecdotal evidence that it is susceptible to the gross habitat disturbance that accompanies mining and the forest-firing and clearing that precedes production of commercial crops such as oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). Thus, while nominate rufescensis declining in some areas, the overall rate of decline appears slow and the subspecies cannot be considered at risk. In Australia, subspecies australis appears to be secure. It faces no obvious or immediate threats, has not declined in its distributional range, and remains locally abundantin suitable habitat.Bibliography.Collins (1973), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Gordon & Lawrie (1978), Gordon et al. (1990), Groves (2005¢c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Menzies (2011), Shevill & Johnson (2007), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977, 1982)." +03C91729FFD6FFB2FDB2D4CDFCBF1092,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,390,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD6FFB2FDB2D4CDFCBF1092.xml,Isoodon macrourus,Isoodon,macrourus,,,Bandicoot a longue queue @fr | Gro Rer Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto septentrional @es | Brindled Bandicoot @en | Giant Brindled Bandicoot @en | Large Northern Bandicoot @en | Northern Shortnosed Bandicoot @en | Short-nosed Bandicoot @en,"Perameles macroura Gould, 1842,“ Port Essington,” Northern Territory, Australia.Three subspecies are recognized.","I.m.macrourusGould,1842—NNorthernTerritoryandNWesternAustralia,includingmanylargeislandsnearNcoast(e.g.GrooteEylandt,TiwiIs).I.m.moresbyensisRamsay,1877—NewGuinea.I. m. torosus Ramsay, 1877— N Queensland (Cape York) S, including Fraser I, Moreton I, North Stradbroke I and South Stradbroke, to Hawkesbury River, in CE New South Wales.","Head-body 30-47 cm, tail 8-21.5 cm; weight 0.5-3.1 kg. Adult males 80-90% heavier than females. Largest member of genus. Dorsal fur is light to dark brown, interspersed with black spiny bristle hairs that give animals a sleek but grizzled appearance. Ventral fur is light gray or off-white and less spiky than dorsal pelage. Tail is covered with short, dark hair, ears are naked and held erect; both tail and ears of males may be scarred from fighting.","Occurs in grassland, woodland, open forest and on occasion rainforest in both Australia and New Guinea, and successfully exploits gardens and other disturbed habitats if sufficient ground coveris available to allow access. Prefers ground cover comprising dense shrubs or tall grass in southern parts ofits range, but readily uses areas with sparse ground in monsoon tropical regions in northern Australia and New Guinea. In drier parts of range in Australia, this species persists in marshy areas with heavy ground cover, and penetrates west in Queensland to about the 625mm rainfall isohyet by moving along densely vegetated riparian corridors. Nest usually a simple scrape under a dome of sticks, leaf litter, and other debris, with two or more openings; individuals may also use logs, grass tussocks, or crevices in rocks for shelter.","Omnivorous, and eats wide variety of invertebrates, small vertebrates such as lizards and birds, and their eggs, also fruits, seeds, plant roots, storage organs, and green plant material, as well as underground fungi. Like other members of the genus, this bandicoot forages on ground surface but also uses its powerful forelimbsto dig for food, leaving behind characteristically conical holes that may descend to depth of 30 cm. The diet varies with locality and season, suggesting that animals track and eat different prey types according to their availability.","Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months and males by six months. Breeding can occur year-round, but in southern parts of range there is usually a hiatus in reproductive activity over winter between April and July and in northern regions during dry season between May and July. Gestation is 12-5 days, and young leave the pouch at 50 days and are weaned at 60 days or less. Litter size 1-7, but more usually 3—4, with larger litters borne by females in southern areas compared with those in northern Australia or New Guinea. Relatively large litter size, rapid growth, and rapid development of this species mean thatit is one of the most fecund of the peramelids. In Darwin area of Northern Territory, one study described females as producing up to fourlitters at intervals of 54 days over the breeding season. As in other members of genus, this bandicoot has eight nipples in a backward-facing pouch, use of individual nipples alternating between successive litters.","Individuals emerge after dark and are active for most of night, covering wide range of habitats in their search for food; males may patrol areas on edge of their home range, especially during the long breeding season. The day is usually spent in resting in the nest or under shelter, but occasional movements have been recorded in early morning orjust before dusk in rugged sandstone country on Groote Eylandt.","Both sexes are solitary. Males and females tolerate each other briefly when females are in estrus, but otherwise interactions are characterized by aggression, chases, and fights. Both sexes produce secretions from glands behind the ears and rub them on ground or vegetation during encounters, perhaps using them as “keep-away” signals to reduce likelihood of further encounters. Home ranges relatively small compared with those of its two smaller congeners, averaging 2-7 ha (maximum 6 ha) in one study in abandoned pasture-shrubland area and 1-5 ha in another study in remnant vegetation within limits of city of Brisbane. Population densities can be correspondingly large, ranging from 0-2 ind/ ha to 2:6 ind/ha in New South Wales and southern Queensland, but lower densities of 0-05 ind/ha to 0-7 ind/ha appear to be more typical in tropical regions. Lower densities, larger ranges and more seasonal breeding in northern compared with southern Australia may reflect less abundant and more strongly seasonal food resources in monsoonal tropics compared with mid-latitude habitats. Corresponding differences in recruitment of young into adult population might be expected between regional areas, but limited evidence suggests that recruitment rates are usually 10-15%. Higher recruitment of young, however, follows disturbances such as fire and mechanical damage to habitat and, as with the Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus), the life-history strategy of present species has been interpreted as one that allows rapid colonization of newly created habitat.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend stable. This bandicoot is not considered to be at currentrisk as it occupies an extensive geographical range, has a large overall population, and occurs in many protected areas. Declines have occurred in drier, inland areas near S edge of range of race torosus. While the species continues to decline owing to development, habitat loss, and changes in fire regimes, and overhunting for bushmeat in New Guinea, the declines are mostly local. The larger size of this bandicoot means that it is at less risk of predation from the feral cat (Felis catus), although it still falls prey to Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and wild dogs (Canis). Historical declines in inland pastoral areas were not extensive, and these appear to have slowed or halted. All subspecies appear to be secure.","Ashby et al. (1990) | Brass (1956) | Close et al. (1990) | Cockburn (1990) | Dickman (2014) | FitzGibbon, Putland & Goldizen (2007) | FitzGibbon, Wilson & Goldizen (2011) | Flannery (1995a) | Friend, G.R. (1990) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gemmell (1982, 1990a,1990b) | Gordon (1971, 1974) | Gordon et al. (1990) | Groves (2005¢) | Hall (1983, 1990) | Johnson & Southgate (1990) | Keiper & Johnson (2004) | Lyne (1974) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | Menzies (2011) | Pardon et al. (2003) | Pope et al. (2001) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Vernes & Pope (2009) | Waithman (1979) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Zenger et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621752/files/figure.png,"3.Northern Brown BandicootIsoodon macrourusFrench:Bandicoot a longue queue/ German:GroRer Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto septentrionalOther common names:Brindled Bandicoot, Giant Brindled Bandicoot, Large Northern Bandicoot, Northern Shortnosed Bandicoot, Short-nosed BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles macroura Gould, 1842,“ Port Essington,” Northern Territory, Australia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I.m.macrourusGould,1842—NNorthernTerritoryandNWesternAustralia,includingmanylargeislandsnearNcoast(e.g.GrooteEylandt,TiwiIs).I.m.moresbyensisRamsay,1877—NewGuinea.I. m. torosus Ramsay, 1877— N Queensland (Cape York) S, including Fraser I, Moreton I, North Stradbroke I and South Stradbroke, to Hawkesbury River, in CE New South Wales.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-47 cm, tail 8-21.5 cm; weight 0.5-3.1 kg. Adult males 80-90% heavier than females. Largest member of genus. Dorsal fur is light to dark brown, interspersed with black spiny bristle hairs that give animals a sleek but grizzled appearance. Ventral fur is light gray or off-white and less spiky than dorsal pelage. Tail is covered with short, dark hair, ears are naked and held erect; both tail and ears of males may be scarred from fighting.Habitat.Occurs in grassland, woodland, open forest and on occasion rainforest in both Australia and New Guinea, and successfully exploits gardens and other disturbed habitats if sufficient ground coveris available to allow access. Prefers ground cover comprising dense shrubs or tall grass in southern parts ofits range, but readily uses areas with sparse ground in monsoon tropical regions in northern Australia and New Guinea. In drier parts of range in Australia, this species persists in marshy areas with heavy ground cover, and penetrates west in Queensland to about the 625mm rainfall isohyet by moving along densely vegetated riparian corridors. Nest usually a simple scrape under a dome of sticks, leaf litter, and other debris, with two or more openings; individuals may also use logs, grass tussocks, or crevices in rocks for shelter.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, and eats wide variety of invertebrates, small vertebrates such as lizards and birds, and their eggs, also fruits, seeds, plant roots, storage organs, and green plant material, as well as underground fungi. Like other members of the genus, this bandicoot forages on ground surface but also uses its powerful forelimbsto dig for food, leaving behind characteristically conical holes that may descend to depth of 30 cm. The diet varies with locality and season, suggesting that animals track and eat different prey types according to their availability.Breeding.Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months and males by six months. Breeding can occur year-round, but in southern parts of range there is usually a hiatus in reproductive activity over winter between April and July and in northern regions during dry season between May and July. Gestation is 12-5 days, and young leave the pouch at 50 days and are weaned at 60 days or less. Litter size 1-7, but more usually 3—4, with larger litters borne by females in southern areas compared with those in northern Australia or New Guinea. Relatively large litter size, rapid growth, and rapid development of this species mean thatit is one of the most fecund of the peramelids. In Darwin area of Northern Territory, one study described females as producing up to fourlitters at intervals of 54 days over the breeding season. As in other members of genus, this bandicoot has eight nipples in a backward-facing pouch, use of individual nipples alternating between successive litters.Activity patterns.Individuals emerge after dark and are active for most of night, covering wide range of habitats in their search for food; males may patrol areas on edge of their home range, especially during the long breeding season. The day is usually spent in resting in the nest or under shelter, but occasional movements have been recorded in early morning orjust before dusk in rugged sandstone country on Groote Eylandt.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both sexes are solitary. Males and females tolerate each other briefly when females are in estrus, but otherwise interactions are characterized by aggression, chases, and fights. Both sexes produce secretions from glands behind the ears and rub them on ground or vegetation during encounters, perhaps using them as “keep-away” signals to reduce likelihood of further encounters. Home ranges relatively small compared with those of its two smaller congeners, averaging 2-7 ha (maximum 6 ha) in one study in abandoned pasture-shrubland area and 1-5 ha in another study in remnant vegetation within limits of city of Brisbane. Population densities can be correspondingly large, ranging from 0-2 ind/ ha to 2:6 ind/ha in New South Wales and southern Queensland, but lower densities of 0-05 ind/ha to 0-7 ind/ha appear to be more typical in tropical regions. Lower densities, larger ranges and more seasonal breeding in northern compared with southern Australia may reflect less abundant and more strongly seasonal food resources in monsoonal tropics compared with mid-latitude habitats. Corresponding differences in recruitment of young into adult population might be expected between regional areas, but limited evidence suggests that recruitment rates are usually 10-15%. Higher recruitment of young, however, follows disturbances such as fire and mechanical damage to habitat and, as with the Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus), the life-history strategy of present species has been interpreted as one that allows rapid colonization of newly created habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend stable. This bandicoot is not considered to be at currentrisk as it occupies an extensive geographical range, has a large overall population, and occurs in many protected areas. Declines have occurred in drier, inland areas near S edge of range of race torosus. While the species continues to decline owing to development, habitat loss, and changes in fire regimes, and overhunting for bushmeat in New Guinea, the declines are mostly local. The larger size of this bandicoot means that it is at less risk of predation from the feral cat (Felis catus), although it still falls prey to Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and wild dogs (Canis). Historical declines in inland pastoral areas were not extensive, and these appear to have slowed or halted. All subspecies appear to be secure.Bibliography.Ashby et al. (1990), Brass (1956), Close et al. (1990), Cockburn (1990), Dickman (2014), FitzGibbon, Putland & Goldizen (2007), FitzGibbon, Wilson & Goldizen (2011), Flannery (1995a), Friend, G.R. (1990), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gemmell (1982, 1990a,1990b), Gordon (1971, 1974), Gordon et al. (1990), Groves (2005¢), Hall (1983, 1990), Johnson & Southgate (1990), Keiper & Johnson (2004), Lyne (1974), Lyne & Mort (1981), Menzies (2011), Pardon et al. (2003), Pope et al. (2001), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Vernes & Pope (2009), Waithman (1979), Westerman et al. (2012), Zenger et al. (2005)." +03C91729FFD7FFB4FD91DD78F5BF1734,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,389,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD7FFB4FD91DD78F5BF1734.xml,Isoodon obesulus,Isoodon,obesulus,,,Bandicoot obése @fr | Kleiner Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto meridional @es | Brown Bandicoot @en | Short-nosed Bandicoot @en | Southern Short-nosed Bandicoot; Nuyts Southern Brown Bandicoot (nauticus) @en,"Didelphis obesula Shaw, 1797,“New Holland.” Restricted by T. Iredale & E. Le G. Troughton in 1934 to “Sydney, N.S.W. [= New South Wales],” Australia.Further restricted by J. M. Dixon in 1981 to “1-5 km south of the Hawkesbury River, 7-5 km from the Coal and Candle Creek Road turnoff on the West Head Road, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, north of Sydney, New South Wales, Lat. 33° 36’ S; Long. 151° 16” E,” Australia.This species has been split at various times into 3-5 geographically separated subspecies, but most contention surrounds the status of present species with respect to the closely related I. auratus. In some morphological and mtDNA analyses the latter has been grouped with Western Australian subspecies fusciventer, which would give this form a large and almost continuous historical distribution throughout Western Australia and most of the central part of the continent. More recent analyses incorporating additional nuclear-gene sequences suggest, however, that I. auratusis sufficiently distinct to warrant separation from I. obesulus, and this arrangement is followed here. Same analyses also hint at a closer relationship between the north-eastern subspecies peninsulae and I. auratusthan between former taxon and other forms of I. obesulus, and show little divergence between nominate obesulusand Tasmanian race affinis. Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis morphologically distinct from the nominate form, butis sometimes subsumed within latter. Pending further work, affinis, fusciventer, nauticus, and peninsulae are treated here as subspecies of 1. obesulus. Five subspecies recognized.","I.o.obesulusShaw,1797—NewSouthWales,Victoria,mainlandSouthAustralia,andKangarooI. o.o.affinisWaterhouse,1846—Tasmania.I.o.fusciventerGray,1841—WesternAustralia.I.o.nauticusThomas,1922—NuytsArchipelago,SouthAustralia.I. o. peninsulae Thomas, 1922— N Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula.","Head-body 28-36 cm, tail 9-14.5 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Males up to 40% heavier than females. Dorsal fur is dark brown or dark gray, and has a grizzled appearance owing to presence of black spiny bristle hairs. Ventral furis light gray and softer than stiff dorsal hair, and often has a creamy or yellowish tinge. Tail is covered in short, dark hairs. Older animals may have a stubby tail, ragged ears, and patches of missing fur (from fighting).","Diverse forest, woodland, heath and shrub communities, often where these occur on sandy soils. It occurs also on the edges of swamps and in riparian habitats where dense ground-level vegetation is present, creating tunnels and runs or using those constructed by other mammals. Recently burnt sites may be exploited for the regenerating food and shelter resources that they provide. Simple nests are formed under dense vegetation, under the skirts of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp., Xanthorrhoeaceae), and occasionally in shallow burrows; plantlitter, soil, and other debris may be used as construction materials to help enclose the nest. This species used to occur in more open habitats, but is probably restricted to areas with dense ground cover that provide shelter from introduced predators such as the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the domestic cat (Felis catus).","Insects, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents), bird eggs, fruit, green plant material, and fungi are all eaten. In several studies invertebrates have been the dominant food item, but the relative importance of each food type varies with season and locality. Most foraging occurs at night, animals using their hearing to detect surface-active prey and their sense of smell to detect buried prey. Digs characteristic conical holes in topsoil when buried prey has been located, providing a ready and reliable means of determining whether the species is present at a site.","Females attain sexual maturity at 4-5 months and males at six months. Breeding usually takes place from mid-winter to mid-summer, but can occur yearround. Gestation is c.14 days, and the 1-6 young (average 2-8) are weaned at 60 days. Females have eight nipples housed in a backward-facing pouch; different nipples are used by neonates of alternate litters, allowing time for recently used nipples to regress to a size that allows newly born young to attach to them. Recruitment of young into adult population is typically of the order of 5-15%.","In the wild, usually nocturnal. Animals emerge an hour or more after dusk and appear to spend most of their active time in foraging. Captive individuals are strictly nocturnal and have been recorded as spending 71% of the 24hour day at rest in their nests.","Like other peramelids, this species is solitary and intolerant of conspecifics except for brief encounters during courtship and copulation, and when females are with dependent young. Some evidence that males maintain territories incorporating resource-rich patches of habitat and tolerate presence of young females within them, but banish older females to poorer-quality habitats. Population densities range from 0-1 ind/ha in poor-quality habitat to 5 ind/ha in sites with abundant food and few predators; home ranges usually of the order of 1-2 ha, but may exceed 6 ha in areas with sparse resources. Although few young usually recruited to the adult population, this species’ high reproductive rate may allow it swiftly to colonize newly created habitats in the wake of wildfires and other disturbances.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Shows a decreasing population trend. With the exception of races affinis and perhaps nauticus, the distributions of all subspecies have been fragmented and reduced in recent decades, this being especially marked in south-eastern Australia. The species occurs in conservation reserves throughout its range, but is susceptible to predation from introduced Red Fox and feral cat, and to loss of habitat in non-reserved areas. Nominate subspecies and Tasmanian endemic race affiniscan be considered near threatened owing to depressive effects of predators and habitat loss or alteration, and Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis vulnerable owing to the small size and restricted area of its population. Cape York subspecies peninsulae has small area of occupancy, but is abundant within its small range and considered to be of least concern. Likewise, race fusciventerin Western Australia is considered to be of least concern; it has declined in the past, but has achieved partial recovery since mid-1990s owing to large-scale and highly successful campaigns to reduce Red Fox numbers. Programs to reduce impacts of introduced predators are currently underway also in Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales, and these should help to guard the security of the species in future.","Ashby et al. (1990) | Broughton & Dickman (1991) | Brown & Main (2012) | Close et al. (1990) | Coates & Wright (2003) | Coates et al. (2008) | Cockburn (1990) | Copley et al. (1990) | Dexter & Murray (2009) | Dickman (1988b, 2012, 2014) | Dixon (1981) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gordon etal. (1990) | Green (2007) | Groves (2005c) | Haby, Conran & Carthew (2013) | Heinsohn (1966) | Hocking (1990) | Hope (2012) | Iredale & Troughton (1934) | Keiper & Johnson (2004) | Kemper (1990) | Larcombe (2003) | Li You et al. (2014) | Lobert (1990) | Lobert & Lee (1990) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | McKenzie (1967) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Morris et al. (1998) | Nagy et al. (1991) | Pope et al. (2001) | Quin (1988) | Stoddart & Braithwaite (1979) | Thomas (1990) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Warburton, Grégoire et al. (2013) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014e, 2014f, 2014g, 2014h) | Zenger et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621748/files/figure.png,"1.Southern Brown BandicootIsoodon obesulusFrench:Bandicoot obése/ German:Kleiner Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto meridionalOther common names:Brown Bandicoot, Short-nosed Bandicoot, Southern Short-nosed Bandicoot; Nuyts Southern Brown Bandicoot (nauticus)Taxonomy.Didelphis obesula Shaw, 1797,“New Holland.” Restricted by T. Iredale & E. Le G. Troughton in 1934 to “Sydney, N.S.W. [= New South Wales],” Australia.Further restricted by J. M. Dixon in 1981 to “1-5 km south of the Hawkesbury River, 7-5 km from the Coal and Candle Creek Road turnoff on the West Head Road, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, north of Sydney, New South Wales, Lat. 33° 36’ S; Long. 151° 16” E,” Australia.This species has been split at various times into 3-5 geographically separated subspecies, but most contention surrounds the status of present species with respect to the closely related I. auratus. In some morphological and mtDNA analyses the latter has been grouped with Western Australian subspecies fusciventer, which would give this form a large and almost continuous historical distribution throughout Western Australia and most of the central part of the continent. More recent analyses incorporating additional nuclear-gene sequences suggest, however, that I. auratusis sufficiently distinct to warrant separation from I. obesulus, and this arrangement is followed here. Same analyses also hint at a closer relationship between the north-eastern subspecies peninsulae and I. auratusthan between former taxon and other forms of I. obesulus, and show little divergence between nominate obesulusand Tasmanian race affinis. Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis morphologically distinct from the nominate form, butis sometimes subsumed within latter. Pending further work, affinis, fusciventer, nauticus, and peninsulae are treated here as subspecies of 1. obesulus. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I.o.obesulusShaw,1797—NewSouthWales,Victoria,mainlandSouthAustralia,andKangarooI. o.o.affinisWaterhouse,1846—Tasmania.I.o.fusciventerGray,1841—WesternAustralia.I.o.nauticusThomas,1922—NuytsArchipelago,SouthAustralia.I. o. peninsulae Thomas, 1922— N Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-36 cm, tail 9-14.5 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Males up to 40% heavier than females. Dorsal fur is dark brown or dark gray, and has a grizzled appearance owing to presence of black spiny bristle hairs. Ventral furis light gray and softer than stiff dorsal hair, and often has a creamy or yellowish tinge. Tail is covered in short, dark hairs. Older animals may have a stubby tail, ragged ears, and patches of missing fur (from fighting).Habitat.Diverse forest, woodland, heath and shrub communities, often where these occur on sandy soils. It occurs also on the edges of swamps and in riparian habitats where dense ground-level vegetation is present, creating tunnels and runs or using those constructed by other mammals. Recently burnt sites may be exploited for the regenerating food and shelter resources that they provide. Simple nests are formed under dense vegetation, under the skirts of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp., Xanthorrhoeaceae), and occasionally in shallow burrows; plantlitter, soil, and other debris may be used as construction materials to help enclose the nest. This species used to occur in more open habitats, but is probably restricted to areas with dense ground cover that provide shelter from introduced predators such as the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the domestic cat (Felis catus).Food and Feeding.Insects, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents), bird eggs, fruit, green plant material, and fungi are all eaten. In several studies invertebrates have been the dominant food item, but the relative importance of each food type varies with season and locality. Most foraging occurs at night, animals using their hearing to detect surface-active prey and their sense of smell to detect buried prey. Digs characteristic conical holes in topsoil when buried prey has been located, providing a ready and reliable means of determining whether the species is present at a site.Breeding.Females attain sexual maturity at 4-5 months and males at six months. Breeding usually takes place from mid-winter to mid-summer, but can occur yearround. Gestation is c.14 days, and the 1-6 young (average 2-8) are weaned at 60 days. Females have eight nipples housed in a backward-facing pouch; different nipples are used by neonates of alternate litters, allowing time for recently used nipples to regress to a size that allows newly born young to attach to them. Recruitment of young into adult population is typically of the order of 5-15%.Activity patterns.In the wild, usually nocturnal. Animals emerge an hour or more after dusk and appear to spend most of their active time in foraging. Captive individuals are strictly nocturnal and have been recorded as spending 71% of the 24hour day at rest in their nests.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other peramelids, this species is solitary and intolerant of conspecifics except for brief encounters during courtship and copulation, and when females are with dependent young. Some evidence that males maintain territories incorporating resource-rich patches of habitat and tolerate presence of young females within them, but banish older females to poorer-quality habitats. Population densities range from 0-1 ind/ha in poor-quality habitat to 5 ind/ha in sites with abundant food and few predators; home ranges usually of the order of 1-2 ha, but may exceed 6 ha in areas with sparse resources. Although few young usually recruited to the adult population, this species’ high reproductive rate may allow it swiftly to colonize newly created habitats in the wake of wildfires and other disturbances.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Shows a decreasing population trend. With the exception of races affinis and perhaps nauticus, the distributions of all subspecies have been fragmented and reduced in recent decades, this being especially marked in south-eastern Australia. The species occurs in conservation reserves throughout its range, but is susceptible to predation from introduced Red Fox and feral cat, and to loss of habitat in non-reserved areas. Nominate subspecies and Tasmanian endemic race affiniscan be considered near threatened owing to depressive effects of predators and habitat loss or alteration, and Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis vulnerable owing to the small size and restricted area of its population. Cape York subspecies peninsulae has small area of occupancy, but is abundant within its small range and considered to be of least concern. Likewise, race fusciventerin Western Australia is considered to be of least concern; it has declined in the past, but has achieved partial recovery since mid-1990s owing to large-scale and highly successful campaigns to reduce Red Fox numbers. Programs to reduce impacts of introduced predators are currently underway also in Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales, and these should help to guard the security of the species in future.Bibliography.Ashby et al. (1990), Broughton & Dickman (1991), Brown & Main (2012), Close et al. (1990), Coates & Wright (2003), Coates et al. (2008), Cockburn (1990), Copley et al. (1990), Dexter & Murray (2009), Dickman (1988b, 2012, 2014), Dixon (1981), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gordon etal. (1990), Green (2007), Groves (2005c), Haby, Conran & Carthew (2013), Heinsohn (1966), Hocking (1990), Hope (2012), Iredale & Troughton (1934), Keiper & Johnson (2004), Kemper (1990), Larcombe (2003), Li You et al. (2014), Lobert (1990), Lobert & Lee (1990), Lyne & Mort (1981), McKenzie (1967), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Morris et al. (1998), Nagy et al. (1991), Pope et al. (2001), Quin (1988), Stoddart & Braithwaite (1979), Thomas (1990), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Warburton, Grégoire et al. (2013), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014e, 2014f, 2014g, 2014h), Zenger et al. (2005)." +03C91729FFD7FFB5F86CD9D3FCB41A01,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,389,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD7FFB5F86CD9D3FCB41A01.xml,Isoodon auratus,Isoodon,auratus,,,Bandicoot doré @fr | Goldbrauner Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto dorado @es | Northern Golden Bandicoot @en | Northern Golden-backed Bandicoot @en,"Perameles auratus [sic] Ramsay, 1887,“ Derby, N. W. Australia.” (= Western Australia, Australia).Recent molecular analyses confirm this taxon as being distinct from I. obesulusand distinguish two forms within it that correspond to subspecies auratusand barrowensis. As noted above, the same analyses suggest that these subspecies cluster with I. o. peninsulae (or even I. peninsulae), and further work may see this form grouped within the “Golden Bandicoot clade.” A further race, arnhemensis, has been distinguished on basis ofits larger size and slight differences in shape ofits skull; it has not, however, been subject to any genetic or molecular analysis, and is not accepted by all authorities. Three subspecies tentatively recognized here.","I.a.auratusRamsay,1887—NWKimberleyandseveralsmallislandsoffKimberleycoast.I.a.arnhemensisLyne&Mort,1981—CapeArnhem,NENorthernTerritory.I. a. barrowensis Thomas, 1901— Barrow I and Middle I, Western Australia.Occurs also (subspecies uncertain) on Marchinbar I, in Wessel Group, Northern Territory, and introduced recently to two further islands in Wessel Group. Barrow I race barrowensisintroduced to nearby Hermite I, to Doole I (in Exmouth Gulf), and to Lorna Glen (mainland of C Western Australia) in recentyears.","Head-body 19-29.5 cm, tail 8.4-12.1 cm; weight 300-670 g for I. a. auratus, 250-600 g for I. a. barrowensis. Males 40-50% heavier than females. Smallest member of genus. Dorsal fur is golden brown, but has grizzled appearance owing to overlay of long, stiff guard hairs; ventral fur is cream or white. Tail is covered in short, orange to dark brown hairs.","Prior to its final disappearance from arid regions in mid-20"" century, occurred on sandy soils dominated by hummock grass or low shrubs. In its remnant mainland distribution it occurs in tussock grassland and low woodland dominated by Acacia(Fabaceae) and Eucalyptus spp.(Myrtaceae), often on sandy soils, but also on rugged sandstone habitats. Shows a strong association with hummock grass on Barrow Island, often burrowing under hummocks for shelter, but on Marchinbar Island prefers low heath or shrubland on sand or sandstone. Sometimes found in vine thicket and patches of rainforest, but these do not appear to be preferred habitats. Nest can be a shallow scrape under rock or other shelter, or simple structure constructed from grass and other local materials; constructed on ground surface, under grass hummock and dense shrubs or, on Barrow, in limestone cave. Individuals use different shelters on different days, and visit varied habitats by night when foraging, but generally occupy stable ranges that change little between seasons.","Invertebrates represent a larger part of diet compared with those of both larger congeners, with beetles, termites, ants, centipedes, and insect larvae consumed. In addition, it eats seeds, roots, tubers, fruits, and other plant material, especially in dry season, and small rodents and lizards also may be eaten. Perhaps because of the diverse habitats that it uses for foraging, including ocean beaches, this species includes in its diet items that are unusual for peramelids, such as washed-up cephalopods and turtle eggs. Conical-shaped pits in sandy soils indicate where foraging has taken place.","Females reproduce throughout year in all localities where repeated sampling has been carried out, but proportion of females giving birth increases during wet season in summer or after significant rain at other times. Rainfall probably increases availability of food for this species, and also provides free water that assists mothers in maintaining water balance during lactation. Females have eight nipples in a rearopening pouch and carry 2-3 young at a time. One or two young may survive to weaning, but rate of recruitment to adult population is not known. Age at sexual maturity is 6-7 months. There is no information for this species on length of gestation or time to weaning, but these traits are likely to be similar to those of better-studied Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus).","Rests by day in a nest or temporary shelter and emerges after dusk when conditions are dark. Radio-tracking studies indicate that activity can be maintained continuously throughout the night, although animals are usually most active 3—4 hours after dusk and in the hour or so before dawn. Up to 10 ha may be covered each night, although 1-5 ha is more usual. Animals return to their shelters before daybreak.","Limited research on Barrow Island and Marchinbar Island shows that males occupy larger home ranges (4-4-35-6 ha) than females (1-7-12-7 ha). On Marchinbar, home range areas tended to be larger during dry season than in wet season and ranges of the sexes overlapped. On Barrow, male ranges overlapped with those of females but not with each other. Individuals appear to be generally aggressive toward each other and fight if placed in close proximity. Despite this social intolerance, population densities can be high. Marchinbar supports ¢.0-07 ind/ha and Barrow c.0-3 ind/ha, but density may rise to 10 ind/ha in productive areas on the coast, where island food resources are high and subsidies are available from nearby beaches.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species was once widespread in interior of Australia, but is now confined to high-rainfall areas of north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins islands), Barrow Island and Middle Island, off Pilbara coast, all in Western Australia, with an isolated outpost on Marchinbar Island, off N Northern Territory. It is considered to have a declining population trend. Sparsely distributed on mainland Western Australia, where population declines recently recorded. No estimates available for Augustus or Uwins, but the species is said to be sparse on former and relatively common on latter. It appears to be secure on Barrow, where at least 20,000 individuals estimated, and reasonably safe on Middle (c.1000) and Marchinbar (c.1400). Introductions or reintroductions from these populations to two small Wessel Group islands (Guluwuru and Raragala islands) off N Northern Territory, and to Doole Island, Hermite Island, and Lorna Glen in Western Australia, should provide insurance that these forms will remain secure. These sites are conservation reserves or Indigenous Protected Areas and are monitored on a regular or ad hoc basis. Mainland populations of this bandicoot continue to decline owing to predation from domestic or feral cats (Felis catus), habitat loss due to such practices as mining, and inappropriate changes to the fire regime that reduce vegetation cover and expose animals to increased risk of predation. Monitoring takes place at some mainland sites such as Mitchell Plateau and Artesian Range Sanctuary, in Western Australia, with active research and management in place at latter site to mitigate effects of changed fire regimes. Long-term security of this peramelid most likely to occurif cats and other invasive species, such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus), are prevented from establishing on key islands, and if means of managing cat impacts on a broad scale can be found for the remnant populations that persist in mainland areas.","Bradshaw et al. (1994) | Burbidge et al. (1988) | Close et al. (1990) | Cockburn (1990) | Dahl (1897) | Ellis et al. (1991) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Groves (2005c¢) | Johnson & Southgate (1990) | Jones et al. (2009) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | McKenzie, Morris & Dickman (2008) | Ottewell et al. (2014) | Palmer et al. (2003) | Pope et al. (2001) | Southgate et al. (1996) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski, Burbidge & Harrison (2014d) | Woinarski, Palmer et al. (1999) | Woinarski, Pavey et al. (2007) | Zenger et al. (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621750/files/figure.png,"2.Golden BandicootIsoodon auratusFrench:Bandicoot doré/ German:Goldbrauner Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto doradoOther common names:Northern Golden Bandicoot, Northern Golden-backed BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles auratus [sic] Ramsay, 1887,“ Derby, N. W. Australia.” (= Western Australia, Australia).Recent molecular analyses confirm this taxon as being distinct from I. obesulusand distinguish two forms within it that correspond to subspecies auratusand barrowensis. As noted above, the same analyses suggest that these subspecies cluster with I. o. peninsulae (or even I. peninsulae), and further work may see this form grouped within the “Golden Bandicoot clade.” A further race, arnhemensis, has been distinguished on basis ofits larger size and slight differences in shape ofits skull; it has not, however, been subject to any genetic or molecular analysis, and is not accepted by all authorities. Three subspecies tentatively recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.I.a.auratusRamsay,1887—NWKimberleyandseveralsmallislandsoffKimberleycoast.I.a.arnhemensisLyne&Mort,1981—CapeArnhem,NENorthernTerritory.I. a. barrowensis Thomas, 1901— Barrow I and Middle I, Western Australia.Occurs also (subspecies uncertain) on Marchinbar I, in Wessel Group, Northern Territory, and introduced recently to two further islands in Wessel Group. Barrow I race barrowensisintroduced to nearby Hermite I, to Doole I (in Exmouth Gulf), and to Lorna Glen (mainland of C Western Australia) in recentyears.Descriptive notes.Head-body 19-29.5 cm, tail 8.4-12.1 cm; weight 300-670 g for I. a. auratus, 250-600 g for I. a. barrowensis. Males 40-50% heavier than females. Smallest member of genus. Dorsal fur is golden brown, but has grizzled appearance owing to overlay of long, stiff guard hairs; ventral fur is cream or white. Tail is covered in short, orange to dark brown hairs.Habitat.Prior to its final disappearance from arid regions in mid-20"" century, occurred on sandy soils dominated by hummock grass or low shrubs. In its remnant mainland distribution it occurs in tussock grassland and low woodland dominated by Acacia(Fabaceae) and Eucalyptus spp.(Myrtaceae), often on sandy soils, but also on rugged sandstone habitats. Shows a strong association with hummock grass on Barrow Island, often burrowing under hummocks for shelter, but on Marchinbar Island prefers low heath or shrubland on sand or sandstone. Sometimes found in vine thicket and patches of rainforest, but these do not appear to be preferred habitats. Nest can be a shallow scrape under rock or other shelter, or simple structure constructed from grass and other local materials; constructed on ground surface, under grass hummock and dense shrubs or, on Barrow, in limestone cave. Individuals use different shelters on different days, and visit varied habitats by night when foraging, but generally occupy stable ranges that change little between seasons.On following pages: 3. Northern Brown Bandicoot (/soodon macrourus); 4. Western Barred Bandicoot (Peramelesbougainville); 5. Eastern Barred Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii); 6. Long-nosed Bandicoot (Perameles nasuta), 7. Giant Bandicoot (Peroryctes broadbenti); 8. Raffray’s Bandicoot (Peroryctes raffrayana).Food and Feeding.Invertebrates represent a larger part of diet compared with those of both larger congeners, with beetles, termites, ants, centipedes, and insect larvae consumed. In addition, it eats seeds, roots, tubers, fruits, and other plant material, especially in dry season, and small rodents and lizards also may be eaten. Perhaps because of the diverse habitats that it uses for foraging, including ocean beaches, this species includes in its diet items that are unusual for peramelids, such as washed-up cephalopods and turtle eggs. Conical-shaped pits in sandy soils indicate where foraging has taken place.Breeding.Females reproduce throughout year in all localities where repeated sampling has been carried out, but proportion of females giving birth increases during wet season in summer or after significant rain at other times. Rainfall probably increases availability of food for this species, and also provides free water that assists mothers in maintaining water balance during lactation. Females have eight nipples in a rearopening pouch and carry 2-3 young at a time. One or two young may survive to weaning, but rate of recruitment to adult population is not known. Age at sexual maturity is 6-7 months. There is no information for this species on length of gestation or time to weaning, but these traits are likely to be similar to those of better-studied Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus).Activity patterns.Rests by day in a nest or temporary shelter and emerges after dusk when conditions are dark. Radio-tracking studies indicate that activity can be maintained continuously throughout the night, although animals are usually most active 3—4 hours after dusk and in the hour or so before dawn. Up to 10 ha may be covered each night, although 1-5 ha is more usual. Animals return to their shelters before daybreak.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Limited research on Barrow Island and Marchinbar Island shows that males occupy larger home ranges (4-4-35-6 ha) than females (1-7-12-7 ha). On Marchinbar, home range areas tended to be larger during dry season than in wet season and ranges of the sexes overlapped. On Barrow, male ranges overlapped with those of females but not with each other. Individuals appear to be generally aggressive toward each other and fight if placed in close proximity. Despite this social intolerance, population densities can be high. Marchinbar supports ¢.0-07 ind/ha and Barrow c.0-3 ind/ha, but density may rise to 10 ind/ha in productive areas on the coast, where island food resources are high and subsidies are available from nearby beaches.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species was once widespread in interior of Australia, but is now confined to high-rainfall areas of north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins islands), Barrow Island and Middle Island, off Pilbara coast, all in Western Australia, with an isolated outpost on Marchinbar Island, off N Northern Territory. It is considered to have a declining population trend. Sparsely distributed on mainland Western Australia, where population declines recently recorded. No estimates available for Augustus or Uwins, but the species is said to be sparse on former and relatively common on latter. It appears to be secure on Barrow, where at least 20,000 individuals estimated, and reasonably safe on Middle (c.1000) and Marchinbar (c.1400). Introductions or reintroductions from these populations to two small Wessel Group islands (Guluwuru and Raragala islands) off N Northern Territory, and to Doole Island, Hermite Island, and Lorna Glen in Western Australia, should provide insurance that these forms will remain secure. These sites are conservation reserves or Indigenous Protected Areas and are monitored on a regular or ad hoc basis. Mainland populations of this bandicoot continue to decline owing to predation from domestic or feral cats (Felis catus), habitat loss due to such practices as mining, and inappropriate changes to the fire regime that reduce vegetation cover and expose animals to increased risk of predation. Monitoring takes place at some mainland sites such as Mitchell Plateau and Artesian Range Sanctuary, in Western Australia, with active research and management in place at latter site to mitigate effects of changed fire regimes. Long-term security of this peramelid most likely to occurif cats and other invasive species, such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus), are prevented from establishing on key islands, and if means of managing cat impacts on a broad scale can be found for the remnant populations that persist in mainland areas.Bibliography.Bradshaw et al. (1994), Burbidge et al. (1988), Close et al. (1990), Cockburn (1990), Dahl (1897), Ellis et al. (1991), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Groves (2005c¢), Johnson & Southgate (1990), Jones et al. (2009), Lyne & Mort (1981), McKenzie, Morris & Dickman (2008), Ottewell et al. (2014), Palmer et al. (2003), Pope et al. (2001), Southgate et al. (1996), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski, Burbidge & Harrison (2014d), Woinarski, Palmer et al. (1999), Woinarski, Pavey et al. (2007), Zenger et al. (2005)." +03C91729FFDCFFBCF8A6DD76FD8213C6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,396,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDCFFBCF8A6DD76FD8213C6.xml,Echymipera rufescens,Echymipera,rufescens,,,Bandicoot roux @fr | Roter Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de hocico largo @es | Rufescent Bandicoot @en | Rufous Spiny Bandicoot @en,"Perameles rufescens Peters & Doria, 1875,“Insulae Kei [= Kai Island],” Indonesia.Taxonomic status of several insular populations is in need of revision; taxonomic position of populations on Aru Islands and Kai Islands and those on D’Entrecasteaux Islands remains particularly uncertain. Two subspecies generally recognized.","E.r.rufescensPeters&Doria,1875—WPapuanIs(Misool),NewGuinea(includingYapenIandD’EntrecasteauxArchipelago),KaiIs,andAruIs.E. r. australis Tate, 1948— Cape York, NE Australia.","Head-body 21.5-54.5 cm,tail 7.5-11.5 cm; weight 0.3-3 kg. The subspecies australis is smaller of the two subspecies, males attaining head-body length of up to 48 cm and weight of up to 2-2 kg, compared with 54-5 cm and 3 kg, respectively, for nominate rufescens, a small form of latter occurs in Sepik region and a much larger form in Gulf Province. In both subspecies body weight of males may average 70% more than that of females, although occasional females may approach male body size. Dorsal fur is tawny, dark brown or rufous with characteristically stiff, broad, spiky hairs that give pelage a brindled appearance; ventral fur is pale. Crown of head is dark, often black, grading to pale gray on face and throat but with no hint of striping; snout is notably elongated, ears are short and round, and tail short, black, and naked. This species is variable in size and color, with small individuals similar in appearance to female Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara) and the Common Echymipera(E. kalubu); can be distinguished from these two byits usually more rufous toning and the presence of a small black pad on hindfoot.","In New Guinea occurs in grassland, scrub, lowland rainforest, and foothill forest at altitudes from sea level to 1200 m, occasionally to 2100 m; found also in generally drier and more disturbed habitats than other species in genus. It occupies similar habitats in Australia, but occurs there also in coastal closed heath and extends into drier country along gallery forest, from sea level to 800 m. May rest in logs or under leaflitter in sheltered sites in a similar manner to that of other peramelids, but present species also shows considerable propensity to construct burrows. In Australia, burrow complexes may be 50-80 cm deep, cover up to 3 m? in area, and have two or more entrances.","In the most detailed study of the diet of this echymipera, at Iron Range, on Cape York Peninsula,fruits and seeds comprised ¢.27% of diet, followed by invertebrates (26%), fungi (19%), and the remains ofleafy plants (18%); other foods included plant roots and soil, grass, and small vertebrates. Pronounced seasonal variation in the amount of each food type consumed probably reflected changes in food availability. More limited information for New Guinea suggests that diet there is similar. Food obtained from forest floor or by excavation; as with many other peramelids, this species’ presence can often be detected by the finding of conical holes 20-30 cm deep that the animals have dug with their powerful forelimbs.","In Iron Range study, females carried pouch young between November and May, 80-100% of females carrying young during peak of wet season from January to March. Litter size was 1-4 (average 2-8), larger females carrying more young and producing up to two litters per season. Females produced on average 4-9 young per year. Females have eight nipples. Reproductive effort appears similar, or perhaps spread over longer period, in New Guinea, where females recorded as carrying young in pouch in May, October, March, and August. Growth of young appears to be slower than in other peramelids that have been well studied; young leave pouch at c.65 days, are weaned at 70 days, and become sexually mature at 4-5 months.","Rests by day, and is believed to be strictly nocturnal in both its Australian and its New Guinean ranges.","There is some evidence that animals make repeated use of the same paths through vegetation and that range areas are of the order of 1-2 ha. Captive individuals are intensely intolerant of each other, and males, in particular, often bear scars and wounds inflicted in fights. Despite such mutual intolerance, local population density can be high if resources are available. At Iron Range, 48 resident animals were present on a grid of 2-25 ha, equating ostensibly to a density of 21 ind/ha; true density would have been less than this as the grid probably sampled an area greater than 2-25 ha, but would still have exceeded 10 ind/ha.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Has a decreasing population trend. In New Guinea, nominate subspecies is considered to be uncommon in most parts of its range, although it can achieve high abundance locally if conditionsare suitable. It has a large geographical range, occurs in a number of protected areas, and may be tolerant of at least some habitat disturbance. It is, nonetheless, a favored game species and is susceptible to overhunting. There is also anecdotal evidence that it is susceptible to the gross habitat disturbance that accompanies mining and the forest-firing and clearing that precedes production of commercial crops such as oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). Thus, while nominate rufescensis declining in some areas, the overall rate of decline appears slow and the subspecies cannot be considered at risk. In Australia, subspecies australis appears to be secure. It faces no obvious or immediate threats, has not declined in its distributional range, and remains locally abundantin suitable habitat.","Collins (1973) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Gordon & Lawrie (1978) | Gordon et al. (1990) | Groves (2005¢c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Menzies (2011) | Shevill & Johnson (2007) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621778/files/figure.png,"13.Long-nosed EchymiperaEchymipera rufescensFrench:Bandicoot roux/ German:Roter Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de hocico largoOther common names:Rufescent Bandicoot, Rufous Spiny BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles rufescens Peters & Doria, 1875,“Insulae Kei [= Kai Island],” Indonesia.Taxonomic status of several insular populations is in need of revision; taxonomic position of populations on Aru Islands and Kai Islands and those on D’Entrecasteaux Islands remains particularly uncertain. Two subspecies generally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.rufescensPeters&Doria,1875—WPapuanIs(Misool),NewGuinea(includingYapenIandD’EntrecasteauxArchipelago),KaiIs,andAruIs.E. r. australis Tate, 1948— Cape York, NE Australia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 21.5-54.5 cm,tail 7.5-11.5 cm; weight 0.3-3 kg. The subspecies australis is smaller of the two subspecies, males attaining head-body length of up to 48 cm and weight of up to 2-2 kg, compared with 54-5 cm and 3 kg, respectively, for nominate rufescens, a small form of latter occurs in Sepik region and a much larger form in Gulf Province. In both subspecies body weight of males may average 70% more than that of females, although occasional females may approach male body size. Dorsal fur is tawny, dark brown or rufous with characteristically stiff, broad, spiky hairs that give pelage a brindled appearance; ventral fur is pale. Crown of head is dark, often black, grading to pale gray on face and throat but with no hint of striping; snout is notably elongated, ears are short and round, and tail short, black, and naked. This species is variable in size and color, with small individuals similar in appearance to female Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara) and the Common Echymipera(E. kalubu); can be distinguished from these two byits usually more rufous toning and the presence of a small black pad on hindfoot.Habitat.In New Guinea occurs in grassland, scrub, lowland rainforest, and foothill forest at altitudes from sea level to 1200 m, occasionally to 2100 m; found also in generally drier and more disturbed habitats than other species in genus. It occupies similar habitats in Australia, but occurs there also in coastal closed heath and extends into drier country along gallery forest, from sea level to 800 m. May rest in logs or under leaflitter in sheltered sites in a similar manner to that of other peramelids, but present species also shows considerable propensity to construct burrows. In Australia, burrow complexes may be 50-80 cm deep, cover up to 3 m? in area, and have two or more entrances.Food and Feeding.In the most detailed study of the diet of this echymipera, at Iron Range, on Cape York Peninsula,fruits and seeds comprised ¢.27% of diet, followed by invertebrates (26%), fungi (19%), and the remains ofleafy plants (18%); other foods included plant roots and soil, grass, and small vertebrates. Pronounced seasonal variation in the amount of each food type consumed probably reflected changes in food availability. More limited information for New Guinea suggests that diet there is similar. Food obtained from forest floor or by excavation; as with many other peramelids, this species’ presence can often be detected by the finding of conical holes 20-30 cm deep that the animals have dug with their powerful forelimbs.Breeding.In Iron Range study, females carried pouch young between November and May, 80-100% of females carrying young during peak of wet season from January to March. Litter size was 1-4 (average 2-8), larger females carrying more young and producing up to two litters per season. Females produced on average 4-9 young per year. Females have eight nipples. Reproductive effort appears similar, or perhaps spread over longer period, in New Guinea, where females recorded as carrying young in pouch in May, October, March, and August. Growth of young appears to be slower than in other peramelids that have been well studied; young leave pouch at c.65 days, are weaned at 70 days, and become sexually mature at 4-5 months.Activity patterns.Rests by day, and is believed to be strictly nocturnal in both its Australian and its New Guinean ranges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is some evidence that animals make repeated use of the same paths through vegetation and that range areas are of the order of 1-2 ha. Captive individuals are intensely intolerant of each other, and males, in particular, often bear scars and wounds inflicted in fights. Despite such mutual intolerance, local population density can be high if resources are available. At Iron Range, 48 resident animals were present on a grid of 2-25 ha, equating ostensibly to a density of 21 ind/ha; true density would have been less than this as the grid probably sampled an area greater than 2-25 ha, but would still have exceeded 10 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Has a decreasing population trend. In New Guinea, nominate subspecies is considered to be uncommon in most parts of its range, although it can achieve high abundance locally if conditionsare suitable. It has a large geographical range, occurs in a number of protected areas, and may be tolerant of at least some habitat disturbance. It is, nonetheless, a favored game species and is susceptible to overhunting. There is also anecdotal evidence that it is susceptible to the gross habitat disturbance that accompanies mining and the forest-firing and clearing that precedes production of commercial crops such as oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). Thus, while nominate rufescensis declining in some areas, the overall rate of decline appears slow and the subspecies cannot be considered at risk. In Australia, subspecies australis appears to be secure. It faces no obvious or immediate threats, has not declined in its distributional range, and remains locally abundantin suitable habitat.Bibliography.Collins (1973), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Gordon & Lawrie (1978), Gordon et al. (1990), Groves (2005¢c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Menzies (2011), Shevill & Johnson (2007), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977, 1982)." 03C91729FFDDFFBEF866DC89F97A1BCF,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,395,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBEF866DC89F97A1BCF.xml,Echymipera echinista,Echymipera,echinista,Menzies,1990,Bandicoot de Menzies @fr | Menzies-Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de Menzies @es | Fly River Bandicoot @en | Fly River Echymipera @en,"Echymipera echinista Menzies, 1990,Wipim, near lamega(08° 51° S, 142° 58’ E), Western (Fly River) Province, Papua New Guinea.This species is monotypic.","Papua New Guinea: one specimen known from middle Strickland River area, another from lower Fly River; a third, unconfirmed, record from Mt Menawa (Sandaun Province), in North Coastal Ranges.","Head—body 32:8-36 cm, tail 9-7 cm; weight 1 kg. Head-body measurements refer to two females, and tail length and body weight to a single individual; no males have been captured. Distinguished from other members of genus by its coat, which is exceptionally spiny and almost completely lacking in softer, non-spinous hairs. Snoutis very narrow and elongate, with dark lines running posteriorly through eyes, and ears are rounded and prominent.","The very limited information suggests that this peramelid may be restricted to gallery forest in the Fly-Strickland drainage system. The two known specimens were collected at altitudes of, respectively, 40 m and 80 m; if third record is verified, elevational range would extend to foothill forest at up to 1000 m.","No definite details known, although its long snout and triangular molars have been taken to suggest an insectivorous diet.",There is no specific information available for this species.,There is no specific information available for this species.,There is no specific information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. Very little is known about this distinctive and enigmatic echymipera species. If it is to be conserved, a keyfirst step will be to gain a better understanding of where it occurs and whatfactors affect its population size. The low-elevation gallery forests of Fly—Strickland river system would be a logical place in which to target initial investigations, as they have yielded the only confirmed records of the species, but they have not been extensively surveyed. Potential threats, such as predation by feral dogs, should also be documented as part of field surveys. With more understanding of the true status of this echymipera, including its possible occurrence in protected areas, planning forits conservation needs—if any—would have a sound foundation.","Flannery (1995a) | Leary, Wright, Hamilton, Singadan, Menzies, Bonaccorso, Helgen, Seri, Aplin et al. (2008) | Menzies (1990, 2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621774/files/figure.png,"11.Menzies’s EchymiperaEchymipera echinistaFrench:Bandicoot de Menzies/ German:Menzies-Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de MenziesOther common names:Fly River Bandicoot, Fly River EchymiperaTaxonomy.Echymipera echinista Menzies, 1990,Wipim, near lamega(08° 51° S, 142° 58’ E), Western (Fly River) Province, Papua New Guinea.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Papua New Guinea: one specimen known from middle Strickland River area, another from lower Fly River; a third, unconfirmed, record from Mt Menawa (Sandaun Province), in North Coastal Ranges.Descriptive notes.Head—body 32:8-36 cm, tail 9-7 cm; weight 1 kg. Head-body measurements refer to two females, and tail length and body weight to a single individual; no males have been captured. Distinguished from other members of genus by its coat, which is exceptionally spiny and almost completely lacking in softer, non-spinous hairs. Snoutis very narrow and elongate, with dark lines running posteriorly through eyes, and ears are rounded and prominent.Habitat.The very limited information suggests that this peramelid may be restricted to gallery forest in the Fly-Strickland drainage system. The two known specimens were collected at altitudes of, respectively, 40 m and 80 m; if third record is verified, elevational range would extend to foothill forest at up to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.No definite details known, although its long snout and triangular molars have been taken to suggest an insectivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. Very little is known about this distinctive and enigmatic echymipera species. If it is to be conserved, a keyfirst step will be to gain a better understanding of where it occurs and whatfactors affect its population size. The low-elevation gallery forests of Fly—Strickland river system would be a logical place in which to target initial investigations, as they have yielded the only confirmed records of the species, but they have not been extensively surveyed. Potential threats, such as predation by feral dogs, should also be documented as part of field surveys. With more understanding of the true status of this echymipera, including its possible occurrence in protected areas, planning forits conservation needs—if any—would have a sound foundation.Bibliography.Flannery (1995a), Leary, Wright, Hamilton, Singadan, Menzies, Bonaccorso, Helgen, Seri, Aplin et al. (2008), Menzies (1990, 2011)." 03C91729FFDDFFBEFD67DD75FAA319C8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,395,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBEFD67DD75FAA319C8.xml,Echymupera clara,Echymupera,clara,Stein,1932,Bandicoot de Clara @fr | Clara-Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de Clara @es | Clara Bandicoot @en | Clara's Bandicoot @en | White-lipped Bandicoot @en,"FEchymipera clara Stein, 1932,Japen (=Yapen) I, Tjenderawasih Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.This species is monotypic.","Yapen I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay, and N lowlands of New Guinea.","Head-body 27-41 cm, tail 8-10.6 cm; weight 0-82-17 kg. Males can weigh at least 50% more than females, and have relatively more massive head with highly developed sagittal crest; males also have very large canines, and have heavier, more robust premolars than females. These features, together with a difference in coloration ofbelly fur (pale in females, salmon-colored in males), can make sexes appear like different species. Dorsal fur of both sexes is dark and unpatterned, and less spiny than that of other Echymipera spp.A large and well-developed black pad is present on hindfoot. This species has been termed “White-lipped Bandicoot” in some early works owing to white hair and skin around lips, but this coloration is not present on all specimens.","Appears to be restricted largely to undisturbed, primary rainforest at 300-1700 m, although occasional specimens have been captured in secondary forest or village gardens. Like other peramelids, this speciesis strictly terrestrial and appears to make simple nests underleaflitter, moss and other debris on the forest floor.","This species is suspected to be omnivorous, but to date only figs and pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae) have been recorded in the diet.",Females have six nipples. Litters of one or two young have been reported in January and July.,Mianmin hunters reportthis species as being strictly nocturnal and to rest by day under shelter on the forest floor.,There is no specific information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This species is broadly distributed in areas where human population density is low and where disturbance to its preferred rainforest habitat is not extensive. It can be locally abundant, appears readily to tolerate hunting pressure, and is not known to be affected adversely by other potential threats. It also occurs in a number of protected areas. Even though the population trend is not known, these observations suggest that this peramelid is currently secure.","Aplin et al. (2010) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Menzies (2011) | Stein (1932) | Tate (1948b) | Van Deusen & Keith (1966) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621770/files/figure.png,"9.Clara’s EchymiperaEchymupera claraFrench:Bandicoot de Clara/ German:Clara-Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de ClaraOther common names:Clara Bandicoot, Clara's Bandicoot, White-lipped BandicootTaxonomy.FEchymipera clara Stein, 1932,Japen (=Yapen) I, Tjenderawasih Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Yapen I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay, and N lowlands of New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27-41 cm, tail 8-10.6 cm; weight 0-82-17 kg. Males can weigh at least 50% more than females, and have relatively more massive head with highly developed sagittal crest; males also have very large canines, and have heavier, more robust premolars than females. These features, together with a difference in coloration ofbelly fur (pale in females, salmon-colored in males), can make sexes appear like different species. Dorsal fur of both sexes is dark and unpatterned, and less spiny than that of other Echymipera spp.A large and well-developed black pad is present on hindfoot. This species has been termed “White-lipped Bandicoot” in some early works owing to white hair and skin around lips, but this coloration is not present on all specimens.Habitat.Appears to be restricted largely to undisturbed, primary rainforest at 300-1700 m, although occasional specimens have been captured in secondary forest or village gardens. Like other peramelids, this speciesis strictly terrestrial and appears to make simple nests underleaflitter, moss and other debris on the forest floor.Food and Feeding.This species is suspected to be omnivorous, but to date only figs and pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae) have been recorded in the diet.Breeding.Females have six nipples. Litters of one or two young have been reported in January and July.Activity patterns.Mianmin hunters reportthis species as being strictly nocturnal and to rest by day under shelter on the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This species is broadly distributed in areas where human population density is low and where disturbance to its preferred rainforest habitat is not extensive. It can be locally abundant, appears readily to tolerate hunting pressure, and is not known to be affected adversely by other potential threats. It also occurs in a number of protected areas. Even though the population trend is not known, these observations suggest that this peramelid is currently secure.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (2010), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Menzies (2011), Stein (1932), Tate (1948b), Van Deusen & Keith (1966), Ziegler (1977, 1982)." 03C91729FFDDFFBEFD6DD79BF7E212D8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,395,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBEFD6DD79BF7E212D8.xml,Echymipera davidi,Echymipera,davidi,Flannery,1990,Bandicoot de David @fr | Kiriwina-Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de David @es | Kiriwina Bandicoot @en | Kiriwina Echymipera @en,"Echymipera davidi Flannery, 1990,Kiriwina Island(08° 30° S, 151° 00"" E), Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea.Apparently not closely related to any other species within the genus. Monotypic.","Kiriwina I, in Trobriand Group, off SE New Guinea.","Head-body 32.7-39.7 cm, tail 10-8 cm; weight 950 g. Head body measurements refer to two males, and tail length and body weight to a single individual; no females have been measured. This distinctive island endemic can be distinguished from other Echymipera spp.by its uniformly brown coloration, sparse coat with both fine hair and stiff, flattened hairs, relatively short snout, and absence of a black pad on hindfoot. It also has molars with small hypocones (cusps on rear internal corner of upper molars) and other dental and cranial features that separate it from other members of genus. Ears are dark and relatively short, forefeet and hindfeet are covered dorsally in short brown hair, and tail is covered with prominent scales.","Kiriwina Island is extensively cultivated, and has only small areas of swamp and primary forest that have not been disturbed. This echymipera appears to persist in degraded forest and young regrowth forest in close proximity to the resident human population. Specimens in 1956 were collected near village of Liluta at elevation of 10 m.",There is no specific information available for this species.,There is no specific information available for this species.,There is no specific information available for this species.,There is no specific information available for this species.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. It is represented by five specimens, collected in 1945, 1956, and 1987. As Kiriwina Island coversjust 264 km?, has a high human population density, and is extensively disturbed, “endangered” status for this species would appear to be well justified; as no specimens have been obtained since 1987, and it is not known to occur in any protected areas, it would seem, however, that the species could just as easily be considered Critically Endangered or even Data Deficient. More surveys are needed on Kiriwina and other nearby islands to ascertain the true status of this enigmatic peramelid. When its population status is better known, and threats to its persistence are understood, more informed prescriptions may then be made to ensure that this species can be conserved and managed in future.","Brass (1959) | Flannery (1990b, 1995b) | Groves (2005c)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621772/files/figure.png,"10.David’s EchymiperaEchymipera davidiFrench:Bandicoot de David/ German:Kiriwina-Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de DavidOther common names:Kiriwina Bandicoot, Kiriwina EchymiperaTaxonomy.Echymipera davidi Flannery, 1990,Kiriwina Island(08° 30° S, 151° 00"" E), Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea.Apparently not closely related to any other species within the genus. Monotypic.Distribution.Kiriwina I, in Trobriand Group, off SE New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 32.7-39.7 cm, tail 10-8 cm; weight 950 g. Head body measurements refer to two males, and tail length and body weight to a single individual; no females have been measured. This distinctive island endemic can be distinguished from other Echymipera spp.by its uniformly brown coloration, sparse coat with both fine hair and stiff, flattened hairs, relatively short snout, and absence of a black pad on hindfoot. It also has molars with small hypocones (cusps on rear internal corner of upper molars) and other dental and cranial features that separate it from other members of genus. Ears are dark and relatively short, forefeet and hindfeet are covered dorsally in short brown hair, and tail is covered with prominent scales.Habitat.Kiriwina Island is extensively cultivated, and has only small areas of swamp and primary forest that have not been disturbed. This echymipera appears to persist in degraded forest and young regrowth forest in close proximity to the resident human population. Specimens in 1956 were collected near village of Liluta at elevation of 10 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. It is represented by five specimens, collected in 1945, 1956, and 1987. As Kiriwina Island coversjust 264 km?, has a high human population density, and is extensively disturbed, “endangered” status for this species would appear to be well justified; as no specimens have been obtained since 1987, and it is not known to occur in any protected areas, it would seem, however, that the species could just as easily be considered Critically Endangered or even Data Deficient. More surveys are needed on Kiriwina and other nearby islands to ascertain the true status of this enigmatic peramelid. When its population status is better known, and threats to its persistence are understood, more informed prescriptions may then be made to ensure that this species can be conserved and managed in future.Bibliography.Brass (1959), Flannery (1990b, 1995b), Groves (2005c)." -03C91729FFDDFFBFF86FD59EF5CA10D4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,395,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBFF86FD59EF5CA10D4.xml,Echymipera kalubu,Echymipera,kalubu,,,Bandicoot épineux @fr | Flachstachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso comun @es | Black-headed Bandicoot @en | Common Spiny Bandicoot @en | Kalubu Echymipera @en,"Perameles kalubu Fischer, 1829,“ In insula Waigeo,” (= Waigeo Island, Sorong Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).Four subspecies usually recognized.","E. k. kalubu Fischer, 1829— W Papuan Is (Waigeo, Salawati, Misool), and most of New Guinea, including Yapen I and islands NE of mainland (Bagabag, Blup Blup, Kadovar, Karkar, Koil, Vokeo).E. k. cockerelli Ramsay, 1877 — New Britain, Manus, and adjacent islands, in Bismarck Archipelago.On following pages: 13. Long-nosed Echymipera(Echymipera rufescens); 14. Striped Bandicoot (Microperorycteslongicauda); 15. Mouse Bandicoot (Microperoryctes murina); 16. Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (Microperoryctesaplini); 17. Papuan Bandicoot (Microperoryctes papuensis); 18. Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum).E. k. oriomo Tate & Archbold, 1936 — Fly River region, in S New Guinea.E. k. plaulipi Troughton, 1945 — Biak-Supiori and Owi I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay.","Head-body 22.5-38 cm,tail 6-:3.9-8 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Wide range in measurements reflects differences in size between the subspecies (oriomo and philipi are relatively small, nominate can be 50% more massive than either) and between the sexes; shows marked sexual dimorphism, adult males achieving body weights that on average may be double those of females, though females may nonetheless achieve weights of up to 1-8 kg on occasion. Dorsal fur is coarse reddish brown, flecked with spiny buff and black hairs, and fur below is pale. Cheeks and throat are pale; a dark stripe runs through eye on some individuals, whereas in others entire crown region is black. Melanistic individuals are common in philipi and in some populations of nominate. Unlike the Long-nosed Echymipera(E. rufescens) and the Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara), this species lacks any trace of a black pad on hindfoot.","Occupies most habitats from sea level to ¢.2000 m. It prefers secondary forest, grassland, and garden habitats nearvillages, rather than primary forest, and at higher elevations is restricted increasingly to disturbed habitats. Recorded also as using canegrass thickets, sago swamps, and coffee and banana plantations. Radio-tracking studies show that animals exploitsites with recent tree-falls, fallen fruit, rotting logs, and dense ground-level vegetation for foraging, and use sites on forest floor for nests. They do not have fixed preferences for a particular type of nest; they nest in hollow logs, tree stumps, piles of leaves, and balls of grass, and in shallow, deliberately constructed burrows with two openings that run for up to 4 m below forest floor.","The few stomachs that have been examined suggest that this species, while omnivorous, may consume more fruit than other well-studied peramelids. Local people often set traps or wait by fruiting trees to capture foraging animals, and diet samples have been found to contain seeds and pulp from such fruits as banana, fig, and pandan (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). Nonetheless, the species also eats snails or slugs, surface-active invertebrates, and prey such as larvae in rotting wood. Shallow foraging pits indicate that subterranean prey, such as earthworms, are also eaten. There is some evidence that foraging is focused in areas with dense cover, animals moving quickly through open sites to access new sources of food.","This echymipera is highly fecund and breeds throughout the year. In one long-term study in Karimui region, Chimbu Province, 56 of 85 females were found to be carrying pouch young, intervals between successive litters averaging 120 days. Similar breeding rates (66-71%) have been reported from other localities, including Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Eastern Highlands Province. Females become reproductively active at a weight of ¢.380 g, not long after becoming independent, and testes in males can reach mature size when animals weigh 300 g. Up to three pouch young (average 1-6) were usually present in pouches of females in the Karimui study, similar to reported litter sizes of c¢.1-5 and 1-7 in other areas. Females have six nipples in a rear-opening pouch and, as with other peramelids, young attach to nipples that have not been recently used but which have regressed from an earlier litter.","In Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, individuals became active between 18:00 h and 20:00 h, showed peak activity between 20:00 h and 02:00 h, and became much less active again between 04:00 h and 06:00 h. About three-quarters of fixes on animals radio-tracked at night indicated that these were active and foraging or were patrolling their homes ranges. In contrast, 86% of radio-fixes obtained by day showed that animals were at rest. In anotherstudy, carried out in Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Highlands Province, animals were strictly nocturnal and often used the same pathways when traveling through the forest. Both studies found that the animals use multiple shelters or nest sites between successive days, and sometimes return to these sites at night for short periods.","Individuals use diverse habitats when active at night, perhaps in order to exploit different food resources and to track seasonal shifts in food availability. In Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, this echymipera moved on average 344 m per night and covered areas of c.1-2 ha. Home ranges in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area were 0-9-7-3 ha, with the more expansive ranges occupied by larger—usually male—animals. Males usually overlap the ranges of two or more females, but overlaps in range within each sex appear to be minimal and core areas are maintained exclusively. Population density in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area was estimated at 0-85 ind/ha. Anecdotal accounts indicate that individuals are pugnacious and will fight readily if confined.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is stable. This speciesis the most abundant of New Guinea peramelids. It is very widely distributed, not restricted to particular habitats, occurs in several protected areas, and can be abundant even in places where it is hunted. Anecdotal observations indicate that local populations can be depleted by depredation byferal cat (Felis catus) and feral dogs. Nevertheless, even if there are local reductions in abundance, it is very unlikely that overall population is declining at a rate that might qualify this peramelid for listing as Near Threatened. While nominate subspecies appears to be most secure, oriomo of Fly River region and the two endemic island subspecies have been subject to more limited research in recent years. Although there is little reason to suspect that the latter may be at risk, it would be advantageous to carry out surveys of these forms to confirm their current status.","Anderson et al. (1988) | Cuthbert & Denny (2014) | Dwyer (1984) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Hughes et al. (1990) | Laurie (1952) | Laurie & Hill (1954) | Lidicker & Ziegler (1968) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Troughton (1945) | Van Deusen & Keith (1966) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)",,"12.Common EchymiperaEchymipera kalubuFrench:Bandicoot épineux/ German:Flachstachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso comunOther common names:Black-headed Bandicoot, Common Spiny Bandicoot, Kalubu EchymiperaTaxonomy.Perameles kalubu Fischer, 1829,“ In insula Waigeo,” (= Waigeo Island, Sorong Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).Four subspecies usually recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. k. kalubu Fischer, 1829— W Papuan Is (Waigeo, Salawati, Misool), and most of New Guinea, including Yapen I and islands NE of mainland (Bagabag, Blup Blup, Kadovar, Karkar, Koil, Vokeo).E. k. cockerelli Ramsay, 1877 — New Britain, Manus, and adjacent islands, in Bismarck Archipelago.On following pages: 13. Long-nosed Echymipera(Echymipera rufescens); 14. Striped Bandicoot (Microperorycteslongicauda); 15. Mouse Bandicoot (Microperoryctes murina); 16. Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (Microperoryctesaplini); 17. Papuan Bandicoot (Microperoryctes papuensis); 18. Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum).E. k. oriomo Tate & Archbold, 1936 — Fly River region, in S New Guinea.E. k. plaulipi Troughton, 1945 — Biak-Supiori and Owi I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22.5-38 cm,tail 6-:3.9-8 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Wide range in measurements reflects differences in size between the subspecies (oriomo and philipi are relatively small, nominate can be 50% more massive than either) and between the sexes; shows marked sexual dimorphism, adult males achieving body weights that on average may be double those of females, though females may nonetheless achieve weights of up to 1-8 kg on occasion. Dorsal fur is coarse reddish brown, flecked with spiny buff and black hairs, and fur below is pale. Cheeks and throat are pale; a dark stripe runs through eye on some individuals, whereas in others entire crown region is black. Melanistic individuals are common in philipi and in some populations of nominate. Unlike the Long-nosed Echymipera(E. rufescens) and the Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara), this species lacks any trace of a black pad on hindfoot.Habitat.Occupies most habitats from sea level to ¢.2000 m. It prefers secondary forest, grassland, and garden habitats nearvillages, rather than primary forest, and at higher elevations is restricted increasingly to disturbed habitats. Recorded also as using canegrass thickets, sago swamps, and coffee and banana plantations. Radio-tracking studies show that animals exploitsites with recent tree-falls, fallen fruit, rotting logs, and dense ground-level vegetation for foraging, and use sites on forest floor for nests. They do not have fixed preferences for a particular type of nest; they nest in hollow logs, tree stumps, piles of leaves, and balls of grass, and in shallow, deliberately constructed burrows with two openings that run for up to 4 m below forest floor.Food and Feeding.The few stomachs that have been examined suggest that this species, while omnivorous, may consume more fruit than other well-studied peramelids. Local people often set traps or wait by fruiting trees to capture foraging animals, and diet samples have been found to contain seeds and pulp from such fruits as banana, fig, and pandan (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). Nonetheless, the species also eats snails or slugs, surface-active invertebrates, and prey such as larvae in rotting wood. Shallow foraging pits indicate that subterranean prey, such as earthworms, are also eaten. There is some evidence that foraging is focused in areas with dense cover, animals moving quickly through open sites to access new sources of food.Breeding.This echymipera is highly fecund and breeds throughout the year. In one long-term study in Karimui region, Chimbu Province, 56 of 85 females were found to be carrying pouch young, intervals between successive litters averaging 120 days. Similar breeding rates (66-71%) have been reported from other localities, including Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Eastern Highlands Province. Females become reproductively active at a weight of ¢.380 g, not long after becoming independent, and testes in males can reach mature size when animals weigh 300 g. Up to three pouch young (average 1-6) were usually present in pouches of females in the Karimui study, similar to reported litter sizes of c¢.1-5 and 1-7 in other areas. Females have six nipples in a rear-opening pouch and, as with other peramelids, young attach to nipples that have not been recently used but which have regressed from an earlier litter.Activity patterns.In Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, individuals became active between 18:00 h and 20:00 h, showed peak activity between 20:00 h and 02:00 h, and became much less active again between 04:00 h and 06:00 h. About three-quarters of fixes on animals radio-tracked at night indicated that these were active and foraging or were patrolling their homes ranges. In contrast, 86% of radio-fixes obtained by day showed that animals were at rest. In anotherstudy, carried out in Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Highlands Province, animals were strictly nocturnal and often used the same pathways when traveling through the forest. Both studies found that the animals use multiple shelters or nest sites between successive days, and sometimes return to these sites at night for short periods.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individuals use diverse habitats when active at night, perhaps in order to exploit different food resources and to track seasonal shifts in food availability. In Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, this echymipera moved on average 344 m per night and covered areas of c.1-2 ha. Home ranges in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area were 0-9-7-3 ha, with the more expansive ranges occupied by larger—usually male—animals. Males usually overlap the ranges of two or more females, but overlaps in range within each sex appear to be minimal and core areas are maintained exclusively. Population density in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area was estimated at 0-85 ind/ha. Anecdotal accounts indicate that individuals are pugnacious and will fight readily if confined.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is stable. This speciesis the most abundant of New Guinea peramelids. It is very widely distributed, not restricted to particular habitats, occurs in several protected areas, and can be abundant even in places where it is hunted. Anecdotal observations indicate that local populations can be depleted by depredation byferal cat (Felis catus) and feral dogs. Nevertheless, even if there are local reductions in abundance, it is very unlikely that overall population is declining at a rate that might qualify this peramelid for listing as Near Threatened. While nominate subspecies appears to be most secure, oriomo of Fly River region and the two endemic island subspecies have been subject to more limited research in recent years. Although there is little reason to suspect that the latter may be at risk, it would be advantageous to carry out surveys of these forms to confirm their current status.Bibliography.Anderson et al. (1988), Cuthbert & Denny (2014), Dwyer (1984), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Hughes et al. (1990), Laurie (1952), Laurie & Hill (1954), Lidicker & Ziegler (1968), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Troughton (1945), Van Deusen & Keith (1966), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977, 1982)." +03C91729FFDDFFBFF86FD59EF5CA10D4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,395,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBFF86FD59EF5CA10D4.xml,Echymipera kalubu,Echymipera,kalubu,,,Bandicoot épineux @fr | Flachstachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso comun @es | Black-headed Bandicoot @en | Common Spiny Bandicoot @en | Kalubu Echymipera @en,"Perameles kalubu Fischer, 1829,“ In insula Waigeo,” (= Waigeo Island, Sorong Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).Four subspecies usually recognized.","E. k. kalubu Fischer, 1829— W Papuan Is (Waigeo, Salawati, Misool), and most of New Guinea, including Yapen I and islands NE of mainland (Bagabag, Blup Blup, Kadovar, Karkar, Koil, Vokeo).E. k. cockerelli Ramsay, 1877 — New Britain, Manus, and adjacent islands, in Bismarck Archipelago.On following pages: 13. Long-nosed Echymipera(Echymipera rufescens); 14. Striped Bandicoot (Microperorycteslongicauda); 15. Mouse Bandicoot (Microperoryctes murina); 16. Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (Microperoryctesaplini); 17. Papuan Bandicoot (Microperoryctes papuensis); 18. Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum).E. k. oriomo Tate & Archbold, 1936 — Fly River region, in S New Guinea.E. k. plaulipi Troughton, 1945 — Biak-Supiori and Owi I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay.","Head-body 22.5-38 cm,tail 6-:3.9-8 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Wide range in measurements reflects differences in size between the subspecies (oriomo and philipi are relatively small, nominate can be 50% more massive than either) and between the sexes; shows marked sexual dimorphism, adult males achieving body weights that on average may be double those of females, though females may nonetheless achieve weights of up to 1-8 kg on occasion. Dorsal fur is coarse reddish brown, flecked with spiny buff and black hairs, and fur below is pale. Cheeks and throat are pale; a dark stripe runs through eye on some individuals, whereas in others entire crown region is black. Melanistic individuals are common in philipi and in some populations of nominate. Unlike the Long-nosed Echymipera(E. rufescens) and the Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara), this species lacks any trace of a black pad on hindfoot.","Occupies most habitats from sea level to ¢.2000 m. It prefers secondary forest, grassland, and garden habitats nearvillages, rather than primary forest, and at higher elevations is restricted increasingly to disturbed habitats. Recorded also as using canegrass thickets, sago swamps, and coffee and banana plantations. Radio-tracking studies show that animals exploitsites with recent tree-falls, fallen fruit, rotting logs, and dense ground-level vegetation for foraging, and use sites on forest floor for nests. They do not have fixed preferences for a particular type of nest; they nest in hollow logs, tree stumps, piles of leaves, and balls of grass, and in shallow, deliberately constructed burrows with two openings that run for up to 4 m below forest floor.","The few stomachs that have been examined suggest that this species, while omnivorous, may consume more fruit than other well-studied peramelids. Local people often set traps or wait by fruiting trees to capture foraging animals, and diet samples have been found to contain seeds and pulp from such fruits as banana, fig, and pandan (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). Nonetheless, the species also eats snails or slugs, surface-active invertebrates, and prey such as larvae in rotting wood. Shallow foraging pits indicate that subterranean prey, such as earthworms, are also eaten. There is some evidence that foraging is focused in areas with dense cover, animals moving quickly through open sites to access new sources of food.","This echymipera is highly fecund and breeds throughout the year. In one long-term study in Karimui region, Chimbu Province, 56 of 85 females were found to be carrying pouch young, intervals between successive litters averaging 120 days. Similar breeding rates (66-71%) have been reported from other localities, including Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Eastern Highlands Province. Females become reproductively active at a weight of ¢.380 g, not long after becoming independent, and testes in males can reach mature size when animals weigh 300 g. Up to three pouch young (average 1-6) were usually present in pouches of females in the Karimui study, similar to reported litter sizes of c¢.1-5 and 1-7 in other areas. Females have six nipples in a rear-opening pouch and, as with other peramelids, young attach to nipples that have not been recently used but which have regressed from an earlier litter.","In Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, individuals became active between 18:00 h and 20:00 h, showed peak activity between 20:00 h and 02:00 h, and became much less active again between 04:00 h and 06:00 h. About three-quarters of fixes on animals radio-tracked at night indicated that these were active and foraging or were patrolling their homes ranges. In contrast, 86% of radio-fixes obtained by day showed that animals were at rest. In anotherstudy, carried out in Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Highlands Province, animals were strictly nocturnal and often used the same pathways when traveling through the forest. Both studies found that the animals use multiple shelters or nest sites between successive days, and sometimes return to these sites at night for short periods.","Individuals use diverse habitats when active at night, perhaps in order to exploit different food resources and to track seasonal shifts in food availability. In Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, this echymipera moved on average 344 m per night and covered areas of c.1-2 ha. Home ranges in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area were 0-9-7-3 ha, with the more expansive ranges occupied by larger—usually male—animals. Males usually overlap the ranges of two or more females, but overlaps in range within each sex appear to be minimal and core areas are maintained exclusively. Population density in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area was estimated at 0-85 ind/ha. Anecdotal accounts indicate that individuals are pugnacious and will fight readily if confined.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is stable. This speciesis the most abundant of New Guinea peramelids. It is very widely distributed, not restricted to particular habitats, occurs in several protected areas, and can be abundant even in places where it is hunted. Anecdotal observations indicate that local populations can be depleted by depredation byferal cat (Felis catus) and feral dogs. Nevertheless, even if there are local reductions in abundance, it is very unlikely that overall population is declining at a rate that might qualify this peramelid for listing as Near Threatened. While nominate subspecies appears to be most secure, oriomo of Fly River region and the two endemic island subspecies have been subject to more limited research in recent years. Although there is little reason to suspect that the latter may be at risk, it would be advantageous to carry out surveys of these forms to confirm their current status.","Anderson et al. (1988) | Cuthbert & Denny (2014) | Dwyer (1984) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Hughes et al. (1990) | Laurie (1952) | Laurie & Hill (1954) | Lidicker & Ziegler (1968) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Troughton (1945) | Van Deusen & Keith (1966) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621776/files/figure.png,"12.Common EchymiperaEchymipera kalubuFrench:Bandicoot épineux/ German:Flachstachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso comunOther common names:Black-headed Bandicoot, Common Spiny Bandicoot, Kalubu EchymiperaTaxonomy.Perameles kalubu Fischer, 1829,“ In insula Waigeo,” (= Waigeo Island, Sorong Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).Four subspecies usually recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. k. kalubu Fischer, 1829— W Papuan Is (Waigeo, Salawati, Misool), and most of New Guinea, including Yapen I and islands NE of mainland (Bagabag, Blup Blup, Kadovar, Karkar, Koil, Vokeo).E. k. cockerelli Ramsay, 1877 — New Britain, Manus, and adjacent islands, in Bismarck Archipelago.On following pages: 13. Long-nosed Echymipera(Echymipera rufescens); 14. Striped Bandicoot (Microperorycteslongicauda); 15. Mouse Bandicoot (Microperoryctes murina); 16. Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (Microperoryctesaplini); 17. Papuan Bandicoot (Microperoryctes papuensis); 18. Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum).E. k. oriomo Tate & Archbold, 1936 — Fly River region, in S New Guinea.E. k. plaulipi Troughton, 1945 — Biak-Supiori and Owi I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22.5-38 cm,tail 6-:3.9-8 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Wide range in measurements reflects differences in size between the subspecies (oriomo and philipi are relatively small, nominate can be 50% more massive than either) and between the sexes; shows marked sexual dimorphism, adult males achieving body weights that on average may be double those of females, though females may nonetheless achieve weights of up to 1-8 kg on occasion. Dorsal fur is coarse reddish brown, flecked with spiny buff and black hairs, and fur below is pale. Cheeks and throat are pale; a dark stripe runs through eye on some individuals, whereas in others entire crown region is black. Melanistic individuals are common in philipi and in some populations of nominate. Unlike the Long-nosed Echymipera(E. rufescens) and the Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara), this species lacks any trace of a black pad on hindfoot.Habitat.Occupies most habitats from sea level to ¢.2000 m. It prefers secondary forest, grassland, and garden habitats nearvillages, rather than primary forest, and at higher elevations is restricted increasingly to disturbed habitats. Recorded also as using canegrass thickets, sago swamps, and coffee and banana plantations. Radio-tracking studies show that animals exploitsites with recent tree-falls, fallen fruit, rotting logs, and dense ground-level vegetation for foraging, and use sites on forest floor for nests. They do not have fixed preferences for a particular type of nest; they nest in hollow logs, tree stumps, piles of leaves, and balls of grass, and in shallow, deliberately constructed burrows with two openings that run for up to 4 m below forest floor.Food and Feeding.The few stomachs that have been examined suggest that this species, while omnivorous, may consume more fruit than other well-studied peramelids. Local people often set traps or wait by fruiting trees to capture foraging animals, and diet samples have been found to contain seeds and pulp from such fruits as banana, fig, and pandan (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). Nonetheless, the species also eats snails or slugs, surface-active invertebrates, and prey such as larvae in rotting wood. Shallow foraging pits indicate that subterranean prey, such as earthworms, are also eaten. There is some evidence that foraging is focused in areas with dense cover, animals moving quickly through open sites to access new sources of food.Breeding.This echymipera is highly fecund and breeds throughout the year. In one long-term study in Karimui region, Chimbu Province, 56 of 85 females were found to be carrying pouch young, intervals between successive litters averaging 120 days. Similar breeding rates (66-71%) have been reported from other localities, including Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Eastern Highlands Province. Females become reproductively active at a weight of ¢.380 g, not long after becoming independent, and testes in males can reach mature size when animals weigh 300 g. Up to three pouch young (average 1-6) were usually present in pouches of females in the Karimui study, similar to reported litter sizes of c¢.1-5 and 1-7 in other areas. Females have six nipples in a rear-opening pouch and, as with other peramelids, young attach to nipples that have not been recently used but which have regressed from an earlier litter.Activity patterns.In Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, individuals became active between 18:00 h and 20:00 h, showed peak activity between 20:00 h and 02:00 h, and became much less active again between 04:00 h and 06:00 h. About three-quarters of fixes on animals radio-tracked at night indicated that these were active and foraging or were patrolling their homes ranges. In contrast, 86% of radio-fixes obtained by day showed that animals were at rest. In anotherstudy, carried out in Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Highlands Province, animals were strictly nocturnal and often used the same pathways when traveling through the forest. Both studies found that the animals use multiple shelters or nest sites between successive days, and sometimes return to these sites at night for short periods.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individuals use diverse habitats when active at night, perhaps in order to exploit different food resources and to track seasonal shifts in food availability. In Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, this echymipera moved on average 344 m per night and covered areas of c.1-2 ha. Home ranges in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area were 0-9-7-3 ha, with the more expansive ranges occupied by larger—usually male—animals. Males usually overlap the ranges of two or more females, but overlaps in range within each sex appear to be minimal and core areas are maintained exclusively. Population density in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area was estimated at 0-85 ind/ha. Anecdotal accounts indicate that individuals are pugnacious and will fight readily if confined.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is stable. This speciesis the most abundant of New Guinea peramelids. It is very widely distributed, not restricted to particular habitats, occurs in several protected areas, and can be abundant even in places where it is hunted. Anecdotal observations indicate that local populations can be depleted by depredation byferal cat (Felis catus) and feral dogs. Nevertheless, even if there are local reductions in abundance, it is very unlikely that overall population is declining at a rate that might qualify this peramelid for listing as Near Threatened. While nominate subspecies appears to be most secure, oriomo of Fly River region and the two endemic island subspecies have been subject to more limited research in recent years. Although there is little reason to suspect that the latter may be at risk, it would be advantageous to carry out surveys of these forms to confirm their current status.Bibliography.Anderson et al. (1988), Cuthbert & Denny (2014), Dwyer (1984), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Hughes et al. (1990), Laurie (1952), Laurie & Hill (1954), Lidicker & Ziegler (1968), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Troughton (1945), Van Deusen & Keith (1966), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977, 1982)." 03C91729FFDEFFBDF8AADDD0F8F7181D,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,398,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDEFFBDF8AADDD0F8F7181D.xml,Rhynchomeles prattorum,Rhynchomeles,prattorum,Thomas,1920,Bandicoot de Seram @fr | Seram-Nasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de Seram @es | Ceram Bandicoot @en | Seram @en | sland Long-nosed Bandicoot @en,"Rhynchomeles prattorumThomas, 1920,“ Mt. Manusela, 6000’,” Seram Island, Indonesia.This species is monotypic.","Mt Manusela, C Seram.","Head-body 24.-5-33 cm, tail 10.5-13 cm; no specific data are available for body weight, but probably more than 500 g. Has uniformly chocolate-brown dorsal and ventral fur, except for a variably sized pure white patch on chest. Hindfoot is relatively short and broad, and snout extremely elongate. As in species of Echymipera, incisor I 5 is absent.","Upper montane tropical forest. Notes made by collectors of all known specimens of this species state that animals were captured in “very precipitous jungle-clad limestone country” and in “heavy jungle, precipitous limestone terrain.” One collection label notes that specimen was taken at 6000 ft (c¢.1800 m).",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This species is represented by seven specimens collected in 1920 from Mount Manusela; the single known locality lies within Manusela National Park and thus receives nominal protection from habitat disturbance. Recent surveys in Seram have failed to uncover further specimens ofthis cryptic peramelid, but none focused on the rugged and high-altitude moss forests that appear to be the species’ stronghold. Assuming that the bandicoot still persists,it is very likely to be endangered because of a recent acceleration in forest-clearing for timber, conversion of forest at lower altitudes for crops, and increased disturbance due to fire. Pigs, rats, dogs, and possibly domestic cats (Felis catus) also have been introduced to Seram; with habitat degradation potentially providing these introduced pest species with easier access into the higher-altitude forests, the future for this remarkable and endemic peramelid appears bleak. Targeted surveys therefore are needed as a matter of urgency on Mount Manusela and other peaks on Seram in order to define the current status of this species and to inform future conservation actions accordingly.","Flannery (1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Leary, Wright, Hamilton, Singadan, Menzies, Bonaccorso, Helgen, Seri, Allison, Aplin et al. (2008b) | Tate (1948b) | Thomas (1920c) | Westerman et al. (2012)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621793/files/figure.png,"18.Seram BandicootRhynchomeles prattorumFrench:Bandicoot de Seram/ German:Seram-Nasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de SeramOther common names:Ceram Bandicoot, Seram Island Long-nosed BandicootTaxonomy.Rhynchomeles prattorumThomas, 1920,“ Mt. Manusela, 6000’,” Seram Island, Indonesia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Mt Manusela, C Seram.Descriptive notes.Head-body 24.-5-33 cm, tail 10.5-13 cm; no specific data are available for body weight, but probably more than 500 g. Has uniformly chocolate-brown dorsal and ventral fur, except for a variably sized pure white patch on chest. Hindfoot is relatively short and broad, and snout extremely elongate. As in species of Echymipera, incisor I 5 is absent.Habitat.Upper montane tropical forest. Notes made by collectors of all known specimens of this species state that animals were captured in “very precipitous jungle-clad limestone country” and in “heavy jungle, precipitous limestone terrain.” One collection label notes that specimen was taken at 6000 ft (c¢.1800 m).Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This species is represented by seven specimens collected in 1920 from Mount Manusela; the single known locality lies within Manusela National Park and thus receives nominal protection from habitat disturbance. Recent surveys in Seram have failed to uncover further specimens ofthis cryptic peramelid, but none focused on the rugged and high-altitude moss forests that appear to be the species’ stronghold. Assuming that the bandicoot still persists,it is very likely to be endangered because of a recent acceleration in forest-clearing for timber, conversion of forest at lower altitudes for crops, and increased disturbance due to fire. Pigs, rats, dogs, and possibly domestic cats (Felis catus) also have been introduced to Seram; with habitat degradation potentially providing these introduced pest species with easier access into the higher-altitude forests, the future for this remarkable and endemic peramelid appears bleak. Targeted surveys therefore are needed as a matter of urgency on Mount Manusela and other peaks on Seram in order to define the current status of this species and to inform future conservation actions accordingly.Bibliography.Flannery (1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Leary, Wright, Hamilton, Singadan, Menzies, Bonaccorso, Helgen, Seri, Allison, Aplin et al. (2008b), Tate (1948b), Thomas (1920c), Westerman et al. (2012)." 03C91729FFDEFFBDFDAEDCFAF80110FB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,398,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDEFFBDFDAEDCFAF80110FB.xml,Microperoryctes papuensis,Microperoryctes,papuensis,,,Bandicoot papou @fr | Mura-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de Papua @es,"Peroryctes papuensis Laurie, 1952,“ Boneno, Mt. Mura(30 milesNW. Mt. Simpson Main Range, eastern Papua, SE. New Guinea, 4,000-5,000 ft.”This species is monotypic.","Fane village to Mt Simpson, in SE New Guinea.","Head-body 17.5-20.5 cm, tail 14.2-15.8 cm; weight 145-184 g. Males may be slightly larger than females, but sample sizes too small to be certain. This small soft-furred peramelid is gray or brown with a very marked dark stripe running dorsally from head to base oftail, and additional dark stripes on face and rump. Ventral fur is light gray in young animals, but rich orange-buff in adults. Ears and tail are hairless, and terminal one-sixth oftail is white.","Both primary and secondary forest, at altitudes of 1200-2650 m. Occasional records indicate that this species also visits gardens in small villages. An adult male and a Juvenile have been dug from burrows on separate occasions, providing a hint that shelter may be sought under ground rather than in surface or subsurface scrapes. It occurs sympatrically with the Striped Bandicoot (M. longicauda) in some mid-montane forest areas.","There is no specific information available for this species. As it has been described as a “small replica” of the Striped Bandicoot, however, and co-occurs with latter species at somesites,it is likely to be broadly omnivorous.","From limited specimen evidence, it appears that this bandicoot breeds throughout year and carries a single young in each litter. Only four nipples are present.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend unknown. Has been recorded from nine localities. Despite being poorly known, this species’ relatively large range—with much of its distribution in rugged, high-altitude forest—its ability to tolerate disturbed habitat, and a lack of obvious threats have all contributed to IUCN’s assessment that it is secure. None of the known localities encompasses protected areas, but the small size ofthis peramelid probably means that it 1s not a focus for hunters.","Aplin & Woolley (1993) | Flannery (1995a) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005¢) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Laurie (1952) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977)",https://zenodo.org/record/6621791/files/figure.png,"17.Papuan BandicootMicroperoryctes papuensisFrench:Bandicoot papou/ German:Mura-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de PapuaTaxonomy.Peroryctes papuensis Laurie, 1952,“ Boneno, Mt. Mura(30 milesNW. Mt. Simpson Main Range, eastern Papua, SE. New Guinea, 4,000-5,000 ft.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Fane village to Mt Simpson, in SE New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 17.5-20.5 cm, tail 14.2-15.8 cm; weight 145-184 g. Males may be slightly larger than females, but sample sizes too small to be certain. This small soft-furred peramelid is gray or brown with a very marked dark stripe running dorsally from head to base oftail, and additional dark stripes on face and rump. Ventral fur is light gray in young animals, but rich orange-buff in adults. Ears and tail are hairless, and terminal one-sixth oftail is white.Habitat.Both primary and secondary forest, at altitudes of 1200-2650 m. Occasional records indicate that this species also visits gardens in small villages. An adult male and a Juvenile have been dug from burrows on separate occasions, providing a hint that shelter may be sought under ground rather than in surface or subsurface scrapes. It occurs sympatrically with the Striped Bandicoot (M. longicauda) in some mid-montane forest areas.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species. As it has been described as a “small replica” of the Striped Bandicoot, however, and co-occurs with latter species at somesites,it is likely to be broadly omnivorous.Breeding.From limited specimen evidence, it appears that this bandicoot breeds throughout year and carries a single young in each litter. Only four nipples are present.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend unknown. Has been recorded from nine localities. Despite being poorly known, this species’ relatively large range—with much of its distribution in rugged, high-altitude forest—its ability to tolerate disturbed habitat, and a lack of obvious threats have all contributed to IUCN’s assessment that it is secure. None of the known localities encompasses protected areas, but the small size ofthis peramelid probably means that it 1s not a focus for hunters.Bibliography.Aplin & Woolley (1993), Flannery (1995a), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005¢), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Laurie (1952), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977)." 03C91729FFDFFFBCF861DDB2F73A19A3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,397,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDFFFBCF861DDB2F73A19A3.xml,Microperoryctes murina,Microperoryctes,murina,Stein,1932,Bandicoot souris @fr | Weyland-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut murino @es | Weyland Mouse Bandicoot @en,"Microperoryctes murina [sic] Stein, 1932,Sumuri Mountain, 2500 m, Weyland Mountains, Paniai Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.This species was shown to be distinct from the similarsized M. aplini in 2004. Monotypic.","Gunung Sumuri, in Weyland Mts, WC New Guinea.","Head-body 15.2-17.4 cm, tail 10.5-11.1 cm; no specific data are available for body weight, but probably c.100 g. This species and the Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (M. aplini) are smallest peramelids. Furis soft, dark smoky gray, and lacks dark dorsal stripe of all other members of genus;tail is uniformly colored, and lacks white tip that is present on all congeners. Scrotum is furred and grayish white.",The three known specimens were collected in montane forest at altitude of 2500 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species. Early workers noted, however, that the claws are similar to those of similarsized fossorial (digging) mammals and also that the soft fur is reminiscent of that of moles (Talpidae) and shrews (Soricidae); this may suggest that this bandicoot obtains food such as invertebrates at orjust below ground surface.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This peramelid is known only from three specimens collected in 1931 from Gunung Sumuri, in the Weyland Mountains of west-central New Guinea. As the type locality has not been revisited since 1931, and other potential localities for this species have not been explored,its status remains completely unknown. Surveys of the type locality, adjacent montane forest, and neighboring mountain tops need to be completed before any informed conservation or management decisions can be made.",Flannery (1995a) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Menzies (2011) | Stein (1932) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Ziegler (1977),https://zenodo.org/record/6621782/files/figure.png,"15.Mouse BandicootMicroperoryctes murinaFrench:Bandicoot souris/ German:Weyland-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut murinoOther common names:Weyland Mouse BandicootTaxonomy.Microperoryctes murina [sic] Stein, 1932,Sumuri Mountain, 2500 m, Weyland Mountains, Paniai Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.This species was shown to be distinct from the similarsized M. aplini in 2004. Monotypic.Distribution.Gunung Sumuri, in Weyland Mts, WC New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 15.2-17.4 cm, tail 10.5-11.1 cm; no specific data are available for body weight, but probably c.100 g. This species and the Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (M. aplini) are smallest peramelids. Furis soft, dark smoky gray, and lacks dark dorsal stripe of all other members of genus;tail is uniformly colored, and lacks white tip that is present on all congeners. Scrotum is furred and grayish white.Habitat.The three known specimens were collected in montane forest at altitude of 2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species. Early workers noted, however, that the claws are similar to those of similarsized fossorial (digging) mammals and also that the soft fur is reminiscent of that of moles (Talpidae) and shrews (Soricidae); this may suggest that this bandicoot obtains food such as invertebrates at orjust below ground surface.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This peramelid is known only from three specimens collected in 1931 from Gunung Sumuri, in the Weyland Mountains of west-central New Guinea. As the type locality has not been revisited since 1931, and other potential localities for this species have not been explored,its status remains completely unknown. Surveys of the type locality, adjacent montane forest, and neighboring mountain tops need to be completed before any informed conservation or management decisions can be made.Bibliography.Flannery (1995a), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Menzies (2011), Stein (1932), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Ziegler (1977)." -03C91729FFDFFFBCFD64DCC3F7EE1310,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,397,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDFFFBCFD64DCC3F7EE1310.xml,Microperoryctes longicauda,Microperoryctes,longicauda,,,Bandicoot rayé @fr | Langschwanz-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut estriado @es,"Peroryctes longicauda Peters & Doria, 1876,“ Hatam, Mons Arfak,” (= Arfak Mountains, Bird's Head, Manokwari Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).The striking west to east change in coloration and distinctiveness of the stripe patterns has long been taken as evidence of a geographical cline, the subspecies being separated by low-elevation valleys along Central Range. Forms dorsalis and ornata, however, appear to overlap in Star (= Jayawijaya) Mountains of central New Guinea, slightly larger dorsalis occurring above 3100 m and ornata at middle elevations of 1400-2600 m; there is no evidence of introgression between the two forms, but, on the contrary, some indication of character displacement in size and shape between them in Star Mountains overlap region, this suggesting that the two are probably separate biological species. Pending further work, a conservative approach is taken here, with dorsalis and ornata treated as distinct subspecies within M. longicauda. Four subspecies currently recognized.","M.l.longicaudaPeters&Doria,1876—ArfakMts,inEBird'sHead(=Vogelkop)Peninsula,NWNewGuinea.M.l.dorsalisThomas,1922—WCNewGuinea(WsectionofCentralRange).M.l.magnusLaurie,1952—SENewGuinea.M. l. ornatus Thomas, 1904— EC New Guinea (E section of Central Range).","Head-body 24-30.3 cm,tail 17.8-25.8 cm; weight 350-670 g. Males and females are similar in size. Fur is brown or gray dorsally, with variable rufous tinges, and dark stripes along top of head and flanks, and sometimes face, becoming bolder and more prominent from west to east across species’ range; ventral fur is creamy white in W forms, becoming darker in E; ears and tail are hairless. Nominate subspecies has dull gray and generally unpatterned body coloration; dorsalis is slightly brighter and more rufous, with pronounced dorsal stripe; ornata is distinguished by bolder patterning of dorsal pelage, a distinct dorsal stripe, and lateral stripes on rump; magna has bold stripes like ornata, but is larger and has both longer tail and darker ventral pelage than latter.","Occurs commonly in primary, secondary, and disturbed rainforest and mossforest habitats, as well as in gardens, cane grass (Saccharum, Poaceae) thickets, and alpine regions above limit of trees. Its altitudinal rangeis from c.1000 m, possibly less in Arfak Mountains, to almost 4000 m, but it appears to be most common above 1400 m. Nests are constructed from leaves, moss, twigs and other debris in shallow burrows or on ground among grass tussocks or tree roots, and have a roof that provides some shelter from rain and predators; nests always have an escape route that reduces the chance of individuals being captured.","Little quantitative information is available, but this peramelid is reported to be omnivorous. It eats insects and other invertebrates, especially worms, but also includesfallen fruit and possibly small vertebrates in the diet.","Opportunistic observations suggest that breeding can occur throughout the year, females suckling litters of 1-4 young. Two or three pairs of nipples may be present. Anecdotal observations indicate that young are left in a nest while the mother forages, and that mothers may associate with female young beyond weaning.","Rests by day in its nest, and appears to be active mostly, or only, at night.","No reliable information is available. Observations of relatively long associations between mothers and young and of up to five animals sharing a nest, however, are perhaps indicative of greater social tolerance by this species than is the case with most other peramelids.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. At the species level, the extensive distribution, local abundance, and occurrence in areas away from high-density human populations provide no indication that this bandicoot is currently under any threat. It appears to be susceptible in some local areas to overhunting, especially with dogs, and also to predation by feral dogs, but it still persists in presence of human settlement and may take occasional advantage of this proximity by raiding crops in village gardens. Status of the several subspecies has not been fully assessed, but presence of nominate, dorsalis and ornata at high elevations and in several protected areas along Central Range suggests that all are reasonably secure. Status of south-eastern subspecies, magna, is less clear; as this form hasa very limited distribution and occurs near areas of high human population density, its prognosis may be somewhatless sanguine than that of its close relatives.",Aplin et al. (1999) | Dwyer (1983) | Flannery (1995a) | Flannery & Seri (1990b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Hide et al. (1984) | Laurie (1952) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Westerman et al. (2001) | Ziegler (1977),,"14.Striped BandicootMicroperoryctes longicaudaFrench:Bandicoot rayé/ German:Langschwanz-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut estriadoTaxonomy.Peroryctes longicauda Peters & Doria, 1876,“ Hatam, Mons Arfak,” (= Arfak Mountains, Bird's Head, Manokwari Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).The striking west to east change in coloration and distinctiveness of the stripe patterns has long been taken as evidence of a geographical cline, the subspecies being separated by low-elevation valleys along Central Range. Forms dorsalis and ornata, however, appear to overlap in Star (= Jayawijaya) Mountains of central New Guinea, slightly larger dorsalis occurring above 3100 m and ornata at middle elevations of 1400-2600 m; there is no evidence of introgression between the two forms, but, on the contrary, some indication of character displacement in size and shape between them in Star Mountains overlap region, this suggesting that the two are probably separate biological species. Pending further work, a conservative approach is taken here, with dorsalis and ornata treated as distinct subspecies within M. longicauda. Four subspecies currently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.l.longicaudaPeters&Doria,1876—ArfakMts,inEBird'sHead(=Vogelkop)Peninsula,NWNewGuinea.M.l.dorsalisThomas,1922—WCNewGuinea(WsectionofCentralRange).M.l.magnusLaurie,1952—SENewGuinea.M. l. ornatus Thomas, 1904— EC New Guinea (E section of Central Range).Descriptive notes.Head-body 24-30.3 cm,tail 17.8-25.8 cm; weight 350-670 g. Males and females are similar in size. Fur is brown or gray dorsally, with variable rufous tinges, and dark stripes along top of head and flanks, and sometimes face, becoming bolder and more prominent from west to east across species’ range; ventral fur is creamy white in W forms, becoming darker in E; ears and tail are hairless. Nominate subspecies has dull gray and generally unpatterned body coloration; dorsalis is slightly brighter and more rufous, with pronounced dorsal stripe; ornata is distinguished by bolder patterning of dorsal pelage, a distinct dorsal stripe, and lateral stripes on rump; magna has bold stripes like ornata, but is larger and has both longer tail and darker ventral pelage than latter.Habitat.Occurs commonly in primary, secondary, and disturbed rainforest and mossforest habitats, as well as in gardens, cane grass (Saccharum, Poaceae) thickets, and alpine regions above limit of trees. Its altitudinal rangeis from c.1000 m, possibly less in Arfak Mountains, to almost 4000 m, but it appears to be most common above 1400 m. Nests are constructed from leaves, moss, twigs and other debris in shallow burrows or on ground among grass tussocks or tree roots, and have a roof that provides some shelter from rain and predators; nests always have an escape route that reduces the chance of individuals being captured.Food and Feeding.Little quantitative information is available, but this peramelid is reported to be omnivorous. It eats insects and other invertebrates, especially worms, but also includesfallen fruit and possibly small vertebrates in the diet.Breeding.Opportunistic observations suggest that breeding can occur throughout the year, females suckling litters of 1-4 young. Two or three pairs of nipples may be present. Anecdotal observations indicate that young are left in a nest while the mother forages, and that mothers may associate with female young beyond weaning.Activity patterns.Rests by day in its nest, and appears to be active mostly, or only, at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No reliable information is available. Observations of relatively long associations between mothers and young and of up to five animals sharing a nest, however, are perhaps indicative of greater social tolerance by this species than is the case with most other peramelids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. At the species level, the extensive distribution, local abundance, and occurrence in areas away from high-density human populations provide no indication that this bandicoot is currently under any threat. It appears to be susceptible in some local areas to overhunting, especially with dogs, and also to predation by feral dogs, but it still persists in presence of human settlement and may take occasional advantage of this proximity by raiding crops in village gardens. Status of the several subspecies has not been fully assessed, but presence of nominate, dorsalis and ornata at high elevations and in several protected areas along Central Range suggests that all are reasonably secure. Status of south-eastern subspecies, magna, is less clear; as this form hasa very limited distribution and occurs near areas of high human population density, its prognosis may be somewhatless sanguine than that of its close relatives.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (1999), Dwyer (1983), Flannery (1995a), Flannery & Seri (1990b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Hide et al. (1984), Laurie (1952), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Westerman et al. (2001), Ziegler (1977)." +03C91729FFDFFFBCFD64DCC3F7EE1310,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,397,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDFFFBCFD64DCC3F7EE1310.xml,Microperoryctes longicauda,Microperoryctes,longicauda,,,Bandicoot rayé @fr | Langschwanz-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut estriado @es,"Peroryctes longicauda Peters & Doria, 1876,“ Hatam, Mons Arfak,” (= Arfak Mountains, Bird's Head, Manokwari Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).The striking west to east change in coloration and distinctiveness of the stripe patterns has long been taken as evidence of a geographical cline, the subspecies being separated by low-elevation valleys along Central Range. Forms dorsalis and ornata, however, appear to overlap in Star (= Jayawijaya) Mountains of central New Guinea, slightly larger dorsalis occurring above 3100 m and ornata at middle elevations of 1400-2600 m; there is no evidence of introgression between the two forms, but, on the contrary, some indication of character displacement in size and shape between them in Star Mountains overlap region, this suggesting that the two are probably separate biological species. Pending further work, a conservative approach is taken here, with dorsalis and ornata treated as distinct subspecies within M. longicauda. Four subspecies currently recognized.","M.l.longicaudaPeters&Doria,1876—ArfakMts,inEBird'sHead(=Vogelkop)Peninsula,NWNewGuinea.M.l.dorsalisThomas,1922—WCNewGuinea(WsectionofCentralRange).M.l.magnusLaurie,1952—SENewGuinea.M. l. ornatus Thomas, 1904— EC New Guinea (E section of Central Range).","Head-body 24-30.3 cm,tail 17.8-25.8 cm; weight 350-670 g. Males and females are similar in size. Fur is brown or gray dorsally, with variable rufous tinges, and dark stripes along top of head and flanks, and sometimes face, becoming bolder and more prominent from west to east across species’ range; ventral fur is creamy white in W forms, becoming darker in E; ears and tail are hairless. Nominate subspecies has dull gray and generally unpatterned body coloration; dorsalis is slightly brighter and more rufous, with pronounced dorsal stripe; ornata is distinguished by bolder patterning of dorsal pelage, a distinct dorsal stripe, and lateral stripes on rump; magna has bold stripes like ornata, but is larger and has both longer tail and darker ventral pelage than latter.","Occurs commonly in primary, secondary, and disturbed rainforest and mossforest habitats, as well as in gardens, cane grass (Saccharum, Poaceae) thickets, and alpine regions above limit of trees. Its altitudinal rangeis from c.1000 m, possibly less in Arfak Mountains, to almost 4000 m, but it appears to be most common above 1400 m. Nests are constructed from leaves, moss, twigs and other debris in shallow burrows or on ground among grass tussocks or tree roots, and have a roof that provides some shelter from rain and predators; nests always have an escape route that reduces the chance of individuals being captured.","Little quantitative information is available, but this peramelid is reported to be omnivorous. It eats insects and other invertebrates, especially worms, but also includesfallen fruit and possibly small vertebrates in the diet.","Opportunistic observations suggest that breeding can occur throughout the year, females suckling litters of 1-4 young. Two or three pairs of nipples may be present. Anecdotal observations indicate that young are left in a nest while the mother forages, and that mothers may associate with female young beyond weaning.","Rests by day in its nest, and appears to be active mostly, or only, at night.","No reliable information is available. Observations of relatively long associations between mothers and young and of up to five animals sharing a nest, however, are perhaps indicative of greater social tolerance by this species than is the case with most other peramelids.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. At the species level, the extensive distribution, local abundance, and occurrence in areas away from high-density human populations provide no indication that this bandicoot is currently under any threat. It appears to be susceptible in some local areas to overhunting, especially with dogs, and also to predation by feral dogs, but it still persists in presence of human settlement and may take occasional advantage of this proximity by raiding crops in village gardens. Status of the several subspecies has not been fully assessed, but presence of nominate, dorsalis and ornata at high elevations and in several protected areas along Central Range suggests that all are reasonably secure. Status of south-eastern subspecies, magna, is less clear; as this form hasa very limited distribution and occurs near areas of high human population density, its prognosis may be somewhatless sanguine than that of its close relatives.",Aplin et al. (1999) | Dwyer (1983) | Flannery (1995a) | Flannery & Seri (1990b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Hide et al. (1984) | Laurie (1952) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Westerman et al. (2001) | Ziegler (1977),https://zenodo.org/record/6621780/files/figure.png,"14.Striped BandicootMicroperoryctes longicaudaFrench:Bandicoot rayé/ German:Langschwanz-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut estriadoTaxonomy.Peroryctes longicauda Peters & Doria, 1876,“ Hatam, Mons Arfak,” (= Arfak Mountains, Bird's Head, Manokwari Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).The striking west to east change in coloration and distinctiveness of the stripe patterns has long been taken as evidence of a geographical cline, the subspecies being separated by low-elevation valleys along Central Range. Forms dorsalis and ornata, however, appear to overlap in Star (= Jayawijaya) Mountains of central New Guinea, slightly larger dorsalis occurring above 3100 m and ornata at middle elevations of 1400-2600 m; there is no evidence of introgression between the two forms, but, on the contrary, some indication of character displacement in size and shape between them in Star Mountains overlap region, this suggesting that the two are probably separate biological species. Pending further work, a conservative approach is taken here, with dorsalis and ornata treated as distinct subspecies within M. longicauda. Four subspecies currently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.l.longicaudaPeters&Doria,1876—ArfakMts,inEBird'sHead(=Vogelkop)Peninsula,NWNewGuinea.M.l.dorsalisThomas,1922—WCNewGuinea(WsectionofCentralRange).M.l.magnusLaurie,1952—SENewGuinea.M. l. ornatus Thomas, 1904— EC New Guinea (E section of Central Range).Descriptive notes.Head-body 24-30.3 cm,tail 17.8-25.8 cm; weight 350-670 g. Males and females are similar in size. Fur is brown or gray dorsally, with variable rufous tinges, and dark stripes along top of head and flanks, and sometimes face, becoming bolder and more prominent from west to east across species’ range; ventral fur is creamy white in W forms, becoming darker in E; ears and tail are hairless. Nominate subspecies has dull gray and generally unpatterned body coloration; dorsalis is slightly brighter and more rufous, with pronounced dorsal stripe; ornata is distinguished by bolder patterning of dorsal pelage, a distinct dorsal stripe, and lateral stripes on rump; magna has bold stripes like ornata, but is larger and has both longer tail and darker ventral pelage than latter.Habitat.Occurs commonly in primary, secondary, and disturbed rainforest and mossforest habitats, as well as in gardens, cane grass (Saccharum, Poaceae) thickets, and alpine regions above limit of trees. Its altitudinal rangeis from c.1000 m, possibly less in Arfak Mountains, to almost 4000 m, but it appears to be most common above 1400 m. Nests are constructed from leaves, moss, twigs and other debris in shallow burrows or on ground among grass tussocks or tree roots, and have a roof that provides some shelter from rain and predators; nests always have an escape route that reduces the chance of individuals being captured.Food and Feeding.Little quantitative information is available, but this peramelid is reported to be omnivorous. It eats insects and other invertebrates, especially worms, but also includesfallen fruit and possibly small vertebrates in the diet.Breeding.Opportunistic observations suggest that breeding can occur throughout the year, females suckling litters of 1-4 young. Two or three pairs of nipples may be present. Anecdotal observations indicate that young are left in a nest while the mother forages, and that mothers may associate with female young beyond weaning.Activity patterns.Rests by day in its nest, and appears to be active mostly, or only, at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No reliable information is available. Observations of relatively long associations between mothers and young and of up to five animals sharing a nest, however, are perhaps indicative of greater social tolerance by this species than is the case with most other peramelids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. At the species level, the extensive distribution, local abundance, and occurrence in areas away from high-density human populations provide no indication that this bandicoot is currently under any threat. It appears to be susceptible in some local areas to overhunting, especially with dogs, and also to predation by feral dogs, but it still persists in presence of human settlement and may take occasional advantage of this proximity by raiding crops in village gardens. Status of the several subspecies has not been fully assessed, but presence of nominate, dorsalis and ornata at high elevations and in several protected areas along Central Range suggests that all are reasonably secure. Status of south-eastern subspecies, magna, is less clear; as this form hasa very limited distribution and occurs near areas of high human population density, its prognosis may be somewhatless sanguine than that of its close relatives.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (1999), Dwyer (1983), Flannery (1995a), Flannery & Seri (1990b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Hide et al. (1984), Laurie (1952), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Westerman et al. (2001), Ziegler (1977)." 03C91729FFDFFFBDF86BD662FEDD1229,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-99-6,hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d,397,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDFFFBDF86BD662FEDD1229.xml,Microperoryctes aplin,Microperoryctes,aplini,Helgen & Flannery,2004,Bandicoot d Aplin @fr | Arfak-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de las Arfak @es,"Microperoryctes aplini Helgen & Flannery, 2004,Kampong Sururai, Lake Anggi Giji(01°23’S, 133°58’E), 6200 ft(= 1890 m), Arfak Mountains, eastern Vogelkop Peninsula, western New Guinea(Papua Province, Indonesia).Has been considered conspecific with M. murina, primarily on the basis of its similarity in size. Monotypic.","Arfak Mts, in E Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop) Peninsula, NW New Guinea.This species is monotypic.","Head—body 14.2-16 cm,tail 11-512 cm; weight unknown, probably less than 100 g. Probably the smallest member of Peramelidae, at least as diminutive as the Mouse Bandicoot (M. murina). Fur is soft brown on dorsal surface, with a pronounced dark stripe that runs from crown to rump, while ventral fur is gray-brown with a creamy-white stripe. Relatively long tail is brown above and creamy white below, with a white tip that extends for about a sixth of tail length.",Has been collected in forest at altitudes of 1890-2200 m.,"There is no specific information available for this species. Like the Mouse Bandicoot, however,it has been suggested as being “subfossorial;” if correct, this species may obtain its food at or just below ground surface.",There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,There is no information available for this species.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This tiny bandicoot is represented by four specimens collected in 1928, 1963, and 1986 from Arfak Mountains, in eastern Bird’s Head Peninsula. Its status is similar to that of the Mouse Bandicoot in that it has not been seen for many years, is known from a small area, and has been subject to little or no dedicated survey work to discoverits true status. Although it is not beset by any known threats and has been recorded from a formal nature reserve, there is a growing human population in lower Arfak Mountains and the species could be potentially at risk from increased hunting pressure or disturbance to its habitat. Surveys are needed in order to define the size of the species’ population, where it occurs, and what threats it may face, so that more informed decisions can be made about its future conservation and management.",Flannery (1995a) | Groves (2005c) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Ziegler (1977),https://zenodo.org/record/6621785/files/figure.png,"16.Arfak Pygmy BandicootMicroperoryctes aplinFrench:Bandicoot dAplin/ German:Arfak-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de las ArfakTaxonomy.Microperoryctes aplini Helgen & Flannery, 2004,Kampong Sururai, Lake Anggi Giji(01°23’S, 133°58’E), 6200 ft(= 1890 m), Arfak Mountains, eastern Vogelkop Peninsula, western New Guinea(Papua Province, Indonesia).Has been considered conspecific with M. murina, primarily on the basis of its similarity in size. Monotypic.Distribution.Arfak Mts, in E Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop) Peninsula, NW New Guinea.This species is monotypic.Descriptive notes.Head—body 14.2-16 cm,tail 11-512 cm; weight unknown, probably less than 100 g. Probably the smallest member of Peramelidae, at least as diminutive as the Mouse Bandicoot (M. murina). Fur is soft brown on dorsal surface, with a pronounced dark stripe that runs from crown to rump, while ventral fur is gray-brown with a creamy-white stripe. Relatively long tail is brown above and creamy white below, with a white tip that extends for about a sixth of tail length.Habitat.Has been collected in forest at altitudes of 1890-2200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species. Like the Mouse Bandicoot, however,it has been suggested as being “subfossorial;” if correct, this species may obtain its food at or just below ground surface.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This tiny bandicoot is represented by four specimens collected in 1928, 1963, and 1986 from Arfak Mountains, in eastern Bird’s Head Peninsula. Its status is similar to that of the Mouse Bandicoot in that it has not been seen for many years, is known from a small area, and has been subject to little or no dedicated survey work to discoverits true status. Although it is not beset by any known threats and has been recorded from a formal nature reserve, there is a growing human population in lower Arfak Mountains and the species could be potentially at risk from increased hunting pressure or disturbance to its habitat. Surveys are needed in order to define the size of the species’ population, where it occurs, and what threats it may face, so that more informed decisions can be made about its future conservation and management.Bibliography.Flannery (1995a), Groves (2005c), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Ziegler (1977)." -03CC87EC9120FB5DFF58F721FBABD779,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,560,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9120FB5DFF58F721FBABD779.xml,Spilogale putorius,Spilogale,putorius,,,Moufette tachetée @fr | Ostlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta oriental @es,"Viverra putorius Linnaeus, 1758,South Carolina.Three subspecies are recognized.","S. p. putorius Linnaeus, 1758— E & SE USA(Mississippi, Alabama& N Florida, through Georgia, N to SC Pennsylvania).S. p. ambarvalis Bangs, 1898— SE USA(Peninsular Florida).S. p. interrupta Rafinesque, 1820— USA(Canadian border in Minnesota, C North Dakota, E Wyoming, E Colorado, W Oklahoma, NW Texas, south to C Texas, and east to the MississippiRiver along Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri& Iowa, up to Wisconsin.","There is considerable variation in size of Eastern Spotted Skunks. Head-body 23-33 cm, mean 30 cm(males), and 19-33 cm, mean 29 cm(females), tail 8-28 cm, mean 16- 4 cm(males), and 8: 5-21 cm, mean 15- 4 cm(females); weight 276-885 g(males) and 207-475 g(females). Eastern Spotted Skunks are smaller than Striped Skunks and more weasel-like in body shape. The pelage of Eastern Spotted Skunks is black with a complex striping pattern of six stripes; the stripes can be interrupted, giving a somewhat spotted appearance. There are usually two white spots on the rump, as well as a white spot between the eyes. The dorsal stripes run down the vertebral column from the head toward the tail. Two stripes run below the dorsal stripes over the shoulder and continue across the ears, forming a small white spot in front of the ears. A third set ofstripes continues from the front feet past the end of the shoulder stripes. Locomotion in Eastern Spotted Skunksis plantigrade and these skunks run with their bodies low to the ground. While walking more slowly and cautiously, they will extend their limbs and raise their heads to get higher off the ground. Spotted skunks have five toes on each foot. They are not such efficient diggers as Conepatusor Mephitis, but are much more agile and able to climb. The dental formula for this species is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, totaling 34 teeth. The P? is always small and may be absent.","These skunks are rarely found in the open, preferring either forested areas or habitats containing significant vegetative cover. In the Plains States, these skunks inhabit riparian woodlands and areas of vegetation along fences. They also are found in brushy and rocky habitats, but avoid wetlands. They have been observed on sandy soils and beaches in Florida. Eastern Spotted Skunks seem to prefer habitat with extensive vegetative cover, as this cover provides protection from various predators. They den in protected, dark, dry holes including natural crevices in trees, and will den off the ground to an elevation of seven meters in hollow trees. They dig their own burrows, or den in holes previously occupied by other animals, in talus slopes, haystacks, under houses or rocks, and in the walls of houses or barns. They prefer warm holes in the winter and cool dens in the summer, and will change den sites to accommodate these needs.","Eastern Spotted Skunks forage primarily at night. They are secretive and not often seen. These skunks are exceptional mousers and do farmers a great service when they forage around barns and buildings. They are omnivores, but tend to be more carnivorous than Mephitisor Conepatus. The diet consists mainly of insects, small mammals, birds, and birds’ eggs. Like a center hiking an American football, the skunk uses its front paws to throw an egg through its back legs in order to crack the shell. These skunks also will eat fruits and vegetables in the summer and fall when they are available.","Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.","They are generally nocturnal. They usually avoid moonlit nights. On nights when the moon is not out they normally have two periods of activity. They will come out soon after sunset and again before sunrise. They will be active throughout the night as well. Eastern Spotted Skunks have been observed during the day on rare occasions. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. This agility also can be observed in their threat behavior as they are able to perform front handstands. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. This behavior has been reported to last for up to eight minutes in short, 2-5 second bursts of handstanding. However, a young, captive animal from a wildlife rehabilitation effort was observed crouching under a couch on all fours until a domestic cat came into the room. The skunk rushed out from under the couch toward the cat. As soon as its tail cleared the cushion it went into a handstand/run. The cat began to trot away. The skunk followed on its frontfeet, bouncing around a table, about 1-5 mand then jumped up on a stand approximately 6 cmoff the ground, ran along the stand, hopped off the end and continued to chase the cat to the other end of the room. The cat finally ran off and the skunk dropped down on all fours and went back under the couch. Spotted skunks have been reported to spray from the hand-stand position, but they usually drop down and face the predator with both ends in a “U” shape. The handstand is usuallyjust a threat behavior used to drive off the predator.","These skunks usually den alone, but in cold winter months several skunks may bed down together. They usually use more than one den site within their home range. Eastern Spotted Skunks move from den to den and more than one individual has been captured at the same den site in capture-recapture studies. They may also share dens, but with only one animal using the den at a time. Captive male animals have been reported to be aggressive toward one another to the point of one animal killing the other. Females tended not to engage in fatal fights, but remained defensive while in the same cage. Young animals will wrestle and screech at one another, but will also sleep together. Young animals will usually separate before reaching full adulthood. Spotted skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range. Where they occur they can be found at a density of about nine animals per km? to about 20 and even 40 per km”. Eastern Spotted Skunks tend to move greater distances in the spring than in the summer and fall. Home ranges can be up to 4359 ha.Breeding.Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.","Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. However, there has been concern over the lack of observations of this species throughout its range in the last few decades. Population densities of Eastern Spotted Skunks were believed to be low when settlers first arrived on the Great Plains. When small farm operations flourished there prior to the 1920s, spotted skunks became more numerous as farm buildings provided shelter as well as a supply of mice and rats. When the small farms gave way to larger operations, the density of spotted skunks became lower. Today, the Eastern Spotted Skunk is considered to be threatened in many of the states within its historical range. Natural predators of spotted skunks include larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats and bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls. Ectoparasites found on Eastern Spotted Skunks include fleas and ticks, and endoparasites include various tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidian protozoans. Humans also are known to be a major cause of mortality because of the number of skunks hit by cars. Pneumonia and coccidiosis are diseases that have been reported in this species. Rabies has been reported, but rarely. Histoplasmosis has also been found, and microfilaria,listeriosis, mastitis, tularemia, distemper, and Q fever are likely to affect Eastern Spotted Skunks.","Bangs (1898b) | Choate et al. (1973) | Crabb (1948) | Dragoo & Honeycutt, (1999b) | Gompper & Hackett (2005) | Howell (1906) | Kinlaw (1995) | Manaro (1961) | McCullough & Fritzell (1984) | Mead (1968a) | Mitchell (1923) | Pocock (1921) | Reed & Kennedy (2000) | Seton (1926) | Van Gelder (1959)",,"10.Eastern Spotted SkunkSpilogale putoriusFrench:Moufette tachetée/ German:Ostlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta orientalTaxonomy.Viverra putorius Linnaeus, 1758,South Carolina.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. p. putorius Linnaeus, 1758— E & SE USA(Mississippi, Alabama& N Florida, through Georgia, N to SC Pennsylvania).S. p. ambarvalis Bangs, 1898— SE USA(Peninsular Florida).S. p. interrupta Rafinesque, 1820— USA(Canadian border in Minnesota, C North Dakota, E Wyoming, E Colorado, W Oklahoma, NW Texas, south to C Texas, and east to the MississippiRiver along Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri& Iowa, up to Wisconsin.Descriptive notes.There is considerable variation in size of Eastern Spotted Skunks. Head-body 23-33 cm, mean 30 cm(males), and 19-33 cm, mean 29 cm(females), tail 8-28 cm, mean 16- 4 cm(males), and 8: 5-21 cm, mean 15- 4 cm(females); weight 276-885 g(males) and 207-475 g(females). Eastern Spotted Skunks are smaller than Striped Skunks and more weasel-like in body shape. The pelage of Eastern Spotted Skunks is black with a complex striping pattern of six stripes; the stripes can be interrupted, giving a somewhat spotted appearance. There are usually two white spots on the rump, as well as a white spot between the eyes. The dorsal stripes run down the vertebral column from the head toward the tail. Two stripes run below the dorsal stripes over the shoulder and continue across the ears, forming a small white spot in front of the ears. A third set ofstripes continues from the front feet past the end of the shoulder stripes. Locomotion in Eastern Spotted Skunksis plantigrade and these skunks run with their bodies low to the ground. While walking more slowly and cautiously, they will extend their limbs and raise their heads to get higher off the ground. Spotted skunks have five toes on each foot. They are not such efficient diggers as Conepatusor Mephitis, but are much more agile and able to climb. The dental formula for this species is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, totaling 34 teeth. The P? is always small and may be absent.Habitat.These skunks are rarely found in the open, preferring either forested areas or habitats containing significant vegetative cover. In the Plains States, these skunks inhabit riparian woodlands and areas of vegetation along fences. They also are found in brushy and rocky habitats, but avoid wetlands. They have been observed on sandy soils and beaches in Florida. Eastern Spotted Skunks seem to prefer habitat with extensive vegetative cover, as this cover provides protection from various predators. They den in protected, dark, dry holes including natural crevices in trees, and will den off the ground to an elevation of seven meters in hollow trees. They dig their own burrows, or den in holes previously occupied by other animals, in talus slopes, haystacks, under houses or rocks, and in the walls of houses or barns. They prefer warm holes in the winter and cool dens in the summer, and will change den sites to accommodate these needs.Food and Feeding.Eastern Spotted Skunks forage primarily at night. They are secretive and not often seen. These skunks are exceptional mousers and do farmers a great service when they forage around barns and buildings. They are omnivores, but tend to be more carnivorous than Mephitisor Conepatus. The diet consists mainly of insects, small mammals, birds, and birds’ eggs. Like a center hiking an American football, the skunk uses its front paws to throw an egg through its back legs in order to crack the shell. These skunks also will eat fruits and vegetables in the summer and fall when they are available.Activity patterns.They are generally nocturnal. They usually avoid moonlit nights. On nights when the moon is not out they normally have two periods of activity. They will come out soon after sunset and again before sunrise. They will be active throughout the night as well. Eastern Spotted Skunks have been observed during the day on rare occasions. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. This agility also can be observed in their threat behavior as they are able to perform front handstands. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. This behavior has been reported to last for up to eight minutes in short, 2-5 second bursts of handstanding. However, a young, captive animal from a wildlife rehabilitation effort was observed crouching under a couch on all fours until a domestic cat came into the room. The skunk rushed out from under the couch toward the cat. As soon as its tail cleared the cushion it went into a handstand/run. The cat began to trot away. The skunk followed on its frontfeet, bouncing around a table, about 1-5 mand then jumped up on a stand approximately 6 cmoff the ground, ran along the stand, hopped off the end and continued to chase the cat to the other end of the room. The cat finally ran off and the skunk dropped down on all fours and went back under the couch. Spotted skunks have been reported to spray from the hand-stand position, but they usually drop down and face the predator with both ends in a “U” shape. The handstand is usuallyjust a threat behavior used to drive off the predator.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These skunks usually den alone, but in cold winter months several skunks may bed down together. They usually use more than one den site within their home range. Eastern Spotted Skunks move from den to den and more than one individual has been captured at the same den site in capture-recapture studies. They may also share dens, but with only one animal using the den at a time. Captive male animals have been reported to be aggressive toward one another to the point of one animal killing the other. Females tended not to engage in fatal fights, but remained defensive while in the same cage. Young animals will wrestle and screech at one another, but will also sleep together. Young animals will usually separate before reaching full adulthood. Spotted skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range. Where they occur they can be found at a density of about nine animals per km? to about 20 and even 40 per km”. Eastern Spotted Skunks tend to move greater distances in the spring than in the summer and fall. Home ranges can be up to 4359 ha.Breeding.Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.Status and Conservation.Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. However, there has been concern over the lack of observations of this species throughout its range in the last few decades. Population densities of Eastern Spotted Skunks were believed to be low when settlers first arrived on the Great Plains. When small farm operations flourished there prior to the 1920s, spotted skunks became more numerous as farm buildings provided shelter as well as a supply of mice and rats. When the small farms gave way to larger operations, the density of spotted skunks became lower. Today, the Eastern Spotted Skunk is considered to be threatened in many of the states within its historical range. Natural predators of spotted skunks include larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats and bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls. Ectoparasites found on Eastern Spotted Skunks include fleas and ticks, and endoparasites include various tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidian protozoans. Humans also are known to be a major cause of mortality because of the number of skunks hit by cars. Pneumonia and coccidiosis are diseases that have been reported in this species. Rabies has been reported, but rarely. Histoplasmosis has also been found, and microfilaria,listeriosis, mastitis, tularemia, distemper, and Q fever are likely to affect Eastern Spotted Skunks.Bibliography.Bangs (1898b), Choate et al. (1973), Crabb (1948), Dragoo & Honeycutt, (1999b), Gompper & Hackett (2005), Howell (1906), Kinlaw (1995), Manaro (1961), McCullough & Fritzell (1984), Mead (1968a), Mitchell (1923), Pocock (1921), Reed & Kennedy (2000), Seton (1926), Van Gelder (1959)." -03CC87EC9121FB52FA02F644FB53DDF5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,559,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9121FB52FA02F644FB53DDF5.xml,Spilogale pygmaea,Spilogale,pygmaea,,,Moufette naine @fr | Zwerg-Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta chica @es,"Spilogale pygmaea Thomas, 1898,Rosario, Sinaloa, W. Mexico.Three subspecies are recognized.","S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa& Nayarit).S. p. australis Hall, 1938— W Mexico(Pacific coastal region from Michoacanto Guerrero& Oaxaca).S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima).","Head-body 19-21 cm,tail 6.7-7.3 cm(males) and 5.9-6.7 cm(females), hindfoot 2.3-4 cm, ear 1.8-3.3 cm; weight 150-320 g. Tail length has been used to distinguish the sexes. The Pygmy Spotted Skunk is the smallest of the skunks. The body is elongated and the legs are relatively short. This skunk has six continuous white stripes running down the back and sides; the rest of the fur color is brown to black. There is a white stripe across the forehead above the eyes that continues down the side of the body. Pygmy Spotted Skunks have a short rostrum with a black nose pad, short, rounded ears, short legs, and slender feet with small curved claws. The skull is small and fragile and does not have a sagittal crest. The dental formulais 13/3, C1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 for a total of 34 teeth. These skunks have small canines but relatively large molars.","These skunks inhabit deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub. They have been observed in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetation for cover. They have a patchy distribution, but nearly all individuals have been captured in coastal habitats. However, remains have been found in owl pellets about 115 kmfrom the coast at an altitude of 500 m. They are found from sea level up to 1630 m, but are generally found below 350 m. Pygmy Spotted Skunksare scarce, but if enough habitat is preserved, they are believed to be able to survive in disturbed environments.","Pygmy Spotted Skunks are opportunistic feeders and consume a variety of invertebrates. Rodents are not taken as frequently as by other spotted skunks, but may be selected as alternative prey when the availability of arthropods is low. Spiny pocket mice are common in the tropical dry forest, and during the dry season, their density is high. During this season rodents also may be easier to detect due to the desiccation ofleaflitter. Birds are rarely taken by these skunks and plant material is less likely to be consumed, although, highly digestible fruits may be eaten. Pygmy Spotted Skunks use food sources such as ants, beetles, and spiders in relation to their abundance in the environment. However, some invertebrates, such as insect larvae, millipedes and centipedes, are selected in higher abundance. True bugs (Hemiptera) tend to be avoided as do crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera). Pygmy Spotted Skunks will eat cockroaches (Blattaria) during the dry season; they may select food items in response to seasonal variation in prey abundance.","Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.","They are nocturnal and den underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation. They will use dens dug by other animals such as gophers, squirrels, armadillos, and turtles. They use pathways and stream beds to move to and from bodies of water. Much of their activity occurs below the leaf litter or brush, where they search for the burrows of small rodents. Pygmy Spotted Skunks stomp their feet when threatened. They have been observed doing a partial handstand similar to other species of spotted skunks. Anal secretions are usually only released as a last resort.","These skunks are solitary most of the year except during the breeding season. Males will defend their territory against other males, and only allow females access to their territory.Breeding.Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.","Not listed with CITES. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. This skunk is locally abundant in certain areas, but is considered to be vulnerable throughout much of its range in Mexicodue to habitat destruction as a result of tourist resort and road construction. These animals also have been stuffed and sold as souvenirs. Skulls have been recovered from barn owl pellets, and snakes and other carnivores probably prey on Pygmy Spotted Skunks. They have been found with various parasites including ticks, cestodes, nematode, and intestinal worms.","Cantu-Salazar (2002) | Cantu-Salazar, Fernandez & Hidalgo-Mihart (2004) | Cantu-Salazar, Hidalgo-Mihart et al. (2005) | Ceballos & Miranda(1986) | Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Hall (1938) | Lopez-Forment & Urbano (1979) | Medellin et al. (1998) | Schreiber et al. (1989) | Teska et al. (1981) | Thomas (1898b)",,"9.Pygmy Spotted SkunkSpilogale pygmaeaFrench:Moufette naine/ German:Zwerg-Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta chicaTaxonomy.Spilogale pygmaea Thomas, 1898,Rosario, Sinaloa, W. Mexico.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa& Nayarit).S. p. australis Hall, 1938— W Mexico(Pacific coastal region from Michoacanto Guerrero& Oaxaca).S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima).Descriptive notes.Head-body 19-21 cm,tail 6.7-7.3 cm(males) and 5.9-6.7 cm(females), hindfoot 2.3-4 cm, ear 1.8-3.3 cm; weight 150-320 g. Tail length has been used to distinguish the sexes. The Pygmy Spotted Skunk is the smallest of the skunks. The body is elongated and the legs are relatively short. This skunk has six continuous white stripes running down the back and sides; the rest of the fur color is brown to black. There is a white stripe across the forehead above the eyes that continues down the side of the body. Pygmy Spotted Skunks have a short rostrum with a black nose pad, short, rounded ears, short legs, and slender feet with small curved claws. The skull is small and fragile and does not have a sagittal crest. The dental formulais 13/3, C1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 for a total of 34 teeth. These skunks have small canines but relatively large molars.Habitat.These skunks inhabit deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub. They have been observed in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetation for cover. They have a patchy distribution, but nearly all individuals have been captured in coastal habitats. However, remains have been found in owl pellets about 115 kmfrom the coast at an altitude of 500 m. They are found from sea level up to 1630 m, but are generally found below 350 m. Pygmy Spotted Skunksare scarce, but if enough habitat is preserved, they are believed to be able to survive in disturbed environments.Food and Feeding.Pygmy Spotted Skunks are opportunistic feeders and consume a variety of invertebrates. Rodents are not taken as frequently as by other spotted skunks, but may be selected as alternative prey when the availability of arthropods is low. Spiny pocket mice are common in the tropical dry forest, and during the dry season, their density is high. During this season rodents also may be easier to detect due to the desiccation ofleaflitter. Birds are rarely taken by these skunks and plant material is less likely to be consumed, although, highly digestible fruits may be eaten. Pygmy Spotted Skunks use food sources such as ants, beetles, and spiders in relation to their abundance in the environment. However, some invertebrates, such as insect larvae, millipedes and centipedes, are selected in higher abundance. True bugs (Hemiptera) tend to be avoided as do crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera). Pygmy Spotted Skunks will eat cockroaches (Blattaria) during the dry season; they may select food items in response to seasonal variation in prey abundance.Activity patterns.They are nocturnal and den underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation. They will use dens dug by other animals such as gophers, squirrels, armadillos, and turtles. They use pathways and stream beds to move to and from bodies of water. Much of their activity occurs below the leaf litter or brush, where they search for the burrows of small rodents. Pygmy Spotted Skunks stomp their feet when threatened. They have been observed doing a partial handstand similar to other species of spotted skunks. Anal secretions are usually only released as a last resort.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These skunks are solitary most of the year except during the breeding season. Males will defend their territory against other males, and only allow females access to their territory.Breeding.Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.Status and Conservation.Not listed with CITES. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. This skunk is locally abundant in certain areas, but is considered to be vulnerable throughout much of its range in Mexicodue to habitat destruction as a result of tourist resort and road construction. These animals also have been stuffed and sold as souvenirs. Skulls have been recovered from barn owl pellets, and snakes and other carnivores probably prey on Pygmy Spotted Skunks. They have been found with various parasites including ticks, cestodes, nematode, and intestinal worms.Bibliography.Cantu-Salazar (2002), Cantu-Salazar, Fernandez & Hidalgo-Mihart (2004), Cantu-Salazar, Hidalgo-Mihart et al. (2005), Ceballos & Miranda(1986), Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Hall (1938), Lopez-Forment & Urbano (1979), Medellin et al. (1998), Schreiber et al. (1989), Teska et al. (1981), Thomas (1898b)." -03CC87EC9122FB50FF56F9E7F5DBDE43,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,558,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9122FB50FF56F9E7F5DBDE43.xml,Mephitis macroura,Mephitis,macroura,,,Moufette a capuchon @fr | Haubenskunk @de | Mofeta encapuchada @es,"Mephitis macroura Lichtenstein, 1832,Gebirgs-Gegenden nord-westlich von der Stadt Mexico” (Mexico, mountains north-west of Mexico City).Four subspecies are recognized.","M. m. macroura Lichtenstein, 1832— C & W Mexico(NayaritE to Tamaulipas) and S to Honduras, but not including the Yucatan Peninsula.M. m. eximius Hall & Dalquest, 1950— E Mexico(S Veracruz).M. m. milleri Mearns, 1897— N Mexico(Sonoraand Sinaloato CoahuilaN) to S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas).M. m. richardsoni Goodwin, 1957— Nicaraguaand Costa Rica.","Head—body averages about 31 cm(males) and 28 cm(females), tail 27-43 cm; weight averages 957 g(males) 882 g(females). Individuals achieve their greatest weight by late summer. Hooded Skunks in the more southern part of their range are smaller than animals in the northern part of the range. Hooded Skunks have three typical color patterns, but there is considerable variation. These patterns are: two thin stripes running down the side of the body from the shoulder to midabdomen; a single band running down the back from the forehead to the tail (this single white stripe is interspersed with black hair giving a gray appearance), and a combination of both. These skunks also have a white bar between the eyes. The skull is similar to that of the Striped Skunk, but the auditory bullae are larger. Hooded Skunk can be differentiated externally from Striped Skunk by the long hairs on the back of the neck and head,its relatively longer tail, and larger ears. The anal secretions of the Hooded Skunk have seven major components, which comprise 99% of the volatiles. These components are (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, S-3-methylbutenyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol. There are several minor components as well, including phenylmethanethiol, S-phenylmethyl thioacetate, S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide, and S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate. The Hooded Skunk’s secretion contains four compounds not reported from the Striped Skunk: phenylmethanethiol, Sphenylmethyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, and S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate.","This skunk occurs in a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It is most common in arid lowlands, but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats. Hooded Skunks use similar habitats to Striped Skunks, but are found more often in scrub and urban habitats. Hooded Skunks occur from sea level to 3110 m, in low elevation desert areas (below 2500 m), in rocky canyons, or in heavily vegetated streamsides and valleys, often in association with mesquite, pine—oak, and other shrubs and grasses. Hooded Skunks appearto prefer intermediate elevationsin rockyslopes,at the bases ofcliffs, or on the rocky sides of arroyos, but are also encountered in heavy growth of weeds and shrubs in riparian areas. Dense, brushy cover of stream sides may be important for this species. Hooded Skunks den in holes dug in the ground, rock crevices, and holes in logs. They have even been observed denning more than 1 mabove ground in trees, but they are more likely to den on rocky hillsides. They prefer woodland habitats more than do Striped Skunks. In agricultural areas Hooded Skunks den along fencerows, beneath irrigation canals, and in heavily vegetated areas along streams. Hooded Skunks are less likely than Striped Skunks to den around human dwellings. However, radio-collared individuals were frequently located under buildings and sheds and in culverts.","The diet of this species consists primarily of insects (including beetles and grasshoppers), fruits, small vertebrates, and birds’ eggs. Hooded Skunks break chicken eggs by throwing them between their back legs rather than biting them. Vertebrates are taken opportunistically. When foraging, Hooded Skunk moves slowly, snuffling among leaves and pouncing on grasshoppers and beetles.","The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.","Hooded Skunks remain active all year and have been trapped in the winter. The anal glands are used in self defense. One animal was observed spraying nine times in eleven seconds and again three more times 90 minutes later. The defensive behavior of Hooded Skunk is similar to that of Striped Skunk. Hooded Skunks are active after dusk and travel along rock walls, streambeds, and in weedy fields. They tend to be solitary except when females are raising young, although several may dine together at a feeding station. Females normally do not den together during the winter months.","Home ranges of Hooded Skunks can occupy from 2:8-5-0 km? Densities of 1:3-3-9 up to 25 Hooded Skunks/km?* have been reported. Females, when not nursing, tend to stay at a den site longer than males before moving to a different den within the home range. Males will move greater distances from one densite to the next compared to females. The skunks’ home ranges are smaller in urban areas. Urban skunks share mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes with non-urban skunks, which suggests that gene flow occurs between urban and non-urban skunk populations. Genetic data suggest that Hooded Skunks in urban areas represent newer, expanding populations (lower genetic diversity) compared to urban Striped Skunks, which have higher genetic diversity and more stable populations. They are more common in urbanized areas than previously thought, and in some places are more numerous than Striped Skunks. Their numbers are often underreported because it can be difficult to distinguish the two species.Skunks can actually be beneficial because they eat insect pests and rodents.Breeding.The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the status of this species, but they may not be uncommon in some parts of their range in the SW USA. However, in Texas, there is concern about population levels and that the species may no longer occur in that state. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human-altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas. There is a need for more research on Hooded Skunks. During a four year study period in Arizona, survival rates of adult skunks were low (24-56%). Predation accounted for most of the mortality, but disease and parasites were contributing factors. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), mountain lions, bobcats, jaguars, and coyotes may kill Hooded Skunks. Captive Hooded Skunks have lived for at least eight years. Historically, the pelt has not been considered to be of great value,so this skunk has not been hunted to the extent that other species have. Its fur is very long, light, and of low economic value. The flesh has been used for food in some areas, and the fat and scent glands have been used for medicinal purposes. Roundworms (Physaloptera maxillaries), fleas (Pulicidae), and the nematode Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum occur in Hooded Skunks in Trans Pecos, Texas. A new species of Skrjabingylus (S. santaceciliae) was recently described in this skunk species. Rabies rarely is reported in Hooded Skunks; however, a case of rabies in this species has been documented. There is no reason to suspect that they do not contract the virus; more likely they go unnoticed or are misidentified as Striped Skunks. Hooded Skunks also are susceptible to feline distemper. Hooded Skunks have been found with numerous fleas,ticks, lice, and mites.","Aranda & Lopez-de Buen (1999) | Armstrong et al. (1972) | Bailey (1931) | Baker (1956) | Carreno et al. (2005) | Ceballos & Miranda(1986) | Dalquest (1953) | Davis (1944) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1954) | Dragoo et al. (2004) | Findley et al. (1975) | Goodwin (1957) | Hall & Dalquest (1950) | Hass (2002a, 2003) | Hass & Dragoo (2006) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Hubbard (1972) | Janzen & Hallwachs (1982) | Lichtenstein (1827-1834) | Mearns (1897b) | Patton (1974) | Reid (1997) | Schmidly (1977, 2004) | Wood et al. (2002)",,"7.Hooded SkunkMephitis macrouraFrench:Moufette a capuchon/ German:Haubenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta encapuchadaTaxonomy.Mephitis macroura Lichtenstein, 1832,Gebirgs-Gegenden nord-westlich von der Stadt Mexico” (Mexico, mountains north-west of Mexico City).Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. macroura Lichtenstein, 1832— C & W Mexico(NayaritE to Tamaulipas) and S to Honduras, but not including the Yucatan Peninsula.M. m. eximius Hall & Dalquest, 1950— E Mexico(S Veracruz).M. m. milleri Mearns, 1897— N Mexico(Sonoraand Sinaloato CoahuilaN) to S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas).M. m. richardsoni Goodwin, 1957— Nicaraguaand Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head—body averages about 31 cm(males) and 28 cm(females), tail 27-43 cm; weight averages 957 g(males) 882 g(females). Individuals achieve their greatest weight by late summer. Hooded Skunks in the more southern part of their range are smaller than animals in the northern part of the range. Hooded Skunks have three typical color patterns, but there is considerable variation. These patterns are: two thin stripes running down the side of the body from the shoulder to midabdomen; a single band running down the back from the forehead to the tail (this single white stripe is interspersed with black hair giving a gray appearance), and a combination of both. These skunks also have a white bar between the eyes. The skull is similar to that of the Striped Skunk, but the auditory bullae are larger. Hooded Skunk can be differentiated externally from Striped Skunk by the long hairs on the back of the neck and head,its relatively longer tail, and larger ears. The anal secretions of the Hooded Skunk have seven major components, which comprise 99% of the volatiles. These components are (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, S-3-methylbutenyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol. There are several minor components as well, including phenylmethanethiol, S-phenylmethyl thioacetate, S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide, and S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate. The Hooded Skunk’s secretion contains four compounds not reported from the Striped Skunk: phenylmethanethiol, Sphenylmethyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, and S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate.Habitat.This skunk occurs in a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It is most common in arid lowlands, but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats. Hooded Skunks use similar habitats to Striped Skunks, but are found more often in scrub and urban habitats. Hooded Skunks occur from sea level to 3110 m, in low elevation desert areas (below 2500 m), in rocky canyons, or in heavily vegetated streamsides and valleys, often in association with mesquite, pine—oak, and other shrubs and grasses. Hooded Skunks appearto prefer intermediate elevationsin rockyslopes,at the bases ofcliffs, or on the rocky sides of arroyos, but are also encountered in heavy growth of weeds and shrubs in riparian areas. Dense, brushy cover of stream sides may be important for this species. Hooded Skunks den in holes dug in the ground, rock crevices, and holes in logs. They have even been observed denning more than 1 mabove ground in trees, but they are more likely to den on rocky hillsides. They prefer woodland habitats more than do Striped Skunks. In agricultural areas Hooded Skunks den along fencerows, beneath irrigation canals, and in heavily vegetated areas along streams. Hooded Skunks are less likely than Striped Skunks to den around human dwellings. However, radio-collared individuals were frequently located under buildings and sheds and in culverts.Food and Feeding.The diet of this species consists primarily of insects (including beetles and grasshoppers), fruits, small vertebrates, and birds’ eggs. Hooded Skunks break chicken eggs by throwing them between their back legs rather than biting them. Vertebrates are taken opportunistically. When foraging, Hooded Skunk moves slowly, snuffling among leaves and pouncing on grasshoppers and beetles.Activity patterns.Hooded Skunks remain active all year and have been trapped in the winter. The anal glands are used in self defense. One animal was observed spraying nine times in eleven seconds and again three more times 90 minutes later. The defensive behavior of Hooded Skunk is similar to that of Striped Skunk. Hooded Skunks are active after dusk and travel along rock walls, streambeds, and in weedy fields. They tend to be solitary except when females are raising young, although several may dine together at a feeding station. Females normally do not den together during the winter months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Hooded Skunks can occupy from 2:8-5-0 km? Densities of 1:3-3-9 up to 25 Hooded Skunks/km?* have been reported. Females, when not nursing, tend to stay at a den site longer than males before moving to a different den within the home range. Males will move greater distances from one densite to the next compared to females. The skunks’ home ranges are smaller in urban areas. Urban skunks share mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes with non-urban skunks, which suggests that gene flow occurs between urban and non-urban skunk populations. Genetic data suggest that Hooded Skunks in urban areas represent newer, expanding populations (lower genetic diversity) compared to urban Striped Skunks, which have higher genetic diversity and more stable populations. They are more common in urbanized areas than previously thought, and in some places are more numerous than Striped Skunks. Their numbers are often underreported because it can be difficult to distinguish the two species.Skunks can actually be beneficial because they eat insect pests and rodents.Breeding.The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the status of this species, but they may not be uncommon in some parts of their range in the SW USA. However, in Texas, there is concern about population levels and that the species may no longer occur in that state. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human-altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas. There is a need for more research on Hooded Skunks. During a four year study period in Arizona, survival rates of adult skunks were low (24-56%). Predation accounted for most of the mortality, but disease and parasites were contributing factors. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), mountain lions, bobcats, jaguars, and coyotes may kill Hooded Skunks. Captive Hooded Skunks have lived for at least eight years. Historically, the pelt has not been considered to be of great value,so this skunk has not been hunted to the extent that other species have. Its fur is very long, light, and of low economic value. The flesh has been used for food in some areas, and the fat and scent glands have been used for medicinal purposes. Roundworms (Physaloptera maxillaries), fleas (Pulicidae), and the nematode Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum occur in Hooded Skunks in Trans Pecos, Texas. A new species of Skrjabingylus (S. santaceciliae) was recently described in this skunk species. Rabies rarely is reported in Hooded Skunks; however, a case of rabies in this species has been documented. There is no reason to suspect that they do not contract the virus; more likely they go unnoticed or are misidentified as Striped Skunks. Hooded Skunks also are susceptible to feline distemper. Hooded Skunks have been found with numerous fleas,ticks, lice, and mites.Bibliography.Aranda & Lopez-de Buen (1999), Armstrong et al. (1972), Bailey (1931), Baker (1956), Carreno et al. (2005), Ceballos & Miranda(1986), Dalquest (1953), Davis (1944), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1954), Dragoo et al. (2004), Findley et al. (1975), Goodwin (1957), Hall & Dalquest (1950), Hass (2002a, 2003), Hass & Dragoo (2006), Hoffmeister (1986), Hubbard (1972), Janzen & Hallwachs (1982), Lichtenstein (1827-1834), Mearns (1897b), Patton (1974), Reid (1997), Schmidly (1977, 2004), Wood et al. (2002)." -03CC87EC9122FB53FA50F497F632DD2A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,558,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9122FB53FA50F497F632DD2A.xml,Mephitis mephatis,Mephitis,mephatis,,,Moufette rayée @fr | Streifenskunk @de | Mofeta rayada @es,"Viverra mephitis Schreber, 1776,eastern Canada[Province of Quebec].A complete taxonomic revision has not been done since 1901. Thirteen subspecies are recognized.","M. m. mephitis Schreber, 1776— E Canada.M. m. avia Bangs, 1898— Midwestern USA(Most of Illinois, N half of Missouri& E half of Kansas).M. m. elongata Bangs, 1895— E & SE USA(VirginiaS to E Georgia, Florida, S Alabama& Mississippi).M. m. estor Merriam, 1890— W USA(S Utahthrough Arizonaand W New Mexico) to N Mexico(Sonora& Chihuahua).M. m. holzerni Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).M. m. hudsonica Richardson, 1829— C & W Canadaand NC USA(from NE Washingtonto Wisconsinand S into Colorado).M. m. major Howell, 1901— NW USA(N Nevada& Utahto Oregon& Idaho).M. m. mesomelas Lichtenstein, 1832— S USA(W Texas& Oklahomato Arkansas& Louisiana).M. m. nigra Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE Canada(New Brunswick& Nova Scotia) and E USA(from New Englandto Ohio & Indiana and S to Mississippi & Alabama.M. m. notata Howell, 1901— NW USA(C Washington).M. m. occidentalis Baird, 1858— W USA(N Californiato SW Oregon).M. m. spissigrada Bangs, 1898— NW USA(W Washington).M. m. varians Gray, 1837— S Great Plains USA(E New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma& Kansas) S to NW Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas).","Head-body 23-40 cm(males), 17-34 cm(females), tail length 20- 47 cm(males), 15-36.3 cm(females); weight 0.8-4.1 kg(males), 0.6-3.6 kg(females). Striped Skunks are about the size of house cats, with small triangularshaped heads. The basic color of skunksis black and white, but other colors, such as brown and red, have been observed in the wild. The typical pattern seen in Striped Skunksis the white “V7” down the back and a white bar running between the eyes from the forehead to the middle of the rostrum. Color pattern in Striped Skunksis highly variable and can range from completely black to completely white (non-albino). The striping pattern cannot be used to determine the sex of the animal, nor can it be used to predict how much snow will fall. Skunks are born with theirstripes before they have hair. The nose pad is relatively small, and the ears are small and rounded. Striped Skunks have short stocky legs and five toes on each foot. They walk on the soles (plantigrade) of their feet. Occasionally, the heel of the hindfeet will be lifted off the ground when they walk. The claws on the front feet are longer than those of the back feet. The tail is less than half the total body length, with long flowing hairs. The skull is heavy and squarish and widest at the attachment of the zygomata, and the forehead is convex. The dental formula for Striped Skunks is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, for a total of 34 teeth. The anal secretions of this animal are composed of several major volatile components. These components include: E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, $-3-methylbutanyl thioacetate, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinolinemethanethiol, and $2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate.","Striped Skunks use a variety of habitats and tend to be more numerous where good cover and abundant food are available. They can be found in open, exposed arcas, but prefer brushy, weedy stream and gulch bottoms or canyons. In open areas they will burrow into banks or even level ground and as a result are able to occupy many habitats. Other habitats where they can be found include a mixture of woodlands, brushy corners, and open fields broken by wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. They will also utilize cultivated areas, pasture, and hay crops. In other parts of their range they use wetlands surrounded by agricultural areas, grasslands, woodlot edges, fencelines, and refuse piles. Striped Skunks may not have a preference for any particular habitat as long as food and shelter are available.","Striped Skunks are opportunistic omnivores. With the exception of lima beans, most skunks will eat almost anything. They will feast primarily on insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, moths, cutworms, caterpillars, bees, and wasps. They also will eat earthworms, snakes, snails, clams, crayfish, fish, frogs, mice, moles, rats, squirrels, wild fruits, grains, corn, nuts, birds’ eggs, carrion, and garbage. Striped Skunks use their long foreclawsto dig for insects and grubs. They will search in rotten or fallen logs for mice and insects. Around gardens they will forage forripe fruits and vegetables, but they primarily are looking for insects, and benefit gardeners by eating insects that can damage garden crops. They also will take advantage of any pet food left outside.","Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.","Striped Skunks are crepuscular or nocturnal. In the northern part of their range they may go into a torpor (they are not true hibernators) during cold spells or when snow coveris particularly deep. However, in the southern parts of the range, they may actually be more active during the milder winters. When a Striped Skunk perceives a threat,its first responseis to run away. If that does not work, it will spray a noxious chemical from the anal scent glands. However, before spraying, skunks use a series of threat behaviors. They will stomp the ground with both front feet. Sometimes they will charge forward a few paces and then stomp or will edge backwards while dragging their front feet, all the while with the tail up in the air. Each scent gland has a nipple associated with it and skunks can aim and direct the spray with highly coordinated muscle control. When a skunk is being chased by a predator, but cannot see the predator, the spray is emitted as an atomized cloud that the predator must run through. This is the “shotgun” method and usually is enough to deter most predators.","Home ranges of Striped Skunks can be quite variable depending on the available resources (food and shelter primarily).Where there is plenty of food, skunks will tend to have smaller ranges. Home ranges are reported for anywhere from 0-5 km? to over 12 km?. Although Striped Skunks are often found dead on the road, they tend to avoid crossing roads with heavy traffic, and these roads can set the boundaries for some home ranges. During the winter months in the northern part of their range, Striped Skunks become more sedentary and cover less area on their nightly forays. In the southern part of their range, their home ranges remain about the samesize year-round. Striped Skunks are solitary most of the time. In the winter females (and occasionally a single male) may den together to conserve heatand body fat. Most malesare solitary during the winter. In the southern partof the range communal dens are rarely found during the winter months. During the summer femalesraise their young, and by early fall the young have left the den.Breeding.Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Striped Skunks are not considered for any kind of protection as they appear to be doing well throughout their range. Some of the earliest legislation to protect skunks, in the form of closed trapping seasons, was in New Yorkin 1894. Farmers recognized that skunks were the only effective predators of the hop grub and their service in combating the grub made them valuable assets. Striped Skunks are known to harbor numerous ectoparasites and endoparasites, including fleas, lice, ticks, mites, and various helminth infestations. Intestinal roundworms, nematodes, and lung flukes have been reported. Parasite loads can be a major contributor to mortality. Skunks are a primary vector of rabies in some parts of their range. They also have been found to be infected with canine distemper, histoplasmosis, leptospirosis, listerosis, mycoplasma, pulmonary aspergillosis, sarcocystis, streptococcus, toxoplasma, tularemia, and West Nile Virus. Natural mammalian predators for skunks include humans, domestic dogs, coyotes, red foxes, lynx, bobcats, badgers, mountain lions, and fishers. Various birds of prey including great horned owls, eagles, crows, and vultures also will eat skunks. Turnover in skunk populations is high, so a large percentage of animals in any population consist of young of the year. The average lifespan for wild skunksis about 2-3-5 years. However, Striped Skunks kept in captivity live on average to about 8-12 years of age.","Bailey (1931) | Baird (1857) | Bangs (1895, 1898a) | Bentler et al. (2007) | Blanton et al. (2006) | Doty & Dowler (2006) | Ganley-Leal et al. (2007) | Gehrt (2005) | Gehrt et al. (2006) | Gray (1837) | Greenwood & Sargeant (1994) | Hall (1981) | Hass (2003) | Hass & Dragoo (2006) | Howell (1901) | Hwang et al. (2007) | Kelker (1937) | Lantz (1923) | Mearns (1897a, 1897b) | Merriam (1890b) | Neiswenter & Dowler (2007) | Neiswenter etal. (2006) | Rosatte (1988) | Verts (1967) | Wade-Smith & Richmond (1978a, 1978b) | Wade-Smith & Verts (1982) | Wood (1990)",,"8.Striped SkunkMephitis mephatisFrench:Moufette rayée/ German:Streifenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta rayadaTaxonomy.Viverra mephitis Schreber, 1776,eastern Canada[Province of Quebec].A complete taxonomic revision has not been done since 1901. Thirteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. mephitis Schreber, 1776— E Canada.M. m. avia Bangs, 1898— Midwestern USA(Most of Illinois, N half of Missouri& E half of Kansas).M. m. elongata Bangs, 1895— E & SE USA(VirginiaS to E Georgia, Florida, S Alabama& Mississippi).M. m. estor Merriam, 1890— W USA(S Utahthrough Arizonaand W New Mexico) to N Mexico(Sonora& Chihuahua).M. m. holzerni Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).M. m. hudsonica Richardson, 1829— C & W Canadaand NC USA(from NE Washingtonto Wisconsinand S into Colorado).M. m. major Howell, 1901— NW USA(N Nevada& Utahto Oregon& Idaho).M. m. mesomelas Lichtenstein, 1832— S USA(W Texas& Oklahomato Arkansas& Louisiana).M. m. nigra Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE Canada(New Brunswick& Nova Scotia) and E USA(from New Englandto Ohio & Indiana and S to Mississippi & Alabama.M. m. notata Howell, 1901— NW USA(C Washington).M. m. occidentalis Baird, 1858— W USA(N Californiato SW Oregon).M. m. spissigrada Bangs, 1898— NW USA(W Washington).M. m. varians Gray, 1837— S Great Plains USA(E New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma& Kansas) S to NW Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 23-40 cm(males), 17-34 cm(females), tail length 20- 47 cm(males), 15-36.3 cm(females); weight 0.8-4.1 kg(males), 0.6-3.6 kg(females). Striped Skunks are about the size of house cats, with small triangularshaped heads. The basic color of skunksis black and white, but other colors, such as brown and red, have been observed in the wild. The typical pattern seen in Striped Skunksis the white “V7” down the back and a white bar running between the eyes from the forehead to the middle of the rostrum. Color pattern in Striped Skunksis highly variable and can range from completely black to completely white (non-albino). The striping pattern cannot be used to determine the sex of the animal, nor can it be used to predict how much snow will fall. Skunks are born with theirstripes before they have hair. The nose pad is relatively small, and the ears are small and rounded. Striped Skunks have short stocky legs and five toes on each foot. They walk on the soles (plantigrade) of their feet. Occasionally, the heel of the hindfeet will be lifted off the ground when they walk. The claws on the front feet are longer than those of the back feet. The tail is less than half the total body length, with long flowing hairs. The skull is heavy and squarish and widest at the attachment of the zygomata, and the forehead is convex. The dental formula for Striped Skunks is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, for a total of 34 teeth. The anal secretions of this animal are composed of several major volatile components. These components include: E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, $-3-methylbutanyl thioacetate, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinolinemethanethiol, and $2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate.Habitat.Striped Skunks use a variety of habitats and tend to be more numerous where good cover and abundant food are available. They can be found in open, exposed arcas, but prefer brushy, weedy stream and gulch bottoms or canyons. In open areas they will burrow into banks or even level ground and as a result are able to occupy many habitats. Other habitats where they can be found include a mixture of woodlands, brushy corners, and open fields broken by wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. They will also utilize cultivated areas, pasture, and hay crops. In other parts of their range they use wetlands surrounded by agricultural areas, grasslands, woodlot edges, fencelines, and refuse piles. Striped Skunks may not have a preference for any particular habitat as long as food and shelter are available.Food and Feeding.Striped Skunks are opportunistic omnivores. With the exception of lima beans, most skunks will eat almost anything. They will feast primarily on insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, moths, cutworms, caterpillars, bees, and wasps. They also will eat earthworms, snakes, snails, clams, crayfish, fish, frogs, mice, moles, rats, squirrels, wild fruits, grains, corn, nuts, birds’ eggs, carrion, and garbage. Striped Skunks use their long foreclawsto dig for insects and grubs. They will search in rotten or fallen logs for mice and insects. Around gardens they will forage forripe fruits and vegetables, but they primarily are looking for insects, and benefit gardeners by eating insects that can damage garden crops. They also will take advantage of any pet food left outside.Activity patterns.Striped Skunks are crepuscular or nocturnal. In the northern part of their range they may go into a torpor (they are not true hibernators) during cold spells or when snow coveris particularly deep. However, in the southern parts of the range, they may actually be more active during the milder winters. When a Striped Skunk perceives a threat,its first responseis to run away. If that does not work, it will spray a noxious chemical from the anal scent glands. However, before spraying, skunks use a series of threat behaviors. They will stomp the ground with both front feet. Sometimes they will charge forward a few paces and then stomp or will edge backwards while dragging their front feet, all the while with the tail up in the air. Each scent gland has a nipple associated with it and skunks can aim and direct the spray with highly coordinated muscle control. When a skunk is being chased by a predator, but cannot see the predator, the spray is emitted as an atomized cloud that the predator must run through. This is the “shotgun” method and usually is enough to deter most predators.When the skunk has a target to focus on the spray is emitted as a stream directed at the predator’s face. This is the “357 Magnum” technique. Trapped or cornered skunks will curl into a “U” shape so that both ends face the predator.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Striped Skunks can be quite variable depending on the available resources (food and shelter primarily).Where there is plenty of food, skunks will tend to have smaller ranges. Home ranges are reported for anywhere from 0-5 km? to over 12 km?. Although Striped Skunks are often found dead on the road, they tend to avoid crossing roads with heavy traffic, and these roads can set the boundaries for some home ranges. During the winter months in the northern part of their range, Striped Skunks become more sedentary and cover less area on their nightly forays. In the southern part of their range, their home ranges remain about the samesize year-round. Striped Skunks are solitary most of the time. In the winter females (and occasionally a single male) may den together to conserve heatand body fat. Most malesare solitary during the winter. In the southern partof the range communal dens are rarely found during the winter months. During the summer femalesraise their young, and by early fall the young have left the den.Breeding.Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Striped Skunks are not considered for any kind of protection as they appear to be doing well throughout their range. Some of the earliest legislation to protect skunks, in the form of closed trapping seasons, was in New Yorkin 1894. Farmers recognized that skunks were the only effective predators of the hop grub and their service in combating the grub made them valuable assets. Striped Skunks are known to harbor numerous ectoparasites and endoparasites, including fleas, lice, ticks, mites, and various helminth infestations. Intestinal roundworms, nematodes, and lung flukes have been reported. Parasite loads can be a major contributor to mortality. Skunks are a primary vector of rabies in some parts of their range. They also have been found to be infected with canine distemper, histoplasmosis, leptospirosis, listerosis, mycoplasma, pulmonary aspergillosis, sarcocystis, streptococcus, toxoplasma, tularemia, and West Nile Virus. Natural mammalian predators for skunks include humans, domestic dogs, coyotes, red foxes, lynx, bobcats, badgers, mountain lions, and fishers. Various birds of prey including great horned owls, eagles, crows, and vultures also will eat skunks. Turnover in skunk populations is high, so a large percentage of animals in any population consist of young of the year. The average lifespan for wild skunksis about 2-3-5 years. However, Striped Skunks kept in captivity live on average to about 8-12 years of age.Bibliography.Bailey (1931), Baird (1857), Bangs (1895, 1898a), Bentler et al. (2007), Blanton et al. (2006), Doty & Dowler (2006), Ganley-Leal et al. (2007), Gehrt (2005), Gehrt et al. (2006), Gray (1837), Greenwood & Sargeant (1994), Hall (1981), Hass (2003), Hass & Dragoo (2006), Howell (1901), Hwang et al. (2007), Kelker (1937), Lantz (1923), Mearns (1897a, 1897b), Merriam (1890b), Neiswenter & Dowler (2007), Neiswenter etal. (2006), Rosatte (1988), Verts (1967), Wade-Smith & Richmond (1978a, 1978b), Wade-Smith & Verts (1982), Wood (1990)." -03CC87EC9123FB50FA00FBB9FDEBD04B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,557,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9123FB50FA00FBB9FDEBD04B.xml,Conepatus humboldtii,Conepatus,humboldtii,,,Moufette de Humboldt @fr | Patagonischer Skunk @de | Zorrino patagénico @es,"Conepatus humboldtii Gray, 1837,Magellan Straits, Chile.Two of the subspecies have been regarded as distinct species, but morphology and color pattern have been used to relegate them to subspecies of C. humboldtii. Three subspecies are recognized.","C. h. humboldtii Gray, 1837— Patagonia (Chileand Argentina) to the Strait of Magellan.C. h. castaneus d’Orbigny & Gervais, 1847— C Argentina(S provinces of Buenos Aires& La Pampato N Rio Negro;it also follows along the Colorado and Black Rivers to Neuquenand S Mendoza).C. h. proteus Thomas, 1902— subandean C Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).","Head-body 22-32 cm(males), 20-30 cm(females), tail 16.5-20.2 cm(males) and 18-18.5 cm(females); weight 0.5-2.5 kg. Males on average are about 4-6% heavier than females. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be the smallest of the hog-nosed skunks. These skunks, like all South American skunks, have a double stripe similar to that seen in North American Striped Skunks. Typically, they are black and white, but they can range in color from black to dark brown or reddish brown. It has been suggested that the brownish color appears as the result of age. There is considerable variation in the striping pattern. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks do not have any white markings between the eyes. The tail generally is shorter in proportion to the body than in other skunks. The forelimbs and claws are well adapted for digging. Like other skunks in the genus the nose is long and flexible and used for rooting for burrowing insects. The post carnassial molars have large grinding areas relative to the cutting edge of their carnassial teeth.","Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks use a variety of habitats. They prefer to den in flat or rolling topography. These skunks will den in shallow caves, below tree roots, in hollow trees, under rocks and cracks between stones, and in abandoned tunnels of other animals. They will use habitat from desert areas to forests. In addition to being found in shrub or forest cover, they use man-made structures, denning under buildings and woodpiles. They use areas with natural herbaceous vegetation, except where poisons are used to control the Culpeo (Pseudalopex culpaeus). They are susceptible to poisoning although not targeted. They do however, prefer more open, grassy areas compared to the drier shrubby environments.","These skunks are opportunistic feeders and usually capture their prey easily. They generally find their prey by sniffing and digging, using their flexible noses and long claws, primarily in grassy habitats. Like other skunks in the genus they eat a variety of insects, including ground beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, and spiders. They will consume fruit when it is available. These skunks also eat a variety of vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents. Carrion is eaten in larger quantities than expected based on relative abundance, when compared with other food items. This would suggest that this species is more carnivorous than insectivorous, but still opportunistic. They also are known to frequent urban garbage sites and vegetable gardens.","Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.","This species is generally nocturnal or crepuscular in nature. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks become more active during the day as winter approaches, and are less active when there is snow cover. They use a variety of den sites during the day and normally do not use the same den site for more than a couple of days at a time. They will however, reuse dens that they occupied previously. They are active for about 50% of the day. Their activity period starts between 20:00-22:00 h and continues until 07:00 h the next morning. Some skunks will remain active until 09:00 h and even until 12:00 h. They rarely are seen between 12:00-19:00 h. During periods of activity they have been observed digging or foraging, walking, and even playing. Young animals will venture as far as 1-3 kmfrom their natal dens to survey new territory before returning home. They may eventually relocate to the areas they investigated.","Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be solitary for most of their lives. However,in stable areas where shelters are secure, small groups of young individuals may den together. These individuals usually are related and will stay together until they become adults. The home range ofjuvenile skunks increases in the fall and winter as they explore new areas away from the natal home range. Home rangesizesare relatively small and are about 7-16 ha. Home ranges of different individuals can overlap. These skunks usually are not found in high numbers. Density estimates of 0-04 to 0-16 km* have been reported in Chile.Breeding. Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.","Currently, Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks is listed with CI'TIES as Appendix II. They are considered Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The pelt of this species has been used for blankets, and as a result they were hunted and over 100,000 skins were exported. In several areas in Chileit has been suggested that hunt ing pressures be reduced or stopped in order to conserve this species. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks are preyed upon by various raptors as well as Puma. Grazing pressures potentially could decrease populations of this skunk. Additionally, they have been eliminated in some areas as a result of poisoning of other species.","Arias et al. (2006) | Cabrera (1958) | Canevari & Ambrosini (1988) | Dragoo et al. (2003) | Fuller, T.K. et al. (1987) | Gray (1837) | Johnson, W.E. et al. (1988) | Kipp (1965) | Osgood (1943) | Thomas (1902a) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zapata et al. (2001)",,"6.Humboldt’s Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus humboldtiiFrench:Moufette de Humboldt/ German:Patagonischer Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino patagénicoTaxonomy.Conepatus humboldtii Gray, 1837,Magellan Straits, Chile.Two of the subspecies have been regarded as distinct species, but morphology and color pattern have been used to relegate them to subspecies of C. humboldtii. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. h. humboldtii Gray, 1837— Patagonia (Chileand Argentina) to the Strait of Magellan.C. h. castaneus d’Orbigny & Gervais, 1847— C Argentina(S provinces of Buenos Aires& La Pampato N Rio Negro;it also follows along the Colorado and Black Rivers to Neuquenand S Mendoza).C. h. proteus Thomas, 1902— subandean C Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).Descriptive notes.Head-body 22-32 cm(males), 20-30 cm(females), tail 16.5-20.2 cm(males) and 18-18.5 cm(females); weight 0.5-2.5 kg. Males on average are about 4-6% heavier than females. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be the smallest of the hog-nosed skunks. These skunks, like all South American skunks, have a double stripe similar to that seen in North American Striped Skunks. Typically, they are black and white, but they can range in color from black to dark brown or reddish brown. It has been suggested that the brownish color appears as the result of age. There is considerable variation in the striping pattern. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks do not have any white markings between the eyes. The tail generally is shorter in proportion to the body than in other skunks. The forelimbs and claws are well adapted for digging. Like other skunks in the genus the nose is long and flexible and used for rooting for burrowing insects. The post carnassial molars have large grinding areas relative to the cutting edge of their carnassial teeth.Habitat.Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks use a variety of habitats. They prefer to den in flat or rolling topography. These skunks will den in shallow caves, below tree roots, in hollow trees, under rocks and cracks between stones, and in abandoned tunnels of other animals. They will use habitat from desert areas to forests. In addition to being found in shrub or forest cover, they use man-made structures, denning under buildings and woodpiles. They use areas with natural herbaceous vegetation, except where poisons are used to control the Culpeo (Pseudalopex culpaeus). They are susceptible to poisoning although not targeted. They do however, prefer more open, grassy areas compared to the drier shrubby environments.Food and Feeding.These skunks are opportunistic feeders and usually capture their prey easily. They generally find their prey by sniffing and digging, using their flexible noses and long claws, primarily in grassy habitats. Like other skunks in the genus they eat a variety of insects, including ground beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, and spiders. They will consume fruit when it is available. These skunks also eat a variety of vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents. Carrion is eaten in larger quantities than expected based on relative abundance, when compared with other food items. This would suggest that this species is more carnivorous than insectivorous, but still opportunistic. They also are known to frequent urban garbage sites and vegetable gardens.Activity patterns.This species is generally nocturnal or crepuscular in nature. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks become more active during the day as winter approaches, and are less active when there is snow cover. They use a variety of den sites during the day and normally do not use the same den site for more than a couple of days at a time. They will however, reuse dens that they occupied previously. They are active for about 50% of the day. Their activity period starts between 20:00-22:00 h and continues until 07:00 h the next morning. Some skunks will remain active until 09:00 h and even until 12:00 h. They rarely are seen between 12:00-19:00 h. During periods of activity they have been observed digging or foraging, walking, and even playing. Young animals will venture as far as 1-3 kmfrom their natal dens to survey new territory before returning home. They may eventually relocate to the areas they investigated.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be solitary for most of their lives. However,in stable areas where shelters are secure, small groups of young individuals may den together. These individuals usually are related and will stay together until they become adults. The home range ofjuvenile skunks increases in the fall and winter as they explore new areas away from the natal home range. Home rangesizesare relatively small and are about 7-16 ha. Home ranges of different individuals can overlap. These skunks usually are not found in high numbers. Density estimates of 0-04 to 0-16 km* have been reported in Chile.Breeding. Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.Status and Conservation. Currently, Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks is listed with CI'TIES as Appendix II. They are considered Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The pelt of this species has been used for blankets, and as a result they were hunted and over 100,000 skins were exported. In several areas in Chileit has been suggested that hunt ing pressures be reduced or stopped in order to conserve this species. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks are preyed upon by various raptors as well as Puma. Grazing pressures potentially could decrease populations of this skunk. Additionally, they have been eliminated in some areas as a result of poisoning of other species.Bibliography. Arias et al. (2006), Cabrera (1958), Canevari & Ambrosini (1988), Dragoo et al. (2003), Fuller, T.K. et al. (1987), Gray (1837), Johnson, W.E. et al. (1988), Kipp (1965), Osgood (1943), Thomas (1902a), Wozencraft (2005), Zapata et al. (2001)." -03CC87EC9123FB51FF0BF8ADF6B7D161,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,557,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9123FB51FF0BF8ADF6B7D161.xml,Conepatus semistriatus,Conepatus,semistriatus,,,Moufette d’Amazonie @fr | Amazonas-Skunk @de | Zorrino amazonico @es,"Viverra semistriatus Boddaert, 1785,Originally described from “ Mexico”. Type locality later described as “Minas de Montuosa, cerca de Pamplona, departamento del norte de Santander, Colombia”.Eight subspecies are recognized.","C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785— Colombiaand Venezuela.C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838— NE & C Brazil.C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788— SE Mexico(Veracruzand along coast to Campeche).C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812— Ecuador.C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924— higher elevation in N Peru.C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905— Costa Rica, W Panama.C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943— SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Hondurasand Nicaragua.C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900— low hot desert regions of N Peru.","Head-body 35-50 cm(males) and 33-45 cm(females), tail 14-3— 30- 9 cm(males) and 13.5-26 cm(females); weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The tail is less than half the total body length. Striped Hog-nosed Skunks in South America tend to get smaller from north to south. The Striped Hog-nosed Skunk is larger than the other South American species, Molina’s and Humboldt’'s Hog-nosed Skunks. The pelage coloration typically is black with two narrow white stripes running from the head to the rump. There is extensive variation in color pattern. Striped hog-nosed Skunks have small, pig-like noses that are used for rooting insects. Like other Conepatus, the claws are long and the forelimbs are adapted for digging. These skunks also are able to spray a noxious fluid as a means of defense.","Striped Hog-nosed Skunks use grasslands with scattered palms, sparse deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open grassy areas mixed with sedges and herbaceous plants during the dry season. They prefer not to hang out in areas that have prolonged dry seasons. During the wet season they spend more time on higher ground in deciduousforests. Clearings and pastures near evergreen forests also are frequented by this species. Den sites are dug among tree roots or fallen trees. Burrows are about 1-2 min length and about 0-3 mbelow the surface. When not using the burrows dug for themselves these skunks will use burrows dug by other animals such as armadillos.","Like other hog-nosed skunks,this species is an opportunistic omnivore. They feed on many invertebrates, but may not dig as much as the other species. Additionally, they consume small vertebrates, including reptiles, mammals, and birds, as well as fruits when they are available.","These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.","Striped Hog-nosed Skunks are primarily nocturnal. They become active shortly after sunset. One animal was reported to become active between 19:30 h and 24:00 h and stay out for about six hours at a time. The phase of the moon appeared not to affect activity periods. Though it is not outside the realm of possibility, these skunks rarely are seen during daylight hours.","Like other skunks, these animals are primarily solitary (except for mothers with offspring). Home ranges can cover from 18-53 ha.Breeding.These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.","Notlisted with CITES, and classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The status of this skunk is uncertain. Although not abundant, this species appears to do well in disturbed environments.","Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Goldman (1943) | Hall (1981) | Hall & Dalquest (1963) | Lichtenstein (1838) | Reid (1997) | Sunquist et al. (1989) | Thomas (1900a, 1905, 1924) | Wozencraft (2005)",,"5.Striped Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus semistriatusFrench:Moufette d’Amazonie/ German:Amazonas-Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino amazonicoTaxonomy.Viverra semistriatus Boddaert, 1785,Originally described from “ Mexico”. Type locality later described as “Minas de Montuosa, cerca de Pamplona, departamento del norte de Santander, Colombia”.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785— Colombiaand Venezuela.C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838— NE & C Brazil.C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788— SE Mexico(Veracruzand along coast to Campeche).C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812— Ecuador.C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924— higher elevation in N Peru.C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905— Costa Rica, W Panama.C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943— SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Hondurasand Nicaragua.C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900— low hot desert regions of N Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-50 cm(males) and 33-45 cm(females), tail 14-3— 30- 9 cm(males) and 13.5-26 cm(females); weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The tail is less than half the total body length. Striped Hog-nosed Skunks in South America tend to get smaller from north to south. The Striped Hog-nosed Skunk is larger than the other South American species, Molina’s and Humboldt’'s Hog-nosed Skunks. The pelage coloration typically is black with two narrow white stripes running from the head to the rump. There is extensive variation in color pattern. Striped hog-nosed Skunks have small, pig-like noses that are used for rooting insects. Like other Conepatus, the claws are long and the forelimbs are adapted for digging. These skunks also are able to spray a noxious fluid as a means of defense.Habitat.Striped Hog-nosed Skunks use grasslands with scattered palms, sparse deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open grassy areas mixed with sedges and herbaceous plants during the dry season. They prefer not to hang out in areas that have prolonged dry seasons. During the wet season they spend more time on higher ground in deciduousforests. Clearings and pastures near evergreen forests also are frequented by this species. Den sites are dug among tree roots or fallen trees. Burrows are about 1-2 min length and about 0-3 mbelow the surface. When not using the burrows dug for themselves these skunks will use burrows dug by other animals such as armadillos.Food and Feeding.Like other hog-nosed skunks,this species is an opportunistic omnivore. They feed on many invertebrates, but may not dig as much as the other species. Additionally, they consume small vertebrates, including reptiles, mammals, and birds, as well as fruits when they are available.Activity patterns.Striped Hog-nosed Skunks are primarily nocturnal. They become active shortly after sunset. One animal was reported to become active between 19:30 h and 24:00 h and stay out for about six hours at a time. The phase of the moon appeared not to affect activity periods. Though it is not outside the realm of possibility, these skunks rarely are seen during daylight hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other skunks, these animals are primarily solitary (except for mothers with offspring). Home ranges can cover from 18-53 ha.Breeding.These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.Status and Conservation.Notlisted with CITES, and classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The status of this skunk is uncertain. Although not abundant, this species appears to do well in disturbed environments.Bibliography.Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Goldman (1943), Hall (1981), Hall & Dalquest (1963), Lichtenstein (1838), Reid (1997), Sunquist et al. (1989), Thomas (1900a, 1905, 1924), Wozencraft (2005)." +03CC87EC9120FB5DFF58F721FBABD779,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,560,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9120FB5DFF58F721FBABD779.xml,Spilogale putorius,Spilogale,putorius,,,Moufette tachetée @fr | Ostlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta oriental @es,"Viverra putorius Linnaeus, 1758,South Carolina.Three subspecies are recognized.","S. p. putorius Linnaeus, 1758— E & SE USA(Mississippi, Alabama& N Florida, through Georgia, N to SC Pennsylvania).S. p. ambarvalis Bangs, 1898— SE USA(Peninsular Florida).S. p. interrupta Rafinesque, 1820— USA(Canadian border in Minnesota, C North Dakota, E Wyoming, E Colorado, W Oklahoma, NW Texas, south to C Texas, and east to the MississippiRiver along Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri& Iowa, up to Wisconsin.","There is considerable variation in size of Eastern Spotted Skunks. Head-body 23-33 cm, mean 30 cm(males), and 19-33 cm, mean 29 cm(females), tail 8-28 cm, mean 16- 4 cm(males), and 8: 5-21 cm, mean 15- 4 cm(females); weight 276-885 g(males) and 207-475 g(females). Eastern Spotted Skunks are smaller than Striped Skunks and more weasel-like in body shape. The pelage of Eastern Spotted Skunks is black with a complex striping pattern of six stripes; the stripes can be interrupted, giving a somewhat spotted appearance. There are usually two white spots on the rump, as well as a white spot between the eyes. The dorsal stripes run down the vertebral column from the head toward the tail. Two stripes run below the dorsal stripes over the shoulder and continue across the ears, forming a small white spot in front of the ears. A third set ofstripes continues from the front feet past the end of the shoulder stripes. Locomotion in Eastern Spotted Skunksis plantigrade and these skunks run with their bodies low to the ground. While walking more slowly and cautiously, they will extend their limbs and raise their heads to get higher off the ground. Spotted skunks have five toes on each foot. They are not such efficient diggers as Conepatusor Mephitis, but are much more agile and able to climb. The dental formula for this species is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, totaling 34 teeth. The P? is always small and may be absent.","These skunks are rarely found in the open, preferring either forested areas or habitats containing significant vegetative cover. In the Plains States, these skunks inhabit riparian woodlands and areas of vegetation along fences. They also are found in brushy and rocky habitats, but avoid wetlands. They have been observed on sandy soils and beaches in Florida. Eastern Spotted Skunks seem to prefer habitat with extensive vegetative cover, as this cover provides protection from various predators. They den in protected, dark, dry holes including natural crevices in trees, and will den off the ground to an elevation of seven meters in hollow trees. They dig their own burrows, or den in holes previously occupied by other animals, in talus slopes, haystacks, under houses or rocks, and in the walls of houses or barns. They prefer warm holes in the winter and cool dens in the summer, and will change den sites to accommodate these needs.","Eastern Spotted Skunks forage primarily at night. They are secretive and not often seen. These skunks are exceptional mousers and do farmers a great service when they forage around barns and buildings. They are omnivores, but tend to be more carnivorous than Mephitisor Conepatus. The diet consists mainly of insects, small mammals, birds, and birds’ eggs. Like a center hiking an American football, the skunk uses its front paws to throw an egg through its back legs in order to crack the shell. These skunks also will eat fruits and vegetables in the summer and fall when they are available.","Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.","They are generally nocturnal. They usually avoid moonlit nights. On nights when the moon is not out they normally have two periods of activity. They will come out soon after sunset and again before sunrise. They will be active throughout the night as well. Eastern Spotted Skunks have been observed during the day on rare occasions. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. This agility also can be observed in their threat behavior as they are able to perform front handstands. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. This behavior has been reported to last for up to eight minutes in short, 2-5 second bursts of handstanding. However, a young, captive animal from a wildlife rehabilitation effort was observed crouching under a couch on all fours until a domestic cat came into the room. The skunk rushed out from under the couch toward the cat. As soon as its tail cleared the cushion it went into a handstand/run. The cat began to trot away. The skunk followed on its frontfeet, bouncing around a table, about 1-5 mand then jumped up on a stand approximately 6 cmoff the ground, ran along the stand, hopped off the end and continued to chase the cat to the other end of the room. The cat finally ran off and the skunk dropped down on all fours and went back under the couch. Spotted skunks have been reported to spray from the hand-stand position, but they usually drop down and face the predator with both ends in a “U” shape. The handstand is usuallyjust a threat behavior used to drive off the predator.","These skunks usually den alone, but in cold winter months several skunks may bed down together. They usually use more than one den site within their home range. Eastern Spotted Skunks move from den to den and more than one individual has been captured at the same den site in capture-recapture studies. They may also share dens, but with only one animal using the den at a time. Captive male animals have been reported to be aggressive toward one another to the point of one animal killing the other. Females tended not to engage in fatal fights, but remained defensive while in the same cage. Young animals will wrestle and screech at one another, but will also sleep together. Young animals will usually separate before reaching full adulthood. Spotted skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range. Where they occur they can be found at a density of about nine animals per km? to about 20 and even 40 per km”. Eastern Spotted Skunks tend to move greater distances in the spring than in the summer and fall. Home ranges can be up to 4359 ha.Breeding.Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.","Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. However, there has been concern over the lack of observations of this species throughout its range in the last few decades. Population densities of Eastern Spotted Skunks were believed to be low when settlers first arrived on the Great Plains. When small farm operations flourished there prior to the 1920s, spotted skunks became more numerous as farm buildings provided shelter as well as a supply of mice and rats. When the small farms gave way to larger operations, the density of spotted skunks became lower. Today, the Eastern Spotted Skunk is considered to be threatened in many of the states within its historical range. Natural predators of spotted skunks include larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats and bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls. Ectoparasites found on Eastern Spotted Skunks include fleas and ticks, and endoparasites include various tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidian protozoans. Humans also are known to be a major cause of mortality because of the number of skunks hit by cars. Pneumonia and coccidiosis are diseases that have been reported in this species. Rabies has been reported, but rarely. Histoplasmosis has also been found, and microfilaria,listeriosis, mastitis, tularemia, distemper, and Q fever are likely to affect Eastern Spotted Skunks.","Bangs (1898b) | Choate et al. (1973) | Crabb (1948) | Dragoo & Honeycutt, (1999b) | Gompper & Hackett (2005) | Howell (1906) | Kinlaw (1995) | Manaro (1961) | McCullough & Fritzell (1984) | Mead (1968a) | Mitchell (1923) | Pocock (1921) | Reed & Kennedy (2000) | Seton (1926) | Van Gelder (1959)",https://zenodo.org/record/6353165/files/figure.png,"10.Eastern Spotted SkunkSpilogale putoriusFrench:Moufette tachetée/ German:Ostlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta orientalTaxonomy.Viverra putorius Linnaeus, 1758,South Carolina.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. p. putorius Linnaeus, 1758— E & SE USA(Mississippi, Alabama& N Florida, through Georgia, N to SC Pennsylvania).S. p. ambarvalis Bangs, 1898— SE USA(Peninsular Florida).S. p. interrupta Rafinesque, 1820— USA(Canadian border in Minnesota, C North Dakota, E Wyoming, E Colorado, W Oklahoma, NW Texas, south to C Texas, and east to the MississippiRiver along Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri& Iowa, up to Wisconsin.Descriptive notes.There is considerable variation in size of Eastern Spotted Skunks. Head-body 23-33 cm, mean 30 cm(males), and 19-33 cm, mean 29 cm(females), tail 8-28 cm, mean 16- 4 cm(males), and 8: 5-21 cm, mean 15- 4 cm(females); weight 276-885 g(males) and 207-475 g(females). Eastern Spotted Skunks are smaller than Striped Skunks and more weasel-like in body shape. The pelage of Eastern Spotted Skunks is black with a complex striping pattern of six stripes; the stripes can be interrupted, giving a somewhat spotted appearance. There are usually two white spots on the rump, as well as a white spot between the eyes. The dorsal stripes run down the vertebral column from the head toward the tail. Two stripes run below the dorsal stripes over the shoulder and continue across the ears, forming a small white spot in front of the ears. A third set ofstripes continues from the front feet past the end of the shoulder stripes. Locomotion in Eastern Spotted Skunksis plantigrade and these skunks run with their bodies low to the ground. While walking more slowly and cautiously, they will extend their limbs and raise their heads to get higher off the ground. Spotted skunks have five toes on each foot. They are not such efficient diggers as Conepatusor Mephitis, but are much more agile and able to climb. The dental formula for this species is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, totaling 34 teeth. The P? is always small and may be absent.Habitat.These skunks are rarely found in the open, preferring either forested areas or habitats containing significant vegetative cover. In the Plains States, these skunks inhabit riparian woodlands and areas of vegetation along fences. They also are found in brushy and rocky habitats, but avoid wetlands. They have been observed on sandy soils and beaches in Florida. Eastern Spotted Skunks seem to prefer habitat with extensive vegetative cover, as this cover provides protection from various predators. They den in protected, dark, dry holes including natural crevices in trees, and will den off the ground to an elevation of seven meters in hollow trees. They dig their own burrows, or den in holes previously occupied by other animals, in talus slopes, haystacks, under houses or rocks, and in the walls of houses or barns. They prefer warm holes in the winter and cool dens in the summer, and will change den sites to accommodate these needs.Food and Feeding.Eastern Spotted Skunks forage primarily at night. They are secretive and not often seen. These skunks are exceptional mousers and do farmers a great service when they forage around barns and buildings. They are omnivores, but tend to be more carnivorous than Mephitisor Conepatus. The diet consists mainly of insects, small mammals, birds, and birds’ eggs. Like a center hiking an American football, the skunk uses its front paws to throw an egg through its back legs in order to crack the shell. These skunks also will eat fruits and vegetables in the summer and fall when they are available.Activity patterns.They are generally nocturnal. They usually avoid moonlit nights. On nights when the moon is not out they normally have two periods of activity. They will come out soon after sunset and again before sunrise. They will be active throughout the night as well. Eastern Spotted Skunks have been observed during the day on rare occasions. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. This agility also can be observed in their threat behavior as they are able to perform front handstands. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. This behavior has been reported to last for up to eight minutes in short, 2-5 second bursts of handstanding. However, a young, captive animal from a wildlife rehabilitation effort was observed crouching under a couch on all fours until a domestic cat came into the room. The skunk rushed out from under the couch toward the cat. As soon as its tail cleared the cushion it went into a handstand/run. The cat began to trot away. The skunk followed on its frontfeet, bouncing around a table, about 1-5 mand then jumped up on a stand approximately 6 cmoff the ground, ran along the stand, hopped off the end and continued to chase the cat to the other end of the room. The cat finally ran off and the skunk dropped down on all fours and went back under the couch. Spotted skunks have been reported to spray from the hand-stand position, but they usually drop down and face the predator with both ends in a “U” shape. The handstand is usuallyjust a threat behavior used to drive off the predator.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These skunks usually den alone, but in cold winter months several skunks may bed down together. They usually use more than one den site within their home range. Eastern Spotted Skunks move from den to den and more than one individual has been captured at the same den site in capture-recapture studies. They may also share dens, but with only one animal using the den at a time. Captive male animals have been reported to be aggressive toward one another to the point of one animal killing the other. Females tended not to engage in fatal fights, but remained defensive while in the same cage. Young animals will wrestle and screech at one another, but will also sleep together. Young animals will usually separate before reaching full adulthood. Spotted skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range. Where they occur they can be found at a density of about nine animals per km? to about 20 and even 40 per km”. Eastern Spotted Skunks tend to move greater distances in the spring than in the summer and fall. Home ranges can be up to 4359 ha.Breeding.Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.Status and Conservation.Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. However, there has been concern over the lack of observations of this species throughout its range in the last few decades. Population densities of Eastern Spotted Skunks were believed to be low when settlers first arrived on the Great Plains. When small farm operations flourished there prior to the 1920s, spotted skunks became more numerous as farm buildings provided shelter as well as a supply of mice and rats. When the small farms gave way to larger operations, the density of spotted skunks became lower. Today, the Eastern Spotted Skunk is considered to be threatened in many of the states within its historical range. Natural predators of spotted skunks include larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats and bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls. Ectoparasites found on Eastern Spotted Skunks include fleas and ticks, and endoparasites include various tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidian protozoans. Humans also are known to be a major cause of mortality because of the number of skunks hit by cars. Pneumonia and coccidiosis are diseases that have been reported in this species. Rabies has been reported, but rarely. Histoplasmosis has also been found, and microfilaria,listeriosis, mastitis, tularemia, distemper, and Q fever are likely to affect Eastern Spotted Skunks.Bibliography.Bangs (1898b), Choate et al. (1973), Crabb (1948), Dragoo & Honeycutt, (1999b), Gompper & Hackett (2005), Howell (1906), Kinlaw (1995), Manaro (1961), McCullough & Fritzell (1984), Mead (1968a), Mitchell (1923), Pocock (1921), Reed & Kennedy (2000), Seton (1926), Van Gelder (1959)." +03CC87EC9121FB52FA02F644FB53DDF5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,559,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9121FB52FA02F644FB53DDF5.xml,Spilogale pygmaea,Spilogale,pygmaea,,,Moufette naine @fr | Zwerg-Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta chica @es,"Spilogale pygmaea Thomas, 1898,Rosario, Sinaloa, W. Mexico.Three subspecies are recognized.","S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa& Nayarit).S. p. australis Hall, 1938— W Mexico(Pacific coastal region from Michoacanto Guerrero& Oaxaca).S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima).","Head-body 19-21 cm,tail 6.7-7.3 cm(males) and 5.9-6.7 cm(females), hindfoot 2.3-4 cm, ear 1.8-3.3 cm; weight 150-320 g. Tail length has been used to distinguish the sexes. The Pygmy Spotted Skunk is the smallest of the skunks. The body is elongated and the legs are relatively short. This skunk has six continuous white stripes running down the back and sides; the rest of the fur color is brown to black. There is a white stripe across the forehead above the eyes that continues down the side of the body. Pygmy Spotted Skunks have a short rostrum with a black nose pad, short, rounded ears, short legs, and slender feet with small curved claws. The skull is small and fragile and does not have a sagittal crest. The dental formulais 13/3, C1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 for a total of 34 teeth. These skunks have small canines but relatively large molars.","These skunks inhabit deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub. They have been observed in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetation for cover. They have a patchy distribution, but nearly all individuals have been captured in coastal habitats. However, remains have been found in owl pellets about 115 kmfrom the coast at an altitude of 500 m. They are found from sea level up to 1630 m, but are generally found below 350 m. Pygmy Spotted Skunksare scarce, but if enough habitat is preserved, they are believed to be able to survive in disturbed environments.","Pygmy Spotted Skunks are opportunistic feeders and consume a variety of invertebrates. Rodents are not taken as frequently as by other spotted skunks, but may be selected as alternative prey when the availability of arthropods is low. Spiny pocket mice are common in the tropical dry forest, and during the dry season, their density is high. During this season rodents also may be easier to detect due to the desiccation ofleaflitter. Birds are rarely taken by these skunks and plant material is less likely to be consumed, although, highly digestible fruits may be eaten. Pygmy Spotted Skunks use food sources such as ants, beetles, and spiders in relation to their abundance in the environment. However, some invertebrates, such as insect larvae, millipedes and centipedes, are selected in higher abundance. True bugs (Hemiptera) tend to be avoided as do crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera). Pygmy Spotted Skunks will eat cockroaches (Blattaria) during the dry season; they may select food items in response to seasonal variation in prey abundance.","Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.","They are nocturnal and den underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation. They will use dens dug by other animals such as gophers, squirrels, armadillos, and turtles. They use pathways and stream beds to move to and from bodies of water. Much of their activity occurs below the leaf litter or brush, where they search for the burrows of small rodents. Pygmy Spotted Skunks stomp their feet when threatened. They have been observed doing a partial handstand similar to other species of spotted skunks. Anal secretions are usually only released as a last resort.","These skunks are solitary most of the year except during the breeding season. Males will defend their territory against other males, and only allow females access to their territory.Breeding.Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.","Not listed with CITES. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. This skunk is locally abundant in certain areas, but is considered to be vulnerable throughout much of its range in Mexicodue to habitat destruction as a result of tourist resort and road construction. These animals also have been stuffed and sold as souvenirs. Skulls have been recovered from barn owl pellets, and snakes and other carnivores probably prey on Pygmy Spotted Skunks. They have been found with various parasites including ticks, cestodes, nematode, and intestinal worms.","Cantu-Salazar (2002) | Cantu-Salazar, Fernandez & Hidalgo-Mihart (2004) | Cantu-Salazar, Hidalgo-Mihart et al. (2005) | Ceballos & Miranda(1986) | Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Hall (1938) | Lopez-Forment & Urbano (1979) | Medellin et al. (1998) | Schreiber et al. (1989) | Teska et al. (1981) | Thomas (1898b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6353159/files/figure.png,"9.Pygmy Spotted SkunkSpilogale pygmaeaFrench:Moufette naine/ German:Zwerg-Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta chicaTaxonomy.Spilogale pygmaea Thomas, 1898,Rosario, Sinaloa, W. Mexico.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa& Nayarit).S. p. australis Hall, 1938— W Mexico(Pacific coastal region from Michoacanto Guerrero& Oaxaca).S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima).Descriptive notes.Head-body 19-21 cm,tail 6.7-7.3 cm(males) and 5.9-6.7 cm(females), hindfoot 2.3-4 cm, ear 1.8-3.3 cm; weight 150-320 g. Tail length has been used to distinguish the sexes. The Pygmy Spotted Skunk is the smallest of the skunks. The body is elongated and the legs are relatively short. This skunk has six continuous white stripes running down the back and sides; the rest of the fur color is brown to black. There is a white stripe across the forehead above the eyes that continues down the side of the body. Pygmy Spotted Skunks have a short rostrum with a black nose pad, short, rounded ears, short legs, and slender feet with small curved claws. The skull is small and fragile and does not have a sagittal crest. The dental formulais 13/3, C1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 for a total of 34 teeth. These skunks have small canines but relatively large molars.Habitat.These skunks inhabit deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub. They have been observed in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetation for cover. They have a patchy distribution, but nearly all individuals have been captured in coastal habitats. However, remains have been found in owl pellets about 115 kmfrom the coast at an altitude of 500 m. They are found from sea level up to 1630 m, but are generally found below 350 m. Pygmy Spotted Skunksare scarce, but if enough habitat is preserved, they are believed to be able to survive in disturbed environments.Food and Feeding.Pygmy Spotted Skunks are opportunistic feeders and consume a variety of invertebrates. Rodents are not taken as frequently as by other spotted skunks, but may be selected as alternative prey when the availability of arthropods is low. Spiny pocket mice are common in the tropical dry forest, and during the dry season, their density is high. During this season rodents also may be easier to detect due to the desiccation ofleaflitter. Birds are rarely taken by these skunks and plant material is less likely to be consumed, although, highly digestible fruits may be eaten. Pygmy Spotted Skunks use food sources such as ants, beetles, and spiders in relation to their abundance in the environment. However, some invertebrates, such as insect larvae, millipedes and centipedes, are selected in higher abundance. True bugs (Hemiptera) tend to be avoided as do crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera). Pygmy Spotted Skunks will eat cockroaches (Blattaria) during the dry season; they may select food items in response to seasonal variation in prey abundance.Activity patterns.They are nocturnal and den underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation. They will use dens dug by other animals such as gophers, squirrels, armadillos, and turtles. They use pathways and stream beds to move to and from bodies of water. Much of their activity occurs below the leaf litter or brush, where they search for the burrows of small rodents. Pygmy Spotted Skunks stomp their feet when threatened. They have been observed doing a partial handstand similar to other species of spotted skunks. Anal secretions are usually only released as a last resort.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These skunks are solitary most of the year except during the breeding season. Males will defend their territory against other males, and only allow females access to their territory.Breeding.Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.Status and Conservation.Not listed with CITES. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. This skunk is locally abundant in certain areas, but is considered to be vulnerable throughout much of its range in Mexicodue to habitat destruction as a result of tourist resort and road construction. These animals also have been stuffed and sold as souvenirs. Skulls have been recovered from barn owl pellets, and snakes and other carnivores probably prey on Pygmy Spotted Skunks. They have been found with various parasites including ticks, cestodes, nematode, and intestinal worms.Bibliography.Cantu-Salazar (2002), Cantu-Salazar, Fernandez & Hidalgo-Mihart (2004), Cantu-Salazar, Hidalgo-Mihart et al. (2005), Ceballos & Miranda(1986), Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Hall (1938), Lopez-Forment & Urbano (1979), Medellin et al. (1998), Schreiber et al. (1989), Teska et al. (1981), Thomas (1898b)." +03CC87EC9122FB50FF56F9E7F5DBDE43,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,558,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9122FB50FF56F9E7F5DBDE43.xml,Mephitis macroura,Mephitis,macroura,,,Moufette a capuchon @fr | Haubenskunk @de | Mofeta encapuchada @es,"Mephitis macroura Lichtenstein, 1832,Gebirgs-Gegenden nord-westlich von der Stadt Mexico” (Mexico, mountains north-west of Mexico City).Four subspecies are recognized.","M. m. macroura Lichtenstein, 1832— C & W Mexico(NayaritE to Tamaulipas) and S to Honduras, but not including the Yucatan Peninsula.M. m. eximius Hall & Dalquest, 1950— E Mexico(S Veracruz).M. m. milleri Mearns, 1897— N Mexico(Sonoraand Sinaloato CoahuilaN) to S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas).M. m. richardsoni Goodwin, 1957— Nicaraguaand Costa Rica.","Head—body averages about 31 cm(males) and 28 cm(females), tail 27-43 cm; weight averages 957 g(males) 882 g(females). Individuals achieve their greatest weight by late summer. Hooded Skunks in the more southern part of their range are smaller than animals in the northern part of the range. Hooded Skunks have three typical color patterns, but there is considerable variation. These patterns are: two thin stripes running down the side of the body from the shoulder to midabdomen; a single band running down the back from the forehead to the tail (this single white stripe is interspersed with black hair giving a gray appearance), and a combination of both. These skunks also have a white bar between the eyes. The skull is similar to that of the Striped Skunk, but the auditory bullae are larger. Hooded Skunk can be differentiated externally from Striped Skunk by the long hairs on the back of the neck and head,its relatively longer tail, and larger ears. The anal secretions of the Hooded Skunk have seven major components, which comprise 99% of the volatiles. These components are (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, S-3-methylbutenyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol. There are several minor components as well, including phenylmethanethiol, S-phenylmethyl thioacetate, S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide, and S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate. The Hooded Skunk’s secretion contains four compounds not reported from the Striped Skunk: phenylmethanethiol, Sphenylmethyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, and S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate.","This skunk occurs in a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It is most common in arid lowlands, but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats. Hooded Skunks use similar habitats to Striped Skunks, but are found more often in scrub and urban habitats. Hooded Skunks occur from sea level to 3110 m, in low elevation desert areas (below 2500 m), in rocky canyons, or in heavily vegetated streamsides and valleys, often in association with mesquite, pine—oak, and other shrubs and grasses. Hooded Skunks appearto prefer intermediate elevationsin rockyslopes,at the bases ofcliffs, or on the rocky sides of arroyos, but are also encountered in heavy growth of weeds and shrubs in riparian areas. Dense, brushy cover of stream sides may be important for this species. Hooded Skunks den in holes dug in the ground, rock crevices, and holes in logs. They have even been observed denning more than 1 mabove ground in trees, but they are more likely to den on rocky hillsides. They prefer woodland habitats more than do Striped Skunks. In agricultural areas Hooded Skunks den along fencerows, beneath irrigation canals, and in heavily vegetated areas along streams. Hooded Skunks are less likely than Striped Skunks to den around human dwellings. However, radio-collared individuals were frequently located under buildings and sheds and in culverts.","The diet of this species consists primarily of insects (including beetles and grasshoppers), fruits, small vertebrates, and birds’ eggs. Hooded Skunks break chicken eggs by throwing them between their back legs rather than biting them. Vertebrates are taken opportunistically. When foraging, Hooded Skunk moves slowly, snuffling among leaves and pouncing on grasshoppers and beetles.","The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.","Hooded Skunks remain active all year and have been trapped in the winter. The anal glands are used in self defense. One animal was observed spraying nine times in eleven seconds and again three more times 90 minutes later. The defensive behavior of Hooded Skunk is similar to that of Striped Skunk. Hooded Skunks are active after dusk and travel along rock walls, streambeds, and in weedy fields. They tend to be solitary except when females are raising young, although several may dine together at a feeding station. Females normally do not den together during the winter months.","Home ranges of Hooded Skunks can occupy from 2:8-5-0 km? Densities of 1:3-3-9 up to 25 Hooded Skunks/km?* have been reported. Females, when not nursing, tend to stay at a den site longer than males before moving to a different den within the home range. Males will move greater distances from one densite to the next compared to females. The skunks’ home ranges are smaller in urban areas. Urban skunks share mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes with non-urban skunks, which suggests that gene flow occurs between urban and non-urban skunk populations. Genetic data suggest that Hooded Skunks in urban areas represent newer, expanding populations (lower genetic diversity) compared to urban Striped Skunks, which have higher genetic diversity and more stable populations. They are more common in urbanized areas than previously thought, and in some places are more numerous than Striped Skunks. Their numbers are often underreported because it can be difficult to distinguish the two species.Skunks can actually be beneficial because they eat insect pests and rodents.Breeding.The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the status of this species, but they may not be uncommon in some parts of their range in the SW USA. However, in Texas, there is concern about population levels and that the species may no longer occur in that state. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human-altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas. There is a need for more research on Hooded Skunks. During a four year study period in Arizona, survival rates of adult skunks were low (24-56%). Predation accounted for most of the mortality, but disease and parasites were contributing factors. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), mountain lions, bobcats, jaguars, and coyotes may kill Hooded Skunks. Captive Hooded Skunks have lived for at least eight years. Historically, the pelt has not been considered to be of great value,so this skunk has not been hunted to the extent that other species have. Its fur is very long, light, and of low economic value. The flesh has been used for food in some areas, and the fat and scent glands have been used for medicinal purposes. Roundworms (Physaloptera maxillaries), fleas (Pulicidae), and the nematode Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum occur in Hooded Skunks in Trans Pecos, Texas. A new species of Skrjabingylus (S. santaceciliae) was recently described in this skunk species. Rabies rarely is reported in Hooded Skunks; however, a case of rabies in this species has been documented. There is no reason to suspect that they do not contract the virus; more likely they go unnoticed or are misidentified as Striped Skunks. Hooded Skunks also are susceptible to feline distemper. Hooded Skunks have been found with numerous fleas,ticks, lice, and mites.","Aranda & Lopez-de Buen (1999) | Armstrong et al. (1972) | Bailey (1931) | Baker (1956) | Carreno et al. (2005) | Ceballos & Miranda(1986) | Dalquest (1953) | Davis (1944) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1954) | Dragoo et al. (2004) | Findley et al. (1975) | Goodwin (1957) | Hall & Dalquest (1950) | Hass (2002a, 2003) | Hass & Dragoo (2006) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Hubbard (1972) | Janzen & Hallwachs (1982) | Lichtenstein (1827-1834) | Mearns (1897b) | Patton (1974) | Reid (1997) | Schmidly (1977, 2004) | Wood et al. (2002)",https://zenodo.org/record/5684765/files/figure.png,"7.Hooded SkunkMephitis macrouraFrench:Moufette a capuchon/ German:Haubenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta encapuchadaTaxonomy.Mephitis macroura Lichtenstein, 1832,Gebirgs-Gegenden nord-westlich von der Stadt Mexico” (Mexico, mountains north-west of Mexico City).Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. macroura Lichtenstein, 1832— C & W Mexico(NayaritE to Tamaulipas) and S to Honduras, but not including the Yucatan Peninsula.M. m. eximius Hall & Dalquest, 1950— E Mexico(S Veracruz).M. m. milleri Mearns, 1897— N Mexico(Sonoraand Sinaloato CoahuilaN) to S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas).M. m. richardsoni Goodwin, 1957— Nicaraguaand Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head—body averages about 31 cm(males) and 28 cm(females), tail 27-43 cm; weight averages 957 g(males) 882 g(females). Individuals achieve their greatest weight by late summer. Hooded Skunks in the more southern part of their range are smaller than animals in the northern part of the range. Hooded Skunks have three typical color patterns, but there is considerable variation. These patterns are: two thin stripes running down the side of the body from the shoulder to midabdomen; a single band running down the back from the forehead to the tail (this single white stripe is interspersed with black hair giving a gray appearance), and a combination of both. These skunks also have a white bar between the eyes. The skull is similar to that of the Striped Skunk, but the auditory bullae are larger. Hooded Skunk can be differentiated externally from Striped Skunk by the long hairs on the back of the neck and head,its relatively longer tail, and larger ears. The anal secretions of the Hooded Skunk have seven major components, which comprise 99% of the volatiles. These components are (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, S-3-methylbutenyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol. There are several minor components as well, including phenylmethanethiol, S-phenylmethyl thioacetate, S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide, and S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate. The Hooded Skunk’s secretion contains four compounds not reported from the Striped Skunk: phenylmethanethiol, Sphenylmethyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, and S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate.Habitat.This skunk occurs in a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It is most common in arid lowlands, but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats. Hooded Skunks use similar habitats to Striped Skunks, but are found more often in scrub and urban habitats. Hooded Skunks occur from sea level to 3110 m, in low elevation desert areas (below 2500 m), in rocky canyons, or in heavily vegetated streamsides and valleys, often in association with mesquite, pine—oak, and other shrubs and grasses. Hooded Skunks appearto prefer intermediate elevationsin rockyslopes,at the bases ofcliffs, or on the rocky sides of arroyos, but are also encountered in heavy growth of weeds and shrubs in riparian areas. Dense, brushy cover of stream sides may be important for this species. Hooded Skunks den in holes dug in the ground, rock crevices, and holes in logs. They have even been observed denning more than 1 mabove ground in trees, but they are more likely to den on rocky hillsides. They prefer woodland habitats more than do Striped Skunks. In agricultural areas Hooded Skunks den along fencerows, beneath irrigation canals, and in heavily vegetated areas along streams. Hooded Skunks are less likely than Striped Skunks to den around human dwellings. However, radio-collared individuals were frequently located under buildings and sheds and in culverts.Food and Feeding.The diet of this species consists primarily of insects (including beetles and grasshoppers), fruits, small vertebrates, and birds’ eggs. Hooded Skunks break chicken eggs by throwing them between their back legs rather than biting them. Vertebrates are taken opportunistically. When foraging, Hooded Skunk moves slowly, snuffling among leaves and pouncing on grasshoppers and beetles.Activity patterns.Hooded Skunks remain active all year and have been trapped in the winter. The anal glands are used in self defense. One animal was observed spraying nine times in eleven seconds and again three more times 90 minutes later. The defensive behavior of Hooded Skunk is similar to that of Striped Skunk. Hooded Skunks are active after dusk and travel along rock walls, streambeds, and in weedy fields. They tend to be solitary except when females are raising young, although several may dine together at a feeding station. Females normally do not den together during the winter months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Hooded Skunks can occupy from 2:8-5-0 km? Densities of 1:3-3-9 up to 25 Hooded Skunks/km?* have been reported. Females, when not nursing, tend to stay at a den site longer than males before moving to a different den within the home range. Males will move greater distances from one densite to the next compared to females. The skunks’ home ranges are smaller in urban areas. Urban skunks share mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes with non-urban skunks, which suggests that gene flow occurs between urban and non-urban skunk populations. Genetic data suggest that Hooded Skunks in urban areas represent newer, expanding populations (lower genetic diversity) compared to urban Striped Skunks, which have higher genetic diversity and more stable populations. They are more common in urbanized areas than previously thought, and in some places are more numerous than Striped Skunks. Their numbers are often underreported because it can be difficult to distinguish the two species.Skunks can actually be beneficial because they eat insect pests and rodents.Breeding.The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the status of this species, but they may not be uncommon in some parts of their range in the SW USA. However, in Texas, there is concern about population levels and that the species may no longer occur in that state. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human-altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas. There is a need for more research on Hooded Skunks. During a four year study period in Arizona, survival rates of adult skunks were low (24-56%). Predation accounted for most of the mortality, but disease and parasites were contributing factors. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), mountain lions, bobcats, jaguars, and coyotes may kill Hooded Skunks. Captive Hooded Skunks have lived for at least eight years. Historically, the pelt has not been considered to be of great value,so this skunk has not been hunted to the extent that other species have. Its fur is very long, light, and of low economic value. The flesh has been used for food in some areas, and the fat and scent glands have been used for medicinal purposes. Roundworms (Physaloptera maxillaries), fleas (Pulicidae), and the nematode Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum occur in Hooded Skunks in Trans Pecos, Texas. A new species of Skrjabingylus (S. santaceciliae) was recently described in this skunk species. Rabies rarely is reported in Hooded Skunks; however, a case of rabies in this species has been documented. There is no reason to suspect that they do not contract the virus; more likely they go unnoticed or are misidentified as Striped Skunks. Hooded Skunks also are susceptible to feline distemper. Hooded Skunks have been found with numerous fleas,ticks, lice, and mites.Bibliography.Aranda & Lopez-de Buen (1999), Armstrong et al. (1972), Bailey (1931), Baker (1956), Carreno et al. (2005), Ceballos & Miranda(1986), Dalquest (1953), Davis (1944), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1954), Dragoo et al. (2004), Findley et al. (1975), Goodwin (1957), Hall & Dalquest (1950), Hass (2002a, 2003), Hass & Dragoo (2006), Hoffmeister (1986), Hubbard (1972), Janzen & Hallwachs (1982), Lichtenstein (1827-1834), Mearns (1897b), Patton (1974), Reid (1997), Schmidly (1977, 2004), Wood et al. (2002)." +03CC87EC9122FB53FA50F497F632DD2A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,558,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9122FB53FA50F497F632DD2A.xml,Mephitis mephatis,Mephitis,mephatis,,,Moufette rayée @fr | Streifenskunk @de | Mofeta rayada @es,"Viverra mephitis Schreber, 1776,eastern Canada[Province of Quebec].A complete taxonomic revision has not been done since 1901. Thirteen subspecies are recognized.","M. m. mephitis Schreber, 1776— E Canada.M. m. avia Bangs, 1898— Midwestern USA(Most of Illinois, N half of Missouri& E half of Kansas).M. m. elongata Bangs, 1895— E & SE USA(VirginiaS to E Georgia, Florida, S Alabama& Mississippi).M. m. estor Merriam, 1890— W USA(S Utahthrough Arizonaand W New Mexico) to N Mexico(Sonora& Chihuahua).M. m. holzerni Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).M. m. hudsonica Richardson, 1829— C & W Canadaand NC USA(from NE Washingtonto Wisconsinand S into Colorado).M. m. major Howell, 1901— NW USA(N Nevada& Utahto Oregon& Idaho).M. m. mesomelas Lichtenstein, 1832— S USA(W Texas& Oklahomato Arkansas& Louisiana).M. m. nigra Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE Canada(New Brunswick& Nova Scotia) and E USA(from New Englandto Ohio & Indiana and S to Mississippi & Alabama.M. m. notata Howell, 1901— NW USA(C Washington).M. m. occidentalis Baird, 1858— W USA(N Californiato SW Oregon).M. m. spissigrada Bangs, 1898— NW USA(W Washington).M. m. varians Gray, 1837— S Great Plains USA(E New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma& Kansas) S to NW Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas).","Head-body 23-40 cm(males), 17-34 cm(females), tail length 20- 47 cm(males), 15-36.3 cm(females); weight 0.8-4.1 kg(males), 0.6-3.6 kg(females). Striped Skunks are about the size of house cats, with small triangularshaped heads. The basic color of skunksis black and white, but other colors, such as brown and red, have been observed in the wild. The typical pattern seen in Striped Skunksis the white “V7” down the back and a white bar running between the eyes from the forehead to the middle of the rostrum. Color pattern in Striped Skunksis highly variable and can range from completely black to completely white (non-albino). The striping pattern cannot be used to determine the sex of the animal, nor can it be used to predict how much snow will fall. Skunks are born with theirstripes before they have hair. The nose pad is relatively small, and the ears are small and rounded. Striped Skunks have short stocky legs and five toes on each foot. They walk on the soles (plantigrade) of their feet. Occasionally, the heel of the hindfeet will be lifted off the ground when they walk. The claws on the front feet are longer than those of the back feet. The tail is less than half the total body length, with long flowing hairs. The skull is heavy and squarish and widest at the attachment of the zygomata, and the forehead is convex. The dental formula for Striped Skunks is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, for a total of 34 teeth. The anal secretions of this animal are composed of several major volatile components. These components include: E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, $-3-methylbutanyl thioacetate, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinolinemethanethiol, and $2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate.","Striped Skunks use a variety of habitats and tend to be more numerous where good cover and abundant food are available. They can be found in open, exposed arcas, but prefer brushy, weedy stream and gulch bottoms or canyons. In open areas they will burrow into banks or even level ground and as a result are able to occupy many habitats. Other habitats where they can be found include a mixture of woodlands, brushy corners, and open fields broken by wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. They will also utilize cultivated areas, pasture, and hay crops. In other parts of their range they use wetlands surrounded by agricultural areas, grasslands, woodlot edges, fencelines, and refuse piles. Striped Skunks may not have a preference for any particular habitat as long as food and shelter are available.","Striped Skunks are opportunistic omnivores. With the exception of lima beans, most skunks will eat almost anything. They will feast primarily on insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, moths, cutworms, caterpillars, bees, and wasps. They also will eat earthworms, snakes, snails, clams, crayfish, fish, frogs, mice, moles, rats, squirrels, wild fruits, grains, corn, nuts, birds’ eggs, carrion, and garbage. Striped Skunks use their long foreclawsto dig for insects and grubs. They will search in rotten or fallen logs for mice and insects. Around gardens they will forage forripe fruits and vegetables, but they primarily are looking for insects, and benefit gardeners by eating insects that can damage garden crops. They also will take advantage of any pet food left outside.","Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.","Striped Skunks are crepuscular or nocturnal. In the northern part of their range they may go into a torpor (they are not true hibernators) during cold spells or when snow coveris particularly deep. However, in the southern parts of the range, they may actually be more active during the milder winters. When a Striped Skunk perceives a threat,its first responseis to run away. If that does not work, it will spray a noxious chemical from the anal scent glands. However, before spraying, skunks use a series of threat behaviors. They will stomp the ground with both front feet. Sometimes they will charge forward a few paces and then stomp or will edge backwards while dragging their front feet, all the while with the tail up in the air. Each scent gland has a nipple associated with it and skunks can aim and direct the spray with highly coordinated muscle control. When a skunk is being chased by a predator, but cannot see the predator, the spray is emitted as an atomized cloud that the predator must run through. This is the “shotgun” method and usually is enough to deter most predators.","Home ranges of Striped Skunks can be quite variable depending on the available resources (food and shelter primarily).Where there is plenty of food, skunks will tend to have smaller ranges. Home ranges are reported for anywhere from 0-5 km? to over 12 km?. Although Striped Skunks are often found dead on the road, they tend to avoid crossing roads with heavy traffic, and these roads can set the boundaries for some home ranges. During the winter months in the northern part of their range, Striped Skunks become more sedentary and cover less area on their nightly forays. In the southern part of their range, their home ranges remain about the samesize year-round. Striped Skunks are solitary most of the time. In the winter females (and occasionally a single male) may den together to conserve heatand body fat. Most malesare solitary during the winter. In the southern partof the range communal dens are rarely found during the winter months. During the summer femalesraise their young, and by early fall the young have left the den.Breeding.Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.","Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Striped Skunks are not considered for any kind of protection as they appear to be doing well throughout their range. Some of the earliest legislation to protect skunks, in the form of closed trapping seasons, was in New Yorkin 1894. Farmers recognized that skunks were the only effective predators of the hop grub and their service in combating the grub made them valuable assets. Striped Skunks are known to harbor numerous ectoparasites and endoparasites, including fleas, lice, ticks, mites, and various helminth infestations. Intestinal roundworms, nematodes, and lung flukes have been reported. Parasite loads can be a major contributor to mortality. Skunks are a primary vector of rabies in some parts of their range. They also have been found to be infected with canine distemper, histoplasmosis, leptospirosis, listerosis, mycoplasma, pulmonary aspergillosis, sarcocystis, streptococcus, toxoplasma, tularemia, and West Nile Virus. Natural mammalian predators for skunks include humans, domestic dogs, coyotes, red foxes, lynx, bobcats, badgers, mountain lions, and fishers. Various birds of prey including great horned owls, eagles, crows, and vultures also will eat skunks. Turnover in skunk populations is high, so a large percentage of animals in any population consist of young of the year. The average lifespan for wild skunksis about 2-3-5 years. However, Striped Skunks kept in captivity live on average to about 8-12 years of age.","Bailey (1931) | Baird (1857) | Bangs (1895, 1898a) | Bentler et al. (2007) | Blanton et al. (2006) | Doty & Dowler (2006) | Ganley-Leal et al. (2007) | Gehrt (2005) | Gehrt et al. (2006) | Gray (1837) | Greenwood & Sargeant (1994) | Hall (1981) | Hass (2003) | Hass & Dragoo (2006) | Howell (1901) | Hwang et al. (2007) | Kelker (1937) | Lantz (1923) | Mearns (1897a, 1897b) | Merriam (1890b) | Neiswenter & Dowler (2007) | Neiswenter etal. (2006) | Rosatte (1988) | Verts (1967) | Wade-Smith & Richmond (1978a, 1978b) | Wade-Smith & Verts (1982) | Wood (1990)",https://zenodo.org/record/5684767/files/figure.png,"8.Striped SkunkMephitis mephatisFrench:Moufette rayée/ German:Streifenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta rayadaTaxonomy.Viverra mephitis Schreber, 1776,eastern Canada[Province of Quebec].A complete taxonomic revision has not been done since 1901. Thirteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. mephitis Schreber, 1776— E Canada.M. m. avia Bangs, 1898— Midwestern USA(Most of Illinois, N half of Missouri& E half of Kansas).M. m. elongata Bangs, 1895— E & SE USA(VirginiaS to E Georgia, Florida, S Alabama& Mississippi).M. m. estor Merriam, 1890— W USA(S Utahthrough Arizonaand W New Mexico) to N Mexico(Sonora& Chihuahua).M. m. holzerni Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).M. m. hudsonica Richardson, 1829— C & W Canadaand NC USA(from NE Washingtonto Wisconsinand S into Colorado).M. m. major Howell, 1901— NW USA(N Nevada& Utahto Oregon& Idaho).M. m. mesomelas Lichtenstein, 1832— S USA(W Texas& Oklahomato Arkansas& Louisiana).M. m. nigra Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE Canada(New Brunswick& Nova Scotia) and E USA(from New Englandto Ohio & Indiana and S to Mississippi & Alabama.M. m. notata Howell, 1901— NW USA(C Washington).M. m. occidentalis Baird, 1858— W USA(N Californiato SW Oregon).M. m. spissigrada Bangs, 1898— NW USA(W Washington).M. m. varians Gray, 1837— S Great Plains USA(E New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma& Kansas) S to NW Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 23-40 cm(males), 17-34 cm(females), tail length 20- 47 cm(males), 15-36.3 cm(females); weight 0.8-4.1 kg(males), 0.6-3.6 kg(females). Striped Skunks are about the size of house cats, with small triangularshaped heads. The basic color of skunksis black and white, but other colors, such as brown and red, have been observed in the wild. The typical pattern seen in Striped Skunksis the white “V7” down the back and a white bar running between the eyes from the forehead to the middle of the rostrum. Color pattern in Striped Skunksis highly variable and can range from completely black to completely white (non-albino). The striping pattern cannot be used to determine the sex of the animal, nor can it be used to predict how much snow will fall. Skunks are born with theirstripes before they have hair. The nose pad is relatively small, and the ears are small and rounded. Striped Skunks have short stocky legs and five toes on each foot. They walk on the soles (plantigrade) of their feet. Occasionally, the heel of the hindfeet will be lifted off the ground when they walk. The claws on the front feet are longer than those of the back feet. The tail is less than half the total body length, with long flowing hairs. The skull is heavy and squarish and widest at the attachment of the zygomata, and the forehead is convex. The dental formula for Striped Skunks is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, for a total of 34 teeth. The anal secretions of this animal are composed of several major volatile components. These components include: E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, $-3-methylbutanyl thioacetate, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinolinemethanethiol, and $2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate.Habitat.Striped Skunks use a variety of habitats and tend to be more numerous where good cover and abundant food are available. They can be found in open, exposed arcas, but prefer brushy, weedy stream and gulch bottoms or canyons. In open areas they will burrow into banks or even level ground and as a result are able to occupy many habitats. Other habitats where they can be found include a mixture of woodlands, brushy corners, and open fields broken by wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. They will also utilize cultivated areas, pasture, and hay crops. In other parts of their range they use wetlands surrounded by agricultural areas, grasslands, woodlot edges, fencelines, and refuse piles. Striped Skunks may not have a preference for any particular habitat as long as food and shelter are available.Food and Feeding.Striped Skunks are opportunistic omnivores. With the exception of lima beans, most skunks will eat almost anything. They will feast primarily on insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, moths, cutworms, caterpillars, bees, and wasps. They also will eat earthworms, snakes, snails, clams, crayfish, fish, frogs, mice, moles, rats, squirrels, wild fruits, grains, corn, nuts, birds’ eggs, carrion, and garbage. Striped Skunks use their long foreclawsto dig for insects and grubs. They will search in rotten or fallen logs for mice and insects. Around gardens they will forage forripe fruits and vegetables, but they primarily are looking for insects, and benefit gardeners by eating insects that can damage garden crops. They also will take advantage of any pet food left outside.Activity patterns.Striped Skunks are crepuscular or nocturnal. In the northern part of their range they may go into a torpor (they are not true hibernators) during cold spells or when snow coveris particularly deep. However, in the southern parts of the range, they may actually be more active during the milder winters. When a Striped Skunk perceives a threat,its first responseis to run away. If that does not work, it will spray a noxious chemical from the anal scent glands. However, before spraying, skunks use a series of threat behaviors. They will stomp the ground with both front feet. Sometimes they will charge forward a few paces and then stomp or will edge backwards while dragging their front feet, all the while with the tail up in the air. Each scent gland has a nipple associated with it and skunks can aim and direct the spray with highly coordinated muscle control. When a skunk is being chased by a predator, but cannot see the predator, the spray is emitted as an atomized cloud that the predator must run through. This is the “shotgun” method and usually is enough to deter most predators.When the skunk has a target to focus on the spray is emitted as a stream directed at the predator’s face. This is the “357 Magnum” technique. Trapped or cornered skunks will curl into a “U” shape so that both ends face the predator.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Striped Skunks can be quite variable depending on the available resources (food and shelter primarily).Where there is plenty of food, skunks will tend to have smaller ranges. Home ranges are reported for anywhere from 0-5 km? to over 12 km?. Although Striped Skunks are often found dead on the road, they tend to avoid crossing roads with heavy traffic, and these roads can set the boundaries for some home ranges. During the winter months in the northern part of their range, Striped Skunks become more sedentary and cover less area on their nightly forays. In the southern part of their range, their home ranges remain about the samesize year-round. Striped Skunks are solitary most of the time. In the winter females (and occasionally a single male) may den together to conserve heatand body fat. Most malesare solitary during the winter. In the southern partof the range communal dens are rarely found during the winter months. During the summer femalesraise their young, and by early fall the young have left the den.Breeding.Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Striped Skunks are not considered for any kind of protection as they appear to be doing well throughout their range. Some of the earliest legislation to protect skunks, in the form of closed trapping seasons, was in New Yorkin 1894. Farmers recognized that skunks were the only effective predators of the hop grub and their service in combating the grub made them valuable assets. Striped Skunks are known to harbor numerous ectoparasites and endoparasites, including fleas, lice, ticks, mites, and various helminth infestations. Intestinal roundworms, nematodes, and lung flukes have been reported. Parasite loads can be a major contributor to mortality. Skunks are a primary vector of rabies in some parts of their range. They also have been found to be infected with canine distemper, histoplasmosis, leptospirosis, listerosis, mycoplasma, pulmonary aspergillosis, sarcocystis, streptococcus, toxoplasma, tularemia, and West Nile Virus. Natural mammalian predators for skunks include humans, domestic dogs, coyotes, red foxes, lynx, bobcats, badgers, mountain lions, and fishers. Various birds of prey including great horned owls, eagles, crows, and vultures also will eat skunks. Turnover in skunk populations is high, so a large percentage of animals in any population consist of young of the year. The average lifespan for wild skunksis about 2-3-5 years. However, Striped Skunks kept in captivity live on average to about 8-12 years of age.Bibliography.Bailey (1931), Baird (1857), Bangs (1895, 1898a), Bentler et al. (2007), Blanton et al. (2006), Doty & Dowler (2006), Ganley-Leal et al. (2007), Gehrt (2005), Gehrt et al. (2006), Gray (1837), Greenwood & Sargeant (1994), Hall (1981), Hass (2003), Hass & Dragoo (2006), Howell (1901), Hwang et al. (2007), Kelker (1937), Lantz (1923), Mearns (1897a, 1897b), Merriam (1890b), Neiswenter & Dowler (2007), Neiswenter etal. (2006), Rosatte (1988), Verts (1967), Wade-Smith & Richmond (1978a, 1978b), Wade-Smith & Verts (1982), Wood (1990)." +03CC87EC9123FB50FA00FBB9FDEBD04B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,557,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9123FB50FA00FBB9FDEBD04B.xml,Conepatus humboldtii,Conepatus,humboldtii,,,Moufette de Humboldt @fr | Patagonischer Skunk @de | Zorrino patagénico @es,"Conepatus humboldtii Gray, 1837,Magellan Straits, Chile.Two of the subspecies have been regarded as distinct species, but morphology and color pattern have been used to relegate them to subspecies of C. humboldtii. Three subspecies are recognized.","C. h. humboldtii Gray, 1837— Patagonia (Chileand Argentina) to the Strait of Magellan.C. h. castaneus d’Orbigny & Gervais, 1847— C Argentina(S provinces of Buenos Aires& La Pampato N Rio Negro;it also follows along the Colorado and Black Rivers to Neuquenand S Mendoza).C. h. proteus Thomas, 1902— subandean C Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).","Head-body 22-32 cm(males), 20-30 cm(females), tail 16.5-20.2 cm(males) and 18-18.5 cm(females); weight 0.5-2.5 kg. Males on average are about 4-6% heavier than females. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be the smallest of the hog-nosed skunks. These skunks, like all South American skunks, have a double stripe similar to that seen in North American Striped Skunks. Typically, they are black and white, but they can range in color from black to dark brown or reddish brown. It has been suggested that the brownish color appears as the result of age. There is considerable variation in the striping pattern. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks do not have any white markings between the eyes. The tail generally is shorter in proportion to the body than in other skunks. The forelimbs and claws are well adapted for digging. Like other skunks in the genus the nose is long and flexible and used for rooting for burrowing insects. The post carnassial molars have large grinding areas relative to the cutting edge of their carnassial teeth.","Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks use a variety of habitats. They prefer to den in flat or rolling topography. These skunks will den in shallow caves, below tree roots, in hollow trees, under rocks and cracks between stones, and in abandoned tunnels of other animals. They will use habitat from desert areas to forests. In addition to being found in shrub or forest cover, they use man-made structures, denning under buildings and woodpiles. They use areas with natural herbaceous vegetation, except where poisons are used to control the Culpeo (Pseudalopex culpaeus). They are susceptible to poisoning although not targeted. They do however, prefer more open, grassy areas compared to the drier shrubby environments.","These skunks are opportunistic feeders and usually capture their prey easily. They generally find their prey by sniffing and digging, using their flexible noses and long claws, primarily in grassy habitats. Like other skunks in the genus they eat a variety of insects, including ground beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, and spiders. They will consume fruit when it is available. These skunks also eat a variety of vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents. Carrion is eaten in larger quantities than expected based on relative abundance, when compared with other food items. This would suggest that this species is more carnivorous than insectivorous, but still opportunistic. They also are known to frequent urban garbage sites and vegetable gardens.","Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.","This species is generally nocturnal or crepuscular in nature. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks become more active during the day as winter approaches, and are less active when there is snow cover. They use a variety of den sites during the day and normally do not use the same den site for more than a couple of days at a time. They will however, reuse dens that they occupied previously. They are active for about 50% of the day. Their activity period starts between 20:00-22:00 h and continues until 07:00 h the next morning. Some skunks will remain active until 09:00 h and even until 12:00 h. They rarely are seen between 12:00-19:00 h. During periods of activity they have been observed digging or foraging, walking, and even playing. Young animals will venture as far as 1-3 kmfrom their natal dens to survey new territory before returning home. They may eventually relocate to the areas they investigated.","Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be solitary for most of their lives. However,in stable areas where shelters are secure, small groups of young individuals may den together. These individuals usually are related and will stay together until they become adults. The home range ofjuvenile skunks increases in the fall and winter as they explore new areas away from the natal home range. Home rangesizesare relatively small and are about 7-16 ha. Home ranges of different individuals can overlap. These skunks usually are not found in high numbers. Density estimates of 0-04 to 0-16 km* have been reported in Chile.Breeding. Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.","Currently, Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks is listed with CI'TIES as Appendix II. They are considered Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The pelt of this species has been used for blankets, and as a result they were hunted and over 100,000 skins were exported. In several areas in Chileit has been suggested that hunt ing pressures be reduced or stopped in order to conserve this species. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks are preyed upon by various raptors as well as Puma. Grazing pressures potentially could decrease populations of this skunk. Additionally, they have been eliminated in some areas as a result of poisoning of other species.","Arias et al. (2006) | Cabrera (1958) | Canevari & Ambrosini (1988) | Dragoo et al. (2003) | Fuller, T.K. et al. (1987) | Gray (1837) | Johnson, W.E. et al. (1988) | Kipp (1965) | Osgood (1943) | Thomas (1902a) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zapata et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/5684763/files/figure.png,"6.Humboldt’s Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus humboldtiiFrench:Moufette de Humboldt/ German:Patagonischer Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino patagénicoTaxonomy.Conepatus humboldtii Gray, 1837,Magellan Straits, Chile.Two of the subspecies have been regarded as distinct species, but morphology and color pattern have been used to relegate them to subspecies of C. humboldtii. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. h. humboldtii Gray, 1837— Patagonia (Chileand Argentina) to the Strait of Magellan.C. h. castaneus d’Orbigny & Gervais, 1847— C Argentina(S provinces of Buenos Aires& La Pampato N Rio Negro;it also follows along the Colorado and Black Rivers to Neuquenand S Mendoza).C. h. proteus Thomas, 1902— subandean C Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).Descriptive notes.Head-body 22-32 cm(males), 20-30 cm(females), tail 16.5-20.2 cm(males) and 18-18.5 cm(females); weight 0.5-2.5 kg. Males on average are about 4-6% heavier than females. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be the smallest of the hog-nosed skunks. These skunks, like all South American skunks, have a double stripe similar to that seen in North American Striped Skunks. Typically, they are black and white, but they can range in color from black to dark brown or reddish brown. It has been suggested that the brownish color appears as the result of age. There is considerable variation in the striping pattern. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks do not have any white markings between the eyes. The tail generally is shorter in proportion to the body than in other skunks. The forelimbs and claws are well adapted for digging. Like other skunks in the genus the nose is long and flexible and used for rooting for burrowing insects. The post carnassial molars have large grinding areas relative to the cutting edge of their carnassial teeth.Habitat.Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks use a variety of habitats. They prefer to den in flat or rolling topography. These skunks will den in shallow caves, below tree roots, in hollow trees, under rocks and cracks between stones, and in abandoned tunnels of other animals. They will use habitat from desert areas to forests. In addition to being found in shrub or forest cover, they use man-made structures, denning under buildings and woodpiles. They use areas with natural herbaceous vegetation, except where poisons are used to control the Culpeo (Pseudalopex culpaeus). They are susceptible to poisoning although not targeted. They do however, prefer more open, grassy areas compared to the drier shrubby environments.Food and Feeding.These skunks are opportunistic feeders and usually capture their prey easily. They generally find their prey by sniffing and digging, using their flexible noses and long claws, primarily in grassy habitats. Like other skunks in the genus they eat a variety of insects, including ground beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, and spiders. They will consume fruit when it is available. These skunks also eat a variety of vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents. Carrion is eaten in larger quantities than expected based on relative abundance, when compared with other food items. This would suggest that this species is more carnivorous than insectivorous, but still opportunistic. They also are known to frequent urban garbage sites and vegetable gardens.Activity patterns.This species is generally nocturnal or crepuscular in nature. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks become more active during the day as winter approaches, and are less active when there is snow cover. They use a variety of den sites during the day and normally do not use the same den site for more than a couple of days at a time. They will however, reuse dens that they occupied previously. They are active for about 50% of the day. Their activity period starts between 20:00-22:00 h and continues until 07:00 h the next morning. Some skunks will remain active until 09:00 h and even until 12:00 h. They rarely are seen between 12:00-19:00 h. During periods of activity they have been observed digging or foraging, walking, and even playing. Young animals will venture as far as 1-3 kmfrom their natal dens to survey new territory before returning home. They may eventually relocate to the areas they investigated.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be solitary for most of their lives. However,in stable areas where shelters are secure, small groups of young individuals may den together. These individuals usually are related and will stay together until they become adults. The home range ofjuvenile skunks increases in the fall and winter as they explore new areas away from the natal home range. Home rangesizesare relatively small and are about 7-16 ha. Home ranges of different individuals can overlap. These skunks usually are not found in high numbers. Density estimates of 0-04 to 0-16 km* have been reported in Chile.Breeding. Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.Status and Conservation. Currently, Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks is listed with CI'TIES as Appendix II. They are considered Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The pelt of this species has been used for blankets, and as a result they were hunted and over 100,000 skins were exported. In several areas in Chileit has been suggested that hunt ing pressures be reduced or stopped in order to conserve this species. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks are preyed upon by various raptors as well as Puma. Grazing pressures potentially could decrease populations of this skunk. Additionally, they have been eliminated in some areas as a result of poisoning of other species.Bibliography. Arias et al. (2006), Cabrera (1958), Canevari & Ambrosini (1988), Dragoo et al. (2003), Fuller, T.K. et al. (1987), Gray (1837), Johnson, W.E. et al. (1988), Kipp (1965), Osgood (1943), Thomas (1902a), Wozencraft (2005), Zapata et al. (2001)." +03CC87EC9123FB51FF0BF8ADF6B7D161,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,557,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9123FB51FF0BF8ADF6B7D161.xml,Conepatus semistriatus,Conepatus,semistriatus,,,Moufette d’Amazonie @fr | Amazonas-Skunk @de | Zorrino amazonico @es,"Viverra semistriatus Boddaert, 1785,Originally described from “ Mexico”. Type locality later described as “Minas de Montuosa, cerca de Pamplona, departamento del norte de Santander, Colombia”.Eight subspecies are recognized.","C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785— Colombiaand Venezuela.C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838— NE & C Brazil.C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788— SE Mexico(Veracruzand along coast to Campeche).C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812— Ecuador.C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924— higher elevation in N Peru.C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905— Costa Rica, W Panama.C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943— SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Hondurasand Nicaragua.C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900— low hot desert regions of N Peru.","Head-body 35-50 cm(males) and 33-45 cm(females), tail 14-3— 30- 9 cm(males) and 13.5-26 cm(females); weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The tail is less than half the total body length. Striped Hog-nosed Skunks in South America tend to get smaller from north to south. The Striped Hog-nosed Skunk is larger than the other South American species, Molina’s and Humboldt’'s Hog-nosed Skunks. The pelage coloration typically is black with two narrow white stripes running from the head to the rump. There is extensive variation in color pattern. Striped hog-nosed Skunks have small, pig-like noses that are used for rooting insects. Like other Conepatus, the claws are long and the forelimbs are adapted for digging. These skunks also are able to spray a noxious fluid as a means of defense.","Striped Hog-nosed Skunks use grasslands with scattered palms, sparse deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open grassy areas mixed with sedges and herbaceous plants during the dry season. They prefer not to hang out in areas that have prolonged dry seasons. During the wet season they spend more time on higher ground in deciduousforests. Clearings and pastures near evergreen forests also are frequented by this species. Den sites are dug among tree roots or fallen trees. Burrows are about 1-2 min length and about 0-3 mbelow the surface. When not using the burrows dug for themselves these skunks will use burrows dug by other animals such as armadillos.","Like other hog-nosed skunks,this species is an opportunistic omnivore. They feed on many invertebrates, but may not dig as much as the other species. Additionally, they consume small vertebrates, including reptiles, mammals, and birds, as well as fruits when they are available.","These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.","Striped Hog-nosed Skunks are primarily nocturnal. They become active shortly after sunset. One animal was reported to become active between 19:30 h and 24:00 h and stay out for about six hours at a time. The phase of the moon appeared not to affect activity periods. Though it is not outside the realm of possibility, these skunks rarely are seen during daylight hours.","Like other skunks, these animals are primarily solitary (except for mothers with offspring). Home ranges can cover from 18-53 ha.Breeding.These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.","Notlisted with CITES, and classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The status of this skunk is uncertain. Although not abundant, this species appears to do well in disturbed environments.","Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Goldman (1943) | Hall (1981) | Hall & Dalquest (1963) | Lichtenstein (1838) | Reid (1997) | Sunquist et al. (1989) | Thomas (1900a, 1905, 1924) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5684761/files/figure.png,"5.Striped Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus semistriatusFrench:Moufette d’Amazonie/ German:Amazonas-Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino amazonicoTaxonomy.Viverra semistriatus Boddaert, 1785,Originally described from “ Mexico”. Type locality later described as “Minas de Montuosa, cerca de Pamplona, departamento del norte de Santander, Colombia”.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785— Colombiaand Venezuela.C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838— NE & C Brazil.C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788— SE Mexico(Veracruzand along coast to Campeche).C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812— Ecuador.C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924— higher elevation in N Peru.C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905— Costa Rica, W Panama.C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943— SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Hondurasand Nicaragua.C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900— low hot desert regions of N Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-50 cm(males) and 33-45 cm(females), tail 14-3— 30- 9 cm(males) and 13.5-26 cm(females); weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The tail is less than half the total body length. Striped Hog-nosed Skunks in South America tend to get smaller from north to south. The Striped Hog-nosed Skunk is larger than the other South American species, Molina’s and Humboldt’'s Hog-nosed Skunks. The pelage coloration typically is black with two narrow white stripes running from the head to the rump. There is extensive variation in color pattern. Striped hog-nosed Skunks have small, pig-like noses that are used for rooting insects. Like other Conepatus, the claws are long and the forelimbs are adapted for digging. These skunks also are able to spray a noxious fluid as a means of defense.Habitat.Striped Hog-nosed Skunks use grasslands with scattered palms, sparse deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open grassy areas mixed with sedges and herbaceous plants during the dry season. They prefer not to hang out in areas that have prolonged dry seasons. During the wet season they spend more time on higher ground in deciduousforests. Clearings and pastures near evergreen forests also are frequented by this species. Den sites are dug among tree roots or fallen trees. Burrows are about 1-2 min length and about 0-3 mbelow the surface. When not using the burrows dug for themselves these skunks will use burrows dug by other animals such as armadillos.Food and Feeding.Like other hog-nosed skunks,this species is an opportunistic omnivore. They feed on many invertebrates, but may not dig as much as the other species. Additionally, they consume small vertebrates, including reptiles, mammals, and birds, as well as fruits when they are available.Activity patterns.Striped Hog-nosed Skunks are primarily nocturnal. They become active shortly after sunset. One animal was reported to become active between 19:30 h and 24:00 h and stay out for about six hours at a time. The phase of the moon appeared not to affect activity periods. Though it is not outside the realm of possibility, these skunks rarely are seen during daylight hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other skunks, these animals are primarily solitary (except for mothers with offspring). Home ranges can cover from 18-53 ha.Breeding.These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.Status and Conservation.Notlisted with CITES, and classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The status of this skunk is uncertain. Although not abundant, this species appears to do well in disturbed environments.Bibliography.Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Goldman (1943), Hall (1981), Hall & Dalquest (1963), Lichtenstein (1838), Reid (1997), Sunquist et al. (1989), Thomas (1900a, 1905, 1924), Wozencraft (2005)." 03CC87EC9124FB51FA29F727FD87D246,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,556,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9124FB51FA29F727FD87D246.xml,Conepatus chinga,Conepatus,chinga,,,Moufette de Molina @fr | Anden-Skunk @de | Zorrino chileno @es,"Vicerra chinga Molina, 1782,“ Chili”, restricted to “alrededores de Valparaiso”. [Chile].A taxonomic revision of the species is needed. Seven subspecies are recognized.","C. c. chinga Molina, 1782— C Chilecoastline (from Coquimboto Concepcion).C. c. budini Thomas, 1919— W Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).C. c. gibsoni Thomas, 1910— Argentina(Pampas region).C. c. inca Thomas, 1900— Peru.C. c. mendosus Thomas, 1921— W Argentina(SW Mendoza) W to C Chile(Los Rios & Los Lagosregions).C. c. rex Thomas, 1898— Bolivia.C. c. suffocans Illiger, 1815— SE Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguayand NE Argentina.","Head-body 35-49 cm(males), 30-45 cm(females), tail 14.6-29 cm(males), 13.3-28 cm(females); weight 1-3 kg. As in most skunk species, males are larger than females. These skunks are slightly larger than the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks farther south. The pelage color is black, brown, or dark reddish, with two white stripes running down the back slightly to the side. These stripes may or may notjoin on the head. There is considerable variation in color pattern. The ears are short and the nose pad is thick and naked. The palms of the feet are hairless and have thick swellings on the pads. The digits are short and the claws are long. There are 32 teeth, as in other Conepatus. These skunks also have two scent glands at the base ofthe tail just inside the rectum, which are used to expel noxious fluid as a defense mechanism.","Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunks occur in a variety of habitats and can be found from the dry lowlands to the Altiplano in Bolivia. They have been found from the Paraguayan Chaco to the precordillerean steppe. They forage in grassland, savannas, steppe, and canyons, and den in shrub forests and in talus slopes. Dens in rocky areas are usually found in crevices. Elsewhere, they burrow into the ground, sometimes at the roots of trees, to construct dens. They will also den in caves and use burrows abandoned by other animals. They tend to avoid heavily forested areas. In fact, their populations may increase in areas where forests have been cleared.","Like other skunks, is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder. Invertebrates constitute the bulk of the diet, but small vertebrates, including frogs, lizards, rodents, and birds as well as bird and reptile eggs are consumed. More vertebrates are consumed during winter months when arthropods are harder to find. Otherwise the diet is similar year round. Arthropod prey items include beetle larvae and spiders. Beetles are found in abundance in skunk faeces even when beetles in the environment are more scarce, suggesting that beetles are a favorite food item.","Little is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species. They have been reported to have a single breeding season, like the other South American skunks. They are similar in ecology and habit to the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunk, so presumably they have a similar gestation period (approximately 60 days) and produce a single annual litter of 2-5 offspring. The breeding season may be longer than in other species.","These skunks are considered to be crepuscular, but can be active throughout the night with their activity usually starting between 19:00 h and 22:00 h. They are active most of the night and settle early in the morning, before 05:00 h. Much of their time is spent searching for food either by digging up insects or sniffing and searching around brush. They tend to dig less in winter when the ground is frozen.","Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk is primarily solitary when foraging. Home ranges ofthis species (based on a small sample size) are from 3-5-12 times larger than home ranges in other Conepatusand average about 195 ha.Breeding.Little is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species. They have been reported to have a single breeding season, like the other South American skunks. They are similar in ecology and habit to the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunk, so presumably they have a similar gestation period (approximately 60 days) and produce a single annual litter of 2-5 offspring. The breeding season may be longer than in other species.","Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunks are notlisted with CITES, and are classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. These skunks too have been hunted and trapped for their pelts, which have been used to make blankets. They are susceptible to poisons set out for other animals. They are preyed upon by various birds of prey as well as larger mammalian carnivores. This species also harbors several internal and external parasites.","Anderson (1997) | Arias et al. (2006) | Cabrera (1958) | Cabrera & Yepes (1960) | Canevari & Ambrosini (1988) | Donadio et al. (2001) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Molina (1782) | Thomas (1900b, 1910, 1919) | Travaini et al. (1998) | Wozencraft (2005)",,"4.Molina’s Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus chingaFrench:Moufette de Molina/ German:Anden-Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino chilenoTaxonomy.Vicerra chinga Molina, 1782,“ Chili”, restricted to “alrededores de Valparaiso”. [Chile].A taxonomic revision of the species is needed. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. c. chinga Molina, 1782— C Chilecoastline (from Coquimboto Concepcion).C. c. budini Thomas, 1919— W Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).C. c. gibsoni Thomas, 1910— Argentina(Pampas region).C. c. inca Thomas, 1900— Peru.C. c. mendosus Thomas, 1921— W Argentina(SW Mendoza) W to C Chile(Los Rios & Los Lagosregions).C. c. rex Thomas, 1898— Bolivia.C. c. suffocans Illiger, 1815— SE Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguayand NE Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-49 cm(males), 30-45 cm(females), tail 14.6-29 cm(males), 13.3-28 cm(females); weight 1-3 kg. As in most skunk species, males are larger than females. These skunks are slightly larger than the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks farther south. The pelage color is black, brown, or dark reddish, with two white stripes running down the back slightly to the side. These stripes may or may notjoin on the head. There is considerable variation in color pattern. The ears are short and the nose pad is thick and naked. The palms of the feet are hairless and have thick swellings on the pads. The digits are short and the claws are long. There are 32 teeth, as in other Conepatus. These skunks also have two scent glands at the base ofthe tail just inside the rectum, which are used to expel noxious fluid as a defense mechanism.Habitat.Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunks occur in a variety of habitats and can be found from the dry lowlands to the Altiplano in Bolivia. They have been found from the Paraguayan Chaco to the precordillerean steppe. They forage in grassland, savannas, steppe, and canyons, and den in shrub forests and in talus slopes. Dens in rocky areas are usually found in crevices. Elsewhere, they burrow into the ground, sometimes at the roots of trees, to construct dens. They will also den in caves and use burrows abandoned by other animals. They tend to avoid heavily forested areas. In fact, their populations may increase in areas where forests have been cleared.Food and Feeding.Like other skunks, is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder. Invertebrates constitute the bulk of the diet, but small vertebrates, including frogs, lizards, rodents, and birds as well as bird and reptile eggs are consumed. More vertebrates are consumed during winter months when arthropods are harder to find. Otherwise the diet is similar year round. Arthropod prey items include beetle larvae and spiders. Beetles are found in abundance in skunk faeces even when beetles in the environment are more scarce, suggesting that beetles are a favorite food item.Activity patterns.These skunks are considered to be crepuscular, but can be active throughout the night with their activity usually starting between 19:00 h and 22:00 h. They are active most of the night and settle early in the morning, before 05:00 h. Much of their time is spent searching for food either by digging up insects or sniffing and searching around brush. They tend to dig less in winter when the ground is frozen.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk is primarily solitary when foraging. Home ranges ofthis species (based on a small sample size) are from 3-5-12 times larger than home ranges in other Conepatusand average about 195 ha.Breeding.Little is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species. They have been reported to have a single breeding season, like the other South American skunks. They are similar in ecology and habit to the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunk, so presumably they have a similar gestation period (approximately 60 days) and produce a single annual litter of 2-5 offspring. The breeding season may be longer than in other species.Status and Conservation.Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunks are notlisted with CITES, and are classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. These skunks too have been hunted and trapped for their pelts, which have been used to make blankets. They are susceptible to poisons set out for other animals. They are preyed upon by various birds of prey as well as larger mammalian carnivores. This species also harbors several internal and external parasites.Bibliography.Anderson (1997), Arias et al. (2006), Cabrera (1958), Cabrera & Yepes (1960), Canevari & Ambrosini (1988), Donadio et al. (2001), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Molina (1782), Thomas (1900b, 1910, 1919), Travaini et al. (1998), Wozencraft (2005)." 03CC87EC9125FB56FA0FF56DF94CDDF2,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,555,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9125FB56FA0FF56DF94CDDF2.xml,Conepatus leuconotus,Conepatus,leuconotus,,,Moufette a dos blanc @fr | Ferkelskunk @de | Zorrino dorsiblanco @es,"Mephitis leuconota Lichtenstein, 1832,“Rio Alvarado” [Veracruz].The white-backed hog-nosed skunks were considered as two distinct species. Genetic, morphometric, and color patterns have been used to relegate them to this single species. Three subspecies are recognized.","C. l. leuconotus Lichtenstein 1832— S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas), most of Mexico(except YucatanPeninsula) and S to Nicaragua.On following pages: 4. Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatus chinga); 5. Striped Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatussemistriatus Striped Skunk(Mephitis mephitis); 9. Pygmy Spotted Skunk (Spilogale pygmaea); 10. Eastern Spotted Skunk (Spilogale); 6. Humboldt's Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatushumboldti); 7. Hooded Skunk (Mephitis macroura); 8. putorius); 11. Western Spotted Skunk (Spilogale gracilis); 12. Southern Spotted Skunk (Spilogale angustifrons).C. l. figginsi F.W. Miller, 1925— USA(SE Colorado, NE New Mexico, Oklahomapanhandle).C. l. telmalestes Bailey 1905— S USA(Big Thicket region of E Texas).","Head—-body 34-51 cm(males), 38-50 cm(females), tail, 14—4lcm (males), 12: 2-34 cm(females), length of hindfoot 2: 2-9 cm(males), 3-9 cm(females) and length of ear 0.8-3.6 cm(males), 0.8-3.3 cm(females); weight 2—4 kg. American Hog-nosed Skunk is as large as or larger than the Striped Skunk. They can be distinguished readily from other skunks by the color pattern of the dorsal pelage. These are the only skunks that lack a white dot or medial bar between the eyes and that have primarily black body fur with a single white stripe. The stripe starts as a single wedgeshaped white patch of fur on the head that widens near the shoulders to approximately half the width of the back. The stripe ranges from substantially reduced or absent on the rump to completely covering the entire back. The tail is white along its total length dorsally, but ventrally it can be black or white at the base. Their body generally is larger, and the tail is shorter in proportion to the body, than in other skunks. American Hog-nosed Skunks can be distinguished from the Striped Hog-nosed Skunks of Central and South America by the single dorsal stripe: the latter have two stripes bilateral to the spine. The snout of American Hog-nosed Skunk is relatively long and the nose pad, which is naked,is about 2 cmwide by 2: 6 cmlong, and resembles the nose of a small hog. This species has small and rounded ears. Its legs are stocky and the feet are plantigrade. The hindfeet are broad and large; the soles are naked about half the length of the foot. The upper body is powerfully built for digging and climbing and the foreclaws are very long. The skull is relatively deep (deepest in the temporal region) and the nares are large and truncated. The auditory bullae are not inflated, and the palate ends behind upper molars. The carnassial teeth are not well-developed, and they as well as the large upper molar provide an increased crushing surface. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/3, M 1/2 = 32. Conepatusresorb the milk teeth prior to birth. The scent glands are at the base of the tail on either side of the rectum. Two major volatile components [(£)- 2-butene-1-thiol and (E)-$-2-butenyl thioacetate| and four minor components (phenylmethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinoline-methanethiol, and bis[(£)-2-butenyl| disulfide) are found in the anal sac secretions of American Hog-nosed Skunks.","American Hog-nosed Skunk can be found in canyons, stream beds, and rocky terrain. They also are found in open desertscrub and mesquite-grasslands. In the southcentral part of their range they can be found in tropical areas as well as in mountains and coastal plains. They also are known to visit cornfields surrounded by brush or grassy plains, and scattered thickets of bull-horn acacia and other thorny plants. They can be found in both thorn woodland and riparian forest. In thorn woodland, the trees can vary in density from sparse to thick enough to form a loose canopy. Trees associated with the riparian forest habitat include pecan (Carya illinoensis), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), Texaspersimmon (Diospyros texana), and live-oak (Quercus virginiana). The understory of the riparian forests where hog-nosed skunks have been found includes briers, tall grasses, and tall weeds. American Hog-nosed Skunks have been found in pine—oak forest in the San Carlos Mountains, and north of these mountains on the Tamaulipan plain, which consists of low scrub and cacti. They also can occur in mesquitebrushland and improved pasture habitat where a few areas of semi-open native grassland have been used exclusively for cattle ranching. Thorny brush and cactus constitute the predominant vegetation in the region of southern Texaswhere these skunks occur.","They have been observed attacking and devouring small rodents. However, this species is more insectivorous by nature and will spend hours digging for grubs and larvae. They also will eat pears, raisins, squash, green beans, radishes, green peppers, and a variety of other fruits and vegetables (with the exception of lima beans). Naturalists have trouble finding bait suitable for trapping these carnivores and have often had to capture individuals by hand. These skunks also may be capable of obtaining their daily water requirements from their food depending on the moisture content of the menu.","These skunks breed from late February through early March. A captive female had a gestation period of at least 70 days. Parturition occurs in April through May, and by late August the young begin to disperse. Females usually have litters of one to three; small litters of one to two half-grown young have been observed in late July through mid- August. American Hog-nosed Skunks have three pairs of mammae.","These skunks are solitary and largely nocturnal, but not strictly so. They have been observed feeding during the heat of the day in New Mexicoand Texas. They den in hollows in the roots of trees or fallen trunks and in cavities under rocks, and will take refuge in prickly pear cactus when aggravated. When an American Hognosed Skunk is threatened by a predator,its first response is to flee to cover. It may then turn to face its pursuer and, depending on the size and threat ofthe predator, stand on its hindlegs and even take two or three steps forward. Then it will come down hard on its front paws and exhale a burst of air in a loud hiss. Finally, it will draw its paws under its body, flinging dirt backwards. A defensive, frightened individual will crouch, stomp its front paws, raise its tail and hold it flat against its back, and bare its teeth. In this position it can bite and spray a predator, and will do both. American Hognosed Skunk can squirt a noxious liquid from anal scent glands, either as a mist when the threat is not specifically located, or as a stream directed toward a specific threat. The mist can be emitted while on the run.","American Hog-nosed Skunks are solitary by nature, but will tolerate each other as well as other species depending on the situation. Males and females stay together briefly during breeding season. Females stay with their litters until early fall, when the young disperse. Little is known about the home range ofthis species.Breeding.These skunks breed from late February through early March. A captive female had a gestation period of at least 70 days. Parturition occurs in April through May, and by late August the young begin to disperse. Females usually have litters of one to three; small litters of one to two half-grown young have been observed in late July through mid- August. American Hog-nosed Skunks have three pairs of mammae.","Not listed with CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List, but populations have been declining for many years throughout a major portion of its historical range in the USA. The eastern Texassubspecies, ftelmalestes, is presumed extirpated throughoutits range in the Big Thicket region. In his Biological Survey of Texas, V. Bailey wrote, “the white-backed skunk is said to be the commonest species, and under a trapper’s shed at a ranch on Tarkington Prairie in November, 1904,I saw eight or ten of their skins hanging up to dry with a small number ofskins of Striped Skunk.” No new specimens of this subspecies have been collected in the Big Thicket area of Texassince Bailey's report in 1905. A telling, albeit fictional, explanation for the skunk’s decline is provided by Larry McMurtry, in his novel Lonesome Dove. one of his characters meets a couple in NE Texas. “In the dusk it was hard to make out much about her except that she was thin. She was barefoot and had on a dress that looked like it was made from part of a cotton sack. ‘I gave twenty-eight skunk hides for her,’ the old man said suddenly”. A more likely cause for the decline of hog-nosed skunk populations may be found in the increase in the number of trappers or possibly in the increased number of feral hogs that have been introduced into the area. Feral hogs compete, to some degree, with several species of wildlife for certain foods. They eat a variety of items, including fruits, roots, mushrooms, and invertebrates, depending on the season. Their rooting behavior is competitive with the rooting behavior of hog-nosed skunks. Feral hogs can have detectable influences on wildlife and plant communities as well as domestic crops and livestock, extensively disturbing vegetation and soil. In southern Texas, where 95% of the native vegetation in the Rio Grande Valley in Texashas been transformed from subtropical plant communities to cotton, sorghum, sugar cane, vegetable crops, and citrus orchards, several additional hog-nosed skunk populations may now be extirpated. However, a population was found recently in southern Texasand currently is being studied. Because hog-nosed skunks generally are associated with rough rocky areas and brushy habitat, the conversion of native vegetation to row-crop agriculture may be partially responsible for the skunks’ decline. However, habitat modification may not be the primary cause of the observed decline, because specimens of this skunk have been collected in cultivated areas near Veracruz, Mexico. A more direct cause may be associated with use of pesticides in agriculture. Hog-nosed skunks are primarily insectivorous, and use of pesticides has increased throughout their range in conjunction with row-crop agriculture. In Colorado, no new specimens ofthis species have been collected since 1933. However, a road-killed animal was seen just south of the Colorado border in New Mexicoin 2003. American Hog-nosed Skunks are taken by many predators, mainly large canids and felids, and by birds of prey. Additionally, the skunks support numerous parasites. External parasites include fleas (Pulex) and ticks (Ixodes texanus); intestinal parasites are roundworms (Psyalopteris maxillaris) and cestodes; and subcutaneous nematodes (Filaria martis) and Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum —infect the frontal sinuses. In west Texas, American Hog-nosed Skunks have been found infected with several species of helminth parasites, including Filaroides milks, Filaria taxidaea, Gongylonema sp., Macracanthorhynchus ingens, Mathevotaenia mephitis, Oncicola canis, Pachysentis canicola, Physaloptera maxillaris, and P. rara. In natural habitats, hognosed skunks are not known to survive for more than three or four years, but American hog-nosed skunks can live for 16 years or more in captivity.","Bailey (1905) | Beasom (1974) | Dalquest (1953) | Davis (1951) | Davis & Schmidly (1994) | Dragoo (1993) | Dragoo & Honeycutt (1999a, 1999b) | Dragoo & Sheffield(In press) | Dragoo et al. (2003) | Hall & Dalquest (1963) | Hall & Kelson (1952) | Leopold (1959) | Lichtenstein (1827-1834) | Matson & Baker (1986) | McMurtry (1985) | Meaney etal. (2006) | Merriam (1902) | Miller (1925) | Neiswenter et al. (2006) | Patton (1974) | Reid (1997) | Schmidly (1983, 2002, 2004) | Schmidly & Hendricks (1984) | Slaughter et al. (1974) | Tewes & Schmidly (1987) | Wood et al. (1993)",,"3.American Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus leuconotusFrench:Moufette a dos blanc/ German:Ferkelskunk/ Spanish:Zorrino dorsiblancoTaxonomy.Mephitis leuconota Lichtenstein, 1832,“Rio Alvarado” [Veracruz].The white-backed hog-nosed skunks were considered as two distinct species. Genetic, morphometric, and color patterns have been used to relegate them to this single species. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. l. leuconotus Lichtenstein 1832— S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas), most of Mexico(except YucatanPeninsula) and S to Nicaragua.On following pages: 4. Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatus chinga); 5. Striped Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatussemistriatus Striped Skunk(Mephitis mephitis); 9. Pygmy Spotted Skunk (Spilogale pygmaea); 10. Eastern Spotted Skunk (Spilogale); 6. Humboldt's Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatushumboldti); 7. Hooded Skunk (Mephitis macroura); 8. putorius); 11. Western Spotted Skunk (Spilogale gracilis); 12. Southern Spotted Skunk (Spilogale angustifrons).C. l. figginsi F.W. Miller, 1925— USA(SE Colorado, NE New Mexico, Oklahomapanhandle).C. l. telmalestes Bailey 1905— S USA(Big Thicket region of E Texas).Descriptive notes.Head—-body 34-51 cm(males), 38-50 cm(females), tail, 14—4lcm (males), 12: 2-34 cm(females), length of hindfoot 2: 2-9 cm(males), 3-9 cm(females) and length of ear 0.8-3.6 cm(males), 0.8-3.3 cm(females); weight 2—4 kg. American Hog-nosed Skunk is as large as or larger than the Striped Skunk. They can be distinguished readily from other skunks by the color pattern of the dorsal pelage. These are the only skunks that lack a white dot or medial bar between the eyes and that have primarily black body fur with a single white stripe. The stripe starts as a single wedgeshaped white patch of fur on the head that widens near the shoulders to approximately half the width of the back. The stripe ranges from substantially reduced or absent on the rump to completely covering the entire back. The tail is white along its total length dorsally, but ventrally it can be black or white at the base. Their body generally is larger, and the tail is shorter in proportion to the body, than in other skunks. American Hog-nosed Skunks can be distinguished from the Striped Hog-nosed Skunks of Central and South America by the single dorsal stripe: the latter have two stripes bilateral to the spine. The snout of American Hog-nosed Skunk is relatively long and the nose pad, which is naked,is about 2 cmwide by 2: 6 cmlong, and resembles the nose of a small hog. This species has small and rounded ears. Its legs are stocky and the feet are plantigrade. The hindfeet are broad and large; the soles are naked about half the length of the foot. The upper body is powerfully built for digging and climbing and the foreclaws are very long. The skull is relatively deep (deepest in the temporal region) and the nares are large and truncated. The auditory bullae are not inflated, and the palate ends behind upper molars. The carnassial teeth are not well-developed, and they as well as the large upper molar provide an increased crushing surface. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/3, M 1/2 = 32. Conepatusresorb the milk teeth prior to birth. The scent glands are at the base of the tail on either side of the rectum. Two major volatile components [(£)- 2-butene-1-thiol and (E)-$-2-butenyl thioacetate| and four minor components (phenylmethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinoline-methanethiol, and bis[(£)-2-butenyl| disulfide) are found in the anal sac secretions of American Hog-nosed Skunks.Habitat.American Hog-nosed Skunk can be found in canyons, stream beds, and rocky terrain. They also are found in open desertscrub and mesquite-grasslands. In the southcentral part of their range they can be found in tropical areas as well as in mountains and coastal plains. They also are known to visit cornfields surrounded by brush or grassy plains, and scattered thickets of bull-horn acacia and other thorny plants. They can be found in both thorn woodland and riparian forest. In thorn woodland, the trees can vary in density from sparse to thick enough to form a loose canopy. Trees associated with the riparian forest habitat include pecan (Carya illinoensis), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), Texaspersimmon (Diospyros texana), and live-oak (Quercus virginiana). The understory of the riparian forests where hog-nosed skunks have been found includes briers, tall grasses, and tall weeds. American Hog-nosed Skunks have been found in pine—oak forest in the San Carlos Mountains, and north of these mountains on the Tamaulipan plain, which consists of low scrub and cacti. They also can occur in mesquitebrushland and improved pasture habitat where a few areas of semi-open native grassland have been used exclusively for cattle ranching. Thorny brush and cactus constitute the predominant vegetation in the region of southern Texaswhere these skunks occur.Food and Feeding.They have been observed attacking and devouring small rodents. However, this species is more insectivorous by nature and will spend hours digging for grubs and larvae. They also will eat pears, raisins, squash, green beans, radishes, green peppers, and a variety of other fruits and vegetables (with the exception of lima beans). Naturalists have trouble finding bait suitable for trapping these carnivores and have often had to capture individuals by hand. These skunks also may be capable of obtaining their daily water requirements from their food depending on the moisture content of the menu.Activity patterns.These skunks are solitary and largely nocturnal, but not strictly so. They have been observed feeding during the heat of the day in New Mexicoand Texas. They den in hollows in the roots of trees or fallen trunks and in cavities under rocks, and will take refuge in prickly pear cactus when aggravated. When an American Hognosed Skunk is threatened by a predator,its first response is to flee to cover. It may then turn to face its pursuer and, depending on the size and threat ofthe predator, stand on its hindlegs and even take two or three steps forward. Then it will come down hard on its front paws and exhale a burst of air in a loud hiss. Finally, it will draw its paws under its body, flinging dirt backwards. A defensive, frightened individual will crouch, stomp its front paws, raise its tail and hold it flat against its back, and bare its teeth. In this position it can bite and spray a predator, and will do both. American Hognosed Skunk can squirt a noxious liquid from anal scent glands, either as a mist when the threat is not specifically located, or as a stream directed toward a specific threat. The mist can be emitted while on the run.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Hog-nosed Skunks are solitary by nature, but will tolerate each other as well as other species depending on the situation. Males and females stay together briefly during breeding season. Females stay with their litters until early fall, when the young disperse. Little is known about the home range ofthis species.Breeding.These skunks breed from late February through early March. A captive female had a gestation period of at least 70 days. Parturition occurs in April through May, and by late August the young begin to disperse. Females usually have litters of one to three; small litters of one to two half-grown young have been observed in late July through mid- August. American Hog-nosed Skunks have three pairs of mammae.Status and Conservation.Not listed with CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List, but populations have been declining for many years throughout a major portion of its historical range in the USA. The eastern Texassubspecies, ftelmalestes, is presumed extirpated throughoutits range in the Big Thicket region. In his Biological Survey of Texas, V. Bailey wrote, “the white-backed skunk is said to be the commonest species, and under a trapper’s shed at a ranch on Tarkington Prairie in November, 1904,I saw eight or ten of their skins hanging up to dry with a small number ofskins of Striped Skunk.” No new specimens of this subspecies have been collected in the Big Thicket area of Texassince Bailey's report in 1905. A telling, albeit fictional, explanation for the skunk’s decline is provided by Larry McMurtry, in his novel Lonesome Dove. one of his characters meets a couple in NE Texas. “In the dusk it was hard to make out much about her except that she was thin. She was barefoot and had on a dress that looked like it was made from part of a cotton sack. ‘I gave twenty-eight skunk hides for her,’ the old man said suddenly”. A more likely cause for the decline of hog-nosed skunk populations may be found in the increase in the number of trappers or possibly in the increased number of feral hogs that have been introduced into the area. Feral hogs compete, to some degree, with several species of wildlife for certain foods. They eat a variety of items, including fruits, roots, mushrooms, and invertebrates, depending on the season. Their rooting behavior is competitive with the rooting behavior of hog-nosed skunks. Feral hogs can have detectable influences on wildlife and plant communities as well as domestic crops and livestock, extensively disturbing vegetation and soil. In southern Texas, where 95% of the native vegetation in the Rio Grande Valley in Texashas been transformed from subtropical plant communities to cotton, sorghum, sugar cane, vegetable crops, and citrus orchards, several additional hog-nosed skunk populations may now be extirpated. However, a population was found recently in southern Texasand currently is being studied. Because hog-nosed skunks generally are associated with rough rocky areas and brushy habitat, the conversion of native vegetation to row-crop agriculture may be partially responsible for the skunks’ decline. However, habitat modification may not be the primary cause of the observed decline, because specimens of this skunk have been collected in cultivated areas near Veracruz, Mexico. A more direct cause may be associated with use of pesticides in agriculture. Hog-nosed skunks are primarily insectivorous, and use of pesticides has increased throughout their range in conjunction with row-crop agriculture. In Colorado, no new specimens ofthis species have been collected since 1933. However, a road-killed animal was seen just south of the Colorado border in New Mexicoin 2003. American Hog-nosed Skunks are taken by many predators, mainly large canids and felids, and by birds of prey. Additionally, the skunks support numerous parasites. External parasites include fleas (Pulex) and ticks (Ixodes texanus); intestinal parasites are roundworms (Psyalopteris maxillaris) and cestodes; and subcutaneous nematodes (Filaria martis) and Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum —infect the frontal sinuses. In west Texas, American Hog-nosed Skunks have been found infected with several species of helminth parasites, including Filaroides milks, Filaria taxidaea, Gongylonema sp., Macracanthorhynchus ingens, Mathevotaenia mephitis, Oncicola canis, Pachysentis canicola, Physaloptera maxillaris, and P. rara. In natural habitats, hognosed skunks are not known to survive for more than three or four years, but American hog-nosed skunks can live for 16 years or more in captivity.Bibliography.Bailey (1905), Beasom (1974), Dalquest (1953), Davis (1951), Davis & Schmidly (1994), Dragoo (1993), Dragoo & Honeycutt (1999a, 1999b), Dragoo & Sheffield(In press), Dragoo et al. (2003), Hall & Dalquest (1963), Hall & Kelson (1952), Leopold (1959), Lichtenstein (1827-1834), Matson & Baker (1986), McMurtry (1985), Meaney etal. (2006), Merriam (1902), Miller (1925), Neiswenter et al. (2006), Patton (1974), Reid (1997), Schmidly (1983, 2002, 2004), Schmidly & Hendricks (1984), Slaughter et al. (1974), Tewes & Schmidly (1987), Wood et al. (1993)." 03CC87EC9125FB57FF30F53DF79ADC17,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,555,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9125FB57FF30F53DF79ADC17.xml,Mydaus marchei,Mydaus,marchei,,,Télagon de Palawan @fr | Palawan-Stinkdachs @de | Melandro de Palawan @es | Teledu @en | Skunk Badger @en,"Mydaus marche: Huet, 1887,I'ile Palaouan [Philippine Isles, Palawan].The species was once considered a separate genus, Suillotaxus, due to its smaller size, broader upper second premolar, and a shorter tail than that found in M. javanensis. However, this variation was later deemed to be no greater than that found in other species of the family. Monotypic.","Philippines(PalawanI, Calamian I).","Head-body 32-49 cm, tail 1-5— 4-5 cm; weight 844-2490 g. PalawanStink Badgers have a sharp face with an elongated and mobile muzzle. The body is squat but heavy, their legs are short, and they walk on plantigrade feet. The claws on the front feet are elongated, curved, and strong. The inner digits of the forepaws are joined by webbing and a muscle extending towards the tips. Stink badgers have small eyes and essentially vestigial external pinnae. The white stripes down the back can be divided, single and narrow, or absent. Like other members of the family the anal scent glands are well-developed and produce a noxious odor. The cheek teeth are rounded with low cusps rather than sectorial, and the first upper molaris larger than the last upper premolar.","PalawanStink Badgers have been detected in mixed agriculture and secondary forest throughout Palawanas well as in residential and cultivated areas. They have been found in grasslands and grassland/forest mosaics, grassland-shrub, natural damp grassland, and open damp soil along streams. Occasionally, they have been reported in rice fields and freshwater swamp forests where they forage. Shrubs are commonly used for shelter. They also have been seen foraging along roads and paths.","Their diet consists of soft animal matter such as worms of every kind, birds’ eggs, carrion, insects (including crickets and small beetles), and insect grubs. They also consume small freshwater crabs as well as various plant parts. Their mobile snout and long claws are used for finding insects and freshwater molluscs. While foraging, stink badgers move slowly, rooting around in the uppersoil layer using their snout to dig out grubs.","Little has been recorded regarding the breeding habits ofthis species. PalawanStink Badgers have six teats, four pectoral and two inguinal. Likely there are 2-3 young in a litter, which is born in the den. Adults can be seen year round whereas young have been seen from November through March.","PalawanStink Badger is nocturnal, but has been seen active both day and night. While walking they are ungainly and awkward, but when startled can maintain a steady trot for 90 m. Even at a trot they are no faster than a walking human. Stink badgers walk with left and right feet apart, and hindfeet usually in line with front feet.","These stink badger are not aggressive. When threatened, they exhibit various threat behaviors. Stink badgers snarl, show their teeth, and stamp their forefeet on the ground in a similar way to North American skunks. They also have been observed to feign death (with the anal area directed at the observer). As a last resort they will squirt a yellowish fluid from their anal glands. The musk is reportedly pungent, but not offensive, smelling faintly of almonds and stink ants. The PalawanStink Badgeralso leaves a scent behind in its wanderings, suggesting that the discharge from its anal glands may be used for more than just defense. Little has been reported about their home ranges and movement within them. When not active, stink badgers take refuge in underground dens.Breeding.Little has been recorded regarding the breeding habits ofthis species. PalawanStink Badgers have six teats, four pectoral and two inguinal. Likely there are 2-3 young in a litter, which is born in the den. Adults can be seen year round whereas young have been seen from November through March.","Not listed on CITES. The IUCN Red List considers them as Least Concern. The species has a restricted geographic range, but they are common where they occur, and it has been suggested that the former vulnerable listing is not justified. Humans sometimes eat stink badgers. They also are potential prey for Common Palm Civets, Leopard Cats, and Malay Civets. They have been found infected with the nematode Blattophila, and the pentastomid Waddycephalus teretiusculus. These stink badgers eat insects that harm tree growth and agriculture.","Esselstyn et al. (2004) | Grimwood (1976) | Hoogstraal (1951) | Huet (1887) | Hwang & Lariviére (2004) | Jentink (1895) | Kruuk (2000) | Lawrence (1939) | Long (1978, 1981) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Rabor (1986) | Sanborn (1952) | Self & Kuntz (1967) | Wozencraft (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/5684755/files/figure.png,"2.PalawanStink BadgerMydaus marcheiFrench:Télagon de Palawan/ German:Palawan-Stinkdachs/ Spanish:Melandro de PalawanOther common names:Teledu, Skunk BadgerTaxonomy.Mydaus marche: Huet, 1887,I'ile Palaouan [Philippine Isles, Palawan].The species was once considered a separate genus, Suillotaxus, due to its smaller size, broader upper second premolar, and a shorter tail than that found in M. javanensis. However, this variation was later deemed to be no greater than that found in other species of the family. Monotypic.Distribution.Philippines(PalawanI, Calamian I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 32-49 cm, tail 1-5— 4-5 cm; weight 844-2490 g. PalawanStink Badgers have a sharp face with an elongated and mobile muzzle. The body is squat but heavy, their legs are short, and they walk on plantigrade feet. The claws on the front feet are elongated, curved, and strong. The inner digits of the forepaws are joined by webbing and a muscle extending towards the tips. Stink badgers have small eyes and essentially vestigial external pinnae. The white stripes down the back can be divided, single and narrow, or absent. Like other members of the family the anal scent glands are well-developed and produce a noxious odor. The cheek teeth are rounded with low cusps rather than sectorial, and the first upper molaris larger than the last upper premolar.Habitat.PalawanStink Badgers have been detected in mixed agriculture and secondary forest throughout Palawanas well as in residential and cultivated areas. They have been found in grasslands and grassland/forest mosaics, grassland-shrub, natural damp grassland, and open damp soil along streams. Occasionally, they have been reported in rice fields and freshwater swamp forests where they forage. Shrubs are commonly used for shelter. They also have been seen foraging along roads and paths.Food and Feeding.Their diet consists of soft animal matter such as worms of every kind, birds’ eggs, carrion, insects (including crickets and small beetles), and insect grubs. They also consume small freshwater crabs as well as various plant parts. Their mobile snout and long claws are used for finding insects and freshwater molluscs. While foraging, stink badgers move slowly, rooting around in the uppersoil layer using their snout to dig out grubs.Activity patterns.PalawanStink Badger is nocturnal, but has been seen active both day and night. While walking they are ungainly and awkward, but when startled can maintain a steady trot for 90 m. Even at a trot they are no faster than a walking human. Stink badgers walk with left and right feet apart, and hindfeet usually in line with front feet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These stink badger are not aggressive. When threatened, they exhibit various threat behaviors. Stink badgers snarl, show their teeth, and stamp their forefeet on the ground in a similar way to North American skunks. They also have been observed to feign death (with the anal area directed at the observer). As a last resort they will squirt a yellowish fluid from their anal glands. The musk is reportedly pungent, but not offensive, smelling faintly of almonds and stink ants. The PalawanStink Badgeralso leaves a scent behind in its wanderings, suggesting that the discharge from its anal glands may be used for more than just defense. Little has been reported about their home ranges and movement within them. When not active, stink badgers take refuge in underground dens.Breeding.Little has been recorded regarding the breeding habits ofthis species. PalawanStink Badgers have six teats, four pectoral and two inguinal. Likely there are 2-3 young in a litter, which is born in the den. Adults can be seen year round whereas young have been seen from November through March.Status and Conservation.Not listed on CITES. The IUCN Red List considers them as Least Concern. The species has a restricted geographic range, but they are common where they occur, and it has been suggested that the former vulnerable listing is not justified. Humans sometimes eat stink badgers. They also are potential prey for Common Palm Civets, Leopard Cats, and Malay Civets. They have been found infected with the nematode Blattophila, and the pentastomid Waddycephalus teretiusculus. These stink badgers eat insects that harm tree growth and agriculture.Bibliography.Esselstyn et al. (2004), Grimwood (1976), Hoogstraal (1951), Huet (1887), Hwang & Lariviére (2004), Jentink (1895), Kruuk (2000), Lawrence (1939), Long (1978, 1981), Long & Killingley (1983), Rabor (1986), Sanborn (1952), Self & Kuntz (1967), Wozencraft (2005)." 03CC87EC9125FB57FF35FDCBFA8BDFF8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,555,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9125FB57FF35FDCBFA8BDFF8.xml,Mydaus javanensis,Mydaus,javanensis,,,Télagon de Java @fr | Sunda-Stinkdachs @de | Melandro indonesio @es | Malayan Stink Badger @en | Sunda Stink Badger @en | Teledu @en,"Mephitis javanensis Desmarest, 1820,“Tile de Java”. [Indonesia, Java].Three subspecies are recognized.","M. j. javanensis Desmarest, 1820 — Java, Sumatra.M. j. lucifer Thomas, 1902 — Borneo.M. j. ollula Thomas, 1902 — Bunguran I, Natuna I.","Head-body 37-52 cm, tail 3.4-7.5 cm; weight 1.4-3.6 kg. Stink badgers are brownish-black in color with a white patch on the head. They have thick, coarse fur that gets thinner on the sides and belly. There is a narrow white stripe along the back down to the tail. This stripe sometimesis only partial, and variable. It can run from head to tail, but also can be interrupted. These stink badgers are small with stout bodies. The nose is long, mobile, and sparsely haired. The legs are short and strong. Sunda Stink Badger has larger ears and a longertail than PalawanStink Badger. These stink badgers also have well-developed anal scent glands. The skull shows a long rostrum and is rounded with a large braincase. The coronoid process of the lower jaw is recurved.","Sunda Stink Badgeris reported to occur in montane regions above 2100 meters, but it has been seen at lower elevations (almost to sea level) as well. On Borneo this species reportedly inhabits caves. However, they also are known to burrow into the ground to den. They occur in secondary forests and open grounds adjacent to forests.","Captive stink badgers have been observed to consume worms, insects, and the entrails of chickens. Stink badgers in the wild are omnivorous, and consume eggs, carrion, and some vegetable material, in addition to worms and insects. Sunda Stink Badger, when foraging, uses its snout and claws for rooting in the soil in search of food.",Sunda Stink Badgers have two inguinal and four pectoral mammae. Natives report that stink badgers may produce 2-3 young. Litters are probably reared in a burrow.,"Stink badgers are active year-round. They are nocturnal. During the day they shelter in underground burrows that they dig, or they use burrows dug by other animals. Burrows normally are 60 cmdeep.","Sunda Stink Badger may “growl” and attempt to bite when handled. If threatened, a stink badger raisesits tail and ejects a pale greenish noxious fluid. Natives report that this secretion can blind or even asphyxiate dogs. Some natives reportedly have been rendered unconscious after being sprayed by the musk. The anal scent glands are used primarily for defense. Little has been reported about the size of home ranges and the animals’ movement within them. However, it has been reported that these stink badgers may live in pairs.Breeding.Sunda Stink Badgers have two inguinal and four pectoral mammae. Natives report that stink badgers may produce 2-3 young. Litters are probably reared in a burrow.","Not listed with CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. They have been known to cause damage in plantations by digging up seedlings, and have been killed as pests for this reason. The old Javanese sultans used the musk, in suitable dilution, in the manufacture of perfumes. Some natives eat the flesh of Mydaus, removing the scent glands immediately after the animals are killed. Others mix shavings of the skin with water and drink the mixture as a cure for fever or rheumatism.",Chasen (1940) | Davis (1962) | Forbes (1879) | Hwang & Lariviere (2003) | Jentink (1895) | Kloss (1927) | Long (1978) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Lonnberg & Mjoberg (1925) | Moulton (1921) | Thomas (1902b),,"1.Sunda Stink BadgerMydaus javanensisFrench: Télagon de Java/ German: Sunda-Stinkdachs/ Spanish: Melandro indonesioOther common names: Malayan Stink Badger, Sunda Stink Badger, TeleduTaxonomy.Mephitis javanensis Desmarest, 1820,“Tile de Java”. [Indonesia, Java].Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. j. javanensis Desmarest, 1820 — Java, Sumatra.M. j. lucifer Thomas, 1902 — Borneo.M. j. ollula Thomas, 1902 — Bunguran I, Natuna I.Descriptive notes.Head-body 37-52 cm, tail 3.4-7.5 cm; weight 1.4-3.6 kg. Stink badgers are brownish-black in color with a white patch on the head. They have thick, coarse fur that gets thinner on the sides and belly. There is a narrow white stripe along the back down to the tail. This stripe sometimesis only partial, and variable. It can run from head to tail, but also can be interrupted. These stink badgers are small with stout bodies. The nose is long, mobile, and sparsely haired. The legs are short and strong. Sunda Stink Badger has larger ears and a longertail than PalawanStink Badger. These stink badgers also have well-developed anal scent glands. The skull shows a long rostrum and is rounded with a large braincase. The coronoid process of the lower jaw is recurved.Habitat.Sunda Stink Badgeris reported to occur in montane regions above 2100 meters, but it has been seen at lower elevations (almost to sea level) as well. On Borneo this species reportedly inhabits caves. However, they also are known to burrow into the ground to den. They occur in secondary forests and open grounds adjacent to forests.Food and Feeding.Captive stink badgers have been observed to consume worms, insects, and the entrails of chickens. Stink badgers in the wild are omnivorous, and consume eggs, carrion, and some vegetable material, in addition to worms and insects. Sunda Stink Badger, when foraging, uses its snout and claws for rooting in the soil in search of food.Activity patterns.Stink badgers are active year-round. They are nocturnal. During the day they shelter in underground burrows that they dig, or they use burrows dug by other animals. Burrows normally are 60 cmdeep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sunda Stink Badger may “growl” and attempt to bite when handled. If threatened, a stink badger raisesits tail and ejects a pale greenish noxious fluid. Natives report that this secretion can blind or even asphyxiate dogs. Some natives reportedly have been rendered unconscious after being sprayed by the musk. The anal scent glands are used primarily for defense. Little has been reported about the size of home ranges and the animals’ movement within them. However, it has been reported that these stink badgers may live in pairs.Breeding.Sunda Stink Badgers have two inguinal and four pectoral mammae. Natives report that stink badgers may produce 2-3 young. Litters are probably reared in a burrow.Status and Conservation.Not listed with CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. They have been known to cause damage in plantations by digging up seedlings, and have been killed as pests for this reason. The old Javanese sultans used the musk, in suitable dilution, in the manufacture of perfumes. Some natives eat the flesh of Mydaus, removing the scent glands immediately after the animals are killed. Others mix shavings of the skin with water and drink the mixture as a cure for fever or rheumatism.Bibliography.Chasen (1940), Davis (1962), Forbes (1879), Hwang & Lariviere (2003), Jentink (1895), Kloss (1927), Long (1978), Long & Killingley (1983), Lonnberg & Mjoberg (1925), Moulton (1921), Thomas (1902b)." 03CC87EC9127FB55FD03FDC4F807D070,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,532,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9127FB55FD03FDC4F807D070.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family MEPHITIDAE(SKUNKS)• Small- to medium-sized mammals with striking black and white color pattern and large scent glands at the base of the tail.• 30-134 cm.• South-east Asia, North, Central, and South America.• Found in almost all habitats within their range except for the most arid deserts and the colder alpine and arctic climates.• 4 genera, 12 species, 60 extant taxa.• 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." -03CC87EC912FFB5CFA18F8C1F89ED795,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,561,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC912FFB5CFA18F8C1F89ED795.xml,Spilogale angustifrons,Spilogale,angustifrons,,,Moufette de Howell @fr | Sudlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta meridional @es,"Spilogale angustifrons Howell, 1902,Tlalpan, Distrito Federal, Mexico.This skunk has been classified as a subspecies of Spilogale putoriusoff and on throughout: its taxonomic:: history. Recent chromosomal data have helped to elevate it back to species status. There are five subspecies recognized.","S. a. angustifrons Howell, 1902— C Mexico(Distrito Federal& C Michoacan).S. a. celeris Hall, 1938— highlands of NicaraguaS towards C Costa Rica.S. a. elata Howell, 1906— highlands of SE Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador, and Hounduras.S. a. tropicalis Howell, 1902— S Mexico(E Puebla, C Morelos, & C Guerrero, and SE towards Oaxacaand along the Pacific Coast) to E El Salvador.S. a. yucatanensis Burt, 1938— Mexico(occurs throughout the YucatanPeninsula), Belizeand N Guatemala.","Very few specimens are available for measurements. Head-body 21-25 cm(males) and 20-24 cm(females), tail 10.1-14.5 cm; weight 240-533 g. The color pattern in this speciesis very similar to other species of spotted skunks. They have a white spot between the eyes and a series of six vertical white stripes along the back and sides. The top set of white stripes runs along the middle of the back towards the rear of the animal where they branch off and become horizontal on the hips. The next pair runs from the ears parallel to the top stripes. The third set runs from the forelegs along the side and sometimes joins the horizontal stripes on the hips. The tip (one third of the tail) is white. There is considerable variation in this color pattern. Southern Spotted Skunks have five toes on each foot and long claws. The skull is small and narrow with a highly arched cranium. The rostrum is also narrow. The dental formula for this skunk is: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. This species, like other skunks,is endowed with well- developed scent glands, which can expel a noxious fluid to repel potential predators.","These skunks are found in rocky hills with brush and sparse trees, but they also can be found in pine-oak forests at high elevations. They can occur in a variety of habitats such as rainforests, dry thickets, pine forests, and grasslands. They are commonly found in agricultural fields as well. Southern Spotted Skunks have been found from sea level to about 2800 m. They make dens under logs or rocks, in hollow trees, and between the roots of trees and shrubs. They also use dens abandoned by armadillos and other mammals.","Like other spotted skunks, Southern Spotted Skunks feed mainly on insects and small mammals. They also will consume amphibians and wild fruit. 50% of their diet consists of invertebrates and the remainder consists of vertebrates and vegetation (including fruits).","The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.",These animals presumably are nocturnal. Like the other skunks they are equipped with anal scent glands that can be used in defense. Southern Spotted Skunks probably have very similar activity patterns to Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks.,"Home ranges for this species have been estimated at about 64 hectares. In areas where they are common they have been reported in densities of 5-8 individuals per square kilometer.Breeding.The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.","Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. This species is just recently being recognized by taxonomists and is therefore not likely to have been considered for special conservation status. However,it is reported that where they do occur they are common. This species has been reported with antibodies to rabies, parvovirus, and toxoplasma.","Baker & Baker (1975) | Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Cervantes et al. (2002) | Hall (1938) | Hall & Kelson (1952, 1959) | Howell (1902, 1906) | Kinlaw (1995) | Owen et al. (1996) | Reid (1997) | Suzan & Ceballos (2005) | Van Gelder (1959) | Verts et al. (2001)",,"12.Southern Spotted SkunkSpilogale angustifronsFrench:Moufette de Howell/ German:Sudlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta meridionalTaxonomy.Spilogale angustifrons Howell, 1902,Tlalpan, Distrito Federal, Mexico.This skunk has been classified as a subspecies of Spilogale putoriusoff and on throughout: its taxonomic:: history. Recent chromosomal data have helped to elevate it back to species status. There are five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. a. angustifrons Howell, 1902— C Mexico(Distrito Federal& C Michoacan).S. a. celeris Hall, 1938— highlands of NicaraguaS towards C Costa Rica.S. a. elata Howell, 1906— highlands of SE Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador, and Hounduras.S. a. tropicalis Howell, 1902— S Mexico(E Puebla, C Morelos, & C Guerrero, and SE towards Oaxacaand along the Pacific Coast) to E El Salvador.S. a. yucatanensis Burt, 1938— Mexico(occurs throughout the YucatanPeninsula), Belizeand N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Very few specimens are available for measurements. Head-body 21-25 cm(males) and 20-24 cm(females), tail 10.1-14.5 cm; weight 240-533 g. The color pattern in this speciesis very similar to other species of spotted skunks. They have a white spot between the eyes and a series of six vertical white stripes along the back and sides. The top set of white stripes runs along the middle of the back towards the rear of the animal where they branch off and become horizontal on the hips. The next pair runs from the ears parallel to the top stripes. The third set runs from the forelegs along the side and sometimes joins the horizontal stripes on the hips. The tip (one third of the tail) is white. There is considerable variation in this color pattern. Southern Spotted Skunks have five toes on each foot and long claws. The skull is small and narrow with a highly arched cranium. The rostrum is also narrow. The dental formula for this skunk is: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. This species, like other skunks,is endowed with well- developed scent glands, which can expel a noxious fluid to repel potential predators.Habitat.These skunks are found in rocky hills with brush and sparse trees, but they also can be found in pine-oak forests at high elevations. They can occur in a variety of habitats such as rainforests, dry thickets, pine forests, and grasslands. They are commonly found in agricultural fields as well. Southern Spotted Skunks have been found from sea level to about 2800 m. They make dens under logs or rocks, in hollow trees, and between the roots of trees and shrubs. They also use dens abandoned by armadillos and other mammals.Food and Feeding.Like other spotted skunks, Southern Spotted Skunks feed mainly on insects and small mammals. They also will consume amphibians and wild fruit. 50% of their diet consists of invertebrates and the remainder consists of vertebrates and vegetation (including fruits).Activity patterns.These animals presumably are nocturnal. Like the other skunks they are equipped with anal scent glands that can be used in defense. Southern Spotted Skunks probably have very similar activity patterns to Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges for this species have been estimated at about 64 hectares. In areas where they are common they have been reported in densities of 5-8 individuals per square kilometer.Breeding.The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.Status and Conservation.Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. This species is just recently being recognized by taxonomists and is therefore not likely to have been considered for special conservation status. However,it is reported that where they do occur they are common. This species has been reported with antibodies to rabies, parvovirus, and toxoplasma.Bibliography.Baker & Baker (1975), Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Cervantes et al. (2002), Hall (1938), Hall & Kelson (1952, 1959), Howell (1902, 1906), Kinlaw (1995), Owen et al. (1996), Reid (1997), Suzan & Ceballos (2005), Van Gelder (1959), Verts et al. (2001)." -03CC87EC912FFB5DFF07FDBCF62DD395,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,561,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC912FFB5DFF07FDBCF62DD395.xml,Spilogale gracilis,Spilogale,gracilis,,,Moufette gracile @fr | Westlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta occidental @es,"Spilogale gracilis Merriam, 1890,Grand Canon of the Colorado(altitude 3500 feet), Arizona, north of San Francisco Mountain.Western Spotted Skunks were once considered the same species as Eastern Spotted Skunks. Chromosomal and reproductive data have been used to elevate these skunks to specific status. Seven subspecies are recognized.","S. g. gracilis Merriam, 1890— W USA(from E Washington& E Oregonto NE California, and then E to W Montana& E Wyomingto C Colorado, and possibly the Black Hills, South Dakota. Then S to N New Mexico, N Arizona, C Nevadaand E & C California).S. g. amphialus Dickey, 1929— SW USA(occurs only on Santa Rosa I and Santa Cruz I in Santa Barbara County, California).S. g. latifrons Merriam, 1890— SW Canada(SW British Columbia) S and W to NW USA(Washingtonand Oregon). The distribution follows the crest of the Cascade Mts.S. g. leucoparia Merriam, 1890— S USA(found from C Arizona, C New Mexico, and W & C central Texas) S to N Mexico(Coahuila& C Durango).S. g. lucasana Merriam, 1890— NW Mexico(S Baja CaliforniaN to Santo Domingo on the W coast and La Pazon the E coast).S. g. martirensis Elliot, 1903— NW Mexico(N & C Baja California).S. g. phenax Merriam, 1890— SW USA(From Californiawest to crest of Sierra Nevada).","Head-body 25-37 cm(males) and 24-27 cm(females), tail 10-21 cm(males) and 8: 5-20.3 cm(females); weight 255-997 g(males) and 269-566 g(females). Spilogaleis more weasel-like in body plan than any of the other genera (Mephatis, Conepatus, Mydaus). Western Spotted Skunks are similar in color pattern to the Eastern Spotted Skunks in that they also have six stripes along the back and sides. One set ofstripes runs parallel to the backbone, and beside those stripes is another set that extends past the shoulders and over the ears. The third set of stripes runs from the shoulder to the abdomen and then curves upwards towards the back. There is also a spot on each of the hips. The color pattern may break up the body outline on moonless nights. Where the two species potentially come together the Western Spotted Skunks tends to have wider white stripes and a larger spot between the eyes. The Western Spotted Skunks is reportedly longer and more slender with a longertail than the Eastern Spotted Skunks. The feet each have five toes and locomotion is plantigrade. Western Spotted Skunks are quite capable climbers. The skull is flatter and wider than that of the Eastern Spotted Skunks, and the front region of the skull is depressed to the level of the cranium. The baculum of the Western Spotted Skunk is shorter than and not as curved as that of the Eastern Spotted Skunk. Western Spotted Skunks also have two muscular musk glands at the base of the tail inside the anal sphincter. These glands are capable of ejecting a noxious yellow fluid that is used in defense to deter a predator. The musk is composed of three major thiols, (E)-2-butene-I-thiol, 3-methyl-1- butanethiol, and 2-phenylethanethiol, and several minor components, including phenylmethanethiol, 2-methyl-quinoline, 2-quinoline methanethiol, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, and bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide. The Western Spotted Skunks does not have the thiol esters associated with the musk as seen in Mephitisand Conepatus. While the spray is as pungent as in the other skunks it does not have the “staying power” without the thiol esters.","These skunks are found along streams in riparian thickets composed of willows and cottonwoods or alder, salmonberry, tan oak and other hardwoods. They also occur in all stages of dry forests and pine-oak forests, and use canyons, cliffs, rock piles, lava fields, and dry valleys. They prefer areas where they can find cover protection from predators. These skunks will use tunnels and holes of other animals such as mountain beavers in Oregonand wood rats and ground squirrels in other parts of their range. Western Spotted Skunks have been found in older buildings in rural settings, but also have been taken in urban houses and apartments. They also will den around other man-made structures such as dams as long as protective cover is available.","Western Spotted Skunks eat a variety of food items. They are omnivores, but tend to have a mostly carnivorous diet. They eat small mammals, birds, and lizards. They consume a number of insects including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, and ants. They also will eat fruits and vegetable matter to supplement their diets.","These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.","They are generally nocturnal. They prefer to move under the cover of darkness, but have been observed during daylight hours. When nervous they will walk with heavy deliberate steps. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. Like other spotted skunks, they can perform handstands and walk on only their front paws. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. It can spray in this position, but usually drops to all fours and faces the predator with both ends before spraying.","Western Spotted Skunks usually den alone, but they use multiple dens. Dens may be used by multiple individuals, but not necessarily at the same time. The skunks usually den in areas that provide protective cover, such as under shrubs or prickly pear cactus. During the late summer and early fall months males tend to be captured more than females. This could be due to increased movement of males during the breeding season, which corresponds to these months. Young animals when playing will let out a loud, ear piercing, high pitched screech when excited. Young males of the same litter will wrestle more aggressively than females. They tend to leave the maternal den sooner in order to look for mates. Western Spotted Skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range and very little study has been done of home range, density, and dispersal. However,in an island population these skunks have a larger home range (about twice the size) in the drier months than during the wet months.Breeding.These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.","Not listed in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The island spotted skunk in Californiais listed as a subspecies of special concern. Several larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats, bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls are known to prey on spotted skunks. Various intestinal parasites including tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidia have been found in spotted skunks. They also are susceptible to fleas and ticks. Humans have been known to trap and shoot spotted skunks for fur and they have been poisoned as non target animals during predator control efforts. In the USA, rabies has been reported, butit is rare. Western Spotted Skunks have been reported to survive over ten years in captivity.","Bailey (1905, 1931, 1936) | Carey & Kershner (1996) | Crooks & Van Vuren (1995) | Dickey (1929) | Doty & Dowler (2006) | Genoways & Jones (1968) | Grinnell et al. (1937) | Hall (1926) | Hall & Kelson (1952) | Howell (1906) | Mead (1968b) | Merriam (1890a, 1890b) | Neiswenter & Dowler (2007) | Neiswenter et al. (2006) | Patton (1974) | Seton (1926) | Van Gelder (1959) | Verts & Carraway (1998) | Verts et al. (2001) | Wood et al. (1991)",,"11.Western Spotted SkunkSpilogale gracilisFrench:Moufette gracile/ German:Westlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta occidentalTaxonomy.Spilogale gracilis Merriam, 1890,Grand Canon of the Colorado(altitude 3500 feet), Arizona, north of San Francisco Mountain.Western Spotted Skunks were once considered the same species as Eastern Spotted Skunks. Chromosomal and reproductive data have been used to elevate these skunks to specific status. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. g. gracilis Merriam, 1890— W USA(from E Washington& E Oregonto NE California, and then E to W Montana& E Wyomingto C Colorado, and possibly the Black Hills, South Dakota. Then S to N New Mexico, N Arizona, C Nevadaand E & C California).S. g. amphialus Dickey, 1929— SW USA(occurs only on Santa Rosa I and Santa Cruz I in Santa Barbara County, California).S. g. latifrons Merriam, 1890— SW Canada(SW British Columbia) S and W to NW USA(Washingtonand Oregon). The distribution follows the crest of the Cascade Mts.S. g. leucoparia Merriam, 1890— S USA(found from C Arizona, C New Mexico, and W & C central Texas) S to N Mexico(Coahuila& C Durango).S. g. lucasana Merriam, 1890— NW Mexico(S Baja CaliforniaN to Santo Domingo on the W coast and La Pazon the E coast).S. g. martirensis Elliot, 1903— NW Mexico(N & C Baja California).S. g. phenax Merriam, 1890— SW USA(From Californiawest to crest of Sierra Nevada).Descriptive notes.Head-body 25-37 cm(males) and 24-27 cm(females), tail 10-21 cm(males) and 8: 5-20.3 cm(females); weight 255-997 g(males) and 269-566 g(females). Spilogaleis more weasel-like in body plan than any of the other genera (Mephatis, Conepatus, Mydaus). Western Spotted Skunks are similar in color pattern to the Eastern Spotted Skunks in that they also have six stripes along the back and sides. One set ofstripes runs parallel to the backbone, and beside those stripes is another set that extends past the shoulders and over the ears. The third set of stripes runs from the shoulder to the abdomen and then curves upwards towards the back. There is also a spot on each of the hips. The color pattern may break up the body outline on moonless nights. Where the two species potentially come together the Western Spotted Skunks tends to have wider white stripes and a larger spot between the eyes. The Western Spotted Skunks is reportedly longer and more slender with a longertail than the Eastern Spotted Skunks. The feet each have five toes and locomotion is plantigrade. Western Spotted Skunks are quite capable climbers. The skull is flatter and wider than that of the Eastern Spotted Skunks, and the front region of the skull is depressed to the level of the cranium. The baculum of the Western Spotted Skunk is shorter than and not as curved as that of the Eastern Spotted Skunk. Western Spotted Skunks also have two muscular musk glands at the base of the tail inside the anal sphincter. These glands are capable of ejecting a noxious yellow fluid that is used in defense to deter a predator. The musk is composed of three major thiols, (E)-2-butene-I-thiol, 3-methyl-1- butanethiol, and 2-phenylethanethiol, and several minor components, including phenylmethanethiol, 2-methyl-quinoline, 2-quinoline methanethiol, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, and bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide. The Western Spotted Skunks does not have the thiol esters associated with the musk as seen in Mephitisand Conepatus. While the spray is as pungent as in the other skunks it does not have the “staying power” without the thiol esters.Habitat.These skunks are found along streams in riparian thickets composed of willows and cottonwoods or alder, salmonberry, tan oak and other hardwoods. They also occur in all stages of dry forests and pine-oak forests, and use canyons, cliffs, rock piles, lava fields, and dry valleys. They prefer areas where they can find cover protection from predators. These skunks will use tunnels and holes of other animals such as mountain beavers in Oregonand wood rats and ground squirrels in other parts of their range. Western Spotted Skunks have been found in older buildings in rural settings, but also have been taken in urban houses and apartments. They also will den around other man-made structures such as dams as long as protective cover is available.Food and Feeding.Western Spotted Skunks eat a variety of food items. They are omnivores, but tend to have a mostly carnivorous diet. They eat small mammals, birds, and lizards. They consume a number of insects including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, and ants. They also will eat fruits and vegetable matter to supplement their diets.Activity patterns.They are generally nocturnal. They prefer to move under the cover of darkness, but have been observed during daylight hours. When nervous they will walk with heavy deliberate steps. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. Like other spotted skunks, they can perform handstands and walk on only their front paws. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. It can spray in this position, but usually drops to all fours and faces the predator with both ends before spraying.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Spotted Skunks usually den alone, but they use multiple dens. Dens may be used by multiple individuals, but not necessarily at the same time. The skunks usually den in areas that provide protective cover, such as under shrubs or prickly pear cactus. During the late summer and early fall months males tend to be captured more than females. This could be due to increased movement of males during the breeding season, which corresponds to these months. Young animals when playing will let out a loud, ear piercing, high pitched screech when excited. Young males of the same litter will wrestle more aggressively than females. They tend to leave the maternal den sooner in order to look for mates. Western Spotted Skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range and very little study has been done of home range, density, and dispersal. However,in an island population these skunks have a larger home range (about twice the size) in the drier months than during the wet months.Breeding.These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.Status and Conservation.. Not listed in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The island spotted skunk in Californiais listed as a subspecies of special concern. Several larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats, bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls are known to prey on spotted skunks. Various intestinal parasites including tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidia have been found in spotted skunks. They also are susceptible to fleas and ticks. Humans have been known to trap and shoot spotted skunks for fur and they have been poisoned as non target animals during predator control efforts. In the USA, rabies has been reported, butit is rare. Western Spotted Skunks have been reported to survive over ten years in captivity.Bibliography.Bailey (1905, 1931, 1936), Carey & Kershner (1996), Crooks & Van Vuren (1995), Dickey (1929), Doty & Dowler (2006), Genoways & Jones (1968), Grinnell et al. (1937), Hall (1926), Hall & Kelson (1952), Howell (1906), Mead (1968b), Merriam (1890a, 1890b), Neiswenter & Dowler (2007), Neiswenter et al. (2006), Patton (1974), Seton (1926), Van Gelder (1959), Verts & Carraway (1998), Verts et al. (2001), Wood et al. (1991)." +03CC87EC912FFB5CFA18F8C1F89ED795,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,561,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC912FFB5CFA18F8C1F89ED795.xml,Spilogale angustifrons,Spilogale,angustifrons,,,Moufette de Howell @fr | Sudlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta meridional @es,"Spilogale angustifrons Howell, 1902,Tlalpan, Distrito Federal, Mexico.This skunk has been classified as a subspecies of Spilogale putoriusoff and on throughout: its taxonomic:: history. Recent chromosomal data have helped to elevate it back to species status. There are five subspecies recognized.","S. a. angustifrons Howell, 1902— C Mexico(Distrito Federal& C Michoacan).S. a. celeris Hall, 1938— highlands of NicaraguaS towards C Costa Rica.S. a. elata Howell, 1906— highlands of SE Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador, and Hounduras.S. a. tropicalis Howell, 1902— S Mexico(E Puebla, C Morelos, & C Guerrero, and SE towards Oaxacaand along the Pacific Coast) to E El Salvador.S. a. yucatanensis Burt, 1938— Mexico(occurs throughout the YucatanPeninsula), Belizeand N Guatemala.","Very few specimens are available for measurements. Head-body 21-25 cm(males) and 20-24 cm(females), tail 10.1-14.5 cm; weight 240-533 g. The color pattern in this speciesis very similar to other species of spotted skunks. They have a white spot between the eyes and a series of six vertical white stripes along the back and sides. The top set of white stripes runs along the middle of the back towards the rear of the animal where they branch off and become horizontal on the hips. The next pair runs from the ears parallel to the top stripes. The third set runs from the forelegs along the side and sometimes joins the horizontal stripes on the hips. The tip (one third of the tail) is white. There is considerable variation in this color pattern. Southern Spotted Skunks have five toes on each foot and long claws. The skull is small and narrow with a highly arched cranium. The rostrum is also narrow. The dental formula for this skunk is: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. This species, like other skunks,is endowed with well- developed scent glands, which can expel a noxious fluid to repel potential predators.","These skunks are found in rocky hills with brush and sparse trees, but they also can be found in pine-oak forests at high elevations. They can occur in a variety of habitats such as rainforests, dry thickets, pine forests, and grasslands. They are commonly found in agricultural fields as well. Southern Spotted Skunks have been found from sea level to about 2800 m. They make dens under logs or rocks, in hollow trees, and between the roots of trees and shrubs. They also use dens abandoned by armadillos and other mammals.","Like other spotted skunks, Southern Spotted Skunks feed mainly on insects and small mammals. They also will consume amphibians and wild fruit. 50% of their diet consists of invertebrates and the remainder consists of vertebrates and vegetation (including fruits).","The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.",These animals presumably are nocturnal. Like the other skunks they are equipped with anal scent glands that can be used in defense. Southern Spotted Skunks probably have very similar activity patterns to Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks.,"Home ranges for this species have been estimated at about 64 hectares. In areas where they are common they have been reported in densities of 5-8 individuals per square kilometer.Breeding.The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.","Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. This species is just recently being recognized by taxonomists and is therefore not likely to have been considered for special conservation status. However,it is reported that where they do occur they are common. This species has been reported with antibodies to rabies, parvovirus, and toxoplasma.","Baker & Baker (1975) | Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Cervantes et al. (2002) | Hall (1938) | Hall & Kelson (1952, 1959) | Howell (1902, 1906) | Kinlaw (1995) | Owen et al. (1996) | Reid (1997) | Suzan & Ceballos (2005) | Van Gelder (1959) | Verts et al. (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6353175/files/figure.png,"12.Southern Spotted SkunkSpilogale angustifronsFrench:Moufette de Howell/ German:Sudlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta meridionalTaxonomy.Spilogale angustifrons Howell, 1902,Tlalpan, Distrito Federal, Mexico.This skunk has been classified as a subspecies of Spilogale putoriusoff and on throughout: its taxonomic:: history. Recent chromosomal data have helped to elevate it back to species status. There are five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. a. angustifrons Howell, 1902— C Mexico(Distrito Federal& C Michoacan).S. a. celeris Hall, 1938— highlands of NicaraguaS towards C Costa Rica.S. a. elata Howell, 1906— highlands of SE Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador, and Hounduras.S. a. tropicalis Howell, 1902— S Mexico(E Puebla, C Morelos, & C Guerrero, and SE towards Oaxacaand along the Pacific Coast) to E El Salvador.S. a. yucatanensis Burt, 1938— Mexico(occurs throughout the YucatanPeninsula), Belizeand N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Very few specimens are available for measurements. Head-body 21-25 cm(males) and 20-24 cm(females), tail 10.1-14.5 cm; weight 240-533 g. The color pattern in this speciesis very similar to other species of spotted skunks. They have a white spot between the eyes and a series of six vertical white stripes along the back and sides. The top set of white stripes runs along the middle of the back towards the rear of the animal where they branch off and become horizontal on the hips. The next pair runs from the ears parallel to the top stripes. The third set runs from the forelegs along the side and sometimes joins the horizontal stripes on the hips. The tip (one third of the tail) is white. There is considerable variation in this color pattern. Southern Spotted Skunks have five toes on each foot and long claws. The skull is small and narrow with a highly arched cranium. The rostrum is also narrow. The dental formula for this skunk is: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. This species, like other skunks,is endowed with well- developed scent glands, which can expel a noxious fluid to repel potential predators.Habitat.These skunks are found in rocky hills with brush and sparse trees, but they also can be found in pine-oak forests at high elevations. They can occur in a variety of habitats such as rainforests, dry thickets, pine forests, and grasslands. They are commonly found in agricultural fields as well. Southern Spotted Skunks have been found from sea level to about 2800 m. They make dens under logs or rocks, in hollow trees, and between the roots of trees and shrubs. They also use dens abandoned by armadillos and other mammals.Food and Feeding.Like other spotted skunks, Southern Spotted Skunks feed mainly on insects and small mammals. They also will consume amphibians and wild fruit. 50% of their diet consists of invertebrates and the remainder consists of vertebrates and vegetation (including fruits).Activity patterns.These animals presumably are nocturnal. Like the other skunks they are equipped with anal scent glands that can be used in defense. Southern Spotted Skunks probably have very similar activity patterns to Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges for this species have been estimated at about 64 hectares. In areas where they are common they have been reported in densities of 5-8 individuals per square kilometer.Breeding.The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.Status and Conservation.Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. This species is just recently being recognized by taxonomists and is therefore not likely to have been considered for special conservation status. However,it is reported that where they do occur they are common. This species has been reported with antibodies to rabies, parvovirus, and toxoplasma.Bibliography.Baker & Baker (1975), Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Cervantes et al. (2002), Hall (1938), Hall & Kelson (1952, 1959), Howell (1902, 1906), Kinlaw (1995), Owen et al. (1996), Reid (1997), Suzan & Ceballos (2005), Van Gelder (1959), Verts et al. (2001)." +03CC87EC912FFB5DFF07FDBCF62DD395,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-49-1,hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551,561,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC912FFB5DFF07FDBCF62DD395.xml,Spilogale gracilis,Spilogale,gracilis,,,Moufette gracile @fr | Westlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta occidental @es,"Spilogale gracilis Merriam, 1890,Grand Canon of the Colorado(altitude 3500 feet), Arizona, north of San Francisco Mountain.Western Spotted Skunks were once considered the same species as Eastern Spotted Skunks. Chromosomal and reproductive data have been used to elevate these skunks to specific status. Seven subspecies are recognized.","S. g. gracilis Merriam, 1890— W USA(from E Washington& E Oregonto NE California, and then E to W Montana& E Wyomingto C Colorado, and possibly the Black Hills, South Dakota. Then S to N New Mexico, N Arizona, C Nevadaand E & C California).S. g. amphialus Dickey, 1929— SW USA(occurs only on Santa Rosa I and Santa Cruz I in Santa Barbara County, California).S. g. latifrons Merriam, 1890— SW Canada(SW British Columbia) S and W to NW USA(Washingtonand Oregon). The distribution follows the crest of the Cascade Mts.S. g. leucoparia Merriam, 1890— S USA(found from C Arizona, C New Mexico, and W & C central Texas) S to N Mexico(Coahuila& C Durango).S. g. lucasana Merriam, 1890— NW Mexico(S Baja CaliforniaN to Santo Domingo on the W coast and La Pazon the E coast).S. g. martirensis Elliot, 1903— NW Mexico(N & C Baja California).S. g. phenax Merriam, 1890— SW USA(From Californiawest to crest of Sierra Nevada).","Head-body 25-37 cm(males) and 24-27 cm(females), tail 10-21 cm(males) and 8: 5-20.3 cm(females); weight 255-997 g(males) and 269-566 g(females). Spilogaleis more weasel-like in body plan than any of the other genera (Mephatis, Conepatus, Mydaus). Western Spotted Skunks are similar in color pattern to the Eastern Spotted Skunks in that they also have six stripes along the back and sides. One set ofstripes runs parallel to the backbone, and beside those stripes is another set that extends past the shoulders and over the ears. The third set of stripes runs from the shoulder to the abdomen and then curves upwards towards the back. There is also a spot on each of the hips. The color pattern may break up the body outline on moonless nights. Where the two species potentially come together the Western Spotted Skunks tends to have wider white stripes and a larger spot between the eyes. The Western Spotted Skunks is reportedly longer and more slender with a longertail than the Eastern Spotted Skunks. The feet each have five toes and locomotion is plantigrade. Western Spotted Skunks are quite capable climbers. The skull is flatter and wider than that of the Eastern Spotted Skunks, and the front region of the skull is depressed to the level of the cranium. The baculum of the Western Spotted Skunk is shorter than and not as curved as that of the Eastern Spotted Skunk. Western Spotted Skunks also have two muscular musk glands at the base of the tail inside the anal sphincter. These glands are capable of ejecting a noxious yellow fluid that is used in defense to deter a predator. The musk is composed of three major thiols, (E)-2-butene-I-thiol, 3-methyl-1- butanethiol, and 2-phenylethanethiol, and several minor components, including phenylmethanethiol, 2-methyl-quinoline, 2-quinoline methanethiol, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, and bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide. The Western Spotted Skunks does not have the thiol esters associated with the musk as seen in Mephitisand Conepatus. While the spray is as pungent as in the other skunks it does not have the “staying power” without the thiol esters.","These skunks are found along streams in riparian thickets composed of willows and cottonwoods or alder, salmonberry, tan oak and other hardwoods. They also occur in all stages of dry forests and pine-oak forests, and use canyons, cliffs, rock piles, lava fields, and dry valleys. They prefer areas where they can find cover protection from predators. These skunks will use tunnels and holes of other animals such as mountain beavers in Oregonand wood rats and ground squirrels in other parts of their range. Western Spotted Skunks have been found in older buildings in rural settings, but also have been taken in urban houses and apartments. They also will den around other man-made structures such as dams as long as protective cover is available.","Western Spotted Skunks eat a variety of food items. They are omnivores, but tend to have a mostly carnivorous diet. They eat small mammals, birds, and lizards. They consume a number of insects including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, and ants. They also will eat fruits and vegetable matter to supplement their diets.","These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.","They are generally nocturnal. They prefer to move under the cover of darkness, but have been observed during daylight hours. When nervous they will walk with heavy deliberate steps. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. Like other spotted skunks, they can perform handstands and walk on only their front paws. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. It can spray in this position, but usually drops to all fours and faces the predator with both ends before spraying.","Western Spotted Skunks usually den alone, but they use multiple dens. Dens may be used by multiple individuals, but not necessarily at the same time. The skunks usually den in areas that provide protective cover, such as under shrubs or prickly pear cactus. During the late summer and early fall months males tend to be captured more than females. This could be due to increased movement of males during the breeding season, which corresponds to these months. Young animals when playing will let out a loud, ear piercing, high pitched screech when excited. Young males of the same litter will wrestle more aggressively than females. They tend to leave the maternal den sooner in order to look for mates. Western Spotted Skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range and very little study has been done of home range, density, and dispersal. However,in an island population these skunks have a larger home range (about twice the size) in the drier months than during the wet months.Breeding.These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.","Not listed in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The island spotted skunk in Californiais listed as a subspecies of special concern. Several larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats, bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls are known to prey on spotted skunks. Various intestinal parasites including tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidia have been found in spotted skunks. They also are susceptible to fleas and ticks. Humans have been known to trap and shoot spotted skunks for fur and they have been poisoned as non target animals during predator control efforts. In the USA, rabies has been reported, butit is rare. Western Spotted Skunks have been reported to survive over ten years in captivity.","Bailey (1905, 1931, 1936) | Carey & Kershner (1996) | Crooks & Van Vuren (1995) | Dickey (1929) | Doty & Dowler (2006) | Genoways & Jones (1968) | Grinnell et al. (1937) | Hall (1926) | Hall & Kelson (1952) | Howell (1906) | Mead (1968b) | Merriam (1890a, 1890b) | Neiswenter & Dowler (2007) | Neiswenter et al. (2006) | Patton (1974) | Seton (1926) | Van Gelder (1959) | Verts & Carraway (1998) | Verts et al. (2001) | Wood et al. (1991)",https://zenodo.org/record/6353173/files/figure.png,"11.Western Spotted SkunkSpilogale gracilisFrench:Moufette gracile/ German:Westlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta occidentalTaxonomy.Spilogale gracilis Merriam, 1890,Grand Canon of the Colorado(altitude 3500 feet), Arizona, north of San Francisco Mountain.Western Spotted Skunks were once considered the same species as Eastern Spotted Skunks. Chromosomal and reproductive data have been used to elevate these skunks to specific status. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. g. gracilis Merriam, 1890— W USA(from E Washington& E Oregonto NE California, and then E to W Montana& E Wyomingto C Colorado, and possibly the Black Hills, South Dakota. Then S to N New Mexico, N Arizona, C Nevadaand E & C California).S. g. amphialus Dickey, 1929— SW USA(occurs only on Santa Rosa I and Santa Cruz I in Santa Barbara County, California).S. g. latifrons Merriam, 1890— SW Canada(SW British Columbia) S and W to NW USA(Washingtonand Oregon). The distribution follows the crest of the Cascade Mts.S. g. leucoparia Merriam, 1890— S USA(found from C Arizona, C New Mexico, and W & C central Texas) S to N Mexico(Coahuila& C Durango).S. g. lucasana Merriam, 1890— NW Mexico(S Baja CaliforniaN to Santo Domingo on the W coast and La Pazon the E coast).S. g. martirensis Elliot, 1903— NW Mexico(N & C Baja California).S. g. phenax Merriam, 1890— SW USA(From Californiawest to crest of Sierra Nevada).Descriptive notes.Head-body 25-37 cm(males) and 24-27 cm(females), tail 10-21 cm(males) and 8: 5-20.3 cm(females); weight 255-997 g(males) and 269-566 g(females). Spilogaleis more weasel-like in body plan than any of the other genera (Mephatis, Conepatus, Mydaus). Western Spotted Skunks are similar in color pattern to the Eastern Spotted Skunks in that they also have six stripes along the back and sides. One set ofstripes runs parallel to the backbone, and beside those stripes is another set that extends past the shoulders and over the ears. The third set of stripes runs from the shoulder to the abdomen and then curves upwards towards the back. There is also a spot on each of the hips. The color pattern may break up the body outline on moonless nights. Where the two species potentially come together the Western Spotted Skunks tends to have wider white stripes and a larger spot between the eyes. The Western Spotted Skunks is reportedly longer and more slender with a longertail than the Eastern Spotted Skunks. The feet each have five toes and locomotion is plantigrade. Western Spotted Skunks are quite capable climbers. The skull is flatter and wider than that of the Eastern Spotted Skunks, and the front region of the skull is depressed to the level of the cranium. The baculum of the Western Spotted Skunk is shorter than and not as curved as that of the Eastern Spotted Skunk. Western Spotted Skunks also have two muscular musk glands at the base of the tail inside the anal sphincter. These glands are capable of ejecting a noxious yellow fluid that is used in defense to deter a predator. The musk is composed of three major thiols, (E)-2-butene-I-thiol, 3-methyl-1- butanethiol, and 2-phenylethanethiol, and several minor components, including phenylmethanethiol, 2-methyl-quinoline, 2-quinoline methanethiol, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, and bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide. The Western Spotted Skunks does not have the thiol esters associated with the musk as seen in Mephitisand Conepatus. While the spray is as pungent as in the other skunks it does not have the “staying power” without the thiol esters.Habitat.These skunks are found along streams in riparian thickets composed of willows and cottonwoods or alder, salmonberry, tan oak and other hardwoods. They also occur in all stages of dry forests and pine-oak forests, and use canyons, cliffs, rock piles, lava fields, and dry valleys. They prefer areas where they can find cover protection from predators. These skunks will use tunnels and holes of other animals such as mountain beavers in Oregonand wood rats and ground squirrels in other parts of their range. Western Spotted Skunks have been found in older buildings in rural settings, but also have been taken in urban houses and apartments. They also will den around other man-made structures such as dams as long as protective cover is available.Food and Feeding.Western Spotted Skunks eat a variety of food items. They are omnivores, but tend to have a mostly carnivorous diet. They eat small mammals, birds, and lizards. They consume a number of insects including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, and ants. They also will eat fruits and vegetable matter to supplement their diets.Activity patterns.They are generally nocturnal. They prefer to move under the cover of darkness, but have been observed during daylight hours. When nervous they will walk with heavy deliberate steps. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. Like other spotted skunks, they can perform handstands and walk on only their front paws. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. It can spray in this position, but usually drops to all fours and faces the predator with both ends before spraying.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Spotted Skunks usually den alone, but they use multiple dens. Dens may be used by multiple individuals, but not necessarily at the same time. The skunks usually den in areas that provide protective cover, such as under shrubs or prickly pear cactus. During the late summer and early fall months males tend to be captured more than females. This could be due to increased movement of males during the breeding season, which corresponds to these months. Young animals when playing will let out a loud, ear piercing, high pitched screech when excited. Young males of the same litter will wrestle more aggressively than females. They tend to leave the maternal den sooner in order to look for mates. Western Spotted Skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range and very little study has been done of home range, density, and dispersal. However,in an island population these skunks have a larger home range (about twice the size) in the drier months than during the wet months.Breeding.These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.Status and Conservation.. Not listed in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The island spotted skunk in Californiais listed as a subspecies of special concern. Several larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats, bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls are known to prey on spotted skunks. Various intestinal parasites including tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidia have been found in spotted skunks. They also are susceptible to fleas and ticks. Humans have been known to trap and shoot spotted skunks for fur and they have been poisoned as non target animals during predator control efforts. In the USA, rabies has been reported, butit is rare. Western Spotted Skunks have been reported to survive over ten years in captivity.Bibliography.Bailey (1905, 1931, 1936), Carey & Kershner (1996), Crooks & Van Vuren (1995), Dickey (1929), Doty & Dowler (2006), Genoways & Jones (1968), Grinnell et al. (1937), Hall (1926), Hall & Kelson (1952), Howell (1906), Mead (1968b), Merriam (1890a, 1890b), Neiswenter & Dowler (2007), Neiswenter et al. (2006), Patton (1974), Seton (1926), Van Gelder (1959), Verts & Carraway (1998), Verts et al. (2001), Wood et al. (1991)." 03CD879C5A709804FA55F9DCE672F39A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A709804FA55F9DCE672F39A.xml,Chlorotalpa duthieae,Chlorotalpa,duthieae,,,Taupe-dorée de Duthie @fr | Duthie-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Duthie @es,"Chrysochloris duthieae Broom, 1907, Knysna, Western Cape Province,South Africa. Although C. duthieaeis considered subspe- cifically distinct from C. sclateriby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Monotypic.","Endemic to S South Africa, occurring along coast between George and Port Elizabeth, Western and Eastern Cape provinces, respectively; found in two subpopulations.","Head-body 95-125 mm (males) and 96-130 mm (females), hindfoot 9-14 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 26-41 g (males) and 20-27 g (females). Cranial measurements show sexual dimorphism, with males larger than females. Duthie’s Golden Mole is small and slender. Dorsum is reddish black or brownish black, with green sheen; throat and chest are grayish; and muzzle is paler. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.","Afro-montane and coastal forests, suburban gardens, and pasturelands, using alluvial sands and sandy loams.",Limited observations indicate that Duthie’s Golden Mole forages in subsurface tunnels and leaflitter; it mostly eats earthworms.,One pregnant female and two male Duthie’s Golden Moles with enlarged testes were recorded in November. Litters have two young.,Duthie’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal.,Duthie’s Golden Mole moves through shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nests under tree roots. Adults are solitary.,Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Duthie’s Golden Mole has a small extent of occurrence (known from only nine locations) and is facing apparent decline in extent of suitable habitat. It is increasingly threatened by habitat loss due to development of coastal tourism resorts and urban sprawl.,"Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2016b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624528/files/figure.png,"13.Duthie’s Golden MoleChlorotalpa duthieaeFrench:Taupe-dorée de Duthie/ German:Duthie-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de DuthieTaxonomy.Chrysochloris duthieae Broom, 1907, Knysna, Western Cape Province,South Africa. Although C. duthieaeis considered subspe- cifically distinct from C. sclateriby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S South Africa, occurring along coast between George and Port Elizabeth, Western and Eastern Cape provinces, respectively; found in two subpopulations.Descriptive notes.Head-body 95-125 mm (males) and 96-130 mm (females), hindfoot 9-14 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 26-41 g (males) and 20-27 g (females). Cranial measurements show sexual dimorphism, with males larger than females. Duthie’s Golden Mole is small and slender. Dorsum is reddish black or brownish black, with green sheen; throat and chest are grayish; and muzzle is paler. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.Habitat.Afro-montane and coastal forests, suburban gardens, and pasturelands, using alluvial sands and sandy loams.Food and Feeding.Limited observations indicate that Duthie’s Golden Mole forages in subsurface tunnels and leaflitter; it mostly eats earthworms.Breeding.One pregnant female and two male Duthie’s Golden Moles with enlarged testes were recorded in November. Litters have two young.Activity patterns.Duthie’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Duthie’s Golden Mole moves through shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nests under tree roots. Adults are solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Duthie’s Golden Mole has a small extent of occurrence (known from only nine locations) and is facing apparent decline in extent of suitable habitat. It is increasingly threatened by habitat loss due to development of coastal tourism resorts and urban sprawl.Bibliography.Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2016b)." 03CD879C5A709804FF50FAC6EA97F5F0,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A709804FF50FAC6EA97F5F0.xml,Carpitalpa arendsi,Carpitalpa,arendsi,,,Taupe-dorée d Arends @fr | Arends-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Arends @es,"Chlorotalpa (Carpitalpa) arendsiLundholm, 1955, Pungwe Falls, Inyanga,Zimbabwe.G. N. Bronner in 1995 moved arendsifrom Chlorotalpato Carpitalpa. Monotypic.",Eastern Highlands of E Zimbabwe and narrowly into W Mozambique.,"Head-body 115-141 mm (males) and 115-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-16 mm (males) and 12-16 mm (females); weight 43-70 ¢g (males) and 43-56 g (females). Males are slightly larger than females. Arend’s Golden Mole is medium-sized and strongly built, with brownish black dorsum and grayish brown venter. Pelage has violet orsilver sheen. Underfur is dark gray. Muzzle is pale and eye patches are white.","Montane grassland, with preference for loamy soils; open spaces between grassy tussocks; edges ofriverine forests, with deep leaflitter; cultivated land; and gardens at altitudes of 850-2000 m.","Limited information exists for this species, but Arend’s Golden Mole is thought to eat earthworms and insects.",No information.,No information.,Arend’s Golden Mole uses subsurface burrows moving from clumps of grass into open spaces.,Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Arend’s Golden Mole has a small extent of occurrence;it faces shrinking habitat due to poorly managed agricultural practices resulting from politically motived land reform and badly managed protected areas where uncontrolled fires have damaged habitat.,"Bronner (1995a, 2013b, 2015a) | Lundholm (1955) | Smithers & Wilson (1979b)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624524/files/figure.png,"11.Arend’s Golden MoleCarpitalpa arendsiFrench:Taupe-dorée dArends/ German:Arends-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de ArendsTaxonomy.Chlorotalpa (Carpitalpa) arendsiLundholm, 1955, Pungwe Falls, Inyanga,Zimbabwe.G. N. Bronner in 1995 moved arendsifrom Chlorotalpato Carpitalpa. Monotypic.Distribution.Eastern Highlands of E Zimbabwe and narrowly into W Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 115-141 mm (males) and 115-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-16 mm (males) and 12-16 mm (females); weight 43-70 ¢g (males) and 43-56 g (females). Males are slightly larger than females. Arend’s Golden Mole is medium-sized and strongly built, with brownish black dorsum and grayish brown venter. Pelage has violet orsilver sheen. Underfur is dark gray. Muzzle is pale and eye patches are white.Habitat.Montane grassland, with preference for loamy soils; open spaces between grassy tussocks; edges ofriverine forests, with deep leaflitter; cultivated land; and gardens at altitudes of 850-2000 m.Food and Feeding.Limited information exists for this species, but Arend’s Golden Mole is thought to eat earthworms and insects.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Arend’s Golden Mole uses subsurface burrows moving from clumps of grass into open spaces.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Arend’s Golden Mole has a small extent of occurrence;it faces shrinking habitat due to poorly managed agricultural practices resulting from politically motived land reform and badly managed protected areas where uncontrolled fires have damaged habitat.Bibliography.Bronner (1995a, 2013b, 2015a), Lundholm (1955), Smithers & Wilson (1979b)." -03CD879C5A709804FF52F4C8E67DF99B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A709804FF52F4C8E67DF99B.xml,Chlorotalpa sclateri,Chlorotalpa,sclateri,,,Taupe-dorée de Sclater @fr | Sclater-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Sclater @es,"Chrysochloris sclateri Broom, 1907, Matjiesvlei, Beaufort West, Western Cape Province, South Africa.Although C. sclateriis considered subspecifically distinct from C. duthieaeby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Four subspecies recognized.","C.s.sclateriBroom,1907—fromBeaufortWestEalongKoueveldbergeandSneeubergetoGraaff-Reinet,WesternandEasternCapeprovinces,SSouthAfrica.C.s.guwillarmodiRoberts,1936—fromextremeEFreeStateandSWKwaZulu-NatalSthroughLesothotoCEasternCapeProvince,SouthAfrica.C.s.montanaRoberts,1924—knownonlyfromthetypelocalitynearWakkerstroom,MpumalangaProvince,ESouthAfrica.C. s. shortridgei Broom, 1950— known only from the type locality in Sutherland, Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.","Head-body 83-135 mm (males) and 82-123 mm (females), hindfoot 10-16 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 22-54 g (males) and 22-48 g (females). There is no clear sexual dimorphism, although males are slightly larger than females on average. Sclater’s Golden Mole is small and stocky. Dorsum is glossy reddish brown, with darker midline; venter is dull grayish, with rufous tinge. Lips and cheeks are creamy yellow. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.","Karoo and grasslands habitats, restricted to high-elevation grasslands, scrub, and forested gorges. Sclater’s Golden Mole mostly occurs in light sandy soils due to weak digging claws but can use slightly heavier soils after rain.","Sclater’s Golden Mole eats mostly insect larvae and earthworms, foraging in subsurface tunnels extending out from nesting areas.","Pregnant Sclater’s Golden Moles were recorded in December—January. Litter size is two, and young are born in grass-lined nests.","Sclater’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but they can be active during the day for short periods after rain.",Sclater’s Golden Mole is active in shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nesting chambers located under rocks or trees. Adults are solitary.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Sclater’s Golden Mole is relatively widespread, is adaptable to areas transformed by human activities, and occurs in mountainous areas where human impacts are unlikely to be great. It faces no major conservation threats.","Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2016a)",,"12.Sclater’s Golden MoleChlorotalpa sclateriFrench:Taupe-dorée de Sclater/ German:Sclater-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de SclaterTaxonomy.Chrysochloris sclateri Broom, 1907, Matjiesvlei, Beaufort West, Western Cape Province, South Africa.Although C. sclateriis considered subspecifically distinct from C. duthieaeby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.s.sclateriBroom,1907—fromBeaufortWestEalongKoueveldbergeandSneeubergetoGraaff-Reinet,WesternandEasternCapeprovinces,SSouthAfrica.C.s.guwillarmodiRoberts,1936—fromextremeEFreeStateandSWKwaZulu-NatalSthroughLesothotoCEasternCapeProvince,SouthAfrica.C.s.montanaRoberts,1924—knownonlyfromthetypelocalitynearWakkerstroom,MpumalangaProvince,ESouthAfrica.C. s. shortridgei Broom, 1950— known only from the type locality in Sutherland, Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 83-135 mm (males) and 82-123 mm (females), hindfoot 10-16 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 22-54 g (males) and 22-48 g (females). There is no clear sexual dimorphism, although males are slightly larger than females on average. Sclater’s Golden Mole is small and stocky. Dorsum is glossy reddish brown, with darker midline; venter is dull grayish, with rufous tinge. Lips and cheeks are creamy yellow. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.Habitat.Karoo and grasslands habitats, restricted to high-elevation grasslands, scrub, and forested gorges. Sclater’s Golden Mole mostly occurs in light sandy soils due to weak digging claws but can use slightly heavier soils after rain.Food and Feeding.Sclater’s Golden Mole eats mostly insect larvae and earthworms, foraging in subsurface tunnels extending out from nesting areas.Breeding.Pregnant Sclater’s Golden Moles were recorded in December—January. Litter size is two, and young are born in grass-lined nests.Activity patterns.Sclater’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but they can be active during the day for short periods after rain.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sclater’s Golden Mole is active in shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nesting chambers located under rocks or trees. Adults are solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Sclater’s Golden Mole is relatively widespread, is adaptable to areas transformed by human activities, and occurs in mountainous areas where human impacts are unlikely to be great. It faces no major conservation threats.Bibliography.Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2016a)." -03CD879C5A70980BFA68F2E6EDEBF8E7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A70980BFA68F2E6EDEBF8E7.xml,Chrysochloris stuhlmanni,Chrysochloris,stuhlmanni,Matschie,1894,Taupe-dorée de Stuhlmann @fr | Stuhimann-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Stuhlmann @es,"Chrysochloris stuhlmanni Matschie, 1894, Ukondjo and Kinyawan- ga, Rwenzori region, Uganda.Additional specimens are needed to clarify subspecific taxonomy of C. stuhlmanni. Five subspecies recognized.","C.s.stuhlmanniiMatschie,1894—RwenzoriMts,NEDRCongoandSWUganda.C.s.balsac:Lamotte&Petter,1981—MtOku,WCameroon.C.s.fosteriSt.Leger,1931—MtElgon,EUganda,andCheranganiHills,WKenya.C.s.tropicalisG.M.Allen&Loveridge,1927—UluguruMtsandRungwedistrict,Tanzania.C. s. vermiculus Thomas, 1910— known only from the vicinity of Yambuya and Kisangani, N DR Congo.","Head-body 106-123 mm (males) and 103-111 mm (females), hindfoot 10-12 mm (males) and 10-12 mm (females); weight 42 g. Dorsal pelage has iridescent silvery sheen and can be various shades of brown, including blackish brown, grayish brown, and fawn; venter is paler.","Montane grasslands, bamboo thickets, heather, and Podocarpus(Podocarpaceae) woodlands with light, easily worked soil and sparse vegetation cover at elevations of 1700-3500 m.","Diet of Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms and insect larvae (primarily dipterans) but also myriapods, mollusks, and small crustaceans.","Three pregnant Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles were recorded in July, and they had one embryo each. Altricial young remain with their mothers for 2-3 months.",Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles are nocturnal.,"Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles move through underground tunnels c.4 cm below the surface; extent of movement is determined by ease of digging through soil. In forests, they burrow in leaflitter. Adults are thought to be solitary except during breeding and when females are accompanied by young.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Stuh-Imann’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and away from human activity. Little is known about population trends and conservation threats.,"Bronner (2013b, 2015b) | Duncan & Wrangham (1971) | Jarvis (1974)",,"14.Stuhlmann’s Golden MoleChrysochloris stuhlmanniFrench:Taupe-dorée de Stuhlmann/ German:Stuhimann-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de StuhlmannTaxonomy.Chrysochloris stuhlmanni Matschie, 1894, Ukondjo and Kinyawan- ga, Rwenzori region, Uganda.Additional specimens are needed to clarify subspecific taxonomy of C. stuhlmanni. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.s.stuhlmanniiMatschie,1894—RwenzoriMts,NEDRCongoandSWUganda.C.s.balsac:Lamotte&Petter,1981—MtOku,WCameroon.C.s.fosteriSt.Leger,1931—MtElgon,EUganda,andCheranganiHills,WKenya.C.s.tropicalisG.M.Allen&Loveridge,1927—UluguruMtsandRungwedistrict,Tanzania.C. s. vermiculus Thomas, 1910— known only from the vicinity of Yambuya and Kisangani, N DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 106-123 mm (males) and 103-111 mm (females), hindfoot 10-12 mm (males) and 10-12 mm (females); weight 42 g. Dorsal pelage has iridescent silvery sheen and can be various shades of brown, including blackish brown, grayish brown, and fawn; venter is paler.Habitat.Montane grasslands, bamboo thickets, heather, and Podocarpus(Podocarpaceae) woodlands with light, easily worked soil and sparse vegetation cover at elevations of 1700-3500 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms and insect larvae (primarily dipterans) but also myriapods, mollusks, and small crustaceans.Breeding.Three pregnant Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles were recorded in July, and they had one embryo each. Altricial young remain with their mothers for 2-3 months.Activity patterns.Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles move through underground tunnels c.4 cm below the surface; extent of movement is determined by ease of digging through soil. In forests, they burrow in leaflitter. Adults are thought to be solitary except during breeding and when females are accompanied by young.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Stuh-Imann’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and away from human activity. Little is known about population trends and conservation threats.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b, 2015b), Duncan & Wrangham (1971), Jarvis (1974)." +03CD879C5A709804FF52F4C8E67DF99B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A709804FF52F4C8E67DF99B.xml,Chlorotalpa sclateri,Chlorotalpa,sclateri,,,Taupe-dorée de Sclater @fr | Sclater-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Sclater @es,"Chrysochloris sclateri Broom, 1907, Matjiesvlei, Beaufort West, Western Cape Province, South Africa.Although C. sclateriis considered subspecifically distinct from C. duthieaeby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Four subspecies recognized.","C.s.sclateriBroom,1907—fromBeaufortWestEalongKoueveldbergeandSneeubergetoGraaff-Reinet,WesternandEasternCapeprovinces,SSouthAfrica.C.s.guwillarmodiRoberts,1936—fromextremeEFreeStateandSWKwaZulu-NatalSthroughLesothotoCEasternCapeProvince,SouthAfrica.C.s.montanaRoberts,1924—knownonlyfromthetypelocalitynearWakkerstroom,MpumalangaProvince,ESouthAfrica.C. s. shortridgei Broom, 1950— known only from the type locality in Sutherland, Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.","Head-body 83-135 mm (males) and 82-123 mm (females), hindfoot 10-16 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 22-54 g (males) and 22-48 g (females). There is no clear sexual dimorphism, although males are slightly larger than females on average. Sclater’s Golden Mole is small and stocky. Dorsum is glossy reddish brown, with darker midline; venter is dull grayish, with rufous tinge. Lips and cheeks are creamy yellow. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.","Karoo and grasslands habitats, restricted to high-elevation grasslands, scrub, and forested gorges. Sclater’s Golden Mole mostly occurs in light sandy soils due to weak digging claws but can use slightly heavier soils after rain.","Sclater’s Golden Mole eats mostly insect larvae and earthworms, foraging in subsurface tunnels extending out from nesting areas.","Pregnant Sclater’s Golden Moles were recorded in December—January. Litter size is two, and young are born in grass-lined nests.","Sclater’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but they can be active during the day for short periods after rain.",Sclater’s Golden Mole is active in shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nesting chambers located under rocks or trees. Adults are solitary.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Sclater’s Golden Mole is relatively widespread, is adaptable to areas transformed by human activities, and occurs in mountainous areas where human impacts are unlikely to be great. It faces no major conservation threats.","Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2016a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624526/files/figure.png,"12.Sclater’s Golden MoleChlorotalpa sclateriFrench:Taupe-dorée de Sclater/ German:Sclater-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de SclaterTaxonomy.Chrysochloris sclateri Broom, 1907, Matjiesvlei, Beaufort West, Western Cape Province, South Africa.Although C. sclateriis considered subspecifically distinct from C. duthieaeby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.s.sclateriBroom,1907—fromBeaufortWestEalongKoueveldbergeandSneeubergetoGraaff-Reinet,WesternandEasternCapeprovinces,SSouthAfrica.C.s.guwillarmodiRoberts,1936—fromextremeEFreeStateandSWKwaZulu-NatalSthroughLesothotoCEasternCapeProvince,SouthAfrica.C.s.montanaRoberts,1924—knownonlyfromthetypelocalitynearWakkerstroom,MpumalangaProvince,ESouthAfrica.C. s. shortridgei Broom, 1950— known only from the type locality in Sutherland, Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 83-135 mm (males) and 82-123 mm (females), hindfoot 10-16 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 22-54 g (males) and 22-48 g (females). There is no clear sexual dimorphism, although males are slightly larger than females on average. Sclater’s Golden Mole is small and stocky. Dorsum is glossy reddish brown, with darker midline; venter is dull grayish, with rufous tinge. Lips and cheeks are creamy yellow. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.Habitat.Karoo and grasslands habitats, restricted to high-elevation grasslands, scrub, and forested gorges. Sclater’s Golden Mole mostly occurs in light sandy soils due to weak digging claws but can use slightly heavier soils after rain.Food and Feeding.Sclater’s Golden Mole eats mostly insect larvae and earthworms, foraging in subsurface tunnels extending out from nesting areas.Breeding.Pregnant Sclater’s Golden Moles were recorded in December—January. Litter size is two, and young are born in grass-lined nests.Activity patterns.Sclater’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but they can be active during the day for short periods after rain.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sclater’s Golden Mole is active in shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nesting chambers located under rocks or trees. Adults are solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Sclater’s Golden Mole is relatively widespread, is adaptable to areas transformed by human activities, and occurs in mountainous areas where human impacts are unlikely to be great. It faces no major conservation threats.Bibliography.Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2016a)." +03CD879C5A70980BFA68F2E6EDEBF8E7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,200,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A70980BFA68F2E6EDEBF8E7.xml,Chrysochloris stuhlmanni,Chrysochloris,stuhlmanni,Matschie,1894,Taupe-dorée de Stuhlmann @fr | Stuhimann-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Stuhlmann @es,"Chrysochloris stuhlmanni Matschie, 1894, Ukondjo and Kinyawan- ga, Rwenzori region, Uganda.Additional specimens are needed to clarify subspecific taxonomy of C. stuhlmanni. Five subspecies recognized.","C.s.stuhlmanniiMatschie,1894—RwenzoriMts,NEDRCongoandSWUganda.C.s.balsac:Lamotte&Petter,1981—MtOku,WCameroon.C.s.fosteriSt.Leger,1931—MtElgon,EUganda,andCheranganiHills,WKenya.C.s.tropicalisG.M.Allen&Loveridge,1927—UluguruMtsandRungwedistrict,Tanzania.C. s. vermiculus Thomas, 1910— known only from the vicinity of Yambuya and Kisangani, N DR Congo.","Head-body 106-123 mm (males) and 103-111 mm (females), hindfoot 10-12 mm (males) and 10-12 mm (females); weight 42 g. Dorsal pelage has iridescent silvery sheen and can be various shades of brown, including blackish brown, grayish brown, and fawn; venter is paler.","Montane grasslands, bamboo thickets, heather, and Podocarpus(Podocarpaceae) woodlands with light, easily worked soil and sparse vegetation cover at elevations of 1700-3500 m.","Diet of Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms and insect larvae (primarily dipterans) but also myriapods, mollusks, and small crustaceans.","Three pregnant Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles were recorded in July, and they had one embryo each. Altricial young remain with their mothers for 2-3 months.",Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles are nocturnal.,"Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles move through underground tunnels c.4 cm below the surface; extent of movement is determined by ease of digging through soil. In forests, they burrow in leaflitter. Adults are thought to be solitary except during breeding and when females are accompanied by young.",Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Stuh-Imann’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and away from human activity. Little is known about population trends and conservation threats.,"Bronner (2013b, 2015b) | Duncan & Wrangham (1971) | Jarvis (1974)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624532/files/figure.png,"14.Stuhlmann’s Golden MoleChrysochloris stuhlmanniFrench:Taupe-dorée de Stuhlmann/ German:Stuhimann-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de StuhlmannTaxonomy.Chrysochloris stuhlmanni Matschie, 1894, Ukondjo and Kinyawan- ga, Rwenzori region, Uganda.Additional specimens are needed to clarify subspecific taxonomy of C. stuhlmanni. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.s.stuhlmanniiMatschie,1894—RwenzoriMts,NEDRCongoandSWUganda.C.s.balsac:Lamotte&Petter,1981—MtOku,WCameroon.C.s.fosteriSt.Leger,1931—MtElgon,EUganda,andCheranganiHills,WKenya.C.s.tropicalisG.M.Allen&Loveridge,1927—UluguruMtsandRungwedistrict,Tanzania.C. s. vermiculus Thomas, 1910— known only from the vicinity of Yambuya and Kisangani, N DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 106-123 mm (males) and 103-111 mm (females), hindfoot 10-12 mm (males) and 10-12 mm (females); weight 42 g. Dorsal pelage has iridescent silvery sheen and can be various shades of brown, including blackish brown, grayish brown, and fawn; venter is paler.Habitat.Montane grasslands, bamboo thickets, heather, and Podocarpus(Podocarpaceae) woodlands with light, easily worked soil and sparse vegetation cover at elevations of 1700-3500 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms and insect larvae (primarily dipterans) but also myriapods, mollusks, and small crustaceans.Breeding.Three pregnant Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles were recorded in July, and they had one embryo each. Altricial young remain with their mothers for 2-3 months.Activity patterns.Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles move through underground tunnels c.4 cm below the surface; extent of movement is determined by ease of digging through soil. In forests, they burrow in leaflitter. Adults are thought to be solitary except during breeding and when females are accompanied by young.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Stuh-Imann’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and away from human activity. Little is known about population trends and conservation threats.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b, 2015b), Duncan & Wrangham (1971), Jarvis (1974)." 03CD879C5A719804FF82F5DEEC60FBA1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,199,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A719804FF82F5DEEC60FBA1.xml,Neamblysomus julianae,Neamblysomus,julianae,Meester,1972,Taupe-dorée de Juliana @fr | Juliana-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Juliana @es,"Amblysomus julianae Meester, 1972, “Willows, Pretoria (25° 46’ S, 28° 20° E),”Gauteng Province, South Africa. G. N. Bronner in 1995 reassigned juli- anae to Neamblysomuswith N. gunningi. Consistent but subtle morphological differences (dentition and color), preliminary evidence for genetic partitioning, and no indication of gene flow between subpopulations are evident between Kruger National Park subpopulation and Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge subpopulations at extremes of its distribution, suggesting the need for additional investigation into potential cryptic species. Monotypic.","NE South Africa, known only from three small, widely separated locations: Bronberg Ridge area in SE Pretoria, Gauteng Province (18 sites), Nylsvley Nature Reserve and surrounding farms on Nyl floodplain in Modimolle district,Limpopo Province (9 sites), and near Pretoriuskop Camp, Fayi area (Macili and Machulwane), and Numbi Gate in SW Kruger National Park, Mpumalanga Province (4 sites).","Head-body 94-111 mm (males) and 92-111 mm (females), hindfoot 12-14 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 21-46 g (males) and 23-29 g (females). Juliana’s Golden Mole is one of the smallest golden moles and has slender shape and foreclaws, relatively short skull (less than 24 mm) with wide braincase (width /length index 67-70%), and wide palate (width 30-32% of greatest skull length). M? of adults lack well-developed talonids, although present in some juveniles, but they are rudimentary and peg-like in shape. M, are variably present in specimens from Kruger National Park subpopulation and are small and peg-like if present; they are absent in specimens from Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge subpopulations. Dorsum of specimens from the Kruger National Park is reddish brown, venter is brown, and cheeks and muzzle are almost pure white. Dorsum of specimens from Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge is cinnamon-brown, becoming darker along mid-back and lighter toward flanks; venter is fawn-colored with reddish brown and gray underfur; and upper chest is tinted yellow. Upper parts of forelimbs, cheeks, throat, and muzzle are off-white, and short off-white bristles are present on upper parts of hindfeet. Robust forefeet have four digits and peg-like claws; first claw is very short, barely reaching point where second claw emerges from skin; and second claw is almost equal in length to third and largest claw (length 8-10 mm, basal width 3—4 mm). Fourth digit is stunted and knob-like. Membrane fuses four digits on hindfeet, each with thin curved claw; third claw is very long. Juliana’s Golden Mole closely resembles Gunning’s Golden Mole (N. gunningi), but smaller size, paler pelage, narrower skull, and subtle chromosomal differences differentiate them. Absence of well-developed talonids on M* and much smaller body size and skull distinguish Juliana’s Golden Mole from the Fynbos Golden Mole (A. corriae), the Hottentot Golden Mole (A. hottentotus), the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps), Meester’s Golden Mole (A. meester), the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis), and the Robust Golden Mole (A. robustus). Juliana’s Golden Mole has broader skull, wider palate, and length of upper tooth row relative to palatal length than does Marley’s Golden Mole (A. marleyi) but is smaller. Small and unspecialized mallei in middle ears of all species of Neamblysomusand Amblysomusare inside crania and represent typical mammalian form. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56, with highly conserved karyotype.","Mostly open and closed savanna woodlands (bushveld), rocky grasslands, and scrublands varying from Mixed Sour Bushveld and Rocky Highveld Grassland in the Bronberg Ridge area through Clay Thorn Bushveld on the Nyl floodplain or Lowveld Sour Bushveld in the Pretoriuskop, Fayi, and Numbi Gate areas of Kruger National Park. Juliana’s Golden Moles thrive in highly transformed habitats such as urban and rural gardens, cultivated lands, and road edges where narrow passages of suitable soils provide alternative dispersal routes between isolated patches of prime habitats. They are weak diggers due to their small size and gracile foreclaws, and thus they favor soft sandy or loamy soils with tree or vegetation cover, often associated with rocky ridges.","Juliana’s Golden Moles are presumably insectivorous and carnivorous. A captive individual ate cockroaches, grasshoppers, beetles, other insects and their larvae, ground beef, and some earthworms but avoided snails and slugs; prey was mostly dragged into a burrow but sometimes eaten on the surface.","GravidJuliana’s Golden Moles were found in winter (July-August) and summer (November—February), indicating an aseasonal polyestrous system. Litters have 1-2 young, and postnatal care is relatively long.","On the Bronberg Ridge, Juliana’s Golden Moles were most active in late morning, late afternoon, and early evening. In Nylsvley Nature Reserve and surroundings, most activity was recorded in late morning (09:00-13:00 h, peak at 11:00 h) and evening (19:00-23:00 h, peak at 21:00 h).","Burrow systems of Juliana’s Golden Moles consist of superficial foraging tunnels in upper soil layers (3-15 cm), visible as raised ridges or broken soil on the surface when fresh, and deeper permanent tunnels for resting, giving birth, and raising young. Some tunnels spiraled down 40-50 cm, but no chambers or nests were found. Foraging activity peaks in wet summer months, declining substantially in cold and dry winter months, although foraging continues in deeper tunnels. Subsurface foraging increases markedly a few days after rain when soil is moist and invertebrate prey is plentiful, but signs of these runways/furrows disappear on the surface during dry conditions. Juliana’s Golden Moles are locally common in suitable habitat. One individual that was radio-tracked for six consecutive days in Nylsvley Nature Reserve used 3964 m* and moved 303-8 m. Fluctuating body temperatures (T,) and shallow torpor were used when ambient temperatures (T) were high, with evidence of behavioral thermoregulation to reduce daily energy expenditure. The individual returned to the same cool area for resting during heat of the day and used passive heating to increase its T, in the early mornings when T, were rising. Adult Juliana’s Golden Moles are solitary except during breeding and when females raise young. Sexes are very territorial; brutal aggressive behavior toward conspecifics occurs in captivity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Bronberg Ridge subpopulation is classified as Critically Endangered.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Bronberg Ridge subpopulation is classified as Critically Endangered. Conservation status of distinct lineages of Juliana’s Golden Moles in widely separated subpopulations might require revision after taxonomy is clarified. Total extent of occurrence is severely fragmented and totals ¢.747-5 km?* ¢.12-5 km* on Bronberg Ridge, ¢.718 km? on the Nyl floodplain, and c.17 km? in Kruger National Park. Estimated area of occupancy is only ¢.160 km? due to specialized habitat requirements, narrow habitat tolerances, and poor dispersal abilities. Currently, two subpopulations are protected in Kruger National Park and Nylsvley Nature Reserve. Only 1% of the Bronberg Ridge subpopulation falls in the Faerie Glen Nature Reserve. Major threats are habitat loss and fragmentation from urbanization (Bronberg Ridge and Modimolle), quartzite mining (Bronberg), infrastructure development (Bronberg, Modimolle, and Kruger National Park) and agriculture (Modimolle). Informing policy makers, developers, and the public are needed to bolster existing conservation activities and enhance protection of remaining suitable habitat. Minor threats include harassment by humans (e.g. gardeners and landowners) and predation (domestic pets, wild carnivores, snakes, and owls). Most captive Juliana’s Golden Moles die from dehydration within a few days after capture because as they refuse to eat, become sluggish, as if in a state of torpor, and then die.","Bronner (1990, 1995a, 1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2005) | Driver et al. (2012) | Freitag & Van Jaarsveld (1997) | Gilbert et al. (2008) | Jackson, C.R. (2007) | Jackson, C.R. & Robertson (2011) | Jackson, C.R., Lubbe et al. (2008) | Jackson, C.R., Maree et al. (2007) | Jackson, C.R., Setsaas, Robertson & Bennett (2008) | Jackson, C.R., Setsaas, Robertson, Scantlebury & Bennett (2009) | Kuyper (1979) | Maree (2015e, 2015f, 2017) | Maree, Bennett & Bronner (2016) | Maree, Bronner et al. (2003) | Martin (2015) | Meester (1972) | Meester et al. (1986) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624522/files/figure.png,"10.Juliana’s Golden MoleNeamblysomus julianaeFrench:Taupe-dorée de Juliana/ German:Juliana-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de JulianaTaxonomy.Amblysomus julianae Meester, 1972, “Willows, Pretoria (25° 46’ S, 28° 20° E),”Gauteng Province, South Africa. G. N. Bronner in 1995 reassigned juli- anae to Neamblysomuswith N. gunningi. Consistent but subtle morphological differences (dentition and color), preliminary evidence for genetic partitioning, and no indication of gene flow between subpopulations are evident between Kruger National Park subpopulation and Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge subpopulations at extremes of its distribution, suggesting the need for additional investigation into potential cryptic species. Monotypic.Distribution.NE South Africa, known only from three small, widely separated locations: Bronberg Ridge area in SE Pretoria, Gauteng Province (18 sites), Nylsvley Nature Reserve and surrounding farms on Nyl floodplain in Modimolle district,Limpopo Province (9 sites), and near Pretoriuskop Camp, Fayi area (Macili and Machulwane), and Numbi Gate in SW Kruger National Park, Mpumalanga Province (4 sites).Descriptive notes.Head-body 94-111 mm (males) and 92-111 mm (females), hindfoot 12-14 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 21-46 g (males) and 23-29 g (females). Juliana’s Golden Mole is one of the smallest golden moles and has slender shape and foreclaws, relatively short skull (less than 24 mm) with wide braincase (width /length index 67-70%), and wide palate (width 30-32% of greatest skull length). M? of adults lack well-developed talonids, although present in some juveniles, but they are rudimentary and peg-like in shape. M, are variably present in specimens from Kruger National Park subpopulation and are small and peg-like if present; they are absent in specimens from Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge subpopulations. Dorsum of specimens from the Kruger National Park is reddish brown, venter is brown, and cheeks and muzzle are almost pure white. Dorsum of specimens from Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge is cinnamon-brown, becoming darker along mid-back and lighter toward flanks; venter is fawn-colored with reddish brown and gray underfur; and upper chest is tinted yellow. Upper parts of forelimbs, cheeks, throat, and muzzle are off-white, and short off-white bristles are present on upper parts of hindfeet. Robust forefeet have four digits and peg-like claws; first claw is very short, barely reaching point where second claw emerges from skin; and second claw is almost equal in length to third and largest claw (length 8-10 mm, basal width 3—4 mm). Fourth digit is stunted and knob-like. Membrane fuses four digits on hindfeet, each with thin curved claw; third claw is very long. Juliana’s Golden Mole closely resembles Gunning’s Golden Mole (N. gunningi), but smaller size, paler pelage, narrower skull, and subtle chromosomal differences differentiate them. Absence of well-developed talonids on M* and much smaller body size and skull distinguish Juliana’s Golden Mole from the Fynbos Golden Mole (A. corriae), the Hottentot Golden Mole (A. hottentotus), the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps), Meester’s Golden Mole (A. meester), the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis), and the Robust Golden Mole (A. robustus). Juliana’s Golden Mole has broader skull, wider palate, and length of upper tooth row relative to palatal length than does Marley’s Golden Mole (A. marleyi) but is smaller. Small and unspecialized mallei in middle ears of all species of Neamblysomusand Amblysomusare inside crania and represent typical mammalian form. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56, with highly conserved karyotype.Habitat.Mostly open and closed savanna woodlands (bushveld), rocky grasslands, and scrublands varying from Mixed Sour Bushveld and Rocky Highveld Grassland in the Bronberg Ridge area through Clay Thorn Bushveld on the Nyl floodplain or Lowveld Sour Bushveld in the Pretoriuskop, Fayi, and Numbi Gate areas of Kruger National Park. Juliana’s Golden Moles thrive in highly transformed habitats such as urban and rural gardens, cultivated lands, and road edges where narrow passages of suitable soils provide alternative dispersal routes between isolated patches of prime habitats. They are weak diggers due to their small size and gracile foreclaws, and thus they favor soft sandy or loamy soils with tree or vegetation cover, often associated with rocky ridges.Food and Feeding.Juliana’s Golden Moles are presumably insectivorous and carnivorous. A captive individual ate cockroaches, grasshoppers, beetles, other insects and their larvae, ground beef, and some earthworms but avoided snails and slugs; prey was mostly dragged into a burrow but sometimes eaten on the surface.Breeding.GravidJuliana’s Golden Moles were found in winter (July-August) and summer (November—February), indicating an aseasonal polyestrous system. Litters have 1-2 young, and postnatal care is relatively long.Activity patterns.On the Bronberg Ridge, Juliana’s Golden Moles were most active in late morning, late afternoon, and early evening. In Nylsvley Nature Reserve and surroundings, most activity was recorded in late morning (09:00-13:00 h, peak at 11:00 h) and evening (19:00-23:00 h, peak at 21:00 h).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrow systems of Juliana’s Golden Moles consist of superficial foraging tunnels in upper soil layers (3-15 cm), visible as raised ridges or broken soil on the surface when fresh, and deeper permanent tunnels for resting, giving birth, and raising young. Some tunnels spiraled down 40-50 cm, but no chambers or nests were found. Foraging activity peaks in wet summer months, declining substantially in cold and dry winter months, although foraging continues in deeper tunnels. Subsurface foraging increases markedly a few days after rain when soil is moist and invertebrate prey is plentiful, but signs of these runways/furrows disappear on the surface during dry conditions. Juliana’s Golden Moles are locally common in suitable habitat. One individual that was radio-tracked for six consecutive days in Nylsvley Nature Reserve used 3964 m* and moved 303-8 m. Fluctuating body temperatures (T,) and shallow torpor were used when ambient temperatures (T) were high, with evidence of behavioral thermoregulation to reduce daily energy expenditure. The individual returned to the same cool area for resting during heat of the day and used passive heating to increase its T, in the early mornings when T, were rising. Adult Juliana’s Golden Moles are solitary except during breeding and when females raise young. Sexes are very territorial; brutal aggressive behavior toward conspecifics occurs in captivity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Bronberg Ridge subpopulation is classified as Critically Endangered. Conservation status of distinct lineages of Juliana’s Golden Moles in widely separated subpopulations might require revision after taxonomy is clarified. Total extent of occurrence is severely fragmented and totals ¢.747-5 km?* ¢.12-5 km* on Bronberg Ridge, ¢.718 km? on the Nyl floodplain, and c.17 km? in Kruger National Park. Estimated area of occupancy is only ¢.160 km? due to specialized habitat requirements, narrow habitat tolerances, and poor dispersal abilities. Currently, two subpopulations are protected in Kruger National Park and Nylsvley Nature Reserve. Only 1% of the Bronberg Ridge subpopulation falls in the Faerie Glen Nature Reserve. Major threats are habitat loss and fragmentation from urbanization (Bronberg Ridge and Modimolle), quartzite mining (Bronberg), infrastructure development (Bronberg, Modimolle, and Kruger National Park) and agriculture (Modimolle). Informing policy makers, developers, and the public are needed to bolster existing conservation activities and enhance protection of remaining suitable habitat. Minor threats include harassment by humans (e.g. gardeners and landowners) and predation (domestic pets, wild carnivores, snakes, and owls). Most captive Juliana’s Golden Moles die from dehydration within a few days after capture because as they refuse to eat, become sluggish, as if in a state of torpor, and then die.Bibliography.Bronner (1990, 1995a, 1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2005), Driver et al. (2012), Freitag & Van Jaarsveld (1997), Gilbert et al. (2008), Jackson, C.R. (2007), Jackson, C.R. & Robertson (2011), Jackson, C.R., Lubbe et al. (2008), Jackson, C.R., Maree et al. (2007), Jackson, C.R., Setsaas, Robertson & Bennett (2008), Jackson, C.R., Setsaas, Robertson, Scantlebury & Bennett (2009), Kuyper (1979), Maree (2015e, 2015f, 2017), Maree, Bennett & Bronner (2016), Maree, Bronner et al. (2003), Martin (2015), Meester (1972), Meester et al. (1986), Skinner & Chimimba (2005)." 03CD879C5A729805FA56F769ED20F599,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A729805FA56F769ED20F599.xml,Neamblysomus gunningi,Neamblysomus,gunningi,,,Taupe-dorée de Gunning @fr | Gunning-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Gunning @es,"Chrysochloris gunning: Broom, 1908, “Woodbush Hill, Zoutpansberg [= Soutpansberg district],”Limpopo Prov- ince, South Africa.The species gunning: was originally placed In the genus Chrysochlorisbut included in Amblysomusin several subsequent taxonomic revisions. G. N. Bronner in 1995 elevated it to generic rank. Monotypic.","Endemic to NE South Africa, highly restricted and fragmented distribution documented from six confirmed sites in far N Drakensberg escarpment, Limpopo Province.","Head-body 121-132 mm (males) and 111-128 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-17 mm (females); weight 62-8 (56-70) g (males) and 51 (39-56) g (females). Gunning’s Golden Mole is medium-sized, resembling the Hottentot Golden Mole (Amblysomus hottentotus) and the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis) in shape and appearance but distinguished from these by its gracile claws and consistent presence of M®. Male Gunning’s Golden Moles are somewhat larger and heavier than females. Dorsum varies from dark reddish brown through different hues of brown to black, with distinctive bronze sheen; venter is fawn, with reddish brown and gray underfur. Cheeks and throat are reddish brown, and tip of muzzle is tinged yellow and much paler than upper parts of body. Forefeet are robust, with four digits and distinctive claws. Claw on first digit is short and narrow, claw on second digit is three-quarters the length of claw on longest third digit (12-5-14 mm), and claw on fourth digit is reduced and knob-like. Membrane fuses four digits on hindfeet, and each digit has narrow-curved claw; third claw is significantly longer. Skull is elongate (breadth 63% of greater skull length, GSL), and palate isnarrow (28% of GSL). Talonids on lower molars are absent in adults; rudimentary talonids on M, are sometimes presentin juveniles but become peg-like due to tooth wear. Mallei in middle ears are small and unspecialized. No geographical variation has been recorded for morphological traits. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","[.ow-lying and high-elevation indigenous forests (Mistbelt Forests and Wolkberg Afro-montane Forest Belt) and adjacent montane grasslands (Northeastern Mountain Grassland) in the Savanna Biome of South Africa (southernmost tip of the Zambezian Woodland Biozone). Gunning’s Golden Mole is a forest specialist. It prefers moist sandy or loamy soils along watercourses and near ponds in natural habitat, but its burrow systems can also extend into highly transformed habitats with loose soils, such as timber plantations, cultivated land (e.g. tea fields), pastures (livestock), rural and suburban gardens, and road shoulders. It coexists with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus) in natural, undisturbed habitat and highly transformed areas, but itis confined to moist and friable soils.","Gunning’s Golden Mole is insectivorous and carnivorous, mainly feeding on insects; evidence from stomach contents suggests it also consumes earthworms. Captive individuals willingly eat mealworms (tenebroid larvae), crickets, and young mice.","Gravid Gunning’s Golden Moles captured in February, April, and May suggest that seasonal breeding occurs during wet summer months. Females are polyestrous.","Gunning’s Golden Mole is predominantly nocturnal, but some activity occurs in late afternoon in winter. Foraging activity substantially increases after rain when soils are moist and suitable prey items are plentiful.","Gunning’s Golden Mole constructs extensive burrow systems with shallow subsurface foraging tunnels, also used for dispersal, and deeper tunnels (15-30 cm) used for resting and raising young. Small irregular mounds mark entrances to deeper tunnels. Brief bouts of surface foraging in thick layers of leaflitter occasionally occur at night. Adults are solitary, except when females are raising offspring.","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Gunning’s Golden Mole faces threats from commercial forestry plantations and associated road infrastructure, replacing indigenous forests and abutting grasslands, cultivation, housing, and tourism infrastructure development in formerly rural areas around Haenertsburg. These have caused severe habitat destruction, fragmentation, and loss for c¢.40 years and resulted in marked decreases in quality and area of suitable habitat found in three localized areas that comprise the small and fragmented distribution of Gunning’s Golden Mole. Area of occupancy estimated from six confirmed locations is only 96 km? and total extent of occurrence is ¢.1327 km? (minimum polygon). Although small parts ofits distribution are protected in state-owned forest reserves (e.g. De Hoek, New Agatha, and Woodbush), currently implemented protection measures and management are not necessarily cognizant of very specific habitat requirements of Gunning’s Golden Mole. Privatization of state-owned forests renders continued protection in some areas uncertain. Minor threats include predation by domestic pets and persecution by gardeners and landowners. Gunning’s Golden Mole is considered of global and regional conservation concern and ranks among the top 100 mammalian species (number 73) in the EDGE of Existence Program, which aims to conserve the world’s Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered species. It received the highest regional priority score for mammals in the former Transvaal Province (South Africa) based on relative occupancy, endemism, taxonomic distinctiveness, and vulnerability. Gunning’s Golden Mole does not receive any dedicated conservation attention, and knowledge of its ecology,life history traits, and evolutionary relationships remains sparse. Such information is crucial for informing effective development of a conservation management plan.","Bronner (1990, 1995a, 1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2005) | Driver et al. (2012) | Freitag & Van Jaarsveld (1997) | Isaac et al. (2007) | Maree (2015d) | Maree & Bronner (2016a) | Martin (2015) | Meester et al. (1986) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Von Maltitz et al. (2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624518/files/figure.png,"9.Gunning’s Golden MoleNeamblysomus gunningiFrench:Taupe-dorée de Gunning/ German:Gunning-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de GunningTaxonomy.Chrysochloris gunning: Broom, 1908, “Woodbush Hill, Zoutpansberg [= Soutpansberg district],”Limpopo Prov- ince, South Africa.The species gunning: was originally placed In the genus Chrysochlorisbut included in Amblysomusin several subsequent taxonomic revisions. G. N. Bronner in 1995 elevated it to generic rank. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to NE South Africa, highly restricted and fragmented distribution documented from six confirmed sites in far N Drakensberg escarpment, Limpopo Province.Descriptive notes.Head-body 121-132 mm (males) and 111-128 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-17 mm (females); weight 62-8 (56-70) g (males) and 51 (39-56) g (females). Gunning’s Golden Mole is medium-sized, resembling the Hottentot Golden Mole (Amblysomus hottentotus) and the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis) in shape and appearance but distinguished from these by its gracile claws and consistent presence of M®. Male Gunning’s Golden Moles are somewhat larger and heavier than females. Dorsum varies from dark reddish brown through different hues of brown to black, with distinctive bronze sheen; venter is fawn, with reddish brown and gray underfur. Cheeks and throat are reddish brown, and tip of muzzle is tinged yellow and much paler than upper parts of body. Forefeet are robust, with four digits and distinctive claws. Claw on first digit is short and narrow, claw on second digit is three-quarters the length of claw on longest third digit (12-5-14 mm), and claw on fourth digit is reduced and knob-like. Membrane fuses four digits on hindfeet, and each digit has narrow-curved claw; third claw is significantly longer. Skull is elongate (breadth 63% of greater skull length, GSL), and palate isnarrow (28% of GSL). Talonids on lower molars are absent in adults; rudimentary talonids on M, are sometimes presentin juveniles but become peg-like due to tooth wear. Mallei in middle ears are small and unspecialized. No geographical variation has been recorded for morphological traits. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.[.ow-lying and high-elevation indigenous forests (Mistbelt Forests and Wolkberg Afro-montane Forest Belt) and adjacent montane grasslands (Northeastern Mountain Grassland) in the Savanna Biome of South Africa (southernmost tip of the Zambezian Woodland Biozone). Gunning’s Golden Mole is a forest specialist. It prefers moist sandy or loamy soils along watercourses and near ponds in natural habitat, but its burrow systems can also extend into highly transformed habitats with loose soils, such as timber plantations, cultivated land (e.g. tea fields), pastures (livestock), rural and suburban gardens, and road shoulders. It coexists with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus) in natural, undisturbed habitat and highly transformed areas, but itis confined to moist and friable soils.Food and Feeding.Gunning’s Golden Mole is insectivorous and carnivorous, mainly feeding on insects; evidence from stomach contents suggests it also consumes earthworms. Captive individuals willingly eat mealworms (tenebroid larvae), crickets, and young mice.Breeding.Gravid Gunning’s Golden Moles captured in February, April, and May suggest that seasonal breeding occurs during wet summer months. Females are polyestrous.Activity patterns.Gunning’s Golden Mole is predominantly nocturnal, but some activity occurs in late afternoon in winter. Foraging activity substantially increases after rain when soils are moist and suitable prey items are plentiful.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Gunning’s Golden Mole constructs extensive burrow systems with shallow subsurface foraging tunnels, also used for dispersal, and deeper tunnels (15-30 cm) used for resting and raising young. Small irregular mounds mark entrances to deeper tunnels. Brief bouts of surface foraging in thick layers of leaflitter occasionally occur at night. Adults are solitary, except when females are raising offspring.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Gunning’s Golden Mole faces threats from commercial forestry plantations and associated road infrastructure, replacing indigenous forests and abutting grasslands, cultivation, housing, and tourism infrastructure development in formerly rural areas around Haenertsburg. These have caused severe habitat destruction, fragmentation, and loss for c¢.40 years and resulted in marked decreases in quality and area of suitable habitat found in three localized areas that comprise the small and fragmented distribution of Gunning’s Golden Mole. Area of occupancy estimated from six confirmed locations is only 96 km? and total extent of occurrence is ¢.1327 km? (minimum polygon). Although small parts ofits distribution are protected in state-owned forest reserves (e.g. De Hoek, New Agatha, and Woodbush), currently implemented protection measures and management are not necessarily cognizant of very specific habitat requirements of Gunning’s Golden Mole. Privatization of state-owned forests renders continued protection in some areas uncertain. Minor threats include predation by domestic pets and persecution by gardeners and landowners. Gunning’s Golden Mole is considered of global and regional conservation concern and ranks among the top 100 mammalian species (number 73) in the EDGE of Existence Program, which aims to conserve the world’s Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered species. It received the highest regional priority score for mammals in the former Transvaal Province (South Africa) based on relative occupancy, endemism, taxonomic distinctiveness, and vulnerability. Gunning’s Golden Mole does not receive any dedicated conservation attention, and knowledge of its ecology,life history traits, and evolutionary relationships remains sparse. Such information is crucial for informing effective development of a conservation management plan.Bibliography.Bronner (1990, 1995a, 1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2005), Driver et al. (2012), Freitag & Van Jaarsveld (1997), Isaac et al. (2007), Maree (2015d), Maree & Bronner (2016a), Martin (2015), Meester et al. (1986), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Von Maltitz et al. (2003)." 03CD879C5A729806FA53FCC8E725F816,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A729806FA53FCC8E725F816.xml,Huetia tytonis,Huetia,tytonis,,,Taupe-dorée de Somalie @fr | Somalia-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Somalia @es,"Amblysomus tytonis Simonetta, 1968, Giohar, southern Somalia. Taxonomic placement of tytonisis uncertain (incertae sedis). It was previously assigned to Amblysomus,Chlorotalpa, and Calcochlorisbut here included in Huetiabecause cladistic analyses of the few characteristics available suggest that it is more closely related to H. leucorhina. It is known only from a partially complete specimen in an owl pellet.Monotypic.","Known only from the type locality in S Somalia, with no subsequent records, although this might reflect a lack of sampling.","There is no information available for this species, except the presence of M”.","Dense bushland and thicket, and savanna of the Somali Peninsula.","There is no specific information available for this species, but the Somali Golden Mole is probably primarily insectivorous.",No information.,No information.,No information.,Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Calcochloristytonas).,Bronner (2013b) | Maree (2015b) | Meester (1974) | Simonetta (1968),https://zenodo.org/record/6624516/files/figure.png,"8.Somali Golden MoleHuetia tytonisFrench:Taupe-dorée de Somalie/ German:Somalia-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de SomaliaTaxonomy.Amblysomus tytonis Simonetta, 1968, Giohar, southern Somalia. Taxonomic placement of tytonisis uncertain (incertae sedis). It was previously assigned to Amblysomus,Chlorotalpa, and Calcochlorisbut here included in Huetiabecause cladistic analyses of the few characteristics available suggest that it is more closely related to H. leucorhina. It is known only from a partially complete specimen in an owl pellet.Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in S Somalia, with no subsequent records, although this might reflect a lack of sampling.Descriptive notes.There is no information available for this species, except the presence of M”.Habitat.Dense bushland and thicket, and savanna of the Somali Peninsula.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Somali Golden Mole is probably primarily insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Calcochloristytonas).Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Maree (2015b), Meester (1974), Simonetta (1968)." -03CD879C5A729806FF50F813E6CDFCB3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A729806FF50F813E6CDFCB3.xml,Huetia leucorhina,Huetia,leucorhina,,,Taupe-dorée du Congo @fr | Kongo-Guldmull @de | Topo dorado del Congo @es,"Chrysochloris leucorhina Huet, 1885, “[Republic of] Congo sur la cote du golfe de Guinée [= Gulf Coast of Guinea].”The species leucorhinawas previously placed in Amblysomus, Chrysochloris, Chlo- rotalpa, and Calcochloris(subgenus Huetia), based on various cranial and dental characteristics. Subgenus Huetiawas afforded full generic status by R. J. Asher and colleagues in 2010, based on phylogeny derived from combined morphological and molecular characteristics. Subspecies leucorhinanow includes other described taxa such as congicus and luluanus. Two subspecies recognized.","H.l.leucorhinaHuet,1885—knownfromvariousisolatedlocationsinextremeSEGabon,DRCongo,andNAngola.H. l. cahni E. Schwarz & Mertens, 1922— S Cameroon, SE Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.","Head-body 63-126 mm, hindfoot 9-10 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Congo Golden Mole is small, similarin size to the Yellow Golden Mole (C. obtusirostris). Dorsum is dark brown to dark gray, becoming slightly paler ventrally. Pale, creamy color occurs over muzzle, extending laterally toward ears. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M” are usually present, resembling other cheek teeth; P1 are molariform (tricuspid); and lower molars lack talonids. Foreclaws are very slender, and claw on third digit is largest.","Predominantly soft sandy or loamy soils in montane rainforests, forest-savanna mosaics, and lowland equatorial forests. Congo Golden Moles can occur in pastures, cultivated lands, and rural and urban gardens.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Congo Golden Moles are probably primarily insectivorous.",No information.,Congo Golden Moles are terrestrial.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Limited data are available on distributional limits of and threats to the Congo Golden Mole, and there are no data on population densities. Inferred major threats include destruction and exploitation of indigenous forests in the Congo Basin through unsustainable timber logging, commercial plantations (coffee, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber), agriculture, and associated road and rural infrastructure developments. Parts of the northern distribution of the Congo Golden Mole occur in Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) and Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Cameroon, DR Congo, Central African Republic) and Ngotto Classified Forest in Central African Republic. None of the scattered records in the DR Congo occur in protected areas.","Asher et al. (2010) | Bronner (1995a, 2013b) | Maree (2015c¢)",,"7.Congo Golden MoleHuetia leucorhinaFrench:Taupe-dorée du Congo/ German:Kongo-Guldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado del CongoTaxonomy.Chrysochloris leucorhina Huet, 1885, “[Republic of] Congo sur la cote du golfe de Guinée [= Gulf Coast of Guinea].”The species leucorhinawas previously placed in Amblysomus, Chrysochloris, Chlo- rotalpa, and Calcochloris(subgenus Huetia), based on various cranial and dental characteristics. Subgenus Huetiawas afforded full generic status by R. J. Asher and colleagues in 2010, based on phylogeny derived from combined morphological and molecular characteristics. Subspecies leucorhinanow includes other described taxa such as congicus and luluanus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.l.leucorhinaHuet,1885—knownfromvariousisolatedlocationsinextremeSEGabon,DRCongo,andNAngola.H. l. cahni E. Schwarz & Mertens, 1922— S Cameroon, SE Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 63-126 mm, hindfoot 9-10 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Congo Golden Mole is small, similarin size to the Yellow Golden Mole (C. obtusirostris). Dorsum is dark brown to dark gray, becoming slightly paler ventrally. Pale, creamy color occurs over muzzle, extending laterally toward ears. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M” are usually present, resembling other cheek teeth; P1 are molariform (tricuspid); and lower molars lack talonids. Foreclaws are very slender, and claw on third digit is largest.Habitat.Predominantly soft sandy or loamy soils in montane rainforests, forest-savanna mosaics, and lowland equatorial forests. Congo Golden Moles can occur in pastures, cultivated lands, and rural and urban gardens.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Congo Golden Moles are probably primarily insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Congo Golden Moles are terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Limited data are available on distributional limits of and threats to the Congo Golden Mole, and there are no data on population densities. Inferred major threats include destruction and exploitation of indigenous forests in the Congo Basin through unsustainable timber logging, commercial plantations (coffee, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber), agriculture, and associated road and rural infrastructure developments. Parts of the northern distribution of the Congo Golden Mole occur in Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) and Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Cameroon, DR Congo, Central African Republic) and Ngotto Classified Forest in Central African Republic. None of the scattered records in the DR Congo occur in protected areas.Bibliography.Asher et al. (2010), Bronner (1995a, 2013b), Maree (2015c¢)." -03CD879C5A739806FA9DF835EDCFF908,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,197,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A739806FA9DF835EDCFF908.xml,Calcochloris obtusirostris,Calcochloris,obtusirostris,,,Taupe-dorée du Mozambique @fr | Gelber Goldmull @de | Topo dorado amarillo @es,"Chrysochloris obtusirostrisPe- ters, 1851, Inhambane, coastal Mozam- bique.The species obtusirostrishas been vari- ably assigned to Chrysochloris, Amblyso- mus, or Calcochloris. The name Calc- ochloris predates Chrysotricha, commonly used for this genus until 1953, and also Huetia. G. N. Bronner in 1995 placed C. obtusirostrisin the subgenus Calcochloris, and C. leucorhinus in the subgenus Huetia, which previously included C. tytonis. Huetiahas since been elevated to full generic status, leaving Calcochloristo include only C. obtusirostris. Three subspecies recognized.","C. o. obtusirostris Peters, 1851— Save and Changane river systems of C & S Mozambique, with marginal intrusion into SE Zimbabwe and Limpopo Province of NE South Africa. C. o. chrysillus Thomas & Schwann, 1905 — from Maputo, S Mozambique, S to Maputaland, NE KwaZulu-Natal, E South Africa. C. o. limpopoensis Roberts, 1946 — from around mouth of Limpopo River S to coastal plains near Maputo, SE Mozambique.","Head-body 88-110 mm (males) and 82-110 mm (females), hindfoot 10-13 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 25-33 g (males) and 15-37 g (females). The Yellow Golden Mole is among the smallest of the southern African species of golden moles, with pronounced sexual dimorphism in size (males are larger and heavier). Subspecies are discriminated by subtle morphological differences but intergrade in size, making distinguishing among them difficult. Yellow Golden Moles are easily distinguished by their yellow-orange venter, which is grayish in all other chrysochlorids. Dorsum can vary considerably from light yellow-orange through orange, bright reddish brown, to dull brown and dark brown; this variation can be attributed to pelage becoming darker and more grizzled with time between molts. Muzzle, throat, and chin are buffy white, and unique foliaceous projections occur on nostrils. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M? are absent, P1 are molariform (tricuspid), lowermolars lack talonids, and canines are bicuspid. Claws on forefeet are slender and flattened, claw on third digit is largest, claws on first and second digits are similar in length, and fourth digit is small with short claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 28 and FN = 56.","Mosaics of southern African subtropical forest and savanna woodland with light sandy soils, sandy alluvium, and coastal sand dunes. Nominotypical subspecies obtusirostrisinhabits Acaciaand Colophospermummopane (both Fabaceae) savanna (thornveld woodland) and lowveld and Nyadu Sandveld grasslands; subspecies limpopoensis occurs in miombo savanna (woodland); and subspecies chrysillus occurs in Coastal Bushveld—Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. Yellow Golden Moles also thrive in rural and urban gardens and occur in cultivated lands, pastures, and commercial forestry plantations.","The Yellow Golden Mole is predominantly insectivorous. It responds to vibrations produced by live insect prey including beetle larvae, termites, grasshoppers, flies, moths, and small lizards.","Breeding of the Yellow Golden Mole can be aseasonal, but breeding individuals have been recorded in October and January, suggesting thatit takes place primarily in wet summer months. Littersize is two.","Yellow Golden Moles are strictly fossorial and predominantly nocturnal, particularly active after rains. They can move at surprising speed in and out of sand in porpoise-like fashion. They construct shallow subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (up to 20 cm) tunnels that lead to nesting chambers, often among tree roots. Deep tunnels are well established and maintained; subsurface foraging tunnels can be temporary and can extend up to 50 m from nesting areas. Yellow Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbance, and they are known to burrow downward in a spiraling pattern when disturbed in subsurface tunnels.",Adult Yellow Golden Moles are solitary and have been recorded to move distances of up to 50 m between nest chambers and foraging areas. They emit high-pitched squeaks when agitated.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yellow Golden Mole is generally widespread and locally common in suitable sandy habitats. Parts of distributions of subspecies obtusirostrisand chrysillus occur in protected areas, but this is not the case for limpopoensis, which has not been recorded in any conservation area.","Asher et al. (2010) | Bronner (1995a, 2013b) | Maree (2015a)",,"0.Yellow Golden MoleCalcochloris obtusirostrisFrench:Taupe-dorée du Mozambique/ German:Gelber Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado amarilloTaxonomy.Chrysochloris obtusirostrisPe- ters, 1851, Inhambane, coastal Mozam- bique.The species obtusirostrishas been vari- ably assigned to Chrysochloris, Amblyso- mus, or Calcochloris. The name Calc- ochloris predates Chrysotricha, commonly used for this genus until 1953, and also Huetia. G. N. Bronner in 1995 placed C. obtusirostrisin the subgenus Calcochloris, and C. leucorhinus in the subgenus Huetia, which previously included C. tytonis. Huetiahas since been elevated to full generic status, leaving Calcochloristo include only C. obtusirostris. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. o. obtusirostris Peters, 1851— Save and Changane river systems of C & S Mozambique, with marginal intrusion into SE Zimbabwe and Limpopo Province of NE South Africa. C. o. chrysillus Thomas & Schwann, 1905 — from Maputo, S Mozambique, S to Maputaland, NE KwaZulu-Natal, E South Africa. C. o. limpopoensis Roberts, 1946 — from around mouth of Limpopo River S to coastal plains near Maputo, SE Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-110 mm (males) and 82-110 mm (females), hindfoot 10-13 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 25-33 g (males) and 15-37 g (females). The Yellow Golden Mole is among the smallest of the southern African species of golden moles, with pronounced sexual dimorphism in size (males are larger and heavier). Subspecies are discriminated by subtle morphological differences but intergrade in size, making distinguishing among them difficult. Yellow Golden Moles are easily distinguished by their yellow-orange venter, which is grayish in all other chrysochlorids. Dorsum can vary considerably from light yellow-orange through orange, bright reddish brown, to dull brown and dark brown; this variation can be attributed to pelage becoming darker and more grizzled with time between molts. Muzzle, throat, and chin are buffy white, and unique foliaceous projections occur on nostrils. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M? are absent, P1 are molariform (tricuspid), lowermolars lack talonids, and canines are bicuspid. Claws on forefeet are slender and flattened, claw on third digit is largest, claws on first and second digits are similar in length, and fourth digit is small with short claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 28 and FN = 56.Habitat.Mosaics of southern African subtropical forest and savanna woodland with light sandy soils, sandy alluvium, and coastal sand dunes. Nominotypical subspecies obtusirostrisinhabits Acaciaand Colophospermummopane (both Fabaceae) savanna (thornveld woodland) and lowveld and Nyadu Sandveld grasslands; subspecies limpopoensis occurs in miombo savanna (woodland); and subspecies chrysillus occurs in Coastal Bushveld—Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. Yellow Golden Moles also thrive in rural and urban gardens and occur in cultivated lands, pastures, and commercial forestry plantations.Food and Feeding.The Yellow Golden Mole is predominantly insectivorous. It responds to vibrations produced by live insect prey including beetle larvae, termites, grasshoppers, flies, moths, and small lizards.Breeding.Breeding of the Yellow Golden Mole can be aseasonal, but breeding individuals have been recorded in October and January, suggesting thatit takes place primarily in wet summer months. Littersize is two.Activity patterns.Yellow Golden Moles are strictly fossorial and predominantly nocturnal, particularly active after rains. They can move at surprising speed in and out of sand in porpoise-like fashion. They construct shallow subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (up to 20 cm) tunnels that lead to nesting chambers, often among tree roots. Deep tunnels are well established and maintained; subsurface foraging tunnels can be temporary and can extend up to 50 m from nesting areas. Yellow Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbance, and they are known to burrow downward in a spiraling pattern when disturbed in subsurface tunnels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult Yellow Golden Moles are solitary and have been recorded to move distances of up to 50 m between nest chambers and foraging areas. They emit high-pitched squeaks when agitated.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yellow Golden Mole is generally widespread and locally common in suitable sandy habitats. Parts of distributions of subspecies obtusirostrisand chrysillus occur in protected areas, but this is not the case for limpopoensis, which has not been recorded in any conservation area.Bibliography.Asher et al. (2010), Bronner (1995a, 2013b), Maree (2015a)." +03CD879C5A729806FF50F813E6CDFCB3,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,198,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A729806FF50F813E6CDFCB3.xml,Huetia leucorhina,Huetia,leucorhina,,,Taupe-dorée du Congo @fr | Kongo-Guldmull @de | Topo dorado del Congo @es,"Chrysochloris leucorhina Huet, 1885, “[Republic of] Congo sur la cote du golfe de Guinée [= Gulf Coast of Guinea].”The species leucorhinawas previously placed in Amblysomus, Chrysochloris, Chlo- rotalpa, and Calcochloris(subgenus Huetia), based on various cranial and dental characteristics. Subgenus Huetiawas afforded full generic status by R. J. Asher and colleagues in 2010, based on phylogeny derived from combined morphological and molecular characteristics. Subspecies leucorhinanow includes other described taxa such as congicus and luluanus. Two subspecies recognized.","H.l.leucorhinaHuet,1885—knownfromvariousisolatedlocationsinextremeSEGabon,DRCongo,andNAngola.H. l. cahni E. Schwarz & Mertens, 1922— S Cameroon, SE Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.","Head-body 63-126 mm, hindfoot 9-10 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Congo Golden Mole is small, similarin size to the Yellow Golden Mole (C. obtusirostris). Dorsum is dark brown to dark gray, becoming slightly paler ventrally. Pale, creamy color occurs over muzzle, extending laterally toward ears. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M” are usually present, resembling other cheek teeth; P1 are molariform (tricuspid); and lower molars lack talonids. Foreclaws are very slender, and claw on third digit is largest.","Predominantly soft sandy or loamy soils in montane rainforests, forest-savanna mosaics, and lowland equatorial forests. Congo Golden Moles can occur in pastures, cultivated lands, and rural and urban gardens.","There is no specific information available for this species, but Congo Golden Moles are probably primarily insectivorous.",No information.,Congo Golden Moles are terrestrial.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Limited data are available on distributional limits of and threats to the Congo Golden Mole, and there are no data on population densities. Inferred major threats include destruction and exploitation of indigenous forests in the Congo Basin through unsustainable timber logging, commercial plantations (coffee, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber), agriculture, and associated road and rural infrastructure developments. Parts of the northern distribution of the Congo Golden Mole occur in Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) and Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Cameroon, DR Congo, Central African Republic) and Ngotto Classified Forest in Central African Republic. None of the scattered records in the DR Congo occur in protected areas.","Asher et al. (2010) | Bronner (1995a, 2013b) | Maree (2015c¢)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624513/files/figure.png,"7.Congo Golden MoleHuetia leucorhinaFrench:Taupe-dorée du Congo/ German:Kongo-Guldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado del CongoTaxonomy.Chrysochloris leucorhina Huet, 1885, “[Republic of] Congo sur la cote du golfe de Guinée [= Gulf Coast of Guinea].”The species leucorhinawas previously placed in Amblysomus, Chrysochloris, Chlo- rotalpa, and Calcochloris(subgenus Huetia), based on various cranial and dental characteristics. Subgenus Huetiawas afforded full generic status by R. J. Asher and colleagues in 2010, based on phylogeny derived from combined morphological and molecular characteristics. Subspecies leucorhinanow includes other described taxa such as congicus and luluanus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.l.leucorhinaHuet,1885—knownfromvariousisolatedlocationsinextremeSEGabon,DRCongo,andNAngola.H. l. cahni E. Schwarz & Mertens, 1922— S Cameroon, SE Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 63-126 mm, hindfoot 9-10 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Congo Golden Mole is small, similarin size to the Yellow Golden Mole (C. obtusirostris). Dorsum is dark brown to dark gray, becoming slightly paler ventrally. Pale, creamy color occurs over muzzle, extending laterally toward ears. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M” are usually present, resembling other cheek teeth; P1 are molariform (tricuspid); and lower molars lack talonids. Foreclaws are very slender, and claw on third digit is largest.Habitat.Predominantly soft sandy or loamy soils in montane rainforests, forest-savanna mosaics, and lowland equatorial forests. Congo Golden Moles can occur in pastures, cultivated lands, and rural and urban gardens.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Congo Golden Moles are probably primarily insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Congo Golden Moles are terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Limited data are available on distributional limits of and threats to the Congo Golden Mole, and there are no data on population densities. Inferred major threats include destruction and exploitation of indigenous forests in the Congo Basin through unsustainable timber logging, commercial plantations (coffee, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber), agriculture, and associated road and rural infrastructure developments. Parts of the northern distribution of the Congo Golden Mole occur in Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) and Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Cameroon, DR Congo, Central African Republic) and Ngotto Classified Forest in Central African Republic. None of the scattered records in the DR Congo occur in protected areas.Bibliography.Asher et al. (2010), Bronner (1995a, 2013b), Maree (2015c¢)." +03CD879C5A739806FA9DF835EDCFF908,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,197,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A739806FA9DF835EDCFF908.xml,Calcochloris obtusirostris,Calcochloris,obtusirostris,,,Taupe-dorée du Mozambique @fr | Gelber Goldmull @de | Topo dorado amarillo @es,"Chrysochloris obtusirostrisPe- ters, 1851, Inhambane, coastal Mozam- bique.The species obtusirostrishas been vari- ably assigned to Chrysochloris, Amblyso- mus, or Calcochloris. The name Calc- ochloris predates Chrysotricha, commonly used for this genus until 1953, and also Huetia. G. N. Bronner in 1995 placed C. obtusirostrisin the subgenus Calcochloris, and C. leucorhinus in the subgenus Huetia, which previously included C. tytonis. Huetiahas since been elevated to full generic status, leaving Calcochloristo include only C. obtusirostris. Three subspecies recognized.","C. o. obtusirostris Peters, 1851— Save and Changane river systems of C & S Mozambique, with marginal intrusion into SE Zimbabwe and Limpopo Province of NE South Africa. C. o. chrysillus Thomas & Schwann, 1905 — from Maputo, S Mozambique, S to Maputaland, NE KwaZulu-Natal, E South Africa. C. o. limpopoensis Roberts, 1946 — from around mouth of Limpopo River S to coastal plains near Maputo, SE Mozambique.","Head-body 88-110 mm (males) and 82-110 mm (females), hindfoot 10-13 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 25-33 g (males) and 15-37 g (females). The Yellow Golden Mole is among the smallest of the southern African species of golden moles, with pronounced sexual dimorphism in size (males are larger and heavier). Subspecies are discriminated by subtle morphological differences but intergrade in size, making distinguishing among them difficult. Yellow Golden Moles are easily distinguished by their yellow-orange venter, which is grayish in all other chrysochlorids. Dorsum can vary considerably from light yellow-orange through orange, bright reddish brown, to dull brown and dark brown; this variation can be attributed to pelage becoming darker and more grizzled with time between molts. Muzzle, throat, and chin are buffy white, and unique foliaceous projections occur on nostrils. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M? are absent, P1 are molariform (tricuspid), lowermolars lack talonids, and canines are bicuspid. Claws on forefeet are slender and flattened, claw on third digit is largest, claws on first and second digits are similar in length, and fourth digit is small with short claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 28 and FN = 56.","Mosaics of southern African subtropical forest and savanna woodland with light sandy soils, sandy alluvium, and coastal sand dunes. Nominotypical subspecies obtusirostrisinhabits Acaciaand Colophospermummopane (both Fabaceae) savanna (thornveld woodland) and lowveld and Nyadu Sandveld grasslands; subspecies limpopoensis occurs in miombo savanna (woodland); and subspecies chrysillus occurs in Coastal Bushveld—Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. Yellow Golden Moles also thrive in rural and urban gardens and occur in cultivated lands, pastures, and commercial forestry plantations.","The Yellow Golden Mole is predominantly insectivorous. It responds to vibrations produced by live insect prey including beetle larvae, termites, grasshoppers, flies, moths, and small lizards.","Breeding of the Yellow Golden Mole can be aseasonal, but breeding individuals have been recorded in October and January, suggesting thatit takes place primarily in wet summer months. Littersize is two.","Yellow Golden Moles are strictly fossorial and predominantly nocturnal, particularly active after rains. They can move at surprising speed in and out of sand in porpoise-like fashion. They construct shallow subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (up to 20 cm) tunnels that lead to nesting chambers, often among tree roots. Deep tunnels are well established and maintained; subsurface foraging tunnels can be temporary and can extend up to 50 m from nesting areas. Yellow Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbance, and they are known to burrow downward in a spiraling pattern when disturbed in subsurface tunnels.",Adult Yellow Golden Moles are solitary and have been recorded to move distances of up to 50 m between nest chambers and foraging areas. They emit high-pitched squeaks when agitated.,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yellow Golden Mole is generally widespread and locally common in suitable sandy habitats. Parts of distributions of subspecies obtusirostrisand chrysillus occur in protected areas, but this is not the case for limpopoensis, which has not been recorded in any conservation area.","Asher et al. (2010) | Bronner (1995a, 2013b) | Maree (2015a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624511/files/figure.png,"0.Yellow Golden MoleCalcochloris obtusirostrisFrench:Taupe-dorée du Mozambique/ German:Gelber Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado amarilloTaxonomy.Chrysochloris obtusirostrisPe- ters, 1851, Inhambane, coastal Mozam- bique.The species obtusirostrishas been vari- ably assigned to Chrysochloris, Amblyso- mus, or Calcochloris. The name Calc- ochloris predates Chrysotricha, commonly used for this genus until 1953, and also Huetia. G. N. Bronner in 1995 placed C. obtusirostrisin the subgenus Calcochloris, and C. leucorhinus in the subgenus Huetia, which previously included C. tytonis. Huetiahas since been elevated to full generic status, leaving Calcochloristo include only C. obtusirostris. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. o. obtusirostris Peters, 1851— Save and Changane river systems of C & S Mozambique, with marginal intrusion into SE Zimbabwe and Limpopo Province of NE South Africa. C. o. chrysillus Thomas & Schwann, 1905 — from Maputo, S Mozambique, S to Maputaland, NE KwaZulu-Natal, E South Africa. C. o. limpopoensis Roberts, 1946 — from around mouth of Limpopo River S to coastal plains near Maputo, SE Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-110 mm (males) and 82-110 mm (females), hindfoot 10-13 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 25-33 g (males) and 15-37 g (females). The Yellow Golden Mole is among the smallest of the southern African species of golden moles, with pronounced sexual dimorphism in size (males are larger and heavier). Subspecies are discriminated by subtle morphological differences but intergrade in size, making distinguishing among them difficult. Yellow Golden Moles are easily distinguished by their yellow-orange venter, which is grayish in all other chrysochlorids. Dorsum can vary considerably from light yellow-orange through orange, bright reddish brown, to dull brown and dark brown; this variation can be attributed to pelage becoming darker and more grizzled with time between molts. Muzzle, throat, and chin are buffy white, and unique foliaceous projections occur on nostrils. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M? are absent, P1 are molariform (tricuspid), lowermolars lack talonids, and canines are bicuspid. Claws on forefeet are slender and flattened, claw on third digit is largest, claws on first and second digits are similar in length, and fourth digit is small with short claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 28 and FN = 56.Habitat.Mosaics of southern African subtropical forest and savanna woodland with light sandy soils, sandy alluvium, and coastal sand dunes. Nominotypical subspecies obtusirostrisinhabits Acaciaand Colophospermummopane (both Fabaceae) savanna (thornveld woodland) and lowveld and Nyadu Sandveld grasslands; subspecies limpopoensis occurs in miombo savanna (woodland); and subspecies chrysillus occurs in Coastal Bushveld—Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. Yellow Golden Moles also thrive in rural and urban gardens and occur in cultivated lands, pastures, and commercial forestry plantations.Food and Feeding.The Yellow Golden Mole is predominantly insectivorous. It responds to vibrations produced by live insect prey including beetle larvae, termites, grasshoppers, flies, moths, and small lizards.Breeding.Breeding of the Yellow Golden Mole can be aseasonal, but breeding individuals have been recorded in October and January, suggesting thatit takes place primarily in wet summer months. Littersize is two.Activity patterns.Yellow Golden Moles are strictly fossorial and predominantly nocturnal, particularly active after rains. They can move at surprising speed in and out of sand in porpoise-like fashion. They construct shallow subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (up to 20 cm) tunnels that lead to nesting chambers, often among tree roots. Deep tunnels are well established and maintained; subsurface foraging tunnels can be temporary and can extend up to 50 m from nesting areas. Yellow Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbance, and they are known to burrow downward in a spiraling pattern when disturbed in subsurface tunnels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult Yellow Golden Moles are solitary and have been recorded to move distances of up to 50 m between nest chambers and foraging areas. They emit high-pitched squeaks when agitated.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yellow Golden Mole is generally widespread and locally common in suitable sandy habitats. Parts of distributions of subspecies obtusirostrisand chrysillus occur in protected areas, but this is not the case for limpopoensis, which has not been recorded in any conservation area.Bibliography.Asher et al. (2010), Bronner (1995a, 2013b), Maree (2015a)." 03CD879C5A749800FF5EF3DEE8A2F4E6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,196,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A749800FF5EF3DEE8A2F4E6.xml,Amblysomus septentrionalis,Amblysomus,septentrionalis,Roberts,1913,Taupe-dorée du Highveld @fr | Highveld-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado del Alto Veld @es,"Amblysomus corriae septentrionalis Roberts, 1913, “Wakkerstroom,”Mpumalanga, South Africa.Amblysomus septentrionalistraditionally was recognized as a subspecies of A. iris (now incorporated into A. hottentotusand A. corriae). It was raised to full species by G. N.Bronner in 1996 based on unique chromosomal number among chrysochlorids and distinct craniometric properties from sister species A. hottentotusand A. robustus. Monotypic.","E South Africa, known from Barberton, Ermelo, and Wakkerstroom areas of Mpumalanga Province and Heilbron, Parys, and Harrismith of NE Free State, and Swaziland (Piggs Peak and Mbabane).","Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 105-145 mm (females), hindfoot 13-20 mm (males) and 12-17 mm (females); weight 52-86 g. The Highveld Golden Mole is medium-sized and second largest species of Amblysomus. It has pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males on average larger than females. Size and pelage are similar to the Robust Golden Mole (A. robustus) and the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps). Pelage of the Highveld Golden Mole is dark reddish brown dorsally, lighter on flanks, and pale brown to orange ventrally. Pale yellow cheek patches extend laterally to subdermal eyes. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are absent, molar talonids are well developed, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid). Claws on forefeet are well developed but less robust than those of the Robust Golden Mole; claw on third digit is largest. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 34 and FN = 62.","Mainly grasslands and edges of marshes in high-elevation southern African savanna only in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland and Wet Cold Highveld Grassland biomes at elevations of ¢.1600-1800 m. Highveld Golden Moles can be common in well-irrigated farmlands, gardens, and golf courses and apparently at lower densities in exotic plantations. They are found in thickets of oldwood trees (Leucosideasericea, Rosaceae) on banks of streams in valleys but avoid scrubby vegetation in kloofs (steep-sided, wooded ravine) and along rocky ridges, where Sclater’s Golden Mole (Chlorotalpa sclateri) predominates. Highveld Golden Moles are generally restricted to friable soils in valleys and on mountainsides, where they can occur in sympatry with Rough-haired Golden Moles (Chrysospalaxvillosa).","The Highveld Golden Mole is insectivorous, feeding mainly on subterranean invertebrates, particularly earthworms and pupae.","Highveld Golden Moles breed throughout the year but mainly in wet summer months (November-March), and they have 1-2 young/litter. Young are altricial at birth and raised in grass-lined nests in deep nesting chambers.","Highveld Golden Moles construct two-tiered burrow system, with subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (15-30 cm) tunnels leading to latrines and grass-lined nesting chambers. They are predominantly nocturnal, with activity declining rapidly at dawn and leading to daily torpor until late afternoon. Subsurface activity peaks in wet summer months (November—-March) and declines substantially in dry winter months (May—August).",Adult Highveld Golden Moles appear to be solitary. They can be locally common; trapping data suggest densities of 3 ind/ha at one locality in the Wakkerstroom district.,"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Highveld Golden Mole is currently known from twelve localities, with an estimated area of occupancy of only 2500 km?. It has not been found in any provincial or national nature reserves. Based on current estimates of area of occupancy, global population is over 10,000 individuals, although it appears to be declining. Inferred major threats include habitat degradation associated with mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel power stations in its high-elevation grassland habitats. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have not been successful. Farming and agroforestry (exotic pine and eucalypt plantations) have also affected habitat but do not appear to pose a major threat. Predation by domestic pets and persecution by gardeners and greenkeepers could be localized threats. Research is currently underway to acquire data on distributional limits. Additional data are needed to understand densities, ecology, behavior, and reproduction of the Highveld Golden Mole.","Bernard et al. (1994) | Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b) | Mynhardt et al. (2015) | Rampartab (2015b) | Roberts (1951)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624507/files/figure.png,"3.Highveld Golden MoleAmblysomus septentrionalisFrench:Taupe-dorée du Highveld/ German:Highveld-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado del Alto VeldTaxonomy.Amblysomus corriae septentrionalis Roberts, 1913, “Wakkerstroom,”Mpumalanga, South Africa.Amblysomus septentrionalistraditionally was recognized as a subspecies of A. iris (now incorporated into A. hottentotusand A. corriae). It was raised to full species by G. N.Bronner in 1996 based on unique chromosomal number among chrysochlorids and distinct craniometric properties from sister species A. hottentotusand A. robustus. Monotypic.Distribution.E South Africa, known from Barberton, Ermelo, and Wakkerstroom areas of Mpumalanga Province and Heilbron, Parys, and Harrismith of NE Free State, and Swaziland (Piggs Peak and Mbabane).Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 105-145 mm (females), hindfoot 13-20 mm (males) and 12-17 mm (females); weight 52-86 g. The Highveld Golden Mole is medium-sized and second largest species of Amblysomus. It has pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males on average larger than females. Size and pelage are similar to the Robust Golden Mole (A. robustus) and the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps). Pelage of the Highveld Golden Mole is dark reddish brown dorsally, lighter on flanks, and pale brown to orange ventrally. Pale yellow cheek patches extend laterally to subdermal eyes. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are absent, molar talonids are well developed, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid). Claws on forefeet are well developed but less robust than those of the Robust Golden Mole; claw on third digit is largest. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 34 and FN = 62.Habitat.Mainly grasslands and edges of marshes in high-elevation southern African savanna only in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland and Wet Cold Highveld Grassland biomes at elevations of ¢.1600-1800 m. Highveld Golden Moles can be common in well-irrigated farmlands, gardens, and golf courses and apparently at lower densities in exotic plantations. They are found in thickets of oldwood trees (Leucosideasericea, Rosaceae) on banks of streams in valleys but avoid scrubby vegetation in kloofs (steep-sided, wooded ravine) and along rocky ridges, where Sclater’s Golden Mole (Chlorotalpa sclateri) predominates. Highveld Golden Moles are generally restricted to friable soils in valleys and on mountainsides, where they can occur in sympatry with Rough-haired Golden Moles (Chrysospalaxvillosa).Food and Feeding.The Highveld Golden Mole is insectivorous, feeding mainly on subterranean invertebrates, particularly earthworms and pupae.Breeding.Highveld Golden Moles breed throughout the year but mainly in wet summer months (November-March), and they have 1-2 young/litter. Young are altricial at birth and raised in grass-lined nests in deep nesting chambers.Activity patterns.Highveld Golden Moles construct two-tiered burrow system, with subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (15-30 cm) tunnels leading to latrines and grass-lined nesting chambers. They are predominantly nocturnal, with activity declining rapidly at dawn and leading to daily torpor until late afternoon. Subsurface activity peaks in wet summer months (November—-March) and declines substantially in dry winter months (May—August).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult Highveld Golden Moles appear to be solitary. They can be locally common; trapping data suggest densities of 3 ind/ha at one locality in the Wakkerstroom district.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Highveld Golden Mole is currently known from twelve localities, with an estimated area of occupancy of only 2500 km?. It has not been found in any provincial or national nature reserves. Based on current estimates of area of occupancy, global population is over 10,000 individuals, although it appears to be declining. Inferred major threats include habitat degradation associated with mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel power stations in its high-elevation grassland habitats. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have not been successful. Farming and agroforestry (exotic pine and eucalypt plantations) have also affected habitat but do not appear to pose a major threat. Predation by domestic pets and persecution by gardeners and greenkeepers could be localized threats. Research is currently underway to acquire data on distributional limits. Additional data are needed to understand densities, ecology, behavior, and reproduction of the Highveld Golden Mole.Bibliography.Bernard et al. (1994), Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b), Mynhardt et al. (2015), Rampartab (2015b), Roberts (1951)." 03CD879C5A759800FA9FF391EA6BF398,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,195,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A759800FA9FF391EA6BF398.xml,Amblysomus robustus,Amblysomus,robustus,Bronner,2000,Taupe-dorée de Bronner @fr | Robuster Goldmull @de | Topo dorado robusto @es,"Amblysomus robustus Bronner, 2000, “Verloren-Vallei Provincial Nature Reserve (25°18°S; 30°08’E), 22 km northeast of Dullstroom, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Elevation 2 150 m a.s.1.”Amblysomus robustuswas previously included in A. hottentotusand elevated to full species based on unique karyotype, robust build, and subtle craniometric differences from A. hottentotusand A. septentrionalis. Monotypic.","Known only from Steenkampsberg around Lydenburg, Dullstroom, and Belfast, Mpumalanga Province, NE South Africa.","Head—body 118-143 mm (males) and 90-138 mm (females), hindfoot 18-19 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females); weight 72-98 g (males) and 61-73 g (females). The Robust Golden Mole is medium-sized, with robust build and strong claws, and is the largest species of Amblysomus. It has pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males larger than females. It is similar in size and color to the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps) and the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis). Dorsum of the Robust Golden Mole is dark reddish brown, with bright reddish brown on flanks; dorsum of juveniles is slightly duller, grayish brown to dull orange on flanks. Venter is orange. Yellowish orange cheek patches extend laterally to above subdermal eyes. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M* are usually absent, molar talonids are well developed, and PI are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid). Foreclaws are strong; claw on third digit is largest. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 36 and FN = 68.","Montane grasslands and marshes in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland biome at elevations of ¢.2000-2100 m. The Robust Golden Mole prefers friable soils but can live in heavier soils common to highveld. It can be found in clay soils, unlike other species of Amblysomus, probably due to its uniquely adapted robust build and strong claws. It avoids shallow substrates along rocky ridges (which might act as dispersal barriers) and waterlogged areas, but it is found in gardens, orchards, and cultivated lands.","The Robust Golden Moleis insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates, with a preference for earthworms. It eats a wide variety of living invertebrate and vertebrate prey in captivity, including mealworms, kingworms, earthworms, and young mice, and it ignores dead prey.","Pregnancies and lactation of Robust Golden Moles were recorded in late summer to early autumn (March-April), suggesting that breeding occurs primarily in wet summer seasons.","Robust Golden Moles are mainly active in late afternoon and at night, and they are torpid during heat of day. They construct two-tiered burrow systems typical of golden moles, with subsurface tunnels for foraging and deeper tunnels (20-80 cm) leading to nesting chambers. Some burrows extend upward into rotting trees, which mightarise from moles foraging for invertebrate prey that are likely to be abundant in these trees or seeking refuge when burrows become waterlogged during heavy rains. Subsurface activity declines in dry winter months when abundance of prey is low. At these times, individuals might enter prolonged torpor spanning several days or confine their foraging to deeper tunnels.","Adult Robust Golden Moles appear to be solitary and fight aggressively if confined together, although this might be due to stress in captivity.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of Robust Golden Moles is estimated at just less than 5000 km?, with continuing decline and possible severe fragmentation of habitat. It is currently known from only five locations, but it is probably more widespread than suggested by sparse distributional records. Highveld grasslands favored by Robust Golden Moles are being degraded by mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations that occur in its preferred high-elevation grassland habitats, which is an inferred major threat. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have been ineffective. Farming, tourism, resort developments, and agroforestry (exotic pine and eucalyptus plantations) have also transformed habitat but less dramatically; these do not appear to pose major threats. The Robust Golden Mole occurs in provincial Verloren Vallei Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga. Research is currently underway to determine distributional limits of the Robust Golden Mole and to clarify its relationships to the Hottentot Golden Mole (A. hottentotus) and the Highveld Golden Mole using molecular data. Additional research is required to fully understand its basic ecology and reproductive parameters of the Robust Golden Mole.","Bronner (1995a, 2000, 2013b) | Mynhardt et al. (2015) | Rampartab (2015a)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624505/files/figure.png,"2.Robust Golden MoleAmblysomus robustusFrench:Taupe-dorée de Bronner/ German:Robuster Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado robustoOn following pages: 3. Highveld Golden Mole (Amblysomus septentrionalis); 4. Marley's Golden Mole (AmblysomusCongo Golden Mole (Huetia leucorhina); 8. Somali Golden Mole (Huetia tytonis); 9. Gunning'’s Golden Mole (Neamblysomus arendsi); 12. Sclater’'s Golden Mole (Chlorotalpa sclateri); 13. Duthie’'s Golden Mole (Chlorotalpa duthieae); 14. Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole (Chrysochlorisvisagiel); 17. Rough-haired Golden Mole (Chrysospalaxvillosa); 18. Giant Golden Mole (Cryptochloriszyl); 21. Grant's Golden Mole (Eremitalpagrant). marley); 5. Fynbos Golden Mole (Amblysomus corriae); 6. Yellow Golden Mole (Calcochloris obtusirostris); 7. gunning); 10. Juliana’s Golden Mole (Neamblysomus julianae); 11. Arend’'s Golden Mole (Carpitalpa Golden Mole(Chrysochloris stuhlmanni); 15. Cape Golden Mole (Chrysochloris asiatica); 16. Visagie's (Chrysospalax trevelyani); 19. De Winton's Golden Mole (Cryptochloris wintoni); 20. Van Zyl's Golden MoleTaxonomy.Amblysomus robustus Bronner, 2000, “Verloren-Vallei Provincial Nature Reserve (25°18°S; 30°08’E), 22 km northeast of Dullstroom, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Elevation 2 150 m a.s.1.”Amblysomus robustuswas previously included in A. hottentotusand elevated to full species based on unique karyotype, robust build, and subtle craniometric differences from A. hottentotusand A. septentrionalis. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from Steenkampsberg around Lydenburg, Dullstroom, and Belfast, Mpumalanga Province, NE South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head—body 118-143 mm (males) and 90-138 mm (females), hindfoot 18-19 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females); weight 72-98 g (males) and 61-73 g (females). The Robust Golden Mole is medium-sized, with robust build and strong claws, and is the largest species of Amblysomus. It has pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males larger than females. It is similar in size and color to the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps) and the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis). Dorsum of the Robust Golden Mole is dark reddish brown, with bright reddish brown on flanks; dorsum of juveniles is slightly duller, grayish brown to dull orange on flanks. Venter is orange. Yellowish orange cheek patches extend laterally to above subdermal eyes. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M* are usually absent, molar talonids are well developed, and PI are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid). Foreclaws are strong; claw on third digit is largest. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 36 and FN = 68.Habitat.Montane grasslands and marshes in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland biome at elevations of ¢.2000-2100 m. The Robust Golden Mole prefers friable soils but can live in heavier soils common to highveld. It can be found in clay soils, unlike other species of Amblysomus, probably due to its uniquely adapted robust build and strong claws. It avoids shallow substrates along rocky ridges (which might act as dispersal barriers) and waterlogged areas, but it is found in gardens, orchards, and cultivated lands.Food and Feeding.The Robust Golden Moleis insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates, with a preference for earthworms. It eats a wide variety of living invertebrate and vertebrate prey in captivity, including mealworms, kingworms, earthworms, and young mice, and it ignores dead prey.Breeding.Pregnancies and lactation of Robust Golden Moles were recorded in late summer to early autumn (March-April), suggesting that breeding occurs primarily in wet summer seasons.Activity patterns.Robust Golden Moles are mainly active in late afternoon and at night, and they are torpid during heat of day. They construct two-tiered burrow systems typical of golden moles, with subsurface tunnels for foraging and deeper tunnels (20-80 cm) leading to nesting chambers. Some burrows extend upward into rotting trees, which mightarise from moles foraging for invertebrate prey that are likely to be abundant in these trees or seeking refuge when burrows become waterlogged during heavy rains. Subsurface activity declines in dry winter months when abundance of prey is low. At these times, individuals might enter prolonged torpor spanning several days or confine their foraging to deeper tunnels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult Robust Golden Moles appear to be solitary and fight aggressively if confined together, although this might be due to stress in captivity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of Robust Golden Moles is estimated at just less than 5000 km?, with continuing decline and possible severe fragmentation of habitat. It is currently known from only five locations, but it is probably more widespread than suggested by sparse distributional records. Highveld grasslands favored by Robust Golden Moles are being degraded by mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations that occur in its preferred high-elevation grassland habitats, which is an inferred major threat. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have been ineffective. Farming, tourism, resort developments, and agroforestry (exotic pine and eucalyptus plantations) have also transformed habitat but less dramatically; these do not appear to pose major threats. The Robust Golden Mole occurs in provincial Verloren Vallei Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga. Research is currently underway to determine distributional limits of the Robust Golden Mole and to clarify its relationships to the Hottentot Golden Mole (A. hottentotus) and the Highveld Golden Mole using molecular data. Additional research is required to fully understand its basic ecology and reproductive parameters of the Robust Golden Mole.Bibliography.Bronner (1995a, 2000, 2013b), Mynhardt et al. (2015), Rampartab (2015a)." -03CD879C5A759801FF9AFDAAE6DDF444,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,195,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A759801FF9AFDAAE6DDF444.xml,Amblysomus hottentotus,Amblysomus,hottentotus,,,Taupe-dorée hottentote @fr | Hottentotten-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de los Hotentotes @es | Zulu Golden Mole; Drakensberg Golden Mole (longiceps) @en | Meester’s Golden Mole (meester) @en,"Chrysochloris hottentotus[sic] A. Smith, 1829, “interior parts of South Africa”(= Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa).Amblysomus hottentotus1s synonymous with A. ins, described by O. Thomas and H. Schwann in 1905. Traditionally, A. Aottentotus has included populations that are here considered distinct species: A. corriae, A. marleyi, A. robustus, and A. septentrionalis. Five subspecies recognized.","A.h.hottentotusA.Smith,1829—coastalpartsofEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica,fromvicinityofVanStadensRivermouthEtoKingWilliam’sTownandEastLondon.A.h.irisThomas&Schwann,1905—NcoastalpartsofKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica,fromStLuciaStoRichard’sBay.A.h.longicepsBroom,1907—DrakensbergescarpmentofKwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovinces,ESouthAfrica,withmarginalintrusionintoFreeStateandMpumalangaprovincesandLesotho.A.h.meester:Bronner,2000—NESouthAfrica,MpumalangaProvince,knownonlyfromNDrakensbergescarpmentaroundMariepskopandGraskop,rangingStovicinityofWhiteRiver,whereasinglespecimenhasbeencollected.A. h. pondoliae Thomas & Schwann, 1905— coastal parts of KwaZulu-Natal Province, E South Africa, between Durban and Port Edward.","Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 104-135 mm (females), hindfoot 13-19 mm (males) and 12-18 mm (females) for the nominotypical Aottentotus; head—body 113-125 mm (males) and 104-132 mm (females), hindfoot 12-16 mm (males) and 11-16 mm (females) for subspecies iris; head—body 120-141 mm (males) and 119-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females) for subspecies longiceps; head-body 107-145 mm, hindfoot 14-17 mm for subspecies meesteri; head—body 107-145 mm (males) and 105-135 mm (females), hindfoot 12-18 mm (males) and 11-18 mm (females) for subspecies pondoliae; weight 37-85 g (males) and 37-60 g (females). The Hottentot Golden Mole is medium-sized, with considerable variation in size and pelage color among subspecies and populations. Generally, dorsum is rich dark reddish brown, becoming lighter reddish brown on flanks, with iridescent sheen of bronze, green, purple, or a mix. Venter is light grayish brown, with orange or reddish tinge, that is highly variable within populations, and sometimes with dark brown or pale whitish mid-ventral line from throat to belly. Muzzle is paler than dorsum, with off-white patches on cheeks, over subdermal eyes, and tiny ear openings. Albinistic specimens have creamy-beige to pale yellow (rarely recorded) dorsal and ventral pelage. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are usually absent, but when present, (less than 2% of individuals), they are small and range from triconid (molariform) to peg-like. Molar talonids are well developed except in subspecies meesteri, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid), except in subspecies meesteri, in which P1 tend to be more molariform. Dentition varies randomly and might reflect irregular sequence of tooth replacement in chrysochlorids. Foreclaws are moderately developed, claw on third digit is largest, second digit is much shorter, first digit is about one-half as long as second digit, and fourth digit is vestigial, with knob-like claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","Wide variety of habitats from temperate grasslands and woodland savannas to Afro-montane forests, marshes, and coastal dunes, predominantly in mesic eastern regions of South Africa at elevations of ¢.0-2000 m. The Hottentot Golden Mole occurs mainly in Grassland and Savanna biomes, with marginal intrusion into Fynbos and Nama Karoo biomes in its southern distribution. It is particularly abundant in moist soils near water sources but also occurs far from surface water if soilis friable enough for burrowing and invertebrate prey is abundant. The Hottentot Golden Mole generally occurs in regions with mean annual rainfall more than 500 mm. It is frequently associated with agricultural land, golf courses, and gardens but less common in exotic plantations.","The Hottentot Golden Mole is insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates such as earthworms and insects. In captivity, they will eat snails and plant material (e.g. potatoes and bulbs), although their digestive tracts are not specialized for herbivory. In nature, more than 97% of diets contain only earthworms, and less than 3% contain variety of insect prey including carabid beetle larvae, slugs, snails, crickets, insect pupae, and spiders. Individuals can consume up to 90% of their body weight daily. Although they will drink water in captivity, they probably obtain their moisture requirements from food and dew in the wild.","Hottentot Golden Moles breed aseasonally, with peak reproductive activity in wet summer months. Females are polyestrous, with postpartum estrus, and male spermatogenesis is continuous, reflecting relatively constant microclimate of their subterranean niche. Litters have 1-3 young, but in most cases, females will carry one fetus in each uterine horn, giving rise to litters of two young. At birth, young are altricial, pale pink, and naked, except for a few hairs on foreheads and sides of muzzles. Ear openings are marked by small protuberances on sides of the head. Claws are well developed but soft. Neonates are ¢.47 mm long, weigh 4-5 g, and develop short dark brown dorsal pelage by juvenile size at 72 mm long and 17 g; ventral surfaces remain naked; and teeth are unerupted. Pale ventral pelage first appears at the late juvenile size at 80 mm long and ¢.27 g, and eviction from maternal burrows occurs at ¢.35—40 g.","Hottentot Golden Moles live almost exclusively underground, constructing superficial burrows for foraging and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Subsurface tunnels are ¢.3 cm deep and 4-6 cm in diameter. Residential burrows can penetrate as far as 1 m belowground and are relatively complex in form, comprising grassor leaf-lined spherical nesting chambers 10-50 cm deep and 15-20 cm in diameter, other chambers used as latrines, and deeper (29-94 cm deep) spiraling bolt holes. In friable soils, horny nose pads are predominantly used for digging subsurface tunnels, and foreclaws assist with digging deeper tunnels and foraging in heavier soils. Hottentot Golden Moles are estimated to burrow at rates of up to 1-1-5 m/h and up to 9 m daily. Foraging burrows are generally 9.5-240 m long and might be extended by 4-12 m/day, depending on friability of soil and abundance of prey. Excavated soil from deep burrows is pushed up to the surface as molehills or compacted into tunnel walls; superficial foraging burrows result in ridges on the surface. Hottentot Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbances and will retreat quickly from superficial burrows to deeper burrows or bolt-holesif disturbed. They sometimes are attracted to the surface by movements of worms and insects, and they might even emerge and move on the surface, usually only at night and when food is scarce. At these times, they can be vulnerable to predation by owls and other predators. Hottentot Golden Moles are significantly less active in winter than summer, burrowing deeper and often entering torpor during colder winter months. They are particularly active after rain, and daily activity tends to peak at sunrise, sunset, and midnight, with periods of activity of up to two hours and periods of inactivity of 3-5 hours. During heavy rainfall events, underground burrows can become flooded. Hottentot Golden Moles cope with these situations by swimming; they can maintain a certain degree of buoyancy due to a layer of air retained in their wet fur. Soil temperatures in burrow systems are 0-8-32°C, but optimal thermal conditions for activity are 23-33°C, corresponding with their thermoneutral zone. Ambient temperatures below 15°C or higher than 30°C lead to torpor, characterized by reduced metabolic rate and considerable energetic saving.","Hottentot Golden Moles are solitary and territorial. They actively defend their burrow systems, fighting aggressively with individuals of either sex by wrestling their opponent using foreclaws and biting opponent’s abdomen. Fighting is often accompanied by highpitched squeaks. Home range overlap is tolerated to some degree, and dominant individuals sometimes invade neighboring burrow systems to increase their home range size. Courtship involves chirruping vocalizations, head bobbing and foot stamping by the male, and rasping and squealing vocalizations by the female. Although solitary, the Hottentot Golden Mole has been recorded in sympatry with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus), even to the point of sharing burrow systems. Densities of Hottentot Golden Moles up to 25 ind/ha have been recorded in prime habitat.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, distinct isolated evolutionary lineages with limited ranges or small population sizes might be under threat due to habitat alteration and degradation resulting from coastal urban development.","Bernard et al. (1994) | Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b) | Bronner & Mynhardt (2015b) | Broom (1907 1908) | Gilbert et al. (2008) | Hickman (1986) | Kuyper (1985) | McConnell (1986) | Mynhardt et al. (2015) | Schoeman et al. (2004) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Thomas & Schwann (1905)",,"1.Hottentot Golden MoleAmblysomus hottentotusFrench:Taupe-dorée hottentote/ German:Hottentotten-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de los HotentotesOther common names:Zulu Golden Mole; Drakensberg Golden Mole (longiceps), Meester’s Golden Mole (meester)Taxonomy.Chrysochloris hottentotus[sic] A. Smith, 1829, “interior parts of South Africa”(= Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa).Amblysomus hottentotus1s synonymous with A. ins, described by O. Thomas and H. Schwann in 1905. Traditionally, A. Aottentotus has included populations that are here considered distinct species: A. corriae, A. marleyi, A. robustus, and A. septentrionalis. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.h.hottentotusA.Smith,1829—coastalpartsofEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica,fromvicinityofVanStadensRivermouthEtoKingWilliam’sTownandEastLondon.A.h.irisThomas&Schwann,1905—NcoastalpartsofKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica,fromStLuciaStoRichard’sBay.A.h.longicepsBroom,1907—DrakensbergescarpmentofKwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovinces,ESouthAfrica,withmarginalintrusionintoFreeStateandMpumalangaprovincesandLesotho.A.h.meester:Bronner,2000—NESouthAfrica,MpumalangaProvince,knownonlyfromNDrakensbergescarpmentaroundMariepskopandGraskop,rangingStovicinityofWhiteRiver,whereasinglespecimenhasbeencollected.A. h. pondoliae Thomas & Schwann, 1905— coastal parts of KwaZulu-Natal Province, E South Africa, between Durban and Port Edward.Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 104-135 mm (females), hindfoot 13-19 mm (males) and 12-18 mm (females) for the nominotypical Aottentotus; head—body 113-125 mm (males) and 104-132 mm (females), hindfoot 12-16 mm (males) and 11-16 mm (females) for subspecies iris; head—body 120-141 mm (males) and 119-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females) for subspecies longiceps; head-body 107-145 mm, hindfoot 14-17 mm for subspecies meesteri; head—body 107-145 mm (males) and 105-135 mm (females), hindfoot 12-18 mm (males) and 11-18 mm (females) for subspecies pondoliae; weight 37-85 g (males) and 37-60 g (females). The Hottentot Golden Mole is medium-sized, with considerable variation in size and pelage color among subspecies and populations. Generally, dorsum is rich dark reddish brown, becoming lighter reddish brown on flanks, with iridescent sheen of bronze, green, purple, or a mix. Venter is light grayish brown, with orange or reddish tinge, that is highly variable within populations, and sometimes with dark brown or pale whitish mid-ventral line from throat to belly. Muzzle is paler than dorsum, with off-white patches on cheeks, over subdermal eyes, and tiny ear openings. Albinistic specimens have creamy-beige to pale yellow (rarely recorded) dorsal and ventral pelage. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are usually absent, but when present, (less than 2% of individuals), they are small and range from triconid (molariform) to peg-like. Molar talonids are well developed except in subspecies meesteri, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid), except in subspecies meesteri, in which P1 tend to be more molariform. Dentition varies randomly and might reflect irregular sequence of tooth replacement in chrysochlorids. Foreclaws are moderately developed, claw on third digit is largest, second digit is much shorter, first digit is about one-half as long as second digit, and fourth digit is vestigial, with knob-like claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats from temperate grasslands and woodland savannas to Afro-montane forests, marshes, and coastal dunes, predominantly in mesic eastern regions of South Africa at elevations of ¢.0-2000 m. The Hottentot Golden Mole occurs mainly in Grassland and Savanna biomes, with marginal intrusion into Fynbos and Nama Karoo biomes in its southern distribution. It is particularly abundant in moist soils near water sources but also occurs far from surface water if soilis friable enough for burrowing and invertebrate prey is abundant. The Hottentot Golden Mole generally occurs in regions with mean annual rainfall more than 500 mm. It is frequently associated with agricultural land, golf courses, and gardens but less common in exotic plantations.Food and Feeding.The Hottentot Golden Mole is insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates such as earthworms and insects. In captivity, they will eat snails and plant material (e.g. potatoes and bulbs), although their digestive tracts are not specialized for herbivory. In nature, more than 97% of diets contain only earthworms, and less than 3% contain variety of insect prey including carabid beetle larvae, slugs, snails, crickets, insect pupae, and spiders. Individuals can consume up to 90% of their body weight daily. Although they will drink water in captivity, they probably obtain their moisture requirements from food and dew in the wild.Breeding.Hottentot Golden Moles breed aseasonally, with peak reproductive activity in wet summer months. Females are polyestrous, with postpartum estrus, and male spermatogenesis is continuous, reflecting relatively constant microclimate of their subterranean niche. Litters have 1-3 young, but in most cases, females will carry one fetus in each uterine horn, giving rise to litters of two young. At birth, young are altricial, pale pink, and naked, except for a few hairs on foreheads and sides of muzzles. Ear openings are marked by small protuberances on sides of the head. Claws are well developed but soft. Neonates are ¢.47 mm long, weigh 4-5 g, and develop short dark brown dorsal pelage by juvenile size at 72 mm long and 17 g; ventral surfaces remain naked; and teeth are unerupted. Pale ventral pelage first appears at the late juvenile size at 80 mm long and ¢.27 g, and eviction from maternal burrows occurs at ¢.35—40 g.Activity patterns.Hottentot Golden Moles live almost exclusively underground, constructing superficial burrows for foraging and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Subsurface tunnels are ¢.3 cm deep and 4-6 cm in diameter. Residential burrows can penetrate as far as 1 m belowground and are relatively complex in form, comprising grassor leaf-lined spherical nesting chambers 10-50 cm deep and 15-20 cm in diameter, other chambers used as latrines, and deeper (29-94 cm deep) spiraling bolt holes. In friable soils, horny nose pads are predominantly used for digging subsurface tunnels, and foreclaws assist with digging deeper tunnels and foraging in heavier soils. Hottentot Golden Moles are estimated to burrow at rates of up to 1-1-5 m/h and up to 9 m daily. Foraging burrows are generally 9.5-240 m long and might be extended by 4-12 m/day, depending on friability of soil and abundance of prey. Excavated soil from deep burrows is pushed up to the surface as molehills or compacted into tunnel walls; superficial foraging burrows result in ridges on the surface. Hottentot Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbances and will retreat quickly from superficial burrows to deeper burrows or bolt-holesif disturbed. They sometimes are attracted to the surface by movements of worms and insects, and they might even emerge and move on the surface, usually only at night and when food is scarce. At these times, they can be vulnerable to predation by owls and other predators. Hottentot Golden Moles are significantly less active in winter than summer, burrowing deeper and often entering torpor during colder winter months. They are particularly active after rain, and daily activity tends to peak at sunrise, sunset, and midnight, with periods of activity of up to two hours and periods of inactivity of 3-5 hours. During heavy rainfall events, underground burrows can become flooded. Hottentot Golden Moles cope with these situations by swimming; they can maintain a certain degree of buoyancy due to a layer of air retained in their wet fur. Soil temperatures in burrow systems are 0-8-32°C, but optimal thermal conditions for activity are 23-33°C, corresponding with their thermoneutral zone. Ambient temperatures below 15°C or higher than 30°C lead to torpor, characterized by reduced metabolic rate and considerable energetic saving.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hottentot Golden Moles are solitary and territorial. They actively defend their burrow systems, fighting aggressively with individuals of either sex by wrestling their opponent using foreclaws and biting opponent’s abdomen. Fighting is often accompanied by highpitched squeaks. Home range overlap is tolerated to some degree, and dominant individuals sometimes invade neighboring burrow systems to increase their home range size. Courtship involves chirruping vocalizations, head bobbing and foot stamping by the male, and rasping and squealing vocalizations by the female. Although solitary, the Hottentot Golden Mole has been recorded in sympatry with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus), even to the point of sharing burrow systems. Densities of Hottentot Golden Moles up to 25 ind/ha have been recorded in prime habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, distinct isolated evolutionary lineages with limited ranges or small population sizes might be under threat due to habitat alteration and degradation resulting from coastal urban development.Bibliography.Bernard et al. (1994), Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b), Bronner & Mynhardt (2015b), Broom (1907 1908), Gilbert et al. (2008), Hickman (1986), Kuyper (1985), McConnell (1986), Mynhardt et al. (2015), Schoeman et al. (2004), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Thomas & Schwann (1905)." +03CD879C5A759801FF9AFDAAE6DDF444,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,195,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A759801FF9AFDAAE6DDF444.xml,Amblysomus hottentotus,Amblysomus,hottentotus,,,Taupe-dorée hottentote @fr | Hottentotten-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de los Hotentotes @es | Zulu Golden Mole; Drakensberg Golden Mole (longiceps) @en | Meester’s Golden Mole (meester) @en,"Chrysochloris hottentotus[sic] A. Smith, 1829, “interior parts of South Africa”(= Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa).Amblysomus hottentotus1s synonymous with A. ins, described by O. Thomas and H. Schwann in 1905. Traditionally, A. Aottentotus has included populations that are here considered distinct species: A. corriae, A. marleyi, A. robustus, and A. septentrionalis. Five subspecies recognized.","A.h.hottentotusA.Smith,1829—coastalpartsofEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica,fromvicinityofVanStadensRivermouthEtoKingWilliam’sTownandEastLondon.A.h.irisThomas&Schwann,1905—NcoastalpartsofKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica,fromStLuciaStoRichard’sBay.A.h.longicepsBroom,1907—DrakensbergescarpmentofKwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovinces,ESouthAfrica,withmarginalintrusionintoFreeStateandMpumalangaprovincesandLesotho.A.h.meester:Bronner,2000—NESouthAfrica,MpumalangaProvince,knownonlyfromNDrakensbergescarpmentaroundMariepskopandGraskop,rangingStovicinityofWhiteRiver,whereasinglespecimenhasbeencollected.A. h. pondoliae Thomas & Schwann, 1905— coastal parts of KwaZulu-Natal Province, E South Africa, between Durban and Port Edward.","Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 104-135 mm (females), hindfoot 13-19 mm (males) and 12-18 mm (females) for the nominotypical Aottentotus; head—body 113-125 mm (males) and 104-132 mm (females), hindfoot 12-16 mm (males) and 11-16 mm (females) for subspecies iris; head—body 120-141 mm (males) and 119-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females) for subspecies longiceps; head-body 107-145 mm, hindfoot 14-17 mm for subspecies meesteri; head—body 107-145 mm (males) and 105-135 mm (females), hindfoot 12-18 mm (males) and 11-18 mm (females) for subspecies pondoliae; weight 37-85 g (males) and 37-60 g (females). The Hottentot Golden Mole is medium-sized, with considerable variation in size and pelage color among subspecies and populations. Generally, dorsum is rich dark reddish brown, becoming lighter reddish brown on flanks, with iridescent sheen of bronze, green, purple, or a mix. Venter is light grayish brown, with orange or reddish tinge, that is highly variable within populations, and sometimes with dark brown or pale whitish mid-ventral line from throat to belly. Muzzle is paler than dorsum, with off-white patches on cheeks, over subdermal eyes, and tiny ear openings. Albinistic specimens have creamy-beige to pale yellow (rarely recorded) dorsal and ventral pelage. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are usually absent, but when present, (less than 2% of individuals), they are small and range from triconid (molariform) to peg-like. Molar talonids are well developed except in subspecies meesteri, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid), except in subspecies meesteri, in which P1 tend to be more molariform. Dentition varies randomly and might reflect irregular sequence of tooth replacement in chrysochlorids. Foreclaws are moderately developed, claw on third digit is largest, second digit is much shorter, first digit is about one-half as long as second digit, and fourth digit is vestigial, with knob-like claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","Wide variety of habitats from temperate grasslands and woodland savannas to Afro-montane forests, marshes, and coastal dunes, predominantly in mesic eastern regions of South Africa at elevations of ¢.0-2000 m. The Hottentot Golden Mole occurs mainly in Grassland and Savanna biomes, with marginal intrusion into Fynbos and Nama Karoo biomes in its southern distribution. It is particularly abundant in moist soils near water sources but also occurs far from surface water if soilis friable enough for burrowing and invertebrate prey is abundant. The Hottentot Golden Mole generally occurs in regions with mean annual rainfall more than 500 mm. It is frequently associated with agricultural land, golf courses, and gardens but less common in exotic plantations.","The Hottentot Golden Mole is insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates such as earthworms and insects. In captivity, they will eat snails and plant material (e.g. potatoes and bulbs), although their digestive tracts are not specialized for herbivory. In nature, more than 97% of diets contain only earthworms, and less than 3% contain variety of insect prey including carabid beetle larvae, slugs, snails, crickets, insect pupae, and spiders. Individuals can consume up to 90% of their body weight daily. Although they will drink water in captivity, they probably obtain their moisture requirements from food and dew in the wild.","Hottentot Golden Moles breed aseasonally, with peak reproductive activity in wet summer months. Females are polyestrous, with postpartum estrus, and male spermatogenesis is continuous, reflecting relatively constant microclimate of their subterranean niche. Litters have 1-3 young, but in most cases, females will carry one fetus in each uterine horn, giving rise to litters of two young. At birth, young are altricial, pale pink, and naked, except for a few hairs on foreheads and sides of muzzles. Ear openings are marked by small protuberances on sides of the head. Claws are well developed but soft. Neonates are ¢.47 mm long, weigh 4-5 g, and develop short dark brown dorsal pelage by juvenile size at 72 mm long and 17 g; ventral surfaces remain naked; and teeth are unerupted. Pale ventral pelage first appears at the late juvenile size at 80 mm long and ¢.27 g, and eviction from maternal burrows occurs at ¢.35—40 g.","Hottentot Golden Moles live almost exclusively underground, constructing superficial burrows for foraging and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Subsurface tunnels are ¢.3 cm deep and 4-6 cm in diameter. Residential burrows can penetrate as far as 1 m belowground and are relatively complex in form, comprising grassor leaf-lined spherical nesting chambers 10-50 cm deep and 15-20 cm in diameter, other chambers used as latrines, and deeper (29-94 cm deep) spiraling bolt holes. In friable soils, horny nose pads are predominantly used for digging subsurface tunnels, and foreclaws assist with digging deeper tunnels and foraging in heavier soils. Hottentot Golden Moles are estimated to burrow at rates of up to 1-1-5 m/h and up to 9 m daily. Foraging burrows are generally 9.5-240 m long and might be extended by 4-12 m/day, depending on friability of soil and abundance of prey. Excavated soil from deep burrows is pushed up to the surface as molehills or compacted into tunnel walls; superficial foraging burrows result in ridges on the surface. Hottentot Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbances and will retreat quickly from superficial burrows to deeper burrows or bolt-holesif disturbed. They sometimes are attracted to the surface by movements of worms and insects, and they might even emerge and move on the surface, usually only at night and when food is scarce. At these times, they can be vulnerable to predation by owls and other predators. Hottentot Golden Moles are significantly less active in winter than summer, burrowing deeper and often entering torpor during colder winter months. They are particularly active after rain, and daily activity tends to peak at sunrise, sunset, and midnight, with periods of activity of up to two hours and periods of inactivity of 3-5 hours. During heavy rainfall events, underground burrows can become flooded. Hottentot Golden Moles cope with these situations by swimming; they can maintain a certain degree of buoyancy due to a layer of air retained in their wet fur. Soil temperatures in burrow systems are 0-8-32°C, but optimal thermal conditions for activity are 23-33°C, corresponding with their thermoneutral zone. Ambient temperatures below 15°C or higher than 30°C lead to torpor, characterized by reduced metabolic rate and considerable energetic saving.","Hottentot Golden Moles are solitary and territorial. They actively defend their burrow systems, fighting aggressively with individuals of either sex by wrestling their opponent using foreclaws and biting opponent’s abdomen. Fighting is often accompanied by highpitched squeaks. Home range overlap is tolerated to some degree, and dominant individuals sometimes invade neighboring burrow systems to increase their home range size. Courtship involves chirruping vocalizations, head bobbing and foot stamping by the male, and rasping and squealing vocalizations by the female. Although solitary, the Hottentot Golden Mole has been recorded in sympatry with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus), even to the point of sharing burrow systems. Densities of Hottentot Golden Moles up to 25 ind/ha have been recorded in prime habitat.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, distinct isolated evolutionary lineages with limited ranges or small population sizes might be under threat due to habitat alteration and degradation resulting from coastal urban development.","Bernard et al. (1994) | Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b) | Bronner & Mynhardt (2015b) | Broom (1907 1908) | Gilbert et al. (2008) | Hickman (1986) | Kuyper (1985) | McConnell (1986) | Mynhardt et al. (2015) | Schoeman et al. (2004) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Thomas & Schwann (1905)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624503/files/figure.png,"1.Hottentot Golden MoleAmblysomus hottentotusFrench:Taupe-dorée hottentote/ German:Hottentotten-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de los HotentotesOther common names:Zulu Golden Mole; Drakensberg Golden Mole (longiceps), Meester’s Golden Mole (meester)Taxonomy.Chrysochloris hottentotus[sic] A. Smith, 1829, “interior parts of South Africa”(= Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa).Amblysomus hottentotus1s synonymous with A. ins, described by O. Thomas and H. Schwann in 1905. Traditionally, A. Aottentotus has included populations that are here considered distinct species: A. corriae, A. marleyi, A. robustus, and A. septentrionalis. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.h.hottentotusA.Smith,1829—coastalpartsofEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica,fromvicinityofVanStadensRivermouthEtoKingWilliam’sTownandEastLondon.A.h.irisThomas&Schwann,1905—NcoastalpartsofKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica,fromStLuciaStoRichard’sBay.A.h.longicepsBroom,1907—DrakensbergescarpmentofKwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovinces,ESouthAfrica,withmarginalintrusionintoFreeStateandMpumalangaprovincesandLesotho.A.h.meester:Bronner,2000—NESouthAfrica,MpumalangaProvince,knownonlyfromNDrakensbergescarpmentaroundMariepskopandGraskop,rangingStovicinityofWhiteRiver,whereasinglespecimenhasbeencollected.A. h. pondoliae Thomas & Schwann, 1905— coastal parts of KwaZulu-Natal Province, E South Africa, between Durban and Port Edward.Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 104-135 mm (females), hindfoot 13-19 mm (males) and 12-18 mm (females) for the nominotypical Aottentotus; head—body 113-125 mm (males) and 104-132 mm (females), hindfoot 12-16 mm (males) and 11-16 mm (females) for subspecies iris; head—body 120-141 mm (males) and 119-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females) for subspecies longiceps; head-body 107-145 mm, hindfoot 14-17 mm for subspecies meesteri; head—body 107-145 mm (males) and 105-135 mm (females), hindfoot 12-18 mm (males) and 11-18 mm (females) for subspecies pondoliae; weight 37-85 g (males) and 37-60 g (females). The Hottentot Golden Mole is medium-sized, with considerable variation in size and pelage color among subspecies and populations. Generally, dorsum is rich dark reddish brown, becoming lighter reddish brown on flanks, with iridescent sheen of bronze, green, purple, or a mix. Venter is light grayish brown, with orange or reddish tinge, that is highly variable within populations, and sometimes with dark brown or pale whitish mid-ventral line from throat to belly. Muzzle is paler than dorsum, with off-white patches on cheeks, over subdermal eyes, and tiny ear openings. Albinistic specimens have creamy-beige to pale yellow (rarely recorded) dorsal and ventral pelage. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are usually absent, but when present, (less than 2% of individuals), they are small and range from triconid (molariform) to peg-like. Molar talonids are well developed except in subspecies meesteri, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid), except in subspecies meesteri, in which P1 tend to be more molariform. Dentition varies randomly and might reflect irregular sequence of tooth replacement in chrysochlorids. Foreclaws are moderately developed, claw on third digit is largest, second digit is much shorter, first digit is about one-half as long as second digit, and fourth digit is vestigial, with knob-like claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats from temperate grasslands and woodland savannas to Afro-montane forests, marshes, and coastal dunes, predominantly in mesic eastern regions of South Africa at elevations of ¢.0-2000 m. The Hottentot Golden Mole occurs mainly in Grassland and Savanna biomes, with marginal intrusion into Fynbos and Nama Karoo biomes in its southern distribution. It is particularly abundant in moist soils near water sources but also occurs far from surface water if soilis friable enough for burrowing and invertebrate prey is abundant. The Hottentot Golden Mole generally occurs in regions with mean annual rainfall more than 500 mm. It is frequently associated with agricultural land, golf courses, and gardens but less common in exotic plantations.Food and Feeding.The Hottentot Golden Mole is insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates such as earthworms and insects. In captivity, they will eat snails and plant material (e.g. potatoes and bulbs), although their digestive tracts are not specialized for herbivory. In nature, more than 97% of diets contain only earthworms, and less than 3% contain variety of insect prey including carabid beetle larvae, slugs, snails, crickets, insect pupae, and spiders. Individuals can consume up to 90% of their body weight daily. Although they will drink water in captivity, they probably obtain their moisture requirements from food and dew in the wild.Breeding.Hottentot Golden Moles breed aseasonally, with peak reproductive activity in wet summer months. Females are polyestrous, with postpartum estrus, and male spermatogenesis is continuous, reflecting relatively constant microclimate of their subterranean niche. Litters have 1-3 young, but in most cases, females will carry one fetus in each uterine horn, giving rise to litters of two young. At birth, young are altricial, pale pink, and naked, except for a few hairs on foreheads and sides of muzzles. Ear openings are marked by small protuberances on sides of the head. Claws are well developed but soft. Neonates are ¢.47 mm long, weigh 4-5 g, and develop short dark brown dorsal pelage by juvenile size at 72 mm long and 17 g; ventral surfaces remain naked; and teeth are unerupted. Pale ventral pelage first appears at the late juvenile size at 80 mm long and ¢.27 g, and eviction from maternal burrows occurs at ¢.35—40 g.Activity patterns.Hottentot Golden Moles live almost exclusively underground, constructing superficial burrows for foraging and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Subsurface tunnels are ¢.3 cm deep and 4-6 cm in diameter. Residential burrows can penetrate as far as 1 m belowground and are relatively complex in form, comprising grassor leaf-lined spherical nesting chambers 10-50 cm deep and 15-20 cm in diameter, other chambers used as latrines, and deeper (29-94 cm deep) spiraling bolt holes. In friable soils, horny nose pads are predominantly used for digging subsurface tunnels, and foreclaws assist with digging deeper tunnels and foraging in heavier soils. Hottentot Golden Moles are estimated to burrow at rates of up to 1-1-5 m/h and up to 9 m daily. Foraging burrows are generally 9.5-240 m long and might be extended by 4-12 m/day, depending on friability of soil and abundance of prey. Excavated soil from deep burrows is pushed up to the surface as molehills or compacted into tunnel walls; superficial foraging burrows result in ridges on the surface. Hottentot Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbances and will retreat quickly from superficial burrows to deeper burrows or bolt-holesif disturbed. They sometimes are attracted to the surface by movements of worms and insects, and they might even emerge and move on the surface, usually only at night and when food is scarce. At these times, they can be vulnerable to predation by owls and other predators. Hottentot Golden Moles are significantly less active in winter than summer, burrowing deeper and often entering torpor during colder winter months. They are particularly active after rain, and daily activity tends to peak at sunrise, sunset, and midnight, with periods of activity of up to two hours and periods of inactivity of 3-5 hours. During heavy rainfall events, underground burrows can become flooded. Hottentot Golden Moles cope with these situations by swimming; they can maintain a certain degree of buoyancy due to a layer of air retained in their wet fur. Soil temperatures in burrow systems are 0-8-32°C, but optimal thermal conditions for activity are 23-33°C, corresponding with their thermoneutral zone. Ambient temperatures below 15°C or higher than 30°C lead to torpor, characterized by reduced metabolic rate and considerable energetic saving.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hottentot Golden Moles are solitary and territorial. They actively defend their burrow systems, fighting aggressively with individuals of either sex by wrestling their opponent using foreclaws and biting opponent’s abdomen. Fighting is often accompanied by highpitched squeaks. Home range overlap is tolerated to some degree, and dominant individuals sometimes invade neighboring burrow systems to increase their home range size. Courtship involves chirruping vocalizations, head bobbing and foot stamping by the male, and rasping and squealing vocalizations by the female. Although solitary, the Hottentot Golden Mole has been recorded in sympatry with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus), even to the point of sharing burrow systems. Densities of Hottentot Golden Moles up to 25 ind/ha have been recorded in prime habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, distinct isolated evolutionary lineages with limited ranges or small population sizes might be under threat due to habitat alteration and degradation resulting from coastal urban development.Bibliography.Bernard et al. (1994), Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b), Bronner & Mynhardt (2015b), Broom (1907 1908), Gilbert et al. (2008), Hickman (1986), Kuyper (1985), McConnell (1986), Mynhardt et al. (2015), Schoeman et al. (2004), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Thomas & Schwann (1905)." 03CD879C5A779803FEA7FDADE8EAFA89,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,180,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A779803FEA7FDADE8EAFA89.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family CHRYSOCHLORIDAE(GOLDEN MOLES)• Small fusiform body shape, short limbs, no visible tail, eyes covered in skin and notvisible, no visible ear pinnae, and variable pelage color.* 8-23 cm.• Afrotropical Region.• Subterranean in subtropical and tropical deserts, grasslands, and forests from sea level into mountains.• 10 genera, 21 species, 42 taxa.•] species Critically Endangered, 5 Endangered, 4 Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600." -03CD879C5A7E9809FA68F87EE6D5FC8C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E9809FA68F87EE6D5FC8C.xml,Eremitalpa grant,Eremitalpa,granti,Roberts,1924,Taupe-dorée de Grant @fr | \Wistengoldmull @de | Topo dorado de Grant @es | Namib Golden Mole (namibensis) @en,"Chrysochloris granti Broom,1907, Garies, Little Namaqualand, North- ern Cape Province, South Africa.Two subspecies are recognized.","E.g.grantiBroom,1907—StrandveldSucculentKaroo,WcoastofSouthAfrica.E. g. namibensis Bauer & Niethammer, 1960— Sossusvlei, Namib Desert, W Namibia.","Head-body 76-86 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm; weight 15-30 g fornominotypical granti; head—body 65-81 mm (males) and 60-74 mm (females), hindfoot 6-10 mm (males) and 6-8 mm (females); weight 17-30 g (males) and 15-23 g (females) for subspecies namibensis, the “Namib Golden Mole.” Grant’s Golden Mole is the smallest species in the family, and males are larger than females. Dorsum is pale grayish yellow, with iridescent silvery sheen. Flank and venter are paler than dorsum, with more intense yellow; forehead and cheeks are pale yellow. Grant's Golden Mole differs from other species of golden moles by having a well-developed claw on fourth toe. Subspecies namibensis has shorter greater skull length and shorter fur than grant.","Confined to Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes in South Africa (nominotypical granti) and Namib Desert (subspecies namibensis). Both subspecies have similar microhabitat requirements, preferring soft sands of coastal dune crests but also occurring in interdune valleys with vegetation clumps where sand is not compacted.","Grant’s Golden Mole has been recorded eating sand-burrowing skinks, legless lizards, web-footed geckos, and insects, including crickets and beetle larvae. When feeding on dunes, the Namib Golden Mole eats similar types of food but specializes in eating sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus), which make up 95% of the diet by mass. Root material is also ingested along with sand. It is thought that termite colonies are detected around dune grass with seismic cues. Both subspecies forage on the surface at night, which provides a much more energy efficient form of locomotion than burrowing through the sand, given that prey species are patchily distributed.",Pregnant Grant’s Golden Moles have been recorded in October-November. Litters have 1-2 young.,"Grant's Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but some afternoon activity occurs in winter; captive individuals were active at midday. In winter, Grant’s Golden Mole is most active between sunset and midnight; summer activity continues all night.","Both subspecies of Grant’s Golden Moles burrow just below the surface of the sand but occasionally use deeper tunnels in more solid sand; they do not throw up mounds. When inactive, they use temporary rest sites, with no evidence of permanent burrows, tunnels, chambers, or nest material; they rarely reuse the same rest site. Most restsites are situated below hummocks of vegetation, and they never share these sites with conspecifics. Adults are solitary and occupy a consistent home range. Mean home range size of the Namib Golden Molewas estimated as 4-6 ha (n = 8), with males having larger home ranges (3-1-12-3 ha) than females (1-8—4-6 ha). Home ranges of several individuals can overlap, with multiple intersecting tracks observed over the same time-period, but individuals appear to use discrete centers of activity. Direct encounters between neighboring individuals are uncommon. When housed together in captivity, individuals are not aggressive toward conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats. Conservation status will need to be reassessed if subspecies are elevated to distinct species.","Bronner (2013b) | Fielden (1991) | Fielden et al. (1990) | Maree (2015g) | Maree & Bronner (2016b) | Mason & Narins (2001, 2002) | Perrin & Fielden (1999) | Seymour & Seely (1996)",,"21.Grant's Golden MoleEremitalpa grantFrench:Taupe-dorée de Grant/ German:\Wistengoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de GrantOther common names:Namib Golden Mole (namibensis)Taxonomy.Chrysochloris granti Broom,1907, Garies, Little Namaqualand, North- ern Cape Province, South Africa.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.g.grantiBroom,1907—StrandveldSucculentKaroo,WcoastofSouthAfrica.E. g. namibensis Bauer & Niethammer, 1960— Sossusvlei, Namib Desert, W Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76-86 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm; weight 15-30 g fornominotypical granti; head—body 65-81 mm (males) and 60-74 mm (females), hindfoot 6-10 mm (males) and 6-8 mm (females); weight 17-30 g (males) and 15-23 g (females) for subspecies namibensis, the “Namib Golden Mole.” Grant’s Golden Mole is the smallest species in the family, and males are larger than females. Dorsum is pale grayish yellow, with iridescent silvery sheen. Flank and venter are paler than dorsum, with more intense yellow; forehead and cheeks are pale yellow. Grant's Golden Mole differs from other species of golden moles by having a well-developed claw on fourth toe. Subspecies namibensis has shorter greater skull length and shorter fur than grant.Habitat.Confined to Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes in South Africa (nominotypical granti) and Namib Desert (subspecies namibensis). Both subspecies have similar microhabitat requirements, preferring soft sands of coastal dune crests but also occurring in interdune valleys with vegetation clumps where sand is not compacted.Food and Feeding.Grant’s Golden Mole has been recorded eating sand-burrowing skinks, legless lizards, web-footed geckos, and insects, including crickets and beetle larvae. When feeding on dunes, the Namib Golden Mole eats similar types of food but specializes in eating sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus), which make up 95% of the diet by mass. Root material is also ingested along with sand. It is thought that termite colonies are detected around dune grass with seismic cues. Both subspecies forage on the surface at night, which provides a much more energy efficient form of locomotion than burrowing through the sand, given that prey species are patchily distributed.Breeding.Pregnant Grant’s Golden Moles have been recorded in October-November. Litters have 1-2 young.Activity patterns.Grant's Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but some afternoon activity occurs in winter; captive individuals were active at midday. In winter, Grant’s Golden Mole is most active between sunset and midnight; summer activity continues all night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both subspecies of Grant’s Golden Moles burrow just below the surface of the sand but occasionally use deeper tunnels in more solid sand; they do not throw up mounds. When inactive, they use temporary rest sites, with no evidence of permanent burrows, tunnels, chambers, or nest material; they rarely reuse the same rest site. Most restsites are situated below hummocks of vegetation, and they never share these sites with conspecifics. Adults are solitary and occupy a consistent home range. Mean home range size of the Namib Golden Molewas estimated as 4-6 ha (n = 8), with males having larger home ranges (3-1-12-3 ha) than females (1-8—4-6 ha). Home ranges of several individuals can overlap, with multiple intersecting tracks observed over the same time-period, but individuals appear to use discrete centers of activity. Direct encounters between neighboring individuals are uncommon. When housed together in captivity, individuals are not aggressive toward conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats. Conservation status will need to be reassessed if subspecies are elevated to distinct species.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Fielden (1991), Fielden et al. (1990), Maree (2015g), Maree & Bronner (2016b), Mason & Narins (2001, 2002), Perrin & Fielden (1999), Seymour & Seely (1996)." +03CD879C5A7E9809FA68F87EE6D5FC8C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E9809FA68F87EE6D5FC8C.xml,Eremitalpa grant,Eremitalpa,granti,Roberts,1924,Taupe-dorée de Grant @fr | \Wistengoldmull @de | Topo dorado de Grant @es | Namib Golden Mole (namibensis) @en,"Chrysochloris granti Broom,1907, Garies, Little Namaqualand, North- ern Cape Province, South Africa.Two subspecies are recognized.","E.g.grantiBroom,1907—StrandveldSucculentKaroo,WcoastofSouthAfrica.E. g. namibensis Bauer & Niethammer, 1960— Sossusvlei, Namib Desert, W Namibia.","Head-body 76-86 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm; weight 15-30 g fornominotypical granti; head—body 65-81 mm (males) and 60-74 mm (females), hindfoot 6-10 mm (males) and 6-8 mm (females); weight 17-30 g (males) and 15-23 g (females) for subspecies namibensis, the “Namib Golden Mole.” Grant’s Golden Mole is the smallest species in the family, and males are larger than females. Dorsum is pale grayish yellow, with iridescent silvery sheen. Flank and venter are paler than dorsum, with more intense yellow; forehead and cheeks are pale yellow. Grant's Golden Mole differs from other species of golden moles by having a well-developed claw on fourth toe. Subspecies namibensis has shorter greater skull length and shorter fur than grant.","Confined to Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes in South Africa (nominotypical granti) and Namib Desert (subspecies namibensis). Both subspecies have similar microhabitat requirements, preferring soft sands of coastal dune crests but also occurring in interdune valleys with vegetation clumps where sand is not compacted.","Grant’s Golden Mole has been recorded eating sand-burrowing skinks, legless lizards, web-footed geckos, and insects, including crickets and beetle larvae. When feeding on dunes, the Namib Golden Mole eats similar types of food but specializes in eating sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus), which make up 95% of the diet by mass. Root material is also ingested along with sand. It is thought that termite colonies are detected around dune grass with seismic cues. Both subspecies forage on the surface at night, which provides a much more energy efficient form of locomotion than burrowing through the sand, given that prey species are patchily distributed.",Pregnant Grant’s Golden Moles have been recorded in October-November. Litters have 1-2 young.,"Grant's Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but some afternoon activity occurs in winter; captive individuals were active at midday. In winter, Grant’s Golden Mole is most active between sunset and midnight; summer activity continues all night.","Both subspecies of Grant’s Golden Moles burrow just below the surface of the sand but occasionally use deeper tunnels in more solid sand; they do not throw up mounds. When inactive, they use temporary rest sites, with no evidence of permanent burrows, tunnels, chambers, or nest material; they rarely reuse the same rest site. Most restsites are situated below hummocks of vegetation, and they never share these sites with conspecifics. Adults are solitary and occupy a consistent home range. Mean home range size of the Namib Golden Molewas estimated as 4-6 ha (n = 8), with males having larger home ranges (3-1-12-3 ha) than females (1-8—4-6 ha). Home ranges of several individuals can overlap, with multiple intersecting tracks observed over the same time-period, but individuals appear to use discrete centers of activity. Direct encounters between neighboring individuals are uncommon. When housed together in captivity, individuals are not aggressive toward conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats. Conservation status will need to be reassessed if subspecies are elevated to distinct species.","Bronner (2013b) | Fielden (1991) | Fielden et al. (1990) | Maree (2015g) | Maree & Bronner (2016b) | Mason & Narins (2001, 2002) | Perrin & Fielden (1999) | Seymour & Seely (1996)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624550/files/figure.png,"21.Grant's Golden MoleEremitalpa grantFrench:Taupe-dorée de Grant/ German:\Wistengoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de GrantOther common names:Namib Golden Mole (namibensis)Taxonomy.Chrysochloris granti Broom,1907, Garies, Little Namaqualand, North- ern Cape Province, South Africa.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.g.grantiBroom,1907—StrandveldSucculentKaroo,WcoastofSouthAfrica.E. g. namibensis Bauer & Niethammer, 1960— Sossusvlei, Namib Desert, W Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76-86 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm; weight 15-30 g fornominotypical granti; head—body 65-81 mm (males) and 60-74 mm (females), hindfoot 6-10 mm (males) and 6-8 mm (females); weight 17-30 g (males) and 15-23 g (females) for subspecies namibensis, the “Namib Golden Mole.” Grant’s Golden Mole is the smallest species in the family, and males are larger than females. Dorsum is pale grayish yellow, with iridescent silvery sheen. Flank and venter are paler than dorsum, with more intense yellow; forehead and cheeks are pale yellow. Grant's Golden Mole differs from other species of golden moles by having a well-developed claw on fourth toe. Subspecies namibensis has shorter greater skull length and shorter fur than grant.Habitat.Confined to Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes in South Africa (nominotypical granti) and Namib Desert (subspecies namibensis). Both subspecies have similar microhabitat requirements, preferring soft sands of coastal dune crests but also occurring in interdune valleys with vegetation clumps where sand is not compacted.Food and Feeding.Grant’s Golden Mole has been recorded eating sand-burrowing skinks, legless lizards, web-footed geckos, and insects, including crickets and beetle larvae. When feeding on dunes, the Namib Golden Mole eats similar types of food but specializes in eating sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus), which make up 95% of the diet by mass. Root material is also ingested along with sand. It is thought that termite colonies are detected around dune grass with seismic cues. Both subspecies forage on the surface at night, which provides a much more energy efficient form of locomotion than burrowing through the sand, given that prey species are patchily distributed.Breeding.Pregnant Grant’s Golden Moles have been recorded in October-November. Litters have 1-2 young.Activity patterns.Grant's Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but some afternoon activity occurs in winter; captive individuals were active at midday. In winter, Grant’s Golden Mole is most active between sunset and midnight; summer activity continues all night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both subspecies of Grant’s Golden Moles burrow just below the surface of the sand but occasionally use deeper tunnels in more solid sand; they do not throw up mounds. When inactive, they use temporary rest sites, with no evidence of permanent burrows, tunnels, chambers, or nest material; they rarely reuse the same rest site. Most restsites are situated below hummocks of vegetation, and they never share these sites with conspecifics. Adults are solitary and occupy a consistent home range. Mean home range size of the Namib Golden Molewas estimated as 4-6 ha (n = 8), with males having larger home ranges (3-1-12-3 ha) than females (1-8—4-6 ha). Home ranges of several individuals can overlap, with multiple intersecting tracks observed over the same time-period, but individuals appear to use discrete centers of activity. Direct encounters between neighboring individuals are uncommon. When housed together in captivity, individuals are not aggressive toward conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats. Conservation status will need to be reassessed if subspecies are elevated to distinct species.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Fielden (1991), Fielden et al. (1990), Maree (2015g), Maree & Bronner (2016b), Mason & Narins (2001, 2002), Perrin & Fielden (1999), Seymour & Seely (1996)." 03CD879C5A7E980AFA57FE2EE43EF97F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E980AFA57FE2EE43EF97F.xml,Cryptochloris zyli,Cryptochloris,zyli,,,Taupe-dorée de van Zyl @fr | Van Zyl-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de van Zyl @es,"Cryptochloris zyli Shortridge &Carter, 1938, Compagnies Drift, 16 km inland from Lamberts Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa.The species zyliwas formerly considered subspecifically distinct from C. wintonibut now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color and malleus morphology. Monotypic.","Endemic to W South Africa, being found at two sites (Groenriviermond in Northern Cape Province and Lamberts Bay in Western Cape Province); possibly ranges N along coast to Olifants River.","Head—body 82 mm, hindfoot 12 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Based on only three specimens, Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is very small, with short, dark lead-gray dorsal pelage; venter is similar but drab. Course guard hairs have violet metallic sheen, giving pelage sparkly appearance.","Uncertain, but expected to occur in coastal dune belt and possibly sandy areas of Strandveld Succulent Karoo biome of the Namaqua coastal plain.",No information.,No information.,Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is expected to be primarily nocturnal.,No information.,"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is found at only two locations (until recently, it was only known from a single location, but it was recorded from a second location near Groenriviermond in 2003) and has a small extent of occurrence (estimated to be just under 5000 km?) and small area of occupancy (estimated at only 32 km?®). Van Zyl’s Golden Mole might be severely threatened by habitat alteration from alluvial diamond mining and locally by construction of wind farms nearits type locality.","Bronner (2013b, 2015c¢) | Bronner & Asher (2016e) | Helgen & Wilson (2001) | Simonetta (1968)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624548/files/figure.png,"20.Van Zyl's Golden MoleCryptochloris zyliFrench:Taupe-dorée de van Zyl/ German:Van Zyl-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de van ZylTaxonomy.Cryptochloris zyli Shortridge &Carter, 1938, Compagnies Drift, 16 km inland from Lamberts Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa.The species zyliwas formerly considered subspecifically distinct from C. wintonibut now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color and malleus morphology. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W South Africa, being found at two sites (Groenriviermond in Northern Cape Province and Lamberts Bay in Western Cape Province); possibly ranges N along coast to Olifants River.Descriptive notes.Head—body 82 mm, hindfoot 12 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Based on only three specimens, Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is very small, with short, dark lead-gray dorsal pelage; venter is similar but drab. Course guard hairs have violet metallic sheen, giving pelage sparkly appearance.Habitat.Uncertain, but expected to occur in coastal dune belt and possibly sandy areas of Strandveld Succulent Karoo biome of the Namaqua coastal plain.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is expected to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is found at only two locations (until recently, it was only known from a single location, but it was recorded from a second location near Groenriviermond in 2003) and has a small extent of occurrence (estimated to be just under 5000 km?) and small area of occupancy (estimated at only 32 km?®). Van Zyl’s Golden Mole might be severely threatened by habitat alteration from alluvial diamond mining and locally by construction of wind farms nearits type locality.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b, 2015c¢), Bronner & Asher (2016e), Helgen & Wilson (2001), Simonetta (1968)." 03CD879C5A7E980AFF50F6E1E6C4FEEA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E980AFF50F6E1E6C4FEEA.xml,Cryptochloris wintoni,Cryptochloris,wintoni,,,Taupe-dorée de De Winton @fr | De Winton-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de De Winton @es,"Chrysochloris wintoni Broom, 1907, Port Nolloth, Northern Cape Prov- ince, South Africa.The species wintoniwas formerly consid- ered subspecifically distinct from C. zylibut now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color and malleus morphology. Monotypic.","Known only from the type locality in NW Northern Cape Province, NW South Africa.","Head-body 86-92 mm, hindfoot 10-3-10-5 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. De Winton’s Golden Mole is very small and is easily confused with Grant’s Golden Mole (Eremitalpa granti). Dorsum is slate-gray, with yellowish tinge on forehead, cheeks, and lips; venter is slightly paler.",Coastal dunes and adjacent sandy areas in Strandveld Succulent Karoo biome.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. De Winton’s Golden Mole is known from only one location and has not been caught for 50 years. It is no doubt severely threatened by habitat alteration resulting from alluvial diamond mining and infrastructure resulting from expansion of Port Nolloth harbor.,Bronner (2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016d) | Roberts (1951),https://zenodo.org/record/6624546/files/figure.png,"19.De Winton’s Golden MoleCryptochloris wintoniFrench:Taupe-dorée de De Winton/ German:De Winton-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de De WintonTaxonomy.Chrysochloris wintoni Broom, 1907, Port Nolloth, Northern Cape Prov- ince, South Africa.The species wintoniwas formerly consid- ered subspecifically distinct from C. zylibut now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color and malleus morphology. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in NW Northern Cape Province, NW South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 86-92 mm, hindfoot 10-3-10-5 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. De Winton’s Golden Mole is very small and is easily confused with Grant’s Golden Mole (Eremitalpa granti). Dorsum is slate-gray, with yellowish tinge on forehead, cheeks, and lips; venter is slightly paler.Habitat.Coastal dunes and adjacent sandy areas in Strandveld Succulent Karoo biome.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. De Winton’s Golden Mole is known from only one location and has not been caught for 50 years. It is no doubt severely threatened by habitat alteration resulting from alluvial diamond mining and infrastructure resulting from expansion of Port Nolloth harbor.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016d), Roberts (1951)." 03CD879C5A7E980AFF50FE7DEA21F798,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,202,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E980AFF50FE7DEA21F798.xml,Chrysospalax trevelyani,Chrysospalax,trevelyani,,,Grande Taupe-dorée @fr | Riesengoldmull @de | Topo dorado gigante @es,"Chrysochloris trevelyani Gunther,1875, Pirie Forest, King Williams Town,Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. This species is monotypic.","Endemic to SE South Africa, occurring between East London and Port St Johns, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.","Head-body 215-235 mm (males) and 208-229 mm (females), hindfoot 20-28 mm (males) and21-27 mm (females); weight 470 g (males) and 410-500 g (females). The Giant Golden Mole is the largest golden mole. Dorsum is dark glossy brown, yellowish brown, or grayish brown; venteris similar but paler. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","Transkei Coastal Scarp forests, Amathole Mistbelt forests, and occasionally adjoining grasslands, preferring softsoils, deep leaflitter, and thick undergrowth. The Giant Golden Mole avoids commercial forestry plantations.","Diet of the Giant Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms, including giant earthworms (Microchaetes spp.), and millipedes. The Giant Golden Mole mostly forages in leaf litter aboveground, leaving signs of stirred up soil and leaves. Captive individuals eat various food types, including House Mice (Mus musculus).",A Giant Golden Mole gave birth to one young in October.,Giant Golden Moles are primarily nocturnal. Diurnal surface activity is unusual and occurs only under cloudy conditions.,"Giant Golden Moles live in short burrows, c¢.10 m long, that are linked by surface runways. They are frequently active aboveground in leaf litter when foraging and use runways to move between burrow entrances. An unconfirmed report indicated that several adults were dug out of a single nest in July, suggesting conspecifics will share burrows in winter (this is the only suggested instance of sociality for adult golden moles).","Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Golden Mole has an area of occupancy of only ¢.272 km? with severely fragmented distribution, and faces ongoing habitat loss. Although it has been recorded from 17 localities in the Eastern Cape,it is thought to be locally extinct in somesites previously inhabited. It is threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to urban sprawl and expanding coastal tourism.","Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016¢c) | Maddock (1986)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624544/files/figure.png,"18.Giant Golden MoleChrysospalax trevelyaniFrench:Grande Taupe-dorée/ German:Riesengoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado giganteTaxonomy.Chrysochloris trevelyani Gunther,1875, Pirie Forest, King Williams Town,Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SE South Africa, occurring between East London and Port St Johns, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 215-235 mm (males) and 208-229 mm (females), hindfoot 20-28 mm (males) and21-27 mm (females); weight 470 g (males) and 410-500 g (females). The Giant Golden Mole is the largest golden mole. Dorsum is dark glossy brown, yellowish brown, or grayish brown; venteris similar but paler. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Transkei Coastal Scarp forests, Amathole Mistbelt forests, and occasionally adjoining grasslands, preferring softsoils, deep leaflitter, and thick undergrowth. The Giant Golden Mole avoids commercial forestry plantations.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Giant Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms, including giant earthworms (Microchaetes spp.), and millipedes. The Giant Golden Mole mostly forages in leaf litter aboveground, leaving signs of stirred up soil and leaves. Captive individuals eat various food types, including House Mice (Mus musculus).Breeding.A Giant Golden Mole gave birth to one young in October.Activity patterns.Giant Golden Moles are primarily nocturnal. Diurnal surface activity is unusual and occurs only under cloudy conditions.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Golden Moles live in short burrows, c¢.10 m long, that are linked by surface runways. They are frequently active aboveground in leaf litter when foraging and use runways to move between burrow entrances. An unconfirmed report indicated that several adults were dug out of a single nest in July, suggesting conspecifics will share burrows in winter (this is the only suggested instance of sociality for adult golden moles).Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Golden Mole has an area of occupancy of only ¢.272 km? with severely fragmented distribution, and faces ongoing habitat loss. Although it has been recorded from 17 localities in the Eastern Cape,it is thought to be locally extinct in somesites previously inhabited. It is threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to urban sprawl and expanding coastal tourism.Bibliography.Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016¢c), Maddock (1986)." -03CD879C5A7F980AFA99F9DDEA51FE38,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7F980AFA99F9DDEA51FE38.xml,Chrysospalax villosa,Chrysospalax,villosa,A.Smith,1833,Taupe-dorée a poil dur @fr | Rauhaar Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de pelaje aspero @es,"Chrysochloris villosa A. Smith, 1833, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Widely used specific name villosus and sub-specific names rufopallidus and rufus have been changed for gender agreement. Six subspecies recognized, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment.","C.v.villosaA.Smith,1833—nearDurban,KwaZulu-Natal,ESouthAfrica.C.v.dobsoniBroom,1918—PietermaritzburgandKwaZulu-NatalMidlands,ESouthAfrica.C.v.leschaeBroom,1918—EEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica.C.v.rufaMeester,1953—knownonlyfromthetypelocalityinSpitzkop,CKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica.C.v.rufopallidaRoberts,1924—areasaroundBelfastandWakkerstroom,NC&SMpumalangaProvince,NESouthAfrica.C. v. transvaalensis Broom, 1913— areas around Pretoria and Witwatersrand, Gauteng Province, NE South Africa.","Head-body 148-175 mm (males) and 127-160 mm (females), hindfoot 14-17 mm (males) and 13-20 mm (females); weight 108-160 g (males) and 93-105 g (females). The Rough-haired Golden Mole is the second largest species in the family and has long, very coarse pelage. Dorsum varies from yellowish brown and grayish brown to dark slate-gray; venter is paler. Guard hairs are sparse and glossy; dense underfur is slate-gray.","Grasslands and marshland edges in various types of highveld and mountain grasslands, suburban gardens, and along edges of golf courses, preferring dry sandy soils and dense vegetation cover.","The Rough-haired Golden Mole eats insects and earthworms. It forages underground but also aboveground at night after rain. It uses tough nose-pad to root around, with feeding areas marked by stirred up soil.",Female Rough-haired Golden Moles give birth to two young.,Rough-haired Golden Moles are expected to be primarily nocturnal.,"Short burrows of Rough-haired Golden Moles are characterized by loose piles of soil that are left open when they go out to forage along well-defined surface runways. They move quickly on the surface to reach burrows when escaping danger. They have not been noted to make subsurface runs like other golden moles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat. Conservation threats are habitat loss through urban sprawl, power infrastructure development, poor agricultural practices (particularly increasing occurrence of livestock grazing in wetlands), and mining.",Bronner (2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016b) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005),,"17.Rough-haired Golden MoleChrysospalax villosaFrench:Taupe-dorée a poil dur/ German:RauhaarGoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de pelaje asperoTaxonomy.Chrysochloris villosa A. Smith, 1833, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Widely used specific name villosus and sub-specific names rufopallidus and rufus have been changed for gender agreement. Six subspecies recognized, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment.Subspecies and Distribution.C.v.villosaA.Smith,1833—nearDurban,KwaZulu-Natal,ESouthAfrica.C.v.dobsoniBroom,1918—PietermaritzburgandKwaZulu-NatalMidlands,ESouthAfrica.C.v.leschaeBroom,1918—EEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica.C.v.rufaMeester,1953—knownonlyfromthetypelocalityinSpitzkop,CKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica.C.v.rufopallidaRoberts,1924—areasaroundBelfastandWakkerstroom,NC&SMpumalangaProvince,NESouthAfrica.C. v. transvaalensis Broom, 1913— areas around Pretoria and Witwatersrand, Gauteng Province, NE South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 148-175 mm (males) and 127-160 mm (females), hindfoot 14-17 mm (males) and 13-20 mm (females); weight 108-160 g (males) and 93-105 g (females). The Rough-haired Golden Mole is the second largest species in the family and has long, very coarse pelage. Dorsum varies from yellowish brown and grayish brown to dark slate-gray; venter is paler. Guard hairs are sparse and glossy; dense underfur is slate-gray.Habitat.Grasslands and marshland edges in various types of highveld and mountain grasslands, suburban gardens, and along edges of golf courses, preferring dry sandy soils and dense vegetation cover.Food and Feeding.The Rough-haired Golden Mole eats insects and earthworms. It forages underground but also aboveground at night after rain. It uses tough nose-pad to root around, with feeding areas marked by stirred up soil.Breeding.Female Rough-haired Golden Moles give birth to two young.Activity patterns.Rough-haired Golden Moles are expected to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short burrows of Rough-haired Golden Moles are characterized by loose piles of soil that are left open when they go out to forage along well-defined surface runways. They move quickly on the surface to reach burrows when escaping danger. They have not been noted to make subsurface runs like other golden moles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat. Conservation threats are habitat loss through urban sprawl, power infrastructure development, poor agricultural practices (particularly increasing occurrence of livestock grazing in wetlands), and mining.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016b), Skinner & Chimimba (2005)." +03CD879C5A7F980AFA99F9DDEA51FE38,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7F980AFA99F9DDEA51FE38.xml,Chrysospalax villosa,Chrysospalax,villosa,A.Smith,1833,Taupe-dorée a poil dur @fr | Rauhaar Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de pelaje aspero @es,"Chrysochloris villosa A. Smith, 1833, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Widely used specific name villosus and sub-specific names rufopallidus and rufus have been changed for gender agreement. Six subspecies recognized, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment.","C.v.villosaA.Smith,1833—nearDurban,KwaZulu-Natal,ESouthAfrica.C.v.dobsoniBroom,1918—PietermaritzburgandKwaZulu-NatalMidlands,ESouthAfrica.C.v.leschaeBroom,1918—EEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica.C.v.rufaMeester,1953—knownonlyfromthetypelocalityinSpitzkop,CKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica.C.v.rufopallidaRoberts,1924—areasaroundBelfastandWakkerstroom,NC&SMpumalangaProvince,NESouthAfrica.C. v. transvaalensis Broom, 1913— areas around Pretoria and Witwatersrand, Gauteng Province, NE South Africa.","Head-body 148-175 mm (males) and 127-160 mm (females), hindfoot 14-17 mm (males) and 13-20 mm (females); weight 108-160 g (males) and 93-105 g (females). The Rough-haired Golden Mole is the second largest species in the family and has long, very coarse pelage. Dorsum varies from yellowish brown and grayish brown to dark slate-gray; venter is paler. Guard hairs are sparse and glossy; dense underfur is slate-gray.","Grasslands and marshland edges in various types of highveld and mountain grasslands, suburban gardens, and along edges of golf courses, preferring dry sandy soils and dense vegetation cover.","The Rough-haired Golden Mole eats insects and earthworms. It forages underground but also aboveground at night after rain. It uses tough nose-pad to root around, with feeding areas marked by stirred up soil.",Female Rough-haired Golden Moles give birth to two young.,Rough-haired Golden Moles are expected to be primarily nocturnal.,"Short burrows of Rough-haired Golden Moles are characterized by loose piles of soil that are left open when they go out to forage along well-defined surface runways. They move quickly on the surface to reach burrows when escaping danger. They have not been noted to make subsurface runs like other golden moles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat.","Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat. Conservation threats are habitat loss through urban sprawl, power infrastructure development, poor agricultural practices (particularly increasing occurrence of livestock grazing in wetlands), and mining.",Bronner (2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016b) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/6624542/files/figure.png,"17.Rough-haired Golden MoleChrysospalax villosaFrench:Taupe-dorée a poil dur/ German:RauhaarGoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de pelaje asperoTaxonomy.Chrysochloris villosa A. Smith, 1833, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Widely used specific name villosus and sub-specific names rufopallidus and rufus have been changed for gender agreement. Six subspecies recognized, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment.Subspecies and Distribution.C.v.villosaA.Smith,1833—nearDurban,KwaZulu-Natal,ESouthAfrica.C.v.dobsoniBroom,1918—PietermaritzburgandKwaZulu-NatalMidlands,ESouthAfrica.C.v.leschaeBroom,1918—EEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica.C.v.rufaMeester,1953—knownonlyfromthetypelocalityinSpitzkop,CKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica.C.v.rufopallidaRoberts,1924—areasaroundBelfastandWakkerstroom,NC&SMpumalangaProvince,NESouthAfrica.C. v. transvaalensis Broom, 1913— areas around Pretoria and Witwatersrand, Gauteng Province, NE South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 148-175 mm (males) and 127-160 mm (females), hindfoot 14-17 mm (males) and 13-20 mm (females); weight 108-160 g (males) and 93-105 g (females). The Rough-haired Golden Mole is the second largest species in the family and has long, very coarse pelage. Dorsum varies from yellowish brown and grayish brown to dark slate-gray; venter is paler. Guard hairs are sparse and glossy; dense underfur is slate-gray.Habitat.Grasslands and marshland edges in various types of highveld and mountain grasslands, suburban gardens, and along edges of golf courses, preferring dry sandy soils and dense vegetation cover.Food and Feeding.The Rough-haired Golden Mole eats insects and earthworms. It forages underground but also aboveground at night after rain. It uses tough nose-pad to root around, with feeding areas marked by stirred up soil.Breeding.Female Rough-haired Golden Moles give birth to two young.Activity patterns.Rough-haired Golden Moles are expected to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short burrows of Rough-haired Golden Moles are characterized by loose piles of soil that are left open when they go out to forage along well-defined surface runways. They move quickly on the surface to reach burrows when escaping danger. They have not been noted to make subsurface runs like other golden moles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat. Conservation threats are habitat loss through urban sprawl, power infrastructure development, poor agricultural practices (particularly increasing occurrence of livestock grazing in wetlands), and mining.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016b), Skinner & Chimimba (2005)." 03CD879C5A7F980BFA9AFEB9E9A3FADD,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7F980BFA9AFEB9E9A3FADD.xml,Chrysochloris visagier,Chrysochloris,visagiet,Lacepede,1799,Taupe-dorée de Visagie @fr | Visagie-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Visagie @es,"Chrysochloris visagiet Broom, 1950, “Gouna, b4 miles [= 87 km] east of Calvinia,”Northern Cape Province, South Africa.Chrysochlorisvisagieir is of uncertain taxonomic placement (incertae sedis) and might be an aberrant C. asiatica. Additional specimens are needed to clarify taxonomy. Monotypic.","Known only from the type locality in Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.","Head—body 106 mm, hindfoot 12 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Dorsum of Visagie’s Golden Mole is pale tawny olive; venter is paler. Underfur is pale slate-gray, hidden by long tawny tips. Facial hairs are slightly paler than rest of body, and below the nose, it is much paler.",Alluvial sand floodplains of the Bushmanland Nama Karoo.,No information.,No information.,No information.,No information.,"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Provenance of the type specimen of Visagie’s Golden Mole is uncertain, and it has only been seen once (no specimens have been seen or collected since its description).","Bronner (2013b, 2016) | Broom (1950)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624538/files/figure.png,"16.Visagie’s Golden MoleChrysochloris visagierFrench:Taupe-dorée de Visagie/ German:Visagie-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de VisagieTaxonomy.Chrysochloris visagiet Broom, 1950, “Gouna, b4 miles [= 87 km] east of Calvinia,”Northern Cape Province, South Africa.Chrysochlorisvisagieir is of uncertain taxonomic placement (incertae sedis) and might be an aberrant C. asiatica. Additional specimens are needed to clarify taxonomy. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head—body 106 mm, hindfoot 12 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Dorsum of Visagie’s Golden Mole is pale tawny olive; venter is paler. Underfur is pale slate-gray, hidden by long tawny tips. Facial hairs are slightly paler than rest of body, and below the nose, it is much paler.Habitat.Alluvial sand floodplains of the Bushmanland Nama Karoo.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Provenance of the type specimen of Visagie’s Golden Mole is uncertain, and it has only been seen once (no specimens have been seen or collected since its description).Bibliography.Bronner (2013b, 2016), Broom (1950)." 03CD879C5A7F980BFF84F831EEFFF235,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-08-4,hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf,hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad,201,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7F980BFF84F831EEFFF235.xml,Chrysochloris asiatica,Chrysochloris,asiatica,Linnaeus,1758,Taupe-dorée du Cap @fr | Kap-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de El Cabo @es,"Talpa asiatica Linnaeus, 1758,Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.Up to ten subspecies of C. asiaticahave been previously recognized, but geographical variation in size and color appears to be clinal. Monotypic.","Endemic to W South Africa, Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces.","Head-body 100-115 mm (males) and 94-114 mm (females), hindfoot 9-14 mm (males) and 11-14 mm (females). No specific data are available for body weight. Color of dorsum is variable, including blackish, slategray, brownish gray, olive-brown, and drab silver; venter is paler. Cape Golden Moles can have white eye patches. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","Various habitats including Fynbos, Renosterveld, and Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes, preferring sandy soils, and gardens.","The Cape Golden Mole eats mostly insects and other invertebrates including earthworms, centipedes, and millipedes. In captivity, it will eat almost any kind of insect and even juvenile mice. It is thought to eat crustaceans (amphipods and isopods) when moving on sandy beaches at night.","Breeding of the Cape Golden Mole is seasonal, with young born in June-August during winter rainfall season of the Western Cape Province. Litters have 1-3 young. Young are altricial and suckle for 2-3 months.",Cape Golden Moles are predominantly nocturnal but sometimes active in the late afternoon. They are very active after rain.,Cape Golden Moles mostly move through tunnels below the surface but can burrow deeper. They sometimes leave small soil mounds. They are solitary except during breeding and when young accompany females. They are hostile to conspecifics.,Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Golden Mole has a wide distribution and ability to adapt to partially transformed habitats including gardens. It faces no major conservation threats.,"Bennett & Spinks (1995) | Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016a, 1955b) | Broom (1907, 1950)",https://zenodo.org/record/6624534/files/figure.png,"15.Cape Golden MoleChrysochloris asiaticaFrench:Taupe-dorée du Cap/ German:Kap-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de El CaboTaxonomy.Talpa asiatica Linnaeus, 1758,Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.Up to ten subspecies of C. asiaticahave been previously recognized, but geographical variation in size and color appears to be clinal. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W South Africa, Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-115 mm (males) and 94-114 mm (females), hindfoot 9-14 mm (males) and 11-14 mm (females). No specific data are available for body weight. Color of dorsum is variable, including blackish, slategray, brownish gray, olive-brown, and drab silver; venter is paler. Cape Golden Moles can have white eye patches. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Various habitats including Fynbos, Renosterveld, and Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes, preferring sandy soils, and gardens.Food and Feeding.The Cape Golden Mole eats mostly insects and other invertebrates including earthworms, centipedes, and millipedes. In captivity, it will eat almost any kind of insect and even juvenile mice. It is thought to eat crustaceans (amphipods and isopods) when moving on sandy beaches at night.Breeding.Breeding of the Cape Golden Mole is seasonal, with young born in June-August during winter rainfall season of the Western Cape Province. Litters have 1-3 young. Young are altricial and suckle for 2-3 months.Activity patterns.Cape Golden Moles are predominantly nocturnal but sometimes active in the late afternoon. They are very active after rain.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cape Golden Moles mostly move through tunnels below the surface but can burrow deeper. They sometimes leave small soil mounds. They are solitary except during breeding and when young accompany females. They are hostile to conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Golden Mole has a wide distribution and ability to adapt to partially transformed habitats including gardens. It faces no major conservation threats.Bibliography.Bennett & Spinks (1995), Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016a, 1955b), Broom (1907, 1950)." -03D49D5BDE04FFDC09803BC96932F4E4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Platanistidae_0358.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffede523de05ffdd090c3e786f2eff8c,363,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D4/9D/03D49D5BDE04FFDC09803BC96932F4E4.xml,Platanista gangetica,Platanista,gangetica,,,Plataniste @fr | Ganges-Delfin @de | Delfin del Ganges @es | Blind River Dolphin @en | @en | ndian River Dolphin; Ganges River Dolphin @en | Susu (gangetica); Bhulan @en | ndus River Dolphin (minor) @en,"Delphinus gangeticus Lebeck, 1801, India.Two subspecies are recognized.","P.g.gangeticaLebeck,1801—Ganges-Brahmaputra-MeghnaandKarnaphuli-SanguriversystemsofSNepal,N&NEIndia,andBangladesh.P. g. minor Owen, 1853— Indus River system of SC Pakistan and NW India (Beas River).","Total length ¢.170-260 cm, weight c¢.110 kg. The South Asian River Dolphin is a brown or pale gray, stocky dolphin with a very long slender rostrum and exposed teeth. They have small triangular dorsal fins, but very large pectoral flippers and broad tail flukes. The eye is reduced to a tiny slit-like opening in the skinjust above the corner of the mouth. Long, thin, protruding teeth in young individuals wear over time to become flat disks in adults.","Distributed through several thousand kilometers of large alluvial rivers of the Indian subcontinent, from the foothills of the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains in the North, to the river deltas in the South. They are almost never found in the ocean. The South Asian River Dolphin is patchily distributed and occurs with highest frequency at confluences of rivers and streams. Deltaic waters, particularly in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, are also important habitat, and although very occasionally sightings are reported in nearshore marine waters they generally do not occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt.","South Asian River Dolphins feed on a large variety of freshwater bottom-dwelling prawns, fish, and crustaceans including catfish (Wallago attu and Sperata aor), carp (Catla catla and Cirrhinus cirrhosus) and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii).","Females become sexually mature at about eight years of age, and gestation lasts for about one year. Offspring are born during winter or spring and are weaned at about one year of age or before. The breeding cycle is likely two years. Sexual maturity is achieved at around ten years. The oldest individual recorded was a 28year-old male, but it is estimated that animals may live to ¢.35 years.","South Asian River Dolphins surface rapidly and unpredictably, spending only c.1 second at the surface. Very little is known about the behavior of the South Asian River Dolphin because of their short surface interval and the inability to observe them in the turbid water they inhabit.","South Asian River Dolphins are believed to shift their distributions with seasonal changes in river discharge; individuals move upstream and into smaller rivers when rivers are swollen during the summer monsoon and move into the mainstream of larger rivers in the dry season when discharge is low. In many places, dams or irrigation barrages now block these seasonal movements. Individuals occur primarily alone or in small groups, but occasionally in aggregations of 20 or more. Individuals and groups often surface in the same location for periods of at least 30 minutes. There is no specific information available on social organization or home range.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, including both subspecies. Dams and irrigation barrages fragment populations of the South Asian River Dolphin, and its distribution is contracting, especially in the smaller rivers in the northern part of the distributional range. Eleven of 17 subpopulations of the Indus River Dolphin have been extirpated, and only six populations remain, isolated between barrages; three are estimated to have less than 20 individuals each and are probably too small to persist, leaving only three that may be viable in the long-term. The largest population of the Indus River Dolphin is in northern Sindh Province between Guddu and Sukkur barrages. In 2001, this subspecies was estimated to number ¢.1300 individuals and may have been increasing since dolphin hunting ceased in the 1970s. In 2006, the Indus River Dolphin was estimated to number 1550— 1750 individuals. Given its much larger range, the Ganges River Dolphin is likely to be more abundant than the Indus River Dolphin, and there may be several thousand individuals. Significant portions of its range have not been surveyed; however, B. D. Smith and colleagues estimated 255 individuals in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh in 2006. Its major threats are likely population fragmentation, depleted dry-season river flows, and incidental capture in fishing gear. Reduced flows concentrate South Asian River Dolphins, pollutants, and human activities and exacerbate many anthropogenic threats.","Anderson (1879) | Arnason et al. (2004) | Bashir et al. (2010) | Braulik (2006, 2012) | Braulik, Bhatti et al. (2012) | Braulik, Reichert et al. (2012) | Brownell (1984) | Cassens et al. (2000) | Hamilton et al. (2001) | Haque et al. (1977) | Harrison (1972) | Herald et al. (1969) | Home (1818) | Jefferson et al. (2008) | Kasuya (1972) | Kelkar et al. (2010) | Kinze (2000) | Lebeck (1801) | Meredith et al. (2011) | Owen (1853) | Pilleri (1970) | Pilleri, Gihr et al. (1976) | Pilleri, Zbinden et al. (1976) | Purves & Pilleri (1974) | Reeves & Brownell (1989) | Reeves et al. (1991) | Sinha, Behera & Choudhary (2010) | Sinha, Das et al. (1993) | Sinha, Smith et al. (2000) | Smith (1993) | Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Ahmed & Mansur (2006) | Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Mansur et al. (2009) | Ura et al. (2007) | Wakid (2009)",,"South Asian River DolphinPlatanista gangeticaFrench:Plataniste/ German:Ganges-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del GangesOther common names:Blind River Dolphin, Indian River Dolphin; Ganges River Dolphin, Susu (gangetica); Bhulan, Indus River Dolphin (minor)Taxonomy.Delphinus gangeticus Lebeck, 1801, India.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.g.gangeticaLebeck,1801—Ganges-Brahmaputra-MeghnaandKarnaphuli-SanguriversystemsofSNepal,N&NEIndia,andBangladesh.P. g. minor Owen, 1853— Indus River system of SC Pakistan and NW India (Beas River).Descriptive notes.Total length ¢.170-260 cm, weight c¢.110 kg. The South Asian River Dolphin is a brown or pale gray, stocky dolphin with a very long slender rostrum and exposed teeth. They have small triangular dorsal fins, but very large pectoral flippers and broad tail flukes. The eye is reduced to a tiny slit-like opening in the skinjust above the corner of the mouth. Long, thin, protruding teeth in young individuals wear over time to become flat disks in adults.Habitat.Distributed through several thousand kilometers of large alluvial rivers of the Indian subcontinent, from the foothills of the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains in the North, to the river deltas in the South. They are almost never found in the ocean. The South Asian River Dolphin is patchily distributed and occurs with highest frequency at confluences of rivers and streams. Deltaic waters, particularly in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, are also important habitat, and although very occasionally sightings are reported in nearshore marine waters they generally do not occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt.Food and Feeding.South Asian River Dolphins feed on a large variety of freshwater bottom-dwelling prawns, fish, and crustaceans including catfish (Wallago attu and Sperata aor), carp (Catla catla and Cirrhinus cirrhosus) and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii).Breeding.Females become sexually mature at about eight years of age, and gestation lasts for about one year. Offspring are born during winter or spring and are weaned at about one year of age or before. The breeding cycle is likely two years. Sexual maturity is achieved at around ten years. The oldest individual recorded was a 28year-old male, but it is estimated that animals may live to ¢.35 years.Activity patterns.South Asian River Dolphins surface rapidly and unpredictably, spending only c.1 second at the surface. Very little is known about the behavior of the South Asian River Dolphin because of their short surface interval and the inability to observe them in the turbid water they inhabit.Movements, Home range and Social organization.South Asian River Dolphins are believed to shift their distributions with seasonal changes in river discharge; individuals move upstream and into smaller rivers when rivers are swollen during the summer monsoon and move into the mainstream of larger rivers in the dry season when discharge is low. In many places, dams or irrigation barrages now block these seasonal movements. Individuals occur primarily alone or in small groups, but occasionally in aggregations of 20 or more. Individuals and groups often surface in the same location for periods of at least 30 minutes. There is no specific information available on social organization or home range.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, including both subspecies. Dams and irrigation barrages fragment populations of the South Asian River Dolphin, and its distribution is contracting, especially in the smaller rivers in the northern part of the distributional range. Eleven of 17 subpopulations of the Indus River Dolphin have been extirpated, and only six populations remain, isolated between barrages; three are estimated to have less than 20 individuals each and are probably too small to persist, leaving only three that may be viable in the long-term. The largest population of the Indus River Dolphin is in northern Sindh Province between Guddu and Sukkur barrages. In 2001, this subspecies was estimated to number ¢.1300 individuals and may have been increasing since dolphin hunting ceased in the 1970s. In 2006, the Indus River Dolphin was estimated to number 1550— 1750 individuals. Given its much larger range, the Ganges River Dolphin is likely to be more abundant than the Indus River Dolphin, and there may be several thousand individuals. Significant portions of its range have not been surveyed; however, B. D. Smith and colleagues estimated 255 individuals in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh in 2006. Its major threats are likely population fragmentation, depleted dry-season river flows, and incidental capture in fishing gear. Reduced flows concentrate South Asian River Dolphins, pollutants, and human activities and exacerbate many anthropogenic threats.Bibliography.Anderson (1879), Arnason et al. (2004), Bashir et al. (2010), Braulik (2006, 2012), Braulik, Bhatti et al. (2012), Braulik, Reichert et al. (2012), Brownell (1984), Cassens et al. (2000), Hamilton et al. (2001), Haque et al. (1977), Harrison (1972), Herald et al. (1969), Home (1818), Jefferson et al. (2008), Kasuya (1972), Kelkar et al. (2010), Kinze (2000), Lebeck (1801), Meredith et al. (2011), Owen (1853), Pilleri (1970), Pilleri, Gihr et al. (1976), Pilleri, Zbinden et al. (1976), Purves & Pilleri (1974), Reeves & Brownell (1989), Reeves et al. (1991), Sinha, Behera & Choudhary (2010), Sinha, Das et al. (1993), Sinha, Smith et al. (2000), Smith (1993), Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Ahmed & Mansur (2006), Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Mansur et al. (2009), Ura et al. (2007), Wakid (2009)." +03D49D5BDE04FFDC09803BC96932F4E4,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Platanistidae_0358.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffede523de05ffdd090c3e786f2eff8c,363,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D4/9D/03D49D5BDE04FFDC09803BC96932F4E4.xml,Platanista gangetica,Platanista,gangetica,,,Plataniste @fr | Ganges-Delfin @de | Delfin del Ganges @es | Blind River Dolphin @en | @en | ndian River Dolphin; Ganges River Dolphin @en | Susu (gangetica); Bhulan @en | ndus River Dolphin (minor) @en,"Delphinus gangeticus Lebeck, 1801, India.Two subspecies are recognized.","P.g.gangeticaLebeck,1801—Ganges-Brahmaputra-MeghnaandKarnaphuli-SanguriversystemsofSNepal,N&NEIndia,andBangladesh.P. g. minor Owen, 1853— Indus River system of SC Pakistan and NW India (Beas River).","Total length ¢.170-260 cm, weight c¢.110 kg. The South Asian River Dolphin is a brown or pale gray, stocky dolphin with a very long slender rostrum and exposed teeth. They have small triangular dorsal fins, but very large pectoral flippers and broad tail flukes. The eye is reduced to a tiny slit-like opening in the skinjust above the corner of the mouth. Long, thin, protruding teeth in young individuals wear over time to become flat disks in adults.","Distributed through several thousand kilometers of large alluvial rivers of the Indian subcontinent, from the foothills of the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains in the North, to the river deltas in the South. They are almost never found in the ocean. The South Asian River Dolphin is patchily distributed and occurs with highest frequency at confluences of rivers and streams. Deltaic waters, particularly in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, are also important habitat, and although very occasionally sightings are reported in nearshore marine waters they generally do not occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt.","South Asian River Dolphins feed on a large variety of freshwater bottom-dwelling prawns, fish, and crustaceans including catfish (Wallago attu and Sperata aor), carp (Catla catla and Cirrhinus cirrhosus) and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii).","Females become sexually mature at about eight years of age, and gestation lasts for about one year. Offspring are born during winter or spring and are weaned at about one year of age or before. The breeding cycle is likely two years. Sexual maturity is achieved at around ten years. The oldest individual recorded was a 28year-old male, but it is estimated that animals may live to ¢.35 years.","South Asian River Dolphins surface rapidly and unpredictably, spending only c.1 second at the surface. Very little is known about the behavior of the South Asian River Dolphin because of their short surface interval and the inability to observe them in the turbid water they inhabit.","South Asian River Dolphins are believed to shift their distributions with seasonal changes in river discharge; individuals move upstream and into smaller rivers when rivers are swollen during the summer monsoon and move into the mainstream of larger rivers in the dry season when discharge is low. In many places, dams or irrigation barrages now block these seasonal movements. Individuals occur primarily alone or in small groups, but occasionally in aggregations of 20 or more. Individuals and groups often surface in the same location for periods of at least 30 minutes. There is no specific information available on social organization or home range.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, including both subspecies. Dams and irrigation barrages fragment populations of the South Asian River Dolphin, and its distribution is contracting, especially in the smaller rivers in the northern part of the distributional range. Eleven of 17 subpopulations of the Indus River Dolphin have been extirpated, and only six populations remain, isolated between barrages; three are estimated to have less than 20 individuals each and are probably too small to persist, leaving only three that may be viable in the long-term. The largest population of the Indus River Dolphin is in northern Sindh Province between Guddu and Sukkur barrages. In 2001, this subspecies was estimated to number ¢.1300 individuals and may have been increasing since dolphin hunting ceased in the 1970s. In 2006, the Indus River Dolphin was estimated to number 1550— 1750 individuals. Given its much larger range, the Ganges River Dolphin is likely to be more abundant than the Indus River Dolphin, and there may be several thousand individuals. Significant portions of its range have not been surveyed; however, B. D. Smith and colleagues estimated 255 individuals in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh in 2006. Its major threats are likely population fragmentation, depleted dry-season river flows, and incidental capture in fishing gear. Reduced flows concentrate South Asian River Dolphins, pollutants, and human activities and exacerbate many anthropogenic threats.","Anderson (1879) | Arnason et al. (2004) | Bashir et al. (2010) | Braulik (2006, 2012) | Braulik, Bhatti et al. (2012) | Braulik, Reichert et al. (2012) | Brownell (1984) | Cassens et al. (2000) | Hamilton et al. (2001) | Haque et al. (1977) | Harrison (1972) | Herald et al. (1969) | Home (1818) | Jefferson et al. (2008) | Kasuya (1972) | Kelkar et al. (2010) | Kinze (2000) | Lebeck (1801) | Meredith et al. (2011) | Owen (1853) | Pilleri (1970) | Pilleri, Gihr et al. (1976) | Pilleri, Zbinden et al. (1976) | Purves & Pilleri (1974) | Reeves & Brownell (1989) | Reeves et al. (1991) | Sinha, Behera & Choudhary (2010) | Sinha, Das et al. (1993) | Sinha, Smith et al. (2000) | Smith (1993) | Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Ahmed & Mansur (2006) | Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Mansur et al. (2009) | Ura et al. (2007) | Wakid (2009)",https://zenodo.org/record/6607653/files/figure.png,"South Asian River DolphinPlatanista gangeticaFrench:Plataniste/ German:Ganges-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del GangesOther common names:Blind River Dolphin, Indian River Dolphin; Ganges River Dolphin, Susu (gangetica); Bhulan, Indus River Dolphin (minor)Taxonomy.Delphinus gangeticus Lebeck, 1801, India.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.g.gangeticaLebeck,1801—Ganges-Brahmaputra-MeghnaandKarnaphuli-SanguriversystemsofSNepal,N&NEIndia,andBangladesh.P. g. minor Owen, 1853— Indus River system of SC Pakistan and NW India (Beas River).Descriptive notes.Total length ¢.170-260 cm, weight c¢.110 kg. The South Asian River Dolphin is a brown or pale gray, stocky dolphin with a very long slender rostrum and exposed teeth. They have small triangular dorsal fins, but very large pectoral flippers and broad tail flukes. The eye is reduced to a tiny slit-like opening in the skinjust above the corner of the mouth. Long, thin, protruding teeth in young individuals wear over time to become flat disks in adults.Habitat.Distributed through several thousand kilometers of large alluvial rivers of the Indian subcontinent, from the foothills of the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains in the North, to the river deltas in the South. They are almost never found in the ocean. The South Asian River Dolphin is patchily distributed and occurs with highest frequency at confluences of rivers and streams. Deltaic waters, particularly in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, are also important habitat, and although very occasionally sightings are reported in nearshore marine waters they generally do not occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt.Food and Feeding.South Asian River Dolphins feed on a large variety of freshwater bottom-dwelling prawns, fish, and crustaceans including catfish (Wallago attu and Sperata aor), carp (Catla catla and Cirrhinus cirrhosus) and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii).Breeding.Females become sexually mature at about eight years of age, and gestation lasts for about one year. Offspring are born during winter or spring and are weaned at about one year of age or before. The breeding cycle is likely two years. Sexual maturity is achieved at around ten years. The oldest individual recorded was a 28year-old male, but it is estimated that animals may live to ¢.35 years.Activity patterns.South Asian River Dolphins surface rapidly and unpredictably, spending only c.1 second at the surface. Very little is known about the behavior of the South Asian River Dolphin because of their short surface interval and the inability to observe them in the turbid water they inhabit.Movements, Home range and Social organization.South Asian River Dolphins are believed to shift their distributions with seasonal changes in river discharge; individuals move upstream and into smaller rivers when rivers are swollen during the summer monsoon and move into the mainstream of larger rivers in the dry season when discharge is low. In many places, dams or irrigation barrages now block these seasonal movements. Individuals occur primarily alone or in small groups, but occasionally in aggregations of 20 or more. Individuals and groups often surface in the same location for periods of at least 30 minutes. There is no specific information available on social organization or home range.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, including both subspecies. Dams and irrigation barrages fragment populations of the South Asian River Dolphin, and its distribution is contracting, especially in the smaller rivers in the northern part of the distributional range. Eleven of 17 subpopulations of the Indus River Dolphin have been extirpated, and only six populations remain, isolated between barrages; three are estimated to have less than 20 individuals each and are probably too small to persist, leaving only three that may be viable in the long-term. The largest population of the Indus River Dolphin is in northern Sindh Province between Guddu and Sukkur barrages. In 2001, this subspecies was estimated to number ¢.1300 individuals and may have been increasing since dolphin hunting ceased in the 1970s. In 2006, the Indus River Dolphin was estimated to number 1550— 1750 individuals. Given its much larger range, the Ganges River Dolphin is likely to be more abundant than the Indus River Dolphin, and there may be several thousand individuals. Significant portions of its range have not been surveyed; however, B. D. Smith and colleagues estimated 255 individuals in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh in 2006. Its major threats are likely population fragmentation, depleted dry-season river flows, and incidental capture in fishing gear. Reduced flows concentrate South Asian River Dolphins, pollutants, and human activities and exacerbate many anthropogenic threats.Bibliography.Anderson (1879), Arnason et al. (2004), Bashir et al. (2010), Braulik (2006, 2012), Braulik, Bhatti et al. (2012), Braulik, Reichert et al. (2012), Brownell (1984), Cassens et al. (2000), Hamilton et al. (2001), Haque et al. (1977), Harrison (1972), Herald et al. (1969), Home (1818), Jefferson et al. (2008), Kasuya (1972), Kelkar et al. (2010), Kinze (2000), Lebeck (1801), Meredith et al. (2011), Owen (1853), Pilleri (1970), Pilleri, Gihr et al. (1976), Pilleri, Zbinden et al. (1976), Purves & Pilleri (1974), Reeves & Brownell (1989), Reeves et al. (1991), Sinha, Behera & Choudhary (2010), Sinha, Das et al. (1993), Sinha, Smith et al. (2000), Smith (1993), Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Ahmed & Mansur (2006), Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Mansur et al. (2009), Ura et al. (2007), Wakid (2009)." 03D49D5BDE05FFDD09DB3C6E68F5FB7C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Platanistidae_0358.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffede523de05ffdd090c3e786f2eff8c,358,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D4/9D/03D49D5BDE05FFDD09DB3C6E68F5FB7C.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family PLATANISTIDAE(SOUTH ASIAN RIVER DOLPHIN)• Medium-sized, stocky river dolphin with very long beak, diminished ayes, large blunt pectoralflippers, and tiny dorsal fin.• 170-260 cm.• Indo-Malayan Region.• Large and medium-sized fresh or brackish rivers in the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra river basins in South Asia.• 1 genera, 1 species, 2 taxa.• | species Endangered; none Extinct since 1600." 03D587F2FFC04C0BFF6B3F32F633F5A8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,364,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFC04C0BFF6B3F32F633F5A8.xml,Cormura brevirostris,Cormura,brevirostris,,,Chestnut Sac-winged Bat @en | Cormure des souches @fr | Kastanienbraune Sackflügelfledermaus @de | Cormuracastano @es | Cormura @en | Wagner's Sac-winged Bat @en,"Emballonura brevirostrisWagner, 1843,“ Marabitanas.” Corrected by A. von Pelzeln in 1883 to “Baraneiva” and clarified by D.. Carter and P. G. Dolan in 1978 as “Bananeira (approximately10°39’S, 65°23’W), on the Rio Mamore (there forming the boundarybetween Braziland Bolivia), in the state of Mato Grosso.”This species is monotypic.","Widelydistributed in Central and South America, from E Nicaragua to Panama, W of the Andes to NW Ecuador, and E of Andes from Venezuela and the Guianas to Amazonian Peru, CBrazil and N Bolivia.","Head—body 46-58 mm, tail 10—16 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 5-8 mm, forearm 41-50 mm; weight 7-11 g. Dorsal fur of the Chestnut Sac-winged Bat is thick, shiny, and chestnut-brown, with underparts slightly paler. Fur almost reaches tip of nose, but lower face is naked. Subadults andjuveniles have black fur. Facial skin, ears, and flight membranes are black. Ear is oval-shaped, and inner surface of pinna is heavily ribbed. Tragus is broad and square-topped. Wingsattach to base of toes. Both sexes have wing sacs, which are vestigial in females; in breeding age males, they are large with opening extending to edge ofwing and outward from body. Calcar is about twice as long as foot. Tail is short, with free end extending at most 3 mm above tail membrane; tail membrane extends well beyond toes when extended. Skull has welldeveloped sagittal crest that is more robust in males. Upper incisors are minute. Lower incisors are slightly larger and form continuousrow between canines. Dental formula is 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32. Karyotype is 2n = 22.",,"The ChestnutSac-winged Bat is an aerial insectivore that capably forages in cluttered space. When foraging in areas with Greater Sac-winged Bats (Saccopteryx bilineata)or Lesser Sac-winged Bats (S. lepturd),Chestnut Sac-winged Bats partition space by foraging higher aboveground(5-10 m) or farther from vegetation in gaps and forest edges. It flies faster and in wider circles (20-30 m across) than the Saccopteryxspecies.","InPanama, female Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are pregnantin April-Maybut not in June—September. In French Guiana, females are pregnantin August- September. Litter size is not reported.","Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are crepuscular. Foraging activity begins at dusk and continues for 10-15 minutes, after which observers found individuals to fly above the canopyand disappear, perhaps moving to different foraging areas. Foraging in the middle of the night is rare, but a secondaryforaging period occurs shortly before dawn. The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat roosts in tree hollows of living, rotting, and fallen trees and under concrete bridges. One group clung to underside of a large leaf of South American traveler’s palm {Phenakospermum guyannense,Strelitziaceae). The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat emits search-phase echolocation calls in triplet pulses, with each subsequentsound pulse 2-3 kHz higher than the preceding pulse. First pulse has mean frequencyof 25-4 kHz that rises to 28-7 kHz and 32-1 kHz on second and third pulses, respectively. Mean durations of these pulses are 5—10 milliseconds, and mean pulse intervals are 84-102 milliseconds. Chestnut Sac-winged Bats use search calls with components that are dominated by narrowband and small FM parts. These characteristics are well suited for detection of flying insects from relativelylong-range detection distances, and similarly used by other members of the tribe Diclidurini.","Chestnut Sac-winged Bats roost in small groups. In French Guiana, roosting groups consisted of 2-5 individuals clustered in compact masses, with individuals touching each other back to belly in a stacked formation. Roosting groups in French Guinea sometimes consisted of more than one adult male but never more than one adult female. Females are able to locate young by contact calls emitted by young, which have been experimentally documented by a mother coming to a captive offspring held in a cloth bag.",,Barclay (1983) | Bernard (2003) | Carter & Dolan (1978) | Emmons & eer (1997) | Fleming et al. (1972) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | Kalko (1995a) | Linares(1998) | von Pelzeln (1883) | Peters (1867a) | Reid (2009) | Simmons & Voss(1998) | Wagner (1843),https://zenodo.org/record/3747962/files/figure.png,"33. Chestnut Sac-winged BatCormura brevirostrisFrench: Cormure des souches/ German:Kastanienbraune Sackflügelfledermaus / Spanish:CormuracastanoOther common names:Wagner's Sac-wingedBatTaxonomy. Emballonura brevirostrisWagner, 1843,“ Marabitanas.” Corrected by A. von Pelzeln in 1883 to “Baraneiva” and clarified by D.. Carter and P. G. Dolan in 1978 as “Bananeira (approximately10°39’S, 65°23’W), on the Rio Mamore (there forming the boundarybetween Braziland Bolivia), in the state of Mato Grosso.”This species is monotypic.Distribution. Widelydistributed in Central and South America, from E Nicaragua to Panama, W of the Andes to NW Ecuador, and E of Andes from Venezuela and the Guianas to Amazonian Peru, CBrazil and N Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 46-58 mm, tail 10—16 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 5-8 mm, forearm 41-50 mm; weight 7-11 g. Dorsal fur of the Chestnut Sac-winged Bat is thick, shiny, and chestnut-brown, with underparts slightly paler. Fur almost reaches tip of nose, but lower face is naked. Subadults andjuveniles have black fur. Facial skin, ears, and flight membranes are black. Ear is oval-shaped, and inner surface of pinna is heavily ribbed. Tragus is broad and square-topped. Wingsattach to base of toes. Both sexes have wing sacs, which are vestigial in females; in breeding age males, they are large with opening extending to edge ofwing and outward from body. Calcar is about twice as long as foot. Tail is short, with free end extending at most 3 mm above tail membrane; tail membrane extends well beyond toes when extended. Skull has welldeveloped sagittal crest that is more robust in males. Upper incisors are minute. Lower incisors are slightly larger and form continuousrow between canines. Dental formula is 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32. Karyotype is 2n = 22.Habitat.Along streams and forest edges in moist lowland multi-strata tropical evergreen forests from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m. The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat forages in small open spaces including forest edges and tree fall gaps, flying in long, slow, beats between ground level and forest canopies.Food and Feeding.The ChestnutSac-winged Bat is an aerial insectivore that capably forages in cluttered space. When foraging in areas with Greater Sac-winged Bats (Saccopteryx bilineata)or Lesser Sac-winged Bats (S. lepturd),Chestnut Sac-winged Bats partition space by foraging higher aboveground(5-10 m) or farther from vegetation in gaps and forest edges. It flies faster and in wider circles (20-30 m across) than the Saccopteryxspecies.Breeding. InPanama, female Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are pregnantin April-Maybut not in June—September. In French Guiana, females are pregnantin August- September. Litter size is not reported.Activity patterns.Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are crepuscular. Foraging activity begins at dusk and continues for 10-15 minutes, after which observers found individuals to fly above the canopyand disappear, perhaps moving to different foraging areas. Foraging in the middle of the night is rare, but a secondaryforaging period occurs shortly before dawn. The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat roosts in tree hollows of living, rotting, and fallen trees and under concrete bridges. One group clung to underside of a large leaf of South American traveler’s palm {Phenakospermum guyannense,Strelitziaceae). The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat emits search-phase echolocation calls in triplet pulses, with each subsequentsound pulse 2-3 kHz higher than the preceding pulse. First pulse has mean frequencyof 25-4 kHz that rises to 28-7 kHz and 32-1 kHz on second and third pulses, respectively. Mean durations of these pulses are 5—10 milliseconds, and mean pulse intervals are 84-102 milliseconds. Chestnut Sac-winged Bats use search calls with components that are dominated by narrowband and small FM parts. These characteristics are well suited for detection of flying insects from relativelylong-range detection distances, and similarly used by other members of the tribe Diclidurini.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Chestnut Sac-winged Bats roost in small groups. In French Guiana, roosting groups consisted of 2-5 individuals clustered in compact masses, with individuals touching each other back to belly in a stacked formation. Roosting groups in French Guinea sometimes consisted of more than one adult male but never more than one adult female. Females are able to locate young by contact calls emitted by young, which have been experimentally documented by a mother coming to a captive offspring held in a cloth bag.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77/r IUCNRed List.The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat has a large distribution, and there is no evidence of rapid population decline. In general, deforestation is a threat; however, taken in context of its large area of endemism, that threat is not presently a serious concern, especially because it occurs in protected reserves throughout its distribution. Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are locally common in the Amazon Basin and uncommon in Central America lowland moist and wet forests, but it is not well studied because of limitations of earlyfield investigations. As acoustic detection methodology is now becoming more common in Central America and South American, and such surveys likely will providevaluable insight on distribution and ecology of the Chestnut Sac-winged Bat Its distribution follows areas of moist lowland forests, but due to loss of these forests, it might no longer occur in southernmost parts of its distribution.Bibliography.Barclay (1983), Bernard (2003), Carter & Dolan (1978), Emmons & eer (1997), Fleming eta/. (1972), Hood & Gardner (2008), Kalko (1995a), Linares(1998), von Pelzeln (1883), Peters (1867a), Reid (2009), Simmons & Voss(1998), Wagner (1843)." 03D587F2FFC04C14F8DA3ECEF976FAED,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,364,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFC04C14F8DA3ECEF976FAED.xml,Balantiopteryx plicata,Balantiopteryx,plicata,Peters,1867,Gray Sac-winged Bat @en | Emballonura de Peters @en | Emballonura de Peters @fr | Peters-Sackflügelfledermaus @de | Embalonuro de sacos de Peters @es | Peters's Sac-winged Bat @en,"Balantiopteryx plicataPeters, 1867,Puntarenas, Costa Rica.Two subspeciesare recognized.","B. p.plicataPeters, 1867- from CSinaloa in Mexico to Nicaraguaand NW Costa Rica.B. p. pallidaBurt, 1948 - confined to S Sonora, N Sinaloa, and the S tip of Baja California Sur states in Mexico.","Head—body 47—53 mm, tail 13—23 mm, ear 13-15 mm, hindfoot 7-10 mm, forearm 37-5-45-9 mm; weight 5-6 g. Based on forearm length, females (43-1 mm mean) are slightlylarger than males (42-1 mm mean). Dorsal fur of the Gray Sac-winged Bat is smokybrown but often yellowish at base of tail membrane; venter is paler, with hairs faintlytipped bufiybrown along belly and flanks. Wingsare brown-bordered, with white particularly between foot and fifth finger. Legs and forearms are pinkish. Wingsacs open toward body and do not extend to edges ofwings. Dental formula of the three species of Balantiopteryxis 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.","Deciduous forests, dry thorn scrub, and less commonlyevergreen moist forests from sea level to elevations of c.1500 m.",,,"Gray Sac-winged Bats are crepuscular and roost in dim light near entrances of caves, mines, and tunnels; under overhanging large boulders; and in tree hollows and buildings including outdoor, shaded stairwells in close proximity to human foot traffic. Flight emergence begins a little before sunset, and individuals fly above canopies and forage with long, straight sallies and rapid dives to chase aerial insects. Earlyflight above relatively low, open canopies of deciduous forests can easily be observed. Calls with principle energy in second harmonic, start with 42- kHz narrowband component that drops slightlyby 1-1-5 kHz at 39-kHz broadband. Mean call duration is 12 milliseconds. Terminal drop in frequencyover a broadband facilitates targeting approaches to flying insects, and relativelylong call duration is indicative of foraging in open areas rather than close to vegetation.","Groups of Gray Sac-winged Bats often gather in night roosts central to foraging areas, including under bridges. Group size is usually greater than 50 individuals, and male—female sex ratio is c.3:1. When approached, Gray Sac-winged Bats laytheir ears back, like a dog, and back away deeper into the roost.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Gray Sac-winged Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and relativelystable population, and it occurs in protected areas. Threats include habitat loss and vandalism and fire caused byhumans in roost caves.","Arroyo-Cabrales & Jones (1988a) | Bradbury & Vehrencamp (1976 a, 1976b) | Burt (1948) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | Ibänezet al. (2002) | Lopez-Forment (1976) | Reid (2009) | Solari et al. (2013) | Villa(1967)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747964/files/figure.png,"34. Gray Sac-winged BatBalantiopteryx plicataFrench: Emballonura dePeters/ German: Peters-Sackflügelfledermaus / Spanish: Embalonuro de sacos de PetersOther common names: Peters's Sac-winged BatTaxonomy. Balantiopteryx plicataPeters, 1867,Puntarenas, Costa Rica.Two subspeciesare recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.B. p.plicataPeters, 1867- from CSinaloa in Mexico to Nicaraguaand NW Costa Rica.B. p. pallidaBurt, 1948 - confined to S Sonora, N Sinaloa, and the S tip of Baja California Sur states in Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 47—53 mm, tail 13—23 mm, ear 13-15 mm, hindfoot 7-10 mm, forearm 37-5-45-9 mm; weight 5-6 g. Based on forearm length, females (43-1 mm mean) are slightlylarger than males (42-1 mm mean). Dorsal fur of the Gray Sac-winged Bat is smokybrown but often yellowish at base of tail membrane; venter is paler, with hairs faintlytipped bufiybrown along belly and flanks. Wingsare brown-bordered, with white particularly between foot and fifth finger. Legs and forearms are pinkish. Wingsacs open toward body and do not extend to edges ofwings. Dental formula of the three species of Balantiopteryxis 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.Habitat. Deciduous forests, dry thorn scrub, and less commonlyevergreen moist forests from sea level to elevations of c.1500 m.Foodand Feeding. The Gray Sac-winged Bat preyson aerial insects.Breeding.Gray Sac-winged Bats are bom in May-July in Mexico and lateJune in Costa Rica, well after the start of rainyseason. Females givebirth to one young, apparently once a year.Activity patterns.Gray Sac-winged Bats are crepuscular and roost in dim light near entrances of caves, mines, and tunnels; under overhanging large boulders; and in tree hollows and buildings including outdoor, shaded stairwells in close proximity to human foot traffic. Flight emergence begins a little before sunset, and individuals fly above canopies and forage with long, straight sallies and rapid dives to chase aerial insects. Earlyflight above relatively low, open canopies of deciduous forests can easily be observed. Calls with principle energy in second harmonic, start with 42- kHz narrowband component that drops slightlyby 1-1-5 kHz at 39-kHz broadband. Mean call duration is 12 milliseconds. Terminal drop in frequencyover a broadband facilitates targeting approaches to flying insects, and relativelylong call duration is indicative of foraging in open areas rather than close to vegetation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Groups of Gray Sac-winged Bats often gather in night roosts central to foraging areas, including under bridges. Group size is usually greater than 50 individuals, and male—female sex ratio is c.3:1. When approached, Gray Sac-winged Bats laytheir ears back, like a dog, and back away deeper into the roost.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Gray Sac-winged Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and relativelystable population, and it occurs in protected areas. Threats include habitat loss and vandalism and fire caused byhumans in roost caves.Bibliography.Arroyo-Cabrales & Jones (1988a), Bradbury & Vehrencamp (1976 a, 1976b), Burt (1948), Hood & Gardner (2008), Ibänezet al. (2002), Lopez-Forment (1976), Reid (2009), Solari et al. (2013), Villa(1967)." @@ -962,7 +962,7 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03D587F2FFCA4C01FF7431D4F8DBF2F5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,354,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCA4C01FF7431D4F8DBF2F5.xml,Taphozous achates,Taphozous,achates,Thomas,1915, @en | ndonesian Tomb Bat @en | Taphiend' @fr | ndonésie @en | German @en | ndonesien-Grabfledermaus @en | Tafozo indonesio @es,"Taphozous achatesThomas, 1915,“ Savu I[slan] d., East of Timor[= Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia].”Taphozous achatesis in the subgenus Taphozous.Until recently, itwas included in. melanopogon.Two subspecies recognized.","a.achatesThomas, 1915- Lesser Sunda Is, recorded from Nusa Perfida, Savu, Semau, Roti, Timor, Wetar, Leti, and Babar Is.. a.minor Kitchener, 1995 — restricted to two island groups in E Indonesia: Tanimbar Is and Kai Is.","Head—body 74—78-5 mm, tail 25-3—27-3 mm, ear 19-1—20-7 mm, hindfoot 5-4—6-5 mm, forearm 59-6—63-7 mm; weight 21-23-5 g. There is no appreciable sexual dimorphism in the Indonesian Tomb Bat. The two subspecies are quite similar in external appearance and differ primarily in smaller size of skull and external measurements of minor.Dorsal hairs are dark drab brown, with white basal parts; ventral hairs are drab gray, with cream or white basal parts. Mature males have lightdrab brown throat beards. Proximal one-third of inner dorsal surfrice offorearm is lightly furred and similar in color to dorsal pelage. Ear is lightly haired along margin. Uropatagium is lightly furred.",Coastal and lowland areas from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m.,The Indonesian Tomb Batfeeds on aerial insects.,Two female Indonesian Tomb Bats were not lactating in midJune on Kai Island.,The Indonesian Tomb Batroosts in limestone caves.,"On Kai Island, Indonesian Tomb Bats roost in association with Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats (Hipposideros cervinus),Small AsianSheath-tailed Bats (Emballonura alecto),Little Long-fingered Bats (Miniopterus australis),Stalker’s Myotis (Myotis stalkeri),and New Guinea Broad-eared Horseshoe Bats (Rhinolophus euryotis).",,"Flannery (1995b) | Kitchener & Suyanto (1995) | Kitchener, Schmitt et al. (1993) | Simmons (2005)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747920/files/figure.png,"9. Indonesian Tomb BatTaphozous achatesFrench: Taphiend'Indonésie / German:Indonesien-Grabfledermaus /Spanish:Tafozo indonesioTaxonomy. Taphozous achatesThomas, 1915,“ Savu I[slan] d., East of Timor[= Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia].”Taphozous achatesis in the subgenus Taphozous.Until recently, itwas included in. melanopogon.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. a.achatesThomas, 1915- Lesser Sunda Is, recorded from Nusa Perfida, Savu, Semau, Roti, Timor, Wetar, Leti, and Babar Is.. a.minor Kitchener, 1995 — restricted to two island groups in E Indonesia: Tanimbar Is and Kai Is.Descriptive notes.Head—body 74—78-5 mm, tail 25-3—27-3 mm, ear 19-1—20-7 mm, hindfoot 5-4—6-5 mm, forearm 59-6—63-7 mm; weight 21-23-5 g. There is no appreciable sexual dimorphism in the Indonesian Tomb Bat. The two subspecies are quite similar in external appearance and differ primarily in smaller size of skull and external measurements of minor.Dorsal hairs are dark drab brown, with white basal parts; ventral hairs are drab gray, with cream or white basal parts. Mature males have lightdrab brown throat beards. Proximal one-third of inner dorsal surfrice offorearm is lightly furred and similar in color to dorsal pelage. Ear is lightly haired along margin. Uropatagium is lightly furred.Habitat. Coastal and lowland areas from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Indonesian Tomb Batfeeds on aerial insects.Breeding. Two female Indonesian Tomb Bats were not lactating in midJune on Kai Island.Activity patterns.The Indonesian Tomb Batroosts in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On Kai Island, Indonesian Tomb Bats roost in association with Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats (Hipposideros cervinus),Small AsianSheath-tailed Bats (Emballonura alecto),Little Long-fingered Bats (Miniopterus australis),Stalker’s Myotis (Myotis stalkeri),and New Guinea Broad-eared Horseshoe Bats (Rhinolophus euryotis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List.Population status of the Indonesian Tomb Batis unknown. The species is known only from a few localities. Potential threats include cave disturbance by human and domestic animal entry and limestone extraction. It occurs in some protected reserves. Before adequate protective measures can occur, research needs to be conducted to better understand distribution, ecology, population structure, and taxonomy of the Indonesian Tomb Batin relation to its sister species, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat (. melanopogon).Bibliography.Flannery (1995b), Kitchener & Suyanto (1995), Kitchener, Schmitt eta/. (1993), Simmons (2005)." 03D587F2FFCA4C01FF7F38FCF42FF95A,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,354,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCA4C01FF7F38FCF42FF95A.xml,Taphozous kapalgensis,Taphozous,kapalgensis,McKean & Friend,1979,10 @en | Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien de Kapalga @fr | Arnhemland-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozode Kapalga @es | Kapalga @en | German @en,"Taphozous kapalgensisMcKean & Friend, 1979, “‘ Kapalga’, at the edge of the western flood plain of the South Alligator River, near Rookery Point, N.T.[= Northern Territory] (lat. 12°32’S, long. 132 °23 ’E),” Australia.Taphozous kapalgensisis in the subgenus Taphozous.Monotypic.","N Australia, in extreme E Kimberley region ofWestern Australia and in W Top End of the Northern Territory.Additional research might prove that it occurs further E across the Top End of the Northern Territory.","Head-body 75-85 mm, tail 20-23 mm, ear 16-5-17-6 mm, hindfoot 7 -6 -8 -1mm, forearm 57-6-63 mm; weight 26-29-5 g. The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat has pale orange-brown pelage, with two white ventral flank-stripes. Uropatagium is naked except in sparsely haired anal region. Adult males have well-developed gular pouch, which is a rudimentary slit in females. Radio-metacarpal sacs are present.",,"The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat forages for insects above tree canopies, but it flies closer to the ground in open areas and flyway corridors that can include road cuts. It also will feed low over water. As it feeds, it flies rapidly with abrupt dives and twists while emitting loud, shrill echolocation calls.",No information.,"The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat is nocturnal, but its roosting habitats are unclear. Because it occurs for from rockyoutcrops with caves and rock fissures, it likely roosts in tree hollows. Aboriginal people report that it roosts at the base of Pandanusleaves. Echolocation call frequencies are 22-9—25-5 kHz, with relatively short durations of 3—7 milliseconds.",No information.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List.Populations of the Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat are considered stable.,"Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List.Populations of the Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat are considered stable. It occurs in several protected areas including Kakadu National Park, Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve, and Point Stuart Coastal Reserve. Additional studies on distribution, abundance, roost selection, natural history, and threats are needed to better assess its status and need for conservation action. Potential threats include large-scale invasion of coastal floodplain by introduced plant species, degradation of habitats by feral WaterBuffaloes (Bubalus bubalis),and saltwater intrusion on coastal plains causing loss of tree stands of Melaleuca(Myrtaceae).",Chimimba & Kitchener(1991) | Lumsden etal. (2005) | McKean & riend (1979) | Milne & McKean (2008) | Milne & Pavey (2011) | Milne et al. (2003) | Woinarski& Milne (2005),https://zenodo.org/record/3747922/files/figure.png,"10. Amhem Sheath-tailed BatTaphozous kapalgensisFrench:Taphien de Kapalga IGerman:Arnhemland-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozode KapalgaOther common names:ArnhemTomb Bat, White-stripedSheath-tailed BatTaxonomy.Taphozous kapalgensisMcKean & Friend, 1979, “‘ Kapalga’, at the edge of the western flood plain of the South Alligator River, near Rookery Point, N.T.[= Northern Territory] (lat. 12°32’S, long. 132 °23 ’E),” Australia.Taphozous kapalgensisis in the subgenus Taphozous.Monotypic.Distribution.N Australia, in extreme E Kimberley region ofWestern Australia and in W Top End of the Northern Territory.Additional research might prove that it occurs further E across the Top End of the Northern Territory.Descriptive notes.Head-body 75-85 mm, tail 20-23 mm, ear 16-5-17-6 mm, hindfoot 7 -6 -8 -1mm, forearm 57-6-63 mm; weight 26-29-5 g. The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat has pale orange-brown pelage, with two white ventral flank-stripes. Uropatagium is naked except in sparsely haired anal region. Adult males have well-developed gular pouch, which is a rudimentary slit in females. Radio-metacarpal sacs are present.Habitat.Floodplains, swamps, mangroves, monsoon forests, and open woodlands dominated by Corymbia papuana(Myrtaceae) and Pandanus spiralis(Pandanaceae). The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat occurs in tropical stratified woodlands with mixtures of Eucalyptus tectifica, C. papuana,and C. clavigera(all Myrtaceae). When foraging over floodplains, it typically flies 10—20 m aboveground.Food and Feeding.The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat forages for insects above tree canopies, but it flies closer to the ground in open areas and flyway corridors that can include road cuts. It also will feed low over water. As it feeds, it flies rapidly with abrupt dives and twists while emitting loud, shrill echolocation calls.Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat is nocturnal, but its roosting habitats are unclear. Because it occurs for from rockyoutcrops with caves and rock fissures, it likely roosts in tree hollows. Aboriginal people report that it roosts at the base of Pandanusleaves. Echolocation call frequencies are 22-9—25-5 kHz, with relatively short durations of 3—7 milliseconds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List.Populations of the Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat are considered stable. It occurs in several protected areas including Kakadu National Park, Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve, and Point Stuart Coastal Reserve. Additional studies on distribution, abundance, roost selection, natural history, and threats are needed to better assess its status and need for conservation action. Potential threats include large-scale invasion of coastal floodplain by introduced plant species, degradation of habitats by feral WaterBuffaloes (Bubalus bubalis),and saltwater intrusion on coastal plains causing loss of tree stands of Melaleuca(Myrtaceae).Bibliography.Chimimba & Kitchener(1991), Lumsden etal. (2005), McKean & riend (1979), Milne & McKean (2008), Milne & Pavey (2011), Milne et al. (2003), Woinarski& Milne (2005)." 03D587F2FFCA4C02F82F3255F947FAAB,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,354,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCA4C02F82F3255F947FAAB.xml,Taphozous australis,Taphozous,australis,Gould,1854,Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien de Gould @fr | Küsten-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de Gould @es | CoastalTomb Bat @en | Little Sheath-tailed Bat @en | North-eastern Sheath-tailed BatSouthern Sheath-tailed Bat @en,"Taphozous australisGould, 1854,“ maritime caves in the sandstone cliffs of Albany Island, Cape York[Peninsula],” Queensland, Australia.Taphozous australisis in the subgenus Taphozous.","Papua New Guinea (recorded only at the lower Strickland River in WesternProvinceand PortMoresby in National Capital District) and NE coast of Australia from Cape YorkPeninsula to Keppel Bay, also on Moa, Possession, and Albany Is in Torres Strait (possibly also on other islands in this area) and Magnetic I and other coastal islands of Queensland. It might have a larger distribution along S coast ofNew Guinea.","Head—body 78—90 mm, tail 20-29 mm, ear 22—26 mm, hindfoot 10— 14 mm, forearm 63-67 mm; weight 20-30-5 g. Individuals from Papua New Guinea are reportedly weight 20-26 g, but in Australia, adults are reportedly as large as 30-5 g, with larger body mass associated with fat deposition in colder winters of the central northeastern coast ofQueensland. Dorsum fur of the Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat appears grayish brown or gray, with both color morphs often found in a single colony; venter is slightly paler. Bases of hairs on dorsum and venter are white. Fur on underside of forearm is white. Throat pouch, opening to the anterior, is prominent in adult males and rudimentary in females. Radio-metacarpal sacs are present on both sexes. Triangular ear has blunt apex and is heavily pleated with serrations along posterior margin. Tragusis broad, short, and slightly rounded at tip. Antitragus extends nearly to comer of mouth. Large, dark brown irises make eyesconspicuous. Flight membranes are dark brown. Bare parts of facial region, ears, tail, and forearms are brown to reddish brown. Trailing edges of uropatagium when extended are supported by stiffcartilaginous calcars. Skull rises sharply from nasal region to cranium. Weak sagittal crest is present on older individuals.",,"The Coastal Sheath-tail Bat is insectivorous and includes beetles in its diet. Large beetles are often carried to a night feeding roost or back to the day roost at the end of the night. Discarded insect parts can be found below either type of roost. While foraging, it flies fast and high above forest canopies but also descends closer to the ground in open areas.","Pregnant Coastal Sheath-tail Bats can be found in September, and births of single young occur in October-November in Australia.","Coastal Sheath-tail Bats are nocturnal and roost in sea caves, rocky areas, crevices, boulder piles, abandoned militarybunkers, and old buildings. They emerge from day roosts well after dark. Echolocation call is flat to slightlysloped, and characteristic frequencies are 23—27 kHz. Its echolocation calls, however, are difficult to distinguish from Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat (T. troughtoni)or Beccari’s Freetailed Bat (Ozimops beccarii)where they co-occur.","Most roosting groups ofCoastal Sheathtail Bats consist ofless than ten individuals, but larger groups exceeding 100 individuals have been noted, particularly in older published accounts. In winter, Coastal Sheath-tailed Bats can cluster in groups of up to five individuals, but in wanner months, they maintain individual distances of up to 20 cm while roosting. Even in large caves, they roost in well-litareas and remain alert and quickly take flight if approached too closely, moving to another roosting site or deeper into inaccessible parts of large caves. They can commute up to 15 km from roosts to nightly foraging areas. They have been observed flying between offshore island roosts to the mainland ofAustralia to forage. At the extreme southern end of its distribution near Rockhampton, Australia, they deposit fat in autumn and thereafter enter short bouts of torpor during coldest times of the year. Torpid individuals have cold body temperatures that require up to ten minutes or more ofwarming before they can fly.","Classified as Near Threatened on TheIUCNRed List.Nevertheless, the Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat almost qualified as Vulnerable in the most recent evaluation on TheIUCNRed Listixcmseit is highly probable that less than 10,000 mature individuals exist, some recent population declines have been observed, and habitat loss might cause future declines. In Australia, it is potentially threatened byloss of foraging habitat from sand mining and coastal development and disturbance at roosting sites. It is protected in Cape Hillsborough National Park and several other coastal and offshore island protected areas in Australia. Recommended conservation actions include protection of keyroosting sites and foraging habitat Additional field studies also are needed to better assess its distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats in Australia and Papua New Guinea.",Bonaccorso (1998) | Churchill (2008) | Duncan et al. (1999) | Richards(2008b) | Strahan (1995),https://zenodo.org/record/3747924/files/figure.png,"11. Coastal Sheath-tailed BatTaphozous australisFrench: Taphien de Gould IGerman:Küsten-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozo deGouldOther common names:CoastalTombBat, LittleSheath-tailed Bat, North-eastern Sheath-tailed BatSouthern Sheath-tailedBatTaxonomy. Taphozous australisGould, 1854,“ maritime caves in the sandstone cliffs of Albany Island, Cape York[Peninsula],” Queensland, Australia.Taphozous australisis in the subgenus Taphozous. Monotypic,Distribution.Papua New Guinea (recorded only at the lower Strickland River in WesternProvinceand PortMoresby in National Capital District) and NE coast of Australia from Cape YorkPeninsula to Keppel Bay, also on Moa, Possession, and Albany Is in Torres Strait (possibly also on other islands in this area) and Magnetic I and other coastal islands of Queensland. It might have a larger distribution along S coast ofNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head—body 78—90 mm, tail 20-29 mm, ear 22—26 mm, hindfoot 10— 14 mm, forearm 63-67 mm; weight 20-30-5 g. Individuals from Papua New Guinea are reportedly weight 20-26 g, but in Australia, adults are reportedly as large as 30-5 g, with larger body mass associated with fat deposition in colder winters of the central northeastern coast ofQueensland. Dorsum fur of the Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat appears grayish brown or gray, with both color morphs often found in a single colony; venter is slightly paler. Bases of hairs on dorsum and venter are white. Fur on underside of forearm is white. Throat pouch, opening to the anterior, is prominent in adult males and rudimentary in females. Radio-metacarpal sacs are present on both sexes. Triangular ear has blunt apex and is heavily pleated with serrations along posterior margin. Tragusis broad, short, and slightly rounded at tip. Antitragus extends nearly to comer of mouth. Large, dark brown irises make eyesconspicuous. Flight membranes are dark brown. Bare parts of facial region, ears, tail, and forearms are brown to reddish brown. Trailing edges of uropatagium when extended are supported by stiffcartilaginous calcars. Skull rises sharply from nasal region to cranium. Weak sagittal crest is present on older individuals.Habitat.Coastal dune scrublands, coastal heathlands, open eucalypt forests, grasslands, monsoon forests, mangroves, and swamps with swamp paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia,Myrtaceae), no more than a few kilometers inland, from sea level to elevations ofc.300 m.Food and Feeding.The Coastal Sheath-tail Bat is insectivorous and includes beetles in its diet. Large beetles are often carried to a night feeding roost or back to the day roost at the end of the night. Discarded insect parts can be found below either type of roost. While foraging, it flies fast and high above forest canopies but also descends closer to the ground in open areas.Breeding. Pregnant Coastal Sheath-tail Bats can be found in September, and births of single young occur in October-November in Australia.Activity patterns.Coastal Sheath-tail Bats are nocturnal and roost in sea caves, rocky areas, crevices, boulder piles, abandoned militarybunkers, and old buildings. They emerge from day roosts well after dark. Echolocation call is flat to slightlysloped, and characteristic frequencies are 23—27 kHz. Its echolocation calls, however, are difficult to distinguish from Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat (T. troughtoni)or Beccari’s Freetailed Bat (Ozimops beccarii)where they co-occur.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most roosting groups ofCoastal Sheathtail Bats consist ofless than ten individuals, but larger groups exceeding 100 individuals have been noted, particularly in older published accounts. In winter, Coastal Sheath-tailed Bats can cluster in groups of up to five individuals, but in wanner months, they maintain individual distances of up to 20 cm while roosting. Even in large caves, they roost in well-litareas and remain alert and quickly take flight if approached too closely, moving to another roosting site or deeper into inaccessible parts of large caves. They can commute up to 15 km from roosts to nightly foraging areas. They have been observed flying between offshore island roosts to the mainland ofAustralia to forage. At the extreme southern end of its distribution near Rockhampton, Australia, they deposit fat in autumn and thereafter enter short bouts of torpor during coldest times of the year. Torpid individuals have cold body temperatures that require up to ten minutes or more ofwarming before they can fly.Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on TheIUCNRed List.Nevertheless, the Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat almost qualified as Vulnerable in the most recent evaluation on TheIUCNRed Listixcmseit is highly probable that less than 10,000 mature individuals exist, some recent population declines have been observed, and habitat loss might cause future declines. In Australia, it is potentially threatened byloss of foraging habitat from sand mining and coastal development and disturbance at roosting sites. It is protected in Cape Hillsborough National Park and several other coastal and offshore island protected areas in Australia. Recommended conservation actions include protection of keyroosting sites and foraging habitat Additional field studies also are needed to better assess its distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats in Australia and Papua New Guinea.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Churchill (2008), Duncan eta/. (1999), Richards(2008b), Strahan (1995)." -03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1B25C9F5DEF52E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,353,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1B25C9F5DEF52E.xml,Taphozous melanopogon,Taphozous,melanopogon,Temminck,1841,7 @en | Black-bearded Tomb Bat @en | Taphien à barbe noire @fr | Schwarzbart-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de barba negra @es,"TaphozousmelanopogonTemminck, 1841,Bantam, Westjava, Indonesia.Taphozous melanopogonis in the subgenus Taphozous.Subspecies philippinensisnamed by G. R.Waterhouse in 1845 is now considered invalid. Four subspecies recognized.","m.melanopogonTemminck, 1841— fromJava through Lesser Sundas including Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor Is, and Timor I.. m. bicolorTemminck, 1841 — E India.. m. cavaticusHollister, 1913-W Sumatra.. m. fretensisThomas, 1916 - Borneo, over scattered locations from N Sabah to Sarawak and S Martapura in S Kalimantan.Taphozous melanopogonoccurs from Sri Lanka and India through S China and SE Asia into islands of Indonesia including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Is, Sulawesi, and many smaller islands, also in the Philippines. Subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.","Head—body 67—86 mm, ear 21—23 mm, hindfoot 13—15 mm, tail 11 -9—26 mm, forearm 60—68 mm; weight 21—26 g. Dorsum of the Black-bearded Tomb Bat ranges from verydark brown in younger individuals to paler cinnamon drab in mature males. Basal part of hairs is pale pinkish buff in mature adult males and white in juveniles and young adults. Venter is paler than dorsum. Females in India often have a more reddish hue and hairs of young individuals are brown, and mature adults are tawny olive. Throat beard of adult males is dense mat of black hairs up to 25 mm long across full width of throat. Proximal one-third of forearm is furred along inner dorsal surface and same color as dorsum. Ear is lightlyfurred along external margin. Wingmembranes are predominately sepia. Uropatagium is lightly furred butbecomes dense near tail. Tail is thickened at tip. Legs and feet are hairy. There are well-developed radio-metacarpal sacs in wings. Wingmembrane attaches above ankle to tibia.",Many forest habitats and urban areas from sea level to hillyareas at c.800 m.,The Black-bearded Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insects.,,"The Black-bearded Tomb Bat roosts in well-lit areas in caves including sea caves, large rock crevices, and buildings including temples, mines, and tunnels.",,"Classified as Least Concern on 77 ie IUCN Red List.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumablylarge and stable overall population. Some populations occur in protected reserves. Because it will inhabit secondary forests and anthropogenic habitats, it appears to have locally stable or slightly decreasing populations. In South Asia, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat is regionally threatened by habitat loss from commercial logging and agriculture and disturbance to roost caves by humans. Local subsistence hunting of larger colonies in cave roosts occurs in Laos and the Philippines.","Bates & Harrison (1997) | Flannery (1995b) | Heaneyet al. (1998) | Kitchener& Suyanto (1995) | Kitchener, Schmitt (1993) | Lawrence (1939) | Molur et al. (2002) | Rickartet al. (1993) | Sanborn (1952) | Smith & XieYan(2008) | Taylor(1934) | Waterhouse (1845)",,"7. Black-bearded Tomb BatTaphozous melanopogonFrench: Taphien à barbe noire / German:Schwarzbart-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozo de barba negraTaxonomy. TaphozousmelanopogonTemminck, 1841,Bantam, Westjava, Indonesia.Taphozous melanopogonis in the subgenus Taphozous.Subspecies philippinensisnamed by G. R.Waterhouse in 1845 is now considered invalid. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. m.melanopogonTemminck, 1841— fromJava through Lesser Sundas including Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor Is, and Timor I.. m. bicolorTemminck, 1841 — E India.. m. cavaticusHollister, 1913-W Sumatra.. m. fretensisThomas, 1916 - Borneo, over scattered locations from N Sabah to Sarawak and S Martapura in S Kalimantan.Taphozous melanopogonoccurs from Sri Lanka and India through S China and SE Asia into islands of Indonesia including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Is, Sulawesi, and many smaller islands, also in the Philippines. Subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.Descriptive notes.Head—body 67—86 mm, ear 21—23 mm, hindfoot 13—15 mm, tail 11 -9—26 mm, forearm 60—68 mm; weight 21—26 g. Dorsum of the Black-bearded Tomb Bat ranges from verydark brown in younger individuals to paler cinnamon drab in mature males. Basal part of hairs is pale pinkish buff in mature adult males and white in juveniles and young adults. Venter is paler than dorsum. Females in India often have a more reddish hue and hairs of young individuals are brown, and mature adults are tawny olive. Throat beard of adult males is dense mat of black hairs up to 25 mm long across full width of throat. Proximal one-third of forearm is furred along inner dorsal surface and same color as dorsum. Ear is lightlyfurred along external margin. Wingmembranes are predominately sepia. Uropatagium is lightly furred butbecomes dense near tail. Tail is thickened at tip. Legs and feet are hairy. There are well-developed radio-metacarpal sacs in wings. Wingmembrane attaches above ankle to tibia.Habitat. Many forest habitats and urban areas from sea level to hillyareas at c.800 m.Food and Feeding.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insects.Breeding.Some colonies of Black-bearded Tomb Bats are unisexual. Single youngare bom after gestation of 120-125 days. Beard ofmales becomes wet with secretions during breeding season, presumablyrelated to chemical communication related to breeding.Activity patterns.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat roosts in well-lit areas in caves including sea caves, large rock crevices, and buildings including temples, mines, and tunnels.Movements, Home rangeand Social organization. Roosting colonies ofBlack-bearded Tomb Bats range from a few individuals to thousands.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on 77 ie IUCN Red List.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumablylarge and stable overall population. Some populations occur in protected reserves. Because it will inhabit secondary forests and anthropogenic habitats, it appears to have locally stable or slightly decreasing populations. In South Asia, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat is regionally threatened by habitat loss from commercial logging and agriculture and disturbance to roost caves by humans. Local subsistence hunting of larger colonies in cave roosts occurs in Laos and the Philippines.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Flannery (1995b), Heaneyeta/. (1998), Kitchener& Suyanto (1995), Kitchener, Schmitt (1993), Lawrence (1939), Molur eta/. (2002), Rickarteta/. (1993), Sanborn (1952), Smith & XieYan(2008), Taylor(1934), Waterhouse (1845)." +03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1B25C9F5DEF52E,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,353,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1B25C9F5DEF52E.xml,Taphozous melanopogon,Taphozous,melanopogon,Temminck,1841,7 @en | Black-bearded Tomb Bat @en | Taphien à barbe noire @fr | Schwarzbart-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de barba negra @es,"TaphozousmelanopogonTemminck, 1841,Bantam, Westjava, Indonesia.Taphozous melanopogonis in the subgenus Taphozous.Subspecies philippinensisnamed by G. R.Waterhouse in 1845 is now considered invalid. Four subspecies recognized.","m.melanopogonTemminck, 1841— fromJava through Lesser Sundas including Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor Is, and Timor I.. m. bicolorTemminck, 1841 — E India.. m. cavaticusHollister, 1913-W Sumatra.. m. fretensisThomas, 1916 - Borneo, over scattered locations from N Sabah to Sarawak and S Martapura in S Kalimantan.Taphozous melanopogonoccurs from Sri Lanka and India through S China and SE Asia into islands of Indonesia including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Is, Sulawesi, and many smaller islands, also in the Philippines. Subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.","Head—body 67—86 mm, ear 21—23 mm, hindfoot 13—15 mm, tail 11 -9—26 mm, forearm 60—68 mm; weight 21—26 g. Dorsum of the Black-bearded Tomb Bat ranges from verydark brown in younger individuals to paler cinnamon drab in mature males. Basal part of hairs is pale pinkish buff in mature adult males and white in juveniles and young adults. Venter is paler than dorsum. Females in India often have a more reddish hue and hairs of young individuals are brown, and mature adults are tawny olive. Throat beard of adult males is dense mat of black hairs up to 25 mm long across full width of throat. Proximal one-third of forearm is furred along inner dorsal surface and same color as dorsum. Ear is lightlyfurred along external margin. Wingmembranes are predominately sepia. Uropatagium is lightly furred butbecomes dense near tail. Tail is thickened at tip. Legs and feet are hairy. There are well-developed radio-metacarpal sacs in wings. Wingmembrane attaches above ankle to tibia.",Many forest habitats and urban areas from sea level to hillyareas at c.800 m.,The Black-bearded Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insects.,,"The Black-bearded Tomb Bat roosts in well-lit areas in caves including sea caves, large rock crevices, and buildings including temples, mines, and tunnels.",,"Classified as Least Concern on 77 ie IUCN Red List.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumablylarge and stable overall population. Some populations occur in protected reserves. Because it will inhabit secondary forests and anthropogenic habitats, it appears to have locally stable or slightly decreasing populations. In South Asia, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat is regionally threatened by habitat loss from commercial logging and agriculture and disturbance to roost caves by humans. Local subsistence hunting of larger colonies in cave roosts occurs in Laos and the Philippines.","Bates & Harrison (1997) | Flannery (1995b) | Heaneyet al. (1998) | Kitchener& Suyanto (1995) | Kitchener, Schmitt (1993) | Lawrence (1939) | Molur et al. (2002) | Rickartet al. (1993) | Sanborn (1952) | Smith & XieYan(2008) | Taylor(1934) | Waterhouse (1845)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747916/files/figure.png,"7. Black-bearded Tomb BatTaphozous melanopogonFrench: Taphien à barbe noire / German:Schwarzbart-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozo de barba negraTaxonomy. TaphozousmelanopogonTemminck, 1841,Bantam, Westjava, Indonesia.Taphozous melanopogonis in the subgenus Taphozous.Subspecies philippinensisnamed by G. R.Waterhouse in 1845 is now considered invalid. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. m.melanopogonTemminck, 1841— fromJava through Lesser Sundas including Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor Is, and Timor I.. m. bicolorTemminck, 1841 — E India.. m. cavaticusHollister, 1913-W Sumatra.. m. fretensisThomas, 1916 - Borneo, over scattered locations from N Sabah to Sarawak and S Martapura in S Kalimantan.Taphozous melanopogonoccurs from Sri Lanka and India through S China and SE Asia into islands of Indonesia including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Is, Sulawesi, and many smaller islands, also in the Philippines. Subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.Descriptive notes.Head—body 67—86 mm, ear 21—23 mm, hindfoot 13—15 mm, tail 11 -9—26 mm, forearm 60—68 mm; weight 21—26 g. Dorsum of the Black-bearded Tomb Bat ranges from verydark brown in younger individuals to paler cinnamon drab in mature males. Basal part of hairs is pale pinkish buff in mature adult males and white in juveniles and young adults. Venter is paler than dorsum. Females in India often have a more reddish hue and hairs of young individuals are brown, and mature adults are tawny olive. Throat beard of adult males is dense mat of black hairs up to 25 mm long across full width of throat. Proximal one-third of forearm is furred along inner dorsal surface and same color as dorsum. Ear is lightlyfurred along external margin. Wingmembranes are predominately sepia. Uropatagium is lightly furred butbecomes dense near tail. Tail is thickened at tip. Legs and feet are hairy. There are well-developed radio-metacarpal sacs in wings. Wingmembrane attaches above ankle to tibia.Habitat. Many forest habitats and urban areas from sea level to hillyareas at c.800 m.Food and Feeding.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insects.Breeding.Some colonies of Black-bearded Tomb Bats are unisexual. Single youngare bom after gestation of 120-125 days. Beard ofmales becomes wet with secretions during breeding season, presumablyrelated to chemical communication related to breeding.Activity patterns.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat roosts in well-lit areas in caves including sea caves, large rock crevices, and buildings including temples, mines, and tunnels.Movements, Home rangeand Social organization. Roosting colonies ofBlack-bearded Tomb Bats range from a few individuals to thousands.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on 77 ie IUCN Red List.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumablylarge and stable overall population. Some populations occur in protected reserves. Because it will inhabit secondary forests and anthropogenic habitats, it appears to have locally stable or slightly decreasing populations. In South Asia, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat is regionally threatened by habitat loss from commercial logging and agriculture and disturbance to roost caves by humans. Local subsistence hunting of larger colonies in cave roosts occurs in Laos and the Philippines.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Flannery (1995b), Heaneyeta/. (1998), Kitchener& Suyanto (1995), Kitchener, Schmitt (1993), Lawrence (1939), Molur eta/. (2002), Rickarteta/. (1993), Sanborn (1952), Smith & XieYan(2008), Taylor(1934), Waterhouse (1845)." 03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1C3147FAC6EFA6,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,353,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1C3147FAC6EFA6.xml,Taphozous longimanus,Taphozous,longimanus,Hardwicke,1825,Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien à longs bras @fr | Langflügel-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo alilargo @es | Other common names @en | ndian Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Long-winged Tomb Bat @en,"Taphosous[sic] longimanusHardwicke, 1825,“ Calcutta,” Bengal, India.Taphozous longimanusis in the subgenus Taphozous.Four subspecies recognized.","l. longimanusHardwicke, 1825- Indian subcontinent (Nepal, India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka).. l albipinnisThomas, 1898 - Borneo and Labuan I.. l. kampeniiJentink, 1907 —Java, but distribution is not clearlydelimited.. l. leucopleurusDobson, 1878 - FloresI, Lesser Sundas, butdistribution is not clearly delimited.Wide distribution from South Asia and Indochina to Greater and Lesser Sundas, but subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.","Head-body73-86 mm, tail 20-30 mm, ear c.20 mm, forearm 54— 63 mm. No specific data are available for hindfoot length or body weight. Dorsum of the Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat varies from reddish brown to black, sometimes speckled with white patches. In Thailand, females tend to be gray, and males tend to be brown. Chin is naked. Legs are coveredwith short fur. Upper surface of wing and uropatagium membranes are furred to about one-half the length of humerus and femur. A well-developed gular pouch and radio-metacarpal pouches are present in males; females have only rudimentary fold on throat. Wingsare long, narrow, and whitish and attached at ankles. Tail tapers to narrow tip. Third finger is longer than forearm.",Wide variety of habitats from arid areas to humid zones from sea level to elevations of C.1200 m.,Diet includes beetles and cockroaches.,,"The Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, abandoned human structures (e.g. forts, dungeons, and wells), and hollows and crowns of trees including palms and banyan figs {Ficus benghalensis,Moraceae) and under large rocks and eaves of houses. It emerges from roosts very earlyin the evening and flies fast as it forages.",,,"Bates & Harrison(1997) | Bates, Harrison & Muni (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) | Brasset (1963) | Khan(2001) | Molur et al.(2002) | Singh (1997) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu(2005, 2012)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747914/files/figure.png,"6. Long-winged Sheath-tailed BatTaphozous longimanusFrench: Taphien à longs bras / German:Langflügel-Grabfledermaus / Spanish:Tafozo alilargoOther common names:IndianSheath-tailed Bat, Long-winged Tomb BatTaxonomy.Taphosous[sic] longimanusHardwicke, 1825,“ Calcutta,” Bengal, India.Taphozous longimanusis in the subgenus Taphozous.Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. l. longimanusHardwicke, 1825- Indian subcontinent (Nepal, India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka).. l albipinnisThomas, 1898 - Borneo and Labuan I.. l. kampeniiJentink, 1907 —Java, but distribution is not clearlydelimited.. l. leucopleurusDobson, 1878 - FloresI, Lesser Sundas, butdistribution is not clearly delimited.Wide distribution from South Asia and Indochina to Greater and Lesser Sundas, but subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.Descriptive notes.Head-body73-86 mm, tail 20-30 mm, ear c.20 mm, forearm 54— 63 mm. No specific data are available for hindfoot length or body weight. Dorsum of the Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat varies from reddish brown to black, sometimes speckled with white patches. In Thailand, females tend to be gray, and males tend to be brown. Chin is naked. Legs are coveredwith short fur. Upper surface of wing and uropatagium membranes are furred to about one-half the length of humerus and femur. A well-developed gular pouch and radio-metacarpal pouches are present in males; females have only rudimentary fold on throat. Wingsare long, narrow, and whitish and attached at ankles. Tail tapers to narrow tip. Third finger is longer than forearm.Habitat. Wide variety of habitats from arid areas to humid zones from sea level to elevations of C.1200 m.Food and Feeding.Diet includes beetles and cockroaches.Breeding.Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bats are bom in midJanuary and mid-May. At Varanasi, India, spermatogenesis occurs in September, with appearance of spermatozoa. Spermatogenic arrest occurs in winter dormancy in December and is followed by a second peak of spermatogenesis inJanuary that coincides with ovulation in females. A third peak of spermatogenesis begins in late April, and tubules are found completely regressed after May. Cycle of accessory sex glands generally parallels testicular cycle, reaching maximum hypertrophy in September-January and again in late April. Thereafter, accessory sex glands are involuted. Spermatozoa are present in cauda epididymis throughout the year.Activity patterns.The Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, abandoned human structures (e.g. forts, dungeons, and wells), and hollows and crowns of trees including palms and banyan figs {Ficus benghalensis,Moraceae) and under large rocks and eaves of houses. It emerges from roosts very earlyin the evening and flies fast as it forages.Movements, Home range andSocial organization.The Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat roosts alone or in colonies that can number hundreds of individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Longwinged Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, occurs in protected reserves, and is tolerant of habitat modification. Although populations generally are thought to be stable, some scattered local populations might be decreasing. In South Asia, the Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat occurs in Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary inJharkhand and Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, and it likely is present in most protected areas in peninsular India and many in South-eastAsia. Additional studies are needed on taxonomy, distribution, abundance and population trends, reproduction, and ecology. Some populations might be threatened by roost disturbance, especiallyfrom guano mining in South-east Asia.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison(1997), Bates, Harrison & Muni (1994a, 1994b, 1994c), Brasset (1963), Khan(2001), Molur et al.(2002), Singh (1997), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu(2005, 2012)." 03D587F2FFCB4C01F8C13E42FE31FBDA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,353,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCB4C01F8C13E42FE31FBDA.xml,Taphozous theobaldi,Taphozous,theobaldi,Dobson,1872,Taphien de Theobald @fr | Theobald-Grabffledermaus @de | Tafozo de Theobald @es | Theobald's Bat @en,"Taphozous theobaldiDobson, 1872,Tenasserim, Burma.Taphozous theobaldiis in the subgenus Taphozous.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. t. theobaldiDobson, 1872- Tenasserim, Myanmar.. t. secatusThomas, 1915 - Madhya Pradesh, India.Boundaries and complete distribution for subspecies are unknown, but T theobaldiis patchily distributed from C & SW India (Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala), S China (Yunnan, imprecise locality and therefore not mapped), and SE Asia to Greater Sundas (Borneo, Java) and Sulawesi.","is poorly known in India, and. theobaldilikelyis more widespread than presentlyunderstood. It presumably will be found on other islands of the Indonesian Archipelago.","Head-body 88-95 mm, tail 25-30 mm, ear 22—28 mm, hindfoot 15-18 mm, forearm 70-76 mm; weight 40-50 g (estimated from forearm size). Dorsal fur of Theobald’s Tomb Bat is gray-brown to dark brown; bases of hairs are paler. Adult males have black beards. Well-developed, radio-metacarpal sacs are present in adult males. Legs, feet, and flight membranes are naked. Wingattaches above ankle to tibia.",Moist forests from sea level to elevations of c.1200 m. Theobald’s Tomb Bats roost in large limestone caves with deep crevices.,Theobald’s Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insectswhile flying high above forest canopies.,No information.,No information.,Roost colonies of Theobald’s Tomb Bats varyfrom ten individuals to several thousands.,,"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bates, Bumrungsri, Walston etal. (2008) | Bates, Harrison & Muni (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) | Brasset (1963) | Francis (2008a) | Molur et al. (2002) | Smith & XieYan (2008) | Wang Yingxiang (2003)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747918/files/figure.png,"8. Theobald’s Tomb BatTaphozous theobaldiFrench: Taphien deTheobald IGerman:Theobald-Grabffledermaus/ Spanish:Tafozo deTheobaldOther common names:Theobald's BatTaxonomy.Taphozous theobaldiDobson, 1872,Tenasserim, Burma.Taphozous theobaldiis in the subgenus Taphozous.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. t. theobaldiDobson, 1872- Tenasserim, Myanmar.. t. secatusThomas, 1915 - Madhya Pradesh, India.Boundaries and complete distribution for subspecies are unknown, but T theobaldiis patchily distributed from C & SW India (Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala), S China (Yunnan, imprecise locality and therefore not mapped), and SE Asia to Greater Sundas (Borneo, Java) and Sulawesi. Distribution is poorly known in India, and. theobaldilikelyis more widespread than presentlyunderstood. It presumably will be found on other islands of the Indonesian Archipelago.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-95 mm, tail 25-30 mm, ear 22—28 mm, hindfoot 15-18 mm, forearm 70-76 mm; weight 40-50 g (estimated from forearm size). Dorsal fur of Theobald’s Tomb Bat is gray-brown to dark brown; bases of hairs are paler. Adult males have black beards. Well-developed, radio-metacarpal sacs are present in adult males. Legs, feet, and flight membranes are naked. Wingattaches above ankle to tibia.Habitat. Moist forests from sea level to elevations of c.1200 m. Theobald’s Tomb Bats roost in large limestone caves with deep crevices.Food and Feeding.Theobald’s Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insectswhile flying high above forest canopies.Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Roost colonies of Theobald’s Tomb Bats varyfrom ten individuals to several thousands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Theobald’s Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumably large overall population, and it is not believed to be in serious population decline. It is threatened by disturbance and destruction of roosting sites and harvesting for bushmeat and medicinal purposes in parts of its distribution. Guano is mined from large roost colonies for use as fertilizer in South-east Asia. There are no direct conservation measures in place. Theobald’s Tomb Bat occurs in some protected areas in India including Silent Valley National Parkin Kerala and Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra. Important roosting sites throughout its distribution should be protected. Studies of distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology, and population trends are needed.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bates, Bumrungsri, Walston etal. (2008), Bates, Harrison & Muni (1994a, 1994b, 1994c), Brasset (1963), Francis (2008a), Molur et al. (2002), Smith & XieYan (2008), Wang Yingxiang (2003)." 03D587F2FFCC4C00F834333AFC4CFC29,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,352,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCC4C00F834333AFC4CFC29.xml,Taphozous hildegardeae,Taphozous,hildegardeae,Thomas,1909,Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat @en | Taphien de Hildegarde @fr | Hildegarde-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozode Hildegarde @es | White-wingedTomb Bat @en,"TaphozoushildegardeaeThomas, 1909, “Rabai, 700 ’ [= 213 m],” Mombasa District, Kenya.Taphozous hildegardeaeis in the subgenus Taphozous.Some authorities question localityrecords attributable to central Kenya because. hildegardeaeis otherwise known onlyfrom coastal distribution and habitats; however, these inland records coincide with coastal vegetation along the Tana River, possibly offering suitable habitat Monotypic.","E Africa along coast of SE Kenya and NE Tanzania (from Lower Tana River S to Dar es Salaam), also on Pemba and Unguja Is (Zanzibar Archipelago); recorded in C Kenya, but verification of museum vouchers and additional fieldwork could clarify distribution there.","Head-body 79-82 mm, tail 25-29 mm, ear 13-22 mm, hindfoot 11— 18 mm, forearm 63-66 mm; weight 24-36 g (largest weights are for males with heavy fat deposits). Hairs on dorsum of Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat are tricolored, with pale brown above white bases and chocolate-brown tips; venter is white, with lightly frosted brown scattered tips. Exposed skin on limbs and other body parts is brown. Dorsal wing surfaces and uropatagium are brown, but distal part of wing membranes is white. Sparse fur on dorsal and ventral sides of flight membranes is white. Profile of head is concave. Both sexes have radio-metacarpal sacs. Although some sources state that glandular gular pouches are absent, others have observed these glands on mature males. Breeding age males have distinct black beards, covering undersides of their throats.",,Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat eats species of Orthoptera and Lepidoptera.,"In coastal Kenya, reproductive cycle ofHildegarde’s Tomb Bat closely corresponds to regional seasonality in rainfall. Males have pronounced bimodal cycles of fat deposition, corresponding to relative insect abundance during dual rainy seasons in Kenya. During active courtship and copulation in the first dry season of the year when moth abundance is lowest, males deplete body fat; fat accumulation in males is greatest in the long rainy season in Kenya. Females do not put on appreciable fat deposits, and even near-term pregnant females do not reach large seasonal body weights of males. A secondary peak in body weight and development of male sexual glands are associated with “short rains” in October-December. Second rainy season apparently does not result in reproduction but appears to allow maintenance of year-round harems that might reflect a vestigial polyestrous reproductive cycle.",Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is nocturnal and uses coral sea caves as roosts along the coast. It emerges from day roosts well after dark.,"Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is polygynous, and males maintain roost territories to defend their female harems. In some larger harems, multiple males defend a group’s roosting site. Distance between harems is slightly greater than striking distance of the forearm. Adult males defend harems from intruders by wing flicking, vocalizations, scent marking, postural changes, and aggressive attacks. Males identify females as harem members by anal-genital sniffing. Males also mark harem females by pressing throat glands over females’ dorsum and mark themselves by rubbing their folded wings and forearms over throat glands. Bachelor males andjuveniles roost separately from harems. Colonies of hundreds to c.1000 individuals occur in caves, suggesting that local foraging movements occur at considerable distances from roosting sites. Hildegard’s Tomb Bats often share lit parts of caves with African Sheath-tailed Bats (Coleura afra).The cimicid bug Loxaspis mirandaand the bat fly BrachytarsinaaUuaudihave been identified as common ectoparasites in the larger colonies of Hildegard’s Tomb Bats.","Classified as Vulnerable on TheIUCNRed List.Extent of occurrence of Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is less than 20,000 km2, its distribution is severely fragmented, and there is continuing decline in extent and quality of its forest habitat. It has been recorded from fewer than ten coastal localities. No distribution-wide population estimates are available, but surveys in Kenya and Tanzania in 1988 documented more than 130, 300, and 1000 individuals in three caves. Hildegard’s Tomb Bat likely is declining due to loss of habitat in coastal dry forests and disturbance of cave sites. Updated surveys of cave populations are needed to reassess it conservation status.","ACR (2017) | Colket & Wilson (1998) | Harrison (1962) | Kock (1974) | McWilliam (1988b) | Mickleburgh, Hutson & Bergmans (2008b) | Usinger (1966)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747912/files/figure.png,"5. Hildegarde’s Tomb BatTaphozous hildegardeaeFrench: Taphien de Hildegarde / German:Hildegarde-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozode HildegardeOther common names:White-wingedTombBatTaxonomy. TaphozoushildegardeaeThomas, 1909, “Rabai, 700 ’ [= 213 m],” Mombasa District, Kenya.Taphozous hildegardeaeis in the subgenus Taphozous.Some authorities question localityrecords attributable to central Kenya because. hildegardeaeis otherwise known onlyfrom coastal distribution and habitats; however, these inland records coincide with coastal vegetation along the Tana River, possibly offering suitable habitat Monotypic.Distribution.E Africa along coast of SE Kenya and NE Tanzania (from Lower Tana River S to Dar es Salaam), also on Pemba and Unguja Is (Zanzibar Archipelago); recorded in C Kenya, but verification of museum vouchers and additional fieldwork could clarify distribution there.Descriptive notes.Head-body 79-82 mm, tail 25-29 mm, ear 13-22 mm, hindfoot 11— 18 mm, forearm 63-66 mm; weight 24-36 g (largest weights are for males with heavy fat deposits). Hairs on dorsum of Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat are tricolored, with pale brown above white bases and chocolate-brown tips; venter is white, with lightly frosted brown scattered tips. Exposed skin on limbs and other body parts is brown. Dorsal wing surfaces and uropatagium are brown, but distal part of wing membranes is white. Sparse fur on dorsal and ventral sides of flight membranes is white. Profile of head is concave. Both sexes have radio-metacarpal sacs. Although some sources state that glandular gular pouches are absent, others have observed these glands on mature males. Breeding age males have distinct black beards, covering undersides of their throats.Habitat.Tropical dryforests in very restricted coastal areas from sea level to elevations of C.214 m. Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat also might occur further inland in gallery forests along the Tana River.Food and Feeding.Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat eats species of Orthoptera and Lepidoptera.Breeding. In coastal Kenya, reproductive cycle ofHildegarde’s Tomb Bat closely corresponds to regional seasonality in rainfall. Males have pronounced bimodal cycles of fat deposition, corresponding to relative insect abundance during dual rainy seasons in Kenya. During active courtship and copulation in the first dry season of the year when moth abundance is lowest, males deplete body fat; fat accumulation in males is greatest in the long rainy season in Kenya. Females do not put on appreciable fat deposits, and even near-term pregnant females do not reach large seasonal body weights of males. A secondary peak in body weight and development of male sexual glands are associated with “short rains” in October-December. Second rainy season apparently does not result in reproduction but appears to allow maintenance of year-round harems that might reflect a vestigial polyestrous reproductive cycle.Activity patterns.Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is nocturnal and uses coral sea caves as roosts along the coast. It emerges from day roosts well after dark.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is polygynous, and males maintain roost territories to defend their female harems. In some larger harems, multiple males defend a group’s roosting site. Distance between harems is slightly greater than striking distance of the forearm. Adult males defend harems from intruders by wing flicking, vocalizations, scent marking, postural changes, and aggressive attacks. Males identify females as harem members by anal-genital sniffing. Males also mark harem females by pressing throat glands over females’ dorsum and mark themselves by rubbing their folded wings and forearms over throat glands. Bachelor males andjuveniles roost separately from harems. Colonies of hundreds to c.1000 individuals occur in caves, suggesting that local foraging movements occur at considerable distances from roosting sites. Hildegard’s Tomb Bats often share lit parts of caves with African Sheath-tailed Bats (Coleura afra).The cimicid bug Loxaspis mirandaand the bat fly BrachytarsinaaUuaudihave been identified as common ectoparasites in the larger colonies of Hildegard’s Tomb Bats.Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on TheIUCNRed List.Extent of occurrence of Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is less than 20,000 km2, its distribution is severely fragmented, and there is continuing decline in extent and quality of its forest habitat. It has been recorded from fewer than ten coastal localities. No distribution-wide population estimates are available, but surveys in Kenya and Tanzania in 1988 documented more than 130, 300, and 1000 individuals in three caves. Hildegard’s Tomb Bat likely is declining due to loss of habitat in coastal dry forests and disturbance of cave sites. Updated surveys of cave populations are needed to reassess it conservation status.Bibliography.ACR (2017), Colket & Wilson (1998), Harrison (1962), Kock (1974), McWilliam (1988b), Mickleburgh, Hutson & Bergmans (2008b), Usinger (1966)." @@ -988,11 +988,11 @@ docId,docOrigin,docISBN,docName,docMasterId,docPageNumber,derivedFrom,name,inter 03D587F2FFDC4C17FF7D36B4FDB6F385,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,368,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDC4C17FF7D36B4FDB6F385.xml,Diclidurus scutatus,Diclidurus,scutatus,Peters,1869,Lesser Ghost Bat @en | Diclidure des cyclanthes @fr | Kleine Gespenstfledermaus @de | Dicliduro pequeno @es,"Diclidurus scutatusPeters, 1869,“Südamerica.” Restricted by A. M. Husson in 1962 to “Para [= Belém], Para, Brazil.Diclidurus scutatusis in the subgenus Depanycteris.Monotypic.","Amazonian Basin in NE Ecuador (Orellana Province), NE Peru (Loreto Department), E Colombia (Vaupés Department), S & W Venezuela, the Guianas, and N Brazil (Amazonas, Amapa, and Para states), with one additional record from Atlantic DryForest of SE Brazil (Sâo Paulo State).","Head—body 57-68 mm, tail 17—19 mm, ear 10—15 mm, hindfoot 7-11 mm, forearm 51-58-9 mm; weight c.13 g. Dorsal fur of the Lesser Ghost Bat is long, soft, and either pure white or pale brown at bases of hairs; venter is uniformly white. Claws are black. Flight membranes are unpigmented. Naked skin of wings and legs are pink. Eyes are relatively large, with dark brown irises. Adult males have two glandular pouches on their uropatagia that are particularly prominent during breeding season. Ear is yellowish, rounded at apex, and c.15 mm long; tragus is.6 mm. Greatest length of skull is c.15 mm. Diagnostic skull characteristics include large palatine foramina, with posterior palatal emargination, and no space between premolars.","Multi-strata evergreen forests (rainforest), Atlantic Dry Forest (one record), and towns and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m.","The Lesser Ghost Bat preyson insects. One specimen was collected with a large moth in its mouth, and another was captured in a canopy mist net.",No information.,"Lesser Ghost Bats are crepuscular and fly high in open spaces above rivers, streams, lagoons, towns, and forest canopies. They are attracted to insects around lights.","No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List.The Lesser Ghost Bat has a large distribution in areas with intact evergreen forests. Nevertheless, little is known about its taxonomy, distribution, and ecology.",,"Albuja (1999) | Carter& Dolan (1978) | Eisenberg (1989) | Escobedo &Velazco (2012) | Fonsecaef al. (1996) | Handley (1976) | Husson (1962, 1978) | Lim & Engstrom (2005) | Linares (1998) | Novaes, Clâudio & Kuniy (2017) | Tirira(2017)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747976/files/figure.png,"40. Lesser Ghost BatDiclidurus scutatusFrench: Diclidure des cyclanthes/ German:Kleine Gespenstfledermaus/ Spanish:Dicliduro pequenoTaxonomy.Diclidurus scutatusPeters, 1869,“Südamerica.” Restricted by A. M. Husson in 1962 to “Para [= Belém], Para, Brazil.Diclidurus scutatusis in the subgenus Depanycteris.Monotypic.Distribution. Amazonian Basin in NE Ecuador (Orellana Province), NE Peru (Loreto Department), E Colombia (Vaupés Department), S & W Venezuela, the Guianas, and N Brazil (Amazonas, Amapa, and Para states), with one additional record from Atlantic DryForest of SE Brazil (Sâo Paulo State).Descriptive notes.Head—body 57-68 mm, tail 17—19 mm, ear 10—15 mm, hindfoot 7-11 mm, forearm 51-58-9 mm; weight c.13 g. Dorsal fur of the Lesser Ghost Bat is long, soft, and either pure white or pale brown at bases of hairs; venter is uniformly white. Claws are black. Flight membranes are unpigmented. Naked skin of wings and legs are pink. Eyes are relatively large, with dark brown irises. Adult males have two glandular pouches on their uropatagia that are particularly prominent during breeding season. Ear is yellowish, rounded at apex, and c.15 mm long; tragus is.6 mm. Greatest length of skull is c.15 mm. Diagnostic skull characteristics include large palatine foramina, with posterior palatal emargination, and no space between premolars.Habitat. Multi-strata evergreen forests (rainforest), Atlantic Dry Forest (one record), and towns and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Lesser Ghost Bat preyson insects. One specimen was collected with a large moth in its mouth, and another was captured in a canopy mist net.Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.Lesser Ghost Bats are crepuscular and fly high in open spaces above rivers, streams, lagoons, towns, and forest canopies. They are attracted to insects around lights.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List.The Lesser Ghost Bat has a large distribution in areas with intact evergreen forests. Nevertheless, little is known about its taxonomy, distribution, and ecology. Conservation actions should include scientific studies of distribution, roosting behavior, reproduction, diet, and foraging behavior.Bibliography.Albuja (1999), Carter& Dolan (1978), Eisenberg (1989), Escobedo &Velazco (2012), Fonsecaef al. (1996), Handley (1976), Husson (1962, 1978), Lim & Engstrom (2005), Linares (1998), Novaes, Clâudio & Kuniy (2017), Tirira(2017)." 03D587F2FFDD4C16FF073B5EF4A2F586,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,367,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDD4C16FF073B5EF4A2F586.xml,Diclidurus albus,Diclidurus,albus,Wied-Neuwied,1820,Northern Ghost Bat @en | Diclidure fantôme @fr | Weisse Gespenstfledermaus @de | Dicliduro norteno @es | White Ghost Bat @en,"Diclidurus albusWied-Neuwied, 1820,“ am Ausflusse des Rio Pardo.” Identified by M. P. zu Wied-Neuwied in 1826 as “Canavieiras,” Rio Pardo, Bahia, Brazil.Diclidurus albusis in the subgenus Diclidurus..Populations in Central America might be a distinct species referable as D. virgo,but additional studies are needed. Two subspecies recognized.","D. a.albusWied-Neuwied, 1820- the Guianas, most of Brazil, and E Peru.D. a.virgoThomas, 1903— from SW & S Mexico S through Central America to Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad I, and W Ecuador.","Head—body 68—82 mm, tail 18-22 mm, ear 16-17 mm, hindfoot 10-12 mm, forearm 63-69 mm; weight 17- 24 g. The Northern Ghost Bat has white fur on dorsum and venter, but basal one- third of hairs are neutral gray. Some individuals appear more grayish than white. Flight membranes are unpigmented but appear pinkish from rich vascularization. Ears are yellow. Arms, legs, and face are pink. Eyes are large. Lower regions of the face are naked. Although wing sacs are absent, glandular sac occurs around tip of tail that is more developed in males than females. Thumbs are vestigial. Dental formula of all species of Diclidurusis 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.","Riparian and tropical rainforests and human-disturbed areas such as plantations, clearings, and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1700 m. In Brazil, the Northern Ghost Bat occurs in Amazonian wet forests and Atlantic Dry Forest, the latter biome being highly fragmented.","Habitat. Riparian and tropical rainforests and human-disturbed areas such as plantations, clearings, and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1700 m. In Brazil, the Northern Ghost Bat occurs in Amazonian wet forests and Atlantic Dry Forest, the latter biome being highly fragmented.Northern Ghost Bats are insectivorous, and moths are favored in their diets. They forage for aerial insects high above forest canopies and large clearings and over water. Visual observations suggest foraging can occur up to 135 m aboveground.Breeding. In Mexico, copulations occur in January-February, and pregnancy and lactation take place through June. Females produce one young that remains with them at least through August. Non-pregnant adult females have been observed in December-February, suggesting they are monoestrous.Activity patterns.Northern Ghost Bats are crepuscular. Palms are used as day roosts including coconutpalms (Cocos nucifera).On the Pacific slope of Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats roost in native palm Orbignya cohune,and in eastern Mexico Astrocaryum mexicana(all Arecaceae). They roost near rachis ofa palm frond 2-25 m aboveground, with their white coloration making them verycryptic when viewed from below against sunlight. They emit low-frequencyecholocation calls, with very long pulse durations.Movements, Home range andSocial organization.For most of the year, Northern Ghost Bats are solitary except for females with dependent young. Small, temporary groups of a male and up to three adult females occur during breeding season. Individuals in a breeding group roost 5—10 cm from each other. In Jalisco, Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats are present only from late October to May, suggesting some populations are migratory.","In Mexico, copulations occur in January-February, and pregnancy and lactation take place through June. Females produce one young that remains with them at least through August. Non-pregnant adult females have been observed in December-February, suggesting they are monoestrous.","Northern Ghost Bats are crepuscular. Palms are used as day roosts including coconutpalms (Cocos nucifera).On the Pacific slope of Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats roost in native palm Orbignya cohune,and in eastern Mexico Astrocaryum mexicana(all Arecaceae). They roost near rachis ofa palm frond 2-25 m aboveground, with their white coloration making them verycryptic when viewed from below against sunlight. They emit low-frequencyecholocation calls, with very long pulse durations.",,"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Northern Ghost Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population. Additional studies are needed on its distribution, habitat, ecology, and conservation threats.","Ceballos & Medellin (1988) | erreira et al.(2013) | Hood & Gardner(2008) | Kalko (1995a) | Lim, B.K. etal. (1999) | Potchynok (2006) | Villa (1967) | Wied-Neuwied (1826)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747972/files/figure.png,"38. Northern Ghost BatDiclidurus albusFrench: Diclidure fantôme / German:WeisseGespenstfledermaus / Spanish: Dicliduro nortenoOther common names:White Ghost BatTaxonomy. Diclidurus albusWied-Neuwied, 1820,“ am Ausflusse des Rio Pardo.” Identified by M. P. zu Wied-Neuwied in 1826 as “Canavieiras,” Rio Pardo, Bahia, Brazil.Diclidurus albusis in the subgenus Diclidurus..Populations in Central America might be a distinct species referable as D. virgo,but additional studies are needed. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D. a.albusWied-Neuwied, 1820- the Guianas, most of Brazil, and E Peru.D. a.virgoThomas, 1903— from SW & S Mexico S through Central America to Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad I, and W Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head—body 68—82 mm, tail 18-22 mm, ear 16-17 mm, hindfoot 10-12 mm, forearm 63-69 mm; weight 17- 24 g. The Northern Ghost Bat has white fur on dorsum and venter, but basal one- third of hairs are neutral gray. Some individuals appear more grayish than white. Flight membranes are unpigmented but appear pinkish from rich vascularization. Ears are yellow. Arms, legs, and face are pink. Eyes are large. Lower regions of the face are naked. Although wing sacs are absent, glandular sac occurs around tip of tail that is more developed in males than females. Thumbs are vestigial. Dental formula of all species of Diclidurusis 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.Habitat. Riparian and tropical rainforests and human-disturbed areas such as plantations, clearings, and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1700 m. In Brazil, the Northern Ghost Bat occurs in Amazonian wet forests and Atlantic Dry Forest, the latter biome being highly fragmented.Food and Feeding. Northern Ghost Bats are insectivorous, and moths are favored in their diets. They forage for aerial insects high above forest canopies and large clearings and over water. Visual observations suggest foraging can occur up to 135 m aboveground.Breeding. In Mexico, copulations occur in January-February, and pregnancy and lactation take place through June. Females produce one young that remains with them at least through August. Non-pregnant adult females have been observed in December-February, suggesting they are monoestrous.Activity patterns.Northern Ghost Bats are crepuscular. Palms are used as day roosts including coconutpalms (Cocos nucifera).On the Pacific slope of Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats roost in native palm Orbignya cohune,and in eastern Mexico Astrocaryum mexicana(all Arecaceae). They roost near rachis ofa palm frond 2-25 m aboveground, with their white coloration making them verycryptic when viewed from below against sunlight. They emit low-frequencyecholocation calls, with very long pulse durations.Movements, Home range andSocial organization.For most of the year, Northern Ghost Bats are solitary except for females with dependent young. Small, temporary groups of a male and up to three adult females occur during breeding season. Individuals in a breeding group roost 5—10 cm from each other. In Jalisco, Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats are present only from late October to May, suggesting some populations are migratory.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Northern Ghost Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population. Additional studies are needed on its distribution, habitat, ecology, and conservation threats.Bibliography.Ceballos & Medellin (1988), erreira et al.(2013), Hood & Gardner(2008), Kalko (1995a), Lim, B.K. etal. (1999), Potchynok (2006), Villa (1967), Wied-Neuwied (1826)." 03D587F2FFDD4C16FF3B3753FCBEF35B,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,367,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDD4C16FF3B3753FCBEF35B.xml,Cyttarops alecto,Cyttarops,alecto,Thomas,1913,Short-eared Bat @en | Cytarope furieux @fr | Dunkelgraue Kurzohrfledermaus @de | Embalonuro orejicorto @es,"Cyttarops alectoThomas, 1913,“ Mucajatuba, near Para,” Brazil.This species is monotypic.","Central America, locally in Caribbean lowlands from Nicaragua to Panama, and South America in Venezuela (Bolivar State), Guyana, French Guiana, and N Brazil (Para State), also in scattered localities in Amazon Basin (extreme S o ­ lombia, E Peru, W Brazil, and N Bolivia). It might have a much larger distribution in the Amazon drainage of all these countries.","Head-body 47-55 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 10—12 mm, forearm 45-47 mm; weight 6-7 g. Dorsal fur of the Short-eared Bat is long, fluffy, and entirelydark gray; venter is slighdypaler. Ears are broad and rounded, barely rising about crown. Chin is well haired and appears bearded. Flight membranes are black. Hindfeet are small. Thumbs are tiny. Wingsacs are absent. Nostrils are tubelike and slightlydivergent. Dental formula is 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.","Humid lowland forests and along riparian gallery forests from sea level to elevations of500 m. In Brazil, the Short-eared Bat can occur along gallery forests lining small rivers in the savanna-like Cerrado ecoregion. It tolerates second growth disturbed by humans and forages near buildings and in oil palm plantations and gardens.","Habitat. Humid lowland forests and along riparian gallery forests from sea level to elevations of500 m. In Brazil, the Short-eared Bat can occur along gallery forests lining small rivers in the savanna-like Cerrado ecoregion. It tolerates second growth disturbed by humans and forages near buildings and in oil palm plantations and gardens.The Short-eared Bat preys on aerial insects.Breeding. A pregnantShort-eared Bat was reported in dry season in Tocantins State, Brazil. In Costa Rica, females with nursing young and subadults are reported in June- August.Activity patterns.Short-eared Bats are nocturnal and roost beneath fronds in palm trees including coconut and oil palms, usually in relativelyopen areas such as groves or gardens. Roost emergence starts c.45 minutes after sunset. Foraging usually is restricted to immediately around day roosts for 15—30 minutes, after which individuals disperse further from roosts while flying at least 3-4 m aboveground. Echolocation call is unusual among emballonurids: FM call remains above 100 kHz and is short in duration.Movements,Home range and Socialorganization. Short-eared Bats roost in groups of 1—10 individuals. Theyhang freely bytheir feet when roosting, near midribs of fronds. Roosting groups can contain adult males and females, subadults, and dependent young. There is evidence that roosting group composition is notstable even over short periods of time, with different individuals moving into a group.","A pregnantShort-eared Bat was reported in dry season in Tocantins State, Brazil. In Costa Rica, females with nursing young and subadults are reported in June- August.","Short-eared Bats are nocturnal and roost beneath fronds in palm trees including coconut and oil palms, usually in relativelyopen areas such as groves or gardens. Roost emergence starts c.45 minutes after sunset. Foraging usually is restricted to immediately around day roosts for 15—30 minutes, after which individuals disperse further from roosts while flying at least 3-4 m aboveground. Echolocation call is unusual among emballonurids: FM call remains above 100 kHz and is short in duration.",,,"Aguirre, Mammani etal. (2010) | Fonseca et al. (1996) | Koopman(1993) | Lim, B.K. (2009 b) | Lim, B.K. & Engstrom(2005) | Lim, B.K. et al. (1999) | Nunes etal. (2006) | Reid (2009) | Reid & Langtimm (1993) | Rodriguez-Mahecha etal. (1995) | Simmons &Voss (1998) | Starrett (1972) | Starrett & Casebeer(1968) | Tavares, Bobrowiec & Farias (2012) | Velazco etal. (2011)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747970/files/figure.png,"37. Short-eared BatCyttarops alectoFrench: Cytarope furieux / German:Dunkelgraue Kurzohrfledermaus / Spanish:Embalonuro orejicortoTaxonomy. Cyttarops alectoThomas, 1913,“ Mucajatuba, near Para,” Brazil.This species is monotypic.Distribution. Central America, locally in Caribbean lowlands from Nicaragua to Panama, and South America in Venezuela (Bolivar State), Guyana, French Guiana, and N Brazil (Para State), also in scattered localities in Amazon Basin (extreme S o ­ lombia, E Peru, W Brazil, and N Bolivia). It might have a much larger distribution in the Amazon drainage of all these countries.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-55 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 10—12 mm, forearm 45-47 mm; weight 6-7 g. Dorsal fur of the Short-eared Bat is long, fluffy, and entirelydark gray; venter is slighdypaler. Ears are broad and rounded, barely rising about crown. Chin is well haired and appears bearded. Flight membranes are black. Hindfeet are small. Thumbs are tiny. Wingsacs are absent. Nostrils are tubelike and slightlydivergent. Dental formula is 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.Habitat. Humid lowland forests and along riparian gallery forests from sea level to elevations of500 m. In Brazil, the Short-eared Bat can occur along gallery forests lining small rivers in the savanna-like Cerrado ecoregion. It tolerates second growth disturbed by humans and forages near buildings and in oil palm plantations and gardens.Food and Feeding. The Short-eared Bat preys on aerial insects.Breeding. A pregnantShort-eared Bat was reported in dry season in Tocantins State, Brazil. In Costa Rica, females with nursing young and subadults are reported in June- August.Activity patterns.Short-eared Bats are nocturnal and roost beneath fronds in palm trees including coconut and oil palms, usually in relativelyopen areas such as groves or gardens. Roost emergence starts c.45 minutes after sunset. Foraging usually is restricted to immediately around day roosts for 15—30 minutes, after which individuals disperse further from roosts while flying at least 3-4 m aboveground. Echolocation call is unusual among emballonurids: FM call remains above 100 kHz and is short in duration.Movements,Home range and Socialorganization. Short-eared Bats roost in groups of 1—10 individuals. Theyhang freely bytheir feet when roosting, near midribs of fronds. Roosting groups can contain adult males and females, subadults, and dependent young. There is evidence that roosting group composition is notstable even over short periods of time, with different individuals moving into a group.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Shorteared Bat has a large distribution and presumably relativelystable overall population. Its rarity in museum collections, known from fewer than 30 global specimens and c.20 localities, is likely due to inefficiency ofcapture in mist nets. Additional studies are needed on its distribution, habitat, ecology, and threats. Acousticsurveys should produce valuable information to better understand biology and conservation status of Short-eared Bats.Bibliography.Aguirre, Mammani etal. (2010), Fonseca et al. (1996), Koopman(1993), Lim, B.K. (2009 b), Lim, B.K. & Engstrom(2005), Lim, B.K. et al. (1999), Nunes etal. (2006), Reid (2009), Reid & Langtimm (1993), Rodriguez-Mahecha etal. (1995), Simmons &Voss (1998), Starrett (1972), Starrett & Casebeer(1968), Tavares, Bobrowiec & Farias (2012), Velazco etal. (2011)." -03D587F2FFDD4C17F8F53FA8F921FCBA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,367,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDD4C17F8F53FA8F921FCBA.xml,Diclidurus ingens,Diclidurus,ingens,,,Greater Ghost Bat @en | Grande Diclidure @fr | Grosse Gespenstfledermaus @de | Dicliduro grande @es,"Diclidurusingens Hemândez- Camacho, 1955,“ Puerto Legufzamo, Intendencia del Caqueta [= Putumayo],” Colombia.Diclidurusingensis in the subgenus Diclidurus.Monotypic.","Scattered localities from Colombia (Chocó and Putumayo departments) and adjacent Venezuela to Guyana, extending S to N & C Brazil (Para and Mato Grosso). Futureresearch likely will extend distributional limits and establish occurrence in Peru and Ecuador.","Head-bodyc.83 mm, tail 22 mm, ear 14 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 67-9-71-9 mm; weight 20-26 g (most measurements are from a single specimen). Dorsal and ventral fur of the Greater Ghost Bat is composed of bicolored hairs that are cream to pale grayat bases and gray to blackish distally. Flight membranes are unpigmented and appear pinkish from heavy vascularization. Bare skin of face and ears also appears pinkish. Eyes are large and conspicuous, with dark brown irises. An inter-femoral sac is presentalong tail. P1 and P2 are not in contact, which is diagnostic. Presence of four lobes on the I2 of this species is diagnosticand unique among emballonurids.",Verticallystratified primary and secondaryevergreen forests and banana plantations from sea level to elevations of c.200 m.,"Greater Ghost Bats prey on insects high in open spacesabove rivers, streams, and lagoons and above forest canopies. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around streetlights in towns.",No information.,No information.,The only roosting record of the Greater Ghost Bat is of a solitaryfemale hanging from the ceiling of a house in a suburban area in Colombia.,,"Dalponte& Aguiar (2009) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons & eer(1997) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | Lim, B.K. et al. (1999) | Mantilla-Meluk, Jiménez-Ortega, Palacios & Baker(2009) | Ojasti & Linares (1971)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747974/files/figure.png,"39. Greater Ghost BatDiclidurus ingensFrench:GrandeDiclidure / German:GrosseGespenstfledermaus / Spanish:Dicliduro grandeTaxonomy. Diclidurusingens Hemândez- Camacho, 1955,“ Puerto Legufzamo, Intendencia del Caqueta [= Putumayo],” Colombia.Diclidurusingensis in the subgenus Diclidurus.Monotypic.Distribution. Scattered localities from Colombia (Chocó and Putumayo departments) and adjacent Venezuela to Guyana, extending S to N & C Brazil (Para and Mato Grosso). Futureresearch likely will extend distributional limits and establish occurrence in Peru and Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-bodyc.83 mm, tail 22 mm, ear 14 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 67-9-71-9 mm; weight 20-26 g (most measurements are from a single specimen). Dorsal and ventral fur of the Greater Ghost Bat is composed of bicolored hairs that are cream to pale grayat bases and gray to blackish distally. Flight membranes are unpigmented and appear pinkish from heavy vascularization. Bare skin of face and ears also appears pinkish. Eyes are large and conspicuous, with dark brown irises. An inter-femoral sac is presentalong tail. P1 and P2 are not in contact, which is diagnostic. Presence of four lobes on the I2 of this species is diagnosticand unique among emballonurids.Habitat. Verticallystratified primary and secondaryevergreen forests and banana plantations from sea level to elevations of c.200 m.Food and Feeding.Greater Ghost Bats prey on insects high in open spacesabove rivers, streams, and lagoons and above forest canopies. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around streetlights in towns.On followingpages: 40. Lesser Ghost Bat (Diclidurus scutatus);41. IsabellineGhost Bat (Diclidurus isabella);42. LesserDog-like Bat (Peropteryxmacrotis);43. Greater Dog-likeBat (Peropteryxkappleri);44. TrinidadDog-like Bat (Peropteryx trinitatis);45. White-winged Dog-like Bat(Peropteryx leucoptera);46. Pale-winged Dog-like Bat (Peropteryx pallidoptera);47. Thomas's Shaggy Bat (Centronycteriscentrali);48. CommonShaggy Bat (Centronycterismaximiliani);49. Proboscis Bat (Rhynchonycterisnaso);50. GreaterSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxbilineata};51. Lesser Sac-winged Bat(Saccopteryxleptura);52. rosted Sac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxcanescens);53. AntioquianSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxantioquensis);54. AmazonianSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxgymnura).Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The only roosting record of the Greater Ghost Bat is of a solitaryfemale hanging from the ceiling of a house in a suburban area in Colombia.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List.The Greater Ghost Bat is known from very few specimens and few locations. Information on distribution, status, and conservation threats is lacking.Bibliography.Dalponte& Aguiar (2009), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons & eer(1997), Hood & Gardner (2008), Lim, B.K. et al. (1999), Mantilla-Meluk, Jiménez-Ortega, Palacios & Baker(2009), Ojasti & Linares (1971)." +03D587F2FFDD4C17F8F53FA8F921FCBA,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,367,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDD4C17F8F53FA8F921FCBA.xml,Diclidurus ingens,Diclidurus,ingens,,,Greater Ghost Bat @en | Grande Diclidure @fr | Grosse Gespenstfledermaus @de | Dicliduro grande @es,"Diclidurusingens Hemândez- Camacho, 1955,“ Puerto Legufzamo, Intendencia del Caqueta [= Putumayo],” Colombia.Diclidurusingensis in the subgenus Diclidurus.Monotypic.","Scattered localities from Colombia (Chocó and Putumayo departments) and adjacent Venezuela to Guyana, extending S to N & C Brazil (Para and Mato Grosso). Futureresearch likely will extend distributional limits and establish occurrence in Peru and Ecuador.","Head-bodyc.83 mm, tail 22 mm, ear 14 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 67-9-71-9 mm; weight 20-26 g (most measurements are from a single specimen). Dorsal and ventral fur of the Greater Ghost Bat is composed of bicolored hairs that are cream to pale grayat bases and gray to blackish distally. Flight membranes are unpigmented and appear pinkish from heavy vascularization. Bare skin of face and ears also appears pinkish. Eyes are large and conspicuous, with dark brown irises. An inter-femoral sac is presentalong tail. P1 and P2 are not in contact, which is diagnostic. Presence of four lobes on the I2 of this species is diagnosticand unique among emballonurids.",Verticallystratified primary and secondaryevergreen forests and banana plantations from sea level to elevations of c.200 m.,"Greater Ghost Bats prey on insects high in open spacesabove rivers, streams, and lagoons and above forest canopies. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around streetlights in towns.",No information.,No information.,The only roosting record of the Greater Ghost Bat is of a solitaryfemale hanging from the ceiling of a house in a suburban area in Colombia.,,"Dalponte& Aguiar (2009) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons & eer(1997) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | Lim, B.K. et al. (1999) | Mantilla-Meluk, Jiménez-Ortega, Palacios & Baker(2009) | Ojasti & Linares (1971)",https://zenodo.org/record/3740275/files/figure.png,"39. Greater Ghost BatDiclidurus ingensFrench:GrandeDiclidure / German:GrosseGespenstfledermaus / Spanish:Dicliduro grandeTaxonomy. Diclidurusingens Hemândez- Camacho, 1955,“ Puerto Legufzamo, Intendencia del Caqueta [= Putumayo],” Colombia.Diclidurusingensis in the subgenus Diclidurus.Monotypic.Distribution. Scattered localities from Colombia (Chocó and Putumayo departments) and adjacent Venezuela to Guyana, extending S to N & C Brazil (Para and Mato Grosso). Futureresearch likely will extend distributional limits and establish occurrence in Peru and Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-bodyc.83 mm, tail 22 mm, ear 14 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 67-9-71-9 mm; weight 20-26 g (most measurements are from a single specimen). Dorsal and ventral fur of the Greater Ghost Bat is composed of bicolored hairs that are cream to pale grayat bases and gray to blackish distally. Flight membranes are unpigmented and appear pinkish from heavy vascularization. Bare skin of face and ears also appears pinkish. Eyes are large and conspicuous, with dark brown irises. An inter-femoral sac is presentalong tail. P1 and P2 are not in contact, which is diagnostic. Presence of four lobes on the I2 of this species is diagnosticand unique among emballonurids.Habitat. Verticallystratified primary and secondaryevergreen forests and banana plantations from sea level to elevations of c.200 m.Food and Feeding.Greater Ghost Bats prey on insects high in open spacesabove rivers, streams, and lagoons and above forest canopies. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around streetlights in towns.On followingpages: 40. Lesser Ghost Bat (Diclidurus scutatus);41. IsabellineGhost Bat (Diclidurus isabella);42. LesserDog-like Bat (Peropteryxmacrotis);43. Greater Dog-likeBat (Peropteryxkappleri);44. TrinidadDog-like Bat (Peropteryx trinitatis);45. White-winged Dog-like Bat(Peropteryx leucoptera);46. Pale-winged Dog-like Bat (Peropteryx pallidoptera);47. Thomas's Shaggy Bat (Centronycteriscentrali);48. CommonShaggy Bat (Centronycterismaximiliani);49. Proboscis Bat (Rhynchonycterisnaso);50. GreaterSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxbilineata};51. Lesser Sac-winged Bat(Saccopteryxleptura);52. rosted Sac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxcanescens);53. AntioquianSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxantioquensis);54. AmazonianSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxgymnura).Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The only roosting record of the Greater Ghost Bat is of a solitaryfemale hanging from the ceiling of a house in a suburban area in Colombia.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List.The Greater Ghost Bat is known from very few specimens and few locations. Information on distribution, status, and conservation threats is lacking.Bibliography.Dalponte& Aguiar (2009), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons & eer(1997), Hood & Gardner (2008), Lim, B.K. et al. (1999), Mantilla-Meluk, Jiménez-Ortega, Palacios & Baker(2009), Ojasti & Linares (1971)." 03D587F2FFDF4C14F8FE36E0F767F2F8,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,365,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDF4C14F8FE36E0F767F2F8.xml,Balantiopteryx infusca,Balantiopteryx,infosca,,,Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat @en | Emballonure d'Équateur @fr | Ecuador-Sackflügelfledermaus @de | Embalonuro de sacos ecuatoriano @es | French @en,"Saccopteryx infuscaThomas, 1897,“ [Rio] Cachavi, [Departamento de Esmeraldas], N[orthern]. Ecuador.”This species is monotypic.","Endemic to a small area of the Chocó Region on Pacific slope of o­ lombia and Ecuador, recorded from only four localities in SW Colombia (Rio Chanco, Valledel Cauca Department) and NW Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Imbabura provinces), and presumablyin appropriate habitat between these localities.","Head—body 37-42 mm, tail 12—18 mm, ear 10—14 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 37-9-42-4 mm; weight 4—5 g. The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat shows sexual dimorphism in body size, with females slightlylarger as measured by forearm length (males average 38-7 mm and females 40 mm). Dorsal fur is tricolored, with blackish brown distal tips, brown hair shafts, and pale grayish brown bases. Venter is paler, with bicolored hairs having brown tips and grayish brown bases. White, wiry hairs are scattered dorsally and ventrallyon many specimens. Flight membranes are black. Upper one-third of dorsal surface of uropatagium is sparsely haired, especially along short tail. Lower face is naked. Ears are oval-shaped and extend slightly above crown; interior of pinna is heavily ribbed.","Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on TheIUCN Red List.The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat has a small distribution, and populations are believed to be declining. Extentof occurrence is c. 18,551 km2 encompassing three known locations in Ecuador and one in Colombia. Habitathas been reduced by deforestation from expanding agriculture and continues to decline in extent and quality. In Ecuador, habitat is highly fragmented and faces a high risk of destruction in the near future because of uncontrolled illegal logging.",,"Adult female Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats examined in late December in Ecuador included four lactating, two post-lactating, and five reproductively inactive individuals.",The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat roosts in twilight zones of caves and abandoned railroad tunnels.,Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats roost in association with otherbat species including Greater Sac-winged Bats (Saccopteryx bilineatd).Roosting groups of up to 40 individuals have been observed. Nine individuals of mixed sex and age were captured in mist nets at each oftwo abandoned railroad tunnels.,,"Alberico et al. (2000) | Albuja(1999) | Alvarez(2002, 2003) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | McCarthy et al.(2000) | Tirira(2017)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747968/files/figure.png,"36. Ecuadorian Sac-winged BatBalantiopteryx infuscaFrench:Emballonure d'Équateur / German:Ecuador-Sackflügelfledermaus / Spanish:Embalonuro de sacos ecuatorianoTaxonomy.Saccopteryx infuscaThomas, 1897,“ [Rio] Cachavi, [Departamento de Esmeraldas], N[orthern]. Ecuador.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to a small area of the Chocó Region on Pacific slope of o­ lombia and Ecuador, recorded from only four localities in SW Colombia (Rio Chanco, Valledel Cauca Department) and NW Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Imbabura provinces), and presumablyin appropriate habitat between these localities.Descriptive notes.Head—body 37-42 mm, tail 12—18 mm, ear 10—14 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 37-9-42-4 mm; weight 4—5 g. The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat shows sexual dimorphism in body size, with females slightlylarger as measured by forearm length (males average 38-7 mm and females 40 mm). Dorsal fur is tricolored, with blackish brown distal tips, brown hair shafts, and pale grayish brown bases. Venter is paler, with bicolored hairs having brown tips and grayish brown bases. White, wiry hairs are scattered dorsally and ventrallyon many specimens. Flight membranes are black. Upper one-third of dorsal surface of uropatagium is sparsely haired, especially along short tail. Lower face is naked. Ears are oval-shaped and extend slightly above crown; interior of pinna is heavily ribbed.Habitat. Lowland and pre-montane rainforests at elevations of 150—1200 m.Foodand Feeding. Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats feed on small insects caught in the air.Breeding. Adult female Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats examined in late December in Ecuador included four lactating, two post-lactating, and five reproductively inactive individuals.Activity patterns.The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat roosts in twilight zones of caves and abandoned railroad tunnels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats roost in association with otherbat species including Greater Sac-winged Bats (Saccopteryx bilineatd).Roosting groups of up to 40 individuals have been observed. Nine individuals of mixed sex and age were captured in mist nets at each oftwo abandoned railroad tunnels.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on TheIUCN Red List.The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat has a small distribution, and populations are believed to be declining. Extentof occurrence is c. 18,551 km2 encompassing three known locations in Ecuador and one in Colombia. Habitathas been reduced by deforestation from expanding agriculture and continues to decline in extent and quality. In Ecuador, habitat is highly fragmented and faces a high risk of destruction in the near future because of uncontrolled illegal logging.Bibliography.Alberico eta/. (2000), Albuja(1999), Alvarez(2002, 2003), Hood & Gardner (2008), McCarthy et al.(2000), Tirira(2017)." 03D587F2FFDF4C14FF0F3003F806FCC1,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd,hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9,365,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDF4C14FF0F3003F806FCC1.xml,Balantiopteryx io,Balantiopteryx,io,Thomas,1904,Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat @en | Emballonure de Thomas @fr | Thomas-Sackflügelfledermaus @de | Embalonurode sacos de Thomas @es | Least Sac-winged Bat @en,"Balantiopteryx ioThomas, 1904,“ R[ioJ. Dolores, near Coban[Alta Verapaz], Guatemala.”This species is monotypic.",Atlantic slope of Mexico and Central America from S Veracruz and Oaxaca to E Guatemala and Belize.,"Head—body 38-44 mm, tail 8—18 mm, ear 10—13 mm, hindfoot 7-8 mm, forearm 36-41-4 mm; weight 3-4 g. Dorsal fur of Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat is dark brown to black; venter is paler gray-brown. Flight membranes are black. Wingsattach to ankles.","Semideciduous or evergreen forests from sea level to elevations of c.500 m. In the Maya Mountains of Belize, Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat occurs in semideciduous forest.",,"Pregnant Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats have been recorded in March, May, and July, suggesting polyestry.","Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats are nocturnal. They roost widely and evenly spaced, often occupying dark recesses of large, limestone caves on ceilings of high chambers. Activitystarts well after sunset, later than related species. Echolocation calls include long narrowband component and maximum amplitude on second harmonic. Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats show slightlydownward narrowband component that initially starts at 50-2 kHz and drops to 45-9 kHz, on average, and does not turn upward as in other genera of forest emballonurids. Average call duration is 7-8 milliseconds. During approach and terminal phases, call changes to obtain accurate target information after potential preyhas been detected.",,,"Arroyo-Cabrales & Jones (1988b) | Lim, Engstrom et al. (2004) | Reid (2009) | Thomas (1904b) | Villa(1967)",https://zenodo.org/record/3747966/files/figure.png,"35. Thomas’s Sac-winged BatBalantiopteryx ioFrench: Emballonure de Thomas IGerman:Thomas-Sackflügelfledermaus / Spanish:Embalonurode sacos de ThomasOther common names:LeastSac-winged BatTaxonomy.Balantiopteryx ioThomas, 1904,“ R[ioJ. Dolores, near Coban[Alta Verapaz], Guatemala.”This species is monotypic.Distribution. Atlantic slope of Mexico and Central America from S Veracruz and Oaxaca to E Guatemala and Belize.Descriptive notes.Head—body 38-44 mm, tail 8—18 mm, ear 10—13 mm, hindfoot 7-8 mm, forearm 36-41-4 mm; weight 3-4 g. Dorsal fur of Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat is dark brown to black; venter is paler gray-brown. Flight membranes are black. Wingsattach to ankles.Habitat. Semideciduous or evergreen forests from sea level to elevations of c.500 m. In the Maya Mountains of Belize, Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat occurs in semideciduous forest.Foodand Feeding. Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats forage on small, aerial insects. Although direct visual observations are difficult due to their late emergence from roost, echolocation call characteristics suggest that they hunt in clutter close to vegetation of forest habitats or over water.Breeding. Pregnant Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats have been recorded in March, May, and July, suggesting polyestry.Activity patterns.Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats are nocturnal. They roost widely and evenly spaced, often occupying dark recesses of large, limestone caves on ceilings of high chambers. Activitystarts well after sunset, later than related species. Echolocation calls include long narrowband component and maximum amplitude on second harmonic. Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats show slightlydownward narrowband component that initially starts at 50-2 kHz and drops to 45-9 kHz, on average, and does not turn upward as in other genera of forest emballonurids. Average call duration is 7-8 milliseconds. During approach and terminal phases, call changes to obtain accurate target information after potential preyhas been detected.Movements,Home range and Socialorganization. Groups of Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats commonly number 50 or more individuals and occasionally1000—2000 individuals in large caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.Thomas’s Sacwinged Bat because depends on highly fragile forested habitat, and it is estimated to have declined by more than 30% due to habitat loss and degradation in the last ten years, with remaining subpopulations fragmented. Adventure tourism leading to vandalism in caves has been and is a significant threat, particularly in Belize, Yucatan, and Guatemala. Needed conservation actions include management and protection of roost caves and additional protection of rapidly disappearing Atlantic forests.Bibliography.Arroyo-Cabrales & Jones (1988b), Lim, Engstrom et al. (2004), Reid (2009), Thomas (1904b), Villa(1967)." 03D587FDFFC48C11FF26FAAC11BEF663,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Eschrichtiidae_0222.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffecff85ffc58c13ffe4fff31769ffed,240,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587FDFFC48C11FF26FAAC11BEF663.xml,Eschrichtius robustus,Eschrichtius,robustus,,,Baleine grise @fr | Grauwal @de | Ballena gris @es | California Gray Whale @en | Devilfish @en | Hard-head @en | Mussel Digger @en | Rip Sack @en | Scrag Whale @en,"Balaenoptera robusta Lilljeborg, 1861, “pa Grason i Roslagan,” Graso Island, Uppland, Sweden.This species is monotypic.","N Pacific, from the Arctic Ocean and Bering8 Sea to Baja Y California, the Gulf of California, and portions of the mainland coast of Mexico in the E, and to the coasts of Russia, Japan, Korea, and SE China in the W. Extinct in the N Atlantic Ocean.","Total length 1300-1420 cm; weight 14,000-35,000 kg. There are no morphological differences among individuals of the eastern and western populations of Gray Whales. The Gray Whale is a medium-sized baleen or “mysticete” whale that can reach a maximum length of 1530 cm. Females are slightly larger than males at all ages. Distance from genitalslit to anus is wider in males; there are no othersignificant differences in external appearance between sexes. Body color ranges from mottled pale gray to dark gray with whitish to cream-colored blotches. White scars accumulate over time and add to distinctive individual color patterns. Gray Whales are heavily infested with species-specific barnacles (Cryptolepas rachianecti), and three species of cyamids or “whale lice” (Cyamus scammoni, C. ceti, and C. kessleri). Neonates are 450-500 cm long and can weigh 800 kg or more. Head is moderately arched and triangular when viewed from above and averages 20% of total length. Double nares or “blowholes,” characteristic of mysticete whales, are located on top of head just above and anterior to neck. The Gray Whale’s “blow,” or exhalation, is vertical and heart-shaped to columnar in form. Throat possesses 2-7 pleats that allow expansion of mouth cavity during feeding. Gray Whale baleen is pale yellow with ¢.130-180 individual plates, 5-40 cm long, on each side of upperjaw. Back is smooth from base of head to anterior section oftail, where instead of a dorsal fin, an elongated hump followed by a series of bumps or “knuckles” runs along dorsal edge oftailstock. Anterior flippers are paddleshaped and pointed at their tips. Flukes are butterflyshaped with pointed tips and average 300-360 cm from tip to tip. Gray Whales possess a unique “tailstock cyst” of unknown function located on the anterior ventral surface of the caudal peduncle.","Primarily relatively shallow waters along edges of continental shelves from subtropical to polar latitudes and only occasionally open oceanic or pelagic habitats. Gray Whales frequent continental shelf waters along both sides of the North Pacific Ocean, including East China Sea, Yellow Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea, and Chukchi, Beaufort, and East Siberian seas in the Arctic Ocean. Gray Whales are highly migratory. When migrating, they may cross deep ocean and follow undersea mountain ranges and escarpments. In summer, they feed on the bottom of shallow continental shelves in high latitudes. In fall and spring, the western population of Gray Whalesis believed to migrate along the Pacific coast of the Far East from Russia to China. The larger eastern population migrates along the edge of the continental shelf of the Pacific coast of North America from Alaska to Mexico. In winter, Gray Whales congregate in coastal bays and lagoons that afford them protection from predation and warmer water for rearing young and mating. Their habit of frequenting relatively shallow continental shelf waters and coastal areas for feeding, migrating, and breeding is unique among mysticete whales. While capable of navigating deep ocean areas, Gray Whales migrate to and from their summer feeding and winter breeding areas along distinct corridors that follow within a few kilometers of the North American coast (for the eastern Gray Whale) and the eastern Asian coast (for some of the western Gray Whales). They disperse widely across the Arctic and polar seas during summer feeding, and they aggregate in shallow coastal areas, embayments and lagoons in subtropical latitudes for breeding and to give birth.","Primary summer feeding grounds of Gray Whales include the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, East Siberian Sea, and Sea of Okhotsk, and they also exploit prey resources where they are found throughout their migratory distribution. They forage for patchy concentrations of prey found on relatively shallow (50 m or less) continental shelf areas that correspond with areas of high primary productivity supporting extensive benthic invertebrate communities. Gray Whales use suction feeding to exploit prey from the sea floor, but they can also feed on swimming prey by gulping and skimming prey from near the sea floor and ocean surface. Principal prey includes infaunal, tube-dwelling ampeliscid amphipods, polychaete worms, bivalves, swarming cumaceans, mysids, shrimps, krill, mobile amphipods, and shoals of clupeoid fish such as sardines and anchovies. An adult Gray Whale may consume ¢.220,800 kg of food at a rate of ¢.1200 kg/day for c.180 feeding days. Gray Whales do not feed extensively, or at all, during fall and spring migrations or while in their winter breeding areas. Fasting whales may lose up to 30% of their body fat during winter. This is especially critical for lactating females that are not feeding while nursing and caring for their offspring. Water is obtained from their food and metabolically from body fat. Warming of the Arctic Ocean due to global climate change and subsequent reduction in permanent sea ice has accelerated in recent decades and has affected distributions and availabilities of traditional prey communities. Some historical feeding areas of Gray Whales have declined in size, but it is possible that new prey communities will become established in other areas where oceanic and ice conditions are favorable. Gray Whales are responding by foraging over broader areas and staying longer in their summer feeding areas to obtain sufficient food and energy stores for winter migration and breeding. Flexibility in feeding modes and prey selection of the Gray Whale has allowed it to survive over many Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods in the geologic past. Its abilities to use alternative prey and feeding areas are advantages for dealing with climate-driven oceanographic changes. Although switching prey has the advantage of providing additional feeding options, it may also create competition with other marine species that exploit the same resources.","Male and female Gray Whales reached sexual maturity at 6-12 years of age. Mating and birthing are strongly seasonal and synchronized with the migratory cycle. Mating occurs during the middle of the fall southward migration and continues in January-February on the winter breeding range. Gray Whales are thought to have a “promiscuous” mating system in which females and males copulate with multiple partners. Individuals may mate in pairs and in groups of up to 20 or more whales. Mating groups are physically active and fluid, with individuals joining and leaving. Sometimes there are high-speed chases interrupted by mating bouts that last from a few minutes to hours. Males may attempt to mate with females that have newborn young, but females with young usually reject breeding males. Little overt competition has been observed among males, and multiple inseminations likely occur. Thus,it is thought that sperm competition operates in the Gray Whale instead of physical aggression to increase chances of an individual male’s fathering a young. Females invest heavily in rearing a limited number of offspring during their lifetimes, whereas males maximize their reproductive success by mating with as many females as possible. Gestation is 11-13 months, with females normally bearing one offspring at intervals of two years, but longer intervals may occur. Births occur from late December to early March, with the median in late January, when near-term females are in or near breeding grounds or migrating southward. Young are weaned and separate from their mothers at c.7-9 months of age during spring migration or on summer feeding grounds. Gray Whales are physically mature at c.40 years. The longevity record is one female killed in the 1960s who had lived as long as 80 years.","Gray Whales migrate continuously day and night at 6-7 km/h, pausing only to catnap, forage, or mate. On average, swimming Gray Whales will surface every b—7 minutes between long dives and take 3-5 breaths at 15-30second intervals before submerging to resume swimming. Before beginning a long dive and after a sequence of breaths, tail flukes are frequently raised above the water’s surface. Aerial behaviors include “breaching” (jumping out of the water), “spy hopping” (raising head vertically out of the water), “tail stands” (holding flukes and tailstock vertically above water’s surface), and “lobtailing” (slapping water’s surface with flukes). Gray Whales forage continuously on their Arctic feeding grounds during long periods of daylight characteristic of these high-latitude areas in summer. During the winter breeding season, courting Gray Whales are continuously active, rarely resting at the water’s surface. In contrast, females that are nursing newborns move about breeding lagoons with their offspring and frequently rest or “sleep” at the surface while their offspring continue to swim around them and nurse. Young appear to be active at all times, never resting or sleeping.","Gray Whales in the eastern North Pacific Ocean are latitudinal migrants, engaging in an annual polar-to-subtropical migration in fall and a spring return migration to polar seas. Their round trip of 15,000-20,000 km spans 55° of latitude, and it is the longest migration of any mysticete. They exit Arctic and Bering seas from mid-Novemberto late December, following the North American coast southward to coastal Mexico and arriving there in January-February. Southward and northward migrants overlap in midwinter along the southern part of their winter range, which spans coastal waters from southern California to Mexico. Pregnant females and females with new offspring arrive in the Mexican portion of the winter range from late December to earlyJanuary, with the bulk of the population arriving by mid-February to early March. The principal winter gathering areas include Laguna Ojo de Liebre (also known as Scammon’s Lagoon), Bahia de Sebastian Vizcaino, Laguna San Ignacio, Bahia de Ballenas, and Bahia Magdalena and adjacent waters. Newly pregnant females lead the spring northward migration of eastern Gray Whales, followed by adult females and males, and then juveniles. Mothers with young are the last to leave the breeding range; they remain the longest to allow young to grow and strengthen before migrating. The western and eastern populations of Gray Whales were thought to be separate and distinct groups, but recent research indicates that they share feeding grounds along the eastern coast of Kamchatka and some western Gray Whales migrate across the Bering Sea and North Pacific Ocean and join the larger eastern population’s migration along the west coast of North America. Gray Whales from the western population have also been photographed in breeding lagoons of the eastern population. Sharing migration routes and winter breeding areas suggests that interbreeding of these two populations occurs. Incidental catches and strandings of Gray Whales offJapan support the contention that some western Gray Whales continue to migrate along the Asian coast and winter off the China coast. The fossil record suggests that eschrichtiids evolved in the Mediterranean or North Atlantic Ocean during the Miocene or earliest Pliocene, and dispersed westward into the Pacific through the then-open Central American Seaway, later dispersing back into the North Atlantic during the Pleistocene, as evidenced by subfossil remains found along the North Atlantic coasts of North America. Support for this hypothesis occurred in May 2010, when a single Gray Whale was observed off the Mediterranean coasts of Israel and Spain, and again in May 2013 when another single Gray Whale was sighted off the Namibia coast. Apparently they had migrated from the North Pacific into the Arctic Ocean, followed the northern Eurasian coast, continued along the European coast and on to the Mediterranean and the Namibia coast. Appearance of Gray Whales in the Atlantic demonstrates that such exchanges between oceans are possible during periods of interglacial minimum ice conditions. Shrinking of Arctic sea ice due to climate change suggests that Gray Whales could recolonize the North Atlantic as ice and temperature barriers to mixing between the northern North Atlantic and the North Pacific biomes are reduced. Gray Whales are not known to be social, but they do form loose aggregations on feeding grounds and during migrations. There is no evidence of social bonding other than during copulation and between mother—offspring pairs. Gray Whales disperse widely across their principal feeding areas in the Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, and Arctic Ocean to forage for prey. Breeding males do not defend territories, show aggression toward conspecifics, or defend female “harems.” Male Gray Whales provide no parental care or assistance with rearing young. Females remain solitary when their offspring are young. They form aggregations within breeding lagoons when young are 2—4 months old. In these groups, a mother—offspring pair will cavort with other mother—offspring pairs, mixing and milling among them, perhaps socializing with each other. Females with young migrate alone rather than in groups, perhaps to minimize detection by predators.","CITES Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population in the western North Pacific Ocean is classified as Critically Endangered. The eastern population of the Gray Whale ranges from the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea feeding grounds south along the western coast of North America to their winter aggregation and breeding areas along the Pacific coast of Baja California, the Gulf of California, and parts of the mainland coast of Mexico, numbering ¢.21,000 individuals in 2009. The western population is only ¢.120-130 individuals and feeds along the northern shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, off Sakhalin Island, and the eastern coast of Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia; their breeding areas are not certain but are believed to be off south-eastern China. Recent genetic and photographic identification studies indicate that the western and eastern populations of Gray Whales share a summer feeding ground in the western Bering Sea along the Kamchatka coast, and that some western Gray Whales migrate eastward across the Bering Sea and North Pacific in fall to join the southward migration of eastern Gray Whales and overwinter in the coastal breeding lagoons of Baja California. It is not known to what extent, if any, these two populations interbreed, and this is an active area of research. Hunting throughout their distribution reduced numbers of Gray Whales to critically low levels by the 1930s, and it received international protection from commercial whaling under the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Two US statutes, the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act and the 1973 Endangered Species Act, provide protection within US waters. In 1994, the US Department of the Interior removed the eastern North Pacific population from the Endangered Species Act’s List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. In 1972, Mexico protected Laguna Ojo de Liebre (Scammon’s Lagoon), and in 1979, Laguna San Ignacio became a Whale Refuge and Maritime Attraction Zone. In 1980, Mexico extended reserve status to Laguna Manuela and Laguna Guerrero Negro. All of these lagoons lie within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, created in 1988. In 1993, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization designated Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio lagoons as World Heritage Sites, and they are also Ramsar-protected wetlands under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance. In 2002, all Mexican territorial seas and Economic Exclusion Zones were declared a refuge to protect large whales. Gray Whales also receive varying degrees of protection in territorial waters of Canada, Russia, Japan, Korea, and China. Threats that persist throughout the distribution of the Gray Whale include entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with ships, habitat loss from oil and gas exploration, and general disturbance from coastal development.","Alter et al. (2007) | Andrews (1914) | Barnes & McLeod (1984) | Bisconti (2008, 2010) | Bisconti & Varola (2006) | Brownell et al. (2007) | Cooke et al. (2007) | Dahlheim et al. (1984) | Darling et al. (1998) | Deméré etal. (2005) | Elwen & Gridley (2013) | Henderson (1972, 1984) | Heyning & Mead (1997) | Highsmith et al. (2006) | Ichishima et al. (2006) | Jones & Swartz (1984, 2009) | Jones et al. (1984) | Laake et al. (2009) | Mate etal. (2003) | Mead & Mitchell (1984) | Moore (2008) | Moore et al. (2007) | Nerini (1984) | Norris et al. (1977) | Omura (1984) | Reilly (1984) | Rice & Wolman (1971) | Rice et al. (1984) | Rychel et al. (2004) | Scammon (1874) | Scheinin et al. (2011) | Steeman (2007) | Swartz (1986) | Swartz et al. (2006) | Tomilin (1957) | Urban et al. (2003) | Weller et al. (2012) | Werth (2007) | Wisdom (2000)",https://zenodo.org/record/6599171/files/figure.png,"Gray WhaleEschrichtius robustusFrench:Baleine grise/ German:Grauwal/ Spanish:Ballena grisOther common names:California Gray Whale, Devilfish, Hard-head, Mussel Digger, Rip Sack, Scrag WhaleTaxonomy.Balaenoptera robusta Lilljeborg, 1861, “pa Grason i Roslagan,” Graso Island, Uppland, Sweden.This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Pacific, from the Arctic Ocean and Bering8 Sea to Baja Y California, the Gulf of California, and portions of the mainland coast of Mexico in the E, and to the coasts of Russia, Japan, Korea, and SE China in the W. Extinct in the N Atlantic Ocean.Descriptive notes.Total length 1300-1420 cm; weight 14,000-35,000 kg. There are no morphological differences among individuals of the eastern and western populations of Gray Whales. The Gray Whale is a medium-sized baleen or “mysticete” whale that can reach a maximum length of 1530 cm. Females are slightly larger than males at all ages. Distance from genitalslit to anus is wider in males; there are no othersignificant differences in external appearance between sexes. Body color ranges from mottled pale gray to dark gray with whitish to cream-colored blotches. White scars accumulate over time and add to distinctive individual color patterns. Gray Whales are heavily infested with species-specific barnacles (Cryptolepas rachianecti), and three species of cyamids or “whale lice” (Cyamus scammoni, C. ceti, and C. kessleri). Neonates are 450-500 cm long and can weigh 800 kg or more. Head is moderately arched and triangular when viewed from above and averages 20% of total length. Double nares or “blowholes,” characteristic of mysticete whales, are located on top of head just above and anterior to neck. The Gray Whale’s “blow,” or exhalation, is vertical and heart-shaped to columnar in form. Throat possesses 2-7 pleats that allow expansion of mouth cavity during feeding. Gray Whale baleen is pale yellow with ¢.130-180 individual plates, 5-40 cm long, on each side of upperjaw. Back is smooth from base of head to anterior section oftail, where instead of a dorsal fin, an elongated hump followed by a series of bumps or “knuckles” runs along dorsal edge oftailstock. Anterior flippers are paddleshaped and pointed at their tips. Flukes are butterflyshaped with pointed tips and average 300-360 cm from tip to tip. Gray Whales possess a unique “tailstock cyst” of unknown function located on the anterior ventral surface of the caudal peduncle.Habitat.Primarily relatively shallow waters along edges of continental shelves from subtropical to polar latitudes and only occasionally open oceanic or pelagic habitats. Gray Whales frequent continental shelf waters along both sides of the North Pacific Ocean, including East China Sea, Yellow Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea, and Chukchi, Beaufort, and East Siberian seas in the Arctic Ocean. Gray Whales are highly migratory. When migrating, they may cross deep ocean and follow undersea mountain ranges and escarpments. In summer, they feed on the bottom of shallow continental shelves in high latitudes. In fall and spring, the western population of Gray Whalesis believed to migrate along the Pacific coast of the Far East from Russia to China. The larger eastern population migrates along the edge of the continental shelf of the Pacific coast of North America from Alaska to Mexico. In winter, Gray Whales congregate in coastal bays and lagoons that afford them protection from predation and warmer water for rearing young and mating. Their habit of frequenting relatively shallow continental shelf waters and coastal areas for feeding, migrating, and breeding is unique among mysticete whales. While capable of navigating deep ocean areas, Gray Whales migrate to and from their summer feeding and winter breeding areas along distinct corridors that follow within a few kilometers of the North American coast (for the eastern Gray Whale) and the eastern Asian coast (for some of the western Gray Whales). They disperse widely across the Arctic and polar seas during summer feeding, and they aggregate in shallow coastal areas, embayments and lagoons in subtropical latitudes for breeding and to give birth.Food and Feeding.Primary summer feeding grounds of Gray Whales include the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, East Siberian Sea, and Sea of Okhotsk, and they also exploit prey resources where they are found throughout their migratory distribution. They forage for patchy concentrations of prey found on relatively shallow (50 m or less) continental shelf areas that correspond with areas of high primary productivity supporting extensive benthic invertebrate communities. Gray Whales use suction feeding to exploit prey from the sea floor, but they can also feed on swimming prey by gulping and skimming prey from near the sea floor and ocean surface. Principal prey includes infaunal, tube-dwelling ampeliscid amphipods, polychaete worms, bivalves, swarming cumaceans, mysids, shrimps, krill, mobile amphipods, and shoals of clupeoid fish such as sardines and anchovies. An adult Gray Whale may consume ¢.220,800 kg of food at a rate of ¢.1200 kg/day for c.180 feeding days. Gray Whales do not feed extensively, or at all, during fall and spring migrations or while in their winter breeding areas. Fasting whales may lose up to 30% of their body fat during winter. This is especially critical for lactating females that are not feeding while nursing and caring for their offspring. Water is obtained from their food and metabolically from body fat. Warming of the Arctic Ocean due to global climate change and subsequent reduction in permanent sea ice has accelerated in recent decades and has affected distributions and availabilities of traditional prey communities. Some historical feeding areas of Gray Whales have declined in size, but it is possible that new prey communities will become established in other areas where oceanic and ice conditions are favorable. Gray Whales are responding by foraging over broader areas and staying longer in their summer feeding areas to obtain sufficient food and energy stores for winter migration and breeding. Flexibility in feeding modes and prey selection of the Gray Whale has allowed it to survive over many Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods in the geologic past. Its abilities to use alternative prey and feeding areas are advantages for dealing with climate-driven oceanographic changes. Although switching prey has the advantage of providing additional feeding options, it may also create competition with other marine species that exploit the same resources.Breeding.Male and female Gray Whales reached sexual maturity at 6-12 years of age. Mating and birthing are strongly seasonal and synchronized with the migratory cycle. Mating occurs during the middle of the fall southward migration and continues in January-February on the winter breeding range. Gray Whales are thought to have a “promiscuous” mating system in which females and males copulate with multiple partners. Individuals may mate in pairs and in groups of up to 20 or more whales. Mating groups are physically active and fluid, with individuals joining and leaving. Sometimes there are high-speed chases interrupted by mating bouts that last from a few minutes to hours. Males may attempt to mate with females that have newborn young, but females with young usually reject breeding males. Little overt competition has been observed among males, and multiple inseminations likely occur. Thus,it is thought that sperm competition operates in the Gray Whale instead of physical aggression to increase chances of an individual male’s fathering a young. Females invest heavily in rearing a limited number of offspring during their lifetimes, whereas males maximize their reproductive success by mating with as many females as possible. Gestation is 11-13 months, with females normally bearing one offspring at intervals of two years, but longer intervals may occur. Births occur from late December to early March, with the median in late January, when near-term females are in or near breeding grounds or migrating southward. Young are weaned and separate from their mothers at c.7-9 months of age during spring migration or on summer feeding grounds. Gray Whales are physically mature at c.40 years. The longevity record is one female killed in the 1960s who had lived as long as 80 years.Activity patterns.Gray Whales migrate continuously day and night at 6-7 km/h, pausing only to catnap, forage, or mate. On average, swimming Gray Whales will surface every b—7 minutes between long dives and take 3-5 breaths at 15-30second intervals before submerging to resume swimming. Before beginning a long dive and after a sequence of breaths, tail flukes are frequently raised above the water’s surface. Aerial behaviors include “breaching” (jumping out of the water), “spy hopping” (raising head vertically out of the water), “tail stands” (holding flukes and tailstock vertically above water’s surface), and “lobtailing” (slapping water’s surface with flukes). Gray Whales forage continuously on their Arctic feeding grounds during long periods of daylight characteristic of these high-latitude areas in summer. During the winter breeding season, courting Gray Whales are continuously active, rarely resting at the water’s surface. In contrast, females that are nursing newborns move about breeding lagoons with their offspring and frequently rest or “sleep” at the surface while their offspring continue to swim around them and nurse. Young appear to be active at all times, never resting or sleeping.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Gray Whales in the eastern North Pacific Ocean are latitudinal migrants, engaging in an annual polar-to-subtropical migration in fall and a spring return migration to polar seas. Their round trip of 15,000-20,000 km spans 55° of latitude, and it is the longest migration of any mysticete. They exit Arctic and Bering seas from mid-Novemberto late December, following the North American coast southward to coastal Mexico and arriving there in January-February. Southward and northward migrants overlap in midwinter along the southern part of their winter range, which spans coastal waters from southern California to Mexico. Pregnant females and females with new offspring arrive in the Mexican portion of the winter range from late December to earlyJanuary, with the bulk of the population arriving by mid-February to early March. The principal winter gathering areas include Laguna Ojo de Liebre (also known as Scammon’s Lagoon), Bahia de Sebastian Vizcaino, Laguna San Ignacio, Bahia de Ballenas, and Bahia Magdalena and adjacent waters. Newly pregnant females lead the spring northward migration of eastern Gray Whales, followed by adult females and males, and then juveniles. Mothers with young are the last to leave the breeding range; they remain the longest to allow young to grow and strengthen before migrating. The western and eastern populations of Gray Whales were thought to be separate and distinct groups, but recent research indicates that they share feeding grounds along the eastern coast of Kamchatka and some western Gray Whales migrate across the Bering Sea and North Pacific Ocean and join the larger eastern population’s migration along the west coast of North America. Gray Whales from the western population have also been photographed in breeding lagoons of the eastern population. Sharing migration routes and winter breeding areas suggests that interbreeding of these two populations occurs. Incidental catches and strandings of Gray Whales offJapan support the contention that some western Gray Whales continue to migrate along the Asian coast and winter off the China coast. The fossil record suggests that eschrichtiids evolved in the Mediterranean or North Atlantic Ocean during the Miocene or earliest Pliocene, and dispersed westward into the Pacific through the then-open Central American Seaway, later dispersing back into the North Atlantic during the Pleistocene, as evidenced by subfossil remains found along the North Atlantic coasts of North America. Support for this hypothesis occurred in May 2010, when a single Gray Whale was observed off the Mediterranean coasts of Israel and Spain, and again in May 2013 when another single Gray Whale was sighted off the Namibia coast. Apparently they had migrated from the North Pacific into the Arctic Ocean, followed the northern Eurasian coast, continued along the European coast and on to the Mediterranean and the Namibia coast. Appearance of Gray Whales in the Atlantic demonstrates that such exchanges between oceans are possible during periods of interglacial minimum ice conditions. Shrinking of Arctic sea ice due to climate change suggests that Gray Whales could recolonize the North Atlantic as ice and temperature barriers to mixing between the northern North Atlantic and the North Pacific biomes are reduced. Gray Whales are not known to be social, but they do form loose aggregations on feeding grounds and during migrations. There is no evidence of social bonding other than during copulation and between mother—offspring pairs. Gray Whales disperse widely across their principal feeding areas in the Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, and Arctic Ocean to forage for prey. Breeding males do not defend territories, show aggression toward conspecifics, or defend female “harems.” Male Gray Whales provide no parental care or assistance with rearing young. Females remain solitary when their offspring are young. They form aggregations within breeding lagoons when young are 2—4 months old. In these groups, a mother—offspring pair will cavort with other mother—offspring pairs, mixing and milling among them, perhaps socializing with each other. Females with young migrate alone rather than in groups, perhaps to minimize detection by predators.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population in the western North Pacific Ocean is classified as Critically Endangered. The eastern population of the Gray Whale ranges from the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea feeding grounds south along the western coast of North America to their winter aggregation and breeding areas along the Pacific coast of Baja California, the Gulf of California, and parts of the mainland coast of Mexico, numbering ¢.21,000 individuals in 2009. The western population is only ¢.120-130 individuals and feeds along the northern shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, off Sakhalin Island, and the eastern coast of Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia; their breeding areas are not certain but are believed to be off south-eastern China. Recent genetic and photographic identification studies indicate that the western and eastern populations of Gray Whales share a summer feeding ground in the western Bering Sea along the Kamchatka coast, and that some western Gray Whales migrate eastward across the Bering Sea and North Pacific in fall to join the southward migration of eastern Gray Whales and overwinter in the coastal breeding lagoons of Baja California. It is not known to what extent, if any, these two populations interbreed, and this is an active area of research. Hunting throughout their distribution reduced numbers of Gray Whales to critically low levels by the 1930s, and it received international protection from commercial whaling under the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Two US statutes, the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act and the 1973 Endangered Species Act, provide protection within US waters. In 1994, the US Department of the Interior removed the eastern North Pacific population from the Endangered Species Act’s List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. In 1972, Mexico protected Laguna Ojo de Liebre (Scammon’s Lagoon), and in 1979, Laguna San Ignacio became a Whale Refuge and Maritime Attraction Zone. In 1980, Mexico extended reserve status to Laguna Manuela and Laguna Guerrero Negro. All of these lagoons lie within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, created in 1988. In 1993, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization designated Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio lagoons as World Heritage Sites, and they are also Ramsar-protected wetlands under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance. In 2002, all Mexican territorial seas and Economic Exclusion Zones were declared a refuge to protect large whales. Gray Whales also receive varying degrees of protection in territorial waters of Canada, Russia, Japan, Korea, and China. Threats that persist throughout the distribution of the Gray Whale include entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with ships, habitat loss from oil and gas exploration, and general disturbance from coastal development.Bibliography.Alter et al. (2007), Andrews (1914), Barnes & McLeod (1984), Bisconti (2008, 2010), Bisconti & Varola (2006), Brownell et al. (2007), Cooke et al. (2007), Dahlheim et al. (1984), Darling et al. (1998), Deméré etal. (2005), Elwen & Gridley (2013), Henderson (1972, 1984), Heyning & Mead (1997), Highsmith et al. (2006), Ichishima et al. (2006), Jones & Swartz (1984, 2009), Jones et al. (1984), Laake et al. (2009), Mate etal. (2003), Mead & Mitchell (1984), Moore (2008), Moore et al. (2007), Nerini (1984), Norris et al. (1977), Omura (1984), Reilly (1984), Rice & Wolman (1971), Rice et al. (1984), Rychel et al. (2004), Scammon (1874), Scheinin et al. (2011), Steeman (2007), Swartz (1986), Swartz et al. (2006), Tomilin (1957), Urban et al. (2003), Weller et al. (2012), Werth (2007), Wisdom (2000)." 03D587FDFFC58C13FE05FDEA1084FAF7,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-96553-93-4,hbmw_4_Eschrichtiidae_0222.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffecff85ffc58c13ffe4fff31769ffed,292,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587FDFFC58C13FE05FDEA1084FAF7.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family ESCHRICHTIIDAE(GRAY WHALE)• Medium-sized baleen whale with prominent external parasites (barnacles and whale lice), no dorsal fin but with distinct knobs on dorsal ridge and anteriortailstock; blow is low and heart-shaped.• 1300-1500 cm.• North Pacific, Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Chukchi Sea, and Arctc Ocean.• (Coastal continental shelf waters, and mid-latitude temperate and subtropical coastal bays, lagoons, and coastal areas to breed.•] genus, 1 species, 1 taxon.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600." 03DABE4AFFE0FFA056EA45CEF873CD9F,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b,404,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE0FFA056EA45CEF873CD9F.xml,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Family NOCTILIONIDAE(BULLDOG BATS)• Medium to large bats with very short fur; large, flappy cheek pouches and pointy, elongated ears; dull grayto bright orange pelage, with adult males tending to be brighter than females; very broad uropatagium; and medium to very large hindclaws.• 813 cm.• Neotropical and Nearctic (marginally) Regions.• Forests and savannas as long as there are some trees for roosting and water bodies for foraging.•] genus, 2 species, 7 taxa.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600." -03DABE4AFFE2FFA357ED4EBEFEECC37C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b,410,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE2FFA357ED4EBEFEECC37C.xml,Noctilio leporinus,Noctilio,leporinus,,,Grand Noctilion @fr | Grofes Hasenmaul @de | Noctilio grande @es | Fisherman Bat @en,"of N. leporinushas been stable for a long time, and in 1973, it was clarified that its taxonomy is quite simple. Morerecent work based on DNA sequencing of mitochondrial (control region) and nuclear (RAG2) genetic material yielded a relatively homogeneous phylogenetic landscape with low genetic diversity that seemedto indicate that the northern subspecies was valid. In South America, N. leporinusmight be represented by only one other subspecies, but additional research is needed. Three subspecies recognized.","N.l.leporinusLinnaeus,1758—theGuianas,AmazonBasin,andmostofBrazil.N.l.mastivusVahl,1797—W&SMexico,CentralAmerica,WestIndies,N,W&EColombia,Venezuela,WEcuador,andextremeNWPeru.N. l. rufescens Olfers, 1818— E Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, and S Brazil.","Head—body 82-100 mm, tail 23-28 mm, ear 28-30 mm, hindfoot 25-34 mm, forearm 81-87 mm; weight 50-90 g. The Greater Bulldog Batis relatively large compared with other bats that coexist with it. Furis extremelyshort, almost velvety, andstiff. Colorvaries from light brown usually in females to rich reddish brown or even bright yellow in males. Thereis a pale, almost white thin line along dorsum from nape to rump. Venteris paler. Hindclaws are extremely elongated, sharp, recurved, and used to grabfish when feet are dipped into water. Interfemoral membraneis very wide androbust. Faceis verydistinctive, with naked cheeks and snout andslit upper lip. Ears are separate, narrow, and slightly elongated.","Dry and humid tropical forests, small coastal lagoons, mangroves, and other tropical vegetation types, with large trees and standing or slow-flowing waterin wide lakes, slow-flowing rivers, or estuaries from sea level to elevations of ¢. 500 m. The Greater Bulldog Bat roosts in hollowtrees, although some have been reportedin caves and rock crevices and occasionally human structures such as bridges.","Greater Bulldog Bats are adaptedto feed on fish that they capture directly from the watersurface. Fresh andsaltwaterfish dominate diets, but insects are also eaten, sometimes copiously. In adequate conditions, it is quite a spectacle to watch small groups of Greater Bulldog Bats raking the water surface with their claws over and over. One study showed that as much as 80% of the diet can be insects. Other prey included shrimp, crabs, and scorpions. Greater Bulldog Bats have large cheek pouches that they use to store partially chewed prey; they forage until cheek pouches are full and then finely chew and swallow prey items. When foraging over water, they use three forms offishing: high search flight, low search flight, and random rake. In high search flight, they emit long (13-3-17 milliseconds) pulses and fly 20-50 cm above the water surface, point-dipping their hindclaws when a food item is detected. In low search flight, they emit shorter pulses (c.5:6 milliseconds) and fly only 2-4 cm above the water and also point-dip their hindclaws when prey is detected. During random rake, they echolocate as during high search flight but dip their hindclaws in the water for up to 10 m. Random rake is mostly used in the presence of copious jumping fish, and they can catch a fish every 50-200 passes.","Female Greater Bulldog Bats have a single embryo per pregnancy. One to two seasonal peaks in births occur, depending on the area. Often the first birth peak coincides with the onset of the rainy season, varying geographically from April to June, and the second peak, usually smaller than the first, occurs toward the end of the rainy season. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females and males with scrotal testes have been reported in every month of the year, but individual females have a single pregnancy per year. Although data are limited, gestation seemsto last c.5 months. Testes of males grow and produce sperm seasonally. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.","Greater Bulldog Bats are nocturnal, generally leaving the roost within two hours after sunset. In Puerto Ricobetween November and January, they left the roost within an hour after sunset, but in August, they left an hour later with no apparent reason for the change. Most activity occurs before midnight. On cold nights with temperatures below 12°C, they did not leave the roost. Groups of bats seem to leave the roost together but do not return together. When female members of the same group left the roost, they lingered in its vicinity until other members of the group exited the roost, and then they all flew together toward foraging areas, within 5 mof each other.","Despite their large size and relatively open foraging habitat, few studies have been conducted to follow movements of Greater Bulldog Bats. They have relatively small home ranges, and flying distances to forage are less than 1 kmfrom the roost. Foraging females belonging to the same group had overlapping home ranges, with radio-locations indistinguishable from one another, and females returned to the same foraging area night after night, even in different years. Males forage separately from females. A study in Puerto Ricoshowed that colonies are usually formed by groups of 3-10 females and a single male, plus additional groups of 1-3 bachelor males, but this structure can be repeated more than once in a roost. Social groups are very cohesive, and when a group of females moves to a different roost, they do it together and also with the resident male of the harem. These groups remain as stable units for at least two years. Females and males within a group mark themselves periodically with secretions from subaxial glands. Females rub their heads under wings of other females; males mark themselves the same way. Females also rub their chins or heads against heads of other females within the same social group inside a roost but never against members of other groups. Some females occasionally move temporally to join other social groups in the roost, and during those occasions, all other females smell a visitor’s wings and head for about a minute; the visitor eventually returns to the original group.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country across its distribution lists the Greater Bulldog Bat as threatened or endangered. If habitat is in good condition, their populations are stable. It is likely, however, that removal or disturbance of roosts, such as large hollow trees or caves, can have negative effects on Greater Bulldog Bats.","Bordignon (2006) | Bordignon & Franca(2016) | Bork (2006) | Brooke (1994, 1997) | Davis (1973) | Hood & Jones (1984) | Mares et al. (1981) | Pavan et al. (2013) | Schnitzler et al. (1994) | Thomas (1911a) | Zortéa & Aguiar (2001)",,"1.Greater Bulldog BatNoctilio leporinusFrench:Grand Noctilion/ German:Grofes Hasenmaul/ Spanish:Noctilio grandeOther common names:Fisherman BatTaxonomy.Vespertilio leporinus Linnaeus, 1758, “America.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “ Surinam[= Suriname].”Taxonomy of N. leporinushas been stable for a long time, and in 1973, it was clarified that its taxonomy is quite simple. Morerecent work based on DNA sequencing of mitochondrial (control region) and nuclear (RAG2) genetic material yielded a relatively homogeneous phylogenetic landscape with low genetic diversity that seemedto indicate that the northern subspecies was valid. In South America, N. leporinusmight be represented by only one other subspecies, but additional research is needed. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.l.leporinusLinnaeus,1758—theGuianas,AmazonBasin,andmostofBrazil.N.l.mastivusVahl,1797—W&SMexico,CentralAmerica,WestIndies,N,W&EColombia,Venezuela,WEcuador,andextremeNWPeru.N. l. rufescens Olfers, 1818— E Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, and S Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head—body 82-100 mm, tail 23-28 mm, ear 28-30 mm, hindfoot 25-34 mm, forearm 81-87 mm; weight 50-90 g. The Greater Bulldog Batis relatively large compared with other bats that coexist with it. Furis extremelyshort, almost velvety, andstiff. Colorvaries from light brown usually in females to rich reddish brown or even bright yellow in males. Thereis a pale, almost white thin line along dorsum from nape to rump. Venteris paler. Hindclaws are extremely elongated, sharp, recurved, and used to grabfish when feet are dipped into water. Interfemoral membraneis very wide androbust. Faceis verydistinctive, with naked cheeks and snout andslit upper lip. Ears are separate, narrow, and slightly elongated.Habitat.Dry and humid tropical forests, small coastal lagoons, mangroves, and other tropical vegetation types, with large trees and standing or slow-flowing waterin wide lakes, slow-flowing rivers, or estuaries from sea level to elevations of ¢. 500 m. The Greater Bulldog Bat roosts in hollowtrees, although some have been reportedin caves and rock crevices and occasionally human structures such as bridges.Food and Feeding.Greater Bulldog Bats are adaptedto feed on fish that they capture directly from the watersurface. Fresh andsaltwaterfish dominate diets, but insects are also eaten, sometimes copiously. In adequate conditions, it is quite a spectacle to watch small groups of Greater Bulldog Bats raking the water surface with their claws over and over. One study showed that as much as 80% of the diet can be insects. Other prey included shrimp, crabs, and scorpions. Greater Bulldog Bats have large cheek pouches that they use to store partially chewed prey; they forage until cheek pouches are full and then finely chew and swallow prey items. When foraging over water, they use three forms offishing: high search flight, low search flight, and random rake. In high search flight, they emit long (13-3-17 milliseconds) pulses and fly 20-50 cm above the water surface, point-dipping their hindclaws when a food item is detected. In low search flight, they emit shorter pulses (c.5:6 milliseconds) and fly only 2-4 cm above the water and also point-dip their hindclaws when prey is detected. During random rake, they echolocate as during high search flight but dip their hindclaws in the water for up to 10 m. Random rake is mostly used in the presence of copious jumping fish, and they can catch a fish every 50-200 passes.Breeding.Female Greater Bulldog Bats have a single embryo per pregnancy. One to two seasonal peaks in births occur, depending on the area. Often the first birth peak coincides with the onset of the rainy season, varying geographically from April to June, and the second peak, usually smaller than the first, occurs toward the end of the rainy season. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females and males with scrotal testes have been reported in every month of the year, but individual females have a single pregnancy per year. Although data are limited, gestation seemsto last c.5 months. Testes of males grow and produce sperm seasonally. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.Activity patterns.Greater Bulldog Bats are nocturnal, generally leaving the roost within two hours after sunset. In Puerto Ricobetween November and January, they left the roost within an hour after sunset, but in August, they left an hour later with no apparent reason for the change. Most activity occurs before midnight. On cold nights with temperatures below 12°C, they did not leave the roost. Groups of bats seem to leave the roost together but do not return together. When female members of the same group left the roost, they lingered in its vicinity until other members of the group exited the roost, and then they all flew together toward foraging areas, within 5 mof each other.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Despite their large size and relatively open foraging habitat, few studies have been conducted to follow movements of Greater Bulldog Bats. They have relatively small home ranges, and flying distances to forage are less than 1 kmfrom the roost. Foraging females belonging to the same group had overlapping home ranges, with radio-locations indistinguishable from one another, and females returned to the same foraging area night after night, even in different years. Males forage separately from females. A study in Puerto Ricoshowed that colonies are usually formed by groups of 3-10 females and a single male, plus additional groups of 1-3 bachelor males, but this structure can be repeated more than once in a roost. Social groups are very cohesive, and when a group of females moves to a different roost, they do it together and also with the resident male of the harem. These groups remain as stable units for at least two years. Females and males within a group mark themselves periodically with secretions from subaxial glands. Females rub their heads under wings of other females; males mark themselves the same way. Females also rub their chins or heads against heads of other females within the same social group inside a roost but never against members of other groups. Some females occasionally move temporally to join other social groups in the roost, and during those occasions, all other females smell a visitor’s wings and head for about a minute; the visitor eventually returns to the original group.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country across its distribution lists the Greater Bulldog Bat as threatened or endangered. If habitat is in good condition, their populations are stable. It is likely, however, that removal or disturbance of roosts, such as large hollow trees or caves, can have negative effects on Greater Bulldog Bats.Bibliography.Bordignon (2006), Bordignon & Franca(2016), Bork (2006), Brooke (1994, 1997), Davis (1973), Hood & Jones (1984), Mares et al. (1981), Pavan et al. (2013), Schnitzler et al. (1994), Thomas (1911a), Zortéa & Aguiar (2001)." -03DABE4AFFE3FFA357DE4E6AF95BC2A5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b,411,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE3FFA357DE4E6AF95BC2A5.xml,Noctilio albiventris,Noctilio,albiventris,Desmarest,1818,Petit Noctilion @fr | Kleines Hasenmaul @de | Noctilio pequeno @es,"Noctilio albiventris Desmarest, 1818, “I’Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Rio Sao Francisco, Bahia, Brazil.Noctilio albiventrisis paraphyletic with respect to N. leporinus. This has been proposed and confirmed using several different molecular markers, including mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Recent studies suggest that N. albiventrisis a complex of at least three and maybe four cryptic species yet to be determined but roughly coinciding with the current subspecific arrangement. Four subspecies recognized.","N.a.albiventrisDesmarest,1818—lowerAmazonBasinofVenezuela,theGuianas,andC&FEBrazil.N.a.affinisd’Orbigny,1836—SEColombia,EEcuador,upperAmazonBasinofVenezuela,EPeru,WBrazil,andBolivia.N.a.cabreraiW.B.Davis,1976—SBrazil,Paraguay,andNEArgentina.N. a. minor Osgood, 1910—- extreme S Mexico(Chiapas), Central America, N Colombia, and N Venezuela.","Head-body 65-68 mm, tail 13-16 mm, ear 22-24 mm, hindfoot 16-19 mm, forearm 54-70 mm; weight 22-42 g. The Lesser Bulldog Bat is a smaller version of the Greater Bulldog Bat (N. leporinus), with some minordifferences. Hindclaws of the Lesser Bulldog Bat are much shorter than those in the Greater Bulldog Bat and shorter than calcar. Size and relative length of hindclaws easily allow distinction between the two congeners. Fur is very short and pale brown to bright yellow. Head is almost hairless, with loose cheek skin and hare-like upper lip.","Primarily tropical rainforests but also other tropical vegetation types such as dry tropical forest and mangrove from sea level to elevations of ¢. 1100 m. Lesser Bulldog Bats usually roost in hollow trees but can also be found in buildings. They often share roosts with other species of bats such as mastiff bats (Molossus sp.). In the Beni Departmentof Bolivia, Lesser Bulldog Bats commute among forest islands across tropical grasslands and use hollow trees of at least eleven species; roosting trees have greater diameters than non-roosting trees.","Diet of the Lesser Bulldog Bat is strongly dominated by insects, primarily hemipterans, beetles, moths, homopterans, and dipterans. According to all published studies, Lesser Bulldog Bats feed copiously on insects, but other studies also show that they eatfruits of species of Moraceae(Ficus, Brosimum, and Morus) and Urticaceae(Cecropia) and occasionally fish. Pollen of various tree species has also been reported in stomach contents or fecal pellets. Given that they often fly in open areas, they are believed to be good seed dispersers. One study found many remains of dytiscid beetles, a primarily aquatic species, in the diet, and a pimelodid catfish swallowed a Lesser Bulldog Bat, both suggesting association with aquatic environments. Lesser Bulldog Bats have been observed scooping insect prey from the water surface. Observations in the wild show that they fly in open areas including along slow-flowing streams and rivers, lakes, and estuaries, briefly dipping or dragging their feet or interfemoral membrane in the water to scoop up insects. They spend an average of ¢.120 minutes outside of the roost, most of that time foraging.","Reproductive habits of the Lesser Bulldog Bat indicate a monoestrous cycle, with mating in November—-March and young born in April-May in Panama. In other regions, the cycle varies accordingly. Littersize is one, although one instance of twinning was documented. Reproductive accessory glands, including prostate, are very similar in the Lesser Bulldog Bat and other bats in the families Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae. Captive juvenile Lesser Bulldog Bats did not fly until 5-6 weeks old and nursed until ¢.3 months old. Lactating females suckled only their young, which they appeared to recognize from acoustic cues emitted by their young. Mother and young call in coordinated duets in the roost and while flying and foraging together. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.","Lesser Bulldog Bats leave their roost quite early, right after sunset, in contrast with their larger congener, the Greater Bulldog Bat that leaves the roost up to two hours after sunset. This difference has been suggested to be a mechanism to avoid competition between congeners. Lesser Bulldog Bats stay active usually between sunset and 1-2 hours after sunset and then return to their roost, with a second peak of activity around midnight.","Some studies indicate that Lesser Bulldog Bats might be philopatric and very loyal to a particular roost. Social organization seems to be harem-based, with up to ten females per male and several harems inhabiting any particular roost. There is an instance of predation by the great rufous woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes major)—a bird that is known to capture prey and nest inside hollow trees.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country considers the Lesser Bulldog Bat at any level of risk of extinction. In Bolivia, some populations might be prone to extirpation because misdirected control of Common Vampire Bat (Desmodusrotundus) can destroy hollow tree roosts.","Aguirre, Lens & Matthysen (2003) | Aranguren et al. (2011) | Beguelini et al. (2016) | Botero-Botero etal. (2015) | Brown et al. (1983) | Cabrera (1958) | Camargo & Laps (2016) | Davis (1976b) | Dechmann et al. (2013) | Fenton, Audet et al. (1993) | Forman et al. (1989) | Gongalves et al. (2007) | Hood & Pitocchelli (1983) | Howell & Burch (1974) | Kalko et al. (1998)",,"2.Lesser Bulldog BatNoctilio albiventrisFrench:Petit Noctilion/ German:Kleines Hasenmaul/ Spanish:Noctilio pequenoTaxonomy.Noctilio albiventris Desmarest, 1818, “I’Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Rio Sao Francisco, Bahia, Brazil.Noctilio albiventrisis paraphyletic with respect to N. leporinus. This has been proposed and confirmed using several different molecular markers, including mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Recent studies suggest that N. albiventrisis a complex of at least three and maybe four cryptic species yet to be determined but roughly coinciding with the current subspecific arrangement. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.a.albiventrisDesmarest,1818—lowerAmazonBasinofVenezuela,theGuianas,andC&FEBrazil.N.a.affinisd’Orbigny,1836—SEColombia,EEcuador,upperAmazonBasinofVenezuela,EPeru,WBrazil,andBolivia.N.a.cabreraiW.B.Davis,1976—SBrazil,Paraguay,andNEArgentina.N. a. minor Osgood, 1910—- extreme S Mexico(Chiapas), Central America, N Colombia, and N Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-68 mm, tail 13-16 mm, ear 22-24 mm, hindfoot 16-19 mm, forearm 54-70 mm; weight 22-42 g. The Lesser Bulldog Bat is a smaller version of the Greater Bulldog Bat (N. leporinus), with some minordifferences. Hindclaws of the Lesser Bulldog Bat are much shorter than those in the Greater Bulldog Bat and shorter than calcar. Size and relative length of hindclaws easily allow distinction between the two congeners. Fur is very short and pale brown to bright yellow. Head is almost hairless, with loose cheek skin and hare-like upper lip.Habitat.Primarily tropical rainforests but also other tropical vegetation types such as dry tropical forest and mangrove from sea level to elevations of ¢. 1100 m. Lesser Bulldog Bats usually roost in hollow trees but can also be found in buildings. They often share roosts with other species of bats such as mastiff bats (Molossus sp.). In the Beni Departmentof Bolivia, Lesser Bulldog Bats commute among forest islands across tropical grasslands and use hollow trees of at least eleven species; roosting trees have greater diameters than non-roosting trees.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Lesser Bulldog Bat is strongly dominated by insects, primarily hemipterans, beetles, moths, homopterans, and dipterans. According to all published studies, Lesser Bulldog Bats feed copiously on insects, but other studies also show that they eatfruits of species of Moraceae(Ficus, Brosimum, and Morus) and Urticaceae(Cecropia) and occasionally fish. Pollen of various tree species has also been reported in stomach contents or fecal pellets. Given that they often fly in open areas, they are believed to be good seed dispersers. One study found many remains of dytiscid beetles, a primarily aquatic species, in the diet, and a pimelodid catfish swallowed a Lesser Bulldog Bat, both suggesting association with aquatic environments. Lesser Bulldog Bats have been observed scooping insect prey from the water surface. Observations in the wild show that they fly in open areas including along slow-flowing streams and rivers, lakes, and estuaries, briefly dipping or dragging their feet or interfemoral membrane in the water to scoop up insects. They spend an average of ¢.120 minutes outside of the roost, most of that time foraging.Breeding.Reproductive habits of the Lesser Bulldog Bat indicate a monoestrous cycle, with mating in November—-March and young born in April-May in Panama. In other regions, the cycle varies accordingly. Littersize is one, although one instance of twinning was documented. Reproductive accessory glands, including prostate, are very similar in the Lesser Bulldog Bat and other bats in the families Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae. Captive juvenile Lesser Bulldog Bats did not fly until 5-6 weeks old and nursed until ¢.3 months old. Lactating females suckled only their young, which they appeared to recognize from acoustic cues emitted by their young. Mother and young call in coordinated duets in the roost and while flying and foraging together. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.Activity patterns.Lesser Bulldog Bats leave their roost quite early, right after sunset, in contrast with their larger congener, the Greater Bulldog Bat that leaves the roost up to two hours after sunset. This difference has been suggested to be a mechanism to avoid competition between congeners. Lesser Bulldog Bats stay active usually between sunset and 1-2 hours after sunset and then return to their roost, with a second peak of activity around midnight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Some studies indicate that Lesser Bulldog Bats might be philopatric and very loyal to a particular roost. Social organization seems to be harem-based, with up to ten females per male and several harems inhabiting any particular roost. There is an instance of predation by the great rufous woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes major)—a bird that is known to capture prey and nest inside hollow trees.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country considers the Lesser Bulldog Bat at any level of risk of extinction. In Bolivia, some populations might be prone to extirpation because misdirected control of Common Vampire Bat (Desmodusrotundus) can destroy hollow tree roosts.Bibliography.Aguirre, Lens & Matthysen (2003), Aranguren et al. (2011), Beguelini et al. (2016), Botero-Botero etal. (2015), Brown et al. (1983), Cabrera (1958), Camargo & Laps (2016), Davis (1976b), Dechmann et al. (2013), Fenton, Audet et al. (1993), Forman et al. (1989), Gongalves et al. (2007), Hood & Pitocchelli (1983), Howell & Burch (1974), Kalko et al. (1998)." +03DABE4AFFE2FFA357ED4EBEFEECC37C,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b,410,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE2FFA357ED4EBEFEECC37C.xml,Noctilio leporinus,Noctilio,leporinus,,,Grand Noctilion @fr | Grofes Hasenmaul @de | Noctilio grande @es | Fisherman Bat @en,"of N. leporinushas been stable for a long time, and in 1973, it was clarified that its taxonomy is quite simple. Morerecent work based on DNA sequencing of mitochondrial (control region) and nuclear (RAG2) genetic material yielded a relatively homogeneous phylogenetic landscape with low genetic diversity that seemedto indicate that the northern subspecies was valid. In South America, N. leporinusmight be represented by only one other subspecies, but additional research is needed. Three subspecies recognized.","N.l.leporinusLinnaeus,1758—theGuianas,AmazonBasin,andmostofBrazil.N.l.mastivusVahl,1797—W&SMexico,CentralAmerica,WestIndies,N,W&EColombia,Venezuela,WEcuador,andextremeNWPeru.N. l. rufescens Olfers, 1818— E Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, and S Brazil.","Head—body 82-100 mm, tail 23-28 mm, ear 28-30 mm, hindfoot 25-34 mm, forearm 81-87 mm; weight 50-90 g. The Greater Bulldog Batis relatively large compared with other bats that coexist with it. Furis extremelyshort, almost velvety, andstiff. Colorvaries from light brown usually in females to rich reddish brown or even bright yellow in males. Thereis a pale, almost white thin line along dorsum from nape to rump. Venteris paler. Hindclaws are extremely elongated, sharp, recurved, and used to grabfish when feet are dipped into water. Interfemoral membraneis very wide androbust. Faceis verydistinctive, with naked cheeks and snout andslit upper lip. Ears are separate, narrow, and slightly elongated.","Dry and humid tropical forests, small coastal lagoons, mangroves, and other tropical vegetation types, with large trees and standing or slow-flowing waterin wide lakes, slow-flowing rivers, or estuaries from sea level to elevations of ¢. 500 m. The Greater Bulldog Bat roosts in hollowtrees, although some have been reportedin caves and rock crevices and occasionally human structures such as bridges.","Greater Bulldog Bats are adaptedto feed on fish that they capture directly from the watersurface. Fresh andsaltwaterfish dominate diets, but insects are also eaten, sometimes copiously. In adequate conditions, it is quite a spectacle to watch small groups of Greater Bulldog Bats raking the water surface with their claws over and over. One study showed that as much as 80% of the diet can be insects. Other prey included shrimp, crabs, and scorpions. Greater Bulldog Bats have large cheek pouches that they use to store partially chewed prey; they forage until cheek pouches are full and then finely chew and swallow prey items. When foraging over water, they use three forms offishing: high search flight, low search flight, and random rake. In high search flight, they emit long (13-3-17 milliseconds) pulses and fly 20-50 cm above the water surface, point-dipping their hindclaws when a food item is detected. In low search flight, they emit shorter pulses (c.5:6 milliseconds) and fly only 2-4 cm above the water and also point-dip their hindclaws when prey is detected. During random rake, they echolocate as during high search flight but dip their hindclaws in the water for up to 10 m. Random rake is mostly used in the presence of copious jumping fish, and they can catch a fish every 50-200 passes.","Female Greater Bulldog Bats have a single embryo per pregnancy. One to two seasonal peaks in births occur, depending on the area. Often the first birth peak coincides with the onset of the rainy season, varying geographically from April to June, and the second peak, usually smaller than the first, occurs toward the end of the rainy season. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females and males with scrotal testes have been reported in every month of the year, but individual females have a single pregnancy per year. Although data are limited, gestation seemsto last c.5 months. Testes of males grow and produce sperm seasonally. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.","Greater Bulldog Bats are nocturnal, generally leaving the roost within two hours after sunset. In Puerto Ricobetween November and January, they left the roost within an hour after sunset, but in August, they left an hour later with no apparent reason for the change. Most activity occurs before midnight. On cold nights with temperatures below 12°C, they did not leave the roost. Groups of bats seem to leave the roost together but do not return together. When female members of the same group left the roost, they lingered in its vicinity until other members of the group exited the roost, and then they all flew together toward foraging areas, within 5 mof each other.","Despite their large size and relatively open foraging habitat, few studies have been conducted to follow movements of Greater Bulldog Bats. They have relatively small home ranges, and flying distances to forage are less than 1 kmfrom the roost. Foraging females belonging to the same group had overlapping home ranges, with radio-locations indistinguishable from one another, and females returned to the same foraging area night after night, even in different years. Males forage separately from females. A study in Puerto Ricoshowed that colonies are usually formed by groups of 3-10 females and a single male, plus additional groups of 1-3 bachelor males, but this structure can be repeated more than once in a roost. Social groups are very cohesive, and when a group of females moves to a different roost, they do it together and also with the resident male of the harem. These groups remain as stable units for at least two years. Females and males within a group mark themselves periodically with secretions from subaxial glands. Females rub their heads under wings of other females; males mark themselves the same way. Females also rub their chins or heads against heads of other females within the same social group inside a roost but never against members of other groups. Some females occasionally move temporally to join other social groups in the roost, and during those occasions, all other females smell a visitor’s wings and head for about a minute; the visitor eventually returns to the original group.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country across its distribution lists the Greater Bulldog Bat as threatened or endangered. If habitat is in good condition, their populations are stable. It is likely, however, that removal or disturbance of roosts, such as large hollow trees or caves, can have negative effects on Greater Bulldog Bats.","Bordignon (2006) | Bordignon & Franca(2016) | Bork (2006) | Brooke (1994, 1997) | Davis (1973) | Hood & Jones (1984) | Mares et al. (1981) | Pavan et al. (2013) | Schnitzler et al. (1994) | Thomas (1911a) | Zortéa & Aguiar (2001)",https://zenodo.org/record/6606987/files/figure.png,"1.Greater Bulldog BatNoctilio leporinusFrench:Grand Noctilion/ German:Grofes Hasenmaul/ Spanish:Noctilio grandeOther common names:Fisherman BatTaxonomy.Vespertilio leporinus Linnaeus, 1758, “America.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “ Surinam[= Suriname].”Taxonomy of N. leporinushas been stable for a long time, and in 1973, it was clarified that its taxonomy is quite simple. Morerecent work based on DNA sequencing of mitochondrial (control region) and nuclear (RAG2) genetic material yielded a relatively homogeneous phylogenetic landscape with low genetic diversity that seemedto indicate that the northern subspecies was valid. In South America, N. leporinusmight be represented by only one other subspecies, but additional research is needed. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.l.leporinusLinnaeus,1758—theGuianas,AmazonBasin,andmostofBrazil.N.l.mastivusVahl,1797—W&SMexico,CentralAmerica,WestIndies,N,W&EColombia,Venezuela,WEcuador,andextremeNWPeru.N. l. rufescens Olfers, 1818— E Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, and S Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head—body 82-100 mm, tail 23-28 mm, ear 28-30 mm, hindfoot 25-34 mm, forearm 81-87 mm; weight 50-90 g. The Greater Bulldog Batis relatively large compared with other bats that coexist with it. Furis extremelyshort, almost velvety, andstiff. Colorvaries from light brown usually in females to rich reddish brown or even bright yellow in males. Thereis a pale, almost white thin line along dorsum from nape to rump. Venteris paler. Hindclaws are extremely elongated, sharp, recurved, and used to grabfish when feet are dipped into water. Interfemoral membraneis very wide androbust. Faceis verydistinctive, with naked cheeks and snout andslit upper lip. Ears are separate, narrow, and slightly elongated.Habitat.Dry and humid tropical forests, small coastal lagoons, mangroves, and other tropical vegetation types, with large trees and standing or slow-flowing waterin wide lakes, slow-flowing rivers, or estuaries from sea level to elevations of ¢. 500 m. The Greater Bulldog Bat roosts in hollowtrees, although some have been reportedin caves and rock crevices and occasionally human structures such as bridges.Food and Feeding.Greater Bulldog Bats are adaptedto feed on fish that they capture directly from the watersurface. Fresh andsaltwaterfish dominate diets, but insects are also eaten, sometimes copiously. In adequate conditions, it is quite a spectacle to watch small groups of Greater Bulldog Bats raking the water surface with their claws over and over. One study showed that as much as 80% of the diet can be insects. Other prey included shrimp, crabs, and scorpions. Greater Bulldog Bats have large cheek pouches that they use to store partially chewed prey; they forage until cheek pouches are full and then finely chew and swallow prey items. When foraging over water, they use three forms offishing: high search flight, low search flight, and random rake. In high search flight, they emit long (13-3-17 milliseconds) pulses and fly 20-50 cm above the water surface, point-dipping their hindclaws when a food item is detected. In low search flight, they emit shorter pulses (c.5:6 milliseconds) and fly only 2-4 cm above the water and also point-dip their hindclaws when prey is detected. During random rake, they echolocate as during high search flight but dip their hindclaws in the water for up to 10 m. Random rake is mostly used in the presence of copious jumping fish, and they can catch a fish every 50-200 passes.Breeding.Female Greater Bulldog Bats have a single embryo per pregnancy. One to two seasonal peaks in births occur, depending on the area. Often the first birth peak coincides with the onset of the rainy season, varying geographically from April to June, and the second peak, usually smaller than the first, occurs toward the end of the rainy season. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females and males with scrotal testes have been reported in every month of the year, but individual females have a single pregnancy per year. Although data are limited, gestation seemsto last c.5 months. Testes of males grow and produce sperm seasonally. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.Activity patterns.Greater Bulldog Bats are nocturnal, generally leaving the roost within two hours after sunset. In Puerto Ricobetween November and January, they left the roost within an hour after sunset, but in August, they left an hour later with no apparent reason for the change. Most activity occurs before midnight. On cold nights with temperatures below 12°C, they did not leave the roost. Groups of bats seem to leave the roost together but do not return together. When female members of the same group left the roost, they lingered in its vicinity until other members of the group exited the roost, and then they all flew together toward foraging areas, within 5 mof each other.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Despite their large size and relatively open foraging habitat, few studies have been conducted to follow movements of Greater Bulldog Bats. They have relatively small home ranges, and flying distances to forage are less than 1 kmfrom the roost. Foraging females belonging to the same group had overlapping home ranges, with radio-locations indistinguishable from one another, and females returned to the same foraging area night after night, even in different years. Males forage separately from females. A study in Puerto Ricoshowed that colonies are usually formed by groups of 3-10 females and a single male, plus additional groups of 1-3 bachelor males, but this structure can be repeated more than once in a roost. Social groups are very cohesive, and when a group of females moves to a different roost, they do it together and also with the resident male of the harem. These groups remain as stable units for at least two years. Females and males within a group mark themselves periodically with secretions from subaxial glands. Females rub their heads under wings of other females; males mark themselves the same way. Females also rub their chins or heads against heads of other females within the same social group inside a roost but never against members of other groups. Some females occasionally move temporally to join other social groups in the roost, and during those occasions, all other females smell a visitor’s wings and head for about a minute; the visitor eventually returns to the original group.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country across its distribution lists the Greater Bulldog Bat as threatened or endangered. If habitat is in good condition, their populations are stable. It is likely, however, that removal or disturbance of roosts, such as large hollow trees or caves, can have negative effects on Greater Bulldog Bats.Bibliography.Bordignon (2006), Bordignon & Franca(2016), Bork (2006), Brooke (1994, 1997), Davis (1973), Hood & Jones (1984), Mares et al. (1981), Pavan et al. (2013), Schnitzler et al. (1994), Thomas (1911a), Zortéa & Aguiar (2001)." +03DABE4AFFE3FFA357DE4E6AF95BC2A5,"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions",978-84-16728-19-0,hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf,hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b,411,zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE3FFA357DE4E6AF95BC2A5.xml,Noctilio albiventris,Noctilio,albiventris,Desmarest,1818,Petit Noctilion @fr | Kleines Hasenmaul @de | Noctilio pequeno @es,"Noctilio albiventris Desmarest, 1818, “I’Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Rio Sao Francisco, Bahia, Brazil.Noctilio albiventrisis paraphyletic with respect to N. leporinus. This has been proposed and confirmed using several different molecular markers, including mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Recent studies suggest that N. albiventrisis a complex of at least three and maybe four cryptic species yet to be determined but roughly coinciding with the current subspecific arrangement. Four subspecies recognized.","N.a.albiventrisDesmarest,1818—lowerAmazonBasinofVenezuela,theGuianas,andC&FEBrazil.N.a.affinisd’Orbigny,1836—SEColombia,EEcuador,upperAmazonBasinofVenezuela,EPeru,WBrazil,andBolivia.N.a.cabreraiW.B.Davis,1976—SBrazil,Paraguay,andNEArgentina.N. a. minor Osgood, 1910—- extreme S Mexico(Chiapas), Central America, N Colombia, and N Venezuela.","Head-body 65-68 mm, tail 13-16 mm, ear 22-24 mm, hindfoot 16-19 mm, forearm 54-70 mm; weight 22-42 g. The Lesser Bulldog Bat is a smaller version of the Greater Bulldog Bat (N. leporinus), with some minordifferences. Hindclaws of the Lesser Bulldog Bat are much shorter than those in the Greater Bulldog Bat and shorter than calcar. Size and relative length of hindclaws easily allow distinction between the two congeners. Fur is very short and pale brown to bright yellow. Head is almost hairless, with loose cheek skin and hare-like upper lip.","Primarily tropical rainforests but also other tropical vegetation types such as dry tropical forest and mangrove from sea level to elevations of ¢. 1100 m. Lesser Bulldog Bats usually roost in hollow trees but can also be found in buildings. They often share roosts with other species of bats such as mastiff bats (Molossus sp.). In the Beni Departmentof Bolivia, Lesser Bulldog Bats commute among forest islands across tropical grasslands and use hollow trees of at least eleven species; roosting trees have greater diameters than non-roosting trees.","Diet of the Lesser Bulldog Bat is strongly dominated by insects, primarily hemipterans, beetles, moths, homopterans, and dipterans. According to all published studies, Lesser Bulldog Bats feed copiously on insects, but other studies also show that they eatfruits of species of Moraceae(Ficus, Brosimum, and Morus) and Urticaceae(Cecropia) and occasionally fish. Pollen of various tree species has also been reported in stomach contents or fecal pellets. Given that they often fly in open areas, they are believed to be good seed dispersers. One study found many remains of dytiscid beetles, a primarily aquatic species, in the diet, and a pimelodid catfish swallowed a Lesser Bulldog Bat, both suggesting association with aquatic environments. Lesser Bulldog Bats have been observed scooping insect prey from the water surface. Observations in the wild show that they fly in open areas including along slow-flowing streams and rivers, lakes, and estuaries, briefly dipping or dragging their feet or interfemoral membrane in the water to scoop up insects. They spend an average of ¢.120 minutes outside of the roost, most of that time foraging.","Reproductive habits of the Lesser Bulldog Bat indicate a monoestrous cycle, with mating in November—-March and young born in April-May in Panama. In other regions, the cycle varies accordingly. Littersize is one, although one instance of twinning was documented. Reproductive accessory glands, including prostate, are very similar in the Lesser Bulldog Bat and other bats in the families Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae. Captive juvenile Lesser Bulldog Bats did not fly until 5-6 weeks old and nursed until ¢.3 months old. Lactating females suckled only their young, which they appeared to recognize from acoustic cues emitted by their young. Mother and young call in coordinated duets in the roost and while flying and foraging together. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.","Lesser Bulldog Bats leave their roost quite early, right after sunset, in contrast with their larger congener, the Greater Bulldog Bat that leaves the roost up to two hours after sunset. This difference has been suggested to be a mechanism to avoid competition between congeners. Lesser Bulldog Bats stay active usually between sunset and 1-2 hours after sunset and then return to their roost, with a second peak of activity around midnight.","Some studies indicate that Lesser Bulldog Bats might be philopatric and very loyal to a particular roost. Social organization seems to be harem-based, with up to ten females per male and several harems inhabiting any particular roost. There is an instance of predation by the great rufous woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes major)—a bird that is known to capture prey and nest inside hollow trees.","Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country considers the Lesser Bulldog Bat at any level of risk of extinction. In Bolivia, some populations might be prone to extirpation because misdirected control of Common Vampire Bat (Desmodusrotundus) can destroy hollow tree roosts.","Aguirre, Lens & Matthysen (2003) | Aranguren et al. (2011) | Beguelini et al. (2016) | Botero-Botero etal. (2015) | Brown et al. (1983) | Cabrera (1958) | Camargo & Laps (2016) | Davis (1976b) | Dechmann et al. (2013) | Fenton, Audet et al. (1993) | Forman et al. (1989) | Gongalves et al. (2007) | Hood & Pitocchelli (1983) | Howell & Burch (1974) | Kalko et al. (1998)",https://zenodo.org/record/6606991/files/figure.png,"2.Lesser Bulldog BatNoctilio albiventrisFrench:Petit Noctilion/ German:Kleines Hasenmaul/ Spanish:Noctilio pequenoTaxonomy.Noctilio albiventris Desmarest, 1818, “I’Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Rio Sao Francisco, Bahia, Brazil.Noctilio albiventrisis paraphyletic with respect to N. leporinus. This has been proposed and confirmed using several different molecular markers, including mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Recent studies suggest that N. albiventrisis a complex of at least three and maybe four cryptic species yet to be determined but roughly coinciding with the current subspecific arrangement. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.a.albiventrisDesmarest,1818—lowerAmazonBasinofVenezuela,theGuianas,andC&FEBrazil.N.a.affinisd’Orbigny,1836—SEColombia,EEcuador,upperAmazonBasinofVenezuela,EPeru,WBrazil,andBolivia.N.a.cabreraiW.B.Davis,1976—SBrazil,Paraguay,andNEArgentina.N. a. minor Osgood, 1910—- extreme S Mexico(Chiapas), Central America, N Colombia, and N Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-68 mm, tail 13-16 mm, ear 22-24 mm, hindfoot 16-19 mm, forearm 54-70 mm; weight 22-42 g. The Lesser Bulldog Bat is a smaller version of the Greater Bulldog Bat (N. leporinus), with some minordifferences. Hindclaws of the Lesser Bulldog Bat are much shorter than those in the Greater Bulldog Bat and shorter than calcar. Size and relative length of hindclaws easily allow distinction between the two congeners. Fur is very short and pale brown to bright yellow. Head is almost hairless, with loose cheek skin and hare-like upper lip.Habitat.Primarily tropical rainforests but also other tropical vegetation types such as dry tropical forest and mangrove from sea level to elevations of ¢. 1100 m. Lesser Bulldog Bats usually roost in hollow trees but can also be found in buildings. They often share roosts with other species of bats such as mastiff bats (Molossus sp.). In the Beni Departmentof Bolivia, Lesser Bulldog Bats commute among forest islands across tropical grasslands and use hollow trees of at least eleven species; roosting trees have greater diameters than non-roosting trees.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Lesser Bulldog Bat is strongly dominated by insects, primarily hemipterans, beetles, moths, homopterans, and dipterans. According to all published studies, Lesser Bulldog Bats feed copiously on insects, but other studies also show that they eatfruits of species of Moraceae(Ficus, Brosimum, and Morus) and Urticaceae(Cecropia) and occasionally fish. Pollen of various tree species has also been reported in stomach contents or fecal pellets. Given that they often fly in open areas, they are believed to be good seed dispersers. One study found many remains of dytiscid beetles, a primarily aquatic species, in the diet, and a pimelodid catfish swallowed a Lesser Bulldog Bat, both suggesting association with aquatic environments. Lesser Bulldog Bats have been observed scooping insect prey from the water surface. Observations in the wild show that they fly in open areas including along slow-flowing streams and rivers, lakes, and estuaries, briefly dipping or dragging their feet or interfemoral membrane in the water to scoop up insects. They spend an average of ¢.120 minutes outside of the roost, most of that time foraging.Breeding.Reproductive habits of the Lesser Bulldog Bat indicate a monoestrous cycle, with mating in November—-March and young born in April-May in Panama. In other regions, the cycle varies accordingly. Littersize is one, although one instance of twinning was documented. Reproductive accessory glands, including prostate, are very similar in the Lesser Bulldog Bat and other bats in the families Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae. Captive juvenile Lesser Bulldog Bats did not fly until 5-6 weeks old and nursed until ¢.3 months old. Lactating females suckled only their young, which they appeared to recognize from acoustic cues emitted by their young. Mother and young call in coordinated duets in the roost and while flying and foraging together. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.Activity patterns.Lesser Bulldog Bats leave their roost quite early, right after sunset, in contrast with their larger congener, the Greater Bulldog Bat that leaves the roost up to two hours after sunset. This difference has been suggested to be a mechanism to avoid competition between congeners. Lesser Bulldog Bats stay active usually between sunset and 1-2 hours after sunset and then return to their roost, with a second peak of activity around midnight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Some studies indicate that Lesser Bulldog Bats might be philopatric and very loyal to a particular roost. Social organization seems to be harem-based, with up to ten females per male and several harems inhabiting any particular roost. There is an instance of predation by the great rufous woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes major)—a bird that is known to capture prey and nest inside hollow trees.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country considers the Lesser Bulldog Bat at any level of risk of extinction. In Bolivia, some populations might be prone to extirpation because misdirected control of Common Vampire Bat (Desmodusrotundus) can destroy hollow tree roosts.Bibliography.Aguirre, Lens & Matthysen (2003), Aranguren et al. (2011), Beguelini et al. (2016), Botero-Botero etal. (2015), Brown et al. (1983), Cabrera (1958), Camargo & Laps (2016), Davis (1976b), Dechmann et al. (2013), Fenton, Audet et al. (1993), Forman et al. (1989), Gongalves et al. (2007), Hood & Pitocchelli (1983), Howell & Burch (1974), Kalko et al. (1998)." diff --git a/hmw.json b/hmw.json index 69e50dc..122aca8 100644 --- a/hmw.json +++ b/hmw.json @@ -1,46 +1,46 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/669b07bf81a1e35383e3d83458751684d7416b0b75f4f425f8476a44b1119f42!/03D587F2FFC94C03F8F13AECFBD8F765.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFC94C03F8F13AECFBD8F765","docName":"hbmw-9.emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Vol. 9, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"355","verbatimText":"14 . Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat Taphozous troughtoni French : Taphien deTroughton I German : Troughton-Grabfledermaus I Spanish : Tafozo de Troughton Other common names: Troughton'sTomb Bat Taxonomy . Taphozous troughtoni Tate, 1952 , “ Rifle Creek, Mt. Isa, northwest Queensland ,” Australia . Taphozous troughtoni is in the subgenus Taphozous . It was considered ajunior synonym of T georgianus , but. T. Chimimba and D. J. Kitchener in 1991 raised it to a distinct species. Monotypic. Distribution. NE Australia endemic, in WC, C & E Queensland. Descriptive notes. Head-body 79-4-86-3 mm, tail 31-5-36-9 mm, ear 22-4-27-1 mm, hindfoot 9-8-10-3 mm, forearm 73-76 mm; weight. 20-29 g. Dorsum of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat is predominately olive­ brown, with pale mouse-gray guard hairs. Venter surface hairs are olive-brown from chin to shoulders and posteriorly dark yellow-brown, with guard hairs of pale mouse-gray. Uropatagium close to abdomen is heavily furred. Throat pouches are absent, and radio-metacarpal sacs are present in both sexes. Skin of rhinarium, wings, uropatagium, lips, face, and tragus are fuscous (pale yellow). Habitat . Wide variety of habitats and bioregions of interior Queensland. Food and Feeding . Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bats forage for insects well above tree canopies and high over open habitats. Large, high-flying grasshoppers are preferred food items and often taken back to cave roosts to eat. Breeding . No information. Activity patterns. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, mines and tunnels, rock crevices, and rocky escarpments. Echolocation call is less than 25 kHz and distinguishes it from the Common Sheath-tailed Bat (. georgianus ) where they co-occur . Movements, Home range and Social organization. Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies. Status and Conservation . Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, uses a wide variety of habitats, occurs in protected areas, and does not face significant threats. It was originally recorded only from a small area in the Mount Isa Inland bioregion of Queensland, but recent studies based on isozymes and echolocation calls extend distribution further east throughout much of interior and near coastal region of central Queensland, formerly attributed to the Common Sheathtailed Bat. Recent reports of absence of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat in western parts of its distribution require additional verification, possibly leading to re-evaluation of its conservation status after taxonomic issues are clarified. Bibliography. Chimimba & Kitchener (1991), Hall (2008b), McKean & Price (1967), Reardon & Thomson (2002), Tate (1952),Thomson eta /. (2001), Woinarski eta/. (2014).","taxonomy":"Taphozous troughtoni Tate, 1952 , “ Rifle Creek, Mt. Isa, northwest Queensland ,” Australia . Taphozous troughtoni is in the subgenus Taphozous . It was considered ajunior synonym of T georgianus , but. T. Chimimba and D. J. Kitchener in 1991 raised it to a distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien de Troughton @fr | Troughton-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de Troughton @es | Troughton's Tomb Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Tate","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1952","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"355","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"troughtoni","name":"Taphozous troughtoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Australia endemic, in WC, C & E Queensland.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747930/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chimimba & Kitchener (1991) | Hall (2008b) | McKean & Price (1967) | Reardon & Thomson (2002) | Tate (1952) | Thomson et al. (2001) | Woinarski et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bats forage for insects well above tree canopies and high over open habitats. Large, high-flying grasshoppers are preferred food items and often taken back to cave roosts to eat.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, mines and tunnels, rock crevices, and rocky escarpments. Echolocation call is less than 25 kHz and distinguishes it from the Common Sheath-tailed Bat (. georgianus ) where they co-occur . Movements, Home range and Social organization. Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Large colonies of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat can be found in landscapes with abundant rocky outcrops, especially in tower karst. Colony size might be limited by roosting structures, especially in more arid areas where there are few caves deep enough to support large colonies.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List. Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, uses a wide variety of habitats, occurs in protected areas, and does not face significant threats. It was originally recorded only from a small area in the Mount Isa Inland bioregion of Queensland, but recent studies based on isozymes and echolocation calls extend distribution further east throughout much of interior and near coastal region of central Queensland, formerly attributed to the Common Sheathtailed Bat. Recent reports of absence of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat in western parts of its distribution require additional verification, possibly leading to re-evaluation of its conservation status after taxonomic issues are clarified.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 79-4-86-3 mm, tail 31-5-36-9 mm, ear 22-4-27-1 mm, hindfoot 9-8-10-3 mm, forearm 73-76 mm; weight. 20-29 g. Dorsum of Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat is predominately olive­ brown, with pale mouse-gray guard hairs. Venter surface hairs are olive-brown from chin to shoulders and posteriorly dark yellow-brown, with guard hairs of pale mouse-gray. Uropatagium close to abdomen is heavily furred. Throat pouches are absent, and radio-metacarpal sacs are present in both sexes. Skin of rhinarium, wings, uropatagium, lips, face, and tragus are fuscous (pale yellow).","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats and bioregions of interior Queensland."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"261","verbatimText":"24.South-eastern Pocket GopherGeomys pinetisFrench:Gaufre des pinédes/ German:Stidostliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza surorientalOther common names:Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus), Cumberland Island Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius), Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi), Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus)Taxonomy.Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.Habitat.Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Harper (1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008p), Patton (2005b), Pembleton & Williams (1978), Sherman (1940, 1944), Sudman et al. (2006), Williams, S.L. (1999c).","taxonomy":"Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre des pinédes @fr | Stidostliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza suroriental @es | Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus) @en | Cumberland @en | sland Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius) @en | Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi) @en | Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"261","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pinetis","name":"Geomys pinetis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Harper (1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008p) | Patton (2005b) | Pembleton & Williams (1978) | Sherman (1940, 1944) | Sudman et al. (2006) | Williams, S.L. (1999c)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.","habitat":"Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"27.Hispid Pocket GopherHeterogeomys hispidusFrench:Gaufre hérissé/ German:Borstige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza hirsutaTaxonomy.Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.Breeding.The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d).","taxonomy":"Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre hérissé @fr | Borstige Taschenratte @de | Tuza hirsuta @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Le Conte","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hispidus","name":"Heterogeomys hispidus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.","bibliography":"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.","breeding":"The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"26.Giant Pocket GopherOrthogeomys grandisFrench:Grand Gaufre/ German:Riesentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza giganteOther common names:Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus)Taxonomy.Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.Habitat.Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008).","taxonomy":"Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Gaufre @fr | Riesentaschenratte @de | Tuza gigante @es | Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Orthogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grandis","name":"Orthogeomys grandis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.","bibliography":"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.","habitat":"Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"25.Michoacan Pocket GopherZygogeomys trichopusFrench:Gaufre du Michoacan/ German:Michoacéan-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MichoacanTaxonomy.Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.Habitat.Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.Breeding.Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.Activity patterns.The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner & Hafner (1982), Hafner (1984), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010).","taxonomy":"Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Michoacan @fr | Michoacéan-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Michoacan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Zygogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"trichopus","name":"Zygogeomys trichopus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner & Hafner (1982) | Hafner (1984) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.","breeding":"Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.","activityPatterns":"The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.","habitat":"Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"29.Chiriqui Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cavatorFrench:Gaufre du Chiriqui/ German:Chiriqui-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de ChiriquiTaxonomy.Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).Bibliography.Hafner (1991), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008b), Spradling et al. (2016).","taxonomy":"Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Chiriqui @fr | Chiriqui-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Chiriqui @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bangs","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1902","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cavator","name":"Heterogeomys cavator","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.","bibliography":"Hafner (1991) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008b) | Spradling et al. (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0720FF8FFFAEF82F62E84EE9","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"261","verbatimText":"24.South-eastern Pocket GopherGeomys pinetisFrench:Gaufre des pinédes/ German:Stidostliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza surorientalOther common names:Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus), Cumberland Island Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius), Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi), Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus)Taxonomy.Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.Habitat.Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Harper (1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008p), Patton (2005b), Pembleton & Williams (1978), Sherman (1940, 1944), Sudman et al. (2006), Williams, S.L. (1999c).","taxonomy":"Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, 1817, in the region of the pines, Georgia, USA. Restricted by F. Harper in 1952 to “Screven County, Georgia.”Subspecies goffi from the east coast of central Florida and fontanelus from the vicinity of Savannah, Georgia, both named by H. B. Sherman in 1944, are presumed extinct. P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006 suggested that populations of G. pinetisof the Apalachicola River drainage (subspecies mobilensis) might be specifically distinct from populations east of the drainage. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre des pinédes @fr | Stidostliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza suroriental @es | Sandy Mounder; Colonial Pocket Gopher (colonus) @en | Cumberland @en | sland Pocket Gopher (cumberlandius) @en | Goff's Pocket Gopher (goffi) @en | Sherman's Pocket Gopher (fontanelus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"261","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pinetis","name":"Geomys pinetis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.p.pinetisRafinesque,1817—C&SGeorgia,USA.G.p.austrinusBangs,1898—WCFlorida,USA.G.p.colonusBangs,1898—CamdenCountyinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.cumberlandiusBangs,1898—CumberlandIinSEGeorgia,USA.G.p.floridanusAudubon&Bachman,1853—SWGeorgiaintoNFlorida,USA.G. p. mobilensis Merriam, 1895— C & S Alabama into extreme W Florida, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603861/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Harper (1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008p) | Patton (2005b) | Pembleton & Williams (1978) | Sherman (1940, 1944) | Sudman et al. (2006) | Williams, S.L. (1999c)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"The South-eastern Pocket Gopher appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and June-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in c.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active yearround.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the South-eastern Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 55-120 mm; weight 135-210 g. Male South-eastern Pocket Gophers are usually ¢.10% larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is reddish or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Individuals with a white patch on throat or forehead have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 80.","habitat":"Sandy, well-drained soils in habitats dominated by longleaf pines (Pinus palustris), turkey oaks (Quercus laevis), or live oaks (Q. virginiana)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8CFA91F446685A4FCD","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"27.Hispid Pocket GopherHeterogeomys hispidusFrench:Gaufre hérissé/ German:Borstige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza hirsutaTaxonomy.Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.Breeding.The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d).","taxonomy":"Geomys hispidus Le Conte, 1852, “Mexico.” Modified by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”On following pages: 28. Big Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys lanius); 29. Chiriqui Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscavaton; 30. Darien Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys dariensis); 31. Cherrie's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomyscherriel); 32. Variable Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys heterodus); 33. Underwood's Pocket Gopher(Heterogeomys underwood); 34. Buller’s Pocket Gopher(Pappogeomys bulleri); 35. Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys castanops); 36. Goldman's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys goldmani); 37. Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomysfulvescens); 38. Merriam's Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys merriami); 39. Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys perotensis); 40. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys planiceps); 41. Smoky Pocket Gopher(Cratogeomys fumosus).Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomyswas considered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. hispidusis sister to H. lanius. Twelve subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre hérissé @fr | Borstige Taschenratte @de | Tuza hirsuta @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Le Conte","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hispidus","name":"Heterogeomys hispidus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.h.hispidusLeConte,1852—WCVeracruzandadjacentpartsofOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.cayoensisBurt,1937—CBelizeandadjacentpartsofEGuatemala.H.h.chiapensisNelson&Goldman,1929—CChiapas,MexicointoCGuatemala.H.h.concavusNelson&Goldman,1929—NEQuerétaroandadjacentpartsofSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.H.h.hondurensisDavis,1966—NWHondurasandadjacentpartsofGuatemala.H.h.isthmicusNelson&Goldman,1929—SEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.latirostrisHall&Alvarez,1961—NEVeracruz,Mexico.H.h.negatusGoodwin,1953—SCTamaulipas,Mexico.H.h.teapensisGoldman,1939—STabasco,Mexico.H.h.tehuantepecusGoldman,1939—NCOaxaca,Mexico.H.h.torridusMerriam,1895—NhalfofVeracruzintoEPuebla,Mexico.H. h. yucatanensis Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Yucatan, Quintana Roo and E Campeche, Mexico, into N Belize and N Guatemala.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603867/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons, Reid & Cuarén (2008d)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of the Hispid Pocket Gopher can be 60 m or more in length and exceed 1 m in depth.","breeding":"The Hispid Pocket Gopher breeds year-round, with increased activity in October—June. Most females have two young perlitter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Hispid Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as Orthogeomys hispidus).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-270 mm, tail 75-90 mm; weight 450-600 g. Male Hispid Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is usually sparse and bristled, but specimensliving at elevations above 2000 m have moderately dense pelage. Many individuals have a partial or complete belt of white fur, 5-50 mm wide, encircling the lumbar region of the body. The Hispid Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 or 54 and FN = 78 or 98.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from perennial tropical forests at high elevations to arid thornscrub habitats at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2500 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8DFF9BF45B6D904CB5","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"26.Giant Pocket GopherOrthogeomys grandisFrench:Grand Gaufre/ German:Riesentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza giganteOther common names:Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus)Taxonomy.Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.Habitat.Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner (1983), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008).","taxonomy":"Geomys grandis Thomas, 1893, “Duenas, [Sacatépequez Province], Guatemala.”Orthogeomys cuniculuswas formerly recognized as a separate species, but it was considered indistinguishable from O. grandis scalopsby T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Gaufre @fr | Riesentaschenratte @de | Tuza gigante @es | Oaxacan Pocket Gopher (cuniculus) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Orthogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grandis","name":"Orthogeomys grandis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.g.grandisThomas,1893—mountainsofSGuatemala.O.g.alleniNelson&Goldman,1930—SColimaandSEJaliscoSalongthecoasttoCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.alvareziSchaldach,1966—SCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.annexusNelson&Goldman,1933—NWChiapas,Mexico.O.g.carboGoodwin,1956—coastalSCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.engelhardiFelten,1957—coastalElSalvador.O.g.felipensisNelson&Goldman,1930—WCOaxacaintoSWPuebla,Mexico.O.g.guerrerensisNelson&Goldman,1930—NGuerrero,Mexico.O.g.huixtlaeVilla,1944—SChiapas,Mexico.O.g.latifronsMerriam,1895—CoastalSGuatemala.O.g.nelsoniMerriam,1895—NCOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.plutoLawrence,1933—SWHonduras.O.g.pygacanthusDickey,1928—SEGuatemalaintoElSalvador.O.g.scalopsThomas,1894—coastalEOaxaca,Mexico.O.g.soconuscensisVilla,1949—SWChiapas,Mexico.O. g. vulcani Nelson & Goldman, 1931— SW Guatemala.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603865/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner (1983) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Vazquez, Emmons & McCarthy (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Giant Pocket Gopher likely varies widely among populations living at different elevations. At low elevations, reproductively active individuals have been captured in January-March, and typicallitter size is two young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Giant Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Giant Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Individuals have non-overlapping home ranges, each spanning c.240 m* of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “Oaxacan Pocket Gopher” (O. cuniculus), treated here under O. g. scallops, is classified as Data Deficient.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-300 mm,tail 95-140 mm; weight 480-985 g. Male Giant Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Some individuals are among the largest of geomyids (more than 800 g body mass); others, particularly individuals living in dry lowland habitats, are small (less than 600 g). Specimens from elevations above 1000 m have dense, woolly fur that is dark brown to almost black. At low elevations, fur is extremely sparse over the entire body, often giving a naked appearance. In all specimens,tail is naked, and feet are nearly so. Nasal pad is sparsely haired or naked. The Giant Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 58 and FN = 110.","habitat":"Deep, well-drained soils in a wide variety of habitats ranging from high-elevation cloud forests to perennial tropicalforests, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, and thorny xeric scrublands at low elevations. Elevational range extends from near sea level to ¢.2700 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0722FF8DFFAFFE5868E94C97","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"263","verbatimText":"25.Michoacan Pocket GopherZygogeomys trichopusFrench:Gaufre du Michoacan/ German:Michoacéan-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MichoacanTaxonomy.Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.Habitat.Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.Breeding.Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.Activity patterns.The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner & Hafner (1982), Hafner (1984), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010).","taxonomy":"Zygogeomys trichopus Merriam, 1895, “Nahuatzin, Michoacan, Mexico.”Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Michoacan @fr | Michoacéan-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Michoacan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Zygogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"263","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"trichopus","name":"Zygogeomys trichopus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Z. t. trichopus Merriam, 1895— Cerro Patamban and Cerro Tancitaro in NW Michoacan, Mexico.7. t. tarascensis Goldman, 1938 — vicinity of Patzcuaro in C Michoacan, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603863/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher, Vazquez & Arroyo-Cabrales (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner & Hafner (1982) | Hafner (1984) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Michoacan Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Main nest chamber in an excavated burrow system of a Michoacan Pocket Gopher was more than 2 m below the surface. Earthen mounds produced by the Michoacan Pocket Gopher are unlike those of any other pocket gopher in that they are tall and conical in shape (rather than low and rounded) and lack any evidence of an opening at the apex of the mound. Shape of the mound and absence of an opening (or evidence of a plugged opening) suggest that Michoacan Pocket Gophers rarely leave their burrow systems.","breeding":"Very little is known about the breeding activities of the Michoacan Pocket Gopher, except that a female with a single embryo was captured in mid-December and testes in males were small (below 5 mm) in March and August and much larger (above 14 mm) in December.","activityPatterns":"The Michoacan Pocket Gopher can be active at any hour of the day but is usually more active during the night. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Michoacan Pocket Gopheris solitary and territorial. Field biologists report that it appearsto be less aggressive than most species of pocket gophers. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system except, perhaps, to disperse, its home range is defined by the size and extent ofits burrow system. One study reported that genetic variation in the Michoacan Pocket Gopher is unusually low by mammalian standards, probably as a consequence of inbreeding in small populations.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 5000 km?, it is known from only three isolated localities, and there is continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher waslisted as in danger of extinction under the Mexican Endangered Species Actin 2010.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-240 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 190-580 g. Male Michoacan Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and fine, somewhat shiny, and smoky gray to lustrous brown. Ventral pelage is lighter in color and often has irregular white spots (2-4 cm diameter), especially in throat region. Tail is completely naked, and white skin oftail is almost translucent. The Michoacan Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has two distinct grooves, the larger of which is located along the midline of the tooth (offset slightly toward the inner edge of the tooth) and the smaller of which lies immediately along the inner edge of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 74.","habitat":"Deep, volcanic soils in small clearings in pine-oak-spruce forests. Elevational range is 2200 m to more than 3000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF8CFA49FACB61374DFF","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"29.Chiriqui Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cavatorFrench:Gaufre du Chiriqui/ German:Chiriqui-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de ChiriquiTaxonomy.Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).Bibliography.Hafner (1991), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008b), Spradling et al. (2016).","taxonomy":"Macrogeomys cavator Bangs, 1902, “Boquete, 4,800 feet” (Chiriqui, Panama).Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cavatoris sister to H. dariensis. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Chiriqui @fr | Chiriqui-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Chiriqui @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bangs","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1902","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cavator","name":"Heterogeomys cavator","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.c.cavatorBangs,1902—CordilleradeTalamancaofECostaRicaandWPanama.H.c.nigrescensGoodwin,1943—WendofCordilleradeTalamancainCCostaRica.H. c. pansa Bangs, 1902— SE Costa Rica into SW Panama.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603871/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hafner (1991) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008b) | Spradling et al. (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food orfecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Chiriqui Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined bysize and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys cavator).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-270 mm, tail 110-130 mm; weight 500-910 g. Dorsal pelage of the Chiriqui Pocket Gopher is dark brown, almost black, and ventral pelage 1s gray-brown. Pelage is dense and coarse in individuals from high elevations and sparse in individuals from low elevations. The Chiriqui Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in a variety of habitats ranging from mixed conifer—hardwood forests at high elevations to open pasturelands near sea level. Elevational range is from nearsea level to ¢.3200 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF8CFF4AF5E06C6842E5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF8CFF4AF5E06C6842E5","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"28.Big Pocket GopherHeterogeomys laniusFrench:Gaufre de Xuchil/ German:Wollige Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza grandeTaxonomy.Heterogeomys lanius Elliot, 1905, “Xuchil, Vera Cruz, Mexico.” Restricted by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2014 to “El Xuchitl in west-central Veracruz.”Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. laniusis sister to H. hispidus. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from two localities in WC Veracruz, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-290 mm,tail 90-95 mm; weight 850-900 g. Dorsal pelage of the Big Pocket Gopheris thick and woolly; pelage is black dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 84,Habitat.Well-drained soils in mixed conifer-hardwood forests at elevations above ¢.2400 m, perhaps to timberline.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Big Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys lanius). Field observations suggest that the Big Pocket Gopheris absentin regions where widespread deforestation has given rise to large agricultural fields, but itis found in areas subjected to small-scale agriculture, where individuals often occupy patches of brushy or wooded habitat too steep or rugged to cultivate. The Big Pocket Gopher waslisted as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (also as O. lanius). Recent fieldwork has found the Big Pocket Gopherto be relatively abundant where it occurs.Bibliography.Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008b), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2014), Patton (2005b), SE-MARNAT (2010), Spradling et al. (2016).","taxonomy":"Heterogeomys lanius Elliot, 1905, “Xuchil, Vera Cruz, Mexico.” Restricted by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2014 to “El Xuchitl in west-central Veracruz.”Placed into subgenus Heterogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. laniusis sister to H. hispidus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Xuchil @fr | Wollige Taschenratte @de | Tuza grande @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Elliot","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1905","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lanius","name":"Heterogeomys lanius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from two localities in WC Veracruz, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603869/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008b) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2014) | Patton (2005b) | SE-MARNAT (2010) | Spradling et al. (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"The Big Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Big Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys lanius). Field observations suggest that the Big Pocket Gopheris absentin regions where widespread deforestation has given rise to large agricultural fields, but itis found in areas subjected to small-scale agriculture, where individuals often occupy patches of brushy or wooded habitat too steep or rugged to cultivate. The Big Pocket Gopher waslisted as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (also as O. lanius). Recent fieldwork has found the Big Pocket Gopherto be relatively abundant where it occurs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 250-290 mm,tail 90-95 mm; weight 850-900 g. Dorsal pelage of the Big Pocket Gopheris thick and woolly; pelage is black dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single groove offset slightly toward the midline of the body.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in mixed conifer-hardwood forests at elevations above ¢.2400 m, perhaps to timberline."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"30.Darien Pocket GopherHeterogeomys dariensisFrench:Gaufre du Darien/ German:Darien-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de DariénTaxonomy.Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.Breeding.Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).Bibliography.Hafner (2015), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008c), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992).","taxonomy":"Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Darien @fr | Darien-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Darién @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goldman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dariensis","name":"Heterogeomys dariensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).","bibliography":"Hafner (2015) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008c) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.","breeding":"Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"57","verbatimText":"14.Hall's Pocket GopherGeomys jugossicularisFrench:Gaufre de Hall/ German:Hall-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de HallOther common names:Colorado Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Hall @fr | Hall-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Hall @es | Colorado Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hooper","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1940","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"57","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"jugossicularis","name":"Geomys jugossicularis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"57","verbatimText":"13.Plains Pocket GopherGeomys bursariusFrench:Gaufre brun/ German:Flachland-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de llanuraOther common names:Mississippi Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.Food and Feeding.The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.Activity patterns.The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Connior (2011), Genoways et al. (2008), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Swenk (1939), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Zimmerman (1999a).","taxonomy":"Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre brun @fr | Flachland-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de llanura @es | Mississippi Valley Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1800","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"57","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bursarius","name":"Geomys bursarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Connior (2011) | Genoways et al. (2008) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Swenk (1939) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Zimmerman (1999a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats.","habitat":"Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0723FF93FA42F3BF697E41B6","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"30.Darien Pocket GopherHeterogeomys dariensisFrench:Gaufre du Darien/ German:Darien-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de DariénTaxonomy.Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.Breeding.Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).Bibliography.Hafner (2015), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Samudio & Pino (2008c), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992).","taxonomy":"Macrogeomys dariensis Goldman, 1912, “Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), in the mountains of Eastern Panama [= Darien Province].”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genusstatus by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that FH. dariensisis sister to H. cavator. Orthogeomys thaeleriwas formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. dariensisby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Darien @fr | Darien-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Darién @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goldman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dariensis","name":"Heterogeomys dariensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.d.dariensisGoldman,1912—EPanama(Darién)intoNWColombia(Choco).H. d. thaeler: Alberico, 1990— coastal regions of NW Colombia (Choco).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603873/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hafner (2015) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Samudio & Pino (2008c) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity ofits burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spokelike from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. In clayey lateritic soils of northwestern Colombia, tunnels of the Darien Pocket Gopher are much shallower (only a few cm below the surface) than tunnels typically produced by large pocket gophers.","breeding":"Pregnant Darien Pocket Gophers have been captured in November-February, and litters have 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Darien Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys dariensis).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-278 mm,tail 120-140 mm; weight 450-850 g. Dorsal pelage of the Darien Pocket Gopher is reddish brown to dull chocolate brown or nearly black in some individuals. Ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to light brown. Upper surfaces of feet and tail are either brownish, dark pinkish, or nearly white. The Darien Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in forests, forest clearings, and cultivated regions in eastern Panama and lowland habitats along the Pacific Coast of north-western Colombia. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1200 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0724FF8AFA97F2F3690341B3","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"57","verbatimText":"14.Hall's Pocket GopherGeomys jugossicularisFrench:Gaufre de Hall/ German:Hall-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de HallOther common names:Colorado Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Geomys jugossicularis Hooper,: 1940, “Lamar, Prowers Co., Colorado, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusor G. lutescens. C. jugossiculariswas elevated to species status by P. D. Sudman and colleagues in 2006. Molecular studies suggest that it is sister to G. lutescens. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Hall @fr | Hall-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Hall @es | Colorado Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hooper","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1940","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"57","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"jugossicularis","name":"Geomys jugossicularis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.j.jugossicularisHooper,1940—SEColoradointoSWKansas,USA.G. j. halli Sudman, Choate & Zimmerman, 1987— E Colorado and NW Kansas into SW Nebraska, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603839/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hall’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Hall's Pocket Gopherhas not yet been assessed on The [UCN Red List, because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher(71. umbrinus), listed as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75— 105 mm (males) and 55-95 (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Hall’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. Hall's Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color is yellowish cinnamon dorsally and white or pale buff ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Sandy loams in open areas including mixed-grass prairies and pastures."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0724FF8BFF9AF2E86D4E4AC1","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"57","verbatimText":"13.Plains Pocket GopherGeomys bursariusFrench:Gaufre brun/ German:Flachland-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de llanuraOther common names:Mississippi Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content.Food and Feeding.The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.Activity patterns.The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Connior (2011), Genoways et al. (2008), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Swenk (1939), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Zimmerman (1999a).","taxonomy":"Mus bursarius Shaw, 1800, “taken from Indian hunters in the upper parts of Interior Canada.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “somewhere in Upper Mississippi [River] Valley” and M. H. Swenk in 1939 to “Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota,” USA.Eight subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre brun @fr | Flachland-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de llanura @es | Mississippi Valley Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1800","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"57","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bursarius","name":"Geomys bursarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.b.bursariusShaw,1800—extremeSManitoba,Canada,andmostofMinnesotaandadjacentpartsofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,andNWWisconsin,USA.G.b.illinoensisKomarek&Spencer,1931—CIllinoisandadjacentNWIndiana,USA.G.b.industriusVilla&Hall,1947—SWKansas,USA.G.b.majorDavis,1940—SCKansas,COklahoma,andNTexasintoECNewMexico,USA.G.b.majusculusSwenk,1939—IowaandadjacentpartsofENebraska,NEKansas,andNMissouri,USA.G.b.missouriensisMcLaughlin,1958—ECMissouri,USA.G.b.ozarkensisElrodetal.,2000—NCArkansas,USA.G. b. wisconsinensis Jackson, 1957— W Wisconsin, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603837/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Connior (2011) | Genoways et al. (2008) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Swenk (1939) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Zimmerman (1999a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Plains Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Stomachs of pocket gophers collected in Minnesota contained 94% grasses and 6% forbs, dominated by true grasses such as bromus (Bromus sp.), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron sp.), oats (Avenasp.), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and fleabane (Lrigeron sp., Asteraceae). In Illinois, the Plains Pocket Gophercommonly feeds on sweet clover (Melilotusofficinalis, Fabaceae), alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), bluegrass (Poa sp.), and dandelions (Taraxacum sp., Asteraceae). Food stores recovered from one burrow system in eastern Kansas, contained only tubers of sunflowers (Helianthustuberosus, Asteraceae), and food stores in a nearby burrow system were composed entirely of exotic Johnson grass (Sorghumhalepense, Poaceae). The Plains Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest whereverit occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Timing and duration of breeding of the Plains Pocket Gophervary across its distribution. Pregnant females have been captured almost year-round (January—November) in Texas, but further north (Minnesota), pregnant females have been captured only in April-May. Gestation is ¢.30 days. Females have one, occasionally two, litters per year; each litter contains 1-6 young. Young weigh c.5 g at birth and are born naked with eyes, ears, and cheek pouches closed. Eyes open at c.3 weeks, and they are weaned 4-5 weeks after birth. Females are reproductively mature at c¢.12 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Plains Pocket Gophercan be active at any hour of the day but generally shows a bimodal pattern of activity, with peak periods of activity at night (22:00-06:00 h) and early afternoon (13:00-17:00 h). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Plains Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home ranges vary from c.34 m? in Kansas to 292 m? in Arkansas. Density varies widely and is related to habitat quality. In Texas, densities range from 1-3 ind/ha in pastureland to almost 19 ind/ha in hayfields. Average densities in Arkansas are 4-60 ind/ha depending on quality of the habitat. In most populations studied, females were ¢.65% of adults.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 135-235 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 120-250 g. Male Plains Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. They show clinal variation in body size, with larger individuals in the north and smaller individuals in the south. The Plains Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Color of dorsal pelage varies widely, from light buff, through various shades of brown,to black. Some individuals have small patches of white fur, and albino individuals have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 or 72 and FN = 68-74.Habitat.Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats.","habitat":"Wide variety of open habitats ranging from tall-grass prairies to native and non-native grasslands and urban park settings. Populations of Plains Pocket Gopheralso are known from oak-hickory savannas, mesquite prairies, and patches of deciduous forest surrounded by prairie habitats. Habitat preferences appear to be based more on soil type than vegetation, with individuals avoiding soils with less than 40% sand content or more than 30% clay and silt content."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0725FF89FA4DF4066865400A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0725FF89FA4DF4066865400A","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"258","verbatimText":"17.Jones's Pocket GopherGeomys knoxjonesiFrench:Gaufre de Jones/ German:Jones-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de JonesOther common names:Knox Jones's Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys bursarius knoxjonesi Baker & Genoways, 1975, “4.1 mi. N, 5.1 mi. E Kermit, Winkler Co., Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that G. knoxjonesiis sister to G. arenarius. Monotypic.Distribution.SE New Mexico and adjacent parts of W Texas, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75-105 mm (males) and 55-95 mm (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Jones’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68-70.Habitat.Restricted to deep, sandy soils in xeric, scrubland habitats.Food and Feeding.Jones’s Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including yucca (Yucca, Asparagaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Jones's Pocket Gopherbreeds from late October to early April. Gestation is c.23 days.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, butJones's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Jones’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bradley & Baker (1999), Chambers et al. (2009), Hopton & Cameron (2001), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) (2008), Patton (2005b).","taxonomy":"Geomys bursarius knoxjonesi Baker & Genoways, 1975, “4.1 mi. N, 5.1 mi. E Kermit, Winkler Co., Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that G. knoxjonesiis sister to G. arenarius. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Jones @fr | Jones-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Jones @es | Knox Jones's Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Baker & Genoways","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1975","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"258","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"knoxjonesi","name":"Geomys knoxjonesi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE New Mexico and adjacent parts of W Texas, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603845/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bradley & Baker (1999) | Chambers et al. (2009) | Hopton & Cameron (2001) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) | (2008) | Patton (2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"Jones’s Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including yucca (Yucca, Asparagaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Jones's Pocket Gopherbreeds from late October to early April. Gestation is c.23 days.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, butJones's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Jones’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75-105 mm (males) and 55-95 mm (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Jones’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68-70.","habitat":"Restricted to deep, sandy soils in xeric, scrubland habitats."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0725FF8AFA35FCF563FA4DB5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0725FF8AFA35FCF563FA4DB5","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"258","verbatimText":"16.Desert Pocket GopherGeomys arenariusFrench:Gaufre du désert/ German:Wiistentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de desiertoOther common names:Sand Pocket Gopher; Rio Grande Pocket Gopher(arenarius), Tularosa Pocket Gopher (brevirostris)Taxonomy.Geomys arenarius Merriam, 1895, “El Paso, [El Paso Co.], Texas,” USA.Considered a subspecies of G. bursariusby D. J. Hafner and K. N. Geluso in 1983, but resurrected to species status by T. W.Jolley and colleagues in 2000. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.a.arenariusMerriam,1895—upperRioGrandeValleyinSCNewMexicoandWTexas,USA,andNEChihuahua,Mexico.G. a. brevirostris Hall, 1932— Tularosa Basin of SC New Mexico, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-220 mm,tail 50-105 mm; weight 195-255 g (males) and 165-207 g (females). Male Desert Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Specimens of the subspecies brevirostris are slightly darker brown dorsally than specimens of the subspecies arenarius. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Molecular studies show the Desert Pocket Gopherto besister to the Jones's Pocket Gopher(G. knoxjonesi). Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 88-102.Habitat.Sandy, desert habitats where soils are loose and deep. Desert Pocket Gophers are found commonly along riverbanks, around ponds, and nearirrigation canals. The subspecies brevirostris occurs in sand dune habitat in the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico, USA.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Desert Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Desert Pocket Gopherspans warmer months of the year (generally May—September), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 4-6 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Desert Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Desert Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Individual burrow systems may have 20-30 surface entrances (most indicated by mounds ofsoil on the surface), all of which are plugged with soil when not in use.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Pocket Gopheris common where it occurs, but it is restricted to a small geographical area where suitable habitats are threatened by changes in land use and periodic droughts.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Hafner & Geluso (1983), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008a), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b), Williams, S.L. (1999a), Williams, S.L. & Baker (1974).","taxonomy":"Geomys arenarius Merriam, 1895, “El Paso, [El Paso Co.], Texas,” USA.Considered a subspecies of G. bursariusby D. J. Hafner and K. N. Geluso in 1983, but resurrected to species status by T. W.Jolley and colleagues in 2000. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du désert @fr | Wiistentaschenratte @de | Tuza de desierto @es | Sand Pocket Gopher; Rio Grande Pocket Gopher(arenarius) @en | Tularosa Pocket Gopher (brevirostris) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"258","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arenarius","name":"Geomys arenarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.a.arenariusMerriam,1895—upperRioGrandeValleyinSCNewMexicoandWTexas,USA,andNEChihuahua,Mexico.G. a. brevirostris Hall, 1932— Tularosa Basin of SC New Mexico, USA.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Hafner & Geluso (1983) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008a) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b) | Williams, S.L. (1999a) | Williams, S.L. & Baker (1974)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Desert Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Desert Pocket Gopherspans warmer months of the year (generally May—September), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 4-6 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Desert Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Desert Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Individual burrow systems may have 20-30 surface entrances (most indicated by mounds ofsoil on the surface), all of which are plugged with soil when not in use.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Pocket Gopheris common where it occurs, but it is restricted to a small geographical area where suitable habitats are threatened by changes in land use and periodic droughts.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-220 mm,tail 50-105 mm; weight 195-255 g (males) and 165-207 g (females). Male Desert Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Specimens of the subspecies brevirostris are slightly darker brown dorsally than specimens of the subspecies arenarius. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Molecular studies show the Desert Pocket Gopherto besister to the Jones's Pocket Gopher(G. knoxjonesi). Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 88-102.","habitat":"Sandy, desert habitats where soils are loose and deep. Desert Pocket Gophers are found commonly along riverbanks, around ponds, and nearirrigation canals. The subspecies brevirostris occurs in sand dune habitat in the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico, USA."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0725FF8AFA35FCF563FA4DB5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0725FF8AFA35FCF563FA4DB5","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"258","verbatimText":"16.Desert Pocket GopherGeomys arenariusFrench:Gaufre du désert/ German:Wiistentaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de desiertoOther common names:Sand Pocket Gopher; Rio Grande Pocket Gopher(arenarius), Tularosa Pocket Gopher (brevirostris)Taxonomy.Geomys arenarius Merriam, 1895, “El Paso, [El Paso Co.], Texas,” USA.Considered a subspecies of G. bursariusby D. J. Hafner and K. N. Geluso in 1983, but resurrected to species status by T. W.Jolley and colleagues in 2000. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.a.arenariusMerriam,1895—upperRioGrandeValleyinSCNewMexicoandWTexas,USA,andNEChihuahua,Mexico.G. a. brevirostris Hall, 1932— Tularosa Basin of SC New Mexico, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-220 mm,tail 50-105 mm; weight 195-255 g (males) and 165-207 g (females). Male Desert Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Specimens of the subspecies brevirostris are slightly darker brown dorsally than specimens of the subspecies arenarius. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Molecular studies show the Desert Pocket Gopherto besister to the Jones's Pocket Gopher(G. knoxjonesi). Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 88-102.Habitat.Sandy, desert habitats where soils are loose and deep. Desert Pocket Gophers are found commonly along riverbanks, around ponds, and nearirrigation canals. The subspecies brevirostris occurs in sand dune habitat in the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico, USA.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Desert Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Breeding season of the Desert Pocket Gopherspans warmer months of the year (generally May—September), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 4-6 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Desert Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Desert Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Individual burrow systems may have 20-30 surface entrances (most indicated by mounds ofsoil on the surface), all of which are plugged with soil when not in use.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Pocket Gopheris common where it occurs, but it is restricted to a small geographical area where suitable habitats are threatened by changes in land use and periodic droughts.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Hafner & Geluso (1983), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008a), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b), Williams, S.L. (1999a), Williams, S.L. & Baker (1974).","taxonomy":"Geomys arenarius Merriam, 1895, “El Paso, [El Paso Co.], Texas,” USA.Considered a subspecies of G. bursariusby D. J. Hafner and K. N. Geluso in 1983, but resurrected to species status by T. W.Jolley and colleagues in 2000. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du désert @fr | Wiistentaschenratte @de | Tuza de desierto @es | Sand Pocket Gopher; Rio Grande Pocket Gopher(arenarius) @en | Tularosa Pocket Gopher (brevirostris) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"258","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arenarius","name":"Geomys arenarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.a.arenariusMerriam,1895—upperRioGrandeValleyinSCNewMexicoandWTexas,USA,andNEChihuahua,Mexico.G. a. brevirostris Hall, 1932— Tularosa Basin of SC New Mexico, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603843/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Hafner & Geluso (1983) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008a) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b) | Williams, S.L. (1999a) | Williams, S.L. & Baker (1974)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Desert Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Desert Pocket Gopherspans warmer months of the year (generally May—September), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 4-6 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Desert Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Desert Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Individual burrow systems may have 20-30 surface entrances (most indicated by mounds ofsoil on the surface), all of which are plugged with soil when not in use.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Pocket Gopheris common where it occurs, but it is restricted to a small geographical area where suitable habitats are threatened by changes in land use and periodic droughts.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-220 mm,tail 50-105 mm; weight 195-255 g (males) and 165-207 g (females). Male Desert Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Specimens of the subspecies brevirostris are slightly darker brown dorsally than specimens of the subspecies arenarius. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Molecular studies show the Desert Pocket Gopherto besister to the Jones's Pocket Gopher(G. knoxjonesi). Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 88-102.","habitat":"Sandy, desert habitats where soils are loose and deep. Desert Pocket Gophers are found commonly along riverbanks, around ponds, and nearirrigation canals. The subspecies brevirostris occurs in sand dune habitat in the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico, USA."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0725FF8AFF35F8026C2544C5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0725FF8AFF35F8026C2544C5","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"258","verbatimText":"15.Sand Hills Pocket GopherGeomys lutescensFrench:Gaufre des Sand Hills/ German:Nebraska-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de Sand HillsOther common names:Pale Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys bursarius lutescens Merriam, 1890, “Sand Hills, Birdwood Creek, Lincoln County, Nebraska,” USA.Geomys lutescenswas formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusand was elevated to species status by L. R. Heaney and R. M. Timm in 1983. Molecular studies suggest that G. lutescenssister to G. jugossicularis. Monotypic.Distribution.E Wyoming, W Nebraska and adjacent parts of SW South Dakota, and NW Colorado, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75-105 mm (males) and 55-95 mm (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Sand Hills Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is medium size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage coloris variable, usually with a yellowish cast, especially on sides of body. Most Sand Hills Pocket Gophers have a middorsal stripe (2-5 cm wide) that is slightly darker than surrounding pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 86-98.Habitat.Restricted to deep, sandy soils in open habitats including mixed-grass prairies and pastures.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. bursariuslutescens).Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Heaney & Timm (1983), Jolley et al. (2000), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (20080), Patton (2005b).","taxonomy":"Geomys bursarius lutescens Merriam, 1890, “Sand Hills, Birdwood Creek, Lincoln County, Nebraska,” USA.Geomys lutescenswas formerly considered a subspecies of G. bursariusand was elevated to species status by L. R. Heaney and R. M. Timm in 1983. Molecular studies suggest that G. lutescenssister to G. jugossicularis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre des Sand Hills @fr | Nebraska-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Sand Hills @es | Pale Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1890","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"258","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lutescens","name":"Geomys lutescens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Wyoming, W Nebraska and adjacent parts of SW South Dakota, and NW Colorado, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603841/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Heaney & Timm (1983) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (20080) | Patton (2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sand Hills Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. bursariuslutescens).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130-190 mm (males) and 115-175 mm (females), tail 75-105 mm (males) and 55-95 mm (females); weight 160-185 g. Male Sand Hills Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is medium size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage coloris variable, usually with a yellowish cast, especially on sides of body. Most Sand Hills Pocket Gophers have a middorsal stripe (2-5 cm wide) that is slightly darker than surrounding pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 86-98.","habitat":"Restricted to deep, sandy soils in open habitats including mixed-grass prairies and pastures."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0726FF88FAA6FC7F69D34762.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0726FF88FAA6FC7F69D34762","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"259","verbatimText":"19.Texas Pocket GopherGeomys personatusFrench:Gaufre du Texas/ German:Texas-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TexasOther common names:Masked Pocket Gopher, South Texas Pocket Gopher; Del Rio Pocket Gopher (fuscus), Nueces Pocket Gopher (fallax), Padre Island Pocket Gopher(personatus), Rio Grande Pocket Gopher (davis), Seaside Pocket Gopher (maritimus)Taxonomy.Geomys personatus True, 1889, “Padre Island, [Cameron Co.], Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that this species is sister to G. attwateri. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.personatusTrue,1889—MustangandPadreIs,KlebergCounty,Texas,USA.G.p.davisiWilliams&Genoways,1981—STexas,USA(NofRioGrandeinWebbandZapatacounties).G.p.fallaxMerriam,1895—SportionsofSETexas(N&NWofNuecesBayalongthelowerNuecesRiver),USA.|G.p.fuscusDavis,1940—STexas(NofRioGrandeinKinneyandValverdecounties),USA.G.p.maritimusDavis,1940—GulfcoastofSTexas(mainlandbetweenBaffinBayandFlourBluff),USA.G. p. megapotamus Davis, 1940— SE Texas, USA, into coastal NE Tamaulipas, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 140-280 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 165-400 g. Male Texas Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. There is considerable variation in body size among subspecies, with personatusbeing the largest and fuscus the smallest. The Texas Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is drab brown or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Albino individuals and others with white spots or a faint mid-dorsal stripe have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 68-70 and FN = 70-76.Habitat.Deep, sandy soils along river drainages, coastal beaches, barrier islands, and inland remnants of ancient coastlines. The Texas Pocket Gopheris absent from silt loams of the Rio Grande floodplains and gravelly, stony, or clayey soils scattered throughout its general distribution. Its habitats are typically semiarid, and vegetation associated with them includes mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, Fabaceae), and several true grasses such as bahiagrass (Paspalumnotatum), exotic Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), and sandbur (Cenchrusechinatus).Food and Feeding.The Texas Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The Texas Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year, with a peak period of reproduction in October—May. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 2-5 young. Individuals live c.2 years in the wild.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Texas Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Texas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. On sandy coastal islands off the coast of Texas, USA, Texas Pocket Gophers form smallcolonies usually separated by at least 1-5 km.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies maritimus and fuscus are of conservation concern because of their limited distributions and detrimental effects of habitat modification by humans. Subspecies maritimus was listed in 2010 as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010), Williams, S.L. (1982, 1999b).","taxonomy":"Geomys personatus True, 1889, “Padre Island, [Cameron Co.], Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that this species is sister to G. attwateri. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Texas @fr | Texas-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Texas @es | Masked Pocket Gopher @en | South Texas Pocket Gopher; Del Rio Pocket Gopher (fuscus) @en | Nueces Pocket Gopher (fallax) @en | Padre @en | sland Pocket Gopher(personatus) @en | Rio Grande Pocket Gopher (davis) @en | Seaside Pocket Gopher (maritimus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"True","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1889","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"259","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"personatus","name":"Geomys personatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.p.personatusTrue,1889—MustangandPadreIs,KlebergCounty,Texas,USA.G.p.davisiWilliams&Genoways,1981—STexas,USA(NofRioGrandeinWebbandZapatacounties).G.p.fallaxMerriam,1895—SportionsofSETexas(N&NWofNuecesBayalongthelowerNuecesRiver),USA.|G.p.fuscusDavis,1940—STexas(NofRioGrandeinKinneyandValverdecounties),USA.G.p.maritimusDavis,1940—GulfcoastofSTexas(mainlandbetweenBaffinBayandFlourBluff),USA.G. p. megapotamus Davis, 1940— SE Texas, USA, into coastal NE Tamaulipas, Mexico.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Williams, S.L. (1982, 1999b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Texas Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"The Texas Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year, with a peak period of reproduction in October—May. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 2-5 young. Individuals live c.2 years in the wild.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Texas Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Texas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. On sandy coastal islands off the coast of Texas, USA, Texas Pocket Gophers form smallcolonies usually separated by at least 1-5 km.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies maritimus and fuscus are of conservation concern because of their limited distributions and detrimental effects of habitat modification by humans. Subspecies maritimus was listed in 2010 as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 140-280 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 165-400 g. Male Texas Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. There is considerable variation in body size among subspecies, with personatusbeing the largest and fuscus the smallest. The Texas Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is drab brown or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Albino individuals and others with white spots or a faint mid-dorsal stripe have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 68-70 and FN = 70-76.","habitat":"Deep, sandy soils along river drainages, coastal beaches, barrier islands, and inland remnants of ancient coastlines. The Texas Pocket Gopheris absent from silt loams of the Rio Grande floodplains and gravelly, stony, or clayey soils scattered throughout its general distribution. Its habitats are typically semiarid, and vegetation associated with them includes mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, Fabaceae), and several true grasses such as bahiagrass (Paspalumnotatum), exotic Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), and sandbur (Cenchrusechinatus)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0726FF89FFAFF9A96237453F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0726FF89FFAFF9A96237453F","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"259","verbatimText":"18.Attwater’s Pocket GopherGeomys attwateriFrench:Gaufre dAttwater/ German:AttwaterTaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de AttwaterOther common names:Victoria Pocket Gopher (ammophilus)Taxonomy.Geomys breviceps attwater: Merriam, 1895, “ “Rockport, Aransas Co., Texas, » USA.Previously regarded as a subspecies of G. bursariusbut elevated to species status by P. K. Tucker and D.J. Schmidly in 1981. Molecular studies suggest that G. attwater: is sister to G. streckeri. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.a.attwateriMerriam,1895—GulfcoastofSETexas(betweentheBrazosandNuecesrivers),USA.G. a. ammophilus Davis, 1940— between Colorado and Guadalupe rivers in SE Texas, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-175 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight c.160 g (males) and ¢.130 g (females). Male Attwater’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It 1s average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upperincisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72-74.Habitat.Only in areas with friable soils, typically dominated by grasses. Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty clay loam, often with high levels (above 88%) of sand. Where it occurs along the Gulf coastal prairie, vegetation is dominated by perennial bunchgrasses and seasonally occurring forbs.Food and Feeding.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, consuming 36 of 51 available plant species in a study in south-eastern Texas. Individuals avoided annual dicots in winter and preferred perennial dicotyledonous when they were available. Females, especially pregnant females, preferred perennial monocots in spring. Attwater’s Pocket Gophereats predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation;it readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Feeding tunnels are deeper in the ground in winter and summer and shallower in spring and autumn in response to availability of shallow roots of annual monocots.Breeding.Breeding season spans the cooler months of the year (generally October— June), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 2-3 young.Activity patterns.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round. One population of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher moved 57,000-70,000 1 ofsoil from belowground to the surface per hectare per year.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In one study, burrow systems of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher had more loops and convolutions than did typically linear, branching burrow systems of other pocket gopher species. Attwater’s Pocket Gopher is often abundant, and estimates of density are 11-44 ind/ha. Hawks, owls, and mammalian carnivores commonly prey on Attwater’s Pocket Gopher, and most individuals live only one year in the wild. Some individuals have been reported to live up to 2:5 years in the wild.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Davis (1940), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008m), Patton (2005b), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Williams, L.R. (1999a), Williams, L.R. & Cameron (1991).","taxonomy":"Geomys breviceps attwater: Merriam, 1895, “ “Rockport, Aransas Co., Texas, » USA.Previously regarded as a subspecies of G. bursariusbut elevated to species status by P. K. Tucker and D.J. Schmidly in 1981. Molecular studies suggest that G. attwater: is sister to G. streckeri. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre d Attwater @fr | Attwater Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Attwater @es | Victoria Pocket Gopher (ammophilus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"259","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"attwateri","name":"Geomys attwateri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.a.attwateriMerriam,1895—GulfcoastofSETexas(betweentheBrazosandNuecesrivers),USA.G. a. ammophilus Davis, 1940— between Colorado and Guadalupe rivers in SE Texas, USA.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Davis (1940) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008m) | Patton (2005b) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Williams, L.R. (1999a) | Williams, L.R. & Cameron (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, consuming 36 of 51 available plant species in a study in south-eastern Texas. Individuals avoided annual dicots in winter and preferred perennial dicotyledonous when they were available. Females, especially pregnant females, preferred perennial monocots in spring. Attwater’s Pocket Gophereats predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation;it readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Feeding tunnels are deeper in the ground in winter and summer and shallower in spring and autumn in response to availability of shallow roots of annual monocots.","breeding":"Breeding season spans the cooler months of the year (generally October— June), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round. One population of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher moved 57,000-70,000 1 ofsoil from belowground to the surface per hectare per year.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In one study, burrow systems of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher had more loops and convolutions than did typically linear, branching burrow systems of other pocket gopher species. Attwater’s Pocket Gopher is often abundant, and estimates of density are 11-44 ind/ha. Hawks, owls, and mammalian carnivores commonly prey on Attwater’s Pocket Gopher, and most individuals live only one year in the wild. Some individuals have been reported to live up to 2:5 years in the wild.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130-175 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight c.160 g (males) and ¢.130 g (females). Male Attwater’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It 1s average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upperincisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72-74.","habitat":"Only in areas with friable soils, typically dominated by grasses. Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty clay loam, often with high levels (above 88%) of sand. Where it occurs along the Gulf coastal prairie, vegetation is dominated by perennial bunchgrasses and seasonally occurring forbs."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FA34FD6463C44CCB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0727FF88FA34FD6463C44CCB","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"260","verbatimText":"22.Llano Pocket GopherGeomys texensisFrench:Gaufre de Llano/ German:Llano-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de LlanoOther common names:Central Texas Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys texensis Merriam, 1895, “Mason, Mason County, Texas,” USA.Molecular studies show G. texensisto be sister to G. bursarius. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.t.texensisMerriam,1895—CTexas(Mason,McCulloch,andSanSabacounties),USA.G.t. bakeriSmolen,Pitts&Bickham,1993—SCTexas(Medina,Uvalde,andZavalacounties),USA.G. t. llanensis Block & Zimmerman, 1991— C Texas (Gillespie, Kimble, and Llano counties), USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-210 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 125-215 g (males) and 105-165 g (females). The Llano Pocket Gopheris small for genus. There is no significant sexual dimorphism in body size in bakeri, but males are usually larger than females in the other two subspecies. The Llano Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale, buffy brown to liverbrown dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68.Habitat.Well-drained sandy or gravelly loams supporting plant communities dominated by mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae), blackbrush (Coleogyneramosissima, Rosaceae), Ashe juniper (Junipreus ashei, Cupressaceae), desert hackberry (Celtispallid, Cannabaceae), and other xeric-adapted species.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Little is known about breeding habits of the Llano Pocket Gopher, but it appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and July-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in ¢.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Cameron (1999), Chambers et al. (2009), Cramer & Cameron (2001), Hafner & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) (2008), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (20086).","taxonomy":"Geomys texensis Merriam, 1895, “Mason, Mason County, Texas,” USA.Molecular studies show G. texensisto be sister to G. bursarius. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Llano @fr | Llano-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Llano @es | Central Texas Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"260","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"texensis","name":"Geomys texensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.t.texensisMerriam,1895—CTexas(Mason,McCulloch,andSanSabacounties),USA.G.t. bakeriSmolen,Pitts&Bickham,1993—SCTexas(Medina,Uvalde,andZavalacounties),USA.G. t. llanensis Block & Zimmerman, 1991— C Texas (Gillespie, Kimble, and Llano counties), USA.","bibliography":"Cameron (1999) | Chambers et al. (2009) | Cramer & Cameron (2001) | Hafner & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) | (2008) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (20086)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Little is known about breeding habits of the Llano Pocket Gopher, but it appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and July-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in ¢.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-210 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 125-215 g (males) and 105-165 g (females). The Llano Pocket Gopheris small for genus. There is no significant sexual dimorphism in body size in bakeri, but males are usually larger than females in the other two subspecies. The Llano Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale, buffy brown to liverbrown dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68.","habitat":"Well-drained sandy or gravelly loams supporting plant communities dominated by mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae), blackbrush (Coleogyneramosissima, Rosaceae), Ashe juniper (Junipreus ashei, Cupressaceae), desert hackberry (Celtispallid, Cannabaceae), and other xeric-adapted species."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0726FF88FAA6FC7F69D34762.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0726FF88FAA6FC7F69D34762","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"259","verbatimText":"19.Texas Pocket GopherGeomys personatusFrench:Gaufre du Texas/ German:Texas-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TexasOther common names:Masked Pocket Gopher, South Texas Pocket Gopher; Del Rio Pocket Gopher (fuscus), Nueces Pocket Gopher (fallax), Padre Island Pocket Gopher(personatus), Rio Grande Pocket Gopher (davis), Seaside Pocket Gopher (maritimus)Taxonomy.Geomys personatus True, 1889, “Padre Island, [Cameron Co.], Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that this species is sister to G. attwateri. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.p.personatusTrue,1889—MustangandPadreIs,KlebergCounty,Texas,USA.G.p.davisiWilliams&Genoways,1981—STexas,USA(NofRioGrandeinWebbandZapatacounties).G.p.fallaxMerriam,1895—SportionsofSETexas(N&NWofNuecesBayalongthelowerNuecesRiver),USA.|G.p.fuscusDavis,1940—STexas(NofRioGrandeinKinneyandValverdecounties),USA.G.p.maritimusDavis,1940—GulfcoastofSTexas(mainlandbetweenBaffinBayandFlourBluff),USA.G. p. megapotamus Davis, 1940— SE Texas, USA, into coastal NE Tamaulipas, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 140-280 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 165-400 g. Male Texas Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. There is considerable variation in body size among subspecies, with personatusbeing the largest and fuscus the smallest. The Texas Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is drab brown or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Albino individuals and others with white spots or a faint mid-dorsal stripe have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 68-70 and FN = 70-76.Habitat.Deep, sandy soils along river drainages, coastal beaches, barrier islands, and inland remnants of ancient coastlines. The Texas Pocket Gopheris absent from silt loams of the Rio Grande floodplains and gravelly, stony, or clayey soils scattered throughout its general distribution. Its habitats are typically semiarid, and vegetation associated with them includes mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, Fabaceae), and several true grasses such as bahiagrass (Paspalumnotatum), exotic Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), and sandbur (Cenchrusechinatus).Food and Feeding.The Texas Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.The Texas Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year, with a peak period of reproduction in October—May. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 2-5 young. Individuals live c.2 years in the wild.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Texas Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Texas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. On sandy coastal islands off the coast of Texas, USA, Texas Pocket Gophers form smallcolonies usually separated by at least 1-5 km.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies maritimus and fuscus are of conservation concern because of their limited distributions and detrimental effects of habitat modification by humans. Subspecies maritimus was listed in 2010 as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010), Williams, S.L. (1982, 1999b).","taxonomy":"Geomys personatus True, 1889, “Padre Island, [Cameron Co.], Texas,” USA.Molecular studies suggest that this species is sister to G. attwateri. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Texas @fr | Texas-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Texas @es | Masked Pocket Gopher @en | South Texas Pocket Gopher; Del Rio Pocket Gopher (fuscus) @en | Nueces Pocket Gopher (fallax) @en | Padre @en | sland Pocket Gopher(personatus) @en | Rio Grande Pocket Gopher (davis) @en | Seaside Pocket Gopher (maritimus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"True","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1889","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"259","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"personatus","name":"Geomys personatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.p.personatusTrue,1889—MustangandPadreIs,KlebergCounty,Texas,USA.G.p.davisiWilliams&Genoways,1981—STexas,USA(NofRioGrandeinWebbandZapatacounties).G.p.fallaxMerriam,1895—SportionsofSETexas(N&NWofNuecesBayalongthelowerNuecesRiver),USA.|G.p.fuscusDavis,1940—STexas(NofRioGrandeinKinneyandValverdecounties),USA.G.p.maritimusDavis,1940—GulfcoastofSTexas(mainlandbetweenBaffinBayandFlourBluff),USA.G. p. megapotamus Davis, 1940— SE Texas, USA, into coastal NE Tamaulipas, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603849/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Williams, S.L. (1982, 1999b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Texas Pocket Gopherfeeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system, including acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae), sunflowers (Helianthus sp., Asteraceae), and a variety of grass species. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"The Texas Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year, with a peak period of reproduction in October—May. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 2-5 young. Individuals live c.2 years in the wild.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Texas Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Texas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. On sandy coastal islands off the coast of Texas, USA, Texas Pocket Gophers form smallcolonies usually separated by at least 1-5 km.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies maritimus and fuscus are of conservation concern because of their limited distributions and detrimental effects of habitat modification by humans. Subspecies maritimus was listed in 2010 as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 140-280 mm, tail 60-120 mm; weight 165-400 g. Male Texas Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. There is considerable variation in body size among subspecies, with personatusbeing the largest and fuscus the smallest. The Texas Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is drab brown or grayish brown dorsally and lighter ventrally. Albino individuals and others with white spots or a faint mid-dorsal stripe have been reported. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 68-70 and FN = 70-76.","habitat":"Deep, sandy soils along river drainages, coastal beaches, barrier islands, and inland remnants of ancient coastlines. The Texas Pocket Gopheris absent from silt loams of the Rio Grande floodplains and gravelly, stony, or clayey soils scattered throughout its general distribution. Its habitats are typically semiarid, and vegetation associated with them includes mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, Fabaceae), and several true grasses such as bahiagrass (Paspalumnotatum), exotic Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), and sandbur (Cenchrusechinatus)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0726FF89FFAFF9A96237453F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0726FF89FFAFF9A96237453F","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"259","verbatimText":"18.Attwater’s Pocket GopherGeomys attwateriFrench:Gaufre dAttwater/ German:AttwaterTaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de AttwaterOther common names:Victoria Pocket Gopher (ammophilus)Taxonomy.Geomys breviceps attwater: Merriam, 1895, “ “Rockport, Aransas Co., Texas, » USA.Previously regarded as a subspecies of G. bursariusbut elevated to species status by P. K. Tucker and D.J. Schmidly in 1981. Molecular studies suggest that G. attwater: is sister to G. streckeri. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.a.attwateriMerriam,1895—GulfcoastofSETexas(betweentheBrazosandNuecesrivers),USA.G. a. ammophilus Davis, 1940— between Colorado and Guadalupe rivers in SE Texas, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-175 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight c.160 g (males) and ¢.130 g (females). Male Attwater’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It 1s average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upperincisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72-74.Habitat.Only in areas with friable soils, typically dominated by grasses. Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty clay loam, often with high levels (above 88%) of sand. Where it occurs along the Gulf coastal prairie, vegetation is dominated by perennial bunchgrasses and seasonally occurring forbs.Food and Feeding.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, consuming 36 of 51 available plant species in a study in south-eastern Texas. Individuals avoided annual dicots in winter and preferred perennial dicotyledonous when they were available. Females, especially pregnant females, preferred perennial monocots in spring. Attwater’s Pocket Gophereats predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation;it readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Feeding tunnels are deeper in the ground in winter and summer and shallower in spring and autumn in response to availability of shallow roots of annual monocots.Breeding.Breeding season spans the cooler months of the year (generally October— June), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 2-3 young.Activity patterns.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round. One population of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher moved 57,000-70,000 1 ofsoil from belowground to the surface per hectare per year.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In one study, burrow systems of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher had more loops and convolutions than did typically linear, branching burrow systems of other pocket gopher species. Attwater’s Pocket Gopher is often abundant, and estimates of density are 11-44 ind/ha. Hawks, owls, and mammalian carnivores commonly prey on Attwater’s Pocket Gopher, and most individuals live only one year in the wild. Some individuals have been reported to live up to 2:5 years in the wild.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Davis (1940), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008m), Patton (2005b), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Williams, L.R. (1999a), Williams, L.R. & Cameron (1991).","taxonomy":"Geomys breviceps attwater: Merriam, 1895, “ “Rockport, Aransas Co., Texas, » USA.Previously regarded as a subspecies of G. bursariusbut elevated to species status by P. K. Tucker and D.J. Schmidly in 1981. Molecular studies suggest that G. attwater: is sister to G. streckeri. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre d Attwater @fr | Attwater Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Attwater @es | Victoria Pocket Gopher (ammophilus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"259","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"attwateri","name":"Geomys attwateri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.a.attwateriMerriam,1895—GulfcoastofSETexas(betweentheBrazosandNuecesrivers),USA.G. a. ammophilus Davis, 1940— between Colorado and Guadalupe rivers in SE Texas, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603847/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Davis (1940) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008m) | Patton (2005b) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Williams, L.R. (1999a) | Williams, L.R. & Cameron (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, consuming 36 of 51 available plant species in a study in south-eastern Texas. Individuals avoided annual dicots in winter and preferred perennial dicotyledonous when they were available. Females, especially pregnant females, preferred perennial monocots in spring. Attwater’s Pocket Gophereats predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation;it readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Feeding tunnels are deeper in the ground in winter and summer and shallower in spring and autumn in response to availability of shallow roots of annual monocots.","breeding":"Breeding season spans the cooler months of the year (generally October— June), with females having 1-2 litters/year and each litter containing 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round. One population of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher moved 57,000-70,000 1 ofsoil from belowground to the surface per hectare per year.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In one study, burrow systems of Attwater’s Pocket Gopher had more loops and convolutions than did typically linear, branching burrow systems of other pocket gopher species. Attwater’s Pocket Gopher is often abundant, and estimates of density are 11-44 ind/ha. Hawks, owls, and mammalian carnivores commonly prey on Attwater’s Pocket Gopher, and most individuals live only one year in the wild. Some individuals have been reported to live up to 2:5 years in the wild.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130-175 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight c.160 g (males) and ¢.130 g (females). Male Attwater’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It 1s average size for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upperincisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 72-74.","habitat":"Only in areas with friable soils, typically dominated by grasses. Attwater’s Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty clay loam, often with high levels (above 88%) of sand. Where it occurs along the Gulf coastal prairie, vegetation is dominated by perennial bunchgrasses and seasonally occurring forbs."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FA34FD6463C44CCB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0727FF88FA34FD6463C44CCB","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"260","verbatimText":"22.Llano Pocket GopherGeomys texensisFrench:Gaufre de Llano/ German:Llano-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de LlanoOther common names:Central Texas Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys texensis Merriam, 1895, “Mason, Mason County, Texas,” USA.Molecular studies show G. texensisto be sister to G. bursarius. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.t.texensisMerriam,1895—CTexas(Mason,McCulloch,andSanSabacounties),USA.G.t. bakeriSmolen,Pitts&Bickham,1993—SCTexas(Medina,Uvalde,andZavalacounties),USA.G. t. llanensis Block & Zimmerman, 1991— C Texas (Gillespie, Kimble, and Llano counties), USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-210 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 125-215 g (males) and 105-165 g (females). The Llano Pocket Gopheris small for genus. There is no significant sexual dimorphism in body size in bakeri, but males are usually larger than females in the other two subspecies. The Llano Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale, buffy brown to liverbrown dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68.Habitat.Well-drained sandy or gravelly loams supporting plant communities dominated by mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae), blackbrush (Coleogyneramosissima, Rosaceae), Ashe juniper (Junipreus ashei, Cupressaceae), desert hackberry (Celtispallid, Cannabaceae), and other xeric-adapted species.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Little is known about breeding habits of the Llano Pocket Gopher, but it appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and July-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in ¢.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Cameron (1999), Chambers et al. (2009), Cramer & Cameron (2001), Hafner & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) (2008), Patton (2005b), Sudman et al. (20086).","taxonomy":"Geomys texensis Merriam, 1895, “Mason, Mason County, Texas,” USA.Molecular studies show G. texensisto be sister to G. bursarius. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Llano @fr | Llano-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Llano @es | Central Texas Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"260","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"texensis","name":"Geomys texensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.t.texensisMerriam,1895—CTexas(Mason,McCulloch,andSanSabacounties),USA.G.t. bakeriSmolen,Pitts&Bickham,1993—SCTexas(Medina,Uvalde,andZavalacounties),USA.G. t. llanensis Block & Zimmerman, 1991— C Texas (Gillespie, Kimble, and Llano counties), USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603855/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cameron (1999) | Chambers et al. (2009) | Cramer & Cameron (2001) | Hafner & NatureServe (Hammerson & Cannings) | (2008) | Patton (2005b) | Sudman et al. (20086)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Little is known about breeding habits of the Llano Pocket Gopher, but it appears to breed throughout the year, with major peaks in February-March and July-August. Each female produces 1-2 litters/year, and litters have 1-3 young. Young are weaned in ¢.30 days and reach reproductive maturity in 4-6 months.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Llano Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-210 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 125-215 g (males) and 105-165 g (females). The Llano Pocket Gopheris small for genus. There is no significant sexual dimorphism in body size in bakeri, but males are usually larger than females in the other two subspecies. The Llano Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale, buffy brown to liverbrown dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 70 and FN = 68.","habitat":"Well-drained sandy or gravelly loams supporting plant communities dominated by mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae), blackbrush (Coleogyneramosissima, Rosaceae), Ashe juniper (Junipreus ashei, Cupressaceae), desert hackberry (Celtispallid, Cannabaceae), and other xeric-adapted species."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FF36F7E4620F4451.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0727FF88FF36F7E4620F4451","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"260","verbatimText":"21.Tropical Pocket GopherGeomys tropicalisFrench:Gaufre tropical/ German:Tamaulipas-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TamaulipasTaxonomy.Geomys personatus tropicalis Goldman, 1915, “Alta Mira, Tamaulipas, Mexico.”Molecular studies show G. tropicalisto be closely related to G. personatus. Monotypic.Distribution.Coastal plains around Altamira and Tampico, SE Tamaulipas, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-I80 mm (males) and 120-155 mm (females), tail 70-90 mm (males) and 60-85 mm (females); weight 175-250 g (males) and 130-180 g oiedess. Male Tropical Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for genus, has a fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is cinnamon to cinnamon-buff dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.Habitat.Well-drained sandysoils in the arid, grassy plains of southern Tamaulipas.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 100 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat. Listed as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008h), Baker & Williams (1974), Chambers etal. (2009), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT(2010), Sudman et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Geomys personatus tropicalis Goldman, 1915, “Alta Mira, Tamaulipas, Mexico.”Molecular studies show G. tropicalisto be closely related to G. personatus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre tropical @fr | Tamaulipas-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Tamaulipas @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goldman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1915","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"260","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tropicalis","name":"Geomys tropicalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Coastal plains around Altamira and Tampico, SE Tamaulipas, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603853/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008h) | Baker & Williams (1974) | Chambers etal. (2009) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT(2010) | Sudman et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Tropical Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its range is less than 100 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat. Listed as threatened in 2010 under the Mexican Endangered Species Act.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-I80 mm (males) and 120-155 mm (females), tail 70-90 mm (males) and 60-85 mm (females); weight 175-250 g (males) and 130-180 g oiedess. Male Tropical Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for genus, has a fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is cinnamon to cinnamon-buff dorsally and lighter, occasionally white, ventrally. Feet are usually white. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Well-drained sandysoils in the arid, grassy plains of southern Tamaulipas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FF3FFE536A4941D4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0727FF88FF3FFE536A4941D4","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"260","verbatimText":"20.Strecker’s PocketGopherGeomys streckeriFrench:Gaufre de Strecker/ German:Strecker-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de StreckerOther common names:Carrizo Springs Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys personatus streckeri Davis, 1943, Carrizo Springs, Dimmit Co., Texas, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. personatus. Molecular studies suggest that G. streckeriis sister to G. attwateri. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Texas (N of Rio Grande in Dimmit and Zavala counties), USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120- 190 mm, tail 75-105 mm; weight 160- 185 g. Male Strecker’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy, fluvial deposits along creek beds in xeric, scrubland habitats.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. personatus streckeri).Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Davis (1940), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b).","taxonomy":"Geomys personatus streckeri Davis, 1943, Carrizo Springs, Dimmit Co., Texas, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. personatus. Molecular studies suggest that G. streckeriis sister to G. attwateri. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Strecker @fr | Strecker-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Strecker @es | Carrizo Springs Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthority":"Davis, 1943","interpretedAuthorityName":"Davis","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1943","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"260","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"streckeri","name":"Geomys streckeri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW Texas (N of Rio Grande in Dimmit and Zavala counties), USA.","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Davis (1940) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. personatus streckeri).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120- 190 mm, tail 75-105 mm; weight 160- 185 g. Male Strecker’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Sandy, fluvial deposits along creek beds in xeric, scrubland habitats."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF8FFA4DF4F669B0418C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0727FF8FFA4DF4F669B0418C","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"260","verbatimText":"23.Baird's Pocket GopherGeomys brevicepsFrench:Gaufre de Baird/ German:Baird-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BairdOther common names:Louisiana Pocket Gopher, Mer Rouge Pocket Gopher (breviceps)Taxonomy.Geomys breviceps Baird, 1855, Morehouse Parish, La.,” oyAccording to J. W. Demastes in 1994, the subspecies sagittalis may be a distinct species based on mtDNA evidence. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.brevicepsBaird,1855—NCLouisiana(MerRouge,MorehouseParish),USA.G. b. sagittalis Merriam, 1895— SE Oklahoma, SW Arkansas, E Texas (E of the Brazos River), and W Louisiana, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-160 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight 78-150 g. Baird's Pocket Gopheris small for the genus, and males are equal to or only slightly larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 74 and FN = 72.Habitat.Only in areas with friable soils, typically plant communities dominated by grasses. Baird's Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty-clay loam. In Louisiana, the subspecies brevicepsis found only in deep,rich alluvial soils, whereas the subspecies sagittalis is found in open prairie grasslands and clearings in pine-oak woodlands.Food and Feeding.Baird's Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Food stores recovered from one burrow system contained parts of at least 15 species of nearby plants. Baird’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Tunnels average c.6 cm in diameter and are usually found 10-68 cm below the surface. Total length of tunnels in a single burrow system is 55-180 m. Unlike other pocket gophers, individuals of the subspecies brevicepsconstruct large nest mounds that can rise 30-61 cm above the soil’s surface. Normally, the nest chamber is located 30 cm, or so, below the surface, but when the ground is temporally flooded, the nest chamberis located above the soil’s surface near the top of the nest mound.Breeding.Baird's Pocket Gopheris reproductively active in February-August, with peak activity in June—July. Evidence suggests that females have 1-2 litters/year, each litter containing 1-4 young (average 2-7 in one study). Gestation is 4-5 weeks, and young are weaned and leave their mother’s burrow 5-6 weeks after birth. Reproductive maturity in femalesis reached ¢.90 days following birth, and females born early in a breeding season often breed before the season ends.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Baird's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Baird's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density of Baird’s Pocket Gopherin a Texas prairie habitat was 0-55 ind/ha, which was low for pocket gophers.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Demastes (1994), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008n), Patton (2005b), Sulentich et al. (1991), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Williams, L.R. (1999b).","taxonomy":"Geomys breviceps Baird, 1855, Morehouse Parish, La.,” oyAccording to J. W. Demastes in 1994, the subspecies sagittalis may be a distinct species based on mtDNA evidence. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Baird @fr | Baird-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Baird @es | Louisiana Pocket Gopher @en | Mer Rouge Pocket Gopher (breviceps) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1855","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"260","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"breviceps","name":"Geomys breviceps","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.b.brevicepsBaird,1855—NCLouisiana(MerRouge,MorehouseParish),USA.G. b. sagittalis Merriam, 1895— SE Oklahoma, SW Arkansas, E Texas (E of the Brazos River), and W Louisiana, USA.","bibliography":"Demastes (1994) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008n) | Patton (2005b) | Sulentich et al. (1991) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Williams, L.R. (1999b)","foodAndFeeding":"Baird's Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Food stores recovered from one burrow system contained parts of at least 15 species of nearby plants. Baird’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Tunnels average c.6 cm in diameter and are usually found 10-68 cm below the surface. Total length of tunnels in a single burrow system is 55-180 m. Unlike other pocket gophers, individuals of the subspecies brevicepsconstruct large nest mounds that can rise 30-61 cm above the soil’s surface. Normally, the nest chamber is located 30 cm, or so, below the surface, but when the ground is temporally flooded, the nest chamberis located above the soil’s surface near the top of the nest mound.","breeding":"Baird's Pocket Gopheris reproductively active in February-August, with peak activity in June—July. Evidence suggests that females have 1-2 litters/year, each litter containing 1-4 young (average 2-7 in one study). Gestation is 4-5 weeks, and young are weaned and leave their mother’s burrow 5-6 weeks after birth. Reproductive maturity in femalesis reached ¢.90 days following birth, and females born early in a breeding season often breed before the season ends.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Baird's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Baird's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density of Baird’s Pocket Gopherin a Texas prairie habitat was 0-55 ind/ha, which was low for pocket gophers.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-160 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight 78-150 g. Baird's Pocket Gopheris small for the genus, and males are equal to or only slightly larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 74 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Only in areas with friable soils, typically plant communities dominated by grasses. Baird's Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty-clay loam. In Louisiana, the subspecies brevicepsis found only in deep,rich alluvial soils, whereas the subspecies sagittalis is found in open prairie grasslands and clearings in pine-oak woodlands."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF88FF3FFE536A4941D4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0727FF88FF3FFE536A4941D4","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"260","verbatimText":"20.Strecker’s PocketGopherGeomys streckeriFrench:Gaufre de Strecker/ German:Strecker-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de StreckerOther common names:Carrizo Springs Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys personatus streckeri Davis, 1943, Carrizo Springs, Dimmit Co., Texas, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. personatus. Molecular studies suggest that G. streckeriis sister to G. attwateri. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Texas (N of Rio Grande in Dimmit and Zavala counties), USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120- 190 mm, tail 75-105 mm; weight 160- 185 g. Male Strecker’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 72.Habitat.Sandy, fluvial deposits along creek beds in xeric, scrubland habitats.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. personatus streckeri).Bibliography.Chambers et al. (2009), Davis (1940), Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b), Jolley et al. (2000), Patton (2005b).","taxonomy":"Geomys personatus streckeri Davis, 1943, Carrizo Springs, Dimmit Co., Texas, USA.Formerly considered a subspecies of G. personatus. Molecular studies suggest that G. streckeriis sister to G. attwateri. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Strecker @fr | Strecker-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Strecker @es | Carrizo Springs Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthority":"Davis, 1943","interpretedAuthorityName":"Davis","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1943","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"260","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"streckeri","name":"Geomys streckeri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW Texas (N of Rio Grande in Dimmit and Zavala counties), USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603851/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chambers et al. (2009) | Davis (1940) | Hafner, Timm & Lacher (2008b) | Jolley et al. (2000) | Patton (2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Strecker’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as G. personatus streckeri).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120- 190 mm, tail 75-105 mm; weight 160- 185 g. Male Strecker’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. It is small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is pale buff dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 72 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Sandy, fluvial deposits along creek beds in xeric, scrubland habitats."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0727FF8FFA4DF4F669B0418C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0727FF8FFA4DF4F669B0418C","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"260","verbatimText":"23.Baird's Pocket GopherGeomys brevicepsFrench:Gaufre de Baird/ German:Baird-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BairdOther common names:Louisiana Pocket Gopher, Mer Rouge Pocket Gopher (breviceps)Taxonomy.Geomys breviceps Baird, 1855, Morehouse Parish, La.,” oyAccording to J. W. Demastes in 1994, the subspecies sagittalis may be a distinct species based on mtDNA evidence. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G.b.brevicepsBaird,1855—NCLouisiana(MerRouge,MorehouseParish),USA.G. b. sagittalis Merriam, 1895— SE Oklahoma, SW Arkansas, E Texas (E of the Brazos River), and W Louisiana, USA.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-160 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight 78-150 g. Baird's Pocket Gopheris small for the genus, and males are equal to or only slightly larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 74 and FN = 72.Habitat.Only in areas with friable soils, typically plant communities dominated by grasses. Baird's Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty-clay loam. In Louisiana, the subspecies brevicepsis found only in deep,rich alluvial soils, whereas the subspecies sagittalis is found in open prairie grasslands and clearings in pine-oak woodlands.Food and Feeding.Baird's Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Food stores recovered from one burrow system contained parts of at least 15 species of nearby plants. Baird’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Tunnels average c.6 cm in diameter and are usually found 10-68 cm below the surface. Total length of tunnels in a single burrow system is 55-180 m. Unlike other pocket gophers, individuals of the subspecies brevicepsconstruct large nest mounds that can rise 30-61 cm above the soil’s surface. Normally, the nest chamber is located 30 cm, or so, below the surface, but when the ground is temporally flooded, the nest chamberis located above the soil’s surface near the top of the nest mound.Breeding.Baird's Pocket Gopheris reproductively active in February-August, with peak activity in June—July. Evidence suggests that females have 1-2 litters/year, each litter containing 1-4 young (average 2-7 in one study). Gestation is 4-5 weeks, and young are weaned and leave their mother’s burrow 5-6 weeks after birth. Reproductive maturity in femalesis reached ¢.90 days following birth, and females born early in a breeding season often breed before the season ends.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Baird's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Baird's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density of Baird’s Pocket Gopherin a Texas prairie habitat was 0-55 ind/ha, which was low for pocket gophers.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Demastes (1994), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008n), Patton (2005b), Sulentich et al. (1991), Tucker & Schmidly (1981), Williams, L.R. (1999b).","taxonomy":"Geomys breviceps Baird, 1855, Morehouse Parish, La.,” oyAccording to J. W. Demastes in 1994, the subspecies sagittalis may be a distinct species based on mtDNA evidence. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Baird @fr | Baird-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Baird @es | Louisiana Pocket Gopher @en | Mer Rouge Pocket Gopher (breviceps) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1855","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"260","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"breviceps","name":"Geomys breviceps","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.b.brevicepsBaird,1855—NCLouisiana(MerRouge,MorehouseParish),USA.G. b. sagittalis Merriam, 1895— SE Oklahoma, SW Arkansas, E Texas (E of the Brazos River), and W Louisiana, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603857/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Demastes (1994) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008n) | Patton (2005b) | Sulentich et al. (1991) | Tucker & Schmidly (1981) | Williams, L.R. (1999b)","foodAndFeeding":"Baird's Pocket Gopheris a feeding generalist, and its diet consists of roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. Food stores recovered from one burrow system contained parts of at least 15 species of nearby plants. Baird’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Tunnels average c.6 cm in diameter and are usually found 10-68 cm below the surface. Total length of tunnels in a single burrow system is 55-180 m. Unlike other pocket gophers, individuals of the subspecies brevicepsconstruct large nest mounds that can rise 30-61 cm above the soil’s surface. Normally, the nest chamber is located 30 cm, or so, below the surface, but when the ground is temporally flooded, the nest chamberis located above the soil’s surface near the top of the nest mound.","breeding":"Baird's Pocket Gopheris reproductively active in February-August, with peak activity in June—July. Evidence suggests that females have 1-2 litters/year, each litter containing 1-4 young (average 2-7 in one study). Gestation is 4-5 weeks, and young are weaned and leave their mother’s burrow 5-6 weeks after birth. Reproductive maturity in femalesis reached ¢.90 days following birth, and females born early in a breeding season often breed before the season ends.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Baird's Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Baird's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density of Baird’s Pocket Gopherin a Texas prairie habitat was 0-55 ind/ha, which was low for pocket gophers.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-160 mm, tail 50-70 mm; weight 78-150 g. Baird's Pocket Gopheris small for the genus, and males are equal to or only slightly larger than females. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale brown to black dorsally and lighter ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a large medial groove flanked by a smaller groove located along the inner margin of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 74 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Only in areas with friable soils, typically plant communities dominated by grasses. Baird's Pocket Gopheris usually found in soils ranging from sandy loam to silty-clay loam. In Louisiana, the subspecies brevicepsis found only in deep,rich alluvial soils, whereas the subspecies sagittalis is found in open prairie grasslands and clearings in pine-oak woodlands."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0728FF86FAAEF7BC6AC24202.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0728FF86FAAEF7BC6AC24202","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"238","verbatimText":"6.Camas Pocket GopherThomomys bulbrvorusFrench:Gaufre de la Willamette/ German:Oregon-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de CamasOther common names:Camas RatTaxonomy.Diplostoma? bulbivorum Richardson, 1829, “banks of the Columbia [River],” Oregon, USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Monotypic.Distribution.Willamette Valley of NW Oregon, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-240 mm,tail 85-95 mm; weight 300-500 g. Male Camas Pocket Gophers are larger than females. This is the largest species of Thomomys. It has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is sooty brown dorsally, with blackish nose and ears. Ventrum is lead colored, with an irregularshaped white patch on throat. Summer pelage is short and coarse, and winter pelage is long and dense. The Camas Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 76 karyotype.Habitat.Mostly non-wooded fields with early seral plant communities, including grassy and weedy fields, orchards, and agricultural fields, often in areas with heavy claysoils. The Camas Pocket Gopheris widely considered an agricultural pest and is frequently subjected to intensive eradication efforts, including trapping and poisoning.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Camas Pocket Gopheris heavily biased toward roots of false dandelion (Hypochaerisradicata, Asteraceae), vetch (Vicia sp., Fabaceae), plantains (Plantago sp., Plantaginaceae), grasses, and root crops, including carrots, parsnips, and potatoes. Many captured individuals smell heavily of onion, indicating that wild onions (Alliumamplectens, Amaryllidaceae) are eaten frequently. Bulbs of common camas (Camassiaquamash, Asparagaceae) also form partof the diet. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. In a study of 16 excavated burrow systems, tunnels were located 8-91 cm beneath the surface, and diameter of tunnels were 5-13 cm. Because soils occupied by the Camas Pocket Gopher can become exceptionally hard when dry, it digs primarily with its large, procumbent incisors rather than its forefeet and claws. Individuals forage on the surface 1-2 m from burrow entrances; during these surface forays, they use incisors to cut 5-7 cm sections of food plants, which are placed in their cheek pouches and returned to burrows. These cuttings are either consumed immediately or placed in storage chambers within the burrow system.Breeding.The Camas Pocket Gopher breeds from late March to early July, has gestation of c.18 days, and has 3-5 young/litter. Extreme litter sizes of 1-9 young have been reported. Females have one litter per year, and young are weaned at c.6 weeks of age. It is thought that sexual maturity is not attained until the breeding season following birth.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Camas Pocket Gopher can be active at any hourof the day, with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Camas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density estimates are 10-32 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008q), Patton (1999b, 2005b), Richardson (1829a), Verts & Carraway (1987 1998).","taxonomy":"Diplostoma? bulbivorum Richardson, 1829, “banks of the Columbia [River],” Oregon, USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre de la Willamette @fr | Oregon-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Camas @es | Camas Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wied-Neuwied","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"238","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bulbrvorus","name":"Thomomys bulbrvorus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Willamette Valley of NW Oregon, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603823/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008q) | Patton (1999b, 2005b) | Richardson (1829a) | Verts & Carraway (1987 1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Camas Pocket Gopheris heavily biased toward roots of false dandelion (Hypochaerisradicata, Asteraceae), vetch (Vicia sp., Fabaceae), plantains (Plantago sp., Plantaginaceae), grasses, and root crops, including carrots, parsnips, and potatoes. Many captured individuals smell heavily of onion, indicating that wild onions (Alliumamplectens, Amaryllidaceae) are eaten frequently. Bulbs of common camas (Camassiaquamash, Asparagaceae) also form partof the diet. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. In a study of 16 excavated burrow systems, tunnels were located 8-91 cm beneath the surface, and diameter of tunnels were 5-13 cm. Because soils occupied by the Camas Pocket Gopher can become exceptionally hard when dry, it digs primarily with its large, procumbent incisors rather than its forefeet and claws. Individuals forage on the surface 1-2 m from burrow entrances; during these surface forays, they use incisors to cut 5-7 cm sections of food plants, which are placed in their cheek pouches and returned to burrows. These cuttings are either consumed immediately or placed in storage chambers within the burrow system.","breeding":"The Camas Pocket Gopher breeds from late March to early July, has gestation of c.18 days, and has 3-5 young/litter. Extreme litter sizes of 1-9 young have been reported. Females have one litter per year, and young are weaned at c.6 weeks of age. It is thought that sexual maturity is not attained until the breeding season following birth.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Camas Pocket Gopher can be active at any hourof the day, with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Camas Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Density estimates are 10-32 ind/ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-240 mm,tail 85-95 mm; weight 300-500 g. Male Camas Pocket Gophers are larger than females. This is the largest species of Thomomys. It has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is sooty brown dorsally, with blackish nose and ears. Ventrum is lead colored, with an irregularshaped white patch on throat. Summer pelage is short and coarse, and winter pelage is long and dense. The Camas Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 76 karyotype.","habitat":"Mostly non-wooded fields with early seral plant communities, including grassy and weedy fields, orchards, and agricultural fields, often in areas with heavy claysoils. The Camas Pocket Gopheris widely considered an agricultural pest and is frequently subjected to intensive eradication efforts, including trapping and poisoning."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF85FA47F4756FF94192.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0729FF85FA47F4756FF94192","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"239","verbatimText":"9.Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket GopherThomomys sheldoniFrench:Gaufre de Sheldon/ German:Sierra Madre-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de Sierra Madre OccidentalOther common names:Sheldon Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Thomomys sheldoni Bailey, 1915, “Santa Teresa (6,800 feet altitude), Tepic, [Nayarit], Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934, and a junior synonym of T. u. madrensisby J. L. Patton in 2005. Resurrected to species status by V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2013. Molecular studies show T. sheldonito be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes 7. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.s.sheldoniBailey,1915—WDurango,WZacatecas,andNENayarit,Mexico.T. s. chihuahuae Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NC Chihuahua, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-180 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-130 g. Male Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This mediumsized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is moderately dense and medium to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Ventral pelage is golden or yellowish brown. Female Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 118-152.Habitat.Restricted to upper elevation habitats (generally above 2000 m) with deep, friable soils that support pine-oak woodlands.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopherare probably like those ofall other species of Thomomys, with 1-2 periods of peak breeding activity per year and 3-6 young/ litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies suggest that the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m® of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris not listed on The IUCN Red List, but it is common throughoutits distribution and probably not threatened anywhere.Bibliography.Bailey (1915), IUCN (2015d), Mathis et al. (2013a), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (2005b).","taxonomy":"Thomomys sheldoni Bailey, 1915, “Santa Teresa (6,800 feet altitude), Tepic, [Nayarit], Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934, and a junior synonym of T. u. madrensisby J. L. Patton in 2005. Resurrected to species status by V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2013. Molecular studies show T. sheldonito be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes 7. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Sheldon @fr | Sierra Madre-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Sierra Madre Occidental @es | Sheldon Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wied-Neuwied","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"239","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sheldoni","name":"Thomomys sheldoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.s.sheldoniBailey,1915—WDurango,WZacatecas,andNENayarit,Mexico.T. s. chihuahuae Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NC Chihuahua, Mexico.","bibliography":"Bailey (1915) | IUCN (2015d) | Mathis et al. (2013a) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopherare probably like those ofall other species of Thomomys, with 1-2 periods of peak breeding activity per year and 3-6 young/ litter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies suggest that the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m® of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris not listed on The IUCN Red List, but it is common throughoutits distribution and probably not threatened anywhere.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-180 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-130 g. Male Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This mediumsized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is moderately dense and medium to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Ventral pelage is golden or yellowish brown. Female Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 118-152.","habitat":"Restricted to upper elevation habitats (generally above 2000 m) with deep, friable soils that support pine-oak woodlands."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF86FA33FEED61414D46.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0729FF86FA33FEED61414D46","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"254","verbatimText":"8.Southern Pocket GopherThomomys umbrinusFrench:Gaufre méridional/ German:Sidliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza meridionalOther common names:Animas Mountains Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys umbrinus Richardson, 1829, “Cadadaguois, a town in southwestern part of Louisiana.” Corrected by V. Bailey in 1906 to the “Boca del Monte, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Molecular studies show 7. umbrinusto be a member of the 7. umbrinusspecies group, which also includes 71. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Thirty-two subspecies were listed by J. L. Patton in 1999 and 23 were recognized by Patton in 2005, but subsequent elevation of T. atrovariusand T. sheldonito species rank, followed by a systematic revision of 7. umbrinusby V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2014 reduced the number of subspecies considerably. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.u.umbrinusRichardson,1829—ECZacatecas,SthroughtheTrans-MexicoVolcanicBelt,intoWCVeracruz(PicodeOrizaba),Mexico.T.u.durangiNelson&Goldman,1934—SWDurangoandNWZacatecas,Mexico.T.u.goldmaniMerriam,1901—CChihuahuaandSWCoahuilaintoECDurango,Mexico.T. u. intermedius Mearns, 1897— SE Arizona and SW New Mexico, USA, S into Sonora and NW Chihuahua, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-180 mm (males) and 120-170 mm (females), tail 65-80 mm (males) and 55-70 mm (females); weight 110-180 g (males) and 80-120 g (females). Male Southern Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; thisis especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Bodysize and pelage color vary considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much smaller and paler than populations living in moist and cool montane meadows at high elevations. Most individuals are light to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. The Southern Pocket Gopheris the only member of this species group with a 2n = 78 karyotype; FN = 96-152.Habitat.Low-elevation desert grasslands and scrublands through mid-elevation oak and pine-oak woodlands to high-elevation coniferous forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Southern Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Breeding season of the Southern Pocket Gophervaries greatly acrossits distribution, with low-elevation individuals breeding in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring. Most populations are thought to breed only once per year, but some populations in Mexico may breed twice per year. Breeding habits of the Southern Pocket Gopherare probably like those of all other members of the genus, with litter sizes of 1-10 young and averaging 4-5 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies show the Southern Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes are typical of those measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bailey (1906), Castro-Campillo & Ramirez-Pulido (2000), Hafner et al. (1987), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castaneda & Lacher (2008a), Mathis et al. (2014), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (1999g, 2005b).","taxonomy":"Geomys umbrinus Richardson, 1829, “Cadadaguois, a town in southwestern part of Louisiana.” Corrected by V. Bailey in 1906 to the “Boca del Monte, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Molecular studies show 7. umbrinusto be a member of the 7. umbrinusspecies group, which also includes 71. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Thirty-two subspecies were listed by J. L. Patton in 1999 and 23 were recognized by Patton in 2005, but subsequent elevation of T. atrovariusand T. sheldonito species rank, followed by a systematic revision of 7. umbrinusby V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2014 reduced the number of subspecies considerably. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre méridional @fr | Sidliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza meridional @es | Animas Mountains Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Richardson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1829","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"254","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"umbrinus","name":"Thomomys umbrinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.u.umbrinusRichardson,1829—ECZacatecas,SthroughtheTrans-MexicoVolcanicBelt,intoWCVeracruz(PicodeOrizaba),Mexico.T.u.durangiNelson&Goldman,1934—SWDurangoandNWZacatecas,Mexico.T.u.goldmaniMerriam,1901—CChihuahuaandSWCoahuilaintoECDurango,Mexico.T. u. intermedius Mearns, 1897— SE Arizona and SW New Mexico, USA, S into Sonora and NW Chihuahua, Mexico.","bibliography":"Bailey (1906) | Castro-Campillo & Ramirez-Pulido (2000) | Hafner et al. (1987) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castaneda & Lacher (2008a) | Mathis et al. (2014) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (1999g, 2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Southern Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Southern Pocket Gophervaries greatly acrossits distribution, with low-elevation individuals breeding in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring. Most populations are thought to breed only once per year, but some populations in Mexico may breed twice per year. Breeding habits of the Southern Pocket Gopherare probably like those of all other members of the genus, with litter sizes of 1-10 young and averaging 4-5 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies show the Southern Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes are typical of those measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130-180 mm (males) and 120-170 mm (females), tail 65-80 mm (males) and 55-70 mm (females); weight 110-180 g (males) and 80-120 g (females). Male Southern Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; thisis especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Bodysize and pelage color vary considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much smaller and paler than populations living in moist and cool montane meadows at high elevations. Most individuals are light to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. The Southern Pocket Gopheris the only member of this species group with a 2n = 78 karyotype; FN = 96-152.","habitat":"Low-elevation desert grasslands and scrublands through mid-elevation oak and pine-oak woodlands to high-elevation coniferous forests."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF86FF31FBBE68D04B8E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0729FF86FF31FBBE68D04B8E","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"239","verbatimText":"7.Townsend’s Pocket GopherThomomys townsendiiFrench:Gaufre de Townsend/ German:Townsend-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TownsendTaxonomy.Geomys townsendii Bachman, 1839, “Columbia river.” Modified by V. Bailey in 1915 to “probably southern Idaho and very probably near Nampa [Canyon County],” USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. R. Hall in 1981 but considered a valid species by many other specialists despite limited hybridization with 7. bottaein north-eastern California. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.townsendBachman,1839—SnakeRiverdrainageinIdahoandECOregon,USA.T. t. nevadensis Merriam, 1897— Humboldt and Quinn River drainages in Nevada and SE Oregon, and Honey Lake Valley in N California, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-230 mm (males) and 145-210 mm (females), tail 60-100 mm (males) and 55-94 mm (females); weight 200-420 g (males) and 120-310 g (females). Male Townsend’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This relatively large pocket gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is light brown to light grayish brown with dark gray nose,face, and post-auricular patches. Chin is white, and some individuals have white marks on top of head. Melanistic individuals may have white patches on chin or feet. Female Townsend's Pocket Gophers have four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 142-148. J. L. Patton and his colleagues investigated a narrow (c.1 km) zone of hybridization between Townsend’s Pocket Gopher and Botta’s Pocket Gopher (T. bottae) in north-eastern California, USA, where hybrid individuals showed a substantial degree of infertility or non-viability. The authors supported the speciesstatus of Townsend's Pocket Gopher because there was no evidence of genetic introgression beyond the hybrid zone.Habitat.Bottomland regions in the northern Great Basin of western USA, including river valleys and Pleistocene lakebeds surrounded by arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats. Soils in these regions are deep, loamy, and relatively moist. Maximum elevation recorded for Townsend's Pocket Gopheris ¢.2000 m in eastern Oregon, USA.Food and Feeding.In many parts ofits distribution, Townsend's Pocket Gopher feeds heavily on saltgrass (Distichlisspicata, Poaceae) and other grasses, legumes (especially alfalfa), and a large variety of cultivated plants. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for Townsend's Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Townsend’s Pocket Gopher breeds in early spring (February-April), and females produce one or morelitters per year, each containing 3-10 young. In a study in north-eastern California, Townsend’s Pocket Gophers were promiscuous, based on female choice.Activity patterns.Townsend's Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In areas supporting large populations of Townsend's pocket gopher, mounds of earth produced by their digging can cover nearly 50% ofthe soil surface. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Townsend's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bailey (1915, 1933), Hall (1981), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008v), Patton (2005b), Patton et al. (1984), Rogers (1991), Smith (1999), Verts & Carraway (2003).","taxonomy":"Geomys townsendii Bachman, 1839, “Columbia river.” Modified by V. Bailey in 1915 to “probably southern Idaho and very probably near Nampa [Canyon County],” USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. R. Hall in 1981 but considered a valid species by many other specialists despite limited hybridization with 7. bottaein north-eastern California. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Townsend @fr | Townsend-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Townsend @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"239","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"townsendii","name":"Thomomys townsendii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.t.townsendBachman,1839—SnakeRiverdrainageinIdahoandECOregon,USA.T. t. nevadensis Merriam, 1897— Humboldt and Quinn River drainages in Nevada and SE Oregon, and Honey Lake Valley in N California, USA.","bibliography":"Bailey (1915, 1933) | Hall (1981) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008v) | Patton (2005b) | Patton et al. (1984) | Rogers (1991) | Smith (1999) | Verts & Carraway (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"In many parts ofits distribution, Townsend's Pocket Gopher feeds heavily on saltgrass (Distichlisspicata, Poaceae) and other grasses, legumes (especially alfalfa), and a large variety of cultivated plants. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for Townsend's Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"Townsend’s Pocket Gopher breeds in early spring (February-April), and females produce one or morelitters per year, each containing 3-10 young. In a study in north-eastern California, Townsend’s Pocket Gophers were promiscuous, based on female choice.","activityPatterns":"Townsend's Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In areas supporting large populations of Townsend's pocket gopher, mounds of earth produced by their digging can cover nearly 50% ofthe soil surface. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Townsend's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-230 mm (males) and 145-210 mm (females), tail 60-100 mm (males) and 55-94 mm (females); weight 200-420 g (males) and 120-310 g (females). Male Townsend’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This relatively large pocket gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is light brown to light grayish brown with dark gray nose,face, and post-auricular patches. Chin is white, and some individuals have white marks on top of head. Melanistic individuals may have white patches on chin or feet. Female Townsend's Pocket Gophers have four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 142-148. J. L. Patton and his colleagues investigated a narrow (c.1 km) zone of hybridization between Townsend’s Pocket Gopher and Botta’s Pocket Gopher (T. bottae) in north-eastern California, USA, where hybrid individuals showed a substantial degree of infertility or non-viability. The authors supported the speciesstatus of Townsend's Pocket Gopher because there was no evidence of genetic introgression beyond the hybrid zone.","habitat":"Bottomland regions in the northern Great Basin of western USA, including river valleys and Pleistocene lakebeds surrounded by arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats. Soils in these regions are deep, loamy, and relatively moist. Maximum elevation recorded for Townsend's Pocket Gopheris ¢.2000 m in eastern Oregon, USA."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF85FA47F4756FF94192.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0729FF85FA47F4756FF94192","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"239","verbatimText":"9.Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket GopherThomomys sheldoniFrench:Gaufre de Sheldon/ German:Sierra Madre-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de Sierra Madre OccidentalOther common names:Sheldon Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Thomomys sheldoni Bailey, 1915, “Santa Teresa (6,800 feet altitude), Tepic, [Nayarit], Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934, and a junior synonym of T. u. madrensisby J. L. Patton in 2005. Resurrected to species status by V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2013. Molecular studies show T. sheldonito be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes 7. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.s.sheldoniBailey,1915—WDurango,WZacatecas,andNENayarit,Mexico.T. s. chihuahuae Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NC Chihuahua, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-180 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-130 g. Male Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This mediumsized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is moderately dense and medium to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Ventral pelage is golden or yellowish brown. Female Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 118-152.Habitat.Restricted to upper elevation habitats (generally above 2000 m) with deep, friable soils that support pine-oak woodlands.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopherare probably like those ofall other species of Thomomys, with 1-2 periods of peak breeding activity per year and 3-6 young/ litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies suggest that the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m® of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris not listed on The IUCN Red List, but it is common throughoutits distribution and probably not threatened anywhere.Bibliography.Bailey (1915), IUCN (2015d), Mathis et al. (2013a), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (2005b).","taxonomy":"Thomomys sheldoni Bailey, 1915, “Santa Teresa (6,800 feet altitude), Tepic, [Nayarit], Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934, and a junior synonym of T. u. madrensisby J. L. Patton in 2005. Resurrected to species status by V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2013. Molecular studies show T. sheldonito be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes 7. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Sheldon @fr | Sierra Madre-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Sierra Madre Occidental @es | Sheldon Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wied-Neuwied","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"239","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sheldoni","name":"Thomomys sheldoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.s.sheldoniBailey,1915—WDurango,WZacatecas,andNENayarit,Mexico.T. s. chihuahuae Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NC Chihuahua, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603829/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bailey (1915) | IUCN (2015d) | Mathis et al. (2013a) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopherare probably like those ofall other species of Thomomys, with 1-2 periods of peak breeding activity per year and 3-6 young/ litter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies suggest that the Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m® of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"The Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopheris not listed on The IUCN Red List, but it is common throughoutits distribution and probably not threatened anywhere.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-180 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-130 g. Male Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This mediumsized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is moderately dense and medium to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Ventral pelage is golden or yellowish brown. Female Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 118-152.","habitat":"Restricted to upper elevation habitats (generally above 2000 m) with deep, friable soils that support pine-oak woodlands."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF86FA33FEED61414D46.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0729FF86FA33FEED61414D46","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"254","verbatimText":"8.Southern Pocket GopherThomomys umbrinusFrench:Gaufre méridional/ German:Sidliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza meridionalOther common names:Animas Mountains Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Geomys umbrinus Richardson, 1829, “Cadadaguois, a town in southwestern part of Louisiana.” Corrected by V. Bailey in 1906 to the “Boca del Monte, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Molecular studies show 7. umbrinusto be a member of the 7. umbrinusspecies group, which also includes 71. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Thirty-two subspecies were listed by J. L. Patton in 1999 and 23 were recognized by Patton in 2005, but subsequent elevation of T. atrovariusand T. sheldonito species rank, followed by a systematic revision of 7. umbrinusby V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2014 reduced the number of subspecies considerably. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.u.umbrinusRichardson,1829—ECZacatecas,SthroughtheTrans-MexicoVolcanicBelt,intoWCVeracruz(PicodeOrizaba),Mexico.T.u.durangiNelson&Goldman,1934—SWDurangoandNWZacatecas,Mexico.T.u.goldmaniMerriam,1901—CChihuahuaandSWCoahuilaintoECDurango,Mexico.T. u. intermedius Mearns, 1897— SE Arizona and SW New Mexico, USA, S into Sonora and NW Chihuahua, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-180 mm (males) and 120-170 mm (females), tail 65-80 mm (males) and 55-70 mm (females); weight 110-180 g (males) and 80-120 g (females). Male Southern Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; thisis especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Bodysize and pelage color vary considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much smaller and paler than populations living in moist and cool montane meadows at high elevations. Most individuals are light to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. The Southern Pocket Gopheris the only member of this species group with a 2n = 78 karyotype; FN = 96-152.Habitat.Low-elevation desert grasslands and scrublands through mid-elevation oak and pine-oak woodlands to high-elevation coniferous forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Southern Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Breeding season of the Southern Pocket Gophervaries greatly acrossits distribution, with low-elevation individuals breeding in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring. Most populations are thought to breed only once per year, but some populations in Mexico may breed twice per year. Breeding habits of the Southern Pocket Gopherare probably like those of all other members of the genus, with litter sizes of 1-10 young and averaging 4-5 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies show the Southern Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes are typical of those measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bailey (1906), Castro-Campillo & Ramirez-Pulido (2000), Hafner et al. (1987), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castaneda & Lacher (2008a), Mathis et al. (2014), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (1999g, 2005b).","taxonomy":"Geomys umbrinus Richardson, 1829, “Cadadaguois, a town in southwestern part of Louisiana.” Corrected by V. Bailey in 1906 to the “Boca del Monte, Vera Cruz, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Molecular studies show 7. umbrinusto be a member of the 7. umbrinusspecies group, which also includes 71. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Thirty-two subspecies were listed by J. L. Patton in 1999 and 23 were recognized by Patton in 2005, but subsequent elevation of T. atrovariusand T. sheldonito species rank, followed by a systematic revision of 7. umbrinusby V. L. Mathis and colleagues in 2014 reduced the number of subspecies considerably. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre méridional @fr | Sidliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza meridional @es | Animas Mountains Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Richardson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1829","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"254","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"umbrinus","name":"Thomomys umbrinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.u.umbrinusRichardson,1829—ECZacatecas,SthroughtheTrans-MexicoVolcanicBelt,intoWCVeracruz(PicodeOrizaba),Mexico.T.u.durangiNelson&Goldman,1934—SWDurangoandNWZacatecas,Mexico.T.u.goldmaniMerriam,1901—CChihuahuaandSWCoahuilaintoECDurango,Mexico.T. u. intermedius Mearns, 1897— SE Arizona and SW New Mexico, USA, S into Sonora and NW Chihuahua, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603827/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bailey (1906) | Castro-Campillo & Ramirez-Pulido (2000) | Hafner et al. (1987) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castaneda & Lacher (2008a) | Mathis et al. (2014) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (1999g, 2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Southern Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Southern Pocket Gophervaries greatly acrossits distribution, with low-elevation individuals breeding in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring. Most populations are thought to breed only once per year, but some populations in Mexico may breed twice per year. Breeding habits of the Southern Pocket Gopherare probably like those of all other members of the genus, with litter sizes of 1-10 young and averaging 4-5 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but field studies show the Southern Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes are typical of those measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130-180 mm (males) and 120-170 mm (females), tail 65-80 mm (males) and 55-70 mm (females); weight 110-180 g (males) and 80-120 g (females). Male Southern Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; thisis especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Bodysize and pelage color vary considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much smaller and paler than populations living in moist and cool montane meadows at high elevations. Most individuals are light to dark brown dorsally, occasionally with a faint, slightly darker dorsal stripe. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. The Southern Pocket Gopheris the only member of this species group with a 2n = 78 karyotype; FN = 96-152.","habitat":"Low-elevation desert grasslands and scrublands through mid-elevation oak and pine-oak woodlands to high-elevation coniferous forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A0729FF86FF31FBBE68D04B8E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A0729FF86FF31FBBE68D04B8E","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"239","verbatimText":"7.Townsend’s Pocket GopherThomomys townsendiiFrench:Gaufre de Townsend/ German:Townsend-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de TownsendTaxonomy.Geomys townsendii Bachman, 1839, “Columbia river.” Modified by V. Bailey in 1915 to “probably southern Idaho and very probably near Nampa [Canyon County],” USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. R. Hall in 1981 but considered a valid species by many other specialists despite limited hybridization with 7. bottaein north-eastern California. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.townsendBachman,1839—SnakeRiverdrainageinIdahoandECOregon,USA.T. t. nevadensis Merriam, 1897— Humboldt and Quinn River drainages in Nevada and SE Oregon, and Honey Lake Valley in N California, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-230 mm (males) and 145-210 mm (females), tail 60-100 mm (males) and 55-94 mm (females); weight 200-420 g (males) and 120-310 g (females). Male Townsend’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This relatively large pocket gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is light brown to light grayish brown with dark gray nose,face, and post-auricular patches. Chin is white, and some individuals have white marks on top of head. Melanistic individuals may have white patches on chin or feet. Female Townsend's Pocket Gophers have four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 142-148. J. L. Patton and his colleagues investigated a narrow (c.1 km) zone of hybridization between Townsend’s Pocket Gopher and Botta’s Pocket Gopher (T. bottae) in north-eastern California, USA, where hybrid individuals showed a substantial degree of infertility or non-viability. The authors supported the speciesstatus of Townsend's Pocket Gopher because there was no evidence of genetic introgression beyond the hybrid zone.Habitat.Bottomland regions in the northern Great Basin of western USA, including river valleys and Pleistocene lakebeds surrounded by arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats. Soils in these regions are deep, loamy, and relatively moist. Maximum elevation recorded for Townsend's Pocket Gopheris ¢.2000 m in eastern Oregon, USA.Food and Feeding.In many parts ofits distribution, Townsend's Pocket Gopher feeds heavily on saltgrass (Distichlisspicata, Poaceae) and other grasses, legumes (especially alfalfa), and a large variety of cultivated plants. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for Townsend's Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Townsend’s Pocket Gopher breeds in early spring (February-April), and females produce one or morelitters per year, each containing 3-10 young. In a study in north-eastern California, Townsend’s Pocket Gophers were promiscuous, based on female choice.Activity patterns.Townsend's Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In areas supporting large populations of Townsend's pocket gopher, mounds of earth produced by their digging can cover nearly 50% ofthe soil surface. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Townsend's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bailey (1915, 1933), Hall (1981), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008v), Patton (2005b), Patton et al. (1984), Rogers (1991), Smith (1999), Verts & Carraway (2003).","taxonomy":"Geomys townsendii Bachman, 1839, “Columbia river.” Modified by V. Bailey in 1915 to “probably southern Idaho and very probably near Nampa [Canyon County],” USA.Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. R. Hall in 1981 but considered a valid species by many other specialists despite limited hybridization with 7. bottaein north-eastern California. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Townsend @fr | Townsend-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Townsend @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"239","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"townsendii","name":"Thomomys townsendii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.t.townsendBachman,1839—SnakeRiverdrainageinIdahoandECOregon,USA.T. t. nevadensis Merriam, 1897— Humboldt and Quinn River drainages in Nevada and SE Oregon, and Honey Lake Valley in N California, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603825/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bailey (1915, 1933) | Hall (1981) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008v) | Patton (2005b) | Patton et al. (1984) | Rogers (1991) | Smith (1999) | Verts & Carraway (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"In many parts ofits distribution, Townsend's Pocket Gopher feeds heavily on saltgrass (Distichlisspicata, Poaceae) and other grasses, legumes (especially alfalfa), and a large variety of cultivated plants. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food orfecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for Townsend's Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"Townsend’s Pocket Gopher breeds in early spring (February-April), and females produce one or morelitters per year, each containing 3-10 young. In a study in north-eastern California, Townsend’s Pocket Gophers were promiscuous, based on female choice.","activityPatterns":"Townsend's Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In areas supporting large populations of Townsend's pocket gopher, mounds of earth produced by their digging can cover nearly 50% ofthe soil surface. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Townsend's Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-230 mm (males) and 145-210 mm (females), tail 60-100 mm (males) and 55-94 mm (females); weight 200-420 g (males) and 120-310 g (females). Male Townsend’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. This relatively large pocket gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is light brown to light grayish brown with dark gray nose,face, and post-auricular patches. Chin is white, and some individuals have white marks on top of head. Melanistic individuals may have white patches on chin or feet. Female Townsend's Pocket Gophers have four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 142-148. J. L. Patton and his colleagues investigated a narrow (c.1 km) zone of hybridization between Townsend’s Pocket Gopher and Botta’s Pocket Gopher (T. bottae) in north-eastern California, USA, where hybrid individuals showed a substantial degree of infertility or non-viability. The authors supported the speciesstatus of Townsend's Pocket Gopher because there was no evidence of genetic introgression beyond the hybrid zone.","habitat":"Bottomland regions in the northern Great Basin of western USA, including river valleys and Pleistocene lakebeds surrounded by arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats. Soils in these regions are deep, loamy, and relatively moist. Maximum elevation recorded for Townsend's Pocket Gopheris ¢.2000 m in eastern Oregon, USA."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF85FAAEFB1E6C884A29.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072AFF85FAAEFB1E6C884A29","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"11.Nayar Pocket GopherThomomys nayarensisFrench:Gaufre de la Nayar/ German:Nayarit-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de NayarTaxonomy.Thomomys nayarensis Mathis et al., 2013, “Mexico: Nayarit; 8.5 km N, 7 km W Mesa del Nayar, 2,200 m.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Specimens of 1. nayarensiswere formerly identified as T. umbrinus. Molecular studies show T. nayarensisto be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Monotypic.Distribution.Known from only two localities in the Sierra del Nayar, NE Nayarit, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-140 mm, tail 50-75 mm, hindfoot 23-27 mm; weight 75-110 g. Male Nayar Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is medium brown dorsally and golden-yellowish brown ventrally. All specimen of the Nayar Pocket Gopher known to date have few or no prominent guard hairs on dorsal rump, and these guard hairs, if present, extend no more than 3 mm beyond surrounding wool hairs. Female Nayar Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 146.Habitat.Open, grassy meadows in pine-oak woodlands and in nearby agricultural fields. Soils in these regions are typically deep and friable. Known elevational range of the Nayar Pocket Gopher is 1300-2200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but male Nayar Pocket Gophers collected in January appeared to be in reproductive condition and females did not.Activity patterns.Limited observations suggest that the Nayar Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Nayar Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m* of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Nayar Pocket Gopher has not been listed on The [UCN Red List. It may be vulnerable because of its extremely limited distribution.Bibliography.Mathis et al. (2013b), IUCN (20154).","taxonomy":"Thomomys nayarensis Mathis et al., 2013, “Mexico: Nayarit; 8.5 km N, 7 km W Mesa del Nayar, 2,200 m.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Specimens of 1. nayarensiswere formerly identified as T. umbrinus. Molecular studies show T. nayarensisto be a member of the T. umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre de la Nayar @fr | Nayarit-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Nayar @es","interpretedAuthority":"Mathis et al., 2013","interpretedAuthorityName":"Mathis et al.","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2013","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nayarensis","name":"Thomomys nayarensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known from only two localities in the Sierra del Nayar, NE Nayarit, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603833/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Mathis et al. (2013b) | IUCN (20154)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but male Nayar Pocket Gophers collected in January appeared to be in reproductive condition and females did not.","activityPatterns":"Limited observations suggest that the Nayar Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Nayar Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range size is typical of that measured in other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m* of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"The Nayar Pocket Gopher has not been listed on The [UCN Red List. It may be vulnerable because of its extremely limited distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 110-140 mm, tail 50-75 mm, hindfoot 23-27 mm; weight 75-110 g. Male Nayar Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Its pelage is medium brown dorsally and golden-yellowish brown ventrally. All specimen of the Nayar Pocket Gopher known to date have few or no prominent guard hairs on dorsal rump, and these guard hairs, if present, extend no more than 3 mm beyond surrounding wool hairs. Female Nayar Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 146.","habitat":"Open, grassy meadows in pine-oak woodlands and in nearby agricultural fields. Soils in these regions are typically deep and friable. Known elevational range of the Nayar Pocket Gopher is 1300-2200 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF85FF96F82F6DB642A2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072AFF85FF96F82F6DB642A2","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"10.Black-and-Brown Pocket GopherThomomys atrovariusFrench:Gaufre de Tatemeles/ German:Schwarzbraune Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza negra y marronTaxonomy.Thomomys atrovarius J. A. Allen, 1898, “Tatemales [near Rosario], State of Sinaloa, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2011. Molecular studies show T. atrovariusto be a member of the Thomomys umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.a.atrovariusJ.A.Allen,1898—CSinaloatoSNayaritandadjacentpartsofSWDurangoandNWJalisco,Mexico.T. a. parviceps Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NE Sinaloa and W Durango S to C Sinaloa, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-165 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-150 g. Male Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is moderately dense to very sparse, sometimes almost naked on ventrum, and it is dark brown to dull gray-black dorsally, occasionally with a wash of lighter brown or gray laterally. Female Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal, and baculum in males is usually less than 11 mm in length. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 116-132.Habitat.Dry, thornscrub forest. The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheroccurs in a wide variety of soils from near sea level along the coast of the Pacific Ocean to elevations of ¢.2400 m in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Unlike most species of pocket gophers, the Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris only rarely found in agricultural fields, and anecdotal observations suggest that it is reluctant to leave cover of thornscrub forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackand-Brown Pocket Gopher probably breeds during, or soon after, the rainy season (June-August) when vegetation is plentiful.Activity patterns.The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As in other pocket gophers, Blackand-Brown Pocket Gophers are solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes of Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophersare typical of other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher is not listed on The IUCN Red List because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher (71. umbrinus), which is listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Allen (1898a), Hafner et al. (2011), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafeda & Lacher (2008a), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (2005b).","taxonomy":"Thomomys atrovarius J. A. Allen, 1898, “Tatemales [near Rosario], State of Sinaloa, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2011. Molecular studies show T. atrovariusto be a member of the Thomomys umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Tatemeles @fr | Schwarzbraune Taschenratte @de | Tuza negra y marron @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"atrovarius","name":"Thomomys atrovarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.a.atrovariusJ.A.Allen,1898—CSinaloatoSNayaritandadjacentpartsofSWDurangoandNWJalisco,Mexico.T. a. parviceps Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NE Sinaloa and W Durango S to C Sinaloa, Mexico.","bibliography":"Allen (1898a) | Hafner et al. (2011) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafeda & Lacher (2008a) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackand-Brown Pocket Gopher probably breeds during, or soon after, the rainy season (June-August) when vegetation is plentiful.","activityPatterns":"The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"As in other pocket gophers, Blackand-Brown Pocket Gophers are solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes of Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophersare typical of other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher is not listed on The IUCN Red List because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher (71. umbrinus), which is listed as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 110-165 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-150 g. Male Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is moderately dense to very sparse, sometimes almost naked on ventrum, and it is dark brown to dull gray-black dorsally, occasionally with a wash of lighter brown or gray laterally. Female Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal, and baculum in males is usually less than 11 mm in length. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 116-132.","habitat":"Dry, thornscrub forest. The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheroccurs in a wide variety of soils from near sea level along the coast of the Pacific Ocean to elevations of ¢.2400 m in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Unlike most species of pocket gophers, the Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris only rarely found in agricultural fields, and anecdotal observations suggest that it is reluctant to leave cover of thornscrub forests."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF8BFA96F3966E1B4D67.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072AFF8BFA96F3966E1B4D67","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"255","verbatimText":"12.Botta’s Pocket GopherThomomys bottaeFrench:Gaufre de Botta/ German:Gebirgstaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BottaOther common names:Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Oryctomys (Saccophorus) bottae Eydoux & P. Gervais, 1836, “coast of California.” Restricted by S. F. Baird in 1855 to “Monterey and San Francisco” (Monterey Co., California, USA).Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Nearly 200 subspecies were formerly recognized in the literature. One hundred thirtythree subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.b.bottaeEydoux&Gervais,1836—PacificcoastofC&SCalifornia,USA.T.b.abbottiHuey,1928—PacificcoastofCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T°b.abstrususHall&Davis,1935—NyeCounty,Nevada,USA.T.b.actuosusKelson,1951—CNewMexico,USA.T.b.albatusGrinnell,1912—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.albicaudatusHall,1930—NUtah,USA.T.b.alexandraeGoldman,1933—NCArizona,USA.T.b.alpinusMerriam,1897—SierraNevadaRangeofCCalifornia,USA.T.b.alticolusJ.A.Allen,1899—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.analogusGoldman,1938—SECoahuila,Mexico.T.b.angustidensBaker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.anitaeJ.A.Allen,1898—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.aphrastusElliot,1903—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.aurerventrisHall,1930—NWUtah,USA.T.b.aureusJ.A.Allen,1893—NEArizonaandadjacentpartsofUtah,Colorado,andNewMexico,USA.T.b.awahneeMerriam,1908—WCCalifornia,USA.T.b.baileyiMerriam,1901—NWTexas,USA.T.b.basilicaeBenson&Tillotson,1940—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.birdseye:Goldman,1937—SWUtah,USA.T.b.bonneuvilletDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.borjasensisHuey,1945—SBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brazierhowelliHuey,1960—WCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brevidensHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T:b.cactophilusHuey,1929—SBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.camoaeBurt,1937—PacificcoastofSSonora,Mexico.T.b.canusBailey,1910—NWNevada,USA.T.b.catalinaeGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.catavinensisHuey,1931—SEBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.centralisHall,1930—SEUtah,USA.T.b.cervinusJ.A.Allen,1895—SWArizona,USA.T:b.chrysonotusGrinnell,1912—SWArizona,USA.T.b.cinereusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.collisHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.concisorHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.confinalisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.connectensHall,1936—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.contractusDurrant,1946—SWUtah,USA.T.b.convergensNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T.b.convexusDurrant,1939—WCUtah,USA.T:b.cultellusKelson,1951—NENewMexicoandSEColorado,USA.T.b.cuniculariusHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.curtatusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.depressusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.desertorumMerriam,1901—NWArizona,USA.T.b.detumidusGrinnell,1935—SWOregon,USA.T.b.dissimilisGoldman,1931—SEUtah,USA.T.b.divergensNelson&Goldman,1934—NESonora,Mexico.T:b.estanciaeBenson&Tillotson,1939—NESonora,Mexico.T.b.fulvusWoodhouse,1852—NCArizonatoSWNewMexico,USA.T.b.fumosusHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T.b.guadalupensisGoldman,1936—WCTexas,USA.T:b.homorusHuey,1949—NBajaCaliforniaSurintoSBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.howelliGoldman,1936—ECUtahintoWCColorado,USA.T.b.humilisBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T:b.imitabilisGoldman,1939—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.incomptusGoldman,1939—-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T:b.internatusGoldman,1936—SCColorado,USA.T.b.jojobaeHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.juarezensisHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lachuguillaBailey,1902—WCTexas,USA.T.b.lacrymalisHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.laticepsBaird,1855—NWCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T.b.latusHall&Davis,1935—WCNevada,USA.T.b.lenisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.leucodonMerriam,1897—NCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T:b.levidensisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.limitarisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.limpiaeBlair,1939—SWTexas,USA.T.b.litorisBurt,1940—WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.lucidusHall,1932—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lucrificusHall&Durham,1938—CNevada,USA.T.b.magdalenaeNelson&Goldman,1909-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.martirensisJ.A.Allen,1898—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.mearnsiBailey,1914—SWNewMexico,USA.T.b.mewaMerriam,1908—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.minimusDurrant,1939—NWUtah,USA.T.b.modicusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA,intoNCSonora,Mexico.T.b.morulusHooper,1940—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.nanusHall,1932—SCNevada,USA.T.b.navusMerriam,1901—NCCalifornia,USA.T.b.neglectusBailey,1914—SWCalifornia,USA.T.b.nesophilusDurrant,1936—NWUtah,USA.T.b.nigricansRhoads,1895—SWCalifornia,USA,intoNWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.operariusMerriam,1897—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.optabilisGoodman,1936—SWColorado,USA.T.b.opulentusGoldman,1935—C&SCNewMexico,USA.T:b.osgoodiGoldman,1931—SCUtah,USA.T.b.paguataeHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T:b.pascalisMerriam,1901—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.pectoralisGoldman,1936—SENewMexico,USA.T.b.peramplusGoldman,1931—NEArizonaintoNWNewMexico,USA.T.b.perditusMerriam,1901—CCoahuilaintoNWNuevoLe6n,Mexico.T.b.perpallidusMerriam,1886—SCCalifornia,USA.T:b.pervagusMerriam,1901—NCNewMexicointoSCColorado,USA.T.b.pervariusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T:b.phelleoecusBurt,1933—SCNevada,USA.T.b.pinalensisGoldman,1938—SCArizona,USA.T:b.planirostrisBurt,1931—SWUtahintoNWArizona,USA.T.b.planorumHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.powellDurrant,1955—SCUtah,USA.T.b.proximarinusHuey,1945—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.pusillusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.retractusBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.rhizophagusHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.ripariusGrinnell&Hill,1936—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.robustusDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T.b.rubidusYoungman,1958—SCColorado,USA.T.b.ruidosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.rupestrisChattin,1941—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.ruricolaHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,USA.T:b.russeolusNelson&Goldman,1909—SWBajaCaliforniatoNWBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.saxatillisGrinnell,1934—NECalifornia,USA.T.b.scotophilusDavis,1940—WCTexas,USA.T.b.sevieriDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.siccovallisHuey,1945—CBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.simulusNelson&Goldman,1934—SEIdaho,USA.T:b.sinaloaeMerriam,1901—NWandWCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.solitariusGrinnell,1926—WCNevada,USA.T:b.spatiosusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T.b.stansburyDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T:b.sturgisiGoldman,1938—NWCoahuilaintoEChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.subsimilisGoldman,1933—SWArizona,USA.T.b.texensisBailey,1902—SWTexas,USA.T.b.tiviusDurrant,1937—CUtah,USA.T.b.toltecusJ.A.Allen,1893—SWNewMexico,USA,intoNWChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.tularosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.vanrosseniHuey,1934—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.varusHall&Long,1960—WCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.vescusHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.villa:Baker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.wahwahensisDurrant,1937—WCUtah,USA.T.b.winthropiNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T. b. xerophilus Huey, 1945— NC Baja California, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-200 mm (males) and 80-175 mm (females), tail 60— 95 mm (males) and 55-75 mm (females); weight 110-250 g (males) and 80-160 g (females). Botta’s Pocket Gopher has a very broad geographical distribution, encompassing the entire southern one-half of western USA into northern Mexico. Extreme variation in body size and pelage color throughoutits distribution explains the large number of described subspecies. Some authors believe that many, if not most, of these subspecies would not stand up to a detailed analysis of taxonomic status using modern systematic tools. Individuals living at higher elevations or in thinnersoils are usually much smaller than individuals living at lower elevations and in deeper soils. Males continue to grow with age, whereas growth in females ceases after they begin to reproduce. As a result, males of smaller subspecies are somewhat larger than females, but males of larger subspecies can be up to ¢.15% larger than females. Color of dorsal pelage can be black in melanistic populations, white in albinistic individuals, dark-to-light brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, pale gray, yellowish gray, and all shades between these many colors. Some individuals have patches of white fur on throat, chest, or belly, and some populations show subtle changes in hair color seasonally. Botta’s Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Extensive cytogenetic studies of Botta’s Pocket Gopher byJ. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that most populations have a chromosomal complement of 2n = 76 and FN = 110-148. Populations extending from northeastern New Mexico into south-eastern Colorado show a cline in diploid number from 76 chromosomes in the south to 100 in the north. Additional chromosomes, above the typical diploid number of 76, are heterochromatic and potentially genetically inactive.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats with many differentsoil types and depths from below sea level in Death Valley National Park, California, to above timberline in many mountain ranges in western USA. Botta’s Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands,forests, and suburban lawns and gardens. Similar to other pocket gophers, they appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invadersof cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.Diet of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a wide variety of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Nearly all species of plants in the vicinity of a burrow system are consumed, including annual and perennial monocots and dicots, perennial shrubs, cacti, and roots of a variety of tree species. Young shoots and entire seedlings of many plant species are pulled directly downward into a tunnel excavated beneath the plant. In many habitats, diet shifts seasonally, often in response to increased availabilities of forbs and grasses following spring rains. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Many observations of aboveground foraging have been reported, almost always occurring within a few body lengths of a burrow entrance.Breeding.Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of Botta’s Pocket Gopher; low-elevation individuals breed in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring following snow melt. Most populations are thoughtto breed only once per year, but when breeding season is long (January-April in certain low-elevation habitats in California), females born early in the season will breed later in the same season. Males do not attain reproductive maturity until the year after their birth. Some populations of Botta’s Pocket Gophers may breed in spring and autumn in years when food is abundant. In most years, nearly all adult females breed, but relatively few adult males breed, suggesting that male competition for access to femalesis high. Sex ratio of adults in most populationsis heavily skewed in favor of females, and this is especially true in populations with extreme sexual size dimorphism. Litter sizes of Botta’s Pocket Gophers are 1-10 young, averaging 4-5 young/litter. Nutrition and food abundance affect litter size, and studies by J. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that femalesliving in alfalfa fields in the southern California desert had larger litters than those living in nearby desert scrub habitats. Gestation is 18-21 days, and young are weaned and expelled from burrows at ¢.35 days of age. Young disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat not already occupied by a competitor.Activity patterns.Botta’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. A study in southern California showed six individuals to be active an average of ¢.9 hours/day, with peak activity between 16:00 h and 20:00 h. Botta’s Pocket Gopher digs with its incisors and forelimbs, using hard enamel in the teeth to penetrate compact soils resistant to softer keratin in claws. In one study, growth rate of incisors averaged c.0-6 mm/day for the upper pair and almost 1 mm/day (36 cm/year) in the lower pair. Rate of claw growth varies widely butis usually slower than rate of incisor growth in species that dig with their teeth. Botta’s Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round. Burrowing activity is low during hot, dry summers but increases dramatically with cooler temperatures and greater soil moisture in spring, autumn, and winter. Although most burrowing activity takes place in shallow feeding tunnels and is associated with foraging, individuals will also dig deep tunnels to avoid hot surface temperatures.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A study of Botta’s Pocket Gophers living along the Rio Grande in New Mexico, USA, estimated average dispersal distances of ¢.400 m/year. Another study in California showed average daily movements of ¢.32 m for dispersing adult males, 28 m for adult females, and 21 m for subadult females. As in other pocket gophers, Botta’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Although they vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, captures of two or more individuals in the same system are not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Male Botta’s Pocket Gophers tend to have larger burrow systems than females. Mean home range size was ¢.390 m? for females and ¢.810 m? for males in California. A similar study in New Mexico reported home range sizes of ¢.290 m?* for females and ¢.475 m® for males. Densities of ¢.75 ind/ha have been reported in natural habitats, and as many as 150 ind/ha have been recorded from agricultural lands (e.g. alfalfa fields).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Baird (1855), Hafner et al. (1983), Howard & Childs (1959), Jones & Baxter (2004), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafieda & Lacher (2008b), Nadler etal. (1990), Patton (1999a, 2005b), Patton & Smith (1990), Vleck (1979).","taxonomy":"Oryctomys (Saccophorus) bottae Eydoux & P. Gervais, 1836, “coast of California.” Restricted by S. F. Baird in 1855 to “Monterey and San Francisco” (Monterey Co., California, USA).Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Nearly 200 subspecies were formerly recognized in the literature. One hundred thirtythree subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Botta @fr | Gebirgstaschenratte @de | Tuza de Botta @es | Valley Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Eydoux & P. Gervais","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1836","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"255","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bottae","name":"Thomomys bottae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.b.bottaeEydoux&Gervais,1836—PacificcoastofC&SCalifornia,USA.T.b.abbottiHuey,1928—PacificcoastofCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T°b.abstrususHall&Davis,1935—NyeCounty,Nevada,USA.T.b.actuosusKelson,1951—CNewMexico,USA.T.b.albatusGrinnell,1912—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.albicaudatusHall,1930—NUtah,USA.T.b.alexandraeGoldman,1933—NCArizona,USA.T.b.alpinusMerriam,1897—SierraNevadaRangeofCCalifornia,USA.T.b.alticolusJ.A.Allen,1899—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.analogusGoldman,1938—SECoahuila,Mexico.T.b.angustidensBaker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.anitaeJ.A.Allen,1898—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.aphrastusElliot,1903—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.aurerventrisHall,1930—NWUtah,USA.T.b.aureusJ.A.Allen,1893—NEArizonaandadjacentpartsofUtah,Colorado,andNewMexico,USA.T.b.awahneeMerriam,1908—WCCalifornia,USA.T.b.baileyiMerriam,1901—NWTexas,USA.T.b.basilicaeBenson&Tillotson,1940—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.birdseye:Goldman,1937—SWUtah,USA.T.b.bonneuvilletDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.borjasensisHuey,1945—SBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brazierhowelliHuey,1960—WCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brevidensHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T:b.cactophilusHuey,1929—SBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.camoaeBurt,1937—PacificcoastofSSonora,Mexico.T.b.canusBailey,1910—NWNevada,USA.T.b.catalinaeGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.catavinensisHuey,1931—SEBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.centralisHall,1930—SEUtah,USA.T.b.cervinusJ.A.Allen,1895—SWArizona,USA.T:b.chrysonotusGrinnell,1912—SWArizona,USA.T.b.cinereusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.collisHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.concisorHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.confinalisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.connectensHall,1936—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.contractusDurrant,1946—SWUtah,USA.T.b.convergensNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T.b.convexusDurrant,1939—WCUtah,USA.T:b.cultellusKelson,1951—NENewMexicoandSEColorado,USA.T.b.cuniculariusHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.curtatusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.depressusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.desertorumMerriam,1901—NWArizona,USA.T.b.detumidusGrinnell,1935—SWOregon,USA.T.b.dissimilisGoldman,1931—SEUtah,USA.T.b.divergensNelson&Goldman,1934—NESonora,Mexico.T:b.estanciaeBenson&Tillotson,1939—NESonora,Mexico.T.b.fulvusWoodhouse,1852—NCArizonatoSWNewMexico,USA.T.b.fumosusHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T.b.guadalupensisGoldman,1936—WCTexas,USA.T:b.homorusHuey,1949—NBajaCaliforniaSurintoSBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.howelliGoldman,1936—ECUtahintoWCColorado,USA.T.b.humilisBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T:b.imitabilisGoldman,1939—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.incomptusGoldman,1939—-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T:b.internatusGoldman,1936—SCColorado,USA.T.b.jojobaeHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.juarezensisHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lachuguillaBailey,1902—WCTexas,USA.T.b.lacrymalisHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.laticepsBaird,1855—NWCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T.b.latusHall&Davis,1935—WCNevada,USA.T.b.lenisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.leucodonMerriam,1897—NCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T:b.levidensisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.limitarisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.limpiaeBlair,1939—SWTexas,USA.T.b.litorisBurt,1940—WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.lucidusHall,1932—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lucrificusHall&Durham,1938—CNevada,USA.T.b.magdalenaeNelson&Goldman,1909-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.martirensisJ.A.Allen,1898—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.mearnsiBailey,1914—SWNewMexico,USA.T.b.mewaMerriam,1908—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.minimusDurrant,1939—NWUtah,USA.T.b.modicusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA,intoNCSonora,Mexico.T.b.morulusHooper,1940—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.nanusHall,1932—SCNevada,USA.T.b.navusMerriam,1901—NCCalifornia,USA.T.b.neglectusBailey,1914—SWCalifornia,USA.T.b.nesophilusDurrant,1936—NWUtah,USA.T.b.nigricansRhoads,1895—SWCalifornia,USA,intoNWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.operariusMerriam,1897—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.optabilisGoodman,1936—SWColorado,USA.T.b.opulentusGoldman,1935—C&SCNewMexico,USA.T:b.osgoodiGoldman,1931—SCUtah,USA.T.b.paguataeHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T:b.pascalisMerriam,1901—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.pectoralisGoldman,1936—SENewMexico,USA.T.b.peramplusGoldman,1931—NEArizonaintoNWNewMexico,USA.T.b.perditusMerriam,1901—CCoahuilaintoNWNuevoLe6n,Mexico.T.b.perpallidusMerriam,1886—SCCalifornia,USA.T:b.pervagusMerriam,1901—NCNewMexicointoSCColorado,USA.T.b.pervariusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T:b.phelleoecusBurt,1933—SCNevada,USA.T.b.pinalensisGoldman,1938—SCArizona,USA.T:b.planirostrisBurt,1931—SWUtahintoNWArizona,USA.T.b.planorumHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.powellDurrant,1955—SCUtah,USA.T.b.proximarinusHuey,1945—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.pusillusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.retractusBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.rhizophagusHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.ripariusGrinnell&Hill,1936—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.robustusDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T.b.rubidusYoungman,1958—SCColorado,USA.T.b.ruidosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.rupestrisChattin,1941—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.ruricolaHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,USA.T:b.russeolusNelson&Goldman,1909—SWBajaCaliforniatoNWBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.saxatillisGrinnell,1934—NECalifornia,USA.T.b.scotophilusDavis,1940—WCTexas,USA.T.b.sevieriDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.siccovallisHuey,1945—CBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.simulusNelson&Goldman,1934—SEIdaho,USA.T:b.sinaloaeMerriam,1901—NWandWCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.solitariusGrinnell,1926—WCNevada,USA.T:b.spatiosusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T.b.stansburyDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T:b.sturgisiGoldman,1938—NWCoahuilaintoEChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.subsimilisGoldman,1933—SWArizona,USA.T.b.texensisBailey,1902—SWTexas,USA.T.b.tiviusDurrant,1937—CUtah,USA.T.b.toltecusJ.A.Allen,1893—SWNewMexico,USA,intoNWChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.tularosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.vanrosseniHuey,1934—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.varusHall&Long,1960—WCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.vescusHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.villa:Baker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.wahwahensisDurrant,1937—WCUtah,USA.T.b.winthropiNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T. b. xerophilus Huey, 1945— NC Baja California, Mexico.","bibliography":"Baird (1855) | Hafner et al. (1983) | Howard & Childs (1959) | Jones & Baxter (2004) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafieda & Lacher (2008b) | Nadler etal. (1990) | Patton (1999a, 2005b) | Patton & Smith (1990) | Vleck (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a wide variety of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Nearly all species of plants in the vicinity of a burrow system are consumed, including annual and perennial monocots and dicots, perennial shrubs, cacti, and roots of a variety of tree species. Young shoots and entire seedlings of many plant species are pulled directly downward into a tunnel excavated beneath the plant. In many habitats, diet shifts seasonally, often in response to increased availabilities of forbs and grasses following spring rains. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Many observations of aboveground foraging have been reported, almost always occurring within a few body lengths of a burrow entrance.","breeding":"Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of Botta’s Pocket Gopher; low-elevation individuals breed in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring following snow melt. Most populations are thoughtto breed only once per year, but when breeding season is long (January-April in certain low-elevation habitats in California), females born early in the season will breed later in the same season. Males do not attain reproductive maturity until the year after their birth. Some populations of Botta’s Pocket Gophers may breed in spring and autumn in years when food is abundant. In most years, nearly all adult females breed, but relatively few adult males breed, suggesting that male competition for access to femalesis high. Sex ratio of adults in most populationsis heavily skewed in favor of females, and this is especially true in populations with extreme sexual size dimorphism. Litter sizes of Botta’s Pocket Gophers are 1-10 young, averaging 4-5 young/litter. Nutrition and food abundance affect litter size, and studies by J. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that femalesliving in alfalfa fields in the southern California desert had larger litters than those living in nearby desert scrub habitats. Gestation is 18-21 days, and young are weaned and expelled from burrows at ¢.35 days of age. Young disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat not already occupied by a competitor.","activityPatterns":"Botta’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. A study in southern California showed six individuals to be active an average of ¢.9 hours/day, with peak activity between 16:00 h and 20:00 h. Botta’s Pocket Gopher digs with its incisors and forelimbs, using hard enamel in the teeth to penetrate compact soils resistant to softer keratin in claws. In one study, growth rate of incisors averaged c.0-6 mm/day for the upper pair and almost 1 mm/day (36 cm/year) in the lower pair. Rate of claw growth varies widely butis usually slower than rate of incisor growth in species that dig with their teeth. Botta’s Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round. Burrowing activity is low during hot, dry summers but increases dramatically with cooler temperatures and greater soil moisture in spring, autumn, and winter. Although most burrowing activity takes place in shallow feeding tunnels and is associated with foraging, individuals will also dig deep tunnels to avoid hot surface temperatures.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A study of Botta’s Pocket Gophers living along the Rio Grande in New Mexico, USA, estimated average dispersal distances of ¢.400 m/year. Another study in California showed average daily movements of ¢.32 m for dispersing adult males, 28 m for adult females, and 21 m for subadult females. As in other pocket gophers, Botta’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Although they vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, captures of two or more individuals in the same system are not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Male Botta’s Pocket Gophers tend to have larger burrow systems than females. Mean home range size was ¢.390 m? for females and ¢.810 m? for males in California. A similar study in New Mexico reported home range sizes of ¢.290 m?* for females and ¢.475 m® for males. Densities of ¢.75 ind/ha have been reported in natural habitats, and as many as 150 ind/ha have been recorded from agricultural lands (e.g. alfalfa fields).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 90-200 mm (males) and 80-175 mm (females), tail 60— 95 mm (males) and 55-75 mm (females); weight 110-250 g (males) and 80-160 g (females). Botta’s Pocket Gopher has a very broad geographical distribution, encompassing the entire southern one-half of western USA into northern Mexico. Extreme variation in body size and pelage color throughoutits distribution explains the large number of described subspecies. Some authors believe that many, if not most, of these subspecies would not stand up to a detailed analysis of taxonomic status using modern systematic tools. Individuals living at higher elevations or in thinnersoils are usually much smaller than individuals living at lower elevations and in deeper soils. Males continue to grow with age, whereas growth in females ceases after they begin to reproduce. As a result, males of smaller subspecies are somewhat larger than females, but males of larger subspecies can be up to ¢.15% larger than females. Color of dorsal pelage can be black in melanistic populations, white in albinistic individuals, dark-to-light brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, pale gray, yellowish gray, and all shades between these many colors. Some individuals have patches of white fur on throat, chest, or belly, and some populations show subtle changes in hair color seasonally. Botta’s Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Extensive cytogenetic studies of Botta’s Pocket Gopher byJ. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that most populations have a chromosomal complement of 2n = 76 and FN = 110-148. Populations extending from northeastern New Mexico into south-eastern Colorado show a cline in diploid number from 76 chromosomes in the south to 100 in the north. Additional chromosomes, above the typical diploid number of 76, are heterochromatic and potentially genetically inactive.","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats with many differentsoil types and depths from below sea level in Death Valley National Park, California, to above timberline in many mountain ranges in western USA. Botta’s Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands,forests, and suburban lawns and gardens. Similar to other pocket gophers, they appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invadersof cultivated fields."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF85FF96F82F6DB642A2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072AFF85FF96F82F6DB642A2","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"10.Black-and-Brown Pocket GopherThomomys atrovariusFrench:Gaufre de Tatemeles/ German:Schwarzbraune Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza negra y marronTaxonomy.Thomomys atrovarius J. A. Allen, 1898, “Tatemales [near Rosario], State of Sinaloa, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2011. Molecular studies show T. atrovariusto be a member of the Thomomys umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.a.atrovariusJ.A.Allen,1898—CSinaloatoSNayaritandadjacentpartsofSWDurangoandNWJalisco,Mexico.T. a. parviceps Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NE Sinaloa and W Durango S to C Sinaloa, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-165 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-150 g. Male Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is moderately dense to very sparse, sometimes almost naked on ventrum, and it is dark brown to dull gray-black dorsally, occasionally with a wash of lighter brown or gray laterally. Female Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal, and baculum in males is usually less than 11 mm in length. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 116-132.Habitat.Dry, thornscrub forest. The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheroccurs in a wide variety of soils from near sea level along the coast of the Pacific Ocean to elevations of ¢.2400 m in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Unlike most species of pocket gophers, the Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris only rarely found in agricultural fields, and anecdotal observations suggest that it is reluctant to leave cover of thornscrub forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackand-Brown Pocket Gopher probably breeds during, or soon after, the rainy season (June-August) when vegetation is plentiful.Activity patterns.The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As in other pocket gophers, Blackand-Brown Pocket Gophers are solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes of Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophersare typical of other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.Status and Conservation.The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher is not listed on The IUCN Red List because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher (71. umbrinus), which is listed as Least Concern.Bibliography.Allen (1898a), Hafner et al. (2011), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafeda & Lacher (2008a), Nelson & Goldman (1934), Patton (2005b).","taxonomy":"Thomomys atrovarius J. A. Allen, 1898, “Tatemales [near Rosario], State of Sinaloa, Mexico.”Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Considered a subspecies of T. umbrinusby E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman in 1934 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2011. Molecular studies show T. atrovariusto be a member of the Thomomys umbrinusspecies group, which includes T. umbrinus, T. atrovarius, T. sheldoni, and T. nayarensis. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Tatemeles @fr | Schwarzbraune Taschenratte @de | Tuza negra y marron @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"atrovarius","name":"Thomomys atrovarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.a.atrovariusJ.A.Allen,1898—CSinaloatoSNayaritandadjacentpartsofSWDurangoandNWJalisco,Mexico.T. a. parviceps Nelson & Goldman, 1934— NE Sinaloa and W Durango S to C Sinaloa, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603831/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1898a) | Hafner et al. (2011) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafeda & Lacher (2008a) | Nelson & Goldman (1934) | Patton (2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackand-Brown Pocket Gopher probably breeds during, or soon after, the rainy season (June-August) when vegetation is plentiful.","activityPatterns":"The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris active at any hour ofthe day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"As in other pocket gophers, Blackand-Brown Pocket Gophers are solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Field observations suggest that home range sizes of Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophersare typical of other medium-sized pocket gophers, covering 30-80 m? of surface area.","statusAndConservation":"The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher is not listed on The IUCN Red List because it was traditionally considered a subspecies of the Southern Pocket Gopher (71. umbrinus), which is listed as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 110-165 mm, tail 55-80 mm, hindfoot 23-30 mm; weight 75-150 g. Male Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage is moderately dense to very sparse, sometimes almost naked on ventrum, and it is dark brown to dull gray-black dorsally, occasionally with a wash of lighter brown or gray laterally. Female Black-and-Brown Pocket Gophers have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal, and baculum in males is usually less than 11 mm in length. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 76 and FN = 116-132.","habitat":"Dry, thornscrub forest. The Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheroccurs in a wide variety of soils from near sea level along the coast of the Pacific Ocean to elevations of ¢.2400 m in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Unlike most species of pocket gophers, the Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopheris only rarely found in agricultural fields, and anecdotal observations suggest that it is reluctant to leave cover of thornscrub forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072AFF8BFA96F3966E1B4D67.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072AFF8BFA96F3966E1B4D67","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"255","verbatimText":"12.Botta’s Pocket GopherThomomys bottaeFrench:Gaufre de Botta/ German:Gebirgstaschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BottaOther common names:Valley Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Oryctomys (Saccophorus) bottae Eydoux & P. Gervais, 1836, “coast of California.” Restricted by S. F. Baird in 1855 to “Monterey and San Francisco” (Monterey Co., California, USA).Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Nearly 200 subspecies were formerly recognized in the literature. One hundred thirtythree subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.b.bottaeEydoux&Gervais,1836—PacificcoastofC&SCalifornia,USA.T.b.abbottiHuey,1928—PacificcoastofCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T°b.abstrususHall&Davis,1935—NyeCounty,Nevada,USA.T.b.actuosusKelson,1951—CNewMexico,USA.T.b.albatusGrinnell,1912—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.albicaudatusHall,1930—NUtah,USA.T.b.alexandraeGoldman,1933—NCArizona,USA.T.b.alpinusMerriam,1897—SierraNevadaRangeofCCalifornia,USA.T.b.alticolusJ.A.Allen,1899—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.analogusGoldman,1938—SECoahuila,Mexico.T.b.angustidensBaker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.anitaeJ.A.Allen,1898—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.aphrastusElliot,1903—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.aurerventrisHall,1930—NWUtah,USA.T.b.aureusJ.A.Allen,1893—NEArizonaandadjacentpartsofUtah,Colorado,andNewMexico,USA.T.b.awahneeMerriam,1908—WCCalifornia,USA.T.b.baileyiMerriam,1901—NWTexas,USA.T.b.basilicaeBenson&Tillotson,1940—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.birdseye:Goldman,1937—SWUtah,USA.T.b.bonneuvilletDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.borjasensisHuey,1945—SBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brazierhowelliHuey,1960—WCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brevidensHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T:b.cactophilusHuey,1929—SBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.camoaeBurt,1937—PacificcoastofSSonora,Mexico.T.b.canusBailey,1910—NWNevada,USA.T.b.catalinaeGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.catavinensisHuey,1931—SEBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.centralisHall,1930—SEUtah,USA.T.b.cervinusJ.A.Allen,1895—SWArizona,USA.T:b.chrysonotusGrinnell,1912—SWArizona,USA.T.b.cinereusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.collisHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.concisorHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.confinalisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.connectensHall,1936—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.contractusDurrant,1946—SWUtah,USA.T.b.convergensNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T.b.convexusDurrant,1939—WCUtah,USA.T:b.cultellusKelson,1951—NENewMexicoandSEColorado,USA.T.b.cuniculariusHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.curtatusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.depressusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.desertorumMerriam,1901—NWArizona,USA.T.b.detumidusGrinnell,1935—SWOregon,USA.T.b.dissimilisGoldman,1931—SEUtah,USA.T.b.divergensNelson&Goldman,1934—NESonora,Mexico.T:b.estanciaeBenson&Tillotson,1939—NESonora,Mexico.T.b.fulvusWoodhouse,1852—NCArizonatoSWNewMexico,USA.T.b.fumosusHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T.b.guadalupensisGoldman,1936—WCTexas,USA.T:b.homorusHuey,1949—NBajaCaliforniaSurintoSBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.howelliGoldman,1936—ECUtahintoWCColorado,USA.T.b.humilisBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T:b.imitabilisGoldman,1939—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.incomptusGoldman,1939—-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T:b.internatusGoldman,1936—SCColorado,USA.T.b.jojobaeHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.juarezensisHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lachuguillaBailey,1902—WCTexas,USA.T.b.lacrymalisHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.laticepsBaird,1855—NWCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T.b.latusHall&Davis,1935—WCNevada,USA.T.b.lenisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.leucodonMerriam,1897—NCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T:b.levidensisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.limitarisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.limpiaeBlair,1939—SWTexas,USA.T.b.litorisBurt,1940—WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.lucidusHall,1932—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lucrificusHall&Durham,1938—CNevada,USA.T.b.magdalenaeNelson&Goldman,1909-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.martirensisJ.A.Allen,1898—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.mearnsiBailey,1914—SWNewMexico,USA.T.b.mewaMerriam,1908—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.minimusDurrant,1939—NWUtah,USA.T.b.modicusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA,intoNCSonora,Mexico.T.b.morulusHooper,1940—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.nanusHall,1932—SCNevada,USA.T.b.navusMerriam,1901—NCCalifornia,USA.T.b.neglectusBailey,1914—SWCalifornia,USA.T.b.nesophilusDurrant,1936—NWUtah,USA.T.b.nigricansRhoads,1895—SWCalifornia,USA,intoNWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.operariusMerriam,1897—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.optabilisGoodman,1936—SWColorado,USA.T.b.opulentusGoldman,1935—C&SCNewMexico,USA.T:b.osgoodiGoldman,1931—SCUtah,USA.T.b.paguataeHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T:b.pascalisMerriam,1901—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.pectoralisGoldman,1936—SENewMexico,USA.T.b.peramplusGoldman,1931—NEArizonaintoNWNewMexico,USA.T.b.perditusMerriam,1901—CCoahuilaintoNWNuevoLe6n,Mexico.T.b.perpallidusMerriam,1886—SCCalifornia,USA.T:b.pervagusMerriam,1901—NCNewMexicointoSCColorado,USA.T.b.pervariusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T:b.phelleoecusBurt,1933—SCNevada,USA.T.b.pinalensisGoldman,1938—SCArizona,USA.T:b.planirostrisBurt,1931—SWUtahintoNWArizona,USA.T.b.planorumHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.powellDurrant,1955—SCUtah,USA.T.b.proximarinusHuey,1945—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.pusillusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.retractusBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.rhizophagusHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.ripariusGrinnell&Hill,1936—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.robustusDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T.b.rubidusYoungman,1958—SCColorado,USA.T.b.ruidosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.rupestrisChattin,1941—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.ruricolaHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,USA.T:b.russeolusNelson&Goldman,1909—SWBajaCaliforniatoNWBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.saxatillisGrinnell,1934—NECalifornia,USA.T.b.scotophilusDavis,1940—WCTexas,USA.T.b.sevieriDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.siccovallisHuey,1945—CBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.simulusNelson&Goldman,1934—SEIdaho,USA.T:b.sinaloaeMerriam,1901—NWandWCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.solitariusGrinnell,1926—WCNevada,USA.T:b.spatiosusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T.b.stansburyDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T:b.sturgisiGoldman,1938—NWCoahuilaintoEChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.subsimilisGoldman,1933—SWArizona,USA.T.b.texensisBailey,1902—SWTexas,USA.T.b.tiviusDurrant,1937—CUtah,USA.T.b.toltecusJ.A.Allen,1893—SWNewMexico,USA,intoNWChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.tularosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.vanrosseniHuey,1934—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.varusHall&Long,1960—WCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.vescusHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.villa:Baker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.wahwahensisDurrant,1937—WCUtah,USA.T.b.winthropiNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T. b. xerophilus Huey, 1945— NC Baja California, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-200 mm (males) and 80-175 mm (females), tail 60— 95 mm (males) and 55-75 mm (females); weight 110-250 g (males) and 80-160 g (females). Botta’s Pocket Gopher has a very broad geographical distribution, encompassing the entire southern one-half of western USA into northern Mexico. Extreme variation in body size and pelage color throughoutits distribution explains the large number of described subspecies. Some authors believe that many, if not most, of these subspecies would not stand up to a detailed analysis of taxonomic status using modern systematic tools. Individuals living at higher elevations or in thinnersoils are usually much smaller than individuals living at lower elevations and in deeper soils. Males continue to grow with age, whereas growth in females ceases after they begin to reproduce. As a result, males of smaller subspecies are somewhat larger than females, but males of larger subspecies can be up to ¢.15% larger than females. Color of dorsal pelage can be black in melanistic populations, white in albinistic individuals, dark-to-light brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, pale gray, yellowish gray, and all shades between these many colors. Some individuals have patches of white fur on throat, chest, or belly, and some populations show subtle changes in hair color seasonally. Botta’s Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Extensive cytogenetic studies of Botta’s Pocket Gopher byJ. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that most populations have a chromosomal complement of 2n = 76 and FN = 110-148. Populations extending from northeastern New Mexico into south-eastern Colorado show a cline in diploid number from 76 chromosomes in the south to 100 in the north. Additional chromosomes, above the typical diploid number of 76, are heterochromatic and potentially genetically inactive.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats with many differentsoil types and depths from below sea level in Death Valley National Park, California, to above timberline in many mountain ranges in western USA. Botta’s Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands,forests, and suburban lawns and gardens. Similar to other pocket gophers, they appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invadersof cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.Diet of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a wide variety of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Nearly all species of plants in the vicinity of a burrow system are consumed, including annual and perennial monocots and dicots, perennial shrubs, cacti, and roots of a variety of tree species. Young shoots and entire seedlings of many plant species are pulled directly downward into a tunnel excavated beneath the plant. In many habitats, diet shifts seasonally, often in response to increased availabilities of forbs and grasses following spring rains. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Many observations of aboveground foraging have been reported, almost always occurring within a few body lengths of a burrow entrance.Breeding.Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of Botta’s Pocket Gopher; low-elevation individuals breed in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring following snow melt. Most populations are thoughtto breed only once per year, but when breeding season is long (January-April in certain low-elevation habitats in California), females born early in the season will breed later in the same season. Males do not attain reproductive maturity until the year after their birth. Some populations of Botta’s Pocket Gophers may breed in spring and autumn in years when food is abundant. In most years, nearly all adult females breed, but relatively few adult males breed, suggesting that male competition for access to femalesis high. Sex ratio of adults in most populationsis heavily skewed in favor of females, and this is especially true in populations with extreme sexual size dimorphism. Litter sizes of Botta’s Pocket Gophers are 1-10 young, averaging 4-5 young/litter. Nutrition and food abundance affect litter size, and studies by J. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that femalesliving in alfalfa fields in the southern California desert had larger litters than those living in nearby desert scrub habitats. Gestation is 18-21 days, and young are weaned and expelled from burrows at ¢.35 days of age. Young disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat not already occupied by a competitor.Activity patterns.Botta’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. A study in southern California showed six individuals to be active an average of ¢.9 hours/day, with peak activity between 16:00 h and 20:00 h. Botta’s Pocket Gopher digs with its incisors and forelimbs, using hard enamel in the teeth to penetrate compact soils resistant to softer keratin in claws. In one study, growth rate of incisors averaged c.0-6 mm/day for the upper pair and almost 1 mm/day (36 cm/year) in the lower pair. Rate of claw growth varies widely butis usually slower than rate of incisor growth in species that dig with their teeth. Botta’s Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round. Burrowing activity is low during hot, dry summers but increases dramatically with cooler temperatures and greater soil moisture in spring, autumn, and winter. Although most burrowing activity takes place in shallow feeding tunnels and is associated with foraging, individuals will also dig deep tunnels to avoid hot surface temperatures.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A study of Botta’s Pocket Gophers living along the Rio Grande in New Mexico, USA, estimated average dispersal distances of ¢.400 m/year. Another study in California showed average daily movements of ¢.32 m for dispersing adult males, 28 m for adult females, and 21 m for subadult females. As in other pocket gophers, Botta’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Although they vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, captures of two or more individuals in the same system are not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Male Botta’s Pocket Gophers tend to have larger burrow systems than females. Mean home range size was ¢.390 m? for females and ¢.810 m? for males in California. A similar study in New Mexico reported home range sizes of ¢.290 m?* for females and ¢.475 m® for males. Densities of ¢.75 ind/ha have been reported in natural habitats, and as many as 150 ind/ha have been recorded from agricultural lands (e.g. alfalfa fields).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Baird (1855), Hafner et al. (1983), Howard & Childs (1959), Jones & Baxter (2004), Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafieda & Lacher (2008b), Nadler etal. (1990), Patton (1999a, 2005b), Patton & Smith (1990), Vleck (1979).","taxonomy":"Oryctomys (Saccophorus) bottae Eydoux & P. Gervais, 1836, “coast of California.” Restricted by S. F. Baird in 1855 to “Monterey and San Francisco” (Monterey Co., California, USA).Placed into subgenus Megascapheus. Nearly 200 subspecies were formerly recognized in the literature. One hundred thirtythree subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Botta @fr | Gebirgstaschenratte @de | Tuza de Botta @es | Valley Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Eydoux & P. Gervais","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1836","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"255","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bottae","name":"Thomomys bottae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.b.bottaeEydoux&Gervais,1836—PacificcoastofC&SCalifornia,USA.T.b.abbottiHuey,1928—PacificcoastofCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T°b.abstrususHall&Davis,1935—NyeCounty,Nevada,USA.T.b.actuosusKelson,1951—CNewMexico,USA.T.b.albatusGrinnell,1912—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.albicaudatusHall,1930—NUtah,USA.T.b.alexandraeGoldman,1933—NCArizona,USA.T.b.alpinusMerriam,1897—SierraNevadaRangeofCCalifornia,USA.T.b.alticolusJ.A.Allen,1899—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.analogusGoldman,1938—SECoahuila,Mexico.T.b.angustidensBaker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.anitaeJ.A.Allen,1898—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.aphrastusElliot,1903—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.aurerventrisHall,1930—NWUtah,USA.T.b.aureusJ.A.Allen,1893—NEArizonaandadjacentpartsofUtah,Colorado,andNewMexico,USA.T.b.awahneeMerriam,1908—WCCalifornia,USA.T.b.baileyiMerriam,1901—NWTexas,USA.T.b.basilicaeBenson&Tillotson,1940—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.birdseye:Goldman,1937—SWUtah,USA.T.b.bonneuvilletDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.borjasensisHuey,1945—SBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brazierhowelliHuey,1960—WCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.brevidensHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T:b.cactophilusHuey,1929—SBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.camoaeBurt,1937—PacificcoastofSSonora,Mexico.T.b.canusBailey,1910—NWNevada,USA.T.b.catalinaeGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.catavinensisHuey,1931—SEBajaCalifornia,USA.T.b.centralisHall,1930—SEUtah,USA.T.b.cervinusJ.A.Allen,1895—SWArizona,USA.T:b.chrysonotusGrinnell,1912—SWArizona,USA.T.b.cinereusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.collisHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.concisorHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.confinalisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.connectensHall,1936—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.contractusDurrant,1946—SWUtah,USA.T.b.convergensNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T.b.convexusDurrant,1939—WCUtah,USA.T:b.cultellusKelson,1951—NENewMexicoandSEColorado,USA.T.b.cuniculariusHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.curtatusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.depressusHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T.b.desertorumMerriam,1901—NWArizona,USA.T.b.detumidusGrinnell,1935—SWOregon,USA.T.b.dissimilisGoldman,1931—SEUtah,USA.T.b.divergensNelson&Goldman,1934—NESonora,Mexico.T:b.estanciaeBenson&Tillotson,1939—NESonora,Mexico.T.b.fulvusWoodhouse,1852—NCArizonatoSWNewMexico,USA.T.b.fumosusHall,1932—CNevada,USA.T.b.guadalupensisGoldman,1936—WCTexas,USA.T:b.homorusHuey,1949—NBajaCaliforniaSurintoSBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.howelliGoldman,1936—ECUtahintoWCColorado,USA.T.b.humilisBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T:b.imitabilisGoldman,1939—SBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.incomptusGoldman,1939—-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T:b.internatusGoldman,1936—SCColorado,USA.T.b.jojobaeHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.juarezensisHuey,1945—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lachuguillaBailey,1902—WCTexas,USA.T.b.lacrymalisHall,1932—WCNevada,USA.T:b.laticepsBaird,1855—NWCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T.b.latusHall&Davis,1935—WCNevada,USA.T.b.lenisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.leucodonMerriam,1897—NCaliforniaintoSWOregon,USA.T:b.levidensisGoldman,1942—CUtah,USA.T.b.limitarisGoldman,1936—SWTexas,USA.T.b.limpiaeBlair,1939—SWTexas,USA.T.b.litorisBurt,1940—WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.lucidusHall,1932—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.lucrificusHall&Durham,1938—CNevada,USA.T.b.magdalenaeNelson&Goldman,1909-WCBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.martirensisJ.A.Allen,1898—NCBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.mearnsiBailey,1914—SWNewMexico,USA.T.b.mewaMerriam,1908—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.minimusDurrant,1939—NWUtah,USA.T.b.modicusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA,intoNCSonora,Mexico.T.b.morulusHooper,1940—NCNewMexico,USA.T.b.nanusHall,1932—SCNevada,USA.T.b.navusMerriam,1901—NCCalifornia,USA.T.b.neglectusBailey,1914—SWCalifornia,USA.T.b.nesophilusDurrant,1936—NWUtah,USA.T.b.nigricansRhoads,1895—SWCalifornia,USA,intoNWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.operariusMerriam,1897—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.optabilisGoodman,1936—SWColorado,USA.T.b.opulentusGoldman,1935—C&SCNewMexico,USA.T:b.osgoodiGoldman,1931—SCUtah,USA.T.b.paguataeHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T:b.pascalisMerriam,1901—CCalifornia,USA.T:b.pectoralisGoldman,1936—SENewMexico,USA.T.b.peramplusGoldman,1931—NEArizonaintoNWNewMexico,USA.T.b.perditusMerriam,1901—CCoahuilaintoNWNuevoLe6n,Mexico.T.b.perpallidusMerriam,1886—SCCalifornia,USA.T:b.pervagusMerriam,1901—NCNewMexicointoSCColorado,USA.T.b.pervariusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T:b.phelleoecusBurt,1933—SCNevada,USA.T.b.pinalensisGoldman,1938—SCArizona,USA.T:b.planirostrisBurt,1931—SWUtahintoNWArizona,USA.T.b.planorumHooper,1940—WCNewMexico,USA.T.b.powellDurrant,1955—SCUtah,USA.T.b.proximarinusHuey,1945—NWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.pusillusGoldman,1931—SCArizona,USA.T.b.retractusBaker,1953—NCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.rhizophagusHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T.b.ripariusGrinnell&Hill,1936—SECalifornia,USA.T.b.robustusDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T.b.rubidusYoungman,1958—SCColorado,USA.T.b.ruidosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.rupestrisChattin,1941—SCCalifornia,USA.T.b.ruricolaHuey,1949—SWBajaCalifornia,USA.T:b.russeolusNelson&Goldman,1909—SWBajaCaliforniatoNWBajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico.T.b.saxatillisGrinnell,1934—NECalifornia,USA.T.b.scotophilusDavis,1940—WCTexas,USA.T.b.sevieriDurrant,1946—WCUtah,USA.T.b.siccovallisHuey,1945—CBajaCalifornia,Mexico.T:b.simulusNelson&Goldman,1934—SEIdaho,USA.T:b.sinaloaeMerriam,1901—NWandWCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.solitariusGrinnell,1926—WCNevada,USA.T:b.spatiosusGoldman,1938—SWTexas,USA.T.b.stansburyDurrant,1946—NWUtah,USA.T:b.sturgisiGoldman,1938—NWCoahuilaintoEChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.subsimilisGoldman,1933—SWArizona,USA.T.b.texensisBailey,1902—SWTexas,USA.T.b.tiviusDurrant,1937—CUtah,USA.T.b.toltecusJ.A.Allen,1893—SWNewMexico,USA,intoNWChihuahua,Mexico.T.b.tularosaeHall,1932—SCNewMexico,USA.T.b.vanrosseniHuey,1934—NWSonora,Mexico.T.b.varusHall&Long,1960—WCSinaloa,Mexico.T.b.vescusHall&Davis,1935—CNevada,USA.T.b.villa:Baker,1953—NWCoahuila,Mexico.T.b.wahwahensisDurrant,1937—WCUtah,USA.T.b.winthropiNelson&Goldman,1934—WCSonora,Mexico.T. b. xerophilus Huey, 1945— NC Baja California, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603835/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baird (1855) | Hafner et al. (1983) | Howard & Childs (1959) | Jones & Baxter (2004) | Linzey, Timm, Alvarez-Castafieda & Lacher (2008b) | Nadler etal. (1990) | Patton (1999a, 2005b) | Patton & Smith (1990) | Vleck (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a wide variety of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Nearly all species of plants in the vicinity of a burrow system are consumed, including annual and perennial monocots and dicots, perennial shrubs, cacti, and roots of a variety of tree species. Young shoots and entire seedlings of many plant species are pulled directly downward into a tunnel excavated beneath the plant. In many habitats, diet shifts seasonally, often in response to increased availabilities of forbs and grasses following spring rains. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system of Botta’s Pocket Gopher consists of a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Many observations of aboveground foraging have been reported, almost always occurring within a few body lengths of a burrow entrance.","breeding":"Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of Botta’s Pocket Gopher; low-elevation individuals breed in early spring and high-elevation individuals in late spring following snow melt. Most populations are thoughtto breed only once per year, but when breeding season is long (January-April in certain low-elevation habitats in California), females born early in the season will breed later in the same season. Males do not attain reproductive maturity until the year after their birth. Some populations of Botta’s Pocket Gophers may breed in spring and autumn in years when food is abundant. In most years, nearly all adult females breed, but relatively few adult males breed, suggesting that male competition for access to femalesis high. Sex ratio of adults in most populationsis heavily skewed in favor of females, and this is especially true in populations with extreme sexual size dimorphism. Litter sizes of Botta’s Pocket Gophers are 1-10 young, averaging 4-5 young/litter. Nutrition and food abundance affect litter size, and studies by J. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that femalesliving in alfalfa fields in the southern California desert had larger litters than those living in nearby desert scrub habitats. Gestation is 18-21 days, and young are weaned and expelled from burrows at ¢.35 days of age. Young disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat not already occupied by a competitor.","activityPatterns":"Botta’s Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. A study in southern California showed six individuals to be active an average of ¢.9 hours/day, with peak activity between 16:00 h and 20:00 h. Botta’s Pocket Gopher digs with its incisors and forelimbs, using hard enamel in the teeth to penetrate compact soils resistant to softer keratin in claws. In one study, growth rate of incisors averaged c.0-6 mm/day for the upper pair and almost 1 mm/day (36 cm/year) in the lower pair. Rate of claw growth varies widely butis usually slower than rate of incisor growth in species that dig with their teeth. Botta’s Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round. Burrowing activity is low during hot, dry summers but increases dramatically with cooler temperatures and greater soil moisture in spring, autumn, and winter. Although most burrowing activity takes place in shallow feeding tunnels and is associated with foraging, individuals will also dig deep tunnels to avoid hot surface temperatures.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A study of Botta’s Pocket Gophers living along the Rio Grande in New Mexico, USA, estimated average dispersal distances of ¢.400 m/year. Another study in California showed average daily movements of ¢.32 m for dispersing adult males, 28 m for adult females, and 21 m for subadult females. As in other pocket gophers, Botta’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Although they vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, captures of two or more individuals in the same system are not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Male Botta’s Pocket Gophers tend to have larger burrow systems than females. Mean home range size was ¢.390 m? for females and ¢.810 m? for males in California. A similar study in New Mexico reported home range sizes of ¢.290 m?* for females and ¢.475 m® for males. Densities of ¢.75 ind/ha have been reported in natural habitats, and as many as 150 ind/ha have been recorded from agricultural lands (e.g. alfalfa fields).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 90-200 mm (males) and 80-175 mm (females), tail 60— 95 mm (males) and 55-75 mm (females); weight 110-250 g (males) and 80-160 g (females). Botta’s Pocket Gopher has a very broad geographical distribution, encompassing the entire southern one-half of western USA into northern Mexico. Extreme variation in body size and pelage color throughoutits distribution explains the large number of described subspecies. Some authors believe that many, if not most, of these subspecies would not stand up to a detailed analysis of taxonomic status using modern systematic tools. Individuals living at higher elevations or in thinnersoils are usually much smaller than individuals living at lower elevations and in deeper soils. Males continue to grow with age, whereas growth in females ceases after they begin to reproduce. As a result, males of smaller subspecies are somewhat larger than females, but males of larger subspecies can be up to ¢.15% larger than females. Color of dorsal pelage can be black in melanistic populations, white in albinistic individuals, dark-to-light brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, pale gray, yellowish gray, and all shades between these many colors. Some individuals have patches of white fur on throat, chest, or belly, and some populations show subtle changes in hair color seasonally. Botta’s Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical ofall pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Extensive cytogenetic studies of Botta’s Pocket Gopher byJ. L. Patton and his colleagues showed that most populations have a chromosomal complement of 2n = 76 and FN = 110-148. Populations extending from northeastern New Mexico into south-eastern Colorado show a cline in diploid number from 76 chromosomes in the south to 100 in the north. Additional chromosomes, above the typical diploid number of 76, are heterochromatic and potentially genetically inactive.","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats with many differentsoil types and depths from below sea level in Death Valley National Park, California, to above timberline in many mountain ranges in western USA. Botta’s Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands,forests, and suburban lawns and gardens. Similar to other pocket gophers, they appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invadersof cultivated fields."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072CFF83FE12FDEF6DE2431A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072CFF83FE12FDEF6DE2431A","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"234","verbatimText":"Family GEOMYIDAE(POCKET GOPHERS)•• Small to medium-sized rodents with furlined cheek pouches external to the mouth and adaptations for fossorial life, including large incisors, muscular front legs, and fusiform bodies.• 15-45 cm.• Nearctic and Neotropical regions.• Near sea level to timberline in all habitats with friable, non-flooding soils.• 7 genera, 41 species, at least 314 extant taxa.• 2 species Critically Endangered, 1 species Endangered; 3 subspecies Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072EFF80FF92F49A6A9244CA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072EFF80FF92F49A6A9244CA","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"251","verbatimText":"2.Western Pocket GopherThomomys mazamaFrench:Gaufre du Mazama/ German:Mazama-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza occidentalOther common names:Mazama Pocket Gopher; Puget Sound Pocket Gopher (pugetensis), Tacoma Pocket Gopher (tacomensis)Taxonomy.Thomomys mazama Merriam, 1897, “Crater Lake, Mt. Mazama, [Klamath County] Oregon,” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded: as a subspecies of 1. monticola. Subspecies tacomensis, named by W. P. Taylor in 1919, known only from the vicinity of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington,is probably extinct as a result of urban expansion. Fourteen extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.m.mazamaMerriam,1897—CascadeRange,fromCOregonthroughNCalifor-nia,USA.T.m.couchiGoldman,1939—vicinityofShelton,MasonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.glacialisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—RoyPrairie,PierceCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.helleriElliot,1903—mouthoftheRogueRiver,CurryCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.hesperusMerriam,1901—coastalrangesofNWOregon,USA.T.m.lowieiGardner,1950—NECathlamet,WahkiakumCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.melanopsMerriam,1899—OlympicMts,ClallamCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.nasicusMerriam,1897—DeschutesRiverregion,COregon,USA.T.m.nigerMerriam,1901—coastofCOregon,USA.T.m.oregonusMerriam,1901—N&NWedgeofWillametteValley,Oregon,USA.T.m.premaxillarisGrinnell,1914—YollaBollyMts,TehamaCounty,California,USA.T.m.pugetensisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—vicinityofOlympia,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.tumuliDalquest&Scheffer,1942—NofTenino,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T. m. yelmensis Merriam, 1899— vicinity of Yelm Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-170 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 80-130 g. Male Western Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is reddish brown dorsally, although some individuals, even entire populations, are completely melanistic. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from most nearby species of pocket gophers by its unusually large post-auricular patches, which are 5-6 times the area of the ear. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from the Northern Pocket Gopher(T. talpoides) by presence of an unusually long baculum in males (longest recorded for all geomyid species), often exceeding 22 mm in length. Bacula of the Northern Pocket Gopher rarely exceed 17 mm in length. The Western Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 40-58 karyotype.Habitat.Alpine meadows, open park-like habitats, glacial prairies, pastures, savannas, and early seral woodlands and forests where soils are deep silt or sandy loams. Mixedconifer forests often dominate habitats used by Western Pocket Gophers.Food and Feeding.Consumption of plant species by the Western Pocket Gopher corresponds quite well with relative availabilities of those plant species. Annual diet consists primarily of grasses, roots of woody plants, and forbs. As in all pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Western Pocket Gopher. Feeding habits of the Western Pocket Gopher, particularly the numerous mounds of soil deposited on the surface, are believed by some researchers to have contributed to the formation of what are known as Mima mounds in prairie regions of Oregon and Washington in western USA. Mima mounds are conspicuous mounds of soil varying greatly in size but averaging c.600 cm in diameter and ¢.100 cm high that occur in dense clusters and cover large areas of prairie habitat. Mounds are approximately evenly spaced, and spacing is roughly equivalent to size of individual pocket gopher burrow systems. Pocket gophers no longer occupy the vast majority of Mima mounds.Breeding.The Western Pocket Gopher mates in spring, has a gestation of ¢.28 days, and has 1-7 young/litter. One study reported an average of 3-9 young/litter, which was the lowest average recorded among five species of Thomomysthat occur in Oregon. Nest chambers excavated in southern Washington were ¢.25 cm in diameter and c.15 cm high at an average depth of c.90 cm below the surface. These nests were lined with dry grass. The Western Pocket Gopher was coprophagous in captivity, but coprophagy in wild individuals has not been investigated.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gopher can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Western Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In eastern Oregon, 110 Western Pocket Gophers were removed from a 4ha plot during a 14month period (= density of ¢.28 ind/ha), which did not account for possible immigration onto the plot from surrounding areas after residents were removed. In populations studied in Klamath County, Oregon, c.53% of individuals were young-of-the-year, 42% were 1-2 years old, and 5% were 2-3 years old. No individuals collected were older than c.3 years. Sex ratio in young-of-the-year was 1:1, but it was slightly female-biased in the older age classes.On following pages: 3. Idaho Pocket Gopher(Thomomys idahoensis); 4. Wyoming Pocket Gopher(Thomomys clusius); 5. Northern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys talpoides); 6. Camas Pocket Gopher(Thomomysbulbivorus), 7. Townsend's Pocket Gopher(Thomomystownsend); 8. Southern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys umbrinus); 9. Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopher(Thomomyssheldoni); 10. Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher(Thomomys atrovarius), 11. Nayar Pocket Gopher(Thomomysnayarensis); 12. Botta's Pocket Gopher(Thomomys bottae); 13. Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius); 14. Hall's Pocket Gopher(Geomys jugossicularis); 15. Sand Hills Pocket Gopher(Geomyslutescens); 16. Desert Pocket Gopher(Geomys arenarius); 17. Jones's Pocket Gopher(Geomys knoxjonesi); 18. Attwater’'s Pocket Gopher(Geomys attwateri); 19. Texas Pocket Gopher(Geomys personatus); 20. Strecker’s Pocket Gopher(Geomys streckeri); 21. Tropical Pocket Gopher(Geomys tropicalis); 22. Llano Pocket Gopher(Geomys texensis); 23. Baird's Pocket Gopher(Geomys breviceps); 24. South-eastern Pocket Gopher(Geomys pinetis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Five subspecies of the Western Pocket Gopher(glacialis, pugetensis, tumuli, and yelmensis) are classified as threatened by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.Bibliography.Burton & Black (1978), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008s), Livezey & Verts (1979), Patton (1999e, 2005b), Taylor (1919), Thaeler (1980), USFWS (2015), Verts & Carraway (1998, 2000), Wilks (1962), Witmer etal. (1996).","taxonomy":"Thomomys mazama Merriam, 1897, “Crater Lake, Mt. Mazama, [Klamath County] Oregon,” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded: as a subspecies of 1. monticola. Subspecies tacomensis, named by W. P. Taylor in 1919, known only from the vicinity of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington,is probably extinct as a result of urban expansion. Fourteen extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Mazama @fr | Mazama-Taschenratte @de | Tuza occidental @es | Mazama Pocket Gopher; Puget Sound Pocket Gopher (pugetensis) @en | Tacoma Pocket Gopher (tacomensis) @en","interpretedAuthority":"Merriam, 1897","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1897","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"251","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mazama","name":"Thomomys mazama","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.m.mazamaMerriam,1897—CascadeRange,fromCOregonthroughNCalifor-nia,USA.T.m.couchiGoldman,1939—vicinityofShelton,MasonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.glacialisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—RoyPrairie,PierceCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.helleriElliot,1903—mouthoftheRogueRiver,CurryCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.hesperusMerriam,1901—coastalrangesofNWOregon,USA.T.m.lowieiGardner,1950—NECathlamet,WahkiakumCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.melanopsMerriam,1899—OlympicMts,ClallamCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.nasicusMerriam,1897—DeschutesRiverregion,COregon,USA.T.m.nigerMerriam,1901—coastofCOregon,USA.T.m.oregonusMerriam,1901—N&NWedgeofWillametteValley,Oregon,USA.T.m.premaxillarisGrinnell,1914—YollaBollyMts,TehamaCounty,California,USA.T.m.pugetensisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—vicinityofOlympia,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.tumuliDalquest&Scheffer,1942—NofTenino,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T. m. yelmensis Merriam, 1899— vicinity of Yelm Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, USA.","bibliography":"Burton & Black (1978) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008s) | Livezey & Verts (1979) | Patton (1999e, 2005b) | Taylor (1919) | Thaeler (1980) | USFWS (2015) | Verts & Carraway (1998, 2000) | Wilks (1962) | Witmer etal. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Consumption of plant species by the Western Pocket Gopher corresponds quite well with relative availabilities of those plant species. Annual diet consists primarily of grasses, roots of woody plants, and forbs. As in all pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Western Pocket Gopher. Feeding habits of the Western Pocket Gopher, particularly the numerous mounds of soil deposited on the surface, are believed by some researchers to have contributed to the formation of what are known as Mima mounds in prairie regions of Oregon and Washington in western USA. Mima mounds are conspicuous mounds of soil varying greatly in size but averaging c.600 cm in diameter and ¢.100 cm high that occur in dense clusters and cover large areas of prairie habitat. Mounds are approximately evenly spaced, and spacing is roughly equivalent to size of individual pocket gopher burrow systems. Pocket gophers no longer occupy the vast majority of Mima mounds.","breeding":"The Western Pocket Gopher mates in spring, has a gestation of ¢.28 days, and has 1-7 young/litter. One study reported an average of 3-9 young/litter, which was the lowest average recorded among five species of Thomomysthat occur in Oregon. Nest chambers excavated in southern Washington were ¢.25 cm in diameter and c.15 cm high at an average depth of c.90 cm below the surface. These nests were lined with dry grass. The Western Pocket Gopher was coprophagous in captivity, but coprophagy in wild individuals has not been investigated.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gopher can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Western Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In eastern Oregon, 110 Western Pocket Gophers were removed from a 4ha plot during a 14month period (= density of ¢.28 ind/ha), which did not account for possible immigration onto the plot from surrounding areas after residents were removed. In populations studied in Klamath County, Oregon, c.53% of individuals were young-of-the-year, 42% were 1-2 years old, and 5% were 2-3 years old. No individuals collected were older than c.3 years. Sex ratio in young-of-the-year was 1:1, but it was slightly female-biased in the older age classes.On following pages: 3. Idaho Pocket Gopher(Thomomys idahoensis); 4. Wyoming Pocket Gopher(Thomomys clusius); 5. Northern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys talpoides); 6. Camas Pocket Gopher(Thomomysbulbivorus), 7. Townsend's Pocket Gopher(Thomomystownsend); 8. Southern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys umbrinus); 9. Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopher(Thomomyssheldoni); 10. Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher(Thomomys atrovarius), 11. Nayar Pocket Gopher(Thomomysnayarensis); 12. Botta's Pocket Gopher(Thomomys bottae); 13. Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius); 14. Hall's Pocket Gopher(Geomys jugossicularis); 15. Sand Hills Pocket Gopher(Geomyslutescens); 16. Desert Pocket Gopher(Geomys arenarius); 17. Jones's Pocket Gopher(Geomys knoxjonesi); 18. Attwater’'s Pocket Gopher(Geomys attwateri); 19. Texas Pocket Gopher(Geomys personatus); 20. Strecker’s Pocket Gopher(Geomys streckeri); 21. Tropical Pocket Gopher(Geomys tropicalis); 22. Llano Pocket Gopher(Geomys texensis); 23. Baird's Pocket Gopher(Geomys breviceps); 24. South-eastern Pocket Gopher(Geomys pinetis).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Five subspecies of the Western Pocket Gopher(glacialis, pugetensis, tumuli, and yelmensis) are classified as threatened by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-170 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 80-130 g. Male Western Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is reddish brown dorsally, although some individuals, even entire populations, are completely melanistic. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from most nearby species of pocket gophers by its unusually large post-auricular patches, which are 5-6 times the area of the ear. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from the Northern Pocket Gopher(T. talpoides) by presence of an unusually long baculum in males (longest recorded for all geomyid species), often exceeding 22 mm in length. Bacula of the Northern Pocket Gopher rarely exceed 17 mm in length. The Western Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 40-58 karyotype.","habitat":"Alpine meadows, open park-like habitats, glacial prairies, pastures, savannas, and early seral woodlands and forests where soils are deep silt or sandy loams. Mixedconifer forests often dominate habitats used by Western Pocket Gophers."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072EFF80FF92F49A6A9244CA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072EFF80FF92F49A6A9244CA","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"251","verbatimText":"2.Western Pocket GopherThomomys mazamaFrench:Gaufre du Mazama/ German:Mazama-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza occidentalOther common names:Mazama Pocket Gopher; Puget Sound Pocket Gopher (pugetensis), Tacoma Pocket Gopher (tacomensis)Taxonomy.Thomomys mazama Merriam, 1897, “Crater Lake, Mt. Mazama, [Klamath County] Oregon,” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded: as a subspecies of 1. monticola. Subspecies tacomensis, named by W. P. Taylor in 1919, known only from the vicinity of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington,is probably extinct as a result of urban expansion. Fourteen extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.m.mazamaMerriam,1897—CascadeRange,fromCOregonthroughNCalifor-nia,USA.T.m.couchiGoldman,1939—vicinityofShelton,MasonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.glacialisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—RoyPrairie,PierceCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.helleriElliot,1903—mouthoftheRogueRiver,CurryCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.hesperusMerriam,1901—coastalrangesofNWOregon,USA.T.m.lowieiGardner,1950—NECathlamet,WahkiakumCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.melanopsMerriam,1899—OlympicMts,ClallamCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.nasicusMerriam,1897—DeschutesRiverregion,COregon,USA.T.m.nigerMerriam,1901—coastofCOregon,USA.T.m.oregonusMerriam,1901—N&NWedgeofWillametteValley,Oregon,USA.T.m.premaxillarisGrinnell,1914—YollaBollyMts,TehamaCounty,California,USA.T.m.pugetensisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—vicinityofOlympia,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.tumuliDalquest&Scheffer,1942—NofTenino,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T. m. yelmensis Merriam, 1899— vicinity of Yelm Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-170 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 80-130 g. Male Western Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is reddish brown dorsally, although some individuals, even entire populations, are completely melanistic. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from most nearby species of pocket gophers by its unusually large post-auricular patches, which are 5-6 times the area of the ear. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from the Northern Pocket Gopher(T. talpoides) by presence of an unusually long baculum in males (longest recorded for all geomyid species), often exceeding 22 mm in length. Bacula of the Northern Pocket Gopher rarely exceed 17 mm in length. The Western Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 40-58 karyotype.Habitat.Alpine meadows, open park-like habitats, glacial prairies, pastures, savannas, and early seral woodlands and forests where soils are deep silt or sandy loams. Mixedconifer forests often dominate habitats used by Western Pocket Gophers.Food and Feeding.Consumption of plant species by the Western Pocket Gopher corresponds quite well with relative availabilities of those plant species. Annual diet consists primarily of grasses, roots of woody plants, and forbs. As in all pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Western Pocket Gopher. Feeding habits of the Western Pocket Gopher, particularly the numerous mounds of soil deposited on the surface, are believed by some researchers to have contributed to the formation of what are known as Mima mounds in prairie regions of Oregon and Washington in western USA. Mima mounds are conspicuous mounds of soil varying greatly in size but averaging c.600 cm in diameter and ¢.100 cm high that occur in dense clusters and cover large areas of prairie habitat. Mounds are approximately evenly spaced, and spacing is roughly equivalent to size of individual pocket gopher burrow systems. Pocket gophers no longer occupy the vast majority of Mima mounds.Breeding.The Western Pocket Gopher mates in spring, has a gestation of ¢.28 days, and has 1-7 young/litter. One study reported an average of 3-9 young/litter, which was the lowest average recorded among five species of Thomomysthat occur in Oregon. Nest chambers excavated in southern Washington were ¢.25 cm in diameter and c.15 cm high at an average depth of c.90 cm below the surface. These nests were lined with dry grass. The Western Pocket Gopher was coprophagous in captivity, but coprophagy in wild individuals has not been investigated.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gopher can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Western Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In eastern Oregon, 110 Western Pocket Gophers were removed from a 4ha plot during a 14month period (= density of ¢.28 ind/ha), which did not account for possible immigration onto the plot from surrounding areas after residents were removed. In populations studied in Klamath County, Oregon, c.53% of individuals were young-of-the-year, 42% were 1-2 years old, and 5% were 2-3 years old. No individuals collected were older than c.3 years. Sex ratio in young-of-the-year was 1:1, but it was slightly female-biased in the older age classes.On following pages: 3. Idaho Pocket Gopher(Thomomys idahoensis); 4. Wyoming Pocket Gopher(Thomomys clusius); 5. Northern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys talpoides); 6. Camas Pocket Gopher(Thomomysbulbivorus), 7. Townsend's Pocket Gopher(Thomomystownsend); 8. Southern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys umbrinus); 9. Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopher(Thomomyssheldoni); 10. Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher(Thomomys atrovarius), 11. Nayar Pocket Gopher(Thomomysnayarensis); 12. Botta's Pocket Gopher(Thomomys bottae); 13. Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius); 14. Hall's Pocket Gopher(Geomys jugossicularis); 15. Sand Hills Pocket Gopher(Geomyslutescens); 16. Desert Pocket Gopher(Geomys arenarius); 17. Jones's Pocket Gopher(Geomys knoxjonesi); 18. Attwater’'s Pocket Gopher(Geomys attwateri); 19. Texas Pocket Gopher(Geomys personatus); 20. Strecker’s Pocket Gopher(Geomys streckeri); 21. Tropical Pocket Gopher(Geomys tropicalis); 22. Llano Pocket Gopher(Geomys texensis); 23. Baird's Pocket Gopher(Geomys breviceps); 24. South-eastern Pocket Gopher(Geomys pinetis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Five subspecies of the Western Pocket Gopher(glacialis, pugetensis, tumuli, and yelmensis) are classified as threatened by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.Bibliography.Burton & Black (1978), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008s), Livezey & Verts (1979), Patton (1999e, 2005b), Taylor (1919), Thaeler (1980), USFWS (2015), Verts & Carraway (1998, 2000), Wilks (1962), Witmer etal. (1996).","taxonomy":"Thomomys mazama Merriam, 1897, “Crater Lake, Mt. Mazama, [Klamath County] Oregon,” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded: as a subspecies of 1. monticola. Subspecies tacomensis, named by W. P. Taylor in 1919, known only from the vicinity of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington,is probably extinct as a result of urban expansion. Fourteen extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Mazama @fr | Mazama-Taschenratte @de | Tuza occidental @es | Mazama Pocket Gopher; Puget Sound Pocket Gopher (pugetensis) @en | Tacoma Pocket Gopher (tacomensis) @en","interpretedAuthority":"Merriam, 1897","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1897","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"251","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mazama","name":"Thomomys mazama","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.m.mazamaMerriam,1897—CascadeRange,fromCOregonthroughNCalifor-nia,USA.T.m.couchiGoldman,1939—vicinityofShelton,MasonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.glacialisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—RoyPrairie,PierceCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.helleriElliot,1903—mouthoftheRogueRiver,CurryCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.hesperusMerriam,1901—coastalrangesofNWOregon,USA.T.m.lowieiGardner,1950—NECathlamet,WahkiakumCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.melanopsMerriam,1899—OlympicMts,ClallamCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.nasicusMerriam,1897—DeschutesRiverregion,COregon,USA.T.m.nigerMerriam,1901—coastofCOregon,USA.T.m.oregonusMerriam,1901—N&NWedgeofWillametteValley,Oregon,USA.T.m.premaxillarisGrinnell,1914—YollaBollyMts,TehamaCounty,California,USA.T.m.pugetensisDalquest&Scheffer,1942—vicinityofOlympia,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T.m.tumuliDalquest&Scheffer,1942—NofTenino,ThurstonCounty,Washington,USA.T. m. yelmensis Merriam, 1899— vicinity of Yelm Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603815/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Burton & Black (1978) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008s) | Livezey & Verts (1979) | Patton (1999e, 2005b) | Taylor (1919) | Thaeler (1980) | USFWS (2015) | Verts & Carraway (1998, 2000) | Wilks (1962) | Witmer etal. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Consumption of plant species by the Western Pocket Gopher corresponds quite well with relative availabilities of those plant species. Annual diet consists primarily of grasses, roots of woody plants, and forbs. As in all pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Western Pocket Gopher. Feeding habits of the Western Pocket Gopher, particularly the numerous mounds of soil deposited on the surface, are believed by some researchers to have contributed to the formation of what are known as Mima mounds in prairie regions of Oregon and Washington in western USA. Mima mounds are conspicuous mounds of soil varying greatly in size but averaging c.600 cm in diameter and ¢.100 cm high that occur in dense clusters and cover large areas of prairie habitat. Mounds are approximately evenly spaced, and spacing is roughly equivalent to size of individual pocket gopher burrow systems. Pocket gophers no longer occupy the vast majority of Mima mounds.","breeding":"The Western Pocket Gopher mates in spring, has a gestation of ¢.28 days, and has 1-7 young/litter. One study reported an average of 3-9 young/litter, which was the lowest average recorded among five species of Thomomysthat occur in Oregon. Nest chambers excavated in southern Washington were ¢.25 cm in diameter and c.15 cm high at an average depth of c.90 cm below the surface. These nests were lined with dry grass. The Western Pocket Gopher was coprophagous in captivity, but coprophagy in wild individuals has not been investigated.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gopher can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Western Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. In eastern Oregon, 110 Western Pocket Gophers were removed from a 4ha plot during a 14month period (= density of ¢.28 ind/ha), which did not account for possible immigration onto the plot from surrounding areas after residents were removed. In populations studied in Klamath County, Oregon, c.53% of individuals were young-of-the-year, 42% were 1-2 years old, and 5% were 2-3 years old. No individuals collected were older than c.3 years. Sex ratio in young-of-the-year was 1:1, but it was slightly female-biased in the older age classes.On following pages: 3. Idaho Pocket Gopher(Thomomys idahoensis); 4. Wyoming Pocket Gopher(Thomomys clusius); 5. Northern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys talpoides); 6. Camas Pocket Gopher(Thomomysbulbivorus), 7. Townsend's Pocket Gopher(Thomomystownsend); 8. Southern Pocket Gopher(Thomomys umbrinus); 9. Sierra Madre Occidental Pocket Gopher(Thomomyssheldoni); 10. Black-and-Brown Pocket Gopher(Thomomys atrovarius), 11. Nayar Pocket Gopher(Thomomysnayarensis); 12. Botta's Pocket Gopher(Thomomys bottae); 13. Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius); 14. Hall's Pocket Gopher(Geomys jugossicularis); 15. Sand Hills Pocket Gopher(Geomyslutescens); 16. Desert Pocket Gopher(Geomys arenarius); 17. Jones's Pocket Gopher(Geomys knoxjonesi); 18. Attwater’'s Pocket Gopher(Geomys attwateri); 19. Texas Pocket Gopher(Geomys personatus); 20. Strecker’s Pocket Gopher(Geomys streckeri); 21. Tropical Pocket Gopher(Geomys tropicalis); 22. Llano Pocket Gopher(Geomys texensis); 23. Baird's Pocket Gopher(Geomys breviceps); 24. South-eastern Pocket Gopher(Geomys pinetis).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Five subspecies of the Western Pocket Gopher(glacialis, pugetensis, tumuli, and yelmensis) are classified as threatened by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-170 mm, tail 50-80 mm; weight 80-130 g. Male Western Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is reddish brown dorsally, although some individuals, even entire populations, are completely melanistic. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from most nearby species of pocket gophers by its unusually large post-auricular patches, which are 5-6 times the area of the ear. The Western Pocket Gopher can be distinguished from the Northern Pocket Gopher(T. talpoides) by presence of an unusually long baculum in males (longest recorded for all geomyid species), often exceeding 22 mm in length. Bacula of the Northern Pocket Gopher rarely exceed 17 mm in length. The Western Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 40-58 karyotype.","habitat":"Alpine meadows, open park-like habitats, glacial prairies, pastures, savannas, and early seral woodlands and forests where soils are deep silt or sandy loams. Mixedconifer forests often dominate habitats used by Western Pocket Gophers."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072EFF81FF92FDB76FCF4D18.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072EFF81FF92FDB76FCF4D18","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"251","verbatimText":"1.Mountain Pocket GopherThomomys monticolaFrench:Gaufre de montagne/ German:Sierra-Nevada-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de montanaOther common names:California Mountain Pocket Gopher, Sierra Nevada Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Thomomys monticola J. A. Allen, 1893, “Mt. Tallac, El Dorado Co., Cal., (altitude, 7500 feet),” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Monotypic.Distribution.C Sierra Nevada Mts of E California and extreme W Nevada and S Cascade Range of N California S to Mt Shasta; a disjunct population is known from S Yolla Bolly Mtn in NW California, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-160 mm, tail 50-90 mm, ear 8-9 mm, hindfoot 26-30 mm; weight 70-110 g. Male Mountain Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is uniformly brown dorsally, and ears are large for pocket gophers and somewhat pointed rather than rounded as in other species of Thomomys. The Mountain Pocket Gopherhas a large post-auricular patch that is about three times the area of the ear. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 76.Habitat.Deep, rich soils in alpine meadows and also gravelly or rocky soils on slopes in forested regions. Most Mountain Pocket Gophers are found in open forest clearings and around edges of meadows.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Mountain Pocket Gopherconsists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Mountain Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Whereas most species of Thomomysbreed in spring, the Mountain Pocket Gopherbreeds in midto late-summer (July-August). Gestation is c.19 days, and females usually have one litter per year with 3-5 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Mountain Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In mid-summer, juvenile Mountain Pocket Gophers leave their home burrow systems and disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat. Adults also are thought to disperse on occasion, burrowing through winter snow pack to colonize isolated mountain meadows. As in other pocket gophers, the Mountain Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home rangesizes in one study ranged from c¢.10 m? in some individuals to almost 200 m* in others, and they seemed to be equally variable in all age classes and both sexes. Because individuals, including juveniles, frequently assume ownership of abandoned burrow systems, it cannot be assumed that the occupant of a burrow system excavated the entire network of tunnels. When the soil is wet beneath winter snow pack, some Mountain Pocket Gophers establish nests above the ground within snow pack. These nests, and underground nests, are constructed of finely shredded grasses. Other chambers, some containing food stores and others containing thousands of fecal pellets, are located near nest chambers. Densities of Mountain Pocket Gophers in the Sierra Nevada, California, ranged from 20 ind/ha to almost 50 ind/ha, depending on year, season, and locality. These same populations contained an average of 40% adult females, 26% adult males, and 34% juveniles of both sexes.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ingles (1949, 1952), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008t), Patton (1999f, 2005b).","taxonomy":"Thomomys monticola J. A. Allen, 1893, “Mt. Tallac, El Dorado Co., Cal., (altitude, 7500 feet),” USA.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre de montagne @fr | Sierra-Nevada-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de montana @es | California Mountain Pocket Gopher @en | Sierra Nevada Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"251","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"monticola","name":"Thomomys monticola","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Sierra Nevada Mts of E California and extreme W Nevada and S Cascade Range of N California S to Mt Shasta; a disjunct population is known from S Yolla Bolly Mtn in NW California, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603813/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ingles (1949, 1952) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008t) | Patton (1999f, 2005b)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Mountain Pocket Gopherconsists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Mountain Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"Whereas most species of Thomomysbreed in spring, the Mountain Pocket Gopherbreeds in midto late-summer (July-August). Gestation is c.19 days, and females usually have one litter per year with 3-5 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"The Mountain Pocket Gopheris active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In mid-summer, juvenile Mountain Pocket Gophers leave their home burrow systems and disperse on the surface in search of suitable habitat. Adults also are thought to disperse on occasion, burrowing through winter snow pack to colonize isolated mountain meadows. As in other pocket gophers, the Mountain Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. Home rangesizes in one study ranged from c¢.10 m? in some individuals to almost 200 m* in others, and they seemed to be equally variable in all age classes and both sexes. Because individuals, including juveniles, frequently assume ownership of abandoned burrow systems, it cannot be assumed that the occupant of a burrow system excavated the entire network of tunnels. When the soil is wet beneath winter snow pack, some Mountain Pocket Gophers establish nests above the ground within snow pack. These nests, and underground nests, are constructed of finely shredded grasses. Other chambers, some containing food stores and others containing thousands of fecal pellets, are located near nest chambers. Densities of Mountain Pocket Gophers in the Sierra Nevada, California, ranged from 20 ind/ha to almost 50 ind/ha, depending on year, season, and locality. These same populations contained an average of 40% adult females, 26% adult males, and 34% juveniles of both sexes.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-160 mm, tail 50-90 mm, ear 8-9 mm, hindfoot 26-30 mm; weight 70-110 g. Male Mountain Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than females. This medium-sized pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is uniformly brown dorsally, and ears are large for pocket gophers and somewhat pointed rather than rounded as in other species of Thomomys. The Mountain Pocket Gopherhas a large post-auricular patch that is about three times the area of the ear. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 76.","habitat":"Deep, rich soils in alpine meadows and also gravelly or rocky soils on slopes in forested regions. Most Mountain Pocket Gophers are found in open forest clearings and around edges of meadows."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF80FF33FCEB690A4DBA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072FFF80FF33FCEB690A4DBA","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"2","verbatimText":"3.Idaho Pocket GopherThomomys idahoensisFrench:Gaufre d’'ldaho/ German:|daho-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de IdahoOther common names:Bitterroot Valley Pocket Gopher, Hamilton Pocket Gopher (confinus), Pygmy Pocket Gopher (pygmaeus)Taxonomy.Thomomys idahoensis Merriam, 1901, “Birch Creek, Idaho.” Restricted by J. L. Patton in 2005 to “USA, Idaho, Clark Co., Birch Creek (10 mi [16 km] S Nicholia [Lemhi Co.], about 6,400 ft. [1940 m]).”Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Originally regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.1. 1. idahoensis Merriam, 1901— extreme E Idaho and adjacent parts of Montana, USA.T.i.confinusDavis,1937—WMontana,USA.T. i. pygmaeus Merriam, 1901— SW Wyoming and adjacent parts of SE Idaho and N Utah, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-150 mm, tail 40-70 mm, ear 5-6 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 45-90 g. Female Idaho Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than males. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Idaho and Montana populations are pale yellow dorsally, but Wyoming populations are usually dark brown. The Idaho Pocket Gopherlacks the dark, post-auricular patch and gray-colored cheeks seen in nearby pocket gophers of other species. The Idaho Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 56 or 58 karyotype, which can be used to distinguish it from all other pocket gopher within its distribution.Habitat.Arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats, grasslands, and subalpine meadows. The Idaho Pocket Gopher appears to prefer habitats with relatively shallow and rocky soils, and when sympatric with the Northern Pocket Gopher (7. talpoides), the latter species is found in areas with deeper and less rocky soils.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers,the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Idaho Pocket Gopher.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but its breeding habits are probably similar to those of other species in this genus, which mate in spring and have 1-7 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Idaho Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active yearround. In winter,it digs tunnels in snow, where it deposits excess soil. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes ofsoil settle to the ground,leaving evidence of an individual's winter activities. As in all species of pocket gophers, Idaho Pocket Gophers can be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Idaho Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Idaho Pocket Gopher may be vulnerable because ofits limited distribution.Bibliography.Clark & Stromberg (1987), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008r), MTNHP (2015), Patton (1999d, 2005b), Thaeler (1972).","taxonomy":"Thomomys idahoensis Merriam, 1901, “Birch Creek, Idaho.” Restricted by J. L. Patton in 2005 to “USA, Idaho, Clark Co., Birch Creek (10 mi [16 km] S Nicholia [Lemhi Co.], about 6,400 ft. [1940 m]).”Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Originally regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre d’'ldaho @fr | |daho-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de @es | daho @en | Bitterroot Valley Pocket Gopher @en | Hamilton Pocket Gopher (confinus) @en | Pygmy Pocket Gopher (pygmaeus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1901","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"2","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"idahoensis","name":"Thomomys idahoensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"1. 1. idahoensis Merriam, 1901— extreme E Idaho and adjacent parts of Montana, USA.T.i.confinusDavis,1937—WMontana,USA.T. i. pygmaeus Merriam, 1901— SW Wyoming and adjacent parts of SE Idaho and N Utah, USA.","bibliography":"Clark & Stromberg (1987) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008r) | MTNHP (2015) | Patton (1999d, 2005b) | Thaeler (1972)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers,the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Idaho Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but its breeding habits are probably similar to those of other species in this genus, which mate in spring and have 1-7 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"The Idaho Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active yearround. In winter,it digs tunnels in snow, where it deposits excess soil. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes ofsoil settle to the ground,leaving evidence of an individual's winter activities. As in all species of pocket gophers, Idaho Pocket Gophers can be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Idaho Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Idaho Pocket Gopher may be vulnerable because ofits limited distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-150 mm, tail 40-70 mm, ear 5-6 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 45-90 g. Female Idaho Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than males. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Idaho and Montana populations are pale yellow dorsally, but Wyoming populations are usually dark brown. The Idaho Pocket Gopherlacks the dark, post-auricular patch and gray-colored cheeks seen in nearby pocket gophers of other species. The Idaho Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 56 or 58 karyotype, which can be used to distinguish it from all other pocket gopher within its distribution.","habitat":"Arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats, grasslands, and subalpine meadows. The Idaho Pocket Gopher appears to prefer habitats with relatively shallow and rocky soils, and when sympatric with the Northern Pocket Gopher (7. talpoides), the latter species is found in areas with deeper and less rocky soils."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF80FF33FCEB690A4DBA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072FFF80FF33FCEB690A4DBA","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"2","verbatimText":"3.Idaho Pocket GopherThomomys idahoensisFrench:Gaufre d’'ldaho/ German:|daho-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de IdahoOther common names:Bitterroot Valley Pocket Gopher, Hamilton Pocket Gopher (confinus), Pygmy Pocket Gopher (pygmaeus)Taxonomy.Thomomys idahoensis Merriam, 1901, “Birch Creek, Idaho.” Restricted by J. L. Patton in 2005 to “USA, Idaho, Clark Co., Birch Creek (10 mi [16 km] S Nicholia [Lemhi Co.], about 6,400 ft. [1940 m]).”Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Originally regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.1. 1. idahoensis Merriam, 1901— extreme E Idaho and adjacent parts of Montana, USA.T.i.confinusDavis,1937—WMontana,USA.T. i. pygmaeus Merriam, 1901— SW Wyoming and adjacent parts of SE Idaho and N Utah, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-150 mm, tail 40-70 mm, ear 5-6 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 45-90 g. Female Idaho Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than males. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Idaho and Montana populations are pale yellow dorsally, but Wyoming populations are usually dark brown. The Idaho Pocket Gopherlacks the dark, post-auricular patch and gray-colored cheeks seen in nearby pocket gophers of other species. The Idaho Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 56 or 58 karyotype, which can be used to distinguish it from all other pocket gopher within its distribution.Habitat.Arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats, grasslands, and subalpine meadows. The Idaho Pocket Gopher appears to prefer habitats with relatively shallow and rocky soils, and when sympatric with the Northern Pocket Gopher (7. talpoides), the latter species is found in areas with deeper and less rocky soils.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers,the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Idaho Pocket Gopher.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but its breeding habits are probably similar to those of other species in this genus, which mate in spring and have 1-7 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Idaho Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active yearround. In winter,it digs tunnels in snow, where it deposits excess soil. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes ofsoil settle to the ground,leaving evidence of an individual's winter activities. As in all species of pocket gophers, Idaho Pocket Gophers can be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Idaho Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Idaho Pocket Gopher may be vulnerable because ofits limited distribution.Bibliography.Clark & Stromberg (1987), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008r), MTNHP (2015), Patton (1999d, 2005b), Thaeler (1972).","taxonomy":"Thomomys idahoensis Merriam, 1901, “Birch Creek, Idaho.” Restricted by J. L. Patton in 2005 to “USA, Idaho, Clark Co., Birch Creek (10 mi [16 km] S Nicholia [Lemhi Co.], about 6,400 ft. [1940 m]).”Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Originally regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre d’'ldaho @fr | |daho-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de @es | daho @en | Bitterroot Valley Pocket Gopher @en | Hamilton Pocket Gopher (confinus) @en | Pygmy Pocket Gopher (pygmaeus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1901","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"2","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"idahoensis","name":"Thomomys idahoensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"1. 1. idahoensis Merriam, 1901— extreme E Idaho and adjacent parts of Montana, USA.T.i.confinusDavis,1937—WMontana,USA.T. i. pygmaeus Merriam, 1901— SW Wyoming and adjacent parts of SE Idaho and N Utah, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603817/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Clark & Stromberg (1987) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008r) | MTNHP (2015) | Patton (1999d, 2005b) | Thaeler (1972)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers,the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambersfor storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Idaho Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but its breeding habits are probably similar to those of other species in this genus, which mate in spring and have 1-7 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"The Idaho Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active yearround. In winter,it digs tunnels in snow, where it deposits excess soil. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes ofsoil settle to the ground,leaving evidence of an individual's winter activities. As in all species of pocket gophers, Idaho Pocket Gophers can be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available forthis species, but the Idaho Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Idaho Pocket Gopher may be vulnerable because ofits limited distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-150 mm, tail 40-70 mm, ear 5-6 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 45-90 g. Female Idaho Pocket Gophers are slightly larger than males. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Idaho and Montana populations are pale yellow dorsally, but Wyoming populations are usually dark brown. The Idaho Pocket Gopherlacks the dark, post-auricular patch and gray-colored cheeks seen in nearby pocket gophers of other species. The Idaho Pocket Gopher has a 2n = 56 or 58 karyotype, which can be used to distinguish it from all other pocket gopher within its distribution.","habitat":"Arid sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) habitats, grasslands, and subalpine meadows. The Idaho Pocket Gopher appears to prefer habitats with relatively shallow and rocky soils, and when sympatric with the Northern Pocket Gopher (7. talpoides), the latter species is found in areas with deeper and less rocky soils."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF80FF45F3F9623841E6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072FFF80FF45F3F9623841E6","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"2","verbatimText":"4.Wyoming Pocket GopherThomomys clusiusFrench:Gaufre du Wyoming/ German:Wyoming-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de WyomingTaxonomy.Thomomys clusius Coues, 1875, “Bridger’s Pass, Rocky Mountains.” Restricted by C. S. Thaeler and L. L. Hinesley in 1979 to “Bridger Pass (located about 18 mi SW Rawlins,” (Carbon County, Wyoming, USA).Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Monotypic.Distribution.Known from two localities in SE Sweetwater County and SW Carbon County, Wyoming, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-130 mm,tail 50-70 mm; weight 40-70 g. The Wyoming Pocket Gopherhas no discernible sexual dimorphism in body size. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is pale yellow dorsally and is easily distinguished from nearby species of pocket gophers by its small size, fringe of white hairs on ears, and absence of dark patch of fur below and behind ears (post-auricular patch). Molecular studies have shown the Wyoming Pocket Gopherto be genetically distinct from all other smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys), and its closest relative appears to be the “Pygmy Pocket Gopher” (7. idahoensispygmaeus). It has a 2n = 44 or 46 karyotype, which is different from those described for the Northern Pocket Gopher(7. talpoides) and the Idaho Pocket Gopher(7. idahoensus).Habitat.Arid upland habitats with loose, gravelly, and well-drained soils usually dominated by greasewood (Sarcobatusvermiculatus, Sarcobataceae). Wyoming Pocket Gophers are common along ridge tops and along edges of washes.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Wyoming Pocket Gopher.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Wyoming Pocket Gopherare probably similar to those ofits closest relative, the Pygmy Pocket Gopher, which mates in spring and has 1-7 litters/year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gophers can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk. The Wyoming Pocket Gopherdoes not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but like all pocket gophers, the Wyoming Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Wyoming Pocket Gophermay be vulnerable to ongoing development by the natural gas industry within its limited distribution.Bibliography.Clark & Stromberg (1987), Linzey & NatureServe (Clausen & Hammerson) (2008a), McDonald & Parchman (2010), Patton (1999¢, 2005b), Thaeler (1968), Thaeler & Hinesley (1979).","taxonomy":"Thomomys clusius Coues, 1875, “Bridger’s Pass, Rocky Mountains.” Restricted by C. S. Thaeler and L. L. Hinesley in 1979 to “Bridger Pass (located about 18 mi SW Rawlins,” (Carbon County, Wyoming, USA).Placed into subgenus Thomomys. Formerly regarded as a subspecies of T. talpoides. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Wyoming @fr | Wyoming-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Wyoming @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Coues","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1875","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"2","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"clusius","name":"Thomomys clusius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known from two localities in SE Sweetwater County and SW Carbon County, Wyoming, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603819/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Clark & Stromberg (1987) | Linzey & NatureServe (Clausen & Hammerson) | (2008a) | McDonald & Parchman (2010) | Patton (1999¢, 2005b) | Thaeler (1968) | Thaeler & Hinesley (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Wyoming Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but breeding habits of the Wyoming Pocket Gopherare probably similar to those ofits closest relative, the Pygmy Pocket Gopher, which mates in spring and has 1-7 litters/year.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but most species of pocket gophers can be active at any hour of the day with periods of peak activity usually around dawn and dusk. The Wyoming Pocket Gopherdoes not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but like all pocket gophers, the Wyoming Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Wyoming Pocket Gophermay be vulnerable to ongoing development by the natural gas industry within its limited distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-130 mm,tail 50-70 mm; weight 40-70 g. The Wyoming Pocket Gopherhas no discernible sexual dimorphism in body size. This very small pocket gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. It is pale yellow dorsally and is easily distinguished from nearby species of pocket gophers by its small size, fringe of white hairs on ears, and absence of dark patch of fur below and behind ears (post-auricular patch). Molecular studies have shown the Wyoming Pocket Gopherto be genetically distinct from all other smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys), and its closest relative appears to be the “Pygmy Pocket Gopher” (7. idahoensispygmaeus). It has a 2n = 44 or 46 karyotype, which is different from those described for the Northern Pocket Gopher(7. talpoides) and the Idaho Pocket Gopher(7. idahoensus).","habitat":"Arid upland habitats with loose, gravelly, and well-drained soils usually dominated by greasewood (Sarcobatusvermiculatus, Sarcobataceae). Wyoming Pocket Gophers are common along ridge tops and along edges of washes."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF87FA46F7D463A141FE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072FFF87FA46F7D463A141FE","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"2","verbatimText":"5.Northern Pocket GopherThomomys talpoidesFrench:Gaufre gris/ German:Nordliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza septentrionalOther common names:Vancouver Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cricetus talpoides Richardson, 1828, “banks of the Saskatcehewan [sic] in lat. 52° [N].” Restricted by V. Bailey in 1915 to “near Fort Carlton (Carlton House) on the Saskatchewan River, Saskatchewan,” Canada.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. This species previously included 7. clusiusand T. idahoensisas subspecies. Fifty-four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.talpoidesRichardson,1828—NCMontana,USA,andNEintoAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,Canada.T.t.aequalidensDalquest,1942—SEWashingtonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,USA.T.t.agrestisMerriam,1908—SCColorado,USA.T.t.andersoniGoldman,1939—SEAlberta,Canada.T.t.attenuatusHall&Montague,1951—SEWyomingandadjacentpartsofColorado,USA.T.t.bridger:Merriam,1901—SEIdaho,extendingEandSintoWWyoming,USA.T.t.bullatusBailey,1914—EMontana,extendingintoNorthDakotaandColorado,USA,andSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.cary:Bailey,1914—NCWyoming,USA.T.t.cheyennensisSwenk,1941—NEWyomingandadjacentpartsofNebraska,USA.T. t. cognatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.columbianusBailey,1914—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T.t.devexusHall&Dalquest,1939—ECWashington,USA.T.t.douglasiiRichardson,1829—WWashington,USA.T.t.durrantiKelson,1949—WCColoradoextendingintoUtah,withdisjunctpopulationsinSEUtah,USA.T.t.falciferGrinnell,1926—CNevada,USA.T. t. fisheri Merriam, 1901— NE California extending into W Nevada, USA.T.t.fossor].A.Allen,1893—SWColoradointoNNewMexico,withdisjunctpopulationsonArizona—NewMexicoborder,USA.T.t.fuscusMerriam,1891—CIdahointoNCWashington,USA,andSBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.gracilisDurrant,1939—NENevadaandadjacentpartsofUtahextendingSWintocentralNevada,USA.T.t.immunisHall&Dalquest,1939—SCWashington,USA.T.t.incensusGoldman,1939—SBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.kaibabensisGoldman,1938—NArizona,USA.T:t.kelloggiGoldman,1939—SCMontana,USA.T.t.levisGoldman,1938—SCUtahandadjacentpartsofArizona,USA.T.t.limosusMerriam,1901—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T:t.loringiBailey,1914—SCAlberta,Canada.T.t.macrotisMiller,1930—NCColorado,USA.T.t.mediusGoldman,1939—SEBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.meritusHall,1951—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.monoensisHuey,1934—WCNevadaandadjacentpartsofCalifornia,USA.T.t.moore:Goldman,1938—CUtah,USA.T.t.nebulosusBailey,1914—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.ociusMerriam,1901—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofUtahandWyoming,USA.T:t.oquirrhensisDurrant,1939—NCUtah,USA.T.t.parowanensisGoldman,1938—SWUtah,USA.T.t.pierreicolusSwenk,1941—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofMontana,Wyoming,andNebraska,USA.T:t.pryoriBailey,1914—SCMontana,USA.T.t.quadratusMerriam,1897—EOregonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,Nevada,andCalifornia,USA.T.t.ravusDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.relicinusGoldman,1939—SCIdaho,USA.T.t.retrorsusHall,1951—ECColorado,USA.T.t.rostralisHall&Montague,1951—CColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.rufescensWied-Neuwied,1839—NorthDakotaandadjacentpartsofSouthDakotaandMinnesota,USA,andManitobaandSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.saturatusBailey,1914—NIdahoandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA,andBritishColumbia,Canada.T. t. segregatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.shawiTaylor,1921—SCWashington,USA.T:t.tayloriHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T.t.tenellusGoldman,1939—NWWyomingandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA.T.t.trivialisGoldman,1939—CMontana,USA.T.t.wintaMerriam,1901—NEUtah,USA.T.t.wallowaHall&Orr,1933—NEOregonandadjacentpartsofWashington,USA.T.t.wasatchensisDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.whitmaniDrake&Booth,1952—SEWashington,USA.T: t. yakimensis Hall & Dalquest, 1939— SC Washington, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-190 mm, tail 50-80 mm, hindfoot 25-35 mm; weight 65-209 g. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the largest distribution of any pocket gopher, and variation in body size is extreme. Individuals living at high elevations or in thinner soils are usually much smaller than individuals living at low elevations and in deeper soils. Smaller subspecies show little sexual size dimorphism, but males of larger subspecies can be up to 9% larger than females. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal pelage is usually rich brown to brownish gray, grading to buff ventrally. Chin often is white and post-auricular patches are grayish black or black. The almost naked tail is usually brownish with a whitish tip, and feet often are white or partly white. Albinism and melanism are known, with melanism most common. The Northern Pocket Gopher shows widespread variation in chromosome diploid number, leading several authors to suggest that it may contain multiple cryptic species. Extensive cytogenetic studies by C. S. Thaeler in 1968 and 1980 found more than ten different karyotypes (2n = 40-60 chromosomes) in populations of the Northern Pocket Gopher from throughoutits distribution. FN = 70-78. Hybrid individuals with 47, 49, 51, or 53 chromosomes were reported in zones of contact between populations with different diploid numbers, but genetic introgression appeared to be absent at these zones, suggesting genetic isolation between parental forms.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats with many different soil types and depths. Northern Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands, forests, and suburban lawns and gardens from elevations of 900 m to more than 3700 m. They appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invaders of cultivated fields. An unknown number of Northern Pocket Gophers survived the explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, in May 1980. Although these individuals were among the first mammals to occupy the devastated wastelands surrounding the volcano, adult survivorship in the year after the eruption was estimated at only 10%, a value much lower than the typical 18-70% survivorship measured in undisturbed populations of Northern Pocket Gophers in Utah.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Northern Pocket Gopher consists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. In Oregon, and probably throughout its distribution, the Northern Pocket Gopher will eat most succulent plants within its home range. Although in some habitats, plant species are consumed approximately in proportion to their abundance, one study showed that pocket gophers are able to select plants with higher levels of protein and fat. In Colorado, spring diet of a population of Northern Pocket Gophers living in short-grass prairie habitat was 67% forbs, 30% grasses, and 3% shrubs. In a subalpine habitat, also in Colorado, diet was 87% forbs, 12% roots, and 1% grasses. Feeding activities of Northern Pocket Gophers are similar to those of other species of pocket gophers and are believed to have contributed to the formation of Mima mounds throughout much of the USA west of the Mississippi River. In Colorado, adult Northern Pocket Gophers usually occupy Mima Mounds, but juveniles occupy interrmound areas. In areas with heavy snowpack, individuals tunnel in the snow and deposit excess soil in the tunnels. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes of soil settle to the ground, leaving evidence of the individual’s winter activities. As in other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Northern Pocket Gopher.Breeding.At low elevations, the Northern Pocket gopher breeds in spring (mid-March to mid-June), but at higher elevations with heavy snowfall, breeding is delayed until mid-to-late summer. Gestation is 18-19 days, and litter sizes average 3-6 young/litter. Most adult females are thought to produce one litter per year, and one study reported that 88 of 112 (79%) adult females captured in spring were reproductively active. Young are weaned in c.40 days and reach adult body size in 3-6 months.Activity patterns.The Northern Pocket Gopher is active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In one study, radio-tracked individuals were active c.12 hours/day. Like all pocket gophers, Northern Pocket Gophers are prodigious diggers: one captive individual released in a vegetable garden with fairly compact soil was able to dig 50 cm of tunnel in 15 minutes, 32 m of tunnel in eight days, and 146 m of tunnel in six months. In montane habitats with denser soils, individuals burrowed at a nearly constant rate of 2 cm/minute. A study in Colorado showed that the Northern Pocket Gopher tends to dig around rocks larger than c.2:5 cm in diameter, but smaller rocks are removed with surrounding soil and deposited on the surface. The Northern Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As in other pocket gophers, the Northern Pocket Gophersis solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Although Northern Pocket Gophers vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, capture of two or more individuals in the same system is not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Densities of up to 20 ind/ha have been recorded in productive habitats. Average dispersal distance of the Northern Pocket Gopheris estimated to be 239 m/year, with a maximum observed distance of 790 m. As in other species of pocket gophers that live in areas with heavy snowfall, Northern Pocket Gophers frequently disperse long distances by burrowing through snowpack.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Andersen (1978, 1982), Bailey (1915), Hansen & Morris (1959), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008u), MacMahon (1999), Patton (2005b), Verts & Carraway (1999).","taxonomy":"Cricetus talpoides Richardson, 1828, “banks of the Saskatcehewan [sic] in lat. 52° [N].” Restricted by V. Bailey in 1915 to “near Fort Carlton (Carlton House) on the Saskatchewan River, Saskatchewan,” Canada.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. This species previously included 7. clusiusand T. idahoensisas subspecies. Fifty-four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre gris @fr | Nordliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza septentrional @es | Vancouver Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Richardson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1828","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"2","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"talpoides","name":"Thomomys talpoides","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.t.talpoidesRichardson,1828—NCMontana,USA,andNEintoAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,Canada.T.t.aequalidensDalquest,1942—SEWashingtonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,USA.T.t.agrestisMerriam,1908—SCColorado,USA.T.t.andersoniGoldman,1939—SEAlberta,Canada.T.t.attenuatusHall&Montague,1951—SEWyomingandadjacentpartsofColorado,USA.T.t.bridger:Merriam,1901—SEIdaho,extendingEandSintoWWyoming,USA.T.t.bullatusBailey,1914—EMontana,extendingintoNorthDakotaandColorado,USA,andSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.cary:Bailey,1914—NCWyoming,USA.T.t.cheyennensisSwenk,1941—NEWyomingandadjacentpartsofNebraska,USA.T. t. cognatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.columbianusBailey,1914—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T.t.devexusHall&Dalquest,1939—ECWashington,USA.T.t.douglasiiRichardson,1829—WWashington,USA.T.t.durrantiKelson,1949—WCColoradoextendingintoUtah,withdisjunctpopulationsinSEUtah,USA.T.t.falciferGrinnell,1926—CNevada,USA.T. t. fisheri Merriam, 1901— NE California extending into W Nevada, USA.T.t.fossor].A.Allen,1893—SWColoradointoNNewMexico,withdisjunctpopulationsonArizona—NewMexicoborder,USA.T.t.fuscusMerriam,1891—CIdahointoNCWashington,USA,andSBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.gracilisDurrant,1939—NENevadaandadjacentpartsofUtahextendingSWintocentralNevada,USA.T.t.immunisHall&Dalquest,1939—SCWashington,USA.T.t.incensusGoldman,1939—SBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.kaibabensisGoldman,1938—NArizona,USA.T:t.kelloggiGoldman,1939—SCMontana,USA.T.t.levisGoldman,1938—SCUtahandadjacentpartsofArizona,USA.T.t.limosusMerriam,1901—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T:t.loringiBailey,1914—SCAlberta,Canada.T.t.macrotisMiller,1930—NCColorado,USA.T.t.mediusGoldman,1939—SEBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.meritusHall,1951—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.monoensisHuey,1934—WCNevadaandadjacentpartsofCalifornia,USA.T.t.moore:Goldman,1938—CUtah,USA.T.t.nebulosusBailey,1914—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.ociusMerriam,1901—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofUtahandWyoming,USA.T:t.oquirrhensisDurrant,1939—NCUtah,USA.T.t.parowanensisGoldman,1938—SWUtah,USA.T.t.pierreicolusSwenk,1941—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofMontana,Wyoming,andNebraska,USA.T:t.pryoriBailey,1914—SCMontana,USA.T.t.quadratusMerriam,1897—EOregonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,Nevada,andCalifornia,USA.T.t.ravusDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.relicinusGoldman,1939—SCIdaho,USA.T.t.retrorsusHall,1951—ECColorado,USA.T.t.rostralisHall&Montague,1951—CColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.rufescensWied-Neuwied,1839—NorthDakotaandadjacentpartsofSouthDakotaandMinnesota,USA,andManitobaandSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.saturatusBailey,1914—NIdahoandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA,andBritishColumbia,Canada.T. t. segregatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.shawiTaylor,1921—SCWashington,USA.T:t.tayloriHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T.t.tenellusGoldman,1939—NWWyomingandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA.T.t.trivialisGoldman,1939—CMontana,USA.T.t.wintaMerriam,1901—NEUtah,USA.T.t.wallowaHall&Orr,1933—NEOregonandadjacentpartsofWashington,USA.T.t.wasatchensisDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.whitmaniDrake&Booth,1952—SEWashington,USA.T: t. yakimensis Hall & Dalquest, 1939— SC Washington, USA.","bibliography":"Andersen (1978, 1982) | Bailey (1915) | Hansen & Morris (1959) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008u) | MacMahon (1999) | Patton (2005b) | Verts & Carraway (1999)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Northern Pocket Gopher consists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. In Oregon, and probably throughout its distribution, the Northern Pocket Gopher will eat most succulent plants within its home range. Although in some habitats, plant species are consumed approximately in proportion to their abundance, one study showed that pocket gophers are able to select plants with higher levels of protein and fat. In Colorado, spring diet of a population of Northern Pocket Gophers living in short-grass prairie habitat was 67% forbs, 30% grasses, and 3% shrubs. In a subalpine habitat, also in Colorado, diet was 87% forbs, 12% roots, and 1% grasses. Feeding activities of Northern Pocket Gophers are similar to those of other species of pocket gophers and are believed to have contributed to the formation of Mima mounds throughout much of the USA west of the Mississippi River. In Colorado, adult Northern Pocket Gophers usually occupy Mima Mounds, but juveniles occupy interrmound areas. In areas with heavy snowpack, individuals tunnel in the snow and deposit excess soil in the tunnels. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes of soil settle to the ground, leaving evidence of the individual’s winter activities. As in other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Northern Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"At low elevations, the Northern Pocket gopher breeds in spring (mid-March to mid-June), but at higher elevations with heavy snowfall, breeding is delayed until mid-to-late summer. Gestation is 18-19 days, and litter sizes average 3-6 young/litter. Most adult females are thought to produce one litter per year, and one study reported that 88 of 112 (79%) adult females captured in spring were reproductively active. Young are weaned in c.40 days and reach adult body size in 3-6 months.","activityPatterns":"The Northern Pocket Gopher is active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In one study, radio-tracked individuals were active c.12 hours/day. Like all pocket gophers, Northern Pocket Gophers are prodigious diggers: one captive individual released in a vegetable garden with fairly compact soil was able to dig 50 cm of tunnel in 15 minutes, 32 m of tunnel in eight days, and 146 m of tunnel in six months. In montane habitats with denser soils, individuals burrowed at a nearly constant rate of 2 cm/minute. A study in Colorado showed that the Northern Pocket Gopher tends to dig around rocks larger than c.2:5 cm in diameter, but smaller rocks are removed with surrounding soil and deposited on the surface. The Northern Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"As in other pocket gophers, the Northern Pocket Gophersis solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Although Northern Pocket Gophers vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, capture of two or more individuals in the same system is not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Densities of up to 20 ind/ha have been recorded in productive habitats. Average dispersal distance of the Northern Pocket Gopheris estimated to be 239 m/year, with a maximum observed distance of 790 m. As in other species of pocket gophers that live in areas with heavy snowfall, Northern Pocket Gophers frequently disperse long distances by burrowing through snowpack.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 110-190 mm, tail 50-80 mm, hindfoot 25-35 mm; weight 65-209 g. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the largest distribution of any pocket gopher, and variation in body size is extreme. Individuals living at high elevations or in thinner soils are usually much smaller than individuals living at low elevations and in deeper soils. Smaller subspecies show little sexual size dimorphism, but males of larger subspecies can be up to 9% larger than females. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal pelage is usually rich brown to brownish gray, grading to buff ventrally. Chin often is white and post-auricular patches are grayish black or black. The almost naked tail is usually brownish with a whitish tip, and feet often are white or partly white. Albinism and melanism are known, with melanism most common. The Northern Pocket Gopher shows widespread variation in chromosome diploid number, leading several authors to suggest that it may contain multiple cryptic species. Extensive cytogenetic studies by C. S. Thaeler in 1968 and 1980 found more than ten different karyotypes (2n = 40-60 chromosomes) in populations of the Northern Pocket Gopher from throughoutits distribution. FN = 70-78. Hybrid individuals with 47, 49, 51, or 53 chromosomes were reported in zones of contact between populations with different diploid numbers, but genetic introgression appeared to be absent at these zones, suggesting genetic isolation between parental forms.","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats with many different soil types and depths. Northern Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands, forests, and suburban lawns and gardens from elevations of 900 m to more than 3700 m. They appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invaders of cultivated fields. An unknown number of Northern Pocket Gophers survived the explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, in May 1980. Although these individuals were among the first mammals to occupy the devastated wastelands surrounding the volcano, adult survivorship in the year after the eruption was estimated at only 10%, a value much lower than the typical 18-70% survivorship measured in undisturbed populations of Northern Pocket Gophers in Utah."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A072FFF87FA46F7D463A141FE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A072FFF87FA46F7D463A141FE","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"2","verbatimText":"5.Northern Pocket GopherThomomys talpoidesFrench:Gaufre gris/ German:Nordliche Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza septentrionalOther common names:Vancouver Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cricetus talpoides Richardson, 1828, “banks of the Saskatcehewan [sic] in lat. 52° [N].” Restricted by V. Bailey in 1915 to “near Fort Carlton (Carlton House) on the Saskatchewan River, Saskatchewan,” Canada.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. This species previously included 7. clusiusand T. idahoensisas subspecies. Fifty-four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.talpoidesRichardson,1828—NCMontana,USA,andNEintoAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,Canada.T.t.aequalidensDalquest,1942—SEWashingtonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,USA.T.t.agrestisMerriam,1908—SCColorado,USA.T.t.andersoniGoldman,1939—SEAlberta,Canada.T.t.attenuatusHall&Montague,1951—SEWyomingandadjacentpartsofColorado,USA.T.t.bridger:Merriam,1901—SEIdaho,extendingEandSintoWWyoming,USA.T.t.bullatusBailey,1914—EMontana,extendingintoNorthDakotaandColorado,USA,andSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.cary:Bailey,1914—NCWyoming,USA.T.t.cheyennensisSwenk,1941—NEWyomingandadjacentpartsofNebraska,USA.T. t. cognatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.columbianusBailey,1914—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T.t.devexusHall&Dalquest,1939—ECWashington,USA.T.t.douglasiiRichardson,1829—WWashington,USA.T.t.durrantiKelson,1949—WCColoradoextendingintoUtah,withdisjunctpopulationsinSEUtah,USA.T.t.falciferGrinnell,1926—CNevada,USA.T. t. fisheri Merriam, 1901— NE California extending into W Nevada, USA.T.t.fossor].A.Allen,1893—SWColoradointoNNewMexico,withdisjunctpopulationsonArizona—NewMexicoborder,USA.T.t.fuscusMerriam,1891—CIdahointoNCWashington,USA,andSBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.gracilisDurrant,1939—NENevadaandadjacentpartsofUtahextendingSWintocentralNevada,USA.T.t.immunisHall&Dalquest,1939—SCWashington,USA.T.t.incensusGoldman,1939—SBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.kaibabensisGoldman,1938—NArizona,USA.T:t.kelloggiGoldman,1939—SCMontana,USA.T.t.levisGoldman,1938—SCUtahandadjacentpartsofArizona,USA.T.t.limosusMerriam,1901—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T:t.loringiBailey,1914—SCAlberta,Canada.T.t.macrotisMiller,1930—NCColorado,USA.T.t.mediusGoldman,1939—SEBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.meritusHall,1951—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.monoensisHuey,1934—WCNevadaandadjacentpartsofCalifornia,USA.T.t.moore:Goldman,1938—CUtah,USA.T.t.nebulosusBailey,1914—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.ociusMerriam,1901—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofUtahandWyoming,USA.T:t.oquirrhensisDurrant,1939—NCUtah,USA.T.t.parowanensisGoldman,1938—SWUtah,USA.T.t.pierreicolusSwenk,1941—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofMontana,Wyoming,andNebraska,USA.T:t.pryoriBailey,1914—SCMontana,USA.T.t.quadratusMerriam,1897—EOregonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,Nevada,andCalifornia,USA.T.t.ravusDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.relicinusGoldman,1939—SCIdaho,USA.T.t.retrorsusHall,1951—ECColorado,USA.T.t.rostralisHall&Montague,1951—CColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.rufescensWied-Neuwied,1839—NorthDakotaandadjacentpartsofSouthDakotaandMinnesota,USA,andManitobaandSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.saturatusBailey,1914—NIdahoandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA,andBritishColumbia,Canada.T. t. segregatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.shawiTaylor,1921—SCWashington,USA.T:t.tayloriHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T.t.tenellusGoldman,1939—NWWyomingandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA.T.t.trivialisGoldman,1939—CMontana,USA.T.t.wintaMerriam,1901—NEUtah,USA.T.t.wallowaHall&Orr,1933—NEOregonandadjacentpartsofWashington,USA.T.t.wasatchensisDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.whitmaniDrake&Booth,1952—SEWashington,USA.T: t. yakimensis Hall & Dalquest, 1939— SC Washington, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-190 mm, tail 50-80 mm, hindfoot 25-35 mm; weight 65-209 g. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the largest distribution of any pocket gopher, and variation in body size is extreme. Individuals living at high elevations or in thinner soils are usually much smaller than individuals living at low elevations and in deeper soils. Smaller subspecies show little sexual size dimorphism, but males of larger subspecies can be up to 9% larger than females. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal pelage is usually rich brown to brownish gray, grading to buff ventrally. Chin often is white and post-auricular patches are grayish black or black. The almost naked tail is usually brownish with a whitish tip, and feet often are white or partly white. Albinism and melanism are known, with melanism most common. The Northern Pocket Gopher shows widespread variation in chromosome diploid number, leading several authors to suggest that it may contain multiple cryptic species. Extensive cytogenetic studies by C. S. Thaeler in 1968 and 1980 found more than ten different karyotypes (2n = 40-60 chromosomes) in populations of the Northern Pocket Gopher from throughoutits distribution. FN = 70-78. Hybrid individuals with 47, 49, 51, or 53 chromosomes were reported in zones of contact between populations with different diploid numbers, but genetic introgression appeared to be absent at these zones, suggesting genetic isolation between parental forms.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats with many different soil types and depths. Northern Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands, forests, and suburban lawns and gardens from elevations of 900 m to more than 3700 m. They appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invaders of cultivated fields. An unknown number of Northern Pocket Gophers survived the explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, in May 1980. Although these individuals were among the first mammals to occupy the devastated wastelands surrounding the volcano, adult survivorship in the year after the eruption was estimated at only 10%, a value much lower than the typical 18-70% survivorship measured in undisturbed populations of Northern Pocket Gophers in Utah.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Northern Pocket Gopher consists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. In Oregon, and probably throughout its distribution, the Northern Pocket Gopher will eat most succulent plants within its home range. Although in some habitats, plant species are consumed approximately in proportion to their abundance, one study showed that pocket gophers are able to select plants with higher levels of protein and fat. In Colorado, spring diet of a population of Northern Pocket Gophers living in short-grass prairie habitat was 67% forbs, 30% grasses, and 3% shrubs. In a subalpine habitat, also in Colorado, diet was 87% forbs, 12% roots, and 1% grasses. Feeding activities of Northern Pocket Gophers are similar to those of other species of pocket gophers and are believed to have contributed to the formation of Mima mounds throughout much of the USA west of the Mississippi River. In Colorado, adult Northern Pocket Gophers usually occupy Mima Mounds, but juveniles occupy interrmound areas. In areas with heavy snowpack, individuals tunnel in the snow and deposit excess soil in the tunnels. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes of soil settle to the ground, leaving evidence of the individual’s winter activities. As in other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Northern Pocket Gopher.Breeding.At low elevations, the Northern Pocket gopher breeds in spring (mid-March to mid-June), but at higher elevations with heavy snowfall, breeding is delayed until mid-to-late summer. Gestation is 18-19 days, and litter sizes average 3-6 young/litter. Most adult females are thought to produce one litter per year, and one study reported that 88 of 112 (79%) adult females captured in spring were reproductively active. Young are weaned in c.40 days and reach adult body size in 3-6 months.Activity patterns.The Northern Pocket Gopher is active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In one study, radio-tracked individuals were active c.12 hours/day. Like all pocket gophers, Northern Pocket Gophers are prodigious diggers: one captive individual released in a vegetable garden with fairly compact soil was able to dig 50 cm of tunnel in 15 minutes, 32 m of tunnel in eight days, and 146 m of tunnel in six months. In montane habitats with denser soils, individuals burrowed at a nearly constant rate of 2 cm/minute. A study in Colorado showed that the Northern Pocket Gopher tends to dig around rocks larger than c.2:5 cm in diameter, but smaller rocks are removed with surrounding soil and deposited on the surface. The Northern Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As in other pocket gophers, the Northern Pocket Gophersis solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Although Northern Pocket Gophers vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, capture of two or more individuals in the same system is not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Densities of up to 20 ind/ha have been recorded in productive habitats. Average dispersal distance of the Northern Pocket Gopheris estimated to be 239 m/year, with a maximum observed distance of 790 m. As in other species of pocket gophers that live in areas with heavy snowfall, Northern Pocket Gophers frequently disperse long distances by burrowing through snowpack.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Andersen (1978, 1982), Bailey (1915), Hansen & Morris (1959), Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) (2008u), MacMahon (1999), Patton (2005b), Verts & Carraway (1999).","taxonomy":"Cricetus talpoides Richardson, 1828, “banks of the Saskatcehewan [sic] in lat. 52° [N].” Restricted by V. Bailey in 1915 to “near Fort Carlton (Carlton House) on the Saskatchewan River, Saskatchewan,” Canada.Placed into subgenus Thomomys. This species previously included 7. clusiusand T. idahoensisas subspecies. Fifty-four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre gris @fr | Nordliche Taschenratte @de | Tuza septentrional @es | Vancouver Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Richardson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1828","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thomomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"2","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"talpoides","name":"Thomomys talpoides","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.t.talpoidesRichardson,1828—NCMontana,USA,andNEintoAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,Canada.T.t.aequalidensDalquest,1942—SEWashingtonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,USA.T.t.agrestisMerriam,1908—SCColorado,USA.T.t.andersoniGoldman,1939—SEAlberta,Canada.T.t.attenuatusHall&Montague,1951—SEWyomingandadjacentpartsofColorado,USA.T.t.bridger:Merriam,1901—SEIdaho,extendingEandSintoWWyoming,USA.T.t.bullatusBailey,1914—EMontana,extendingintoNorthDakotaandColorado,USA,andSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.cary:Bailey,1914—NCWyoming,USA.T.t.cheyennensisSwenk,1941—NEWyomingandadjacentpartsofNebraska,USA.T. t. cognatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.columbianusBailey,1914—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T.t.devexusHall&Dalquest,1939—ECWashington,USA.T.t.douglasiiRichardson,1829—WWashington,USA.T.t.durrantiKelson,1949—WCColoradoextendingintoUtah,withdisjunctpopulationsinSEUtah,USA.T.t.falciferGrinnell,1926—CNevada,USA.T. t. fisheri Merriam, 1901— NE California extending into W Nevada, USA.T.t.fossor].A.Allen,1893—SWColoradointoNNewMexico,withdisjunctpopulationsonArizona—NewMexicoborder,USA.T.t.fuscusMerriam,1891—CIdahointoNCWashington,USA,andSBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.gracilisDurrant,1939—NENevadaandadjacentpartsofUtahextendingSWintocentralNevada,USA.T.t.immunisHall&Dalquest,1939—SCWashington,USA.T.t.incensusGoldman,1939—SBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.kaibabensisGoldman,1938—NArizona,USA.T:t.kelloggiGoldman,1939—SCMontana,USA.T.t.levisGoldman,1938—SCUtahandadjacentpartsofArizona,USA.T.t.limosusMerriam,1901—SCWashingtonandadjacentpartsofOregon,USA.T:t.loringiBailey,1914—SCAlberta,Canada.T.t.macrotisMiller,1930—NCColorado,USA.T.t.mediusGoldman,1939—SEBritishColumbia,Canada.T.t.meritusHall,1951—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.monoensisHuey,1934—WCNevadaandadjacentpartsofCalifornia,USA.T.t.moore:Goldman,1938—CUtah,USA.T.t.nebulosusBailey,1914—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.ociusMerriam,1901—NWColoradoandadjacentpartsofUtahandWyoming,USA.T:t.oquirrhensisDurrant,1939—NCUtah,USA.T.t.parowanensisGoldman,1938—SWUtah,USA.T.t.pierreicolusSwenk,1941—WSouthDakotaandadjacentpartsofMontana,Wyoming,andNebraska,USA.T:t.pryoriBailey,1914—SCMontana,USA.T.t.quadratusMerriam,1897—EOregonandadjacentpartsofIdaho,Nevada,andCalifornia,USA.T.t.ravusDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.relicinusGoldman,1939—SCIdaho,USA.T.t.retrorsusHall,1951—ECColorado,USA.T.t.rostralisHall&Montague,1951—CColoradoandadjacentpartsofWyoming,USA.T.t.rufescensWied-Neuwied,1839—NorthDakotaandadjacentpartsofSouthDakotaandMinnesota,USA,andManitobaandSaskatchewan,Canada.T.t.saturatusBailey,1914—NIdahoandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA,andBritishColumbia,Canada.T. t. segregatusJohnstone, 1955 — SE British Columbia, Canada.T.t.shawiTaylor,1921—SCWashington,USA.T:t.tayloriHooper,1940—NWNewMexico,USA.T.t.tenellusGoldman,1939—NWWyomingandadjacentpartsofMontana,USA.T.t.trivialisGoldman,1939—CMontana,USA.T.t.wintaMerriam,1901—NEUtah,USA.T.t.wallowaHall&Orr,1933—NEOregonandadjacentpartsofWashington,USA.T.t.wasatchensisDurrant,1946—NEUtah,USA.T.t.whitmaniDrake&Booth,1952—SEWashington,USA.T: t. yakimensis Hall & Dalquest, 1939— SC Washington, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603821/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Andersen (1978, 1982) | Bailey (1915) | Hansen & Morris (1959) | Linzey & NatureServe (Hammerson) | (2008u) | MacMahon (1999) | Patton (2005b) | Verts & Carraway (1999)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Northern Pocket Gopher consists of underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. In Oregon, and probably throughout its distribution, the Northern Pocket Gopher will eat most succulent plants within its home range. Although in some habitats, plant species are consumed approximately in proportion to their abundance, one study showed that pocket gophers are able to select plants with higher levels of protein and fat. In Colorado, spring diet of a population of Northern Pocket Gophers living in short-grass prairie habitat was 67% forbs, 30% grasses, and 3% shrubs. In a subalpine habitat, also in Colorado, diet was 87% forbs, 12% roots, and 1% grasses. Feeding activities of Northern Pocket Gophers are similar to those of other species of pocket gophers and are believed to have contributed to the formation of Mima mounds throughout much of the USA west of the Mississippi River. In Colorado, adult Northern Pocket Gophers usually occupy Mima Mounds, but juveniles occupy interrmound areas. In areas with heavy snowpack, individuals tunnel in the snow and deposit excess soil in the tunnels. When snow melts in spring, these rope-like tubes of soil settle to the ground, leaving evidence of the individual’s winter activities. As in other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Northern Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"At low elevations, the Northern Pocket gopher breeds in spring (mid-March to mid-June), but at higher elevations with heavy snowfall, breeding is delayed until mid-to-late summer. Gestation is 18-19 days, and litter sizes average 3-6 young/litter. Most adult females are thought to produce one litter per year, and one study reported that 88 of 112 (79%) adult females captured in spring were reproductively active. Young are weaned in c.40 days and reach adult body size in 3-6 months.","activityPatterns":"The Northern Pocket Gopher is active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. In one study, radio-tracked individuals were active c.12 hours/day. Like all pocket gophers, Northern Pocket Gophers are prodigious diggers: one captive individual released in a vegetable garden with fairly compact soil was able to dig 50 cm of tunnel in 15 minutes, 32 m of tunnel in eight days, and 146 m of tunnel in six months. In montane habitats with denser soils, individuals burrowed at a nearly constant rate of 2 cm/minute. A study in Colorado showed that the Northern Pocket Gopher tends to dig around rocks larger than c.2:5 cm in diameter, but smaller rocks are removed with surrounding soil and deposited on the surface. The Northern Pocket Gopher does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"As in other pocket gophers, the Northern Pocket Gophersis solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Although Northern Pocket Gophers vigorously defend their burrow systems against intruders, capture of two or more individuals in the same system is not uncommon during the breeding season and when young are with their mothers. Densities of up to 20 ind/ha have been recorded in productive habitats. Average dispersal distance of the Northern Pocket Gopheris estimated to be 239 m/year, with a maximum observed distance of 790 m. As in other species of pocket gophers that live in areas with heavy snowfall, Northern Pocket Gophers frequently disperse long distances by burrowing through snowpack.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 110-190 mm, tail 50-80 mm, hindfoot 25-35 mm; weight 65-209 g. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the largest distribution of any pocket gopher, and variation in body size is extreme. Individuals living at high elevations or in thinner soils are usually much smaller than individuals living at low elevations and in deeper soils. Smaller subspecies show little sexual size dimorphism, but males of larger subspecies can be up to 9% larger than females. The Northern Pocket Gopher has the fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses furlined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal pelage is usually rich brown to brownish gray, grading to buff ventrally. Chin often is white and post-auricular patches are grayish black or black. The almost naked tail is usually brownish with a whitish tip, and feet often are white or partly white. Albinism and melanism are known, with melanism most common. The Northern Pocket Gopher shows widespread variation in chromosome diploid number, leading several authors to suggest that it may contain multiple cryptic species. Extensive cytogenetic studies by C. S. Thaeler in 1968 and 1980 found more than ten different karyotypes (2n = 40-60 chromosomes) in populations of the Northern Pocket Gopher from throughoutits distribution. FN = 70-78. Hybrid individuals with 47, 49, 51, or 53 chromosomes were reported in zones of contact between populations with different diploid numbers, but genetic introgression appeared to be absent at these zones, suggesting genetic isolation between parental forms.","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats with many different soil types and depths. Northern Pocket Gophers are common in mountain meadows and tundra, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae) steppes, grasslands, forests, and suburban lawns and gardens from elevations of 900 m to more than 3700 m. They appear to prefer deep soils in meadows and along rivers and streams, and they are common invaders of cultivated fields. An unknown number of Northern Pocket Gophers survived the explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, in May 1980. Although these individuals were among the first mammals to occupy the devastated wastelands surrounding the volcano, adult survivorship in the year after the eruption was estimated at only 10%, a value much lower than the typical 18-70% survivorship measured in undisturbed populations of Northern Pocket Gophers in Utah."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF92FA93F4E86AA64081.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073CFF92FA93F4E86AA64081","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"265","verbatimText":"33.Underwood’s Pocket GopherHeterogeomys underwoodiFrench:Gaufre d'Underwood/ German:Underwood-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de UnderwoodTaxonomy.Heterogeomys underwoodi Osgood, 1931, “Alto de Jabillo Pirris, between San Geronimo and Pozo Azul, western Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. underwood: is sister to a clade composed of H. cherriet and H. heterodus. Monotypic.Distribution.Pacific coast of Costa Rica and adjacent SW Panama (Chiriqui).Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-210 mm, tail 85-105 mm; weight 230-330 g. Male Underwood’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and dark brown to almost black; ventral pelage is lighter in color. Nearly all individuals have a white belt (14-52 mm wide) surrounding lumbar region of body; only a few individuals are known that lack this belt. Underwood’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in tropical semideciduous forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant Underwood’s Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomysunderwood).Bibliography.Hafner & Hafner (1987), McCarthy & Reid (2008), Patton (2005b), Spradling et al. (2016), Sudman & Hafner (1992).Merriam, 1895","taxonomy":"Heterogeomys underwoodi Osgood, 1931, “Alto de Jabillo Pirris, between San Geronimo and Pozo Azul, western Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Orthogeomysby J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. underwood: is sister to a clade composed of H. cherriet and H. heterodus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre d'Underwood @fr | Underwood-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Underwood @es","interpretedAuthority":"Osgood, 1931","interpretedAuthorityName":"Osgood","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1931","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"265","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"underwoodi","name":"Heterogeomys underwoodi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Pacific coast of Costa Rica and adjacent SW Panama (Chiriqui).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603879/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hafner & Hafner (1987) | McCarthy & Reid (2008) | Patton (2005b) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sudman & Hafner (1992) | Merriam, 1895.)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Pregnant Underwood’s Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Underwood’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomysunderwood).","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-210 mm, tail 85-105 mm; weight 230-330 g. Male Underwood’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage is short and dark brown to almost black; ventral pelage is lighter in color. Nearly all individuals have a white belt (14-52 mm wide) surrounding lumbar region of body; only a few individuals are known that lack this belt. Underwood’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in tropical semideciduous forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF93FA93FCA66C244CCA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073CFF93FA93FCA66C244CCA","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"265","verbatimText":"32.Variable Pocket GopherHeterogeomys heterodusFrench:Gaufre du Costa Rica/ German:Costa-Rica-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza variableTaxonomy.Geomys heterodus Peters, 1865, “Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomys considered a subgenus of Orthogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. heterodusis sister to H. cherriei. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.heterodusPeters,1864—ECCostaRica.H.h.cartagoensisGoodwin,1943—CCostaRica.H. h. dolichocephalus Merriam, 1895— NC Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-275 mm, tail 85-115 mm; weight 400-915 g. Dorsal pelage of the Variable Pocket Gopher is long, moderately dense, and dark brown to almost black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Large nasal pad and tail are almost naked, and feet are nearly so. The Variable Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 82.Habitat.Deep well-drained soils, many of volcanic origin, in cool tropical forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is 1000-2000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Variable Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day. One study measured peak activity between 08:00 h and 14:00 h in March—-May, and another study showed peaks of activity between 06:00-08:00 h and 12:00-14:00 h in December—January. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Variable Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. A radio-telemetry study estimated average home range sizes of 325 m* for males and 233 m?* for females, with larger individuals having larger home ranges.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys heterodus).Bibliography.Bonino (1994), Patton (2005b), Reid & Emmons (2008), Spradling et al. (2016), Sisk & Vaughan-Dickhaut (1984), Sudman & Hafner (1992).","taxonomy":"Geomys heterodus Peters, 1865, “Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomys considered a subgenus of Orthogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. heterodusis sister to H. cherriei. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Costa Rica @fr | Costa-Rica-Taschenratte @de | Tuza variable @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1865","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"265","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"heterodus","name":"Heterogeomys heterodus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.h.heterodusPeters,1864—ECCostaRica.H.h.cartagoensisGoodwin,1943—CCostaRica.H. h. dolichocephalus Merriam, 1895— NC Costa Rica.","bibliography":"Bonino (1994) | Patton (2005b) | Reid & Emmons (2008) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sisk & Vaughan-Dickhaut (1984) | Sudman & Hafner (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Pregnant female Variable Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day. One study measured peak activity between 08:00 h and 14:00 h in March—-May, and another study showed peaks of activity between 06:00-08:00 h and 12:00-14:00 h in December—January. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Variable Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. A radio-telemetry study estimated average home range sizes of 325 m* for males and 233 m?* for females, with larger individuals having larger home ranges.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys heterodus).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-275 mm, tail 85-115 mm; weight 400-915 g. Dorsal pelage of the Variable Pocket Gopher is long, moderately dense, and dark brown to almost black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Large nasal pad and tail are almost naked, and feet are nearly so. The Variable Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 82.","habitat":"Deep well-drained soils, many of volcanic origin, in cool tropical forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is 1000-2000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF93FF97F8046D714517.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073CFF93FF97F8046D714517","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"265","verbatimText":"31.Cherrie’s Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cherrierFrench:Gaufre de Cherrie/ German:Cherrie-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de CherrieTaxonomy.Geomys cherriei J. A. Allen, 1893, “Santa Clara, Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Or thogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cherrieiis sister to H. heterodus. Orthogeomys matagalpae, was formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. cherrieiby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cherriei].A.Allen,1893—SENicaraguaintoNECostaRica.H.c.carlosensisGoodwin,1943—NWCostaRicaincludingpartsofNicoyaPeninsula.H. c. costaricensis Merriam, 1895— E Costa Rica.H. c. matagalpae J. A. Allen, 1910— NC Honduras S to S Nicaragua.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Cherrie’s Pocket Gopherappears to reproduce year-round. Females produce at least two litters per year, with 1-4 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Sex ratio among reproductively immature individuals is 1:2-5 favoring females, but it is equal among adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomyscherriet).Bibliography.Delgado (1992), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Timm & Woodman (2008).","taxonomy":"Geomys cherriei J. A. Allen, 1893, “Santa Clara, Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Or thogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cherrieiis sister to H. heterodus. Orthogeomys matagalpae, was formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. cherrieiby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Cherrie @fr | Cherrie-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Cherrie @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"265","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cherrier","name":"Heterogeomys cherrier","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.c.cherriei].A.Allen,1893—SENicaraguaintoNECostaRica.H.c.carlosensisGoodwin,1943—NWCostaRicaincludingpartsofNicoyaPeninsula.H. c. costaricensis Merriam, 1895— E Costa Rica.H. c. matagalpae J. A. Allen, 1910— NC Honduras S to S Nicaragua.","bibliography":"Delgado (1992) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Timm & Woodman (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Cherrie’s Pocket Gopherappears to reproduce year-round. Females produce at least two litters per year, with 1-4 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Sex ratio among reproductively immature individuals is 1:2-5 favoring females, but it is equal among adults.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomyscherriet).","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073DFF91FA4AFC87697B449C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073DFF91FA4AFC87697B449C","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"266","verbatimText":"35.Yellow-faced Pocket GopherCratogeomys castanopsFrench:Gaufre a face jaune/ German:Gelbgesicht-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de cara amarillaTaxonomy.Pseudostoma castanops Baird, 1852, “along the prairie road to Bent’s Fort” (near the present town of Las Animas, Colorado, USA).Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Molecular studies show C. castanopsto be sister to C. goldmani, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized 17 subspecies of C. castonops, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.c.castanopsBaird,1852—SEColoradoandSWKansas,USA,southwardtoNCoahuila,NNuevoLeon,andNTamaulipas,Mexico.C. c. consitus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— E Chihuahua and W & S Coahuila S to NE Durango, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 155-215 mm (females), tail 70-105 mm (males) and 50-105 mm (females); weight 225-410 g (males) and 185-260 g (females). Male Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. As in all species of pocket gophers, adult body size can be heavily influenced by local climate, with small individuals in dry regions with sparse vegetation and large individuals in wet regions with denser vegetation. Pelage color also varies considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much paler dorsally than populations living in moist and cool habitats at higher elevations. The Yellowfaced Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale yellowish buffto dark reddish brown dorsally and whitish ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to its inner side. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 46 and FN = 86.Habitat.Deep sandy or silty soils that have a low density of rocks. Habitats occupied by the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherinclude mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae) and cactus communities in the western part ofits distribution, native short-grass plains in the east, and broad expanses of native desert scrublands in the northern Mexican Altiplano. It is known from elevations of 10 m (near the mouth of the Rio Grande) to just over 2100 m.Food and Feeding.The Yellow-faced Pocket Gophereats predominately fleshy, tuberous roots of desert shrubs, roots and leaves of low-growing forbs, and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Lechugilla (Agavelechuguilla, Asparagaceae) was reported to be the principal food of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheron the Stockton Plateau of Texas. It readily invades cultivated fields and orchards and is considered by farmers to be one of the most injurious of all pocket gopher species. The burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains a single nest chamber and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher. In Kansas, females have litters in March-April, followed by a possible second litter in late summer or early autumn. In Texas, pregnant females have been recorded in every month of the year, and individual females may give birth to three, sometimes four, litters per year. In Coahuila, Mexico, the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherhas two distinct breeding seasons: one in winter (December—March) and another in summer (June-August). Litter sizes are 1-5 young, with an average of 2-3 young/litter.Activity patterns.Field studies show the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Several burrow systems measured in western Texas averaged 76 m in total tunnel length. There appears to be only a single nest chamber in the burrow system, unlike the smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys) that may have several nest chambers within a single burrow system. As in most species of pocket gophers, adult sex ratio is biased in favor of females. In one study in southern New Mexico, sex ratio of immature Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers was c.1:1 but that of adults was almost 5:1 in favor of females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Davidow-Henry et al. (1989), Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Linzey (2008b), Patton (1999h, 2005b), Russell (1968b).","taxonomy":"Pseudostoma castanops Baird, 1852, “along the prairie road to Bent’s Fort” (near the present town of Las Animas, Colorado, USA).Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Molecular studies show C. castanopsto be sister to C. goldmani, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized 17 subspecies of C. castonops, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre a face jaune @fr | Gelbgesicht-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de cara amarilla @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"266","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"castanops","name":"Cratogeomys castanops","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.c.castanopsBaird,1852—SEColoradoandSWKansas,USA,southwardtoNCoahuila,NNuevoLeon,andNTamaulipas,Mexico.C. c. consitus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— E Chihuahua and W & S Coahuila S to NE Durango, Mexico.","bibliography":"Davidow-Henry et al. (1989) | Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Linzey (2008b) | Patton (1999h, 2005b) | Russell (1968b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Yellow-faced Pocket Gophereats predominately fleshy, tuberous roots of desert shrubs, roots and leaves of low-growing forbs, and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Lechugilla (Agavelechuguilla, Asparagaceae) was reported to be the principal food of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheron the Stockton Plateau of Texas. It readily invades cultivated fields and orchards and is considered by farmers to be one of the most injurious of all pocket gopher species. The burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains a single nest chamber and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher. In Kansas, females have litters in March-April, followed by a possible second litter in late summer or early autumn. In Texas, pregnant females have been recorded in every month of the year, and individual females may give birth to three, sometimes four, litters per year. In Coahuila, Mexico, the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherhas two distinct breeding seasons: one in winter (December—March) and another in summer (June-August). Litter sizes are 1-5 young, with an average of 2-3 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"Field studies show the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Several burrow systems measured in western Texas averaged 76 m in total tunnel length. There appears to be only a single nest chamber in the burrow system, unlike the smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys) that may have several nest chambers within a single burrow system. As in most species of pocket gophers, adult sex ratio is biased in favor of females. In one study in southern New Mexico, sex ratio of immature Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers was c.1:1 but that of adults was almost 5:1 in favor of females.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 155-215 mm (females), tail 70-105 mm (males) and 50-105 mm (females); weight 225-410 g (males) and 185-260 g (females). Male Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. As in all species of pocket gophers, adult body size can be heavily influenced by local climate, with small individuals in dry regions with sparse vegetation and large individuals in wet regions with denser vegetation. Pelage color also varies considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much paler dorsally than populations living in moist and cool habitats at higher elevations. The Yellowfaced Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale yellowish buffto dark reddish brown dorsally and whitish ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to its inner side. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 46 and FN = 86.","habitat":"Deep sandy or silty soils that have a low density of rocks. Habitats occupied by the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherinclude mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae) and cactus communities in the western part ofits distribution, native short-grass plains in the east, and broad expanses of native desert scrublands in the northern Mexican Altiplano. It is known from elevations of 10 m (near the mouth of the Rio Grande) to just over 2100 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073DFF92FF4EF940634D4472.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073DFF92FF4EF940634D4472","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"266","verbatimText":"34.Buller’s Pocket GopherPappogeomys bulleriFrench:Gaufre de Buller/ German:Jalisco-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BullerOther common names:Alcorn’s Pocket Gopher (alcorni)Taxonomy.Geomys bulleri Thomas, 1892, “Talpa, Mascota, Jalisco [Mexico], 8500 feet.”Molecular studies suggest that the genus Pappogeomys1s sister to the genus Cratogeomys. The subspecies alcorniwas previously recognized at the species level but was regarded as a subspecies of bulleriby J. W. Demastes and colleagues in 2003. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.b.buller:Thomas,1892—CJalisco,Mexico.P.b.albinasusMerriam,1895—SENayarittoNCJalisco,Mexico.P.b.alcorniRussell,1957—ECJalisco(SierradelTigreSofLagunadeChapala),Mexico.P.b.burt:Goldman,1939—PacificcoastofSJaliscoandColima,Mexico.P. b. nayaritensis Goldman, 1939— C Nayarit, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-180 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 100-250 g. Male Buller’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage pale gray to dark gray, sometimes black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 56 and FN = 106.Habitat.Hot, humid coastal lowlands, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests at middle elevations, and pine-oak forests at elevations up to ¢.3000 m. Unlike most pocket gophers, Buller’s Pocket Gopheronly occasionally invades cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Buller’s Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year. Litters have 1-8 young, with an average of two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies alcorniis classified as Critically Endangered (as Pappogeomys alcorni). Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas received special protection under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (as P. alcorni) since 2010. A recent survey in the vicinity of the type locality of alcornifound it to be relatively abundant within this limited area.Bibliography.Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Demastes et al. (2003), Hafner et al. (2009), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010), Solar-Frost et al. (2003).","taxonomy":"Geomys bulleri Thomas, 1892, “Talpa, Mascota, Jalisco [Mexico], 8500 feet.”Molecular studies suggest that the genus Pappogeomys1s sister to the genus Cratogeomys. The subspecies alcorniwas previously recognized at the species level but was regarded as a subspecies of bulleriby J. W. Demastes and colleagues in 2003. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Buller @fr | Jalisco-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Buller @es | Alcorn’s Pocket Gopher (alcorni) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1892","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Pappogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"266","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bulleri","name":"Pappogeomys bulleri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.b.buller:Thomas,1892—CJalisco,Mexico.P.b.albinasusMerriam,1895—SENayarittoNCJalisco,Mexico.P.b.alcorniRussell,1957—ECJalisco(SierradelTigreSofLagunadeChapala),Mexico.P.b.burt:Goldman,1939—PacificcoastofSJaliscoandColima,Mexico.P. b. nayaritensis Goldman, 1939— C Nayarit, Mexico.","bibliography":"Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Demastes et al. (2003) | Hafner et al. (2009) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Solar-Frost et al. (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Buller’s Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year. Litters have 1-8 young, with an average of two young perlitter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies alcorniis classified as Critically Endangered (as Pappogeomys alcorni). Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas received special protection under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (as P. alcorni) since 2010. A recent survey in the vicinity of the type locality of alcornifound it to be relatively abundant within this limited area.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 125-180 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 100-250 g. Male Buller’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage pale gray to dark gray, sometimes black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 56 and FN = 106.","habitat":"Hot, humid coastal lowlands, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests at middle elevations, and pine-oak forests at elevations up to ¢.3000 m. Unlike most pocket gophers, Buller’s Pocket Gopheronly occasionally invades cultivated fields."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF93FA93FCA66C244CCA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073CFF93FA93FCA66C244CCA","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"265","verbatimText":"32.Variable Pocket GopherHeterogeomys heterodusFrench:Gaufre du Costa Rica/ German:Costa-Rica-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza variableTaxonomy.Geomys heterodus Peters, 1865, “Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomys considered a subgenus of Orthogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. heterodusis sister to H. cherriei. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.h.heterodusPeters,1864—ECCostaRica.H.h.cartagoensisGoodwin,1943—CCostaRica.H. h. dolichocephalus Merriam, 1895— NC Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-275 mm, tail 85-115 mm; weight 400-915 g. Dorsal pelage of the Variable Pocket Gopher is long, moderately dense, and dark brown to almost black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Large nasal pad and tail are almost naked, and feet are nearly so. The Variable Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 82.Habitat.Deep well-drained soils, many of volcanic origin, in cool tropical forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is 1000-2000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Variable Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day. One study measured peak activity between 08:00 h and 14:00 h in March—-May, and another study showed peaks of activity between 06:00-08:00 h and 12:00-14:00 h in December—January. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Variable Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. A radio-telemetry study estimated average home range sizes of 325 m* for males and 233 m?* for females, with larger individuals having larger home ranges.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys heterodus).Bibliography.Bonino (1994), Patton (2005b), Reid & Emmons (2008), Spradling et al. (2016), Sisk & Vaughan-Dickhaut (1984), Sudman & Hafner (1992).","taxonomy":"Geomys heterodus Peters, 1865, “Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomys considered a subgenus of Orthogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. heterodusis sister to H. cherriei. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Costa Rica @fr | Costa-Rica-Taschenratte @de | Tuza variable @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1865","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"265","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"heterodus","name":"Heterogeomys heterodus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.h.heterodusPeters,1864—ECCostaRica.H.h.cartagoensisGoodwin,1943—CCostaRica.H. h. dolichocephalus Merriam, 1895— NC Costa Rica.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603877/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonino (1994) | Patton (2005b) | Reid & Emmons (2008) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Sisk & Vaughan-Dickhaut (1984) | Sudman & Hafner (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and pasturelands and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Pregnant female Variable Pocket Gophers have been captured in April.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Variable Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day. One study measured peak activity between 08:00 h and 14:00 h in March—-May, and another study showed peaks of activity between 06:00-08:00 h and 12:00-14:00 h in December—January. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Variable Pocket Gopher is solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent of its burrow system. A radio-telemetry study estimated average home range sizes of 325 m* for males and 233 m?* for females, with larger individuals having larger home ranges.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomys heterodus).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-275 mm, tail 85-115 mm; weight 400-915 g. Dorsal pelage of the Variable Pocket Gopher is long, moderately dense, and dark brown to almost black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Large nasal pad and tail are almost naked, and feet are nearly so. The Variable Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 82.","habitat":"Deep well-drained soils, many of volcanic origin, in cool tropical forests, forest clearings, pasturelands, and cultivated fields. Elevational range is 1000-2000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073CFF93FF97F8046D714517.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073CFF93FF97F8046D714517","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"265","verbatimText":"31.Cherrie’s Pocket GopherHeterogeomys cherrierFrench:Gaufre de Cherrie/ German:Cherrie-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de CherrieTaxonomy.Geomys cherriei J. A. Allen, 1893, “Santa Clara, Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Or thogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cherrieiis sister to H. heterodus. Orthogeomys matagalpae, was formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. cherrieiby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cherriei].A.Allen,1893—SENicaraguaintoNECostaRica.H.c.carlosensisGoodwin,1943—NWCostaRicaincludingpartsofNicoyaPeninsula.H. c. costaricensis Merriam, 1895— E Costa Rica.H. c. matagalpae J. A. Allen, 1910— NC Honduras S to S Nicaragua.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Cherrie’s Pocket Gopherappears to reproduce year-round. Females produce at least two litters per year, with 1-4 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Sex ratio among reproductively immature individuals is 1:2-5 favoring females, but it is equal among adults.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomyscherriet).Bibliography.Delgado (1992), Hafner & Hafner (1987), Patton (2005b), Reid (1997), Spradling et al. (2016), Timm & Woodman (2008).","taxonomy":"Geomys cherriei J. A. Allen, 1893, “Santa Clara, Costa Rica.”Placed into subgenus Macrogeomys. Heterogeomysconsidered a subgenus of Or thogeomys by J. L. Patton in 2005 but was resurrected to genus status by T. A. Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Molecular studies suggest that H. cherrieiis sister to H. heterodus. Orthogeomys matagalpae, was formerly recognized as a separate species but was synonymized under H. cherrieiby Spradling and colleagues in 2016. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Cherrie @fr | Cherrie-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Cherrie @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterogeomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"265","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cherrier","name":"Heterogeomys cherrier","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.c.cherriei].A.Allen,1893—SENicaraguaintoNECostaRica.H.c.carlosensisGoodwin,1943—NWCostaRicaincludingpartsofNicoyaPeninsula.H. c. costaricensis Merriam, 1895— E Costa Rica.H. c. matagalpae J. A. Allen, 1910— NC Honduras S to S Nicaragua.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603875/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Delgado (1992) | Hafner & Hafner (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Reid (1997) | Spradling et al. (2016) | Timm & Woodman (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.Habitat.Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher probably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. It readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Cherrie’s Pocket Gopherappears to reproduce year-round. Females produce at least two litters per year, with 1-4 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Cherrie’s Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leaves its burrow system, its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Sex ratio among reproductively immature individuals is 1:2-5 favoring females, but it is equal among adults.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Orthogeomyscherriet).","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-250 mm, tail 80-105 mm; weight 220-510 g. Dorsal pelage of the Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher is dull brown to black, with a conspicuous white head spot that extends from between eyes to between ears. Pelage is short and sparse in most individuals. Cherrie’s Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers and possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 76 or 78.","habitat":"Well-drained soils in humid and seasonally dry tropical forests, thornscrub habitats, and agricultural fields. Elevational range is from near sea level to ¢.1500 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073DFF91FA4AFC87697B449C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073DFF91FA4AFC87697B449C","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"266","verbatimText":"35.Yellow-faced Pocket GopherCratogeomys castanopsFrench:Gaufre a face jaune/ German:Gelbgesicht-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de cara amarillaTaxonomy.Pseudostoma castanops Baird, 1852, “along the prairie road to Bent’s Fort” (near the present town of Las Animas, Colorado, USA).Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Molecular studies show C. castanopsto be sister to C. goldmani, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized 17 subspecies of C. castonops, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.c.castanopsBaird,1852—SEColoradoandSWKansas,USA,southwardtoNCoahuila,NNuevoLeon,andNTamaulipas,Mexico.C. c. consitus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— E Chihuahua and W & S Coahuila S to NE Durango, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 155-215 mm (females), tail 70-105 mm (males) and 50-105 mm (females); weight 225-410 g (males) and 185-260 g (females). Male Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. As in all species of pocket gophers, adult body size can be heavily influenced by local climate, with small individuals in dry regions with sparse vegetation and large individuals in wet regions with denser vegetation. Pelage color also varies considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much paler dorsally than populations living in moist and cool habitats at higher elevations. The Yellowfaced Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale yellowish buffto dark reddish brown dorsally and whitish ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to its inner side. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 46 and FN = 86.Habitat.Deep sandy or silty soils that have a low density of rocks. Habitats occupied by the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherinclude mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae) and cactus communities in the western part ofits distribution, native short-grass plains in the east, and broad expanses of native desert scrublands in the northern Mexican Altiplano. It is known from elevations of 10 m (near the mouth of the Rio Grande) to just over 2100 m.Food and Feeding.The Yellow-faced Pocket Gophereats predominately fleshy, tuberous roots of desert shrubs, roots and leaves of low-growing forbs, and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Lechugilla (Agavelechuguilla, Asparagaceae) was reported to be the principal food of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheron the Stockton Plateau of Texas. It readily invades cultivated fields and orchards and is considered by farmers to be one of the most injurious of all pocket gopher species. The burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains a single nest chamber and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher.Breeding.Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher. In Kansas, females have litters in March-April, followed by a possible second litter in late summer or early autumn. In Texas, pregnant females have been recorded in every month of the year, and individual females may give birth to three, sometimes four, litters per year. In Coahuila, Mexico, the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherhas two distinct breeding seasons: one in winter (December—March) and another in summer (June-August). Litter sizes are 1-5 young, with an average of 2-3 young/litter.Activity patterns.Field studies show the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Several burrow systems measured in western Texas averaged 76 m in total tunnel length. There appears to be only a single nest chamber in the burrow system, unlike the smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys) that may have several nest chambers within a single burrow system. As in most species of pocket gophers, adult sex ratio is biased in favor of females. In one study in southern New Mexico, sex ratio of immature Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers was c.1:1 but that of adults was almost 5:1 in favor of females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Davidow-Henry et al. (1989), Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Linzey (2008b), Patton (1999h, 2005b), Russell (1968b).","taxonomy":"Pseudostoma castanops Baird, 1852, “along the prairie road to Bent’s Fort” (near the present town of Las Animas, Colorado, USA).Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Molecular studies show C. castanopsto be sister to C. goldmani, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized 17 subspecies of C. castonops, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre a face jaune @fr | Gelbgesicht-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de cara amarilla @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"266","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"castanops","name":"Cratogeomys castanops","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.c.castanopsBaird,1852—SEColoradoandSWKansas,USA,southwardtoNCoahuila,NNuevoLeon,andNTamaulipas,Mexico.C. c. consitus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— E Chihuahua and W & S Coahuila S to NE Durango, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603883/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Davidow-Henry et al. (1989) | Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Linzey (2008b) | Patton (1999h, 2005b) | Russell (1968b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Yellow-faced Pocket Gophereats predominately fleshy, tuberous roots of desert shrubs, roots and leaves of low-growing forbs, and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Lechugilla (Agavelechuguilla, Asparagaceae) was reported to be the principal food of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheron the Stockton Plateau of Texas. It readily invades cultivated fields and orchards and is considered by farmers to be one of the most injurious of all pocket gopher species. The burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains a single nest chamber and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Surface feeding activity in the immediate vicinity of the borrow entrance has been reported for the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher.","breeding":"Breeding season varies greatly across the distribution of the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher. In Kansas, females have litters in March-April, followed by a possible second litter in late summer or early autumn. In Texas, pregnant females have been recorded in every month of the year, and individual females may give birth to three, sometimes four, litters per year. In Coahuila, Mexico, the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherhas two distinct breeding seasons: one in winter (December—March) and another in summer (June-August). Litter sizes are 1-5 young, with an average of 2-3 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"Field studies show the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherto be active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Yellow-faced Pocket Gopheris solitary and aggressively territorial. Because it rarely leavesits burrow system,its home range is defined by size and extent ofits burrow system. Several burrow systems measured in western Texas averaged 76 m in total tunnel length. There appears to be only a single nest chamber in the burrow system, unlike the smooth-toothed pocket gophers (Thomomys) that may have several nest chambers within a single burrow system. As in most species of pocket gophers, adult sex ratio is biased in favor of females. In one study in southern New Mexico, sex ratio of immature Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers was c.1:1 but that of adults was almost 5:1 in favor of females.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 155-215 mm (females), tail 70-105 mm (males) and 50-105 mm (females); weight 225-410 g (males) and 185-260 g (females). Male Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. As in all species of pocket gophers, adult body size can be heavily influenced by local climate, with small individuals in dry regions with sparse vegetation and large individuals in wet regions with denser vegetation. Pelage color also varies considerably among populations, with those living in hot, dry habitats at low elevations being much paler dorsally than populations living in moist and cool habitats at higher elevations. The Yellowfaced Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are pale yellowish buffto dark reddish brown dorsally and whitish ventrally. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to its inner side. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 46 and FN = 86.","habitat":"Deep sandy or silty soils that have a low density of rocks. Habitats occupied by the Yellow-faced Pocket Gopherinclude mesquite (Prosopis sp., Fabaceae) and cactus communities in the western part ofits distribution, native short-grass plains in the east, and broad expanses of native desert scrublands in the northern Mexican Altiplano. It is known from elevations of 10 m (near the mouth of the Rio Grande) to just over 2100 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073DFF92FF4EF940634D4472.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073DFF92FF4EF940634D4472","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"266","verbatimText":"34.Buller’s Pocket GopherPappogeomys bulleriFrench:Gaufre de Buller/ German:Jalisco-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de BullerOther common names:Alcorn’s Pocket Gopher (alcorni)Taxonomy.Geomys bulleri Thomas, 1892, “Talpa, Mascota, Jalisco [Mexico], 8500 feet.”Molecular studies suggest that the genus Pappogeomys1s sister to the genus Cratogeomys. The subspecies alcorniwas previously recognized at the species level but was regarded as a subspecies of bulleriby J. W. Demastes and colleagues in 2003. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.b.buller:Thomas,1892—CJalisco,Mexico.P.b.albinasusMerriam,1895—SENayarittoNCJalisco,Mexico.P.b.alcorniRussell,1957—ECJalisco(SierradelTigreSofLagunadeChapala),Mexico.P.b.burt:Goldman,1939—PacificcoastofSJaliscoandColima,Mexico.P. b. nayaritensis Goldman, 1939— C Nayarit, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-180 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 100-250 g. Male Buller’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage pale gray to dark gray, sometimes black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 56 and FN = 106.Habitat.Hot, humid coastal lowlands, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests at middle elevations, and pine-oak forests at elevations up to ¢.3000 m. Unlike most pocket gophers, Buller’s Pocket Gopheronly occasionally invades cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Buller’s Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year. Litters have 1-8 young, with an average of two young perlitter.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies alcorniis classified as Critically Endangered (as Pappogeomys alcorni). Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas received special protection under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (as P. alcorni) since 2010. A recent survey in the vicinity of the type locality of alcornifound it to be relatively abundant within this limited area.Bibliography.Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Demastes et al. (2003), Hafner et al. (2009), Patton (2005b), SEMARNAT (2010), Solar-Frost et al. (2003).","taxonomy":"Geomys bulleri Thomas, 1892, “Talpa, Mascota, Jalisco [Mexico], 8500 feet.”Molecular studies suggest that the genus Pappogeomys1s sister to the genus Cratogeomys. The subspecies alcorniwas previously recognized at the species level but was regarded as a subspecies of bulleriby J. W. Demastes and colleagues in 2003. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Buller @fr | Jalisco-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Buller @es | Alcorn’s Pocket Gopher (alcorni) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1892","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Pappogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"266","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bulleri","name":"Pappogeomys bulleri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.b.buller:Thomas,1892—CJalisco,Mexico.P.b.albinasusMerriam,1895—SENayarittoNCJalisco,Mexico.P.b.alcorniRussell,1957—ECJalisco(SierradelTigreSofLagunadeChapala),Mexico.P.b.burt:Goldman,1939—PacificcoastofSJaliscoandColima,Mexico.P. b. nayaritensis Goldman, 1939— C Nayarit, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603881/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Castro-Arellano & Vazquez (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Demastes et al. (2003) | Hafner et al. (2009) | Patton (2005b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Solar-Frost et al. (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopherprobably feeds on roots, tubers, stems, and leaves of most plants available within the vicinity of its burrow system. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Buller’s Pocket Gopherappears to breed throughout the year. Litters have 1-8 young, with an average of two young perlitter.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Buller’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The subspecies alcorniis classified as Critically Endangered (as Pappogeomys alcorni). Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas received special protection under the Mexican Endangered Species Act (as P. alcorni) since 2010. A recent survey in the vicinity of the type locality of alcornifound it to be relatively abundant within this limited area.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 125-180 mm, tail 60-100 mm; weight 100-250 g. Male Buller’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females. Dorsal pelage pale gray to dark gray, sometimes black. Ventral pelage is lighter in color. Buller’s Pocket Gopherhas a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 56 and FN = 106.","habitat":"Hot, humid coastal lowlands, tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests at middle elevations, and pine-oak forests at elevations up to ¢.3000 m. Unlike most pocket gophers, Buller’s Pocket Gopheronly occasionally invades cultivated fields."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073EFF90FA95F71D6A0F43B6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073EFF90FA95F71D6A0F43B6","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"267","verbatimText":"38.Merriam’s Pocket GopherCratogeomys merriamiFrench:Gaufre de Merriam/ German:Merriam-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de MerriamTaxonomy.Geomys merriami Thomas, 1893, “S. Mexico.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “probably the Valley of Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Prior to systematic revision of C. merriamiby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005, C. fulvescensand C. perotensiswere considered subspecies of C. merriami. Molecular studies show C. merriamito be closely related to C. fulvescensand C. perotensis, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. merriami, but M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005 found no subspecies-level differentiation. Monotypic.Distribution.Mexican endemic, patchily distributed in the S part of the Valley of Mexico (Sierra de Las Cruces, Sierra de Ajusco, Popocatéptl and Iztaccthutl Mts, and from Lerma at the E Toluca Valley E into W Puebla).Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-285 mm (males) and 200-255 mm (females), tail 90-125 mm (males) and 80-120 mm (females); weight 580-700 g (males) and 450-670 g (females). Male Merriam’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Merriam’s Pocket Gopheris large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal coloris highly variable, from dull chestnut-brown to slate black. Ventral color is similar to dorsal color but paler. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 36 and FN = 68.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats, most characterized by arid conditions, sandy soils, and xeric-adapted vegetation. In parts ofits distribution, Merriam’s Pocket Gophercan be found in oak, pine, and fir woodlands and grassy mountain meadows, and it is known from near timberline on volcanic peaks east of Mexico City. It is known from elevations of 1800-4000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Merriam’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of Merriam’s Pocket Gophercan encompass 400 m* of surface area.Breeding.Captures of pregnant female Merriam’s Pocket Gophers suggest that they breed throughout the year, with peak reproductive activities in October—March. Females may have multiple litters per year, with litters usually of 1-3 young.Activity patterns.Merriam’s Pocket Gophers in the Valley of Mexico were active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. Digging activity was generally higher in the dry season (especially December—January) and lower at the beginning of the wet season (June). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Merriam’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008f), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2005), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), Whisson & Villa-Cornejo (1994).","taxonomy":"Geomys merriami Thomas, 1893, “S. Mexico.” Restricted by C. H. Merriam in 1895 to “probably the Valley of Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Prior to systematic revision of C. merriamiby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005, C. fulvescensand C. perotensiswere considered subspecies of C. merriami. Molecular studies show C. merriamito be closely related to C. fulvescensand C. perotensis, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. merriami, but M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005 found no subspecies-level differentiation. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Merriam @fr | Merriam-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Merriam @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"267","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"merriami","name":"Cratogeomys merriami","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Mexican endemic, patchily distributed in the S part of the Valley of Mexico (Sierra de Las Cruces, Sierra de Ajusco, Popocatéptl and Iztaccthutl Mts, and from Lerma at the E Toluca Valley E into W Puebla).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603889/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castafieda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008f) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2005) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | Whisson & Villa-Cornejo (1994)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Merriam’s Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets. Burrow systems of Merriam’s Pocket Gophercan encompass 400 m* of surface area.","breeding":"Captures of pregnant female Merriam’s Pocket Gophers suggest that they breed throughout the year, with peak reproductive activities in October—March. Females may have multiple litters per year, with litters usually of 1-3 young.","activityPatterns":"Merriam’s Pocket Gophers in the Valley of Mexico were active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. Digging activity was generally higher in the dry season (especially December—January) and lower at the beginning of the wet season (June). It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Merriam’s Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 230-285 mm (males) and 200-255 mm (females), tail 90-125 mm (males) and 80-120 mm (females); weight 580-700 g (males) and 450-670 g (females). Male Merriam’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Merriam’s Pocket Gopheris large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal coloris highly variable, from dull chestnut-brown to slate black. Ventral color is similar to dorsal color but paler. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 36 and FN = 68.","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats, most characterized by arid conditions, sandy soils, and xeric-adapted vegetation. In parts ofits distribution, Merriam’s Pocket Gophercan be found in oak, pine, and fir woodlands and grassy mountain meadows, and it is known from near timberline on volcanic peaks east of Mexico City. It is known from elevations of 1800-4000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073EFF91FF9AFD1C6BE74DDA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073EFF91FF9AFD1C6BE74DDA","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"267","verbatimText":"36.Goldman’s Pocket GopherCratogeomys goldmanFrench:Gaufre de Goldman/ German:Goldman-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de GoldmanOther common names:Goldman's Yellow-faced Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cratogeomys castanops goldmant Merriam, 1895, “Canitas, Zacatecas, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. It was included in C. castanopsby earlier workers, including Russell in 1968, but was recognized as a distinct species by numerous authors beginning with H. K. Lee and R. J. Baker in 1987. Molecular studies show C. goldmanito be sister to C. castanops, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. goldmani, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.g.goldmaniMerriam,1895—drainageoftheRioAguanaval(NEDurango,SCoahuila,andZacatecas)toWSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.C. g. subnubilus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— SE Coahuila and SW Nuevo Leon S to the Rio Verde in C San Luis Potosi, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 160-210 mm (males) and 145-190 mm (females), tail 60-95 mm (males) and 55-90 mm (females); weight 140-350 g (males) and 130-215 ¢g (females). Male Goldman’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is relatively small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are ochreous-buff to dark brown dorsally and pale ochreous-buff to white ventrally. Up to 89% of individuals in some populations have white spots on belly, sides, or rump. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the innerside of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 78.Habitat.Usually in arid and semiarid areas with deep sandy or silty soils that support xeric-adapted shrubs and grasses. Goldman's Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 750 m to almost 2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Goldman’s Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Goldman’s Pocket Gophers have been collected in spring and summer.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008e), Ceballos (2014), Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), Spradling et al. (1993).","taxonomy":"Cratogeomys castanops goldmant Merriam, 1895, “Canitas, Zacatecas, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. It was included in C. castanopsby earlier workers, including Russell in 1968, but was recognized as a distinct species by numerous authors beginning with H. K. Lee and R. J. Baker in 1987. Molecular studies show C. goldmanito be sister to C. castanops, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. goldmani, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Goldman @fr | Goldman-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Goldman @es | Goldman's Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"267","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"goldman","name":"Cratogeomys goldman","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.g.goldmaniMerriam,1895—drainageoftheRioAguanaval(NEDurango,SCoahuila,andZacatecas)toWSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.C. g. subnubilus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— SE Coahuila and SW Nuevo Leon S to the Rio Verde in C San Luis Potosi, Mexico.","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008e) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | Spradling et al. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Goldman’s Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Pregnant female Goldman’s Pocket Gophers have been collected in spring and summer.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 160-210 mm (males) and 145-190 mm (females), tail 60-95 mm (males) and 55-90 mm (females); weight 140-350 g (males) and 130-215 ¢g (females). Male Goldman’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is relatively small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are ochreous-buff to dark brown dorsally and pale ochreous-buff to white ventrally. Up to 89% of individuals in some populations have white spots on belly, sides, or rump. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the innerside of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Usually in arid and semiarid areas with deep sandy or silty soils that support xeric-adapted shrubs and grasses. Goldman's Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 750 m to almost 2700 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073EFF91FF9AFD1C6BE74DDA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073EFF91FF9AFD1C6BE74DDA","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"267","verbatimText":"36.Goldman’s Pocket GopherCratogeomys goldmanFrench:Gaufre de Goldman/ German:Goldman-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de GoldmanOther common names:Goldman's Yellow-faced Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cratogeomys castanops goldmant Merriam, 1895, “Canitas, Zacatecas, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. It was included in C. castanopsby earlier workers, including Russell in 1968, but was recognized as a distinct species by numerous authors beginning with H. K. Lee and R. J. Baker in 1987. Molecular studies show C. goldmanito be sister to C. castanops, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. goldmani, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.g.goldmaniMerriam,1895—drainageoftheRioAguanaval(NEDurango,SCoahuila,andZacatecas)toWSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.C. g. subnubilus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— SE Coahuila and SW Nuevo Leon S to the Rio Verde in C San Luis Potosi, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 160-210 mm (males) and 145-190 mm (females), tail 60-95 mm (males) and 55-90 mm (females); weight 140-350 g (males) and 130-215 ¢g (females). Male Goldman’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is relatively small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are ochreous-buff to dark brown dorsally and pale ochreous-buff to white ventrally. Up to 89% of individuals in some populations have white spots on belly, sides, or rump. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the innerside of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 78.Habitat.Usually in arid and semiarid areas with deep sandy or silty soils that support xeric-adapted shrubs and grasses. Goldman's Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 750 m to almost 2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Goldman’s Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Goldman’s Pocket Gophers have been collected in spring and summer.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008e), Ceballos (2014), Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), Spradling et al. (1993).","taxonomy":"Cratogeomys castanops goldmant Merriam, 1895, “Canitas, Zacatecas, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. It was included in C. castanopsby earlier workers, including Russell in 1968, but was recognized as a distinct species by numerous authors beginning with H. K. Lee and R. J. Baker in 1987. Molecular studies show C. goldmanito be sister to C. castanops, and these two species, together with C. merriami, C. fulvescens, and C. perotensis, comprise the C. castanopsspecies group. J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized six subspecies of C. goldmani, subsequently reduced to two subspecies by D. J. Hafner and colleagues in 2008. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre de Goldman @fr | Goldman-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Goldman @es | Goldman's Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"267","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"goldman","name":"Cratogeomys goldman","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.g.goldmaniMerriam,1895—drainageoftheRioAguanaval(NEDurango,SCoahuila,andZacatecas)toWSanLuisPotosi,Mexico.C. g. subnubilus Nelson & Goldman, 1934— SE Coahuila and SW Nuevo Leon S to the Rio Verde in C San Luis Potosi, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603885/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008e) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner, Hafner et al. (2008) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | Spradling et al. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. Goldman’s Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Pregnant female Goldman’s Pocket Gophers have been collected in spring and summer.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goldman’s Pocket Gopher is likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 160-210 mm (males) and 145-190 mm (females), tail 60-95 mm (males) and 55-90 mm (females); weight 140-350 g (males) and 130-215 ¢g (females). Male Goldman’s Pocket Gophers are usually larger than females, and this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. It is relatively small for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Most individuals are ochreous-buff to dark brown dorsally and pale ochreous-buff to white ventrally. Up to 89% of individuals in some populations have white spots on belly, sides, or rump. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the innerside of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 42 and FN = 78.","habitat":"Usually in arid and semiarid areas with deep sandy or silty soils that support xeric-adapted shrubs and grasses. Goldman's Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 750 m to almost 2700 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073EFF91FF9FF3D962014E9E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073EFF91FF9FF3D962014E9E","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"267","verbatimText":"37.Oriental Basin Pocket GopherCratogeomys fulvescensFrench:Gaufre fauve/ German:Puebla-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de la Cuenca OrientalOther common names:Fulvous Pocket GopherTaxonomy.Cratogeomys fulvescens Merriam, 1895, “Chalchicomula [= Ciudad Serdan], State of Puebla, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. C. fulvescenswas recognized as a subspecies of C. merriamiby Russell in 1968 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but it was resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005. Molecular studies show C. fulvescensto be closely related to C. perotensisand C. merriami, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Oriental Basin of E Puebla, E Tlaxcala, and extreme W Veracruz, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 205-285 mm (males) and 180-215 mm (females), tail 85-105 mm (males) and 95-110 mm (females); weight 420-550 g (males) and 250-500 g (females). Male Oriental Basin Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in other geomyid species. Body size is small for the genus. The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is grizzled yellowish brown, with strong mixture of black-tipped hairs imparting a salt-and-pepper appearance. Ventral coloris similar to dorsal color but paler. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 76.Habitat.Dry, sparsely vegetated, desert habitat, dominated by alkaline-tolerant plants. Soils are usually sandy and deep. Plants often associated with the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopherinclude desert saltgrass (Dustichlis spicata, Poaceae), Puebla saltbush (Atriplexpueblensis, Amaranthaceae), gypsum grama (Boutelouabreviseta, Poaceae), prickly pear (Opuntia sp., Cactaceae), agave (Agave sp., Asparagaceae), and various cacti (Mammallaria sp., Cactaceae). The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 2300-2700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Oriental Basin Pocket Gophers have been captured in December—February.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008c), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2005), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Merriam (1895), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b).","taxonomy":"Cratogeomys fulvescens Merriam, 1895, “Chalchicomula [= Ciudad Serdan], State of Puebla, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968, but it was returned to generic status by R. L. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. C. fulvescenswas recognized as a subspecies of C. merriamiby Russell in 1968 and J. L. Patton in 2005, but it was resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005. Molecular studies show C. fulvescensto be closely related to C. perotensisand C. merriami, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre fauve @fr | Puebla-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de la Cuenca Oriental @es | Fulvous Pocket Gopher @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"267","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fulvescens","name":"Cratogeomys fulvescens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Oriental Basin of E Puebla, E Tlaxcala, and extreme W Veracruz, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603887/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008c) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2005) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Merriam (1895) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Pregnant female Oriental Basin Pocket Gophers have been captured in December—February.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 205-285 mm (males) and 180-215 mm (females), tail 85-105 mm (males) and 95-110 mm (females); weight 420-550 g (males) and 250-500 g (females). Male Oriental Basin Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in other geomyid species. Body size is small for the genus. The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color is grizzled yellowish brown, with strong mixture of black-tipped hairs imparting a salt-and-pepper appearance. Ventral coloris similar to dorsal color but paler. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 76.","habitat":"Dry, sparsely vegetated, desert habitat, dominated by alkaline-tolerant plants. Soils are usually sandy and deep. Plants often associated with the Oriental Basin Pocket Gopherinclude desert saltgrass (Dustichlis spicata, Poaceae), Puebla saltbush (Atriplexpueblensis, Amaranthaceae), gypsum grama (Boutelouabreviseta, Poaceae), prickly pear (Opuntia sp., Cactaceae), agave (Agave sp., Asparagaceae), and various cacti (Mammallaria sp., Cactaceae). The Oriental Basin Pocket Gopher is known from elevations of 2300-2700 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073FFF90FA46FD106DCE4C79.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073FFF90FA46FD106DCE4C79","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"268","verbatimText":"40.Volcan de Toluca Pocket GopherCratogeomys planicepsFrench:Gaufre du Toluca/ German:Toluca-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza del Volcan de TolucaTaxonomy.Platygeomys planiceps Merriam, 1895, “north slope Volcan Toluca, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R.J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Russell in 1968 and J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized it as a subspecies of C. tylorhinus, but M. S. Hafner and colleagues resurrected it to species status in 2004. Molecular studies show C. planicepsto be sister to C. fumosus, and together these two species comprise the C. fumosusspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.N slopes of Toluca Volcano and hills N & E of Valle de Bravo in the state of Mexico, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 235-280 mm (males) and 215-250 mm (females), tail 80-110 mm (males) and 75-105 mm (females); weight 400-625 g (males) and 400-600 g (females). Male Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Body size is medium to large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal coloris usually dark reddish brown (approaching black in some individuals) with light-brown wash laterally and ochreous-buff belly. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.Habitat.Deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands that transition into pine-fir-spruce forests at high elevations. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gophers often occur in grassy clearings within these habitats and are found at elevations of 2500-3500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2004), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lamoreux (2008), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b).","taxonomy":"Platygeomys planiceps Merriam, 1895, “north slope Volcan Toluca, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R.J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. Russell in 1968 and J. L. Patton in 2005 recognized it as a subspecies of C. tylorhinus, but M. S. Hafner and colleagues resurrected it to species status in 2004. Molecular studies show C. planicepsto be sister to C. fumosus, and together these two species comprise the C. fumosusspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Toluca @fr | Toluca-Taschenratte @de | Tuza del Volcan de Toluca @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"268","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"planiceps","name":"Cratogeomys planiceps","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N slopes of Toluca Volcano and hills N & E of Valle de Bravo in the state of Mexico, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603893/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2004) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lamoreux (2008) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopheris probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 235-280 mm (males) and 215-250 mm (females), tail 80-110 mm (males) and 75-105 mm (females); weight 400-625 g (males) and 400-600 g (females). Male Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Body size is medium to large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal coloris usually dark reddish brown (approaching black in some individuals) with light-brown wash laterally and ochreous-buff belly. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands that transition into pine-fir-spruce forests at high elevations. Volcan de Toluca Pocket Gophers often occur in grassy clearings within these habitats and are found at elevations of 2500-3500 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073FFF90FF49FA0563A744A2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073FFF90FF49FA0563A744A2","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"268","verbatimText":"39.Cofre de Perote Pocket GopherCratogeomys perotensisFrench:Gaufre du Perote/ German:Veracruz-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza de Cofre de PeroteTaxonomy.Cratogeomys perotensis Merriam, 1895, “Cofre de Perote, Vera Cruz, Mexico (altitude 9,500 feet).”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R.J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. C. perotensiswas recognized as a subspecies of C. mer riami by Russell in 1968 and |. L.. Patton in 2005, but it was resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005. Molecular studies show C. perotensisto be closely related to C. merriamiand C. fulvescens, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily distributed in the Plain of Apan in S Hidalgo E through N Puebla, N Tlaxcala, and WC Veracruz S to Cofre de Perote and Pico de Orizaba volcanoes, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-250 mm (males) and 200-245 mm (females), tail 80-115 mm (males) and 80-110 mm (females); weight 290-600 g (males) and 280-600 g (females). Male Cofre de Perote Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Body size is medium for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color varies from light to dark brown, and ventral color is similar but paler. Most, perhaps all, Cofre de Perote Pocket Gophers have one or more small patches of white fur near bases of their tails. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats, most characterized by arid conditions, sandy soils, and xeric-adapted vegetation. Near the lower end ofits elevational distribution, the Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris found in dry, sparsely vegetated, desert habitat dominated by alkaline-tolerant plants. At higher elevations, it occurs in open areas surrounded by oak, pine, spruce, and fir woodlands and in grassy mountain hillsides and meadows. Plants often associated with the Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopherinclude bacharris (Bacharris sp., Asteraceae), ragworts (Senecio sp., Asteraceae), lupin (Lupinus sp., Fabaceae), and bunch grasses (Muhlenbergia sp.and Festuca sp., both Poaceae). The Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris known from elevations of 2400-4000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Cofre de Perote Pocket is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008g), Ceballos (2014), Hafner et al. (2005), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b).","taxonomy":"Cratogeomys perotensis Merriam, 1895, “Cofre de Perote, Vera Cruz, Mexico (altitude 9,500 feet).”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R.J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycutt and S. L. Willams in 1982. C. perotensiswas recognized as a subspecies of C. mer riami by Russell in 1968 and |. L.. Patton in 2005, but it was resurrected to species status by M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2005. Molecular studies show C. perotensisto be closely related to C. merriamiand C. fulvescens, and these three species together with C. goldmaniand C. castanopscomprise the C. castanopsspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Gaufre du Perote @fr | Veracruz-Taschenratte @de | Tuza de Cofre de Perote @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"268","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"perotensis","name":"Cratogeomys perotensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Patchily distributed in the Plain of Apan in S Hidalgo E through N Puebla, N Tlaxcala, and WC Veracruz S to Cofre de Perote and Pico de Orizaba volcanoes, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603891/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castafeda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008g) | Ceballos (2014) | Hafner et al. (2005) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopherreadily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it comes in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Cofre de Perote Pocket is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris likely solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-250 mm (males) and 200-245 mm (females), tail 80-115 mm (males) and 80-110 mm (females); weight 290-600 g (males) and 280-600 g (females). Male Cofre de Perote Pocket Gophers are often larger than females, but sexual dimorphism is not as pronounced as it is in many other geomyid species. Body size is medium for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Dorsal color varies from light to dark brown, and ventral color is similar but paler. Most, perhaps all, Cofre de Perote Pocket Gophers have one or more small patches of white fur near bases of their tails. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 72.","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats, most characterized by arid conditions, sandy soils, and xeric-adapted vegetation. Near the lower end ofits elevational distribution, the Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris found in dry, sparsely vegetated, desert habitat dominated by alkaline-tolerant plants. At higher elevations, it occurs in open areas surrounded by oak, pine, spruce, and fir woodlands and in grassy mountain hillsides and meadows. Plants often associated with the Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopherinclude bacharris (Bacharris sp., Asteraceae), ragworts (Senecio sp., Asteraceae), lupin (Lupinus sp., Fabaceae), and bunch grasses (Muhlenbergia sp.and Festuca sp., both Poaceae). The Cofre de Perote Pocket Gopheris known from elevations of 2400-4000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073FFF97FA47F53A63EC431F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073FFF97FA47F53A63EC431F","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"268","verbatimText":"41.Smoky Pocket GopherCratogeomys fumosusFrench:Gaufre fuligineux/ German:Colima-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza ahumadaTaxonomy.Geomysfumosus Merriam, 1892, “Colima City, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycuttand S. L. Willams in 1982. Four species of Cratogeomysrecognized by J. L. Patton in 2005 (C. gymnurus, C. neglectus, C. tylorhinus, and C. zinseri) were synonymized under C. fumosusby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2004, who also elevated C. planiceps to species status. Molecular studies show C. fumosusto be sister to C. planicepsand somewhat more distantly related to members of the C. castanopsspecies group. Together, C. fumosusand C. planicepsconstitute the C. fumosusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.f.fumosusMerriam,1892—WMichoacanandadjacentportionsofJaliscoandColima,Mexico.C.f.angustirostrisMerriam,1903—SWpartofCentralMexicanPlateau,includingpartsofJalisco,Guanajuato,andMichoacan,Mexico.C.f.imparilisGoldman,1939—CMichoacan,Mexico.C. f. tylorhinus Merriam, 1895— SE part of Central Mexican Plateau, including parts of the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, and Distrito Federal, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-280 mm (males) and 155-270 mm (females), tail 75-110 mm (males) and 65-105 mm (females); weight 300-1050 g (males) and 250-400 g (females). Male Smoky Pocket Gophers are usually much larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. A specimen captured in Michoacan, Mexico is the largest pocket gopher ever recorded from Mexico. The Smoky Pocket Gopheris extremely variable in body size, but most individuals are large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color varies from light brown to almost black dorsally and lighter ventrally. The English common name for this species, Smoky Pocket Gopher, applies only to specimens near Colima City, Colima, which have smoky-gray dorsal pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 86.Habitat.At lower elevations, arid habitats with sandy orsilty soils supporting a thin cover of xeric-adapted grasses and shrubs; at intermediate and higher elevations, deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands often in open, grassy meadows. The Smoky Pocket Gopheravoids areas with shallow or rocky soils and densely forested areas with little understory growth. It is known from elevations of 300 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Smoky Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Smoky Pocket Gophers have been collected in February, April, and July, and it might breed opportunistically throughout the year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of the Smoky Pocket Gopher near Colima City, Colima (now regarded as populations of the subspecies fumosus) and isolated populations near Pinal de Amoles, Querétaro (formerly recognized as a separate species, C. neglectus) were listed as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act in 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008d), Ceballos (2014), Demastes et al. (2002), Fernandez et al. (2014), Hafner et al. (2004), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), SEMARNAT (2010), Spradling et al. (1993).","taxonomy":"Geomysfumosus Merriam, 1892, “Colima City, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycuttand S. L. Willams in 1982. Four species of Cratogeomysrecognized by J. L. Patton in 2005 (C. gymnurus, C. neglectus, C. tylorhinus, and C. zinseri) were synonymized under C. fumosusby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2004, who also elevated C. planiceps to species status. Molecular studies show C. fumosusto be sister to C. planicepsand somewhat more distantly related to members of the C. castanopsspecies group. Together, C. fumosusand C. planicepsconstitute the C. fumosusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre fuligineux @fr | Colima-Taschenratte @de | Tuza ahumada @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1892","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"268","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fumosus","name":"Cratogeomys fumosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.f.fumosusMerriam,1892—WMichoacanandadjacentportionsofJaliscoandColima,Mexico.C.f.angustirostrisMerriam,1903—SWpartofCentralMexicanPlateau,includingpartsofJalisco,Guanajuato,andMichoacan,Mexico.C.f.imparilisGoldman,1939—CMichoacan,Mexico.C. f. tylorhinus Merriam, 1895— SE part of Central Mexican Plateau, including parts of the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, and Distrito Federal, Mexico.","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008d) | Ceballos (2014) | Demastes et al. (2002) | Fernandez et al. (2014) | Hafner et al. (2004) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Spradling et al. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Smoky Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Pregnant female Smoky Pocket Gophers have been collected in February, April, and July, and it might breed opportunistically throughout the year.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of the Smoky Pocket Gopher near Colima City, Colima (now regarded as populations of the subspecies fumosus) and isolated populations near Pinal de Amoles, Querétaro (formerly recognized as a separate species, C. neglectus) were listed as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act in 2010.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-280 mm (males) and 155-270 mm (females), tail 75-110 mm (males) and 65-105 mm (females); weight 300-1050 g (males) and 250-400 g (females). Male Smoky Pocket Gophers are usually much larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. A specimen captured in Michoacan, Mexico is the largest pocket gopher ever recorded from Mexico. The Smoky Pocket Gopheris extremely variable in body size, but most individuals are large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color varies from light brown to almost black dorsally and lighter ventrally. The English common name for this species, Smoky Pocket Gopher, applies only to specimens near Colima City, Colima, which have smoky-gray dorsal pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 86.","habitat":"At lower elevations, arid habitats with sandy orsilty soils supporting a thin cover of xeric-adapted grasses and shrubs; at intermediate and higher elevations, deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands often in open, grassy meadows. The Smoky Pocket Gopheravoids areas with shallow or rocky soils and densely forested areas with little understory growth. It is known from elevations of 300 m to more than 3000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/01/31/87/0131878A073FFF97FA47F53A63EC431F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0131878A073FFF97FA47F53A63EC431F","docName":"hbmw_6_Geomyidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fd08fff2072cff83fff3fff96b0f4602","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"268","verbatimText":"41.Smoky Pocket GopherCratogeomys fumosusFrench:Gaufre fuligineux/ German:Colima-Taschenratte/ Spanish:Tuza ahumadaTaxonomy.Geomysfumosus Merriam, 1892, “Colima City, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycuttand S. L. Willams in 1982. Four species of Cratogeomysrecognized by J. L. Patton in 2005 (C. gymnurus, C. neglectus, C. tylorhinus, and C. zinseri) were synonymized under C. fumosusby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2004, who also elevated C. planiceps to species status. Molecular studies show C. fumosusto be sister to C. planicepsand somewhat more distantly related to members of the C. castanopsspecies group. Together, C. fumosusand C. planicepsconstitute the C. fumosusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.f.fumosusMerriam,1892—WMichoacanandadjacentportionsofJaliscoandColima,Mexico.C.f.angustirostrisMerriam,1903—SWpartofCentralMexicanPlateau,includingpartsofJalisco,Guanajuato,andMichoacan,Mexico.C.f.imparilisGoldman,1939—CMichoacan,Mexico.C. f. tylorhinus Merriam, 1895— SE part of Central Mexican Plateau, including parts of the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, and Distrito Federal, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-280 mm (males) and 155-270 mm (females), tail 75-110 mm (males) and 65-105 mm (females); weight 300-1050 g (males) and 250-400 g (females). Male Smoky Pocket Gophers are usually much larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. A specimen captured in Michoacan, Mexico is the largest pocket gopher ever recorded from Mexico. The Smoky Pocket Gopheris extremely variable in body size, but most individuals are large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color varies from light brown to almost black dorsally and lighter ventrally. The English common name for this species, Smoky Pocket Gopher, applies only to specimens near Colima City, Colima, which have smoky-gray dorsal pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 86.Habitat.At lower elevations, arid habitats with sandy orsilty soils supporting a thin cover of xeric-adapted grasses and shrubs; at intermediate and higher elevations, deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands often in open, grassy meadows. The Smoky Pocket Gopheravoids areas with shallow or rocky soils and densely forested areas with little understory growth. It is known from elevations of 300 m to more than 3000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Smoky Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.Breeding.Pregnant female Smoky Pocket Gophers have been collected in February, April, and July, and it might breed opportunistically throughout the year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of the Smoky Pocket Gopher near Colima City, Colima (now regarded as populations of the subspecies fumosus) and isolated populations near Pinal de Amoles, Querétaro (formerly recognized as a separate species, C. neglectus) were listed as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act in 2010.Bibliography.Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008d), Ceballos (2014), Demastes et al. (2002), Fernandez et al. (2014), Hafner et al. (2004), Honeycutt & Williams (1982), Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987), Patton (2005b), Russell (1968b), SEMARNAT (2010), Spradling et al. (1993).","taxonomy":"Geomysfumosus Merriam, 1892, “Colima City, Mexico.”Cratogeomyswas regarded as a subgenus of Pappogeomysby R. J. Russell in 1968 but was returned to generic status by R. L.. Honeycuttand S. L. Willams in 1982. Four species of Cratogeomysrecognized by J. L. Patton in 2005 (C. gymnurus, C. neglectus, C. tylorhinus, and C. zinseri) were synonymized under C. fumosusby M. S. Hafner and colleagues in 2004, who also elevated C. planiceps to species status. Molecular studies show C. fumosusto be sister to C. planicepsand somewhat more distantly related to members of the C. castanopsspecies group. Together, C. fumosusand C. planicepsconstitute the C. fumosusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Gaufre fuligineux @fr | Colima-Taschenratte @de | Tuza ahumada @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1892","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Geomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cratogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"268","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fumosus","name":"Cratogeomys fumosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.f.fumosusMerriam,1892—WMichoacanandadjacentportionsofJaliscoandColima,Mexico.C.f.angustirostrisMerriam,1903—SWpartofCentralMexicanPlateau,includingpartsofJalisco,Guanajuato,andMichoacan,Mexico.C.f.imparilisGoldman,1939—CMichoacan,Mexico.C. f. tylorhinus Merriam, 1895— SE part of Central Mexican Plateau, including parts of the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, and Distrito Federal, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6603895/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvarez-Castaneda, Castro-Arellano, Lacher & Vazquez (2008d) | Ceballos (2014) | Demastes et al. (2002) | Fernandez et al. (2014) | Hafner et al. (2004) | Honeycutt & Williams (1982) | Lee Hae-Kyung & Baker (1987) | Patton (2005b) | Russell (1968b) | SEMARNAT (2010) | Spradling et al. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but all pocket gophers that have been studied to date eat predominately underground roots and tubers and a limited amount of surface vegetation. The Smoky Pocket Gopher readily invades cultivated fields and is considered an agricultural pest wherever it occurs in contact with humans. As in all other pocket gophers, the burrow system is a series of shallow feeding tunnels radiating spoke-like from a deeper, central network that contains one or more nest chambers and several smaller chambers for storage of food or fecal pellets.","breeding":"Pregnant female Smoky Pocket Gophers have been collected in February, April, and July, and it might breed opportunistically throughout the year.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably active at any hour of the day, with periods of peak activity around dawn and dusk. It does not hibernate and is active year-round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Smoky Pocket Gopher is probably solitary and aggressively territorial. Individuals probably leave their burrow systems only rarely, meaning that their home range is defined by size and extent of their burrow system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of the Smoky Pocket Gopher near Colima City, Colima (now regarded as populations of the subspecies fumosus) and isolated populations near Pinal de Amoles, Querétaro (formerly recognized as a separate species, C. neglectus) were listed as threatened under the Mexican Endangered Species Act in 2010.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-280 mm (males) and 155-270 mm (females), tail 75-110 mm (males) and 65-105 mm (females); weight 300-1050 g (males) and 250-400 g (females). Male Smoky Pocket Gophers are usually much larger than females; this is especially pronounced in populations with larger average body size. A specimen captured in Michoacan, Mexico is the largest pocket gopher ever recorded from Mexico. The Smoky Pocket Gopheris extremely variable in body size, but most individuals are large for the genus. It has a fusiform body shape typical of all pocket gophers, and it possesses fur-lined cheek pouches that open external to the mouth. Pelage color varies from light brown to almost black dorsally and lighter ventrally. The English common name for this species, Smoky Pocket Gopher, applies only to specimens near Colima City, Colima, which have smoky-gray dorsal pelage. Anterior surface of each upper incisor has a single medial groove slightly displaced to the inner side of the tooth. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 40 and FN = 86.","habitat":"At lower elevations, arid habitats with sandy orsilty soils supporting a thin cover of xeric-adapted grasses and shrubs; at intermediate and higher elevations, deciduous forests and pine-oak woodlands often in open, grassy meadows. The Smoky Pocket Gopheravoids areas with shallow or rocky soils and densely forested areas with little understory growth. It is known from elevations of 300 m to more than 3000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFC0FFAEFA66150FF77FF847.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"035387C7FFC0FFAEFA66150FF77FF847","docName":"hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"353","verbatimText":"14.Hector’s Beaked WhaleMesoplodon hectoriFrench:Baleine-a-bec de Hector/ German:HectorZweizahnwahl/ Spanish:Zifio de HectorOther common names:Skew-beaked WhaleTaxonomy.Berardius hectori Gray, 1871, New Zealand, Wellington, “killed in Tatai [sic] Bay [= Titai Bay], Cook’s Straits.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Most records come from either New Zealand or the Atlantic coast of South America, but also recorded in Tasmania, Western Australia, and South Africa; distribution remains unclear due to the small number of confirmed strandings. There are no records of this species between New Zealand and the Pacific coast of South America, but it is unclear whether this represents a break in distribution or a lack of research activity in this region. Earlier records from the Pacific coast of USA have since been reclassified as Perrin’s Beaked Whale (M. perrini).Descriptive notes.Total length 343-443 cm; weight ¢.500 kg (unconfirmed). Body of Hector’s Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end of the tail. Coloration is typically dark brown, dark gray, or black dorsally and pale underneath. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a beak thatis indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lowerjaw; these tusks are positioned close to tips of mandibles; they are approximately triangular in shape and are laterally flattened.Habitat.Presumably waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Hector’s Beaked Whale.Food and Feeding.Hector’s Beaked Whale is known to consume deep-water cephalopods and may consume other deep-water organisms such as fish and invertebrates. Theylikely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Hector’s Beaked Whaleslikely occur in small groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of Hector’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, Hector’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris, bycatch in driftnetfisheries, climate change, and noise pollution. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Dalebout et al. (2002), MacLeod et al. (2006), Mead (1989b).","taxonomy":"Berardius hectori Gray, 1871, New Zealand, Wellington, “killed in Tatai [sic] Bay [= Titai Bay], Cook’s Straits.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Baleine-a-bec de Hector @fr | Hector Zweizahnwahl @de | Zifio de Hector @es | Skew-beaked Whale @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1871","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyperoodontidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesoplodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"353","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hectori","name":"Mesoplodon hectori","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Most records come from either New Zealand or the Atlantic coast of South America, but also recorded in Tasmania, Western Australia, and South Africa; distribution remains unclear due to the small number of confirmed strandings. There are no records of this species between New Zealand and the Pacific coast of South America, but it is unclear whether this represents a break in distribution or a lack of research activity in this region. Earlier records from the Pacific coast of USA have since been reclassified as Perrin’s Beaked Whale (M. perrini).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6608529/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dalebout et al. (2002) | MacLeod et al. (2006) | Mead (1989b)","foodAndFeeding":"Hector’s Beaked Whale is known to consume deep-water cephalopods and may consume other deep-water organisms such as fish and invertebrates. Theylikely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Hector’s Beaked Whaleslikely occur in small groups.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of Hector’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, Hector’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris, bycatch in driftnetfisheries, climate change, and noise pollution. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 343-443 cm; weight ¢.500 kg (unconfirmed). Body of Hector’s Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end of the tail. Coloration is typically dark brown, dark gray, or black dorsally and pale underneath. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a beak thatis indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lowerjaw; these tusks are positioned close to tips of mandibles; they are approximately triangular in shape and are laterally flattened.","habitat":"Presumably waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Hector’s Beaked Whale."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFC1FFAEFA261819FC05F858.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"035387C7FFC1FFAEFA261819FC05F858","docName":"hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"352","verbatimText":"13.Strap-toothed WhaleMesoplodon layardiiFrench:Baleine-a-bec de Layard/ German:Layard-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de LayardOther common names:Layard’s Beaked Whale, Strap-toothed Beaked WhaleTaxonomy.Ziphius layardii Gray, 1865, type locality not given, probably South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Occurs from the temperate waters of S Atlantic, Indian, and S Pacific oceans to the waters of Antarctica. A record from Burma (= Myanmar) is thought to represent a vagrant individual.Descriptive notes.Total length 550-625 cm; weight 1000-1300 kg. Female Strap-toothed Whales are c¢.5% larger than males. Body is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Straptoothed Whales are a mix of black and yellowish-gray or white. Rostrum and lower jaw form a long, distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lowerjaw; these tusks are positioned approximately halfway along the jaw line. Tusks are approximately triangular in maturing males, but in fully adult males, they can be up to 30 cm long and cross over the top of the upper jaw, apparently limiting the extent to which individuals can open their jaws, but this does not seem to interfere with feeding.Habitat.Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. As with other species of Mesoplodon, Strap-toothed Whales may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but thisstill has to be confirmed.Food and Feeding.Strap-toothed Whales consume a wide variety of species of deepwater squid. Although tusks of adult males appearto limit the extent to which they can open their jaws, this does not appear to affect feeding ability. In common with other species of beaked whales, Strap-toothed Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.Breeding.Female Strap-toothed Whales give birth to a single offspring after gestation thatis likely twelve months. Offspring are likely to remain dependent on their mothers for at least one year.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings of Strap-toothed Whales at sea tend to be of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about the typical composition of these groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of the Straptoothed Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Strap-toothed Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals may be caught as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. As a species restricted to cooler waters, Strap-toothed Whales also may be vulnerable to impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Macleod et al. (2006), Mead (1989b), Sekiguchi et al. (1996).","taxonomy":"Ziphius layardii Gray, 1865, type locality not given, probably South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Baleine-a-bec de Layard @fr | Layard-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de Layard @es | Layard’s Beaked Whale @en | Strap-toothed Beaked Whale @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1865","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyperoodontidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesoplodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"352","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"layardii","name":"Mesoplodon layardii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Occurs from the temperate waters of S Atlantic, Indian, and S Pacific oceans to the waters of Antarctica. A record from Burma (= Myanmar) is thought to represent a vagrant individual.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6608527/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Macleod et al. (2006) | Mead (1989b) | Sekiguchi et al. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Strap-toothed Whales consume a wide variety of species of deepwater squid. Although tusks of adult males appearto limit the extent to which they can open their jaws, this does not appear to affect feeding ability. In common with other species of beaked whales, Strap-toothed Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.","breeding":"Female Strap-toothed Whales give birth to a single offspring after gestation thatis likely twelve months. Offspring are likely to remain dependent on their mothers for at least one year.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings of Strap-toothed Whales at sea tend to be of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about the typical composition of these groups.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of the Straptoothed Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Strap-toothed Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals may be caught as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. As a species restricted to cooler waters, Strap-toothed Whales also may be vulnerable to impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 550-625 cm; weight 1000-1300 kg. Female Strap-toothed Whales are c¢.5% larger than males. Body is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Straptoothed Whales are a mix of black and yellowish-gray or white. Rostrum and lower jaw form a long, distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lowerjaw; these tusks are positioned approximately halfway along the jaw line. Tusks are approximately triangular in maturing males, but in fully adult males, they can be up to 30 cm long and cross over the top of the upper jaw, apparently limiting the extent to which individuals can open their jaws, but this does not seem to interfere with feeding.","habitat":"Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. As with other species of Mesoplodon, Strap-toothed Whales may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but thisstill has to be confirmed."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFC1FFAFFA2017C8F5D3F43F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"035387C7FFC1FFAFFA2017C8F5D3F43F","docName":"hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"352","verbatimText":"12.True’s Beaked WhaleMesoplodon marusFrench:Baleine-a-bec de True/ German:True-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de TrueTaxonomy.Mesoplodon mirus True, 1913, USA, “stranded in the outer bank of Bird Island Shoal in the harbor of Beaufort, North Carolina.”There are currently no recognized subspecies, but it is possible that the northern and southern forms are sufficiently distinct to be considered subspecies. Monotypic.Distribution.Anti-tropical distribution: N Atlantic Ocean, in a poorly defined region ranging from Ireland to the Canary Is in the E, and from Nova Scotia to Florida in the W, Southern Hemisphere, recorded in S Brazil, South Africa, Madagascar, and S Australia. Nevertheless, due to the small number of records, the full extent of its distribution in the Southern Hemisphere is unclear.Descriptive notes.Total length 480-540 cm; weight 1000-1400 kg. Female True’s Beaked Whales may beslightly larger than males. Body is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end of the tail. Coloration differs between True’s Beaked Whales found in the North Atlantic Ocean and those found in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere form, individuals are medium to dark gray on top and paler underneath, with a dark patch just behind the eye. In the Southern Hemisphere form, there is an additional white or pale area on each side on the flank from the dorsal fin back toward flukes. Adult males may have a number of long white lines that are unpigmented scars from aggressive male-male interactions. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a short but distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a pair of conical tusks at the tip of the rostrum; these may become heavily worn over time.Habitat.Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. In common with other species of Mesoplodon, True’s Beaked Whales may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but this still has to be confirmed.Food and Feeding.Little is known about the diet of True’s Beaked Whale, but in common with other species of Mesoplodon, it is presumed to feed on deep-water squid and deep-water fish. As with other species of beaked whales, True’s Beaked Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings at sea have been of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about typical composition of these groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of True’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, True’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris, bycatch in driftnet fisheries, and noise pollution. As a species restricted to cooler waters, it may also be vulnerable to effects of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Dalebout et al. (2007), MacLeod et al. (2006), Mead (1989b), Rice (1998), Ross (1984).","taxonomy":"Mesoplodon mirus True, 1913, USA, “stranded in the outer bank of Bird Island Shoal in the harbor of Beaufort, North Carolina.”There are currently no recognized subspecies, but it is possible that the northern and southern forms are sufficiently distinct to be considered subspecies. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Baleine-a-bec de True @fr | True-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de True @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gervais","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1850","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyperoodontidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesoplodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"352","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"marus","name":"Mesoplodon marus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Anti-tropical distribution: N Atlantic Ocean, in a poorly defined region ranging from Ireland to the Canary Is in the E, and from Nova Scotia to Florida in the W, Southern Hemisphere, recorded in S Brazil, South Africa, Madagascar, and S Australia. Nevertheless, due to the small number of records, the full extent of its distribution in the Southern Hemisphere is unclear.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6608525/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dalebout et al. (2007) | MacLeod et al. (2006) | Mead (1989b) | Rice (1998) | Ross (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"Little is known about the diet of True’s Beaked Whale, but in common with other species of Mesoplodon, it is presumed to feed on deep-water squid and deep-water fish. As with other species of beaked whales, True’s Beaked Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings at sea have been of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about typical composition of these groups.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of True’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, True’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris, bycatch in driftnet fisheries, and noise pollution. As a species restricted to cooler waters, it may also be vulnerable to effects of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 480-540 cm; weight 1000-1400 kg. Female True’s Beaked Whales may beslightly larger than males. Body is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end of the tail. Coloration differs between True’s Beaked Whales found in the North Atlantic Ocean and those found in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere form, individuals are medium to dark gray on top and paler underneath, with a dark patch just behind the eye. In the Southern Hemisphere form, there is an additional white or pale area on each side on the flank from the dorsal fin back toward flukes. Adult males may have a number of long white lines that are unpigmented scars from aggressive male-male interactions. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a short but distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a pair of conical tusks at the tip of the rostrum; these may become heavily worn over time.","habitat":"Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. In common with other species of Mesoplodon, True’s Beaked Whales may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but this still has to be confirmed."} @@ -63,88 +63,88 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFCEFFA0FF721508FAE5F706.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"035387C7FFCEFFA0FF721508FAE5F706","docName":"hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"355","verbatimText":"15.Gray’s Beaked WhaleMesoplodon grayiFrench:Baleine-a-bec de Gray/ German:Gray-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de GrayOther common names:Scamperdown Whale, Southern Beaked WhaleTaxonomy.Mesoplodon gray: Von Haast, 1876, New Zealand, “the Chatham Islands...from specimens stranded...on the Waitangi beach of the main island of that group.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Ranges from temperate waters of the S Atlantic, Indian, and S Pacific oceans to waters of Antarctica. A single specimen stranded on the Dutch coast is thought to have been a vagrant individual.Descriptive notes.Total length 450-500 cm; weight ¢.900 kg (unconfirmed). Body of Gray's Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance betweentip of the beak and end of the tail. Colorationis typically dark brown, dark gray, or black and paler on the ventral surface. Tip of rostrum is often colored white, especially in adult males. Rostrum and lower jaw form a long distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw; tusks are positioned about halfway along the jaw line. Tusks are approximately triangular but may become heavily worn over time.Habitat.Waters greater than 200 m deep. In common with other species of Mesoplodon, Gray's Beaked Whale may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but this still has to be confirmed.Food and Feeding.While it is often assumed that Gray's Beaked Whales consume deep-water cephalopods, analyses of stomach contents suggest that they may primarily consume deep-water fish species. In common with other species of beaked whales, Gray's Beaked Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.Breeding.Almost nothing is known about the reproductive biology of Gray’s Beaked Whale. Females give birth to a single offspring after gestation that is likely twelve months. Offspring likely remain dependent on their mothers for at least one year.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings of Gray's Beaked Whales at sea tend to be of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about the typical composition of these groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of Gray's Beaked Whale. It may be one of the more abundant species of Mesoplodonand may be relatively common in some areas, such as waters to the south of New Zealand. Like other species of beaked whales, Gray’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be caught as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. As a species restricted to cooler waters, it may also be vulnerable to effects of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent ofthese potential impacts.Bibliography.Macleod, Perrin et al. (2006), MacLeod, Santos & Pierce (2003), Mead (1989b), Rice (1998).","taxonomy":"Mesoplodon gray: Von Haast, 1876, New Zealand, “the Chatham Islands...from specimens stranded...on the Waitangi beach of the main island of that group.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Baleine-a-bec de Gray @fr | Gray-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de Gray @es | Scamperdown Whale @en | Southern Beaked Whale @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"von Haast","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1876","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyperoodontidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesoplodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"355","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grayi","name":"Mesoplodon grayi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Ranges from temperate waters of the S Atlantic, Indian, and S Pacific oceans to waters of Antarctica. A single specimen stranded on the Dutch coast is thought to have been a vagrant individual.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6608531/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Macleod, Perrin et al. (2006) | MacLeod, Santos & Pierce (2003) | Mead (1989b) | Rice (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"While it is often assumed that Gray's Beaked Whales consume deep-water cephalopods, analyses of stomach contents suggest that they may primarily consume deep-water fish species. In common with other species of beaked whales, Gray's Beaked Whales likely forage at depths greater than 500 m for much of their lives.","breeding":"Almost nothing is known about the reproductive biology of Gray’s Beaked Whale. Females give birth to a single offspring after gestation that is likely twelve months. Offspring likely remain dependent on their mothers for at least one year.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but sightings of Gray's Beaked Whales at sea tend to be of relatively small groups of five or fewer individuals. Nothing is known about the typical composition of these groups.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of Gray's Beaked Whale. It may be one of the more abundant species of Mesoplodonand may be relatively common in some areas, such as waters to the south of New Zealand. Like other species of beaked whales, Gray’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be caught as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. As a species restricted to cooler waters, it may also be vulnerable to effects of climate change. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent ofthese potential impacts.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 450-500 cm; weight ¢.900 kg (unconfirmed). Body of Gray's Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance betweentip of the beak and end of the tail. Colorationis typically dark brown, dark gray, or black and paler on the ventral surface. Tip of rostrum is often colored white, especially in adult males. Rostrum and lower jaw form a long distinct beak, and there are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw; tusks are positioned about halfway along the jaw line. Tusks are approximately triangular but may become heavily worn over time.","habitat":"Waters greater than 200 m deep. In common with other species of Mesoplodon, Gray's Beaked Whale may be more common in areas of complex seabed topography, but this still has to be confirmed."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFCEFFA0FF7B1D30F582FA59.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"035387C7FFCEFFA0FF7B1D30F582FA59","docName":"hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"355","verbatimText":"16.Ginkgo-toothed Beaked WhaleMesoplodon ginkgodensFrench:Baleine-a-bec du Japon/ German:Japan-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de dientes de GinkgoOther common names:Japanese Beaked WhaleTaxonomy.Mesoplodon ginkgodens Nishiwaki & Kamiya, 1958, Japan, “Oiso Beach, Sagami Bay, near Tokyo.”Historically, there has been confusion about the number ofspecies or subspecies contained in the classification of M. ginkgodens. It was originaly described in 1958 from an animal which stranded in Japan, while a second similar species, M. hotaula, was described independently in 1963 from an animal which stranded in Sri Lanka. Based on morphological similarities, these two species were synonymized under the name M. ginkgodensby J. C. Moore and R. M. Gilmore in 1965. However, recent molecular analysis, published in 2014, has resulted in these two species being separated again. Monotypic.Distribution.Warmer waters ofthe Pacific and Indian oceans in an area ranging from S India and Sri Lanka to Taiwan, Japan, SE Australia, Galapagos Is, and California. Exact distribution remains unclear due to the small number of known strandings, and the taxonomic confusion between the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale and the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodonhotaula).Descriptive notes.Total length 470-528 cm; weight ¢.1000 kg (unconfirmed). Body of the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Coloration is typically dark brown, dark gray, or black. Female and juvenile Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales may be paler on ventral surface. Rostrum and lower jaw form a beak that is indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw. Tusks are positioned approximately one-third of the way along the mandibles, but only the very tips of tusks emerge from gums. Male Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales are unusual because they seem to lack any of the long, pale, linear scars caused by tusks of other males that are found on males of most species of beaked whales.Habitat.Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but in common with other species of beaked whales, Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales are thought to consume deep-water squid and, to a lesser extent, deep-water fish. They likely forage at depths greater than 500 m.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales likely occur in small groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN RedList. There are no estimates of global population size of the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be killed as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Dalebout et al. (2014), MacLeod et al. (2006), Mead (1989b), Moore & Gilmore (1965), Rice (1998).","taxonomy":"Mesoplodon ginkgodens Nishiwaki & Kamiya, 1958, Japan, “Oiso Beach, Sagami Bay, near Tokyo.”Historically, there has been confusion about the number ofspecies or subspecies contained in the classification of M. ginkgodens. It was originaly described in 1958 from an animal which stranded in Japan, while a second similar species, M. hotaula, was described independently in 1963 from an animal which stranded in Sri Lanka. Based on morphological similarities, these two species were synonymized under the name M. ginkgodensby J. C. Moore and R. M. Gilmore in 1965. However, recent molecular analysis, published in 2014, has resulted in these two species being separated again. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Baleine-a-bec du Japon @fr | Japan-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de dientes de Ginkgo @es | Japanese Beaked Whale @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Nishiwaki & Kamiya","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1958","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyperoodontidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesoplodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"355","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ginkgodens","name":"Mesoplodon ginkgodens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Warmer waters ofthe Pacific and Indian oceans in an area ranging from S India and Sri Lanka to Taiwan, Japan, SE Australia, Galapagos Is, and California. Exact distribution remains unclear due to the small number of known strandings, and the taxonomic confusion between the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale and the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodonhotaula).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6608533/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dalebout et al. (2014) | MacLeod et al. (2006) | Mead (1989b) | Moore & Gilmore (1965) | Rice (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but in common with other species of beaked whales, Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales are thought to consume deep-water squid and, to a lesser extent, deep-water fish. They likely forage at depths greater than 500 m.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales likely occur in small groups.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN RedList. There are no estimates of global population size of the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be killed as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 470-528 cm; weight ¢.1000 kg (unconfirmed). Body of the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Coloration is typically dark brown, dark gray, or black. Female and juvenile Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales may be paler on ventral surface. Rostrum and lower jaw form a beak that is indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw. Tusks are positioned approximately one-third of the way along the mandibles, but only the very tips of tusks emerge from gums. Male Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales are unusual because they seem to lack any of the long, pale, linear scars caused by tusks of other males that are found on males of most species of beaked whales.","habitat":"Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/53/87/035387C7FFCEFFA3FA7211F2FCAEFD98.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"035387C7FFCEFFA3FA7211F2FCAEFD98","docName":"hbmw_4_Ziphiidae_0326.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff6affbfffc7ffa9ffe31407ffc2ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"355","verbatimText":"17.Deraniyagala’s Beaked WhaleMesoplodon hotaulaFrench:Baleine-a-bec de Deraniyagala/ German:Deraniyagala-Zweizahnwal/ Spanish:Zifio de DeraniyagalaTaxonomy.Mesoplodon hotaula Deraniyagala, 1963, Sri Lanka, washed ashore “in a dying condition” on 26 January 1963 at Ratmalana (6° 49’ N, 79° 52’ E), approxiately 8 km south of Colombo, on the west coast of Sri Lanka.Historically, there has been confusion about whether or not M. hotaularepresents a species in its own right. It was originally described in 1963 from an animal which stranded in Sri Lanka, but based on morphological similarities, J. C. Moore and R. M. Gilmore synonymized it with M. ginkgodensin 1965. However, recent molecular analysis, published in 2014, has resulted in M. hotaulabeing resurrected as a species in its own right. Monotypic.Distribution.Warmer waters ofthe Pacific and Indian oceans in an area ranging from E Africa, S India and Sri Lanka to Galapagos Is, and possibly as far as Central and South America. Exact distribution remains unclear due to the small number of known strandings, and the taxonomic confusion between the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale and the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale (M. ginkgodens).Descriptive notes.Total length ¢.400-450 cm; weight ¢.1000 kg (unconfirmed). Body of the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Colorationis typically dark on top and light ventrally, with a pale lowerjaw and chin. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a beak that is indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw. Tusks are positioned approximately one-third of the way along the mandibles. In common with Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales, male Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale may lack anyof the long, pale, linear scars caused by tusks of other males that are found on males of most species of beaked whales, but this is based on information from a single individual. However, broken tusks on two specimens suggests that aggressive male—male combat (the cause ofsuch scars) may occur.Habitat.Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whales.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but in common with other species of beaked whales, Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale are thought to consume deep-water squid and, to a lesser extent, deep-water fish. They likely forage at depths greater than 500 m.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whaleslikely occur in small groups.On following pages: 18. Sowery's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon bidens); 19. Blainville’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodondensirostris); 20. Andrews's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon bowdoini); 21. Spade-toothed Whale (Mesoplodontraversil); 22. Gervais's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon europaeus).Status and Conservation.As a new species, Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale has not yet evaluated. However,it is mostlikely it will be listed on CITES Appendix II (along with most other beaked whales) and classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be killed as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.Bibliography.Dalebout et al. (2014), Moore & Gilmore (1965).","taxonomy":"Mesoplodon hotaula Deraniyagala, 1963, Sri Lanka, washed ashore “in a dying condition” on 26 January 1963 at Ratmalana (6° 49’ N, 79° 52’ E), approxiately 8 km south of Colombo, on the west coast of Sri Lanka.Historically, there has been confusion about whether or not M. hotaularepresents a species in its own right. It was originally described in 1963 from an animal which stranded in Sri Lanka, but based on morphological similarities, J. C. Moore and R. M. Gilmore synonymized it with M. ginkgodensin 1965. However, recent molecular analysis, published in 2014, has resulted in M. hotaulabeing resurrected as a species in its own right. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Baleine-a-bec de Deraniyagala @fr | Deraniyagala-Zweizahnwal @de | Zifio de Deraniyagala @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Deraniyagala","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1963","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyperoodontidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesoplodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"355","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hotaula","name":"Mesoplodon hotaula","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Warmer waters ofthe Pacific and Indian oceans in an area ranging from E Africa, S India and Sri Lanka to Galapagos Is, and possibly as far as Central and South America. Exact distribution remains unclear due to the small number of known strandings, and the taxonomic confusion between the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale and the Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale (M. ginkgodens).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6608535/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dalebout et al. (2014) | Moore & Gilmore (1965)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but in common with other species of beaked whales, Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale are thought to consume deep-water squid and, to a lesser extent, deep-water fish. They likely forage at depths greater than 500 m.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whaleslikely occur in small groups.On following pages: 18. Sowery's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon bidens); 19. Blainville’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodondensirostris); 20. Andrews's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon bowdoini); 21. Spade-toothed Whale (Mesoplodontraversil); 22. Gervais's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon europaeus).","statusAndConservation":"As a new species, Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale has not yet evaluated. However,it is mostlikely it will be listed on CITES Appendix II (along with most other beaked whales) and classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There are no estimates of global population size of the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale. Like other species of beaked whales, the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale is potentially affected by ingestion of plastic debris and noise pollution, and individuals can be killed as bycatch in driftnet fisheries. Nevertheless, nothing is known about the form or extent of these potential impacts.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length ¢.400-450 cm; weight ¢.1000 kg (unconfirmed). Body of the Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale is spindle-shaped, with greatest girth around its midpoint. Flukes are wide in relation to body length, and tailstock is compressed laterally. Dorsal fin is small and set approximately two-thirds the distance between tip of the beak and end ofthe tail. Colorationis typically dark on top and light ventrally, with a pale lowerjaw and chin. Rostrum and lowerjaw form a beak that is indistinct from the low sloping forehead. There are two grooves on the throat. Adult males have a single tusk on each side of the lower jaw. Tusks are positioned approximately one-third of the way along the mandibles. In common with Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whales, male Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale may lack anyof the long, pale, linear scars caused by tusks of other males that are found on males of most species of beaked whales, but this is based on information from a single individual. However, broken tusks on two specimens suggests that aggressive male—male combat (the cause ofsuch scars) may occur.","habitat":"Primarily waters greater than 200 m deep. Nothing further is known about habitat preferences of Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whales."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"290","verbatimText":"17.Pygmy HogPorcula salvaniaFrench:Sanglier nain/ German:Zwergwildschwein/ Spanish:JabalipigmeoTaxonomy.Porcula salvania Hodgson, 1847,SikkimTerai, India.After having been included in Susfor a long time, the species was reassigned to its original genus Porcula. Monotypic.Distribution.NE India(NW Assam).Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-71 cm, tail 2: 5 cm, shoulder height about 25 cm; weight 6.6-9. 7 kg. Females are a little smaller and the newborn babies weigh only 150-200 g. The greatest skull length is 17-9 cm. Pygmy Hogs differ from members of the genus Susin the extreme reduction in body, ears, and tail size, relatively short medial false hooves, and snout disc perpendicular to axis of head. There is an absence or warts or whorls on the jaw, and the body shape is more streamlined than that of other pigs. In adults, the profile tapers from relatively longer hindquarters to smaller forequarters. The adult dentition in the Pygmy Hog is similar to Sus.Habitat.Pygmy Hogs prefer undisturbed grassland typical of early successional riverine communities, comprising dense tall grass mixed with a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and young trees. Such grasslands, dominated by Narenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, and Themeda villosa, form characteristic associations 2-3 m in height. However, most such early successional communities are subject to wide-scale annual burning and accordingly are characterized by low diversity and the overwhelming preponderance of a few, fire-resistant grasses. Therefore they almost certainly constitute suboptimal habitats for Pygmy Hogs and most other grassland dependent species, which are deprived of cover and other resources for protracted periods prior to the early season rains. The species is not found in structurally similar grasslands located in riverine floodplains, which are subject to prolonged inundations during the monsoon. These grasslands are generally fertile alluvial areas, making them desirable for agriculture. Human use of these habitats contributes to the rapid decline of Pygmy Hogs throughout their known or presumed former range.Food and Feeding.Pygmy Hogs feed on roots, tubers, shoots, and ground vegetation, along with worms and other invertebrates and, probably, small vertebrates (e.g. reptiles and the eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds).Breeding.Reproduction is strongly seasonal, with almost all births occurring during a single, well-defined birth peak, which coincides with the onset of the monsoon,in late April and May in western Assam. Litter size varies from two to six, but is usually 3-4. The species is unusual among the suids in that nests are constructed and used by both sexes at all times of the year and nest building is not limited to farrowing.Activity patterns.The species seems to be most active during the day, although this remains poorly studied. A study of diurnal activity patterns in captive animals revealed that the highest proportion of observation time was dedicated to foraging and moving, followed by being inside the nest, resting, displaying, and allogrooming. The two sexes partitioned their time rather differently. Females seemed to spend more time on foraging than males, while males moved more than females, which was associated with elevated levels of display behavior and courtship performed by them. Display was exhibited only by males and performed during the breeding season. Allogrooming was the most prominent social interaction observed, with certain individuals grooming more than others. Moreover, among the breeding pairs, males groomed considerably more than females. It is possible that male Pygmy Hogs move a lot and display considerably to increase their potential reproductive success. Because these observations were on captive animals it is not clear how these time budgets would be changed under natural conditions, where the presence of predators and other factors would likely change their behavior.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult male Pygmy Hogs usually are seen by themselves, but are reported to join estrous sows during the rut and to associate loosely at other times of the year with the basic natal social family units. These units usually consist of 4-6 individuals, including one or more adult females and accompanyingjuveniles.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects. A highly successful conservation breeding program was also initiated in 1996, following the construction of the “Pygmy Hog Conservation Research and Breeding Centre” located on the outskirts of the Assam State capital, Guwahati, and the capture of two male and four female Pgymy Hogs in Manas. This capture operation, undertaken in close collaboration with Park officials, was timed to coincide with the expected mid-term pregnancy of the adult sows, to increase the number of genetically represented individuals (i.e. wild sows that had been impregnated by other wild males) and therebytriple the number of captive individuals within six weeks. (Three of the four sows produced a total of thirteen infants, all but one of which survived.) Subsequent breeding soon resulted in over crowding and a need to manage the numbers and identities of individuals producing litters each year. A custom-built “pre-release” facility located at Potosali, close to Nameri National Park in north-west Assam, was built, with several large enclosures with habitats where animals scheduled for reintroduction into selected protected sites learned to forage for themselves. The first releases took place in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the first wild births were recorded the following year. More releases were conducted in 2009 and 2010, and several additionalsites have been identified for similar reintroduction efforts in the coming years.Bibliography.Bell & Oliver (1992), Deb (1995), Funk et al. (2007), Mallinson (1971, 1977), Narayan (2004), Narayan & Deka (2002), Narayan, Deka, Chakrobarty & Oliver (1999), Narayan, Deka & Oliver (2008a, 2008b), Narayan, Deka, Oliver & Fa (2009), Narayan, Oliver et al. (2008), Oliver (1977, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1991a, 1991b), Oliver & Deb Roy (1993), Oliver et al. (1997), Sanyal (1995).","taxonomy":"Porcula salvania Hodgson, 1847,SikkimTerai, India.After having been included in Susfor a long time, the species was reassigned to its original genus Porcula. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Sanglier nain @fr | Zwergwildschwein @de | Jabalipigmeo @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Porcula","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"290","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"salvania","name":"Porcula salvania","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE India(NW Assam).","bibliography":"Bell & Oliver (1992) | Deb (1995) | Funk et al. (2007) | Mallinson (1971, 1977) | Narayan (2004) | Narayan & Deka (2002) | Narayan, Deka, Chakrobarty & Oliver (1999) | Narayan, Deka & Oliver (2008a, 2008b) | Narayan, Deka, Oliver & Fa (2009) | Narayan, Oliver et al. (2008) | Oliver (1977, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1991a, 1991b) | Oliver & Deb Roy (1993) | Oliver et al. (1997) | Sanyal (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Pygmy Hogs feed on roots, tubers, shoots, and ground vegetation, along with worms and other invertebrates and, probably, small vertebrates (e.g. reptiles and the eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds).","breeding":"Reproduction is strongly seasonal, with almost all births occurring during a single, well-defined birth peak, which coincides with the onset of the monsoon,in late April and May in western Assam. Litter size varies from two to six, but is usually 3-4. The species is unusual among the suids in that nests are constructed and used by both sexes at all times of the year and nest building is not limited to farrowing.","activityPatterns":"The species seems to be most active during the day, although this remains poorly studied. A study of diurnal activity patterns in captive animals revealed that the highest proportion of observation time was dedicated to foraging and moving, followed by being inside the nest, resting, displaying, and allogrooming. The two sexes partitioned their time rather differently. Females seemed to spend more time on foraging than males, while males moved more than females, which was associated with elevated levels of display behavior and courtship performed by them. Display was exhibited only by males and performed during the breeding season. Allogrooming was the most prominent social interaction observed, with certain individuals grooming more than others. Moreover, among the breeding pairs, males groomed considerably more than females. It is possible that male Pygmy Hogs move a lot and display considerably to increase their potential reproductive success. Because these observations were on captive animals it is not clear how these time budgets would be changed under natural conditions, where the presence of predators and other factors would likely change their behavior.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Adult male Pygmy Hogs usually are seen by themselves, but are reported to join estrous sows during the rut and to associate loosely at other times of the year with the basic natal social family units. These units usually consist of 4-6 individuals, including one or more adult females and accompanyingjuveniles.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects. A highly successful conservation breeding program was also initiated in 1996, following the construction of the “Pygmy Hog Conservation Research and Breeding Centre” located on the outskirts of the Assam State capital, Guwahati, and the capture of two male and four female Pgymy Hogs in Manas. This capture operation, undertaken in close collaboration with Park officials, was timed to coincide with the expected mid-term pregnancy of the adult sows, to increase the number of genetically represented individuals (i.e. wild sows that had been impregnated by other wild males) and therebytriple the number of captive individuals within six weeks. (Three of the four sows produced a total of thirteen infants, all but one of which survived.) Subsequent breeding soon resulted in over crowding and a need to manage the numbers and identities of individuals producing litters each year. A custom-built “pre-release” facility located at Potosali, close to Nameri National Park in north-west Assam, was built, with several large enclosures with habitats where animals scheduled for reintroduction into selected protected sites learned to forage for themselves. The first releases took place in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the first wild births were recorded the following year. More releases were conducted in 2009 and 2010, and several additionalsites have been identified for similar reintroduction efforts in the coming years.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-71 cm, tail 2: 5 cm, shoulder height about 25 cm; weight 6.6-9. 7 kg. Females are a little smaller and the newborn babies weigh only 150-200 g. The greatest skull length is 17-9 cm. Pygmy Hogs differ from members of the genus Susin the extreme reduction in body, ears, and tail size, relatively short medial false hooves, and snout disc perpendicular to axis of head. There is an absence or warts or whorls on the jaw, and the body shape is more streamlined than that of other pigs. In adults, the profile tapers from relatively longer hindquarters to smaller forequarters. The adult dentition in the Pygmy Hog is similar to Sus.","habitat":"Pygmy Hogs prefer undisturbed grassland typical of early successional riverine communities, comprising dense tall grass mixed with a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and young trees. Such grasslands, dominated by Narenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, and Themeda villosa, form characteristic associations 2-3 m in height. However, most such early successional communities are subject to wide-scale annual burning and accordingly are characterized by low diversity and the overwhelming preponderance of a few, fire-resistant grasses. Therefore they almost certainly constitute suboptimal habitats for Pygmy Hogs and most other grassland dependent species, which are deprived of cover and other resources for protracted periods prior to the early season rains. The species is not found in structurally similar grasslands located in riverine floodplains, which are subject to prolonged inundations during the monsoon. These grasslands are generally fertile alluvial areas, making them desirable for agriculture. Human use of these habitats contributes to the rapid decline of Pygmy Hogs throughout their known or presumed former range."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"284","verbatimText":"11.Mindoro Warty PigSus oliveriFrench:Sanglier de Mindoro/ German:Mindoro-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide MindoroTaxonomy.Susphilippensis oliveri Groves, 1997,Mayapang, Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines.This species was recognized as a distinct subspecies of the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) in 1997, and four years later designated as a full species, owing to various distinct characteristics setting it aside from S. philippensis. Mindoro island is surrounded by deepwater channels, indicating that it has had no recent landbridge connection with any adjacent island in the Philippine Archipelago. It has thus been isolated and remained isolated during repeated Pleistocene sea-level changes for tens of thousands of years. Monotypic.Distribution.Mindoro I in the C Philippines.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available for this species. Based on skull length measurements in three males specimens, S. oliveri appears to be similar in size to the Philippine Warty Pig, but readily distinguished from that species byits very elongated facial skeleton, which points more downward, especially anterior to the canines. The braincase is more elongated behind the zygomatic roots. The palate is also more elongated, but not to the extent seen in the PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus). The only currently available skin of S. oliveri suggests that males have a black crown tuft mixed with straw-colored hairs. The preocular warts are well developed, and they have a straw-colored tuft on the lower jaw. A photo of an adult female recently taken by trophy hunters on Mindoro shows a well-developed, blackish-gray bristly mane that runs across the head and along the back. The coat is rather shaggy and blackish or blackish-gray all over. Unfortunately, the large ears, short snout, and absence of warts suggest that this might have been a feral or hybrid animal, which means that there is still no clear understanding of what a true Mindoro Warty Pig lookslike.Habitat.Very few direct observations of the species in the wild have been recorded, mostly during annual Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) census exercises in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. The species’ habitat preference therefore remains mostly unclear. It presumably favors remaining stands of forests and thickets where it can find shelter and food.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Nothing is known.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrenceis less than 5000 km? and its area of occupancyis less than 500 km?. Even though accurate records are lacking, the distribution range of S. oliveri is likely to be severely fragmented. Surveys conducted in the late 1990s indicated that Mindoro Warty Pigs are now mostly confined to higher elevations in the central and northwestern mountain ranges. There is also a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals because of overhunting. Hybridization with free-ranging domestic pigs introduced and maintained by hinterland communities is an additional and likely serious threat.Bibliography.Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Oliver (1995, 2008).","taxonomy":"Susphilippensis oliveri Groves, 1997,Mayapang, Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines.This species was recognized as a distinct subspecies of the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) in 1997, and four years later designated as a full species, owing to various distinct characteristics setting it aside from S. philippensis. Mindoro island is surrounded by deepwater channels, indicating that it has had no recent landbridge connection with any adjacent island in the Philippine Archipelago. It has thus been isolated and remained isolated during repeated Pleistocene sea-level changes for tens of thousands of years. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Sanglier de Mindoro @fr | Mindoro-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Mindoro @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"284","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"oliveri","name":"Sus oliveri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Mindoro I in the C Philippines.","bibliography":"Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b) | Oliver (1995, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing is known.","breeding":"Nothing is known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing is known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing is known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrenceis less than 5000 km? and its area of occupancyis less than 500 km?. Even though accurate records are lacking, the distribution range of S. oliveri is likely to be severely fragmented. Surveys conducted in the late 1990s indicated that Mindoro Warty Pigs are now mostly confined to higher elevations in the central and northwestern mountain ranges. There is also a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals because of overhunting. Hybridization with free-ranging domestic pigs introduced and maintained by hinterland communities is an additional and likely serious threat.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available for this species. Based on skull length measurements in three males specimens, S. oliveri appears to be similar in size to the Philippine Warty Pig, but readily distinguished from that species byits very elongated facial skeleton, which points more downward, especially anterior to the canines. The braincase is more elongated behind the zygomatic roots. The palate is also more elongated, but not to the extent seen in the PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus). The only currently available skin of S. oliveri suggests that males have a black crown tuft mixed with straw-colored hairs. The preocular warts are well developed, and they have a straw-colored tuft on the lower jaw. A photo of an adult female recently taken by trophy hunters on Mindoro shows a well-developed, blackish-gray bristly mane that runs across the head and along the back. The coat is rather shaggy and blackish or blackish-gray all over. Unfortunately, the large ears, short snout, and absence of warts suggest that this might have been a feral or hybrid animal, which means that there is still no clear understanding of what a true Mindoro Warty Pig lookslike.","habitat":"Very few direct observations of the species in the wild have been recorded, mostly during annual Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) census exercises in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. The species’ habitat preference therefore remains mostly unclear. It presumably favors remaining stands of forests and thickets where it can find shelter and food."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"284","verbatimText":"10.Philippine Warty PigSus philippensisFrench:Sanglier des Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide FilipinasTaxonomy.Sus celebensis var. philippensis Nehring, 1886,Luzon, Philippines.Susphilippensis was recognized formally as a distinct species in 1991, originally having been considered a subspecies of the SulawesiWarty Pig (S. celebensis) or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). Initially, three subspecies were proposed: philippensis from Luzon and associated islands; mindanensis from Mindanao and associated islands; and oliveri from Mindoro. The latter subspecies was assigned later to full species level. Recent mtDNA studies have suggested that philippensis and mindanensis are distinct enough to be considered full species, but this has not yet been formally proposed. Two subspecies are actually recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.p.philippensisNehring,1886—LuzonandassociatedIs(Polillo,Catanduanes,and,formerly,Marinduque).S. p. mindanensis Forsyth Major, 1897— Mindanao and surrounding Is (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Camiguin, Basilan, and associated smallerIs).Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available for this species. This is a species of Suswith karyotype 2n = 36, unlike other wild species, as well as domestic pigs, in which 37 or 38 chromosomes are more common. S. philippensis is generally blackhaired, with a prominent black mane (sometimes interlaced with white higher streaks in subspecies mindanensis) and gray skin, which sometimes appears whitish in color when extending over the well-developed preorbital warts. The latter characteristic and this species’ more prominent white jowl tufts readily distinguish it from other Philippine wild pigs. Philippine Warty Pigs have a long, full crown tuft and a nuchal mane that extends along the back in most individuals, especially adult males. Males have two pairs of warts; their gonial (lower jaw) hair tufts are very long and thick, and largely white or yellow. Adult sows also have distinctive white, but much thinner, gonial tufts. The skull has a deep, sharply bordered preorbital fossa. Compared to S. celebensisand the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), the facial skeleton is somewhat elongated but not as much as in S. barbatusor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus). The face is somewhat concave at the nasal root, with nasals slightly convex and the malar tuberosity greatly swollen. The braincase is high crowned, sloping downward to facial skeleton, and with the occipital crest extending backward. The anterior margin of the temporal fossa is perpendicularly above M? or just behind it. The foramen magnum is described as “teardrop-shaped.” The maxillary premolar rows curve outward anteriorly. M* is very short, with four major cusps and a small 5\" cusp. The two subspecies are morphologically distinct. Subspecies philippensis has a grayish crown tuft with an anterior fringe that is directed forward. The facial warts are relatively large, and the whorls on the lower jaw are white. The skull size in males is relatively small, and the braincase is shortened and relatively flat-topped. Subspecies mindanensis closely resembles philippensis, but differs in the following features: the crest and mane are mostly black, but often distinctly intermixed with white or reddish-brown hairs, though the crown tuft may be white anteriorly; the forward-directed fringe is absent or less apparent in most individuals. The facial warts are small, though the lowerjaw tufts, usually yellow or yellow mixed with black, are prominent; they are much more developed in adult males than females. The skull size of mindanensis is also much larger in males than females, and the braincase more rounded in comparison to philippensis.Habitat.The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad. Habitat information from other areas is scarce, butit is assumed that the species is now largely restricted to higher forests in remoter areas.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known specifically about what the species feeds on in high elevation forests, but presumably it survives on a diet of tubers, fallen fruit, and invertebrates.Breeding.Little is known. The species has seldom been bred in captivity, though a litter of five piglets was reported on one occasion.Activity patterns.Little is known of the species’ circadian activity in remoter areas, but it is reported to be essentially nocturnal in areas subject to human disturbance.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because it is currently undergoing a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 30% over a period of three generations, or about 21 years. This decline is inferred from the apparent disappearance of several populations and the effects of overhunting, habitat loss, and hybridization. S. philippensis is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the PalawanFaunal Region (whereitis replaced by the PalawanBearded Pig, S. ahoenobarbus), Mindoro (replaced by the Mindoro Warty Pig, S. oliveri), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (replaced by the Visayan Warty Pig, S. cebifrons), and the SuluFaunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related but as yet undescribed species of pig). Subspecies philippensis is confined to the “Greater Luzon Faunal Region.” Subspecies mindanensis is confined to the “Greater Mindanao Faunal Region.” Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for most of these islands, particularly the smaller ones. The present status of S. philippensis may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest overits known ranges, the likely extent of hunting pressure, and other factors. The species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the largerislands, are badly fragmented and declining. The species’ habitat is threatened by continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Pig hunting continues throughout the remaining range of the species, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and by recreational hunters from cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat, which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals. Incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilanand other islands.Bibliography.Cruzana et al. (2005), Griffin & Griffin (2000), Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998), Heaney, Balete, Gee et al. (2005), Heaney, Tabaranza et al. (2006), Oliver (1992, 1995), Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993), Rabor (1977), Wu Guisheng et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Sus celebensis var. philippensis Nehring, 1886,Luzon, Philippines.Susphilippensis was recognized formally as a distinct species in 1991, originally having been considered a subspecies of the SulawesiWarty Pig (S. celebensis) or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). Initially, three subspecies were proposed: philippensis from Luzon and associated islands; mindanensis from Mindanao and associated islands; and oliveri from Mindoro. The latter subspecies was assigned later to full species level. Recent mtDNA studies have suggested that philippensis and mindanensis are distinct enough to be considered full species, but this has not yet been formally proposed. Two subspecies are actually recognized.","commonNames":"Sanglier des Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Filipinas @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"284","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"philippensis","name":"Sus philippensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.p.philippensisNehring,1886—LuzonandassociatedIs(Polillo,Catanduanes,and,formerly,Marinduque).S. p. mindanensis Forsyth Major, 1897— Mindanao and surrounding Is (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Camiguin, Basilan, and associated smallerIs).","bibliography":"Cruzana et al. (2005) | Griffin & Griffin (2000) | Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b) | Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998) | Heaney, Balete, Gee et al. (2005) | Heaney, Tabaranza et al. (2006) | Oliver (1992, 1995) | Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993) | Rabor (1977) | Wu Guisheng et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing is known specifically about what the species feeds on in high elevation forests, but presumably it survives on a diet of tubers, fallen fruit, and invertebrates.","breeding":"Little is known. The species has seldom been bred in captivity, though a litter of five piglets was reported on one occasion.","activityPatterns":"Little is known of the species’ circadian activity in remoter areas, but it is reported to be essentially nocturnal in areas subject to human disturbance.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing is known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because it is currently undergoing a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 30% over a period of three generations, or about 21 years. This decline is inferred from the apparent disappearance of several populations and the effects of overhunting, habitat loss, and hybridization. S. philippensis is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the PalawanFaunal Region (whereitis replaced by the PalawanBearded Pig, S. ahoenobarbus), Mindoro (replaced by the Mindoro Warty Pig, S. oliveri), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (replaced by the Visayan Warty Pig, S. cebifrons), and the SuluFaunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related but as yet undescribed species of pig). Subspecies philippensis is confined to the “Greater Luzon Faunal Region.” Subspecies mindanensis is confined to the “Greater Mindanao Faunal Region.” Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for most of these islands, particularly the smaller ones. The present status of S. philippensis may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest overits known ranges, the likely extent of hunting pressure, and other factors. The species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the largerislands, are badly fragmented and declining. The species’ habitat is threatened by continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Pig hunting continues throughout the remaining range of the species, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and by recreational hunters from cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat, which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals. Incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilanand other islands.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available for this species. This is a species of Suswith karyotype 2n = 36, unlike other wild species, as well as domestic pigs, in which 37 or 38 chromosomes are more common. S. philippensis is generally blackhaired, with a prominent black mane (sometimes interlaced with white higher streaks in subspecies mindanensis) and gray skin, which sometimes appears whitish in color when extending over the well-developed preorbital warts. The latter characteristic and this species’ more prominent white jowl tufts readily distinguish it from other Philippine wild pigs. Philippine Warty Pigs have a long, full crown tuft and a nuchal mane that extends along the back in most individuals, especially adult males. Males have two pairs of warts; their gonial (lower jaw) hair tufts are very long and thick, and largely white or yellow. Adult sows also have distinctive white, but much thinner, gonial tufts. The skull has a deep, sharply bordered preorbital fossa. Compared to S. celebensisand the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), the facial skeleton is somewhat elongated but not as much as in S. barbatusor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus). The face is somewhat concave at the nasal root, with nasals slightly convex and the malar tuberosity greatly swollen. The braincase is high crowned, sloping downward to facial skeleton, and with the occipital crest extending backward. The anterior margin of the temporal fossa is perpendicularly above M? or just behind it. The foramen magnum is described as “teardrop-shaped.” The maxillary premolar rows curve outward anteriorly. M* is very short, with four major cusps and a small 5\" cusp. The two subspecies are morphologically distinct. Subspecies philippensis has a grayish crown tuft with an anterior fringe that is directed forward. The facial warts are relatively large, and the whorls on the lower jaw are white. The skull size in males is relatively small, and the braincase is shortened and relatively flat-topped. Subspecies mindanensis closely resembles philippensis, but differs in the following features: the crest and mane are mostly black, but often distinctly intermixed with white or reddish-brown hairs, though the crown tuft may be white anteriorly; the forward-directed fringe is absent or less apparent in most individuals. The facial warts are small, though the lowerjaw tufts, usually yellow or yellow mixed with black, are prominent; they are much more developed in adult males than females. The skull size of mindanensis is also much larger in males than females, and the braincase more rounded in comparison to philippensis.Habitat.The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad.","habitat":"The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad. Habitat information from other areas is scarce, butit is assumed that the species is now largely restricted to higher forests in remoter areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"283","verbatimText":"9.Visayan Warty PigSus cebifronsFrench:Sanglier des Visayas/ German:\\isayas-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabali de BisayasTaxonomy.Sus cebifrons Heude, 1888,CebuIsland, Philippines.This species was only upgraded to full species level in 1993. Before that it was variously classified as a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis), the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). However, two recent independent phylogenetic studies suggest that S. cebifrons is a sister species to all other members of the genus Susand may be the most primitive member of the genus. Indications are that a split separating the Philippine species occurred very early in the evolution of the genus. Recent divergence estimates suggest that this happened sometime during the very late Pliocene or early to middle Pleistocene. This was a time of frequently alternating glacial cycles, and possibly pigs made it to what are now the Philippine Islandswhen sea levels were low enough to make dispersal by swimming or rafting possible. Two subspecies are recognized historically, but the nominate form cebifrons (Heude, 1888)from CebuIsland is extinct. Recent mtDNA studies have indicated the likely addition of a third subspecies from Panay; a fourth population from the remote island of Masbateis known only from a single specimen, which has yet to be formally described or compared to other populations. One extant subspecies is recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. c. megrinus Sanborn, 1952— W Visayas (Negros, Panay, and possibly MasbateIs), Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢. 100 cm, tail 23 cm, shoulder height up to 63 cm(males) and 30-45 cm (females); weight 35-40 kg (males) and 20-35 kg (females), although weights of up to 80 kghave been reported from Negros. S. cebifronsis relatively small in size compared to other pig species. Males are much larger than females, with up to a fourfold difference in body weights between the sexes. The coat is generally gray-black in females and subadult males, but more fawn mixed with black in adult males. Both sexes have distinct manes extending from crest to hindquarters. Males in breeding condition develop even longer manes, which are grown and shed at the beginning and end of each breeding season (usually November to late March or early April). The mane is a very distinctive character of this species, often flopping over the face of the boar and obscuring the eyes, and extending back to the loins. Females have a weakly marked snout band; the band is very broad and well-marked white or whitish yellow in males. The generally distinct white snout band is a useful characteristic for distinguishing S. cebifrons from S. philippensis and Mindori Warty Pig (S. oliveri). The external appearance of S. oliveri is still poorly known, though S. cebifrons and S. philippensis may also be distinguished by the latter having more prominent white jowl tufts. The PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) also has a distinct white snout band, though this differs from S. cebifrons by typically extending downwards and backwards as a characteristic “white beard,” distinguishing this species from other Philippine wild pigs. S. cebifrons has a high-crowned, relatively small skull with obvious sexual dimorphism. Despite its common name Visayan Warty Pig, the facial warts of S. cebifrons are typically small, and these pigs completely lack gonial warts (warts on the angle of the jaw). The young of S. cebifrons are marked with wide, alternating orange-brown and black stripes that run from the shoulders to the rump. There are typically four black stripes. One pair runs down the back on either side of a paler dorsal stripe and another pair runs along the flanks and haunches. The juvenile striping loses definition at 7-9 months of age and adult coloration is fully achieved after one year. Animals from Panay seem to differ somewhat from those from Negros and Masbate. The Panay animals have grayer rather than predominantly black flank hair, a better developed mane that extends from the forehead down the back to the rump, and males have a more pronounced but narrower snout band. Females from Panay may have a mane, but it is less developed than in males. In animals from Negros, there is usually a dark reddish-brown or black tuft, with scattered red or straw-colored hairs, on the crown of the head. Other dental and cranial details also differentiate populations from Panay and Negros. The Negros animals appear to have a straighter skull profile with a more rounded crown, and the Cebuanimals a more concave shape, although this observation was based on a very small sample.Habitat.Originally this species occurred from primary and secondary forests at sea level to mossy forests at 1600 mof elevation, but with the loss of lower elevation forests, the warty pigs are now mostly confined to and isolated in the few remaining forested habitats at 800 mor above. Small numbers of these animals are also known to persist in some degraded habitats, such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands, as long as there are areas of dense cover, but there is evidence that some and perhaps most of these individuals are either feral domestic pigs or hybrids between S. cebifrons and free-ranging domestic pigs introduced by farmers in hinterland communities. In captivity, Visayan Warty Pigs readily bathe in open pools and use mud wallows, and it is assumed that the animals also do this in the wild state.Food and Feeding.The Visayan Warty Pig is omnivorous, feeding on a range of plant and animal species. Because of the species’ scarcity in the wild there are no direct reports of feeding behavior, but some information has been obtained from scats and feeding signs. The species appears to feed on plant species such as Lithocarpus(Fagaceae), Platea excelsa (Icainaceae), and Dilleniareifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), with the former two species possibly being completely dependent on S. cebifrons for the dispersal of their seeds. The species also appears to feed on a range of vines, palms, wild bananas, and agricultural crops such as taro and avocados, as well as earthworms. Captive animals will readily consume a wide variety of cereals, fruits, vegetables, leafy branches, and grass, and most individuals will avidly consume rodents (rats and mice) and other prey items.Breeding.The breeding behavior of S. cebifrons is primarily known from captive populations. The gestation period is about 118 days. One or two weeks prior to giving birth, females begin showing nesting behavior and may become aggressive to conspecifics. Females usually give birth overnight, and are very protective of their offspring. Litter size in the wild is between two and four, which is similar to those in captivity. A record number of five offspring in a litter was observed in two Philippine breeding centers in 2005; the piglets had to be weaned earlier than usual to help the female regain condition. Juvenile animals begin tasting solid food at one week of age and may be weaned by six months. Females are capable of producing a litter every 8-12 months. Females reach sexual maturity at an age of 2-3 years. Males may be sexually mature at two years, but do not possess the fully developed characteristics of adult males. Captive Visayan Warty Pigs can live up to 18 years.Activity patterns.Little has been reported about the activity patterns of S. cebifrons in undisturbed areas, because these areas are so remote and the terrain so rugged as to make even chance observations unlikely. In more accessible areas, where the species is heavily hunted, the animals avoid human activity (but may raid agricultural crops planted within or close to forest edges) and are mainly active at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.This species is sociable, mostly living in small groups (though up to a dozen individuals have been reported). Considering its much reduced densities, larger groupings would likely form under more natural conditions. Animals in zoos are described as “playful and friendly,” which may be further reference to their social nature. The composition of S. cebifrons groups is typically a single adult male with several females (usually three or four, according to local hunters), plus young of both sexes. Solitary males have also been reported, but are encountered only rarely. Captive boars are routinely left with peri-natal sows. The sows vigorously defend their farrowing nests from intruding boars (and caretakers), but generally allow boars full access to infants within a few days of their first emergence from the nest.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings. In response to increasing evidence ofits critically threatened conservation status, in 1993 the IUCN/SSC Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group and other supporting partner agencies, including the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Rotterdam Zoo, devised and initiated a Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme under the auspices of a Memorandum of Agreement with the Philippine Government's Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR). Priority activities identified and implemented under the auspices of this agreement included various follow-up field status and ethnobiological surveys, education and awareness campaigns, development of new protected areas, and the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programs. These include the development of scientifically managed wildlife rescue and breeding centers on Negros and Panay Islands and similar species recovery programs for a variety of other threatened taxa endemic to the West Visayas (e.g. the Visayan Spotted Deer, Rusa alfredi, and rufous-headed hornbill, Aceros waldeni). This was done partly with a view to reintroductions of these species, but also as a means of opportunistically acquiring sufficient numbers of founder individuals, by rescuing animals illegally caught in snares, confiscating live individuals offered for sale in local meat markets, and prevailing upon local owners to donate individuals they had acquired as pets from similar sources. In the case of the Visayan Warty Pig, there was also an urgent need to ensure the survival of pure-bred animals while the opportunity still existed to do so. Every attempt has been made to determine the precise origin and likely genetic purity of any such founder individuals, to ensure the likely purity of the separate stocks of these animals from Negros and Panay. This action was since vindicated by new evidence of important genetic differences between the Negros and Panay populations. First and second generation captive-bred animals from both islands have also been exported on breeding loans from the Philippine Government to the San Diego and Rotterdam Z00s, and are now being cooperatively managed in a number of approved breeding centers in the USAand Europe.On following pages 10 Phılıppıne Warty Pıg (Susphı/ıppensıs) Mındoro Wany Png(Susolıven) 12 Pılawın Bearded Pıg (Susıhoanobırbus). 13 Bearded Psg (Sus barbatus), 14 Sulawesı Wany Pug (Sus celebensıs) 15 Javan Wany Pıg (Susvenucosusl. 16 Eurasıan Wıld Pıg (Susscrola) 17 Pygmy Hog (Porcııla salvımı)Bibliography.Cummings (2003), De Leon et al. (2008), Groves (1997), Groves & Grubb (1993), Hamann & Curio (1999), Huffman (2010), Kubbinga (2005), Lastimoza (2006), Oliver (1995, 2004, 2008, 2009), Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993), Pedregosa (2005), Rabor (1977).","taxonomy":"Sus cebifrons Heude, 1888,CebuIsland, Philippines.This species was only upgraded to full species level in 1993. Before that it was variously classified as a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis), the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). However, two recent independent phylogenetic studies suggest that S. cebifrons is a sister species to all other members of the genus Susand may be the most primitive member of the genus. Indications are that a split separating the Philippine species occurred very early in the evolution of the genus. Recent divergence estimates suggest that this happened sometime during the very late Pliocene or early to middle Pleistocene. This was a time of frequently alternating glacial cycles, and possibly pigs made it to what are now the Philippine Islandswhen sea levels were low enough to make dispersal by swimming or rafting possible. Two subspecies are recognized historically, but the nominate form cebifrons (Heude, 1888)from CebuIsland is extinct. Recent mtDNA studies have indicated the likely addition of a third subspecies from Panay; a fourth population from the remote island of Masbateis known only from a single specimen, which has yet to be formally described or compared to other populations. One extant subspecies is recognized.","commonNames":"Sanglier des Visayas @fr | \\isayas-Pustelschwein @de | Jabali de Bisayas @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"283","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cebifrons","name":"Sus cebifrons","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. c. megrinus Sanborn, 1952— W Visayas (Negros, Panay, and possibly MasbateIs), Philippines.","bibliography":"Cummings (2003) | De Leon et al. (2008) | Groves (1997) | Groves & Grubb (1993) | Hamann & Curio (1999) | Huffman (2010) | Kubbinga (2005) | Lastimoza (2006) | Oliver (1995, 2004, 2008, 2009) | Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993) | Pedregosa (2005) | Rabor (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"The Visayan Warty Pig is omnivorous, feeding on a range of plant and animal species. Because of the species’ scarcity in the wild there are no direct reports of feeding behavior, but some information has been obtained from scats and feeding signs. The species appears to feed on plant species such as Lithocarpus(Fagaceae), Platea excelsa (Icainaceae), and Dilleniareifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), with the former two species possibly being completely dependent on S. cebifrons for the dispersal of their seeds. The species also appears to feed on a range of vines, palms, wild bananas, and agricultural crops such as taro and avocados, as well as earthworms. Captive animals will readily consume a wide variety of cereals, fruits, vegetables, leafy branches, and grass, and most individuals will avidly consume rodents (rats and mice) and other prey items.","breeding":"The breeding behavior of S. cebifrons is primarily known from captive populations. The gestation period is about 118 days. One or two weeks prior to giving birth, females begin showing nesting behavior and may become aggressive to conspecifics. Females usually give birth overnight, and are very protective of their offspring. Litter size in the wild is between two and four, which is similar to those in captivity. A record number of five offspring in a litter was observed in two Philippine breeding centers in 2005; the piglets had to be weaned earlier than usual to help the female regain condition. Juvenile animals begin tasting solid food at one week of age and may be weaned by six months. Females are capable of producing a litter every 8-12 months. Females reach sexual maturity at an age of 2-3 years. Males may be sexually mature at two years, but do not possess the fully developed characteristics of adult males. Captive Visayan Warty Pigs can live up to 18 years.","activityPatterns":"Little has been reported about the activity patterns of S. cebifrons in undisturbed areas, because these areas are so remote and the terrain so rugged as to make even chance observations unlikely. In more accessible areas, where the species is heavily hunted, the animals avoid human activity (but may raid agricultural crops planted within or close to forest edges) and are mainly active at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"This species is sociable, mostly living in small groups (though up to a dozen individuals have been reported). Considering its much reduced densities, larger groupings would likely form under more natural conditions. Animals in zoos are described as “playful and friendly,” which may be further reference to their social nature. The composition of S. cebifrons groups is typically a single adult male with several females (usually three or four, according to local hunters), plus young of both sexes. Solitary males have also been reported, but are encountered only rarely. Captive boars are routinely left with peri-natal sows. The sows vigorously defend their farrowing nests from intruding boars (and caretakers), but generally allow boars full access to infants within a few days of their first emergence from the nest.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings. In response to increasing evidence ofits critically threatened conservation status, in 1993 the IUCN/SSC Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group and other supporting partner agencies, including the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Rotterdam Zoo, devised and initiated a Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme under the auspices of a Memorandum of Agreement with the Philippine Government's Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR). Priority activities identified and implemented under the auspices of this agreement included various follow-up field status and ethnobiological surveys, education and awareness campaigns, development of new protected areas, and the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programs. These include the development of scientifically managed wildlife rescue and breeding centers on Negros and Panay Islands and similar species recovery programs for a variety of other threatened taxa endemic to the West Visayas (e.g. the Visayan Spotted Deer, Rusa alfredi, and rufous-headed hornbill, Aceros waldeni). This was done partly with a view to reintroductions of these species, but also as a means of opportunistically acquiring sufficient numbers of founder individuals, by rescuing animals illegally caught in snares, confiscating live individuals offered for sale in local meat markets, and prevailing upon local owners to donate individuals they had acquired as pets from similar sources. In the case of the Visayan Warty Pig, there was also an urgent need to ensure the survival of pure-bred animals while the opportunity still existed to do so. Every attempt has been made to determine the precise origin and likely genetic purity of any such founder individuals, to ensure the likely purity of the separate stocks of these animals from Negros and Panay. This action was since vindicated by new evidence of important genetic differences between the Negros and Panay populations. First and second generation captive-bred animals from both islands have also been exported on breeding loans from the Philippine Government to the San Diego and Rotterdam Z00s, and are now being cooperatively managed in a number of approved breeding centers in the USAand Europe.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢. 100 cm, tail 23 cm, shoulder height up to 63 cm(males) and 30-45 cm (females); weight 35-40 kg (males) and 20-35 kg (females), although weights of up to 80 kghave been reported from Negros. S. cebifronsis relatively small in size compared to other pig species. Males are much larger than females, with up to a fourfold difference in body weights between the sexes. The coat is generally gray-black in females and subadult males, but more fawn mixed with black in adult males. Both sexes have distinct manes extending from crest to hindquarters. Males in breeding condition develop even longer manes, which are grown and shed at the beginning and end of each breeding season (usually November to late March or early April). The mane is a very distinctive character of this species, often flopping over the face of the boar and obscuring the eyes, and extending back to the loins. Females have a weakly marked snout band; the band is very broad and well-marked white or whitish yellow in males. The generally distinct white snout band is a useful characteristic for distinguishing S. cebifrons from S. philippensis and Mindori Warty Pig (S. oliveri). The external appearance of S. oliveri is still poorly known, though S. cebifrons and S. philippensis may also be distinguished by the latter having more prominent white jowl tufts. The PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) also has a distinct white snout band, though this differs from S. cebifrons by typically extending downwards and backwards as a characteristic “white beard,” distinguishing this species from other Philippine wild pigs. S. cebifrons has a high-crowned, relatively small skull with obvious sexual dimorphism. Despite its common name Visayan Warty Pig, the facial warts of S. cebifrons are typically small, and these pigs completely lack gonial warts (warts on the angle of the jaw). The young of S. cebifrons are marked with wide, alternating orange-brown and black stripes that run from the shoulders to the rump. There are typically four black stripes. One pair runs down the back on either side of a paler dorsal stripe and another pair runs along the flanks and haunches. The juvenile striping loses definition at 7-9 months of age and adult coloration is fully achieved after one year. Animals from Panay seem to differ somewhat from those from Negros and Masbate. The Panay animals have grayer rather than predominantly black flank hair, a better developed mane that extends from the forehead down the back to the rump, and males have a more pronounced but narrower snout band. Females from Panay may have a mane, but it is less developed than in males. In animals from Negros, there is usually a dark reddish-brown or black tuft, with scattered red or straw-colored hairs, on the crown of the head. Other dental and cranial details also differentiate populations from Panay and Negros. The Negros animals appear to have a straighter skull profile with a more rounded crown, and the Cebuanimals a more concave shape, although this observation was based on a very small sample.","habitat":"Originally this species occurred from primary and secondary forests at sea level to mossy forests at 1600 mof elevation, but with the loss of lower elevation forests, the warty pigs are now mostly confined to and isolated in the few remaining forested habitats at 800 mor above. Small numbers of these animals are also known to persist in some degraded habitats, such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands, as long as there are areas of dense cover, but there is evidence that some and perhaps most of these individuals are either feral domestic pigs or hybrids between S. cebifrons and free-ranging domestic pigs introduced by farmers in hinterland communities. In captivity, Visayan Warty Pigs readily bathe in open pools and use mud wallows, and it is assumed that the animals also do this in the wild state."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"290","verbatimText":"17.Pygmy HogPorcula salvaniaFrench:Sanglier nain/ German:Zwergwildschwein/ Spanish:JabalipigmeoTaxonomy.Porcula salvania Hodgson, 1847,SikkimTerai, India.After having been included in Susfor a long time, the species was reassigned to its original genus Porcula. Monotypic.Distribution.NE India(NW Assam).Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-71 cm, tail 2: 5 cm, shoulder height about 25 cm; weight 6.6-9. 7 kg. Females are a little smaller and the newborn babies weigh only 150-200 g. The greatest skull length is 17-9 cm. Pygmy Hogs differ from members of the genus Susin the extreme reduction in body, ears, and tail size, relatively short medial false hooves, and snout disc perpendicular to axis of head. There is an absence or warts or whorls on the jaw, and the body shape is more streamlined than that of other pigs. In adults, the profile tapers from relatively longer hindquarters to smaller forequarters. The adult dentition in the Pygmy Hog is similar to Sus.Habitat.Pygmy Hogs prefer undisturbed grassland typical of early successional riverine communities, comprising dense tall grass mixed with a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and young trees. Such grasslands, dominated by Narenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, and Themeda villosa, form characteristic associations 2-3 m in height. However, most such early successional communities are subject to wide-scale annual burning and accordingly are characterized by low diversity and the overwhelming preponderance of a few, fire-resistant grasses. Therefore they almost certainly constitute suboptimal habitats for Pygmy Hogs and most other grassland dependent species, which are deprived of cover and other resources for protracted periods prior to the early season rains. The species is not found in structurally similar grasslands located in riverine floodplains, which are subject to prolonged inundations during the monsoon. These grasslands are generally fertile alluvial areas, making them desirable for agriculture. Human use of these habitats contributes to the rapid decline of Pygmy Hogs throughout their known or presumed former range.Food and Feeding.Pygmy Hogs feed on roots, tubers, shoots, and ground vegetation, along with worms and other invertebrates and, probably, small vertebrates (e.g. reptiles and the eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds).Breeding.Reproduction is strongly seasonal, with almost all births occurring during a single, well-defined birth peak, which coincides with the onset of the monsoon,in late April and May in western Assam. Litter size varies from two to six, but is usually 3-4. The species is unusual among the suids in that nests are constructed and used by both sexes at all times of the year and nest building is not limited to farrowing.Activity patterns.The species seems to be most active during the day, although this remains poorly studied. A study of diurnal activity patterns in captive animals revealed that the highest proportion of observation time was dedicated to foraging and moving, followed by being inside the nest, resting, displaying, and allogrooming. The two sexes partitioned their time rather differently. Females seemed to spend more time on foraging than males, while males moved more than females, which was associated with elevated levels of display behavior and courtship performed by them. Display was exhibited only by males and performed during the breeding season. Allogrooming was the most prominent social interaction observed, with certain individuals grooming more than others. Moreover, among the breeding pairs, males groomed considerably more than females. It is possible that male Pygmy Hogs move a lot and display considerably to increase their potential reproductive success. Because these observations were on captive animals it is not clear how these time budgets would be changed under natural conditions, where the presence of predators and other factors would likely change their behavior.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult male Pygmy Hogs usually are seen by themselves, but are reported to join estrous sows during the rut and to associate loosely at other times of the year with the basic natal social family units. These units usually consist of 4-6 individuals, including one or more adult females and accompanyingjuveniles.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects. A highly successful conservation breeding program was also initiated in 1996, following the construction of the “Pygmy Hog Conservation Research and Breeding Centre” located on the outskirts of the Assam State capital, Guwahati, and the capture of two male and four female Pgymy Hogs in Manas. This capture operation, undertaken in close collaboration with Park officials, was timed to coincide with the expected mid-term pregnancy of the adult sows, to increase the number of genetically represented individuals (i.e. wild sows that had been impregnated by other wild males) and therebytriple the number of captive individuals within six weeks. (Three of the four sows produced a total of thirteen infants, all but one of which survived.) Subsequent breeding soon resulted in over crowding and a need to manage the numbers and identities of individuals producing litters each year. A custom-built “pre-release” facility located at Potosali, close to Nameri National Park in north-west Assam, was built, with several large enclosures with habitats where animals scheduled for reintroduction into selected protected sites learned to forage for themselves. The first releases took place in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the first wild births were recorded the following year. More releases were conducted in 2009 and 2010, and several additionalsites have been identified for similar reintroduction efforts in the coming years.Bibliography.Bell & Oliver (1992), Deb (1995), Funk et al. (2007), Mallinson (1971, 1977), Narayan (2004), Narayan & Deka (2002), Narayan, Deka, Chakrobarty & Oliver (1999), Narayan, Deka & Oliver (2008a, 2008b), Narayan, Deka, Oliver & Fa (2009), Narayan, Oliver et al. (2008), Oliver (1977, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1991a, 1991b), Oliver & Deb Roy (1993), Oliver et al. (1997), Sanyal (1995).","taxonomy":"Porcula salvania Hodgson, 1847,SikkimTerai, India.After having been included in Susfor a long time, the species was reassigned to its original genus Porcula. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Sanglier nain @fr | Zwergwildschwein @de | Jabalipigmeo @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Porcula","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"290","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"salvania","name":"Porcula salvania","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE India(NW Assam).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721120/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bell & Oliver (1992) | Deb (1995) | Funk et al. (2007) | Mallinson (1971, 1977) | Narayan (2004) | Narayan & Deka (2002) | Narayan, Deka, Chakrobarty & Oliver (1999) | Narayan, Deka & Oliver (2008a, 2008b) | Narayan, Deka, Oliver & Fa (2009) | Narayan, Oliver et al. (2008) | Oliver (1977, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1991a, 1991b) | Oliver & Deb Roy (1993) | Oliver et al. (1997) | Sanyal (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Pygmy Hogs feed on roots, tubers, shoots, and ground vegetation, along with worms and other invertebrates and, probably, small vertebrates (e.g. reptiles and the eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds).","breeding":"Reproduction is strongly seasonal, with almost all births occurring during a single, well-defined birth peak, which coincides with the onset of the monsoon,in late April and May in western Assam. Litter size varies from two to six, but is usually 3-4. The species is unusual among the suids in that nests are constructed and used by both sexes at all times of the year and nest building is not limited to farrowing.","activityPatterns":"The species seems to be most active during the day, although this remains poorly studied. A study of diurnal activity patterns in captive animals revealed that the highest proportion of observation time was dedicated to foraging and moving, followed by being inside the nest, resting, displaying, and allogrooming. The two sexes partitioned their time rather differently. Females seemed to spend more time on foraging than males, while males moved more than females, which was associated with elevated levels of display behavior and courtship performed by them. Display was exhibited only by males and performed during the breeding season. Allogrooming was the most prominent social interaction observed, with certain individuals grooming more than others. Moreover, among the breeding pairs, males groomed considerably more than females. It is possible that male Pygmy Hogs move a lot and display considerably to increase their potential reproductive success. Because these observations were on captive animals it is not clear how these time budgets would be changed under natural conditions, where the presence of predators and other factors would likely change their behavior.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Adult male Pygmy Hogs usually are seen by themselves, but are reported to join estrous sows during the rut and to associate loosely at other times of the year with the basic natal social family units. These units usually consist of 4-6 individuals, including one or more adult females and accompanyingjuveniles.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengaland north-western Assamin India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradeshand southern Nepalto Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepaland Bhutanduring the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects. A highly successful conservation breeding program was also initiated in 1996, following the construction of the “Pygmy Hog Conservation Research and Breeding Centre” located on the outskirts of the Assam State capital, Guwahati, and the capture of two male and four female Pgymy Hogs in Manas. This capture operation, undertaken in close collaboration with Park officials, was timed to coincide with the expected mid-term pregnancy of the adult sows, to increase the number of genetically represented individuals (i.e. wild sows that had been impregnated by other wild males) and therebytriple the number of captive individuals within six weeks. (Three of the four sows produced a total of thirteen infants, all but one of which survived.) Subsequent breeding soon resulted in over crowding and a need to manage the numbers and identities of individuals producing litters each year. A custom-built “pre-release” facility located at Potosali, close to Nameri National Park in north-west Assam, was built, with several large enclosures with habitats where animals scheduled for reintroduction into selected protected sites learned to forage for themselves. The first releases took place in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the first wild births were recorded the following year. More releases were conducted in 2009 and 2010, and several additionalsites have been identified for similar reintroduction efforts in the coming years.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-71 cm, tail 2: 5 cm, shoulder height about 25 cm; weight 6.6-9. 7 kg. Females are a little smaller and the newborn babies weigh only 150-200 g. The greatest skull length is 17-9 cm. Pygmy Hogs differ from members of the genus Susin the extreme reduction in body, ears, and tail size, relatively short medial false hooves, and snout disc perpendicular to axis of head. There is an absence or warts or whorls on the jaw, and the body shape is more streamlined than that of other pigs. In adults, the profile tapers from relatively longer hindquarters to smaller forequarters. The adult dentition in the Pygmy Hog is similar to Sus.","habitat":"Pygmy Hogs prefer undisturbed grassland typical of early successional riverine communities, comprising dense tall grass mixed with a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and young trees. Such grasslands, dominated by Narenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, and Themeda villosa, form characteristic associations 2-3 m in height. However, most such early successional communities are subject to wide-scale annual burning and accordingly are characterized by low diversity and the overwhelming preponderance of a few, fire-resistant grasses. Therefore they almost certainly constitute suboptimal habitats for Pygmy Hogs and most other grassland dependent species, which are deprived of cover and other resources for protracted periods prior to the early season rains. The species is not found in structurally similar grasslands located in riverine floodplains, which are subject to prolonged inundations during the monsoon. These grasslands are generally fertile alluvial areas, making them desirable for agriculture. Human use of these habitats contributes to the rapid decline of Pygmy Hogs throughout their known or presumed former range."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"284","verbatimText":"11.Mindoro Warty PigSus oliveriFrench:Sanglier de Mindoro/ German:Mindoro-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide MindoroTaxonomy.Susphilippensis oliveri Groves, 1997,Mayapang, Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines.This species was recognized as a distinct subspecies of the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) in 1997, and four years later designated as a full species, owing to various distinct characteristics setting it aside from S. philippensis. Mindoro island is surrounded by deepwater channels, indicating that it has had no recent landbridge connection with any adjacent island in the Philippine Archipelago. It has thus been isolated and remained isolated during repeated Pleistocene sea-level changes for tens of thousands of years. Monotypic.Distribution.Mindoro I in the C Philippines.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available for this species. Based on skull length measurements in three males specimens, S. oliveri appears to be similar in size to the Philippine Warty Pig, but readily distinguished from that species byits very elongated facial skeleton, which points more downward, especially anterior to the canines. The braincase is more elongated behind the zygomatic roots. The palate is also more elongated, but not to the extent seen in the PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus). The only currently available skin of S. oliveri suggests that males have a black crown tuft mixed with straw-colored hairs. The preocular warts are well developed, and they have a straw-colored tuft on the lower jaw. A photo of an adult female recently taken by trophy hunters on Mindoro shows a well-developed, blackish-gray bristly mane that runs across the head and along the back. The coat is rather shaggy and blackish or blackish-gray all over. Unfortunately, the large ears, short snout, and absence of warts suggest that this might have been a feral or hybrid animal, which means that there is still no clear understanding of what a true Mindoro Warty Pig lookslike.Habitat.Very few direct observations of the species in the wild have been recorded, mostly during annual Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) census exercises in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. The species’ habitat preference therefore remains mostly unclear. It presumably favors remaining stands of forests and thickets where it can find shelter and food.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Nothing is known.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrenceis less than 5000 km? and its area of occupancyis less than 500 km?. Even though accurate records are lacking, the distribution range of S. oliveri is likely to be severely fragmented. Surveys conducted in the late 1990s indicated that Mindoro Warty Pigs are now mostly confined to higher elevations in the central and northwestern mountain ranges. There is also a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals because of overhunting. Hybridization with free-ranging domestic pigs introduced and maintained by hinterland communities is an additional and likely serious threat.Bibliography.Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Oliver (1995, 2008).","taxonomy":"Susphilippensis oliveri Groves, 1997,Mayapang, Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines.This species was recognized as a distinct subspecies of the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) in 1997, and four years later designated as a full species, owing to various distinct characteristics setting it aside from S. philippensis. Mindoro island is surrounded by deepwater channels, indicating that it has had no recent landbridge connection with any adjacent island in the Philippine Archipelago. It has thus been isolated and remained isolated during repeated Pleistocene sea-level changes for tens of thousands of years. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Sanglier de Mindoro @fr | Mindoro-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Mindoro @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"284","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"oliveri","name":"Sus oliveri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Mindoro I in the C Philippines.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721037/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b) | Oliver (1995, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing is known.","breeding":"Nothing is known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing is known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing is known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrenceis less than 5000 km? and its area of occupancyis less than 500 km?. Even though accurate records are lacking, the distribution range of S. oliveri is likely to be severely fragmented. Surveys conducted in the late 1990s indicated that Mindoro Warty Pigs are now mostly confined to higher elevations in the central and northwestern mountain ranges. There is also a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals because of overhunting. Hybridization with free-ranging domestic pigs introduced and maintained by hinterland communities is an additional and likely serious threat.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available for this species. Based on skull length measurements in three males specimens, S. oliveri appears to be similar in size to the Philippine Warty Pig, but readily distinguished from that species byits very elongated facial skeleton, which points more downward, especially anterior to the canines. The braincase is more elongated behind the zygomatic roots. The palate is also more elongated, but not to the extent seen in the PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus). The only currently available skin of S. oliveri suggests that males have a black crown tuft mixed with straw-colored hairs. The preocular warts are well developed, and they have a straw-colored tuft on the lower jaw. A photo of an adult female recently taken by trophy hunters on Mindoro shows a well-developed, blackish-gray bristly mane that runs across the head and along the back. The coat is rather shaggy and blackish or blackish-gray all over. Unfortunately, the large ears, short snout, and absence of warts suggest that this might have been a feral or hybrid animal, which means that there is still no clear understanding of what a true Mindoro Warty Pig lookslike.","habitat":"Very few direct observations of the species in the wild have been recorded, mostly during annual Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) census exercises in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. The species’ habitat preference therefore remains mostly unclear. It presumably favors remaining stands of forests and thickets where it can find shelter and food."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"284","verbatimText":"10.Philippine Warty PigSus philippensisFrench:Sanglier des Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide FilipinasTaxonomy.Sus celebensis var. philippensis Nehring, 1886,Luzon, Philippines.Susphilippensis was recognized formally as a distinct species in 1991, originally having been considered a subspecies of the SulawesiWarty Pig (S. celebensis) or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). Initially, three subspecies were proposed: philippensis from Luzon and associated islands; mindanensis from Mindanao and associated islands; and oliveri from Mindoro. The latter subspecies was assigned later to full species level. Recent mtDNA studies have suggested that philippensis and mindanensis are distinct enough to be considered full species, but this has not yet been formally proposed. Two subspecies are actually recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.p.philippensisNehring,1886—LuzonandassociatedIs(Polillo,Catanduanes,and,formerly,Marinduque).S. p. mindanensis Forsyth Major, 1897— Mindanao and surrounding Is (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Camiguin, Basilan, and associated smallerIs).Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available for this species. This is a species of Suswith karyotype 2n = 36, unlike other wild species, as well as domestic pigs, in which 37 or 38 chromosomes are more common. S. philippensis is generally blackhaired, with a prominent black mane (sometimes interlaced with white higher streaks in subspecies mindanensis) and gray skin, which sometimes appears whitish in color when extending over the well-developed preorbital warts. The latter characteristic and this species’ more prominent white jowl tufts readily distinguish it from other Philippine wild pigs. Philippine Warty Pigs have a long, full crown tuft and a nuchal mane that extends along the back in most individuals, especially adult males. Males have two pairs of warts; their gonial (lower jaw) hair tufts are very long and thick, and largely white or yellow. Adult sows also have distinctive white, but much thinner, gonial tufts. The skull has a deep, sharply bordered preorbital fossa. Compared to S. celebensisand the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), the facial skeleton is somewhat elongated but not as much as in S. barbatusor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus). The face is somewhat concave at the nasal root, with nasals slightly convex and the malar tuberosity greatly swollen. The braincase is high crowned, sloping downward to facial skeleton, and with the occipital crest extending backward. The anterior margin of the temporal fossa is perpendicularly above M? or just behind it. The foramen magnum is described as “teardrop-shaped.” The maxillary premolar rows curve outward anteriorly. M* is very short, with four major cusps and a small 5\" cusp. The two subspecies are morphologically distinct. Subspecies philippensis has a grayish crown tuft with an anterior fringe that is directed forward. The facial warts are relatively large, and the whorls on the lower jaw are white. The skull size in males is relatively small, and the braincase is shortened and relatively flat-topped. Subspecies mindanensis closely resembles philippensis, but differs in the following features: the crest and mane are mostly black, but often distinctly intermixed with white or reddish-brown hairs, though the crown tuft may be white anteriorly; the forward-directed fringe is absent or less apparent in most individuals. The facial warts are small, though the lowerjaw tufts, usually yellow or yellow mixed with black, are prominent; they are much more developed in adult males than females. The skull size of mindanensis is also much larger in males than females, and the braincase more rounded in comparison to philippensis.Habitat.The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad. Habitat information from other areas is scarce, butit is assumed that the species is now largely restricted to higher forests in remoter areas.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known specifically about what the species feeds on in high elevation forests, but presumably it survives on a diet of tubers, fallen fruit, and invertebrates.Breeding.Little is known. The species has seldom been bred in captivity, though a litter of five piglets was reported on one occasion.Activity patterns.Little is known of the species’ circadian activity in remoter areas, but it is reported to be essentially nocturnal in areas subject to human disturbance.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because it is currently undergoing a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 30% over a period of three generations, or about 21 years. This decline is inferred from the apparent disappearance of several populations and the effects of overhunting, habitat loss, and hybridization. S. philippensis is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the PalawanFaunal Region (whereitis replaced by the PalawanBearded Pig, S. ahoenobarbus), Mindoro (replaced by the Mindoro Warty Pig, S. oliveri), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (replaced by the Visayan Warty Pig, S. cebifrons), and the SuluFaunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related but as yet undescribed species of pig). Subspecies philippensis is confined to the “Greater Luzon Faunal Region.” Subspecies mindanensis is confined to the “Greater Mindanao Faunal Region.” Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for most of these islands, particularly the smaller ones. The present status of S. philippensis may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest overits known ranges, the likely extent of hunting pressure, and other factors. The species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the largerislands, are badly fragmented and declining. The species’ habitat is threatened by continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Pig hunting continues throughout the remaining range of the species, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and by recreational hunters from cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat, which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals. Incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilanand other islands.Bibliography.Cruzana et al. (2005), Griffin & Griffin (2000), Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998), Heaney, Balete, Gee et al. (2005), Heaney, Tabaranza et al. (2006), Oliver (1992, 1995), Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993), Rabor (1977), Wu Guisheng et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Sus celebensis var. philippensis Nehring, 1886,Luzon, Philippines.Susphilippensis was recognized formally as a distinct species in 1991, originally having been considered a subspecies of the SulawesiWarty Pig (S. celebensis) or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). Initially, three subspecies were proposed: philippensis from Luzon and associated islands; mindanensis from Mindanao and associated islands; and oliveri from Mindoro. The latter subspecies was assigned later to full species level. Recent mtDNA studies have suggested that philippensis and mindanensis are distinct enough to be considered full species, but this has not yet been formally proposed. Two subspecies are actually recognized.","commonNames":"Sanglier des Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Filipinas @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"284","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"philippensis","name":"Sus philippensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.p.philippensisNehring,1886—LuzonandassociatedIs(Polillo,Catanduanes,and,formerly,Marinduque).S. p. mindanensis Forsyth Major, 1897— Mindanao and surrounding Is (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Camiguin, Basilan, and associated smallerIs).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721035/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cruzana et al. (2005) | Griffin & Griffin (2000) | Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b) | Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998) | Heaney, Balete, Gee et al. (2005) | Heaney, Tabaranza et al. (2006) | Oliver (1992, 1995) | Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993) | Rabor (1977) | Wu Guisheng et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing is known specifically about what the species feeds on in high elevation forests, but presumably it survives on a diet of tubers, fallen fruit, and invertebrates.","breeding":"Little is known. The species has seldom been bred in captivity, though a litter of five piglets was reported on one occasion.","activityPatterns":"Little is known of the species’ circadian activity in remoter areas, but it is reported to be essentially nocturnal in areas subject to human disturbance.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing is known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because it is currently undergoing a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 30% over a period of three generations, or about 21 years. This decline is inferred from the apparent disappearance of several populations and the effects of overhunting, habitat loss, and hybridization. S. philippensis is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the PalawanFaunal Region (whereitis replaced by the PalawanBearded Pig, S. ahoenobarbus), Mindoro (replaced by the Mindoro Warty Pig, S. oliveri), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (replaced by the Visayan Warty Pig, S. cebifrons), and the SuluFaunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related but as yet undescribed species of pig). Subspecies philippensis is confined to the “Greater Luzon Faunal Region.” Subspecies mindanensis is confined to the “Greater Mindanao Faunal Region.” Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for most of these islands, particularly the smaller ones. The present status of S. philippensis may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest overits known ranges, the likely extent of hunting pressure, and other factors. The species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the largerislands, are badly fragmented and declining. The species’ habitat is threatened by continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Pig hunting continues throughout the remaining range of the species, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and by recreational hunters from cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat, which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals. Incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilanand other islands.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available for this species. This is a species of Suswith karyotype 2n = 36, unlike other wild species, as well as domestic pigs, in which 37 or 38 chromosomes are more common. S. philippensis is generally blackhaired, with a prominent black mane (sometimes interlaced with white higher streaks in subspecies mindanensis) and gray skin, which sometimes appears whitish in color when extending over the well-developed preorbital warts. The latter characteristic and this species’ more prominent white jowl tufts readily distinguish it from other Philippine wild pigs. Philippine Warty Pigs have a long, full crown tuft and a nuchal mane that extends along the back in most individuals, especially adult males. Males have two pairs of warts; their gonial (lower jaw) hair tufts are very long and thick, and largely white or yellow. Adult sows also have distinctive white, but much thinner, gonial tufts. The skull has a deep, sharply bordered preorbital fossa. Compared to S. celebensisand the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), the facial skeleton is somewhat elongated but not as much as in S. barbatusor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus). The face is somewhat concave at the nasal root, with nasals slightly convex and the malar tuberosity greatly swollen. The braincase is high crowned, sloping downward to facial skeleton, and with the occipital crest extending backward. The anterior margin of the temporal fossa is perpendicularly above M? or just behind it. The foramen magnum is described as “teardrop-shaped.” The maxillary premolar rows curve outward anteriorly. M* is very short, with four major cusps and a small 5\" cusp. The two subspecies are morphologically distinct. Subspecies philippensis has a grayish crown tuft with an anterior fringe that is directed forward. The facial warts are relatively large, and the whorls on the lower jaw are white. The skull size in males is relatively small, and the braincase is shortened and relatively flat-topped. Subspecies mindanensis closely resembles philippensis, but differs in the following features: the crest and mane are mostly black, but often distinctly intermixed with white or reddish-brown hairs, though the crown tuft may be white anteriorly; the forward-directed fringe is absent or less apparent in most individuals. The facial warts are small, though the lowerjaw tufts, usually yellow or yellow mixed with black, are prominent; they are much more developed in adult males than females. The skull size of mindanensis is also much larger in males than females, and the braincase more rounded in comparison to philippensis.Habitat.The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad.","habitat":"The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 mand 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad. Habitat information from other areas is scarce, butit is assumed that the species is now largely restricted to higher forests in remoter areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"283","verbatimText":"9.Visayan Warty PigSus cebifronsFrench:Sanglier des Visayas/ German:\\isayas-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabali de BisayasTaxonomy.Sus cebifrons Heude, 1888,CebuIsland, Philippines.This species was only upgraded to full species level in 1993. Before that it was variously classified as a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis), the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). However, two recent independent phylogenetic studies suggest that S. cebifrons is a sister species to all other members of the genus Susand may be the most primitive member of the genus. Indications are that a split separating the Philippine species occurred very early in the evolution of the genus. Recent divergence estimates suggest that this happened sometime during the very late Pliocene or early to middle Pleistocene. This was a time of frequently alternating glacial cycles, and possibly pigs made it to what are now the Philippine Islandswhen sea levels were low enough to make dispersal by swimming or rafting possible. Two subspecies are recognized historically, but the nominate form cebifrons (Heude, 1888)from CebuIsland is extinct. Recent mtDNA studies have indicated the likely addition of a third subspecies from Panay; a fourth population from the remote island of Masbateis known only from a single specimen, which has yet to be formally described or compared to other populations. One extant subspecies is recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. c. megrinus Sanborn, 1952— W Visayas (Negros, Panay, and possibly MasbateIs), Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢. 100 cm, tail 23 cm, shoulder height up to 63 cm(males) and 30-45 cm (females); weight 35-40 kg (males) and 20-35 kg (females), although weights of up to 80 kghave been reported from Negros. S. cebifronsis relatively small in size compared to other pig species. Males are much larger than females, with up to a fourfold difference in body weights between the sexes. The coat is generally gray-black in females and subadult males, but more fawn mixed with black in adult males. Both sexes have distinct manes extending from crest to hindquarters. Males in breeding condition develop even longer manes, which are grown and shed at the beginning and end of each breeding season (usually November to late March or early April). The mane is a very distinctive character of this species, often flopping over the face of the boar and obscuring the eyes, and extending back to the loins. Females have a weakly marked snout band; the band is very broad and well-marked white or whitish yellow in males. The generally distinct white snout band is a useful characteristic for distinguishing S. cebifrons from S. philippensis and Mindori Warty Pig (S. oliveri). The external appearance of S. oliveri is still poorly known, though S. cebifrons and S. philippensis may also be distinguished by the latter having more prominent white jowl tufts. The PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) also has a distinct white snout band, though this differs from S. cebifrons by typically extending downwards and backwards as a characteristic “white beard,” distinguishing this species from other Philippine wild pigs. S. cebifrons has a high-crowned, relatively small skull with obvious sexual dimorphism. Despite its common name Visayan Warty Pig, the facial warts of S. cebifrons are typically small, and these pigs completely lack gonial warts (warts on the angle of the jaw). The young of S. cebifrons are marked with wide, alternating orange-brown and black stripes that run from the shoulders to the rump. There are typically four black stripes. One pair runs down the back on either side of a paler dorsal stripe and another pair runs along the flanks and haunches. The juvenile striping loses definition at 7-9 months of age and adult coloration is fully achieved after one year. Animals from Panay seem to differ somewhat from those from Negros and Masbate. The Panay animals have grayer rather than predominantly black flank hair, a better developed mane that extends from the forehead down the back to the rump, and males have a more pronounced but narrower snout band. Females from Panay may have a mane, but it is less developed than in males. In animals from Negros, there is usually a dark reddish-brown or black tuft, with scattered red or straw-colored hairs, on the crown of the head. Other dental and cranial details also differentiate populations from Panay and Negros. The Negros animals appear to have a straighter skull profile with a more rounded crown, and the Cebuanimals a more concave shape, although this observation was based on a very small sample.Habitat.Originally this species occurred from primary and secondary forests at sea level to mossy forests at 1600 mof elevation, but with the loss of lower elevation forests, the warty pigs are now mostly confined to and isolated in the few remaining forested habitats at 800 mor above. Small numbers of these animals are also known to persist in some degraded habitats, such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands, as long as there are areas of dense cover, but there is evidence that some and perhaps most of these individuals are either feral domestic pigs or hybrids between S. cebifrons and free-ranging domestic pigs introduced by farmers in hinterland communities. In captivity, Visayan Warty Pigs readily bathe in open pools and use mud wallows, and it is assumed that the animals also do this in the wild state.Food and Feeding.The Visayan Warty Pig is omnivorous, feeding on a range of plant and animal species. Because of the species’ scarcity in the wild there are no direct reports of feeding behavior, but some information has been obtained from scats and feeding signs. The species appears to feed on plant species such as Lithocarpus(Fagaceae), Platea excelsa (Icainaceae), and Dilleniareifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), with the former two species possibly being completely dependent on S. cebifrons for the dispersal of their seeds. The species also appears to feed on a range of vines, palms, wild bananas, and agricultural crops such as taro and avocados, as well as earthworms. Captive animals will readily consume a wide variety of cereals, fruits, vegetables, leafy branches, and grass, and most individuals will avidly consume rodents (rats and mice) and other prey items.Breeding.The breeding behavior of S. cebifrons is primarily known from captive populations. The gestation period is about 118 days. One or two weeks prior to giving birth, females begin showing nesting behavior and may become aggressive to conspecifics. Females usually give birth overnight, and are very protective of their offspring. Litter size in the wild is between two and four, which is similar to those in captivity. A record number of five offspring in a litter was observed in two Philippine breeding centers in 2005; the piglets had to be weaned earlier than usual to help the female regain condition. Juvenile animals begin tasting solid food at one week of age and may be weaned by six months. Females are capable of producing a litter every 8-12 months. Females reach sexual maturity at an age of 2-3 years. Males may be sexually mature at two years, but do not possess the fully developed characteristics of adult males. Captive Visayan Warty Pigs can live up to 18 years.Activity patterns.Little has been reported about the activity patterns of S. cebifrons in undisturbed areas, because these areas are so remote and the terrain so rugged as to make even chance observations unlikely. In more accessible areas, where the species is heavily hunted, the animals avoid human activity (but may raid agricultural crops planted within or close to forest edges) and are mainly active at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.This species is sociable, mostly living in small groups (though up to a dozen individuals have been reported). Considering its much reduced densities, larger groupings would likely form under more natural conditions. Animals in zoos are described as “playful and friendly,” which may be further reference to their social nature. The composition of S. cebifrons groups is typically a single adult male with several females (usually three or four, according to local hunters), plus young of both sexes. Solitary males have also been reported, but are encountered only rarely. Captive boars are routinely left with peri-natal sows. The sows vigorously defend their farrowing nests from intruding boars (and caretakers), but generally allow boars full access to infants within a few days of their first emergence from the nest.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings. In response to increasing evidence ofits critically threatened conservation status, in 1993 the IUCN/SSC Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group and other supporting partner agencies, including the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Rotterdam Zoo, devised and initiated a Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme under the auspices of a Memorandum of Agreement with the Philippine Government's Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR). Priority activities identified and implemented under the auspices of this agreement included various follow-up field status and ethnobiological surveys, education and awareness campaigns, development of new protected areas, and the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programs. These include the development of scientifically managed wildlife rescue and breeding centers on Negros and Panay Islands and similar species recovery programs for a variety of other threatened taxa endemic to the West Visayas (e.g. the Visayan Spotted Deer, Rusa alfredi, and rufous-headed hornbill, Aceros waldeni). This was done partly with a view to reintroductions of these species, but also as a means of opportunistically acquiring sufficient numbers of founder individuals, by rescuing animals illegally caught in snares, confiscating live individuals offered for sale in local meat markets, and prevailing upon local owners to donate individuals they had acquired as pets from similar sources. In the case of the Visayan Warty Pig, there was also an urgent need to ensure the survival of pure-bred animals while the opportunity still existed to do so. Every attempt has been made to determine the precise origin and likely genetic purity of any such founder individuals, to ensure the likely purity of the separate stocks of these animals from Negros and Panay. This action was since vindicated by new evidence of important genetic differences between the Negros and Panay populations. First and second generation captive-bred animals from both islands have also been exported on breeding loans from the Philippine Government to the San Diego and Rotterdam Z00s, and are now being cooperatively managed in a number of approved breeding centers in the USAand Europe.On following pages 10 Phılıppıne Warty Pıg (Susphı/ıppensıs) Mındoro Wany Png(Susolıven) 12 Pılawın Bearded Pıg (Susıhoanobırbus). 13 Bearded Psg (Sus barbatus), 14 Sulawesı Wany Pug (Sus celebensıs) 15 Javan Wany Pıg (Susvenucosusl. 16 Eurasıan Wıld Pıg (Susscrola) 17 Pygmy Hog (Porcııla salvımı)Bibliography.Cummings (2003), De Leon et al. (2008), Groves (1997), Groves & Grubb (1993), Hamann & Curio (1999), Huffman (2010), Kubbinga (2005), Lastimoza (2006), Oliver (1995, 2004, 2008, 2009), Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993), Pedregosa (2005), Rabor (1977).","taxonomy":"Sus cebifrons Heude, 1888,CebuIsland, Philippines.This species was only upgraded to full species level in 1993. Before that it was variously classified as a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis), the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). However, two recent independent phylogenetic studies suggest that S. cebifrons is a sister species to all other members of the genus Susand may be the most primitive member of the genus. Indications are that a split separating the Philippine species occurred very early in the evolution of the genus. Recent divergence estimates suggest that this happened sometime during the very late Pliocene or early to middle Pleistocene. This was a time of frequently alternating glacial cycles, and possibly pigs made it to what are now the Philippine Islandswhen sea levels were low enough to make dispersal by swimming or rafting possible. Two subspecies are recognized historically, but the nominate form cebifrons (Heude, 1888)from CebuIsland is extinct. Recent mtDNA studies have indicated the likely addition of a third subspecies from Panay; a fourth population from the remote island of Masbateis known only from a single specimen, which has yet to be formally described or compared to other populations. One extant subspecies is recognized.","commonNames":"Sanglier des Visayas @fr | \\isayas-Pustelschwein @de | Jabali de Bisayas @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"283","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cebifrons","name":"Sus cebifrons","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. c. megrinus Sanborn, 1952— W Visayas (Negros, Panay, and possibly MasbateIs), Philippines.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721033/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cummings (2003) | De Leon et al. (2008) | Groves (1997) | Groves & Grubb (1993) | Hamann & Curio (1999) | Huffman (2010) | Kubbinga (2005) | Lastimoza (2006) | Oliver (1995, 2004, 2008, 2009) | Oliver, Cox & Groves (1993) | Pedregosa (2005) | Rabor (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"The Visayan Warty Pig is omnivorous, feeding on a range of plant and animal species. Because of the species’ scarcity in the wild there are no direct reports of feeding behavior, but some information has been obtained from scats and feeding signs. The species appears to feed on plant species such as Lithocarpus(Fagaceae), Platea excelsa (Icainaceae), and Dilleniareifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), with the former two species possibly being completely dependent on S. cebifrons for the dispersal of their seeds. The species also appears to feed on a range of vines, palms, wild bananas, and agricultural crops such as taro and avocados, as well as earthworms. Captive animals will readily consume a wide variety of cereals, fruits, vegetables, leafy branches, and grass, and most individuals will avidly consume rodents (rats and mice) and other prey items.","breeding":"The breeding behavior of S. cebifrons is primarily known from captive populations. The gestation period is about 118 days. One or two weeks prior to giving birth, females begin showing nesting behavior and may become aggressive to conspecifics. Females usually give birth overnight, and are very protective of their offspring. Litter size in the wild is between two and four, which is similar to those in captivity. A record number of five offspring in a litter was observed in two Philippine breeding centers in 2005; the piglets had to be weaned earlier than usual to help the female regain condition. Juvenile animals begin tasting solid food at one week of age and may be weaned by six months. Females are capable of producing a litter every 8-12 months. Females reach sexual maturity at an age of 2-3 years. Males may be sexually mature at two years, but do not possess the fully developed characteristics of adult males. Captive Visayan Warty Pigs can live up to 18 years.","activityPatterns":"Little has been reported about the activity patterns of S. cebifrons in undisturbed areas, because these areas are so remote and the terrain so rugged as to make even chance observations unlikely. In more accessible areas, where the species is heavily hunted, the animals avoid human activity (but may raid agricultural crops planted within or close to forest edges) and are mainly active at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"This species is sociable, mostly living in small groups (though up to a dozen individuals have been reported). Considering its much reduced densities, larger groupings would likely form under more natural conditions. Animals in zoos are described as “playful and friendly,” which may be further reference to their social nature. The composition of S. cebifrons groups is typically a single adult male with several females (usually three or four, according to local hunters), plus young of both sexes. Solitary males have also been reported, but are encountered only rarely. Captive boars are routinely left with peri-natal sows. The sows vigorously defend their farrowing nests from intruding boars (and caretakers), but generally allow boars full access to infants within a few days of their first emergence from the nest.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on MasbateIsland, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebuin the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimarasand Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Boholand all other larger Philippine Islandseast of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings. In response to increasing evidence ofits critically threatened conservation status, in 1993 the IUCN/SSC Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group and other supporting partner agencies, including the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Rotterdam Zoo, devised and initiated a Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme under the auspices of a Memorandum of Agreement with the Philippine Government's Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR). Priority activities identified and implemented under the auspices of this agreement included various follow-up field status and ethnobiological surveys, education and awareness campaigns, development of new protected areas, and the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programs. These include the development of scientifically managed wildlife rescue and breeding centers on Negros and Panay Islands and similar species recovery programs for a variety of other threatened taxa endemic to the West Visayas (e.g. the Visayan Spotted Deer, Rusa alfredi, and rufous-headed hornbill, Aceros waldeni). This was done partly with a view to reintroductions of these species, but also as a means of opportunistically acquiring sufficient numbers of founder individuals, by rescuing animals illegally caught in snares, confiscating live individuals offered for sale in local meat markets, and prevailing upon local owners to donate individuals they had acquired as pets from similar sources. In the case of the Visayan Warty Pig, there was also an urgent need to ensure the survival of pure-bred animals while the opportunity still existed to do so. Every attempt has been made to determine the precise origin and likely genetic purity of any such founder individuals, to ensure the likely purity of the separate stocks of these animals from Negros and Panay. This action was since vindicated by new evidence of important genetic differences between the Negros and Panay populations. First and second generation captive-bred animals from both islands have also been exported on breeding loans from the Philippine Government to the San Diego and Rotterdam Z00s, and are now being cooperatively managed in a number of approved breeding centers in the USAand Europe.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢. 100 cm, tail 23 cm, shoulder height up to 63 cm(males) and 30-45 cm (females); weight 35-40 kg (males) and 20-35 kg (females), although weights of up to 80 kghave been reported from Negros. S. cebifronsis relatively small in size compared to other pig species. Males are much larger than females, with up to a fourfold difference in body weights between the sexes. The coat is generally gray-black in females and subadult males, but more fawn mixed with black in adult males. Both sexes have distinct manes extending from crest to hindquarters. Males in breeding condition develop even longer manes, which are grown and shed at the beginning and end of each breeding season (usually November to late March or early April). The mane is a very distinctive character of this species, often flopping over the face of the boar and obscuring the eyes, and extending back to the loins. Females have a weakly marked snout band; the band is very broad and well-marked white or whitish yellow in males. The generally distinct white snout band is a useful characteristic for distinguishing S. cebifrons from S. philippensis and Mindori Warty Pig (S. oliveri). The external appearance of S. oliveri is still poorly known, though S. cebifrons and S. philippensis may also be distinguished by the latter having more prominent white jowl tufts. The PalawanBearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) also has a distinct white snout band, though this differs from S. cebifrons by typically extending downwards and backwards as a characteristic “white beard,” distinguishing this species from other Philippine wild pigs. S. cebifrons has a high-crowned, relatively small skull with obvious sexual dimorphism. Despite its common name Visayan Warty Pig, the facial warts of S. cebifrons are typically small, and these pigs completely lack gonial warts (warts on the angle of the jaw). The young of S. cebifrons are marked with wide, alternating orange-brown and black stripes that run from the shoulders to the rump. There are typically four black stripes. One pair runs down the back on either side of a paler dorsal stripe and another pair runs along the flanks and haunches. The juvenile striping loses definition at 7-9 months of age and adult coloration is fully achieved after one year. Animals from Panay seem to differ somewhat from those from Negros and Masbate. The Panay animals have grayer rather than predominantly black flank hair, a better developed mane that extends from the forehead down the back to the rump, and males have a more pronounced but narrower snout band. Females from Panay may have a mane, but it is less developed than in males. In animals from Negros, there is usually a dark reddish-brown or black tuft, with scattered red or straw-colored hairs, on the crown of the head. Other dental and cranial details also differentiate populations from Panay and Negros. The Negros animals appear to have a straighter skull profile with a more rounded crown, and the Cebuanimals a more concave shape, although this observation was based on a very small sample.","habitat":"Originally this species occurred from primary and secondary forests at sea level to mossy forests at 1600 mof elevation, but with the loss of lower elevation forests, the warty pigs are now mostly confined to and isolated in the few remaining forested habitats at 800 mor above. Small numbers of these animals are also known to persist in some degraded habitats, such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands, as long as there are areas of dense cover, but there is evidence that some and perhaps most of these individuals are either feral domestic pigs or hybrids between S. cebifrons and free-ranging domestic pigs introduced by farmers in hinterland communities. In captivity, Visayan Warty Pigs readily bathe in open pools and use mud wallows, and it is assumed that the animals also do this in the wild state."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553456248BC40CA41B2AF4A6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553456248BC40CA41B2AF4A6","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"288","verbatimText":"16.Eurasian Wild PigSus scrofaFrench:Sanglier d’'Eurasie/ German:Wildschwein/ Spanish:JabaliOther common names:Wild Boar; Indochinese Pig (bucculentus), Indonesian Banded Pig (vittatus)Taxonomy.Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758,Germany.S. scrofais the most widespread species of naturally occurring wild pig. Many of the more distinctive regional forms of these animals were originally described as full species, e.g. villatus, cristatus, leucomystax, moupinensis, and meridionalis, respectively from Sumatra, India, Japan, China, and Sardinia. Later and more comprehensive taxonomic reviews have combined many of these taxa into one species, mostly on the recognition that the different forms of S. scrofaformed a stepped cline extending from Western Europe to the Far East and insular South-east Asia. This gradual change in morphological characteristics allowed the combination of the extreme forms on either side of the range (scrofaand wvittatus) into one species. This species is therefore characterized by significant levels of naturally occurring geographic/genetic variation, duly compounded by anthropogenic interferences through widespread releases (whether deliberate or accidental) of pure-bred, hybrid, and domesticated variants originating from other parts ofits wide range. An astonishingly large number of subspecies have therefore been proposed and recognized in the literature, some of which are clearly invalid. Precise analysis of the likely number of truly recognizable/differentiated subspecies is still a matter of debate and disagreement, given that 4-25 subspecies have been recognized by different authors. Of these, C. P. Groves undertook by far the most comprehensive review when proposing the recognition of at least 16 morphologically distinct populations of S. scrofaon the basis of external as well as craniometric characteristics. His work has since been challenged by P. Genov, who proposed recognition of only four subspecies based on similar craniometric analyses, but these analyses were flawed inasmuch as they did not include some of the most distinct populations of these animals. Nonetheless, Genov merged these subspecies into four broadly geographic groupings, thereby broadly mirroring Groves’s more comprehensive review. These were the WESTERN RACES or the “ scrofagroup,” at least six, but possibly as many as eight subspecies (scrofa, meridionalis, baeticus, majori, algirus, attila, lybicus, and nigripes), but only two (algirus and meriodionalis) have clearly defined ranges; INDIAN RACES or “cristatus group,” three races (dauvidi, cristatus, and affinis), none with precisely defined ranges; EASTERN RACES or “leucomystax group,” possibly up to seven subspecies (sibiricus, ussuricus, coreanus, leucomystax, riukiuanus, tarvanus, and moupinensis), though only three (leucomystax, riukiuanus and taivanus) have clearly defined ranges; and a highly disctinctive SUNDAIC RACE (viltatus), though presumably genetically continuous with cristatus in the northern limits of its range in Indochina. We follow Groves’s taxonomy because of the strength and breadth of his analysis and his use of external characteristics that were not incorporated in Genov’s analysis. However, new (e.g. phylogenetic) data sets are most likely to strengthen the case for recognizing particular additional subspecies, or elevating some currently recognized subspecies to full species, or merging other, currently recognized subspecies. Groves has questioned whether his subspecies are all variants of one species or a complex of several different species, and has recently proposed the elevation of both vitattus and moupinensis subspecies to full species status. Of these, vittatus is more easily comprehensible, being morphologically and geographically distinguishable as the so-called “Indonesian Banded Pig,” occurring throughout the distal limits of S. scrofa’s range in South-east Asia, whereas S. moupinensis is apparently confined to Myanmar, Indochina, and south-eastern China(Fujian), and therefore also includes the problematic Indochinese Pig (S. bucculentus) from the Annamite Mountains. The taxonomic identity of S. bucculentus remains unclear. Since its description in 1892 by Heude, based on two skulls from Vietnam, only one skull of similar shape and size as the original two has been reported, from Laos. However, reexamination of the skull dimensions of the type specimens and phylogenetic studies suggest that S. bucculentus might not be a distinct species, but a geographically restricted variant of S. scrofa. The possibility that S. bucculentus might be a synonym of S. scrofais supported by reports from local informants that do not mention facial warts. Warts would be expected if indeed S. bucculentus was more closely related to other South-east Asian warty pigs of the subgenus Euhys. Recent studies have made it more likely that S. bucculentus will be merged with a taxon closelyaffiliated to or part of S. scrofa. As if to complicate matters, Groves has also recently proposed recognition of two more species, namely S. chirodontus described by Heude in 1888 from south-central China(including Kienté, Ningkua, Zhejiang, Shaanxi, Anhui, and also Korea), and S. ussuricus described also by Heude in 1888 from Heilongjiangand far eastern Chinaand Russia. Similarly sharp boundaries between various other mainland Asia subspecies do not exist, especially given evidence of hybridization between salient forms (e.g. davidi and cristatus). However, until these races are formally described and elevated, we retain the existing taxonomy for S. scrofa. We keep subspecies coreanus for now as it is distinct from wussuricus, but note that it was recently proposed for inclusion in moupinensis. Nineteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.s.scrofaLinnaeus,1758—WEurope,fromDenmark,Germany,Poland,andCzechRepublictoNItalyandNIberianPeninsula;possiblyalsoAlbania.ThetaxonomicstatusofanimalsinAustria,Switzerland,Slovenia,andSlovakiaisunclearbutpresumablythesepopulationsareincludedinscrofa,asarethepopulationsofSweden,Finland,andtheBalticstates.However,restockingofoncedepletedpopulations,forexampleinItaly,haslikelyinvolvedtheintroductionandmixingofthissubspecieswithothersubspecies,suchasattila.S.s.affinisGray,1847—SIndiaandSriLanka.S.s.algirusLoche,1867—Tunisia,Algeria,andMorocco,onthecoastalsideofthemountainsorinthelowmontaneareas.S.s.attilaThomas,1912—Hungary,Ukraine,C&SBelarus,Romania,Moldova,andSRussiatowardstheNflankoftheCaucasus,butnotincludingtheTranscaucasiancountriesofGeorgia,Armenia,andAzerbaijan.TherangepossiblyextendsasfarSastheMesopotamianDeltainIraq,inwhichcaseitwouldlikelyincludeW&SWIran,andpossiblyETurkeyandSyria,whereitborderswithlybicus.SucharangecouldnotbeeasilyreconciledwithastatementbyGrovesthat“thedifferencebetweenpigsfromNandSoftheCaucasusisquitestriking;Transcaucasianboarsarecertainlynotattila.”ThissubspeciesmayalsoextendintoCAsiaandincludeKazakhstan,Uzbekistan,andTurkmenistan,butnodataexisttosupportthis.S.s.baeticusThomas,1912—originallydescribedfromCotoDonana,SSpain,andlatermergedwithmeridionalis;alsoSPortugal.UnlessevidenceisfoundthattheseItalianandIberianpopulationsaretherelicsofamuchlargerformerlycontiguousrange,thissubspeciesshouldbekeptasdistinct.S.s.coreanusHeude,1897—KoreanPeninsula.S.s.eristatusWagner,1839—HimalayasStoCIndiaandEtoIndochina(NoftheKraIsthmus).S.s.davidiGroves,1981—thearidzonefromEIrantoGujarat,includingPakistanandNWIndia,andperhapsNtoTajikistan.S.s.leucomystaxTemminck,1842—mainIsofJapan(Honshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,Nakadori,Hiburijima,Tojima,Kushima,andothersmallerIs).S.s.lybicusGray,1868—Bulgaria,Greece,Turkey,Syria,Jordan,Israel,Palestine,inthepastalsoinLybia,andEgypt.TheformerYugoslaviawasincludedinitsrange,whichwouldsuggestthatnowSlovenia,Serbia,Croatia,BosniaandHerzegovina,Montenegro,andKosovoarewithintherangeofthissubspecies,althoughtheexactboundariesareunclear.PigsfromAlbaniahavebeenassignedtoS.s.scrofa.S.s.majoriDeBeaux&Festa,1927—C&SItalianPeninsula.S.s.menidionalisForsythMajor,1882—CorsicaandSardinia,withtheprovisothatthetwopopulationsareverylikelytobeintroducedorferal.S.s.moupinensisMilne-Edwards,1871—China,StoVietnamandWtoSichuan.S.s.nigripesBlanford,1875—theflanksoftheTianshanmountainsinKyrgyzstanandNWChina(Xinjiang).AnanimalphotographedinNEIran(Golestan)lookedlikethissubspecies.S.s.nukiuanusKuroda,1924—Iriomote,Ishigaki,Okinawa,Tokunoshima,Amamioshima,andKakeromeIsintheRyukyuchaininextremeSJapan,thoughsomeofthesepopulationshavehybridizedwithintroduceddomesticates.S.s.sibiricusStaffe,1922—MongoliaandTransbaikal(S&EofLakeBaikal).S.s.tawvanusSwinhoe,1863—Taiwan.S.s.ussuricusHeude,1888—farERussiaandtheManchurianregion(China).Koreanpopulationswerepreviouslyincludedinthissubspecies,butbasedonnewevidence,theKoreantaxonseemsmoresimilartomoupinensis.S.s.vittatusBoie,1828—MalayPeninsula,SoftheIsthmusofKra,theoffshoreislandsofTerutaiandLangkawi,Sumatra,RiauArchipelago,Java,Bali,andarangeofsmallerislandsaroundthese,includingBabi,Bakong,Batam,Bawean,Bengkalis,Bintan,Bulan,Bunguran,Cuyo,Deli,Durian,Enggano,Galang,Jambongan,Karimon(RiauIs),Kundur,Lagong,Laut,Lingga,Lingung,Mapor,MoroKecil,NorthPagai,Nias,Panaitan,Payong,Penang,Pinie,Rupat,Siantan,Siberut,Simeulue,Singkep,Sugi,SugiBawa,Telibon,Tinggi,Tuangku,andtheTambelanIs.ThisspecieswasoriginallypresentfromtheBritishIsintheextremeW,throughEurasiafromSScandinaviatoSSiberia,extendingasfarEasKoreaandJapan,andSEintosomeoftheSundaIsandTaiwan.IntheSthespeciesrangedalongtheNileValleytoKhartoum,andNoftheSaharainAfrica,moreorlessfollowingthecontinentalcoastsofS, s, and SE Asia. Within this range it was absent only from extremely dry deserts, e.g. the driest regions of Mongoliaand in ChinaW of Sichuan; and alpine zones, such as the high altitudes of Pamir and Tien Shan. In recent centuries, the range of S. scrofahas changed dramatically because of hunting and changes in available habitat. The species disappeared from the British Is in the 17\" century, from Denmarkin the 19\" century, and was greatly reduced in range and numbers in the 20\" century from areas as distant as Tunisia, Sudan, Germany, and Russia. Following these severe declines, there were some slight population recoveries in Russia, Italy, Spain, and Germanyin the mid-20™ century, and natural and assisted range expansions in Denmarkand Sweden. The species has also been inadvertently reintroduced in various locations in the Great Britainvia escapees of mixed origin from commercial farming enterprises. Ex-S. scrofastocks also occur as introduced feral populations in various other parts of the world, including Australia, New Zealand, the eastern Malay Archipelago, and in North, Central, and South America. In all of these areas they are now generally recognized as a major pestDescriptive notes.Head-body 90-200 cm, tail 15-40 cm, shoulder height 55-110 cm; weight 44-320 kg. This is a moderate to large pig with a relatively short muzzle and no facial warts. The species is sexually dimorphic, with females about 80% the size of males. Size varies significantly between subspecies. Generally speaking, S. scrofafollows Bergmann’s Rule, with smaller animals nearer the tropics and larger, smaller-eared ones in the north ofits range. The coatis coarse and bristly, and varies in color from brown to almost black, usually turning grayish with age. There are great regional differences in color, and nearly white animals are known from central Asia. Several subspecies have dense underwool. The face, cheeks, and throat are slightly grizzled with whitish hairs, becoming distinctly white or forming white bands in some subspecies. The back is rounded and the legs are relatively long, especially in northern subspecies. Young are born generally brown with a pattern of longitudinal darker brown stripes, known aslivery, along their torso. This pattern fades between the second and sixth month, and the juveniles reach adult coloration at one year of age. The head is long and pointed, without an obvious beard, warts, or facial tufts. The upper canines form tusks that curve out and upwards. The lower canines are kept sharp by rubbing against the upper canines. These canines measure about 20 cmin adult males, and in exceptional cases even 30 cm. In females they are smaller. There is significant geographic variation in S. scrofa. WesTERN RACES: The nominate subspecies scrofahas an adult male skull length between 36-3 cm and 40-6 cm, which further increases towards the border ofits range with the subspecies attila. The species is dull to dark brown or olive-gray, with copious dark-gray or red-brown underwool, and a noticeable mane, which is often long and thick. Bodyweight in scrofavaries significantly from 54 kgto over 200 kgin males, with sows being quite a bit smaller (44.6-61. 4 kg). Towards Spainand Italybody size decreases gradually. In northern Spain, the mean body weight of 637 mature males and females was 74-3 kg and 55-3 kg, respectively. The mean head and body lengths of males and females were 154-4 cm and 142-2 cm, respectively. The subspecies baeticus in southern Spainand meridionalis in the islands of Sardinia and Corsicaare significantly smaller than scrofa, with mean skull lengths for males between 30-8 cm and 32-7 cm. These similar looking subspecies are colored a dull olive-fawn, with sparse underwool, and mostly lacking a mane. There is obvious clinal variation from north-western Europe to southern Spain, and it is unclear where the boundary between subspecies scrofaand baeticus is. In central and southern Italy, the subspecies major: is apparently smaller than scrofa, with a higher and wider skull. Since the 1950s, it has hybridized extensively with introduced scrofapopulations, which likely obscures morphological differences. Farther south, in northern Africa, the subspecies algirus is like scrofabut has smaller teeth and a broader occiput. The coat of this subspecies is black with yellowish or reddish tips, dark brown underwool, and not much of a mane. Subspecies attila is very large, with skull length in males over 45 cm. It has relatively small teeth, but M,is long, always over 4 cm. Subspecies attilais usually pale yellow-gray, with hair tips long and straw-yellow, copious brown underwool, and a long mane that extends to the loins. Recent information suggests that the subspecies is less distinct than previously thought and might overlap in size as well as chromosomal arrangement with scrofa. Subspecies lybicus is small, pale and almost maneless. Subspecies nigripes is a pale-colored subspecies with dark legs, which are usually paler behind, a nearly white face, and no mane. It has a very broad skull. Weights of male wild pigs from present-day Uzbekistanand southern Kazakhstanare given as 220-240 kg. Like subspecies scrofa, race nigripeshas 36 chromosomes, not the 38 that are usual for the species, but the translocation is different. EASTERN RACES: sibiricus is a fairly small pig with a relatively short face (short nasals and palate) compared to similar sized pigs. It has a very high skull with broad occiput. It also stands out for the shape ofits lacrimal bone (as measured by the proportion between suture height of the lacrimal bone at the orbit and its lower suture length), which is 1-0 for males (n = 7) and 0-87 for females (n = 4). Subspecies ussuricus is the largest of S. scrofa, with male wild pigs often weighing over 300 kg. It has a low-crowned skull and thick pelage, which is yellowish-gray in winter and black in summer when the long, pale hair tips have worn off. Subspecies ussuricus has black legs, sharply paler on the posterior surfaces. The face is black and has a clear mouth-gonion band. Initially, pigs from the Korean Peninsula had been included in race ussuricus, but their small size and genetic as well as morphological similarity to race moupinensismakes that affinity less likely. We presently retain this as a distinct subspecies coreanus, but recognize that it might well be included in moupinenss. Subspecies leucomystax is a smallish, short-legged, yellow-brown pig, with virtually no mane. There is a neat cline of diminishing size from north to south, but this apparently doesn’t warrant further division of this subspecies. The island race riukiuanusis by far the smallest subspecies. On the basis of a small data set, there appears to be no sexual size difference; three males with third molars in wear averaged 26-3 cm, and three females 26-1 cm in “profile length,” which presumably equals greatest skull length. Recent phylogenetic studies have shown that this subspecies is more closely related to the mainland Chinaform than to leucomystax from the main islands ofJapan. This is also confirmed by studies of crania and mandibles, which are quite distinct from leucomystax. Subspecies riukiuanus is a prime candidate to be recognized as a full species. Race taivanus from Taiwanis a small black pig with markings on the side of the snout, as judged from camera trap pictures. Measurements of mandibles show considerable overlap between taivanus and leucomystax, but with riukiuanus being quite distinct. The occiput in taivanus is shorter than in leucomystax, with little overhang. Subspecies moupinensis is a fairly small, yellowish (in south of range) or darker (in north), short-maned pig with a broad, high-crowned skull, from most of Chinaand Vietnam. Elevation to full species status was recently proposed for this taxon. SOUTH ASIAN RACES: The subspecies of India, Burma, and western Thailand, cristatus is long-maned, with a coat thatis brindled black, unlike race david: (see below). Subspecies cristatus is more lightly built than European subspecies, and it has a larger and more pointed head, and smaller and more pointed ears. The plane of the forehead is straight, whereas it is concave in the European subspecies. Subspecies cristatus differs little from moupinensis, but has a much longer mane, which extends to the rump. Itis darker than moupinensis. Race davidi is a small, light brown pig, with a long thick mane, and without any black on the legs. Weights of wild pigs from Tajikistan, which might be this subspecies, were reported as 74-144 kg, and occasionally up to 158 kgfor males, and 71-123 kg for females. This subspecies belongs to the low-crowned pigs of the western part of S. scrofa’ distribution range, rather than to the eastern pigs of India, China, and the rest of east and South-east Asia. Race affinis of southern Indiaand Sri Lankais larger than cristatus, overall black or occasionally dark brown. MALAYAN RACE: Sometimes referred to as the Indonesian Banded Pig, of peninsular Malaysiaand western Indonesiais a small, lowcrowned, short-faced pig with very sparse pelage. It is generally brown or agouti colored, with black legs, and typically has a distinct whitish band extending from either side of the snout to the jowls (hence “banded pig”) and a distinct mane. It has very sparse body hair and no underwool. There is a huge range of size and color throughout this region, but it is so sporadically distributed, with intermediates between the extremes, that it is impossible to divide it up. The species has shorter nasals and narrower occiput than race cristatus. It also stands apart from all other S. scrofasubspecies in the shape of the lacrimal bone and the shape of the rear end of the hard palate.Habitat.S. scrofais an ecologically very adaptable species, occurring in habitats varying from closed natural and planted forests to open scrublands with some cover. In Europe, the species occurs in agricultural landscapes, as well as riverine and mountainous forests, where it reachesits highest densities in oak-dominated forests. In South-eastAsia, S. scrofais found in mature forests, secondary forests, gardens, and plantations. It can reach very high densities in dipterocarp forests during times of mastfruiting. S. scrofacan cause considerable damage to agriculturalfields. The animals generally avoid open fields but do enter them readily when crops are taller and thus provide cover.Food and Feeding.S. scrofais a typical omnivorous species. They eat almost anything they come across, including grass, nuts, berries, carrion, roots, tubers, refuse, insects, and small reptiles. They are also known to prey on young deer and lambs, and, in India, have been observed to prey on Chital (Axis axis) and to forcibly appropriate fresh kills from Leopards (Panthera pardus). Vertebrate prey may constitute an important part of the species’ diet in some areas, though studies in Spainrevealed that prey items (mostly birds and crayfish) made up only 4% of their diets. Snails and terrestrial arthropods were frequently found but take up less volume. The species causes considerable damage to croplands, with damage to permanent grassland more frequent and more severe than damage to annual crops. S. scrofais preyed on by a range of species, including Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Dholes (Cuon alpinus), Tigers (FP. tigris), Leopards, Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) and some larger reptiles, such as crocodiles and pythons (Python spp.).Breeding.S. scrofahas a gestation period of 112-130 days. Litters of 5-9 are most common, although both smaller and larger do occur. Piglets weigh 750-1000 g at birth. Just prior to giving birth, the sows leave their social groups and construct well-developed nests in which to give birth, or farrow, a process usually lasting 2-3 hours. The sow and piglets remain in, or close to, the nest for 4-6 days before rejoining their natal family groups, after which piglets will suckle other lactating sows in the group. Young are weaned at 3-4 months, and they will begin to eat solid foods, such as worms and grubs, after about two weeks. The young usually reach sexual maturity at 18 months. Breeding occurs year-round in the tropics, although in more temperate zones the young are born primarily in the spring. In the Ukraine, about 80% of S. scrofafemales reproduce annually. Their fertility rate is 7-21+ 0-26 piglets, but during the first year of their life more than 50% of the piglets die. Animals can live over 20 years in the wild, but populations are dominated by younger animals. For example, a Eurasian wild steppe population comprised 58:6% juveniles (the first year oflife), 14-3% yearlings (the second year), 11:5% adult males, and 15-6% adult females. If surprised or cornered, a boar (and particularly a sow with her piglets) can and will defend itself and its young with intense vigor. The male lowers its head, charges, and then slashes upward with his tusks. The female, whose tusks are notvisible, charges with her head up, mouth wide, and bites.Activity patterns.Activity of S. scrofavaries geographically but seems to be concentrated between dusk and dawn, and especially between 20:00 h and 24:00 h and around 05:00 h, with a primary resting period at night and a briefer rest during the early afternoon. In areas with high hunting pressure, a shift to nearly exclusive nocturnal activity has been observed. S. scrofarests in tight groups with bodily contact. The resting places, used several times before being abandoned, are made of troughs lined with leaves and branches. Wallowing is a favorite activity. After wallowing, the Eurasian Wild Pig rubs against trees and bushes, an activity that serves as a territorial marker.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Densities of S. scrofavary widely depending on habitat quality and mortality rates. To give some examples,in Italy, densities are generally about 3-5 ind/ 100 km?, in Spainthey are about 0-7-16-3 ind/ 100 km? and in Switzerlandthey are about 10 ind/ 100 km®. In Malaysia, S. scrofalocally reaches population densities of 47 ind/km? at least during times of high food availability. Pig biomass at such times was estimated at between 1346 kg/km?*and 1837 kg/km*. A review of 54 density studies in western Eurasia showed that in the geographical span of 37-60° N, the population densities of Eurasian Wild Pigs declined by three orders of magnitude. Mean January temperature and vegetative productivity were the most important factors explaining the biogeographical variation in population densities of S. scrofa, with the impact of temperature being stronger than that of productivity. The presence of Gray Wolves had a weak limiting effect on population densities of wild pigs at the biogeographical scale. S. scrofagenerally occurs in maternal families or sounders averaging 20 individuals, but up to 100 individuals have been reported, albeit perhaps in temporary associations. Adult males are usually solitary outside of the breeding season. Group structure changes with the coming and going of farrowing females, the migration of maturing males (usually when they reach around four years of age) and the arrival of unrelated sexually active males. Pigs are excellent swimmers, and have been documented swimming between offshore islands up to 7 kmapart.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, except for the subspecies riukiuanus, which has sometimes been listed separately as Vulnerable. The species is abundant in many parts of its range, though populations have been severely reduced and fragmented in places where hunting intensity is high (for example, in eastern and south-eastern Asia). Although there is no global population estimate, numbers can be high in many places. At a global level, there are no major threats to the species. However, there are many threats at a more local level, principally habitat destruction and hunting pressure, either for food, sport, or in reprisal for crop damage. In some places, genetic contamination through interbreeding with free-ranging domesticated or feral pigs is also a threat. Areas of special concern include the Ryukyu Islands, south Japan, where the endemic subspecies riukiuanus is internationally recognized as being seriously threatened throughout its extremely restricted and discontinuous range. It is ostensibly protected by the Japanese Government as a national monument. Nonetheless, it is widely hunted for sport and in reprisal for crop damage, and local governmental authorities even pay bounties to farmers for these animals. In various places in Indonesia, most notably in Java, attempts have been made in the past to eradicate wild pigs altogether by means of organized shooting parties and poisoning campaigns. However, despite many thousands of wild pigs being destroyed in this way,it is clear that this has had little lasting effect on these animals. Wild pigs are also susceptible to a variety of highly contagious diseases that can decimate their populations. Such catastrophic crashes were reported from Sri Lankain 1989 due to swine fever, Honshu Island, Japanin 1877, possibly because of hog cholera, and the Iriomote Islands between 1976 and 1980, caused by severe skin disease tentatively identified as sarcoptic mange. The traditional practice of rearing “domestic” pigs in semi-wild conditions has resulted in their hybridizing with the wild populations. Although introduced feral pigs are almost invariably regarded as major pests, some seemingly “ancient” breeds are of particular scientific interest and/or socio-economic importance to local peoples. Most prominent among these are the diminutive wild pigs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.The Andaman Island suids include the world’s smallest freeranging wild pigs (with the exception of Pygmy Hogs, Porculasalvania), which occur in two distinct “long-snouted” and “short-snouted” morphotypes, and which constitute one of the most important food resources for the few remaining indigenous Onge, Jarawa, and Sentinilese tribal societies. Whilst the Andamanese tribals are traditionally hunter-gatherers, dependent on the continued hunting of the wild pigs and other species, both wild and domestic pigs are of the greatest cultural importance to the Shompen tribal people of the Nicobar Islands, who not only domesticate pigs in large numbers, but have evolved one of the most complex “human-pig” cultures found anywhere in the in the world. A similar situation exists in eastern Indonesia, Papua, and a range Micronesian and Macronesian islands, where domesticated S. scrofa(as well as domesticated S. celebensis) play a very important cultural role.Bibliography.Acevedo et al. (2006), Albayrak & Inci (2007), Appelman (1931), Appolonio et al. (1988), Asada et al. (2001), Behera& Gupta (2007), Chhangani & Mohnot (2004), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Endo, Hayashi, Sasaki et al. (2000), Endo, Hayashi, Yamazaki et al. (2002), Endo, Kurohmaru et al. (1998), Endo, Maeda et al. (1998), Fistani (1996), Francis (2008), Galbreath (2007), Genov (1987, 1992, 1994, 1999), Gimenez-Anaya et al. (2008), Giuffra et al. (1999), Groves (1981, 2007), Groves & Oliver (2008), Hebeisen et al. (2008), Ickes (2001), Jayson (1995), Kelm (1939), Kodera (2005), Kumar Chhangani (2002), Li Chonggi et al. (2005), Markina et al. (2004), Massei et al. (1997a, 1997b), Meijaard et al. (2002), Melis et al. (2006), Mitchell (2002), Monaet al. (2007), Oliver & Leus (2008), Oliver, Brisbin & Takahashi (1993a, 1993b), Oliver, Groves & Cox (1993), Pei (2006), Robins et al. (2006), Ruhe et al. (2007), Russo et al. (1997), Santos et al. (2006), Schley & Roper (2003), Schley et al. (2008), Spagnesi & de Marinis (2002), Thurfjell et al. (2009), Volokh (2002a, 2002b), Watanobe, Ishiguro & Nakano (2003), Watanobe, Okumura et al. (1999), Wilcox & VanVuren (2009), Zhang Baoweiet al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758,Germany.S. scrofais the most widespread species of naturally occurring wild pig. Many of the more distinctive regional forms of these animals were originally described as full species, e.g. villatus, cristatus, leucomystax, moupinensis, and meridionalis, respectively from Sumatra, India, Japan, China, and Sardinia. Later and more comprehensive taxonomic reviews have combined many of these taxa into one species, mostly on the recognition that the different forms of S. scrofaformed a stepped cline extending from Western Europe to the Far East and insular South-east Asia. This gradual change in morphological characteristics allowed the combination of the extreme forms on either side of the range (scrofaand wvittatus) into one species. This species is therefore characterized by significant levels of naturally occurring geographic/genetic variation, duly compounded by anthropogenic interferences through widespread releases (whether deliberate or accidental) of pure-bred, hybrid, and domesticated variants originating from other parts ofits wide range. An astonishingly large number of subspecies have therefore been proposed and recognized in the literature, some of which are clearly invalid. Precise analysis of the likely number of truly recognizable/differentiated subspecies is still a matter of debate and disagreement, given that 4-25 subspecies have been recognized by different authors. Of these, C. P. Groves undertook by far the most comprehensive review when proposing the recognition of at least 16 morphologically distinct populations of S. scrofaon the basis of external as well as craniometric characteristics. His work has since been challenged by P. Genov, who proposed recognition of only four subspecies based on similar craniometric analyses, but these analyses were flawed inasmuch as they did not include some of the most distinct populations of these animals. Nonetheless, Genov merged these subspecies into four broadly geographic groupings, thereby broadly mirroring Groves’s more comprehensive review. These were the WESTERN RACES or the “ scrofagroup,” at least six, but possibly as many as eight subspecies (scrofa, meridionalis, baeticus, majori, algirus, attila, lybicus, and nigripes), but only two (algirus and meriodionalis) have clearly defined ranges; INDIAN RACES or “cristatus group,” three races (dauvidi, cristatus, and affinis), none with precisely defined ranges; EASTERN RACES or “leucomystax group,” possibly up to seven subspecies (sibiricus, ussuricus, coreanus, leucomystax, riukiuanus, tarvanus, and moupinensis), though only three (leucomystax, riukiuanus and taivanus) have clearly defined ranges; and a highly disctinctive SUNDAIC RACE (viltatus), though presumably genetically continuous with cristatus in the northern limits of its range in Indochina. We follow Groves’s taxonomy because of the strength and breadth of his analysis and his use of external characteristics that were not incorporated in Genov’s analysis. However, new (e.g. phylogenetic) data sets are most likely to strengthen the case for recognizing particular additional subspecies, or elevating some currently recognized subspecies to full species, or merging other, currently recognized subspecies. Groves has questioned whether his subspecies are all variants of one species or a complex of several different species, and has recently proposed the elevation of both vitattus and moupinensis subspecies to full species status. Of these, vittatus is more easily comprehensible, being morphologically and geographically distinguishable as the so-called “Indonesian Banded Pig,” occurring throughout the distal limits of S. scrofa’s range in South-east Asia, whereas S. moupinensis is apparently confined to Myanmar, Indochina, and south-eastern China(Fujian), and therefore also includes the problematic Indochinese Pig (S. bucculentus) from the Annamite Mountains. The taxonomic identity of S. bucculentus remains unclear. Since its description in 1892 by Heude, based on two skulls from Vietnam, only one skull of similar shape and size as the original two has been reported, from Laos. However, reexamination of the skull dimensions of the type specimens and phylogenetic studies suggest that S. bucculentus might not be a distinct species, but a geographically restricted variant of S. scrofa. The possibility that S. bucculentus might be a synonym of S. scrofais supported by reports from local informants that do not mention facial warts. Warts would be expected if indeed S. bucculentus was more closely related to other South-east Asian warty pigs of the subgenus Euhys. Recent studies have made it more likely that S. bucculentus will be merged with a taxon closelyaffiliated to or part of S. scrofa. As if to complicate matters, Groves has also recently proposed recognition of two more species, namely S. chirodontus described by Heude in 1888 from south-central China(including Kienté, Ningkua, Zhejiang, Shaanxi, Anhui, and also Korea), and S. ussuricus described also by Heude in 1888 from Heilongjiangand far eastern Chinaand Russia. Similarly sharp boundaries between various other mainland Asia subspecies do not exist, especially given evidence of hybridization between salient forms (e.g. davidi and cristatus). However, until these races are formally described and elevated, we retain the existing taxonomy for S. scrofa. We keep subspecies coreanus for now as it is distinct from wussuricus, but note that it was recently proposed for inclusion in moupinensis. Nineteen subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Sanglier d’'Eurasie @fr | Wildschwein @de | Jabali @es | Wild Boar; @en | ndochinese Pig (bucculentus) @en | @en | ndonesian Banded Pig (vittatus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"288","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"scrofa","name":"Sus scrofa","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.s.scrofaLinnaeus,1758—WEurope,fromDenmark,Germany,Poland,andCzechRepublictoNItalyandNIberianPeninsula;possiblyalsoAlbania.ThetaxonomicstatusofanimalsinAustria,Switzerland,Slovenia,andSlovakiaisunclearbutpresumablythesepopulationsareincludedinscrofa,asarethepopulationsofSweden,Finland,andtheBalticstates.However,restockingofoncedepletedpopulations,forexampleinItaly,haslikelyinvolvedtheintroductionandmixingofthissubspecieswithothersubspecies,suchasattila.S.s.affinisGray,1847—SIndiaandSriLanka.S.s.algirusLoche,1867—Tunisia,Algeria,andMorocco,onthecoastalsideofthemountainsorinthelowmontaneareas.S.s.attilaThomas,1912—Hungary,Ukraine,C&SBelarus,Romania,Moldova,andSRussiatowardstheNflankoftheCaucasus,butnotincludingtheTranscaucasiancountriesofGeorgia,Armenia,andAzerbaijan.TherangepossiblyextendsasfarSastheMesopotamianDeltainIraq,inwhichcaseitwouldlikelyincludeW&SWIran,andpossiblyETurkeyandSyria,whereitborderswithlybicus.SucharangecouldnotbeeasilyreconciledwithastatementbyGrovesthat“thedifferencebetweenpigsfromNandSoftheCaucasusisquitestriking;Transcaucasianboarsarecertainlynotattila.”ThissubspeciesmayalsoextendintoCAsiaandincludeKazakhstan,Uzbekistan,andTurkmenistan,butnodataexisttosupportthis.S.s.baeticusThomas,1912—originallydescribedfromCotoDonana,SSpain,andlatermergedwithmeridionalis;alsoSPortugal.UnlessevidenceisfoundthattheseItalianandIberianpopulationsaretherelicsofamuchlargerformerlycontiguousrange,thissubspeciesshouldbekeptasdistinct.S.s.coreanusHeude,1897—KoreanPeninsula.S.s.eristatusWagner,1839—HimalayasStoCIndiaandEtoIndochina(NoftheKraIsthmus).S.s.davidiGroves,1981—thearidzonefromEIrantoGujarat,includingPakistanandNWIndia,andperhapsNtoTajikistan.S.s.leucomystaxTemminck,1842—mainIsofJapan(Honshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,Nakadori,Hiburijima,Tojima,Kushima,andothersmallerIs).S.s.lybicusGray,1868—Bulgaria,Greece,Turkey,Syria,Jordan,Israel,Palestine,inthepastalsoinLybia,andEgypt.TheformerYugoslaviawasincludedinitsrange,whichwouldsuggestthatnowSlovenia,Serbia,Croatia,BosniaandHerzegovina,Montenegro,andKosovoarewithintherangeofthissubspecies,althoughtheexactboundariesareunclear.PigsfromAlbaniahavebeenassignedtoS.s.scrofa.S.s.majoriDeBeaux&Festa,1927—C&SItalianPeninsula.S.s.menidionalisForsythMajor,1882—CorsicaandSardinia,withtheprovisothatthetwopopulationsareverylikelytobeintroducedorferal.S.s.moupinensisMilne-Edwards,1871—China,StoVietnamandWtoSichuan.S.s.nigripesBlanford,1875—theflanksoftheTianshanmountainsinKyrgyzstanandNWChina(Xinjiang).AnanimalphotographedinNEIran(Golestan)lookedlikethissubspecies.S.s.nukiuanusKuroda,1924—Iriomote,Ishigaki,Okinawa,Tokunoshima,Amamioshima,andKakeromeIsintheRyukyuchaininextremeSJapan,thoughsomeofthesepopulationshavehybridizedwithintroduceddomesticates.S.s.sibiricusStaffe,1922—MongoliaandTransbaikal(S&EofLakeBaikal).S.s.tawvanusSwinhoe,1863—Taiwan.S.s.ussuricusHeude,1888—farERussiaandtheManchurianregion(China).Koreanpopulationswerepreviouslyincludedinthissubspecies,butbasedonnewevidence,theKoreantaxonseemsmoresimilartomoupinensis.S.s.vittatusBoie,1828—MalayPeninsula,SoftheIsthmusofKra,theoffshoreislandsofTerutaiandLangkawi,Sumatra,RiauArchipelago,Java,Bali,andarangeofsmallerislandsaroundthese,includingBabi,Bakong,Batam,Bawean,Bengkalis,Bintan,Bulan,Bunguran,Cuyo,Deli,Durian,Enggano,Galang,Jambongan,Karimon(RiauIs),Kundur,Lagong,Laut,Lingga,Lingung,Mapor,MoroKecil,NorthPagai,Nias,Panaitan,Payong,Penang,Pinie,Rupat,Siantan,Siberut,Simeulue,Singkep,Sugi,SugiBawa,Telibon,Tinggi,Tuangku,andtheTambelanIs.ThisspecieswasoriginallypresentfromtheBritishIsintheextremeW,throughEurasiafromSScandinaviatoSSiberia,extendingasfarEasKoreaandJapan,andSEintosomeoftheSundaIsandTaiwan.IntheSthespeciesrangedalongtheNileValleytoKhartoum,andNoftheSaharainAfrica,moreorlessfollowingthecontinentalcoastsofS, s, and SE Asia. Within this range it was absent only from extremely dry deserts, e.g. the driest regions of Mongoliaand in ChinaW of Sichuan; and alpine zones, such as the high altitudes of Pamir and Tien Shan. In recent centuries, the range of S. scrofahas changed dramatically because of hunting and changes in available habitat. The species disappeared from the British Is in the 17\" century, from Denmarkin the 19\" century, and was greatly reduced in range and numbers in the 20\" century from areas as distant as Tunisia, Sudan, Germany, and Russia. Following these severe declines, there were some slight population recoveries in Russia, Italy, Spain, and Germanyin the mid-20™ century, and natural and assisted range expansions in Denmarkand Sweden. The species has also been inadvertently reintroduced in various locations in the Great Britainvia escapees of mixed origin from commercial farming enterprises. Ex-S. scrofastocks also occur as introduced feral populations in various other parts of the world, including Australia, New Zealand, the eastern Malay Archipelago, and in North, Central, and South America.","bibliography":"Acevedo et al. (2006) | Albayrak & Inci (2007) | Appelman (1931) | Appolonio et al. (1988) | Asada et al. (2001) | Behera& Gupta (2007) | Chhangani & Mohnot (2004) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Endo, Hayashi, Sasaki et al. (2000) | Endo, Hayashi, Yamazaki et al. (2002) | Endo, Kurohmaru et al. (1998) | Endo, Maeda et al. (1998) | Fistani (1996) | Francis (2008) | Galbreath (2007) | Genov (1987, 1992, 1994, 1999) | Gimenez-Anaya et al. (2008) | Giuffra et al. (1999) | Groves (1981, 2007) | Groves & Oliver (2008) | Hebeisen et al. (2008) | Ickes (2001) | Jayson (1995) | Kelm (1939) | Kodera (2005) | Kumar Chhangani (2002) | Li Chonggi et al. (2005) | Markina et al. (2004) | Massei et al. (1997a, 1997b) | Meijaard et al. (2002) | Melis et al. (2006) | Mitchell (2002) | Monaet al. (2007) | Oliver & Leus (2008) | Oliver, Brisbin & Takahashi (1993a, 1993b) | Oliver, Groves & Cox (1993) | Pei (2006) | Robins et al. (2006) | Ruhe et al. (2007) | Russo et al. (1997) | Santos et al. (2006) | Schley & Roper (2003) | Schley et al. (2008) | Spagnesi & de Marinis (2002) | Thurfjell et al. (2009) | Volokh (2002a, 2002b) | Watanobe, Ishiguro & Nakano (2003) | Watanobe, Okumura et al. (1999) | Wilcox & VanVuren (2009) | Zhang Baoweiet al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"S. scrofais a typical omnivorous species. They eat almost anything they come across, including grass, nuts, berries, carrion, roots, tubers, refuse, insects, and small reptiles. They are also known to prey on young deer and lambs, and, in India, have been observed to prey on Chital (Axis axis) and to forcibly appropriate fresh kills from Leopards (Panthera pardus). Vertebrate prey may constitute an important part of the species’ diet in some areas, though studies in Spainrevealed that prey items (mostly birds and crayfish) made up only 4% of their diets. Snails and terrestrial arthropods were frequently found but take up less volume. The species causes considerable damage to croplands, with damage to permanent grassland more frequent and more severe than damage to annual crops. S. scrofais preyed on by a range of species, including Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Dholes (Cuon alpinus), Tigers (FP. tigris), Leopards, Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) and some larger reptiles, such as crocodiles and pythons (Python spp.).","breeding":"S. scrofahas a gestation period of 112-130 days. Litters of 5-9 are most common, although both smaller and larger do occur. Piglets weigh 750-1000 g at birth. Just prior to giving birth, the sows leave their social groups and construct well-developed nests in which to give birth, or farrow, a process usually lasting 2-3 hours. The sow and piglets remain in, or close to, the nest for 4-6 days before rejoining their natal family groups, after which piglets will suckle other lactating sows in the group. Young are weaned at 3-4 months, and they will begin to eat solid foods, such as worms and grubs, after about two weeks. The young usually reach sexual maturity at 18 months. Breeding occurs year-round in the tropics, although in more temperate zones the young are born primarily in the spring. In the Ukraine, about 80% of S. scrofafemales reproduce annually. Their fertility rate is 7-21+ 0-26 piglets, but during the first year of their life more than 50% of the piglets die. Animals can live over 20 years in the wild, but populations are dominated by younger animals. For example, a Eurasian wild steppe population comprised 58:6% juveniles (the first year oflife), 14-3% yearlings (the second year), 11:5% adult males, and 15-6% adult females. If surprised or cornered, a boar (and particularly a sow with her piglets) can and will defend itself and its young with intense vigor. The male lowers its head, charges, and then slashes upward with his tusks. The female, whose tusks are notvisible, charges with her head up, mouth wide, and bites.","activityPatterns":"Activity of S. scrofavaries geographically but seems to be concentrated between dusk and dawn, and especially between 20:00 h and 24:00 h and around 05:00 h, with a primary resting period at night and a briefer rest during the early afternoon. In areas with high hunting pressure, a shift to nearly exclusive nocturnal activity has been observed. S. scrofarests in tight groups with bodily contact. The resting places, used several times before being abandoned, are made of troughs lined with leaves and branches. Wallowing is a favorite activity. After wallowing, the Eurasian Wild Pig rubs against trees and bushes, an activity that serves as a territorial marker.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Densities of S. scrofavary widely depending on habitat quality and mortality rates. To give some examples,in Italy, densities are generally about 3-5 ind/ 100 km?, in Spainthey are about 0-7-16-3 ind/ 100 km? and in Switzerlandthey are about 10 ind/ 100 km®. In Malaysia, S. scrofalocally reaches population densities of 47 ind/km? at least during times of high food availability. Pig biomass at such times was estimated at between 1346 kg/km?*and 1837 kg/km*. A review of 54 density studies in western Eurasia showed that in the geographical span of 37-60° N, the population densities of Eurasian Wild Pigs declined by three orders of magnitude. Mean January temperature and vegetative productivity were the most important factors explaining the biogeographical variation in population densities of S. scrofa, with the impact of temperature being stronger than that of productivity. The presence of Gray Wolves had a weak limiting effect on population densities of wild pigs at the biogeographical scale. S. scrofagenerally occurs in maternal families or sounders averaging 20 individuals, but up to 100 individuals have been reported, albeit perhaps in temporary associations. Adult males are usually solitary outside of the breeding season. Group structure changes with the coming and going of farrowing females, the migration of maturing males (usually when they reach around four years of age) and the arrival of unrelated sexually active males. Pigs are excellent swimmers, and have been documented swimming between offshore islands up to 7 kmapart.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, except for the subspecies riukiuanus, which has sometimes been listed separately as Vulnerable. The species is abundant in many parts of its range, though populations have been severely reduced and fragmented in places where hunting intensity is high (for example, in eastern and south-eastern Asia). Although there is no global population estimate, numbers can be high in many places. At a global level, there are no major threats to the species. However, there are many threats at a more local level, principally habitat destruction and hunting pressure, either for food, sport, or in reprisal for crop damage. In some places, genetic contamination through interbreeding with free-ranging domesticated or feral pigs is also a threat. Areas of special concern include the Ryukyu Islands, south Japan, where the endemic subspecies riukiuanus is internationally recognized as being seriously threatened throughout its extremely restricted and discontinuous range. It is ostensibly protected by the Japanese Government as a national monument. Nonetheless, it is widely hunted for sport and in reprisal for crop damage, and local governmental authorities even pay bounties to farmers for these animals. In various places in Indonesia, most notably in Java, attempts have been made in the past to eradicate wild pigs altogether by means of organized shooting parties and poisoning campaigns. However, despite many thousands of wild pigs being destroyed in this way,it is clear that this has had little lasting effect on these animals. Wild pigs are also susceptible to a variety of highly contagious diseases that can decimate their populations. Such catastrophic crashes were reported from Sri Lankain 1989 due to swine fever, Honshu Island, Japanin 1877, possibly because of hog cholera, and the Iriomote Islands between 1976 and 1980, caused by severe skin disease tentatively identified as sarcoptic mange. The traditional practice of rearing “domestic” pigs in semi-wild conditions has resulted in their hybridizing with the wild populations. Although introduced feral pigs are almost invariably regarded as major pests, some seemingly “ancient” breeds are of particular scientific interest and/or socio-economic importance to local peoples. Most prominent among these are the diminutive wild pigs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.The Andaman Island suids include the world’s smallest freeranging wild pigs (with the exception of Pygmy Hogs, Porculasalvania), which occur in two distinct “long-snouted” and “short-snouted” morphotypes, and which constitute one of the most important food resources for the few remaining indigenous Onge, Jarawa, and Sentinilese tribal societies. Whilst the Andamanese tribals are traditionally hunter-gatherers, dependent on the continued hunting of the wild pigs and other species, both wild and domestic pigs are of the greatest cultural importance to the Shompen tribal people of the Nicobar Islands, who not only domesticate pigs in large numbers, but have evolved one of the most complex “human-pig” cultures found anywhere in the in the world. A similar situation exists in eastern Indonesia, Papua, and a range Micronesian and Macronesian islands, where domesticated S. scrofa(as well as domesticated S. celebensis) play a very important cultural role.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 90-200 cm, tail 15-40 cm, shoulder height 55-110 cm; weight 44-320 kg. This is a moderate to large pig with a relatively short muzzle and no facial warts. The species is sexually dimorphic, with females about 80% the size of males. Size varies significantly between subspecies. Generally speaking, S. scrofafollows Bergmann’s Rule, with smaller animals nearer the tropics and larger, smaller-eared ones in the north ofits range. The coatis coarse and bristly, and varies in color from brown to almost black, usually turning grayish with age. There are great regional differences in color, and nearly white animals are known from central Asia. Several subspecies have dense underwool. The face, cheeks, and throat are slightly grizzled with whitish hairs, becoming distinctly white or forming white bands in some subspecies. The back is rounded and the legs are relatively long, especially in northern subspecies. Young are born generally brown with a pattern of longitudinal darker brown stripes, known aslivery, along their torso. This pattern fades between the second and sixth month, and the juveniles reach adult coloration at one year of age. The head is long and pointed, without an obvious beard, warts, or facial tufts. The upper canines form tusks that curve out and upwards. The lower canines are kept sharp by rubbing against the upper canines. These canines measure about 20 cmin adult males, and in exceptional cases even 30 cm. In females they are smaller. There is significant geographic variation in S. scrofa. WesTERN RACES: The nominate subspecies scrofahas an adult male skull length between 36-3 cm and 40-6 cm, which further increases towards the border ofits range with the subspecies attila. The species is dull to dark brown or olive-gray, with copious dark-gray or red-brown underwool, and a noticeable mane, which is often long and thick. Bodyweight in scrofavaries significantly from 54 kgto over 200 kgin males, with sows being quite a bit smaller (44.6-61. 4 kg). Towards Spainand Italybody size decreases gradually. In northern Spain, the mean body weight of 637 mature males and females was 74-3 kg and 55-3 kg, respectively. The mean head and body lengths of males and females were 154-4 cm and 142-2 cm, respectively. The subspecies baeticus in southern Spainand meridionalis in the islands of Sardinia and Corsicaare significantly smaller than scrofa, with mean skull lengths for males between 30-8 cm and 32-7 cm. These similar looking subspecies are colored a dull olive-fawn, with sparse underwool, and mostly lacking a mane. There is obvious clinal variation from north-western Europe to southern Spain, and it is unclear where the boundary between subspecies scrofaand baeticus is. In central and southern Italy, the subspecies major: is apparently smaller than scrofa, with a higher and wider skull. Since the 1950s, it has hybridized extensively with introduced scrofapopulations, which likely obscures morphological differences. Farther south, in northern Africa, the subspecies algirus is like scrofabut has smaller teeth and a broader occiput. The coat of this subspecies is black with yellowish or reddish tips, dark brown underwool, and not much of a mane. Subspecies attila is very large, with skull length in males over 45 cm. It has relatively small teeth, but M,is long, always over 4 cm. Subspecies attilais usually pale yellow-gray, with hair tips long and straw-yellow, copious brown underwool, and a long mane that extends to the loins. Recent information suggests that the subspecies is less distinct than previously thought and might overlap in size as well as chromosomal arrangement with scrofa. Subspecies lybicus is small, pale and almost maneless. Subspecies nigripes is a pale-colored subspecies with dark legs, which are usually paler behind, a nearly white face, and no mane. It has a very broad skull. Weights of male wild pigs from present-day Uzbekistanand southern Kazakhstanare given as 220-240 kg. Like subspecies scrofa, race nigripeshas 36 chromosomes, not the 38 that are usual for the species, but the translocation is different. EASTERN RACES: sibiricus is a fairly small pig with a relatively short face (short nasals and palate) compared to similar sized pigs. It has a very high skull with broad occiput. It also stands out for the shape ofits lacrimal bone (as measured by the proportion between suture height of the lacrimal bone at the orbit and its lower suture length), which is 1-0 for males (n = 7) and 0-87 for females (n = 4). Subspecies ussuricus is the largest of S. scrofa, with male wild pigs often weighing over 300 kg. It has a low-crowned skull and thick pelage, which is yellowish-gray in winter and black in summer when the long, pale hair tips have worn off. Subspecies ussuricus has black legs, sharply paler on the posterior surfaces. The face is black and has a clear mouth-gonion band. Initially, pigs from the Korean Peninsula had been included in race ussuricus, but their small size and genetic as well as morphological similarity to race moupinensismakes that affinity less likely. We presently retain this as a distinct subspecies coreanus, but recognize that it might well be included in moupinenss. Subspecies leucomystax is a smallish, short-legged, yellow-brown pig, with virtually no mane. There is a neat cline of diminishing size from north to south, but this apparently doesn’t warrant further division of this subspecies. The island race riukiuanusis by far the smallest subspecies. On the basis of a small data set, there appears to be no sexual size difference; three males with third molars in wear averaged 26-3 cm, and three females 26-1 cm in “profile length,” which presumably equals greatest skull length. Recent phylogenetic studies have shown that this subspecies is more closely related to the mainland Chinaform than to leucomystax from the main islands ofJapan. This is also confirmed by studies of crania and mandibles, which are quite distinct from leucomystax. Subspecies riukiuanus is a prime candidate to be recognized as a full species. Race taivanus from Taiwanis a small black pig with markings on the side of the snout, as judged from camera trap pictures. Measurements of mandibles show considerable overlap between taivanus and leucomystax, but with riukiuanus being quite distinct. The occiput in taivanus is shorter than in leucomystax, with little overhang. Subspecies moupinensis is a fairly small, yellowish (in south of range) or darker (in north), short-maned pig with a broad, high-crowned skull, from most of Chinaand Vietnam. Elevation to full species status was recently proposed for this taxon. SOUTH ASIAN RACES: The subspecies of India, Burma, and western Thailand, cristatus is long-maned, with a coat thatis brindled black, unlike race david: (see below). Subspecies cristatus is more lightly built than European subspecies, and it has a larger and more pointed head, and smaller and more pointed ears. The plane of the forehead is straight, whereas it is concave in the European subspecies. Subspecies cristatus differs little from moupinensis, but has a much longer mane, which extends to the rump. Itis darker than moupinensis. Race davidi is a small, light brown pig, with a long thick mane, and without any black on the legs. Weights of wild pigs from Tajikistan, which might be this subspecies, were reported as 74-144 kg, and occasionally up to 158 kgfor males, and 71-123 kg for females. This subspecies belongs to the low-crowned pigs of the western part of S. scrofa’ distribution range, rather than to the eastern pigs of India, China, and the rest of east and South-east Asia. Race affinis of southern Indiaand Sri Lankais larger than cristatus, overall black or occasionally dark brown. MALAYAN RACE: Sometimes referred to as the Indonesian Banded Pig, of peninsular Malaysiaand western Indonesiais a small, lowcrowned, short-faced pig with very sparse pelage. It is generally brown or agouti colored, with black legs, and typically has a distinct whitish band extending from either side of the snout to the jowls (hence “banded pig”) and a distinct mane. It has very sparse body hair and no underwool. There is a huge range of size and color throughout this region, but it is so sporadically distributed, with intermediates between the extremes, that it is impossible to divide it up. The species has shorter nasals and narrower occiput than race cristatus. It also stands apart from all other S. scrofasubspecies in the shape of the lacrimal bone and the shape of the rear end of the hard palate.","habitat":"S. scrofais an ecologically very adaptable species, occurring in habitats varying from closed natural and planted forests to open scrublands with some cover. In Europe, the species occurs in agricultural landscapes, as well as riverine and mountainous forests, where it reachesits highest densities in oak-dominated forests. In South-eastAsia, S. scrofais found in mature forests, secondary forests, gardens, and plantations. It can reach very high densities in dipterocarp forests during times of mastfruiting. S. scrofacan cause considerable damage to agriculturalfields. The animals generally avoid open fields but do enter them readily when crops are taller and thus provide cover."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"287","verbatimText":"15.Javan Warty PigSus verrucosusFrench:Sanglier de Java/ German:Java-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide JavaTaxonomy.Sus verrucosus Boie, 1832,Java.The ancestry of this species has been traced back to some fossil pig species of Java, which combined with phylogenetic data suggests that the S. verrucosus lineage has evolved on Javafor approximately two million years. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.v.verrucosusBoie,1832—W&CJava;extinctonMaduraI.S. v. bloucht Groves, 1981— Bawean I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-190 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 70-90 cm; weight 35-150 kg. Compared to other species of Susthe Javan Warty Pig is characterized by great elongation of the face, and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male S. verrucosus can be easily distinguished from other species (at least when seen from nearby) by the presence of warts. Observations from two captive S. verrucosus indicate that warts start to grow when youngsters are 17 months old and weigh approximately 25-35 kg. The two pig species on Javaare externally quite similar, and it will often be difficult to determine the species when an animal is seen at a distance, or when it is a female (which lack the warts). Compared to the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), S. verrucosus gives the impression of having a very large, heavy head, at least in adult males. Males of S. verrucosus are much larger than females (c. 90 kgfor males as opposed to 45 kgfor females). Such pronounced sexual dimorphism is not found in S. scrofa, where the males weigh about the same as the S. verrucosus males, but the females are much heavier than S. verrucosus females. Pelage coloration varies greatly in both species. Generally S. verrucosus appears somewhat reddish, but some individuals look quite black from a distance. The hair on the crown and the mane on the back of the neck are usually paler, often reddish-orange and occasionally approaching blond. In S. verrucosus of all sexes and ages the hair on the belly is predominantly white or yellowish, contrasting with the darker pelage on the upper part of the body. S. scrofaon Javaare most often black or grizzled, but reddish-brown individuals are sometimes encountered. The mane is usually black and the belly hairs are also dark, not contrasting with the pelage above. The individual hairs in S. scrofaare of a single type: black with a yellowish band or (when worn) tip. In S. verrucosus there are two hair types intermixed: shorter red or yellow hairs with black tips, and longer black ones. The coloration of piglets in the two Javan pig species differs as well. S. scrofapiglets are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; the striping is very conspicuous. In S. verrucosus, on the other hand, the striping of piglets is very faint and may be difficult to discern in the field. The shape of the lower canines in male pigs is another good indicator of their specific identity. If a cross section is taken near the base, in S. scrofathe inferior surface is narrower. In S. verrucosus it is as broad as the enamel-less posterior surface. If the width of inferior surface is expressed as a percentage of the posterior surface, for S. scrofathis ranges between 61:5% and 109-1%, and for S. verrucosus it ranges between 113:3% and 161:5%. The canines in females are also distinctive. In S. scrofathey are fairly large: the greatest diameter of the upper canine varies from 16-8 mm to 18-2 mm, and of the lower from 14 mmto 17 mm, overlapping the male range. In S. verrucosus the canines of females are much smaller, the upper measuring 9-3-11-5 mm, the lower 7-3— 10 mm. The race blouchiis distinguished from the nominate subspecies by its smaller size, the relatively low occiput, the red color of the pale hairs in the coat, and the red mane.Habitat.The Javan Warty Pig occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak (7ectona grandis) forest plantations, interspersed with lalang grasslands (/mperata cylindrica), brush, and patches of secondary forest, restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be because the pigs are unable to tolerate low temperatures. They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest. They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava. As with S. scrofa, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations. The two species appear to avoid each other. In the 1920s, their abundance was thought to be similar, but only one species was generally found in a given location. S. scrofaappeared to be better adapted to agricultural areas and heavily degraded forests, and S. verrucosus more restricted to woodlands.Food and Feeding.Ecological information about S. verrucosus is rare because when the species wasstill relatively common, extensive descriptions of feeding and breeding ecology did not differentiate between S. verrucosus and S. scrofa. One account from 1928 describes their ecological similarities: both species feed on a range of animal and plant foods, including fallen fruits, roots, worms, and insects. They are particularly partial to ripe rice, making them a feared agricultural pest.Breeding.The gestation period is thought to be about four months, and 3-9 young are born. Most births reportedly occur in the rainy season, from January to March, in a large nest made by the female out ofleaflitter. According to a recent informant, females with young are mostly seen between August and December.Activity patterns.There is little known about activity patterns of S. verrucosus. Interview surveys on Javain 2003 suggest that the species is mostly nocturnal, with several respondents reporting that damage to rice fields almost exclusively happened at night. It could be that a shift from generally diurnal activity patterns in pigs to nocturnal ones is because of the very high hunting pressure on the species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No estimates of home range or population density are available. Historically, group sizes of up to 20 animals were reported, though most recent records refer to groups of no more than six individuals during the breeding season and fewer at other times.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is now restricted to several isolated areas on mainlandJava. The Javan Warty Pig is endemic to the islands ofJava, Madura, and Bawean in Indonesia. It occurs alongside S. scrofavittatus, but it appears that the two species avoid each other and attain their highest densities where the other speciesis absent. S. verrucosus was widespread on Javaas recently as 1982, but is now absent from most of the island and survives only in highly fragmented populations. A Java-wide, interview-based survey in 2003 found that there were about ten areas on Javaand Bawean where S. verrucosus populations survived, although other small groups may have existed elsewhere. These include remnant and low density populations in west Javain the areas between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, and between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserves of Cikepuh. S. verrucosus is very rare near Purwakarta. Several small populations remain near and south of Garut, with a few reported sightings of S. verrucosus in 2002 and just before. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang, interviewees reported recent killings of S. verrucosus, but the species is now much rarer than in the past. A population of S. verrucosus still remains east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis, although people consider S. verrucosus to be rare in comparison to S. scrofa. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of S. verrucosus from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusa Kembangan, including some from the Nusa Kembangan Nature Reserve off Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into small populations. The only areas where S. verrucosus reportedly remained common were around Subah, where animals were generally seen in small groups of 1-2 individuals and groups of 4-6 during the mating season, and around Blora and Bojonegoro. In the latter area, group size had reportedly declined from 10-20 to only 1-3. No recent records of S. verrucosus exist from Madura Island, and the species is considered extirpated there. On Bawean Island, the only area where the subspecies blouchi occurs, the species is now very rare, and possibly already extirpated. There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 populations (53%) are extirpated or have dropped to low encounter rate levels. [tis thought that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops. Many animals are killed by poisoning. As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation of subspecies blouchi on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals were previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Muslim inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa) has been speculated as a further threat to S. verrucosus, especially in areas where human-induced habitat changes favor S. scrofa. Recent DNA analysis of one S. verrucosus specimen suggested high levels of inbreeding in the species compared to other Sus species, but no evidence of introgression from S. scrofawas found. Further genetic studies on more samples are needed to assess potential conservation implications of both inbreeding and hybridization.Bibliography.Bartels (1937, 1940, 1942), Blouch (1983, 1988, 1993), Blouch & Groves (1990), Franck (1936), Groves (1981), Hardjasamita (1987), Huffman (2004), Nijman (2001, 2003), Olivier (1925, 1928), Semiadi & Meijaard (2004, 2006), Semiadi et al. (2008), Sody (1936, 1941a, 1941b).","taxonomy":"Sus verrucosus Boie, 1832,Java.The ancestry of this species has been traced back to some fossil pig species of Java, which combined with phylogenetic data suggests that the S. verrucosus lineage has evolved on Javafor approximately two million years. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Sanglier de Java @fr | Java-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Java @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"287","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"verrucosus","name":"Sus verrucosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.v.verrucosusBoie,1832—W&CJava;extinctonMaduraI.S. v. bloucht Groves, 1981— Bawean I.","bibliography":"Bartels (1937, 1940, 1942) | Blouch (1983, 1988, 1993) | Blouch & Groves (1990) | Franck (1936) | Groves (1981) | Hardjasamita (1987) | Huffman (2004) | Nijman (2001, 2003) | Olivier (1925, 1928) | Semiadi & Meijaard (2004, 2006) | Semiadi et al. (2008) | Sody (1936, 1941a, 1941b)","foodAndFeeding":"Ecological information about S. verrucosus is rare because when the species wasstill relatively common, extensive descriptions of feeding and breeding ecology did not differentiate between S. verrucosus and S. scrofa. One account from 1928 describes their ecological similarities: both species feed on a range of animal and plant foods, including fallen fruits, roots, worms, and insects. They are particularly partial to ripe rice, making them a feared agricultural pest.","breeding":"The gestation period is thought to be about four months, and 3-9 young are born. Most births reportedly occur in the rainy season, from January to March, in a large nest made by the female out ofleaflitter. According to a recent informant, females with young are mostly seen between August and December.","activityPatterns":"There is little known about activity patterns of S. verrucosus. Interview surveys on Javain 2003 suggest that the species is mostly nocturnal, with several respondents reporting that damage to rice fields almost exclusively happened at night. It could be that a shift from generally diurnal activity patterns in pigs to nocturnal ones is because of the very high hunting pressure on the species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No estimates of home range or population density are available. Historically, group sizes of up to 20 animals were reported, though most recent records refer to groups of no more than six individuals during the breeding season and fewer at other times.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is now restricted to several isolated areas on mainlandJava. The Javan Warty Pig is endemic to the islands ofJava, Madura, and Bawean in Indonesia. It occurs alongside S. scrofavittatus, but it appears that the two species avoid each other and attain their highest densities where the other speciesis absent. S. verrucosus was widespread on Javaas recently as 1982, but is now absent from most of the island and survives only in highly fragmented populations. A Java-wide, interview-based survey in 2003 found that there were about ten areas on Javaand Bawean where S. verrucosus populations survived, although other small groups may have existed elsewhere. These include remnant and low density populations in west Javain the areas between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, and between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserves of Cikepuh. S. verrucosus is very rare near Purwakarta. Several small populations remain near and south of Garut, with a few reported sightings of S. verrucosus in 2002 and just before. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang, interviewees reported recent killings of S. verrucosus, but the species is now much rarer than in the past. A population of S. verrucosus still remains east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis, although people consider S. verrucosus to be rare in comparison to S. scrofa. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of S. verrucosus from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusa Kembangan, including some from the Nusa Kembangan Nature Reserve off Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into small populations. The only areas where S. verrucosus reportedly remained common were around Subah, where animals were generally seen in small groups of 1-2 individuals and groups of 4-6 during the mating season, and around Blora and Bojonegoro. In the latter area, group size had reportedly declined from 10-20 to only 1-3. No recent records of S. verrucosus exist from Madura Island, and the species is considered extirpated there. On Bawean Island, the only area where the subspecies blouchi occurs, the species is now very rare, and possibly already extirpated. There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 populations (53%) are extirpated or have dropped to low encounter rate levels. [tis thought that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops. Many animals are killed by poisoning. As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation of subspecies blouchi on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals were previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Muslim inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa) has been speculated as a further threat to S. verrucosus, especially in areas where human-induced habitat changes favor S. scrofa. Recent DNA analysis of one S. verrucosus specimen suggested high levels of inbreeding in the species compared to other Sus species, but no evidence of introgression from S. scrofawas found. Further genetic studies on more samples are needed to assess potential conservation implications of both inbreeding and hybridization.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 90-190 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 70-90 cm; weight 35-150 kg. Compared to other species of Susthe Javan Warty Pig is characterized by great elongation of the face, and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male S. verrucosus can be easily distinguished from other species (at least when seen from nearby) by the presence of warts. Observations from two captive S. verrucosus indicate that warts start to grow when youngsters are 17 months old and weigh approximately 25-35 kg. The two pig species on Javaare externally quite similar, and it will often be difficult to determine the species when an animal is seen at a distance, or when it is a female (which lack the warts). Compared to the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), S. verrucosus gives the impression of having a very large, heavy head, at least in adult males. Males of S. verrucosus are much larger than females (c. 90 kgfor males as opposed to 45 kgfor females). Such pronounced sexual dimorphism is not found in S. scrofa, where the males weigh about the same as the S. verrucosus males, but the females are much heavier than S. verrucosus females. Pelage coloration varies greatly in both species. Generally S. verrucosus appears somewhat reddish, but some individuals look quite black from a distance. The hair on the crown and the mane on the back of the neck are usually paler, often reddish-orange and occasionally approaching blond. In S. verrucosus of all sexes and ages the hair on the belly is predominantly white or yellowish, contrasting with the darker pelage on the upper part of the body. S. scrofaon Javaare most often black or grizzled, but reddish-brown individuals are sometimes encountered. The mane is usually black and the belly hairs are also dark, not contrasting with the pelage above. The individual hairs in S. scrofaare of a single type: black with a yellowish band or (when worn) tip. In S. verrucosus there are two hair types intermixed: shorter red or yellow hairs with black tips, and longer black ones. The coloration of piglets in the two Javan pig species differs as well. S. scrofapiglets are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; the striping is very conspicuous. In S. verrucosus, on the other hand, the striping of piglets is very faint and may be difficult to discern in the field. The shape of the lower canines in male pigs is another good indicator of their specific identity. If a cross section is taken near the base, in S. scrofathe inferior surface is narrower. In S. verrucosus it is as broad as the enamel-less posterior surface. If the width of inferior surface is expressed as a percentage of the posterior surface, for S. scrofathis ranges between 61:5% and 109-1%, and for S. verrucosus it ranges between 113:3% and 161:5%. The canines in females are also distinctive. In S. scrofathey are fairly large: the greatest diameter of the upper canine varies from 16-8 mm to 18-2 mm, and of the lower from 14 mmto 17 mm, overlapping the male range. In S. verrucosus the canines of females are much smaller, the upper measuring 9-3-11-5 mm, the lower 7-3— 10 mm. The race blouchiis distinguished from the nominate subspecies by its smaller size, the relatively low occiput, the red color of the pale hairs in the coat, and the red mane.","habitat":"The Javan Warty Pig occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak (7ectona grandis) forest plantations, interspersed with lalang grasslands (/mperata cylindrica), brush, and patches of secondary forest, restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be because the pigs are unable to tolerate low temperatures. They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest. They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava. As with S. scrofa, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations. The two species appear to avoid each other. In the 1920s, their abundance was thought to be similar, but only one species was generally found in a given location. S. scrofaappeared to be better adapted to agricultural areas and heavily degraded forests, and S. verrucosus more restricted to woodlands."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"286","verbatimText":"14.SulawesiWarty PigSus celebensisFrench:Sanglier des Célébes/ German:Sulawesi-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide CélebesTaxonomy.Sus celebensis Muller & Schlegel, 1843,Manado, Celebes.Genetic studies have suggested that S. celebensisforms two clades, one restricted to northern Sulawesiand the other to the remainder of the species’ range. This can be explained either by the occurrence of two colonization events onto Sulawesior the historic fragmentation of the island into at least two parts. Taxonomic differentiation between the two clades is not sufficiently supported by morphological studies, although the average skull size of S. celebensiswas found to be considerably greater for southern Sulawesithan for northern Sulawesi. Provisionally monotypic.Distribution.Sulawesiand adjacent Is (Buton, Kabaena, Muna, Peleng, Lembeh, and on some of the Togian Is); thought to be extinct on Selayar I. Pigs have been widely domesticated through the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This primarily involved the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), but also S. celebensis, the only other species of pig successfully domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA studies of the dispersion of these domesticated forms agree on three major dispersal events, two involving S. scrofaand one S. celebensis. Evidence supports an early human-mediated translocation of S. celebensisto Floresand Timor and two later, separate human-mediated dispersals of domestic pig through islands of SE Asia into Oceania. In addition to Floresand Timor, S. celebensisis also thought to occur in its domesticated form on Halmahera, Lendu, Roti, and Savur Is, and even on Simeulue and Nias Is to the W of Sumatraand far from its island of origin, Sulawesi. In the Moluccas, and possibly elsewhere in this region, introduced S. celebensisare thought to have hybridized with other introduced pigs of S. scrofaderivation, and apparent hybrids between these species are now reported to survive on a number of islands, including Salawatti, Great Kei, Dobu, Seram, Ambon, Bacan, Ternate, Morotai, and New Guinea. It is also reported that in the 19\" century the sows of domestic pigs in Sulawesi frequently mated with wild animals, after which they returned to their villages.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80-130 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 70 cm; weight 40-70 kg. Adult animals are usually dark-haired, although some individuals are reddish-brown or yellowish in color, sometimes with lighter colored hairs on the trunk and abdomen. There is always a dark dorsal stripe, and a clear yellow snout band is usually present. A short mane and distinct crest of longer hair on the crown or forehead has been recorded for captive animals, but observations on 27 animals in the wild in north Sulawesifound no instances of a crest as long as in the zoo specimens. This might be because, as in the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) and the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), prominent manes and crests may only occur during the breeding season (in the case of these latter species, from late November to April). It is unclear when the wild observations on S. celebensiswere made. Young are born with five dark brown and six pale horizontalstripes along the length of their bodies, which they lose at an age of about six months. Adult males have three pairs of facial warts, the preorbital pair being the largest, the infraorbital somewhat smaller, and the mandibular warts emerging from a whorl of hair that first marks their position; the warts enlarge and eventually dominate (at least in captive specimens). The legs are relatively very short, and the back is short and slightly convex. Thetail is long and simply tufted. Adult males are larger than sows, averaging 70 cmat the shoulder in males as opposed to 60 cmin females. Recent forms are larger than the subfossil remains found in caves in southern Sulawesi. S. celebensishas a chromosome number of 38. There are significant differences in the banding of the Y chromosome of S. celebensis, however, when compared with either S. scrofaor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus).Habitat.This species is reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including rainforests, swamps, high grassland terrains, and agricultural areas. It is found at elevations up to moss forest at about 2300 m, but it prefers valleys.Food and Feeding.Little is known about the feeding behavior of S. celebensis. Roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots are thought to constitute the bulk of their diet, with invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion as occasional secondary additions. However, no quantitative data are available about percentages of these itemsin their diets, and how this varies over time and in different habitats. Unlike babirusas, S. celebensishas been observed to consume grasses, although this is based on brief observations only.Breeding.Mating is reported to occur in February, although this is based on only one observation. Births can occur at any time throughout the year but sows usually have their young in April or May. Gestation length is not known for certain, and the suggestion that it may be between 16 and 20 weeks should be treated with caution. Farrowing sows give birth in nests made of grasses, leaves, branches, and twigs piled over a shallow excavation approximately 2 min length. Litter size has been estimated as 2-8 piglets, with an average offive, although a study in North Sulawesiin 1991 found six pregnant sows killed by hunters to be carrying only 1-3 fetuses, with a mean of only 2-17 fetuses per pregnancy.Activity patterns.The SulawesiWarty Pig is primarily diurnal. Most feeding activity observed in relatively undisturbed areas occurs during the daylight hours, concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Few data exist on group size, but observations around a salt lick recorded single animals (five times), pairs (two times), groups of three (four times), and one group of six. In another population the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1-25 (n = 25) and group size was 2-9, with an average of five (n = 16). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults, and 1-3 adults. These and observations from the 19\" century suggest that the species occurs in small troops or families. Densities ranged from 0-4-2 ind/km? in a reserve on the north peninsula to 1:8-19-8 ind/km? and 5-1-14-5 ind/km? in two reserves on the south-east peninsula. A recent study in those reserves found even higher densities in lowland forest (23-5 ind/km?). Such major differences in density are thought to result from varying hunting pressure, with Muslim-dominated areas, where people do not eat pigs, having higher population densities than areas where Christians predominate. With inter-island trade being common, however,it is unclear to what extent Muslimdominated areas become suppliers to the Christian ones. Also, in the south-east peninsula, which is mostly Muslim, S. celebensishas apparently been extirpated, so obviously religious affinity is not sufficient to prevent local extinction of the species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List based on the level of the main threats, habitat loss and hunting. S. celebensisis a species of the central and eastern islands of Indonesia, occurring east of Wallace's Line, which separates the faunas and floras with Oriental affiliation in the west from the Australasian ones in the east. Generally the species is considered to be common, although statements along these lines have been repeated for decades without actual field surveys providing supporting information. S. celebensishas a patchy distribution on most of SulawesiIsland; it is most common in the south-eastern parts of the island. The species has been considered scarce in south-west Sulawesifor over two decades because of ongoing deforestation and hunting. Decreasing sign of pigs in various parts of southern Sulawesiwas noted as early as 1938. Extensive logging and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration, have resulted in the marked contraction and fragmentation ofits range in most places. Market surveys also indicate that the species is under high hunting pressure. For example, brief surveys of three village markets in north-eastern Sulawesiconcluded that about 2-20 wild pigs per week were being sold by commercial hunters and slaughtered by butchers when needed. Wild piglets that are caught by villagers in Sulawesiare kept and usually raised for slaughter for eating or sold at the local market. The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of the current harvesting rate. The fact that the species is not protected outside certain protected areas, and can therefore be openly hunted and traded, makesit difficult to reduce consumption to more sustainable levels. Surveys within protected areas also show that the species is commonly hunted there, and in three protected areas in north Sulawesino sign at all was found of S. celebensis. It is clear that there are few if any areas where the species can be considered secure. S. celebensisis of particular interest in that it is the only pig species, apart from S. scrofathat has been domesticated and quite widely transported by human agency outsideits original range. The available evidence indicates that it is still maintained as a domestic in some areas, but its commercial importance and future potential as a genetic resource are unknown.Bibliography.Alvard (2000), Bosma et al. (1991), Budiarso (1991), Burton (2002), Burton & Macdonald (20086, 2008), Clason (1976), Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (1997), Dobney et al. (2008), Groves (1981), Hooijer (1969), Huffman (1999), Keeling et al. (1999), Larson, Cucchi et al. (2007), Larson, Dobney et al. (2005), Lee et al. (2005), Macdonald (1991b, 1993), Macdonald et al. (1996), Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002), Nehring (1889), O'Brien & Kinnaird (1996), Riley (2002), von Rosenberg (1865), Toxopeus (1938), Wiles et al. (2002).","taxonomy":"Sus celebensis Muller & Schlegel, 1843,Manado, Celebes.Genetic studies have suggested that S. celebensisforms two clades, one restricted to northern Sulawesiand the other to the remainder of the species’ range. This can be explained either by the occurrence of two colonization events onto Sulawesior the historic fragmentation of the island into at least two parts. Taxonomic differentiation between the two clades is not sufficiently supported by morphological studies, although the average skull size of S. celebensiswas found to be considerably greater for southern Sulawesithan for northern Sulawesi. Provisionally monotypic.","commonNames":"Sanglier des Célébes @fr | Sulawesi-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Célebes @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Muller & Schlegel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"286","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"celebensis","name":"Sus celebensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Sulawesiand adjacent Is (Buton, Kabaena, Muna, Peleng, Lembeh, and on some of the Togian Is); thought to be extinct on Selayar I. Pigs have been widely domesticated through the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This primarily involved the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), but also S. celebensis, the only other species of pig successfully domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA studies of the dispersion of these domesticated forms agree on three major dispersal events, two involving S. scrofaand one S. celebensis. Evidence supports an early human-mediated translocation of S. celebensisto Floresand Timor and two later, separate human-mediated dispersals of domestic pig through islands of SE Asia into Oceania. In addition to Floresand Timor, S. celebensisis also thought to occur in its domesticated form on Halmahera, Lendu, Roti, and Savur Is, and even on Simeulue and Nias Is to the W of Sumatraand far from its island of origin, Sulawesi. In the Moluccas, and possibly elsewhere in this region, introduced S. celebensisare thought to have hybridized with other introduced pigs of S. scrofaderivation, and apparent hybrids between these species are now reported to survive on a number of islands, including Salawatti, Great Kei, Dobu, Seram, Ambon, Bacan, Ternate, Morotai, and New Guinea. It is also reported that in the 19\" century the sows of domestic pigs in Sulawesi frequently mated with wild animals, after which they returned to their villages.","bibliography":"Alvard (2000) | Bosma et al. (1991) | Budiarso (1991) | Burton (2002) | Burton & Macdonald (20086, 2008) | Clason (1976) | Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000) | Clayton et al. (1997) | Dobney et al. (2008) | Groves (1981) | Hooijer (1969) | Huffman (1999) | Keeling et al. (1999) | Larson, Cucchi et al. (2007) | Larson, Dobney et al. (2005) | Lee et al. (2005) | Macdonald (1991b, 1993) | Macdonald et al. (1996) | Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002) | Nehring (1889) | O'Brien & Kinnaird (1996) | Riley (2002) | von Rosenberg (1865) | Toxopeus (1938) | Wiles et al. (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"Little is known about the feeding behavior of S. celebensis. Roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots are thought to constitute the bulk of their diet, with invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion as occasional secondary additions. However, no quantitative data are available about percentages of these itemsin their diets, and how this varies over time and in different habitats. Unlike babirusas, S. celebensishas been observed to consume grasses, although this is based on brief observations only.","breeding":"Mating is reported to occur in February, although this is based on only one observation. Births can occur at any time throughout the year but sows usually have their young in April or May. Gestation length is not known for certain, and the suggestion that it may be between 16 and 20 weeks should be treated with caution. Farrowing sows give birth in nests made of grasses, leaves, branches, and twigs piled over a shallow excavation approximately 2 min length. Litter size has been estimated as 2-8 piglets, with an average offive, although a study in North Sulawesiin 1991 found six pregnant sows killed by hunters to be carrying only 1-3 fetuses, with a mean of only 2-17 fetuses per pregnancy.","activityPatterns":"The SulawesiWarty Pig is primarily diurnal. Most feeding activity observed in relatively undisturbed areas occurs during the daylight hours, concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Few data exist on group size, but observations around a salt lick recorded single animals (five times), pairs (two times), groups of three (four times), and one group of six. In another population the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1-25 (n = 25) and group size was 2-9, with an average of five (n = 16). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults, and 1-3 adults. These and observations from the 19\" century suggest that the species occurs in small troops or families. Densities ranged from 0-4-2 ind/km? in a reserve on the north peninsula to 1:8-19-8 ind/km? and 5-1-14-5 ind/km? in two reserves on the south-east peninsula. A recent study in those reserves found even higher densities in lowland forest (23-5 ind/km?). Such major differences in density are thought to result from varying hunting pressure, with Muslim-dominated areas, where people do not eat pigs, having higher population densities than areas where Christians predominate. With inter-island trade being common, however,it is unclear to what extent Muslimdominated areas become suppliers to the Christian ones. Also, in the south-east peninsula, which is mostly Muslim, S. celebensishas apparently been extirpated, so obviously religious affinity is not sufficient to prevent local extinction of the species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List based on the level of the main threats, habitat loss and hunting. S. celebensisis a species of the central and eastern islands of Indonesia, occurring east of Wallace's Line, which separates the faunas and floras with Oriental affiliation in the west from the Australasian ones in the east. Generally the species is considered to be common, although statements along these lines have been repeated for decades without actual field surveys providing supporting information. S. celebensishas a patchy distribution on most of SulawesiIsland; it is most common in the south-eastern parts of the island. The species has been considered scarce in south-west Sulawesifor over two decades because of ongoing deforestation and hunting. Decreasing sign of pigs in various parts of southern Sulawesiwas noted as early as 1938. Extensive logging and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration, have resulted in the marked contraction and fragmentation ofits range in most places. Market surveys also indicate that the species is under high hunting pressure. For example, brief surveys of three village markets in north-eastern Sulawesiconcluded that about 2-20 wild pigs per week were being sold by commercial hunters and slaughtered by butchers when needed. Wild piglets that are caught by villagers in Sulawesiare kept and usually raised for slaughter for eating or sold at the local market. The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of the current harvesting rate. The fact that the species is not protected outside certain protected areas, and can therefore be openly hunted and traded, makesit difficult to reduce consumption to more sustainable levels. Surveys within protected areas also show that the species is commonly hunted there, and in three protected areas in north Sulawesino sign at all was found of S. celebensis. It is clear that there are few if any areas where the species can be considered secure. S. celebensisis of particular interest in that it is the only pig species, apart from S. scrofathat has been domesticated and quite widely transported by human agency outsideits original range. The available evidence indicates that it is still maintained as a domestic in some areas, but its commercial importance and future potential as a genetic resource are unknown.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 80-130 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 70 cm; weight 40-70 kg. Adult animals are usually dark-haired, although some individuals are reddish-brown or yellowish in color, sometimes with lighter colored hairs on the trunk and abdomen. There is always a dark dorsal stripe, and a clear yellow snout band is usually present. A short mane and distinct crest of longer hair on the crown or forehead has been recorded for captive animals, but observations on 27 animals in the wild in north Sulawesifound no instances of a crest as long as in the zoo specimens. This might be because, as in the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) and the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), prominent manes and crests may only occur during the breeding season (in the case of these latter species, from late November to April). It is unclear when the wild observations on S. celebensiswere made. Young are born with five dark brown and six pale horizontalstripes along the length of their bodies, which they lose at an age of about six months. Adult males have three pairs of facial warts, the preorbital pair being the largest, the infraorbital somewhat smaller, and the mandibular warts emerging from a whorl of hair that first marks their position; the warts enlarge and eventually dominate (at least in captive specimens). The legs are relatively very short, and the back is short and slightly convex. Thetail is long and simply tufted. Adult males are larger than sows, averaging 70 cmat the shoulder in males as opposed to 60 cmin females. Recent forms are larger than the subfossil remains found in caves in southern Sulawesi. S. celebensishas a chromosome number of 38. There are significant differences in the banding of the Y chromosome of S. celebensis, however, when compared with either S. scrofaor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus).","habitat":"This species is reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including rainforests, swamps, high grassland terrains, and agricultural areas. It is found at elevations up to moss forest at about 2300 m, but it prefers valleys."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"285","verbatimText":"13.Bearded PigSus barbatusFrench:Sanglier barbu/ German:Bartschwein/ Spanish:JabalibarbudoTaxonomy.Sus barbatus Muller, 1838,Banjermasin, S. Kalimantan, Indonesia.The seemingly absurd subspecific name 0: has been commented on by several authors. Apparently the name was split from a Sumatran tribal name for pig “nangoi,” with only the last bit of the word used. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.barbatusMuller,1838—BorneoandassociatedIs,possiblyextendingtoTawiTawi.S. b. oi Miller, 1902— Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Bangka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 137-152 cm (males, although some reports suggest that males can attain a total length of 208 cm) and 122-148 cm (females), tail 17-26 cm, shoulder height 90 cm, hindfoot 27-32 cm; weight usually ranges from 58 kgto 83 kg, with females somewhat lighter than males. When food is abundant, weights of up to 200 kgcan be attained. Adult Bearded Pigs are characterized by their relatively large body size, reduced sexual dimorphism compared to other species of Sus, long legs, a bearded jaw tuft, and sparse body hair. The species has smaller warts and a more elongated skull than the other warty pigs, relatively small ears, and a long tail with a large terminal tuft divided into distinct anterior and posterior parts. The head is typically long, with a beard of bristles extending along the lower mandibles and a thick band of forward-pointing bristles across the snout above the mouth. The nominate subspecies barbatushas long, sweeping cheek whiskers and thicker and longer hairs on the snout band (especially in males); the whiskers of the subspecies oi are shorter on the cheeks, but long and wiry over the snout. It has been suggested that the body of oi is flatter bilaterally than that of barbatus, but this has not been confirmed. The overall body coloration of Bearded Pigs varies from blackish in young pigs to a paler reddish brown, yellow-gray, or almost buffy white in adults. The color of mud wallows affects the apparent color of pigs. Piglets of the Bearded Pig are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; these stripes are lost by six months of age. Females have six pairs of mammae.Habitat.Bearded Pigs are well adapted to the extensive dipterocarp forests of Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. This tree family is often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting. Bearded Pigs also make extensive use of riverbanks, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms. Other habitats they use include estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of oldjungle, beaches, all kinds of plantations, clearings, and also the outskirts of towns. The species is well known forits migratory behavior. Bearded Pigs are scattered across large regions during non-mast fruiting times, but move from both mountain and swamp habitats to drier lowland forests when fruit becomes abundant.Food and Feeding.Bearded Pigs are real omnivores and it has been said that “it is almost easier to state what they will not eat.” They feed on a long list of food plants, but also consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, and carrion. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition, and reproduction. The other foods that normally occur in the forest are assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaeare thought to be especially important. During mast fruiting the majority of seeds in the diet are dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species. Oaks, especially Castinopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., and Quercus spp., are also favorites. During fruiting times, they are almost solely seed predators, and Bearded Pigs play an important role in the distribution of seeds. They also consume a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes, and other tiny, hard testas, which can pass through their guts and germinate.Breeding.Age at first pregnancy varies in the wild from about 10 to 20 months. The rut appears to coincide with synchronized flowering in the forest, occuring during the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer observers a potential visual cue. During the onset of droughts and related flowering of dipterocarps, male Bearded Pigs rut and females construct nests. In big fruiting years, Bearded Pigs can “double-clutch.” This suggests that a certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they are receptive to mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1-5, whereas rutting males scored zero on this measure (n = 19). Gestation length is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Births occur in a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female was seven (n = 53), which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Litter size is, however, very variable in part because of the influence of female size; small mothers typically have 3—4 piglets in a litter and large ones have 10-12.Activity patterns.Bearded Pigs are mostly diurnal. They are subject to irregular migrations, seeming to follow fruit when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for many years after. The ripening of illipe nuts (Shorea sp.) in Sarawakand East Kalimantan appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations. These mass migrations of Bearded Pigs are distinct from annual local movements damaging rice fields. The somewhat forced, lemminglike aspects of these large scale pig migrations are exemplified by the observation of a pig whose hindquarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward byits front legs to follow its conspecifics. The appearance of large numbers of pigs traveling together is especially obvious during river crossings, which they do in groups of over 100 animals. This provides local hunters with the opportunity to kill large numbers of pigs for meat and fat, from which they extract oils. Mass river crossings might have evolved at a time when crocodiles were still abundant in the region. Bearded Pigs appear to exist in different population states, which have been summarized as follows. 1) Dispersed,static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous “background” food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 2) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous “target” food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia-Burseraceae forest in Peninsular Malaysia. 3) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic mosaic of fruit production. Short to medium-range movements. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 4) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable, and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply. Examples: Dryobalanopsaromatica association in Peninsular Malaysia; Dinochloa association in Sabah. 5) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for severallitters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawakin 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987. 6) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported from Malaya and Borneo. It remains largely unstudied how these different population states have been affected by the continuing loss, degradation, and fragmentation of forest habitats. Unconfirmed information from local people in Kalimantan and Sarawaksuggests that mass migrations of pigs no longer occur to the same extent as reported formerly, even as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, which might indicate that with the removal of millions of hectares of high timber value dipterocarp forests food dynamics and related population states have been severely disrupted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is that of a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. The pigs’ movements vary so much throughout the year and between years that no reliable home range estimates can be made unless animals are radio-tracked for several years. Such studies have recently been completed in Sabah, Malaysia, but the data are not yet available. Bearded Pigs are powerful swimmers and easily cross the many large rivers of Borneo and Sumatra. They have also been reported to cross seas, which might explain why they occur on so many small islands. A report from the 19\" century mentions droves of pigs swimming across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo, a distance of about 8 km. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs crossing the sea channel between Sabahand Sibutu (a distance of some 45 km), and also the Kowie harbor near Tawau, which is at least 9 km. A Bearded Pig was found swimming in the middle of the Sandakan Bay in Sabah, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, 5 kmaway.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, mostly because of the rapid loss of its forest habitat and high hunting pressure throughoutits range. The Bearded Pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo. It is also reported from the island of Sibutu, west of the SuluArchipelago in the Philippines, and possibly on Tawi Tawi Island. In Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a relatively small part ofits presumed prehistoric range. In Borneo the species is still widespread but likely declining. There are additional records from a range of smaller islands, where the status of the speciesis unclear but populations have possibly been extirpated. This includes the islands of Balembangan, Banggi, Batam, Bauwal, Bintan, Bruit, Bunju, Burung, Durian Besar, Galang, Jambongan, Juanata, Karimata, Kundur, Lamukotan, Laut, Malawali, Mapor, Miang Besar, Molleangen, Panebangan, Pelapis, Ransang, Rempang, Rupat, Sauh, Sebuku, Sibutu, Tarakan, Tebing Tinggi, and Ungar. Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as Bearded Pigs for at least 35,000 years. Holocene and prehistoric cave finds in Sabah, Sarawak, and East Kalimantan indicate that Bearded Pigs have been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Bearded Pig was hunted but was apparently fairly plentiful and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1500-2000 years ago. Overhunting has since led to population declines. In some parts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, Bearded Pigs had already been hunted to near extinction by the 1920s. More recently, the threat of extinction is becoming a reality in many more parts of their range, where overhunting, logging, and conversion of forests have caused a rapid decline in Bearded Pig populations. Overhunting has also likely led to the extermination of many small-island populations. In 1906, such extinctions were reported for the Penata and Kebun Islands in the Burung group of northern West Kalimantan, and presumably extinctions have also occurred in the often densely settled islands where Bearded Pigs used to occur. It has been estimated that hunters in Sarawaktake an annual harvest of up to one million or more pigs, making wild pork meat of considerable economic significance. This is quite often related to commercial timber extraction. One typical logging camp in Sarawakkilled as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found to be wasteful, with pigs being killed on sight even if the worker did not need the meat. In one logging area, for example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leave the rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day. Bearded Pigs are by far the most preferred species of wild meat throughout Sarawakand Sabah, where they comprise as much as 72% of the dressed weight of all animals hunted. In these areas, the impact of hunting seems clear, with a significant correlation between hunting pressure and animal density. This pattern is so strong that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated, including Bearded Pigs, decreases, until all large animals are locally extirpated. This pattern of high hunting pressure on these animals is also found among Penan and Kenyah tribes in East Kalimantan, where pigs contributed 79-8% of all catches and 91% ofall the edible meat. On average these people consume of 133-6 kg of pig meat per person per year. The estimate for Sarawakis 12 kgof pig meat per person per year. In Peninsular Malaysia, the more sedentary population of Bearded Pigs, apparently associated with continuously fruiting Koompassia-Burseraceae forests, is endangered by hunting as well as habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced on the peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favored Indonesian Banded Pigs (S. scrofavittatus) over Bearded Pigs in those parts of Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra where sympatry between these species occurs. This poses a further, and potentially serious, threat to Bearded Pigs. Available data indicate that wherever these two species are sympatric, the number of Eurasian Wild Pigs is greater than the number of Bearded Pigs, and that the Eurasian Wild Pig now has a much wider range of distribution than the Bearded Pig throughout these regions. In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya. A comparison between the current distribution of Bearded Pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago, where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear. These animals are also potentially threatened by various contagious diseases. For example, a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the domestic cattle population of south-east Borneo between 1871 and 1872 evidently spread to both domestic pigs and Bearded Pig populations over large parts of Borneo. Several similar and successive outbreaks of rinderpest in domestic cattle between 1878 and 1894 also killed off large numbers of these animals. The most serious may have been an epidemic in 1894, when populations of Bearded Pigs had already been severely reduced by epidemics in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. A final epidemic occurred in 1906, when a great many Bearded Pigs succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area in South Kalimantan. There are no recent records of such epidemics, but the proximity of domestic animals to remaining Bearded Pig populations is a potentially serious threat, particularly at times when the pigs may already be nutritionally stressed.Bibliography.Banks(1931), Barton et al. (2009), Bennett et al. (2000), Boden Kloss (1905), Caldecott (1988, 1991a, 1991b), Caldecott & Caldecott (1985), Caldecott, Blouch et al. (1993), Chin(2001), Cranbrook & Labang (2003), Curran & Leighton (2000), Curran & Webb (2000), Genov (2004), Hancock et al. (2004, 2006), Ickes (2001), Ickes & DeWalt (1999), Kawanishi, Gumal & Oliver (2008), Kawanishi, Richardson & Lazarus (2006), Kempe (1948), Kloss (1931), Knapen (1997), Linkie & Sadikin (2003), Lyon (1908), Medway(1977), Meijaard (2000), Ong et al. (1999), Pfeffer (1959), Pfeffer & Caldecott (1986), Piper & Rabett (2009).","taxonomy":"Sus barbatus Muller, 1838,Banjermasin, S. Kalimantan, Indonesia.The seemingly absurd subspecific name 0: has been commented on by several authors. Apparently the name was split from a Sumatran tribal name for pig “nangoi,” with only the last bit of the word used. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Sanglier barbu @fr | Bartschwein @de | Jabalibarbudo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Muller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"285","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"barbatus","name":"Sus barbatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.b.barbatusMuller,1838—BorneoandassociatedIs,possiblyextendingtoTawiTawi.S. b. oi Miller, 1902— Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Bangka.","bibliography":"Banks(1931) | Barton et al. (2009) | Bennett et al. (2000) | Boden Kloss (1905) | Caldecott (1988, 1991a, 1991b) | Caldecott & Caldecott (1985) | Caldecott, Blouch et al. (1993) | Chin(2001) | Cranbrook & Labang (2003) | Curran & Leighton (2000) | Curran & Webb (2000) | Genov (2004) | Hancock et al. (2004, 2006) | Ickes (2001) | Ickes & DeWalt (1999) | Kawanishi, Gumal & Oliver (2008) | Kawanishi, Richardson & Lazarus (2006) | Kempe (1948) | Kloss (1931) | Knapen (1997) | Linkie & Sadikin (2003) | Lyon (1908) | Medway(1977) | Meijaard (2000) | Ong et al. (1999) | Pfeffer (1959) | Pfeffer & Caldecott (1986) | Piper & Rabett (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"Bearded Pigs are real omnivores and it has been said that “it is almost easier to state what they will not eat.” They feed on a long list of food plants, but also consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, and carrion. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition, and reproduction. The other foods that normally occur in the forest are assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaeare thought to be especially important. During mast fruiting the majority of seeds in the diet are dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species. Oaks, especially Castinopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., and Quercus spp., are also favorites. During fruiting times, they are almost solely seed predators, and Bearded Pigs play an important role in the distribution of seeds. They also consume a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes, and other tiny, hard testas, which can pass through their guts and germinate.","breeding":"Age at first pregnancy varies in the wild from about 10 to 20 months. The rut appears to coincide with synchronized flowering in the forest, occuring during the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer observers a potential visual cue. During the onset of droughts and related flowering of dipterocarps, male Bearded Pigs rut and females construct nests. In big fruiting years, Bearded Pigs can “double-clutch.” This suggests that a certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they are receptive to mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1-5, whereas rutting males scored zero on this measure (n = 19). Gestation length is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Births occur in a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female was seven (n = 53), which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Litter size is, however, very variable in part because of the influence of female size; small mothers typically have 3—4 piglets in a litter and large ones have 10-12.","activityPatterns":"Bearded Pigs are mostly diurnal. They are subject to irregular migrations, seeming to follow fruit when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for many years after. The ripening of illipe nuts (Shorea sp.) in Sarawakand East Kalimantan appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations. These mass migrations of Bearded Pigs are distinct from annual local movements damaging rice fields. The somewhat forced, lemminglike aspects of these large scale pig migrations are exemplified by the observation of a pig whose hindquarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward byits front legs to follow its conspecifics. The appearance of large numbers of pigs traveling together is especially obvious during river crossings, which they do in groups of over 100 animals. This provides local hunters with the opportunity to kill large numbers of pigs for meat and fat, from which they extract oils. Mass river crossings might have evolved at a time when crocodiles were still abundant in the region. Bearded Pigs appear to exist in different population states, which have been summarized as follows. 1) Dispersed,static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous “background” food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 2) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous “target” food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia-Burseraceae forest in Peninsular Malaysia. 3) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic mosaic of fruit production. Short to medium-range movements. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 4) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable, and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply. Examples: Dryobalanopsaromatica association in Peninsular Malaysia; Dinochloa association in Sabah. 5) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for severallitters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawakin 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987. 6) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported from Malaya and Borneo. It remains largely unstudied how these different population states have been affected by the continuing loss, degradation, and fragmentation of forest habitats. Unconfirmed information from local people in Kalimantan and Sarawaksuggests that mass migrations of pigs no longer occur to the same extent as reported formerly, even as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, which might indicate that with the removal of millions of hectares of high timber value dipterocarp forests food dynamics and related population states have been severely disrupted.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit is that of a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. The pigs’ movements vary so much throughout the year and between years that no reliable home range estimates can be made unless animals are radio-tracked for several years. Such studies have recently been completed in Sabah, Malaysia, but the data are not yet available. Bearded Pigs are powerful swimmers and easily cross the many large rivers of Borneo and Sumatra. They have also been reported to cross seas, which might explain why they occur on so many small islands. A report from the 19\" century mentions droves of pigs swimming across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo, a distance of about 8 km. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs crossing the sea channel between Sabahand Sibutu (a distance of some 45 km), and also the Kowie harbor near Tawau, which is at least 9 km. A Bearded Pig was found swimming in the middle of the Sandakan Bay in Sabah, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, 5 kmaway.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, mostly because of the rapid loss of its forest habitat and high hunting pressure throughoutits range. The Bearded Pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo. It is also reported from the island of Sibutu, west of the SuluArchipelago in the Philippines, and possibly on Tawi Tawi Island. In Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a relatively small part ofits presumed prehistoric range. In Borneo the species is still widespread but likely declining. There are additional records from a range of smaller islands, where the status of the speciesis unclear but populations have possibly been extirpated. This includes the islands of Balembangan, Banggi, Batam, Bauwal, Bintan, Bruit, Bunju, Burung, Durian Besar, Galang, Jambongan, Juanata, Karimata, Kundur, Lamukotan, Laut, Malawali, Mapor, Miang Besar, Molleangen, Panebangan, Pelapis, Ransang, Rempang, Rupat, Sauh, Sebuku, Sibutu, Tarakan, Tebing Tinggi, and Ungar. Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as Bearded Pigs for at least 35,000 years. Holocene and prehistoric cave finds in Sabah, Sarawak, and East Kalimantan indicate that Bearded Pigs have been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Bearded Pig was hunted but was apparently fairly plentiful and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1500-2000 years ago. Overhunting has since led to population declines. In some parts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, Bearded Pigs had already been hunted to near extinction by the 1920s. More recently, the threat of extinction is becoming a reality in many more parts of their range, where overhunting, logging, and conversion of forests have caused a rapid decline in Bearded Pig populations. Overhunting has also likely led to the extermination of many small-island populations. In 1906, such extinctions were reported for the Penata and Kebun Islands in the Burung group of northern West Kalimantan, and presumably extinctions have also occurred in the often densely settled islands where Bearded Pigs used to occur. It has been estimated that hunters in Sarawaktake an annual harvest of up to one million or more pigs, making wild pork meat of considerable economic significance. This is quite often related to commercial timber extraction. One typical logging camp in Sarawakkilled as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found to be wasteful, with pigs being killed on sight even if the worker did not need the meat. In one logging area, for example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leave the rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day. Bearded Pigs are by far the most preferred species of wild meat throughout Sarawakand Sabah, where they comprise as much as 72% of the dressed weight of all animals hunted. In these areas, the impact of hunting seems clear, with a significant correlation between hunting pressure and animal density. This pattern is so strong that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated, including Bearded Pigs, decreases, until all large animals are locally extirpated. This pattern of high hunting pressure on these animals is also found among Penan and Kenyah tribes in East Kalimantan, where pigs contributed 79-8% of all catches and 91% ofall the edible meat. On average these people consume of 133-6 kg of pig meat per person per year. The estimate for Sarawakis 12 kgof pig meat per person per year. In Peninsular Malaysia, the more sedentary population of Bearded Pigs, apparently associated with continuously fruiting Koompassia-Burseraceae forests, is endangered by hunting as well as habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced on the peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favored Indonesian Banded Pigs (S. scrofavittatus) over Bearded Pigs in those parts of Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra where sympatry between these species occurs. This poses a further, and potentially serious, threat to Bearded Pigs. Available data indicate that wherever these two species are sympatric, the number of Eurasian Wild Pigs is greater than the number of Bearded Pigs, and that the Eurasian Wild Pig now has a much wider range of distribution than the Bearded Pig throughout these regions. In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya. A comparison between the current distribution of Bearded Pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago, where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear. These animals are also potentially threatened by various contagious diseases. For example, a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the domestic cattle population of south-east Borneo between 1871 and 1872 evidently spread to both domestic pigs and Bearded Pig populations over large parts of Borneo. Several similar and successive outbreaks of rinderpest in domestic cattle between 1878 and 1894 also killed off large numbers of these animals. The most serious may have been an epidemic in 1894, when populations of Bearded Pigs had already been severely reduced by epidemics in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. A final epidemic occurred in 1906, when a great many Bearded Pigs succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area in South Kalimantan. There are no recent records of such epidemics, but the proximity of domestic animals to remaining Bearded Pig populations is a potentially serious threat, particularly at times when the pigs may already be nutritionally stressed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 137-152 cm (males, although some reports suggest that males can attain a total length of 208 cm) and 122-148 cm (females), tail 17-26 cm, shoulder height 90 cm, hindfoot 27-32 cm; weight usually ranges from 58 kgto 83 kg, with females somewhat lighter than males. When food is abundant, weights of up to 200 kgcan be attained. Adult Bearded Pigs are characterized by their relatively large body size, reduced sexual dimorphism compared to other species of Sus, long legs, a bearded jaw tuft, and sparse body hair. The species has smaller warts and a more elongated skull than the other warty pigs, relatively small ears, and a long tail with a large terminal tuft divided into distinct anterior and posterior parts. The head is typically long, with a beard of bristles extending along the lower mandibles and a thick band of forward-pointing bristles across the snout above the mouth. The nominate subspecies barbatushas long, sweeping cheek whiskers and thicker and longer hairs on the snout band (especially in males); the whiskers of the subspecies oi are shorter on the cheeks, but long and wiry over the snout. It has been suggested that the body of oi is flatter bilaterally than that of barbatus, but this has not been confirmed. The overall body coloration of Bearded Pigs varies from blackish in young pigs to a paler reddish brown, yellow-gray, or almost buffy white in adults. The color of mud wallows affects the apparent color of pigs. Piglets of the Bearded Pig are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; these stripes are lost by six months of age. Females have six pairs of mammae.","habitat":"Bearded Pigs are well adapted to the extensive dipterocarp forests of Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. This tree family is often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting. Bearded Pigs also make extensive use of riverbanks, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms. Other habitats they use include estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of oldjungle, beaches, all kinds of plantations, clearings, and also the outskirts of towns. The species is well known forits migratory behavior. Bearded Pigs are scattered across large regions during non-mast fruiting times, but move from both mountain and swamp habitats to drier lowland forests when fruit becomes abundant."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"285","verbatimText":"12.PalawanBearded PigSus ahoenobarbusFrench:Sanglier de Palawan/ German:Palawan-Bartschwein/ Spanish:Jabalibarbudo de PalawanTaxonomy.Sus barbatusahoenobarbus Huet, 1888,“Palauan” (= Palawan).Susahoenobarbus was originally described as a subspecies of the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus), but was upgraded to full species because ofits distinct characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis based on two mt DNA cytochrome b fragments (mtDNA cyt b) pacha that S. ahoenobarbus was more closely related to the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) than to S. barbatus, of which it was originally thought to be a subspecies. Morphologically it is, however, more similar to S. barbatus, as evidenced by their conspicuous beards and absence of the prominent manes and mandibular facial warts characteristic of Philippine Warty Pigs (S. philippensis). Also, the chromosome number, which is 38 inS. ahoenobarbus, S. barbatus, and almost all other Susspecies, but is 36 inS. cebifrons and S. philippinensis, suggests a closer affinity to S. barbatus. As was stated in the taxonomic review of the species by C. P. Groves, “there is absolutely no doubt that this form is a dwarf barbatus.” In view of more recent evidence, it is unclear whether there are issues of data interpretation underlying this apparent contradiction in phylogenetic affinity, or whether there is another explanation. For example, hybridization may have occurred between barbatusand cebifrons, so that ahoenobarbus maintains characteristics of both species. Until further research is conducted, the phylogenetic affinities of S. ahoenobarbus remain unclear. Monotypic.Distribution.Palawanand associated Is (Calauit, Busuanga, Bacbac, Coron, Marily, Culion & Dumaran, Linapacan in the N, and Bugsuk, Balabac & Ramos in the S). Probably now extinct in Bulalacao.Descriptive notes.Head—body 100-160 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight up to 150 kg. This species is smaller than S. barbatus, and has a shorter facial skeleton. The hair is thin, bristly, and blackish-brown over most of the animal, but adults have a distinct mane of longer whitish hairs extending from crown to rump and a characteristic beard of long white hairs on the cheeks and jowls that extends in a band across the snout. This band with black hairs around the eyes, forehead, and more anterior parts of the snout, provides a mask-like appearance. Infants lack manes and beards and are generally far less distinctly marked, except for three horizontal bands of orange-colored hair extending from their necks to their hindquarters; the lower band is much broader and extends over most of the lowersides of their bodies.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of primary and secondary habitats, ranging from lowland and mid-montane rainforests (0—c. 1500 mabove sea level) to drier open woodland and grasslands. It also frequents drier limestone and mangrove forests in coastal areas and occurs in cultivated and managed areas.Food and Feeding.Although this has not been studied,it is thought that ecologically S. ahoenobarbus is similar to the Bearded Pig from Borneo, which consumes roots, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and a great range of plants, especially favoring lipidrich fruit of the Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaefamilies.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known, except that the species is most often seen or reported to be active in the early mornings and late afternoons in relatively undisturbed areas, but tends to be almost exclusively nocturnal in areas where hunting and other anthropogenic disturbances are commonplace.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Almost nothing is known. Most local hunters and other informants report that they seldom see more than two or three individuals together, though it is likely that larger natal family units and other socioreproductive groups are maintained in less disturbed areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the “ PalawanFaunal Region,” which extends from Balabac and associated islands in the extreme south-west through all of PalawanIsland and its associated offshore islets, as far as the Calamian Islands in the extreme north-east. However, this region also constitutes the easternmost extension of the Sunda Shelf and was intermittently connected by land bridges to Borneo by sea level changes during consecutive Pleistocene glaciations. The species remains relatively widely, if increasingly patchily, distributed. It is heavily hunted throughout most of its range, either for direct consumption or to be sold. One kilogram of pork fetches a price of about twice the price of domestic pork. Pigs are hunted throughout the year, but especially during forest tree-fruiting periods (no specifics are known) when pigs gather to forage on fallen fruits. They are also killed in reprisal for their occasional raids on neighboring forest gardens or other cultivated areas. Hunting methods include snares, low caliberrifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as “pig bombs,” which are made of ping-pong-ball-sized mixtures of gunpowder and shards of porcelain, coated with fish paste or other strong-smelling baits to entice the pigs. These are buried on pig trails or around cultivated plants close to forest edges. They explode when they are unearthed and bitten into by foraging pigs,killing the pigs or, more likely, causing horrendous wounds and producing trails that hunters with dogs can follow to collect the dead or dying animals the following day. S. ahoenobarbus is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas, because ofillegal “kaingin” (slashand-burn agriculture), mining, and other commercial developments. The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced and/or realistically unenforceable in most areas—including most designated protected areas. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation and the addition of new protected areas, which should be designed to enable greater management by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national system. Awareness campaigns are also important: few hinterland communities are aware of any prevailing wildlife protection legislation, or disregard the laws because of the chronic lack of enforcement by salient governmental authorities. This is especially the case where reprisals against the pigs follow their occasional raids on crops; the reprisals are likely to illicit sympathy and non-action from the responsible agencies. Farming in protected areas and reprisals against the pigs are justified by claims of poverty and loss of livelihood,in spite of the highly dubious nature of such claims. Many claimants are not economically dependent on hunting, but instead hunt for predominately traditional/cultural and recreational reasons.Bibliography.Boissiére & Liswanti (2006), Caldecott et al. (1993), Esselstyn et al. (2004), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Heaney et al. (1998), Lucchini et al. (2005), Oliver (1995, 2008), Rabor (1977), Widmann et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Sus barbatusahoenobarbus Huet, 1888,“Palauan” (= Palawan).Susahoenobarbus was originally described as a subspecies of the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus), but was upgraded to full species because ofits distinct characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis based on two mt DNA cytochrome b fragments (mtDNA cyt b) pacha that S. ahoenobarbus was more closely related to the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) than to S. barbatus, of which it was originally thought to be a subspecies. Morphologically it is, however, more similar to S. barbatus, as evidenced by their conspicuous beards and absence of the prominent manes and mandibular facial warts characteristic of Philippine Warty Pigs (S. philippensis). Also, the chromosome number, which is 38 inS. ahoenobarbus, S. barbatus, and almost all other Susspecies, but is 36 inS. cebifrons and S. philippinensis, suggests a closer affinity to S. barbatus. As was stated in the taxonomic review of the species by C. P. Groves, “there is absolutely no doubt that this form is a dwarf barbatus.” In view of more recent evidence, it is unclear whether there are issues of data interpretation underlying this apparent contradiction in phylogenetic affinity, or whether there is another explanation. For example, hybridization may have occurred between barbatusand cebifrons, so that ahoenobarbus maintains characteristics of both species. Until further research is conducted, the phylogenetic affinities of S. ahoenobarbus remain unclear. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Sanglier de Palawan @fr | Palawan-Bartschwein @de | Jabalibarbudo de Palawan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"285","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"genus","interpretedSpecies":"ahoenobarbus","name":"Sus ahoenobarbus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Palawanand associated Is (Calauit, Busuanga, Bacbac, Coron, Marily, Culion & Dumaran, Linapacan in the N, and Bugsuk, Balabac & Ramos in the S). Probably now extinct in Bulalacao.","bibliography":"Boissiére & Liswanti (2006) | Caldecott et al. (1993) | Esselstyn et al. (2004) | Groves (2001a, 2001b) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Lucchini et al. (2005) | Oliver (1995, 2008) | Rabor (1977) | Widmann et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Although this has not been studied,it is thought that ecologically S. ahoenobarbus is similar to the Bearded Pig from Borneo, which consumes roots, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and a great range of plants, especially favoring lipidrich fruit of the Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaefamilies.","breeding":"Nothing is known.","activityPatterns":"Little is known, except that the species is most often seen or reported to be active in the early mornings and late afternoons in relatively undisturbed areas, but tends to be almost exclusively nocturnal in areas where hunting and other anthropogenic disturbances are commonplace.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Almost nothing is known. Most local hunters and other informants report that they seldom see more than two or three individuals together, though it is likely that larger natal family units and other socioreproductive groups are maintained in less disturbed areas.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the “ PalawanFaunal Region,” which extends from Balabac and associated islands in the extreme south-west through all of PalawanIsland and its associated offshore islets, as far as the Calamian Islands in the extreme north-east. However, this region also constitutes the easternmost extension of the Sunda Shelf and was intermittently connected by land bridges to Borneo by sea level changes during consecutive Pleistocene glaciations. The species remains relatively widely, if increasingly patchily, distributed. It is heavily hunted throughout most of its range, either for direct consumption or to be sold. One kilogram of pork fetches a price of about twice the price of domestic pork. Pigs are hunted throughout the year, but especially during forest tree-fruiting periods (no specifics are known) when pigs gather to forage on fallen fruits. They are also killed in reprisal for their occasional raids on neighboring forest gardens or other cultivated areas. Hunting methods include snares, low caliberrifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as “pig bombs,” which are made of ping-pong-ball-sized mixtures of gunpowder and shards of porcelain, coated with fish paste or other strong-smelling baits to entice the pigs. These are buried on pig trails or around cultivated plants close to forest edges. They explode when they are unearthed and bitten into by foraging pigs,killing the pigs or, more likely, causing horrendous wounds and producing trails that hunters with dogs can follow to collect the dead or dying animals the following day. S. ahoenobarbus is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas, because ofillegal “kaingin” (slashand-burn agriculture), mining, and other commercial developments. The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced and/or realistically unenforceable in most areas—including most designated protected areas. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation and the addition of new protected areas, which should be designed to enable greater management by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national system. Awareness campaigns are also important: few hinterland communities are aware of any prevailing wildlife protection legislation, or disregard the laws because of the chronic lack of enforcement by salient governmental authorities. This is especially the case where reprisals against the pigs follow their occasional raids on crops; the reprisals are likely to illicit sympathy and non-action from the responsible agencies. Farming in protected areas and reprisals against the pigs are justified by claims of poverty and loss of livelihood,in spite of the highly dubious nature of such claims. Many claimants are not economically dependent on hunting, but instead hunt for predominately traditional/cultural and recreational reasons.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 100-160 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight up to 150 kg. This species is smaller than S. barbatus, and has a shorter facial skeleton. The hair is thin, bristly, and blackish-brown over most of the animal, but adults have a distinct mane of longer whitish hairs extending from crown to rump and a characteristic beard of long white hairs on the cheeks and jowls that extends in a band across the snout. This band with black hairs around the eyes, forehead, and more anterior parts of the snout, provides a mask-like appearance. Infants lack manes and beards and are generally far less distinctly marked, except for three horizontal bands of orange-colored hair extending from their necks to their hindquarters; the lower band is much broader and extends over most of the lowersides of their bodies.","habitat":"It occurs in a variety of primary and secondary habitats, ranging from lowland and mid-montane rainforests (0—c. 1500 mabove sea level) to drier open woodland and grasslands. It also frequents drier limestone and mangrove forests in coastal areas and occurs in cultivated and managed areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"276","verbatimText":"4.Common WarthogPhacochoerus africanusFrench:Phacochere d'Afrique/ German:\\Warzenschwein/ Spanish:Facocerode sabanaTaxonomy.Sus africanus Gmelin, 1788,“Habitat in Africa a capite viridi as caput bonae spei”; restricted to Senegal, “ Cape Verd[Verde].”Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.a.africanusGmelin,1788—NsavannaandSahelregion,fromMauritaniatoEthiopia.Pa.aelianiCretzschmar,1828—Eritrea,Djibouti,andNSomalia.P.a.massaicusLonnberg,1908—E&CAfrica,fromNUgandaandSKenya,E&SDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Tanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique.P. a. sundevallii L.onnberg, 1908— S Africa, including SW Angola, N & E Namibia, N Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, and parts of South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-150 cm (males), 105-140 cm (females), tail 35-50 cm), shoulder height 55-85 cm; weight 60-150 kg (males), 50-75 kg (females). Thisis a pig with long legs and short neck. Proportionally it has a massive head with broad and flattened muzzle and snout, and prominent curved tusks flaring upwards. The upper tusks measure an average 25-30 cm in length in adult males (record 60 cm) whereas the lower tusks are only 13 cm. The grayish body is barrel shaped, with a hairless skin that can take on differing hues of gray or brown depending on the color of the soil in its holes or wallows. A dorsal mane of yellowish to jet black hairsis longest on the shoulders and neck. A narrow, tufted tail is held vertically when trotting. In many individuals, whitish bristles on the lower jaw form conspicuous“sideburns.” Three pairs of facial warts of different shape and thickness, made of fibrous tissue, are situated on the muzzle, along the jaw, and under the eyes. In males, the infraocular warts can grow up to 15 cmand have a protective function. They can take on various orientations, but are always conical; only the Desert Warthog (PF. aethiopicus) displays curled down jugal warts. Warts are less developed in females, as are the tusks and preorbital glands. Common Warthogs usually trot in a quick, springy stride, with the head held high and the back rigid. When grazing or rooting, they often drop on their “knees” instead ofstretching their short neck. Callosities characteristic of carpal joints on the forelegs are observed on embryos. These observations support evolutionary theories of “anticipatory” adaptation or of the heredity of acquired characters. Females have four pairs of mammae. Dental formulaisI1/3,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Whereas the Desert Warthog is characterized by an absence of functional incisors, Common Warthogs always have two upper incisors and usually six functional lower incisors as in the adult dentition of most pigs.Habitat.Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open-country species, with morphological and behavioral adaptations typical of grazers. Generally they are confined to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water. Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, deserts, and steppes, Common Warthogs are present in aridlands near the Danakil desert and Bale Mountain forests (Ethiopia) and in Djiboutiforests. Abundance of Common Warthogs is probably linked to the availability of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes, as the warthogs need deep burrows for protection from predators as well as from fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Their bodies can obviously sustain a certain tolerance range, and they cope with high temperature by sheltering in shade, wallowing, and dust-bathing. Piglets are particularly vulnerable to cold and malnutrition during drought, which, together with predation and other factors, account for an over 50% mortality rate during the first year.Food and Feeding.Common Warthogs have an omnivorous diet composed of grasses, roots, fruits, bark, fungi, eggs, and carrion, as well as small mammals, reptiles, and birds. The diet varies with seasonal availability of food items, although the species is very selective. Areas with abundant food resources like bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots can sustain large temporary congregations of animals. This opportunism and dietary versatility account for the Common Warthog’s successful survival strategy. They are powerful diggers, using both snout and hooves, but not tusks. When feeding, they often walk on their anterior knuckles with their hindquarters raised. They use their incisors to wrench grass stems or strip seedheads, and they excavate rhizomes and mineral-rich earth with the hard edge of their snout.Breeding.Both sexes reach puberty at 18 months. During the rut, boars locate estrous females by visiting burrows. Male fights consist of frontal-pushing, interlocking tusks, and hitting the opponent in the face or in the flanks. The mating system is promiscuous, with males roaming and mating with numerous females and females mating with more than one male. Where seasons are marked, breeding is seasonal, with females usually coming into estrus early in the dry season and farrowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Non-offspring nursing occurs. Gestation is 160-170 days and most common litter size is 2-3 (range: 1-8).Activity patterns.Common Warthogs are highly diurnal. They go underground before dark and sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks or other animals. Males enterlast and commonly reverse in, with the head facing the opening, ready to fight an intruder or rush out as needed. To a certain extent, season and weather dictate their daytime activity, which includes a range of typical occupations like feeding, drinking, wallowing, rubbing against trees or termite mounds, and grooming. Feeding occurs mainly in early morning and late afternoon, but they also graze between irregular resting periods in the shade of bushy thickets or in mud wallows. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) are also capable of catching small warthogs. Females are extremely aggressive and courageous when defending their piglets. It has been reported that Common Warthogs have inflicted deep and deadly wounds in Lions. Common Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On average, sounders move a distance of 7 km/day, and visit the same areas at about the same time. Their home range averages 174 ha (range: 64-374 ha) and both males and females tend to remain close to their natal area. Typical densities are 1-10 ind/km?® in protected areas, but local densities of up to 77 ind/km? were found on short grass in Lake NakuruNational Park, Kenya. The social structure of Common Warthogs is one of small groups: solitary males or bachelor groups (45% of the population), matriarchal groups consisting of adult females with juveniles and/or yearlings, or yearling groups. Boars accompany sounders when females are in estrus. Females are temporarily on their own at farrowing time, but they commonly join up with other females and their young. Bonds between adult females and between mothers and daughters can be stable and last over several breeding cycles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Common Warthogs occur in most protected areas in savanna zones. Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in a contraction of its range in the north and accounts forits decline in Mauritaniaand Niger. Because of their susceptibility to drought and predation, populations may easily be prone to local extinction. In the past, populations were greatly reduced by rinderpest in some countries.Bibliography.Child et al. (1968), Clough & Hassam (1970), Cumming (1975, 2008, In Press), Deribe et al. (2008), Estes (1991), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Kunzel et al. (2004), Muwanika et al. (2007), Radke (1991), Somers (1997), Somers et al. (1995), Treydte, Bernasconi et al. (2006), Treydte, Halsdorf et al. (2006), Vercammen & Mason (1993).","taxonomy":"Sus africanus Gmelin, 1788,“Habitat in Africa a capite viridi as caput bonae spei”; restricted to Senegal, “ Cape Verd[Verde].”Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Phacochere d'Afrique @fr | \\Warzenschwein @de | Facocerode sabana @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gmelin","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1788","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Phacochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"276","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"africanus","name":"Phacochoerus africanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.a.africanusGmelin,1788—NsavannaandSahelregion,fromMauritaniatoEthiopia.Pa.aelianiCretzschmar,1828—Eritrea,Djibouti,andNSomalia.P.a.massaicusLonnberg,1908—E&CAfrica,fromNUgandaandSKenya,E&SDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Tanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique.P. a. sundevallii L.onnberg, 1908— S Africa, including SW Angola, N & E Namibia, N Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, and parts of South Africa.","bibliography":"Child et al. (1968) | Clough & Hassam (1970) | Cumming (1975, 2008, In Press) | Deribe et al. (2008) | Estes (1991) | Grubb (1993) | Kingdon (1997) | Kunzel et al. (2004) | Muwanika et al. (2007) | Radke (1991) | Somers (1997) | Somers et al. (1995) | Treydte, Bernasconi et al. (2006) | Treydte, Halsdorf et al. (2006) | Vercammen & Mason (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"Common Warthogs have an omnivorous diet composed of grasses, roots, fruits, bark, fungi, eggs, and carrion, as well as small mammals, reptiles, and birds. The diet varies with seasonal availability of food items, although the species is very selective. Areas with abundant food resources like bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots can sustain large temporary congregations of animals. This opportunism and dietary versatility account for the Common Warthog’s successful survival strategy. They are powerful diggers, using both snout and hooves, but not tusks. When feeding, they often walk on their anterior knuckles with their hindquarters raised. They use their incisors to wrench grass stems or strip seedheads, and they excavate rhizomes and mineral-rich earth with the hard edge of their snout.","breeding":"Both sexes reach puberty at 18 months. During the rut, boars locate estrous females by visiting burrows. Male fights consist of frontal-pushing, interlocking tusks, and hitting the opponent in the face or in the flanks. The mating system is promiscuous, with males roaming and mating with numerous females and females mating with more than one male. Where seasons are marked, breeding is seasonal, with females usually coming into estrus early in the dry season and farrowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Non-offspring nursing occurs. Gestation is 160-170 days and most common litter size is 2-3 (range: 1-8).","activityPatterns":"Common Warthogs are highly diurnal. They go underground before dark and sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks or other animals. Males enterlast and commonly reverse in, with the head facing the opening, ready to fight an intruder or rush out as needed. To a certain extent, season and weather dictate their daytime activity, which includes a range of typical occupations like feeding, drinking, wallowing, rubbing against trees or termite mounds, and grooming. Feeding occurs mainly in early morning and late afternoon, but they also graze between irregular resting periods in the shade of bushy thickets or in mud wallows. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) are also capable of catching small warthogs. Females are extremely aggressive and courageous when defending their piglets. It has been reported that Common Warthogs have inflicted deep and deadly wounds in Lions. Common Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"On average, sounders move a distance of 7 km/day, and visit the same areas at about the same time. Their home range averages 174 ha (range: 64-374 ha) and both males and females tend to remain close to their natal area. Typical densities are 1-10 ind/km?® in protected areas, but local densities of up to 77 ind/km? were found on short grass in Lake NakuruNational Park, Kenya. The social structure of Common Warthogs is one of small groups: solitary males or bachelor groups (45% of the population), matriarchal groups consisting of adult females with juveniles and/or yearlings, or yearling groups. Boars accompany sounders when females are in estrus. Females are temporarily on their own at farrowing time, but they commonly join up with other females and their young. Bonds between adult females and between mothers and daughters can be stable and last over several breeding cycles.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Common Warthogs occur in most protected areas in savanna zones. Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in a contraction of its range in the north and accounts forits decline in Mauritaniaand Niger. Because of their susceptibility to drought and predation, populations may easily be prone to local extinction. In the past, populations were greatly reduced by rinderpest in some countries.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 125-150 cm (males), 105-140 cm (females), tail 35-50 cm), shoulder height 55-85 cm; weight 60-150 kg (males), 50-75 kg (females). Thisis a pig with long legs and short neck. Proportionally it has a massive head with broad and flattened muzzle and snout, and prominent curved tusks flaring upwards. The upper tusks measure an average 25-30 cm in length in adult males (record 60 cm) whereas the lower tusks are only 13 cm. The grayish body is barrel shaped, with a hairless skin that can take on differing hues of gray or brown depending on the color of the soil in its holes or wallows. A dorsal mane of yellowish to jet black hairsis longest on the shoulders and neck. A narrow, tufted tail is held vertically when trotting. In many individuals, whitish bristles on the lower jaw form conspicuous“sideburns.” Three pairs of facial warts of different shape and thickness, made of fibrous tissue, are situated on the muzzle, along the jaw, and under the eyes. In males, the infraocular warts can grow up to 15 cmand have a protective function. They can take on various orientations, but are always conical; only the Desert Warthog (PF. aethiopicus) displays curled down jugal warts. Warts are less developed in females, as are the tusks and preorbital glands. Common Warthogs usually trot in a quick, springy stride, with the head held high and the back rigid. When grazing or rooting, they often drop on their “knees” instead ofstretching their short neck. Callosities characteristic of carpal joints on the forelegs are observed on embryos. These observations support evolutionary theories of “anticipatory” adaptation or of the heredity of acquired characters. Females have four pairs of mammae. Dental formulaisI1/3,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Whereas the Desert Warthog is characterized by an absence of functional incisors, Common Warthogs always have two upper incisors and usually six functional lower incisors as in the adult dentition of most pigs.","habitat":"Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open-country species, with morphological and behavioral adaptations typical of grazers. Generally they are confined to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water. Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, deserts, and steppes, Common Warthogs are present in aridlands near the Danakil desert and Bale Mountain forests (Ethiopia) and in Djiboutiforests. Abundance of Common Warthogs is probably linked to the availability of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes, as the warthogs need deep burrows for protection from predators as well as from fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Their bodies can obviously sustain a certain tolerance range, and they cope with high temperature by sheltering in shade, wallowing, and dust-bathing. Piglets are particularly vulnerable to cold and malnutrition during drought, which, together with predation and other factors, account for an over 50% mortality rate during the first year."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"276","verbatimText":"3.Togian BabirusaBabyrousa togeanensisFrench:Babiroussa des Togian/ German:Togian-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusa de TogianTaxonomy.Babirussa babyrousa togeanensis Sody, 1949,“Malengi island, Togean group, Res. Manado, N. Celebes” (Indonesia, N Sulawesi, Togean Isls, Malenge Isl).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Togian Archipelago (Batudaka, Togian, Talatakoh & Malenge Is); recently, their tracks also were reported from the small Kadidiri I, N of Togian I.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available, but based on skull measurements B. fogeanensis appears the largest of the three babirusa species. It has Sparser, shorter body hair than Moluccan Babirusa (B. babyrussa), and in contrast to SulawesiBabirusa (B. celebensis), the tail tuft is well developed. The upper canines of males are this species’ most distinctive feature: they are short, slender, rotated forwards, and always converge. The frontal furrows on the skull are always shallow, with sloping edges. It is endemic to the Togian Islands, an island group that has been separated from the adjacent eastern arm of Sulawesifor c.12,000 years. This suggests that the babirusas from the eastern arm of Sulawesishould be closely related to the Togian animals, but an absence of specimens makes this impossible to test. It cannot be ruled out that Togian Babirusas were introduced to the Togian Islands by people, but just as likely, the species swam to these islands. Even though B. togeanensisis the largest of the babirusa species, it was initially characterized by its small teeth, especially the third molar. Further study showed that compared to the other species, B. togeanensishas relatively large premolars, especially P,, P,, and P°.Habitat.Babirusas generally inhabit tropical rainforest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. The natural vegetation on the Togian Islands consists of wet forests of variable types, frequently differing from one island to another, and ranging from monsoon to evergreen. B. togeanensishas also been sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub on former slash-and-burn cultivation fields, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches. On Malenge and Kadidiri Islands, the species is most frequently seen moving through coconut plantations.Food and Feeding.B. togeanensisreportedly feeds on rhizomes, fallen fruits (Pangium edule, Dracontomelon sp., Mangiferasp., Artocarpus sp., Spondias dulcis) and also tamarinds and cacao, as well as annual herbs and vegetables. The species is also reported to feed on coconut, but it is unclear whether it eats the shoots of young trees or the fallen fruits.Breeding.Nothing is known about the breeding behavior of B. togeanensis, but it is assumed to be similar to the much better known B. celebensis. Litter size as observed by local farmers is 2-3 young.Activity patterns.During interview surveys on the Togian Islands, most respondents (68:2%) reported encountering B. togeanensisin the morning, between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. The reported observations of the species included various activities during that time, such as foraging, mating, wallowing, and resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In interviews, 37% of the respondents mentioned that B. togeanensisis a solitary animal, whereas 29-6% of those questioned reported that the species is gregarious, usually seen in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter. Group sizes of more than five individuals were reported by 29-5% of the respondents; these groups typically were composed of an adult male with multiple females and a litter.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat, its population is estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals, a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals has been observed, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Babirusas on the Togian Islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forestfires, to disturbance by humans, and to predation by dogs. They are occasionally hunted by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops. Hunting for food occurs only in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998, two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire. No large animal carcasses were found and babirusas have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species. In 1978, the babirusa population on the Togian Islands was estimated in the region of 500-1000 individuals. Recent estimates place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Local residents questioned recently did not agree on population size, giving ranges from fewer than 100 to more than 1000, but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline.Bibliography.Akbar et al. (2007), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Hart (2009), Ito et al. (2005), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Selmier (1983).","taxonomy":"Babirussa babyrousa togeanensis Sody, 1949,“Malengi island, Togean group, Res. Manado, N. Celebes” (Indonesia, N Sulawesi, Togean Isls, Malenge Isl).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Babiroussa des Togian @fr | Togian-Hirscheber @de | Babirusa de Togian @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Sody","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1949","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Babyrousa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"276","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"togeanensis","name":"Babyrousa togeanensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Togian Archipelago (Batudaka, Togian, Talatakoh & Malenge Is); recently, their tracks also were reported from the small Kadidiri I, N of Togian I.","bibliography":"Akbar et al. (2007) | Groves (2001a, 2001b) | Hart (2009) | Ito et al. (2005) | Macdonald et al. (2008) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Selmier (1983)","foodAndFeeding":"B. togeanensisreportedly feeds on rhizomes, fallen fruits (Pangium edule, Dracontomelon sp., Mangiferasp., Artocarpus sp., Spondias dulcis) and also tamarinds and cacao, as well as annual herbs and vegetables. The species is also reported to feed on coconut, but it is unclear whether it eats the shoots of young trees or the fallen fruits.","breeding":"Nothing is known about the breeding behavior of B. togeanensis, but it is assumed to be similar to the much better known B. celebensis. Litter size as observed by local farmers is 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"During interview surveys on the Togian Islands, most respondents (68:2%) reported encountering B. togeanensisin the morning, between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. The reported observations of the species included various activities during that time, such as foraging, mating, wallowing, and resting.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In interviews, 37% of the respondents mentioned that B. togeanensisis a solitary animal, whereas 29-6% of those questioned reported that the species is gregarious, usually seen in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter. Group sizes of more than five individuals were reported by 29-5% of the respondents; these groups typically were composed of an adult male with multiple females and a litter.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat, its population is estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals, a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals has been observed, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Babirusas on the Togian Islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forestfires, to disturbance by humans, and to predation by dogs. They are occasionally hunted by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops. Hunting for food occurs only in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998, two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire. No large animal carcasses were found and babirusas have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species. In 1978, the babirusa population on the Togian Islands was estimated in the region of 500-1000 individuals. Recent estimates place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Local residents questioned recently did not agree on population size, giving ranges from fewer than 100 to more than 1000, but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available, but based on skull measurements B. fogeanensis appears the largest of the three babirusa species. It has Sparser, shorter body hair than Moluccan Babirusa (B. babyrussa), and in contrast to SulawesiBabirusa (B. celebensis), the tail tuft is well developed. The upper canines of males are this species’ most distinctive feature: they are short, slender, rotated forwards, and always converge. The frontal furrows on the skull are always shallow, with sloping edges. It is endemic to the Togian Islands, an island group that has been separated from the adjacent eastern arm of Sulawesifor c.12,000 years. This suggests that the babirusas from the eastern arm of Sulawesishould be closely related to the Togian animals, but an absence of specimens makes this impossible to test. It cannot be ruled out that Togian Babirusas were introduced to the Togian Islands by people, but just as likely, the species swam to these islands. Even though B. togeanensisis the largest of the babirusa species, it was initially characterized by its small teeth, especially the third molar. Further study showed that compared to the other species, B. togeanensishas relatively large premolars, especially P,, P,, and P°.","habitat":"Babirusas generally inhabit tropical rainforest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. The natural vegetation on the Togian Islands consists of wet forests of variable types, frequently differing from one island to another, and ranging from monsoon to evergreen. B. togeanensishas also been sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub on former slash-and-burn cultivation fields, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches. On Malenge and Kadidiri Islands, the species is most frequently seen moving through coconut plantations."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"276","verbatimText":"2.Moluccan BabirusaBabyrousa babyrussaFrench:Babiroussa des Moluques/ German:Molukken-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusade MolucasTaxonomy.Sus babyrussa Linnaeus, 1758,“Borneo” (= Buru Island, Indonesia).This species is monotypic.Distribution.MoluccasArchipelago, in Sula ls (Mangole & Taliabu) and Buru.Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight 43-100 kg. B. babyrussais a relatively small species, with long, thick body hair and well-developed tail tuft. The upper canines of males are short and slender and cross the lower caninesin lateral view. The upper canines tend to diverge or be subparallel, but they may be weakly convergent. Based on tooth measurements, B. babyrussais similar to B. bolabatuensis, a presumably extinct form describedfrom subfossil remains retrieved from various sites in the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi.Habitat.Buru’s natural vegetation is largely tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest, with tropical montane rainforest occurring above 800 mabove sea level; the only known exception to this pattern is a complex patchwork of monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savanna in the north and north-east section of the island, the result of repeated anthropogenic burnings. No surveys have been done on the habitat use of babirusas on Buru Island, but the local Rana people report that babirusas are most often found in rocky habitat in hilly areas and mountains.Food and Feeding.[Local people on Buru report that babirusas primarily feed on leaves, roots, and fruits in the forest, but never enter people’s gardens to feed on crops, unlike the other pig species on Buru, which causes considerable damage to crops. The species is also said to feed along the shoreline when the tide is out.Breeding.Nothing is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species, but it is likely to be similar to other Babyrousa spp.Activity patterns.On Buru, B. babyrussais mostly seen during the morning and late afternoons, but rarely around midday.Movements, Home ma@ nnd Social organintion. On Buru, babirusas are reported to be mostlv solitary or may occasionally be encountered in small groups. When in a group they regularlv emit a long and high pitched sound described as “suirii....suuuuuiiiriiii. \"Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The speciesis reported to be extinct on Sanana Island (formerly Xulla Besi). Some workers seem to believe babirusas were introduced to these islands, though if this is true these same workers provide no indication of their likely place of origin. Unfortunately, the systematic relationships of babirusas from adjacent eastern and south-eastern parts of Sulawesiremain unknown, so it is also not possible to assess their presumed or potential close affinities to B. babyrussa. During extensive survey efforts on Buru in 1995, no direct evidence of babirusas was found, although a pair of pig mandibles found inland from Fogi, in logged forest at an elevation of 670 m, indicated that the species had been recently hunted. Village interviews in 1997 about the species’ presence suggested that on Buru its range had become fragmented by the 1990s,although locally the animals were still relatively common. The species reportedly was not uncommon on the slopes of Gunung Kepala Mada, the highest mountain on Buru. No surveys have been conducted since, however, and the present status is unclear. The people of Buru differentiate babirusas from other suid species, though it is presently unclear whether any other suids occurring on Buru are of S. celebensisor feral S. scrofaorigin, nor whether any such populations (assuming they exist) are naturally occurring or introduced forms.With half the people of Buru being Christian and therefore willing to eat pork, hunting pressure on pigs is likely to be high. The Rana people of Buru frequently hunt babirusas with dogs and snares. Although the northern portions of Buru island have been degraded by repeated burning and the coastal lowlands have been cleared, the remaining forest forms two large, contiguous blocks.Bibliography.Deninger (1909), Groves (1980), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Sody (1949), Tomie & Persulessy (1996), Verbelen (2003).","taxonomy":"Sus babyrussa Linnaeus, 1758,“Borneo” (= Buru Island, Indonesia).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Babiroussa des Moluques @fr | Molukken-Hirscheber @de | Babirusade Molucas @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Babyrousa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"276","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"babyrussa","name":"Babyrousa babyrussa","subspeciesAndDistribution":"MoluccasArchipelago, in Sula ls (Mangole & Taliabu) and Buru.","bibliography":"Deninger (1909) | Groves (1980) | Macdonald et al. (2008) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Sody (1949) | Tomie & Persulessy (1996) | Verbelen (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"[Local people on Buru report that babirusas primarily feed on leaves, roots, and fruits in the forest, but never enter people’s gardens to feed on crops, unlike the other pig species on Buru, which causes considerable damage to crops. The species is also said to feed along the shoreline when the tide is out.","breeding":"Nothing is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species, but it is likely to be similar to other Babyrousa spp.","activityPatterns":"On Buru, B. babyrussais mostly seen during the morning and late afternoons, but rarely around midday.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The speciesis reported to be extinct on Sanana Island (formerly Xulla Besi). Some workers seem to believe babirusas were introduced to these islands, though if this is true these same workers provide no indication of their likely place of origin. Unfortunately, the systematic relationships of babirusas from adjacent eastern and south-eastern parts of Sulawesiremain unknown, so it is also not possible to assess their presumed or potential close affinities to B. babyrussa. During extensive survey efforts on Buru in 1995, no direct evidence of babirusas was found, although a pair of pig mandibles found inland from Fogi, in logged forest at an elevation of 670 m, indicated that the species had been recently hunted. Village interviews in 1997 about the species’ presence suggested that on Buru its range had become fragmented by the 1990s,although locally the animals were still relatively common. The species reportedly was not uncommon on the slopes of Gunung Kepala Mada, the highest mountain on Buru. No surveys have been conducted since, however, and the present status is unclear. The people of Buru differentiate babirusas from other suid species, though it is presently unclear whether any other suids occurring on Buru are of S. celebensisor feral S. scrofaorigin, nor whether any such populations (assuming they exist) are naturally occurring or introduced forms.With half the people of Buru being Christian and therefore willing to eat pork, hunting pressure on pigs is likely to be high. The Rana people of Buru frequently hunt babirusas with dogs and snares. Although the northern portions of Buru island have been degraded by repeated burning and the coastal lowlands have been cleared, the remaining forest forms two large, contiguous blocks.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight 43-100 kg. B. babyrussais a relatively small species, with long, thick body hair and well-developed tail tuft. The upper canines of males are short and slender and cross the lower caninesin lateral view. The upper canines tend to diverge or be subparallel, but they may be weakly convergent. Based on tooth measurements, B. babyrussais similar to B. bolabatuensis, a presumably extinct form describedfrom subfossil remains retrieved from various sites in the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi.","habitat":"Buru’s natural vegetation is largely tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest, with tropical montane rainforest occurring above 800 mabove sea level; the only known exception to this pattern is a complex patchwork of monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savanna in the north and north-east section of the island, the result of repeated anthropogenic burnings. No surveys have been done on the habitat use of babirusas on Buru Island, but the local Rana people report that babirusas are most often found in rocky habitat in hilly areas and mountains."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"275","verbatimText":"1.SulawesiBabirusaBabyrousa celebensisFrench:Babiroussa des Célebes/ German:Sulawesi-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusade CélebesTaxonomy.Babyrusa celebensis Deninger, 1910,Sulawesi.Phylogenetic studies suggest that babirusas diverged from other pigs in the Miocene some 10-19 million years ago, which could well be the time when they became isolated on Sulawesi. The land connection between southern Sulawesiand Borneo was severed some 50 million years ago, so this suggests that a later land connection existed between Sundaland and Sulawesi, unless babirusas dispersed through rafting or swimming. The presence of two other suid genera in Sulawesi(Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off from the main stock of Suidaeat different times, indicates several invasions of ancestral suid types to Sulawesiover a great length of time. The genus is considered to be monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or, alternatively, to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. Until recently, all babirusas were classified as a single species, B. babyrussa. However, the genus has now been split into several species, and the nominate scientific name is restricted to the Moluccan Babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands. B. celebensis, the SulawesiBabirusa, is the best known babirusa, and the only species for which substantial ecological and behavioral information is available. B. celebensisspecifically refers to animals from the north of the island, and the taxonomic identity of the individuals from central, eastern and south-eastern Sulawesiremains undecided. No subspecies are recognized.Distribution.SulawesiI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight up to 100 kg. B. celebensisis characterized by its sparse or absent body hair, a nearly hairless tail tuft, and long, relatively thick upper canines that emerge vertically, converge slightly, and curl dorsally in a circle. The upper canines of males are generally long and thick. They merge vertically and do not cross the lower canines in lateral view. The skulls of B. celebensisare longer than the two other species. They are relatively narrower than one specimen from central Sulawesi, for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. The lower (M, and M,) and upper (M* and M?) molars in B. celebensisare longer than in the other two species. Unlike most other pig species, babirusas do not have the typical adaptations for rooting. The nose lacks the rostral bone that in other pigs provides support for the tough connective tissue plate of the rhinarium. Reanalyses of the soft tissue anatomy of the limbs and digestive tract of B. celebensishave revealed mistakes of identification in earlier work. This has reversed the earlier conclusion that babirusas were constructed in a significantly different way from pigs (Susspp.); in general the muscular anatomies are similar and the stomach of babirusas does not resemble that of ruminants.Habitat.B. celebensisinhabits tropical rainforest. Whereas previously the animal had been reported to occur in low-lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that the species is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground. Although often associated with swamp and riverine areas, there is still insufficient data to be conclusive on the aquatic affinities of the species. The species frequently uses mineral salt licks.Food and Feeding.Diet and feeding behavior in B. celebensisremain poorly studied in the wild, but observations on captive animals provide a useful picture of their potential diet. The anatomical structure of the stomach and digestive tract suggest that B. celebensisis omnivorous. In zoos, adults ofthis species have been observed to chase, catch, and eat small mammals and birds, implying that they may show similar behavior in the wild. Observations of both wild and captive individuals suggest that the species consumes a wide variety ofleaf, root, and fruit material, with fruit especially important. Their jaws and teeth are strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. Notunlike the Bornean Bearded Pig (Susb. barbatus), the apparent requirement of B. celebensisfor fruit-bearing trees as a component ofits environment has been implied, because as soon as mature trees were cleared by forestry operations or conversion to food crop production, the babirusas were no longer to be found in the area. Whether this is a result of changes in food resources or increased hunting pressure and disturbance from logging crews has not yet been clarified. B. celebensisforages for food items on the ground, under logs and stones, in wet areas, and on bushes and trees. Animals will stand with their forelimbs against tree trunks to reach hanging leaves and fruit, and will even balance on their hindlimbs to pluck leaves from the trees.Breeding.In zoological collections, B. celebensismay become sexually mature as early as 5-10 months of age. However,it is likely that the age of sexual maturity in the wild is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of nutrition. Precise data do not yet exist, but animals are unlikely to breed in the wild before they are one year old. Estrous cycle lengths of 28-42 days have been recorded, but recent endocrine studies suggest a narrower range of 35-37 days. Captive females generally re-cycle within three months after the birth of their young. Estrus lasts 2-3 days, and the female is not receptive to males at other times. Gestation length is usually 155-158 days, though up to 171 days has been reported. The body weight of the sow increases during gestation. The normallitter size in B. celebensisis one or two, but a low incidence of triplet births has been recorded both in zoos and in the wild, and a litter of four fetuses has been reported in utero in a wild female. Neonatal B. celebensisare uniformly brown in color, small in size, and weigh less than 800 gat birth. The female usually has four mammary glands, but an additional pair has sometimes been reported. Although females can have a life span of as long as 24 years in captivity,it is unlikely that animals in the wild live as long, perhaps no more than 7-12 years. In zoos, B. celebensissows produce young at all times of the year, and may produce two litters within a twelve-month period. However, since it seems likely that diet or seasonal factors would normally influence interbirth intervals, litters may be produced less frequently in the wild. Observation in North Sulawesirevealed adult females accompanied by subadult animals as well as juveniles. However, there was no way to establish whether or not these youngsters represented the progeny of consecutive litters from the same female. Studies of the agonistic behavior of B. celebensishave so far revealed no evidence that the adult males use their teeth during male-male interactions. The ultimate form of agonistic behavior is described as “boxing,” and involves two males raising themselves off the ground until both are standing on their hindlegs facing one another, each leaning and paddling against the chest and shoulders of his opponent. Their snouts are held as high as possible. Females do not employ the same strategy.Activity patterns.Based on observations of captive animals, B. celebensisappears to be mostly diurnal. These animals slept at night, which is consistent with the general lack of activity at night recorded in North Sulawesi. About an hour before sunrise at 06:00 h, individuals began to wake up and move about. Voiding of fecal material and urine occurs at this time, and the animals appeared to prefer to defecate under branches and fallen tree trunks. Foraging extended throughout the day, but occupied a larger proportion of the time in the morning. From about mid-morning onwards an increasing proportion of the time was taken up with non-foraging activities. The animals were either wallowing or lying down. Both in the wild and in captivity, males have been observed to wallow more often than females.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The information available from field and captive studies indicates B. celebensisis a social species. Groups of up to 13 have been observed in the rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas, and salt licks. Rarely aggregations as large as 46 individuals comprising several distinct groups have congregated at salt licks. Most (84%) of all sightings of solitary animals were of adult males. Single adult males were seen with single adult females, but never with two or more females unless young animals were present. Adult females were rarely seen without company; they were sometimes found together with other adult animals, but most often they were with young babirusas. Of the 226 groups studied, 84 contained adult females and young. Two thirds (56) of these groups had no adult males present. Very little is known about the ranging behavior of B. celebensis. Field observations suggest that the adult males have home ranges that overlap with those of a number of other adult males. Density estimates in two protected areas where the species still occurred in 2003 varied from 4-3-11-8 ind/km? to 0-7-4-1 ind/km?. Like other pigs, babirusas evidently swim well. A single adult male was reported approximately 500 mfrom the shore of a large lake in central Sulawesi. It is not certain whether this individual was B. celebensis, but it is likely that all babirusa species can swim and cover relatively large distances.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, although international trade in this species is not thought to be an important issue. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Adult B. celebensisappear to have few,if any, natural predators. There are no large native mammalian carnivores on Sulawesi, and the most likely non-human predators are probably large snakes and crocodiles. We here follow The IUCN Red List and treat all individuals occurring on Sulawesi, as well as those previously known from the Muna, Buton, and Lembeh Islands as belonging to B. celebensis, pending resolution of the taxonomy. B. celebensishas been much reduced on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, primarily due to overhunting, and its distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, and the Panua Nature Reserve, all of which are in the western half of the northern peninsula. The species still occurs in central Sulawesiand the eastern and south-eastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking. The species is unlikely to remain on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys, and its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain. The small numbers of young born suggest that the species is not adapted to a high rate of natural predation. However, hunting by humans with snares, nets, spears, and dogs has undoubtedly been an important factor since prehistoric times, and widespread snare trapping constitutes the main threat to the remaining populations of B. celebensisin North Sulawesiand, more recently, elsewhere in Sulawesi. B. celebensisis apparently not hunted specifically for its own meat, but represents a by-catch to the hunting of the SulawesiWarty Pig (Sus celebensis). Therefore, the population of B. celebensisin the wild is being placed under severe and increasing pressure by the market demand for wild pig meat. The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation. Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75%. The genus Babyrousawas accordedfull protection under Indonesian law in 1931. B. celebensisoccurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi, including Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserve, and others.On following pages 2 Moluccan Babırusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) 3 Tog an Babırusa (Babyrousarogeanensıs) 4 Common Warthog (Phacochoorus alncanus) 5 Desert Warthog (Phacochoerus aethıopıcus) 6 Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmaınenzhagenı) Bushpıg (Pommochoeıus Iarvalusl 8 Red RıverHog (Poramochoerus porcas)Bibliography.Andreescu & Murariu (1993), Bosma & de Haan (1981), Bowles (1986), Bowles et al. (1993), Clason (1976), Clayton & MacDonald (1999), Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (2000), Groves (1980, 1985), Hooijer (1975), Houston et al. (2001), Lee, Gorog et al. (2005), Lee, O'Brien et al. (1999), Leus (1996), Leus & Vercammen (1996), Leus, Bland et al. (1996), Leus, Bowles et al. (1992), Macdonald (1991), Macdonald & Leus (1995), Macdonald, Bowles et al. (1993), Macdonald, Burton & Leus (2008), MacKinnon (1981), Manansang et al. (1996), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Melisch (1994, 1995), Milner-Gulland (2001), Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002), Mohr (1958), Patry et al. (1995), Peters (1985), Rajchl (2007), Randi et al. (1996), Rice (1988), Riley (2002), Sody (1949), VanWees et al. (2000), Wemmer & Watling (1982), Wiles et al. (2002).","taxonomy":"Babyrusa celebensis Deninger, 1910,Sulawesi.Phylogenetic studies suggest that babirusas diverged from other pigs in the Miocene some 10-19 million years ago, which could well be the time when they became isolated on Sulawesi. The land connection between southern Sulawesiand Borneo was severed some 50 million years ago, so this suggests that a later land connection existed between Sundaland and Sulawesi, unless babirusas dispersed through rafting or swimming. The presence of two other suid genera in Sulawesi(Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off from the main stock of Suidaeat different times, indicates several invasions of ancestral suid types to Sulawesiover a great length of time. The genus is considered to be monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or, alternatively, to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. Until recently, all babirusas were classified as a single species, B. babyrussa. However, the genus has now been split into several species, and the nominate scientific name is restricted to the Moluccan Babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands. B. celebensis, the SulawesiBabirusa, is the best known babirusa, and the only species for which substantial ecological and behavioral information is available. B. celebensisspecifically refers to animals from the north of the island, and the taxonomic identity of the individuals from central, eastern and south-eastern Sulawesiremains undecided. No subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Babiroussa des Célebes @fr | Sulawesi-Hirscheber @de | Babirusade Célebes @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Babyrousa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"275","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"celebensis","name":"Babyrousa celebensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SulawesiI.","bibliography":"Andreescu & Murariu (1993) | Bosma & de Haan (1981) | Bowles (1986) | Bowles et al. (1993) | Clason (1976) | Clayton & MacDonald (1999) | Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000) | Clayton et al. (2000) | Groves (1980, 1985) | Hooijer (1975) | Houston et al. (2001) | Lee, Gorog et al. (2005) | Lee, O'Brien et al. (1999) | Leus (1996) | Leus & Vercammen (1996) | Leus, Bland et al. (1996) | Leus, Bowles et al. (1992) | Macdonald (1991) | Macdonald & Leus (1995) | Macdonald, Bowles et al. (1993) | Macdonald, Burton & Leus (2008) | MacKinnon (1981) | Manansang et al. (1996) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Melisch (1994, 1995) | Milner-Gulland (2001) | Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002) | Mohr (1958) | Patry et al. (1995) | Peters (1985) | Rajchl (2007) | Randi et al. (1996) | Rice (1988) | Riley (2002) | Sody (1949) | VanWees et al. (2000) | Wemmer & Watling (1982) | Wiles et al. (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet and feeding behavior in B. celebensisremain poorly studied in the wild, but observations on captive animals provide a useful picture of their potential diet. The anatomical structure of the stomach and digestive tract suggest that B. celebensisis omnivorous. In zoos, adults ofthis species have been observed to chase, catch, and eat small mammals and birds, implying that they may show similar behavior in the wild. Observations of both wild and captive individuals suggest that the species consumes a wide variety ofleaf, root, and fruit material, with fruit especially important. Their jaws and teeth are strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. Notunlike the Bornean Bearded Pig (Susb. barbatus), the apparent requirement of B. celebensisfor fruit-bearing trees as a component ofits environment has been implied, because as soon as mature trees were cleared by forestry operations or conversion to food crop production, the babirusas were no longer to be found in the area. Whether this is a result of changes in food resources or increased hunting pressure and disturbance from logging crews has not yet been clarified. B. celebensisforages for food items on the ground, under logs and stones, in wet areas, and on bushes and trees. Animals will stand with their forelimbs against tree trunks to reach hanging leaves and fruit, and will even balance on their hindlimbs to pluck leaves from the trees.","breeding":"In zoological collections, B. celebensismay become sexually mature as early as 5-10 months of age. However,it is likely that the age of sexual maturity in the wild is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of nutrition. Precise data do not yet exist, but animals are unlikely to breed in the wild before they are one year old. Estrous cycle lengths of 28-42 days have been recorded, but recent endocrine studies suggest a narrower range of 35-37 days. Captive females generally re-cycle within three months after the birth of their young. Estrus lasts 2-3 days, and the female is not receptive to males at other times. Gestation length is usually 155-158 days, though up to 171 days has been reported. The body weight of the sow increases during gestation. The normallitter size in B. celebensisis one or two, but a low incidence of triplet births has been recorded both in zoos and in the wild, and a litter of four fetuses has been reported in utero in a wild female. Neonatal B. celebensisare uniformly brown in color, small in size, and weigh less than 800 gat birth. The female usually has four mammary glands, but an additional pair has sometimes been reported. Although females can have a life span of as long as 24 years in captivity,it is unlikely that animals in the wild live as long, perhaps no more than 7-12 years. In zoos, B. celebensissows produce young at all times of the year, and may produce two litters within a twelve-month period. However, since it seems likely that diet or seasonal factors would normally influence interbirth intervals, litters may be produced less frequently in the wild. Observation in North Sulawesirevealed adult females accompanied by subadult animals as well as juveniles. However, there was no way to establish whether or not these youngsters represented the progeny of consecutive litters from the same female. Studies of the agonistic behavior of B. celebensishave so far revealed no evidence that the adult males use their teeth during male-male interactions. The ultimate form of agonistic behavior is described as “boxing,” and involves two males raising themselves off the ground until both are standing on their hindlegs facing one another, each leaning and paddling against the chest and shoulders of his opponent. Their snouts are held as high as possible. Females do not employ the same strategy.","activityPatterns":"Based on observations of captive animals, B. celebensisappears to be mostly diurnal. These animals slept at night, which is consistent with the general lack of activity at night recorded in North Sulawesi. About an hour before sunrise at 06:00 h, individuals began to wake up and move about. Voiding of fecal material and urine occurs at this time, and the animals appeared to prefer to defecate under branches and fallen tree trunks. Foraging extended throughout the day, but occupied a larger proportion of the time in the morning. From about mid-morning onwards an increasing proportion of the time was taken up with non-foraging activities. The animals were either wallowing or lying down. Both in the wild and in captivity, males have been observed to wallow more often than females.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The information available from field and captive studies indicates B. celebensisis a social species. Groups of up to 13 have been observed in the rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas, and salt licks. Rarely aggregations as large as 46 individuals comprising several distinct groups have congregated at salt licks. Most (84%) of all sightings of solitary animals were of adult males. Single adult males were seen with single adult females, but never with two or more females unless young animals were present. Adult females were rarely seen without company; they were sometimes found together with other adult animals, but most often they were with young babirusas. Of the 226 groups studied, 84 contained adult females and young. Two thirds (56) of these groups had no adult males present. Very little is known about the ranging behavior of B. celebensis. Field observations suggest that the adult males have home ranges that overlap with those of a number of other adult males. Density estimates in two protected areas where the species still occurred in 2003 varied from 4-3-11-8 ind/km? to 0-7-4-1 ind/km?. Like other pigs, babirusas evidently swim well. A single adult male was reported approximately 500 mfrom the shore of a large lake in central Sulawesi. It is not certain whether this individual was B. celebensis, but it is likely that all babirusa species can swim and cover relatively large distances.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I, although international trade in this species is not thought to be an important issue. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Adult B. celebensisappear to have few,if any, natural predators. There are no large native mammalian carnivores on Sulawesi, and the most likely non-human predators are probably large snakes and crocodiles. We here follow The IUCN Red List and treat all individuals occurring on Sulawesi, as well as those previously known from the Muna, Buton, and Lembeh Islands as belonging to B. celebensis, pending resolution of the taxonomy. B. celebensishas been much reduced on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, primarily due to overhunting, and its distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, and the Panua Nature Reserve, all of which are in the western half of the northern peninsula. The species still occurs in central Sulawesiand the eastern and south-eastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking. The species is unlikely to remain on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys, and its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain. The small numbers of young born suggest that the species is not adapted to a high rate of natural predation. However, hunting by humans with snares, nets, spears, and dogs has undoubtedly been an important factor since prehistoric times, and widespread snare trapping constitutes the main threat to the remaining populations of B. celebensisin North Sulawesiand, more recently, elsewhere in Sulawesi. B. celebensisis apparently not hunted specifically for its own meat, but represents a by-catch to the hunting of the SulawesiWarty Pig (Sus celebensis). Therefore, the population of B. celebensisin the wild is being placed under severe and increasing pressure by the market demand for wild pig meat. The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation. Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75%. The genus Babyrousawas accordedfull protection under Indonesian law in 1931. B. celebensisoccurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi, including Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserve, and others.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight up to 100 kg. B. celebensisis characterized by its sparse or absent body hair, a nearly hairless tail tuft, and long, relatively thick upper canines that emerge vertically, converge slightly, and curl dorsally in a circle. The upper canines of males are generally long and thick. They merge vertically and do not cross the lower canines in lateral view. The skulls of B. celebensisare longer than the two other species. They are relatively narrower than one specimen from central Sulawesi, for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. The lower (M, and M,) and upper (M* and M?) molars in B. celebensisare longer than in the other two species. Unlike most other pig species, babirusas do not have the typical adaptations for rooting. The nose lacks the rostral bone that in other pigs provides support for the tough connective tissue plate of the rhinarium. Reanalyses of the soft tissue anatomy of the limbs and digestive tract of B. celebensishave revealed mistakes of identification in earlier work. This has reversed the earlier conclusion that babirusas were constructed in a significantly different way from pigs (Susspp.); in general the muscular anatomies are similar and the stomach of babirusas does not resemble that of ruminants.","habitat":"B. celebensisinhabits tropical rainforest. Whereas previously the animal had been reported to occur in low-lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that the species is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground. Although often associated with swamp and riverine areas, there is still insufficient data to be conclusive on the aquatic affinities of the species. The species frequently uses mineral salt licks."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"287","verbatimText":"15.Javan Warty PigSus verrucosusFrench:Sanglier de Java/ German:Java-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide JavaTaxonomy.Sus verrucosus Boie, 1832,Java.The ancestry of this species has been traced back to some fossil pig species of Java, which combined with phylogenetic data suggests that the S. verrucosus lineage has evolved on Javafor approximately two million years. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.v.verrucosusBoie,1832—W&CJava;extinctonMaduraI.S. v. bloucht Groves, 1981— Bawean I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-190 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 70-90 cm; weight 35-150 kg. Compared to other species of Susthe Javan Warty Pig is characterized by great elongation of the face, and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male S. verrucosus can be easily distinguished from other species (at least when seen from nearby) by the presence of warts. Observations from two captive S. verrucosus indicate that warts start to grow when youngsters are 17 months old and weigh approximately 25-35 kg. The two pig species on Javaare externally quite similar, and it will often be difficult to determine the species when an animal is seen at a distance, or when it is a female (which lack the warts). Compared to the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), S. verrucosus gives the impression of having a very large, heavy head, at least in adult males. Males of S. verrucosus are much larger than females (c. 90 kgfor males as opposed to 45 kgfor females). Such pronounced sexual dimorphism is not found in S. scrofa, where the males weigh about the same as the S. verrucosus males, but the females are much heavier than S. verrucosus females. Pelage coloration varies greatly in both species. Generally S. verrucosus appears somewhat reddish, but some individuals look quite black from a distance. The hair on the crown and the mane on the back of the neck are usually paler, often reddish-orange and occasionally approaching blond. In S. verrucosus of all sexes and ages the hair on the belly is predominantly white or yellowish, contrasting with the darker pelage on the upper part of the body. S. scrofaon Javaare most often black or grizzled, but reddish-brown individuals are sometimes encountered. The mane is usually black and the belly hairs are also dark, not contrasting with the pelage above. The individual hairs in S. scrofaare of a single type: black with a yellowish band or (when worn) tip. In S. verrucosus there are two hair types intermixed: shorter red or yellow hairs with black tips, and longer black ones. The coloration of piglets in the two Javan pig species differs as well. S. scrofapiglets are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; the striping is very conspicuous. In S. verrucosus, on the other hand, the striping of piglets is very faint and may be difficult to discern in the field. The shape of the lower canines in male pigs is another good indicator of their specific identity. If a cross section is taken near the base, in S. scrofathe inferior surface is narrower. In S. verrucosus it is as broad as the enamel-less posterior surface. If the width of inferior surface is expressed as a percentage of the posterior surface, for S. scrofathis ranges between 61:5% and 109-1%, and for S. verrucosus it ranges between 113:3% and 161:5%. The canines in females are also distinctive. In S. scrofathey are fairly large: the greatest diameter of the upper canine varies from 16-8 mm to 18-2 mm, and of the lower from 14 mmto 17 mm, overlapping the male range. In S. verrucosus the canines of females are much smaller, the upper measuring 9-3-11-5 mm, the lower 7-3— 10 mm. The race blouchiis distinguished from the nominate subspecies by its smaller size, the relatively low occiput, the red color of the pale hairs in the coat, and the red mane.Habitat.The Javan Warty Pig occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak (7ectona grandis) forest plantations, interspersed with lalang grasslands (/mperata cylindrica), brush, and patches of secondary forest, restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be because the pigs are unable to tolerate low temperatures. They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest. They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava. As with S. scrofa, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations. The two species appear to avoid each other. In the 1920s, their abundance was thought to be similar, but only one species was generally found in a given location. S. scrofaappeared to be better adapted to agricultural areas and heavily degraded forests, and S. verrucosus more restricted to woodlands.Food and Feeding.Ecological information about S. verrucosus is rare because when the species wasstill relatively common, extensive descriptions of feeding and breeding ecology did not differentiate between S. verrucosus and S. scrofa. One account from 1928 describes their ecological similarities: both species feed on a range of animal and plant foods, including fallen fruits, roots, worms, and insects. They are particularly partial to ripe rice, making them a feared agricultural pest.Breeding.The gestation period is thought to be about four months, and 3-9 young are born. Most births reportedly occur in the rainy season, from January to March, in a large nest made by the female out ofleaflitter. According to a recent informant, females with young are mostly seen between August and December.Activity patterns.There is little known about activity patterns of S. verrucosus. Interview surveys on Javain 2003 suggest that the species is mostly nocturnal, with several respondents reporting that damage to rice fields almost exclusively happened at night. It could be that a shift from generally diurnal activity patterns in pigs to nocturnal ones is because of the very high hunting pressure on the species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No estimates of home range or population density are available. Historically, group sizes of up to 20 animals were reported, though most recent records refer to groups of no more than six individuals during the breeding season and fewer at other times.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is now restricted to several isolated areas on mainlandJava. The Javan Warty Pig is endemic to the islands ofJava, Madura, and Bawean in Indonesia. It occurs alongside S. scrofavittatus, but it appears that the two species avoid each other and attain their highest densities where the other speciesis absent. S. verrucosus was widespread on Javaas recently as 1982, but is now absent from most of the island and survives only in highly fragmented populations. A Java-wide, interview-based survey in 2003 found that there were about ten areas on Javaand Bawean where S. verrucosus populations survived, although other small groups may have existed elsewhere. These include remnant and low density populations in west Javain the areas between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, and between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserves of Cikepuh. S. verrucosus is very rare near Purwakarta. Several small populations remain near and south of Garut, with a few reported sightings of S. verrucosus in 2002 and just before. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang, interviewees reported recent killings of S. verrucosus, but the species is now much rarer than in the past. A population of S. verrucosus still remains east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis, although people consider S. verrucosus to be rare in comparison to S. scrofa. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of S. verrucosus from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusa Kembangan, including some from the Nusa Kembangan Nature Reserve off Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into small populations. The only areas where S. verrucosus reportedly remained common were around Subah, where animals were generally seen in small groups of 1-2 individuals and groups of 4-6 during the mating season, and around Blora and Bojonegoro. In the latter area, group size had reportedly declined from 10-20 to only 1-3. No recent records of S. verrucosus exist from Madura Island, and the species is considered extirpated there. On Bawean Island, the only area where the subspecies blouchi occurs, the species is now very rare, and possibly already extirpated. There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 populations (53%) are extirpated or have dropped to low encounter rate levels. [tis thought that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops. Many animals are killed by poisoning. As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation of subspecies blouchi on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals were previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Muslim inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa) has been speculated as a further threat to S. verrucosus, especially in areas where human-induced habitat changes favor S. scrofa. Recent DNA analysis of one S. verrucosus specimen suggested high levels of inbreeding in the species compared to other Sus species, but no evidence of introgression from S. scrofawas found. Further genetic studies on more samples are needed to assess potential conservation implications of both inbreeding and hybridization.Bibliography.Bartels (1937, 1940, 1942), Blouch (1983, 1988, 1993), Blouch & Groves (1990), Franck (1936), Groves (1981), Hardjasamita (1987), Huffman (2004), Nijman (2001, 2003), Olivier (1925, 1928), Semiadi & Meijaard (2004, 2006), Semiadi et al. (2008), Sody (1936, 1941a, 1941b).","taxonomy":"Sus verrucosus Boie, 1832,Java.The ancestry of this species has been traced back to some fossil pig species of Java, which combined with phylogenetic data suggests that the S. verrucosus lineage has evolved on Javafor approximately two million years. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Sanglier de Java @fr | Java-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Java @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"287","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"verrucosus","name":"Sus verrucosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.v.verrucosusBoie,1832—W&CJava;extinctonMaduraI.S. v. bloucht Groves, 1981— Bawean I.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721047/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bartels (1937, 1940, 1942) | Blouch (1983, 1988, 1993) | Blouch & Groves (1990) | Franck (1936) | Groves (1981) | Hardjasamita (1987) | Huffman (2004) | Nijman (2001, 2003) | Olivier (1925, 1928) | Semiadi & Meijaard (2004, 2006) | Semiadi et al. (2008) | Sody (1936, 1941a, 1941b)","foodAndFeeding":"Ecological information about S. verrucosus is rare because when the species wasstill relatively common, extensive descriptions of feeding and breeding ecology did not differentiate between S. verrucosus and S. scrofa. One account from 1928 describes their ecological similarities: both species feed on a range of animal and plant foods, including fallen fruits, roots, worms, and insects. They are particularly partial to ripe rice, making them a feared agricultural pest.","breeding":"The gestation period is thought to be about four months, and 3-9 young are born. Most births reportedly occur in the rainy season, from January to March, in a large nest made by the female out ofleaflitter. According to a recent informant, females with young are mostly seen between August and December.","activityPatterns":"There is little known about activity patterns of S. verrucosus. Interview surveys on Javain 2003 suggest that the species is mostly nocturnal, with several respondents reporting that damage to rice fields almost exclusively happened at night. It could be that a shift from generally diurnal activity patterns in pigs to nocturnal ones is because of the very high hunting pressure on the species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No estimates of home range or population density are available. Historically, group sizes of up to 20 animals were reported, though most recent records refer to groups of no more than six individuals during the breeding season and fewer at other times.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is now restricted to several isolated areas on mainlandJava. The Javan Warty Pig is endemic to the islands ofJava, Madura, and Bawean in Indonesia. It occurs alongside S. scrofavittatus, but it appears that the two species avoid each other and attain their highest densities where the other speciesis absent. S. verrucosus was widespread on Javaas recently as 1982, but is now absent from most of the island and survives only in highly fragmented populations. A Java-wide, interview-based survey in 2003 found that there were about ten areas on Javaand Bawean where S. verrucosus populations survived, although other small groups may have existed elsewhere. These include remnant and low density populations in west Javain the areas between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, and between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserves of Cikepuh. S. verrucosus is very rare near Purwakarta. Several small populations remain near and south of Garut, with a few reported sightings of S. verrucosus in 2002 and just before. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang, interviewees reported recent killings of S. verrucosus, but the species is now much rarer than in the past. A population of S. verrucosus still remains east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis, although people consider S. verrucosus to be rare in comparison to S. scrofa. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of S. verrucosus from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusa Kembangan, including some from the Nusa Kembangan Nature Reserve off Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into small populations. The only areas where S. verrucosus reportedly remained common were around Subah, where animals were generally seen in small groups of 1-2 individuals and groups of 4-6 during the mating season, and around Blora and Bojonegoro. In the latter area, group size had reportedly declined from 10-20 to only 1-3. No recent records of S. verrucosus exist from Madura Island, and the species is considered extirpated there. On Bawean Island, the only area where the subspecies blouchi occurs, the species is now very rare, and possibly already extirpated. There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 populations (53%) are extirpated or have dropped to low encounter rate levels. [tis thought that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops. Many animals are killed by poisoning. As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation of subspecies blouchi on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals were previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Muslim inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa) has been speculated as a further threat to S. verrucosus, especially in areas where human-induced habitat changes favor S. scrofa. Recent DNA analysis of one S. verrucosus specimen suggested high levels of inbreeding in the species compared to other Sus species, but no evidence of introgression from S. scrofawas found. Further genetic studies on more samples are needed to assess potential conservation implications of both inbreeding and hybridization.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 90-190 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 70-90 cm; weight 35-150 kg. Compared to other species of Susthe Javan Warty Pig is characterized by great elongation of the face, and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male S. verrucosus can be easily distinguished from other species (at least when seen from nearby) by the presence of warts. Observations from two captive S. verrucosus indicate that warts start to grow when youngsters are 17 months old and weigh approximately 25-35 kg. The two pig species on Javaare externally quite similar, and it will often be difficult to determine the species when an animal is seen at a distance, or when it is a female (which lack the warts). Compared to the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), S. verrucosus gives the impression of having a very large, heavy head, at least in adult males. Males of S. verrucosus are much larger than females (c. 90 kgfor males as opposed to 45 kgfor females). Such pronounced sexual dimorphism is not found in S. scrofa, where the males weigh about the same as the S. verrucosus males, but the females are much heavier than S. verrucosus females. Pelage coloration varies greatly in both species. Generally S. verrucosus appears somewhat reddish, but some individuals look quite black from a distance. The hair on the crown and the mane on the back of the neck are usually paler, often reddish-orange and occasionally approaching blond. In S. verrucosus of all sexes and ages the hair on the belly is predominantly white or yellowish, contrasting with the darker pelage on the upper part of the body. S. scrofaon Javaare most often black or grizzled, but reddish-brown individuals are sometimes encountered. The mane is usually black and the belly hairs are also dark, not contrasting with the pelage above. The individual hairs in S. scrofaare of a single type: black with a yellowish band or (when worn) tip. In S. verrucosus there are two hair types intermixed: shorter red or yellow hairs with black tips, and longer black ones. The coloration of piglets in the two Javan pig species differs as well. S. scrofapiglets are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; the striping is very conspicuous. In S. verrucosus, on the other hand, the striping of piglets is very faint and may be difficult to discern in the field. The shape of the lower canines in male pigs is another good indicator of their specific identity. If a cross section is taken near the base, in S. scrofathe inferior surface is narrower. In S. verrucosus it is as broad as the enamel-less posterior surface. If the width of inferior surface is expressed as a percentage of the posterior surface, for S. scrofathis ranges between 61:5% and 109-1%, and for S. verrucosus it ranges between 113:3% and 161:5%. The canines in females are also distinctive. In S. scrofathey are fairly large: the greatest diameter of the upper canine varies from 16-8 mm to 18-2 mm, and of the lower from 14 mmto 17 mm, overlapping the male range. In S. verrucosus the canines of females are much smaller, the upper measuring 9-3-11-5 mm, the lower 7-3— 10 mm. The race blouchiis distinguished from the nominate subspecies by its smaller size, the relatively low occiput, the red color of the pale hairs in the coat, and the red mane.","habitat":"The Javan Warty Pig occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak (7ectona grandis) forest plantations, interspersed with lalang grasslands (/mperata cylindrica), brush, and patches of secondary forest, restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be because the pigs are unable to tolerate low temperatures. They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest. They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava. As with S. scrofa, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations. The two species appear to avoid each other. In the 1920s, their abundance was thought to be similar, but only one species was generally found in a given location. S. scrofaappeared to be better adapted to agricultural areas and heavily degraded forests, and S. verrucosus more restricted to woodlands."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"286","verbatimText":"14.SulawesiWarty PigSus celebensisFrench:Sanglier des Célébes/ German:Sulawesi-Pustelschwein/ Spanish:Jabalide CélebesTaxonomy.Sus celebensis Muller & Schlegel, 1843,Manado, Celebes.Genetic studies have suggested that S. celebensisforms two clades, one restricted to northern Sulawesiand the other to the remainder of the species’ range. This can be explained either by the occurrence of two colonization events onto Sulawesior the historic fragmentation of the island into at least two parts. Taxonomic differentiation between the two clades is not sufficiently supported by morphological studies, although the average skull size of S. celebensiswas found to be considerably greater for southern Sulawesithan for northern Sulawesi. Provisionally monotypic.Distribution.Sulawesiand adjacent Is (Buton, Kabaena, Muna, Peleng, Lembeh, and on some of the Togian Is); thought to be extinct on Selayar I. Pigs have been widely domesticated through the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This primarily involved the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), but also S. celebensis, the only other species of pig successfully domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA studies of the dispersion of these domesticated forms agree on three major dispersal events, two involving S. scrofaand one S. celebensis. Evidence supports an early human-mediated translocation of S. celebensisto Floresand Timor and two later, separate human-mediated dispersals of domestic pig through islands of SE Asia into Oceania. In addition to Floresand Timor, S. celebensisis also thought to occur in its domesticated form on Halmahera, Lendu, Roti, and Savur Is, and even on Simeulue and Nias Is to the W of Sumatraand far from its island of origin, Sulawesi. In the Moluccas, and possibly elsewhere in this region, introduced S. celebensisare thought to have hybridized with other introduced pigs of S. scrofaderivation, and apparent hybrids between these species are now reported to survive on a number of islands, including Salawatti, Great Kei, Dobu, Seram, Ambon, Bacan, Ternate, Morotai, and New Guinea. It is also reported that in the 19\" century the sows of domestic pigs in Sulawesi frequently mated with wild animals, after which they returned to their villages.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80-130 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 70 cm; weight 40-70 kg. Adult animals are usually dark-haired, although some individuals are reddish-brown or yellowish in color, sometimes with lighter colored hairs on the trunk and abdomen. There is always a dark dorsal stripe, and a clear yellow snout band is usually present. A short mane and distinct crest of longer hair on the crown or forehead has been recorded for captive animals, but observations on 27 animals in the wild in north Sulawesifound no instances of a crest as long as in the zoo specimens. This might be because, as in the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) and the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), prominent manes and crests may only occur during the breeding season (in the case of these latter species, from late November to April). It is unclear when the wild observations on S. celebensiswere made. Young are born with five dark brown and six pale horizontalstripes along the length of their bodies, which they lose at an age of about six months. Adult males have three pairs of facial warts, the preorbital pair being the largest, the infraorbital somewhat smaller, and the mandibular warts emerging from a whorl of hair that first marks their position; the warts enlarge and eventually dominate (at least in captive specimens). The legs are relatively very short, and the back is short and slightly convex. Thetail is long and simply tufted. Adult males are larger than sows, averaging 70 cmat the shoulder in males as opposed to 60 cmin females. Recent forms are larger than the subfossil remains found in caves in southern Sulawesi. S. celebensishas a chromosome number of 38. There are significant differences in the banding of the Y chromosome of S. celebensis, however, when compared with either S. scrofaor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus).Habitat.This species is reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including rainforests, swamps, high grassland terrains, and agricultural areas. It is found at elevations up to moss forest at about 2300 m, but it prefers valleys.Food and Feeding.Little is known about the feeding behavior of S. celebensis. Roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots are thought to constitute the bulk of their diet, with invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion as occasional secondary additions. However, no quantitative data are available about percentages of these itemsin their diets, and how this varies over time and in different habitats. Unlike babirusas, S. celebensishas been observed to consume grasses, although this is based on brief observations only.Breeding.Mating is reported to occur in February, although this is based on only one observation. Births can occur at any time throughout the year but sows usually have their young in April or May. Gestation length is not known for certain, and the suggestion that it may be between 16 and 20 weeks should be treated with caution. Farrowing sows give birth in nests made of grasses, leaves, branches, and twigs piled over a shallow excavation approximately 2 min length. Litter size has been estimated as 2-8 piglets, with an average offive, although a study in North Sulawesiin 1991 found six pregnant sows killed by hunters to be carrying only 1-3 fetuses, with a mean of only 2-17 fetuses per pregnancy.Activity patterns.The SulawesiWarty Pig is primarily diurnal. Most feeding activity observed in relatively undisturbed areas occurs during the daylight hours, concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Few data exist on group size, but observations around a salt lick recorded single animals (five times), pairs (two times), groups of three (four times), and one group of six. In another population the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1-25 (n = 25) and group size was 2-9, with an average of five (n = 16). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults, and 1-3 adults. These and observations from the 19\" century suggest that the species occurs in small troops or families. Densities ranged from 0-4-2 ind/km? in a reserve on the north peninsula to 1:8-19-8 ind/km? and 5-1-14-5 ind/km? in two reserves on the south-east peninsula. A recent study in those reserves found even higher densities in lowland forest (23-5 ind/km?). Such major differences in density are thought to result from varying hunting pressure, with Muslim-dominated areas, where people do not eat pigs, having higher population densities than areas where Christians predominate. With inter-island trade being common, however,it is unclear to what extent Muslimdominated areas become suppliers to the Christian ones. Also, in the south-east peninsula, which is mostly Muslim, S. celebensishas apparently been extirpated, so obviously religious affinity is not sufficient to prevent local extinction of the species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List based on the level of the main threats, habitat loss and hunting. S. celebensisis a species of the central and eastern islands of Indonesia, occurring east of Wallace's Line, which separates the faunas and floras with Oriental affiliation in the west from the Australasian ones in the east. Generally the species is considered to be common, although statements along these lines have been repeated for decades without actual field surveys providing supporting information. S. celebensishas a patchy distribution on most of SulawesiIsland; it is most common in the south-eastern parts of the island. The species has been considered scarce in south-west Sulawesifor over two decades because of ongoing deforestation and hunting. Decreasing sign of pigs in various parts of southern Sulawesiwas noted as early as 1938. Extensive logging and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration, have resulted in the marked contraction and fragmentation ofits range in most places. Market surveys also indicate that the species is under high hunting pressure. For example, brief surveys of three village markets in north-eastern Sulawesiconcluded that about 2-20 wild pigs per week were being sold by commercial hunters and slaughtered by butchers when needed. Wild piglets that are caught by villagers in Sulawesiare kept and usually raised for slaughter for eating or sold at the local market. The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of the current harvesting rate. The fact that the species is not protected outside certain protected areas, and can therefore be openly hunted and traded, makesit difficult to reduce consumption to more sustainable levels. Surveys within protected areas also show that the species is commonly hunted there, and in three protected areas in north Sulawesino sign at all was found of S. celebensis. It is clear that there are few if any areas where the species can be considered secure. S. celebensisis of particular interest in that it is the only pig species, apart from S. scrofathat has been domesticated and quite widely transported by human agency outsideits original range. The available evidence indicates that it is still maintained as a domestic in some areas, but its commercial importance and future potential as a genetic resource are unknown.Bibliography.Alvard (2000), Bosma et al. (1991), Budiarso (1991), Burton (2002), Burton & Macdonald (20086, 2008), Clason (1976), Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (1997), Dobney et al. (2008), Groves (1981), Hooijer (1969), Huffman (1999), Keeling et al. (1999), Larson, Cucchi et al. (2007), Larson, Dobney et al. (2005), Lee et al. (2005), Macdonald (1991b, 1993), Macdonald et al. (1996), Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002), Nehring (1889), O'Brien & Kinnaird (1996), Riley (2002), von Rosenberg (1865), Toxopeus (1938), Wiles et al. (2002).","taxonomy":"Sus celebensis Muller & Schlegel, 1843,Manado, Celebes.Genetic studies have suggested that S. celebensisforms two clades, one restricted to northern Sulawesiand the other to the remainder of the species’ range. This can be explained either by the occurrence of two colonization events onto Sulawesior the historic fragmentation of the island into at least two parts. Taxonomic differentiation between the two clades is not sufficiently supported by morphological studies, although the average skull size of S. celebensiswas found to be considerably greater for southern Sulawesithan for northern Sulawesi. Provisionally monotypic.","commonNames":"Sanglier des Célébes @fr | Sulawesi-Pustelschwein @de | Jabalide Célebes @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Muller & Schlegel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"286","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"celebensis","name":"Sus celebensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Sulawesiand adjacent Is (Buton, Kabaena, Muna, Peleng, Lembeh, and on some of the Togian Is); thought to be extinct on Selayar I. Pigs have been widely domesticated through the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This primarily involved the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), but also S. celebensis, the only other species of pig successfully domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA studies of the dispersion of these domesticated forms agree on three major dispersal events, two involving S. scrofaand one S. celebensis. Evidence supports an early human-mediated translocation of S. celebensisto Floresand Timor and two later, separate human-mediated dispersals of domestic pig through islands of SE Asia into Oceania. In addition to Floresand Timor, S. celebensisis also thought to occur in its domesticated form on Halmahera, Lendu, Roti, and Savur Is, and even on Simeulue and Nias Is to the W of Sumatraand far from its island of origin, Sulawesi. In the Moluccas, and possibly elsewhere in this region, introduced S. celebensisare thought to have hybridized with other introduced pigs of S. scrofaderivation, and apparent hybrids between these species are now reported to survive on a number of islands, including Salawatti, Great Kei, Dobu, Seram, Ambon, Bacan, Ternate, Morotai, and New Guinea. It is also reported that in the 19\" century the sows of domestic pigs in Sulawesi frequently mated with wild animals, after which they returned to their villages.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721045/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvard (2000) | Bosma et al. (1991) | Budiarso (1991) | Burton (2002) | Burton & Macdonald (20086, 2008) | Clason (1976) | Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000) | Clayton et al. (1997) | Dobney et al. (2008) | Groves (1981) | Hooijer (1969) | Huffman (1999) | Keeling et al. (1999) | Larson, Cucchi et al. (2007) | Larson, Dobney et al. (2005) | Lee et al. (2005) | Macdonald (1991b, 1993) | Macdonald et al. (1996) | Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002) | Nehring (1889) | O'Brien & Kinnaird (1996) | Riley (2002) | von Rosenberg (1865) | Toxopeus (1938) | Wiles et al. (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"Little is known about the feeding behavior of S. celebensis. Roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots are thought to constitute the bulk of their diet, with invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion as occasional secondary additions. However, no quantitative data are available about percentages of these itemsin their diets, and how this varies over time and in different habitats. Unlike babirusas, S. celebensishas been observed to consume grasses, although this is based on brief observations only.","breeding":"Mating is reported to occur in February, although this is based on only one observation. Births can occur at any time throughout the year but sows usually have their young in April or May. Gestation length is not known for certain, and the suggestion that it may be between 16 and 20 weeks should be treated with caution. Farrowing sows give birth in nests made of grasses, leaves, branches, and twigs piled over a shallow excavation approximately 2 min length. Litter size has been estimated as 2-8 piglets, with an average offive, although a study in North Sulawesiin 1991 found six pregnant sows killed by hunters to be carrying only 1-3 fetuses, with a mean of only 2-17 fetuses per pregnancy.","activityPatterns":"The SulawesiWarty Pig is primarily diurnal. Most feeding activity observed in relatively undisturbed areas occurs during the daylight hours, concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Few data exist on group size, but observations around a salt lick recorded single animals (five times), pairs (two times), groups of three (four times), and one group of six. In another population the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1-25 (n = 25) and group size was 2-9, with an average of five (n = 16). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults, and 1-3 adults. These and observations from the 19\" century suggest that the species occurs in small troops or families. Densities ranged from 0-4-2 ind/km? in a reserve on the north peninsula to 1:8-19-8 ind/km? and 5-1-14-5 ind/km? in two reserves on the south-east peninsula. A recent study in those reserves found even higher densities in lowland forest (23-5 ind/km?). Such major differences in density are thought to result from varying hunting pressure, with Muslim-dominated areas, where people do not eat pigs, having higher population densities than areas where Christians predominate. With inter-island trade being common, however,it is unclear to what extent Muslimdominated areas become suppliers to the Christian ones. Also, in the south-east peninsula, which is mostly Muslim, S. celebensishas apparently been extirpated, so obviously religious affinity is not sufficient to prevent local extinction of the species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List based on the level of the main threats, habitat loss and hunting. S. celebensisis a species of the central and eastern islands of Indonesia, occurring east of Wallace's Line, which separates the faunas and floras with Oriental affiliation in the west from the Australasian ones in the east. Generally the species is considered to be common, although statements along these lines have been repeated for decades without actual field surveys providing supporting information. S. celebensishas a patchy distribution on most of SulawesiIsland; it is most common in the south-eastern parts of the island. The species has been considered scarce in south-west Sulawesifor over two decades because of ongoing deforestation and hunting. Decreasing sign of pigs in various parts of southern Sulawesiwas noted as early as 1938. Extensive logging and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration, have resulted in the marked contraction and fragmentation ofits range in most places. Market surveys also indicate that the species is under high hunting pressure. For example, brief surveys of three village markets in north-eastern Sulawesiconcluded that about 2-20 wild pigs per week were being sold by commercial hunters and slaughtered by butchers when needed. Wild piglets that are caught by villagers in Sulawesiare kept and usually raised for slaughter for eating or sold at the local market. The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of the current harvesting rate. The fact that the species is not protected outside certain protected areas, and can therefore be openly hunted and traded, makesit difficult to reduce consumption to more sustainable levels. Surveys within protected areas also show that the species is commonly hunted there, and in three protected areas in north Sulawesino sign at all was found of S. celebensis. It is clear that there are few if any areas where the species can be considered secure. S. celebensisis of particular interest in that it is the only pig species, apart from S. scrofathat has been domesticated and quite widely transported by human agency outsideits original range. The available evidence indicates that it is still maintained as a domestic in some areas, but its commercial importance and future potential as a genetic resource are unknown.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 80-130 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 70 cm; weight 40-70 kg. Adult animals are usually dark-haired, although some individuals are reddish-brown or yellowish in color, sometimes with lighter colored hairs on the trunk and abdomen. There is always a dark dorsal stripe, and a clear yellow snout band is usually present. A short mane and distinct crest of longer hair on the crown or forehead has been recorded for captive animals, but observations on 27 animals in the wild in north Sulawesifound no instances of a crest as long as in the zoo specimens. This might be because, as in the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) and the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), prominent manes and crests may only occur during the breeding season (in the case of these latter species, from late November to April). It is unclear when the wild observations on S. celebensiswere made. Young are born with five dark brown and six pale horizontalstripes along the length of their bodies, which they lose at an age of about six months. Adult males have three pairs of facial warts, the preorbital pair being the largest, the infraorbital somewhat smaller, and the mandibular warts emerging from a whorl of hair that first marks their position; the warts enlarge and eventually dominate (at least in captive specimens). The legs are relatively very short, and the back is short and slightly convex. Thetail is long and simply tufted. Adult males are larger than sows, averaging 70 cmat the shoulder in males as opposed to 60 cmin females. Recent forms are larger than the subfossil remains found in caves in southern Sulawesi. S. celebensishas a chromosome number of 38. There are significant differences in the banding of the Y chromosome of S. celebensis, however, when compared with either S. scrofaor the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus).","habitat":"This species is reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including rainforests, swamps, high grassland terrains, and agricultural areas. It is found at elevations up to moss forest at about 2300 m, but it prefers valleys."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"285","verbatimText":"13.Bearded PigSus barbatusFrench:Sanglier barbu/ German:Bartschwein/ Spanish:JabalibarbudoTaxonomy.Sus barbatus Muller, 1838,Banjermasin, S. Kalimantan, Indonesia.The seemingly absurd subspecific name 0: has been commented on by several authors. Apparently the name was split from a Sumatran tribal name for pig “nangoi,” with only the last bit of the word used. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.barbatusMuller,1838—BorneoandassociatedIs,possiblyextendingtoTawiTawi.S. b. oi Miller, 1902— Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Bangka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 137-152 cm (males, although some reports suggest that males can attain a total length of 208 cm) and 122-148 cm (females), tail 17-26 cm, shoulder height 90 cm, hindfoot 27-32 cm; weight usually ranges from 58 kgto 83 kg, with females somewhat lighter than males. When food is abundant, weights of up to 200 kgcan be attained. Adult Bearded Pigs are characterized by their relatively large body size, reduced sexual dimorphism compared to other species of Sus, long legs, a bearded jaw tuft, and sparse body hair. The species has smaller warts and a more elongated skull than the other warty pigs, relatively small ears, and a long tail with a large terminal tuft divided into distinct anterior and posterior parts. The head is typically long, with a beard of bristles extending along the lower mandibles and a thick band of forward-pointing bristles across the snout above the mouth. The nominate subspecies barbatushas long, sweeping cheek whiskers and thicker and longer hairs on the snout band (especially in males); the whiskers of the subspecies oi are shorter on the cheeks, but long and wiry over the snout. It has been suggested that the body of oi is flatter bilaterally than that of barbatus, but this has not been confirmed. The overall body coloration of Bearded Pigs varies from blackish in young pigs to a paler reddish brown, yellow-gray, or almost buffy white in adults. The color of mud wallows affects the apparent color of pigs. Piglets of the Bearded Pig are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; these stripes are lost by six months of age. Females have six pairs of mammae.Habitat.Bearded Pigs are well adapted to the extensive dipterocarp forests of Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. This tree family is often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting. Bearded Pigs also make extensive use of riverbanks, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms. Other habitats they use include estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of oldjungle, beaches, all kinds of plantations, clearings, and also the outskirts of towns. The species is well known forits migratory behavior. Bearded Pigs are scattered across large regions during non-mast fruiting times, but move from both mountain and swamp habitats to drier lowland forests when fruit becomes abundant.Food and Feeding.Bearded Pigs are real omnivores and it has been said that “it is almost easier to state what they will not eat.” They feed on a long list of food plants, but also consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, and carrion. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition, and reproduction. The other foods that normally occur in the forest are assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaeare thought to be especially important. During mast fruiting the majority of seeds in the diet are dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species. Oaks, especially Castinopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., and Quercus spp., are also favorites. During fruiting times, they are almost solely seed predators, and Bearded Pigs play an important role in the distribution of seeds. They also consume a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes, and other tiny, hard testas, which can pass through their guts and germinate.Breeding.Age at first pregnancy varies in the wild from about 10 to 20 months. The rut appears to coincide with synchronized flowering in the forest, occuring during the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer observers a potential visual cue. During the onset of droughts and related flowering of dipterocarps, male Bearded Pigs rut and females construct nests. In big fruiting years, Bearded Pigs can “double-clutch.” This suggests that a certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they are receptive to mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1-5, whereas rutting males scored zero on this measure (n = 19). Gestation length is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Births occur in a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female was seven (n = 53), which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Litter size is, however, very variable in part because of the influence of female size; small mothers typically have 3—4 piglets in a litter and large ones have 10-12.Activity patterns.Bearded Pigs are mostly diurnal. They are subject to irregular migrations, seeming to follow fruit when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for many years after. The ripening of illipe nuts (Shorea sp.) in Sarawakand East Kalimantan appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations. These mass migrations of Bearded Pigs are distinct from annual local movements damaging rice fields. The somewhat forced, lemminglike aspects of these large scale pig migrations are exemplified by the observation of a pig whose hindquarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward byits front legs to follow its conspecifics. The appearance of large numbers of pigs traveling together is especially obvious during river crossings, which they do in groups of over 100 animals. This provides local hunters with the opportunity to kill large numbers of pigs for meat and fat, from which they extract oils. Mass river crossings might have evolved at a time when crocodiles were still abundant in the region. Bearded Pigs appear to exist in different population states, which have been summarized as follows. 1) Dispersed,static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous “background” food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 2) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous “target” food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia-Burseraceae forest in Peninsular Malaysia. 3) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic mosaic of fruit production. Short to medium-range movements. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 4) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable, and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply. Examples: Dryobalanopsaromatica association in Peninsular Malaysia; Dinochloa association in Sabah. 5) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for severallitters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawakin 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987. 6) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported from Malaya and Borneo. It remains largely unstudied how these different population states have been affected by the continuing loss, degradation, and fragmentation of forest habitats. Unconfirmed information from local people in Kalimantan and Sarawaksuggests that mass migrations of pigs no longer occur to the same extent as reported formerly, even as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, which might indicate that with the removal of millions of hectares of high timber value dipterocarp forests food dynamics and related population states have been severely disrupted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is that of a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. The pigs’ movements vary so much throughout the year and between years that no reliable home range estimates can be made unless animals are radio-tracked for several years. Such studies have recently been completed in Sabah, Malaysia, but the data are not yet available. Bearded Pigs are powerful swimmers and easily cross the many large rivers of Borneo and Sumatra. They have also been reported to cross seas, which might explain why they occur on so many small islands. A report from the 19\" century mentions droves of pigs swimming across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo, a distance of about 8 km. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs crossing the sea channel between Sabahand Sibutu (a distance of some 45 km), and also the Kowie harbor near Tawau, which is at least 9 km. A Bearded Pig was found swimming in the middle of the Sandakan Bay in Sabah, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, 5 kmaway.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, mostly because of the rapid loss of its forest habitat and high hunting pressure throughoutits range. The Bearded Pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo. It is also reported from the island of Sibutu, west of the SuluArchipelago in the Philippines, and possibly on Tawi Tawi Island. In Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a relatively small part ofits presumed prehistoric range. In Borneo the species is still widespread but likely declining. There are additional records from a range of smaller islands, where the status of the speciesis unclear but populations have possibly been extirpated. This includes the islands of Balembangan, Banggi, Batam, Bauwal, Bintan, Bruit, Bunju, Burung, Durian Besar, Galang, Jambongan, Juanata, Karimata, Kundur, Lamukotan, Laut, Malawali, Mapor, Miang Besar, Molleangen, Panebangan, Pelapis, Ransang, Rempang, Rupat, Sauh, Sebuku, Sibutu, Tarakan, Tebing Tinggi, and Ungar. Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as Bearded Pigs for at least 35,000 years. Holocene and prehistoric cave finds in Sabah, Sarawak, and East Kalimantan indicate that Bearded Pigs have been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Bearded Pig was hunted but was apparently fairly plentiful and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1500-2000 years ago. Overhunting has since led to population declines. In some parts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, Bearded Pigs had already been hunted to near extinction by the 1920s. More recently, the threat of extinction is becoming a reality in many more parts of their range, where overhunting, logging, and conversion of forests have caused a rapid decline in Bearded Pig populations. Overhunting has also likely led to the extermination of many small-island populations. In 1906, such extinctions were reported for the Penata and Kebun Islands in the Burung group of northern West Kalimantan, and presumably extinctions have also occurred in the often densely settled islands where Bearded Pigs used to occur. It has been estimated that hunters in Sarawaktake an annual harvest of up to one million or more pigs, making wild pork meat of considerable economic significance. This is quite often related to commercial timber extraction. One typical logging camp in Sarawakkilled as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found to be wasteful, with pigs being killed on sight even if the worker did not need the meat. In one logging area, for example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leave the rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day. Bearded Pigs are by far the most preferred species of wild meat throughout Sarawakand Sabah, where they comprise as much as 72% of the dressed weight of all animals hunted. In these areas, the impact of hunting seems clear, with a significant correlation between hunting pressure and animal density. This pattern is so strong that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated, including Bearded Pigs, decreases, until all large animals are locally extirpated. This pattern of high hunting pressure on these animals is also found among Penan and Kenyah tribes in East Kalimantan, where pigs contributed 79-8% of all catches and 91% ofall the edible meat. On average these people consume of 133-6 kg of pig meat per person per year. The estimate for Sarawakis 12 kgof pig meat per person per year. In Peninsular Malaysia, the more sedentary population of Bearded Pigs, apparently associated with continuously fruiting Koompassia-Burseraceae forests, is endangered by hunting as well as habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced on the peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favored Indonesian Banded Pigs (S. scrofavittatus) over Bearded Pigs in those parts of Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra where sympatry between these species occurs. This poses a further, and potentially serious, threat to Bearded Pigs. Available data indicate that wherever these two species are sympatric, the number of Eurasian Wild Pigs is greater than the number of Bearded Pigs, and that the Eurasian Wild Pig now has a much wider range of distribution than the Bearded Pig throughout these regions. In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya. A comparison between the current distribution of Bearded Pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago, where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear. These animals are also potentially threatened by various contagious diseases. For example, a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the domestic cattle population of south-east Borneo between 1871 and 1872 evidently spread to both domestic pigs and Bearded Pig populations over large parts of Borneo. Several similar and successive outbreaks of rinderpest in domestic cattle between 1878 and 1894 also killed off large numbers of these animals. The most serious may have been an epidemic in 1894, when populations of Bearded Pigs had already been severely reduced by epidemics in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. A final epidemic occurred in 1906, when a great many Bearded Pigs succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area in South Kalimantan. There are no recent records of such epidemics, but the proximity of domestic animals to remaining Bearded Pig populations is a potentially serious threat, particularly at times when the pigs may already be nutritionally stressed.Bibliography.Banks(1931), Barton et al. (2009), Bennett et al. (2000), Boden Kloss (1905), Caldecott (1988, 1991a, 1991b), Caldecott & Caldecott (1985), Caldecott, Blouch et al. (1993), Chin(2001), Cranbrook & Labang (2003), Curran & Leighton (2000), Curran & Webb (2000), Genov (2004), Hancock et al. (2004, 2006), Ickes (2001), Ickes & DeWalt (1999), Kawanishi, Gumal & Oliver (2008), Kawanishi, Richardson & Lazarus (2006), Kempe (1948), Kloss (1931), Knapen (1997), Linkie & Sadikin (2003), Lyon (1908), Medway(1977), Meijaard (2000), Ong et al. (1999), Pfeffer (1959), Pfeffer & Caldecott (1986), Piper & Rabett (2009).","taxonomy":"Sus barbatus Muller, 1838,Banjermasin, S. Kalimantan, Indonesia.The seemingly absurd subspecific name 0: has been commented on by several authors. Apparently the name was split from a Sumatran tribal name for pig “nangoi,” with only the last bit of the word used. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Sanglier barbu @fr | Bartschwein @de | Jabalibarbudo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Muller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"285","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"barbatus","name":"Sus barbatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.b.barbatusMuller,1838—BorneoandassociatedIs,possiblyextendingtoTawiTawi.S. b. oi Miller, 1902— Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Bangka.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721043/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Banks(1931) | Barton et al. (2009) | Bennett et al. (2000) | Boden Kloss (1905) | Caldecott (1988, 1991a, 1991b) | Caldecott & Caldecott (1985) | Caldecott, Blouch et al. (1993) | Chin(2001) | Cranbrook & Labang (2003) | Curran & Leighton (2000) | Curran & Webb (2000) | Genov (2004) | Hancock et al. (2004, 2006) | Ickes (2001) | Ickes & DeWalt (1999) | Kawanishi, Gumal & Oliver (2008) | Kawanishi, Richardson & Lazarus (2006) | Kempe (1948) | Kloss (1931) | Knapen (1997) | Linkie & Sadikin (2003) | Lyon (1908) | Medway(1977) | Meijaard (2000) | Ong et al. (1999) | Pfeffer (1959) | Pfeffer & Caldecott (1986) | Piper & Rabett (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"Bearded Pigs are real omnivores and it has been said that “it is almost easier to state what they will not eat.” They feed on a long list of food plants, but also consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, and carrion. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition, and reproduction. The other foods that normally occur in the forest are assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaeare thought to be especially important. During mast fruiting the majority of seeds in the diet are dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species. Oaks, especially Castinopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., and Quercus spp., are also favorites. During fruiting times, they are almost solely seed predators, and Bearded Pigs play an important role in the distribution of seeds. They also consume a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes, and other tiny, hard testas, which can pass through their guts and germinate.","breeding":"Age at first pregnancy varies in the wild from about 10 to 20 months. The rut appears to coincide with synchronized flowering in the forest, occuring during the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer observers a potential visual cue. During the onset of droughts and related flowering of dipterocarps, male Bearded Pigs rut and females construct nests. In big fruiting years, Bearded Pigs can “double-clutch.” This suggests that a certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they are receptive to mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1-5, whereas rutting males scored zero on this measure (n = 19). Gestation length is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Births occur in a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female was seven (n = 53), which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Litter size is, however, very variable in part because of the influence of female size; small mothers typically have 3—4 piglets in a litter and large ones have 10-12.","activityPatterns":"Bearded Pigs are mostly diurnal. They are subject to irregular migrations, seeming to follow fruit when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for many years after. The ripening of illipe nuts (Shorea sp.) in Sarawakand East Kalimantan appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations. These mass migrations of Bearded Pigs are distinct from annual local movements damaging rice fields. The somewhat forced, lemminglike aspects of these large scale pig migrations are exemplified by the observation of a pig whose hindquarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward byits front legs to follow its conspecifics. The appearance of large numbers of pigs traveling together is especially obvious during river crossings, which they do in groups of over 100 animals. This provides local hunters with the opportunity to kill large numbers of pigs for meat and fat, from which they extract oils. Mass river crossings might have evolved at a time when crocodiles were still abundant in the region. Bearded Pigs appear to exist in different population states, which have been summarized as follows. 1) Dispersed,static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous “background” food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 2) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous “target” food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia-Burseraceae forest in Peninsular Malaysia. 3) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic mosaic of fruit production. Short to medium-range movements. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 4) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable, and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply. Examples: Dryobalanopsaromatica association in Peninsular Malaysia; Dinochloa association in Sabah. 5) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for severallitters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawakin 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987. 6) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported from Malaya and Borneo. It remains largely unstudied how these different population states have been affected by the continuing loss, degradation, and fragmentation of forest habitats. Unconfirmed information from local people in Kalimantan and Sarawaksuggests that mass migrations of pigs no longer occur to the same extent as reported formerly, even as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, which might indicate that with the removal of millions of hectares of high timber value dipterocarp forests food dynamics and related population states have been severely disrupted.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit is that of a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. The pigs’ movements vary so much throughout the year and between years that no reliable home range estimates can be made unless animals are radio-tracked for several years. Such studies have recently been completed in Sabah, Malaysia, but the data are not yet available. Bearded Pigs are powerful swimmers and easily cross the many large rivers of Borneo and Sumatra. They have also been reported to cross seas, which might explain why they occur on so many small islands. A report from the 19\" century mentions droves of pigs swimming across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo, a distance of about 8 km. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs crossing the sea channel between Sabahand Sibutu (a distance of some 45 km), and also the Kowie harbor near Tawau, which is at least 9 km. A Bearded Pig was found swimming in the middle of the Sandakan Bay in Sabah, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, 5 kmaway.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, mostly because of the rapid loss of its forest habitat and high hunting pressure throughoutits range. The Bearded Pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo. It is also reported from the island of Sibutu, west of the SuluArchipelago in the Philippines, and possibly on Tawi Tawi Island. In Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a relatively small part ofits presumed prehistoric range. In Borneo the species is still widespread but likely declining. There are additional records from a range of smaller islands, where the status of the speciesis unclear but populations have possibly been extirpated. This includes the islands of Balembangan, Banggi, Batam, Bauwal, Bintan, Bruit, Bunju, Burung, Durian Besar, Galang, Jambongan, Juanata, Karimata, Kundur, Lamukotan, Laut, Malawali, Mapor, Miang Besar, Molleangen, Panebangan, Pelapis, Ransang, Rempang, Rupat, Sauh, Sebuku, Sibutu, Tarakan, Tebing Tinggi, and Ungar. Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as Bearded Pigs for at least 35,000 years. Holocene and prehistoric cave finds in Sabah, Sarawak, and East Kalimantan indicate that Bearded Pigs have been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Bearded Pig was hunted but was apparently fairly plentiful and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1500-2000 years ago. Overhunting has since led to population declines. In some parts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, Bearded Pigs had already been hunted to near extinction by the 1920s. More recently, the threat of extinction is becoming a reality in many more parts of their range, where overhunting, logging, and conversion of forests have caused a rapid decline in Bearded Pig populations. Overhunting has also likely led to the extermination of many small-island populations. In 1906, such extinctions were reported for the Penata and Kebun Islands in the Burung group of northern West Kalimantan, and presumably extinctions have also occurred in the often densely settled islands where Bearded Pigs used to occur. It has been estimated that hunters in Sarawaktake an annual harvest of up to one million or more pigs, making wild pork meat of considerable economic significance. This is quite often related to commercial timber extraction. One typical logging camp in Sarawakkilled as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found to be wasteful, with pigs being killed on sight even if the worker did not need the meat. In one logging area, for example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leave the rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day. Bearded Pigs are by far the most preferred species of wild meat throughout Sarawakand Sabah, where they comprise as much as 72% of the dressed weight of all animals hunted. In these areas, the impact of hunting seems clear, with a significant correlation between hunting pressure and animal density. This pattern is so strong that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated, including Bearded Pigs, decreases, until all large animals are locally extirpated. This pattern of high hunting pressure on these animals is also found among Penan and Kenyah tribes in East Kalimantan, where pigs contributed 79-8% of all catches and 91% ofall the edible meat. On average these people consume of 133-6 kg of pig meat per person per year. The estimate for Sarawakis 12 kgof pig meat per person per year. In Peninsular Malaysia, the more sedentary population of Bearded Pigs, apparently associated with continuously fruiting Koompassia-Burseraceae forests, is endangered by hunting as well as habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced on the peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favored Indonesian Banded Pigs (S. scrofavittatus) over Bearded Pigs in those parts of Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra where sympatry between these species occurs. This poses a further, and potentially serious, threat to Bearded Pigs. Available data indicate that wherever these two species are sympatric, the number of Eurasian Wild Pigs is greater than the number of Bearded Pigs, and that the Eurasian Wild Pig now has a much wider range of distribution than the Bearded Pig throughout these regions. In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya. A comparison between the current distribution of Bearded Pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago, where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear. These animals are also potentially threatened by various contagious diseases. For example, a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the domestic cattle population of south-east Borneo between 1871 and 1872 evidently spread to both domestic pigs and Bearded Pig populations over large parts of Borneo. Several similar and successive outbreaks of rinderpest in domestic cattle between 1878 and 1894 also killed off large numbers of these animals. The most serious may have been an epidemic in 1894, when populations of Bearded Pigs had already been severely reduced by epidemics in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. A final epidemic occurred in 1906, when a great many Bearded Pigs succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area in South Kalimantan. There are no recent records of such epidemics, but the proximity of domestic animals to remaining Bearded Pig populations is a potentially serious threat, particularly at times when the pigs may already be nutritionally stressed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 137-152 cm (males, although some reports suggest that males can attain a total length of 208 cm) and 122-148 cm (females), tail 17-26 cm, shoulder height 90 cm, hindfoot 27-32 cm; weight usually ranges from 58 kgto 83 kg, with females somewhat lighter than males. When food is abundant, weights of up to 200 kgcan be attained. Adult Bearded Pigs are characterized by their relatively large body size, reduced sexual dimorphism compared to other species of Sus, long legs, a bearded jaw tuft, and sparse body hair. The species has smaller warts and a more elongated skull than the other warty pigs, relatively small ears, and a long tail with a large terminal tuft divided into distinct anterior and posterior parts. The head is typically long, with a beard of bristles extending along the lower mandibles and a thick band of forward-pointing bristles across the snout above the mouth. The nominate subspecies barbatushas long, sweeping cheek whiskers and thicker and longer hairs on the snout band (especially in males); the whiskers of the subspecies oi are shorter on the cheeks, but long and wiry over the snout. It has been suggested that the body of oi is flatter bilaterally than that of barbatus, but this has not been confirmed. The overall body coloration of Bearded Pigs varies from blackish in young pigs to a paler reddish brown, yellow-gray, or almost buffy white in adults. The color of mud wallows affects the apparent color of pigs. Piglets of the Bearded Pig are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; these stripes are lost by six months of age. Females have six pairs of mammae.","habitat":"Bearded Pigs are well adapted to the extensive dipterocarp forests of Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. This tree family is often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting. Bearded Pigs also make extensive use of riverbanks, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms. Other habitats they use include estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of oldjungle, beaches, all kinds of plantations, clearings, and also the outskirts of towns. The species is well known forits migratory behavior. Bearded Pigs are scattered across large regions during non-mast fruiting times, but move from both mountain and swamp habitats to drier lowland forests when fruit becomes abundant."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"285","verbatimText":"12.PalawanBearded PigSus ahoenobarbusFrench:Sanglier de Palawan/ German:Palawan-Bartschwein/ Spanish:Jabalibarbudo de PalawanTaxonomy.Sus barbatusahoenobarbus Huet, 1888,“Palauan” (= Palawan).Susahoenobarbus was originally described as a subspecies of the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus), but was upgraded to full species because ofits distinct characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis based on two mt DNA cytochrome b fragments (mtDNA cyt b) pacha that S. ahoenobarbus was more closely related to the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) than to S. barbatus, of which it was originally thought to be a subspecies. Morphologically it is, however, more similar to S. barbatus, as evidenced by their conspicuous beards and absence of the prominent manes and mandibular facial warts characteristic of Philippine Warty Pigs (S. philippensis). Also, the chromosome number, which is 38 inS. ahoenobarbus, S. barbatus, and almost all other Susspecies, but is 36 inS. cebifrons and S. philippinensis, suggests a closer affinity to S. barbatus. As was stated in the taxonomic review of the species by C. P. Groves, “there is absolutely no doubt that this form is a dwarf barbatus.” In view of more recent evidence, it is unclear whether there are issues of data interpretation underlying this apparent contradiction in phylogenetic affinity, or whether there is another explanation. For example, hybridization may have occurred between barbatusand cebifrons, so that ahoenobarbus maintains characteristics of both species. Until further research is conducted, the phylogenetic affinities of S. ahoenobarbus remain unclear. Monotypic.Distribution.Palawanand associated Is (Calauit, Busuanga, Bacbac, Coron, Marily, Culion & Dumaran, Linapacan in the N, and Bugsuk, Balabac & Ramos in the S). Probably now extinct in Bulalacao.Descriptive notes.Head—body 100-160 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight up to 150 kg. This species is smaller than S. barbatus, and has a shorter facial skeleton. The hair is thin, bristly, and blackish-brown over most of the animal, but adults have a distinct mane of longer whitish hairs extending from crown to rump and a characteristic beard of long white hairs on the cheeks and jowls that extends in a band across the snout. This band with black hairs around the eyes, forehead, and more anterior parts of the snout, provides a mask-like appearance. Infants lack manes and beards and are generally far less distinctly marked, except for three horizontal bands of orange-colored hair extending from their necks to their hindquarters; the lower band is much broader and extends over most of the lowersides of their bodies.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of primary and secondary habitats, ranging from lowland and mid-montane rainforests (0—c. 1500 mabove sea level) to drier open woodland and grasslands. It also frequents drier limestone and mangrove forests in coastal areas and occurs in cultivated and managed areas.Food and Feeding.Although this has not been studied,it is thought that ecologically S. ahoenobarbus is similar to the Bearded Pig from Borneo, which consumes roots, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and a great range of plants, especially favoring lipidrich fruit of the Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaefamilies.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known, except that the species is most often seen or reported to be active in the early mornings and late afternoons in relatively undisturbed areas, but tends to be almost exclusively nocturnal in areas where hunting and other anthropogenic disturbances are commonplace.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Almost nothing is known. Most local hunters and other informants report that they seldom see more than two or three individuals together, though it is likely that larger natal family units and other socioreproductive groups are maintained in less disturbed areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the “ PalawanFaunal Region,” which extends from Balabac and associated islands in the extreme south-west through all of PalawanIsland and its associated offshore islets, as far as the Calamian Islands in the extreme north-east. However, this region also constitutes the easternmost extension of the Sunda Shelf and was intermittently connected by land bridges to Borneo by sea level changes during consecutive Pleistocene glaciations. The species remains relatively widely, if increasingly patchily, distributed. It is heavily hunted throughout most of its range, either for direct consumption or to be sold. One kilogram of pork fetches a price of about twice the price of domestic pork. Pigs are hunted throughout the year, but especially during forest tree-fruiting periods (no specifics are known) when pigs gather to forage on fallen fruits. They are also killed in reprisal for their occasional raids on neighboring forest gardens or other cultivated areas. Hunting methods include snares, low caliberrifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as “pig bombs,” which are made of ping-pong-ball-sized mixtures of gunpowder and shards of porcelain, coated with fish paste or other strong-smelling baits to entice the pigs. These are buried on pig trails or around cultivated plants close to forest edges. They explode when they are unearthed and bitten into by foraging pigs,killing the pigs or, more likely, causing horrendous wounds and producing trails that hunters with dogs can follow to collect the dead or dying animals the following day. S. ahoenobarbus is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas, because ofillegal “kaingin” (slashand-burn agriculture), mining, and other commercial developments. The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced and/or realistically unenforceable in most areas—including most designated protected areas. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation and the addition of new protected areas, which should be designed to enable greater management by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national system. Awareness campaigns are also important: few hinterland communities are aware of any prevailing wildlife protection legislation, or disregard the laws because of the chronic lack of enforcement by salient governmental authorities. This is especially the case where reprisals against the pigs follow their occasional raids on crops; the reprisals are likely to illicit sympathy and non-action from the responsible agencies. Farming in protected areas and reprisals against the pigs are justified by claims of poverty and loss of livelihood,in spite of the highly dubious nature of such claims. Many claimants are not economically dependent on hunting, but instead hunt for predominately traditional/cultural and recreational reasons.Bibliography.Boissiére & Liswanti (2006), Caldecott et al. (1993), Esselstyn et al. (2004), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Heaney et al. (1998), Lucchini et al. (2005), Oliver (1995, 2008), Rabor (1977), Widmann et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Sus barbatusahoenobarbus Huet, 1888,“Palauan” (= Palawan).Susahoenobarbus was originally described as a subspecies of the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus), but was upgraded to full species because ofits distinct characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis based on two mt DNA cytochrome b fragments (mtDNA cyt b) pacha that S. ahoenobarbus was more closely related to the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) than to S. barbatus, of which it was originally thought to be a subspecies. Morphologically it is, however, more similar to S. barbatus, as evidenced by their conspicuous beards and absence of the prominent manes and mandibular facial warts characteristic of Philippine Warty Pigs (S. philippensis). Also, the chromosome number, which is 38 inS. ahoenobarbus, S. barbatus, and almost all other Susspecies, but is 36 inS. cebifrons and S. philippinensis, suggests a closer affinity to S. barbatus. As was stated in the taxonomic review of the species by C. P. Groves, “there is absolutely no doubt that this form is a dwarf barbatus.” In view of more recent evidence, it is unclear whether there are issues of data interpretation underlying this apparent contradiction in phylogenetic affinity, or whether there is another explanation. For example, hybridization may have occurred between barbatusand cebifrons, so that ahoenobarbus maintains characteristics of both species. Until further research is conducted, the phylogenetic affinities of S. ahoenobarbus remain unclear. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Sanglier de Palawan @fr | Palawan-Bartschwein @de | Jabalibarbudo de Palawan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Sus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"285","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"genus","interpretedSpecies":"ahoenobarbus","name":"Sus ahoenobarbus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Palawanand associated Is (Calauit, Busuanga, Bacbac, Coron, Marily, Culion & Dumaran, Linapacan in the N, and Bugsuk, Balabac & Ramos in the S). Probably now extinct in Bulalacao.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721041/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Boissiére & Liswanti (2006) | Caldecott et al. (1993) | Esselstyn et al. (2004) | Groves (2001a, 2001b) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Lucchini et al. (2005) | Oliver (1995, 2008) | Rabor (1977) | Widmann et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Although this has not been studied,it is thought that ecologically S. ahoenobarbus is similar to the Bearded Pig from Borneo, which consumes roots, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and a great range of plants, especially favoring lipidrich fruit of the Fagaceaeand Dipterocarpaceaefamilies.","breeding":"Nothing is known.","activityPatterns":"Little is known, except that the species is most often seen or reported to be active in the early mornings and late afternoons in relatively undisturbed areas, but tends to be almost exclusively nocturnal in areas where hunting and other anthropogenic disturbances are commonplace.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Almost nothing is known. Most local hunters and other informants report that they seldom see more than two or three individuals together, though it is likely that larger natal family units and other socioreproductive groups are maintained in less disturbed areas.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the “ PalawanFaunal Region,” which extends from Balabac and associated islands in the extreme south-west through all of PalawanIsland and its associated offshore islets, as far as the Calamian Islands in the extreme north-east. However, this region also constitutes the easternmost extension of the Sunda Shelf and was intermittently connected by land bridges to Borneo by sea level changes during consecutive Pleistocene glaciations. The species remains relatively widely, if increasingly patchily, distributed. It is heavily hunted throughout most of its range, either for direct consumption or to be sold. One kilogram of pork fetches a price of about twice the price of domestic pork. Pigs are hunted throughout the year, but especially during forest tree-fruiting periods (no specifics are known) when pigs gather to forage on fallen fruits. They are also killed in reprisal for their occasional raids on neighboring forest gardens or other cultivated areas. Hunting methods include snares, low caliberrifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as “pig bombs,” which are made of ping-pong-ball-sized mixtures of gunpowder and shards of porcelain, coated with fish paste or other strong-smelling baits to entice the pigs. These are buried on pig trails or around cultivated plants close to forest edges. They explode when they are unearthed and bitten into by foraging pigs,killing the pigs or, more likely, causing horrendous wounds and producing trails that hunters with dogs can follow to collect the dead or dying animals the following day. S. ahoenobarbus is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas, because ofillegal “kaingin” (slashand-burn agriculture), mining, and other commercial developments. The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced and/or realistically unenforceable in most areas—including most designated protected areas. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation and the addition of new protected areas, which should be designed to enable greater management by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national system. Awareness campaigns are also important: few hinterland communities are aware of any prevailing wildlife protection legislation, or disregard the laws because of the chronic lack of enforcement by salient governmental authorities. This is especially the case where reprisals against the pigs follow their occasional raids on crops; the reprisals are likely to illicit sympathy and non-action from the responsible agencies. Farming in protected areas and reprisals against the pigs are justified by claims of poverty and loss of livelihood,in spite of the highly dubious nature of such claims. Many claimants are not economically dependent on hunting, but instead hunt for predominately traditional/cultural and recreational reasons.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 100-160 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight up to 150 kg. This species is smaller than S. barbatus, and has a shorter facial skeleton. The hair is thin, bristly, and blackish-brown over most of the animal, but adults have a distinct mane of longer whitish hairs extending from crown to rump and a characteristic beard of long white hairs on the cheeks and jowls that extends in a band across the snout. This band with black hairs around the eyes, forehead, and more anterior parts of the snout, provides a mask-like appearance. Infants lack manes and beards and are generally far less distinctly marked, except for three horizontal bands of orange-colored hair extending from their necks to their hindquarters; the lower band is much broader and extends over most of the lowersides of their bodies.","habitat":"It occurs in a variety of primary and secondary habitats, ranging from lowland and mid-montane rainforests (0—c. 1500 mabove sea level) to drier open woodland and grasslands. It also frequents drier limestone and mangrove forests in coastal areas and occurs in cultivated and managed areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"276","verbatimText":"4.Common WarthogPhacochoerus africanusFrench:Phacochere d'Afrique/ German:\\Warzenschwein/ Spanish:Facocerode sabanaTaxonomy.Sus africanus Gmelin, 1788,“Habitat in Africa a capite viridi as caput bonae spei”; restricted to Senegal, “ Cape Verd[Verde].”Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.a.africanusGmelin,1788—NsavannaandSahelregion,fromMauritaniatoEthiopia.Pa.aelianiCretzschmar,1828—Eritrea,Djibouti,andNSomalia.P.a.massaicusLonnberg,1908—E&CAfrica,fromNUgandaandSKenya,E&SDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Tanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique.P. a. sundevallii L.onnberg, 1908— S Africa, including SW Angola, N & E Namibia, N Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, and parts of South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-150 cm (males), 105-140 cm (females), tail 35-50 cm), shoulder height 55-85 cm; weight 60-150 kg (males), 50-75 kg (females). Thisis a pig with long legs and short neck. Proportionally it has a massive head with broad and flattened muzzle and snout, and prominent curved tusks flaring upwards. The upper tusks measure an average 25-30 cm in length in adult males (record 60 cm) whereas the lower tusks are only 13 cm. The grayish body is barrel shaped, with a hairless skin that can take on differing hues of gray or brown depending on the color of the soil in its holes or wallows. A dorsal mane of yellowish to jet black hairsis longest on the shoulders and neck. A narrow, tufted tail is held vertically when trotting. In many individuals, whitish bristles on the lower jaw form conspicuous“sideburns.” Three pairs of facial warts of different shape and thickness, made of fibrous tissue, are situated on the muzzle, along the jaw, and under the eyes. In males, the infraocular warts can grow up to 15 cmand have a protective function. They can take on various orientations, but are always conical; only the Desert Warthog (PF. aethiopicus) displays curled down jugal warts. Warts are less developed in females, as are the tusks and preorbital glands. Common Warthogs usually trot in a quick, springy stride, with the head held high and the back rigid. When grazing or rooting, they often drop on their “knees” instead ofstretching their short neck. Callosities characteristic of carpal joints on the forelegs are observed on embryos. These observations support evolutionary theories of “anticipatory” adaptation or of the heredity of acquired characters. Females have four pairs of mammae. Dental formulaisI1/3,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Whereas the Desert Warthog is characterized by an absence of functional incisors, Common Warthogs always have two upper incisors and usually six functional lower incisors as in the adult dentition of most pigs.Habitat.Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open-country species, with morphological and behavioral adaptations typical of grazers. Generally they are confined to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water. Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, deserts, and steppes, Common Warthogs are present in aridlands near the Danakil desert and Bale Mountain forests (Ethiopia) and in Djiboutiforests. Abundance of Common Warthogs is probably linked to the availability of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes, as the warthogs need deep burrows for protection from predators as well as from fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Their bodies can obviously sustain a certain tolerance range, and they cope with high temperature by sheltering in shade, wallowing, and dust-bathing. Piglets are particularly vulnerable to cold and malnutrition during drought, which, together with predation and other factors, account for an over 50% mortality rate during the first year.Food and Feeding.Common Warthogs have an omnivorous diet composed of grasses, roots, fruits, bark, fungi, eggs, and carrion, as well as small mammals, reptiles, and birds. The diet varies with seasonal availability of food items, although the species is very selective. Areas with abundant food resources like bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots can sustain large temporary congregations of animals. This opportunism and dietary versatility account for the Common Warthog’s successful survival strategy. They are powerful diggers, using both snout and hooves, but not tusks. When feeding, they often walk on their anterior knuckles with their hindquarters raised. They use their incisors to wrench grass stems or strip seedheads, and they excavate rhizomes and mineral-rich earth with the hard edge of their snout.Breeding.Both sexes reach puberty at 18 months. During the rut, boars locate estrous females by visiting burrows. Male fights consist of frontal-pushing, interlocking tusks, and hitting the opponent in the face or in the flanks. The mating system is promiscuous, with males roaming and mating with numerous females and females mating with more than one male. Where seasons are marked, breeding is seasonal, with females usually coming into estrus early in the dry season and farrowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Non-offspring nursing occurs. Gestation is 160-170 days and most common litter size is 2-3 (range: 1-8).Activity patterns.Common Warthogs are highly diurnal. They go underground before dark and sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks or other animals. Males enterlast and commonly reverse in, with the head facing the opening, ready to fight an intruder or rush out as needed. To a certain extent, season and weather dictate their daytime activity, which includes a range of typical occupations like feeding, drinking, wallowing, rubbing against trees or termite mounds, and grooming. Feeding occurs mainly in early morning and late afternoon, but they also graze between irregular resting periods in the shade of bushy thickets or in mud wallows. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) are also capable of catching small warthogs. Females are extremely aggressive and courageous when defending their piglets. It has been reported that Common Warthogs have inflicted deep and deadly wounds in Lions. Common Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On average, sounders move a distance of 7 km/day, and visit the same areas at about the same time. Their home range averages 174 ha (range: 64-374 ha) and both males and females tend to remain close to their natal area. Typical densities are 1-10 ind/km?® in protected areas, but local densities of up to 77 ind/km? were found on short grass in Lake NakuruNational Park, Kenya. The social structure of Common Warthogs is one of small groups: solitary males or bachelor groups (45% of the population), matriarchal groups consisting of adult females with juveniles and/or yearlings, or yearling groups. Boars accompany sounders when females are in estrus. Females are temporarily on their own at farrowing time, but they commonly join up with other females and their young. Bonds between adult females and between mothers and daughters can be stable and last over several breeding cycles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Common Warthogs occur in most protected areas in savanna zones. Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in a contraction of its range in the north and accounts forits decline in Mauritaniaand Niger. Because of their susceptibility to drought and predation, populations may easily be prone to local extinction. In the past, populations were greatly reduced by rinderpest in some countries.Bibliography.Child et al. (1968), Clough & Hassam (1970), Cumming (1975, 2008, In Press), Deribe et al. (2008), Estes (1991), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Kunzel et al. (2004), Muwanika et al. (2007), Radke (1991), Somers (1997), Somers et al. (1995), Treydte, Bernasconi et al. (2006), Treydte, Halsdorf et al. (2006), Vercammen & Mason (1993).","taxonomy":"Sus africanus Gmelin, 1788,“Habitat in Africa a capite viridi as caput bonae spei”; restricted to Senegal, “ Cape Verd[Verde].”Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Phacochere d'Afrique @fr | \\Warzenschwein @de | Facocerode sabana @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gmelin","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1788","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Phacochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"276","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"africanus","name":"Phacochoerus africanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.a.africanusGmelin,1788—NsavannaandSahelregion,fromMauritaniatoEthiopia.Pa.aelianiCretzschmar,1828—Eritrea,Djibouti,andNSomalia.P.a.massaicusLonnberg,1908—E&CAfrica,fromNUgandaandSKenya,E&SDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Tanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique.P. a. sundevallii L.onnberg, 1908— S Africa, including SW Angola, N & E Namibia, N Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, and parts of South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721023/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Child et al. (1968) | Clough & Hassam (1970) | Cumming (1975, 2008, In Press) | Deribe et al. (2008) | Estes (1991) | Grubb (1993) | Kingdon (1997) | Kunzel et al. (2004) | Muwanika et al. (2007) | Radke (1991) | Somers (1997) | Somers et al. (1995) | Treydte, Bernasconi et al. (2006) | Treydte, Halsdorf et al. (2006) | Vercammen & Mason (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"Common Warthogs have an omnivorous diet composed of grasses, roots, fruits, bark, fungi, eggs, and carrion, as well as small mammals, reptiles, and birds. The diet varies with seasonal availability of food items, although the species is very selective. Areas with abundant food resources like bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots can sustain large temporary congregations of animals. This opportunism and dietary versatility account for the Common Warthog’s successful survival strategy. They are powerful diggers, using both snout and hooves, but not tusks. When feeding, they often walk on their anterior knuckles with their hindquarters raised. They use their incisors to wrench grass stems or strip seedheads, and they excavate rhizomes and mineral-rich earth with the hard edge of their snout.","breeding":"Both sexes reach puberty at 18 months. During the rut, boars locate estrous females by visiting burrows. Male fights consist of frontal-pushing, interlocking tusks, and hitting the opponent in the face or in the flanks. The mating system is promiscuous, with males roaming and mating with numerous females and females mating with more than one male. Where seasons are marked, breeding is seasonal, with females usually coming into estrus early in the dry season and farrowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Non-offspring nursing occurs. Gestation is 160-170 days and most common litter size is 2-3 (range: 1-8).","activityPatterns":"Common Warthogs are highly diurnal. They go underground before dark and sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks or other animals. Males enterlast and commonly reverse in, with the head facing the opening, ready to fight an intruder or rush out as needed. To a certain extent, season and weather dictate their daytime activity, which includes a range of typical occupations like feeding, drinking, wallowing, rubbing against trees or termite mounds, and grooming. Feeding occurs mainly in early morning and late afternoon, but they also graze between irregular resting periods in the shade of bushy thickets or in mud wallows. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) are also capable of catching small warthogs. Females are extremely aggressive and courageous when defending their piglets. It has been reported that Common Warthogs have inflicted deep and deadly wounds in Lions. Common Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"On average, sounders move a distance of 7 km/day, and visit the same areas at about the same time. Their home range averages 174 ha (range: 64-374 ha) and both males and females tend to remain close to their natal area. Typical densities are 1-10 ind/km?® in protected areas, but local densities of up to 77 ind/km? were found on short grass in Lake NakuruNational Park, Kenya. The social structure of Common Warthogs is one of small groups: solitary males or bachelor groups (45% of the population), matriarchal groups consisting of adult females with juveniles and/or yearlings, or yearling groups. Boars accompany sounders when females are in estrus. Females are temporarily on their own at farrowing time, but they commonly join up with other females and their young. Bonds between adult females and between mothers and daughters can be stable and last over several breeding cycles.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Common Warthogs occur in most protected areas in savanna zones. Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in a contraction of its range in the north and accounts forits decline in Mauritaniaand Niger. Because of their susceptibility to drought and predation, populations may easily be prone to local extinction. In the past, populations were greatly reduced by rinderpest in some countries.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 125-150 cm (males), 105-140 cm (females), tail 35-50 cm), shoulder height 55-85 cm; weight 60-150 kg (males), 50-75 kg (females). Thisis a pig with long legs and short neck. Proportionally it has a massive head with broad and flattened muzzle and snout, and prominent curved tusks flaring upwards. The upper tusks measure an average 25-30 cm in length in adult males (record 60 cm) whereas the lower tusks are only 13 cm. The grayish body is barrel shaped, with a hairless skin that can take on differing hues of gray or brown depending on the color of the soil in its holes or wallows. A dorsal mane of yellowish to jet black hairsis longest on the shoulders and neck. A narrow, tufted tail is held vertically when trotting. In many individuals, whitish bristles on the lower jaw form conspicuous“sideburns.” Three pairs of facial warts of different shape and thickness, made of fibrous tissue, are situated on the muzzle, along the jaw, and under the eyes. In males, the infraocular warts can grow up to 15 cmand have a protective function. They can take on various orientations, but are always conical; only the Desert Warthog (PF. aethiopicus) displays curled down jugal warts. Warts are less developed in females, as are the tusks and preorbital glands. Common Warthogs usually trot in a quick, springy stride, with the head held high and the back rigid. When grazing or rooting, they often drop on their “knees” instead ofstretching their short neck. Callosities characteristic of carpal joints on the forelegs are observed on embryos. These observations support evolutionary theories of “anticipatory” adaptation or of the heredity of acquired characters. Females have four pairs of mammae. Dental formulaisI1/3,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Whereas the Desert Warthog is characterized by an absence of functional incisors, Common Warthogs always have two upper incisors and usually six functional lower incisors as in the adult dentition of most pigs.","habitat":"Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open-country species, with morphological and behavioral adaptations typical of grazers. Generally they are confined to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water. Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, deserts, and steppes, Common Warthogs are present in aridlands near the Danakil desert and Bale Mountain forests (Ethiopia) and in Djiboutiforests. Abundance of Common Warthogs is probably linked to the availability of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes, as the warthogs need deep burrows for protection from predators as well as from fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Their bodies can obviously sustain a certain tolerance range, and they cope with high temperature by sheltering in shade, wallowing, and dust-bathing. Piglets are particularly vulnerable to cold and malnutrition during drought, which, together with predation and other factors, account for an over 50% mortality rate during the first year."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"276","verbatimText":"3.Togian BabirusaBabyrousa togeanensisFrench:Babiroussa des Togian/ German:Togian-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusa de TogianTaxonomy.Babirussa babyrousa togeanensis Sody, 1949,“Malengi island, Togean group, Res. Manado, N. Celebes” (Indonesia, N Sulawesi, Togean Isls, Malenge Isl).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Togian Archipelago (Batudaka, Togian, Talatakoh & Malenge Is); recently, their tracks also were reported from the small Kadidiri I, N of Togian I.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available, but based on skull measurements B. fogeanensis appears the largest of the three babirusa species. It has Sparser, shorter body hair than Moluccan Babirusa (B. babyrussa), and in contrast to SulawesiBabirusa (B. celebensis), the tail tuft is well developed. The upper canines of males are this species’ most distinctive feature: they are short, slender, rotated forwards, and always converge. The frontal furrows on the skull are always shallow, with sloping edges. It is endemic to the Togian Islands, an island group that has been separated from the adjacent eastern arm of Sulawesifor c.12,000 years. This suggests that the babirusas from the eastern arm of Sulawesishould be closely related to the Togian animals, but an absence of specimens makes this impossible to test. It cannot be ruled out that Togian Babirusas were introduced to the Togian Islands by people, but just as likely, the species swam to these islands. Even though B. togeanensisis the largest of the babirusa species, it was initially characterized by its small teeth, especially the third molar. Further study showed that compared to the other species, B. togeanensishas relatively large premolars, especially P,, P,, and P°.Habitat.Babirusas generally inhabit tropical rainforest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. The natural vegetation on the Togian Islands consists of wet forests of variable types, frequently differing from one island to another, and ranging from monsoon to evergreen. B. togeanensishas also been sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub on former slash-and-burn cultivation fields, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches. On Malenge and Kadidiri Islands, the species is most frequently seen moving through coconut plantations.Food and Feeding.B. togeanensisreportedly feeds on rhizomes, fallen fruits (Pangium edule, Dracontomelon sp., Mangiferasp., Artocarpus sp., Spondias dulcis) and also tamarinds and cacao, as well as annual herbs and vegetables. The species is also reported to feed on coconut, but it is unclear whether it eats the shoots of young trees or the fallen fruits.Breeding.Nothing is known about the breeding behavior of B. togeanensis, but it is assumed to be similar to the much better known B. celebensis. Litter size as observed by local farmers is 2-3 young.Activity patterns.During interview surveys on the Togian Islands, most respondents (68:2%) reported encountering B. togeanensisin the morning, between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. The reported observations of the species included various activities during that time, such as foraging, mating, wallowing, and resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In interviews, 37% of the respondents mentioned that B. togeanensisis a solitary animal, whereas 29-6% of those questioned reported that the species is gregarious, usually seen in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter. Group sizes of more than five individuals were reported by 29-5% of the respondents; these groups typically were composed of an adult male with multiple females and a litter.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat, its population is estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals, a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals has been observed, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Babirusas on the Togian Islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forestfires, to disturbance by humans, and to predation by dogs. They are occasionally hunted by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops. Hunting for food occurs only in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998, two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire. No large animal carcasses were found and babirusas have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species. In 1978, the babirusa population on the Togian Islands was estimated in the region of 500-1000 individuals. Recent estimates place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Local residents questioned recently did not agree on population size, giving ranges from fewer than 100 to more than 1000, but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline.Bibliography.Akbar et al. (2007), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Hart (2009), Ito et al. (2005), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Selmier (1983).","taxonomy":"Babirussa babyrousa togeanensis Sody, 1949,“Malengi island, Togean group, Res. Manado, N. Celebes” (Indonesia, N Sulawesi, Togean Isls, Malenge Isl).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Babiroussa des Togian @fr | Togian-Hirscheber @de | Babirusa de Togian @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Sody","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1949","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Babyrousa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"276","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"togeanensis","name":"Babyrousa togeanensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Togian Archipelago (Batudaka, Togian, Talatakoh & Malenge Is); recently, their tracks also were reported from the small Kadidiri I, N of Togian I.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721021/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Akbar et al. (2007) | Groves (2001a, 2001b) | Hart (2009) | Ito et al. (2005) | Macdonald et al. (2008) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Selmier (1983)","foodAndFeeding":"B. togeanensisreportedly feeds on rhizomes, fallen fruits (Pangium edule, Dracontomelon sp., Mangiferasp., Artocarpus sp., Spondias dulcis) and also tamarinds and cacao, as well as annual herbs and vegetables. The species is also reported to feed on coconut, but it is unclear whether it eats the shoots of young trees or the fallen fruits.","breeding":"Nothing is known about the breeding behavior of B. togeanensis, but it is assumed to be similar to the much better known B. celebensis. Litter size as observed by local farmers is 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"During interview surveys on the Togian Islands, most respondents (68:2%) reported encountering B. togeanensisin the morning, between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. The reported observations of the species included various activities during that time, such as foraging, mating, wallowing, and resting.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In interviews, 37% of the respondents mentioned that B. togeanensisis a solitary animal, whereas 29-6% of those questioned reported that the species is gregarious, usually seen in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter. Group sizes of more than five individuals were reported by 29-5% of the respondents; these groups typically were composed of an adult male with multiple females and a litter.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat, its population is estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals, a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals has been observed, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Babirusas on the Togian Islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forestfires, to disturbance by humans, and to predation by dogs. They are occasionally hunted by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops. Hunting for food occurs only in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998, two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire. No large animal carcasses were found and babirusas have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species. In 1978, the babirusa population on the Togian Islands was estimated in the region of 500-1000 individuals. Recent estimates place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Local residents questioned recently did not agree on population size, giving ranges from fewer than 100 to more than 1000, but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available, but based on skull measurements B. fogeanensis appears the largest of the three babirusa species. It has Sparser, shorter body hair than Moluccan Babirusa (B. babyrussa), and in contrast to SulawesiBabirusa (B. celebensis), the tail tuft is well developed. The upper canines of males are this species’ most distinctive feature: they are short, slender, rotated forwards, and always converge. The frontal furrows on the skull are always shallow, with sloping edges. It is endemic to the Togian Islands, an island group that has been separated from the adjacent eastern arm of Sulawesifor c.12,000 years. This suggests that the babirusas from the eastern arm of Sulawesishould be closely related to the Togian animals, but an absence of specimens makes this impossible to test. It cannot be ruled out that Togian Babirusas were introduced to the Togian Islands by people, but just as likely, the species swam to these islands. Even though B. togeanensisis the largest of the babirusa species, it was initially characterized by its small teeth, especially the third molar. Further study showed that compared to the other species, B. togeanensishas relatively large premolars, especially P,, P,, and P°.","habitat":"Babirusas generally inhabit tropical rainforest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. The natural vegetation on the Togian Islands consists of wet forests of variable types, frequently differing from one island to another, and ranging from monsoon to evergreen. B. togeanensishas also been sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub on former slash-and-burn cultivation fields, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches. On Malenge and Kadidiri Islands, the species is most frequently seen moving through coconut plantations."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"276","verbatimText":"2.Moluccan BabirusaBabyrousa babyrussaFrench:Babiroussa des Moluques/ German:Molukken-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusade MolucasTaxonomy.Sus babyrussa Linnaeus, 1758,“Borneo” (= Buru Island, Indonesia).This species is monotypic.Distribution.MoluccasArchipelago, in Sula ls (Mangole & Taliabu) and Buru.Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight 43-100 kg. B. babyrussais a relatively small species, with long, thick body hair and well-developed tail tuft. The upper canines of males are short and slender and cross the lower caninesin lateral view. The upper canines tend to diverge or be subparallel, but they may be weakly convergent. Based on tooth measurements, B. babyrussais similar to B. bolabatuensis, a presumably extinct form describedfrom subfossil remains retrieved from various sites in the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi.Habitat.Buru’s natural vegetation is largely tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest, with tropical montane rainforest occurring above 800 mabove sea level; the only known exception to this pattern is a complex patchwork of monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savanna in the north and north-east section of the island, the result of repeated anthropogenic burnings. No surveys have been done on the habitat use of babirusas on Buru Island, but the local Rana people report that babirusas are most often found in rocky habitat in hilly areas and mountains.Food and Feeding.[Local people on Buru report that babirusas primarily feed on leaves, roots, and fruits in the forest, but never enter people’s gardens to feed on crops, unlike the other pig species on Buru, which causes considerable damage to crops. The species is also said to feed along the shoreline when the tide is out.Breeding.Nothing is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species, but it is likely to be similar to other Babyrousa spp.Activity patterns.On Buru, B. babyrussais mostly seen during the morning and late afternoons, but rarely around midday.Movements, Home ma@ nnd Social organintion. On Buru, babirusas are reported to be mostlv solitary or may occasionally be encountered in small groups. When in a group they regularlv emit a long and high pitched sound described as “suirii....suuuuuiiiriiii. \"Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The speciesis reported to be extinct on Sanana Island (formerly Xulla Besi). Some workers seem to believe babirusas were introduced to these islands, though if this is true these same workers provide no indication of their likely place of origin. Unfortunately, the systematic relationships of babirusas from adjacent eastern and south-eastern parts of Sulawesiremain unknown, so it is also not possible to assess their presumed or potential close affinities to B. babyrussa. During extensive survey efforts on Buru in 1995, no direct evidence of babirusas was found, although a pair of pig mandibles found inland from Fogi, in logged forest at an elevation of 670 m, indicated that the species had been recently hunted. Village interviews in 1997 about the species’ presence suggested that on Buru its range had become fragmented by the 1990s,although locally the animals were still relatively common. The species reportedly was not uncommon on the slopes of Gunung Kepala Mada, the highest mountain on Buru. No surveys have been conducted since, however, and the present status is unclear. The people of Buru differentiate babirusas from other suid species, though it is presently unclear whether any other suids occurring on Buru are of S. celebensisor feral S. scrofaorigin, nor whether any such populations (assuming they exist) are naturally occurring or introduced forms.With half the people of Buru being Christian and therefore willing to eat pork, hunting pressure on pigs is likely to be high. The Rana people of Buru frequently hunt babirusas with dogs and snares. Although the northern portions of Buru island have been degraded by repeated burning and the coastal lowlands have been cleared, the remaining forest forms two large, contiguous blocks.Bibliography.Deninger (1909), Groves (1980), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Sody (1949), Tomie & Persulessy (1996), Verbelen (2003).","taxonomy":"Sus babyrussa Linnaeus, 1758,“Borneo” (= Buru Island, Indonesia).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Babiroussa des Moluques @fr | Molukken-Hirscheber @de | Babirusade Molucas @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Babyrousa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"276","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"babyrussa","name":"Babyrousa babyrussa","subspeciesAndDistribution":"MoluccasArchipelago, in Sula ls (Mangole & Taliabu) and Buru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721019/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Deninger (1909) | Groves (1980) | Macdonald et al. (2008) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Sody (1949) | Tomie & Persulessy (1996) | Verbelen (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"[Local people on Buru report that babirusas primarily feed on leaves, roots, and fruits in the forest, but never enter people’s gardens to feed on crops, unlike the other pig species on Buru, which causes considerable damage to crops. The species is also said to feed along the shoreline when the tide is out.","breeding":"Nothing is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species, but it is likely to be similar to other Babyrousa spp.","activityPatterns":"On Buru, B. babyrussais mostly seen during the morning and late afternoons, but rarely around midday.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The speciesis reported to be extinct on Sanana Island (formerly Xulla Besi). Some workers seem to believe babirusas were introduced to these islands, though if this is true these same workers provide no indication of their likely place of origin. Unfortunately, the systematic relationships of babirusas from adjacent eastern and south-eastern parts of Sulawesiremain unknown, so it is also not possible to assess their presumed or potential close affinities to B. babyrussa. During extensive survey efforts on Buru in 1995, no direct evidence of babirusas was found, although a pair of pig mandibles found inland from Fogi, in logged forest at an elevation of 670 m, indicated that the species had been recently hunted. Village interviews in 1997 about the species’ presence suggested that on Buru its range had become fragmented by the 1990s,although locally the animals were still relatively common. The species reportedly was not uncommon on the slopes of Gunung Kepala Mada, the highest mountain on Buru. No surveys have been conducted since, however, and the present status is unclear. The people of Buru differentiate babirusas from other suid species, though it is presently unclear whether any other suids occurring on Buru are of S. celebensisor feral S. scrofaorigin, nor whether any such populations (assuming they exist) are naturally occurring or introduced forms.With half the people of Buru being Christian and therefore willing to eat pork, hunting pressure on pigs is likely to be high. The Rana people of Buru frequently hunt babirusas with dogs and snares. Although the northern portions of Buru island have been degraded by repeated burning and the coastal lowlands have been cleared, the remaining forest forms two large, contiguous blocks.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight 43-100 kg. B. babyrussais a relatively small species, with long, thick body hair and well-developed tail tuft. The upper canines of males are short and slender and cross the lower caninesin lateral view. The upper canines tend to diverge or be subparallel, but they may be weakly convergent. Based on tooth measurements, B. babyrussais similar to B. bolabatuensis, a presumably extinct form describedfrom subfossil remains retrieved from various sites in the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi.","habitat":"Buru’s natural vegetation is largely tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest, with tropical montane rainforest occurring above 800 mabove sea level; the only known exception to this pattern is a complex patchwork of monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savanna in the north and north-east section of the island, the result of repeated anthropogenic burnings. No surveys have been done on the habitat use of babirusas on Buru Island, but the local Rana people report that babirusas are most often found in rocky habitat in hilly areas and mountains."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"275","verbatimText":"1.SulawesiBabirusaBabyrousa celebensisFrench:Babiroussa des Célebes/ German:Sulawesi-Hirscheber/ Spanish:Babirusade CélebesTaxonomy.Babyrusa celebensis Deninger, 1910,Sulawesi.Phylogenetic studies suggest that babirusas diverged from other pigs in the Miocene some 10-19 million years ago, which could well be the time when they became isolated on Sulawesi. The land connection between southern Sulawesiand Borneo was severed some 50 million years ago, so this suggests that a later land connection existed between Sundaland and Sulawesi, unless babirusas dispersed through rafting or swimming. The presence of two other suid genera in Sulawesi(Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off from the main stock of Suidaeat different times, indicates several invasions of ancestral suid types to Sulawesiover a great length of time. The genus is considered to be monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or, alternatively, to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. Until recently, all babirusas were classified as a single species, B. babyrussa. However, the genus has now been split into several species, and the nominate scientific name is restricted to the Moluccan Babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands. B. celebensis, the SulawesiBabirusa, is the best known babirusa, and the only species for which substantial ecological and behavioral information is available. B. celebensisspecifically refers to animals from the north of the island, and the taxonomic identity of the individuals from central, eastern and south-eastern Sulawesiremains undecided. No subspecies are recognized.Distribution.SulawesiI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight up to 100 kg. B. celebensisis characterized by its sparse or absent body hair, a nearly hairless tail tuft, and long, relatively thick upper canines that emerge vertically, converge slightly, and curl dorsally in a circle. The upper canines of males are generally long and thick. They merge vertically and do not cross the lower canines in lateral view. The skulls of B. celebensisare longer than the two other species. They are relatively narrower than one specimen from central Sulawesi, for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. The lower (M, and M,) and upper (M* and M?) molars in B. celebensisare longer than in the other two species. Unlike most other pig species, babirusas do not have the typical adaptations for rooting. The nose lacks the rostral bone that in other pigs provides support for the tough connective tissue plate of the rhinarium. Reanalyses of the soft tissue anatomy of the limbs and digestive tract of B. celebensishave revealed mistakes of identification in earlier work. This has reversed the earlier conclusion that babirusas were constructed in a significantly different way from pigs (Susspp.); in general the muscular anatomies are similar and the stomach of babirusas does not resemble that of ruminants.Habitat.B. celebensisinhabits tropical rainforest. Whereas previously the animal had been reported to occur in low-lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that the species is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground. Although often associated with swamp and riverine areas, there is still insufficient data to be conclusive on the aquatic affinities of the species. The species frequently uses mineral salt licks.Food and Feeding.Diet and feeding behavior in B. celebensisremain poorly studied in the wild, but observations on captive animals provide a useful picture of their potential diet. The anatomical structure of the stomach and digestive tract suggest that B. celebensisis omnivorous. In zoos, adults ofthis species have been observed to chase, catch, and eat small mammals and birds, implying that they may show similar behavior in the wild. Observations of both wild and captive individuals suggest that the species consumes a wide variety ofleaf, root, and fruit material, with fruit especially important. Their jaws and teeth are strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. Notunlike the Bornean Bearded Pig (Susb. barbatus), the apparent requirement of B. celebensisfor fruit-bearing trees as a component ofits environment has been implied, because as soon as mature trees were cleared by forestry operations or conversion to food crop production, the babirusas were no longer to be found in the area. Whether this is a result of changes in food resources or increased hunting pressure and disturbance from logging crews has not yet been clarified. B. celebensisforages for food items on the ground, under logs and stones, in wet areas, and on bushes and trees. Animals will stand with their forelimbs against tree trunks to reach hanging leaves and fruit, and will even balance on their hindlimbs to pluck leaves from the trees.Breeding.In zoological collections, B. celebensismay become sexually mature as early as 5-10 months of age. However,it is likely that the age of sexual maturity in the wild is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of nutrition. Precise data do not yet exist, but animals are unlikely to breed in the wild before they are one year old. Estrous cycle lengths of 28-42 days have been recorded, but recent endocrine studies suggest a narrower range of 35-37 days. Captive females generally re-cycle within three months after the birth of their young. Estrus lasts 2-3 days, and the female is not receptive to males at other times. Gestation length is usually 155-158 days, though up to 171 days has been reported. The body weight of the sow increases during gestation. The normallitter size in B. celebensisis one or two, but a low incidence of triplet births has been recorded both in zoos and in the wild, and a litter of four fetuses has been reported in utero in a wild female. Neonatal B. celebensisare uniformly brown in color, small in size, and weigh less than 800 gat birth. The female usually has four mammary glands, but an additional pair has sometimes been reported. Although females can have a life span of as long as 24 years in captivity,it is unlikely that animals in the wild live as long, perhaps no more than 7-12 years. In zoos, B. celebensissows produce young at all times of the year, and may produce two litters within a twelve-month period. However, since it seems likely that diet or seasonal factors would normally influence interbirth intervals, litters may be produced less frequently in the wild. Observation in North Sulawesirevealed adult females accompanied by subadult animals as well as juveniles. However, there was no way to establish whether or not these youngsters represented the progeny of consecutive litters from the same female. Studies of the agonistic behavior of B. celebensishave so far revealed no evidence that the adult males use their teeth during male-male interactions. The ultimate form of agonistic behavior is described as “boxing,” and involves two males raising themselves off the ground until both are standing on their hindlegs facing one another, each leaning and paddling against the chest and shoulders of his opponent. Their snouts are held as high as possible. Females do not employ the same strategy.Activity patterns.Based on observations of captive animals, B. celebensisappears to be mostly diurnal. These animals slept at night, which is consistent with the general lack of activity at night recorded in North Sulawesi. About an hour before sunrise at 06:00 h, individuals began to wake up and move about. Voiding of fecal material and urine occurs at this time, and the animals appeared to prefer to defecate under branches and fallen tree trunks. Foraging extended throughout the day, but occupied a larger proportion of the time in the morning. From about mid-morning onwards an increasing proportion of the time was taken up with non-foraging activities. The animals were either wallowing or lying down. Both in the wild and in captivity, males have been observed to wallow more often than females.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The information available from field and captive studies indicates B. celebensisis a social species. Groups of up to 13 have been observed in the rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas, and salt licks. Rarely aggregations as large as 46 individuals comprising several distinct groups have congregated at salt licks. Most (84%) of all sightings of solitary animals were of adult males. Single adult males were seen with single adult females, but never with two or more females unless young animals were present. Adult females were rarely seen without company; they were sometimes found together with other adult animals, but most often they were with young babirusas. Of the 226 groups studied, 84 contained adult females and young. Two thirds (56) of these groups had no adult males present. Very little is known about the ranging behavior of B. celebensis. Field observations suggest that the adult males have home ranges that overlap with those of a number of other adult males. Density estimates in two protected areas where the species still occurred in 2003 varied from 4-3-11-8 ind/km? to 0-7-4-1 ind/km?. Like other pigs, babirusas evidently swim well. A single adult male was reported approximately 500 mfrom the shore of a large lake in central Sulawesi. It is not certain whether this individual was B. celebensis, but it is likely that all babirusa species can swim and cover relatively large distances.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, although international trade in this species is not thought to be an important issue. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Adult B. celebensisappear to have few,if any, natural predators. There are no large native mammalian carnivores on Sulawesi, and the most likely non-human predators are probably large snakes and crocodiles. We here follow The IUCN Red List and treat all individuals occurring on Sulawesi, as well as those previously known from the Muna, Buton, and Lembeh Islands as belonging to B. celebensis, pending resolution of the taxonomy. B. celebensishas been much reduced on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, primarily due to overhunting, and its distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, and the Panua Nature Reserve, all of which are in the western half of the northern peninsula. The species still occurs in central Sulawesiand the eastern and south-eastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking. The species is unlikely to remain on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys, and its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain. The small numbers of young born suggest that the species is not adapted to a high rate of natural predation. However, hunting by humans with snares, nets, spears, and dogs has undoubtedly been an important factor since prehistoric times, and widespread snare trapping constitutes the main threat to the remaining populations of B. celebensisin North Sulawesiand, more recently, elsewhere in Sulawesi. B. celebensisis apparently not hunted specifically for its own meat, but represents a by-catch to the hunting of the SulawesiWarty Pig (Sus celebensis). Therefore, the population of B. celebensisin the wild is being placed under severe and increasing pressure by the market demand for wild pig meat. The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation. Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75%. The genus Babyrousawas accordedfull protection under Indonesian law in 1931. B. celebensisoccurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi, including Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserve, and others.On following pages 2 Moluccan Babırusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) 3 Tog an Babırusa (Babyrousarogeanensıs) 4 Common Warthog (Phacochoorus alncanus) 5 Desert Warthog (Phacochoerus aethıopıcus) 6 Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmaınenzhagenı) Bushpıg (Pommochoeıus Iarvalusl 8 Red RıverHog (Poramochoerus porcas)Bibliography.Andreescu & Murariu (1993), Bosma & de Haan (1981), Bowles (1986), Bowles et al. (1993), Clason (1976), Clayton & MacDonald (1999), Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (2000), Groves (1980, 1985), Hooijer (1975), Houston et al. (2001), Lee, Gorog et al. (2005), Lee, O'Brien et al. (1999), Leus (1996), Leus & Vercammen (1996), Leus, Bland et al. (1996), Leus, Bowles et al. (1992), Macdonald (1991), Macdonald & Leus (1995), Macdonald, Bowles et al. (1993), Macdonald, Burton & Leus (2008), MacKinnon (1981), Manansang et al. (1996), Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b), Melisch (1994, 1995), Milner-Gulland (2001), Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002), Mohr (1958), Patry et al. (1995), Peters (1985), Rajchl (2007), Randi et al. (1996), Rice (1988), Riley (2002), Sody (1949), VanWees et al. (2000), Wemmer & Watling (1982), Wiles et al. (2002).","taxonomy":"Babyrusa celebensis Deninger, 1910,Sulawesi.Phylogenetic studies suggest that babirusas diverged from other pigs in the Miocene some 10-19 million years ago, which could well be the time when they became isolated on Sulawesi. The land connection between southern Sulawesiand Borneo was severed some 50 million years ago, so this suggests that a later land connection existed between Sundaland and Sulawesi, unless babirusas dispersed through rafting or swimming. The presence of two other suid genera in Sulawesi(Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off from the main stock of Suidaeat different times, indicates several invasions of ancestral suid types to Sulawesiover a great length of time. The genus is considered to be monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or, alternatively, to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. Until recently, all babirusas were classified as a single species, B. babyrussa. However, the genus has now been split into several species, and the nominate scientific name is restricted to the Moluccan Babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands. B. celebensis, the SulawesiBabirusa, is the best known babirusa, and the only species for which substantial ecological and behavioral information is available. B. celebensisspecifically refers to animals from the north of the island, and the taxonomic identity of the individuals from central, eastern and south-eastern Sulawesiremains undecided. No subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Babiroussa des Célebes @fr | Sulawesi-Hirscheber @de | Babirusade Célebes @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Babyrousa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"275","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"celebensis","name":"Babyrousa celebensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SulawesiI.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721017/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Andreescu & Murariu (1993) | Bosma & de Haan (1981) | Bowles (1986) | Bowles et al. (1993) | Clason (1976) | Clayton & MacDonald (1999) | Clayton & Milner-Gulland (2000) | Clayton et al. (2000) | Groves (1980, 1985) | Hooijer (1975) | Houston et al. (2001) | Lee, Gorog et al. (2005) | Lee, O'Brien et al. (1999) | Leus (1996) | Leus & Vercammen (1996) | Leus, Bland et al. (1996) | Leus, Bowles et al. (1992) | Macdonald (1991) | Macdonald & Leus (1995) | Macdonald, Bowles et al. (1993) | Macdonald, Burton & Leus (2008) | MacKinnon (1981) | Manansang et al. (1996) | Meijaard & Groves (2002a, 2002b) | Melisch (1994, 1995) | Milner-Gulland (2001) | Milner-Gulland & Clayton (2002) | Mohr (1958) | Patry et al. (1995) | Peters (1985) | Rajchl (2007) | Randi et al. (1996) | Rice (1988) | Riley (2002) | Sody (1949) | VanWees et al. (2000) | Wemmer & Watling (1982) | Wiles et al. (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet and feeding behavior in B. celebensisremain poorly studied in the wild, but observations on captive animals provide a useful picture of their potential diet. The anatomical structure of the stomach and digestive tract suggest that B. celebensisis omnivorous. In zoos, adults ofthis species have been observed to chase, catch, and eat small mammals and birds, implying that they may show similar behavior in the wild. Observations of both wild and captive individuals suggest that the species consumes a wide variety ofleaf, root, and fruit material, with fruit especially important. Their jaws and teeth are strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. Notunlike the Bornean Bearded Pig (Susb. barbatus), the apparent requirement of B. celebensisfor fruit-bearing trees as a component ofits environment has been implied, because as soon as mature trees were cleared by forestry operations or conversion to food crop production, the babirusas were no longer to be found in the area. Whether this is a result of changes in food resources or increased hunting pressure and disturbance from logging crews has not yet been clarified. B. celebensisforages for food items on the ground, under logs and stones, in wet areas, and on bushes and trees. Animals will stand with their forelimbs against tree trunks to reach hanging leaves and fruit, and will even balance on their hindlimbs to pluck leaves from the trees.","breeding":"In zoological collections, B. celebensismay become sexually mature as early as 5-10 months of age. However,it is likely that the age of sexual maturity in the wild is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of nutrition. Precise data do not yet exist, but animals are unlikely to breed in the wild before they are one year old. Estrous cycle lengths of 28-42 days have been recorded, but recent endocrine studies suggest a narrower range of 35-37 days. Captive females generally re-cycle within three months after the birth of their young. Estrus lasts 2-3 days, and the female is not receptive to males at other times. Gestation length is usually 155-158 days, though up to 171 days has been reported. The body weight of the sow increases during gestation. The normallitter size in B. celebensisis one or two, but a low incidence of triplet births has been recorded both in zoos and in the wild, and a litter of four fetuses has been reported in utero in a wild female. Neonatal B. celebensisare uniformly brown in color, small in size, and weigh less than 800 gat birth. The female usually has four mammary glands, but an additional pair has sometimes been reported. Although females can have a life span of as long as 24 years in captivity,it is unlikely that animals in the wild live as long, perhaps no more than 7-12 years. In zoos, B. celebensissows produce young at all times of the year, and may produce two litters within a twelve-month period. However, since it seems likely that diet or seasonal factors would normally influence interbirth intervals, litters may be produced less frequently in the wild. Observation in North Sulawesirevealed adult females accompanied by subadult animals as well as juveniles. However, there was no way to establish whether or not these youngsters represented the progeny of consecutive litters from the same female. Studies of the agonistic behavior of B. celebensishave so far revealed no evidence that the adult males use their teeth during male-male interactions. The ultimate form of agonistic behavior is described as “boxing,” and involves two males raising themselves off the ground until both are standing on their hindlegs facing one another, each leaning and paddling against the chest and shoulders of his opponent. Their snouts are held as high as possible. Females do not employ the same strategy.","activityPatterns":"Based on observations of captive animals, B. celebensisappears to be mostly diurnal. These animals slept at night, which is consistent with the general lack of activity at night recorded in North Sulawesi. About an hour before sunrise at 06:00 h, individuals began to wake up and move about. Voiding of fecal material and urine occurs at this time, and the animals appeared to prefer to defecate under branches and fallen tree trunks. Foraging extended throughout the day, but occupied a larger proportion of the time in the morning. From about mid-morning onwards an increasing proportion of the time was taken up with non-foraging activities. The animals were either wallowing or lying down. Both in the wild and in captivity, males have been observed to wallow more often than females.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The information available from field and captive studies indicates B. celebensisis a social species. Groups of up to 13 have been observed in the rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas, and salt licks. Rarely aggregations as large as 46 individuals comprising several distinct groups have congregated at salt licks. Most (84%) of all sightings of solitary animals were of adult males. Single adult males were seen with single adult females, but never with two or more females unless young animals were present. Adult females were rarely seen without company; they were sometimes found together with other adult animals, but most often they were with young babirusas. Of the 226 groups studied, 84 contained adult females and young. Two thirds (56) of these groups had no adult males present. Very little is known about the ranging behavior of B. celebensis. Field observations suggest that the adult males have home ranges that overlap with those of a number of other adult males. Density estimates in two protected areas where the species still occurred in 2003 varied from 4-3-11-8 ind/km? to 0-7-4-1 ind/km?. Like other pigs, babirusas evidently swim well. A single adult male was reported approximately 500 mfrom the shore of a large lake in central Sulawesi. It is not certain whether this individual was B. celebensis, but it is likely that all babirusa species can swim and cover relatively large distances.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I, although international trade in this species is not thought to be an important issue. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Adult B. celebensisappear to have few,if any, natural predators. There are no large native mammalian carnivores on Sulawesi, and the most likely non-human predators are probably large snakes and crocodiles. We here follow The IUCN Red List and treat all individuals occurring on Sulawesi, as well as those previously known from the Muna, Buton, and Lembeh Islands as belonging to B. celebensis, pending resolution of the taxonomy. B. celebensishas been much reduced on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, primarily due to overhunting, and its distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, and the Panua Nature Reserve, all of which are in the western half of the northern peninsula. The species still occurs in central Sulawesiand the eastern and south-eastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking. The species is unlikely to remain on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys, and its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain. The small numbers of young born suggest that the species is not adapted to a high rate of natural predation. However, hunting by humans with snares, nets, spears, and dogs has undoubtedly been an important factor since prehistoric times, and widespread snare trapping constitutes the main threat to the remaining populations of B. celebensisin North Sulawesiand, more recently, elsewhere in Sulawesi. B. celebensisis apparently not hunted specifically for its own meat, but represents a by-catch to the hunting of the SulawesiWarty Pig (Sus celebensis). Therefore, the population of B. celebensisin the wild is being placed under severe and increasing pressure by the market demand for wild pig meat. The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation. Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75%. The genus Babyrousawas accordedfull protection under Indonesian law in 1931. B. celebensisoccurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi, including Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserve, and others.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight up to 100 kg. B. celebensisis characterized by its sparse or absent body hair, a nearly hairless tail tuft, and long, relatively thick upper canines that emerge vertically, converge slightly, and curl dorsally in a circle. The upper canines of males are generally long and thick. They merge vertically and do not cross the lower canines in lateral view. The skulls of B. celebensisare longer than the two other species. They are relatively narrower than one specimen from central Sulawesi, for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. The lower (M, and M,) and upper (M* and M?) molars in B. celebensisare longer than in the other two species. Unlike most other pig species, babirusas do not have the typical adaptations for rooting. The nose lacks the rostral bone that in other pigs provides support for the tough connective tissue plate of the rhinarium. Reanalyses of the soft tissue anatomy of the limbs and digestive tract of B. celebensishave revealed mistakes of identification in earlier work. This has reversed the earlier conclusion that babirusas were constructed in a significantly different way from pigs (Susspp.); in general the muscular anatomies are similar and the stomach of babirusas does not resemble that of ruminants.","habitat":"B. celebensisinhabits tropical rainforest. Whereas previously the animal had been reported to occur in low-lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that the species is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground. Although often associated with swamp and riverine areas, there is still insufficient data to be conclusive on the aquatic affinities of the species. The species frequently uses mineral salt licks."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553B56358D4B0D521940FAB4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553B56358D4B0D521940FAB4","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"Family SUIDAE(PIGS)• Small to medium-sized mammals with large head, elongated snout ending in a mobile, disk-like nose, short neck, prominent ears, small eyes, robust jaws with long canines, strong legs, small tail, and bristly coat.• 60-250 cm.• Palearctic, Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan, and Austral asian Regions.• From near-desert conditions to closed forest in tropical, subtropical, and boreal regions.• 6 genera, 17 species,at least 45 extant taxa.• 2 species Critically Endangered, 3 species Endangered, 5 species Vulnerable; 2 subspecies Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"279","verbatimText":"8.Red RiverHogPotamochoerus porcusFrench:Potamocheére roux/ German:Pinselohrschwein/ Spanish:PotamocerorojoTaxonomy.Sus porcus Linnaeus, 1766,“Habitat in Africa” (= West Africa).No subspecies have been designated, because no discernable geographically consistent morphological variation has been identified. Monotypic.Distribution.Main tropical rainforest belt from Senegaland GuineaBissauto NW Ugandaand E DR Congo, reaching as S boundary N Angola(Cabinda); no recent records from Gambiaor Chadand its presence is uncertain in S Sudanand SW Ethiopia. As a species that may range widely through gallery forests, it may also occur in adjacent countries.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-145 cm,tail 30-45 cm, shoulder height 55-80 cm; weight 45-115 kg. Red RiverHogs are the smallest and most colorful of all African pigs. They have short, laterally flattened bodies that are predominantly bright russet orange. There is a narrow white dorsal crest from the head to the tail, which is erected when the animal is excited. The pelage is short except for longer bristles on jaws and flanks. The head is strongly contrasted, with bold markings like a facial mask: grayish muzzle, white “brows” around the eyes, white cheeks and whiskers, and black marks on the snout, jaws, ears, and forehead. The ear pinnae have a prominent terminal tuft of white hair. Young Red RiverHogs are dark brown with a facial mask and rows of pale yellow spots on body. Males have two humps on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The tusks are small and sharp. Skull length is 32-:7-40. 5 cm(adult males) and 26.9-37. 8 cm(adult females). Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosome numberis 34. Life span is 10-15 years.Habitat.Red River Hogs mainly occur in gallery forests and swamp margins of primary rainforest where there is significant vegetative cover. In transition zones, they frequently visit dry forests, savanna woodlands, and cultivated areas. The speciesis highly adaptable and locally benefits from regeneration of logged-over forested areas, where they find more varied food sources and a reduction of their natural predators. Population densities are 1-6 ind/km?, but wide variations are recorded. Up to 18-4 ind/km?* have been recorded in the forest-savanna ecotone of Lopé National Park, Gabon. The species is widespread in its habitat except where the Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmeinertzhagent) is common.Food and Feeding.Red River Hogs have an omnivorous diet, with a marked preference for roots and tubers. They also feed on grasses, aquatic plants, bulbs,fruit, carrion, and various small animals. They use their snouts to root in the ground and can do serious damage to crops. The species uses the noises and calls of monkeys and frugivorous birds to detect potential food supplies. Seasonal aggregations of Red River Hogs at masting fruit trees account for observations of temporary groups of up to 60 individuals. In Makokou (Gabon), these groups are very noisy when breaking hard nutshells of Caula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis, which attracts the attention of predators and secondary feeders. The hogs are sometimes followed by guinea fowl, who peck about the turned over ground for food. Seasonal massive availability of preferred foods and the hogs’ high level of opportunism explain semi-nomadic circuits of movements.Breeding.This species uses a wide range ofritualized postures with release of glandular secretions during male fights and rut. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-24 months. Gestation is 120-127 days. Farrowing occurs in February-March in Nigeriaand in December—]January in Gabon, but females can give birth twice yearly in captive conditions.Litters of 1-4 piglets (rarely up to 6) are born in a sheltered hollow covered with a thick mattress of grasses and leaves, where they stay 10-15 days with their mother before joining the rest of the sounder. Weaning occurs at 2—4 months.Activity patterns.These animals are most active in the evening and during the night, and rest in burrows deep within dense thickets during the day. They are capable of covering long distances in search of food, and like to rest in wallows in shallow swamps. The whole sounder runs away when alarmed or frightened. If striped piglets are present, they crouch and freeze while adults face the danger. When cornered or wounded, the adult hogs can display considerable courage and vigorously attack predators, including humans. They are very good swimmers and are frequently seen crossing large rivers. Their main predators are humans and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but locally also Lions (P. leo), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and pythons. Red RiverHogs make up 20% of the biomass consumed by Leopards in Lopé National Park.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In some areas, the narrow extent and linearity of the species’ home ranges (gallery forests in savanna habitats) may force frequent and extensive movements. Sounders roam a comparatively large home range, sometimes with over 4 kmbetween resting and feeding areas. Distance covered daily is 3-6 km, depending on food availability and the presence of young. Red RiverHogs are gregarious, with sounders of 6-20 females, subadults, and young attended by a large master boar. As with other suids, older juvenile males are bullied by their father if they approach his feeding or wallowing place too closely. On the move, hogs communicate by soft grunts in order to maintain the cohesion of the sounder, and they use a wide range of vocalizations adapted to various circumstances. In shared home ranges, boars communicate their presence and status by frequent rubbing and tusking oftrees.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the speciesis relatively widespread and common, and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline.The main threat to this species is the growing pressure from hunting for commercial bushmeat trade and for subsistence. Together with the duikers,it is one of the most sought after and hunted species in the CongoBasin and it makes up 40% of the bushmeat sold in markets in Gabon. In the CongoBasin, the high demand for bushmeat and the spread of gun hunting are factors that can easily threaten the survival of this species. Experiments with raising in captivity have shown its susceptibility to stress during capture, low rate of survival of young (11-57%), but rapid adaptation to confined environment and human company.Bibliography.Dosimont (2004), Grubb (1993), Henschel et al. (2005), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Okouyi (2002, 2006), Payne (2002), Querouil & Leus (2008), Tutinet al. (1997), Vercammen et al. (1993), van Vliet & Nasi (2008).","taxonomy":"Sus porcus Linnaeus, 1766,“Habitat in Africa” (= West Africa).No subspecies have been designated, because no discernable geographically consistent morphological variation has been identified. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Potamocheére roux @fr | Pinselohrschwein @de | Potamocerorojo @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Potamochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"279","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"porcus","name":"Potamochoerus porcus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Main tropical rainforest belt from Senegaland GuineaBissauto NW Ugandaand E DR Congo, reaching as S boundary N Angola(Cabinda); no recent records from Gambiaor Chadand its presence is uncertain in S Sudanand SW Ethiopia. As a species that may range widely through gallery forests, it may also occur in adjacent countries.","bibliography":"Dosimont (2004) | Grubb (1993) | Henschel et al. (2005) | Kingdon (1997) | Laurance et al. (2006) | Okouyi (2002, 2006) | Payne (2002) | Querouil & Leus (2008) | Tutinet al. (1997) | Vercammen et al. (1993) | van Vliet & Nasi (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Red River Hogs have an omnivorous diet, with a marked preference for roots and tubers. They also feed on grasses, aquatic plants, bulbs,fruit, carrion, and various small animals. They use their snouts to root in the ground and can do serious damage to crops. The species uses the noises and calls of monkeys and frugivorous birds to detect potential food supplies. Seasonal aggregations of Red River Hogs at masting fruit trees account for observations of temporary groups of up to 60 individuals. In Makokou (Gabon), these groups are very noisy when breaking hard nutshells of Caula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis, which attracts the attention of predators and secondary feeders. The hogs are sometimes followed by guinea fowl, who peck about the turned over ground for food. Seasonal massive availability of preferred foods and the hogs’ high level of opportunism explain semi-nomadic circuits of movements.","breeding":"This species uses a wide range ofritualized postures with release of glandular secretions during male fights and rut. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-24 months. Gestation is 120-127 days. Farrowing occurs in February-March in Nigeriaand in December—]January in Gabon, but females can give birth twice yearly in captive conditions.Litters of 1-4 piglets (rarely up to 6) are born in a sheltered hollow covered with a thick mattress of grasses and leaves, where they stay 10-15 days with their mother before joining the rest of the sounder. Weaning occurs at 2—4 months.","activityPatterns":"These animals are most active in the evening and during the night, and rest in burrows deep within dense thickets during the day. They are capable of covering long distances in search of food, and like to rest in wallows in shallow swamps. The whole sounder runs away when alarmed or frightened. If striped piglets are present, they crouch and freeze while adults face the danger. When cornered or wounded, the adult hogs can display considerable courage and vigorously attack predators, including humans. They are very good swimmers and are frequently seen crossing large rivers. Their main predators are humans and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but locally also Lions (P. leo), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and pythons. Red RiverHogs make up 20% of the biomass consumed by Leopards in Lopé National Park.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In some areas, the narrow extent and linearity of the species’ home ranges (gallery forests in savanna habitats) may force frequent and extensive movements. Sounders roam a comparatively large home range, sometimes with over 4 kmbetween resting and feeding areas. Distance covered daily is 3-6 km, depending on food availability and the presence of young. Red RiverHogs are gregarious, with sounders of 6-20 females, subadults, and young attended by a large master boar. As with other suids, older juvenile males are bullied by their father if they approach his feeding or wallowing place too closely. On the move, hogs communicate by soft grunts in order to maintain the cohesion of the sounder, and they use a wide range of vocalizations adapted to various circumstances. In shared home ranges, boars communicate their presence and status by frequent rubbing and tusking oftrees.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the speciesis relatively widespread and common, and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline.The main threat to this species is the growing pressure from hunting for commercial bushmeat trade and for subsistence. Together with the duikers,it is one of the most sought after and hunted species in the CongoBasin and it makes up 40% of the bushmeat sold in markets in Gabon. In the CongoBasin, the high demand for bushmeat and the spread of gun hunting are factors that can easily threaten the survival of this species. Experiments with raising in captivity have shown its susceptibility to stress during capture, low rate of survival of young (11-57%), but rapid adaptation to confined environment and human company.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-145 cm,tail 30-45 cm, shoulder height 55-80 cm; weight 45-115 kg. Red RiverHogs are the smallest and most colorful of all African pigs. They have short, laterally flattened bodies that are predominantly bright russet orange. There is a narrow white dorsal crest from the head to the tail, which is erected when the animal is excited. The pelage is short except for longer bristles on jaws and flanks. The head is strongly contrasted, with bold markings like a facial mask: grayish muzzle, white “brows” around the eyes, white cheeks and whiskers, and black marks on the snout, jaws, ears, and forehead. The ear pinnae have a prominent terminal tuft of white hair. Young Red RiverHogs are dark brown with a facial mask and rows of pale yellow spots on body. Males have two humps on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The tusks are small and sharp. Skull length is 32-:7-40. 5 cm(adult males) and 26.9-37. 8 cm(adult females). Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosome numberis 34. Life span is 10-15 years.","habitat":"Red River Hogs mainly occur in gallery forests and swamp margins of primary rainforest where there is significant vegetative cover. In transition zones, they frequently visit dry forests, savanna woodlands, and cultivated areas. The speciesis highly adaptable and locally benefits from regeneration of logged-over forested areas, where they find more varied food sources and a reduction of their natural predators. Population densities are 1-6 ind/km?, but wide variations are recorded. Up to 18-4 ind/km?* have been recorded in the forest-savanna ecotone of Lopé National Park, Gabon. The species is widespread in its habitat except where the Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmeinertzhagent) is common."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"279","verbatimText":"7.BushpigPotamochoerus larvatusFrench:Potamochere du Cap/ German:Buschschwein/ Spanish:Potamocerode rioTaxonomy.Sus larvatus F. Cuvier, 1822,“ Madagascar” (no exact type locality known).The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Islands, but the taxonomic situation of these populations is still unresolved as this species is thought to have been introduced there. Two subspecies are sometimes recognized on Madagascar: the nominate form larvatus, described by F. Cuvier in 1822, which lives in Mayotteand the north-west of Madagascar, and the race hovafrom the east of Madagascar. This may suggest that the species was not introduced by people, or was introduced at different times from different source populations. Until this issue is clarified, we do not here recognize the Madagascarraces as subspecies, and thus exclude these populations from the species’ distribution. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.l.hassamaHeuglin,1863—EAfrica,withspecimensknownfromEthiopia,SSudan,EDRCongo,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,Kenya,andTanzania.P.l.koiropotamusDesmoulins,1831—lowerCongoRiver(leftbank),Angola,SDRCongo,Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique,Zimbabwe,Botswana,Swaziland,andSouthAfrica.P. l. somaliensis de Beaux, 1924— Tana, Juba, and Shebelle rivers in NE Kenyaand Somalia.The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Is, but their taxonomic situation thereis still unresolved.Descriptive notes.Head—body 100-150 cm, tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height 55-88 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Bushpigs have a compact body with short legs, rounded back, and elongated snout. The coatis extremely variable in color, from blond, pale red, or russet up to a dark brown or near-black shade. The color may vary with sex, age, region, or individual, and this significant variation in body color has led to the description of many variant races. It generally has a paler head with white face markings. Body hairs are long and sparse but elongated from the forehead to the tail, forming a white or grayish dorsal crest. It has a long tufted tail. Newborns are dark brown in color with longitudinal stripes or rows of paler spots. Adult males display bony ridges and calluses on the muzzle. Females have six pairs of mammae. There are clear distinctions between subspecies based, for example, on color and average male skull length, but there are also indications that intergradation may occur locally between subspecies. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. The upper tusks are very small (average 7-6 cm), but the lower tusks are sizeable (9-16. 5 cm) and razor sharp. Chromosome numberis 34. The life span is 20 years.Habitat.The Bushpig is ecologically separated from the Red River Hog (FP. porcus). Within areas of co-occurrence (like the Albertine Rift), the Bushpig lives at higher elevations and the Red River Hog in lowland forests. Elsewhere, the two species are separated by ecological barriers such as the CongoRiver. Bushpigs occur in a wide range of forested and woodland habitats, from sea level to montane forest (up to 4000 mon Mount Kilimanjaro), with a marked preference for valley bottoms with soft soils and dense vegetation. There are striking differences in habitat among subspecies, with, for example, the hassama race primarilyoccurring in upland forest areas and the somaliensis race favoringriverine forests.Food and Feeding.This species is omnivorous and highly adaptable. It is probably a major seed disperser. Bushpigs consume roots, tubers, bulbs, corn, fungi,fruit, eggs, invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and carrion. In Uganda, Bushpigs were seen following groups of monkeys as they forage and feeding on discarded fruits. They make extensive use of their snouts to root for larvae, worms, and underground plant parts. Locally, Bushpig rooting can leave large areas plowed up and cleared of standing vegetation. In cultivated areas, sounders can do serious damage to crops in a short time.Breeding.Sexual maturity is reached at 18-21 months. Breeding may take place yearround, but most young are recorded at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. The gestation period is 120-127 days. Just before giving birth, females retire to a sheltered nest or hollow. Most common litter size is 3—4, with a maximum of ten. Newborns weigh 700-800 g. They are weaned at 2—4 months.Activity patterns.Bushpigs are predominantly nocturnal, resting under heavy thickets of vegetation during the day. Nests for raising young or during rainy seasons are built in the cooler parts of their range. In the southern Cape, South Africa, they tend to be more diurnal during the colder months, suggesting that temperature regulation is a significant factor influencing the rhythm of activity. Mud wallowing and rubbing against trees are also regular activities. Population density is regulated by a wide range of predators including humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), pythons, and eagles. Courageous and dangerous when cornered, both boars and sows defend piglets cooperatively and aggressively. Fighting behavior includes frontal and lateral postures with dorsal crest erected, snout-boxing, and forehead shoving. Bushpigs run fast and swim easily. Their senses of smell and hearing are very good, but eyesight only fair.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In South Africa, groups occupy spatially exclusive home ranges of 3-10 km? with daily movements of 0-5-6 km. Population densities are 0-3-10-1 ind/km?. They live in family sounders of 6-12 individuals, led by a dominant male, with one or more females and their young. Unlike other wild pigs, adult males play an active role in rearing and defending the young. Other males are aggressively chased off and territorial encounters are characterized by ritualized displays and scent marking. Males disperse from the natal group and old males may be solitary, whereas females remain on their natal home range.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread and common and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. Though the Bushpig is still relatively widespread, its distribution is patchy in certain regions. It is reported to be increasingly rare outside of protected areas, and widely hunted either for subsistence or for commercial bushmeat trade at local, mostly urban markets. It is also hunted as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases like African swine fever, nagana (a form of trypanosomiasis), and sleeping sickness. Clearing of forested areas and conversion to cropland have benefited this species in some areas.Bibliography.de Beaux (1924), Cooper & Melton (1988), Duckworth (1992), Estes (1991), Ghiglieri et al. (1982), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Melton et al. (1989), Nielsen (2006), Nummelin (1990), Seydack (1991, 2008), Skinner et al. (1976), Sowls & Phelps (1968), Stuart (1985), Vercammen et al. (1993).","taxonomy":"Sus larvatus F. Cuvier, 1822,“ Madagascar” (no exact type locality known).The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Islands, but the taxonomic situation of these populations is still unresolved as this species is thought to have been introduced there. Two subspecies are sometimes recognized on Madagascar: the nominate form larvatus, described by F. Cuvier in 1822, which lives in Mayotteand the north-west of Madagascar, and the race hovafrom the east of Madagascar. This may suggest that the species was not introduced by people, or was introduced at different times from different source populations. Until this issue is clarified, we do not here recognize the Madagascarraces as subspecies, and thus exclude these populations from the species’ distribution. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Potamochere du Cap @fr | Buschschwein @de | Potamocerode rio @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"F.Cuvier","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Potamochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"279","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"larvatus","name":"Potamochoerus larvatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.l.hassamaHeuglin,1863—EAfrica,withspecimensknownfromEthiopia,SSudan,EDRCongo,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,Kenya,andTanzania.P.l.koiropotamusDesmoulins,1831—lowerCongoRiver(leftbank),Angola,SDRCongo,Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique,Zimbabwe,Botswana,Swaziland,andSouthAfrica.P. l. somaliensis de Beaux, 1924— Tana, Juba, and Shebelle rivers in NE Kenyaand Somalia.The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Is, but their taxonomic situation thereis still unresolved.","bibliography":"de Beaux (1924) | Cooper & Melton (1988) | Duckworth (1992) | Estes (1991) | Ghiglieri et al. (1982) | Grubb (1993) | Kingdon (1997) | Laurance et al. (2006) | Melton et al. (1989) | Nielsen (2006) | Nummelin (1990) | Seydack (1991, 2008) | Skinner et al. (1976) | Sowls & Phelps (1968) | Stuart (1985) | Vercammen et al. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"This species is omnivorous and highly adaptable. It is probably a major seed disperser. Bushpigs consume roots, tubers, bulbs, corn, fungi,fruit, eggs, invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and carrion. In Uganda, Bushpigs were seen following groups of monkeys as they forage and feeding on discarded fruits. They make extensive use of their snouts to root for larvae, worms, and underground plant parts. Locally, Bushpig rooting can leave large areas plowed up and cleared of standing vegetation. In cultivated areas, sounders can do serious damage to crops in a short time.","breeding":"Sexual maturity is reached at 18-21 months. Breeding may take place yearround, but most young are recorded at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. The gestation period is 120-127 days. Just before giving birth, females retire to a sheltered nest or hollow. Most common litter size is 3—4, with a maximum of ten. Newborns weigh 700-800 g. They are weaned at 2—4 months.","activityPatterns":"Bushpigs are predominantly nocturnal, resting under heavy thickets of vegetation during the day. Nests for raising young or during rainy seasons are built in the cooler parts of their range. In the southern Cape, South Africa, they tend to be more diurnal during the colder months, suggesting that temperature regulation is a significant factor influencing the rhythm of activity. Mud wallowing and rubbing against trees are also regular activities. Population density is regulated by a wide range of predators including humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), pythons, and eagles. Courageous and dangerous when cornered, both boars and sows defend piglets cooperatively and aggressively. Fighting behavior includes frontal and lateral postures with dorsal crest erected, snout-boxing, and forehead shoving. Bushpigs run fast and swim easily. Their senses of smell and hearing are very good, but eyesight only fair.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In South Africa, groups occupy spatially exclusive home ranges of 3-10 km? with daily movements of 0-5-6 km. Population densities are 0-3-10-1 ind/km?. They live in family sounders of 6-12 individuals, led by a dominant male, with one or more females and their young. Unlike other wild pigs, adult males play an active role in rearing and defending the young. Other males are aggressively chased off and territorial encounters are characterized by ritualized displays and scent marking. Males disperse from the natal group and old males may be solitary, whereas females remain on their natal home range.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread and common and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. Though the Bushpig is still relatively widespread, its distribution is patchy in certain regions. It is reported to be increasingly rare outside of protected areas, and widely hunted either for subsistence or for commercial bushmeat trade at local, mostly urban markets. It is also hunted as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases like African swine fever, nagana (a form of trypanosomiasis), and sleeping sickness. Clearing of forested areas and conversion to cropland have benefited this species in some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 100-150 cm, tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height 55-88 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Bushpigs have a compact body with short legs, rounded back, and elongated snout. The coatis extremely variable in color, from blond, pale red, or russet up to a dark brown or near-black shade. The color may vary with sex, age, region, or individual, and this significant variation in body color has led to the description of many variant races. It generally has a paler head with white face markings. Body hairs are long and sparse but elongated from the forehead to the tail, forming a white or grayish dorsal crest. It has a long tufted tail. Newborns are dark brown in color with longitudinal stripes or rows of paler spots. Adult males display bony ridges and calluses on the muzzle. Females have six pairs of mammae. There are clear distinctions between subspecies based, for example, on color and average male skull length, but there are also indications that intergradation may occur locally between subspecies. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. The upper tusks are very small (average 7-6 cm), but the lower tusks are sizeable (9-16. 5 cm) and razor sharp. Chromosome numberis 34. The life span is 20 years.","habitat":"The Bushpig is ecologically separated from the Red River Hog (FP. porcus). Within areas of co-occurrence (like the Albertine Rift), the Bushpig lives at higher elevations and the Red River Hog in lowland forests. Elsewhere, the two species are separated by ecological barriers such as the CongoRiver. Bushpigs occur in a wide range of forested and woodland habitats, from sea level to montane forest (up to 4000 mon Mount Kilimanjaro), with a marked preference for valley bottoms with soft soils and dense vegetation. There are striking differences in habitat among subspecies, with, for example, the hassama race primarilyoccurring in upland forest areas and the somaliensis race favoringriverine forests."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"278","verbatimText":"6.Forest HogHylochoerus meinertzhageniFrench:Hylochere/ German:Riesenwaldschwein/ Spanish:HiloceroOther common names:Giant Forest Hog (meinertzhageni)Taxonomy.Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas, 1904,Kenya, NandiForest, near Kaimosi, 2134 m.The three subspecies provisionally recognized are differentiated on the basis of the dimensions and shape of their skull. The taxonomy of a fourth, the Ethiopian race, is still indefinite.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.meinertzhageniThomas,1904—EDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Uganda,Kenya,SSudan,andEthiopia.IthasnotreliablybeenrecordedfromTanzania.H.m.woriensisBouet&Neuville,1930—discontinuouspresenceinGuinea,SierraLeone(?),Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana;possiblyalsoinGuineaBissau,andTogo.H. m. rimator Thomas, 1906— SE Nigeria, W & SE Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea(extinct?), N Republic of the Congo, and N DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-210 cm, tail 25-45 cm, shoulder height 75-110 cm; weight 140-275 kg (males) and 100-200 kg (females). Males are significantly larger than females in both weight and dimensions. Although the common name “Giant Forest Hog” is often used, western races ofthis species are not much larger than Bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), and only the East African animals are true giants. Their slatey gray skin is densely covered with coarse hair, which gets sparser with age. Adult pelage is coal black, with 15-20 cm long, stout bristles. There is a pale, erectile mane on the neck. The ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to black. The legs are robust, with large and rounded hooves. The long, tasseled tail is slender and flattened at its end, with sparse bristles implanted laterally. The massive head has white to yellowish “whiskers” on the jaw-line callosity. The small, pointed, leaf-shaped ears are fringed with black hairs. In males, the forehead is characterized by a large depression surrounded by five bony, hairless ridges. The species has large, swollen preorbital glands and prominent naked cheeks. The muzzle is flat, with thick tusks flaring outwards and a very broad nasal disc (up to 17 cmin diameter). The skull and facial musculature are adapted to a folivorous rather than an omnivorous diet. Females have four mammae. Dental formulaisl 1/3, Cl1/1,P2/1,M 3/5 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Like Red RiverHogs (P. porcus), Forest Hogs are more dependent on forest than the other African pigs. Forest Hogs inhabit a variety offoresttypes: subalpine areas and bamboo groves, forest—grassland mosaics, montane, lowland, and swamp forests, river galleries, wooded savannas, and thickets. It is an ecotonic species, preferring intermediate habitat zones where the edge effect is maximized and where resources from different vegetation types can be exploited within a limited area. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understory cover in some parts of its home range, and a diversity of vegetation types. In dense forest areas, Forest Hogs tend to concentrate in isolated hilly, rocky habitats of savanna and forest, around clearings, or in mixed forest patches rather than in monodominant forest. The variety of forest habitats occupied implies a high degree of adaptability to local climatic conditions. Forest Hogslive in cold uplands (where night temperatures may fall to 0°C) as well as hot lowlands, but do not tolerate low humidity or prolonged solar radiation.Food and Feeding.Forest Hogs are mainly grass-eaters and folivorous. Feeding habits show that they are neither exclusively forest animals nor pure grazers. They display great versatility in food selection, depending on the seasonal content, stage of growth, and quantity of plant resources available. Many species of grasses, sedges, and herbs are cropped. They root much less than other wild pigs and dig only in soft or muddy soils. In a savanna area of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, they select more than 100 food plants. In Virunga National Park, however, five major savanna species were selected, on average, over the course of a year; the hogs preferred some grasses during dry seasons and others during rainy seasons, selecting grasses when their nutrient and energetic content is highest. Young piglets are known to feed on grasses well before weaning. In dense forest, both Forest Hogs and Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus) use mast seed areas in monodominant stands. Examination of adult hog dung reveals different types of material, including poorly masticated grass seeds, stems, and leaves, fragments of millipedes and shields of ticks, earth nodules, and bristles. They also excavate salty earth with their tusks and lower incisors. These salt licks may be termite mounds, shallow caves, dry river banks, or even the embankment of a deserted road. Occasionally Forest Hogs eat meat and bones ofcarrion, eggs, and larvae. Coprophagy is not common, but piglets are fond of fresh elephant dung.Breeding.Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months. There are two mating seasons in Virunga National Park, with births occuring at the beginning of the rainy season. Gestation period averages 151 days. Before parturition, the expectant sow leaves the group and retreats under dense thickets in a nest made of grasses and branches where young are born. Litter size is 2-6 (average 2-4) piglets. The mother rejoins her group with her offspring only one week after parturition. Piglets may nurse from any female in the group, and are protected by all. Weaning occurs at 8-10 weeks. The averagelife expectancy is 3-5 years and average life span is five years, with a maximum of 18 years.Activity patterns.In the grassland-bushland—dry forest mosaic ofVirunga National Park, DR Congo, Forest Hogs spend on average 25% oftheir daily time moving and foraging in savanna, 21% moving, foraging, and wallowing in thickets or forested areas, and 54% resting in a sheltered sleeping site. Activity is most intense in the early morning and late afternoon, with a rest during hottest hours. There is no evidence of true nocturnal activity. Wallowing is a favorite activity, taking up about one hour each day in certain areas. Before sundown, family groupsretire to their sleeping place under dense thickets. Along the trails, the same dung heaps are always used as communal latrines. Males are fierce defenders of their group and sometimes lead the sounders in driving off predators and competitors. When shot at, they will attack humans. Competition between males is violent and may last for half an hour. Males rush at each other from a distance, crashing their foreheads together like rams. Despite their reinforced skulls, deaths among males due to fractures are not uncommon, but most wounds heal. This species is quite vocal, producing a minimum of ten recognizable categories of sounds. The main predators on adults are Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (P. leo). Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta),, pythons, and eagles prey on young hogs and their mortality rate is about 50%.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Forest Hogs maintain unmarked and undefended home ranges of 3-10 km? laced with a network of well-worn trails connecting resting sites, latrines, wallows, waterholes, salt licks, and grazing meadows. Daily movements average 8-12 km, most of which takes place on an individual’s own or another animal’s trails. Home ranges may overlap extensively with ranges of other groups. Routine activities in confined territories make Forest Hogs easy targets for poachers. In Virunga National Park, the basic social group is a sounder of 4-20 animals consisting of 1-4 males, 1-9 females, and the offspring of up to three generations. Males can be monogamous or polygamous. Average group size is 10-14 in Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. Larger groupings of several sounders have been recorded. Groups of bachelor subadults and solitary males are common. In good habitat, population densities are 7-30 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread, sometimes locally abundant, has a high reproductive potential, and although itis subject to hunting in many parts ofits range,it is not believed to be declining at a rate that would merit its being listed as Near Threatened or in a threatened category. The speciesis very vulnerable to deforestation and hunting for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. The western race zvoriensisis highly vulnerable to fragmentation of its habitat.Bibliography.Cerling & Viehl (2004), Estes (1991), Ewer (1970), Fimpel (2002), Grimshaw (1998), d'Huart (1978, 1993), d'Huart & Kingdon (In Press), d'Huart & Klingel (2008), d'Huart & Yohannes (1995), Kingdon (1979), Klingel & Klingel (2004), Kock & Howell (1999), Rahm & Christiaensen (1963), Viehl (2003).","taxonomy":"Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas, 1904,Kenya, NandiForest, near Kaimosi, 2134 m.The three subspecies provisionally recognized are differentiated on the basis of the dimensions and shape of their skull. The taxonomy of a fourth, the Ethiopian race, is still indefinite.","commonNames":"Hylochere @fr | Riesenwaldschwein @de | Hilocero @es | Giant Forest Hog (meinertzhageni) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1904","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Hylochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"278","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"meinertzhageni","name":"Hylochoerus meinertzhageni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.m.meinertzhageniThomas,1904—EDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Uganda,Kenya,SSudan,andEthiopia.IthasnotreliablybeenrecordedfromTanzania.H.m.woriensisBouet&Neuville,1930—discontinuouspresenceinGuinea,SierraLeone(?),Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana;possiblyalsoinGuineaBissau,andTogo.H. m. rimator Thomas, 1906— SE Nigeria, W & SE Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea(extinct?), N Republic of the Congo, and N DR Congo.","bibliography":"Cerling & Viehl (2004) | Estes (1991) | Ewer (1970) | Fimpel (2002) | Grimshaw (1998) | d'Huart (1978, 1993) | d'Huart & Kingdon (In Press) | d'Huart & Klingel (2008) | d'Huart & Yohannes (1995) | Kingdon (1979) | Klingel & Klingel (2004) | Kock & Howell (1999) | Rahm & Christiaensen (1963) | Viehl (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"Forest Hogs are mainly grass-eaters and folivorous. Feeding habits show that they are neither exclusively forest animals nor pure grazers. They display great versatility in food selection, depending on the seasonal content, stage of growth, and quantity of plant resources available. Many species of grasses, sedges, and herbs are cropped. They root much less than other wild pigs and dig only in soft or muddy soils. In a savanna area of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, they select more than 100 food plants. In Virunga National Park, however, five major savanna species were selected, on average, over the course of a year; the hogs preferred some grasses during dry seasons and others during rainy seasons, selecting grasses when their nutrient and energetic content is highest. Young piglets are known to feed on grasses well before weaning. In dense forest, both Forest Hogs and Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus) use mast seed areas in monodominant stands. Examination of adult hog dung reveals different types of material, including poorly masticated grass seeds, stems, and leaves, fragments of millipedes and shields of ticks, earth nodules, and bristles. They also excavate salty earth with their tusks and lower incisors. These salt licks may be termite mounds, shallow caves, dry river banks, or even the embankment of a deserted road. Occasionally Forest Hogs eat meat and bones ofcarrion, eggs, and larvae. Coprophagy is not common, but piglets are fond of fresh elephant dung.","breeding":"Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months. There are two mating seasons in Virunga National Park, with births occuring at the beginning of the rainy season. Gestation period averages 151 days. Before parturition, the expectant sow leaves the group and retreats under dense thickets in a nest made of grasses and branches where young are born. Litter size is 2-6 (average 2-4) piglets. The mother rejoins her group with her offspring only one week after parturition. Piglets may nurse from any female in the group, and are protected by all. Weaning occurs at 8-10 weeks. The averagelife expectancy is 3-5 years and average life span is five years, with a maximum of 18 years.","activityPatterns":"In the grassland-bushland—dry forest mosaic ofVirunga National Park, DR Congo, Forest Hogs spend on average 25% oftheir daily time moving and foraging in savanna, 21% moving, foraging, and wallowing in thickets or forested areas, and 54% resting in a sheltered sleeping site. Activity is most intense in the early morning and late afternoon, with a rest during hottest hours. There is no evidence of true nocturnal activity. Wallowing is a favorite activity, taking up about one hour each day in certain areas. Before sundown, family groupsretire to their sleeping place under dense thickets. Along the trails, the same dung heaps are always used as communal latrines. Males are fierce defenders of their group and sometimes lead the sounders in driving off predators and competitors. When shot at, they will attack humans. Competition between males is violent and may last for half an hour. Males rush at each other from a distance, crashing their foreheads together like rams. Despite their reinforced skulls, deaths among males due to fractures are not uncommon, but most wounds heal. This species is quite vocal, producing a minimum of ten recognizable categories of sounds. The main predators on adults are Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (P. leo). Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta),, pythons, and eagles prey on young hogs and their mortality rate is about 50%.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Forest Hogs maintain unmarked and undefended home ranges of 3-10 km? laced with a network of well-worn trails connecting resting sites, latrines, wallows, waterholes, salt licks, and grazing meadows. Daily movements average 8-12 km, most of which takes place on an individual’s own or another animal’s trails. Home ranges may overlap extensively with ranges of other groups. Routine activities in confined territories make Forest Hogs easy targets for poachers. In Virunga National Park, the basic social group is a sounder of 4-20 animals consisting of 1-4 males, 1-9 females, and the offspring of up to three generations. Males can be monogamous or polygamous. Average group size is 10-14 in Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. Larger groupings of several sounders have been recorded. Groups of bachelor subadults and solitary males are common. In good habitat, population densities are 7-30 ind/km?.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread, sometimes locally abundant, has a high reproductive potential, and although itis subject to hunting in many parts ofits range,it is not believed to be declining at a rate that would merit its being listed as Near Threatened or in a threatened category. The speciesis very vulnerable to deforestation and hunting for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. The western race zvoriensisis highly vulnerable to fragmentation of its habitat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-210 cm, tail 25-45 cm, shoulder height 75-110 cm; weight 140-275 kg (males) and 100-200 kg (females). Males are significantly larger than females in both weight and dimensions. Although the common name “Giant Forest Hog” is often used, western races ofthis species are not much larger than Bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), and only the East African animals are true giants. Their slatey gray skin is densely covered with coarse hair, which gets sparser with age. Adult pelage is coal black, with 15-20 cm long, stout bristles. There is a pale, erectile mane on the neck. The ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to black. The legs are robust, with large and rounded hooves. The long, tasseled tail is slender and flattened at its end, with sparse bristles implanted laterally. The massive head has white to yellowish “whiskers” on the jaw-line callosity. The small, pointed, leaf-shaped ears are fringed with black hairs. In males, the forehead is characterized by a large depression surrounded by five bony, hairless ridges. The species has large, swollen preorbital glands and prominent naked cheeks. The muzzle is flat, with thick tusks flaring outwards and a very broad nasal disc (up to 17 cmin diameter). The skull and facial musculature are adapted to a folivorous rather than an omnivorous diet. Females have four mammae. Dental formulaisl 1/3, Cl1/1,P2/1,M 3/5 (x2) = 30.","habitat":"Like Red RiverHogs (P. porcus), Forest Hogs are more dependent on forest than the other African pigs. Forest Hogs inhabit a variety offoresttypes: subalpine areas and bamboo groves, forest—grassland mosaics, montane, lowland, and swamp forests, river galleries, wooded savannas, and thickets. It is an ecotonic species, preferring intermediate habitat zones where the edge effect is maximized and where resources from different vegetation types can be exploited within a limited area. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understory cover in some parts of its home range, and a diversity of vegetation types. In dense forest areas, Forest Hogs tend to concentrate in isolated hilly, rocky habitats of savanna and forest, around clearings, or in mixed forest patches rather than in monodominant forest. The variety of forest habitats occupied implies a high degree of adaptability to local climatic conditions. Forest Hogslive in cold uplands (where night temperatures may fall to 0°C) as well as hot lowlands, but do not tolerate low humidity or prolonged solar radiation."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"277","verbatimText":"5.Desert WarthogPhacochoerus aethiopicusFrench:Phacochére du désert/ German:Wistenwarzenschwein/ Spanish:Facocerode desiertoTaxonomy.Aper aethiopicus Pallas, 1766,“Promontoria BonaSpei advectus,” between Kaffraria and Great Namaqualand (South Africa, Eastern Cape Province), two hundred leagues from the Capeof Good Hope.Nominate subspecies aethiopicus (Pallas, 1766)from eastern Cape Provinceand upper Orange River, South Africa, is extinct. Only one extant subspecies recognized.Distribution.P. a. delamerei Lonnberg, 1909 — NW & S Somalia, E Ethiopia, and E Kenya. The distribution is insufficiently known but accurately recorded from several areas, including N Somalia(W Somaliland), S Somalia(Jubaland), E Ethiopia(Ogaden), and E Kenya, from near sea level to ¢. 1400 min C Kenya. Although thought to be restricted to arid environments, its range in Kenyahas been found to extend S to Tsavo West National Park (W of Athi River and S of the Galana River). Formerly the species occurred in South Africa, in the former Cape Provinceand apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now extinct there.Descriptive notes.No body measurements have been recorded for Desert Warthogs. External appearance is generally similar to the Common Warthog (FP. africanus), but the Desert Warthog is slightly smaller in size and with fewer, shorter, and paler bristles. Depending on environmental conditions, there can be striking differences in body fatness between Desert Warthog populations. The skin is usually pale gray, but there is a wide variation in color due to mudand dust-bathing. Morphological differences between Desert Warthogs and Common Warthogs have been overlooked until recently, which suggests that no strikingly different features distinguish them in the field. However, adult Desert Warthogs are characterized by hook-shaped or drooping genal warts, tips of ears that bend backwards (which gives the impression that their contour is angular), swollen suborbital pouches under the eyes, and a shorter basioccipital region, which makes the head look “egg-shaped.” The head looks rather “diaboloshaped” in the Common Warthog. The skull is similar in proportions to that of the Common Warthog, but diagnostically distinguished by other cranial and dental characters. Sphenoidal pits in the floor of the neurocranium on each side of the vomer are enormously enlarged and opened out, deepening the vomerine ridge. The zygomatic arches are robust, with large sinuses forming a spherical inflation of the jugal. In the limited number of samples of Desert Warthog skulls that are available, lengths for the two sexes do not overlap, suggesting greater sexual dimorphism than in the Common Warthog. The upper incisors are always absent. The lower incisors are absent or reduced to four or fewer and are very small: they hardly protrude from the alveoli and are probably always concealed by gums. The third molars are also different: when all the enamel columns have begun to wear, no roots have yet formed, unlike the condition in the Common Warthog. At this stage, all the columns are of about the same length and are able to continue growing, extending the life of the tooth. Differences were also recorded between the two species in the shape of the canines: both lower and upper canines appear to be less curved in the Desert Warthog. The wear facet on the lower canine is differently placed, and the lower canines are less compressed. Dental formulais10/0-2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 26-30. Chromosome numberis unknown. DNA analysis has shown that aethiopicusand africanusbelong to two genetically distinct lineages that diverged approximately 4-5 million years ago, in the early Pliocene.Habitat.The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.Food and Feeding.With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs further investigation.Bibliography.Culverwell et al. (2008), Ewer (1957), Grubb (1993), Grubb & d'Huart (In Press), Grubb & Oliver (1991), d'Huart & Grubb (2001, 2005), d'Huart et al. (2008), de Jong et al. (2009), Lonnberg (1909), Randi et al. (2002), Wilhelmi et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Aper aethiopicus Pallas, 1766,“Promontoria BonaSpei advectus,” between Kaffraria and Great Namaqualand (South Africa, Eastern Cape Province), two hundred leagues from the Capeof Good Hope.Nominate subspecies aethiopicus (Pallas, 1766)from eastern Cape Provinceand upper Orange River, South Africa, is extinct. Only one extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phacochére du désert @fr | Wistenwarzenschwein @de | Facocerode desierto @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1766","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Phacochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"277","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aethiopicus","name":"Phacochoerus aethiopicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. a. delamerei Lonnberg, 1909 — NW & S Somalia, E Ethiopia, and E Kenya. The distribution is insufficiently known but accurately recorded from several areas, including N Somalia(W Somaliland), S Somalia(Jubaland), E Ethiopia(Ogaden), and E Kenya, from near sea level to ¢. 1400 min C Kenya. Although thought to be restricted to arid environments, its range in Kenyahas been found to extend S to Tsavo West National Park (W of Athi River and S of the Galana River). Formerly the species occurred in South Africa, in the former Cape Provinceand apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now extinct there.","bibliography":"Culverwell et al. (2008) | Ewer (1957) | Grubb (1993) | Grubb & d'Huart (In Press) | Grubb & Oliver (1991) | d'Huart & Grubb (2001, 2005) | d'Huart et al. (2008) | de Jong et al. (2009) | Lonnberg (1909) | Randi et al. (2002) | Wilhelmi et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.","breeding":"Nothing is known.","activityPatterns":"Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs further investigation.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements have been recorded for Desert Warthogs. External appearance is generally similar to the Common Warthog (FP. africanus), but the Desert Warthog is slightly smaller in size and with fewer, shorter, and paler bristles. Depending on environmental conditions, there can be striking differences in body fatness between Desert Warthog populations. The skin is usually pale gray, but there is a wide variation in color due to mudand dust-bathing. Morphological differences between Desert Warthogs and Common Warthogs have been overlooked until recently, which suggests that no strikingly different features distinguish them in the field. However, adult Desert Warthogs are characterized by hook-shaped or drooping genal warts, tips of ears that bend backwards (which gives the impression that their contour is angular), swollen suborbital pouches under the eyes, and a shorter basioccipital region, which makes the head look “egg-shaped.” The head looks rather “diaboloshaped” in the Common Warthog. The skull is similar in proportions to that of the Common Warthog, but diagnostically distinguished by other cranial and dental characters. Sphenoidal pits in the floor of the neurocranium on each side of the vomer are enormously enlarged and opened out, deepening the vomerine ridge. The zygomatic arches are robust, with large sinuses forming a spherical inflation of the jugal. In the limited number of samples of Desert Warthog skulls that are available, lengths for the two sexes do not overlap, suggesting greater sexual dimorphism than in the Common Warthog. The upper incisors are always absent. The lower incisors are absent or reduced to four or fewer and are very small: they hardly protrude from the alveoli and are probably always concealed by gums. The third molars are also different: when all the enamel columns have begun to wear, no roots have yet formed, unlike the condition in the Common Warthog. At this stage, all the columns are of about the same length and are able to continue growing, extending the life of the tooth. Differences were also recorded between the two species in the shape of the canines: both lower and upper canines appear to be less curved in the Desert Warthog. The wear facet on the lower canine is differently placed, and the lower canines are less compressed. Dental formulais10/0-2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 26-30. Chromosome numberis unknown. DNA analysis has shown that aethiopicusand africanusbelong to two genetically distinct lineages that diverged approximately 4-5 million years ago, in the early Pliocene.Habitat.The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.Food and Feeding.With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks.","habitat":"The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B740FFF1FF66F6E0FAD9F454.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B740FFF1FF66F6E0FAD9F454","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"114","verbatimText":"11.Brush RabbitSylvilagus bachmaniFrench:Lapin de Bachman/ German:Strauchkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de matorralOther common names:Riparian Brush RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus bachmani Waterhouse, 1839, “between Monterey and Santa Barbara.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “San Luis Obispo,” California, USA.Previously, S. bachmaniand Brachylagus idahoensiswere in the genus Microlagus. Insular S. mansuetusoccurring only on San Jose Island (Baja California) derived from S. bachmani. Sylvilagus bachmaniand S. mansuetusare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Firstly, the original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. Secondly, the extent of variation has not been studied yet. Thus, researchers cannot understand if this exact feature is some important diagostic mark or just an individual or age-specific variation. Moreover, it has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.bachmaniWaterhouse,1839—SpartofcoastalCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.cerrosensisJ.A.Allen,1898—CedrosI,BajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.cinerascensJ.A.Allen,1890—SWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.exiguusNelson,1907—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheN(NWMexico).S.b.howelliHuey,1927—NEBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.macrorhinusOrr,1935—NpartofCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.mariposaeGrinnell&Storer,1916—EpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.peninsularisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.b.ripariusOrr,1935—WpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.rosaphagusHuey,1940—NWBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.tehamaeOrr,1935—SWOregon,andNCCalifornia(WUSA).S.b.ubericolorMiller,1899—WOregon(SoftheColumbiaRiver)andNWCalifornia(WUSA).S. b. virgulti Dice, 1926— S part of inland CW California.Descriptive notes.Head-body 300-370 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 71-86 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Brush Rabbitis one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is dark brown to gray-brown; ventral fur is whitish. Hindlegs are short, and hindfeet are slender. Ears are small, slightly pointed, and sparsely haired inside. Tail is small, dark above, and white below. Sexual dimorphism exists with females being 1-2-1% larger than males. Fetal sex ratio is essentially 1:1, but adult sex ratios are 80-8-128 males:100 females.Habitat.Dense brushy cover from sea level to elevations of at least 2070 m. The Brush Rabbit is confined to brushy habitat, as its common name implies.Food and Feeding.Brush Rabbits feed mainly on grasses, and diets vary according to season and region. In September, they feed on spike rush (Eleocharis palustris, Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) such as creeping eragrostis (Eragrostishypnoides), foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum), soft chess grass (Bromushordeaceus), and oats (Avenafatua). Summer diets include wild roses (Rosacalifornica, Rosaceae), Mexican tea (Chenopodiumambrosioides, Amaranthaceae), and several plants in the daisy family such as sow thistle (Sonchusasper), bull thistle (Cirsiumlanceolatum), and Baccharisdouglasii; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); and berries (Rubus sp., Rosaceae). In autumn, roots of poison hemlock (Coniummaculatum), stems and leaves of blackberry (R. vitifolia), and berries (Rubus sp.) also are eaten. In winter, green clover (Trifoliuminvolucratum, Fabaceae) is most preferred, along with new available green grass. Brush Rabbits rarely feed in the open on the mainland, but they prefer to feed in the open and rarely underbrush on Ano Nuevo Island. Before venturing into the open to feed, individuals remain for a while just inside dense brushy cover. After entering an open area next to brushy cover, individuals remain motionless for some time, apparently watching for signs of danger. Several individuals might simultaneously feed in the same area. They rise up on their hindfeet to feed on newly grown tips of plants.Breeding.Breeding season of the Brush Rabbit varies from north to south. In California, it lasts from December to May or possibly June, but in Oregon, it lasts from February to August. Gestation lasts 24-30 days, averaging 27 days. Young are born with fine thin hair, do not open their eyes for c.10 days, and suffer postpartum weight loss. Females give birth in nests with cavities of 7.5-15 cm. Nests are lined mainly with hairs from mothers and small amounts of dried grass; nests are closed with plugs constructed of grasses. Young are nursed at night, grow rapidly, and stay in their nests for c.2 weeks. The Brush Rabbit is believed to breed shortly after giving birth, and different females in a population might breed at the same time. Brush Rabbits might have three litters per year in California, but four litters might be possible. Litter size also varies among regions; mean litter size is three in Oregon, 3-5 in northern and central California, and four in west-central California. Juveniles reach maturity at 4-5 monthsold, but it is thought that they reproduce for the first time in reproductive seasons following their births. In Oregon, a female Brush Rabbit produces an average of 15 young/ year in 5-3 litters. Brush Rabbits may not be as fecund as other species of Sylvilagus.Activity patterns.Brush Rabbits are basically crepuscular, being most active between sunset and 02:00 h and again from ¢.06:00 h to 10:30 h. Some reports suggest that most activity occurs in the morning. Individuals are least active between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. They spend considerable time sunning, usually in the mornings or afternoons. After feeding, Brush Rabbits return to a form forgrooming and basking in the sun. They might climb trees for resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Brush Rabbit occasionally uses burrows but does not dig its own. Holes and forms in brush also are used. Forms are cleared places, and a maze of extensively used runways connects forms. Runways of voles (Microtus) and harvest mice (Reithrodontomys) were used in June/July in California, and “huts” of Wood Rats (Neotomafuscipes macrotis) also were used. In Oregon, Brush Rabbits live in disjunct patches of brambles, and sizes and shapes of home ranges conform to sizes and shapes of bramble patches. Brush Rabbits did not permanently occupy patches smaller than 460 m?. Home ranges were less than 2000 m? and depended on uniformity of habitat. Males had larger home ranges than females, and juvenile males had larger home ranges than adult males. Home range sizes of reintroduced individuals were similar among males and females and were larger in the breeding season than during nonbreeding. Thumping the ground with hindfeet often occurs just after individuals are frightened; some thumpfor several minutes before stopping. Brush Rabbits emit squeals and cries as vocalization. Young have been reported to squeal. Minimum distance that individuals can approach one another without resulting in a chase is 0-3-7-5 m—lower distances reported forjuveniles. Nose sniffing and touching often precede a chase.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Brush Rabbit is abundant throughout most ofits distribution, and most populations do not appear to be experiencing significant declines. It is a game species in Oregon and California but is hunted little. The subspecies riparius living in the San Joaquin Valley, California, has been listed as endangered by the State of California and the US Fish and Wildlife Service due to decline caused by habitat degradation, wildfires, and flooding. Major threats to the Brush Rabbit are hunting for food and expansion of human settlements, but extent and severity of these threats have not been quantified.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero, Rangel & Williams (2008), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Vazquez & Colmenares (2005), Chapman (1971a, 1971b, 1974), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Harman (1972), Connell (1954), Davis (1936), Dice (1926), Gander (1929), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kelt et al. (2014), Lissovsky (2016), Mossman (1955), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940, 1942), Pearson (1959a), Shields (1960), Verts (1967).","taxonomy":"Lepus bachmani Waterhouse, 1839, “between Monterey and Santa Barbara.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “San Luis Obispo,” California, USA.Previously, S. bachmaniand Brachylagus idahoensiswere in the genus Microlagus. Insular S. mansuetusoccurring only on San Jose Island (Baja California) derived from S. bachmani. Sylvilagus bachmaniand S. mansuetusare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Firstly, the original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. Secondly, the extent of variation has not been studied yet. Thus, researchers cannot understand if this exact feature is some important diagostic mark or just an individual or age-specific variation. Moreover, it has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Bachman @fr | Strauchkaninchen @de | Conejo de matorral @es | Riparian Brush Rabbit @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"114","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bachmani","name":"Sylvilagus bachmani","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.b.bachmaniWaterhouse,1839—SpartofcoastalCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.cerrosensisJ.A.Allen,1898—CedrosI,BajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.cinerascensJ.A.Allen,1890—SWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.exiguusNelson,1907—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheN(NWMexico).S.b.howelliHuey,1927—NEBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.macrorhinusOrr,1935—NpartofCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.mariposaeGrinnell&Storer,1916—EpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.peninsularisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.b.ripariusOrr,1935—WpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.rosaphagusHuey,1940—NWBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.tehamaeOrr,1935—SWOregon,andNCCalifornia(WUSA).S.b.ubericolorMiller,1899—WOregon(SoftheColumbiaRiver)andNWCalifornia(WUSA).S. b. virgulti Dice, 1926— S part of inland CW California.","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero, Rangel & Williams (2008) | Angermann (2016) | Cervantes, Vazquez & Colmenares (2005) | Chapman (1971a, 1971b, 1974) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Harman (1972) | Connell (1954) | Davis (1936) | Dice (1926) | Gander (1929) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kelt et al. (2014) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mossman (1955) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940, 1942) | Pearson (1959a) | Shields (1960) | Verts (1967)","foodAndFeeding":"Brush Rabbits feed mainly on grasses, and diets vary according to season and region. In September, they feed on spike rush (Eleocharis palustris, Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) such as creeping eragrostis (Eragrostishypnoides), foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum), soft chess grass (Bromushordeaceus), and oats (Avenafatua). Summer diets include wild roses (Rosacalifornica, Rosaceae), Mexican tea (Chenopodiumambrosioides, Amaranthaceae), and several plants in the daisy family such as sow thistle (Sonchusasper), bull thistle (Cirsiumlanceolatum), and Baccharisdouglasii; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); and berries (Rubus sp., Rosaceae). In autumn, roots of poison hemlock (Coniummaculatum), stems and leaves of blackberry (R. vitifolia), and berries (Rubus sp.) also are eaten. In winter, green clover (Trifoliuminvolucratum, Fabaceae) is most preferred, along with new available green grass. Brush Rabbits rarely feed in the open on the mainland, but they prefer to feed in the open and rarely underbrush on Ano Nuevo Island. Before venturing into the open to feed, individuals remain for a while just inside dense brushy cover. After entering an open area next to brushy cover, individuals remain motionless for some time, apparently watching for signs of danger. Several individuals might simultaneously feed in the same area. They rise up on their hindfeet to feed on newly grown tips of plants.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Brush Rabbit varies from north to south. In California, it lasts from December to May or possibly June, but in Oregon, it lasts from February to August. Gestation lasts 24-30 days, averaging 27 days. Young are born with fine thin hair, do not open their eyes for c.10 days, and suffer postpartum weight loss. Females give birth in nests with cavities of 7.5-15 cm. Nests are lined mainly with hairs from mothers and small amounts of dried grass; nests are closed with plugs constructed of grasses. Young are nursed at night, grow rapidly, and stay in their nests for c.2 weeks. The Brush Rabbit is believed to breed shortly after giving birth, and different females in a population might breed at the same time. Brush Rabbits might have three litters per year in California, but four litters might be possible. Litter size also varies among regions; mean litter size is three in Oregon, 3-5 in northern and central California, and four in west-central California. Juveniles reach maturity at 4-5 monthsold, but it is thought that they reproduce for the first time in reproductive seasons following their births. In Oregon, a female Brush Rabbit produces an average of 15 young/ year in 5-3 litters. Brush Rabbits may not be as fecund as other species of Sylvilagus.","activityPatterns":"Brush Rabbits are basically crepuscular, being most active between sunset and 02:00 h and again from ¢.06:00 h to 10:30 h. Some reports suggest that most activity occurs in the morning. Individuals are least active between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. They spend considerable time sunning, usually in the mornings or afternoons. After feeding, Brush Rabbits return to a form forgrooming and basking in the sun. They might climb trees for resting.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Brush Rabbit occasionally uses burrows but does not dig its own. Holes and forms in brush also are used. Forms are cleared places, and a maze of extensively used runways connects forms. Runways of voles (Microtus) and harvest mice (Reithrodontomys) were used in June/July in California, and “huts” of Wood Rats (Neotomafuscipes macrotis) also were used. In Oregon, Brush Rabbits live in disjunct patches of brambles, and sizes and shapes of home ranges conform to sizes and shapes of bramble patches. Brush Rabbits did not permanently occupy patches smaller than 460 m?. Home ranges were less than 2000 m? and depended on uniformity of habitat. Males had larger home ranges than females, and juvenile males had larger home ranges than adult males. Home range sizes of reintroduced individuals were similar among males and females and were larger in the breeding season than during nonbreeding. Thumping the ground with hindfeet often occurs just after individuals are frightened; some thumpfor several minutes before stopping. Brush Rabbits emit squeals and cries as vocalization. Young have been reported to squeal. Minimum distance that individuals can approach one another without resulting in a chase is 0-3-7-5 m—lower distances reported forjuveniles. Nose sniffing and touching often precede a chase.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Brush Rabbit is abundant throughout most ofits distribution, and most populations do not appear to be experiencing significant declines. It is a game species in Oregon and California but is hunted little. The subspecies riparius living in the San Joaquin Valley, California, has been listed as endangered by the State of California and the US Fish and Wildlife Service due to decline caused by habitat degradation, wildfires, and flooding. Major threats to the Brush Rabbit are hunting for food and expansion of human settlements, but extent and severity of these threats have not been quantified.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 300-370 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 71-86 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Brush Rabbitis one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is dark brown to gray-brown; ventral fur is whitish. Hindlegs are short, and hindfeet are slender. Ears are small, slightly pointed, and sparsely haired inside. Tail is small, dark above, and white below. Sexual dimorphism exists with females being 1-2-1% larger than males. Fetal sex ratio is essentially 1:1, but adult sex ratios are 80-8-128 males:100 females.","habitat":"Dense brushy cover from sea level to elevations of at least 2070 m. The Brush Rabbit is confined to brushy habitat, as its common name implies."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"279","verbatimText":"8.Red RiverHogPotamochoerus porcusFrench:Potamocheére roux/ German:Pinselohrschwein/ Spanish:PotamocerorojoTaxonomy.Sus porcus Linnaeus, 1766,“Habitat in Africa” (= West Africa).No subspecies have been designated, because no discernable geographically consistent morphological variation has been identified. Monotypic.Distribution.Main tropical rainforest belt from Senegaland GuineaBissauto NW Ugandaand E DR Congo, reaching as S boundary N Angola(Cabinda); no recent records from Gambiaor Chadand its presence is uncertain in S Sudanand SW Ethiopia. As a species that may range widely through gallery forests, it may also occur in adjacent countries.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-145 cm,tail 30-45 cm, shoulder height 55-80 cm; weight 45-115 kg. Red RiverHogs are the smallest and most colorful of all African pigs. They have short, laterally flattened bodies that are predominantly bright russet orange. There is a narrow white dorsal crest from the head to the tail, which is erected when the animal is excited. The pelage is short except for longer bristles on jaws and flanks. The head is strongly contrasted, with bold markings like a facial mask: grayish muzzle, white “brows” around the eyes, white cheeks and whiskers, and black marks on the snout, jaws, ears, and forehead. The ear pinnae have a prominent terminal tuft of white hair. Young Red RiverHogs are dark brown with a facial mask and rows of pale yellow spots on body. Males have two humps on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The tusks are small and sharp. Skull length is 32-:7-40. 5 cm(adult males) and 26.9-37. 8 cm(adult females). Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosome numberis 34. Life span is 10-15 years.Habitat.Red River Hogs mainly occur in gallery forests and swamp margins of primary rainforest where there is significant vegetative cover. In transition zones, they frequently visit dry forests, savanna woodlands, and cultivated areas. The speciesis highly adaptable and locally benefits from regeneration of logged-over forested areas, where they find more varied food sources and a reduction of their natural predators. Population densities are 1-6 ind/km?, but wide variations are recorded. Up to 18-4 ind/km?* have been recorded in the forest-savanna ecotone of Lopé National Park, Gabon. The species is widespread in its habitat except where the Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmeinertzhagent) is common.Food and Feeding.Red River Hogs have an omnivorous diet, with a marked preference for roots and tubers. They also feed on grasses, aquatic plants, bulbs,fruit, carrion, and various small animals. They use their snouts to root in the ground and can do serious damage to crops. The species uses the noises and calls of monkeys and frugivorous birds to detect potential food supplies. Seasonal aggregations of Red River Hogs at masting fruit trees account for observations of temporary groups of up to 60 individuals. In Makokou (Gabon), these groups are very noisy when breaking hard nutshells of Caula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis, which attracts the attention of predators and secondary feeders. The hogs are sometimes followed by guinea fowl, who peck about the turned over ground for food. Seasonal massive availability of preferred foods and the hogs’ high level of opportunism explain semi-nomadic circuits of movements.Breeding.This species uses a wide range ofritualized postures with release of glandular secretions during male fights and rut. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-24 months. Gestation is 120-127 days. Farrowing occurs in February-March in Nigeriaand in December—]January in Gabon, but females can give birth twice yearly in captive conditions.Litters of 1-4 piglets (rarely up to 6) are born in a sheltered hollow covered with a thick mattress of grasses and leaves, where they stay 10-15 days with their mother before joining the rest of the sounder. Weaning occurs at 2—4 months.Activity patterns.These animals are most active in the evening and during the night, and rest in burrows deep within dense thickets during the day. They are capable of covering long distances in search of food, and like to rest in wallows in shallow swamps. The whole sounder runs away when alarmed or frightened. If striped piglets are present, they crouch and freeze while adults face the danger. When cornered or wounded, the adult hogs can display considerable courage and vigorously attack predators, including humans. They are very good swimmers and are frequently seen crossing large rivers. Their main predators are humans and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but locally also Lions (P. leo), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and pythons. Red RiverHogs make up 20% of the biomass consumed by Leopards in Lopé National Park.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In some areas, the narrow extent and linearity of the species’ home ranges (gallery forests in savanna habitats) may force frequent and extensive movements. Sounders roam a comparatively large home range, sometimes with over 4 kmbetween resting and feeding areas. Distance covered daily is 3-6 km, depending on food availability and the presence of young. Red RiverHogs are gregarious, with sounders of 6-20 females, subadults, and young attended by a large master boar. As with other suids, older juvenile males are bullied by their father if they approach his feeding or wallowing place too closely. On the move, hogs communicate by soft grunts in order to maintain the cohesion of the sounder, and they use a wide range of vocalizations adapted to various circumstances. In shared home ranges, boars communicate their presence and status by frequent rubbing and tusking oftrees.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the speciesis relatively widespread and common, and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline.The main threat to this species is the growing pressure from hunting for commercial bushmeat trade and for subsistence. Together with the duikers,it is one of the most sought after and hunted species in the CongoBasin and it makes up 40% of the bushmeat sold in markets in Gabon. In the CongoBasin, the high demand for bushmeat and the spread of gun hunting are factors that can easily threaten the survival of this species. Experiments with raising in captivity have shown its susceptibility to stress during capture, low rate of survival of young (11-57%), but rapid adaptation to confined environment and human company.Bibliography.Dosimont (2004), Grubb (1993), Henschel et al. (2005), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Okouyi (2002, 2006), Payne (2002), Querouil & Leus (2008), Tutinet al. (1997), Vercammen et al. (1993), van Vliet & Nasi (2008).","taxonomy":"Sus porcus Linnaeus, 1766,“Habitat in Africa” (= West Africa).No subspecies have been designated, because no discernable geographically consistent morphological variation has been identified. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Potamocheére roux @fr | Pinselohrschwein @de | Potamocerorojo @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Potamochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"279","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"porcus","name":"Potamochoerus porcus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Main tropical rainforest belt from Senegaland GuineaBissauto NW Ugandaand E DR Congo, reaching as S boundary N Angola(Cabinda); no recent records from Gambiaor Chadand its presence is uncertain in S Sudanand SW Ethiopia. As a species that may range widely through gallery forests, it may also occur in adjacent countries.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721031/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dosimont (2004) | Grubb (1993) | Henschel et al. (2005) | Kingdon (1997) | Laurance et al. (2006) | Okouyi (2002, 2006) | Payne (2002) | Querouil & Leus (2008) | Tutinet al. (1997) | Vercammen et al. (1993) | van Vliet & Nasi (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Red River Hogs have an omnivorous diet, with a marked preference for roots and tubers. They also feed on grasses, aquatic plants, bulbs,fruit, carrion, and various small animals. They use their snouts to root in the ground and can do serious damage to crops. The species uses the noises and calls of monkeys and frugivorous birds to detect potential food supplies. Seasonal aggregations of Red River Hogs at masting fruit trees account for observations of temporary groups of up to 60 individuals. In Makokou (Gabon), these groups are very noisy when breaking hard nutshells of Caula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis, which attracts the attention of predators and secondary feeders. The hogs are sometimes followed by guinea fowl, who peck about the turned over ground for food. Seasonal massive availability of preferred foods and the hogs’ high level of opportunism explain semi-nomadic circuits of movements.","breeding":"This species uses a wide range ofritualized postures with release of glandular secretions during male fights and rut. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-24 months. Gestation is 120-127 days. Farrowing occurs in February-March in Nigeriaand in December—]January in Gabon, but females can give birth twice yearly in captive conditions.Litters of 1-4 piglets (rarely up to 6) are born in a sheltered hollow covered with a thick mattress of grasses and leaves, where they stay 10-15 days with their mother before joining the rest of the sounder. Weaning occurs at 2—4 months.","activityPatterns":"These animals are most active in the evening and during the night, and rest in burrows deep within dense thickets during the day. They are capable of covering long distances in search of food, and like to rest in wallows in shallow swamps. The whole sounder runs away when alarmed or frightened. If striped piglets are present, they crouch and freeze while adults face the danger. When cornered or wounded, the adult hogs can display considerable courage and vigorously attack predators, including humans. They are very good swimmers and are frequently seen crossing large rivers. Their main predators are humans and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but locally also Lions (P. leo), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and pythons. Red RiverHogs make up 20% of the biomass consumed by Leopards in Lopé National Park.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In some areas, the narrow extent and linearity of the species’ home ranges (gallery forests in savanna habitats) may force frequent and extensive movements. Sounders roam a comparatively large home range, sometimes with over 4 kmbetween resting and feeding areas. Distance covered daily is 3-6 km, depending on food availability and the presence of young. Red RiverHogs are gregarious, with sounders of 6-20 females, subadults, and young attended by a large master boar. As with other suids, older juvenile males are bullied by their father if they approach his feeding or wallowing place too closely. On the move, hogs communicate by soft grunts in order to maintain the cohesion of the sounder, and they use a wide range of vocalizations adapted to various circumstances. In shared home ranges, boars communicate their presence and status by frequent rubbing and tusking oftrees.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the speciesis relatively widespread and common, and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline.The main threat to this species is the growing pressure from hunting for commercial bushmeat trade and for subsistence. Together with the duikers,it is one of the most sought after and hunted species in the CongoBasin and it makes up 40% of the bushmeat sold in markets in Gabon. In the CongoBasin, the high demand for bushmeat and the spread of gun hunting are factors that can easily threaten the survival of this species. Experiments with raising in captivity have shown its susceptibility to stress during capture, low rate of survival of young (11-57%), but rapid adaptation to confined environment and human company.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-145 cm,tail 30-45 cm, shoulder height 55-80 cm; weight 45-115 kg. Red RiverHogs are the smallest and most colorful of all African pigs. They have short, laterally flattened bodies that are predominantly bright russet orange. There is a narrow white dorsal crest from the head to the tail, which is erected when the animal is excited. The pelage is short except for longer bristles on jaws and flanks. The head is strongly contrasted, with bold markings like a facial mask: grayish muzzle, white “brows” around the eyes, white cheeks and whiskers, and black marks on the snout, jaws, ears, and forehead. The ear pinnae have a prominent terminal tuft of white hair. Young Red RiverHogs are dark brown with a facial mask and rows of pale yellow spots on body. Males have two humps on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The tusks are small and sharp. Skull length is 32-:7-40. 5 cm(adult males) and 26.9-37. 8 cm(adult females). Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosome numberis 34. Life span is 10-15 years.","habitat":"Red River Hogs mainly occur in gallery forests and swamp margins of primary rainforest where there is significant vegetative cover. In transition zones, they frequently visit dry forests, savanna woodlands, and cultivated areas. The speciesis highly adaptable and locally benefits from regeneration of logged-over forested areas, where they find more varied food sources and a reduction of their natural predators. Population densities are 1-6 ind/km?, but wide variations are recorded. Up to 18-4 ind/km?* have been recorded in the forest-savanna ecotone of Lopé National Park, Gabon. The species is widespread in its habitat except where the Forest Hog (Hylochoerusmeinertzhagent) is common."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"279","verbatimText":"7.BushpigPotamochoerus larvatusFrench:Potamochere du Cap/ German:Buschschwein/ Spanish:Potamocerode rioTaxonomy.Sus larvatus F. Cuvier, 1822,“ Madagascar” (no exact type locality known).The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Islands, but the taxonomic situation of these populations is still unresolved as this species is thought to have been introduced there. Two subspecies are sometimes recognized on Madagascar: the nominate form larvatus, described by F. Cuvier in 1822, which lives in Mayotteand the north-west of Madagascar, and the race hovafrom the east of Madagascar. This may suggest that the species was not introduced by people, or was introduced at different times from different source populations. Until this issue is clarified, we do not here recognize the Madagascarraces as subspecies, and thus exclude these populations from the species’ distribution. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.l.hassamaHeuglin,1863—EAfrica,withspecimensknownfromEthiopia,SSudan,EDRCongo,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,Kenya,andTanzania.P.l.koiropotamusDesmoulins,1831—lowerCongoRiver(leftbank),Angola,SDRCongo,Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique,Zimbabwe,Botswana,Swaziland,andSouthAfrica.P. l. somaliensis de Beaux, 1924— Tana, Juba, and Shebelle rivers in NE Kenyaand Somalia.The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Is, but their taxonomic situation thereis still unresolved.Descriptive notes.Head—body 100-150 cm, tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height 55-88 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Bushpigs have a compact body with short legs, rounded back, and elongated snout. The coatis extremely variable in color, from blond, pale red, or russet up to a dark brown or near-black shade. The color may vary with sex, age, region, or individual, and this significant variation in body color has led to the description of many variant races. It generally has a paler head with white face markings. Body hairs are long and sparse but elongated from the forehead to the tail, forming a white or grayish dorsal crest. It has a long tufted tail. Newborns are dark brown in color with longitudinal stripes or rows of paler spots. Adult males display bony ridges and calluses on the muzzle. Females have six pairs of mammae. There are clear distinctions between subspecies based, for example, on color and average male skull length, but there are also indications that intergradation may occur locally between subspecies. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. The upper tusks are very small (average 7-6 cm), but the lower tusks are sizeable (9-16. 5 cm) and razor sharp. Chromosome numberis 34. The life span is 20 years.Habitat.The Bushpig is ecologically separated from the Red River Hog (FP. porcus). Within areas of co-occurrence (like the Albertine Rift), the Bushpig lives at higher elevations and the Red River Hog in lowland forests. Elsewhere, the two species are separated by ecological barriers such as the CongoRiver. Bushpigs occur in a wide range of forested and woodland habitats, from sea level to montane forest (up to 4000 mon Mount Kilimanjaro), with a marked preference for valley bottoms with soft soils and dense vegetation. There are striking differences in habitat among subspecies, with, for example, the hassama race primarilyoccurring in upland forest areas and the somaliensis race favoringriverine forests.Food and Feeding.This species is omnivorous and highly adaptable. It is probably a major seed disperser. Bushpigs consume roots, tubers, bulbs, corn, fungi,fruit, eggs, invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and carrion. In Uganda, Bushpigs were seen following groups of monkeys as they forage and feeding on discarded fruits. They make extensive use of their snouts to root for larvae, worms, and underground plant parts. Locally, Bushpig rooting can leave large areas plowed up and cleared of standing vegetation. In cultivated areas, sounders can do serious damage to crops in a short time.Breeding.Sexual maturity is reached at 18-21 months. Breeding may take place yearround, but most young are recorded at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. The gestation period is 120-127 days. Just before giving birth, females retire to a sheltered nest or hollow. Most common litter size is 3—4, with a maximum of ten. Newborns weigh 700-800 g. They are weaned at 2—4 months.Activity patterns.Bushpigs are predominantly nocturnal, resting under heavy thickets of vegetation during the day. Nests for raising young or during rainy seasons are built in the cooler parts of their range. In the southern Cape, South Africa, they tend to be more diurnal during the colder months, suggesting that temperature regulation is a significant factor influencing the rhythm of activity. Mud wallowing and rubbing against trees are also regular activities. Population density is regulated by a wide range of predators including humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), pythons, and eagles. Courageous and dangerous when cornered, both boars and sows defend piglets cooperatively and aggressively. Fighting behavior includes frontal and lateral postures with dorsal crest erected, snout-boxing, and forehead shoving. Bushpigs run fast and swim easily. Their senses of smell and hearing are very good, but eyesight only fair.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In South Africa, groups occupy spatially exclusive home ranges of 3-10 km? with daily movements of 0-5-6 km. Population densities are 0-3-10-1 ind/km?. They live in family sounders of 6-12 individuals, led by a dominant male, with one or more females and their young. Unlike other wild pigs, adult males play an active role in rearing and defending the young. Other males are aggressively chased off and territorial encounters are characterized by ritualized displays and scent marking. Males disperse from the natal group and old males may be solitary, whereas females remain on their natal home range.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread and common and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. Though the Bushpig is still relatively widespread, its distribution is patchy in certain regions. It is reported to be increasingly rare outside of protected areas, and widely hunted either for subsistence or for commercial bushmeat trade at local, mostly urban markets. It is also hunted as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases like African swine fever, nagana (a form of trypanosomiasis), and sleeping sickness. Clearing of forested areas and conversion to cropland have benefited this species in some areas.Bibliography.de Beaux (1924), Cooper & Melton (1988), Duckworth (1992), Estes (1991), Ghiglieri et al. (1982), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Melton et al. (1989), Nielsen (2006), Nummelin (1990), Seydack (1991, 2008), Skinner et al. (1976), Sowls & Phelps (1968), Stuart (1985), Vercammen et al. (1993).","taxonomy":"Sus larvatus F. Cuvier, 1822,“ Madagascar” (no exact type locality known).The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Islands, but the taxonomic situation of these populations is still unresolved as this species is thought to have been introduced there. Two subspecies are sometimes recognized on Madagascar: the nominate form larvatus, described by F. Cuvier in 1822, which lives in Mayotteand the north-west of Madagascar, and the race hovafrom the east of Madagascar. This may suggest that the species was not introduced by people, or was introduced at different times from different source populations. Until this issue is clarified, we do not here recognize the Madagascarraces as subspecies, and thus exclude these populations from the species’ distribution. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Potamochere du Cap @fr | Buschschwein @de | Potamocerode rio @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"F.Cuvier","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Potamochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"279","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"larvatus","name":"Potamochoerus larvatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.l.hassamaHeuglin,1863—EAfrica,withspecimensknownfromEthiopia,SSudan,EDRCongo,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,Kenya,andTanzania.P.l.koiropotamusDesmoulins,1831—lowerCongoRiver(leftbank),Angola,SDRCongo,Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique,Zimbabwe,Botswana,Swaziland,andSouthAfrica.P. l. somaliensis de Beaux, 1924— Tana, Juba, and Shebelle rivers in NE Kenyaand Somalia.The species is also present in Madagascarand the Comoro Is, but their taxonomic situation thereis still unresolved.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721029/files/figure.png","bibliography":"de Beaux (1924) | Cooper & Melton (1988) | Duckworth (1992) | Estes (1991) | Ghiglieri et al. (1982) | Grubb (1993) | Kingdon (1997) | Laurance et al. (2006) | Melton et al. (1989) | Nielsen (2006) | Nummelin (1990) | Seydack (1991, 2008) | Skinner et al. (1976) | Sowls & Phelps (1968) | Stuart (1985) | Vercammen et al. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"This species is omnivorous and highly adaptable. It is probably a major seed disperser. Bushpigs consume roots, tubers, bulbs, corn, fungi,fruit, eggs, invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and carrion. In Uganda, Bushpigs were seen following groups of monkeys as they forage and feeding on discarded fruits. They make extensive use of their snouts to root for larvae, worms, and underground plant parts. Locally, Bushpig rooting can leave large areas plowed up and cleared of standing vegetation. In cultivated areas, sounders can do serious damage to crops in a short time.","breeding":"Sexual maturity is reached at 18-21 months. Breeding may take place yearround, but most young are recorded at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. The gestation period is 120-127 days. Just before giving birth, females retire to a sheltered nest or hollow. Most common litter size is 3—4, with a maximum of ten. Newborns weigh 700-800 g. They are weaned at 2—4 months.","activityPatterns":"Bushpigs are predominantly nocturnal, resting under heavy thickets of vegetation during the day. Nests for raising young or during rainy seasons are built in the cooler parts of their range. In the southern Cape, South Africa, they tend to be more diurnal during the colder months, suggesting that temperature regulation is a significant factor influencing the rhythm of activity. Mud wallowing and rubbing against trees are also regular activities. Population density is regulated by a wide range of predators including humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), pythons, and eagles. Courageous and dangerous when cornered, both boars and sows defend piglets cooperatively and aggressively. Fighting behavior includes frontal and lateral postures with dorsal crest erected, snout-boxing, and forehead shoving. Bushpigs run fast and swim easily. Their senses of smell and hearing are very good, but eyesight only fair.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In South Africa, groups occupy spatially exclusive home ranges of 3-10 km? with daily movements of 0-5-6 km. Population densities are 0-3-10-1 ind/km?. They live in family sounders of 6-12 individuals, led by a dominant male, with one or more females and their young. Unlike other wild pigs, adult males play an active role in rearing and defending the young. Other males are aggressively chased off and territorial encounters are characterized by ritualized displays and scent marking. Males disperse from the natal group and old males may be solitary, whereas females remain on their natal home range.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread and common and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. Though the Bushpig is still relatively widespread, its distribution is patchy in certain regions. It is reported to be increasingly rare outside of protected areas, and widely hunted either for subsistence or for commercial bushmeat trade at local, mostly urban markets. It is also hunted as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases like African swine fever, nagana (a form of trypanosomiasis), and sleeping sickness. Clearing of forested areas and conversion to cropland have benefited this species in some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 100-150 cm, tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height 55-88 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Bushpigs have a compact body with short legs, rounded back, and elongated snout. The coatis extremely variable in color, from blond, pale red, or russet up to a dark brown or near-black shade. The color may vary with sex, age, region, or individual, and this significant variation in body color has led to the description of many variant races. It generally has a paler head with white face markings. Body hairs are long and sparse but elongated from the forehead to the tail, forming a white or grayish dorsal crest. It has a long tufted tail. Newborns are dark brown in color with longitudinal stripes or rows of paler spots. Adult males display bony ridges and calluses on the muzzle. Females have six pairs of mammae. There are clear distinctions between subspecies based, for example, on color and average male skull length, but there are also indications that intergradation may occur locally between subspecies. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. The upper tusks are very small (average 7-6 cm), but the lower tusks are sizeable (9-16. 5 cm) and razor sharp. Chromosome numberis 34. The life span is 20 years.","habitat":"The Bushpig is ecologically separated from the Red River Hog (FP. porcus). Within areas of co-occurrence (like the Albertine Rift), the Bushpig lives at higher elevations and the Red River Hog in lowland forests. Elsewhere, the two species are separated by ecological barriers such as the CongoRiver. Bushpigs occur in a wide range of forested and woodland habitats, from sea level to montane forest (up to 4000 mon Mount Kilimanjaro), with a marked preference for valley bottoms with soft soils and dense vegetation. There are striking differences in habitat among subspecies, with, for example, the hassama race primarilyoccurring in upland forest areas and the somaliensis race favoringriverine forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"278","verbatimText":"6.Forest HogHylochoerus meinertzhageniFrench:Hylochere/ German:Riesenwaldschwein/ Spanish:HiloceroOther common names:Giant Forest Hog (meinertzhageni)Taxonomy.Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas, 1904,Kenya, NandiForest, near Kaimosi, 2134 m.The three subspecies provisionally recognized are differentiated on the basis of the dimensions and shape of their skull. The taxonomy of a fourth, the Ethiopian race, is still indefinite.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.meinertzhageniThomas,1904—EDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Uganda,Kenya,SSudan,andEthiopia.IthasnotreliablybeenrecordedfromTanzania.H.m.woriensisBouet&Neuville,1930—discontinuouspresenceinGuinea,SierraLeone(?),Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana;possiblyalsoinGuineaBissau,andTogo.H. m. rimator Thomas, 1906— SE Nigeria, W & SE Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea(extinct?), N Republic of the Congo, and N DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-210 cm, tail 25-45 cm, shoulder height 75-110 cm; weight 140-275 kg (males) and 100-200 kg (females). Males are significantly larger than females in both weight and dimensions. Although the common name “Giant Forest Hog” is often used, western races ofthis species are not much larger than Bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), and only the East African animals are true giants. Their slatey gray skin is densely covered with coarse hair, which gets sparser with age. Adult pelage is coal black, with 15-20 cm long, stout bristles. There is a pale, erectile mane on the neck. The ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to black. The legs are robust, with large and rounded hooves. The long, tasseled tail is slender and flattened at its end, with sparse bristles implanted laterally. The massive head has white to yellowish “whiskers” on the jaw-line callosity. The small, pointed, leaf-shaped ears are fringed with black hairs. In males, the forehead is characterized by a large depression surrounded by five bony, hairless ridges. The species has large, swollen preorbital glands and prominent naked cheeks. The muzzle is flat, with thick tusks flaring outwards and a very broad nasal disc (up to 17 cmin diameter). The skull and facial musculature are adapted to a folivorous rather than an omnivorous diet. Females have four mammae. Dental formulaisl 1/3, Cl1/1,P2/1,M 3/5 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Like Red RiverHogs (P. porcus), Forest Hogs are more dependent on forest than the other African pigs. Forest Hogs inhabit a variety offoresttypes: subalpine areas and bamboo groves, forest—grassland mosaics, montane, lowland, and swamp forests, river galleries, wooded savannas, and thickets. It is an ecotonic species, preferring intermediate habitat zones where the edge effect is maximized and where resources from different vegetation types can be exploited within a limited area. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understory cover in some parts of its home range, and a diversity of vegetation types. In dense forest areas, Forest Hogs tend to concentrate in isolated hilly, rocky habitats of savanna and forest, around clearings, or in mixed forest patches rather than in monodominant forest. The variety of forest habitats occupied implies a high degree of adaptability to local climatic conditions. Forest Hogslive in cold uplands (where night temperatures may fall to 0°C) as well as hot lowlands, but do not tolerate low humidity or prolonged solar radiation.Food and Feeding.Forest Hogs are mainly grass-eaters and folivorous. Feeding habits show that they are neither exclusively forest animals nor pure grazers. They display great versatility in food selection, depending on the seasonal content, stage of growth, and quantity of plant resources available. Many species of grasses, sedges, and herbs are cropped. They root much less than other wild pigs and dig only in soft or muddy soils. In a savanna area of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, they select more than 100 food plants. In Virunga National Park, however, five major savanna species were selected, on average, over the course of a year; the hogs preferred some grasses during dry seasons and others during rainy seasons, selecting grasses when their nutrient and energetic content is highest. Young piglets are known to feed on grasses well before weaning. In dense forest, both Forest Hogs and Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus) use mast seed areas in monodominant stands. Examination of adult hog dung reveals different types of material, including poorly masticated grass seeds, stems, and leaves, fragments of millipedes and shields of ticks, earth nodules, and bristles. They also excavate salty earth with their tusks and lower incisors. These salt licks may be termite mounds, shallow caves, dry river banks, or even the embankment of a deserted road. Occasionally Forest Hogs eat meat and bones ofcarrion, eggs, and larvae. Coprophagy is not common, but piglets are fond of fresh elephant dung.Breeding.Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months. There are two mating seasons in Virunga National Park, with births occuring at the beginning of the rainy season. Gestation period averages 151 days. Before parturition, the expectant sow leaves the group and retreats under dense thickets in a nest made of grasses and branches where young are born. Litter size is 2-6 (average 2-4) piglets. The mother rejoins her group with her offspring only one week after parturition. Piglets may nurse from any female in the group, and are protected by all. Weaning occurs at 8-10 weeks. The averagelife expectancy is 3-5 years and average life span is five years, with a maximum of 18 years.Activity patterns.In the grassland-bushland—dry forest mosaic ofVirunga National Park, DR Congo, Forest Hogs spend on average 25% oftheir daily time moving and foraging in savanna, 21% moving, foraging, and wallowing in thickets or forested areas, and 54% resting in a sheltered sleeping site. Activity is most intense in the early morning and late afternoon, with a rest during hottest hours. There is no evidence of true nocturnal activity. Wallowing is a favorite activity, taking up about one hour each day in certain areas. Before sundown, family groupsretire to their sleeping place under dense thickets. Along the trails, the same dung heaps are always used as communal latrines. Males are fierce defenders of their group and sometimes lead the sounders in driving off predators and competitors. When shot at, they will attack humans. Competition between males is violent and may last for half an hour. Males rush at each other from a distance, crashing their foreheads together like rams. Despite their reinforced skulls, deaths among males due to fractures are not uncommon, but most wounds heal. This species is quite vocal, producing a minimum of ten recognizable categories of sounds. The main predators on adults are Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (P. leo). Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta),, pythons, and eagles prey on young hogs and their mortality rate is about 50%.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Forest Hogs maintain unmarked and undefended home ranges of 3-10 km? laced with a network of well-worn trails connecting resting sites, latrines, wallows, waterholes, salt licks, and grazing meadows. Daily movements average 8-12 km, most of which takes place on an individual’s own or another animal’s trails. Home ranges may overlap extensively with ranges of other groups. Routine activities in confined territories make Forest Hogs easy targets for poachers. In Virunga National Park, the basic social group is a sounder of 4-20 animals consisting of 1-4 males, 1-9 females, and the offspring of up to three generations. Males can be monogamous or polygamous. Average group size is 10-14 in Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. Larger groupings of several sounders have been recorded. Groups of bachelor subadults and solitary males are common. In good habitat, population densities are 7-30 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread, sometimes locally abundant, has a high reproductive potential, and although itis subject to hunting in many parts ofits range,it is not believed to be declining at a rate that would merit its being listed as Near Threatened or in a threatened category. The speciesis very vulnerable to deforestation and hunting for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. The western race zvoriensisis highly vulnerable to fragmentation of its habitat.Bibliography.Cerling & Viehl (2004), Estes (1991), Ewer (1970), Fimpel (2002), Grimshaw (1998), d'Huart (1978, 1993), d'Huart & Kingdon (In Press), d'Huart & Klingel (2008), d'Huart & Yohannes (1995), Kingdon (1979), Klingel & Klingel (2004), Kock & Howell (1999), Rahm & Christiaensen (1963), Viehl (2003).","taxonomy":"Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas, 1904,Kenya, NandiForest, near Kaimosi, 2134 m.The three subspecies provisionally recognized are differentiated on the basis of the dimensions and shape of their skull. The taxonomy of a fourth, the Ethiopian race, is still indefinite.","commonNames":"Hylochere @fr | Riesenwaldschwein @de | Hilocero @es | Giant Forest Hog (meinertzhageni) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1904","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Hylochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"278","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"meinertzhageni","name":"Hylochoerus meinertzhageni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.m.meinertzhageniThomas,1904—EDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Uganda,Kenya,SSudan,andEthiopia.IthasnotreliablybeenrecordedfromTanzania.H.m.woriensisBouet&Neuville,1930—discontinuouspresenceinGuinea,SierraLeone(?),Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana;possiblyalsoinGuineaBissau,andTogo.H. m. rimator Thomas, 1906— SE Nigeria, W & SE Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea(extinct?), N Republic of the Congo, and N DR Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721027/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cerling & Viehl (2004) | Estes (1991) | Ewer (1970) | Fimpel (2002) | Grimshaw (1998) | d'Huart (1978, 1993) | d'Huart & Kingdon (In Press) | d'Huart & Klingel (2008) | d'Huart & Yohannes (1995) | Kingdon (1979) | Klingel & Klingel (2004) | Kock & Howell (1999) | Rahm & Christiaensen (1963) | Viehl (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"Forest Hogs are mainly grass-eaters and folivorous. Feeding habits show that they are neither exclusively forest animals nor pure grazers. They display great versatility in food selection, depending on the seasonal content, stage of growth, and quantity of plant resources available. Many species of grasses, sedges, and herbs are cropped. They root much less than other wild pigs and dig only in soft or muddy soils. In a savanna area of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, they select more than 100 food plants. In Virunga National Park, however, five major savanna species were selected, on average, over the course of a year; the hogs preferred some grasses during dry seasons and others during rainy seasons, selecting grasses when their nutrient and energetic content is highest. Young piglets are known to feed on grasses well before weaning. In dense forest, both Forest Hogs and Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus) use mast seed areas in monodominant stands. Examination of adult hog dung reveals different types of material, including poorly masticated grass seeds, stems, and leaves, fragments of millipedes and shields of ticks, earth nodules, and bristles. They also excavate salty earth with their tusks and lower incisors. These salt licks may be termite mounds, shallow caves, dry river banks, or even the embankment of a deserted road. Occasionally Forest Hogs eat meat and bones ofcarrion, eggs, and larvae. Coprophagy is not common, but piglets are fond of fresh elephant dung.","breeding":"Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months. There are two mating seasons in Virunga National Park, with births occuring at the beginning of the rainy season. Gestation period averages 151 days. Before parturition, the expectant sow leaves the group and retreats under dense thickets in a nest made of grasses and branches where young are born. Litter size is 2-6 (average 2-4) piglets. The mother rejoins her group with her offspring only one week after parturition. Piglets may nurse from any female in the group, and are protected by all. Weaning occurs at 8-10 weeks. The averagelife expectancy is 3-5 years and average life span is five years, with a maximum of 18 years.","activityPatterns":"In the grassland-bushland—dry forest mosaic ofVirunga National Park, DR Congo, Forest Hogs spend on average 25% oftheir daily time moving and foraging in savanna, 21% moving, foraging, and wallowing in thickets or forested areas, and 54% resting in a sheltered sleeping site. Activity is most intense in the early morning and late afternoon, with a rest during hottest hours. There is no evidence of true nocturnal activity. Wallowing is a favorite activity, taking up about one hour each day in certain areas. Before sundown, family groupsretire to their sleeping place under dense thickets. Along the trails, the same dung heaps are always used as communal latrines. Males are fierce defenders of their group and sometimes lead the sounders in driving off predators and competitors. When shot at, they will attack humans. Competition between males is violent and may last for half an hour. Males rush at each other from a distance, crashing their foreheads together like rams. Despite their reinforced skulls, deaths among males due to fractures are not uncommon, but most wounds heal. This species is quite vocal, producing a minimum of ten recognizable categories of sounds. The main predators on adults are Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (P. leo). Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta),, pythons, and eagles prey on young hogs and their mortality rate is about 50%.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Forest Hogs maintain unmarked and undefended home ranges of 3-10 km? laced with a network of well-worn trails connecting resting sites, latrines, wallows, waterholes, salt licks, and grazing meadows. Daily movements average 8-12 km, most of which takes place on an individual’s own or another animal’s trails. Home ranges may overlap extensively with ranges of other groups. Routine activities in confined territories make Forest Hogs easy targets for poachers. In Virunga National Park, the basic social group is a sounder of 4-20 animals consisting of 1-4 males, 1-9 females, and the offspring of up to three generations. Males can be monogamous or polygamous. Average group size is 10-14 in Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. Larger groupings of several sounders have been recorded. Groups of bachelor subadults and solitary males are common. In good habitat, population densities are 7-30 ind/km?.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread, sometimes locally abundant, has a high reproductive potential, and although itis subject to hunting in many parts ofits range,it is not believed to be declining at a rate that would merit its being listed as Near Threatened or in a threatened category. The speciesis very vulnerable to deforestation and hunting for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. The western race zvoriensisis highly vulnerable to fragmentation of its habitat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-210 cm, tail 25-45 cm, shoulder height 75-110 cm; weight 140-275 kg (males) and 100-200 kg (females). Males are significantly larger than females in both weight and dimensions. Although the common name “Giant Forest Hog” is often used, western races ofthis species are not much larger than Bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), and only the East African animals are true giants. Their slatey gray skin is densely covered with coarse hair, which gets sparser with age. Adult pelage is coal black, with 15-20 cm long, stout bristles. There is a pale, erectile mane on the neck. The ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to black. The legs are robust, with large and rounded hooves. The long, tasseled tail is slender and flattened at its end, with sparse bristles implanted laterally. The massive head has white to yellowish “whiskers” on the jaw-line callosity. The small, pointed, leaf-shaped ears are fringed with black hairs. In males, the forehead is characterized by a large depression surrounded by five bony, hairless ridges. The species has large, swollen preorbital glands and prominent naked cheeks. The muzzle is flat, with thick tusks flaring outwards and a very broad nasal disc (up to 17 cmin diameter). The skull and facial musculature are adapted to a folivorous rather than an omnivorous diet. Females have four mammae. Dental formulaisl 1/3, Cl1/1,P2/1,M 3/5 (x2) = 30.","habitat":"Like Red RiverHogs (P. porcus), Forest Hogs are more dependent on forest than the other African pigs. Forest Hogs inhabit a variety offoresttypes: subalpine areas and bamboo groves, forest—grassland mosaics, montane, lowland, and swamp forests, river galleries, wooded savannas, and thickets. It is an ecotonic species, preferring intermediate habitat zones where the edge effect is maximized and where resources from different vegetation types can be exploited within a limited area. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understory cover in some parts of its home range, and a diversity of vegetation types. In dense forest areas, Forest Hogs tend to concentrate in isolated hilly, rocky habitats of savanna and forest, around clearings, or in mixed forest patches rather than in monodominant forest. The variety of forest habitats occupied implies a high degree of adaptability to local climatic conditions. Forest Hogslive in cold uplands (where night temperatures may fall to 0°C) as well as hot lowlands, but do not tolerate low humidity or prolonged solar radiation."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/80/87/038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3","docName":"hbmw_2_Suidae_0248.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb9ff90553b56358e7b0f4a1178ffaf","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"277","verbatimText":"5.Desert WarthogPhacochoerus aethiopicusFrench:Phacochére du désert/ German:Wistenwarzenschwein/ Spanish:Facocerode desiertoTaxonomy.Aper aethiopicus Pallas, 1766,“Promontoria BonaSpei advectus,” between Kaffraria and Great Namaqualand (South Africa, Eastern Cape Province), two hundred leagues from the Capeof Good Hope.Nominate subspecies aethiopicus (Pallas, 1766)from eastern Cape Provinceand upper Orange River, South Africa, is extinct. Only one extant subspecies recognized.Distribution.P. a. delamerei Lonnberg, 1909 — NW & S Somalia, E Ethiopia, and E Kenya. The distribution is insufficiently known but accurately recorded from several areas, including N Somalia(W Somaliland), S Somalia(Jubaland), E Ethiopia(Ogaden), and E Kenya, from near sea level to ¢. 1400 min C Kenya. Although thought to be restricted to arid environments, its range in Kenyahas been found to extend S to Tsavo West National Park (W of Athi River and S of the Galana River). Formerly the species occurred in South Africa, in the former Cape Provinceand apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now extinct there.Descriptive notes.No body measurements have been recorded for Desert Warthogs. External appearance is generally similar to the Common Warthog (FP. africanus), but the Desert Warthog is slightly smaller in size and with fewer, shorter, and paler bristles. Depending on environmental conditions, there can be striking differences in body fatness between Desert Warthog populations. The skin is usually pale gray, but there is a wide variation in color due to mudand dust-bathing. Morphological differences between Desert Warthogs and Common Warthogs have been overlooked until recently, which suggests that no strikingly different features distinguish them in the field. However, adult Desert Warthogs are characterized by hook-shaped or drooping genal warts, tips of ears that bend backwards (which gives the impression that their contour is angular), swollen suborbital pouches under the eyes, and a shorter basioccipital region, which makes the head look “egg-shaped.” The head looks rather “diaboloshaped” in the Common Warthog. The skull is similar in proportions to that of the Common Warthog, but diagnostically distinguished by other cranial and dental characters. Sphenoidal pits in the floor of the neurocranium on each side of the vomer are enormously enlarged and opened out, deepening the vomerine ridge. The zygomatic arches are robust, with large sinuses forming a spherical inflation of the jugal. In the limited number of samples of Desert Warthog skulls that are available, lengths for the two sexes do not overlap, suggesting greater sexual dimorphism than in the Common Warthog. The upper incisors are always absent. The lower incisors are absent or reduced to four or fewer and are very small: they hardly protrude from the alveoli and are probably always concealed by gums. The third molars are also different: when all the enamel columns have begun to wear, no roots have yet formed, unlike the condition in the Common Warthog. At this stage, all the columns are of about the same length and are able to continue growing, extending the life of the tooth. Differences were also recorded between the two species in the shape of the canines: both lower and upper canines appear to be less curved in the Desert Warthog. The wear facet on the lower canine is differently placed, and the lower canines are less compressed. Dental formulais10/0-2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 26-30. Chromosome numberis unknown. DNA analysis has shown that aethiopicusand africanusbelong to two genetically distinct lineages that diverged approximately 4-5 million years ago, in the early Pliocene.Habitat.The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.Food and Feeding.With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs further investigation.Bibliography.Culverwell et al. (2008), Ewer (1957), Grubb (1993), Grubb & d'Huart (In Press), Grubb & Oliver (1991), d'Huart & Grubb (2001, 2005), d'Huart et al. (2008), de Jong et al. (2009), Lonnberg (1909), Randi et al. (2002), Wilhelmi et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Aper aethiopicus Pallas, 1766,“Promontoria BonaSpei advectus,” between Kaffraria and Great Namaqualand (South Africa, Eastern Cape Province), two hundred leagues from the Capeof Good Hope.Nominate subspecies aethiopicus (Pallas, 1766)from eastern Cape Provinceand upper Orange River, South Africa, is extinct. Only one extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phacochére du désert @fr | Wistenwarzenschwein @de | Facocerode desierto @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1766","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Suidae","interpretedGenus":"Phacochoerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"277","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aethiopicus","name":"Phacochoerus aethiopicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. a. delamerei Lonnberg, 1909 — NW & S Somalia, E Ethiopia, and E Kenya. The distribution is insufficiently known but accurately recorded from several areas, including N Somalia(W Somaliland), S Somalia(Jubaland), E Ethiopia(Ogaden), and E Kenya, from near sea level to ¢. 1400 min C Kenya. Although thought to be restricted to arid environments, its range in Kenyahas been found to extend S to Tsavo West National Park (W of Athi River and S of the Galana River). Formerly the species occurred in South Africa, in the former Cape Provinceand apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now extinct there.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721025/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Culverwell et al. (2008) | Ewer (1957) | Grubb (1993) | Grubb & d'Huart (In Press) | Grubb & Oliver (1991) | d'Huart & Grubb (2001, 2005) | d'Huart et al. (2008) | de Jong et al. (2009) | Lonnberg (1909) | Randi et al. (2002) | Wilhelmi et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.","breeding":"Nothing is known.","activityPatterns":"Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs further investigation.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements have been recorded for Desert Warthogs. External appearance is generally similar to the Common Warthog (FP. africanus), but the Desert Warthog is slightly smaller in size and with fewer, shorter, and paler bristles. Depending on environmental conditions, there can be striking differences in body fatness between Desert Warthog populations. The skin is usually pale gray, but there is a wide variation in color due to mudand dust-bathing. Morphological differences between Desert Warthogs and Common Warthogs have been overlooked until recently, which suggests that no strikingly different features distinguish them in the field. However, adult Desert Warthogs are characterized by hook-shaped or drooping genal warts, tips of ears that bend backwards (which gives the impression that their contour is angular), swollen suborbital pouches under the eyes, and a shorter basioccipital region, which makes the head look “egg-shaped.” The head looks rather “diaboloshaped” in the Common Warthog. The skull is similar in proportions to that of the Common Warthog, but diagnostically distinguished by other cranial and dental characters. Sphenoidal pits in the floor of the neurocranium on each side of the vomer are enormously enlarged and opened out, deepening the vomerine ridge. The zygomatic arches are robust, with large sinuses forming a spherical inflation of the jugal. In the limited number of samples of Desert Warthog skulls that are available, lengths for the two sexes do not overlap, suggesting greater sexual dimorphism than in the Common Warthog. The upper incisors are always absent. The lower incisors are absent or reduced to four or fewer and are very small: they hardly protrude from the alveoli and are probably always concealed by gums. The third molars are also different: when all the enamel columns have begun to wear, no roots have yet formed, unlike the condition in the Common Warthog. At this stage, all the columns are of about the same length and are able to continue growing, extending the life of the tooth. Differences were also recorded between the two species in the shape of the canines: both lower and upper canines appear to be less curved in the Desert Warthog. The wear facet on the lower canine is differently placed, and the lower canines are less compressed. Dental formulais10/0-2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 26-30. Chromosome numberis unknown. DNA analysis has shown that aethiopicusand africanusbelong to two genetically distinct lineages that diverged approximately 4-5 million years ago, in the early Pliocene.Habitat.The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.Food and Feeding.With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenyaand Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks.","habitat":"The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mmper year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkanaand the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B740FFF1FF66F6E0FAD9F454.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B740FFF1FF66F6E0FAD9F454","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"114","verbatimText":"11.Brush RabbitSylvilagus bachmaniFrench:Lapin de Bachman/ German:Strauchkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de matorralOther common names:Riparian Brush RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus bachmani Waterhouse, 1839, “between Monterey and Santa Barbara.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “San Luis Obispo,” California, USA.Previously, S. bachmaniand Brachylagus idahoensiswere in the genus Microlagus. Insular S. mansuetusoccurring only on San Jose Island (Baja California) derived from S. bachmani. Sylvilagus bachmaniand S. mansuetusare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Firstly, the original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. Secondly, the extent of variation has not been studied yet. Thus, researchers cannot understand if this exact feature is some important diagostic mark or just an individual or age-specific variation. Moreover, it has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.bachmaniWaterhouse,1839—SpartofcoastalCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.cerrosensisJ.A.Allen,1898—CedrosI,BajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.cinerascensJ.A.Allen,1890—SWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.exiguusNelson,1907—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheN(NWMexico).S.b.howelliHuey,1927—NEBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.macrorhinusOrr,1935—NpartofCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.mariposaeGrinnell&Storer,1916—EpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.peninsularisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.b.ripariusOrr,1935—WpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.rosaphagusHuey,1940—NWBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.tehamaeOrr,1935—SWOregon,andNCCalifornia(WUSA).S.b.ubericolorMiller,1899—WOregon(SoftheColumbiaRiver)andNWCalifornia(WUSA).S. b. virgulti Dice, 1926— S part of inland CW California.Descriptive notes.Head-body 300-370 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 71-86 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Brush Rabbitis one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is dark brown to gray-brown; ventral fur is whitish. Hindlegs are short, and hindfeet are slender. Ears are small, slightly pointed, and sparsely haired inside. Tail is small, dark above, and white below. Sexual dimorphism exists with females being 1-2-1% larger than males. Fetal sex ratio is essentially 1:1, but adult sex ratios are 80-8-128 males:100 females.Habitat.Dense brushy cover from sea level to elevations of at least 2070 m. The Brush Rabbit is confined to brushy habitat, as its common name implies.Food and Feeding.Brush Rabbits feed mainly on grasses, and diets vary according to season and region. In September, they feed on spike rush (Eleocharis palustris, Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) such as creeping eragrostis (Eragrostishypnoides), foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum), soft chess grass (Bromushordeaceus), and oats (Avenafatua). Summer diets include wild roses (Rosacalifornica, Rosaceae), Mexican tea (Chenopodiumambrosioides, Amaranthaceae), and several plants in the daisy family such as sow thistle (Sonchusasper), bull thistle (Cirsiumlanceolatum), and Baccharisdouglasii; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); and berries (Rubus sp., Rosaceae). In autumn, roots of poison hemlock (Coniummaculatum), stems and leaves of blackberry (R. vitifolia), and berries (Rubus sp.) also are eaten. In winter, green clover (Trifoliuminvolucratum, Fabaceae) is most preferred, along with new available green grass. Brush Rabbits rarely feed in the open on the mainland, but they prefer to feed in the open and rarely underbrush on Ano Nuevo Island. Before venturing into the open to feed, individuals remain for a while just inside dense brushy cover. After entering an open area next to brushy cover, individuals remain motionless for some time, apparently watching for signs of danger. Several individuals might simultaneously feed in the same area. They rise up on their hindfeet to feed on newly grown tips of plants.Breeding.Breeding season of the Brush Rabbit varies from north to south. In California, it lasts from December to May or possibly June, but in Oregon, it lasts from February to August. Gestation lasts 24-30 days, averaging 27 days. Young are born with fine thin hair, do not open their eyes for c.10 days, and suffer postpartum weight loss. Females give birth in nests with cavities of 7.5-15 cm. Nests are lined mainly with hairs from mothers and small amounts of dried grass; nests are closed with plugs constructed of grasses. Young are nursed at night, grow rapidly, and stay in their nests for c.2 weeks. The Brush Rabbit is believed to breed shortly after giving birth, and different females in a population might breed at the same time. Brush Rabbits might have three litters per year in California, but four litters might be possible. Litter size also varies among regions; mean litter size is three in Oregon, 3-5 in northern and central California, and four in west-central California. Juveniles reach maturity at 4-5 monthsold, but it is thought that they reproduce for the first time in reproductive seasons following their births. In Oregon, a female Brush Rabbit produces an average of 15 young/ year in 5-3 litters. Brush Rabbits may not be as fecund as other species of Sylvilagus.Activity patterns.Brush Rabbits are basically crepuscular, being most active between sunset and 02:00 h and again from ¢.06:00 h to 10:30 h. Some reports suggest that most activity occurs in the morning. Individuals are least active between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. They spend considerable time sunning, usually in the mornings or afternoons. After feeding, Brush Rabbits return to a form forgrooming and basking in the sun. They might climb trees for resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Brush Rabbit occasionally uses burrows but does not dig its own. Holes and forms in brush also are used. Forms are cleared places, and a maze of extensively used runways connects forms. Runways of voles (Microtus) and harvest mice (Reithrodontomys) were used in June/July in California, and “huts” of Wood Rats (Neotomafuscipes macrotis) also were used. In Oregon, Brush Rabbits live in disjunct patches of brambles, and sizes and shapes of home ranges conform to sizes and shapes of bramble patches. Brush Rabbits did not permanently occupy patches smaller than 460 m?. Home ranges were less than 2000 m? and depended on uniformity of habitat. Males had larger home ranges than females, and juvenile males had larger home ranges than adult males. Home range sizes of reintroduced individuals were similar among males and females and were larger in the breeding season than during nonbreeding. Thumping the ground with hindfeet often occurs just after individuals are frightened; some thumpfor several minutes before stopping. Brush Rabbits emit squeals and cries as vocalization. Young have been reported to squeal. Minimum distance that individuals can approach one another without resulting in a chase is 0-3-7-5 m—lower distances reported forjuveniles. Nose sniffing and touching often precede a chase.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Brush Rabbit is abundant throughout most ofits distribution, and most populations do not appear to be experiencing significant declines. It is a game species in Oregon and California but is hunted little. The subspecies riparius living in the San Joaquin Valley, California, has been listed as endangered by the State of California and the US Fish and Wildlife Service due to decline caused by habitat degradation, wildfires, and flooding. Major threats to the Brush Rabbit are hunting for food and expansion of human settlements, but extent and severity of these threats have not been quantified.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero, Rangel & Williams (2008), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Vazquez & Colmenares (2005), Chapman (1971a, 1971b, 1974), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Harman (1972), Connell (1954), Davis (1936), Dice (1926), Gander (1929), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kelt et al. (2014), Lissovsky (2016), Mossman (1955), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940, 1942), Pearson (1959a), Shields (1960), Verts (1967).","taxonomy":"Lepus bachmani Waterhouse, 1839, “between Monterey and Santa Barbara.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “San Luis Obispo,” California, USA.Previously, S. bachmaniand Brachylagus idahoensiswere in the genus Microlagus. Insular S. mansuetusoccurring only on San Jose Island (Baja California) derived from S. bachmani. Sylvilagus bachmaniand S. mansuetusare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Firstly, the original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. Secondly, the extent of variation has not been studied yet. Thus, researchers cannot understand if this exact feature is some important diagostic mark or just an individual or age-specific variation. Moreover, it has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Bachman @fr | Strauchkaninchen @de | Conejo de matorral @es | Riparian Brush Rabbit @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"114","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bachmani","name":"Sylvilagus bachmani","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.b.bachmaniWaterhouse,1839—SpartofcoastalCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.cerrosensisJ.A.Allen,1898—CedrosI,BajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.cinerascensJ.A.Allen,1890—SWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.exiguusNelson,1907—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheN(NWMexico).S.b.howelliHuey,1927—NEBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.macrorhinusOrr,1935—NpartofCWCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.mariposaeGrinnell&Storer,1916—EpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.peninsularisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.b.ripariusOrr,1935—WpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA).S.b.rosaphagusHuey,1940—NWBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.b.tehamaeOrr,1935—SWOregon,andNCCalifornia(WUSA).S.b.ubericolorMiller,1899—WOregon(SoftheColumbiaRiver)andNWCalifornia(WUSA).S. b. virgulti Dice, 1926— S part of inland CW California.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625565/files/figure.png","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero, Rangel & Williams (2008) | Angermann (2016) | Cervantes, Vazquez & Colmenares (2005) | Chapman (1971a, 1971b, 1974) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Harman (1972) | Connell (1954) | Davis (1936) | Dice (1926) | Gander (1929) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kelt et al. (2014) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mossman (1955) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940, 1942) | Pearson (1959a) | Shields (1960) | Verts (1967)","foodAndFeeding":"Brush Rabbits feed mainly on grasses, and diets vary according to season and region. In September, they feed on spike rush (Eleocharis palustris, Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) such as creeping eragrostis (Eragrostishypnoides), foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum), soft chess grass (Bromushordeaceus), and oats (Avenafatua). Summer diets include wild roses (Rosacalifornica, Rosaceae), Mexican tea (Chenopodiumambrosioides, Amaranthaceae), and several plants in the daisy family such as sow thistle (Sonchusasper), bull thistle (Cirsiumlanceolatum), and Baccharisdouglasii; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); and berries (Rubus sp., Rosaceae). In autumn, roots of poison hemlock (Coniummaculatum), stems and leaves of blackberry (R. vitifolia), and berries (Rubus sp.) also are eaten. In winter, green clover (Trifoliuminvolucratum, Fabaceae) is most preferred, along with new available green grass. Brush Rabbits rarely feed in the open on the mainland, but they prefer to feed in the open and rarely underbrush on Ano Nuevo Island. Before venturing into the open to feed, individuals remain for a while just inside dense brushy cover. After entering an open area next to brushy cover, individuals remain motionless for some time, apparently watching for signs of danger. Several individuals might simultaneously feed in the same area. They rise up on their hindfeet to feed on newly grown tips of plants.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Brush Rabbit varies from north to south. In California, it lasts from December to May or possibly June, but in Oregon, it lasts from February to August. Gestation lasts 24-30 days, averaging 27 days. Young are born with fine thin hair, do not open their eyes for c.10 days, and suffer postpartum weight loss. Females give birth in nests with cavities of 7.5-15 cm. Nests are lined mainly with hairs from mothers and small amounts of dried grass; nests are closed with plugs constructed of grasses. Young are nursed at night, grow rapidly, and stay in their nests for c.2 weeks. The Brush Rabbit is believed to breed shortly after giving birth, and different females in a population might breed at the same time. Brush Rabbits might have three litters per year in California, but four litters might be possible. Litter size also varies among regions; mean litter size is three in Oregon, 3-5 in northern and central California, and four in west-central California. Juveniles reach maturity at 4-5 monthsold, but it is thought that they reproduce for the first time in reproductive seasons following their births. In Oregon, a female Brush Rabbit produces an average of 15 young/ year in 5-3 litters. Brush Rabbits may not be as fecund as other species of Sylvilagus.","activityPatterns":"Brush Rabbits are basically crepuscular, being most active between sunset and 02:00 h and again from ¢.06:00 h to 10:30 h. Some reports suggest that most activity occurs in the morning. Individuals are least active between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. They spend considerable time sunning, usually in the mornings or afternoons. After feeding, Brush Rabbits return to a form forgrooming and basking in the sun. They might climb trees for resting.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Brush Rabbit occasionally uses burrows but does not dig its own. Holes and forms in brush also are used. Forms are cleared places, and a maze of extensively used runways connects forms. Runways of voles (Microtus) and harvest mice (Reithrodontomys) were used in June/July in California, and “huts” of Wood Rats (Neotomafuscipes macrotis) also were used. In Oregon, Brush Rabbits live in disjunct patches of brambles, and sizes and shapes of home ranges conform to sizes and shapes of bramble patches. Brush Rabbits did not permanently occupy patches smaller than 460 m?. Home ranges were less than 2000 m? and depended on uniformity of habitat. Males had larger home ranges than females, and juvenile males had larger home ranges than adult males. Home range sizes of reintroduced individuals were similar among males and females and were larger in the breeding season than during nonbreeding. Thumping the ground with hindfeet often occurs just after individuals are frightened; some thumpfor several minutes before stopping. Brush Rabbits emit squeals and cries as vocalization. Young have been reported to squeal. Minimum distance that individuals can approach one another without resulting in a chase is 0-3-7-5 m—lower distances reported forjuveniles. Nose sniffing and touching often precede a chase.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Brush Rabbit is abundant throughout most ofits distribution, and most populations do not appear to be experiencing significant declines. It is a game species in Oregon and California but is hunted little. The subspecies riparius living in the San Joaquin Valley, California, has been listed as endangered by the State of California and the US Fish and Wildlife Service due to decline caused by habitat degradation, wildfires, and flooding. Major threats to the Brush Rabbit are hunting for food and expansion of human settlements, but extent and severity of these threats have not been quantified.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 300-370 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 71-86 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Brush Rabbitis one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is dark brown to gray-brown; ventral fur is whitish. Hindlegs are short, and hindfeet are slender. Ears are small, slightly pointed, and sparsely haired inside. Tail is small, dark above, and white below. Sexual dimorphism exists with females being 1-2-1% larger than males. Fetal sex ratio is essentially 1:1, but adult sex ratios are 80-8-128 males:100 females.","habitat":"Dense brushy cover from sea level to elevations of at least 2070 m. The Brush Rabbit is confined to brushy habitat, as its common name implies."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B741FFFEFACAF494FD43FE12.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B741FFFEFACAF494FD43FE12","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"113","verbatimText":"10.Annamite Striped RabbitNesolagus timminsiFrench:Lapin dAnnam/ German:Annam-Streifenkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo rayado de AnnamitaTaxonomy.Nesolagus timminsi Averianov, Abramov & Tikhonov, 2000, “Vietnam, Ha Tinh Province, Huong Son District, Son Kim Community, about 10 km south from village Nuoc Sot, 18°22’N, 105°13’E, altitude 200 m.”Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. timminsiand N. netscher: are morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. Genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is a considerable genetic distance between the two species comparable with the distance among leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. timminsiand N. netscherihave been isolated for ¢.8 million years. At that time, sea level was ¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagusmight have been distributed overthis region. Nesolagus timminsiapparently lives sympatrically with Lepus peguensis. Monotypic.Distribution.N & C Annamite Mts (Laos and Vietnam); it may occur in S Annamite Mts.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has black or dark brown dorsalstripes, a ferruginous rump, and short tail and ears. Externally,it closely resembles the Sumatran Striped Rabbit (N. netscheri).Habitat.Wet evergreen forests that experience little or no dry season. Annamite Striped Rabbits generally occur on seaward facing slopes of the Annamite Mountains. Elevational range is unknown, but they were first collected at elevations of ¢.200 m. Hunters say that Annamite Striped Rabbits are relatively common at higher elevations in the mountains. A number of records come from heavily logged but not completely logged areas. A recent survey using camera traps recorded most Annamite Striped Rabbits in secondary forest. They tended to occur in areas with tall thin trees and a wide variety of plant species in the ground cover.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has a decreasing population trend. It has only recently been discovered. The first evidence of the Annamite Striped Rabbit came from captured individuals offered for sale in a food market in the rural town of Ban Lak, Laos, between December 1995 and February 1996. Annamite Striped Rabbits occur at low densities, in distinct populations, and in a restricted area. Known distribution is based on only c.10 localities. Nothing is known about biology and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit. Threats include habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation from logging, agriculture, and mining and intensive hunting. Although almost all mammals hunted in this region of Laos seem to have some medicinal use, there is no evidence that any medicinal trade demand exists for Annamite Striped Rabbits. They are apparently harvested to feed hunters while in the forests. Heavy hunting pressure might have deleterious effects on extant populations. One problem for the conservation of the Annamite Striped Rabbit might be that most strategies focus on remote high elevational areas, and lowlands are generally degraded by humans and lost to possible management. The Annamite Striped Rabbit inhabits border areas between Laos and Vietnam, and both governments do not actively support any conservation activities for it. Development of management plans and legislation to protect the Annamite Striped Rabbit are recommended. Research on distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit are needed to effectively protect it. Such research could change the conservation status of the Annamite Striped Rabbit from Data Deficient to Near Threatened or even Endangered on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Abramov et al. (2008), Averianov et al. (2000), Can et al. (2001), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Sur ridge et al. (1999), Woodfin & Bell (2015).","taxonomy":"Nesolagus timminsi Averianov, Abramov & Tikhonov, 2000, “Vietnam, Ha Tinh Province, Huong Son District, Son Kim Community, about 10 km south from village Nuoc Sot, 18°22’N, 105°13’E, altitude 200 m.”Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. timminsiand N. netscher: are morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. Genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is a considerable genetic distance between the two species comparable with the distance among leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. timminsiand N. netscherihave been isolated for ¢.8 million years. At that time, sea level was ¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagusmight have been distributed overthis region. Nesolagus timminsiapparently lives sympatrically with Lepus peguensis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin d Annam @fr | Annam-Streifenkaninchen @de | Conejo rayado de Annamita @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Averianov, Abramov & Tikhonov","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2000","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Nesolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"113","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"timminsi","name":"Nesolagus timminsi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N & C Annamite Mts (Laos and Vietnam); it may occur in S Annamite Mts.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625563/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abramov et al. (2008) | Averianov et al. (2000) | Can et al. (2001) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Sur ridge et al. (1999) | Woodfin & Bell (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has a decreasing population trend. It has only recently been discovered. The first evidence of the Annamite Striped Rabbit came from captured individuals offered for sale in a food market in the rural town of Ban Lak, Laos, between December 1995 and February 1996. Annamite Striped Rabbits occur at low densities, in distinct populations, and in a restricted area. Known distribution is based on only c.10 localities. Nothing is known about biology and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit. Threats include habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation from logging, agriculture, and mining and intensive hunting. Although almost all mammals hunted in this region of Laos seem to have some medicinal use, there is no evidence that any medicinal trade demand exists for Annamite Striped Rabbits. They are apparently harvested to feed hunters while in the forests. Heavy hunting pressure might have deleterious effects on extant populations. One problem for the conservation of the Annamite Striped Rabbit might be that most strategies focus on remote high elevational areas, and lowlands are generally degraded by humans and lost to possible management. The Annamite Striped Rabbit inhabits border areas between Laos and Vietnam, and both governments do not actively support any conservation activities for it. Development of management plans and legislation to protect the Annamite Striped Rabbit are recommended. Research on distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit are needed to effectively protect it. Such research could change the conservation status of the Annamite Striped Rabbit from Data Deficient to Near Threatened or even Endangered on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"There are no specific measurements available. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has black or dark brown dorsalstripes, a ferruginous rump, and short tail and ears. Externally,it closely resembles the Sumatran Striped Rabbit (N. netscheri).","habitat":"Wet evergreen forests that experience little or no dry season. Annamite Striped Rabbits generally occur on seaward facing slopes of the Annamite Mountains. Elevational range is unknown, but they were first collected at elevations of ¢.200 m. Hunters say that Annamite Striped Rabbits are relatively common at higher elevations in the mountains. A number of records come from heavily logged but not completely logged areas. A recent survey using camera traps recorded most Annamite Striped Rabbits in secondary forest. They tended to occur in areas with tall thin trees and a wide variety of plant species in the ground cover."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B741FFFFFFCFF3F0F952FCB2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B741FFFFFFCFF3F0F952FCB2","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"113","verbatimText":"9.Sumatran Striped RabbitNesolagus netscheriFrench:Lapin de Sumatra/ German:Sumatra-Streifenkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo rayado de SumatraOther common names:Sumatran Rabbit, Sumatran Short-eared RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus netscheri Schlegel, 1880, “Sumatra: Padang-Padjang...about 2000 feet [= Padangpanjang, Sumatera Barat, Indonesia; ca. 610 m].”This species was first described as a species of Lepus but was soon given a separate genus. Its relationship with other leporidsis distinct, and the genus is regarded as being a primitive form. Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. netscher: and N. timminsiare morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. A genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is considerable genetic distance between the two species, compatible with the distance between leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. netscheriand N. timminsihave been isolated for c.8 million years in the Pliocene. At that time, sea level was c¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagusmight have been distributed over this region. Monotypic.Distribution.W Sumatra (Barisan Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 370-420 mm, tail 17 mm, ear 30-50 mm, hindfoot 67-87 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably c.1-5 kg. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has very short ears. Fur has conspicuous wide black or dark brown stripes on a yellowish gray background that becomes rusty brown toward the rear. Ventral fur, chin, and insides of legs are whitish. Ears are black, and when folded forward, they only reach the eyes. Head is broad, muzzle short, and legs are short. Tail is extremely short, contains only twelve bones compared to 19-24 in other leporids, and is normally notvisible. Furis soft and short. Color is apparently variable among individuals, and stripes might be absent in front or much reduced.Habitat.Montane forests at elevations of 600-1900 m on rich volcanic soil, and occasionally also primary/selectively logged lowland forest. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has only been recorded twice in lowland forests below 600 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit includes plants from the forest understory such as Cyrtandra(Gesneriaceae). Captive individuals fed only at night.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is completely nocturnal and hides in dark places at bases oftrees, in burrows, or in holes in the ground during the daytime. [t probably uses burrows made by other animals because captive individuals do not dig.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Captive Sumatran Striped Rabbits were slow moving and spent the day nearly motionless.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is endemic to Indonesia and apparently the rarest lagomorph. Historically,its distribution has been described as extending from southern Sumatra to Aceh along the Barisan Mountains, but no recent records have been made outside western Sumatra even though a numberof surveys and camera trappings have been conducted across the island. Recent sightings and photographs taken in the Bukit Barisan Selatan and Kerinci-Seblat national parks suggest that the two parks serve as current refugia for the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Considering that it is only active at night and lives in remote inaccessible habitat, it might not be surprising that local people had no name for it when it was discovered. Detailed surveys for other rare species on the island such as the Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) or the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) have rarely encountered Sumatran Striped Rabbits, so they seem to be remarkably rare. Little is known about the biology, ecology, status, or distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Only a dozen museum specimens collected between 1880 and 1916 exist. Since these collections were made, there has been only one confirmed sighting in 1972 and two photographic records of two different individuals taken by automatic camera traps in 1998. A few additional sightings and photographs from camera traps have been reported since 1998. Major threats to the Sumatran Striped Rabbit are deforestation, human encroachment, and poaching in many of Sumatra’s protected areas. Survival of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit depends on continued existence of their mountain forest habitat. Twenty-five years ago, recommendations highlighted urgent need for widespread studies of biology, ecology, status, and distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit, but no funds have been provided to start these studies. Spotlighting along montane forest roads and camera trapping might be appropriate techniques for targeted ecological research on the Sumatran Striped Rabbit.Bibliography.Averianov et al. (2000), Dinets (2010), Flux (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jacobson (1921), McCarthy, Fuller et al. (2012), McCarthy, Holden & Martyr (2015), McNeely (1981), Meijaard & Sugardijito (2008), Surridge et al. (1999).","taxonomy":"Lepus netscheri Schlegel, 1880, “Sumatra: Padang-Padjang...about 2000 feet [= Padangpanjang, Sumatera Barat, Indonesia; ca. 610 m].”This species was first described as a species of Lepus but was soon given a separate genus. Its relationship with other leporidsis distinct, and the genus is regarded as being a primitive form. Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. netscher: and N. timminsiare morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. A genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is considerable genetic distance between the two species, compatible with the distance between leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. netscheriand N. timminsihave been isolated for c.8 million years in the Pliocene. At that time, sea level was c¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagusmight have been distributed over this region. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin de Sumatra @fr | Sumatra-Streifenkaninchen @de | Conejo rayado de Sumatra @es | Sumatran Rabbit @en | Sumatran Short-eared Rabbit @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schlegel","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1880","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Nesolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"113","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"netscheri","name":"Nesolagus netscheri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Sumatra (Barisan Mts).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625561/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Averianov et al. (2000) | Dinets (2010) | Flux (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jacobson (1921) | McCarthy, Fuller et al. (2012) | McCarthy, Holden & Martyr (2015) | McNeely (1981) | Meijaard & Sugardijito (2008) | Surridge et al. (1999)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit includes plants from the forest understory such as Cyrtandra(Gesneriaceae). Captive individuals fed only at night.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is completely nocturnal and hides in dark places at bases oftrees, in burrows, or in holes in the ground during the daytime. [t probably uses burrows made by other animals because captive individuals do not dig.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Captive Sumatran Striped Rabbits were slow moving and spent the day nearly motionless.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is endemic to Indonesia and apparently the rarest lagomorph. Historically,its distribution has been described as extending from southern Sumatra to Aceh along the Barisan Mountains, but no recent records have been made outside western Sumatra even though a numberof surveys and camera trappings have been conducted across the island. Recent sightings and photographs taken in the Bukit Barisan Selatan and Kerinci-Seblat national parks suggest that the two parks serve as current refugia for the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Considering that it is only active at night and lives in remote inaccessible habitat, it might not be surprising that local people had no name for it when it was discovered. Detailed surveys for other rare species on the island such as the Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) or the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) have rarely encountered Sumatran Striped Rabbits, so they seem to be remarkably rare. Little is known about the biology, ecology, status, or distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Only a dozen museum specimens collected between 1880 and 1916 exist. Since these collections were made, there has been only one confirmed sighting in 1972 and two photographic records of two different individuals taken by automatic camera traps in 1998. A few additional sightings and photographs from camera traps have been reported since 1998. Major threats to the Sumatran Striped Rabbit are deforestation, human encroachment, and poaching in many of Sumatra’s protected areas. Survival of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit depends on continued existence of their mountain forest habitat. Twenty-five years ago, recommendations highlighted urgent need for widespread studies of biology, ecology, status, and distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit, but no funds have been provided to start these studies. Spotlighting along montane forest roads and camera trapping might be appropriate techniques for targeted ecological research on the Sumatran Striped Rabbit.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 370-420 mm, tail 17 mm, ear 30-50 mm, hindfoot 67-87 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably c.1-5 kg. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has very short ears. Fur has conspicuous wide black or dark brown stripes on a yellowish gray background that becomes rusty brown toward the rear. Ventral fur, chin, and insides of legs are whitish. Ears are black, and when folded forward, they only reach the eyes. Head is broad, muzzle short, and legs are short. Tail is extremely short, contains only twelve bones compared to 19-24 in other leporids, and is normally notvisible. Furis soft and short. Color is apparently variable among individuals, and stripes might be absent in front or much reduced.","habitat":"Montane forests at elevations of 600-1900 m on rich volcanic soil, and occasionally also primary/selectively logged lowland forest. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has only been recorded twice in lowland forests below 600 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B742FFFCFF6AF956F801F2F9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B742FFFCFF6AF956F801F2F9","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"112","verbatimText":"7.Riverine RabbitBunolagus monticularisFrench:Lapin des Bochimans/ German:Buschmannhase/ Spanish:Conejo de riberaOther common names:Bushman HareTaxonomy.Lepus monticularis Thomas, 1903, “Deelfontain, Cape Colony,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.C Karoo region in South Africa (around Victoria West, Beaufort West, and Fraserburg, in Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces).Descriptive notes.Head-body 340-470 mm, tail 70-108 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 90-120 mm; weight 1.1-5 kg. The Riverine Rabbit is small and dark, with relatively long broad ears. Ear tips are rounded and bordered by short black hairs on outer surfaces. Pelage is soft and fluffy. Dorsal fur is grizzled blackish brown, and ventral pelage is white. Characteristic eye rings are pale, and thin dark stripes run along lowerjaws from near the mouth to bases of ears. Lower flanks, limbs, and nuchal patch are rufous. Soles of feet are covered with thick dense hairs. Tail is medium-sized, dark brown with long fluffy hairs.Habitat.Thick riverine vegetation along seasonalrivers, dominated by Salsolaglabrescens, Amaranthaceae(34-8%) and Lycium spp., Solanaceae(112%). Other important species in the habitat of the Riverine Rabbit include Pteroniaeythrochaeta, Asteraceae(7:9%); Osteospermumspinescens, Asteraceae(5-3%); Kochia pubescens, Amaranthaceae(6:5%); and Galenia procumbens, Aizoacae (4%). Only a small part of riparian vegetation consists of grasses, and most plants are dicotyledons.Food and Feeding.The Riverine Rabbit browses on flowers and leaves of dicotyledons, such as P. erythrochaeta, K. pubescens, S. glabrescens, Rosenia humilis, and species of Mesembryanthemaceae. Grasses are included in the diet when available during the wet season.Breeding.Reproduction of the Riverine Rabbit takes place in August-May during the warm season. It has one litter per year, and litter size usually is one and sometimes two young. Females might have a postpartum estrus. Gestation lasts 35-36 days. Young are born in a nest made of maternal fur and grass in a burrow. Lengths of burrow are 20-30 cm, with a nest chamber (12-17 cm wide) at the end. Young weight c.40 g at birth, are blind, and lack fur. Riverine Rabbits close their burrow entrances with soil and twigs when not in use.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Riverine Rabbit is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Riverine Rabbit lives alone and has a polygamous mating system. Average home range is 20-9 ha for males and 12-9 ha for females. There is a low degree of intrasexual home range overlap.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Riverine Rabbit waslisted as endangered in the 1986 South African National Red Data Book. It occurs only in a small area of ¢.86 km? In historic times,its distribution included riverine vegetation in districts of Sutherland and Calvinia (c.136 km?), but extensive surveys suggest that it has disappeared from these areas. Current population is fragmented and declining and estimated at less than 250 breeding pairs. None of the ten subpopulations is estimated at more than 50 individuals. Moreover, these subpopulations seem to be isolated from each other by anthropogenic barriers, and dispersal of individuals among them is impossible. In the past 70 years, there has been a rapid decline of the population by more than 60% due to a loss of 50-60% of suitable habitat. Habitat has been lost as a result of cultivation (past) and livestock farming (ongoing). Other threats to the Riverine Rabbit include hunting for sport and by farm workers and accidental mortality in traps set for pests on farmlands. Moreover, reduction of Black-backed Jackals (Canis mesomelas) has resulted in an increase of Wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) and Caracals (Caracal caracal)—main predators of the Riverine Rabbit. Population decline has been arrested due to a decrease in cultivation and public awareness and establishment of conservation areas. An overall population decline of 10% or more is predicted to continue through 2022. Recommendations are to conduct further research on biology and ecology of the Volcano Rabbit, establish management plans for wild populations and their habitats, study limiting factors, increase public awareness, and start a captive breeding program.Bibliography.Duthie (1989), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Duthie et al. (1989), Happold (2013c), Robinson (1981), South African Mammal CAMP Workshop (2013).","taxonomy":"Lepus monticularis Thomas, 1903, “Deelfontain, Cape Colony,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin des Bochimans @fr | Buschmannhase @de | Conejo de ribera @es | Bushman Hare @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1903","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Bunolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"112","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"monticularis","name":"Bunolagus monticularis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Karoo region in South Africa (around Victoria West, Beaufort West, and Fraserburg, in Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625557/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Duthie (1989) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Duthie et al. (1989) | Happold (2013c) | Robinson (1981) | South African Mammal CAMP Workshop (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"The Riverine Rabbit browses on flowers and leaves of dicotyledons, such as P. erythrochaeta, K. pubescens, S. glabrescens, Rosenia humilis, and species of Mesembryanthemaceae. Grasses are included in the diet when available during the wet season.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Riverine Rabbit takes place in August-May during the warm season. It has one litter per year, and litter size usually is one and sometimes two young. Females might have a postpartum estrus. Gestation lasts 35-36 days. Young are born in a nest made of maternal fur and grass in a burrow. Lengths of burrow are 20-30 cm, with a nest chamber (12-17 cm wide) at the end. Young weight c.40 g at birth, are blind, and lack fur. Riverine Rabbits close their burrow entrances with soil and twigs when not in use.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Riverine Rabbit is no doubt nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Riverine Rabbit lives alone and has a polygamous mating system. Average home range is 20-9 ha for males and 12-9 ha for females. There is a low degree of intrasexual home range overlap.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Riverine Rabbit waslisted as endangered in the 1986 South African National Red Data Book. It occurs only in a small area of ¢.86 km? In historic times,its distribution included riverine vegetation in districts of Sutherland and Calvinia (c.136 km?), but extensive surveys suggest that it has disappeared from these areas. Current population is fragmented and declining and estimated at less than 250 breeding pairs. None of the ten subpopulations is estimated at more than 50 individuals. Moreover, these subpopulations seem to be isolated from each other by anthropogenic barriers, and dispersal of individuals among them is impossible. In the past 70 years, there has been a rapid decline of the population by more than 60% due to a loss of 50-60% of suitable habitat. Habitat has been lost as a result of cultivation (past) and livestock farming (ongoing). Other threats to the Riverine Rabbit include hunting for sport and by farm workers and accidental mortality in traps set for pests on farmlands. Moreover, reduction of Black-backed Jackals (Canis mesomelas) has resulted in an increase of Wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) and Caracals (Caracal caracal)—main predators of the Riverine Rabbit. Population decline has been arrested due to a decrease in cultivation and public awareness and establishment of conservation areas. An overall population decline of 10% or more is predicted to continue through 2022. Recommendations are to conduct further research on biology and ecology of the Volcano Rabbit, establish management plans for wild populations and their habitats, study limiting factors, increase public awareness, and start a captive breeding program.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 340-470 mm, tail 70-108 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 90-120 mm; weight 1.1-5 kg. The Riverine Rabbit is small and dark, with relatively long broad ears. Ear tips are rounded and bordered by short black hairs on outer surfaces. Pelage is soft and fluffy. Dorsal fur is grizzled blackish brown, and ventral pelage is white. Characteristic eye rings are pale, and thin dark stripes run along lowerjaws from near the mouth to bases of ears. Lower flanks, limbs, and nuchal patch are rufous. Soles of feet are covered with thick dense hairs. Tail is medium-sized, dark brown with long fluffy hairs.Habitat.Thick riverine vegetation along seasonalrivers, dominated by Salsolaglabrescens, Amaranthaceae(34-8%) and Lycium spp., Solanaceae(112%). Other important species in the habitat of the Riverine Rabbit include Pteroniaeythrochaeta, Asteraceae(7:9%); Osteospermumspinescens, Asteraceae(5-3%); Kochia pubescens, Amaranthaceae(6:5%); and Galenia procumbens, Aizoacae (4%). Only a small part of riparian vegetation consists of grasses, and most plants are dicotyledons.Food and Feeding.The Riverine Rabbit browses on flowers and leaves of dicotyledons, such as P. erythrochaeta, K. pubescens, S. glabrescens, Rosenia humilis, and species of Mesembryanthemaceae. Grasses are included in the diet when available during the wet season.Breeding.Reproduction of the Riverine Rabbit takes place in August-May during the warm season. It has one litter per year, and litter size usually is one and sometimes two young. Females might have a postpartum estrus. Gestation lasts 35-36 days. Young are born in a nest made of maternal fur and grass in a burrow. Lengths of burrow are 20-30 cm, with a nest chamber (12-17 cm wide) at the end. Young weight c.40 g at birth, are blind, and lack fur. Riverine Rabbits close their burrow entrances with soil and twigs when not in use.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Riverine Rabbit is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Riverine Rabbit lives alone and has a polygamous mating system. Average home range is 20-9 ha for males and 12-9 ha for females. There is a low degree of intrasexual home range overlap.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Riverine Rabbit waslisted as endangered in the 1986 South African National Red Data Book. It occurs only in a small area of ¢.86 km? In historic times,its distribution included riverine vegetation in districts of Sutherland and Calvinia (c.136 km?), but extensive surveys suggest that it has disappeared from these areas. Current population is fragmented and declining and estimated at less than 250 breeding pairs. None of the ten subpopulations is estimated at more than 50 individuals. Moreover, these subpopulations seem to be isolated from each other by anthropogenic barriers, and dispersal of individuals among them is impossible. In the past 70 years, there has been a rapid decline of the population by more than 60% due to a loss of 50-60% of suitable habitat.","habitat":"Thick riverine vegetation along seasonalrivers, dominated by Salsolaglabrescens, Amaranthaceae(34-8%) and Lycium spp., Solanaceae(112%). Other important species in the habitat of the Riverine Rabbit include Pteroniaeythrochaeta, Asteraceae(7:9%); Osteospermumspinescens, Asteraceae(5-3%); Kochia pubescens, Amaranthaceae(6:5%); and Galenia procumbens, Aizoacae (4%). Only a small part of riparian vegetation consists of grasses, and most plants are dicotyledons."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B742FFFFFA17FA0FFE4AFD60.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B742FFFFFA17FA0FFE4AFD60","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"112","verbatimText":"8.Pygmy RabbitBrachylagus idahoensisFrench:Lapin pygmée/ German:Zwergkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo pigmeoTaxonomy.Lepus idahoensis Merriam, 1891, “Pahsimeroi Valley [near Goldburg, Custer County], Idaho,” USA.This species was formerly included in Lepusand Sylvilagus. At one time, B. idahoensiswas placed with S. bachmaniin Microlagus. Analysis of dental patterns showed a close relationship to Nesolagus. It has been interpreted as being either a primitive lagomorph or as derived from Sylvilagus. It is widely sympatric with Sylvilagus nuttalliand perhaps overlaps narrowly with S. audubonii. Monotypic.Distribution.Most of the Great Basin and some of the adjacent intermountain areas of W USA,from SE Oregon and NE California through most of C & N Nevada to S Idaho, extreme SW Montana, extreme W Wyoming, and W Utah. An isolated reintroduced population exists in WC Washington.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-310 mm, tail 15-24 mm, ear 56-64 mm, hindfoot 67-76 mm; weight 246-458 g. The Pygmy Rabbit is small, with short and rounded ears. Dorsalfur is buffy gray, and nape, chest, and legs are cinnamon buff. Hindlegs are relatively short, and hindfeet are broad and heavily haired. Ears are densely haired inside and outside, and their edges are buff. Tail is inconspicuous with a buff underside. The Pygmy Rabbit has one molt per year in midto late summer. New pelageis long, almost silky, and gray above, with abdomen being white. Fur changes in autumn and winter are due to wear and abrasion, and pelage appearssilver gray.Habitat.Primarily plains and alluvial fans dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisiatridentate, Asteraceae) growing in tall dense stands at elevations of ¢.1370-2135 m in Nevada and ¢.1520-1615 m in California. The Pygmy Rabbit often occurs in the same habitat as the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendir). A high degree of vegetation cover appears to be a major habitat feature selected by the Pygmy Rabbit. Densities of big sagebrush in areas used by the Pygmy Rabbit exceed those found throughout most of the plant’s distribution. Usually, heavy grazing increases density of big sagebrush. After grazing ceases and grass cover has recovered, habitat becomes optimal for Pygmy Rabbits. This suggests that they are opportunistic, inhabiting disturbed sites in the sagebrush landscape that have an increased density of sagebrush. Intense feeding activity by Pygmy Rabbits near their burrows might sustain or even increase density of sagebrush. Pygmy Rabbits extensively use burrows that they mainly construct by themselves, so soil structure is thought to be another key habitat feature. Soft deep soils are required for burrowing. Burrows typically have 4-5 entrances but up to ten or only two have been recorded. Entrances are located at bases of sagebrush. Burrows are usually found on slopes and are oriented in a north-to-east direction. Entrance diameters are 10-12 cm. Tunnels widen below the surface, form chambers, and extend to a maximum depth of c.1 m. Pygmy Rabbits also use holes among volcanic rocks, in stone walls, around abandoned buildings, and those made by American Badgers (7axidea taxus) and Yellow-bellied Marmots (Marmola flaviventris). Dense stands of big sagebrush growing adjacent to streams, along fences, and in borrow ditches along roads might be used by dispersing Pygmy Rabbits.Food and Feeding.Preferred diet of the Pygmy Rabbit is big sagebrush (A. tridentata); individuals sometimes even climb into tops of larger plants to feed. Big sagebrush consists up to 99% of the Pygmy Rabbit's food intake in winter. Grasses (Agropyron spp.and Poa spp., both Poaceae) are more important, with 30-40% ofdiets in midto late summer. A study investigating characteristics of browsed vs. unbrowsed big sagebrush showed that higher crude protein increased chances that plants would be browsed by Pygmy Rabbits, and the opposite was the case for certain plant secondary metabolites.Breeding.Testes of male Pygmy Rabbits increase progressively in size beginning in January, peaking in March, and regressing in June. Time of reproduction is dependent on female readiness, which is influenced by photoperiod and vegetative condition of the habitat. A study based on DNA analysis found multiple paternities in the same litter, suggesting that the Pygmy Rabbit has a promiscuous mating system. Pregnant females were collected from late February through late March in Utah and from late March through late May in Idaho. Mating behavior of captive Pygmy Rabbits consisted of chasing and brief copulations, and gestation lasted for 24 days. Females give birth in natal burrows that are separate from residential burrow systems. Natal burrows have a single entrance leading to a nest chamber. Entrances to natal burrows are backfilled with soil and often located at bases of shrubs. Female Pygmy Rabbits returned to burrows to nurse 1-2 times/day in captivity. Litter size averages 5-9 young (range 4-8 young). A maximum ofthree litters per year has been reported in Idaho. Pygmy Rabbits start breeding after their first winter of life. Adult and juvenile sex ratios were not significantly different from 1:1 in Idaho.Activity patterns.Pygmy Rabbits are active any time within the 24hour period, but they are generally crepuscular and highly active in the morning except in winter. Activity level seems to increase at higher elevations with extreme weather conditions. Pygmy Rabbits usually rest near or inside their burrows throughout the day, but they also feed at midday. Forms under vegetation are used during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Extensive and well-used runways of Pygmy Rabbits interlace sage thickets and provide travel and escape routes. Individuals apparently make networks of trails beneath snow at bases of big sagebrush that increase feeding areas in winter. Movementis confined to a small area (30 m radius) around the burrow in winter, with longer movements in spring and summer. Some male Pygmy Rabbits move longer distances (e.g. up to 3-5 km in two days or 1200 km in one day) during the breeding season, probably in search of females. Mean home range were 37-2 ha for females and 67-9 ha for males. Males used more burrow systems and more widely dispersed burrow systems than females. There seems to be no significant evidence of a sex bias in dispersal, but juvenile females (mean = 2-9 km, range =0-02-11-9 km) disperse farther than males (1 km, 0-03-6-5 km). Several individuals might occupy the same burrow, especially when frightened, but one adult per burrow is typical. During the reproductive season, male and female Pygmy Rabbits have been captured from the same burrow. An aggregation of 45 rabbits/ha in Idaho was reported, but it is unclear whether or notthis aggregation was due to ideal habitat or social behavior. Pygmy Rabbits make several vocalizations. They emit a loud squeal when captured as is typical of lagomorphs. An alarm call and two additional vocalizations (a squeak and a chuckle) were identified.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population status of the Pygmy Rabbitis extremely varied across its discontinuous distribution. It is locally threatened in parts ofits distribution. The Pygmy Rabbit is not ubiquitous overthis distribution but is restricted to areas of preferred habitat. A small, isolated, reintroduced population exists in Washington after the Columbia Basin population was extirpated by 2004. Habitat loss likely accounts for isolation of the Washington population. In other parts of its distribution, healthy populations remain in areas of expansive habitat. Primary threat to the Pygmy Rabbit is fragmentation of sagebrush rangeland, particularly on edges of its distribution. As these habitat patches become smaller, local extirpations of Pygmy Rabbits might occur. Probability of extirpation increases through overgrazing, uncontrolled wildfires, habitat modification, or genetic drift combined with stochastic events. Nevertheless, the fact that the Pygmy Rabbit can use sites that were once disturbed by grazing and have reverted to big sagebrush indicates that suitable habitat can be created. Where isolated populations of Pygmy Rabbits exist, corridors can be created to connect sites and thereby reduce chances of local extirpation.Bibliography.Beauvais et al. (2008), Campbell et al. (1982), Corbet (1983), Dobler & Dixon (1990), Elias et al. (2006), Ellison (1960), Estes-Zumpf & Rachlow (2009), Estes-Zumpf et al. (2010), Falcén et al. (2011), Green (1978), Green & Flinders (1980a, 1980b), Grinnell et al. (1930), Heady & Laundré (2005), Hibbard (1963), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Janson (1946), Johnson et al. (1950), Katzner (1994), Katzner & Parker (1997), Larrucea & Brussard (2008, 2009), Lee, J.E. et al. (2010), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Pritchett et al. (1987), Rachlow et al. (2005), Sanchez & Rachlow (2008), Schmalz et al. (2014), Stephenson (1966), Ulappa et al. (2014), Weiss & Verts (1984), Wilde (1978).","taxonomy":"Lepus idahoensis Merriam, 1891, “Pahsimeroi Valley [near Goldburg, Custer County], Idaho,” USA.This species was formerly included in Lepusand Sylvilagus. At one time, B. idahoensiswas placed with S. bachmaniin Microlagus. Analysis of dental patterns showed a close relationship to Nesolagus. It has been interpreted as being either a primitive lagomorph or as derived from Sylvilagus. It is widely sympatric with Sylvilagus nuttalliand perhaps overlaps narrowly with S. audubonii. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin pygmée @fr | Zwergkaninchen @de | Conejo pigmeo @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1891","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Brachylagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"112","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"idahoensis","name":"Brachylagus idahoensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Most of the Great Basin and some of the adjacent intermountain areas of W USA,from SE Oregon and NE California through most of C & N Nevada to S Idaho, extreme SW Montana, extreme W Wyoming, and W Utah. An isolated reintroduced population exists in WC Washington.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625559/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Beauvais et al. (2008) | Campbell et al. (1982) | Corbet (1983) | Dobler & Dixon (1990) | Elias et al. (2006) | Ellison (1960) | Estes-Zumpf & Rachlow (2009) | Estes-Zumpf et al. (2010) | Falcén et al. (2011) | Green (1978) | Green & Flinders (1980a, 1980b) | Grinnell et al. (1930) | Heady & Laundré (2005) | Hibbard (1963) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Janson (1946) | Johnson et al. (1950) | Katzner (1994) | Katzner & Parker (1997) | Larrucea & Brussard (2008, 2009) | Lee, J.E. et al. (2010) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Pritchett et al. (1987) | Rachlow et al. (2005) | Sanchez & Rachlow (2008) | Schmalz et al. (2014) | Stephenson (1966) | Ulappa et al. (2014) | Weiss & Verts (1984) | Wilde (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"Preferred diet of the Pygmy Rabbit is big sagebrush (A. tridentata); individuals sometimes even climb into tops of larger plants to feed. Big sagebrush consists up to 99% of the Pygmy Rabbit's food intake in winter. Grasses (Agropyron spp.and Poa spp., both Poaceae) are more important, with 30-40% ofdiets in midto late summer. A study investigating characteristics of browsed vs. unbrowsed big sagebrush showed that higher crude protein increased chances that plants would be browsed by Pygmy Rabbits, and the opposite was the case for certain plant secondary metabolites.","breeding":"Testes of male Pygmy Rabbits increase progressively in size beginning in January, peaking in March, and regressing in June. Time of reproduction is dependent on female readiness, which is influenced by photoperiod and vegetative condition of the habitat. A study based on DNA analysis found multiple paternities in the same litter, suggesting that the Pygmy Rabbit has a promiscuous mating system. Pregnant females were collected from late February through late March in Utah and from late March through late May in Idaho. Mating behavior of captive Pygmy Rabbits consisted of chasing and brief copulations, and gestation lasted for 24 days. Females give birth in natal burrows that are separate from residential burrow systems. Natal burrows have a single entrance leading to a nest chamber. Entrances to natal burrows are backfilled with soil and often located at bases of shrubs. Female Pygmy Rabbits returned to burrows to nurse 1-2 times/day in captivity. Litter size averages 5-9 young (range 4-8 young). A maximum ofthree litters per year has been reported in Idaho. Pygmy Rabbits start breeding after their first winter of life. Adult and juvenile sex ratios were not significantly different from 1:1 in Idaho.","activityPatterns":"Pygmy Rabbits are active any time within the 24hour period, but they are generally crepuscular and highly active in the morning except in winter. Activity level seems to increase at higher elevations with extreme weather conditions. Pygmy Rabbits usually rest near or inside their burrows throughout the day, but they also feed at midday. Forms under vegetation are used during daytime.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Extensive and well-used runways of Pygmy Rabbits interlace sage thickets and provide travel and escape routes. Individuals apparently make networks of trails beneath snow at bases of big sagebrush that increase feeding areas in winter. Movementis confined to a small area (30 m radius) around the burrow in winter, with longer movements in spring and summer. Some male Pygmy Rabbits move longer distances (e.g. up to 3-5 km in two days or 1200 km in one day) during the breeding season, probably in search of females. Mean home range were 37-2 ha for females and 67-9 ha for males. Males used more burrow systems and more widely dispersed burrow systems than females. There seems to be no significant evidence of a sex bias in dispersal, but juvenile females (mean = 2-9 km, range =0-02-11-9 km) disperse farther than males (1 km, 0-03-6-5 km). Several individuals might occupy the same burrow, especially when frightened, but one adult per burrow is typical. During the reproductive season, male and female Pygmy Rabbits have been captured from the same burrow. An aggregation of 45 rabbits/ha in Idaho was reported, but it is unclear whether or notthis aggregation was due to ideal habitat or social behavior. Pygmy Rabbits make several vocalizations. They emit a loud squeal when captured as is typical of lagomorphs. An alarm call and two additional vocalizations (a squeak and a chuckle) were identified.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population status of the Pygmy Rabbitis extremely varied across its discontinuous distribution. It is locally threatened in parts ofits distribution. The Pygmy Rabbit is not ubiquitous overthis distribution but is restricted to areas of preferred habitat. A small, isolated, reintroduced population exists in Washington after the Columbia Basin population was extirpated by 2004. Habitat loss likely accounts for isolation of the Washington population. In other parts of its distribution, healthy populations remain in areas of expansive habitat. Primary threat to the Pygmy Rabbit is fragmentation of sagebrush rangeland, particularly on edges of its distribution. As these habitat patches become smaller, local extirpations of Pygmy Rabbits might occur. Probability of extirpation increases through overgrazing, uncontrolled wildfires, habitat modification, or genetic drift combined with stochastic events. Nevertheless, the fact that the Pygmy Rabbit can use sites that were once disturbed by grazing and have reverted to big sagebrush indicates that suitable habitat can be created. Where isolated populations of Pygmy Rabbits exist, corridors can be created to connect sites and thereby reduce chances of local extirpation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 230-310 mm, tail 15-24 mm, ear 56-64 mm, hindfoot 67-76 mm; weight 246-458 g. The Pygmy Rabbit is small, with short and rounded ears. Dorsalfur is buffy gray, and nape, chest, and legs are cinnamon buff. Hindlegs are relatively short, and hindfeet are broad and heavily haired. Ears are densely haired inside and outside, and their edges are buff. Tail is inconspicuous with a buff underside. The Pygmy Rabbit has one molt per year in midto late summer. New pelageis long, almost silky, and gray above, with abdomen being white. Fur changes in autumn and winter are due to wear and abrasion, and pelage appearssilver gray.Habitat.Primarily plains and alluvial fans dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisiatridentate, Asteraceae) growing in tall dense stands at elevations of ¢.1370-2135 m in Nevada and ¢.1520-1615 m in California. The Pygmy Rabbit often occurs in the same habitat as the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendir). A high degree of vegetation cover appears to be a major habitat feature selected by the Pygmy Rabbit. Densities of big sagebrush in areas used by the Pygmy Rabbit exceed those found throughout most of the plant’s distribution. Usually, heavy grazing increases density of big sagebrush. After grazing ceases and grass cover has recovered, habitat becomes optimal for Pygmy Rabbits. This suggests that they are opportunistic, inhabiting disturbed sites in the sagebrush landscape that have an increased density of sagebrush. Intense feeding activity by Pygmy Rabbits near their burrows might sustain or even increase density of sagebrush. Pygmy Rabbits extensively use burrows that they mainly construct by themselves, so soil structure is thought to be another key habitat feature. Soft deep soils are required for burrowing. Burrows typically have 4-5 entrances but up to ten or only two have been recorded. Entrances are located at bases of sagebrush. Burrows are usually found on slopes and are oriented in a north-to-east direction. Entrance diameters are 10-12 cm. Tunnels widen below the surface, form chambers, and extend to a maximum depth of c.1 m. Pygmy Rabbits also use holes among volcanic rocks, in stone walls, around abandoned buildings, and those made by American Badgers (7axidea taxus) and Yellow-bellied Marmots (Marmola flaviventris). Dense stands of big sagebrush growing adjacent to streams, along fences, and in borrow ditches along roads might be used by dispersing Pygmy Rabbits.Food and Feeding.Preferred diet of the Pygmy Rabbit is big sagebrush (A. tridentata); individuals sometimes even climb into tops of larger plants to feed. Big sagebrush consists up to 99% of the Pygmy Rabbit's food intake in winter. Grasses (Agropyron spp.and Poa spp., both Poaceae) are more important, with 30-40% ofdiets in midto late summer. A study investigating characteristics of browsed vs. unbrowsed big sagebrush showed that higher crude protein increased chances that plants would be browsed by Pygmy Rabbits, and the opposite was the case for certain plant secondary metabolites.Breeding.Testes of male Pygmy Rabbits increase progressively in size beginning in January, peaking in March, and regressing in June. Time of reproduction is dependent on female readiness, which is influenced by photoperiod and vegetative condition of the habitat. A study based on DNA analysis found multiple paternities in the same litter, suggesting that the Pygmy Rabbit has a promiscuous mating system. Pregnant females were collected from late February through late March in Utah and from late March through late May in Idaho. Mating behavior of captive Pygmy Rabbits consisted of chasing and brief copulations, and gestation lasted for 24 days. Females give birth in natal burrows that are separate from residential burrow systems. Natal burrows have a single entrance leading to a nest chamber. Entrances to natal burrows are backfilled with soil and often located at bases of shrubs. Female Pygmy Rabbits returned to burrows to nurse 1-2 times/day in captivity. Litter size averages 5-9 young (range 4-8 young). A maximum ofthree litters per year has been reported in Idaho. Pygmy Rabbits start breeding after their first winter of life. Adult and juvenile sex ratios were not significantly different from 1:1 in Idaho.Activity patterns.Pygmy Rabbits are active any time within the 24hour period, but they are generally crepuscular and highly active in the morning except in winter. Activity level seems to increase at higher elevations with extreme weather conditions. Pygmy Rabbits usually rest near or inside their burrows throughout the day, but they also feed at midday. Forms under vegetation are used during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Extensive and well-used runways of Pygmy Rabbits interlace sage thickets and provide travel and escape routes. Individuals apparently make networks of trails beneath snow at bases of big sagebrush that increase feeding areas in winter. Movementis confined to a small area (30 m radius) around the burrow in winter, with longer movements in spring and summer. Some male Pygmy Rabbits move longer distances (e.g. up to 3-5 km in two days or 1200 km in one day) during the breeding season, probably in search of females. Mean home range were 37-2 ha for females and 67-9 ha for males. Males used more burrow systems and more widely dispersed burrow systems than females. There seems to be no significant evidence of a sex bias in dispersal, but juvenile females (mean = 2-9 km, range =0-02-11-9 km) disperse farther than males (1 km, 0-03-6-5 km). Several individuals might occupy the same burrow, especially when frightened, but one adult per burrow is typical. During the reproductive season, male and female Pygmy Rabbits have been captured from the same burrow. An aggregation of 45 rabbits/ha in Idaho was reported, but it is unclear whether or notthis aggregation was due to ideal habitat or social behavior. Pygmy Rabbits make several vocalizations. They emit a loud squeal when captured as is typical of lagomorphs. An alarm call and two additional vocalizations (a squeak and a chuckle) were identified.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population status of the Pygmy Rabbitis extremely varied across its discontinuous distribution. It is locally threatened in parts ofits distribution. The Pygmy Rabbit is not ubiquitous overthis distribution but is restricted to areas of preferred habitat. A small, isolated, reintroduced population exists in Washington after the Columbia Basin population was extirpated by 2004.","habitat":"Primarily plains and alluvial fans dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisiatridentate, Asteraceae) growing in tall dense stands at elevations of ¢.1370-2135 m in Nevada and ¢.1520-1615 m in California. The Pygmy Rabbit often occurs in the same habitat as the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendir). A high degree of vegetation cover appears to be a major habitat feature selected by the Pygmy Rabbit. Densities of big sagebrush in areas used by the Pygmy Rabbit exceed those found throughout most of the plant’s distribution. Usually, heavy grazing increases density of big sagebrush. After grazing ceases and grass cover has recovered, habitat becomes optimal for Pygmy Rabbits. This suggests that they are opportunistic, inhabiting disturbed sites in the sagebrush landscape that have an increased density of sagebrush. Intense feeding activity by Pygmy Rabbits near their burrows might sustain or even increase density of sagebrush. Pygmy Rabbits extensively use burrows that they mainly construct by themselves, so soil structure is thought to be another key habitat feature. Soft deep soils are required for burrowing. Burrows typically have 4-5 entrances but up to ten or only two have been recorded. Entrances are located at bases of sagebrush. Burrows are usually found on slopes and are oriented in a north-to-east direction. Entrance diameters are 10-12 cm. Tunnels widen below the surface, form chambers, and extend to a maximum depth of c.1 m. Pygmy Rabbits also use holes among volcanic rocks, in stone walls, around abandoned buildings, and those made by American Badgers (7axidea taxus) and Yellow-bellied Marmots (Marmola flaviventris). Dense stands of big sagebrush growing adjacent to streams, along fences, and in borrow ditches along roads might be used by dispersing Pygmy Rabbits."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B743FFFCFFDBF5C7FC91F381.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B743FFFCFFDBF5C7FC91F381","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"111","verbatimText":"6.Volcano RabbitRomerolagus diaziFrench:Lapin des volcans/ German:Vulkankaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de los volcanesTaxonomy.Lepus diazi Ferrari-Pérez, 1893, “near San Martin Texmelusan, northeast ern slope of Volcan Iztaccihuatl [Ixtaccthuatl, Puebla], Mexico.”Whether or not the genus Romerolagusrepresents the most primitive of living leporids is still under discussion; or it is close to specialized leporids such as Syl vilagus, Oryctolagus, and Lepus; or is intermediate. Romerolagus diazihas the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Sylvilagus bachmani. A recent study comparing allozymic variation among different leporids indicates that R. diaziis genetically more similar to Sylvilagusthan to Lepus. Romerolagus diazilives sympatrically with two species of Sylvilagus: S. cuniculariusand S. floridanus. A study showed that both taxa were found together in only 8% of their sympatric distribution, and R. diaziwas more common at higher elevations than the species of Sylvilagus. Monotypic.Distribution.C Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Distrito Federal, Morelos, and W Puebla states).Descriptive notes.Head—body 230-350 mm, tail (vertebrae, not externally visible) 12-31 mm, ear 40-45 mm, hindfoot 40-55 mm; weight 387-602 g. The Volcano Rabbit is relatively small, with small and rounded ears. Hindlegs and hindfeet are short.Tail is enclosed beneath skin, as in pikas (Ochotona), and is invisible externally. Fur is short and dense. Tail, dorsal pelage, and lateral pelage are dark brown to black. Feet are light buff above, and ventral fur is brown. Sides of nose and around eyes are light buff, and throat has tint of gray.Habitat.Pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) forests with undergrowth of tall dense bunchgrasses (“zacaton”) and rocky substrates, interspersed with patches of deep, dark soil at elevations of 2800-4250 m. Volcano Rabbits occur at highest densities at elevations of 3150-3400 m and occupy areas with abrupt relief. Summer is warm and rainy; winter is cold and dry. Vegetation cover consists of open forest of mostly Montezuma pine (P. montezumae), intermixed with P. hartwegii, P. rudis, P. teocote, P. patula, and P. pseudostrobus (all Pinaceae) up to 25 m tall. Understory has a dense ground cover oftall (up to 1-5 m), coarse, clumped bunchgrasses, mainly Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucarosei, I. amplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). Volcano Rabbits also inhabit patches of dense secondary forest of alder (Alnusarguta, Betulaceae) up to 12 m tall, with some palm-like Furcraea bedinghausii (Agavaceae) up to 6 m tall. Shrub layer is up to 2:5 m tall, with heavy cover of a zacaton grass and herb layer. Volcano Rabbits temporarily colonize cultivated fields of oats (Avenasativa, Poaceae) when plants are half-grown in late July until they are harvested in early October. They use burrows with hidden entrances at bases of grass clumps. They probably do not actively dig their own burrows; it has been reported that they use abandoned burrows of the American Badger (Taxidea taxus), the Rock Squirrel (Otospermophilus variegatus), the Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), and Merriam’s Pocket Gopher (Cratogeomys merriam). Hollows between rocks and boulders and large boulderstrewn sinkholes are used as temporary refuges.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Volcano Rabbit consists of zacaton grasses, mainly Festucaamplissima, F. rosei, M. macroura, S. ichu, and Epicampes sp. (all Poaceae). They select green and tender leaves of these grasses. A. arguta is a staple food. Spiny herbs (Cir sium, Asteraceae, and especially Eryngium, Apiaceae) are also consumed. Forbs and shrubs are consumed mainly during the dry season. Oat and maize in cultivated fields are eaten during the rainy season.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Volcano Rabbit may last throughout the year because pregnant females have been found in January—October and lactating females have been found in February-December. Reproductive peak is noticeable during the warm and rainy summer. In captivity, a male always selected the same female, but in her absence, he became interested in another female. Copulations were observed during the day. The male kept pace directly behind the female, occasionally nuzzling her hindquarters. The female turned back toward his flank, and both circled each other rapidly for several turns. The male then mounted the female and engaged in a series of rapid pelvic thrusts. Parturition always took place at night in captivity. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Female Volcano Rabbits have postpartum estrus. Nests are found in April-September. Nest is a shallow hole excavated in the ground nextto the base of a clump of zacaton grass and averages 15 cm in diameter and 11 cm in depth. Outer nest materials are dry plant fragments of pine, alder, herbs, and zacaton grass; inside, the nest is lined and filled out with hairs from the mother. Entrance to the nestis covered with plant fragments. Usually, nests are on flat terrain consisting of deep soil. Only a few nests are found on rocky or steep substrates. Mean litter size is 2-1 young (range 1-5), within the range of species of Lepusbutsignificantly different from largelitters of species of Sylvilagusand Oryctolagus. Female Volcano Rabbits have three pairs of mammae, but only four mammae, on average, produce milk. Newborns are completely furred, but their eyes are closed. Fur is dusky gray above and pale dull gray below. Tail is externally visible and hair-covered in newborns. Eyes of young open at 4-8 days of age, but they remain in the nest for c.14 days. Young start to feed on solid food in the third week after birth and gradually become independent of the nest. Young are still nursed while moving around with their mother.Activity patterns.Volcano Rabbits are especially active in evening and early morning hours and usually rest quietly in the middle of the day. Nevertheless, large numbers of Volcano Rabbits have been observed outside their burrows between 11:00 h and 13:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Volcano Rabbitlives in groups of 2-5 individuals. Formation of social dominance hierarchies among groups of six individuals, with only one male and 1-2 females breeding, has been reported in seminatural enclosures. Playing, fighting, chasing, foraging, and sleeping among clumps of zacaton grass are primary aboveground daytime activities. Pellets regularly are found in groups near burrows and throughout runaways. The Volcano Rabbit frequently utters high-pitched penetrating calls; up to five different vocalizations have been described. Individuals utter a sharp call and scuttle away along a runway to a burrow when alarmed. Captive females were clearly aggressive to both sexes, but males never initiated aggression toward a female. Female—female aggression was much more frequent and violent than female-male aggression. The dominant individual was always a female. Captive individuals defend their own cage and chase intruders.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Volcano Rabbit is endemic to Mexico, and its distribution is restricted to three discontinuous areas of core habitat of ¢.386 km? on slopes of Volcan Pelado, Tlaloc, Popocatépetl, and Ixtaccithuatl. Present distribution is fragmented into 16 patches. A distributional survey suggested that Volcano Rabbits have disappeared from areas of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt such as on Volcan Nevado de Toluca or eastern slopes of Ixtaccithuatl where it has been reported in the recent past. A study based on fecal counts and line transects (on horseback) estimated population size at 2478-12,120 individuals. The smaller estimate was recommended for conservation purposes due to broad confidence intervals. Reasons for decline are habitat destruction from increasing encroachment of agriculture up the slopes of mountains, forest fires, overexploitation of timber, cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture, and human settlements. Large areas of zacaton grasses are burned each dry season to improve grazing for sheep and cattle, but effects of frequentfires are under assessment because new data suggest thatfires actually improve habitat of the Volcano Rabbit. Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations. Habitat fragmentation is caused by contiguous habitat loss and highway construction, causing fragmented populations to become genetically isolated and increasing risk of local extinction by random processes. Despite it being illegal under Mexican law, hunting by nearby villagers and people from Mexico City is also a concern. Nesting habits of the Volcano Rabbit make the young particularly vulnerable to predation by dogs and humans. Most localvillagers are unaware of the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit, and although it occurs in several national parks (e.g. Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park), hunting and grass burning still occur within their boundaries. One conservation action was establishment of a captive breeding program. The breeding program has been partly successful, but infant mortality has been high. Conservation recommendations are to focus on habitat management including control of burning and overgrazing of zacaton habitat and enforcement of the existing law prohibiting hunting and trade of the Volcano Rabbit. Education at local, national, and international levels about the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit should be improved, and zoos should take part in the breeding program to enhanceits success.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero, Rangel, de Grammont & Cuarén (2008), Barrera (1968), Cervantes (1980, 1982), Cervantes & Lopez-Forment (1981), Cervantes & Martinez (1992), Cervantes, Lorenzo & Hoffmann (1990), Cervantes, Lorenzo & Yates (2002), Davis & Russell (1953), De Poorter & Van der Loo (1981), Fa & Bell (1990), Fa et al. (1992), Granados (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoth et al. (1987), Hunter & Cresswell (2015), Leopold (1959), Lopez-Forment & Cervantes (1981), Rizo-Aguilar et al. (2015), Rojas (1951), Velazquez (1993, 1994), Velazquez & Heil (1996), Velazquez et al. (1993).","taxonomy":"Lepus diazi Ferrari-Pérez, 1893, “near San Martin Texmelusan, northeast ern slope of Volcan Iztaccihuatl [Ixtaccthuatl, Puebla], Mexico.”Whether or not the genus Romerolagusrepresents the most primitive of living leporids is still under discussion; or it is close to specialized leporids such as Syl vilagus, Oryctolagus, and Lepus; or is intermediate. Romerolagus diazihas the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Sylvilagus bachmani. A recent study comparing allozymic variation among different leporids indicates that R. diaziis genetically more similar to Sylvilagusthan to Lepus. Romerolagus diazilives sympatrically with two species of Sylvilagus: S. cuniculariusand S. floridanus. A study showed that both taxa were found together in only 8% of their sympatric distribution, and R. diaziwas more common at higher elevations than the species of Sylvilagus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin des volcans @fr | Vulkankaninchen @de | Conejo de los volcanes @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ferrari-Pérez","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Romerolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"111","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"diazi","name":"Romerolagus diazi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Distrito Federal, Morelos, and W Puebla states).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625555/files/figure.png","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero, Rangel, de Grammont & Cuarén (2008) | Barrera (1968) | Cervantes (1980, 1982) | Cervantes & Lopez-Forment (1981) | Cervantes & Martinez (1992) | Cervantes, Lorenzo & Hoffmann (1990) | Cervantes, Lorenzo & Yates (2002) | Davis & Russell (1953) | De Poorter & Van der Loo (1981) | Fa & Bell (1990) | Fa et al. (1992) | Granados (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoth et al. (1987) | Hunter & Cresswell (2015) | Leopold (1959) | Lopez-Forment & Cervantes (1981) | Rizo-Aguilar et al. (2015) | Rojas (1951) | Velazquez (1993, 1994) | Velazquez & Heil (1996) | Velazquez et al. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Volcano Rabbit consists of zacaton grasses, mainly Festucaamplissima, F. rosei, M. macroura, S. ichu, and Epicampes sp. (all Poaceae). They select green and tender leaves of these grasses. A. arguta is a staple food. Spiny herbs (Cir sium, Asteraceae, and especially Eryngium, Apiaceae) are also consumed. Forbs and shrubs are consumed mainly during the dry season. Oat and maize in cultivated fields are eaten during the rainy season.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Volcano Rabbit may last throughout the year because pregnant females have been found in January—October and lactating females have been found in February-December. Reproductive peak is noticeable during the warm and rainy summer. In captivity, a male always selected the same female, but in her absence, he became interested in another female. Copulations were observed during the day. The male kept pace directly behind the female, occasionally nuzzling her hindquarters. The female turned back toward his flank, and both circled each other rapidly for several turns. The male then mounted the female and engaged in a series of rapid pelvic thrusts. Parturition always took place at night in captivity. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Female Volcano Rabbits have postpartum estrus. Nests are found in April-September. Nest is a shallow hole excavated in the ground nextto the base of a clump of zacaton grass and averages 15 cm in diameter and 11 cm in depth. Outer nest materials are dry plant fragments of pine, alder, herbs, and zacaton grass; inside, the nest is lined and filled out with hairs from the mother. Entrance to the nestis covered with plant fragments. Usually, nests are on flat terrain consisting of deep soil. Only a few nests are found on rocky or steep substrates. Mean litter size is 2-1 young (range 1-5), within the range of species of Lepusbutsignificantly different from largelitters of species of Sylvilagusand Oryctolagus. Female Volcano Rabbits have three pairs of mammae, but only four mammae, on average, produce milk. Newborns are completely furred, but their eyes are closed. Fur is dusky gray above and pale dull gray below. Tail is externally visible and hair-covered in newborns. Eyes of young open at 4-8 days of age, but they remain in the nest for c.14 days. Young start to feed on solid food in the third week after birth and gradually become independent of the nest. Young are still nursed while moving around with their mother.","activityPatterns":"Volcano Rabbits are especially active in evening and early morning hours and usually rest quietly in the middle of the day. Nevertheless, large numbers of Volcano Rabbits have been observed outside their burrows between 11:00 h and 13:00 h.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Volcano Rabbitlives in groups of 2-5 individuals. Formation of social dominance hierarchies among groups of six individuals, with only one male and 1-2 females breeding, has been reported in seminatural enclosures. Playing, fighting, chasing, foraging, and sleeping among clumps of zacaton grass are primary aboveground daytime activities. Pellets regularly are found in groups near burrows and throughout runaways. The Volcano Rabbit frequently utters high-pitched penetrating calls; up to five different vocalizations have been described. Individuals utter a sharp call and scuttle away along a runway to a burrow when alarmed. Captive females were clearly aggressive to both sexes, but males never initiated aggression toward a female. Female—female aggression was much more frequent and violent than female-male aggression. The dominant individual was always a female. Captive individuals defend their own cage and chase intruders.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Volcano Rabbit is endemic to Mexico, and its distribution is restricted to three discontinuous areas of core habitat of ¢.386 km? on slopes of Volcan Pelado, Tlaloc, Popocatépetl, and Ixtaccithuatl. Present distribution is fragmented into 16 patches. A distributional survey suggested that Volcano Rabbits have disappeared from areas of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt such as on Volcan Nevado de Toluca or eastern slopes of Ixtaccithuatl where it has been reported in the recent past. A study based on fecal counts and line transects (on horseback) estimated population size at 2478-12,120 individuals. The smaller estimate was recommended for conservation purposes due to broad confidence intervals. Reasons for decline are habitat destruction from increasing encroachment of agriculture up the slopes of mountains, forest fires, overexploitation of timber, cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture, and human settlements. Large areas of zacaton grasses are burned each dry season to improve grazing for sheep and cattle, but effects of frequentfires are under assessment because new data suggest thatfires actually improve habitat of the Volcano Rabbit. Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations. Habitat fragmentation is caused by contiguous habitat loss and highway construction, causing fragmented populations to become genetically isolated and increasing risk of local extinction by random processes. Despite it being illegal under Mexican law, hunting by nearby villagers and people from Mexico City is also a concern. Nesting habits of the Volcano Rabbit make the young particularly vulnerable to predation by dogs and humans. Most localvillagers are unaware of the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit, and although it occurs in several national parks (e.g. Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park), hunting and grass burning still occur within their boundaries. One conservation action was establishment of a captive breeding program. The breeding program has been partly successful, but infant mortality has been high.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Volcano Rabbit is endemic to Mexico, and its distribution is restricted to three discontinuous areas of core habitat of ¢.386 km? on slopes of Volcan Pelado, Tlaloc, Popocatépetl, and Ixtaccithuatl. Present distribution is fragmented into 16 patches. A distributional survey suggested that Volcano Rabbits have disappeared from areas of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt such as on Volcan Nevado de Toluca or eastern slopes of Ixtaccithuatl where it has been reported in the recent past. A study based on fecal counts and line transects (on horseback) estimated population size at 2478-12,120 individuals. The smaller estimate was recommended for conservation purposes due to broad confidence intervals. Reasons for decline are habitat destruction from increasing encroachment of agriculture up the slopes of mountains, forest fires, overexploitation of timber, cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture, and human settlements. Large areas of zacaton grasses are burned each dry season to improve grazing for sheep and cattle, but effects of frequentfires are under assessment because new data suggest thatfires actually improve habitat of the Volcano Rabbit. Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations. Habitat fragmentation is caused by contiguous habitat loss and highway construction, causing fragmented populations to become genetically isolated and increasing risk of local extinction by random processes. Despite it being illegal under Mexican law, hunting by nearby villagers and people from Mexico City is also a concern. Nesting habits of the Volcano Rabbit make the young particularly vulnerable to predation by dogs and humans. Most localvillagers are unaware of the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit, and although it occurs in several national parks (e.g. Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park), hunting and grass burning still occur within their boundaries. One conservation action was establishment of a captive breeding program. The breeding program has been partly successful, but infant mortality has been high. Conservation recommendations are to focus on habitat management including control of burning and overgrazing of zacaton habitat and enforcement of the existing law prohibiting hunting and trade of the Volcano Rabbit. Education at local, national, and international levels about the protected status of the Volcano Rabbit should be improved, and zoos should take part in the breeding program to enhanceits success.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 230-350 mm, tail (vertebrae, not externally visible) 12-31 mm, ear 40-45 mm, hindfoot 40-55 mm; weight 387-602 g. The Volcano Rabbit is relatively small, with small and rounded ears. Hindlegs and hindfeet are short.Tail is enclosed beneath skin, as in pikas (Ochotona), and is invisible externally. Fur is short and dense. Tail, dorsal pelage, and lateral pelage are dark brown to black. Feet are light buff above, and ventral fur is brown. Sides of nose and around eyes are light buff, and throat has tint of gray.Habitat.Pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) forests with undergrowth of tall dense bunchgrasses (“zacaton”) and rocky substrates, interspersed with patches of deep, dark soil at elevations of 2800-4250 m. Volcano Rabbits occur at highest densities at elevations of 3150-3400 m and occupy areas with abrupt relief. Summer is warm and rainy; winter is cold and dry. Vegetation cover consists of open forest of mostly Montezuma pine (P. montezumae), intermixed with P. hartwegii, P. rudis, P. teocote, P. patula, and P. pseudostrobus (all Pinaceae) up to 25 m tall. Understory has a dense ground cover oftall (up to 1-5 m), coarse, clumped bunchgrasses, mainly Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucarosei, I. amplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). Volcano Rabbits also inhabit patches of dense secondary forest of alder (Alnusarguta, Betulaceae) up to 12 m tall, with some palm-like Furcraea bedinghausii (Agavaceae) up to 6 m tall. Shrub layer is up to 2:5 m tall, with heavy cover of a zacaton grass and herb layer. Volcano Rabbits temporarily colonize cultivated fields of oats (Avenasativa, Poaceae) when plants are half-grown in late July until they are harvested in early October. They use burrows with hidden entrances at bases of grass clumps. They probably do not actively dig their own burrows; it has been reported that they use abandoned burrows of the American Badger (Taxidea taxus), the Rock Squirrel (Otospermophilus variegatus), the Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), and Merriam’s Pocket Gopher (Cratogeomys merriam). Hollows between rocks and boulders and large boulderstrewn sinkholes are used as temporary refuges.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Volcano Rabbit consists of zacaton grasses, mainly Festucaamplissima, F. rosei, M. macroura, S. ichu, and Epicampes sp. (all Poaceae). They select green and tender leaves of these grasses. A. arguta is a staple food. Spiny herbs (Cir sium, Asteraceae, and especially Eryngium, Apiaceae) are also consumed. Forbs and shrubs are consumed mainly during the dry season. Oat and maize in cultivated fields are eaten during the rainy season.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Volcano Rabbit may last throughout the year because pregnant females have been found in January—October and lactating females have been found in February-December. Reproductive peak is noticeable during the warm and rainy summer. In captivity, a male always selected the same female, but in her absence, he became interested in another female. Copulations were observed during the day. The male kept pace directly behind the female, occasionally nuzzling her hindquarters. The female turned back toward his flank, and both circled each other rapidly for several turns. The male then mounted the female and engaged in a series of rapid pelvic thrusts. Parturition always took place at night in captivity. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Female Volcano Rabbits have postpartum estrus. Nests are found in April-September. Nest is a shallow hole excavated in the ground nextto the base of a clump of zacaton grass and averages 15 cm in diameter and 11 cm in depth. Outer nest materials are dry plant fragments of pine, alder, herbs, and zacaton grass; inside, the nest is lined and filled out with hairs from the mother. Entrance to the nestis covered with plant fragments. Usually, nests are on flat terrain consisting of deep soil. Only a few nests are found on rocky or steep substrates. Mean litter size is 2-1 young (range 1-5), within the range of species of Lepusbutsignificantly different from largelitters of species of Sylvilagusand Oryctolagus. Female Volcano Rabbits have three pairs of mammae, but only four mammae, on average, produce milk. Newborns are completely furred, but their eyes are closed. Fur is dusky gray above and pale dull gray below. Tail is externally visible and hair-covered in newborns. Eyes of young open at 4-8 days of age, but they remain in the nest for c.14 days. Young start to feed on solid food in the third week after birth and gradually become independent of the nest. Young are still nursed while moving around with their mother.Activity patterns.Volcano Rabbits are especially active in evening and early morning hours and usually rest quietly in the middle of the day. Nevertheless, large numbers of Volcano Rabbits have been observed outside their burrows between 11:00 h and 13:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Volcano Rabbitlives in groups of 2-5 individuals. Formation of social dominance hierarchies among groups of six individuals, with only one male and 1-2 females breeding, has been reported in seminatural enclosures. Playing, fighting, chasing, foraging, and sleeping among clumps of zacaton grass are primary aboveground daytime activities. Pellets regularly are found in groups near burrows and throughout runaways. The Volcano Rabbit frequently utters high-pitched penetrating calls; up to five different vocalizations have been described. Individuals utter a sharp call and scuttle away along a runway to a burrow when alarmed. Captive females were clearly aggressive to both sexes, but males never initiated aggression toward a female. Female—female aggression was much more frequent and violent than female-male aggression. The dominant individual was always a female. Captive individuals defend their own cage and chase intruders.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Volcano Rabbit is endemic to Mexico, and its distribution is restricted to three discontinuous areas of core habitat of ¢.386 km? on slopes of Volcan Pelado, Tlaloc, Popocatépetl, and Ixtaccithuatl. Present distribution is fragmented into 16 patches. A distributional survey suggested that Volcano Rabbits have disappeared from areas of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt such as on Volcan Nevado de Toluca or eastern slopes of Ixtaccithuatl where it has been reported in the recent past. A study based on fecal counts and line transects (on horseback) estimated population size at 2478-12,120 individuals. The smaller estimate was recommended for conservation purposes due to broad confidence intervals. Reasons for decline are habitat destruction from increasing encroachment of agriculture up the slopes of mountains, forest fires, overexploitation of timber, cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture, and human settlements. Large areas of zacaton grasses are burned each dry season to improve grazing for sheep and cattle, but effects of frequentfires are under assessment because new data suggest thatfires actually improve habitat of the Volcano Rabbit. Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations.","habitat":"Pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) forests with undergrowth of tall dense bunchgrasses (“zacaton”) and rocky substrates, interspersed with patches of deep, dark soil at elevations of 2800-4250 m. Volcano Rabbits occur at highest densities at elevations of 3150-3400 m and occupy areas with abrupt relief. Summer is warm and rainy; winter is cold and dry. Vegetation cover consists of open forest of mostly Montezuma pine (P. montezumae), intermixed with P. hartwegii, P. rudis, P. teocote, P. patula, and P. pseudostrobus (all Pinaceae) up to 25 m tall. Understory has a dense ground cover oftall (up to 1-5 m), coarse, clumped bunchgrasses, mainly Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucarosei, I. amplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). Volcano Rabbits also inhabit patches of dense secondary forest of alder (Alnusarguta, Betulaceae) up to 12 m tall, with some palm-like Furcraea bedinghausii (Agavaceae) up to 6 m tall. Shrub layer is up to 2:5 m tall, with heavy cover of a zacaton grass and herb layer. Volcano Rabbits temporarily colonize cultivated fields of oats (Avenasativa, Poaceae) when plants are half-grown in late July until they are harvested in early October. They use burrows with hidden entrances at bases of grass clumps. They probably do not actively dig their own burrows; it has been reported that they use abandoned burrows of the American Badger (Taxidea taxus), the Rock Squirrel (Otospermophilus variegatus), the Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), and Merriam’s Pocket Gopher (Cratogeomys merriam). Hollows between rocks and boulders and large boulderstrewn sinkholes are used as temporary refuges."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B743FFFDFFC0FD19FEB1FF2E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B743FFFDFFC0FD19FEB1FF2E","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"111","verbatimText":"5.Hewitt’s Red Rock HarePronolagus saundersiaeFrench:Lapin de Hewitt/ German:Hewitt-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de HewittTaxonomy.Pronolagus crassicaudatus saundersiae Hewitt, 1927, “Albany District,” Eastern Cape, South Africa.Initially, P. saundersiaewas included as a subspecies of P crassicaudatus. Later, P. saundersiaewas included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Distribution of P. saundersiaedoes not overlap that of P. rupestris, but the eastern part of its distribution overlaps that of P crassicaudatusand the north-western part that of P. randensis. Monotypic.Distribution.S & E South Africa (Western, Northern and Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga provinces), Lesotho, and W Swaziland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is pale rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is red or pale sandy. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rocky hillsides with boulders, where grassy or scrubby vegetation occurs. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at higher elevations than Smith’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris) in South Africa.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is widely distributed and presumably has a large population. Overall population is estimated at more than 10,000 adults and predicted to decline at a rate of less than 10% during the next 20 years. Habitat loss has occurred over the past 100 years and is predicted to continue by less than 20% over the next 20 years due to commercial plantations.Bibliography.Duthie & Robinson (1990), Friedmann & Daly (2004), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Matthee & Robinson (1996), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Smithers (1983), Whiteford (1995).","taxonomy":"Pronolagus crassicaudatus saundersiae Hewitt, 1927, “Albany District,” Eastern Cape, South Africa.Initially, P. saundersiaewas included as a subspecies of P crassicaudatus. Later, P. saundersiaewas included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Distribution of P. saundersiaedoes not overlap that of P. rupestris, but the eastern part of its distribution overlaps that of P crassicaudatusand the north-western part that of P. randensis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin de Hewitt @fr | Hewitt-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Hewitt @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hewitt","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1927","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Pronolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"111","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"saundersiae","name":"Pronolagus saundersiae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S & E South Africa (Western, Northern and Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga provinces), Lesotho, and W Swaziland.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625553/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Friedmann & Daly (2004) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Matthee & Robinson (1996) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Smithers (1983) | Whiteford (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is widely distributed and presumably has a large population. Overall population is estimated at more than 10,000 adults and predicted to decline at a rate of less than 10% during the next 20 years. Habitat loss has occurred over the past 100 years and is predicted to continue by less than 20% over the next 20 years due to commercial plantations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is pale rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is red or pale sandy. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rocky hillsides with boulders, where grassy or scrubby vegetation occurs. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at higher elevations than Smith’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris) in South Africa.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is widely distributed and presumably has a large population. Overall population is estimated at more than 10,000 adults and predicted to decline at a rate of less than 10% during the next 20 years.","habitat":"Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rocky hillsides with boulders, where grassy or scrubby vegetation occurs. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at higher elevations than Smith’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris) in South Africa."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B744FFFAFF69FA0AF832F5E7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B744FFFAFF69FA0AF832F5E7","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"110","verbatimText":"3.Natal Red Rock HarePronolagus crassicaudatusFrench:Lapin du Natal/ German:Natal-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de NatalOther common names:Greater Red Rock HareTaxonomy.Lepus crassicaudatus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1832, “Port Natal [= Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa].”Formerly, P. crassicaudatuswas included as a subspecies of P. randensisbut now has species status. Previously, P. rupestrisand P. saundersiaewere considered to be subspecies of P. crassicaudatus. Some authors list five subspecies (crassicaudatus, rudd, karigae, bowkeri, and lebombo), but their status, characteristics, and geographical limits are uncertain, and their validity is doubtful, especially because they are distinguished partly by color of nuchal patch. Distribution of P. ¢ crassicaudatusdoes not overlap those of P. randensisand P. rupestris, but in the western half ofits range overlaps with P. saundersiae. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.c.crassicaudatus1.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1832—SESouthAfrica(KwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovincesSoftheTugelaRiver)andELesotho.P.c. rudd: Thomas & Schwann, 1905— extreme S Mozambique (Maputo Province), Swaziland, and E South Africa (Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces S to the Tugela River).Descriptive notes.Head—body 460-560 mm, tail 35-110 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 100-125 mm; weight 2.4-3.1 kg. The Natal Red Rock Hareis large, with rather dense and harsh fur. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and flecked with black. Pelage is bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is pale rufous, with irregular white patches and streaks. Head is grayish brown and slightly grizzled. Chin, lower cheeks, and throat are gray, with grayish white band extending laterally along edges ofjaws to brown to gray nuchal patch. Patch on throat is brownish rufous. Ears are relatively short, sparsely furred, and whitish gray on outer surfaces and gray on inner surfaces. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are dull rufous. Tail is short and entirety bright rufous.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”), rocky hillsides, and ravines with grass or scrubby vegetation among rocks or bases of the rocks. Natural fragmentation of habitat exists due to distribution of suitable habitat. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs from sea level to elevations of ¢.1550 m.Food and Feeding.The Natal Red Rock Hare is herbivorous, and its diet consists mainly of sprouting grasses. It relies heavily on rocks and boulders for cover and rarely moves far away from them when foraging. Individuals avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding.More than one male Natal Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. A study in KwaZulu-Natal recorded pregnant females in June and August and lactating females in August, October, and February. This suggests that reproduction takes place throughout much of the year. Numbers of embryos were 1-2.Activity patterns.The Natal Red Rock Hare is nocturnal. It hides in rock crevices, under boulders, or in dense grass during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Natal Red Rock Hare lives in small colonies of a few individuals. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Natal Red Rock Hare has a decreasing population trend, but it is widespread and abundant within its distribution. More than 10,000 adult individuals exist in the wild. Nevertheless, a population decline has been recorded due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting and trapping pressures in rural areas. Population decline is predicted to be 20% or more until 2022. In the limited region where the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs, human populations are largely low income and hunt local fauna for subsistence. This enhances the conservation threat to this otherwise abundant species. Further threats include agricultural and habitat encroachment that cause habitat loss. Since the 1990s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss until 2022 is expected in the distribution of the Natal Red Rock Hare.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004a, 2008b), Petter (1972), Smithers (1983), Taylor (1998).","taxonomy":"Lepus crassicaudatus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1832, “Port Natal [= Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa].”Formerly, P. crassicaudatuswas included as a subspecies of P. randensisbut now has species status. Previously, P. rupestrisand P. saundersiaewere considered to be subspecies of P. crassicaudatus. Some authors list five subspecies (crassicaudatus, rudd, karigae, bowkeri, and lebombo), but their status, characteristics, and geographical limits are uncertain, and their validity is doubtful, especially because they are distinguished partly by color of nuchal patch. Distribution of P. ¢ crassicaudatusdoes not overlap those of P. randensisand P. rupestris, but in the western half ofits range overlaps with P. saundersiae. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin du Natal @fr | Natal-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Natal @es | Greater Red Rock Hare @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1832","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Pronolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"110","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"crassicaudatus","name":"Pronolagus crassicaudatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.c.crassicaudatus1.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1832—SESouthAfrica(KwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovincesSoftheTugelaRiver)andELesotho.P.c. rudd: Thomas & Schwann, 1905— extreme S Mozambique (Maputo Province), Swaziland, and E South Africa (Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces S to the Tugela River).","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie (1997) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004a, 2008b) | Petter (1972) | Smithers (1983) | Taylor (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"The Natal Red Rock Hare is herbivorous, and its diet consists mainly of sprouting grasses. It relies heavily on rocks and boulders for cover and rarely moves far away from them when foraging. Individuals avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.","breeding":"More than one male Natal Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. A study in KwaZulu-Natal recorded pregnant females in June and August and lactating females in August, October, and February. This suggests that reproduction takes place throughout much of the year. Numbers of embryos were 1-2.","activityPatterns":"The Natal Red Rock Hare is nocturnal. It hides in rock crevices, under boulders, or in dense grass during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Natal Red Rock Hare lives in small colonies of a few individuals. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Natal Red Rock Hare has a decreasing population trend, but it is widespread and abundant within its distribution. More than 10,000 adult individuals exist in the wild. Nevertheless, a population decline has been recorded due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting and trapping pressures in rural areas. Population decline is predicted to be 20% or more until 2022. In the limited region where the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs, human populations are largely low income and hunt local fauna for subsistence. This enhances the conservation threat to this otherwise abundant species. Further threats include agricultural and habitat encroachment that cause habitat loss. Since the 1990s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss until 2022 is expected in the distribution of the Natal Red Rock Hare.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 460-560 mm, tail 35-110 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 100-125 mm; weight 2.4-3.1 kg. The Natal Red Rock Hareis large, with rather dense and harsh fur. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and flecked with black. Pelage is bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is pale rufous, with irregular white patches and streaks. Head is grayish brown and slightly grizzled. Chin, lower cheeks, and throat are gray, with grayish white band extending laterally along edges ofjaws to brown to gray nuchal patch. Patch on throat is brownish rufous. Ears are relatively short, sparsely furred, and whitish gray on outer surfaces and gray on inner surfaces. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are dull rufous. Tail is short and entirety bright rufous.","habitat":"Solid rocks (“kopjes”), rocky hillsides, and ravines with grass or scrubby vegetation among rocks or bases of the rocks. Natural fragmentation of habitat exists due to distribution of suitable habitat. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs from sea level to elevations of ¢.1550 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B744FFFDFA15FBB9FB68F407.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B744FFFDFA15FBB9FB68F407","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"110","verbatimText":"4.Smith’s Red Rock HarePronolagus rupestrisFrench:Lapin de Smith/ German:Rotkaninchen/ Spanish:Liebre roja de SmithTaxonomy.Lepus rupestris A. Smith, 1834, “South Africa, rocky situations.”Refined by R. S. Hoffman and A. T. Smith in 2005 to “probably Van Rhynsdorp District, Western Cape Province, South Africa.”Formerly, P. rupestriswas included in P. crassicaudatus. Pronolagus saundersiaewas until recently included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified because probably no gene flow occurs between them. Distribution of P. rupestrisdoes not overlap those of P. randensis, P. saundersiae, and P. crassicaudatus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.rupestrisA.Smith,1834—N&NWSouthAfrica(NorthWestandNorthernCapeprovinces);recently,aspecimenhasbeensampledinSNamibia(Keetmanshoop),sothedistributioncouldbecontiguousfromSouthAfricaacrosstheOrangeRiver.P.r.curryiThomas,1902—NSouthAfrica(FreeStateP.r.).P.r.nytkaeThomas,1902—EZambia,andNMalawi.P. r. vallicola Kershaw, 1924— SW Kenya and C Tanzania.Descriptive notes. Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur with reddish undertone. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized and either black or black and dark red. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rockyhillsides with boulders with grassy or scrubby vegetation. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at lower elevations in South Africa than Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris).Food and Feeding.Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding. More than one male Smith’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. Females give birth to young in nests lined with their fur and grass in small cavities in the ground. Young are likely altricial, with sparse covering of hair and eyes closed. Reproductive season is from spring to summer (September-February) in South Africa. Gestation lasts 35-45 days, and litter sizes are 1-2 young.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Smith’s Red Rock Hare is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat. Habitat loss from construction of human dwellings is a secondary threat. Twenty percent of the habitat of Smith’s Red Rock Hare has been lost since the 1900s, and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until 2022.Bibliography. Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c¢), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee (2015), Matthee & Robinson (1996), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b), Smith & Boyer (2008a), Smithers (1983), Stewart (1971b), Thomas (1902c).","taxonomy":"Lepus rupestris A. Smith, 1834, “South Africa, rocky situations.”Refined by R. S. Hoffman and A. T. Smith in 2005 to “probably Van Rhynsdorp District, Western Cape Province, South Africa.”Formerly, P. rupestriswas included in P. crassicaudatus. Pronolagus saundersiaewas until recently included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified because probably no gene flow occurs between them. Distribution of P. rupestrisdoes not overlap those of P. randensis, P. saundersiae, and P. crassicaudatus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Smith @fr | Rotkaninchen @de | Liebre roja de Smith @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Pronolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"110","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rupestris","name":"Pronolagus rupestris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.r.rupestrisA.Smith,1834—N&NWSouthAfrica(NorthWestandNorthernCapeprovinces);recently,aspecimenhasbeensampledinSNamibia(Keetmanshoop),sothedistributioncouldbecontiguousfromSouthAfricaacrosstheOrangeRiver.P.r.curryiThomas,1902—NSouthAfrica(FreeStateP.r.).P.r.nytkaeThomas,1902—EZambia,andNMalawi.P. r. vallicola Kershaw, 1924— SW Kenya and C Tanzania.","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie (1997) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c¢) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee (2015) | Matthee & Robinson (1996) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b) | Smith & Boyer (2008a) | Smithers (1983) | Stewart (1971b) | Thomas (1902c)","foodAndFeeding":"Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat. Habitat loss from construction of human dwellings is a secondary threat. Twenty percent of the habitat of Smith’s Red Rock Hare has been lost since the 1900s, and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until 2022.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur with reddish undertone. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized and either black or black and dark red. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rockyhillsides with boulders with grassy or scrubby vegetation. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at lower elevations in South Africa than Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris).Food and Feeding.Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding. More than one male Smith’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. Females give birth to young in nests lined with their fur and grass in small cavities in the ground. Young are likely altricial, with sparse covering of hair and eyes closed. Reproductive season is from spring to summer (September-February) in South Africa. Gestation lasts 35-45 days, and litter sizes are 1-2 young.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Smith’s Red Rock Hare is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B745FFFAFAC3F9BAFD52F339.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B745FFFAFAC3F9BAFD52F339","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"109","verbatimText":"2.Jameson’s Red Rock HarePronolagus randensisFrench:Lapin de Jameson/ German:Rand-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de JamesonTaxonomy.Pronolagus randensis Jameson, 1907, “Observatory Kopje...Johannesburg...Witwatersrand Range, Transvaal...5,900 ft [1798 m],” South Africa.Formerly, P. randensisincluded P. crassicaudatusas a subspecies. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified; there is no evidence of gene flow between them. A preliminary study on mtDNA within the distribution P. randensisrevealed little geographical variation. Distribution of P. randensisdoes not overlap those of P. crassicaudatusand P. rupestris, but it does overlap the eastern part of the distribution of P. saundersiae. The subspecific taxonomy in Pronolagusis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the distinctions in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.randensisJameson,1907—Zimbabwe,extremeWMozambique,EBotswana,andNESouthAfrica.P.r.caucinusThomas,1929—C&NWNamibia,andperhapsextremeSWAngola.P.r. whitei Roberts, 1938— E Zimbabwe.Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-500 mm,tail 60-135 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 1.8-3 kg. The Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized. Fur is dense and woolly, with silky texture. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and rufous on rump and flanks. Ventral fur is pale cinnamon. Head is grizzled brownish gray, with lower cheeks and throat whitish gray. Ears are short and brownish gray. Nuchal patch is rufous, and gular patch is brownish rufous. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized, with blackish rufous color.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”), gorges, cliffs, and rocky hills, often naturally fragmented. Rock crevices and boulders are essential components of habitat ofJameson’s Red Rock Hares. Populations sometimeslive on isolated kopjes up to 22 km apart, and therefore, individuals have to cross non-rocky habitat to disperse. When Jameson’s Red Rock Hare lives in sympatry with the Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. saundersiae), it prefers drier, lower mountain slopes, with manyjumbled boulders and rock crevices, and Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare prefers higher elevations with fewer boulders and crevices and higher rainfall.Food and Feeding.Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous and grazes on grasses among rocks or at the base of rocky hills. Individuals congregate on recently burned areas to feed on sprouting grasses and avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.On following pages: 3. Natal Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus crassicaudatus); 4. Smith's Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus rupestris Rabbit(Bunolagus monticularis); 8. Pygmy Rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis); 9. Sumatran Striped Rabbit (Nesolagus Jose Brush Rabbit(Sylvilagus mansuetus); 13. Desert Cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii); 14. Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus); 5. Hewitt's Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus saundersiae); 6. Volcano Rabbit (Romerolagus diazi); 7. Riverine netscheri); 10. Annamite Striped Rabbit (Nesolagus timminsi); 11. Brush Rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani); 12. San nuttalli); 15. New England Cottontail (Sylvilagus transitionalis).Breeding.More than one male Jameson’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. It seems to breed throughout the year in Zimbabwe. Pregnancies have been recorded in January, May, July, and August. Lactating females have been documented in June,July, and August. Litter sizes are 1-2 young, with an average of 1-1 young.Activity patterns.Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is mainly nocturnal but regularly feeds and sunbathes in late afternoon. It rests in rock crevices, under boulders, or in thick grass near rocks during the day. All species of red rock hares can leap from rock to rock and run up steep rock faces to reach crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Jameson’s Red Rock Hares generally live alone. Occasionally, they form small groups of a female and her young or an adult female with 1-2 males. Several individuals sometimes congregate for grazing. A study in Matopos Hill, Zimbabwe, showed that most nocturnal observations were of single individuals and only 15% were of pairs. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that may serve a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jameson's Red Rock Hare is widespread and common within its distribution. Although some decline has occurred and continues, it is not severe, and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa. Future decline in the total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time. Decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Myrtaceae) within the distribution ofJameson’s Red Rock Hare. Since the 1900s, 21-50% ofthe total suitable habitat has been lost, and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2022. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is hunted for food and sport.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b, 2008a), Peddie (1975), Roberts (1938), Smithers (1983), Smithers & Wilson (1979).","taxonomy":"Pronolagus randensis Jameson, 1907, “Observatory Kopje...Johannesburg...Witwatersrand Range, Transvaal...5,900 ft [1798 m],” South Africa.Formerly, P. randensisincluded P. crassicaudatusas a subspecies. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified; there is no evidence of gene flow between them. A preliminary study on mtDNA within the distribution P. randensisrevealed little geographical variation. Distribution of P. randensisdoes not overlap those of P. crassicaudatusand P. rupestris, but it does overlap the eastern part of the distribution of P. saundersiae. The subspecific taxonomy in Pronolagusis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the distinctions in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Jameson @fr | Rand-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Jameson @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Jameson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Pronolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"109","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"randensis","name":"Pronolagus randensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.r.randensisJameson,1907—Zimbabwe,extremeWMozambique,EBotswana,andNESouthAfrica.P.r.caucinusThomas,1929—C&NWNamibia,andperhapsextremeSWAngola.P.r. whitei Roberts, 1938— E Zimbabwe.","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b, 2008a) | Peddie (1975) | Roberts (1938) | Smithers (1983) | Smithers & Wilson (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous and grazes on grasses among rocks or at the base of rocky hills. Individuals congregate on recently burned areas to feed on sprouting grasses and avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.","breeding":"More than one male Jameson’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. It seems to breed throughout the year in Zimbabwe. Pregnancies have been recorded in January, May, July, and August. Lactating females have been documented in June,July, and August. Litter sizes are 1-2 young, with an average of 1-1 young.","activityPatterns":"Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is mainly nocturnal but regularly feeds and sunbathes in late afternoon. It rests in rock crevices, under boulders, or in thick grass near rocks during the day. All species of red rock hares can leap from rock to rock and run up steep rock faces to reach crevices.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Jameson’s Red Rock Hares generally live alone. Occasionally, they form small groups of a female and her young or an adult female with 1-2 males. Several individuals sometimes congregate for grazing. A study in Matopos Hill, Zimbabwe, showed that most nocturnal observations were of single individuals and only 15% were of pairs. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that may serve a social function.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jameson's Red Rock Hare is widespread and common within its distribution. Although some decline has occurred and continues, it is not severe, and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa. Future decline in the total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time. Decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Myrtaceae) within the distribution ofJameson’s Red Rock Hare. Since the 1900s, 21-50% ofthe total suitable habitat has been lost, and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2022. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is hunted for food and sport.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 420-500 mm,tail 60-135 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 1.8-3 kg. The Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized. Fur is dense and woolly, with silky texture. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and rufous on rump and flanks. Ventral fur is pale cinnamon. Head is grizzled brownish gray, with lower cheeks and throat whitish gray. Ears are short and brownish gray. Nuchal patch is rufous, and gular patch is brownish rufous. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized, with blackish rufous color.","habitat":"Solid rocks (“kopjes”), gorges, cliffs, and rocky hills, often naturally fragmented. Rock crevices and boulders are essential components of habitat ofJameson’s Red Rock Hares. Populations sometimeslive on isolated kopjes up to 22 km apart, and therefore, individuals have to cross non-rocky habitat to disperse. When Jameson’s Red Rock Hare lives in sympatry with the Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. saundersiae), it prefers drier, lower mountain slopes, with manyjumbled boulders and rock crevices, and Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare prefers higher elevations with fewer boulders and crevices and higher rainfall."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B744FFFAFF69FA0AF832F5E7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B744FFFAFF69FA0AF832F5E7","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"110","verbatimText":"3.Natal Red Rock HarePronolagus crassicaudatusFrench:Lapin du Natal/ German:Natal-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de NatalOther common names:Greater Red Rock HareTaxonomy.Lepus crassicaudatus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1832, “Port Natal [= Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa].”Formerly, P. crassicaudatuswas included as a subspecies of P. randensisbut now has species status. Previously, P. rupestrisand P. saundersiaewere considered to be subspecies of P. crassicaudatus. Some authors list five subspecies (crassicaudatus, rudd, karigae, bowkeri, and lebombo), but their status, characteristics, and geographical limits are uncertain, and their validity is doubtful, especially because they are distinguished partly by color of nuchal patch. Distribution of P. ¢ crassicaudatusdoes not overlap those of P. randensisand P. rupestris, but in the western half ofits range overlaps with P. saundersiae. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.c.crassicaudatus1.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1832—SESouthAfrica(KwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovincesSoftheTugelaRiver)andELesotho.P.c. rudd: Thomas & Schwann, 1905— extreme S Mozambique (Maputo Province), Swaziland, and E South Africa (Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces S to the Tugela River).Descriptive notes.Head—body 460-560 mm, tail 35-110 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 100-125 mm; weight 2.4-3.1 kg. The Natal Red Rock Hareis large, with rather dense and harsh fur. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and flecked with black. Pelage is bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is pale rufous, with irregular white patches and streaks. Head is grayish brown and slightly grizzled. Chin, lower cheeks, and throat are gray, with grayish white band extending laterally along edges ofjaws to brown to gray nuchal patch. Patch on throat is brownish rufous. Ears are relatively short, sparsely furred, and whitish gray on outer surfaces and gray on inner surfaces. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are dull rufous. Tail is short and entirety bright rufous.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”), rocky hillsides, and ravines with grass or scrubby vegetation among rocks or bases of the rocks. Natural fragmentation of habitat exists due to distribution of suitable habitat. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs from sea level to elevations of ¢.1550 m.Food and Feeding.The Natal Red Rock Hare is herbivorous, and its diet consists mainly of sprouting grasses. It relies heavily on rocks and boulders for cover and rarely moves far away from them when foraging. Individuals avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding.More than one male Natal Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. A study in KwaZulu-Natal recorded pregnant females in June and August and lactating females in August, October, and February. This suggests that reproduction takes place throughout much of the year. Numbers of embryos were 1-2.Activity patterns.The Natal Red Rock Hare is nocturnal. It hides in rock crevices, under boulders, or in dense grass during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Natal Red Rock Hare lives in small colonies of a few individuals. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Natal Red Rock Hare has a decreasing population trend, but it is widespread and abundant within its distribution. More than 10,000 adult individuals exist in the wild. Nevertheless, a population decline has been recorded due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting and trapping pressures in rural areas. Population decline is predicted to be 20% or more until 2022. In the limited region where the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs, human populations are largely low income and hunt local fauna for subsistence. This enhances the conservation threat to this otherwise abundant species. Further threats include agricultural and habitat encroachment that cause habitat loss. Since the 1990s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss until 2022 is expected in the distribution of the Natal Red Rock Hare.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004a, 2008b), Petter (1972), Smithers (1983), Taylor (1998).","taxonomy":"Lepus crassicaudatus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1832, “Port Natal [= Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa].”Formerly, P. crassicaudatuswas included as a subspecies of P. randensisbut now has species status. Previously, P. rupestrisand P. saundersiaewere considered to be subspecies of P. crassicaudatus. Some authors list five subspecies (crassicaudatus, rudd, karigae, bowkeri, and lebombo), but their status, characteristics, and geographical limits are uncertain, and their validity is doubtful, especially because they are distinguished partly by color of nuchal patch. Distribution of P. ¢ crassicaudatusdoes not overlap those of P. randensisand P. rupestris, but in the western half ofits range overlaps with P. saundersiae. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin du Natal @fr | Natal-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Natal @es | Greater Red Rock Hare @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1832","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Pronolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"110","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"crassicaudatus","name":"Pronolagus crassicaudatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.c.crassicaudatus1.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1832—SESouthAfrica(KwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovincesSoftheTugelaRiver)andELesotho.P.c. rudd: Thomas & Schwann, 1905— extreme S Mozambique (Maputo Province), Swaziland, and E South Africa (Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces S to the Tugela River).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625549/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie (1997) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004a, 2008b) | Petter (1972) | Smithers (1983) | Taylor (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"The Natal Red Rock Hare is herbivorous, and its diet consists mainly of sprouting grasses. It relies heavily on rocks and boulders for cover and rarely moves far away from them when foraging. Individuals avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.","breeding":"More than one male Natal Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. A study in KwaZulu-Natal recorded pregnant females in June and August and lactating females in August, October, and February. This suggests that reproduction takes place throughout much of the year. Numbers of embryos were 1-2.","activityPatterns":"The Natal Red Rock Hare is nocturnal. It hides in rock crevices, under boulders, or in dense grass during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Natal Red Rock Hare lives in small colonies of a few individuals. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Natal Red Rock Hare has a decreasing population trend, but it is widespread and abundant within its distribution. More than 10,000 adult individuals exist in the wild. Nevertheless, a population decline has been recorded due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting and trapping pressures in rural areas. Population decline is predicted to be 20% or more until 2022. In the limited region where the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs, human populations are largely low income and hunt local fauna for subsistence. This enhances the conservation threat to this otherwise abundant species. Further threats include agricultural and habitat encroachment that cause habitat loss. Since the 1990s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss until 2022 is expected in the distribution of the Natal Red Rock Hare.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 460-560 mm, tail 35-110 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 100-125 mm; weight 2.4-3.1 kg. The Natal Red Rock Hareis large, with rather dense and harsh fur. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and flecked with black. Pelage is bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is pale rufous, with irregular white patches and streaks. Head is grayish brown and slightly grizzled. Chin, lower cheeks, and throat are gray, with grayish white band extending laterally along edges ofjaws to brown to gray nuchal patch. Patch on throat is brownish rufous. Ears are relatively short, sparsely furred, and whitish gray on outer surfaces and gray on inner surfaces. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are dull rufous. Tail is short and entirety bright rufous.","habitat":"Solid rocks (“kopjes”), rocky hillsides, and ravines with grass or scrubby vegetation among rocks or bases of the rocks. Natural fragmentation of habitat exists due to distribution of suitable habitat. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs from sea level to elevations of ¢.1550 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B744FFFDFA15FBB9FB68F407.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B744FFFDFA15FBB9FB68F407","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"110","verbatimText":"4.Smith’s Red Rock HarePronolagus rupestrisFrench:Lapin de Smith/ German:Rotkaninchen/ Spanish:Liebre roja de SmithTaxonomy.Lepus rupestris A. Smith, 1834, “South Africa, rocky situations.”Refined by R. S. Hoffman and A. T. Smith in 2005 to “probably Van Rhynsdorp District, Western Cape Province, South Africa.”Formerly, P. rupestriswas included in P. crassicaudatus. Pronolagus saundersiaewas until recently included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified because probably no gene flow occurs between them. Distribution of P. rupestrisdoes not overlap those of P. randensis, P. saundersiae, and P. crassicaudatus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.rupestrisA.Smith,1834—N&NWSouthAfrica(NorthWestandNorthernCapeprovinces);recently,aspecimenhasbeensampledinSNamibia(Keetmanshoop),sothedistributioncouldbecontiguousfromSouthAfricaacrosstheOrangeRiver.P.r.curryiThomas,1902—NSouthAfrica(FreeStateP.r.).P.r.nytkaeThomas,1902—EZambia,andNMalawi.P. r. vallicola Kershaw, 1924— SW Kenya and C Tanzania.Descriptive notes. Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur with reddish undertone. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized and either black or black and dark red. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rockyhillsides with boulders with grassy or scrubby vegetation. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at lower elevations in South Africa than Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris).Food and Feeding.Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding. More than one male Smith’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. Females give birth to young in nests lined with their fur and grass in small cavities in the ground. Young are likely altricial, with sparse covering of hair and eyes closed. Reproductive season is from spring to summer (September-February) in South Africa. Gestation lasts 35-45 days, and litter sizes are 1-2 young.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Smith’s Red Rock Hare is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat. Habitat loss from construction of human dwellings is a secondary threat. Twenty percent of the habitat of Smith’s Red Rock Hare has been lost since the 1900s, and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until 2022.Bibliography. Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c¢), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee (2015), Matthee & Robinson (1996), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b), Smith & Boyer (2008a), Smithers (1983), Stewart (1971b), Thomas (1902c).","taxonomy":"Lepus rupestris A. Smith, 1834, “South Africa, rocky situations.”Refined by R. S. Hoffman and A. T. Smith in 2005 to “probably Van Rhynsdorp District, Western Cape Province, South Africa.”Formerly, P. rupestriswas included in P. crassicaudatus. Pronolagus saundersiaewas until recently included as a subspecies of P. rupestrisbut now has species status. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified because probably no gene flow occurs between them. Distribution of P. rupestrisdoes not overlap those of P. randensis, P. saundersiae, and P. crassicaudatus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Smith @fr | Rotkaninchen @de | Liebre roja de Smith @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Pronolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"110","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rupestris","name":"Pronolagus rupestris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.r.rupestrisA.Smith,1834—N&NWSouthAfrica(NorthWestandNorthernCapeprovinces);recently,aspecimenhasbeensampledinSNamibia(Keetmanshoop),sothedistributioncouldbecontiguousfromSouthAfricaacrosstheOrangeRiver.P.r.curryiThomas,1902—NSouthAfrica(FreeStateP.r.).P.r.nytkaeThomas,1902—EZambia,andNMalawi.P. r. vallicola Kershaw, 1924— SW Kenya and C Tanzania.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625551/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie (1997) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c¢) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee (2015) | Matthee & Robinson (1996) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b) | Smith & Boyer (2008a) | Smithers (1983) | Stewart (1971b) | Thomas (1902c)","foodAndFeeding":"Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat. Habitat loss from construction of human dwellings is a secondary threat. Twenty percent of the habitat of Smith’s Red Rock Hare has been lost since the 1900s, and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until 2022.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur with reddish undertone. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized and either black or black and dark red. Fur color varies geographically.Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rockyhillsides with boulders with grassy or scrubby vegetation. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at lower elevations in South Africa than Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris).Food and Feeding.Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemumafrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.Breeding. More than one male Smith’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. Females give birth to young in nests lined with their fur and grass in small cavities in the ground. Young are likely altricial, with sparse covering of hair and eyes closed. Reproductive season is from spring to summer (September-February) in South Africa. Gestation lasts 35-45 days, and litter sizes are 1-2 young.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Smith’s Red Rock Hare is no doubt nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B745FFFAFAC3F9BAFD52F339.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B745FFFAFAC3F9BAFD52F339","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"109","verbatimText":"2.Jameson’s Red Rock HarePronolagus randensisFrench:Lapin de Jameson/ German:Rand-Wollschwanzhase/ Spanish:Liebre roja de JamesonTaxonomy.Pronolagus randensis Jameson, 1907, “Observatory Kopje...Johannesburg...Witwatersrand Range, Transvaal...5,900 ft [1798 m],” South Africa.Formerly, P. randensisincluded P. crassicaudatusas a subspecies. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified; there is no evidence of gene flow between them. A preliminary study on mtDNA within the distribution P. randensisrevealed little geographical variation. Distribution of P. randensisdoes not overlap those of P. crassicaudatusand P. rupestris, but it does overlap the eastern part of the distribution of P. saundersiae. The subspecific taxonomy in Pronolagusis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the distinctions in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.randensisJameson,1907—Zimbabwe,extremeWMozambique,EBotswana,andNESouthAfrica.P.r.caucinusThomas,1929—C&NWNamibia,andperhapsextremeSWAngola.P.r. whitei Roberts, 1938— E Zimbabwe.Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-500 mm,tail 60-135 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 1.8-3 kg. The Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized. Fur is dense and woolly, with silky texture. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and rufous on rump and flanks. Ventral fur is pale cinnamon. Head is grizzled brownish gray, with lower cheeks and throat whitish gray. Ears are short and brownish gray. Nuchal patch is rufous, and gular patch is brownish rufous. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized, with blackish rufous color.Habitat.Solid rocks (“kopjes”), gorges, cliffs, and rocky hills, often naturally fragmented. Rock crevices and boulders are essential components of habitat ofJameson’s Red Rock Hares. Populations sometimeslive on isolated kopjes up to 22 km apart, and therefore, individuals have to cross non-rocky habitat to disperse. When Jameson’s Red Rock Hare lives in sympatry with the Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. saundersiae), it prefers drier, lower mountain slopes, with manyjumbled boulders and rock crevices, and Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare prefers higher elevations with fewer boulders and crevices and higher rainfall.Food and Feeding.Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous and grazes on grasses among rocks or at the base of rocky hills. Individuals congregate on recently burned areas to feed on sprouting grasses and avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.On following pages: 3. Natal Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus crassicaudatus); 4. Smith's Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus rupestris Rabbit(Bunolagus monticularis); 8. Pygmy Rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis); 9. Sumatran Striped Rabbit (Nesolagus Jose Brush Rabbit(Sylvilagus mansuetus); 13. Desert Cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii); 14. Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus); 5. Hewitt's Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus saundersiae); 6. Volcano Rabbit (Romerolagus diazi); 7. Riverine netscheri); 10. Annamite Striped Rabbit (Nesolagus timminsi); 11. Brush Rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani); 12. San nuttalli); 15. New England Cottontail (Sylvilagus transitionalis).Breeding.More than one male Jameson’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. It seems to breed throughout the year in Zimbabwe. Pregnancies have been recorded in January, May, July, and August. Lactating females have been documented in June,July, and August. Litter sizes are 1-2 young, with an average of 1-1 young.Activity patterns.Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is mainly nocturnal but regularly feeds and sunbathes in late afternoon. It rests in rock crevices, under boulders, or in thick grass near rocks during the day. All species of red rock hares can leap from rock to rock and run up steep rock faces to reach crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Jameson’s Red Rock Hares generally live alone. Occasionally, they form small groups of a female and her young or an adult female with 1-2 males. Several individuals sometimes congregate for grazing. A study in Matopos Hill, Zimbabwe, showed that most nocturnal observations were of single individuals and only 15% were of pairs. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that may serve a social function.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jameson's Red Rock Hare is widespread and common within its distribution. Although some decline has occurred and continues, it is not severe, and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa. Future decline in the total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time. Decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Myrtaceae) within the distribution ofJameson’s Red Rock Hare. Since the 1900s, 21-50% ofthe total suitable habitat has been lost, and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2022. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is hunted for food and sport.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b, 2008a), Peddie (1975), Roberts (1938), Smithers (1983), Smithers & Wilson (1979).","taxonomy":"Pronolagus randensis Jameson, 1907, “Observatory Kopje...Johannesburg...Witwatersrand Range, Transvaal...5,900 ft [1798 m],” South Africa.Formerly, P. randensisincluded P. crassicaudatusas a subspecies. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified; there is no evidence of gene flow between them. A preliminary study on mtDNA within the distribution P. randensisrevealed little geographical variation. Distribution of P. randensisdoes not overlap those of P. crassicaudatusand P. rupestris, but it does overlap the eastern part of the distribution of P. saundersiae. The subspecific taxonomy in Pronolagusis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the distinctions in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Jameson @fr | Rand-Wollschwanzhase @de | Liebre roja de Jameson @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Jameson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Pronolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"109","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"randensis","name":"Pronolagus randensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.r.randensisJameson,1907—Zimbabwe,extremeWMozambique,EBotswana,andNESouthAfrica.P.r.caucinusThomas,1929—C&NWNamibia,andperhapsextremeSWAngola.P.r. whitei Roberts, 1938— E Zimbabwe.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625547/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b, 2008a) | Peddie (1975) | Roberts (1938) | Smithers (1983) | Smithers & Wilson (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous and grazes on grasses among rocks or at the base of rocky hills. Individuals congregate on recently burned areas to feed on sprouting grasses and avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding.","breeding":"More than one male Jameson’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. It seems to breed throughout the year in Zimbabwe. Pregnancies have been recorded in January, May, July, and August. Lactating females have been documented in June,July, and August. Litter sizes are 1-2 young, with an average of 1-1 young.","activityPatterns":"Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is mainly nocturnal but regularly feeds and sunbathes in late afternoon. It rests in rock crevices, under boulders, or in thick grass near rocks during the day. All species of red rock hares can leap from rock to rock and run up steep rock faces to reach crevices.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Jameson’s Red Rock Hares generally live alone. Occasionally, they form small groups of a female and her young or an adult female with 1-2 males. Several individuals sometimes congregate for grazing. A study in Matopos Hill, Zimbabwe, showed that most nocturnal observations were of single individuals and only 15% were of pairs. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that may serve a social function.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jameson's Red Rock Hare is widespread and common within its distribution. Although some decline has occurred and continues, it is not severe, and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa. Future decline in the total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time. Decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Myrtaceae) within the distribution ofJameson’s Red Rock Hare. Since the 1900s, 21-50% ofthe total suitable habitat has been lost, and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2022. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is hunted for food and sport.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 420-500 mm,tail 60-135 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 1.8-3 kg. The Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized. Fur is dense and woolly, with silky texture. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and rufous on rump and flanks. Ventral fur is pale cinnamon. Head is grizzled brownish gray, with lower cheeks and throat whitish gray. Ears are short and brownish gray. Nuchal patch is rufous, and gular patch is brownish rufous. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized, with blackish rufous color.","habitat":"Solid rocks (“kopjes”), gorges, cliffs, and rocky hills, often naturally fragmented. Rock crevices and boulders are essential components of habitat ofJameson’s Red Rock Hares. Populations sometimeslive on isolated kopjes up to 22 km apart, and therefore, individuals have to cross non-rocky habitat to disperse. When Jameson’s Red Rock Hare lives in sympatry with the Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. saundersiae), it prefers drier, lower mountain slopes, with manyjumbled boulders and rock crevices, and Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare prefers higher elevations with fewer boulders and crevices and higher rainfall."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B745FFFBFFC7FE02F68AF2AD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B745FFFBFFC7FE02F68AF2AD","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"109","verbatimText":"1.Amami RabbitPentalagus furnessiFrench:Lapin des Amami/ German:Ryukyu-Kaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de AmamiOther common names:Ryukyu RabbitTaxonomy.Caprolagus furnessi Stone, 1900, “Liu Kiu Islands [= Amami Oshima, Ryukyu Islands],” Japan.This species has been recognized as one of the most primitive lagomorphs in the world. Monotypic.Distribution.Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima (Ryukyu Is) in S Japan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 420-470 mm, tail 11-35 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 85-92 mm; weight 2.2-9 kg. The Amami Rabbit is medium-sized and has dark, thick, and woolly pelage. Dorsal fur is dark brown,it becomes reddish brown onsides, and ventralfur is light reddish brown. It has small eyes and short ears, hindfeet, and tail. Snoutis long, and limbs have relatively large strong nails (10-20 mm long) for digging nest holes. Nails are straight on forefeet and curved on hindfeet. Morphologicaltraits of the Amami Rabbit are similar to fossil species found in the Miocene stratum. Dark fur might provide camouflage in the dark forests they inhabit.Habitat.Originally dense primary forest prior to widespread deforestation, currently, subtropical forests of all successional stages but not near cultivated or residential areas. Amami Rabbits are also found in clear cuttings and forest edges covered by the Japanese pampas grass Miscanthus sinensis(Poaceae). The most suitable habitat seems to be a mosaic of the following different habitat types: rich undergrowth cover to provide abundant food, short arboreal cover of young secondary forests to provide hiding places, and old forests to yield acorns in autumn. The Amami Rabbit occurs from sea level up to 694 m on Amami Oshima and 645 m on Tokunoshima.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amami Rabbit consists of more than 29 species of plants: twelve species of herbaceous plants (e.g. Adenostemmalavenia, Asteraceae; Carex, Cyperaceae; M. sinensisand Peucedanumjaponicum, Apiaceae; and Mosladianthera, 1.amiaceae) and 17 shrub species (e.g. Castanopsissieboldii, Fagaceae; Melastomacandidum, Melastomataceae; Rubussieboldii, Rosaceae; Styraxjaponicus, Styracaceae; and Zanthoxylumailanthoides, Rutaceae). The Amami Rabbit eats mainly sprouts and young parts of plants but also nuts from many plant species. Nuts of C. sieboldii are the main part of the diet in autumn and winter.Breeding.The Amami Rabbit has two reproductive seasons per year: March—-May and September-December. Females dig burrows where young are born. Burrow has a 15cm entrance and is 150 cm deep, with a chamber (30 cm in diameter) full of leaves. Litter size is one. Neonates weigh ¢.100 g; have short brown hair, and closed eyes and ears.Juveniles stay in nest chambers. The female returns once per day between 20:00 h and 21:00 h to nurse for ¢.30 seconds. When the female leaves the burrow, she covers the entrance with soil and camouflages it with twigs and leaves. Females have three pairs of mammae (pectoral, abdominal, and inguinal). Mothers expel juveniles from nursing burrows at 3—4 months of age.Activity patterns.The Amami Rabbit is primarily nocturnal. Time of activity varies with season and tends to increase as winter approaches. Individuals burrow underground in densely covered forest valleys, where they stay during the day. Amami Rabbits also use bases of trees, bases of rocks, and inside fallen trees as burrows. Individuals leave their nests at ¢.17:00 h and return and enter nests at c.06:00 h. They frequently use runaways to climb up and down steep slopes from burrows and climb through undergrowth to open areas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Amami Rabbits move 100-200 m away from their burrow to feed and drop pellets on open places. Dung piles consist of an average of 28.7 pellets and are placed on runaways. Average home range size was 1-3 ha for four males and 1 ha for three females, recorded with radio-transmitters. Home ranges of females did not overlap, but those of the males did. Male home ranges overlapped those of the females. The Amami Rabbit has a vocalization like pikas (Ochotona) and beats the ground with its hindfeet. At dusk before they become active, individuals appear at entrances of their burrows and produce calls that can be heard loud and clear in small valleys. A mother vocalizes to attract her young when she approaches her nursing burrow. A vocalization usually consists of 3-4 calls like “puyi, puyi, puyi” (frequency 6-12 kHz, length 0-4-0-6 seconds, and interval 0-4-0-6 seconds). Numbers of vocalizations per hour by three captive Amami Rabbits were 3-30 with peaks at 20:00 h and 03:00 h in August and 3-24 with peaks at 19:00-23:00 h and 03:00 h in October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Amami Rabbit is endemic on two Japanese islands: Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima. Its area of occupancyis estimated to be 334-4 km? (301-4 km? on Amami Oshima and 33 km? on Tokunoshima), based on fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat. Amami Rabbits exist in four fragmented subpopulations, three of which are very small. Amami Rabbits are experiencing continuing population declines because of their small area of occupancy, small area and quality of available habitat, and low numbers of mature individuals. Declines are aggravated by invasive predators and habitat loss caused by forest clearing and resort construction. Probably in 1979, the Javan Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to Amami Oshima,resulting in a serious threat because the Amami Rabbit evolved in the absence of large active predators. The only native predator of the Amami Rabbit is a pit viper, the habu snake (Trimeresurus flavoviridis). Feral cats and dogs on both islands also represent an additional threat. Habitat destruction by logging has caused a reduction of old forest by 70-90% since 1980. Forest roads constructed for logging encourage dispersal of predators into forests. Construction of resortfacilities (e.g. golf courses on Amami Island) have destroyed habitat. The larger population on Amami Oshima was estimated at 2000-4800 individuals, based on fecal pellet counts in 2002-2003. This represented a decline of ¢.20% since the last count in 1993-1994 (2500-6100 individuals). Area occupied by Amami Rabbits on Amami Oshima declined by 20-40% from 1977 to 1994. Abundance of Amami Rabbits on Tokunoshima is unknown. The Amami Rabbit was declared a natural monument of Japan in 1921 and a special natural monument in 1963. These designations prohibited hunting and capture of Amami Rabbits. In 1999, the Center for Conservation of Amami Wildlife was established, and the Amami Rabbit was listed under the Japanese Endangered Species Act in 2004. Since 2005, a program of the Ministry of the Environmentstarted with the goal of eradicating the introduced Javan Mongoose.Bibliography.Hayashi (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Stone (1900), Sugimura (1990), Sugimura & Yamada (2004), Sugimura et al. (2000), Watari et al. (2008), Yamada (2002, 2008), Yamada & Cervantes (2005), Yamada & Sugimura (2004, 2008), Yamada, Sugimura et al. (2000), Yamada, Takaki & Suzuki (2002).","taxonomy":"Caprolagus furnessi Stone, 1900, “Liu Kiu Islands [= Amami Oshima, Ryukyu Islands],” Japan.This species has been recognized as one of the most primitive lagomorphs in the world. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin des Amami @fr | Ryukyu-Kaninchen @de | Conejo de Amami @es | Ryukyu Rabbit @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Stone","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Pentalagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"109","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"furnessi","name":"Pentalagus furnessi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima (Ryukyu Is) in S Japan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625545/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hayashi (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Stone (1900) | Sugimura (1990) | Sugimura & Yamada (2004) | Sugimura et al. (2000) | Watari et al. (2008) | Yamada (2002, 2008) | Yamada & Cervantes (2005) | Yamada & Sugimura (2004, 2008) | Yamada, Sugimura et al. (2000) | Yamada, Takaki & Suzuki (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Amami Rabbit consists of more than 29 species of plants: twelve species of herbaceous plants (e.g. Adenostemmalavenia, Asteraceae; Carex, Cyperaceae; M. sinensisand Peucedanumjaponicum, Apiaceae; and Mosladianthera, 1.amiaceae) and 17 shrub species (e.g. Castanopsissieboldii, Fagaceae; Melastomacandidum, Melastomataceae; Rubussieboldii, Rosaceae; Styraxjaponicus, Styracaceae; and Zanthoxylumailanthoides, Rutaceae). The Amami Rabbit eats mainly sprouts and young parts of plants but also nuts from many plant species. Nuts of C. sieboldii are the main part of the diet in autumn and winter.","breeding":"The Amami Rabbit has two reproductive seasons per year: March—-May and September-December. Females dig burrows where young are born. Burrow has a 15cm entrance and is 150 cm deep, with a chamber (30 cm in diameter) full of leaves. Litter size is one. Neonates weigh ¢.100 g; have short brown hair, and closed eyes and ears.Juveniles stay in nest chambers. The female returns once per day between 20:00 h and 21:00 h to nurse for ¢.30 seconds. When the female leaves the burrow, she covers the entrance with soil and camouflages it with twigs and leaves. Females have three pairs of mammae (pectoral, abdominal, and inguinal). Mothers expel juveniles from nursing burrows at 3—4 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Amami Rabbit is primarily nocturnal. Time of activity varies with season and tends to increase as winter approaches. Individuals burrow underground in densely covered forest valleys, where they stay during the day. Amami Rabbits also use bases of trees, bases of rocks, and inside fallen trees as burrows. Individuals leave their nests at ¢.17:00 h and return and enter nests at c.06:00 h. They frequently use runaways to climb up and down steep slopes from burrows and climb through undergrowth to open areas.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Amami Rabbits move 100-200 m away from their burrow to feed and drop pellets on open places. Dung piles consist of an average of 28.7 pellets and are placed on runaways. Average home range size was 1-3 ha for four males and 1 ha for three females, recorded with radio-transmitters. Home ranges of females did not overlap, but those of the males did. Male home ranges overlapped those of the females. The Amami Rabbit has a vocalization like pikas (Ochotona) and beats the ground with its hindfeet. At dusk before they become active, individuals appear at entrances of their burrows and produce calls that can be heard loud and clear in small valleys. A mother vocalizes to attract her young when she approaches her nursing burrow. A vocalization usually consists of 3-4 calls like “puyi, puyi, puyi” (frequency 6-12 kHz, length 0-4-0-6 seconds, and interval 0-4-0-6 seconds). Numbers of vocalizations per hour by three captive Amami Rabbits were 3-30 with peaks at 20:00 h and 03:00 h in August and 3-24 with peaks at 19:00-23:00 h and 03:00 h in October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Amami Rabbit is endemic on two Japanese islands: Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima. Its area of occupancyis estimated to be 334-4 km? (301-4 km? on Amami Oshima and 33 km? on Tokunoshima), based on fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat. Amami Rabbits exist in four fragmented subpopulations, three of which are very small. Amami Rabbits are experiencing continuing population declines because of their small area of occupancy, small area and quality of available habitat, and low numbers of mature individuals. Declines are aggravated by invasive predators and habitat loss caused by forest clearing and resort construction. Probably in 1979, the Javan Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to Amami Oshima,resulting in a serious threat because the Amami Rabbit evolved in the absence of large active predators. The only native predator of the Amami Rabbit is a pit viper, the habu snake (Trimeresurus flavoviridis). Feral cats and dogs on both islands also represent an additional threat. Habitat destruction by logging has caused a reduction of old forest by 70-90% since 1980. Forest roads constructed for logging encourage dispersal of predators into forests. Construction of resortfacilities (e.g. golf courses on Amami Island) have destroyed habitat. The larger population on Amami Oshima was estimated at 2000-4800 individuals, based on fecal pellet counts in 2002-2003. This represented a decline of ¢.20% since the last count in 1993-1994 (2500-6100 individuals). Area occupied by Amami Rabbits on Amami Oshima declined by 20-40% from 1977 to 1994. Abundance of Amami Rabbits on Tokunoshima is unknown. The Amami Rabbit was declared a natural monument of Japan in 1921 and a special natural monument in 1963. These designations prohibited hunting and capture of Amami Rabbits.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Amami Rabbit is endemic on two Japanese islands: Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima. Its area of occupancyis estimated to be 334-4 km? (301-4 km? on Amami Oshima and 33 km? on Tokunoshima), based on fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat. Amami Rabbits exist in four fragmented subpopulations, three of which are very small. Amami Rabbits are experiencing continuing population declines because of their small area of occupancy, small area and quality of available habitat, and low numbers of mature individuals. Declines are aggravated by invasive predators and habitat loss caused by forest clearing and resort construction. Probably in 1979, the Javan Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to Amami Oshima,resulting in a serious threat because the Amami Rabbit evolved in the absence of large active predators. The only native predator of the Amami Rabbit is a pit viper, the habu snake (Trimeresurus flavoviridis). Feral cats and dogs on both islands also represent an additional threat. Habitat destruction by logging has caused a reduction of old forest by 70-90% since 1980. Forest roads constructed for logging encourage dispersal of predators into forests. Construction of resortfacilities (e.g. golf courses on Amami Island) have destroyed habitat. The larger population on Amami Oshima was estimated at 2000-4800 individuals, based on fecal pellet counts in 2002-2003. This represented a decline of ¢.20% since the last count in 1993-1994 (2500-6100 individuals). Area occupied by Amami Rabbits on Amami Oshima declined by 20-40% from 1977 to 1994. Abundance of Amami Rabbits on Tokunoshima is unknown. The Amami Rabbit was declared a natural monument of Japan in 1921 and a special natural monument in 1963. These designations prohibited hunting and capture of Amami Rabbits. In 1999, the Center for Conservation of Amami Wildlife was established, and the Amami Rabbit was listed under the Japanese Endangered Species Act in 2004. Since 2005, a program of the Ministry of the Environmentstarted with the goal of eradicating the introduced Javan Mongoose.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 420-470 mm, tail 11-35 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 85-92 mm; weight 2.2-9 kg. The Amami Rabbit is medium-sized and has dark, thick, and woolly pelage. Dorsal fur is dark brown,it becomes reddish brown onsides, and ventralfur is light reddish brown. It has small eyes and short ears, hindfeet, and tail. Snoutis long, and limbs have relatively large strong nails (10-20 mm long) for digging nest holes. Nails are straight on forefeet and curved on hindfeet. Morphologicaltraits of the Amami Rabbit are similar to fossil species found in the Miocene stratum. Dark fur might provide camouflage in the dark forests they inhabit.Habitat.Originally dense primary forest prior to widespread deforestation, currently, subtropical forests of all successional stages but not near cultivated or residential areas. Amami Rabbits are also found in clear cuttings and forest edges covered by the Japanese pampas grass Miscanthus sinensis(Poaceae). The most suitable habitat seems to be a mosaic of the following different habitat types: rich undergrowth cover to provide abundant food, short arboreal cover of young secondary forests to provide hiding places, and old forests to yield acorns in autumn. The Amami Rabbit occurs from sea level up to 694 m on Amami Oshima and 645 m on Tokunoshima.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amami Rabbit consists of more than 29 species of plants: twelve species of herbaceous plants (e.g. Adenostemmalavenia, Asteraceae; Carex, Cyperaceae; M. sinensisand Peucedanumjaponicum, Apiaceae; and Mosladianthera, 1.amiaceae) and 17 shrub species (e.g. Castanopsissieboldii, Fagaceae; Melastomacandidum, Melastomataceae; Rubussieboldii, Rosaceae; Styraxjaponicus, Styracaceae; and Zanthoxylumailanthoides, Rutaceae). The Amami Rabbit eats mainly sprouts and young parts of plants but also nuts from many plant species. Nuts of C. sieboldii are the main part of the diet in autumn and winter.Breeding.The Amami Rabbit has two reproductive seasons per year: March—-May and September-December. Females dig burrows where young are born. Burrow has a 15cm entrance and is 150 cm deep, with a chamber (30 cm in diameter) full of leaves. Litter size is one. Neonates weigh ¢.100 g; have short brown hair, and closed eyes and ears.Juveniles stay in nest chambers. The female returns once per day between 20:00 h and 21:00 h to nurse for ¢.30 seconds. When the female leaves the burrow, she covers the entrance with soil and camouflages it with twigs and leaves. Females have three pairs of mammae (pectoral, abdominal, and inguinal). Mothers expel juveniles from nursing burrows at 3—4 months of age.Activity patterns.The Amami Rabbit is primarily nocturnal. Time of activity varies with season and tends to increase as winter approaches. Individuals burrow underground in densely covered forest valleys, where they stay during the day. Amami Rabbits also use bases of trees, bases of rocks, and inside fallen trees as burrows. Individuals leave their nests at ¢.17:00 h and return and enter nests at c.06:00 h. They frequently use runaways to climb up and down steep slopes from burrows and climb through undergrowth to open areas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Amami Rabbits move 100-200 m away from their burrow to feed and drop pellets on open places. Dung piles consist of an average of 28.7 pellets and are placed on runaways. Average home range size was 1-3 ha for four males and 1 ha for three females, recorded with radio-transmitters. Home ranges of females did not overlap, but those of the males did. Male home ranges overlapped those of the females. The Amami Rabbit has a vocalization like pikas (Ochotona) and beats the ground with its hindfeet. At dusk before they become active, individuals appear at entrances of their burrows and produce calls that can be heard loud and clear in small valleys. A mother vocalizes to attract her young when she approaches her nursing burrow. A vocalization usually consists of 3-4 calls like “puyi, puyi, puyi” (frequency 6-12 kHz, length 0-4-0-6 seconds, and interval 0-4-0-6 seconds). Numbers of vocalizations per hour by three captive Amami Rabbits were 3-30 with peaks at 20:00 h and 03:00 h in August and 3-24 with peaks at 19:00-23:00 h and 03:00 h in October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Amami Rabbit is endemic on two Japanese islands: Amami Oshima and Tokunoshima. Its area of occupancyis estimated to be 334-4 km? (301-4 km? on Amami Oshima and 33 km? on Tokunoshima), based on fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat. Amami Rabbits exist in four fragmented subpopulations, three of which are very small. Amami Rabbits are experiencing continuing population declines because of their small area of occupancy, small area and quality of available habitat, and low numbers of mature individuals. Declines are aggravated by invasive predators and habitat loss caused by forest clearing and resort construction. Probably in 1979, the Javan Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to Amami Oshima,resulting in a serious threat because the Amami Rabbit evolved in the absence of large active predators. The only native predator of the Amami Rabbit is a pit viper, the habu snake (Trimeresurus flavoviridis). Feral cats and dogs on both islands also represent an additional threat.","habitat":"Originally dense primary forest prior to widespread deforestation, currently, subtropical forests of all successional stages but not near cultivated or residential areas. Amami Rabbits are also found in clear cuttings and forest edges covered by the Japanese pampas grass Miscanthus sinensis(Poaceae). The most suitable habitat seems to be a mosaic of the following different habitat types: rich undergrowth cover to provide abundant food, short arboreal cover of young secondary forests to provide hiding places, and old forests to yield acorns in autumn. The Amami Rabbit occurs from sea level up to 694 m on Amami Oshima and 645 m on Tokunoshima."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B747FFF9FE64FE72F7EFF29B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B747FFF9FE64FE72F7EFF29B","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"107","verbatimText":"Family LEPORIDAE(HARES AND RABBITS)• Small to medium-sized lagomorphs with short fluffy tails, soft thick pelage, and large eyes; ears project upward; hindlimbs longer than forelimbs.• 23-68 cm.• Holarctic, Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan, and Neotropical Regions.• Forests, shrubby areas, grasslands, deserts, tundra, alpine slopes, and agricultural landscapes up to 5400 m.• 11 genera, 63 species, 269 taxa.• 2 species Critically Endangered; 7 species Endangered; b species Vulnerable; no species Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B748FFE9FA17F7EAFE26F2A6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B748FFE9FA17F7EAFE26F2A6","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"122","verbatimText":"24.Tres Marias CottontailSylvilagus graysoniFrench:Lapin des Marias/ German:Tres-Marias-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de Tres MariasOther common names:Tres Marias RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus graysoni]. A. Allen, 1877,“Tres Marias Islands.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1899 to “undoubtedly from Maria Madre [Island],” Nayarit, Mexico.Existence of two subspecies of S. graysoniis under consideration (grayson: and badistes). Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that insular S. grayson: shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cuniculariusthat invaded islands when they were very likely connected to the mainland during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. Monotypic.Distribution.Islas Marias, Nayarit State (W Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 440-470 mm, tail 33-50 mm, ear 62-64 mm, hindfoot 91-95 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Tres Marias Cottontail is medium-sized, with relatively short ears. Dorsal fur is reddish and brightest on nape and rump;lateral fur is paler reddish. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch.Habitat.Dense stands ofcacti, trees, brushes, and agaves 3-4 m high; tropical deciduous forests 4 m high; open woodland in coastal areas; agricultural coastal areas; and abandoned agricultural fields consisting of scattered growth of bushes from sea level to elevations of ¢.350 m. Insular habitats of the Tres Marias Cottontail are more arid than on the mainland. Average yearly rainfall is 635 mm; most of it falls during violet summer storms from the south-east. Temperatures are moderate, with monthly averages ranging from 20-3°C in January/February to 28-1°C in July/August.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.One study revealed that eleven female Tres Marias Cottontails were lactating and two females were pregnant in March.Activity patterns.After 15:00 h, Tres Marias Cottontails have been seen sitting in small open places in the woods’ undergrowth, apparently waiting for sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tres Marias Cottontail is listed as critically endangered in Mexico. Its distribution in Mexico is limited to the Tres Marias Islands, an area less than 500 km2. These islands are located c.86 km off the western coast of Mexico (21-22° N, 106-107° W) and include four islands: Maria Madre, Maria Magdalena, Maria Cleofas, and San Juanito. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails are declining because of extensive habitat alterations on these islands. In 1897, the Tres Marias Cottontail was abundant in some places on the four islands. During a 1987 expedition,it was found only on San Juanito Island, which makes up ¢.12% ofthe total possible extent of occurrence. Main threats are hunting; extensive clearing of habitats and introduced White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), domestic pigs, and domestic goats; and increasing human settlements associated with a federal prison on Maria Madre Island. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails were more abundant on the uninhabited islands of Maria Cleofas and San Juanito, but Maria Cleofas Island has been stripped of ¢.50% ofits native vegetation for human settlements. Recommendations to ensure survival of the Tres Marias Cottontails are to establish reserves on Maria Madre Island, turn San Juanito Island into an ecological reserve, and stop all hunting. Status surveys need to be conducted to determine population status and specific habitat requirements, and long-term research on natural history and population densities in long-term projects should be initiated. Maria Magdalena Island has been designated an ecological reserve by the Mexican government.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008e), Cervantes (1997), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman etal. (1990), Cervantes (1997), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lorenzo (1987), Nelson (1899a, 1909), Wilson (1991).","taxonomy":"Lepus graysoni]. A. Allen, 1877,“Tres Marias Islands.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1899 to “undoubtedly from Maria Madre [Island],” Nayarit, Mexico.Existence of two subspecies of S. graysoniis under consideration (grayson: and badistes). Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that insular S. grayson: shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cuniculariusthat invaded islands when they were very likely connected to the mainland during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin des Marias @fr | Tres-Marias-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Tres Marias @es | Tres Marias Rabbit @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"122","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"graysoni","name":"Sylvilagus graysoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Islas Marias, Nayarit State (W Mexico).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625597/files/figure.png","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008e) | Cervantes (1997) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman etal. (1990) | Cervantes (1997) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lorenzo (1987) | Nelson (1899a, 1909) | Wilson (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"One study revealed that eleven female Tres Marias Cottontails were lactating and two females were pregnant in March.","activityPatterns":"After 15:00 h, Tres Marias Cottontails have been seen sitting in small open places in the woods’ undergrowth, apparently waiting for sunset.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tres Marias Cottontail is listed as critically endangered in Mexico. Its distribution in Mexico is limited to the Tres Marias Islands, an area less than 500 km2. These islands are located c.86 km off the western coast of Mexico (21-22° N, 106-107° W) and include four islands: Maria Madre, Maria Magdalena, Maria Cleofas, and San Juanito. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails are declining because of extensive habitat alterations on these islands. In 1897, the Tres Marias Cottontail was abundant in some places on the four islands. During a 1987 expedition,it was found only on San Juanito Island, which makes up ¢.12% ofthe total possible extent of occurrence. Main threats are hunting; extensive clearing of habitats and introduced White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), domestic pigs, and domestic goats; and increasing human settlements associated with a federal prison on Maria Madre Island. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails were more abundant on the uninhabited islands of Maria Cleofas and San Juanito, but Maria Cleofas Island has been stripped of ¢.50% ofits native vegetation for human settlements. Recommendations to ensure survival of the Tres Marias Cottontails are to establish reserves on Maria Madre Island, turn San Juanito Island into an ecological reserve, and stop all hunting. Status surveys need to be conducted to determine population status and specific habitat requirements, and long-term research on natural history and population densities in long-term projects should be initiated. Maria Magdalena Island has been designated an ecological reserve by the Mexican government.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 440-470 mm, tail 33-50 mm, ear 62-64 mm, hindfoot 91-95 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Tres Marias Cottontail is medium-sized, with relatively short ears. Dorsal fur is reddish and brightest on nape and rump;lateral fur is paler reddish. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch.","habitat":"Dense stands ofcacti, trees, brushes, and agaves 3-4 m high; tropical deciduous forests 4 m high; open woodland in coastal areas; agricultural coastal areas; and abandoned agricultural fields consisting of scattered growth of bushes from sea level to elevations of ¢.350 m. Insular habitats of the Tres Marias Cottontail are more arid than on the mainland. Average yearly rainfall is 635 mm; most of it falls during violet summer storms from the south-east. Temperatures are moderate, with monthly averages ranging from 20-3°C in January/February to 28-1°C in July/August."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B748FFF6FF6AF6DEF89CFE54.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B748FFF6FF6AF6DEF89CFE54","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"122","verbatimText":"23.Mexican CottontailSylvilagus cuniculariusFrench:Lapin du Mexique/ German:Mexiko-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de MéxicoTaxonomy.Lepus cunicularius Waterhouse, 1848, “Mexico.” Restricted by G. G. Goodwin in 1969 to “Sacualpan [= Zacualpan],” Mexico State, Mexico.Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that S. graysoni, which is endemic to the Tres Marias Island, shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cunicularusthat invaded islands during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus cuniculariusis sympatric with Romerolagus diaziand S. floridanusin highlands of central Mexico. On borders of adjacent plains, S. cuniculariusoccurs sympatrically with S. audubonii, Lepus callotis, and L. californicus. This speciesis also sympatric with L. callotisin Guerrero and S. floridanusin coastal lowlands of S Sinaloa. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.c.cuniculariusWaterhouse,1848—C&EMichoacan,SEHidalgo,StateofMexico,Tlaxcala,Morelos,Puebla,WCVeracruz,N&NEGuerrero,andWOaxaca(C&SMexico).S.c.insolitusJ.A.Allen,1890—SWtipofDurango,SSinaloa,WNayarit,W&SJalisco,Colima,andNW&WMichoacan,(WMexico).S. c. pacificus Nelson, 1904— S Michoacan, Guerrero (except the N & NE), and SW tip of Oaxaca (S Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 490-520 mm, tail 54-68 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 108-111 mm; weight 1.8-2.3 kg. The Mexican Cottontail is the largest rabbit in Mexico, equaling medium-sized hares in mass. It has coarse fur and massive skull. Dorsal pelage and head are dirty yellowish or grayish, with rufous nape. Eye rings are buff. Ears are about as long as head, and backs of ears are thinly haired and gray, with extreme tips and outer edges darkening to black. Ventral fur is dingy whitish. Forelegs, hindlegs, and sides of hindfeet are dull rust-brown. Tail is short, grayish brown above and pure white below. There is geographical variation in size with individuals in the western part of the distribution slightly larger than those from elsewhere. Amount of variation is surprisingly small considering the wide distribution of the Mexican Cottontail under various climatic conditions. General color becomes paler and more of dingy yellowish gray in worn pelage.Habitat.Arid lowlands and temperate highlands from sea level to elevations of c.3400 m in the highlands of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mexican Cottontails display wide ecological tolerance, and they select areas of grasses and herbs. In western Mexico, they occur in tropical deciduous and pine—oak zones and pastures. In the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, they inhabit forests of pine and oak—pine, with understories of clumped grasses.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Mexican Cottontail consists of true grasses including Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucaamplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). It selects tender shoots of grasses, young leaves of forbs, bark of shrubs, and cultivated plants such as oats (Avenasativa), maize (Zeamays), and barley (Hordeumvulgare).Breeding.The Mexican Cottontail seems to breed throughout the year. Females produce up to six young per litter and severallitters per year. Gestation is ¢.30 days.Activity patterns.The Mexican Cottontail is active mainly at dusk and dawn, although they can be active at night and during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Mexican Cottontail lives alone. Fecal pellets accumulate in dung piles and are regularly found next to bases of grasses; each pile is at least 20 m from the next. Mexican Cottontails in central Mexican highlands use abandoned burrows of Merriam’s Pocket Gophers (Cratogeomys merriami) and natural rocky hollows and crevices on and underneath the ground.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Mexican Cottontails is commonly hunted for food and sport. It is endemic to Mexico and has been abundant near the coast of Chamela and Jalisco and in Morelos, but populations have declined due to hunting. Overgrazing and habitat destruction have caused population declines in some areas, butit is still quite abundant throughoutits distribution.Bibliography.Alvarez et al. (1987), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008d), Angermann (2016), Armstrong & Jones (1971), Ceballos & Galindo (1984), Ceballos & Miranda (1986), Cervantes (1980), Cervantes et al. (1992), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Davis (1944), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1954), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Goodwin (1969), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Leopold (1959, 1972), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo (1987), Nelson (1909), Thomas (1890).","taxonomy":"Lepus cunicularius Waterhouse, 1848, “Mexico.” Restricted by G. G. Goodwin in 1969 to “Sacualpan [= Zacualpan],” Mexico State, Mexico.Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that S. graysoni, which is endemic to the Tres Marias Island, shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cunicularusthat invaded islands during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus cuniculariusis sympatric with Romerolagus diaziand S. floridanusin highlands of central Mexico. On borders of adjacent plains, S. cuniculariusoccurs sympatrically with S. audubonii, Lepus callotis, and L. californicus. This speciesis also sympatric with L. callotisin Guerrero and S. floridanusin coastal lowlands of S Sinaloa. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin du Mexique @fr | Mexiko-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de México @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1848","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"122","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cunicularius","name":"Sylvilagus cunicularius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.c.cuniculariusWaterhouse,1848—C&EMichoacan,SEHidalgo,StateofMexico,Tlaxcala,Morelos,Puebla,WCVeracruz,N&NEGuerrero,andWOaxaca(C&SMexico).S.c.insolitusJ.A.Allen,1890—SWtipofDurango,SSinaloa,WNayarit,W&SJalisco,Colima,andNW&WMichoacan,(WMexico).S. c. pacificus Nelson, 1904— S Michoacan, Guerrero (except the N & NE), and SW tip of Oaxaca (S Mexico).","bibliography":"Alvarez et al. (1987) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008d) | Angermann (2016) | Armstrong & Jones (1971) | Ceballos & Galindo (1984) | Ceballos & Miranda (1986) | Cervantes (1980) | Cervantes et al. (1992) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Davis (1944) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1954) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Goodwin (1969) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Leopold (1959, 1972) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo (1987) | Nelson (1909) | Thomas (1890)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Mexican Cottontail consists of true grasses including Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucaamplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). It selects tender shoots of grasses, young leaves of forbs, bark of shrubs, and cultivated plants such as oats (Avenasativa), maize (Zeamays), and barley (Hordeumvulgare).","breeding":"The Mexican Cottontail seems to breed throughout the year. Females produce up to six young per litter and severallitters per year. Gestation is ¢.30 days.","activityPatterns":"The Mexican Cottontail is active mainly at dusk and dawn, although they can be active at night and during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Mexican Cottontail lives alone. Fecal pellets accumulate in dung piles and are regularly found next to bases of grasses; each pile is at least 20 m from the next. Mexican Cottontails in central Mexican highlands use abandoned burrows of Merriam’s Pocket Gophers (Cratogeomys merriami) and natural rocky hollows and crevices on and underneath the ground.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Mexican Cottontails is commonly hunted for food and sport. It is endemic to Mexico and has been abundant near the coast of Chamela and Jalisco and in Morelos, but populations have declined due to hunting. Overgrazing and habitat destruction have caused population declines in some areas, butit is still quite abundant throughoutits distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 490-520 mm, tail 54-68 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 108-111 mm; weight 1.8-2.3 kg. The Mexican Cottontail is the largest rabbit in Mexico, equaling medium-sized hares in mass. It has coarse fur and massive skull. Dorsal pelage and head are dirty yellowish or grayish, with rufous nape. Eye rings are buff. Ears are about as long as head, and backs of ears are thinly haired and gray, with extreme tips and outer edges darkening to black. Ventral fur is dingy whitish. Forelegs, hindlegs, and sides of hindfeet are dull rust-brown. Tail is short, grayish brown above and pure white below. There is geographical variation in size with individuals in the western part of the distribution slightly larger than those from elsewhere. Amount of variation is surprisingly small considering the wide distribution of the Mexican Cottontail under various climatic conditions. General color becomes paler and more of dingy yellowish gray in worn pelage.","habitat":"Arid lowlands and temperate highlands from sea level to elevations of c.3400 m in the highlands of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mexican Cottontails display wide ecological tolerance, and they select areas of grasses and herbs. In western Mexico, they occur in tropical deciduous and pine—oak zones and pastures. In the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, they inhabit forests of pine and oak—pine, with understories of clumped grasses."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B748FFF6FF6AF6DEF89CFE54.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B748FFF6FF6AF6DEF89CFE54","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"122","verbatimText":"23.Mexican CottontailSylvilagus cuniculariusFrench:Lapin du Mexique/ German:Mexiko-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de MéxicoTaxonomy.Lepus cunicularius Waterhouse, 1848, “Mexico.” Restricted by G. G. Goodwin in 1969 to “Sacualpan [= Zacualpan],” Mexico State, Mexico.Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that S. graysoni, which is endemic to the Tres Marias Island, shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cunicularusthat invaded islands during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus cuniculariusis sympatric with Romerolagus diaziand S. floridanusin highlands of central Mexico. On borders of adjacent plains, S. cuniculariusoccurs sympatrically with S. audubonii, Lepus callotis, and L. californicus. This speciesis also sympatric with L. callotisin Guerrero and S. floridanusin coastal lowlands of S Sinaloa. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.c.cuniculariusWaterhouse,1848—C&EMichoacan,SEHidalgo,StateofMexico,Tlaxcala,Morelos,Puebla,WCVeracruz,N&NEGuerrero,andWOaxaca(C&SMexico).S.c.insolitusJ.A.Allen,1890—SWtipofDurango,SSinaloa,WNayarit,W&SJalisco,Colima,andNW&WMichoacan,(WMexico).S. c. pacificus Nelson, 1904— S Michoacan, Guerrero (except the N & NE), and SW tip of Oaxaca (S Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 490-520 mm, tail 54-68 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 108-111 mm; weight 1.8-2.3 kg. The Mexican Cottontail is the largest rabbit in Mexico, equaling medium-sized hares in mass. It has coarse fur and massive skull. Dorsal pelage and head are dirty yellowish or grayish, with rufous nape. Eye rings are buff. Ears are about as long as head, and backs of ears are thinly haired and gray, with extreme tips and outer edges darkening to black. Ventral fur is dingy whitish. Forelegs, hindlegs, and sides of hindfeet are dull rust-brown. Tail is short, grayish brown above and pure white below. There is geographical variation in size with individuals in the western part of the distribution slightly larger than those from elsewhere. Amount of variation is surprisingly small considering the wide distribution of the Mexican Cottontail under various climatic conditions. General color becomes paler and more of dingy yellowish gray in worn pelage.Habitat.Arid lowlands and temperate highlands from sea level to elevations of c.3400 m in the highlands of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mexican Cottontails display wide ecological tolerance, and they select areas of grasses and herbs. In western Mexico, they occur in tropical deciduous and pine—oak zones and pastures. In the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, they inhabit forests of pine and oak—pine, with understories of clumped grasses.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Mexican Cottontail consists of true grasses including Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucaamplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). It selects tender shoots of grasses, young leaves of forbs, bark of shrubs, and cultivated plants such as oats (Avenasativa), maize (Zeamays), and barley (Hordeumvulgare).Breeding.The Mexican Cottontail seems to breed throughout the year. Females produce up to six young per litter and severallitters per year. Gestation is ¢.30 days.Activity patterns.The Mexican Cottontail is active mainly at dusk and dawn, although they can be active at night and during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Mexican Cottontail lives alone. Fecal pellets accumulate in dung piles and are regularly found next to bases of grasses; each pile is at least 20 m from the next. Mexican Cottontails in central Mexican highlands use abandoned burrows of Merriam’s Pocket Gophers (Cratogeomys merriami) and natural rocky hollows and crevices on and underneath the ground.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Mexican Cottontails is commonly hunted for food and sport. It is endemic to Mexico and has been abundant near the coast of Chamela and Jalisco and in Morelos, but populations have declined due to hunting. Overgrazing and habitat destruction have caused population declines in some areas, butit is still quite abundant throughoutits distribution.Bibliography.Alvarez et al. (1987), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008d), Angermann (2016), Armstrong & Jones (1971), Ceballos & Galindo (1984), Ceballos & Miranda (1986), Cervantes (1980), Cervantes et al. (1992), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Davis (1944), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1954), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Goodwin (1969), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Leopold (1959, 1972), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo (1987), Nelson (1909), Thomas (1890).","taxonomy":"Lepus cunicularius Waterhouse, 1848, “Mexico.” Restricted by G. G. Goodwin in 1969 to “Sacualpan [= Zacualpan],” Mexico State, Mexico.Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that S. graysoni, which is endemic to the Tres Marias Island, shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cunicularusthat invaded islands during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus cuniculariusis sympatric with Romerolagus diaziand S. floridanusin highlands of central Mexico. On borders of adjacent plains, S. cuniculariusoccurs sympatrically with S. audubonii, Lepus callotis, and L. californicus. This speciesis also sympatric with L. callotisin Guerrero and S. floridanusin coastal lowlands of S Sinaloa. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin du Mexique @fr | Mexiko-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de México @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1848","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"122","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cunicularius","name":"Sylvilagus cunicularius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.c.cuniculariusWaterhouse,1848—C&EMichoacan,SEHidalgo,StateofMexico,Tlaxcala,Morelos,Puebla,WCVeracruz,N&NEGuerrero,andWOaxaca(C&SMexico).S.c.insolitusJ.A.Allen,1890—SWtipofDurango,SSinaloa,WNayarit,W&SJalisco,Colima,andNW&WMichoacan,(WMexico).S. c. pacificus Nelson, 1904— S Michoacan, Guerrero (except the N & NE), and SW tip of Oaxaca (S Mexico).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625595/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alvarez et al. (1987) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008d) | Angermann (2016) | Armstrong & Jones (1971) | Ceballos & Galindo (1984) | Ceballos & Miranda (1986) | Cervantes (1980) | Cervantes et al. (1992) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Davis (1944) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1954) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Goodwin (1969) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Leopold (1959, 1972) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo (1987) | Nelson (1909) | Thomas (1890)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Mexican Cottontail consists of true grasses including Muhlenbergiamacroura, Festucaamplissima, and Stipaichu (all Poaceae). It selects tender shoots of grasses, young leaves of forbs, bark of shrubs, and cultivated plants such as oats (Avenasativa), maize (Zeamays), and barley (Hordeumvulgare).","breeding":"The Mexican Cottontail seems to breed throughout the year. Females produce up to six young per litter and severallitters per year. Gestation is ¢.30 days.","activityPatterns":"The Mexican Cottontail is active mainly at dusk and dawn, although they can be active at night and during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Mexican Cottontail lives alone. Fecal pellets accumulate in dung piles and are regularly found next to bases of grasses; each pile is at least 20 m from the next. Mexican Cottontails in central Mexican highlands use abandoned burrows of Merriam’s Pocket Gophers (Cratogeomys merriami) and natural rocky hollows and crevices on and underneath the ground.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Mexican Cottontails is commonly hunted for food and sport. It is endemic to Mexico and has been abundant near the coast of Chamela and Jalisco and in Morelos, but populations have declined due to hunting. Overgrazing and habitat destruction have caused population declines in some areas, butit is still quite abundant throughoutits distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 490-520 mm, tail 54-68 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 108-111 mm; weight 1.8-2.3 kg. The Mexican Cottontail is the largest rabbit in Mexico, equaling medium-sized hares in mass. It has coarse fur and massive skull. Dorsal pelage and head are dirty yellowish or grayish, with rufous nape. Eye rings are buff. Ears are about as long as head, and backs of ears are thinly haired and gray, with extreme tips and outer edges darkening to black. Ventral fur is dingy whitish. Forelegs, hindlegs, and sides of hindfeet are dull rust-brown. Tail is short, grayish brown above and pure white below. There is geographical variation in size with individuals in the western part of the distribution slightly larger than those from elsewhere. Amount of variation is surprisingly small considering the wide distribution of the Mexican Cottontail under various climatic conditions. General color becomes paler and more of dingy yellowish gray in worn pelage.","habitat":"Arid lowlands and temperate highlands from sea level to elevations of c.3400 m in the highlands of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mexican Cottontails display wide ecological tolerance, and they select areas of grasses and herbs. In western Mexico, they occur in tropical deciduous and pine—oak zones and pastures. In the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, they inhabit forests of pine and oak—pine, with understories of clumped grasses."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B748FFF6FF6FFC82FDDAFF45.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B748FFF6FF6FFC82FDDAFF45","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"122","verbatimText":"22.Dice’s CottontailSylvilagus diceiFrench:Lapin de Dice/ German:Dice-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de DiceTaxonomy.Sylvilagus dicei Harris, 1932, “El Copey de Dota, in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica ... 6000 feet [1829 m].”Sylvilagus diceiwas formerly a subspecies of S. brasiliensis. Monotypic.Distribution.Cordillera de Talamanca (SC Costa Rica and W Panama).Descriptive notes.Head-body 390-450 mm, tail 15-29 mm, ear 49-54 mm, hindfoot 90-99 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Dice’s Cottontail is large and has rudimentary tail and short ears. Dorsal pelage is a mix of blacks and browns, and sides are blackish gray. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch. Tail is blackish and often not visible.Habitat.Paramos grasslands, shrublands, and oak cloud forests. Dice’s Cottontail inhabits high elevations from 1524 m in Cervantes up to 3536 m in Cerro Chirropo, Costa Rica, and 1219 m at Boquete and 1615 m at Cerro Punta, Panama.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Dice’s Cottontail is poorly known, and little data are available on its population status, although it seems common in the Andean Paramos and highland forests of Panama and Costa Rica. Nevertheless, locals report that it was previously more common and had a larger distribution that extended to lower elevations that have been converted to cattle pasture and agricultural land. Dice’s Cottontail is probably endangered due to its small distribution, invasive predators such as Coyotes (Canis latrans) that follow cattle, human-caused fire, and habitat loss due to forest logging for pasture. Nevertheless, the entire distribution of Dice’s Cottontail is within protected areas. Studies on its distribution, population status, conservation threats, biology, and ecology are urgent priorities.Bibliography.Diersing (1981), Hall (1981), Harris (1932), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Reid (2009), Smith & Boyer (2008d).","taxonomy":"Sylvilagus dicei Harris, 1932, “El Copey de Dota, in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica ... 6000 feet [1829 m].”Sylvilagus diceiwas formerly a subspecies of S. brasiliensis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin de Dice @fr | Dice-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Dice @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Harris","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1932","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"122","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dicei","name":"Sylvilagus dicei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Cordillera de Talamanca (SC Costa Rica and W Panama).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625593/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Diersing (1981) | Hall (1981) | Harris (1932) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Reid (2009) | Smith & Boyer (2008d)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Dice’s Cottontail is poorly known, and little data are available on its population status, although it seems common in the Andean Paramos and highland forests of Panama and Costa Rica. Nevertheless, locals report that it was previously more common and had a larger distribution that extended to lower elevations that have been converted to cattle pasture and agricultural land. Dice’s Cottontail is probably endangered due to its small distribution, invasive predators such as Coyotes (Canis latrans) that follow cattle, human-caused fire, and habitat loss due to forest logging for pasture. Nevertheless, the entire distribution of Dice’s Cottontail is within protected areas. Studies on its distribution, population status, conservation threats, biology, and ecology are urgent priorities.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 390-450 mm, tail 15-29 mm, ear 49-54 mm, hindfoot 90-99 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Dice’s Cottontail is large and has rudimentary tail and short ears. Dorsal pelage is a mix of blacks and browns, and sides are blackish gray. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch. Tail is blackish and often not visible.","habitat":"Paramos grasslands, shrublands, and oak cloud forests. Dice’s Cottontail inhabits high elevations from 1524 m in Cervantes up to 3536 m in Cerro Chirropo, Costa Rica, and 1219 m at Boquete and 1615 m at Cerro Punta, Panama."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B749FFF6FAC9F727FBE6F4AD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B749FFF6FAC9F727FBE6F4AD","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"121","verbatimText":"21.Venezuelan Lowland RabbitSylvilagus varynaensisFrench:Lapin du Venezuela/ German:Venezuela-Baumschwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de VenezuelaOther common names:Barinas Wild RabbitTaxonomy.Sylvilagus varynaensis Durant & Guevara, 2001, “Fundo Millano (8E46’LLN and 69E56’LW), 146 m elevation, 18 km NE of the town of Sabaneta, Distrito Obispos, state of Barinas,” Venezuela.This species probably lives sympatrically with S. brasiliensisand S. floridanus. Monotypic.Distribution.Lowlands of the Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guarico states (CE Venezuela).Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-450 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 5864 mm, hindfoot 83-89 mm; weight 1.5-1.8 kg. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit has buffy dorsal fur, bordered with black. Nuchal patch is reddish. Eye rings are cotton-white. Outer surfaces of ears are light buff. Ventral pelage is whitish; gular patch is reddish cinnamon. Tail is reddish cinnamon above and reddish buff below. Female Venezuelan Lowland Rabbits are larger than males.Habitat.Low shrubby, herbaceous savanna called “Escobillal,” consisting of Sida spp.and Malvastrum spp.(both Malvaceae). Savanna adjoins tropical dry forests.Food and Feeding.The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit feeds primarily on Sida spp.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbitlasts for ¢.270 days, with a peak in September-December. Gestation is c¢.35 days, and litter size averages 2-6 young/female.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit is a recently described species endemic to Venezuela, and little data are available on its distribution, population status, threats, and conservations status. It is only known from a few localities: Fundo Millano 18 km north-east of the town of Sabaneta, the type locality in Barinas, Chorrosco Bajo in Barinas 112 km east of type locality, Hato Cantaclaro 15 km north of the town of Santa Rosa, Hacienda Las Mercedesin Portuguesa 25 km west of the city of Guanare, and Finca Las Lajitas in Guarico 5 km north-west of the town of San Rafael de Orituco. Distribution of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit may be more extensive than what is currently known. Research is needed to clarify its distribution, followed by establishment of management plans and conservation areas. Threats are likely similar to those faced by other species of Sylvilagusin Venezuela, such as deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, hunting, predation by feral dogs, and competition with livestock.Bibliography.Durant & Guevara (2000, 2001, 2008), Hoffmann & Smith (2005).","taxonomy":"Sylvilagus varynaensis Durant & Guevara, 2001, “Fundo Millano (8E46’LLN and 69E56’LW), 146 m elevation, 18 km NE of the town of Sabaneta, Distrito Obispos, state of Barinas,” Venezuela.This species probably lives sympatrically with S. brasiliensisand S. floridanus. Monotypic.Distribution.Lowlands of the Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guarico states (CE Venezuela).Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-450 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 5864 mm, hindfoot 83-89 mm; weight 1.5-1.8 kg. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit has buffy dorsal fur, bordered with black. Nuchal patch is reddish. Eye rings are cotton-white. Outer surfaces of ears are light buff. Ventral pelage is whitish; gular patch is reddish cinnamon. Tail is reddish cinnamon above and reddish buff below. Female Venezuelan Lowland Rabbits are larger than males.Habitat.Low shrubby, herbaceous savanna called “Escobillal,” consisting of Sida spp.and Malvastrum spp.(both Malvaceae). Savanna adjoins tropical dry forests.Food and Feeding.The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit feeds primarily on Sida spp.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbitlasts for ¢.270 days, with a peak in September-December. Gestation is c¢.35 days, and litter size averages 2-6 young/female.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit is a recently described species endemic to Venezuela, and little data are available on its distribution, population status, threats, and conservations status. It is only known from a few localities: Fundo Millano 18 km north-east of the town of Sabaneta, the type locality in Barinas, Chorrosco Bajo in Barinas 112 km east of type locality, Hato Cantaclaro 15 km north of the town of Santa Rosa, Hacienda Las Mercedesin Portuguesa 25 km west of the city of Guanare, and Finca Las Lajitas in Guarico 5 km north-west of the town of San Rafael de Orituco.","commonNames":"Lapin du Venezuela @fr | Venezuela-Baumschwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Venezuela @es | Barinas Wild Rabbit @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Durant & Guevara","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2001","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"121","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"varynaensis","name":"Sylvilagus varynaensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Lowlands of the Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guarico states (CE Venezuela).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625589/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Durant & Guevara (2000, 2001, 2008) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit feeds primarily on Sida spp.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbitlasts for ¢.270 days, with a peak in September-December. Gestation is c¢.35 days, and litter size averages 2-6 young/female.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit is a recently described species endemic to Venezuela, and little data are available on its distribution, population status, threats, and conservations status. It is only known from a few localities: Fundo Millano 18 km north-east of the town of Sabaneta, the type locality in Barinas, Chorrosco Bajo in Barinas 112 km east of type locality, Hato Cantaclaro 15 km north of the town of Santa Rosa, Hacienda Las Mercedesin Portuguesa 25 km west of the city of Guanare, and Finca Las Lajitas in Guarico 5 km north-west of the town of San Rafael de Orituco. Distribution of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit may be more extensive than what is currently known. Research is needed to clarify its distribution, followed by establishment of management plans and conservation areas. Threats are likely similar to those faced by other species of Sylvilagusin Venezuela, such as deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, hunting, predation by feral dogs, and competition with livestock.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 420-450 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 5864 mm, hindfoot 83-89 mm; weight 1.5-1.8 kg. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit has buffy dorsal fur, bordered with black. Nuchal patch is reddish. Eye rings are cotton-white. Outer surfaces of ears are light buff. Ventral pelage is whitish; gular patch is reddish cinnamon. Tail is reddish cinnamon above and reddish buff below. Female Venezuelan Lowland Rabbits are larger than males.","habitat":"Low shrubby, herbaceous savanna called “Escobillal,” consisting of Sida spp.and Malvastrum spp.(both Malvaceae). Savanna adjoins tropical dry forests."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B749FFF7FFC1F464FA61FE07.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B749FFF7FFC1F464FA61FE07","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"121","verbatimText":"20.Central American TapetiSylvilagus gabbiFrench:Lapin de Gabb/ German:Mittelamerika-Tapeti/ Spanish:Conejo de CentroaméricaOther common names:Central American Forest Rabbit, Tropical CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus brasiliensis var. gabbi J. A. Allen, 1877, “Talamanca [= Sipurio, Rio Sixaola, near Caribbean coast], Costa Rica.”Formerly, Sylvilagus gabbiwas included in S. brasiliensis, but it recently received full species status due to chromosomal information and distinct morphological characters. Subspecies truei was moved from S. brasiliensisto S. gabbi. Three different karyotypes are recorded for S. gabbi(2n = 36, 2n = 38, and 2n = 40). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations.Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. g. gabbi]. A. Allen, 1877— SE Guatemala, N & E Honduras, N & E Nicaragua, NE, E & S Costa Rica, and Panama.S. g truer]. A. Allen, 1890 — E & SE of Mexico (S Tamaulipas, SE San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, NE Querétaro, NE Hidalgo, NE, E & SE Puebla, N & NE Oaxaca, N & C Chiapas, Tabasco, and SW Campeche), S Belize, and Guatemala (except SE tip).Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-390 mm, tail mean 21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot mean 77 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Central American Tapeti is small, with short ears, short hindfeet, and extremely short tail. Dorsal color varies from near blackish to blackish brown. Sides and tail are slightly paler than back. Tail is uniformly brown, and ventral fur is whitish, exceptfor dark brownish throat patch.Habitat.Tropical forests including rain, deciduous, and second growth forests near openings and pastures adjoining forested areas from sea level to elevations ofat least 1524 m. A representative rainforest used by the Central American Tapeti in Veracruz had a well-developed canopy of trees up to 50 m high, including breadnut (Brosimumalicastrum, Moraceae) and Nectandraambigens (Lauraceae), and sparse understory.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Central American Tapeti lasts throughout the year in Chiapas, Mexico. Gestation is ¢.28 days, and litter sizes are 3—8 young.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Central American Tapeti uses well-worn runways in undergrowth in forest edges.Status and Conservation.The Central American Tapeti has not been assessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, but it was formerly considered to be the Common Tapeti (S. brasiliensis), which is classified as Least Concern. The Central American Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was recorded in Mexico after deforestation, but the Central American Tapeti survives well in second growth forests and pastures. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Central American Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Central American Tapeti and evaluate its distribution and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from a study conducted in Chiapas, Mexico.Bibliography.Allen (1877a), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c), Angermann (2016), Ceballos (2014), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Guerena-Géandara et al. (1982), Hall (1981), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995), Nelson (1909), Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007).","taxonomy":"Lepus brasiliensis var. gabbi J. A. Allen, 1877, “Talamanca [= Sipurio, Rio Sixaola, near Caribbean coast], Costa Rica.”Formerly, Sylvilagus gabbiwas included in S. brasiliensis, but it recently received full species status due to chromosomal information and distinct morphological characters. Subspecies truei was moved from S. brasiliensisto S. gabbi. Three different karyotypes are recorded for S. gabbi(2n = 36, 2n = 38, and 2n = 40). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations.Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Gabb @fr | Mittelamerika-Tapeti @de | Conejo de Centroamérica @es | Central American Forest Rabbit @en | Tropical Cottontail @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"121","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gabbi","name":"Sylvilagus gabbi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. g. gabbi]. A. Allen, 1877— SE Guatemala, N & E Honduras, N & E Nicaragua, NE, E & S Costa Rica, and Panama.S. g truer]. A. Allen, 1890 — E & SE of Mexico (S Tamaulipas, SE San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, NE Querétaro, NE Hidalgo, NE, E & SE Puebla, N & NE Oaxaca, N & C Chiapas, Tabasco, and SW Campeche), S Belize, and Guatemala (except SE tip).","bibliography":"Allen (1877a) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c) | Angermann (2016) | Ceballos (2014) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Guerena-Géandara et al. (1982) | Hall (1981) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995) | Nelson (1909) | Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Central American Tapeti lasts throughout the year in Chiapas, Mexico. Gestation is ¢.28 days, and litter sizes are 3—8 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Central American Tapeti uses well-worn runways in undergrowth in forest edges.","statusAndConservation":"The Central American Tapeti has not been assessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, but it was formerly considered to be the Common Tapeti (S. brasiliensis), which is classified as Least Concern. The Central American Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was recorded in Mexico after deforestation, but the Central American Tapeti survives well in second growth forests and pastures. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Central American Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Central American Tapeti and evaluate its distribution and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from a study conducted in Chiapas, Mexico.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 380-390 mm, tail mean 21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot mean 77 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Central American Tapeti is small, with short ears, short hindfeet, and extremely short tail. Dorsal color varies from near blackish to blackish brown. Sides and tail are slightly paler than back. Tail is uniformly brown, and ventral fur is whitish, exceptfor dark brownish throat patch.","habitat":"Tropical forests including rain, deciduous, and second growth forests near openings and pastures adjoining forested areas from sea level to elevations ofat least 1524 m. A representative rainforest used by the Central American Tapeti in Veracruz had a well-developed canopy of trees up to 50 m high, including breadnut (Brosimumalicastrum, Moraceae) and Nectandraambigens (Lauraceae), and sparse understory."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B749FFF7FFC1F464FA61FE07.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B749FFF7FFC1F464FA61FE07","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"121","verbatimText":"20.Central American TapetiSylvilagus gabbiFrench:Lapin de Gabb/ German:Mittelamerika-Tapeti/ Spanish:Conejo de CentroaméricaOther common names:Central American Forest Rabbit, Tropical CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus brasiliensis var. gabbi J. A. Allen, 1877, “Talamanca [= Sipurio, Rio Sixaola, near Caribbean coast], Costa Rica.”Formerly, Sylvilagus gabbiwas included in S. brasiliensis, but it recently received full species status due to chromosomal information and distinct morphological characters. Subspecies truei was moved from S. brasiliensisto S. gabbi. Three different karyotypes are recorded for S. gabbi(2n = 36, 2n = 38, and 2n = 40). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations.Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. g. gabbi]. A. Allen, 1877— SE Guatemala, N & E Honduras, N & E Nicaragua, NE, E & S Costa Rica, and Panama.S. g truer]. A. Allen, 1890 — E & SE of Mexico (S Tamaulipas, SE San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, NE Querétaro, NE Hidalgo, NE, E & SE Puebla, N & NE Oaxaca, N & C Chiapas, Tabasco, and SW Campeche), S Belize, and Guatemala (except SE tip).Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-390 mm, tail mean 21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot mean 77 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Central American Tapeti is small, with short ears, short hindfeet, and extremely short tail. Dorsal color varies from near blackish to blackish brown. Sides and tail are slightly paler than back. Tail is uniformly brown, and ventral fur is whitish, exceptfor dark brownish throat patch.Habitat.Tropical forests including rain, deciduous, and second growth forests near openings and pastures adjoining forested areas from sea level to elevations ofat least 1524 m. A representative rainforest used by the Central American Tapeti in Veracruz had a well-developed canopy of trees up to 50 m high, including breadnut (Brosimumalicastrum, Moraceae) and Nectandraambigens (Lauraceae), and sparse understory.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Central American Tapeti lasts throughout the year in Chiapas, Mexico. Gestation is ¢.28 days, and litter sizes are 3—8 young.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Central American Tapeti uses well-worn runways in undergrowth in forest edges.Status and Conservation.The Central American Tapeti has not been assessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, but it was formerly considered to be the Common Tapeti (S. brasiliensis), which is classified as Least Concern. The Central American Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was recorded in Mexico after deforestation, but the Central American Tapeti survives well in second growth forests and pastures. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Central American Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Central American Tapeti and evaluate its distribution and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from a study conducted in Chiapas, Mexico.Bibliography.Allen (1877a), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c), Angermann (2016), Ceballos (2014), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Guerena-Géandara et al. (1982), Hall (1981), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995), Nelson (1909), Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007).","taxonomy":"Lepus brasiliensis var. gabbi J. A. Allen, 1877, “Talamanca [= Sipurio, Rio Sixaola, near Caribbean coast], Costa Rica.”Formerly, Sylvilagus gabbiwas included in S. brasiliensis, but it recently received full species status due to chromosomal information and distinct morphological characters. Subspecies truei was moved from S. brasiliensisto S. gabbi. Three different karyotypes are recorded for S. gabbi(2n = 36, 2n = 38, and 2n = 40). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations.Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Gabb @fr | Mittelamerika-Tapeti @de | Conejo de Centroamérica @es | Central American Forest Rabbit @en | Tropical Cottontail @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"121","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gabbi","name":"Sylvilagus gabbi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. g. gabbi]. A. Allen, 1877— SE Guatemala, N & E Honduras, N & E Nicaragua, NE, E & S Costa Rica, and Panama.S. g truer]. A. Allen, 1890 — E & SE of Mexico (S Tamaulipas, SE San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, NE Querétaro, NE Hidalgo, NE, E & SE Puebla, N & NE Oaxaca, N & C Chiapas, Tabasco, and SW Campeche), S Belize, and Guatemala (except SE tip).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625587/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1877a) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c) | Angermann (2016) | Ceballos (2014) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Guerena-Géandara et al. (1982) | Hall (1981) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995) | Nelson (1909) | Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Central American Tapeti lasts throughout the year in Chiapas, Mexico. Gestation is ¢.28 days, and litter sizes are 3—8 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Central American Tapeti uses well-worn runways in undergrowth in forest edges.","statusAndConservation":"The Central American Tapeti has not been assessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, but it was formerly considered to be the Common Tapeti (S. brasiliensis), which is classified as Least Concern. The Central American Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was recorded in Mexico after deforestation, but the Central American Tapeti survives well in second growth forests and pastures. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Central American Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Central American Tapeti and evaluate its distribution and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from a study conducted in Chiapas, Mexico.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 380-390 mm, tail mean 21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot mean 77 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Central American Tapeti is small, with short ears, short hindfeet, and extremely short tail. Dorsal color varies from near blackish to blackish brown. Sides and tail are slightly paler than back. Tail is uniformly brown, and ventral fur is whitish, exceptfor dark brownish throat patch.","habitat":"Tropical forests including rain, deciduous, and second growth forests near openings and pastures adjoining forested areas from sea level to elevations ofat least 1524 m. A representative rainforest used by the Central American Tapeti in Veracruz had a well-developed canopy of trees up to 50 m high, including breadnut (Brosimumalicastrum, Moraceae) and Nectandraambigens (Lauraceae), and sparse understory."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74AFFF4FF16F3F5F80BFFBC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74AFFF4FF16F3F5F80BFFBC","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"120","verbatimText":"18.Omilteme CottontailSylvilagus insonusFrench:Lapin d’'Omiltemi/ German:Omilteme-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de OmiltemiOther common names:Omiltemi Cottontail, Omiltemi RabbitTaxonomy.Sylvilagus insonus Nelson, 1904, “Omilteme, Guerrero,” Mexico.Phylogenetic relationships of S. insonusto other species of Sylvilagusare unclear. Sylvilagus insonusand S. brasiliensiswere considered to be more closely related to each other than to other species of Sylvilagusand were placed in the subgenus Tapeti. Later, S. insonuswas transferred to the subgenus Sylvilagusbecause it did not appear to be a Tapeti. Finally, morphological comparisons between S. brasiliensis, S. dicer, and S. insonususing univariate and multivariate techniques indicated that S. brasiliensisand S. diceiare more closely related to each other than either is to S. insonus, and they supported placement of S. insonusin the subgenus Sylvilagus. This species lives sympatrically with S. cunicularius. Monotypic.Distribution.Omiltemi State Ecological Park, Sierra Madre del Sur, C Guerrero (SW Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 430-500 mm, tail 40-45 mm, ear 60 mm, hindfoot 93-96 mm (all measurements from two individuals). No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Omilteme Cottontail is large, with long ears. It has medium-sized hindfeet and short tail. Dorsal fur is rufous black, with dull dingy rusty-rufous nape. Ears are grizzled and dark blackish brown, with more black along anterior borders and attips. Sides are grayish black. Sides of nose and eye rings are dingy, grayish-buff. Tail is reddish black above. Ventral fur is whitish, with brownish throat patch. Tops of hindfeet are whitish. The Omilteme Cottontail is known only from two specimens available in the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History, so diagnostic information is limited and might not be accurate.Habitat.Dense cloud forests of pine and pine—oak at elevations of 2133-5280 m. Dominant trees are pine (Pinus, Pinaceae), oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), fir (Abies, Pinaceae), and cypress (Cupressus, Cupressaceae) that might reach 40 m in height. Weather is humid most of the year, and most rainfall occurs during summer. The Omilteme Cottontail lives in dense undergrowth, makes runways, and occupies burrows under rocks or similar shelter.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Omilteme Cottontail is mainly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Omilteme Cottontail is listed ascritically endangered in Mexico. It is rare, and its distribution includes less than 500 km?®. Much ofits known distribution occurs in Omiltemi State Ecological Park, a nature reserve of ¢.3613 ha. Nevertheless, major threats to survival of the Omilteme Cottontail are poaching and deforestation. Forests in the region have been intensively logged and used for cattle grazing, resulting in significant fragmentation and modification of the habitat. The Omilteme Cottontail had not been reported in the wild since the early 1900s, although a possible sighting was made in 1991. An inventory of mammals of Omiltemi State Ecological Park conducted in 1993 did not document the Omilteme Cottontail. Therefore, the Mexican government declared the Omiltemi Cottontail endangered in 1994. During a 1998 survey to clarify status of the Omilteme Cottontail, two specimen were killed for food by locals c.1 km south-south-east of the village of Omiltemi, and the dried skin of one specimen (without forefeet and hindfeet) was recovered. Genetic analysis, color pattern offur, and habitat where the specimen was obtained confirmed that it was an Omilteme Cottontail. Recommendations are to clarify present distribution and population status of the Omilteme Cottontail, enhance habitat conservation, enforce its protected status and stop hunting, and conduct research on its biology and ecology.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008b), Ceballos (2014), Ceballos & Navarro (1991), Cervantes & Lorenzo (1997), Cervantes et al. (2004), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Nelson (1904, 1909).","taxonomy":"Sylvilagus insonus Nelson, 1904, “Omilteme, Guerrero,” Mexico.Phylogenetic relationships of S. insonusto other species of Sylvilagusare unclear. Sylvilagus insonusand S. brasiliensiswere considered to be more closely related to each other than to other species of Sylvilagusand were placed in the subgenus Tapeti. Later, S. insonuswas transferred to the subgenus Sylvilagusbecause it did not appear to be a Tapeti. Finally, morphological comparisons between S. brasiliensis, S. dicer, and S. insonususing univariate and multivariate techniques indicated that S. brasiliensisand S. diceiare more closely related to each other than either is to S. insonus, and they supported placement of S. insonusin the subgenus Sylvilagus. This species lives sympatrically with S. cunicularius. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin d’'Omiltemi @fr | Omilteme-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Omiltemi @es | Omiltemi Cottontail @en | Omiltemi Rabbit @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Nelson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1904","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"120","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"insonus","name":"Sylvilagus insonus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Omiltemi State Ecological Park, Sierra Madre del Sur, C Guerrero (SW Mexico).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625581/files/figure.png","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008b) | Ceballos (2014) | Ceballos & Navarro (1991) | Cervantes & Lorenzo (1997) | Cervantes et al. (2004) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Nelson (1904, 1909)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Omilteme Cottontail is mainly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Omilteme Cottontail is listed ascritically endangered in Mexico. It is rare, and its distribution includes less than 500 km?®. Much ofits known distribution occurs in Omiltemi State Ecological Park, a nature reserve of ¢.3613 ha. Nevertheless, major threats to survival of the Omilteme Cottontail are poaching and deforestation. Forests in the region have been intensively logged and used for cattle grazing, resulting in significant fragmentation and modification of the habitat. The Omilteme Cottontail had not been reported in the wild since the early 1900s, although a possible sighting was made in 1991. An inventory of mammals of Omiltemi State Ecological Park conducted in 1993 did not document the Omilteme Cottontail. Therefore, the Mexican government declared the Omiltemi Cottontail endangered in 1994. During a 1998 survey to clarify status of the Omilteme Cottontail, two specimen were killed for food by locals c.1 km south-south-east of the village of Omiltemi, and the dried skin of one specimen (without forefeet and hindfeet) was recovered. Genetic analysis, color pattern offur, and habitat where the specimen was obtained confirmed that it was an Omilteme Cottontail. Recommendations are to clarify present distribution and population status of the Omilteme Cottontail, enhance habitat conservation, enforce its protected status and stop hunting, and conduct research on its biology and ecology.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 430-500 mm, tail 40-45 mm, ear 60 mm, hindfoot 93-96 mm (all measurements from two individuals). No specific data are available for body weight but probably 500-950 g. The Omilteme Cottontail is large, with long ears. It has medium-sized hindfeet and short tail. Dorsal fur is rufous black, with dull dingy rusty-rufous nape. Ears are grizzled and dark blackish brown, with more black along anterior borders and attips. Sides are grayish black. Sides of nose and eye rings are dingy, grayish-buff. Tail is reddish black above. Ventral fur is whitish, with brownish throat patch. Tops of hindfeet are whitish. The Omilteme Cottontail is known only from two specimens available in the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History, so diagnostic information is limited and might not be accurate.","habitat":"Dense cloud forests of pine and pine—oak at elevations of 2133-5280 m. Dominant trees are pine (Pinus, Pinaceae), oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), fir (Abies, Pinaceae), and cypress (Cupressus, Cupressaceae) that might reach 40 m in height. Weather is humid most of the year, and most rainfall occurs during summer. The Omilteme Cottontail lives in dense undergrowth, makes runways, and occupies burrows under rocks or similar shelter."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74AFFF7FA11F597FBBBFDCB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74AFFF7FA11F597FBBBFDCB","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"120","verbatimText":"19.Common TapetiSylvilagus brasiliensisFrench:Lapin du Brésil/ German:Tapeti/ Spanish:Conejo tropicalOther common names:Forest Rabbit, TapetiTaxonomy.Lepus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758, “in America meridionalis.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “Pernambuco,” Brazil.Sylvilagus brasiliensisis closely related to S. varynaensis. Formerly, S. brasiliensisincluded S. diceiand S. gabbias subspecies. Subspecies true: has been removed from S. brasiliensisand now belongs to S. gabbi. Taxonomic revision of S. brasiliensisis necessary because some other subspecies might deserve full species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nineteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.brasiliensisLinnaeus,1758—PernambucoandBahiastates(NEBrazil).S.b.andinusThomas,1897—CanarProvince(SCEcuador).S.b.apollinarisThomas,1920—Bogotaregion(CColombia).S.b.capsalisThomas,1913—CajamarcaRegion(NPeru).S.b.caracasensisMondolfi&Méndez,1957—VenezuelanCoastalRange(NCVenezuela).S.b.chillaeAnthony,1923—ElOroProvince(SWEcuador).S.b.chotanusHershkovitz,1938—ImbaburaProvince(NEcuador).S.b.defilippiCornalia,1850—upperAmazonianregionsofColombia,EEcuador,andNWPeru.S.b.fulvescens].A.Allen,1912—CaucaDepartment(SWColombia).S.b.gibsoniThomas,1918—NArgentinafromtheRioParaguay-ParanatoETucuman,Jujuy,andSaltaprovinces,NintoTarijaDepartment(SBolivia).S.b.incaThomas,1913—SEPeru.S.b.kelloggiAnthony,1923—LojaandAzuayprovinces(SEcuador).S.b.meridensisThomas,1904—AndeanParamosinNEColombiaandAndeanParamosandWLlanosinWVenezuela.S.b.minensisThomas,1901—SW&SMinasGerais(SEBrazil).S.b.paraguensisThomas,1901—Paraguay(Chacoregionandadjacenthighlands),MattoGrossoState(WCBrazil),SantaCruzDepartment(EBolivia),CorrientesandMisionesprovinces(NEArgentina).S.b.peruanusHershkovitz,1950—PeruvianAndes.S.b.sanctaemartaeHershkovitz,1950—NColombia.S.b.surdasterThomas,1901—EsmeraldasProvince(NWEcuador).S. b. tapetillus Thomas, 1913— Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sulstates (SE Brazil). Also present in the Guinanas, N Brazil, and other areas shaded in the map, but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-420 mm, tail 20-21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 77-80 mm; weight 500-950 g. The Common Tapetiis small, with short to rudimentary tail. It has short hindfeet and short ears. Dorsal fur varies from light gray to almost black. Sides and upper parts of tail are slightly lighter. Ventral fur is whitish, with dark throat patch. Tail is dingy buff below.Habitat.Mostly in disturbed areas, including agricultural areas, and forest edges from sea level to elevations of at least 4500 m. Habitats of the Common Tapeti and the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) are mutually exclusive in north-western South America.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.The Common Tapeti breeds year-round. Female reproductive activity is negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with monthly low temperatures. Gestation lasts 42—45 days, and 3-9—4-7 litters/year occur in the Andean Paramos. Average litter sizes of 1-2-1-9 are the smallest reported for any species of Sylvilagus. A female Common Tapeti produces less than ten young per year. Young are born in an aboveground nest thatis built of dry grasses and has a central chamber with 3—4 small chambers at the end of a runway system. Young leave the nest at 11-13 days old and are nursed for an average of 20-1 days. Females become sexually active at 9-10 months old; males are sexually active at c.5 months old.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was noted in the high mountains of Venezuela after habitat loss. Little is known about distribution of the Common Tapeti in the Amazonas region. The Eastern Cottontail replaces the Common Tapeti in artificial savannas and scrublands that cut through original forests in north-western South America. Predators that follow the Eastern Cottontail might also threaten the Common Tapeti. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Common Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Nevertheless, the Common Tapeti seems to become more common in eastern Amazonas where forest disturbance and fragmentation due to timber extraction in rainforests are increasing. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Common Tapeti,its distribution, and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from studies conducted in the Paramos of Venezuela.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Zavala & Colmenares (2005), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Durant (1981, 1983, 1988), Durant & Guevara (2001), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995), Mondolfi & Méndez (1957), Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007), Silva et al. (2005), Thomas (1911¢).","taxonomy":"Lepus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758, “in America meridionalis.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “Pernambuco,” Brazil.Sylvilagus brasiliensisis closely related to S. varynaensis. Formerly, S. brasiliensisincluded S. diceiand S. gabbias subspecies. Subspecies true: has been removed from S. brasiliensisand now belongs to S. gabbi. Taxonomic revision of S. brasiliensisis necessary because some other subspecies might deserve full species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nineteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin du Brésil @fr | Tapeti @de | Conejo tropical @es | Forest Rabbit @en | Tapeti @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"120","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brasiliensis","name":"Sylvilagus brasiliensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.b.brasiliensisLinnaeus,1758—PernambucoandBahiastates(NEBrazil).S.b.andinusThomas,1897—CanarProvince(SCEcuador).S.b.apollinarisThomas,1920—Bogotaregion(CColombia).S.b.capsalisThomas,1913—CajamarcaRegion(NPeru).S.b.caracasensisMondolfi&Méndez,1957—VenezuelanCoastalRange(NCVenezuela).S.b.chillaeAnthony,1923—ElOroProvince(SWEcuador).S.b.chotanusHershkovitz,1938—ImbaburaProvince(NEcuador).S.b.defilippiCornalia,1850—upperAmazonianregionsofColombia,EEcuador,andNWPeru.S.b.fulvescens].A.Allen,1912—CaucaDepartment(SWColombia).S.b.gibsoniThomas,1918—NArgentinafromtheRioParaguay-ParanatoETucuman,Jujuy,andSaltaprovinces,NintoTarijaDepartment(SBolivia).S.b.incaThomas,1913—SEPeru.S.b.kelloggiAnthony,1923—LojaandAzuayprovinces(SEcuador).S.b.meridensisThomas,1904—AndeanParamosinNEColombiaandAndeanParamosandWLlanosinWVenezuela.S.b.minensisThomas,1901—SW&SMinasGerais(SEBrazil).S.b.paraguensisThomas,1901—Paraguay(Chacoregionandadjacenthighlands),MattoGrossoState(WCBrazil),SantaCruzDepartment(EBolivia),CorrientesandMisionesprovinces(NEArgentina).S.b.peruanusHershkovitz,1950—PeruvianAndes.S.b.sanctaemartaeHershkovitz,1950—NColombia.S.b.surdasterThomas,1901—EsmeraldasProvince(NWEcuador).S. b. tapetillus Thomas, 1913— Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sulstates (SE Brazil). Also present in the Guinanas, N Brazil, and other areas shaded in the map, but subspecies involved not known.","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c) | Angermann (2016) | Cervantes, Zavala & Colmenares (2005) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Durant (1981, 1983, 1988) | Durant & Guevara (2001) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995) | Mondolfi & Méndez (1957) | Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007) | Silva et al. (2005) | Thomas (1911¢)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"The Common Tapeti breeds year-round. Female reproductive activity is negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with monthly low temperatures. Gestation lasts 42—45 days, and 3-9—4-7 litters/year occur in the Andean Paramos. Average litter sizes of 1-2-1-9 are the smallest reported for any species of Sylvilagus. A female Common Tapeti produces less than ten young per year. Young are born in an aboveground nest thatis built of dry grasses and has a central chamber with 3—4 small chambers at the end of a runway system. Young leave the nest at 11-13 days old and are nursed for an average of 20-1 days. Females become sexually active at 9-10 months old; males are sexually active at c.5 months old.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was noted in the high mountains of Venezuela after habitat loss. Little is known about distribution of the Common Tapeti in the Amazonas region. The Eastern Cottontail replaces the Common Tapeti in artificial savannas and scrublands that cut through original forests in north-western South America. Predators that follow the Eastern Cottontail might also threaten the Common Tapeti. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Common Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Nevertheless, the Common Tapeti seems to become more common in eastern Amazonas where forest disturbance and fragmentation due to timber extraction in rainforests are increasing. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Common Tapeti,its distribution, and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from studies conducted in the Paramos of Venezuela.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 380-420 mm, tail 20-21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 77-80 mm; weight 500-950 g. The Common Tapetiis small, with short to rudimentary tail. It has short hindfeet and short ears. Dorsal fur varies from light gray to almost black. Sides and upper parts of tail are slightly lighter. Ventral fur is whitish, with dark throat patch. Tail is dingy buff below.","habitat":"Mostly in disturbed areas, including agricultural areas, and forest edges from sea level to elevations of at least 4500 m. Habitats of the Common Tapeti and the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) are mutually exclusive in north-western South America."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74BFFF4FAC8F80AFBD4FA5B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74BFFF4FAC8F80AFBD4FA5B","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"119","verbatimText":"17.Marsh RabbitSylvilagus palustrisFrench:Lapin des marais/ German:Marschlandkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de pantanoOther common names:Key Rabbit, Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit (hefner)Taxonomy.Lepus palustris Bachman, 1837, “South Carolina never ... more than forty miles [64 km] from the sea coast.”Restricted by G. S. Miller and J. A. G. Rehn in 1901 to “Eastern South Carolina,” USA.Genetic analysis shows that S. palustrisand S. aquaticusare sister taxa and share a derived karyotype (2n = 38). Taxonomic status of S. palustrisneeds evaluation. Classification of two subspecies is under discussion (paludicola and palustris). Recent genetic analysis of mtDNA and nDNA to investigate the endangered “Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit” (S. p. hefneri) did not confirm its taxonomic status. Nevertheless, results supported recognition of the western Lower Keys populations as a distinct “population segment” under the US Endangered Species Act. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.p.palustrisBachman,1837—fromSEVirginia(DismalSwamp)throughENorthCarolinatoSAlabamaandNFlorida(SEUSA).S.p.hefneriLazell,1984—BocaChica,Saddlebunch,Sugarloaf,andBigPineKeys(FloridaKeys),andonsomeofthesurroundingsmallerkeys(SEUSA).S. p. paludicola Miller & Bangs, 1894— Florida Peninsula (SE USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 430-440 mm, tail 33-39 mm, ear 45-52 mm, hindfoot 89-94 mm; weight 1.1-6 kg. The Marsh Rabbit is small to medium-sized, with rough hair. Dorsal fur, rump, uppertail, and hindlegs vary from chestnut-brown to dark rusty red. Ventral fur is reddish brown, and nape is dark rufous cinnamon. Central abdomen is white, with remainder of belly buff to light brown. Feet are small, slender, and dark reddish to buffy. Tail is small, with a dingy underside. Ears are short and broad, with black edges.On following pages: 18. Omilteme Cottontail (Sylvilagus insonus); 19. Common Tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis); 20 Cottontail (Sylvilagusdice); 23. Mexican Cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius); 24. Tres Marias Cottontail (Sylvilagus Robust Cottontail(Sylvilagus robustus); 28. Manzano Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus cognatus); 29. Hispid Hare (. Central American Tapeti (Sylvilagus gabbi); 21. Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit (Sylvilagus varynaensis), 22. Dice's graysoni); 25. Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus); 26. Appalachian Cottontail (Sylvilagus obscurus); 27. Caprolagus hispidus); 30. Bunyoro Rabbit (Poelagus marjorita); 31. European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).Habitat.Confined to marshy habitats from sea level to elevations of 152 m. The single most important factor limiting distribution of the Marsh Rabbit is availability of water. It usually inhabits areas of brackish water, although it can occur in freshwater marshes. In Florida, Marsh Rabbits live in habitats with trees such as magnolia (Magnoliagrandi-Jlora, Magnoliaceae), tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica, Cornaceae), and sweet gum (Liquidambarstyraciflua, Altingiaceae) and shrubs such as blackberry (Rubusbetulifolius) and dewberry (R. continentalis), both Rosaceae. They also occur in habitats dominated by cattails (Typha sp., Typhaceae) that grow along edges of ponds. They have also been recorded in grassy fields, mangroves, hummocks, fallow tomato fields, and vegetation along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields. The Marsh Rabbit does not live in burrows; it digs holes with long toenails. Holes are sloped at ¢.60° and ¢.30 cm deep. The US endangered subspecies Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit is usually found in saltmarsh/ buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes. Their forms have been found in patches of saltmarsh or buttonwoods in brackish wetlands, or in patches of hardwoods embedded in or adjacent to marshes in freshwater wetlands.Food and Feeding.Diet of Marsh Rabbits includes various aquatic plants; herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants; cultivated crops; and grasses, sedges, and flowers.Breeding.Female Marsh Rabbits breed throughout the year, although some anestrous females are found in all months. Adult males are sexually active year-round, but juvenile males are active in December—-May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Litter sizes were 2—4 young in Florida and 3-5 young in Georgia. Litter size was smaller in November than March in Florida. Averages of 5-7-6-9 litters are produced per year. Young are born in nests that average 36 cm wide and ¢.20 cm deep. Nests are constructed of soft grass and mothers’ fur and are placed among sedges ¢.9 m from water. Reproductive rate of the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit may be lower than that of the other subspecies; 3-7 litters/year and 1-3 young/litter were recorded. Nests of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits are commonly found in grassy saltmarsh. Young leave nests c.2 weeks after birth and often disperse from their natal patches after 8-10 months (particularly males).Activity patterns.Marsh Rabbits are mainly nocturnal. They are most active between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. They rest in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marsh Rabbits like to swim, using an alternate paddling motion especially in warm water. They generally walk instead of hopping, particularly when crossing muddy areas. Marsh Rabbits have small home ranges. They deposit feces in small piles on logs and stumps or in larger piles along runways. Both males and females fight one another. Male Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits made one relatively long one-way movement as subadults (more than 124 m but less than 2 km), and females usually remained near their natal patches. They used dense ground cover while traveling. After establishing a home range, an adult lived in one patch of habitat until its death. Home ranges of the same sex rarely overlapped. Home ranges of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits averaged 4 ha, with core areas averaging 1-2 ha.Areas used during inactive periods averaged 1-4 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Marsh Rabbit is widespread and abundant in parts ofits distribution. It is even considered as pest in some agricultural areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida. It is hunted in the southern USA. Nevertheless,little is known aboutits biology and ecology. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the insular subspecies, the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit, as endangered in1990. It has an estimated population size of only 200-700 mature individuals. It is restricted to the lower Florida Keys (extent of occurrence 90 km? and area of occupancy less than 10 km?), has experienced a severe population decline (loss of nine of the 76 occupied patches recorded in 1988-1996 and revisited in 2001 and 2003), exists in fragmented subpopulations that lower the likelihood of recolonization and gene flow, and has small subpopulations ofless than 250 mature adults. A population viability analysis using data collected in 1991-1993 predicted that the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit had a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years. Major threats to the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit are human-induced sea-levelrise exacerbated by human development, habitat succession, hardwood encroachment, predation by Raccoons (Procyon lotor), domestic and feral cats, and mortality from cars. It is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing, and off-road vehicle use.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Blair (1936), Burt & Grossenheider (1976), Carr (1939), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Willner (1981), Faulhaber (2003), Faulhaber & Smith (2008), Faulhaber et al. (2008), Forys (1995), Forys & Humphrey (1996, 1999), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951), Harper (1927), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holler & Conaway (1979), LaFever et al. (2007), Lazell (1984), Lissovsky (2016), Miller & Rehn (1901), Nelson (1909), Robinson et al. (1983, 1984), Schmidt, J.A. et al. (2012), Schmidt, PM. et al. (2010), Schwartz (1952), Tomkins (1935), Tursi et al. (2013), Whitaker & Hamilton (1998).","taxonomy":"Lepus palustris Bachman, 1837, “South Carolina never ... more than forty miles [64 km] from the sea coast.”Restricted by G. S. Miller and J. A. G. Rehn in 1901 to “Eastern South Carolina,” USA.Genetic analysis shows that S. palustrisand S. aquaticusare sister taxa and share a derived karyotype (2n = 38). Taxonomic status of S. palustrisneeds evaluation. Classification of two subspecies is under discussion (paludicola and palustris). Recent genetic analysis of mtDNA and nDNA to investigate the endangered “Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit” (S. p. hefneri) did not confirm its taxonomic status. Nevertheless, results supported recognition of the western Lower Keys populations as a distinct “population segment” under the US Endangered Species Act. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin des marais @fr | Marschlandkaninchen @de | Conejo de pantano @es | Key Rabbit @en | Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit (hefner) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"119","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"palustris","name":"Sylvilagus palustris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.p.palustrisBachman,1837—fromSEVirginia(DismalSwamp)throughENorthCarolinatoSAlabamaandNFlorida(SEUSA).S.p.hefneriLazell,1984—BocaChica,Saddlebunch,Sugarloaf,andBigPineKeys(FloridaKeys),andonsomeofthesurroundingsmallerkeys(SEUSA).S. p. paludicola Miller & Bangs, 1894— Florida Peninsula (SE USA).","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Blair (1936) | Burt & Grossenheider (1976) | Carr (1939) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Willner (1981) | Faulhaber (2003) | Faulhaber & Smith (2008) | Faulhaber et al. (2008) | Forys (1995) | Forys & Humphrey (1996, 1999) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951) | Harper (1927) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holler & Conaway (1979) | LaFever et al. (2007) | Lazell (1984) | Lissovsky (2016) | Miller & Rehn (1901) | Nelson (1909) | Robinson et al. (1983, 1984) | Schmidt, J.A. et al. (2012) | Schmidt, PM. et al. (2010) | Schwartz (1952) | Tomkins (1935) | Tursi et al. (2013) | Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Marsh Rabbits includes various aquatic plants; herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants; cultivated crops; and grasses, sedges, and flowers.","breeding":"Female Marsh Rabbits breed throughout the year, although some anestrous females are found in all months. Adult males are sexually active year-round, but juvenile males are active in December—-May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Litter sizes were 2—4 young in Florida and 3-5 young in Georgia. Litter size was smaller in November than March in Florida. Averages of 5-7-6-9 litters are produced per year. Young are born in nests that average 36 cm wide and ¢.20 cm deep. Nests are constructed of soft grass and mothers’ fur and are placed among sedges ¢.9 m from water. Reproductive rate of the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit may be lower than that of the other subspecies; 3-7 litters/year and 1-3 young/litter were recorded. Nests of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits are commonly found in grassy saltmarsh. Young leave nests c.2 weeks after birth and often disperse from their natal patches after 8-10 months (particularly males).","activityPatterns":"Marsh Rabbits are mainly nocturnal. They are most active between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. They rest in forms during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Marsh Rabbits like to swim, using an alternate paddling motion especially in warm water. They generally walk instead of hopping, particularly when crossing muddy areas. Marsh Rabbits have small home ranges. They deposit feces in small piles on logs and stumps or in larger piles along runways. Both males and females fight one another. Male Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits made one relatively long one-way movement as subadults (more than 124 m but less than 2 km), and females usually remained near their natal patches. They used dense ground cover while traveling. After establishing a home range, an adult lived in one patch of habitat until its death. Home ranges of the same sex rarely overlapped. Home ranges of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits averaged 4 ha, with core areas averaging 1-2 ha.Areas used during inactive periods averaged 1-4 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Marsh Rabbit is widespread and abundant in parts ofits distribution. It is even considered as pest in some agricultural areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida. It is hunted in the southern USA. Nevertheless,little is known aboutits biology and ecology. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the insular subspecies, the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit, as endangered in1990. It has an estimated population size of only 200-700 mature individuals. It is restricted to the lower Florida Keys (extent of occurrence 90 km? and area of occupancy less than 10 km?), has experienced a severe population decline (loss of nine of the 76 occupied patches recorded in 1988-1996 and revisited in 2001 and 2003), exists in fragmented subpopulations that lower the likelihood of recolonization and gene flow, and has small subpopulations ofless than 250 mature adults. A population viability analysis using data collected in 1991-1993 predicted that the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit had a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years. Major threats to the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit are human-induced sea-levelrise exacerbated by human development, habitat succession, hardwood encroachment, predation by Raccoons (Procyon lotor), domestic and feral cats, and mortality from cars. It is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing, and off-road vehicle use.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 430-440 mm, tail 33-39 mm, ear 45-52 mm, hindfoot 89-94 mm; weight 1.1-6 kg. The Marsh Rabbit is small to medium-sized, with rough hair. Dorsal fur, rump, uppertail, and hindlegs vary from chestnut-brown to dark rusty red. Ventral fur is reddish brown, and nape is dark rufous cinnamon. Central abdomen is white, with remainder of belly buff to light brown. Feet are small, slender, and dark reddish to buffy. Tail is small, with a dingy underside. Ears are short and broad, with black edges.On following pages: 18. Omilteme Cottontail (Sylvilagus insonus); 19. Common Tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis); 20 Cottontail (Sylvilagusdice); 23. Mexican Cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius); 24. Tres Marias Cottontail (Sylvilagus Robust Cottontail(Sylvilagus robustus); 28. Manzano Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus cognatus); 29. Hispid Hare (. Central American Tapeti (Sylvilagus gabbi); 21. Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit (Sylvilagus varynaensis), 22. Dice's graysoni); 25. Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus); 26. Appalachian Cottontail (Sylvilagus obscurus); 27. Caprolagus hispidus); 30. Bunyoro Rabbit (Poelagus marjorita); 31. European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).","habitat":"Confined to marshy habitats from sea level to elevations of 152 m. The single most important factor limiting distribution of the Marsh Rabbit is availability of water. It usually inhabits areas of brackish water, although it can occur in freshwater marshes. In Florida, Marsh Rabbits live in habitats with trees such as magnolia (Magnoliagrandi-Jlora, Magnoliaceae), tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica, Cornaceae), and sweet gum (Liquidambarstyraciflua, Altingiaceae) and shrubs such as blackberry (Rubusbetulifolius) and dewberry (R. continentalis), both Rosaceae. They also occur in habitats dominated by cattails (Typha sp., Typhaceae) that grow along edges of ponds. They have also been recorded in grassy fields, mangroves, hummocks, fallow tomato fields, and vegetation along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields. The Marsh Rabbit does not live in burrows; it digs holes with long toenails. Holes are sloped at ¢.60° and ¢.30 cm deep. The US endangered subspecies Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit is usually found in saltmarsh/ buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes. Their forms have been found in patches of saltmarsh or buttonwoods in brackish wetlands, or in patches of hardwoods embedded in or adjacent to marshes in freshwater wetlands."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74BFFF5FFC9FEA2F7A2F132.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74BFFF5FFC9FEA2F7A2F132","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"119","verbatimText":"16.Swamp RabbitSylvilagus aquaticusFrench:Lapin aquatique/ German:Sumpfkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de ciénagaOther common names:Cane-cutterTaxonomy.Lepus aquaticus Bachman, 1837, “...western parts of that state.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Western Alabama,” USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. aquaticusand S. palustrisare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.a.aquaticusBachman,1837—NoftherangefromSEKansas,SMissouri,andSIIlinois,SEtoWtipofNorthCarolinaandNWGeorgia,andStoAlabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,andTexas(SEUSA).S. a. littoralis Nelson, 1909— coastal Gulf of Mexico section of the range in SE Texas, S & E Louisiana, SE Mississippi, and SW tip of Alabama (S USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm, tail 50-74 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 90-113 mm; weight 1:6.2-7 kg. The Swamp Rabbit is the largest species of Sylvilagus. Ears are medium-sized in relation to body size. Head and dorsal fur are dark and rusty brown to black. Ventral fur, throat, and tail are white. There are distinctive cinnamon eye rings. Swamp Rabbits are not sexually dimorphic, but there is probably a latitudinal size gradient.Habitat.Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.Food and Feeding.The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).Breeding.The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.Activity patterns.Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease. Habitat fragmentation also impedes dispersal. Despite shrinkage of habitats of Swamp Rabbits on distributional peripheries, there are still large areas of prime habitat (e.g. in Louisiana). Populations also have been reported to persist in southeastern Missouri although its habitat has been greatly reduced. Swamp Rabbits occur in many protected areas, but only few studies have been conducted to determine their abundance orstatus.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Calhoun (1941), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Feldhamer (1981), Cockrum (1949), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951, 1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hill (1967), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holler & Marsden (1970), Holler & Sorensen (1969), Holler et al. (1963), Holten & Toll (1960), Hunt (1959), Lissovsky (2016), Lowe (1958), Lowery (1974), Marsden & Holler (1964), Nelson (1909), Scheibe & Henson (2003), Smith, A.T. & Boyer (2008c), Smith, C.C. (1940), Sorensen et al. (1968, 1972), Svihla (1929), Terrel (1972), Toll et al. (1960), Vale & Kissell (2010), Zoliner et al. (1996).","taxonomy":"Lepus aquaticus Bachman, 1837, “...western parts of that state.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Western Alabama,” USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. aquaticusand S. palustrisare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin aquatique @fr | Sumpfkaninchen @de | Conejo de ciénaga @es | Cane-cutter @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"119","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aquaticus","name":"Sylvilagus aquaticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.a.aquaticusBachman,1837—NoftherangefromSEKansas,SMissouri,andSIIlinois,SEtoWtipofNorthCarolinaandNWGeorgia,andStoAlabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,andTexas(SEUSA).S. a. littoralis Nelson, 1909— coastal Gulf of Mexico section of the range in SE Texas, S & E Louisiana, SE Mississippi, and SW tip of Alabama (S USA).","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Calhoun (1941) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Feldhamer (1981) | Cockrum (1949) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hill (1967) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holler & Marsden (1970) | Holler & Sorensen (1969) | Holler et al. (1963) | Holten & Toll (1960) | Hunt (1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lowe (1958) | Lowery (1974) | Marsden & Holler (1964) | Nelson (1909) | Scheibe & Henson (2003) | Smith, A.T. & Boyer (2008c) | Smith, C.C. (1940) | Sorensen et al. (1968, 1972) | Svihla (1929) | Terrel (1972) | Toll et al. (1960) | Vale & Kissell (2010) | Zoliner et al. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).","breeding":"The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.","activityPatterns":"Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease. Habitat fragmentation also impedes dispersal. Despite shrinkage of habitats of Swamp Rabbits on distributional peripheries, there are still large areas of prime habitat (e.g. in Louisiana). Populations also have been reported to persist in southeastern Missouri although its habitat has been greatly reduced. Swamp Rabbits occur in many protected areas, but only few studies have been conducted to determine their abundance orstatus.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-550 mm, tail 50-74 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 90-113 mm; weight 1:6.2-7 kg. The Swamp Rabbit is the largest species of Sylvilagus. Ears are medium-sized in relation to body size. Head and dorsal fur are dark and rusty brown to black. Ventral fur, throat, and tail are white. There are distinctive cinnamon eye rings. Swamp Rabbits are not sexually dimorphic, but there is probably a latitudinal size gradient.Habitat.Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.Food and Feeding.The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).Breeding.The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.Activity patterns.Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease.","habitat":"Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74EFFF0FF61F4E5F600FCAA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74EFFF0FF61F4E5F600FCAA","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"116","verbatimText":"14.Mountain CottontailSylvilagus nuttalliiFrench:Lapin de Nuttall/ German:Berg-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de NuttallOther common names:Nuttall's CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus nuttallii Bachman, 1837, “...west of the Rocky Mountains....streams which flow into the Shoshonee and Columbia rivers.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “eastern Oregon, near mouth of Malheur River.”Genetic analysis shows that S. nuttalliiand S. auduboniiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus nuttalliiis closely allopatric with S. floridanuswhere their distributions meet across the northern and central Great Plains and in south-western USA. Sylvilagus nuttalliilives sympatrically over most of its distribution and in syntopy in the subalpine zone with Lepus americanus. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.n.nuttalliiBachman,1837—NWpartoftherangeinextremeSBritishColumbia(SWCanada),Washington,WCIdaho,Oregon,NECalifornia,andNWNevada(NWUSA).S.n.grangeriJ.A.Allen,1895—Cpartoftherange,fromSAlbertaandSSaskatchewan(SCanada)SWtoCECaliforniaandSEtoNArizonaandNWColorado(CUSA).S. n. pinetisJ. A. Allen, 1894— SE part of the range in SC Wyoming, SE Utah, C & SW Colorado, NW New Mexico, and NE & C Arizona (SC USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 340-390 mm, tail 30-54 mm, ear 55-60 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 629-871 g. The Mountain Cottontail is a large species of Sylvilagus. Hindlegs are long, and all four feet are densely covered with long hair. Ears are rounded at tips and short, with inner surfaces haired. Dorsal fur is grayish, and ventral fur is white. Tail is large, grizzled dark above and white below. Female Mountain Cottontails are slightly less than 4% larger than males. Thereis a single molt per year.Habitat.Sagebrush (Artemisia spp., Asteraceae) areas in the northern part of the distribution and forested areas in the southern part. Mountain Cottontails have been recorded in riparian growth, cultivated fields, desert scrub, grasslands, woodlands, and montane and subalpine coniferous forests. They prefer rocky, brushy, and wooded areas. In California, they occur at elevations of 1372 m to at least 3542 m. Mountain Cottontails use burrows and forms but do not dig their own burrows. They mostly live aboveground in dense habitat, but frequently use crevices in rocks or burrows as shelter in less dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.In California, the diet of the Mountain Cottontail consists mainly of sagebrush, but they prefer to feed on grasses when available in spring and summer. Western juniper (Juniperusoccidentalis, Cupressaceae) also is eaten. They usually feed underbrush cover or in clearings near shelter.Breeding.Start and duration of the reproductive season of the Mountain Cottontail vary across its distribution. It begins in April and lasts into July in north-eastern California and late February until early July in central Oregon. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. Female Mountain Cottontails in California normally have two litters per year, but in Oregon, they have 4-5 litters/year. Litter sizes average 4-6 young (range 1-8). A female might produce 22 young/year in Oregon.Juvenile breeding occurs butis rare. Nest is a cuplike cavity lined with fur and dried grass in a burrow. Top of the nest is covered with fur, grass, and small sticks. Adult sex ratio has been reported to be 1:1-2 (males/females).Activity patterns.The Mountain Cottontails actively feeds in early morning and evening. In California, activity started at dawn until 09:30 h and again from 14:30 h until dark, but in Nevada individuals were active from 17:45 h until dark. Activity of Mountain Cottontails peaks 1-2 hours after sunrise and 0-1 hour before sunset in Oregon. Adult males become extremely secretive after the reproductive season, but activity of females is relatively constant throughout the years.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Mountain Cottontail is more solitary than other species of Sylvilagus, which might be due to its uniform habitat. It might concentrate, as do other species of Sylvilagus, in areas where patches of green grass or other desirable habitat occurs. Social behavior among adult Mountain Cottontails is only observed during the reproductive season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Cottontail is common throughout most ofits distribution, and populations do not seem to be declining. The Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) has displaced the Mountain Cottontail in south-western North Dakota, which might represent an ongoing but localized threat. The Mountain Cottontail is a common game species and managed by state and provincial wildlife agencies that determine hunting seasons and bag limits.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Bailey (1936), Borell & Ellis (1934), Chapman (1975b, 1999a), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman et al. (1982), Dalquest (1941), Dice (1926), Frey & Malaney (2006), Frey &Yates (1996), Genoways & Jones (1972), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1946, 1951, 1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister & Lee (1963), Lissovsky (2016), Malaney & Frey (2006), Nelson (1909), Nowak (1999a), Orr (1940), Powers & Verts (1971), Smith & Boyer (2008b), Turner (1974), Verts & Gehman (1991).","taxonomy":"Lepus nuttallii Bachman, 1837, “...west of the Rocky Mountains....streams which flow into the Shoshonee and Columbia rivers.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “eastern Oregon, near mouth of Malheur River.”Genetic analysis shows that S. nuttalliiand S. auduboniiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus nuttalliiis closely allopatric with S. floridanuswhere their distributions meet across the northern and central Great Plains and in south-western USA. Sylvilagus nuttalliilives sympatrically over most of its distribution and in syntopy in the subalpine zone with Lepus americanus. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Nuttall @fr | Berg-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Nuttall @es | Nuttall's Cottontail @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"116","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nuttallii","name":"Sylvilagus nuttallii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.n.nuttalliiBachman,1837—NWpartoftherangeinextremeSBritishColumbia(SWCanada),Washington,WCIdaho,Oregon,NECalifornia,andNWNevada(NWUSA).S.n.grangeriJ.A.Allen,1895—Cpartoftherange,fromSAlbertaandSSaskatchewan(SCanada)SWtoCECaliforniaandSEtoNArizonaandNWColorado(CUSA).S. n. pinetisJ. A. Allen, 1894— SE part of the range in SC Wyoming, SE Utah, C & SW Colorado, NW New Mexico, and NE & C Arizona (SC USA).","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Bailey (1936) | Borell & Ellis (1934) | Chapman (1975b, 1999a) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman et al. (1982) | Dalquest (1941) | Dice (1926) | Frey & Malaney (2006) | Frey &Yates (1996) | Genoways & Jones (1972) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1946, 1951, 1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister & Lee (1963) | Lissovsky (2016) | Malaney & Frey (2006) | Nelson (1909) | Nowak (1999a) | Orr (1940) | Powers & Verts (1971) | Smith & Boyer (2008b) | Turner (1974) | Verts & Gehman (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"In California, the diet of the Mountain Cottontail consists mainly of sagebrush, but they prefer to feed on grasses when available in spring and summer. Western juniper (Juniperusoccidentalis, Cupressaceae) also is eaten. They usually feed underbrush cover or in clearings near shelter.","breeding":"Start and duration of the reproductive season of the Mountain Cottontail vary across its distribution. It begins in April and lasts into July in north-eastern California and late February until early July in central Oregon. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. Female Mountain Cottontails in California normally have two litters per year, but in Oregon, they have 4-5 litters/year. Litter sizes average 4-6 young (range 1-8). A female might produce 22 young/year in Oregon.Juvenile breeding occurs butis rare. Nest is a cuplike cavity lined with fur and dried grass in a burrow. Top of the nest is covered with fur, grass, and small sticks. Adult sex ratio has been reported to be 1:1-2 (males/females).","activityPatterns":"The Mountain Cottontails actively feeds in early morning and evening. In California, activity started at dawn until 09:30 h and again from 14:30 h until dark, but in Nevada individuals were active from 17:45 h until dark. Activity of Mountain Cottontails peaks 1-2 hours after sunrise and 0-1 hour before sunset in Oregon. Adult males become extremely secretive after the reproductive season, but activity of females is relatively constant throughout the years.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Mountain Cottontail is more solitary than other species of Sylvilagus, which might be due to its uniform habitat. It might concentrate, as do other species of Sylvilagus, in areas where patches of green grass or other desirable habitat occurs. Social behavior among adult Mountain Cottontails is only observed during the reproductive season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Cottontail is common throughout most ofits distribution, and populations do not seem to be declining. The Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) has displaced the Mountain Cottontail in south-western North Dakota, which might represent an ongoing but localized threat. The Mountain Cottontail is a common game species and managed by state and provincial wildlife agencies that determine hunting seasons and bag limits.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 340-390 mm, tail 30-54 mm, ear 55-60 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 629-871 g. The Mountain Cottontail is a large species of Sylvilagus. Hindlegs are long, and all four feet are densely covered with long hair. Ears are rounded at tips and short, with inner surfaces haired. Dorsal fur is grayish, and ventral fur is white. Tail is large, grizzled dark above and white below. Female Mountain Cottontails are slightly less than 4% larger than males. Thereis a single molt per year.","habitat":"Sagebrush (Artemisia spp., Asteraceae) areas in the northern part of the distribution and forested areas in the southern part. Mountain Cottontails have been recorded in riparian growth, cultivated fields, desert scrub, grasslands, woodlands, and montane and subalpine coniferous forests. They prefer rocky, brushy, and wooded areas. In California, they occur at elevations of 1372 m to at least 3542 m. Mountain Cottontails use burrows and forms but do not dig their own burrows. They mostly live aboveground in dense habitat, but frequently use crevices in rocks or burrows as shelter in less dense vegetation."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74AFFF7FA11F597FBBBFDCB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74AFFF7FA11F597FBBBFDCB","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"120","verbatimText":"19.Common TapetiSylvilagus brasiliensisFrench:Lapin du Brésil/ German:Tapeti/ Spanish:Conejo tropicalOther common names:Forest Rabbit, TapetiTaxonomy.Lepus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758, “in America meridionalis.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “Pernambuco,” Brazil.Sylvilagus brasiliensisis closely related to S. varynaensis. Formerly, S. brasiliensisincluded S. diceiand S. gabbias subspecies. Subspecies true: has been removed from S. brasiliensisand now belongs to S. gabbi. Taxonomic revision of S. brasiliensisis necessary because some other subspecies might deserve full species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nineteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.b.brasiliensisLinnaeus,1758—PernambucoandBahiastates(NEBrazil).S.b.andinusThomas,1897—CanarProvince(SCEcuador).S.b.apollinarisThomas,1920—Bogotaregion(CColombia).S.b.capsalisThomas,1913—CajamarcaRegion(NPeru).S.b.caracasensisMondolfi&Méndez,1957—VenezuelanCoastalRange(NCVenezuela).S.b.chillaeAnthony,1923—ElOroProvince(SWEcuador).S.b.chotanusHershkovitz,1938—ImbaburaProvince(NEcuador).S.b.defilippiCornalia,1850—upperAmazonianregionsofColombia,EEcuador,andNWPeru.S.b.fulvescens].A.Allen,1912—CaucaDepartment(SWColombia).S.b.gibsoniThomas,1918—NArgentinafromtheRioParaguay-ParanatoETucuman,Jujuy,andSaltaprovinces,NintoTarijaDepartment(SBolivia).S.b.incaThomas,1913—SEPeru.S.b.kelloggiAnthony,1923—LojaandAzuayprovinces(SEcuador).S.b.meridensisThomas,1904—AndeanParamosinNEColombiaandAndeanParamosandWLlanosinWVenezuela.S.b.minensisThomas,1901—SW&SMinasGerais(SEBrazil).S.b.paraguensisThomas,1901—Paraguay(Chacoregionandadjacenthighlands),MattoGrossoState(WCBrazil),SantaCruzDepartment(EBolivia),CorrientesandMisionesprovinces(NEArgentina).S.b.peruanusHershkovitz,1950—PeruvianAndes.S.b.sanctaemartaeHershkovitz,1950—NColombia.S.b.surdasterThomas,1901—EsmeraldasProvince(NWEcuador).S. b. tapetillus Thomas, 1913— Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sulstates (SE Brazil). Also present in the Guinanas, N Brazil, and other areas shaded in the map, but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-420 mm, tail 20-21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 77-80 mm; weight 500-950 g. The Common Tapetiis small, with short to rudimentary tail. It has short hindfeet and short ears. Dorsal fur varies from light gray to almost black. Sides and upper parts of tail are slightly lighter. Ventral fur is whitish, with dark throat patch. Tail is dingy buff below.Habitat.Mostly in disturbed areas, including agricultural areas, and forest edges from sea level to elevations of at least 4500 m. Habitats of the Common Tapeti and the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) are mutually exclusive in north-western South America.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.The Common Tapeti breeds year-round. Female reproductive activity is negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with monthly low temperatures. Gestation lasts 42—45 days, and 3-9—4-7 litters/year occur in the Andean Paramos. Average litter sizes of 1-2-1-9 are the smallest reported for any species of Sylvilagus. A female Common Tapeti produces less than ten young per year. Young are born in an aboveground nest thatis built of dry grasses and has a central chamber with 3—4 small chambers at the end of a runway system. Young leave the nest at 11-13 days old and are nursed for an average of 20-1 days. Females become sexually active at 9-10 months old; males are sexually active at c.5 months old.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was noted in the high mountains of Venezuela after habitat loss. Little is known about distribution of the Common Tapeti in the Amazonas region. The Eastern Cottontail replaces the Common Tapeti in artificial savannas and scrublands that cut through original forests in north-western South America. Predators that follow the Eastern Cottontail might also threaten the Common Tapeti. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Common Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Nevertheless, the Common Tapeti seems to become more common in eastern Amazonas where forest disturbance and fragmentation due to timber extraction in rainforests are increasing. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Common Tapeti,its distribution, and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from studies conducted in the Paramos of Venezuela.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Zavala & Colmenares (2005), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Durant (1981, 1983, 1988), Durant & Guevara (2001), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995), Mondolfi & Méndez (1957), Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007), Silva et al. (2005), Thomas (1911¢).","taxonomy":"Lepus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758, “in America meridionalis.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “Pernambuco,” Brazil.Sylvilagus brasiliensisis closely related to S. varynaensis. Formerly, S. brasiliensisincluded S. diceiand S. gabbias subspecies. Subspecies true: has been removed from S. brasiliensisand now belongs to S. gabbi. Taxonomic revision of S. brasiliensisis necessary because some other subspecies might deserve full species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nineteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin du Brésil @fr | Tapeti @de | Conejo tropical @es | Forest Rabbit @en | Tapeti @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"120","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brasiliensis","name":"Sylvilagus brasiliensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.b.brasiliensisLinnaeus,1758—PernambucoandBahiastates(NEBrazil).S.b.andinusThomas,1897—CanarProvince(SCEcuador).S.b.apollinarisThomas,1920—Bogotaregion(CColombia).S.b.capsalisThomas,1913—CajamarcaRegion(NPeru).S.b.caracasensisMondolfi&Méndez,1957—VenezuelanCoastalRange(NCVenezuela).S.b.chillaeAnthony,1923—ElOroProvince(SWEcuador).S.b.chotanusHershkovitz,1938—ImbaburaProvince(NEcuador).S.b.defilippiCornalia,1850—upperAmazonianregionsofColombia,EEcuador,andNWPeru.S.b.fulvescens].A.Allen,1912—CaucaDepartment(SWColombia).S.b.gibsoniThomas,1918—NArgentinafromtheRioParaguay-ParanatoETucuman,Jujuy,andSaltaprovinces,NintoTarijaDepartment(SBolivia).S.b.incaThomas,1913—SEPeru.S.b.kelloggiAnthony,1923—LojaandAzuayprovinces(SEcuador).S.b.meridensisThomas,1904—AndeanParamosinNEColombiaandAndeanParamosandWLlanosinWVenezuela.S.b.minensisThomas,1901—SW&SMinasGerais(SEBrazil).S.b.paraguensisThomas,1901—Paraguay(Chacoregionandadjacenthighlands),MattoGrossoState(WCBrazil),SantaCruzDepartment(EBolivia),CorrientesandMisionesprovinces(NEArgentina).S.b.peruanusHershkovitz,1950—PeruvianAndes.S.b.sanctaemartaeHershkovitz,1950—NColombia.S.b.surdasterThomas,1901—EsmeraldasProvince(NWEcuador).S. b. tapetillus Thomas, 1913— Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sulstates (SE Brazil). Also present in the Guinanas, N Brazil, and other areas shaded in the map, but subspecies involved not known.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625583/files/figure.png","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c) | Angermann (2016) | Cervantes, Zavala & Colmenares (2005) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Diersing (1981) | Durant (1981, 1983, 1988) | Durant & Guevara (2001) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995) | Mondolfi & Méndez (1957) | Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007) | Silva et al. (2005) | Thomas (1911¢)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"The Common Tapeti breeds year-round. Female reproductive activity is negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with monthly low temperatures. Gestation lasts 42—45 days, and 3-9—4-7 litters/year occur in the Andean Paramos. Average litter sizes of 1-2-1-9 are the smallest reported for any species of Sylvilagus. A female Common Tapeti produces less than ten young per year. Young are born in an aboveground nest thatis built of dry grasses and has a central chamber with 3—4 small chambers at the end of a runway system. Young leave the nest at 11-13 days old and are nursed for an average of 20-1 days. Females become sexually active at 9-10 months old; males are sexually active at c.5 months old.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was noted in the high mountains of Venezuela after habitat loss. Little is known about distribution of the Common Tapeti in the Amazonas region. The Eastern Cottontail replaces the Common Tapeti in artificial savannas and scrublands that cut through original forests in north-western South America. Predators that follow the Eastern Cottontail might also threaten the Common Tapeti. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Common Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Nevertheless, the Common Tapeti seems to become more common in eastern Amazonas where forest disturbance and fragmentation due to timber extraction in rainforests are increasing. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Common Tapeti,its distribution, and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from studies conducted in the Paramos of Venezuela.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 380-420 mm, tail 20-21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 77-80 mm; weight 500-950 g. The Common Tapetiis small, with short to rudimentary tail. It has short hindfeet and short ears. Dorsal fur varies from light gray to almost black. Sides and upper parts of tail are slightly lighter. Ventral fur is whitish, with dark throat patch. Tail is dingy buff below.","habitat":"Mostly in disturbed areas, including agricultural areas, and forest edges from sea level to elevations of at least 4500 m. Habitats of the Common Tapeti and the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) are mutually exclusive in north-western South America."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74BFFF4FAC8F80AFBD4FA5B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74BFFF4FAC8F80AFBD4FA5B","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"119","verbatimText":"17.Marsh RabbitSylvilagus palustrisFrench:Lapin des marais/ German:Marschlandkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de pantanoOther common names:Key Rabbit, Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit (hefner)Taxonomy.Lepus palustris Bachman, 1837, “South Carolina never ... more than forty miles [64 km] from the sea coast.”Restricted by G. S. Miller and J. A. G. Rehn in 1901 to “Eastern South Carolina,” USA.Genetic analysis shows that S. palustrisand S. aquaticusare sister taxa and share a derived karyotype (2n = 38). Taxonomic status of S. palustrisneeds evaluation. Classification of two subspecies is under discussion (paludicola and palustris). Recent genetic analysis of mtDNA and nDNA to investigate the endangered “Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit” (S. p. hefneri) did not confirm its taxonomic status. Nevertheless, results supported recognition of the western Lower Keys populations as a distinct “population segment” under the US Endangered Species Act. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.p.palustrisBachman,1837—fromSEVirginia(DismalSwamp)throughENorthCarolinatoSAlabamaandNFlorida(SEUSA).S.p.hefneriLazell,1984—BocaChica,Saddlebunch,Sugarloaf,andBigPineKeys(FloridaKeys),andonsomeofthesurroundingsmallerkeys(SEUSA).S. p. paludicola Miller & Bangs, 1894— Florida Peninsula (SE USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 430-440 mm, tail 33-39 mm, ear 45-52 mm, hindfoot 89-94 mm; weight 1.1-6 kg. The Marsh Rabbit is small to medium-sized, with rough hair. Dorsal fur, rump, uppertail, and hindlegs vary from chestnut-brown to dark rusty red. Ventral fur is reddish brown, and nape is dark rufous cinnamon. Central abdomen is white, with remainder of belly buff to light brown. Feet are small, slender, and dark reddish to buffy. Tail is small, with a dingy underside. Ears are short and broad, with black edges.On following pages: 18. Omilteme Cottontail (Sylvilagus insonus); 19. Common Tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis); 20 Cottontail (Sylvilagusdice); 23. Mexican Cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius); 24. Tres Marias Cottontail (Sylvilagus Robust Cottontail(Sylvilagus robustus); 28. Manzano Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus cognatus); 29. Hispid Hare (. Central American Tapeti (Sylvilagus gabbi); 21. Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit (Sylvilagus varynaensis), 22. Dice's graysoni); 25. Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus); 26. Appalachian Cottontail (Sylvilagus obscurus); 27. Caprolagus hispidus); 30. Bunyoro Rabbit (Poelagus marjorita); 31. European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).Habitat.Confined to marshy habitats from sea level to elevations of 152 m. The single most important factor limiting distribution of the Marsh Rabbit is availability of water. It usually inhabits areas of brackish water, although it can occur in freshwater marshes. In Florida, Marsh Rabbits live in habitats with trees such as magnolia (Magnoliagrandi-Jlora, Magnoliaceae), tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica, Cornaceae), and sweet gum (Liquidambarstyraciflua, Altingiaceae) and shrubs such as blackberry (Rubusbetulifolius) and dewberry (R. continentalis), both Rosaceae. They also occur in habitats dominated by cattails (Typha sp., Typhaceae) that grow along edges of ponds. They have also been recorded in grassy fields, mangroves, hummocks, fallow tomato fields, and vegetation along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields. The Marsh Rabbit does not live in burrows; it digs holes with long toenails. Holes are sloped at ¢.60° and ¢.30 cm deep. The US endangered subspecies Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit is usually found in saltmarsh/ buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes. Their forms have been found in patches of saltmarsh or buttonwoods in brackish wetlands, or in patches of hardwoods embedded in or adjacent to marshes in freshwater wetlands.Food and Feeding.Diet of Marsh Rabbits includes various aquatic plants; herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants; cultivated crops; and grasses, sedges, and flowers.Breeding.Female Marsh Rabbits breed throughout the year, although some anestrous females are found in all months. Adult males are sexually active year-round, but juvenile males are active in December—-May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Litter sizes were 2—4 young in Florida and 3-5 young in Georgia. Litter size was smaller in November than March in Florida. Averages of 5-7-6-9 litters are produced per year. Young are born in nests that average 36 cm wide and ¢.20 cm deep. Nests are constructed of soft grass and mothers’ fur and are placed among sedges ¢.9 m from water. Reproductive rate of the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit may be lower than that of the other subspecies; 3-7 litters/year and 1-3 young/litter were recorded. Nests of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits are commonly found in grassy saltmarsh. Young leave nests c.2 weeks after birth and often disperse from their natal patches after 8-10 months (particularly males).Activity patterns.Marsh Rabbits are mainly nocturnal. They are most active between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. They rest in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marsh Rabbits like to swim, using an alternate paddling motion especially in warm water. They generally walk instead of hopping, particularly when crossing muddy areas. Marsh Rabbits have small home ranges. They deposit feces in small piles on logs and stumps or in larger piles along runways. Both males and females fight one another. Male Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits made one relatively long one-way movement as subadults (more than 124 m but less than 2 km), and females usually remained near their natal patches. They used dense ground cover while traveling. After establishing a home range, an adult lived in one patch of habitat until its death. Home ranges of the same sex rarely overlapped. Home ranges of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits averaged 4 ha, with core areas averaging 1-2 ha.Areas used during inactive periods averaged 1-4 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Marsh Rabbit is widespread and abundant in parts ofits distribution. It is even considered as pest in some agricultural areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida. It is hunted in the southern USA. Nevertheless,little is known aboutits biology and ecology. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the insular subspecies, the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit, as endangered in1990. It has an estimated population size of only 200-700 mature individuals. It is restricted to the lower Florida Keys (extent of occurrence 90 km? and area of occupancy less than 10 km?), has experienced a severe population decline (loss of nine of the 76 occupied patches recorded in 1988-1996 and revisited in 2001 and 2003), exists in fragmented subpopulations that lower the likelihood of recolonization and gene flow, and has small subpopulations ofless than 250 mature adults. A population viability analysis using data collected in 1991-1993 predicted that the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit had a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years. Major threats to the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit are human-induced sea-levelrise exacerbated by human development, habitat succession, hardwood encroachment, predation by Raccoons (Procyon lotor), domestic and feral cats, and mortality from cars. It is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing, and off-road vehicle use.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Blair (1936), Burt & Grossenheider (1976), Carr (1939), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Willner (1981), Faulhaber (2003), Faulhaber & Smith (2008), Faulhaber et al. (2008), Forys (1995), Forys & Humphrey (1996, 1999), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951), Harper (1927), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holler & Conaway (1979), LaFever et al. (2007), Lazell (1984), Lissovsky (2016), Miller & Rehn (1901), Nelson (1909), Robinson et al. (1983, 1984), Schmidt, J.A. et al. (2012), Schmidt, PM. et al. (2010), Schwartz (1952), Tomkins (1935), Tursi et al. (2013), Whitaker & Hamilton (1998).","taxonomy":"Lepus palustris Bachman, 1837, “South Carolina never ... more than forty miles [64 km] from the sea coast.”Restricted by G. S. Miller and J. A. G. Rehn in 1901 to “Eastern South Carolina,” USA.Genetic analysis shows that S. palustrisand S. aquaticusare sister taxa and share a derived karyotype (2n = 38). Taxonomic status of S. palustrisneeds evaluation. Classification of two subspecies is under discussion (paludicola and palustris). Recent genetic analysis of mtDNA and nDNA to investigate the endangered “Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit” (S. p. hefneri) did not confirm its taxonomic status. Nevertheless, results supported recognition of the western Lower Keys populations as a distinct “population segment” under the US Endangered Species Act. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin des marais @fr | Marschlandkaninchen @de | Conejo de pantano @es | Key Rabbit @en | Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit (hefner) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"119","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"palustris","name":"Sylvilagus palustris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.p.palustrisBachman,1837—fromSEVirginia(DismalSwamp)throughENorthCarolinatoSAlabamaandNFlorida(SEUSA).S.p.hefneriLazell,1984—BocaChica,Saddlebunch,Sugarloaf,andBigPineKeys(FloridaKeys),andonsomeofthesurroundingsmallerkeys(SEUSA).S. p. paludicola Miller & Bangs, 1894— Florida Peninsula (SE USA).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625579/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Blair (1936) | Burt & Grossenheider (1976) | Carr (1939) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Willner (1981) | Faulhaber (2003) | Faulhaber & Smith (2008) | Faulhaber et al. (2008) | Forys (1995) | Forys & Humphrey (1996, 1999) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951) | Harper (1927) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holler & Conaway (1979) | LaFever et al. (2007) | Lazell (1984) | Lissovsky (2016) | Miller & Rehn (1901) | Nelson (1909) | Robinson et al. (1983, 1984) | Schmidt, J.A. et al. (2012) | Schmidt, PM. et al. (2010) | Schwartz (1952) | Tomkins (1935) | Tursi et al. (2013) | Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Marsh Rabbits includes various aquatic plants; herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants; cultivated crops; and grasses, sedges, and flowers.","breeding":"Female Marsh Rabbits breed throughout the year, although some anestrous females are found in all months. Adult males are sexually active year-round, but juvenile males are active in December—-May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Litter sizes were 2—4 young in Florida and 3-5 young in Georgia. Litter size was smaller in November than March in Florida. Averages of 5-7-6-9 litters are produced per year. Young are born in nests that average 36 cm wide and ¢.20 cm deep. Nests are constructed of soft grass and mothers’ fur and are placed among sedges ¢.9 m from water. Reproductive rate of the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit may be lower than that of the other subspecies; 3-7 litters/year and 1-3 young/litter were recorded. Nests of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits are commonly found in grassy saltmarsh. Young leave nests c.2 weeks after birth and often disperse from their natal patches after 8-10 months (particularly males).","activityPatterns":"Marsh Rabbits are mainly nocturnal. They are most active between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. They rest in forms during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Marsh Rabbits like to swim, using an alternate paddling motion especially in warm water. They generally walk instead of hopping, particularly when crossing muddy areas. Marsh Rabbits have small home ranges. They deposit feces in small piles on logs and stumps or in larger piles along runways. Both males and females fight one another. Male Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits made one relatively long one-way movement as subadults (more than 124 m but less than 2 km), and females usually remained near their natal patches. They used dense ground cover while traveling. After establishing a home range, an adult lived in one patch of habitat until its death. Home ranges of the same sex rarely overlapped. Home ranges of Lower Keys Marsh Rabbits averaged 4 ha, with core areas averaging 1-2 ha.Areas used during inactive periods averaged 1-4 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Marsh Rabbit is widespread and abundant in parts ofits distribution. It is even considered as pest in some agricultural areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida. It is hunted in the southern USA. Nevertheless,little is known aboutits biology and ecology. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the insular subspecies, the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit, as endangered in1990. It has an estimated population size of only 200-700 mature individuals. It is restricted to the lower Florida Keys (extent of occurrence 90 km? and area of occupancy less than 10 km?), has experienced a severe population decline (loss of nine of the 76 occupied patches recorded in 1988-1996 and revisited in 2001 and 2003), exists in fragmented subpopulations that lower the likelihood of recolonization and gene flow, and has small subpopulations ofless than 250 mature adults. A population viability analysis using data collected in 1991-1993 predicted that the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit had a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years. Major threats to the Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit are human-induced sea-levelrise exacerbated by human development, habitat succession, hardwood encroachment, predation by Raccoons (Procyon lotor), domestic and feral cats, and mortality from cars. It is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing, and off-road vehicle use.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 430-440 mm, tail 33-39 mm, ear 45-52 mm, hindfoot 89-94 mm; weight 1.1-6 kg. The Marsh Rabbit is small to medium-sized, with rough hair. Dorsal fur, rump, uppertail, and hindlegs vary from chestnut-brown to dark rusty red. Ventral fur is reddish brown, and nape is dark rufous cinnamon. Central abdomen is white, with remainder of belly buff to light brown. Feet are small, slender, and dark reddish to buffy. Tail is small, with a dingy underside. Ears are short and broad, with black edges.On following pages: 18. Omilteme Cottontail (Sylvilagus insonus); 19. Common Tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis); 20 Cottontail (Sylvilagusdice); 23. Mexican Cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius); 24. Tres Marias Cottontail (Sylvilagus Robust Cottontail(Sylvilagus robustus); 28. Manzano Mountain Cottontail (Sylvilagus cognatus); 29. Hispid Hare (. Central American Tapeti (Sylvilagus gabbi); 21. Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit (Sylvilagus varynaensis), 22. Dice's graysoni); 25. Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus); 26. Appalachian Cottontail (Sylvilagus obscurus); 27. Caprolagus hispidus); 30. Bunyoro Rabbit (Poelagus marjorita); 31. European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).","habitat":"Confined to marshy habitats from sea level to elevations of 152 m. The single most important factor limiting distribution of the Marsh Rabbit is availability of water. It usually inhabits areas of brackish water, although it can occur in freshwater marshes. In Florida, Marsh Rabbits live in habitats with trees such as magnolia (Magnoliagrandi-Jlora, Magnoliaceae), tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica, Cornaceae), and sweet gum (Liquidambarstyraciflua, Altingiaceae) and shrubs such as blackberry (Rubusbetulifolius) and dewberry (R. continentalis), both Rosaceae. They also occur in habitats dominated by cattails (Typha sp., Typhaceae) that grow along edges of ponds. They have also been recorded in grassy fields, mangroves, hummocks, fallow tomato fields, and vegetation along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields. The Marsh Rabbit does not live in burrows; it digs holes with long toenails. Holes are sloped at ¢.60° and ¢.30 cm deep. The US endangered subspecies Lower Keys Marsh Rabbit is usually found in saltmarsh/ buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes. Their forms have been found in patches of saltmarsh or buttonwoods in brackish wetlands, or in patches of hardwoods embedded in or adjacent to marshes in freshwater wetlands."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74BFFF5FFC9FEA2F7A2F132.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74BFFF5FFC9FEA2F7A2F132","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"119","verbatimText":"16.Swamp RabbitSylvilagus aquaticusFrench:Lapin aquatique/ German:Sumpfkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de ciénagaOther common names:Cane-cutterTaxonomy.Lepus aquaticus Bachman, 1837, “...western parts of that state.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Western Alabama,” USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. aquaticusand S. palustrisare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.a.aquaticusBachman,1837—NoftherangefromSEKansas,SMissouri,andSIIlinois,SEtoWtipofNorthCarolinaandNWGeorgia,andStoAlabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,andTexas(SEUSA).S. a. littoralis Nelson, 1909— coastal Gulf of Mexico section of the range in SE Texas, S & E Louisiana, SE Mississippi, and SW tip of Alabama (S USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm, tail 50-74 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 90-113 mm; weight 1:6.2-7 kg. The Swamp Rabbit is the largest species of Sylvilagus. Ears are medium-sized in relation to body size. Head and dorsal fur are dark and rusty brown to black. Ventral fur, throat, and tail are white. There are distinctive cinnamon eye rings. Swamp Rabbits are not sexually dimorphic, but there is probably a latitudinal size gradient.Habitat.Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.Food and Feeding.The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).Breeding.The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.Activity patterns.Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease. Habitat fragmentation also impedes dispersal. Despite shrinkage of habitats of Swamp Rabbits on distributional peripheries, there are still large areas of prime habitat (e.g. in Louisiana). Populations also have been reported to persist in southeastern Missouri although its habitat has been greatly reduced. Swamp Rabbits occur in many protected areas, but only few studies have been conducted to determine their abundance orstatus.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Calhoun (1941), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Feldhamer (1981), Cockrum (1949), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951, 1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hill (1967), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holler & Marsden (1970), Holler & Sorensen (1969), Holler et al. (1963), Holten & Toll (1960), Hunt (1959), Lissovsky (2016), Lowe (1958), Lowery (1974), Marsden & Holler (1964), Nelson (1909), Scheibe & Henson (2003), Smith, A.T. & Boyer (2008c), Smith, C.C. (1940), Sorensen et al. (1968, 1972), Svihla (1929), Terrel (1972), Toll et al. (1960), Vale & Kissell (2010), Zoliner et al. (1996).","taxonomy":"Lepus aquaticus Bachman, 1837, “...western parts of that state.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Western Alabama,” USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. aquaticusand S. palustrisare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin aquatique @fr | Sumpfkaninchen @de | Conejo de ciénaga @es | Cane-cutter @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"119","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aquaticus","name":"Sylvilagus aquaticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.a.aquaticusBachman,1837—NoftherangefromSEKansas,SMissouri,andSIIlinois,SEtoWtipofNorthCarolinaandNWGeorgia,andStoAlabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,andTexas(SEUSA).S. a. littoralis Nelson, 1909— coastal Gulf of Mexico section of the range in SE Texas, S & E Louisiana, SE Mississippi, and SW tip of Alabama (S USA).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625577/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Calhoun (1941) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Feldhamer (1981) | Cockrum (1949) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hill (1967) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holler & Marsden (1970) | Holler & Sorensen (1969) | Holler et al. (1963) | Holten & Toll (1960) | Hunt (1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lowe (1958) | Lowery (1974) | Marsden & Holler (1964) | Nelson (1909) | Scheibe & Henson (2003) | Smith, A.T. & Boyer (2008c) | Smith, C.C. (1940) | Sorensen et al. (1968, 1972) | Svihla (1929) | Terrel (1972) | Toll et al. (1960) | Vale & Kissell (2010) | Zoliner et al. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).","breeding":"The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.","activityPatterns":"Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease. Habitat fragmentation also impedes dispersal. Despite shrinkage of habitats of Swamp Rabbits on distributional peripheries, there are still large areas of prime habitat (e.g. in Louisiana). Populations also have been reported to persist in southeastern Missouri although its habitat has been greatly reduced. Swamp Rabbits occur in many protected areas, but only few studies have been conducted to determine their abundance orstatus.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-550 mm, tail 50-74 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 90-113 mm; weight 1:6.2-7 kg. The Swamp Rabbit is the largest species of Sylvilagus. Ears are medium-sized in relation to body size. Head and dorsal fur are dark and rusty brown to black. Ventral fur, throat, and tail are white. There are distinctive cinnamon eye rings. Swamp Rabbits are not sexually dimorphic, but there is probably a latitudinal size gradient.Habitat.Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas.Food and Feeding.The Swamp Rabbit feeds on a variety of plants. One study reported that plants eaten in order of preference were crossvine (Bignoniacapreolata, Bignoniaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), poison ivy (Rhusradicans, Anacardiaceae), grasses (Poaceae), catbriers (Smilax sp., Smilacaceae), and tree seedlings. Another study showed that plants were eaten according to their relative availability and were mainly sedges (Carexlupulina) but also blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae), hazelnut (Corylus sp., Betulaceae), deciduous holly (Zlex deciduas, Aquifoliaceae), and spicebush (Linderabenzoin, Lauraceae).Breeding.The Swamp Rabbit is a postpartum synchronous breeder, with estrus lasting generally less than an hour. A series of behaviors precedes estrus: the female chases or threatens males, and males dash and preform a jump sequence. The male chases the female before copulation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days, with 36-37 days being most common. Timing of reproduction varies slightly throughout the distribution of the Swamp Rabbit. Breeding season is longest in the south-central USA and becomes progressively shorter with increasing latitude. Breeding is year-round in Texas but starts in mid-February and ends in August in northern Alabama. Captive females build their nests against or under fences, bases of trees, and wooden structures. Some nests were built a few days before parturition, but others were built the same night. Females regularly build dummy nests but only one-half as many dummy nests as active nests. Young are sometimes scattered among nests at birth. The female lines a nest with her abdominal fur. One female lined her nest with fur just prior to giving birth and began nursing immediately after birth. Most nursing occurred at dawn and dusk, and nursing periods lasted 10-20 minutes. Young continue to nurse after leaving the nest. One nest found in the wild was built on top of the ground in a heavy weed patch, with stalks of dead weeds pulled around an inner lining of fur. Nests are 4-7 cm deep, 15 cm wide, and 18 cm high, and they have side entrances. Meanlitter sizes of Swamp Rabbits vary by region but are 1-6 young, with three young most common.First litters are smaller (e.g. 2.7 in Missouri and 2-8 in Alabama) than second litters (4-1 in Missouri and 3-2 in Alabama). Yearling females may produce largerlitters and more litters per year and thus might have a higher reproductive success than older females. Captive Swamp Rabbits had 1-5 young/year. Adult sex ratio is slightly shifted in favor of females (52-57%). Neonates have dark fur on back, and white fur ventrally and on abdomen. Eyes open at b—8 days of age, and young leave the nest at 12-15 days of age. Young born early in spring reach adultsize in December at ¢.10 months old; young born later in summer do not attain adult weight until the following spring. Juveniles are capable of breeding at 23-30 weeks old, but there are few reports ofjuveniles actually breeding.Activity patterns.Onset of evening activity of Swamp Rabbits is delayed as sunset becomes progressively later in spring. Delay is greatest for females and lower ranking males. Time and onset of evening activity are variable but occur well before sunset in late spring and summer. In late winter and early spring, onset of evening activity occurs during twilight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Swamp Rabbits vary in size. Female home ranges were reported to be 0-5-2-4 ha; males were 1-8-4 ha. One study suggested that males were non-territorial in January—June because home ranges overlapped considerably; otherwise Swamp Rabbits are considered to be territorial. Swamp Rabbits are excellent swimmers. They are vocal, and males display pheromone marking (“chinning”). Social organization of captive individuals consists of two basic behavioral patterns: a linear dominance hierarchy among males that does not include females, and breeding groups of several individuals controlled by a dominant male. The male dominance hierarchy prevents fighting (and injury) among reproductively mature males; alpha-male Swamp Rabbits dominate males below them, particularly immediate subordinates. Subordinate males attempt to minimize contacts with higher ranking males. Number of dominance displays was directly correlated with social status of the male. Male movement and proximity to females were directly correlated with social status. The top two males were responsible for most of the male-female interactions, and the alpha male was responsible for most copulations. It has been suggested that dominant males maintain their status from year to year. Swamp Rabbits use various maneuvers to confuse pursuers. One behavior is to climb onto a log, walk along its length, then backtrack and jump to the side, traveling at right angles to the former course.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Swamp Rabbit is an abundant and important game species in the US states along the Gulf of Mexico. As a game species, harvest is regulated by state wildlife agencies. Habitat in northern parts of its distribution has been destroyed byits alteration and riparian drainages, and as a result, populations of the subspecies aquaticushave begun to decrease.","habitat":"Primarily swamps, areas adjacent to rivers, floodplains, and lowland areas. In the northern part of their distribution, Swamp Rabbits inhabit mature forests, fiveyear-old regenerating forest tracts, and canebrake (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae) communities at about the 24°C isotherm. They are never far from water. Forms and runways are found in tangled marsh vegetation and brier bushes. Holes in the ground or in trees but also stumps, logs, low crotches oftrees, tangles, cane patches, and open grassy places are common form sites. Elevated objects such as logs are used as defecation sites, and these latrines probably serve as territorial markers. Hence, elevated objects are important habitat requirements. The nominotypical subspecies aquaticusis associated with mature forests, but littoralis is associated with coastal and riparian areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74EFFF0FF61F4E5F600FCAA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74EFFF0FF61F4E5F600FCAA","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"116","verbatimText":"14.Mountain CottontailSylvilagus nuttalliiFrench:Lapin de Nuttall/ German:Berg-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de NuttallOther common names:Nuttall's CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus nuttallii Bachman, 1837, “...west of the Rocky Mountains....streams which flow into the Shoshonee and Columbia rivers.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “eastern Oregon, near mouth of Malheur River.”Genetic analysis shows that S. nuttalliiand S. auduboniiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus nuttalliiis closely allopatric with S. floridanuswhere their distributions meet across the northern and central Great Plains and in south-western USA. Sylvilagus nuttalliilives sympatrically over most of its distribution and in syntopy in the subalpine zone with Lepus americanus. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.n.nuttalliiBachman,1837—NWpartoftherangeinextremeSBritishColumbia(SWCanada),Washington,WCIdaho,Oregon,NECalifornia,andNWNevada(NWUSA).S.n.grangeriJ.A.Allen,1895—Cpartoftherange,fromSAlbertaandSSaskatchewan(SCanada)SWtoCECaliforniaandSEtoNArizonaandNWColorado(CUSA).S. n. pinetisJ. A. Allen, 1894— SE part of the range in SC Wyoming, SE Utah, C & SW Colorado, NW New Mexico, and NE & C Arizona (SC USA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 340-390 mm, tail 30-54 mm, ear 55-60 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 629-871 g. The Mountain Cottontail is a large species of Sylvilagus. Hindlegs are long, and all four feet are densely covered with long hair. Ears are rounded at tips and short, with inner surfaces haired. Dorsal fur is grayish, and ventral fur is white. Tail is large, grizzled dark above and white below. Female Mountain Cottontails are slightly less than 4% larger than males. Thereis a single molt per year.Habitat.Sagebrush (Artemisia spp., Asteraceae) areas in the northern part of the distribution and forested areas in the southern part. Mountain Cottontails have been recorded in riparian growth, cultivated fields, desert scrub, grasslands, woodlands, and montane and subalpine coniferous forests. They prefer rocky, brushy, and wooded areas. In California, they occur at elevations of 1372 m to at least 3542 m. Mountain Cottontails use burrows and forms but do not dig their own burrows. They mostly live aboveground in dense habitat, but frequently use crevices in rocks or burrows as shelter in less dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.In California, the diet of the Mountain Cottontail consists mainly of sagebrush, but they prefer to feed on grasses when available in spring and summer. Western juniper (Juniperusoccidentalis, Cupressaceae) also is eaten. They usually feed underbrush cover or in clearings near shelter.Breeding.Start and duration of the reproductive season of the Mountain Cottontail vary across its distribution. It begins in April and lasts into July in north-eastern California and late February until early July in central Oregon. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. Female Mountain Cottontails in California normally have two litters per year, but in Oregon, they have 4-5 litters/year. Litter sizes average 4-6 young (range 1-8). A female might produce 22 young/year in Oregon.Juvenile breeding occurs butis rare. Nest is a cuplike cavity lined with fur and dried grass in a burrow. Top of the nest is covered with fur, grass, and small sticks. Adult sex ratio has been reported to be 1:1-2 (males/females).Activity patterns.The Mountain Cottontails actively feeds in early morning and evening. In California, activity started at dawn until 09:30 h and again from 14:30 h until dark, but in Nevada individuals were active from 17:45 h until dark. Activity of Mountain Cottontails peaks 1-2 hours after sunrise and 0-1 hour before sunset in Oregon. Adult males become extremely secretive after the reproductive season, but activity of females is relatively constant throughout the years.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Mountain Cottontail is more solitary than other species of Sylvilagus, which might be due to its uniform habitat. It might concentrate, as do other species of Sylvilagus, in areas where patches of green grass or other desirable habitat occurs. Social behavior among adult Mountain Cottontails is only observed during the reproductive season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Cottontail is common throughout most ofits distribution, and populations do not seem to be declining. The Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) has displaced the Mountain Cottontail in south-western North Dakota, which might represent an ongoing but localized threat. The Mountain Cottontail is a common game species and managed by state and provincial wildlife agencies that determine hunting seasons and bag limits.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Bailey (1936), Borell & Ellis (1934), Chapman (1975b, 1999a), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman et al. (1982), Dalquest (1941), Dice (1926), Frey & Malaney (2006), Frey &Yates (1996), Genoways & Jones (1972), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1946, 1951, 1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister & Lee (1963), Lissovsky (2016), Malaney & Frey (2006), Nelson (1909), Nowak (1999a), Orr (1940), Powers & Verts (1971), Smith & Boyer (2008b), Turner (1974), Verts & Gehman (1991).","taxonomy":"Lepus nuttallii Bachman, 1837, “...west of the Rocky Mountains....streams which flow into the Shoshonee and Columbia rivers.”Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “eastern Oregon, near mouth of Malheur River.”Genetic analysis shows that S. nuttalliiand S. auduboniiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Sylvilagus nuttalliiis closely allopatric with S. floridanuswhere their distributions meet across the northern and central Great Plains and in south-western USA. Sylvilagus nuttalliilives sympatrically over most of its distribution and in syntopy in the subalpine zone with Lepus americanus. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de Nuttall @fr | Berg-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Nuttall @es | Nuttall's Cottontail @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"116","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nuttallii","name":"Sylvilagus nuttallii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.n.nuttalliiBachman,1837—NWpartoftherangeinextremeSBritishColumbia(SWCanada),Washington,WCIdaho,Oregon,NECalifornia,andNWNevada(NWUSA).S.n.grangeriJ.A.Allen,1895—Cpartoftherange,fromSAlbertaandSSaskatchewan(SCanada)SWtoCECaliforniaandSEtoNArizonaandNWColorado(CUSA).S. n. pinetisJ. A. Allen, 1894— SE part of the range in SC Wyoming, SE Utah, C & SW Colorado, NW New Mexico, and NE & C Arizona (SC USA).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625573/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Bailey (1936) | Borell & Ellis (1934) | Chapman (1975b, 1999a) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman et al. (1982) | Dalquest (1941) | Dice (1926) | Frey & Malaney (2006) | Frey &Yates (1996) | Genoways & Jones (1972) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1946, 1951, 1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister & Lee (1963) | Lissovsky (2016) | Malaney & Frey (2006) | Nelson (1909) | Nowak (1999a) | Orr (1940) | Powers & Verts (1971) | Smith & Boyer (2008b) | Turner (1974) | Verts & Gehman (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"In California, the diet of the Mountain Cottontail consists mainly of sagebrush, but they prefer to feed on grasses when available in spring and summer. Western juniper (Juniperusoccidentalis, Cupressaceae) also is eaten. They usually feed underbrush cover or in clearings near shelter.","breeding":"Start and duration of the reproductive season of the Mountain Cottontail vary across its distribution. It begins in April and lasts into July in north-eastern California and late February until early July in central Oregon. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. Female Mountain Cottontails in California normally have two litters per year, but in Oregon, they have 4-5 litters/year. Litter sizes average 4-6 young (range 1-8). A female might produce 22 young/year in Oregon.Juvenile breeding occurs butis rare. Nest is a cuplike cavity lined with fur and dried grass in a burrow. Top of the nest is covered with fur, grass, and small sticks. Adult sex ratio has been reported to be 1:1-2 (males/females).","activityPatterns":"The Mountain Cottontails actively feeds in early morning and evening. In California, activity started at dawn until 09:30 h and again from 14:30 h until dark, but in Nevada individuals were active from 17:45 h until dark. Activity of Mountain Cottontails peaks 1-2 hours after sunrise and 0-1 hour before sunset in Oregon. Adult males become extremely secretive after the reproductive season, but activity of females is relatively constant throughout the years.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Mountain Cottontail is more solitary than other species of Sylvilagus, which might be due to its uniform habitat. It might concentrate, as do other species of Sylvilagus, in areas where patches of green grass or other desirable habitat occurs. Social behavior among adult Mountain Cottontails is only observed during the reproductive season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Cottontail is common throughout most ofits distribution, and populations do not seem to be declining. The Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) has displaced the Mountain Cottontail in south-western North Dakota, which might represent an ongoing but localized threat. The Mountain Cottontail is a common game species and managed by state and provincial wildlife agencies that determine hunting seasons and bag limits.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 340-390 mm, tail 30-54 mm, ear 55-60 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 629-871 g. The Mountain Cottontail is a large species of Sylvilagus. Hindlegs are long, and all four feet are densely covered with long hair. Ears are rounded at tips and short, with inner surfaces haired. Dorsal fur is grayish, and ventral fur is white. Tail is large, grizzled dark above and white below. Female Mountain Cottontails are slightly less than 4% larger than males. Thereis a single molt per year.","habitat":"Sagebrush (Artemisia spp., Asteraceae) areas in the northern part of the distribution and forested areas in the southern part. Mountain Cottontails have been recorded in riparian growth, cultivated fields, desert scrub, grasslands, woodlands, and montane and subalpine coniferous forests. They prefer rocky, brushy, and wooded areas. In California, they occur at elevations of 1372 m to at least 3542 m. Mountain Cottontails use burrows and forms but do not dig their own burrows. They mostly live aboveground in dense habitat, but frequently use crevices in rocks or burrows as shelter in less dense vegetation."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74EFFF3FA6EF482F923F0AF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74EFFF3FA6EF482F923F0AF","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"116","verbatimText":"15.New England CottontailSylvilagus transitionalisFrench:Lapin de Nouvelle-Angleterre/ German:Neuengland-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de Nueva InglaterraOther common names:Wood RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus transitionalis Bangs, 1895, “Liberty Hill, Conn. [= New London Co., Connecticut, USA].”Formerly, S. obscuruswas included in S. transitionalisbut received species status due to the discovery of two different cytotypes (S. obscurus2n = 42 and S. transitionalis2n = 52). Monotypic.Distribution.NE USA,in coastal S Maine, coastal and Merrimack River valley region of S New Hampshire, SE New York, W Massachusetts (including parts of Cape Cod), W & E (E of the Connecticut River) Connecticut, and Rhode Island.Descriptive notes.Head—body 390-430 mm, tail 22-65 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 87-97 mm; weight 0.8-1 kg. The New England Cottontail is a medium-sized species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is pinkish buff to ocher. Back is additionally overlaid with distinct black wash. Ears are short and rounded, and anterior edges are covered with black hair. A characteristic black spot usually occurs between ears. Females are slightly less than 1% larger than males.Adults have one molt per year in autumn.Pelage characteristics alone are not sufficient to differentiate the New England Cottontail from the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus); both species can have the same color and pelage characteristics throughout the distribution of the New England Cottontail. Cranial characteristics are most reliable to distinguish the two species.Habitat.Early successional habitat specialist, inhabiting areas of open woods or their borders, or shrubby areas and thickets in open areas. Historically, New England Cottontails occupied early successional forests that became abundant when farmlands were abandoned, and maturation of these forests into closed-canopy stands caused the decline of this species beginning in the 1960s. New England Cottontails prefers habitats with dense understory vegetation and fallow agricultural lands. They avoid venturing into the open and remain in close proximity to cover.Food and Feeding.Diet of the New England Cottontail includes a variety of vegetation, but it is the only species of Sylvilagusthat extensively consumes conifer needles.Breeding.Reproductive season of the New England Cottontail lasts from early March to early September, peaking in March—July. It is a postpartum synchronous breeder. Gestation appearsto last 28 days. Litter size averages 3-5 young, and females give birth to an average of 24 young/year. Twenty percent of pregnancies are from juvenile females breeding in their first year. Hybridization between the New England Cottontails and Eastern Cottontails occurs in the wild, but frequency is unknown. A genetic study conducted in the north-eastern USA where both species live sympatrically indicated that no hybridization occurred.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dominance hierarchies of male New England Cottontails regulate access to females and reproductive success. Reproductive behavior is most intense during the estrous period of females, and little social interaction occurs between estrous periods. Reproductive behavior begins 2-3 days before parturition, and postpartum breeding occurs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The New England Cottontail historically inhabited boreal habitats throughout south-eastern Canada in southern Quebec and north-eastern USA from southern Maine to Connecticut and New York. Nevertheless, a recent study restricted current distribution to 12,180 km?, c.86% less than the historical distribution. It has been hypothesized that the New England Cottontail is a “refugial relict” and that its patchy distribution resulted from a gradual change in climate coupled with invasion and displacement by the Eastern Cottontail in lowland areas. This process appears to be accelerated by habitat alteration. Status of the New England Cottontail has been of concern to biologists and resource agencies for more than four decades. It once had a widespread distribution across New England, USA, but suitable habitats of early successional forest have declined by ¢.86% since 1960, and available habitat has become increasingly fragmented. Moreover, the Eastern Cottontail has invaded much of the habitat of the New England Cottontail. As a consequence, the New England Cottontail has disappeared throughout much of north-eastern USA. It is suspected that the population of the New England Cottontail has been reduced by more than 50% since 1994. They are rare to scarce in fragmented populations. Even in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, which had one of the densest populations in the 1980s, a dramatically decline seems to have occurred based on the last census in 2000-2001. The New England Cottontail is hunted for sport and food. Major threats are competition with the Eastern Cottontail, landscape fragmentation, and forest maturation. An ongoing population decline is expected because threats are unabated. A recent genetic study showed that populations of New England Cottontails in Maine and New Hampshire and on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, are at great risk due to low genetic variability caused by fragmentation that limits gene flow. Problems for conservation of the New England Cottontail are confusion with the Eastern Cottontail by hunters; lack of education on existence, biology, and habitat requirements of the New England Cottontail; and conversion of native shrublands to other land uses. Recommendations are to develop habitat connections among fragmented populations, increase suitable habitat such as early successional and shrub-dominated areas, prohibition of hunting, and recolonize of suitable habitat by translocations. Research on the New England Cottontail should be conducted on biology, ecology, population status, and competition with other lagomorphs.Bibliography.Barry et al. (2008), Chapman (1975a), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Morgan (1973), Chapman & Stauffer (1981), Chapman et al. (1977), Dalke (1942), Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis & Litvaitis (2011), Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis, O'Brien et al. (2014), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holden & Eabry (1970), Litvaitis, J.A., Barbour et al. (2008), Litvaitis, J.A., Johnson et al. (2003), Litvaitis, J.A., Tash et al. (2006), Litvaitis, M.K., Ruedas et al. (1989), Smith & Litvaitis (2000), Tash & Litvaitis (2007), Tefft & Chapman (1987), Whitaker & Hamilton (1998).","taxonomy":"Lepus transitionalis Bangs, 1895, “Liberty Hill, Conn. [= New London Co., Connecticut, USA].”Formerly, S. obscuruswas included in S. transitionalisbut received species status due to the discovery of two different cytotypes (S. obscurus2n = 42 and S. transitionalis2n = 52). Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin de Nouvelle-Angleterre @fr | Neuengland-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Nueva @es | nglaterra @en | Wood Rabbit @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bangs","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"116","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"transitionalis","name":"Sylvilagus transitionalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE USA,in coastal S Maine, coastal and Merrimack River valley region of S New Hampshire, SE New York, W Massachusetts (including parts of Cape Cod), W & E (E of the Connecticut River) Connecticut, and Rhode Island.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625575/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Barry et al. (2008) | Chapman (1975a) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Morgan (1973) | Chapman & Stauffer (1981) | Chapman et al. (1977) | Dalke (1942) | Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis & Litvaitis (2011) | Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis, O'Brien et al. (2014) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holden & Eabry (1970) | Litvaitis, J.A., Barbour et al. (2008) | Litvaitis, J.A., Johnson et al. (2003) | Litvaitis, J.A., Tash et al. (2006) | Litvaitis, M.K., Ruedas et al. (1989) | Smith & Litvaitis (2000) | Tash & Litvaitis (2007) | Tefft & Chapman (1987) | Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the New England Cottontail includes a variety of vegetation, but it is the only species of Sylvilagusthat extensively consumes conifer needles.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the New England Cottontail lasts from early March to early September, peaking in March—July. It is a postpartum synchronous breeder. Gestation appearsto last 28 days. Litter size averages 3-5 young, and females give birth to an average of 24 young/year. Twenty percent of pregnancies are from juvenile females breeding in their first year. Hybridization between the New England Cottontails and Eastern Cottontails occurs in the wild, but frequency is unknown. A genetic study conducted in the north-eastern USA where both species live sympatrically indicated that no hybridization occurred.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dominance hierarchies of male New England Cottontails regulate access to females and reproductive success. Reproductive behavior is most intense during the estrous period of females, and little social interaction occurs between estrous periods. Reproductive behavior begins 2-3 days before parturition, and postpartum breeding occurs.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The New England Cottontail historically inhabited boreal habitats throughout south-eastern Canada in southern Quebec and north-eastern USA from southern Maine to Connecticut and New York. Nevertheless, a recent study restricted current distribution to 12,180 km?, c.86% less than the historical distribution. It has been hypothesized that the New England Cottontail is a “refugial relict” and that its patchy distribution resulted from a gradual change in climate coupled with invasion and displacement by the Eastern Cottontail in lowland areas. This process appears to be accelerated by habitat alteration. Status of the New England Cottontail has been of concern to biologists and resource agencies for more than four decades. It once had a widespread distribution across New England, USA, but suitable habitats of early successional forest have declined by ¢.86% since 1960, and available habitat has become increasingly fragmented. Moreover, the Eastern Cottontail has invaded much of the habitat of the New England Cottontail. As a consequence, the New England Cottontail has disappeared throughout much of north-eastern USA. It is suspected that the population of the New England Cottontail has been reduced by more than 50% since 1994. They are rare to scarce in fragmented populations. Even in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, which had one of the densest populations in the 1980s, a dramatically decline seems to have occurred based on the last census in 2000-2001. The New England Cottontail is hunted for sport and food. Major threats are competition with the Eastern Cottontail, landscape fragmentation, and forest maturation. An ongoing population decline is expected because threats are unabated. A recent genetic study showed that populations of New England Cottontails in Maine and New Hampshire and on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, are at great risk due to low genetic variability caused by fragmentation that limits gene flow. Problems for conservation of the New England Cottontail are confusion with the Eastern Cottontail by hunters; lack of education on existence, biology, and habitat requirements of the New England Cottontail; and conversion of native shrublands to other land uses. Recommendations are to develop habitat connections among fragmented populations, increase suitable habitat such as early successional and shrub-dominated areas, prohibition of hunting, and recolonize of suitable habitat by translocations. Research on the New England Cottontail should be conducted on biology, ecology, population status, and competition with other lagomorphs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 390-430 mm, tail 22-65 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 87-97 mm; weight 0.8-1 kg. The New England Cottontail is a medium-sized species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is pinkish buff to ocher. Back is additionally overlaid with distinct black wash. Ears are short and rounded, and anterior edges are covered with black hair. A characteristic black spot usually occurs between ears. Females are slightly less than 1% larger than males.Adults have one molt per year in autumn.Pelage characteristics alone are not sufficient to differentiate the New England Cottontail from the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus); both species can have the same color and pelage characteristics throughout the distribution of the New England Cottontail. Cranial characteristics are most reliable to distinguish the two species.","habitat":"Early successional habitat specialist, inhabiting areas of open woods or their borders, or shrubby areas and thickets in open areas. Historically, New England Cottontails occupied early successional forests that became abundant when farmlands were abandoned, and maturation of these forests into closed-canopy stands caused the decline of this species beginning in the 1960s. New England Cottontails prefers habitats with dense understory vegetation and fallow agricultural lands. They avoid venturing into the open and remain in close proximity to cover."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74FFFF0FFC2F3EEFD25FD47.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74FFFF0FFC2F3EEFD25FD47","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"115","verbatimText":"13.Desert CottontailSylvilagus auduboniiFrench:Lapin dAudubon/ German:Audubon-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de desiertoOther common names:Audubon’s CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus audubonii Baird, 1858, “San Francisco,” San Francisco Co., California, USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. auduboniiand S. nuttalliiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.a.audubonuiBaird,1858—NCalifornia(WUSA).S.a.arizonae].A.Allen,1877—SWUtah,SNevada,SECalifornia,W&SArizona(SWUSA),andmostofSonora(NWMexico).S.a.baileyiMerriam,1897—C&SEMontana,SWNorthDakota,Wyoming,WSouthDakota,WNebraska,NEUtah,N,NW&EColorado,andNWKansas(NCUSA).S.a.cedrophilusNelson,1907—EArizonaandWC&CNewMexico(CUSA).S.a.confinisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheNandBajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.a.goldmaniNelson,1904—SSonora,extremeSWChihuahua,extremeWDurango,andSinaloa(WMexico).S.a.minorMearns,1896—SEArizona,SNewMexico,andSWTexas(SUSA),ESonora,ChihuahuaexceptSW,NEDurango,WCoahuila,andNZacatecas,andWCtipofNuevoLeon(NCMexico).S.a.neomexicanusNelson,1907—SWKansas,WOklahoma,N&WTexas,SEtipofColoradoandENewMexico(SCUSA).S.a.parvulus].A.Allen,1904—SCTexas(SUSA),N&WTamaulipas,NuevoLeon,ECoahuila,S.a.LuisPotosi,Zacatecas,SEDurango,Aguascalientes,WJalisco,NGuanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,CPuebla,Tlaxcala,andWVeracruz(CMexico).S.a.sanctidiegiMiller,1899—SWCalifornia(SWUSA),NWtipofBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.a.vallicolaNelson,1907—CWCalifornia(WUSA).S. a. warreni Nelson, 1907— SE Utah, W & S Colorado, NE Arizona, and NW New Mexico (USA).Descriptive notes.Head—body 370-400 mm, tail 39-60 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 810-940 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Desert Cottontail is relatively large, with long pointed ears that are sparsely haired on inner surfaces. Pelage is dorsally gray and ventrally white. Hindlegs are long, and feet are slender. Tail is large and dark above and white below. Female Desert Cottontails are ¢.2% larger than males.Habitat.Arid regions in woodlands, grasslands, and deserts at low elevations throughout the south-western United States. The Desert Cottontail lives from below sea level in Death Valley, California, up to elevations of at least 1829 m. It is often associated with riparian zones in arid regions. In California,its hides are found in heavy brush and willows along rivers. In pine-juniper woodlands, shrubs are its primary cover. Plant species associated with the Desert Cottontail are willows (Salix sp., Salicaceae), buttonwillow (Cephalanthusoccidentalis, Rubiaceae), wild grape (Vitiscalifornica, Vitaceae), greasewood (Adenostomafasciculatum, Rosaceae) in California and arrow-weed (Plucheasericea, Asteraceae), screw-bean mesquite (Prosopispubescens) and catclaw (Acaciagreggii), both Fabaceae, in southern Nevada. Occasionally, the Desert Cottontail is found where there is little or no vegetation cover. Abundance of Desert Cottontails is highest under moderate cattle grazing. It relies on thick brambles for cover rather than using holes. The Desert Cottontail in south-eastern Arizona typically builds forms in areas with triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosiadeltoidea, Asteraceae) and tall plants (higher than 1-5 m). Desert Cottontails have some physiological adaptations that enable them survive in desert environments. A shift upward of the thermoneutral zone occurs from winter to summer, and basal metabolism decreases by 18% during the same period. Body temperature is 38-3°C when ambient temperatures are below 30°C, whereas body temperature equals ambient temperature of 41-9°C in summer.Food and Feeding.Diet of Desert Cottontails depends on seasonal availabilities of plants. Food plants include various unidentified grasses; foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum, Poaceae); galingale (Cyperus sp.) and sedge (Carex sp.), both Cyperaceae; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae); valley oak (Quercuslobata, Fagaceae); miner's lettuce (Montiaperfoliata, Montiaceae); blackberry (Rubusvitifolius) and California wild rose (Rosacalifornica), both Rosaceae; hoarhound (Marrubiumvulgare, Lamiaceae); and Baccharisdouglasii and California mugwort (Artemisiavulgaris), both Asteraceae. True grasses (Poaceae) such as Johnson grass (Holcushalepensis), Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), blue grass (Poapratensis), ripgut grass (Bromusrigidus), and wheat grass (Agropyroncaninum), as well as morning glory (Convolvulus sp., Convolvulaceae), bull mallow (Malvaborealis, Malvaceae), honeysuckle (Lonicera sp., Caprifoliaceae), and sow thistle (Sonchusasper, Asteraceae) were important dietary items of Desert Cottontails in the Sacramento Valley, California. Desert Cottontails living in fields fed almost entirely on grasses. Cultivated hollyhock, carrots, acorns of valley oak, and fruits of almond and peach also are eaten. Type of cover is an important factor to determine feeding sites. Most feeding in late morning and early evening takes place in areas of brushy cover adjacent to open grassland. Important factors that affect daily feeding periods are habitat, season of the year, fog, rain, and wind. Maximum numbers of Desert Cottontails were observed feeding at dawn. Wind appears to interfere greatly with normal feeding. Light intensity determines distance from shelter an individual will venture for food. Desert Cottontails traveled up to 100 m from cover after dark. They feed by taking successive mouthfuls in open situations. Subsequently, heads are elevated, and they start to chew. They extend their bodies along the ground when feeding on low-growing grasses. Necks are stretched out, and front feet edge forward. Hindfeet are brought forward with hops when food can no longer be reached. Generally, terminal parts of plants are eaten.Breeding.Timing of reproductive season of Desert Cottontails depends on the region. In California, it generally lasts for c¢.7 months in December—June, but one study reported that breeding occurred throughout the year. In Arizona, breeding lasts 8-9 months from January until August or September, whereas in Texas,it starts in late February or early March. Female Desert Cottontails give birth in nests. Five examined nests were pear-shaped excavations, 15-25 cm deep, and 15 cm in diameter near their bottoms. Cavities were first lined with thick layers of fine grass and weeds and then filled with the mothers’ fur. Type of site selected for a nest or burrow varies with habitat. Gestation is ¢.28 days. Neonates have sparse hair. When the nest is touched, young lunge upward and utter a “gupp” sound, which might also be a call used prior to nursing. Females nurse young by crouching over their nests. In one occasion, young were nursed between 13:00 h and 14:00 h after 13-5 hours had elapsed since the previous feeding. Another time, young were nursed at 20:00 h following 30 hours without a feeding. Eyes of Desert Cottontails open c.10 days after birth, and young leave the nest 10-14 days after birth but remain near the nest for up to c.3 weeks. Litter size depends on region and is small for species of Sylvilagus. Meanlitter sizes were 2:9 and 2-7 in Arizona, 2-6 in Texas, and 3-6 in California. In Arizona, females produced an average offive litters per year. Sexual maturity is attained ¢.80 days after birth. The Desert Cottontail appears to be less fecund than some other species of Sylvilagus.Activity patterns.The Desert Cottontail is most active in early morning and evening and has activity peaks at 05:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. They are inactive at temperatures above 27°C. Individuals seek shelter from rain and high winds. The Desert Cottontail use burrows during most of their daily periods of inactivity in open habitat. They hide by sitting in forms that are small cleared places on the ground. Desert Cottontails are more vigilant in late morning and early evening than at dawn or dusk. In California, they remained hidden in thickets during winter days, but they moved about at any time in late spring.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Cottontails choose open patches of ground for running and seldom move in a straight line. They clear tufts of grass and other obstacles in their way with small bounds into the air when running. They swim with rapid strokes by moving their legs alternately. They also climb trees and brush piles. Home range sizes of Desert Cottontails were equal in size to blackberry clumps they inhabited in California. Home ranges of males might be as large as 6-1 ha, whereas those of females might be less than 0-4 ha. Little differences in home range size between males and females were found in another study, with 3-2-3-6 ha for both sexes. Young Desert Cottontails have smaller foraging ranges than adults. Desert Cottontails are not gregarious, but as many as three females might forage together without antagonism. Interactions between males occur; on one occasion, a male chased another male away from a foraging area. Individuals take advantage of alarm calls of other species such as American sparrows (Zonotrichia sp.) or California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi). Desert Cottontails use their tails as alarm signals. When individuals run for cover, their tails are raised exposing maximum amount of white fur. When individuals are moving about without concern, their tails point toward the ground showing little white. Desert Cottontails adopt rigid postures, called freezing, during times of uncertainty or possible danger. When an individualis truly alarmed, it dashes to the nearest brush. Another alarm signal is thumping with hindfeet. Low prominences such as logs and tree stumps are used to deposit feces. These places are believed to be lookout posts used after dark. Desert Cottontails and jackrabbits (Lepus sp.) feed together without animosity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Cottontail is widespread and common, with a stable population trend. It occurs in a large continuous area and is a habitat and dietary generalist. It is an important game species, and population status is monitored in several states. Cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing might be localized threats, but none of the subspecies are under immediate threat. Predation by invasive species such as feral dogs and feral cats and human-induced fire in some areas inhabited by humans might also be of concern.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008a), Angermann (2016), Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011), Brown & Krausman (2003), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Morgan (1974), Chapman & Willner (1978), Cushing (1939), Dice (1929), Flinders & Hansen (1975), Grinnell (1937), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951, 1981), Hinds (1973), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Ingles (1941), Kundaeli & Reynolds (1972), Lissovsky (2016), Orr (1940), Sowls (1957), Stout (1970), Sumner (1931).","taxonomy":"Lepus audubonii Baird, 1858, “San Francisco,” San Francisco Co., California, USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. auduboniiand S. nuttalliiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Twelve subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin d Audubon @fr | Audubon-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de desierto @es | Audubon’s Cottontail @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1858","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"115","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"audubonii","name":"Sylvilagus audubonii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.a.audubonuiBaird,1858—NCalifornia(WUSA).S.a.arizonae].A.Allen,1877—SWUtah,SNevada,SECalifornia,W&SArizona(SWUSA),andmostofSonora(NWMexico).S.a.baileyiMerriam,1897—C&SEMontana,SWNorthDakota,Wyoming,WSouthDakota,WNebraska,NEUtah,N,NW&EColorado,andNWKansas(NCUSA).S.a.cedrophilusNelson,1907—EArizonaandWC&CNewMexico(CUSA).S.a.confinisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheNandBajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.a.goldmaniNelson,1904—SSonora,extremeSWChihuahua,extremeWDurango,andSinaloa(WMexico).S.a.minorMearns,1896—SEArizona,SNewMexico,andSWTexas(SUSA),ESonora,ChihuahuaexceptSW,NEDurango,WCoahuila,andNZacatecas,andWCtipofNuevoLeon(NCMexico).S.a.neomexicanusNelson,1907—SWKansas,WOklahoma,N&WTexas,SEtipofColoradoandENewMexico(SCUSA).S.a.parvulus].A.Allen,1904—SCTexas(SUSA),N&WTamaulipas,NuevoLeon,ECoahuila,S.a.LuisPotosi,Zacatecas,SEDurango,Aguascalientes,WJalisco,NGuanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,CPuebla,Tlaxcala,andWVeracruz(CMexico).S.a.sanctidiegiMiller,1899—SWCalifornia(SWUSA),NWtipofBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.a.vallicolaNelson,1907—CWCalifornia(WUSA).S. a. warreni Nelson, 1907— SE Utah, W & S Colorado, NE Arizona, and NW New Mexico (USA).","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008a) | Angermann (2016) | Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011) | Brown & Krausman (2003) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Morgan (1974) | Chapman & Willner (1978) | Cushing (1939) | Dice (1929) | Flinders & Hansen (1975) | Grinnell (1937) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hinds (1973) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Ingles (1941) | Kundaeli & Reynolds (1972) | Lissovsky (2016) | Orr (1940) | Sowls (1957) | Stout (1970) | Sumner (1931)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Desert Cottontails depends on seasonal availabilities of plants. Food plants include various unidentified grasses; foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum, Poaceae); galingale (Cyperus sp.) and sedge (Carex sp.), both Cyperaceae; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae); valley oak (Quercuslobata, Fagaceae); miner's lettuce (Montiaperfoliata, Montiaceae); blackberry (Rubusvitifolius) and California wild rose (Rosacalifornica), both Rosaceae; hoarhound (Marrubiumvulgare, Lamiaceae); and Baccharisdouglasii and California mugwort (Artemisiavulgaris), both Asteraceae. True grasses (Poaceae) such as Johnson grass (Holcushalepensis), Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), blue grass (Poapratensis), ripgut grass (Bromusrigidus), and wheat grass (Agropyroncaninum), as well as morning glory (Convolvulus sp., Convolvulaceae), bull mallow (Malvaborealis, Malvaceae), honeysuckle (Lonicera sp., Caprifoliaceae), and sow thistle (Sonchusasper, Asteraceae) were important dietary items of Desert Cottontails in the Sacramento Valley, California. Desert Cottontails living in fields fed almost entirely on grasses. Cultivated hollyhock, carrots, acorns of valley oak, and fruits of almond and peach also are eaten. Type of cover is an important factor to determine feeding sites. Most feeding in late morning and early evening takes place in areas of brushy cover adjacent to open grassland. Important factors that affect daily feeding periods are habitat, season of the year, fog, rain, and wind. Maximum numbers of Desert Cottontails were observed feeding at dawn. Wind appears to interfere greatly with normal feeding. Light intensity determines distance from shelter an individual will venture for food. Desert Cottontails traveled up to 100 m from cover after dark. They feed by taking successive mouthfuls in open situations. Subsequently, heads are elevated, and they start to chew. They extend their bodies along the ground when feeding on low-growing grasses. Necks are stretched out, and front feet edge forward. Hindfeet are brought forward with hops when food can no longer be reached. Generally, terminal parts of plants are eaten.","breeding":"Timing of reproductive season of Desert Cottontails depends on the region. In California, it generally lasts for c¢.7 months in December—June, but one study reported that breeding occurred throughout the year. In Arizona, breeding lasts 8-9 months from January until August or September, whereas in Texas,it starts in late February or early March. Female Desert Cottontails give birth in nests. Five examined nests were pear-shaped excavations, 15-25 cm deep, and 15 cm in diameter near their bottoms. Cavities were first lined with thick layers of fine grass and weeds and then filled with the mothers’ fur. Type of site selected for a nest or burrow varies with habitat. Gestation is ¢.28 days. Neonates have sparse hair. When the nest is touched, young lunge upward and utter a “gupp” sound, which might also be a call used prior to nursing. Females nurse young by crouching over their nests. In one occasion, young were nursed between 13:00 h and 14:00 h after 13-5 hours had elapsed since the previous feeding. Another time, young were nursed at 20:00 h following 30 hours without a feeding. Eyes of Desert Cottontails open c.10 days after birth, and young leave the nest 10-14 days after birth but remain near the nest for up to c.3 weeks. Litter size depends on region and is small for species of Sylvilagus. Meanlitter sizes were 2:9 and 2-7 in Arizona, 2-6 in Texas, and 3-6 in California. In Arizona, females produced an average offive litters per year. Sexual maturity is attained ¢.80 days after birth. The Desert Cottontail appears to be less fecund than some other species of Sylvilagus.","activityPatterns":"The Desert Cottontail is most active in early morning and evening and has activity peaks at 05:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. They are inactive at temperatures above 27°C. Individuals seek shelter from rain and high winds. The Desert Cottontail use burrows during most of their daily periods of inactivity in open habitat. They hide by sitting in forms that are small cleared places on the ground. Desert Cottontails are more vigilant in late morning and early evening than at dawn or dusk. In California, they remained hidden in thickets during winter days, but they moved about at any time in late spring.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Desert Cottontails choose open patches of ground for running and seldom move in a straight line. They clear tufts of grass and other obstacles in their way with small bounds into the air when running. They swim with rapid strokes by moving their legs alternately. They also climb trees and brush piles. Home range sizes of Desert Cottontails were equal in size to blackberry clumps they inhabited in California. Home ranges of males might be as large as 6-1 ha, whereas those of females might be less than 0-4 ha. Little differences in home range size between males and females were found in another study, with 3-2-3-6 ha for both sexes. Young Desert Cottontails have smaller foraging ranges than adults. Desert Cottontails are not gregarious, but as many as three females might forage together without antagonism. Interactions between males occur; on one occasion, a male chased another male away from a foraging area. Individuals take advantage of alarm calls of other species such as American sparrows (Zonotrichia sp.) or California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi). Desert Cottontails use their tails as alarm signals. When individuals run for cover, their tails are raised exposing maximum amount of white fur. When individuals are moving about without concern, their tails point toward the ground showing little white. Desert Cottontails adopt rigid postures, called freezing, during times of uncertainty or possible danger. When an individualis truly alarmed, it dashes to the nearest brush. Another alarm signal is thumping with hindfeet. Low prominences such as logs and tree stumps are used to deposit feces. These places are believed to be lookout posts used after dark. Desert Cottontails and jackrabbits (Lepus sp.) feed together without animosity.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Cottontail is widespread and common, with a stable population trend. It occurs in a large continuous area and is a habitat and dietary generalist. It is an important game species, and population status is monitored in several states. Cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing might be localized threats, but none of the subspecies are under immediate threat. Predation by invasive species such as feral dogs and feral cats and human-induced fire in some areas inhabited by humans might also be of concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 370-400 mm, tail 39-60 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 810-940 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Desert Cottontail is relatively large, with long pointed ears that are sparsely haired on inner surfaces. Pelage is dorsally gray and ventrally white. Hindlegs are long, and feet are slender. Tail is large and dark above and white below. Female Desert Cottontails are ¢.2% larger than males.","habitat":"Arid regions in woodlands, grasslands, and deserts at low elevations throughout the south-western United States. The Desert Cottontail lives from below sea level in Death Valley, California, up to elevations of at least 1829 m. It is often associated with riparian zones in arid regions. In California,its hides are found in heavy brush and willows along rivers. In pine-juniper woodlands, shrubs are its primary cover. Plant species associated with the Desert Cottontail are willows (Salix sp., Salicaceae), buttonwillow (Cephalanthusoccidentalis, Rubiaceae), wild grape (Vitiscalifornica, Vitaceae), greasewood (Adenostomafasciculatum, Rosaceae) in California and arrow-weed (Plucheasericea, Asteraceae), screw-bean mesquite (Prosopispubescens) and catclaw (Acaciagreggii), both Fabaceae, in southern Nevada. Occasionally, the Desert Cottontail is found where there is little or no vegetation cover. Abundance of Desert Cottontails is highest under moderate cattle grazing. It relies on thick brambles for cover rather than using holes. The Desert Cottontail in south-eastern Arizona typically builds forms in areas with triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosiadeltoidea, Asteraceae) and tall plants (higher than 1-5 m). Desert Cottontails have some physiological adaptations that enable them survive in desert environments. A shift upward of the thermoneutral zone occurs from winter to summer, and basal metabolism decreases by 18% during the same period. Body temperature is 38-3°C when ambient temperatures are below 30°C, whereas body temperature equals ambient temperature of 41-9°C in summer."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74FFFF0FFC2F3EEFD25FD47.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74FFFF0FFC2F3EEFD25FD47","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"115","verbatimText":"13.Desert CottontailSylvilagus auduboniiFrench:Lapin dAudubon/ German:Audubon-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de desiertoOther common names:Audubon’s CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus audubonii Baird, 1858, “San Francisco,” San Francisco Co., California, USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. auduboniiand S. nuttalliiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Twelve subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.a.audubonuiBaird,1858—NCalifornia(WUSA).S.a.arizonae].A.Allen,1877—SWUtah,SNevada,SECalifornia,W&SArizona(SWUSA),andmostofSonora(NWMexico).S.a.baileyiMerriam,1897—C&SEMontana,SWNorthDakota,Wyoming,WSouthDakota,WNebraska,NEUtah,N,NW&EColorado,andNWKansas(NCUSA).S.a.cedrophilusNelson,1907—EArizonaandWC&CNewMexico(CUSA).S.a.confinisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheNandBajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.a.goldmaniNelson,1904—SSonora,extremeSWChihuahua,extremeWDurango,andSinaloa(WMexico).S.a.minorMearns,1896—SEArizona,SNewMexico,andSWTexas(SUSA),ESonora,ChihuahuaexceptSW,NEDurango,WCoahuila,andNZacatecas,andWCtipofNuevoLeon(NCMexico).S.a.neomexicanusNelson,1907—SWKansas,WOklahoma,N&WTexas,SEtipofColoradoandENewMexico(SCUSA).S.a.parvulus].A.Allen,1904—SCTexas(SUSA),N&WTamaulipas,NuevoLeon,ECoahuila,S.a.LuisPotosi,Zacatecas,SEDurango,Aguascalientes,WJalisco,NGuanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,CPuebla,Tlaxcala,andWVeracruz(CMexico).S.a.sanctidiegiMiller,1899—SWCalifornia(SWUSA),NWtipofBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.a.vallicolaNelson,1907—CWCalifornia(WUSA).S. a. warreni Nelson, 1907— SE Utah, W & S Colorado, NE Arizona, and NW New Mexico (USA).Descriptive notes.Head—body 370-400 mm, tail 39-60 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 810-940 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Desert Cottontail is relatively large, with long pointed ears that are sparsely haired on inner surfaces. Pelage is dorsally gray and ventrally white. Hindlegs are long, and feet are slender. Tail is large and dark above and white below. Female Desert Cottontails are ¢.2% larger than males.Habitat.Arid regions in woodlands, grasslands, and deserts at low elevations throughout the south-western United States. The Desert Cottontail lives from below sea level in Death Valley, California, up to elevations of at least 1829 m. It is often associated with riparian zones in arid regions. In California,its hides are found in heavy brush and willows along rivers. In pine-juniper woodlands, shrubs are its primary cover. Plant species associated with the Desert Cottontail are willows (Salix sp., Salicaceae), buttonwillow (Cephalanthusoccidentalis, Rubiaceae), wild grape (Vitiscalifornica, Vitaceae), greasewood (Adenostomafasciculatum, Rosaceae) in California and arrow-weed (Plucheasericea, Asteraceae), screw-bean mesquite (Prosopispubescens) and catclaw (Acaciagreggii), both Fabaceae, in southern Nevada. Occasionally, the Desert Cottontail is found where there is little or no vegetation cover. Abundance of Desert Cottontails is highest under moderate cattle grazing. It relies on thick brambles for cover rather than using holes. The Desert Cottontail in south-eastern Arizona typically builds forms in areas with triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosiadeltoidea, Asteraceae) and tall plants (higher than 1-5 m). Desert Cottontails have some physiological adaptations that enable them survive in desert environments. A shift upward of the thermoneutral zone occurs from winter to summer, and basal metabolism decreases by 18% during the same period. Body temperature is 38-3°C when ambient temperatures are below 30°C, whereas body temperature equals ambient temperature of 41-9°C in summer.Food and Feeding.Diet of Desert Cottontails depends on seasonal availabilities of plants. Food plants include various unidentified grasses; foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum, Poaceae); galingale (Cyperus sp.) and sedge (Carex sp.), both Cyperaceae; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae); valley oak (Quercuslobata, Fagaceae); miner's lettuce (Montiaperfoliata, Montiaceae); blackberry (Rubusvitifolius) and California wild rose (Rosacalifornica), both Rosaceae; hoarhound (Marrubiumvulgare, Lamiaceae); and Baccharisdouglasii and California mugwort (Artemisiavulgaris), both Asteraceae. True grasses (Poaceae) such as Johnson grass (Holcushalepensis), Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), blue grass (Poapratensis), ripgut grass (Bromusrigidus), and wheat grass (Agropyroncaninum), as well as morning glory (Convolvulus sp., Convolvulaceae), bull mallow (Malvaborealis, Malvaceae), honeysuckle (Lonicera sp., Caprifoliaceae), and sow thistle (Sonchusasper, Asteraceae) were important dietary items of Desert Cottontails in the Sacramento Valley, California. Desert Cottontails living in fields fed almost entirely on grasses. Cultivated hollyhock, carrots, acorns of valley oak, and fruits of almond and peach also are eaten. Type of cover is an important factor to determine feeding sites. Most feeding in late morning and early evening takes place in areas of brushy cover adjacent to open grassland. Important factors that affect daily feeding periods are habitat, season of the year, fog, rain, and wind. Maximum numbers of Desert Cottontails were observed feeding at dawn. Wind appears to interfere greatly with normal feeding. Light intensity determines distance from shelter an individual will venture for food. Desert Cottontails traveled up to 100 m from cover after dark. They feed by taking successive mouthfuls in open situations. Subsequently, heads are elevated, and they start to chew. They extend their bodies along the ground when feeding on low-growing grasses. Necks are stretched out, and front feet edge forward. Hindfeet are brought forward with hops when food can no longer be reached. Generally, terminal parts of plants are eaten.Breeding.Timing of reproductive season of Desert Cottontails depends on the region. In California, it generally lasts for c¢.7 months in December—June, but one study reported that breeding occurred throughout the year. In Arizona, breeding lasts 8-9 months from January until August or September, whereas in Texas,it starts in late February or early March. Female Desert Cottontails give birth in nests. Five examined nests were pear-shaped excavations, 15-25 cm deep, and 15 cm in diameter near their bottoms. Cavities were first lined with thick layers of fine grass and weeds and then filled with the mothers’ fur. Type of site selected for a nest or burrow varies with habitat. Gestation is ¢.28 days. Neonates have sparse hair. When the nest is touched, young lunge upward and utter a “gupp” sound, which might also be a call used prior to nursing. Females nurse young by crouching over their nests. In one occasion, young were nursed between 13:00 h and 14:00 h after 13-5 hours had elapsed since the previous feeding. Another time, young were nursed at 20:00 h following 30 hours without a feeding. Eyes of Desert Cottontails open c.10 days after birth, and young leave the nest 10-14 days after birth but remain near the nest for up to c.3 weeks. Litter size depends on region and is small for species of Sylvilagus. Meanlitter sizes were 2:9 and 2-7 in Arizona, 2-6 in Texas, and 3-6 in California. In Arizona, females produced an average offive litters per year. Sexual maturity is attained ¢.80 days after birth. The Desert Cottontail appears to be less fecund than some other species of Sylvilagus.Activity patterns.The Desert Cottontail is most active in early morning and evening and has activity peaks at 05:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. They are inactive at temperatures above 27°C. Individuals seek shelter from rain and high winds. The Desert Cottontail use burrows during most of their daily periods of inactivity in open habitat. They hide by sitting in forms that are small cleared places on the ground. Desert Cottontails are more vigilant in late morning and early evening than at dawn or dusk. In California, they remained hidden in thickets during winter days, but they moved about at any time in late spring.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Desert Cottontails choose open patches of ground for running and seldom move in a straight line. They clear tufts of grass and other obstacles in their way with small bounds into the air when running. They swim with rapid strokes by moving their legs alternately. They also climb trees and brush piles. Home range sizes of Desert Cottontails were equal in size to blackberry clumps they inhabited in California. Home ranges of males might be as large as 6-1 ha, whereas those of females might be less than 0-4 ha. Little differences in home range size between males and females were found in another study, with 3-2-3-6 ha for both sexes. Young Desert Cottontails have smaller foraging ranges than adults. Desert Cottontails are not gregarious, but as many as three females might forage together without antagonism. Interactions between males occur; on one occasion, a male chased another male away from a foraging area. Individuals take advantage of alarm calls of other species such as American sparrows (Zonotrichia sp.) or California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi). Desert Cottontails use their tails as alarm signals. When individuals run for cover, their tails are raised exposing maximum amount of white fur. When individuals are moving about without concern, their tails point toward the ground showing little white. Desert Cottontails adopt rigid postures, called freezing, during times of uncertainty or possible danger. When an individualis truly alarmed, it dashes to the nearest brush. Another alarm signal is thumping with hindfeet. Low prominences such as logs and tree stumps are used to deposit feces. These places are believed to be lookout posts used after dark. Desert Cottontails and jackrabbits (Lepus sp.) feed together without animosity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Cottontail is widespread and common, with a stable population trend. It occurs in a large continuous area and is a habitat and dietary generalist. It is an important game species, and population status is monitored in several states. Cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing might be localized threats, but none of the subspecies are under immediate threat. Predation by invasive species such as feral dogs and feral cats and human-induced fire in some areas inhabited by humans might also be of concern.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008a), Angermann (2016), Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011), Brown & Krausman (2003), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Morgan (1974), Chapman & Willner (1978), Cushing (1939), Dice (1929), Flinders & Hansen (1975), Grinnell (1937), Halanych & Robinson (1997), Hall (1951, 1981), Hinds (1973), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Ingles (1941), Kundaeli & Reynolds (1972), Lissovsky (2016), Orr (1940), Sowls (1957), Stout (1970), Sumner (1931).","taxonomy":"Lepus audubonii Baird, 1858, “San Francisco,” San Francisco Co., California, USA.Genetic analysis showed that S. auduboniiand S. nuttalliiare sister taxa. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Twelve subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin d Audubon @fr | Audubon-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de desierto @es | Audubon’s Cottontail @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1858","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"115","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"audubonii","name":"Sylvilagus audubonii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.a.audubonuiBaird,1858—NCalifornia(WUSA).S.a.arizonae].A.Allen,1877—SWUtah,SNevada,SECalifornia,W&SArizona(SWUSA),andmostofSonora(NWMexico).S.a.baileyiMerriam,1897—C&SEMontana,SWNorthDakota,Wyoming,WSouthDakota,WNebraska,NEUtah,N,NW&EColorado,andNWKansas(NCUSA).S.a.cedrophilusNelson,1907—EArizonaandWC&CNewMexico(CUSA).S.a.confinisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheNandBajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico).S.a.goldmaniNelson,1904—SSonora,extremeSWChihuahua,extremeWDurango,andSinaloa(WMexico).S.a.minorMearns,1896—SEArizona,SNewMexico,andSWTexas(SUSA),ESonora,ChihuahuaexceptSW,NEDurango,WCoahuila,andNZacatecas,andWCtipofNuevoLeon(NCMexico).S.a.neomexicanusNelson,1907—SWKansas,WOklahoma,N&WTexas,SEtipofColoradoandENewMexico(SCUSA).S.a.parvulus].A.Allen,1904—SCTexas(SUSA),N&WTamaulipas,NuevoLeon,ECoahuila,S.a.LuisPotosi,Zacatecas,SEDurango,Aguascalientes,WJalisco,NGuanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,CPuebla,Tlaxcala,andWVeracruz(CMexico).S.a.sanctidiegiMiller,1899—SWCalifornia(SWUSA),NWtipofBajaCalifornia(NWMexico).S.a.vallicolaNelson,1907—CWCalifornia(WUSA).S. a. warreni Nelson, 1907— SE Utah, W & S Colorado, NE Arizona, and NW New Mexico (USA).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625571/files/figure.png","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008a) | Angermann (2016) | Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011) | Brown & Krausman (2003) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Morgan (1974) | Chapman & Willner (1978) | Cushing (1939) | Dice (1929) | Flinders & Hansen (1975) | Grinnell (1937) | Halanych & Robinson (1997) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hinds (1973) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Ingles (1941) | Kundaeli & Reynolds (1972) | Lissovsky (2016) | Orr (1940) | Sowls (1957) | Stout (1970) | Sumner (1931)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Desert Cottontails depends on seasonal availabilities of plants. Food plants include various unidentified grasses; foxtail grass (Hordeummurinum, Poaceae); galingale (Cyperus sp.) and sedge (Carex sp.), both Cyperaceae; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae); valley oak (Quercuslobata, Fagaceae); miner's lettuce (Montiaperfoliata, Montiaceae); blackberry (Rubusvitifolius) and California wild rose (Rosacalifornica), both Rosaceae; hoarhound (Marrubiumvulgare, Lamiaceae); and Baccharisdouglasii and California mugwort (Artemisiavulgaris), both Asteraceae. True grasses (Poaceae) such as Johnson grass (Holcushalepensis), Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), blue grass (Poapratensis), ripgut grass (Bromusrigidus), and wheat grass (Agropyroncaninum), as well as morning glory (Convolvulus sp., Convolvulaceae), bull mallow (Malvaborealis, Malvaceae), honeysuckle (Lonicera sp., Caprifoliaceae), and sow thistle (Sonchusasper, Asteraceae) were important dietary items of Desert Cottontails in the Sacramento Valley, California. Desert Cottontails living in fields fed almost entirely on grasses. Cultivated hollyhock, carrots, acorns of valley oak, and fruits of almond and peach also are eaten. Type of cover is an important factor to determine feeding sites. Most feeding in late morning and early evening takes place in areas of brushy cover adjacent to open grassland. Important factors that affect daily feeding periods are habitat, season of the year, fog, rain, and wind. Maximum numbers of Desert Cottontails were observed feeding at dawn. Wind appears to interfere greatly with normal feeding. Light intensity determines distance from shelter an individual will venture for food. Desert Cottontails traveled up to 100 m from cover after dark. They feed by taking successive mouthfuls in open situations. Subsequently, heads are elevated, and they start to chew. They extend their bodies along the ground when feeding on low-growing grasses. Necks are stretched out, and front feet edge forward. Hindfeet are brought forward with hops when food can no longer be reached. Generally, terminal parts of plants are eaten.","breeding":"Timing of reproductive season of Desert Cottontails depends on the region. In California, it generally lasts for c¢.7 months in December—June, but one study reported that breeding occurred throughout the year. In Arizona, breeding lasts 8-9 months from January until August or September, whereas in Texas,it starts in late February or early March. Female Desert Cottontails give birth in nests. Five examined nests were pear-shaped excavations, 15-25 cm deep, and 15 cm in diameter near their bottoms. Cavities were first lined with thick layers of fine grass and weeds and then filled with the mothers’ fur. Type of site selected for a nest or burrow varies with habitat. Gestation is ¢.28 days. Neonates have sparse hair. When the nest is touched, young lunge upward and utter a “gupp” sound, which might also be a call used prior to nursing. Females nurse young by crouching over their nests. In one occasion, young were nursed between 13:00 h and 14:00 h after 13-5 hours had elapsed since the previous feeding. Another time, young were nursed at 20:00 h following 30 hours without a feeding. Eyes of Desert Cottontails open c.10 days after birth, and young leave the nest 10-14 days after birth but remain near the nest for up to c.3 weeks. Litter size depends on region and is small for species of Sylvilagus. Meanlitter sizes were 2:9 and 2-7 in Arizona, 2-6 in Texas, and 3-6 in California. In Arizona, females produced an average offive litters per year. Sexual maturity is attained ¢.80 days after birth. The Desert Cottontail appears to be less fecund than some other species of Sylvilagus.","activityPatterns":"The Desert Cottontail is most active in early morning and evening and has activity peaks at 05:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. They are inactive at temperatures above 27°C. Individuals seek shelter from rain and high winds. The Desert Cottontail use burrows during most of their daily periods of inactivity in open habitat. They hide by sitting in forms that are small cleared places on the ground. Desert Cottontails are more vigilant in late morning and early evening than at dawn or dusk. In California, they remained hidden in thickets during winter days, but they moved about at any time in late spring.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Desert Cottontails choose open patches of ground for running and seldom move in a straight line. They clear tufts of grass and other obstacles in their way with small bounds into the air when running. They swim with rapid strokes by moving their legs alternately. They also climb trees and brush piles. Home range sizes of Desert Cottontails were equal in size to blackberry clumps they inhabited in California. Home ranges of males might be as large as 6-1 ha, whereas those of females might be less than 0-4 ha. Little differences in home range size between males and females were found in another study, with 3-2-3-6 ha for both sexes. Young Desert Cottontails have smaller foraging ranges than adults. Desert Cottontails are not gregarious, but as many as three females might forage together without antagonism. Interactions between males occur; on one occasion, a male chased another male away from a foraging area. Individuals take advantage of alarm calls of other species such as American sparrows (Zonotrichia sp.) or California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi). Desert Cottontails use their tails as alarm signals. When individuals run for cover, their tails are raised exposing maximum amount of white fur. When individuals are moving about without concern, their tails point toward the ground showing little white. Desert Cottontails adopt rigid postures, called freezing, during times of uncertainty or possible danger. When an individualis truly alarmed, it dashes to the nearest brush. Another alarm signal is thumping with hindfeet. Low prominences such as logs and tree stumps are used to deposit feces. These places are believed to be lookout posts used after dark. Desert Cottontails and jackrabbits (Lepus sp.) feed together without animosity.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Cottontail is widespread and common, with a stable population trend. It occurs in a large continuous area and is a habitat and dietary generalist. It is an important game species, and population status is monitored in several states. Cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing might be localized threats, but none of the subspecies are under immediate threat. Predation by invasive species such as feral dogs and feral cats and human-induced fire in some areas inhabited by humans might also be of concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 370-400 mm, tail 39-60 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 810-940 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Desert Cottontail is relatively large, with long pointed ears that are sparsely haired on inner surfaces. Pelage is dorsally gray and ventrally white. Hindlegs are long, and feet are slender. Tail is large and dark above and white below. Female Desert Cottontails are ¢.2% larger than males.","habitat":"Arid regions in woodlands, grasslands, and deserts at low elevations throughout the south-western United States. The Desert Cottontail lives from below sea level in Death Valley, California, up to elevations of at least 1829 m. It is often associated with riparian zones in arid regions. In California,its hides are found in heavy brush and willows along rivers. In pine-juniper woodlands, shrubs are its primary cover. Plant species associated with the Desert Cottontail are willows (Salix sp., Salicaceae), buttonwillow (Cephalanthusoccidentalis, Rubiaceae), wild grape (Vitiscalifornica, Vitaceae), greasewood (Adenostomafasciculatum, Rosaceae) in California and arrow-weed (Plucheasericea, Asteraceae), screw-bean mesquite (Prosopispubescens) and catclaw (Acaciagreggii), both Fabaceae, in southern Nevada. Occasionally, the Desert Cottontail is found where there is little or no vegetation cover. Abundance of Desert Cottontails is highest under moderate cattle grazing. It relies on thick brambles for cover rather than using holes. The Desert Cottontail in south-eastern Arizona typically builds forms in areas with triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosiadeltoidea, Asteraceae) and tall plants (higher than 1-5 m). Desert Cottontails have some physiological adaptations that enable them survive in desert environments. A shift upward of the thermoneutral zone occurs from winter to summer, and basal metabolism decreases by 18% during the same period. Body temperature is 38-3°C when ambient temperatures are below 30°C, whereas body temperature equals ambient temperature of 41-9°C in summer."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B74FFFF1FFCFFDE8FADEFA52.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B74FFFF1FFCFFDE8FADEFA52","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"115","verbatimText":"12.San Jose Brush RabbitSylvilagus mansuetusFrench:Lapin de San José/ German:San-José-Strauchkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de San JoséTaxonomy.Sylvilagus mansuetus Nelson, 1907, “San José Island, Gulf of California [Baja California del Sur], Mexico.”This species is an insular allospecies closely related to S. bachmanion the adjacent peninsula of Baja California. Formerly, S. mansuetuswas placed as a subspecies of S. bachmani. Sylvilagus mansuetusand S. bachmaniare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. Monotypic.Distribution.SW San José I, Baja California Sur, Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 340 mm, tail 44 mm, ear 60 mm, hindfoot 73 mm; weight ¢.800 g (all measurements from a single individual). The San Jose Brush Rabbit is one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur and head are pale buffy or yellowish gray. Sides are paler and grayer than back. Ears are gray, and nape is dull and pale ocherous buff. Forelegs are ocherous clay and shade into dingy white forefeet. Posterior surface of hindlegs is browner than back, and top of hindfeet are white. Throat is paler than sides, and ventral fur is white.Habitat.Desert habitat restricted to the south-western coastal plains of the San José Island. Desert habitat consists of primarily seven plant species: jojoba (Simmondsiachinensts, Simmondsiaceae); blue palo verde (Cercidiumpeninsulare, Fabaceae); Maytenus phyllanthoides (Fabaceae); Adam’s trees (Fouquieriadiguetii, Fouquieriaceae); Stenocerus thurbei and S. gummosus (both Cactaceae); and ashy limberbush (Jatrophacinerea, Euphorbiaceae). Five San Jose Brush Rabbits were observed to rest in shade of blue palo verde trees.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Two pregnant San Jose Brush Rabbits with two embryos each and two lactating females were recorded in November 2008. Two nests also were found. One nest was in the base of a cardon cactus near a desert thorn (Lycium sp., Solanaceae). Its entrance was 11 cm x 12 cm wide, and den was 15 cm deep, with a total length of 8:5 cm. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, and small branches of desert thorn. Two dead young were found in the nest. The other nest was at the base of a cholla (Opuntiacholla, Cactaceae). Entrance was 8-5 x 10-5 cm wide, and den was 12 cm deep. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, small branches of ashy limberbush, and desert thorn. No young were found in the nest.Activity patterns.San Jose Brush Rabbits are most active between sunset and 02:00 h and from ¢.06:00 h to 10:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Maximum total population of the San Jose Brush Rabbit is estimated at 500-700 individuals, but it might be significantly lower. Informal surveys conducted in 1995 and 1996 were compared with quantitative surveys in 2008, and it was concluded that the population had declined but the magnitude of decline was not quantified. These surveys restricted distribution to the south-western coastal plain at 10 m above sea level, which reduced the extent of occurrence to only 20 km? in a single continuous population. This is the smallest distribution of any lagomorph species. Major conservation threats to the San Jose Brush Rabbit are feral cats and maybe domestic dogs; habitat loss and competition with feral goats; illegal hunting; development of a tourist area including a golf course, private airport, and small marina; and planned reactivation of a salt mine. Management recommendations include enforcement of protected status of the San Jose Brush Rabbit, with goals of stopping hunting and removal of feral cats and goats. All wildlife on San José Island, including the San Jose Brush Rabbit, is protected under Mexican law. Research is needed on its biology, ecology, population status, genetics, and potential for inbreeding depression due to its small population and distribution.Bibliography.Cervantes, Lorenzo et al. (1996), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lorenzo & Alvarez-Castarieda (2011), Lorenzo etal. (2011), Nelson (1907, 1909), Thomas & Best (1994a).","taxonomy":"Sylvilagus mansuetus Nelson, 1907, “San José Island, Gulf of California [Baja California del Sur], Mexico.”This species is an insular allospecies closely related to S. bachmanion the adjacent peninsula of Baja California. Formerly, S. mansuetuswas placed as a subspecies of S. bachmani. Sylvilagus mansuetusand S. bachmaniare the only species of Sylvilagusknown to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepusand Romerolagus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin de San José @fr | San-José-Strauchkaninchen @de | Conejo de San José @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Nelson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"115","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mansuetus","name":"Sylvilagus mansuetus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW San José I, Baja California Sur, Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625567/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cervantes, Lorenzo et al. (1996) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lorenzo & Alvarez-Castarieda (2011) | Lorenzo etal. (2011) | Nelson (1907, 1909) | Thomas & Best (1994a)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Two pregnant San Jose Brush Rabbits with two embryos each and two lactating females were recorded in November 2008. Two nests also were found. One nest was in the base of a cardon cactus near a desert thorn (Lycium sp., Solanaceae). Its entrance was 11 cm x 12 cm wide, and den was 15 cm deep, with a total length of 8:5 cm. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, and small branches of desert thorn. Two dead young were found in the nest. The other nest was at the base of a cholla (Opuntiacholla, Cactaceae). Entrance was 8-5 x 10-5 cm wide, and den was 12 cm deep. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, small branches of ashy limberbush, and desert thorn. No young were found in the nest.","activityPatterns":"San Jose Brush Rabbits are most active between sunset and 02:00 h and from ¢.06:00 h to 10:00 h.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Maximum total population of the San Jose Brush Rabbit is estimated at 500-700 individuals, but it might be significantly lower. Informal surveys conducted in 1995 and 1996 were compared with quantitative surveys in 2008, and it was concluded that the population had declined but the magnitude of decline was not quantified. These surveys restricted distribution to the south-western coastal plain at 10 m above sea level, which reduced the extent of occurrence to only 20 km? in a single continuous population. This is the smallest distribution of any lagomorph species. Major conservation threats to the San Jose Brush Rabbit are feral cats and maybe domestic dogs; habitat loss and competition with feral goats; illegal hunting; development of a tourist area including a golf course, private airport, and small marina; and planned reactivation of a salt mine. Management recommendations include enforcement of protected status of the San Jose Brush Rabbit, with goals of stopping hunting and removal of feral cats and goats. All wildlife on San José Island, including the San Jose Brush Rabbit, is protected under Mexican law. Research is needed on its biology, ecology, population status, genetics, and potential for inbreeding depression due to its small population and distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 340 mm, tail 44 mm, ear 60 mm, hindfoot 73 mm; weight ¢.800 g (all measurements from a single individual). The San Jose Brush Rabbit is one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur and head are pale buffy or yellowish gray. Sides are paler and grayer than back. Ears are gray, and nape is dull and pale ocherous buff. Forelegs are ocherous clay and shade into dingy white forefeet. Posterior surface of hindlegs is browner than back, and top of hindfeet are white. Throat is paler than sides, and ventral fur is white.","habitat":"Desert habitat restricted to the south-western coastal plains of the San José Island. Desert habitat consists of primarily seven plant species: jojoba (Simmondsiachinensts, Simmondsiaceae); blue palo verde (Cercidiumpeninsulare, Fabaceae); Maytenus phyllanthoides (Fabaceae); Adam’s trees (Fouquieriadiguetii, Fouquieriaceae); Stenocerus thurbei and S. gummosus (both Cactaceae); and ashy limberbush (Jatrophacinerea, Euphorbiaceae). Five San Jose Brush Rabbits were observed to rest in shade of blue palo verde trees."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFE1FA15F9A0FE4AF25C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B750FFE1FA15F9A0FE4AF25C","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"130","verbatimText":"36.Scrub HareLepus saxatilisFrench:Lievre des buissons/ German:Buschhase/ Spanish:Liebre de matorralOther common names:Savanna HareTaxonomy.Lepus saxatilis F. Cuvier, 1823, “il habite les contrées qui se trouvent a trois journées au nord du cap de Bonne-Espérance [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomic relationship of L. saxatilisto L. victoriaeis unclear. Conventionally, they are considered to be allopatric; L. saxatilisrepresents the larger southern African form and L. victoriaethe smaller northern African form. Nevertheless, others consider L. victoriaeand L. saxatilisa single species or even both species included in L. nigricollisas subspecies. A study of mtDNA identified three phylogeographic distributional lineages of L. saxatilis: south-western (Western Cape and Northern Cape provinces), central (Eastern Cape and parts of Free State and KwaZulu-Natal provinces), and northern (northern South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe). Northern boundary of the distribution is uncertain because it is difficult to distinguish between L. saxatilisand sympatric L. capensisin the field. South-western lineage is unique, and it has lacked gene flow with the other two lineages for more than 45,000 years. Therefore,it has been suggested that the south-western lineage may be elevated to species level. None of the subspecies designated forthis species were supported as evolutionarily meaningful units by the mtDNA data analysis and they seem to represent color pattern classes that are more related to ecological habitat than to evolutionary processes. Hence, none ofthe described subspeciesis recognized here and thusit is considered monotypic.Distribution.S Namibia, most of South Africa (except the N), Swaziland, and Lesotho; N boundary is uncertain, and it may reach S Botswana and S & SW Zimbabwe.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-630 mm,tail 70-122 mm, ear 100-150 mm, hindfoot 99-128 mm; weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The Scrub Hare is medium to large, with long and broad ears. Fur is soft. Dorsal and head are dark buffy brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is white. Gray or buff eye rings extend to nasal region. Eartips have narrow black bands on inner and outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is large and rufous and extends under ears to base of head. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are brownish above and white below. Tail is medium to long and black above and white below. Geographical cline in size is noticeable in the Scrub Hare;size decreases from south-west to north-east.Habitat.Open grassland, thornveld (grassland characterized by thorny plants), roadside verges, rocky and stony habitats, open sand-plain, bushveld (subtropical woodland), and forest. The Scrub Hare seems to be attracted to cultivated areas and gardens. Its forms are located in grass or under a brush.Food and Feeding.Scrub Hareseat grass leaves, rhizomes, and stems and prefer green grass.Breeding.Female Scrub Hares in Botswana were pregnant in all months of the year except September, with reproductive peak during warmer months (October—February). Pregnant females have been recorded in August, October, December, June, and July in South Africa, and newly born young have been reported in May, October, and November. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 3-5 in KwaZulu-Natal, whereas they ranged 1-3 young and averaged 1-6 in Zimbabwe. Increased breeding success probably is related to higher annual rainfall and nutritional content of grasses available for grazing in KwaZulu-Natal. The Scrub Hare probably has two litters per year. Peak breeding in KwaZulu-Natal occurs in September—February.Activity patterns.The Scrub Hare is nocturnal. It becomes active at dusk and feeds throughout the night. A Scrub Hare lies alone in a form during the day, but another individual is often close.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range of the Scrub Hare is variable and depends on habitat type and season. Theylive alone, occasionally in pairs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Scrub Hare is widespread and common throughout its distribution. Nevertheless,its population trend has been declining and is expected to continue to decline by at least 20% during the next 100 years. Threats are habitat fragmentation resulting from agriculture, commercial plantations, and human development. Overharvesting has reduced population sizes especially in KwaZulu-Natal and South Africa.Bibliography.Collins et al. (2008), Flux & Angermann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kryger, Keith et al. (2004), Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004), Monadjem (1998), Shortridge (1934a), Smithers (1971, 1983), Taylor (1998).","taxonomy":"Lepus saxatilis F. Cuvier, 1823, “il habite les contrées qui se trouvent a trois journées au nord du cap de Bonne-Espérance [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomic relationship of L. saxatilisto L. victoriaeis unclear. Conventionally, they are considered to be allopatric; L. saxatilisrepresents the larger southern African form and L. victoriaethe smaller northern African form. Nevertheless, others consider L. victoriaeand L. saxatilisa single species or even both species included in L. nigricollisas subspecies. A study of mtDNA identified three phylogeographic distributional lineages of L. saxatilis: south-western (Western Cape and Northern Cape provinces), central (Eastern Cape and parts of Free State and KwaZulu-Natal provinces), and northern (northern South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe). Northern boundary of the distribution is uncertain because it is difficult to distinguish between L. saxatilisand sympatric L. capensisin the field. South-western lineage is unique, and it has lacked gene flow with the other two lineages for more than 45,000 years. Therefore,it has been suggested that the south-western lineage may be elevated to species level. None of the subspecies designated forthis species were supported as evolutionarily meaningful units by the mtDNA data analysis and they seem to represent color pattern classes that are more related to ecological habitat than to evolutionary processes. Hence, none ofthe described subspeciesis recognized here and thusit is considered monotypic.","commonNames":"Lievre des buissons @fr | Buschhase @de | Liebre de matorral @es | Savanna Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"130","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"saxatilis","name":"Lepus saxatilis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Namibia, most of South Africa (except the N), Swaziland, and Lesotho; N boundary is uncertain, and it may reach S Botswana and S & SW Zimbabwe.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625625/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Collins et al. (2008) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kryger, Keith et al. (2004) | Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004) | Monadjem (1998) | Shortridge (1934a) | Smithers (1971, 1983) | Taylor (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Scrub Hareseat grass leaves, rhizomes, and stems and prefer green grass.","breeding":"Female Scrub Hares in Botswana were pregnant in all months of the year except September, with reproductive peak during warmer months (October—February). Pregnant females have been recorded in August, October, December, June, and July in South Africa, and newly born young have been reported in May, October, and November. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 3-5 in KwaZulu-Natal, whereas they ranged 1-3 young and averaged 1-6 in Zimbabwe. Increased breeding success probably is related to higher annual rainfall and nutritional content of grasses available for grazing in KwaZulu-Natal. The Scrub Hare probably has two litters per year. Peak breeding in KwaZulu-Natal occurs in September—February.","activityPatterns":"The Scrub Hare is nocturnal. It becomes active at dusk and feeds throughout the night. A Scrub Hare lies alone in a form during the day, but another individual is often close.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range of the Scrub Hare is variable and depends on habitat type and season. Theylive alone, occasionally in pairs.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Scrub Hare is widespread and common throughout its distribution. Nevertheless,its population trend has been declining and is expected to continue to decline by at least 20% during the next 100 years. Threats are habitat fragmentation resulting from agriculture, commercial plantations, and human development. Overharvesting has reduced population sizes especially in KwaZulu-Natal and South Africa.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-630 mm,tail 70-122 mm, ear 100-150 mm, hindfoot 99-128 mm; weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The Scrub Hare is medium to large, with long and broad ears. Fur is soft. Dorsal and head are dark buffy brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is white. Gray or buff eye rings extend to nasal region. Eartips have narrow black bands on inner and outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is large and rufous and extends under ears to base of head. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are brownish above and white below. Tail is medium to long and black above and white below. Geographical cline in size is noticeable in the Scrub Hare;size decreases from south-west to north-east.","habitat":"Open grassland, thornveld (grassland characterized by thorny plants), roadside verges, rocky and stony habitats, open sand-plain, bushveld (subtropical woodland), and forest. The Scrub Hare seems to be attracted to cultivated areas and gardens. Its forms are located in grass or under a brush."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFEEFF10F421F689F391.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B750FFEEFF10F421F689F391","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"130","verbatimText":"3b.Ethiopian HareLepus faganiFrench: Liévre d'Ethiopie / German: Athiopischer Hase / Spanish: Liebre de EtiopiaTaxonomy.Lepus fagani Thomas, 1903, “Zegi, Lake Tsana [= Tana] 4000 feet [1219 m],” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of Lepus faganiis uncertain. Formerly, it was reconsidered as a subspecies of L. victoriaeor L. capensis, but because ofits unusually uniform morphological characteristics throughoutits distribution,its species status has been maintained since 1987. It is closely related to L. saxatilisand L. victoriae. This speciesis either allopatric or parapatric with L. victoriae. Because L. faganiis geographically isolated in Ethiopian mountains north of the Rift Valley from populations of L. victoriaein lowlands, it may have evolved into a highland allospecies. Monotypic.Distribution.N & W highlands of Ethiopia (N of the Rift Valley); maybe also adjacent E South Sudan and NW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-540 mm, tail 50-82 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ethiopian Hare is large, with dense and rather coarse fur. Dorsal fur is brownish buff and finely grizzled with black; ventral fur is white and fluffy. Flanks are buff. Forelimbs are cinnamon brown, and hindlimbs brownish buff above and white below. Head is darker than dorsal pelage and its crown blacker. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short compared to other Ethiopian Lepussuch as the Abyssinian Hare (L. habessinicus) and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki). Ears of the Ethiopian Hare are buff, with narrow black rim around inner surfaces oftips. Nuchal patch is cinnamon-ginger and extends onto sides of neck. Tail is medium-sized and fluffy. It is black above, buff on sides, and buffy white below.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands, and scrub and forest margins including wet grasslands with scattered thickets and bushy cultivated areas. The Ethiopian Hare is considered to be an Afro-alpine/Afro-montane species becauseit inhabits elevations of 500-2500 m. Its habitatis similar to that of the African Savanna Hare (L. victoria).Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available forthis species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Research is needed to understand biology, ecology, and conservation status of the Ethiopian Hare.Bibliography.Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b), Boitani et al. (1999), Flux & Angermann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008b), Yalden et al. (1986).","taxonomy":"Lepus fagani Thomas, 1903, “Zegi, Lake Tsana [= Tana] 4000 feet [1219 m],” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of Lepus faganiis uncertain. Formerly, it was reconsidered as a subspecies of L. victoriaeor L. capensis, but because ofits unusually uniform morphological characteristics throughoutits distribution,its species status has been maintained since 1987. It is closely related to L. saxatilisand L. victoriae. This speciesis either allopatric or parapatric with L. victoriae. Because L. faganiis geographically isolated in Ethiopian mountains north of the Rift Valley from populations of L. victoriaein lowlands, it may have evolved into a highland allospecies. Monotypic.","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1903","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"130","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fagani","name":"Lepus fagani","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N & W highlands of Ethiopia (N of the Rift Valley); maybe also adjacent E South Sudan and NW Kenya.","bibliography":"Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008b) | Yalden et al. (1986)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available forthis species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Research is needed to understand biology, ecology, and conservation status of the Ethiopian Hare.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-540 mm, tail 50-82 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ethiopian Hare is large, with dense and rather coarse fur. Dorsal fur is brownish buff and finely grizzled with black; ventral fur is white and fluffy. Flanks are buff. Forelimbs are cinnamon brown, and hindlimbs brownish buff above and white below. Head is darker than dorsal pelage and its crown blacker. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short compared to other Ethiopian Lepussuch as the Abyssinian Hare (L. habessinicus) and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki). Ears of the Ethiopian Hare are buff, with narrow black rim around inner surfaces oftips. Nuchal patch is cinnamon-ginger and extends onto sides of neck. Tail is medium-sized and fluffy. It is black above, buff on sides, and buffy white below.","habitat":"Steppes, grasslands, and scrub and forest margins including wet grasslands with scattered thickets and bushy cultivated areas. The Ethiopian Hare is considered to be an Afro-alpine/Afro-montane species becauseit inhabits elevations of 500-2500 m. Its habitatis similar to that of the African Savanna Hare (L. victoria)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFEEFF60FF41FAF0FD0C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B750FFEEFF60FF41FAF0FD0C","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"130","verbatimText":"34.Burmese HareLepus peguensisFrench:Liévre du Pégou/ German:Burmesischer-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de BirmaniaOther common names:Siamese HareTaxonomy. Lepus peguensis Blyth, 1856, “ Pegu,” Upper Pegu, Burma (= Myanmar).It was placed as in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus. Formerly, L. peguensis included L. hainanus, which received species status. Lepus peguensisneeds taxonomic clarification. A third subspecies (siamensis) is under discussion to be a valid species. It has been suggested that L. peguensisis conspecific with L. nigricollisbecause of its close resemblance to L. n. ruficaudatus. Nevertheless, L. n. ruficaudatus appears to live allopatrically with L. peguensisfrom eastern India to western Myanmar. A study of dental characteristics concluded that separate species status of L. peguensiswas equivocal. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.p.peguensisBlyth,1855—C&SMyanmarfromtheChindwinRivervalleyStoNMalayPeninsula.L. p. vassali Thomas, 1906— Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and S Vietnam.Descriptive notes. Head—body 400-590 mm, tail 55-84 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 96-110 mm; weight 2.2-5 kg. The Burmese Hare is medium-sized and closely resembles the Indian Hare (L. nigricollis). Dorsal pelage is reddish gray, mixed with black and grayer on rump. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are rather large with distinct black tips. Tail is black above and white below. Feet vary, being white in Burmese specimens and fulvous in Thailand specimens.Habitat. Lowlands, land cleared for crops, and dry wasteland. The Burmese Hare occurs in sandy regions along the coast in Malaya and southern Vietnam, butit lives in forest clearings in lalang grass (Imperatacylindrical, Poaceae) or around hill tribe villages in Thailand. Numbers of Burmese Hares are especially high in grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. In Thailand, they live in rain/ flood-fed low-intensity rice fields but avoid irrigated multi-croprice fields. A collection expedition in Thailand in 1940 recorded the Burmese Hare at an elevation of 1300 m on Mount Inthanon. Nevertheless, numerous field surveys have not recorded it above 700 m, so an upperlimit of 1300 m is questionable. Burmese Hares spend the day in forms located under bushes orin tall grass.Food and Feeding. Diet of the Burmese Hare includes grass, bark, and twigs.Breeding. The Burmese Hare might have several litters per year. Litter sizes are 1-7 young (typically 2-4 young). Gestation lasts 35-40 days. Young are born in open grassy areas and are fully furred with eyes open.Activity patterns. The Burmese Hare is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Burmese Hare is widespread and common, with an overall stable population. Its distribution probably includes northern and central regions of Laos, because signs ofits presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been noted (but only to the genus level). Its distribution in Myanmaris largely speculative, and it might be more restricted there. Habitat of the Burmese Hare is probably expanding due to forest clearing, but it occurs in populationsisolated by forest cover. It is heavily hunted, but this does not seem to be a major threat. Extension of irrigated rice fields destroys habitat in some areas. Habitats in Laos and Vietnam are regularly burned during the dry season (February—May), which might pose a threat to young unable to avoid fire. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy, distribution, and behavior of the Burmese Hare.Bibliography. Allen & Coolidge (1940), Angermann (2016), Duckworth (1996), Duckworth, Steinmetz & Pattanavibool (2008), Duckworth, Timmins et al. (1994), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1955), Evans et al. (2000), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gyldenstolpe (1917), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kloss (1919), Lekagul & McNeely (1977), Lissovsky (2016), Petter (1961), Pfeffer (1969), Suchentrunk (2004), Van Peenen (1969). Wroughton (1915).","taxonomy":"Lepus peguensis Blyth, 1856, “ Pegu,” Upper Pegu, Burma (= Myanmar).It was placed as in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus. Formerly, L. peguensis included L. hainanus, which received species status. Lepus peguensisneeds taxonomic clarification. A third subspecies (siamensis) is under discussion to be a valid species. It has been suggested that L. peguensisis conspecific with L. nigricollisbecause of its close resemblance to L. n. ruficaudatus. Nevertheless, L. n. ruficaudatus appears to live allopatrically with L. peguensisfrom eastern India to western Myanmar. A study of dental characteristics concluded that separate species status of L. peguensiswas equivocal. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre du Pégou @fr | Burmesischer-Hase @de | Liebre de Birmania @es | Siamese Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blyth","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1856","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"130","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"peguensis","name":"Lepus peguensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.p.peguensisBlyth,1855—C&SMyanmarfromtheChindwinRivervalleyStoNMalayPeninsula.L. p. vassali Thomas, 1906— Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and S Vietnam.","bibliography":"Allen & Coolidge (1940) | Angermann (2016) | Duckworth (1996) | Duckworth, Steinmetz & Pattanavibool (2008) | Duckworth, Timmins et al. (1994) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1955) | Evans et al. (2000) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gyldenstolpe (1917) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kloss (1919) | Lekagul & McNeely (1977) | Lissovsky (2016) | Petter (1961) | Pfeffer (1969) | Suchentrunk (2004) | Van Peenen (1969) | Wroughton (1915)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 400-590 mm, tail 55-84 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 96-110 mm; weight 2.2-5 kg. The Burmese Hare is medium-sized and closely resembles the Indian Hare (L. nigricollis). Dorsal pelage is reddish gray, mixed with black and grayer on rump. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are rather large with distinct black tips. Tail is black above and white below. Feet vary, being white in Burmese specimens and fulvous in Thailand specimens.Habitat. Lowlands, land cleared for crops, and dry wasteland. The Burmese Hare occurs in sandy regions along the coast in Malaya and southern Vietnam, butit lives in forest clearings in lalang grass (Imperatacylindrical, Poaceae) or around hill tribe villages in Thailand. Numbers of Burmese Hares are especially high in grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. In Thailand, they live in rain/ flood-fed low-intensity rice fields but avoid irrigated multi-croprice fields. A collection expedition in Thailand in 1940 recorded the Burmese Hare at an elevation of 1300 m on Mount Inthanon. Nevertheless, numerous field surveys have not recorded it above 700 m, so an upperlimit of 1300 m is questionable. Burmese Hares spend the day in forms located under bushes orin tall grass.Food and Feeding. Diet of the Burmese Hare includes grass, bark, and twigs.Breeding. The Burmese Hare might have several litters per year. Litter sizes are 1-7 young (typically 2-4 young). Gestation lasts 35-40 days. Young are born in open grassy areas and are fully furred with eyes open.Activity patterns. The Burmese Hare is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Burmese Hare is widespread and common, with an overall stable population. Its distribution probably includes northern and central regions of Laos, because signs ofits presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been noted (but only to the genus level). Its distribution in Myanmaris largely speculative, and it might be more restricted there."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B751FFEFFFC3F5ADF62CFAE8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B751FFEFFFC3F5ADF62CFAE8","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"129","verbatimText":"33.Indian HareLepus nigricollisFrench:Liévre a col noir/ German:Schwarznackenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de IndiaOther common names:Black-napped Hare; Indian Desert Hare (dayanus), Rufous-tailed Hare (ruficaudatus)Taxonomy.Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823, “Malabar,” Madras, India.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus, but a study analyzing skull and dental characteristics suggests that Caprolagusis synonymous to Lepus. This species needs taxonomic clarification. It includes ruficaudatus and dayanus as subspecies; ruficaudatus might be closer to L. capensis, whereas dayanus might deserve species status. It may include L. victoriaewhytei, L. crawshayi (currently a synonym of L. victoriae), and L. peguensisas subspecies. As taxonomists arestill trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.n.nigricollisF.Cuvier,1823—SIndia(SoftheGodavariRiver).L.n.aryabertensisHodgson,1844—SCNepal.L.n.dayanusBlanford,1874—SEPakistanandNWIndia(GreatIndianDesert).L.n.ruficaudatusE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1826—EPakistan,NIndia,SNepal,Bangladesh,Bhutan,exceptthehigherreachesoftheHimalayasandthemangroveareaswithintheSundarbans.L.n.sadiyaKloss,1918—NEIndia(Assam).L.n.simcoxiWroughton,1912—CIndia(NMaharashtraandMadhyaPradesh).L. n. singhala Wroughton, 1915— Sri Lanka.Indian hares (probably ruficaudatus) also occur in extreme E Afghanistan, in the border areas with Pakistan. Situation in Java is debated and the so called “Javan Hare” might be native there. The species has been introduced by founder individuals of either unknown subspeciesaffiliation or belonging to various subspecies into Comoro, Mayotte, Madagascar, Réunion (including Gunners Quoin I), Mauritius (Agaléga Is), Seychelles (Cousin I), and Andaman Is in the Indian Ocean, and into New Guinea. In Gunners Quoin the Indian Hare has been eradicated.Descriptive notes.Head-body 330-530 mm, tail 10-90 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 89-103 mm; weight 1.8-3.6 kg. The Indian Hare is medium-sized. Dorsal fur and head are rufous-brown, mixed with black. Legs and chest are rufous; ventral fur and chin are white. The Indian Hare is larger toward the southern part of its distribution. Color varies in different subspecies— nigricollishas a dark brown or black patch on neck and its tail is black above, ruficaudatus has a gray neck patch and upper side of its tail is brown, dayanuslives in the desert and has a pale yellow-sandy color. A female ruficaudatus (average 2-2 kg) is heavier than a male (1-8 kg).Habitat.Open desert with scattered shrubs, thick jungle with some open clearings, grasslands, and large tracts of scrub and wasteland, alternating with cultivated plains, at elevations of 50-4500 m. Indian Hares spent the day in short grasslandshrub forest areas in Nepal and under bushes in the Sindh Desert, borderlands of Pakistan and India. Tall shrubs (e.g. Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae) or young palms are used as forms. The Indian Hare might use ditches or animal burrows for cover when pursued.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Indian Hares includes mainly grass and forbs. They feed on Capparisdeciduas (Capparaceae), blue panicgrass (Panicumantidotale, Poaceae), rattlepods (Crotalaria spp., Fabaceae), and Zizyphus spp. in the Sindh Desert. Their diets contain up to 77% grasses in wetter regions. Indian Hares might travel 100-500 m to reach green vegetation in the dry season. They eat grass, young plants, leaves of the sweet potato plant, and lettuce from gardens in Sri Lanka. Analysis of feces of Indian Hares on Cousin Island showed that sedges and grasses are mainly consumed in one area, but prickly chaff flower (Achyranthesaspera, Amaranthaceae) and Ficusreflexa (Moraceae) dominated the diet in another area. Indian Hares can damage young trees and agricultural crops such as chickpeas (Cicerarietinum, Fabaceae) and peanuts (Arachishypogaea, Fabaceae) in Pakistan. They fed on short grass and crops in western Nepal.Breeding.NearJodhpur, India, Indian Hares are reproductively active throughout the year, with a peak during the monsoon (July-September). Average annual litter size was 1-8 young (range 1-4). Litter sizes varied throughout the year, with one young in winter to 3-2 young in July.Activity patterns.Indian Hares are crepuscular and nocturnal, but at high densities on Cousin Island, they became active and started to feed in mid-afternoon. They spend the day in a series of forms used for shelter. A single individual might use different forms in the morning and afternoon, depending on the weather.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes are 1-10 ha in Nepal and 0-7-1-8 ha on Cousin Island. Larger home ranges are expected in more open country and desert.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hare is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. It is widespread and abundant. It is shot as game and snared or netted by farmers to prevent crop damage. Populations in India are severely fragmented due to expanding agricultural areas and pressure on forests from collection of fuel wood. Major threats to Indian Hares are habitat destruction, conversion of prime forest areas to agricultural areas, and intensive hunting. Other threats are feral and domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human-caused forest fires. The uncertain taxonomic status of the Indian Hare makes conservation activities difficult. For example, the Javan Hare might be an endemic taxon based on its long fossil history, which would merit urgent actions because ofits very low population size.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Bell (2002), Brooks et al. (1987), Chakraborty, Srinivasulu et al. (2005), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux & Angermann (1990), Ghose (1971), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jain & Prakash (1976), Kirk (1981), Kirk & Bathe (1994), Kirk & Racey (1992), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Maheswaran & Jordan (2008), McNeely (1981), Petter (1961), Phillips (1935), Prakash & Taneja (1969), Prater (1971), Purohit (1967), Sabnis (1981), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Suchentrunk (2004), Suchentrunk & Davidovic (2004).","taxonomy":"Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823, “Malabar,” Madras, India.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus, but a study analyzing skull and dental characteristics suggests that Caprolagusis synonymous to Lepus. This species needs taxonomic clarification. It includes ruficaudatus and dayanus as subspecies; ruficaudatus might be closer to L. capensis, whereas dayanus might deserve species status. It may include L. victoriaewhytei, L. crawshayi (currently a synonym of L. victoriae), and L. peguensisas subspecies. As taxonomists arestill trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre a col noir @fr | Schwarznackenhase @de | Liebre de @es | ndia @en | Black-napped Hare; @en | ndian Desert Hare (dayanus) @en | Rufous-tailed Hare (ruficaudatus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"129","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nigricollis","name":"Lepus nigricollis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.n.nigricollisF.Cuvier,1823—SIndia(SoftheGodavariRiver).L.n.aryabertensisHodgson,1844—SCNepal.L.n.dayanusBlanford,1874—SEPakistanandNWIndia(GreatIndianDesert).L.n.ruficaudatusE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1826—EPakistan,NIndia,SNepal,Bangladesh,Bhutan,exceptthehigherreachesoftheHimalayasandthemangroveareaswithintheSundarbans.L.n.sadiyaKloss,1918—NEIndia(Assam).L.n.simcoxiWroughton,1912—CIndia(NMaharashtraandMadhyaPradesh).L. n. singhala Wroughton, 1915— Sri Lanka.Indian hares (probably ruficaudatus) also occur in extreme E Afghanistan, in the border areas with Pakistan. Situation in Java is debated and the so called “Javan Hare” might be native there. The species has been introduced by founder individuals of either unknown subspeciesaffiliation or belonging to various subspecies into Comoro, Mayotte, Madagascar, Réunion (including Gunners Quoin I), Mauritius (Agaléga Is), Seychelles (Cousin I), and Andaman Is in the Indian Ocean, and into New Guinea. In Gunners Quoin the Indian Hare has been eradicated.","bibliography":"Angermann (1983, 2016) | Bell (2002) | Brooks et al. (1987) | Chakraborty, Srinivasulu et al. (2005) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Ghose (1971) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jain & Prakash (1976) | Kirk (1981) | Kirk & Bathe (1994) | Kirk & Racey (1992) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Maheswaran & Jordan (2008) | McNeely (1981) | Petter (1961) | Phillips (1935) | Prakash & Taneja (1969) | Prater (1971) | Purohit (1967) | Sabnis (1981) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Suchentrunk (2004) | Suchentrunk & Davidovic (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Indian Hares includes mainly grass and forbs. They feed on Capparisdeciduas (Capparaceae), blue panicgrass (Panicumantidotale, Poaceae), rattlepods (Crotalaria spp., Fabaceae), and Zizyphus spp. in the Sindh Desert. Their diets contain up to 77% grasses in wetter regions. Indian Hares might travel 100-500 m to reach green vegetation in the dry season. They eat grass, young plants, leaves of the sweet potato plant, and lettuce from gardens in Sri Lanka. Analysis of feces of Indian Hares on Cousin Island showed that sedges and grasses are mainly consumed in one area, but prickly chaff flower (Achyranthesaspera, Amaranthaceae) and Ficusreflexa (Moraceae) dominated the diet in another area. Indian Hares can damage young trees and agricultural crops such as chickpeas (Cicerarietinum, Fabaceae) and peanuts (Arachishypogaea, Fabaceae) in Pakistan. They fed on short grass and crops in western Nepal.","breeding":"NearJodhpur, India, Indian Hares are reproductively active throughout the year, with a peak during the monsoon (July-September). Average annual litter size was 1-8 young (range 1-4). Litter sizes varied throughout the year, with one young in winter to 3-2 young in July.","activityPatterns":"Indian Hares are crepuscular and nocturnal, but at high densities on Cousin Island, they became active and started to feed in mid-afternoon. They spend the day in a series of forms used for shelter. A single individual might use different forms in the morning and afternoon, depending on the weather.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range sizes are 1-10 ha in Nepal and 0-7-1-8 ha on Cousin Island. Larger home ranges are expected in more open country and desert.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hare is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. It is widespread and abundant. It is shot as game and snared or netted by farmers to prevent crop damage. Populations in India are severely fragmented due to expanding agricultural areas and pressure on forests from collection of fuel wood. Major threats to Indian Hares are habitat destruction, conversion of prime forest areas to agricultural areas, and intensive hunting. Other threats are feral and domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human-caused forest fires. The uncertain taxonomic status of the Indian Hare makes conservation activities difficult. For example, the Javan Hare might be an endemic taxon based on its long fossil history, which would merit urgent actions because ofits very low population size.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 330-530 mm, tail 10-90 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 89-103 mm; weight 1.8-3.6 kg. The Indian Hare is medium-sized. Dorsal fur and head are rufous-brown, mixed with black. Legs and chest are rufous; ventral fur and chin are white. The Indian Hare is larger toward the southern part of its distribution. Color varies in different subspecies— nigricollishas a dark brown or black patch on neck and its tail is black above, ruficaudatus has a gray neck patch and upper side of its tail is brown, dayanuslives in the desert and has a pale yellow-sandy color. A female ruficaudatus (average 2-2 kg) is heavier than a male (1-8 kg).","habitat":"Open desert with scattered shrubs, thick jungle with some open clearings, grasslands, and large tracts of scrub and wasteland, alternating with cultivated plains, at elevations of 50-4500 m. Indian Hares spent the day in short grasslandshrub forest areas in Nepal and under bushes in the Sindh Desert, borderlands of Pakistan and India. Tall shrubs (e.g. Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae) or young palms are used as forms. The Indian Hare might use ditches or animal burrows for cover when pursued."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B751FFEFFFCAFE21FE50FF90.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B751FFEFFFCAFE21FE50FF90","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"129","verbatimText":"32.Hainan HareLepus hainanusFrench: Livre de Hainan / German: Hainan-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de HainanOther common names: Chinese PinyinTaxonomy.Lepus hainanus Swinhoe, 1870, “in the neighbourhood of the capitalcity,” Hainan Province, Hainan Island, China.This species was formerly a subspecies of L. peguensisbut has received species status. Newly conducted genetic analysis revealed that depending on different methods either L. hainanusis conspecific with L. peguensis(genetic distance and phylogenetic network) or L. hainanusis a distinct species (phylogenetic species concept and Bayesian species delimitation analysis). Monotypic.Distribution.Hainan I, China.Descriptive notes.Head—body 350-390 mm, tail 45-70 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 76-96 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. The Hainan Hare is small, with soft and brightly colored fur. Dorsal fur is tawny brown, tinged with chestnut-brown and black. It has whitish eye rings that extend back toward bases of ears and anteriorly toward mouth. Sides are chestnut-brown. Tail has brownish black stripes above and is white below. Feet are pale brown with white marks. Ventral fur is white. Fur of the Hainan Hare is brighter in winter than summer.Habitat.Shrub forests, dry farmland with scattered scrubs, plantains, and dry grassland in low-lying plains. The Hainan Hare avoids mountainous habitat and agricultural land. It does not dig burrows.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but young Hainan Hares are reported to survive well in dry weather.Activity patterns.The Hainan Hare is nocturnal and primarily active before midnight and in early morning, with decreased activity after midnight. Occasionally, it is active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Hainan Hare is endemic to China and occurs in lowlands of Hainan Island. Densities are greatest in north-western and south-western parts of Hainan Island. Formerly, the Hainan Hare was characterized as abundant but now has a decreasing population trend. Local extirpation of the Hainan Hare was recorded in 1983 as a result of overharvesting. Furthermore, more than 90% of the original natural habitat of the Hainan Hare has been destroyed by human settlement and agriculture. In 1995, it was only located on deforested land used for deer ranches in the central, west coastal part of Hainan Island. There are probably no more than 2 km? of optimal habitat remaining, and total population is estimated at only 250-500 individuals. Despitelisting as a China Key List — II species, the Hainan Hare is still poached for meat and skin. Main threats to the Hainan Hare are overharvesting and habitat destruction. It might face competition from feral domestic European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Recommendations are to enforce existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of Hainan Hares, improve habitat management, and enhance education at local, national, and international levels about their protected status.Bibliography.Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kong Lingming et al. (2016), Lazell et al. (1995, 2008), Smith (2008c).","taxonomy":"Lepus hainanus Swinhoe, 1870, “in the neighbourhood of the capitalcity,” Hainan Province, Hainan Island, China.This species was formerly a subspecies of L. peguensisbut has received species status. Newly conducted genetic analysis revealed that depending on different methods either L. hainanusis conspecific with L. peguensis(genetic distance and phylogenetic network) or L. hainanusis a distinct species (phylogenetic species concept and Bayesian species delimitation analysis). Monotypic.","interpretedAuthorityName":"Swinhoe","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1870","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"129","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hainanus","name":"Lepus hainanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Hainan I, China.","bibliography":"Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kong Lingming et al. (2016) | Lazell et al. (1995, 2008) | Smith (2008c)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but young Hainan Hares are reported to survive well in dry weather.","activityPatterns":"The Hainan Hare is nocturnal and primarily active before midnight and in early morning, with decreased activity after midnight. Occasionally, it is active during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Hainan Hare is endemic to China and occurs in lowlands of Hainan Island. Densities are greatest in north-western and south-western parts of Hainan Island. Formerly, the Hainan Hare was characterized as abundant but now has a decreasing population trend. Local extirpation of the Hainan Hare was recorded in 1983 as a result of overharvesting. Furthermore, more than 90% of the original natural habitat of the Hainan Hare has been destroyed by human settlement and agriculture. In 1995, it was only located on deforested land used for deer ranches in the central, west coastal part of Hainan Island. There are probably no more than 2 km? of optimal habitat remaining, and total population is estimated at only 250-500 individuals. Despitelisting as a China Key List — II species, the Hainan Hare is still poached for meat and skin. Main threats to the Hainan Hare are overharvesting and habitat destruction. It might face competition from feral domestic European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Recommendations are to enforce existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of Hainan Hares, improve habitat management, and enhance education at local, national, and international levels about their protected status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 350-390 mm, tail 45-70 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 76-96 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. The Hainan Hare is small, with soft and brightly colored fur. Dorsal fur is tawny brown, tinged with chestnut-brown and black. It has whitish eye rings that extend back toward bases of ears and anteriorly toward mouth. Sides are chestnut-brown. Tail has brownish black stripes above and is white below. Feet are pale brown with white marks. Ventral fur is white. Fur of the Hainan Hare is brighter in winter than summer.","habitat":"Shrub forests, dry farmland with scattered scrubs, plantains, and dry grassland in low-lying plains. The Hainan Hare avoids mountainous habitat and agricultural land. It does not dig burrows."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFEEFF10F421F689F391.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B750FFEEFF10F421F689F391","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"130","verbatimText":"3b.Ethiopian HareLepus faganiFrench: Liévre d'Ethiopie / German: Athiopischer Hase / Spanish: Liebre de EtiopiaTaxonomy.Lepus fagani Thomas, 1903, “Zegi, Lake Tsana [= Tana] 4000 feet [1219 m],” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of Lepus faganiis uncertain. Formerly, it was reconsidered as a subspecies of L. victoriaeor L. capensis, but because ofits unusually uniform morphological characteristics throughoutits distribution,its species status has been maintained since 1987. It is closely related to L. saxatilisand L. victoriae. This speciesis either allopatric or parapatric with L. victoriae. Because L. faganiis geographically isolated in Ethiopian mountains north of the Rift Valley from populations of L. victoriaein lowlands, it may have evolved into a highland allospecies. Monotypic.Distribution.N & W highlands of Ethiopia (N of the Rift Valley); maybe also adjacent E South Sudan and NW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-540 mm, tail 50-82 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ethiopian Hare is large, with dense and rather coarse fur. Dorsal fur is brownish buff and finely grizzled with black; ventral fur is white and fluffy. Flanks are buff. Forelimbs are cinnamon brown, and hindlimbs brownish buff above and white below. Head is darker than dorsal pelage and its crown blacker. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short compared to other Ethiopian Lepussuch as the Abyssinian Hare (L. habessinicus) and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki). Ears of the Ethiopian Hare are buff, with narrow black rim around inner surfaces oftips. Nuchal patch is cinnamon-ginger and extends onto sides of neck. Tail is medium-sized and fluffy. It is black above, buff on sides, and buffy white below.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands, and scrub and forest margins including wet grasslands with scattered thickets and bushy cultivated areas. The Ethiopian Hare is considered to be an Afro-alpine/Afro-montane species becauseit inhabits elevations of 500-2500 m. Its habitatis similar to that of the African Savanna Hare (L. victoria).Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available forthis species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Research is needed to understand biology, ecology, and conservation status of the Ethiopian Hare.Bibliography.Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b), Boitani et al. (1999), Flux & Angermann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008b), Yalden et al. (1986).","taxonomy":"Lepus fagani Thomas, 1903, “Zegi, Lake Tsana [= Tana] 4000 feet [1219 m],” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of Lepus faganiis uncertain. Formerly, it was reconsidered as a subspecies of L. victoriaeor L. capensis, but because ofits unusually uniform morphological characteristics throughoutits distribution,its species status has been maintained since 1987. It is closely related to L. saxatilisand L. victoriae. This speciesis either allopatric or parapatric with L. victoriae. Because L. faganiis geographically isolated in Ethiopian mountains north of the Rift Valley from populations of L. victoriaein lowlands, it may have evolved into a highland allospecies. Monotypic.","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1903","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"130","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fagani","name":"Lepus fagani","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N & W highlands of Ethiopia (N of the Rift Valley); maybe also adjacent E South Sudan and NW Kenya.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625623/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008b) | Yalden et al. (1986)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available forthis species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Research is needed to understand biology, ecology, and conservation status of the Ethiopian Hare.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-540 mm, tail 50-82 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ethiopian Hare is large, with dense and rather coarse fur. Dorsal fur is brownish buff and finely grizzled with black; ventral fur is white and fluffy. Flanks are buff. Forelimbs are cinnamon brown, and hindlimbs brownish buff above and white below. Head is darker than dorsal pelage and its crown blacker. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short compared to other Ethiopian Lepussuch as the Abyssinian Hare (L. habessinicus) and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki). Ears of the Ethiopian Hare are buff, with narrow black rim around inner surfaces oftips. Nuchal patch is cinnamon-ginger and extends onto sides of neck. Tail is medium-sized and fluffy. It is black above, buff on sides, and buffy white below.","habitat":"Steppes, grasslands, and scrub and forest margins including wet grasslands with scattered thickets and bushy cultivated areas. The Ethiopian Hare is considered to be an Afro-alpine/Afro-montane species becauseit inhabits elevations of 500-2500 m. Its habitatis similar to that of the African Savanna Hare (L. victoria)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B750FFEEFF60FF41FAF0FD0C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B750FFEEFF60FF41FAF0FD0C","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"130","verbatimText":"34.Burmese HareLepus peguensisFrench:Liévre du Pégou/ German:Burmesischer-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de BirmaniaOther common names:Siamese HareTaxonomy. Lepus peguensis Blyth, 1856, “ Pegu,” Upper Pegu, Burma (= Myanmar).It was placed as in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus. Formerly, L. peguensis included L. hainanus, which received species status. Lepus peguensisneeds taxonomic clarification. A third subspecies (siamensis) is under discussion to be a valid species. It has been suggested that L. peguensisis conspecific with L. nigricollisbecause of its close resemblance to L. n. ruficaudatus. Nevertheless, L. n. ruficaudatus appears to live allopatrically with L. peguensisfrom eastern India to western Myanmar. A study of dental characteristics concluded that separate species status of L. peguensiswas equivocal. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.p.peguensisBlyth,1855—C&SMyanmarfromtheChindwinRivervalleyStoNMalayPeninsula.L. p. vassali Thomas, 1906— Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and S Vietnam.Descriptive notes. Head—body 400-590 mm, tail 55-84 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 96-110 mm; weight 2.2-5 kg. The Burmese Hare is medium-sized and closely resembles the Indian Hare (L. nigricollis). Dorsal pelage is reddish gray, mixed with black and grayer on rump. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are rather large with distinct black tips. Tail is black above and white below. Feet vary, being white in Burmese specimens and fulvous in Thailand specimens.Habitat. Lowlands, land cleared for crops, and dry wasteland. The Burmese Hare occurs in sandy regions along the coast in Malaya and southern Vietnam, butit lives in forest clearings in lalang grass (Imperatacylindrical, Poaceae) or around hill tribe villages in Thailand. Numbers of Burmese Hares are especially high in grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. In Thailand, they live in rain/ flood-fed low-intensity rice fields but avoid irrigated multi-croprice fields. A collection expedition in Thailand in 1940 recorded the Burmese Hare at an elevation of 1300 m on Mount Inthanon. Nevertheless, numerous field surveys have not recorded it above 700 m, so an upperlimit of 1300 m is questionable. Burmese Hares spend the day in forms located under bushes orin tall grass.Food and Feeding. Diet of the Burmese Hare includes grass, bark, and twigs.Breeding. The Burmese Hare might have several litters per year. Litter sizes are 1-7 young (typically 2-4 young). Gestation lasts 35-40 days. Young are born in open grassy areas and are fully furred with eyes open.Activity patterns. The Burmese Hare is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Burmese Hare is widespread and common, with an overall stable population. Its distribution probably includes northern and central regions of Laos, because signs ofits presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been noted (but only to the genus level). Its distribution in Myanmaris largely speculative, and it might be more restricted there. Habitat of the Burmese Hare is probably expanding due to forest clearing, but it occurs in populationsisolated by forest cover. It is heavily hunted, but this does not seem to be a major threat. Extension of irrigated rice fields destroys habitat in some areas. Habitats in Laos and Vietnam are regularly burned during the dry season (February—May), which might pose a threat to young unable to avoid fire. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy, distribution, and behavior of the Burmese Hare.Bibliography. Allen & Coolidge (1940), Angermann (2016), Duckworth (1996), Duckworth, Steinmetz & Pattanavibool (2008), Duckworth, Timmins et al. (1994), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1955), Evans et al. (2000), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gyldenstolpe (1917), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kloss (1919), Lekagul & McNeely (1977), Lissovsky (2016), Petter (1961), Pfeffer (1969), Suchentrunk (2004), Van Peenen (1969). Wroughton (1915).","taxonomy":"Lepus peguensis Blyth, 1856, “ Pegu,” Upper Pegu, Burma (= Myanmar).It was placed as in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus. Formerly, L. peguensis included L. hainanus, which received species status. Lepus peguensisneeds taxonomic clarification. A third subspecies (siamensis) is under discussion to be a valid species. It has been suggested that L. peguensisis conspecific with L. nigricollisbecause of its close resemblance to L. n. ruficaudatus. Nevertheless, L. n. ruficaudatus appears to live allopatrically with L. peguensisfrom eastern India to western Myanmar. A study of dental characteristics concluded that separate species status of L. peguensiswas equivocal. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre du Pégou @fr | Burmesischer-Hase @de | Liebre de Birmania @es | Siamese Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blyth","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1856","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"130","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"peguensis","name":"Lepus peguensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.p.peguensisBlyth,1855—C&SMyanmarfromtheChindwinRivervalleyStoNMalayPeninsula.L. p. vassali Thomas, 1906— Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and S Vietnam.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625621/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen & Coolidge (1940) | Angermann (2016) | Duckworth (1996) | Duckworth, Steinmetz & Pattanavibool (2008) | Duckworth, Timmins et al. (1994) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1955) | Evans et al. (2000) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gyldenstolpe (1917) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kloss (1919) | Lekagul & McNeely (1977) | Lissovsky (2016) | Petter (1961) | Pfeffer (1969) | Suchentrunk (2004) | Van Peenen (1969) | Wroughton (1915)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 400-590 mm, tail 55-84 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 96-110 mm; weight 2.2-5 kg. The Burmese Hare is medium-sized and closely resembles the Indian Hare (L. nigricollis). Dorsal pelage is reddish gray, mixed with black and grayer on rump. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are rather large with distinct black tips. Tail is black above and white below. Feet vary, being white in Burmese specimens and fulvous in Thailand specimens.Habitat. Lowlands, land cleared for crops, and dry wasteland. The Burmese Hare occurs in sandy regions along the coast in Malaya and southern Vietnam, butit lives in forest clearings in lalang grass (Imperatacylindrical, Poaceae) or around hill tribe villages in Thailand. Numbers of Burmese Hares are especially high in grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. In Thailand, they live in rain/ flood-fed low-intensity rice fields but avoid irrigated multi-croprice fields. A collection expedition in Thailand in 1940 recorded the Burmese Hare at an elevation of 1300 m on Mount Inthanon. Nevertheless, numerous field surveys have not recorded it above 700 m, so an upperlimit of 1300 m is questionable. Burmese Hares spend the day in forms located under bushes orin tall grass.Food and Feeding. Diet of the Burmese Hare includes grass, bark, and twigs.Breeding. The Burmese Hare might have several litters per year. Litter sizes are 1-7 young (typically 2-4 young). Gestation lasts 35-40 days. Young are born in open grassy areas and are fully furred with eyes open.Activity patterns. The Burmese Hare is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Burmese Hare is widespread and common, with an overall stable population. Its distribution probably includes northern and central regions of Laos, because signs ofits presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been noted (but only to the genus level). Its distribution in Myanmaris largely speculative, and it might be more restricted there."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B751FFEFFFC3F5ADF62CFAE8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B751FFEFFFC3F5ADF62CFAE8","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"129","verbatimText":"33.Indian HareLepus nigricollisFrench:Liévre a col noir/ German:Schwarznackenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de IndiaOther common names:Black-napped Hare; Indian Desert Hare (dayanus), Rufous-tailed Hare (ruficaudatus)Taxonomy.Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823, “Malabar,” Madras, India.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus, but a study analyzing skull and dental characteristics suggests that Caprolagusis synonymous to Lepus. This species needs taxonomic clarification. It includes ruficaudatus and dayanus as subspecies; ruficaudatus might be closer to L. capensis, whereas dayanus might deserve species status. It may include L. victoriaewhytei, L. crawshayi (currently a synonym of L. victoriae), and L. peguensisas subspecies. As taxonomists arestill trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.n.nigricollisF.Cuvier,1823—SIndia(SoftheGodavariRiver).L.n.aryabertensisHodgson,1844—SCNepal.L.n.dayanusBlanford,1874—SEPakistanandNWIndia(GreatIndianDesert).L.n.ruficaudatusE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1826—EPakistan,NIndia,SNepal,Bangladesh,Bhutan,exceptthehigherreachesoftheHimalayasandthemangroveareaswithintheSundarbans.L.n.sadiyaKloss,1918—NEIndia(Assam).L.n.simcoxiWroughton,1912—CIndia(NMaharashtraandMadhyaPradesh).L. n. singhala Wroughton, 1915— Sri Lanka.Indian hares (probably ruficaudatus) also occur in extreme E Afghanistan, in the border areas with Pakistan. Situation in Java is debated and the so called “Javan Hare” might be native there. The species has been introduced by founder individuals of either unknown subspeciesaffiliation or belonging to various subspecies into Comoro, Mayotte, Madagascar, Réunion (including Gunners Quoin I), Mauritius (Agaléga Is), Seychelles (Cousin I), and Andaman Is in the Indian Ocean, and into New Guinea. In Gunners Quoin the Indian Hare has been eradicated.Descriptive notes.Head-body 330-530 mm, tail 10-90 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 89-103 mm; weight 1.8-3.6 kg. The Indian Hare is medium-sized. Dorsal fur and head are rufous-brown, mixed with black. Legs and chest are rufous; ventral fur and chin are white. The Indian Hare is larger toward the southern part of its distribution. Color varies in different subspecies— nigricollishas a dark brown or black patch on neck and its tail is black above, ruficaudatus has a gray neck patch and upper side of its tail is brown, dayanuslives in the desert and has a pale yellow-sandy color. A female ruficaudatus (average 2-2 kg) is heavier than a male (1-8 kg).Habitat.Open desert with scattered shrubs, thick jungle with some open clearings, grasslands, and large tracts of scrub and wasteland, alternating with cultivated plains, at elevations of 50-4500 m. Indian Hares spent the day in short grasslandshrub forest areas in Nepal and under bushes in the Sindh Desert, borderlands of Pakistan and India. Tall shrubs (e.g. Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae) or young palms are used as forms. The Indian Hare might use ditches or animal burrows for cover when pursued.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Indian Hares includes mainly grass and forbs. They feed on Capparisdeciduas (Capparaceae), blue panicgrass (Panicumantidotale, Poaceae), rattlepods (Crotalaria spp., Fabaceae), and Zizyphus spp. in the Sindh Desert. Their diets contain up to 77% grasses in wetter regions. Indian Hares might travel 100-500 m to reach green vegetation in the dry season. They eat grass, young plants, leaves of the sweet potato plant, and lettuce from gardens in Sri Lanka. Analysis of feces of Indian Hares on Cousin Island showed that sedges and grasses are mainly consumed in one area, but prickly chaff flower (Achyranthesaspera, Amaranthaceae) and Ficusreflexa (Moraceae) dominated the diet in another area. Indian Hares can damage young trees and agricultural crops such as chickpeas (Cicerarietinum, Fabaceae) and peanuts (Arachishypogaea, Fabaceae) in Pakistan. They fed on short grass and crops in western Nepal.Breeding.NearJodhpur, India, Indian Hares are reproductively active throughout the year, with a peak during the monsoon (July-September). Average annual litter size was 1-8 young (range 1-4). Litter sizes varied throughout the year, with one young in winter to 3-2 young in July.Activity patterns.Indian Hares are crepuscular and nocturnal, but at high densities on Cousin Island, they became active and started to feed in mid-afternoon. They spend the day in a series of forms used for shelter. A single individual might use different forms in the morning and afternoon, depending on the weather.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes are 1-10 ha in Nepal and 0-7-1-8 ha on Cousin Island. Larger home ranges are expected in more open country and desert.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hare is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. It is widespread and abundant. It is shot as game and snared or netted by farmers to prevent crop damage. Populations in India are severely fragmented due to expanding agricultural areas and pressure on forests from collection of fuel wood. Major threats to Indian Hares are habitat destruction, conversion of prime forest areas to agricultural areas, and intensive hunting. Other threats are feral and domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human-caused forest fires. The uncertain taxonomic status of the Indian Hare makes conservation activities difficult. For example, the Javan Hare might be an endemic taxon based on its long fossil history, which would merit urgent actions because ofits very low population size.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Bell (2002), Brooks et al. (1987), Chakraborty, Srinivasulu et al. (2005), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux & Angermann (1990), Ghose (1971), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jain & Prakash (1976), Kirk (1981), Kirk & Bathe (1994), Kirk & Racey (1992), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Maheswaran & Jordan (2008), McNeely (1981), Petter (1961), Phillips (1935), Prakash & Taneja (1969), Prater (1971), Purohit (1967), Sabnis (1981), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Suchentrunk (2004), Suchentrunk & Davidovic (2004).","taxonomy":"Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823, “Malabar,” Madras, India.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand subgenus Indolagus, but a study analyzing skull and dental characteristics suggests that Caprolagusis synonymous to Lepus. This species needs taxonomic clarification. It includes ruficaudatus and dayanus as subspecies; ruficaudatus might be closer to L. capensis, whereas dayanus might deserve species status. It may include L. victoriaewhytei, L. crawshayi (currently a synonym of L. victoriae), and L. peguensisas subspecies. As taxonomists arestill trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre a col noir @fr | Schwarznackenhase @de | Liebre de @es | ndia @en | Black-napped Hare; @en | ndian Desert Hare (dayanus) @en | Rufous-tailed Hare (ruficaudatus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"129","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nigricollis","name":"Lepus nigricollis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.n.nigricollisF.Cuvier,1823—SIndia(SoftheGodavariRiver).L.n.aryabertensisHodgson,1844—SCNepal.L.n.dayanusBlanford,1874—SEPakistanandNWIndia(GreatIndianDesert).L.n.ruficaudatusE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1826—EPakistan,NIndia,SNepal,Bangladesh,Bhutan,exceptthehigherreachesoftheHimalayasandthemangroveareaswithintheSundarbans.L.n.sadiyaKloss,1918—NEIndia(Assam).L.n.simcoxiWroughton,1912—CIndia(NMaharashtraandMadhyaPradesh).L. n. singhala Wroughton, 1915— Sri Lanka.Indian hares (probably ruficaudatus) also occur in extreme E Afghanistan, in the border areas with Pakistan. Situation in Java is debated and the so called “Javan Hare” might be native there. The species has been introduced by founder individuals of either unknown subspeciesaffiliation or belonging to various subspecies into Comoro, Mayotte, Madagascar, Réunion (including Gunners Quoin I), Mauritius (Agaléga Is), Seychelles (Cousin I), and Andaman Is in the Indian Ocean, and into New Guinea. In Gunners Quoin the Indian Hare has been eradicated.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625619/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (1983, 2016) | Bell (2002) | Brooks et al. (1987) | Chakraborty, Srinivasulu et al. (2005) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Ghose (1971) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jain & Prakash (1976) | Kirk (1981) | Kirk & Bathe (1994) | Kirk & Racey (1992) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Maheswaran & Jordan (2008) | McNeely (1981) | Petter (1961) | Phillips (1935) | Prakash & Taneja (1969) | Prater (1971) | Purohit (1967) | Sabnis (1981) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Suchentrunk (2004) | Suchentrunk & Davidovic (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Indian Hares includes mainly grass and forbs. They feed on Capparisdeciduas (Capparaceae), blue panicgrass (Panicumantidotale, Poaceae), rattlepods (Crotalaria spp., Fabaceae), and Zizyphus spp. in the Sindh Desert. Their diets contain up to 77% grasses in wetter regions. Indian Hares might travel 100-500 m to reach green vegetation in the dry season. They eat grass, young plants, leaves of the sweet potato plant, and lettuce from gardens in Sri Lanka. Analysis of feces of Indian Hares on Cousin Island showed that sedges and grasses are mainly consumed in one area, but prickly chaff flower (Achyranthesaspera, Amaranthaceae) and Ficusreflexa (Moraceae) dominated the diet in another area. Indian Hares can damage young trees and agricultural crops such as chickpeas (Cicerarietinum, Fabaceae) and peanuts (Arachishypogaea, Fabaceae) in Pakistan. They fed on short grass and crops in western Nepal.","breeding":"NearJodhpur, India, Indian Hares are reproductively active throughout the year, with a peak during the monsoon (July-September). Average annual litter size was 1-8 young (range 1-4). Litter sizes varied throughout the year, with one young in winter to 3-2 young in July.","activityPatterns":"Indian Hares are crepuscular and nocturnal, but at high densities on Cousin Island, they became active and started to feed in mid-afternoon. They spend the day in a series of forms used for shelter. A single individual might use different forms in the morning and afternoon, depending on the weather.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range sizes are 1-10 ha in Nepal and 0-7-1-8 ha on Cousin Island. Larger home ranges are expected in more open country and desert.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hare is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. It is widespread and abundant. It is shot as game and snared or netted by farmers to prevent crop damage. Populations in India are severely fragmented due to expanding agricultural areas and pressure on forests from collection of fuel wood. Major threats to Indian Hares are habitat destruction, conversion of prime forest areas to agricultural areas, and intensive hunting. Other threats are feral and domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human-caused forest fires. The uncertain taxonomic status of the Indian Hare makes conservation activities difficult. For example, the Javan Hare might be an endemic taxon based on its long fossil history, which would merit urgent actions because ofits very low population size.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 330-530 mm, tail 10-90 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 89-103 mm; weight 1.8-3.6 kg. The Indian Hare is medium-sized. Dorsal fur and head are rufous-brown, mixed with black. Legs and chest are rufous; ventral fur and chin are white. The Indian Hare is larger toward the southern part of its distribution. Color varies in different subspecies— nigricollishas a dark brown or black patch on neck and its tail is black above, ruficaudatus has a gray neck patch and upper side of its tail is brown, dayanuslives in the desert and has a pale yellow-sandy color. A female ruficaudatus (average 2-2 kg) is heavier than a male (1-8 kg).","habitat":"Open desert with scattered shrubs, thick jungle with some open clearings, grasslands, and large tracts of scrub and wasteland, alternating with cultivated plains, at elevations of 50-4500 m. Indian Hares spent the day in short grasslandshrub forest areas in Nepal and under bushes in the Sindh Desert, borderlands of Pakistan and India. Tall shrubs (e.g. Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae) or young palms are used as forms. The Indian Hare might use ditches or animal burrows for cover when pursued."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B751FFEFFFCAFE21FE50FF90.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B751FFEFFFCAFE21FE50FF90","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"129","verbatimText":"32.Hainan HareLepus hainanusFrench: Livre de Hainan / German: Hainan-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de HainanOther common names: Chinese PinyinTaxonomy.Lepus hainanus Swinhoe, 1870, “in the neighbourhood of the capitalcity,” Hainan Province, Hainan Island, China.This species was formerly a subspecies of L. peguensisbut has received species status. Newly conducted genetic analysis revealed that depending on different methods either L. hainanusis conspecific with L. peguensis(genetic distance and phylogenetic network) or L. hainanusis a distinct species (phylogenetic species concept and Bayesian species delimitation analysis). Monotypic.Distribution.Hainan I, China.Descriptive notes.Head—body 350-390 mm, tail 45-70 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 76-96 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. The Hainan Hare is small, with soft and brightly colored fur. Dorsal fur is tawny brown, tinged with chestnut-brown and black. It has whitish eye rings that extend back toward bases of ears and anteriorly toward mouth. Sides are chestnut-brown. Tail has brownish black stripes above and is white below. Feet are pale brown with white marks. Ventral fur is white. Fur of the Hainan Hare is brighter in winter than summer.Habitat.Shrub forests, dry farmland with scattered scrubs, plantains, and dry grassland in low-lying plains. The Hainan Hare avoids mountainous habitat and agricultural land. It does not dig burrows.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but young Hainan Hares are reported to survive well in dry weather.Activity patterns.The Hainan Hare is nocturnal and primarily active before midnight and in early morning, with decreased activity after midnight. Occasionally, it is active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Hainan Hare is endemic to China and occurs in lowlands of Hainan Island. Densities are greatest in north-western and south-western parts of Hainan Island. Formerly, the Hainan Hare was characterized as abundant but now has a decreasing population trend. Local extirpation of the Hainan Hare was recorded in 1983 as a result of overharvesting. Furthermore, more than 90% of the original natural habitat of the Hainan Hare has been destroyed by human settlement and agriculture. In 1995, it was only located on deforested land used for deer ranches in the central, west coastal part of Hainan Island. There are probably no more than 2 km? of optimal habitat remaining, and total population is estimated at only 250-500 individuals. Despitelisting as a China Key List — II species, the Hainan Hare is still poached for meat and skin. Main threats to the Hainan Hare are overharvesting and habitat destruction. It might face competition from feral domestic European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Recommendations are to enforce existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of Hainan Hares, improve habitat management, and enhance education at local, national, and international levels about their protected status.Bibliography.Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kong Lingming et al. (2016), Lazell et al. (1995, 2008), Smith (2008c).","taxonomy":"Lepus hainanus Swinhoe, 1870, “in the neighbourhood of the capitalcity,” Hainan Province, Hainan Island, China.This species was formerly a subspecies of L. peguensisbut has received species status. Newly conducted genetic analysis revealed that depending on different methods either L. hainanusis conspecific with L. peguensis(genetic distance and phylogenetic network) or L. hainanusis a distinct species (phylogenetic species concept and Bayesian species delimitation analysis). Monotypic.","interpretedAuthorityName":"Swinhoe","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1870","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"129","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hainanus","name":"Lepus hainanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Hainan I, China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625617/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kong Lingming et al. (2016) | Lazell et al. (1995, 2008) | Smith (2008c)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but young Hainan Hares are reported to survive well in dry weather.","activityPatterns":"The Hainan Hare is nocturnal and primarily active before midnight and in early morning, with decreased activity after midnight. Occasionally, it is active during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Hainan Hare is endemic to China and occurs in lowlands of Hainan Island. Densities are greatest in north-western and south-western parts of Hainan Island. Formerly, the Hainan Hare was characterized as abundant but now has a decreasing population trend. Local extirpation of the Hainan Hare was recorded in 1983 as a result of overharvesting. Furthermore, more than 90% of the original natural habitat of the Hainan Hare has been destroyed by human settlement and agriculture. In 1995, it was only located on deforested land used for deer ranches in the central, west coastal part of Hainan Island. There are probably no more than 2 km? of optimal habitat remaining, and total population is estimated at only 250-500 individuals. Despitelisting as a China Key List — II species, the Hainan Hare is still poached for meat and skin. Main threats to the Hainan Hare are overharvesting and habitat destruction. It might face competition from feral domestic European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Recommendations are to enforce existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of Hainan Hares, improve habitat management, and enhance education at local, national, and international levels about their protected status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 350-390 mm, tail 45-70 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 76-96 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. The Hainan Hare is small, with soft and brightly colored fur. Dorsal fur is tawny brown, tinged with chestnut-brown and black. It has whitish eye rings that extend back toward bases of ears and anteriorly toward mouth. Sides are chestnut-brown. Tail has brownish black stripes above and is white below. Feet are pale brown with white marks. Ventral fur is white. Fur of the Hainan Hare is brighter in winter than summer.","habitat":"Shrub forests, dry farmland with scattered scrubs, plantains, and dry grassland in low-lying plains. The Hainan Hare avoids mountainous habitat and agricultural land. It does not dig burrows."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B754FFEDFF6DF725F820F363.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B754FFEDFF6DF725F820F363","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"126","verbatimText":"31.European RabbitOryctolagus cuniculusFrench:Lapin de garenne/ German:Wildkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo europeoOther common names:Domestic Rabbit, Wild RabbitTaxonomy. Lepus cuniculus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa australis.” Restricted by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Germany.”The genus Oryctolagusis monotypic; however, subspecies algirus has exceptional high nucleotide diversity compared with European Rabbit populations on the Iberian Peninsula and worldwide. Furthermore, it has distinct morphological, genetic, reproductive, and parasitological characteristics, and therefore, elevation to species status is under consideration. As in the other Leporidaespecies, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.c.cuniculusLinnaeus,1758—N,NE&EIberianPeninsula(Spain).O.c.algirusLoche,1858—S,SW&WIberianPeninsula(Spain,Portugal),NMorocco,NAlgeria(includingHabibasI).O.c.brachyotusTrouessart,1917—SFrance.O.c.cnossiusBate,1906—CreteI.O.c.habetensisCabrera,1923—Tanger-Tetouan-AlHoceimaRegion(NMorocco).O. c. huxleyi Haeckel, 1874— Mediterranean Is (Balearic Is, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Macaronesia (Azores, Madeira, and Canary Is).Original distribution after last Ice Age restricted to Iberian Peninsula, W France, and N Africa. Ancient introductions of the nominate subspecies probably during the Roman period have spread it throughout Europe, and now it is present in most of W, C & E Europe and the Mediterranean and Macaronesian Is (these mostly old introductions are also shaded on the map). During the 20\" century it has been released into the steppes of the Black Sea in Ukraine and Russia (N Caucasus); introduced into Australia in 1788 and again in 1859 where it is now widespread;it is found on many Pacific Is, islands off the coast of South Africa and Namibia, and in New Zealand; successfully introduced only since 1936 into South America, nowadays with a limited range in Chile, Argentina, and Falkland Is, it is also present in the Caribbean Is (all these modern introductions not shaded in the map). Worldwide as domesticated forms.Descriptive notes. Head-body 360-380 mm, tail 65-70 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 80-89 mm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The European Rabbit is small and has grayish brown fur. Dorsal fur and head are pale brown and slightly flecked with black and buff. Ventral pelage is white, with pale ginger-buff. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short, dark brown, and without black tips. Nuchal patch is pale rufous brown, and throat patch is ginger-buff with orange. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are short and pale brown. Hindfeet are white above. Tail is short and the same color as dorsal fur above;laterally it is brown or white and below it is white. Pelage color varies geographically. Domestic rabbits and feral descendants of the European Rabbit vary in color from white to brown and black, with or without different colored patches.Habitat. Ideally, habitats with a Mediterranean climate and less than ¢.1000 mm of rain/year, short herbage, dry and loosely compacted soils that can be easily dug, or with secure refuge areas in thickets near open feeding grounds, below elevations of ¢.1500 m. Nevertheless, European Rabbits also inhabit cold and wet habitat and high mountains, dense bushy regions, and arid habitats in Morocco. They tend to avoid forested habitats and open areas in Algeria.Food and Feeding. Diet of European Rabbits consists of grasses and forbs, mostly the former, and differ considerably between habitats and season.Breeding. The European Rabbit breeds opportunistically in any season, making it an ideal colonist. Breeding begins and ends earlier in the year the lower the latitude in its introduced distribution. Length of reproduction season and number oflitters produced each year depend on length of growing season of plants in the diet. Thus, reproductive season lasts for c.4 months/year at higher latitudes to at least ¢.9 months/year in temperate New Zealand, where it was introduced. Winter breeding of European Rabbits in Mediterranean climates ceases in late spring. In more temperate climates, breeding begins in early spring and continues through mid-summer. In semiarid regions of Australia where droughts last many months, with occasional heavy rains to which the vegetation responds vigorously, opportunistic breeding of European Rabbits is most distinct. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. During early gestation, a female can terminate a pregnancy or reduce litter size by resorbing single embryos or whole litters if conditions are unfavorable for lactation—the most demanding stage of reproduction. Litter sizes are 3-9 young, depending on season and environmental conditions. Mean litter sizes are 4-6 young in mid-season and 3-4 young during off-peak periods. Seasonal and regional variation in litter size is less pronounced than length of the breeding season. Consequently, annual number of young per female depends primarily on length of the breading season. Number of young European Rabbits born per female per year is 15-45 and depends on climate. Females have postpartum estrus or a seven-day estrous period. Young are born in a nest of dead vegetation lined with fur from their mother’s belly. Nest is placed either in a short sub-branch of an existing burrow or a separate breeding burrow called “stop” c¢.1 m long. The female closes the stop with soil when she leaves. Breeding burrows of European Rabbits may be made days, weeks, or even months before they are used; some are never used. A study conducted in Australia showed that the dominant female breeds in the warren, and subordinate females breed in isolated stops. When brush coveris sufficient, European Rabbits often live permanently aboveground and have no warrens;all breeding takes place in stops. Young are altricial and born naked with closed eyes. A female feeds her young once a night for only c¢.5 minutes. They are weaned at ¢.20 days old, after which they leave the nest. Maturity is reached at 3-4 months old. Population numbers often fluctuate greatly.Activity patterns. The European Rabbit is nocturnal but active at dawn and dusk. Daily activity aboveground depended on density relative to food supply. If density was high and food was limited, more than 60% of an introduced population in New Zealand was aboveground during the day. Moreover, individuals in the New Zealand population emerged earlier, relative to sunset, in winter and spring than summer and autumn. Individuals remained in their daytime resting places from soon after dawn until at least mid-afternoon. During the breeding season, females often began to feed soon after midday.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The European Rabbit digs extensive underground burrows (“warrens”) for resting during the day and protection when threatened. It sometimes lives permanently aboveground, lying in dense vegetation during the day and using burrows only for breeding. It is territorial and forms social groups with a strict linear hierarchy of dominance. A dominant male lives in a warren with several females and their young. Isolated pairs, small groups of three animals, or even solitary individuals are common at low densities. Neighboring groups of European Rabbits may feed together at night. Defended territories are usually small (often less than 1 ha). When food is short or clumped, European Rabbits might feed communally at night at distances of at least 500 m away from their resting areas. Nightly home ranges are much larger than daily home ranges. Males have larger home ranges than females. Adults rarely shift their home range permanently. A minority ofjuveniles disperses several kilometers from where they were born but most stay in their natal home ranges. When the European Rabbit was introduced in Australia, it spread into unoccupied areas at rates of up to 300 km/year.Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The European Rabbit is a widespread colonizer and considered a pest outside its natural distribution where its eradication is priority for conservation; however, only those within the natural distribution in Spain, Portugal, and north-western Africa are considered in [UCN’s assessment. The European Rabbit's original distribution after the last ice age included only the Iberian Peninsula, western France, Morocco, and Algeria. Currently, it inhabits most of Western and Central Europe (from Ireland, north to Denmark and southern Sweden, east to Ukraine and Romania, and south to Croatia and Italy), and it also occurs on most Mediterranean islands (Balearic, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Cyprus, and many Greek islands). The domesticated form of the European Rabbit occurs worldwide. Populations of European Rabbits have declined ¢.80% in Spain since 1975. In 2005, a study in the Donana National Park revealed that the remaining population was aslittle as 5% of the population size in 1950. A study in Portugal recorded a population reduction of 24% from1995 to 2002. Causes for declines are disease, habitat loss, and human-induced mortality. Decline of the European Rabbit is uneven across its distribution due to varying degrees of threat. Two diseases that appeared in the 20\" century are major threats to European Rabbits. Myxomatosis is a virus from South America spread by insects (mosquitoes and fleas) that was intentionally introduced by a famer in the mid-1950s to control the rabbit population in France. An estimated 90% of European Rabbits has perished due to myxomatosis since the 1950s. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease is a virus spread by direct contact. The virus appeared in Europe in the late 1980s and initially caused death of 55-75% of European Rabbits on the Iberian Peninsula. Death typically occurred within 24 hours of symptom onset, with a short incubation time ofless than 48 hours. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to modern intensive agriculture, high-intensity livestock production, fallow land that returns to closed forest, tree plantations, urbanization, increased fire danger, and climate change are ongoing threats to European Rabbits. Furthermore, hunting is a threat in some areas. Future threats to the European Rabbit may include a genetically modified version of the myxomatosis virus that is being developed in Australia to suppress recruitment where European Rabbits have been introduced. Unlicensed release of the modified virus into the native distribution could devastate remaining populations. Conservation for the European Rabbit was delayed for several decades after their decline became apparent. Efforts began to take shape in the late 1980s due to previous political isolation of its native distribution and lack of information on the European Rabbit as keystone species in Iberian ecosystems. The issue of eradication of the European Rabbit from introduced areas (e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and many islands) may have overshadowed decline in its native distribution. Increased interest in specialist predators such as the Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) and the Spanishimperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) that depend on European Rabbits and sustainability of hunting populations have enhanced public discussion. The European Rabbit occurs in some protected areas within its natural distribution, including Donana National Park in Spain and Serra da Malcata Nature Reserve in Portugal where the Iberian Lynx is protected. Itis a keystone species in the Iberian ecosystem, as prey for specialist predators and as a landscape “modeler” that maintains vegetation growth typical to Spain and Portugal, creates habitat for invertebrate species, increases species richness, and increases soil fertility.Bibliography. Alves & Ferreira (2002), Angermann (2016), Angulo & Cooke (2002), Aulagnier & Thévenot (1986), Beaucournu (1980), Bell & Webb (1991), Biju-Duval et al. (1991), Brambell (1944), Branco et al. (2000), Carneiro, Albert et al. (2014), Carneiro, Ferrand & Nachman (2009), Delibes & Hiraldo (1981), Delibes et al. (2000), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fa et al. (1999), Ferrand (2008), Ferreira et al. (2015), Flux (1994), Flux & Fullagar (1992), Flux et al. (1990), Fraser (1985), Gibb (1990), Gibb & Williams (1994), Gibb et al. (1985), Goncalves et al. (2002), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kaetzke et al. (2003), Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991), Lever (1985), Lissovsky (2016), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Myers et al. (1994), Mykytowycz & Gambale (1965), Rogers et al. (1994), Smith & Boyer (2008f), Smithers (1983), Villafuerte et al. (1995), Virgos et al. (2005), Ward (2005), Willott et al. (2000), Wood (1980).","taxonomy":"Lepus cuniculus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa australis.” Restricted by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Germany.”The genus Oryctolagusis monotypic; however, subspecies algirus has exceptional high nucleotide diversity compared with European Rabbit populations on the Iberian Peninsula and worldwide. Furthermore, it has distinct morphological, genetic, reproductive, and parasitological characteristics, and therefore, elevation to species status is under consideration. As in the other Leporidaespecies, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin de garenne @fr | Wildkaninchen @de | Conejo europeo @es | Domestic Rabbit @en | Wild Rabbit @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Oryctolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"126","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cuniculus","name":"Oryctolagus cuniculus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.c.cuniculusLinnaeus,1758—N,NE&EIberianPeninsula(Spain).O.c.algirusLoche,1858—S,SW&WIberianPeninsula(Spain,Portugal),NMorocco,NAlgeria(includingHabibasI).O.c.brachyotusTrouessart,1917—SFrance.O.c.cnossiusBate,1906—CreteI.O.c.habetensisCabrera,1923—Tanger-Tetouan-AlHoceimaRegion(NMorocco).O. c. huxleyi Haeckel, 1874— Mediterranean Is (Balearic Is, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Macaronesia (Azores, Madeira, and Canary Is).Original distribution after last Ice Age restricted to Iberian Peninsula, W France, and N Africa. Ancient introductions of the nominate subspecies probably during the Roman period have spread it throughout Europe, and now it is present in most of W, C & E Europe and the Mediterranean and Macaronesian Is (these mostly old introductions are also shaded on the map). During the 20\" century it has been released into the steppes of the Black Sea in Ukraine and Russia (N Caucasus); introduced into Australia in 1788 and again in 1859 where it is now widespread;it is found on many Pacific Is, islands off the coast of South Africa and Namibia, and in New Zealand; successfully introduced only since 1936 into South America, nowadays with a limited range in Chile, Argentina, and Falkland Is, it is also present in the Caribbean Is (all these modern introductions not shaded in the map). Worldwide as domesticated forms.","bibliography":"Alves & Ferreira (2002) | Angermann (2016) | Angulo & Cooke (2002) | Aulagnier & Thévenot (1986) | Beaucournu (1980) | Bell & Webb (1991) | Biju-Duval et al. (1991) | Brambell (1944) | Branco et al. (2000) | Carneiro, Albert et al. (2014) | Carneiro, Ferrand & Nachman (2009) | Delibes & Hiraldo (1981) | Delibes et al. (2000) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fa et al. (1999) | Ferrand (2008) | Ferreira et al. (2015) | Flux (1994) | Flux & Fullagar (1992) | Flux et al. (1990) | Fraser (1985) | Gibb (1990) | Gibb & Williams (1994) | Gibb et al. (1985) | Goncalves et al. (2002) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kaetzke et al. (2003) | Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) | Lever (1985) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Myers et al. (1994) | Mykytowycz & Gambale (1965) | Rogers et al. (1994) | Smith & Boyer (2008f) | Smithers (1983) | Villafuerte et al. (1995) | Virgos et al. (2005) | Ward (2005) | Willott et al. (2000) | Wood (1980)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The European Rabbit digs extensive underground burrows (“warrens”) for resting during the day and protection when threatened. It sometimes lives permanently aboveground, lying in dense vegetation during the day and using burrows only for breeding. It is territorial and forms social groups with a strict linear hierarchy of dominance. A dominant male lives in a warren with several females and their young. Isolated pairs, small groups of three animals, or even solitary individuals are common at low densities. Neighboring groups of European Rabbits may feed together at night. Defended territories are usually small (often less than 1 ha). When food is short or clumped, European Rabbits might feed communally at night at distances of at least 500 m away from their resting areas. Nightly home ranges are much larger than daily home ranges. Males have larger home ranges than females. Adults rarely shift their home range permanently. A minority ofjuveniles disperses several kilometers from where they were born but most stay in their natal home ranges. When the European Rabbit was introduced in Australia, it spread into unoccupied areas at rates of up to 300 km/year.Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The European Rabbit is a widespread colonizer and considered a pest outside its natural distribution where its eradication is priority for conservation; however, only those within the natural distribution in Spain, Portugal, and north-western Africa are considered in [UCN’s assessment. The European Rabbit's original distribution after the last ice age included only the Iberian Peninsula, western France, Morocco, and Algeria. Currently, it inhabits most of Western and Central Europe (from Ireland, north to Denmark and southern Sweden, east to Ukraine and Romania, and south to Croatia and Italy), and it also occurs on most Mediterranean islands (Balearic, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Cyprus, and many Greek islands). The domesticated form of the European Rabbit occurs worldwide. Populations of European Rabbits have declined ¢.80% in Spain since 1975. In 2005, a study in the Donana National Park revealed that the remaining population was aslittle as 5% of the population size in 1950. A study in Portugal recorded a population reduction of 24% from1995 to 2002. Causes for declines are disease, habitat loss, and human-induced mortality. Decline of the European Rabbit is uneven across its distribution due to varying degrees of threat. Two diseases that appeared in the 20\" century are major threats to European Rabbits. Myxomatosis is a virus from South America spread by insects (mosquitoes and fleas) that was intentionally introduced by a famer in the mid-1950s to control the rabbit population in France. An estimated 90% of European Rabbits has perished due to myxomatosis since the 1950s. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease is a virus spread by direct contact. The virus appeared in Europe in the late 1980s and initially caused death of 55-75% of European Rabbits on the Iberian Peninsula. Death typically occurred within 24 hours of symptom onset, with a short incubation time ofless than 48 hours. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to modern intensive agriculture, high-intensity livestock production, fallow land that returns to closed forest, tree plantations, urbanization, increased fire danger, and climate change are ongoing threats to European Rabbits. Furthermore, hunting is a threat in some areas. Future threats to the European Rabbit may include a genetically modified version of the myxomatosis virus that is being developed in Australia to suppress recruitment where European Rabbits have been introduced. Unlicensed release of the modified virus into the native distribution could devastate remaining populations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 360-380 mm, tail 65-70 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 80-89 mm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The European Rabbit is small and has grayish brown fur. Dorsal fur and head are pale brown and slightly flecked with black and buff. Ventral pelage is white, with pale ginger-buff. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short, dark brown, and without black tips. Nuchal patch is pale rufous brown, and throat patch is ginger-buff with orange. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are short and pale brown. Hindfeet are white above. Tail is short and the same color as dorsal fur above;laterally it is brown or white and below it is white. Pelage color varies geographically. Domestic rabbits and feral descendants of the European Rabbit vary in color from white to brown and black, with or without different colored patches.Habitat. Ideally, habitats with a Mediterranean climate and less than ¢.1000 mm of rain/year, short herbage, dry and loosely compacted soils that can be easily dug, or with secure refuge areas in thickets near open feeding grounds, below elevations of ¢.1500 m. Nevertheless, European Rabbits also inhabit cold and wet habitat and high mountains, dense bushy regions, and arid habitats in Morocco. They tend to avoid forested habitats and open areas in Algeria.Food and Feeding. Diet of European Rabbits consists of grasses and forbs, mostly the former, and differ considerably between habitats and season.Breeding. The European Rabbit breeds opportunistically in any season, making it an ideal colonist. Breeding begins and ends earlier in the year the lower the latitude in its introduced distribution. Length of reproduction season and number oflitters produced each year depend on length of growing season of plants in the diet. Thus, reproductive season lasts for c.4 months/year at higher latitudes to at least ¢.9 months/year in temperate New Zealand, where it was introduced. Winter breeding of European Rabbits in Mediterranean climates ceases in late spring. In more temperate climates, breeding begins in early spring and continues through mid-summer. In semiarid regions of Australia where droughts last many months, with occasional heavy rains to which the vegetation responds vigorously, opportunistic breeding of European Rabbits is most distinct. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. During early gestation, a female can terminate a pregnancy or reduce litter size by resorbing single embryos or whole litters if conditions are unfavorable for lactation—the most demanding stage of reproduction. Litter sizes are 3-9 young, depending on season and environmental conditions. Mean litter sizes are 4-6 young in mid-season and 3-4 young during off-peak periods. Seasonal and regional variation in litter size is less pronounced than length of the breeding season. Consequently, annual number of young per female depends primarily on length of the breading season. Number of young European Rabbits born per female per year is 15-45 and depends on climate. Females have postpartum estrus or a seven-day estrous period. Young are born in a nest of dead vegetation lined with fur from their mother’s belly. Nest is placed either in a short sub-branch of an existing burrow or a separate breeding burrow called “stop” c¢.1 m long. The female closes the stop with soil when she leaves. Breeding burrows of European Rabbits may be made days, weeks, or even months before they are used; some are never used. A study conducted in Australia showed that the dominant female breeds in the warren, and subordinate females breed in isolated stops. When brush coveris sufficient, European Rabbits often live permanently aboveground and have no warrens;all breeding takes place in stops. Young are altricial and born naked with closed eyes. A female feeds her young once a night for only c¢.5 minutes. They are weaned at ¢.20 days old, after which they leave the nest. Maturity is reached at 3-4 months old. Population numbers often fluctuate greatly.Activity patterns. The European Rabbit is nocturnal but active at dawn and dusk. Daily activity aboveground depended on density relative to food supply. If density was high and food was limited, more than 60% of an introduced population in New Zealand was aboveground during the day. Moreover, individuals in the New Zealand population emerged earlier, relative to sunset, in winter and spring than summer and autumn. Individuals remained in their daytime resting places from soon after dawn until at least mid-afternoon. During the breeding season, females often began to feed soon after midday.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The European Rabbit digs extensive underground burrows (“warrens”) for resting during the day and protection when threatened. It sometimes lives permanently aboveground, lying in dense vegetation during the day and using burrows only for breeding. It is territorial and forms social groups with a strict linear hierarchy of dominance. A dominant male lives in a warren with several females and their young. Isolated pairs, small groups of three animals, or even solitary individuals are common at low densities. Neighboring groups of European Rabbits may feed together at night. Defended territories are usually small (often less than 1 ha). When food is short or clumped, European Rabbits might feed communally at night at distances of at least 500 m away from their resting areas. Nightly home ranges are much larger than daily home ranges. Males have larger home ranges than females. Adults rarely shift their home range permanently. A minority ofjuveniles disperses several kilometers from where they were born but most stay in their natal home ranges. When the European Rabbit was introduced in Australia, it spread into unoccupied areas at rates of up to 300 km/year.Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The European Rabbit is a widespread colonizer and considered a pest outside its natural distribution where its eradication is priority for conservation; however, only those within the natural distribution in Spain, Portugal, and north-western Africa are considered in [UCN’s assessment. The European Rabbit's original distribution after the last ice age included only the Iberian Peninsula, western France, Morocco, and Algeria. Currently, it inhabits most of Western and Central Europe (from Ireland, north to Denmark and southern Sweden, east to Ukraine and Romania, and south to Croatia and Italy), and it also occurs on most Mediterranean islands (Balearic, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Cyprus, and many Greek islands). The domesticated form of the European Rabbit occurs worldwide. Populations of European Rabbits have declined ¢.80% in Spain since 1975. In 2005, a study in the Donana National Park revealed that the remaining population was aslittle as 5% of the population size in 1950. A study in Portugal recorded a population reduction of 24% from1995 to 2002. Causes for declines are disease, habitat loss, and human-induced mortality. Decline of the European Rabbit is uneven across its distribution due to varying degrees of threat. Two diseases that appeared in the 20\" century are major threats to European Rabbits. Myxomatosis is a virus from South America spread by insects (mosquitoes and fleas) that was intentionally introduced by a famer in the mid-1950s to control the rabbit population in France. An estimated 90% of European Rabbits has perished due to myxomatosis since the 1950s. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease is a virus spread by direct contact. The virus appeared in Europe in the late 1980s and initially caused death of 55-75% of European Rabbits on the Iberian Peninsula. Death typically occurred within 24 hours of symptom onset, with a short incubation time ofless than 48 hours."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B755FFEAFAC9F4ABFE44F1D1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B755FFEAFAC9F4ABFE44F1D1","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"125","verbatimText":"30.Bunyoro RabbitPoelagus marjoritaFrench:Lapin dAfrique/ German:Buschkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de BunyoroOther common names:Uganda Grass HareTaxonomy.Lepus marjorita St. Leger, 1929, “Near Masindi, Bunyoro [= Bunyuru], Uganda, 4000 ft [1219 m],” Africa.Formerly, P. marjoritawas included in the rock hares (Pronolagus) and later in the genus Caprolagus. The genus Poelagusappears to lack diagnostic cranial features. Recent rigorous taxonomic investigations of P. marjoritaare missing. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Central African Republic, S South Sudan, C & W Uganda, and NE DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-610 mm, tail 38-70 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 65-108 mm; weight 2.3-3.2 kg. The Bunyoro Rabbit is medium-sized and has short ears. Dorsal fur, head, and ears are buffy brown and grizzled with black hairs. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is yellowish buff. A white mid-ventral stripe runs down from chest (20— 30 mm wide) to lower abdomen (40-50 mm wide), extending posteriorly onto inner surfaces of hindlimbs. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short and have brown hairs on inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is rufous; juvenile Bunyoro Rabbits have deep rufous nuchal patches. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are brownish buff. Tail is short and has same color as dorsal fur above and onsides;it is paler below and often has some white hairs. Female and male Bunyoro Rabbits have glandularslits on both sides of their genitalia.Habitat.Primarily dense vegetation in woodland savanna, stony habitats, and hills with short grass. The Bunyoro Rabbit might also live in forests in southern Sudan.Food and Feeding.The Bunyoro Rabbit forages at night on flowers and sprouting grasses. It prefers to forage in pastures that have been grazed heavily by large mammals, newly mown fields, and burned areas with sprouting grasses.Breeding.Newly born Bunyoro Rabbits were recorded in January-March, June, August, and October in Garamba National Park, DR Congo. Juveniles were recorded in January/February, May, and August. These findings suggest that reproduction takes place during most (if not all) months of the year. Gestation is probably c.5 weeks, and litter sizes are 1-2 young. Young are born in short burrows, with entrances concealed by grass and soil. At birth, young are blind, covered with sparse short hair, and helpless. Ears of newborns are black and very short.Activity patterns.The Bunyoro Rabbit is primarily nocturnal and rests in a form during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Bunyoro Rabbit is probably solitary when resting in a form. It feeds in small groups consisting of pairs or females with young at night. Rocky habitats are often shared with Rock Hyraxes (Procavia capensis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. The Bunyoro Rabbit seems to be widespread and does not appear to be in decline, although a recent survey proposes that its distribution is actually smaller than previous accounts have stated. Bunyoro Rabbits occur in several protected areas and are abundant in north-eastern DR Congo and southern Sudan. Unlike previous claims, there are no specimen records from Ruanda, Burundi, Kenya, southern Chad, southern DR Congo, or northern Angola. Little data are available on population densities, distribution, and conservation threats. Although grassland habitat is burned annually or biannually leaving Bunyoro Rabbits vulnerable to predators, burning also promotes growth of vegetation important in their diets. The Bunyoro Rabbit is hunted locally, and some of its habitat is used for cultivation of peanuts and rice. It is possible that no additional protection is required than the existing Garamba National Park and Murchison Falls National Park (Uganda).Bibliography.Collins & Smith (2008), Corbet (1983), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c), Happold & Wendelen (2006), Hatt (1940), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kingdon (1974, 1997), Setzer (1956), Verheyen & Verschuren (1966).","taxonomy":"Lepus marjorita St. Leger, 1929, “Near Masindi, Bunyoro [= Bunyuru], Uganda, 4000 ft [1219 m],” Africa.Formerly, P. marjoritawas included in the rock hares (Pronolagus) and later in the genus Caprolagus. The genus Poelagusappears to lack diagnostic cranial features. Recent rigorous taxonomic investigations of P. marjoritaare missing. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin d Afrique @fr | Buschkaninchen @de | Conejo de Bunyoro @es | Uganda Grass Hare @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"St. Leger","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1929","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Poelagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"125","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"marjorita","name":"Poelagus marjorita","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Central African Republic, S South Sudan, C & W Uganda, and NE DR Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625613/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Collins & Smith (2008) | Corbet (1983) | Duthie & Robinson (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Happold & Wendelen (2006) | Hatt (1940) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kingdon (1974, 1997) | Setzer (1956) | Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)","foodAndFeeding":"The Bunyoro Rabbit forages at night on flowers and sprouting grasses. It prefers to forage in pastures that have been grazed heavily by large mammals, newly mown fields, and burned areas with sprouting grasses.","breeding":"Newly born Bunyoro Rabbits were recorded in January-March, June, August, and October in Garamba National Park, DR Congo. Juveniles were recorded in January/February, May, and August. These findings suggest that reproduction takes place during most (if not all) months of the year. Gestation is probably c.5 weeks, and litter sizes are 1-2 young. Young are born in short burrows, with entrances concealed by grass and soil. At birth, young are blind, covered with sparse short hair, and helpless. Ears of newborns are black and very short.","activityPatterns":"The Bunyoro Rabbit is primarily nocturnal and rests in a form during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Bunyoro Rabbit is probably solitary when resting in a form. It feeds in small groups consisting of pairs or females with young at night. Rocky habitats are often shared with Rock Hyraxes (Procavia capensis).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. The Bunyoro Rabbit seems to be widespread and does not appear to be in decline, although a recent survey proposes that its distribution is actually smaller than previous accounts have stated. Bunyoro Rabbits occur in several protected areas and are abundant in north-eastern DR Congo and southern Sudan. Unlike previous claims, there are no specimen records from Ruanda, Burundi, Kenya, southern Chad, southern DR Congo, or northern Angola. Little data are available on population densities, distribution, and conservation threats. Although grassland habitat is burned annually or biannually leaving Bunyoro Rabbits vulnerable to predators, burning also promotes growth of vegetation important in their diets. The Bunyoro Rabbit is hunted locally, and some of its habitat is used for cultivation of peanuts and rice. It is possible that no additional protection is required than the existing Garamba National Park and Murchison Falls National Park (Uganda).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-610 mm, tail 38-70 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 65-108 mm; weight 2.3-3.2 kg. The Bunyoro Rabbit is medium-sized and has short ears. Dorsal fur, head, and ears are buffy brown and grizzled with black hairs. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is yellowish buff. A white mid-ventral stripe runs down from chest (20— 30 mm wide) to lower abdomen (40-50 mm wide), extending posteriorly onto inner surfaces of hindlimbs. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short and have brown hairs on inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is rufous; juvenile Bunyoro Rabbits have deep rufous nuchal patches. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are brownish buff. Tail is short and has same color as dorsal fur above and onsides;it is paler below and often has some white hairs. Female and male Bunyoro Rabbits have glandularslits on both sides of their genitalia.","habitat":"Primarily dense vegetation in woodland savanna, stony habitats, and hills with short grass. The Bunyoro Rabbit might also live in forests in southern Sudan."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B755FFEBFFC8F8AAF892FC5D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B755FFEBFFC8F8AAF892FC5D","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"125","verbatimText":"29.Hispid HareCaprolagus hispidusFrench:Lapin dAssam/ German:Borstenkaninchen/ Spanish:Liebre hispidaOther common names:Assam RabbitTaxonomy.Lepus hispidus J.T. Pearson, 1839, “Assam, base of the Boutan [= Bhutan] mountains,” India. Caprolagus hispidusis sympatric with Lepus nigricollis.Monotypic.Distribution.S Himalaya foothills, N India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar), S Nepal, NE India (N West Bengal and Assam), and S through NW Bangladesh; recently recorded in S Bhutan (Royal Manas National Park).Descriptive notes.Head-body c.480 mm, tail c.53 mm, ear c.70 mm, hindfoot c¢.98 mm; weight 1.8-3.2 kg. The Hispid Hare has coarse bristly fur. Dorsal pelage is dark brown, a mixture of black and brown hairs. Ventral fur is brown on chest and whitish on abdomen. Tail is short and brown throughout but paler below. The Hispid Hare has straight and strong claws.Habitat.Early successional riverine communities, typically comprising dense tall grasslands, commonly referred to as elephant grass or thatchland such as Saccharum, Imperata, Themeda, Narenga, Arundo, or Phragmites(all Poaceae), at elevations of 100-250 m. These grasslands originate in the succession between primary colonizing grasses through deciduousriverine forest to the sal (Shorearobusta, Dipterocarpaceae) forest climax. Tall grassland habitats might also have an understory during later stages of succession. Maintenance of tall grassland habitat is caused by prolonged inundation during the monsoon or by periodic burning in relatively undisturbed areas, or by regular burning, grazing, or regular harvesting in disturbed areas. Tall grassland habitat has different plant species, dominating in different situations. Main types of grassland are composed of Themedavillosa, Saccharum-Narenga associations, Arundo-Phragmates associations, Imperatacylindrica, and Cymbopogon spp.(all Poaceae) and Alpiniaallughas (Zingiberaceae), Typhaelephantine (Typhaceae), and Leeacrispa (Vitaceae). The Hispid Hare inhabits all of these and other plant communities of varying importance at different times of the year according to availability of cover. During the dry season when most of these communities are subject to extensive regular burning, the Hispid Hare is deprived of cover and all other resources until regrowth of vegetation following onset of early rains a few weeks or even up to 2-3 months later. During this period, the Hispid Hare is entirely dependent on any unburned cover such as marshy sward dominated by Phragmites, Arundo spp., and Saccharumspontaneum (all Poaceae) along riverbanks that are maintained by later prolonged inundation and are therefore left unburned. It has been suggested that carrying capacities of Hispid Hares are determined by sizes of small patches of tall grassland that escape annual dry-season burning. Enforced confinement within these isolated patches of post-burn cover might increase susceptibility of Hispid Hares to predation.Food and Feeding.Based on fecal analysis, Hispid Hares in Nepal ate 19-23 plant species, with S. spontaneum, I. cylindrica, Desmostachyabipinnata, and Cynodondactylon (all Poaceae) having the highest frequency of occurrence in feces. Composition of plant species in the diet was proportional to availabilities. A significantly higher diversity of plants was recorded in the diet of Hispid Hares after the fire. Another study reported that Hispid Hares ate inner parts of stems of Narenga porphyrocoma, leaves of Cymbopogon sp., I. cylindrical, and inner cores of S. spontaneum.Breeding.Based on a three-month study in western Nepal, Hispid Hares bred in January/February during the post-burn period in a belt of floodplain habitat dominated by marshes, swamps, oxbow lakes, and tall dense grasslands, intermixed with riverine forest. Uniformly small size of scrotal testes in males suggests a monogamous mating system. A single fetus found in a pregnant female during the study in western Nepal, a single young born in captivity, and four nipples on captured females suggest that Hispid Hares have small litter sizes. It is unknown if young Hispid Hares are altricial or precocial, but they might be intermediate as are young Volcano Rabbits (Romerolagusdiaz), which live in a similar habitat. Nests of Hispid Hares were made with leaves of Narenga (Poaceae), laid outcircular shapes.Activity patterns.The Hispid Hare is crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short-limbed Hispid Hares have small home ranges of 0-82 ha for males and 0-28 ha for females. Overlapping home ranges suggest they live in pairs, although home ranges of males were larger than those of females.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Hispid Hare receives maximum protection in India under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and in Nepal under Schedule I of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Measures Act of 1973. It has been nationally listed as endangered in India and critically endangered in Nepal. Almost no information is available about population status of the Hispid Hare, but there is no doubtthat it has declined substantially due to loss oftall grassland habitat. It has been estimated that a population decline of 20-50% in suitable habitat has occurred since 1994 and the decline is expected to continue at this rate. The few patches oftall grassland habitat that remain all occur in national parks, wildlife reserves, and sanctuaries scattered across the former distribution of the Hispid Hare. There have been very few records from Uttar Pradesh and Assam since 1951. Current populations exist in a few isolated patches across its former distribution. Area of occupancy is estimated at 11-500 km?. Isolated relict populations of Hispid Hares remain at risk because of continuing degradation of habitat even within these protected areas. Major threats are habitat destruction for agriculture, forestry, human settlement, flood control, and irrigation schemes. Additional threats are habitat degradation due to dry-season burning, illegal grazing, and harvesting of tall grasslands. Recommendations are to further study distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Hispid Hare. Research on its distribution should be conducted at different times of the year because Hispid Hares change habitat according to availabilities of cover during flood and burning seasons. Control of the burning season within the distribution of the Hispid Hare is needed to ensure that suitable habitat is available throughout the year. Moreover,status surveys of tall grassland habitats should be conducted. Results of a study on investigating effects of burning and cutting of grassland dominated by I. cylindrica showed that patches of grassland could be left unmanaged for a two-year rotation without significantly altering composition of the plant community and thereby provide refugia for cover-dependent species such as the Hispid Hare. More studies, particularly long-term ones, investigating effects of disturbing factors to habitat are required to formulate appropriate long-term management plans for remnants tall grassland. Local education regarding status of the Hispid Hare is necessary, including educating staff of reserves where the Hispid Hare occurs.Bibliography.Aryal & Yadav (2010), Aryal et al. (2012), Bell et al. (1990), Ghose (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jordan et al. (2005a), Maheswaran (2006), Maheswaran & Smith (2008), Nidup et al. (2015), Peet et al. (1999), Tandan et al. (2013), Yadav et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Lepus hispidus J.T. Pearson, 1839, “Assam, base of the Boutan [= Bhutan] mountains,” India. Caprolagus hispidusis sympatric with Lepus nigricollis.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin d Assam @fr | Borstenkaninchen @de | Liebre hispida @es | Assam Rabbit @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. T. Pearson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Caprolagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"125","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hispidus","name":"Caprolagus hispidus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Himalaya foothills, N India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar), S Nepal, NE India (N West Bengal and Assam), and S through NW Bangladesh; recently recorded in S Bhutan (Royal Manas National Park).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625611/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aryal & Yadav (2010) | Aryal et al. (2012) | Bell et al. (1990) | Ghose (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jordan et al. (2005a) | Maheswaran (2006) | Maheswaran & Smith (2008) | Nidup et al. (2015) | Peet et al. (1999) | Tandan et al. (2013) | Yadav et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Based on fecal analysis, Hispid Hares in Nepal ate 19-23 plant species, with S. spontaneum, I. cylindrica, Desmostachyabipinnata, and Cynodondactylon (all Poaceae) having the highest frequency of occurrence in feces. Composition of plant species in the diet was proportional to availabilities. A significantly higher diversity of plants was recorded in the diet of Hispid Hares after the fire. Another study reported that Hispid Hares ate inner parts of stems of Narenga porphyrocoma, leaves of Cymbopogon sp., I. cylindrical, and inner cores of S. spontaneum.","breeding":"Based on a three-month study in western Nepal, Hispid Hares bred in January/February during the post-burn period in a belt of floodplain habitat dominated by marshes, swamps, oxbow lakes, and tall dense grasslands, intermixed with riverine forest. Uniformly small size of scrotal testes in males suggests a monogamous mating system. A single fetus found in a pregnant female during the study in western Nepal, a single young born in captivity, and four nipples on captured females suggest that Hispid Hares have small litter sizes. It is unknown if young Hispid Hares are altricial or precocial, but they might be intermediate as are young Volcano Rabbits (Romerolagusdiaz), which live in a similar habitat. Nests of Hispid Hares were made with leaves of Narenga (Poaceae), laid outcircular shapes.","activityPatterns":"The Hispid Hare is crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Short-limbed Hispid Hares have small home ranges of 0-82 ha for males and 0-28 ha for females. Overlapping home ranges suggest they live in pairs, although home ranges of males were larger than those of females.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Hispid Hare receives maximum protection in India under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and in Nepal under Schedule I of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Measures Act of 1973. It has been nationally listed as endangered in India and critically endangered in Nepal. Almost no information is available about population status of the Hispid Hare, but there is no doubtthat it has declined substantially due to loss oftall grassland habitat. It has been estimated that a population decline of 20-50% in suitable habitat has occurred since 1994 and the decline is expected to continue at this rate. The few patches oftall grassland habitat that remain all occur in national parks, wildlife reserves, and sanctuaries scattered across the former distribution of the Hispid Hare. There have been very few records from Uttar Pradesh and Assam since 1951. Current populations exist in a few isolated patches across its former distribution. Area of occupancy is estimated at 11-500 km?. Isolated relict populations of Hispid Hares remain at risk because of continuing degradation of habitat even within these protected areas. Major threats are habitat destruction for agriculture, forestry, human settlement, flood control, and irrigation schemes. Additional threats are habitat degradation due to dry-season burning, illegal grazing, and harvesting of tall grasslands. Recommendations are to further study distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Hispid Hare. Research on its distribution should be conducted at different times of the year because Hispid Hares change habitat according to availabilities of cover during flood and burning seasons. Control of the burning season within the distribution of the Hispid Hare is needed to ensure that suitable habitat is available throughout the year. Moreover,status surveys of tall grassland habitats should be conducted. Results of a study on investigating effects of burning and cutting of grassland dominated by I. cylindrica showed that patches of grassland could be left unmanaged for a two-year rotation without significantly altering composition of the plant community and thereby provide refugia for cover-dependent species such as the Hispid Hare. More studies, particularly long-term ones, investigating effects of disturbing factors to habitat are required to formulate appropriate long-term management plans for remnants tall grassland. Local education regarding status of the Hispid Hare is necessary, including educating staff of reserves where the Hispid Hare occurs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body c.480 mm, tail c.53 mm, ear c.70 mm, hindfoot c¢.98 mm; weight 1.8-3.2 kg. The Hispid Hare has coarse bristly fur. Dorsal pelage is dark brown, a mixture of black and brown hairs. Ventral fur is brown on chest and whitish on abdomen. Tail is short and brown throughout but paler below. The Hispid Hare has straight and strong claws.","habitat":"Early successional riverine communities, typically comprising dense tall grasslands, commonly referred to as elephant grass or thatchland such as Saccharum, Imperata, Themeda, Narenga, Arundo, or Phragmites(all Poaceae), at elevations of 100-250 m. These grasslands originate in the succession between primary colonizing grasses through deciduousriverine forest to the sal (Shorearobusta, Dipterocarpaceae) forest climax. Tall grassland habitats might also have an understory during later stages of succession. Maintenance of tall grassland habitat is caused by prolonged inundation during the monsoon or by periodic burning in relatively undisturbed areas, or by regular burning, grazing, or regular harvesting in disturbed areas. Tall grassland habitat has different plant species, dominating in different situations. Main types of grassland are composed of Themedavillosa, Saccharum-Narenga associations, Arundo-Phragmates associations, Imperatacylindrica, and Cymbopogon spp.(all Poaceae) and Alpiniaallughas (Zingiberaceae), Typhaelephantine (Typhaceae), and Leeacrispa (Vitaceae). The Hispid Hare inhabits all of these and other plant communities of varying importance at different times of the year according to availability of cover. During the dry season when most of these communities are subject to extensive regular burning, the Hispid Hare is deprived of cover and all other resources until regrowth of vegetation following onset of early rains a few weeks or even up to 2-3 months later. During this period, the Hispid Hare is entirely dependent on any unburned cover such as marshy sward dominated by Phragmites, Arundo spp., and Saccharumspontaneum (all Poaceae) along riverbanks that are maintained by later prolonged inundation and are therefore left unburned. It has been suggested that carrying capacities of Hispid Hares are determined by sizes of small patches of tall grassland that escape annual dry-season burning. Enforced confinement within these isolated patches of post-burn cover might increase susceptibility of Hispid Hares to predation."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B756FFE8FA6FFADFF777FA53.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B756FFE8FA6FFADFF777FA53","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"124","verbatimText":"27.Robust CottontailSylvilagus robustusFrench:Lapin des Davis/ German:Texas-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de DavisTaxonomy.Lepus pinetis robustus Bailey, 1905, “Davis Mountains, Texas, 6000 feet [1829 m] altitude,” USA.Formerly, S. robustuswas included in S. floridanusbut received species status based on morphological and genetic distinctiveness. Genetic analyses confirmed species status based on nDNA only. Monotypic.Distribution.S USA, in SE New Mexico and SW Texas (Chisos, Davis, Chinati, Guadalupe, and Elephant Mts), and NE Mexico, in N Coahuila (Sierra del Carmen).Descriptive notes.Head—body 380-460 mm, tail 47-67 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 95-103 mm; weight 0.9-1.8 kg. The Robust Cottontail is larger and darker than the widely distributed Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus).Habitat.Madrean evergreen woodland of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae), oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), and juniper (Juniperus, Cupressaceae). The Robust Cottontail inhabits elevations above 1500 m and becomes most common above 1800 m. Its days are spent resting in brushy thickets.Food and Feeding.The Robust Cottontail feeds in open areas on grasses, leaves of mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus, Rosaceae), and various herbs.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Robust Cottontail emerges from brushy thickets to forage late in the evening or early in the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Although it has been suggested that only one population of the Robust Cottontail exists in the Davis Mountains, Texas, recent surveys confirm its presence in the Davis, Guadalupe, and Chisos mountains. Status of populations in the Chinati Mountains and the Sierra de la Madera is unknown. Furthermore, a new location on Elephant Mountain, Brewster County, Texas, has extended distribution of the Robust Cottontail. There may be a population of Sylvilagusin good condition in the Sierra del Carmen, Mexico, although it is not confirmed to be the Robust Cottontail. It occurs at low densities that are even lower during drought. Threats might be grazing practices, brush clearing, and habitat loss due to urbanization and development. Research is needed on population status, distribution, threats, population genetics, biology, and ecology of the Robust Cottontail, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.Bibliography.Cervantes & Lépez-Hernédndez (2005), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lee, D.N. et al. (2010), Nalls et al. (2012), Ruedas (1998), Ruedas & Smith (2008), Schmidly (1977).","taxonomy":"Lepus pinetis robustus Bailey, 1905, “Davis Mountains, Texas, 6000 feet [1829 m] altitude,” USA.Formerly, S. robustuswas included in S. floridanusbut received species status based on morphological and genetic distinctiveness. Genetic analyses confirmed species status based on nDNA only. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin des Davis @fr | Texas-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Davis @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bailey","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1905","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"124","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"robustus","name":"Sylvilagus robustus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S USA, in SE New Mexico and SW Texas (Chisos, Davis, Chinati, Guadalupe, and Elephant Mts), and NE Mexico, in N Coahuila (Sierra del Carmen).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625603/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cervantes & Lépez-Hernédndez (2005) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lee, D.N. et al. (2010) | Nalls et al. (2012) | Ruedas (1998) | Ruedas & Smith (2008) | Schmidly (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"The Robust Cottontail feeds in open areas on grasses, leaves of mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus, Rosaceae), and various herbs.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"The Robust Cottontail emerges from brushy thickets to forage late in the evening or early in the morning.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Although it has been suggested that only one population of the Robust Cottontail exists in the Davis Mountains, Texas, recent surveys confirm its presence in the Davis, Guadalupe, and Chisos mountains. Status of populations in the Chinati Mountains and the Sierra de la Madera is unknown. Furthermore, a new location on Elephant Mountain, Brewster County, Texas, has extended distribution of the Robust Cottontail. There may be a population of Sylvilagusin good condition in the Sierra del Carmen, Mexico, although it is not confirmed to be the Robust Cottontail. It occurs at low densities that are even lower during drought. Threats might be grazing practices, brush clearing, and habitat loss due to urbanization and development. Research is needed on population status, distribution, threats, population genetics, biology, and ecology of the Robust Cottontail, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 380-460 mm, tail 47-67 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 95-103 mm; weight 0.9-1.8 kg. The Robust Cottontail is larger and darker than the widely distributed Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus).","habitat":"Madrean evergreen woodland of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae), oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), and juniper (Juniperus, Cupressaceae). The Robust Cottontail inhabits elevations above 1500 m and becomes most common above 1800 m. Its days are spent resting in brushy thickets."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B756FFE8FF62F7E8F8D3F37E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B756FFE8FF62F7E8F8D3F37E","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"124","verbatimText":"26.Appalachian CottontailSylvilagus obscurusFrench:Lapin des Appalaches/ German:Appalachen-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de los ApalachesOther common names:Allegheny Cottontail, Wood RabbitTaxonomy.Sylvilagus obscurus Chapman et al., 1992, “Dolly Sods Scenic Area, Grant Co., West Virginia,” USA.Formerly, S. obscuruswas included in S. transitionalisbut received species status due to discovery of two different cytotypes (S. obscurus2n = 46 and S. transitionalis2n = 52) and cranial distinctiveness. No hybridization occurs between S. obscurusand S. transitionalis. Nevertheless, genetic analysis of mtDNA showed little variation between the two species and did not support separation between S. obscurusand S. transitionalis. This species lives sympatrically with S. floridanus. Monotypic.Distribution.Discontinuous patches in N Pennsylvania, S & W along the Appalachian Mts to N Alabama (E USA).Descriptive notes.Head—body 390-430 mm, tail 22-65 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 87-97 mm; weight 0.8-1 kg. The Appalachian Cottontail strongly resembles the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) and both species can have the same color and pelage characteristics. None ofits external measurements is clearly diagnostic for differentiation between the two species.Habitat.High-elevation montane habitats of conifers, particularly red spruce (Picearubens, Pinaceae), and ericaceous species such as mountain laurel (Kalmialatifolia), rhododendron (Rhododendronmaximum), and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.). Appalachian Cottontails also use mixed oak forests, early successional habitats with dense ericaceous vegetation or blackberry (Rubusallegheniensis, Rosaceae), and old growth forest with dense understory. It generally uses habitat with vegetation cover of more than 80%, providing shelter and thermal protection.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Appalachian Cottontail includes ferns, grasses, forbs, shrubs, and conifer needles—the latter rare for species of Sylvilagus. It prefers to eat ericaceous plants such as eastern teaberry (Gaultheriaprocumbens), blueberries, black huckleberry (Gaylussaciabaccata), and chokeberries (Photinia spp., Rosaceae) as browse during winter.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Appalachian Cottontail lasts from early March through early September. It is a synchronous breeder. Gestation is c.28 days. A female has an average of 24 young/year, and littersize is 3-5 young.Activity patterns.The Appalachian Cottontail is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes of the Appalachian Cottontail are 5-7-13-3 ha during the vegetation growing period (May-September) and 1-5-9 ha during the dormant season (October—April). Core areas are 0-9-2-5 ha during the growing period and 0-1-2-5 ha during the dormant season. Male Appalachian Cottontails had larger home ranges during the growing period than the dormant season, but female ranges did not differ seasonally.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Appalachian Cottontail is rare and has a fragmented distribution. It is common only in some sections of eastern Tennessee and Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia. The Appalachian Cottontail appears to be declining, but there is no data on current population status. Threats are habitat destruction, fragmentation, and maturation; urbanization and development; encroachment by the Eastern Cottontail that thrives better in developed areas and requires less shelter than the Appalachian Cottontail; and indiscriminate hunting because Eastern Cottontails and Appalachian Cottontails cannot be differentiated in the field. Recommendations are to investigate population status, distribution, threats, population genetics, biology, and ecology of Appalachian Cottontails, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.Bibliography.Barry & Lazell (2008), Boyce & Barry (2007), Bunch et al. (1997), Chapman (1975a, 1999b), Chapman et al. (1992), Hartman & Barry (2010), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Litvaitis et al. (1997), Ruedas et al. (1989), Stevens & Barry (2002).","taxonomy":"Sylvilagus obscurus Chapman et al., 1992, “Dolly Sods Scenic Area, Grant Co., West Virginia,” USA.Formerly, S. obscuruswas included in S. transitionalisbut received species status due to discovery of two different cytotypes (S. obscurus2n = 46 and S. transitionalis2n = 52) and cranial distinctiveness. No hybridization occurs between S. obscurusand S. transitionalis. Nevertheless, genetic analysis of mtDNA showed little variation between the two species and did not support separation between S. obscurusand S. transitionalis. This species lives sympatrically with S. floridanus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin des Appalaches @fr | Appalachen-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de los Apalaches @es | Allegheny Cottontail @en | Wood Rabbit @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Chapman, Cramer, Deppenaar & Robinson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1992","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"124","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"obscurus","name":"Sylvilagus obscurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Discontinuous patches in N Pennsylvania, S & W along the Appalachian Mts to N Alabama (E USA).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625601/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Barry & Lazell (2008) | Boyce & Barry (2007) | Bunch et al. (1997) | Chapman (1975a, 1999b) | Chapman et al. (1992) | Hartman & Barry (2010) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Litvaitis et al. (1997) | Ruedas et al. (1989) | Stevens & Barry (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Appalachian Cottontail includes ferns, grasses, forbs, shrubs, and conifer needles—the latter rare for species of Sylvilagus. It prefers to eat ericaceous plants such as eastern teaberry (Gaultheriaprocumbens), blueberries, black huckleberry (Gaylussaciabaccata), and chokeberries (Photinia spp., Rosaceae) as browse during winter.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Appalachian Cottontail lasts from early March through early September. It is a synchronous breeder. Gestation is c.28 days. A female has an average of 24 young/year, and littersize is 3-5 young.","activityPatterns":"The Appalachian Cottontail is crepuscular and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range sizes of the Appalachian Cottontail are 5-7-13-3 ha during the vegetation growing period (May-September) and 1-5-9 ha during the dormant season (October—April). Core areas are 0-9-2-5 ha during the growing period and 0-1-2-5 ha during the dormant season. Male Appalachian Cottontails had larger home ranges during the growing period than the dormant season, but female ranges did not differ seasonally.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Appalachian Cottontail is rare and has a fragmented distribution. It is common only in some sections of eastern Tennessee and Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia. The Appalachian Cottontail appears to be declining, but there is no data on current population status. Threats are habitat destruction, fragmentation, and maturation; urbanization and development; encroachment by the Eastern Cottontail that thrives better in developed areas and requires less shelter than the Appalachian Cottontail; and indiscriminate hunting because Eastern Cottontails and Appalachian Cottontails cannot be differentiated in the field. Recommendations are to investigate population status, distribution, threats, population genetics, biology, and ecology of Appalachian Cottontails, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 390-430 mm, tail 22-65 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 87-97 mm; weight 0.8-1 kg. The Appalachian Cottontail strongly resembles the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) and both species can have the same color and pelage characteristics. None ofits external measurements is clearly diagnostic for differentiation between the two species.","habitat":"High-elevation montane habitats of conifers, particularly red spruce (Picearubens, Pinaceae), and ericaceous species such as mountain laurel (Kalmialatifolia), rhododendron (Rhododendronmaximum), and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.). Appalachian Cottontails also use mixed oak forests, early successional habitats with dense ericaceous vegetation or blackberry (Rubusallegheniensis, Rosaceae), and old growth forest with dense understory. It generally uses habitat with vegetation cover of more than 80%, providing shelter and thermal protection."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B756FFEBFA6EF3EDFD9DF059.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B756FFEBFA6EF3EDFD9DF059","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"124","verbatimText":"28.Manzano Mountain CottontailSylvilagus cognatusFrench:Lapin des Manzano/ German:Manzano-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de ManzanoTaxonomy.Sylvilagus cognatus Nelson, 1907, “10,000 feet [3048 m] altitude, near summit of Manzano Mountains, New Mexico,” USA. Restricted by J. K. Frey, R. D. Fisher and L. A. Ruedas in 1997 to “...vicinity of Rea Ranch...1-9 km N and 13-4 km W of Tajique (TON, NE 1/4 of NW 1/4 Sec. 9, N34°45'05-39”, W106°25°18-04”) on the NE side of Bosque Peak, at 2880 m elevation.”Formerly, S. cognatuswas included in S. floridanus. Monotypic.Distribution.Manzano Mts of New Mexico (SUSA).Descriptive notes.Head-body 450 mm, tail 65 mm, ear 70 mm, hindfoot 102 mm (all measurements are means from five specimens). No specific data are available for body weight. Dorsal fur of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail is light grayish buff, similar to the Robust Cottontail (S. robustus), but it is a little more buff or browner on ears.Habitat.At the type locality, upper montane coniferous forest of Douglas fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) and white fir (Abiesconcolor), small patches of subalpine coniferous forest of Engelmann spruce (Piceaengelmannii) and corkbark fir (A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica), all Pinaceae; subalpine montane grassland; and montane scrub.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Almost nothing is known about status, distribution, and threats to the Manzano Mountain Cottontail. It is probably threatened in its small distribution. Only three locations of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail are known: the type locality, eastern slope of the Sandia Mountains at 2590 m where a specimen was found in 1956, and near Sandia Crest at 3550 m where an individual was likely sighted in 1956. The Manzano Mountain Cottontail might be threatened by habitat loss, drought, and wildfire. Research is needed on its population status, distribution, threats, genetics, biology, and ecology, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.Bibliography.Dick-Peddie (1993), Frey et al. (1997), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Ivey (1957), Nelson (1909), Smith & Boyer (2008e).","taxonomy":"Sylvilagus cognatus Nelson, 1907, “10,000 feet [3048 m] altitude, near summit of Manzano Mountains, New Mexico,” USA. Restricted by J. K. Frey, R. D. Fisher and L. A. Ruedas in 1997 to “...vicinity of Rea Ranch...1-9 km N and 13-4 km W of Tajique (TON, NE 1/4 of NW 1/4 Sec. 9, N34°45'05-39”, W106°25°18-04”) on the NE side of Bosque Peak, at 2880 m elevation.”Formerly, S. cognatuswas included in S. floridanus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lapin des Manzano @fr | Manzano-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Manzano @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Nelson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"124","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cognatus","name":"Sylvilagus cognatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Manzano Mts of New Mexico (SUSA).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625609/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dick-Peddie (1993) | Frey et al. (1997) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Ivey (1957) | Nelson (1909) | Smith & Boyer (2008e)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Almost nothing is known about status, distribution, and threats to the Manzano Mountain Cottontail. It is probably threatened in its small distribution. Only three locations of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail are known: the type locality, eastern slope of the Sandia Mountains at 2590 m where a specimen was found in 1956, and near Sandia Crest at 3550 m where an individual was likely sighted in 1956. The Manzano Mountain Cottontail might be threatened by habitat loss, drought, and wildfire. Research is needed on its population status, distribution, threats, genetics, biology, and ecology, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450 mm, tail 65 mm, ear 70 mm, hindfoot 102 mm (all measurements are means from five specimens). No specific data are available for body weight. Dorsal fur of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail is light grayish buff, similar to the Robust Cottontail (S. robustus), but it is a little more buff or browner on ears.","habitat":"At the type locality, upper montane coniferous forest of Douglas fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) and white fir (Abiesconcolor), small patches of subalpine coniferous forest of Engelmann spruce (Piceaengelmannii) and corkbark fir (A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica), all Pinaceae; subalpine montane grassland; and montane scrub."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B757FFE8FFF5FAFBFC03FE53.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B757FFE8FFF5FAFBFC03FE53","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"123","verbatimText":"25.Eastern CottontailSylvilagus floridanusFrench:Lapin a queue blanche/ German:Ostliches Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de FloridaOther common names:Florida CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus sylvaticus floridanus J. A. Allen, 1890, “Sebastian River, Brevard Co., Fla. [Florida],” USA.Taxonomic status of S. floridanusneeds revision. Formerly, S. flondanusincluded S. robustusand S. cognatusas subspecies, but they are now recognized as distinct species. Subspecies holzneri is provisionally retained as a subspecies of S. floridanusbecause its relationship to Mexican populations offloridanus has not yet been reported. Genetic similarities suggest that subspecific designations are not warranted for S. floridanusin the north-eastern USA. Genetic studies on widely separated populations of S. floridanusindicate considerably intraspecific genetic variability. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomyis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the ranges in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirty-one subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.f.floridanusJ.A.Allen,1890—FloridaPeninsulaexceptSEtip(SEUSA).S.f.alacerBangs,1896—CSUSA,inSEKansas,C&SMissouri,EOklahoma,Arkansas,extremeWTennessee,ETexas,mostofMississippi,extremeWCAlabama,andLouisiana.S.fammophilusHowell,1939—EtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.faviusOsgood,1910—ConejoI(LosTestigos),offNEVenezuela.S.faztecus].A.Allen,1890—S&EOaxaca,andSWtipofChiapas(SWMexico).S.f.chapmani].A.Allen,1899—W&STexas(SUSA),ECoahuila,N&ENuevoLeon,andmostofTamaulipas(NEMexico).S.f.chiapensisNelson,1904—NEtipofOaxacaandC&SChiapas(Mexico),andWGuatemala.S.f.connectensNelson,1904—STamaulipas,VeracruzexcepttheS,SanLuisPotosi,NEQuerétaro,NEHidalgo,NPuebla,andNOaxaca(EMexico).S.f.continentisOsgood,1912—NWVenezuela.S.f.costaricensisHarris1933—NWCostaRica.S.f.cumanicusThomas,1897—N&CVenezuela.S.f.hesperiusHoffmeister&Lee,1963—NW&CArizona(SWUSA).S.f.hitchensiMearns,1911—SmithandFishermanIsinNorthamptonCounty,EVirginia(EUSA).S.f.holzneriMearns,1896—SEArizona,andSWtipofNewMexico(SWUSA),ESonora,Chihuahua,WDurango,WZacatecas,andESinaloa(NWMexico).S.f.hondurensisGoldman,1932—SEGuatemala,SW&SHonduras,ElSalvador,andNW&CNicaragua.S.fllanensisBlair,1938—SWKansas,SEtipofColorado,WOklahoma,andNCTexas(CUSA).S.f.macrocorpusDiersing&Wilson,1980—Nayarit,SWJalisco,andSWMichoacan(WMexico).S.f.mallurusThomas,1898—EUSA,fromMaineSWtoE&SPennsylvania,andEWestVirginia,WthroughSKentuckytomostofTennessee(excepttheextremeW),andStomostofAlabama(excepttheextremeW)andNFlorida.S.f.margaritaeMiller,1898—MargaritaI,offNVenezuela.S.f.mearnsii].A.Allen,1894—NC&NEUSA,fromMinnesotaEtoMichigan,andStoENebraska,NEKansas,NMissouri,Kentucky,NWtipofVirginia,WWestVirginia,Ohio,N&WPennsylvania,NW&NNewYork,andWVermont,alsoSC&SECanada,inSEOntario,andSEQuebec.S.f.nigronuchalisHartert,1894—ArubaandCuracaoIs(NetherlandsAntilles),offNVenezuela.S.f.orinociThomas,1900—VichadaDepartment(EColombia)andVenezuelaSoftheOrinocoRiver.S.f.orizabaeMerriam,1893—SECoahuila,SWNuevoLeon,SEZacatecas,SanLuisPotosi,Guanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,NWVeracruz,México,andPuebla(CMexico).S.fpaulsoniSchwartz,1956—SEtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.f.purgatusThomas,1920—CundinamarcaandTolimaDepartments(CColombia).S.f.restrictusNelson,1907—SWNayarit,C&SJalisco,EColima,andSWMichoacan(Mexico).S.f.russatusJ.A.Allen,1904—SEtipofVeracruz(Mexico).S.f.similisNelson,1907—NCUSA,fromNorthDakota,SWMontana,andNWMinnesotaStoNE&SEWyoming,NEColorado,andNKansas,alsoinSCCanada,SManitoba,andSESaskatchewan(Canada).S.f.subcinctusMiller,1899—Aguascalientes,C&NEJalisco,SWGuanajuato,andNMichoacan(Mexico).S. f. superciliarisJ. A. Allen, 1899— La Guajira, Magdalena, Atlantico and Bolivar departments (N Colombia).S. [> yucatanicus Miller, 1899 — NW Yucatan Peninsula (SE Mexico).The subspecies mearnsii has been introduced into Vancouver I (SW Canada) and into Washington and Oregon states (NW USA). Also introduced into Italy and the Alps.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 25-61 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 90-105 mm; weight 0.8-1.5 kg. The Eastern Cottontail is large, with long and dense fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grayish. Ventral fur and underside oftail are white. South American subspecies of the Eastern Cottontail differ in color of their nuchal patches, varying from yellowish brown to black. Geographical variation is high due to wide distribution of Eastern Cottontails, and characteristics that are diagnostic vary according to locality. In local areas,it is generally easy to distinguish the Eastern Cottontail from other sympatric species of Sylvilagus. The only exception is that where the Eastern Cottontail and the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) are sympatric along the Appalachians and in New England, USA, they cannot be distinguished based on pelage color; cranial characteristics are needed to identify these two species. Female Eastern Cottontails are c.1% larger than males. Adults undergo two molts per year: spring molt takes place in March—-August, and fall molt starts in late September and ends in early November.Habitat.Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats. Habitat of the Eastern Cottontail has been improved by interspersion of old fields and briar thickets, creation of edge, establishment of open feeding areas, and breaking up large continuous areas of monotypic habitat. Forms used during inactivity are chosen to provide cover and shelter and consist of brush piles and herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. Dens can be used to escape.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Eastern Cottontail includes a wide variety of plant species. Herbaceous plants are eaten during growing seasons, and woody plants are eaten during dormant seasons. Herbaceous plants might also be eaten throughout the year except when covered by snow. Two pronounced feeding periods have been reported: 3—4 h after sunrise and from sunset to one hour after sunset. Feeding habits of Eastern Cottontails vary seasonally and with successional changes of plant communities.Breeding.Timing of reproduction of Eastern Cottontails depends on latitude, elevation, and weather and varies among subspecies and populations and within the same population from year to year. Diet and rainfall might be important factors particularly in arid regions. Reproductive season begins later at higher elevations and northern latitudes; populations may breed throughout the year or only for ¢.6 months. Synchronized breeding behavior of Eastern Cottontail, even throughout the breeding season, has been recorded, and the synchronized initial pre-estrus stage for all populations over a wide geographical area is probably regulated by photoperiod. Reproductive interactions between males and females consist of a sequence of patterns that precede and culminate in copulation. This includes the male and female turning in a threat posture (face off), the male rushing the female, the female jumping over the male, and finally again the face off. When the female retreats from the male after a face off, the male chases the female before copulation takes place. Gestation typically lasts 28— 29 days but can be 25-35 days. Numbers oflitters per year are 3-7. Sizesoffirst litters of the year are 3-5 young and influenced by age or previous reproductive experience of females. Mean littersizes are 3-1-5-6 in the USA but usually only two young and rarely 1-3 young in South America. Mean annuallitter sizes are correlated with latitude and other factors such as conception dates, body weight, elevation, and, on one occasion, longitude. Annual numbers of young per female are 6-35. Young are born in a nest with a slanting hole into the ground. Nest’s measurements vary: lengths of 13-18 cm, widths of 10-13 cm, and depths of 9-12 cm. There is no relationship between nest size and litter size. Nests have outer linings of grass and herbaceous stems or leaves and inner layers of mothers’ fur. At birth, young Eastern Cottontails have fine hair, have tightly closed eyes, and are able to crawl into their nests. Eyes open at 4-8 days of age, and they leave nests at 12-16 days of age. Onset of sexual maturity is related to the first adult molt. Twenty-seven to 52% ofjuveniles breed during theirfirst year, but productivity is much lower than that of older individuals.Activity patterns.The Eastern Cottontail is most active at dawn and dusk, with increased activity on moonlit nights. Activity was greatest during summer when nights were shortest and when air temperature ranged from —18°C to 1°C. Rain apparently reduced activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mean annual home ranges of adult male and female Eastern Cottontails are 0-95-3 ha. Maximum home range size occurs during an individual’s first winter. Home range size and movements of adults vary by season, sex, and age. Home range size of males increased with the onset of sexual activity. Home range size of males during the reproductive season is influenced by habitat quality and sexual behavior. Home ranges indiscriminately overlap after breeding activity ends. The Eastern Cottontail does not maintain territories. Adult social interactions include those related to reproduction and social hierarchies. Eastern Cottontails have a male dominance hierarchy that controls social structure of populations. Dominant males copulate with most females. Male hierarchies prevent reproductive fighting. Dominance is indicated by displays of aggression and submission. Male-male chases usually are of longer duration than female—female chases. Fights for social status have only been observed between the most dominant males.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Eastern Cottontail is the most widely distributed species of Sylvilagusand is abundant throughout its distribution, with an increasing population trend. It is unique among leporids of the world in that it occurs over broad geographical provinces. It has been widely introduced in North America and Europe. For example, introduction in France failed, but introduced Eastern Cottontails in northern Italy seem to expand. Introductions have permanently altered the gene pool of the Eastern Cottontail and also caused displacement of sympatric species such as the New England Cottontail in north-eastern USA. The Eastern Cottontail is an important game species especially in the USA and has been subject of numerous research projects and publications. The Eastern Cottontail is an aggressive species and a highly efficient colonizer, and it can displace other leporids as it expandsits distribution. Therefore, introduction of Eastern Cottontails to alien habitats is not recommended. Although it is abundant, subpopulations are threatened by hunting pressure, human perturbation, and predation from introduced species. Some populations are threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation. Research is needed on taxonomy of the Eastern Cottontail and on how it affects other leporids.Bibliography.Allen, D.L. (1939), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008f), Angermann (2016), Barkalow (1962), Bothma & Teer (1977), Casteel (1966), Cervantes et al. (1999), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Mor gan (1973), Chapman & Trethewey (1972), Chapman & Verts (1969), Chapman, Harman & Samuel (1977), Chapman, Hockman & Ojeda (1980), Conaway & Wight (1962), Conaway, Sadler & Hazelwood (1974), Conaway, Wight & Sadler (1963), Dalke (1942), Dalke & Sime (1941), Dice (1929), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Dixon etal. (1981), Ecke (1955), Evans et al. (1965), Flux et al. (1990), Hall (1951, 1981), Hamilton (1940), Handley (1976), Hershkovitz (1950), Hill (1972), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Janes (1959), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Lord (1961, 1963, 1964), Lorenzo & Cervantes (2005), Marsden & Conaway (1963), Marsden & Holler (1964), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Morgan & Chapman (1981), Negus (1958), Nelson (1907), Niethammer & Angelici (2003), Pelton & Provost (1972), Rongstad (1966), Sheffer (1957), Smith (1950), Trent & Rongstad (1974), Trethewey & Verts (1971), Vidus-Rosin et al. (2008), Wight & Conaway (1961, 1962).","taxonomy":"Lepus sylvaticus floridanus J. A. Allen, 1890, “Sebastian River, Brevard Co., Fla. [Florida],” USA.Taxonomic status of S. floridanusneeds revision. Formerly, S. flondanusincluded S. robustusand S. cognatusas subspecies, but they are now recognized as distinct species. Subspecies holzneri is provisionally retained as a subspecies of S. floridanusbecause its relationship to Mexican populations offloridanus has not yet been reported. Genetic similarities suggest that subspecific designations are not warranted for S. floridanusin the north-eastern USA. Genetic studies on widely separated populations of S. floridanusindicate considerably intraspecific genetic variability. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomyis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the ranges in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirty-one subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin a queue blanche @fr | Ostliches Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Florida @es | Florida Cottontail @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1890","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"123","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"floridanus","name":"Sylvilagus floridanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.f.floridanusJ.A.Allen,1890—FloridaPeninsulaexceptSEtip(SEUSA).S.f.alacerBangs,1896—CSUSA,inSEKansas,C&SMissouri,EOklahoma,Arkansas,extremeWTennessee,ETexas,mostofMississippi,extremeWCAlabama,andLouisiana.S.fammophilusHowell,1939—EtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.faviusOsgood,1910—ConejoI(LosTestigos),offNEVenezuela.S.faztecus].A.Allen,1890—S&EOaxaca,andSWtipofChiapas(SWMexico).S.f.chapmani].A.Allen,1899—W&STexas(SUSA),ECoahuila,N&ENuevoLeon,andmostofTamaulipas(NEMexico).S.f.chiapensisNelson,1904—NEtipofOaxacaandC&SChiapas(Mexico),andWGuatemala.S.f.connectensNelson,1904—STamaulipas,VeracruzexcepttheS,SanLuisPotosi,NEQuerétaro,NEHidalgo,NPuebla,andNOaxaca(EMexico).S.f.continentisOsgood,1912—NWVenezuela.S.f.costaricensisHarris1933—NWCostaRica.S.f.cumanicusThomas,1897—N&CVenezuela.S.f.hesperiusHoffmeister&Lee,1963—NW&CArizona(SWUSA).S.f.hitchensiMearns,1911—SmithandFishermanIsinNorthamptonCounty,EVirginia(EUSA).S.f.holzneriMearns,1896—SEArizona,andSWtipofNewMexico(SWUSA),ESonora,Chihuahua,WDurango,WZacatecas,andESinaloa(NWMexico).S.f.hondurensisGoldman,1932—SEGuatemala,SW&SHonduras,ElSalvador,andNW&CNicaragua.S.fllanensisBlair,1938—SWKansas,SEtipofColorado,WOklahoma,andNCTexas(CUSA).S.f.macrocorpusDiersing&Wilson,1980—Nayarit,SWJalisco,andSWMichoacan(WMexico).S.f.mallurusThomas,1898—EUSA,fromMaineSWtoE&SPennsylvania,andEWestVirginia,WthroughSKentuckytomostofTennessee(excepttheextremeW),andStomostofAlabama(excepttheextremeW)andNFlorida.S.f.margaritaeMiller,1898—MargaritaI,offNVenezuela.S.f.mearnsii].A.Allen,1894—NC&NEUSA,fromMinnesotaEtoMichigan,andStoENebraska,NEKansas,NMissouri,Kentucky,NWtipofVirginia,WWestVirginia,Ohio,N&WPennsylvania,NW&NNewYork,andWVermont,alsoSC&SECanada,inSEOntario,andSEQuebec.S.f.nigronuchalisHartert,1894—ArubaandCuracaoIs(NetherlandsAntilles),offNVenezuela.S.f.orinociThomas,1900—VichadaDepartment(EColombia)andVenezuelaSoftheOrinocoRiver.S.f.orizabaeMerriam,1893—SECoahuila,SWNuevoLeon,SEZacatecas,SanLuisPotosi,Guanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,NWVeracruz,México,andPuebla(CMexico).S.fpaulsoniSchwartz,1956—SEtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.f.purgatusThomas,1920—CundinamarcaandTolimaDepartments(CColombia).S.f.restrictusNelson,1907—SWNayarit,C&SJalisco,EColima,andSWMichoacan(Mexico).S.f.russatusJ.A.Allen,1904—SEtipofVeracruz(Mexico).S.f.similisNelson,1907—NCUSA,fromNorthDakota,SWMontana,andNWMinnesotaStoNE&SEWyoming,NEColorado,andNKansas,alsoinSCCanada,SManitoba,andSESaskatchewan(Canada).S.f.subcinctusMiller,1899—Aguascalientes,C&NEJalisco,SWGuanajuato,andNMichoacan(Mexico).S. f. superciliarisJ. A. Allen, 1899— La Guajira, Magdalena, Atlantico and Bolivar departments (N Colombia).S. [> yucatanicus Miller, 1899 — NW Yucatan Peninsula (SE Mexico).The subspecies mearnsii has been introduced into Vancouver I (SW Canada) and into Washington and Oregon states (NW USA). Also introduced into Italy and the Alps.","bibliography":"Allen, D.L. (1939) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008f) | Angermann (2016) | Barkalow (1962) | Bothma & Teer (1977) | Casteel (1966) | Cervantes et al. (1999) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Mor gan (1973) | Chapman & Trethewey (1972) | Chapman & Verts (1969) | Chapman, Harman & Samuel (1977) | Chapman, Hockman & Ojeda (1980) | Conaway & Wight (1962) | Conaway, Sadler & Hazelwood (1974) | Conaway, Wight & Sadler (1963) | Dalke (1942) | Dalke & Sime (1941) | Dice (1929) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Dixon etal. (1981) | Ecke (1955) | Evans et al. (1965) | Flux et al. (1990) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hamilton (1940) | Handley (1976) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hill (1972) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Janes (1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Lord (1961, 1963, 1964) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (2005) | Marsden & Conaway (1963) | Marsden & Holler (1964) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Morgan & Chapman (1981) | Negus (1958) | Nelson (1907) | Niethammer & Angelici (2003) | Pelton & Provost (1972) | Rongstad (1966) | Sheffer (1957) | Smith (1950) | Trent & Rongstad (1974) | Trethewey & Verts (1971) | Vidus-Rosin et al. (2008) | Wight & Conaway (1961, 1962)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Eastern Cottontail includes a wide variety of plant species. Herbaceous plants are eaten during growing seasons, and woody plants are eaten during dormant seasons. Herbaceous plants might also be eaten throughout the year except when covered by snow. Two pronounced feeding periods have been reported: 3—4 h after sunrise and from sunset to one hour after sunset. Feeding habits of Eastern Cottontails vary seasonally and with successional changes of plant communities.","breeding":"Timing of reproduction of Eastern Cottontails depends on latitude, elevation, and weather and varies among subspecies and populations and within the same population from year to year. Diet and rainfall might be important factors particularly in arid regions. Reproductive season begins later at higher elevations and northern latitudes; populations may breed throughout the year or only for ¢.6 months. Synchronized breeding behavior of Eastern Cottontail, even throughout the breeding season, has been recorded, and the synchronized initial pre-estrus stage for all populations over a wide geographical area is probably regulated by photoperiod. Reproductive interactions between males and females consist of a sequence of patterns that precede and culminate in copulation. This includes the male and female turning in a threat posture (face off), the male rushing the female, the female jumping over the male, and finally again the face off. When the female retreats from the male after a face off, the male chases the female before copulation takes place. Gestation typically lasts 28— 29 days but can be 25-35 days. Numbers oflitters per year are 3-7. Sizesoffirst litters of the year are 3-5 young and influenced by age or previous reproductive experience of females. Mean littersizes are 3-1-5-6 in the USA but usually only two young and rarely 1-3 young in South America. Mean annuallitter sizes are correlated with latitude and other factors such as conception dates, body weight, elevation, and, on one occasion, longitude. Annual numbers of young per female are 6-35. Young are born in a nest with a slanting hole into the ground. Nest’s measurements vary: lengths of 13-18 cm, widths of 10-13 cm, and depths of 9-12 cm. There is no relationship between nest size and litter size. Nests have outer linings of grass and herbaceous stems or leaves and inner layers of mothers’ fur. At birth, young Eastern Cottontails have fine hair, have tightly closed eyes, and are able to crawl into their nests. Eyes open at 4-8 days of age, and they leave nests at 12-16 days of age. Onset of sexual maturity is related to the first adult molt. Twenty-seven to 52% ofjuveniles breed during theirfirst year, but productivity is much lower than that of older individuals.","activityPatterns":"The Eastern Cottontail is most active at dawn and dusk, with increased activity on moonlit nights. Activity was greatest during summer when nights were shortest and when air temperature ranged from —18°C to 1°C. Rain apparently reduced activity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mean annual home ranges of adult male and female Eastern Cottontails are 0-95-3 ha. Maximum home range size occurs during an individual’s first winter. Home range size and movements of adults vary by season, sex, and age. Home range size of males increased with the onset of sexual activity. Home range size of males during the reproductive season is influenced by habitat quality and sexual behavior. Home ranges indiscriminately overlap after breeding activity ends. The Eastern Cottontail does not maintain territories. Adult social interactions include those related to reproduction and social hierarchies. Eastern Cottontails have a male dominance hierarchy that controls social structure of populations. Dominant males copulate with most females. Male hierarchies prevent reproductive fighting. Dominance is indicated by displays of aggression and submission. Male-male chases usually are of longer duration than female—female chases. Fights for social status have only been observed between the most dominant males.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Eastern Cottontail is the most widely distributed species of Sylvilagusand is abundant throughout its distribution, with an increasing population trend. It is unique among leporids of the world in that it occurs over broad geographical provinces. It has been widely introduced in North America and Europe. For example, introduction in France failed, but introduced Eastern Cottontails in northern Italy seem to expand. Introductions have permanently altered the gene pool of the Eastern Cottontail and also caused displacement of sympatric species such as the New England Cottontail in north-eastern USA. The Eastern Cottontail is an important game species especially in the USA and has been subject of numerous research projects and publications. The Eastern Cottontail is an aggressive species and a highly efficient colonizer, and it can displace other leporids as it expandsits distribution. Therefore, introduction of Eastern Cottontails to alien habitats is not recommended. Although it is abundant, subpopulations are threatened by hunting pressure, human perturbation, and predation from introduced species. Some populations are threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation. Research is needed on taxonomy of the Eastern Cottontail and on how it affects other leporids.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 25-61 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 90-105 mm; weight 0.8-1.5 kg. The Eastern Cottontail is large, with long and dense fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grayish. Ventral fur and underside oftail are white. South American subspecies of the Eastern Cottontail differ in color of their nuchal patches, varying from yellowish brown to black. Geographical variation is high due to wide distribution of Eastern Cottontails, and characteristics that are diagnostic vary according to locality. In local areas,it is generally easy to distinguish the Eastern Cottontail from other sympatric species of Sylvilagus. The only exception is that where the Eastern Cottontail and the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) are sympatric along the Appalachians and in New England, USA, they cannot be distinguished based on pelage color; cranial characteristics are needed to identify these two species. Female Eastern Cottontails are c.1% larger than males. Adults undergo two molts per year: spring molt takes place in March—-August, and fall molt starts in late September and ends in early November.Habitat.Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats.","habitat":"Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats. Habitat of the Eastern Cottontail has been improved by interspersion of old fields and briar thickets, creation of edge, establishment of open feeding areas, and breaking up large continuous areas of monotypic habitat. Forms used during inactivity are chosen to provide cover and shelter and consist of brush piles and herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. Dens can be used to escape."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B757FFE8FFF5FAFBFC03FE53.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B757FFE8FFF5FAFBFC03FE53","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"123","verbatimText":"25.Eastern CottontailSylvilagus floridanusFrench:Lapin a queue blanche/ German:Ostliches Baumwollschwanzkaninchen/ Spanish:Conejo de FloridaOther common names:Florida CottontailTaxonomy.Lepus sylvaticus floridanus J. A. Allen, 1890, “Sebastian River, Brevard Co., Fla. [Florida],” USA.Taxonomic status of S. floridanusneeds revision. Formerly, S. flondanusincluded S. robustusand S. cognatusas subspecies, but they are now recognized as distinct species. Subspecies holzneri is provisionally retained as a subspecies of S. floridanusbecause its relationship to Mexican populations offloridanus has not yet been reported. Genetic similarities suggest that subspecific designations are not warranted for S. floridanusin the north-eastern USA. Genetic studies on widely separated populations of S. floridanusindicate considerably intraspecific genetic variability. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomyis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the ranges in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirty-one subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.f.floridanusJ.A.Allen,1890—FloridaPeninsulaexceptSEtip(SEUSA).S.f.alacerBangs,1896—CSUSA,inSEKansas,C&SMissouri,EOklahoma,Arkansas,extremeWTennessee,ETexas,mostofMississippi,extremeWCAlabama,andLouisiana.S.fammophilusHowell,1939—EtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.faviusOsgood,1910—ConejoI(LosTestigos),offNEVenezuela.S.faztecus].A.Allen,1890—S&EOaxaca,andSWtipofChiapas(SWMexico).S.f.chapmani].A.Allen,1899—W&STexas(SUSA),ECoahuila,N&ENuevoLeon,andmostofTamaulipas(NEMexico).S.f.chiapensisNelson,1904—NEtipofOaxacaandC&SChiapas(Mexico),andWGuatemala.S.f.connectensNelson,1904—STamaulipas,VeracruzexcepttheS,SanLuisPotosi,NEQuerétaro,NEHidalgo,NPuebla,andNOaxaca(EMexico).S.f.continentisOsgood,1912—NWVenezuela.S.f.costaricensisHarris1933—NWCostaRica.S.f.cumanicusThomas,1897—N&CVenezuela.S.f.hesperiusHoffmeister&Lee,1963—NW&CArizona(SWUSA).S.f.hitchensiMearns,1911—SmithandFishermanIsinNorthamptonCounty,EVirginia(EUSA).S.f.holzneriMearns,1896—SEArizona,andSWtipofNewMexico(SWUSA),ESonora,Chihuahua,WDurango,WZacatecas,andESinaloa(NWMexico).S.f.hondurensisGoldman,1932—SEGuatemala,SW&SHonduras,ElSalvador,andNW&CNicaragua.S.fllanensisBlair,1938—SWKansas,SEtipofColorado,WOklahoma,andNCTexas(CUSA).S.f.macrocorpusDiersing&Wilson,1980—Nayarit,SWJalisco,andSWMichoacan(WMexico).S.f.mallurusThomas,1898—EUSA,fromMaineSWtoE&SPennsylvania,andEWestVirginia,WthroughSKentuckytomostofTennessee(excepttheextremeW),andStomostofAlabama(excepttheextremeW)andNFlorida.S.f.margaritaeMiller,1898—MargaritaI,offNVenezuela.S.f.mearnsii].A.Allen,1894—NC&NEUSA,fromMinnesotaEtoMichigan,andStoENebraska,NEKansas,NMissouri,Kentucky,NWtipofVirginia,WWestVirginia,Ohio,N&WPennsylvania,NW&NNewYork,andWVermont,alsoSC&SECanada,inSEOntario,andSEQuebec.S.f.nigronuchalisHartert,1894—ArubaandCuracaoIs(NetherlandsAntilles),offNVenezuela.S.f.orinociThomas,1900—VichadaDepartment(EColombia)andVenezuelaSoftheOrinocoRiver.S.f.orizabaeMerriam,1893—SECoahuila,SWNuevoLeon,SEZacatecas,SanLuisPotosi,Guanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,NWVeracruz,México,andPuebla(CMexico).S.fpaulsoniSchwartz,1956—SEtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.f.purgatusThomas,1920—CundinamarcaandTolimaDepartments(CColombia).S.f.restrictusNelson,1907—SWNayarit,C&SJalisco,EColima,andSWMichoacan(Mexico).S.f.russatusJ.A.Allen,1904—SEtipofVeracruz(Mexico).S.f.similisNelson,1907—NCUSA,fromNorthDakota,SWMontana,andNWMinnesotaStoNE&SEWyoming,NEColorado,andNKansas,alsoinSCCanada,SManitoba,andSESaskatchewan(Canada).S.f.subcinctusMiller,1899—Aguascalientes,C&NEJalisco,SWGuanajuato,andNMichoacan(Mexico).S. f. superciliarisJ. A. Allen, 1899— La Guajira, Magdalena, Atlantico and Bolivar departments (N Colombia).S. [> yucatanicus Miller, 1899 — NW Yucatan Peninsula (SE Mexico).The subspecies mearnsii has been introduced into Vancouver I (SW Canada) and into Washington and Oregon states (NW USA). Also introduced into Italy and the Alps.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 25-61 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 90-105 mm; weight 0.8-1.5 kg. The Eastern Cottontail is large, with long and dense fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grayish. Ventral fur and underside oftail are white. South American subspecies of the Eastern Cottontail differ in color of their nuchal patches, varying from yellowish brown to black. Geographical variation is high due to wide distribution of Eastern Cottontails, and characteristics that are diagnostic vary according to locality. In local areas,it is generally easy to distinguish the Eastern Cottontail from other sympatric species of Sylvilagus. The only exception is that where the Eastern Cottontail and the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) are sympatric along the Appalachians and in New England, USA, they cannot be distinguished based on pelage color; cranial characteristics are needed to identify these two species. Female Eastern Cottontails are c.1% larger than males. Adults undergo two molts per year: spring molt takes place in March—-August, and fall molt starts in late September and ends in early November.Habitat.Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats. Habitat of the Eastern Cottontail has been improved by interspersion of old fields and briar thickets, creation of edge, establishment of open feeding areas, and breaking up large continuous areas of monotypic habitat. Forms used during inactivity are chosen to provide cover and shelter and consist of brush piles and herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. Dens can be used to escape.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Eastern Cottontail includes a wide variety of plant species. Herbaceous plants are eaten during growing seasons, and woody plants are eaten during dormant seasons. Herbaceous plants might also be eaten throughout the year except when covered by snow. Two pronounced feeding periods have been reported: 3—4 h after sunrise and from sunset to one hour after sunset. Feeding habits of Eastern Cottontails vary seasonally and with successional changes of plant communities.Breeding.Timing of reproduction of Eastern Cottontails depends on latitude, elevation, and weather and varies among subspecies and populations and within the same population from year to year. Diet and rainfall might be important factors particularly in arid regions. Reproductive season begins later at higher elevations and northern latitudes; populations may breed throughout the year or only for ¢.6 months. Synchronized breeding behavior of Eastern Cottontail, even throughout the breeding season, has been recorded, and the synchronized initial pre-estrus stage for all populations over a wide geographical area is probably regulated by photoperiod. Reproductive interactions between males and females consist of a sequence of patterns that precede and culminate in copulation. This includes the male and female turning in a threat posture (face off), the male rushing the female, the female jumping over the male, and finally again the face off. When the female retreats from the male after a face off, the male chases the female before copulation takes place. Gestation typically lasts 28— 29 days but can be 25-35 days. Numbers oflitters per year are 3-7. Sizesoffirst litters of the year are 3-5 young and influenced by age or previous reproductive experience of females. Mean littersizes are 3-1-5-6 in the USA but usually only two young and rarely 1-3 young in South America. Mean annuallitter sizes are correlated with latitude and other factors such as conception dates, body weight, elevation, and, on one occasion, longitude. Annual numbers of young per female are 6-35. Young are born in a nest with a slanting hole into the ground. Nest’s measurements vary: lengths of 13-18 cm, widths of 10-13 cm, and depths of 9-12 cm. There is no relationship between nest size and litter size. Nests have outer linings of grass and herbaceous stems or leaves and inner layers of mothers’ fur. At birth, young Eastern Cottontails have fine hair, have tightly closed eyes, and are able to crawl into their nests. Eyes open at 4-8 days of age, and they leave nests at 12-16 days of age. Onset of sexual maturity is related to the first adult molt. Twenty-seven to 52% ofjuveniles breed during theirfirst year, but productivity is much lower than that of older individuals.Activity patterns.The Eastern Cottontail is most active at dawn and dusk, with increased activity on moonlit nights. Activity was greatest during summer when nights were shortest and when air temperature ranged from —18°C to 1°C. Rain apparently reduced activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mean annual home ranges of adult male and female Eastern Cottontails are 0-95-3 ha. Maximum home range size occurs during an individual’s first winter. Home range size and movements of adults vary by season, sex, and age. Home range size of males increased with the onset of sexual activity. Home range size of males during the reproductive season is influenced by habitat quality and sexual behavior. Home ranges indiscriminately overlap after breeding activity ends. The Eastern Cottontail does not maintain territories. Adult social interactions include those related to reproduction and social hierarchies. Eastern Cottontails have a male dominance hierarchy that controls social structure of populations. Dominant males copulate with most females. Male hierarchies prevent reproductive fighting. Dominance is indicated by displays of aggression and submission. Male-male chases usually are of longer duration than female—female chases. Fights for social status have only been observed between the most dominant males.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Eastern Cottontail is the most widely distributed species of Sylvilagusand is abundant throughout its distribution, with an increasing population trend. It is unique among leporids of the world in that it occurs over broad geographical provinces. It has been widely introduced in North America and Europe. For example, introduction in France failed, but introduced Eastern Cottontails in northern Italy seem to expand. Introductions have permanently altered the gene pool of the Eastern Cottontail and also caused displacement of sympatric species such as the New England Cottontail in north-eastern USA. The Eastern Cottontail is an important game species especially in the USA and has been subject of numerous research projects and publications. The Eastern Cottontail is an aggressive species and a highly efficient colonizer, and it can displace other leporids as it expandsits distribution. Therefore, introduction of Eastern Cottontails to alien habitats is not recommended. Although it is abundant, subpopulations are threatened by hunting pressure, human perturbation, and predation from introduced species. Some populations are threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation. Research is needed on taxonomy of the Eastern Cottontail and on how it affects other leporids.Bibliography.Allen, D.L. (1939), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008f), Angermann (2016), Barkalow (1962), Bothma & Teer (1977), Casteel (1966), Cervantes et al. (1999), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Mor gan (1973), Chapman & Trethewey (1972), Chapman & Verts (1969), Chapman, Harman & Samuel (1977), Chapman, Hockman & Ojeda (1980), Conaway & Wight (1962), Conaway, Sadler & Hazelwood (1974), Conaway, Wight & Sadler (1963), Dalke (1942), Dalke & Sime (1941), Dice (1929), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Dixon etal. (1981), Ecke (1955), Evans et al. (1965), Flux et al. (1990), Hall (1951, 1981), Hamilton (1940), Handley (1976), Hershkovitz (1950), Hill (1972), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Janes (1959), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Lord (1961, 1963, 1964), Lorenzo & Cervantes (2005), Marsden & Conaway (1963), Marsden & Holler (1964), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Morgan & Chapman (1981), Negus (1958), Nelson (1907), Niethammer & Angelici (2003), Pelton & Provost (1972), Rongstad (1966), Sheffer (1957), Smith (1950), Trent & Rongstad (1974), Trethewey & Verts (1971), Vidus-Rosin et al. (2008), Wight & Conaway (1961, 1962).","taxonomy":"Lepus sylvaticus floridanus J. A. Allen, 1890, “Sebastian River, Brevard Co., Fla. [Florida],” USA.Taxonomic status of S. floridanusneeds revision. Formerly, S. flondanusincluded S. robustusand S. cognatusas subspecies, but they are now recognized as distinct species. Subspecies holzneri is provisionally retained as a subspecies of S. floridanusbecause its relationship to Mexican populations offloridanus has not yet been reported. Genetic similarities suggest that subspecific designations are not warranted for S. floridanusin the north-eastern USA. Genetic studies on widely separated populations of S. floridanusindicate considerably intraspecific genetic variability. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomyis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the ranges in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirty-one subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lapin a queue blanche @fr | Ostliches Baumwollschwanzkaninchen @de | Conejo de Florida @es | Florida Cottontail @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1890","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Sylvilagus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"123","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"floridanus","name":"Sylvilagus floridanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.f.floridanusJ.A.Allen,1890—FloridaPeninsulaexceptSEtip(SEUSA).S.f.alacerBangs,1896—CSUSA,inSEKansas,C&SMissouri,EOklahoma,Arkansas,extremeWTennessee,ETexas,mostofMississippi,extremeWCAlabama,andLouisiana.S.fammophilusHowell,1939—EtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.faviusOsgood,1910—ConejoI(LosTestigos),offNEVenezuela.S.faztecus].A.Allen,1890—S&EOaxaca,andSWtipofChiapas(SWMexico).S.f.chapmani].A.Allen,1899—W&STexas(SUSA),ECoahuila,N&ENuevoLeon,andmostofTamaulipas(NEMexico).S.f.chiapensisNelson,1904—NEtipofOaxacaandC&SChiapas(Mexico),andWGuatemala.S.f.connectensNelson,1904—STamaulipas,VeracruzexcepttheS,SanLuisPotosi,NEQuerétaro,NEHidalgo,NPuebla,andNOaxaca(EMexico).S.f.continentisOsgood,1912—NWVenezuela.S.f.costaricensisHarris1933—NWCostaRica.S.f.cumanicusThomas,1897—N&CVenezuela.S.f.hesperiusHoffmeister&Lee,1963—NW&CArizona(SWUSA).S.f.hitchensiMearns,1911—SmithandFishermanIsinNorthamptonCounty,EVirginia(EUSA).S.f.holzneriMearns,1896—SEArizona,andSWtipofNewMexico(SWUSA),ESonora,Chihuahua,WDurango,WZacatecas,andESinaloa(NWMexico).S.f.hondurensisGoldman,1932—SEGuatemala,SW&SHonduras,ElSalvador,andNW&CNicaragua.S.fllanensisBlair,1938—SWKansas,SEtipofColorado,WOklahoma,andNCTexas(CUSA).S.f.macrocorpusDiersing&Wilson,1980—Nayarit,SWJalisco,andSWMichoacan(WMexico).S.f.mallurusThomas,1898—EUSA,fromMaineSWtoE&SPennsylvania,andEWestVirginia,WthroughSKentuckytomostofTennessee(excepttheextremeW),andStomostofAlabama(excepttheextremeW)andNFlorida.S.f.margaritaeMiller,1898—MargaritaI,offNVenezuela.S.f.mearnsii].A.Allen,1894—NC&NEUSA,fromMinnesotaEtoMichigan,andStoENebraska,NEKansas,NMissouri,Kentucky,NWtipofVirginia,WWestVirginia,Ohio,N&WPennsylvania,NW&NNewYork,andWVermont,alsoSC&SECanada,inSEOntario,andSEQuebec.S.f.nigronuchalisHartert,1894—ArubaandCuracaoIs(NetherlandsAntilles),offNVenezuela.S.f.orinociThomas,1900—VichadaDepartment(EColombia)andVenezuelaSoftheOrinocoRiver.S.f.orizabaeMerriam,1893—SECoahuila,SWNuevoLeon,SEZacatecas,SanLuisPotosi,Guanajuato,Querétaro,Hidalgo,NWVeracruz,México,andPuebla(CMexico).S.fpaulsoniSchwartz,1956—SEtipoftheFloridaPeninsula(SEUSA).S.f.purgatusThomas,1920—CundinamarcaandTolimaDepartments(CColombia).S.f.restrictusNelson,1907—SWNayarit,C&SJalisco,EColima,andSWMichoacan(Mexico).S.f.russatusJ.A.Allen,1904—SEtipofVeracruz(Mexico).S.f.similisNelson,1907—NCUSA,fromNorthDakota,SWMontana,andNWMinnesotaStoNE&SEWyoming,NEColorado,andNKansas,alsoinSCCanada,SManitoba,andSESaskatchewan(Canada).S.f.subcinctusMiller,1899—Aguascalientes,C&NEJalisco,SWGuanajuato,andNMichoacan(Mexico).S. f. superciliarisJ. A. Allen, 1899— La Guajira, Magdalena, Atlantico and Bolivar departments (N Colombia).S. [> yucatanicus Miller, 1899 — NW Yucatan Peninsula (SE Mexico).The subspecies mearnsii has been introduced into Vancouver I (SW Canada) and into Washington and Oregon states (NW USA). Also introduced into Italy and the Alps.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625599/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen, D.L. (1939) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008f) | Angermann (2016) | Barkalow (1962) | Bothma & Teer (1977) | Casteel (1966) | Cervantes et al. (1999) | Chapman & Ceballos (1990) | Chapman & Mor gan (1973) | Chapman & Trethewey (1972) | Chapman & Verts (1969) | Chapman, Harman & Samuel (1977) | Chapman, Hockman & Ojeda (1980) | Conaway & Wight (1962) | Conaway, Sadler & Hazelwood (1974) | Conaway, Wight & Sadler (1963) | Dalke (1942) | Dalke & Sime (1941) | Dice (1929) | Diersing & Wilson (1980) | Dixon etal. (1981) | Ecke (1955) | Evans et al. (1965) | Flux et al. (1990) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hamilton (1940) | Handley (1976) | Hershkovitz (1950) | Hill (1972) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Janes (1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Lord (1961, 1963, 1964) | Lorenzo & Cervantes (2005) | Marsden & Conaway (1963) | Marsden & Holler (1964) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Morgan & Chapman (1981) | Negus (1958) | Nelson (1907) | Niethammer & Angelici (2003) | Pelton & Provost (1972) | Rongstad (1966) | Sheffer (1957) | Smith (1950) | Trent & Rongstad (1974) | Trethewey & Verts (1971) | Vidus-Rosin et al. (2008) | Wight & Conaway (1961, 1962)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Eastern Cottontail includes a wide variety of plant species. Herbaceous plants are eaten during growing seasons, and woody plants are eaten during dormant seasons. Herbaceous plants might also be eaten throughout the year except when covered by snow. Two pronounced feeding periods have been reported: 3—4 h after sunrise and from sunset to one hour after sunset. Feeding habits of Eastern Cottontails vary seasonally and with successional changes of plant communities.","breeding":"Timing of reproduction of Eastern Cottontails depends on latitude, elevation, and weather and varies among subspecies and populations and within the same population from year to year. Diet and rainfall might be important factors particularly in arid regions. Reproductive season begins later at higher elevations and northern latitudes; populations may breed throughout the year or only for ¢.6 months. Synchronized breeding behavior of Eastern Cottontail, even throughout the breeding season, has been recorded, and the synchronized initial pre-estrus stage for all populations over a wide geographical area is probably regulated by photoperiod. Reproductive interactions between males and females consist of a sequence of patterns that precede and culminate in copulation. This includes the male and female turning in a threat posture (face off), the male rushing the female, the female jumping over the male, and finally again the face off. When the female retreats from the male after a face off, the male chases the female before copulation takes place. Gestation typically lasts 28— 29 days but can be 25-35 days. Numbers oflitters per year are 3-7. Sizesoffirst litters of the year are 3-5 young and influenced by age or previous reproductive experience of females. Mean littersizes are 3-1-5-6 in the USA but usually only two young and rarely 1-3 young in South America. Mean annuallitter sizes are correlated with latitude and other factors such as conception dates, body weight, elevation, and, on one occasion, longitude. Annual numbers of young per female are 6-35. Young are born in a nest with a slanting hole into the ground. Nest’s measurements vary: lengths of 13-18 cm, widths of 10-13 cm, and depths of 9-12 cm. There is no relationship between nest size and litter size. Nests have outer linings of grass and herbaceous stems or leaves and inner layers of mothers’ fur. At birth, young Eastern Cottontails have fine hair, have tightly closed eyes, and are able to crawl into their nests. Eyes open at 4-8 days of age, and they leave nests at 12-16 days of age. Onset of sexual maturity is related to the first adult molt. Twenty-seven to 52% ofjuveniles breed during theirfirst year, but productivity is much lower than that of older individuals.","activityPatterns":"The Eastern Cottontail is most active at dawn and dusk, with increased activity on moonlit nights. Activity was greatest during summer when nights were shortest and when air temperature ranged from —18°C to 1°C. Rain apparently reduced activity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mean annual home ranges of adult male and female Eastern Cottontails are 0-95-3 ha. Maximum home range size occurs during an individual’s first winter. Home range size and movements of adults vary by season, sex, and age. Home range size of males increased with the onset of sexual activity. Home range size of males during the reproductive season is influenced by habitat quality and sexual behavior. Home ranges indiscriminately overlap after breeding activity ends. The Eastern Cottontail does not maintain territories. Adult social interactions include those related to reproduction and social hierarchies. Eastern Cottontails have a male dominance hierarchy that controls social structure of populations. Dominant males copulate with most females. Male hierarchies prevent reproductive fighting. Dominance is indicated by displays of aggression and submission. Male-male chases usually are of longer duration than female—female chases. Fights for social status have only been observed between the most dominant males.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Eastern Cottontail is the most widely distributed species of Sylvilagusand is abundant throughout its distribution, with an increasing population trend. It is unique among leporids of the world in that it occurs over broad geographical provinces. It has been widely introduced in North America and Europe. For example, introduction in France failed, but introduced Eastern Cottontails in northern Italy seem to expand. Introductions have permanently altered the gene pool of the Eastern Cottontail and also caused displacement of sympatric species such as the New England Cottontail in north-eastern USA. The Eastern Cottontail is an important game species especially in the USA and has been subject of numerous research projects and publications. The Eastern Cottontail is an aggressive species and a highly efficient colonizer, and it can displace other leporids as it expandsits distribution. Therefore, introduction of Eastern Cottontails to alien habitats is not recommended. Although it is abundant, subpopulations are threatened by hunting pressure, human perturbation, and predation from introduced species. Some populations are threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation. Research is needed on taxonomy of the Eastern Cottontail and on how it affects other leporids.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 25-61 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 90-105 mm; weight 0.8-1.5 kg. The Eastern Cottontail is large, with long and dense fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grayish. Ventral fur and underside oftail are white. South American subspecies of the Eastern Cottontail differ in color of their nuchal patches, varying from yellowish brown to black. Geographical variation is high due to wide distribution of Eastern Cottontails, and characteristics that are diagnostic vary according to locality. In local areas,it is generally easy to distinguish the Eastern Cottontail from other sympatric species of Sylvilagus. The only exception is that where the Eastern Cottontail and the New England Cottontail (S. transitionalis) are sympatric along the Appalachians and in New England, USA, they cannot be distinguished based on pelage color; cranial characteristics are needed to identify these two species. Female Eastern Cottontails are c.1% larger than males. Adults undergo two molts per year: spring molt takes place in March—-August, and fall molt starts in late September and ends in early November.Habitat.Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats.","habitat":"Great variety of habitats seasonally and latitudinally across an extensive distribution; generally occurring in farmlands, grasslands,fields, areas of low dense brush, and hedgerows. South American subspecies inhabit arid and semiarid regions mostly in dry upland habitats. Habitat of the Eastern Cottontail has been improved by interspersion of old fields and briar thickets, creation of edge, establishment of open feeding areas, and breaking up large continuous areas of monotypic habitat. Forms used during inactivity are chosen to provide cover and shelter and consist of brush piles and herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. Dens can be used to escape."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75AFFE7FA17F546F788F2DF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75AFFE7FA17F546F788F2DF","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"136","verbatimText":"48.Black JackrabbitLepus insularisFrench:Lievre noir/ German:Espiritu-Santo-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de Espiritu SantoOther common names:Black Hare, Espiritu Santo JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus insularis W. Bryant, 1891, “Espiritu Santo Island, [near La Paz], Gulf of California [Baja California del Sur], Mexico.”It is an insular melanistic allospecies related to L. californicus. Its status has been questioned, but a multivariate comparison with L. californicusof the adjacent mainland and nearby islands found distinct differences between the two species based on cranial characteristics. Nevertheless, a recent molecular phylogenetic study indicated that L. californicuswas paraphyletic to L. insularis. All analyses in this study demonstrated that some haplotypes of L. californicus were more closely related to L. insularisthan to other haplotypes of L. californicus, suggesting that L. insularismight represent an isolated population of L. californicus. Nevertheless, the study was based only on mtDNA and a limited sample so results should be regarded with caution. Monotypic.Distribution.Espiritu Santo I in the Gulf of California (NW Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 570 mm,tail 96 mm, ear 110 mm, hindfoot 121 mm; weight ¢.2-5 kg (all measurements are means from five specimens). The Black Jackrabbit is medium-sized. Top of head, dorsal fur, nape, and top oftail are glossy black. Sides of head are blackish and grizzled with gray. Eye rings are gray. Insides of ears are gray, and outsides are blackish. Shoulders,sides, and hindlegs are dark buff or cinnamon-buff, and color becomes clearer ventrally. Forelegs are similar to sides of body but more rusty or reddish. Tops of toes are dark buff, and black line extends along inner sides of hindfeet from toes to a little above heels. Underside oftail is dull buffy brown, and underside of head is dark iron gray. Rest of under parts varies from dark cinnamon-buff to dusky brown. Dark color of the Black Jackrabbit makes it extraordinarily conspicuous on open or rocky ground, even when motionless. Populations of Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) living in the same climate and vegetation on the mainland exhibit no signs of melanism. Isolation of the Black Jackrabbit on Espiritu Santo Island and absence of predators apparently have removed selective pressure favoring cryptic coloration.Habitat.Open areas on rocky slopes, mesetas (plateaus), dunes, sandy valleys, and beaches. The Black Jackrabbit is most abundant in valleys and on adjoining lower slopes of hills on Espiritu Santo Island from sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m. It inhabits tropical scrub of cactus (Pachycerus, Stenocereus, and Opuntia, all Cactaceae) and shrubs (Prosopisand Acacia, both Fabaceae, and Ambrosia, Asteraceae) and in dunes with grasses (Cenchrus, Poaceae) and halophytic plants (Adenostoma, Rosaceae).Food and Feeding.The BlackJackrabbit forages on a wide variety of grasses, herbs, and forbs and consumes fleshy parts of short cacti (Stenocereus, Cactaceae) and young stems of shrubs (e.g. Prosopis, Fabaceae).Breeding.One female Black Jackrabbit collected in November was pregnant with two embryos. Males with scrotal testes were found in September, March, June, and October/November.Activity patterns.Black Jackrabbits are most active during crepuscular hours but are known to be active day and night. They actively feed and constantly move about during crepuscular hours, but they rest in shade of cacti and shrubs during mid-day hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Black Jackrabbit is usually solitary but may be observed in groups of up to three individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Black Jackrabbit only occurs on Espiritu Santo Island that is only ¢.95 km?. It is hunted on the island. Population trends are unknown. Major threats include disturbance by humans and competition with domestic livestock.Bibliography.Bryant (1891), Cervantes, Alvarez-Castafeda et al. (1996), Dixon et al. (1983), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Nelson (1909, 1922), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Romero & Rangel (2008), Thomas & Best (1994b), Townsend (1912).","taxonomy":"Lepus insularis W. Bryant, 1891, “Espiritu Santo Island, [near La Paz], Gulf of California [Baja California del Sur], Mexico.”It is an insular melanistic allospecies related to L. californicus. Its status has been questioned, but a multivariate comparison with L. californicusof the adjacent mainland and nearby islands found distinct differences between the two species based on cranial characteristics. Nevertheless, a recent molecular phylogenetic study indicated that L. californicuswas paraphyletic to L. insularis. All analyses in this study demonstrated that some haplotypes of L. californicus were more closely related to L. insularisthan to other haplotypes of L. californicus, suggesting that L. insularismight represent an isolated population of L. californicus. Nevertheless, the study was based only on mtDNA and a limited sample so results should be regarded with caution. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lievre noir @fr | Espiritu-Santo-Hase @de | Liebre de Espiritu Santo @es | Black Hare @en | Espiritu Santo Jackrabbit @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"W. Bryant","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1891","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"29","interpretedPageNumber":"136","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"insularis","name":"Lepus insularis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Espiritu Santo I in the Gulf of California (NW Mexico).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625649/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bryant (1891) | Cervantes, Alvarez-Castafeda et al. (1996) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Nelson (1909, 1922) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Romero & Rangel (2008) | Thomas & Best (1994b) | Townsend (1912)","foodAndFeeding":"The BlackJackrabbit forages on a wide variety of grasses, herbs, and forbs and consumes fleshy parts of short cacti (Stenocereus, Cactaceae) and young stems of shrubs (e.g. Prosopis, Fabaceae).","breeding":"One female Black Jackrabbit collected in November was pregnant with two embryos. Males with scrotal testes were found in September, March, June, and October/November.","activityPatterns":"Black Jackrabbits are most active during crepuscular hours but are known to be active day and night. They actively feed and constantly move about during crepuscular hours, but they rest in shade of cacti and shrubs during mid-day hours.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Black Jackrabbit is usually solitary but may be observed in groups of up to three individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Black Jackrabbit only occurs on Espiritu Santo Island that is only ¢.95 km?. It is hunted on the island. Population trends are unknown. Major threats include disturbance by humans and competition with domestic livestock.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 570 mm,tail 96 mm, ear 110 mm, hindfoot 121 mm; weight ¢.2-5 kg (all measurements are means from five specimens). The Black Jackrabbit is medium-sized. Top of head, dorsal fur, nape, and top oftail are glossy black. Sides of head are blackish and grizzled with gray. Eye rings are gray. Insides of ears are gray, and outsides are blackish. Shoulders,sides, and hindlegs are dark buff or cinnamon-buff, and color becomes clearer ventrally. Forelegs are similar to sides of body but more rusty or reddish. Tops of toes are dark buff, and black line extends along inner sides of hindfeet from toes to a little above heels. Underside oftail is dull buffy brown, and underside of head is dark iron gray. Rest of under parts varies from dark cinnamon-buff to dusky brown. Dark color of the Black Jackrabbit makes it extraordinarily conspicuous on open or rocky ground, even when motionless. Populations of Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) living in the same climate and vegetation on the mainland exhibit no signs of melanism. Isolation of the Black Jackrabbit on Espiritu Santo Island and absence of predators apparently have removed selective pressure favoring cryptic coloration.","habitat":"Open areas on rocky slopes, mesetas (plateaus), dunes, sandy valleys, and beaches. The Black Jackrabbit is most abundant in valleys and on adjoining lower slopes of hills on Espiritu Santo Island from sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m. It inhabits tropical scrub of cactus (Pachycerus, Stenocereus, and Opuntia, all Cactaceae) and shrubs (Prosopisand Acacia, both Fabaceae, and Ambrosia, Asteraceae) and in dunes with grasses (Cenchrus, Poaceae) and halophytic plants (Adenostoma, Rosaceae)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75BFFE4FAF7F8FAF583FCEB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75BFFE4FAF7F8FAF583FCEB","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"135","verbatimText":"47.Black-tailed JackrabbitLepus californicusFrench:Lievre de Californie/ German:Eselhase/ Spanish:Liebre de cola negraOther common names:California JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus californicus Gray, 1837, “St. Antoine [probably near Mission of San Antonio, California, USA].”Lepus insularisis an insular melanistic allospecies and closely related to L. californicus. It is still under debate whether or not L. insularisdeserves species status or represents an isolated population of L. californicus. In southern Arizona, L. californicusand L. allenilive in sympatry. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seventeen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. c. californicus Gray, 1837— SW Oregon, and NW California (W USA).L. c. altamirae Nelson, 1904— SE Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. asellus Miller, 1899— SE Coahuila, NE, S Nuevo Leon, E & SE Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, NE tip ofJalisco, N Guanajuato, and NW Querétaro (NC Mexico).L. c. bennettiz Gray, 1843— SW California (SW USA), and NW Baja California (NW Mexico).L. c. curts Hall, 1951— Is along the coast of Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. deserticola Mearns, 1896— SE Oregon, S Idaho, SW Montana, NE & E California, Nevada, Utah except SE, and NW, W & SW Arizona (W & SW USA), and NW Sonora and NE Baja California (NW Mexico). The population in SW Montanais isolated.L. c. eremicus J. A. Allen, 1894— S Arizona (SW USA), N Sonora except extreme NW, NW Chihuahua (N Mexico).L. c. festinus Nelson, 1904— S Querétaro, Hidalgo, and N State of Mexico (C Mexico).L. c. magdalenae Nelson, 1907— Magdalena I, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. martirensis Stowell, 1895—Baja California except NW & NE and NE Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. melanotis Mearns, 1890— S South Dakota, SE Wyoming, Nebraska, E Colorado, Kansas, W Missouri, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma, W Arkansas, and N Texas (C USA). An isolated population exists in E Oklahoma.L. c. merriami Mearns, 1896— S Texas (S USA), and NE Coahuila, N Tamaulipas, and N Nuevo Leon (NE Mexico).L. c. richardsonii Bachman, 1839— C California (SW USA).L. c. sheldoni Burt, 1933— Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. texianus Waterhouse, 1848— SE Utah, SW Colorado, NE Arizona, New Mexico except the NE, and W Texas (C USA), Chihuahua except the NW, W, & SW extremes, W Coahuila, E Durango, and NW Zacatecas (NC Mexico).L. c. wallawalla Merriam, 1904— S Washington, C & W Oregon, NE California, and NW Nevada (NW USA).L. ¢. xanti Thomas, 1898— Baja California Sur except the NE (NW Mexico).The Black-tailed Jackrabbit has been introduced into Massachusetts, NewJersey, Maryland, Virginia, and S Florida.Descriptive notes.Head—body 520-610 mm, tail 75-101 mm, ear 100-130 mm, hindfoot 113-135 mm; weight 1.5-3.6 kg. The Black-tailed Jackrabbitis lean and mediumsized, with soft fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grizzled brown, sides are brownish, and ventral fur is pale. Hindlegs and ears are relatively long, and tail is large, with black stripe above and buffy or grayish below. Color varies considerably among populations. Differences in color and other characteristics relate to corresponding changes in climate; soil color might influence fur color. On the Guadiana lava filed in Durango, Mexico, fur is browner than on those individuals from northern Durango. In Kansas (USA), sexual dimorphism in mass and length has been noted; females are larger than males. Body size of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is larger on islands around Baja California, except the population on Carmen Island that is smaller than adjacent populations. Annual molt begins between late August and early October, depending on latitude, and short summer hair is replaced by longer winter hair. Ear lengths of Black-tailed Jackrabbits vary geographically with temperature. Ears are longer in the south than in the north; longer ears are probably used to dissipate heat. Rectal glands in males and females secrete strong musky odors, but their functions are unknown. No physical change is noticeable during the breeding period; even mammae remain flat in lactating females.Habitat.Arid tropics, deserts, and transitional habitats at elevations of -84 m in Death Valley, California, USA, to 3750 m. Black-tailed Jackrabbits favor heavily grazed areas, or where grasses are not abundant and cacti and low shrubs are scattered. They inhabit open habitats with mesquite (Prosopis), sagebrush (Artemisia), desert scrub, and open pine (Pinus)—juniper (Juniperus) in Arizona. They avoid areas of tall grass or forest where visibility is obscured. Where Black-tailed Jackrabbits and Antelope Jackrabbits (L. alleni) live in sympatry, they are often seen togethersitting under the same bush or running away side by side. Antelope Jackrabbits are more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations, and Black-tailed Jackrabbits are more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and in barren chaparral desert.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit varies among locations and seasons, but grasses and sedges are primarily eaten in summer. In Utah,it ate nearly all plant species available, including sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata, Asteraceae) and shadscale (Atriplexconfertifolia), Nuttall’s saltbush (A. nuttalliz), winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), and saltlover (Halogetonglomeratus) all Amaranthaceae. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit also eats fungi, gravel, or sand, and it has been reported to feed on horse carcasses in Texas and Tamaulipas. During winter or in desert areas, the main food is dry and woody plant parts such as broom snakeweed (Gutierreziasarothrae, Asteraceae) and creosote bush (Larreatridentate, Zygophyllaceae). There is no evidence that the Blacktailed Jackrabbit drinks free water. In dry habitats, succulent plants and cacti are increasingly eaten as drought conditions increase. Shade seeking reduces heat load and need for water. Other factors that contribute to reducing water loss are insulation and reflectivity of pelage. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit can damage agricultural crops. In Kansas (USA), most crop damage was restricted to fields near resting areas, and buffer fields reduced damage. While feeding, Black-tailed Jackrabbits move slowly and are constantly alert for sings of danger. They rely on hearing more than on other sense to detect danger. Black-tailed Jackrabbits rear up on their hindfeet to browse on bushes.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit depends on latitude. In California, males are sexually active in all months of the year, but in Kansas, they are active in December—August. Breeding season is shortest in regions with severe winters (e.g. 128 days in Idaho) and longest in areas with warmer winters (e.g. 220 days in Kansas and more than 300 days in Arizona). A sexually active male Black-tailed Jackrabbit seeks a female with his nose close to the ground. Courtship behavior includes circling, hunting, approaching, chasing, jumping with urine emission, and boxing; copulation usually follows. These complex sequences of behavior may be repeated a couple of times. Breeding is promiscuous. Copulation occurs repeatedly, which induces ovulation. Gestation is c.43 days.Litter size is positively correlated with latitude and averages c.2 young in Arizona, c.3 young in Kansas and Nevada, and c.5 young in Idaho and California. Maximum number of young per litter is seven in California, Idaho, and Nevada. Litter size is dependent on environmental conditions during a particular year, quantity of precipitation, and time of the year; largest litters occur in the middle or end of the breeding period. There are 3-8—4-4 litters/year in Kansas and 3-6 litters/ year in Arizona. Postpartum estrus occurs, but consistent postpartum breeding does not occur in Kansas. Young are placed put in prepared nests with some hair for lining or in nests resembling shelters under bushes when soil is hard. Young are fully furred, and eyes are open at birth. Pelage of young is brown and richer in color than mothers’ pelage. Ear tips and tail are black. Dark natal fur gradually is replaced by paler immature pelage. Adult pelage occurs in the first winter when young are 6-9 months old. Young are nursed exclusively for their first ten days of life, and solid food is gradually eaten; they are weaned at 12-13 weeks of age. Until young are c.1 week old, they suckle lying on their backs, with their hindfeet around their mothers’ necks; then, nursing position changes to an upright posture. Newborns stay close to their birthplace for their first two days oflife; they gradually enlarge their home ranges and spend a lot of time digging. Females stay some distance away and moveto their litters only at night to nurse. Early-born females might breed in their first year of birth.Activity patterns.The Black-tailed Jackrabbit is primarily nocturnal, with activity peaks at 04:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. Feeding periods vary greatly with weather, season, and moon phase. Wind is the most important weather factor limiting activity. Calm and dry evenings are more favorable for longer feeding periods than windy and wet evenings. Falling snow and fog limit nocturnal activities, but rain and temperature have little effect on movement. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit often builds forms to protect itself from heat during the day by making excavations in sand under vegetation. In the Mojave Desert, USA, the Black-tailed Jackrabbit retreats to burrows during hot summer days but only for 3-5 hours in the afternoon. Self-constructed burrows begin as forms and gradually are deepened by digging during hot afternoons. After several days, burrows are deep enough to enclose an individual. Some Black-tailed Jackrabbits also use holes dug by prairie dogs (Cynomys) or American Badgers (Taxidea taxus). Burrows are not used during high winds or cold weather, even though they are typically available.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black-tailed Jackrabbits do not usually migrate, but one population in Utah migrates to and from traditional wintering areas. There are noticeable changes in numbers of Black-tailed Jackrabbits throughout the year that might be caused by movements to areas with more food or favorable temperatures. Daily movements vary depending on distances between resting and feeding areas. These distances might be short or as long as 16 km. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit makes conspicuous trails and runaways through brush, weeds, meadows, and fields and over dusty or sandy surfaces of desert valleys. Home range sizes are 20-140 ha, and females have larger home ranges than males. In Kansas, home ranges ofjuveniles (4-28 ha, mean 14 ha) were smaller than adults (5-78 ha, mean 17 ha). In Idaho, similar home range sizes were recorded, and c.18% of the population disperses over large distances. Black-tailed Jackrabbits avoid entering water, but they will move across rivers at ice jams or forage on vegetation in 5 cm of water. Black-tailed Jackrabbits are not gregarious; however, groups of 2-5 individuals occur during the breeding season, and groups as large as 200-250 individuals aggregate to feed in winter. There is no social organization among individuals at the same feeding ground. Normally, individuals close together ignore each other, but they might butt, bite, jump into the air, run in circles at high speed around each other, or simply avoid each other. Females often attack other individuals that approach within 5-10 m. This antagonism leads to spacing and might be a type of territorial behavior. The only family structure exists between mother and young as long as nursing occurs. Male Black-tailed Jackrabbits frequently fight by rearing up on their hindlegs and striking each other with their forefeet. Biting, especially on the ears, also occurs. Females sometimes react aggressively to approaching males with low growls or grunts.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Blacktailed Jackrabbit is widespread, and its distribution is expanding. Because the Blacktailed Jackrabbit adapts well to overgrazed areas, it seems to expand at the expense of the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendii) in the north-east and the White-sided Jackrabbit (L. callotis) and Antelope Jackrabbit in the south of its distribution. Major threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and humaninduced fires. Research is needed to definitively classify subspecies and on interactions among Black-tailed Jackrabbits and other sympatric jackrabbits (i.e. White-tailed Jackrabbit, White-sided Jackrabbit, and Antelope Jackrabbit).Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008g), Angermann (2016), Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011), Bailey (1936), Baker (1956, 1960), Bednarz & Cook (1984), Best (1996), Blackburn (1973), Bronson & Tiemeier (1958a, 1958b), Burt (1934), Cahalane (1939), Corbet (1983), Costa et al. (1976), Couch (1928), Currie & Goodwin (1966), Desmond (2004), Dice (1926), Dickerson (1917), Dixon et al. (1983), Dunn et al. (1982), Feldhamer (1979), Flinders & Chapman (2003), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), French et al. (1965), Griffing (1974), Grinnell (1937), Gross et al. (1974), Hall (1946, 1981), Harestad & Bunnell (1979), Haskell & Reynolds (1947), Hawbecker (1942), Hill & Veghte (1976), Hoagland (1992), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister (1986), Jones et al. (1983), Lawlor (1982), Lechleitner (1958a, 1958b, 1959), Lissovsky (2016), Long, J.L. (2003), Long, W.S. (1940), Maser et al. (1988), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965), Seton (1928), Smith et al. (2002), Steinberger & Whitford (1983), Stoddart (1984), Swarth (1929), Westoby (1980).","taxonomy":"Lepus californicus Gray, 1837, “St. Antoine [probably near Mission of San Antonio, California, USA].”Lepus insularisis an insular melanistic allospecies and closely related to L. californicus. It is still under debate whether or not L. insularisdeserves species status or represents an isolated population of L. californicus. In southern Arizona, L. californicusand L. allenilive in sympatry. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seventeen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre de Californie @fr | Eselhase @de | Liebre de cola negra @es | California Jackrabbit @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"28","interpretedPageNumber":"135","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"californicus","name":"Lepus californicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. c. californicus Gray, 1837— SW Oregon, and NW California (W USA).L. c. altamirae Nelson, 1904— SE Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. asellus Miller, 1899— SE Coahuila, NE, S Nuevo Leon, E & SE Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, NE tip ofJalisco, N Guanajuato, and NW Querétaro (NC Mexico).L. c. bennettiz Gray, 1843— SW California (SW USA), and NW Baja California (NW Mexico).L. c. curts Hall, 1951— Is along the coast of Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. deserticola Mearns, 1896— SE Oregon, S Idaho, SW Montana, NE & E California, Nevada, Utah except SE, and NW, W & SW Arizona (W & SW USA), and NW Sonora and NE Baja California (NW Mexico). The population in SW Montanais isolated.L. c. eremicus J. A. Allen, 1894— S Arizona (SW USA), N Sonora except extreme NW, NW Chihuahua (N Mexico).L. c. festinus Nelson, 1904— S Querétaro, Hidalgo, and N State of Mexico (C Mexico).L. c. magdalenae Nelson, 1907— Magdalena I, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. martirensis Stowell, 1895—Baja California except NW & NE and NE Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. melanotis Mearns, 1890— S South Dakota, SE Wyoming, Nebraska, E Colorado, Kansas, W Missouri, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma, W Arkansas, and N Texas (C USA). An isolated population exists in E Oklahoma.L. c. merriami Mearns, 1896— S Texas (S USA), and NE Coahuila, N Tamaulipas, and N Nuevo Leon (NE Mexico).L. c. richardsonii Bachman, 1839— C California (SW USA).L. c. sheldoni Burt, 1933— Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. texianus Waterhouse, 1848— SE Utah, SW Colorado, NE Arizona, New Mexico except the NE, and W Texas (C USA), Chihuahua except the NW, W, & SW extremes, W Coahuila, E Durango, and NW Zacatecas (NC Mexico).L. c. wallawalla Merriam, 1904— S Washington, C & W Oregon, NE California, and NW Nevada (NW USA).L. ¢. xanti Thomas, 1898— Baja California Sur except the NE (NW Mexico).The Black-tailed Jackrabbit has been introduced into Massachusetts, NewJersey, Maryland, Virginia, and S Florida.","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008g) | Angermann (2016) | Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011) | Bailey (1936) | Baker (1956, 1960) | Bednarz & Cook (1984) | Best (1996) | Blackburn (1973) | Bronson & Tiemeier (1958a, 1958b) | Burt (1934) | Cahalane (1939) | Corbet (1983) | Costa et al. (1976) | Couch (1928) | Currie & Goodwin (1966) | Desmond (2004) | Dice (1926) | Dickerson (1917) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Feldhamer (1979) | Flinders & Chapman (2003) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | French et al. (1965) | Griffing (1974) | Grinnell (1937) | Gross et al. (1974) | Hall (1946, 1981) | Harestad & Bunnell (1979) | Haskell & Reynolds (1947) | Hawbecker (1942) | Hill & Veghte (1976) | Hoagland (1992) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Jones et al. (1983) | Lawlor (1982) | Lechleitner (1958a, 1958b, 1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long, J.L. (2003) | Long, W.S. (1940) | Maser et al. (1988) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965) | Seton (1928) | Smith et al. (2002) | Steinberger & Whitford (1983) | Stoddart (1984) | Swarth (1929) | Westoby (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit varies among locations and seasons, but grasses and sedges are primarily eaten in summer. In Utah,it ate nearly all plant species available, including sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata, Asteraceae) and shadscale (Atriplexconfertifolia), Nuttall’s saltbush (A. nuttalliz), winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), and saltlover (Halogetonglomeratus) all Amaranthaceae. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit also eats fungi, gravel, or sand, and it has been reported to feed on horse carcasses in Texas and Tamaulipas. During winter or in desert areas, the main food is dry and woody plant parts such as broom snakeweed (Gutierreziasarothrae, Asteraceae) and creosote bush (Larreatridentate, Zygophyllaceae). There is no evidence that the Blacktailed Jackrabbit drinks free water. In dry habitats, succulent plants and cacti are increasingly eaten as drought conditions increase. Shade seeking reduces heat load and need for water. Other factors that contribute to reducing water loss are insulation and reflectivity of pelage. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit can damage agricultural crops. In Kansas (USA), most crop damage was restricted to fields near resting areas, and buffer fields reduced damage. While feeding, Black-tailed Jackrabbits move slowly and are constantly alert for sings of danger. They rely on hearing more than on other sense to detect danger. Black-tailed Jackrabbits rear up on their hindfeet to browse on bushes.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit depends on latitude. In California, males are sexually active in all months of the year, but in Kansas, they are active in December—August. Breeding season is shortest in regions with severe winters (e.g. 128 days in Idaho) and longest in areas with warmer winters (e.g. 220 days in Kansas and more than 300 days in Arizona). A sexually active male Black-tailed Jackrabbit seeks a female with his nose close to the ground. Courtship behavior includes circling, hunting, approaching, chasing, jumping with urine emission, and boxing; copulation usually follows. These complex sequences of behavior may be repeated a couple of times. Breeding is promiscuous. Copulation occurs repeatedly, which induces ovulation. Gestation is c.43 days.Litter size is positively correlated with latitude and averages c.2 young in Arizona, c.3 young in Kansas and Nevada, and c.5 young in Idaho and California. Maximum number of young per litter is seven in California, Idaho, and Nevada. Litter size is dependent on environmental conditions during a particular year, quantity of precipitation, and time of the year; largest litters occur in the middle or end of the breeding period. There are 3-8—4-4 litters/year in Kansas and 3-6 litters/ year in Arizona. Postpartum estrus occurs, but consistent postpartum breeding does not occur in Kansas. Young are placed put in prepared nests with some hair for lining or in nests resembling shelters under bushes when soil is hard. Young are fully furred, and eyes are open at birth. Pelage of young is brown and richer in color than mothers’ pelage. Ear tips and tail are black. Dark natal fur gradually is replaced by paler immature pelage. Adult pelage occurs in the first winter when young are 6-9 months old. Young are nursed exclusively for their first ten days of life, and solid food is gradually eaten; they are weaned at 12-13 weeks of age. Until young are c.1 week old, they suckle lying on their backs, with their hindfeet around their mothers’ necks; then, nursing position changes to an upright posture. Newborns stay close to their birthplace for their first two days oflife; they gradually enlarge their home ranges and spend a lot of time digging. Females stay some distance away and moveto their litters only at night to nurse. Early-born females might breed in their first year of birth.","activityPatterns":"The Black-tailed Jackrabbit is primarily nocturnal, with activity peaks at 04:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. Feeding periods vary greatly with weather, season, and moon phase. Wind is the most important weather factor limiting activity. Calm and dry evenings are more favorable for longer feeding periods than windy and wet evenings. Falling snow and fog limit nocturnal activities, but rain and temperature have little effect on movement. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit often builds forms to protect itself from heat during the day by making excavations in sand under vegetation. In the Mojave Desert, USA, the Black-tailed Jackrabbit retreats to burrows during hot summer days but only for 3-5 hours in the afternoon. Self-constructed burrows begin as forms and gradually are deepened by digging during hot afternoons. After several days, burrows are deep enough to enclose an individual. Some Black-tailed Jackrabbits also use holes dug by prairie dogs (Cynomys) or American Badgers (Taxidea taxus). Burrows are not used during high winds or cold weather, even though they are typically available.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Black-tailed Jackrabbits do not usually migrate, but one population in Utah migrates to and from traditional wintering areas. There are noticeable changes in numbers of Black-tailed Jackrabbits throughout the year that might be caused by movements to areas with more food or favorable temperatures. Daily movements vary depending on distances between resting and feeding areas. These distances might be short or as long as 16 km. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit makes conspicuous trails and runaways through brush, weeds, meadows, and fields and over dusty or sandy surfaces of desert valleys. Home range sizes are 20-140 ha, and females have larger home ranges than males. In Kansas, home ranges ofjuveniles (4-28 ha, mean 14 ha) were smaller than adults (5-78 ha, mean 17 ha). In Idaho, similar home range sizes were recorded, and c.18% of the population disperses over large distances. Black-tailed Jackrabbits avoid entering water, but they will move across rivers at ice jams or forage on vegetation in 5 cm of water. Black-tailed Jackrabbits are not gregarious; however, groups of 2-5 individuals occur during the breeding season, and groups as large as 200-250 individuals aggregate to feed in winter. There is no social organization among individuals at the same feeding ground. Normally, individuals close together ignore each other, but they might butt, bite, jump into the air, run in circles at high speed around each other, or simply avoid each other. Females often attack other individuals that approach within 5-10 m. This antagonism leads to spacing and might be a type of territorial behavior. The only family structure exists between mother and young as long as nursing occurs. Male Black-tailed Jackrabbits frequently fight by rearing up on their hindlegs and striking each other with their forefeet. Biting, especially on the ears, also occurs. Females sometimes react aggressively to approaching males with low growls or grunts.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Blacktailed Jackrabbit is widespread, and its distribution is expanding. Because the Blacktailed Jackrabbit adapts well to overgrazed areas, it seems to expand at the expense of the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendii) in the north-east and the White-sided Jackrabbit (L. callotis) and Antelope Jackrabbit in the south of its distribution. Major threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and humaninduced fires. Research is needed to definitively classify subspecies and on interactions among Black-tailed Jackrabbits and other sympatric jackrabbits (i.e. White-tailed Jackrabbit, White-sided Jackrabbit, and Antelope Jackrabbit).","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 520-610 mm, tail 75-101 mm, ear 100-130 mm, hindfoot 113-135 mm; weight 1.5-3.6 kg. The Black-tailed Jackrabbitis lean and mediumsized, with soft fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grizzled brown, sides are brownish, and ventral fur is pale. Hindlegs and ears are relatively long, and tail is large, with black stripe above and buffy or grayish below. Color varies considerably among populations. Differences in color and other characteristics relate to corresponding changes in climate; soil color might influence fur color. On the Guadiana lava filed in Durango, Mexico, fur is browner than on those individuals from northern Durango. In Kansas (USA), sexual dimorphism in mass and length has been noted; females are larger than males. Body size of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is larger on islands around Baja California, except the population on Carmen Island that is smaller than adjacent populations. Annual molt begins between late August and early October, depending on latitude, and short summer hair is replaced by longer winter hair. Ear lengths of Black-tailed Jackrabbits vary geographically with temperature. Ears are longer in the south than in the north; longer ears are probably used to dissipate heat. Rectal glands in males and females secrete strong musky odors, but their functions are unknown. No physical change is noticeable during the breeding period; even mammae remain flat in lactating females.","habitat":"Arid tropics, deserts, and transitional habitats at elevations of -84 m in Death Valley, California, USA, to 3750 m. Black-tailed Jackrabbits favor heavily grazed areas, or where grasses are not abundant and cacti and low shrubs are scattered. They inhabit open habitats with mesquite (Prosopis), sagebrush (Artemisia), desert scrub, and open pine (Pinus)—juniper (Juniperus) in Arizona. They avoid areas of tall grass or forest where visibility is obscured. Where Black-tailed Jackrabbits and Antelope Jackrabbits (L. alleni) live in sympatry, they are often seen togethersitting under the same bush or running away side by side. Antelope Jackrabbits are more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations, and Black-tailed Jackrabbits are more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and in barren chaparral desert."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75BFFE5FFC9FDEDF919F0A2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75BFFE5FFC9FDEDF919F0A2","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"135","verbatimText":"46.Snowshoe HareLepus americanusFrench:Lievre dAmérique/ German:Schneeschuhhase/ Spanish:Liebre americanaOther common names:Snowshoe Rabbit, Varying HareTaxonomy.Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777, “in America boreeli, ad fretum Hudsonis copiosissimus.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Fort Severn,” Ontario, Canada.It is taxonomically distinct from other species of Lepusand does not hybridize with any of them. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Recognition of subspecies might not be justified by the fact that variation is clinal and follows climatic gradients. Fifteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.americanusErxleben,1777—C&ECanada(SENorthwestTerritories,SENunavut,mostAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,S&SEOntario,Quebec,L.a.,andNewfoundland),alsoinNCUSA(NEMontanaandNorthDakota).L.a.bairdiiHayden,1869—SWCanada(SEBritishColumbiaandSWAlberta)andWCUSA(W&CMontana,Idaho,W&SCWyoming,NE&CUtah,NW&CColorado,andNCNewMexico).L.a.cascadensisNelson,1907—SWCanada(SCBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(SC,C&NCWashington).L.a.columbiensisRhoads,1895—RockyMtsinSWCanada(SEBritishColumbia,WCAlberta),andNWUSA(NEtipofWashington).L.a.dalliMerriam,1900—Alaska(USA)andNWCanada(NWAlberta,NBritishColumbia,YukonexcepttheNtip,S&WNorthwestTerritories).L.a.klamathensisMerriam,1899—WUSA(SWOregonandNCalifornia).L.a.oregonusOrr,1934—WUSA(NE&COregon).L.a.pallidusCowan,1938—SWCanada(WC&CBritishColumbia).L.a.phaeonotusJ.A.Allen,1899—WGreatL.a.RegioninSCCanada(SEtipofSaskatchewan,SManitoba,SWOntario)andNCUSA(NEtipofNorthDakota,Minnesota,NWisconsin,andNMichigan).L.a.pineusDalquest,1942—SWCanada(SCtipofBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(EWashington,NIdaho,NWtipofMontana).L.a.seclususBaker&Hankins,1950—NCUSA(SCtipofMontana,NCtipofWyoming).L.a.struthopusBangs,1898—ECanada(EQuebec,NewBrunswick,NovaScotia,PrinceEdwardI)andNEUSA(Maine).L.a.tahoensisOrr,1933—WUSA(ECCaliforniaandWCNevada).L.a.virgtnianusHarlan,1825—SECanada(SOntario,SQuebec)andNE&EUSA(fromMainetoPennsylvaniaandextremeNEOhio,TennesseeandNorthCarolina).L. a. washingtonBaird, 1855 — SW Canada (SW tip of British Columbia) and NW USA (W Washington and W Oregon).The Snowshoe Hare has been introduced by founder individuals of unknown subspecies affiliation to Kodiak I (Alaska) and Anticosti I (Quebec, Canada).Descriptive notes.Head-body 360-520 mm,tail 25-55 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 112-150 mm; weight 1.1-1.6 kg. The Snowshoe Hare is the smallest species of Lepus, with small ears and large hindfeet. In summer, dorsal pelage is brownish, dusky gray, or even rusty; ventral pelage, under chin, and sometime feet are white. Most populations have a white fur in winter, although underfur remains gray, and white is restricted to hair tips. Some populations along the Pacific coast of North America are polymorphic because part of the population remains brownish in winter. Autumn molt occurs in August—=November, and spring molt occurs in March—June.Habitat.Various forest types of conifers, aspen, birch, beech, maple, and mixed hardwoods. The Snowshoe Hare prefers subclimax forest, transition zones, and swamp edges. Its populations reach peak numbers after fire when shrub and regrowth cover becomes dense, and lowest densities occur when forests mature and ground cover becomes sparse. The Snowshoe Hare favors edge habitat but avoids open habitat. It is not found as a relict species in small isolated patches of forest. A study showed that Snowshoe Hares use multiple vegetation types even when food and cover are apparently abundant in a single habitat.Food and Feeding.The Snowshoe Hare eats grasses, sedges, dandelions, ferns, and different herbs in summer. Its winter diet includes birch, spruce, willow, tamarack, and pine. Regular runways are used to reach favored feeding areas.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Snowshoe Hare occurs in March-September and is primarily controlled by photoperiod. Weather and phase of the population cycle, typical of Snowshoe Hares, can affect beginning of the reproductive season by c.3 weeks in Alberta. Onset of breeding was early in years with high spring temperatures and fewer days of snow cover. The Snowshoe Hare is promiscuous. Gestation is ¢.36 days. Two litters per year are typical in northern parts ofits distribution and at high elevations; 3—4 litters/year are typical in central parts of its distribution. Litter size increases by c.1 young from the first litter of the season to later litters, and regionally from c.2-2 young to c.6 young. Females have 7-5-17-9 young/year. Young start hopping at c.2 days old and dig at c.5 days old. Young gather at nursing places 1-2 hours after sunset and are nursed for 2-5 minutes immediately after females arrive. Young begin to eat solid food at 6-8 days old.Activity patterns.The Snowshoe Hare is nocturnal and rests in forms that provide cover during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes of Snowshoe Hares are 5-9-13 ha in thick cover. Females have smaller home ranges than males, and adults have larger home ranges thanjuveniles. In the northern part of the distribution, populations cycle every 8-11 years, with peak densities up to 300 times higher than during the lowest phases but normal ranges are 10-30 times higher. Population cycles are synchronous over wide geographical areas. Causes that trigger population crashes are food scarcity due to the high densities during population peaks and predators, or only effects of predation pressure such as the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) wellknown case. Southern populations of Snowshoe Hares appear to be non-cyclic, or they fluctuate with reduced amplitude. The Snowshoe Hare has a clear dominance hierarchy. Males are more frequently involved in more intense interactions than females. Males are more dominant during winter, and females are more dominant during the breeding season in summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Snowshoe Hare is widespread, and its populations are stable. The population in Canada and Alaska is continuous, but they are fragmented further south in the contiguous USA. Some concern exists about status of populations in the south-eastern USA where the distributional limit might be receding northward due to habitat loss, fragmentation, increase in predator numbers, and perhaps climate change and resulting loss of snow cover. Status of distinct populations along the Pacific coast of North America is unclear. The Snowshoe Hare is an important game animal and a forestry pest. The Snowshoe Hare in New Mexico (USA) is in need of enhanced management and conservation attention due to restricted distribution and low densities.Bibliography.Adams (1959), Banfield (1974), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Cary & Keith (1979), Cheng et al. (2015), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Feierabend & Kielland (2014), Flux & Angermann (1990), Frey & Malaney (2006), Graf (1985), Graf & Sinclair (1987), Grange (1932, 1957), Hall (1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Keith (1981, 1983), Krebs et al. (2014), Lomolino et al. (1989), Long (2003), Murray (2003), Murray & Smith (2008a), Nagorsen (1985), Nelson (1909), Nice et al. (1956), O'Farrell (1965), Pietz & Tester (1983), Sinclair et al. (1988).","taxonomy":"Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777, “in America boreeli, ad fretum Hudsonis copiosissimus.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Fort Severn,” Ontario, Canada.It is taxonomically distinct from other species of Lepusand does not hybridize with any of them. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Recognition of subspecies might not be justified by the fact that variation is clinal and follows climatic gradients. Fifteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre d Amérique @fr | Schneeschuhhase @de | Liebre americana @es | Snowshoe Rabbit @en | Varying Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Erxleben","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"28","interpretedPageNumber":"135","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"americanus","name":"Lepus americanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.a.americanusErxleben,1777—C&ECanada(SENorthwestTerritories,SENunavut,mostAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,S&SEOntario,Quebec,L.a.,andNewfoundland),alsoinNCUSA(NEMontanaandNorthDakota).L.a.bairdiiHayden,1869—SWCanada(SEBritishColumbiaandSWAlberta)andWCUSA(W&CMontana,Idaho,W&SCWyoming,NE&CUtah,NW&CColorado,andNCNewMexico).L.a.cascadensisNelson,1907—SWCanada(SCBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(SC,C&NCWashington).L.a.columbiensisRhoads,1895—RockyMtsinSWCanada(SEBritishColumbia,WCAlberta),andNWUSA(NEtipofWashington).L.a.dalliMerriam,1900—Alaska(USA)andNWCanada(NWAlberta,NBritishColumbia,YukonexcepttheNtip,S&WNorthwestTerritories).L.a.klamathensisMerriam,1899—WUSA(SWOregonandNCalifornia).L.a.oregonusOrr,1934—WUSA(NE&COregon).L.a.pallidusCowan,1938—SWCanada(WC&CBritishColumbia).L.a.phaeonotusJ.A.Allen,1899—WGreatL.a.RegioninSCCanada(SEtipofSaskatchewan,SManitoba,SWOntario)andNCUSA(NEtipofNorthDakota,Minnesota,NWisconsin,andNMichigan).L.a.pineusDalquest,1942—SWCanada(SCtipofBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(EWashington,NIdaho,NWtipofMontana).L.a.seclususBaker&Hankins,1950—NCUSA(SCtipofMontana,NCtipofWyoming).L.a.struthopusBangs,1898—ECanada(EQuebec,NewBrunswick,NovaScotia,PrinceEdwardI)andNEUSA(Maine).L.a.tahoensisOrr,1933—WUSA(ECCaliforniaandWCNevada).L.a.virgtnianusHarlan,1825—SECanada(SOntario,SQuebec)andNE&EUSA(fromMainetoPennsylvaniaandextremeNEOhio,TennesseeandNorthCarolina).L. a. washingtonBaird, 1855 — SW Canada (SW tip of British Columbia) and NW USA (W Washington and W Oregon).The Snowshoe Hare has been introduced by founder individuals of unknown subspecies affiliation to Kodiak I (Alaska) and Anticosti I (Quebec, Canada).","bibliography":"Adams (1959) | Banfield (1974) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Cary & Keith (1979) | Cheng et al. (2015) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Feierabend & Kielland (2014) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Frey & Malaney (2006) | Graf (1985) | Graf & Sinclair (1987) | Grange (1932, 1957) | Hall (1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Keith (1981, 1983) | Krebs et al. (2014) | Lomolino et al. (1989) | Long (2003) | Murray (2003) | Murray & Smith (2008a) | Nagorsen (1985) | Nelson (1909) | Nice et al. (1956) | O'Farrell (1965) | Pietz & Tester (1983) | Sinclair et al. (1988)","foodAndFeeding":"The Snowshoe Hare eats grasses, sedges, dandelions, ferns, and different herbs in summer. Its winter diet includes birch, spruce, willow, tamarack, and pine. Regular runways are used to reach favored feeding areas.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Snowshoe Hare occurs in March-September and is primarily controlled by photoperiod. Weather and phase of the population cycle, typical of Snowshoe Hares, can affect beginning of the reproductive season by c.3 weeks in Alberta. Onset of breeding was early in years with high spring temperatures and fewer days of snow cover. The Snowshoe Hare is promiscuous. Gestation is ¢.36 days. Two litters per year are typical in northern parts ofits distribution and at high elevations; 3—4 litters/year are typical in central parts of its distribution. Litter size increases by c.1 young from the first litter of the season to later litters, and regionally from c.2-2 young to c.6 young. Females have 7-5-17-9 young/year. Young start hopping at c.2 days old and dig at c.5 days old. Young gather at nursing places 1-2 hours after sunset and are nursed for 2-5 minutes immediately after females arrive. Young begin to eat solid food at 6-8 days old.","activityPatterns":"The Snowshoe Hare is nocturnal and rests in forms that provide cover during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range sizes of Snowshoe Hares are 5-9-13 ha in thick cover. Females have smaller home ranges than males, and adults have larger home ranges thanjuveniles. In the northern part of the distribution, populations cycle every 8-11 years, with peak densities up to 300 times higher than during the lowest phases but normal ranges are 10-30 times higher. Population cycles are synchronous over wide geographical areas. Causes that trigger population crashes are food scarcity due to the high densities during population peaks and predators, or only effects of predation pressure such as the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) wellknown case. Southern populations of Snowshoe Hares appear to be non-cyclic, or they fluctuate with reduced amplitude. The Snowshoe Hare has a clear dominance hierarchy. Males are more frequently involved in more intense interactions than females. Males are more dominant during winter, and females are more dominant during the breeding season in summer.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Snowshoe Hare is widespread, and its populations are stable. The population in Canada and Alaska is continuous, but they are fragmented further south in the contiguous USA. Some concern exists about status of populations in the south-eastern USA where the distributional limit might be receding northward due to habitat loss, fragmentation, increase in predator numbers, and perhaps climate change and resulting loss of snow cover. Status of distinct populations along the Pacific coast of North America is unclear. The Snowshoe Hare is an important game animal and a forestry pest. The Snowshoe Hare in New Mexico (USA) is in need of enhanced management and conservation attention due to restricted distribution and low densities.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 360-520 mm,tail 25-55 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 112-150 mm; weight 1.1-1.6 kg. The Snowshoe Hare is the smallest species of Lepus, with small ears and large hindfeet. In summer, dorsal pelage is brownish, dusky gray, or even rusty; ventral pelage, under chin, and sometime feet are white. Most populations have a white fur in winter, although underfur remains gray, and white is restricted to hair tips. Some populations along the Pacific coast of North America are polymorphic because part of the population remains brownish in winter. Autumn molt occurs in August—=November, and spring molt occurs in March—June.","habitat":"Various forest types of conifers, aspen, birch, beech, maple, and mixed hardwoods. The Snowshoe Hare prefers subclimax forest, transition zones, and swamp edges. Its populations reach peak numbers after fire when shrub and regrowth cover becomes dense, and lowest densities occur when forests mature and ground cover becomes sparse. The Snowshoe Hare favors edge habitat but avoids open habitat. It is not found as a relict species in small isolated patches of forest. A study showed that Snowshoe Hares use multiple vegetation types even when food and cover are apparently abundant in a single habitat."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75BFFE4FAF7F8FAF583FCEB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75BFFE4FAF7F8FAF583FCEB","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"135","verbatimText":"47.Black-tailed JackrabbitLepus californicusFrench:Lievre de Californie/ German:Eselhase/ Spanish:Liebre de cola negraOther common names:California JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus californicus Gray, 1837, “St. Antoine [probably near Mission of San Antonio, California, USA].”Lepus insularisis an insular melanistic allospecies and closely related to L. californicus. It is still under debate whether or not L. insularisdeserves species status or represents an isolated population of L. californicus. In southern Arizona, L. californicusand L. allenilive in sympatry. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seventeen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. c. californicus Gray, 1837— SW Oregon, and NW California (W USA).L. c. altamirae Nelson, 1904— SE Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. asellus Miller, 1899— SE Coahuila, NE, S Nuevo Leon, E & SE Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, NE tip ofJalisco, N Guanajuato, and NW Querétaro (NC Mexico).L. c. bennettiz Gray, 1843— SW California (SW USA), and NW Baja California (NW Mexico).L. c. curts Hall, 1951— Is along the coast of Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. deserticola Mearns, 1896— SE Oregon, S Idaho, SW Montana, NE & E California, Nevada, Utah except SE, and NW, W & SW Arizona (W & SW USA), and NW Sonora and NE Baja California (NW Mexico). The population in SW Montanais isolated.L. c. eremicus J. A. Allen, 1894— S Arizona (SW USA), N Sonora except extreme NW, NW Chihuahua (N Mexico).L. c. festinus Nelson, 1904— S Querétaro, Hidalgo, and N State of Mexico (C Mexico).L. c. magdalenae Nelson, 1907— Magdalena I, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. martirensis Stowell, 1895—Baja California except NW & NE and NE Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. melanotis Mearns, 1890— S South Dakota, SE Wyoming, Nebraska, E Colorado, Kansas, W Missouri, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma, W Arkansas, and N Texas (C USA). An isolated population exists in E Oklahoma.L. c. merriami Mearns, 1896— S Texas (S USA), and NE Coahuila, N Tamaulipas, and N Nuevo Leon (NE Mexico).L. c. richardsonii Bachman, 1839— C California (SW USA).L. c. sheldoni Burt, 1933— Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. texianus Waterhouse, 1848— SE Utah, SW Colorado, NE Arizona, New Mexico except the NE, and W Texas (C USA), Chihuahua except the NW, W, & SW extremes, W Coahuila, E Durango, and NW Zacatecas (NC Mexico).L. c. wallawalla Merriam, 1904— S Washington, C & W Oregon, NE California, and NW Nevada (NW USA).L. ¢. xanti Thomas, 1898— Baja California Sur except the NE (NW Mexico).The Black-tailed Jackrabbit has been introduced into Massachusetts, NewJersey, Maryland, Virginia, and S Florida.Descriptive notes.Head—body 520-610 mm, tail 75-101 mm, ear 100-130 mm, hindfoot 113-135 mm; weight 1.5-3.6 kg. The Black-tailed Jackrabbitis lean and mediumsized, with soft fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grizzled brown, sides are brownish, and ventral fur is pale. Hindlegs and ears are relatively long, and tail is large, with black stripe above and buffy or grayish below. Color varies considerably among populations. Differences in color and other characteristics relate to corresponding changes in climate; soil color might influence fur color. On the Guadiana lava filed in Durango, Mexico, fur is browner than on those individuals from northern Durango. In Kansas (USA), sexual dimorphism in mass and length has been noted; females are larger than males. Body size of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is larger on islands around Baja California, except the population on Carmen Island that is smaller than adjacent populations. Annual molt begins between late August and early October, depending on latitude, and short summer hair is replaced by longer winter hair. Ear lengths of Black-tailed Jackrabbits vary geographically with temperature. Ears are longer in the south than in the north; longer ears are probably used to dissipate heat. Rectal glands in males and females secrete strong musky odors, but their functions are unknown. No physical change is noticeable during the breeding period; even mammae remain flat in lactating females.Habitat.Arid tropics, deserts, and transitional habitats at elevations of -84 m in Death Valley, California, USA, to 3750 m. Black-tailed Jackrabbits favor heavily grazed areas, or where grasses are not abundant and cacti and low shrubs are scattered. They inhabit open habitats with mesquite (Prosopis), sagebrush (Artemisia), desert scrub, and open pine (Pinus)—juniper (Juniperus) in Arizona. They avoid areas of tall grass or forest where visibility is obscured. Where Black-tailed Jackrabbits and Antelope Jackrabbits (L. alleni) live in sympatry, they are often seen togethersitting under the same bush or running away side by side. Antelope Jackrabbits are more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations, and Black-tailed Jackrabbits are more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and in barren chaparral desert.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit varies among locations and seasons, but grasses and sedges are primarily eaten in summer. In Utah,it ate nearly all plant species available, including sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata, Asteraceae) and shadscale (Atriplexconfertifolia), Nuttall’s saltbush (A. nuttalliz), winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), and saltlover (Halogetonglomeratus) all Amaranthaceae. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit also eats fungi, gravel, or sand, and it has been reported to feed on horse carcasses in Texas and Tamaulipas. During winter or in desert areas, the main food is dry and woody plant parts such as broom snakeweed (Gutierreziasarothrae, Asteraceae) and creosote bush (Larreatridentate, Zygophyllaceae). There is no evidence that the Blacktailed Jackrabbit drinks free water. In dry habitats, succulent plants and cacti are increasingly eaten as drought conditions increase. Shade seeking reduces heat load and need for water. Other factors that contribute to reducing water loss are insulation and reflectivity of pelage. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit can damage agricultural crops. In Kansas (USA), most crop damage was restricted to fields near resting areas, and buffer fields reduced damage. While feeding, Black-tailed Jackrabbits move slowly and are constantly alert for sings of danger. They rely on hearing more than on other sense to detect danger. Black-tailed Jackrabbits rear up on their hindfeet to browse on bushes.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit depends on latitude. In California, males are sexually active in all months of the year, but in Kansas, they are active in December—August. Breeding season is shortest in regions with severe winters (e.g. 128 days in Idaho) and longest in areas with warmer winters (e.g. 220 days in Kansas and more than 300 days in Arizona). A sexually active male Black-tailed Jackrabbit seeks a female with his nose close to the ground. Courtship behavior includes circling, hunting, approaching, chasing, jumping with urine emission, and boxing; copulation usually follows. These complex sequences of behavior may be repeated a couple of times. Breeding is promiscuous. Copulation occurs repeatedly, which induces ovulation. Gestation is c.43 days.Litter size is positively correlated with latitude and averages c.2 young in Arizona, c.3 young in Kansas and Nevada, and c.5 young in Idaho and California. Maximum number of young per litter is seven in California, Idaho, and Nevada. Litter size is dependent on environmental conditions during a particular year, quantity of precipitation, and time of the year; largest litters occur in the middle or end of the breeding period. There are 3-8—4-4 litters/year in Kansas and 3-6 litters/ year in Arizona. Postpartum estrus occurs, but consistent postpartum breeding does not occur in Kansas. Young are placed put in prepared nests with some hair for lining or in nests resembling shelters under bushes when soil is hard. Young are fully furred, and eyes are open at birth. Pelage of young is brown and richer in color than mothers’ pelage. Ear tips and tail are black. Dark natal fur gradually is replaced by paler immature pelage. Adult pelage occurs in the first winter when young are 6-9 months old. Young are nursed exclusively for their first ten days of life, and solid food is gradually eaten; they are weaned at 12-13 weeks of age. Until young are c.1 week old, they suckle lying on their backs, with their hindfeet around their mothers’ necks; then, nursing position changes to an upright posture. Newborns stay close to their birthplace for their first two days oflife; they gradually enlarge their home ranges and spend a lot of time digging. Females stay some distance away and moveto their litters only at night to nurse. Early-born females might breed in their first year of birth.Activity patterns.The Black-tailed Jackrabbit is primarily nocturnal, with activity peaks at 04:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. Feeding periods vary greatly with weather, season, and moon phase. Wind is the most important weather factor limiting activity. Calm and dry evenings are more favorable for longer feeding periods than windy and wet evenings. Falling snow and fog limit nocturnal activities, but rain and temperature have little effect on movement. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit often builds forms to protect itself from heat during the day by making excavations in sand under vegetation. In the Mojave Desert, USA, the Black-tailed Jackrabbit retreats to burrows during hot summer days but only for 3-5 hours in the afternoon. Self-constructed burrows begin as forms and gradually are deepened by digging during hot afternoons. After several days, burrows are deep enough to enclose an individual. Some Black-tailed Jackrabbits also use holes dug by prairie dogs (Cynomys) or American Badgers (Taxidea taxus). Burrows are not used during high winds or cold weather, even though they are typically available.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black-tailed Jackrabbits do not usually migrate, but one population in Utah migrates to and from traditional wintering areas. There are noticeable changes in numbers of Black-tailed Jackrabbits throughout the year that might be caused by movements to areas with more food or favorable temperatures. Daily movements vary depending on distances between resting and feeding areas. These distances might be short or as long as 16 km. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit makes conspicuous trails and runaways through brush, weeds, meadows, and fields and over dusty or sandy surfaces of desert valleys. Home range sizes are 20-140 ha, and females have larger home ranges than males. In Kansas, home ranges ofjuveniles (4-28 ha, mean 14 ha) were smaller than adults (5-78 ha, mean 17 ha). In Idaho, similar home range sizes were recorded, and c.18% of the population disperses over large distances. Black-tailed Jackrabbits avoid entering water, but they will move across rivers at ice jams or forage on vegetation in 5 cm of water. Black-tailed Jackrabbits are not gregarious; however, groups of 2-5 individuals occur during the breeding season, and groups as large as 200-250 individuals aggregate to feed in winter. There is no social organization among individuals at the same feeding ground. Normally, individuals close together ignore each other, but they might butt, bite, jump into the air, run in circles at high speed around each other, or simply avoid each other. Females often attack other individuals that approach within 5-10 m. This antagonism leads to spacing and might be a type of territorial behavior. The only family structure exists between mother and young as long as nursing occurs. Male Black-tailed Jackrabbits frequently fight by rearing up on their hindlegs and striking each other with their forefeet. Biting, especially on the ears, also occurs. Females sometimes react aggressively to approaching males with low growls or grunts.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Blacktailed Jackrabbit is widespread, and its distribution is expanding. Because the Blacktailed Jackrabbit adapts well to overgrazed areas, it seems to expand at the expense of the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendii) in the north-east and the White-sided Jackrabbit (L. callotis) and Antelope Jackrabbit in the south of its distribution. Major threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and humaninduced fires. Research is needed to definitively classify subspecies and on interactions among Black-tailed Jackrabbits and other sympatric jackrabbits (i.e. White-tailed Jackrabbit, White-sided Jackrabbit, and Antelope Jackrabbit).Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008g), Angermann (2016), Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011), Bailey (1936), Baker (1956, 1960), Bednarz & Cook (1984), Best (1996), Blackburn (1973), Bronson & Tiemeier (1958a, 1958b), Burt (1934), Cahalane (1939), Corbet (1983), Costa et al. (1976), Couch (1928), Currie & Goodwin (1966), Desmond (2004), Dice (1926), Dickerson (1917), Dixon et al. (1983), Dunn et al. (1982), Feldhamer (1979), Flinders & Chapman (2003), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), French et al. (1965), Griffing (1974), Grinnell (1937), Gross et al. (1974), Hall (1946, 1981), Harestad & Bunnell (1979), Haskell & Reynolds (1947), Hawbecker (1942), Hill & Veghte (1976), Hoagland (1992), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister (1986), Jones et al. (1983), Lawlor (1982), Lechleitner (1958a, 1958b, 1959), Lissovsky (2016), Long, J.L. (2003), Long, W.S. (1940), Maser et al. (1988), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965), Seton (1928), Smith et al. (2002), Steinberger & Whitford (1983), Stoddart (1984), Swarth (1929), Westoby (1980).","taxonomy":"Lepus californicus Gray, 1837, “St. Antoine [probably near Mission of San Antonio, California, USA].”Lepus insularisis an insular melanistic allospecies and closely related to L. californicus. It is still under debate whether or not L. insularisdeserves species status or represents an isolated population of L. californicus. In southern Arizona, L. californicusand L. allenilive in sympatry. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seventeen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre de Californie @fr | Eselhase @de | Liebre de cola negra @es | California Jackrabbit @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"28","interpretedPageNumber":"135","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"californicus","name":"Lepus californicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. c. californicus Gray, 1837— SW Oregon, and NW California (W USA).L. c. altamirae Nelson, 1904— SE Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. asellus Miller, 1899— SE Coahuila, NE, S Nuevo Leon, E & SE Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, NE tip ofJalisco, N Guanajuato, and NW Querétaro (NC Mexico).L. c. bennettiz Gray, 1843— SW California (SW USA), and NW Baja California (NW Mexico).L. c. curts Hall, 1951— Is along the coast of Tamaulipas (NE Mexico).L. c. deserticola Mearns, 1896— SE Oregon, S Idaho, SW Montana, NE & E California, Nevada, Utah except SE, and NW, W & SW Arizona (W & SW USA), and NW Sonora and NE Baja California (NW Mexico). The population in SW Montanais isolated.L. c. eremicus J. A. Allen, 1894— S Arizona (SW USA), N Sonora except extreme NW, NW Chihuahua (N Mexico).L. c. festinus Nelson, 1904— S Querétaro, Hidalgo, and N State of Mexico (C Mexico).L. c. magdalenae Nelson, 1907— Magdalena I, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. martirensis Stowell, 1895—Baja California except NW & NE and NE Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. melanotis Mearns, 1890— S South Dakota, SE Wyoming, Nebraska, E Colorado, Kansas, W Missouri, NE New Mexico, Oklahoma, W Arkansas, and N Texas (C USA). An isolated population exists in E Oklahoma.L. c. merriami Mearns, 1896— S Texas (S USA), and NE Coahuila, N Tamaulipas, and N Nuevo Leon (NE Mexico).L. c. richardsonii Bachman, 1839— C California (SW USA).L. c. sheldoni Burt, 1933— Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur (NW Mexico).L. c. texianus Waterhouse, 1848— SE Utah, SW Colorado, NE Arizona, New Mexico except the NE, and W Texas (C USA), Chihuahua except the NW, W, & SW extremes, W Coahuila, E Durango, and NW Zacatecas (NC Mexico).L. c. wallawalla Merriam, 1904— S Washington, C & W Oregon, NE California, and NW Nevada (NW USA).L. ¢. xanti Thomas, 1898— Baja California Sur except the NE (NW Mexico).The Black-tailed Jackrabbit has been introduced into Massachusetts, NewJersey, Maryland, Virginia, and S Florida.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625808/files/figure.png","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008g) | Angermann (2016) | Arias-Del Razo et al. (2011) | Bailey (1936) | Baker (1956, 1960) | Bednarz & Cook (1984) | Best (1996) | Blackburn (1973) | Bronson & Tiemeier (1958a, 1958b) | Burt (1934) | Cahalane (1939) | Corbet (1983) | Costa et al. (1976) | Couch (1928) | Currie & Goodwin (1966) | Desmond (2004) | Dice (1926) | Dickerson (1917) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Feldhamer (1979) | Flinders & Chapman (2003) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | French et al. (1965) | Griffing (1974) | Grinnell (1937) | Gross et al. (1974) | Hall (1946, 1981) | Harestad & Bunnell (1979) | Haskell & Reynolds (1947) | Hawbecker (1942) | Hill & Veghte (1976) | Hoagland (1992) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Jones et al. (1983) | Lawlor (1982) | Lechleitner (1958a, 1958b, 1959) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long, J.L. (2003) | Long, W.S. (1940) | Maser et al. (1988) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965) | Seton (1928) | Smith et al. (2002) | Steinberger & Whitford (1983) | Stoddart (1984) | Swarth (1929) | Westoby (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit varies among locations and seasons, but grasses and sedges are primarily eaten in summer. In Utah,it ate nearly all plant species available, including sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata, Asteraceae) and shadscale (Atriplexconfertifolia), Nuttall’s saltbush (A. nuttalliz), winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), and saltlover (Halogetonglomeratus) all Amaranthaceae. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit also eats fungi, gravel, or sand, and it has been reported to feed on horse carcasses in Texas and Tamaulipas. During winter or in desert areas, the main food is dry and woody plant parts such as broom snakeweed (Gutierreziasarothrae, Asteraceae) and creosote bush (Larreatridentate, Zygophyllaceae). There is no evidence that the Blacktailed Jackrabbit drinks free water. In dry habitats, succulent plants and cacti are increasingly eaten as drought conditions increase. Shade seeking reduces heat load and need for water. Other factors that contribute to reducing water loss are insulation and reflectivity of pelage. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit can damage agricultural crops. In Kansas (USA), most crop damage was restricted to fields near resting areas, and buffer fields reduced damage. While feeding, Black-tailed Jackrabbits move slowly and are constantly alert for sings of danger. They rely on hearing more than on other sense to detect danger. Black-tailed Jackrabbits rear up on their hindfeet to browse on bushes.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit depends on latitude. In California, males are sexually active in all months of the year, but in Kansas, they are active in December—August. Breeding season is shortest in regions with severe winters (e.g. 128 days in Idaho) and longest in areas with warmer winters (e.g. 220 days in Kansas and more than 300 days in Arizona). A sexually active male Black-tailed Jackrabbit seeks a female with his nose close to the ground. Courtship behavior includes circling, hunting, approaching, chasing, jumping with urine emission, and boxing; copulation usually follows. These complex sequences of behavior may be repeated a couple of times. Breeding is promiscuous. Copulation occurs repeatedly, which induces ovulation. Gestation is c.43 days.Litter size is positively correlated with latitude and averages c.2 young in Arizona, c.3 young in Kansas and Nevada, and c.5 young in Idaho and California. Maximum number of young per litter is seven in California, Idaho, and Nevada. Litter size is dependent on environmental conditions during a particular year, quantity of precipitation, and time of the year; largest litters occur in the middle or end of the breeding period. There are 3-8—4-4 litters/year in Kansas and 3-6 litters/ year in Arizona. Postpartum estrus occurs, but consistent postpartum breeding does not occur in Kansas. Young are placed put in prepared nests with some hair for lining or in nests resembling shelters under bushes when soil is hard. Young are fully furred, and eyes are open at birth. Pelage of young is brown and richer in color than mothers’ pelage. Ear tips and tail are black. Dark natal fur gradually is replaced by paler immature pelage. Adult pelage occurs in the first winter when young are 6-9 months old. Young are nursed exclusively for their first ten days of life, and solid food is gradually eaten; they are weaned at 12-13 weeks of age. Until young are c.1 week old, they suckle lying on their backs, with their hindfeet around their mothers’ necks; then, nursing position changes to an upright posture. Newborns stay close to their birthplace for their first two days oflife; they gradually enlarge their home ranges and spend a lot of time digging. Females stay some distance away and moveto their litters only at night to nurse. Early-born females might breed in their first year of birth.","activityPatterns":"The Black-tailed Jackrabbit is primarily nocturnal, with activity peaks at 04:00-07:00 h and 18:00-20:00 h. Feeding periods vary greatly with weather, season, and moon phase. Wind is the most important weather factor limiting activity. Calm and dry evenings are more favorable for longer feeding periods than windy and wet evenings. Falling snow and fog limit nocturnal activities, but rain and temperature have little effect on movement. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit often builds forms to protect itself from heat during the day by making excavations in sand under vegetation. In the Mojave Desert, USA, the Black-tailed Jackrabbit retreats to burrows during hot summer days but only for 3-5 hours in the afternoon. Self-constructed burrows begin as forms and gradually are deepened by digging during hot afternoons. After several days, burrows are deep enough to enclose an individual. Some Black-tailed Jackrabbits also use holes dug by prairie dogs (Cynomys) or American Badgers (Taxidea taxus). Burrows are not used during high winds or cold weather, even though they are typically available.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Black-tailed Jackrabbits do not usually migrate, but one population in Utah migrates to and from traditional wintering areas. There are noticeable changes in numbers of Black-tailed Jackrabbits throughout the year that might be caused by movements to areas with more food or favorable temperatures. Daily movements vary depending on distances between resting and feeding areas. These distances might be short or as long as 16 km. The Black-tailed Jackrabbit makes conspicuous trails and runaways through brush, weeds, meadows, and fields and over dusty or sandy surfaces of desert valleys. Home range sizes are 20-140 ha, and females have larger home ranges than males. In Kansas, home ranges ofjuveniles (4-28 ha, mean 14 ha) were smaller than adults (5-78 ha, mean 17 ha). In Idaho, similar home range sizes were recorded, and c.18% of the population disperses over large distances. Black-tailed Jackrabbits avoid entering water, but they will move across rivers at ice jams or forage on vegetation in 5 cm of water. Black-tailed Jackrabbits are not gregarious; however, groups of 2-5 individuals occur during the breeding season, and groups as large as 200-250 individuals aggregate to feed in winter. There is no social organization among individuals at the same feeding ground. Normally, individuals close together ignore each other, but they might butt, bite, jump into the air, run in circles at high speed around each other, or simply avoid each other. Females often attack other individuals that approach within 5-10 m. This antagonism leads to spacing and might be a type of territorial behavior. The only family structure exists between mother and young as long as nursing occurs. Male Black-tailed Jackrabbits frequently fight by rearing up on their hindlegs and striking each other with their forefeet. Biting, especially on the ears, also occurs. Females sometimes react aggressively to approaching males with low growls or grunts.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Blacktailed Jackrabbit is widespread, and its distribution is expanding. Because the Blacktailed Jackrabbit adapts well to overgrazed areas, it seems to expand at the expense of the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendii) in the north-east and the White-sided Jackrabbit (L. callotis) and Antelope Jackrabbit in the south of its distribution. Major threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and humaninduced fires. Research is needed to definitively classify subspecies and on interactions among Black-tailed Jackrabbits and other sympatric jackrabbits (i.e. White-tailed Jackrabbit, White-sided Jackrabbit, and Antelope Jackrabbit).","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 520-610 mm, tail 75-101 mm, ear 100-130 mm, hindfoot 113-135 mm; weight 1.5-3.6 kg. The Black-tailed Jackrabbitis lean and mediumsized, with soft fur. Dorsal pelage is brownish to grizzled brown, sides are brownish, and ventral fur is pale. Hindlegs and ears are relatively long, and tail is large, with black stripe above and buffy or grayish below. Color varies considerably among populations. Differences in color and other characteristics relate to corresponding changes in climate; soil color might influence fur color. On the Guadiana lava filed in Durango, Mexico, fur is browner than on those individuals from northern Durango. In Kansas (USA), sexual dimorphism in mass and length has been noted; females are larger than males. Body size of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is larger on islands around Baja California, except the population on Carmen Island that is smaller than adjacent populations. Annual molt begins between late August and early October, depending on latitude, and short summer hair is replaced by longer winter hair. Ear lengths of Black-tailed Jackrabbits vary geographically with temperature. Ears are longer in the south than in the north; longer ears are probably used to dissipate heat. Rectal glands in males and females secrete strong musky odors, but their functions are unknown. No physical change is noticeable during the breeding period; even mammae remain flat in lactating females.","habitat":"Arid tropics, deserts, and transitional habitats at elevations of -84 m in Death Valley, California, USA, to 3750 m. Black-tailed Jackrabbits favor heavily grazed areas, or where grasses are not abundant and cacti and low shrubs are scattered. They inhabit open habitats with mesquite (Prosopis), sagebrush (Artemisia), desert scrub, and open pine (Pinus)—juniper (Juniperus) in Arizona. They avoid areas of tall grass or forest where visibility is obscured. Where Black-tailed Jackrabbits and Antelope Jackrabbits (L. alleni) live in sympatry, they are often seen togethersitting under the same bush or running away side by side. Antelope Jackrabbits are more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations, and Black-tailed Jackrabbits are more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and in barren chaparral desert."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75BFFE5FFC9FDEDF919F0A2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75BFFE5FFC9FDEDF919F0A2","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"135","verbatimText":"46.Snowshoe HareLepus americanusFrench:Lievre dAmérique/ German:Schneeschuhhase/ Spanish:Liebre americanaOther common names:Snowshoe Rabbit, Varying HareTaxonomy.Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777, “in America boreeli, ad fretum Hudsonis copiosissimus.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Fort Severn,” Ontario, Canada.It is taxonomically distinct from other species of Lepusand does not hybridize with any of them. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Recognition of subspecies might not be justified by the fact that variation is clinal and follows climatic gradients. Fifteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.americanusErxleben,1777—C&ECanada(SENorthwestTerritories,SENunavut,mostAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,S&SEOntario,Quebec,L.a.,andNewfoundland),alsoinNCUSA(NEMontanaandNorthDakota).L.a.bairdiiHayden,1869—SWCanada(SEBritishColumbiaandSWAlberta)andWCUSA(W&CMontana,Idaho,W&SCWyoming,NE&CUtah,NW&CColorado,andNCNewMexico).L.a.cascadensisNelson,1907—SWCanada(SCBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(SC,C&NCWashington).L.a.columbiensisRhoads,1895—RockyMtsinSWCanada(SEBritishColumbia,WCAlberta),andNWUSA(NEtipofWashington).L.a.dalliMerriam,1900—Alaska(USA)andNWCanada(NWAlberta,NBritishColumbia,YukonexcepttheNtip,S&WNorthwestTerritories).L.a.klamathensisMerriam,1899—WUSA(SWOregonandNCalifornia).L.a.oregonusOrr,1934—WUSA(NE&COregon).L.a.pallidusCowan,1938—SWCanada(WC&CBritishColumbia).L.a.phaeonotusJ.A.Allen,1899—WGreatL.a.RegioninSCCanada(SEtipofSaskatchewan,SManitoba,SWOntario)andNCUSA(NEtipofNorthDakota,Minnesota,NWisconsin,andNMichigan).L.a.pineusDalquest,1942—SWCanada(SCtipofBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(EWashington,NIdaho,NWtipofMontana).L.a.seclususBaker&Hankins,1950—NCUSA(SCtipofMontana,NCtipofWyoming).L.a.struthopusBangs,1898—ECanada(EQuebec,NewBrunswick,NovaScotia,PrinceEdwardI)andNEUSA(Maine).L.a.tahoensisOrr,1933—WUSA(ECCaliforniaandWCNevada).L.a.virgtnianusHarlan,1825—SECanada(SOntario,SQuebec)andNE&EUSA(fromMainetoPennsylvaniaandextremeNEOhio,TennesseeandNorthCarolina).L. a. washingtonBaird, 1855 — SW Canada (SW tip of British Columbia) and NW USA (W Washington and W Oregon).The Snowshoe Hare has been introduced by founder individuals of unknown subspecies affiliation to Kodiak I (Alaska) and Anticosti I (Quebec, Canada).Descriptive notes.Head-body 360-520 mm,tail 25-55 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 112-150 mm; weight 1.1-1.6 kg. The Snowshoe Hare is the smallest species of Lepus, with small ears and large hindfeet. In summer, dorsal pelage is brownish, dusky gray, or even rusty; ventral pelage, under chin, and sometime feet are white. Most populations have a white fur in winter, although underfur remains gray, and white is restricted to hair tips. Some populations along the Pacific coast of North America are polymorphic because part of the population remains brownish in winter. Autumn molt occurs in August—=November, and spring molt occurs in March—June.Habitat.Various forest types of conifers, aspen, birch, beech, maple, and mixed hardwoods. The Snowshoe Hare prefers subclimax forest, transition zones, and swamp edges. Its populations reach peak numbers after fire when shrub and regrowth cover becomes dense, and lowest densities occur when forests mature and ground cover becomes sparse. The Snowshoe Hare favors edge habitat but avoids open habitat. It is not found as a relict species in small isolated patches of forest. A study showed that Snowshoe Hares use multiple vegetation types even when food and cover are apparently abundant in a single habitat.Food and Feeding.The Snowshoe Hare eats grasses, sedges, dandelions, ferns, and different herbs in summer. Its winter diet includes birch, spruce, willow, tamarack, and pine. Regular runways are used to reach favored feeding areas.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Snowshoe Hare occurs in March-September and is primarily controlled by photoperiod. Weather and phase of the population cycle, typical of Snowshoe Hares, can affect beginning of the reproductive season by c.3 weeks in Alberta. Onset of breeding was early in years with high spring temperatures and fewer days of snow cover. The Snowshoe Hare is promiscuous. Gestation is ¢.36 days. Two litters per year are typical in northern parts ofits distribution and at high elevations; 3—4 litters/year are typical in central parts of its distribution. Litter size increases by c.1 young from the first litter of the season to later litters, and regionally from c.2-2 young to c.6 young. Females have 7-5-17-9 young/year. Young start hopping at c.2 days old and dig at c.5 days old. Young gather at nursing places 1-2 hours after sunset and are nursed for 2-5 minutes immediately after females arrive. Young begin to eat solid food at 6-8 days old.Activity patterns.The Snowshoe Hare is nocturnal and rests in forms that provide cover during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes of Snowshoe Hares are 5-9-13 ha in thick cover. Females have smaller home ranges than males, and adults have larger home ranges thanjuveniles. In the northern part of the distribution, populations cycle every 8-11 years, with peak densities up to 300 times higher than during the lowest phases but normal ranges are 10-30 times higher. Population cycles are synchronous over wide geographical areas. Causes that trigger population crashes are food scarcity due to the high densities during population peaks and predators, or only effects of predation pressure such as the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) wellknown case. Southern populations of Snowshoe Hares appear to be non-cyclic, or they fluctuate with reduced amplitude. The Snowshoe Hare has a clear dominance hierarchy. Males are more frequently involved in more intense interactions than females. Males are more dominant during winter, and females are more dominant during the breeding season in summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Snowshoe Hare is widespread, and its populations are stable. The population in Canada and Alaska is continuous, but they are fragmented further south in the contiguous USA. Some concern exists about status of populations in the south-eastern USA where the distributional limit might be receding northward due to habitat loss, fragmentation, increase in predator numbers, and perhaps climate change and resulting loss of snow cover. Status of distinct populations along the Pacific coast of North America is unclear. The Snowshoe Hare is an important game animal and a forestry pest. The Snowshoe Hare in New Mexico (USA) is in need of enhanced management and conservation attention due to restricted distribution and low densities.Bibliography.Adams (1959), Banfield (1974), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Cary & Keith (1979), Cheng et al. (2015), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Feierabend & Kielland (2014), Flux & Angermann (1990), Frey & Malaney (2006), Graf (1985), Graf & Sinclair (1987), Grange (1932, 1957), Hall (1981), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Keith (1981, 1983), Krebs et al. (2014), Lomolino et al. (1989), Long (2003), Murray (2003), Murray & Smith (2008a), Nagorsen (1985), Nelson (1909), Nice et al. (1956), O'Farrell (1965), Pietz & Tester (1983), Sinclair et al. (1988).","taxonomy":"Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777, “in America boreeli, ad fretum Hudsonis copiosissimus.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “Fort Severn,” Ontario, Canada.It is taxonomically distinct from other species of Lepusand does not hybridize with any of them. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Recognition of subspecies might not be justified by the fact that variation is clinal and follows climatic gradients. Fifteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre d Amérique @fr | Schneeschuhhase @de | Liebre americana @es | Snowshoe Rabbit @en | Varying Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Erxleben","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"28","interpretedPageNumber":"135","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"americanus","name":"Lepus americanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.a.americanusErxleben,1777—C&ECanada(SENorthwestTerritories,SENunavut,mostAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba,S&SEOntario,Quebec,L.a.,andNewfoundland),alsoinNCUSA(NEMontanaandNorthDakota).L.a.bairdiiHayden,1869—SWCanada(SEBritishColumbiaandSWAlberta)andWCUSA(W&CMontana,Idaho,W&SCWyoming,NE&CUtah,NW&CColorado,andNCNewMexico).L.a.cascadensisNelson,1907—SWCanada(SCBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(SC,C&NCWashington).L.a.columbiensisRhoads,1895—RockyMtsinSWCanada(SEBritishColumbia,WCAlberta),andNWUSA(NEtipofWashington).L.a.dalliMerriam,1900—Alaska(USA)andNWCanada(NWAlberta,NBritishColumbia,YukonexcepttheNtip,S&WNorthwestTerritories).L.a.klamathensisMerriam,1899—WUSA(SWOregonandNCalifornia).L.a.oregonusOrr,1934—WUSA(NE&COregon).L.a.pallidusCowan,1938—SWCanada(WC&CBritishColumbia).L.a.phaeonotusJ.A.Allen,1899—WGreatL.a.RegioninSCCanada(SEtipofSaskatchewan,SManitoba,SWOntario)andNCUSA(NEtipofNorthDakota,Minnesota,NWisconsin,andNMichigan).L.a.pineusDalquest,1942—SWCanada(SCtipofBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(EWashington,NIdaho,NWtipofMontana).L.a.seclususBaker&Hankins,1950—NCUSA(SCtipofMontana,NCtipofWyoming).L.a.struthopusBangs,1898—ECanada(EQuebec,NewBrunswick,NovaScotia,PrinceEdwardI)andNEUSA(Maine).L.a.tahoensisOrr,1933—WUSA(ECCaliforniaandWCNevada).L.a.virgtnianusHarlan,1825—SECanada(SOntario,SQuebec)andNE&EUSA(fromMainetoPennsylvaniaandextremeNEOhio,TennesseeandNorthCarolina).L. a. washingtonBaird, 1855 — SW Canada (SW tip of British Columbia) and NW USA (W Washington and W Oregon).The Snowshoe Hare has been introduced by founder individuals of unknown subspecies affiliation to Kodiak I (Alaska) and Anticosti I (Quebec, Canada).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625645/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Adams (1959) | Banfield (1974) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Cary & Keith (1979) | Cheng et al. (2015) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Feierabend & Kielland (2014) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Frey & Malaney (2006) | Graf (1985) | Graf & Sinclair (1987) | Grange (1932, 1957) | Hall (1981) | Hall & Kelson (1959) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Keith (1981, 1983) | Krebs et al. (2014) | Lomolino et al. (1989) | Long (2003) | Murray (2003) | Murray & Smith (2008a) | Nagorsen (1985) | Nelson (1909) | Nice et al. (1956) | O'Farrell (1965) | Pietz & Tester (1983) | Sinclair et al. (1988)","foodAndFeeding":"The Snowshoe Hare eats grasses, sedges, dandelions, ferns, and different herbs in summer. Its winter diet includes birch, spruce, willow, tamarack, and pine. Regular runways are used to reach favored feeding areas.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Snowshoe Hare occurs in March-September and is primarily controlled by photoperiod. Weather and phase of the population cycle, typical of Snowshoe Hares, can affect beginning of the reproductive season by c.3 weeks in Alberta. Onset of breeding was early in years with high spring temperatures and fewer days of snow cover. The Snowshoe Hare is promiscuous. Gestation is ¢.36 days. Two litters per year are typical in northern parts ofits distribution and at high elevations; 3—4 litters/year are typical in central parts of its distribution. Litter size increases by c.1 young from the first litter of the season to later litters, and regionally from c.2-2 young to c.6 young. Females have 7-5-17-9 young/year. Young start hopping at c.2 days old and dig at c.5 days old. Young gather at nursing places 1-2 hours after sunset and are nursed for 2-5 minutes immediately after females arrive. Young begin to eat solid food at 6-8 days old.","activityPatterns":"The Snowshoe Hare is nocturnal and rests in forms that provide cover during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range sizes of Snowshoe Hares are 5-9-13 ha in thick cover. Females have smaller home ranges than males, and adults have larger home ranges thanjuveniles. In the northern part of the distribution, populations cycle every 8-11 years, with peak densities up to 300 times higher than during the lowest phases but normal ranges are 10-30 times higher. Population cycles are synchronous over wide geographical areas. Causes that trigger population crashes are food scarcity due to the high densities during population peaks and predators, or only effects of predation pressure such as the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) wellknown case. Southern populations of Snowshoe Hares appear to be non-cyclic, or they fluctuate with reduced amplitude. The Snowshoe Hare has a clear dominance hierarchy. Males are more frequently involved in more intense interactions than females. Males are more dominant during winter, and females are more dominant during the breeding season in summer.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Snowshoe Hare is widespread, and its populations are stable. The population in Canada and Alaska is continuous, but they are fragmented further south in the contiguous USA. Some concern exists about status of populations in the south-eastern USA where the distributional limit might be receding northward due to habitat loss, fragmentation, increase in predator numbers, and perhaps climate change and resulting loss of snow cover. Status of distinct populations along the Pacific coast of North America is unclear. The Snowshoe Hare is an important game animal and a forestry pest. The Snowshoe Hare in New Mexico (USA) is in need of enhanced management and conservation attention due to restricted distribution and low densities.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 360-520 mm,tail 25-55 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 112-150 mm; weight 1.1-1.6 kg. The Snowshoe Hare is the smallest species of Lepus, with small ears and large hindfeet. In summer, dorsal pelage is brownish, dusky gray, or even rusty; ventral pelage, under chin, and sometime feet are white. Most populations have a white fur in winter, although underfur remains gray, and white is restricted to hair tips. Some populations along the Pacific coast of North America are polymorphic because part of the population remains brownish in winter. Autumn molt occurs in August—=November, and spring molt occurs in March—June.","habitat":"Various forest types of conifers, aspen, birch, beech, maple, and mixed hardwoods. The Snowshoe Hare prefers subclimax forest, transition zones, and swamp edges. Its populations reach peak numbers after fire when shrub and regrowth cover becomes dense, and lowest densities occur when forests mature and ground cover becomes sparse. The Snowshoe Hare favors edge habitat but avoids open habitat. It is not found as a relict species in small isolated patches of forest. A study showed that Snowshoe Hares use multiple vegetation types even when food and cover are apparently abundant in a single habitat."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75CFFE2FF6AF680F96CF5CD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75CFFE2FF6AF680F96CF5CD","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"44.Yunnan HareLepus comusFrench:Lievre du Yunnan/ German:Yunnan-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de YunnanTaxonomy.Lepus comus G. M. Allen, 1927, “Teng-yueh [Tengueh], Yunnan Province, China, 5,500 feet [1676 m] altitude.”It was formerly included in L. oiostolusbut received species status due to morphological and ecological differences. It might be allopatric or parapatric with L. oiostolus. Molecular phylogenetics indicate sister relationship between L. comusand L. oiostolus. Existence of three subspecies (comus, pena, and pygmaeus) is often mentioned but not supported by low variation of mtDNA. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Myanmar and CS China (Yunnan, except the part SW of the Mekong River, SW Sichuan, and W Guizhou).Descriptive notes.Head-body 320-480 mm, tail 95-110 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 98-130 mm; weight 1.8-2.5 kg. The Yunnan Hare is small, with soft long and flat grayish brown dorsal fur. Posterior parts of hips are vaguely gray. Flanks, forelegs, and outer sides of hindlegs are bright ocherous, mixed with yellow. Ventral fur is white. Whitish band extends from mouth to bases of ears, including arches over eyes. Ear tops are black, and insides are pale gray. Tail is dark brown above and light gray tinged with yellow below. Small size and bright fur coloring are considered to be diagnostic.Habitat.High montane pastures at elevations of 1300-3200 m. Habitat preferences of the Yunnan Hare are thought to be similar to those of the Woolly Hare (L. oiostolus) in the Tibetan Plateau.Food and Feeding.The Yunnan Hare feeds on forbs and shrubs.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Yunnan Hare normally starts in April, with the first litter appearing in May. Litter sizes are 1-4 young, with an average of two, and females have 2-3 litters/year.Activity patterns.The Yunnan Hare forages primarily at night, but it is also active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yunnan Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. It is reported to be very common by local inhabitants of the region. Remote habitat of the Yunnan Hare is unlikely to be threatened but increasing agricultural development in valleys might isolate mountain populations. More data are needed to fully understand population trends, behavior, habitat, and taxonomy.Bibliography.Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982), Corbet (1978), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008g), Wu Chunhua, Li Haipeng et al. (2000), Wu Chunhua, Wu Jianping et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus comus G. M. Allen, 1927, “Teng-yueh [Tengueh], Yunnan Province, China, 5,500 feet [1676 m] altitude.”It was formerly included in L. oiostolusbut received species status due to morphological and ecological differences. It might be allopatric or parapatric with L. oiostolus. Molecular phylogenetics indicate sister relationship between L. comusand L. oiostolus. Existence of three subspecies (comus, pena, and pygmaeus) is often mentioned but not supported by low variation of mtDNA. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lievre du Yunnan @fr | Yunnan-Hase @de | Liebre de Yunnan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. M. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1927","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"comus","name":"Lepus comus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Myanmar and CS China (Yunnan, except the part SW of the Mekong River, SW Sichuan, and W Guizhou).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625641/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982) | Corbet (1978) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008g) | Wu Chunhua, Li Haipeng et al. (2000) | Wu Chunhua, Wu Jianping et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Yunnan Hare feeds on forbs and shrubs.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Yunnan Hare normally starts in April, with the first litter appearing in May. Litter sizes are 1-4 young, with an average of two, and females have 2-3 litters/year.","activityPatterns":"The Yunnan Hare forages primarily at night, but it is also active during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yunnan Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. It is reported to be very common by local inhabitants of the region. Remote habitat of the Yunnan Hare is unlikely to be threatened but increasing agricultural development in valleys might isolate mountain populations. More data are needed to fully understand population trends, behavior, habitat, and taxonomy.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 320-480 mm, tail 95-110 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 98-130 mm; weight 1.8-2.5 kg. The Yunnan Hare is small, with soft long and flat grayish brown dorsal fur. Posterior parts of hips are vaguely gray. Flanks, forelegs, and outer sides of hindlegs are bright ocherous, mixed with yellow. Ventral fur is white. Whitish band extends from mouth to bases of ears, including arches over eyes. Ear tops are black, and insides are pale gray. Tail is dark brown above and light gray tinged with yellow below. Small size and bright fur coloring are considered to be diagnostic.Habitat.High montane pastures at elevations of 1300-3200 m.","habitat":"High montane pastures at elevations of 1300-3200 m. Habitat preferences of the Yunnan Hare are thought to be similar to those of the Woolly Hare (L. oiostolus) in the Tibetan Plateau."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75CFFE5FA14FC67FDA9F450.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75CFFE5FA14FC67FDA9F450","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"45.Woolly HareLepus oiostolusFrench:Lievre laineux/ German:Tibet-Wollhase/ Spanish:Liebre lanudaTaxonomy.Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840, “the snowy region of the Hemalaya, and perhaps also Tibet.” Restricted by Kao Yuehting and Feng Tsochien in 1964 to “Southern Tibet” [Xizang, China].It was formerly placed in the subgenus Proeulagus and Eulagos. Subspecies przewalsku was assigned to L. capensis(= L. tolai) but was later placed in L. oiostolus. Existence of several more subspecies have been proposed, but they appear to be continuously distributed throughout the distribution. Molecular analysis suggested sister relationship between L. oiostolusand L. comus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.o.owostolusHodgson,1840—WTibetanPlateau(79°Eto92°E).L.o.hypsibiusBlanford,1875—JammuandKashmir(NWIndia),UpperSutlejValley(SWXizang,China).L.o.pallipesHodgson,1842—C&ETibetanPlateau,NNepal,Sikkim(NEIndia);possiblyalsoinNBhutan.L. o. przewalskii Satunin, 1907— NE & E Tibetan Plateau to Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and N Yunnan (China).Descriptive notes.Head—body 400-580 mm, tail 65-125 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 102-140 mm; weight 2.4-3 kg. The Woolly Hare is medium-sized to large, with stocky stature. Fur is thick and soft, with long curly hairs. Fur color varies widely between populations from dark grayish brown to pale sandy yellow. Rump is paler and grayer than dorsal pelage. Eye rings are whitish. Bushy tail is white, with narrow brown stripe above. Ears have dark tips. The Woolly Hare probably molts only once per year so it does not change color in winter.Habitat.Upland grasslands of various types, alpine and montane meadows, shrub meadows, dry arid plains, and alpine cold deserts and also montane coniferous and broad-leafed mixed forests in the south-eastern parts ofits distribution, generally at elevations above 2500 m to as high as 5400 m. The Woolly Hare is more abundant in habitats with intermediate cover, and habitats with dense cover are less frequented at high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau. Individuals rest in quiet low areas exposed to the sun and sheltered from wind during rest. They may also take cover in marmot (Marmota) burrows and shelter among rocks.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Woolly Hare includes grasses and herbaceous plants.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Woolly Hare starts in April, and females produce two litters per year with 4-6 young each. At high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau, Woolly Hares may only be reproductively active in May-July, with an average litter size of 1-8 young. Annual production of young by a female in high elevations is estimated to be 2-9.Activity patterns.The Woolly Hare is primarily nocturnal but can be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Woolly Hare is reported to have restricted areas during active periods where individuals can be seen night after night. It lives alone but might forage in small groups during the mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Woolly Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Nevertheless, there are no available data on population status. In India, it has been assessed as endangered due to restricted distribution, fragmentation, and habitat loss. In Nepal and China, it is listed as least concern. Major threats to the Woolly Hare are decreases in quality and total area of habitat due to destruction and harvesting of fuel wood. This decrease was estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 but was expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015. In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and thus risk of genetic isolation. The Woolly Hare is hunted for local subsistence and fur trade.Bibliography.Angermann (1967b, 2016), Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Sechrest & Daniel (2005), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston (2008), Kao Yuehting & Feng Tsochien (1964), Lissovsky (2016), Lu Xin (2010, 2011), Smith (2008c), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840, “the snowy region of the Hemalaya, and perhaps also Tibet.” Restricted by Kao Yuehting and Feng Tsochien in 1964 to “Southern Tibet” [Xizang, China].It was formerly placed in the subgenus Proeulagus and Eulagos. Subspecies przewalsku was assigned to L. capensis(= L. tolai) but was later placed in L. oiostolus. Existence of several more subspecies have been proposed, but they appear to be continuously distributed throughout the distribution. Molecular analysis suggested sister relationship between L. oiostolusand L. comus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre laineux @fr | Tibet-Wollhase @de | Liebre lanuda @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1840","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"oiostolus","name":"Lepus oiostolus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.o.owostolusHodgson,1840—WTibetanPlateau(79°Eto92°E).L.o.hypsibiusBlanford,1875—JammuandKashmir(NWIndia),UpperSutlejValley(SWXizang,China).L.o.pallipesHodgson,1842—C&ETibetanPlateau,NNepal,Sikkim(NEIndia);possiblyalsoinNBhutan.L. o. przewalskii Satunin, 1907— NE & E Tibetan Plateau to Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and N Yunnan (China).","bibliography":"Angermann (1967b, 2016) | Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Sechrest & Daniel (2005) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston (2008) | Kao Yuehting & Feng Tsochien (1964) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lu Xin (2010, 2011) | Smith (2008c) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Woolly Hare includes grasses and herbaceous plants.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Woolly Hare starts in April, and females produce two litters per year with 4-6 young each. At high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau, Woolly Hares may only be reproductively active in May-July, with an average litter size of 1-8 young. Annual production of young by a female in high elevations is estimated to be 2-9.","activityPatterns":"The Woolly Hare is primarily nocturnal but can be active during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Woolly Hare is reported to have restricted areas during active periods where individuals can be seen night after night. It lives alone but might forage in small groups during the mating season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Woolly Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Nevertheless, there are no available data on population status. In India, it has been assessed as endangered due to restricted distribution, fragmentation, and habitat loss. In Nepal and China, it is listed as least concern. Major threats to the Woolly Hare are decreases in quality and total area of habitat due to destruction and harvesting of fuel wood. This decrease was estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 but was expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015. In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and thus risk of genetic isolation. The Woolly Hare is hunted for local subsistence and fur trade.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 400-580 mm, tail 65-125 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 102-140 mm; weight 2.4-3 kg. The Woolly Hare is medium-sized to large, with stocky stature. Fur is thick and soft, with long curly hairs. Fur color varies widely between populations from dark grayish brown to pale sandy yellow. Rump is paler and grayer than dorsal pelage. Eye rings are whitish. Bushy tail is white, with narrow brown stripe above. Ears have dark tips. The Woolly Hare probably molts only once per year so it does not change color in winter.","habitat":"Upland grasslands of various types, alpine and montane meadows, shrub meadows, dry arid plains, and alpine cold deserts and also montane coniferous and broad-leafed mixed forests in the south-eastern parts ofits distribution, generally at elevations above 2500 m to as high as 5400 m. The Woolly Hare is more abundant in habitats with intermediate cover, and habitats with dense cover are less frequented at high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau. Individuals rest in quiet low areas exposed to the sun and sheltered from wind during rest. They may also take cover in marmot (Marmota) burrows and shelter among rocks."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE2FAC9F466FE38FEAD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75DFFE2FAC9F466FE38FEAD","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"43.Desert HareLepus tibetanusFrench:Liévre du désert/ German:Wiistenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de desiertoTaxonomy.Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 1841, “Little Thibet [= Tibet].” Fixed by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1955 to “Baltistan, Kashmir.”Until the 1930s, L. tibetanushad species status. The first major revision united L. europaeus, L. tolai, and L. tibetanusin a single species. Next, L. tibetanusand L. tolaiwere placed as subspecies of L. capensis. Then, L. tibetanuswas clearly separated from L. tolai, but L. capensiswas still used as the species name. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. It shares some cranial and pelage characteristics with L. oiostolusfrom the adjacent Tibetan Plateau, in contrast to L. capensisor L. tolai. Evaluation of these characteristics across zones of potential contact between the ten taxon pairs comprising L. capensis(sensu lato) and genetic analyses are necessary before taxonomy of species of Lepuscan be resolved. Molecular analysis placed pamirensis back to L. capensisand assigned centrasiaticus to L. tolai. This species is allopatric to parapatric with L. tolai, but they might be sympatric in the Tien Shan Mountains. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tibetanusWaterhouse,1841—UpperIndusValley,inNEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNWIndia.L.t.centrasiaticusSatunin,1907—EXinjiang,Gansu,andWInnerMongolia=NeiMongol(NW&NCChina).L.t.craspedotisBlanford,1875—BalochistanProvince(Pakistan).L.t.pamirensisGunther,1875—ETajikistanandSWXinjiang(China).L. t. stoliczkanus Blanford, 1875— NW Xinjiang (China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 87-109 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 109-135 mm; weight 1.6-2.5 kg. The Desert Hare is slender and has a relatively small head. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow or drab, tinged with black. Hips are grayish, and outsides of hindlegs and forefeet are white. Ears are wide and have black-brown tips. Tail has black-brown stripes above. The Desert Hare has light eye rings. Ventral fur is yellow to white. The Desert Hare has thick and gray to sandy brown fur in winter.Habitat.Grassland and shrubs on slopes of riverbanks in desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats from low elevations and perhaps up to subalpine habitats at elevations of 3500-4000 m. Desert Hares use burrows constructed by other animals.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Desert Hare includes herbaceous vegetation, seeds, berries, roots, and twigs.Breeding.Female Desert Hares have up to three litters per year; litters have 3-10 young.Activity patterns.The Desert Hare is most active at dusk, but it can also be active during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status. Conservation threats are not known. Research is necessary to clarify population status of the Desert Hare and its taxonomic position relative to other species of Lepus.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Cheng Cheng et al. (2012), China Red List & Johnston (2008b), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, 1955), Heptner (1934), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Ognev (1966), Petter (1959, 1961), Smith (2008c).","taxonomy":"Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 1841, “Little Thibet [= Tibet].” Fixed by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1955 to “Baltistan, Kashmir.”Until the 1930s, L. tibetanushad species status. The first major revision united L. europaeus, L. tolai, and L. tibetanusin a single species. Next, L. tibetanusand L. tolaiwere placed as subspecies of L. capensis. Then, L. tibetanuswas clearly separated from L. tolai, but L. capensiswas still used as the species name. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. It shares some cranial and pelage characteristics with L. oiostolusfrom the adjacent Tibetan Plateau, in contrast to L. capensisor L. tolai. Evaluation of these characteristics across zones of potential contact between the ten taxon pairs comprising L. capensis(sensu lato) and genetic analyses are necessary before taxonomy of species of Lepuscan be resolved. Molecular analysis placed pamirensis back to L. capensisand assigned centrasiaticus to L. tolai. This species is allopatric to parapatric with L. tolai, but they might be sympatric in the Tien Shan Mountains. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre du désert @fr | Wiistenhase @de | Liebre de desierto @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tibetanus","name":"Lepus tibetanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.t.tibetanusWaterhouse,1841—UpperIndusValley,inNEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNWIndia.L.t.centrasiaticusSatunin,1907—EXinjiang,Gansu,andWInnerMongolia=NeiMongol(NW&NCChina).L.t.craspedotisBlanford,1875—BalochistanProvince(Pakistan).L.t.pamirensisGunther,1875—ETajikistanandSWXinjiang(China).L. t. stoliczkanus Blanford, 1875— NW Xinjiang (China).","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Cheng Cheng et al. (2012) | China Red List & Johnston (2008b) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, 1955) | Heptner (1934) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Ognev (1966) | Petter (1959, 1961) | Smith (2008c)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Desert Hare includes herbaceous vegetation, seeds, berries, roots, and twigs.","breeding":"Female Desert Hares have up to three litters per year; litters have 3-10 young.","activityPatterns":"The Desert Hare is most active at dusk, but it can also be active during daytime.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status. Conservation threats are not known. Research is necessary to clarify population status of the Desert Hare and its taxonomic position relative to other species of Lepus.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 87-109 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 109-135 mm; weight 1.6-2.5 kg. The Desert Hare is slender and has a relatively small head. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow or drab, tinged with black. Hips are grayish, and outsides of hindlegs and forefeet are white. Ears are wide and have black-brown tips. Tail has black-brown stripes above. The Desert Hare has light eye rings. Ventral fur is yellow to white. The Desert Hare has thick and gray to sandy brown fur in winter.","habitat":"Grassland and shrubs on slopes of riverbanks in desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats from low elevations and perhaps up to subalpine habitats at elevations of 3500-4000 m. Desert Hares use burrows constructed by other animals."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE3FFC3F3E9F6C3FDCA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75DFFE3FFC3F3E9F6C3FDCA","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"42.Tolai HareLepus tolaiFrench:Liévre tolai/ German:Tolai-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre tolaiTaxonomy.Lepus tolai Pallas, 1778, “Caeterum in montibus aprecis campisque rupestribus vel arenosis circa Selengam...” Restricted by S. I. Ognev in 1940 to “valley of the Selenga River,” Russia. Redefined byJ. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Adinscholo Mountain, near Tchinden [Chinden = Chindant], on Borsja [= Boriya] River, a tributary of the Onon River, Eastern Siberia.”In the past, L. tolaiwas included as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeus. Formerly, L. tolaiincluded L. tibetanusas a subspecies. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists.Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Lepus tolaialso included przewalskii that is now considered a subspecies of L. oiostolus.An unclear situation exists in southern Iraq and south-western Iran. The subspecies cheybani occurs westward to ¢.55°-56° E, while L. capensisarabicus occurs eastward to south-eastern Iraq. Whether or not the two forms come into contact is unknown, but their distributions might be separated by that of L. europaeusconnori in south-western Iran. A molecular analysis separated subspecies swinhoei as an independent species and assigned L. tibetanuscentrasiaticus to L. tolai. The population of L. coreanusin Jilin Province, China, may belong to L. tolai. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tolaiPallas,1778—InnerMongolia(=NeiMongol),andGansu(NCChina).L.t.buchariensisOgnev,1922—TajikistanandNEAfghanistan.L.t.cheybaniBaloutch,1978—SWIran(ZagrosMts).L.t.cinnamomeusShamel,1940—SWSichuan,andNYunnan(SCChina).L.t.filchneriMatschie,1908—Shaanxi(CChina).L.t.lehmanniSevertzov,1873—SKazakhstan,Turkmenistan,andextremeN&NEIran,EtoSSiberia,Mongolia,andXinjiang(NWChina).L. t. swinhoei Thomas, 1894— from Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia S to Hebei, Beijing, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong (NE & E China).The Tolai Hare occurs in the steppes E of the Caspian Sea, S to NE & SW Iran, E through the Middle Asian republics to Afghanistan, and from Kazakhstan and S Siberia to Mongolia, S Russian Far East, NW, C & NE China; an isolated population lives in S Iraq and SW Iran. A single specimen in South Asia might extend the distribution of the Tolai Hare as far S as Jammu and Kashmir, N India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-590 mm, tail 72-110 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-127 mm; weight 1.7-2.7 kg. Color of the Tolai Hare varies across its distribution. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow, pale brown, dusty yellow or sandy gray, mixed with dark brown and red stripes. Hips are grayish to ocherous, and ventral fur is pure white. Tail is wholly white below and on sides, with broad black or blackish brown stripe above. There are grayish white or ocherous eye rings extending back to bases of ears and forward toward mouth. Ear tips are black.Habitat.Grassland and forest meadows (never true forests), with tall grasses or shrubby areas for cover in China and semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitat in Mongolia. The Tolai Hare is generally found at elevations of 600-900 m but ascends up to 4900 m in mountains. Forms are created using the front paws. Depths of forms are less during hot weather than when it is cold and windy.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Tolai Hare consists of grass, roots, and herbaceous vegetation. Individuals use fixed and restricted routes while foraging.Breeding.The Tolai Hare has 2-3 litters/year, with 2-6 young/litter. Females give birth in burrows.Activity patterns.The Tolai Hare is nocturnal. Forms are used for resting during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tolai Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese and Mongolian red lists. It is widespread and occurs in many protected areas. Its overall population is large, and no major threats are known. Hunting for meat, skins, and traditional medicine has been noted as a threat in Mongolia. In southern Uzbekistan, records of fur harvests decreased from 8751 Tolai Hares in 1959 to 595 in 1977.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Baloutch (1978), Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982), Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Goonatilake & Daniel (2005), Cheng Cheng etal. (2012), China Red List & Johnston (2008a), Clark et al. (2006), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Karami et al. (2008), Lissovsky (2016), Ognev (1940, 1966), Smith (2008c), Sokolov et al. (2009).","taxonomy":"Lepus tolai Pallas, 1778, “Caeterum in montibus aprecis campisque rupestribus vel arenosis circa Selengam...” Restricted by S. I. Ognev in 1940 to “valley of the Selenga River,” Russia. Redefined byJ. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Adinscholo Mountain, near Tchinden [Chinden = Chindant], on Borsja [= Boriya] River, a tributary of the Onon River, Eastern Siberia.”In the past, L. tolaiwas included as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeus. Formerly, L. tolaiincluded L. tibetanusas a subspecies. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists.Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Lepus tolaialso included przewalskii that is now considered a subspecies of L. oiostolus.An unclear situation exists in southern Iraq and south-western Iran. The subspecies cheybani occurs westward to ¢.55°-56° E, while L. capensisarabicus occurs eastward to south-eastern Iraq. Whether or not the two forms come into contact is unknown, but their distributions might be separated by that of L. europaeusconnori in south-western Iran. A molecular analysis separated subspecies swinhoei as an independent species and assigned L. tibetanuscentrasiaticus to L. tolai. The population of L. coreanusin Jilin Province, China, may belong to L. tolai. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre tolai @fr | Tolai-Hase @de | Liebre tolai @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1778","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tolai","name":"Lepus tolai","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.t.tolaiPallas,1778—InnerMongolia(=NeiMongol),andGansu(NCChina).L.t.buchariensisOgnev,1922—TajikistanandNEAfghanistan.L.t.cheybaniBaloutch,1978—SWIran(ZagrosMts).L.t.cinnamomeusShamel,1940—SWSichuan,andNYunnan(SCChina).L.t.filchneriMatschie,1908—Shaanxi(CChina).L.t.lehmanniSevertzov,1873—SKazakhstan,Turkmenistan,andextremeN&NEIran,EtoSSiberia,Mongolia,andXinjiang(NWChina).L. t. swinhoei Thomas, 1894— from Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia S to Hebei, Beijing, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong (NE & E China).The Tolai Hare occurs in the steppes E of the Caspian Sea, S to NE & SW Iran, E through the Middle Asian republics to Afghanistan, and from Kazakhstan and S Siberia to Mongolia, S Russian Far East, NW, C & NE China; an isolated population lives in S Iraq and SW Iran. A single specimen in South Asia might extend the distribution of the Tolai Hare as far S as Jammu and Kashmir, N India.","bibliography":"Angermann (1983, 2016) | Baloutch (1978) | Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982) | Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Goonatilake & Daniel (2005) | Cheng Cheng etal. (2012) | China Red List & Johnston (2008a) | Clark et al. (2006) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Karami et al. (2008) | Lissovsky (2016) | Ognev (1940, 1966) | Smith (2008c) | Sokolov et al. (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Tolai Hare consists of grass, roots, and herbaceous vegetation. Individuals use fixed and restricted routes while foraging.","breeding":"The Tolai Hare has 2-3 litters/year, with 2-6 young/litter. Females give birth in burrows.","activityPatterns":"The Tolai Hare is nocturnal. Forms are used for resting during daytime.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tolai Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese and Mongolian red lists. It is widespread and occurs in many protected areas. Its overall population is large, and no major threats are known. Hunting for meat, skins, and traditional medicine has been noted as a threat in Mongolia. In southern Uzbekistan, records of fur harvests decreased from 8751 Tolai Hares in 1959 to 595 in 1977.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-590 mm, tail 72-110 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-127 mm; weight 1.7-2.7 kg. Color of the Tolai Hare varies across its distribution. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow, pale brown, dusty yellow or sandy gray, mixed with dark brown and red stripes. Hips are grayish to ocherous, and ventral fur is pure white. Tail is wholly white below and on sides, with broad black or blackish brown stripe above. There are grayish white or ocherous eye rings extending back to bases of ears and forward toward mouth. Ear tips are black.","habitat":"Grassland and forest meadows (never true forests), with tall grasses or shrubby areas for cover in China and semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitat in Mongolia. The Tolai Hare is generally found at elevations of 600-900 m but ascends up to 4900 m in mountains. Forms are created using the front paws. Depths of forms are less during hot weather than when it is cold and windy."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75CFFE5FA14FC67FDA9F450.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75CFFE5FA14FC67FDA9F450","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"45.Woolly HareLepus oiostolusFrench:Lievre laineux/ German:Tibet-Wollhase/ Spanish:Liebre lanudaTaxonomy.Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840, “the snowy region of the Hemalaya, and perhaps also Tibet.” Restricted by Kao Yuehting and Feng Tsochien in 1964 to “Southern Tibet” [Xizang, China].It was formerly placed in the subgenus Proeulagus and Eulagos. Subspecies przewalsku was assigned to L. capensis(= L. tolai) but was later placed in L. oiostolus. Existence of several more subspecies have been proposed, but they appear to be continuously distributed throughout the distribution. Molecular analysis suggested sister relationship between L. oiostolusand L. comus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.o.owostolusHodgson,1840—WTibetanPlateau(79°Eto92°E).L.o.hypsibiusBlanford,1875—JammuandKashmir(NWIndia),UpperSutlejValley(SWXizang,China).L.o.pallipesHodgson,1842—C&ETibetanPlateau,NNepal,Sikkim(NEIndia);possiblyalsoinNBhutan.L. o. przewalskii Satunin, 1907— NE & E Tibetan Plateau to Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and N Yunnan (China).Descriptive notes.Head—body 400-580 mm, tail 65-125 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 102-140 mm; weight 2.4-3 kg. The Woolly Hare is medium-sized to large, with stocky stature. Fur is thick and soft, with long curly hairs. Fur color varies widely between populations from dark grayish brown to pale sandy yellow. Rump is paler and grayer than dorsal pelage. Eye rings are whitish. Bushy tail is white, with narrow brown stripe above. Ears have dark tips. The Woolly Hare probably molts only once per year so it does not change color in winter.Habitat.Upland grasslands of various types, alpine and montane meadows, shrub meadows, dry arid plains, and alpine cold deserts and also montane coniferous and broad-leafed mixed forests in the south-eastern parts ofits distribution, generally at elevations above 2500 m to as high as 5400 m. The Woolly Hare is more abundant in habitats with intermediate cover, and habitats with dense cover are less frequented at high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau. Individuals rest in quiet low areas exposed to the sun and sheltered from wind during rest. They may also take cover in marmot (Marmota) burrows and shelter among rocks.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Woolly Hare includes grasses and herbaceous plants.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Woolly Hare starts in April, and females produce two litters per year with 4-6 young each. At high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau, Woolly Hares may only be reproductively active in May-July, with an average litter size of 1-8 young. Annual production of young by a female in high elevations is estimated to be 2-9.Activity patterns.The Woolly Hare is primarily nocturnal but can be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Woolly Hare is reported to have restricted areas during active periods where individuals can be seen night after night. It lives alone but might forage in small groups during the mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Woolly Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Nevertheless, there are no available data on population status. In India, it has been assessed as endangered due to restricted distribution, fragmentation, and habitat loss. In Nepal and China, it is listed as least concern. Major threats to the Woolly Hare are decreases in quality and total area of habitat due to destruction and harvesting of fuel wood. This decrease was estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 but was expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015. In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and thus risk of genetic isolation. The Woolly Hare is hunted for local subsistence and fur trade.Bibliography.Angermann (1967b, 2016), Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Sechrest & Daniel (2005), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston (2008), Kao Yuehting & Feng Tsochien (1964), Lissovsky (2016), Lu Xin (2010, 2011), Smith (2008c), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840, “the snowy region of the Hemalaya, and perhaps also Tibet.” Restricted by Kao Yuehting and Feng Tsochien in 1964 to “Southern Tibet” [Xizang, China].It was formerly placed in the subgenus Proeulagus and Eulagos. Subspecies przewalsku was assigned to L. capensis(= L. tolai) but was later placed in L. oiostolus. Existence of several more subspecies have been proposed, but they appear to be continuously distributed throughout the distribution. Molecular analysis suggested sister relationship between L. oiostolusand L. comus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre laineux @fr | Tibet-Wollhase @de | Liebre lanuda @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1840","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"oiostolus","name":"Lepus oiostolus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.o.owostolusHodgson,1840—WTibetanPlateau(79°Eto92°E).L.o.hypsibiusBlanford,1875—JammuandKashmir(NWIndia),UpperSutlejValley(SWXizang,China).L.o.pallipesHodgson,1842—C&ETibetanPlateau,NNepal,Sikkim(NEIndia);possiblyalsoinNBhutan.L. o. przewalskii Satunin, 1907— NE & E Tibetan Plateau to Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and N Yunnan (China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625643/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (1967b, 2016) | Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Sechrest & Daniel (2005) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston (2008) | Kao Yuehting & Feng Tsochien (1964) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lu Xin (2010, 2011) | Smith (2008c) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Woolly Hare includes grasses and herbaceous plants.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Woolly Hare starts in April, and females produce two litters per year with 4-6 young each. At high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau, Woolly Hares may only be reproductively active in May-July, with an average litter size of 1-8 young. Annual production of young by a female in high elevations is estimated to be 2-9.","activityPatterns":"The Woolly Hare is primarily nocturnal but can be active during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Woolly Hare is reported to have restricted areas during active periods where individuals can be seen night after night. It lives alone but might forage in small groups during the mating season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Woolly Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Nevertheless, there are no available data on population status. In India, it has been assessed as endangered due to restricted distribution, fragmentation, and habitat loss. In Nepal and China, it is listed as least concern. Major threats to the Woolly Hare are decreases in quality and total area of habitat due to destruction and harvesting of fuel wood. This decrease was estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 but was expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015. In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and thus risk of genetic isolation. The Woolly Hare is hunted for local subsistence and fur trade.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 400-580 mm, tail 65-125 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 102-140 mm; weight 2.4-3 kg. The Woolly Hare is medium-sized to large, with stocky stature. Fur is thick and soft, with long curly hairs. Fur color varies widely between populations from dark grayish brown to pale sandy yellow. Rump is paler and grayer than dorsal pelage. Eye rings are whitish. Bushy tail is white, with narrow brown stripe above. Ears have dark tips. The Woolly Hare probably molts only once per year so it does not change color in winter.","habitat":"Upland grasslands of various types, alpine and montane meadows, shrub meadows, dry arid plains, and alpine cold deserts and also montane coniferous and broad-leafed mixed forests in the south-eastern parts ofits distribution, generally at elevations above 2500 m to as high as 5400 m. The Woolly Hare is more abundant in habitats with intermediate cover, and habitats with dense cover are less frequented at high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau. Individuals rest in quiet low areas exposed to the sun and sheltered from wind during rest. They may also take cover in marmot (Marmota) burrows and shelter among rocks."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE2FAC9F466FE38FEAD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75DFFE2FAC9F466FE38FEAD","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"43.Desert HareLepus tibetanusFrench:Liévre du désert/ German:Wiistenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de desiertoTaxonomy.Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 1841, “Little Thibet [= Tibet].” Fixed by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1955 to “Baltistan, Kashmir.”Until the 1930s, L. tibetanushad species status. The first major revision united L. europaeus, L. tolai, and L. tibetanusin a single species. Next, L. tibetanusand L. tolaiwere placed as subspecies of L. capensis. Then, L. tibetanuswas clearly separated from L. tolai, but L. capensiswas still used as the species name. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. It shares some cranial and pelage characteristics with L. oiostolusfrom the adjacent Tibetan Plateau, in contrast to L. capensisor L. tolai. Evaluation of these characteristics across zones of potential contact between the ten taxon pairs comprising L. capensis(sensu lato) and genetic analyses are necessary before taxonomy of species of Lepuscan be resolved. Molecular analysis placed pamirensis back to L. capensisand assigned centrasiaticus to L. tolai. This species is allopatric to parapatric with L. tolai, but they might be sympatric in the Tien Shan Mountains. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tibetanusWaterhouse,1841—UpperIndusValley,inNEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNWIndia.L.t.centrasiaticusSatunin,1907—EXinjiang,Gansu,andWInnerMongolia=NeiMongol(NW&NCChina).L.t.craspedotisBlanford,1875—BalochistanProvince(Pakistan).L.t.pamirensisGunther,1875—ETajikistanandSWXinjiang(China).L. t. stoliczkanus Blanford, 1875— NW Xinjiang (China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 87-109 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 109-135 mm; weight 1.6-2.5 kg. The Desert Hare is slender and has a relatively small head. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow or drab, tinged with black. Hips are grayish, and outsides of hindlegs and forefeet are white. Ears are wide and have black-brown tips. Tail has black-brown stripes above. The Desert Hare has light eye rings. Ventral fur is yellow to white. The Desert Hare has thick and gray to sandy brown fur in winter.Habitat.Grassland and shrubs on slopes of riverbanks in desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats from low elevations and perhaps up to subalpine habitats at elevations of 3500-4000 m. Desert Hares use burrows constructed by other animals.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Desert Hare includes herbaceous vegetation, seeds, berries, roots, and twigs.Breeding.Female Desert Hares have up to three litters per year; litters have 3-10 young.Activity patterns.The Desert Hare is most active at dusk, but it can also be active during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status. Conservation threats are not known. Research is necessary to clarify population status of the Desert Hare and its taxonomic position relative to other species of Lepus.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Cheng Cheng et al. (2012), China Red List & Johnston (2008b), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, 1955), Heptner (1934), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Ognev (1966), Petter (1959, 1961), Smith (2008c).","taxonomy":"Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 1841, “Little Thibet [= Tibet].” Fixed by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1955 to “Baltistan, Kashmir.”Until the 1930s, L. tibetanushad species status. The first major revision united L. europaeus, L. tolai, and L. tibetanusin a single species. Next, L. tibetanusand L. tolaiwere placed as subspecies of L. capensis. Then, L. tibetanuswas clearly separated from L. tolai, but L. capensiswas still used as the species name. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. It shares some cranial and pelage characteristics with L. oiostolusfrom the adjacent Tibetan Plateau, in contrast to L. capensisor L. tolai. Evaluation of these characteristics across zones of potential contact between the ten taxon pairs comprising L. capensis(sensu lato) and genetic analyses are necessary before taxonomy of species of Lepuscan be resolved. Molecular analysis placed pamirensis back to L. capensisand assigned centrasiaticus to L. tolai. This species is allopatric to parapatric with L. tolai, but they might be sympatric in the Tien Shan Mountains. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre du désert @fr | Wiistenhase @de | Liebre de desierto @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tibetanus","name":"Lepus tibetanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.t.tibetanusWaterhouse,1841—UpperIndusValley,inNEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNWIndia.L.t.centrasiaticusSatunin,1907—EXinjiang,Gansu,andWInnerMongolia=NeiMongol(NW&NCChina).L.t.craspedotisBlanford,1875—BalochistanProvince(Pakistan).L.t.pamirensisGunther,1875—ETajikistanandSWXinjiang(China).L. t. stoliczkanus Blanford, 1875— NW Xinjiang (China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625639/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Cheng Cheng et al. (2012) | China Red List & Johnston (2008b) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, 1955) | Heptner (1934) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Ognev (1966) | Petter (1959, 1961) | Smith (2008c)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Desert Hare includes herbaceous vegetation, seeds, berries, roots, and twigs.","breeding":"Female Desert Hares have up to three litters per year; litters have 3-10 young.","activityPatterns":"The Desert Hare is most active at dusk, but it can also be active during daytime.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status. Conservation threats are not known. Research is necessary to clarify population status of the Desert Hare and its taxonomic position relative to other species of Lepus.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 87-109 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 109-135 mm; weight 1.6-2.5 kg. The Desert Hare is slender and has a relatively small head. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow or drab, tinged with black. Hips are grayish, and outsides of hindlegs and forefeet are white. Ears are wide and have black-brown tips. Tail has black-brown stripes above. The Desert Hare has light eye rings. Ventral fur is yellow to white. The Desert Hare has thick and gray to sandy brown fur in winter.","habitat":"Grassland and shrubs on slopes of riverbanks in desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats from low elevations and perhaps up to subalpine habitats at elevations of 3500-4000 m. Desert Hares use burrows constructed by other animals."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE3FFC3F3E9F6C3FDCA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75DFFE3FFC3F3E9F6C3FDCA","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"42.Tolai HareLepus tolaiFrench:Liévre tolai/ German:Tolai-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre tolaiTaxonomy.Lepus tolai Pallas, 1778, “Caeterum in montibus aprecis campisque rupestribus vel arenosis circa Selengam...” Restricted by S. I. Ognev in 1940 to “valley of the Selenga River,” Russia. Redefined byJ. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Adinscholo Mountain, near Tchinden [Chinden = Chindant], on Borsja [= Boriya] River, a tributary of the Onon River, Eastern Siberia.”In the past, L. tolaiwas included as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeus. Formerly, L. tolaiincluded L. tibetanusas a subspecies. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists.Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Lepus tolaialso included przewalskii that is now considered a subspecies of L. oiostolus.An unclear situation exists in southern Iraq and south-western Iran. The subspecies cheybani occurs westward to ¢.55°-56° E, while L. capensisarabicus occurs eastward to south-eastern Iraq. Whether or not the two forms come into contact is unknown, but their distributions might be separated by that of L. europaeusconnori in south-western Iran. A molecular analysis separated subspecies swinhoei as an independent species and assigned L. tibetanuscentrasiaticus to L. tolai. The population of L. coreanusin Jilin Province, China, may belong to L. tolai. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tolaiPallas,1778—InnerMongolia(=NeiMongol),andGansu(NCChina).L.t.buchariensisOgnev,1922—TajikistanandNEAfghanistan.L.t.cheybaniBaloutch,1978—SWIran(ZagrosMts).L.t.cinnamomeusShamel,1940—SWSichuan,andNYunnan(SCChina).L.t.filchneriMatschie,1908—Shaanxi(CChina).L.t.lehmanniSevertzov,1873—SKazakhstan,Turkmenistan,andextremeN&NEIran,EtoSSiberia,Mongolia,andXinjiang(NWChina).L. t. swinhoei Thomas, 1894— from Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia S to Hebei, Beijing, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong (NE & E China).The Tolai Hare occurs in the steppes E of the Caspian Sea, S to NE & SW Iran, E through the Middle Asian republics to Afghanistan, and from Kazakhstan and S Siberia to Mongolia, S Russian Far East, NW, C & NE China; an isolated population lives in S Iraq and SW Iran. A single specimen in South Asia might extend the distribution of the Tolai Hare as far S as Jammu and Kashmir, N India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-590 mm, tail 72-110 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-127 mm; weight 1.7-2.7 kg. Color of the Tolai Hare varies across its distribution. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow, pale brown, dusty yellow or sandy gray, mixed with dark brown and red stripes. Hips are grayish to ocherous, and ventral fur is pure white. Tail is wholly white below and on sides, with broad black or blackish brown stripe above. There are grayish white or ocherous eye rings extending back to bases of ears and forward toward mouth. Ear tips are black.Habitat.Grassland and forest meadows (never true forests), with tall grasses or shrubby areas for cover in China and semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitat in Mongolia. The Tolai Hare is generally found at elevations of 600-900 m but ascends up to 4900 m in mountains. Forms are created using the front paws. Depths of forms are less during hot weather than when it is cold and windy.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Tolai Hare consists of grass, roots, and herbaceous vegetation. Individuals use fixed and restricted routes while foraging.Breeding.The Tolai Hare has 2-3 litters/year, with 2-6 young/litter. Females give birth in burrows.Activity patterns.The Tolai Hare is nocturnal. Forms are used for resting during daytime.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tolai Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese and Mongolian red lists. It is widespread and occurs in many protected areas. Its overall population is large, and no major threats are known. Hunting for meat, skins, and traditional medicine has been noted as a threat in Mongolia. In southern Uzbekistan, records of fur harvests decreased from 8751 Tolai Hares in 1959 to 595 in 1977.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Baloutch (1978), Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982), Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Goonatilake & Daniel (2005), Cheng Cheng etal. (2012), China Red List & Johnston (2008a), Clark et al. (2006), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Karami et al. (2008), Lissovsky (2016), Ognev (1940, 1966), Smith (2008c), Sokolov et al. (2009).","taxonomy":"Lepus tolai Pallas, 1778, “Caeterum in montibus aprecis campisque rupestribus vel arenosis circa Selengam...” Restricted by S. I. Ognev in 1940 to “valley of the Selenga River,” Russia. Redefined byJ. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1951 to “Adinscholo Mountain, near Tchinden [Chinden = Chindant], on Borsja [= Boriya] River, a tributary of the Onon River, Eastern Siberia.”In the past, L. tolaiwas included as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeus. Formerly, L. tolaiincluded L. tibetanusas a subspecies. Today, the separation between L. tolaiand L. tibetanuson the species level are still questioned by taxonomists.Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Lepus tolaialso included przewalskii that is now considered a subspecies of L. oiostolus.An unclear situation exists in southern Iraq and south-western Iran. The subspecies cheybani occurs westward to ¢.55°-56° E, while L. capensisarabicus occurs eastward to south-eastern Iraq. Whether or not the two forms come into contact is unknown, but their distributions might be separated by that of L. europaeusconnori in south-western Iran. A molecular analysis separated subspecies swinhoei as an independent species and assigned L. tibetanuscentrasiaticus to L. tolai. The population of L. coreanusin Jilin Province, China, may belong to L. tolai. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre tolai @fr | Tolai-Hase @de | Liebre tolai @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1778","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tolai","name":"Lepus tolai","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.t.tolaiPallas,1778—InnerMongolia(=NeiMongol),andGansu(NCChina).L.t.buchariensisOgnev,1922—TajikistanandNEAfghanistan.L.t.cheybaniBaloutch,1978—SWIran(ZagrosMts).L.t.cinnamomeusShamel,1940—SWSichuan,andNYunnan(SCChina).L.t.filchneriMatschie,1908—Shaanxi(CChina).L.t.lehmanniSevertzov,1873—SKazakhstan,Turkmenistan,andextremeN&NEIran,EtoSSiberia,Mongolia,andXinjiang(NWChina).L. t. swinhoei Thomas, 1894— from Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia S to Hebei, Beijing, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong (NE & E China).The Tolai Hare occurs in the steppes E of the Caspian Sea, S to NE & SW Iran, E through the Middle Asian republics to Afghanistan, and from Kazakhstan and S Siberia to Mongolia, S Russian Far East, NW, C & NE China; an isolated population lives in S Iraq and SW Iran. A single specimen in South Asia might extend the distribution of the Tolai Hare as far S as Jammu and Kashmir, N India.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625765/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (1983, 2016) | Baloutch (1978) | Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982) | Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Goonatilake & Daniel (2005) | Cheng Cheng etal. (2012) | China Red List & Johnston (2008a) | Clark et al. (2006) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Karami et al. (2008) | Lissovsky (2016) | Ognev (1940, 1966) | Smith (2008c) | Sokolov et al. (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Tolai Hare consists of grass, roots, and herbaceous vegetation. Individuals use fixed and restricted routes while foraging.","breeding":"The Tolai Hare has 2-3 litters/year, with 2-6 young/litter. Females give birth in burrows.","activityPatterns":"The Tolai Hare is nocturnal. Forms are used for resting during daytime.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tolai Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese and Mongolian red lists. It is widespread and occurs in many protected areas. Its overall population is large, and no major threats are known. Hunting for meat, skins, and traditional medicine has been noted as a threat in Mongolia. In southern Uzbekistan, records of fur harvests decreased from 8751 Tolai Hares in 1959 to 595 in 1977.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-590 mm, tail 72-110 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-127 mm; weight 1.7-2.7 kg. Color of the Tolai Hare varies across its distribution. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow, pale brown, dusty yellow or sandy gray, mixed with dark brown and red stripes. Hips are grayish to ocherous, and ventral fur is pure white. Tail is wholly white below and on sides, with broad black or blackish brown stripe above. There are grayish white or ocherous eye rings extending back to bases of ears and forward toward mouth. Ear tips are black.","habitat":"Grassland and forest meadows (never true forests), with tall grasses or shrubby areas for cover in China and semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitat in Mongolia. The Tolai Hare is generally found at elevations of 600-900 m but ascends up to 4900 m in mountains. Forms are created using the front paws. Depths of forms are less during hot weather than when it is cold and windy."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75DFFE3FFC9FB96FBCFFA50.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75DFFE3FFC9FB96FBCFFA50","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"41.Abyssinian HareLepus habessinicusFrench:Lievre d/Abyssinie/ German:Abessinischer Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de AbisiniaTaxonomy.Lepus habessinicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832, “East coast of Abyssinia, Near Arkiko,” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of L. habessinicus1s unclear. On one hand,it is postulated to be a distinct species based on its morphological characteristics, its allopatric distribution with L. capensisand L. victoriae, and its isolation in the Horn of Africa. In contrast, L. habessinicusis related to, viewed as a subspecies, or even a synonym of L. capensis. Monotypic.Distribution.E Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia (excluding the S region), and perhaps in the extreme N of Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-550 mm, tail 75-100 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 100-118 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Abyssinian Hare is medium-sized, with long ears. Its fur is soft and dense. Dorsal fur is silvery gray and grizzled with a varying amount of black on shoulders, back, and rump. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is pure white, fluffy, and less dense than dorsal fur. Wide cinnamon or rufousstripe from forelimbs to hindlimbs typically separates ventral color from flanks. Head has similar color as dorsal fur, but nasal region and cheeks are silvery white and finely grizzled. Chin is gray or whitish. Ears are relatively long and wide. They are brown or silvery brown outside and whitish buff inside. There are white fringes on lower parts of outer margins of ears and narrow black rims around ear tips. Nuchal patch is pale brownish cinnamon. Limbs of the Abyssinian Hare are long. Forelimbs are brownish cinnamon above and whitish buff below; hindlimbs are silvery gray and grizzled with black above and white or pale cinnamon-rufous below. Hindfeet are cinnamon. Tail is medium-sized, black above, and white on sides and below. Fur color varies geographically (e.g. sandy in Eritrea and grayer on the Ethiopian plateau), probably related to soil color.Habitat.Open grassland, steppe, savanna, semi-desert, and desert, all having some shrubs for daily shade and cover from predators. In these habitats, the Abyssinian Hare replaces the Cape Hare (L. capensis). Abyssinian Hares occur from sea level up to elevations of 2000 m and perhaps 2500 m on the arid north-eastern plateau of Ethiopia and Eritrea.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Abyssinian Hare is suspected to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Abyssinian Hare is widespread and locally very abundant in Djibouti. Its distribution may be increasing due to habitat change from overgrazing. Overall population trends are unknown. Basic insight on actual extent of the distribution of the Abyssinian Hare is needed to clarify conservation needs.Bibliography.Angermann (1983, 2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b), Boitani et al. (1999), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008f).","taxonomy":"Lepus habessinicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832, “East coast of Abyssinia, Near Arkiko,” Ethiopia.Taxonomic status of L. habessinicus1s unclear. On one hand,it is postulated to be a distinct species based on its morphological characteristics, its allopatric distribution with L. capensisand L. victoriae, and its isolation in the Horn of Africa. In contrast, L. habessinicusis related to, viewed as a subspecies, or even a synonym of L. capensis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lievre d @fr | Abyssinie @en | Abessinischer Hase @de | Liebre de Abisinia @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hemprich & Ehrenberg","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1832","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"habessinicus","name":"Lepus habessinicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia (excluding the S region), and perhaps in the extreme N of Kenya.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625635/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (1983, 2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008f)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information for this species, but the Abyssinian Hare is suspected to be nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Abyssinian Hare is widespread and locally very abundant in Djibouti. Its distribution may be increasing due to habitat change from overgrazing. Overall population trends are unknown. Basic insight on actual extent of the distribution of the Abyssinian Hare is needed to clarify conservation needs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-550 mm, tail 75-100 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 100-118 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Abyssinian Hare is medium-sized, with long ears. Its fur is soft and dense. Dorsal fur is silvery gray and grizzled with a varying amount of black on shoulders, back, and rump. Flanks are pale, and ventral fur is pure white, fluffy, and less dense than dorsal fur. Wide cinnamon or rufousstripe from forelimbs to hindlimbs typically separates ventral color from flanks. Head has similar color as dorsal fur, but nasal region and cheeks are silvery white and finely grizzled. Chin is gray or whitish. Ears are relatively long and wide. They are brown or silvery brown outside and whitish buff inside. There are white fringes on lower parts of outer margins of ears and narrow black rims around ear tips. Nuchal patch is pale brownish cinnamon. Limbs of the Abyssinian Hare are long. Forelimbs are brownish cinnamon above and whitish buff below; hindlimbs are silvery gray and grizzled with black above and white or pale cinnamon-rufous below. Hindfeet are cinnamon. Tail is medium-sized, black above, and white on sides and below. Fur color varies geographically (e.g. sandy in Eritrea and grayer on the Ethiopian plateau), probably related to soil color.","habitat":"Open grassland, steppe, savanna, semi-desert, and desert, all having some shrubs for daily shade and cover from predators. In these habitats, the Abyssinian Hare replaces the Cape Hare (L. capensis). Abyssinian Hares occur from sea level up to elevations of 2000 m and perhaps 2500 m on the arid north-eastern plateau of Ethiopia and Eritrea."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75EFFE3FF68F8E1FD26F5BB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75EFFE3FF68F8E1FD26F5BB","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"132","verbatimText":"40.Cape HareLepus capensisFrench:Lievre du Cap/ German:Kaphase/ Spanish:Liebre de El CaboOther common names:Arabian Hare (Middle East), East African Hare (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), North-west African Hare (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri), Sardinian Hare (mediterraneus), South African Hare (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant)Taxonomy.Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758, “ad Cap. b. Spei [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomystatus of L. capensisthroughout its distribution is unclear. As constructed in the past, a single species (capensissensu lato) inhabits Africa in two separate southern and northern areas. There is no evidence of gene flow between these two areas, and intervening areas are inhabited by other species of Lepus. Therefore, an informal subdivision of capensisinto four groups based on their geographical locations (north-western Africa, Middle East, East Africa, and South Africa) is widely accepted and might represent four distinct species. If this is correct, L. capensiswill be restricted to the “South African Hare” group, whereas those in the other three groups will have to be renamed. Nevertheless, formal revision of taxa is not possible due to insufficient data. Subspecies belong in four groups: South Africa (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant), East Africa (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), Middle East (arabicus), and north-western Africa (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri). Taxonomic position of the form mediterraneus (the “Sardinian Hare”) is unresolved. Analysis of the mtCR-1 sequence indicated that mediterraneus forms a monophyletic clade with North African species of Lepus, whereas a phylogenetic analysis of mtCR-1 sequences from Tunisian and Egyptian specimens characterized them as monophyletic and separate from L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis, supporting a hypothesis to include L. europaeusin L. capensis. In light of this continuing uncertainty regarding taxonomic status of the subspecies mediterraneus and North African species of Lepus, they remain included in L. capensis, and L. europaeusretains its taxonomic status as a distinct species. Moreover, the relationship of L. capensisto L. victoriaeis uncertain because in some regions (Kenya and Somalia), specimens appear to have characteristics intermediate between the two species. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the folai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Because of the widespread distribution and interpopulational variation of L. capensis, as many as 38 forms/subspecies have been described. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.Habitat.Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout. Distribution of the Cape Hare has increased with bush clearing and extensive savanna fires. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Cape Hare prefers shrubs rather than grasses for shelter in summer. In the Namib Desert, it makes short burrows to avoid exposure to the sun.Food and Feeding.Cape Hares are herbivorous and graze on grasses at night. Diets presumably vary according to habitat. Fecal analysis in Kenya revealed that 19% ofthe diet was dicotyledons, 40% grasses, 1% sedge, and 32% stem fibers. Grasses in the diet included Sporobolus sp., Aristida sp., Chloris sp., Cynodondactylon, Enneapogon sp., and Eragrostis sp(all Poaceae). The study found differences in proportions of grass species eaten at different sites, but seasonal differences, including wet and dry seasons, were small at each site. The Cape Hare is reasonably opportunistic, selecting different grass species according to their availabilities. It is expanding its distribution at the expense of less adaptable species of Lepusbecause it thrives on overgrazed pastures.Breeding.Reproduction of the Cape Hare varies by location. Near the Equator, males are sexually active and females pregnant throughout the year. Pregnancy rates are 80-100% for most of the year, except in April (wettest month of the year) and June/ July (end of wet season). Females have 6-8 litters/year, with a mean littersize of 1-5, or an average of 11-6 young/year. Mean littersize varies seasonally, probably in response to changes in rainfall and forage (one young in September to 1-9 in January). Litter size also varies by elevation; Cape Hares at higher elevations have small litters (mean of 1-2 young at 1800 m) than those at lower elevations (mean of 1-7 young at 600 m).Activity patterns.Cape Hares are nocturnal. They rest in forms during the day but might feed during the day whenitis overcast.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Cape Hares vary depending on habitat type. They mainly live alone and only occasionally in small groups. In Kenya, only four groups of three Cape Hares were seen out of 800 individuals observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Hare is widespread and abundant, with a total population greater than 10,000 individuals. In the southern part of its African distribution, a population decline of less than 10% since 1904 has been reported. No population information is available for the northern African region ofits distribution. Population trends of Cape Hares in Arabia are characterized by moderate declines. Current population trends of Cape Hares on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain, are of concern because it is possible that the form of the Cape Hare living on these islands is a distinct species. The population of the Cape Hare on Sardinia has been declining even though it is characterized as locally common. The Cape Hare has experienced habitat loss on the Arabian Peninsula since the 1950s mainly caused by urbanization, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, livestock competition, agricultural encroachment, recreational activities, harvest/hunting, and infrastructure development related to tourism. These threats will likely lead to continuing population declines on the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, a loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting poses the greatest threats to Cape Hares.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1939), Angermann (2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Boitani et al. (1999), Dixon (1975), Drew et al. (2008), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Ellerman et al. (1953), Flux (1969, 1981a, 1981b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Flux & Flux (1983), Flux & Jarvis (1970), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004), Lissovsky (2016), Lundholm (1955), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Petter (1959, 1961), Scandura etal. (2007), Stewart (1971c¢).","taxonomy":"Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758, “ad Cap. b. Spei [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomystatus of L. capensisthroughout its distribution is unclear. As constructed in the past, a single species (capensissensu lato) inhabits Africa in two separate southern and northern areas. There is no evidence of gene flow between these two areas, and intervening areas are inhabited by other species of Lepus. Therefore, an informal subdivision of capensisinto four groups based on their geographical locations (north-western Africa, Middle East, East Africa, and South Africa) is widely accepted and might represent four distinct species. If this is correct, L. capensiswill be restricted to the “South African Hare” group, whereas those in the other three groups will have to be renamed. Nevertheless, formal revision of taxa is not possible due to insufficient data. Subspecies belong in four groups: South Africa (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant), East Africa (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), Middle East (arabicus), and north-western Africa (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri). Taxonomic position of the form mediterraneus (the “Sardinian Hare”) is unresolved. Analysis of the mtCR-1 sequence indicated that mediterraneus forms a monophyletic clade with North African species of Lepus, whereas a phylogenetic analysis of mtCR-1 sequences from Tunisian and Egyptian specimens characterized them as monophyletic and separate from L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis, supporting a hypothesis to include L. europaeusin L. capensis. In light of this continuing uncertainty regarding taxonomic status of the subspecies mediterraneus and North African species of Lepus, they remain included in L. capensis, and L. europaeusretains its taxonomic status as a distinct species. Moreover, the relationship of L. capensisto L. victoriaeis uncertain because in some regions (Kenya and Somalia), specimens appear to have characteristics intermediate between the two species. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the folai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Because of the widespread distribution and interpopulational variation of L. capensis, as many as 38 forms/subspecies have been described. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.Habitat.Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout.","commonNames":"Lievre du Cap @fr | Kaphase @de | Liebre de El Cabo @es | Arabian Hare (Middle East) @en | East African Hare (aegyptius @en | hawkeri @en | isabellinus @en | and sinaiticus) @en | North-west African Hare (atlanticus @en | mediterraneus @en | schlumbergeri @en | and whitakeri) @en | Sardinian Hare (mediterraneus) @en | South African Hare (capensis @en | aquilo @en | carpi @en | and grant) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"132","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"capensis","name":"Lepus capensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.","bibliography":"Allen, G.M. (1939) | Angermann (2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Dixon (1975) | Drew et al. (2008) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Ellerman et al. (1953) | Flux (1969, 1981a, 1981b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Flux & Flux (1983) | Flux & Jarvis (1970) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lundholm (1955) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Petter (1959, 1961) | Scandura etal. (2007) | Stewart (1971c¢)","foodAndFeeding":"Cape Hares are herbivorous and graze on grasses at night. Diets presumably vary according to habitat. Fecal analysis in Kenya revealed that 19% ofthe diet was dicotyledons, 40% grasses, 1% sedge, and 32% stem fibers. Grasses in the diet included Sporobolus sp., Aristida sp., Chloris sp., Cynodondactylon, Enneapogon sp., and Eragrostis sp(all Poaceae). The study found differences in proportions of grass species eaten at different sites, but seasonal differences, including wet and dry seasons, were small at each site. The Cape Hare is reasonably opportunistic, selecting different grass species according to their availabilities. It is expanding its distribution at the expense of less adaptable species of Lepusbecause it thrives on overgrazed pastures.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Cape Hare varies by location. Near the Equator, males are sexually active and females pregnant throughout the year. Pregnancy rates are 80-100% for most of the year, except in April (wettest month of the year) and June/ July (end of wet season). Females have 6-8 litters/year, with a mean littersize of 1-5, or an average of 11-6 young/year. Mean littersize varies seasonally, probably in response to changes in rainfall and forage (one young in September to 1-9 in January). Litter size also varies by elevation; Cape Hares at higher elevations have small litters (mean of 1-2 young at 1800 m) than those at lower elevations (mean of 1-7 young at 600 m).","activityPatterns":"Cape Hares are nocturnal. They rest in forms during the day but might feed during the day whenitis overcast.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Cape Hares vary depending on habitat type. They mainly live alone and only occasionally in small groups. In Kenya, only four groups of three Cape Hares were seen out of 800 individuals observed.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Hare is widespread and abundant, with a total population greater than 10,000 individuals. In the southern part of its African distribution, a population decline of less than 10% since 1904 has been reported. No population information is available for the northern African region ofits distribution. Population trends of Cape Hares in Arabia are characterized by moderate declines. Current population trends of Cape Hares on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain, are of concern because it is possible that the form of the Cape Hare living on these islands is a distinct species. The population of the Cape Hare on Sardinia has been declining even though it is characterized as locally common. The Cape Hare has experienced habitat loss on the Arabian Peninsula since the 1950s mainly caused by urbanization, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, livestock competition, agricultural encroachment, recreational activities, harvest/hunting, and infrastructure development related to tourism. These threats will likely lead to continuing population declines on the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, a loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting poses the greatest threats to Cape Hares.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.","habitat":"Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout. Distribution of the Cape Hare has increased with bush clearing and extensive savanna fires. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Cape Hare prefers shrubs rather than grasses for shelter in summer. In the Namib Desert, it makes short burrows to avoid exposure to the sun."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75EFFE3FF68F8E1FD26F5BB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75EFFE3FF68F8E1FD26F5BB","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"132","verbatimText":"40.Cape HareLepus capensisFrench:Lievre du Cap/ German:Kaphase/ Spanish:Liebre de El CaboOther common names:Arabian Hare (Middle East), East African Hare (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), North-west African Hare (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri), Sardinian Hare (mediterraneus), South African Hare (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant)Taxonomy.Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758, “ad Cap. b. Spei [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomystatus of L. capensisthroughout its distribution is unclear. As constructed in the past, a single species (capensissensu lato) inhabits Africa in two separate southern and northern areas. There is no evidence of gene flow between these two areas, and intervening areas are inhabited by other species of Lepus. Therefore, an informal subdivision of capensisinto four groups based on their geographical locations (north-western Africa, Middle East, East Africa, and South Africa) is widely accepted and might represent four distinct species. If this is correct, L. capensiswill be restricted to the “South African Hare” group, whereas those in the other three groups will have to be renamed. Nevertheless, formal revision of taxa is not possible due to insufficient data. Subspecies belong in four groups: South Africa (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant), East Africa (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), Middle East (arabicus), and north-western Africa (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri). Taxonomic position of the form mediterraneus (the “Sardinian Hare”) is unresolved. Analysis of the mtCR-1 sequence indicated that mediterraneus forms a monophyletic clade with North African species of Lepus, whereas a phylogenetic analysis of mtCR-1 sequences from Tunisian and Egyptian specimens characterized them as monophyletic and separate from L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis, supporting a hypothesis to include L. europaeusin L. capensis. In light of this continuing uncertainty regarding taxonomic status of the subspecies mediterraneus and North African species of Lepus, they remain included in L. capensis, and L. europaeusretains its taxonomic status as a distinct species. Moreover, the relationship of L. capensisto L. victoriaeis uncertain because in some regions (Kenya and Somalia), specimens appear to have characteristics intermediate between the two species. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the folai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Because of the widespread distribution and interpopulational variation of L. capensis, as many as 38 forms/subspecies have been described. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.Habitat.Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout. Distribution of the Cape Hare has increased with bush clearing and extensive savanna fires. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Cape Hare prefers shrubs rather than grasses for shelter in summer. In the Namib Desert, it makes short burrows to avoid exposure to the sun.Food and Feeding.Cape Hares are herbivorous and graze on grasses at night. Diets presumably vary according to habitat. Fecal analysis in Kenya revealed that 19% ofthe diet was dicotyledons, 40% grasses, 1% sedge, and 32% stem fibers. Grasses in the diet included Sporobolus sp., Aristida sp., Chloris sp., Cynodondactylon, Enneapogon sp., and Eragrostis sp(all Poaceae). The study found differences in proportions of grass species eaten at different sites, but seasonal differences, including wet and dry seasons, were small at each site. The Cape Hare is reasonably opportunistic, selecting different grass species according to their availabilities. It is expanding its distribution at the expense of less adaptable species of Lepusbecause it thrives on overgrazed pastures.Breeding.Reproduction of the Cape Hare varies by location. Near the Equator, males are sexually active and females pregnant throughout the year. Pregnancy rates are 80-100% for most of the year, except in April (wettest month of the year) and June/ July (end of wet season). Females have 6-8 litters/year, with a mean littersize of 1-5, or an average of 11-6 young/year. Mean littersize varies seasonally, probably in response to changes in rainfall and forage (one young in September to 1-9 in January). Litter size also varies by elevation; Cape Hares at higher elevations have small litters (mean of 1-2 young at 1800 m) than those at lower elevations (mean of 1-7 young at 600 m).Activity patterns.Cape Hares are nocturnal. They rest in forms during the day but might feed during the day whenitis overcast.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Cape Hares vary depending on habitat type. They mainly live alone and only occasionally in small groups. In Kenya, only four groups of three Cape Hares were seen out of 800 individuals observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Hare is widespread and abundant, with a total population greater than 10,000 individuals. In the southern part of its African distribution, a population decline of less than 10% since 1904 has been reported. No population information is available for the northern African region ofits distribution. Population trends of Cape Hares in Arabia are characterized by moderate declines. Current population trends of Cape Hares on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain, are of concern because it is possible that the form of the Cape Hare living on these islands is a distinct species. The population of the Cape Hare on Sardinia has been declining even though it is characterized as locally common. The Cape Hare has experienced habitat loss on the Arabian Peninsula since the 1950s mainly caused by urbanization, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, livestock competition, agricultural encroachment, recreational activities, harvest/hunting, and infrastructure development related to tourism. These threats will likely lead to continuing population declines on the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, a loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting poses the greatest threats to Cape Hares.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1939), Angermann (2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Boitani et al. (1999), Dixon (1975), Drew et al. (2008), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Ellerman et al. (1953), Flux (1969, 1981a, 1981b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Flux & Flux (1983), Flux & Jarvis (1970), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004), Lissovsky (2016), Lundholm (1955), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Petter (1959, 1961), Scandura etal. (2007), Stewart (1971c¢).","taxonomy":"Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758, “ad Cap. b. Spei [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa.Taxonomystatus of L. capensisthroughout its distribution is unclear. As constructed in the past, a single species (capensissensu lato) inhabits Africa in two separate southern and northern areas. There is no evidence of gene flow between these two areas, and intervening areas are inhabited by other species of Lepus. Therefore, an informal subdivision of capensisinto four groups based on their geographical locations (north-western Africa, Middle East, East Africa, and South Africa) is widely accepted and might represent four distinct species. If this is correct, L. capensiswill be restricted to the “South African Hare” group, whereas those in the other three groups will have to be renamed. Nevertheless, formal revision of taxa is not possible due to insufficient data. Subspecies belong in four groups: South Africa (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant), East Africa (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), Middle East (arabicus), and north-western Africa (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri). Taxonomic position of the form mediterraneus (the “Sardinian Hare”) is unresolved. Analysis of the mtCR-1 sequence indicated that mediterraneus forms a monophyletic clade with North African species of Lepus, whereas a phylogenetic analysis of mtCR-1 sequences from Tunisian and Egyptian specimens characterized them as monophyletic and separate from L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis, supporting a hypothesis to include L. europaeusin L. capensis. In light of this continuing uncertainty regarding taxonomic status of the subspecies mediterraneus and North African species of Lepus, they remain included in L. capensis, and L. europaeusretains its taxonomic status as a distinct species. Moreover, the relationship of L. capensisto L. victoriaeis uncertain because in some regions (Kenya and Somalia), specimens appear to have characteristics intermediate between the two species. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the folai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Because of the widespread distribution and interpopulational variation of L. capensis, as many as 38 forms/subspecies have been described. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.Habitat.Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout.","commonNames":"Lievre du Cap @fr | Kaphase @de | Liebre de El Cabo @es | Arabian Hare (Middle East) @en | East African Hare (aegyptius @en | hawkeri @en | isabellinus @en | and sinaiticus) @en | North-west African Hare (atlanticus @en | mediterraneus @en | schlumbergeri @en | and whitakeri) @en | Sardinian Hare (mediterraneus) @en | South African Hare (capensis @en | aquilo @en | carpi @en | and grant) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"132","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"capensis","name":"Lepus capensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758— Western Cape Province (South Africa).L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine.L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique.L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan.. ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902— Libya, Niger and Algeria.The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625633/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen, G.M. (1939) | Angermann (2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Dixon (1975) | Drew et al. (2008) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Ellerman et al. (1953) | Flux (1969, 1981a, 1981b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Flux & Flux (1983) | Flux & Jarvis (1970) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004) | Lissovsky (2016) | Lundholm (1955) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Petter (1959, 1961) | Scandura etal. (2007) | Stewart (1971c¢)","foodAndFeeding":"Cape Hares are herbivorous and graze on grasses at night. Diets presumably vary according to habitat. Fecal analysis in Kenya revealed that 19% ofthe diet was dicotyledons, 40% grasses, 1% sedge, and 32% stem fibers. Grasses in the diet included Sporobolus sp., Aristida sp., Chloris sp., Cynodondactylon, Enneapogon sp., and Eragrostis sp(all Poaceae). The study found differences in proportions of grass species eaten at different sites, but seasonal differences, including wet and dry seasons, were small at each site. The Cape Hare is reasonably opportunistic, selecting different grass species according to their availabilities. It is expanding its distribution at the expense of less adaptable species of Lepusbecause it thrives on overgrazed pastures.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Cape Hare varies by location. Near the Equator, males are sexually active and females pregnant throughout the year. Pregnancy rates are 80-100% for most of the year, except in April (wettest month of the year) and June/ July (end of wet season). Females have 6-8 litters/year, with a mean littersize of 1-5, or an average of 11-6 young/year. Mean littersize varies seasonally, probably in response to changes in rainfall and forage (one young in September to 1-9 in January). Litter size also varies by elevation; Cape Hares at higher elevations have small litters (mean of 1-2 young at 1800 m) than those at lower elevations (mean of 1-7 young at 600 m).","activityPatterns":"Cape Hares are nocturnal. They rest in forms during the day but might feed during the day whenitis overcast.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Cape Hares vary depending on habitat type. They mainly live alone and only occasionally in small groups. In Kenya, only four groups of three Cape Hares were seen out of 800 individuals observed.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Hare is widespread and abundant, with a total population greater than 10,000 individuals. In the southern part of its African distribution, a population decline of less than 10% since 1904 has been reported. No population information is available for the northern African region ofits distribution. Population trends of Cape Hares in Arabia are characterized by moderate declines. Current population trends of Cape Hares on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain, are of concern because it is possible that the form of the Cape Hare living on these islands is a distinct species. The population of the Cape Hare on Sardinia has been declining even though it is characterized as locally common. The Cape Hare has experienced habitat loss on the Arabian Peninsula since the 1950s mainly caused by urbanization, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, livestock competition, agricultural encroachment, recreational activities, harvest/hunting, and infrastructure development related to tourism. These threats will likely lead to continuing population declines on the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, a loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting poses the greatest threats to Cape Hares.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity.","habitat":"Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia— Brachystegiasavanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout. Distribution of the Cape Hare has increased with bush clearing and extensive savanna fires. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Cape Hare prefers shrubs rather than grasses for shelter in summer. In the Namib Desert, it makes short burrows to avoid exposure to the sun."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75FFFE0FAC9F39AFE8CF14E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75FFFE0FAC9F39AFE8CF14E","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"131","verbatimText":"39.Ethiopian Highland HareLepus starckiFrench:Liévre de Starck/ German:Athiopischer Hochlandhase/ Spanish:Liebre de tierras altas de EtiopiaOther common names:Starck's HareTaxonomy.Lepus starcki Petter, 1963, “Jeldu-Liban-Shoa, 2740 metres, 40 km W. Addis Abeba,” Ethiopia.It was originally listed as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeusbut is now considered a distinct species. It has been suggested that L. starckiis a relict form of L. europaeusfrom the Pleistocene because of the similarity between their skulls. Monotypic.Distribution.C highlands of Ethiopia, especially in the Mts of Arussi and Bale regions; it does not occur in the Ethiopian Rift Valley separating these mountain regions.Descriptive notes.Head-body 440-560 mm, tail 82-115 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 88-120 mm; weight 1.9-3 kg. The Ethiopian Highland Hare is medium-sized. Its fur color is generally dark. Dorsal pelage and head are buffy white and grizzled with dots and streaks of black. Flanks are paler, with lower flanks cinnamon-rufous. Ventral pelage is white and fluffy. Ears are of medium length, with their upper orie-quarter conspicuously black on inner and outer surface. In some individuals, black extends on inner margins of inner surfaces and on outer margins of outer surfaces to bases of ears. Chin is whitish, with tinge of cinnamon on lips. Nuchal patch is bright cinnamon or rufous. The Ethiopian Highland Hare has long forelimbs and hindlimbs that are whitish gray above and pale cinnamon and white below. Hindfeet are cinnamon-buff above and medium brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black above and white on sides and below;tail color is variable, with holotypes having pure white tails.Habitat.Open highland habitats, especially rocky grasslands, at elevations of 2100-4400 m. The Ethiopian Highland Hare prefers wetland habitats during the dry season.Food and Feeding.Based on fecal analysis, Ethiopian Highland Hares are highly selective for monocotyledons but eat some dicotyledons during the dry season. Festuca spp.(Poaceae) was the most available and important food among grasses. Koeleria capensis, Agrostisgracilifolia (both Poaceae), and Carexmonostachya (Cyperaceae) were also eaten.Breeding.One pregnant Ethiopian Highland Hare with one embryo and one lactating female were recorded in December. Reproduction would be expected to occur in the dry season.Activity patterns.There is no information available forthis species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Ethiopian Highland Hare is considered to be abundant within its Ethiopian distribution. No data are available on its population status, and conservation threats are unknown.Bibliography.Angermann (1983), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b), Boitani et al. (1999), Flux & Angermann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Mekonnen et al. (2011), Smith & Johnston (2008e), Yalden et al. (1986).","taxonomy":"Lepus starcki Petter, 1963, “Jeldu-Liban-Shoa, 2740 metres, 40 km W. Addis Abeba,” Ethiopia.It was originally listed as a subspecies of L. capensisor L. europaeusbut is now considered a distinct species. It has been suggested that L. starckiis a relict form of L. europaeusfrom the Pleistocene because of the similarity between their skulls. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Liévre de Starck @fr | Athiopischer Hochlandhase @de | Liebre de tierras altas de Etiopia @es | Starck's Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Petter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1963","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"131","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"starcki","name":"Lepus starcki","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C highlands of Ethiopia, especially in the Mts of Arussi and Bale regions; it does not occur in the Ethiopian Rift Valley separating these mountain regions.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625631/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (1983) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b) | Boitani et al. (1999) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Mekonnen et al. (2011) | Smith & Johnston (2008e) | Yalden et al. (1986)","foodAndFeeding":"Based on fecal analysis, Ethiopian Highland Hares are highly selective for monocotyledons but eat some dicotyledons during the dry season. Festuca spp.(Poaceae) was the most available and important food among grasses. Koeleria capensis, Agrostisgracilifolia (both Poaceae), and Carexmonostachya (Cyperaceae) were also eaten.","breeding":"One pregnant Ethiopian Highland Hare with one embryo and one lactating female were recorded in December. Reproduction would be expected to occur in the dry season.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available forthis species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Ethiopian Highland Hare is considered to be abundant within its Ethiopian distribution. No data are available on its population status, and conservation threats are unknown.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 440-560 mm, tail 82-115 mm, ear 100-120 mm, hindfoot 88-120 mm; weight 1.9-3 kg. The Ethiopian Highland Hare is medium-sized. Its fur color is generally dark. Dorsal pelage and head are buffy white and grizzled with dots and streaks of black. Flanks are paler, with lower flanks cinnamon-rufous. Ventral pelage is white and fluffy. Ears are of medium length, with their upper orie-quarter conspicuously black on inner and outer surface. In some individuals, black extends on inner margins of inner surfaces and on outer margins of outer surfaces to bases of ears. Chin is whitish, with tinge of cinnamon on lips. Nuchal patch is bright cinnamon or rufous. The Ethiopian Highland Hare has long forelimbs and hindlimbs that are whitish gray above and pale cinnamon and white below. Hindfeet are cinnamon-buff above and medium brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black above and white on sides and below;tail color is variable, with holotypes having pure white tails.","habitat":"Open highland habitats, especially rocky grasslands, at elevations of 2100-4400 m. The Ethiopian Highland Hare prefers wetland habitats during the dry season."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75FFFE1FAF6FC3DF7FCFD86.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75FFFE1FAF6FC3DF7FCFD86","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"131","verbatimText":"38.Yarkand HareLepus yarkandensisFrench:Liévre de Yarkand/ German:Yarkand-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de YarkandTaxonomy.Lepus yarkandensis Gunther, 1875, “neighbourhood ofYarkand,”China.Significant genetic subdivision occurs among populations of L. yarkandensisinhabiting the two isolated regions in the north-eastern and south-western part of the Tarim Basin. A low level of gene diversity exists among populations that are physically isolated by desert that restricts gene flow, but significant genetic differentiation among the other populations was found.There is genetic evidence for bidirectional introgressive hybridization between L. capensisand L. yarkandensisin the contact zone adjacent to the Tarim Basin. Monotypic.Distribution.Steppes of the Tarim Basin around the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, S Xinjiang (NW China).Descriptive notes.Head—body 290-430 mm, tail 55-86 mm, ear 90-110 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm; weight 1.1-1.9 kg. The Yarkand Hare is small, with short and straight pelage. Dorsal fur is sand-brown, mixed with many pale brown stripes. Sides are sandyellow, and abdomen is white. Ears are relatively long. Tail is similar to dorsal pelage above and white on sides and below. Ventral fur is wholly white. There is seasonal variation with a paler fur in winter than during the rest of the year.Habitat.Mainly tamarisk (7amarix ramosissima, Tamaricaceae) and poplar (Populusdiversifolia and P. pruinosa, Salicaceae) forests, brushwood, and reed meadows distributed in patches along rivers descending from surrounding mountains and running into desert, at elevations of 900-1200 m. Yarkand Hares avoid agricultural areas and make shallow runaways under bushes. Shallow forms are located under vegetation, especially reeds along rivers.Food and Feeding.The Yarkand Hare is herbivorous and is known to damage cultivated melons. Groups of 5-6 Yarkand Hares customarily drink on the riverbanks.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Yarkand Hare starts in February and extends possibly until September. Females have 2-3 litters/year, with 2-5 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Yarkand Hare is mainly nocturnal, especially in early morning and late evening. It hides in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Yarkand Hare is classified as vulnerable on the Chinese Red List. It has a restricted distribution but can be locally common. It occurs in nature reserves; however, increased human activity due to petroleum exploration and local development within its distribution are undoubtedly having a negative impact on the Yarkand Hare. At present, there are no data available to quantify ongoing population decline. It is assumed that declines are moderate. Yarkand Hares are shot as game, and ¢.10,000 furs were harvested annually between 1958 and 1981. Low gene flow between isolated populations might result in genetic drift and inbreeding depression. The Yarkand Hares needs some attention dueto its restricted habitat and distribution. Efforts should be made to conserve habitat, and harvest limits should be implemented. Genetic variability should be monitored to avert inbreeding depression.Bibliography.Angermann (1967b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gao Yaoting (1983), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Li Zengchao et al. (2005), Shan Wenjuan et al. (2011), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008d), Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian, Lei Fumin & Yang Qisen (2010), Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian & Yang Qisen (2010), Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian, Yang Qisen & Meng Xiuxiang (2011).","taxonomy":"Lepus yarkandensis Gunther, 1875, “neighbourhood ofYarkand,”China.Significant genetic subdivision occurs among populations of L. yarkandensisinhabiting the two isolated regions in the north-eastern and south-western part of the Tarim Basin. A low level of gene diversity exists among populations that are physically isolated by desert that restricts gene flow, but significant genetic differentiation among the other populations was found.There is genetic evidence for bidirectional introgressive hybridization between L. capensisand L. yarkandensisin the contact zone adjacent to the Tarim Basin. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Liévre de Yarkand @fr | Yarkand-Hase @de | Liebre de Yarkand @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gunther","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1875","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"131","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"yarkandensis","name":"Lepus yarkandensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Steppes of the Tarim Basin around the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, S Xinjiang (NW China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625629/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (1967b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gao Yaoting (1983) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Li Zengchao et al. (2005) | Shan Wenjuan et al. (2011) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008d) | Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian, Lei Fumin & Yang Qisen (2010) | Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian & Yang Qisen (2010) | Wu Yonghua, Xia Lin, Zhang Qian, Yang Qisen & Meng Xiuxiang (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Yarkand Hare is herbivorous and is known to damage cultivated melons. Groups of 5-6 Yarkand Hares customarily drink on the riverbanks.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Yarkand Hare starts in February and extends possibly until September. Females have 2-3 litters/year, with 2-5 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"The Yarkand Hare is mainly nocturnal, especially in early morning and late evening. It hides in forms during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Yarkand Hare is classified as vulnerable on the Chinese Red List. It has a restricted distribution but can be locally common. It occurs in nature reserves; however, increased human activity due to petroleum exploration and local development within its distribution are undoubtedly having a negative impact on the Yarkand Hare. At present, there are no data available to quantify ongoing population decline. It is assumed that declines are moderate. Yarkand Hares are shot as game, and ¢.10,000 furs were harvested annually between 1958 and 1981. Low gene flow between isolated populations might result in genetic drift and inbreeding depression. The Yarkand Hares needs some attention dueto its restricted habitat and distribution. Efforts should be made to conserve habitat, and harvest limits should be implemented. Genetic variability should be monitored to avert inbreeding depression.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 290-430 mm, tail 55-86 mm, ear 90-110 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm; weight 1.1-1.9 kg. The Yarkand Hare is small, with short and straight pelage. Dorsal fur is sand-brown, mixed with many pale brown stripes. Sides are sandyellow, and abdomen is white. Ears are relatively long. Tail is similar to dorsal pelage above and white on sides and below. Ventral fur is wholly white. There is seasonal variation with a paler fur in winter than during the rest of the year.","habitat":"Mainly tamarisk (7amarix ramosissima, Tamaricaceae) and poplar (Populusdiversifolia and P. pruinosa, Salicaceae) forests, brushwood, and reed meadows distributed in patches along rivers descending from surrounding mountains and running into desert, at elevations of 900-1200 m. Yarkand Hares avoid agricultural areas and make shallow runaways under bushes. Shallow forms are located under vegetation, especially reeds along rivers."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75FFFE1FFC9FBFDF75EF567.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75FFFE1FFC9FBFDF75EF567","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"131","verbatimText":"37.African Savanna HareLepus victoriaeFrench:Liévre des savanes/ German:Savannenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de sabanaTaxonomy.Lepus victoriae Thomas, 1893, “Lande der Ridj,” Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.It was formerly included with L. saxatilisand has various synonyms that are still under debate (saxatilis, crawshayi, whytei, and macrotis). Some taxonomic confusion has arisen because the skull of the type specimen of victoriaeis missing and because the type of whytei seems to be aberrant and not typical of others in nearby localities. The form whytei seems to be close to but distinguishable from L. fagani, and the wide geographical separation between these two forms merits recognition of whytei as a valid species. Also crawshayi might be a valid species. On the other hand,it is under discussion whether whytei and crawshayi might be subspecies of L. nigricollis. Moreover, L. victoriaemay be considered as the northern allospecies of the southern L. saxatilis. This species is widely sympatric with L. capensisand alloparatric to parapatric with L. saxatilisand L. habessinicus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.v.victoriaeThomas,1893—Tanzania.L.v.angolensisThomas,1904—Angola.L.v.senegalensisRochebrune,1883—Senegal,TheGambia.L. v. whyte: Thomas, 1894— Malawi.The African Savanna Hare is present from the Atlantic coast of NW Africa (Western Sahara S to Guinea), E across the Sahel to Sudan and the extreme W Ethiopia, S through E Africa (E DR Congo, Uganda, W Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) to most of Angola, Zambia, Malawi, NE Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, E South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho; a small isolated population exists near Beni Abbas in the Sahara Desert in W Algeria.Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-580 mm,tail 68-121 mm, ear 90-120 mm, hindfoot 103-127 mm; weight 1:4.3-2 kg. The African Savanna Hare is medium-sized and has soft butslightly coarse fur. Dorsal pelage, crown of head, and nasal region are brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are buff. Lips, cheeks, and areas around eyes are grayish. Ventral fur is white or buff. Chin is white, and collar is rufous or buffy. Lateral profile of head is shallowly and smoothly convex. Throat is buffy brown. Ears are of medium length, brownish and grizzled. Ear tips are black on outer and inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is characteristically orange to brownish orange. Forelimbs are long and buffy brown; hindlimbs are cinnamon-brown. Hindfeet are cinnamon-brown above and brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black or dark brown above and white laterally and below. Fur color varies geographically, but this might be due to the unclear species status. Montane forms of the African Savanna Hare are more rufous and darker than lowland forms.Habitat.Scrub, bush, and grassland habitats, preferring scrubby and montane habitats. The African Savanna Hare occurs in mountain regions up to ¢.3600 m on Mount Kenya and is also recorded in semiarid grasslands. It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution; they are separated largely by habitat. African Savanna Hares have been recorded in grassland associations of Themedatriandra and Imperatacylindrical (both Poaceae) in Ruanda-Urundi and Tarchonanthuscamphoratus (Asteraceae) scrub in East Africa.Food and Feeding.The African Savanna Hare is herbivorous. Based on fecal analysis, diet in Kenya consisted of grasses (35%) such as Digitaria sp.(18%), Hyparrhenia sp.(11%), and Cynodondactylon (4%) and dicotyledons (1%). Diets vary by habitat.Breeding.In Uganda, 100% of female African Savanna Hares were pregnant in all months except May and November when only 80% were pregnant. Mean litter size was 1-6 young, and numbers of litters per year were 6-8, resulting in a mean of 11-2 young/female/year.Activity patterns.The African Savanna Hare is strictly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of African Savanna Hares are 5-10 ha. They live mostly alone but are sometimes seen in groups of 2-3 individuals while feeding.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as L. microtis). The African Savanna Hare is widespread, but no data are available on its population status. Status of a small isolated population in western Algeria is uncertain and needs assessment. Threats to the African Savanna Hare are unknown, but its uncertain taxonomy makesit difficult to thoroughly understand its conservation status.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1939), Angermann (2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987b), Curry-Lindahl (1961), Flux (1981a, 1981b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Flux & Flux (1983), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Petter (1959), Smith & Johnston (2008c), Stewart (1971a).","taxonomy":"Lepus victoriae Thomas, 1893, “Lande der Ridj,” Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.It was formerly included with L. saxatilisand has various synonyms that are still under debate (saxatilis, crawshayi, whytei, and macrotis). Some taxonomic confusion has arisen because the skull of the type specimen of victoriaeis missing and because the type of whytei seems to be aberrant and not typical of others in nearby localities. The form whytei seems to be close to but distinguishable from L. fagani, and the wide geographical separation between these two forms merits recognition of whytei as a valid species. Also crawshayi might be a valid species. On the other hand,it is under discussion whether whytei and crawshayi might be subspecies of L. nigricollis. Moreover, L. victoriaemay be considered as the northern allospecies of the southern L. saxatilis. This species is widely sympatric with L. capensisand alloparatric to parapatric with L. saxatilisand L. habessinicus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre des savanes @fr | Savannenhase @de | Liebre de sabana @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"131","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"victoriae","name":"Lepus victoriae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.v.victoriaeThomas,1893—Tanzania.L.v.angolensisThomas,1904—Angola.L.v.senegalensisRochebrune,1883—Senegal,TheGambia.L. v. whyte: Thomas, 1894— Malawi.The African Savanna Hare is present from the Atlantic coast of NW Africa (Western Sahara S to Guinea), E across the Sahel to Sudan and the extreme W Ethiopia, S through E Africa (E DR Congo, Uganda, W Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) to most of Angola, Zambia, Malawi, NE Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, E South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho; a small isolated population exists near Beni Abbas in the Sahara Desert in W Algeria.","bibliography":"Allen, G.M. (1939) | Angermann (2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987b) | Curry-Lindahl (1961) | Flux (1981a, 1981b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Flux & Flux (1983) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Petter (1959) | Smith & Johnston (2008c) | Stewart (1971a)","foodAndFeeding":"The African Savanna Hare is herbivorous. Based on fecal analysis, diet in Kenya consisted of grasses (35%) such as Digitaria sp.(18%), Hyparrhenia sp.(11%), and Cynodondactylon (4%) and dicotyledons (1%). Diets vary by habitat.","breeding":"In Uganda, 100% of female African Savanna Hares were pregnant in all months except May and November when only 80% were pregnant. Mean litter size was 1-6 young, and numbers of litters per year were 6-8, resulting in a mean of 11-2 young/female/year.","activityPatterns":"The African Savanna Hare is strictly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of African Savanna Hares are 5-10 ha. They live mostly alone but are sometimes seen in groups of 2-3 individuals while feeding.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as L. microtis). The African Savanna Hare is widespread, but no data are available on its population status. Status of a small isolated population in western Algeria is uncertain and needs assessment. Threats to the African Savanna Hare are unknown, but its uncertain taxonomy makesit difficult to thoroughly understand its conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 420-580 mm,tail 68-121 mm, ear 90-120 mm, hindfoot 103-127 mm; weight 1:4.3-2 kg. The African Savanna Hare is medium-sized and has soft butslightly coarse fur. Dorsal pelage, crown of head, and nasal region are brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are buff. Lips, cheeks, and areas around eyes are grayish. Ventral fur is white or buff. Chin is white, and collar is rufous or buffy. Lateral profile of head is shallowly and smoothly convex. Throat is buffy brown. Ears are of medium length, brownish and grizzled. Ear tips are black on outer and inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is characteristically orange to brownish orange. Forelimbs are long and buffy brown; hindlimbs are cinnamon-brown. Hindfeet are cinnamon-brown above and brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black or dark brown above and white laterally and below. Fur color varies geographically, but this might be due to the unclear species status. Montane forms of the African Savanna Hare are more rufous and darker than lowland forms.","habitat":"Scrub, bush, and grassland habitats, preferring scrubby and montane habitats. The African Savanna Hare occurs in mountain regions up to ¢.3600 m on Mount Kenya and is also recorded in semiarid grasslands. It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution; they are separated largely by habitat. African Savanna Hares have been recorded in grassland associations of Themedatriandra and Imperatacylindrical (both Poaceae) in Ruanda-Urundi and Tarchonanthuscamphoratus (Asteraceae) scrub in East Africa."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B761FFD1FAFCF9FFFC16F4AB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B761FFD1FAFCF9FFFC16F4AB","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"145","verbatimText":"59.Mountain HareLepus timidusFrench:Liévre variable/ German:Schneehase/ Spanish:Liebre de montanaOther common names:Blue Hare, Snow Hare, Eurasian Arctic Hare, Varying Hare, White Hare; Irish Hare (hibernicus), Alpine Mountain Hare (varronis)Taxonomy.Lepus timidus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa.”Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidenceis available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occursin the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. Six populations of L. timidusare geographically separated and morphologically distinct and therefore can be treated as subspecies (abe, ainu, hibernicus, orii, scoticus, and varronis). Because division into subspecies is mostly based on pelage characteristics, it must be considered preliminary. Three studies analyzing geographic variation of metric characters of the skull of L. timidusdemonstrated clinal variations. This doubts the advisability of identifying subspecies in L. timidus. Origin of subspecies of L. timidusin Europe from a panmictic population during the Weichsel period is supported by genetic assessments. Hybridization between L. timidusand L. europaeusand between L. timidusand L. tolaiare recorded in contact zones. No interbreeding has been noted between scoticus and hibernicus on the island of Mull where both subspecies were introduced 60 years ago. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. t. timidus Linnaeus, 1758— Scandinavia S to 59° N, N Russia (S to 57° N to 58° N) to E of Ural Mts, Estonia, perhaps Poland, and Altai and Beita Mts in N Xinjiang (China); from Sweden extending in hybrid zones with the subspecies sylvaticusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. abet Kuroda, 1938 — Kurile Is (Russia).L. t. ainu Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 — Hokkaido (Japan).L. t. begitschevi Koljuschev, 1936 — Taimyr Peninsula (Russia).L. t. gichiganus J. A. Allen, 1903 — C Yakutia, Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea coast (Russia).L. t. hibernicus Bell, 1837 — Ireland.L. t. kolymensis Ognev, 1922 — NE Siberia (Russia).L. t. kozhevnikovi Ognev, 1929 — C Russia from 57° to 58°N, whereit intergrades with the nomonotypical timidusS to 53° N. The W boundary is unclear.L. t. lugubris Kastschenko, 1899 — Siberian Altai Mts (Russia).L. t. mordeni Goodwin, 1933 — Russian Far East (Ussuri Valley and lower and middle Amur River) and Heilongjiang (China).L. t. ori Kuroda, 1928 — Sakhalin (Russia).L. t. scoticus Hilzheimer, 1906 — Scotland.L. t. sibiricorumJohansen, 1923 — W & SW Siberia (Russia), N Kazakhstan, and Tacheng Mts in N Xinjiang (China).L. t. sylvaticus Nilsson, 1831—S Sweden, extending in hybrid zones with nominotypical timidusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. transbaikalicus Ognev, 1929 — Trans-Baikal region in E Siberia (Russia) and E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol, China).L. t. varronis Miller, 1901 — at high altitudes in the Alps, C Europe.The Mountain Hare inhabits the Palearctic from Scandinavia to Russian Far East, except E Chukchi Peninsula, S to Baltic States, E Poland, N Ukranie, and E to Tian Shan Mts, Altai Mts, N Mongolia, NW & NE China (N Xinjiang, N Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang), and Sikhote-Alin Mts. There are isolated populations in Scotland, Ireland, the Alps, Sakhalin (Russia), Hokkaido (Japan), and the Kurile Is. The nominotypical subspecies has been introduced into Faroe Is (Denmark), Scottish Is, and parts of England. Introduced populations on Spitsbergen I failed to persist.Descriptive notes.Head-body 510-550 mm, tail 59-65 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 159-165 mm; weight 2.4-3.4 kg (depending on subspecies). The smallest subspecies is the “Alpine Mountain Hare” (varronis), and the largest subspecies is the nominate timidus. Male Mountain Hares tend to be smaller than females. In general, northern populations are larger. The Mountain Hare is completely white in winter, and its head and body are brown in summer. Summer fur differs among populations and can be pale gray or dusky brown in mountainous areas to rich rustbrown on plains. Exceptionally, fur of the Irish Hare is white on rump, flanks, and legs, with its upper back and head remaining brown in winter. Ears are short and narrow, with 30mm black tips on exterior surfaces and 5mm on interior surfaces. Relatively large head has prominent eyes, with yellowish irises in adults but dark brown in young. Hindfeet have hairy soles and widely spreading toes. Molt occurs three times per year: white to brown in spring; brown to brown in late summer; and brown to white in autumn. Molt is initiated by daylength, and its duration is influenced by temperature. Mountain Hares at high elevations and latitudes remain white longer, relative to average ambient temperature and duration of snow cover.Habitat.Wide range of biomes from extreme tundra with permafrost in northern Russia to rich agricultural areas in Ireland. Mountain Hares prefer to live in forests of pine, birch, and juniper. In Scotland and Ireland, heather moors and bog land are favored, and in Russia, copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes are selected. In the Alps, Mountain Hares prefer highly structured forests and thickets at forest edges. In spring, abundant herbaceous food in meadows is important to Mountain Hares. When a habitat offers food and shelter against predators, Mountain Hares use it for rest and activity. Forms are usually a depression they make. In snow, Mountain Hares burrow to make forms and enter rock crevices or marmot (Marmota) burrows for shelter or escape. They sometimes dig permanent burrows 1-2 m long in the ground. Mountain Hares in Ireland and the Alps do not burrow, but in Russia, complex burrows up to 7 m long have been reported. On agricultural land, Mountain Hares tends to be replaced by European Hares (L. europaeus) in Europe and Cape Hares (L. capensis) further east.Food and Feeding.Mountain Hares are grazers in summer and browsers in winter. Their diets vary with habitat. Plant species used as food in forest habitats include leaves and twigs of Salixand Populus(both Salicaceae), Sorbus(Rosaceae), Betula(Betulaceae), Juniperus(Cupressaceae), and Vaccinium(Ericaceae); on Scottish moorlands and Swedish islands, Calluna(Ericaceae) is eaten. Different grass species and clovers are eaten when available. With snow cover, Mountain Hares feed on twigs, bark, moss, and lichens. They seldom drink water but may eat snow. Re-ingestion ofsoft pellets takes place at 09:00-16:00 h and increases dietary digestibility up to 25%; these pellets contain three times as much protein as regular pellets. Mountain Hares feed with their back to the wind and can clear snow from vegetation with their forepaws. When snow is hard, they move to lower ground to feed.Breeding.Gestation of the Mountain Hare lasts 46-55 days. Postpartum estrus with copulations a few hours after parturition is common. Superfetation does occur. Females have predominantly 2-3 litters/year, with litter sizes of 1-3 young, resulting in 5-9 offspring/female during a reproductive season. Weather has an important influence on numberof litters produced during a reproductive season.The second litter is on average larger than the first one. Start of breeding varies with temperature, and gestating females have been recorded from January/February until August/September. Juvenile females do not breed in the same year of their birth. Differences in reproduction exist among populations or subspecies.For example, subspecies timidusin northern Norway normally has only 1-2 litters/ year, but in south-western Sweden,it regularly has three litters. Another difference is the length of the reproductive period with the Irish Hare having a longer one than scoticus. At birth, young are fully furred, their eyes are open, and they start suckling immediately. Adult sex ratio is 1:1. Overall juvenile survival from birth to the following spring averages 20%. In January-July, male Mountain Hares often follow 2-20 m behind a female for hours. Males use scent to track females. During courtship, several males chase a female, but males do not guard females. Females dominate males and strike with their forepaws with ears laid backward if the male approaches too closely. Copulation can involve five or more males and a female, and males can be involved in long fights.Activity patterns.Mountain Hares are nocturnal throughout the year, with a prolonged resting phase during the day. Activity patterns change seasonally with circadian rhythms. Mountains Hares rest by day in a form, with ears back and eyes half closed, but they only sleep for a few minutes at a time. In summer when daylight increases and in winter when food is scarce, more Mountain Hares are active during the day. Activity is highest during the first two hours after sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Hares move an average of 1400 m/mnight, but they can travel up to 2400 m/night. Home rangesizes vary depending on climate. Home ranges are ¢.200 ha in boreal coniferous forests of Scandinavia. In moorland and pastures of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, and in the Alps, home ranges are 5-435 ha. Home ranges at night are larger than during the day, and they overlap ¢.35%. Densities vary from 1 ind/km? in Russia to 400 ind/km? on the Swedish Island of Vedholmen. Massive migrations of groups of 100-500, but up to 1500-2000 hares have been recorded in years of high numbers in northern Russia (Barents and Kara seas, Yamal Peninsula, Yakutia). Mountain Hares often move, rest, and feed together in groups of 2-5 individuals. Groups of 20-100 individuals have been recorded feeding in the same place.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Hare is widespread, populations appear to be stable across much ofits distribution, and it occurs in many protected areas. Nevertheless, historical game bag records in Northern Ireland indicate that there has been a substantial decline in abundance. Moreover, historical and recent records indicate that distribution of Mountain Haresis decreasing in southern Sweden. This decline started simultaneously with introduction of European Hares and continues while they expand northward. Furthermore, hunting statistics from Grisons, Switzerland, indicate a possible shift of both species to higher elevations. From 1990 to 2010, European Hares and Mountain Hares annually ascended more than 6 m and 3 m, respectively. Results of the study showed that European Hares advanced faster to higher elevations than Mountain Hares. A possible threat to the Irish Hare might be an introduced and expanding population of the European Hare in Ireland. The two examples from Sweden and Switzerland suggest that European Hares benefit from global warming and expand their distribution northward and to higher elevations and, thereby, might displace the Mountain Hares from their current distribution. Competitive exclusion and hybridization and introgression might explain how the European Hare is involved in the continuous decline of the Mountain Hare. Comparison of distributions of European Hares and Mountain Hares in Europe reveals that wherever European Hares occur, Mountain Hares are restricted to higher elevations or deep forests. It seems that European Hares and Mountain Hares are ecologically equivalent and strongly compete with one another. Studies of food preferences show that Mountain Haresin Ireland eat more grasses and herbs than Mountain Hares that live in sympatry with European Hares. Consequently,it has been argued that competitive exclusion by the European Hare restricts Mountain Hare distribution. Besides, in sympatric areas the forms of Mountain Hares are located in denser forest and further away from open fields than in allopatric areas. European Hares also expand their distribution and use of various habitats when densities of Mountain Hare are low. All these studies show that European Hares have the potential to expand into Mountain Hare territory and,in sympatry, Mountain Hares disappear from optimal European Hare habitat. European Hares and Mountain Hares hybridize with each other. Offspring are morphological intermediate and fertile. Normally, a male European Hare will mate with a female Mountain Hare. Reciprocal hybridization is also possible, but very rare due to typical mating behavior of European Hares and Mountain Hares in natural surroundings. Each time a Mountain Hare female hybridizes with a European Hare male, the local Mountain Hare population loses a species-specific litter. Consequently, observed decline in distribution and densities of Mountain Hares may be a direct consequence of unidirectional hybridization. This phenomenon is described as extinction by hybridization in the literature.After hybridization, mtDNA of Mountain Hares can be detected in European Hares if the hybrids backcross with true European Hares, which is often the case. Therefore, introgressed individuals can be found in both species. In areas where European Hares live currently in sympatry with Mountain Hares, the proportion of European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA is higher than in areas where both species lived in sympatry in the past. It seems that European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA have a reduced fitness compared with European Hares with species-specific mtDNA. This means that Mountain Hare mtDNA is incorporated into European Hares in sympatric areas but gradually disappears if European Hares remain allopatric. After the introduction of European Hares in Sweden, European Hares and Mountain Hares occurred together for a period of time before Mountain Hares disappeared and only European Hares remained. Hybrids were only observed a couple of years before they disappeared. Accordingly, hybridization, introgression, and the eventual disappearance of Mountain Hare mtDNA might be regarded as refined competitive exclusion in which traces of Mountain Hares are not only ecologically but also genetically erased from the European Hare. In addition to interactions with the European Hare, other causes for the Mountain Hare decline are under consideration, such as diseases (e.g. European Brown Hare Syndrome and tularemia), deforestation and agricultural expansion, predation, and negative interactions with other herbivores. Increasing tourism in the Alps has a negative impact on Mountain Hares and other biota. Nevertheless, none of these factors alone can explain declines of Mountain Hares. Research is needed to identify causes of regional decline.Current conservation status of the endemic Irish Hare and the Alpine Mountain Hare require specific investigations.Bibliography.Acevedo, Jiménez-Valverde et al. (2012), Angerbjérn (1981, 1986, 1991), Angerbjorn & Flux (1995), Angerbjérn & Pehrson (1987), Angermann (1967b, 2016), Baker et al. (1983), Barrett-Hamilton (1912), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Masseroni et al. (2011), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Ossi et al. (2013), Caravaggi et al. (2015), Cederlund & Lemnell (1980), Dahl & Willebrand (2005), Dingerkus & Montgomery (2001, 2002), Fairley (1974), Flux (1970, 1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gamboni (1997), Genini Gamboni et al. (2008), Hacklander & Jenny (2011), Hewson (1962, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1991), Hewson & Hinge (1990), Hiltunen & Kauhala (2006), Hiltunen et al. (2004), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hulbert, lason, Elston & Racey (1996), Hulbert, lason & Racey (1996), Jansson & Pehrson (2007), Kauhala et al. (2005), Lind (1961, 1963), Lissovsky (2016), Long, (2003), Lonnberg (1905), Loukashkin (1943), Mallon (1985), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Myrberget (1984), Nodari (2006), Nyholm (1968), Ognev (1966), Olsson (1997), Pehrson (1983a, 1983b), Rao et al. (2003), Rehnus et al. (2013), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), Slotta-Bachmayr (1998), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008l), Sokolov et al. (2009), Suchentrunk et al. (1999), Thirgood & Hewson (1987), Thulin (2003), Thulin & Tegelstrdom (2002), Thulin et al. (1997), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wolfe & Hayden (1996), Wolfe et al. (1996), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005), Zachos et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Lepus timidus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa.”Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidenceis available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occursin the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. Six populations of L. timidusare geographically separated and morphologically distinct and therefore can be treated as subspecies (abe, ainu, hibernicus, orii, scoticus, and varronis). Because division into subspecies is mostly based on pelage characteristics, it must be considered preliminary. Three studies analyzing geographic variation of metric characters of the skull of L. timidusdemonstrated clinal variations. This doubts the advisability of identifying subspecies in L. timidus. Origin of subspecies of L. timidusin Europe from a panmictic population during the Weichsel period is supported by genetic assessments. Hybridization between L. timidusand L. europaeusand between L. timidusand L. tolaiare recorded in contact zones. No interbreeding has been noted between scoticus and hibernicus on the island of Mull where both subspecies were introduced 60 years ago. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre variable @fr | Schneehase @de | Liebre de montana @es | Blue Hare @en | Snow Hare @en | Eurasian Arctic Hare @en | Varying Hare @en | White Hare; @en | rish Hare (hibernicus) @en | Alpine Mountain Hare (varronis) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"38","interpretedPageNumber":"145","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"timidus","name":"Lepus timidus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. t. timidus Linnaeus, 1758— Scandinavia S to 59° N, N Russia (S to 57° N to 58° N) to E of Ural Mts, Estonia, perhaps Poland, and Altai and Beita Mts in N Xinjiang (China); from Sweden extending in hybrid zones with the subspecies sylvaticusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. abet Kuroda, 1938 — Kurile Is (Russia).L. t. ainu Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 — Hokkaido (Japan).L. t. begitschevi Koljuschev, 1936 — Taimyr Peninsula (Russia).L. t. gichiganus J. A. Allen, 1903 — C Yakutia, Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea coast (Russia).L. t. hibernicus Bell, 1837 — Ireland.L. t. kolymensis Ognev, 1922 — NE Siberia (Russia).L. t. kozhevnikovi Ognev, 1929 — C Russia from 57° to 58°N, whereit intergrades with the nomonotypical timidusS to 53° N. The W boundary is unclear.L. t. lugubris Kastschenko, 1899 — Siberian Altai Mts (Russia).L. t. mordeni Goodwin, 1933 — Russian Far East (Ussuri Valley and lower and middle Amur River) and Heilongjiang (China).L. t. ori Kuroda, 1928 — Sakhalin (Russia).L. t. scoticus Hilzheimer, 1906 — Scotland.L. t. sibiricorumJohansen, 1923 — W & SW Siberia (Russia), N Kazakhstan, and Tacheng Mts in N Xinjiang (China).L. t. sylvaticus Nilsson, 1831—S Sweden, extending in hybrid zones with nominotypical timidusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. transbaikalicus Ognev, 1929 — Trans-Baikal region in E Siberia (Russia) and E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol, China).L. t. varronis Miller, 1901 — at high altitudes in the Alps, C Europe.The Mountain Hare inhabits the Palearctic from Scandinavia to Russian Far East, except E Chukchi Peninsula, S to Baltic States, E Poland, N Ukranie, and E to Tian Shan Mts, Altai Mts, N Mongolia, NW & NE China (N Xinjiang, N Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang), and Sikhote-Alin Mts. There are isolated populations in Scotland, Ireland, the Alps, Sakhalin (Russia), Hokkaido (Japan), and the Kurile Is. The nominotypical subspecies has been introduced into Faroe Is (Denmark), Scottish Is, and parts of England. Introduced populations on Spitsbergen I failed to persist.","bibliography":"Acevedo, Jiménez-Valverde et al. (2012) | Angerbjérn (1981, 1986, 1991) | Angerbjorn & Flux (1995) | Angerbjérn & Pehrson (1987) | Angermann (1967b, 2016) | Baker et al. (1983) | Barrett-Hamilton (1912) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Masseroni et al. (2011) | Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Ossi et al. (2013) | Caravaggi et al. (2015) | Cederlund & Lemnell (1980) | Dahl & Willebrand (2005) | Dingerkus & Montgomery (2001, 2002) | Fairley (1974) | Flux (1970, 1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gamboni (1997) | Genini Gamboni et al. (2008) | Hacklander & Jenny (2011) | Hewson (1962, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1991) | Hewson & Hinge (1990) | Hiltunen & Kauhala (2006) | Hiltunen et al. (2004) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hulbert, lason, Elston & Racey (1996) | Hulbert, lason & Racey (1996) | Jansson & Pehrson (2007) | Kauhala et al. (2005) | Lind (1961, 1963) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long, (2003) | Lonnberg (1905) | Loukashkin (1943) | Mallon (1985) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Myrberget (1984) | Nodari (2006) | Nyholm (1968) | Ognev (1966) | Olsson (1997) | Pehrson (1983a, 1983b) | Rao et al. (2003) | Rehnus et al. (2013) | Rhymer & Simberloff (1996) | Slotta-Bachmayr (1998) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008l) | Sokolov et al. (2009) | Suchentrunk et al. (1999) | Thirgood & Hewson (1987) | Thulin (2003) | Thulin & Tegelstrdom (2002) | Thulin et al. (1997) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Wolfe & Hayden (1996) | Wolfe et al. (1996) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005) | Zachos et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"Mountain Hares are grazers in summer and browsers in winter. Their diets vary with habitat. Plant species used as food in forest habitats include leaves and twigs of Salixand Populus(both Salicaceae), Sorbus(Rosaceae), Betula(Betulaceae), Juniperus(Cupressaceae), and Vaccinium(Ericaceae); on Scottish moorlands and Swedish islands, Calluna(Ericaceae) is eaten. Different grass species and clovers are eaten when available. With snow cover, Mountain Hares feed on twigs, bark, moss, and lichens. They seldom drink water but may eat snow. Re-ingestion ofsoft pellets takes place at 09:00-16:00 h and increases dietary digestibility up to 25%; these pellets contain three times as much protein as regular pellets. Mountain Hares feed with their back to the wind and can clear snow from vegetation with their forepaws. When snow is hard, they move to lower ground to feed.","breeding":"Gestation of the Mountain Hare lasts 46-55 days. Postpartum estrus with copulations a few hours after parturition is common. Superfetation does occur. Females have predominantly 2-3 litters/year, with litter sizes of 1-3 young, resulting in 5-9 offspring/female during a reproductive season. Weather has an important influence on numberof litters produced during a reproductive season.","activityPatterns":"Mountain Hares are nocturnal throughout the year, with a prolonged resting phase during the day. Activity patterns change seasonally with circadian rhythms. Mountains Hares rest by day in a form, with ears back and eyes half closed, but they only sleep for a few minutes at a time. In summer when daylight increases and in winter when food is scarce, more Mountain Hares are active during the day. Activity is highest during the first two hours after sunset.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mountain Hares move an average of 1400 m/mnight, but they can travel up to 2400 m/night. Home rangesizes vary depending on climate. Home ranges are ¢.200 ha in boreal coniferous forests of Scandinavia. In moorland and pastures of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, and in the Alps, home ranges are 5-435 ha. Home ranges at night are larger than during the day, and they overlap ¢.35%. Densities vary from 1 ind/km? in Russia to 400 ind/km? on the Swedish Island of Vedholmen. Massive migrations of groups of 100-500, but up to 1500-2000 hares have been recorded in years of high numbers in northern Russia (Barents and Kara seas, Yamal Peninsula, Yakutia). Mountain Hares often move, rest, and feed together in groups of 2-5 individuals. Groups of 20-100 individuals have been recorded feeding in the same place.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Hare is widespread, populations appear to be stable across much ofits distribution, and it occurs in many protected areas. Nevertheless, historical game bag records in Northern Ireland indicate that there has been a substantial decline in abundance. Moreover, historical and recent records indicate that distribution of Mountain Haresis decreasing in southern Sweden. This decline started simultaneously with introduction of European Hares and continues while they expand northward. Furthermore, hunting statistics from Grisons, Switzerland, indicate a possible shift of both species to higher elevations. From 1990 to 2010, European Hares and Mountain Hares annually ascended more than 6 m and 3 m, respectively. Results of the study showed that European Hares advanced faster to higher elevations than Mountain Hares. A possible threat to the Irish Hare might be an introduced and expanding population of the European Hare in Ireland. The two examples from Sweden and Switzerland suggest that European Hares benefit from global warming and expand their distribution northward and to higher elevations and, thereby, might displace the Mountain Hares from their current distribution. Competitive exclusion and hybridization and introgression might explain how the European Hare is involved in the continuous decline of the Mountain Hare. Comparison of distributions of European Hares and Mountain Hares in Europe reveals that wherever European Hares occur, Mountain Hares are restricted to higher elevations or deep forests. It seems that European Hares and Mountain Hares are ecologically equivalent and strongly compete with one another. Studies of food preferences show that Mountain Haresin Ireland eat more grasses and herbs than Mountain Hares that live in sympatry with European Hares. Consequently,it has been argued that competitive exclusion by the European Hare restricts Mountain Hare distribution. Besides, in sympatric areas the forms of Mountain Hares are located in denser forest and further away from open fields than in allopatric areas. European Hares also expand their distribution and use of various habitats when densities of Mountain Hare are low. All these studies show that European Hares have the potential to expand into Mountain Hare territory and,in sympatry, Mountain Hares disappear from optimal European Hare habitat. European Hares and Mountain Hares hybridize with each other. Offspring are morphological intermediate and fertile. Normally, a male European Hare will mate with a female Mountain Hare. Reciprocal hybridization is also possible, but very rare due to typical mating behavior of European Hares and Mountain Hares in natural surroundings. Each time a Mountain Hare female hybridizes with a European Hare male, the local Mountain Hare population loses a species-specific litter. Consequently, observed decline in distribution and densities of Mountain Hares may be a direct consequence of unidirectional hybridization. This phenomenon is described as extinction by hybridization in the literature.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 510-550 mm, tail 59-65 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 159-165 mm; weight 2.4-3.4 kg (depending on subspecies). The smallest subspecies is the “Alpine Mountain Hare” (varronis), and the largest subspecies is the nominate timidus. Male Mountain Hares tend to be smaller than females. In general, northern populations are larger. The Mountain Hare is completely white in winter, and its head and body are brown in summer. Summer fur differs among populations and can be pale gray or dusky brown in mountainous areas to rich rustbrown on plains. Exceptionally, fur of the Irish Hare is white on rump, flanks, and legs, with its upper back and head remaining brown in winter. Ears are short and narrow, with 30mm black tips on exterior surfaces and 5mm on interior surfaces. Relatively large head has prominent eyes, with yellowish irises in adults but dark brown in young. Hindfeet have hairy soles and widely spreading toes. Molt occurs three times per year: white to brown in spring; brown to brown in late summer; and brown to white in autumn. Molt is initiated by daylength, and its duration is influenced by temperature. Mountain Hares at high elevations and latitudes remain white longer, relative to average ambient temperature and duration of snow cover.","habitat":"Wide range of biomes from extreme tundra with permafrost in northern Russia to rich agricultural areas in Ireland. Mountain Hares prefer to live in forests of pine, birch, and juniper. In Scotland and Ireland, heather moors and bog land are favored, and in Russia, copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes are selected. In the Alps, Mountain Hares prefer highly structured forests and thickets at forest edges. In spring, abundant herbaceous food in meadows is important to Mountain Hares. When a habitat offers food and shelter against predators, Mountain Hares use it for rest and activity. Forms are usually a depression they make. In snow, Mountain Hares burrow to make forms and enter rock crevices or marmot (Marmota) burrows for shelter or escape. They sometimes dig permanent burrows 1-2 m long in the ground. Mountain Hares in Ireland and the Alps do not burrow, but in Russia, complex burrows up to 7 m long have been reported. On agricultural land, Mountain Hares tends to be replaced by European Hares (L. europaeus) in Europe and Cape Hares (L. capensis) further east."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B761FFDFFFF2FC8DFA17F3A3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B761FFDFFFF2FC8DFA17F3A3","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"145","verbatimText":"58.Alaskan HareLepus othusFrench: Lievre d/Alaska / German: Alaska-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de AlaskaOther common names: Alaska Arctic Hare, Alaska Peninsula Hare, Alaska Tundra Hare, St. Michael's Hare, Tundra Hare, Swift HareTaxonomy.Lepus othus Merriam, 1900, “St. Michaels, [Norton Sound], Alaska,” USA.Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occurs in the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. If the distribution includes eastern Siberian tschuktschorum it has priority over othus. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the eastern Siberian population is more closely related to L. timidus, and L. othusis distinct from L. arcticus, but more studies are required for a conclusive distinction because the study was only based on mtDNA. Morphological studies found that L. othusis closer to L. townsendiithan to other northern species of Lepus. Lepusothusis partially sympatric with L. americanusin Alaska. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.o.othusMerriam,1900—WAlaska(USA).L.o.poadromusMerriam,1900—AlaskaPeninsula(USA).L. o. tschuktschorum Nordqvist, 1883— Chukchi Peninsula, NE Siberia (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 570-620 mm, tail 65-83 mm, ear 90-91 mm, hindfoot 164-179 mm; weight 3.9-4.8 kg. The Alaskan Hare is large. Winter pelage is white, except for black ear tips. In summer, fur on nose, sides of face, and top of head is cinnamon-buff; top of head appears darker. General color of back is drab cinnamon. Ears are similar in color to head on anterior one-half of outer surface, but posterior one-half is white. Frontlegs are white, with wash of cinnamon-buff; hindlegs are white, washed with brown. Molting occurs twice per year and starts in mid-September and early May. The Alaskan Hare has stout claws adapted to digging through hard-crusted snow to reach vegetation.Habitat.Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Alaskan Hare in April/May consists mainly of shrubs. Woody parts of the Alaskan willow (S. alaxensis) and leaves of crowberry are most commonly eaten. In spring, they fed at edges of melting snow patches where crowberries from the previous summer were abundant. One captive Alaskan Hare seldom drank water.Breeding.Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).Activity patterns.Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Alaskan Hares seem to be widespread and stable, although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Alaskan Hares for food and fur. Southern populations might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Research is needed to assess taxonomic status of the Alaskan Hare relative to the Mountain Hare (L. timidus) and the Arctic Hare (L. arcticus) and evaluate habitat use and population status and trends.Bibliography.Anderson (1974), Anderson & Lent (1977), Angermann (2016), Baker et al. (1983), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Best & Henry (1994b), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Dufresne (1946), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1981), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Howell (19364), Lissovsky (2016), Loukashkin (1943), Merriam (1900), Murie (1959), Murray & Smith (2008c), Nelson (1909), Schiller & Rausch (1956), Walkinshaw (1947), Waltari & Cook (2005), Waltari et al. (2004), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus othus Merriam, 1900, “St. Michaels, [Norton Sound], Alaska,” USA.Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occurs in the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. If the distribution includes eastern Siberian tschuktschorum it has priority over othus. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the eastern Siberian population is more closely related to L. timidus, and L. othusis distinct from L. arcticus, but more studies are required for a conclusive distinction because the study was only based on mtDNA. Morphological studies found that L. othusis closer to L. townsendiithan to other northern species of Lepus. Lepusothusis partially sympatric with L. americanusin Alaska. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"38","interpretedPageNumber":"145","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"othus","name":"Lepus othus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.o.othusMerriam,1900—WAlaska(USA).L.o.poadromusMerriam,1900—AlaskaPeninsula(USA).L. o. tschuktschorum Nordqvist, 1883— Chukchi Peninsula, NE Siberia (Russia).","bibliography":"Anderson (1974) | Anderson & Lent (1977) | Angermann (2016) | Baker et al. (1983) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Best & Henry (1994b) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Dufresne (1946) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1981) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Howell (19364) | Lissovsky (2016) | Loukashkin (1943) | Merriam (1900) | Murie (1959) | Murray & Smith (2008c) | Nelson (1909) | Schiller & Rausch (1956) | Walkinshaw (1947) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Waltari et al. (2004) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.Diet of the Alaskan Hare in April/May consists mainly of shrubs. Woody parts of the Alaskan willow (S. alaxensis) and leaves of crowberry are most commonly eaten. In spring, they fed at edges of melting snow patches where crowberries from the previous summer were abundant. One captive Alaskan Hare seldom drank water.Breeding.Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).Activity patterns.Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.","breeding":"Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).","activityPatterns":"Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Alaskan Hares seem to be widespread and stable, although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Alaskan Hares for food and fur. Southern populations might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Research is needed to assess taxonomic status of the Alaskan Hare relative to the Mountain Hare (L. timidus) and the Arctic Hare (L. arcticus) and evaluate habitat use and population status and trends.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 570-620 mm, tail 65-83 mm, ear 90-91 mm, hindfoot 164-179 mm; weight 3.9-4.8 kg. The Alaskan Hare is large. Winter pelage is white, except for black ear tips. In summer, fur on nose, sides of face, and top of head is cinnamon-buff; top of head appears darker. General color of back is drab cinnamon. Ears are similar in color to head on anterior one-half of outer surface, but posterior one-half is white. Frontlegs are white, with wash of cinnamon-buff; hindlegs are white, washed with brown. Molting occurs twice per year and starts in mid-September and early May. The Alaskan Hare has stout claws adapted to digging through hard-crusted snow to reach vegetation.","habitat":"Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B762FFDFFF65F9D5FDD5F4B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B762FFDFFF65F9D5FDD5F4B3","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"144","verbatimText":"57.Arctic HareLepus arcticusFrench:Liévre arctique/ German:Polarhase/ Spanish:Liebre articaOther common names:American Arctic Hare, Canadian Arctic Hare, Labrador Hare, Greenland Hare, Polar HareTaxonomy.Lepus arcticus Ross, 1819, “Southeast of Cape Bowen” (Possession Bay, Bylot Island, latitude 73°37’N, Canada).Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticusand L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics. This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from the L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered distinct species with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nine subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.arcticusRoss,1819—BaffinI,BylotI,andMelvillePeninsula,NENunavut(NCanada).L.a.andersoniNelson,1934—C&NENorthwestTerritoriesandmostofNunavut(NWCanada).L.a.bangsiiRhoads,1896—NewfoundlandandNEL.a.(ECanada.)L.a.banksicolaManning&Macpherson,1958—BanksI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.groenlandicusRhoads,1896—W,N&NEice-freecoastalregionsofGreenland.L.a.hubbardiHandley,1952—PrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.labradoriusMiller,1899—SEBaffinI,NHudsonBayIs,coastalSNunavut,NEManitoba,NQuebec,andNWL.a.Peninsula(NCanada).L.a.monstrabilisNelson,1934—QueenElizabethIs,exceptPrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L. a. porsildi Nelson, 1934— S & SW ice-free coastal regions of Greenland.Descriptive notes.Head—body 560-660 mm, tail 45-100 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 146-164 nm; weight 2.5-6.8 kg. Measurements of Artic Hares vary depending on geographical location. In the north, individuals are larger than in the south. Summer pelage is gray in southern populations and white in northern populations. In winter, Arctic Hares are white except for black ear tips. Winter fur is long and soft. During molt, Arctic Hares remove loose tufts of hair by rolling in snow. Eyes are yellowish brown. Ears are blackish in front and white behind, with a whitish band isolating black tips. Large feet are padded with heavy, yellowish brush of hair. Claws on forefeet and hindfeet are long and well adapted for digging in snow.Habitat.Tundra, primarily north of the tree line, arctic alpine, and exposed coastal barren areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. The Artic Hare prefers hillsides or rock-strewn plateaus rather than flat bog land. Throughout most ofits distribution, it spends summer in the tundra north of the tree limit, but in winter, it might penetrate up to 160 km into the forest. Areas with little snow cover and wind exposure are favored, and groups of several hundred Arctic Hares may aggregate in such areas in winter, moving from one place to the other in search for food.Food and Feeding.The Arctic Hare feeds mainly on woody plants throughout the year. Arctic willow (Salixarctica, Salicaceae) is the main species eaten in all seasons, and its leaves, buds, bark, and roots make up to 95% of winter diets. It also feeds on mosses, lichens, buds, and berries of crowberry (Empetrumniger, Ericaceae), young blooms of saxifrage (Saxifragaoppositifolia, Saxifragaceae), mountain sorrel (Oxyriadigyna, Polygonaceae), and various kinds of grasses. Summer diets of Arctic Hares are highly variable but mainly contain Arctic willow, mountain avens (Dryasintegrifolia, Rosaceae), and grasses. On Baffin Island, dwarf willows (S. arctica and S. herbacea) and crowberry are the main food. In Greenland, diets consist of Arctic willow and mountain sorrel. The Arctic Hare regularly feeds on stomach contents of eviscerated Caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Water is obtained by eating snow. It makes trails from one grazing place to the next. Often high places are selected to forage. Arctic Hares dig through snow to find food. If snow has a hard crust, they stamp on it with their forefeet to make a hole. Feeding usually occurs in morning and evening.Breeding.Mating season of the Arctic Hare occurs in April/May. The male follows the female continuously. During copulation, the male bites the female fiercely on neck and back that she often is covered with blood. Mating corresponds with molting, so fur “flies” during the process. Gestation is c¢.53 days. Young are born in May-July in nests lined with dry grass, moss, and fur from the mother. Nests are either a depression among mosses and grasses or under or between rocks. Females have litter of 2-8 young, with an average of 5-4 young. Females in the far north have one litter per year, and in Newfoundland, average litter size was three young. Newborns are blackish brown, with white bellies, chins, and throats. When threatened, young flatten out on the ground, with their eyes closed and ears pressed tightly on their backs. During the first 2-3 days oflife, the mother stays with her young and defends them against danger. Nursing takes place every 18-20 hours, and nursing bouts lasts 1-4 minutes. By the third day oflife, young hide among stones when danger approaches. After c.2 weeks oflife, young disperse and hide behind rocks appearing only when nibbling on vegetation or nursing. The mother remains near the nursing site. Gradually, young increase their movements to a maximum of c.1 km from where they were born. Juvenile pelage is darker than summer pelage of adults. By the third week of life, young leave their mothers and form nurserybands of up to 20 individuals. Young are weaned at 8-9 weeks old. By late July, they are nearly as large as their parents and are white. Young breed for the first time as yearlings. Adult sex ratio of Arctic Hares is biased toward males.Activity patterns.The Arctic Hare rests during the day when the sun is shining, but during the dark winter, it has no fixed time for resting. When resting,it usually sits near a large stone, dozing or asleep, sheltered from wind, covered from aerial predators, and warmed by the sun. Usually, it chooses a site a little way up a slope. Arctic Hares often are immobile during resting,sitting crouched, with ears halfway erect and eyes nearly closed. Often 2—4 individuals rest together. In the afternoon, the Arctic Hare often leaves its resting place and starts feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Arctic Hare might be migratory because most individuals in an area disappear during summer, apparently moving northward. In November, they apparently migrate southward. Nevertheless, some researchers do not believe that mass migrations are undertaken by the Arctic Hare. In northern populations, hopping on hindfeet without the forefeet touching the ground has been reported for disturbed and frightened Arctic Hares. Home ranges are 9-290 ha, depending on habitat quality. In Newfoundland,sizes of male home ranges in summer are double the size of female home ranges. Movements increase in March/April with the onset of the mating season. In winter, Arctic Hares may protect themselves from extreme cold by burrowing into snow. These snow dens consist of a tunnel c¢.10 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth, with an enlarged terminal chamber. The Arctic Hare is usually solitary, but grouping behavior is very characteristic, with groups of 100-300 individuals being observed. In large groups, most individuals might be asleep, but one is usually awake and alert to danger. From early winter until early spring, Arctic Hares form groupsof 15-20 individuals. Arctic Hares frequently move among groups. Adults dominate juveniles, and dominance is unrelated to sex or breeding condition. When the mating season starts, groups disperse, pairs are formed, and each pair establishes a small territory. The male usually leaves the female after birth of young but sometimes remains close. Arctic Hares are usually silent, but lactating females may emit a short series of low growls as they approach their nursing places.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Hare is widespread, and population status seems to be constant although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Arctic Hares for food and fur. Southern populations of Arctic Hares might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Distributions of the Arctic Hare and the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus) slightly overlap, but the two species differ in their habitat preferences. The Arctic Hare occupies treeless barrens or tundra, whereas the Snowshoe Hare inhabits forests. In Newfoundland, replacement of the Arctic Hare by the Snowshoe Hare might be an example of competitive exclusion. Other theories list lack of suitable food or predation by the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) as causes that limited distribution of the Arctic Hare in Newfoundland.Bibliography.Angermann (1967a, 2016), Aniskowicz et al. (1990), Audubon (2005), Bakeret al. (1983), Banfield (1974), Barta et al. (1989), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bergerud (1967), Best & Henry (1994a), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Cameron (1958), Corbet (1983), Dixon et al. (1983), Fitzgerald & Keith (1990), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gray (1993), Hall (1951), Hamilton (1973), Hearn et al. (1987), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Johnsen (1953), Lissovsky (2016), Loukashkin (1943), Macpherson & Manning (1959), Manniche (1910), Merceret al. (1981), Murray (2003), Murray & Smith (2008b), Nelson (1909), Parker (1977), Pruitt (1960), Richardson (1829a), Soper (1944), Sutton & Hamilton (1932), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus arcticus Ross, 1819, “Southeast of Cape Bowen” (Possession Bay, Bylot Island, latitude 73°37’N, Canada).Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticusand L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics. This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from the L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered distinct species with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nine subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre arctique @fr | Polarhase @de | Liebre artica @es | American Arctic Hare @en | Canadian Arctic Hare @en | Labrador Hare @en | Greenland Hare @en | Polar Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ross","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1819","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"37","interpretedPageNumber":"144","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arcticus","name":"Lepus arcticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.a.arcticusRoss,1819—BaffinI,BylotI,andMelvillePeninsula,NENunavut(NCanada).L.a.andersoniNelson,1934—C&NENorthwestTerritoriesandmostofNunavut(NWCanada).L.a.bangsiiRhoads,1896—NewfoundlandandNEL.a.(ECanada.)L.a.banksicolaManning&Macpherson,1958—BanksI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.groenlandicusRhoads,1896—W,N&NEice-freecoastalregionsofGreenland.L.a.hubbardiHandley,1952—PrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.labradoriusMiller,1899—SEBaffinI,NHudsonBayIs,coastalSNunavut,NEManitoba,NQuebec,andNWL.a.Peninsula(NCanada).L.a.monstrabilisNelson,1934—QueenElizabethIs,exceptPrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L. a. porsildi Nelson, 1934— S & SW ice-free coastal regions of Greenland.","bibliography":"Angermann (1967a, 2016) | Aniskowicz et al. (1990) | Audubon (2005) | Bakeret al. (1983) | Banfield (1974) | Barta et al. (1989) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Bergerud (1967) | Best & Henry (1994a) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Cameron (1958) | Corbet (1983) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Fitzgerald & Keith (1990) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gray (1993) | Hall (1951) | Hamilton (1973) | Hearn et al. (1987) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Johnsen (1953) | Lissovsky (2016) | Loukashkin (1943) | Macpherson & Manning (1959) | Manniche (1910) | Merceret al. (1981) | Murray (2003) | Murray & Smith (2008b) | Nelson (1909) | Parker (1977) | Pruitt (1960) | Richardson (1829a) | Soper (1944) | Sutton & Hamilton (1932) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Arctic Hare feeds mainly on woody plants throughout the year. Arctic willow (Salixarctica, Salicaceae) is the main species eaten in all seasons, and its leaves, buds, bark, and roots make up to 95% of winter diets. It also feeds on mosses, lichens, buds, and berries of crowberry (Empetrumniger, Ericaceae), young blooms of saxifrage (Saxifragaoppositifolia, Saxifragaceae), mountain sorrel (Oxyriadigyna, Polygonaceae), and various kinds of grasses. Summer diets of Arctic Hares are highly variable but mainly contain Arctic willow, mountain avens (Dryasintegrifolia, Rosaceae), and grasses. On Baffin Island, dwarf willows (S. arctica and S. herbacea) and crowberry are the main food. In Greenland, diets consist of Arctic willow and mountain sorrel. The Arctic Hare regularly feeds on stomach contents of eviscerated Caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Water is obtained by eating snow. It makes trails from one grazing place to the next. Often high places are selected to forage. Arctic Hares dig through snow to find food. If snow has a hard crust, they stamp on it with their forefeet to make a hole. Feeding usually occurs in morning and evening.","breeding":"Mating season of the Arctic Hare occurs in April/May. The male follows the female continuously. During copulation, the male bites the female fiercely on neck and back that she often is covered with blood. Mating corresponds with molting, so fur “flies” during the process. Gestation is c¢.53 days. Young are born in May-July in nests lined with dry grass, moss, and fur from the mother. Nests are either a depression among mosses and grasses or under or between rocks. Females have litter of 2-8 young, with an average of 5-4 young. Females in the far north have one litter per year, and in Newfoundland, average litter size was three young. Newborns are blackish brown, with white bellies, chins, and throats. When threatened, young flatten out on the ground, with their eyes closed and ears pressed tightly on their backs. During the first 2-3 days oflife, the mother stays with her young and defends them against danger. Nursing takes place every 18-20 hours, and nursing bouts lasts 1-4 minutes. By the third day oflife, young hide among stones when danger approaches. After c.2 weeks oflife, young disperse and hide behind rocks appearing only when nibbling on vegetation or nursing. The mother remains near the nursing site. Gradually, young increase their movements to a maximum of c.1 km from where they were born. Juvenile pelage is darker than summer pelage of adults. By the third week of life, young leave their mothers and form nurserybands of up to 20 individuals. Young are weaned at 8-9 weeks old. By late July, they are nearly as large as their parents and are white. Young breed for the first time as yearlings. Adult sex ratio of Arctic Hares is biased toward males.","activityPatterns":"The Arctic Hare rests during the day when the sun is shining, but during the dark winter, it has no fixed time for resting. When resting,it usually sits near a large stone, dozing or asleep, sheltered from wind, covered from aerial predators, and warmed by the sun. Usually, it chooses a site a little way up a slope. Arctic Hares often are immobile during resting,sitting crouched, with ears halfway erect and eyes nearly closed. Often 2—4 individuals rest together. In the afternoon, the Arctic Hare often leaves its resting place and starts feeding.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Arctic Hare might be migratory because most individuals in an area disappear during summer, apparently moving northward. In November, they apparently migrate southward. Nevertheless, some researchers do not believe that mass migrations are undertaken by the Arctic Hare. In northern populations, hopping on hindfeet without the forefeet touching the ground has been reported for disturbed and frightened Arctic Hares. Home ranges are 9-290 ha, depending on habitat quality. In Newfoundland,sizes of male home ranges in summer are double the size of female home ranges. Movements increase in March/April with the onset of the mating season. In winter, Arctic Hares may protect themselves from extreme cold by burrowing into snow. These snow dens consist of a tunnel c¢.10 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth, with an enlarged terminal chamber. The Arctic Hare is usually solitary, but grouping behavior is very characteristic, with groups of 100-300 individuals being observed. In large groups, most individuals might be asleep, but one is usually awake and alert to danger. From early winter until early spring, Arctic Hares form groupsof 15-20 individuals. Arctic Hares frequently move among groups. Adults dominate juveniles, and dominance is unrelated to sex or breeding condition. When the mating season starts, groups disperse, pairs are formed, and each pair establishes a small territory. The male usually leaves the female after birth of young but sometimes remains close. Arctic Hares are usually silent, but lactating females may emit a short series of low growls as they approach their nursing places.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Hare is widespread, and population status seems to be constant although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Arctic Hares for food and fur. Southern populations of Arctic Hares might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Distributions of the Arctic Hare and the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus) slightly overlap, but the two species differ in their habitat preferences. The Arctic Hare occupies treeless barrens or tundra, whereas the Snowshoe Hare inhabits forests. In Newfoundland, replacement of the Arctic Hare by the Snowshoe Hare might be an example of competitive exclusion. Other theories list lack of suitable food or predation by the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) as causes that limited distribution of the Arctic Hare in Newfoundland.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 560-660 mm, tail 45-100 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 146-164 nm; weight 2.5-6.8 kg. Measurements of Artic Hares vary depending on geographical location. In the north, individuals are larger than in the south. Summer pelage is gray in southern populations and white in northern populations. In winter, Arctic Hares are white except for black ear tips. Winter fur is long and soft. During molt, Arctic Hares remove loose tufts of hair by rolling in snow. Eyes are yellowish brown. Ears are blackish in front and white behind, with a whitish band isolating black tips. Large feet are padded with heavy, yellowish brush of hair. Claws on forefeet and hindfeet are long and well adapted for digging in snow.","habitat":"Tundra, primarily north of the tree line, arctic alpine, and exposed coastal barren areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. The Artic Hare prefers hillsides or rock-strewn plateaus rather than flat bog land. Throughout most ofits distribution, it spends summer in the tundra north of the tree limit, but in winter, it might penetrate up to 160 km into the forest. Areas with little snow cover and wind exposure are favored, and groups of several hundred Arctic Hares may aggregate in such areas in winter, moving from one place to the other in search for food."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B763FFDCFFFCF2BDFEF6F07C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B763FFDCFFFCF2BDFEF6F07C","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"143","verbatimText":"56.White-tailed JackrabbitLepus townsendiiFrench:Liévre de Townsend/ German:Prariehase/ Spanish:Liebre de cola blancaOther common names:Prairie HareTaxonomy.Lepus townsendii Bachman, 1839, “on the Walla-walla ... river.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “old Fort Walla Walla,” near the present town of Wallula, Walla Walla Co., Washington.Formerly, L. townsendiiwas placed as L. campestrisin the subgenera Proeulagus or FEulagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).Descriptive notes.Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.Habitat.Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m. Distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit extends into the badlands of South Dakota and montane pastures among scattered evergreens in Colorado. White-tailed Jackrabbits use shallow forms at bases of bushes or besides rocks. In winter, they use cavities connected by tunnels dug c.l m into snow or use shrubs and trees for cover. When White-tailed Jackrabbits and Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) are sympatric, they use different habitats. White-tailed Jackrabbits occur in open flats and fields of ryegrass (Lolium, Poaceae) in Oregon and bunchgrass and rabbitbrush in Washington; Black-tailed Jackrabbits inhabit predominantly sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae). In California, the White-tailed Jackrabbit was recorded more often on higher slopes and ridges, and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit more frequently on valley floors.Food and Feeding.The White-tailed Jackrabbit feeds primarily on succulent grasses and forbs. Shrubs are eaten in winter after grasses and forbs have become dry. When feeding on shrubs, woody stems are favored over leaves. Diet selection is influenced by age of White-tailed Jackrabbits, season, and availabilities of plant species. Abundant plant species in diets ofthis species are alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), creambush (Holodiscusdiscolor, Rosaceae), sagebrush, clover (Trifolium sp., Fabaceae), common dandelion (Taraxacumofficinale, Asteraceae), dryland sedge (Carexobtusata, Cyperaceae), Indian paintbrush (Castillejaintegra, Orobanchaceae), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), and winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), both Amaranthaceae. One study in Colorado recorded 67 plant species in stomachs of White-tailed Jackrabbits. Pregnant or lactating females usually feed alone; males feed in groups of 2-5 individuals. After feeding, White-tailed Jackrabbits groom their heads and ears with their forepaws and lick their bodies. When sympatric, the White-tailed Jackrabbit seems to be a more selective feeder than the Black-tailed Jackrabbit and therefore has a competitive disadvantage.Breeding.Reproductive season starts in late February and ends in September. Breeding condition and environmental factors affect number oflitters born in a year. In the southern part of the distribution, a maximum of fourlitters are produced per year: the first in late April, the second in earlyJune, the third in middle July, and the fourth in late August or early September. In the northern parts of the distribution, only one litter is produced per year between May and early July. Gestation lasts 30-43 days and might be influenced by elevation and latitude. Litter sizes are 1-11 young, with an average of 4-5 young. The White-tailed Jackrabbit is polygamous. Courtship behavior involves a series of circling, jumping, and chasing activities that last 5-20 minutes and end in copulation. Normally, groups of 3-5 males chase one female during the evening hours. Subspecies campanius has breeding synchrony, and postpartum estrus allows conception immediately after parturition. Expected reproductive potential was estimated at 23 young/year, but due to prenatal mortality, it averaged 15 young/year. Nests for young are made of dry leaves and grasses, densely lined with fur from mothers, and well hidden in bushes or vegetation; alternately, they might only be a form on bare ground. Young are born fully furred, with open eyes and mobile to a limited extent. They start to forage at c.15 days old and are completely weaned at c.1 month old. Individuals have the potential to breed as early as c¢.7 months of age, but there is no evidence ofjuvenile breeding.Activity patterns.White-tailed Jackrabbits are nocturnal and forage mainly between sunset and sunrise. A study in summer revealed that they start feeding at 15:00-16:00 h, peak activity was at 22:00-01:00 h, and most activity stopped by 03:00-04:00 h. They hide in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Distance, duration, and frequency of movements of White-tailed Jackrabbits increase in early breeding season (March/ April) and decline during warm summer months. Home range size is as small as 10 ha but usually 300-700 ha. White-tailed Jackrabbits might migrate considerable distances in winter to sheltered areas. They tend to be solitary, but during the reproductive season, 3—4 individuals might group together. Aggregations of ¢.50 individuals have been observed diurnally, with a maximum of 110 individuals during winter. These observations were attributed to an abundance of food in the area. When pursued by a predator, White-tailed Jackrabbits sometimes enter water and swim with forefeet paddling. They also demonstrate tonic immobility behavior that is believed to serve as defensive function similar to feigned death.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The WhitetailedJackrabbit is widespread. Since the early 1900s, there was a gradual distributional expansion to the north and east as favorable habitats (e.g. agricultural land) were created. Since about the 1950s, there has been a gradual reduction in the distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit coupled with distributional expansion of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit in the north-western part ofits distribution where habitats have been altered to favor the latter. The White-tailed Jackrabbit does not occur in most of Nebraska and Kansas anymore, and existence in Missouriis debated. Population status of the White-tailedJackrabbit across its entire distribution is currently unknown, but declines have been observed in two national parks in Wyoming. Populations in Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks decreased to only a few individuals in 1978 and 2008. Causes for these declines are currently unknown. Research is needed to understand factors operating when the White-tailed Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit occur in sympatry and factors contributing to the decline of the White-tailed Jackrabbit in Wyoming.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Anthony (1913), Armstrong (1972), Bailey (1926), Banfield (1974), Berger (2008a, 2008b), Blackburn (1973), Brown (1947), Couch (1927), Dalquest (1948), De Vos (1964), Dieter & Schaible (2012), Dunn et al. (1982), Flinders & Chapman (2003), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoeman (1964), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jackson (1961), James (1967), James & Seabloom (1969), Jones (1964), Kline (1963), Lim (1987 1999), Lissovsky (2016), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Peterson (1966), Rogowitz (1992, 1997), Rogowitz & Wolfe (1991), Seton (1928), Severaid (1950), Smith & Johnston (2008k), Soper (1973), Warren (1910).","taxonomy":"Lepus townsendii Bachman, 1839, “on the Walla-walla ... river.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “old Fort Walla Walla,” near the present town of Wallula, Walla Walla Co., Washington.Formerly, L. townsendiiwas placed as L. campestrisin the subgenera Proeulagus or FEulagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).Descriptive notes.Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.Habitat.Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m.","commonNames":"Liévre de Townsend @fr | Prariehase @de | Liebre de cola blanca @es | Prairie Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"36","interpretedPageNumber":"143","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"townsendii","name":"Lepus townsendii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Anthony (1913) | Armstrong (1972) | Bailey (1926) | Banfield (1974) | Berger (2008a, 2008b) | Blackburn (1973) | Brown (1947) | Couch (1927) | Dalquest (1948) | De Vos (1964) | Dieter & Schaible (2012) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Flinders & Chapman (2003) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoeman (1964) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jackson (1961) | James (1967) | James & Seabloom (1969) | Jones (1964) | Kline (1963) | Lim (1987 1999) | Lissovsky (2016) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Peterson (1966) | Rogowitz (1992, 1997) | Rogowitz & Wolfe (1991) | Seton (1928) | Severaid (1950) | Smith & Johnston (2008k) | Soper (1973) | Warren (1910)","foodAndFeeding":"The White-tailed Jackrabbit feeds primarily on succulent grasses and forbs. Shrubs are eaten in winter after grasses and forbs have become dry. When feeding on shrubs, woody stems are favored over leaves. Diet selection is influenced by age of White-tailed Jackrabbits, season, and availabilities of plant species. Abundant plant species in diets ofthis species are alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), creambush (Holodiscusdiscolor, Rosaceae), sagebrush, clover (Trifolium sp., Fabaceae), common dandelion (Taraxacumofficinale, Asteraceae), dryland sedge (Carexobtusata, Cyperaceae), Indian paintbrush (Castillejaintegra, Orobanchaceae), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), and winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), both Amaranthaceae. One study in Colorado recorded 67 plant species in stomachs of White-tailed Jackrabbits. Pregnant or lactating females usually feed alone; males feed in groups of 2-5 individuals. After feeding, White-tailed Jackrabbits groom their heads and ears with their forepaws and lick their bodies. When sympatric, the White-tailed Jackrabbit seems to be a more selective feeder than the Black-tailed Jackrabbit and therefore has a competitive disadvantage.","breeding":"Reproductive season starts in late February and ends in September. Breeding condition and environmental factors affect number oflitters born in a year. In the southern part of the distribution, a maximum of fourlitters are produced per year: the first in late April, the second in earlyJune, the third in middle July, and the fourth in late August or early September. In the northern parts of the distribution, only one litter is produced per year between May and early July. Gestation lasts 30-43 days and might be influenced by elevation and latitude. Litter sizes are 1-11 young, with an average of 4-5 young. The White-tailed Jackrabbit is polygamous. Courtship behavior involves a series of circling, jumping, and chasing activities that last 5-20 minutes and end in copulation. Normally, groups of 3-5 males chase one female during the evening hours. Subspecies campanius has breeding synchrony, and postpartum estrus allows conception immediately after parturition. Expected reproductive potential was estimated at 23 young/year, but due to prenatal mortality, it averaged 15 young/year. Nests for young are made of dry leaves and grasses, densely lined with fur from mothers, and well hidden in bushes or vegetation; alternately, they might only be a form on bare ground. Young are born fully furred, with open eyes and mobile to a limited extent. They start to forage at c.15 days old and are completely weaned at c.1 month old. Individuals have the potential to breed as early as c¢.7 months of age, but there is no evidence ofjuvenile breeding.","activityPatterns":"White-tailed Jackrabbits are nocturnal and forage mainly between sunset and sunrise. A study in summer revealed that they start feeding at 15:00-16:00 h, peak activity was at 22:00-01:00 h, and most activity stopped by 03:00-04:00 h. They hide in forms during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Distance, duration, and frequency of movements of White-tailed Jackrabbits increase in early breeding season (March/ April) and decline during warm summer months. Home range size is as small as 10 ha but usually 300-700 ha. White-tailed Jackrabbits might migrate considerable distances in winter to sheltered areas. They tend to be solitary, but during the reproductive season, 3—4 individuals might group together. Aggregations of ¢.50 individuals have been observed diurnally, with a maximum of 110 individuals during winter. These observations were attributed to an abundance of food in the area. When pursued by a predator, White-tailed Jackrabbits sometimes enter water and swim with forefeet paddling. They also demonstrate tonic immobility behavior that is believed to serve as defensive function similar to feigned death.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The WhitetailedJackrabbit is widespread. Since the early 1900s, there was a gradual distributional expansion to the north and east as favorable habitats (e.g. agricultural land) were created. Since about the 1950s, there has been a gradual reduction in the distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit coupled with distributional expansion of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit in the north-western part ofits distribution where habitats have been altered to favor the latter. The White-tailed Jackrabbit does not occur in most of Nebraska and Kansas anymore, and existence in Missouriis debated. Population status of the White-tailedJackrabbit across its entire distribution is currently unknown, but declines have been observed in two national parks in Wyoming. Populations in Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks decreased to only a few individuals in 1978 and 2008. Causes for these declines are currently unknown. Research is needed to understand factors operating when the White-tailed Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit occur in sympatry and factors contributing to the decline of the White-tailed Jackrabbit in Wyoming.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.","habitat":"Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m. Distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit extends into the badlands of South Dakota and montane pastures among scattered evergreens in Colorado. White-tailed Jackrabbits use shallow forms at bases of bushes or besides rocks. In winter, they use cavities connected by tunnels dug c.l m into snow or use shrubs and trees for cover. When White-tailed Jackrabbits and Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) are sympatric, they use different habitats. White-tailed Jackrabbits occur in open flats and fields of ryegrass (Lolium, Poaceae) in Oregon and bunchgrass and rabbitbrush in Washington; Black-tailed Jackrabbits inhabit predominantly sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae). In California, the White-tailed Jackrabbit was recorded more often on higher slopes and ridges, and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit more frequently on valley floors."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B75FFFE1FFC9FBFDF75EF567.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B75FFFE1FFC9FBFDF75EF567","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"131","verbatimText":"37.African Savanna HareLepus victoriaeFrench:Liévre des savanes/ German:Savannenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de sabanaTaxonomy.Lepus victoriae Thomas, 1893, “Lande der Ridj,” Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.It was formerly included with L. saxatilisand has various synonyms that are still under debate (saxatilis, crawshayi, whytei, and macrotis). Some taxonomic confusion has arisen because the skull of the type specimen of victoriaeis missing and because the type of whytei seems to be aberrant and not typical of others in nearby localities. The form whytei seems to be close to but distinguishable from L. fagani, and the wide geographical separation between these two forms merits recognition of whytei as a valid species. Also crawshayi might be a valid species. On the other hand,it is under discussion whether whytei and crawshayi might be subspecies of L. nigricollis. Moreover, L. victoriaemay be considered as the northern allospecies of the southern L. saxatilis. This species is widely sympatric with L. capensisand alloparatric to parapatric with L. saxatilisand L. habessinicus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.v.victoriaeThomas,1893—Tanzania.L.v.angolensisThomas,1904—Angola.L.v.senegalensisRochebrune,1883—Senegal,TheGambia.L. v. whyte: Thomas, 1894— Malawi.The African Savanna Hare is present from the Atlantic coast of NW Africa (Western Sahara S to Guinea), E across the Sahel to Sudan and the extreme W Ethiopia, S through E Africa (E DR Congo, Uganda, W Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) to most of Angola, Zambia, Malawi, NE Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, E South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho; a small isolated population exists near Beni Abbas in the Sahara Desert in W Algeria.Descriptive notes.Head—body 420-580 mm,tail 68-121 mm, ear 90-120 mm, hindfoot 103-127 mm; weight 1:4.3-2 kg. The African Savanna Hare is medium-sized and has soft butslightly coarse fur. Dorsal pelage, crown of head, and nasal region are brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are buff. Lips, cheeks, and areas around eyes are grayish. Ventral fur is white or buff. Chin is white, and collar is rufous or buffy. Lateral profile of head is shallowly and smoothly convex. Throat is buffy brown. Ears are of medium length, brownish and grizzled. Ear tips are black on outer and inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is characteristically orange to brownish orange. Forelimbs are long and buffy brown; hindlimbs are cinnamon-brown. Hindfeet are cinnamon-brown above and brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black or dark brown above and white laterally and below. Fur color varies geographically, but this might be due to the unclear species status. Montane forms of the African Savanna Hare are more rufous and darker than lowland forms.Habitat.Scrub, bush, and grassland habitats, preferring scrubby and montane habitats. The African Savanna Hare occurs in mountain regions up to ¢.3600 m on Mount Kenya and is also recorded in semiarid grasslands. It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution; they are separated largely by habitat. African Savanna Hares have been recorded in grassland associations of Themedatriandra and Imperatacylindrical (both Poaceae) in Ruanda-Urundi and Tarchonanthuscamphoratus (Asteraceae) scrub in East Africa.Food and Feeding.The African Savanna Hare is herbivorous. Based on fecal analysis, diet in Kenya consisted of grasses (35%) such as Digitaria sp.(18%), Hyparrhenia sp.(11%), and Cynodondactylon (4%) and dicotyledons (1%). Diets vary by habitat.Breeding.In Uganda, 100% of female African Savanna Hares were pregnant in all months except May and November when only 80% were pregnant. Mean litter size was 1-6 young, and numbers of litters per year were 6-8, resulting in a mean of 11-2 young/female/year.Activity patterns.The African Savanna Hare is strictly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of African Savanna Hares are 5-10 ha. They live mostly alone but are sometimes seen in groups of 2-3 individuals while feeding.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as L. microtis). The African Savanna Hare is widespread, but no data are available on its population status. Status of a small isolated population in western Algeria is uncertain and needs assessment. Threats to the African Savanna Hare are unknown, but its uncertain taxonomy makesit difficult to thoroughly understand its conservation status.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1939), Angermann (2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987b), Curry-Lindahl (1961), Flux (1981a, 1981b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Flux & Flux (1983), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Petter (1959), Smith & Johnston (2008c), Stewart (1971a).","taxonomy":"Lepus victoriae Thomas, 1893, “Lande der Ridj,” Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.It was formerly included with L. saxatilisand has various synonyms that are still under debate (saxatilis, crawshayi, whytei, and macrotis). Some taxonomic confusion has arisen because the skull of the type specimen of victoriaeis missing and because the type of whytei seems to be aberrant and not typical of others in nearby localities. The form whytei seems to be close to but distinguishable from L. fagani, and the wide geographical separation between these two forms merits recognition of whytei as a valid species. Also crawshayi might be a valid species. On the other hand,it is under discussion whether whytei and crawshayi might be subspecies of L. nigricollis. Moreover, L. victoriaemay be considered as the northern allospecies of the southern L. saxatilis. This species is widely sympatric with L. capensisand alloparatric to parapatric with L. saxatilisand L. habessinicus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre des savanes @fr | Savannenhase @de | Liebre de sabana @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"131","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"victoriae","name":"Lepus victoriae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.v.victoriaeThomas,1893—Tanzania.L.v.angolensisThomas,1904—Angola.L.v.senegalensisRochebrune,1883—Senegal,TheGambia.L. v. whyte: Thomas, 1894— Malawi.The African Savanna Hare is present from the Atlantic coast of NW Africa (Western Sahara S to Guinea), E across the Sahel to Sudan and the extreme W Ethiopia, S through E Africa (E DR Congo, Uganda, W Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) to most of Angola, Zambia, Malawi, NE Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, E South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho; a small isolated population exists near Beni Abbas in the Sahara Desert in W Algeria.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625627/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen, G.M. (1939) | Angermann (2016) | Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987b) | Curry-Lindahl (1961) | Flux (1981a, 1981b) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Flux & Flux (1983) | Happold (2013c) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Petter (1959) | Smith & Johnston (2008c) | Stewart (1971a)","foodAndFeeding":"The African Savanna Hare is herbivorous. Based on fecal analysis, diet in Kenya consisted of grasses (35%) such as Digitaria sp.(18%), Hyparrhenia sp.(11%), and Cynodondactylon (4%) and dicotyledons (1%). Diets vary by habitat.","breeding":"In Uganda, 100% of female African Savanna Hares were pregnant in all months except May and November when only 80% were pregnant. Mean litter size was 1-6 young, and numbers of litters per year were 6-8, resulting in a mean of 11-2 young/female/year.","activityPatterns":"The African Savanna Hare is strictly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of African Savanna Hares are 5-10 ha. They live mostly alone but are sometimes seen in groups of 2-3 individuals while feeding.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as L. microtis). The African Savanna Hare is widespread, but no data are available on its population status. Status of a small isolated population in western Algeria is uncertain and needs assessment. Threats to the African Savanna Hare are unknown, but its uncertain taxonomy makesit difficult to thoroughly understand its conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 420-580 mm,tail 68-121 mm, ear 90-120 mm, hindfoot 103-127 mm; weight 1:4.3-2 kg. The African Savanna Hare is medium-sized and has soft butslightly coarse fur. Dorsal pelage, crown of head, and nasal region are brown, grizzled with black. Flanks are buff. Lips, cheeks, and areas around eyes are grayish. Ventral fur is white or buff. Chin is white, and collar is rufous or buffy. Lateral profile of head is shallowly and smoothly convex. Throat is buffy brown. Ears are of medium length, brownish and grizzled. Ear tips are black on outer and inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is characteristically orange to brownish orange. Forelimbs are long and buffy brown; hindlimbs are cinnamon-brown. Hindfeet are cinnamon-brown above and brown below. Tail is medium-sized and black or dark brown above and white laterally and below. Fur color varies geographically, but this might be due to the unclear species status. Montane forms of the African Savanna Hare are more rufous and darker than lowland forms.","habitat":"Scrub, bush, and grassland habitats, preferring scrubby and montane habitats. The African Savanna Hare occurs in mountain regions up to ¢.3600 m on Mount Kenya and is also recorded in semiarid grasslands. It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution; they are separated largely by habitat. African Savanna Hares have been recorded in grassland associations of Themedatriandra and Imperatacylindrical (both Poaceae) in Ruanda-Urundi and Tarchonanthuscamphoratus (Asteraceae) scrub in East Africa."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B761FFD1FAFCF9FFFC16F4AB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B761FFD1FAFCF9FFFC16F4AB","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"145","verbatimText":"59.Mountain HareLepus timidusFrench:Liévre variable/ German:Schneehase/ Spanish:Liebre de montanaOther common names:Blue Hare, Snow Hare, Eurasian Arctic Hare, Varying Hare, White Hare; Irish Hare (hibernicus), Alpine Mountain Hare (varronis)Taxonomy.Lepus timidus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa.”Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidenceis available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occursin the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. Six populations of L. timidusare geographically separated and morphologically distinct and therefore can be treated as subspecies (abe, ainu, hibernicus, orii, scoticus, and varronis). Because division into subspecies is mostly based on pelage characteristics, it must be considered preliminary. Three studies analyzing geographic variation of metric characters of the skull of L. timidusdemonstrated clinal variations. This doubts the advisability of identifying subspecies in L. timidus. Origin of subspecies of L. timidusin Europe from a panmictic population during the Weichsel period is supported by genetic assessments. Hybridization between L. timidusand L. europaeusand between L. timidusand L. tolaiare recorded in contact zones. No interbreeding has been noted between scoticus and hibernicus on the island of Mull where both subspecies were introduced 60 years ago. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. t. timidus Linnaeus, 1758— Scandinavia S to 59° N, N Russia (S to 57° N to 58° N) to E of Ural Mts, Estonia, perhaps Poland, and Altai and Beita Mts in N Xinjiang (China); from Sweden extending in hybrid zones with the subspecies sylvaticusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. abet Kuroda, 1938 — Kurile Is (Russia).L. t. ainu Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 — Hokkaido (Japan).L. t. begitschevi Koljuschev, 1936 — Taimyr Peninsula (Russia).L. t. gichiganus J. A. Allen, 1903 — C Yakutia, Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea coast (Russia).L. t. hibernicus Bell, 1837 — Ireland.L. t. kolymensis Ognev, 1922 — NE Siberia (Russia).L. t. kozhevnikovi Ognev, 1929 — C Russia from 57° to 58°N, whereit intergrades with the nomonotypical timidusS to 53° N. The W boundary is unclear.L. t. lugubris Kastschenko, 1899 — Siberian Altai Mts (Russia).L. t. mordeni Goodwin, 1933 — Russian Far East (Ussuri Valley and lower and middle Amur River) and Heilongjiang (China).L. t. ori Kuroda, 1928 — Sakhalin (Russia).L. t. scoticus Hilzheimer, 1906 — Scotland.L. t. sibiricorumJohansen, 1923 — W & SW Siberia (Russia), N Kazakhstan, and Tacheng Mts in N Xinjiang (China).L. t. sylvaticus Nilsson, 1831—S Sweden, extending in hybrid zones with nominotypical timidusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. transbaikalicus Ognev, 1929 — Trans-Baikal region in E Siberia (Russia) and E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol, China).L. t. varronis Miller, 1901 — at high altitudes in the Alps, C Europe.The Mountain Hare inhabits the Palearctic from Scandinavia to Russian Far East, except E Chukchi Peninsula, S to Baltic States, E Poland, N Ukranie, and E to Tian Shan Mts, Altai Mts, N Mongolia, NW & NE China (N Xinjiang, N Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang), and Sikhote-Alin Mts. There are isolated populations in Scotland, Ireland, the Alps, Sakhalin (Russia), Hokkaido (Japan), and the Kurile Is. The nominotypical subspecies has been introduced into Faroe Is (Denmark), Scottish Is, and parts of England. Introduced populations on Spitsbergen I failed to persist.Descriptive notes.Head-body 510-550 mm, tail 59-65 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 159-165 mm; weight 2.4-3.4 kg (depending on subspecies). The smallest subspecies is the “Alpine Mountain Hare” (varronis), and the largest subspecies is the nominate timidus. Male Mountain Hares tend to be smaller than females. In general, northern populations are larger. The Mountain Hare is completely white in winter, and its head and body are brown in summer. Summer fur differs among populations and can be pale gray or dusky brown in mountainous areas to rich rustbrown on plains. Exceptionally, fur of the Irish Hare is white on rump, flanks, and legs, with its upper back and head remaining brown in winter. Ears are short and narrow, with 30mm black tips on exterior surfaces and 5mm on interior surfaces. Relatively large head has prominent eyes, with yellowish irises in adults but dark brown in young. Hindfeet have hairy soles and widely spreading toes. Molt occurs three times per year: white to brown in spring; brown to brown in late summer; and brown to white in autumn. Molt is initiated by daylength, and its duration is influenced by temperature. Mountain Hares at high elevations and latitudes remain white longer, relative to average ambient temperature and duration of snow cover.Habitat.Wide range of biomes from extreme tundra with permafrost in northern Russia to rich agricultural areas in Ireland. Mountain Hares prefer to live in forests of pine, birch, and juniper. In Scotland and Ireland, heather moors and bog land are favored, and in Russia, copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes are selected. In the Alps, Mountain Hares prefer highly structured forests and thickets at forest edges. In spring, abundant herbaceous food in meadows is important to Mountain Hares. When a habitat offers food and shelter against predators, Mountain Hares use it for rest and activity. Forms are usually a depression they make. In snow, Mountain Hares burrow to make forms and enter rock crevices or marmot (Marmota) burrows for shelter or escape. They sometimes dig permanent burrows 1-2 m long in the ground. Mountain Hares in Ireland and the Alps do not burrow, but in Russia, complex burrows up to 7 m long have been reported. On agricultural land, Mountain Hares tends to be replaced by European Hares (L. europaeus) in Europe and Cape Hares (L. capensis) further east.Food and Feeding.Mountain Hares are grazers in summer and browsers in winter. Their diets vary with habitat. Plant species used as food in forest habitats include leaves and twigs of Salixand Populus(both Salicaceae), Sorbus(Rosaceae), Betula(Betulaceae), Juniperus(Cupressaceae), and Vaccinium(Ericaceae); on Scottish moorlands and Swedish islands, Calluna(Ericaceae) is eaten. Different grass species and clovers are eaten when available. With snow cover, Mountain Hares feed on twigs, bark, moss, and lichens. They seldom drink water but may eat snow. Re-ingestion ofsoft pellets takes place at 09:00-16:00 h and increases dietary digestibility up to 25%; these pellets contain three times as much protein as regular pellets. Mountain Hares feed with their back to the wind and can clear snow from vegetation with their forepaws. When snow is hard, they move to lower ground to feed.Breeding.Gestation of the Mountain Hare lasts 46-55 days. Postpartum estrus with copulations a few hours after parturition is common. Superfetation does occur. Females have predominantly 2-3 litters/year, with litter sizes of 1-3 young, resulting in 5-9 offspring/female during a reproductive season. Weather has an important influence on numberof litters produced during a reproductive season.The second litter is on average larger than the first one. Start of breeding varies with temperature, and gestating females have been recorded from January/February until August/September. Juvenile females do not breed in the same year of their birth. Differences in reproduction exist among populations or subspecies.For example, subspecies timidusin northern Norway normally has only 1-2 litters/ year, but in south-western Sweden,it regularly has three litters. Another difference is the length of the reproductive period with the Irish Hare having a longer one than scoticus. At birth, young are fully furred, their eyes are open, and they start suckling immediately. Adult sex ratio is 1:1. Overall juvenile survival from birth to the following spring averages 20%. In January-July, male Mountain Hares often follow 2-20 m behind a female for hours. Males use scent to track females. During courtship, several males chase a female, but males do not guard females. Females dominate males and strike with their forepaws with ears laid backward if the male approaches too closely. Copulation can involve five or more males and a female, and males can be involved in long fights.Activity patterns.Mountain Hares are nocturnal throughout the year, with a prolonged resting phase during the day. Activity patterns change seasonally with circadian rhythms. Mountains Hares rest by day in a form, with ears back and eyes half closed, but they only sleep for a few minutes at a time. In summer when daylight increases and in winter when food is scarce, more Mountain Hares are active during the day. Activity is highest during the first two hours after sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Hares move an average of 1400 m/mnight, but they can travel up to 2400 m/night. Home rangesizes vary depending on climate. Home ranges are ¢.200 ha in boreal coniferous forests of Scandinavia. In moorland and pastures of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, and in the Alps, home ranges are 5-435 ha. Home ranges at night are larger than during the day, and they overlap ¢.35%. Densities vary from 1 ind/km? in Russia to 400 ind/km? on the Swedish Island of Vedholmen. Massive migrations of groups of 100-500, but up to 1500-2000 hares have been recorded in years of high numbers in northern Russia (Barents and Kara seas, Yamal Peninsula, Yakutia). Mountain Hares often move, rest, and feed together in groups of 2-5 individuals. Groups of 20-100 individuals have been recorded feeding in the same place.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Hare is widespread, populations appear to be stable across much ofits distribution, and it occurs in many protected areas. Nevertheless, historical game bag records in Northern Ireland indicate that there has been a substantial decline in abundance. Moreover, historical and recent records indicate that distribution of Mountain Haresis decreasing in southern Sweden. This decline started simultaneously with introduction of European Hares and continues while they expand northward. Furthermore, hunting statistics from Grisons, Switzerland, indicate a possible shift of both species to higher elevations. From 1990 to 2010, European Hares and Mountain Hares annually ascended more than 6 m and 3 m, respectively. Results of the study showed that European Hares advanced faster to higher elevations than Mountain Hares. A possible threat to the Irish Hare might be an introduced and expanding population of the European Hare in Ireland. The two examples from Sweden and Switzerland suggest that European Hares benefit from global warming and expand their distribution northward and to higher elevations and, thereby, might displace the Mountain Hares from their current distribution. Competitive exclusion and hybridization and introgression might explain how the European Hare is involved in the continuous decline of the Mountain Hare. Comparison of distributions of European Hares and Mountain Hares in Europe reveals that wherever European Hares occur, Mountain Hares are restricted to higher elevations or deep forests. It seems that European Hares and Mountain Hares are ecologically equivalent and strongly compete with one another. Studies of food preferences show that Mountain Haresin Ireland eat more grasses and herbs than Mountain Hares that live in sympatry with European Hares. Consequently,it has been argued that competitive exclusion by the European Hare restricts Mountain Hare distribution. Besides, in sympatric areas the forms of Mountain Hares are located in denser forest and further away from open fields than in allopatric areas. European Hares also expand their distribution and use of various habitats when densities of Mountain Hare are low. All these studies show that European Hares have the potential to expand into Mountain Hare territory and,in sympatry, Mountain Hares disappear from optimal European Hare habitat. European Hares and Mountain Hares hybridize with each other. Offspring are morphological intermediate and fertile. Normally, a male European Hare will mate with a female Mountain Hare. Reciprocal hybridization is also possible, but very rare due to typical mating behavior of European Hares and Mountain Hares in natural surroundings. Each time a Mountain Hare female hybridizes with a European Hare male, the local Mountain Hare population loses a species-specific litter. Consequently, observed decline in distribution and densities of Mountain Hares may be a direct consequence of unidirectional hybridization. This phenomenon is described as extinction by hybridization in the literature.After hybridization, mtDNA of Mountain Hares can be detected in European Hares if the hybrids backcross with true European Hares, which is often the case. Therefore, introgressed individuals can be found in both species. In areas where European Hares live currently in sympatry with Mountain Hares, the proportion of European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA is higher than in areas where both species lived in sympatry in the past. It seems that European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA have a reduced fitness compared with European Hares with species-specific mtDNA. This means that Mountain Hare mtDNA is incorporated into European Hares in sympatric areas but gradually disappears if European Hares remain allopatric. After the introduction of European Hares in Sweden, European Hares and Mountain Hares occurred together for a period of time before Mountain Hares disappeared and only European Hares remained. Hybrids were only observed a couple of years before they disappeared. Accordingly, hybridization, introgression, and the eventual disappearance of Mountain Hare mtDNA might be regarded as refined competitive exclusion in which traces of Mountain Hares are not only ecologically but also genetically erased from the European Hare. In addition to interactions with the European Hare, other causes for the Mountain Hare decline are under consideration, such as diseases (e.g. European Brown Hare Syndrome and tularemia), deforestation and agricultural expansion, predation, and negative interactions with other herbivores. Increasing tourism in the Alps has a negative impact on Mountain Hares and other biota. Nevertheless, none of these factors alone can explain declines of Mountain Hares. Research is needed to identify causes of regional decline.Current conservation status of the endemic Irish Hare and the Alpine Mountain Hare require specific investigations.Bibliography.Acevedo, Jiménez-Valverde et al. (2012), Angerbjérn (1981, 1986, 1991), Angerbjorn & Flux (1995), Angerbjérn & Pehrson (1987), Angermann (1967b, 2016), Baker et al. (1983), Barrett-Hamilton (1912), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Masseroni et al. (2011), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Ossi et al. (2013), Caravaggi et al. (2015), Cederlund & Lemnell (1980), Dahl & Willebrand (2005), Dingerkus & Montgomery (2001, 2002), Fairley (1974), Flux (1970, 1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gamboni (1997), Genini Gamboni et al. (2008), Hacklander & Jenny (2011), Hewson (1962, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1991), Hewson & Hinge (1990), Hiltunen & Kauhala (2006), Hiltunen et al. (2004), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hulbert, lason, Elston & Racey (1996), Hulbert, lason & Racey (1996), Jansson & Pehrson (2007), Kauhala et al. (2005), Lind (1961, 1963), Lissovsky (2016), Long, (2003), Lonnberg (1905), Loukashkin (1943), Mallon (1985), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Myrberget (1984), Nodari (2006), Nyholm (1968), Ognev (1966), Olsson (1997), Pehrson (1983a, 1983b), Rao et al. (2003), Rehnus et al. (2013), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), Slotta-Bachmayr (1998), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008l), Sokolov et al. (2009), Suchentrunk et al. (1999), Thirgood & Hewson (1987), Thulin (2003), Thulin & Tegelstrdom (2002), Thulin et al. (1997), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wolfe & Hayden (1996), Wolfe et al. (1996), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005), Zachos et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Lepus timidus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa.”Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidenceis available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occursin the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. Six populations of L. timidusare geographically separated and morphologically distinct and therefore can be treated as subspecies (abe, ainu, hibernicus, orii, scoticus, and varronis). Because division into subspecies is mostly based on pelage characteristics, it must be considered preliminary. Three studies analyzing geographic variation of metric characters of the skull of L. timidusdemonstrated clinal variations. This doubts the advisability of identifying subspecies in L. timidus. Origin of subspecies of L. timidusin Europe from a panmictic population during the Weichsel period is supported by genetic assessments. Hybridization between L. timidusand L. europaeusand between L. timidusand L. tolaiare recorded in contact zones. No interbreeding has been noted between scoticus and hibernicus on the island of Mull where both subspecies were introduced 60 years ago. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre variable @fr | Schneehase @de | Liebre de montana @es | Blue Hare @en | Snow Hare @en | Eurasian Arctic Hare @en | Varying Hare @en | White Hare; @en | rish Hare (hibernicus) @en | Alpine Mountain Hare (varronis) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"38","interpretedPageNumber":"145","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"timidus","name":"Lepus timidus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. t. timidus Linnaeus, 1758— Scandinavia S to 59° N, N Russia (S to 57° N to 58° N) to E of Ural Mts, Estonia, perhaps Poland, and Altai and Beita Mts in N Xinjiang (China); from Sweden extending in hybrid zones with the subspecies sylvaticusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. abet Kuroda, 1938 — Kurile Is (Russia).L. t. ainu Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 — Hokkaido (Japan).L. t. begitschevi Koljuschev, 1936 — Taimyr Peninsula (Russia).L. t. gichiganus J. A. Allen, 1903 — C Yakutia, Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea coast (Russia).L. t. hibernicus Bell, 1837 — Ireland.L. t. kolymensis Ognev, 1922 — NE Siberia (Russia).L. t. kozhevnikovi Ognev, 1929 — C Russia from 57° to 58°N, whereit intergrades with the nomonotypical timidusS to 53° N. The W boundary is unclear.L. t. lugubris Kastschenko, 1899 — Siberian Altai Mts (Russia).L. t. mordeni Goodwin, 1933 — Russian Far East (Ussuri Valley and lower and middle Amur River) and Heilongjiang (China).L. t. ori Kuroda, 1928 — Sakhalin (Russia).L. t. scoticus Hilzheimer, 1906 — Scotland.L. t. sibiricorumJohansen, 1923 — W & SW Siberia (Russia), N Kazakhstan, and Tacheng Mts in N Xinjiang (China).L. t. sylvaticus Nilsson, 1831—S Sweden, extending in hybrid zones with nominotypical timidusto S coast of Norway and W Latvia.L. t. transbaikalicus Ognev, 1929 — Trans-Baikal region in E Siberia (Russia) and E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol, China).L. t. varronis Miller, 1901 — at high altitudes in the Alps, C Europe.The Mountain Hare inhabits the Palearctic from Scandinavia to Russian Far East, except E Chukchi Peninsula, S to Baltic States, E Poland, N Ukranie, and E to Tian Shan Mts, Altai Mts, N Mongolia, NW & NE China (N Xinjiang, N Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang), and Sikhote-Alin Mts. There are isolated populations in Scotland, Ireland, the Alps, Sakhalin (Russia), Hokkaido (Japan), and the Kurile Is. The nominotypical subspecies has been introduced into Faroe Is (Denmark), Scottish Is, and parts of England. Introduced populations on Spitsbergen I failed to persist.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625681/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Acevedo, Jiménez-Valverde et al. (2012) | Angerbjérn (1981, 1986, 1991) | Angerbjorn & Flux (1995) | Angerbjérn & Pehrson (1987) | Angermann (1967b, 2016) | Baker et al. (1983) | Barrett-Hamilton (1912) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Masseroni et al. (2011) | Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Ossi et al. (2013) | Caravaggi et al. (2015) | Cederlund & Lemnell (1980) | Dahl & Willebrand (2005) | Dingerkus & Montgomery (2001, 2002) | Fairley (1974) | Flux (1970, 1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gamboni (1997) | Genini Gamboni et al. (2008) | Hacklander & Jenny (2011) | Hewson (1962, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1991) | Hewson & Hinge (1990) | Hiltunen & Kauhala (2006) | Hiltunen et al. (2004) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hulbert, lason, Elston & Racey (1996) | Hulbert, lason & Racey (1996) | Jansson & Pehrson (2007) | Kauhala et al. (2005) | Lind (1961, 1963) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long, (2003) | Lonnberg (1905) | Loukashkin (1943) | Mallon (1985) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Myrberget (1984) | Nodari (2006) | Nyholm (1968) | Ognev (1966) | Olsson (1997) | Pehrson (1983a, 1983b) | Rao et al. (2003) | Rehnus et al. (2013) | Rhymer & Simberloff (1996) | Slotta-Bachmayr (1998) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008l) | Sokolov et al. (2009) | Suchentrunk et al. (1999) | Thirgood & Hewson (1987) | Thulin (2003) | Thulin & Tegelstrdom (2002) | Thulin et al. (1997) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Wolfe & Hayden (1996) | Wolfe et al. (1996) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005) | Zachos et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"Mountain Hares are grazers in summer and browsers in winter. Their diets vary with habitat. Plant species used as food in forest habitats include leaves and twigs of Salixand Populus(both Salicaceae), Sorbus(Rosaceae), Betula(Betulaceae), Juniperus(Cupressaceae), and Vaccinium(Ericaceae); on Scottish moorlands and Swedish islands, Calluna(Ericaceae) is eaten. Different grass species and clovers are eaten when available. With snow cover, Mountain Hares feed on twigs, bark, moss, and lichens. They seldom drink water but may eat snow. Re-ingestion ofsoft pellets takes place at 09:00-16:00 h and increases dietary digestibility up to 25%; these pellets contain three times as much protein as regular pellets. Mountain Hares feed with their back to the wind and can clear snow from vegetation with their forepaws. When snow is hard, they move to lower ground to feed.","breeding":"Gestation of the Mountain Hare lasts 46-55 days. Postpartum estrus with copulations a few hours after parturition is common. Superfetation does occur. Females have predominantly 2-3 litters/year, with litter sizes of 1-3 young, resulting in 5-9 offspring/female during a reproductive season. Weather has an important influence on numberof litters produced during a reproductive season.","activityPatterns":"Mountain Hares are nocturnal throughout the year, with a prolonged resting phase during the day. Activity patterns change seasonally with circadian rhythms. Mountains Hares rest by day in a form, with ears back and eyes half closed, but they only sleep for a few minutes at a time. In summer when daylight increases and in winter when food is scarce, more Mountain Hares are active during the day. Activity is highest during the first two hours after sunset.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mountain Hares move an average of 1400 m/mnight, but they can travel up to 2400 m/night. Home rangesizes vary depending on climate. Home ranges are ¢.200 ha in boreal coniferous forests of Scandinavia. In moorland and pastures of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, and in the Alps, home ranges are 5-435 ha. Home ranges at night are larger than during the day, and they overlap ¢.35%. Densities vary from 1 ind/km? in Russia to 400 ind/km? on the Swedish Island of Vedholmen. Massive migrations of groups of 100-500, but up to 1500-2000 hares have been recorded in years of high numbers in northern Russia (Barents and Kara seas, Yamal Peninsula, Yakutia). Mountain Hares often move, rest, and feed together in groups of 2-5 individuals. Groups of 20-100 individuals have been recorded feeding in the same place.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Hare is widespread, populations appear to be stable across much ofits distribution, and it occurs in many protected areas. Nevertheless, historical game bag records in Northern Ireland indicate that there has been a substantial decline in abundance. Moreover, historical and recent records indicate that distribution of Mountain Haresis decreasing in southern Sweden. This decline started simultaneously with introduction of European Hares and continues while they expand northward. Furthermore, hunting statistics from Grisons, Switzerland, indicate a possible shift of both species to higher elevations. From 1990 to 2010, European Hares and Mountain Hares annually ascended more than 6 m and 3 m, respectively. Results of the study showed that European Hares advanced faster to higher elevations than Mountain Hares. A possible threat to the Irish Hare might be an introduced and expanding population of the European Hare in Ireland. The two examples from Sweden and Switzerland suggest that European Hares benefit from global warming and expand their distribution northward and to higher elevations and, thereby, might displace the Mountain Hares from their current distribution. Competitive exclusion and hybridization and introgression might explain how the European Hare is involved in the continuous decline of the Mountain Hare. Comparison of distributions of European Hares and Mountain Hares in Europe reveals that wherever European Hares occur, Mountain Hares are restricted to higher elevations or deep forests. It seems that European Hares and Mountain Hares are ecologically equivalent and strongly compete with one another. Studies of food preferences show that Mountain Haresin Ireland eat more grasses and herbs than Mountain Hares that live in sympatry with European Hares. Consequently,it has been argued that competitive exclusion by the European Hare restricts Mountain Hare distribution. Besides, in sympatric areas the forms of Mountain Hares are located in denser forest and further away from open fields than in allopatric areas. European Hares also expand their distribution and use of various habitats when densities of Mountain Hare are low. All these studies show that European Hares have the potential to expand into Mountain Hare territory and,in sympatry, Mountain Hares disappear from optimal European Hare habitat. European Hares and Mountain Hares hybridize with each other. Offspring are morphological intermediate and fertile. Normally, a male European Hare will mate with a female Mountain Hare. Reciprocal hybridization is also possible, but very rare due to typical mating behavior of European Hares and Mountain Hares in natural surroundings. Each time a Mountain Hare female hybridizes with a European Hare male, the local Mountain Hare population loses a species-specific litter. Consequently, observed decline in distribution and densities of Mountain Hares may be a direct consequence of unidirectional hybridization. This phenomenon is described as extinction by hybridization in the literature.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 510-550 mm, tail 59-65 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 159-165 mm; weight 2.4-3.4 kg (depending on subspecies). The smallest subspecies is the “Alpine Mountain Hare” (varronis), and the largest subspecies is the nominate timidus. Male Mountain Hares tend to be smaller than females. In general, northern populations are larger. The Mountain Hare is completely white in winter, and its head and body are brown in summer. Summer fur differs among populations and can be pale gray or dusky brown in mountainous areas to rich rustbrown on plains. Exceptionally, fur of the Irish Hare is white on rump, flanks, and legs, with its upper back and head remaining brown in winter. Ears are short and narrow, with 30mm black tips on exterior surfaces and 5mm on interior surfaces. Relatively large head has prominent eyes, with yellowish irises in adults but dark brown in young. Hindfeet have hairy soles and widely spreading toes. Molt occurs three times per year: white to brown in spring; brown to brown in late summer; and brown to white in autumn. Molt is initiated by daylength, and its duration is influenced by temperature. Mountain Hares at high elevations and latitudes remain white longer, relative to average ambient temperature and duration of snow cover.","habitat":"Wide range of biomes from extreme tundra with permafrost in northern Russia to rich agricultural areas in Ireland. Mountain Hares prefer to live in forests of pine, birch, and juniper. In Scotland and Ireland, heather moors and bog land are favored, and in Russia, copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes are selected. In the Alps, Mountain Hares prefer highly structured forests and thickets at forest edges. In spring, abundant herbaceous food in meadows is important to Mountain Hares. When a habitat offers food and shelter against predators, Mountain Hares use it for rest and activity. Forms are usually a depression they make. In snow, Mountain Hares burrow to make forms and enter rock crevices or marmot (Marmota) burrows for shelter or escape. They sometimes dig permanent burrows 1-2 m long in the ground. Mountain Hares in Ireland and the Alps do not burrow, but in Russia, complex burrows up to 7 m long have been reported. On agricultural land, Mountain Hares tends to be replaced by European Hares (L. europaeus) in Europe and Cape Hares (L. capensis) further east."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B761FFDFFFF2FC8DFA17F3A3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B761FFDFFFF2FC8DFA17F3A3","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"145","verbatimText":"58.Alaskan HareLepus othusFrench: Lievre d/Alaska / German: Alaska-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de AlaskaOther common names: Alaska Arctic Hare, Alaska Peninsula Hare, Alaska Tundra Hare, St. Michael's Hare, Tundra Hare, Swift HareTaxonomy.Lepus othus Merriam, 1900, “St. Michaels, [Norton Sound], Alaska,” USA.Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occurs in the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. If the distribution includes eastern Siberian tschuktschorum it has priority over othus. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the eastern Siberian population is more closely related to L. timidus, and L. othusis distinct from L. arcticus, but more studies are required for a conclusive distinction because the study was only based on mtDNA. Morphological studies found that L. othusis closer to L. townsendiithan to other northern species of Lepus. Lepusothusis partially sympatric with L. americanusin Alaska. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.o.othusMerriam,1900—WAlaska(USA).L.o.poadromusMerriam,1900—AlaskaPeninsula(USA).L. o. tschuktschorum Nordqvist, 1883— Chukchi Peninsula, NE Siberia (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 570-620 mm, tail 65-83 mm, ear 90-91 mm, hindfoot 164-179 mm; weight 3.9-4.8 kg. The Alaskan Hare is large. Winter pelage is white, except for black ear tips. In summer, fur on nose, sides of face, and top of head is cinnamon-buff; top of head appears darker. General color of back is drab cinnamon. Ears are similar in color to head on anterior one-half of outer surface, but posterior one-half is white. Frontlegs are white, with wash of cinnamon-buff; hindlegs are white, washed with brown. Molting occurs twice per year and starts in mid-September and early May. The Alaskan Hare has stout claws adapted to digging through hard-crusted snow to reach vegetation.Habitat.Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Alaskan Hare in April/May consists mainly of shrubs. Woody parts of the Alaskan willow (S. alaxensis) and leaves of crowberry are most commonly eaten. In spring, they fed at edges of melting snow patches where crowberries from the previous summer were abundant. One captive Alaskan Hare seldom drank water.Breeding.Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).Activity patterns.Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Alaskan Hares seem to be widespread and stable, although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Alaskan Hares for food and fur. Southern populations might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Research is needed to assess taxonomic status of the Alaskan Hare relative to the Mountain Hare (L. timidus) and the Arctic Hare (L. arcticus) and evaluate habitat use and population status and trends.Bibliography.Anderson (1974), Anderson & Lent (1977), Angermann (2016), Baker et al. (1983), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Best & Henry (1994b), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Dufresne (1946), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1981), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Howell (19364), Lissovsky (2016), Loukashkin (1943), Merriam (1900), Murie (1959), Murray & Smith (2008c), Nelson (1909), Schiller & Rausch (1956), Walkinshaw (1947), Waltari & Cook (2005), Waltari et al. (2004), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus othus Merriam, 1900, “St. Michaels, [Norton Sound], Alaska,” USA.Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidusand L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occurs in the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. If the distribution includes eastern Siberian tschuktschorum it has priority over othus. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the eastern Siberian population is more closely related to L. timidus, and L. othusis distinct from L. arcticus, but more studies are required for a conclusive distinction because the study was only based on mtDNA. Morphological studies found that L. othusis closer to L. townsendiithan to other northern species of Lepus. Lepusothusis partially sympatric with L. americanusin Alaska. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"38","interpretedPageNumber":"145","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"othus","name":"Lepus othus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.o.othusMerriam,1900—WAlaska(USA).L.o.poadromusMerriam,1900—AlaskaPeninsula(USA).L. o. tschuktschorum Nordqvist, 1883— Chukchi Peninsula, NE Siberia (Russia).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625679/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson (1974) | Anderson & Lent (1977) | Angermann (2016) | Baker et al. (1983) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Best & Henry (1994b) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Dufresne (1946) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1981) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Howell (19364) | Lissovsky (2016) | Loukashkin (1943) | Merriam (1900) | Murie (1959) | Murray & Smith (2008c) | Nelson (1909) | Schiller & Rausch (1956) | Walkinshaw (1947) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Waltari et al. (2004) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands.Diet of the Alaskan Hare in April/May consists mainly of shrubs. Woody parts of the Alaskan willow (S. alaxensis) and leaves of crowberry are most commonly eaten. In spring, they fed at edges of melting snow patches where crowberries from the previous summer were abundant. One captive Alaskan Hare seldom drank water.Breeding.Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).Activity patterns.Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.","breeding":"Mating season of the Alaskan Hare occurs in mid-April and May, and gestation is ¢.46 days. Parturition occurs in late May and early June and seems to coincide with loss of snow cover in late May. Females have one litter per year, with 5-7 young (average 6-3 young). Precocial young are born in a nest aboveground in thick shelter of willow or alder. Nests are mere depressions in the vegetation and have no lining. Young have brownish buff upper parts and white under parts. Nose, eye rings, and feet are buff. Ear tips are black, and tail is white. Female Alaskan Hares nurse 5-9 weeks—a prolonged nursing period probably enhances survival of young and perpetuates rapid growth. A few weeks after birth, young begin to drift away from their mother. Rapid growth allows young to reach minimum adult body mass during the short summer; young are fully grown by late September. Initial rate of growth of the Alaskan Hare is greater than that of the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus), the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus), and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendi).","activityPatterns":"Alaskan Hares leave dense thickets in the evening to feed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Alaskan Hares live alone, except during mating when groups of 20 or more are observed. If they still have their winter pelage in May, they remain near snowfields at high elevations. One captive Alaska Hare never attempted to seek shelter during snow and rain.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Alaskan Hares seem to be widespread and stable, although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Alaskan Hares for food and fur. Southern populations might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Research is needed to assess taxonomic status of the Alaskan Hare relative to the Mountain Hare (L. timidus) and the Arctic Hare (L. arcticus) and evaluate habitat use and population status and trends.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 570-620 mm, tail 65-83 mm, ear 90-91 mm, hindfoot 164-179 mm; weight 3.9-4.8 kg. The Alaskan Hare is large. Winter pelage is white, except for black ear tips. In summer, fur on nose, sides of face, and top of head is cinnamon-buff; top of head appears darker. General color of back is drab cinnamon. Ears are similar in color to head on anterior one-half of outer surface, but posterior one-half is white. Frontlegs are white, with wash of cinnamon-buff; hindlegs are white, washed with brown. Molting occurs twice per year and starts in mid-September and early May. The Alaskan Hare has stout claws adapted to digging through hard-crusted snow to reach vegetation.","habitat":"Tundra of coastal regions of Alaska from sea level to elevations over 600 m. The Alaskan Hare occurs almost completely outside the limit of spruce (Picea, Pinaceae) forests. It lives in dense alder (Alnus, Butalaceae) thickets. Near the Kashunuk River, it was found in all habitats from sedge (Carex, Cyperaceae) flats and wet meadows to upperslopes of the Askinuk Mountains with vegetation dominated by sedge; lyme grass (Elymusarenarius, Poaceae); Potentillaegedei (Rosaceae); Poaeminens (Poaceae); crowberry (Empetrumnigrum, Ericaceae); willow (Salix, Salicaceae); Ledum decumbens/ Rhododendronsubarcticum (Ericaceae); dwarf birch (Betulanana) and green alder (Al nus crispa), both Betulaceae; ferns (Dryopteris); and lichens. Northern populations of Alaskan Hares primarily live in tundra or alluvial plains, and southern populations primarily live in coastal lowlands."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B762FFDFFF65F9D5FDD5F4B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B762FFDFFF65F9D5FDD5F4B3","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"144","verbatimText":"57.Arctic HareLepus arcticusFrench:Liévre arctique/ German:Polarhase/ Spanish:Liebre articaOther common names:American Arctic Hare, Canadian Arctic Hare, Labrador Hare, Greenland Hare, Polar HareTaxonomy.Lepus arcticus Ross, 1819, “Southeast of Cape Bowen” (Possession Bay, Bylot Island, latitude 73°37’N, Canada).Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticusand L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics. This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from the L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered distinct species with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nine subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.arcticusRoss,1819—BaffinI,BylotI,andMelvillePeninsula,NENunavut(NCanada).L.a.andersoniNelson,1934—C&NENorthwestTerritoriesandmostofNunavut(NWCanada).L.a.bangsiiRhoads,1896—NewfoundlandandNEL.a.(ECanada.)L.a.banksicolaManning&Macpherson,1958—BanksI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.groenlandicusRhoads,1896—W,N&NEice-freecoastalregionsofGreenland.L.a.hubbardiHandley,1952—PrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.labradoriusMiller,1899—SEBaffinI,NHudsonBayIs,coastalSNunavut,NEManitoba,NQuebec,andNWL.a.Peninsula(NCanada).L.a.monstrabilisNelson,1934—QueenElizabethIs,exceptPrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L. a. porsildi Nelson, 1934— S & SW ice-free coastal regions of Greenland.Descriptive notes.Head—body 560-660 mm, tail 45-100 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 146-164 nm; weight 2.5-6.8 kg. Measurements of Artic Hares vary depending on geographical location. In the north, individuals are larger than in the south. Summer pelage is gray in southern populations and white in northern populations. In winter, Arctic Hares are white except for black ear tips. Winter fur is long and soft. During molt, Arctic Hares remove loose tufts of hair by rolling in snow. Eyes are yellowish brown. Ears are blackish in front and white behind, with a whitish band isolating black tips. Large feet are padded with heavy, yellowish brush of hair. Claws on forefeet and hindfeet are long and well adapted for digging in snow.Habitat.Tundra, primarily north of the tree line, arctic alpine, and exposed coastal barren areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. The Artic Hare prefers hillsides or rock-strewn plateaus rather than flat bog land. Throughout most ofits distribution, it spends summer in the tundra north of the tree limit, but in winter, it might penetrate up to 160 km into the forest. Areas with little snow cover and wind exposure are favored, and groups of several hundred Arctic Hares may aggregate in such areas in winter, moving from one place to the other in search for food.Food and Feeding.The Arctic Hare feeds mainly on woody plants throughout the year. Arctic willow (Salixarctica, Salicaceae) is the main species eaten in all seasons, and its leaves, buds, bark, and roots make up to 95% of winter diets. It also feeds on mosses, lichens, buds, and berries of crowberry (Empetrumniger, Ericaceae), young blooms of saxifrage (Saxifragaoppositifolia, Saxifragaceae), mountain sorrel (Oxyriadigyna, Polygonaceae), and various kinds of grasses. Summer diets of Arctic Hares are highly variable but mainly contain Arctic willow, mountain avens (Dryasintegrifolia, Rosaceae), and grasses. On Baffin Island, dwarf willows (S. arctica and S. herbacea) and crowberry are the main food. In Greenland, diets consist of Arctic willow and mountain sorrel. The Arctic Hare regularly feeds on stomach contents of eviscerated Caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Water is obtained by eating snow. It makes trails from one grazing place to the next. Often high places are selected to forage. Arctic Hares dig through snow to find food. If snow has a hard crust, they stamp on it with their forefeet to make a hole. Feeding usually occurs in morning and evening.Breeding.Mating season of the Arctic Hare occurs in April/May. The male follows the female continuously. During copulation, the male bites the female fiercely on neck and back that she often is covered with blood. Mating corresponds with molting, so fur “flies” during the process. Gestation is c¢.53 days. Young are born in May-July in nests lined with dry grass, moss, and fur from the mother. Nests are either a depression among mosses and grasses or under or between rocks. Females have litter of 2-8 young, with an average of 5-4 young. Females in the far north have one litter per year, and in Newfoundland, average litter size was three young. Newborns are blackish brown, with white bellies, chins, and throats. When threatened, young flatten out on the ground, with their eyes closed and ears pressed tightly on their backs. During the first 2-3 days oflife, the mother stays with her young and defends them against danger. Nursing takes place every 18-20 hours, and nursing bouts lasts 1-4 minutes. By the third day oflife, young hide among stones when danger approaches. After c.2 weeks oflife, young disperse and hide behind rocks appearing only when nibbling on vegetation or nursing. The mother remains near the nursing site. Gradually, young increase their movements to a maximum of c.1 km from where they were born. Juvenile pelage is darker than summer pelage of adults. By the third week of life, young leave their mothers and form nurserybands of up to 20 individuals. Young are weaned at 8-9 weeks old. By late July, they are nearly as large as their parents and are white. Young breed for the first time as yearlings. Adult sex ratio of Arctic Hares is biased toward males.Activity patterns.The Arctic Hare rests during the day when the sun is shining, but during the dark winter, it has no fixed time for resting. When resting,it usually sits near a large stone, dozing or asleep, sheltered from wind, covered from aerial predators, and warmed by the sun. Usually, it chooses a site a little way up a slope. Arctic Hares often are immobile during resting,sitting crouched, with ears halfway erect and eyes nearly closed. Often 2—4 individuals rest together. In the afternoon, the Arctic Hare often leaves its resting place and starts feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Arctic Hare might be migratory because most individuals in an area disappear during summer, apparently moving northward. In November, they apparently migrate southward. Nevertheless, some researchers do not believe that mass migrations are undertaken by the Arctic Hare. In northern populations, hopping on hindfeet without the forefeet touching the ground has been reported for disturbed and frightened Arctic Hares. Home ranges are 9-290 ha, depending on habitat quality. In Newfoundland,sizes of male home ranges in summer are double the size of female home ranges. Movements increase in March/April with the onset of the mating season. In winter, Arctic Hares may protect themselves from extreme cold by burrowing into snow. These snow dens consist of a tunnel c¢.10 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth, with an enlarged terminal chamber. The Arctic Hare is usually solitary, but grouping behavior is very characteristic, with groups of 100-300 individuals being observed. In large groups, most individuals might be asleep, but one is usually awake and alert to danger. From early winter until early spring, Arctic Hares form groupsof 15-20 individuals. Arctic Hares frequently move among groups. Adults dominate juveniles, and dominance is unrelated to sex or breeding condition. When the mating season starts, groups disperse, pairs are formed, and each pair establishes a small territory. The male usually leaves the female after birth of young but sometimes remains close. Arctic Hares are usually silent, but lactating females may emit a short series of low growls as they approach their nursing places.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Hare is widespread, and population status seems to be constant although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Arctic Hares for food and fur. Southern populations of Arctic Hares might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Distributions of the Arctic Hare and the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus) slightly overlap, but the two species differ in their habitat preferences. The Arctic Hare occupies treeless barrens or tundra, whereas the Snowshoe Hare inhabits forests. In Newfoundland, replacement of the Arctic Hare by the Snowshoe Hare might be an example of competitive exclusion. Other theories list lack of suitable food or predation by the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) as causes that limited distribution of the Arctic Hare in Newfoundland.Bibliography.Angermann (1967a, 2016), Aniskowicz et al. (1990), Audubon (2005), Bakeret al. (1983), Banfield (1974), Barta et al. (1989), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bergerud (1967), Best & Henry (1994a), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Cameron (1958), Corbet (1983), Dixon et al. (1983), Fitzgerald & Keith (1990), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gray (1993), Hall (1951), Hamilton (1973), Hearn et al. (1987), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Johnsen (1953), Lissovsky (2016), Loukashkin (1943), Macpherson & Manning (1959), Manniche (1910), Merceret al. (1981), Murray (2003), Murray & Smith (2008b), Nelson (1909), Parker (1977), Pruitt (1960), Richardson (1829a), Soper (1944), Sutton & Hamilton (1932), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus arcticus Ross, 1819, “Southeast of Cape Bowen” (Possession Bay, Bylot Island, latitude 73°37’N, Canada).Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticusand L. othus, were included in L. timidusbased on morphological characteristics. This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidusin the Old World and L. arcticusin Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticusis conspecific with L. timidusand distinct from the L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered distinct species with L. timidusin the Old World, L. othusin Alaska, and L. arcticusin northern Canada and Greenland. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nine subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre arctique @fr | Polarhase @de | Liebre artica @es | American Arctic Hare @en | Canadian Arctic Hare @en | Labrador Hare @en | Greenland Hare @en | Polar Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ross","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1819","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"37","interpretedPageNumber":"144","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arcticus","name":"Lepus arcticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.a.arcticusRoss,1819—BaffinI,BylotI,andMelvillePeninsula,NENunavut(NCanada).L.a.andersoniNelson,1934—C&NENorthwestTerritoriesandmostofNunavut(NWCanada).L.a.bangsiiRhoads,1896—NewfoundlandandNEL.a.(ECanada.)L.a.banksicolaManning&Macpherson,1958—BanksI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.groenlandicusRhoads,1896—W,N&NEice-freecoastalregionsofGreenland.L.a.hubbardiHandley,1952—PrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L.a.labradoriusMiller,1899—SEBaffinI,NHudsonBayIs,coastalSNunavut,NEManitoba,NQuebec,andNWL.a.Peninsula(NCanada).L.a.monstrabilisNelson,1934—QueenElizabethIs,exceptPrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago.L. a. porsildi Nelson, 1934— S & SW ice-free coastal regions of Greenland.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625677/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (1967a, 2016) | Aniskowicz et al. (1990) | Audubon (2005) | Bakeret al. (1983) | Banfield (1974) | Barta et al. (1989) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Bergerud (1967) | Best & Henry (1994a) | Bittner & Rongstad (1982) | Cameron (1958) | Corbet (1983) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Fitzgerald & Keith (1990) | Flux (1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Gray (1993) | Hall (1951) | Hamilton (1973) | Hearn et al. (1987) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Johnsen (1953) | Lissovsky (2016) | Loukashkin (1943) | Macpherson & Manning (1959) | Manniche (1910) | Merceret al. (1981) | Murray (2003) | Murray & Smith (2008b) | Nelson (1909) | Parker (1977) | Pruitt (1960) | Richardson (1829a) | Soper (1944) | Sutton & Hamilton (1932) | Waltari & Cook (2005) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Arctic Hare feeds mainly on woody plants throughout the year. Arctic willow (Salixarctica, Salicaceae) is the main species eaten in all seasons, and its leaves, buds, bark, and roots make up to 95% of winter diets. It also feeds on mosses, lichens, buds, and berries of crowberry (Empetrumniger, Ericaceae), young blooms of saxifrage (Saxifragaoppositifolia, Saxifragaceae), mountain sorrel (Oxyriadigyna, Polygonaceae), and various kinds of grasses. Summer diets of Arctic Hares are highly variable but mainly contain Arctic willow, mountain avens (Dryasintegrifolia, Rosaceae), and grasses. On Baffin Island, dwarf willows (S. arctica and S. herbacea) and crowberry are the main food. In Greenland, diets consist of Arctic willow and mountain sorrel. The Arctic Hare regularly feeds on stomach contents of eviscerated Caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Water is obtained by eating snow. It makes trails from one grazing place to the next. Often high places are selected to forage. Arctic Hares dig through snow to find food. If snow has a hard crust, they stamp on it with their forefeet to make a hole. Feeding usually occurs in morning and evening.","breeding":"Mating season of the Arctic Hare occurs in April/May. The male follows the female continuously. During copulation, the male bites the female fiercely on neck and back that she often is covered with blood. Mating corresponds with molting, so fur “flies” during the process. Gestation is c¢.53 days. Young are born in May-July in nests lined with dry grass, moss, and fur from the mother. Nests are either a depression among mosses and grasses or under or between rocks. Females have litter of 2-8 young, with an average of 5-4 young. Females in the far north have one litter per year, and in Newfoundland, average litter size was three young. Newborns are blackish brown, with white bellies, chins, and throats. When threatened, young flatten out on the ground, with their eyes closed and ears pressed tightly on their backs. During the first 2-3 days oflife, the mother stays with her young and defends them against danger. Nursing takes place every 18-20 hours, and nursing bouts lasts 1-4 minutes. By the third day oflife, young hide among stones when danger approaches. After c.2 weeks oflife, young disperse and hide behind rocks appearing only when nibbling on vegetation or nursing. The mother remains near the nursing site. Gradually, young increase their movements to a maximum of c.1 km from where they were born. Juvenile pelage is darker than summer pelage of adults. By the third week of life, young leave their mothers and form nurserybands of up to 20 individuals. Young are weaned at 8-9 weeks old. By late July, they are nearly as large as their parents and are white. Young breed for the first time as yearlings. Adult sex ratio of Arctic Hares is biased toward males.","activityPatterns":"The Arctic Hare rests during the day when the sun is shining, but during the dark winter, it has no fixed time for resting. When resting,it usually sits near a large stone, dozing or asleep, sheltered from wind, covered from aerial predators, and warmed by the sun. Usually, it chooses a site a little way up a slope. Arctic Hares often are immobile during resting,sitting crouched, with ears halfway erect and eyes nearly closed. Often 2—4 individuals rest together. In the afternoon, the Arctic Hare often leaves its resting place and starts feeding.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Arctic Hare might be migratory because most individuals in an area disappear during summer, apparently moving northward. In November, they apparently migrate southward. Nevertheless, some researchers do not believe that mass migrations are undertaken by the Arctic Hare. In northern populations, hopping on hindfeet without the forefeet touching the ground has been reported for disturbed and frightened Arctic Hares. Home ranges are 9-290 ha, depending on habitat quality. In Newfoundland,sizes of male home ranges in summer are double the size of female home ranges. Movements increase in March/April with the onset of the mating season. In winter, Arctic Hares may protect themselves from extreme cold by burrowing into snow. These snow dens consist of a tunnel c¢.10 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth, with an enlarged terminal chamber. The Arctic Hare is usually solitary, but grouping behavior is very characteristic, with groups of 100-300 individuals being observed. In large groups, most individuals might be asleep, but one is usually awake and alert to danger. From early winter until early spring, Arctic Hares form groupsof 15-20 individuals. Arctic Hares frequently move among groups. Adults dominate juveniles, and dominance is unrelated to sex or breeding condition. When the mating season starts, groups disperse, pairs are formed, and each pair establishes a small territory. The male usually leaves the female after birth of young but sometimes remains close. Arctic Hares are usually silent, but lactating females may emit a short series of low growls as they approach their nursing places.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Hare is widespread, and population status seems to be constant although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Arctic Hares for food and fur. Southern populations of Arctic Hares might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Distributions of the Arctic Hare and the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus) slightly overlap, but the two species differ in their habitat preferences. The Arctic Hare occupies treeless barrens or tundra, whereas the Snowshoe Hare inhabits forests. In Newfoundland, replacement of the Arctic Hare by the Snowshoe Hare might be an example of competitive exclusion. Other theories list lack of suitable food or predation by the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) as causes that limited distribution of the Arctic Hare in Newfoundland.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 560-660 mm, tail 45-100 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 146-164 nm; weight 2.5-6.8 kg. Measurements of Artic Hares vary depending on geographical location. In the north, individuals are larger than in the south. Summer pelage is gray in southern populations and white in northern populations. In winter, Arctic Hares are white except for black ear tips. Winter fur is long and soft. During molt, Arctic Hares remove loose tufts of hair by rolling in snow. Eyes are yellowish brown. Ears are blackish in front and white behind, with a whitish band isolating black tips. Large feet are padded with heavy, yellowish brush of hair. Claws on forefeet and hindfeet are long and well adapted for digging in snow.","habitat":"Tundra, primarily north of the tree line, arctic alpine, and exposed coastal barren areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. The Artic Hare prefers hillsides or rock-strewn plateaus rather than flat bog land. Throughout most ofits distribution, it spends summer in the tundra north of the tree limit, but in winter, it might penetrate up to 160 km into the forest. Areas with little snow cover and wind exposure are favored, and groups of several hundred Arctic Hares may aggregate in such areas in winter, moving from one place to the other in search for food."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B763FFDCFFFCF2BDFEF6F07C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B763FFDCFFFCF2BDFEF6F07C","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"143","verbatimText":"56.White-tailed JackrabbitLepus townsendiiFrench:Liévre de Townsend/ German:Prariehase/ Spanish:Liebre de cola blancaOther common names:Prairie HareTaxonomy.Lepus townsendii Bachman, 1839, “on the Walla-walla ... river.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “old Fort Walla Walla,” near the present town of Wallula, Walla Walla Co., Washington.Formerly, L. townsendiiwas placed as L. campestrisin the subgenera Proeulagus or FEulagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).Descriptive notes.Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.Habitat.Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m. Distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit extends into the badlands of South Dakota and montane pastures among scattered evergreens in Colorado. White-tailed Jackrabbits use shallow forms at bases of bushes or besides rocks. In winter, they use cavities connected by tunnels dug c.l m into snow or use shrubs and trees for cover. When White-tailed Jackrabbits and Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) are sympatric, they use different habitats. White-tailed Jackrabbits occur in open flats and fields of ryegrass (Lolium, Poaceae) in Oregon and bunchgrass and rabbitbrush in Washington; Black-tailed Jackrabbits inhabit predominantly sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae). In California, the White-tailed Jackrabbit was recorded more often on higher slopes and ridges, and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit more frequently on valley floors.Food and Feeding.The White-tailed Jackrabbit feeds primarily on succulent grasses and forbs. Shrubs are eaten in winter after grasses and forbs have become dry. When feeding on shrubs, woody stems are favored over leaves. Diet selection is influenced by age of White-tailed Jackrabbits, season, and availabilities of plant species. Abundant plant species in diets ofthis species are alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), creambush (Holodiscusdiscolor, Rosaceae), sagebrush, clover (Trifolium sp., Fabaceae), common dandelion (Taraxacumofficinale, Asteraceae), dryland sedge (Carexobtusata, Cyperaceae), Indian paintbrush (Castillejaintegra, Orobanchaceae), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), and winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), both Amaranthaceae. One study in Colorado recorded 67 plant species in stomachs of White-tailed Jackrabbits. Pregnant or lactating females usually feed alone; males feed in groups of 2-5 individuals. After feeding, White-tailed Jackrabbits groom their heads and ears with their forepaws and lick their bodies. When sympatric, the White-tailed Jackrabbit seems to be a more selective feeder than the Black-tailed Jackrabbit and therefore has a competitive disadvantage.Breeding.Reproductive season starts in late February and ends in September. Breeding condition and environmental factors affect number oflitters born in a year. In the southern part of the distribution, a maximum of fourlitters are produced per year: the first in late April, the second in earlyJune, the third in middle July, and the fourth in late August or early September. In the northern parts of the distribution, only one litter is produced per year between May and early July. Gestation lasts 30-43 days and might be influenced by elevation and latitude. Litter sizes are 1-11 young, with an average of 4-5 young. The White-tailed Jackrabbit is polygamous. Courtship behavior involves a series of circling, jumping, and chasing activities that last 5-20 minutes and end in copulation. Normally, groups of 3-5 males chase one female during the evening hours. Subspecies campanius has breeding synchrony, and postpartum estrus allows conception immediately after parturition. Expected reproductive potential was estimated at 23 young/year, but due to prenatal mortality, it averaged 15 young/year. Nests for young are made of dry leaves and grasses, densely lined with fur from mothers, and well hidden in bushes or vegetation; alternately, they might only be a form on bare ground. Young are born fully furred, with open eyes and mobile to a limited extent. They start to forage at c.15 days old and are completely weaned at c.1 month old. Individuals have the potential to breed as early as c¢.7 months of age, but there is no evidence ofjuvenile breeding.Activity patterns.White-tailed Jackrabbits are nocturnal and forage mainly between sunset and sunrise. A study in summer revealed that they start feeding at 15:00-16:00 h, peak activity was at 22:00-01:00 h, and most activity stopped by 03:00-04:00 h. They hide in forms during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Distance, duration, and frequency of movements of White-tailed Jackrabbits increase in early breeding season (March/ April) and decline during warm summer months. Home range size is as small as 10 ha but usually 300-700 ha. White-tailed Jackrabbits might migrate considerable distances in winter to sheltered areas. They tend to be solitary, but during the reproductive season, 3—4 individuals might group together. Aggregations of ¢.50 individuals have been observed diurnally, with a maximum of 110 individuals during winter. These observations were attributed to an abundance of food in the area. When pursued by a predator, White-tailed Jackrabbits sometimes enter water and swim with forefeet paddling. They also demonstrate tonic immobility behavior that is believed to serve as defensive function similar to feigned death.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The WhitetailedJackrabbit is widespread. Since the early 1900s, there was a gradual distributional expansion to the north and east as favorable habitats (e.g. agricultural land) were created. Since about the 1950s, there has been a gradual reduction in the distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit coupled with distributional expansion of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit in the north-western part ofits distribution where habitats have been altered to favor the latter. The White-tailed Jackrabbit does not occur in most of Nebraska and Kansas anymore, and existence in Missouriis debated. Population status of the White-tailedJackrabbit across its entire distribution is currently unknown, but declines have been observed in two national parks in Wyoming. Populations in Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks decreased to only a few individuals in 1978 and 2008. Causes for these declines are currently unknown. Research is needed to understand factors operating when the White-tailed Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit occur in sympatry and factors contributing to the decline of the White-tailed Jackrabbit in Wyoming.Bibliography.Angermann (2016), Anthony (1913), Armstrong (1972), Bailey (1926), Banfield (1974), Berger (2008a, 2008b), Blackburn (1973), Brown (1947), Couch (1927), Dalquest (1948), De Vos (1964), Dieter & Schaible (2012), Dunn et al. (1982), Flinders & Chapman (2003), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoeman (1964), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jackson (1961), James (1967), James & Seabloom (1969), Jones (1964), Kline (1963), Lim (1987 1999), Lissovsky (2016), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Peterson (1966), Rogowitz (1992, 1997), Rogowitz & Wolfe (1991), Seton (1928), Severaid (1950), Smith & Johnston (2008k), Soper (1973), Warren (1910).","taxonomy":"Lepus townsendii Bachman, 1839, “on the Walla-walla ... river.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “old Fort Walla Walla,” near the present town of Wallula, Walla Walla Co., Washington.Formerly, L. townsendiiwas placed as L. campestrisin the subgenera Proeulagus or FEulagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).Descriptive notes.Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.Habitat.Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m.","commonNames":"Liévre de Townsend @fr | Prariehase @de | Liebre de cola blanca @es | Prairie Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bachman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"36","interpretedPageNumber":"143","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"townsendii","name":"Lepus townsendii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.t.townsenditBachman,1839—WoftheContinentalDivideinSWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andWUSA(fromNCWashingtontoWWyoming,NWColorado,Utah,NENevada,andECCalifornia).L. t. campanius Hollister, 1915— E of the Continental Divide in SC Canada (from S Albertato extreme SW Ontario) and NC USA (from W Montana to E Wisconsin and S to NC New Mexico, N Nebraska, and NW Missouri).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625673/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (2016) | Anthony (1913) | Armstrong (1972) | Bailey (1926) | Banfield (1974) | Berger (2008a, 2008b) | Blackburn (1973) | Brown (1947) | Couch (1927) | Dalquest (1948) | De Vos (1964) | Dieter & Schaible (2012) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Flinders & Chapman (2003) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoeman (1964) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jackson (1961) | James (1967) | James & Seabloom (1969) | Jones (1964) | Kline (1963) | Lim (1987 1999) | Lissovsky (2016) | Nelson (1909) | Orr (1940) | Peterson (1966) | Rogowitz (1992, 1997) | Rogowitz & Wolfe (1991) | Seton (1928) | Severaid (1950) | Smith & Johnston (2008k) | Soper (1973) | Warren (1910)","foodAndFeeding":"The White-tailed Jackrabbit feeds primarily on succulent grasses and forbs. Shrubs are eaten in winter after grasses and forbs have become dry. When feeding on shrubs, woody stems are favored over leaves. Diet selection is influenced by age of White-tailed Jackrabbits, season, and availabilities of plant species. Abundant plant species in diets ofthis species are alfalfa (Medicagosativa, Fabaceae), creambush (Holodiscusdiscolor, Rosaceae), sagebrush, clover (Trifolium sp., Fabaceae), common dandelion (Taraxacumofficinale, Asteraceae), dryland sedge (Carexobtusata, Cyperaceae), Indian paintbrush (Castillejaintegra, Orobanchaceae), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), and winterfat (Ewrotia lanata), both Amaranthaceae. One study in Colorado recorded 67 plant species in stomachs of White-tailed Jackrabbits. Pregnant or lactating females usually feed alone; males feed in groups of 2-5 individuals. After feeding, White-tailed Jackrabbits groom their heads and ears with their forepaws and lick their bodies. When sympatric, the White-tailed Jackrabbit seems to be a more selective feeder than the Black-tailed Jackrabbit and therefore has a competitive disadvantage.","breeding":"Reproductive season starts in late February and ends in September. Breeding condition and environmental factors affect number oflitters born in a year. In the southern part of the distribution, a maximum of fourlitters are produced per year: the first in late April, the second in earlyJune, the third in middle July, and the fourth in late August or early September. In the northern parts of the distribution, only one litter is produced per year between May and early July. Gestation lasts 30-43 days and might be influenced by elevation and latitude. Litter sizes are 1-11 young, with an average of 4-5 young. The White-tailed Jackrabbit is polygamous. Courtship behavior involves a series of circling, jumping, and chasing activities that last 5-20 minutes and end in copulation. Normally, groups of 3-5 males chase one female during the evening hours. Subspecies campanius has breeding synchrony, and postpartum estrus allows conception immediately after parturition. Expected reproductive potential was estimated at 23 young/year, but due to prenatal mortality, it averaged 15 young/year. Nests for young are made of dry leaves and grasses, densely lined with fur from mothers, and well hidden in bushes or vegetation; alternately, they might only be a form on bare ground. Young are born fully furred, with open eyes and mobile to a limited extent. They start to forage at c.15 days old and are completely weaned at c.1 month old. Individuals have the potential to breed as early as c¢.7 months of age, but there is no evidence ofjuvenile breeding.","activityPatterns":"White-tailed Jackrabbits are nocturnal and forage mainly between sunset and sunrise. A study in summer revealed that they start feeding at 15:00-16:00 h, peak activity was at 22:00-01:00 h, and most activity stopped by 03:00-04:00 h. They hide in forms during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Distance, duration, and frequency of movements of White-tailed Jackrabbits increase in early breeding season (March/ April) and decline during warm summer months. Home range size is as small as 10 ha but usually 300-700 ha. White-tailed Jackrabbits might migrate considerable distances in winter to sheltered areas. They tend to be solitary, but during the reproductive season, 3—4 individuals might group together. Aggregations of ¢.50 individuals have been observed diurnally, with a maximum of 110 individuals during winter. These observations were attributed to an abundance of food in the area. When pursued by a predator, White-tailed Jackrabbits sometimes enter water and swim with forefeet paddling. They also demonstrate tonic immobility behavior that is believed to serve as defensive function similar to feigned death.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The WhitetailedJackrabbit is widespread. Since the early 1900s, there was a gradual distributional expansion to the north and east as favorable habitats (e.g. agricultural land) were created. Since about the 1950s, there has been a gradual reduction in the distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit coupled with distributional expansion of the Black-tailed Jackrabbit in the north-western part ofits distribution where habitats have been altered to favor the latter. The White-tailed Jackrabbit does not occur in most of Nebraska and Kansas anymore, and existence in Missouriis debated. Population status of the White-tailedJackrabbit across its entire distribution is currently unknown, but declines have been observed in two national parks in Wyoming. Populations in Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks decreased to only a few individuals in 1978 and 2008. Causes for these declines are currently unknown. Research is needed to understand factors operating when the White-tailed Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit occur in sympatry and factors contributing to the decline of the White-tailed Jackrabbit in Wyoming.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 570-660 mm, tail 66-102 mm, ear 100-110 mm, hindfoot 145-165 mm; weight 2-5—4-4 kg. Female White-tailed Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Fur is yellowish (campanius) or grayish brown (townsendii) above and white or pale gray below, excluding darker throat. Where snowfall is regular in mountains and northern parts of its distribution, individuals have white pelage in winter. In southern parts of its distribution, White-tailed Jackrabbits might not change color or undergo a partial change, with sides of body and rump whitish and back pale buffy gray. Tail is white throughout the year, with dusky or buffstripe on top. Ear tips are black. Winter molt starts in October in Colorado or November in Iowa; summer molt starts in April in Colorado or March in Iowa.","habitat":"Open plains and prairies, and sometimes taking shelter in forests during severe winter weather, at elevations of 30-4319 m. Distribution of the White-tailed Jackrabbit extends into the badlands of South Dakota and montane pastures among scattered evergreens in Colorado. White-tailed Jackrabbits use shallow forms at bases of bushes or besides rocks. In winter, they use cavities connected by tunnels dug c.l m into snow or use shrubs and trees for cover. When White-tailed Jackrabbits and Black-tailed Jackrabbits (L. californicus) are sympatric, they use different habitats. White-tailed Jackrabbits occur in open flats and fields of ryegrass (Lolium, Poaceae) in Oregon and bunchgrass and rabbitbrush in Washington; Black-tailed Jackrabbits inhabit predominantly sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae). In California, the White-tailed Jackrabbit was recorded more often on higher slopes and ridges, and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit more frequently on valley floors."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B764FFDAFA68FEB5F5F6FC27.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B764FFDAFA68FEB5F5F6FC27","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"142","verbatimText":"54.Broom HareLepus castroviejoiFrench:Liévre de Castroviejo/ German:Castroviejo-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de piornalTaxonomy.Lepus castroviejoi Palacios, 1976, “Puerto de la Ventana, San Emiliano (Leon [Province]),” (= Puerto Ventanas, Spain, 1500 m).It was initially described as a new hare species in 1976—the third species of Lepusbesides L. granatensisand L. europaeusin the Iberian Peninsula—based on different body and skull measurements, dental and skull characteristics, and pelage color and pattern. Nevertheless, this new species was not accepted as distinct because differences in morphological and molecular characteristics were not large enough between L. castroviejoiand L. europaeusto justify species status. Additional data from protein markers and nuclear and mtDNA supported the existence of the three species in the Iberian Peninsula. This species is morphologically and genetically similar to L. corsicanusfrom Italy. The two species are sister taxa and might have had a common ancestor occupying a large distributional area in southwestern Europe between Italy and Spain before expansion of L. europaeus. Nevertheless, another recent genetic study of nDNA casts doubt on the specific status of L. cor sicanus and L. castroviejor; results suggest that they might be conspecific. Monotypic.Distribution.Cantabrian Range between Serra dos Ancares and Sierra de Pena Labra (N Spain).Descriptive notes.Head-body 490-510 mm, tail 78-96 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 135-145 mm; weight 2.7-3.2 kg. The Broom Hare is medium-sized, with tawny brown pelage similar in color and texture to the European Hare (L. europaeus). The Broom Hare seems to closely resemble the European Hare but generally has more brownish yellow pelage than the latter. The Broom Hare has clear contrast between ventral and dorsal pelage and grayish white facial arc.Habitat.Mountainous broom and heathlands, consisting mainly of Erica, Calluna, and Vaccinium(all Ericaceae) with considerable shrub cover of Cytisus, Genista(both Fabaceae), and Juniperus(Cupressaceae) and clearings in mixed deciduous woods of beech (Fagus) and oak (Quercus), both Fagaceae. The Broom Hare lives in mountains at elevations of 1300-1900 m but descends in winter to ¢.1000 m to avoid snow.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Broom Hare occurs in April-September. Females have 1-3 young/litter.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Broom Hare is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu latoand listed as endangered in Spain. It is common at high elevations in its distribution, except for the western edge in Serra dos Ancares where itis isolated during summer and hunted excessively. A substantial part ofits area of occupancy lies within reserves. Its range is ¢.230 km from east to west and 25-40 km from north to south. Nevertheless, distribution of the Broom Hare is fragmented because it occupies highly specialized patches of scarce habitat. Population declines have been recorded along the northern part of its distribution and in marginal habitat in which it occurs. Besides overhunting, major threats are predation, poisoning (fertilizer and pesticides), and habitat change. Recommendations are to restrict hunting in the western edge ofits distribution and restore altered and unsuitable habitat. Establishment of corridors among fragmented populations to prevent inbreeding also should be considered. Research should be conducted to improve knowledge of biology, ecology, and genetics of the Broom Hare.Bibliography.Acevedo et al. (2007), Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003), Alves, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2008), Angermann (1983), Bonhomme et al. (1986), Corbet & Hill (1986), Estonba et al. (2006), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Koutsogiannouli et al. (2012), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palacios (1976, 1983, 1989, 1996), Palacios & Ramos (1979), Pérez-Suérez et al. (1994), Schneider & Leipoldt (1983), Smith & Johnston (2008;).","taxonomy":"Lepus castroviejoi Palacios, 1976, “Puerto de la Ventana, San Emiliano (Leon [Province]),” (= Puerto Ventanas, Spain, 1500 m).It was initially described as a new hare species in 1976—the third species of Lepusbesides L. granatensisand L. europaeusin the Iberian Peninsula—based on different body and skull measurements, dental and skull characteristics, and pelage color and pattern. Nevertheless, this new species was not accepted as distinct because differences in morphological and molecular characteristics were not large enough between L. castroviejoiand L. europaeusto justify species status. Additional data from protein markers and nuclear and mtDNA supported the existence of the three species in the Iberian Peninsula. This species is morphologically and genetically similar to L. corsicanusfrom Italy. The two species are sister taxa and might have had a common ancestor occupying a large distributional area in southwestern Europe between Italy and Spain before expansion of L. europaeus. Nevertheless, another recent genetic study of nDNA casts doubt on the specific status of L. cor sicanus and L. castroviejor; results suggest that they might be conspecific. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Liévre de Castroviejo @fr | Castroviejo-Hase @de | Liebre de piornal @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Palacios","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1976","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"142","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"castroviejoi","name":"Lepus castroviejoi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Cantabrian Range between Serra dos Ancares and Sierra de Pena Labra (N Spain).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625667/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Acevedo et al. (2007) | Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003) | Alves, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2008) | Angermann (1983) | Bonhomme et al. (1986) | Corbet & Hill (1986) | Estonba et al. (2006) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Koutsogiannouli et al. (2012) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Palacios (1976, 1983, 1989, 1996) | Palacios & Ramos (1979) | Pérez-Suérez et al. (1994) | Schneider & Leipoldt (1983) | Smith & Johnston (2008;)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Broom Hare occurs in April-September. Females have 1-3 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Broom Hare is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu latoand listed as endangered in Spain. It is common at high elevations in its distribution, except for the western edge in Serra dos Ancares where itis isolated during summer and hunted excessively. A substantial part ofits area of occupancy lies within reserves. Its range is ¢.230 km from east to west and 25-40 km from north to south. Nevertheless, distribution of the Broom Hare is fragmented because it occupies highly specialized patches of scarce habitat. Population declines have been recorded along the northern part of its distribution and in marginal habitat in which it occurs. Besides overhunting, major threats are predation, poisoning (fertilizer and pesticides), and habitat change. Recommendations are to restrict hunting in the western edge ofits distribution and restore altered and unsuitable habitat. Establishment of corridors among fragmented populations to prevent inbreeding also should be considered. Research should be conducted to improve knowledge of biology, ecology, and genetics of the Broom Hare.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 490-510 mm, tail 78-96 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 135-145 mm; weight 2.7-3.2 kg. The Broom Hare is medium-sized, with tawny brown pelage similar in color and texture to the European Hare (L. europaeus). The Broom Hare seems to closely resemble the European Hare but generally has more brownish yellow pelage than the latter. The Broom Hare has clear contrast between ventral and dorsal pelage and grayish white facial arc.","habitat":"Mountainous broom and heathlands, consisting mainly of Erica, Calluna, and Vaccinium(all Ericaceae) with considerable shrub cover of Cytisus, Genista(both Fabaceae), and Juniperus(Cupressaceae) and clearings in mixed deciduous woods of beech (Fagus) and oak (Quercus), both Fagaceae. The Broom Hare lives in mountains at elevations of 1300-1900 m but descends in winter to ¢.1000 m to avoid snow."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B764FFDDFA10F57AFCCBFA9F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B764FFDDFA10F57AFCCBFA9F","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"142","verbatimText":"55.Corsican HareLepus corsicanusFrench:Liévre corse/ German:Korsika-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de CoércegaOther common names:Apennine Hare, Italian HareTaxonomy.Lepus corsicanus de Winton, 1898, “Bastia,” Corsica, France.Formerly, L. corsicanuswas included in L. capensisor L. europaeusbut has received species status due to distinct genetic, morphometric, and morphological characteristics. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that L. corsicanusand L. europaeuswere not closely related but belong to distinct evolutionary lineages that dispersed in Western Europe in different periods during the early Pleistocene. This species is morphologically and genetically similar to L. castroviejoifrom the Cantabrian Mountains. The two species are sister taxa and might have had a common ancestor occupying a large area in south-western Europe between Italy and Spain before expansion of L. europaeus. Lepus corsicanusprobably differentiated in isolated patches during the last glaciation; however, another recent genetic study based on nDNA suggests that L. corsicanusand L. castroviejoimight be conspecific. Although hybrids of L. europaeusand L. corsicanusmay have occurred in Corsica where frequent introductions of thousands of individuals of other species of Lepushave occurred, a genetic study did not find any interspecific hybrids in Italy, except two cases of L. corsicanusmtDNA introgression in two L. europaeusindividuals. Monotypic.Distribution.C & S Italy, distribution poorly known but present in Tuscany, Lazio, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia, Campania, Basilicata, and Calabria, and in Sicily. Introduced into Corsica around the 14\" century.Descriptive notes.Head-body 550-610 mm, tail 70-120 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 124-141 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The general appearance of the European Hare (L. europaeus) and the Corsican Hare seems to be fairly similar. Nevertheless, the two species vary in numerous pelage characteristics of taxonomic significance. Among the discriminant features is the color of the basal fringe of the dorsal underfur of adult specimens which is always white in the European Hare and gray in the Corsican Hare. The Corsican Hare is significantly smaller than the European Hare. This can be assessed by measuring the variables head-body, tail, ear, and hind foot length as well as the weight. The two species are also well distinguishable by skull measurements. As regarding to dental characters, the difference between the two speciesis ascertainable in the shape of the posterior contour of the cross section of the first upper incisor, which is concave in the European Hare and smooth or convex in the Corsican Hare.Habitat.Various lowland and upland habitats from sea level to elevations of ¢.2400 m on the Mount Etna, Sicily. Densities of Corsican Hares vary due to competition with introduced European Hares that are habitat generalists; e.g. populations of Corsican Hares on the Italian mainland are now restricted to mountainous areas and lowlands and hills where densities of European Hares are low. In Sicily where European Hares are absent, Corsican Hares occur in a variety of natural and artificial lowland habitats such as open grassland, bushy pastures, and cultivated areas. Corsican Hares inhabit Mediterranean maquis (shrubland)—the mosaic of clearings, bushy areas, broadleaved woods, and coastal dunes.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Corsican Hare in Sicily varies with seasonal availability of vegetation. Corsican Hares can eat 70 species of plants during the year, including monocotyledons and species of Cyperaceaeand Juncaceaethroughout the year, species of Poaceaein spring, and species of Lamiaceaein summer. Species of Fabaceaeand Asteraceae(dicotyledons) occur in diets of Corsican Hares throughout the year. Diets are seasonally supplemented with fruits of Prunusspinosa, Pyruspiraster, and Malussylvestris (all Rosaceae).Breeding.Reproductive activity of Corsican Hares occurs throughout the year, peaking in spring and reaching low levels in winter and summer. Although data are preliminary, dry and cold seasons might have negative influences on the reproduction of the Corsican Hare. Females have an average of two litters per year (maximum of four). Litter size averages 1-5 young.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Corsican Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as part of L. capensissensu lato. The Corsican Hare has been monitored continuously in Italy, including Sicily, since 1997. Its populations are fragmented and scarce on the Italian peninsula, but several protected areas have been created that will help populations to recover. The Corsican Hare is widespread and locally abundant in Sicily. The Sicilian government officially recognized it as a “true” species in 1998, forbidding hunting on the island. Status is unclear in Corsica, but 70% of the samples in a recent genetic study were Corsican Hares. Population and distributional declines of Corsican Hares have been estimated at 50% for continental populations and 38% across the entire distribution, probably from overhunting and introductions of European Hares. The Corsican Hareis legally protected in mainland Italy and Sicily, but differentiation of Corsican Hares and European Hares in the field makes it difficult to manage harvest. In Sicily, a hunting ban on Corsican Hares waslifted in 2004-2005. The Corsican Hare is still a game species in Corsica because it is considered conspecific with the European Hare in France. Major conservation threats to the Corsican Hare are habitat degradation, fragmentation that causes low or absent gene flow among populations, low population densities, competition with introduced European Hares, and overhunting. Captive breeding programs of Corsican Hares are being carried out in mainland Italy and Sicily.Bibliography.Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003), Alves, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2008), Angelici & Luiselli (2001, 2007), Angelici, Petrozzi & Galli (2010), Angelici, Randi et al. (2008), De Battisti et al. (2004), De Marinis, Trocchi & Mangiafico (2007), De Marinis, Trocchi, Mangiafico, Fassd & Mallia (2007), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Cosentino et al. (2016), Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Mallia, Blasi et al. (2014), Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Mallia, Cosentino & Paolino (2015), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Koutsogiannouli et al. (2012), Mengoni et al. (2015), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palacios (1996), Petter (1961), Pierpaoli et al. (1999, 2003), Pietri (2015), Pietri et al. (2011), Riga et al. (2001), Vigne (1988).","taxonomy":"Lepus corsicanus de Winton, 1898, “Bastia,” Corsica, France.Formerly, L. corsicanuswas included in L. capensisor L. europaeusbut has received species status due to distinct genetic, morphometric, and morphological characteristics. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that L. corsicanusand L. europaeuswere not closely related but belong to distinct evolutionary lineages that dispersed in Western Europe in different periods during the early Pleistocene. This species is morphologically and genetically similar to L. castroviejoifrom the Cantabrian Mountains. The two species are sister taxa and might have had a common ancestor occupying a large area in south-western Europe between Italy and Spain before expansion of L. europaeus. Lepus corsicanusprobably differentiated in isolated patches during the last glaciation; however, another recent genetic study based on nDNA suggests that L. corsicanusand L. castroviejoimight be conspecific. Although hybrids of L. europaeusand L. corsicanusmay have occurred in Corsica where frequent introductions of thousands of individuals of other species of Lepushave occurred, a genetic study did not find any interspecific hybrids in Italy, except two cases of L. corsicanusmtDNA introgression in two L. europaeusindividuals. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Liévre corse @fr | Korsika-Hase @de | Liebre de Coércega @es | Apennine Hare @en | @en | talian Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"de Winton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"142","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"corsicanus","name":"Lepus corsicanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C & S Italy, distribution poorly known but present in Tuscany, Lazio, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia, Campania, Basilicata, and Calabria, and in Sicily. Introduced into Corsica around the 14\" century.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625669/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003) | Alves, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2008) | Angelici & Luiselli (2001, 2007) | Angelici, Petrozzi & Galli (2010) | Angelici, Randi et al. (2008) | De Battisti et al. (2004) | De Marinis, Trocchi & Mangiafico (2007) | De Marinis, Trocchi, Mangiafico, Fassd & Mallia (2007) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Cosentino et al. (2016) | Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Mallia, Blasi et al. (2014) | Freschi, Fascetti, Musto, Mallia, Cosentino & Paolino (2015) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Koutsogiannouli et al. (2012) | Mengoni et al. (2015) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Palacios (1996) | Petter (1961) | Pierpaoli et al. (1999, 2003) | Pietri (2015) | Pietri et al. (2011) | Riga et al. (2001) | Vigne (1988)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Corsican Hare in Sicily varies with seasonal availability of vegetation. Corsican Hares can eat 70 species of plants during the year, including monocotyledons and species of Cyperaceaeand Juncaceaethroughout the year, species of Poaceaein spring, and species of Lamiaceaein summer. Species of Fabaceaeand Asteraceae(dicotyledons) occur in diets of Corsican Hares throughout the year. Diets are seasonally supplemented with fruits of Prunusspinosa, Pyruspiraster, and Malussylvestris (all Rosaceae).","breeding":"Reproductive activity of Corsican Hares occurs throughout the year, peaking in spring and reaching low levels in winter and summer. Although data are preliminary, dry and cold seasons might have negative influences on the reproduction of the Corsican Hare. Females have an average of two litters per year (maximum of four). Litter size averages 1-5 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Corsican Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as part of L. capensissensu lato. The Corsican Hare has been monitored continuously in Italy, including Sicily, since 1997. Its populations are fragmented and scarce on the Italian peninsula, but several protected areas have been created that will help populations to recover. The Corsican Hare is widespread and locally abundant in Sicily. The Sicilian government officially recognized it as a “true” species in 1998, forbidding hunting on the island. Status is unclear in Corsica, but 70% of the samples in a recent genetic study were Corsican Hares. Population and distributional declines of Corsican Hares have been estimated at 50% for continental populations and 38% across the entire distribution, probably from overhunting and introductions of European Hares. The Corsican Hareis legally protected in mainland Italy and Sicily, but differentiation of Corsican Hares and European Hares in the field makes it difficult to manage harvest. In Sicily, a hunting ban on Corsican Hares waslifted in 2004-2005. The Corsican Hare is still a game species in Corsica because it is considered conspecific with the European Hare in France. Major conservation threats to the Corsican Hare are habitat degradation, fragmentation that causes low or absent gene flow among populations, low population densities, competition with introduced European Hares, and overhunting. Captive breeding programs of Corsican Hares are being carried out in mainland Italy and Sicily.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 550-610 mm, tail 70-120 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 124-141 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The general appearance of the European Hare (L. europaeus) and the Corsican Hare seems to be fairly similar. Nevertheless, the two species vary in numerous pelage characteristics of taxonomic significance. Among the discriminant features is the color of the basal fringe of the dorsal underfur of adult specimens which is always white in the European Hare and gray in the Corsican Hare. The Corsican Hare is significantly smaller than the European Hare. This can be assessed by measuring the variables head-body, tail, ear, and hind foot length as well as the weight. The two species are also well distinguishable by skull measurements. As regarding to dental characters, the difference between the two speciesis ascertainable in the shape of the posterior contour of the cross section of the first upper incisor, which is concave in the European Hare and smooth or convex in the Corsican Hare.","habitat":"Various lowland and upland habitats from sea level to elevations of ¢.2400 m on the Mount Etna, Sicily. Densities of Corsican Hares vary due to competition with introduced European Hares that are habitat generalists; e.g. populations of Corsican Hares on the Italian mainland are now restricted to mountainous areas and lowlands and hills where densities of European Hares are low. In Sicily where European Hares are absent, Corsican Hares occur in a variety of natural and artificial lowland habitats such as open grassland, bushy pastures, and cultivated areas. Corsican Hares inhabit Mediterranean maquis (shrubland)—the mosaic of clearings, bushy areas, broadleaved woods, and coastal dunes."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B765FFDAFAF7FD5EFABBFBD4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B765FFDAFAF7FD5EFABBFBD4","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"141","verbatimText":"53.European HareLepus europaeusFrench:Liévre d'Europe/ German:Feldhase/ Spanish:Liebre europeaOther common names:Brown Hare, European Brown HareTaxonomy.Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, type locality not given. Restricted by Esl. Trouessart in 1910 to “Poland.”It was formerly included in L. capensisbased on a cline in morphological characteristics (mainly size) from north-east ern Africa eastward across the northern Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey. In Kazakhstan, where the large “ europaeus” and the small “ capensis” (= tolar) live in sympatry without hybridization, the interpretation was of the overlapping ends of a ring species. A reanalysis showed a discontinuity between smaller “ capensis” and larger “ europaeus” running from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Iran. This is the basis on which L. europaeusis separated from L. capensisand L. tolai. In Iran, east of the border of the distribution of L. europaeus, L. tolaioccurs apparently in allopatry or parapatry with L. europaeus. Nevertheless, recent evidence suggests that the hypothesis of conspecific status of L. europaeusand L. capensismay be correct. A study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of mtDNA of these three groups indicated a significant degree of divergence supporting species-specific designation. These studies show that genetic differentiation between L. capensisand L. europaeusmight be attributed to geographical separation rather than divergence. It has been speculated that gene flow may occur in the Middle East where distributions meet and may result in intergraded populations. Until conclusive evidence of a single species complex is available to support a change in taxonomic status of L. europaeus, it remains a distinct species. Subspecies are recognized based mainly in size and color. Studies conducted in the USSR on differences in summer fur color and fur structure showed a tendency for clinal variation. Geographic variation has been shown for winter fur color and metric characters of skulls of L. europaeus. Thus the reality of existence of all subspecific forms described for the USSR seems very doubtful. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable throughout the range of L. europaeus. Molecular phylogenetic studies in Spain have shown that the Cantabrian population has unique mtDNA relative to other European populations. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.e.europaeusPallas,1778—WesternEurope.L. e. caspicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Lower Volga, Kalmykia (Russia) and W Kazakhstan.JR e. connor Robinson, 1918 — NW Iran. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Crete (Greece).a e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Cyprus. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905 — Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia.a e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822— Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, W & C Russia.Sl e. judeae Gray, 1867— Palestine.aE e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906— Carpathian Mts.all e. medius Nilsson, 1820— Denmark.al e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898— Great Britain.ul e. parnassius Miller, 1903— C Greece.el. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929— Black Sea coast (Russia).ul. e. rhodius Festa, 1914— Rhodes (Greece).Bl e. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Syria.ab. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901— E & SE Europe.The European Hare originated from grasslands in the Middle East, and from there, it has spread into agricultural areas of Europe. The distribution today includes European lowland areas from S Scandinavia to the N & NE Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean Is (Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus), and extends E to W Siberian and W Mongolian lowlands and S to N Israel, N Syria, N Iraq, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and NW Iran. Ancient introduction into Great Britain (shaded in the map). In more recent times this species was widely introduced as a game species into S Sweden, N Ireland, Corsica, SE Canada to NE USA, South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay), Australia, New Zealand, and several islands, including Barbados, Réunion, and the Falkland (Malvinas) Is.Descriptive notes.Head—body 550-680 mm, tail 75-140 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 124-185 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The European Hare has tawny or rusty fur. Dorsal pelage is darker than chest and sides. Fur on back is long and curled. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are pale gray, with large triangular black patches on backs of tips. Tail is black on top and white underneath. There is some white on sides of head and bases of ears, and haunches are gray during winter. Geographical variation is low among mainland populations due to high mobility and occupation of continuous habitats. Geographical variation is also obscured by translocations by humans.Habitat.Temperate open woodland, farmland with pastures, grasslands, moorland, saltmarsh, steppes, and sub-desert from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. High densities of European Hares are reached on arable land. In Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand, where no other species of Lepusoccurs, European Hares also inhabits pampas, sand dunes, marshes, and alpine fellfield (slopes). Many surveys have investigated habitat preferences of European Hares. In all studies,fallow land is preferred consistently, and residential areas are avoided. There is a positive association with abundance and habitat diversity.Food and Feeding.European Hares feed predominantly on cultivated crops, weeds, and grasses. A study investigating dietary preferences showed that they positively selected forbs and grasses. Furthermore, chemical analysis revealed that they select food for high-energy content (crude fat and crude protein) and avoid crude fiber. During feeding, dominance hierarchies among individuals have been demonstrated.Breeding.Reproduction of European Hares takes place from winter solstice until the end of summer, with a peak in spring (“March madness”). During the peak, males congregate around a female in estrus. The female boxes and chases off males. Female European Hares have 1-5 litters/year, with an average ofthree litters per year. Females have between 4-6 young/year in Argentinaand 13 young/year in the Czech Republic, but in most populations, females are remarkably consistent at ¢.10 young/year. Litter size can vary with respect to season, with smaller litters produced earlier and larger litters later. Superfetation (a female ovulates while pregnant and then carries both embryos and fetuses) is common in captivity and reduces normal gestation of¢.42 days to ¢.38 days. In the wild, superfetation is less common. Nursing takes place once per day, about one hour after sunset, and lasts only a few minutes. Females reach maturity at 7-8 months old and males at ¢.6 months old. Young from the firstlitters of the year may breed in theirfirst year. Where sympatric, European Hares and Mountain Hares (L. timidus) can hybridize and produce fertile offspring.Activity patterns.European Hares are mostly nocturnal. In winter, activity starts with regularity shortly after sunset and ends shortly before sunrise. In summer, activity is less consistently tied to the dark period so that active European Hares can be regularly observed in full daylight. With GPS telemetry, it was possible to gain new knowledge on daily activity patterns of European Hares during summer. If sunset was early and sunrise late, evening and morning activity peaks occurred during the dark phase. This was the case in late spring and early autumn when nights are longer. When sunset was late and sunrise was early, activity peaked in full daylight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Distances between areas used during activity and inactivity are 122-306 m in agricultural areas and are shorter when field sizes are small than when field sizes are large. Home ranges are 12-330 ha, depending on study area. A recent study using GPS-collars showed that European Hares in an agricultural landscape with small field sizes used a confined space during the daily resting phase (on average 200 m?*), and home ranges during the active phase were c.3 ha. The European Hare lives alone but can be observed in small groups during reproduction season or when densities are high.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture. The European Hare is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Several countries have placed the European Hare on their red lists as near threatened or threatened. There is growing concern regarding status of regional forms of the European Hare. A meta-study, reviewing literature from twelve European countries and comparing population densities related to habitat characteristics, concluded that the primary cause of declines of the European Hare was agricultural intensification. Abundance was negatively associated to predation. Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on densities. In Greece, Spain, France, and Denmark, restocking of European Hares from other regions or countries to supplement densities for hunting has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. Diseases such as the European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis), coccidiosis, and tularaemia are additional threats because they have been identified as principle causes of mortalities of European Hares in some regions.Bibliography.Angermann (1972, 1983, 2016), Averianov et al. (2003), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Bertolino, Cordero di Montezemolo & Perrone (2011), Bertolino, Perrone et al. (2011), Broekhuizen & Maaskamp (1980, 1982), Chapuis (1990), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux (1965, 1967b, 1981a), Flux & Angermann (1990), Frylestam (1986), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holley (2001), Homolka (1986, 1987), Kovacs & Buza (1988), Kunst etal. (2001), Lincoln (1974), LindIof (1978), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Macdonald & Barrett (1993), Mamuris etal. (2001), Marboutin & Aebischer (1996), Martinet (1977), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Monaghan & Metcalfe (1985), Palacios et al. (2004), Pépin (1989), Pépin & Cargnelutti (1994), Petter (1961), Pielowski (1972), Reichlin et al. (2006), Reitz & Léonard (1994), Roedenbeck & Voser (2008), Riihe & Hohmann (2004), de la Sancha et al.(2009), Schai-Braun & Hacklander (2014), Schai-Braun, Reichlin et al. (2015), Schai-Braun, Rédel & Hacklander (2012), Schai-Braun, Weber & Hacklander (2013), Schneider (1978), Smith, A.T. & Johnston (2008i), Smith, R.K., Jennings & Harris (2005), Smith, R.K., Jennings, Robinson & Harris (2004), Sokolov et al. (2009), Spitzenberger (2001), Stott (2003), Tapper & Barnes (1986), Trouessart (1910), Vaughan et al. (2003), Vidus-Rosin et al. (2009).","taxonomy":"Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, type locality not given. Restricted by Esl. Trouessart in 1910 to “Poland.”It was formerly included in L. capensisbased on a cline in morphological characteristics (mainly size) from north-east ern Africa eastward across the northern Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey. In Kazakhstan, where the large “ europaeus” and the small “ capensis” (= tolar) live in sympatry without hybridization, the interpretation was of the overlapping ends of a ring species. A reanalysis showed a discontinuity between smaller “ capensis” and larger “ europaeus” running from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Iran. This is the basis on which L. europaeusis separated from L. capensisand L. tolai. In Iran, east of the border of the distribution of L. europaeus, L. tolaioccurs apparently in allopatry or parapatry with L. europaeus. Nevertheless, recent evidence suggests that the hypothesis of conspecific status of L. europaeusand L. capensismay be correct. A study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of mtDNA of these three groups indicated a significant degree of divergence supporting species-specific designation. These studies show that genetic differentiation between L. capensisand L. europaeusmight be attributed to geographical separation rather than divergence. It has been speculated that gene flow may occur in the Middle East where distributions meet and may result in intergraded populations. Until conclusive evidence of a single species complex is available to support a change in taxonomic status of L. europaeus, it remains a distinct species. Subspecies are recognized based mainly in size and color. Studies conducted in the USSR on differences in summer fur color and fur structure showed a tendency for clinal variation. Geographic variation has been shown for winter fur color and metric characters of skulls of L. europaeus. Thus the reality of existence of all subspecific forms described for the USSR seems very doubtful. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable throughout the range of L. europaeus. Molecular phylogenetic studies in Spain have shown that the Cantabrian population has unique mtDNA relative to other European populations. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre d'Europe @fr | Feldhase @de | Liebre europea @es | Brown Hare @en | European Brown Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1778","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"141","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"europaeus","name":"Lepus europaeus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.e.europaeusPallas,1778—WesternEurope.L. e. caspicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Lower Volga, Kalmykia (Russia) and W Kazakhstan.JR e. connor Robinson, 1918 — NW Iran. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Crete (Greece).a e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Cyprus. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905 — Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia.a e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822— Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, W & C Russia.Sl e. judeae Gray, 1867— Palestine.aE e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906— Carpathian Mts.all e. medius Nilsson, 1820— Denmark.al e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898— Great Britain.ul e. parnassius Miller, 1903— C Greece.el. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929— Black Sea coast (Russia).ul. e. rhodius Festa, 1914— Rhodes (Greece).Bl e. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Syria.ab. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901— E & SE Europe.The European Hare originated from grasslands in the Middle East, and from there, it has spread into agricultural areas of Europe. The distribution today includes European lowland areas from S Scandinavia to the N & NE Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean Is (Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus), and extends E to W Siberian and W Mongolian lowlands and S to N Israel, N Syria, N Iraq, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and NW Iran. Ancient introduction into Great Britain (shaded in the map). In more recent times this species was widely introduced as a game species into S Sweden, N Ireland, Corsica, SE Canada to NE USA, South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay), Australia, New Zealand, and several islands, including Barbados, Réunion, and the Falkland (Malvinas) Is.","bibliography":"Angermann (1972, 1983, 2016) | Averianov et al. (2003) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008) | Bertolino, Cordero di Montezemolo & Perrone (2011) | Bertolino, Perrone et al. (2011) | Broekhuizen & Maaskamp (1980, 1982) | Chapuis (1990) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux (1965, 1967b, 1981a) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Frylestam (1986) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holley (2001) | Homolka (1986, 1987) | Kovacs & Buza (1988) | Kunst etal. (2001) | Lincoln (1974) | LindIof (1978) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Macdonald & Barrett (1993) | Mamuris etal. (2001) | Marboutin & Aebischer (1996) | Martinet (1977) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Monaghan & Metcalfe (1985) | Palacios et al. (2004) | Pépin (1989) | Pépin & Cargnelutti (1994) | Petter (1961) | Pielowski (1972) | Reichlin et al. (2006) | Reitz & Léonard (1994) | Roedenbeck & Voser (2008) | Riihe & Hohmann (2004) | de la Sancha et al.(2009) | Schai-Braun & Hacklander (2014) | Schai-Braun, Reichlin et al. (2015) | Schai-Braun, Rédel & Hacklander (2012) | Schai-Braun, Weber & Hacklander (2013) | Schneider (1978) | Smith, A.T. & Johnston (2008i) | Smith, R.K., Jennings & Harris (2005) | Smith, R.K., Jennings, Robinson & Harris (2004) | Sokolov et al. (2009) | Spitzenberger (2001) | Stott (2003) | Tapper & Barnes (1986) | Trouessart (1910) | Vaughan et al. (2003) | Vidus-Rosin et al. (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"European Hares feed predominantly on cultivated crops, weeds, and grasses. A study investigating dietary preferences showed that they positively selected forbs and grasses. Furthermore, chemical analysis revealed that they select food for high-energy content (crude fat and crude protein) and avoid crude fiber. During feeding, dominance hierarchies among individuals have been demonstrated.","breeding":"Reproduction of European Hares takes place from winter solstice until the end of summer, with a peak in spring (“March madness”). During the peak, males congregate around a female in estrus. The female boxes and chases off males. Female European Hares have 1-5 litters/year, with an average ofthree litters per year. Females have between 4-6 young/year in Argentinaand 13 young/year in the Czech Republic, but in most populations, females are remarkably consistent at ¢.10 young/year. Litter size can vary with respect to season, with smaller litters produced earlier and larger litters later. Superfetation (a female ovulates while pregnant and then carries both embryos and fetuses) is common in captivity and reduces normal gestation of¢.42 days to ¢.38 days. In the wild, superfetation is less common. Nursing takes place once per day, about one hour after sunset, and lasts only a few minutes. Females reach maturity at 7-8 months old and males at ¢.6 months old. Young from the firstlitters of the year may breed in theirfirst year. Where sympatric, European Hares and Mountain Hares (L. timidus) can hybridize and produce fertile offspring.","activityPatterns":"European Hares are mostly nocturnal. In winter, activity starts with regularity shortly after sunset and ends shortly before sunrise. In summer, activity is less consistently tied to the dark period so that active European Hares can be regularly observed in full daylight. With GPS telemetry, it was possible to gain new knowledge on daily activity patterns of European Hares during summer. If sunset was early and sunrise late, evening and morning activity peaks occurred during the dark phase. This was the case in late spring and early autumn when nights are longer. When sunset was late and sunrise was early, activity peaked in full daylight.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Distances between areas used during activity and inactivity are 122-306 m in agricultural areas and are shorter when field sizes are small than when field sizes are large. Home ranges are 12-330 ha, depending on study area. A recent study using GPS-collars showed that European Hares in an agricultural landscape with small field sizes used a confined space during the daily resting phase (on average 200 m?*), and home ranges during the active phase were c.3 ha. The European Hare lives alone but can be observed in small groups during reproduction season or when densities are high.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture. The European Hare is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Several countries have placed the European Hare on their red lists as near threatened or threatened. There is growing concern regarding status of regional forms of the European Hare. A meta-study, reviewing literature from twelve European countries and comparing population densities related to habitat characteristics, concluded that the primary cause of declines of the European Hare was agricultural intensification. Abundance was negatively associated to predation. Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on densities. In Greece, Spain, France, and Denmark, restocking of European Hares from other regions or countries to supplement densities for hunting has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. Diseases such as the European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis), coccidiosis, and tularaemia are additional threats because they have been identified as principle causes of mortalities of European Hares in some regions.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 550-680 mm, tail 75-140 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 124-185 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The European Hare has tawny or rusty fur. Dorsal pelage is darker than chest and sides. Fur on back is long and curled. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are pale gray, with large triangular black patches on backs of tips. Tail is black on top and white underneath. There is some white on sides of head and bases of ears, and haunches are gray during winter. Geographical variation is low among mainland populations due to high mobility and occupation of continuous habitats. Geographical variation is also obscured by translocations by humans.","habitat":"Temperate open woodland, farmland with pastures, grasslands, moorland, saltmarsh, steppes, and sub-desert from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. High densities of European Hares are reached on arable land. In Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand, where no other species of Lepusoccurs, European Hares also inhabits pampas, sand dunes, marshes, and alpine fellfield (slopes). Many surveys have investigated habitat preferences of European Hares. In all studies,fallow land is preferred consistently, and residential areas are avoided. There is a positive association with abundance and habitat diversity."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B765FFDBFFCBFDA5F890F4C2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B765FFDBFFCBFDA5F890F4C2","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"141","verbatimText":"52.Iberian HareLepus granatensisFrench:Lievre ibérique/ German:Andalusischer Hase/ Spanish:Liebre ibéricaOther common names:Granada HareTaxonomy.Lepus granatensis Rosenhauer, 1856, “bei Graneda [Granada],” Andalusia Province, Spain.In the past, L. granatensiswas included in L. europaeusor L. capensisbut received species status based on morphological and genetic characteristics. The population in Sardinia, to which the names mediterraneus and typicus are applied, has formerly been assigned to L. granatensisbased of their closeness, although it was thought to be a distinct species because ofits small size. Up to now, there is no definite study of the Sardinian population, so it is included in L. capensis. If mediterraneus is confirmed as a synonym of granatensisin the future, it has priority over granatensis. A homogeneous distribution of mtDNA from L. granatensiswas found in L. europaeusfrom the northern Iberian Peninsula where both species are parapatric. This is probably a result of gene flow between the two species in the contact zone. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.g.granatensisRosenhauer,1856—IberianPeninsulaexceptN&NE.L.g.gallaeciusMiller,1907—Galicia,andWAsturias(NWSpain).L. g. solisi Palacios & Fernandez, 1992— Mallorca (Balearic Is), but this population may have been introduced by early settlers on the islands.Descriptive notes.Head-body 440-480 mm, tail 93-112 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 112-121 mm; weight 2.2-6 kg. The Iberian Hare is distinguished by clear contrast between dorsal and ventral pelage and by white strips on forefeet and hindfeet. There is slight geographical variation in color. Ear length is greater in Andalusian specimens; hindfoot length is greater in northern specimens and much smaller in Mallorcan specimens. North-western populations are much darker than the rest.Habitat.Humid mountain forests in the north-western part of its distribution, dry cropland in central Spain, and sand dunes in Mediterranean coastal areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.1900 m. The population of the Iberian Hare in Mallorca occurs in dry cropland and thickets. One study shows that habitat requirements of the Iberian Hare have changed significantly in recent decades from a highly significant association with natural vegetation in the 1960s to one with cultivated lands in the 1990s. This shift in habitat use might have enabled increases in numbers of Iberian Hares because anthropogenic habitats provide year-round cover and food. The Iberian Hare showed a high preference for uncultivated land for resting areas.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Iberian Hare includes a wide variety of plant species. It feeds mostly on grasses, making up an annual average of ¢.70% of the diet in a mountain ecosystem. Ninety-one percent of available grass species were consumed, but only three of them were used in proportions greater than 5% (Anthoxanthumodoratum, Secalecereale, and Agrostis spp.). Diets consist of 81% grass in winter but only 55% in summer. Other plant groups such as herbs, shrubs, and plant inflorescences are eaten In summer.Breeding.Reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare occurs throughout the year, with peaks in February—June;it is lowest in September—-December. Environmental factors have little influence on reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare. Gestation lasts 41-42 days. Averagelitter sizes are 1-6-2:1 young (range 1-7 young). A reproductive female has an average of 3-5 litters/year or 3-5-16-1 young/year.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Iberian Hare do not vary in size between sexes and average 28 ha for males and 24 ha for females in transitional pastures and 40 ha in arable farmland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Iberian Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu lato. It occurs in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, but it is excluded in the northern and northeastern parts where the Broom Hare (L. castroviejoi) and the European Hare (L. eropaeus) occur. The Iberian Hare once inhabited the Balearic Islands, Spain, butit is now extinct there. It was introduced to southern France and Corsica in recent decades, but there is no proof of established populations. The Iberian Hare is common in much ofits distribution and locally abundant in central and southern Spain; numbers in north-eastern Spain even seem to be increasing. Nevertheless, the Iberian Hare is extremely rare or extinct in western Galicia, western Asturias, and north to the Ebro River between Navarre and Huesca. It is rare on Mallorca and extinct in the western mountains. The Iberian Hare is an important game species in the Iberian Peninsula. No major conservation threats have been identified, and models even predicted that the current distribution will enlarge northward.Bibliography.Acevedo, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2012), Alves & Rocha (2003), Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003), Alves, Goncalves et al. (2002), Angermann (2016), Bonhomme et al. (1986), Carro et al. (2011), Farfan, Duarte et al. (2012), Farfan, Guerrero et al. (2004), Farféan, Vargas et al. (2004), Fernandez et al. (2008), Gortazar et al. (2007), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Miller (1912), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palacios (1983, 1989), Palacios & Fernandez (1992), Paupério & Alves (2008), Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2012), Sanz-Martin et al. (2014), Seixas et al. (2014), Smith & Johnston (2008h).","taxonomy":"Lepus granatensis Rosenhauer, 1856, “bei Graneda [Granada],” Andalusia Province, Spain.In the past, L. granatensiswas included in L. europaeusor L. capensisbut received species status based on morphological and genetic characteristics. The population in Sardinia, to which the names mediterraneus and typicus are applied, has formerly been assigned to L. granatensisbased of their closeness, although it was thought to be a distinct species because ofits small size. Up to now, there is no definite study of the Sardinian population, so it is included in L. capensis. If mediterraneus is confirmed as a synonym of granatensisin the future, it has priority over granatensis. A homogeneous distribution of mtDNA from L. granatensiswas found in L. europaeusfrom the northern Iberian Peninsula where both species are parapatric. This is probably a result of gene flow between the two species in the contact zone. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre ibérique @fr | Andalusischer Hase @de | Liebre ibérica @es | Granada Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rosenhauer","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1856","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"141","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"granatensis","name":"Lepus granatensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.g.granatensisRosenhauer,1856—IberianPeninsulaexceptN&NE.L.g.gallaeciusMiller,1907—Galicia,andWAsturias(NWSpain).L. g. solisi Palacios & Fernandez, 1992— Mallorca (Balearic Is), but this population may have been introduced by early settlers on the islands.","bibliography":"Acevedo, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2012) | Alves & Rocha (2003) | Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003) | Alves, Goncalves et al. (2002) | Angermann (2016) | Bonhomme et al. (1986) | Carro et al. (2011) | Farfan, Duarte et al. (2012) | Farfan, Guerrero et al. (2004) | Farféan, Vargas et al. (2004) | Fernandez et al. (2008) | Gortazar et al. (2007) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Miller (1912) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Palacios (1983, 1989) | Palacios & Fernandez (1992) | Paupério & Alves (2008) | Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2012) | Sanz-Martin et al. (2014) | Seixas et al. (2014) | Smith & Johnston (2008h)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Iberian Hare includes a wide variety of plant species. It feeds mostly on grasses, making up an annual average of ¢.70% of the diet in a mountain ecosystem. Ninety-one percent of available grass species were consumed, but only three of them were used in proportions greater than 5% (Anthoxanthumodoratum, Secalecereale, and Agrostis spp.). Diets consist of 81% grass in winter but only 55% in summer. Other plant groups such as herbs, shrubs, and plant inflorescences are eaten In summer.","breeding":"Reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare occurs throughout the year, with peaks in February—June;it is lowest in September—-December. Environmental factors have little influence on reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare. Gestation lasts 41-42 days. Averagelitter sizes are 1-6-2:1 young (range 1-7 young). A reproductive female has an average of 3-5 litters/year or 3-5-16-1 young/year.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Iberian Hare do not vary in size between sexes and average 28 ha for males and 24 ha for females in transitional pastures and 40 ha in arable farmland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Iberian Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu lato. It occurs in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, but it is excluded in the northern and northeastern parts where the Broom Hare (L. castroviejoi) and the European Hare (L. eropaeus) occur. The Iberian Hare once inhabited the Balearic Islands, Spain, butit is now extinct there. It was introduced to southern France and Corsica in recent decades, but there is no proof of established populations. The Iberian Hare is common in much ofits distribution and locally abundant in central and southern Spain; numbers in north-eastern Spain even seem to be increasing. Nevertheless, the Iberian Hare is extremely rare or extinct in western Galicia, western Asturias, and north to the Ebro River between Navarre and Huesca. It is rare on Mallorca and extinct in the western mountains. The Iberian Hare is an important game species in the Iberian Peninsula. No major conservation threats have been identified, and models even predicted that the current distribution will enlarge northward.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 440-480 mm, tail 93-112 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 112-121 mm; weight 2.2-6 kg. The Iberian Hare is distinguished by clear contrast between dorsal and ventral pelage and by white strips on forefeet and hindfeet. There is slight geographical variation in color. Ear length is greater in Andalusian specimens; hindfoot length is greater in northern specimens and much smaller in Mallorcan specimens. North-western populations are much darker than the rest.","habitat":"Humid mountain forests in the north-western part of its distribution, dry cropland in central Spain, and sand dunes in Mediterranean coastal areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.1900 m. The population of the Iberian Hare in Mallorca occurs in dry cropland and thickets. One study shows that habitat requirements of the Iberian Hare have changed significantly in recent decades from a highly significant association with natural vegetation in the 1960s to one with cultivated lands in the 1990s. This shift in habitat use might have enabled increases in numbers of Iberian Hares because anthropogenic habitats provide year-round cover and food. The Iberian Hare showed a high preference for uncultivated land for resting areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B765FFDAFAF7FD5EFABBFBD4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B765FFDAFAF7FD5EFABBFBD4","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"141","verbatimText":"53.European HareLepus europaeusFrench:Liévre d'Europe/ German:Feldhase/ Spanish:Liebre europeaOther common names:Brown Hare, European Brown HareTaxonomy.Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, type locality not given. Restricted by Esl. Trouessart in 1910 to “Poland.”It was formerly included in L. capensisbased on a cline in morphological characteristics (mainly size) from north-east ern Africa eastward across the northern Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey. In Kazakhstan, where the large “ europaeus” and the small “ capensis” (= tolar) live in sympatry without hybridization, the interpretation was of the overlapping ends of a ring species. A reanalysis showed a discontinuity between smaller “ capensis” and larger “ europaeus” running from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Iran. This is the basis on which L. europaeusis separated from L. capensisand L. tolai. In Iran, east of the border of the distribution of L. europaeus, L. tolaioccurs apparently in allopatry or parapatry with L. europaeus. Nevertheless, recent evidence suggests that the hypothesis of conspecific status of L. europaeusand L. capensismay be correct. A study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of mtDNA of these three groups indicated a significant degree of divergence supporting species-specific designation. These studies show that genetic differentiation between L. capensisand L. europaeusmight be attributed to geographical separation rather than divergence. It has been speculated that gene flow may occur in the Middle East where distributions meet and may result in intergraded populations. Until conclusive evidence of a single species complex is available to support a change in taxonomic status of L. europaeus, it remains a distinct species. Subspecies are recognized based mainly in size and color. Studies conducted in the USSR on differences in summer fur color and fur structure showed a tendency for clinal variation. Geographic variation has been shown for winter fur color and metric characters of skulls of L. europaeus. Thus the reality of existence of all subspecific forms described for the USSR seems very doubtful. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable throughout the range of L. europaeus. Molecular phylogenetic studies in Spain have shown that the Cantabrian population has unique mtDNA relative to other European populations. Sixteen subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.e.europaeusPallas,1778—WesternEurope.L. e. caspicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Lower Volga, Kalmykia (Russia) and W Kazakhstan.JR e. connor Robinson, 1918 — NW Iran. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Crete (Greece).a e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Cyprus. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905 — Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia.a e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822— Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, W & C Russia.Sl e. judeae Gray, 1867— Palestine.aE e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906— Carpathian Mts.all e. medius Nilsson, 1820— Denmark.al e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898— Great Britain.ul e. parnassius Miller, 1903— C Greece.el. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929— Black Sea coast (Russia).ul. e. rhodius Festa, 1914— Rhodes (Greece).Bl e. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Syria.ab. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901— E & SE Europe.The European Hare originated from grasslands in the Middle East, and from there, it has spread into agricultural areas of Europe. The distribution today includes European lowland areas from S Scandinavia to the N & NE Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean Is (Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus), and extends E to W Siberian and W Mongolian lowlands and S to N Israel, N Syria, N Iraq, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and NW Iran. Ancient introduction into Great Britain (shaded in the map). In more recent times this species was widely introduced as a game species into S Sweden, N Ireland, Corsica, SE Canada to NE USA, South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay), Australia, New Zealand, and several islands, including Barbados, Réunion, and the Falkland (Malvinas) Is.Descriptive notes.Head—body 550-680 mm, tail 75-140 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 124-185 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The European Hare has tawny or rusty fur. Dorsal pelage is darker than chest and sides. Fur on back is long and curled. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are pale gray, with large triangular black patches on backs of tips. Tail is black on top and white underneath. There is some white on sides of head and bases of ears, and haunches are gray during winter. Geographical variation is low among mainland populations due to high mobility and occupation of continuous habitats. Geographical variation is also obscured by translocations by humans.Habitat.Temperate open woodland, farmland with pastures, grasslands, moorland, saltmarsh, steppes, and sub-desert from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. High densities of European Hares are reached on arable land. In Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand, where no other species of Lepusoccurs, European Hares also inhabits pampas, sand dunes, marshes, and alpine fellfield (slopes). Many surveys have investigated habitat preferences of European Hares. In all studies,fallow land is preferred consistently, and residential areas are avoided. There is a positive association with abundance and habitat diversity.Food and Feeding.European Hares feed predominantly on cultivated crops, weeds, and grasses. A study investigating dietary preferences showed that they positively selected forbs and grasses. Furthermore, chemical analysis revealed that they select food for high-energy content (crude fat and crude protein) and avoid crude fiber. During feeding, dominance hierarchies among individuals have been demonstrated.Breeding.Reproduction of European Hares takes place from winter solstice until the end of summer, with a peak in spring (“March madness”). During the peak, males congregate around a female in estrus. The female boxes and chases off males. Female European Hares have 1-5 litters/year, with an average ofthree litters per year. Females have between 4-6 young/year in Argentinaand 13 young/year in the Czech Republic, but in most populations, females are remarkably consistent at ¢.10 young/year. Litter size can vary with respect to season, with smaller litters produced earlier and larger litters later. Superfetation (a female ovulates while pregnant and then carries both embryos and fetuses) is common in captivity and reduces normal gestation of¢.42 days to ¢.38 days. In the wild, superfetation is less common. Nursing takes place once per day, about one hour after sunset, and lasts only a few minutes. Females reach maturity at 7-8 months old and males at ¢.6 months old. Young from the firstlitters of the year may breed in theirfirst year. Where sympatric, European Hares and Mountain Hares (L. timidus) can hybridize and produce fertile offspring.Activity patterns.European Hares are mostly nocturnal. In winter, activity starts with regularity shortly after sunset and ends shortly before sunrise. In summer, activity is less consistently tied to the dark period so that active European Hares can be regularly observed in full daylight. With GPS telemetry, it was possible to gain new knowledge on daily activity patterns of European Hares during summer. If sunset was early and sunrise late, evening and morning activity peaks occurred during the dark phase. This was the case in late spring and early autumn when nights are longer. When sunset was late and sunrise was early, activity peaked in full daylight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Distances between areas used during activity and inactivity are 122-306 m in agricultural areas and are shorter when field sizes are small than when field sizes are large. Home ranges are 12-330 ha, depending on study area. A recent study using GPS-collars showed that European Hares in an agricultural landscape with small field sizes used a confined space during the daily resting phase (on average 200 m?*), and home ranges during the active phase were c.3 ha. The European Hare lives alone but can be observed in small groups during reproduction season or when densities are high.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture. The European Hare is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Several countries have placed the European Hare on their red lists as near threatened or threatened. There is growing concern regarding status of regional forms of the European Hare. A meta-study, reviewing literature from twelve European countries and comparing population densities related to habitat characteristics, concluded that the primary cause of declines of the European Hare was agricultural intensification. Abundance was negatively associated to predation. Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on densities. In Greece, Spain, France, and Denmark, restocking of European Hares from other regions or countries to supplement densities for hunting has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. Diseases such as the European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis), coccidiosis, and tularaemia are additional threats because they have been identified as principle causes of mortalities of European Hares in some regions.Bibliography.Angermann (1972, 1983, 2016), Averianov et al. (2003), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Bertolino, Cordero di Montezemolo & Perrone (2011), Bertolino, Perrone et al. (2011), Broekhuizen & Maaskamp (1980, 1982), Chapuis (1990), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux (1965, 1967b, 1981a), Flux & Angermann (1990), Frylestam (1986), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holley (2001), Homolka (1986, 1987), Kovacs & Buza (1988), Kunst etal. (2001), Lincoln (1974), LindIof (1978), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Macdonald & Barrett (1993), Mamuris etal. (2001), Marboutin & Aebischer (1996), Martinet (1977), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Monaghan & Metcalfe (1985), Palacios et al. (2004), Pépin (1989), Pépin & Cargnelutti (1994), Petter (1961), Pielowski (1972), Reichlin et al. (2006), Reitz & Léonard (1994), Roedenbeck & Voser (2008), Riihe & Hohmann (2004), de la Sancha et al.(2009), Schai-Braun & Hacklander (2014), Schai-Braun, Reichlin et al. (2015), Schai-Braun, Rédel & Hacklander (2012), Schai-Braun, Weber & Hacklander (2013), Schneider (1978), Smith, A.T. & Johnston (2008i), Smith, R.K., Jennings & Harris (2005), Smith, R.K., Jennings, Robinson & Harris (2004), Sokolov et al. (2009), Spitzenberger (2001), Stott (2003), Tapper & Barnes (1986), Trouessart (1910), Vaughan et al. (2003), Vidus-Rosin et al. (2009).","taxonomy":"Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, type locality not given. Restricted by Esl. Trouessart in 1910 to “Poland.”It was formerly included in L. capensisbased on a cline in morphological characteristics (mainly size) from north-east ern Africa eastward across the northern Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey. In Kazakhstan, where the large “ europaeus” and the small “ capensis” (= tolar) live in sympatry without hybridization, the interpretation was of the overlapping ends of a ring species. A reanalysis showed a discontinuity between smaller “ capensis” and larger “ europaeus” running from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Iran. This is the basis on which L. europaeusis separated from L. capensisand L. tolai. In Iran, east of the border of the distribution of L. europaeus, L. tolaioccurs apparently in allopatry or parapatry with L. europaeus. Nevertheless, recent evidence suggests that the hypothesis of conspecific status of L. europaeusand L. capensismay be correct. A study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepusindicated that North African species and L. europaeusbelong to L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of mtDNA of these three groups indicated a significant degree of divergence supporting species-specific designation. These studies show that genetic differentiation between L. capensisand L. europaeusmight be attributed to geographical separation rather than divergence. It has been speculated that gene flow may occur in the Middle East where distributions meet and may result in intergraded populations. Until conclusive evidence of a single species complex is available to support a change in taxonomic status of L. europaeus, it remains a distinct species. Subspecies are recognized based mainly in size and color. Studies conducted in the USSR on differences in summer fur color and fur structure showed a tendency for clinal variation. Geographic variation has been shown for winter fur color and metric characters of skulls of L. europaeus. Thus the reality of existence of all subspecific forms described for the USSR seems very doubtful. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable throughout the range of L. europaeus. Molecular phylogenetic studies in Spain have shown that the Cantabrian population has unique mtDNA relative to other European populations. Sixteen subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre d'Europe @fr | Feldhase @de | Liebre europea @es | Brown Hare @en | European Brown Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1778","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"141","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"europaeus","name":"Lepus europaeus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.e.europaeusPallas,1778—WesternEurope.L. e. caspicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Lower Volga, Kalmykia (Russia) and W Kazakhstan.JR e. connor Robinson, 1918 — NW Iran. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Crete (Greece).a e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Cyprus. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905 — Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia.a e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822— Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, W & C Russia.Sl e. judeae Gray, 1867— Palestine.aE e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906— Carpathian Mts.all e. medius Nilsson, 1820— Denmark.al e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898— Great Britain.ul e. parnassius Miller, 1903— C Greece.el. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929— Black Sea coast (Russia).ul. e. rhodius Festa, 1914— Rhodes (Greece).Bl e. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832— Syria.ab. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901— E & SE Europe.The European Hare originated from grasslands in the Middle East, and from there, it has spread into agricultural areas of Europe. The distribution today includes European lowland areas from S Scandinavia to the N & NE Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean Is (Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus), and extends E to W Siberian and W Mongolian lowlands and S to N Israel, N Syria, N Iraq, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and NW Iran. Ancient introduction into Great Britain (shaded in the map). In more recent times this species was widely introduced as a game species into S Sweden, N Ireland, Corsica, SE Canada to NE USA, South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay), Australia, New Zealand, and several islands, including Barbados, Réunion, and the Falkland (Malvinas) Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625665/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (1972, 1983, 2016) | Averianov et al. (2003) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006) | Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008) | Bertolino, Cordero di Montezemolo & Perrone (2011) | Bertolino, Perrone et al. (2011) | Broekhuizen & Maaskamp (1980, 1982) | Chapuis (1990) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux (1965, 1967b, 1981a) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Frylestam (1986) | Hewson (1991) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Holley (2001) | Homolka (1986, 1987) | Kovacs & Buza (1988) | Kunst etal. (2001) | Lincoln (1974) | LindIof (1978) | Lissovsky (2016) | Long (2003) | Macdonald & Barrett (1993) | Mamuris etal. (2001) | Marboutin & Aebischer (1996) | Martinet (1977) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Monaghan & Metcalfe (1985) | Palacios et al. (2004) | Pépin (1989) | Pépin & Cargnelutti (1994) | Petter (1961) | Pielowski (1972) | Reichlin et al. (2006) | Reitz & Léonard (1994) | Roedenbeck & Voser (2008) | Riihe & Hohmann (2004) | de la Sancha et al.(2009) | Schai-Braun & Hacklander (2014) | Schai-Braun, Reichlin et al. (2015) | Schai-Braun, Rédel & Hacklander (2012) | Schai-Braun, Weber & Hacklander (2013) | Schneider (1978) | Smith, A.T. & Johnston (2008i) | Smith, R.K., Jennings & Harris (2005) | Smith, R.K., Jennings, Robinson & Harris (2004) | Sokolov et al. (2009) | Spitzenberger (2001) | Stott (2003) | Tapper & Barnes (1986) | Trouessart (1910) | Vaughan et al. (2003) | Vidus-Rosin et al. (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"European Hares feed predominantly on cultivated crops, weeds, and grasses. A study investigating dietary preferences showed that they positively selected forbs and grasses. Furthermore, chemical analysis revealed that they select food for high-energy content (crude fat and crude protein) and avoid crude fiber. During feeding, dominance hierarchies among individuals have been demonstrated.","breeding":"Reproduction of European Hares takes place from winter solstice until the end of summer, with a peak in spring (“March madness”). During the peak, males congregate around a female in estrus. The female boxes and chases off males. Female European Hares have 1-5 litters/year, with an average ofthree litters per year. Females have between 4-6 young/year in Argentinaand 13 young/year in the Czech Republic, but in most populations, females are remarkably consistent at ¢.10 young/year. Litter size can vary with respect to season, with smaller litters produced earlier and larger litters later. Superfetation (a female ovulates while pregnant and then carries both embryos and fetuses) is common in captivity and reduces normal gestation of¢.42 days to ¢.38 days. In the wild, superfetation is less common. Nursing takes place once per day, about one hour after sunset, and lasts only a few minutes. Females reach maturity at 7-8 months old and males at ¢.6 months old. Young from the firstlitters of the year may breed in theirfirst year. Where sympatric, European Hares and Mountain Hares (L. timidus) can hybridize and produce fertile offspring.","activityPatterns":"European Hares are mostly nocturnal. In winter, activity starts with regularity shortly after sunset and ends shortly before sunrise. In summer, activity is less consistently tied to the dark period so that active European Hares can be regularly observed in full daylight. With GPS telemetry, it was possible to gain new knowledge on daily activity patterns of European Hares during summer. If sunset was early and sunrise late, evening and morning activity peaks occurred during the dark phase. This was the case in late spring and early autumn when nights are longer. When sunset was late and sunrise was early, activity peaked in full daylight.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Distances between areas used during activity and inactivity are 122-306 m in agricultural areas and are shorter when field sizes are small than when field sizes are large. Home ranges are 12-330 ha, depending on study area. A recent study using GPS-collars showed that European Hares in an agricultural landscape with small field sizes used a confined space during the daily resting phase (on average 200 m?*), and home ranges during the active phase were c.3 ha. The European Hare lives alone but can be observed in small groups during reproduction season or when densities are high.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture. The European Hare is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Several countries have placed the European Hare on their red lists as near threatened or threatened. There is growing concern regarding status of regional forms of the European Hare. A meta-study, reviewing literature from twelve European countries and comparing population densities related to habitat characteristics, concluded that the primary cause of declines of the European Hare was agricultural intensification. Abundance was negatively associated to predation. Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on densities. In Greece, Spain, France, and Denmark, restocking of European Hares from other regions or countries to supplement densities for hunting has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. Diseases such as the European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis), coccidiosis, and tularaemia are additional threats because they have been identified as principle causes of mortalities of European Hares in some regions.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 550-680 mm, tail 75-140 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 124-185 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The European Hare has tawny or rusty fur. Dorsal pelage is darker than chest and sides. Fur on back is long and curled. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are pale gray, with large triangular black patches on backs of tips. Tail is black on top and white underneath. There is some white on sides of head and bases of ears, and haunches are gray during winter. Geographical variation is low among mainland populations due to high mobility and occupation of continuous habitats. Geographical variation is also obscured by translocations by humans.","habitat":"Temperate open woodland, farmland with pastures, grasslands, moorland, saltmarsh, steppes, and sub-desert from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. High densities of European Hares are reached on arable land. In Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand, where no other species of Lepusoccurs, European Hares also inhabits pampas, sand dunes, marshes, and alpine fellfield (slopes). Many surveys have investigated habitat preferences of European Hares. In all studies,fallow land is preferred consistently, and residential areas are avoided. There is a positive association with abundance and habitat diversity."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B765FFDBFFCBFDA5F890F4C2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B765FFDBFFCBFDA5F890F4C2","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"141","verbatimText":"52.Iberian HareLepus granatensisFrench:Lievre ibérique/ German:Andalusischer Hase/ Spanish:Liebre ibéricaOther common names:Granada HareTaxonomy.Lepus granatensis Rosenhauer, 1856, “bei Graneda [Granada],” Andalusia Province, Spain.In the past, L. granatensiswas included in L. europaeusor L. capensisbut received species status based on morphological and genetic characteristics. The population in Sardinia, to which the names mediterraneus and typicus are applied, has formerly been assigned to L. granatensisbased of their closeness, although it was thought to be a distinct species because ofits small size. Up to now, there is no definite study of the Sardinian population, so it is included in L. capensis. If mediterraneus is confirmed as a synonym of granatensisin the future, it has priority over granatensis. A homogeneous distribution of mtDNA from L. granatensiswas found in L. europaeusfrom the northern Iberian Peninsula where both species are parapatric. This is probably a result of gene flow between the two species in the contact zone. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.g.granatensisRosenhauer,1856—IberianPeninsulaexceptN&NE.L.g.gallaeciusMiller,1907—Galicia,andWAsturias(NWSpain).L. g. solisi Palacios & Fernandez, 1992— Mallorca (Balearic Is), but this population may have been introduced by early settlers on the islands.Descriptive notes.Head-body 440-480 mm, tail 93-112 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 112-121 mm; weight 2.2-6 kg. The Iberian Hare is distinguished by clear contrast between dorsal and ventral pelage and by white strips on forefeet and hindfeet. There is slight geographical variation in color. Ear length is greater in Andalusian specimens; hindfoot length is greater in northern specimens and much smaller in Mallorcan specimens. North-western populations are much darker than the rest.Habitat.Humid mountain forests in the north-western part of its distribution, dry cropland in central Spain, and sand dunes in Mediterranean coastal areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.1900 m. The population of the Iberian Hare in Mallorca occurs in dry cropland and thickets. One study shows that habitat requirements of the Iberian Hare have changed significantly in recent decades from a highly significant association with natural vegetation in the 1960s to one with cultivated lands in the 1990s. This shift in habitat use might have enabled increases in numbers of Iberian Hares because anthropogenic habitats provide year-round cover and food. The Iberian Hare showed a high preference for uncultivated land for resting areas.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Iberian Hare includes a wide variety of plant species. It feeds mostly on grasses, making up an annual average of ¢.70% of the diet in a mountain ecosystem. Ninety-one percent of available grass species were consumed, but only three of them were used in proportions greater than 5% (Anthoxanthumodoratum, Secalecereale, and Agrostis spp.). Diets consist of 81% grass in winter but only 55% in summer. Other plant groups such as herbs, shrubs, and plant inflorescences are eaten In summer.Breeding.Reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare occurs throughout the year, with peaks in February—June;it is lowest in September—-December. Environmental factors have little influence on reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare. Gestation lasts 41-42 days. Averagelitter sizes are 1-6-2:1 young (range 1-7 young). A reproductive female has an average of 3-5 litters/year or 3-5-16-1 young/year.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Iberian Hare do not vary in size between sexes and average 28 ha for males and 24 ha for females in transitional pastures and 40 ha in arable farmland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Iberian Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu lato. It occurs in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, but it is excluded in the northern and northeastern parts where the Broom Hare (L. castroviejoi) and the European Hare (L. eropaeus) occur. The Iberian Hare once inhabited the Balearic Islands, Spain, butit is now extinct there. It was introduced to southern France and Corsica in recent decades, but there is no proof of established populations. The Iberian Hare is common in much ofits distribution and locally abundant in central and southern Spain; numbers in north-eastern Spain even seem to be increasing. Nevertheless, the Iberian Hare is extremely rare or extinct in western Galicia, western Asturias, and north to the Ebro River between Navarre and Huesca. It is rare on Mallorca and extinct in the western mountains. The Iberian Hare is an important game species in the Iberian Peninsula. No major conservation threats have been identified, and models even predicted that the current distribution will enlarge northward.Bibliography.Acevedo, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2012), Alves & Rocha (2003), Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003), Alves, Goncalves et al. (2002), Angermann (2016), Bonhomme et al. (1986), Carro et al. (2011), Farfan, Duarte et al. (2012), Farfan, Guerrero et al. (2004), Farféan, Vargas et al. (2004), Fernandez et al. (2008), Gortazar et al. (2007), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Miller (1912), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palacios (1983, 1989), Palacios & Fernandez (1992), Paupério & Alves (2008), Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2012), Sanz-Martin et al. (2014), Seixas et al. (2014), Smith & Johnston (2008h).","taxonomy":"Lepus granatensis Rosenhauer, 1856, “bei Graneda [Granada],” Andalusia Province, Spain.In the past, L. granatensiswas included in L. europaeusor L. capensisbut received species status based on morphological and genetic characteristics. The population in Sardinia, to which the names mediterraneus and typicus are applied, has formerly been assigned to L. granatensisbased of their closeness, although it was thought to be a distinct species because ofits small size. Up to now, there is no definite study of the Sardinian population, so it is included in L. capensis. If mediterraneus is confirmed as a synonym of granatensisin the future, it has priority over granatensis. A homogeneous distribution of mtDNA from L. granatensiswas found in L. europaeusfrom the northern Iberian Peninsula where both species are parapatric. This is probably a result of gene flow between the two species in the contact zone. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre ibérique @fr | Andalusischer Hase @de | Liebre ibérica @es | Granada Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rosenhauer","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1856","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"141","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"granatensis","name":"Lepus granatensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.g.granatensisRosenhauer,1856—IberianPeninsulaexceptN&NE.L.g.gallaeciusMiller,1907—Galicia,andWAsturias(NWSpain).L. g. solisi Palacios & Fernandez, 1992— Mallorca (Balearic Is), but this population may have been introduced by early settlers on the islands.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625663/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Acevedo, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2012) | Alves & Rocha (2003) | Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003) | Alves, Goncalves et al. (2002) | Angermann (2016) | Bonhomme et al. (1986) | Carro et al. (2011) | Farfan, Duarte et al. (2012) | Farfan, Guerrero et al. (2004) | Farféan, Vargas et al. (2004) | Fernandez et al. (2008) | Gortazar et al. (2007) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Miller (1912) | Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999) | Palacios (1983, 1989) | Palacios & Fernandez (1992) | Paupério & Alves (2008) | Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2012) | Sanz-Martin et al. (2014) | Seixas et al. (2014) | Smith & Johnston (2008h)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Iberian Hare includes a wide variety of plant species. It feeds mostly on grasses, making up an annual average of ¢.70% of the diet in a mountain ecosystem. Ninety-one percent of available grass species were consumed, but only three of them were used in proportions greater than 5% (Anthoxanthumodoratum, Secalecereale, and Agrostis spp.). Diets consist of 81% grass in winter but only 55% in summer. Other plant groups such as herbs, shrubs, and plant inflorescences are eaten In summer.","breeding":"Reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare occurs throughout the year, with peaks in February—June;it is lowest in September—-December. Environmental factors have little influence on reproductive activity of the Iberian Hare. Gestation lasts 41-42 days. Averagelitter sizes are 1-6-2:1 young (range 1-7 young). A reproductive female has an average of 3-5 litters/year or 3-5-16-1 young/year.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Iberian Hare do not vary in size between sexes and average 28 ha for males and 24 ha for females in transitional pastures and 40 ha in arable farmland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Iberian Hare is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensissensu lato. It occurs in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, but it is excluded in the northern and northeastern parts where the Broom Hare (L. castroviejoi) and the European Hare (L. eropaeus) occur. The Iberian Hare once inhabited the Balearic Islands, Spain, butit is now extinct there. It was introduced to southern France and Corsica in recent decades, but there is no proof of established populations. The Iberian Hare is common in much ofits distribution and locally abundant in central and southern Spain; numbers in north-eastern Spain even seem to be increasing. Nevertheless, the Iberian Hare is extremely rare or extinct in western Galicia, western Asturias, and north to the Ebro River between Navarre and Huesca. It is rare on Mallorca and extinct in the western mountains. The Iberian Hare is an important game species in the Iberian Peninsula. No major conservation threats have been identified, and models even predicted that the current distribution will enlarge northward.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 440-480 mm, tail 93-112 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 112-121 mm; weight 2.2-6 kg. The Iberian Hare is distinguished by clear contrast between dorsal and ventral pelage and by white strips on forefeet and hindfeet. There is slight geographical variation in color. Ear length is greater in Andalusian specimens; hindfoot length is greater in northern specimens and much smaller in Mallorcan specimens. North-western populations are much darker than the rest.","habitat":"Humid mountain forests in the north-western part of its distribution, dry cropland in central Spain, and sand dunes in Mediterranean coastal areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.1900 m. The population of the Iberian Hare in Mallorca occurs in dry cropland and thickets. One study shows that habitat requirements of the Iberian Hare have changed significantly in recent decades from a highly significant association with natural vegetation in the 1960s to one with cultivated lands in the 1990s. This shift in habitat use might have enabled increases in numbers of Iberian Hares because anthropogenic habitats provide year-round cover and food. The Iberian Hare showed a high preference for uncultivated land for resting areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B766FFDBFF6BF466FADAF787.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B766FFDBFF6BF466FADAF787","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"51.Tehuantepec JackrabbitLepus flavigularisFrench:Lievre de Tehuantepec/ German:Tehuantepec-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de TehuantepecOther common names:Tehuantepec Hare, Tropical HareTaxonomy.Lepus flavigularis Wagner, 1844, “Mexico.” Restricted by D. G. Elliot in 1905 to “San Mateo del Mar, Tehuantepec [City],” Oaxaca, Mexico.This species and L. callotisare similar and were considered conspecific by E. W. Nelson in 1909. A numerical analysis of morphological characteristics and distributional records supported the original designation of L. flavigularisas a distinct species. Lepus flavigularisand L. callotisare more similar to each other than to L. alleni. All three species are closely related to L. californicus. It is hypothesized that a population of L. californicusbecame isolated in Mexico and diverged into L. callotis. Later, a population of this divergent group became isolated on the western coastal plain, differentiating further into L. alleni. In a small area in south-eastern Oaxaca, a second isolated population evolved into L. flavigularis. Phylogenetic patterns indicate that L. flavigularisis subdivided into two distinct evolutionary lineages in two non-overlapping areas. Moreover, reduced genetic variability has been recorded in L. flavigularis. Lepusflavigularis occurs in sympatry with Sylvilagus floridanusthroughoutits distribution. Monotypic.Distribution.S Mexico, S of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in a small area between Salina Cruz, SEOaxaca, and extreme W Chiapas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 570-610 mm, tail 65-95 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 115-134 mm; weight 2:5.3-7 kg. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has coarse fur. Dorsal pelage is bright ocherous buff and strongly washed with black. Nape typically displays black stripe that extends posteriorly from bases of ears with median buff stripe; ears are large and entirely buff. Throat is yellowish. Rump and back of hindlegs are iron gray. Flanks and ventral fur are white. White ventral area extends up over flanks and abruptly ends against iron-gray area of rump and hindlegs. Fronts of hindlegs and tops of hindfeet are white; fronts of forelegs are grayish. Black line extends along middle of rump and over uppersurface of tail. Underside oftail is gray. Pelage color varies seasonally. In spring, black wash on back fades, and buff of upper parts fades to pale yellow. In early autumn, pelage on top and sides of head and back are rich ocherous buff and heavily washed with black.Habitat.Tropical dry savannas of native grasses with an overstory of sparse bushes (Byrsonimacrassifolia, Malpighiaceae) and scattered trees (Crescentia spp, Bignoniaceae) and coastal grassy dunes with Sabalmexicana (Arecaceae) that never exceeds a 4-5km widestrip along shores of saltwater lagoons on north side of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of ¢.666 m in the arid tropical zone. Dominant grasses in savannas and coastal dunes are Paspalumand Bouteloua(both Poaceae). One study noted that adult Tehuantepec Jackrabbits avoided dense vegetation and juveniles avoided not only dense vegetation but also grassland without overstory. Sex and season had no effect on habitat selection by Tehuantepec Jackrabbits.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Breeding season of the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is from late January to early November, with a peak during the rainy season in May-October. It exhibits a polygamous reproductive and mating behavior. One study showed that during the entire reproductive season, a male courted an average of six females and mounted three of them. Throughout the entire reproductive season, a female was courted by an average of five males but mounted only by one dominant male. This indicates that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is not promiscuous as are other species of Lepusand there is no evidence of polyandry or monogamy. Young are born c¢.32 days after copulation. Directly after birth, young are put into “beds” that are depressions in the ground covered by prairie grass (Jouveapilosa, Poaceae). Females return to nurse and groom young once per day, usually at night, until they are weaned and abandoned c.12 days after birth. In some cases, a female calls her young with a shriek, and young answer with several shrieks. When litters are larger than two young, the female separates them into different beds at c.5 days of age. Females have an average of two litters per breeding season, with a meanlitter size of 2:3 (range 1-4 young). Therefore, a female produces an average of 4-5 young/breeding season. Both sexes are mature at 6-7 months of age.Activity patterns.The Tehuantepec Jackrabbitis crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.During a two-year study, annual home ranges and core areas of 48 radio-collared Tehuantepec Jackrabbits averaged 30-4 ha and 7-2 ha for females and 13-5 ha and 3-6 ha for males, respectively. Home ranges of females were significantly wider than those of males. Home ranges were comparable in size and overlapped between active periods and inactive periods. Home ranges of as many as 46 individuals overlapped within and between sexes. This confirms that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has a polygamous mating system and a nonterritorial social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is the most endangered species of Lepus; its overall population has been reduced by more than 50%. This decline has been caused by ongoing habitat loss and diminished quality of remaining habitat. In the early 1990s, TehuantepecJackrabbits occurred on coastal plains and bordering foothills of the southern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in southern Oaxaca, and along the Pacific coast to Chiapas (c.5000 km?). Its distribution has been restricted to a small area between Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, and extreme western Chiapas, but it has not been found recently in Chiapas. Extent of occurrence is perhaps only 520 km? and the area of occupancy is less than 100 km* (possibly only 67 km?). The remaining four populationsare isolated and small. Threats to the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit are ongoing declines in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population size, number of mature individuals, and quality of remaining habitat. Total population size is estimated to be less than 1000 individuals. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is hunted, and habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture as the local human population expands. Habitat is also jeopardized by alteration and degradation by introduction of exotic grasses, human-induced fires, cattle-raising activities, and human settlements. Habitat reduction has been estimated at 8-29% overthe last 24 years.Bibliography.Anderson & Gaunt (1962), Carrillo-Reyes et al. (2010), Cervantes (1993), Cervantes, Lorenzo, Farfas & Vargas (2008), Cervantes, Lorenzo & Yates (2002), Chapman et al. (1983), Dixon et al. (1983), Elliot (1905), Farias (2004), Farias & Fuller (2009), Farias et al. (2006), Flux & Angermann (1990), Goodwin (1969), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lorenzo, Cervantes, Barragan & Vargas (2006), Lorenzo, Cervantes & Vargas (2003), Nelson (1909), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Retana & Lorenzo (2002), Rico et al. (2008), Rioja etal. (2008, 2011).","taxonomy":"Lepus flavigularis Wagner, 1844, “Mexico.” Restricted by D. G. Elliot in 1905 to “San Mateo del Mar, Tehuantepec [City],” Oaxaca, Mexico.This species and L. callotisare similar and were considered conspecific by E. W. Nelson in 1909. A numerical analysis of morphological characteristics and distributional records supported the original designation of L. flavigularisas a distinct species. Lepus flavigularisand L. callotisare more similar to each other than to L. alleni. All three species are closely related to L. californicus. It is hypothesized that a population of L. californicusbecame isolated in Mexico and diverged into L. callotis. Later, a population of this divergent group became isolated on the western coastal plain, differentiating further into L. alleni. In a small area in south-eastern Oaxaca, a second isolated population evolved into L. flavigularis. Phylogenetic patterns indicate that L. flavigularisis subdivided into two distinct evolutionary lineages in two non-overlapping areas. Moreover, reduced genetic variability has been recorded in L. flavigularis. Lepusflavigularis occurs in sympatry with Sylvilagus floridanusthroughoutits distribution. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lievre de Tehuantepec @fr | Tehuantepec-Hase @de | Liebre de Tehuantepec @es | Tehuantepec Hare @en | Tropical Hare @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1844","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"33","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"flavigularis","name":"Lepus flavigularis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Mexico, S of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in a small area between Salina Cruz, SEOaxaca, and extreme W Chiapas.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625661/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson & Gaunt (1962) | Carrillo-Reyes et al. (2010) | Cervantes (1993) | Cervantes, Lorenzo, Farfas & Vargas (2008) | Cervantes, Lorenzo & Yates (2002) | Chapman et al. (1983) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Elliot (1905) | Farias (2004) | Farias & Fuller (2009) | Farias et al. (2006) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Goodwin (1969) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lorenzo, Cervantes, Barragan & Vargas (2006) | Lorenzo, Cervantes & Vargas (2003) | Nelson (1909) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Retana & Lorenzo (2002) | Rico et al. (2008) | Rioja etal. (2008, 2011)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Breeding season of the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is from late January to early November, with a peak during the rainy season in May-October. It exhibits a polygamous reproductive and mating behavior. One study showed that during the entire reproductive season, a male courted an average of six females and mounted three of them. Throughout the entire reproductive season, a female was courted by an average of five males but mounted only by one dominant male. This indicates that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is not promiscuous as are other species of Lepusand there is no evidence of polyandry or monogamy. Young are born c¢.32 days after copulation. Directly after birth, young are put into “beds” that are depressions in the ground covered by prairie grass (Jouveapilosa, Poaceae). Females return to nurse and groom young once per day, usually at night, until they are weaned and abandoned c.12 days after birth. In some cases, a female calls her young with a shriek, and young answer with several shrieks. When litters are larger than two young, the female separates them into different beds at c.5 days of age. Females have an average of two litters per breeding season, with a meanlitter size of 2:3 (range 1-4 young). Therefore, a female produces an average of 4-5 young/breeding season. Both sexes are mature at 6-7 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Tehuantepec Jackrabbitis crepuscular and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"During a two-year study, annual home ranges and core areas of 48 radio-collared Tehuantepec Jackrabbits averaged 30-4 ha and 7-2 ha for females and 13-5 ha and 3-6 ha for males, respectively. Home ranges of females were significantly wider than those of males. Home ranges were comparable in size and overlapped between active periods and inactive periods. Home ranges of as many as 46 individuals overlapped within and between sexes. This confirms that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has a polygamous mating system and a nonterritorial social organization.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is the most endangered species of Lepus; its overall population has been reduced by more than 50%. This decline has been caused by ongoing habitat loss and diminished quality of remaining habitat. In the early 1990s, TehuantepecJackrabbits occurred on coastal plains and bordering foothills of the southern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in southern Oaxaca, and along the Pacific coast to Chiapas (c.5000 km?). Its distribution has been restricted to a small area between Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, and extreme western Chiapas, but it has not been found recently in Chiapas. Extent of occurrence is perhaps only 520 km? and the area of occupancy is less than 100 km* (possibly only 67 km?). The remaining four populationsare isolated and small. Threats to the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit are ongoing declines in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population size, number of mature individuals, and quality of remaining habitat. Total population size is estimated to be less than 1000 individuals. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is hunted, and habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture as the local human population expands. Habitat is also jeopardized by alteration and degradation by introduction of exotic grasses, human-induced fires, cattle-raising activities, and human settlements. Habitat reduction has been estimated at 8-29% overthe last 24 years.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 570-610 mm, tail 65-95 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 115-134 mm; weight 2:5.3-7 kg. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has coarse fur. Dorsal pelage is bright ocherous buff and strongly washed with black. Nape typically displays black stripe that extends posteriorly from bases of ears with median buff stripe; ears are large and entirely buff. Throat is yellowish. Rump and back of hindlegs are iron gray. Flanks and ventral fur are white. White ventral area extends up over flanks and abruptly ends against iron-gray area of rump and hindlegs. Fronts of hindlegs and tops of hindfeet are white; fronts of forelegs are grayish. Black line extends along middle of rump and over uppersurface of tail. Underside oftail is gray. Pelage color varies seasonally. In spring, black wash on back fades, and buff of upper parts fades to pale yellow. In early autumn, pelage on top and sides of head and back are rich ocherous buff and heavily washed with black.Habitat.Tropical dry savannas of native grasses with an overstory of sparse bushes (Byrsonimacrassifolia, Malpighiaceae) and scattered trees (Crescentia spp, Bignoniaceae) and coastal grassy dunes with Sabalmexicana (Arecaceae) that never exceeds a 4-5km widestrip along shores of saltwater lagoons on north side of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of ¢.666 m in the arid tropical zone. Dominant grasses in savannas and coastal dunes are Paspalumand Bouteloua(both Poaceae). One study noted that adult Tehuantepec Jackrabbits avoided dense vegetation and juveniles avoided not only dense vegetation but also grassland without overstory. Sex and season had no effect on habitat selection by Tehuantepec Jackrabbits.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Breeding season of the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is from late January to early November, with a peak during the rainy season in May-October. It exhibits a polygamous reproductive and mating behavior. One study showed that during the entire reproductive season, a male courted an average of six females and mounted three of them. Throughout the entire reproductive season, a female was courted by an average of five males but mounted only by one dominant male. This indicates that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is not promiscuous as are other species of Lepusand there is no evidence of polyandry or monogamy. Young are born c¢.32 days after copulation. Directly after birth, young are put into “beds” that are depressions in the ground covered by prairie grass (Jouveapilosa, Poaceae). Females return to nurse and groom young once per day, usually at night, until they are weaned and abandoned c.12 days after birth. In some cases, a female calls her young with a shriek, and young answer with several shrieks. When litters are larger than two young, the female separates them into different beds at c.5 days of age. Females have an average of two litters per breeding season, with a meanlitter size of 2:3 (range 1-4 young). Therefore, a female produces an average of 4-5 young/breeding season. Both sexes are mature at 6-7 months of age.Activity patterns.The Tehuantepec Jackrabbitis crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.During a two-year study, annual home ranges and core areas of 48 radio-collared Tehuantepec Jackrabbits averaged 30-4 ha and 7-2 ha for females and 13-5 ha and 3-6 ha for males, respectively. Home ranges of females were significantly wider than those of males. Home ranges were comparable in size and overlapped between active periods and inactive periods. Home ranges of as many as 46 individuals overlapped within and between sexes. This confirms that the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit has a polygamous mating system and a nonterritorial social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is the most endangered species of Lepus; its overall population has been reduced by more than 50%. This decline has been caused by ongoing habitat loss and diminished quality of remaining habitat. In the early 1990s, TehuantepecJackrabbits occurred on coastal plains and bordering foothills of the southern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in southern Oaxaca, and along the Pacific coast to Chiapas (c.5000 km?). Its distribution has been restricted to a small area between Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, and extreme western Chiapas, but it has not been found recently in Chiapas. Extent of occurrence is perhaps only 520 km? and the area of occupancy is less than 100 km* (possibly only 67 km?). The remaining four populationsare isolated and small. Threats to the Tehuantepec Jackrabbit are ongoing declines in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population size, number of mature individuals, and quality of remaining habitat. Total population size is estimated to be less than 1000 individuals. The Tehuantepec Jackrabbit is hunted, and habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture as the local human population expands. Habitat is also jeopardized by alteration and degradation by introduction of exotic grasses, human-induced fires, cattle-raising activities, and human settlements.","habitat":"Tropical dry savannas of native grasses with an overstory of sparse bushes (Byrsonimacrassifolia, Malpighiaceae) and scattered trees (Crescentia spp, Bignoniaceae) and coastal grassy dunes with Sabalmexicana (Arecaceae) that never exceeds a 4-5km widestrip along shores of saltwater lagoons on north side of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of ¢.666 m in the arid tropical zone. Dominant grasses in savannas and coastal dunes are Paspalumand Bouteloua(both Poaceae). One study noted that adult Tehuantepec Jackrabbits avoided dense vegetation and juveniles avoided not only dense vegetation but also grassland without overstory. Sex and season had no effect on habitat selection by Tehuantepec Jackrabbits."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B767FFD8FAF6F8A1FE10FDCD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B767FFD8FAF6F8A1FE10FDCD","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"50.White-sided JackrabbitLepus callotisFrench:Lievre du Mexique/ German:\\Weil3flankenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de flancos blancosOther common names:Beautiful-eared Jackrabbit, Gaillard Jackrabbit, Snow SidesTaxonomy.Lepus callotis Wagler, 1830, “Mexico.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to the “southern end of the Mexican Tableland.”Morphological characteristics showed only partial separation between Mexican subspecies of L. callotisand L. californicus, whereas nearly complete separation between L. callotisand L. flavigulariswas apparent. A recent molecular phylogenetic study supports another theory suggesting that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new linage. From original stock (L. callotis), one population was isolated in western coastal plains (L. allen?) and a second population became isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Distribution of L. callotisis allopatric with L. allenito which it is probably related, parapatric with L. flavigularis, and sympatric with Sylvilagus cunicularius. This species and L. californicusare only sympatric in marginal habitats because they typically occupy different habitat types. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.c.callotisWagler,1830—CMexico(continuousdistributionfromEDurango,SoftheRioNazas,toNGuerreroandNWOaxaca).L. c. gaillardi Mearns, 1896— SW USA (extreme SW New Mexico) and discontinuously in NC Mexico (NW Chihuaha, SC Chihuahua, and NC Durango N of the Rio Nazas).Descriptive notes.Head—body 430-600 mm, tail 47-92 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 118-141 mm; weight 1.5-3.2 kg. The White-sided Jackrabbit is medium-sized, with relatively short hindfeet and long ears. Dorsal pelage is pale ocherous cinnamon, mixed with black. Sides, rump, thighs, limbs, and ventral fur are white. Rump is divided by black medial line. Gular patch is bufty, becoming ocherous on fronts of shoulders and sides of neck. Head is cream-buff, mixed with black, and eye rings are whitish. Nape is ocherous buff. Ears are scantily covered with short hairs but are almost bare at their concave surfaces. Tail is white below and black above. Female White-sided Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Geographical variation in pelage color exists, with paler individuals in Chihuahua. The two subspecies also vary in pelage color: callotishas blackish tint and black nape patch, and gaillardi has pale buff tint and brown nape. White-sided Jackrabbits molt twice a year.On following pages: 51. Tehuantepec Jackrabbit (Lepus flavigularis); 52. Iberian Hare (Lepus granatensis); 53. European Hare (Lepus europaeus); 54. Broom Hare (Lepus castroviejoi); 55. Corsican Hare (Lepus corsicanus); 56. White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii); 57. Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus); 58. Alaskan Hare (Lepus othus); 59. Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus); 60. Japanese Hare (Lepus brachyurus); 61. Manchurian Hare (Lepusmandshuricus); 62. Korean Hare Lepus coreanus); 63. Chinese Hare (Lepus sinensis).Habitat.Grassy open plains with little shrub cover and desert-grassland of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica, Poaceae). White-sided Jackrabbits avoid hilly areas. A study showed that 97-1% of occupied habitat was grassland, and remaining non-grass habitat was adjacent to large expenses of grassland habitat. The White-sided Jackrabbitis an animal of open grassland, whereas the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) inhabits vegetation where forbs and shrubs are dominant, so overgrazing and grassland deterioration favorsthe latter species and reducesdistribution of the former. White-sidedJackrabbits occur at elevations of 1350-2100 m in north-western Chihuahua, ¢.2550 m in northern Puebla, and ¢.750 m in Morelos.Food and Feeding.Diets of White-sided Jackrabbits typically contain more than 99% grass. Plants eaten were true grasses (Poaceae) such as buffalograss (Boutelouadactyloides), tobosa grass, wolftail (Lycurus sp.), blue grama (B. gracilis), and vine mesquite (Panicumobtusum) and sedge nutgrass (Cyperusrotundus, Cyperaceae), ring muhly (Muhlenbergiatorreyi), and fiddleneck (Amsinckia sp., Boraginaceae), woolly Indian wheat (Plantagopurshii, Plantaginaceae), and Wright buckwheat (Eriogonumwrightii, Polygonaceae). The White-sided Jackrabbit uses its forepaws to excavate bulbous tubers of young nutgrass (C. rotundus) in the dry season.Breeding.Reproductive season of the White-sidedJackrabbit minimally lasts from mid-April to mid-August but may extend from mid-March until mid-October. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 2-2 young. Females can produce at least three litters per year. Newborns have soft and woolly fur and are typically born in burrows.Activity patterns.Most activity of the White-sided Jackrabbit occurred between 22:00 h and 05:00 h in New Mexico, whereas it was usually seen in the early morning or at dusk in Zacatecas, Mexico. Cloud cover, precipitation, and wind limited activities, but temperature had little effect.Movements, Home range and Social organization.When predators alarm Whitesided Jackrabbits, they alternately flash their white sides while running away or leap straight upward while extending their hindlegs and flashing their white sides. They construct and use shelter forms that are predominantly located in dense stands of clumped tabosa grass. Occasionally but rarely, underground shelters are used. Home ranges of White-sided Jackrabbits overlap, and individuals will move at least 1-6 km to feed. White-sided Jackrabbits usually occur in male-female pairs. This pair bond is most evident during the reproductive season. The male defends the pair from intruding males. It is suggested that pair bonding keeps sexes together during the breeding season because densities are low. White-sided Jackrabbits use three types of vocalization. One is an alarm or fear reaction and consists of a high-pitched scream. The second are harsh grunts produced by the male of a pair to chase away an intruding male. The third is a trilling grunt emitted by an animal of unknown sex during a sexual chase.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The White-sided Jackrabbit is widespread but has been reported as rare throughoutits distribution. Information is lacking regarding current population status in Mexico—the main part of its distribution. Population declines have been reported in New Mexico and Durango, Mexico. A major threat to the White-sided Jackrabbit is the loss of grassland habitat due to an increase of livestock grazing, which provides better habitat for the highly adaptable Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Prospects for survival of the White-sided Jackrabbit in many parts of its distribution are poor. Additional threats are hunting for local subsistence, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. A model generated for predicted climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% reduction of the current distribution of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Its distribution in the USA is restricted to two valleys of only c.120 km? in southern Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and it has been listed as threatened by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. More data are needed on population status of the White-sided Jackrabbit.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008i), Anderson (1972), Anderson & Gaunt (1962), Angermann (2016), Baker (1977), Baker & Greer (1962), Bednarz & Cook (1984), Best & Henry (1993b), Bogan & Jones (1975), Dalguest (1953), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1953), Desmond (2004), Dixon et al. (1983), Dunn et al. (1982), Findley (1987), Findley & Claire (1977), Flux & Angermann (1990), Goldman & Moore (1945), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister (1986), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1896b), Nelson (1909), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Lepus callotis Wagler, 1830, “Mexico.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to the “southern end of the Mexican Tableland.”Morphological characteristics showed only partial separation between Mexican subspecies of L. callotisand L. californicus, whereas nearly complete separation between L. callotisand L. flavigulariswas apparent. A recent molecular phylogenetic study supports another theory suggesting that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new linage. From original stock (L. callotis), one population was isolated in western coastal plains (L. allen?) and a second population became isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Distribution of L. callotisis allopatric with L. allenito which it is probably related, parapatric with L. flavigularis, and sympatric with Sylvilagus cunicularius. This species and L. californicusare only sympatric in marginal habitats because they typically occupy different habitat types. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre du Mexique @fr | \\Weil3flankenhase @de | Liebre de flancos blancos @es | Beautiful-eared Jackrabbit @en | Gaillard Jackrabbit @en | Snow Sides @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wagler","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1830","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"callotis","name":"Lepus callotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.c.callotisWagler,1830—CMexico(continuousdistributionfromEDurango,SoftheRioNazas,toNGuerreroandNWOaxaca).L. c. gaillardi Mearns, 1896— SW USA (extreme SW New Mexico) and discontinuously in NC Mexico (NW Chihuaha, SC Chihuahua, and NC Durango N of the Rio Nazas).","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008i) | Anderson (1972) | Anderson & Gaunt (1962) | Angermann (2016) | Baker (1977) | Baker & Greer (1962) | Bednarz & Cook (1984) | Best & Henry (1993b) | Bogan & Jones (1975) | Dalguest (1953) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1953) | Desmond (2004) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Findley (1987) | Findley & Claire (1977) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Goldman & Moore (1945) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mearns (1896b) | Nelson (1909) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"Diets of White-sided Jackrabbits typically contain more than 99% grass. Plants eaten were true grasses (Poaceae) such as buffalograss (Boutelouadactyloides), tobosa grass, wolftail (Lycurus sp.), blue grama (B. gracilis), and vine mesquite (Panicumobtusum) and sedge nutgrass (Cyperusrotundus, Cyperaceae), ring muhly (Muhlenbergiatorreyi), and fiddleneck (Amsinckia sp., Boraginaceae), woolly Indian wheat (Plantagopurshii, Plantaginaceae), and Wright buckwheat (Eriogonumwrightii, Polygonaceae). The White-sided Jackrabbit uses its forepaws to excavate bulbous tubers of young nutgrass (C. rotundus) in the dry season.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the White-sidedJackrabbit minimally lasts from mid-April to mid-August but may extend from mid-March until mid-October. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 2-2 young. Females can produce at least three litters per year. Newborns have soft and woolly fur and are typically born in burrows.","activityPatterns":"Most activity of the White-sided Jackrabbit occurred between 22:00 h and 05:00 h in New Mexico, whereas it was usually seen in the early morning or at dusk in Zacatecas, Mexico. Cloud cover, precipitation, and wind limited activities, but temperature had little effect.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"When predators alarm Whitesided Jackrabbits, they alternately flash their white sides while running away or leap straight upward while extending their hindlegs and flashing their white sides. They construct and use shelter forms that are predominantly located in dense stands of clumped tabosa grass. Occasionally but rarely, underground shelters are used. Home ranges of White-sided Jackrabbits overlap, and individuals will move at least 1-6 km to feed. White-sided Jackrabbits usually occur in male-female pairs. This pair bond is most evident during the reproductive season. The male defends the pair from intruding males. It is suggested that pair bonding keeps sexes together during the breeding season because densities are low. White-sided Jackrabbits use three types of vocalization. One is an alarm or fear reaction and consists of a high-pitched scream. The second are harsh grunts produced by the male of a pair to chase away an intruding male. The third is a trilling grunt emitted by an animal of unknown sex during a sexual chase.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The White-sided Jackrabbit is widespread but has been reported as rare throughoutits distribution. Information is lacking regarding current population status in Mexico—the main part of its distribution. Population declines have been reported in New Mexico and Durango, Mexico. A major threat to the White-sided Jackrabbit is the loss of grassland habitat due to an increase of livestock grazing, which provides better habitat for the highly adaptable Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Prospects for survival of the White-sided Jackrabbit in many parts of its distribution are poor. Additional threats are hunting for local subsistence, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. A model generated for predicted climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% reduction of the current distribution of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Its distribution in the USA is restricted to two valleys of only c.120 km? in southern Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and it has been listed as threatened by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. More data are needed on population status of the White-sided Jackrabbit.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 430-600 mm, tail 47-92 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 118-141 mm; weight 1.5-3.2 kg. The White-sided Jackrabbit is medium-sized, with relatively short hindfeet and long ears. Dorsal pelage is pale ocherous cinnamon, mixed with black. Sides, rump, thighs, limbs, and ventral fur are white. Rump is divided by black medial line. Gular patch is bufty, becoming ocherous on fronts of shoulders and sides of neck. Head is cream-buff, mixed with black, and eye rings are whitish. Nape is ocherous buff. Ears are scantily covered with short hairs but are almost bare at their concave surfaces. Tail is white below and black above. Female White-sided Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Geographical variation in pelage color exists, with paler individuals in Chihuahua. The two subspecies also vary in pelage color: callotishas blackish tint and black nape patch, and gaillardi has pale buff tint and brown nape. White-sided Jackrabbits molt twice a year.On following pages: 51. Tehuantepec Jackrabbit (Lepus flavigularis); 52. Iberian Hare (Lepus granatensis); 53. European Hare (Lepus europaeus); 54. Broom Hare (Lepus castroviejoi); 55. Corsican Hare (Lepus corsicanus); 56. White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii); 57. Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus); 58. Alaskan Hare (Lepus othus); 59. Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus); 60. Japanese Hare (Lepus brachyurus); 61. Manchurian Hare (Lepusmandshuricus); 62. Korean Hare Lepus coreanus); 63. Chinese Hare (Lepus sinensis).","habitat":"Grassy open plains with little shrub cover and desert-grassland of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica, Poaceae). White-sided Jackrabbits avoid hilly areas. A study showed that 97-1% of occupied habitat was grassland, and remaining non-grass habitat was adjacent to large expenses of grassland habitat. The White-sided Jackrabbitis an animal of open grassland, whereas the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) inhabits vegetation where forbs and shrubs are dominant, so overgrazing and grassland deterioration favorsthe latter species and reducesdistribution of the former. White-sidedJackrabbits occur at elevations of 1350-2100 m in north-western Chihuahua, ¢.2550 m in northern Puebla, and ¢.750 m in Morelos."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B767FFD9FFCBFEA0F693F08E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B767FFD9FFCBFEA0F693F08E","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"49.Antelope JackrabbitLepus alleniFrench:Lievre dAllen/ German:Antilopenhase/ Spanish:Liebre antilopeOther common names:Allen's Hare, Allen's Jackrabbit, Blanket Jak, Burro Jack, Jackass Rabbit, Mexican Jackrabbit, Saddle Jack, Wandering JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus alleni Mearns, 1890, “Rillito Station [Pima Co.], Arizona,” USA.A recent molecular phylogenetic study based on mtDNA suggests that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new lineage. From the original stock (L. callotis), one population wasisolated in western coastal plains (L. allent) and a second isolated population was isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). Taxonomical analysis of cranial characteristics of subspecies revealed no differences. Insular subspecies might not be distinct from mainland subspecies. In southern Arizona, L. alleniand L. californicusoccur sympatrically. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.alleniMearns,1890—SCArizona(SWUSA)andC&WSonora(NWMexico).L.a.palitansBangs,1900—SSonora,Sinaloa,extremeSWChihuahua,andNWNayarit(WMexico).L. a. tiburonensis Townsend, 1912— Tiburon I in the Gulf of California, Sonora (NW Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 550-670 mm, tail 48-76 mm, ear 140-170 mm, hindfoot 127-150 mm; weight 2:7.4-5 kg. The Antelope Jackrabbit has exceptionally large, whitish ears that are nearly naked except for long fringes of white hair on edges. Head has whitish and fulvous tint, mixed with black. Eye rings are white. Dorsal pelage is yellowish brown, mixed with black. Nape is plumbeous. Sides, hips, and rump are pale gray. Ventral pelage, chin, and throat are white. Chest is fulvous, and this color extends backward on lower part of neck. Tail is white and lined above with plumbeous black that extends forward upon rump. Pelage is darker in winter than summer. Subspecies tiburonensis tends to be smaller, with a total length of 500-610 mm. Ears might be more than 210 mm long and more than 100 mm wide, which adds ¢.25% to total surface area of body. Ears are used to dissipate heat in desert climates. Body temperature of the Antelope Jackrabbit averages 37-9°C at ambient temperatures of 3°-25°C. At higher ambient temperatures, body temperature increases as ambient temperature increases and reaches 40-3°C at an ambient temperature of 39°C. Rectal glands secrete orange colored, with a strong musky odor. Their function is unknown, but an individual probably leaves a record in its shelter form or wherever it pauses to sit.Habitat.Various habitats from sea level (Sonora, Mexico) to elevations of c.1500 m (southern Arizona). In Arizona, Antelope Jackrabbits favored habitats on slopes at moderate elevations where grasses, mesquites (Prosopis), and catclaws (Acacia), both Fabaceae, are abundant. They also live in desert habitat with little grass, hilly country among scattered oaks (Quercus, Fagaceae) and junipers (Juniperus, Cupressaceae), and stabilized sand dunes. In Mexico, Antelope Jackrabbits occur in low and open grasslands, open grassy foothill with patches of low bushes, and arid and desert plains. Shelter forms include backing up under clumps of vegetation, a sitting place beside a cactus or mesquite trunk with no shade and no digging or scratching having been made, or a dug out depression in the soil. Antelope Jackrabbits always seek shade in shelter forms during hot seasons. Where the Antelope Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) occur sympatrically, they often sit together under the same bush or runaway side by side. The Antelope Jackrabbit is more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations; the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and on barren chaparral desert.Food and Feeding.The Antelope Jackrabbit feeds primarily on green grass (45%), mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, 36%), and succulent cacti (7-8%). Of all cacti species available to it, it forages most on pulps and pods of Opuntiaengelmanni (Cactaceae). Diet varies with alternating dry and rainy seasons: cacti are increasingly consumed during dry seasons, and grasses are favored after the rainy seasons. The Antelope Jackrabbit seeks minerals by digging and biting soil. There is no evidence that the Antelope Jackrabbit requires free water. Insulation and reflectance of pelage reduce water loss. Seeking shade reduces heat load and waterloss.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Antelope Jackrabbit extends from late December through September, with pronounced peaks in spring and mid-summer. Mating is promiscuous. Males fight by rearing up on hindfeet and hitting each other vigorously and with great rapidity for several seconds. The silent fight usually ends with the victor pursuing the vanquished. Two copulations in the field have been observed. In one instance, a preceding chase and vigorous combat accompanied by continuous growling took place, and in the other instance, the female chased the male a few meters, uttering a growl or grunt after copulation. Gestation is c.6 weeks. Litters average 1-9 young (range 1-6 young). A female has 3—4 litters/year. Percentages of females pregnant and litter size correlate with rainfall. The female gives birth to precocial young in a nest below ground and lined with her fur. Neonates do not show characteristic white rumps, but one 19day-old young had a white rump. The mother returns at night to nurse her young. Length of parental care is short, and young become independent in a matter of days. Young are slightly darker than adults. Breeding age of Antelope Jackrabbits is attained during the second year of life under favorable conditions. Adult sex composition in one population was 47-5% males and 52-5% females.Activity patterns.The Antelope Jackrabbit is nocturnal and crepuscular, but diurnal activity is commonly recorded. Shelter forms are used for resting during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Antelope Jackrabbit might be the fastest species of Lepus, with running speeds of up to 72 km/h. It leaps over bushes higher than 1 m and fences higher than 1-5 m with little change in stride. One leap of 7 m was recorded. When Antelope Jackrabbits start to run, they make 4-5 long hops on their hindlegs alone, like a kangaroo, and then revert to usual locomotion. When threatened by a predator, they flash their white areas on their rumps and sides by pulling up skin by special muscles. Where food and shelter are separated, daily movements occur. Trips of 16 km from desert to feed on alfalfa have been recorded. Average home range size is 642-8 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The insular subspecies tiburonensis is endemic and rare and is currently granted “special protection” under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 because it is an insular and endemic species. The Antelope Jackrabbit is widespread, with a stable population. Declines in southern Arizona have been reported. The Antelope Jackrabbit has almost disappeared due to rabbit plague near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, although it was once rather common. Expanding agriculture and resulting habitat alteration and overgrazing by livestock are threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit. Overgrazing by livestock favors the Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Additional threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit are hunting, human perturbations, predation by introduced species, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires.Bibliography.Allen (1906a), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008h), Angermann (2016), Armstrong & Jones (1971), Best & Henry (1993a), Brown & Krausman (2003), Burt (1938), Chapman et al. (1983), Claire (1978), Dawson & Schmidt-Nielsen (1966), Dice & Blossom (1937), Dixon et al. (1983), Doutt (1934), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Garland (1983), Ghobrial & Nour (1975), Goldman (1951), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Howell (1944), Huey (1942), Lange (1960), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1890), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965), Simmons (1966), Swarth (1929), Swihart (1986), Vorhies (1921).","taxonomy":"Lepus alleni Mearns, 1890, “Rillito Station [Pima Co.], Arizona,” USA.A recent molecular phylogenetic study based on mtDNA suggests that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new lineage. From the original stock (L. callotis), one population wasisolated in western coastal plains (L. allent) and a second isolated population was isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). Taxonomical analysis of cranial characteristics of subspecies revealed no differences. Insular subspecies might not be distinct from mainland subspecies. In southern Arizona, L. alleniand L. californicusoccur sympatrically. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre d Allen @fr | Antilopenhase @de | Liebre antilope @es | Allen's Hare @en | Allen's Jackrabbit @en | Blanket Jak @en | Burro Jack @en | Jackass Rabbit @en | Mexican Jackrabbit @en | Saddle Jack @en | Wandering Jackrabbit @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Mearns","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1890","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alleni","name":"Lepus alleni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.a.alleniMearns,1890—SCArizona(SWUSA)andC&WSonora(NWMexico).L.a.palitansBangs,1900—SSonora,Sinaloa,extremeSWChihuahua,andNWNayarit(WMexico).L. a. tiburonensis Townsend, 1912— Tiburon I in the Gulf of California, Sonora (NW Mexico).","bibliography":"Allen (1906a) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008h) | Angermann (2016) | Armstrong & Jones (1971) | Best & Henry (1993a) | Brown & Krausman (2003) | Burt (1938) | Chapman et al. (1983) | Claire (1978) | Dawson & Schmidt-Nielsen (1966) | Dice & Blossom (1937) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Doutt (1934) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Garland (1983) | Ghobrial & Nour (1975) | Goldman (1951) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Howell (1944) | Huey (1942) | Lange (1960) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mearns (1890) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965) | Simmons (1966) | Swarth (1929) | Swihart (1986) | Vorhies (1921)","foodAndFeeding":"The Antelope Jackrabbit feeds primarily on green grass (45%), mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, 36%), and succulent cacti (7-8%). Of all cacti species available to it, it forages most on pulps and pods of Opuntiaengelmanni (Cactaceae). Diet varies with alternating dry and rainy seasons: cacti are increasingly consumed during dry seasons, and grasses are favored after the rainy seasons. The Antelope Jackrabbit seeks minerals by digging and biting soil. There is no evidence that the Antelope Jackrabbit requires free water. Insulation and reflectance of pelage reduce water loss. Seeking shade reduces heat load and waterloss.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Antelope Jackrabbit extends from late December through September, with pronounced peaks in spring and mid-summer. Mating is promiscuous. Males fight by rearing up on hindfeet and hitting each other vigorously and with great rapidity for several seconds. The silent fight usually ends with the victor pursuing the vanquished. Two copulations in the field have been observed. In one instance, a preceding chase and vigorous combat accompanied by continuous growling took place, and in the other instance, the female chased the male a few meters, uttering a growl or grunt after copulation. Gestation is c.6 weeks. Litters average 1-9 young (range 1-6 young). A female has 3—4 litters/year. Percentages of females pregnant and litter size correlate with rainfall. The female gives birth to precocial young in a nest below ground and lined with her fur. Neonates do not show characteristic white rumps, but one 19day-old young had a white rump. The mother returns at night to nurse her young. Length of parental care is short, and young become independent in a matter of days. Young are slightly darker than adults. Breeding age of Antelope Jackrabbits is attained during the second year of life under favorable conditions. Adult sex composition in one population was 47-5% males and 52-5% females.","activityPatterns":"The Antelope Jackrabbit is nocturnal and crepuscular, but diurnal activity is commonly recorded. Shelter forms are used for resting during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Antelope Jackrabbit might be the fastest species of Lepus, with running speeds of up to 72 km/h. It leaps over bushes higher than 1 m and fences higher than 1-5 m with little change in stride. One leap of 7 m was recorded. When Antelope Jackrabbits start to run, they make 4-5 long hops on their hindlegs alone, like a kangaroo, and then revert to usual locomotion. When threatened by a predator, they flash their white areas on their rumps and sides by pulling up skin by special muscles. Where food and shelter are separated, daily movements occur. Trips of 16 km from desert to feed on alfalfa have been recorded. Average home range size is 642-8 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The insular subspecies tiburonensis is endemic and rare and is currently granted “special protection” under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 because it is an insular and endemic species. The Antelope Jackrabbit is widespread, with a stable population. Declines in southern Arizona have been reported. The Antelope Jackrabbit has almost disappeared due to rabbit plague near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, although it was once rather common. Expanding agriculture and resulting habitat alteration and overgrazing by livestock are threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit. Overgrazing by livestock favors the Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Additional threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit are hunting, human perturbations, predation by introduced species, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 550-670 mm, tail 48-76 mm, ear 140-170 mm, hindfoot 127-150 mm; weight 2:7.4-5 kg. The Antelope Jackrabbit has exceptionally large, whitish ears that are nearly naked except for long fringes of white hair on edges. Head has whitish and fulvous tint, mixed with black. Eye rings are white. Dorsal pelage is yellowish brown, mixed with black. Nape is plumbeous. Sides, hips, and rump are pale gray. Ventral pelage, chin, and throat are white. Chest is fulvous, and this color extends backward on lower part of neck. Tail is white and lined above with plumbeous black that extends forward upon rump. Pelage is darker in winter than summer. Subspecies tiburonensis tends to be smaller, with a total length of 500-610 mm. Ears might be more than 210 mm long and more than 100 mm wide, which adds ¢.25% to total surface area of body. Ears are used to dissipate heat in desert climates. Body temperature of the Antelope Jackrabbit averages 37-9°C at ambient temperatures of 3°-25°C. At higher ambient temperatures, body temperature increases as ambient temperature increases and reaches 40-3°C at an ambient temperature of 39°C. Rectal glands secrete orange colored, with a strong musky odor. Their function is unknown, but an individual probably leaves a record in its shelter form or wherever it pauses to sit.","habitat":"Various habitats from sea level (Sonora, Mexico) to elevations of c.1500 m (southern Arizona). In Arizona, Antelope Jackrabbits favored habitats on slopes at moderate elevations where grasses, mesquites (Prosopis), and catclaws (Acacia), both Fabaceae, are abundant. They also live in desert habitat with little grass, hilly country among scattered oaks (Quercus, Fagaceae) and junipers (Juniperus, Cupressaceae), and stabilized sand dunes. In Mexico, Antelope Jackrabbits occur in low and open grasslands, open grassy foothill with patches of low bushes, and arid and desert plains. Shelter forms include backing up under clumps of vegetation, a sitting place beside a cactus or mesquite trunk with no shade and no digging or scratching having been made, or a dug out depression in the soil. Antelope Jackrabbits always seek shade in shelter forms during hot seasons. Where the Antelope Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) occur sympatrically, they often sit together under the same bush or runaway side by side. The Antelope Jackrabbit is more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations; the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and on barren chaparral desert."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76EFFD0FF6BFB07F8A1F099.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B76EFFD0FF6BFB07F8A1F099","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"148","verbatimText":"63.Chinese HareLepus sinensisFrench:Lievre de Chine/ German:China-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de ChinaTaxonomy.Lepus sinensis Gray, 1832, “China.”Restricted by G. M. Allen in 1938 to “more orless in the region of Canton,” Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand allied with L. hainanusand L. brachywrus. Formerly, L. sinensisincluded L. coreanusas a subspecies. All these relationships have not been supported by genetic analysis. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few exterior characteristics and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.s.sinensisGray,1832—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver.L.s.formosusThomas,1908—Taiwan.L. s. Province (yuenshanensis China). Shih, 1930— HunanTaxonomic status of the Chinese Hare in NE Vietnam has to be determined.Descriptive notes.Head-body 350-450 mm, tail 40-57 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 81-111 mm; weight 1.1-9 kg.The Chinese Hare is small, with short ears and short, straight, and coarse hair. Its general appearance is rather uniform butrich in color. Dorsal, head, and chest furis chestnut and rufous. Ventral pelage is paler, and tail is brown. Ears have black triangular tips. Pelage color varies seasonally, with yellowish tone in winter.Habitat.Edges of grassland habitats and scrubby vegetation in hills but not in rice fields. In Taiwan, Chinese Hares are a minor pest of forestry, and they occur in bamboo habitats up to elevations of 4000-5000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Chinese Hare consists ofleafy vegetation, green shoots, and twigs.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Chinese Hare occurs in April-August. Females give birth in burrows. Young are precocial, and littersize averages three young.Activity patterns.The Chinese Hare is nocturnal but can also be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Chinese Hares use burrows made by other animals, and they piles fecal pellets outside entrances.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Chinese Hare is also listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas; however, more data are needed to determine population status and current distribution. It is hunted locally for subsistence and sold in markets. Increasing agriculture may isolate populations of Chinese Hares. Populations in Vietnam are thought to be very small, with last confirmed records from the 1990s. Recent surveys did not find Chinese Hares in Vietnam. Major threats to Chinese Hares in Vietnam are habitat loss and hunting.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Angermann (2016), Corbet (1978), Dao Van Tien (1978), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (20080), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus sinensis Gray, 1832, “China.”Restricted by G. M. Allen in 1938 to “more orless in the region of Canton,” Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand allied with L. hainanusand L. brachywrus. Formerly, L. sinensisincluded L. coreanusas a subspecies. All these relationships have not been supported by genetic analysis. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few exterior characteristics and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre de Chine @fr | China-Hase @de | Liebre de China @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1832","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"41","interpretedPageNumber":"148","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sinensis","name":"Lepus sinensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.s.sinensisGray,1832—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver.L.s.formosusThomas,1908—Taiwan.L. s. Province (yuenshanensis China). Shih, 1930— HunanTaxonomic status of the Chinese Hare in NE Vietnam has to be determined.","bibliography":"Allen (1938) | Angermann (2016) | Corbet (1978) | Dao Van Tien (1978) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (20080) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Chinese Hare consists ofleafy vegetation, green shoots, and twigs.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Chinese Hare occurs in April-August. Females give birth in burrows. Young are precocial, and littersize averages three young.","activityPatterns":"The Chinese Hare is nocturnal but can also be active during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Chinese Hares use burrows made by other animals, and they piles fecal pellets outside entrances.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Chinese Hare is also listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas; however, more data are needed to determine population status and current distribution. It is hunted locally for subsistence and sold in markets. Increasing agriculture may isolate populations of Chinese Hares. Populations in Vietnam are thought to be very small, with last confirmed records from the 1990s. Recent surveys did not find Chinese Hares in Vietnam. Major threats to Chinese Hares in Vietnam are habitat loss and hunting.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 350-450 mm, tail 40-57 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 81-111 mm; weight 1.1-9 kg.The Chinese Hare is small, with short ears and short, straight, and coarse hair. Its general appearance is rather uniform butrich in color. Dorsal, head, and chest furis chestnut and rufous. Ventral pelage is paler, and tail is brown. Ears have black triangular tips. Pelage color varies seasonally, with yellowish tone in winter.","habitat":"Edges of grassland habitats and scrubby vegetation in hills but not in rice fields. In Taiwan, Chinese Hares are a minor pest of forestry, and they occur in bamboo habitats up to elevations of 4000-5000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B767FFD8FAF6F8A1FE10FDCD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B767FFD8FAF6F8A1FE10FDCD","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"50.White-sided JackrabbitLepus callotisFrench:Lievre du Mexique/ German:\\Weil3flankenhase/ Spanish:Liebre de flancos blancosOther common names:Beautiful-eared Jackrabbit, Gaillard Jackrabbit, Snow SidesTaxonomy.Lepus callotis Wagler, 1830, “Mexico.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to the “southern end of the Mexican Tableland.”Morphological characteristics showed only partial separation between Mexican subspecies of L. callotisand L. californicus, whereas nearly complete separation between L. callotisand L. flavigulariswas apparent. A recent molecular phylogenetic study supports another theory suggesting that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new linage. From original stock (L. callotis), one population was isolated in western coastal plains (L. allen?) and a second population became isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Distribution of L. callotisis allopatric with L. allenito which it is probably related, parapatric with L. flavigularis, and sympatric with Sylvilagus cunicularius. This species and L. californicusare only sympatric in marginal habitats because they typically occupy different habitat types. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.c.callotisWagler,1830—CMexico(continuousdistributionfromEDurango,SoftheRioNazas,toNGuerreroandNWOaxaca).L. c. gaillardi Mearns, 1896— SW USA (extreme SW New Mexico) and discontinuously in NC Mexico (NW Chihuaha, SC Chihuahua, and NC Durango N of the Rio Nazas).Descriptive notes.Head—body 430-600 mm, tail 47-92 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 118-141 mm; weight 1.5-3.2 kg. The White-sided Jackrabbit is medium-sized, with relatively short hindfeet and long ears. Dorsal pelage is pale ocherous cinnamon, mixed with black. Sides, rump, thighs, limbs, and ventral fur are white. Rump is divided by black medial line. Gular patch is bufty, becoming ocherous on fronts of shoulders and sides of neck. Head is cream-buff, mixed with black, and eye rings are whitish. Nape is ocherous buff. Ears are scantily covered with short hairs but are almost bare at their concave surfaces. Tail is white below and black above. Female White-sided Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Geographical variation in pelage color exists, with paler individuals in Chihuahua. The two subspecies also vary in pelage color: callotishas blackish tint and black nape patch, and gaillardi has pale buff tint and brown nape. White-sided Jackrabbits molt twice a year.On following pages: 51. Tehuantepec Jackrabbit (Lepus flavigularis); 52. Iberian Hare (Lepus granatensis); 53. European Hare (Lepus europaeus); 54. Broom Hare (Lepus castroviejoi); 55. Corsican Hare (Lepus corsicanus); 56. White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii); 57. Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus); 58. Alaskan Hare (Lepus othus); 59. Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus); 60. Japanese Hare (Lepus brachyurus); 61. Manchurian Hare (Lepusmandshuricus); 62. Korean Hare Lepus coreanus); 63. Chinese Hare (Lepus sinensis).Habitat.Grassy open plains with little shrub cover and desert-grassland of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica, Poaceae). White-sided Jackrabbits avoid hilly areas. A study showed that 97-1% of occupied habitat was grassland, and remaining non-grass habitat was adjacent to large expenses of grassland habitat. The White-sided Jackrabbitis an animal of open grassland, whereas the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) inhabits vegetation where forbs and shrubs are dominant, so overgrazing and grassland deterioration favorsthe latter species and reducesdistribution of the former. White-sidedJackrabbits occur at elevations of 1350-2100 m in north-western Chihuahua, ¢.2550 m in northern Puebla, and ¢.750 m in Morelos.Food and Feeding.Diets of White-sided Jackrabbits typically contain more than 99% grass. Plants eaten were true grasses (Poaceae) such as buffalograss (Boutelouadactyloides), tobosa grass, wolftail (Lycurus sp.), blue grama (B. gracilis), and vine mesquite (Panicumobtusum) and sedge nutgrass (Cyperusrotundus, Cyperaceae), ring muhly (Muhlenbergiatorreyi), and fiddleneck (Amsinckia sp., Boraginaceae), woolly Indian wheat (Plantagopurshii, Plantaginaceae), and Wright buckwheat (Eriogonumwrightii, Polygonaceae). The White-sided Jackrabbit uses its forepaws to excavate bulbous tubers of young nutgrass (C. rotundus) in the dry season.Breeding.Reproductive season of the White-sidedJackrabbit minimally lasts from mid-April to mid-August but may extend from mid-March until mid-October. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 2-2 young. Females can produce at least three litters per year. Newborns have soft and woolly fur and are typically born in burrows.Activity patterns.Most activity of the White-sided Jackrabbit occurred between 22:00 h and 05:00 h in New Mexico, whereas it was usually seen in the early morning or at dusk in Zacatecas, Mexico. Cloud cover, precipitation, and wind limited activities, but temperature had little effect.Movements, Home range and Social organization.When predators alarm Whitesided Jackrabbits, they alternately flash their white sides while running away or leap straight upward while extending their hindlegs and flashing their white sides. They construct and use shelter forms that are predominantly located in dense stands of clumped tabosa grass. Occasionally but rarely, underground shelters are used. Home ranges of White-sided Jackrabbits overlap, and individuals will move at least 1-6 km to feed. White-sided Jackrabbits usually occur in male-female pairs. This pair bond is most evident during the reproductive season. The male defends the pair from intruding males. It is suggested that pair bonding keeps sexes together during the breeding season because densities are low. White-sided Jackrabbits use three types of vocalization. One is an alarm or fear reaction and consists of a high-pitched scream. The second are harsh grunts produced by the male of a pair to chase away an intruding male. The third is a trilling grunt emitted by an animal of unknown sex during a sexual chase.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The White-sided Jackrabbit is widespread but has been reported as rare throughoutits distribution. Information is lacking regarding current population status in Mexico—the main part of its distribution. Population declines have been reported in New Mexico and Durango, Mexico. A major threat to the White-sided Jackrabbit is the loss of grassland habitat due to an increase of livestock grazing, which provides better habitat for the highly adaptable Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Prospects for survival of the White-sided Jackrabbit in many parts of its distribution are poor. Additional threats are hunting for local subsistence, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. A model generated for predicted climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% reduction of the current distribution of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Its distribution in the USA is restricted to two valleys of only c.120 km? in southern Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and it has been listed as threatened by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. More data are needed on population status of the White-sided Jackrabbit.Bibliography.AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008i), Anderson (1972), Anderson & Gaunt (1962), Angermann (2016), Baker (1977), Baker & Greer (1962), Bednarz & Cook (1984), Best & Henry (1993b), Bogan & Jones (1975), Dalguest (1953), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1953), Desmond (2004), Dixon et al. (1983), Dunn et al. (1982), Findley (1987), Findley & Claire (1977), Flux & Angermann (1990), Goldman & Moore (1945), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister (1986), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1896b), Nelson (1909), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Lepus callotis Wagler, 1830, “Mexico.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to the “southern end of the Mexican Tableland.”Morphological characteristics showed only partial separation between Mexican subspecies of L. callotisand L. californicus, whereas nearly complete separation between L. callotisand L. flavigulariswas apparent. A recent molecular phylogenetic study supports another theory suggesting that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new linage. From original stock (L. callotis), one population was isolated in western coastal plains (L. allen?) and a second population became isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Distribution of L. callotisis allopatric with L. allenito which it is probably related, parapatric with L. flavigularis, and sympatric with Sylvilagus cunicularius. This species and L. californicusare only sympatric in marginal habitats because they typically occupy different habitat types. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre du Mexique @fr | \\Weil3flankenhase @de | Liebre de flancos blancos @es | Beautiful-eared Jackrabbit @en | Gaillard Jackrabbit @en | Snow Sides @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wagler","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1830","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"callotis","name":"Lepus callotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.c.callotisWagler,1830—CMexico(continuousdistributionfromEDurango,SoftheRioNazas,toNGuerreroandNWOaxaca).L. c. gaillardi Mearns, 1896— SW USA (extreme SW New Mexico) and discontinuously in NC Mexico (NW Chihuaha, SC Chihuahua, and NC Durango N of the Rio Nazas).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625653/files/figure.png","bibliography":"AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008i) | Anderson (1972) | Anderson & Gaunt (1962) | Angermann (2016) | Baker (1977) | Baker & Greer (1962) | Bednarz & Cook (1984) | Best & Henry (1993b) | Bogan & Jones (1975) | Dalguest (1953) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1953) | Desmond (2004) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Dunn et al. (1982) | Findley (1987) | Findley & Claire (1977) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Goldman & Moore (1945) | Hall (1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mearns (1896b) | Nelson (1909) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"Diets of White-sided Jackrabbits typically contain more than 99% grass. Plants eaten were true grasses (Poaceae) such as buffalograss (Boutelouadactyloides), tobosa grass, wolftail (Lycurus sp.), blue grama (B. gracilis), and vine mesquite (Panicumobtusum) and sedge nutgrass (Cyperusrotundus, Cyperaceae), ring muhly (Muhlenbergiatorreyi), and fiddleneck (Amsinckia sp., Boraginaceae), woolly Indian wheat (Plantagopurshii, Plantaginaceae), and Wright buckwheat (Eriogonumwrightii, Polygonaceae). The White-sided Jackrabbit uses its forepaws to excavate bulbous tubers of young nutgrass (C. rotundus) in the dry season.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the White-sidedJackrabbit minimally lasts from mid-April to mid-August but may extend from mid-March until mid-October. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 2-2 young. Females can produce at least three litters per year. Newborns have soft and woolly fur and are typically born in burrows.","activityPatterns":"Most activity of the White-sided Jackrabbit occurred between 22:00 h and 05:00 h in New Mexico, whereas it was usually seen in the early morning or at dusk in Zacatecas, Mexico. Cloud cover, precipitation, and wind limited activities, but temperature had little effect.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"When predators alarm Whitesided Jackrabbits, they alternately flash their white sides while running away or leap straight upward while extending their hindlegs and flashing their white sides. They construct and use shelter forms that are predominantly located in dense stands of clumped tabosa grass. Occasionally but rarely, underground shelters are used. Home ranges of White-sided Jackrabbits overlap, and individuals will move at least 1-6 km to feed. White-sided Jackrabbits usually occur in male-female pairs. This pair bond is most evident during the reproductive season. The male defends the pair from intruding males. It is suggested that pair bonding keeps sexes together during the breeding season because densities are low. White-sided Jackrabbits use three types of vocalization. One is an alarm or fear reaction and consists of a high-pitched scream. The second are harsh grunts produced by the male of a pair to chase away an intruding male. The third is a trilling grunt emitted by an animal of unknown sex during a sexual chase.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The White-sided Jackrabbit is widespread but has been reported as rare throughoutits distribution. Information is lacking regarding current population status in Mexico—the main part of its distribution. Population declines have been reported in New Mexico and Durango, Mexico. A major threat to the White-sided Jackrabbit is the loss of grassland habitat due to an increase of livestock grazing, which provides better habitat for the highly adaptable Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Prospects for survival of the White-sided Jackrabbit in many parts of its distribution are poor. Additional threats are hunting for local subsistence, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. A model generated for predicted climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% reduction of the current distribution of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Its distribution in the USA is restricted to two valleys of only c.120 km? in southern Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and it has been listed as threatened by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. More data are needed on population status of the White-sided Jackrabbit.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 430-600 mm, tail 47-92 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 118-141 mm; weight 1.5-3.2 kg. The White-sided Jackrabbit is medium-sized, with relatively short hindfeet and long ears. Dorsal pelage is pale ocherous cinnamon, mixed with black. Sides, rump, thighs, limbs, and ventral fur are white. Rump is divided by black medial line. Gular patch is bufty, becoming ocherous on fronts of shoulders and sides of neck. Head is cream-buff, mixed with black, and eye rings are whitish. Nape is ocherous buff. Ears are scantily covered with short hairs but are almost bare at their concave surfaces. Tail is white below and black above. Female White-sided Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Geographical variation in pelage color exists, with paler individuals in Chihuahua. The two subspecies also vary in pelage color: callotishas blackish tint and black nape patch, and gaillardi has pale buff tint and brown nape. White-sided Jackrabbits molt twice a year.On following pages: 51. Tehuantepec Jackrabbit (Lepus flavigularis); 52. Iberian Hare (Lepus granatensis); 53. European Hare (Lepus europaeus); 54. Broom Hare (Lepus castroviejoi); 55. Corsican Hare (Lepus corsicanus); 56. White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii); 57. Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus); 58. Alaskan Hare (Lepus othus); 59. Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus); 60. Japanese Hare (Lepus brachyurus); 61. Manchurian Hare (Lepusmandshuricus); 62. Korean Hare Lepus coreanus); 63. Chinese Hare (Lepus sinensis).","habitat":"Grassy open plains with little shrub cover and desert-grassland of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica, Poaceae). White-sided Jackrabbits avoid hilly areas. A study showed that 97-1% of occupied habitat was grassland, and remaining non-grass habitat was adjacent to large expenses of grassland habitat. The White-sided Jackrabbitis an animal of open grassland, whereas the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) inhabits vegetation where forbs and shrubs are dominant, so overgrazing and grassland deterioration favorsthe latter species and reducesdistribution of the former. White-sidedJackrabbits occur at elevations of 1350-2100 m in north-western Chihuahua, ¢.2550 m in northern Puebla, and ¢.750 m in Morelos."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B767FFD9FFCBFEA0F693F08E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B767FFD9FFCBFEA0F693F08E","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"49.Antelope JackrabbitLepus alleniFrench:Lievre dAllen/ German:Antilopenhase/ Spanish:Liebre antilopeOther common names:Allen's Hare, Allen's Jackrabbit, Blanket Jak, Burro Jack, Jackass Rabbit, Mexican Jackrabbit, Saddle Jack, Wandering JackrabbitTaxonomy.Lepus alleni Mearns, 1890, “Rillito Station [Pima Co.], Arizona,” USA.A recent molecular phylogenetic study based on mtDNA suggests that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new lineage. From the original stock (L. callotis), one population wasisolated in western coastal plains (L. allent) and a second isolated population was isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). Taxonomical analysis of cranial characteristics of subspecies revealed no differences. Insular subspecies might not be distinct from mainland subspecies. In southern Arizona, L. alleniand L. californicusoccur sympatrically. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.a.alleniMearns,1890—SCArizona(SWUSA)andC&WSonora(NWMexico).L.a.palitansBangs,1900—SSonora,Sinaloa,extremeSWChihuahua,andNWNayarit(WMexico).L. a. tiburonensis Townsend, 1912— Tiburon I in the Gulf of California, Sonora (NW Mexico).Descriptive notes.Head-body 550-670 mm, tail 48-76 mm, ear 140-170 mm, hindfoot 127-150 mm; weight 2:7.4-5 kg. The Antelope Jackrabbit has exceptionally large, whitish ears that are nearly naked except for long fringes of white hair on edges. Head has whitish and fulvous tint, mixed with black. Eye rings are white. Dorsal pelage is yellowish brown, mixed with black. Nape is plumbeous. Sides, hips, and rump are pale gray. Ventral pelage, chin, and throat are white. Chest is fulvous, and this color extends backward on lower part of neck. Tail is white and lined above with plumbeous black that extends forward upon rump. Pelage is darker in winter than summer. Subspecies tiburonensis tends to be smaller, with a total length of 500-610 mm. Ears might be more than 210 mm long and more than 100 mm wide, which adds ¢.25% to total surface area of body. Ears are used to dissipate heat in desert climates. Body temperature of the Antelope Jackrabbit averages 37-9°C at ambient temperatures of 3°-25°C. At higher ambient temperatures, body temperature increases as ambient temperature increases and reaches 40-3°C at an ambient temperature of 39°C. Rectal glands secrete orange colored, with a strong musky odor. Their function is unknown, but an individual probably leaves a record in its shelter form or wherever it pauses to sit.Habitat.Various habitats from sea level (Sonora, Mexico) to elevations of c.1500 m (southern Arizona). In Arizona, Antelope Jackrabbits favored habitats on slopes at moderate elevations where grasses, mesquites (Prosopis), and catclaws (Acacia), both Fabaceae, are abundant. They also live in desert habitat with little grass, hilly country among scattered oaks (Quercus, Fagaceae) and junipers (Juniperus, Cupressaceae), and stabilized sand dunes. In Mexico, Antelope Jackrabbits occur in low and open grasslands, open grassy foothill with patches of low bushes, and arid and desert plains. Shelter forms include backing up under clumps of vegetation, a sitting place beside a cactus or mesquite trunk with no shade and no digging or scratching having been made, or a dug out depression in the soil. Antelope Jackrabbits always seek shade in shelter forms during hot seasons. Where the Antelope Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) occur sympatrically, they often sit together under the same bush or runaway side by side. The Antelope Jackrabbit is more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations; the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and on barren chaparral desert.Food and Feeding.The Antelope Jackrabbit feeds primarily on green grass (45%), mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, 36%), and succulent cacti (7-8%). Of all cacti species available to it, it forages most on pulps and pods of Opuntiaengelmanni (Cactaceae). Diet varies with alternating dry and rainy seasons: cacti are increasingly consumed during dry seasons, and grasses are favored after the rainy seasons. The Antelope Jackrabbit seeks minerals by digging and biting soil. There is no evidence that the Antelope Jackrabbit requires free water. Insulation and reflectance of pelage reduce water loss. Seeking shade reduces heat load and waterloss.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Antelope Jackrabbit extends from late December through September, with pronounced peaks in spring and mid-summer. Mating is promiscuous. Males fight by rearing up on hindfeet and hitting each other vigorously and with great rapidity for several seconds. The silent fight usually ends with the victor pursuing the vanquished. Two copulations in the field have been observed. In one instance, a preceding chase and vigorous combat accompanied by continuous growling took place, and in the other instance, the female chased the male a few meters, uttering a growl or grunt after copulation. Gestation is c.6 weeks. Litters average 1-9 young (range 1-6 young). A female has 3—4 litters/year. Percentages of females pregnant and litter size correlate with rainfall. The female gives birth to precocial young in a nest below ground and lined with her fur. Neonates do not show characteristic white rumps, but one 19day-old young had a white rump. The mother returns at night to nurse her young. Length of parental care is short, and young become independent in a matter of days. Young are slightly darker than adults. Breeding age of Antelope Jackrabbits is attained during the second year of life under favorable conditions. Adult sex composition in one population was 47-5% males and 52-5% females.Activity patterns.The Antelope Jackrabbit is nocturnal and crepuscular, but diurnal activity is commonly recorded. Shelter forms are used for resting during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Antelope Jackrabbit might be the fastest species of Lepus, with running speeds of up to 72 km/h. It leaps over bushes higher than 1 m and fences higher than 1-5 m with little change in stride. One leap of 7 m was recorded. When Antelope Jackrabbits start to run, they make 4-5 long hops on their hindlegs alone, like a kangaroo, and then revert to usual locomotion. When threatened by a predator, they flash their white areas on their rumps and sides by pulling up skin by special muscles. Where food and shelter are separated, daily movements occur. Trips of 16 km from desert to feed on alfalfa have been recorded. Average home range size is 642-8 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The insular subspecies tiburonensis is endemic and rare and is currently granted “special protection” under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 because it is an insular and endemic species. The Antelope Jackrabbit is widespread, with a stable population. Declines in southern Arizona have been reported. The Antelope Jackrabbit has almost disappeared due to rabbit plague near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, although it was once rather common. Expanding agriculture and resulting habitat alteration and overgrazing by livestock are threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit. Overgrazing by livestock favors the Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Additional threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit are hunting, human perturbations, predation by introduced species, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires.Bibliography.Allen (1906a), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008h), Angermann (2016), Armstrong & Jones (1971), Best & Henry (1993a), Brown & Krausman (2003), Burt (1938), Chapman et al. (1983), Claire (1978), Dawson & Schmidt-Nielsen (1966), Dice & Blossom (1937), Dixon et al. (1983), Doutt (1934), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Garland (1983), Ghobrial & Nour (1975), Goldman (1951), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Howell (1944), Huey (1942), Lange (1960), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1890), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965), Simmons (1966), Swarth (1929), Swihart (1986), Vorhies (1921).","taxonomy":"Lepus alleni Mearns, 1890, “Rillito Station [Pima Co.], Arizona,” USA.A recent molecular phylogenetic study based on mtDNA suggests that L. californicusmight have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new lineage. From the original stock (L. callotis), one population wasisolated in western coastal plains (L. allent) and a second isolated population was isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). Taxonomical analysis of cranial characteristics of subspecies revealed no differences. Insular subspecies might not be distinct from mainland subspecies. In southern Arizona, L. alleniand L. californicusoccur sympatrically. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre d Allen @fr | Antilopenhase @de | Liebre antilope @es | Allen's Hare @en | Allen's Jackrabbit @en | Blanket Jak @en | Burro Jack @en | Jackass Rabbit @en | Mexican Jackrabbit @en | Saddle Jack @en | Wandering Jackrabbit @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Mearns","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1890","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alleni","name":"Lepus alleni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.a.alleniMearns,1890—SCArizona(SWUSA)andC&WSonora(NWMexico).L.a.palitansBangs,1900—SSonora,Sinaloa,extremeSWChihuahua,andNWNayarit(WMexico).L. a. tiburonensis Townsend, 1912— Tiburon I in the Gulf of California, Sonora (NW Mexico).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625651/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1906a) | AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008h) | Angermann (2016) | Armstrong & Jones (1971) | Best & Henry (1993a) | Brown & Krausman (2003) | Burt (1938) | Chapman et al. (1983) | Claire (1978) | Dawson & Schmidt-Nielsen (1966) | Dice & Blossom (1937) | Dixon et al. (1983) | Doutt (1934) | Flux & Anger mann (1990) | Garland (1983) | Ghobrial & Nour (1975) | Goldman (1951) | Hall (1951, 1981) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Howell (1944) | Huey (1942) | Lange (1960) | Lissovsky (2016) | Mearns (1890) | Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010) | Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965) | Simmons (1966) | Swarth (1929) | Swihart (1986) | Vorhies (1921)","foodAndFeeding":"The Antelope Jackrabbit feeds primarily on green grass (45%), mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora, 36%), and succulent cacti (7-8%). Of all cacti species available to it, it forages most on pulps and pods of Opuntiaengelmanni (Cactaceae). Diet varies with alternating dry and rainy seasons: cacti are increasingly consumed during dry seasons, and grasses are favored after the rainy seasons. The Antelope Jackrabbit seeks minerals by digging and biting soil. There is no evidence that the Antelope Jackrabbit requires free water. Insulation and reflectance of pelage reduce water loss. Seeking shade reduces heat load and waterloss.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Antelope Jackrabbit extends from late December through September, with pronounced peaks in spring and mid-summer. Mating is promiscuous. Males fight by rearing up on hindfeet and hitting each other vigorously and with great rapidity for several seconds. The silent fight usually ends with the victor pursuing the vanquished. Two copulations in the field have been observed. In one instance, a preceding chase and vigorous combat accompanied by continuous growling took place, and in the other instance, the female chased the male a few meters, uttering a growl or grunt after copulation. Gestation is c.6 weeks. Litters average 1-9 young (range 1-6 young). A female has 3—4 litters/year. Percentages of females pregnant and litter size correlate with rainfall. The female gives birth to precocial young in a nest below ground and lined with her fur. Neonates do not show characteristic white rumps, but one 19day-old young had a white rump. The mother returns at night to nurse her young. Length of parental care is short, and young become independent in a matter of days. Young are slightly darker than adults. Breeding age of Antelope Jackrabbits is attained during the second year of life under favorable conditions. Adult sex composition in one population was 47-5% males and 52-5% females.","activityPatterns":"The Antelope Jackrabbit is nocturnal and crepuscular, but diurnal activity is commonly recorded. Shelter forms are used for resting during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Antelope Jackrabbit might be the fastest species of Lepus, with running speeds of up to 72 km/h. It leaps over bushes higher than 1 m and fences higher than 1-5 m with little change in stride. One leap of 7 m was recorded. When Antelope Jackrabbits start to run, they make 4-5 long hops on their hindlegs alone, like a kangaroo, and then revert to usual locomotion. When threatened by a predator, they flash their white areas on their rumps and sides by pulling up skin by special muscles. Where food and shelter are separated, daily movements occur. Trips of 16 km from desert to feed on alfalfa have been recorded. Average home range size is 642-8 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The insular subspecies tiburonensis is endemic and rare and is currently granted “special protection” under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 because it is an insular and endemic species. The Antelope Jackrabbit is widespread, with a stable population. Declines in southern Arizona have been reported. The Antelope Jackrabbit has almost disappeared due to rabbit plague near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, although it was once rather common. Expanding agriculture and resulting habitat alteration and overgrazing by livestock are threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit. Overgrazing by livestock favors the Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Additional threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit are hunting, human perturbations, predation by introduced species, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 550-670 mm, tail 48-76 mm, ear 140-170 mm, hindfoot 127-150 mm; weight 2:7.4-5 kg. The Antelope Jackrabbit has exceptionally large, whitish ears that are nearly naked except for long fringes of white hair on edges. Head has whitish and fulvous tint, mixed with black. Eye rings are white. Dorsal pelage is yellowish brown, mixed with black. Nape is plumbeous. Sides, hips, and rump are pale gray. Ventral pelage, chin, and throat are white. Chest is fulvous, and this color extends backward on lower part of neck. Tail is white and lined above with plumbeous black that extends forward upon rump. Pelage is darker in winter than summer. Subspecies tiburonensis tends to be smaller, with a total length of 500-610 mm. Ears might be more than 210 mm long and more than 100 mm wide, which adds ¢.25% to total surface area of body. Ears are used to dissipate heat in desert climates. Body temperature of the Antelope Jackrabbit averages 37-9°C at ambient temperatures of 3°-25°C. At higher ambient temperatures, body temperature increases as ambient temperature increases and reaches 40-3°C at an ambient temperature of 39°C. Rectal glands secrete orange colored, with a strong musky odor. Their function is unknown, but an individual probably leaves a record in its shelter form or wherever it pauses to sit.","habitat":"Various habitats from sea level (Sonora, Mexico) to elevations of c.1500 m (southern Arizona). In Arizona, Antelope Jackrabbits favored habitats on slopes at moderate elevations where grasses, mesquites (Prosopis), and catclaws (Acacia), both Fabaceae, are abundant. They also live in desert habitat with little grass, hilly country among scattered oaks (Quercus, Fagaceae) and junipers (Juniperus, Cupressaceae), and stabilized sand dunes. In Mexico, Antelope Jackrabbits occur in low and open grasslands, open grassy foothill with patches of low bushes, and arid and desert plains. Shelter forms include backing up under clumps of vegetation, a sitting place beside a cactus or mesquite trunk with no shade and no digging or scratching having been made, or a dug out depression in the soil. Antelope Jackrabbits always seek shade in shelter forms during hot seasons. Where the Antelope Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) occur sympatrically, they often sit together under the same bush or runaway side by side. The Antelope Jackrabbit is more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations; the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and on barren chaparral desert."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76EFFD0FF6BFB07F8A1F099.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B76EFFD0FF6BFB07F8A1F099","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"148","verbatimText":"63.Chinese HareLepus sinensisFrench:Lievre de Chine/ German:China-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de ChinaTaxonomy.Lepus sinensis Gray, 1832, “China.”Restricted by G. M. Allen in 1938 to “more orless in the region of Canton,” Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand allied with L. hainanusand L. brachywrus. Formerly, L. sinensisincluded L. coreanusas a subspecies. All these relationships have not been supported by genetic analysis. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few exterior characteristics and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.s.sinensisGray,1832—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver.L.s.formosusThomas,1908—Taiwan.L. s. Province (yuenshanensis China). Shih, 1930— HunanTaxonomic status of the Chinese Hare in NE Vietnam has to be determined.Descriptive notes.Head-body 350-450 mm, tail 40-57 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 81-111 mm; weight 1.1-9 kg.The Chinese Hare is small, with short ears and short, straight, and coarse hair. Its general appearance is rather uniform butrich in color. Dorsal, head, and chest furis chestnut and rufous. Ventral pelage is paler, and tail is brown. Ears have black triangular tips. Pelage color varies seasonally, with yellowish tone in winter.Habitat.Edges of grassland habitats and scrubby vegetation in hills but not in rice fields. In Taiwan, Chinese Hares are a minor pest of forestry, and they occur in bamboo habitats up to elevations of 4000-5000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Chinese Hare consists ofleafy vegetation, green shoots, and twigs.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Chinese Hare occurs in April-August. Females give birth in burrows. Young are precocial, and littersize averages three young.Activity patterns.The Chinese Hare is nocturnal but can also be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Chinese Hares use burrows made by other animals, and they piles fecal pellets outside entrances.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Chinese Hare is also listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas; however, more data are needed to determine population status and current distribution. It is hunted locally for subsistence and sold in markets. Increasing agriculture may isolate populations of Chinese Hares. Populations in Vietnam are thought to be very small, with last confirmed records from the 1990s. Recent surveys did not find Chinese Hares in Vietnam. Major threats to Chinese Hares in Vietnam are habitat loss and hunting.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Angermann (2016), Corbet (1978), Dao Van Tien (1978), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (20080), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus sinensis Gray, 1832, “China.”Restricted by G. M. Allen in 1938 to “more orless in the region of Canton,” Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.It has been placed in the genus Caprolagusand allied with L. hainanusand L. brachywrus. Formerly, L. sinensisincluded L. coreanusas a subspecies. All these relationships have not been supported by genetic analysis. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few exterior characteristics and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Lievre de Chine @fr | China-Hase @de | Liebre de China @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1832","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"41","interpretedPageNumber":"148","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sinensis","name":"Lepus sinensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.s.sinensisGray,1832—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver.L.s.formosusThomas,1908—Taiwan.L. s. Province (yuenshanensis China). Shih, 1930— HunanTaxonomic status of the Chinese Hare in NE Vietnam has to be determined.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625689/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1938) | Angermann (2016) | Corbet (1978) | Dao Van Tien (1978) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Lissovsky (2016) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (20080) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Chinese Hare consists ofleafy vegetation, green shoots, and twigs.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Chinese Hare occurs in April-August. Females give birth in burrows. Young are precocial, and littersize averages three young.","activityPatterns":"The Chinese Hare is nocturnal but can also be active during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Chinese Hares use burrows made by other animals, and they piles fecal pellets outside entrances.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Chinese Hare is also listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas; however, more data are needed to determine population status and current distribution. It is hunted locally for subsistence and sold in markets. Increasing agriculture may isolate populations of Chinese Hares. Populations in Vietnam are thought to be very small, with last confirmed records from the 1990s. Recent surveys did not find Chinese Hares in Vietnam. Major threats to Chinese Hares in Vietnam are habitat loss and hunting.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 350-450 mm, tail 40-57 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 81-111 mm; weight 1.1-9 kg.The Chinese Hare is small, with short ears and short, straight, and coarse hair. Its general appearance is rather uniform butrich in color. Dorsal, head, and chest furis chestnut and rufous. Ventral pelage is paler, and tail is brown. Ears have black triangular tips. Pelage color varies seasonally, with yellowish tone in winter.","habitat":"Edges of grassland habitats and scrubby vegetation in hills but not in rice fields. In Taiwan, Chinese Hares are a minor pest of forestry, and they occur in bamboo habitats up to elevations of 4000-5000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76FFFD0FACEF48CFB77F22D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B76FFFD0FACEF48CFB77F22D","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"147","verbatimText":"62.Korean HareLepus coreanusFrench:Liévre de Corée/ German:Korea-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de CoreaTaxonomy.Lepus coreanus Thomas, 1892, “Soul [= Seoul],” Korea.Formerly, L. coreanuswas considered a subspecies of L. sinensis, L. mandshuricus, or L. brachyurus. A phylogenetic study based exclusively on mtDNA considered L. coreanusto be L. timidus, but two other studies based on nDNA and mtDNA showed that L. coreanusis a valid species. Therefore, taxonomic status of L. coreanusstill has to be clarified. Species of Lepusfrom Jilin Province, China, might belong to L. tolai. Monotypic.Distribution.Korean Peninsula and NE China (8 Jilin); perhaps SE Heilungjiang and E Liaoning (NE China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 430-490 mm, tail 60-75 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 108-122 mm; weight c.1-7 kg. The Korean Hare is medium-sized, with dense and heavy fur. Dorsal fur and head are grayish yellow, with brown hair tips. Tail is light brown above and at its tip, butit is white below.Habitat.Lowland and mountainous habitats. A study conducted in South Korea indicated that abundance of Korean Hares was positively associated with percent shrub cover. Some damage to agriculture and cultivated forests has been recorded.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Korean Hare is widespread and common in Korea. There are no published records of population decline, and no threats are known. Despite lack of known risks, research regarding population status, biology, and ecology of the Korean Hare should be conducted because no data are available.Bibliography.Cheng Cheng etal. (2012), Corbet (1978), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jones & Johnson (1965), Koh Hung-Sun & Jang Kyung-Hee (2010), Koh Hung-Sun etal. (2001), Rhim Shin-Jae & Lee Woo-Shin (2007), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008n), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus coreanus Thomas, 1892, “Soul [= Seoul],” Korea.Formerly, L. coreanuswas considered a subspecies of L. sinensis, L. mandshuricus, or L. brachyurus. A phylogenetic study based exclusively on mtDNA considered L. coreanusto be L. timidus, but two other studies based on nDNA and mtDNA showed that L. coreanusis a valid species. Therefore, taxonomic status of L. coreanusstill has to be clarified. Species of Lepusfrom Jilin Province, China, might belong to L. tolai. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Liévre de Corée @fr | Korea-Hase @de | Liebre de Corea @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1892","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"40","interpretedPageNumber":"147","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"coreanus","name":"Lepus coreanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Korean Peninsula and NE China (8 Jilin); perhaps SE Heilungjiang and E Liaoning (NE China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625687/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cheng Cheng etal. (2012) | Corbet (1978) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jones & Johnson (1965) | Koh Hung-Sun & Jang Kyung-Hee (2010) | Koh Hung-Sun etal. (2001) | Rhim Shin-Jae & Lee Woo-Shin (2007) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008n) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Korean Hare is widespread and common in Korea. There are no published records of population decline, and no threats are known. Despite lack of known risks, research regarding population status, biology, and ecology of the Korean Hare should be conducted because no data are available.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 430-490 mm, tail 60-75 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 108-122 mm; weight c.1-7 kg. The Korean Hare is medium-sized, with dense and heavy fur. Dorsal fur and head are grayish yellow, with brown hair tips. Tail is light brown above and at its tip, butit is white below.","habitat":"Lowland and mountainous habitats. A study conducted in South Korea indicated that abundance of Korean Hares was positively associated with percent shrub cover. Some damage to agriculture and cultivated forests has been recorded."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76FFFD1FAF5FD27F8A6FCAD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B76FFFD1FAF5FD27F8A6FCAD","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"147","verbatimText":"61.Manchurian HareLepus mandshuricusFrench:Lievre de Mandchourie/ German:Mandschurei-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de ManchuriaTaxonomy.Lepus mandshuricus Radde, 1861, “Bureja-Gebirge [= Bureya Mountains],” Khabarovsk Krai, Russia.It has been placed in the genus Lepus, then Caprolagus, later Allolagus, and back again to Lepus. It was formerly recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. A recent genetic analysis suggests that L. mandshuricushas a close phylogenetic relationship with L. yarkandensisbut not with L. brachyurus.Melanistic individuals throughout the entire distribution of L. mandshuricuswere given the specific designation of L. melanius, but morphological examination and nDNA analysis revealed that L. melainus is a melanistic morph of L. mandshuricus. This species and L. coreanusare parapatric in their distribution in north-eastern Korea and southeastern Heilongjiang but are said to occupy different habitat types. Moreover, L. mandshuricusis sympatric with L. timidusin forests and L. tolaiin plains. Lepus tolaitends to replace L. mandshuricusin cleared forest habitats. Monotypic.Distribution.Russian Far East (Amur, Khabarovsk, Primoryie), NE China (NE Inner Mongolia = Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang,Jilin, Liaoning), and perhaps extreme NE Korea.Descriptive notes.Head—body 410-540 mm, tail 50-80 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-145 mm; weight 1:4.2-6 kg. The Manchurian Hare has soft, long, and thick fur. Dorsal fur is grayish black to blackish brown to rust-brown, and ventral fur is whitish. Chest, flanks, and legs are cinnamon. Ears are ocherous or cinnamon-buff, and neck is dull rust-brown. Tail is blackish brown above and dull white or gray below. The Manchurian Hare has seasonal variation, with pale winter fur and white belly, and some individuals even appear to be ash-gray. Melanistic individuals are common.Habitat.Mainly mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests, particularly forests of tall Mongolian oaks (Quercusmongolica, Fagaceae) and thick undergrowth of Manchurian hazelnuts (Corylus sieboldiana var. mandshurica, Betulaceae), creepers, and vines, at elevations of 300-900 m. Hilly country with cliffs and rock outcrops is preferred. Manchurian Hares avoid open valleys, grassland, and human settlement.Food and Feeding.The diet of the Manchurian Hare includes bark and twigs of willow, linden, maple, wild apple, birch, and elm. Manchurian Haresalso feed on various shrubs, herbs, and fallen fruits.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Manchurian Hare starts in mid-February, and young first appear in May. Littersize is usually 1-2 young but occasionally as large as 4-5 young.Activity patterns.Manchurian Hares are nocturnal but also active at dawn. Resting periods are spent in holes of tree trunks, and forms in open habitat are avoided.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information for this species, but the Manchurian Hare is probably solitary, except during mating.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Manchurian Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas (e.g. Honghe, Liangshui, Huanren Laotudingzi, Baishilazi, and Sanjiang national nature reserves and Xingkaihu National Geopark). Nevertheless, population status is unknown. A threat to the Manchurian Hare is habitat loss due to forest clearing, which could allow invasion of competing Tolai Hares(L. tolaz).Bibliography.Angermann (1966, 1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Ge Deyan et al. (2012), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jones & Johnson (1965), Liu Jiang et al. (2011), Loukashkin (1943), Ognev (1966), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008m), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Lepus mandshuricus Radde, 1861, “Bureja-Gebirge [= Bureya Mountains],” Khabarovsk Krai, Russia.It has been placed in the genus Lepus, then Caprolagus, later Allolagus, and back again to Lepus. It was formerly recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. A recent genetic analysis suggests that L. mandshuricushas a close phylogenetic relationship with L. yarkandensisbut not with L. brachyurus.Melanistic individuals throughout the entire distribution of L. mandshuricuswere given the specific designation of L. melanius, but morphological examination and nDNA analysis revealed that L. melainus is a melanistic morph of L. mandshuricus. This species and L. coreanusare parapatric in their distribution in north-eastern Korea and southeastern Heilongjiang but are said to occupy different habitat types. Moreover, L. mandshuricusis sympatric with L. timidusin forests and L. tolaiin plains. Lepus tolaitends to replace L. mandshuricusin cleared forest habitats. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lievre de Mandchourie @fr | Mandschurei-Hase @de | Liebre de Manchuria @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Radde","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1861","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"40","interpretedPageNumber":"147","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mandshuricus","name":"Lepus mandshuricus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Russian Far East (Amur, Khabarovsk, Primoryie), NE China (NE Inner Mongolia = Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang,Jilin, Liaoning), and perhaps extreme NE Korea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625685/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angermann (1966, 1983) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Ge Deyan et al. (2012) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Jones & Johnson (1965) | Liu Jiang et al. (2011) | Loukashkin (1943) | Ognev (1966) | Smith (2008c) | Smith & Johnston (2008m) | Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet of the Manchurian Hare includes bark and twigs of willow, linden, maple, wild apple, birch, and elm. Manchurian Haresalso feed on various shrubs, herbs, and fallen fruits.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Manchurian Hare starts in mid-February, and young first appear in May. Littersize is usually 1-2 young but occasionally as large as 4-5 young.","activityPatterns":"Manchurian Hares are nocturnal but also active at dawn. Resting periods are spent in holes of tree trunks, and forms in open habitat are avoided.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information for this species, but the Manchurian Hare is probably solitary, except during mating.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Manchurian Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas (e.g. Honghe, Liangshui, Huanren Laotudingzi, Baishilazi, and Sanjiang national nature reserves and Xingkaihu National Geopark). Nevertheless, population status is unknown. A threat to the Manchurian Hare is habitat loss due to forest clearing, which could allow invasion of competing Tolai Hares(L. tolaz).","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 410-540 mm, tail 50-80 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-145 mm; weight 1:4.2-6 kg. The Manchurian Hare has soft, long, and thick fur. Dorsal fur is grayish black to blackish brown to rust-brown, and ventral fur is whitish. Chest, flanks, and legs are cinnamon. Ears are ocherous or cinnamon-buff, and neck is dull rust-brown. Tail is blackish brown above and dull white or gray below. The Manchurian Hare has seasonal variation, with pale winter fur and white belly, and some individuals even appear to be ash-gray. Melanistic individuals are common.","habitat":"Mainly mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests, particularly forests of tall Mongolian oaks (Quercusmongolica, Fagaceae) and thick undergrowth of Manchurian hazelnuts (Corylus sieboldiana var. mandshurica, Betulaceae), creepers, and vines, at elevations of 300-900 m. Hilly country with cliffs and rock outcrops is preferred. Manchurian Hares avoid open valleys, grassland, and human settlement."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76FFFD1FFCFFC85F850F40D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B76FFFD1FFCFFC85F850F40D","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"147","verbatimText":"60.Japanese HareLepus brachyurusFrench:Liévre du Japon/ German:Japan-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de JaponTaxonomy.Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844, “tout I'Empire mais surtout dans I'lle de Jezo” (= Nagasaki, Kyushu, Japan).Formerly, L. brachyuruswas placed in the genus Caprolagus. Lepus mandshuricuswas recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.b.brachyurusTemminck,1845—PacificsideofSHonshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,andsurroundingIs(Awaji,Shodo,Goto,Amakusa,andShimokoshiki).L.b.angustidensHollister,1912—NHonshuandSonSeaofJapanside.L.b.lyoniKishida,1937—SadoI(offWHonshu,WJapan).L. b. okiensis Thomas, 1906— Oki Is (off SW Honshu, WJapan).Descriptive notes.Head—body 490-540 mm, tail 37-41 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 132-165 mm; weight 2:4.2-7 kg. The Japanese Hare is small, with compact stature and short ears and tail. Fur is dense and soft. Pelage is umber to tawny brown, with variable amounts of white on head and legs. Chest and sides are cinnamon. Throat and ventral fur are white, occasionally with dark hair tips. Ears are dorsally white or cinnamon, with small brown-black patches at tips. Tail is darker above and lighter below than dorsal fur. Japanese Hares inhabiting north-eastern Hondos and mountain regions have white winter fur. On Oki Island, melanistic morph that does not turn white in winter despite deep snow cover may indicate relatively recent introduction of a subspecies. Color varies geographically, with several distinct color forms. A recent genetic study showed that there is no association between winter coat color and genetic population structure in the Japanese Hare.Habitat.Fields, grasslands, and open forests from lowlands to alpine zones from sea level to elevations of more than 3000 m. Most common in low montane and montane zones. Land use and agriculture in Japan have remained stable for many centuries, and 68% ofJapan is covered by forest, providing stable habitat for the Japanese Hare. It prefers young forest stands, where open canopy allows greater herbaceous production and shrubs occur with high branch and stem densities. The Japanese Hare rests in bushes, under rocks or fallen trees, or in shallow burrows that they dig themselves.Food and Feeding.Summerdiets of theJapanese Hare mainly consist of grasses (48%), agricultural legume seeds, Stellaria(Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum(Polygonaceae), and grain. Winter diets include leaves and bark of young trees, especially Cryptomeriajaponica (Cupressaceae), Acer (Sapindaceae), Paulownia(Paulowniaceae), Acanthopanax and Aralia(both Araliaceae), and legumes. Japanese Hares cause some damage to plantation forests and fruit trees. They seem to prefer branches and stems with large amounts of protein.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Japanese Hare occurs in February—July. Young are born in April-August but mostly in May/June when litter size is largest (2-5 young). The Japanese Hare has 2-3 litters/year;litter sizes are 1-6 young, with an average of 1-9 young. Young are born in a shallow nest dug by the mother and can run around one hour after birth. Young are nursed once per night for c¢.2 minutes at about midnight. They start feeding on plants c.8 days after birth but nurse until c.1 month after birth. Females are sexually mature at c.10 months of age.Activity patterns.The Japanese Hare is nocturnal. In captivity, activity starts at ¢.19:00 h and ends at 07:00-08:00 h after a period of restless running. During rest, individuals often close their eyes for 1-3 minutes for ¢.20 minutes/day. They groom before and after activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Hare is common across most of its distribution. Total population size in Japan is unknown but shows a stable trend. There has been recent concern regarding population decline of the Japanese Hare on Sado Island where it used to be common but is now rare, presumably due to predation by introduced Japanese Martens (Martes melampus). The Japanese Hare is an important game animal with ¢.400,000-800,000 individuals harvested each year. Recommendations are to determine population trends, densities, and current distribution.Bibliography.Abe, H. et al. (2005), Abe, S. et al. (2005), Angermann (1966, 1983, 2016), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Horino & Kuwahata (1984), Imaizumi (1970), Lissovsky (2016), Nunome et al.(2014), Otsu (1965), Shimano et al. (2006), Shimizu & Shimano (2010), Tachibana et al. (1970), Yamada & |sagi (1988), Yamada & Smith (2008), Yamada et al. (1988).","taxonomy":"Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844, “tout I'Empire mais surtout dans I'lle de Jezo” (= Nagasaki, Kyushu, Japan).Formerly, L. brachyuruswas placed in the genus Caprolagus. Lepus mandshuricuswas recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre du Japon @fr | Japan-Hase @de | Liebre de Japon @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1844","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"40","interpretedPageNumber":"147","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brachyurus","name":"Lepus brachyurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.b.brachyurusTemminck,1845—PacificsideofSHonshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,andsurroundingIs(Awaji,Shodo,Goto,Amakusa,andShimokoshiki).L.b.angustidensHollister,1912—NHonshuandSonSeaofJapanside.L.b.lyoniKishida,1937—SadoI(offWHonshu,WJapan).L. b. okiensis Thomas, 1906— Oki Is (off SW Honshu, WJapan).","bibliography":"Abe, H. et al. (2005) | Abe, S. et al. (2005) | Angermann (1966, 1983, 2016) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Horino & Kuwahata (1984) | Imaizumi (1970) | Lissovsky (2016) | Nunome et al.(2014) | Otsu (1965) | Shimano et al. (2006) | Shimizu & Shimano (2010) | Tachibana et al. (1970) | Yamada & |sagi (1988) | Yamada & Smith (2008) | Yamada et al. (1988)","foodAndFeeding":"Summerdiets of theJapanese Hare mainly consist of grasses (48%), agricultural legume seeds, Stellaria(Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum(Polygonaceae), and grain. Winter diets include leaves and bark of young trees, especially Cryptomeriajaponica (Cupressaceae), Acer (Sapindaceae), Paulownia(Paulowniaceae), Acanthopanax and Aralia(both Araliaceae), and legumes. Japanese Hares cause some damage to plantation forests and fruit trees. They seem to prefer branches and stems with large amounts of protein.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Japanese Hare occurs in February—July. Young are born in April-August but mostly in May/June when litter size is largest (2-5 young). The Japanese Hare has 2-3 litters/year;litter sizes are 1-6 young, with an average of 1-9 young. Young are born in a shallow nest dug by the mother and can run around one hour after birth. Young are nursed once per night for c¢.2 minutes at about midnight. They start feeding on plants c.8 days after birth but nurse until c.1 month after birth. Females are sexually mature at c.10 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Japanese Hare is nocturnal. In captivity, activity starts at ¢.19:00 h and ends at 07:00-08:00 h after a period of restless running. During rest, individuals often close their eyes for 1-3 minutes for ¢.20 minutes/day. They groom before and after activity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Hare is common across most of its distribution. Total population size in Japan is unknown but shows a stable trend. There has been recent concern regarding population decline of the Japanese Hare on Sado Island where it used to be common but is now rare, presumably due to predation by introduced Japanese Martens (Martes melampus). The Japanese Hare is an important game animal with ¢.400,000-800,000 individuals harvested each year. Recommendations are to determine population trends, densities, and current distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 490-540 mm, tail 37-41 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 132-165 mm; weight 2:4.2-7 kg. The Japanese Hare is small, with compact stature and short ears and tail. Fur is dense and soft. Pelage is umber to tawny brown, with variable amounts of white on head and legs. Chest and sides are cinnamon. Throat and ventral fur are white, occasionally with dark hair tips. Ears are dorsally white or cinnamon, with small brown-black patches at tips. Tail is darker above and lighter below than dorsal fur. Japanese Hares inhabiting north-eastern Hondos and mountain regions have white winter fur. On Oki Island, melanistic morph that does not turn white in winter despite deep snow cover may indicate relatively recent introduction of a subspecies. Color varies geographically, with several distinct color forms. A recent genetic study showed that there is no association between winter coat color and genetic population structure in the Japanese Hare.","habitat":"Fields, grasslands, and open forests from lowlands to alpine zones from sea level to elevations of more than 3000 m. Most common in low montane and montane zones. Land use and agriculture in Japan have remained stable for many centuries, and 68% ofJapan is covered by forest, providing stable habitat for the Japanese Hare. It prefers young forest stands, where open canopy allows greater herbaceous production and shrubs occur with high branch and stem densities. The Japanese Hare rests in bushes, under rocks or fallen trees, or in shallow burrows that they dig themselves."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/82/23/03822308B76FFFD1FFCFFC85F850F40D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03822308B76FFFD1FFCFFC85F850F40D","docName":"hbmw_6_Leporidae_0062.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbb5b70b747fff9ffabffbbffcbf65e","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"147","verbatimText":"60.Japanese HareLepus brachyurusFrench:Liévre du Japon/ German:Japan-Hase/ Spanish:Liebre de JaponTaxonomy.Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844, “tout I'Empire mais surtout dans I'lle de Jezo” (= Nagasaki, Kyushu, Japan).Formerly, L. brachyuruswas placed in the genus Caprolagus. Lepus mandshuricuswas recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L.b.brachyurusTemminck,1845—PacificsideofSHonshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,andsurroundingIs(Awaji,Shodo,Goto,Amakusa,andShimokoshiki).L.b.angustidensHollister,1912—NHonshuandSonSeaofJapanside.L.b.lyoniKishida,1937—SadoI(offWHonshu,WJapan).L. b. okiensis Thomas, 1906— Oki Is (off SW Honshu, WJapan).Descriptive notes.Head—body 490-540 mm, tail 37-41 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 132-165 mm; weight 2:4.2-7 kg. The Japanese Hare is small, with compact stature and short ears and tail. Fur is dense and soft. Pelage is umber to tawny brown, with variable amounts of white on head and legs. Chest and sides are cinnamon. Throat and ventral fur are white, occasionally with dark hair tips. Ears are dorsally white or cinnamon, with small brown-black patches at tips. Tail is darker above and lighter below than dorsal fur. Japanese Hares inhabiting north-eastern Hondos and mountain regions have white winter fur. On Oki Island, melanistic morph that does not turn white in winter despite deep snow cover may indicate relatively recent introduction of a subspecies. Color varies geographically, with several distinct color forms. A recent genetic study showed that there is no association between winter coat color and genetic population structure in the Japanese Hare.Habitat.Fields, grasslands, and open forests from lowlands to alpine zones from sea level to elevations of more than 3000 m. Most common in low montane and montane zones. Land use and agriculture in Japan have remained stable for many centuries, and 68% ofJapan is covered by forest, providing stable habitat for the Japanese Hare. It prefers young forest stands, where open canopy allows greater herbaceous production and shrubs occur with high branch and stem densities. The Japanese Hare rests in bushes, under rocks or fallen trees, or in shallow burrows that they dig themselves.Food and Feeding.Summerdiets of theJapanese Hare mainly consist of grasses (48%), agricultural legume seeds, Stellaria(Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum(Polygonaceae), and grain. Winter diets include leaves and bark of young trees, especially Cryptomeriajaponica (Cupressaceae), Acer (Sapindaceae), Paulownia(Paulowniaceae), Acanthopanax and Aralia(both Araliaceae), and legumes. Japanese Hares cause some damage to plantation forests and fruit trees. They seem to prefer branches and stems with large amounts of protein.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Japanese Hare occurs in February—July. Young are born in April-August but mostly in May/June when litter size is largest (2-5 young). The Japanese Hare has 2-3 litters/year;litter sizes are 1-6 young, with an average of 1-9 young. Young are born in a shallow nest dug by the mother and can run around one hour after birth. Young are nursed once per night for c¢.2 minutes at about midnight. They start feeding on plants c.8 days after birth but nurse until c.1 month after birth. Females are sexually mature at c.10 months of age.Activity patterns.The Japanese Hare is nocturnal. In captivity, activity starts at ¢.19:00 h and ends at 07:00-08:00 h after a period of restless running. During rest, individuals often close their eyes for 1-3 minutes for ¢.20 minutes/day. They groom before and after activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Hare is common across most of its distribution. Total population size in Japan is unknown but shows a stable trend. There has been recent concern regarding population decline of the Japanese Hare on Sado Island where it used to be common but is now rare, presumably due to predation by introduced Japanese Martens (Martes melampus). The Japanese Hare is an important game animal with ¢.400,000-800,000 individuals harvested each year. Recommendations are to determine population trends, densities, and current distribution.Bibliography.Abe, H. et al. (2005), Abe, S. et al. (2005), Angermann (1966, 1983, 2016), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Horino & Kuwahata (1984), Imaizumi (1970), Lissovsky (2016), Nunome et al.(2014), Otsu (1965), Shimano et al. (2006), Shimizu & Shimano (2010), Tachibana et al. (1970), Yamada & |sagi (1988), Yamada & Smith (2008), Yamada et al. (1988).","taxonomy":"Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844, “tout I'Empire mais surtout dans I'lle de Jezo” (= Nagasaki, Kyushu, Japan).Formerly, L. brachyuruswas placed in the genus Caprolagus. Lepus mandshuricuswas recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurusbut received species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Liévre du Japon @fr | Japan-Hase @de | Liebre de Japon @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1844","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Leporidae","interpretedGenus":"Lepus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Lagomorpha","interpretedPageId":"40","interpretedPageNumber":"147","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brachyurus","name":"Lepus brachyurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.b.brachyurusTemminck,1845—PacificsideofSHonshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,andsurroundingIs(Awaji,Shodo,Goto,Amakusa,andShimokoshiki).L.b.angustidensHollister,1912—NHonshuandSonSeaofJapanside.L.b.lyoniKishida,1937—SadoI(offWHonshu,WJapan).L. b. okiensis Thomas, 1906— Oki Is (off SW Honshu, WJapan).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6625683/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abe, H. et al. (2005) | Abe, S. et al. (2005) | Angermann (1966, 1983, 2016) | Flux & Angermann (1990) | Hoffmann & Smith (2005) | Horino & Kuwahata (1984) | Imaizumi (1970) | Lissovsky (2016) | Nunome et al.(2014) | Otsu (1965) | Shimano et al. (2006) | Shimizu & Shimano (2010) | Tachibana et al. (1970) | Yamada & |sagi (1988) | Yamada & Smith (2008) | Yamada et al. (1988)","foodAndFeeding":"Summerdiets of theJapanese Hare mainly consist of grasses (48%), agricultural legume seeds, Stellaria(Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum(Polygonaceae), and grain. Winter diets include leaves and bark of young trees, especially Cryptomeriajaponica (Cupressaceae), Acer (Sapindaceae), Paulownia(Paulowniaceae), Acanthopanax and Aralia(both Araliaceae), and legumes. Japanese Hares cause some damage to plantation forests and fruit trees. They seem to prefer branches and stems with large amounts of protein.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Japanese Hare occurs in February—July. Young are born in April-August but mostly in May/June when litter size is largest (2-5 young). The Japanese Hare has 2-3 litters/year;litter sizes are 1-6 young, with an average of 1-9 young. Young are born in a shallow nest dug by the mother and can run around one hour after birth. Young are nursed once per night for c¢.2 minutes at about midnight. They start feeding on plants c.8 days after birth but nurse until c.1 month after birth. Females are sexually mature at c.10 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Japanese Hare is nocturnal. In captivity, activity starts at ¢.19:00 h and ends at 07:00-08:00 h after a period of restless running. During rest, individuals often close their eyes for 1-3 minutes for ¢.20 minutes/day. They groom before and after activity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Hare is common across most of its distribution. Total population size in Japan is unknown but shows a stable trend. There has been recent concern regarding population decline of the Japanese Hare on Sado Island where it used to be common but is now rare, presumably due to predation by introduced Japanese Martens (Martes melampus). The Japanese Hare is an important game animal with ¢.400,000-800,000 individuals harvested each year. Recommendations are to determine population trends, densities, and current distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 490-540 mm, tail 37-41 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 132-165 mm; weight 2:4.2-7 kg. The Japanese Hare is small, with compact stature and short ears and tail. Fur is dense and soft. Pelage is umber to tawny brown, with variable amounts of white on head and legs. Chest and sides are cinnamon. Throat and ventral fur are white, occasionally with dark hair tips. Ears are dorsally white or cinnamon, with small brown-black patches at tips. Tail is darker above and lighter below than dorsal fur. Japanese Hares inhabiting north-eastern Hondos and mountain regions have white winter fur. On Oki Island, melanistic morph that does not turn white in winter despite deep snow cover may indicate relatively recent introduction of a subspecies. Color varies geographically, with several distinct color forms. A recent genetic study showed that there is no association between winter coat color and genetic population structure in the Japanese Hare.","habitat":"Fields, grasslands, and open forests from lowlands to alpine zones from sea level to elevations of more than 3000 m. Most common in low montane and montane zones. Land use and agriculture in Japan have remained stable for many centuries, and 68% ofJapan is covered by forest, providing stable habitat for the Japanese Hare. It prefers young forest stands, where open canopy allows greater herbaceous production and shrubs occur with high branch and stem densities. The Japanese Hare rests in bushes, under rocks or fallen trees, or in shallow burrows that they dig themselves."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/83/24/0383245F222097788B1EF4BAFCBDF99E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0383245F222097788B1EF4BAFCBDF99E","docName":"hbmw_9_Rhinonycteridae_194.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffba5c272223977c8e73f509ffb1ffd0","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"205","verbatimText":"2.Persian Trident BatTriaenops persicusFrench:Tr aenop de PerseGerman:Pers sdıe Dre zahnb attnaseSpanish:Flnonlcterro persaOther common names:RufousTr dent Bat Trple Nose-leaf BatTaxonomy.Triaerrops pasicus Dobson, 1871, “at near elevauon of about 4750 feet1448 m] an Shiraz in Persiaa lran].D. L. Hanison in 1955 described sub species macdonaldí from the United Arab Emiratesbased 0 n pelage color; however, validity of characteristics separating this taxon were regarded as doubtful, and the name widely considered a junior synonym of 'E prrsirus. Populations in southwestern Arabia were assigned to an African subspecies afer, but this opinion was disproved, and populations are regarded as part of TÍ persinu. Monotypic.Distribution.Narrow belt along W 8c S coast of Yemen, SW 8c NE Oman, E United Arab Emirates, S lran, and S Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 56-72 mm, tail 27-38 mm, ear 13-6-17-4 mm, hindfoot 8-11 mm, foreann 48-58 mm; weight 6-18 g. The Persian Trident Bat is a large rhinonycterid. Pelage is similarly tinged dorsallv and ventrally; color is variable, including brownish orange, bright orange, pale vellowish, pale brown, and dark grayish brown; hairs are darker around eyes. Wing membranes are dark brown; noseleaf and ears are pale pinkish (unpigrnented) and pale gray to dark grayish brown. Noseleaf is large (width 7 -4-10-9 mm) and rounded or pentagonal, with strap-like longitudinal projection that resembles an hourglass in outline, lying across anterior part of anterior leaf, above deep anterior medial emargination. Three tall pointed projections occur on posterior part of posterior leaf, and its anterior part in medial position has long lanceolated projection, with sharplv pointed tip. Total width of the three posterior projections is c.50% the width of posterior leaf. Lateral parts of posterior leaf are scalloped by numerous cells and separated from each other by fleshy septa, with only one small cell in central position; lateral margins of two of three tall posterior projections are emarginated at their bases. Two supplementary leaflets occur lateral to noseleaf. Ears are short, wide, and pointed, with prominent step-like emargination on anterior margin. Second phalanx of fourth wing finger has unique transverse bone projection into membrane c. 2 -5-3 mm long. Skull has very prominent nasal swellings laterally and posteriorly. Braincase is almost as high as rostrum, and sagittal crest is long. Rostrum is relatively long compared with congeners. Wide plates are present on dorsal sides of zygomatic bones. Greatest skull lengths are 19-9-21 -8 mm, condylo-canine lengths are 15-6-18-3 mm, zygomaıic widths are 8 -4-9-9 mm, and upper tooth row (C -M lengths are 6-4-7-7 mm. l‘ is bilobed; C is slender, with slight cingulum and large posterior secondary cusp, extending one-half the C' crown height; P‘ is small and extruded, C' and P‘ are in or nearly in contact; and M‘ is only little reduced, with metacone. l, is bicuspid, I is tricuspid and larger than ll, C is slender, P? has about two-thirds the crown area and one-half the height of P4, and M is unreduced. Baculum is gracile and 1 -4-2-1 mm long, with broad proximal epiphysis and bifurcated distal epiphysis; it has narrow diaphysis (8-10% of baculum length), with relatively short arms at its distal epiphysis (arm length 0 -25-0-35 mm; c. l7-20% of baculum length) and moderately broad proximal epiphysis (basis width 0-55-0-75 mm; 35-42% of baculum length).Habitat.Xeromorphic shrublands and Acacia(Fabaceae) woodlands, generally belonging to the group of Sudanian and sub-Sudanian savannas, from sea level to elevations of c. 1550 m. The Persian Trident Bat does not live in desert habitats or dry mountain forests, and both habitats represent perhaps outer limits of its distribution in lran and southern Arabia. Deserts of the Empty Quarter (Rub' al-Khali) interrupt its continuous occunence in Oman. Two pans of the distribution difier in annual vegetation cycle, influenced by different monsoon seasons: south-westem pan in Yemenand south-westem Omanwith wet season in August-September and north-eastem pan in lran, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, and north-eastem Omanwith wet season injanuary-FebruaryFood and Feeding.Considering diet composition and occasional observations of foraging individuals, the Persian Trident Bat is probably an aerial hawker, preying on flying insects of various sizes at difl`erent heights aboveground. Foraging individuals are seen at water bodies in oases, gardens, and other densely vegetated places, where prey is expected to concenuate in arid environments. Individuals netted near and over open water ane the most common type of record of Persian Trident Bats. Medium-sized moths are most frequent prey and were found in all analyzed samples from Yemenand Oman. Generally, dietary spectrum of the Persian Trident Bat is rather narrow and unbalanced. Besides moths (3-99% in particular samples, mean 654%), grasshoppers (0-96%, mean 144%), beetles (0-51 %, mean 8-8%), bugs (0-47%, mean 74%), treehoppers (0-15%, mean 24 %), antlions (0-7%, mean 1 %), and some others groups were present in diets.Breeding.ln nonh-eastem Oman, pregnant Persian Trident Bats were only found in early April. Each female had one fetus in latestage development, suggesting that births occur in mid-April. Examinations of females in other seasons did not reveal any sign of an ongoing reproduction. Hence, the Persian Trident Bat probably is seasonally monoestrous, with females giving birth to one young per year. lt is possible that timing of annual reproduction differs in the two distributional areas, due to different monsoons and vegetation cycles, with reproduction taking place during high food availability in wet seasons.On following pages 3 YemenTr dent Bat (Traenops parvus), 4 Alf can Tndent Bet (Tnaenops efer) 5 Rufous Tr dent Bat (Trıaenops menamena) 6 Percve sTndent Bat (C/oeots perc val) 7 Grand d er sTndent Bat (Pararnaenops auntus). 8 Trouessarfs Tr dent Bat (Paratr aenops furcula). 9 Paul an s Tr dent Bat (Pararnaenops pau am)Activity patterns.The Persian Trident Bat is probably unable to enter torpor and does not hibernate. According to few occasional observations, it is fast and acrobatic and forages at various heights, low to the ground or over water and higher. lt leaves day roosts shortly before or at sunset and forages for several hours; foraging bats were netted c.2f) hours after sunset. The Persian Trident Bat roosts underground in natural caves and man-made structures, but there are few records of day roosts. Human-made structures used as roosts were an old fort, old underground quarry, and underground water channels (“aflaj”); use of natural caves has been documented only three times. Echolocation consists of multiharrnonic QCF calls where pulse is composed of long CF component, combined with short FM component at end (CF-FM); terminating FM component is steep sweep of 1-3 kHz. Entire call lasts 8-7-13-5 milliseconds (mean 10 -8 milliseconds); interpulse intervals are 29 -1-124-7 milliseconds (mean 55 -8 milliseconds); start frequencies are 76-7-83 -6 kHz (mean 81 -1 kHz), peak frequencies are 76-5-82 -6 kHz (mean 79-3 kHz), and end frequencies are 75 -7-81 ~6 kHz (mean 79-6 kHz).Movements, Home range and Social organization.ln roosts, Persian Trident Bats hang from ca\\e ceilings alone or exceptionally in small groups that can aggregate in small ceiling niches ifavailable; there are no data on size or sexual composition of such aggre~ gations. The largest group observed in a roost had only c.5 individuals. An unspecified “great number\" of the Persian Trident Bats was reported from a cave in Yemen. ln most cases, numbers of roosting Persian Trident Bats were small and highly outnumbered by coroosting Geoffroys Trident Leaf-nosed Bats (Aselliatridms). Persian Trident Bats roosted with Egyptian Rousettes (Rnusettus aegfiølratus), MuscatMouse-tailed Bats (Rhinopomamusmlellum). and Geoffrov`s Trident leaf-nosed Bats in an underground stone quarry in southern Iranand with MuscatMouse-tailed Bats and Geoffrey's Trident leaf-nosed Bats and with Egvptian Rousettes, respectively, in two caves in Oman.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The lUCNRıd List. There is no direct evidence of threats to Persian Trident Bats, but they could be locally threatened by disturbance at roost sites and mining activities.Bibliography Benda & Va o (2009) Benda eta 2012). Dobson (1871 a) Harrison (1955), Hıll (1982a). Kock å Felten (1980) Yerbury BıThomas (1895). Zdårská (2013)","taxonomy":"Triaerrops pasicus Dobson, 1871, “at near elevauon of about 4750 feet1448 m] an Shiraz in Persiaa lran].D. L. Hanison in 1955 described sub species macdonaldí from the United Arab Emiratesbased 0 n pelage color; however, validity of characteristics separating this taxon were regarded as doubtful, and the name widely considered a junior synonym of 'E prrsirus. Populations in southwestern Arabia were assigned to an African subspecies afer, but this opinion was disproved, and populations are regarded as part of TÍ persinu. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Tr aenop de Perse German @fr | Rufous Tr dent Bat Trple Nose-leaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Dobson","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dobson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1871","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Rhinonycteridae","interpretedGenus":"Triaenops","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"205","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"persicus","name":"Triaenops persicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Narrow belt along W 8c S coast of Yemen, SW 8c NE Oman, E United Arab Emirates, S lran, and S Pakistan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6611824/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Benda & Va o (2009) | Benda eta 2012) | Dobson (1871 a) | Harrison (1955) | Hıll (1982a) | Kock å Felten (1980) | Yerbury BıThomas (1895) | Zdårská (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Xeromorphic shrublands and Acacia(Fabaceae) woodlands, generally belonging to the group of Sudanian and sub-Sudanian savannas, from sea level to elevations of c. 1550 m. The Persian Trident Bat does not live in desert habitats or dry mountain forests, and both habitats represent perhaps outer limits of its distribution in lran and southern Arabia. Deserts of the Empty Quarter (Rub' al-Khali) interrupt its continuous occunence in Oman. Two pans of the distribution difier in annual vegetation cycle, influenced by different monsoon seasons: south-westem pan in Yemenand south-westem Omanwith wet season in August-September and north-eastem pan in lran, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, and north-eastem Omanwith wet season injanuary-FebruaryConsidering diet composition and occasional observations of foraging individuals, the Persian Trident Bat is probably an aerial hawker, preying on flying insects of various sizes at difl`erent heights aboveground. Foraging individuals are seen at water bodies in oases, gardens, and other densely vegetated places, where prey is expected to concenuate in arid environments. Individuals netted near and over open water ane the most common type of record of Persian Trident Bats. Medium-sized moths are most frequent prey and were found in all analyzed samples from Yemenand Oman. Generally, dietary spectrum of the Persian Trident Bat is rather narrow and unbalanced. Besides moths (3-99% in particular samples, mean 654%), grasshoppers (0-96%, mean 144%), beetles (0-51 %, mean 8-8%), bugs (0-47%, mean 74%), treehoppers (0-15%, mean 24 %), antlions (0-7%, mean 1 %), and some others groups were present in diets.","breeding":"ln nonh-eastem Oman, pregnant Persian Trident Bats were only found in early April. Each female had one fetus in latestage development, suggesting that births occur in mid-April. Examinations of females in other seasons did not reveal any sign of an ongoing reproduction. Hence, the Persian Trident Bat probably is seasonally monoestrous, with females giving birth to one young per year. lt is possible that timing of annual reproduction differs in the two distributional areas, due to different monsoons and vegetation cycles, with reproduction taking place during high food availability in wet seasons.","activityPatterns":"The Persian Trident Bat is probably unable to enter torpor and does not hibernate. According to few occasional observations, it is fast and acrobatic and forages at various heights, low to the ground or over water and higher. lt leaves day roosts shortly before or at sunset and forages for several hours; foraging bats were netted c.2f) hours after sunset. The Persian Trident Bat roosts underground in natural caves and man-made structures, but there are few records of day roosts. Human-made structures used as roosts were an old fort, old underground quarry, and underground water channels (“aflaj”); use of natural caves has been documented only three times. Echolocation consists of multiharrnonic QCF calls where pulse is composed of long CF component, combined with short FM component at end (CF-FM); terminating FM component is steep sweep of 1-3 kHz. Entire call lasts 8-7-13-5 milliseconds (mean 10 -8 milliseconds); interpulse intervals are 29 -1-124-7 milliseconds (mean 55 -8 milliseconds); start frequencies are 76-7-83 -6 kHz (mean 81 -1 kHz), peak frequencies are 76-5-82 -6 kHz (mean 79-3 kHz), and end frequencies are 75 -7-81 ~6 kHz (mean 79-6 kHz).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"ln roosts, Persian Trident Bats hang from ca\\e ceilings alone or exceptionally in small groups that can aggregate in small ceiling niches ifavailable; there are no data on size or sexual composition of such aggre~ gations. The largest group observed in a roost had only c.5 individuals. An unspecified “great number\" of the Persian Trident Bats was reported from a cave in Yemen. ln most cases, numbers of roosting Persian Trident Bats were small and highly outnumbered by coroosting Geoffroys Trident Leaf-nosed Bats (Aselliatridms). Persian Trident Bats roosted with Egyptian Rousettes (Rnusettus aegfiølratus), MuscatMouse-tailed Bats (Rhinopomamusmlellum). and Geoffrov`s Trident leaf-nosed Bats in an underground stone quarry in southern Iranand with MuscatMouse-tailed Bats and Geoffrey's Trident leaf-nosed Bats and with Egvptian Rousettes, respectively, in two caves in Oman.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The lUCNRıd List. There is no direct evidence of threats to Persian Trident Bats, but they could be locally threatened by disturbance at roost sites and mining activities.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 56-72 mm, tail 27-38 mm, ear 13-6-17-4 mm, hindfoot 8-11 mm, foreann 48-58 mm; weight 6-18 g. The Persian Trident Bat is a large rhinonycterid. Pelage is similarly tinged dorsallv and ventrally; color is variable, including brownish orange, bright orange, pale vellowish, pale brown, and dark grayish brown; hairs are darker around eyes. Wing membranes are dark brown; noseleaf and ears are pale pinkish (unpigrnented) and pale gray to dark grayish brown. Noseleaf is large (width 7 -4-10-9 mm) and rounded or pentagonal, with strap-like longitudinal projection that resembles an hourglass in outline, lying across anterior part of anterior leaf, above deep anterior medial emargination. Three tall pointed projections occur on posterior part of posterior leaf, and its anterior part in medial position has long lanceolated projection, with sharplv pointed tip. Total width of the three posterior projections is c.50% the width of posterior leaf. Lateral parts of posterior leaf are scalloped by numerous cells and separated from each other by fleshy septa, with only one small cell in central position; lateral margins of two of three tall posterior projections are emarginated at their bases. Two supplementary leaflets occur lateral to noseleaf. Ears are short, wide, and pointed, with prominent step-like emargination on anterior margin. Second phalanx of fourth wing finger has unique transverse bone projection into membrane c. 2 -5-3 mm long. Skull has very prominent nasal swellings laterally and posteriorly. Braincase is almost as high as rostrum, and sagittal crest is long. Rostrum is relatively long compared with congeners. Wide plates are present on dorsal sides of zygomatic bones. Greatest skull lengths are 19-9-21 -8 mm, condylo-canine lengths are 15-6-18-3 mm, zygomaıic widths are 8 -4-9-9 mm, and upper tooth row (C -M lengths are 6-4-7-7 mm. l‘ is bilobed; C is slender, with slight cingulum and large posterior secondary cusp, extending one-half the C' crown height; P‘ is small and extruded, C' and P‘ are in or nearly in contact; and M‘ is only little reduced, with metacone. l, is bicuspid, I is tricuspid and larger than ll, C is slender, P? has about two-thirds the crown area and one-half the height of P4, and M is unreduced. Baculum is gracile and 1 -4-2-1 mm long, with broad proximal epiphysis and bifurcated distal epiphysis; it has narrow diaphysis (8-10% of baculum length), with relatively short arms at its distal epiphysis (arm length 0 -25-0-35 mm; c. l7-20% of baculum length) and moderately broad proximal epiphysis (basis width 0-55-0-75 mm; 35-42% of baculum length).","habitat":"Xeromorphic shrublands and Acacia(Fabaceae) woodlands, generally belonging to the group of Sudanian and sub-Sudanian savannas, from sea level to elevations of c. 1550 m. The Persian Trident Bat does not live in desert habitats or dry mountain forests, and both habitats represent perhaps outer limits of its distribution in lran and southern Arabia. Deserts of the Empty Quarter (Rub' al-Khali) interrupt its continuous occunence in Oman. Two pans of the distribution difier in annual vegetation cycle, influenced by different monsoon seasons: south-westem pan in Yemenand south-westem Omanwith wet season in August-September and north-eastem pan in lran, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, and north-eastem Omanwith wet season injanuary-February"} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/83/24/0383245F2221977F8ED7FFC8FBC1F320.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0383245F2221977F8ED7FFC8FBC1F320","docName":"hbmw_9_Rhinonycteridae_194.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffba5c272223977c8e73f509ffb1ffd0","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"204","verbatimText":"1.Orange Diamond-faced BatRhinonicteris aurantiaFrench:Rh n nyctère d réGerman:Orangefarbene Au sn B attnaSpanish:R n doradoOther common names:Go den H rseshoe Bat Orange H rseshoe Bat Orange Leaf n sed Bar P barn Leal nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhínolophm aumnlim]. E. Gray in Ewe, 1845. “Port Essington, near the Hospital,\" Northern Territon, Australia.There are no formally recognized subspecies of R. aurrmha, although an isolated population in the Pilbara region of northern Western Australiawas suggested to represent a separate “fonn. Available evidence does not fully support its distinct status. Differences were in call frequencies among populations not completely concordant with documented pattern of genetic variation, although it is expected that populations have been isolated for about 30,000 years. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Australia, in two di¶ unct regions separated by Great Sandy Desert: W region is smallcst and comprises the W part of Pilbara region of Westem Australia, and E region largest and includes NE Western Australia(Kimberley region), N Northern Territory, and NW Queensland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-56 mm, tail 23-29 mm, ear 10-4-14-4 mm, forearm 45-51 mm; weight 6-12 g. No specific data are available for hindfoot length. The Orange Diamond-laced Bat a medium-sired rhinomcterid. Individuals in the Pilbara population are slightly smaller than those in nonhem Australia. Pelage has similar tinge dorsally and \\ entrally, usualh bright orange; in some individuals, t is pale brown, pale yellow, or white; hairs can be darker around mes. Wing membranes are dark brown, and noseleaf and ears are pale pinkish to very pale grayish brown. Noseleaf is large (width 5 -3-8-9 mm) and diamond-shaped, with strap-like longitudinal projection across anterior part of anterior leaf and lving abore deep anterior medial emargination. Poste rior leaf of noseleaf has no tall posterior projections, and its anterior part has long and narrow projection, with rounded tip in medial position. Central and posterior pans of posterior leaf are scalloped with numerous cells, separated from each other b\\ fleshy septa. Thickened ridge lies beneath anterior leaf. Ears are small, triangular, and sharply pointed. Skull has dorsalh and lateralh prominent nasal swellings, depression between rostrum and braincase that is markedly higher than rostrum, and sagittal crest that coveis onlw central and posterior parts of braincase. Wide plates are present on dorsal sides of zygomatic bones. Greatest skull lengths are 15-9-18 mm, condflofanine lengths are 13-9-15 -7 mm, zygomatic widths are 8-9-1 mm, and upper tooth row (C -M lengths are 5 -4-6-4 mm. l’ is bilobed; C‘ is slender, with slight cingulum and large posterior secondary l” is small and extruded; C' and P‘ in contact and M‘ is little cusp; are; only reduced and has metacone. All lower incisors are tricuspid, C, is slender, P, has about one-half the crown area and height of P‘, and M, is unreduced. Baculum is gracile and 2 -1-2-3 mm long, with broadly pyramid-like proximal epiphysis and bluntly terminating simple distal epiphysis, slightly curved dorsally; it has narrow diaphysis (5-7% of baculum length) and proximal epiphysis (0-5-0-6 mm wide; 24-26% of baculum length).Habitat.Variety of habitats, including monsoon rainforests, tall open forests, open savanna woodlands, grasslands, and shrublands at elevations up to c. 800 min dry habitats and up to 400 min more humid habitats. The Orange Diamond-faced Bat seems to be more limited by availability of roosts than vegetative cover type, although dry open habitats represent much larger part of overall distribution than humid and closed forests. Geographically isolated population in Pilbara inhabits the most arid zone in overall distribution.Food and Feeding.The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is an aerial hawker and preys on flying insects of various sizes, mainly smaller moths and beetles. Diet composition shows opportunistic prey selection; during wet season, it clearly prefers flying tennites that provide fat-rich diets for pregnant and laetating females. Annually, diet averages 70% moths, 17% beetles, 7% termites (but in December, 056%), 5% flies, and mosquitoes, with occasional ants, wasps, mantises, lacewings, bugs, and cockroaches (representing 1 —2% together). Individuals forage along gorges, ravines, and larger watercourses and in open woodlands and over grassland hills.Breeding.The Orange Diamond-faced Bat seasonallv monoestrous. Females give birth to one young in late December or earlyjanuary after five-month gestation. First three months of pregnancy and sperm production occur during periods of low food availability, and late pregnancy and lactation coincide with maximum food availability. Gestation is prolonged for c.1550 days, although sperm storage and delayed embryonic development have not been observed. Females leave their dry season roosts during late pregnancy and lactation, returning only after young are weaned and independent in late February. This suggests they use separate roosts for birth and rearing of young in wet season. Females are reproductively mature at c.7 months old; males do not mate until 16-18 months old. Males have enlarged testes and mate injuly; mature spermatozoa were observed in testes in April, with increasing numbers up until copulation and declining numbers from August to October; and none were observed in December-March (wet season).Activity patterns.The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is unable to enter torpor and does not hibernate or estivate; remains active year-round and forages in all seasons. lt is strong and highly acrobatic flier; it flies rapidly (up to 26 kmh) with fast wingbeats, tends to forage with an erratic ziglagging flight pattem, and remains in flight all the time while foraging. 1 tforages at various heights: low to the ground or water surface at c.0 -1 m, up to the height above tree crowns, and in all stories in between, including understories and tree canopies. When leaving the day roost, flight is most enatic, which is considered anti-predator behavior. It roosts in underground spaces in natural caves, man-made mines, and occasionally buildings. might roost in tree hollows, but this has not been confirmed. Because the Orange Diamond-faced Bat cannot enter torpor, it needs to roost in relatively wann and humid spaces (28-32 C and 85-100% relative humidity) that naturally occur in deep caves or mines. Underground spaces with such conditions are relatively uncommon in most rocky landscapes of north-westem Australia, but in the monsoonal nonh, humid conditions probably allow use of more caves and rarely buildings. Orange Diamond-faced Bats are often seen flying along roads at night. They leave day roost 10-20 minutes after sunset and forage for several hours (mostly 1 -5-4 hours) or the entire night; however, most individuals return to roosts c.2 hours before sunrise. Sometimes, there is a second activity period of 1-2 hours before sunrise. When roosting, they hang freely from the cave ceiling or on cave walls and are separated from each other by 10-15 cm. Echolocation consists of multihannonic QCF calls where pulse is composed of long CF component, complemented at start and end by two short FM components (FM-CF-FM). The CF component of the first hannonic lasts c. 5-8 milliseconds, initial FM component is short upward sweep (not always detectable), and tenninating FM component is steep sweep of c. 20 kHz. Geographical variation in peak frequencies of calls was reported: 109-119 kHz (mean 114 -6 kHz) in northern Australiaand 116-126 kHz (mean 121 kHz) in the Pilbara region.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is colonial and creates colonies of a few to se \\ eral thousand individuals, typically up to several hundred. large colonies in the thousands are the exception, with only two currently known. Although there are reports of colonies of 20,000-25,000 individuals, such a size has not been confinned. Both sexes occur in larger colonies to mate in dry season (] uly), but later during late pregnancy and lactation (December-February), many females disappear from these caves, returning only after young are weaned and independent. Because there no evidence of migrations, the two main populations of Orange Diamond-faced Bats separated by the Great Sandy Desert (c. 1400 kmwide) probably have isolated for many thousands of years. Movements within regional popu-Iations are probablyjust related to searching for suitable roosts, with limited exchange among them.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. A national law in Australiaprotects the Orange Diamond-faced Bat.Bibliography. Armstrong (2002 2005 2006a 2006 b) Armstrong G« Co es (2007) Baud nette er a (2000). Church) (1991, 1994, 1995. 2008), Cramer 6 M (2016). Gray (1845). Hand (1997). H (19828)","taxonomy":"Rhínolophm aumnlim]. E. Gray in Ewe, 1845. “Port Essington, near the Hospital,\" Northern Territon, Australia.There are no formally recognized subspecies of R. aurrmha, although an isolated population in the Pilbara region of northern Western Australiawas suggested to represent a separate “fonn. Available evidence does not fully support its distinct status. Differences were in call frequencies among populations not completely concordant with documented pattern of genetic variation, although it is expected that populations have been isolated for about 30,000 years. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rh n nyctère d réGerman @fr | Go den H rseshoe Bat Orange H rseshoe Bat Orange Leaf n sed Bar P barn Leal nosed Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Rhinonycteridae","interpretedGenus":"Rhinonicteris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"204","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aurantia","name":"Rhinonicteris aurantia","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Australia, in two di¶ unct regions separated by Great Sandy Desert: W region is smallcst and comprises the W part of Pilbara region of Westem Australia, and E region largest and includes NE Western Australia(Kimberley region), N Northern Territory, and NW Queensland.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6611822/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Armstrong (2002 2005 2006a 2006 b) | Armstrong G« Co es (2007) | Baud nette er a (2000) | Church) | (1991, 1994, 1995. 2008) | Cramer 6 M (2016) | Gray (1845) | Hand (1997) | H (19828)","foodAndFeeding":"The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is an aerial hawker and preys on flying insects of various sizes, mainly smaller moths and beetles. Diet composition shows opportunistic prey selection; during wet season, it clearly prefers flying tennites that provide fat-rich diets for pregnant and laetating females. Annually, diet averages 70% moths, 17% beetles, 7% termites (but in December, 056%), 5% flies, and mosquitoes, with occasional ants, wasps, mantises, lacewings, bugs, and cockroaches (representing 1 —2% together). Individuals forage along gorges, ravines, and larger watercourses and in open woodlands and over grassland hills.","breeding":"The Orange Diamond-faced Bat seasonallv monoestrous. Females give birth to one young in late December or earlyjanuary after five-month gestation. First three months of pregnancy and sperm production occur during periods of low food availability, and late pregnancy and lactation coincide with maximum food availability. Gestation is prolonged for c.1550 days, although sperm storage and delayed embryonic development have not been observed. Females leave their dry season roosts during late pregnancy and lactation, returning only after young are weaned and independent in late February. This suggests they use separate roosts for birth and rearing of young in wet season. Females are reproductively mature at c.7 months old; males do not mate until 16-18 months old. Males have enlarged testes and mate injuly; mature spermatozoa were observed in testes in April, with increasing numbers up until copulation and declining numbers from August to October; and none were observed in December-March (wet season).","activityPatterns":"The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is unable to enter torpor and does not hibernate or estivate; remains active year-round and forages in all seasons. lt is strong and highly acrobatic flier; it flies rapidly (up to 26 kmh) with fast wingbeats, tends to forage with an erratic ziglagging flight pattem, and remains in flight all the time while foraging. 1 tforages at various heights: low to the ground or water surface at c.0 -1 m, up to the height above tree crowns, and in all stories in between, including understories and tree canopies. When leaving the day roost, flight is most enatic, which is considered anti-predator behavior. It roosts in underground spaces in natural caves, man-made mines, and occasionally buildings. might roost in tree hollows, but this has not been confirmed. Because the Orange Diamond-faced Bat cannot enter torpor, it needs to roost in relatively wann and humid spaces (28-32 C and 85-100% relative humidity) that naturally occur in deep caves or mines. Underground spaces with such conditions are relatively uncommon in most rocky landscapes of north-westem Australia, but in the monsoonal nonh, humid conditions probably allow use of more caves and rarely buildings. Orange Diamond-faced Bats are often seen flying along roads at night. They leave day roost 10-20 minutes after sunset and forage for several hours (mostly 1 -5-4 hours) or the entire night; however, most individuals return to roosts c.2 hours before sunrise. Sometimes, there is a second activity period of 1-2 hours before sunrise. When roosting, they hang freely from the cave ceiling or on cave walls and are separated from each other by 10-15 cm. Echolocation consists of multihannonic QCF calls where pulse is composed of long CF component, complemented at start and end by two short FM components (FM-CF-FM). The CF component of the first hannonic lasts c. 5-8 milliseconds, initial FM component is short upward sweep (not always detectable), and tenninating FM component is steep sweep of c. 20 kHz. Geographical variation in peak frequencies of calls was reported: 109-119 kHz (mean 114 -6 kHz) in northern Australiaand 116-126 kHz (mean 121 kHz) in the Pilbara region.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Orange Diamond-faced Bat is colonial and creates colonies of a few to se \\ eral thousand individuals, typically up to several hundred. large colonies in the thousands are the exception, with only two currently known. Although there are reports of colonies of 20,000-25,000 individuals, such a size has not been confinned. Both sexes occur in larger colonies to mate in dry season (] uly), but later during late pregnancy and lactation (December-February), many females disappear from these caves, returning only after young are weaned and independent. Because there no evidence of migrations, the two main populations of Orange Diamond-faced Bats separated by the Great Sandy Desert (c. 1400 kmwide) probably have isolated for many thousands of years. Movements within regional popu-Iations are probablyjust related to searching for suitable roosts, with limited exchange among them.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. A national law in Australiaprotects the Orange Diamond-faced Bat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-56 mm, tail 23-29 mm, ear 10-4-14-4 mm, forearm 45-51 mm; weight 6-12 g. No specific data are available for hindfoot length. The Orange Diamond-laced Bat a medium-sired rhinomcterid. Individuals in the Pilbara population are slightly smaller than those in nonhem Australia. Pelage has similar tinge dorsally and \\ entrally, usualh bright orange; in some individuals, t is pale brown, pale yellow, or white; hairs can be darker around mes. Wing membranes are dark brown, and noseleaf and ears are pale pinkish to very pale grayish brown. Noseleaf is large (width 5 -3-8-9 mm) and diamond-shaped, with strap-like longitudinal projection across anterior part of anterior leaf and lving abore deep anterior medial emargination. Poste rior leaf of noseleaf has no tall posterior projections, and its anterior part has long and narrow projection, with rounded tip in medial position. Central and posterior pans of posterior leaf are scalloped with numerous cells, separated from each other b\\ fleshy septa. Thickened ridge lies beneath anterior leaf. Ears are small, triangular, and sharply pointed. Skull has dorsalh and lateralh prominent nasal swellings, depression between rostrum and braincase that is markedly higher than rostrum, and sagittal crest that coveis onlw central and posterior parts of braincase. Wide plates are present on dorsal sides of zygomatic bones. Greatest skull lengths are 15-9-18 mm, condflofanine lengths are 13-9-15 -7 mm, zygomatic widths are 8-9-1 mm, and upper tooth row (C -M lengths are 5 -4-6-4 mm. l’ is bilobed; C‘ is slender, with slight cingulum and large posterior secondary l” is small and extruded; C' and P‘ in contact and M‘ is little cusp; are; only reduced and has metacone. All lower incisors are tricuspid, C, is slender, P, has about one-half the crown area and height of P‘, and M, is unreduced. Baculum is gracile and 2 -1-2-3 mm long, with broadly pyramid-like proximal epiphysis and bluntly terminating simple distal epiphysis, slightly curved dorsally; it has narrow diaphysis (5-7% of baculum length) and proximal epiphysis (0-5-0-6 mm wide; 24-26% of baculum length).","habitat":"Variety of habitats, including monsoon rainforests, tall open forests, open savanna woodlands, grasslands, and shrublands at elevations up to c. 800 min dry habitats and up to 400 min more humid habitats. The Orange Diamond-faced Bat seems to be more limited by availability of roosts than vegetative cover type, although dry open habitats represent much larger part of overall distribution than humid and closed forests. Geographically isolated population in Pilbara inhabits the most arid zone in overall distribution."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/83/24/0383245F2223977C8F09F4DEF81EFB14.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0383245F2223977C8F09F4DEF81EFB14","docName":"hbmw_9_Rhinonycteridae_194.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffba5c272223977c8e73f509ffb1ffd0","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"194","verbatimText":"Family RHINONYCTERIDAE(TRIDENT BATS)• Small insectivorous bats with rather small ears lacking tragus and typically large complex noseleaves that, in all but one species, have posterior margins with three tall pointed processes forming trident-like structures.• 6-12 cm.• Afrotropical, Australasian, and marginally Palearctic Regions.• From dry savannas to forest savannas and forests in tropics, marginally in subtropics.• 4 genera, 9 species, 9 taxa.• 1species Vulnerable; none extinct since 1600."} @@ -159,30 +159,30 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/86/EB/0386EB21C26AFFA2FA2DFE01F73B38BB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0386EB21C26AFFA2FA2DFE01F73B38BB","docName":"hbmw_4_Iniidae_0364.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbf9359c269ffa6ffe8ffb9ffd13a70","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"378","verbatimText":"3.Araguaian BotoInia araguaiaensisFrench:Boto de I'Araguaia/ German:Araguaia-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del AraguaiaTaxonomy.Inia araguaiaensis Hrbek et al., 2014, “entrance of Lake Jurumirim” Araguaia River, State of Goias.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Araguaia-Tocantins Basin in the Brazilian states of Goias, Tocantins, Mato Grosso, and Para.Descriptive notes.Few data available, but body measurements from individuals below and above Tucurui Dam fall into the range of other botos; the largest individual male recorded was 236 cm long (n = 9) and the largest female 201 cm (n = 12). One individual found at Curuca Estuary was 252 cm in total length. Like the other species of botos, the Araguaian Boto is strongly sexually dimorphic with adult males larger, more robust, more pink and with a more “ragged” appearance than females. Newborn and young individuals are dark gray; adults are lighter gray and with pinkish coloration below. The main differences between the skull of the Araguaian Boto and that of the two other species of botos are the larger biparietal width: males 8:1.9-2 cm (mean 8-7 cm, n = 2) and females 9.6-11.5 cm (mean 10-6 cm, n = 2), and larger greatest width of maxillaries (females 11.3-11.8 cm, mean 11:6 cm, n = 2). The length of the rostrum is 68% oftotal length of the skull in males and 66% in females, but based on measurements ofjust two animals of each sex. Number of teeth may be slightly less than in the Amazon River Dolphin, with total number per row ranging 24-28 (n = 3) teeth. Each upper and lower tooth row has 6-8 molar-type teeth on both sides.Habitat.The Araguaia River is a floodplain river with sinuous bed and muddy waters from the substantial sediment load. During the peak of the dry season (July/August) the depth of the river is dramatically reduced, exposing extensive sandbanks. The Tocantins River, however, is embanked, with relatively clear water, several rapids and a faster current. Botos occurin all habitats in this river, but highest densities occur (both during the seasons of low and falling water) in confluences and bays.Food and Feeding.Very little information is available for this species, but accounts of fishermen and observations of Araguaian Botos stealing fish from hooks and nets and pursuing schools of fish in an apparently cooperative way confirm the piscivorous diet of the species, similar to that of the two other species of botos. One study reported three species of fish seen in the mouths of Araguaian Botos: Hydrolycus armatus (Characiformes), and Pimelodus blochii and Oxydoras niger (both Siluriformes) of estimated size of 80 cm, 40 cm, and 60 cm respectively. Large catfish (over 60 cm) were found floating dead with boto teeth marks and missing chunks of the posterior part of the body torn out by botos.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin. Lactating females were recorded in the months ofJuly, August, and September without reference to the size of their young. Two halfgrown fetuses were collected in August, several years apart. Apparent neonates have been observed year-round.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but due to the strong seasonal variation in the water level, and fish movements during the transition from high to low waters, Araguaian Botos must move from lagoons and flooded areas to main river channels, as do the other species of botos.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Group size varies seasonally and usually is between one and three individuals. In the Araguaia River singletons are predominant but 3-4 dolphins are not uncommon, and larger aggregations can occur around a resource or at a confluence or bay. During low water, groups of botos drive schools of fish toward sandbanks and into very shallow water, where they are captured. Surveys above the Tucurui Dam revealed that even after the area was flooded, botos tended to aggregate in places where confluences and bays previously existed, suggesting a strong fidelity to the area. Other characteristics of their movements and social organization are likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin.Status and Conservation.Because of its recent description, the Araguaian Boto has not yet been formally evaluated on The IUCN Red List. However, due to population-level threats and fragmentation of the population by dams, the species conforms to IUCN criteria designating it as Vulnerable. The Araguaian Boto has a restricted distribution, with fragmented habitat and population, and low population size when compared to the Amazonian River Dolphin. Animal densities of only 0-8-0-98 ind/km* have been reported, and the species appears to have low levels of genetic diversity. In addition to the seven large dams that have been built in the Tocantins River (Tucurui, Luiz Barreto, Lajeado, Peixe Angical, Sao Salvador, Cana Brava, and Serra da Mesa) and two new large dams planned (Serra Quebrada and Maraba) which divide the boto population into nine fragments, agricultural and ranching activities cause cumulative negative effects on several biotic and abiotic aspects of the river basin ecosystem. After 1984, the Tucurui Dam, 11 km long and 78 m high, totally isolated the Araguaian Boto population, stopping its contact with botos from the Para River and estuary about 350 km below. Before the construction of the dam, botos were recorded above and below the rapids and falls that existed in the area, all flooded bythe reservoir. So, potentially, the species can also occur below the Tucurui Dam and its confluence with the Para River to near Soure on the east side of Marajo Island. Recent analysis of mtDNA for a specimen from Para State revealed a different and isolated geographic form of boto, genetically distant from the Amazonian River Dolphin and the Bolivian Boto. In the Tocantins River, the most upstream and southerly records were well above the rapids near Jatobal as well as below and above the hydroelectric dam of Serra da Mesa, near Uruacu and rivers Lajeado and Manoel Alves, among others. In the Araguaia River, the Araguaian Boto has been recorded between the city of Aragarcas/Barra do Garcas and the southern part of Bananal Island past the city of Luis Alves to Santa Isabel rapids and down to Maraba, and in tributaries such as the Formoso, Cristalino, Vermelho, Peixe, Crixas Acu, and Agua Limpa rivers, as well at lakes dos Tigres and Rico in Goias State, up to the confluence with the Tocantins River, and also in Lake Montaria in Mato Grosso State. Interactions with fisheries, including net entanglement and dolphins being shot for taking fish from nets and offlines, result in direct mortality. Anotherthreat is the large concentration oftourists on the Araguaia River from May to October (dry season) when camping facilities are established on riverine sandbanks, motorized boats, and other high-speedvehicles are common, and intensive sport fishing results in botos ingesting hooks and lines.Bibliography.Araujo (2010), Araujo & da Silva (2014), Araujo & Wang (2012), Best & da Silva (1989a), do Carmo & da Silva (2010), Costa et al. (2013), Hrbek et al. (2014), Latrubesse & Stevaux (2006), Martin et al. (2004), Natale (2013), da Silva (1994), da Silva et al. (1998), Rebelo & do Carmo (2008).","taxonomy":"Inia araguaiaensis Hrbek et al., 2014, “entrance of Lake Jurumirim” Araguaia River, State of Goias.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Boto de @fr | 'Araguaia @en | Araguaia-Delfin @de | Delfin del Araguaia @es","interpretedAuthority":"Hrbek et al. 2014","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Iniidae","interpretedGenus":"Inia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"378","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"araguaiaensis","name":"Inia araguaiaensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Araguaia-Tocantins Basin in the Brazilian states of Goias, Tocantins, Mato Grosso, and Para.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6599260/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Araujo (2010) | Araujo & da Silva (2014) | Araujo & Wang (2012) | Best & da Silva (1989a) | do Carmo & da Silva (2010) | Costa et al. (2013) | Hrbek et al. (2014) | Latrubesse & Stevaux (2006) | Martin et al. (2004) | Natale (2013) | da Silva (1994) | da Silva et al. (1998) | Rebelo & do Carmo (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Very little information is available for this species, but accounts of fishermen and observations of Araguaian Botos stealing fish from hooks and nets and pursuing schools of fish in an apparently cooperative way confirm the piscivorous diet of the species, similar to that of the two other species of botos. One study reported three species of fish seen in the mouths of Araguaian Botos: Hydrolycus armatus (Characiformes), and Pimelodus blochii and Oxydoras niger (both Siluriformes) of estimated size of 80 cm, 40 cm, and 60 cm respectively. Large catfish (over 60 cm) were found floating dead with boto teeth marks and missing chunks of the posterior part of the body torn out by botos.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but it is likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin. Lactating females were recorded in the months ofJuly, August, and September without reference to the size of their young. Two halfgrown fetuses were collected in August, several years apart. Apparent neonates have been observed year-round.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but due to the strong seasonal variation in the water level, and fish movements during the transition from high to low waters, Araguaian Botos must move from lagoons and flooded areas to main river channels, as do the other species of botos.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Group size varies seasonally and usually is between one and three individuals. In the Araguaia River singletons are predominant but 3-4 dolphins are not uncommon, and larger aggregations can occur around a resource or at a confluence or bay. During low water, groups of botos drive schools of fish toward sandbanks and into very shallow water, where they are captured. Surveys above the Tucurui Dam revealed that even after the area was flooded, botos tended to aggregate in places where confluences and bays previously existed, suggesting a strong fidelity to the area. Other characteristics of their movements and social organization are likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin.","statusAndConservation":"Because of its recent description, the Araguaian Boto has not yet been formally evaluated on The IUCN Red List. However, due to population-level threats and fragmentation of the population by dams, the species conforms to IUCN criteria designating it as Vulnerable. The Araguaian Boto has a restricted distribution, with fragmented habitat and population, and low population size when compared to the Amazonian River Dolphin. Animal densities of only 0-8-0-98 ind/km* have been reported, and the species appears to have low levels of genetic diversity. In addition to the seven large dams that have been built in the Tocantins River (Tucurui, Luiz Barreto, Lajeado, Peixe Angical, Sao Salvador, Cana Brava, and Serra da Mesa) and two new large dams planned (Serra Quebrada and Maraba) which divide the boto population into nine fragments, agricultural and ranching activities cause cumulative negative effects on several biotic and abiotic aspects of the river basin ecosystem. After 1984, the Tucurui Dam, 11 km long and 78 m high, totally isolated the Araguaian Boto population, stopping its contact with botos from the Para River and estuary about 350 km below. Before the construction of the dam, botos were recorded above and below the rapids and falls that existed in the area, all flooded bythe reservoir. So, potentially, the species can also occur below the Tucurui Dam and its confluence with the Para River to near Soure on the east side of Marajo Island. Recent analysis of mtDNA for a specimen from Para State revealed a different and isolated geographic form of boto, genetically distant from the Amazonian River Dolphin and the Bolivian Boto. In the Tocantins River, the most upstream and southerly records were well above the rapids near Jatobal as well as below and above the hydroelectric dam of Serra da Mesa, near Uruacu and rivers Lajeado and Manoel Alves, among others. In the Araguaia River, the Araguaian Boto has been recorded between the city of Aragarcas/Barra do Garcas and the southern part of Bananal Island past the city of Luis Alves to Santa Isabel rapids and down to Maraba, and in tributaries such as the Formoso, Cristalino, Vermelho, Peixe, Crixas Acu, and Agua Limpa rivers, as well at lakes dos Tigres and Rico in Goias State, up to the confluence with the Tocantins River, and also in Lake Montaria in Mato Grosso State. Interactions with fisheries, including net entanglement and dolphins being shot for taking fish from nets and offlines, result in direct mortality. Anotherthreat is the large concentration oftourists on the Araguaia River from May to October (dry season) when camping facilities are established on riverine sandbanks, motorized boats, and other high-speedvehicles are common, and intensive sport fishing results in botos ingesting hooks and lines.","descriptiveNotes":"Few data available, but body measurements from individuals below and above Tucurui Dam fall into the range of other botos; the largest individual male recorded was 236 cm long (n = 9) and the largest female 201 cm (n = 12). One individual found at Curuca Estuary was 252 cm in total length. Like the other species of botos, the Araguaian Boto is strongly sexually dimorphic with adult males larger, more robust, more pink and with a more “ragged” appearance than females. Newborn and young individuals are dark gray; adults are lighter gray and with pinkish coloration below. The main differences between the skull of the Araguaian Boto and that of the two other species of botos are the larger biparietal width: males 8:1.9-2 cm (mean 8-7 cm, n = 2) and females 9.6-11.5 cm (mean 10-6 cm, n = 2), and larger greatest width of maxillaries (females 11.3-11.8 cm, mean 11:6 cm, n = 2). The length of the rostrum is 68% oftotal length of the skull in males and 66% in females, but based on measurements ofjust two animals of each sex. Number of teeth may be slightly less than in the Amazon River Dolphin, with total number per row ranging 24-28 (n = 3) teeth. Each upper and lower tooth row has 6-8 molar-type teeth on both sides.","habitat":"The Araguaia River is a floodplain river with sinuous bed and muddy waters from the substantial sediment load. During the peak of the dry season (July/August) the depth of the river is dramatically reduced, exposing extensive sandbanks. The Tocantins River, however, is embanked, with relatively clear water, several rapids and a faster current. Botos occurin all habitats in this river, but highest densities occur (both during the seasons of low and falling water) in confluences and bays."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/86/EB/0386EB21C26AFFA5FF23FD93F5E43B18.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0386EB21C26AFFA5FF23FD93F5E43B18","docName":"hbmw_4_Iniidae_0364.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbf9359c269ffa6ffe8ffb9ffd13a70","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"378","verbatimText":"2.Bolivian BotoInia boliviensisFrench:Boto de Bolivie/ German:Bolivien-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del MadeiraOther common names:Bolivian BufeoTaxonomy.[nia boliviensis d’Orbigny, 1834, “la riviere du Guaporé” (= Itenez) near “Principe de Béira,” Brazil.Recent studies of mitochondrial control region sequences and the cytochrome b gene by E. Banguera-Hinestroza and colleagues in 2002 and mtDNA and nDNA by W. Gravena in 2013, reinforced earlier morphological evidence provided by V. M. F. da Silva in 1994, suggesting that the Bolivian Botos are an evolutionarily significant unit distinct from those in the Amazon and Orinoco drainages. Monotypic.Distribution.Bolivian lowlands (NE to the Chiquitano Mts and SW to the piedmont elevations in the subandean region) and SW Brazilian Amazon in the upper Madeira River, and the Beni, Ichilo, Marmoré, Ipurupuru, Iboré, Baré, Abuna, and Iténez (= Guaporé) rivers and their tributaries, all of which drain into the Madeira; recently also recorded below Santo Antonio falls between the cities of Porto Velho and Borba.Descriptive notes.Only two reliable body length measurements have been published 208 cm and 216 cm (adult females), but size is presumably very similar to the Amazon River Dolphin (1. geoffrensis) and the Araguaian Boto (I. araguaiaensis). Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in all species, with males larger and more robust than females. The main differences between the skull of boto species are the relative length of their rostrums and the number of teeth, which are greater in the Bolivian Boto, and the biparietal skull width which is comparatively narrower in the Bolivian Boto. Relative rostral length: ¢.73% of total skull length vs. ¢.65% in the Amazonian River Dolphin; number of teeth: upper row 31-35 teeth (mean 33-3) and lower jaw from 31-34 teeth (mean 32-3). Each upper and lower tooth row has 9-11 molar-type teeth.Habitat.Sediment-laden white water and clear water, but not black water, in lowland floodplains (oxbow and “varzea” or white-water lakes). Similar to other botos, it aggregates at confluences and meetings of waters and is present in most of the aquatic habitats ofthe region. Otherwise, the habitat of the Bolivian Boto is quite similar to the other species of botos in the Amazon.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but examination of stomach contents of two Bolivian Botos suggests a catholic piscivorous diet, similar to that of the Amazon River Dolphin.Breeding.There is no information available for this species, but it is likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin, in which the presence of neonates and juveniles has been observed throughout the year, with births peaking during low-water season.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species, but it probably moves seasonally due to fish migration and the annual flooding cycle. During the transition from high to low waters dolphins leave lagoons and flooded areas and go to main river channels, as do botos in the Brazilian Amazon and Araguaia river basins.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Encounter rates of Bolivian Botos are 0-2-5-8 ind/km of waterway, with greater densities in larger rivers. As described for botos elsewhere, this species is commonly sighted singly or in groups of up to four. Larger aggregations occur around a resource or in confluences and bays. Other characteristics of their movements and social organization have not been studied, but are likely similar to those of the Amazon River Dolphin.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as I. geoffrensisboliviensis). In Bolivia, this dolphin is indirectly protected by the Political Constitution and the Supreme Decree 25458 of July 1999, with a total ban on the hunting and trade of those native wildlife species considered to be in danger of extinction. In March 2008 the Beni Department issued a Law decreeing the Bolivian Boto as a Natural Heritage. The Bolivian Boto has been mostly separated from the congeneric Amazon River Dolphin living in the lower Madeira by a sequence of rapids, but these have not formed a total barrier to downstream movement; individual Bolivian Botos have been found between and below the rapids. During years of exceptionally high water levels, upstream movements may even have been possible. However, the construction of the Jirau and Santo Antonio hydroelectric dams on the Madeira River in Brazil, begun in 2008 and completed in 2013, have now completely blocked all passage of botos in either direction. There are no quantitative studies of abundance or trends of the Bolivian Boto. Estimated densities for tributaries of the Iténez and Mamoré rivers were 3-2 ind/km and 3-5 ind/km, respectively, with estimated population sizes of 2986 and 1369 individuals. So far, the only known human impact on the Bolivian Botois entanglement in monofilament gillnets.Bibliography.Aliaga-Rossel (2000, 2002), Aliaga-Rossel et al. (2006), Banguera-Hinestroza et al. (2002), Best & da Silva (1989a, 1989b, 1993), Gravena (2013), Pilleri & Gihr (1977), da Silva (1994), Tavera et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"[nia boliviensis d’Orbigny, 1834, “la riviere du Guaporé” (= Itenez) near “Principe de Béira,” Brazil.Recent studies of mitochondrial control region sequences and the cytochrome b gene by E. Banguera-Hinestroza and colleagues in 2002 and mtDNA and nDNA by W. Gravena in 2013, reinforced earlier morphological evidence provided by V. M. F. da Silva in 1994, suggesting that the Bolivian Botos are an evolutionarily significant unit distinct from those in the Amazon and Orinoco drainages. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Boto de Bolivie @fr | Bolivien-Delfin @de | Delfin del Madeira @es | Bolivian Bufeo @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"d'Orbigny","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Iniidae","interpretedGenus":"Inia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"378","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"boliviensis","name":"Inia boliviensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Bolivian lowlands (NE to the Chiquitano Mts and SW to the piedmont elevations in the subandean region) and SW Brazilian Amazon in the upper Madeira River, and the Beni, Ichilo, Marmoré, Ipurupuru, Iboré, Baré, Abuna, and Iténez (= Guaporé) rivers and their tributaries, all of which drain into the Madeira; recently also recorded below Santo Antonio falls between the cities of Porto Velho and Borba.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6599258/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aliaga-Rossel (2000, 2002) | Aliaga-Rossel et al. (2006) | Banguera-Hinestroza et al. (2002) | Best & da Silva (1989a, 1989b, 1993) | Gravena (2013) | Pilleri & Gihr (1977) | da Silva (1994) | Tavera et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but examination of stomach contents of two Bolivian Botos suggests a catholic piscivorous diet, similar to that of the Amazon River Dolphin.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species, but it is likely similar to the Amazon River Dolphin, in which the presence of neonates and juveniles has been observed throughout the year, with births peaking during low-water season.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species, but it probably moves seasonally due to fish migration and the annual flooding cycle. During the transition from high to low waters dolphins leave lagoons and flooded areas and go to main river channels, as do botos in the Brazilian Amazon and Araguaia river basins.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Encounter rates of Bolivian Botos are 0-2-5-8 ind/km of waterway, with greater densities in larger rivers. As described for botos elsewhere, this species is commonly sighted singly or in groups of up to four. Larger aggregations occur around a resource or in confluences and bays. Other characteristics of their movements and social organization have not been studied, but are likely similar to those of the Amazon River Dolphin.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as I. geoffrensisboliviensis). In Bolivia, this dolphin is indirectly protected by the Political Constitution and the Supreme Decree 25458 of July 1999, with a total ban on the hunting and trade of those native wildlife species considered to be in danger of extinction. In March 2008 the Beni Department issued a Law decreeing the Bolivian Boto as a Natural Heritage. The Bolivian Boto has been mostly separated from the congeneric Amazon River Dolphin living in the lower Madeira by a sequence of rapids, but these have not formed a total barrier to downstream movement; individual Bolivian Botos have been found between and below the rapids. During years of exceptionally high water levels, upstream movements may even have been possible. However, the construction of the Jirau and Santo Antonio hydroelectric dams on the Madeira River in Brazil, begun in 2008 and completed in 2013, have now completely blocked all passage of botos in either direction. There are no quantitative studies of abundance or trends of the Bolivian Boto. Estimated densities for tributaries of the Iténez and Mamoré rivers were 3-2 ind/km and 3-5 ind/km, respectively, with estimated population sizes of 2986 and 1369 individuals. So far, the only known human impact on the Bolivian Botois entanglement in monofilament gillnets.","descriptiveNotes":"Only two reliable body length measurements have been published 208 cm and 216 cm (adult females), but size is presumably very similar to the Amazon River Dolphin (1. geoffrensis) and the Araguaian Boto (I. araguaiaensis). Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in all species, with males larger and more robust than females. The main differences between the skull of boto species are the relative length of their rostrums and the number of teeth, which are greater in the Bolivian Boto, and the biparietal skull width which is comparatively narrower in the Bolivian Boto. Relative rostral length: ¢.73% of total skull length vs. ¢.65% in the Amazonian River Dolphin; number of teeth: upper row 31-35 teeth (mean 33-3) and lower jaw from 31-34 teeth (mean 32-3). Each upper and lower tooth row has 9-11 molar-type teeth.","habitat":"Sediment-laden white water and clear water, but not black water, in lowland floodplains (oxbow and “varzea” or white-water lakes). Similar to other botos, it aggregates at confluences and meetings of waters and is present in most of the aquatic habitats ofthe region. Otherwise, the habitat of the Bolivian Boto is quite similar to the other species of botos in the Amazon."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/86/EB/0386EB21C26BFFA5FF6CFE0DFDF53BAD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"0386EB21C26BFFA5FF6CFE0DFDF53BAD","docName":"hbmw_4_Iniidae_0364.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbf9359c269ffa6ffe8ffb9ffd13a70","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"377","verbatimText":"1.Amazon River DolphinInia geoffrensisFrench:Boto de Amazone/ German:Amazonas-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del AmazonasOther common names:Boto, Bufeo, Pink River Dolphin; Orinoco Boto, Orinoco Bufeo (Orinoco population)Taxonomy.Delphinus geoffrensis de Blainville, 1817, “sur la cote du Brésil,” probably upper Amazon of Brazil.Botos living in the Orinoco Basin have been recognized as a subspecies, the “Orinoco Boto” (humboldtiana), by some authors, but movement of dolphins between this and the adjacent Amazon Basin is very likely to occur. Monotypic.Distribution.Most of the Orinoco and Amazon basins in Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Total length 219-255 cm (males) and 182-225 cm (females); weight 113.5-207 kg (males) and 72-154 kg (females). Botos are the largest of all river dolphins. Amazon River Dolphins are highly sexually dimorphic, with adult males longer and heavier than females. Mature adult males often have “cobblestoning” skin modifications on pectoral fins and tailstock. These are related to fighting and may be a form of scar tissue or a shield or weapon. Body of the Amazon River Dolphin is corpulent and heavy but extremely flexible, capable of bending and twisting. Young are dark gray and became lighter with age. Adults can be from uniform pink to uniform dark gray, but usually grayer above and pinker below. Adult males are more pink than females and become pinker with age. The difference of body color between sexes is greater than in any other cetacean, with pinkness of males perhaps advertising size and strength in sexual display. Rostrum is prominent and robust, with short bristles on top and below the jaw. Eyes are small and inconspicuous, but vision is good. Amazon River Dolphins have two different types of teeth: conical and molartype. Total number of upper jaw teeth range from 23-35 (mean 26-6) and the lower jaw from 24-35 (mean 27-1). Each upper and lower mandible has 7-9 molar-type teeth on both sides. Melon is relatively small and flaccid and can be altered in shape by muscular control. Pectoral fins are large, broad, thick, paddle-like, and capable of desynchronized movements, allowing botos to swim backward and in shallow places. Flukes are broad, thick, and triangular in shape. Dorsal fin is not falcate (curved), but laterally flattened and like a dorsal keel extending from the mid-body to the strongly keeled caudal peduncle.Habitat.Freshwater, in waterways from the upper reaches of the Amazon and Orinoco to just above the brackish waters of their estuaries. Botos can swim in water shallower than 2 m and come very close to the shore c.1 m depth. Most Amazon River Dolphins live in areas of low gradient, where annual cycles of water depth produce profound habitat changes. For half the year, Amazon River Dolphins have access to vast areas of inundated floodplain, much of it consisting of a complex mosaic of forest, lakes, and channels. This habitat is characterized by low current and high fish density, providing a safe environment, especially for young individuals. Occupied rivers, lakes, and channels vary substantially in character. Some have acidic, black water emanating from flooded forests. Others have clear water originating in geologically old drainage basins. Many have white water laden with sediments from the Andes. Fish communities vary among these ecosystems, but Amazon River Dolphins feed on a wide variety of fish species. Seasonal changes in precipitation and water depth dominate habitats of botos. Major rivers and channels retain adequate water for Amazon River Dolphins throughout the year, but many of the smaller channels and lakes cannot be relied on to retain water in the dry season, so botos and most fish abandon them for several months of the year. The flexible body and broad, rotatable flippers of Amazon River Dolphins, together with the lack of a “normal” falcate dorsal fin, are adaptations for swimming in the tangled vegetation of the flooded forest.Food and Feeding.The heterodont (more than one type of tooth) dentition of all three species of botos, unique in cetaceans, allows them to capture and crush armored prey such as armored catfish, crabs, and, on occasion, turtles. Fish dominates the diet of all botos. More than 50 fish species, representing more than 20 families, have been found in the stomachs of Amazon River Dolphins in the Central Amazon area, Brazil, including freshwater fish of benthic, littoral, and pelagic habits. Fish of 5-80 cm in length (average c.20 cm) are consumed. Prey diversity is greater at high water levels when botos have access to flooded forests.Breeding.Births of botos in Central Amazon, Brazil, occur throughout the year, with a small peak in the low-water season. Length of gestation is not accurately known, but it is probably 11-12 months. Littersize is always one. Neonates are 80-90 cm long and c.10-13 kg at birth. They remain with their mothers for at least two years. Simultaneous pregnancy and lactation are not uncommon, and reproductivciy active mature females spend most of their lives accompanied by a dependent offspring.Activity patterns.There is limited evidence of diurnal activity patterns of Amazon River Dolphins from echolocation click density and movements, but presence or absence of light is arguably unlikely to be of profound importance because botos live in waters where visibility and light penetration are usually very low. Indeed,vision is not essential to their well-being, and a substantial number of healthy botos have opaque eye lenses (cataracts).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Studies of Amazon River Dolphins in Brazil have relied on the resightings of individuals or, in one case, close-range detection of radio signals from marked individuals. Therefore, long-range movements are almost certainly underrepresented but are likely to occur. Daily movements of up to 20 km are normal, with sustained swimming speeds of 3-6 km/h. About half of Amazon River Dolphins at the entrance of the Mamiraua Lake system in the central Brazilian Amazon were “residents,” defined as being seen there in at least seven months of the year, and 90% of the botos seen inside the system met that definition. The “non-residents” demonstrated a range offidelity to the area, with some (among the hundreds marked permanently with freeze-brands) never being encountered again. Seasonal changes in water level and availabilities of habitats resulted in major local movements of botos on a scale of a few tens of kilometers, but they did not change overall numbers of botos in a local area. Similarly, no larger-scale migrations of Amazon River Dolphins are known or suspected, and there are no obvious reasons for such population-level movements.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Population sizes and trends are inadequately known. The Amazon River Dolphin is distributed throughout most of the Amazon Basin, and it occurs in and near the main stem of the Orinoco River and its largest tributary, the Apure River. It has been reported in smaller rivers of the Orinoco River system and may occur at low densities throughout this basin. Amazon River Dolphins do not occupy salty or brackish waters, but they are tolerant of a wide variety of types of freshwater and habitats. Shallow water, impassable rapids, and availability of food likely limit distribution of the Amazon River Dolphin. Total population size is unknown, but it is likely tens of thousands or more. In the year 2000, 13,000 Amazon River Dolphins were estimated to occur in an area of ¢.11,240 km? in Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve in the central Brazilian Amazon. Encounter rates are ¢.0-6 ind/km of waterway, and most botos in the major rivers occur near the margins. Estimated density of Iniain the Amazon River in Colombia (Loretoyacu and Javari rivers) was 1-8 ind/km? in an area of 593 km?, giving a total population estimate of 1115 botos. In Peru, in the Samiria River and a stretch of the Maranon River between the city of Iquitos and the confluence with the Samiria River, densities were 2.7 ind/km? and 5-9 ind/km? in an area of 554 km?, and estimated population size of 917 botos. In the Ecuadorian Amazon, in the rivers Napo, Cuyabeno, Yasuni, Lagartococha, and Aguarico in a surveyed area of 144 km?®, the population size estimate was 147 botos; encounter rates ranged 0-03-0-4 ind/km®. In the Orinoco River estimated density was 1-1 ind/km?* and population size 1779 in a surveyed area of 1684 km. The Amazon River Dolphin has been widespread and abundant, despite loss of many individuals (probably thousands) per year to entanglement and drowning in monofilament gillnets,first introduced in the 1960s and now used by almost every riverside household in the region. Young and juvenile botos were, and remain, especially vulnerable. Since 2000, standardized monitoring of abundance of Amazon River Dolphins in Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve detected a marked increase in mortality and the beginning of a steady decline in boto abundance. This coincided with reports of the deliberate killing of botos for use as fish bait. Botos are used as bait to catch an abundant scavenging catfish, the zamurito (Calophysus macropterus, Siluriformes), which is widely distributed in the Amazon River Basin. One person can catch hundreds of catfish in a single night, with no equipment other than a large box to hold the catch and a supply of suitable bait. As stocks of catfish diminished in Colombia, this method offishing was exported downriver into Brazil, and today botos from the Brazilian Amazon are harpooned and often sold specifically for bait in Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil. Hunting botos is illegal, clandestine, and almost impossible to quantify. Nevertheless, the approximate size of the catfish catch is known, and calculations of the ratio of botos used per ton of catfish landed, derived from the communities involved, indicates that across its distribution, thousands of Amazon River Dolphins are killed each year in pursuit of this one fishery. In some places, the impact of this hunt on the overall population of Amazon River Dolphins appears to be profound. The hunt continues unabated, and the population continues to decline at an annual rate of ¢.10%. The Amazon River Dolphin is steeped in folklore legends. River-dwelling communities in Brazil fear and revere the Amazon River Dolphin, which is reputed to transform into a man under cover of darkness and seduce women, thereby explaining unexpected pregnancies in human fishing communities. Supposed body parts of Amazon River Dolphins are bought as love charms in Amazonian markets, but DNA analyses have revealed that these are rarely accurately labeled, at least in recent times. Most derive from domestic pigs and sheep, and the Guiana Dolphin (Sotalia guianensis), an ocean dolphin.Bibliography.Aliaga-Rossel et al. (2006), Araujo (2010), Araujo & da Silva (2014), Araujo & Wang (2012), Banguera-Hinestroza et al. (2002), Best (1984), Best & da Silva (1983, 1984, 1989a, 1989b, 1993), de Blainville (1817), Costa et al. (2013), Cuvier (1823), Desmarest (1822), Dutra et al. (2013), Gervais (1855), Gomez-Salazar et al. (2012), Gravena et al. (2008), Hrbek et al. (2014), Lailson-Brito et al. (2008), Latrubesse & Stevaux (2006), Martin & da Silva (2004a, 2004b, 2006), Martin, da Silva & Rothery (2008), Martin, da Silva & Salmon (2004), May-Collado & Wartzok (2007), McGuire & Aliaga-Rossel (2010), McGuire & Winemiller (1998), Mead & Koehnken (1991), Mintzer et al. (2013), d'Orbigny (1834), Podos et al. (2002), Rapp (1837), Reeves & Martin (2009), Reeves, Jefferson et al. (2008c), Romagnoli (2009), Romagnoli et al. (2011), Sasaki (2013), Serrano et al. (2007), da Silva (1983, 1994, 2009), da Silva & Best (1990,1996), da Silva & Martin (2000, 2007, 2010), da Silva, Goulding & Barthem (2008), da Silva, Martin & do Carmo (2011), Sioli (1984), Slater (1994), von Spix & von Martius (1831), Tavera et al. (2010), Tregenza et al. (2007), Trujillo et al. (2010), Vidal et al. (1997).","taxonomy":"Delphinus geoffrensis de Blainville, 1817, “sur la cote du Brésil,” probably upper Amazon of Brazil.Botos living in the Orinoco Basin have been recognized as a subspecies, the “Orinoco Boto” (humboldtiana), by some authors, but movement of dolphins between this and the adjacent Amazon Basin is very likely to occur. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Boto de Amazone @fr | Amazonas-Delfin @de | Delfin del Amazonas @es | Boto @en | Bufeo @en | Pink River Dolphin; Orinoco Boto @en | Orinoco Bufeo (Orinoco population) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Blainville","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Iniidae","interpretedGenus":"Inia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"377","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"geoffrensis","name":"Inia geoffrensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Most of the Orinoco and Amazon basins in Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6599256/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aliaga-Rossel et al. (2006) | Araujo (2010) | Araujo & da Silva (2014) | Araujo & Wang (2012) | Banguera-Hinestroza et al. (2002) | Best (1984) | Best & da Silva (1983, 1984, 1989a, 1989b, 1993) | de Blainville (1817) | Costa et al. (2013) | Cuvier (1823) | Desmarest (1822) | Dutra et al. (2013) | Gervais (1855) | Gomez-Salazar et al. (2012) | Gravena et al. (2008) | Hrbek et al. (2014) | Lailson-Brito et al. (2008) | Latrubesse & Stevaux (2006) | Martin & da Silva (2004a, 2004b, 2006) | Martin, da Silva & Rothery (2008) | Martin, da Silva & Salmon (2004) | May-Collado & Wartzok (2007) | McGuire & Aliaga-Rossel (2010) | McGuire & Winemiller (1998) | Mead & Koehnken (1991) | Mintzer et al. (2013) | d'Orbigny (1834) | Podos et al. (2002) | Rapp (1837) | Reeves & Martin (2009) | Reeves, Jefferson et al. (2008c) | Romagnoli (2009) | Romagnoli et al. (2011) | Sasaki (2013) | Serrano et al. (2007) | da Silva (1983, 1994, 2009) | da Silva & Best (1990,1996) | da Silva & Martin (2000, 2007, 2010) | da Silva, Goulding & Barthem (2008) | da Silva, Martin & do Carmo (2011) | Sioli (1984) | Slater (1994) | von Spix & von Martius (1831) | Tavera et al. (2010) | Tregenza et al. (2007) | Trujillo et al. (2010) | Vidal et al. (1997)","foodAndFeeding":"The heterodont (more than one type of tooth) dentition of all three species of botos, unique in cetaceans, allows them to capture and crush armored prey such as armored catfish, crabs, and, on occasion, turtles. Fish dominates the diet of all botos. More than 50 fish species, representing more than 20 families, have been found in the stomachs of Amazon River Dolphins in the Central Amazon area, Brazil, including freshwater fish of benthic, littoral, and pelagic habits. Fish of 5-80 cm in length (average c.20 cm) are consumed. Prey diversity is greater at high water levels when botos have access to flooded forests.","breeding":"Births of botos in Central Amazon, Brazil, occur throughout the year, with a small peak in the low-water season. Length of gestation is not accurately known, but it is probably 11-12 months. Littersize is always one. Neonates are 80-90 cm long and c.10-13 kg at birth. They remain with their mothers for at least two years. Simultaneous pregnancy and lactation are not uncommon, and reproductivciy active mature females spend most of their lives accompanied by a dependent offspring.","activityPatterns":"There is limited evidence of diurnal activity patterns of Amazon River Dolphins from echolocation click density and movements, but presence or absence of light is arguably unlikely to be of profound importance because botos live in waters where visibility and light penetration are usually very low. Indeed,vision is not essential to their well-being, and a substantial number of healthy botos have opaque eye lenses (cataracts).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Studies of Amazon River Dolphins in Brazil have relied on the resightings of individuals or, in one case, close-range detection of radio signals from marked individuals. Therefore, long-range movements are almost certainly underrepresented but are likely to occur. Daily movements of up to 20 km are normal, with sustained swimming speeds of 3-6 km/h. About half of Amazon River Dolphins at the entrance of the Mamiraua Lake system in the central Brazilian Amazon were “residents,” defined as being seen there in at least seven months of the year, and 90% of the botos seen inside the system met that definition. The “non-residents” demonstrated a range offidelity to the area, with some (among the hundreds marked permanently with freeze-brands) never being encountered again. Seasonal changes in water level and availabilities of habitats resulted in major local movements of botos on a scale of a few tens of kilometers, but they did not change overall numbers of botos in a local area. Similarly, no larger-scale migrations of Amazon River Dolphins are known or suspected, and there are no obvious reasons for such population-level movements.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Population sizes and trends are inadequately known. The Amazon River Dolphin is distributed throughout most of the Amazon Basin, and it occurs in and near the main stem of the Orinoco River and its largest tributary, the Apure River. It has been reported in smaller rivers of the Orinoco River system and may occur at low densities throughout this basin. Amazon River Dolphins do not occupy salty or brackish waters, but they are tolerant of a wide variety of types of freshwater and habitats. Shallow water, impassable rapids, and availability of food likely limit distribution of the Amazon River Dolphin. Total population size is unknown, but it is likely tens of thousands or more. In the year 2000, 13,000 Amazon River Dolphins were estimated to occur in an area of ¢.11,240 km? in Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve in the central Brazilian Amazon. Encounter rates are ¢.0-6 ind/km of waterway, and most botos in the major rivers occur near the margins. Estimated density of Iniain the Amazon River in Colombia (Loretoyacu and Javari rivers) was 1-8 ind/km? in an area of 593 km?, giving a total population estimate of 1115 botos. In Peru, in the Samiria River and a stretch of the Maranon River between the city of Iquitos and the confluence with the Samiria River, densities were 2.7 ind/km? and 5-9 ind/km? in an area of 554 km?, and estimated population size of 917 botos. In the Ecuadorian Amazon, in the rivers Napo, Cuyabeno, Yasuni, Lagartococha, and Aguarico in a surveyed area of 144 km?®, the population size estimate was 147 botos; encounter rates ranged 0-03-0-4 ind/km®. In the Orinoco River estimated density was 1-1 ind/km?* and population size 1779 in a surveyed area of 1684 km. The Amazon River Dolphin has been widespread and abundant, despite loss of many individuals (probably thousands) per year to entanglement and drowning in monofilament gillnets,first introduced in the 1960s and now used by almost every riverside household in the region. Young and juvenile botos were, and remain, especially vulnerable. Since 2000, standardized monitoring of abundance of Amazon River Dolphins in Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve detected a marked increase in mortality and the beginning of a steady decline in boto abundance. This coincided with reports of the deliberate killing of botos for use as fish bait. Botos are used as bait to catch an abundant scavenging catfish, the zamurito (Calophysus macropterus, Siluriformes), which is widely distributed in the Amazon River Basin. One person can catch hundreds of catfish in a single night, with no equipment other than a large box to hold the catch and a supply of suitable bait. As stocks of catfish diminished in Colombia, this method offishing was exported downriver into Brazil, and today botos from the Brazilian Amazon are harpooned and often sold specifically for bait in Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil. Hunting botos is illegal, clandestine, and almost impossible to quantify. Nevertheless, the approximate size of the catfish catch is known, and calculations of the ratio of botos used per ton of catfish landed, derived from the communities involved, indicates that across its distribution, thousands of Amazon River Dolphins are killed each year in pursuit of this one fishery. In some places, the impact of this hunt on the overall population of Amazon River Dolphins appears to be profound. The hunt continues unabated, and the population continues to decline at an annual rate of ¢.10%. The Amazon River Dolphin is steeped in folklore legends. River-dwelling communities in Brazil fear and revere the Amazon River Dolphin, which is reputed to transform into a man under cover of darkness and seduce women, thereby explaining unexpected pregnancies in human fishing communities. Supposed body parts of Amazon River Dolphins are bought as love charms in Amazonian markets, but DNA analyses have revealed that these are rarely accurately labeled, at least in recent times. Most derive from domestic pigs and sheep, and the Guiana Dolphin (Sotalia guianensis), an ocean dolphin.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 219-255 cm (males) and 182-225 cm (females); weight 113.5-207 kg (males) and 72-154 kg (females). Botos are the largest of all river dolphins. Amazon River Dolphins are highly sexually dimorphic, with adult males longer and heavier than females. Mature adult males often have “cobblestoning” skin modifications on pectoral fins and tailstock. These are related to fighting and may be a form of scar tissue or a shield or weapon. Body of the Amazon River Dolphin is corpulent and heavy but extremely flexible, capable of bending and twisting. Young are dark gray and became lighter with age. Adults can be from uniform pink to uniform dark gray, but usually grayer above and pinker below. Adult males are more pink than females and become pinker with age. The difference of body color between sexes is greater than in any other cetacean, with pinkness of males perhaps advertising size and strength in sexual display. Rostrum is prominent and robust, with short bristles on top and below the jaw. Eyes are small and inconspicuous, but vision is good. Amazon River Dolphins have two different types of teeth: conical and molartype. Total number of upper jaw teeth range from 23-35 (mean 26-6) and the lower jaw from 24-35 (mean 27-1). Each upper and lower mandible has 7-9 molar-type teeth on both sides. Melon is relatively small and flaccid and can be altered in shape by muscular control. Pectoral fins are large, broad, thick, paddle-like, and capable of desynchronized movements, allowing botos to swim backward and in shallow places. Flukes are broad, thick, and triangular in shape. Dorsal fin is not falcate (curved), but laterally flattened and like a dorsal keel extending from the mid-body to the strongly keeled caudal peduncle.","habitat":"Freshwater, in waterways from the upper reaches of the Amazon and Orinoco to just above the brackish waters of their estuaries. Botos can swim in water shallower than 2 m and come very close to the shore c.1 m depth. Most Amazon River Dolphins live in areas of low gradient, where annual cycles of water depth produce profound habitat changes. For half the year, Amazon River Dolphins have access to vast areas of inundated floodplain, much of it consisting of a complex mosaic of forest, lakes, and channels. This habitat is characterized by low current and high fish density, providing a safe environment, especially for young individuals. Occupied rivers, lakes, and channels vary substantially in character. Some have acidic, black water emanating from flooded forests. Others have clear water originating in geologically old drainage basins. Many have white water laden with sediments from the Andes. Fish communities vary among these ecosystems, but Amazon River Dolphins feed on a wide variety of fish species. Seasonal changes in precipitation and water depth dominate habitats of botos. Major rivers and channels retain adequate water for Amazon River Dolphins throughout the year, but many of the smaller channels and lakes cannot be relied on to retain water in the dry season, so botos and most fish abandon them for several months of the year. The flexible body and broad, rotatable flippers of Amazon River Dolphins, together with the lack of a “normal” falcate dorsal fin, are adaptations for swimming in the tangled vegetation of the flooded forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/7A/03877A3E4F185F2FFF63F73BF7E7F8FA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03877A3E4F185F2FFF63F73BF7E7F8FA","docName":"hbmw_3_Daubentoniidae_0176.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbe02464f195f2dffc9fff0ffd6ffc3","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"182","verbatimText":"Aye-ayeDaubentonia madagascariensisFrench:Aye-aye/ German:Fingertier/ Spanish:Aye-ayeTaxonomy.Sciurus madagascariensis Gmelin, 1788,Western Madagascar.There is a marked difference in size between eastern and north-western representatives ofthis species, with individuals from the eastern part ofthe distribution tending to be larger. Monotypic.Distribution.Madagascar, mainly in the E, N & CW parts ofthe island, but it evidently occurs in low numbers in pockets across most coastal areas; whether it existed on Nosy Mangabeprior to the mid-1960s introduction remains uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head—body 30-37 cm, tail 44-53 cm; weight 2.4-2.6 kg (there is a little sexual dimorphism, with females being slightly smaller than males). The Aye-ayeis one of the most unusual and distinctive primates. It is immediately recognizable by its large size, prominent ears, long thin fingers and toes, and long bushy tail. Its overall appearance is a dark grayish-brown. The dorsal coat, including that ofthe limbs, consists of a dense layer ofshort, off-white hairs overlaid by a longer, coarser layer of blackish-brown, white-tipped guard hairs, giving the animal a brindled and shaggy appearance. The tail is darkly colored, andits hairs are monochromatic. The ventral coat is similar to the dorsal coat in hair pattern, but it is not as dense and turns whiter on the chest, throat, and face. The head is short, oval-shaped, and large, with a short, tapering, thinly-haired muzzle and prominent eyes that are orientated towardthe front. Thenose is pink andrather pointed. The enormous, highly mobile ears are naked and black. Hands and feet are black with elongated digits, and the third digit of the hand is very slender and withered in appearance.Habitat.Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.Breeding.The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food. Habitat destruction also threatens them throughout their range, with trees such as Intsiabijuga and Canariummadagascariense—dietary staples—preferentially harvested for construction of boats, houses, and coffins. Aye-ayes are known to occur in twelve national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, Ranomafana, Sahamalaza-Iles Radama, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), three strict nature reserves (Betampona, Tsaratanana, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Foret d’Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d’Ivohibe). Theyalso are found in the forests of Daraina (part of the Loky-Manambato protected area) and Maroala and Anjiamangirana classified forests. Despite occurring in many protected areas, their presence is often based only on signs and infrequent sightings, and little is known about their population sizes and dynamics. There is an urgent need for a systematic census of this important flagship species throughout its range, with the ultimate goal of developing a conservation action plan. In the mid-1990s, the total world population was estimated at 1000-10,000.Bibliography.Albignac (1987), Ancrenaz et al. (1994), Andriamasimanana (1994), Ankel-Simons (1996, 2000), Barrows (2001), Beattie et al. (1992), Bomford (1976, 1981), Bradt (1994, 2007), Britt et al. (1999), Buettner-Janusch & Tattersall (1985), Carroll & Beattie (1993), Carroll & Haring (1994), Cartmill (1974), Cohn (1993), Constable et al. (1985), Curtis (1992), Curtis & Feistner (1994), Del Pero et al. (2005), Dubois & lzard (1990), Duckworth (1993), Duckworth et al. (1995), Dutrillaux & Rumpler (1995), Erickson (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1998), Erickson et al. (1998), Feistner & Ashbourne (1994), Feistner & Carroll (1993), Feistner & Sterling (1995), Feistner & Taylor (1998), Feistner et al. (1994), Fleagle (1988), Ganzhorn & Rabesoa (1986a, 1986b), Glander (1994a, 1994b), Godfrey & Jungers (2003), Godfrey et al. (2003a), Goix (1993), Goodman & Ganzhorn (2004), Groves (1974, 1989, 2001), Grzimek (1968), Hakeem et al. (1996), Harcourt & Thornback (1990), Haring et al. (1994), Hawkins et al. (1990), Iwano (1991a, 1991b), Iwano & Iwakawa (1988, 1991), Iwano et al. (1991), Jolly (1998), Jones (1986), Jungers et al. (2002), Jury (2003), Kappeler (1997), Koenig (2005), Krakauer et al. (2001, 2002), MacPhee & Raholimavo (1988), Milliken et al. (1991), Mittermeier, Konstant et al. (1992), Mittermeier, Louis et al. (2010), Napier & Napier (1967), Nicoll & Langrand (1989), O'Connor et al. (1986), Oxnard (1981), Petter (1977), Petter & Charles-Dominique (1979), Petter & Petter (1967), Petter & Peyrieras (1970b), Petter-Rousseaux & Bourliere (1965), Pollock et al. (1985), Poorman-Allen & lzard (1990), Price & Feistner (1994), Quinn & Wilson (2004), Rahajanirina & Dollar (2004), Rakotoarison (1995b), Randriananbinina et al. (2003), Randrianarisoa et al. (1999), Rendall (1993), Roos (2003), Roos et al. (2004), Rowe (1996), Rumpler, Warter, Ishak & Dutrillaux (1989), Rumpler, Warter, Petter et al. (1988), Schmid & Smolker (1998), Schwartz & Tattersall (1985), Schwitzer & Lork (2004), Simons (1993, 1994), Simons & Meyers (2001), Soligo (2005), Soligo & Miller (1999), Stanger & Macedonia (1994), Stephan (1972), Sterling (1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1998, 2003), Sterling & McFadden (2000), Sterling & McCreless (2006), Sterling & Povinelli (1999), Sterling & Rakotoarison (1998), Sterling & Ramaroson (1996), Sterling & Richard (1995), Sterling et al. (1994), Sussman (1977), Sussman et al. (1985), Tattersall (1982), Tattersall & Schwartz (1974), Thalmann et al. (1999), Walker (1975), Winn (1989, 1994a, 1994b), Yoder (1997), Yoder et al. (1996).","taxonomy":"Sciurus madagascariensis Gmelin, 1788,Western Madagascar.There is a marked difference in size between eastern and north-western representatives ofthis species, with individuals from the eastern part ofthe distribution tending to be larger. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Aye-aye @fr | Fingertier @de | Aye-aye @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gmelin","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1788","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Daubentoniidae","interpretedGenus":"Daubentonia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"182","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"madagascariensis","name":"Daubentonia madagascariensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Madagascar, mainly in the E, N & CW parts ofthe island, but it evidently occurs in low numbers in pockets across most coastal areas; whether it existed on Nosy Mangabeprior to the mid-1960s introduction remains uncertain.","bibliography":"Albignac (1987) | Ancrenaz et al. (1994) | Andriamasimanana (1994) | Ankel-Simons (1996, 2000) | Barrows (2001) | Beattie et al. (1992) | Bomford (1976, 1981) | Bradt (1994, 2007) | Britt et al. (1999) | Buettner-Janusch & Tattersall (1985) | Carroll & Beattie (1993) | Carroll & Haring (1994) | Cartmill (1974) | Cohn (1993) | Constable et al. (1985) | Curtis (1992) | Curtis & Feistner (1994) | Del Pero et al. (2005) | Dubois & lzard (1990) | Duckworth (1993) | Duckworth et al. (1995) | Dutrillaux & Rumpler (1995) | Erickson (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1998) | Erickson et al. (1998) | Feistner & Ashbourne (1994) | Feistner & Carroll (1993) | Feistner & Sterling (1995) | Feistner & Taylor (1998) | Feistner et al. (1994) | Fleagle (1988) | Ganzhorn & Rabesoa (1986a, 1986b) | Glander (1994a, 1994b) | Godfrey & Jungers (2003) | Godfrey et al. (2003a) | Goix (1993) | Goodman & Ganzhorn (2004) | Groves (1974, 1989, 2001) | Grzimek (1968) | Hakeem et al. (1996) | Harcourt & Thornback (1990) | Haring et al. (1994) | Hawkins et al. (1990) | Iwano (1991a, 1991b) | Iwano & Iwakawa (1988, 1991) | Iwano et al. (1991) | Jolly (1998) | Jones (1986) | Jungers et al. (2002) | Jury (2003) | Kappeler (1997) | Koenig (2005) | Krakauer et al. (2001, 2002) | MacPhee & Raholimavo (1988) | Milliken et al. (1991) | Mittermeier, Konstant et al. (1992) | Mittermeier, Louis et al. (2010) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nicoll & Langrand (1989) | O'Connor et al. (1986) | Oxnard (1981) | Petter (1977) | Petter & Charles-Dominique (1979) | Petter & Petter (1967) | Petter & Peyrieras (1970b) | Petter-Rousseaux & Bourliere (1965) | Pollock et al. (1985) | Poorman-Allen & lzard (1990) | Price & Feistner (1994) | Quinn & Wilson (2004) | Rahajanirina & Dollar (2004) | Rakotoarison (1995b) | Randriananbinina et al. (2003) | Randrianarisoa et al. (1999) | Rendall (1993) | Roos (2003) | Roos et al. (2004) | Rowe (1996) | Rumpler, Warter, Ishak & Dutrillaux (1989) | Rumpler, Warter, Petter et al. (1988) | Schmid & Smolker (1998) | Schwartz & Tattersall (1985) | Schwitzer & Lork (2004) | Simons (1993, 1994) | Simons & Meyers (2001) | Soligo (2005) | Soligo & Miller (1999) | Stanger & Macedonia (1994) | Stephan (1972) | Sterling (1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1998, 2003) | Sterling & McFadden (2000) | Sterling & McCreless (2006) | Sterling & Povinelli (1999) | Sterling & Rakotoarison (1998) | Sterling & Ramaroson (1996) | Sterling & Richard (1995) | Sterling et al. (1994) | Sussman (1977) | Sussman et al. (1985) | Tattersall (1982) | Tattersall & Schwartz (1974) | Thalmann et al. (1999) | Walker (1975) | Winn (1989, 1994a, 1994b) | Yoder (1997) | Yoder et al. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.","breeding":"The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food. Habitat destruction also threatens them throughout their range, with trees such as Intsiabijuga and Canariummadagascariense—dietary staples—preferentially harvested for construction of boats, houses, and coffins. Aye-ayes are known to occur in twelve national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, Ranomafana, Sahamalaza-Iles Radama, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), three strict nature reserves (Betampona, Tsaratanana, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Foret d’Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d’Ivohibe). Theyalso are found in the forests of Daraina (part of the Loky-Manambato protected area) and Maroala and Anjiamangirana classified forests. Despite occurring in many protected areas, their presence is often based only on signs and infrequent sightings, and little is known about their population sizes and dynamics. There is an urgent need for a systematic census of this important flagship species throughout its range, with the ultimate goal of developing a conservation action plan. In the mid-1990s, the total world population was estimated at 1000-10,000.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 30-37 cm, tail 44-53 cm; weight 2.4-2.6 kg (there is a little sexual dimorphism, with females being slightly smaller than males). The Aye-ayeis one of the most unusual and distinctive primates. It is immediately recognizable by its large size, prominent ears, long thin fingers and toes, and long bushy tail. Its overall appearance is a dark grayish-brown. The dorsal coat, including that ofthe limbs, consists of a dense layer ofshort, off-white hairs overlaid by a longer, coarser layer of blackish-brown, white-tipped guard hairs, giving the animal a brindled and shaggy appearance. The tail is darkly colored, andits hairs are monochromatic. The ventral coat is similar to the dorsal coat in hair pattern, but it is not as dense and turns whiter on the chest, throat, and face. The head is short, oval-shaped, and large, with a short, tapering, thinly-haired muzzle and prominent eyes that are orientated towardthe front. Thenose is pink andrather pointed. The enormous, highly mobile ears are naked and black. Hands and feet are black with elongated digits, and the third digit of the hand is very slender and withered in appearance.Habitat.Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.Breeding.The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food.","habitat":"Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/7A/03877A3E4F185F2FFF63F73BF7E7F8FA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03877A3E4F185F2FFF63F73BF7E7F8FA","docName":"hbmw_3_Daubentoniidae_0176.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbe02464f195f2dffc9fff0ffd6ffc3","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"182","verbatimText":"Aye-ayeDaubentonia madagascariensisFrench:Aye-aye/ German:Fingertier/ Spanish:Aye-ayeTaxonomy.Sciurus madagascariensis Gmelin, 1788,Western Madagascar.There is a marked difference in size between eastern and north-western representatives ofthis species, with individuals from the eastern part ofthe distribution tending to be larger. Monotypic.Distribution.Madagascar, mainly in the E, N & CW parts ofthe island, but it evidently occurs in low numbers in pockets across most coastal areas; whether it existed on Nosy Mangabeprior to the mid-1960s introduction remains uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head—body 30-37 cm, tail 44-53 cm; weight 2.4-2.6 kg (there is a little sexual dimorphism, with females being slightly smaller than males). The Aye-ayeis one of the most unusual and distinctive primates. It is immediately recognizable by its large size, prominent ears, long thin fingers and toes, and long bushy tail. Its overall appearance is a dark grayish-brown. The dorsal coat, including that ofthe limbs, consists of a dense layer ofshort, off-white hairs overlaid by a longer, coarser layer of blackish-brown, white-tipped guard hairs, giving the animal a brindled and shaggy appearance. The tail is darkly colored, andits hairs are monochromatic. The ventral coat is similar to the dorsal coat in hair pattern, but it is not as dense and turns whiter on the chest, throat, and face. The head is short, oval-shaped, and large, with a short, tapering, thinly-haired muzzle and prominent eyes that are orientated towardthe front. Thenose is pink andrather pointed. The enormous, highly mobile ears are naked and black. Hands and feet are black with elongated digits, and the third digit of the hand is very slender and withered in appearance.Habitat.Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.Breeding.The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food. Habitat destruction also threatens them throughout their range, with trees such as Intsiabijuga and Canariummadagascariense—dietary staples—preferentially harvested for construction of boats, houses, and coffins. Aye-ayes are known to occur in twelve national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, Ranomafana, Sahamalaza-Iles Radama, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), three strict nature reserves (Betampona, Tsaratanana, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Foret d’Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d’Ivohibe). Theyalso are found in the forests of Daraina (part of the Loky-Manambato protected area) and Maroala and Anjiamangirana classified forests. Despite occurring in many protected areas, their presence is often based only on signs and infrequent sightings, and little is known about their population sizes and dynamics. There is an urgent need for a systematic census of this important flagship species throughout its range, with the ultimate goal of developing a conservation action plan. In the mid-1990s, the total world population was estimated at 1000-10,000.Bibliography.Albignac (1987), Ancrenaz et al. (1994), Andriamasimanana (1994), Ankel-Simons (1996, 2000), Barrows (2001), Beattie et al. (1992), Bomford (1976, 1981), Bradt (1994, 2007), Britt et al. (1999), Buettner-Janusch & Tattersall (1985), Carroll & Beattie (1993), Carroll & Haring (1994), Cartmill (1974), Cohn (1993), Constable et al. (1985), Curtis (1992), Curtis & Feistner (1994), Del Pero et al. (2005), Dubois & lzard (1990), Duckworth (1993), Duckworth et al. (1995), Dutrillaux & Rumpler (1995), Erickson (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1998), Erickson et al. (1998), Feistner & Ashbourne (1994), Feistner & Carroll (1993), Feistner & Sterling (1995), Feistner & Taylor (1998), Feistner et al. (1994), Fleagle (1988), Ganzhorn & Rabesoa (1986a, 1986b), Glander (1994a, 1994b), Godfrey & Jungers (2003), Godfrey et al. (2003a), Goix (1993), Goodman & Ganzhorn (2004), Groves (1974, 1989, 2001), Grzimek (1968), Hakeem et al. (1996), Harcourt & Thornback (1990), Haring et al. (1994), Hawkins et al. (1990), Iwano (1991a, 1991b), Iwano & Iwakawa (1988, 1991), Iwano et al. (1991), Jolly (1998), Jones (1986), Jungers et al. (2002), Jury (2003), Kappeler (1997), Koenig (2005), Krakauer et al. (2001, 2002), MacPhee & Raholimavo (1988), Milliken et al. (1991), Mittermeier, Konstant et al. (1992), Mittermeier, Louis et al. (2010), Napier & Napier (1967), Nicoll & Langrand (1989), O'Connor et al. (1986), Oxnard (1981), Petter (1977), Petter & Charles-Dominique (1979), Petter & Petter (1967), Petter & Peyrieras (1970b), Petter-Rousseaux & Bourliere (1965), Pollock et al. (1985), Poorman-Allen & lzard (1990), Price & Feistner (1994), Quinn & Wilson (2004), Rahajanirina & Dollar (2004), Rakotoarison (1995b), Randriananbinina et al. (2003), Randrianarisoa et al. (1999), Rendall (1993), Roos (2003), Roos et al. (2004), Rowe (1996), Rumpler, Warter, Ishak & Dutrillaux (1989), Rumpler, Warter, Petter et al. (1988), Schmid & Smolker (1998), Schwartz & Tattersall (1985), Schwitzer & Lork (2004), Simons (1993, 1994), Simons & Meyers (2001), Soligo (2005), Soligo & Miller (1999), Stanger & Macedonia (1994), Stephan (1972), Sterling (1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1998, 2003), Sterling & McFadden (2000), Sterling & McCreless (2006), Sterling & Povinelli (1999), Sterling & Rakotoarison (1998), Sterling & Ramaroson (1996), Sterling & Richard (1995), Sterling et al. (1994), Sussman (1977), Sussman et al. (1985), Tattersall (1982), Tattersall & Schwartz (1974), Thalmann et al. (1999), Walker (1975), Winn (1989, 1994a, 1994b), Yoder (1997), Yoder et al. (1996).","taxonomy":"Sciurus madagascariensis Gmelin, 1788,Western Madagascar.There is a marked difference in size between eastern and north-western representatives ofthis species, with individuals from the eastern part ofthe distribution tending to be larger. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Aye-aye @fr | Fingertier @de | Aye-aye @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gmelin","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1788","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Daubentoniidae","interpretedGenus":"Daubentonia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"182","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"madagascariensis","name":"Daubentonia madagascariensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Madagascar, mainly in the E, N & CW parts ofthe island, but it evidently occurs in low numbers in pockets across most coastal areas; whether it existed on Nosy Mangabeprior to the mid-1960s introduction remains uncertain.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6640351/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Albignac (1987) | Ancrenaz et al. (1994) | Andriamasimanana (1994) | Ankel-Simons (1996, 2000) | Barrows (2001) | Beattie et al. (1992) | Bomford (1976, 1981) | Bradt (1994, 2007) | Britt et al. (1999) | Buettner-Janusch & Tattersall (1985) | Carroll & Beattie (1993) | Carroll & Haring (1994) | Cartmill (1974) | Cohn (1993) | Constable et al. (1985) | Curtis (1992) | Curtis & Feistner (1994) | Del Pero et al. (2005) | Dubois & lzard (1990) | Duckworth (1993) | Duckworth et al. (1995) | Dutrillaux & Rumpler (1995) | Erickson (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1998) | Erickson et al. (1998) | Feistner & Ashbourne (1994) | Feistner & Carroll (1993) | Feistner & Sterling (1995) | Feistner & Taylor (1998) | Feistner et al. (1994) | Fleagle (1988) | Ganzhorn & Rabesoa (1986a, 1986b) | Glander (1994a, 1994b) | Godfrey & Jungers (2003) | Godfrey et al. (2003a) | Goix (1993) | Goodman & Ganzhorn (2004) | Groves (1974, 1989, 2001) | Grzimek (1968) | Hakeem et al. (1996) | Harcourt & Thornback (1990) | Haring et al. (1994) | Hawkins et al. (1990) | Iwano (1991a, 1991b) | Iwano & Iwakawa (1988, 1991) | Iwano et al. (1991) | Jolly (1998) | Jones (1986) | Jungers et al. (2002) | Jury (2003) | Kappeler (1997) | Koenig (2005) | Krakauer et al. (2001, 2002) | MacPhee & Raholimavo (1988) | Milliken et al. (1991) | Mittermeier, Konstant et al. (1992) | Mittermeier, Louis et al. (2010) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nicoll & Langrand (1989) | O'Connor et al. (1986) | Oxnard (1981) | Petter (1977) | Petter & Charles-Dominique (1979) | Petter & Petter (1967) | Petter & Peyrieras (1970b) | Petter-Rousseaux & Bourliere (1965) | Pollock et al. (1985) | Poorman-Allen & lzard (1990) | Price & Feistner (1994) | Quinn & Wilson (2004) | Rahajanirina & Dollar (2004) | Rakotoarison (1995b) | Randriananbinina et al. (2003) | Randrianarisoa et al. (1999) | Rendall (1993) | Roos (2003) | Roos et al. (2004) | Rowe (1996) | Rumpler, Warter, Ishak & Dutrillaux (1989) | Rumpler, Warter, Petter et al. (1988) | Schmid & Smolker (1998) | Schwartz & Tattersall (1985) | Schwitzer & Lork (2004) | Simons (1993, 1994) | Simons & Meyers (2001) | Soligo (2005) | Soligo & Miller (1999) | Stanger & Macedonia (1994) | Stephan (1972) | Sterling (1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1998, 2003) | Sterling & McFadden (2000) | Sterling & McCreless (2006) | Sterling & Povinelli (1999) | Sterling & Rakotoarison (1998) | Sterling & Ramaroson (1996) | Sterling & Richard (1995) | Sterling et al. (1994) | Sussman (1977) | Sussman et al. (1985) | Tattersall (1982) | Tattersall & Schwartz (1974) | Thalmann et al. (1999) | Walker (1975) | Winn (1989, 1994a, 1994b) | Yoder (1997) | Yoder et al. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.","breeding":"The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food. Habitat destruction also threatens them throughout their range, with trees such as Intsiabijuga and Canariummadagascariense—dietary staples—preferentially harvested for construction of boats, houses, and coffins. Aye-ayes are known to occur in twelve national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, Ranomafana, Sahamalaza-Iles Radama, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), three strict nature reserves (Betampona, Tsaratanana, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Foret d’Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d’Ivohibe). Theyalso are found in the forests of Daraina (part of the Loky-Manambato protected area) and Maroala and Anjiamangirana classified forests. Despite occurring in many protected areas, their presence is often based only on signs and infrequent sightings, and little is known about their population sizes and dynamics. There is an urgent need for a systematic census of this important flagship species throughout its range, with the ultimate goal of developing a conservation action plan. In the mid-1990s, the total world population was estimated at 1000-10,000.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 30-37 cm, tail 44-53 cm; weight 2.4-2.6 kg (there is a little sexual dimorphism, with females being slightly smaller than males). The Aye-ayeis one of the most unusual and distinctive primates. It is immediately recognizable by its large size, prominent ears, long thin fingers and toes, and long bushy tail. Its overall appearance is a dark grayish-brown. The dorsal coat, including that ofthe limbs, consists of a dense layer ofshort, off-white hairs overlaid by a longer, coarser layer of blackish-brown, white-tipped guard hairs, giving the animal a brindled and shaggy appearance. The tail is darkly colored, andits hairs are monochromatic. The ventral coat is similar to the dorsal coat in hair pattern, but it is not as dense and turns whiter on the chest, throat, and face. The head is short, oval-shaped, and large, with a short, tapering, thinly-haired muzzle and prominent eyes that are orientated towardthe front. Thenose is pink andrather pointed. The enormous, highly mobile ears are naked and black. Hands and feet are black with elongated digits, and the third digit of the hand is very slender and withered in appearance.Habitat.Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Aye-ayevaries by locality and season. It consists mainly ofinsects and their wood-boring larvae, along with hard-shelled fruits, seeds, tree sap, bamboo shoots and pith, flowers, nuts, nectar, honey (obtained by the destruction of active hives), fungus, and eggs. Presence ofthe Aye-ayein some areas appears to be determined by one ofits primary food sources, seeds of “ramy” (Canariummadagascariense, Burseraceae). Other dietary staples include seeds of Oraniatrispatha (Arecaceae) and Terminaliacatappa (Combretaceae); beetle and moth larvae embedded in trees, bamboo, and seeds of Terminaliafruit; cankerous growths on Intsiabijuga (Fabaceae); nectar from traveler's palm (Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae); and crops such as coconuts, lychees, sugar cane, and mangos. Crop damage by Aye-ayes can be considerable; in one case, they destroyed 80-100% ofthe coconut crop in two villages. Aye-ayes spend most oftheir active hours foraging for insect larvae. Using their oversized, highly sensitive ears, they intently listen for sounds oftheir quarry tunneling within the wood and simultaneously tap the surface of the bark with their fingers to trace hollow pathways. When a grub is located, the Aye-ayeusesits long front teeth to gouge a hole in the wood and then extracts the grub with its wiry middle finger. The same basic technique is used to get at the insides of coconuts and eggs and even while drinking, using the finger to draw water to the mouth. This movement of the third finger from the food or water to the mouth can be extraordinarily rapid; it has been measured at a rate of3-3 strokes/second. They are extremely noisy eaters. Captive individuals have been known to hide coconuts.Breeding.The Aye-ayebreeds throughout the year. Females have a regular monthly cycle, which lasts, on average, 47 days in captivity. They have an externally visible genital swelling, and the vulva changes color in estrus. Full estrus lasts 3-9 days. In the wild, swollen genitalia and an increase in scent marking have been observed in both sexes before and during mating activity. The solicitation posture of a captive female consists ofplacing herselfsideways next to a male and then turning her head toward him. Other methods offemale solicitation include vocalizations and running up to the male, touching faces, and then running away. Females are polyandrous; they mate with more than one male during a single estrus. As many as six males will group around a female and aggressively interact for access to her. Although copulation is quick in captivity (generally lasting about two minutes), it lasts for about one hour in the wild—possibly a consequence of mate-guarding by a male to prevent access by other males. Males attempt to disrupt copulation to mate with her themselves. They copulate suspended from a branch, with the female holding on to the branch and the male grasping only the female. After copulating, the pair may groom each other, or the female may move away quickly and resume calling. The reproductive rate of Aye-ayes is low, a single young born about every 2-3 years. Births may take place at any time of the year, but they usually occur in February or March after a gestation of 164-172 days. The newborn spends the first couple of months at or near the nest. The mother carries it in her mouth and will often “park”it in a nest while she forages. Infants have green eyes for the first nine weeks, after which they become brown. Ears are floppy for the first six months or so, and the fur on the face, shoulders, and belly is paler than that of adults. They begin to eat solid foods at about three months of age. Play is very important for the young. Full independence appears to occur when they are 18 months to two years old. Females typically begin to reproduce at about 3-5 years old, and males will start copulating (though not successfully) at 2-5 years old. Age of dispersal is unknown. Individuals have lived up to 24 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and mainly arboreal. Aye-ayes sleep generally rolled up into a ball with the tail wrapped over the body, during the day in tree forks, vine tangles, or their large bowl-shaped nests. They emerge from the nest as early as 30 minutes before sunset and may not return to until after sunrise. Males become active earlier than females. Over the course of the night, more than 50% of an Aye-aye’s timeis spent moving, interspersed with bouts of feeding, grooming, and resting. When they rest, they remain sedentary but are fully aware of their surroundings and not asleep. These rest periods can last for as long as two hours. Individuals groom themselves several times during the night in bouts lasting up to 30 minutes—the longer the session, the higher in the canopy they perch, presumably for safety. The long, narrow third finger is used for combing, scratching, and cleaning the fur; the other fingers are flexed during these behaviors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aye-ayes are largely solitary, but they have complex social interactions that include foraging in tandem and social groupings such as several males or male-female dyads. Males occupy much larger home ranges (125-215 ha) than females (30-40 ha). Social grooming can involve both sexes. In captivity, males groom females far more than females groom males. Male—female and male—male territories overlap; those of the females do not. Indeed, females rarely interact at all, and when they do, encounters are aggressive. The Aye-ayehas a multimale—multifemale mating system.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. However, at the JUCN/SSC Lemur Red-Listing Workshop held in July 2012, the Aye-ayewas assessed as endangered due to an inferred and projected ongoing and future population decline of more than 50% over three generations. The Ayeaye is still killed in some areas as a harbinger of evil and a crop pest (e.g. coconuts), and they are hunted for food.","habitat":"Primary eastern rainforest, deciduous forest and littoral forest, mature and degraded secondary forest, cultivated areas such as plantations (including those producing sugar cane, coconuts, and cloves), mangrove swamps, and dry scrub forest. The elevational range ofthe Aye-ayeis from near sea level up to 1875 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/7A/03877A3E4F195F2DFDD8FD98F807FA84.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03877A3E4F195F2DFDD8FD98F807FA84","docName":"hbmw_3_Daubentoniidae_0176.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbe02464f195f2dffc9fff0ffd6ffc3","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"176","verbatimText":"Family DAUBENTONIIDAE(AYE-AYE)• Medium-sized prosimian with large, forward-facing eyes, laterally protruding, membranous, mobile ears, reduced dentition with large, ever-growing, rodent-like incisors, long, thin digits, very long, bony third finger, long, coarse, shaggy fur, and long, bushytail.• 70-90 cm.• Madagascar.• All forest types except spiny forest.• 1 genus, 1 species, 1 taxon.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787B9FF9CDC3F71639BF2F84C808D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787B9FF9CDC3F71639BF2F84C808D","docName":"hbmw_6_Heterocephalidae_0351.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffc1ff9cdc3f71059e75ffe1893a","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"351","verbatimText":"Naked Mole-ratHeterocephalus glaberFrench:Hétérocéphale/ German:Nacktmull/ Spanish:Rata topo lampinaOther common names:Desert Mole Rat, Sand PuppyTaxonomy.Heterocephalus glaber Ruppell, 1842, “Abyssinien und Schoa” (= Ethiopia and [central province of] Shewa).The generic synonym, Fornarina, named by O. Thomas in 1903, was never widely used, and no subspecies are recognized. Heterocephalus glaberis known to vary geographically in genetics, morphology, and chromosomes; Ethiopian and Kenyan populations differ in cytochrome-b sequences, reaching a threshold often shown by distinct species. No integrative revision of the species has been possible because of the need for additional sampling and political strife in much ofits distribution. Monotypic.Distribution.Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia, and N & E Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-110 mm, tail 30-50 mm; weight 15-70 g (mostly 30-35 g). The Naked Mole-rat has pinkish naked skin, studded only by sensory vibrissae. Its strongly protruding incisors are unmistakable. Eyes are tiny, and ear pinnae are minute. Tail is longer than hindfoot. Limbs are short and slender, and third digit of manus is markedly longer than digit four. Cranially,jugal bone is reduced and supported anteriorly by zygomatic portion of maxillary, palate is not excessively constricted between cheekteeth and does not extend behind molars, andjaws bear only 2-3 upper and lower cheekteeth.Habitat.Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. Food and Feeding.The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.Breeding.The Naked Mole-rat is eusocial and lives in colonies averaging 40-80 individuals. Reproduction is typically limited to a single reproductive female (“queen”) and 1-2 breeding males; remaining colony members are reproductively suppressed by agonistic encounters with breeders. Gestation is 66-74 days, with litters of 1-28 young. Dominant females have litters every 76-84 days and,in the wild, regularly produce 4-5 litters/year and 50 or more young.Activity patterns.Naked Mole-rats are active around the clock, and activity periods are punctuated by resting bouts, often en masse. Most active digging follows rains that reduce soil hardness and thus energetic costs involved in expanding the burrow system. Movements, Home range and Social organization.Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Naked Mole-rat is widely distributed, relative common, and lacks immediate threats. Nevertheless, its inbred breeding system and infrequent dispersals raise concerns about their ability to respond to changing land-use patterns or climate.Bibliography.Bennet & Faulkes (2000), Brett (1991b), Bugge (1974, 1985), Cox & Faulkes (2014), De Graaff (1975), Ellerman (1940), Fang Xiaodong etal. (2014), Faulkes & Bennett (2007), Faulkes, Abbott & Mellor (1990), Faulkes, Abbott, O'Brien et al. (1997), Honeycutt et al. (1991), Ingram et al. (2014), Jarvis & Sherman (2002), Judd & Sherman (1996), Kim Eun-Bae etal. (2011), Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Bennett & O’Riain (2010), Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Ndou et al. (2009), Landry (1957a, 1999), Lavocat (1974), Lavocat & Parent (1985), Luckett (1985), O'Riain & Jarvis (1997), Prochel et al. (2014), Smith et al. (2012), Thomas (1903c), Tian Xiao et al. (2013), Wood (1985), Woods (1975, 1984), Yosida & Okanoya (2009).","taxonomy":"Heterocephalus glaber Ruppell, 1842, “Abyssinien und Schoa” (= Ethiopia and [central province of] Shewa).The generic synonym, Fornarina, named by O. Thomas in 1903, was never widely used, and no subspecies are recognized. Heterocephalus glaberis known to vary geographically in genetics, morphology, and chromosomes; Ethiopian and Kenyan populations differ in cytochrome-b sequences, reaching a threshold often shown by distinct species. No integrative revision of the species has been possible because of the need for additional sampling and political strife in much ofits distribution. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hétérocéphale @fr | Nacktmull @de | Rata topo lampina @es | Desert Mole Rat @en | Sand Puppy @en","interpretedAuthority":"Ruppell, 1842","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ruppell","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterocephalus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"0","interpretedPageNumber":"351","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"glaber","name":"Heterocephalus glaber","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia, and N & E Kenya.","bibliography":"Bennet & Faulkes (2000) | Brett (1991b) | Bugge (1974, 1985) | Cox & Faulkes (2014) | De Graaff (1975) | Ellerman (1940) | Fang Xiaodong etal. (2014) | Faulkes & Bennett (2007) | Faulkes, Abbott & Mellor (1990) | Faulkes, Abbott, O'Brien et al. (1997) | Honeycutt et al. (1991) | Ingram et al. (2014) | Jarvis & Sherman (2002) | Judd & Sherman (1996) | Kim Eun-Bae etal. (2011) | Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Bennett & O’Riain (2010) | Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Ndou et al. (2009) | Landry (1957a, 1999) | Lavocat (1974) | Lavocat & Parent (1985) | Luckett (1985) | O'Riain & Jarvis (1997) | Prochel et al. (2014) | Smith et al. (2012) | Thomas (1903c) | Tian Xiao et al. (2013) | Wood (1985) | Woods (1975, 1984) | Yosida & Okanoya (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.","breeding":"The Naked Mole-rat is eusocial and lives in colonies averaging 40-80 individuals. Reproduction is typically limited to a single reproductive female (“queen”) and 1-2 breeding males; remaining colony members are reproductively suppressed by agonistic encounters with breeders. Gestation is 66-74 days, with litters of 1-28 young. Dominant females have litters every 76-84 days and,in the wild, regularly produce 4-5 litters/year and 50 or more young.","activityPatterns":"Naked Mole-rats are active around the clock, and activity periods are punctuated by resting bouts, often en masse. Most active digging follows rains that reduce soil hardness and thus energetic costs involved in expanding the burrow system. Movements, Home range and Social organization.Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Naked Mole-rat is widely distributed, relative common, and lacks immediate threats. Nevertheless, its inbred breeding system and infrequent dispersals raise concerns about their ability to respond to changing land-use patterns or climate.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70-110 mm, tail 30-50 mm; weight 15-70 g (mostly 30-35 g). The Naked Mole-rat has pinkish naked skin, studded only by sensory vibrissae. Its strongly protruding incisors are unmistakable. Eyes are tiny, and ear pinnae are minute. Tail is longer than hindfoot. Limbs are short and slender, and third digit of manus is markedly longer than digit four. Cranially,jugal bone is reduced and supported anteriorly by zygomatic portion of maxillary, palate is not excessively constricted between cheekteeth and does not extend behind molars, andjaws bear only 2-3 upper and lower cheekteeth.","habitat":"Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. Food and Feeding.The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787B9FF9CDC3F71639BF2F84C808D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787B9FF9CDC3F71639BF2F84C808D","docName":"hbmw_6_Heterocephalidae_0351.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffc1ff9cdc3f71059e75ffe1893a","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"351","verbatimText":"Naked Mole-ratHeterocephalus glaberFrench:Hétérocéphale/ German:Nacktmull/ Spanish:Rata topo lampinaOther common names:Desert Mole Rat, Sand PuppyTaxonomy.Heterocephalus glaber Ruppell, 1842, “Abyssinien und Schoa” (= Ethiopia and [central province of] Shewa).The generic synonym, Fornarina, named by O. Thomas in 1903, was never widely used, and no subspecies are recognized. Heterocephalus glaberis known to vary geographically in genetics, morphology, and chromosomes; Ethiopian and Kenyan populations differ in cytochrome-b sequences, reaching a threshold often shown by distinct species. No integrative revision of the species has been possible because of the need for additional sampling and political strife in much ofits distribution. Monotypic.Distribution.Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia, and N & E Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-110 mm, tail 30-50 mm; weight 15-70 g (mostly 30-35 g). The Naked Mole-rat has pinkish naked skin, studded only by sensory vibrissae. Its strongly protruding incisors are unmistakable. Eyes are tiny, and ear pinnae are minute. Tail is longer than hindfoot. Limbs are short and slender, and third digit of manus is markedly longer than digit four. Cranially,jugal bone is reduced and supported anteriorly by zygomatic portion of maxillary, palate is not excessively constricted between cheekteeth and does not extend behind molars, andjaws bear only 2-3 upper and lower cheekteeth.Habitat.Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. Food and Feeding.The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.Breeding.The Naked Mole-rat is eusocial and lives in colonies averaging 40-80 individuals. Reproduction is typically limited to a single reproductive female (“queen”) and 1-2 breeding males; remaining colony members are reproductively suppressed by agonistic encounters with breeders. Gestation is 66-74 days, with litters of 1-28 young. Dominant females have litters every 76-84 days and,in the wild, regularly produce 4-5 litters/year and 50 or more young.Activity patterns.Naked Mole-rats are active around the clock, and activity periods are punctuated by resting bouts, often en masse. Most active digging follows rains that reduce soil hardness and thus energetic costs involved in expanding the burrow system. Movements, Home range and Social organization.Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Naked Mole-rat is widely distributed, relative common, and lacks immediate threats. Nevertheless, its inbred breeding system and infrequent dispersals raise concerns about their ability to respond to changing land-use patterns or climate.Bibliography.Bennet & Faulkes (2000), Brett (1991b), Bugge (1974, 1985), Cox & Faulkes (2014), De Graaff (1975), Ellerman (1940), Fang Xiaodong etal. (2014), Faulkes & Bennett (2007), Faulkes, Abbott & Mellor (1990), Faulkes, Abbott, O'Brien et al. (1997), Honeycutt et al. (1991), Ingram et al. (2014), Jarvis & Sherman (2002), Judd & Sherman (1996), Kim Eun-Bae etal. (2011), Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Bennett & O’Riain (2010), Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Ndou et al. (2009), Landry (1957a, 1999), Lavocat (1974), Lavocat & Parent (1985), Luckett (1985), O'Riain & Jarvis (1997), Prochel et al. (2014), Smith et al. (2012), Thomas (1903c), Tian Xiao et al. (2013), Wood (1985), Woods (1975, 1984), Yosida & Okanoya (2009).","taxonomy":"Heterocephalus glaber Ruppell, 1842, “Abyssinien und Schoa” (= Ethiopia and [central province of] Shewa).The generic synonym, Fornarina, named by O. Thomas in 1903, was never widely used, and no subspecies are recognized. Heterocephalus glaberis known to vary geographically in genetics, morphology, and chromosomes; Ethiopian and Kenyan populations differ in cytochrome-b sequences, reaching a threshold often shown by distinct species. No integrative revision of the species has been possible because of the need for additional sampling and political strife in much ofits distribution. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hétérocéphale @fr | Nacktmull @de | Rata topo lampina @es | Desert Mole Rat @en | Sand Puppy @en","interpretedAuthority":"Ruppell, 1842","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ruppell","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Heterocephalus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"0","interpretedPageNumber":"351","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"glaber","name":"Heterocephalus glaber","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Djibouti, E & S Ethiopia, Somalia, and N & E Kenya.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6607103/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennet & Faulkes (2000) | Brett (1991b) | Bugge (1974, 1985) | Cox & Faulkes (2014) | De Graaff (1975) | Ellerman (1940) | Fang Xiaodong etal. (2014) | Faulkes & Bennett (2007) | Faulkes, Abbott & Mellor (1990) | Faulkes, Abbott, O'Brien et al. (1997) | Honeycutt et al. (1991) | Ingram et al. (2014) | Jarvis & Sherman (2002) | Judd & Sherman (1996) | Kim Eun-Bae etal. (2011) | Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Bennett & O’Riain (2010) | Kotzé, Van der Merwe, Ndou et al. (2009) | Landry (1957a, 1999) | Lavocat (1974) | Lavocat & Parent (1985) | Luckett (1985) | O'Riain & Jarvis (1997) | Prochel et al. (2014) | Smith et al. (2012) | Thomas (1903c) | Tian Xiao et al. (2013) | Wood (1985) | Woods (1975, 1984) | Yosida & Okanoya (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water.","breeding":"The Naked Mole-rat is eusocial and lives in colonies averaging 40-80 individuals. Reproduction is typically limited to a single reproductive female (“queen”) and 1-2 breeding males; remaining colony members are reproductively suppressed by agonistic encounters with breeders. Gestation is 66-74 days, with litters of 1-28 young. Dominant females have litters every 76-84 days and,in the wild, regularly produce 4-5 litters/year and 50 or more young.","activityPatterns":"Naked Mole-rats are active around the clock, and activity periods are punctuated by resting bouts, often en masse. Most active digging follows rains that reduce soil hardness and thus energetic costs involved in expanding the burrow system. Movements, Home range and Social organization.Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Naked Mole-rats are highly social. Within a colony, there is a size-based dominance hierarchy, with larger individuals gaining preferential access to contested resources through shoving matches. Colonies range throughout a burrow system, which may be 0-5-3 km in length. They are strictly territorial and gradually shift from maintenance activities to digging, foraging, and burrow defense over the course of theirlives.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Naked Mole-rat is widely distributed, relative common, and lacks immediate threats. Nevertheless, its inbred breeding system and infrequent dispersals raise concerns about their ability to respond to changing land-use patterns or climate.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70-110 mm, tail 30-50 mm; weight 15-70 g (mostly 30-35 g). The Naked Mole-rat has pinkish naked skin, studded only by sensory vibrissae. Its strongly protruding incisors are unmistakable. Eyes are tiny, and ear pinnae are minute. Tail is longer than hindfoot. Limbs are short and slender, and third digit of manus is markedly longer than digit four. Cranially,jugal bone is reduced and supported anteriorly by zygomatic portion of maxillary, palate is not excessively constricted between cheekteeth and does not extend behind molars, andjaws bear only 2-3 upper and lower cheekteeth.","habitat":"Subterranean arid bushland and thicket and semi-desert biomes with low and irregular rainfall (averaging 200-400 mm annually). Naked Mole-rats occupy habitats at elevations of 300-1500 m. They are the only subterranean rodent within their distribution. Food and Feeding.The Naked Mole-rat feeds on bulbs, roots, and tubers in closed, underground burrow systems. These foods supply all of its needed water."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD0FFC6FF38FE01FA107F84.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD0FFC6FF38FE01FA107F84","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"288","verbatimText":"Family ERINACEIDAE(HEDGEHOGS AND GYMNURES)• Mediumssized insectivores/omnivores, with stiff spines on head and back and relatively short rostrum (hedgehogs) or soft or coarse fur and shrew-like snout (gymnures).• 10-75 cm.• Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Indo-Malayan Regions.• Deserts, steppes, urban grasslands, forests, farmlands, alpine meadows, parks, and gardens (hedgehogs) or humid, tropical forests (gymnures).• 10 genera, 26 species, 4b taxa.• 2 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD2FFC4FF75FDD4F8377719.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD2FFC4FF75FDD4F8377719","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"319","verbatimText":"1.West European HedgehogErinaceus europaeusFrench:Hérisson commun/ German:Braunbrustigel/ Spanish:Erizo europeoOther common names:Brown-breasted Hedgehog, Common Hedgehog, European Hedgehog, Northern HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus europaeus Linnaeus,1758, “Europa.”Restricted by O. Thomasin 1911 to “Wamlingbo, S. Gothland Id.,”Sweden. Erinaceus europaeusis sympatric with FE. roumanicusin central Russia, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and the Balkan Peninsula. Monotypic.Distribution.W Europe, from British Is and Iberian Peninsula E to Fennoscandia and N & C European Russia, also on Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and many smaller islands. Introduced into New Zealand during second halfofthe 19\" century and recently into Azores.Descriptive notes.Head-body 209-245 mm, tail 24-32 mm, ear 27-28 mm, hindfoot 43-50 mm; weight 526-556 g (some individuals weigh up to 1-2 kg). The West European Hedgehog has well-developed hallux on hindfeet, short tail, and relatively short ears. Pelage, except non-spiny hairs on face, legs, and underparts, has dense smooth spines, lacking papillae, banded yellow and brown, and with pale tips. As on other species of Erinaceus, the West European Hedgehog has narrow spine-free parting on crown ofhead. It can be distinguished from the Southern White-breasted Hedgehog (E. concolor) by absence of white breast patch. In southern Spain, the West European Hedgehog is pale, with many entirely white spines, and can be distinguished from the similar North African Hedgehog (Atelerix algirus) by narrow spine-free parting on crown of head. Albinos are relatively common, leucistic individuals are rare, and melanistic individuals are very rare. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92.Habitat.Forests with ground vegetation and adequate food and grasslands especially adjacent to deciduous woodlands, hedgerows, or scrublands. In the Alps, the West European Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of 2000 m but does not live above tree line. It generally does not enter extensive coniferous forests because oflack of ground cover. It is common in parks, gardens, and golf courses, and it seems to favor edge habitats between open and more densely vegetated areas. Rocky outcrops and piles of rocks can serve as shelters. Populations in cultivated areas are small or lacking where removal of hedgerows and use ofpesticides have reduced cover and amounts ofinvertebrate prey. It may move ontoirrigatedfields in dry years.Food and Feeding.The West European Hedgehog is omnivorous but primarily eats invertebrates such as beetles, larvae, slugs, worms, andspiders. It also eats fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates including frogs, snakes, lizards, young birds, eggs, mice, and carrion. It has been reported to congregate around gardens and vineyards to feed on snakes. It commonly eats millipedes and carabid beetles, which use distasteful and noxious substances in defense. Some other distasteful species such as woodlice, staphylinid beetles, and some ladybird beetles seem to be avoided. It enjoys bread and milk, pet food, and kitchen scraps offered by humans. When foraging, it generally progresses slowly and pauses briefly to sniff the air or ground. It also will forage in a more rapid andlinear style whereit covers much more ground but still searches for suitable prey. The West European Hedgehog always is alert and constantly sniffing and listening. Prey likely are detected mainly by their odor, but sound also is important in finding prey. Prey items usually are snapped up rapidly, anditems buried in litter, grass, or soil are quickly rooted out. Males tend to travel faster than females while foraging, and both sexes travel fastest in short grass and progressively slower as density of cover increases.Breeding.The West European Hedgehog is believedto be polygynous, but multiple paternities oflitters indicate that at least some individuals practice polyandry. There usually are two breeding seasons each year, and they vary geographically. In Scandinavia, breeding occurs in May to mid-July, and in England, pregnancies occur in May-October, with peaks in May-July and September. Later mating generally occurs ifthe first litter is lost or aborted. Rate ofgrowth ofyoung borntolate litters is faster than for young bornto early litters. There is no difference in rate of growth between sexes. Sexual cycle of males varies regionally. During breeding season, reproductive organs of males increase to 10%ofbody weight. Gestation lasts 31-35 days, but some estimates are up to 42 days. Litters have 4-7 young (range 1-11). Reports of conjoined twins are rare. Young are born in nests ofleaves. Neonates are nearly hairless, eyes are closed, length is ¢.70 mm, and weights are 8-25 g depending onsize oflitter. Young are born with soft whitish spines that harden and begin to be replaced by adult-type spines at2-7 days old. By about three weeks old, spines look like those of adults. At four weeks, young begin following their mother and are weaned at 4-6 weeks old. Males do not participate in rearing young. Sexual maturity is achieved at 9-12 months. In Sweden, females do not breed until their second year. Maximum body size is attained at 2-3 years old. Maximumlife expectancy is ¢.6-8 years in the wild and ten years in captivity.Activity patterns.The West European Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal, resting by day under piles of brush or in leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Activity during midday often indicates that an individual is sick, but healthy individuals can be active during the day, particularly in autumn. Some lactating females can be almost as active during day as at night during summer, some individuals tend to emerge before sunset, and some retire to their nest well after dawn. Usual gait is slow, meandering walk that frequently is punctuated by short bursts of speed up to 50-120 m/minute. Males usually move at an average speed of 3-7 m/minute, females at 2:2 m/minute, and subadults at 2:2 m/minute. The West European Hedgehog lives on the surface ofthe ground without extensively burrowing or climbing. It is a good climber, and spines, besides serving as protection from predators, act as a cushion when it falls or drops from a height. It is a good swimmer but might not be able to escape from steepsided garden pools. It hibernates from about October to early April in colder parts ofits distribution, but individuals become active, emerge, and move to another nest 2-3 times in winter. Hibernation bouts last 5-27 days (average nine days). Some nests are repaired and re-used, and others are abandoned. Nests may be occupied, then abandoned for up to four months, and later re-occupied. Others are empty at first and occupied later, suggesting there are spare nests.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Although primary foraging area of a West European Hedgehog can be ¢.200-300 m from its day-shelter, average minimal nightly distances traveled are 868-1785 m for adult males, 570-1006 m for adult females, and 1188 m for subadults. Some males travel up to 3 km/night. Most individuals are active all night. The West European Hedgehog is solitary except during the breeding season or for a mother with her young. It usually is non-territorial, but it is intolerant of conspecifics. Rather than maintaining a defended area, it uses mutual avoidance to allow non-simultaneous use ofthe same area and thus avoid direct competition. Individuals rarely meet, and adults ofthe same sex usually do not approach to within 20 m ofeach other. Adults usually are together only for mating or when attracted to a localized food source where fights sometimes occur; otherwise fights are rare. Presumably as time to hibernate approaches, they vigorously defend territories of1:8-2.5 ha, but in spring after emergence from hibernation, individuals do not stay in these defended areas. At that time, they wander over large areas looking for food and mates, and there may be intensive fighting between males. Home ranges overlap, often completely, irrespective ofsex. In England, average home range of adult males is larger (32 ha; range 16-42 ha) than that of adult females (10 ha; range 6-12 ha) and subadults (12 ha; range 10-15 ha). In Sweden, adult males have larger home ranges (47 ha; range 25-68 ha) than females (20 ha; range 8-30 ha), and in Russia, home ranges are 0-5—11-2 ha for males and 0-8-3-5 ha for females. There is a tendency for both sexes to occupy the same home range for years. Young have a dispersal phase in the first few months oflife; they establish their future home range before, or shortly after, their first winter. Nesting sites usually are shaded by vegetation or other objects. In summer and winter, nests are mostly aboveground, under brambles or other vegetation, and often are constructed ofdry, broad leaves. Burrows are simple, blind, and c.1 m long, with a small chamber at the end. Such burrows are excavated by hedgehogs or by rabbits. The West European Hedgehog engages in self-anointing with frothy saliva. Reasons for self-anointing are unknown, but it might be used to attract mates, as a defense from predators, or by juveniles seeking attention from their mothers. Self-anointing is dependent on gender, age, and season. First-year independent young self-anoint more than adults, and males self-anoint more than females. In adults, selfanointing peaks in summer. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, covering vulnerable underside, face, and limbs with spines.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The West European Hedgehog is common, widespread, and generally well-known. It consumes pests in gardens, is popular in folklore and books, and is eaten by humans, although that is becoming uncommon. Starvation and collisions with motor vehicles are major causes ofdeath. In Belgium, vehicles kill at least 230,000-350,000 West European Hedgehogs each year, and throughout Europe, c¢.1-6 ind/kmofroads arekilled each year. Populations have decreasedsignificantly: 15-22%in Sweden, 26%in Switzerland, and 30% in the Netherlands.Bibliography.Allanson (1934), Beer (2003), Berthoud (1980), Boitani & Reggiani (1984), Boukheroufa et al. (2015), Brodie (1977), Bunnell (2009), Corbet & Southern (1977), D'Havé, Scheirs, Verhagen & De Coen (2005), Dickman (1988), Dmi'el & Schwarz (1984), Gropp et al. (1969), Haigh et al. (2012), Harrison Matthews (1952), Hayssen et al. (1993), Herter (1965), Holsbeek et al. (1999), Huijser & Bergers (2000), Hutterer (2005a), Jackson, D.B. (2007), Karaseva et al. (1979), Kompanje (2005), Kral (1967), Kristiansson (1981, 1990), Lay (1967), Mathias et al. (1998), Moran et al. (2009), Morris (1977, 1985, 1986, 1988, 2006), Morris & Tutt (1996), Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009), Nowak (1999), Ortowski & Nowak (2004, 2006), Parkes (1975), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Philchagov (1988), Reeve (1982, 1994), Reeve & Morris (1985), Skoudlin (1981), Smith (1992), Stone (1995b), Sykes & Durrant (1995), Thomas (1911b), Warwick (2014).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus europaeus Linnaeus,1758, “Europa.”Restricted by O. Thomasin 1911 to “Wamlingbo, S. Gothland Id.,”Sweden. Erinaceus europaeusis sympatric with FE. roumanicusin central Russia, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and the Balkan Peninsula. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson commun @fr | Braunbrustigel @de | Erizo europeo @es | Brown-breasted Hedgehog @en | Common Hedgehog @en | European Hedgehog @en | Northern Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Erinaceus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"319","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"europaeus","name":"Erinaceus europaeus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Europe, from British Is and Iberian Peninsula E to Fennoscandia and N & C European Russia, also on Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and many smaller islands. Introduced into New Zealand during second halfofthe 19\" century and recently into Azores.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639342/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allanson (1934) | Beer (2003) | Berthoud (1980) | Boitani & Reggiani (1984) | Boukheroufa et al. (2015) | Brodie (1977) | Bunnell (2009) | Corbet & Southern (1977) | D'Havé, Scheirs, Verhagen & De Coen (2005) | Dickman (1988) | Dmi'el & Schwarz (1984) | Gropp et al. (1969) | Haigh et al. (2012) | Harrison Matthews (1952) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Herter (1965) | Holsbeek et al. (1999) | Huijser & Bergers (2000) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jackson, D.B. (2007) | Karaseva et al. (1979) | Kompanje (2005) | Kral (1967) | Kristiansson (1981, 1990) | Lay (1967) | Mathias et al. (1998) | Moran et al. (2009) | Morris (1977, 1985, 1986, 1988, 2006) | Morris & Tutt (1996) | Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009) | Nowak (1999) | Ortowski & Nowak (2004, 2006) | Parkes (1975) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Philchagov (1988) | Reeve (1982, 1994) | Reeve & Morris (1985) | Skoudlin (1981) | Smith (1992) | Stone (1995b) | Sykes & Durrant (1995) | Thomas (1911b) | Warwick (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"The West European Hedgehog is omnivorous but primarily eats invertebrates such as beetles, larvae, slugs, worms, andspiders. It also eats fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates including frogs, snakes, lizards, young birds, eggs, mice, and carrion. It has been reported to congregate around gardens and vineyards to feed on snakes. It commonly eats millipedes and carabid beetles, which use distasteful and noxious substances in defense. Some other distasteful species such as woodlice, staphylinid beetles, and some ladybird beetles seem to be avoided. It enjoys bread and milk, pet food, and kitchen scraps offered by humans. When foraging, it generally progresses slowly and pauses briefly to sniff the air or ground. It also will forage in a more rapid andlinear style whereit covers much more ground but still searches for suitable prey. The West European Hedgehog always is alert and constantly sniffing and listening. Prey likely are detected mainly by their odor, but sound also is important in finding prey. Prey items usually are snapped up rapidly, anditems buried in litter, grass, or soil are quickly rooted out. Males tend to travel faster than females while foraging, and both sexes travel fastest in short grass and progressively slower as density of cover increases.","breeding":"The West European Hedgehog is believedto be polygynous, but multiple paternities oflitters indicate that at least some individuals practice polyandry. There usually are two breeding seasons each year, and they vary geographically. In Scandinavia, breeding occurs in May to mid-July, and in England, pregnancies occur in May-October, with peaks in May-July and September. Later mating generally occurs ifthe first litter is lost or aborted. Rate ofgrowth ofyoung borntolate litters is faster than for young bornto early litters. There is no difference in rate of growth between sexes. Sexual cycle of males varies regionally. During breeding season, reproductive organs of males increase to 10%ofbody weight. Gestation lasts 31-35 days, but some estimates are up to 42 days. Litters have 4-7 young (range 1-11). Reports of conjoined twins are rare. Young are born in nests ofleaves. Neonates are nearly hairless, eyes are closed, length is ¢.70 mm, and weights are 8-25 g depending onsize oflitter. Young are born with soft whitish spines that harden and begin to be replaced by adult-type spines at","activityPatterns":"The West European Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal, resting by day under piles of brush or in leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Activity during midday often indicates that an individual is sick, but healthy individuals can be active during the day, particularly in autumn. Some lactating females can be almost as active during day as at night during summer, some individuals tend to emerge before sunset, and some retire to their nest well after dawn. Usual gait is slow, meandering walk that frequently is punctuated by short bursts of speed up to 50-120 m/minute. Males usually move at an average speed of 3-7 m/minute, females at 2:2 m/minute, and subadults at 2:2 m/minute. The West European Hedgehog lives on the surface ofthe ground without extensively burrowing or climbing. It is a good climber, and spines, besides serving as protection from predators, act as a cushion when it falls or drops from a height. It is a good swimmer but might not be able to escape from steepsided garden pools. It hibernates from about October to early April in colder parts ofits distribution, but individuals become active, emerge, and move to another nest 2-3 times in winter. Hibernation bouts last 5-27 days (average nine days). Some nests are repaired and re-used, and others are abandoned. Nests may be occupied, then abandoned for up to four months, and later re-occupied. Others are empty at first and occupied later, suggesting there are spare nests.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Although primary foraging area of a West European Hedgehog can be ¢.200-300 m from its day-shelter, average minimal nightly distances traveled are 868-1785 m for adult males, 570-1006 m for adult females, and 1188 m for subadults. Some males travel up to 3 km/night. Most individuals are active all night. The West European Hedgehog is solitary except during the breeding season or for a mother with her young. It usually is non-territorial, but it is intolerant of conspecifics. Rather than maintaining a defended area, it uses mutual avoidance to allow non-simultaneous use ofthe same area and thus avoid direct competition. Individuals rarely meet, and adults ofthe same sex usually do not approach to within 20 m ofeach other. Adults usually are together only for mating or when attracted to a localized food source where fights sometimes occur; otherwise fights are rare. Presumably as time to hibernate approaches, they vigorously defend territories of1:8-2.5 ha, but in spring after emergence from hibernation, individuals do not stay in these defended areas. At that time, they wander over large areas looking for food and mates, and there may be intensive fighting between males. Home ranges overlap, often completely, irrespective ofsex. In England, average home range of adult males is larger (32 ha; range 16-42 ha) than that of adult females (10 ha; range 6-12 ha) and subadults (12 ha; range 10-15 ha). In Sweden, adult males have larger home ranges (47 ha; range 25-68 ha) than females (20 ha; range 8-30 ha), and in Russia, home ranges are 0-5—11-2 ha for males and 0-8-3-5 ha for females. There is a tendency for both sexes to occupy the same home range for years. Young have a dispersal phase in the first few months oflife; they establish their future home range before, or shortly after, their first winter. Nesting sites usually are shaded by vegetation or other objects. In summer and winter, nests are mostly aboveground, under brambles or other vegetation, and often are constructed ofdry, broad leaves. Burrows are simple, blind, and c.1 m long, with a small chamber at the end. Such burrows are excavated by hedgehogs or by rabbits. The West European Hedgehog engages in self-anointing with frothy saliva. Reasons for self-anointing are unknown, but it might be used to attract mates, as a defense from predators, or by juveniles seeking attention from their mothers. Self-anointing is dependent on gender, age, and season. First-year independent young self-anoint more than adults, and males self-anoint more than females. In adults, selfanointing peaks in summer. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, covering vulnerable underside, face, and limbs with spines.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The West European Hedgehog is common, widespread, and generally well-known. It consumes pests in gardens, is popular in folklore and books, and is eaten by humans, although that is becoming uncommon. Starvation and collisions with motor vehicles are major causes ofdeath. In Belgium, vehicles kill at least 230,000-350,000 West European Hedgehogs each year, and throughout Europe, c¢.1-6 ind/kmofroads arekilled each year. Populations have decreasedsignificantly: 15-22%in Sweden, 26%in Switzerland, and 30% in the Netherlands.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 209-245 mm, tail 24-32 mm, ear 27-28 mm, hindfoot 43-50 mm; weight 526-556 g (some individuals weigh up to 1-2 kg). The West European Hedgehog has well-developed hallux on hindfeet, short tail, and relatively short ears. Pelage, except non-spiny hairs on face, legs, and underparts, has dense smooth spines, lacking papillae, banded yellow and brown, and with pale tips. As on other species of Erinaceus, the West European Hedgehog has narrow spine-free parting on crown ofhead. It can be distinguished from the Southern White-breasted Hedgehog (E. concolor) by absence of white breast patch. In southern Spain, the West European Hedgehog is pale, with many entirely white spines, and can be distinguished from the similar North African Hedgehog (Atelerix algirus) by narrow spine-free parting on crown of head. Albinos are relatively common, leucistic individuals are rare, and melanistic individuals are very rare. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92.","habitat":"Forests with ground vegetation and adequate food and grasslands especially adjacent to deciduous woodlands, hedgerows, or scrublands. In the Alps, the West European Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of 2000 m but does not live above tree line. It generally does not enter extensive coniferous forests because oflack of ground cover. It is common in parks, gardens, and golf courses, and it seems to favor edge habitats between open and more densely vegetated areas. Rocky outcrops and piles of rocks can serve as shelters. Populations in cultivated areas are small or lacking where removal of hedgerows and use ofpesticides have reduced cover and amounts ofinvertebrate prey. It may move ontoirrigatedfields in dry years."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD3FFC2FA68F711FAC578A9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD3FFC2FA68F711FAC578A9","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"320","verbatimText":"4.Amur HedgehogErinaceus amurensisFrench:Hérisson de Mandchourie/ German:AmurIgel/ Spanish:Erizo de ManchuriaOther common names:Chinese Hedgehog, Manchurian HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus amurensis Schrenck, 1859, “In der Nahe der Stadt Aigun,im mandshurischen Dorfe Gulssoja amAmur,” eastern Siberia, Russia. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Amur River and tributaries in Russian Far East (E from Zeya River) and S through Korean Peninsula and C & E China to E Sichuan and N Guangdong.Descriptive notes.Head-body 158-300 mm, tail 17-42 mm, ear 16-26 mm, hindfoot 34-54 mm; weight c.1-4 kg (males) and 800-950 g (females). Weights in China are reported as 0.6-1 kg. The Amur Hedgehog is thick-bodied, with well-developed hallux on hindfeet, short tail, and relatively short ears. Dorsal pelage has sharp spines up to 24 mm long; spines are smooth and lack papillae. It has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head. Face, legs, and underparts are covered with coarse hairs. Color varies from pale yellow to dark brown, and unpigmented spines usually are present among pale-tipped, yellow, and brown-banded ones. Its spines, besides serving as protection against enemies, act as a cushion when it falls or drops deliberately from a height. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.Habitat.Various habitats from farmlands to deciduous forests, including grasslands, scrublands, suburban parks, gardens, and alpine regions below tree line. The Amur Hedgehog avoids truly arid areas and dry meadow-steppes. Its northern distribution is largely confined to northernmost limit of deciduous forests, and it generally does not enter extensive coniferous forests because of lack of ground cover.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amur Hedgehog primarily contains invertebrates such as beetles, insect larvae, slugs, worms, and spiders. It also eats fungi, fruits, small vertebrates including frogs, snakes, lizards, mice, young birds, eggs, and carrion, and it scavenges on food discarded by humans. In northern China, almost 95% of dietary items were fly larvae; other invertebrates were earwigs, mole crickets, and beetles. One stomach was full ofjujube dates (Zizyphus jujuba, Rhamnaceae).Breeding.Amur Hedgehogs have 1-2 litters/year, with 4-6 young/litter.Activity patterns.The Amur Hedgehog is primarily active at night and rests under piles of brush by day orin leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Usual gaitis slow, rolling walk, but it can run rapidly. It is a good swimmer and climber. It hibernates in winter, entering torpor in October in China and emerging in spring.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Except during breeding season or when a female has young, the Amur Hedgehog is solitary. It probably makes use of nests that are aboveground or in burrows, depending upon circumstances. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, protecting abdomen, face, and limbs with sharp spines. It has been kept as a pet because it adjusts readily to captivity and becomes quite docile.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Eo Kyung-Yeon et al. (2015), Harrison Matthews (1952), Hutterer (2005a), Liu Chengchao (1937), Nowak (1999), Reeve (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2008, 2013), Stone (1995b).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus amurensis Schrenck, 1859, “In der Nahe der Stadt Aigun,im mandshurischen Dorfe Gulssoja amAmur,” eastern Siberia, Russia. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson de Mandchourie @fr | Amur @de | gel @en | Erizo de Manchuria @es | Chinese Hedgehog @en | Manchurian Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Schrenck","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schrenck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1859","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Erinaceus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"320","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"amurensis","name":"Erinaceus amurensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amur River and tributaries in Russian Far East (E from Zeya River) and S through Korean Peninsula and C & E China to E Sichuan and N Guangdong.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639352/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Eo Kyung-Yeon et al. (2015) | Harrison Matthews (1952) | Hutterer (2005a) | Liu Chengchao (1937) | Nowak (1999) | Reeve (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2008, 2013) | Stone (1995b)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Amur Hedgehog primarily contains invertebrates such as beetles, insect larvae, slugs, worms, and spiders. It also eats fungi, fruits, small vertebrates including frogs, snakes, lizards, mice, young birds, eggs, and carrion, and it scavenges on food discarded by humans. In northern China, almost 95% of dietary items were fly larvae; other invertebrates were earwigs, mole crickets, and beetles. One stomach was full ofjujube dates (Zizyphus jujuba, Rhamnaceae).","breeding":"Amur Hedgehogs have 1-2 litters/year, with 4-6 young/litter.","activityPatterns":"The Amur Hedgehog is primarily active at night and rests under piles of brush by day orin leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Usual gaitis slow, rolling walk, but it can run rapidly. It is a good swimmer and climber. It hibernates in winter, entering torpor in October in China and emerging in spring.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Except during breeding season or when a female has young, the Amur Hedgehog is solitary. It probably makes use of nests that are aboveground or in burrows, depending upon circumstances. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, protecting abdomen, face, and limbs with sharp spines. It has been kept as a pet because it adjusts readily to captivity and becomes quite docile.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 158-300 mm, tail 17-42 mm, ear 16-26 mm, hindfoot 34-54 mm; weight c.1-4 kg (males) and 800-950 g (females). Weights in China are reported as 0.6-1 kg. The Amur Hedgehog is thick-bodied, with well-developed hallux on hindfeet, short tail, and relatively short ears. Dorsal pelage has sharp spines up to 24 mm long; spines are smooth and lack papillae. It has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head. Face, legs, and underparts are covered with coarse hairs. Color varies from pale yellow to dark brown, and unpigmented spines usually are present among pale-tipped, yellow, and brown-banded ones. Its spines, besides serving as protection against enemies, act as a cushion when it falls or drops deliberately from a height. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.","habitat":"Various habitats from farmlands to deciduous forests, including grasslands, scrublands, suburban parks, gardens, and alpine regions below tree line. The Amur Hedgehog avoids truly arid areas and dry meadow-steppes. Its northern distribution is largely confined to northernmost limit of deciduous forests, and it generally does not enter extensive coniferous forests because of lack of ground cover."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD3FFC5FF57FEDBFD6172C1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD3FFC5FF57FEDBFD6172C1","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"320","verbatimText":"2.Northern White-breasted HedgehogErimaceus roumanicusFrench:Hérisson des Balkans/ German:Nordlicher WeilRbrustigel/ Spanish:Erizo de los BalcanesOther common names:Eastern European HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus europaeusroumanicus Barrett-Hamilton, 1900, “Gageni, Roumania [= Romania].”Erinaceus roumanicuswas first described as a subspecies of E. europaeusand then included as a subspecies of E. concolor, current genetic and morphologic data suggest that E. concolorand E. roumanicusare distinct species with parapatric distributions. Erinaceus roumanicusis sympatric with E. europaeusin parts of central Europe. Fivesubspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.roumanicusBarrett-Hamilton,1900—C&EEurope(EofalinefromOderRivertoNAdriaticSea).E.r.bolkayiV.Martino,1930—Montenegroandadjacentcountries.E.r.drozdovskiiV.Martino&E.Martino,1933—Macedonia,EuropeanTurkey,andadjacentcountries.E.r.nesiotesBate,1906—CreteandIonianandAegeanIs,Greece.E. r. pallidus Ognev, 1928— SW Russia S to N Caucasus and E to W Siberia. Distributions of most subspecies are not well known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 208-306 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 28-29 mm, hindfoot 40— 44 mm; weight 0.6-1.2 kg. As in other species of Erinaceus, the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and well-developed hallux on hindfeet. Color of underside is mix of dirty white and dirty brown. Size varies in a smooth cline across the distribution, with largest individuals in southern populations and smallest in northern areas. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 94.Habitat.Farmland, parks, and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at edges of forests, and shrubby vegetation from sea level to elevations of at least 1400 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but diet and feeding behavior of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog are probably similar to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus).Breeding.Female Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs can produce two litters peryear: one at the end of May and another at the end of August.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but activity patterns of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available, but movements, home range, and social organization probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Many Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by collisions with cars, but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines. It occurs in many protected areas throughoutits wide distribution. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.Bibliography.Arslan et al. (2008), Barrett-Hamilton (1900), Bate (1906), Corbet (1988), Geisler & Gropp (1967), Gropp et al. (1969), Hutterer (2005a), Krystufek & Vohralik (2001), Krystufek, Tvrtkovié et al. (2009), Lapini (1999), Martino & Martino (1933), Masseti (2012), Ognev (1928), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Poduschka (1969), Reeve (1994), Suchentrunk et al. (1998).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus europaeusroumanicus Barrett-Hamilton, 1900, “Gageni, Roumania [= Romania].”Erinaceus roumanicuswas first described as a subspecies of E. europaeusand then included as a subspecies of E. concolor, current genetic and morphologic data suggest that E. concolorand E. roumanicusare distinct species with parapatric distributions. Erinaceus roumanicusis sympatric with E. europaeusin parts of central Europe. Fivesubspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson des Balkans @fr | Nordlicher Weil Rbrustigel @de | Erizo de los Balcanes @es | Eastern European Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Barrett-Hamilton","interpretedAuthorityName":"Barrett-Hamilton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Erimaceus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"320","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"roumanicus","name":"Erimaceus roumanicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.r.roumanicusBarrett-Hamilton,1900—C&EEurope(EofalinefromOderRivertoNAdriaticSea).E.r.bolkayiV.Martino,1930—Montenegroandadjacentcountries.E.r.drozdovskiiV.Martino&E.Martino,1933—Macedonia,EuropeanTurkey,andadjacentcountries.E.r.nesiotesBate,1906—CreteandIonianandAegeanIs,Greece.E. r. pallidus Ognev, 1928— SW Russia S to N Caucasus and E to W Siberia. Distributions of most subspecies are not well known.","bibliography":"Arslan et al. (2008) | Barrett-Hamilton (1900) | Bate (1906) | Corbet (1988) | Geisler & Gropp (1967) | Gropp et al. (1969) | Hutterer (2005a) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2001) | Krystufek, Tvrtkovié et al. (2009) | Lapini (1999) | Martino & Martino (1933) | Masseti (2012) | Ognev (1928) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Poduschka (1969) | Reeve (1994) | Suchentrunk et al. (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but diet and feeding behavior of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog are probably similar to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus).","breeding":"Female Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs can produce two litters peryear: one at the end of May and another at the end of August.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but activity patterns of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available, but movements, home range, and social organization probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Many Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by collisions with cars, but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines. It occurs in many protected areas throughoutits wide distribution. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 208-306 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 28-29 mm, hindfoot 40— 44 mm; weight 0.6-1.2 kg. As in other species of Erinaceus, the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and well-developed hallux on hindfeet. Color of underside is mix of dirty white and dirty brown. Size varies in a smooth cline across the distribution, with largest individuals in southern populations and smallest in northern areas. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 94.","habitat":"Farmland, parks, and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at edges of forests, and shrubby vegetation from sea level to elevations of at least 1400 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD3FFC5FF57FEDBFD6172C1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD3FFC5FF57FEDBFD6172C1","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"320","verbatimText":"2.Northern White-breasted HedgehogErimaceus roumanicusFrench:Hérisson des Balkans/ German:Nordlicher WeilRbrustigel/ Spanish:Erizo de los BalcanesOther common names:Eastern European HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus europaeusroumanicus Barrett-Hamilton, 1900, “Gageni, Roumania [= Romania].”Erinaceus roumanicuswas first described as a subspecies of E. europaeusand then included as a subspecies of E. concolor, current genetic and morphologic data suggest that E. concolorand E. roumanicusare distinct species with parapatric distributions. Erinaceus roumanicusis sympatric with E. europaeusin parts of central Europe. Fivesubspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.roumanicusBarrett-Hamilton,1900—C&EEurope(EofalinefromOderRivertoNAdriaticSea).E.r.bolkayiV.Martino,1930—Montenegroandadjacentcountries.E.r.drozdovskiiV.Martino&E.Martino,1933—Macedonia,EuropeanTurkey,andadjacentcountries.E.r.nesiotesBate,1906—CreteandIonianandAegeanIs,Greece.E. r. pallidus Ognev, 1928— SW Russia S to N Caucasus and E to W Siberia. Distributions of most subspecies are not well known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 208-306 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 28-29 mm, hindfoot 40— 44 mm; weight 0.6-1.2 kg. As in other species of Erinaceus, the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and well-developed hallux on hindfeet. Color of underside is mix of dirty white and dirty brown. Size varies in a smooth cline across the distribution, with largest individuals in southern populations and smallest in northern areas. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 94.Habitat.Farmland, parks, and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at edges of forests, and shrubby vegetation from sea level to elevations of at least 1400 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but diet and feeding behavior of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog are probably similar to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus).Breeding.Female Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs can produce two litters peryear: one at the end of May and another at the end of August.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but activity patterns of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available, but movements, home range, and social organization probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Many Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by collisions with cars, but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines. It occurs in many protected areas throughoutits wide distribution. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.Bibliography.Arslan et al. (2008), Barrett-Hamilton (1900), Bate (1906), Corbet (1988), Geisler & Gropp (1967), Gropp et al. (1969), Hutterer (2005a), Krystufek & Vohralik (2001), Krystufek, Tvrtkovié et al. (2009), Lapini (1999), Martino & Martino (1933), Masseti (2012), Ognev (1928), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Poduschka (1969), Reeve (1994), Suchentrunk et al. (1998).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus europaeusroumanicus Barrett-Hamilton, 1900, “Gageni, Roumania [= Romania].”Erinaceus roumanicuswas first described as a subspecies of E. europaeusand then included as a subspecies of E. concolor, current genetic and morphologic data suggest that E. concolorand E. roumanicusare distinct species with parapatric distributions. Erinaceus roumanicusis sympatric with E. europaeusin parts of central Europe. Fivesubspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson des Balkans @fr | Nordlicher Weil Rbrustigel @de | Erizo de los Balcanes @es | Eastern European Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Barrett-Hamilton","interpretedAuthorityName":"Barrett-Hamilton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Erimaceus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"320","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"roumanicus","name":"Erimaceus roumanicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.r.roumanicusBarrett-Hamilton,1900—C&EEurope(EofalinefromOderRivertoNAdriaticSea).E.r.bolkayiV.Martino,1930—Montenegroandadjacentcountries.E.r.drozdovskiiV.Martino&E.Martino,1933—Macedonia,EuropeanTurkey,andadjacentcountries.E.r.nesiotesBate,1906—CreteandIonianandAegeanIs,Greece.E. r. pallidus Ognev, 1928— SW Russia S to N Caucasus and E to W Siberia. Distributions of most subspecies are not well known.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639344/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arslan et al. (2008) | Barrett-Hamilton (1900) | Bate (1906) | Corbet (1988) | Geisler & Gropp (1967) | Gropp et al. (1969) | Hutterer (2005a) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2001) | Krystufek, Tvrtkovié et al. (2009) | Lapini (1999) | Martino & Martino (1933) | Masseti (2012) | Ognev (1928) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Poduschka (1969) | Reeve (1994) | Suchentrunk et al. (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but diet and feeding behavior of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog are probably similar to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus).","breeding":"Female Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs can produce two litters peryear: one at the end of May and another at the end of August.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but activity patterns of the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available, but movements, home range, and social organization probably are similar to those of the West European Hedgehog.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Many Northern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by collisions with cars, but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines. It occurs in many protected areas throughoutits wide distribution. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 208-306 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 28-29 mm, hindfoot 40— 44 mm; weight 0.6-1.2 kg. As in other species of Erinaceus, the Northern White-breasted Hedgehog has faintly visible, central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and well-developed hallux on hindfeet. Color of underside is mix of dirty white and dirty brown. Size varies in a smooth cline across the distribution, with largest individuals in southern populations and smallest in northern areas. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 94.","habitat":"Farmland, parks, and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at edges of forests, and shrubby vegetation from sea level to elevations of at least 1400 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD3FFC5FF6DF601F7EB7336.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD3FFC5FF6DF601F7EB7336","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"320","verbatimText":"3.Southern White-breasted HedgehogErinaceus concolorFrench:Hérisson de Turquie/ German:Sidlicher WeiRbrustigel/ Spanish:Erizo oriental de vientre blancoOther common names:\\White-bellied Hedgehog, White-chested HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus concolor Martin, 1838,“apud Trebizond.”Interpreted by D. R.Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Trabzon, Turkey, 40°00°N, 39°43’E.” This species is monotypic.Distribution.Turkey (Anatolia) E to S Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) and S to NW Iran, N Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan and on Chios, Samos, and Rhodes Is (Greece).Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-260 mm, tail 20-30 mm, ear 20-30 mm, hindfoot 41 mm; weight 550-800 g (some individuals weigh up to 1-5 kg). Dorsal pelage of the Southern White-breasted Hedgehog has spines up to 37 mm long. As in other species of Erinaceus,it has faintly visible central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and very well-developed hallux on hindfeet. When it walks, spines on forehead lean forward, and others lean backward. Ears are relatively short. Face, legs, and underparts are covered with non-spiny hairs. Overall color is dark brown, with distinctive patch of white fur across chest. Albinos are extremely rare. It is similar in size and appearance to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus), but it can be distinguished by distinctive white chest thatcontrasts with dark abdomen. Dental formula is 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92-94.Habitat.Deciduous forests, scrublands, grasslands, and alpine regions below tree line but typically not extensive coniferous forests because of lack of ground cover. The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog is less common in treeless moors, uplands, and marshlands because it usually gathers broad, dry leaves to construct nests in burrows and other shelters that are used for hibernation. It prospers in wooded parks, gardens, golf courses, and farmlands; however, populations in farmlands are small or lacking where hedgerows have been removed and where use of pesticides has reduced populations of invertebrate prey. During dry years, it might move onto irrigated fields. In Turkey, it inhabits apple, pear, and mulberry orchards; agricultural fields of beets, spinach, corn, cabbage, and other vegetables; areas with thick grasses around barns and bushes; and urban areas.Food and Feeding.The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog mainly eats insects and other invertebrates but also frogs, snakes,lizards, young birds, mice, some plant matter, fungi, and carrion. It can supplementits diet by scavenging food discarded by humans.Breeding.Breeding season varies geographically: March to late May in southern populations and April-May and into July in northern areas. Gestation lasts 31-36 days. Young are born in nests constructed under foliage or other objects. Litters have 5-6 young (range 3-8). Neonates have an average crown-rump length of 55 mm (range 45-60 mm) and weigh 12-16 g; white-tipped spines soon emerge on their back. Eyes open in 14-18 days, and teeth appear at 21-24 days. Maximum life expectancy is c.6-8 years in the wild and ten years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog primarily is active at night and rests by day under piles of brush or in leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Itis a good swimmer and climber. Its spines, besides serving as protection from predators, act as a cushion whenitfalls or deliberately drops from a height. Usual gait is slow, ambling walk, but it can run rapidly.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog travels ¢.300 m/night, and maximum walking speed is ¢.17 m/minute. It makes large aboveground nests of leaves and grass beneath bushes or under grass. It uses simple burrows on hillsides and gradual slopes and can excavate elaborate burrows. In winter, nests are in gently sloping burrows, often between roots of bushes and trees. Burrows are up to 152 cm long and 76 cm deep. In an area where there were few trees, a nest burrow that was lined with leaves was in dense grass in an orchard. The Southern Whitebreasted Hedgehog is usually solitary, except during the breeding season when a female has young or when several individuals share the same burrow in winter. Average home ranges are 1-6 ha for males (range 0-8-2-3 ha) and adult females (range 0-1-2-4 ha). The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog performs self-anointing behavior, which might be a sexualsignal, provide protection from predators, or serve some other purpose. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, covering vulnerable underside, face, and limbs with spines. It is quite docile in captivity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Southern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by motor vehicles on roads and by humans for food in some regions.Bibliography.Arslan et al. (2008), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Harrison Matthews (1952), Hutterer (2005a), Karatas et al. (2007), Kazemi et al. (2016), Kral (1967), KryStufek & Vohralik (2001), Martin (1838), Masseti (2012), Nowak (1999), Ozen (2006), Qumesiyeh (1996), Reeve (1994), Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985), Stone (1995b), Vasilenko (1988), Zherebtsova (1992).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus concolor Martin, 1838,“apud Trebizond.”Interpreted by D. R.Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Trabzon, Turkey, 40°00°N, 39°43’E.” This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson de Turquie @fr | Sidlicher Wei Rbrustigel @de | Erizo oriental de vientre blanco @es | \\White-bellied Hedgehog @en | White-chested Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Martin","interpretedAuthorityName":"Martin","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Erinaceus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"320","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"concolor","name":"Erinaceus concolor","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Turkey (Anatolia) E to S Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) and S to NW Iran, N Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan and on Chios, Samos, and Rhodes Is (Greece).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639348/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arslan et al. (2008) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Harrison Matthews (1952) | Hutterer (2005a) | Karatas et al. (2007) | Kazemi et al. (2016) | Kral (1967) | KryStufek & Vohralik (2001) | Martin (1838) | Masseti (2012) | Nowak (1999) | Ozen (2006) | Qumesiyeh (1996) | Reeve (1994) | Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985) | Stone (1995b) | Vasilenko (1988) | Zherebtsova (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog mainly eats insects and other invertebrates but also frogs, snakes,lizards, young birds, mice, some plant matter, fungi, and carrion. It can supplementits diet by scavenging food discarded by humans.","breeding":"Breeding season varies geographically: March to late May in southern populations and April-May and into July in northern areas. Gestation lasts 31-36 days. Young are born in nests constructed under foliage or other objects. Litters have 5-6 young (range 3-8). Neonates have an average crown-rump length of 55 mm (range 45-60 mm) and weigh 12-16 g; white-tipped spines soon emerge on their back. Eyes open in 14-18 days, and teeth appear at 21-24 days. Maximum life expectancy is c.6-8 years in the wild and ten years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog primarily is active at night and rests by day under piles of brush or in leaf nests in rocky crevices and burrows. Itis a good swimmer and climber. Its spines, besides serving as protection from predators, act as a cushion whenitfalls or deliberately drops from a height. Usual gait is slow, ambling walk, but it can run rapidly.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog travels ¢.300 m/night, and maximum walking speed is ¢.17 m/minute. It makes large aboveground nests of leaves and grass beneath bushes or under grass. It uses simple burrows on hillsides and gradual slopes and can excavate elaborate burrows. In winter, nests are in gently sloping burrows, often between roots of bushes and trees. Burrows are up to 152 cm long and 76 cm deep. In an area where there were few trees, a nest burrow that was lined with leaves was in dense grass in an orchard. The Southern Whitebreasted Hedgehog is usually solitary, except during the breeding season when a female has young or when several individuals share the same burrow in winter. Average home ranges are 1-6 ha for males (range 0-8-2-3 ha) and adult females (range 0-1-2-4 ha). The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog performs self-anointing behavior, which might be a sexualsignal, provide protection from predators, or serve some other purpose. Typical defensive posture is to roll into a ball, covering vulnerable underside, face, and limbs with spines. It is quite docile in captivity.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Southern White-breasted Hedgehogs are killed by motor vehicles on roads and by humans for food in some regions.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-260 mm, tail 20-30 mm, ear 20-30 mm, hindfoot 41 mm; weight 550-800 g (some individuals weigh up to 1-5 kg). Dorsal pelage of the Southern White-breasted Hedgehog has spines up to 37 mm long. As in other species of Erinaceus,it has faintly visible central parting of spines on crown of head, smooth spines lacking papillae, and very well-developed hallux on hindfeet. When it walks, spines on forehead lean forward, and others lean backward. Ears are relatively short. Face, legs, and underparts are covered with non-spiny hairs. Overall color is dark brown, with distinctive patch of white fur across chest. Albinos are extremely rare. It is similar in size and appearance to the West European Hedgehog (E. europaeus), but it can be distinguished by distinctive white chest thatcontrasts with dark abdomen. Dental formula is 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92-94.","habitat":"Deciduous forests, scrublands, grasslands, and alpine regions below tree line but typically not extensive coniferous forests because of lack of ground cover. The Southern White-breasted Hedgehog is less common in treeless moors, uplands, and marshlands because it usually gathers broad, dry leaves to construct nests in burrows and other shelters that are used for hibernation. It prospers in wooded parks, gardens, golf courses, and farmlands; however, populations in farmlands are small or lacking where hedgerows have been removed and where use of pesticides has reduced populations of invertebrate prey. During dry years, it might move onto irrigated fields. In Turkey, it inhabits apple, pear, and mulberry orchards; agricultural fields of beets, spinach, corn, cabbage, and other vegetables; areas with thick grasses around barns and bushes; and urban areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD4FFC2FF72FB25F93272D8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD4FFC2FF72FB25F93272D8","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"321","verbatimText":"5.North African HedgehogAtelerix algirusFrench:Hérisson d’Algérie/ German:Nordafrikanischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo morunoOther common names:Algerian HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus algirus Lereboullet, 1842, “provient d’Oran.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Algeria, currently the province Wilaya d’Oran.”Using mtDNA and nDNA data, M. Khaldi and colleagues in 2016 determined that there was no genetic discontinuity between island and mainland populations suggesting that subspecies recognition is unwarranted and that humans probably mediated introductions onto the Canary and Balearic islands and Europe. Thus, subspecies status of at least vagans by O. Thomas in 1901 appears unwarranted. Whether or not subspecies girbaensis on Djerba Island, Tunisia, is natural or introduced by humans is unknown. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.a.algirusLereboullet,1842—NWAfricafromMoroccoEtoNELibya.IntroducedinancienttimesintoMediterraneanFrance(nowextinct),E&SEIberianPeninsula,BalearicIs,andMalta;mostrecently(1890s)alsointoCanaryIs.A. a. girbaensis 1. Vesmanis, 1980— Djerba I, Tunisia. Introduced into Puerto Rico but not established there. Modern introductions not shaded on the map.Descriptive notes.Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 15-30 mm, ear 21-30 mm, hindfoot 30-40 mm; weight 500-865 g (males) and 513-640 g (females). The North African Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, but hallux can be slightly shorter than other digits. A means of distinguishing the North African Hedgehogis the spine-free parting on crown of head, which is narrower than in other species. It generally has pale pelage, but color varies from very dark to very pale. Face and abdomen usually are whitish, but there are varying amounts of brown in ventral fur. There are dark spines on back that often are interspersed with white spines. Spines are smooth and without papillae. Pelage on underside is non-spiny. Forehead is wide and white from cheek to cheek. Muzzle is white, with no dark face mask or only a few dark hairs or small spots. Ears are equal or slightly longer than adjacent spines and longer than on the West European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Limbs are short and white or pale. Tail is barely visible and has short pale hairs. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Coastal dry and warm Mediterranean scrublands and grasslands, especially open spaces with plenty of herbaceous and shrubby cover. In the Middle Atlas Range of Morocco, the North African Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of ¢.2000 m. It reportedly does not inhabit arid deserts, but it has been documented at oases in the Sahara Desert up to 500 km south of coastal Algeria. It seems to do well in areas inhabited by humans such as fallow or cultivated fields, palm groves, almond and olive plantations, hedges, woodlands, and suburban gardens. In Spain, it occupied open grass-scrub areas and used fields when available, butit avoided forests and urban areas.Food and Feeding.The North African Hedgehog is primarily insectivorous and opportunistic. Diet includes fungi, worms, eggs,fruits, snails, insects, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion. In Algeria, diet included c.85% insects (mostly ants and beetles), 6% centipedes and millipedes, 5% spiders, 2% gastropods, and 1% crustaceans (isopods). On the Balearic Islands, diet contained snails, centipedes, insects, some small vertebrates (snakes, lizards, and frogs), and a truffle-like fungus. On the Canary Islands,it ate berries, corn, and pumpkins. Results of laboratory studies revealed that color of eggs did not influence rates of consumption of eggs, but size ofeggs was important. North African Hedgehogs preferred to consume smaller eggs (quail) more than intermediate-sized eggs (partridge), and large eggs (chicken) were not consumed at all.Breeding.Reproduction of the North African Hedgehog appears limited to spring and summer. In Libya, breeding occurs in April-June, and occasionally a secondlitter is produced in July. On the Balearic Islands, breeding season occurs in June-October, with mostlitters born from the second half ofJuly through the first half of September. Gestation lasts 30-48 days. Litters have 1-7 young. Young remain close to their mother for several months.Activity patterns.North African Hedgehogs are nocturnal. In Algeria, males were first observed dead on roads in spring from March onward. During this time, more males (45%) than females (31%) were found dead. High level of activity of males in spring (maximum in May) and summer coincides with breeding. Most juveniles were found dead on roads in late summer and early autumn (24%), corresponding to dispersal and foraging in preparation for winter. In late autumn,activity begins to decrease and becomes more reduced in winter, apparently to save energy during cold weather. In winter, North African Hedgehogs probably reduce their metabolism and hibernate. Day-resting sites are spherical structures that can be constructed offoliage, herbaceous vegetation, and human-made waste (e.g. plastic strings from nearby crops). These dayresting sites can be under dense vegetation on margins of cultivated crops and in giant canes, open-vegetated areas, buildings (farm sheds, retaining walls, or houses), and piles of logs or wooden boxes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult male North African Hedgehogs have larger home ranges and move longer distances per hour than females. Foraging areas are 1-4-98-8 ha for adult males, 4-3-29-4 ha for adult females, and 3-1-28-6 ha forjuveniles. Individuals tolerate congeners regardless of sex or age; thus, home range of an individual can overlap those of others. Despite its tolerance of other conspecifics, the North African Hedgehog is solitary and does not exhibit social behavior except during mating where courtship lasts a few days and is not limited to mating alone. Up to three adults (two males and one female) were observed on ten occasions feeding simultaneously at a cat feeder without any agonistic behavior besides some snorting and occasional shoving when they came into physical contact; this only resulted in separation of individuals but not in expulsion of any of them. These individuals acted similarly toward cats that frequented the feeder. When threatened, the North African Hedgehog escapes rather than closing into a tight ball with spines directed outward. It self-anoints with its saliva.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humans introduced the North African Hedgehog in Menorca during the 13™ century, continental Spain about 3000 years ago, and the Canary Islands in 1892. European populations have declined, and it has disappeared in some places where it occurred in past decades, including southern France where it might be extinct. Loss and fragmentation of habitats are the possible causes of declines in Europe. The North African Hedgehog is a regular victim of traffic on roads in all parts ofits distribution, especially during breeding in spring and summer. Cattle grids, which are designed to restrict movements of livestock, are hazardous to hedgehogs because they can fall into them and are not able to escape. These grids often are used on narrow roadways with grassy borders and hedges, which are preferred habitats of hedgehogs in rural pasturelands. Installation of escape ramps in cattle grids would be a useful conservation activity.Bibliography.Alcover (2007), Beer (2003), Boukheroufa et al. (2015), Castilla et al. (2009), Corbet (1988), Derouiche et al. (2016), Frost et al. (1991), Garcia-Rodriguez & Puig-Montserrat (2014), Gropp & Natarajan (1972), Haltenorth & Diller (1988), Happold (2013b), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Johnson et al. (2012), Kahmann & Vesmanis (1977), Khaldi et al. (2016), Morales & Rofes (2008), Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009), Natarajan & Gropp (1971), Nowak (1999), Ouarab & Doumandji (2010), Reeve (1994), Saint Girons (1969), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1901b), Vesmanis (1980).","taxonomy":"FErinaceus algirus Lereboullet, 1842, “provient d’Oran.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Algeria, currently the province Wilaya d’Oran.”Using mtDNA and nDNA data, M. Khaldi and colleagues in 2016 determined that there was no genetic discontinuity between island and mainland populations suggesting that subspecies recognition is unwarranted and that humans probably mediated introductions onto the Canary and Balearic islands and Europe. Thus, subspecies status of at least vagans by O. Thomas in 1901 appears unwarranted. Whether or not subspecies girbaensis on Djerba Island, Tunisia, is natural or introduced by humans is unknown. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson d’Algérie @fr | Nordafrikanischer @de | gel @en | Erizo moruno @es | Algerian Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Lereboullet","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lereboullet","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Atelerix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"321","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"algirus","name":"Atelerix algirus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.a.algirusLereboullet,1842—NWAfricafromMoroccoEtoNELibya.IntroducedinancienttimesintoMediterraneanFrance(nowextinct),E&SEIberianPeninsula,BalearicIs,andMalta;mostrecently(1890s)alsointoCanaryIs.A. a. girbaensis 1. Vesmanis, 1980— Djerba I, Tunisia. Introduced into Puerto Rico but not established there. Modern introductions not shaded on the map.","bibliography":"Alcover (2007) | Beer (2003) | Boukheroufa et al. (2015) | Castilla et al. (2009) | Corbet (1988) | Derouiche et al. (2016) | Frost et al. (1991) | Garcia-Rodriguez & Puig-Montserrat (2014) | Gropp & Natarajan (1972) | Haltenorth & Diller (1988) | Happold (2013b) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Johnson et al. (2012) | Kahmann & Vesmanis (1977) | Khaldi et al. (2016) | Morales & Rofes (2008) | Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009) | Natarajan & Gropp (1971) | Nowak (1999) | Ouarab & Doumandji (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Saint Girons (1969) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1901b) | Vesmanis (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"The North African Hedgehog is primarily insectivorous and opportunistic. Diet includes fungi, worms, eggs,fruits, snails, insects, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion. In Algeria, diet included c.85% insects (mostly ants and beetles), 6% centipedes and millipedes, 5% spiders, 2% gastropods, and 1% crustaceans (isopods). On the Balearic Islands, diet contained snails, centipedes, insects, some small vertebrates (snakes, lizards, and frogs), and a truffle-like fungus. On the Canary Islands,it ate berries, corn, and pumpkins. Results of laboratory studies revealed that color of eggs did not influence rates of consumption of eggs, but size ofeggs was important. North African Hedgehogs preferred to consume smaller eggs (quail) more than intermediate-sized eggs (partridge), and large eggs (chicken) were not consumed at all.","breeding":"Reproduction of the North African Hedgehog appears limited to spring and summer. In Libya, breeding occurs in April-June, and occasionally a secondlitter is produced in July. On the Balearic Islands, breeding season occurs in June-October, with mostlitters born from the second half ofJuly through the first half of September. Gestation lasts 30-48 days. Litters have 1-7 young. Young remain close to their mother for several months.","activityPatterns":"North African Hedgehogs are nocturnal. In Algeria, males were first observed dead on roads in spring from March onward. During this time, more males (45%) than females (31%) were found dead. High level of activity of males in spring (maximum in May) and summer coincides with breeding. Most juveniles were found dead on roads in late summer and early autumn (24%), corresponding to dispersal and foraging in preparation for winter. In late autumn,activity begins to decrease and becomes more reduced in winter, apparently to save energy during cold weather. In winter, North African Hedgehogs probably reduce their metabolism and hibernate. Day-resting sites are spherical structures that can be constructed offoliage, herbaceous vegetation, and human-made waste (e.g. plastic strings from nearby crops). These dayresting sites can be under dense vegetation on margins of cultivated crops and in giant canes, open-vegetated areas, buildings (farm sheds, retaining walls, or houses), and piles of logs or wooden boxes.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Adult male North African Hedgehogs have larger home ranges and move longer distances per hour than females. Foraging areas are 1-4-98-8 ha for adult males, 4-3-29-4 ha for adult females, and 3-1-28-6 ha forjuveniles. Individuals tolerate congeners regardless of sex or age; thus, home range of an individual can overlap those of others. Despite its tolerance of other conspecifics, the North African Hedgehog is solitary and does not exhibit social behavior except during mating where courtship lasts a few days and is not limited to mating alone. Up to three adults (two males and one female) were observed on ten occasions feeding simultaneously at a cat feeder without any agonistic behavior besides some snorting and occasional shoving when they came into physical contact; this only resulted in separation of individuals but not in expulsion of any of them. These individuals acted similarly toward cats that frequented the feeder. When threatened, the North African Hedgehog escapes rather than closing into a tight ball with spines directed outward. It self-anoints with its saliva.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humans introduced the North African Hedgehog in Menorca during the 13™ century, continental Spain about 3000 years ago, and the Canary Islands in 1892. European populations have declined, and it has disappeared in some places where it occurred in past decades, including southern France where it might be extinct. Loss and fragmentation of habitats are the possible causes of declines in Europe. The North African Hedgehog is a regular victim of traffic on roads in all parts ofits distribution, especially during breeding in spring and summer. Cattle grids, which are designed to restrict movements of livestock, are hazardous to hedgehogs because they can fall into them and are not able to escape. These grids often are used on narrow roadways with grassy borders and hedges, which are preferred habitats of hedgehogs in rural pasturelands. Installation of escape ramps in cattle grids would be a useful conservation activity.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 15-30 mm, ear 21-30 mm, hindfoot 30-40 mm; weight 500-865 g (males) and 513-640 g (females). The North African Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, but hallux can be slightly shorter than other digits. A means of distinguishing the North African Hedgehogis the spine-free parting on crown of head, which is narrower than in other species. It generally has pale pelage, but color varies from very dark to very pale. Face and abdomen usually are whitish, but there are varying amounts of brown in ventral fur. There are dark spines on back that often are interspersed with white spines. Spines are smooth and without papillae. Pelage on underside is non-spiny. Forehead is wide and white from cheek to cheek. Muzzle is white, with no dark face mask or only a few dark hairs or small spots. Ears are equal or slightly longer than adjacent spines and longer than on the West European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Limbs are short and white or pale. Tail is barely visible and has short pale hairs. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","habitat":"Coastal dry and warm Mediterranean scrublands and grasslands, especially open spaces with plenty of herbaceous and shrubby cover. In the Middle Atlas Range of Morocco, the North African Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of ¢.2000 m. It reportedly does not inhabit arid deserts, but it has been documented at oases in the Sahara Desert up to 500 km south of coastal Algeria. It seems to do well in areas inhabited by humans such as fallow or cultivated fields, palm groves, almond and olive plantations, hedges, woodlands, and suburban gardens. In Spain, it occupied open grass-scrub areas and used fields when available, butit avoided forests and urban areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD4FFC2FF72FB25F93272D8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD4FFC2FF72FB25F93272D8","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"321","verbatimText":"5.North African HedgehogAtelerix algirusFrench:Hérisson d’Algérie/ German:Nordafrikanischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo morunoOther common names:Algerian HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus algirus Lereboullet, 1842, “provient d’Oran.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Algeria, currently the province Wilaya d’Oran.”Using mtDNA and nDNA data, M. Khaldi and colleagues in 2016 determined that there was no genetic discontinuity between island and mainland populations suggesting that subspecies recognition is unwarranted and that humans probably mediated introductions onto the Canary and Balearic islands and Europe. Thus, subspecies status of at least vagans by O. Thomas in 1901 appears unwarranted. Whether or not subspecies girbaensis on Djerba Island, Tunisia, is natural or introduced by humans is unknown. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.a.algirusLereboullet,1842—NWAfricafromMoroccoEtoNELibya.IntroducedinancienttimesintoMediterraneanFrance(nowextinct),E&SEIberianPeninsula,BalearicIs,andMalta;mostrecently(1890s)alsointoCanaryIs.A. a. girbaensis 1. Vesmanis, 1980— Djerba I, Tunisia. Introduced into Puerto Rico but not established there. Modern introductions not shaded on the map.Descriptive notes.Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 15-30 mm, ear 21-30 mm, hindfoot 30-40 mm; weight 500-865 g (males) and 513-640 g (females). The North African Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, but hallux can be slightly shorter than other digits. A means of distinguishing the North African Hedgehogis the spine-free parting on crown of head, which is narrower than in other species. It generally has pale pelage, but color varies from very dark to very pale. Face and abdomen usually are whitish, but there are varying amounts of brown in ventral fur. There are dark spines on back that often are interspersed with white spines. Spines are smooth and without papillae. Pelage on underside is non-spiny. Forehead is wide and white from cheek to cheek. Muzzle is white, with no dark face mask or only a few dark hairs or small spots. Ears are equal or slightly longer than adjacent spines and longer than on the West European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Limbs are short and white or pale. Tail is barely visible and has short pale hairs. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Coastal dry and warm Mediterranean scrublands and grasslands, especially open spaces with plenty of herbaceous and shrubby cover. In the Middle Atlas Range of Morocco, the North African Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of ¢.2000 m. It reportedly does not inhabit arid deserts, but it has been documented at oases in the Sahara Desert up to 500 km south of coastal Algeria. It seems to do well in areas inhabited by humans such as fallow or cultivated fields, palm groves, almond and olive plantations, hedges, woodlands, and suburban gardens. In Spain, it occupied open grass-scrub areas and used fields when available, butit avoided forests and urban areas.Food and Feeding.The North African Hedgehog is primarily insectivorous and opportunistic. Diet includes fungi, worms, eggs,fruits, snails, insects, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion. In Algeria, diet included c.85% insects (mostly ants and beetles), 6% centipedes and millipedes, 5% spiders, 2% gastropods, and 1% crustaceans (isopods). On the Balearic Islands, diet contained snails, centipedes, insects, some small vertebrates (snakes, lizards, and frogs), and a truffle-like fungus. On the Canary Islands,it ate berries, corn, and pumpkins. Results of laboratory studies revealed that color of eggs did not influence rates of consumption of eggs, but size ofeggs was important. North African Hedgehogs preferred to consume smaller eggs (quail) more than intermediate-sized eggs (partridge), and large eggs (chicken) were not consumed at all.Breeding.Reproduction of the North African Hedgehog appears limited to spring and summer. In Libya, breeding occurs in April-June, and occasionally a secondlitter is produced in July. On the Balearic Islands, breeding season occurs in June-October, with mostlitters born from the second half ofJuly through the first half of September. Gestation lasts 30-48 days. Litters have 1-7 young. Young remain close to their mother for several months.Activity patterns.North African Hedgehogs are nocturnal. In Algeria, males were first observed dead on roads in spring from March onward. During this time, more males (45%) than females (31%) were found dead. High level of activity of males in spring (maximum in May) and summer coincides with breeding. Most juveniles were found dead on roads in late summer and early autumn (24%), corresponding to dispersal and foraging in preparation for winter. In late autumn,activity begins to decrease and becomes more reduced in winter, apparently to save energy during cold weather. In winter, North African Hedgehogs probably reduce their metabolism and hibernate. Day-resting sites are spherical structures that can be constructed offoliage, herbaceous vegetation, and human-made waste (e.g. plastic strings from nearby crops). These dayresting sites can be under dense vegetation on margins of cultivated crops and in giant canes, open-vegetated areas, buildings (farm sheds, retaining walls, or houses), and piles of logs or wooden boxes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult male North African Hedgehogs have larger home ranges and move longer distances per hour than females. Foraging areas are 1-4-98-8 ha for adult males, 4-3-29-4 ha for adult females, and 3-1-28-6 ha forjuveniles. Individuals tolerate congeners regardless of sex or age; thus, home range of an individual can overlap those of others. Despite its tolerance of other conspecifics, the North African Hedgehog is solitary and does not exhibit social behavior except during mating where courtship lasts a few days and is not limited to mating alone. Up to three adults (two males and one female) were observed on ten occasions feeding simultaneously at a cat feeder without any agonistic behavior besides some snorting and occasional shoving when they came into physical contact; this only resulted in separation of individuals but not in expulsion of any of them. These individuals acted similarly toward cats that frequented the feeder. When threatened, the North African Hedgehog escapes rather than closing into a tight ball with spines directed outward. It self-anoints with its saliva.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humans introduced the North African Hedgehog in Menorca during the 13™ century, continental Spain about 3000 years ago, and the Canary Islands in 1892. European populations have declined, and it has disappeared in some places where it occurred in past decades, including southern France where it might be extinct. Loss and fragmentation of habitats are the possible causes of declines in Europe. The North African Hedgehog is a regular victim of traffic on roads in all parts ofits distribution, especially during breeding in spring and summer. Cattle grids, which are designed to restrict movements of livestock, are hazardous to hedgehogs because they can fall into them and are not able to escape. These grids often are used on narrow roadways with grassy borders and hedges, which are preferred habitats of hedgehogs in rural pasturelands. Installation of escape ramps in cattle grids would be a useful conservation activity.Bibliography.Alcover (2007), Beer (2003), Boukheroufa et al. (2015), Castilla et al. (2009), Corbet (1988), Derouiche et al. (2016), Frost et al. (1991), Garcia-Rodriguez & Puig-Montserrat (2014), Gropp & Natarajan (1972), Haltenorth & Diller (1988), Happold (2013b), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Johnson et al. (2012), Kahmann & Vesmanis (1977), Khaldi et al. (2016), Morales & Rofes (2008), Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009), Natarajan & Gropp (1971), Nowak (1999), Ouarab & Doumandji (2010), Reeve (1994), Saint Girons (1969), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1901b), Vesmanis (1980).","taxonomy":"FErinaceus algirus Lereboullet, 1842, “provient d’Oran.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Algeria, currently the province Wilaya d’Oran.”Using mtDNA and nDNA data, M. Khaldi and colleagues in 2016 determined that there was no genetic discontinuity between island and mainland populations suggesting that subspecies recognition is unwarranted and that humans probably mediated introductions onto the Canary and Balearic islands and Europe. Thus, subspecies status of at least vagans by O. Thomas in 1901 appears unwarranted. Whether or not subspecies girbaensis on Djerba Island, Tunisia, is natural or introduced by humans is unknown. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson d’Algérie @fr | Nordafrikanischer @de | gel @en | Erizo moruno @es | Algerian Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Lereboullet","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lereboullet","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Atelerix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"321","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"algirus","name":"Atelerix algirus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.a.algirusLereboullet,1842—NWAfricafromMoroccoEtoNELibya.IntroducedinancienttimesintoMediterraneanFrance(nowextinct),E&SEIberianPeninsula,BalearicIs,andMalta;mostrecently(1890s)alsointoCanaryIs.A. a. girbaensis 1. Vesmanis, 1980— Djerba I, Tunisia. Introduced into Puerto Rico but not established there. Modern introductions not shaded on the map.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639356/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alcover (2007) | Beer (2003) | Boukheroufa et al. (2015) | Castilla et al. (2009) | Corbet (1988) | Derouiche et al. (2016) | Frost et al. (1991) | Garcia-Rodriguez & Puig-Montserrat (2014) | Gropp & Natarajan (1972) | Haltenorth & Diller (1988) | Happold (2013b) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Johnson et al. (2012) | Kahmann & Vesmanis (1977) | Khaldi et al. (2016) | Morales & Rofes (2008) | Mouhoub Sayah et al. (2009) | Natarajan & Gropp (1971) | Nowak (1999) | Ouarab & Doumandji (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Saint Girons (1969) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1901b) | Vesmanis (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"The North African Hedgehog is primarily insectivorous and opportunistic. Diet includes fungi, worms, eggs,fruits, snails, insects, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion. In Algeria, diet included c.85% insects (mostly ants and beetles), 6% centipedes and millipedes, 5% spiders, 2% gastropods, and 1% crustaceans (isopods). On the Balearic Islands, diet contained snails, centipedes, insects, some small vertebrates (snakes, lizards, and frogs), and a truffle-like fungus. On the Canary Islands,it ate berries, corn, and pumpkins. Results of laboratory studies revealed that color of eggs did not influence rates of consumption of eggs, but size ofeggs was important. North African Hedgehogs preferred to consume smaller eggs (quail) more than intermediate-sized eggs (partridge), and large eggs (chicken) were not consumed at all.","breeding":"Reproduction of the North African Hedgehog appears limited to spring and summer. In Libya, breeding occurs in April-June, and occasionally a secondlitter is produced in July. On the Balearic Islands, breeding season occurs in June-October, with mostlitters born from the second half ofJuly through the first half of September. Gestation lasts 30-48 days. Litters have 1-7 young. Young remain close to their mother for several months.","activityPatterns":"North African Hedgehogs are nocturnal. In Algeria, males were first observed dead on roads in spring from March onward. During this time, more males (45%) than females (31%) were found dead. High level of activity of males in spring (maximum in May) and summer coincides with breeding. Most juveniles were found dead on roads in late summer and early autumn (24%), corresponding to dispersal and foraging in preparation for winter. In late autumn,activity begins to decrease and becomes more reduced in winter, apparently to save energy during cold weather. In winter, North African Hedgehogs probably reduce their metabolism and hibernate. Day-resting sites are spherical structures that can be constructed offoliage, herbaceous vegetation, and human-made waste (e.g. plastic strings from nearby crops). These dayresting sites can be under dense vegetation on margins of cultivated crops and in giant canes, open-vegetated areas, buildings (farm sheds, retaining walls, or houses), and piles of logs or wooden boxes.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Adult male North African Hedgehogs have larger home ranges and move longer distances per hour than females. Foraging areas are 1-4-98-8 ha for adult males, 4-3-29-4 ha for adult females, and 3-1-28-6 ha forjuveniles. Individuals tolerate congeners regardless of sex or age; thus, home range of an individual can overlap those of others. Despite its tolerance of other conspecifics, the North African Hedgehog is solitary and does not exhibit social behavior except during mating where courtship lasts a few days and is not limited to mating alone. Up to three adults (two males and one female) were observed on ten occasions feeding simultaneously at a cat feeder without any agonistic behavior besides some snorting and occasional shoving when they came into physical contact; this only resulted in separation of individuals but not in expulsion of any of them. These individuals acted similarly toward cats that frequented the feeder. When threatened, the North African Hedgehog escapes rather than closing into a tight ball with spines directed outward. It self-anoints with its saliva.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humans introduced the North African Hedgehog in Menorca during the 13™ century, continental Spain about 3000 years ago, and the Canary Islands in 1892. European populations have declined, and it has disappeared in some places where it occurred in past decades, including southern France where it might be extinct. Loss and fragmentation of habitats are the possible causes of declines in Europe. The North African Hedgehog is a regular victim of traffic on roads in all parts ofits distribution, especially during breeding in spring and summer. Cattle grids, which are designed to restrict movements of livestock, are hazardous to hedgehogs because they can fall into them and are not able to escape. These grids often are used on narrow roadways with grassy borders and hedges, which are preferred habitats of hedgehogs in rural pasturelands. Installation of escape ramps in cattle grids would be a useful conservation activity.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 15-30 mm, ear 21-30 mm, hindfoot 30-40 mm; weight 500-865 g (males) and 513-640 g (females). The North African Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, but hallux can be slightly shorter than other digits. A means of distinguishing the North African Hedgehogis the spine-free parting on crown of head, which is narrower than in other species. It generally has pale pelage, but color varies from very dark to very pale. Face and abdomen usually are whitish, but there are varying amounts of brown in ventral fur. There are dark spines on back that often are interspersed with white spines. Spines are smooth and without papillae. Pelage on underside is non-spiny. Forehead is wide and white from cheek to cheek. Muzzle is white, with no dark face mask or only a few dark hairs or small spots. Ears are equal or slightly longer than adjacent spines and longer than on the West European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Limbs are short and white or pale. Tail is barely visible and has short pale hairs. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","habitat":"Coastal dry and warm Mediterranean scrublands and grasslands, especially open spaces with plenty of herbaceous and shrubby cover. In the Middle Atlas Range of Morocco, the North African Hedgehog occurs up to elevations of ¢.2000 m. It reportedly does not inhabit arid deserts, but it has been documented at oases in the Sahara Desert up to 500 km south of coastal Algeria. It seems to do well in areas inhabited by humans such as fallow or cultivated fields, palm groves, almond and olive plantations, hedges, woodlands, and suburban gardens. In Spain, it occupied open grass-scrub areas and used fields when available, butit avoided forests and urban areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD4FFC3FA8DF60FF6AE7FBF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD4FFC3FA8DF60FF6AE7FBF","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"321","verbatimText":"6.Four-toed HedgehogAtelerix albiventrisFrench:Hérisson a ventre blanc/ German:\\WeiRbauchigel/ Spanish:Erizo africano de vientre blancoOther common names:African Pygmy Hedgehog, Central African Hedgehog, White-bellied HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus albwventrisWagner, 1841, type locality not given. Restricted by J. Anderson and W. E. de Winton in 1902 to “in all probability, from Senegambia Confederation [= Senegal + The Gambia],” West Africa. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Senegal E to Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia and S through East Africa to Zambezi River.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-258 mm,tail 9-25 mm, ear 15-28 mm, hindfoot 26-34 mm; weight 250-680 g, but up to 900 g in captivity. The Four-toed Hedgehog is small, with hallux (first digit) absent or very small; dorsal pelage has 15-17mm spines; there is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head; ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs; limbs are short and hairy; and tail is short and thinly haired. Back is speckled gray-brown, black, and white; eyes are black; ears are small, dark, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines; muzzle is brownish to black; and face, legs, and underside are covered with white hairs. Some individuals have black face mask. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Grasslands, thickets, scrublands, shrublands, woodlands, agricultural lands, hills, mountains, and frequently suburban areas occupying gardens and buildings. The Four-toed Hedgehog lives in areas with dry soils and is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests. It seems to be drawn to relatively open, dry, or seasonal habitats, with sparse or patchy grasses, especially overgrazed areas with dense populations of ungulates where there is an abundance of trampled herbage and dung to support termites and other insects.Food and Feeding.The Four-toed Hedgehog is omnivorous. It will eat fungi and plant material such as fallen fruits, roots, and groundnuts, but it primarily preys upon invertebrates, especially termites, beetles, earthworms, millipedes, ants, grasshoppers, slugs, snails, and crabs. It also eats small vertebrates including snakes, lizards, frogs, and young and eggs of ground-nesting birds. It usually forages alone and hunts mainly by scent. It will dig for prey in soft, loose soils. Hearing and sight also are involved with searching for food. Immobile foods are toyed with before being ingested, and mobile prey is snapped up and chewed noisily. Lizards and mice are seized and shaken to death. Snakes are approached with caution and are bitten severely and repeatedly while the Four-toed Hedgehog protects its face with spines to avoid being struck;it will continue the attack until it has broken the spine or eviscerated the snake. It readily consumes carrion and will scavenge road kills at night.Breeding.Times of reproductive activity of the Fourtoed Hedgehog vary in different parts of its distribution, but it is sexually active throughout the year in central and northern Africa. Farther south in Zambia and Zimbabwe, it breeds seasonally. Courtship is ritualistic. When a female is in search of a mate, she calls with a whine. Males serenade females during courtship with bird-like call of repeated squeaks that vary greatly from almost a whistle to a coarse squawk. Males court females by persistently following them. Male walks around a female in estrus with his snout pointed toward her and puffing; this may last for several days. When the male approaches, the female reacts aggressively by raising her spines and snorting. She respondsto a serenading male by vigorously butting him as she hisses and snorts, and she rejects him by running away, by pushing him on his flank with spines on her head, and with other evasive moves. Such behavior can last for hours. Copulation occurs when the male mounts the female from behind after she has flattened her spines, lowered her abdomen to the ground, and pressed her hindquarters outward. The male has an especially long penis, which might be because spines on the rump of the female prevent the male from getting too close to her during copulation. Gestation lasts 35-37 days. Young are born during any month in central and northern Africa, but in southern areas, young are born during warm and wet months, mainly October—March. In Zambia and Zimbabwe, young are born in November, ¢.2 months after females emerge from estivation. Nests are in well-hidden cavities, lined with vegetative material. After parturition, the female licks the young, eats the afterbirth, and places young on her abdomen to nurse. Young vigorously search for a nipple; after nursing begins, swallowing noises and motion of the throat are apparent. Litters usually have 3-5 young (range 1-10). Young are altricial and nearly hairless, eyes and ears are closed, they weigh ¢.10 g (range 8-13 g), they are 20-26 mm long, and their spines are pliable for the first few daysafter birth. Neonatal mortality is high due to desertion and cannibalism by mothers. Young grow rapidly; they weigh 25 g by day 7, 50 g by day 13, 70-75 g by day 20, 110-120 g by day 28, 130-150 g by day 34, and 170-190 g by day 40. Young huddle together, especially during periods of inactivity. Legs are thin and fragile, and feet are formed with nails intact. Young exhibit boxing, hissing, self-anointing, and anti-predator behaviors before their eyes open. Eyes open at 14-15 days. Deciduous teeth erupt at c.3 weeks, permanent teeth at 7-9 weeks, and consumption ofsolid food begins at ¢.24 days. Young typically are weaned by 4-6 weeks of age when they weigh 170-195 g; then, they begin to accompany their mother and typically leave her by c.7 weeks of age. In captivity, sexual maturity is attained as early as 61 days, but in the wild,it is reached at c.1 year of age. Females can give birth several times each year. There is no record of a reproductively active, captive-born female more than two years of age. Only one wild-caught female that was in the lab for 33 months was able to reproduce longer; females in the wild probably are reproductively active for an even shorter time.Activity patterns.The Four-toed Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal, but it can be both crepuscular and nocturnalto avoid daytime heat and desiccation. In captivity, two peaks of activity are evident: 21:00-24:00 h and ¢.03:00 h. It rests by day curled up in a ball or reclined full-length under rocks, logs, or matted grass or in leaflitter, termitarium, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such refuges change daily unless they are being used to rear young or as a hibernation site. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, the Four-toed Hedgehog gains weight and enters torpor when weather is cool and dry. In southern Africa, hibernation takes place in June-September, with individuals remaining torpid for up to six weeks and emerging during warm intervals. In some parts ofits distribution,it probably does not hibernate. The Four-toed Hedgehog can climb and swim; it typically moves slowly butis capable of bursts of speed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Four-toed Hedgehogs are common in suitable habitats. Individuals are observed more often at beginning of wet season. Home range is small and usually within 200-300 m of a burrow or day-resting site. Four-toed Hedgehogs are generally solitary, except during courtship or when a female has young. When two individuals meet, there is much growling, hissing, snorting, spitting, and butting of heads. Main defense mechanism used against predators is to contract a series of muscles, rolling into a compact ball shape, with head, limbs, and underparts protected by sharp spines. Feces have a strong odor and might be a means of advertising presence of an individual. Self-anointing behavior occurs when the Fourtoed Hedgehog comes into contact with an irritating substance. It takes the substance into its mouth and creates a mixture with saliva that is rubbed onto spines. Reasons for self-anointing are unknown, but it might be used to attract mates or byjuveniles to get attention from their mothers. Self-anointing is innate becauseit is performed beforeyoung open their eyes. Several vocalizations are emitted that enable communication between individuals. Five types of audible sounds have been recorded. Twitter is a quiet sound emitted through the closed mouth, often accompanied by sniffing and usually associated with unfamiliar situations; each twitter is of short duration (5-40 ms), and several are emitted in pulses lasting for several seconds. Hiss is a short noise of lower pitch than the twitter and emitted during stressful situations. Snort is similar to the hiss but louder and emitted when severely stressed or attacked, often repeated rapidly. Scream is a rare sound, emitted under extreme stress. Serenade is a series of low-pitched sounds, ranging from a whistle to a coarse squawk and emitted by males during courtship behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In eastern Africa, many superstitions surround the Four-toed Hedgehog. Its skin or spines often are used as fertility charms. In Uganda and Kenya, a bumper harvestis believed to be obtained by placing skin of a hedgehog on seeds before sowing, and for maximum yields of cotton, its skin should be burned on the cotton field. Humans eatit as bushmeat. In Nigeria, holes where it lives are located, and they are captured by digging, pouring water into the hole, or filling the hole with smoke. When the individual comes out,itis killed for food. The Four-toed Hedgehog is vulnerable to collisions with motor vehicles, but its overall population faces no major conservation threats.Bibliography.Allen (1922), Anderson & de Winton (1902), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Beer (2003), Booth (1960), Brecht et al. (1997), Brockie (1976), Brodie Ill et al. (1982), Brodie Jr (1977), Cansdale (1960), Catania (2005), Catania et al. (2000), Fairley et al. (1999), Graffam et al. (1998), Gregory (1975, 1976), Haltenorth & Diller (1988), Happold (1969, 1987 2013a), Herter (1965), Hoefer (1994), Hibner et al. (1991), Hutterer (2005a), Kingdon (1974a, 1997), Meritt (1981), Nowak (1999), Ofori et al. (2015), Okaeme & Osakwe (1988), Okaeme et al. (1988), Reeve (1994), Santana et al. (2010), Smith (1992, 1995), Symonds (1999), Watson (1951).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus albwventrisWagner, 1841, type locality not given. Restricted by J. Anderson and W. E. de Winton in 1902 to “in all probability, from Senegambia Confederation [= Senegal + The Gambia],” West Africa. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson a ventre blanc @fr | \\Wei Rbauchigel @de | Erizo africano de vientre blanco @es | African Pygmy Hedgehog @en | Central African Hedgehog @en | White-bellied Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Atelerix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"321","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albiventris","name":"Atelerix albiventris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Senegal E to Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia and S through East Africa to Zambezi River.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639358/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1922) | Anderson & de Winton (1902) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Beer (2003) | Booth (1960) | Brecht et al. (1997) | Brockie (1976) | Brodie Ill et al. (1982) | Brodie Jr (1977) | Cansdale (1960) | Catania (2005) | Catania et al. (2000) | Fairley et al. (1999) | Graffam et al. (1998) | Gregory (1975, 1976) | Haltenorth & Diller (1988) | Happold (1969, 1987 2013a) | Herter (1965) | Hoefer (1994) | Hibner et al. (1991) | Hutterer (2005a) | Kingdon (1974a, 1997) | Meritt (1981) | Nowak (1999) | Ofori et al. (2015) | Okaeme & Osakwe (1988) | Okaeme et al. (1988) | Reeve (1994) | Santana et al. (2010) | Smith (1992, 1995) | Symonds (1999) | Watson (1951)","foodAndFeeding":"The Four-toed Hedgehog is omnivorous. It will eat fungi and plant material such as fallen fruits, roots, and groundnuts, but it primarily preys upon invertebrates, especially termites, beetles, earthworms, millipedes, ants, grasshoppers, slugs, snails, and crabs. It also eats small vertebrates including snakes, lizards, frogs, and young and eggs of ground-nesting birds. It usually forages alone and hunts mainly by scent. It will dig for prey in soft, loose soils. Hearing and sight also are involved with searching for food. Immobile foods are toyed with before being ingested, and mobile prey is snapped up and chewed noisily. Lizards and mice are seized and shaken to death. Snakes are approached with caution and are bitten severely and repeatedly while the Four-toed Hedgehog protects its face with spines to avoid being struck;it will continue the attack until it has broken the spine or eviscerated the snake. It readily consumes carrion and will scavenge road kills at night.","breeding":"Times of reproductive activity of the Fourtoed Hedgehog vary in different parts of its distribution, but it is sexually active throughout the year in central and northern Africa. Farther south in Zambia and Zimbabwe, it breeds seasonally. Courtship is ritualistic. When a female is in search of a mate, she calls with a whine. Males serenade females during courtship with bird-like call of repeated squeaks that vary greatly from almost a whistle to a coarse squawk. Males court females by persistently following them. Male walks around a female in estrus with his snout pointed toward her and puffing; this may last for several days. When the male approaches, the female reacts aggressively by raising her spines and snorting. She respondsto a serenading male by vigorously butting him as she hisses and snorts, and she rejects him by running away, by pushing him on his flank with spines on her head, and with other evasive moves. Such behavior can last for hours. Copulation occurs when the male mounts the female from behind after she has flattened her spines, lowered her abdomen to the ground, and pressed her hindquarters outward. The male has an especially long penis, which might be because spines on the rump of the female prevent the male from getting too close to her during copulation. Gestation lasts 35-37 days. Young are born during any month in central and northern Africa, but in southern areas, young are born during warm and wet months, mainly October—March. In Zambia and Zimbabwe, young are born in November, ¢.2 months after females emerge from estivation. Nests are in well-hidden cavities, lined with vegetative material. After parturition, the female licks the young, eats the afterbirth, and places young on her abdomen to nurse. Young vigorously search for a nipple; after nursing begins, swallowing noises and motion of the throat are apparent. Litters usually have 3-5 young (range 1-10). Young are altricial and nearly hairless, eyes and ears are closed, they weigh ¢.10 g (range 8-13 g), they are 20-26 mm long, and their spines are pliable for the first few daysafter birth. Neonatal mortality is high due to desertion and cannibalism by mothers. Young grow rapidly; they weigh 25 g by day 7, 50 g by day 13, 70-75 g by day 20, 110-120 g by day 28, 130-150 g by day 34, and 170-190 g by day 40. Young huddle together, especially during periods of inactivity. Legs are thin and fragile, and feet are formed with nails intact. Young exhibit boxing, hissing, self-anointing, and anti-predator behaviors before their eyes open. Eyes open at 14-15 days. Deciduous teeth erupt at c.3 weeks, permanent teeth at 7-9 weeks, and consumption ofsolid food begins at ¢.24 days. Young typically are weaned by 4-6 weeks of age when they weigh 170-195 g; then, they begin to accompany their mother and typically leave her by c.7 weeks of age. In captivity, sexual maturity is attained as early as 61 days, but in the wild,it is reached at c.1 year of age. Females can give birth several times each year. There is no record of a reproductively active, captive-born female more than two years of age. Only one wild-caught female that was in the lab for 33 months was able to reproduce longer; females in the wild probably are reproductively active for an even shorter time.","activityPatterns":"The Four-toed Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal, but it can be both crepuscular and nocturnalto avoid daytime heat and desiccation. In captivity, two peaks of activity are evident: 21:00-24:00 h and ¢.03:00 h. It rests by day curled up in a ball or reclined full-length under rocks, logs, or matted grass or in leaflitter, termitarium, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such refuges change daily unless they are being used to rear young or as a hibernation site. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, the Four-toed Hedgehog gains weight and enters torpor when weather is cool and dry. In southern Africa, hibernation takes place in June-September, with individuals remaining torpid for up to six weeks and emerging during warm intervals. In some parts ofits distribution,it probably does not hibernate. The Four-toed Hedgehog can climb and swim; it typically moves slowly butis capable of bursts of speed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Four-toed Hedgehogs are common in suitable habitats. Individuals are observed more often at beginning of wet season. Home range is small and usually within 200-300 m of a burrow or day-resting site. Four-toed Hedgehogs are generally solitary, except during courtship or when a female has young. When two individuals meet, there is much growling, hissing, snorting, spitting, and butting of heads. Main defense mechanism used against predators is to contract a series of muscles, rolling into a compact ball shape, with head, limbs, and underparts protected by sharp spines. Feces have a strong odor and might be a means of advertising presence of an individual. Self-anointing behavior occurs when the Fourtoed Hedgehog comes into contact with an irritating substance. It takes the substance into its mouth and creates a mixture with saliva that is rubbed onto spines. Reasons for self-anointing are unknown, but it might be used to attract mates or byjuveniles to get attention from their mothers. Self-anointing is innate becauseit is performed beforeyoung open their eyes. Several vocalizations are emitted that enable communication between individuals. Five types of audible sounds have been recorded. Twitter is a quiet sound emitted through the closed mouth, often accompanied by sniffing and usually associated with unfamiliar situations; each twitter is of short duration (5-40 ms), and several are emitted in pulses lasting for several seconds. Hiss is a short noise of lower pitch than the twitter and emitted during stressful situations. Snort is similar to the hiss but louder and emitted when severely stressed or attacked, often repeated rapidly. Scream is a rare sound, emitted under extreme stress. Serenade is a series of low-pitched sounds, ranging from a whistle to a coarse squawk and emitted by males during courtship behavior.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In eastern Africa, many superstitions surround the Four-toed Hedgehog. Its skin or spines often are used as fertility charms. In Uganda and Kenya, a bumper harvestis believed to be obtained by placing skin of a hedgehog on seeds before sowing, and for maximum yields of cotton, its skin should be burned on the cotton field. Humans eatit as bushmeat. In Nigeria, holes where it lives are located, and they are captured by digging, pouring water into the hole, or filling the hole with smoke. When the individual comes out,itis killed for food. The Four-toed Hedgehog is vulnerable to collisions with motor vehicles, but its overall population faces no major conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-258 mm,tail 9-25 mm, ear 15-28 mm, hindfoot 26-34 mm; weight 250-680 g, but up to 900 g in captivity. The Four-toed Hedgehog is small, with hallux (first digit) absent or very small; dorsal pelage has 15-17mm spines; there is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head; ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs; limbs are short and hairy; and tail is short and thinly haired. Back is speckled gray-brown, black, and white; eyes are black; ears are small, dark, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines; muzzle is brownish to black; and face, legs, and underside are covered with white hairs. Some individuals have black face mask. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","habitat":"Grasslands, thickets, scrublands, shrublands, woodlands, agricultural lands, hills, mountains, and frequently suburban areas occupying gardens and buildings. The Four-toed Hedgehog lives in areas with dry soils and is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests. It seems to be drawn to relatively open, dry, or seasonal habitats, with sparse or patchy grasses, especially overgrazed areas with dense populations of ungulates where there is an abundance of trampled herbage and dung to support termites and other insects."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD5FFC0FA53F576F6D17964.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD5FFC0FA53F576F6D17964","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"522","verbatimText":"8.Southern African HedgehogAtelerix frontalisFrench:Hérisson d’Afrique du Sud/ German:Kap-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de SudéfricaOther common names:Cape Hedgehog, South African HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus frontalis A. Smith,1831, “South Africa.”Restricted byJ. R. El-lerman and colleagues in 1953 to “northern parts of the district of Graaff Reinet, Cape Province,” South Africa. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.f.frontalisA.Smith,1831—EBotswanaandW&CZimbabweStoSouthA.f.A. f. angolae Thomas, 1918— SW Angola and N & C Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-190 mm (males) and 186-210 mm (females), tail 19-30 mm (males) and 19-25 mm (females), ear 20-27 mm (males) and 25-29 mm (females), hindfoot 30-36 mm (males) and 30-35 mm (females); weight 291-479 g (males) and 410-450 g (females). Some Southern African Hedgehogs reared in captivity weighed up to 800 g. It has five digits on hindfeet. Hallux is present but somewhat reduced in size. Upperparts, exceptfor front of head and ears, are covered with dark spines that are mainly white at bases and tips and have central band that is dark brown or black. Width of band varies geographically and produces darker or paler appearance to individuals in different areas. Surfaces of spines are smooth and without papillae. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs, dark grayish brown, black, or white, with interspersed black hairs. There is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and white band across forehead is well developed and extends below ears. Face mask is black or dark brown and well defined, and it merges with dark throat and chest. Ears are small, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines. Limbs are short, grayish brown to black. Tail is very short. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.Habitat.Semiarid and subtemperate scrublands, shrublands, grasslands, rocky areas, city parks, and suburban gardens, with annual summer rainfall of 300-800 mm, ample ground cover, and dry shelters to rest and rear young. The Southern African Hedgehog requires adequate cover of dense grasses or shrubs. It is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests.Food and Feeding.The Southern African Hedgehog is omnivorous and forages in litter and just under the soil surface. Its vision might be poor, and it seems to locate food primarily by scent. It emits loud sniffs as it forages. Diet primarily is invertebrates such as beetles, earwigs, grasshoppers, ants, termites, moths, earthworms, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and snails, but fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates such as small mammals, eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, frogs, and lizards also are eaten. It does not seem to be dependent on free water.Breeding.The Southern African Hedgehog is polygynous. Testosterone levels are high in September—January and low in February—June, and testicular activity resumesat the end of winter (July-August) when individuals are still experiencing bouts of torpor. It hibernates in June-August or September. Nothing is known about breeding season in more arid regions to the south and west. In precopulatory encounters, the male approaches the female who huffs and puffs and jerks her body in rejection, always on the move. During copulation, the female might move about, huffing and puffing, as if trying to get rid of the male who has a bite-hold of quills on her lower back. He thrusts and moves with the female on his hindlegs, his forepaws pushing on her back. His penis appears locked inside the female who might fall over several times, but mating continues while lying on their side. Upon termination of copulation, the female moves off while the male remains behind. Gestation lasts 35-42 days. Young are born during warm-wet summers, usually in October—-March but sometimes as late as April. Females give birth in sheltered nests in debris or in holes lined with dry leaves. The Southern African Hedgehog sometimes uses termitaria for nesting. Males do not participate in parental care. Litters usually have 4-5 young (range 1-10); litters with 8-9 young are common. Sizes of neonates are head-body lengths of 50-53 mm,tail lengths of 4-5 mm, and weights of 9-12 g. Neonates have eyes and ears closed, their body is pink and hairless, and they actively crawl about. Rudimentary spines are visible beneath the skin. Within 1-3 hours after birth, tips of unpigmented spines emerge through the skin. Actively flexing after birth probably assists in forcing quills through the skin. After 2-3 hours, spines average 3-8 mm long. After a day, spines have grown to 4-9-5-5 mm long. In three days, pigmented spines appear, and in seven days, distinctly hedgehog-like appearance is attained, along with characteristic frowning, puffing, and jerking. Eyes open at 10-14 days old. Spines of infants are shed at 4-6 weeks. Weight at weaning is ¢.200 g. Young are weaned and begin to accompany the mother at c.5-6 weeks. Sexual maturity can be reached as soon as 9-10 weeks after birth. Females can become pregnant during their first year so that parturition takes place during favorable summer conditions. One captive Southern African Hedgehog produced a litter at 13 months old. Females can produce more than onelitter each year.Activity patterns.The Southern African Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal and usually emerges in evening to forage but exhibits some diurnal activity following rainfall, probably to feed on emerging earthworms. It generally moves about slowly but is capable of remarkable bursts of speed. It rests by day curled up in a ball under matted grass or in leaf litter, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such resting sites are changed daily unless they are being used to rear young or for hibernation. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, it gains weight. In cool, dry winter when availability of food declines and ambient temperatures decrease, the Southern African Hedgehog becomes scarce and burrows into loose sandy soil to hibernate. Hibernation is characterized by low oxygen consumption, low respiratory rate, and lowered body temperature. During this time, fat reserves accumulated in wet season are used to obtain energy. It appears that it can modify length of torpor in response to availability of food and energy. Hibernation is in June-September and is slightly less in northern parts ofits distribution. It remains torpid for up to six weeks at a time and temporarily arouses during warm weather. Torpor ends when temperatures increase in spring. Both sexes can lose c¢.15% of their weight during three months in hibernation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern African Hedgehog is usually solitary but can be in pairs while foraging and during breeding. Aggressive behavior includes head butting accompanied by vocalizations such as snuffling, snorting, and growling. Alarm call is high-pitched screech. Dorsal spines are effective means of defense when accompanied by rolling into a ball with head, limbs, and soft ventral surface in the center. A Lion (Panthera leo) was observed rolling a balled Southern African Hedgehog between its paws and trying to bite it; it escaped and apparently was unharmed. The Southern African Hedgehog engagesin self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern African Hedgehog is considered rare in South Africa, and populations have declined because of popularity as a pet, use as food by humans, mortalities on roadways, use of domestic and agricultural pesticides (these kill prey), climate changes, and lossof habitats to changing land-use in urban, suburban, and agricultural developments. Generally, the Southern African Hedgehog is beneficial as a predator of invertebrate pests.Bibliography.Apps (2012), Beer (2003), van der Colf & van Aarde (1992), Dippenaar & Baxter (2013a), Ellerman et al. (1953), Gillies et al. (1991), Hallam & Mzilikazi (2011), Hill & Carter (1941), Hutterer (2005a), Jacobsen (1982), Kingdon (1974a), Kok & Van Ee (1989), Maberly (1967), Nowak (1999), Rautenbach (1982), Reeve (1994), Rowe-Rowe (1974), Shortridge (1934), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers (1983).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus frontalis A. Smith,1831, “South Africa.”Restricted byJ. R. El-lerman and colleagues in 1953 to “northern parts of the district of Graaff Reinet, Cape Province,” South Africa. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson d’Afrique du Sud @fr | Kap- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Sudéfrica @es | Cape Hedgehog @en | South African Hedgehog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1831","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Atelerix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"522","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"frontalis","name":"Atelerix frontalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.f.frontalisA.Smith,1831—EBotswanaandW&CZimbabweStoSouthA.f.A. f. angolae Thomas, 1918— SW Angola and N & C Namibia.","bibliography":"Apps (2012) | Beer (2003) | van der Colf & van Aarde (1992) | Dippenaar & Baxter (2013a) | Ellerman et al. (1953) | Gillies et al. (1991) | Hallam & Mzilikazi (2011) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jacobsen (1982) | Kingdon (1974a) | Kok & Van Ee (1989) | Maberly (1967) | Nowak (1999) | Rautenbach (1982) | Reeve (1994) | Rowe-Rowe (1974) | Shortridge (1934) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers (1983)","foodAndFeeding":"The Southern African Hedgehog is omnivorous and forages in litter and just under the soil surface. Its vision might be poor, and it seems to locate food primarily by scent. It emits loud sniffs as it forages. Diet primarily is invertebrates such as beetles, earwigs, grasshoppers, ants, termites, moths, earthworms, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and snails, but fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates such as small mammals, eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, frogs, and lizards also are eaten. It does not seem to be dependent on free water.","breeding":"The Southern African Hedgehog is polygynous. Testosterone levels are high in September—January and low in February—June, and testicular activity resumesat the end of winter (July-August) when individuals are still experiencing bouts of torpor. It hibernates in June-August or September. Nothing is known about breeding season in more arid regions to the south and west. In precopulatory encounters, the male approaches the female who huffs and puffs and jerks her body in rejection, always on the move. During copulation, the female might move about, huffing and puffing, as if trying to get rid of the male who has a bite-hold of quills on her lower back. He thrusts and moves with the female on his hindlegs, his forepaws pushing on her back. His penis appears locked inside the female who might fall over several times, but mating continues while lying on their side. Upon termination of copulation, the female moves off while the male remains behind. Gestation lasts 35-42 days. Young are born during warm-wet summers, usually in October—-March but sometimes as late as April. Females give birth in sheltered nests in debris or in holes lined with dry leaves. The Southern African Hedgehog sometimes uses termitaria for nesting. Males do not participate in parental care. Litters usually have 4-5 young (range 1-10); litters with 8-9 young are common. Sizes of neonates are head-body lengths of 50-53 mm,tail lengths of 4-5 mm, and weights of 9-12 g. Neonates have eyes and ears closed, their body is pink and hairless, and they actively crawl about. Rudimentary spines are visible beneath the skin. Within 1-3 hours after birth, tips of unpigmented spines emerge through the skin. Actively flexing after birth probably assists in forcing quills through the skin. After 2-3 hours, spines average 3-8 mm long. After a day, spines have grown to 4-9-5-5 mm long. In three days, pigmented spines appear, and in seven days, distinctly hedgehog-like appearance is attained, along with characteristic frowning, puffing, and jerking. Eyes open at 10-14 days old. Spines of infants are shed at 4-6 weeks. Weight at weaning is ¢.200 g. Young are weaned and begin to accompany the mother at c.5-6 weeks. Sexual maturity can be reached as soon as 9-10 weeks after birth. Females can become pregnant during their first year so that parturition takes place during favorable summer conditions. One captive Southern African Hedgehog produced a litter at 13 months old. Females can produce more than onelitter each year.","activityPatterns":"The Southern African Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal and usually emerges in evening to forage but exhibits some diurnal activity following rainfall, probably to feed on emerging earthworms. It generally moves about slowly but is capable of remarkable bursts of speed. It rests by day curled up in a ball under matted grass or in leaf litter, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such resting sites are changed daily unless they are being used to rear young or for hibernation. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, it gains weight. In cool, dry winter when availability of food declines and ambient temperatures decrease, the Southern African Hedgehog becomes scarce and burrows into loose sandy soil to hibernate. Hibernation is characterized by low oxygen consumption, low respiratory rate, and lowered body temperature. During this time, fat reserves accumulated in wet season are used to obtain energy. It appears that it can modify length of torpor in response to availability of food and energy. Hibernation is in June-September and is slightly less in northern parts ofits distribution. It remains torpid for up to six weeks at a time and temporarily arouses during warm weather. Torpor ends when temperatures increase in spring. Both sexes can lose c¢.15% of their weight during three months in hibernation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern African Hedgehog is usually solitary but can be in pairs while foraging and during breeding. Aggressive behavior includes head butting accompanied by vocalizations such as snuffling, snorting, and growling. Alarm call is high-pitched screech. Dorsal spines are effective means of defense when accompanied by rolling into a ball with head, limbs, and soft ventral surface in the center. A Lion (Panthera leo) was observed rolling a balled Southern African Hedgehog between its paws and trying to bite it; it escaped and apparently was unharmed. The Southern African Hedgehog engagesin self-anointing behavior.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern African Hedgehog is considered rare in South Africa, and populations have declined because of popularity as a pet, use as food by humans, mortalities on roadways, use of domestic and agricultural pesticides (these kill prey), climate changes, and loss","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-190 mm (males) and 186-210 mm (females), tail 19-30 mm (males) and 19-25 mm (females), ear 20-27 mm (males) and 25-29 mm (females), hindfoot 30-36 mm (males) and 30-35 mm (females); weight 291-479 g (males) and 410-450 g (females). Some Southern African Hedgehogs reared in captivity weighed up to 800 g. It has five digits on hindfeet. Hallux is present but somewhat reduced in size. Upperparts, exceptfor front of head and ears, are covered with dark spines that are mainly white at bases and tips and have central band that is dark brown or black. Width of band varies geographically and produces darker or paler appearance to individuals in different areas. Surfaces of spines are smooth and without papillae. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs, dark grayish brown, black, or white, with interspersed black hairs. There is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and white band across forehead is well developed and extends below ears. Face mask is black or dark brown and well defined, and it merges with dark throat and chest. Ears are small, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines. Limbs are short, grayish brown to black. Tail is very short. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.","habitat":"Semiarid and subtemperate scrublands, shrublands, grasslands, rocky areas, city parks, and suburban gardens, with annual summer rainfall of 300-800 mm, ample ground cover, and dry shelters to rest and rear young. The Southern African Hedgehog requires adequate cover of dense grasses or shrubs. It is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD5FFC0FA53F576F6D17964.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD5FFC0FA53F576F6D17964","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"522","verbatimText":"8.Southern African HedgehogAtelerix frontalisFrench:Hérisson d’Afrique du Sud/ German:Kap-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de SudéfricaOther common names:Cape Hedgehog, South African HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus frontalis A. Smith,1831, “South Africa.”Restricted byJ. R. El-lerman and colleagues in 1953 to “northern parts of the district of Graaff Reinet, Cape Province,” South Africa. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.f.frontalisA.Smith,1831—EBotswanaandW&CZimbabweStoSouthA.f.A. f. angolae Thomas, 1918— SW Angola and N & C Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-190 mm (males) and 186-210 mm (females), tail 19-30 mm (males) and 19-25 mm (females), ear 20-27 mm (males) and 25-29 mm (females), hindfoot 30-36 mm (males) and 30-35 mm (females); weight 291-479 g (males) and 410-450 g (females). Some Southern African Hedgehogs reared in captivity weighed up to 800 g. It has five digits on hindfeet. Hallux is present but somewhat reduced in size. Upperparts, exceptfor front of head and ears, are covered with dark spines that are mainly white at bases and tips and have central band that is dark brown or black. Width of band varies geographically and produces darker or paler appearance to individuals in different areas. Surfaces of spines are smooth and without papillae. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs, dark grayish brown, black, or white, with interspersed black hairs. There is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and white band across forehead is well developed and extends below ears. Face mask is black or dark brown and well defined, and it merges with dark throat and chest. Ears are small, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines. Limbs are short, grayish brown to black. Tail is very short. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.Habitat.Semiarid and subtemperate scrublands, shrublands, grasslands, rocky areas, city parks, and suburban gardens, with annual summer rainfall of 300-800 mm, ample ground cover, and dry shelters to rest and rear young. The Southern African Hedgehog requires adequate cover of dense grasses or shrubs. It is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests.Food and Feeding.The Southern African Hedgehog is omnivorous and forages in litter and just under the soil surface. Its vision might be poor, and it seems to locate food primarily by scent. It emits loud sniffs as it forages. Diet primarily is invertebrates such as beetles, earwigs, grasshoppers, ants, termites, moths, earthworms, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and snails, but fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates such as small mammals, eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, frogs, and lizards also are eaten. It does not seem to be dependent on free water.Breeding.The Southern African Hedgehog is polygynous. Testosterone levels are high in September—January and low in February—June, and testicular activity resumesat the end of winter (July-August) when individuals are still experiencing bouts of torpor. It hibernates in June-August or September. Nothing is known about breeding season in more arid regions to the south and west. In precopulatory encounters, the male approaches the female who huffs and puffs and jerks her body in rejection, always on the move. During copulation, the female might move about, huffing and puffing, as if trying to get rid of the male who has a bite-hold of quills on her lower back. He thrusts and moves with the female on his hindlegs, his forepaws pushing on her back. His penis appears locked inside the female who might fall over several times, but mating continues while lying on their side. Upon termination of copulation, the female moves off while the male remains behind. Gestation lasts 35-42 days. Young are born during warm-wet summers, usually in October—-March but sometimes as late as April. Females give birth in sheltered nests in debris or in holes lined with dry leaves. The Southern African Hedgehog sometimes uses termitaria for nesting. Males do not participate in parental care. Litters usually have 4-5 young (range 1-10); litters with 8-9 young are common. Sizes of neonates are head-body lengths of 50-53 mm,tail lengths of 4-5 mm, and weights of 9-12 g. Neonates have eyes and ears closed, their body is pink and hairless, and they actively crawl about. Rudimentary spines are visible beneath the skin. Within 1-3 hours after birth, tips of unpigmented spines emerge through the skin. Actively flexing after birth probably assists in forcing quills through the skin. After 2-3 hours, spines average 3-8 mm long. After a day, spines have grown to 4-9-5-5 mm long. In three days, pigmented spines appear, and in seven days, distinctly hedgehog-like appearance is attained, along with characteristic frowning, puffing, and jerking. Eyes open at 10-14 days old. Spines of infants are shed at 4-6 weeks. Weight at weaning is ¢.200 g. Young are weaned and begin to accompany the mother at c.5-6 weeks. Sexual maturity can be reached as soon as 9-10 weeks after birth. Females can become pregnant during their first year so that parturition takes place during favorable summer conditions. One captive Southern African Hedgehog produced a litter at 13 months old. Females can produce more than onelitter each year.Activity patterns.The Southern African Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal and usually emerges in evening to forage but exhibits some diurnal activity following rainfall, probably to feed on emerging earthworms. It generally moves about slowly but is capable of remarkable bursts of speed. It rests by day curled up in a ball under matted grass or in leaf litter, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such resting sites are changed daily unless they are being used to rear young or for hibernation. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, it gains weight. In cool, dry winter when availability of food declines and ambient temperatures decrease, the Southern African Hedgehog becomes scarce and burrows into loose sandy soil to hibernate. Hibernation is characterized by low oxygen consumption, low respiratory rate, and lowered body temperature. During this time, fat reserves accumulated in wet season are used to obtain energy. It appears that it can modify length of torpor in response to availability of food and energy. Hibernation is in June-September and is slightly less in northern parts ofits distribution. It remains torpid for up to six weeks at a time and temporarily arouses during warm weather. Torpor ends when temperatures increase in spring. Both sexes can lose c¢.15% of their weight during three months in hibernation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern African Hedgehog is usually solitary but can be in pairs while foraging and during breeding. Aggressive behavior includes head butting accompanied by vocalizations such as snuffling, snorting, and growling. Alarm call is high-pitched screech. Dorsal spines are effective means of defense when accompanied by rolling into a ball with head, limbs, and soft ventral surface in the center. A Lion (Panthera leo) was observed rolling a balled Southern African Hedgehog between its paws and trying to bite it; it escaped and apparently was unharmed. The Southern African Hedgehog engagesin self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern African Hedgehog is considered rare in South Africa, and populations have declined because of popularity as a pet, use as food by humans, mortalities on roadways, use of domestic and agricultural pesticides (these kill prey), climate changes, and lossof habitats to changing land-use in urban, suburban, and agricultural developments. Generally, the Southern African Hedgehog is beneficial as a predator of invertebrate pests.Bibliography.Apps (2012), Beer (2003), van der Colf & van Aarde (1992), Dippenaar & Baxter (2013a), Ellerman et al. (1953), Gillies et al. (1991), Hallam & Mzilikazi (2011), Hill & Carter (1941), Hutterer (2005a), Jacobsen (1982), Kingdon (1974a), Kok & Van Ee (1989), Maberly (1967), Nowak (1999), Rautenbach (1982), Reeve (1994), Rowe-Rowe (1974), Shortridge (1934), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers (1983).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus frontalis A. Smith,1831, “South Africa.”Restricted byJ. R. El-lerman and colleagues in 1953 to “northern parts of the district of Graaff Reinet, Cape Province,” South Africa. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson d’Afrique du Sud @fr | Kap- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Sudéfrica @es | Cape Hedgehog @en | South African Hedgehog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1831","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Atelerix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"522","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"frontalis","name":"Atelerix frontalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.f.frontalisA.Smith,1831—EBotswanaandW&CZimbabweStoSouthA.f.A. f. angolae Thomas, 1918— SW Angola and N & C Namibia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639364/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Apps (2012) | Beer (2003) | van der Colf & van Aarde (1992) | Dippenaar & Baxter (2013a) | Ellerman et al. (1953) | Gillies et al. (1991) | Hallam & Mzilikazi (2011) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jacobsen (1982) | Kingdon (1974a) | Kok & Van Ee (1989) | Maberly (1967) | Nowak (1999) | Rautenbach (1982) | Reeve (1994) | Rowe-Rowe (1974) | Shortridge (1934) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers (1983)","foodAndFeeding":"The Southern African Hedgehog is omnivorous and forages in litter and just under the soil surface. Its vision might be poor, and it seems to locate food primarily by scent. It emits loud sniffs as it forages. Diet primarily is invertebrates such as beetles, earwigs, grasshoppers, ants, termites, moths, earthworms, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and snails, but fruits, fungi, and small vertebrates such as small mammals, eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, frogs, and lizards also are eaten. It does not seem to be dependent on free water.","breeding":"The Southern African Hedgehog is polygynous. Testosterone levels are high in September—January and low in February—June, and testicular activity resumesat the end of winter (July-August) when individuals are still experiencing bouts of torpor. It hibernates in June-August or September. Nothing is known about breeding season in more arid regions to the south and west. In precopulatory encounters, the male approaches the female who huffs and puffs and jerks her body in rejection, always on the move. During copulation, the female might move about, huffing and puffing, as if trying to get rid of the male who has a bite-hold of quills on her lower back. He thrusts and moves with the female on his hindlegs, his forepaws pushing on her back. His penis appears locked inside the female who might fall over several times, but mating continues while lying on their side. Upon termination of copulation, the female moves off while the male remains behind. Gestation lasts 35-42 days. Young are born during warm-wet summers, usually in October—-March but sometimes as late as April. Females give birth in sheltered nests in debris or in holes lined with dry leaves. The Southern African Hedgehog sometimes uses termitaria for nesting. Males do not participate in parental care. Litters usually have 4-5 young (range 1-10); litters with 8-9 young are common. Sizes of neonates are head-body lengths of 50-53 mm,tail lengths of 4-5 mm, and weights of 9-12 g. Neonates have eyes and ears closed, their body is pink and hairless, and they actively crawl about. Rudimentary spines are visible beneath the skin. Within 1-3 hours after birth, tips of unpigmented spines emerge through the skin. Actively flexing after birth probably assists in forcing quills through the skin. After 2-3 hours, spines average 3-8 mm long. After a day, spines have grown to 4-9-5-5 mm long. In three days, pigmented spines appear, and in seven days, distinctly hedgehog-like appearance is attained, along with characteristic frowning, puffing, and jerking. Eyes open at 10-14 days old. Spines of infants are shed at 4-6 weeks. Weight at weaning is ¢.200 g. Young are weaned and begin to accompany the mother at c.5-6 weeks. Sexual maturity can be reached as soon as 9-10 weeks after birth. Females can become pregnant during their first year so that parturition takes place during favorable summer conditions. One captive Southern African Hedgehog produced a litter at 13 months old. Females can produce more than onelitter each year.","activityPatterns":"The Southern African Hedgehog is predominantly nocturnal and usually emerges in evening to forage but exhibits some diurnal activity following rainfall, probably to feed on emerging earthworms. It generally moves about slowly but is capable of remarkable bursts of speed. It rests by day curled up in a ball under matted grass or in leaf litter, rocky crevice, or hole in the ground. Such resting sites are changed daily unless they are being used to rear young or for hibernation. During warm rainy season when food is abundant, it gains weight. In cool, dry winter when availability of food declines and ambient temperatures decrease, the Southern African Hedgehog becomes scarce and burrows into loose sandy soil to hibernate. Hibernation is characterized by low oxygen consumption, low respiratory rate, and lowered body temperature. During this time, fat reserves accumulated in wet season are used to obtain energy. It appears that it can modify length of torpor in response to availability of food and energy. Hibernation is in June-September and is slightly less in northern parts ofits distribution. It remains torpid for up to six weeks at a time and temporarily arouses during warm weather. Torpor ends when temperatures increase in spring. Both sexes can lose c¢.15% of their weight during three months in hibernation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern African Hedgehog is usually solitary but can be in pairs while foraging and during breeding. Aggressive behavior includes head butting accompanied by vocalizations such as snuffling, snorting, and growling. Alarm call is high-pitched screech. Dorsal spines are effective means of defense when accompanied by rolling into a ball with head, limbs, and soft ventral surface in the center. A Lion (Panthera leo) was observed rolling a balled Southern African Hedgehog between its paws and trying to bite it; it escaped and apparently was unharmed. The Southern African Hedgehog engagesin self-anointing behavior.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern African Hedgehog is considered rare in South Africa, and populations have declined because of popularity as a pet, use as food by humans, mortalities on roadways, use of domestic and agricultural pesticides (these kill prey), climate changes, and loss","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-190 mm (males) and 186-210 mm (females), tail 19-30 mm (males) and 19-25 mm (females), ear 20-27 mm (males) and 25-29 mm (females), hindfoot 30-36 mm (males) and 30-35 mm (females); weight 291-479 g (males) and 410-450 g (females). Some Southern African Hedgehogs reared in captivity weighed up to 800 g. It has five digits on hindfeet. Hallux is present but somewhat reduced in size. Upperparts, exceptfor front of head and ears, are covered with dark spines that are mainly white at bases and tips and have central band that is dark brown or black. Width of band varies geographically and produces darker or paler appearance to individuals in different areas. Surfaces of spines are smooth and without papillae. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs, dark grayish brown, black, or white, with interspersed black hairs. There is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and white band across forehead is well developed and extends below ears. Face mask is black or dark brown and well defined, and it merges with dark throat and chest. Ears are small, rounded, and shorter than adjacent spines. Limbs are short, grayish brown to black. Tail is very short. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36.","habitat":"Semiarid and subtemperate scrublands, shrublands, grasslands, rocky areas, city parks, and suburban gardens, with annual summer rainfall of 300-800 mm, ample ground cover, and dry shelters to rest and rear young. The Southern African Hedgehog requires adequate cover of dense grasses or shrubs. It is absent from deserts, marshes, and dense forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD5FFC3FA57FAEEF8C07112.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD5FFC3FA57FAEEF8C07112","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"522","verbatimText":"7.Somali HedgehogAtelerix sclateriFrench:Hérisson de Somalie/ German:Somalischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de SomaliaOther common names:Somalian HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus sclateri J. Anderson,1895, “Taf, in Central Somaliland [= So- malia].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Somalia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 206-263 mm, tail 14-20 mm, ear 22-27 mm, hindfoot 25-29 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Somali Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, and hallux is small. Dorsal pelage has spines that are dark gray-brown to grizzled black, smooth, finely striated, without papillae, up to 18 mm long, and 1 mm in diameter. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs that are white or buffy-white, often with dark gray-brown to grizzled black patches on posterior part of abdomen. Spiny dorsum and hairy venter are well delineated on lowerflanks. Forehead is white from cheek to cheek, there is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and black face mask has slight posterior extension of black onto cheeks. Snoutis short, and ears are small, broadly rounded, and shorter than spines between ears. Claws are moderately long, limbs are short and dark, and tail is short, with barely visible, pale hairs.Habitat.Maritime plain near hills in arid scrublands.Food and Feeding.The Somali Hedgehog eats invertebrates, small vertebrates, fruits, and fungi.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Somali Hedgehog is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Somali Hedgehog is solitary and probably self-anoint like other hedgehogs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Anderson (1895), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Happold (2013c), Hutterer (2005a), Nowak (1999), Poduschka (1990), Reeve (1994).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus sclateri J. Anderson,1895, “Taf, in Central Somaliland [= So- malia].”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson de Somalie @fr | Somalischer @de | gel @en | Erizo de Somalia @es | Somalian Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Anderson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Atelerix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"522","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sclateri","name":"Atelerix sclateri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Somalia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639360/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson (1895) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Happold (2013c) | Hutterer (2005a) | Nowak (1999) | Poduschka (1990) | Reeve (1994)","foodAndFeeding":"The Somali Hedgehog eats invertebrates, small vertebrates, fruits, and fungi.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Somali Hedgehog is nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Somali Hedgehog is solitary and probably self-anoint like other hedgehogs.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 206-263 mm, tail 14-20 mm, ear 22-27 mm, hindfoot 25-29 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Somali Hedgehog has five digits on hindfeet, and hallux is small. Dorsal pelage has spines that are dark gray-brown to grizzled black, smooth, finely striated, without papillae, up to 18 mm long, and 1 mm in diameter. Ventral pelage has non-spiny hairs that are white or buffy-white, often with dark gray-brown to grizzled black patches on posterior part of abdomen. Spiny dorsum and hairy venter are well delineated on lowerflanks. Forehead is white from cheek to cheek, there is narrow central parting of spines on crown of head, and black face mask has slight posterior extension of black onto cheeks. Snoutis short, and ears are small, broadly rounded, and shorter than spines between ears. Claws are moderately long, limbs are short and dark, and tail is short, with barely visible, pale hairs.","habitat":"Maritime plain near hills in arid scrublands."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD6FFC1FA89FCE9FCC57823.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD6FFC1FA89FCE9FCC57823","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"323","verbatimText":"9.Desert HedgehogParaechinus aethiopicusFrench:Hérisson du désert/ German:Athiopischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo del desiertoOther common names:Ethiopian HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus aethiopicusEhren-berg, 1833, “in desertis dongalanis habi- tat.”Interpreted by G. B. Corbet in 1988 as“Dongola Desert, Sudan” and restricted byD. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 to “approximately at 19°22’N, 30°45’E,” northern Sudan. Paraechinus aethiopicusmight be polytypic, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment. Monotypic.Distribution.Sahara Desert from Mauritania E to Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea, WC Ethiopia (Awash), and deserts in Middle East (Syria, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, and Arabian Peninsula); insular populations on Djerba (Tunisia), Bahrain, and Tunb (Persian Gulf).Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 23-58 mm, hindfoot 27-39 mm; weight 285-700 g. Dorsal pelage of the Desert Hedgehog has dark spines that are banded, whitish at their bases, with two wide black bands separated by white band, and white tips. Surfaces of spines are rough, with numerous papillae and many longitudinal grooves. Ventral pelage is rather sparse, and hairs are mostly white but can be brown posteriorly or have brown patches on chest in some individuals. Ventral pelage varies geographically in color, which can be variable mix of white, brown, and black, but some individuals have entirely brown venter. Head has broad white forehead from cheek to cheek, wide central parting of spines on crown of head, and welldefined gray-black face mask on muzzle and around eyes that extends posteriorly on lower cheeks. Ears are large, dark, slightly pointed, and usually longer than adjacent spines. Limbs are rather long and dark brown. Feet are black, forefeet have five digits, hindfeet have five digits, and hallux can be slightly reduced. Tail is short, barely visible, and covered with small pale hairs. Dental formulaisI13/2,C1/1,P 2-3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 34 or 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 96.Habitat.Dry scrublands, dry steppes, stony plains, mountainous desert country, and more mesic habitats such as oases and vegetated riverine valleys in arid and semiarid regions in and around the Sahara and Arabian deserts.Food and Feeding.The Desert Hedgehog forages at night and primarily is insectivorous. Diet also includes scorpions, other invertebrates, and small vertebrates such as frogs, lizards, snakes, and eggs of ground-nesting birds.Breeding.Breeding of the Desert Hedgehog begins after hibernation has ended. Females can produce up to four litters each year, with peaks in February-March and June. It nests in clumps of vegetation or uses burrows under shrubs or among rocks. The Desert Hedgehog does not line its nest; a female gave birth to one young in a sand and peat hollow, making no use of hay, wood shavings, and leaves that were available. Gestation lasts 34-46 days. Litters have 2-7 young. Neonates weigh 6-9 g. Weight at ten days of age is 20 g, 20 days is 40 g, 30 days is 60 g, 40 days is 80 g, and 60 daysis 150 g. Rate of growth to six weeks is 1-7 g/day, and it is 3-5 g/day at 6-9 weeks old. Young begin rolling-up for the first time at 7-22 days old, eyes open at 21-22 days,thermoregulation is fully developed, solid foods are eaten at c.38-44 days, and weaning occurs at 40-58 days. Growth to weaning is longer than in other species of hedgehogs. Longevity might be 6-10 years.Activity patterns.The Desert Hedgehog is usually nocturnal, and it can excavate burrows that have many openings. In Egypt,it forages on the coastal plain at night. During day, it rests in crevices in cliffs, under clumps of vegetation, or in burrows. When nights are cold, and food is less abundant in winter,it enters torpor and is rarely seen. In Algeria, it is torpid in November—-March, but it usually emerges every few days to forage. During winter in Qatar, body temperature was higher than ambient temperature throughout the day, and the difference was more extreme during midday. Desert Hedgehogs bask in direct sunlight, which appears beneficial for thermoregulation in the desert where there is plenty of solar radiation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Desert Hedgehog is solitary and generally uncommon. Nevertheless,it can be more common in some localities because populations are scattered and isolated. It is relatively abundant in irrigated gardens and fields in parts of its distribution. Long limbs enable fast walking and trotting. One individual was followed at a steady 10 km/h for five minutes. The Desert Hedgehog can be rather sedentary, occupying a single burrow and the same home range all year—behaviors that could be construed as evidence of territoriality. It exhibits self-anointingbehavior. When attacked,it rolls into a ball and makes a noise similar to the throbbing of a miniature engine. Periodically, it gives a sort of half-grunt, half-bark sound.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hedgehog is reported to be widespread species, with a presumed large population.It is believed to be reasonably tolerant of habitat modification and is not considered globally threatened. Nevertheless, increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations. In Algeria, the Desert Hedgehog is hunted and eaten by humans. In Somaliland, humans are rather superstitious about hedgehogs, never harming them because they consider them stars that have fallen from the heavens.Bibliography.Abu Baker, Mohedano et al. (2016), Abu Baker, Reeve et al. (2016), Al-Saleh & Khan (1985), Amr (2000), Beer (2003), Bhatnagar & EI-Azawi (1978), Brodie (1977), Corbet (1988), Delany & Farook (1989), Drake-Brockman (1910), Eisentraut (1952), Frost et al. (1991), Happold (2013e), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hayssen et al. (1993), Heuglin (1861), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Nader & Al-Safadi (1993), Nowak (1999), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Petter (1954), Qumsiyeh (1996), Reeve (1994), Sellami et al. (1989), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1919), Walton & Walton (1973), Yamaguchi et al. (2013).","taxonomy":"FErinaceus aethiopicusEhren-berg, 1833, “in desertis dongalanis habi- tat.”Interpreted by G. B. Corbet in 1988 as“Dongola Desert, Sudan” and restricted byD. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 to “approximately at 19°22’N, 30°45’E,” northern Sudan. Paraechinus aethiopicusmight be polytypic, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson du désert @fr | Athiopischer @de | gel @en | Erizo del desierto @es | Ethiopian Hedgehog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ehrenberg","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1832","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Paraechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"323","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aethiopicus","name":"Paraechinus aethiopicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Sahara Desert from Mauritania E to Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea, WC Ethiopia (Awash), and deserts in Middle East (Syria, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, and Arabian Peninsula); insular populations on Djerba (Tunisia), Bahrain, and Tunb (Persian Gulf).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639368/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abu Baker, Mohedano et al. (2016) | Abu Baker, Reeve et al. (2016) | Al-Saleh & Khan (1985) | Amr (2000) | Beer (2003) | Bhatnagar & EI-Azawi (1978) | Brodie (1977) | Corbet (1988) | Delany & Farook (1989) | Drake-Brockman (1910) | Eisentraut (1952) | Frost et al. (1991) | Happold (2013e) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Heuglin (1861) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Nader & Al-Safadi (1993) | Nowak (1999) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Petter (1954) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Reeve (1994) | Sellami et al. (1989) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1919) | Walton & Walton (1973) | Yamaguchi et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"The Desert Hedgehog forages at night and primarily is insectivorous. Diet also includes scorpions, other invertebrates, and small vertebrates such as frogs, lizards, snakes, and eggs of ground-nesting birds.","breeding":"Breeding of the Desert Hedgehog begins after hibernation has ended. Females can produce up to four litters each year, with peaks in February-March and June. It nests in clumps of vegetation or uses burrows under shrubs or among rocks. The Desert Hedgehog does not line its nest; a female gave birth to one young in a sand and peat hollow, making no use of hay, wood shavings, and leaves that were available. Gestation lasts 34-46 days. Litters have 2-7 young. Neonates weigh 6-9 g. Weight at ten days of age is 20 g, 20 days is 40 g, 30 days is 60 g, 40 days is 80 g, and 60 daysis 150 g. Rate of growth to six weeks is 1-7 g/day, and it is 3-5 g/day at 6-9 weeks old. Young begin rolling-up for the first time at 7-22 days old, eyes open at 21-22 days,thermoregulation is fully developed, solid foods are eaten at c.38-44 days, and weaning occurs at 40-58 days. Growth to weaning is longer than in other species of hedgehogs. Longevity might be 6-10 years.","activityPatterns":"The Desert Hedgehog is usually nocturnal, and it can excavate burrows that have many openings. In Egypt,it forages on the coastal plain at night. During day, it rests in crevices in cliffs, under clumps of vegetation, or in burrows. When nights are cold, and food is less abundant in winter,it enters torpor and is rarely seen. In Algeria, it is torpid in November—-March, but it usually emerges every few days to forage. During winter in Qatar, body temperature was higher than ambient temperature throughout the day, and the difference was more extreme during midday. Desert Hedgehogs bask in direct sunlight, which appears beneficial for thermoregulation in the desert where there is plenty of solar radiation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Desert Hedgehog is solitary and generally uncommon. Nevertheless,it can be more common in some localities because populations are scattered and isolated. It is relatively abundant in irrigated gardens and fields in parts of its distribution. Long limbs enable fast walking and trotting. One individual was followed at a steady 10 km/h for five minutes. The Desert Hedgehog can be rather sedentary, occupying a single burrow and the same home range all year—behaviors that could be construed as evidence of territoriality. It exhibits self-anointingbehavior. When attacked,it rolls into a ball and makes a noise similar to the throbbing of a miniature engine. Periodically, it gives a sort of half-grunt, half-bark sound.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hedgehog is reported to be widespread species, with a presumed large population.It is believed to be reasonably tolerant of habitat modification and is not considered globally threatened. Nevertheless, increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations. In Algeria, the Desert Hedgehog is hunted and eaten by humans. In Somaliland, humans are rather superstitious about hedgehogs, never harming them because they consider them stars that have fallen from the heavens.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-240 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 23-58 mm, hindfoot 27-39 mm; weight 285-700 g. Dorsal pelage of the Desert Hedgehog has dark spines that are banded, whitish at their bases, with two wide black bands separated by white band, and white tips. Surfaces of spines are rough, with numerous papillae and many longitudinal grooves. Ventral pelage is rather sparse, and hairs are mostly white but can be brown posteriorly or have brown patches on chest in some individuals. Ventral pelage varies geographically in color, which can be variable mix of white, brown, and black, but some individuals have entirely brown venter. Head has broad white forehead from cheek to cheek, wide central parting of spines on crown of head, and welldefined gray-black face mask on muzzle and around eyes that extends posteriorly on lower cheeks. Ears are large, dark, slightly pointed, and usually longer than adjacent spines. Limbs are rather long and dark brown. Feet are black, forefeet have five digits, hindfeet have five digits, and hallux can be slightly reduced. Tail is short, barely visible, and covered with small pale hairs. Dental formulaisI13/2,C1/1,P 2-3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 34 or 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 96.","habitat":"Dry scrublands, dry steppes, stony plains, mountainous desert country, and more mesic habitats such as oases and vegetated riverine valleys in arid and semiarid regions in and around the Sahara and Arabian deserts."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD7FFC1FA58FEC3F5F07024.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD7FFC1FA58FEC3F5F07024","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"324","verbatimText":"11.Indian HedgehogParaechinus micropusFrench:Hérisson indien/ German:Indischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de IndiaOther common names:Indian Desert Hedgehog, Pale HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus micropus Blyth, 1846,“Bhawulpore.”Interpreted by D. R. Frostand colleagues in 1991 as “Bahawalpur, Pakistan, 29°23’N, 71°39’L.” This species is monotypic.Distribution.Arid zones of SE Pakistan (extreme SE Balochistan, Punjab, and Sindh) and NW India (W Rajasthan, Gujarat, and extreme NW Maharashtra).Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-230 mm, tail 10-40 mm, ear 26-32 mm, hindfoot 24-26 mm; weight 300-600 g. The Indian Hedgehog is small and rounded, with pointed nose and short legs. It has dark legs and relatively small feet and claws. Color is highly variable, with some individuals tending toward melanistic and others toward albinistic. True albinos have been reported. The Indian Hedgehog has well-defined, dark,facial mask thatis variable in shape and color. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they average 19-23 mm long and have fairly extensive creamy-white tips. Spines can be banded with dark brown or black and white or yellow, but usually only one of these colors predominates; some individuals have red-golden tint. There is wide and conspicuous center parting of spines on crown of head and distinct whitish band across forehead. Ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and snoutis pointed. Upper parts of face and cheeks are grayish white. Underparts can be blotched dark brown and white, varying from entirely brown to entirely white. Legs are dark. Limbs, abdomen, and area around eyes and muzzle are covered with reddish brown to reddish gray hairs. Hallux is somewhat reduced but well developed. Tail is short and stumpy and sparsely covered with hairs. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Primarily deserts and other arid areas in dry sandy areas, tropical thorn forests, semiarid scrublands, and agricultural lands. The Indian Hedgehog also occupies slightly more mesic habitats, especially regions influenced by monsoons.Food and Feeding.The Indian Hedgehog usually feeds at night, and its typical gait is a trot at ¢.30 cm/sec. When pursuing prey or when frightened, it may travel up to 64 cm/sec. Its diet consists mainly of insects (especially dung beetles) but also solifugid spiders, scorpions, frogs, toads,lizards, small snakes, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and rodents. It will eat ripe fallen fruits ofjujube dates (Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae). It holds down prey with forepaws and begins consuming its victim posterior-end first. Apparently, it stores excess food in its burrow for future use. Captive Indian Hedgehogs have survived 4-6 weeks without food and water.Breeding.The Indian Hedgehog is polygynous, and probably only one litter is produced each year. Males are reproductively capable well in advance of the breeding season, which extends throughout the monsoon period in April-September. Litters are born in July-September when insects are most abundant. Litters usually have 1-2 young (range 1-6). Neonates are 47-54 mm long. Captive Indian Hedgehogs sometimes eat their young.Activity patterns.The Indian Hedgehog usually is nocturnal and rather sedentary. Dayresting sites can be under a pile of brushy debris or a bush, but typically they are in burrows. The Indian Hedgehog does not hibernate. Although insects generally are plentiful even in winter, it undergoes temporary episodes of torpidity during drought or when food is scarce. When torpid,it remains curled up in its burrow or other shelter. It digs its own burrows and caches food.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Indian Hedgehogs excavate their own burrows that have one opening and are ¢.46 cm long. They also occupy burrows abandoned by other small mammals including those of the geographically sympatric Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris); they often occupy the same burrow and territory throughout the year. Indian Hedgehogs are usually solitary and nonaggressive. Males and females meet only to breed. Except for nursing mothers, only one Indian Hedgehog lives in a burrow at a time, although three shared one burrow in captivity. They engage in self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hedgehog is widespread and common, but local populations are increasingly fragmented and isolated due to desertification and agricultural development.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Bidwai & Bawa (1981), Corbet (1988), Eisentraut (1952), Frost et al. (1991), Gupta & Sharma (1961), Hutterer (2005a), Krishna & Prakash (1956), Mahabal et al. (2015), Nowak (1999), Prakash (1959, 1960), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Shah & Aravinda Babu (1977), Stone (1995b), Walton & Walton (1973).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus micropus Blyth, 1846,“Bhawulpore.”Interpreted by D. R. Frostand colleagues in 1991 as “Bahawalpur, Pakistan, 29°23’N, 71°39’L.” This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson indien @fr | German @en | ndischer @en | gel @en | Erizo de @es | ndia @en | Other common names @en | ndian Desert Hedgehog @en | Pale Hedgehog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Blyth","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1846","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Paraechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"324","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"micropus","name":"Paraechinus micropus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Arid zones of SE Pakistan (extreme SE Balochistan, Punjab, and Sindh) and NW India (W Rajasthan, Gujarat, and extreme NW Maharashtra).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639372/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Beer (2003) | Bidwai & Bawa (1981) | Corbet (1988) | Eisentraut (1952) | Frost et al. (1991) | Gupta & Sharma (1961) | Hutterer (2005a) | Krishna & Prakash (1956) | Mahabal et al. (2015) | Nowak (1999) | Prakash (1959, 1960) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Shah & Aravinda Babu (1977) | Stone (1995b) | Walton & Walton (1973)","foodAndFeeding":"The Indian Hedgehog usually feeds at night, and its typical gait is a trot at ¢.30 cm/sec. When pursuing prey or when frightened, it may travel up to 64 cm/sec. Its diet consists mainly of insects (especially dung beetles) but also solifugid spiders, scorpions, frogs, toads,lizards, small snakes, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and rodents. It will eat ripe fallen fruits ofjujube dates (Zizyphus, Rhamnaceae). It holds down prey with forepaws and begins consuming its victim posterior-end first. Apparently, it stores excess food in its burrow for future use. Captive Indian Hedgehogs have survived 4-6 weeks without food and water.","breeding":"The Indian Hedgehog is polygynous, and probably only one litter is produced each year. Males are reproductively capable well in advance of the breeding season, which extends throughout the monsoon period in April-September. Litters are born in July-September when insects are most abundant. Litters usually have 1-2 young (range 1-6). Neonates are 47-54 mm long. Captive Indian Hedgehogs sometimes eat their young.","activityPatterns":"The Indian Hedgehog usually is nocturnal and rather sedentary. Dayresting sites can be under a pile of brushy debris or a bush, but typically they are in burrows. The Indian Hedgehog does not hibernate. Although insects generally are plentiful even in winter, it undergoes temporary episodes of torpidity during drought or when food is scarce. When torpid,it remains curled up in its burrow or other shelter. It digs its own burrows and caches food.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Indian Hedgehogs excavate their own burrows that have one opening and are ¢.46 cm long. They also occupy burrows abandoned by other small mammals including those of the geographically sympatric Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris); they often occupy the same burrow and territory throughout the year. Indian Hedgehogs are usually solitary and nonaggressive. Males and females meet only to breed. Except for nursing mothers, only one Indian Hedgehog lives in a burrow at a time, although three shared one burrow in captivity. They engage in self-anointing behavior.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Hedgehog is widespread and common, but local populations are increasingly fragmented and isolated due to desertification and agricultural development.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130-230 mm, tail 10-40 mm, ear 26-32 mm, hindfoot 24-26 mm; weight 300-600 g. The Indian Hedgehog is small and rounded, with pointed nose and short legs. It has dark legs and relatively small feet and claws. Color is highly variable, with some individuals tending toward melanistic and others toward albinistic. True albinos have been reported. The Indian Hedgehog has well-defined, dark,facial mask thatis variable in shape and color. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they average 19-23 mm long and have fairly extensive creamy-white tips. Spines can be banded with dark brown or black and white or yellow, but usually only one of these colors predominates; some individuals have red-golden tint. There is wide and conspicuous center parting of spines on crown of head and distinct whitish band across forehead. Ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and snoutis pointed. Upper parts of face and cheeks are grayish white. Underparts can be blotched dark brown and white, varying from entirely brown to entirely white. Legs are dark. Limbs, abdomen, and area around eyes and muzzle are covered with reddish brown to reddish gray hairs. Hallux is somewhat reduced but well developed. Tail is short and stumpy and sparsely covered with hairs. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","habitat":"Primarily deserts and other arid areas in dry sandy areas, tropical thorn forests, semiarid scrublands, and agricultural lands. The Indian Hedgehog also occupies slightly more mesic habitats, especially regions influenced by monsoons."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD7FFC1FF59FC66FC8576DA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD7FFC1FF59FC66FC8576DA","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"324","verbatimText":"10.Brandt's HedgehogParaechinus hypomelasFrench:Hérisson de Brandt/ German:Brandt-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de BrandtOther common names:Brandt's Steppic Hedgehog, Long-spined HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus hypomelas Brandt,1836, “pays des Turcomans [= country of the Turkmens].”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “roughly equivalent to the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kazak, and Karakalpak regions of the [former] U.S.S.R.”” and by R. Hutterer in 2005 as “somewhere in S Kazakhstan.” Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.h.hypomelasBrandt,1836—mostofTurkmenistan,SEUzbekistan,SWTajikistan,andIran,includingKhargI. P.h.blanfordiJ.Anderson,1878—EIran,Afghanistan,andPakistan.P.h.eversmanniOgnev,1927—EofCaspianSeainSWKazakhstan,WUzbekistan,andNWTurkmenistan.P.h.sabaeusThomas,1922—ArabianPeninsula.P. h. seniculus Thomas, 1922— Tunb I, Persian Gulf, Iran.Descriptive notes. Head—body 136-290 mm, tail 18-38 mm, ear 36-55 mm, hindfoot 30-46 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Typically, Brandt's Hedgehog has striking dark brown or black pelage, with no white band across forehead, but white (not albino) individuals have been documented. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they are up to 36-37 mm long. Median parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines have black tips, often with entire distal one-third being black. Underside, legs, and face are covered with mix of black and gray hairs. Generally, middle part of forehead has more black hairs, with admixture of gray hairs on sides of face. Throat has mix of creamy-white hairs. Legs are long, large ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.Habitat. Dry deserts, desert steppes, and other arid places. In Pakistan, Brandt's Hedgehog appears to prefer dry gravelly slopes or rocky areas, and it survives and thrives in barren arid areas. It also can occur in lowland areas and will venture into cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.Brandt's Hedgehog is a voracious feeder and will tackle almost any prey from venomous snakes to beetles. Although it primarily is insectivorous, it also eats scorpions, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and fruits. In years when the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is plentiful, it forms the bulk of the diet. It has a fondness for ripe melons that are an important summer crop. It also feeds on fallen mulberries and silverberries (Elaegnus, Elacagnaceae). It may be cannibalistic, more so in captivity than in the wild.Breeding. In non-mountainous areas where there is some monsoon influence, Brandt's Hedgehog possibly breeds throughout the year. Litters usually are born in late spring and early summer (April-May). Average litters have 3—4 young (range 1-6). Eyes open in 21-23 days, and teeth appear in 26-28 days. There is no evidence that more than onelitter is produced each year. A captive Brandt's Hedgehog lived seven years and two months.Activity patterns. Brandt's Hedgehog is terrestrial and nocturnal; it forages most often at night. It has been observed day-resting in burrows 1m deep in sandy embankments of railway tracks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Brandt's Hedgehog is solitary and rather nomadic, and it does not use the same shelter continuously throughout the year. Day-resting sites can be under overhanging ledges, in crevices between rocks, and occasionally burrows. Its legs are relatively longer and claws shorter and sharper compared with other species of hedgehogs. These physical traits might be a disadvantage in burrowing and might explain why it is not a very active burrower. It exhibits self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations.Bibliography. Anderson (1878), Beer (2003), Brodie (1977), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Habibi (2004), Hutterer (2005a), Nader (1991), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1922a), Walton & Walton (1973), Zherebtsova (1992).","taxonomy":"FErinaceus hypomelas Brandt,1836, “pays des Turcomans [= country of the Turkmens].”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “roughly equivalent to the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kazak, and Karakalpak regions of the [former] U.S.S.R.”” and by R. Hutterer in 2005 as “somewhere in S Kazakhstan.” Five subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson de Brandt @fr | Brandt- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Brandt @es | Brandt's Steppic Hedgehog @en | Long-spined Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Brandt","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Paraechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"324","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hypomelas","name":"Paraechinus hypomelas","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.h.hypomelasBrandt,1836—mostofTurkmenistan,SEUzbekistan,SWTajikistan,andIran,includingKhargI. P.h.blanfordiJ.Anderson,1878—EIran,Afghanistan,andPakistan.P.h.eversmanniOgnev,1927—EofCaspianSeainSWKazakhstan,WUzbekistan,andNWTurkmenistan.P.h.sabaeusThomas,1922—ArabianPeninsula.P. h. seniculus Thomas, 1922— Tunb I, Persian Gulf, Iran.","bibliography":"Anderson (1878) | Beer (2003) | Brodie (1977) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Habibi (2004) | Hutterer (2005a) | Nader (1991) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1922a) | Walton & Walton (1973) | Zherebtsova (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"Brandt's Hedgehog is a voracious feeder and will tackle almost any prey from venomous snakes to beetles. Although it primarily is insectivorous, it also eats scorpions, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and fruits. In years when the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is plentiful, it forms the bulk of the diet. It has a fondness for ripe melons that are an important summer crop. It also feeds on fallen mulberries and silverberries (Elaegnus, Elacagnaceae). It may be cannibalistic, more so in captivity than in the wild.Breeding. In non-mountainous areas where there is some monsoon influence, Brandt's Hedgehog possibly breeds throughout the year. Litters usually are born in late spring and early summer (April-May). Average litters have 3—4 young (range 1-6). Eyes open in 21-23 days, and teeth appear in 26-28 days. There is no evidence that more than onelitter is produced each year. A captive Brandt's Hedgehog lived seven years and two months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Brandt's Hedgehog is solitary and rather nomadic, and it does not use the same shelter continuously throughout the year. Day-resting sites can be under overhanging ledges, in crevices between rocks, and occasionally burrows. Its legs are relatively longer and claws shorter and sharper compared with other species of hedgehogs. These physical traits might be a disadvantage in burrowing and might explain why it is not a very active burrower. It exhibits self-anointing behavior.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 136-290 mm, tail 18-38 mm, ear 36-55 mm, hindfoot 30-46 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Typically, Brandt's Hedgehog has striking dark brown or black pelage, with no white band across forehead, but white (not albino) individuals have been documented. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they are up to 36-37 mm long. Median parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines have black tips, often with entire distal one-third being black. Underside, legs, and face are covered with mix of black and gray hairs. Generally, middle part of forehead has more black hairs, with admixture of gray hairs on sides of face. Throat has mix of creamy-white hairs. Legs are long, large ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD7FFC1FF59FC66FC8576DA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD7FFC1FF59FC66FC8576DA","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"324","verbatimText":"10.Brandt's HedgehogParaechinus hypomelasFrench:Hérisson de Brandt/ German:Brandt-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de BrandtOther common names:Brandt's Steppic Hedgehog, Long-spined HedgehogTaxonomy.FErinaceus hypomelas Brandt,1836, “pays des Turcomans [= country of the Turkmens].”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “roughly equivalent to the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kazak, and Karakalpak regions of the [former] U.S.S.R.”” and by R. Hutterer in 2005 as “somewhere in S Kazakhstan.” Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.h.hypomelasBrandt,1836—mostofTurkmenistan,SEUzbekistan,SWTajikistan,andIran,includingKhargI. P.h.blanfordiJ.Anderson,1878—EIran,Afghanistan,andPakistan.P.h.eversmanniOgnev,1927—EofCaspianSeainSWKazakhstan,WUzbekistan,andNWTurkmenistan.P.h.sabaeusThomas,1922—ArabianPeninsula.P. h. seniculus Thomas, 1922— Tunb I, Persian Gulf, Iran.Descriptive notes. Head—body 136-290 mm, tail 18-38 mm, ear 36-55 mm, hindfoot 30-46 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Typically, Brandt's Hedgehog has striking dark brown or black pelage, with no white band across forehead, but white (not albino) individuals have been documented. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they are up to 36-37 mm long. Median parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines have black tips, often with entire distal one-third being black. Underside, legs, and face are covered with mix of black and gray hairs. Generally, middle part of forehead has more black hairs, with admixture of gray hairs on sides of face. Throat has mix of creamy-white hairs. Legs are long, large ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.Habitat. Dry deserts, desert steppes, and other arid places. In Pakistan, Brandt's Hedgehog appears to prefer dry gravelly slopes or rocky areas, and it survives and thrives in barren arid areas. It also can occur in lowland areas and will venture into cultivated fields.Food and Feeding.Brandt's Hedgehog is a voracious feeder and will tackle almost any prey from venomous snakes to beetles. Although it primarily is insectivorous, it also eats scorpions, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and fruits. In years when the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is plentiful, it forms the bulk of the diet. It has a fondness for ripe melons that are an important summer crop. It also feeds on fallen mulberries and silverberries (Elaegnus, Elacagnaceae). It may be cannibalistic, more so in captivity than in the wild.Breeding. In non-mountainous areas where there is some monsoon influence, Brandt's Hedgehog possibly breeds throughout the year. Litters usually are born in late spring and early summer (April-May). Average litters have 3—4 young (range 1-6). Eyes open in 21-23 days, and teeth appear in 26-28 days. There is no evidence that more than onelitter is produced each year. A captive Brandt's Hedgehog lived seven years and two months.Activity patterns. Brandt's Hedgehog is terrestrial and nocturnal; it forages most often at night. It has been observed day-resting in burrows 1m deep in sandy embankments of railway tracks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Brandt's Hedgehog is solitary and rather nomadic, and it does not use the same shelter continuously throughout the year. Day-resting sites can be under overhanging ledges, in crevices between rocks, and occasionally burrows. Its legs are relatively longer and claws shorter and sharper compared with other species of hedgehogs. These physical traits might be a disadvantage in burrowing and might explain why it is not a very active burrower. It exhibits self-anointing behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations.Bibliography. Anderson (1878), Beer (2003), Brodie (1977), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Habibi (2004), Hutterer (2005a), Nader (1991), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1922a), Walton & Walton (1973), Zherebtsova (1992).","taxonomy":"FErinaceus hypomelas Brandt,1836, “pays des Turcomans [= country of the Turkmens].”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “roughly equivalent to the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kazak, and Karakalpak regions of the [former] U.S.S.R.”” and by R. Hutterer in 2005 as “somewhere in S Kazakhstan.” Five subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson de Brandt @fr | Brandt- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Brandt @es | Brandt's Steppic Hedgehog @en | Long-spined Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Brandt","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Paraechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"324","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hypomelas","name":"Paraechinus hypomelas","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.h.hypomelasBrandt,1836—mostofTurkmenistan,SEUzbekistan,SWTajikistan,andIran,includingKhargI. P.h.blanfordiJ.Anderson,1878—EIran,Afghanistan,andPakistan.P.h.eversmanniOgnev,1927—EofCaspianSeainSWKazakhstan,WUzbekistan,andNWTurkmenistan.P.h.sabaeusThomas,1922—ArabianPeninsula.P. h. seniculus Thomas, 1922— Tunb I, Persian Gulf, Iran.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639370/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson (1878) | Beer (2003) | Brodie (1977) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Habibi (2004) | Hutterer (2005a) | Nader (1991) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1922a) | Walton & Walton (1973) | Zherebtsova (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"Brandt's Hedgehog is a voracious feeder and will tackle almost any prey from venomous snakes to beetles. Although it primarily is insectivorous, it also eats scorpions, other invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and fruits. In years when the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is plentiful, it forms the bulk of the diet. It has a fondness for ripe melons that are an important summer crop. It also feeds on fallen mulberries and silverberries (Elaegnus, Elacagnaceae). It may be cannibalistic, more so in captivity than in the wild.Breeding. In non-mountainous areas where there is some monsoon influence, Brandt's Hedgehog possibly breeds throughout the year. Litters usually are born in late spring and early summer (April-May). Average litters have 3—4 young (range 1-6). Eyes open in 21-23 days, and teeth appear in 26-28 days. There is no evidence that more than onelitter is produced each year. A captive Brandt's Hedgehog lived seven years and two months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Brandt's Hedgehog is solitary and rather nomadic, and it does not use the same shelter continuously throughout the year. Day-resting sites can be under overhanging ledges, in crevices between rocks, and occasionally burrows. Its legs are relatively longer and claws shorter and sharper compared with other species of hedgehogs. These physical traits might be a disadvantage in burrowing and might explain why it is not a very active burrower. It exhibits self-anointing behavior.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Increasing desertification in its distribution is resulting in fragmentation of populations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 136-290 mm, tail 18-38 mm, ear 36-55 mm, hindfoot 30-46 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Typically, Brandt's Hedgehog has striking dark brown or black pelage, with no white band across forehead, but white (not albino) individuals have been documented. Dorsal pelage has spines, with rough surfaces and strong grooves along their length; they are up to 36-37 mm long. Median parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines have black tips, often with entire distal one-third being black. Underside, legs, and face are covered with mix of black and gray hairs. Generally, middle part of forehead has more black hairs, with admixture of gray hairs on sides of face. Throat has mix of creamy-white hairs. Legs are long, large ears protrude beyond adjacent spines, and hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD7FFCEFA51F463FCB27D16.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD7FFCEFA51F463FCB27D16","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"324","verbatimText":"12.Bare-bellied HedgehogParaechinus nudiventrisFrench:Hérisson a ventre nu/ German:Nacktbauchigel/ Spanish:Erizo de vientre desnudoOther common names:Madras HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus nudiventris Horsfield, 1851, “Madras,”India. Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as either “the city at 13°05’N, 80°17’E or the older name for the Tamil Nadu province,” India. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, S India.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. T. Horsfield in 1851 noted that size of the Bare-bellied Hedgehog is about one-half that of the Indian Longeared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris). G. B. Corbet and J. E. Hill in 1992 noted thatcompared with the Indian Hedgehog, the Bare-bellied Hedgehog has shorter ears, brown collar, and very rudimentary third upper premolars (P?). Tail is short and concealed. Spines have a rough surface, they are strongly grooved along their lengths, and they are yellowish white at bases and tips, with blackish band in the middle. Head and ears are naked and sooty black throughout. Throat, neck to near ears, chest, and abdomen are covered with naked skin of a dirty chestnut-brown, changing to blackish on abdomen and dirty yellowish on sides. It has wide center parting of spines on crown of head and distinct white band across forehead. Ears protrude beyond adjacent spines. Hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.Habitat.Rocky and shrubby deserts and arid regions with Acacia(Fabaceae) shrubs and trees.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Bare-bellied Hedgehog consists primarily of insects but also small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and scorpions. Captive individuals sometimes eat their young.Breeding.The Bare-bellied Hedgehog probably produces only onelitter each year.Activity patterns.The Bare-bellied Hedgehog is terrestrial and excavates burrows under logs, leaves, and near rocks. Most of the day is spent sleeping, and it wakes up and begins searching for food at dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bare-bellied Hedgehogs are solitary and engage in self-anointing behavior. Captive individuals generally do not bother one another if fed well.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Barebellied Hedgehog is abundantin its restricted distribution and presumably has a large overall population. Increasing desertification is resulting in fragmentation of populations. Loss of habitats due to collection of fuel wood, logging, agriculture, and urbanization are the major conservation threats.Bibliography.Corbet (1988), Corbet & Hill (1992), Frost et al. (1991), Horsfield (1851), Hutterer (2005a), Marimuthu & Asokan (2014), Nowak (1999), Reeve (1994), Stone (1995b).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus nudiventris Horsfield, 1851, “Madras,”India. Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as either “the city at 13°05’N, 80°17’E or the older name for the Tamil Nadu province,” India. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson a ventre nu @fr | Nacktbauchigel @de | Erizo de vientre desnudo @es | Madras Hedgehog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Horsfield","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1851","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Paraechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"324","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nudiventris","name":"Paraechinus nudiventris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, S India.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639376/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corbet (1988) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Frost et al. (1991) | Horsfield (1851) | Hutterer (2005a) | Marimuthu & Asokan (2014) | Nowak (1999) | Reeve (1994) | Stone (1995b)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Bare-bellied Hedgehog consists primarily of insects but also small vertebrates, eggs of ground-nesting birds, and scorpions. Captive individuals sometimes eat their young.","breeding":"The Bare-bellied Hedgehog probably produces only onelitter each year.","activityPatterns":"The Bare-bellied Hedgehog is terrestrial and excavates burrows under logs, leaves, and near rocks. Most of the day is spent sleeping, and it wakes up and begins searching for food at dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Bare-bellied Hedgehogs are solitary and engage in self-anointing behavior. Captive individuals generally do not bother one another if fed well.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Barebellied Hedgehog is abundantin its restricted distribution and presumably has a large overall population. Increasing desertification is resulting in fragmentation of populations. Loss of habitats due to collection of fuel wood, logging, agriculture, and urbanization are the major conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"There are no specific measurements available. T. Horsfield in 1851 noted that size of the Bare-bellied Hedgehog is about one-half that of the Indian Longeared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris). G. B. Corbet and J. E. Hill in 1992 noted thatcompared with the Indian Hedgehog, the Bare-bellied Hedgehog has shorter ears, brown collar, and very rudimentary third upper premolars (P?). Tail is short and concealed. Spines have a rough surface, they are strongly grooved along their lengths, and they are yellowish white at bases and tips, with blackish band in the middle. Head and ears are naked and sooty black throughout. Throat, neck to near ears, chest, and abdomen are covered with naked skin of a dirty chestnut-brown, changing to blackish on abdomen and dirty yellowish on sides. It has wide center parting of spines on crown of head and distinct white band across forehead. Ears protrude beyond adjacent spines. Hallux is somewhat reduced but consistently well developed.","habitat":"Rocky and shrubby deserts and arid regions with Acacia(Fabaceae) shrubs and trees."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD8FFCFFF77F8BDFBBB78F6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD8FFCFFF77F8BDFBBB78F6","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"325","verbatimText":"13.Common Long-eared HedgehogHemiechinus auritusFrench:Hérisson a oreilles longues/ German:Eigentlicher Langohrigel/ Spanish:Erizo de orejas largas doradoOther common names:Afghan Hedgehog, Long-eared Steppe HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus auritus S. G. Gmelin,1770, “in regione Astrachanensi.”Inter-preted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in1991 as “Astrackhan’skaya Oblast’, [former] U.S.S.R., 46°21’N, 48°03’E,” now southern Russia. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.auritusS.G.Gmelin,1770—NLibya,NEgypt,MiddleEast,EUkraine,SWRussia,ECaucasus,extremeE&SAnatolia(Turkey),andN&WIran.IntroducedintoCyprus.H.a.albulusStoliczka,1872—Kazakhstan,SSiberia(Tuva),W&SMongolia,andNW&NCChina.H. a. megalotis Blyth, 1845— Turkestan, SW & E Iran, Afghanistan, and W Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-278 mm, tail 10-55 mm, ear 24-60 mm, hindfoot 30-55 mm; weight 230-400 g (but some weigh 1-1 kg). Unlike species of Erinaceusand Paraechinus, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog and the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (H. collaris) have no central parting of spines on crown of head. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog has long limbs, short barely visible tail, well-developed hallux on hindfeet, and five toes on forefeet. Ears are long and conspicuous,slightly pointed, flexible and mobile, considerably longer than adjacent spines, and apparently adapted for radiation of desert heat. If ears are pressed forward, they cover eyes. Dorsal pelage has dark rough spines, with numerous papillae, many shallow longitudinal grooves, whitish bases, two wide black bands separated by pale band, pale brownish tip, and average length of ¢.25 mm. Spines on lower back and flanks are c.34 mm long. Spines are sharp and flexible, and they act as shock absorbersif a fall occurs from a high place. Head,tail, and limbs generally are white to pale brown. There is no dark face mask. Ventral pelage generally has soft white hairs, but populations in Afghanistan and Pakistan (megalotis) are uniformly brown on their undersides. In Pakistan, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog tends to be rather reddish. Hair on limbs, underside, tail, and lower part of head is reddish brown or auburn. Upper part offace, inside of ears, and top of crown has some white hairs that produce rusty color. Entire body tends to look dark reddish brown, and spines give an impression of lying in a rather smooth and regular pattern because of brown tips and their lengths. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1, P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48-50 and FN = 94-98.Habitat.Dry riverbeds, dunes, oases, valleys with shrubs, semiarid country, and steppes over most of its distribution, including coastal semi-desert scrublands with dense vegetation, semiarid grasslands, and high-elevation steppes with subzero temperatures in winter. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is not desert adapted, but it is moderately tolerant of heat and drought, and its large ears might be important in thermoregulation. It is rare in sparsely vegetated areas. It favors mesic sites such as suburban parks and gardens, olive groves, and agricultural lands and is commonly associated with humans. In Pakistan,it is plentiful above elevations of 900 m and can occur in valleys up to 2500 m. In Iran, it spends days in shallow burrows, beneath mud walls, or in piles of hay. In Egypt, it often is in buildings, crevices in walls, piles of bricks and stones, fissures in rocks, small caves, graveyards, and burrows of the Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus) in salt-marsh habitats. It selects soft ground such as sandy dunes where it can dig relatively deep burrows that slope at a slight angle.Food and Feeding.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous,it is a voracious feeder, and it can survive for up to ten weeks without eating or drinking. Diet primarily is insects (bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, termites, lepidopterans, ants), but it also eats other invertebrates (worms, millipedes, and snails), small vertebrates (mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards), eggs, carrion, fruits, and seeds. It seems immune to poisons and stings of insects and other invertebrates and will hunt and eat scorpions, venomous spiders, and stinging hymenopterans. It will kill and eat small snakes, some venomous, by rolling into a ball after grabbing the lower body of the snake so that the snake strikes in vain against the spines, often damaging itself. The Common Longeared Hedgehog feeds on grapes, mulberries, and watermelons, which it hollows out. It does not eat food discarded by humans, and captive individuals show a tendency toward cannibalism. Even with its protective spines,it is an important source of food for carnivores.Breeding.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is polygynous. Breeding probably occurs immediately after emerging from hibernation in early spring (mid-April) and continues into late summer (September). Courtship behavior is well developed and includes sniffing, licking genitalia, and flank rubbing. Male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended. Gestation lasts 28-42 days. Births peak in July-September. Before giving birth, females excavate nest chamber in their burrow. Apparently, they clear all debris from the floor of the nest chamber, they do not line the chamber, they give birth on the smooth floor, and they lick neonates until they are clean. Litters vary geographically but usually have 3-5 young (range 1-7). Neonates are born naked, except for some scattered spines. They weigh 7-13 g, body length is 47-61 mm, hindfoot length is 7 mm, and ear length is 3-4 mm. Their backs are thickly covered with spines by 14 days old, eyes open at 15-20 days, solid food is eaten at 21-28 days, teeth appear at 23-24 days, weaning is at ¢.31-40 days, and young leave nest at ¢.30-40 days. There is no evidence that more than one litter is produced each year. Young can reach sexual maturity as soon as six weeks of age. Longevity is 6-7 years.Activity patterns.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is nocturnal and begins foraging early in the evening. Day-resting sites usually are in burrows that are under small shrubs or bushes. Burrows are 20-150 cm long and have a single opening. Rest sites occur in caves and crevices and under piles of rocks and bricks. Long limbs enable it to walk and run quickly. It is an active digger and will excavate its own burrow when abandoned dens made by rodents or other mammals are not available. Generally, it excavates burrows under large rocks and can dig in sandy, clay, or rocky soils. Digging employs broad-clawed forefeet to loosen and throw soil backward; snout is not used in digging. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog periodically moves backward up its burrow and kicks out accumulated soil using hindfeet. In firm soil, 30-38cm burrows are completed in 3-4 hours. In soft soil,it can dig a 10cm hole in five minutes and can dig several burrows each night. It enters and exits burrows headfirst. Females widen ends of burrows to accommodate young. During early spring when insects and other invertebrates are plentiful, it builds up a layer offat. It can enter torpor in any season during droughts, shortages of food, and cold or hot weather, and it can remain partially awake, or sufficiently conscious, to react quickly to any disturbance. Even during short periods of torpor and estivation, respiration is slow and shallow, and heart rate decreases. Body temperature usually remains within 1-2°C of ambient temperatures. In regions where temperatures in winter are as cold as —6-5°C, body temperature during hibernation can approach 0°C. In North Africa, it can enter torpor during the cold season (December—February) and remain in its burrow 5-40 days. In northern India, it might hibernate up to 3-5 months in winter, and in the mountains of Pakistan, hibernation occurs in October-March and can be 5-5-6 months. In China, it enters torpor in October and emerges in spring. During hibernation, the Common Longeared Hedgehog wakes up periodically and might emerge briefly to forage or move only within its nesting burrow. In warmer areas, there is no prolonged hibernation in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Common Long-eared Hedgehogs can walk more than 17-20 m/minute. Estimates indicate that the Common Longeared Hedgehog can travel 7-9 km in a 7-9hour activity period. Average home ranges are 4-9-5 ha (range 1-6-10 ha) for adult males, 2-9 ha (range 0-9—4-2 ha) for nonlactating females, and 1:3-3-5 ha (range 0-2-4-3 ha) for non-lactating and lactating females. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary. It usually is non-aggressive, but when fighting, it is very noisy; it growls when alarmed. Adults only nest singly, but they use burrows of other hedgehogs in their absence. It performs self-anointing; practically any substance will induce this behavior. This activity can go on nearly continuously for up to 20 minutes. Reasons for this behavior are unknown; it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season or, because substances that initiate this behavior are either novel or irritating, it might serve asprotection against predators. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog also rubs toads against its spines suggesting that it might be making defensive use of toxins produced by the toads.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is common in much ofits broad distribution. It can damage agricultural crops, especially ripe melons, but it is mostly beneficial because of the insects, reptiles, and other pests that it eats. Humans sometimes eat Common Longeared Hedgehogs.Bibliography.Al-Behbehani & Ibrahim (2007), Al-Khalili (1990), Arslan et al. (2009), Atallah (1977), Batsaikhan et al. (2010), Beer (2003), Bhatnagar & El-Azawi (1978), Blanford (1888), Blyth (1845), Brodie (1977), Colak et al. (1997 1998), Corbet (1988), Dmi‘el & Schwarz (1984), Flower (1932), Frost et al. (1991), Happold (2013d), Harrison (1964), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hassinger (1973), Hayssen et al. (1993), Herter (1965), Hoogstraal (1962), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Ivanitskaya & Malygin (1985), Jones (1982), Karatas et al. (2007), Kefelioglu (1997), Krishna & Prakash (1955), Kumar & Pandey (1995), Lay (1967), Nader (1968), Niethammer (1973), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Poduschka & Poduschka (1986), Prakash (1953, 1954, 1960), Qumsiyeh (1996), Reading et al. (2010), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stoliczka (1872), Stone (1995b), Zherebtsova (1982, 1992).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus auritus S. G. Gmelin,1770, “in regione Astrachanensi.”Inter-preted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in1991 as “Astrackhan’skaya Oblast’, [former] U.S.S.R., 46°21’N, 48°03’E,” now southern Russia. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson a oreilles longues @fr | Eigentlicher Langohrigel @de | Erizo de orejas largas dorado @es | Afghan Hedgehog @en | Long-eared Steppe Hedgehog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gmelin","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1770","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Hemiechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"325","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"auritus","name":"Hemiechinus auritus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.auritusS.G.Gmelin,1770—NLibya,NEgypt,MiddleEast,EUkraine,SWRussia,ECaucasus,extremeE&SAnatolia(Turkey),andN&WIran.IntroducedintoCyprus.H.a.albulusStoliczka,1872—Kazakhstan,SSiberia(Tuva),W&SMongolia,andNW&NCChina.H. a. megalotis Blyth, 1845— Turkestan, SW & E Iran, Afghanistan, and W Pakistan.","bibliography":"Al-Behbehani & Ibrahim (2007) | Al-Khalili (1990) | Arslan et al. (2009) | Atallah (1977) | Batsaikhan et al. (2010) | Beer (2003) | Bhatnagar & El-Azawi (1978) | Blanford (1888) | Blyth (1845) | Brodie (1977) | Colak et al. (1997 1998) | Corbet (1988) | Dmi‘el & Schwarz (1984) | Flower (1932) | Frost et al. (1991) | Happold (2013d) | Harrison (1964) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hassinger (1973) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Herter (1965) | Hoogstraal (1962) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Ivanitskaya & Malygin (1985) | Jones (1982) | Karatas et al. (2007) | Kefelioglu (1997) | Krishna & Prakash (1955) | Kumar & Pandey (1995) | Lay (1967) | Nader (1968) | Niethammer (1973) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Poduschka & Poduschka (1986) | Prakash (1953, 1954, 1960) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Reading et al. (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stoliczka (1872) | Stone (1995b) | Zherebtsova (1982, 1992)","foodAndFeeding":"The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous,it is a voracious feeder, and it can survive for up to ten weeks without eating or drinking. Diet primarily is insects (bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, termites, lepidopterans, ants), but it also eats other invertebrates (worms, millipedes, and snails), small vertebrates (mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards), eggs, carrion, fruits, and seeds. It seems immune to poisons and stings of insects and other invertebrates and will hunt and eat scorpions, venomous spiders, and stinging hymenopterans. It will kill and eat small snakes, some venomous, by rolling into a ball after grabbing the lower body of the snake so that the snake strikes in vain against the spines, often damaging itself. The Common Longeared Hedgehog feeds on grapes, mulberries, and watermelons, which it hollows out. It does not eat food discarded by humans, and captive individuals show a tendency toward cannibalism. Even with its protective spines,it is an important source of food for carnivores.","breeding":"The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is polygynous. Breeding probably occurs immediately after emerging from hibernation in early spring (mid-April) and continues into late summer (September). Courtship behavior is well developed and includes sniffing, licking genitalia, and flank rubbing. Male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended. Gestation lasts 28-42 days. Births peak in July-September. Before giving birth, females excavate nest chamber in their burrow. Apparently, they clear all debris from the floor of the nest chamber, they do not line the chamber, they give birth on the smooth floor, and they lick neonates until they are clean. Litters vary geographically but usually have 3-5 young (range 1-7). Neonates are born naked, except for some scattered spines. They weigh 7-13 g, body length is 47-61 mm, hindfoot length is 7 mm, and ear length is 3-4 mm. Their backs are thickly covered with spines by 14 days old, eyes open at 15-20 days, solid food is eaten at 21-28 days, teeth appear at 23-24 days, weaning is at ¢.31-40 days, and young leave nest at ¢.30-40 days. There is no evidence that more than one litter is produced each year. Young can reach sexual maturity as soon as six weeks of age. Longevity is 6-7 years.","activityPatterns":"The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is nocturnal and begins foraging early in the evening. Day-resting sites usually are in burrows that are under small shrubs or bushes. Burrows are 20-150 cm long and have a single opening. Rest sites occur in caves and crevices and under piles of rocks and bricks. Long limbs enable it to walk and run quickly. It is an active digger and will excavate its own burrow when abandoned dens made by rodents or other mammals are not available. Generally, it excavates burrows under large rocks and can dig in sandy, clay, or rocky soils. Digging employs broad-clawed forefeet to loosen and throw soil backward; snout is not used in digging. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog periodically moves backward up its burrow and kicks out accumulated soil using hindfeet. In firm soil, 30-38cm burrows are completed in 3-4 hours. In soft soil,it can dig a 10cm hole in five minutes and can dig several burrows each night. It enters and exits burrows headfirst. Females widen ends of burrows to accommodate young. During early spring when insects and other invertebrates are plentiful, it builds up a layer offat. It can enter torpor in any season during droughts, shortages of food, and cold or hot weather, and it can remain partially awake, or sufficiently conscious, to react quickly to any disturbance. Even during short periods of torpor and estivation, respiration is slow and shallow, and heart rate decreases. Body temperature usually remains within 1-2°C of ambient temperatures. In regions where temperatures in winter are as cold as —6-5°C, body temperature during hibernation can approach 0°C. In North Africa, it can enter torpor during the cold season (December—February) and remain in its burrow 5-40 days. In northern India, it might hibernate up to 3-5 months in winter, and in the mountains of Pakistan, hibernation occurs in October-March and can be 5-5-6 months. In China, it enters torpor in October and emerges in spring. During hibernation, the Common Longeared Hedgehog wakes up periodically and might emerge briefly to forage or move only within its nesting burrow. In warmer areas, there is no prolonged hibernation in winter.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Common Long-eared Hedgehogs can walk more than 17-20 m/minute. Estimates indicate that the Common Longeared Hedgehog can travel 7-9 km in a 7-9hour activity period. Average home ranges are 4-9-5 ha (range 1-6-10 ha) for adult males, 2-9 ha (range 0-9—4-2 ha) for nonlactating females, and 1:3-3-5 ha (range 0-2-4-3 ha) for non-lactating and lactating females. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary. It usually is non-aggressive, but when fighting, it is very noisy; it growls when alarmed. Adults only nest singly, but they use burrows of other hedgehogs in their absence. It performs self-anointing; practically any substance will induce this behavior. This activity can go on nearly continuously for up to 20 minutes. Reasons for this behavior are unknown; it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season or, because substances that initiate this behavior are either novel or irritating, it might serve asprotection against predators. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog also rubs toads against its spines suggesting that it might be making defensive use of toxins produced by the toads.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is common in much ofits broad distribution. It can damage agricultural crops, especially ripe melons, but it is mostly beneficial because of the insects, reptiles, and other pests that it eats. Humans sometimes eat Common Longeared Hedgehogs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 160-278 mm, tail 10-55 mm, ear 24-60 mm, hindfoot 30-55 mm; weight 230-400 g (but some weigh 1-1 kg). Unlike species of Erinaceusand Paraechinus, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog and the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (H. collaris) have no central parting of spines on crown of head. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog has long limbs, short barely visible tail, well-developed hallux on hindfeet, and five toes on forefeet. Ears are long and conspicuous,slightly pointed, flexible and mobile, considerably longer than adjacent spines, and apparently adapted for radiation of desert heat. If ears are pressed forward, they cover eyes. Dorsal pelage has dark rough spines, with numerous papillae, many shallow longitudinal grooves, whitish bases, two wide black bands separated by pale band, pale brownish tip, and average length of ¢.25 mm. Spines on lower back and flanks are c.34 mm long. Spines are sharp and flexible, and they act as shock absorbersif a fall occurs from a high place. Head,tail, and limbs generally are white to pale brown. There is no dark face mask. Ventral pelage generally has soft white hairs, but populations in Afghanistan and Pakistan (megalotis) are uniformly brown on their undersides. In Pakistan, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog tends to be rather reddish. Hair on limbs, underside, tail, and lower part of head is reddish brown or auburn. Upper part offace, inside of ears, and top of crown has some white hairs that produce rusty color. Entire body tends to look dark reddish brown, and spines give an impression of lying in a rather smooth and regular pattern because of brown tips and their lengths. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1, P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48-50 and FN = 94-98.","habitat":"Dry riverbeds, dunes, oases, valleys with shrubs, semiarid country, and steppes over most of its distribution, including coastal semi-desert scrublands with dense vegetation, semiarid grasslands, and high-elevation steppes with subzero temperatures in winter. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is not desert adapted, but it is moderately tolerant of heat and drought, and its large ears might be important in thermoregulation. It is rare in sparsely vegetated areas. It favors mesic sites such as suburban parks and gardens, olive groves, and agricultural lands and is commonly associated with humans. In Pakistan,it is plentiful above elevations of 900 m and can occur in valleys up to 2500 m. In Iran, it spends days in shallow burrows, beneath mud walls, or in piles of hay. In Egypt, it often is in buildings, crevices in walls, piles of bricks and stones, fissures in rocks, small caves, graveyards, and burrows of the Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus) in salt-marsh habitats. It selects soft ground such as sandy dunes where it can dig relatively deep burrows that slope at a slight angle."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD8FFCFFF77F8BDFBBB78F6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD8FFCFFF77F8BDFBBB78F6","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"325","verbatimText":"13.Common Long-eared HedgehogHemiechinus auritusFrench:Hérisson a oreilles longues/ German:Eigentlicher Langohrigel/ Spanish:Erizo de orejas largas doradoOther common names:Afghan Hedgehog, Long-eared Steppe HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus auritus S. G. Gmelin,1770, “in regione Astrachanensi.”Inter-preted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in1991 as “Astrackhan’skaya Oblast’, [former] U.S.S.R., 46°21’N, 48°03’E,” now southern Russia. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.auritusS.G.Gmelin,1770—NLibya,NEgypt,MiddleEast,EUkraine,SWRussia,ECaucasus,extremeE&SAnatolia(Turkey),andN&WIran.IntroducedintoCyprus.H.a.albulusStoliczka,1872—Kazakhstan,SSiberia(Tuva),W&SMongolia,andNW&NCChina.H. a. megalotis Blyth, 1845— Turkestan, SW & E Iran, Afghanistan, and W Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-278 mm, tail 10-55 mm, ear 24-60 mm, hindfoot 30-55 mm; weight 230-400 g (but some weigh 1-1 kg). Unlike species of Erinaceusand Paraechinus, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog and the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (H. collaris) have no central parting of spines on crown of head. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog has long limbs, short barely visible tail, well-developed hallux on hindfeet, and five toes on forefeet. Ears are long and conspicuous,slightly pointed, flexible and mobile, considerably longer than adjacent spines, and apparently adapted for radiation of desert heat. If ears are pressed forward, they cover eyes. Dorsal pelage has dark rough spines, with numerous papillae, many shallow longitudinal grooves, whitish bases, two wide black bands separated by pale band, pale brownish tip, and average length of ¢.25 mm. Spines on lower back and flanks are c.34 mm long. Spines are sharp and flexible, and they act as shock absorbersif a fall occurs from a high place. Head,tail, and limbs generally are white to pale brown. There is no dark face mask. Ventral pelage generally has soft white hairs, but populations in Afghanistan and Pakistan (megalotis) are uniformly brown on their undersides. In Pakistan, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog tends to be rather reddish. Hair on limbs, underside, tail, and lower part of head is reddish brown or auburn. Upper part offace, inside of ears, and top of crown has some white hairs that produce rusty color. Entire body tends to look dark reddish brown, and spines give an impression of lying in a rather smooth and regular pattern because of brown tips and their lengths. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1, P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48-50 and FN = 94-98.Habitat.Dry riverbeds, dunes, oases, valleys with shrubs, semiarid country, and steppes over most of its distribution, including coastal semi-desert scrublands with dense vegetation, semiarid grasslands, and high-elevation steppes with subzero temperatures in winter. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is not desert adapted, but it is moderately tolerant of heat and drought, and its large ears might be important in thermoregulation. It is rare in sparsely vegetated areas. It favors mesic sites such as suburban parks and gardens, olive groves, and agricultural lands and is commonly associated with humans. In Pakistan,it is plentiful above elevations of 900 m and can occur in valleys up to 2500 m. In Iran, it spends days in shallow burrows, beneath mud walls, or in piles of hay. In Egypt, it often is in buildings, crevices in walls, piles of bricks and stones, fissures in rocks, small caves, graveyards, and burrows of the Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus) in salt-marsh habitats. It selects soft ground such as sandy dunes where it can dig relatively deep burrows that slope at a slight angle.Food and Feeding.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous,it is a voracious feeder, and it can survive for up to ten weeks without eating or drinking. Diet primarily is insects (bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, termites, lepidopterans, ants), but it also eats other invertebrates (worms, millipedes, and snails), small vertebrates (mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards), eggs, carrion, fruits, and seeds. It seems immune to poisons and stings of insects and other invertebrates and will hunt and eat scorpions, venomous spiders, and stinging hymenopterans. It will kill and eat small snakes, some venomous, by rolling into a ball after grabbing the lower body of the snake so that the snake strikes in vain against the spines, often damaging itself. The Common Longeared Hedgehog feeds on grapes, mulberries, and watermelons, which it hollows out. It does not eat food discarded by humans, and captive individuals show a tendency toward cannibalism. Even with its protective spines,it is an important source of food for carnivores.Breeding.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is polygynous. Breeding probably occurs immediately after emerging from hibernation in early spring (mid-April) and continues into late summer (September). Courtship behavior is well developed and includes sniffing, licking genitalia, and flank rubbing. Male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended. Gestation lasts 28-42 days. Births peak in July-September. Before giving birth, females excavate nest chamber in their burrow. Apparently, they clear all debris from the floor of the nest chamber, they do not line the chamber, they give birth on the smooth floor, and they lick neonates until they are clean. Litters vary geographically but usually have 3-5 young (range 1-7). Neonates are born naked, except for some scattered spines. They weigh 7-13 g, body length is 47-61 mm, hindfoot length is 7 mm, and ear length is 3-4 mm. Their backs are thickly covered with spines by 14 days old, eyes open at 15-20 days, solid food is eaten at 21-28 days, teeth appear at 23-24 days, weaning is at ¢.31-40 days, and young leave nest at ¢.30-40 days. There is no evidence that more than one litter is produced each year. Young can reach sexual maturity as soon as six weeks of age. Longevity is 6-7 years.Activity patterns.The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is nocturnal and begins foraging early in the evening. Day-resting sites usually are in burrows that are under small shrubs or bushes. Burrows are 20-150 cm long and have a single opening. Rest sites occur in caves and crevices and under piles of rocks and bricks. Long limbs enable it to walk and run quickly. It is an active digger and will excavate its own burrow when abandoned dens made by rodents or other mammals are not available. Generally, it excavates burrows under large rocks and can dig in sandy, clay, or rocky soils. Digging employs broad-clawed forefeet to loosen and throw soil backward; snout is not used in digging. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog periodically moves backward up its burrow and kicks out accumulated soil using hindfeet. In firm soil, 30-38cm burrows are completed in 3-4 hours. In soft soil,it can dig a 10cm hole in five minutes and can dig several burrows each night. It enters and exits burrows headfirst. Females widen ends of burrows to accommodate young. During early spring when insects and other invertebrates are plentiful, it builds up a layer offat. It can enter torpor in any season during droughts, shortages of food, and cold or hot weather, and it can remain partially awake, or sufficiently conscious, to react quickly to any disturbance. Even during short periods of torpor and estivation, respiration is slow and shallow, and heart rate decreases. Body temperature usually remains within 1-2°C of ambient temperatures. In regions where temperatures in winter are as cold as —6-5°C, body temperature during hibernation can approach 0°C. In North Africa, it can enter torpor during the cold season (December—February) and remain in its burrow 5-40 days. In northern India, it might hibernate up to 3-5 months in winter, and in the mountains of Pakistan, hibernation occurs in October-March and can be 5-5-6 months. In China, it enters torpor in October and emerges in spring. During hibernation, the Common Longeared Hedgehog wakes up periodically and might emerge briefly to forage or move only within its nesting burrow. In warmer areas, there is no prolonged hibernation in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Common Long-eared Hedgehogs can walk more than 17-20 m/minute. Estimates indicate that the Common Longeared Hedgehog can travel 7-9 km in a 7-9hour activity period. Average home ranges are 4-9-5 ha (range 1-6-10 ha) for adult males, 2-9 ha (range 0-9—4-2 ha) for nonlactating females, and 1:3-3-5 ha (range 0-2-4-3 ha) for non-lactating and lactating females. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary. It usually is non-aggressive, but when fighting, it is very noisy; it growls when alarmed. Adults only nest singly, but they use burrows of other hedgehogs in their absence. It performs self-anointing; practically any substance will induce this behavior. This activity can go on nearly continuously for up to 20 minutes. Reasons for this behavior are unknown; it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season or, because substances that initiate this behavior are either novel or irritating, it might serve asprotection against predators. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog also rubs toads against its spines suggesting that it might be making defensive use of toxins produced by the toads.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is common in much ofits broad distribution. It can damage agricultural crops, especially ripe melons, but it is mostly beneficial because of the insects, reptiles, and other pests that it eats. Humans sometimes eat Common Longeared Hedgehogs.Bibliography.Al-Behbehani & Ibrahim (2007), Al-Khalili (1990), Arslan et al. (2009), Atallah (1977), Batsaikhan et al. (2010), Beer (2003), Bhatnagar & El-Azawi (1978), Blanford (1888), Blyth (1845), Brodie (1977), Colak et al. (1997 1998), Corbet (1988), Dmi‘el & Schwarz (1984), Flower (1932), Frost et al. (1991), Happold (2013d), Harrison (1964), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hassinger (1973), Hayssen et al. (1993), Herter (1965), Hoogstraal (1962), Hufnagl (1972), Hutterer (2005a), Ivanitskaya & Malygin (1985), Jones (1982), Karatas et al. (2007), Kefelioglu (1997), Krishna & Prakash (1955), Kumar & Pandey (1995), Lay (1967), Nader (1968), Niethammer (1973), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Poduschka & Poduschka (1986), Prakash (1953, 1954, 1960), Qumsiyeh (1996), Reading et al. (2010), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stoliczka (1872), Stone (1995b), Zherebtsova (1982, 1992).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus auritus S. G. Gmelin,1770, “in regione Astrachanensi.”Inter-preted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in1991 as “Astrackhan’skaya Oblast’, [former] U.S.S.R., 46°21’N, 48°03’E,” now southern Russia. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hérisson a oreilles longues @fr | Eigentlicher Langohrigel @de | Erizo de orejas largas dorado @es | Afghan Hedgehog @en | Long-eared Steppe Hedgehog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gmelin","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1770","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Hemiechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"325","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"auritus","name":"Hemiechinus auritus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.auritusS.G.Gmelin,1770—NLibya,NEgypt,MiddleEast,EUkraine,SWRussia,ECaucasus,extremeE&SAnatolia(Turkey),andN&WIran.IntroducedintoCyprus.H.a.albulusStoliczka,1872—Kazakhstan,SSiberia(Tuva),W&SMongolia,andNW&NCChina.H. a. megalotis Blyth, 1845— Turkestan, SW & E Iran, Afghanistan, and W Pakistan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639378/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Al-Behbehani & Ibrahim (2007) | Al-Khalili (1990) | Arslan et al. (2009) | Atallah (1977) | Batsaikhan et al. (2010) | Beer (2003) | Bhatnagar & El-Azawi (1978) | Blanford (1888) | Blyth (1845) | Brodie (1977) | Colak et al. (1997 1998) | Corbet (1988) | Dmi‘el & Schwarz (1984) | Flower (1932) | Frost et al. (1991) | Happold (2013d) | Harrison (1964) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hassinger (1973) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Herter (1965) | Hoogstraal (1962) | Hufnagl (1972) | Hutterer (2005a) | Ivanitskaya & Malygin (1985) | Jones (1982) | Karatas et al. (2007) | Kefelioglu (1997) | Krishna & Prakash (1955) | Kumar & Pandey (1995) | Lay (1967) | Nader (1968) | Niethammer (1973) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Poduschka & Poduschka (1986) | Prakash (1953, 1954, 1960) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Reading et al. (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Schoenfeld & Yom-Tov (1985) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stoliczka (1872) | Stone (1995b) | Zherebtsova (1982, 1992)","foodAndFeeding":"The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous,it is a voracious feeder, and it can survive for up to ten weeks without eating or drinking. Diet primarily is insects (bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, termites, lepidopterans, ants), but it also eats other invertebrates (worms, millipedes, and snails), small vertebrates (mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards), eggs, carrion, fruits, and seeds. It seems immune to poisons and stings of insects and other invertebrates and will hunt and eat scorpions, venomous spiders, and stinging hymenopterans. It will kill and eat small snakes, some venomous, by rolling into a ball after grabbing the lower body of the snake so that the snake strikes in vain against the spines, often damaging itself. The Common Longeared Hedgehog feeds on grapes, mulberries, and watermelons, which it hollows out. It does not eat food discarded by humans, and captive individuals show a tendency toward cannibalism. Even with its protective spines,it is an important source of food for carnivores.","breeding":"The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is polygynous. Breeding probably occurs immediately after emerging from hibernation in early spring (mid-April) and continues into late summer (September). Courtship behavior is well developed and includes sniffing, licking genitalia, and flank rubbing. Male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended. Gestation lasts 28-42 days. Births peak in July-September. Before giving birth, females excavate nest chamber in their burrow. Apparently, they clear all debris from the floor of the nest chamber, they do not line the chamber, they give birth on the smooth floor, and they lick neonates until they are clean. Litters vary geographically but usually have 3-5 young (range 1-7). Neonates are born naked, except for some scattered spines. They weigh 7-13 g, body length is 47-61 mm, hindfoot length is 7 mm, and ear length is 3-4 mm. Their backs are thickly covered with spines by 14 days old, eyes open at 15-20 days, solid food is eaten at 21-28 days, teeth appear at 23-24 days, weaning is at ¢.31-40 days, and young leave nest at ¢.30-40 days. There is no evidence that more than one litter is produced each year. Young can reach sexual maturity as soon as six weeks of age. Longevity is 6-7 years.","activityPatterns":"The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is nocturnal and begins foraging early in the evening. Day-resting sites usually are in burrows that are under small shrubs or bushes. Burrows are 20-150 cm long and have a single opening. Rest sites occur in caves and crevices and under piles of rocks and bricks. Long limbs enable it to walk and run quickly. It is an active digger and will excavate its own burrow when abandoned dens made by rodents or other mammals are not available. Generally, it excavates burrows under large rocks and can dig in sandy, clay, or rocky soils. Digging employs broad-clawed forefeet to loosen and throw soil backward; snout is not used in digging. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog periodically moves backward up its burrow and kicks out accumulated soil using hindfeet. In firm soil, 30-38cm burrows are completed in 3-4 hours. In soft soil,it can dig a 10cm hole in five minutes and can dig several burrows each night. It enters and exits burrows headfirst. Females widen ends of burrows to accommodate young. During early spring when insects and other invertebrates are plentiful, it builds up a layer offat. It can enter torpor in any season during droughts, shortages of food, and cold or hot weather, and it can remain partially awake, or sufficiently conscious, to react quickly to any disturbance. Even during short periods of torpor and estivation, respiration is slow and shallow, and heart rate decreases. Body temperature usually remains within 1-2°C of ambient temperatures. In regions where temperatures in winter are as cold as —6-5°C, body temperature during hibernation can approach 0°C. In North Africa, it can enter torpor during the cold season (December—February) and remain in its burrow 5-40 days. In northern India, it might hibernate up to 3-5 months in winter, and in the mountains of Pakistan, hibernation occurs in October-March and can be 5-5-6 months. In China, it enters torpor in October and emerges in spring. During hibernation, the Common Longeared Hedgehog wakes up periodically and might emerge briefly to forage or move only within its nesting burrow. In warmer areas, there is no prolonged hibernation in winter.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Common Long-eared Hedgehogs can walk more than 17-20 m/minute. Estimates indicate that the Common Longeared Hedgehog can travel 7-9 km in a 7-9hour activity period. Average home ranges are 4-9-5 ha (range 1-6-10 ha) for adult males, 2-9 ha (range 0-9—4-2 ha) for nonlactating females, and 1:3-3-5 ha (range 0-2-4-3 ha) for non-lactating and lactating females. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary. It usually is non-aggressive, but when fighting, it is very noisy; it growls when alarmed. Adults only nest singly, but they use burrows of other hedgehogs in their absence. It performs self-anointing; practically any substance will induce this behavior. This activity can go on nearly continuously for up to 20 minutes. Reasons for this behavior are unknown; it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season or, because substances that initiate this behavior are either novel or irritating, it might serve asprotection against predators. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog also rubs toads against its spines suggesting that it might be making defensive use of toxins produced by the toads.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is common in much ofits broad distribution. It can damage agricultural crops, especially ripe melons, but it is mostly beneficial because of the insects, reptiles, and other pests that it eats. Humans sometimes eat Common Longeared Hedgehogs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 160-278 mm, tail 10-55 mm, ear 24-60 mm, hindfoot 30-55 mm; weight 230-400 g (but some weigh 1-1 kg). Unlike species of Erinaceusand Paraechinus, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog and the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog (H. collaris) have no central parting of spines on crown of head. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog has long limbs, short barely visible tail, well-developed hallux on hindfeet, and five toes on forefeet. Ears are long and conspicuous,slightly pointed, flexible and mobile, considerably longer than adjacent spines, and apparently adapted for radiation of desert heat. If ears are pressed forward, they cover eyes. Dorsal pelage has dark rough spines, with numerous papillae, many shallow longitudinal grooves, whitish bases, two wide black bands separated by pale band, pale brownish tip, and average length of ¢.25 mm. Spines on lower back and flanks are c.34 mm long. Spines are sharp and flexible, and they act as shock absorbersif a fall occurs from a high place. Head,tail, and limbs generally are white to pale brown. There is no dark face mask. Ventral pelage generally has soft white hairs, but populations in Afghanistan and Pakistan (megalotis) are uniformly brown on their undersides. In Pakistan, the Common Long-eared Hedgehog tends to be rather reddish. Hair on limbs, underside, tail, and lower part of head is reddish brown or auburn. Upper part offace, inside of ears, and top of crown has some white hairs that produce rusty color. Entire body tends to look dark reddish brown, and spines give an impression of lying in a rather smooth and regular pattern because of brown tips and their lengths. Dental formulais 13/2, C1/1, P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48-50 and FN = 94-98.","habitat":"Dry riverbeds, dunes, oases, valleys with shrubs, semiarid country, and steppes over most of its distribution, including coastal semi-desert scrublands with dense vegetation, semiarid grasslands, and high-elevation steppes with subzero temperatures in winter. The Common Long-eared Hedgehog is not desert adapted, but it is moderately tolerant of heat and drought, and its large ears might be important in thermoregulation. It is rare in sparsely vegetated areas. It favors mesic sites such as suburban parks and gardens, olive groves, and agricultural lands and is commonly associated with humans. In Pakistan,it is plentiful above elevations of 900 m and can occur in valleys up to 2500 m. In Iran, it spends days in shallow burrows, beneath mud walls, or in piles of hay. In Egypt, it often is in buildings, crevices in walls, piles of bricks and stones, fissures in rocks, small caves, graveyards, and burrows of the Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus) in salt-marsh habitats. It selects soft ground such as sandy dunes where it can dig relatively deep burrows that slope at a slight angle."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD9FFCCFA52F372FEE17D7E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD9FFCCFA52F372FEE17D7E","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"326","verbatimText":"16.Small-toothed Forest HedgehogMesechinus miodonFrench:Hérisson du Shaanxi/ German:Steppenigel/ Spanish:Erizo de dientes pequenosOther common names:Miodont Forest HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus miodonThomas, 1908, “Yu-lin-fu [= Yulin], Shen-si [= Shaanxi], 4000’ [= 1219 m],”China.Based on genetic and morphometric data, Kong Fei and colleagues in 2016 suggested that the population of M. dauuricusnear the outskirts ofYulin city in the Yulin region of Shaanxi, China, should be recognized as M. miodon. Their mitochondrial data indicate that M. miodon is more closely related to Hemiechinusawuritus than to M. dauuricus. Monotypic.Distribution.E Ningxia and N Shaanxi, NC China.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-220 mm, tail 25-46 mm, ear 24-35 mm, hindfoot 35-40 mm; weight 230-750 g. Spines of the Small-toothed Forest Hedgehog are 22-29 mm long, and basal two-thirds are pale brown, then ringed with blackish brown for c.4 mm and usually tipped with pale brown for c.4 mm. Tips of spines are sometimes dark. Hair on head, sides, legs, and tail varies from dull white or brownish to distinctly brown. Underside usually is pale to dull white. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44-48 and FN = 84-92. Circular mitochondrial genome is 16,842 base pairs long, comprising 22 transfer RNAs, 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNAs, and one control region.Habitat.Arid regions of Shaanxi. The area around Yulinfu has few trees, and bare brown cliffs and yellow sand are devoid of vegetation, except for occasional tufts of sage scrub.Food and Feeding.The Small-toothed Forest Hedgehog eats several species of beetles.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Populations of Small-toothed Forest Hedgehogs appear largest in April-May when food is abundant. They become inactive and enter hibernation by late October.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ai Huaisen et al. (2018), Allen (1938), Kong Fei, Guo Jianmin & Wu Jiayan (2016), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a, 2016b), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan, Guo Jianmin & Wu Xiaomin (2016a, 2016b), Thomas (1908b, 1909).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus miodonThomas, 1908, “Yu-lin-fu [= Yulin], Shen-si [= Shaanxi], 4000’ [= 1219 m],”China.Based on genetic and morphometric data, Kong Fei and colleagues in 2016 suggested that the population of M. dauuricusnear the outskirts ofYulin city in the Yulin region of Shaanxi, China, should be recognized as M. miodon. Their mitochondrial data indicate that M. miodon is more closely related to Hemiechinusawuritus than to M. dauuricus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson du Shaanxi @fr | Steppenigel @de | Erizo de dientes pequenos @es | Miodont Forest Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"326","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"miodon","name":"Mesechinus miodon","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Ningxia and N Shaanxi, NC China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639386/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ai Huaisen et al. (2018) | Allen (1938) | Kong Fei, Guo Jianmin & Wu Jiayan (2016) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a, 2016b) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan, Guo Jianmin & Wu Xiaomin (2016a, 2016b) | Thomas (1908b, 1909)","foodAndFeeding":"The Small-toothed Forest Hedgehog eats several species of beetles.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Populations of Small-toothed Forest Hedgehogs appear largest in April-May when food is abundant. They become inactive and enter hibernation by late October.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 120-220 mm, tail 25-46 mm, ear 24-35 mm, hindfoot 35-40 mm; weight 230-750 g. Spines of the Small-toothed Forest Hedgehog are 22-29 mm long, and basal two-thirds are pale brown, then ringed with blackish brown for c.4 mm and usually tipped with pale brown for c.4 mm. Tips of spines are sometimes dark. Hair on head, sides, legs, and tail varies from dull white or brownish to distinctly brown. Underside usually is pale to dull white. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44-48 and FN = 84-92. Circular mitochondrial genome is 16,842 base pairs long, comprising 22 transfer RNAs, 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNAs, and one control region.","habitat":"Arid regions of Shaanxi. The area around Yulinfu has few trees, and bare brown cliffs and yellow sand are devoid of vegetation, except for occasional tufts of sage scrub."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD9FFCFFA51F8BFF8837717.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD9FFCFFA51F8BFF8837717","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"326","verbatimText":"15.Wang's Forest HedgehogMesechinus wangiFrench:Hérisson de Wang/ German:Gaoligong-lgel/ Spanish:Erizo de WangOther common names:Gaoligong Forest HedgehogTaxonomy.Mesechinus wangiHe, Jiang Xuelong & Ai Huaisen, 2018, “Gaoligong- shan National Nature Reserve (24°50° N,98°45’ E), Baoshan, Yunnan, China, on 1st September 2010, at altitude of 2215 m.” This species is monotypic.Distribution.Known from three counties (Tengchong, Longling, and Longyang) of Baoshan in the Gaoligong National Nature Reserve, Yunnan, S China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 177-240 mm,tail 14-18 mm, hindfoot 45-48 mm, ear 28-32 mm; weight 336-451 g. Ears and adjacent spines of Wang's Forest Hedgehog are the same length, and no central parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines are 22-25 mm long, most (greater than 80%) are white for two-thirds of their lengths and black for the other one-third. Some spines (less than 20%) are white for two-thirds of their lengths, then ringed with black, followed by narrow white ring. Tips of spines are black. Supernumerary fourth upper molar (M?) is present and is single-rooted and much smaller than M®. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92.Habitat.Wang's Forest Hedgehogs inhabit subtropical, evergreen, broad-leaved forests, with a variety of vegetation including species of Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Ericaceae, and Theaceaeat elevations of 2100-2680 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Wang's Forest Hedgehog hibernates from mid-Octoberto early April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List.Bibliography.Ai Huaisen et al. (2018).","taxonomy":"Mesechinus wangiHe, Jiang Xuelong & Ai Huaisen, 2018, “Gaoligong- shan National Nature Reserve (24°50° N,98°45’ E), Baoshan, Yunnan, China, on 1st September 2010, at altitude of 2215 m.” This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson de Wang @fr | Gaoligong-lgel @de | Erizo de Wang @es | Gaoligong Forest Hedgehog @en","interpretedAuthority":"He, Jiang Xuelong & Ai Huaisen","interpretedAuthorityName":"He, Jiang Xuelong & Ai Huaisen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2018","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"326","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"wangi","name":"Mesechinus wangi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known from three counties (Tengchong, Longling, and Longyang) of Baoshan in the Gaoligong National Nature Reserve, Yunnan, S China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639384/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ai Huaisen et al. (2018)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Wang's Forest Hedgehog hibernates from mid-Octoberto early April.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The [UCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 177-240 mm,tail 14-18 mm, hindfoot 45-48 mm, ear 28-32 mm; weight 336-451 g. Ears and adjacent spines of Wang's Forest Hedgehog are the same length, and no central parting of spines occurs on crown of head. Spines are 22-25 mm long, most (greater than 80%) are white for two-thirds of their lengths and black for the other one-third. Some spines (less than 20%) are white for two-thirds of their lengths, then ringed with black, followed by narrow white ring. Tips of spines are black. Supernumerary fourth upper molar (M?) is present and is single-rooted and much smaller than M®. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 48 and FN = 92.","habitat":"Wang's Forest Hedgehogs inhabit subtropical, evergreen, broad-leaved forests, with a variety of vegetation including species of Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Ericaceae, and Theaceaeat elevations of 2100-2680 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFD9FFCFFF5AFBD1F7777D17.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFD9FFCFFF5AFBD1F7777D17","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"326","verbatimText":"14.Indian Long-eared HedgehogHemiechinus collarisFrench:Hérisson a collier/ German:Indischer Langohrigel/ Spanish:Erizo de orejas largas de IndiaOther common names:Collared Hedgehog, Hardwicke's Hedgehog, Long-eared Desert HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus collaris Gray, 1830,“Doab.”Restricted by R. C. Wroughtonin 1910 to “area between the rivers Jumna and Ganges,” India. This species is monotypic.Distribution.NW, EC & SE Pakistan and NW & NC India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-180 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 32-38 mm; weight 257-306 g. No specific data are available for hindfoot measurements. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog exhibits a tendency toward melanism. It does not have central parting of spines on forehead or face mask. Snout is long and pointed. Legs are long, forefeet have curved claws, and hallux on hindfootis well developed. Long ears probably are adaptations for thermoregulation in its desert environment. Ears usually remain folded back over spines on crown, even when an individualis unrolled. Dorsal pelage has spines that are 17-30 mm long in adults. Spines appear blackish brown, usually banded with dark brown and white, pale at bases, and spines are black on their distal one-half including tips; overall effect is blackish brown appearance. Ventral pelage hassoft fur of variable color from whitish to blackish. Some individuals have collar of white hairs from under chin to ears. Stumpytail and abdomen are sparsely covered with blackish brown hair, face usually is paler and has dark brown or grayish black hair, and ears and upper parts of crown have gray or whitish hairs. Dental formula is I 3/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.Habitat.Various habitats including lowland areas of the Indus River, semiarid grasslands, plains, scrublands, deserts, dry steppes, and especially numerous in irrigated agricultural lands. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog tends to avoid hot, dry deserts.Food and Feeding.The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous and will grab and eat any prey that it can overcome. When foraging,it takes short, rapid steps and appears to depend primarily on scent to locate food. It sniffs with its snout in roots of grass or leaflitter in search of insect larvae. Venomous snakes are grabbed anywhere on the body, and with spines erect and head lowered,it keepsits face partially concealed so that the reptile strikes against spines and injures itself. When an Indian Longeared Hedgehog seizes a snake or limb of a large animal, it will roll itself into a ball and begin chewing on the held portion. Diet primarily contains insects, especially dung beetles and orthopterans (mole crickets, crickets, and grasshoppers), but other insects and arthropods; earthworms; small vertebrates including frogs, toads, lizards, snakes, eggs and nestlings of ground-dwelling birds, and small mammals; carrion; and fruit also are eaten. Cannibalism is common. Females will eat their offspring, and males will attack and eat any young they encounter.Breeding.In India, breeding occurs in June-September, which is between extreme heat in May-June and cooler weather in December—January. Young benefit from increased availability of food following monsoons in July-August. Similarly, in Pakistan, mostlitters are born August-September at the height of the monsoon when insect prey is most abundant. The male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended on the ground. Gestation probably lasts 30-40 days. Young are born in burrows. If natal burrow is disturbed, the mother will abandon it. Young are transported by the mother only at night. To carry them, she grasps loose skin on the neck or side with her mouth. Litters average 2-3 young (range is 1-6). A litter of four young was born over a five-hour period. Neonates have closed eyes and seem to locate their mother by smell. Nursing occurs with the mother lying on her side, and infants knead mammae with their forefeet and suck loudly. Neonates average 8:3 g, are 47 mm long, and are nearly hairless, except for scattered spines that are 2 mm long, whitish, and soft. Within c.5 hours of birth spines have grown to ¢.8 mm and begin to darken but are still soft. When c.5 days old, numerous pigmented spines are visible, and by the time young are two weeks old, their back is thickly covered with spines. Young do not leave nest burrows until! four weeks old, after which they accompany their motherson foraging trips. It is not known at what age young become independent of their mothers but probably at 6-7 weeks.Activity patterns.In summer,the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog escapes intense desert heat by being strictly nocturnal in foraging activity. It emerges at dusk and forages for 5-6 hours. When food is plentiful, it returns to its burrow by about midnight and does not emerge again until the following evening. It is an active digger and excavatesits own burrows. Opening of burrow is entirely or partially concealed under a bush, and if the ground is hard,it can be short, extending no more than 30 cm. In softsandy soil, the burrow can be 150 cm deep. Burrow terminates in slightly wider chamber that is unlined. An individual that descends head first into and out ofits burrow can turn around inside the small chamber. Burrow usually slopes down to ¢.30-35 cm below the surface and will be used by the same individual for an entire year.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary and unsocial, and it never shares a burrow with conspecifics. It is relatively silent, and the only vocalization known is a snake-like hiss that is emitted when disturbed in its burrow or threatened by a predator. This hiss generally is accompanied by sudden upward jerking of the body that can be a painful experience for a predator. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog exhibits self-anointing behavior that begins by chewing on vegetable matter, generally grass roots, which produces copious frothy saliva. It then contorts itself so that its muzzle is twisted around to its back and flanks, and the liquid vegetable paste or frothy saliva is plastered onto the skin without injury to the tongue. Self-anointing usually is stimulated by some strong smell. Reasons for this behavior are unknown. Anointing might be a way of grooming otherwise inaccessible skin or helping to remove dried skin because the paste eventually dries and flakes off, or it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog does not come into conflict with humans because it generally lives on edges of cultivation or in deserts.Bibliography.Asawa & Mathur (1981), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Goyal & Mathur (1974), Habibi (2004), Herter (1965), Hutterer (2005a), Kanwar et al. (1980), Krishna & Prakash (1955, 1956), Maheshwari (1982, 1984), McCann (1937), Molur et al. (2005), Nowak (1999), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Pandey & Munshi (1987), Prakash (1955a, 1955b, 1959, 1960), Reeve (1994), Roberts (1997), Sharma, G.P. et al. (1975), Sharma, S.K. (1991, 1996), Stone (1995b), Walton & Walton (1973), Wroughton (1910).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus collaris Gray, 1830,“Doab.”Restricted by R. C. Wroughtonin 1910 to “area between the rivers Jumna and Ganges,” India. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson a collier @fr | German @en | ndischer Langohrigel @en | Erizo de orejas largas de @es | ndia @en | Collared Hedgehog @en | Hardwicke's Hedgehog @en | Long-eared Desert Hedgehog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1830","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Hemiechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"326","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"collaris","name":"Hemiechinus collaris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NW, EC & SE Pakistan and NW & NC India.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639380/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Asawa & Mathur (1981) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Goyal & Mathur (1974) | Habibi (2004) | Herter (1965) | Hutterer (2005a) | Kanwar et al. (1980) | Krishna & Prakash (1955, 1956) | Maheshwari (1982, 1984) | McCann (1937) | Molur et al. (2005) | Nowak (1999) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Pandey & Munshi (1987) | Prakash (1955a, 1955b, 1959, 1960) | Reeve (1994) | Roberts (1997) | Sharma, G.P. et al. (1975) | Sharma, S.K. (1991, 1996) | Stone (1995b) | Walton & Walton (1973) | Wroughton (1910)","foodAndFeeding":"The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog is omnivorous and will grab and eat any prey that it can overcome. When foraging,it takes short, rapid steps and appears to depend primarily on scent to locate food. It sniffs with its snout in roots of grass or leaflitter in search of insect larvae. Venomous snakes are grabbed anywhere on the body, and with spines erect and head lowered,it keepsits face partially concealed so that the reptile strikes against spines and injures itself. When an Indian Longeared Hedgehog seizes a snake or limb of a large animal, it will roll itself into a ball and begin chewing on the held portion. Diet primarily contains insects, especially dung beetles and orthopterans (mole crickets, crickets, and grasshoppers), but other insects and arthropods; earthworms; small vertebrates including frogs, toads, lizards, snakes, eggs and nestlings of ground-dwelling birds, and small mammals; carrion; and fruit also are eaten. Cannibalism is common. Females will eat their offspring, and males will attack and eat any young they encounter.","breeding":"In India, breeding occurs in June-September, which is between extreme heat in May-June and cooler weather in December—January. Young benefit from increased availability of food following monsoons in July-August. Similarly, in Pakistan, mostlitters are born August-September at the height of the monsoon when insect prey is most abundant. The male copulates by standing almost vertically on his hindlegs, while the female lies on her abdomen with hindlegs extended on the ground. Gestation probably lasts 30-40 days. Young are born in burrows. If natal burrow is disturbed, the mother will abandon it. Young are transported by the mother only at night. To carry them, she grasps loose skin on the neck or side with her mouth. Litters average 2-3 young (range is 1-6). A litter of four young was born over a five-hour period. Neonates have closed eyes and seem to locate their mother by smell. Nursing occurs with the mother lying on her side, and infants knead mammae with their forefeet and suck loudly. Neonates average 8:3 g, are 47 mm long, and are nearly hairless, except for scattered spines that are 2 mm long, whitish, and soft. Within c.5 hours of birth spines have grown to ¢.8 mm and begin to darken but are still soft. When c.5 days old, numerous pigmented spines are visible, and by the time young are two weeks old, their back is thickly covered with spines. Young do not leave nest burrows until! four weeks old, after which they accompany their mothers","activityPatterns":"In summer,the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog escapes intense desert heat by being strictly nocturnal in foraging activity. It emerges at dusk and forages for 5-6 hours. When food is plentiful, it returns to its burrow by about midnight and does not emerge again until the following evening. It is an active digger and excavatesits own burrows. Opening of burrow is entirely or partially concealed under a bush, and if the ground is hard,it can be short, extending no more than 30 cm. In softsandy soil, the burrow can be 150 cm deep. Burrow terminates in slightly wider chamber that is unlined. An individual that descends head first into and out ofits burrow can turn around inside the small chamber. Burrow usually slopes down to ¢.30-35 cm below the surface and will be used by the same individual for an entire year.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog is solitary and unsocial, and it never shares a burrow with conspecifics. It is relatively silent, and the only vocalization known is a snake-like hiss that is emitted when disturbed in its burrow or threatened by a predator. This hiss generally is accompanied by sudden upward jerking of the body that can be a painful experience for a predator. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog exhibits self-anointing behavior that begins by chewing on vegetable matter, generally grass roots, which produces copious frothy saliva. It then contorts itself so that its muzzle is twisted around to its back and flanks, and the liquid vegetable paste or frothy saliva is plastered onto the skin without injury to the tongue. Self-anointing usually is stimulated by some strong smell. Reasons for this behavior are unknown. Anointing might be a way of grooming otherwise inaccessible skin or helping to remove dried skin because the paste eventually dries and flakes off, or it might be a sexual signal because it occurs only in adults during the breeding season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog does not come into conflict with humans because it generally lives on edges of cultivation or in deserts.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-180 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 32-38 mm; weight 257-306 g. No specific data are available for hindfoot measurements. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog exhibits a tendency toward melanism. It does not have central parting of spines on forehead or face mask. Snout is long and pointed. Legs are long, forefeet have curved claws, and hallux on hindfootis well developed. Long ears probably are adaptations for thermoregulation in its desert environment. Ears usually remain folded back over spines on crown, even when an individualis unrolled. Dorsal pelage has spines that are 17-30 mm long in adults. Spines appear blackish brown, usually banded with dark brown and white, pale at bases, and spines are black on their distal one-half including tips; overall effect is blackish brown appearance. Ventral pelage hassoft fur of variable color from whitish to blackish. Some individuals have collar of white hairs from under chin to ears. Stumpytail and abdomen are sparsely covered with blackish brown hair, face usually is paler and has dark brown or grayish black hair, and ears and upper parts of crown have gray or whitish hairs. Dental formula is I 3/2, C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Karyotype is 2n = 48.","habitat":"Various habitats including lowland areas of the Indus River, semiarid grasslands, plains, scrublands, deserts, dry steppes, and especially numerous in irrigated agricultural lands. The Indian Long-eared Hedgehog tends to avoid hot, dry deserts."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDAFFCCFA74FD4BF9F97CF0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFDAFFCCFA74FD4BF9F97CF0","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"327","verbatimText":"18.Hugh's HedgehogMesechinus hughiFrench:Hérisson de Hugh/ German:Hugh-Igel/ Spanish:Erizo de HughOther common names:Central Chinese Hedgehog, Shanxi HedgehogTaxonomy.Erinaceus hughi Thomas,1908, “Paochi, Shen-si.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as“Baoji, Shaanxi Sheng, China, 34°23’N, 107°09°E.” This species is monotypic.Distribution.S Gansu, S Shaanxi, Shanxi, NE & SE Sichuan, and S Henan in C China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 148-232 mm, tail 12-24 mm, ear 16-33 mm,hindfoot 30-47 mm; weight 112-750 g. Hugh’s Hedgehog is very dark. Dorsal pelage has spines that are smooth and have minute, subterminal, and pale band just before dark tips. Ears are no longer than adjacent spines. Ventral pelage is pale.Habitat.Semiarid and dry steppe habitats and subalpine and low-elevation coniferous forests.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but Hugh’s Hedgehog is terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hugh's Hedgehog occupies relatively small area of suitable habitat thatis shrinking because of human encroachment. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as vulnerable. Research is needed to better understand population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and conservation threats.Bibliography.Ai Huaisen et al. (2018), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Hutterer (2005a), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a), Nowak (1999), Reeve (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stone (1995b), Thomas (1908b).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus hughi Thomas,1908, “Paochi, Shen-si.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as“Baoji, Shaanxi Sheng, China, 34°23’N, 107°09°E.” This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson de Hugh @fr | Hugh- @de | gel @en | Erizo de Hugh @es | Central Chinese Hedgehog @en | Shanxi Hedgehog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"327","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hughi","name":"Mesechinus hughi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Gansu, S Shaanxi, Shanxi, NE & SE Sichuan, and S Henan in C China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639390/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ai Huaisen et al. (2018) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Hutterer (2005a) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a) | Nowak (1999) | Reeve (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stone (1995b) | Thomas (1908b)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information for this species, but Hugh’s Hedgehog is terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hugh's Hedgehog occupies relatively small area of suitable habitat thatis shrinking because of human encroachment. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as vulnerable. Research is needed to better understand population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 148-232 mm, tail 12-24 mm, ear 16-33 mm,hindfoot 30-47 mm; weight 112-750 g. Hugh’s Hedgehog is very dark. Dorsal pelage has spines that are smooth and have minute, subterminal, and pale band just before dark tips. Ears are no longer than adjacent spines. Ventral pelage is pale.","habitat":"Semiarid and dry steppe habitats and subalpine and low-elevation coniferous forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDAFFCCFF7FF9AFF7E1791D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFDAFFCCFF7FF9AFF7E1791D","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"327","verbatimText":"17.Daurian HedgehogMesechinus dawuricusFrench:Hérisson de Daourie/ German:Daurischer Igel/ Spanish:Erizo del GobiTaxonomy.Erinaceus dauuricus Sundevall,1842, “Dauuria.”Interpreted by D. R.Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “[former]U.S.S.R., Transbaikalia, Dauryia, 49°57’N, 116°55°E,” Russia. This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Siberia & SW Russian Far East (Transbaikalia E to upper Amur Basin), C & E Mongolia, and NC, NE & C {China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 241-267 mm, tail 26-34 mm, ear 18-21 mm, hindfoot 41-44 mm; weight 1.1-1 kg. Ears of the Daurian Hedgehog are moderately long, with slightly coarse fur, and they extend a little beyond adjacent spines. Dorsal pelage has spines that are 19-23 mm long. Spines are dark brown at bases, dull whitish for nearly one-half their lengths, with brownish black bands and 3-5mm white tips. Ventral fur is rather coarse, underparts are whitish, and feet and tail are chestnut-brown. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44-48 and FN = 87-95.Habitat.Semiarid habitats including grasslands, with shrubs and herbaceous plants, and dry mountain and wooded steppes. In Mongolia, the Daurian Hedgehog occupies rocky outcrops and low-density shrub habitats and avoids areas with high densities of shrubs. Habitats occupied change between early and late summer, shifting to greater use oflow-density shrub areas and decreased use of forb-dominated short grassy areas.Food and Feeding.The Daurian Hedgehog feeds on insects, especially beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers, many other invertebrates, and small vertebrates including rodents, snakes, frogs, and eggs of ground-nesting birds.Breeding.The Daurian Hedgehog mates in mid-May after emergence from hibernation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days; 3-7 young are born in June-July.Activity patterns.The Daurian Hedgehog is terrestrial and digs its own burrows or uses those of other small mammals. Burrows, crevices in rocks, and caves are used as shelters and places to hibernate in winter. Daytime shelters have one, rarely two, entrances and usually are in rocky outcrops or at bases of shrubs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Mongolia, home ranges were 113-2172 ha and were larger in early summer than late summer. Nightly movements averaged 3-4 km (range 0-3-12-2 km). The Daurian Hedgehog selects level terrain and areas with shrubs, specifically wild apricots (Amygdalus pedunculata, Rosaceae). It probably forages around wild apricots because they support higher densities of insects, and level areas might be used to reduce energetic costs of foraging. Actual foraging paths of the Daurian Hedgehog have high diversities of shrubs, abundance of wild apricots, and low diversities of grasses, other herbaceous species, and Artemisia(Asteraceae).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Loss of habitat through increased mining activities and grazing by increasing numbers oflivestock probably degrade habitats of the Daurian Hedgehog. Occasional vehicular mortality constitutes a low-level threat. Poisoning of plague carriers, including hedgehogs, is not conducted on a large scale, butit still occurs locally.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Batsaikhan et al. (2010), Beer (2003), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Hutterer (2005a), Kong Fei, Guo Jianmin & Wu Jiayan (2016), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a, 2016b), Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan, Guo Jianmin & Wu Xiaomin (2016a, 2016b), Korablev et al. (1996), Mallon (1985), Murdoch et al. (2006), Nowak (1999), Ognev (1928), Reading et al. (2010), Reeve (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stone (1995b), Sundevall (1842), Thomas (1908b), Zapletal et al. (2012, 2015).","taxonomy":"Erinaceus dauuricus Sundevall,1842, “Dauuria.”Interpreted by D. R.Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “[former]U.S.S.R., Transbaikalia, Dauryia, 49°57’N, 116°55°E,” Russia. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hérisson de Daourie @fr | Daurischer @de | gel @en | Erizo del Gobi @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ognev","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1951","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesechinus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"327","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dauuricus","name":"Mesechinus dawuricus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Siberia & SW Russian Far East (Transbaikalia E to upper Amur Basin), C & E Mongolia, and NC, NE & C {China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639388/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1938) | Batsaikhan et al. (2010) | Beer (2003) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Hutterer (2005a) | Kong Fei, Guo Jianmin & Wu Jiayan (2016) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan & Guo Jianmin (2016a, 2016b) | Kong Fei, Wu Jiayan, Guo Jianmin & Wu Xiaomin (2016a, 2016b) | Korablev et al. (1996) | Mallon (1985) | Murdoch et al. (2006) | Nowak (1999) | Ognev (1928) | Reading et al. (2010) | Reeve (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stone (1995b) | Sundevall (1842) | Thomas (1908b) | Zapletal et al. (2012, 2015)","foodAndFeeding":"The Daurian Hedgehog feeds on insects, especially beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers, many other invertebrates, and small vertebrates including rodents, snakes, frogs, and eggs of ground-nesting birds.","breeding":"The Daurian Hedgehog mates in mid-May after emergence from hibernation. Gestation lasts 35-40 days; 3-7 young are born in June-July.","activityPatterns":"The Daurian Hedgehog is terrestrial and digs its own burrows or uses those of other small mammals. Burrows, crevices in rocks, and caves are used as shelters and places to hibernate in winter. Daytime shelters have one, rarely two, entrances and usually are in rocky outcrops or at bases of shrubs.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In Mongolia, home ranges were 113-2172 ha and were larger in early summer than late summer. Nightly movements averaged 3-4 km (range 0-3-12-2 km). The Daurian Hedgehog selects level terrain and areas with shrubs, specifically wild apricots (Amygdalus pedunculata, Rosaceae). It probably forages around wild apricots because they support higher densities of insects, and level areas might be used to reduce energetic costs of foraging. Actual foraging paths of the Daurian Hedgehog have high diversities of shrubs, abundance of wild apricots, and low diversities of grasses, other herbaceous species, and Artemisia(Asteraceae).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Loss of habitat through increased mining activities and grazing by increasing numbers oflivestock probably degrade habitats of the Daurian Hedgehog. Occasional vehicular mortality constitutes a low-level threat. Poisoning of plague carriers, including hedgehogs, is not conducted on a large scale, butit still occurs locally.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 241-267 mm, tail 26-34 mm, ear 18-21 mm, hindfoot 41-44 mm; weight 1.1-1 kg. Ears of the Daurian Hedgehog are moderately long, with slightly coarse fur, and they extend a little beyond adjacent spines. Dorsal pelage has spines that are 19-23 mm long. Spines are dark brown at bases, dull whitish for nearly one-half their lengths, with brownish black bands and 3-5mm white tips. Ventral fur is rather coarse, underparts are whitish, and feet and tail are chestnut-brown. Dental formulais13/2,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 36. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44-48 and FN = 87-95.","habitat":"Semiarid habitats including grasslands, with shrubs and herbaceous plants, and dry mountain and wooded steppes. In Mongolia, the Daurian Hedgehog occupies rocky outcrops and low-density shrub habitats and avoids areas with high densities of shrubs. Habitats occupied change between early and late summer, shifting to greater use oflow-density shrub areas and decreased use of forb-dominated short grassy areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDAFFCDFA78F6C2FBEA7EF3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFDAFFCDFA78F6C2FBEA7EF3","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"327","verbatimText":"19.Long-eared GymnureHylomys megalotisFrench:Gymnure oreillard/ German:Langohr-Rattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de orejas largasOther common names:Long-eared MoonratTaxonomy.Hylomys megalotis Jenkins &M. FE. Robinson, 2002, “ Environs of Ban Muang and Ban Doy, ¢ 18 kmNorth of Thakhek, Thakhekdistrict, Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Khammouan Province, Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, 17°33’15\"N 104°49°307E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in Khammouan Province, C Laos.Descriptive notes.Head-body 115-135 mm, tail 82-94 mm, ear 20-24 mm, hindfoot 20-22 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-eared Gymnure is medium-sized relative to other species of Hylomys. Pelage is gray, long, soft, and fine, lacking flattened spinous hairs. Individual hairs are gray for most of their lengths and then buff with buff or black tips. Microstructures of hair and vibrissae are similar to those on the Short-tailed Gymnure (H. suillus) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spear-shaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Hairs of the Long-eared Gymnure are longer than those of most other species of gymnures. Thin convoluted bases of hairs are bound up contributing to formation of a layer of air near surface of skin that improves thermal insulation in the absence of downy hairs. Long snout with well-developed nasal vibrissae and numerous long vibrissae on muzzle, neck, wrists, and forearms are important and effective for orientation in complex terrain and karst habitats. Dorsal region of rhinarium is narrow and elongate posteriorly. Ears are prominent, large, and rounded. First and fifthdigits of forefeet are long, claws are long and moderately stout, sole and tarsal regions of hindfeet are naked, and bonesoffeet are large. The Long-eared Gymnureis readily distinguished in external appearance from other species of Hylomys, the Hainan Gymnure (Neohylomys hainanensis), and the Shrew Gymnure; it is similar in size but has considerably longer tail and larger ears. Tail is 65-74% of head-body length in the Long-eared Gymnure, 51-63% in the Shrew Gymnure, 27-31% in the Hainan Gymnure, and less than 25% in the Dwarf Gymnure (Hylomys parvus) and the Short-tailed Gymnure. Lack of flattened spinous hairs in pelage distinguishes the Long-eared Gymnure from the Short-tailed Gymnure and the Shrew Gymnure. Rhinarium is more extensive posteriorly than on the Shrew Gymnure but more elongate and narrower than on the Short-tailed Gymnure. Claws and first and fifth digits of forefeet of the Shrew Gymnure, the Short-tailed Gymnure, and the Dwarf Gymnure are not lengthened as on the Long-eared Gymnure, and bones in feet are smaller than in the Long-eared Gymnure. Sole and tarsal regions of hindfeet are naked in the Long-eared Gymnure, differing from haired soles on the Shrew Gymnure and the Short-tailed Gymnure. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.Habitat.Steep slopes around base of a massive limestone karst, covered by rocks and large boulders. There is an underlying soil base that supports heavily degraded mixeddeciduous forest, scrub, and bamboo. Low-lying areas away from karst are cleared for cultivation ofrice.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Long-eared Gymnure is terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Longeared Gymnure has only recently been described, and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence, status, conservation threats, and ecological requirements.Bibliography.Chernova et al. (2015), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002).","taxonomy":"Hylomys megalotis Jenkins &M. FE. Robinson, 2002, “ Environs of Ban Muang and Ban Doy, ¢ 18 kmNorth of Thakhek, Thakhekdistrict, Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Khammouan Province, Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, 17°33’15\"N 104°49°307E.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Gymnure oreillard @fr | Langohr-Rattenigel @de | Gimnuro de orejas largas @es | Long-eared Moonrat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Jenkins & M. FE. Robinson","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Hylomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"327","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"megalotis","name":"Hylomys megalotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from the type locality in Khammouan Province, C Laos.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639392/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chernova et al. (2015) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information for this species, but the Long-eared Gymnure is terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Longeared Gymnure has only recently been described, and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence, status, conservation threats, and ecological requirements.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 115-135 mm, tail 82-94 mm, ear 20-24 mm, hindfoot 20-22 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-eared Gymnure is medium-sized relative to other species of Hylomys. Pelage is gray, long, soft, and fine, lacking flattened spinous hairs. Individual hairs are gray for most of their lengths and then buff with buff or black tips. Microstructures of hair and vibrissae are similar to those on the Short-tailed Gymnure (H. suillus) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spear-shaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Hairs of the Long-eared Gymnure are longer than those of most other species of gymnures. Thin convoluted bases of hairs are bound up contributing to formation of a layer of air near surface of skin that improves thermal insulation in the absence of downy hairs. Long snout with well-developed nasal vibrissae and numerous long vibrissae on muzzle, neck, wrists, and forearms are important and effective for orientation in complex terrain and karst habitats. Dorsal region of rhinarium is narrow and elongate posteriorly. Ears are prominent, large, and rounded. First and fifthdigits of forefeet are long, claws are long and moderately stout, sole and tarsal regions of hindfeet are naked, and bonesoffeet are large. The Long-eared Gymnureis readily distinguished in external appearance from other species of Hylomys, the Hainan Gymnure (Neohylomys hainanensis), and the Shrew Gymnure; it is similar in size but has considerably longer tail and larger ears. Tail is 65-74% of head-body length in the Long-eared Gymnure, 51-63% in the Shrew Gymnure, 27-31% in the Hainan Gymnure, and less than 25% in the Dwarf Gymnure (Hylomys parvus) and the Short-tailed Gymnure. Lack of flattened spinous hairs in pelage distinguishes the Long-eared Gymnure from the Short-tailed Gymnure and the Shrew Gymnure. Rhinarium is more extensive posteriorly than on the Shrew Gymnure but more elongate and narrower than on the Short-tailed Gymnure. Claws and first and fifth digits of forefeet of the Shrew Gymnure, the Short-tailed Gymnure, and the Dwarf Gymnure are not lengthened as on the Long-eared Gymnure, and bones in feet are smaller than in the Long-eared Gymnure. Sole and tarsal regions of hindfeet are naked in the Long-eared Gymnure, differing from haired soles on the Shrew Gymnure and the Short-tailed Gymnure. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.","habitat":"Steep slopes around base of a massive limestone karst, covered by rocks and large boulders. There is an underlying soil base that supports heavily degraded mixeddeciduous forest, scrub, and bamboo. Low-lying areas away from karst are cleared for cultivation ofrice."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDBFFCDFF68F538F7017311.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFDBFFCDFF68F538F7017311","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"328","verbatimText":"21.Short-tailed GymnureHylomys suillusFrench:Petit Gymnure/ German:Kurzschwanz-Rattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de cola cortaOther common names:Lesser Moonrat, Short-tailed MoonratTaxonomy.Hylomys suillus S. Miller, 1839,“Java en het andere van Sumatra.”Re- stricted by H. J. V. Sody in 1933 to “Java,” Indonesia. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.s.swillusS.Muller,1839—Java.H.s.dorsalisThomas,1888—NBorneo(fromMtKinabaluStoKelabitHighlands).H.s.maxiSody,1933—SThailand,MalayPeninsula,andWSumatra.H.s.microtinusThomas,1925—SWChina(Yunnan),Vietnam,andCambodia.H.s.peguensisBlyth,1859—EMyanmarandadjacentSWChina(Yunnan).H.s.siamensisKloss,1916—SEMyanmar,N&WThailand,andLaos.H. s. tionis Chasen, 1940— Tioman I, off SE Malay Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-156 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 12-21 mm, hindfoot 20-28 mm; weight 45-80 g. The Short-tailed Gymnure is small, and its short tail distinguishes it from all other gymnures. Snoutis pointed, ears and tail are short, and overall appearance is ratlike. Pelage is soft and dense. Upper parts are rusty brown, sometimes with faint black nape stripe or dorsalstripe, and underparts are grayish, brownish, or yellowish. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Short-tailed Gymnure are similar to those in the Long-eared Gymnure (H. megalotis) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spearshaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.Habitat.Usually confined to dense, damp, forested areas, especially hilly, mountainous, and lowland forests with thick undergrowth. In China, the Short-tailed Gymnure occurred in secondary forests that had been clear-cut 13 years previously but was not documented in nearby tropical monsoon forests. In Thailand, it occurred under logs in a grove of wild bananas. It has been recorded at elevations of 90 m on mainland South-east Asia to 3000 m on Sumatra and 1000-3400 m on Borneo. Its presence has been verified along edges of a disturbed montane rainforest at 1200-1500 m in Peninsular Malaysia, in lower montane rainforest at 1700 m on Java, and in lower and upper montane rainforests at 1500-3000 m on Borneo.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly invertebrates such as insects and earthworms, but it also eats fruits and vegetation. It forages by searching underleaf litter and in upperlayers of humus with its long, mobile snout, which tosses aside leaves and twigs with jerks of head and shoulders.Breeding.The Short-tailed Gymnureis polygynous, and it probably breeds throughout the year. A pregnant female with two embryos was observed in February and another with two embryos in March. Litters have 3-6 young. Gestation lasts 30-35 days. Lifespan probably does not exceed two years.Activity patterns.The Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly diurnal but can be active at any time of day or night, singly or in small groups. It is mainly active aboveground, beneath litter, and under logs, but sometimes it climbs on low bushes. It builds nests of leaves in rock crevices, burrows, and hollows among roots of trees. It does not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short-tailed Gymnures are primarily solitary; however, there have been observations of groups of 2-3 individuals that might have been females with young. Although capable of climbing, Short-tailed Gymnures generally stay on the ground, moving quickly and nimbly with short leaps. It appears to use definite paths or runways on the forest floor, often passing under logs that are slightly off the ground. When threatened, the Short-tailed Gymnure bounds away with considerable speed. It emits shrill squeaks that are not loud. In Malaya, average densities in favorable habitats are 3—4 ind/ha. Home ranges are ¢.30-40 m in diameter. The Short-tailed Gymnure has a strong odor.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Gymnure has a wide distribution and relatively stable overall population.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Chernova et al. (2015), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Medway (1983), Nowak (1999), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Rudd (1980), Ruedi et al. (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Sody (1933), Stone (1995b), Wu Delin et al. (1996).","taxonomy":"Hylomys suillus S. Miller, 1839,“Java en het andere van Sumatra.”Re- stricted by H. J. V. Sody in 1933 to “Java,” Indonesia. Seven subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Petit Gymnure @fr | Kurzschwanz-Rattenigel @de | Gimnuro de cola corta @es | Lesser Moonrat @en | Short-tailed Moonrat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"S. Miller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Hylomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"328","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"suillus","name":"Hylomys suillus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.s.swillusS.Muller,1839—Java.H.s.dorsalisThomas,1888—NBorneo(fromMtKinabaluStoKelabitHighlands).H.s.maxiSody,1933—SThailand,MalayPeninsula,andWSumatra.H.s.microtinusThomas,1925—SWChina(Yunnan),Vietnam,andCambodia.H.s.peguensisBlyth,1859—EMyanmarandadjacentSWChina(Yunnan).H.s.siamensisKloss,1916—SEMyanmar,N&WThailand,andLaos.H. s. tionis Chasen, 1940— Tioman I, off SE Malay Peninsula.","bibliography":"Beer (2003) | Chernova et al. (2015) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Medway (1983) | Nowak (1999) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Rudd (1980) | Ruedi et al. (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Sody (1933) | Stone (1995b) | Wu Delin et al. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly invertebrates such as insects and earthworms, but it also eats fruits and vegetation. It forages by searching underleaf litter and in upperlayers of humus with its long, mobile snout, which tosses aside leaves and twigs with jerks of head and shoulders.","breeding":"The Short-tailed Gymnureis polygynous, and it probably breeds throughout the year. A pregnant female with two embryos was observed in February and another with two embryos in March. Litters have 3-6 young. Gestation lasts 30-35 days. Lifespan probably does not exceed two years.","activityPatterns":"The Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly diurnal but can be active at any time of day or night, singly or in small groups. It is mainly active aboveground, beneath litter, and under logs, but sometimes it climbs on low bushes. It builds nests of leaves in rock crevices, burrows, and hollows among roots of trees. It does not hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Short-tailed Gymnures are primarily solitary; however, there have been observations of groups of 2-3 individuals that might have been females with young. Although capable of climbing, Short-tailed Gymnures generally stay on the ground, moving quickly and nimbly with short leaps. It appears to use definite paths or runways on the forest floor, often passing under logs that are slightly off the ground. When threatened, the Short-tailed Gymnure bounds away with considerable speed. It emits shrill squeaks that are not loud. In Malaya, average densities in favorable habitats are 3—4 ind/ha. Home ranges are ¢.30-40 m in diameter. The Short-tailed Gymnure has a strong odor.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Gymnure has a wide distribution and relatively stable overall population.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 90-156 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 12-21 mm, hindfoot 20-28 mm; weight 45-80 g. The Short-tailed Gymnure is small, and its short tail distinguishes it from all other gymnures. Snoutis pointed, ears and tail are short, and overall appearance is ratlike. Pelage is soft and dense. Upper parts are rusty brown, sometimes with faint black nape stripe or dorsalstripe, and underparts are grayish, brownish, or yellowish. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Short-tailed Gymnure are similar to those in the Long-eared Gymnure (H. megalotis) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spearshaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.","habitat":"Usually confined to dense, damp, forested areas, especially hilly, mountainous, and lowland forests with thick undergrowth. In China, the Short-tailed Gymnure occurred in secondary forests that had been clear-cut 13 years previously but was not documented in nearby tropical monsoon forests. In Thailand, it occurred under logs in a grove of wild bananas. It has been recorded at elevations of 90 m on mainland South-east Asia to 3000 m on Sumatra and 1000-3400 m on Borneo. Its presence has been verified along edges of a disturbed montane rainforest at 1200-1500 m in Peninsular Malaysia, in lower montane rainforest at 1700 m on Java, and in lower and upper montane rainforests at 1500-3000 m on Borneo."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDBFFCDFF68F538F7017311.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFDBFFCDFF68F538F7017311","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"328","verbatimText":"21.Short-tailed GymnureHylomys suillusFrench:Petit Gymnure/ German:Kurzschwanz-Rattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de cola cortaOther common names:Lesser Moonrat, Short-tailed MoonratTaxonomy.Hylomys suillus S. Miller, 1839,“Java en het andere van Sumatra.”Re- stricted by H. J. V. Sody in 1933 to “Java,” Indonesia. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.s.swillusS.Muller,1839—Java.H.s.dorsalisThomas,1888—NBorneo(fromMtKinabaluStoKelabitHighlands).H.s.maxiSody,1933—SThailand,MalayPeninsula,andWSumatra.H.s.microtinusThomas,1925—SWChina(Yunnan),Vietnam,andCambodia.H.s.peguensisBlyth,1859—EMyanmarandadjacentSWChina(Yunnan).H.s.siamensisKloss,1916—SEMyanmar,N&WThailand,andLaos.H. s. tionis Chasen, 1940— Tioman I, off SE Malay Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-156 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 12-21 mm, hindfoot 20-28 mm; weight 45-80 g. The Short-tailed Gymnure is small, and its short tail distinguishes it from all other gymnures. Snoutis pointed, ears and tail are short, and overall appearance is ratlike. Pelage is soft and dense. Upper parts are rusty brown, sometimes with faint black nape stripe or dorsalstripe, and underparts are grayish, brownish, or yellowish. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Short-tailed Gymnure are similar to those in the Long-eared Gymnure (H. megalotis) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spearshaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.Habitat.Usually confined to dense, damp, forested areas, especially hilly, mountainous, and lowland forests with thick undergrowth. In China, the Short-tailed Gymnure occurred in secondary forests that had been clear-cut 13 years previously but was not documented in nearby tropical monsoon forests. In Thailand, it occurred under logs in a grove of wild bananas. It has been recorded at elevations of 90 m on mainland South-east Asia to 3000 m on Sumatra and 1000-3400 m on Borneo. Its presence has been verified along edges of a disturbed montane rainforest at 1200-1500 m in Peninsular Malaysia, in lower montane rainforest at 1700 m on Java, and in lower and upper montane rainforests at 1500-3000 m on Borneo.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly invertebrates such as insects and earthworms, but it also eats fruits and vegetation. It forages by searching underleaf litter and in upperlayers of humus with its long, mobile snout, which tosses aside leaves and twigs with jerks of head and shoulders.Breeding.The Short-tailed Gymnureis polygynous, and it probably breeds throughout the year. A pregnant female with two embryos was observed in February and another with two embryos in March. Litters have 3-6 young. Gestation lasts 30-35 days. Lifespan probably does not exceed two years.Activity patterns.The Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly diurnal but can be active at any time of day or night, singly or in small groups. It is mainly active aboveground, beneath litter, and under logs, but sometimes it climbs on low bushes. It builds nests of leaves in rock crevices, burrows, and hollows among roots of trees. It does not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short-tailed Gymnures are primarily solitary; however, there have been observations of groups of 2-3 individuals that might have been females with young. Although capable of climbing, Short-tailed Gymnures generally stay on the ground, moving quickly and nimbly with short leaps. It appears to use definite paths or runways on the forest floor, often passing under logs that are slightly off the ground. When threatened, the Short-tailed Gymnure bounds away with considerable speed. It emits shrill squeaks that are not loud. In Malaya, average densities in favorable habitats are 3—4 ind/ha. Home ranges are ¢.30-40 m in diameter. The Short-tailed Gymnure has a strong odor.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Gymnure has a wide distribution and relatively stable overall population.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Chernova et al. (2015), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Medway (1983), Nowak (1999), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Rudd (1980), Ruedi et al. (1994), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Sody (1933), Stone (1995b), Wu Delin et al. (1996).","taxonomy":"Hylomys suillus S. Miller, 1839,“Java en het andere van Sumatra.”Re- stricted by H. J. V. Sody in 1933 to “Java,” Indonesia. Seven subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Petit Gymnure @fr | Kurzschwanz-Rattenigel @de | Gimnuro de cola corta @es | Lesser Moonrat @en | Short-tailed Moonrat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"S. Miller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Hylomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"328","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"suillus","name":"Hylomys suillus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.s.swillusS.Muller,1839—Java.H.s.dorsalisThomas,1888—NBorneo(fromMtKinabaluStoKelabitHighlands).H.s.maxiSody,1933—SThailand,MalayPeninsula,andWSumatra.H.s.microtinusThomas,1925—SWChina(Yunnan),Vietnam,andCambodia.H.s.peguensisBlyth,1859—EMyanmarandadjacentSWChina(Yunnan).H.s.siamensisKloss,1916—SEMyanmar,N&WThailand,andLaos.H. s. tionis Chasen, 1940— Tioman I, off SE Malay Peninsula.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639398/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Beer (2003) | Chernova et al. (2015) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Medway (1983) | Nowak (1999) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Rudd (1980) | Ruedi et al. (1994) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Sody (1933) | Stone (1995b) | Wu Delin et al. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly invertebrates such as insects and earthworms, but it also eats fruits and vegetation. It forages by searching underleaf litter and in upperlayers of humus with its long, mobile snout, which tosses aside leaves and twigs with jerks of head and shoulders.","breeding":"The Short-tailed Gymnureis polygynous, and it probably breeds throughout the year. A pregnant female with two embryos was observed in February and another with two embryos in March. Litters have 3-6 young. Gestation lasts 30-35 days. Lifespan probably does not exceed two years.","activityPatterns":"The Short-tailed Gymnure is mainly diurnal but can be active at any time of day or night, singly or in small groups. It is mainly active aboveground, beneath litter, and under logs, but sometimes it climbs on low bushes. It builds nests of leaves in rock crevices, burrows, and hollows among roots of trees. It does not hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Short-tailed Gymnures are primarily solitary; however, there have been observations of groups of 2-3 individuals that might have been females with young. Although capable of climbing, Short-tailed Gymnures generally stay on the ground, moving quickly and nimbly with short leaps. It appears to use definite paths or runways on the forest floor, often passing under logs that are slightly off the ground. When threatened, the Short-tailed Gymnure bounds away with considerable speed. It emits shrill squeaks that are not loud. In Malaya, average densities in favorable habitats are 3—4 ind/ha. Home ranges are ¢.30-40 m in diameter. The Short-tailed Gymnure has a strong odor.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Gymnure has a wide distribution and relatively stable overall population.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 90-156 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 12-21 mm, hindfoot 20-28 mm; weight 45-80 g. The Short-tailed Gymnure is small, and its short tail distinguishes it from all other gymnures. Snoutis pointed, ears and tail are short, and overall appearance is ratlike. Pelage is soft and dense. Upper parts are rusty brown, sometimes with faint black nape stripe or dorsalstripe, and underparts are grayish, brownish, or yellowish. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Short-tailed Gymnure are similar to those in the Long-eared Gymnure (H. megalotis) and the Shrew Gymnure (Neotetracus sinensis); there are spearshaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.","habitat":"Usually confined to dense, damp, forested areas, especially hilly, mountainous, and lowland forests with thick undergrowth. In China, the Short-tailed Gymnure occurred in secondary forests that had been clear-cut 13 years previously but was not documented in nearby tropical monsoon forests. In Thailand, it occurred under logs in a grove of wild bananas. It has been recorded at elevations of 90 m on mainland South-east Asia to 3000 m on Sumatra and 1000-3400 m on Borneo. Its presence has been verified along edges of a disturbed montane rainforest at 1200-1500 m in Peninsular Malaysia, in lower montane rainforest at 1700 m on Java, and in lower and upper montane rainforests at 1500-3000 m on Borneo."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDBFFCDFF6FFA2BFEF571EC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFDBFFCDFF6FFA2BFEF571EC","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"328","verbatimText":"20.Dwarf GymnureHylomys parvusFrench:Gymnure nain/ German:Zwergrattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro enanoOther common names:Dwarf MoonratTaxonomy.Hylomys parvus H. C. Robinson & Kloss, 1916, “Korinchi Peak, 10,000’ [= 3048 m], West Sumatra,”Indonesia. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to highlands of Mt Kerinci, WC Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-127 mm, tail 15-32 mm, ear 17-19 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Dwarf Gymnure has notched space between premaxillary tips, soft-textured pelage, and delicate skull and dentition. Dental formula is I 3/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.Habitat.Restricted to high-elevation moss forest covering peak of Mount Kerinci, Sumatra, at elevations of 2000-3000 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Dwarf Gymnure 1s terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Dwarf Gymnure is less than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten locations, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat in the Sumatran Mountains.Bibliography.Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Ruedi & Fumagalli (1996), Ruedi et al. (1994), Stone (1995b).","taxonomy":"Hylomys parvus H. C. Robinson & Kloss, 1916, “Korinchi Peak, 10,000’ [= 3048 m], West Sumatra,”Indonesia. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Gymnure nain @fr | Zwergrattenigel @de | Gimnuro enano @es | Dwarf Moonrat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"H. C. Robinson & Kloss","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1916","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Hylomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"328","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"parvus","name":"Hylomys parvus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Restricted to highlands of Mt Kerinci, WC Sumatra.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639394/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Ruedi & Fumagalli (1996) | Ruedi et al. (1994) | Stone (1995b)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information for this species, but the Dwarf Gymnure 1s terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Dwarf Gymnure is less than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten locations, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat in the Sumatran Mountains.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-127 mm, tail 15-32 mm, ear 17-19 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Dwarf Gymnure has notched space between premaxillary tips, soft-textured pelage, and delicate skull and dentition. Dental formula is I 3/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 3/3 (x2) = 44.","habitat":"Restricted to high-elevation moss forest covering peak of Mount Kerinci, Sumatra, at elevations of 2000-3000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDCFFCAFA76FA58F6F4700E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFDCFFCAFA76FA58F6F4700E","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"329","verbatimText":"24.Hainan GymnureNeohylomys hainanensisFrench:Gymnure de Hainan/ German:Hainan-Rattenigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de HainanOther common names:Hainan MoonratTaxonomy.Neohylomys hainanensis T. H.Shaw & Wong Song, 1959, “Pai-sa Hsian,Hainan Island.” Interpreted by D. R. Frostand colleagues in 1991 as “Baisha Xian, which is an administrative unit at 19°13’N, 109°26’E,” China. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Hainan I, China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-147 mm, tail 36-43 mm, ear 16-22 mm, hindfoot 24-29 mm; weight 50-70 g. Headof the Hainan Gymnureis blackish gray, mixed with brown. Back is rusty brown, mixed with gray. Long, black stripe on middle of back is darker on head and anterior part of body and paler toward posterior part of body. Sides are washed with pale olive-yellow, and underparts are pale gray or yellowish white. Ears, feet, and tail are almost naked, with minute scattered short hairs. Whiskers are black and up to 35 mm long. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/3,M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 64.Habitat.Damp forests including tropical rainforests and subtropical evergreen forests.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Hainan Gymnure includes invertebrates and plant material.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Hainan Gymnure is nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends most of its time in subterranean burrows. Its cylindrical body, shorttail, and less-developed claws are adaptations for a fossoriallifestyle.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hainan Gymnures are solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Hainan Gymnureis less than 5000 km?®. It is only known from Hainan Island, where remaining patches of evergreen forests are shrinking due to harvesting of timber and expansion of agriculture.Bibliography.Beer (2003), Bhatnagar & EI-Azawi (1978), Corbet (1988), Frost et al. (1991), Hubner et al. (1991), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Li Yuchun et al. (2008), Nowak (1999), Reumer & Meylan (1986), Shaw & Wong Song (1959), Smith & Yan Xie (2013), Stone (1995b), Zima & Kral (1984).","taxonomy":"Neohylomys hainanensis T. H.Shaw & Wong Song, 1959, “Pai-sa Hsian,Hainan Island.” Interpreted by D. R. Frostand colleagues in 1991 as “Baisha Xian, which is an administrative unit at 19°13’N, 109°26’E,” China. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Gymnure de Hainan @fr | Hainan-Rattenigel @de | Gimnuro de Hainan @es | Hainan Moonrat @en","interpretedAuthority":"T. H. Shaw & Wong Song","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Neohylomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"329","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hainanensis","name":"Neohylomys hainanensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Hainan I, China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639406/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Beer (2003) | Bhatnagar & EI-Azawi (1978) | Corbet (1988) | Frost et al. (1991) | Hubner et al. (1991) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Li Yuchun et al. (2008) | Nowak (1999) | Reumer & Meylan (1986) | Shaw & Wong Song (1959) | Smith & Yan Xie (2013) | Stone (1995b) | Zima & Kral (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Hainan Gymnure includes invertebrates and plant material.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Hainan Gymnure is nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends most of its time in subterranean burrows. Its cylindrical body, shorttail, and less-developed claws are adaptations for a fossoriallifestyle.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Hainan Gymnures are solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Hainan Gymnureis less than 5000 km?®. It is only known from Hainan Island, where remaining patches of evergreen forests are shrinking due to harvesting of timber and expansion of agriculture.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-147 mm, tail 36-43 mm, ear 16-22 mm, hindfoot 24-29 mm; weight 50-70 g. Headof the Hainan Gymnureis blackish gray, mixed with brown. Back is rusty brown, mixed with gray. Long, black stripe on middle of back is darker on head and anterior part of body and paler toward posterior part of body. Sides are washed with pale olive-yellow, and underparts are pale gray or yellowish white. Ears, feet, and tail are almost naked, with minute scattered short hairs. Whiskers are black and up to 35 mm long. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P4/3,M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 64.","habitat":"Damp forests including tropical rainforests and subtropical evergreen forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/87/87/038787D0FFDCFFCAFF78F720F6357F34.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038787D0FFDCFFCAFF78F720F6357F34","docName":"hbmw_8_Erinaceidae_0288.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffbeffa8ffd0ffc6fff2ffd4ffc37b4a","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"329","verbatimText":"23.Shrew GymnureNeotetracus sinensisFrench:Gymnure de Chine/ German:Spitzmausigel/ Spanish:Gimnuro de ChinaOther common names:Chinese MoonratTaxonomy.Neotetracus sinensis Trouessart,1909, “Ta-tsien-lou, province of Se-tchouen (China Occidental), at an altitude of 2545 metres.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Kanding, Sichuan Sheng, 30°07’N, 102°02’E,” China. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Sichuan, Guizhou, and Yunnan in S China, and adjacent parts of NE Myanmar and N Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 108 mm(males) and 110 mm (females), tail 65 mm (males) and 62 mm (females), ear 18 mm (males and females), hindfoot 26 mm (males) and 25 mm (females); weight 36 g (males) and 38 g (females). Pelage of the Shrew Gymnureis soft, dense, and long. Upper parts are olive-brown, cinnamon-brown, reddish yellow, or mixed cream-colored and black, and sides of head and neck sometimes are tinged with reddish. Indistinct, black dorsal stripe can be present. Underparts are reddish, buffy gray, grayish white, or cream-colored over dark base. Snout is pointed. Tail is ¢.50% of length of head-body, somewhat slender, and sparsely covered with minute hairs. Feet are brown, five-toed, slender, and elongated, especially hindfeet; forefeet are tinted with reddish. Undersides of feet are naked or covered with short hair. Ears are brown, rounded, large, and covered with short hairs. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Shrew Gymnure are similar to those on the Long-eared Gymnures (Hylomys megalotis) and the Shorttailed Gymnure (Hylomys suillus); there are spear-shaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Largest guard hairs of the Shrew Gymnure are long and form upperouter layer of pelage. Zig-zag hairs and wavy hairs are presentamong smaller guard hairs. Dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 40. Karyotype is 2n = 32.Habitat.Subtropical evergreen forests, cool damp rainforests in montane areas, and close to and away from streams at elevations of 1500-2700 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Shrew Gymnure contains invertebrates, rhizomes, berries, and other vegetation. Of those examined, stomach of one individual contained earthworms and the other vegetable matter.Breeding.Breeding of Shrew Gymnures appears to occur year-round. Pregnant females have been observed in April and August. Two litters probably are born each year; litters have 5-7 young.Activity patterns.Shrew Gymnures are nocturnal and strictly terrestrial. They live in runways and underground burrows along moss and fern-covered banks and under logs, rocks, and other cover. It is not known if they make these runways because other small mammals also use them.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shrew Gymnure is common in parts of its wide distribution, but it occupies relatively restricted habitats that are subject to increasing encroachment by humans.Bibliography.Abramov, Shchinov & Rozhnov (2008), Allen (1938), Anthony (1941), Beer (2003), Chernova, Kulikov & Abramov (2015), Chernova, Kulikov, Shchinov & Rozhnov (2012), Frost et al. (1991), Heaney & Morgan (1982), Hutterer (2005a), Jenkins & Robinson (2002), Lu Lu et al. (2013), Mu Huagiang et al. (2011), Nowak (1999), Smith & Yan Xie (2008, 2013), Stone (1995b), Trouessart (1909), Wu Yi et al. (2011), Ye Jianping et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Neotetracus sinensis Trouessart,1909, “Ta-tsien-lou, province of Se-tchouen (China Occidental), at an altitude of 2545 metres.”Interpreted by D. R. Frost and colleagues in 1991 as “Kanding, Sichuan Sheng, 30°07’N, 102°02’E,” China. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Gymnure de Chine @fr | Spitzmausigel @de | Gimnuro de China @es | Chinese Moonrat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Trouessart","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Erinaceidae","interpretedGenus":"Neotetracus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Erinaceomorpha","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"329","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sinensis","name":"Neotetracus sinensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Sichuan, Guizhou, and Yunnan in S China, and adjacent parts of NE Myanmar and N Vietnam.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6639404/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abramov, Shchinov & Rozhnov (2008) | Allen (1938) | Anthony (1941) | Beer (2003) | Chernova, Kulikov & Abramov (2015) | Chernova, Kulikov, Shchinov & Rozhnov (2012) | Frost et al. (1991) | Heaney & Morgan (1982) | Hutterer (2005a) | Jenkins & Robinson (2002) | Lu Lu et al. (2013) | Mu Huagiang et al. (2011) | Nowak (1999) | Smith & Yan Xie (2008, 2013) | Stone (1995b) | Trouessart (1909) | Wu Yi et al. (2011) | Ye Jianping et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Shrew Gymnure contains invertebrates, rhizomes, berries, and other vegetation. Of those examined, stomach of one individual contained earthworms and the other vegetable matter.","breeding":"Breeding of Shrew Gymnures appears to occur year-round. Pregnant females have been observed in April and August. Two litters probably are born each year; litters have 5-7 young.","activityPatterns":"Shrew Gymnures are nocturnal and strictly terrestrial. They live in runways and underground burrows along moss and fern-covered banks and under logs, rocks, and other cover. It is not known if they make these runways because other small mammals also use them.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shrew Gymnure is common in parts of its wide distribution, but it occupies relatively restricted habitats that are subject to increasing encroachment by humans.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 108 mm(males) and 110 mm (females), tail 65 mm (males) and 62 mm (females), ear 18 mm (males and females), hindfoot 26 mm (males) and 25 mm (females); weight 36 g (males) and 38 g (females). Pelage of the Shrew Gymnureis soft, dense, and long. Upper parts are olive-brown, cinnamon-brown, reddish yellow, or mixed cream-colored and black, and sides of head and neck sometimes are tinged with reddish. Indistinct, black dorsal stripe can be present. Underparts are reddish, buffy gray, grayish white, or cream-colored over dark base. Snout is pointed. Tail is ¢.50% of length of head-body, somewhat slender, and sparsely covered with minute hairs. Feet are brown, five-toed, slender, and elongated, especially hindfeet; forefeet are tinted with reddish. Undersides of feet are naked or covered with short hair. Ears are brown, rounded, large, and covered with short hairs. Microstructures of hairs and vibrissae of the Shrew Gymnure are similar to those on the Long-eared Gymnures (Hylomys megalotis) and the Shorttailed Gymnure (Hylomys suillus); there are spear-shaped lead hairs and zig-zag guard hairs, but there are no downy hairs. Largest guard hairs of the Shrew Gymnure are long and form upperouter layer of pelage. Zig-zag hairs and wavy hairs are presentamong smaller guard hairs. Dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 40. Karyotype is 2n = 32.","habitat":"Subtropical evergreen forests, cool damp rainforests in montane areas, and close to and away from streams at elevations of 1500-2700 m."} @@ -220,150 +220,150 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD0A82BF623BA65C130.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA6FFD0A82BF623BA65C130","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"367","verbatimText":"4.Cape Mole-ratGeorychus capensisFrench:Bathyergue du Cap/ German:Kap-Blessmull/ Spanish:Ratatopo de El CaboOther common names:Cape Blesmol, Cape Mole RatTaxonomy.Mus capensis Pallas, 1779, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.South Africa, Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces and isolated populations in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-231-6 mm (males) and 131:2-181-2 mm (females), tail 18:-1-23-1 mm (males) and 17-3-23-7 mm (females); weight 108-5-255-1 g (males) and 87.7-272-3 g (females). The Cape Mole-rat is mediumto largesized; pelage is thick, russet to brown dorsally and significantly lighter ventrally. Head and areas below eyes are dark brown; white patches surround ear openings and eyes; nose is pink, with white surrounding anterior part of head. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 104.On following pages: 5. Common Mole-rat (Cryptomys hottentotus); 6. Ghana Mole-rat (Fukomys zechi); 7. Nigerian bocagel); 10. Zambian Mole-rat (Fukomys amatus); 11. Ansell's Mole-rat (Fukomys anselli); 12. Kafue Mole-rat (Fukomysvandewoestijneae); 15. Whyte's Mole-rat (Fukomyswhytel); 16. Damara Mole-rat (Fukomys damarensis); 17. Mashona Mole-rat (Fukomys foxi); 8. Ochre Mole-rat (Fukomys ochraceocinereus); 9. Bocage's Mole-rat (Fukomys kafuensis); 13. Mechow's Mole-rat (Fukomysmechowii); 14. Caroline's Mole-rat (FukomysMole-rat (Fukomysdarling).Habitat.Sandyto clay soils in mesic coastal regions with fynbos shrublands, forests, and savannas of mesic coastal regions.Food and Feeding.The Cape Mole-rat is herbivorous and eats green plants, grasses, clover, and geophytes;it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Cape Mole-rat occurs in August-December. Gestation is 44-48 days, andlitter size averages six young (range 3-10).Activity patterns.The Cape Mole-rat burrows with its teeth; it can be seen aboveground.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Cape Mole-rat disperses aboveground;it is solitary and territorial. It communicates with seismic signaling by foot drumming.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett & Jarvis (1988b), Bennett et al. (2006), Bronner (1990), Du Toit et al. (1985), Lovegrove & Papenfus (1995), Maree & Faulkes (2008f), Narins et al. (1992), Nevo et al. (1986), Robb et al. (2012), Roper et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Mus capensis Pallas, 1779, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bathyergue du Cap @fr | Kap-Blessmull @de | Ratatopo de El Cabo @es | Rata @es | Cape Blesmol @en | Cape Mole Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1779","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Georychus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"367","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"capensis","name":"Georychus capensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"South Africa, Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces and isolated populations in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584704/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennett & Jarvis (1988b) | Bennett et al. (2006) | Bronner (1990) | Du Toit et al. (1985) | Lovegrove & Papenfus (1995) | Maree & Faulkes (2008f) | Narins et al. (1992) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Robb et al. (2012) | Roper et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"The Cape Mole-rat is herbivorous and eats green plants, grasses, clover, and geophytes;it does not drink standing water.","breeding":"Breeding of the Cape Mole-rat occurs in August-December. Gestation is 44-48 days, andlitter size averages six young (range 3-10).","activityPatterns":"The Cape Mole-rat burrows with its teeth; it can be seen aboveground.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Cape Mole-rat disperses aboveground;it is solitary and territorial. It communicates with seismic signaling by foot drumming.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 85-231-6 mm (males) and 131:2-181-2 mm (females), tail 18:-1-23-1 mm (males) and 17-3-23-7 mm (females); weight 108-5-255-1 g (males) and 87.7-272-3 g (females). The Cape Mole-rat is mediumto largesized; pelage is thick, russet to brown dorsally and significantly lighter ventrally. Head and areas below eyes are dark brown; white patches surround ear openings and eyes; nose is pink, with white surrounding anterior part of head. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 104.On following pages: 5. Common Mole-rat (Cryptomys hottentotus); 6. Ghana Mole-rat (Fukomys zechi); 7. Nigerian bocagel); 10. Zambian Mole-rat (Fukomys amatus); 11. Ansell's Mole-rat (Fukomys anselli); 12. Kafue Mole-rat (Fukomysvandewoestijneae); 15. Whyte's Mole-rat (Fukomyswhytel); 16. Damara Mole-rat (Fukomys damarensis); 17. Mashona Mole-rat (Fukomys foxi); 8. Ochre Mole-rat (Fukomys ochraceocinereus); 9. Bocage's Mole-rat (Fukomys kafuensis); 13. Mechow's Mole-rat (Fukomysmechowii); 14. Caroline's Mole-rat (FukomysMole-rat (Fukomysdarling).","habitat":"Sandyto clay soils in mesic coastal regions with fynbos shrublands, forests, and savannas of mesic coastal regions."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD1A829FCCDB7B0CAA7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA6FFD1A829FCCDB7B0CAA7","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"367","verbatimText":"3.Cape Dune Mole-ratBathyergus suillusFrench:Bathyergue des dunes/ German:Kap-Strandgraber/ Spanish:Ratatopo de dunas de El CaboOther common names:Cape Dune Blesmol, Cape Dune Mole Rat, Large Cape Dune Mole-ratTaxonomy.Mus suillus Schreber, 1782, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S South Africa, Western Cape Province from Knysna to Lamberts Bay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 267-9-353-7 mm (males) and 279-9-329-9 mm (females); tail 30-7-41-9 mm (males) and 29-3-38-3 mm (females); weight 0-57.1-3 kg (males) and 0-58.0-96 kg (females). Some male Cape Dune Mole-rats reach 2 kg. Largest species of mole-rat characterized by thick cinnamon-brown dorsal pelage, with hairs darker at bases and brown at tips; ventral surface is grayish; and whitish hairs are near eyes and nose. Cape Dune Mole-rats have cylinder-shaped bodies, with short limbs, pinkish feet, and long claws on forefeet. Tail is short and contains bristle-like hairs, similar to those seen on feet, with facial bristles being considerably larger. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 56, FN = 102.Habitat.Sandy soils in mesic savannas and grasslands.Food and Feeding.The Cape Dune Mole-rat is herbivorous, and its diet contains c.80% grass, geophytes, and aboveand below-ground plants; it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Cape Dune Mole-rat occurs during rainy season in July—October; courtship involves foot drumming. Gestation is 50-60 days, litter size averages 3-3 young (range 1-6), and genetic evidence suggests multiple paternity. Cape Dune Mole-rats are territorial and aggressive toward each other.Activity patterns.Cape Dune Mole-rats dig with large claws on their forefeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Breeding patterns of Cape Dune Mole-rats suggest aboveground movements; burrows are 50-420 m; home range averages 0-27 ha (range 0-14-0-35 ha). They are solitary and territorial.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Bennett & Jarvis (1995), Bennett et al. (2009), Bray, Bloomer et al. (2012), Bray, van Rensburg & Bennett (2013), Davies & Jarvis (1986), Hart et al. (2006), Maree, Faulkes & Griffin (2008b), Nevo et al. (1986), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Thomas et al. (2009).","taxonomy":"Mus suillus Schreber, 1782, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bathyergue des dunes @fr | Kap-Strandgraber @de | Ratatopo de dunas de El Cabo @es | Cape Dune Blesmol @en | Cape Dune Mole Rat @en | Large Cape Dune Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Bathyergus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"367","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"suillus","name":"Bathyergus suillus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to S South Africa, Western Cape Province from Knysna to Lamberts Bay.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584702/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Bennett & Jarvis (1995) | Bennett et al. (2009) | Bray, Bloomer et al. (2012) | Bray, van Rensburg & Bennett (2013) | Davies & Jarvis (1986) | Hart et al. (2006) | Maree, Faulkes & Griffin (2008b) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Thomas et al. (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"The Cape Dune Mole-rat is herbivorous, and its diet contains c.80% grass, geophytes, and aboveand below-ground plants; it does not drink standing water.","breeding":"Breeding of the Cape Dune Mole-rat occurs during rainy season in July—October; courtship involves foot drumming. Gestation is 50-60 days, litter size averages 3-3 young (range 1-6), and genetic evidence suggests multiple paternity. Cape Dune Mole-rats are territorial and aggressive toward each other.","activityPatterns":"Cape Dune Mole-rats dig with large claws on their forefeet.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Breeding patterns of Cape Dune Mole-rats suggest aboveground movements; burrows are 50-420 m; home range averages 0-27 ha (range 0-14-0-35 ha). They are solitary and territorial.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 267-9-353-7 mm (males) and 279-9-329-9 mm (females); tail 30-7-41-9 mm (males) and 29-3-38-3 mm (females); weight 0-57.1-3 kg (males) and 0-58.0-96 kg (females). Some male Cape Dune Mole-rats reach 2 kg. Largest species of mole-rat characterized by thick cinnamon-brown dorsal pelage, with hairs darker at bases and brown at tips; ventral surface is grayish; and whitish hairs are near eyes and nose. Cape Dune Mole-rats have cylinder-shaped bodies, with short limbs, pinkish feet, and long claws on forefeet. Tail is short and contains bristle-like hairs, similar to those seen on feet, with facial bristles being considerably larger. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 56, FN = 102.","habitat":"Sandy soils in mesic savannas and grasslands."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD2DF6CEB9D3C09F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD2DF6CEB9D3C09F","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"367","verbatimText":"2.Namaqua Dune Mole-ratBathyergus janettaFrench:Bathyergue namaquois/ German:Namaqua-Strandgraber/ Spanish:Ratatopo de dunas de NamaquaOther common names:Namaqgua Dune Mole Rat, Namaguan Dune Blesmol, Small Dune Mole-ratTaxonomy.Bathyergus janetta Thomas & Schwann, 1904, Port Nolloth, coastal Little Namaqualand, north-western Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.S Namibia and W South Africa (W Northern Cape).Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 170-205 mm (females), tail 41-52 mm (males) and 40-50 mm (females); weight 242-710 ¢g (males) and 195-540 g (females). The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is smaller than the Cape Dune Mole-rat (B. suillus) and considerably more colorful; dorsal pelage ranges from gray to silvery gray, with a blackish strip leading from head region to rump; ventral surface of pelage is more silvery gray. The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat has short, bushy tail; hairs around eyes and ear pinna are light; and feet are pinkish with short bristles. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 104.Habitat.Sandy soils near highly arid, coastal dunes.Food and Feeding.The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is herbivorous and eats geophytes and bulbs; it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Namaqua Dune Mole-rat occurs during rainy period in July-September. Litter sizes are 1-7 young, and gestation is a minimum of 52 days.Activity patterns.Burrowing activity of Namaqua Dune Mole-rats is greatest during rainy periods; they excavate burrows with claws.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Average lengths of burrows are 71:2-165 m, and home ranges are 430-3—-1181-3 m? The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is solitary and territorial with individuals occupying different burrow systems.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Bennett et al. (1991), Herbst & Bennett (2006), Herbst et al. (2004), Jarvis (2013), Jarvis & Bennett (1991), Maree, Faulkes & Griffin (2008a), Nevo et al. (1986), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Bathyergus janetta Thomas & Schwann, 1904, Port Nolloth, coastal Little Namaqualand, north-western Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bathyergue namaquois @fr | Namaqua-Strandgraber @de | Ratatopo de dunas de Namaqua @es | Rata @es | Namaqgua Dune Mole Rat @en | Namaguan Dune Blesmol @en | Small Dune Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas & Schwann","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1904","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Bathyergus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"367","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"janetta","name":"Bathyergus janetta","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Namibia and W South Africa (W Northern Cape).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584700/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Bennett et al. (1991) | Herbst & Bennett (2006) | Herbst et al. (2004) | Jarvis (2013) | Jarvis & Bennett (1991) | Maree, Faulkes & Griffin (2008a) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is herbivorous and eats geophytes and bulbs; it does not drink standing water.","breeding":"Breeding of the Namaqua Dune Mole-rat occurs during rainy period in July-September. Litter sizes are 1-7 young, and gestation is a minimum of 52 days.","activityPatterns":"Burrowing activity of Namaqua Dune Mole-rats is greatest during rainy periods; they excavate burrows with claws.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Average lengths of burrows are 71:2-165 m, and home ranges are 430-3—-1181-3 m? The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is solitary and territorial with individuals occupying different burrow systems.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-235 mm (males) and 170-205 mm (females), tail 41-52 mm (males) and 40-50 mm (females); weight 242-710 ¢g (males) and 195-540 g (females). The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat is smaller than the Cape Dune Mole-rat (B. suillus) and considerably more colorful; dorsal pelage ranges from gray to silvery gray, with a blackish strip leading from head region to rump; ventral surface of pelage is more silvery gray. The Namaqua Dune Mole-rat has short, bushy tail; hairs around eyes and ear pinna are light; and feet are pinkish with short bristles. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 104.","habitat":"Sandy soils near highly arid, coastal dunes."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD31FE71BDDECA55.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD31FE71BDDECA55","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"367","verbatimText":"1.Silvery Mole-ratHeliophobius argenteocinereusFrench:Bathyergue argenté/ German:Silbermull/ Spanish:Ratatopo plateadaOther common names:Silky Mole-rat, Silvery Mole RatTaxonomy.Heliophobius argenteocinereus Peters, 1846, Tete (on the Zambezi River), Mozambique.Based on the phylogeographic study by C. G. Faulkes and colleagues in 2011, it is very likely that the genus Heliophobiusis represented by more than one species. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.argenteocinereusPeters,1846—Mozambique,NofZambeziRiver.H.a.eminiNoack,1894—mostofTanzania.H.a.marungensisNoack,1887—SEDRCongo,EZambia,andMalawi.H.a.kapitiHeller,1909—SKenya.H. a. spalax Thomas, 1910— NE Tanzania (Kilimanjaro and Eastern Arc Mts: Usambara, Uluguru, and Ukaguru).Descriptive notes.Head-body 131-195 mm (males) and 131-191 mm (females), tail 6-16 mm (males) and 8-17 mm (females); weight 63-331 g (males) and 51-271 g (females). According to A. Scharff and colleagues in 2001, average size of the Silvery Mole-rat is larger in Malawi (mean 160 g, 142-168 g) than Zambia (mean 146 g, 118-170 g). It is mediumto large-sized; dorsal pelage is gray to sandy brown; and ventral pelage being lighter. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 or 62, FN = 144.Habitat.Compact sandy soils in grasslands with annual rainfall more than 900 mm.Food and Feeding.The Silvery Mole-rat is herbivorous generalist and eats bulbs, geophytes, green leaves, and tubers.Breeding.Breeding of the Silvery Mole-rat occurs in May-June. Gestation exceeds 87 days, and litter size averages 3-2 young.Activity patterns.The Silvery Mole-rat burrows. Genetic studies suggest that it can disperse aboveground.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Density of the Silvery Mole-rat is c.5 ind/ha; home range averages 157 m?. It is solitary and territorial, but genetic studies reveal multiple paternity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Faulkes et al. (2011), George (1979), Knotkova et al. (2009), Maree & Faulkes (2008g), Monadjem et al. (2015), Patzenhauerova et al. (2010), Scharff, Macholan et al. (2001), Skliba et al. (2007, 2009), Sumbera, Burda & Chitaukali (2003), Sumbera, Chitaukali & Burda (2007), Sumbera, Chitaukali, Elichova et al. (2004), Sumbera, Skliba et al. (2008), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Heliophobius argenteocinereus Peters, 1846, Tete (on the Zambezi River), Mozambique.Based on the phylogeographic study by C. G. Faulkes and colleagues in 2011, it is very likely that the genus Heliophobiusis represented by more than one species. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Bathyergue argenté @fr | Silbermull @de | Ratatopo plateada @es | Rata @es | Silky Mole-rat @en | Silvery Mole Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1846","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Heliophobius","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"367","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"argenteocinereus","name":"Heliophobius argenteocinereus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.argenteocinereusPeters,1846—Mozambique,NofZambeziRiver.H.a.eminiNoack,1894—mostofTanzania.H.a.marungensisNoack,1887—SEDRCongo,EZambia,andMalawi.H.a.kapitiHeller,1909—SKenya.H. a. spalax Thomas, 1910— NE Tanzania (Kilimanjaro and Eastern Arc Mts: Usambara, Uluguru, and Ukaguru).","bibliography":"Faulkes et al. (2011) | George (1979) | Knotkova et al. (2009) | Maree & Faulkes (2008g) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Patzenhauerova et al. (2010) | Scharff, Macholan et al. (2001) | Skliba et al. (2007, 2009) | Sumbera, Burda & Chitaukali (2003) | Sumbera, Chitaukali & Burda (2007) | Sumbera, Chitaukali, Elichova et al. (2004) | Sumbera, Skliba et al. (2008) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Silvery Mole-rat is herbivorous generalist and eats bulbs, geophytes, green leaves, and tubers.","breeding":"Breeding of the Silvery Mole-rat occurs in May-June. Gestation exceeds 87 days, and litter size averages 3-2 young.","activityPatterns":"The Silvery Mole-rat burrows. Genetic studies suggest that it can disperse aboveground.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Density of the Silvery Mole-rat is c.5 ind/ha; home range averages 157 m?. It is solitary and territorial, but genetic studies reveal multiple paternity.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 131-195 mm (males) and 131-191 mm (females), tail 6-16 mm (males) and 8-17 mm (females); weight 63-331 g (males) and 51-271 g (females). According to A. Scharff and colleagues in 2001, average size of the Silvery Mole-rat is larger in Malawi (mean 160 g, 142-168 g) than Zambia (mean 146 g, 118-170 g). It is mediumto large-sized; dorsal pelage is gray to sandy brown; and ventral pelage being lighter. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 or 62, FN = 144.","habitat":"Compact sandy soils in grasslands with annual rainfall more than 900 mm."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD31FE71BDDECA55.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA6FFD1AD31FE71BDDECA55","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"367","verbatimText":"1.Silvery Mole-ratHeliophobius argenteocinereusFrench:Bathyergue argenté/ German:Silbermull/ Spanish:Ratatopo plateadaOther common names:Silky Mole-rat, Silvery Mole RatTaxonomy.Heliophobius argenteocinereus Peters, 1846, Tete (on the Zambezi River), Mozambique.Based on the phylogeographic study by C. G. Faulkes and colleagues in 2011, it is very likely that the genus Heliophobiusis represented by more than one species. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.argenteocinereusPeters,1846—Mozambique,NofZambeziRiver.H.a.eminiNoack,1894—mostofTanzania.H.a.marungensisNoack,1887—SEDRCongo,EZambia,andMalawi.H.a.kapitiHeller,1909—SKenya.H. a. spalax Thomas, 1910— NE Tanzania (Kilimanjaro and Eastern Arc Mts: Usambara, Uluguru, and Ukaguru).Descriptive notes.Head-body 131-195 mm (males) and 131-191 mm (females), tail 6-16 mm (males) and 8-17 mm (females); weight 63-331 g (males) and 51-271 g (females). According to A. Scharff and colleagues in 2001, average size of the Silvery Mole-rat is larger in Malawi (mean 160 g, 142-168 g) than Zambia (mean 146 g, 118-170 g). It is mediumto large-sized; dorsal pelage is gray to sandy brown; and ventral pelage being lighter. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 or 62, FN = 144.Habitat.Compact sandy soils in grasslands with annual rainfall more than 900 mm.Food and Feeding.The Silvery Mole-rat is herbivorous generalist and eats bulbs, geophytes, green leaves, and tubers.Breeding.Breeding of the Silvery Mole-rat occurs in May-June. Gestation exceeds 87 days, and litter size averages 3-2 young.Activity patterns.The Silvery Mole-rat burrows. Genetic studies suggest that it can disperse aboveground.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Density of the Silvery Mole-rat is c.5 ind/ha; home range averages 157 m?. It is solitary and territorial, but genetic studies reveal multiple paternity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Faulkes et al. (2011), George (1979), Knotkova et al. (2009), Maree & Faulkes (2008g), Monadjem et al. (2015), Patzenhauerova et al. (2010), Scharff, Macholan et al. (2001), Skliba et al. (2007, 2009), Sumbera, Burda & Chitaukali (2003), Sumbera, Chitaukali & Burda (2007), Sumbera, Chitaukali, Elichova et al. (2004), Sumbera, Skliba et al. (2008), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Heliophobius argenteocinereus Peters, 1846, Tete (on the Zambezi River), Mozambique.Based on the phylogeographic study by C. G. Faulkes and colleagues in 2011, it is very likely that the genus Heliophobiusis represented by more than one species. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Bathyergue argenté @fr | Silbermull @de | Ratatopo plateada @es | Rata @es | Silky Mole-rat @en | Silvery Mole Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1846","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Heliophobius","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"367","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"argenteocinereus","name":"Heliophobius argenteocinereus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.argenteocinereusPeters,1846—Mozambique,NofZambeziRiver.H.a.eminiNoack,1894—mostofTanzania.H.a.marungensisNoack,1887—SEDRCongo,EZambia,andMalawi.H.a.kapitiHeller,1909—SKenya.H. a. spalax Thomas, 1910— NE Tanzania (Kilimanjaro and Eastern Arc Mts: Usambara, Uluguru, and Ukaguru).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584698/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Faulkes et al. (2011) | George (1979) | Knotkova et al. (2009) | Maree & Faulkes (2008g) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Patzenhauerova et al. (2010) | Scharff, Macholan et al. (2001) | Skliba et al. (2007, 2009) | Sumbera, Burda & Chitaukali (2003) | Sumbera, Chitaukali & Burda (2007) | Sumbera, Chitaukali, Elichova et al. (2004) | Sumbera, Skliba et al. (2008) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Silvery Mole-rat is herbivorous generalist and eats bulbs, geophytes, green leaves, and tubers.","breeding":"Breeding of the Silvery Mole-rat occurs in May-June. Gestation exceeds 87 days, and litter size averages 3-2 young.","activityPatterns":"The Silvery Mole-rat burrows. Genetic studies suggest that it can disperse aboveground.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Density of the Silvery Mole-rat is c.5 ind/ha; home range averages 157 m?. It is solitary and territorial, but genetic studies reveal multiple paternity.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 131-195 mm (males) and 131-191 mm (females), tail 6-16 mm (males) and 8-17 mm (females); weight 63-331 g (males) and 51-271 g (females). According to A. Scharff and colleagues in 2001, average size of the Silvery Mole-rat is larger in Malawi (mean 160 g, 142-168 g) than Zambia (mean 146 g, 118-170 g). It is mediumto large-sized; dorsal pelage is gray to sandy brown; and ventral pelage being lighter. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 or 62, FN = 144.","habitat":"Compact sandy soils in grasslands with annual rainfall more than 900 mm."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD0A8F5FE76B687C47C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA7FFD0A8F5FE76B687C47C","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"368","verbatimText":"6.Ghana Mole-ratFukomys zechiFrench:Bathyergue de Zech/ German:Togo-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo de GhanaOther common names:Ghana Mole Rat, Togo Mole-rat, Togo Mole RatTaxonomy.Georhychus [sic] zechi Matschie, 1900, near Kete-Kradji, Togo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.EC Ghana and N Togo (between Oti and Volta rivers).Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-226 mm, tail 15 mm; weight 51-283 g. The Ghana Mole-rat is medium-sized, with cinnamon pelage and white patches on some individuals.Habitat.Silty loam soils in agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.The Ghana Mole-rat eats bulbs, tubers, and agricultural crops such as cassava and yams.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ghana Mole-rats occur at low densities. They are colonial; average colonysize is 3-6 individuals (range 1-7).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Despite classification of the Ghana Mole-rat as Least Concern, there is very little demographic and ecological information to assess its conservation status. Given its endemic nature and current distribution of available habitat, long-term survival of the Ghana Mole-rat may be in jeopardy.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Maree, Faulkes & Schlitter (2008), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Yeboah & Akyeampong (2001), Yeboah & Dakwa (2002).","taxonomy":"Georhychus [sic] zechi Matschie, 1900, near Kete-Kradji, Togo.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bathyergue de Zech @fr | Togo-Graumull @de | Ratatopo de Ghana @es | Ghana Mole Rat @en | Togo Mole-rat @en | Togo Mole Rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Matschie","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Fukomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"368","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zechi","name":"Fukomys zechi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"EC Ghana and N Togo (between Oti and Volta rivers).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584708/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Maree, Faulkes & Schlitter (2008) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Yeboah & Akyeampong (2001) | Yeboah & Dakwa (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"The Ghana Mole-rat eats bulbs, tubers, and agricultural crops such as cassava and yams.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Ghana Mole-rats occur at low densities. They are colonial; average colonysize is 3-6 individuals (range 1-7).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Despite classification of the Ghana Mole-rat as Least Concern, there is very little demographic and ecological information to assess its conservation status. Given its endemic nature and current distribution of available habitat, long-term survival of the Ghana Mole-rat may be in jeopardy.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-226 mm, tail 15 mm; weight 51-283 g. The Ghana Mole-rat is medium-sized, with cinnamon pelage and white patches on some individuals.","habitat":"Silty loam soils in agricultural areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD0A8FBF9B3B9D1C82F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA7FFD0A8FBF9B3B9D1C82F","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"368","verbatimText":"7.Nigerian Mole-ratFukomys foxiFrench:Bathyergue du Nigeria/ German:Nigeria-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo de NigeriaOther common names:Fox's Mole-rat, Nigerian Mole RatTaxonomy.Georychus fox: Thomas, 1911, Panyam, Jos Plateau, 4000’ [1212 m], Nigeria.This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Nigeria (Jos Plateau) and C Cameroon (Ngaoundéré).Descriptive notes.Head-body 161-191 mm (males) and 162-191 mm (females), tail 16-23 mm (males) and 17-25 mm (females). No specific data are available for body weight. The Nigerian Mole-rat is medium-sized, with white markings on its body and a head patch; its pelage is brown,soft, and fine. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 66 or 70, FN = 126 or 134.Habitat.There is no information available for this species.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Maree & Faulkes (2008c), Rosevear (1969), Williams et al. (1983), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Georychus fox: Thomas, 1911, Panyam, Jos Plateau, 4000’ [1212 m], Nigeria.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bathyergue du Nigeria @fr | Nigeria-Graumull @de | Ratatopo de Nigeria @es | Rata @es | Fox's Mole-rat @en | Nigerian Mole Rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Fukomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"368","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"foxi","name":"Fukomys foxi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Nigeria (Jos Plateau) and C Cameroon (Ngaoundéré).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584710/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Maree & Faulkes (2008c) | Rosevear (1969) | Williams et al. (1983) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 161-191 mm (males) and 162-191 mm (females), tail 16-23 mm (males) and 17-25 mm (females). No specific data are available for body weight. The Nigerian Mole-rat is medium-sized, with white markings on its body and a head patch; its pelage is brown,soft, and fine. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 66 or 70, FN = 126 or 134.","habitat":"There is no information available for this species."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD0ADFEFBA8BCE4CFD8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA7FFD0ADFEFBA8BCE4CFD8","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"368","verbatimText":"5.Common Mole-ratCryptomys hottentotusFrench:Bathyergue hottentot/ German:Hottentotten-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo comunOther common names:African Mole-rat, Common Blesmol, Hottentot Mole-rat, Southern African Mole-ratTaxonomy.Bathyergus hottentotus Lesson, 1826, near Paarl (east of Cape Town), Western Cape Province, South Africa.Taxonomy of C. hottentotushas changed based on recent molecular phylogenetic and chromosomal studies. As a result, the formerly considered subspecies amatus and whyte: are now recognized as distinct species of Fukomys. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.h.hottentotusLesson,1826—W&SSouthAfrica(Northern,Western,EasternCape,andFreeStateprovinces).C.h.natalensisRoberts,1913—SMozambiqueandESouthAfrica(MpumalangaandKwaZulu-Natal).C.h.nimrodideWinton,1897—SZimbabwe,extremeEBotswana,andextremeNSouthAfrica(NLimpopoProvince).C. h. pretoriae Roberts, 1913— N South Africa (S Limpopo, E North West, Gauteng, and Mpumalanga provinces).Descriptive notes.Head-body 105-185 mm (males) and 100-164 (females), tail 8-27 mm (males) and 10-25 mm (females); weight 112-145 g (males, averaging 134 g) and 98-153 g (females, averaging 119 g). The Common Mole-rat is medium-sized. Dorsal pelage is dark gray to brown; head sometimes has white patch. Limbs and tail are short; feet and tail are fringed with vibrissae. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 106 for the nominate subspecies and FN = 104 for natalensus.Habitat.Mesic and semiarid regions with annual rainfall of 200-1000 mm. It occurs in a wide range of substrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane (Colophospermummopane, Fabaceae) woodland.Food and Feeding.The Common Mole-rat is herbivorous, and 92% of diet of the nominate subspecies hottentotus consists of geophytes. It stores food and apparently forages randomly; it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Common Mole-rat occurs in October—January for the nominate subspecies and April-December for pretoriae. Ovulation is induced by copulation; gestation is 59-66 days; and litter size averages three young (range 1-6). Colonies contain single breeding females, a subset of breeding males, and non-reproductive individuals. Breeding system is not totally monogamous because genetic evidence indicates that offspring are not always from a single breeding pair.Activity patterns.The Common Mole-rat follows the circadian rhythm.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dispersal of Common Mole-rats occurs in the wet season, with rate of dispersal constrained by aridity and access to food. Burrow networks are 150-510 m long, and home range averages 0-16 ha. Colonies contain members of a family group and immigrants. Colony sizes are 2-14 individuals for the nominate subspecies, up to ten individuals for pretoriae, and 8-15 individuals for nimrodi. Nevertheless, the Common Mole-rat is less social than species of Fukomys.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett (1989, 2013b), Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Bennett, Cotterill & Spinks (1996), Bishop, Jarvis et al. (2004), Bishop, O'Ryan & Jarvis (2007), Davies & Jarvis (1986), Hart et al. (2004), Jackson & Bennett (2005), Malherbe et al. (2003), Maree & Faulkes (2008a), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem et al. (2015), Moolman et al. (1998), Nevo et al. (1986), Oosthuizen et al. (2008), van Rensburg et al. (2002), Robb et al. (2012), Spinks (1998), Spinks, Bennett & Jarvis (2000), Spinks, Branch et al. (1999), Spinks, Jarvis & Bennett (2000), Spinks, Van der Horst & Bennett (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"of C. hottentotushas changed based on recent molecular phylogenetic and chromosomal studies. As a result, the formerly considered subspecies amatus and whyte: are now recognized as distinct species of Fukomys. Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Bathyergue hottentot @fr | Hottentotten-Graumull @de | Ratatopo comun @es | African Mole-rat @en | Common Blesmol @en | Hottentot Mole-rat @en | Southern African Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lesson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1826","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Cryptomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"368","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hottentotus","name":"Cryptomys hottentotus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.h.hottentotusLesson,1826—W&SSouthAfrica(Northern,Western,EasternCape,andFreeStateprovinces).C.h.natalensisRoberts,1913—SMozambiqueandESouthAfrica(MpumalangaandKwaZulu-Natal).C.h.nimrodideWinton,1897—SZimbabwe,extremeEBotswana,andextremeNSouthAfrica(NLimpopoProvince).C. h. pretoriae Roberts, 1913— N South Africa (S Limpopo, E North West, Gauteng, and Mpumalanga provinces).","bibliography":"Bennett (1989, 2013b) | Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Bennett, Cotterill & Spinks (1996) | Bishop, Jarvis et al. (2004) | Bishop, O'Ryan & Jarvis (2007) | Davies & Jarvis (1986) | Hart et al. (2004) | Jackson & Bennett (2005) | Malherbe et al. (2003) | Maree & Faulkes (2008a) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Moolman et al. (1998) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Oosthuizen et al. (2008) | van Rensburg et al. (2002) | Robb et al. (2012) | Spinks (1998) | Spinks, Bennett & Jarvis (2000) | Spinks, Branch et al. (1999) | Spinks, Jarvis & Bennett (2000) | Spinks, Van der Horst & Bennett (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Common Mole-rat is herbivorous, and 92% of diet of the nominate subspecies hottentotus consists of geophytes. It stores food and apparently forages randomly; it does not drink standing water.","breeding":"Breeding of the Common Mole-rat occurs in October—January for the nominate subspecies and April-December for pretoriae. Ovulation is induced by copulation; gestation is 59-66 days; and litter size averages three young (range 1-6). Colonies contain single breeding females, a subset of breeding males, and non-reproductive individuals. Breeding system is not totally monogamous because genetic evidence indicates that offspring are not always from a single breeding pair.","activityPatterns":"The Common Mole-rat follows the circadian rhythm.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dispersal of Common Mole-rats occurs in the wet season, with rate of dispersal constrained by aridity and access to food. Burrow networks are 150-510 m long, and home range averages 0-16 ha. Colonies contain members of a family group and immigrants. Colony sizes are 2-14 individuals for the nominate subspecies, up to ten individuals for pretoriae, and 8-15 individuals for nimrodi. Nevertheless, the Common Mole-rat is less social than species of Fukomys.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 105-185 mm (males) and 100-164 (females), tail 8-27 mm (males) and 10-25 mm (females); weight 112-145 g (males, averaging 134 g) and 98-153 g (females, averaging 119 g). The Common Mole-rat is medium-sized. Dorsal pelage is dark gray to brown; head sometimes has white patch. Limbs and tail are short; feet and tail are fringed with vibrissae. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 106 for the nominate subspecies and FN = 104 for natalensus.","habitat":"Mesic and semiarid regions with annual rainfall of 200-1000 mm. It occurs in a wide range of substrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane (Colophospermummopane, Fabaceae) woodland."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD0ADFEFBA8BCE4CFD8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA7FFD0ADFEFBA8BCE4CFD8","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"368","verbatimText":"5.Common Mole-ratCryptomys hottentotusFrench:Bathyergue hottentot/ German:Hottentotten-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo comunOther common names:African Mole-rat, Common Blesmol, Hottentot Mole-rat, Southern African Mole-ratTaxonomy.Bathyergus hottentotus Lesson, 1826, near Paarl (east of Cape Town), Western Cape Province, South Africa.Taxonomy of C. hottentotushas changed based on recent molecular phylogenetic and chromosomal studies. As a result, the formerly considered subspecies amatus and whyte: are now recognized as distinct species of Fukomys. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.h.hottentotusLesson,1826—W&SSouthAfrica(Northern,Western,EasternCape,andFreeStateprovinces).C.h.natalensisRoberts,1913—SMozambiqueandESouthAfrica(MpumalangaandKwaZulu-Natal).C.h.nimrodideWinton,1897—SZimbabwe,extremeEBotswana,andextremeNSouthAfrica(NLimpopoProvince).C. h. pretoriae Roberts, 1913— N South Africa (S Limpopo, E North West, Gauteng, and Mpumalanga provinces).Descriptive notes.Head-body 105-185 mm (males) and 100-164 (females), tail 8-27 mm (males) and 10-25 mm (females); weight 112-145 g (males, averaging 134 g) and 98-153 g (females, averaging 119 g). The Common Mole-rat is medium-sized. Dorsal pelage is dark gray to brown; head sometimes has white patch. Limbs and tail are short; feet and tail are fringed with vibrissae. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 106 for the nominate subspecies and FN = 104 for natalensus.Habitat.Mesic and semiarid regions with annual rainfall of 200-1000 mm. It occurs in a wide range of substrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane (Colophospermummopane, Fabaceae) woodland.Food and Feeding.The Common Mole-rat is herbivorous, and 92% of diet of the nominate subspecies hottentotus consists of geophytes. It stores food and apparently forages randomly; it does not drink standing water.Breeding.Breeding of the Common Mole-rat occurs in October—January for the nominate subspecies and April-December for pretoriae. Ovulation is induced by copulation; gestation is 59-66 days; and litter size averages three young (range 1-6). Colonies contain single breeding females, a subset of breeding males, and non-reproductive individuals. Breeding system is not totally monogamous because genetic evidence indicates that offspring are not always from a single breeding pair.Activity patterns.The Common Mole-rat follows the circadian rhythm.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dispersal of Common Mole-rats occurs in the wet season, with rate of dispersal constrained by aridity and access to food. Burrow networks are 150-510 m long, and home range averages 0-16 ha. Colonies contain members of a family group and immigrants. Colony sizes are 2-14 individuals for the nominate subspecies, up to ten individuals for pretoriae, and 8-15 individuals for nimrodi. Nevertheless, the Common Mole-rat is less social than species of Fukomys.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bennett (1989, 2013b), Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Bennett, Cotterill & Spinks (1996), Bishop, Jarvis et al. (2004), Bishop, O'Ryan & Jarvis (2007), Davies & Jarvis (1986), Hart et al. (2004), Jackson & Bennett (2005), Malherbe et al. (2003), Maree & Faulkes (2008a), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem et al. (2015), Moolman et al. (1998), Nevo et al. (1986), Oosthuizen et al. (2008), van Rensburg et al. (2002), Robb et al. (2012), Spinks (1998), Spinks, Bennett & Jarvis (2000), Spinks, Branch et al. (1999), Spinks, Jarvis & Bennett (2000), Spinks, Van der Horst & Bennett (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"of C. hottentotushas changed based on recent molecular phylogenetic and chromosomal studies. As a result, the formerly considered subspecies amatus and whyte: are now recognized as distinct species of Fukomys. Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Bathyergue hottentot @fr | Hottentotten-Graumull @de | Ratatopo comun @es | African Mole-rat @en | Common Blesmol @en | Hottentot Mole-rat @en | Southern African Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lesson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1826","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Cryptomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"368","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hottentotus","name":"Cryptomys hottentotus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.h.hottentotusLesson,1826—W&SSouthAfrica(Northern,Western,EasternCape,andFreeStateprovinces).C.h.natalensisRoberts,1913—SMozambiqueandESouthAfrica(MpumalangaandKwaZulu-Natal).C.h.nimrodideWinton,1897—SZimbabwe,extremeEBotswana,andextremeNSouthAfrica(NLimpopoProvince).C. h. pretoriae Roberts, 1913— N South Africa (S Limpopo, E North West, Gauteng, and Mpumalanga provinces).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584706/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennett (1989, 2013b) | Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Bennett, Cotterill & Spinks (1996) | Bishop, Jarvis et al. (2004) | Bishop, O'Ryan & Jarvis (2007) | Davies & Jarvis (1986) | Hart et al. (2004) | Jackson & Bennett (2005) | Malherbe et al. (2003) | Maree & Faulkes (2008a) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Moolman et al. (1998) | Nevo et al. (1986) | Oosthuizen et al. (2008) | van Rensburg et al. (2002) | Robb et al. (2012) | Spinks (1998) | Spinks, Bennett & Jarvis (2000) | Spinks, Branch et al. (1999) | Spinks, Jarvis & Bennett (2000) | Spinks, Van der Horst & Bennett (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Common Mole-rat is herbivorous, and 92% of diet of the nominate subspecies hottentotus consists of geophytes. It stores food and apparently forages randomly; it does not drink standing water.","breeding":"Breeding of the Common Mole-rat occurs in October—January for the nominate subspecies and April-December for pretoriae. Ovulation is induced by copulation; gestation is 59-66 days; and litter size averages three young (range 1-6). Colonies contain single breeding females, a subset of breeding males, and non-reproductive individuals. Breeding system is not totally monogamous because genetic evidence indicates that offspring are not always from a single breeding pair.","activityPatterns":"The Common Mole-rat follows the circadian rhythm.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dispersal of Common Mole-rats occurs in the wet season, with rate of dispersal constrained by aridity and access to food. Burrow networks are 150-510 m long, and home range averages 0-16 ha. Colonies contain members of a family group and immigrants. Colony sizes are 2-14 individuals for the nominate subspecies, up to ten individuals for pretoriae, and 8-15 individuals for nimrodi. Nevertheless, the Common Mole-rat is less social than species of Fukomys.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 105-185 mm (males) and 100-164 (females), tail 8-27 mm (males) and 10-25 mm (females); weight 112-145 g (males, averaging 134 g) and 98-153 g (females, averaging 119 g). The Common Mole-rat is medium-sized. Dorsal pelage is dark gray to brown; head sometimes has white patch. Limbs and tail are short; feet and tail are fringed with vibrissae. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54, FN = 106 for the nominate subspecies and FN = 104 for natalensus.","habitat":"Mesic and semiarid regions with annual rainfall of 200-1000 mm. It occurs in a wide range of substrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane (Colophospermummopane, Fabaceae) woodland."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/4B/038F4B5AFFA7FFD7A8FBF51EBE73C0A6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F4B5AFFA7FFD7A8FBF51EBE73C0A6","docName":"hbmw_6_Bathyergidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb63322ffa4ffd3ad42ffdcbf08c256","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"368","verbatimText":"8.Ochre Mole-ratFukomys ochraceocinereusFrench:Bathyergue ocre/ German:Zentralafrika-Graumull/ Spanish:Ratatopo ocreOther common names:Central African Mole-rat, Ochre Mole RatTaxonomy.Georychus ochraceo-cinereus Heuglin, 1864,Upper Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Central African Republic, N DR Congo, South Sudan, and NW Uganda; presence in E Cameroon and NW Kenya is possible.Descriptive notes.Head-body 157-200 mm, tail 14-27 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ochre Mole-rat is medium-sized. Its dorsal and ventral pelage is brown; head has white patch, with lightly colored areas around eyes. Vibrissae occur on feet and tail. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 44, FN = 76.Habitat.Woodland savanna and agricultural land.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although the Ochre Mole-rat is widespread, populations appear to be very localized, and given the lack of basic ecological and demographic insight, its conservation status is largely unknown. It probably occurs in protected areas such as Garamba National Park in north-eastern DR Congo.Bibliography.Bennett & Faulkes (2000), Maree & Faulkes (2008e), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Georychus ochraceo-cinereus Heuglin, 1864,Upper Bahr-el-Ghazal, Sudan.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bathyergue ocre @fr | Zentralafrika-Graumull @de | Ratatopo ocre @es | Central African Mole-rat @en | Ochre Mole Rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Heuglin","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1864","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bathyergidae","interpretedGenus":"Fukomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"368","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ochraceocinereus","name":"Fukomys ochraceocinereus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Central African Republic, N DR Congo, South Sudan, and NW Uganda; presence in E Cameroon and NW Kenya is possible.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584712/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennett & Faulkes (2000) | Maree & Faulkes (2008e) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although the Ochre Mole-rat is widespread, populations appear to be very localized, and given the lack of basic ecological and demographic insight, its conservation status is largely unknown. It probably occurs in protected areas such as Garamba National Park in north-eastern DR Congo.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 157-200 mm, tail 14-27 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ochre Mole-rat is medium-sized. Its dorsal and ventral pelage is brown; head has white patch, with lightly colored areas around eyes. Vibrissae occur on feet and tail. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 44, FN = 76.","habitat":"Woodland savanna and agricultural land."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"635","verbatimText":"20.Large-toothed Ferret-badgerMelogale personataFrench:Mélogaleindien/ German:Burma-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro birmanoOther common names:Burmese Ferret-badgerTaxonomy.Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831, Southern Burma.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. p. personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831— NE Indiato S Myanmarand Thailand.M. p. nipalensis Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.M. p. pierrei Bonhote, 1903— Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 15-21 cm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The tail is over half the head and body length. The Large-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage is coarse, thick and short, and varies from fawn brown to dark brown. The sides of the body are heavily frosted white, contrasting slightly with the darker back. The white stripe on the back of the neck extends at least to the middle of the back, and often as far as the base of the tail. The head has a distinct pattern of black (or dark brown) and white patches, which varies among individuals. The bushy tail is pale and usually white on the distal half. The sagittal crest on the skull is large and low. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are larger than Small-toothed Ferret-badger, especially P*. In the upper jaw: P* length over 8 mm; P' is significantly smaller than P=.On following pages: 21. Lesser Grison (Galictis cuja); 22. Greater Grison (Galictis vittata), 23. Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna); 24. Saharan Striped Polecat (/ctonyx libycus); 25. Zorilla (Ictonyx striatus); 26. African Striped Weasel (Poecilogalealbinucha).Habitat.Reported to live in forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include insects, earthworms, snails, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents, small birds), fruit, nuts, and eggs.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal. Rests in underground burrows or under rocks during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Believed to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831, Southern Burma.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Mélogaleindien @fr | Burma-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro birmano @es | Burmese Ferret-badger @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1831","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Melogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"635","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"personata","name":"Melogale personata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. p. personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831— NE Indiato S Myanmarand Thailand.M. p. nipalensis Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.M. p. pierrei Bonhote, 1903— Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam.","bibliography":"Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is said to include insects, earthworms, snails, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents, small birds), fruit, nuts, and eggs.","breeding":"Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.","activityPatterns":"Reported to be nocturnal. Rests in underground burrows or under rocks during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Believed to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 15-21 cm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The tail is over half the head and body length. The Large-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage is coarse, thick and short, and varies from fawn brown to dark brown. The sides of the body are heavily frosted white, contrasting slightly with the darker back. The white stripe on the back of the neck extends at least to the middle of the back, and often as far as the base of the tail. The head has a distinct pattern of black (or dark brown) and white patches, which varies among individuals. The bushy tail is pale and usually white on the distal half. The sagittal crest on the skull is large and low. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are larger than Small-toothed Ferret-badger, especially P*. In the upper jaw: P* length over 8 mm; P' is significantly smaller than P=.On following pages: 21. Lesser Grison (Galictis cuja); 22. Greater Grison (Galictis vittata), 23. Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna); 24. Saharan Striped Polecat (/ctonyx libycus); 25. Zorilla (Ictonyx striatus); 26. African Striped Weasel (Poecilogalealbinucha).","habitat":"Reported to live in forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"635","verbatimText":"18.Small-toothed Ferret-badgerMelogale moschataFrench:Mélogalede Chine/ German:China-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro chinoOther common names:Chinese Ferret-badgerTaxonomy.Helictis moschata Gray, 1831, S China.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. moschata Gray, 1831— SE China(Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan& HainanI) and N Laos.M. m. ferreogrisea Hilzheimer, 1905— C China.M. m. millsi Thomas, 1922— S China(NWYunnan) through N Myanmarto NE India.M. m. sorella G. M.. Allen, 1929— E China(Fujian).M. m. subaurantiaca Swinhoe, 1862— Taiwan.M. m. taxilla Thomas, 1925— Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-40 cm, tail 10-15 cm; weight 0.8-1.6 kg. The tail is less than half of the head and body length. The Small-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage varies from gray to black, with the darker fur contrasting with the light patches on the neck and head. The head has a distinct blackand-white pattern, generally with more black than the Large-toothed Ferret-badger but this is quite variable. The white stripe on the top of the head is narrow and incomplete and rarely extends past the shoulders. The tail is bushy, pale brown in color, and with a white tip. The limbs are short, and the feet have strong, thick, fairly straight claws. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is long, high, and smooth, with widely separated temporal ridges. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are relatively small, compared to Large-toothed Ferret-badger, with distinct gaps between the premolars. In the upper jaw: labial edge of P* is slightly concave; P* length over 6 mm; P' is slightly smaller than P*. In the lower jaw: M, talonid is without distinct cusps.Habitat.Tropical and subtropical forests, wooded hillsides, grasslands, and cultivated areas. Often occurs in close proximity to humans.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include invertebrates (insects, earthworms), small mammals, birds, frogs, lizards, eggs, and fruits. In Taiwan, invertebrates had a relative importance index of 89%. In China, 163 scats contained 33% seeds and at least eight plant species. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers find food mainly by smell and sound and use their digging claws and probing snouts to dig for roots and earthworms.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and crepuscular. Active year-round, but less active during the winter months. During the spring, both sexes are active outside their burrows for around eight hours; during the winter this decreases to less than six-and-a-half hours. Rest sites are in burrows, rock crevices, or in trees. In south-east China, radio-collared Small-toothed Ferret-badgers used a variety of shelters as daybeds including rodent dens (47%), firewood stacks (20%), open fields (17%), and rock piles around houses (5%). The distance between daily resting sites averaged 101 mand they often (51% of occasions) returned to rest sites used the previous day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but they may climb trees. In south-east China, the size of resting home ranges (daybed locations only) of six radio-collared individuals averaged 11 ha (range 1-25 ha); no sex-specific differences in home range size were detected.Breeding.Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about Small-toothed Ferret-badgers and more field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are hunted for their fur and meat in Chinaand north-east India; in China, their fur is used for collars and jackets.Bibliography.Allen (1929), Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Neal (1986), Storz & Wozencraft (1999), Wang & Fuller (2003a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Zhou et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Helictis moschata Gray, 1831, S China.Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Mélogalede Chine @fr | China-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro chino @es | Chinese Ferret-badger @en","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Melogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"635","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"moschata","name":"Melogale moschata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. moschata Gray, 1831— SE China(Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan& HainanI) and N Laos.M. m. ferreogrisea Hilzheimer, 1905— C China.M. m. millsi Thomas, 1922— S China(NWYunnan) through N Myanmarto NE India.M. m. sorella G. M.. Allen, 1929— E China(Fujian).M. m. subaurantiaca Swinhoe, 1862— Taiwan.M. m. taxilla Thomas, 1925— Vietnam.","bibliography":"Allen (1929) | Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Neal (1986) | Storz & Wozencraft (1999) | Wang & Fuller (2003a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Zhou et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is said to include invertebrates (insects, earthworms), small mammals, birds, frogs, lizards, eggs, and fruits. In Taiwan, invertebrates had a relative importance index of 89%. In China, 163 scats contained 33% seeds and at least eight plant species. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers find food mainly by smell and sound and use their digging claws and probing snouts to dig for roots and earthworms.","breeding":"Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.","activityPatterns":"Nocturnal and crepuscular. Active year-round, but less active during the winter months. During the spring, both sexes are active outside their burrows for around eight hours; during the winter this decreases to less than six-and-a-half hours. Rest sites are in burrows, rock crevices, or in trees. In south-east China, radio-collared Small-toothed Ferret-badgers used a variety of shelters as daybeds including rodent dens (47%), firewood stacks (20%), open fields (17%), and rock piles around houses (5%). The distance between daily resting sites averaged 101 mand they often (51% of occasions) returned to rest sites used the previous day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but they may climb trees. In south-east China, the size of resting home ranges (daybed locations only) of six radio-collared individuals averaged 11 ha (range 1-25 ha); no sex-specific differences in home range size were detected.Breeding.Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about Small-toothed Ferret-badgers and more field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are hunted for their fur and meat in Chinaand north-east India; in China, their fur is used for collars and jackets.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 30-40 cm, tail 10-15 cm; weight 0.8-1.6 kg. The tail is less than half of the head and body length. The Small-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage varies from gray to black, with the darker fur contrasting with the light patches on the neck and head. The head has a distinct blackand-white pattern, generally with more black than the Large-toothed Ferret-badger but this is quite variable. The white stripe on the top of the head is narrow and incomplete and rarely extends past the shoulders. The tail is bushy, pale brown in color, and with a white tip. The limbs are short, and the feet have strong, thick, fairly straight claws. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is long, high, and smooth, with widely separated temporal ridges. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are relatively small, compared to Large-toothed Ferret-badger, with distinct gaps between the premolars. In the upper jaw: labial edge of P* is slightly concave; P* length over 6 mm; P' is slightly smaller than P*. In the lower jaw: M, talonid is without distinct cusps.","habitat":"Tropical and subtropical forests, wooded hillsides, grasslands, and cultivated areas. Often occurs in close proximity to humans."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"635","verbatimText":"20.Large-toothed Ferret-badgerMelogale personataFrench:Mélogaleindien/ German:Burma-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro birmanoOther common names:Burmese Ferret-badgerTaxonomy.Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831, Southern Burma.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. p. personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831— NE Indiato S Myanmarand Thailand.M. p. nipalensis Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.M. p. pierrei Bonhote, 1903— Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 15-21 cm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The tail is over half the head and body length. The Large-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage is coarse, thick and short, and varies from fawn brown to dark brown. The sides of the body are heavily frosted white, contrasting slightly with the darker back. The white stripe on the back of the neck extends at least to the middle of the back, and often as far as the base of the tail. The head has a distinct pattern of black (or dark brown) and white patches, which varies among individuals. The bushy tail is pale and usually white on the distal half. The sagittal crest on the skull is large and low. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are larger than Small-toothed Ferret-badger, especially P*. In the upper jaw: P* length over 8 mm; P' is significantly smaller than P=.On following pages: 21. Lesser Grison (Galictis cuja); 22. Greater Grison (Galictis vittata), 23. Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna); 24. Saharan Striped Polecat (/ctonyx libycus); 25. Zorilla (Ictonyx striatus); 26. African Striped Weasel (Poecilogalealbinucha).Habitat.Reported to live in forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include insects, earthworms, snails, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents, small birds), fruit, nuts, and eggs.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal. Rests in underground burrows or under rocks during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Believed to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831, Southern Burma.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Mélogaleindien @fr | Burma-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro birmano @es | Burmese Ferret-badger @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1831","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Melogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"635","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"personata","name":"Melogale personata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. p. personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831— NE Indiato S Myanmarand Thailand.M. p. nipalensis Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.M. p. pierrei Bonhote, 1903— Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714185/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is said to include insects, earthworms, snails, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents, small birds), fruit, nuts, and eggs.","breeding":"Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.","activityPatterns":"Reported to be nocturnal. Rests in underground burrows or under rocks during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Believed to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 15-21 cm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The tail is over half the head and body length. The Large-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage is coarse, thick and short, and varies from fawn brown to dark brown. The sides of the body are heavily frosted white, contrasting slightly with the darker back. The white stripe on the back of the neck extends at least to the middle of the back, and often as far as the base of the tail. The head has a distinct pattern of black (or dark brown) and white patches, which varies among individuals. The bushy tail is pale and usually white on the distal half. The sagittal crest on the skull is large and low. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are larger than Small-toothed Ferret-badger, especially P*. In the upper jaw: P* length over 8 mm; P' is significantly smaller than P=.On following pages: 21. Lesser Grison (Galictis cuja); 22. Greater Grison (Galictis vittata), 23. Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna); 24. Saharan Striped Polecat (/ctonyx libycus); 25. Zorilla (Ictonyx striatus); 26. African Striped Weasel (Poecilogalealbinucha).","habitat":"Reported to live in forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"635","verbatimText":"18.Small-toothed Ferret-badgerMelogale moschataFrench:Mélogalede Chine/ German:China-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro chinoOther common names:Chinese Ferret-badgerTaxonomy.Helictis moschata Gray, 1831, S China.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. moschata Gray, 1831— SE China(Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan& HainanI) and N Laos.M. m. ferreogrisea Hilzheimer, 1905— C China.M. m. millsi Thomas, 1922— S China(NWYunnan) through N Myanmarto NE India.M. m. sorella G. M.. Allen, 1929— E China(Fujian).M. m. subaurantiaca Swinhoe, 1862— Taiwan.M. m. taxilla Thomas, 1925— Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-40 cm, tail 10-15 cm; weight 0.8-1.6 kg. The tail is less than half of the head and body length. The Small-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage varies from gray to black, with the darker fur contrasting with the light patches on the neck and head. The head has a distinct blackand-white pattern, generally with more black than the Large-toothed Ferret-badger but this is quite variable. The white stripe on the top of the head is narrow and incomplete and rarely extends past the shoulders. The tail is bushy, pale brown in color, and with a white tip. The limbs are short, and the feet have strong, thick, fairly straight claws. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is long, high, and smooth, with widely separated temporal ridges. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are relatively small, compared to Large-toothed Ferret-badger, with distinct gaps between the premolars. In the upper jaw: labial edge of P* is slightly concave; P* length over 6 mm; P' is slightly smaller than P*. In the lower jaw: M, talonid is without distinct cusps.Habitat.Tropical and subtropical forests, wooded hillsides, grasslands, and cultivated areas. Often occurs in close proximity to humans.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include invertebrates (insects, earthworms), small mammals, birds, frogs, lizards, eggs, and fruits. In Taiwan, invertebrates had a relative importance index of 89%. In China, 163 scats contained 33% seeds and at least eight plant species. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers find food mainly by smell and sound and use their digging claws and probing snouts to dig for roots and earthworms.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and crepuscular. Active year-round, but less active during the winter months. During the spring, both sexes are active outside their burrows for around eight hours; during the winter this decreases to less than six-and-a-half hours. Rest sites are in burrows, rock crevices, or in trees. In south-east China, radio-collared Small-toothed Ferret-badgers used a variety of shelters as daybeds including rodent dens (47%), firewood stacks (20%), open fields (17%), and rock piles around houses (5%). The distance between daily resting sites averaged 101 mand they often (51% of occasions) returned to rest sites used the previous day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but they may climb trees. In south-east China, the size of resting home ranges (daybed locations only) of six radio-collared individuals averaged 11 ha (range 1-25 ha); no sex-specific differences in home range size were detected.Breeding.Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about Small-toothed Ferret-badgers and more field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are hunted for their fur and meat in Chinaand north-east India; in China, their fur is used for collars and jackets.Bibliography.Allen (1929), Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Neal (1986), Storz & Wozencraft (1999), Wang & Fuller (2003a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Zhou et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Helictis moschata Gray, 1831, S China.Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Mélogalede Chine @fr | China-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro chino @es | Chinese Ferret-badger @en","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Melogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"635","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"moschata","name":"Melogale moschata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. moschata Gray, 1831— SE China(Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan& HainanI) and N Laos.M. m. ferreogrisea Hilzheimer, 1905— C China.M. m. millsi Thomas, 1922— S China(NWYunnan) through N Myanmarto NE India.M. m. sorella G. M.. Allen, 1929— E China(Fujian).M. m. subaurantiaca Swinhoe, 1862— Taiwan.M. m. taxilla Thomas, 1925— Vietnam.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714179/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1929) | Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Neal (1986) | Storz & Wozencraft (1999) | Wang & Fuller (2003a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Zhou et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is said to include invertebrates (insects, earthworms), small mammals, birds, frogs, lizards, eggs, and fruits. In Taiwan, invertebrates had a relative importance index of 89%. In China, 163 scats contained 33% seeds and at least eight plant species. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers find food mainly by smell and sound and use their digging claws and probing snouts to dig for roots and earthworms.","breeding":"Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.","activityPatterns":"Nocturnal and crepuscular. Active year-round, but less active during the winter months. During the spring, both sexes are active outside their burrows for around eight hours; during the winter this decreases to less than six-and-a-half hours. Rest sites are in burrows, rock crevices, or in trees. In south-east China, radio-collared Small-toothed Ferret-badgers used a variety of shelters as daybeds including rodent dens (47%), firewood stacks (20%), open fields (17%), and rock piles around houses (5%). The distance between daily resting sites averaged 101 mand they often (51% of occasions) returned to rest sites used the previous day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but they may climb trees. In south-east China, the size of resting home ranges (daybed locations only) of six radio-collared individuals averaged 11 ha (range 1-25 ha); no sex-specific differences in home range size were detected.Breeding.Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Very little is known about Small-toothed Ferret-badgers and more field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laosand Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are hunted for their fur and meat in Chinaand north-east India; in China, their fur is used for collars and jackets.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 30-40 cm, tail 10-15 cm; weight 0.8-1.6 kg. The tail is less than half of the head and body length. The Small-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage varies from gray to black, with the darker fur contrasting with the light patches on the neck and head. The head has a distinct blackand-white pattern, generally with more black than the Large-toothed Ferret-badger but this is quite variable. The white stripe on the top of the head is narrow and incomplete and rarely extends past the shoulders. The tail is bushy, pale brown in color, and with a white tip. The limbs are short, and the feet have strong, thick, fairly straight claws. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is long, high, and smooth, with widely separated temporal ridges. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are relatively small, compared to Large-toothed Ferret-badger, with distinct gaps between the premolars. In the upper jaw: labial edge of P* is slightly concave; P* length over 6 mm; P' is slightly smaller than P*. In the lower jaw: M, talonid is without distinct cusps.","habitat":"Tropical and subtropical forests, wooded hillsides, grasslands, and cultivated areas. Often occurs in close proximity to humans."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCAFF3DF5FD3BF96E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA40FFAFCAFF3DF5FD3BF96E","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"635","verbatimText":"17.Bornean Ferret-badgerMelogale everettiFrench:Mélogale d'Everett/ German:Borneo-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro de BorneoTaxonomy.Helictis everetti Thomas, 1895, Borneo.Some authors consider M. everetiiand/or orientalisas conspecific with M. personata. Monotypic.Distribution.N Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight 1-2 kg. The Bornean Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The dorsal pelage is dark brown throughout, including the tail. The undersides are rn The head is black with a facial mask that consists of white or yellow patches, which are variable in size and shape. The claws on the forefeet are well- developed for digging. The skull and teeth are small.Habitat.Forests and grasslands, from 900 to 3000 m.Food and Feeding.The diet is said to include insects and other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and fruits.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal. Rest sites are in holes or rock crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Appears to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also reported to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.A litter of three is said to be common.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. The only recorded sightings of Bornean Ferret-badgers have occurred on the Kinabalu massif, near and within the National Park. There is no information on its susceptibility to habitat change or what hunting levels occur in its range. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Dinets (2003), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Payne et al. (1985), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Helictis everetti Thomas, 1895, Borneo.Some authors consider M. everetiiand/or orientalisas conspecific with M. personata. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Mélogale d'Everett @fr | Borneo-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro de Borneo @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Melogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"635","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"everetti","name":"Melogale everetti","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Borneo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714175/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dinets (2003) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Payne et al. (1985) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is said to include insects and other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and fruits.","breeding":"A litter of three is said to be common.","activityPatterns":"Reported to be nocturnal. Rest sites are in holes or rock crevices.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Appears to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also reported to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.A litter of three is said to be common.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. The only recorded sightings of Bornean Ferret-badgers have occurred on the Kinabalu massif, near and within the National Park. There is no information on its susceptibility to habitat change or what hunting levels occur in its range. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight 1-2 kg. The Bornean Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The dorsal pelage is dark brown throughout, including the tail. The undersides are rn The head is black with a facial mask that consists of white or yellow patches, which are variable in size and shape. The claws on the forefeet are well- developed for digging. The skull and teeth are small.","habitat":"Forests and grasslands, from 900 to 3000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"635","verbatimText":"19.Javan Ferret-badgerMelogale orientalisFrench:Mélogalede Java/ German:Java-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro javanésTaxonomy.Gulo orientalis Horsfield, 1821, JavaThe Javan Ferret-badger was previously considered a subspecies of the Large-toothed Ferret-badger. Two subspecies are recognized.Subpecies and Distribution.M M..o. orientalis Horsfield Horsfield,, 182 1821- E Javaand o. Bali.M. o. sundaicus Sody, 1937— W Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight about 2 kg. The Javan Ferret-badger has a small, slender body, and a long snout. The pelage is dark brown, with paler undersides. The head is black with a facial mask consisting of white or yellow patches. The skull is small.Habitat.Forests and grasslands.Food and Feeding.Said to be omnivorous.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Littersize is said to vary from one to three.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Recorded recently in Central Java(perhaps Dieng Plateau), Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, and Gunung Gede. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeeley (1991), Long (1992), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Riffel (1991), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Gulo orientalis Horsfield, 1821, JavaThe Javan Ferret-badger was previously considered a subspecies of the Large-toothed Ferret-badger. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Mélogalede Java @fr | Java-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro javanés @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Horsfield","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1821","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Melogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"635","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"orientalis","name":"Melogale orientalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M M..o. orientalis Horsfield Horsfield,, 182 1821- E Javaand o. Bali.M. o. sundaicus Sody, 1937— W Java.","bibliography":"IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeeley (1991) | Long (1992) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Pocock (1941a) | Riffel (1991) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Said to be omnivorous.","breeding":"Littersize is said to vary from one to three.","activityPatterns":"Reported to be nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Littersize is said to vary from one to three.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Recorded recently in Central Java(perhaps Dieng Plateau), Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, and Gunung Gede. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight about 2 kg. The Javan Ferret-badger has a small, slender body, and a long snout. The pelage is dark brown, with paler undersides. The head is black with a facial mask consisting of white or yellow patches. The skull is small.","habitat":"Forests and grasslands."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"636","verbatimText":"22.Greater GrisonGalictis vittataFrench:Grand Grison/ German:Grofser Grison/ Spanish:GrisonTaxonomy.Viverra vittata Schreber, 1776, Surinam.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. v. vittata Schreber, 1776— the Guianas and Venezuela.G. v. andina Thomas, 1903— Boliviaand Peru.G. v. brasiliensis Thunberg, 1820— Brazil.G. v. canaster Nelson, 1901— Mexicoto Colombiaand Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47.5-55 cm, tail 16 cm; weight 1.4-3.3 kg. The Greater Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is smoky gray on the upper sides; the face, throat, undersides, and all four limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The skull is strong and massive. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3.M1/2=34Habitat.Greater Grisons are found in virgin and secondary low-elevation rainforests, lower montane forests, upland monte alto forests, tropical dry forests, closed deciduous forests, cerrado, yungas woodlands, shrub woodlands, chaco, palm savannah, secondary growth, open fields, plantations, and partially flooded rice fields adjacent to ranches. They are often found near rivers, streams, and wetlands, from sea level to 1500 melevation, but mostly below 500 m.However, on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains in Boliviathey range up to 2000 m. A radio-collared female spent 27-8% of her time in open habitats (69-2% of her prey came from there); the remaining 72-2% was spent in closed woodlands and forests (where she obtained 27-8% of her prey).Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In Venezuela, seven stomachs contained remains of diurnal rodents (Sigmodon alstoni), a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), a dove (Zenaida auriculata), and an eel-like fish. Two other stomachs contained an opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), an unidentified rodent, a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), and an amphibian (Colestethus auriculata). In Para, Brazil, a Greater Grison was observed carrying a large toad (Bufo marinus) in its mouth, apparently unaffected by the toad’s toxic skin glands. In Panama, a Greater Grison was seen pursuing an Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) at 08:15 h; another Agouti was attacked in a river at midday. In Peru, a Greater Grison was observed eating a piranha-like characin fish. In north-eastern Brazil, Greater Grisons are major predators of Rock Cavies or Mocos (Kerodon rupestris), which they attack in their burrows. The stomachs of two malesand two femalescontained Moco remains and another species of cavy (Galea spixii). Greater Grisons hunt alone, in pairs, or in small family groups. An adult female was seen travelling in association with a nearly grown male and a three-fourths grown female.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal, but occasionally active at night. A captive male from Ecuadorwas nearly 100% diurnal, with a rest period of several hours at midday. Three captive Greater Grisons in Panamawere very active in the early morning and late afternoon and rested for four to five hours around midday. Greater Grisons forage during the day at Cocha Cashu, Peru. However, in Venezuela, a radio-collared individual was active for 10-12 h per day, mostly at night (77-1% of the time); all sightings were in the daytime (06:00-11:25 h). Rest sites are undertree roots or in hollow logs, underground burrows, or rock cavities.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Primarily terrestrial, but also excellent swimmers and able to climb trees. In Venezuela, two individuals were observed climbing into a tree, and on another occasion, a female and a young climbed 2 minto a palm tree, while an adult male waited below looking upward. The two grisons scratched around in the tree, knocking down wood and debris, which were examined by the male. Greater Grisons are mostly solitary, but occasionally travel in pairs or small groups. One female in Venezuelahad a home range of 4- 2 km* She traveled 1 km(straight line) between consecutive daily restsites and moved 2-3 kmper 24-h period. Population densities have been estimated at 1-2-4 individuals/km?, but radio-tracking data suggests much lower densities.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Greater Grisons are considered endangered in some parts of their range, such as Mexicoand Costa Rica. In Venezuela, they are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. Greater Grisons occur in medium (860 ha) and large (36,000 ha) fragments in Brazilian Atlantic forests, but are absent from small (60-80 ha) patches of forest. Their fur has no commercial value, but skins and live animals are sold as decorations or pets.Bibliography.\\Wozencraft (2005), Yensen & Tarifa (2003a).","taxonomy":"Viverra vittata Schreber, 1776, Surinam.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Grison @fr | Grofser Grison @de | Grison @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1776","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Galictis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"636","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vittata","name":"Galictis vittata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G. v. vittata Schreber, 1776— the Guianas and Venezuela.G. v. andina Thomas, 1903— Boliviaand Peru.G. v. brasiliensis Thunberg, 1820— Brazil.G. v. canaster Nelson, 1901— Mexicoto Colombiaand Ecuador.","bibliography":"\\Wozencraft (2005) | Yensen & Tarifa (2003a)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In Venezuela, seven stomachs contained remains of diurnal rodents (Sigmodon alstoni), a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), a dove (Zenaida auriculata), and an eel-like fish. Two other stomachs contained an opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), an unidentified rodent, a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), and an amphibian (Colestethus auriculata). In Para, Brazil, a Greater Grison was observed carrying a large toad (Bufo marinus) in its mouth, apparently unaffected by the toad’s toxic skin glands. In Panama, a Greater Grison was seen pursuing an Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) at 08:15 h; another Agouti was attacked in a river at midday. In Peru, a Greater Grison was observed eating a piranha-like characin fish. In north-eastern Brazil, Greater Grisons are major predators of Rock Cavies or Mocos (Kerodon rupestris), which they attack in their burrows. The stomachs of two malesand two femalescontained Moco remains and another species of cavy (Galea spixii). Greater Grisons hunt alone, in pairs, or in small family groups. An adult female was seen travelling in association with a nearly grown male and a three-fourths grown female.","breeding":"Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.","activityPatterns":"Primarily diurnal, but occasionally active at night. A captive male from Ecuadorwas nearly 100% diurnal, with a rest period of several hours at midday. Three captive Greater Grisons in Panamawere very active in the early morning and late afternoon and rested for four to five hours around midday. Greater Grisons forage during the day at Cocha Cashu, Peru. However, in Venezuela, a radio-collared individual was active for 10-12 h per day, mostly at night (77-1% of the time); all sightings were in the daytime (06:00-11:25 h). Rest sites are undertree roots or in hollow logs, underground burrows, or rock cavities.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Primarily terrestrial, but also excellent swimmers and able to climb trees. In Venezuela, two individuals were observed climbing into a tree, and on another occasion, a female and a young climbed 2 minto a palm tree, while an adult male waited below looking upward. The two grisons scratched around in the tree, knocking down wood and debris, which were examined by the male. Greater Grisons are mostly solitary, but occasionally travel in pairs or small groups. One female in Venezuelahad a home range of 4- 2 km* She traveled 1 km(straight line) between consecutive daily restsites and moved 2-3 kmper 24-h period. Population densities have been estimated at 1-2-4 individuals/km?, but radio-tracking data suggests much lower densities.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Greater Grisons are considered endangered in some parts of their range, such as Mexicoand Costa Rica. In Venezuela, they are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. Greater Grisons occur in medium (860 ha) and large (36,000 ha) fragments in Brazilian Atlantic forests, but are absent from small (60-80 ha) patches of forest. Their fur has no commercial value, but skins and live animals are sold as decorations or pets.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47.5-55 cm, tail 16 cm; weight 1.4-3.3 kg. The Greater Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is smoky gray on the upper sides; the face, throat, undersides, and all four limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The skull is strong and massive. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3.","habitat":"Greater Grisons are found in virgin and secondary low-elevation rainforests, lower montane forests, upland monte alto forests, tropical dry forests, closed deciduous forests, cerrado, yungas woodlands, shrub woodlands, chaco, palm savannah, secondary growth, open fields, plantations, and partially flooded rice fields adjacent to ranches. They are often found near rivers, streams, and wetlands, from sea level to 1500 melevation, but mostly below 500 m.However, on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains in Boliviathey range up to 2000 m. A radio-collared female spent 27-8% of her time in open habitats (69-2% of her prey came from there); the remaining 72-2% was spent in closed woodlands and forests (where she obtained 27-8% of her prey)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"636","verbatimText":"21.Lesser GrisonGalictis cujaFrench:Petit Grison/ German:Kleingrison/ Spanish:Grison chicoTaxonomy.Mustela cuja Molina, 1782, Chile.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. c. cuja Molina, 1782— W Argentinaand Chile.G. c. furax Thomas, 1907— NE Argentina, C & E Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.G. c. huronax Thomas, 1921— C and S Argentina.G. c. luteola Thomas, 1907— W Boliviaand SE Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-508 cm, tail 12-19.3 cm; weight 1.2-5 kg. The Lesser Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-gray to brown; the face, throat, upper chest, and limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The claws are strong and curved. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=234Habitat.Lesser Grisons are found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to 4200 m, including seashore, arid scrub, chaco desert, Gran Chaco, Chiquitano woodland, open thorn woodland, cerrado, caatinga, savannah, steppes, evergreen shrublands, semideciduous lower montane forest, brushy areas below the timberline, Tucuman-Bolivian woodlands, wet forest, Brazilian Atlantic forest, high Andean shrublands, Polylepis woodlands, puna grasslands, marshes, high elevation wet meadows “bofedales”, Equisetum-dominated scrub, overgrazed pastures, and agricultural areas of the Pampas. Most localities in Boliviaare between 2000 and 4200 m. Lesser Grisons frequently occur near water.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (especially rodents and lagomorphs), birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In central Chile, the diet was found to consist of 352% rodents, 26-5% introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 20-7% unidentified mammals, 14-7% reptiles (Liolaemus chiliensis and Philodryas chamissonis), and 2-9% unidentified passeriform birds. Average prey weight was 350 g. In Patagonia, Argentina, the diet is 46-:3% rodents, 18-9% lagomorphs, 17-9% lizards, and 16-8% birds; as lagomorph density increases,its percentage in the diet increases up to 96-8%. In coastal south-eastern Argentine, mammals, including rodents (79-1%, at least eight species) and European Hare Lepus europaeus (20-9%), are the main prey items year-round; birds (7-8%) and invertebrates (5-2%) are also eaten. Lesser Grisons frequently prey on guinea pigs and are capable of running down and killing Dwarf Cavies (Microcavia australis).Activity patterns.Active mainly during the day, with occasional activity at night. Rest sites are in hollow trees, crevices, boulder piles, burrows of other animals, at the base of Polylepis trees, amongst tree roots and rocks, or in banks adjacent to wet meadows at high elevations. Four or five individuals may occupy a burrow system, which may reach 4 min depth. One burrow system occupied by five individuals in Chilewas on a slope among rocks and roots of a Guevina avellana tree in Nothofagus obliqua woods; leaves of Greiga obscured the entrances.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mostly solitary, although pairs or small groups are occasionally seen.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Lesser Grisonsare generally considered not to be threatened, butfield studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Wozencraft (2005), Yensen & Tarifa (2003b), Zapata et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela cuja Molina, 1782, Chile.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Petit Grison @fr | Kleingrison @de | Grison chico @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Galictis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"636","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cuja","name":"Galictis cuja","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G. c. cuja Molina, 1782— W Argentinaand Chile.G. c. furax Thomas, 1907— NE Argentina, C & E Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.G. c. huronax Thomas, 1921— C and S Argentina.G. c. luteola Thomas, 1907— W Boliviaand SE Peru.","bibliography":"Wozencraft (2005) | Yensen & Tarifa (2003b) | Zapata et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals (especially rodents and lagomorphs), birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In central Chile, the diet was found to consist of 352% rodents, 26-5% introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 20-7% unidentified mammals, 14-7% reptiles (Liolaemus chiliensis and Philodryas chamissonis), and 2-9% unidentified passeriform birds. Average prey weight was 350 g. In Patagonia, Argentina, the diet is 46-:3% rodents, 18-9% lagomorphs, 17-9% lizards, and 16-8% birds; as lagomorph density increases,its percentage in the diet increases up to 96-8%. In coastal south-eastern Argentine, mammals, including rodents (79-1%, at least eight species) and European Hare Lepus europaeus (20-9%), are the main prey items year-round; birds (7-8%) and invertebrates (5-2%) are also eaten. Lesser Grisons frequently prey on guinea pigs and are capable of running down and killing Dwarf Cavies (Microcavia australis).","breeding":"Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.","activityPatterns":"Active mainly during the day, with occasional activity at night. Rest sites are in hollow trees, crevices, boulder piles, burrows of other animals, at the base of Polylepis trees, amongst tree roots and rocks, or in banks adjacent to wet meadows at high elevations. Four or five individuals may occupy a burrow system, which may reach 4 min depth. One burrow system occupied by five individuals in Chilewas on a slope among rocks and roots of a Guevina avellana tree in Nothofagus obliqua woods; leaves of Greiga obscured the entrances.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mostly solitary, although pairs or small groups are occasionally seen.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Lesser Grisonsare generally considered not to be threatened, butfield studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 28-508 cm, tail 12-19.3 cm; weight 1.2-5 kg. The Lesser Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-gray to brown; the face, throat, upper chest, and limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The claws are strong and curved.","habitat":"Lesser Grisons are found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to 4200 m, including seashore, arid scrub, chaco desert, Gran Chaco, Chiquitano woodland, open thorn woodland, cerrado, caatinga, savannah, steppes, evergreen shrublands, semideciduous lower montane forest, brushy areas below the timberline, Tucuman-Bolivian woodlands, wet forest, Brazilian Atlantic forest, high Andean shrublands, Polylepis woodlands, puna grasslands, marshes, high elevation wet meadows “bofedales”, Equisetum-dominated scrub, overgrazed pastures, and agricultural areas of the Pampas. Most localities in Boliviaare between 2000 and 4200 m. Lesser Grisons frequently occur near water."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"635","verbatimText":"19.Javan Ferret-badgerMelogale orientalisFrench:Mélogalede Java/ German:Java-Sonnendachs/ Spanish:Melandro javanésTaxonomy.Gulo orientalis Horsfield, 1821, JavaThe Javan Ferret-badger was previously considered a subspecies of the Large-toothed Ferret-badger. Two subspecies are recognized.Subpecies and Distribution.M M..o. orientalis Horsfield Horsfield,, 182 1821- E Javaand o. Bali.M. o. sundaicus Sody, 1937— W Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight about 2 kg. The Javan Ferret-badger has a small, slender body, and a long snout. The pelage is dark brown, with paler undersides. The head is black with a facial mask consisting of white or yellow patches. The skull is small.Habitat.Forests and grasslands.Food and Feeding.Said to be omnivorous.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Littersize is said to vary from one to three.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Recorded recently in Central Java(perhaps Dieng Plateau), Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, and Gunung Gede. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeeley (1991), Long (1992), Long & Killingley (1983), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Riffel (1991), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Gulo orientalis Horsfield, 1821, JavaThe Javan Ferret-badger was previously considered a subspecies of the Large-toothed Ferret-badger. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Mélogalede Java @fr | Java-Sonnendachs @de | Melandro javanés @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Horsfield","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1821","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Melogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"635","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"orientalis","name":"Melogale orientalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M M..o. orientalis Horsfield Horsfield,, 182 1821- E Javaand o. Bali.M. o. sundaicus Sody, 1937— W Java.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714181/files/figure.png","bibliography":"IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeeley (1991) | Long (1992) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Pocock (1941a) | Riffel (1991) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Said to be omnivorous.","breeding":"Littersize is said to vary from one to three.","activityPatterns":"Reported to be nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.Breeding.Littersize is said to vary from one to three.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Recorded recently in Central Java(perhaps Dieng Plateau), Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, and Gunung Gede. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight about 2 kg. The Javan Ferret-badger has a small, slender body, and a long snout. The pelage is dark brown, with paler undersides. The head is black with a facial mask consisting of white or yellow patches. The skull is small.","habitat":"Forests and grasslands."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"636","verbatimText":"22.Greater GrisonGalictis vittataFrench:Grand Grison/ German:Grofser Grison/ Spanish:GrisonTaxonomy.Viverra vittata Schreber, 1776, Surinam.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. v. vittata Schreber, 1776— the Guianas and Venezuela.G. v. andina Thomas, 1903— Boliviaand Peru.G. v. brasiliensis Thunberg, 1820— Brazil.G. v. canaster Nelson, 1901— Mexicoto Colombiaand Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47.5-55 cm, tail 16 cm; weight 1.4-3.3 kg. The Greater Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is smoky gray on the upper sides; the face, throat, undersides, and all four limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The skull is strong and massive. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3.M1/2=34Habitat.Greater Grisons are found in virgin and secondary low-elevation rainforests, lower montane forests, upland monte alto forests, tropical dry forests, closed deciduous forests, cerrado, yungas woodlands, shrub woodlands, chaco, palm savannah, secondary growth, open fields, plantations, and partially flooded rice fields adjacent to ranches. They are often found near rivers, streams, and wetlands, from sea level to 1500 melevation, but mostly below 500 m.However, on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains in Boliviathey range up to 2000 m. A radio-collared female spent 27-8% of her time in open habitats (69-2% of her prey came from there); the remaining 72-2% was spent in closed woodlands and forests (where she obtained 27-8% of her prey).Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In Venezuela, seven stomachs contained remains of diurnal rodents (Sigmodon alstoni), a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), a dove (Zenaida auriculata), and an eel-like fish. Two other stomachs contained an opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), an unidentified rodent, a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), and an amphibian (Colestethus auriculata). In Para, Brazil, a Greater Grison was observed carrying a large toad (Bufo marinus) in its mouth, apparently unaffected by the toad’s toxic skin glands. In Panama, a Greater Grison was seen pursuing an Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) at 08:15 h; another Agouti was attacked in a river at midday. In Peru, a Greater Grison was observed eating a piranha-like characin fish. In north-eastern Brazil, Greater Grisons are major predators of Rock Cavies or Mocos (Kerodon rupestris), which they attack in their burrows. The stomachs of two malesand two femalescontained Moco remains and another species of cavy (Galea spixii). Greater Grisons hunt alone, in pairs, or in small family groups. An adult female was seen travelling in association with a nearly grown male and a three-fourths grown female.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal, but occasionally active at night. A captive male from Ecuadorwas nearly 100% diurnal, with a rest period of several hours at midday. Three captive Greater Grisons in Panamawere very active in the early morning and late afternoon and rested for four to five hours around midday. Greater Grisons forage during the day at Cocha Cashu, Peru. However, in Venezuela, a radio-collared individual was active for 10-12 h per day, mostly at night (77-1% of the time); all sightings were in the daytime (06:00-11:25 h). Rest sites are undertree roots or in hollow logs, underground burrows, or rock cavities.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Primarily terrestrial, but also excellent swimmers and able to climb trees. In Venezuela, two individuals were observed climbing into a tree, and on another occasion, a female and a young climbed 2 minto a palm tree, while an adult male waited below looking upward. The two grisons scratched around in the tree, knocking down wood and debris, which were examined by the male. Greater Grisons are mostly solitary, but occasionally travel in pairs or small groups. One female in Venezuelahad a home range of 4- 2 km* She traveled 1 km(straight line) between consecutive daily restsites and moved 2-3 kmper 24-h period. Population densities have been estimated at 1-2-4 individuals/km?, but radio-tracking data suggests much lower densities.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Greater Grisons are considered endangered in some parts of their range, such as Mexicoand Costa Rica. In Venezuela, they are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. Greater Grisons occur in medium (860 ha) and large (36,000 ha) fragments in Brazilian Atlantic forests, but are absent from small (60-80 ha) patches of forest. Their fur has no commercial value, but skins and live animals are sold as decorations or pets.Bibliography.\\Wozencraft (2005), Yensen & Tarifa (2003a).","taxonomy":"Viverra vittata Schreber, 1776, Surinam.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Grison @fr | Grofser Grison @de | Grison @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1776","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Galictis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"636","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vittata","name":"Galictis vittata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G. v. vittata Schreber, 1776— the Guianas and Venezuela.G. v. andina Thomas, 1903— Boliviaand Peru.G. v. brasiliensis Thunberg, 1820— Brazil.G. v. canaster Nelson, 1901— Mexicoto Colombiaand Ecuador.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714191/files/figure.png","bibliography":"\\Wozencraft (2005) | Yensen & Tarifa (2003a)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In Venezuela, seven stomachs contained remains of diurnal rodents (Sigmodon alstoni), a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), a dove (Zenaida auriculata), and an eel-like fish. Two other stomachs contained an opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), an unidentified rodent, a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), and an amphibian (Colestethus auriculata). In Para, Brazil, a Greater Grison was observed carrying a large toad (Bufo marinus) in its mouth, apparently unaffected by the toad’s toxic skin glands. In Panama, a Greater Grison was seen pursuing an Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) at 08:15 h; another Agouti was attacked in a river at midday. In Peru, a Greater Grison was observed eating a piranha-like characin fish. In north-eastern Brazil, Greater Grisons are major predators of Rock Cavies or Mocos (Kerodon rupestris), which they attack in their burrows. The stomachs of two malesand two femalescontained Moco remains and another species of cavy (Galea spixii). Greater Grisons hunt alone, in pairs, or in small family groups. An adult female was seen travelling in association with a nearly grown male and a three-fourths grown female.","breeding":"Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.","activityPatterns":"Primarily diurnal, but occasionally active at night. A captive male from Ecuadorwas nearly 100% diurnal, with a rest period of several hours at midday. Three captive Greater Grisons in Panamawere very active in the early morning and late afternoon and rested for four to five hours around midday. Greater Grisons forage during the day at Cocha Cashu, Peru. However, in Venezuela, a radio-collared individual was active for 10-12 h per day, mostly at night (77-1% of the time); all sightings were in the daytime (06:00-11:25 h). Rest sites are undertree roots or in hollow logs, underground burrows, or rock cavities.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Primarily terrestrial, but also excellent swimmers and able to climb trees. In Venezuela, two individuals were observed climbing into a tree, and on another occasion, a female and a young climbed 2 minto a palm tree, while an adult male waited below looking upward. The two grisons scratched around in the tree, knocking down wood and debris, which were examined by the male. Greater Grisons are mostly solitary, but occasionally travel in pairs or small groups. One female in Venezuelahad a home range of 4- 2 km* She traveled 1 km(straight line) between consecutive daily restsites and moved 2-3 kmper 24-h period. Population densities have been estimated at 1-2-4 individuals/km?, but radio-tracking data suggests much lower densities.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Greater Grisons are considered endangered in some parts of their range, such as Mexicoand Costa Rica. In Venezuela, they are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. Greater Grisons occur in medium (860 ha) and large (36,000 ha) fragments in Brazilian Atlantic forests, but are absent from small (60-80 ha) patches of forest. Their fur has no commercial value, but skins and live animals are sold as decorations or pets.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47.5-55 cm, tail 16 cm; weight 1.4-3.3 kg. The Greater Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is smoky gray on the upper sides; the face, throat, undersides, and all four limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The skull is strong and massive. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3.","habitat":"Greater Grisons are found in virgin and secondary low-elevation rainforests, lower montane forests, upland monte alto forests, tropical dry forests, closed deciduous forests, cerrado, yungas woodlands, shrub woodlands, chaco, palm savannah, secondary growth, open fields, plantations, and partially flooded rice fields adjacent to ranches. They are often found near rivers, streams, and wetlands, from sea level to 1500 melevation, but mostly below 500 m.However, on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains in Boliviathey range up to 2000 m. A radio-collared female spent 27-8% of her time in open habitats (69-2% of her prey came from there); the remaining 72-2% was spent in closed woodlands and forests (where she obtained 27-8% of her prey)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"636","verbatimText":"21.Lesser GrisonGalictis cujaFrench:Petit Grison/ German:Kleingrison/ Spanish:Grison chicoTaxonomy.Mustela cuja Molina, 1782, Chile.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. c. cuja Molina, 1782— W Argentinaand Chile.G. c. furax Thomas, 1907— NE Argentina, C & E Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.G. c. huronax Thomas, 1921— C and S Argentina.G. c. luteola Thomas, 1907— W Boliviaand SE Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-508 cm, tail 12-19.3 cm; weight 1.2-5 kg. The Lesser Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-gray to brown; the face, throat, upper chest, and limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The claws are strong and curved. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=234Habitat.Lesser Grisons are found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to 4200 m, including seashore, arid scrub, chaco desert, Gran Chaco, Chiquitano woodland, open thorn woodland, cerrado, caatinga, savannah, steppes, evergreen shrublands, semideciduous lower montane forest, brushy areas below the timberline, Tucuman-Bolivian woodlands, wet forest, Brazilian Atlantic forest, high Andean shrublands, Polylepis woodlands, puna grasslands, marshes, high elevation wet meadows “bofedales”, Equisetum-dominated scrub, overgrazed pastures, and agricultural areas of the Pampas. Most localities in Boliviaare between 2000 and 4200 m. Lesser Grisons frequently occur near water.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (especially rodents and lagomorphs), birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In central Chile, the diet was found to consist of 352% rodents, 26-5% introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 20-7% unidentified mammals, 14-7% reptiles (Liolaemus chiliensis and Philodryas chamissonis), and 2-9% unidentified passeriform birds. Average prey weight was 350 g. In Patagonia, Argentina, the diet is 46-:3% rodents, 18-9% lagomorphs, 17-9% lizards, and 16-8% birds; as lagomorph density increases,its percentage in the diet increases up to 96-8%. In coastal south-eastern Argentine, mammals, including rodents (79-1%, at least eight species) and European Hare Lepus europaeus (20-9%), are the main prey items year-round; birds (7-8%) and invertebrates (5-2%) are also eaten. Lesser Grisons frequently prey on guinea pigs and are capable of running down and killing Dwarf Cavies (Microcavia australis).Activity patterns.Active mainly during the day, with occasional activity at night. Rest sites are in hollow trees, crevices, boulder piles, burrows of other animals, at the base of Polylepis trees, amongst tree roots and rocks, or in banks adjacent to wet meadows at high elevations. Four or five individuals may occupy a burrow system, which may reach 4 min depth. One burrow system occupied by five individuals in Chilewas on a slope among rocks and roots of a Guevina avellana tree in Nothofagus obliqua woods; leaves of Greiga obscured the entrances.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mostly solitary, although pairs or small groups are occasionally seen.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Lesser Grisonsare generally considered not to be threatened, butfield studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Wozencraft (2005), Yensen & Tarifa (2003b), Zapata et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela cuja Molina, 1782, Chile.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Petit Grison @fr | Kleingrison @de | Grison chico @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Galictis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"636","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cuja","name":"Galictis cuja","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G. c. cuja Molina, 1782— W Argentinaand Chile.G. c. furax Thomas, 1907— NE Argentina, C & E Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.G. c. huronax Thomas, 1921— C and S Argentina.G. c. luteola Thomas, 1907— W Boliviaand SE Peru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714187/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Wozencraft (2005) | Yensen & Tarifa (2003b) | Zapata et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals (especially rodents and lagomorphs), birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In central Chile, the diet was found to consist of 352% rodents, 26-5% introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 20-7% unidentified mammals, 14-7% reptiles (Liolaemus chiliensis and Philodryas chamissonis), and 2-9% unidentified passeriform birds. Average prey weight was 350 g. In Patagonia, Argentina, the diet is 46-:3% rodents, 18-9% lagomorphs, 17-9% lizards, and 16-8% birds; as lagomorph density increases,its percentage in the diet increases up to 96-8%. In coastal south-eastern Argentine, mammals, including rodents (79-1%, at least eight species) and European Hare Lepus europaeus (20-9%), are the main prey items year-round; birds (7-8%) and invertebrates (5-2%) are also eaten. Lesser Grisons frequently prey on guinea pigs and are capable of running down and killing Dwarf Cavies (Microcavia australis).","breeding":"Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.","activityPatterns":"Active mainly during the day, with occasional activity at night. Rest sites are in hollow trees, crevices, boulder piles, burrows of other animals, at the base of Polylepis trees, amongst tree roots and rocks, or in banks adjacent to wet meadows at high elevations. Four or five individuals may occupy a burrow system, which may reach 4 min depth. One burrow system occupied by five individuals in Chilewas on a slope among rocks and roots of a Guevina avellana tree in Nothofagus obliqua woods; leaves of Greiga obscured the entrances.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mostly solitary, although pairs or small groups are occasionally seen.Breeding.Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Lesser Grisonsare generally considered not to be threatened, butfield studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 28-508 cm, tail 12-19.3 cm; weight 1.2-5 kg. The Lesser Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-gray to brown; the face, throat, upper chest, and limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The claws are strong and curved.","habitat":"Lesser Grisons are found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to 4200 m, including seashore, arid scrub, chaco desert, Gran Chaco, Chiquitano woodland, open thorn woodland, cerrado, caatinga, savannah, steppes, evergreen shrublands, semideciduous lower montane forest, brushy areas below the timberline, Tucuman-Bolivian woodlands, wet forest, Brazilian Atlantic forest, high Andean shrublands, Polylepis woodlands, puna grasslands, marshes, high elevation wet meadows “bofedales”, Equisetum-dominated scrub, overgrazed pastures, and agricultural areas of the Pampas. Most localities in Boliviaare between 2000 and 4200 m. Lesser Grisons frequently occur near water."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFACCFE430B7F901FE26.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA42FFACCFE430B7F901FE26","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"637","verbatimText":"25.ZorillaIctonyx striatusFrench:Zorille commune/ German:Zorilla/ Spanish:Hurén estriadoOther common names:Striped PolecatTaxonomy.Bradypus striatus Perry, 1810, South Africa.As many as twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Sub-Saharan Africa from Mauritaniaand Senegalin the W to Sudan, Ethiopiaand Djiboutiin the E and S to South Africa. Absent from W & C African rainforests.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-38 cm(males), 28-34 cm(females), tail 16.5-28 cm(males), 17- 5—28 cm(females); weight 0-80.1- 20 kg(males), 0-42. 0-75 kg(females), adult males are 50% heavier than females. The Zorilla has a black pelage with four white dorsal stripes that unite on the top of the neck. There are three white patches on the head. The undersides and limbs are black, and the tail is a mixture of black and white hairs. The soles of the feet are naked; there are claws on all the feet, but they are longer and straighter on the forefeet. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is heavily built, the rostrum is short and blunt, and the sagittal crest is poorly defined or absent. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P3/3.M1/2=54,Habitat.Zorillas are found in a wide variety of habitats, including mountains, sand plains, forest, swamps,riverine woodlands, floodplains, grasslands, coastal hummocks, and town gardens.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly insects and small rodents, but birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates are also eaten. In South Africa, the percentage occurrence of food items in 21 stomachs was 62% insects, 38% mammals, 10% birds, 10% arachnids, 5% frogs, and 5% myriapods. In the Cape Province, stomachs contained birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects (Coleoptera, Coleoptera larvae, Orthoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera). One stomach from Kalahari National Park, South Africa, contained mostly reptile remains. In Botswana, twelve stomachs contained insects, reptiles, and small mammals. Most prey are detected by sight or smell, and captured after stalking or short chases. Larger mammals, such as ground squirrels (Xerus) and spring hares, are followed to their burrows and killed. Zorillas often hunt for invertebrates in loose soil, plant debris, and at the base of grass tufts. Typically, a Zorilla pushesits nose into loose soil and sniffs audibly. When food is detected,it is excavated with the forefeet. Slow prey are bitten directly, whereas faster-moving prey, such as moths, mantids, or beetles, may either be bitten or pinned to the ground with a forefoot and eaten head first. All parts of insects are eaten. Rats (Rattus) are located mainly by sight. On occasion, rats are stalked and quickly captured or are chased. They are captured either by direct biting or by being pinned to the ground with the forefeet and then bitten. Mostkilling bites are directed at the back of the neck, head, or chest. Rats larger than 140 gusually require more bites and pinning with the forefeet. Occasionally, Zorillas roll while biting. Large rats are eaten by biting at the flesh and holding the skin with the forefeet. Birds presented to captive Zorillas are quickly and easily killed by a bite at the head, and then eaten head first. Zorillas will consume young birds completely, but they leave most ofthe feathers, feet, and tibia of mature birds. The contents of broken eggs are readily consumed, but captive Zorillas experience initial difficulty with unbroken eggs. Eventually, they learn to open them by biting or rolling the egg against a hard object such as a rock. Once cracked, the egg is easily opened and consumed. Zorillas will kill snakes and can attack large cobras. Snakes are approached cautiously and bitten on the back several times, after which the Zorilla retreats rapidly. Each bite is directed to the posterior half of the snake and is accompanied by vigorous shaking. After four or five such attacks, the Zorilla pins the snake to the ground with the forefeet, and repeatedly bites 10-15 cmfrom the head. Some of the bites involve vigorous shaking. Most snakes are eaten head first, but occasionally the tail or even flanks may be consumed first. Lizards are captured following short chases, pinned to the ground with the forefeet, and killed by a bite at the head. Lizards are entirely consumed and eaten head first. Amphibians are pinned to the ground with the forefeet and killed by biting the head and neck region; all parts of amphibians are eaten.Activity pattern.Nocturnal. Rest sites are in holes, crevices, hollow logs, or under buildings. Zorillas can dig their own burrows, but often use those dug by other animals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Zorillas generally are solitary, but pairs may be seen. Larger groups are rare, and usually comprise a female and her young. Adult males and females are together only during mating, and adult males are intolerant of other males.Breeding.Mating occurs in the spring. The young are born in late spring or summer, after a short gestation of 36 days. Littersize is two to three. Females have one litter per year, but may breed again if the first litter is lost early. The young are born blind and hairless; color patterns appear after one week. The eyes open after 40 days and the young start to eat solid food at c. 33 days, when their canine teeth erupt; they can kill mice at 60 days. Adultsize is reached at 20 weeks.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Zorillas are considered common throughout their range. They are not protected outside of national parks, where the most common threat is free-roaming domestic dogs.Bibliography.Lariviere (2002a), Rowe-Rowe (1978a, 1978b, 1978c), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Bradypus striatus Perry, 1810, South Africa.As many as twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","commonNames":"Zorille commune @fr | Zorilla @de | Hurén estriado @es | Striped Polecat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Perry","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1810","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Ictonyx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"637","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"striatus","name":"Ictonyx striatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Sub-Saharan Africa from Mauritaniaand Senegalin the W to Sudan, Ethiopiaand Djiboutiin the E and S to South Africa. Absent from W & C African rainforests.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714201/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Lariviere (2002a) | Rowe-Rowe (1978a, 1978b, 1978c) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Stuart (1981) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly insects and small rodents, but birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates are also eaten. In South Africa, the percentage occurrence of food items in 21 stomachs was 62% insects, 38% mammals, 10% birds, 10% arachnids, 5% frogs, and 5% myriapods. In the Cape Province, stomachs contained birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects (Coleoptera, Coleoptera larvae, Orthoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera). One stomach from Kalahari National Park, South Africa, contained mostly reptile remains. In Botswana, twelve stomachs contained insects, reptiles, and small mammals. Most prey are detected by sight or smell, and captured after stalking or short chases. Larger mammals, such as ground squirrels (Xerus) and spring hares, are followed to their burrows and killed. Zorillas often hunt for invertebrates in loose soil, plant debris, and at the base of grass tufts. Typically, a Zorilla pushesits nose into loose soil and sniffs audibly. When food is detected,it is excavated with the forefeet. Slow prey are bitten directly, whereas faster-moving prey, such as moths, mantids, or beetles, may either be bitten or pinned to the ground with a forefoot and eaten head first. All parts of insects are eaten. Rats (Rattus) are located mainly by sight. On occasion, rats are stalked and quickly captured or are chased. They are captured either by direct biting or by being pinned to the ground with the forefeet and then bitten. Mostkilling bites are directed at the back of the neck, head, or chest. Rats larger than 140 gusually require more bites and pinning with the forefeet. Occasionally, Zorillas roll while biting. Large rats are eaten by biting at the flesh and holding the skin with the forefeet. Birds presented to captive Zorillas are quickly and easily killed by a bite at the head, and then eaten head first. Zorillas will consume young birds completely, but they leave most ofthe feathers, feet, and tibia of mature birds. The contents of broken eggs are readily consumed, but captive Zorillas experience initial difficulty with unbroken eggs. Eventually, they learn to open them by biting or rolling the egg against a hard object such as a rock. Once cracked, the egg is easily opened and consumed. Zorillas will kill snakes and can attack large cobras. Snakes are approached cautiously and bitten on the back several times, after which the Zorilla retreats rapidly. Each bite is directed to the posterior half of the snake and is accompanied by vigorous shaking. After four or five such attacks, the Zorilla pins the snake to the ground with the forefeet, and repeatedly bites 10-15 cmfrom the head. Some of the bites involve vigorous shaking. Most snakes are eaten head first, but occasionally the tail or even flanks may be consumed first. Lizards are captured following short chases, pinned to the ground with the forefeet, and killed by a bite at the head. Lizards are entirely consumed and eaten head first. Amphibians are pinned to the ground with the forefeet and killed by biting the head and neck region; all parts of amphibians are eaten.","breeding":"Mating occurs in the spring. The young are born in late spring or summer, after a short gestation of 36 days. Littersize is two to three. Females have one litter per year, but may breed again if the first litter is lost early. The young are born blind and hairless; color patterns appear after one week. The eyes open after 40 days and the young start to eat solid food at c. 33 days, when their canine teeth erupt; they can kill mice at 60 days. Adultsize is reached at 20 weeks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Zorillas generally are solitary, but pairs may be seen. Larger groups are rare, and usually comprise a female and her young. Adult males and females are together only during mating, and adult males are intolerant of other males.Breeding.Mating occurs in the spring. The young are born in late spring or summer, after a short gestation of 36 days. Littersize is two to three. Females have one litter per year, but may breed again if the first litter is lost early. The young are born blind and hairless; color patterns appear after one week. The eyes open after 40 days and the young start to eat solid food at c. 33 days, when their canine teeth erupt; they can kill mice at 60 days. Adultsize is reached at 20 weeks.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Zorillas are considered common throughout their range. They are not protected outside of national parks, where the most common threat is free-roaming domestic dogs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 28-38 cm(males), 28-34 cm(females), tail 16.5-28 cm(males), 17- 5—28 cm(females); weight 0-80.1- 20 kg(males), 0-42. 0-75 kg(females), adult males are 50% heavier than females. The Zorilla has a black pelage with four white dorsal stripes that unite on the top of the neck. There are three white patches on the head. The undersides and limbs are black, and the tail is a mixture of black and white hairs. The soles of the feet are naked; there are claws on all the feet, but they are longer and straighter on the forefeet. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is heavily built, the rostrum is short and blunt, and the sagittal crest is poorly defined or absent. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P3/3.","habitat":"Zorillas are found in a wide variety of habitats, including mountains, sand plains, forest, swamps,riverine woodlands, floodplains, grasslands, coastal hummocks, and town gardens."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"637","verbatimText":"23.Marbled PolecatVormela peregusnaFrench:Zorille marbrée/ German:Tigeriltis/ Spanish:Turén jaspeadoTaxonomy.Mustela peregusna Guldenstadt, 1770, Russia.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. p. peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770— Russia.V. p. alpherakii Birula, 1910— Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.V. p. euxina Pocock, 1936— Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.V. p. negans G. S. Miller, 1910— NC & W Chinaand S Mongolia.V.p. pallidior Stroganov, 1948— Kazakhstan.V. p. syriaca Pocock, 1936— Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 31-32: 6 cm(males), 28.8-47.7 cm(females), tail 16-5— 17- 5 cm(males), 15.5-17.8 cm(females); weight 330-715 g(males), 295-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Marbled Polecat has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish and is mottled with reddish or brown markings. The ears are large and white, the muzzle is short, and there is a conspicuous white stripe across the head. The area around the mouth is white. The fur is black around the eyes, giving a masked appearance. Thetail is bushy and covered with black and white hairs. The limbs are short and the feet have long claws. There are five pairs of mammae. The skull is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.The Marbled Polecatis found in open desert, semi-desert, semi-arid rocky areas in upland valleys, steppe country, arid subtropical scrub forest, and low hill ranges. It is generally not found on higher mountain ranges, but has been recorded up to 2100 m. In Europe, the Marbled Polecat inhabits steppes with sparse hawthorn bush and sloe trees, and oldfields. In western Yugoslavia, they occur in montane-steppe and woodland-steppe areas. In eastern Yugoslavia, Marbled Polecats are found from river terraces and low hills to mountainous meadows. In western Serbia, they inhabit the outskirts of settlements. On the Sinai Peninsulain Egypt, one adultmale was captured in a sparsely vegetated sandy area. In Lebanon, Marbled Polecats are restricted to cultivated areas in close association with humans. In Israel, they live in the steppes and hills. In Central Asia, the Marbled Polecat is found in oases, tugai (river-valley complexes of forest, scrub, and meadow), dunes with sparse bush vegetation, clay steppes, and salt marshes;it is also found in irrigated country, melon patches, and vegetable fields, and sometimes enters buildings to forage. In Kazakhstan, Marbled Polecats are found in shifting dune country containing saxaul (Haloxylon), winter fat (Ewrotia ceratoides), and pea tree, and in salt marshes overgrown in saxaul. Marbled Polecats are also found in wormwood deserts, semi-deserts, and occasionally fescue and needle-grass steppes of the foothills. In north-western Chinaand the Ordos Desert, the Marbled Polecat occurs in forested areas, and in Siberia, it inhabits the western foothills of the Altai and the Cuya steppe.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (ground squirrels Spermophilus sp., Gray Dwarf Hamsters Cricetulus migratorius, Libyan Jirds Meriones libycus, mice, voles, and rabbits), birds, reptiles, amphibians, snails, insects, and fruits. In Quetta and Kandahar, rodents, small birds,lizards, snails, and beetles are eaten. In Israel, Marbled Polecats show a high seasonal variability in the diet. During summer, mole crickets (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) make up 66% of the diet, whereas in winter, 62% of the diet is rodents, such as voles (Microtus guentheri), House Mice (Mus musculus), Lesser Blind Mole Rats (Spalax leococon ehrenbergi), and Meriones sp. Marbled Polecats may take small poultry. Excess food may be cached for later use. The eyesight of Marbled Polecats is quite weak and they rely principally on a well-developed sense of smell. They have two kinds of killing bites: the first is the penetration of the prey’s body by the canines, and the second is crushing the prey without canine penetration. To kill small vertebrate prey, Marbled Polecats crush the thorax. If the prey struggles, they may pin the prey down with the forepaws and deliver headshakes or follow up by a bite to head or neck. On large prey, such as GuineaPigs (Cavia porcellus), a Marbled Polecat bites the nape of the neck and eventually severs the spinal column at the base of the skull. With rats, it bites the throat. Fleeing prey are bitten dorsally, but defending prey are bitten on the head or neck.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes active during the day. Den/rest sites are in burrows of large ground squirrels or other rodents, or they dig their own dens. Marbled Polecats in Central Asia live in tunnel systems dug by the Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opinus). In Baluchistan, they live in burrows dug by the rodents or they may use underground irrigation tunnels. Sleeping chambers are 60-100 cmfrom the den entrance. In winter, they line the den with grass. When a Marbled Polecat digs, it presses its chin and hindpaws firmly to the ground and removes earth with its forelegs. Obstacles such as roots are pulled out with the teeth.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marbled Polecats are good climbers, but feed mainly on the ground. Nightly movements may be up to 1 km. They are solitary except during the breeding season. In Israel, home ranges were 0-5- 0-6 km?; there were some overlaps of ranges and some encounters between individuals, but each animal foraged and rested alone.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies Vp. peregusna is classified as Vulnerable. The major threat to this speciesis the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides and population declines in key prey species may also be threats. Small numbers of Marbled Polecats are harvested for fur in Pakistanand Lebanon.Bibliography.Ben-David (1998), Ben-David et al. (1991), Gorsuch & Lariviére (2005), Qumsiyeh (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela peregusna Guldenstadt, 1770, Russia.Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Zorille marbrée @fr | Tigeriltis @de | Turén jaspeado @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blasius","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1884","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Vormela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"637","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"peregusna","name":"Vormela peregusna","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. p. peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770— Russia.V. p. alpherakii Birula, 1910— Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.V. p. euxina Pocock, 1936— Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.V. p. negans G. S. Miller, 1910— NC & W Chinaand S Mongolia.V.p. pallidior Stroganov, 1948— Kazakhstan.V. p. syriaca Pocock, 1936— Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.","bibliography":"Ben-David (1998) | Ben-David et al. (1991) | Gorsuch & Lariviére (2005) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals (ground squirrels Spermophilus sp., Gray Dwarf Hamsters Cricetulus migratorius, Libyan Jirds Meriones libycus, mice, voles, and rabbits), birds, reptiles, amphibians, snails, insects, and fruits. In Quetta and Kandahar, rodents, small birds,lizards, snails, and beetles are eaten. In Israel, Marbled Polecats show a high seasonal variability in the diet. During summer, mole crickets (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) make up 66% of the diet, whereas in winter, 62% of the diet is rodents, such as voles (Microtus guentheri), House Mice (Mus musculus), Lesser Blind Mole Rats (Spalax leococon ehrenbergi), and Meriones sp. Marbled Polecats may take small poultry. Excess food may be cached for later use. The eyesight of Marbled Polecats is quite weak and they rely principally on a well-developed sense of smell. They have two kinds of killing bites: the first is the penetration of the prey’s body by the canines, and the second is crushing the prey without canine penetration. To kill small vertebrate prey, Marbled Polecats crush the thorax. If the prey struggles, they may pin the prey down with the forepaws and deliver headshakes or follow up by a bite to head or neck. On large prey, such as GuineaPigs (Cavia porcellus), a Marbled Polecat bites the nape of the neck and eventually severs the spinal column at the base of the skull. With rats, it bites the throat. Fleeing prey are bitten dorsally, but defending prey are bitten on the head or neck.","breeding":"Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes active during the day. Den/rest sites are in burrows of large ground squirrels or other rodents, or they dig their own dens. Marbled Polecats in Central Asia live in tunnel systems dug by the Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opinus). In Baluchistan, they live in burrows dug by the rodents or they may use underground irrigation tunnels. Sleeping chambers are 60-100 cmfrom the den entrance. In winter, they line the den with grass. When a Marbled Polecat digs, it presses its chin and hindpaws firmly to the ground and removes earth with its forelegs. Obstacles such as roots are pulled out with the teeth.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Marbled Polecats are good climbers, but feed mainly on the ground. Nightly movements may be up to 1 km. They are solitary except during the breeding season. In Israel, home ranges were 0-5- 0-6 km?; there were some overlaps of ranges and some encounters between individuals, but each animal foraged and rested alone.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies Vp. peregusna is classified as Vulnerable. The major threat to this speciesis the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides and population declines in key prey species may also be threats. Small numbers of Marbled Polecats are harvested for fur in Pakistanand Lebanon.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 31-32: 6 cm(males), 28.8-47.7 cm(females), tail 16-5— 17- 5 cm(males), 15.5-17.8 cm(females); weight 330-715 g(males), 295-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Marbled Polecat has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish and is mottled with reddish or brown markings. The ears are large and white, the muzzle is short, and there is a conspicuous white stripe across the head. The area around the mouth is white. The fur is black around the eyes, giving a masked appearance. Thetail is bushy and covered with black and white hairs. The limbs are short and the feet have long claws. There are five pairs of mammae. The skull is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","habitat":"The Marbled Polecatis found in open desert, semi-desert, semi-arid rocky areas in upland valleys, steppe country, arid subtropical scrub forest, and low hill ranges. It is generally not found on higher mountain ranges, but has been recorded up to 2100 m. In Europe, the Marbled Polecat inhabits steppes with sparse hawthorn bush and sloe trees, and oldfields. In western Yugoslavia, they occur in montane-steppe and woodland-steppe areas. In eastern Yugoslavia, Marbled Polecats are found from river terraces and low hills to mountainous meadows. In western Serbia, they inhabit the outskirts of settlements. On the Sinai Peninsulain Egypt, one adultmale was captured in a sparsely vegetated sandy area. In Lebanon, Marbled Polecats are restricted to cultivated areas in close association with humans. In Israel, they live in the steppes and hills. In Central Asia, the Marbled Polecat is found in oases, tugai (river-valley complexes of forest, scrub, and meadow), dunes with sparse bush vegetation, clay steppes, and salt marshes;it is also found in irrigated country, melon patches, and vegetable fields, and sometimes enters buildings to forage. In Kazakhstan, Marbled Polecats are found in shifting dune country containing saxaul (Haloxylon), winter fat (Ewrotia ceratoides), and pea tree, and in salt marshes overgrown in saxaul. Marbled Polecats are also found in wormwood deserts, semi-deserts, and occasionally fescue and needle-grass steppes of the foothills. In north-western Chinaand the Ordos Desert, the Marbled Polecat occurs in forested areas, and in Siberia, it inhabits the western foothills of the Altai and the Cuya steppe."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"637","verbatimText":"24.Saharan Striped PolecatIctonyx libycusFrench:Zorille de Libye/ German:Streifenwiesel/ Spanish:Huron del SaharaOther common names:Saharan Striped WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela libyca Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Libya.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I. l. libycus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833— Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia.I. l. multivittata Wagner, 1841— E Chadand C Sudan.I. l. oralis Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Egypt, Eritrea, and N Sudan.I. l. rothschildi Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 20.7-26 cm, tail 114- 18 cm; weight 200-600 g, adult males are slightly larger than females. The Saharan Striped Polecat has a black and white pelage, with poorly defined black and white stripes along the sides of the body. The head is black with a white patch on the upperlip; there is a large white mark on the forehead. The limbs are short. The tail is short and bushy, and mostly white except for the black tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a short rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Sub-desert habitats, especially stony areas, steppes, and areas of sparse brush. Also found in cultivated areas and coastal sand dunes.Food and Feeding.The diet apparently consists of rodents, small birds, eggs,lizards, and insects. Food is located by smell and by sound, and the front claws are used to dig up food items.Activity pattern.Nocturnal. Rest sites are in burrows or rock crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mostly solitary.Breeding.Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. A poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Hufnagl (1972), Niethammer (1987), Rosevear (1974), Setzer (1957), Sitek (1995), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela libyca Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Libya.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Zorille de Libye @fr | Streifenwiesel @de | Huron del Sahara @es | Saharan Striped Weasel @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Hemprich & Ehrenberg","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1833","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Ictonyx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"637","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"libycus","name":"Ictonyx libycus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"I. l. libycus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833— Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia.I. l. multivittata Wagner, 1841— E Chadand C Sudan.I. l. oralis Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Egypt, Eritrea, and N Sudan.I. l. rothschildi Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.","bibliography":"Hufnagl (1972) | Niethammer (1987) | Rosevear (1974) | Setzer (1957) | Sitek (1995) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet apparently consists of rodents, small birds, eggs,lizards, and insects. Food is located by smell and by sound, and the front claws are used to dig up food items.","breeding":"Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mostly solitary.Breeding.Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. A poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 20.7-26 cm, tail 114- 18 cm; weight 200-600 g, adult males are slightly larger than females. The Saharan Striped Polecat has a black and white pelage, with poorly defined black and white stripes along the sides of the body. The head is black with a white patch on the upperlip; there is a large white mark on the forehead. The limbs are short. The tail is short and bushy, and mostly white except for the black tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a short rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","habitat":"Sub-desert habitats, especially stony areas, steppes, and areas of sparse brush. Also found in cultivated areas and coastal sand dunes."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"637","verbatimText":"23.Marbled PolecatVormela peregusnaFrench:Zorille marbrée/ German:Tigeriltis/ Spanish:Turén jaspeadoTaxonomy.Mustela peregusna Guldenstadt, 1770, Russia.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. p. peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770— Russia.V. p. alpherakii Birula, 1910— Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.V. p. euxina Pocock, 1936— Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.V. p. negans G. S. Miller, 1910— NC & W Chinaand S Mongolia.V.p. pallidior Stroganov, 1948— Kazakhstan.V. p. syriaca Pocock, 1936— Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 31-32: 6 cm(males), 28.8-47.7 cm(females), tail 16-5— 17- 5 cm(males), 15.5-17.8 cm(females); weight 330-715 g(males), 295-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Marbled Polecat has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish and is mottled with reddish or brown markings. The ears are large and white, the muzzle is short, and there is a conspicuous white stripe across the head. The area around the mouth is white. The fur is black around the eyes, giving a masked appearance. Thetail is bushy and covered with black and white hairs. The limbs are short and the feet have long claws. There are five pairs of mammae. The skull is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.The Marbled Polecatis found in open desert, semi-desert, semi-arid rocky areas in upland valleys, steppe country, arid subtropical scrub forest, and low hill ranges. It is generally not found on higher mountain ranges, but has been recorded up to 2100 m. In Europe, the Marbled Polecat inhabits steppes with sparse hawthorn bush and sloe trees, and oldfields. In western Yugoslavia, they occur in montane-steppe and woodland-steppe areas. In eastern Yugoslavia, Marbled Polecats are found from river terraces and low hills to mountainous meadows. In western Serbia, they inhabit the outskirts of settlements. On the Sinai Peninsulain Egypt, one adultmale was captured in a sparsely vegetated sandy area. In Lebanon, Marbled Polecats are restricted to cultivated areas in close association with humans. In Israel, they live in the steppes and hills. In Central Asia, the Marbled Polecat is found in oases, tugai (river-valley complexes of forest, scrub, and meadow), dunes with sparse bush vegetation, clay steppes, and salt marshes;it is also found in irrigated country, melon patches, and vegetable fields, and sometimes enters buildings to forage. In Kazakhstan, Marbled Polecats are found in shifting dune country containing saxaul (Haloxylon), winter fat (Ewrotia ceratoides), and pea tree, and in salt marshes overgrown in saxaul. Marbled Polecats are also found in wormwood deserts, semi-deserts, and occasionally fescue and needle-grass steppes of the foothills. In north-western Chinaand the Ordos Desert, the Marbled Polecat occurs in forested areas, and in Siberia, it inhabits the western foothills of the Altai and the Cuya steppe.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (ground squirrels Spermophilus sp., Gray Dwarf Hamsters Cricetulus migratorius, Libyan Jirds Meriones libycus, mice, voles, and rabbits), birds, reptiles, amphibians, snails, insects, and fruits. In Quetta and Kandahar, rodents, small birds,lizards, snails, and beetles are eaten. In Israel, Marbled Polecats show a high seasonal variability in the diet. During summer, mole crickets (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) make up 66% of the diet, whereas in winter, 62% of the diet is rodents, such as voles (Microtus guentheri), House Mice (Mus musculus), Lesser Blind Mole Rats (Spalax leococon ehrenbergi), and Meriones sp. Marbled Polecats may take small poultry. Excess food may be cached for later use. The eyesight of Marbled Polecats is quite weak and they rely principally on a well-developed sense of smell. They have two kinds of killing bites: the first is the penetration of the prey’s body by the canines, and the second is crushing the prey without canine penetration. To kill small vertebrate prey, Marbled Polecats crush the thorax. If the prey struggles, they may pin the prey down with the forepaws and deliver headshakes or follow up by a bite to head or neck. On large prey, such as GuineaPigs (Cavia porcellus), a Marbled Polecat bites the nape of the neck and eventually severs the spinal column at the base of the skull. With rats, it bites the throat. Fleeing prey are bitten dorsally, but defending prey are bitten on the head or neck.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes active during the day. Den/rest sites are in burrows of large ground squirrels or other rodents, or they dig their own dens. Marbled Polecats in Central Asia live in tunnel systems dug by the Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opinus). In Baluchistan, they live in burrows dug by the rodents or they may use underground irrigation tunnels. Sleeping chambers are 60-100 cmfrom the den entrance. In winter, they line the den with grass. When a Marbled Polecat digs, it presses its chin and hindpaws firmly to the ground and removes earth with its forelegs. Obstacles such as roots are pulled out with the teeth.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marbled Polecats are good climbers, but feed mainly on the ground. Nightly movements may be up to 1 km. They are solitary except during the breeding season. In Israel, home ranges were 0-5- 0-6 km?; there were some overlaps of ranges and some encounters between individuals, but each animal foraged and rested alone.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies Vp. peregusna is classified as Vulnerable. The major threat to this speciesis the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides and population declines in key prey species may also be threats. Small numbers of Marbled Polecats are harvested for fur in Pakistanand Lebanon.Bibliography.Ben-David (1998), Ben-David et al. (1991), Gorsuch & Lariviére (2005), Qumsiyeh (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela peregusna Guldenstadt, 1770, Russia.Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Zorille marbrée @fr | Tigeriltis @de | Turén jaspeado @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blasius","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1884","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Vormela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"637","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"peregusna","name":"Vormela peregusna","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. p. peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770— Russia.V. p. alpherakii Birula, 1910— Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.V. p. euxina Pocock, 1936— Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.V. p. negans G. S. Miller, 1910— NC & W Chinaand S Mongolia.V.p. pallidior Stroganov, 1948— Kazakhstan.V. p. syriaca Pocock, 1936— Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714195/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ben-David (1998) | Ben-David et al. (1991) | Gorsuch & Lariviére (2005) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals (ground squirrels Spermophilus sp., Gray Dwarf Hamsters Cricetulus migratorius, Libyan Jirds Meriones libycus, mice, voles, and rabbits), birds, reptiles, amphibians, snails, insects, and fruits. In Quetta and Kandahar, rodents, small birds,lizards, snails, and beetles are eaten. In Israel, Marbled Polecats show a high seasonal variability in the diet. During summer, mole crickets (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) make up 66% of the diet, whereas in winter, 62% of the diet is rodents, such as voles (Microtus guentheri), House Mice (Mus musculus), Lesser Blind Mole Rats (Spalax leococon ehrenbergi), and Meriones sp. Marbled Polecats may take small poultry. Excess food may be cached for later use. The eyesight of Marbled Polecats is quite weak and they rely principally on a well-developed sense of smell. They have two kinds of killing bites: the first is the penetration of the prey’s body by the canines, and the second is crushing the prey without canine penetration. To kill small vertebrate prey, Marbled Polecats crush the thorax. If the prey struggles, they may pin the prey down with the forepaws and deliver headshakes or follow up by a bite to head or neck. On large prey, such as GuineaPigs (Cavia porcellus), a Marbled Polecat bites the nape of the neck and eventually severs the spinal column at the base of the skull. With rats, it bites the throat. Fleeing prey are bitten dorsally, but defending prey are bitten on the head or neck.","breeding":"Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes active during the day. Den/rest sites are in burrows of large ground squirrels or other rodents, or they dig their own dens. Marbled Polecats in Central Asia live in tunnel systems dug by the Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opinus). In Baluchistan, they live in burrows dug by the rodents or they may use underground irrigation tunnels. Sleeping chambers are 60-100 cmfrom the den entrance. In winter, they line the den with grass. When a Marbled Polecat digs, it presses its chin and hindpaws firmly to the ground and removes earth with its forelegs. Obstacles such as roots are pulled out with the teeth.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Marbled Polecats are good climbers, but feed mainly on the ground. Nightly movements may be up to 1 km. They are solitary except during the breeding season. In Israel, home ranges were 0-5- 0-6 km?; there were some overlaps of ranges and some encounters between individuals, but each animal foraged and rested alone.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstanand Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies Vp. peregusna is classified as Vulnerable. The major threat to this speciesis the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides and population declines in key prey species may also be threats. Small numbers of Marbled Polecats are harvested for fur in Pakistanand Lebanon.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 31-32: 6 cm(males), 28.8-47.7 cm(females), tail 16-5— 17- 5 cm(males), 15.5-17.8 cm(females); weight 330-715 g(males), 295-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Marbled Polecat has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish and is mottled with reddish or brown markings. The ears are large and white, the muzzle is short, and there is a conspicuous white stripe across the head. The area around the mouth is white. The fur is black around the eyes, giving a masked appearance. Thetail is bushy and covered with black and white hairs. The limbs are short and the feet have long claws. There are five pairs of mammae. The skull is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","habitat":"The Marbled Polecatis found in open desert, semi-desert, semi-arid rocky areas in upland valleys, steppe country, arid subtropical scrub forest, and low hill ranges. It is generally not found on higher mountain ranges, but has been recorded up to 2100 m. In Europe, the Marbled Polecat inhabits steppes with sparse hawthorn bush and sloe trees, and oldfields. In western Yugoslavia, they occur in montane-steppe and woodland-steppe areas. In eastern Yugoslavia, Marbled Polecats are found from river terraces and low hills to mountainous meadows. In western Serbia, they inhabit the outskirts of settlements. On the Sinai Peninsulain Egypt, one adultmale was captured in a sparsely vegetated sandy area. In Lebanon, Marbled Polecats are restricted to cultivated areas in close association with humans. In Israel, they live in the steppes and hills. In Central Asia, the Marbled Polecat is found in oases, tugai (river-valley complexes of forest, scrub, and meadow), dunes with sparse bush vegetation, clay steppes, and salt marshes;it is also found in irrigated country, melon patches, and vegetable fields, and sometimes enters buildings to forage. In Kazakhstan, Marbled Polecats are found in shifting dune country containing saxaul (Haloxylon), winter fat (Ewrotia ceratoides), and pea tree, and in salt marshes overgrown in saxaul. Marbled Polecats are also found in wormwood deserts, semi-deserts, and occasionally fescue and needle-grass steppes of the foothills. In north-western Chinaand the Ordos Desert, the Marbled Polecat occurs in forested areas, and in Siberia, it inhabits the western foothills of the Altai and the Cuya steppe."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"637","verbatimText":"24.Saharan Striped PolecatIctonyx libycusFrench:Zorille de Libye/ German:Streifenwiesel/ Spanish:Huron del SaharaOther common names:Saharan Striped WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela libyca Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Libya.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I. l. libycus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833— Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia.I. l. multivittata Wagner, 1841— E Chadand C Sudan.I. l. oralis Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Egypt, Eritrea, and N Sudan.I. l. rothschildi Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 20.7-26 cm, tail 114- 18 cm; weight 200-600 g, adult males are slightly larger than females. The Saharan Striped Polecat has a black and white pelage, with poorly defined black and white stripes along the sides of the body. The head is black with a white patch on the upperlip; there is a large white mark on the forehead. The limbs are short. The tail is short and bushy, and mostly white except for the black tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a short rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Sub-desert habitats, especially stony areas, steppes, and areas of sparse brush. Also found in cultivated areas and coastal sand dunes.Food and Feeding.The diet apparently consists of rodents, small birds, eggs,lizards, and insects. Food is located by smell and by sound, and the front claws are used to dig up food items.Activity pattern.Nocturnal. Rest sites are in burrows or rock crevices.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mostly solitary.Breeding.Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. A poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Hufnagl (1972), Niethammer (1987), Rosevear (1974), Setzer (1957), Sitek (1995), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela libyca Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Libya.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Zorille de Libye @fr | Streifenwiesel @de | Huron del Sahara @es | Saharan Striped Weasel @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Hemprich & Ehrenberg","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1833","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Ictonyx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"637","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"libycus","name":"Ictonyx libycus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"I. l. libycus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833— Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia.I. l. multivittata Wagner, 1841— E Chadand C Sudan.I. l. oralis Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Egypt, Eritrea, and N Sudan.I. l. rothschildi Thomas & Hinton, 1920— Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714199/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hufnagl (1972) | Niethammer (1987) | Rosevear (1974) | Setzer (1957) | Sitek (1995) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet apparently consists of rodents, small birds, eggs,lizards, and insects. Food is located by smell and by sound, and the front claws are used to dig up food items.","breeding":"Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mostly solitary.Breeding.Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 gat birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 gat two months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. A poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 20.7-26 cm, tail 114- 18 cm; weight 200-600 g, adult males are slightly larger than females. The Saharan Striped Polecat has a black and white pelage, with poorly defined black and white stripes along the sides of the body. The head is black with a white patch on the upperlip; there is a large white mark on the forehead. The limbs are short. The tail is short and bushy, and mostly white except for the black tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a short rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","habitat":"Sub-desert habitats, especially stony areas, steppes, and areas of sparse brush. Also found in cultivated areas and coastal sand dunes."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA43FFACCFA53ECEF81BF398.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA43FFACCFA53ECEF81BF398","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"638","verbatimText":"26.African Striped WeaselPoecilogale albinuchaFrench:Zorille a nugue blanche/ German:Weil3nackenwiesel/ Spanish:Huron de nuca blancaTaxonomy.Zorrilla albinucha Gray, 1865, South Africa.Monotypic.Distribution.C & S Africa from Angola, PR Congo, DR Congo, Uganda, and Kenyato Eastern CapeDescriptive notes.Head-body 27-33 cm(males), 24-32 cm(females), tail 13.8-20 cm(males), 14-15.8 cm(females); weight 283-380 g(males), 210-290 g(females), adult males are 35-50% heavier than females. The African Striped Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is black with contrasting dorsal white stripes; the white fur first divides into two lines, then into four distinct white to yellowish lines above the shoulders. The top of the head is white. The tail is long, brushy, and white. The feet are small, with sharp claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, and the rostrum is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 2/2, M 1/1 =28.Habitat.African Striped Weasels are found in forests, savannahs, grasslands, pine plantations, and cultivated land. They can be found up to 2200 m, but are more common below 1500 m. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, questionnaire surveys revealed that 75% of sightings occurred in grasslands, 19% in young pine plantations, and 6% in cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The diet mainly consists of small mammals, particularly rodents, but also includes reptiles, insects, and birds’ eggs. Out of twelve stomachs obtained in KwaZulu-Natal, six contained small mammals (Mastomys natalensis, Rhabdomys pumailio, and Musminutoides). African Striped Weasels hunt by scent, with vision being used only in the last 50 cm. Their shape enables them to hunt inside the burrows of rodents. When prey is sighted, the weasel stops and then lunges at the prey; short chases may occur. In captivity, all prey were killed within seven minutes. Prey are seized by the back of the neck. African Striped Weasels do not shake the prey when attempting to kill; instead, they roll around and vigorously kick at the back of their victim, possibly dislocating the neck and immobilizing the prey. Although most killing bites are directed at the back of the head and the neck, females may use throat bites when killing large prey. In captivity, African Striped Weasels were unsuccessful in killing rats (Rattus) that were more than 108% the mass of the weasel. One weasel can consume 3-4 mice in a night, but surplus killing may occur. Prey may be cached for future consumption. Small mammals are eaten head first and are usually entirely consumed. Occasionally, the prey’s stomach and its contents are not eaten. The head,tail, legs, and dorsal skin of large rodents are typically not consumed.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal, but activity may occur during the day. Rest sites are in holes, hollow logs, or within rock crevices. African Striped Weasels are powerful diggers and may dig their own dens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Striped Weasels are mostly solitary, but pairs or small groups are observed (typically a female with young). Females tolerate the proximity of males only during the mating season.Breeding.Mating occurs in spring or summer. Females give birth to a litter of two or three, after a gestation of 30 days. The young are born in a burrow and weigh around 4 gat birth. The eyes open after seven weeks and the canines erupt at 35 days. The young are fully mobile and weaned after eleven weeks; they start killing prey at 13 weeks. Adult size is reached at 20 weeks, and sexual maturity is attained after eight months. Females rear their young without the assistance of males.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The African Striped Weasel is considered uncommon. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Ansell (1960a), Lariviére (2001c), Rowe-Rowe (1972, 1978a, 1978b, 1978c), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Zorrilla albinucha Gray, 1865, South Africa.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zorille a nugue blanche @fr | Weil3nackenwiesel @de | Huron de nuca blanca @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1883","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Poecilogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"638","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albinucha","name":"Poecilogale albinucha","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714205/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ansell (1960a) | Lariviére (2001c) | Rowe-Rowe (1972, 1978a, 1978b, 1978c) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Stuart (1981) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet mainly consists of small mammals, particularly rodents, but also includes reptiles, insects, and birds’ eggs. Out of twelve stomachs obtained in KwaZulu-Natal, six contained small mammals (Mastomys natalensis, Rhabdomys pumailio, and Musminutoides). African Striped Weasels hunt by scent, with vision being used only in the last 50 cm. Their shape enables them to hunt inside the burrows of rodents. When prey is sighted, the weasel stops and then lunges at the prey; short chases may occur. In captivity, all prey were killed within seven minutes. Prey are seized by the back of the neck. African Striped Weasels do not shake the prey when attempting to kill; instead, they roll around and vigorously kick at the back of their victim, possibly dislocating the neck and immobilizing the prey. Although most killing bites are directed at the back of the head and the neck, females may use throat bites when killing large prey. In captivity, African Striped Weasels were unsuccessful in killing rats (Rattus) that were more than 108% the mass of the weasel. One weasel can consume 3-4 mice in a night, but surplus killing may occur. Prey may be cached for future consumption. Small mammals are eaten head first and are usually entirely consumed. Occasionally, the prey’s stomach and its contents are not eaten. The head,tail, legs, and dorsal skin of large rodents are typically not consumed.","breeding":"Mating occurs in spring or summer. Females give birth to a litter of two or three, after a gestation of 30 days. The young are born in a burrow and weigh around 4 gat birth. The eyes open after seven weeks and the canines erupt at 35 days. The young are fully mobile and weaned after eleven weeks; they start killing prey at 13 weeks. Adult size is reached at 20 weeks, and sexual maturity is attained after eight months. Females rear their young without the assistance of males.","activityPatterns":"Mostly nocturnal, but activity may occur during the day. Rest sites are in holes, hollow logs, or within rock crevices. African Striped Weasels are powerful diggers and may dig their own dens.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"African Striped Weasels are mostly solitary, but pairs or small groups are observed (typically a female with young). Females tolerate the proximity of males only during the mating season.Breeding.Mating occurs in spring or summer. Females give birth to a litter of two or three, after a gestation of 30 days. The young are born in a burrow and weigh around 4 gat birth. The eyes open after seven weeks and the canines erupt at 35 days. The young are fully mobile and weaned after eleven weeks; they start killing prey at 13 weeks. Adult size is reached at 20 weeks, and sexual maturity is attained after eight months. Females rear their young without the assistance of males.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The African Striped Weasel is considered uncommon. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 27-33 cm(males), 24-32 cm(females), tail 13.8-20 cm(males), 14-15.8 cm(females); weight 283-380 g(males), 210-290 g(females), adult males are 35-50% heavier than females. The African Striped Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is black with contrasting dorsal white stripes; the white fur first divides into two lines, then into four distinct white to yellowish lines above the shoulders. The top of the head is white. The tail is long, brushy, and white. The feet are small, with sharp claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, and the rostrum is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 2/2, M 1/1 =28.","habitat":"African Striped Weasels are found in forests, savannahs, grasslands, pine plantations, and cultivated land. They can be found up to 2200 m, but are more common below 1500 m. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, questionnaire surveys revealed that 75% of sightings occurred in grasslands, 19% in young pine plantations, and 6% in cultivated land."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"641","verbatimText":"28.North American RiverOtterLontra canadensisFrench:Loutre du Canada/ German:Nordamerikanischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria neérticaOther common names:RiverOtterTaxonomy.Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776— E Canada(Maritime Provinces, Ontario& Quebec), NE USA(Mainethrough New York) and Great Lakes of USA(Michiganand Wisconsin).L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935— Alaska(Kodiak and Shuyak Is).L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823— E & SE USA.L. c. mira Goldman, 1935— S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW Canada(Vancouver I).L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W USAand W Canada.L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898— SW USA(Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico& Utah).Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-73 cm(males), 58: 3-71.3 cm(females), tail 42-47 cm(males), 31.7-40 cm(females); weight 7.7-9.4 kg(males), 7.3-8.4 kg(females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American RiverOtter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.Habitat.North American RiverOtters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American RiverOtter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American RiverOtters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American RiverOtters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of 11 km/h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.Movements, Home range and Social organization.North American RiverOtters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than 40 kmin a single day. Daily movements average 4-5 kmfor males and 2-3 kmfor females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American RiverOtters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American RiverOtters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach 275 km” for males and 135 km? for females. In south-eastern Minnesota, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per 4 kmof water in Idahoto one per 1-25 kmof coastal water in Alaska.On following pages: 29. Marine Otter (Lontrafelina); 30. Neotropical Otter (Lontralongicaudis); 31. Southern RiverOtter (Lontraprovocax); 32. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris); 33. Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); 34. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra); 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutrasumatrana); 36. African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis); 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus); 38. Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata).Breeding.North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in Mexico. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.Bibliography.Gorman, Erb, McMillan & Martin (2006), Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin & Homyack (2006), Green (1932), Hall (1981), Lariviere & Walton (1998), LeBlanc et al. (2007), Melquist & Hornocker (1983), Reid et al. (1994), Serfass (1995), Serfass & Rymon (1985), Shannon (1989), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Seven subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre du Canada @fr | Nordamerikanischer Fischotter @de | Nutria neértica @es | River Otter @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lontra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"641","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"canadensis","name":"Lontra canadensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776— E Canada(Maritime Provinces, Ontario& Quebec), NE USA(Mainethrough New York) and Great Lakes of USA(Michiganand Wisconsin).L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935— Alaska(Kodiak and Shuyak Is).L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823— E & SE USA.L. c. mira Goldman, 1935— S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW Canada(Vancouver I).L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W USAand W Canada.L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898— SW USA(Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico& Utah).","bibliography":"Gorman, Erb, McMillan & Martin (2006) | Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin & Homyack (2006) | Green (1932) | Hall (1981) | Lariviere & Walton (1998) | LeBlanc et al. (2007) | Melquist & Hornocker (1983) | Reid et al. (1994) | Serfass (1995) | Serfass & Rymon (1985) | Shannon (1989) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American RiverOtter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American RiverOtters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American RiverOtters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of 11 km/h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.","breeding":"North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"North American RiverOtters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than 40 kmin a single day. Daily movements average 4-5 kmfor males and 2-3 kmfor females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American RiverOtters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American RiverOtters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach 275 km” for males and 135 km? for females. In south-eastern Minnesota, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per 4 kmof water in Idahoto one per 1-25 kmof coastal water in Alaska.On following pages: 29. Marine Otter (Lontrafelina); 30. Neotropical Otter (Lontralongicaudis); 31. Southern RiverOtter (Lontraprovocax); 32. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris); 33. Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); 34. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra); 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutrasumatrana); 36. African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis); 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus); 38. Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata).Breeding.North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in Mexico. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70-73 cm(males), 58: 3-71.3 cm(females), tail 42-47 cm(males), 31.7-40 cm(females); weight 7.7-9.4 kg(males), 7.3-8.4 kg(females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American RiverOtter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.","habitat":"North American RiverOtters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"641","verbatimText":"28.North American RiverOtterLontra canadensisFrench:Loutre du Canada/ German:Nordamerikanischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria neérticaOther common names:RiverOtterTaxonomy.Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776— E Canada(Maritime Provinces, Ontario& Quebec), NE USA(Mainethrough New York) and Great Lakes of USA(Michiganand Wisconsin).L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935— Alaska(Kodiak and Shuyak Is).L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823— E & SE USA.L. c. mira Goldman, 1935— S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW Canada(Vancouver I).L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W USAand W Canada.L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898— SW USA(Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico& Utah).Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-73 cm(males), 58: 3-71.3 cm(females), tail 42-47 cm(males), 31.7-40 cm(females); weight 7.7-9.4 kg(males), 7.3-8.4 kg(females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American RiverOtter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.Habitat.North American RiverOtters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American RiverOtter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American RiverOtters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American RiverOtters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of 11 km/h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.Movements, Home range and Social organization.North American RiverOtters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than 40 kmin a single day. Daily movements average 4-5 kmfor males and 2-3 kmfor females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American RiverOtters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American RiverOtters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach 275 km” for males and 135 km? for females. In south-eastern Minnesota, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per 4 kmof water in Idahoto one per 1-25 kmof coastal water in Alaska.On following pages: 29. Marine Otter (Lontrafelina); 30. Neotropical Otter (Lontralongicaudis); 31. Southern RiverOtter (Lontraprovocax); 32. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris); 33. Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); 34. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra); 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutrasumatrana); 36. African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis); 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus); 38. Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata).Breeding.North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in Mexico. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.Bibliography.Gorman, Erb, McMillan & Martin (2006), Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin & Homyack (2006), Green (1932), Hall (1981), Lariviere & Walton (1998), LeBlanc et al. (2007), Melquist & Hornocker (1983), Reid et al. (1994), Serfass (1995), Serfass & Rymon (1985), Shannon (1989), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Seven subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre du Canada @fr | Nordamerikanischer Fischotter @de | Nutria neértica @es | River Otter @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lontra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"641","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"canadensis","name":"Lontra canadensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776— E Canada(Maritime Provinces, Ontario& Quebec), NE USA(Mainethrough New York) and Great Lakes of USA(Michiganand Wisconsin).L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935— Alaska(Kodiak and Shuyak Is).L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823— E & SE USA.L. c. mira Goldman, 1935— S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW Canada(Vancouver I).L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W USAand W Canada.L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898— SW USA(Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico& Utah).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714211/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Gorman, Erb, McMillan & Martin (2006) | Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin & Homyack (2006) | Green (1932) | Hall (1981) | Lariviere & Walton (1998) | LeBlanc et al. (2007) | Melquist & Hornocker (1983) | Reid et al. (1994) | Serfass (1995) | Serfass & Rymon (1985) | Shannon (1989) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American RiverOtter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American RiverOtters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American RiverOtters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of 11 km/h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.","breeding":"North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"North American RiverOtters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than 40 kmin a single day. Daily movements average 4-5 kmfor males and 2-3 kmfor females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American RiverOtters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American RiverOtters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach 275 km” for males and 135 km? for females. In south-eastern Minnesota, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per 4 kmof water in Idahoto one per 1-25 kmof coastal water in Alaska.On following pages: 29. Marine Otter (Lontrafelina); 30. Neotropical Otter (Lontralongicaudis); 31. Southern RiverOtter (Lontraprovocax); 32. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris); 33. Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); 34. Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra); 35. Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutrasumatrana); 36. African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis); 37. Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus); 38. Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata).Breeding.North American RiverOtters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two femalesused man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 mfrom the nearest body of water. Seven of eight femalesplaced dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in Mexico. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70-73 cm(males), 58: 3-71.3 cm(females), tail 42-47 cm(males), 31.7-40 cm(females); weight 7.7-9.4 kg(males), 7.3-8.4 kg(females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American RiverOtter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.","habitat":"North American RiverOtters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA46FFA9CAE93DF2F7AEFDBC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA46FFA9CAE93DF2F7AEFDBC","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"641","verbatimText":"27.Giant OtterPteronura brasiliensisFrench:Loutre géante/ German:Riesenotter/ Spanish:Nutria giganteTaxonomy.Mustela brasiliensis Gmelin, 1788, Brazil.Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon and Orinoco basins from Venezuelato Paraguayand S Brazil. Formerly also Argentinaand Uruguay, but now may be extinct there.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-130 cm(males), 100-120 cm(females), tail 45-65 cm; weight 26-32 kg(males), 22-26 kg(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Giant Otter is the largest South American otter. It has a broad and flattened head and large eyes. The pelage is reddish to dark brown or almost black. There are large and distinctive white to yellow markings on the upper chest, neck, throat, and lips that contrast sharply with the darker body; these patches may unite to form a large “bib”. The rhinarium is fully haired. Thetail is large and flattened dorsoventrally. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is massive and flat.Habitat.Giant Otters are found in slow-moving rivers and creeks within forests, swamps, and marshes. They also occur in lakes, reservoirs, and agricultural canals. Although Giant Otters may inhabit dark or murky water, they prefer clear water and waterways with gently sloping banks and good cover.Food and Feeding.Primarily fish eaters; adults consume an estimated 3 kgoffish daily. The main fish species eaten are from the suborder Characoideiand are 10-60 cmin length. Other prey items are rare, but may include crabs, small mammals, amphibians, birds, and molluscs. There are records of Giant Otters eating large prey such as anacondas and other snakes, black caimans, and turtles. On the Jauaperi Riverin the central Brazilian Amazon, remains of fish were found in all spraints. The main fish groups were Perciformes(Cichlidae, 97-3%), Characiformes(86-5%) and Siluriformes (5-4%). The Characiformeswere represented mainly by Erythrinidae(Hoplias sp.90-6%), followed by Serrasalmidae (28%). The Anostomidae occurred with a frequency of 18:7%. On the Aquidauana River, the Characiformeswere the most frequent fish group, represented in 100% of all samples, followed by Siluriformes (66-6%) and Perciformes(33:3%). Prey is caught with the mouth and held in the forepaws while being consumed. Small fish may be eaten in the water, but larger prey are taken to shore.Activity patterns.Diurnal. Giant Otters frequently go ashore to groom, play or defecate. Rest sites are in burrows, under root systems, or under fallen trees. At certain points along a stream, areas of about 50 m* are cleared and used for resting and grooming. Dens may consist of one or more short tunnels that lead to a chamber about 1-2- 1-8 mwide. Nine vocalizations have been distinguished including screams of excitement and coos, given upon close intra-specific contact.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Otters are excellent swimmers and seem clumsy on land; however, they are capable of moving considerable distances between waterways. Daily travel may reach 17 km. During the dry season, when the young are being reared, activity is generally restricted to one portion of a waterway. In the wet season, movements are far more extensive. Giant Otters live in family groups that consist of a mated adult pair, one or more subadults, and one or more young of the year. These groups may reach 20 individuals, but are usually four to eight. Solitary animals also occur as transients. Home ranges are 12-32 linear km of creeks or rivers, or 20 km? of lakes or reservoirs. The core area of the home range is defended actively by family members; this core area encompasses 2-10 kmof creek or 5 km” of lake. Both sexes regularly patrol and mark their territory; groups tend to avoid each other and fighting appears to be rare.Breeding.The young are apparently born at the start of the dry season, from August to early October, although births may also occur from December to April. Gestation is 65-70 days, although evidence of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus has been observed in captivity. Litter size is up to five, usually one to three. Neonates weigh c. 200 gand measure c. 33 cm. They are able to eat solid food by three to four months and weaning occurs after nine months. The young remain with the parents until the birth of the next litter and probably for some time afterward. Adult size is reached after ten months and sexual maturity is attained at about two years.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The Giant Otter is protected throughoutits distribution.The current total wild population is estimated at between 1000 and 5000 individuals. Major threats are habitat degradation, water pollution, and the ever-increasing encroachment of humans on their habitats, which may lead to a potential future reduction in population size of around 50% over the next 20 years. Other threats for this species are the continued illegal killing for their skins or meat, captures for the zoo trade, or robbing of dens for cubs to be sold as pets. There are also conflicts with fishermen as otters are perceived to reduce available fish stock, although studies have shown little overlap in otter prey species and those of commercial interest. Canine diseases that are transferred through domestic livestock, such as parvovirus and distemper, are also a threat.Bibliography.Autuori & Deutsch (1977), Brecht-Munn & Munn (1988), Carter & Rosas (1997), Chebez (2008), Corredor & Tigreros (2006), Defler (1986b), Duplaix (1980), IUCN(2008), Laidler & Laidler (1983), Parera (1992), Rosas et al. (1999), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela brasiliensis Gmelin, 1788, Brazil.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Loutre géante @fr | Riesenotter @de | Nutria gigante @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Pteronura","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"641","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brasiliensis","name":"Pteronura brasiliensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon and Orinoco basins from Venezuelato Paraguayand S Brazil. Formerly also Argentinaand Uruguay, but now may be extinct there.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714209/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Autuori & Deutsch (1977) | Brecht-Munn & Munn (1988) | Carter & Rosas (1997) | Chebez (2008) | Corredor & Tigreros (2006) | Defler (1986b) | Duplaix (1980) | IUCN(2008) | Laidler & Laidler (1983) | Parera (1992) | Rosas et al. (1999) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Primarily fish eaters; adults consume an estimated 3 kgoffish daily. The main fish species eaten are from the suborder Characoideiand are 10-60 cmin length. Other prey items are rare, but may include crabs, small mammals, amphibians, birds, and molluscs. There are records of Giant Otters eating large prey such as anacondas and other snakes, black caimans, and turtles. On the Jauaperi Riverin the central Brazilian Amazon, remains of fish were found in all spraints. The main fish groups were Perciformes(Cichlidae, 97-3%), Characiformes(86-5%) and Siluriformes (5-4%). The Characiformeswere represented mainly by Erythrinidae(Hoplias sp.90-6%), followed by Serrasalmidae (28%). The Anostomidae occurred with a frequency of 18:7%. On the Aquidauana River, the Characiformeswere the most frequent fish group, represented in 100% of all samples, followed by Siluriformes (66-6%) and Perciformes(33:3%). Prey is caught with the mouth and held in the forepaws while being consumed. Small fish may be eaten in the water, but larger prey are taken to shore.","breeding":"The young are apparently born at the start of the dry season, from August to early October, although births may also occur from December to April. Gestation is 65-70 days, although evidence of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus has been observed in captivity. Litter size is up to five, usually one to three. Neonates weigh c. 200 gand measure c. 33 cm. They are able to eat solid food by three to four months and weaning occurs after nine months. The young remain with the parents until the birth of the next litter and probably for some time afterward. Adult size is reached after ten months and sexual maturity is attained at about two years.","activityPatterns":"Diurnal. Giant Otters frequently go ashore to groom, play or defecate. Rest sites are in burrows, under root systems, or under fallen trees. At certain points along a stream, areas of about 50 m* are cleared and used for resting and grooming. Dens may consist of one or more short tunnels that lead to a chamber about 1-2- 1-8 mwide. Nine vocalizations have been distinguished including screams of excitement and coos, given upon close intra-specific contact.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Giant Otters are excellent swimmers and seem clumsy on land; however, they are capable of moving considerable distances between waterways. Daily travel may reach 17 km. During the dry season, when the young are being reared, activity is generally restricted to one portion of a waterway. In the wet season, movements are far more extensive. Giant Otters live in family groups that consist of a mated adult pair, one or more subadults, and one or more young of the year. These groups may reach 20 individuals, but are usually four to eight. Solitary animals also occur as transients. Home ranges are 12-32 linear km of creeks or rivers, or 20 km? of lakes or reservoirs. The core area of the home range is defended actively by family members; this core area encompasses 2-10 kmof creek or 5 km” of lake. Both sexes regularly patrol and mark their territory; groups tend to avoid each other and fighting appears to be rare.Breeding.The young are apparently born at the start of the dry season, from August to early October, although births may also occur from December to April. Gestation is 65-70 days, although evidence of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus has been observed in captivity. Litter size is up to five, usually one to three. Neonates weigh c. 200 gand measure c. 33 cm. They are able to eat solid food by three to four months and weaning occurs after nine months. The young remain with the parents until the birth of the next litter and probably for some time afterward. Adult size is reached after ten months and sexual maturity is attained at about two years.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The Giant Otter is protected throughoutits distribution.The current total wild population is estimated at between 1000 and 5000 individuals. Major threats are habitat degradation, water pollution, and the ever-increasing encroachment of humans on their habitats, which may lead to a potential future reduction in population size of around 50% over the next 20 years. Other threats for this species are the continued illegal killing for their skins or meat, captures for the zoo trade, or robbing of dens for cubs to be sold as pets. There are also conflicts with fishermen as otters are perceived to reduce available fish stock, although studies have shown little overlap in otter prey species and those of commercial interest. Canine diseases that are transferred through domestic livestock, such as parvovirus and distemper, are also a threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-130 cm(males), 100-120 cm(females), tail 45-65 cm; weight 26-32 kg(males), 22-26 kg(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Giant Otter is the largest South American otter. It has a broad and flattened head and large eyes. The pelage is reddish to dark brown or almost black. There are large and distinctive white to yellow markings on the upper chest, neck, throat, and lips that contrast sharply with the darker body; these patches may unite to form a large “bib”. The rhinarium is fully haired. Thetail is large and flattened dorsoventrally. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is massive and flat.","habitat":"Giant Otters are found in slow-moving rivers and creeks within forests, swamps, and marshes. They also occur in lakes, reservoirs, and agricultural canals. Although Giant Otters may inhabit dark or murky water, they prefer clear water and waterways with gently sloping banks and good cover."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"642","verbatimText":"30.Neotropical OtterLontra longicaudisFrench:Loutre néotropicale/ German:Siidamerikanischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria neotropicalTaxonomy.Lutra longicaudis Olfers, 1818, Brazil.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. l. longicaudis Olfers, 1818— Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, S Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.L. l. annectens Major, 1897— Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.L. l. enudris Cuvier, 1823— NE Brazil, the Guyanas, and Trinidad.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-66 cm,tail 37-84 cm; weight 5-15 kg, adult males are 20-25% larger than females. The Neotropical Otter is heavily built, with a long body, short limbs, and fully webbed feet. The pelage is dark brown, with a gray neck and throat. The muzzle is broad, with a yellowish white tip and long vibrissae on each side. The skull is heavy, long, and flat.Habitat.Neotropical Otters are found in fast flowing, clear rivers and streams, in both deciduous and evergreen forests, at elevations up to 3000 m. They prefer waterways with clear water, abundant waterside vegetation, and high availability of potential den sites; they are rare or absent from sluggish, murky, lowland waters. In Northern Mexico, along a 30 kmstretch ofriver, the habitat preferred by a Neotropical Otter included pools that averaged more than 0-8 mdeep, more than 14- 6 mwide, with over 64% understory vegetation cover, and rock talus/vegetation cover within 4-8 mof the water's edge.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. In southern Brazil, spraint analysis revealed a diet comprising mainly fish (including Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, Pimelodidae, Auchenipteridae, and Erythrinidae), and also mammals and insects. In the coastal plain of Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, spraints contained fish (mainly Hopliasmalabaricus and Geophagus brasiliensis) and crustaceans (mainly the river crab Trichodactylus fluviatilis). The presence of fruits, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the diet was occasional and opportunistic. On Ibera Lake, Argentina, 205 spraints contained mainly fish (Cichlidae, Characidae, Synbranchidae, Loricariidae, and Erythrinidae), but also crustaceans and molluscs. Seasonal variation was observed in the diet: in the summer, crustaceans and vertebrates (other than fish) increased. A higher percentage of benthic fish species was also observed in the summer, while pelagic and benthopelagic species increased in the winter. Such dietary changes may have resulted from the different habitat used in different seasons, from the lake coast in winter towards a more internal marshy area in summer. Foraging dives last 20-30 seconds. Small prey are eaten while in an upright position at the water’s surface; large prey are taken ashore.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, with activity peaks in the middle or late afternoon. May become nocturnal in areas of high human activity. Rest sites are in natural cavities along riverbanks, in excavated burrows, or in dense grass. In Brazil, two large caves were also used as shelters and to raise young. Neotropical Otters mainly use rest sites located high on riverbanks, probably because they are less vulnerable to flooding. Sprainting sites are usually on solid, high and dry areas, in close proximity to deep water; these sites include logs, root systems, rocks, sand bars, and planks under bridges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Neotropical Otters are graceful swimmers and divers, and are seldom seen out of the water. On land, they move with a humping gait, with the head and tail carried low. Neotropical Otters are solitary, but breeding pairs and females with young are seen occasionally. Population densities vary from 0-8 to 2-8 otters per km of shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish. Conservation goals should aim at reducing hunting pressure, protecting areas, and enacting stricter regulations to prevent water pollution.Bibliography.Arcila& Ramirez (2004), Gallo (1991), Helder & Ker De Andrade (1997), Kasper et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999b), Mondolfi (1970), Pardini & Trajano (1999), Parera (1993), Passamani & Camargo (1995), Quadros & Monteiro-Filho (2001), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Lutra longicaudis Olfers, 1818, Brazil.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre néotropicale @fr | Siidamerikanischer Fischotter @de | Nutria neotropical @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lontra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"642","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"longicaudis","name":"Lontra longicaudis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. l. longicaudis Olfers, 1818— Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, S Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.L. l. annectens Major, 1897— Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.L. l. enudris Cuvier, 1823— NE Brazil, the Guyanas, and Trinidad.","bibliography":"Arcila& Ramirez (2004) | Gallo (1991) | Helder & Ker De Andrade (1997) | Kasper et al. (2004) | Lariviere (1999b) | Mondolfi (1970) | Pardini & Trajano (1999) | Parera (1993) | Passamani & Camargo (1995) | Quadros & Monteiro-Filho (2001) | Van Zyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. In southern Brazil, spraint analysis revealed a diet comprising mainly fish (including Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, Pimelodidae, Auchenipteridae, and Erythrinidae), and also mammals and insects. In the coastal plain of Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, spraints contained fish (mainly Hopliasmalabaricus and Geophagus brasiliensis) and crustaceans (mainly the river crab Trichodactylus fluviatilis). The presence of fruits, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the diet was occasional and opportunistic. On Ibera Lake, Argentina, 205 spraints contained mainly fish (Cichlidae, Characidae, Synbranchidae, Loricariidae, and Erythrinidae), but also crustaceans and molluscs. Seasonal variation was observed in the diet: in the summer, crustaceans and vertebrates (other than fish) increased. A higher percentage of benthic fish species was also observed in the summer, while pelagic and benthopelagic species increased in the winter. Such dietary changes may have resulted from the different habitat used in different seasons, from the lake coast in winter towards a more internal marshy area in summer. Foraging dives last 20-30 seconds. Small prey are eaten while in an upright position at the water’s surface; large prey are taken ashore.","breeding":"Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.","activityPatterns":"Mainly diurnal, with activity peaks in the middle or late afternoon. May become nocturnal in areas of high human activity. Rest sites are in natural cavities along riverbanks, in excavated burrows, or in dense grass. In Brazil, two large caves were also used as shelters and to raise young. Neotropical Otters mainly use rest sites located high on riverbanks, probably because they are less vulnerable to flooding. Sprainting sites are usually on solid, high and dry areas, in close proximity to deep water; these sites include logs, root systems, rocks, sand bars, and planks under bridges.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Neotropical Otters are graceful swimmers and divers, and are seldom seen out of the water. On land, they move with a humping gait, with the head and tail carried low. Neotropical Otters are solitary, but breeding pairs and females with young are seen occasionally. Population densities vary from 0-8 to 2-8 otters per km of shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish. Conservation goals should aim at reducing hunting pressure, protecting areas, and enacting stricter regulations to prevent water pollution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 36-66 cm,tail 37-84 cm; weight 5-15 kg, adult males are 20-25% larger than females. The Neotropical Otter is heavily built, with a long body, short limbs, and fully webbed feet. The pelage is dark brown, with a gray neck and throat. The muzzle is broad, with a yellowish white tip and long vibrissae on each side. The skull is heavy, long, and flat.","habitat":"Neotropical Otters are found in fast flowing, clear rivers and streams, in both deciduous and evergreen forests, at elevations up to 3000 m. They prefer waterways with clear water, abundant waterside vegetation, and high availability of potential den sites; they are rare or absent from sluggish, murky, lowland waters. In Northern Mexico, along a 30 kmstretch ofriver, the habitat preferred by a Neotropical Otter included pools that averaged more than 0-8 mdeep, more than 14- 6 mwide, with over 64% understory vegetation cover, and rock talus/vegetation cover within 4-8 mof the water's edge."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"642","verbatimText":"30.Neotropical OtterLontra longicaudisFrench:Loutre néotropicale/ German:Siidamerikanischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria neotropicalTaxonomy.Lutra longicaudis Olfers, 1818, Brazil.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. l. longicaudis Olfers, 1818— Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, S Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.L. l. annectens Major, 1897— Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.L. l. enudris Cuvier, 1823— NE Brazil, the Guyanas, and Trinidad.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-66 cm,tail 37-84 cm; weight 5-15 kg, adult males are 20-25% larger than females. The Neotropical Otter is heavily built, with a long body, short limbs, and fully webbed feet. The pelage is dark brown, with a gray neck and throat. The muzzle is broad, with a yellowish white tip and long vibrissae on each side. The skull is heavy, long, and flat.Habitat.Neotropical Otters are found in fast flowing, clear rivers and streams, in both deciduous and evergreen forests, at elevations up to 3000 m. They prefer waterways with clear water, abundant waterside vegetation, and high availability of potential den sites; they are rare or absent from sluggish, murky, lowland waters. In Northern Mexico, along a 30 kmstretch ofriver, the habitat preferred by a Neotropical Otter included pools that averaged more than 0-8 mdeep, more than 14- 6 mwide, with over 64% understory vegetation cover, and rock talus/vegetation cover within 4-8 mof the water's edge.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. In southern Brazil, spraint analysis revealed a diet comprising mainly fish (including Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, Pimelodidae, Auchenipteridae, and Erythrinidae), and also mammals and insects. In the coastal plain of Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, spraints contained fish (mainly Hopliasmalabaricus and Geophagus brasiliensis) and crustaceans (mainly the river crab Trichodactylus fluviatilis). The presence of fruits, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the diet was occasional and opportunistic. On Ibera Lake, Argentina, 205 spraints contained mainly fish (Cichlidae, Characidae, Synbranchidae, Loricariidae, and Erythrinidae), but also crustaceans and molluscs. Seasonal variation was observed in the diet: in the summer, crustaceans and vertebrates (other than fish) increased. A higher percentage of benthic fish species was also observed in the summer, while pelagic and benthopelagic species increased in the winter. Such dietary changes may have resulted from the different habitat used in different seasons, from the lake coast in winter towards a more internal marshy area in summer. Foraging dives last 20-30 seconds. Small prey are eaten while in an upright position at the water’s surface; large prey are taken ashore.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, with activity peaks in the middle or late afternoon. May become nocturnal in areas of high human activity. Rest sites are in natural cavities along riverbanks, in excavated burrows, or in dense grass. In Brazil, two large caves were also used as shelters and to raise young. Neotropical Otters mainly use rest sites located high on riverbanks, probably because they are less vulnerable to flooding. Sprainting sites are usually on solid, high and dry areas, in close proximity to deep water; these sites include logs, root systems, rocks, sand bars, and planks under bridges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Neotropical Otters are graceful swimmers and divers, and are seldom seen out of the water. On land, they move with a humping gait, with the head and tail carried low. Neotropical Otters are solitary, but breeding pairs and females with young are seen occasionally. Population densities vary from 0-8 to 2-8 otters per km of shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish. Conservation goals should aim at reducing hunting pressure, protecting areas, and enacting stricter regulations to prevent water pollution.Bibliography.Arcila& Ramirez (2004), Gallo (1991), Helder & Ker De Andrade (1997), Kasper et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999b), Mondolfi (1970), Pardini & Trajano (1999), Parera (1993), Passamani & Camargo (1995), Quadros & Monteiro-Filho (2001), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Lutra longicaudis Olfers, 1818, Brazil.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre néotropicale @fr | Siidamerikanischer Fischotter @de | Nutria neotropical @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lontra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"642","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"longicaudis","name":"Lontra longicaudis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. l. longicaudis Olfers, 1818— Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, S Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.L. l. annectens Major, 1897— Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.L. l. enudris Cuvier, 1823— NE Brazil, the Guyanas, and Trinidad.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714217/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arcila& Ramirez (2004) | Gallo (1991) | Helder & Ker De Andrade (1997) | Kasper et al. (2004) | Lariviere (1999b) | Mondolfi (1970) | Pardini & Trajano (1999) | Parera (1993) | Passamani & Camargo (1995) | Quadros & Monteiro-Filho (2001) | Van Zyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. In southern Brazil, spraint analysis revealed a diet comprising mainly fish (including Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, Pimelodidae, Auchenipteridae, and Erythrinidae), and also mammals and insects. In the coastal plain of Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, spraints contained fish (mainly Hopliasmalabaricus and Geophagus brasiliensis) and crustaceans (mainly the river crab Trichodactylus fluviatilis). The presence of fruits, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the diet was occasional and opportunistic. On Ibera Lake, Argentina, 205 spraints contained mainly fish (Cichlidae, Characidae, Synbranchidae, Loricariidae, and Erythrinidae), but also crustaceans and molluscs. Seasonal variation was observed in the diet: in the summer, crustaceans and vertebrates (other than fish) increased. A higher percentage of benthic fish species was also observed in the summer, while pelagic and benthopelagic species increased in the winter. Such dietary changes may have resulted from the different habitat used in different seasons, from the lake coast in winter towards a more internal marshy area in summer. Foraging dives last 20-30 seconds. Small prey are eaten while in an upright position at the water’s surface; large prey are taken ashore.","breeding":"Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.","activityPatterns":"Mainly diurnal, with activity peaks in the middle or late afternoon. May become nocturnal in areas of high human activity. Rest sites are in natural cavities along riverbanks, in excavated burrows, or in dense grass. In Brazil, two large caves were also used as shelters and to raise young. Neotropical Otters mainly use rest sites located high on riverbanks, probably because they are less vulnerable to flooding. Sprainting sites are usually on solid, high and dry areas, in close proximity to deep water; these sites include logs, root systems, rocks, sand bars, and planks under bridges.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Neotropical Otters are graceful swimmers and divers, and are seldom seen out of the water. On land, they move with a humping gait, with the head and tail carried low. Neotropical Otters are solitary, but breeding pairs and females with young are seen occasionally. Population densities vary from 0-8 to 2-8 otters per km of shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish. Conservation goals should aim at reducing hunting pressure, protecting areas, and enacting stricter regulations to prevent water pollution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 36-66 cm,tail 37-84 cm; weight 5-15 kg, adult males are 20-25% larger than females. The Neotropical Otter is heavily built, with a long body, short limbs, and fully webbed feet. The pelage is dark brown, with a gray neck and throat. The muzzle is broad, with a yellowish white tip and long vibrissae on each side. The skull is heavy, long, and flat.","habitat":"Neotropical Otters are found in fast flowing, clear rivers and streams, in both deciduous and evergreen forests, at elevations up to 3000 m. They prefer waterways with clear water, abundant waterside vegetation, and high availability of potential den sites; they are rare or absent from sluggish, murky, lowland waters. In Northern Mexico, along a 30 kmstretch ofriver, the habitat preferred by a Neotropical Otter included pools that averaged more than 0-8 mdeep, more than 14- 6 mwide, with over 64% understory vegetation cover, and rock talus/vegetation cover within 4-8 mof the water's edge."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA47FFA8CAB33B0EF993FBD4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA47FFA8CAB33B0EF993FBD4","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"642","verbatimText":"29.Marine OtterLontra felinaFrench:Loutre chungungo/ German:Stidamerikanischer Meerotter/ Spanish:ChungungoTaxonomy.Mustela felina Molina, 1782, Chile.The Marine Otter was previously included in the genus Lutra. Monotypic.Distribution.Pacific coast from N Peruto S Chile, and extreme S of ArgentinePatagonia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 53.3-78.7 cm, tail 30-36.2 cm; weight 3.2-5.8 kg. The smallest of the South American otters. The pelage is dark brown through-out except for a grayish neck and throat. Large vibrissae occur on each upperlip. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is small and flat, with a broad rostrum.Habitat.Marine Otters are found in marine environments, along rocky coasts that harbor a high diversity of prey. They spend most of their time within 150 mof shore, but occasionally may venture into freshwater tributaries flowing into the sea.Food and Feeding.The diet is primarily crustaceans, molluscs, and fish, but also includes birds, small mammals, and fruit. Along the Chilean coast, the diet consists of crabs (69-8%), fish (19:9%), shrimp (6:4%), and molluscs (3-9%). On the Valdivian coast in the south of Chile, spraints contained 25 species: 52% crustaceans, 40% fish, and 8% molluscs. Marine Otters showed opportunistic feeding behavior, selecting prey seasonally according to their availability. Marine Otters fish by first swimming to a hunting area, where they then dive underwater for 6-64 seconds. Captured prey are consumed in the waterif they are small enough to be handled easily, or taken ashore if larger. Crabs are almost always taken ashore. Prey can be carried in the mouth, or carried on the belly while swimming dorsally. Unlike Sea Otters, Marine Otters do not use rocks as anvils to crack open bivalves or shellfish. At Isla Choros, northern Chile, Marine Otters spent more time foraging in a wave-protected site compared with a wave-exposed habitat. Successful dives reached 26-9% in the wave-exposed habitat and 38-2% in the wave-protected habitat. Foraging dives were 18% shorter in wave-exposed as compared with wave-protected habitat.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal. Marine Otters spend about 40% of their time hunting and 60% resting or grooming. They make extensive use of caves, rock crevices, and natural cavities for resting sites. Many areas used for resting at low tide are underwater during high tides.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Marine Otters are strong swimmers, but their daily movements occur within 150 mofthe coast. Long coastal movements are not documented. Marine Otters are solitary and seldom hunt in groups; observed groups are likely to consist of a female with her young. Among adults, home ranges overlap. Six Marine Otters were radio-tracked in central Chile. Females exhibited intra-sexualterritoriality, but there was no territoriality between males or between sexes. Home ranges were less than 4134 mlong and less than 110 mwide; range size did not differ between sexes. Marine Otters concentrated their activity in the littoral zone and spent 81% oftheir time on land, mostly resting. Core areas were associated with resting places and dens. Population density varies from 0-04-10 otters per km of coastline.Breeding.Mating occurs in December orJanuary. Gestation lasts 60-65 days and births take place in January, February, or March. Females give birth in rocky caves; these dens are spaces between boulders that remain above water even at high tide, and many have underwater entrances. Litter size is two to four. The young remain with their mother for up to ten months.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. It is estimated that fewer than 1000 Marine Otters remain, including a Peruvian population of 200-300. This species is protected in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Major threats include human occupation of the coast, water pollution, and illegal killing for their pelts or by fisherman who blame Marine Otters for the reduction of local fish or shrimp populations.Bibliography.Castilla (1981), Eisenberg (1989), Lariviere (1998), Medina(1995), Medina, Boher et al. (2007), Medina, Rodriguez et al. (2004), Ostfeld et al. (1989), Sielfeld (1983), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela felina Molina, 1782, Chile.The Marine Otter was previously included in the genus Lutra. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Loutre chungungo @fr | Stidamerikanischer Meerotter @de | Chungungo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lontra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"642","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"felina","name":"Lontra felina","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Pacific coast from N Peruto S Chile, and extreme S of ArgentinePatagonia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714213/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Castilla (1981) | Eisenberg (1989) | Lariviere (1998) | Medina(1995) | Medina, Boher et al. (2007) | Medina, Rodriguez et al. (2004) | Ostfeld et al. (1989) | Sielfeld (1983) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is primarily crustaceans, molluscs, and fish, but also includes birds, small mammals, and fruit. Along the Chilean coast, the diet consists of crabs (69-8%), fish (19:9%), shrimp (6:4%), and molluscs (3-9%). On the Valdivian coast in the south of Chile, spraints contained 25 species: 52% crustaceans, 40% fish, and 8% molluscs. Marine Otters showed opportunistic feeding behavior, selecting prey seasonally according to their availability. Marine Otters fish by first swimming to a hunting area, where they then dive underwater for 6-64 seconds. Captured prey are consumed in the waterif they are small enough to be handled easily, or taken ashore if larger. Crabs are almost always taken ashore. Prey can be carried in the mouth, or carried on the belly while swimming dorsally. Unlike Sea Otters, Marine Otters do not use rocks as anvils to crack open bivalves or shellfish. At Isla Choros, northern Chile, Marine Otters spent more time foraging in a wave-protected site compared with a wave-exposed habitat. Successful dives reached 26-9% in the wave-exposed habitat and 38-2% in the wave-protected habitat. Foraging dives were 18% shorter in wave-exposed as compared with wave-protected habitat.","breeding":"Mating occurs in December orJanuary. Gestation lasts 60-65 days and births take place in January, February, or March. Females give birth in rocky caves; these dens are spaces between boulders that remain above water even at high tide, and many have underwater entrances. Litter size is two to four. The young remain with their mother for up to ten months.","activityPatterns":"Mainly diurnal. Marine Otters spend about 40% of their time hunting and 60% resting or grooming. They make extensive use of caves, rock crevices, and natural cavities for resting sites. Many areas used for resting at low tide are underwater during high tides.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Marine Otters are strong swimmers, but their daily movements occur within 150 mofthe coast. Long coastal movements are not documented. Marine Otters are solitary and seldom hunt in groups; observed groups are likely to consist of a female with her young. Among adults, home ranges overlap. Six Marine Otters were radio-tracked in central Chile. Females exhibited intra-sexualterritoriality, but there was no territoriality between males or between sexes. Home ranges were less than 4134 mlong and less than 110 mwide; range size did not differ between sexes. Marine Otters concentrated their activity in the littoral zone and spent 81% oftheir time on land, mostly resting. Core areas were associated with resting places and dens. Population density varies from 0-04-10 otters per km of coastline.Breeding.Mating occurs in December orJanuary. Gestation lasts 60-65 days and births take place in January, February, or March. Females give birth in rocky caves; these dens are spaces between boulders that remain above water even at high tide, and many have underwater entrances. Litter size is two to four. The young remain with their mother for up to ten months.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. It is estimated that fewer than 1000 Marine Otters remain, including a Peruvian population of 200-300. This species is protected in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Major threats include human occupation of the coast, water pollution, and illegal killing for their pelts or by fisherman who blame Marine Otters for the reduction of local fish or shrimp populations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 53.3-78.7 cm, tail 30-36.2 cm; weight 3.2-5.8 kg. The smallest of the South American otters. The pelage is dark brown through-out except for a grayish neck and throat. Large vibrissae occur on each upperlip. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is small and flat, with a broad rostrum.","habitat":"Marine Otters are found in marine environments, along rocky coasts that harbor a high diversity of prey. They spend most of their time within 150 mof shore, but occasionally may venture into freshwater tributaries flowing into the sea."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"643","verbatimText":"32.Sea OtterEnhydra lutrisFrench:Loutre de mer/ German:Meerotter/ Spanish:Nutria marinaTaxonomy.Mustela lutris Linnaeus, 1758, Kamchatka, Russia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. l. lutris Linnaeus, 1758— NE Russia(Commander Is, Kamchatka, Kurile Is & SakhalinI).E. l. kenyoni Wilson, 1991— Aleutian Is through Alaska and W Canada(Vancouver I) to W USA(Washington).E. l. nereis Merriam, 1904— USA(California).Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 25-37 cm; weight 21-45 kg(males), 14-33 kg(females). The Sea Otter is one of the largest species within the Mustelidae. Sea Otters have long bodies and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown to dark brown, with a gray or creamy-colored head, throat, and chest. The underfur is very dense, averaging 100,000 hairs per cm®. The head is wide and blunt, with long and thick vibrissae on the upper lips. The ears are small and set low to the sides, and capable of closing when the otter dives. The tail is slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, but uniform in thickness from the base to tip. All four feet are webbed and clawed. There is one pair of mammae. A fold of skin in the armpits enables the Sea Otter to transport prey at sea while foraging. The Sea Otter lacks anal glands. The skull is flat, broad and strong. Dental formula: 1 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 32. The molars are broad and flat, with rounded crowns. This is the only carnivore species with four (instead ofsix) lowerincisors.Habitat.Sea Otters are found in coastal marine habitats from sheltered and sandy bays to rocky shorelines exposed to rough seas. Although marine mammals, they rarely venture more than one km from shore. Typically, they live and forage in waters at depths of up to 100 m, but the highest densities of Sea Otters occur in waters less than 40 mdeep.Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly marine invertebrates such as abalones, sea urchins, crabs, and molluscs. Other prey include squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, scallops, and, very occasionally, fish. In the northern Kodiak Archipelago, clams were the most frequently identified prey (57-67%, mostly Saxidomus giganteus); mussels (Mytilus sp.), crabs (primarily Telmessus sp.), and green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) contributed 25% to the diet. On the north side of the AlaskaPeninsula, the dominant prey species in 50 spraints were mussels (Mytilus edulis), followed by three species of clams (Siliqua sp., Spisula polynyma, and Tellina lutea), sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and helmet crabs (Telmessus cheiragonus). In south-east Alaska, butter clams (S. giganteus) are the major prey items. Sea Otters on the outer coast of Washingtonfeed heavily on bivalves (63%) and have a diverse diet consisting of several prey groups. In contrast, Sea Otters in the Strait ofJuan de Fuca have a restricted diet dominated by more than 60% red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), with only two other prey species comprising more than 10% of their diet. Sea Otters forage in both rocky and soft-sediment areas on or near the ocean floor. They have good underwater vision and most prey is captured by sight. Prey hiding under rocks or in crevices may also be captured by feeling with the forefeet. Underwater dives are sustained by lungs that are 2-3 times larger than those of similarsized terrestrial mammals. Most hunting dives last 50-90 seconds. In coastal Washington, the average dive time was 55 seconds and average surface time was 45 seconds, irrespective of dive success. At least 77% of all dives were successful in capturing prey. Prey capture success was significantly lower for subadults (63%) than adults (82%). Sea Otters break the exoskeleton of large or hard-shelled prey by hitting the prey item on a rock carried by the otter on its belly. Sea Otters face a tremendous thermoregulatory challenge because of their constant life at sea. When in water, buoyancy and insulation are provided by their fur and the air bubbles trapped within it. The integrity of their pelage is thus essential to thermoregulation. Their metabolic heat production is 2-3 times greater than that of similar-sized terrestrial mammals. To sustain such heat production requires that Sea Otters consume 20-33% of their body mass in food daily. Sea Otters can drink seawater, and their kidneys produce very concentrated urine to avoid unnecessary water loss.Activity patterns.Generally diurnal, with peaks in activity at dawn and dusk. Daytime foraging increases when females care for young. In Prince William Sound, Alaska, more time was spent foraging (30%) than on any other activity, and foraging bouts were longer than all other activities. Sea Otters rest by floating belly-up in the water with their feet out of the water. They sometimes rest on rocks near the water and often spend the night in a kelp bed, lying under strands of kelp to avoid drifting while sleeping. Ten vocalizations have been described for Sea Otters including screams of distress (heard especially when mothers and young are separated) and coos (heard mostly when individuals are content or in familiar company).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sea Otters can spend their entire life at sea, and their movements on land are awkward. In the water, they are graceful and can move at speeds of 1- 1-5 km/h at the surface and up to 9 km/h underwater. Annual total movements of both sexes frequently cover 50-100 km. Sea Otters are basically solitary, but they sometimes rest in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, and groups may occur at feeding areas. They aggregate by sex and age, with males and females occupying separate sections of coastline. During the breeding season, some males move into the areas occupied by females and establish territories. Male territories are usually about 20-50 ha; female home ranges may be twice as large. These territories typically are located in prime feeding or resting areas, locations that are attractive to breeding females. The boundaries are vigorously patrolled and intruding males are repulsed, but serious fighting is rare. The ownerofa territory seeks to mate with any female that enters, though sometimes a pair bond is formed for a few days or weeks.Breeding.Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. Sea Otters are hunted for their fur, which has led to a large reduction in local populations and their distribution. Extirpated in Japan(coastal Hokkaido) and Mexico(Baja California), but now translocations have now reestablised Sea Otters in south-east Alaska, south-west Canada(Vancouver I), and north-west USA(Washingtonand Oregon). They are legally harvested in Alaska, with the annual harvest slightly exceeding 1000 animals. Sea Otters are also persecuted as perceived competitors for shellfish. In the last few decades, massive oil spills, such as that of the Exxon Valdez in 1989, have also decimated Sea Otter populations.Bibliography.Bodkin (2003), Doroff & DeGange (1994), Estes (1980), Estes & Palmisano (1974), Gentry & Peterson (1967), Green & Brueggeman (1991), Hall & Schaller (1964), Hattori et al. (2005), IUCN(2008), Kenyon (1969), Pearson & Davis (2005), Pearson et al. (2006), Sandegren et al. (1973), Shimek & Monk (1977), Wilson et al. (1991), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela lutris Linnaeus, 1758, Kamchatka, Russia.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre de mer @fr | Meerotter @de | Nutria marina @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Enhydra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"643","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lutris","name":"Enhydra lutris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E. l. lutris Linnaeus, 1758— NE Russia(Commander Is, Kamchatka, Kurile Is & SakhalinI).E. l. kenyoni Wilson, 1991— Aleutian Is through Alaska and W Canada(Vancouver I) to W USA(Washington).E. l. nereis Merriam, 1904— USA(California).","bibliography":"Bodkin (2003) | Doroff & DeGange (1994) | Estes (1980) | Estes & Palmisano (1974) | Gentry & Peterson (1967) | Green & Brueggeman (1991) | Hall & Schaller (1964) | Hattori et al. (2005) | IUCN(2008) | Kenyon (1969) | Pearson & Davis (2005) | Pearson et al. (2006) | Sandegren et al. (1973) | Shimek & Monk (1977) | Wilson et al. (1991) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mostly marine invertebrates such as abalones, sea urchins, crabs, and molluscs. Other prey include squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, scallops, and, very occasionally, fish. In the northern Kodiak Archipelago, clams were the most frequently identified prey (57-67%, mostly Saxidomus giganteus); mussels (Mytilus sp.), crabs (primarily Telmessus sp.), and green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) contributed 25% to the diet. On the north side of the AlaskaPeninsula, the dominant prey species in 50 spraints were mussels (Mytilus edulis), followed by three species of clams (Siliqua sp., Spisula polynyma, and Tellina lutea), sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and helmet crabs (Telmessus cheiragonus). In south-east Alaska, butter clams (S. giganteus) are the major prey items. Sea Otters on the outer coast of Washingtonfeed heavily on bivalves (63%) and have a diverse diet consisting of several prey groups. In contrast, Sea Otters in the Strait ofJuan de Fuca have a restricted diet dominated by more than 60% red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), with only two other prey species comprising more than 10% of their diet. Sea Otters forage in both rocky and soft-sediment areas on or near the ocean floor. They have good underwater vision and most prey is captured by sight. Prey hiding under rocks or in crevices may also be captured by feeling with the forefeet. Underwater dives are sustained by lungs that are 2-3 times larger than those of similarsized terrestrial mammals. Most hunting dives last 50-90 seconds. In coastal Washington, the average dive time was 55 seconds and average surface time was 45 seconds, irrespective of dive success. At least 77% of all dives were successful in capturing prey. Prey capture success was significantly lower for subadults (63%) than adults (82%). Sea Otters break the exoskeleton of large or hard-shelled prey by hitting the prey item on a rock carried by the otter on its belly. Sea Otters face a tremendous thermoregulatory challenge because of their constant life at sea. When in water, buoyancy and insulation are provided by their fur and the air bubbles trapped within it. The integrity of their pelage is thus essential to thermoregulation. Their metabolic heat production is 2-3 times greater than that of similar-sized terrestrial mammals. To sustain such heat production requires that Sea Otters consume 20-33% of their body mass in food daily. Sea Otters can drink seawater, and their kidneys produce very concentrated urine to avoid unnecessary water loss.","breeding":"Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.","activityPatterns":"Generally diurnal, with peaks in activity at dawn and dusk. Daytime foraging increases when females care for young. In Prince William Sound, Alaska, more time was spent foraging (30%) than on any other activity, and foraging bouts were longer than all other activities. Sea Otters rest by floating belly-up in the water with their feet out of the water. They sometimes rest on rocks near the water and often spend the night in a kelp bed, lying under strands of kelp to avoid drifting while sleeping. Ten vocalizations have been described for Sea Otters including screams of distress (heard especially when mothers and young are separated) and coos (heard mostly when individuals are content or in familiar company).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sea Otters can spend their entire life at sea, and their movements on land are awkward. In the water, they are graceful and can move at speeds of 1- 1-5 km/h at the surface and up to 9 km/h underwater. Annual total movements of both sexes frequently cover 50-100 km. Sea Otters are basically solitary, but they sometimes rest in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, and groups may occur at feeding areas. They aggregate by sex and age, with males and females occupying separate sections of coastline. During the breeding season, some males move into the areas occupied by females and establish territories. Male territories are usually about 20-50 ha; female home ranges may be twice as large. These territories typically are located in prime feeding or resting areas, locations that are attractive to breeding females. The boundaries are vigorously patrolled and intruding males are repulsed, but serious fighting is rare. The ownerofa territory seeks to mate with any female that enters, though sometimes a pair bond is formed for a few days or weeks.Breeding.Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. Sea Otters are hunted for their fur, which has led to a large reduction in local populations and their distribution. Extirpated in Japan(coastal Hokkaido) and Mexico(Baja California), but now translocations have now reestablised Sea Otters in south-east Alaska, south-west Canada(Vancouver I), and north-west USA(Washingtonand Oregon). They are legally harvested in Alaska, with the annual harvest slightly exceeding 1000 animals. Sea Otters are also persecuted as perceived competitors for shellfish. In the last few decades, massive oil spills, such as that of the Exxon Valdez in 1989, have also decimated Sea Otter populations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 25-37 cm; weight 21-45 kg(males), 14-33 kg(females). The Sea Otter is one of the largest species within the Mustelidae. Sea Otters have long bodies and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown to dark brown, with a gray or creamy-colored head, throat, and chest. The underfur is very dense, averaging 100,000 hairs per cm®. The head is wide and blunt, with long and thick vibrissae on the upper lips. The ears are small and set low to the sides, and capable of closing when the otter dives. The tail is slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, but uniform in thickness from the base to tip. All four feet are webbed and clawed. There is one pair of mammae. A fold of skin in the armpits enables the Sea Otter to transport prey at sea while foraging. The Sea Otter lacks anal glands. The skull is flat, broad and strong. Dental formula: 1 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 32. The molars are broad and flat, with rounded crowns. This is the only carnivore species with four (instead ofsix) lowerincisors.","habitat":"Sea Otters are found in coastal marine habitats from sheltered and sandy bays to rocky shorelines exposed to rough seas. Although marine mammals, they rarely venture more than one km from shore. Typically, they live and forage in waters at depths of up to 100 m, but the highest densities of Sea Otters occur in waters less than 40 mdeep."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"643","verbatimText":"32.Sea OtterEnhydra lutrisFrench:Loutre de mer/ German:Meerotter/ Spanish:Nutria marinaTaxonomy.Mustela lutris Linnaeus, 1758, Kamchatka, Russia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. l. lutris Linnaeus, 1758— NE Russia(Commander Is, Kamchatka, Kurile Is & SakhalinI).E. l. kenyoni Wilson, 1991— Aleutian Is through Alaska and W Canada(Vancouver I) to W USA(Washington).E. l. nereis Merriam, 1904— USA(California).Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 25-37 cm; weight 21-45 kg(males), 14-33 kg(females). The Sea Otter is one of the largest species within the Mustelidae. Sea Otters have long bodies and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown to dark brown, with a gray or creamy-colored head, throat, and chest. The underfur is very dense, averaging 100,000 hairs per cm®. The head is wide and blunt, with long and thick vibrissae on the upper lips. The ears are small and set low to the sides, and capable of closing when the otter dives. The tail is slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, but uniform in thickness from the base to tip. All four feet are webbed and clawed. There is one pair of mammae. A fold of skin in the armpits enables the Sea Otter to transport prey at sea while foraging. The Sea Otter lacks anal glands. The skull is flat, broad and strong. Dental formula: 1 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 32. The molars are broad and flat, with rounded crowns. This is the only carnivore species with four (instead ofsix) lowerincisors.Habitat.Sea Otters are found in coastal marine habitats from sheltered and sandy bays to rocky shorelines exposed to rough seas. Although marine mammals, they rarely venture more than one km from shore. Typically, they live and forage in waters at depths of up to 100 m, but the highest densities of Sea Otters occur in waters less than 40 mdeep.Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly marine invertebrates such as abalones, sea urchins, crabs, and molluscs. Other prey include squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, scallops, and, very occasionally, fish. In the northern Kodiak Archipelago, clams were the most frequently identified prey (57-67%, mostly Saxidomus giganteus); mussels (Mytilus sp.), crabs (primarily Telmessus sp.), and green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) contributed 25% to the diet. On the north side of the AlaskaPeninsula, the dominant prey species in 50 spraints were mussels (Mytilus edulis), followed by three species of clams (Siliqua sp., Spisula polynyma, and Tellina lutea), sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and helmet crabs (Telmessus cheiragonus). In south-east Alaska, butter clams (S. giganteus) are the major prey items. Sea Otters on the outer coast of Washingtonfeed heavily on bivalves (63%) and have a diverse diet consisting of several prey groups. In contrast, Sea Otters in the Strait ofJuan de Fuca have a restricted diet dominated by more than 60% red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), with only two other prey species comprising more than 10% of their diet. Sea Otters forage in both rocky and soft-sediment areas on or near the ocean floor. They have good underwater vision and most prey is captured by sight. Prey hiding under rocks or in crevices may also be captured by feeling with the forefeet. Underwater dives are sustained by lungs that are 2-3 times larger than those of similarsized terrestrial mammals. Most hunting dives last 50-90 seconds. In coastal Washington, the average dive time was 55 seconds and average surface time was 45 seconds, irrespective of dive success. At least 77% of all dives were successful in capturing prey. Prey capture success was significantly lower for subadults (63%) than adults (82%). Sea Otters break the exoskeleton of large or hard-shelled prey by hitting the prey item on a rock carried by the otter on its belly. Sea Otters face a tremendous thermoregulatory challenge because of their constant life at sea. When in water, buoyancy and insulation are provided by their fur and the air bubbles trapped within it. The integrity of their pelage is thus essential to thermoregulation. Their metabolic heat production is 2-3 times greater than that of similar-sized terrestrial mammals. To sustain such heat production requires that Sea Otters consume 20-33% of their body mass in food daily. Sea Otters can drink seawater, and their kidneys produce very concentrated urine to avoid unnecessary water loss.Activity patterns.Generally diurnal, with peaks in activity at dawn and dusk. Daytime foraging increases when females care for young. In Prince William Sound, Alaska, more time was spent foraging (30%) than on any other activity, and foraging bouts were longer than all other activities. Sea Otters rest by floating belly-up in the water with their feet out of the water. They sometimes rest on rocks near the water and often spend the night in a kelp bed, lying under strands of kelp to avoid drifting while sleeping. Ten vocalizations have been described for Sea Otters including screams of distress (heard especially when mothers and young are separated) and coos (heard mostly when individuals are content or in familiar company).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sea Otters can spend their entire life at sea, and their movements on land are awkward. In the water, they are graceful and can move at speeds of 1- 1-5 km/h at the surface and up to 9 km/h underwater. Annual total movements of both sexes frequently cover 50-100 km. Sea Otters are basically solitary, but they sometimes rest in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, and groups may occur at feeding areas. They aggregate by sex and age, with males and females occupying separate sections of coastline. During the breeding season, some males move into the areas occupied by females and establish territories. Male territories are usually about 20-50 ha; female home ranges may be twice as large. These territories typically are located in prime feeding or resting areas, locations that are attractive to breeding females. The boundaries are vigorously patrolled and intruding males are repulsed, but serious fighting is rare. The ownerofa territory seeks to mate with any female that enters, though sometimes a pair bond is formed for a few days or weeks.Breeding.Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. Sea Otters are hunted for their fur, which has led to a large reduction in local populations and their distribution. Extirpated in Japan(coastal Hokkaido) and Mexico(Baja California), but now translocations have now reestablised Sea Otters in south-east Alaska, south-west Canada(Vancouver I), and north-west USA(Washingtonand Oregon). They are legally harvested in Alaska, with the annual harvest slightly exceeding 1000 animals. Sea Otters are also persecuted as perceived competitors for shellfish. In the last few decades, massive oil spills, such as that of the Exxon Valdez in 1989, have also decimated Sea Otter populations.Bibliography.Bodkin (2003), Doroff & DeGange (1994), Estes (1980), Estes & Palmisano (1974), Gentry & Peterson (1967), Green & Brueggeman (1991), Hall & Schaller (1964), Hattori et al. (2005), IUCN(2008), Kenyon (1969), Pearson & Davis (2005), Pearson et al. (2006), Sandegren et al. (1973), Shimek & Monk (1977), Wilson et al. (1991), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela lutris Linnaeus, 1758, Kamchatka, Russia.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre de mer @fr | Meerotter @de | Nutria marina @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Enhydra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"643","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lutris","name":"Enhydra lutris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E. l. lutris Linnaeus, 1758— NE Russia(Commander Is, Kamchatka, Kurile Is & SakhalinI).E. l. kenyoni Wilson, 1991— Aleutian Is through Alaska and W Canada(Vancouver I) to W USA(Washington).E. l. nereis Merriam, 1904— USA(California).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714223/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bodkin (2003) | Doroff & DeGange (1994) | Estes (1980) | Estes & Palmisano (1974) | Gentry & Peterson (1967) | Green & Brueggeman (1991) | Hall & Schaller (1964) | Hattori et al. (2005) | IUCN(2008) | Kenyon (1969) | Pearson & Davis (2005) | Pearson et al. (2006) | Sandegren et al. (1973) | Shimek & Monk (1977) | Wilson et al. (1991) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mostly marine invertebrates such as abalones, sea urchins, crabs, and molluscs. Other prey include squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, scallops, and, very occasionally, fish. In the northern Kodiak Archipelago, clams were the most frequently identified prey (57-67%, mostly Saxidomus giganteus); mussels (Mytilus sp.), crabs (primarily Telmessus sp.), and green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) contributed 25% to the diet. On the north side of the AlaskaPeninsula, the dominant prey species in 50 spraints were mussels (Mytilus edulis), followed by three species of clams (Siliqua sp., Spisula polynyma, and Tellina lutea), sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and helmet crabs (Telmessus cheiragonus). In south-east Alaska, butter clams (S. giganteus) are the major prey items. Sea Otters on the outer coast of Washingtonfeed heavily on bivalves (63%) and have a diverse diet consisting of several prey groups. In contrast, Sea Otters in the Strait ofJuan de Fuca have a restricted diet dominated by more than 60% red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), with only two other prey species comprising more than 10% of their diet. Sea Otters forage in both rocky and soft-sediment areas on or near the ocean floor. They have good underwater vision and most prey is captured by sight. Prey hiding under rocks or in crevices may also be captured by feeling with the forefeet. Underwater dives are sustained by lungs that are 2-3 times larger than those of similarsized terrestrial mammals. Most hunting dives last 50-90 seconds. In coastal Washington, the average dive time was 55 seconds and average surface time was 45 seconds, irrespective of dive success. At least 77% of all dives were successful in capturing prey. Prey capture success was significantly lower for subadults (63%) than adults (82%). Sea Otters break the exoskeleton of large or hard-shelled prey by hitting the prey item on a rock carried by the otter on its belly. Sea Otters face a tremendous thermoregulatory challenge because of their constant life at sea. When in water, buoyancy and insulation are provided by their fur and the air bubbles trapped within it. The integrity of their pelage is thus essential to thermoregulation. Their metabolic heat production is 2-3 times greater than that of similar-sized terrestrial mammals. To sustain such heat production requires that Sea Otters consume 20-33% of their body mass in food daily. Sea Otters can drink seawater, and their kidneys produce very concentrated urine to avoid unnecessary water loss.","breeding":"Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.","activityPatterns":"Generally diurnal, with peaks in activity at dawn and dusk. Daytime foraging increases when females care for young. In Prince William Sound, Alaska, more time was spent foraging (30%) than on any other activity, and foraging bouts were longer than all other activities. Sea Otters rest by floating belly-up in the water with their feet out of the water. They sometimes rest on rocks near the water and often spend the night in a kelp bed, lying under strands of kelp to avoid drifting while sleeping. Ten vocalizations have been described for Sea Otters including screams of distress (heard especially when mothers and young are separated) and coos (heard mostly when individuals are content or in familiar company).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sea Otters can spend their entire life at sea, and their movements on land are awkward. In the water, they are graceful and can move at speeds of 1- 1-5 km/h at the surface and up to 9 km/h underwater. Annual total movements of both sexes frequently cover 50-100 km. Sea Otters are basically solitary, but they sometimes rest in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, and groups may occur at feeding areas. They aggregate by sex and age, with males and females occupying separate sections of coastline. During the breeding season, some males move into the areas occupied by females and establish territories. Male territories are usually about 20-50 ha; female home ranges may be twice as large. These territories typically are located in prime feeding or resting areas, locations that are attractive to breeding females. The boundaries are vigorously patrolled and intruding males are repulsed, but serious fighting is rare. The ownerofa territory seeks to mate with any female that enters, though sometimes a pair bond is formed for a few days or weeks.Breeding.Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one femaleduring the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. Sea Otters are hunted for their fur, which has led to a large reduction in local populations and their distribution. Extirpated in Japan(coastal Hokkaido) and Mexico(Baja California), but now translocations have now reestablised Sea Otters in south-east Alaska, south-west Canada(Vancouver I), and north-west USA(Washingtonand Oregon). They are legally harvested in Alaska, with the annual harvest slightly exceeding 1000 animals. Sea Otters are also persecuted as perceived competitors for shellfish. In the last few decades, massive oil spills, such as that of the Exxon Valdez in 1989, have also decimated Sea Otter populations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 25-37 cm; weight 21-45 kg(males), 14-33 kg(females). The Sea Otter is one of the largest species within the Mustelidae. Sea Otters have long bodies and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown to dark brown, with a gray or creamy-colored head, throat, and chest. The underfur is very dense, averaging 100,000 hairs per cm®. The head is wide and blunt, with long and thick vibrissae on the upper lips. The ears are small and set low to the sides, and capable of closing when the otter dives. The tail is slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, but uniform in thickness from the base to tip. All four feet are webbed and clawed. There is one pair of mammae. A fold of skin in the armpits enables the Sea Otter to transport prey at sea while foraging. The Sea Otter lacks anal glands. The skull is flat, broad and strong. Dental formula: 1 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 32. The molars are broad and flat, with rounded crowns. This is the only carnivore species with four (instead ofsix) lowerincisors.","habitat":"Sea Otters are found in coastal marine habitats from sheltered and sandy bays to rocky shorelines exposed to rough seas. Although marine mammals, they rarely venture more than one km from shore. Typically, they live and forage in waters at depths of up to 100 m, but the highest densities of Sea Otters occur in waters less than 40 mdeep."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA48FFA7CAF8384FFC74F218.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA48FFA7CAF8384FFC74F218","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"643","verbatimText":"31.Southern RiverOtterLontra provocaxFrench:Loutre du Chili/ German:Patagonischer Fischotter/ Spanish:HuillinOther common names:HuillinTaxonomy.Lutra provocax Thomas, 1908, Patagonia. Monotypic.Distribution.Argentinaand Chile.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-61 cm, tail 35-40 cm; weight 5-10 kg, males are about 10% larger than females. This medium-sized otter is dark-brown with pale undersides and a grayish neck and throat. All four feet are fully webbed. The skull is flat, but strongly built. The dentition is broad and adapted for crushing.Habitat.Southern River Otters are found in lakes, rivers, and some coastal marshes. In Argentina, they are associated with dense mature forests that have thick undergrowth extending close to the shore of water bodies. In southern Chile, radio-tracked Southern River Otters used rivers more frequently than expected, whereas they avoided small streams. Temperate evergreen swamp forests and river and stream banks with a high density of riparian vegetation, woody debris and exposed roots, were found to be the preferred habitats; canalized rivers and streams lacking these characteristics were avoided.Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly fish (under 10 cmin length) and crustaceans, but also includes molluscs and birds. The relative importance of each food typemay vary seasonally or geographically. In central Chile, the diet comprises 75% fish and 63% crustaceans; the highest occurrence of fish occurs in the spring and summer. In the southern marine habitats of Chile, Southern River Otters feed mainly on fish. In Argentina, crustaceans largely dominate the diet (99%) and fish occur rarely (less than 2%). Differences in the proportion offish and crustaceans in the diet may reflect the differential availability of prey typesin different habitats: fish productivity is low in freshwater lakes compared to the oceans, which may explain the high proportion of crustaceans in freshwater lakes.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, with occasional activity during the day. Den/ rest sites are rock crevices, hollow trees or logs, earth banks, or under root systems; Southern River Otters may excavate their own dens. Dens occur from 0-7 to 50 mfrom the shoreline; most are within 3-8 mof the water’s edge. They often have multiple terrestrial but no underwater entrances. The density of dens along the southern coast of Chilewas 2-8 per km of coastline. Latrines are common near den entrances or inside dens; they are 50-80 mfrom one another and 3-6 mfrom water.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Southern River Otters may move up to 5 kmper night. They are mostly solitary; females with young and breeding pairs are the only social groups recorded. In the Queule River, southern Chile, the observed behavior of radio-tracked otters suggested intra-sexual territoriality; no home range overlap among males existed, while there was an average of 33% overlap of home ranges among females, and 87% between sexes. In core areas, only one case of overlapping between an adult male and an adult female was observed. Average home range and core area lengths were 11- 3 kmand 0-9 km, respectively. The population density in Chileranges from 0-25 to 0-73 individuals per km of coastline.Breeding.In central Chile, mating occurs in July and August, and young are born in September or October. Litter size averages one or two, but may reach up to four.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The major threats to this species are the destruction ofits habitat and hunting, especially in Chile. The high price of otter skins in Chile, combined with low wages for unskilled workers, generates much uncontrolled and illegal harvest.Bibliography.Aued et al. (2003), Chéhébar (1986), Chéhébar et al. (1986), Lariviere (1999¢), Medina(1996), Medinaet al. (2003), Sielfeld (1983), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Lutra provocax Thomas, 1908, Patagonia. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Loutre du Chili @fr | Patagonischer Fischotter @de | Huillin @es | Huillin @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lontra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"643","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"provocax","name":"Lontra provocax","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Argentinaand Chile.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714221/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aued et al. (2003) | Chéhébar (1986) | Chéhébar et al. (1986) | Lariviere (1999¢) | Medina(1996) | Medinaet al. (2003) | Sielfeld (1983) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mostly fish (under 10 cmin length) and crustaceans, but also includes molluscs and birds. The relative importance of each food typemay vary seasonally or geographically. In central Chile, the diet comprises 75% fish and 63% crustaceans; the highest occurrence of fish occurs in the spring and summer. In the southern marine habitats of Chile, Southern River Otters feed mainly on fish. In Argentina, crustaceans largely dominate the diet (99%) and fish occur rarely (less than 2%). Differences in the proportion offish and crustaceans in the diet may reflect the differential availability of prey typesin different habitats: fish productivity is low in freshwater lakes compared to the oceans, which may explain the high proportion of crustaceans in freshwater lakes.","breeding":"In central Chile, mating occurs in July and August, and young are born in September or October. Litter size averages one or two, but may reach up to four.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, with occasional activity during the day. Den/ rest sites are rock crevices, hollow trees or logs, earth banks, or under root systems; Southern River Otters may excavate their own dens. Dens occur from 0-7 to 50 mfrom the shoreline; most are within 3-8 mof the water’s edge. They often have multiple terrestrial but no underwater entrances. The density of dens along the southern coast of Chilewas 2-8 per km of coastline. Latrines are common near den entrances or inside dens; they are 50-80 mfrom one another and 3-6 mfrom water.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Southern River Otters may move up to 5 kmper night. They are mostly solitary; females with young and breeding pairs are the only social groups recorded. In the Queule River, southern Chile, the observed behavior of radio-tracked otters suggested intra-sexual territoriality; no home range overlap among males existed, while there was an average of 33% overlap of home ranges among females, and 87% between sexes. In core areas, only one case of overlapping between an adult male and an adult female was observed. Average home range and core area lengths were 11- 3 kmand 0-9 km, respectively. The population density in Chileranges from 0-25 to 0-73 individuals per km of coastline.Breeding.In central Chile, mating occurs in July and August, and young are born in September or October. Litter size averages one or two, but may reach up to four.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The major threats to this species are the destruction ofits habitat and hunting, especially in Chile. The high price of otter skins in Chile, combined with low wages for unskilled workers, generates much uncontrolled and illegal harvest.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 57-61 cm, tail 35-40 cm; weight 5-10 kg, males are about 10% larger than females. This medium-sized otter is dark-brown with pale undersides and a grayish neck and throat. All four feet are fully webbed. The skull is flat, but strongly built. The dentition is broad and adapted for crushing.","habitat":"Southern River Otters are found in lakes, rivers, and some coastal marshes. In Argentina, they are associated with dense mature forests that have thick undergrowth extending close to the shore of water bodies. In southern Chile, radio-tracked Southern River Otters used rivers more frequently than expected, whereas they avoided small streams. Temperate evergreen swamp forests and river and stream banks with a high density of riparian vegetation, woody debris and exposed roots, were found to be the preferred habitats; canalized rivers and streams lacking these characteristics were avoided."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA49FFA5CFA73028F5B9FE00.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA49FFA5CFA73028F5B9FE00","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"644","verbatimText":"34.Eurasian OtterLutra lutraFrench:Loutre d'Europe/ German:Eurasischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria palearticaOther common names:European OtterTaxonomy.Mustela lutra Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The Japanese Otter (L. nippon) is considered by some authors to be a valid species, based on recent morphological and molecular analyses. However, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status; it is here considered a subspecies of L. lutra. Up to twenty-eight subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Wide distribution in the Palearctic: from Europe to Russian Far East, North and South Korea, and Japan; also N Africa, Middle East, C Asia, Sub-Himalayan zone, S India, Sri Lanka, C, E & S China, Taiwan, Indochina, and Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 33-50 cm; weight 5-14 kg, adult males are typically 50% larger than females. The Eurasian Otter has a long body and a conical tail. The short, dense pelage is brown to almost black throughout, with slightly paler undersides. The legs are short; the feet are fully webbed and have well-developed claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The cranium is large and flat. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.Eurasian Otters are found along lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams, and in marshes, swamps, and coastal and estuarine wetlands, from sea level up to 4120 m. They avoid areas of deep water.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, frogs, and aquatic invertebrates (including crustaceans and crabs). Birds and small mammals (such as rodents and lagomorphs) may be consumed on occasion. In general, the mean proportion offish declines from 94% on seashores, to 71% on lakes and fish ponds, to 64% on rivers and streams. On inland waters, the abundance of crayfish is an essential food item. In Northern Ireland, over 50% of spraints were composed of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus), salmonids and cyprinids, with Sticklebacks constituting the most frequently occurring prey category. The frequency of occurrence of eels (Anguillaanguilla) was found to be consistently higher in spraints collected from smaller streams. In eastern Poland,fish constitutes 51% of the food biomass consumed in spring-summer and 40% in autumnwinter, with perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike (Esox lucius), and roach (Rutilus rutilus) being captured most frequently. Amphibians (mainly Rana temporaria) make up 34% of the food biomass in spring-summer and 58% in autumn-winter. The cold season diet depends on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, Eurasian Otters feed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of the river increases, and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forests), Eurasian Otters shift to catching predominantly fish (up to 76%). In southern Poland, the main component of the diet is fish (47-9%, including brown trout Salmo trutta and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss). Other important food items are 21-4% frogs (R. temporaria) and 30% birds, small mammals, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, and plant debris. In southern Italy, spraint analysis revealed that fish represented the dominant food (57-3% mean volume), followed by amphibians (18:9%) and crayfish (15-6%). Seasonal variations in fish consumption were related to changes in fish activity and to environmental conditions; the importance of fish decreased in winter, when flooding increased water speeds and turbidity, and thus reduced the hunting efficiency of the otters. Hibernating amphibians represented a primary alternative resource. Insects and reptiles were eaten more frequently in summer, while birds predominated during their breeding season. In Hungary, the primary food is fish (89-8% for riverine and 87-5% for backwater habitats); Eurasian Otters living in riverine habitats, compared to backwaters, consume more birds (3-9% and 0-7%, respectively), less mammals (0-5% and 0-9%, respectively), less reptiles and amphibians (5-6% and 10-2%, respectively) and less invertebrates (0-1% and 0-6%, respectively); most fish eaten are small-sized (below 100 g), and the most frequently taken species is Carassius sp. In Iran, the major food items are 38-1% chub (Alburnoides bipunctatus) and 34-8% carp (Cyprinus carpio). Prey are captured with the mouth, but the forepaws are used to handle the prey for consumption.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but can also be active during the day. Den/restsites are in burrows, among root systems, log jams, or in rock crevices, in close proximity to water.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Eurasian Otters are excellent swimmers and divers. They are usually found no more than a few hundred meters from water, but they may travel several kilometers overland between wetlands. They swim using movements of the hindlegs and tail; usually dives last one or two minutes,five at the most. When traveling on the ground, snow, or ice they may use a combination of running and sliding. Males typically are solitary, whereas females may occur in groups, either with their own young or with unrelated, reproductive females and their young. The straight-line length of a home range may reach an average of 15 kmfor males and 7 kmfor females. Males and femalestypically defend their range against members of the same sex, but the home ranges of males may overlap those of several females. Population densities may be one otter per 2-3 kmof lakeshore or 5 kmofriver.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, with the cycle lasting four to six weeks; estrus lasts about two weeks. Mating typically occurs in late winter or early spring. The gestation period is 60-63 days and births peak in April or May. The main entrance of bank burrows may open underwater and then slope upward into the bank to a nest chamber that is above the high-water level. Litter size is one to five, usually two to three. The young are born blind and weigh about 130 gat birth. They open their eyes after one month and emerge from the den and begin to swim at two months. They nurse for three to four months and separate from the mother at about one year. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I. Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. The Japanese Otter, once common, has no recent confirmed sightings and may be extinct. Eurasian Otters are vulnerable to water pollution because their bodies accumulate contaminants and heavy metals, which affect reproduction. They also are killed accidentally on roads and deliberately for their fur.Bibliography.Chruszcz et al. (2007), Conroy et al. (1998), Francis (2008), Imaizumi & Yoshiyuki (1989), Kruuk & Conroy (1991), Kruuk et al. (1989), Lanszki & Sallai (2006), Lanszki & Szeles (2006), Philcox et al. (1999), Preston et al. (2006), Prigioni et al. (2006), Rasooli et al. (2007), Stroganov (1969), Suzuki et al. (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela lutra Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The Japanese Otter (L. nippon) is considered by some authors to be a valid species, based on recent morphological and molecular analyses. However, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status; it is here considered a subspecies of L. lutra. Up to twenty-eight subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","commonNames":"Loutre d'Europe @fr | Eurasischer Fischotter @de | Nutria paleartica @es | European Otter @en","interpretedAuthority":"lutra","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lutra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"644","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lutra","name":"Lutra lutra","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Wide distribution in the Palearctic: from Europe to Russian Far East, North and South Korea, and Japan; also N Africa, Middle East, C Asia, Sub-Himalayan zone, S India, Sri Lanka, C, E & S China, Taiwan, Indochina, and Sumatra.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714229/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chruszcz et al. (2007) | Conroy et al. (1998) | Francis (2008) | Imaizumi & Yoshiyuki (1989) | Kruuk & Conroy (1991) | Kruuk et al. (1989) | Lanszki & Sallai (2006) | Lanszki & Szeles (2006) | Philcox et al. (1999) | Preston et al. (2006) | Prigioni et al. (2006) | Rasooli et al. (2007) | Stroganov (1969) | Suzuki et al. (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly fish, frogs, and aquatic invertebrates (including crustaceans and crabs). Birds and small mammals (such as rodents and lagomorphs) may be consumed on occasion. In general, the mean proportion offish declines from 94% on seashores, to 71% on lakes and fish ponds, to 64% on rivers and streams. On inland waters, the abundance of crayfish is an essential food item. In Northern Ireland, over 50% of spraints were composed of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus), salmonids and cyprinids, with Sticklebacks constituting the most frequently occurring prey category. The frequency of occurrence of eels (Anguillaanguilla) was found to be consistently higher in spraints collected from smaller streams. In eastern Poland,fish constitutes 51% of the food biomass consumed in spring-summer and 40% in autumnwinter, with perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike (Esox lucius), and roach (Rutilus rutilus) being captured most frequently. Amphibians (mainly Rana temporaria) make up 34% of the food biomass in spring-summer and 58% in autumn-winter. The cold season diet depends on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, Eurasian Otters feed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of the river increases, and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forests), Eurasian Otters shift to catching predominantly fish (up to 76%). In southern Poland, the main component of the diet is fish (47-9%, including brown trout Salmo trutta and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss). Other important food items are 21-4% frogs (R. temporaria) and 30% birds, small mammals, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, and plant debris. In southern Italy, spraint analysis revealed that fish represented the dominant food (57-3% mean volume), followed by amphibians (18:9%) and crayfish (15-6%). Seasonal variations in fish consumption were related to changes in fish activity and to environmental conditions; the importance of fish decreased in winter, when flooding increased water speeds and turbidity, and thus reduced the hunting efficiency of the otters. Hibernating amphibians represented a primary alternative resource. Insects and reptiles were eaten more frequently in summer, while birds predominated during their breeding season. In Hungary, the primary food is fish (89-8% for riverine and 87-5% for backwater habitats); Eurasian Otters living in riverine habitats, compared to backwaters, consume more birds (3-9% and 0-7%, respectively), less mammals (0-5% and 0-9%, respectively), less reptiles and amphibians (5-6% and 10-2%, respectively) and less invertebrates (0-1% and 0-6%, respectively); most fish eaten are small-sized (below 100 g), and the most frequently taken species is Carassius sp. In Iran, the major food items are 38-1% chub (Alburnoides bipunctatus) and 34-8% carp (Cyprinus carpio). Prey are captured with the mouth, but the forepaws are used to handle the prey for consumption.","breeding":"Females are polyestrous, with the cycle lasting four to six weeks; estrus lasts about two weeks. Mating typically occurs in late winter or early spring. The gestation period is 60-63 days and births peak in April or May. The main entrance of bank burrows may open underwater and then slope upward into the bank to a nest chamber that is above the high-water level. Litter size is one to five, usually two to three. The young are born blind and weigh about 130 gat birth. They open their eyes after one month and emerge from the den and begin to swim at two months. They nurse for three to four months and separate from the mother at about one year. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but can also be active during the day. Den/restsites are in burrows, among root systems, log jams, or in rock crevices, in close proximity to water.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Eurasian Otters are excellent swimmers and divers. They are usually found no more than a few hundred meters from water, but they may travel several kilometers overland between wetlands. They swim using movements of the hindlegs and tail; usually dives last one or two minutes,five at the most. When traveling on the ground, snow, or ice they may use a combination of running and sliding. Males typically are solitary, whereas females may occur in groups, either with their own young or with unrelated, reproductive females and their young. The straight-line length of a home range may reach an average of 15 kmfor males and 7 kmfor females. Males and femalestypically defend their range against members of the same sex, but the home ranges of males may overlap those of several females. Population densities may be one otter per 2-3 kmof lakeshore or 5 kmofriver.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, with the cycle lasting four to six weeks; estrus lasts about two weeks. Mating typically occurs in late winter or early spring. The gestation period is 60-63 days and births peak in April or May. The main entrance of bank burrows may open underwater and then slope upward into the bank to a nest chamber that is above the high-water level. Litter size is one to five, usually two to three. The young are born blind and weigh about 130 gat birth. They open their eyes after one month and emerge from the den and begin to swim at two months. They nurse for three to four months and separate from the mother at about one year. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I. Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. The Japanese Otter, once common, has no recent confirmed sightings and may be extinct. Eurasian Otters are vulnerable to water pollution because their bodies accumulate contaminants and heavy metals, which affect reproduction. They also are killed accidentally on roads and deliberately for their fur.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 33-50 cm; weight 5-14 kg, adult males are typically 50% larger than females. The Eurasian Otter has a long body and a conical tail. The short, dense pelage is brown to almost black throughout, with slightly paler undersides. The legs are short; the feet are fully webbed and have well-developed claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The cranium is large and flat. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.","habitat":"Eurasian Otters are found along lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams, and in marshes, swamps, and coastal and estuarine wetlands, from sea level up to 4120 m. They avoid areas of deep water."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA49FFA6CAA23B54F692F493.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA49FFA6CAA23B54F692F493","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"644","verbatimText":"33.Spotted-necked OtterHydrictis maculicollisFrench:Loutre a cou tacheté/ German:Fleckenhals-Otter/ Spanish:Nutria moteadaTaxonomy.Lutra maculicollis Lichtenstein, 1835, Cape Province, South Africa.The Spotted-necked Otter was previously included in the genus Lutraby some authors, but recent molecular studies have shown that its inclusion in Lutrawould make this genus paraphyletic. Monotypic.Distribution.Sub-Saharan Africa from GuineaBissauin the W to SW Ethiopia, E Kenya, and Tanzaniain the E, and S to N Namibia, Botswana, and NW Zimbabwe; also Malawi, Mozambique, and E South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 71-76 cm(males), 57-60.5 cm(females), tail 38.5-44 cm(males), 41-44 cm(females); weight 5.7-6 kg(males), 3.8-4.7 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Spotted-necked Otter has a long body, short limbs, and a long tail. The pelage varies from reddish to dark brown. There are creamy-white to white mottled markings on the upper chest and throat. All the feet are fully webbed and there are claws on all the digits. The skull is long and narrow and lightly built, but with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.Spotted-necked Otters are found in freshwater rivers, lakes, and swamps with large areas of open water; they are absent from coastal or estuarine areas. They seldom venture more than 10 maway from water and prefer shallow, freshwater areas, where there is continuity of lakeside vegetation, low pollution, and no crocodiles. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Spotted-necked Otters were most often located in rivers (40% of 706 locations) and near dams (45%), with only occasional use of swamps (3%) and oxbow lakes (2%).Food and Feeding.The diet includesfish (Barbus, Clarias, Haplochromis, Micropterussalmoides, Salmo trutta, and Tilapia), crabs (Potomonautes), and frogs (mostly Xenopus laevis and Rana). Insects and birds are also occasionally eaten. Crabs are the major dietary item during spring, summer, and autumn, whereas fish dominate in winter. Most fish consumed are less than 20 cmin length. In the fish-rich waters of east and central Africa, the diet consists almost entirely of fish, whereas in the fish-poor waters of South Africa, crabs and frogs are consumed in addition to fish. On Lake Victoria, Tanzania, 61% of spraints collected contained 46% Haplochromis, 14% Tilapia, catfish (Bagrus or Clarias), and 1% crab (Potamon niloticus). Direct observations of feeding Spottednecked Otters also revealed a diet dominated by Haplochromis. On Lake Muhazi, Rwanda, 154 spraints contained 80% fish, 10% insects, 3% molluscs, 2% birds and frogs. In Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet is mostly fish (47%), crabs (38%), and frogs (8%). In KwaZulu-Natal, the frequency of occurrence of food items in 516 spraints was 64% fish, 43% crabs, 43% amphibians, and 18% insects. In contrast, 228 spraints collected near a troutriver contained 39% crabs, 38% fish, 20% frogs, 2% insects (mostly dragonfly larvae, Odonata), and unidentified birds. In a non-trout area, 66 spraints contained 30% crabs, 27% frogs, 25% fish, 10% birds (mostly Anatidaeand little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis), and 5% insects. In three stomachs from the Cape Province, South Africa, one contained crabs, one contained frogs and fish, and one contained frogs,fish, a beetle (Coleoptera), and a caterpillar. Spotted-necked Otters generally fish alone and almost all fishing is done within 10 mfrom the shore. When fishing in groups, cooperation among individuals may help facilitate prey capture by herding fish toward each other. Fishing in groups probably occurs when females are training their young. Fish are captured during short dives of less than 20 seconds. Once underwater, a Spotted-necked Otter scans for prey, turning its head from side to side. Prey are detected visually and pursued until captured. Crabs, fish, and frogs are captured with the mouth; the forefeet are not used in prey capture. Fish smaller than 10 cmare consumed in the water, but larger fish are taken to shore for consumption. Fishing forays typically last 10-20 minutes, but may last up to 3 h.Activity patterns.Mostly diurnal, with activity peaks during early morning and late afternoon. In KwaZulu-Natal, Spotted-necked Otters were most active from 06:00-09:00 h and 15:00-21:00 h. Nocturnal activity usually only occurs during periods of full moon. Rest sites are in rock cavities, bank dens, holes in root systems, or dense vegetation. Spotted-necked Otters can dig their own burrows. In KwaZulu-Natal, resting sites were among trees and shrub roots (29%), reeds (21%), small islands near dams (23%), tall grass (14%), swamps (11%), and sheltered places among rocks (2%). A 4-2-km section of river contained ten resting sites, with a mean distance of 467 mbetween dens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Spotted-necked Otters travel mostly in water, swimming underwater and surfacing briefly to breathe. Swimming speed reaches 3—4 km/h. Spotted-necked Otters may be found in small family groups of up to five individuals, although groups of up to 20 animals have been reported. Group size varies according to locality. Of 14 sightings in KwaZulu-Natal, six were singles, three were pairs, three were trios, one was of four, and one offive. In Rwanda, 75% of observations were ofsolitary Spotted-necked Otters; pairs or trios occurred on occasion and usually consisted of a female with young. In Rwanda, maximum group size was eleven and most animals foraged alone. In Lake Victoria, Tanzania, Spotted-necked Otters were most often seen in groups of three and solitary animals were observed on only five occasions; these groups often travelled together, but fed individually. The home ranges of males are larger than those of females. In KwaZulu-Natal, the mean home rangesize for three maleswas 16- 2 km?, and 5-8 km* for three females. Spotted-necked Otters appeared to be non-territorial as there was large intra- and inter-sexual overlap of home ranges. Population density on Lake Muhazi (3-4 km? in size), Rwanda, was two otters per km of shoreline. In KwaZulu-Natal, density was 0-4-0-6 otters per km of shoreline. Near Kageye, Tanzania, 9-10 otters occupied a 10-km section of the coast of Lake Victoria. In KwaZulu-Natal, the density of otters was estimated at one otter per 6-11 kmof river and at one otter per 1-6— 2-4 kmof river.Breeding.In Tanzania, mating occurs in July and the young are born in September, after a gestation of c. 60 days. In Zambia, three two-week-old cubs from one litter were captured in December. Delayed implantation probably does not occur. Litter size is one to three. Neonates are blind and helpless. The young remain with the mother for up to one year. Males do not provide parental care.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Although this is a widespread species, there are local population declines occurring. Spotted-necked Otters are sensitive to habitat alterations and pollution, and because they consume fish, they are susceptible to bioaccumulation of pesticides and other toxic chemical compounds. Throughout Africa, otters are killed for their skins and meat or because they are regarded as competitors for food, particularly in rural areas where fishing is an important source of income. During the last few years, their habitats have been drastically changed or lost following bush clearance, deforestation, overgrazing, siltation, draining of wetlands, water extraction, or denudation ofriparian vegetation.Bibliography.Angelici et al. (2005), Koepfli & Wayne (1998), Kruuk & Goudswaard (1990), Lariviere (2002b), Lejeune (1989), Mortimer (1963), Perrin & Carugati (2000), Perrin & D’Inzillo (2000), Procter (1963), Roberts (1951), Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1995), Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Somers & Purves (1996), Stuart (1985), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Lutra maculicollis Lichtenstein, 1835, Cape Province, South Africa.The Spotted-necked Otter was previously included in the genus Lutraby some authors, but recent molecular studies have shown that its inclusion in Lutrawould make this genus paraphyletic. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Loutre a cou tacheté @fr | Fleckenhals-Otter @de | Nutria moteada @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lichtenstein","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1835","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Hydrictis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"644","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"maculicollis","name":"Hydrictis maculicollis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Sub-Saharan Africa from GuineaBissauin the W to SW Ethiopia, E Kenya, and Tanzaniain the E, and S to N Namibia, Botswana, and NW Zimbabwe; also Malawi, Mozambique, and E South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714227/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angelici et al. (2005) | Koepfli & Wayne (1998) | Kruuk & Goudswaard (1990) | Lariviere (2002b) | Lejeune (1989) | Mortimer (1963) | Perrin & Carugati (2000) | Perrin & D’Inzillo (2000) | Procter (1963) | Roberts (1951) | Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1995) | Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Somers & Purves (1996) | Stuart (1985) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includesfish (Barbus, Clarias, Haplochromis, Micropterussalmoides, Salmo trutta, and Tilapia), crabs (Potomonautes), and frogs (mostly Xenopus laevis and Rana). Insects and birds are also occasionally eaten. Crabs are the major dietary item during spring, summer, and autumn, whereas fish dominate in winter. Most fish consumed are less than 20 cmin length. In the fish-rich waters of east and central Africa, the diet consists almost entirely of fish, whereas in the fish-poor waters of South Africa, crabs and frogs are consumed in addition to fish. On Lake Victoria, Tanzania, 61% of spraints collected contained 46% Haplochromis, 14% Tilapia, catfish (Bagrus or Clarias), and 1% crab (Potamon niloticus). Direct observations of feeding Spottednecked Otters also revealed a diet dominated by Haplochromis. On Lake Muhazi, Rwanda, 154 spraints contained 80% fish, 10% insects, 3% molluscs, 2% birds and frogs. In Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet is mostly fish (47%), crabs (38%), and frogs (8%). In KwaZulu-Natal, the frequency of occurrence of food items in 516 spraints was 64% fish, 43% crabs, 43% amphibians, and 18% insects. In contrast, 228 spraints collected near a troutriver contained 39% crabs, 38% fish, 20% frogs, 2% insects (mostly dragonfly larvae, Odonata), and unidentified birds. In a non-trout area, 66 spraints contained 30% crabs, 27% frogs, 25% fish, 10% birds (mostly Anatidaeand little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis), and 5% insects. In three stomachs from the Cape Province, South Africa, one contained crabs, one contained frogs and fish, and one contained frogs,fish, a beetle (Coleoptera), and a caterpillar. Spotted-necked Otters generally fish alone and almost all fishing is done within 10 mfrom the shore. When fishing in groups, cooperation among individuals may help facilitate prey capture by herding fish toward each other. Fishing in groups probably occurs when females are training their young. Fish are captured during short dives of less than 20 seconds. Once underwater, a Spotted-necked Otter scans for prey, turning its head from side to side. Prey are detected visually and pursued until captured. Crabs, fish, and frogs are captured with the mouth; the forefeet are not used in prey capture. Fish smaller than 10 cmare consumed in the water, but larger fish are taken to shore for consumption. Fishing forays typically last 10-20 minutes, but may last up to 3 h.","breeding":"In Tanzania, mating occurs in July and the young are born in September, after a gestation of c. 60 days. In Zambia, three two-week-old cubs from one litter were captured in December. Delayed implantation probably does not occur. Litter size is one to three. Neonates are blind and helpless. The young remain with the mother for up to one year. Males do not provide parental care.","activityPatterns":"Mostly diurnal, with activity peaks during early morning and late afternoon. In KwaZulu-Natal, Spotted-necked Otters were most active from 06:00-09:00 h and 15:00-21:00 h. Nocturnal activity usually only occurs during periods of full moon. Rest sites are in rock cavities, bank dens, holes in root systems, or dense vegetation. Spotted-necked Otters can dig their own burrows. In KwaZulu-Natal, resting sites were among trees and shrub roots (29%), reeds (21%), small islands near dams (23%), tall grass (14%), swamps (11%), and sheltered places among rocks (2%). A 4-2-km section of river contained ten resting sites, with a mean distance of 467 mbetween dens.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Spotted-necked Otters travel mostly in water, swimming underwater and surfacing briefly to breathe. Swimming speed reaches 3—4 km/h. Spotted-necked Otters may be found in small family groups of up to five individuals, although groups of up to 20 animals have been reported. Group size varies according to locality. Of 14 sightings in KwaZulu-Natal, six were singles, three were pairs, three were trios, one was of four, and one offive. In Rwanda, 75% of observations were ofsolitary Spotted-necked Otters; pairs or trios occurred on occasion and usually consisted of a female with young. In Rwanda, maximum group size was eleven and most animals foraged alone. In Lake Victoria, Tanzania, Spotted-necked Otters were most often seen in groups of three and solitary animals were observed on only five occasions; these groups often travelled together, but fed individually. The home ranges of males are larger than those of females. In KwaZulu-Natal, the mean home rangesize for three maleswas 16- 2 km?, and 5-8 km* for three females. Spotted-necked Otters appeared to be non-territorial as there was large intra- and inter-sexual overlap of home ranges. Population density on Lake Muhazi (3-4 km? in size), Rwanda, was two otters per km of shoreline. In KwaZulu-Natal, density was 0-4-0-6 otters per km of shoreline. Near Kageye, Tanzania, 9-10 otters occupied a 10-km section of the coast of Lake Victoria. In KwaZulu-Natal, the density of otters was estimated at one otter per 6-11 kmof river and at one otter per 1-6— 2-4 kmof river.Breeding.In Tanzania, mating occurs in July and the young are born in September, after a gestation of c. 60 days. In Zambia, three two-week-old cubs from one litter were captured in December. Delayed implantation probably does not occur. Litter size is one to three. Neonates are blind and helpless. The young remain with the mother for up to one year. Males do not provide parental care.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Although this is a widespread species, there are local population declines occurring. Spotted-necked Otters are sensitive to habitat alterations and pollution, and because they consume fish, they are susceptible to bioaccumulation of pesticides and other toxic chemical compounds. Throughout Africa, otters are killed for their skins and meat or because they are regarded as competitors for food, particularly in rural areas where fishing is an important source of income. During the last few years, their habitats have been drastically changed or lost following bush clearance, deforestation, overgrazing, siltation, draining of wetlands, water extraction, or denudation ofriparian vegetation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 71-76 cm(males), 57-60.5 cm(females), tail 38.5-44 cm(males), 41-44 cm(females); weight 5.7-6 kg(males), 3.8-4.7 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Spotted-necked Otter has a long body, short limbs, and a long tail. The pelage varies from reddish to dark brown. There are creamy-white to white mottled markings on the upper chest and throat. All the feet are fully webbed and there are claws on all the digits. The skull is long and narrow and lightly built, but with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.","habitat":"Spotted-necked Otters are found in freshwater rivers, lakes, and swamps with large areas of open water; they are absent from coastal or estuarine areas. They seldom venture more than 10 maway from water and prefer shallow, freshwater areas, where there is continuity of lakeside vegetation, low pollution, and no crocodiles. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Spotted-necked Otters were most often located in rivers (40% of 706 locations) and near dams (45%), with only occasional use of swamps (3%) and oxbow lakes (2%)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"645","verbatimText":"36.African Clawless OtterAonyx capensisFrench:Loutre a joues blanches/ German:Fingerotter/ Spanish:Nutria africanaOther common names:Cape Clawless Otter, CongoClawless OtterTaxonomy.Lutra capensis Schinz, 1821, Capeof Good Hope.The CongoClawless Otter (Aonyx congicus) is considered a separate species by some authors, based on morphological and ecological evidence; however, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status. It is here included as a subspecies of A. capensis. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. c. capensis Schinz, 1821— Sub-Saharan Africa from Senegalin the W to E Ethiopia, and E Africa to Western Cape. Absent from CongoBasin and the most arid zones of Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.A. c. congicus Lonnberg, 1910— CongoBasin in WC Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76.2-88 cm(males), 73-73.6 cm(females), tail 46-5— 51- 5 cm(males), 49.5-51.5 cm(females); weight 10-21 kg(males), 10.6-16.3 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The African Clawless Otteris large and heavily built. The pelage is dark brown to black throughout, but the sides of the face, neck and throat are white or pale gray. There is a quadrangular dark brown patch between the eye and the nose; the cheeks are white. The hindfeet are partially webbed, but the front feet are not. The toes are clawless except for the three middle toes of each hindfoot, which bear small grooming claws. The cheek teeth are smaller in congicus than in capensis. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.Food and Feeding.African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern. Habitat alteration and water pollution are the main threats to this species, asit affects the abundance of crabs and other prey. Additionally, the African Clawless Otter is hunted for its pelt and medicinal purposes in some areas and killed in others as a perceived competitorfor fish, particularly where the Rainbow Trout has been introduced.Bibliography.Angelici et al. (2005), Arden-Clark (1986), Baranga (1995), Carugati et al. (1995), Emmerson & Philip (2004), Kingdon (1971-1982), Ligthart et al. (1994), Nel & Somers (2007), Perrin & Carugati (2000), Purves et al. (1994), Reuther et al. (2003), Roberts (1951), Rosevear (1974), Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1992a, 1995), Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998), Somers (2000), Somers & Nel (2004), Somers & Purves (1996), Stuart (1981), Vander Zee (1981, 1982), VanNiekerk et al. (1998), Verwoerd (1987), Watson & Lang (2003), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Lutra capensis Schinz, 1821, Capeof Good Hope.The CongoClawless Otter (Aonyx congicus) is considered a separate species by some authors, based on morphological and ecological evidence; however, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status. It is here included as a subspecies of A. capensis. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre a joues blanches @fr | Fingerotter @de | Nutria africana @es | Cape Clawless Otter @en | Congo Clawless Otter @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schinz","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1821","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Aonyx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"645","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"capensis","name":"Aonyx capensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. c. capensis Schinz, 1821— Sub-Saharan Africa from Senegalin the W to E Ethiopia, and E Africa to Western Cape. Absent from CongoBasin and the most arid zones of Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.A. c. congicus Lonnberg, 1910— CongoBasin in WC Africa.","bibliography":"Angelici et al. (2005) | Arden-Clark (1986) | Baranga (1995) | Carugati et al. (1995) | Emmerson & Philip (2004) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Ligthart et al. (1994) | Nel & Somers (2007) | Perrin & Carugati (2000) | Purves et al. (1994) | Reuther et al. (2003) | Roberts (1951) | Rosevear (1974) | Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1992a, 1995) | Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998) | Somers (2000) | Somers & Nel (2004) | Somers & Purves (1996) | Stuart (1981) | Vander Zee (1981, 1982) | VanNiekerk et al. (1998) | Verwoerd (1987) | Watson & Lang (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.","breeding":"Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern. Habitat alteration and water pollution are the main threats to this species, asit affects the abundance of crabs and other prey. Additionally, the African Clawless Otter is hunted for its pelt and medicinal purposes in some areas and killed in others as a perceived competitorfor fish, particularly where the Rainbow Trout has been introduced.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 76.2-88 cm(males), 73-73.6 cm(females), tail 46-5— 51- 5 cm(males), 49.5-51.5 cm(females); weight 10-21 kg(males), 10.6-16.3 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The African Clawless Otteris large and heavily built. The pelage is dark brown to black throughout, but the sides of the face, neck and throat are white or pale gray. There is a quadrangular dark brown patch between the eye and the nose; the cheeks are white. The hindfeet are partially webbed, but the front feet are not. The toes are clawless except for the three middle toes of each hindfoot, which bear small grooming claws. The cheek teeth are smaller in congicus than in capensis. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.Food and Feeding.African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern.","habitat":"African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"645","verbatimText":"36.African Clawless OtterAonyx capensisFrench:Loutre a joues blanches/ German:Fingerotter/ Spanish:Nutria africanaOther common names:Cape Clawless Otter, CongoClawless OtterTaxonomy.Lutra capensis Schinz, 1821, Capeof Good Hope.The CongoClawless Otter (Aonyx congicus) is considered a separate species by some authors, based on morphological and ecological evidence; however, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status. It is here included as a subspecies of A. capensis. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. c. capensis Schinz, 1821— Sub-Saharan Africa from Senegalin the W to E Ethiopia, and E Africa to Western Cape. Absent from CongoBasin and the most arid zones of Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.A. c. congicus Lonnberg, 1910— CongoBasin in WC Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76.2-88 cm(males), 73-73.6 cm(females), tail 46-5— 51- 5 cm(males), 49.5-51.5 cm(females); weight 10-21 kg(males), 10.6-16.3 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The African Clawless Otteris large and heavily built. The pelage is dark brown to black throughout, but the sides of the face, neck and throat are white or pale gray. There is a quadrangular dark brown patch between the eye and the nose; the cheeks are white. The hindfeet are partially webbed, but the front feet are not. The toes are clawless except for the three middle toes of each hindfoot, which bear small grooming claws. The cheek teeth are smaller in congicus than in capensis. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.Food and Feeding.African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern. Habitat alteration and water pollution are the main threats to this species, asit affects the abundance of crabs and other prey. Additionally, the African Clawless Otter is hunted for its pelt and medicinal purposes in some areas and killed in others as a perceived competitorfor fish, particularly where the Rainbow Trout has been introduced.Bibliography.Angelici et al. (2005), Arden-Clark (1986), Baranga (1995), Carugati et al. (1995), Emmerson & Philip (2004), Kingdon (1971-1982), Ligthart et al. (1994), Nel & Somers (2007), Perrin & Carugati (2000), Purves et al. (1994), Reuther et al. (2003), Roberts (1951), Rosevear (1974), Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1992a, 1995), Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998), Somers (2000), Somers & Nel (2004), Somers & Purves (1996), Stuart (1981), Vander Zee (1981, 1982), VanNiekerk et al. (1998), Verwoerd (1987), Watson & Lang (2003), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Lutra capensis Schinz, 1821, Capeof Good Hope.The CongoClawless Otter (Aonyx congicus) is considered a separate species by some authors, based on morphological and ecological evidence; however, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status. It is here included as a subspecies of A. capensis. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre a joues blanches @fr | Fingerotter @de | Nutria africana @es | Cape Clawless Otter @en | Congo Clawless Otter @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schinz","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1821","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Aonyx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"645","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"capensis","name":"Aonyx capensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. c. capensis Schinz, 1821— Sub-Saharan Africa from Senegalin the W to E Ethiopia, and E Africa to Western Cape. Absent from CongoBasin and the most arid zones of Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.A. c. congicus Lonnberg, 1910— CongoBasin in WC Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714235/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angelici et al. (2005) | Arden-Clark (1986) | Baranga (1995) | Carugati et al. (1995) | Emmerson & Philip (2004) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Ligthart et al. (1994) | Nel & Somers (2007) | Perrin & Carugati (2000) | Purves et al. (1994) | Reuther et al. (2003) | Roberts (1951) | Rosevear (1974) | Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1992a, 1995) | Rowe-Rowe & Somers (1998) | Somers (2000) | Somers & Nel (2004) | Somers & Purves (1996) | Stuart (1981) | Vander Zee (1981, 1982) | VanNiekerk et al. (1998) | Verwoerd (1987) | Watson & Lang (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.","breeding":"Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern. Habitat alteration and water pollution are the main threats to this species, asit affects the abundance of crabs and other prey. Additionally, the African Clawless Otter is hunted for its pelt and medicinal purposes in some areas and killed in others as a perceived competitorfor fish, particularly where the Rainbow Trout has been introduced.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 76.2-88 cm(males), 73-73.6 cm(females), tail 46-5— 51- 5 cm(males), 49.5-51.5 cm(females); weight 10-21 kg(males), 10.6-16.3 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The African Clawless Otteris large and heavily built. The pelage is dark brown to black throughout, but the sides of the face, neck and throat are white or pale gray. There is a quadrangular dark brown patch between the eye and the nose; the cheeks are white. The hindfeet are partially webbed, but the front feet are not. The toes are clawless except for the three middle toes of each hindfoot, which bear small grooming claws. The cheek teeth are smaller in congicus than in capensis. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.Food and Feeding.African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapiasparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 mof the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 mdeep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 mdeep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one femalewith her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 kmof coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 kmcore area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 kmand core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 kmof coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 kmand dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.Breeding.Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africaoccurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the CongoClawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern.","habitat":"African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4AFFA5CFF43DEDF5BDF8EF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4AFFA5CFF43DEDF5BDF8EF","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"645","verbatimText":"35.Hairy-nosed OtterLutra sumatranaFrench:Loutre de Sumatra/ German:Haarnasen-Otter/ Spanish:Nutria indonesiaTaxonomy.Barangia sumatrana Gray, 1865, Sumatra.Monotypic.Distribution.Mainland SE Asia in Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, and PeninsularMalaysia; also Borneo and Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 37.5-50 cm; weight 3.5-6 kg, adult males are larger than females. The Hairy-nosed Otter is small, with a dark brown pelage and paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of the face, chin, and throat are white. The rhinarium is covered with hair, with only the upper edge and margins of the nostrils naked. The limbs are short and strong, the feet are fully webbed and clawed, and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The skull is flat but strongly built.Habitat.Coastal wetlands, peat swamps, swamps, large rivers, lakes, and mountain streams.Food and Feeding.The dietis said to be primarily fish, but also includes snakes, frogs, small mammals, crabs, and insects.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Endangered in The [UCN Red List. The Hairy-nosed Otteris the rarest and least known among the five species of otters occurring in Asia. Once believed to be extinct, it has been rediscovered in different parts of South-east Asia such as Cambodia(Tonle Sap wetlands), Malaysia(Terengganuand Maur), Sumatra, Thailand(Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forest), and Viet Nam(U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Mekong Delta). Historically it has also been reported from Brunei, Myanmar, and Penang Island. Very little is known about the Hairy-nosed Otter, but it is likely that it is threatened by destruction of peat swamp forests for logging and agriculture. Research is critically needed on all aspects of this species’ ecology and biology.Bibliography.Banks (1949), Francis (2008), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Medway(1969), Nguyen et al. (2001), Poole(2003), Sivasothi & Burhanuddin (1994), Tate (1947), VanZyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Barangia sumatrana Gray, 1865, Sumatra.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Loutre de Sumatra @fr | Haarnasen-Otter @de | Nutria indonesia @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Brisson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1762","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lutra","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"645","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sumatrana","name":"Lutra sumatrana","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Mainland SE Asia in Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, and PeninsularMalaysia; also Borneo and Sumatra.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714233/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Banks (1949) | Francis (2008) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Medway(1969) | Nguyen et al. (2001) | Poole(2003) | Sivasothi & Burhanuddin (1994) | Tate (1947) | VanZyll de Jong (1972) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The dietis said to be primarily fish, but also includes snakes, frogs, small mammals, crabs, and insects.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Reported to be nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix II. Classified as Endangered in The [UCN Red List. The Hairy-nosed Otteris the rarest and least known among the five species of otters occurring in Asia. Once believed to be extinct, it has been rediscovered in different parts of South-east Asia such as Cambodia(Tonle Sap wetlands), Malaysia(Terengganuand Maur), Sumatra, Thailand(Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forest), and Viet Nam(U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Mekong Delta). Historically it has also been reported from Brunei, Myanmar, and Penang Island. Very little is known about the Hairy-nosed Otter, but it is likely that it is threatened by destruction of peat swamp forests for logging and agriculture. Research is critically needed on all aspects of this species’ ecology and biology.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 37.5-50 cm; weight 3.5-6 kg, adult males are larger than females. The Hairy-nosed Otter is small, with a dark brown pelage and paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of the face, chin, and throat are white. The rhinarium is covered with hair, with only the upper edge and margins of the nostrils naked. The limbs are short and strong, the feet are fully webbed and clawed, and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The skull is flat but strongly built.","habitat":"Coastal wetlands, peat swamps, swamps, large rivers, lakes, and mountain streams."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"646","verbatimText":"38.Smooth-coated OtterLutrogale perspicillataFrench:Loutre indienne/ German:Indischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria lisaTaxonomy.Lutra perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826, Sumatra.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. p. perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826— SE Asia from India, S China, and Mainland SE Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and E Java.L. p. maxwelli Hayman, 1957— Iraqand possibly bordering Iran.L. p. sindica Pocock, 1940— Afghanistanand Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 59-75 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 7-11 kg. A large otter, with a very smooth pelage, naked rhinarium, and fully clawed and webbed feet. The pelage ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, with paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of face, throat, and upper chest are gray. The upper margin of the rhinarium is flat. The vibrissae are well-developed and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The large feet have webbing that extends to the secondjoint of each digit. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is high and wide, with a broad rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.Smooth-coated Otters are found in inland and coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded swamps, mangroves, and along rivers and irrigation canals. They prefer waterways with banks that are rocky and well vegetated. Smooth-coated Otters are notrestricted to deep water and often forage in small, shallow rivers and seasonally flooded swamps during the monsoons (July-September) and early winter (October-February) in Indiaand Nepal. They commonly inhabit rice fields adjacent to mangroves along coastal areas. In Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters were found to be more abundant in mangroves. On Java, they are restricted to coastal wetlands. When occupying saltwater areas, Smooth-coated Otters require freshwater nearby.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but may also include small mammals, invertebrates (insects, crabs, and crustaceans), frogs, snakes, and birds. Most fish consumed are 5-30 cmin length. In Rajasthan, India, spraints contained fish (96%), insects (7%), birds (5%), molluscs (3%), frogs (1%), and worms (1%). At Periyar Lake in Kerala, India, fish were found to be the major prey: 32% tilapia (Tilapiamossambica), 26% catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), 16% curmuca barb (Gonoproktopetrus curmuca), 15% European carp (Cyprinus caprio), 3% Deccan mahsheer (Tor khudree), and 1% Periyar barb (Barbus micropogon); a higher intake of bottom-dwelling catfish was observed during periods of low water. Other food items were 4% frogs, 2% crabs, 0-7% birds, and 0-02% insects. In Nepal, spraints contained mainly fish; minor food items were frogs, crabs, shrimp, snakes, and insects. In Perak, Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters eat mostly fish (82% of spraints, mainly Trichogaster pectoralis), followed by molluscs, mammals, and insects (Coleoptera). In Thailand, 70% of spraints contained fish, 13% amphibians, 11% crabs, 4% snakes, and 2% arthropods. Smooth-coated Otters forage in the less rocky areas of lake shallows. Most foraging activity occurs in water; they go on land to rest and defecate. Small fish are swallowed whole, but large fish are taken to shore.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, with a rest period around midday. Den /rest sites occur under tree roots, in openings created by piles of boulders, or in dense vegetation. Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own dens and they sometimes rest on bare sand and grassy areas along river banks. In Nepal, eight dens were in exposed tree roots and one was a tunnel in the sand. In Indiaand Nepal, dens are found in swamps; these are sometimes used as natal den sites and nurseries. Spraint sites often smell of rotten fish. In Thailand, spraint sites occur on small rocks, sand banks, and large boulders, 1-3 mabove water level. The mean number of spraints on each site was 2-2. Smooth-coated Otters often roll and rub on grassy areas, especially after defecation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smooth-coated Otters are excellent swimmers and are able to swim underwater for long distances. They are social and are often seen in groups of up to eleven individuals; groups typically consist of a mated pair with young from previouslitters. It is estimated that a group of Smooth-coated Otters requires 7-12 kmofriver to sustain their needs. Population density is 1-1-3 otters per km of water.Breeding.In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed Last. Although the Smooth-coated Otter may have been quite common in the past and populations stable,it is now likely this is changing rapidly and that this species will soon be in need of urgent help. Increasing human population acrossits range is putting the Smooth-coated Otter under pressure through habitat destruction and pollution. There is widespread conflict with aquaculturalists and fishermen, who kill them as pests and competitors. There is also deliberate trapping for fur in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, mainly for export to China. Although legally protected throughoutits range, this is weakly enforced. Movements of Smooth-coated Otters are limited due to arid regions, leading to poor dispersal and population fragmentation. Several authorities have recommended that ex situ as well as in situ conservation efforts should be made. Field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservationstatus.Bibliography.Anoop & Hussain (2004, 2005), Biswas (1973), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008), Hussain (1996), Hwang & Lariviere (2005), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Medway(1969), Shariff (1985), Tate (1947), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yadav (1967).","taxonomy":"Lutra perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826, Sumatra.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre indienne @fr | German @en | ndischer Fischotter @en | Nutria lisa @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1865","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lutrogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"646","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"perspicillata","name":"Lutrogale perspicillata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. p. perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826— SE Asia from India, S China, and Mainland SE Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and E Java.L. p. maxwelli Hayman, 1957— Iraqand possibly bordering Iran.L. p. sindica Pocock, 1940— Afghanistanand Pakistan.","bibliography":"Anoop & Hussain (2004, 2005) | Biswas (1973) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008) | Hussain (1996) | Hwang & Lariviere (2005) | Kruuk et al. (1994) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Medway(1969) | Shariff (1985) | Tate (1947) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Yadav (1967)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly fish, but may also include small mammals, invertebrates (insects, crabs, and crustaceans), frogs, snakes, and birds. Most fish consumed are 5-30 cmin length. In Rajasthan, India, spraints contained fish (96%), insects (7%), birds (5%), molluscs (3%), frogs (1%), and worms (1%). At Periyar Lake in Kerala, India, fish were found to be the major prey: 32% tilapia (Tilapiamossambica), 26% catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), 16% curmuca barb (Gonoproktopetrus curmuca), 15% European carp (Cyprinus caprio), 3% Deccan mahsheer (Tor khudree), and 1% Periyar barb (Barbus micropogon); a higher intake of bottom-dwelling catfish was observed during periods of low water. Other food items were 4% frogs, 2% crabs, 0-7% birds, and 0-02% insects. In Nepal, spraints contained mainly fish; minor food items were frogs, crabs, shrimp, snakes, and insects. In Perak, Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters eat mostly fish (82% of spraints, mainly Trichogaster pectoralis), followed by molluscs, mammals, and insects (Coleoptera). In Thailand, 70% of spraints contained fish, 13% amphibians, 11% crabs, 4% snakes, and 2% arthropods. Smooth-coated Otters forage in the less rocky areas of lake shallows. Most foraging activity occurs in water; they go on land to rest and defecate. Small fish are swallowed whole, but large fish are taken to shore.","breeding":"In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.","activityPatterns":"Mainly diurnal, with a rest period around midday. Den /rest sites occur under tree roots, in openings created by piles of boulders, or in dense vegetation. Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own dens and they sometimes rest on bare sand and grassy areas along river banks. In Nepal, eight dens were in exposed tree roots and one was a tunnel in the sand. In Indiaand Nepal, dens are found in swamps; these are sometimes used as natal den sites and nurseries. Spraint sites often smell of rotten fish. In Thailand, spraint sites occur on small rocks, sand banks, and large boulders, 1-3 mabove water level. The mean number of spraints on each site was 2-2. Smooth-coated Otters often roll and rub on grassy areas, especially after defecation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Smooth-coated Otters are excellent swimmers and are able to swim underwater for long distances. They are social and are often seen in groups of up to eleven individuals; groups typically consist of a mated pair with young from previouslitters. It is estimated that a group of Smooth-coated Otters requires 7-12 kmofriver to sustain their needs. Population density is 1-1-3 otters per km of water.Breeding.In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed Last. Although the Smooth-coated Otter may have been quite common in the past and populations stable,it is now likely this is changing rapidly and that this species will soon be in need of urgent help. Increasing human population acrossits range is putting the Smooth-coated Otter under pressure through habitat destruction and pollution. There is widespread conflict with aquaculturalists and fishermen, who kill them as pests and competitors. There is also deliberate trapping for fur in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, mainly for export to China. Although legally protected throughoutits range, this is weakly enforced. Movements of Smooth-coated Otters are limited due to arid regions, leading to poor dispersal and population fragmentation. Several authorities have recommended that ex situ as well as in situ conservation efforts should be made. Field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservationstatus.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 59-75 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 7-11 kg. A large otter, with a very smooth pelage, naked rhinarium, and fully clawed and webbed feet. The pelage ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, with paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of face, throat, and upper chest are gray. The upper margin of the rhinarium is flat. The vibrissae are well-developed and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The large feet have webbing that extends to the secondjoint of each digit. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is high and wide, with a broad rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M 1/2 = 36.","habitat":"Smooth-coated Otters are found in inland and coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded swamps, mangroves, and along rivers and irrigation canals. They prefer waterways with banks that are rocky and well vegetated. Smooth-coated Otters are notrestricted to deep water and often forage in small, shallow rivers and seasonally flooded swamps during the monsoons (July-September) and early winter (October-February) in Indiaand Nepal. They commonly inhabit rice fields adjacent to mangroves along coastal areas. In Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters were found to be more abundant in mangroves. On Java, they are restricted to coastal wetlands. When occupying saltwater areas, Smooth-coated Otters require freshwater nearby."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"646","verbatimText":"37.Asian Small-clawed OtterAonyx cinereusFrench:Loutre cendrée/ German:Zwergotter/ Spanish:Nutria chicaOther common names:OrientalSmall-clawed OtterTaxonomy.Lutra cinerea Illiger, 1815, Batavia, Indonesia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. c. cinereus Illiger, 1815— S & SE China(including Hainan), Mainland SE Asia, Philippines(Palawan), Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.A. c. concolor Rafinesque, 1832— Sub-Himalan zone in Nepal, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, and SW China.A. c. nirnai Pocock, 1940— SW India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-44 cm(males), 43: 2-46.8 cm(females), tail 22.5-27 cm(males), 26-27.5 cm(females); weight 2: 40.3-80 kg. Asian Small-clawed Otters are the smallest of the world’s otter species. They have long bodies and short legs, and dorso-ventrally flattened tails. The pelage is uniformly brown exceptfor the neck, throat and chin, which are grayish-silver, sometimes almost white. The head 1s quite small, with eyes that are proportionally larger than in other otters. There are two pairs of mammae. Claws are present but reduced on all the feet; the webbing on all the feet is incomplete. The skull is small, short and wide. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are usually absent. The upper and lower carnassials and the upper molar are very large.Habitat.Asian Small-clawed Otters are found along lakes and rivers, in coastal wetlands, marshes, mangroves, and rice fields. They sometimes occur close to human settlements.Food and Feeding.The diet is primarily crabs and shellfish. Fish, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, and insects are also eaten. In Thailand, 95% of spraints contained the crab Potamon smithianus, 40% contained amphibians and fish, 15% contained small mammals, and 5% contained arthropods. The size of crabs consumed by Asian Smallclawed Otters reflects what is available in the watershed they inhabit. Asian Smallclawed Otters coexist with Eurasian, Hairy-nosed, and Smooth-coated Otters in numerous locations, including severalriver systems in Thailandand Malaysia. Although all three species consume the same prey, the Asian Small-clawed Otter is predominantly a crab eater, whereas the other species consume mostly fish. Prey are captured mostly by sight, but also by touch, using their dextrous forefeet. Shellfish are dug up and left in the sun so that the heat causes them to open, allowing Asian Small-clawed Otters to consume them without having to crush the shells.Activity pattern.Primarily diurnal, although reported to be nocturnal or crepuscular when found close to humans. During the day, Asian Small-clawed Otters often rest and groom on grassy or sandy banks near water. In marshes, they use mostly islands. Resting sites often show signs of spraint smearing, a behavior also observed in captivity. Defecation sites used by the Asian Small-clawed Otter occasionally are shared with Eurasian and Smooth-coated Otters and thus cannot be differentiated with certainty. Asian Small-clawed Otters have a diverse vocal repertoire that includes at least twelve different sounds, such as alarm, greeting, and mating calls.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Asian Small-clawed Otters are playful and sociable animals, and often travel and forage in groups of up to 12-13 individuals. In captivity, they can swim underwater at speeds of 0-7- 1-2 m/s.Breeding.Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in the. Asian Small-clawed Otters are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution from organochlorines. Local persecution may also affect populations where they are perceived as competitors for fish resources. In parts of Asia, their organs have traditional medicinal value. Very little is known about the ecology of this species and field studies are needed.Bibliography.Foster-Turley & Engfer (1988), Francis (2008), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lariviere (2003a), Leslie (1970), Medway(1969), Nor (1990), Shariff (1985), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yoshiyuki (1971).","taxonomy":"Lutra cinerea Illiger, 1815, Batavia, Indonesia.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre cendrée @fr | Zwergotter @de | Nutria chica @es | Oriental Small-clawed Otter @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Illiger","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1815","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Aonyx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"646","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cinereus","name":"Aonyx cinereus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. c. cinereus Illiger, 1815— S & SE China(including Hainan), Mainland SE Asia, Philippines(Palawan), Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.A. c. concolor Rafinesque, 1832— Sub-Himalan zone in Nepal, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, and SW China.A. c. nirnai Pocock, 1940— SW India.","bibliography":"Foster-Turley & Engfer (1988) | Francis (2008) | Kruuk et al. (1994) | Lariviere (2003a) | Leslie (1970) | Medway(1969) | Nor (1990) | Shariff (1985) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Yoshiyuki (1971)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is primarily crabs and shellfish. Fish, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, and insects are also eaten. In Thailand, 95% of spraints contained the crab Potamon smithianus, 40% contained amphibians and fish, 15% contained small mammals, and 5% contained arthropods. The size of crabs consumed by Asian Smallclawed Otters reflects what is available in the watershed they inhabit. Asian Smallclawed Otters coexist with Eurasian, Hairy-nosed, and Smooth-coated Otters in numerous locations, including severalriver systems in Thailandand Malaysia. Although all three species consume the same prey, the Asian Small-clawed Otter is predominantly a crab eater, whereas the other species consume mostly fish. Prey are captured mostly by sight, but also by touch, using their dextrous forefeet. Shellfish are dug up and left in the sun so that the heat causes them to open, allowing Asian Small-clawed Otters to consume them without having to crush the shells.","breeding":"Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Asian Small-clawed Otters are playful and sociable animals, and often travel and forage in groups of up to 12-13 individuals. In captivity, they can swim underwater at speeds of 0-7- 1-2 m/s.Breeding.Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in the. Asian Small-clawed Otters are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution from organochlorines. Local persecution may also affect populations where they are perceived as competitors for fish resources. In parts of Asia, their organs have traditional medicinal value. Very little is known about the ecology of this species and field studies are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 36-44 cm(males), 43: 2-46.8 cm(females), tail 22.5-27 cm(males), 26-27.5 cm(females); weight 2: 40.3-80 kg. Asian Small-clawed Otters are the smallest of the world’s otter species. They have long bodies and short legs, and dorso-ventrally flattened tails. The pelage is uniformly brown exceptfor the neck, throat and chin, which are grayish-silver, sometimes almost white. The head 1s quite small, with eyes that are proportionally larger than in other otters. There are two pairs of mammae. Claws are present but reduced on all the feet; the webbing on all the feet is incomplete. The skull is small, short and wide. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are usually absent. The upper and lower carnassials and the upper molar are very large.","habitat":"Asian Small-clawed Otters are found along lakes and rivers, in coastal wetlands, marshes, mangroves, and rice fields. They sometimes occur close to human settlements."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"649","verbatimText":"41.ErmineMustela ermineaFrench:Belette hermine/ German:Hermelin/ Spanish:ArminoOther common names:Stoat, Short-tailed WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Thirty-four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. e. erminea Linnaeus, 1758— Finland, Norway, NW Russia, and Sweden.M. e. aestiva Kerr, 1792— most of mainland N & C Europe to C Asia in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.M. e. alascensis Merriam, 1896— S Alaska.M. e. anguinae Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I, British Columbia).M. e. arctica Merriam, 1896— Alaska and NW Canada.M. e. bangsi Hall, 1945— C Canadaand NC USA.M. e. celenda Hall, 1944— Alaska(Prince of Wales I).M.e. cicognanii Bonaparte, 1838— SE Canadaand NE USA.M. e. fallenda Hall, 1945— W Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(N Washington).M. e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895— Afghanistan, N India, and Pakistan.M.e. gulosa Hall, 1945— NW USA(E Washington).M.e. haidarum Preble, 1898— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is, British Columbia).M.e. hibernica Thomas & Barrett-Hamilton, 1895— Ireland.M.e. imatis Hall, 1944— Alaska(Baranof I).M.e. invicta Hall, 1945— SW Canada(Alberta) and NW USA(Idaho& Montana).M.e. kadiacensis Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak I).M.e. kaneti Baird, 1857— NE China, Russia(E Siberia).M.e. karaginensis Jurgenson, 1936— NE Russia(Karaginsky I).M.e. lymani Hollister, 1912— E Russia(AltaiMts, Siberia).M.e. minima Cavazza, 1912— Switzerland.M.e. mongolica Ognev, 1928— NW Chinaand Mongolian Altai.M. e. muricus Bangs, 1899— USA(N California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming).M. e. nippon Cabrera, 1913— Japan.M.e. olympica Hall, 1945— NW USA(Olympic Peninsula, Washington).M.e. polaris Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Greenland.M.e.richardsonii Bonaparte, 1838— N Canada.M.e. ricinae G. S. Miller, 1907— Scotland(Islay I).M.e.salva Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Admiralty I).M.e.seclusa Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Suemez I).M.e.sempler Sutton & Hamilton, 1932— Canada(Franklin & Keewatin Districts).M.e.stabilis Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Great Britain.M.e.streatori Merriam, 1896— W USA(NE California, Oregon& coastal Washington).M.e.teberdina Kornejv, 1941— Russian Caucasus.M.e. tobolica Ognev, 1923— W Siberia.Introduced to New Zealand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22: 5-34 cm(males), 19-29 cm(females); tail 4.2-12 cm; weight of males is 208-283 ¢ in Europe, 320 gin Britain, 285-356 gin New Zealand(introduced population), 233-365 gin Ireland, 134-191 gin Russia, 56-206 gin North America, adult males are 40-80% larger than females. The Ermine has a long, slender body and short limbs. Except in certain southern parts of their range, Ermines change color in April-May and October-November. In the summer, the back, flanks, and outersides of the limbs are reddish or chocolate brown; the underparts are white and the tip of the tail is black. During winter, the pelage becomes white throughout except for the black tip of the tail. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull has a long braincase, inflated tympanic bullae, and is relatively flat. Dental formula: I 3/3, Cl/A.P3/3:;M1/2=34.Habitat.Ermines are found in a wide range of habitats, including tundra, alpine meadows, woodlands, marshes, mountains, riparian habitats, farmland, and hedgerows, from sea level up to 3000 m. They prefer areas with vegetative or rocky cover. In the mountains of south-east British Columbia, Ermines were detected in all forests surveyed; these covered the range from open dry Douglas-fir forests to dense wet western red cedar (Thwa plicata) and western hemlock (75uga heterophylla) forests, and from very recent clear-cuts to mature stands over 300 years in age. In a subarctic area in Finland, adult females were found to live in areas where the abundance of their preferred Microtus prey was the highest; dominant males lived in less productive habitats than females, but in more productive areas than non-dominant mature males.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats, lemmings, squirrels, and lagomorphs, but also includes birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, and fruit. In Great Britain, the percentage frequency of occurrence in the diet consists of 65% lagomorphs, 16% small rodents, and 17% birds and birds’ eggs; males eat a greater proportion of lagomorphs than females, which eat more small rodents. In Denmark(where European Rabbits are absent), a dietary study showed that rodents are the most important prey group, constituting 84% of their diet (frequency of occurrence). Ermines ate birds and birds’ eggs more often than sympatric Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more insectivores. Ermines ate more Microtus voles and Water Voles than Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more Bank Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Moles (Talpa europaea). In the Italian Alps, 60% of scats contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey. However, the frequency of occurrence offruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50% in July. In the forests of New Brunswick, Canada, the frequency of occurrence of prey is 28-0% soricids, 24:6% arvicolines, and 17-3% cricetines; the Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, 17-3%) and shrews (Sorex sp., 28-:0%) have the highest percent occurrence, whereas the Red Squirrel and the Eastern Chipmunk (7amius striatus) comprise 11-2% of the diet. Ermines generally hunt in a zig-zag pattern, progressing by a series of leaps that are up to 50 cmlong. Prey are located mostly by smell or sound, and are often pursued into underground burrows or under snow. Ermines usually kill prey by biting the base of the skull. They sometimes attack animals considerably larger than themselves, such as adult hares. Ermines may cache excess food underground for later use during the winter.On following pages: 42. Steppe Polecat (Mustelaeversmanii); 43. Colombian Weasel (Mustelafelipei); 44. Long-tailed Weasel (Mustela frenata); 45. Japanese Weasel (Mustelaitatsi); 46. Yellow-bellied Weasel (Mustelakathiah); 47. European Mink (Mustelalutreola); 48. Indonesian Mountain Weasel (Mustelalutreolina); 49. Black-footed Ferret (Mustelanigripes); 50. Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis); 51. Malay Weasel (Mustelanudipes); 52. European Polecat (Mustela putorius); 53. Siberian Weasel (Mustela sibirica); 54. Back-striped Weasel (Mustelastrigidorsa); 55. Egyptian Weasel (Mustela subpalmata); 56. American Mink (Neovison vison); 57. Patagonian Weasel (Lyncodonpatagonicus).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but can be active at any time during the day. Their long shape makes them sensitive to cold temperatures and this, combined with a high metabolic rate, requires that Ermines hunt constantly to fulfill their energetic demands. Short periods of activity and rest alternate every three to five hours. Dens/ rest sites are in crevices, among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in burrows taken over from a rodent. Several nests are maintained within an individual’s home range; these are lined with dry vegetation or the fur and feathers of its prey. Ermines can easily run over or tunnel in snow to escape predators and search for food.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ermines are solitary and primarily terrestrial, but they are also agile tree climbers and strong swimmers. Daily movements may reach 15 km, but usually average c. 1 km. Movements increase when prey are rare or dispersed. Home ranges may reach 200 ha, but are typically 10-40 ha; male ranges are generally larger than female ranges. Both sexes maintain exclusive territories, but a male home range may overlap one or more female ranges. Males show a marked seasonal shift in their social organization from a pattern of intra-sexual territories during the non-breeding season (autumn and winter) to a non-territorial pattern with extensive and overlapping ranges during the mating season (spring and summer). Boundaries are regularly patrolled and scent-marked, and neighbors usually avoid each other. Population density fluctuates with prey abundance and may range from 2-6 individuals per km®.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Ermines are considered common throughout their distribution. They rarely molest poultry and are valuable to humans because they prey on mice and rats. However, Ermines are considered pests in New Zealand, where they were introduced to control rabbits but subsequently decimated populations of native birds. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Ermine is dependent on two Arvicola species, which are declining in numbers. Ermines are trapped in North America and Russiafor their fur; the white winter fur has long been used in trimming coats and making stoles.Bibliography.Edwards & Forbes (2003), EImeros (2006), Erlinge & Sandell (1986), Hellstedt & Henttonen (2006), Hellstedt et al. (2006), King (1983, 1990), Martinoli et al. (2001), McDonaldet al. (2000), Mowat & Poole (2005), Robitaille & Raymond (1995), Samson & Raymond (1998), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Thirty-four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Belette hermine @fr | Hermelin @de | Armino @es | Stoat @en | Short-tailed Weasel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"649","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"erminea","name":"Mustela erminea","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. e. erminea Linnaeus, 1758— Finland, Norway, NW Russia, and Sweden.M. e. aestiva Kerr, 1792— most of mainland N & C Europe to C Asia in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.M. e. alascensis Merriam, 1896— S Alaska.M. e. anguinae Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I, British Columbia).M. e. arctica Merriam, 1896— Alaska and NW Canada.M. e. bangsi Hall, 1945— C Canadaand NC USA.M. e. celenda Hall, 1944— Alaska(Prince of Wales I).M.e. cicognanii Bonaparte, 1838— SE Canadaand NE USA.M. e. fallenda Hall, 1945— W Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(N Washington).M. e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895— Afghanistan, N India, and Pakistan.M.e. gulosa Hall, 1945— NW USA(E Washington).M.e. haidarum Preble, 1898— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is, British Columbia).M.e. hibernica Thomas & Barrett-Hamilton, 1895— Ireland.M.e. imatis Hall, 1944— Alaska(Baranof I).M.e. invicta Hall, 1945— SW Canada(Alberta) and NW USA(Idaho& Montana).M.e. kadiacensis Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak I).M.e. kaneti Baird, 1857— NE China, Russia(E Siberia).M.e. karaginensis Jurgenson, 1936— NE Russia(Karaginsky I).M.e. lymani Hollister, 1912— E Russia(AltaiMts, Siberia).M.e. minima Cavazza, 1912— Switzerland.M.e. mongolica Ognev, 1928— NW Chinaand Mongolian Altai.M. e. muricus Bangs, 1899— USA(N California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming).M. e. nippon Cabrera, 1913— Japan.M.e. olympica Hall, 1945— NW USA(Olympic Peninsula, Washington).M.e. polaris Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Greenland.M.e.richardsonii Bonaparte, 1838— N Canada.M.e. ricinae G. S. Miller, 1907— Scotland(Islay I).M.e.salva Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Admiralty I).M.e.seclusa Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Suemez I).M.e.sempler Sutton & Hamilton, 1932— Canada(Franklin & Keewatin Districts).M.e.stabilis Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Great Britain.M.e.streatori Merriam, 1896— W USA(NE California, Oregon& coastal Washington).M.e.teberdina Kornejv, 1941— Russian Caucasus.M.e. tobolica Ognev, 1923— W Siberia.Introduced to New Zealand.","bibliography":"Edwards & Forbes (2003) | EImeros (2006) | Erlinge & Sandell (1986) | Hellstedt & Henttonen (2006) | Hellstedt et al. (2006) | King (1983, 1990) | Martinoli et al. (2001) | McDonaldet al. (2000) | Mowat & Poole (2005) | Robitaille & Raymond (1995) | Samson & Raymond (1998) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats, lemmings, squirrels, and lagomorphs, but also includes birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, and fruit. In Great Britain, the percentage frequency of occurrence in the diet consists of 65% lagomorphs, 16% small rodents, and 17% birds and birds’ eggs; males eat a greater proportion of lagomorphs than females, which eat more small rodents. In Denmark(where European Rabbits are absent), a dietary study showed that rodents are the most important prey group, constituting 84% of their diet (frequency of occurrence). Ermines ate birds and birds’ eggs more often than sympatric Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more insectivores. Ermines ate more Microtus voles and Water Voles than Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more Bank Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Moles (Talpa europaea). In the Italian Alps, 60% of scats contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey. However, the frequency of occurrence offruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50% in July. In the forests of New Brunswick, Canada, the frequency of occurrence of prey is 28-0% soricids, 24:6% arvicolines, and 17-3% cricetines; the Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, 17-3%) and shrews (Sorex sp., 28-:0%) have the highest percent occurrence, whereas the Red Squirrel and the Eastern Chipmunk (7amius striatus) comprise 11-2% of the diet. Ermines generally hunt in a zig-zag pattern, progressing by a series of leaps that are up to 50 cmlong. Prey are located mostly by smell or sound, and are often pursued into underground burrows or under snow. Ermines usually kill prey by biting the base of the skull. They sometimes attack animals considerably larger than themselves, such as adult hares. Ermines may cache excess food underground for later use during the winter.","breeding":"Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, but can be active at any time during the day. Their long shape makes them sensitive to cold temperatures and this, combined with a high metabolic rate, requires that Ermines hunt constantly to fulfill their energetic demands. Short periods of activity and rest alternate every three to five hours. Dens/ rest sites are in crevices, among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in burrows taken over from a rodent. Several nests are maintained within an individual’s home range; these are lined with dry vegetation or the fur and feathers of its prey. Ermines can easily run over or tunnel in snow to escape predators and search for food.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Ermines are solitary and primarily terrestrial, but they are also agile tree climbers and strong swimmers. Daily movements may reach 15 km, but usually average c. 1 km. Movements increase when prey are rare or dispersed. Home ranges may reach 200 ha, but are typically 10-40 ha; male ranges are generally larger than female ranges. Both sexes maintain exclusive territories, but a male home range may overlap one or more female ranges. Males show a marked seasonal shift in their social organization from a pattern of intra-sexual territories during the non-breeding season (autumn and winter) to a non-territorial pattern with extensive and overlapping ranges during the mating season (spring and summer). Boundaries are regularly patrolled and scent-marked, and neighbors usually avoid each other. Population density fluctuates with prey abundance and may range from 2-6 individuals per km®.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Ermines are considered common throughout their distribution. They rarely molest poultry and are valuable to humans because they prey on mice and rats. However, Ermines are considered pests in New Zealand, where they were introduced to control rabbits but subsequently decimated populations of native birds. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Ermine is dependent on two Arvicola species, which are declining in numbers. Ermines are trapped in North America and Russiafor their fur; the white winter fur has long been used in trimming coats and making stoles.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 22: 5-34 cm(males), 19-29 cm(females); tail 4.2-12 cm; weight of males is 208-283 ¢ in Europe, 320 gin Britain, 285-356 gin New Zealand(introduced population), 233-365 gin Ireland, 134-191 gin Russia, 56-206 gin North America, adult males are 40-80% larger than females. The Ermine has a long, slender body and short limbs. Except in certain southern parts of their range, Ermines change color in April-May and October-November. In the summer, the back, flanks, and outersides of the limbs are reddish or chocolate brown; the underparts are white and the tip of the tail is black. During winter, the pelage becomes white throughout except for the black tip of the tail. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull has a long braincase, inflated tympanic bullae, and is relatively flat. Dental formula: I 3/3, Cl/A.P3/3:;M1/2=34.","habitat":"Ermines are found in a wide range of habitats, including tundra, alpine meadows, woodlands, marshes, mountains, riparian habitats, farmland, and hedgerows, from sea level up to 3000 m. They prefer areas with vegetative or rocky cover. In the mountains of south-east British Columbia, Ermines were detected in all forests surveyed; these covered the range from open dry Douglas-fir forests to dense wet western red cedar (Thwa plicata) and western hemlock (75uga heterophylla) forests, and from very recent clear-cuts to mature stands over 300 years in age. In a subarctic area in Finland, adult females were found to live in areas where the abundance of their preferred Microtus prey was the highest; dominant males lived in less productive habitats than females, but in more productive areas than non-dominant mature males."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"646","verbatimText":"38.Smooth-coated OtterLutrogale perspicillataFrench:Loutre indienne/ German:Indischer Fischotter/ Spanish:Nutria lisaTaxonomy.Lutra perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826, Sumatra.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.L. p. perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826— SE Asia from India, S China, and Mainland SE Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and E Java.L. p. maxwelli Hayman, 1957— Iraqand possibly bordering Iran.L. p. sindica Pocock, 1940— Afghanistanand Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 59-75 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 7-11 kg. A large otter, with a very smooth pelage, naked rhinarium, and fully clawed and webbed feet. The pelage ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, with paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of face, throat, and upper chest are gray. The upper margin of the rhinarium is flat. The vibrissae are well-developed and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The large feet have webbing that extends to the secondjoint of each digit. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is high and wide, with a broad rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M 1/2 = 36.Habitat.Smooth-coated Otters are found in inland and coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded swamps, mangroves, and along rivers and irrigation canals. They prefer waterways with banks that are rocky and well vegetated. Smooth-coated Otters are notrestricted to deep water and often forage in small, shallow rivers and seasonally flooded swamps during the monsoons (July-September) and early winter (October-February) in Indiaand Nepal. They commonly inhabit rice fields adjacent to mangroves along coastal areas. In Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters were found to be more abundant in mangroves. On Java, they are restricted to coastal wetlands. When occupying saltwater areas, Smooth-coated Otters require freshwater nearby.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly fish, but may also include small mammals, invertebrates (insects, crabs, and crustaceans), frogs, snakes, and birds. Most fish consumed are 5-30 cmin length. In Rajasthan, India, spraints contained fish (96%), insects (7%), birds (5%), molluscs (3%), frogs (1%), and worms (1%). At Periyar Lake in Kerala, India, fish were found to be the major prey: 32% tilapia (Tilapiamossambica), 26% catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), 16% curmuca barb (Gonoproktopetrus curmuca), 15% European carp (Cyprinus caprio), 3% Deccan mahsheer (Tor khudree), and 1% Periyar barb (Barbus micropogon); a higher intake of bottom-dwelling catfish was observed during periods of low water. Other food items were 4% frogs, 2% crabs, 0-7% birds, and 0-02% insects. In Nepal, spraints contained mainly fish; minor food items were frogs, crabs, shrimp, snakes, and insects. In Perak, Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters eat mostly fish (82% of spraints, mainly Trichogaster pectoralis), followed by molluscs, mammals, and insects (Coleoptera). In Thailand, 70% of spraints contained fish, 13% amphibians, 11% crabs, 4% snakes, and 2% arthropods. Smooth-coated Otters forage in the less rocky areas of lake shallows. Most foraging activity occurs in water; they go on land to rest and defecate. Small fish are swallowed whole, but large fish are taken to shore.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, with a rest period around midday. Den /rest sites occur under tree roots, in openings created by piles of boulders, or in dense vegetation. Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own dens and they sometimes rest on bare sand and grassy areas along river banks. In Nepal, eight dens were in exposed tree roots and one was a tunnel in the sand. In Indiaand Nepal, dens are found in swamps; these are sometimes used as natal den sites and nurseries. Spraint sites often smell of rotten fish. In Thailand, spraint sites occur on small rocks, sand banks, and large boulders, 1-3 mabove water level. The mean number of spraints on each site was 2-2. Smooth-coated Otters often roll and rub on grassy areas, especially after defecation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smooth-coated Otters are excellent swimmers and are able to swim underwater for long distances. They are social and are often seen in groups of up to eleven individuals; groups typically consist of a mated pair with young from previouslitters. It is estimated that a group of Smooth-coated Otters requires 7-12 kmofriver to sustain their needs. Population density is 1-1-3 otters per km of water.Breeding.In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed Last. Although the Smooth-coated Otter may have been quite common in the past and populations stable,it is now likely this is changing rapidly and that this species will soon be in need of urgent help. Increasing human population acrossits range is putting the Smooth-coated Otter under pressure through habitat destruction and pollution. There is widespread conflict with aquaculturalists and fishermen, who kill them as pests and competitors. There is also deliberate trapping for fur in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, mainly for export to China. Although legally protected throughoutits range, this is weakly enforced. Movements of Smooth-coated Otters are limited due to arid regions, leading to poor dispersal and population fragmentation. Several authorities have recommended that ex situ as well as in situ conservation efforts should be made. Field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservationstatus.Bibliography.Anoop & Hussain (2004, 2005), Biswas (1973), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008), Hussain (1996), Hwang & Lariviere (2005), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Medway(1969), Shariff (1985), Tate (1947), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yadav (1967).","taxonomy":"Lutra perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826, Sumatra.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre indienne @fr | German @en | ndischer Fischotter @en | Nutria lisa @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1865","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lutrogale","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"646","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"perspicillata","name":"Lutrogale perspicillata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L. p. perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826— SE Asia from India, S China, and Mainland SE Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and E Java.L. p. maxwelli Hayman, 1957— Iraqand possibly bordering Iran.L. p. sindica Pocock, 1940— Afghanistanand Pakistan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714241/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anoop & Hussain (2004, 2005) | Biswas (1973) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008) | Hussain (1996) | Hwang & Lariviere (2005) | Kruuk et al. (1994) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Medway(1969) | Shariff (1985) | Tate (1947) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Yadav (1967)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly fish, but may also include small mammals, invertebrates (insects, crabs, and crustaceans), frogs, snakes, and birds. Most fish consumed are 5-30 cmin length. In Rajasthan, India, spraints contained fish (96%), insects (7%), birds (5%), molluscs (3%), frogs (1%), and worms (1%). At Periyar Lake in Kerala, India, fish were found to be the major prey: 32% tilapia (Tilapiamossambica), 26% catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), 16% curmuca barb (Gonoproktopetrus curmuca), 15% European carp (Cyprinus caprio), 3% Deccan mahsheer (Tor khudree), and 1% Periyar barb (Barbus micropogon); a higher intake of bottom-dwelling catfish was observed during periods of low water. Other food items were 4% frogs, 2% crabs, 0-7% birds, and 0-02% insects. In Nepal, spraints contained mainly fish; minor food items were frogs, crabs, shrimp, snakes, and insects. In Perak, Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters eat mostly fish (82% of spraints, mainly Trichogaster pectoralis), followed by molluscs, mammals, and insects (Coleoptera). In Thailand, 70% of spraints contained fish, 13% amphibians, 11% crabs, 4% snakes, and 2% arthropods. Smooth-coated Otters forage in the less rocky areas of lake shallows. Most foraging activity occurs in water; they go on land to rest and defecate. Small fish are swallowed whole, but large fish are taken to shore.","breeding":"In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.","activityPatterns":"Mainly diurnal, with a rest period around midday. Den /rest sites occur under tree roots, in openings created by piles of boulders, or in dense vegetation. Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own dens and they sometimes rest on bare sand and grassy areas along river banks. In Nepal, eight dens were in exposed tree roots and one was a tunnel in the sand. In Indiaand Nepal, dens are found in swamps; these are sometimes used as natal den sites and nurseries. Spraint sites often smell of rotten fish. In Thailand, spraint sites occur on small rocks, sand banks, and large boulders, 1-3 mabove water level. The mean number of spraints on each site was 2-2. Smooth-coated Otters often roll and rub on grassy areas, especially after defecation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Smooth-coated Otters are excellent swimmers and are able to swim underwater for long distances. They are social and are often seen in groups of up to eleven individuals; groups typically consist of a mated pair with young from previouslitters. It is estimated that a group of Smooth-coated Otters requires 7-12 kmofriver to sustain their needs. Population density is 1-1-3 otters per km of water.Breeding.In Indiaand Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed Last. Although the Smooth-coated Otter may have been quite common in the past and populations stable,it is now likely this is changing rapidly and that this species will soon be in need of urgent help. Increasing human population acrossits range is putting the Smooth-coated Otter under pressure through habitat destruction and pollution. There is widespread conflict with aquaculturalists and fishermen, who kill them as pests and competitors. There is also deliberate trapping for fur in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, mainly for export to China. Although legally protected throughoutits range, this is weakly enforced. Movements of Smooth-coated Otters are limited due to arid regions, leading to poor dispersal and population fragmentation. Several authorities have recommended that ex situ as well as in situ conservation efforts should be made. Field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservationstatus.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 59-75 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 7-11 kg. A large otter, with a very smooth pelage, naked rhinarium, and fully clawed and webbed feet. The pelage ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, with paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of face, throat, and upper chest are gray. The upper margin of the rhinarium is flat. The vibrissae are well-developed and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The large feet have webbing that extends to the secondjoint of each digit. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is high and wide, with a broad rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M 1/2 = 36.","habitat":"Smooth-coated Otters are found in inland and coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded swamps, mangroves, and along rivers and irrigation canals. They prefer waterways with banks that are rocky and well vegetated. Smooth-coated Otters are notrestricted to deep water and often forage in small, shallow rivers and seasonally flooded swamps during the monsoons (July-September) and early winter (October-February) in Indiaand Nepal. They commonly inhabit rice fields adjacent to mangroves along coastal areas. In Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters were found to be more abundant in mangroves. On Java, they are restricted to coastal wetlands. When occupying saltwater areas, Smooth-coated Otters require freshwater nearby."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"646","verbatimText":"37.Asian Small-clawed OtterAonyx cinereusFrench:Loutre cendrée/ German:Zwergotter/ Spanish:Nutria chicaOther common names:OrientalSmall-clawed OtterTaxonomy.Lutra cinerea Illiger, 1815, Batavia, Indonesia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. c. cinereus Illiger, 1815— S & SE China(including Hainan), Mainland SE Asia, Philippines(Palawan), Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.A. c. concolor Rafinesque, 1832— Sub-Himalan zone in Nepal, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, and SW China.A. c. nirnai Pocock, 1940— SW India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-44 cm(males), 43: 2-46.8 cm(females), tail 22.5-27 cm(males), 26-27.5 cm(females); weight 2: 40.3-80 kg. Asian Small-clawed Otters are the smallest of the world’s otter species. They have long bodies and short legs, and dorso-ventrally flattened tails. The pelage is uniformly brown exceptfor the neck, throat and chin, which are grayish-silver, sometimes almost white. The head 1s quite small, with eyes that are proportionally larger than in other otters. There are two pairs of mammae. Claws are present but reduced on all the feet; the webbing on all the feet is incomplete. The skull is small, short and wide. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are usually absent. The upper and lower carnassials and the upper molar are very large.Habitat.Asian Small-clawed Otters are found along lakes and rivers, in coastal wetlands, marshes, mangroves, and rice fields. They sometimes occur close to human settlements.Food and Feeding.The diet is primarily crabs and shellfish. Fish, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, and insects are also eaten. In Thailand, 95% of spraints contained the crab Potamon smithianus, 40% contained amphibians and fish, 15% contained small mammals, and 5% contained arthropods. The size of crabs consumed by Asian Smallclawed Otters reflects what is available in the watershed they inhabit. Asian Smallclawed Otters coexist with Eurasian, Hairy-nosed, and Smooth-coated Otters in numerous locations, including severalriver systems in Thailandand Malaysia. Although all three species consume the same prey, the Asian Small-clawed Otter is predominantly a crab eater, whereas the other species consume mostly fish. Prey are captured mostly by sight, but also by touch, using their dextrous forefeet. Shellfish are dug up and left in the sun so that the heat causes them to open, allowing Asian Small-clawed Otters to consume them without having to crush the shells.Activity pattern.Primarily diurnal, although reported to be nocturnal or crepuscular when found close to humans. During the day, Asian Small-clawed Otters often rest and groom on grassy or sandy banks near water. In marshes, they use mostly islands. Resting sites often show signs of spraint smearing, a behavior also observed in captivity. Defecation sites used by the Asian Small-clawed Otter occasionally are shared with Eurasian and Smooth-coated Otters and thus cannot be differentiated with certainty. Asian Small-clawed Otters have a diverse vocal repertoire that includes at least twelve different sounds, such as alarm, greeting, and mating calls.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Asian Small-clawed Otters are playful and sociable animals, and often travel and forage in groups of up to 12-13 individuals. In captivity, they can swim underwater at speeds of 0-7- 1-2 m/s.Breeding.Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in the. Asian Small-clawed Otters are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution from organochlorines. Local persecution may also affect populations where they are perceived as competitors for fish resources. In parts of Asia, their organs have traditional medicinal value. Very little is known about the ecology of this species and field studies are needed.Bibliography.Foster-Turley & Engfer (1988), Francis (2008), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lariviere (2003a), Leslie (1970), Medway(1969), Nor (1990), Shariff (1985), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yoshiyuki (1971).","taxonomy":"Lutra cinerea Illiger, 1815, Batavia, Indonesia.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loutre cendrée @fr | Zwergotter @de | Nutria chica @es | Oriental Small-clawed Otter @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Illiger","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1815","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Aonyx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"646","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cinereus","name":"Aonyx cinereus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. c. cinereus Illiger, 1815— S & SE China(including Hainan), Mainland SE Asia, Philippines(Palawan), Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.A. c. concolor Rafinesque, 1832— Sub-Himalan zone in Nepal, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, and SW China.A. c. nirnai Pocock, 1940— SW India.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714239/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Foster-Turley & Engfer (1988) | Francis (2008) | Kruuk et al. (1994) | Lariviere (2003a) | Leslie (1970) | Medway(1969) | Nor (1990) | Shariff (1985) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Yoshiyuki (1971)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is primarily crabs and shellfish. Fish, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, and insects are also eaten. In Thailand, 95% of spraints contained the crab Potamon smithianus, 40% contained amphibians and fish, 15% contained small mammals, and 5% contained arthropods. The size of crabs consumed by Asian Smallclawed Otters reflects what is available in the watershed they inhabit. Asian Smallclawed Otters coexist with Eurasian, Hairy-nosed, and Smooth-coated Otters in numerous locations, including severalriver systems in Thailandand Malaysia. Although all three species consume the same prey, the Asian Small-clawed Otter is predominantly a crab eater, whereas the other species consume mostly fish. Prey are captured mostly by sight, but also by touch, using their dextrous forefeet. Shellfish are dug up and left in the sun so that the heat causes them to open, allowing Asian Small-clawed Otters to consume them without having to crush the shells.","breeding":"Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Asian Small-clawed Otters are playful and sociable animals, and often travel and forage in groups of up to 12-13 individuals. In captivity, they can swim underwater at speeds of 0-7- 1-2 m/s.Breeding.Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 gand measure around 14 cmin length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in the. Asian Small-clawed Otters are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution from organochlorines. Local persecution may also affect populations where they are perceived as competitors for fish resources. In parts of Asia, their organs have traditional medicinal value. Very little is known about the ecology of this species and field studies are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 36-44 cm(males), 43: 2-46.8 cm(females), tail 22.5-27 cm(males), 26-27.5 cm(females); weight 2: 40.3-80 kg. Asian Small-clawed Otters are the smallest of the world’s otter species. They have long bodies and short legs, and dorso-ventrally flattened tails. The pelage is uniformly brown exceptfor the neck, throat and chin, which are grayish-silver, sometimes almost white. The head 1s quite small, with eyes that are proportionally larger than in other otters. There are two pairs of mammae. Claws are present but reduced on all the feet; the webbing on all the feet is incomplete. The skull is small, short and wide. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are usually absent. The upper and lower carnassials and the upper molar are very large.","habitat":"Asian Small-clawed Otters are found along lakes and rivers, in coastal wetlands, marshes, mangroves, and rice fields. They sometimes occur close to human settlements."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"649","verbatimText":"41.ErmineMustela ermineaFrench:Belette hermine/ German:Hermelin/ Spanish:ArminoOther common names:Stoat, Short-tailed WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Thirty-four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. e. erminea Linnaeus, 1758— Finland, Norway, NW Russia, and Sweden.M. e. aestiva Kerr, 1792— most of mainland N & C Europe to C Asia in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.M. e. alascensis Merriam, 1896— S Alaska.M. e. anguinae Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I, British Columbia).M. e. arctica Merriam, 1896— Alaska and NW Canada.M. e. bangsi Hall, 1945— C Canadaand NC USA.M. e. celenda Hall, 1944— Alaska(Prince of Wales I).M.e. cicognanii Bonaparte, 1838— SE Canadaand NE USA.M. e. fallenda Hall, 1945— W Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(N Washington).M. e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895— Afghanistan, N India, and Pakistan.M.e. gulosa Hall, 1945— NW USA(E Washington).M.e. haidarum Preble, 1898— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is, British Columbia).M.e. hibernica Thomas & Barrett-Hamilton, 1895— Ireland.M.e. imatis Hall, 1944— Alaska(Baranof I).M.e. invicta Hall, 1945— SW Canada(Alberta) and NW USA(Idaho& Montana).M.e. kadiacensis Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak I).M.e. kaneti Baird, 1857— NE China, Russia(E Siberia).M.e. karaginensis Jurgenson, 1936— NE Russia(Karaginsky I).M.e. lymani Hollister, 1912— E Russia(AltaiMts, Siberia).M.e. minima Cavazza, 1912— Switzerland.M.e. mongolica Ognev, 1928— NW Chinaand Mongolian Altai.M. e. muricus Bangs, 1899— USA(N California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming).M. e. nippon Cabrera, 1913— Japan.M.e. olympica Hall, 1945— NW USA(Olympic Peninsula, Washington).M.e. polaris Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Greenland.M.e.richardsonii Bonaparte, 1838— N Canada.M.e. ricinae G. S. Miller, 1907— Scotland(Islay I).M.e.salva Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Admiralty I).M.e.seclusa Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Suemez I).M.e.sempler Sutton & Hamilton, 1932— Canada(Franklin & Keewatin Districts).M.e.stabilis Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Great Britain.M.e.streatori Merriam, 1896— W USA(NE California, Oregon& coastal Washington).M.e.teberdina Kornejv, 1941— Russian Caucasus.M.e. tobolica Ognev, 1923— W Siberia.Introduced to New Zealand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22: 5-34 cm(males), 19-29 cm(females); tail 4.2-12 cm; weight of males is 208-283 ¢ in Europe, 320 gin Britain, 285-356 gin New Zealand(introduced population), 233-365 gin Ireland, 134-191 gin Russia, 56-206 gin North America, adult males are 40-80% larger than females. The Ermine has a long, slender body and short limbs. Except in certain southern parts of their range, Ermines change color in April-May and October-November. In the summer, the back, flanks, and outersides of the limbs are reddish or chocolate brown; the underparts are white and the tip of the tail is black. During winter, the pelage becomes white throughout except for the black tip of the tail. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull has a long braincase, inflated tympanic bullae, and is relatively flat. Dental formula: I 3/3, Cl/A.P3/3:;M1/2=34.Habitat.Ermines are found in a wide range of habitats, including tundra, alpine meadows, woodlands, marshes, mountains, riparian habitats, farmland, and hedgerows, from sea level up to 3000 m. They prefer areas with vegetative or rocky cover. In the mountains of south-east British Columbia, Ermines were detected in all forests surveyed; these covered the range from open dry Douglas-fir forests to dense wet western red cedar (Thwa plicata) and western hemlock (75uga heterophylla) forests, and from very recent clear-cuts to mature stands over 300 years in age. In a subarctic area in Finland, adult females were found to live in areas where the abundance of their preferred Microtus prey was the highest; dominant males lived in less productive habitats than females, but in more productive areas than non-dominant mature males.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats, lemmings, squirrels, and lagomorphs, but also includes birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, and fruit. In Great Britain, the percentage frequency of occurrence in the diet consists of 65% lagomorphs, 16% small rodents, and 17% birds and birds’ eggs; males eat a greater proportion of lagomorphs than females, which eat more small rodents. In Denmark(where European Rabbits are absent), a dietary study showed that rodents are the most important prey group, constituting 84% of their diet (frequency of occurrence). Ermines ate birds and birds’ eggs more often than sympatric Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more insectivores. Ermines ate more Microtus voles and Water Voles than Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more Bank Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Moles (Talpa europaea). In the Italian Alps, 60% of scats contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey. However, the frequency of occurrence offruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50% in July. In the forests of New Brunswick, Canada, the frequency of occurrence of prey is 28-0% soricids, 24:6% arvicolines, and 17-3% cricetines; the Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, 17-3%) and shrews (Sorex sp., 28-:0%) have the highest percent occurrence, whereas the Red Squirrel and the Eastern Chipmunk (7amius striatus) comprise 11-2% of the diet. Ermines generally hunt in a zig-zag pattern, progressing by a series of leaps that are up to 50 cmlong. Prey are located mostly by smell or sound, and are often pursued into underground burrows or under snow. Ermines usually kill prey by biting the base of the skull. They sometimes attack animals considerably larger than themselves, such as adult hares. Ermines may cache excess food underground for later use during the winter.On following pages: 42. Steppe Polecat (Mustelaeversmanii); 43. Colombian Weasel (Mustelafelipei); 44. Long-tailed Weasel (Mustela frenata); 45. Japanese Weasel (Mustelaitatsi); 46. Yellow-bellied Weasel (Mustelakathiah); 47. European Mink (Mustelalutreola); 48. Indonesian Mountain Weasel (Mustelalutreolina); 49. Black-footed Ferret (Mustelanigripes); 50. Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis); 51. Malay Weasel (Mustelanudipes); 52. European Polecat (Mustela putorius); 53. Siberian Weasel (Mustela sibirica); 54. Back-striped Weasel (Mustelastrigidorsa); 55. Egyptian Weasel (Mustela subpalmata); 56. American Mink (Neovison vison); 57. Patagonian Weasel (Lyncodonpatagonicus).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but can be active at any time during the day. Their long shape makes them sensitive to cold temperatures and this, combined with a high metabolic rate, requires that Ermines hunt constantly to fulfill their energetic demands. Short periods of activity and rest alternate every three to five hours. Dens/ rest sites are in crevices, among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in burrows taken over from a rodent. Several nests are maintained within an individual’s home range; these are lined with dry vegetation or the fur and feathers of its prey. Ermines can easily run over or tunnel in snow to escape predators and search for food.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ermines are solitary and primarily terrestrial, but they are also agile tree climbers and strong swimmers. Daily movements may reach 15 km, but usually average c. 1 km. Movements increase when prey are rare or dispersed. Home ranges may reach 200 ha, but are typically 10-40 ha; male ranges are generally larger than female ranges. Both sexes maintain exclusive territories, but a male home range may overlap one or more female ranges. Males show a marked seasonal shift in their social organization from a pattern of intra-sexual territories during the non-breeding season (autumn and winter) to a non-territorial pattern with extensive and overlapping ranges during the mating season (spring and summer). Boundaries are regularly patrolled and scent-marked, and neighbors usually avoid each other. Population density fluctuates with prey abundance and may range from 2-6 individuals per km®.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Ermines are considered common throughout their distribution. They rarely molest poultry and are valuable to humans because they prey on mice and rats. However, Ermines are considered pests in New Zealand, where they were introduced to control rabbits but subsequently decimated populations of native birds. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Ermine is dependent on two Arvicola species, which are declining in numbers. Ermines are trapped in North America and Russiafor their fur; the white winter fur has long been used in trimming coats and making stoles.Bibliography.Edwards & Forbes (2003), EImeros (2006), Erlinge & Sandell (1986), Hellstedt & Henttonen (2006), Hellstedt et al. (2006), King (1983, 1990), Martinoli et al. (2001), McDonaldet al. (2000), Mowat & Poole (2005), Robitaille & Raymond (1995), Samson & Raymond (1998), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Thirty-four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Belette hermine @fr | Hermelin @de | Armino @es | Stoat @en | Short-tailed Weasel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"649","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"erminea","name":"Mustela erminea","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. e. erminea Linnaeus, 1758— Finland, Norway, NW Russia, and Sweden.M. e. aestiva Kerr, 1792— most of mainland N & C Europe to C Asia in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.M. e. alascensis Merriam, 1896— S Alaska.M. e. anguinae Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I, British Columbia).M. e. arctica Merriam, 1896— Alaska and NW Canada.M. e. bangsi Hall, 1945— C Canadaand NC USA.M. e. celenda Hall, 1944— Alaska(Prince of Wales I).M.e. cicognanii Bonaparte, 1838— SE Canadaand NE USA.M. e. fallenda Hall, 1945— W Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(N Washington).M. e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895— Afghanistan, N India, and Pakistan.M.e. gulosa Hall, 1945— NW USA(E Washington).M.e. haidarum Preble, 1898— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is, British Columbia).M.e. hibernica Thomas & Barrett-Hamilton, 1895— Ireland.M.e. imatis Hall, 1944— Alaska(Baranof I).M.e. invicta Hall, 1945— SW Canada(Alberta) and NW USA(Idaho& Montana).M.e. kadiacensis Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak I).M.e. kaneti Baird, 1857— NE China, Russia(E Siberia).M.e. karaginensis Jurgenson, 1936— NE Russia(Karaginsky I).M.e. lymani Hollister, 1912— E Russia(AltaiMts, Siberia).M.e. minima Cavazza, 1912— Switzerland.M.e. mongolica Ognev, 1928— NW Chinaand Mongolian Altai.M. e. muricus Bangs, 1899— USA(N California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming).M. e. nippon Cabrera, 1913— Japan.M.e. olympica Hall, 1945— NW USA(Olympic Peninsula, Washington).M.e. polaris Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Greenland.M.e.richardsonii Bonaparte, 1838— N Canada.M.e. ricinae G. S. Miller, 1907— Scotland(Islay I).M.e.salva Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Admiralty I).M.e.seclusa Hall, 1944— SE Alaska(Suemez I).M.e.sempler Sutton & Hamilton, 1932— Canada(Franklin & Keewatin Districts).M.e.stabilis Barrett-Hamilton, 1904— Great Britain.M.e.streatori Merriam, 1896— W USA(NE California, Oregon& coastal Washington).M.e.teberdina Kornejv, 1941— Russian Caucasus.M.e. tobolica Ognev, 1923— W Siberia.Introduced to New Zealand.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714249/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Edwards & Forbes (2003) | EImeros (2006) | Erlinge & Sandell (1986) | Hellstedt & Henttonen (2006) | Hellstedt et al. (2006) | King (1983, 1990) | Martinoli et al. (2001) | McDonaldet al. (2000) | Mowat & Poole (2005) | Robitaille & Raymond (1995) | Samson & Raymond (1998) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats, lemmings, squirrels, and lagomorphs, but also includes birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, and fruit. In Great Britain, the percentage frequency of occurrence in the diet consists of 65% lagomorphs, 16% small rodents, and 17% birds and birds’ eggs; males eat a greater proportion of lagomorphs than females, which eat more small rodents. In Denmark(where European Rabbits are absent), a dietary study showed that rodents are the most important prey group, constituting 84% of their diet (frequency of occurrence). Ermines ate birds and birds’ eggs more often than sympatric Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more insectivores. Ermines ate more Microtus voles and Water Voles than Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more Bank Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Moles (Talpa europaea). In the Italian Alps, 60% of scats contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey. However, the frequency of occurrence offruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50% in July. In the forests of New Brunswick, Canada, the frequency of occurrence of prey is 28-0% soricids, 24:6% arvicolines, and 17-3% cricetines; the Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, 17-3%) and shrews (Sorex sp., 28-:0%) have the highest percent occurrence, whereas the Red Squirrel and the Eastern Chipmunk (7amius striatus) comprise 11-2% of the diet. Ermines generally hunt in a zig-zag pattern, progressing by a series of leaps that are up to 50 cmlong. Prey are located mostly by smell or sound, and are often pursued into underground burrows or under snow. Ermines usually kill prey by biting the base of the skull. They sometimes attack animals considerably larger than themselves, such as adult hares. Ermines may cache excess food underground for later use during the winter.","breeding":"Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, but can be active at any time during the day. Their long shape makes them sensitive to cold temperatures and this, combined with a high metabolic rate, requires that Ermines hunt constantly to fulfill their energetic demands. Short periods of activity and rest alternate every three to five hours. Dens/ rest sites are in crevices, among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in burrows taken over from a rodent. Several nests are maintained within an individual’s home range; these are lined with dry vegetation or the fur and feathers of its prey. Ermines can easily run over or tunnel in snow to escape predators and search for food.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Ermines are solitary and primarily terrestrial, but they are also agile tree climbers and strong swimmers. Daily movements may reach 15 km, but usually average c. 1 km. Movements increase when prey are rare or dispersed. Home ranges may reach 200 ha, but are typically 10-40 ha; male ranges are generally larger than female ranges. Both sexes maintain exclusive territories, but a male home range may overlap one or more female ranges. Males show a marked seasonal shift in their social organization from a pattern of intra-sexual territories during the non-breeding season (autumn and winter) to a non-territorial pattern with extensive and overlapping ranges during the mating season (spring and summer). Boundaries are regularly patrolled and scent-marked, and neighbors usually avoid each other. Population density fluctuates with prey abundance and may range from 2-6 individuals per km®.Breeding.Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Ermines are considered common throughout their distribution. They rarely molest poultry and are valuable to humans because they prey on mice and rats. However, Ermines are considered pests in New Zealand, where they were introduced to control rabbits but subsequently decimated populations of native birds. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Ermine is dependent on two Arvicola species, which are declining in numbers. Ermines are trapped in North America and Russiafor their fur; the white winter fur has long been used in trimming coats and making stoles.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 22: 5-34 cm(males), 19-29 cm(females); tail 4.2-12 cm; weight of males is 208-283 ¢ in Europe, 320 gin Britain, 285-356 gin New Zealand(introduced population), 233-365 gin Ireland, 134-191 gin Russia, 56-206 gin North America, adult males are 40-80% larger than females. The Ermine has a long, slender body and short limbs. Except in certain southern parts of their range, Ermines change color in April-May and October-November. In the summer, the back, flanks, and outersides of the limbs are reddish or chocolate brown; the underparts are white and the tip of the tail is black. During winter, the pelage becomes white throughout except for the black tip of the tail. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull has a long braincase, inflated tympanic bullae, and is relatively flat. Dental formula: I 3/3, Cl/A.P3/3:;M1/2=34.","habitat":"Ermines are found in a wide range of habitats, including tundra, alpine meadows, woodlands, marshes, mountains, riparian habitats, farmland, and hedgerows, from sea level up to 3000 m. They prefer areas with vegetative or rocky cover. In the mountains of south-east British Columbia, Ermines were detected in all forests surveyed; these covered the range from open dry Douglas-fir forests to dense wet western red cedar (Thwa plicata) and western hemlock (75uga heterophylla) forests, and from very recent clear-cuts to mature stands over 300 years in age. In a subarctic area in Finland, adult females were found to live in areas where the abundance of their preferred Microtus prey was the highest; dominant males lived in less productive habitats than females, but in more productive areas than non-dominant mature males."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACC3E0DFB9BF91C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACC3E0DFB9BF91C","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"649","verbatimText":"39.Amazon WeaselMustela africanaFrench:Belette des tropiques/ German:Amazonas-Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja amazonicaOther common names:Tropical WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela africana Desmarest, 1818, Brazil.Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 24-38 cm, tail 16-21 cm. The Amazon Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish to dark brown, with paler undersides. The underparts have a longitudinal median stripe of the same color as the upper parts. The tail is uniformly brown. The plantar surfaces on the feet are nearly naked.Habitat.Has been reported from primary forest and humid riparian habitats.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Activity pattern.Possibly diurnal: a group of four were seen around 10:00 h. Has been found denning in a hollow tree stump.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Said to be primarily terrestrial, but also reported to be a good swimmer and climber. Has been seen in a group offour.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. One of the least known species within the Mustelidae. Amazon Weasels are a high priority for field studies to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Ferrari & Lopes (1992), zor & de la Torre (1978), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela africana Desmarest, 1818, Brazil.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Belette des tropiques @fr | Amazonas-Wiesel @de | Comadreja amazonica @es | Tropical Weasel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"649","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"africana","name":"Mustela africana","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714245/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ferrari & Lopes (1992) | zor & de la Torre (1978) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing known.","breeding":"Nothing known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Said to be primarily terrestrial, but also reported to be a good swimmer and climber. Has been seen in a group offour.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. One of the least known species within the Mustelidae. Amazon Weasels are a high priority for field studies to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 24-38 cm, tail 16-21 cm. The Amazon Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish to dark brown, with paler undersides. The underparts have a longitudinal median stripe of the same color as the upper parts. The tail is uniformly brown. The plantar surfaces on the feet are nearly naked.","habitat":"Has been reported from primary forest and humid riparian habitats."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACD3AD9FD80F33A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACD3AD9FD80F33A","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"649","verbatimText":"40.AltaiMountain WeaselMustela altaicaFrench:Belette des montagnes/ German:Altai-Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja de montanaTaxonomy.Mustela altaica Pallas, 1811, Altai Mountains, China.Monotypic.Distribution.Altai, Tien Shan, Pamir, and Himalayan ranges; also C, W, SW & NE China, Mongolia, and Russia(S & SE Siberia) to North Korea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22.4-28.7 cm(males), 21.7-24.9 cmfen tail 10.8-14.5 cm(males), 9-11.7 cm(females); weight 217-350 g(males), 122-220 g (females), adult males are slightly larger than females; the tail is more than 40% of the head and body length. The AltaiMountain Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The summer pelage is grayish-brown; in winter, the dorsal pelage is yellowish-brown, with pale undersides. The tail is the same color as the upperparts. The feet are white. The skull has a short rostrum and a long cerebral cranium.Habitat.Alpine meadows, steppes and forests, from 1500 to 4000 m.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (rodents, pikas, and rabbits), small birds, lizards, frogs, fish, insects, and berries. AltaiMountain Weasels search for prey around rock crevices, brushy areas, and uprooted trees, often investigating prey burrows.Activity pattern.Mainly nocturnal or crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in rock crevices, among tree roots, or in rodent burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mainly terrestrial, but also climbs and swim well.Breeding.In Kazakh, mating occurs in February or March. Gestation is 35-50 days. Litter size is two to eight; lactation last two months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. Very little 1s known about the AltaiMountain Weasel and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is oflittle importance in the fur trade, but is occasionally hunted and may be susceptible to habitat conversion.Bibliography.Lunde & Musser (2003), Meiri et al. (2007), Pocock (1941a), Stroganov (1969), VanBree & Boeadi (1978), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela altaica Pallas, 1811, Altai Mountains, China.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Belette des montagnes @fr | Altai-Wiesel @de | Comadreja de montana @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1811","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"649","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"altaica","name":"Mustela altaica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Altai, Tien Shan, Pamir, and Himalayan ranges; also C, W, SW & NE China, Mongolia, and Russia(S & SE Siberia) to North Korea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714247/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Lunde & Musser (2003) | Meiri et al. (2007) | Pocock (1941a) | Stroganov (1969) | VanBree & Boeadi (1978) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals (rodents, pikas, and rabbits), small birds, lizards, frogs, fish, insects, and berries. AltaiMountain Weasels search for prey around rock crevices, brushy areas, and uprooted trees, often investigating prey burrows.","breeding":"In Kazakh, mating occurs in February or March. Gestation is 35-50 days. Litter size is two to eight; lactation last two months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mainly terrestrial, but also climbs and swim well.Breeding.In Kazakh, mating occurs in February or March. Gestation is 35-50 days. Litter size is two to eight; lactation last two months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. Very little 1s known about the AltaiMountain Weasel and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is oflittle importance in the fur trade, but is occasionally hunted and may be susceptible to habitat conversion.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 22.4-28.7 cm(males), 21.7-24.9 cmfen tail 10.8-14.5 cm(males), 9-11.7 cm(females); weight 217-350 g(males), 122-220 g (females), adult males are slightly larger than females; the tail is more than 40% of the head and body length. The AltaiMountain Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The summer pelage is grayish-brown; in winter, the dorsal pelage is yellowish-brown, with pale undersides. The tail is the same color as the upperparts. The feet are white. The skull has a short rostrum and a long cerebral cranium.","habitat":"Alpine meadows, steppes and forests, from 1500 to 4000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"650","verbatimText":"44.Long-tailed WeaselMustela frenataFrench:Belette a longue queue/ German:Langschwanzwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja colilargaTaxonomy.Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831, Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.Forty-two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. f. frenata Lichtenstein, 1831— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).M. f. affinis Gray, 1874— Colombia.M. f. agilis Tschudi, 1844— W Peru.M. f. alleni Merriam, 1896— C USA(South Dakota& Wyoming).M. f. altifrontalis Hall, 1936— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(coastal Oregon& Washington).M. f. arizonensis Mearns, 1891— SW USA(Arizona).M. f. arthuri Hall, 1927— S USA(Louisiana).M. f. aureoventris Gray, 1865— Ecuador.M. f. boliviensis Hall, 1938— Bolivia.M. f. costaricensis Goldman, 1912— CostaRica.M. f. effera Hall, 1936— NW USA(NE Oregon& SE Washington).M. f. goldmani Merriam, 1896— El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico(Chiapas).M. f. helleri Hall, 1935— E Peru.M. f. inyoensis Hall, 1936— SW USA(Inyo County, California).M. f. latirostra Hall, 1936— NW Mexico (Baja California) and SW USA(S California).M. f. leucoparia Merriam, 1896— SW Mexico.M. f. longicauda Bonaparte, 1838— Great Plains of Canadaand USA.M. f. macrophonius Elliot, 1905— S Mexico(Oaxaca& Veracruz).M. f. macrura Taczanowski, 1874— Peru(Cajamarca).M. f. meridana Hollister, 1914— Venezuela.M. f. munda Bangs, 1899— SW USA(NCcoastal California).M. f. neomexicana Barber & Cockerell, 1898— C & N Mexicoand SW USA(New Mexico).M. f. nevadensis Hall, 1936— W USA(Great Basin & Rocky Mts).M. f. nicaraguae]. A. Allen, 1916— Hondurasand Nicaragua.M. f. nigriauris Hall, 1936— SW USA(SC coastal California).M. f. noveboracensis Emmons, 1840— SE Canadaand E USA.M. f. occisor Bangs, 1899— NE USA(Maine).M. f. olivacea Howell, 1913— SE USA.M. f. oregonensis Merriam, 1896— W USA(Cascade Mts of Oregon).M. f. oribasus Bangs, 1899— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(Montana).M. f. panamensis Hall, 1932— Panama.M. f. peninsulae Rhoads, 1894— SE USA(S Florida).M. f. perda Merriam, 1902— Yucatan Peninsula, Belizeand Mexico.M. f. perotae Hall, 1936— C Mexico.M. f. primulina Jackson, 1913— Midwestern USA.M. f. pulchra Hall, 1936— SW USA(Kern County, California).M. f. saturata Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCCalifornia& S Oregon).M. f. spadix Bangs, 1896— N USA(Minnesota).M. f. texensis Hall, 1936— S USA(C Texas).M. f. tropicalis Merriam, 1896— E Mexico(Tamaulipas& Veracruz).M. f. washingtoni Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCOregon& SC Washington).M. f. xanthogenys Gray, 1843— SW USA(C California).Descriptive notes.Head-body length, 22-: 8-26 cm(males), 20.3-22.8 cm(females); tail 10.2-15.2 cm(males), 7.6-12.7 cm(females); weight 160-450 g(males), 80-250 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Long-tailed Weasel has a long body and short limbs. In Canadaand the northern United States, the pelage changes from early October to early December and from late February to late April. During the summer, the upperparts are brown, the underparts are buff, and the tip of the tail is black. In winter, the pelage is white except for the black-tipped tail. Subspecies from the southern USA, Mexicoand Central America, have distinctive white or yellow facial markings. The plantar surfaces on the feet are furred. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long, with large tympanic bullae. Dental formula: 13/3, Cl/1,P%3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.[Long-tailed Weasels are found in a wide range of habitats from forested areas to agricultural fields. They show a preference for open, brushy or grassy areas near water.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mainly of rodents (voles, mice, and rats) and other small mammals (such as lagomorphs and squirrels), but birds, eggs, snakes, grasshoppers, and poultry are also occasionally eaten. Because of their larger size, males generally consume larger prey than females. In North America, Long-tailed Weasels feed upon a wide variety of small vertebrates, but concentrate on rodents and rabbits of small to medium size. The diet of tropical Long-tailed Weasels, although not well known,is thought to consist mainly of small mammals, rabbits, and birds and their eggs. Small-sized prey, such as mice and voles, usually are subdued when the weasel throws its body into a tight coil around the prey; these are then killed by a bite to the nape of the neck. Long-tailed Weasels can kill animals larger than themselves, such as rabbits. Large prey is initially grabbed by the most convenient part of the animal before a killing bite is administered. Underground mediumsized prey is subdued by a ventral attack and killed by grasping the throat, which results in suffocation.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but frequently active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or stumps, among rocks, or in a burrow taken over from a rodent. Long-tailed Weasels spend large amounts of time exploring holes, crevices, root systems, brush piles, thick vegetation, and under the snow in winter, in search of prey.Movements, Home range and Social organization.[Long-tailed Weasels are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and tree climbers. The home ranges of males average larger than those of females, and may include the home ranges of more than one female. During the breeding season, the home ranges of males increase in size, allowing more frequent contact with females. There is little overlap of the home ranges of males. In Kentucky, home ranges vary from 0-16 to 0-24 km* during summer, and 0-10 to 0-18 km? during winter. In Indiana, the mean home range for males was 1-80 km* and for females 0-52 km*. The hourly rate of movement for males (130- 5 m) was greater than that of females (79- 2 m). Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability. Reported population densities are: 0-004-0-008 /ha in western Colorado, 0-02-0-18/ha in Kentucky, 0-19-0-38/ha in chestnut-oak forest and 0-07-0-09/ha in scrub oak-pitch pine forest in Pennsylvania, and 0-2-0-3/ha in cattail marsh in Ontario.Breeding.Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Long-tailed Weasel is considered to be common throughout most ofits distribution; however, several subspecies are considered uncommon. It is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats and can live in close proximity to humans. Long-tailed Weasels are more prone to raid henhouses that other species of Mustela, but they are generally beneficial because they prey on rats and mice. They are trapped in North America for their white winter fur.Bibliography.Gehring & Swihart (2004), King (1990), Sheffield& Thomas (1997), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831, Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.Forty-two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Belette a longue queue @fr | Langschwanzwiesel @de | Comadreja colilarga @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lichtenstein","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1831","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"650","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"frenata","name":"Mustela frenata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. f. frenata Lichtenstein, 1831— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).M. f. affinis Gray, 1874— Colombia.M. f. agilis Tschudi, 1844— W Peru.M. f. alleni Merriam, 1896— C USA(South Dakota& Wyoming).M. f. altifrontalis Hall, 1936— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(coastal Oregon& Washington).M. f. arizonensis Mearns, 1891— SW USA(Arizona).M. f. arthuri Hall, 1927— S USA(Louisiana).M. f. aureoventris Gray, 1865— Ecuador.M. f. boliviensis Hall, 1938— Bolivia.M. f. costaricensis Goldman, 1912— CostaRica.M. f. effera Hall, 1936— NW USA(NE Oregon& SE Washington).M. f. goldmani Merriam, 1896— El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico(Chiapas).M. f. helleri Hall, 1935— E Peru.M. f. inyoensis Hall, 1936— SW USA(Inyo County, California).M. f. latirostra Hall, 1936— NW Mexico (Baja California) and SW USA(S California).M. f. leucoparia Merriam, 1896— SW Mexico.M. f. longicauda Bonaparte, 1838— Great Plains of Canadaand USA.M. f. macrophonius Elliot, 1905— S Mexico(Oaxaca& Veracruz).M. f. macrura Taczanowski, 1874— Peru(Cajamarca).M. f. meridana Hollister, 1914— Venezuela.M. f. munda Bangs, 1899— SW USA(NCcoastal California).M. f. neomexicana Barber & Cockerell, 1898— C & N Mexicoand SW USA(New Mexico).M. f. nevadensis Hall, 1936— W USA(Great Basin & Rocky Mts).M. f. nicaraguae]. A. Allen, 1916— Hondurasand Nicaragua.M. f. nigriauris Hall, 1936— SW USA(SC coastal California).M. f. noveboracensis Emmons, 1840— SE Canadaand E USA.M. f. occisor Bangs, 1899— NE USA(Maine).M. f. olivacea Howell, 1913— SE USA.M. f. oregonensis Merriam, 1896— W USA(Cascade Mts of Oregon).M. f. oribasus Bangs, 1899— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(Montana).M. f. panamensis Hall, 1932— Panama.M. f. peninsulae Rhoads, 1894— SE USA(S Florida).M. f. perda Merriam, 1902— Yucatan Peninsula, Belizeand Mexico.M. f. perotae Hall, 1936— C Mexico.M. f. primulina Jackson, 1913— Midwestern USA.M. f. pulchra Hall, 1936— SW USA(Kern County, California).M. f. saturata Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCCalifornia& S Oregon).M. f. spadix Bangs, 1896— N USA(Minnesota).M. f. texensis Hall, 1936— S USA(C Texas).M. f. tropicalis Merriam, 1896— E Mexico(Tamaulipas& Veracruz).M. f. washingtoni Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCOregon& SC Washington).M. f. xanthogenys Gray, 1843— SW USA(C California).","bibliography":"Gehring & Swihart (2004) | King (1990) | Sheffield& Thomas (1997) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists mainly of rodents (voles, mice, and rats) and other small mammals (such as lagomorphs and squirrels), but birds, eggs, snakes, grasshoppers, and poultry are also occasionally eaten. Because of their larger size, males generally consume larger prey than females. In North America, Long-tailed Weasels feed upon a wide variety of small vertebrates, but concentrate on rodents and rabbits of small to medium size. The diet of tropical Long-tailed Weasels, although not well known,is thought to consist mainly of small mammals, rabbits, and birds and their eggs. Small-sized prey, such as mice and voles, usually are subdued when the weasel throws its body into a tight coil around the prey; these are then killed by a bite to the nape of the neck. Long-tailed Weasels can kill animals larger than themselves, such as rabbits. Large prey is initially grabbed by the most convenient part of the animal before a killing bite is administered. Underground mediumsized prey is subdued by a ventral attack and killed by grasping the throat, which results in suffocation.","breeding":"Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, but frequently active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or stumps, among rocks, or in a burrow taken over from a rodent. Long-tailed Weasels spend large amounts of time exploring holes, crevices, root systems, brush piles, thick vegetation, and under the snow in winter, in search of prey.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"[Long-tailed Weasels are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and tree climbers. The home ranges of males average larger than those of females, and may include the home ranges of more than one female. During the breeding season, the home ranges of males increase in size, allowing more frequent contact with females. There is little overlap of the home ranges of males. In Kentucky, home ranges vary from 0-16 to 0-24 km* during summer, and 0-10 to 0-18 km? during winter. In Indiana, the mean home range for males was 1-80 km* and for females 0-52 km*. The hourly rate of movement for males (130- 5 m) was greater than that of females (79- 2 m). Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability. Reported population densities are: 0-004-0-008 /ha in western Colorado, 0-02-0-18/ha in Kentucky, 0-19-0-38/ha in chestnut-oak forest and 0-07-0-09/ha in scrub oak-pitch pine forest in Pennsylvania, and 0-2-0-3/ha in cattail marsh in Ontario.Breeding.Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Long-tailed Weasel is considered to be common throughout most ofits distribution; however, several subspecies are considered uncommon. It is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats and can live in close proximity to humans. Long-tailed Weasels are more prone to raid henhouses that other species of Mustela, but they are generally beneficial because they prey on rats and mice. They are trapped in North America for their white winter fur.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body length, 22-: 8-26 cm(males), 20.3-22.8 cm(females); tail 10.2-15.2 cm(males), 7.6-12.7 cm(females); weight 160-450 g(males), 80-250 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Long-tailed Weasel has a long body and short limbs. In Canadaand the northern United States, the pelage changes from early October to early December and from late February to late April. During the summer, the upperparts are brown, the underparts are buff, and the tip of the tail is black. In winter, the pelage is white except for the black-tipped tail. Subspecies from the southern USA, Mexicoand Central America, have distinctive white or yellow facial markings. The plantar surfaces on the feet are furred. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long, with large tympanic bullae. Dental formula: 13/3, Cl/1,P%3/3,M1/2=34.","habitat":"[Long-tailed Weasels are found in a wide range of habitats from forested areas to agricultural fields. They show a preference for open, brushy or grassy areas near water."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"650","verbatimText":"44.Long-tailed WeaselMustela frenataFrench:Belette a longue queue/ German:Langschwanzwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja colilargaTaxonomy.Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831, Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.Forty-two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. f. frenata Lichtenstein, 1831— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).M. f. affinis Gray, 1874— Colombia.M. f. agilis Tschudi, 1844— W Peru.M. f. alleni Merriam, 1896— C USA(South Dakota& Wyoming).M. f. altifrontalis Hall, 1936— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(coastal Oregon& Washington).M. f. arizonensis Mearns, 1891— SW USA(Arizona).M. f. arthuri Hall, 1927— S USA(Louisiana).M. f. aureoventris Gray, 1865— Ecuador.M. f. boliviensis Hall, 1938— Bolivia.M. f. costaricensis Goldman, 1912— CostaRica.M. f. effera Hall, 1936— NW USA(NE Oregon& SE Washington).M. f. goldmani Merriam, 1896— El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico(Chiapas).M. f. helleri Hall, 1935— E Peru.M. f. inyoensis Hall, 1936— SW USA(Inyo County, California).M. f. latirostra Hall, 1936— NW Mexico (Baja California) and SW USA(S California).M. f. leucoparia Merriam, 1896— SW Mexico.M. f. longicauda Bonaparte, 1838— Great Plains of Canadaand USA.M. f. macrophonius Elliot, 1905— S Mexico(Oaxaca& Veracruz).M. f. macrura Taczanowski, 1874— Peru(Cajamarca).M. f. meridana Hollister, 1914— Venezuela.M. f. munda Bangs, 1899— SW USA(NCcoastal California).M. f. neomexicana Barber & Cockerell, 1898— C & N Mexicoand SW USA(New Mexico).M. f. nevadensis Hall, 1936— W USA(Great Basin & Rocky Mts).M. f. nicaraguae]. A. Allen, 1916— Hondurasand Nicaragua.M. f. nigriauris Hall, 1936— SW USA(SC coastal California).M. f. noveboracensis Emmons, 1840— SE Canadaand E USA.M. f. occisor Bangs, 1899— NE USA(Maine).M. f. olivacea Howell, 1913— SE USA.M. f. oregonensis Merriam, 1896— W USA(Cascade Mts of Oregon).M. f. oribasus Bangs, 1899— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(Montana).M. f. panamensis Hall, 1932— Panama.M. f. peninsulae Rhoads, 1894— SE USA(S Florida).M. f. perda Merriam, 1902— Yucatan Peninsula, Belizeand Mexico.M. f. perotae Hall, 1936— C Mexico.M. f. primulina Jackson, 1913— Midwestern USA.M. f. pulchra Hall, 1936— SW USA(Kern County, California).M. f. saturata Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCCalifornia& S Oregon).M. f. spadix Bangs, 1896— N USA(Minnesota).M. f. texensis Hall, 1936— S USA(C Texas).M. f. tropicalis Merriam, 1896— E Mexico(Tamaulipas& Veracruz).M. f. washingtoni Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCOregon& SC Washington).M. f. xanthogenys Gray, 1843— SW USA(C California).Descriptive notes.Head-body length, 22-: 8-26 cm(males), 20.3-22.8 cm(females); tail 10.2-15.2 cm(males), 7.6-12.7 cm(females); weight 160-450 g(males), 80-250 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Long-tailed Weasel has a long body and short limbs. In Canadaand the northern United States, the pelage changes from early October to early December and from late February to late April. During the summer, the upperparts are brown, the underparts are buff, and the tip of the tail is black. In winter, the pelage is white except for the black-tipped tail. Subspecies from the southern USA, Mexicoand Central America, have distinctive white or yellow facial markings. The plantar surfaces on the feet are furred. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long, with large tympanic bullae. Dental formula: 13/3, Cl/1,P%3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.[Long-tailed Weasels are found in a wide range of habitats from forested areas to agricultural fields. They show a preference for open, brushy or grassy areas near water.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mainly of rodents (voles, mice, and rats) and other small mammals (such as lagomorphs and squirrels), but birds, eggs, snakes, grasshoppers, and poultry are also occasionally eaten. Because of their larger size, males generally consume larger prey than females. In North America, Long-tailed Weasels feed upon a wide variety of small vertebrates, but concentrate on rodents and rabbits of small to medium size. The diet of tropical Long-tailed Weasels, although not well known,is thought to consist mainly of small mammals, rabbits, and birds and their eggs. Small-sized prey, such as mice and voles, usually are subdued when the weasel throws its body into a tight coil around the prey; these are then killed by a bite to the nape of the neck. Long-tailed Weasels can kill animals larger than themselves, such as rabbits. Large prey is initially grabbed by the most convenient part of the animal before a killing bite is administered. Underground mediumsized prey is subdued by a ventral attack and killed by grasping the throat, which results in suffocation.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but frequently active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or stumps, among rocks, or in a burrow taken over from a rodent. Long-tailed Weasels spend large amounts of time exploring holes, crevices, root systems, brush piles, thick vegetation, and under the snow in winter, in search of prey.Movements, Home range and Social organization.[Long-tailed Weasels are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and tree climbers. The home ranges of males average larger than those of females, and may include the home ranges of more than one female. During the breeding season, the home ranges of males increase in size, allowing more frequent contact with females. There is little overlap of the home ranges of males. In Kentucky, home ranges vary from 0-16 to 0-24 km* during summer, and 0-10 to 0-18 km? during winter. In Indiana, the mean home range for males was 1-80 km* and for females 0-52 km*. The hourly rate of movement for males (130- 5 m) was greater than that of females (79- 2 m). Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability. Reported population densities are: 0-004-0-008 /ha in western Colorado, 0-02-0-18/ha in Kentucky, 0-19-0-38/ha in chestnut-oak forest and 0-07-0-09/ha in scrub oak-pitch pine forest in Pennsylvania, and 0-2-0-3/ha in cattail marsh in Ontario.Breeding.Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Long-tailed Weasel is considered to be common throughout most ofits distribution; however, several subspecies are considered uncommon. It is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats and can live in close proximity to humans. Long-tailed Weasels are more prone to raid henhouses that other species of Mustela, but they are generally beneficial because they prey on rats and mice. They are trapped in North America for their white winter fur.Bibliography.Gehring & Swihart (2004), King (1990), Sheffield& Thomas (1997), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831, Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.Forty-two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Belette a longue queue @fr | Langschwanzwiesel @de | Comadreja colilarga @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lichtenstein","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1831","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"650","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"frenata","name":"Mustela frenata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. f. frenata Lichtenstein, 1831— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).M. f. affinis Gray, 1874— Colombia.M. f. agilis Tschudi, 1844— W Peru.M. f. alleni Merriam, 1896— C USA(South Dakota& Wyoming).M. f. altifrontalis Hall, 1936— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(coastal Oregon& Washington).M. f. arizonensis Mearns, 1891— SW USA(Arizona).M. f. arthuri Hall, 1927— S USA(Louisiana).M. f. aureoventris Gray, 1865— Ecuador.M. f. boliviensis Hall, 1938— Bolivia.M. f. costaricensis Goldman, 1912— CostaRica.M. f. effera Hall, 1936— NW USA(NE Oregon& SE Washington).M. f. goldmani Merriam, 1896— El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico(Chiapas).M. f. helleri Hall, 1935— E Peru.M. f. inyoensis Hall, 1936— SW USA(Inyo County, California).M. f. latirostra Hall, 1936— NW Mexico (Baja California) and SW USA(S California).M. f. leucoparia Merriam, 1896— SW Mexico.M. f. longicauda Bonaparte, 1838— Great Plains of Canadaand USA.M. f. macrophonius Elliot, 1905— S Mexico(Oaxaca& Veracruz).M. f. macrura Taczanowski, 1874— Peru(Cajamarca).M. f. meridana Hollister, 1914— Venezuela.M. f. munda Bangs, 1899— SW USA(NCcoastal California).M. f. neomexicana Barber & Cockerell, 1898— C & N Mexicoand SW USA(New Mexico).M. f. nevadensis Hall, 1936— W USA(Great Basin & Rocky Mts).M. f. nicaraguae]. A. Allen, 1916— Hondurasand Nicaragua.M. f. nigriauris Hall, 1936— SW USA(SC coastal California).M. f. noveboracensis Emmons, 1840— SE Canadaand E USA.M. f. occisor Bangs, 1899— NE USA(Maine).M. f. olivacea Howell, 1913— SE USA.M. f. oregonensis Merriam, 1896— W USA(Cascade Mts of Oregon).M. f. oribasus Bangs, 1899— SW Canada(British Columbia) and NW USA(Montana).M. f. panamensis Hall, 1932— Panama.M. f. peninsulae Rhoads, 1894— SE USA(S Florida).M. f. perda Merriam, 1902— Yucatan Peninsula, Belizeand Mexico.M. f. perotae Hall, 1936— C Mexico.M. f. primulina Jackson, 1913— Midwestern USA.M. f. pulchra Hall, 1936— SW USA(Kern County, California).M. f. saturata Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCCalifornia& S Oregon).M. f. spadix Bangs, 1896— N USA(Minnesota).M. f. texensis Hall, 1936— S USA(C Texas).M. f. tropicalis Merriam, 1896— E Mexico(Tamaulipas& Veracruz).M. f. washingtoni Merriam, 1896— W USA(NCOregon& SC Washington).M. f. xanthogenys Gray, 1843— SW USA(C California).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714255/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Gehring & Swihart (2004) | King (1990) | Sheffield& Thomas (1997) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists mainly of rodents (voles, mice, and rats) and other small mammals (such as lagomorphs and squirrels), but birds, eggs, snakes, grasshoppers, and poultry are also occasionally eaten. Because of their larger size, males generally consume larger prey than females. In North America, Long-tailed Weasels feed upon a wide variety of small vertebrates, but concentrate on rodents and rabbits of small to medium size. The diet of tropical Long-tailed Weasels, although not well known,is thought to consist mainly of small mammals, rabbits, and birds and their eggs. Small-sized prey, such as mice and voles, usually are subdued when the weasel throws its body into a tight coil around the prey; these are then killed by a bite to the nape of the neck. Long-tailed Weasels can kill animals larger than themselves, such as rabbits. Large prey is initially grabbed by the most convenient part of the animal before a killing bite is administered. Underground mediumsized prey is subdued by a ventral attack and killed by grasping the throat, which results in suffocation.","breeding":"Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, but frequently active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or stumps, among rocks, or in a burrow taken over from a rodent. Long-tailed Weasels spend large amounts of time exploring holes, crevices, root systems, brush piles, thick vegetation, and under the snow in winter, in search of prey.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"[Long-tailed Weasels are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and tree climbers. The home ranges of males average larger than those of females, and may include the home ranges of more than one female. During the breeding season, the home ranges of males increase in size, allowing more frequent contact with females. There is little overlap of the home ranges of males. In Kentucky, home ranges vary from 0-16 to 0-24 km* during summer, and 0-10 to 0-18 km? during winter. In Indiana, the mean home range for males was 1-80 km* and for females 0-52 km*. The hourly rate of movement for males (130- 5 m) was greater than that of females (79- 2 m). Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability. Reported population densities are: 0-004-0-008 /ha in western Colorado, 0-02-0-18/ha in Kentucky, 0-19-0-38/ha in chestnut-oak forest and 0-07-0-09/ha in scrub oak-pitch pine forest in Pennsylvania, and 0-2-0-3/ha in cattail marsh in Ontario.Breeding.Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 gat birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Long-tailed Weasel is considered to be common throughout most ofits distribution; however, several subspecies are considered uncommon. It is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats and can live in close proximity to humans. Long-tailed Weasels are more prone to raid henhouses that other species of Mustela, but they are generally beneficial because they prey on rats and mice. They are trapped in North America for their white winter fur.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body length, 22-: 8-26 cm(males), 20.3-22.8 cm(females); tail 10.2-15.2 cm(males), 7.6-12.7 cm(females); weight 160-450 g(males), 80-250 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Long-tailed Weasel has a long body and short limbs. In Canadaand the northern United States, the pelage changes from early October to early December and from late February to late April. During the summer, the upperparts are brown, the underparts are buff, and the tip of the tail is black. In winter, the pelage is white except for the black-tipped tail. Subspecies from the southern USA, Mexicoand Central America, have distinctive white or yellow facial markings. The plantar surfaces on the feet are furred. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long, with large tympanic bullae. Dental formula: 13/3, Cl/1,P%3/3,M1/2=34.","habitat":"[Long-tailed Weasels are found in a wide range of habitats from forested areas to agricultural fields. They show a preference for open, brushy or grassy areas near water."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4FFFA0CAD136E3F6A4F9E1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4FFFA0CAD136E3F6A4F9E1","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"650","verbatimText":"42.Steppe PolecatMustela eversmaniiFrench:Putois d'Eversmann/ German:Steppeniltis/ Spanish:Turon esteparioTaxonomy.Mustela eversmanii Lesson, 1827, Russia.The Steppe Polecat was considered conspecific with either M. putoriusor M. nigripesby some authors. Up to nineteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.SE Europe, Caucasus, and Middle East through C Asia to NE China, Mongolia, and Russian Far EastDescriptive notes.Head-body 37-56.2 cm(males), 29-52 cm(females); tail 8-18.3 cm(males), 7-18 cm(females); weight 2:05 kg (males), 1-35 kg(females), adult males are larger than females. The Steppe Polecat closely resembles the European Polecat. The pelage is highly variable in color, but generally is yellowish-white to brown, with the upperparts darker than the undersides. The fur on the chest, limbs, and tail is darker in color, and there is a dark mask on the whitish face.Habitat.Steppe, open grasslands, and semi-desert.Food and Feeding.The diet includes rodents (voles, hamsters, marmots), other small mammals (pikas, ground squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, and insects. In Hungary, the principle food consists of small mammals; their frequency fluctuates between 54% and 93%, reaching a maximum in summer. In all seasons, the most important prey is the Common Vole (Microtus arvalis) and the Common Hamster (Cricetus cricetus); in addition, the European Souslik (Spermophilus citellus) is occasionally consumed in spring and autumn, and Brown Rats (Rattus norvegicus) may be eaten in autumn. The European Hare is eaten only in winter (5%). The consumption of birds (mainly Passerines) is considerable in spring (38%) and autumn (29%). A stable isotope study revealed a diet that comprised 27% small mammals (Plateau Pika, Root Vole, and Plateau Zokor) and 47-7% adult passerine birds, with hatchlings contributing 25:6%. Steppe Polecats hunt by exploring the burrows of their mammalian prey and thus they may spend much time underground.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal. Den /rest sites are in burrows expropriated from other animals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Steppe Polecats are solitary. They move rapidly, constantly exploring new ground and searching for food, and may cover up to 18 kmduring the night. Local migrations may occur to areas with greater food abundance or less snow.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March, with births from April to May. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Litters are large, usually from eight to ten. The young weigh 4-6 gat birth, open their eyes after one month, and are weaned and start hunting with the mother at 1-5 months. They disperse at three months. Sexual maturity is reached during the first breeding season, when the young are nine months old.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the subspecies M. e. amurensis, of south-eastern Siberia and Manchuria, is classified as Vulnerable. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is not intentionally hunted except in Russia, but is heavily impacted by persecution in the western parts of its range.Bibliography.Lanszki & Heltai (2007), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela eversmanii Lesson, 1827, Russia.The Steppe Polecat was considered conspecific with either M. putoriusor M. nigripesby some authors. Up to nineteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","commonNames":"Putois d'Eversmann @fr | Steppeniltis @de | Turon estepario @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"650","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"eversmanii","name":"Mustela eversmanii","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714251/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Lanszki & Heltai (2007) | Stroganov (1969) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes rodents (voles, hamsters, marmots), other small mammals (pikas, ground squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, and insects. In Hungary, the principle food consists of small mammals; their frequency fluctuates between 54% and 93%, reaching a maximum in summer. In all seasons, the most important prey is the Common Vole (Microtus arvalis) and the Common Hamster (Cricetus cricetus); in addition, the European Souslik (Spermophilus citellus) is occasionally consumed in spring and autumn, and Brown Rats (Rattus norvegicus) may be eaten in autumn. The European Hare is eaten only in winter (5%). The consumption of birds (mainly Passerines) is considerable in spring (38%) and autumn (29%). A stable isotope study revealed a diet that comprised 27% small mammals (Plateau Pika, Root Vole, and Plateau Zokor) and 47-7% adult passerine birds, with hatchlings contributing 25:6%. Steppe Polecats hunt by exploring the burrows of their mammalian prey and thus they may spend much time underground.","breeding":"Mating occurs from February to March, with births from April to May. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Litters are large, usually from eight to ten. The young weigh 4-6 gat birth, open their eyes after one month, and are weaned and start hunting with the mother at 1-5 months. They disperse at three months. Sexual maturity is reached during the first breeding season, when the young are nine months old.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal. Den /rest sites are in burrows expropriated from other animals.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Steppe Polecats are solitary. They move rapidly, constantly exploring new ground and searching for food, and may cover up to 18 kmduring the night. Local migrations may occur to areas with greater food abundance or less snow.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March, with births from April to May. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Litters are large, usually from eight to ten. The young weigh 4-6 gat birth, open their eyes after one month, and are weaned and start hunting with the mother at 1-5 months. They disperse at three months. Sexual maturity is reached during the first breeding season, when the young are nine months old.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List; the subspecies M. e. amurensis, of south-eastern Siberia and Manchuria, is classified as Vulnerable. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is not intentionally hunted except in Russia, but is heavily impacted by persecution in the western parts of its range.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 37-56.2 cm(males), 29-52 cm(females); tail 8-18.3 cm(males), 7-18 cm(females); weight 2:05 kg (males), 1-35 kg(females), adult males are larger than females. The Steppe Polecat closely resembles the European Polecat. The pelage is highly variable in color, but generally is yellowish-white to brown, with the upperparts darker than the undersides. The fur on the chest, limbs, and tail is darker in color, and there is a dark mask on the whitish face.","habitat":"Steppe, open grasslands, and semi-desert."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA4FFFA0CFCE3AC2F5C8F4DC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA4FFFA0CFCE3AC2F5C8F4DC","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"650","verbatimText":"43.Colombian WeaselMustela felipeiFrench:Belette de Colombie/ German:Kolumbien-Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja de Don FelipeTaxonomy.Mustela felipei 1zor & de la Torre, 1978, Colombia.Monotypic.Distribution.Colombiaand Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-body 21.7-22.5 cm, tail 11.1-12.2 cm; weight c. 138 g. The Columbian Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is long and soft, almost entirely dark brown on the back, with pale orange undersides. All the feet have extensive webbing, with naked plantar surfaces.Habitat.Most specimens were collected near riparian areas, at elevations between 1700-2700 m.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. A very poorly known species, only recently described. Possibly the rarest carnivore in South America, it occurs in a limited area ofless than 10,000 km? where deforestation is rampant. Since its discovery, only five specimenshave been obtained from western Colombia(provinces of Huilaand Cauca) and northern Ecuador. The Columbian Weasel is a high priority for field research to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Alberico (1994), Fawcett et al. (1996), IUCN(2008), Izor & de la Torre (1978), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela felipei 1zor & de la Torre, 1978, Colombia.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Belette de Colombie @fr | Kolumbien-Wiesel @de | Comadreja de Don Felipe @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"650","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"felipei","name":"Mustela felipei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Colombiaand Ecuador.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714253/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alberico (1994) | Fawcett et al. (1996) | IUCN(2008) | Izor & de la Torre (1978) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing known.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCNRed List. A very poorly known species, only recently described. Possibly the rarest carnivore in South America, it occurs in a limited area ofless than 10,000 km? where deforestation is rampant. Since its discovery, only five specimenshave been obtained from western Colombia(provinces of Huilaand Cauca) and northern Ecuador. The Columbian Weasel is a high priority for field research to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 21.7-22.5 cm, tail 11.1-12.2 cm; weight c. 138 g. The Columbian Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is long and soft, almost entirely dark brown on the back, with pale orange undersides. All the feet have extensive webbing, with naked plantar surfaces.","habitat":"Most specimens were collected near riparian areas, at elevations between 1700-2700 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA50FFBFCB303E15F9A0FA86.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA50FFBFCB303E15F9A0FA86","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"564","verbatimText":"Family MUSTELIDAE(WEASELSAND RELATIVES)• Small- to medium-sized mammals with long bodies and short limbs.• 13-195 cm.• Holarctic, Neotropical, African, and Orientalregions.• Forests, grasslands, tundras and oceans, from the Arctic to the tropics.• 22 genera, 57 species, at least 217 extant taxa.• 7 species Endangered, 5 species Vulnerable; 1 species Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"621","verbatimText":"2.Honey BadgerMellivora capensisFrench:Ratel/ German:Honigdachs/ Spanish:RatelOther common names:RatelTaxonomy.Viverra capensis Schreber, 1776, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. c. capensis Schreber, 1776— S Africa N to Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia.M. c. buechneri Baryshnikov, 2000— C Asia including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.M. c. concisa Thomas & Wroughton, 1907— Algeria, Morocco, and Subsaharan Africa from Mauritaniato Ethiopia.M.c. cotton: Lydekker, 1906— C Africa from Gabonto Tanzania.M. M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.\\g M.c. indica Kerr, 1792— Indiaand Pakistan.M. M.c. maxwell Thomas, 1923— Kenyaand Somalia.\\J M.c. pumalio Pocock, 1946— S Arabian Peninsula and Yemen.M. M.c. signata Pocock, 1909— Guineaand Sierra Leone.\\f M.c. wilsoni Cheesman, 1920— Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 73: 3-95 cm(males), 81.2-96 cm(females), tail 14.3-23 cm(males), 15.2-22.5 cm(females); weight 7.7-10.5 kg(males), 6.2-13.6 kg(females). The Honey Badger is a short, stocky animal, with strong limbs and a short tail. The upperparts, from the top of the head to the base of the tail, are gray to pale yellow or whitish, and contrast sharply with the dark brown or black of the underparts. Completely black individuals have been reported from some parts of Africa. The tail is black, with a gray or white tip. The front feet are broad, with strong, long claws (> 25 mm), whereas the hindfeet have small claws (15 mm). There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is massive, with short orbital processes and robust teeth. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,.P 3/3, M1/1 =32.Habitat.Honey Badgers are found in diverse habitats including deep forests, subtropical dry evergreen forests, tropical thorn forests, open Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia woodlands, open riparian woodland (dominated by Acacia albida), Tarai or marshes, floodplain grasslands (dominated by Vetivaria nigritana), bushveld, afro-alpine steppes, rocky hills and kopjes, Rhigozum scrub sandveld, savannah, dry swamps, waterless sandplains, coastal sandveld, and deserts. They tolerate habitats with a rainfall of over 2000 mm(annually) as well as arid areas with less than 100 mmannual rainfall. Honey Badgers are found from sea level up to 4050 m.On following pages: 3. Hog Badger (Arctonyx collaris); 4. Japanese Badger (Melesanakuma); 5. Asian Badger (Melesleucurus): 6. European Badger (Melesmeles).Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly mammals, insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds, but also includes roots, berries, and fruit (such as ber Zizyphusjubata). Favorite foods are honey and the larvae of honeybees (Hymenoptera). However, their adaptation to burrowing, together with the abundance of subterranean animals found in six stomachs, suggests that honey is only a secondary food item. Consumption of honey may also be seasonal because it is more widely available in the drier months of the year. In October and November, Honey Badgers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa, were found to eat mainly rodents, which occurred in 60% of scats and made up c. 30% of the volume of food. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, Spring Hares (Pedetes capensis), Meerkats, as well as domestic sheep and goats, were also eaten. They are strong diggers, and do not hesitate to dig after rodents or other prey hiding underground. Food items are detected mostly by smell or sound. Excess food may be cached in a den. When Honey Badgers eat, the food is held between the front claws while the forelegs rest on the ground. Beehives are opened by tearing away the wood of trees; honey combs are also scooped out from the cracks of rocks with the claws of the forefeet. Grubs are removed from the comb with their incisors. The clay capsules of estivating lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus), cases of insect pupae, carapaces of turtles, or skins of animals are peeled away to expose the softer inner parts to be eaten. Honey Badgers dig large spiders out of holes 15-25 cmdeep in the ground. Fish are caught with the claws at the edge of streams or from drying pans. They may raid campgrounds or dumpsters at night and are widely blamed for breaking into poultry houses and apiaries. The anecdotal relationship between the Honey Badger and a bird, the greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), may be mythical. Although these two animals may occur together at the nests of bees, a complete observation of this supposed symbiotic relationship, from the initial attraction by a greater honeyguide of a Honey Badger, through guiding to a nest by the honeyguide, to the breaking open of the nest by the Honey Badger does not exist.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, although diurnal observations are numerous. Honey Badgers shelter in burrows, thick brush, caves, clumps of fallen bamboo, hollow trees, old ruins, rock shelters, dens excavated by themselves, or abandoned burrows. Hollow trees are entered from the top.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Honey Badgers are good swimmers and can chase turtles underwater. They can also climb trees. Daily movements average 10-30 km, with males covering longer distances than females. Female Honey Badgers forage in a relatively small area, covering c. 10 km/day. They zig-zag short distances from bush to bush, digging on average 10-2 holes/km. Males engage in long-distance foraging, covering c. 27 km/day; only c. 1-3 holes/km are dug. Mean straightline distance between dens from one day to the next is c¢. 2: 5 kmfor short-distance foragers and c. 10- 1 kmfor long-distance foragers. Males and females differ significantly in their rate of travel (3-8 km/h and 2-7 km/h, respectively), straight line (6- 2 kmand 2.4 km) and actual distance (13- 8 kmand 7- 7 km) moved during an active period, but do not differ in the percentage of their home range area traversed in a single day (3%). Honey Badgers are mostly solitary, but pairs may be seen and aggregations may occur at feeding sites. Occasionally, after foraging in a particular area for most of the night, a male may suddenly move off to a location less than 9 kmaway, where it may meet up with other adults. On one occasion in Zimbabwe, six animals met up; they showed no aggression but continuously uttered a wide range of grunts, hisses, squeaks, and whines while rolling in the sand, sniffing each other, and scent marking. Such gatherings may last more than 18 min, and the Honey Badgers may retreat to the same den during the day. Radio-telemetry in the southern Kalahari revealed that the mean home range size of adult males (541 km?) wassignificantly larger than the mean home range size of adult females (126 km?). While mean home range overlap in females was moderate (13%) and home range centres were regularly spaced, females did not appearto actively defend a territory and no direct interactions between females were observed. Scent marking appears to mediate spatial-temporal separation and females show a loosely territorial spacing pattern. In contrast, the home ranges of males encompassed the overlapping home ranges of up to 13 females. Young males tended to have smaller home ranges (151 km?*) than adult males and showed a spacing pattern more similar to adult females than adult males.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Honey Badgers do not occur at high densities and are considered uncommon throughout their range. Persecution by beekeepers and livestock farmers is probably the greatest threat to this species.Bibliography.Begg, C. et al. (2005a, 2005b), Begg, K. (1995), Dean et al. (1990), Kruuk & Mills (1983), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Vanderhaar & Hwang (2003), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Viverra capensis Schreber, 1776, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Ten subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Ratel @fr | Honigdachs @de | Ratel @es | Ratel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1776","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mellivora","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"621","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"capensis","name":"Mellivora capensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. c. capensis Schreber, 1776— S Africa N to Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia.M. c. buechneri Baryshnikov, 2000— C Asia including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.M. c. concisa Thomas & Wroughton, 1907— Algeria, Morocco, and Subsaharan Africa from Mauritaniato Ethiopia.M.c. cotton: Lydekker, 1906— C Africa from Gabonto Tanzania.M. M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.\\g M.c. indica Kerr, 1792— Indiaand Pakistan.M. M.c. maxwell Thomas, 1923— Kenyaand Somalia.\\J M.c. pumalio Pocock, 1946— S Arabian Peninsula and Yemen.M. M.c. signata Pocock, 1909— Guineaand Sierra Leone.\\f M.c. wilsoni Cheesman, 1920— Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.","bibliography":"Begg, C. et al. (2005a, 2005b) | Begg, K. (1995) | Dean et al. (1990) | Kruuk & Mills (1983) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Stuart (1981) | Vanderhaar & Hwang (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mostly mammals, insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds, but also includes roots, berries, and fruit (such as ber Zizyphusjubata). Favorite foods are honey and the larvae of honeybees (Hymenoptera). However, their adaptation to burrowing, together with the abundance of subterranean animals found in six stomachs, suggests that honey is only a secondary food item. Consumption of honey may also be seasonal because it is more widely available in the drier months of the year. In October and November, Honey Badgers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa, were found to eat mainly rodents, which occurred in 60% of scats and made up c. 30% of the volume of food. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, Spring Hares (Pedetes capensis), Meerkats, as well as domestic sheep and goats, were also eaten. They are strong diggers, and do not hesitate to dig after rodents or other prey hiding underground. Food items are detected mostly by smell or sound. Excess food may be cached in a den. When Honey Badgers eat, the food is held between the front claws while the forelegs rest on the ground. Beehives are opened by tearing away the wood of trees; honey combs are also scooped out from the cracks of rocks with the claws of the forefeet. Grubs are removed from the comb with their incisors. The clay capsules of estivating lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus), cases of insect pupae, carapaces of turtles, or skins of animals are peeled away to expose the softer inner parts to be eaten. Honey Badgers dig large spiders out of holes 15-25 cmdeep in the ground. Fish are caught with the claws at the edge of streams or from drying pans. They may raid campgrounds or dumpsters at night and are widely blamed for breaking into poultry houses and apiaries. The anecdotal relationship between the Honey Badger and a bird, the greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), may be mythical. Although these two animals may occur together at the nests of bees, a complete observation of this supposed symbiotic relationship, from the initial attraction by a greater honeyguide of a Honey Badger, through guiding to a nest by the honeyguide, to the breaking open of the nest by the Honey Badger does not exist.","breeding":"Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, although diurnal observations are numerous. Honey Badgers shelter in burrows, thick brush, caves, clumps of fallen bamboo, hollow trees, old ruins, rock shelters, dens excavated by themselves, or abandoned burrows. Hollow trees are entered from the top.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Honey Badgers are good swimmers and can chase turtles underwater. They can also climb trees. Daily movements average 10-30 km, with males covering longer distances than females. Female Honey Badgers forage in a relatively small area, covering c. 10 km/day. They zig-zag short distances from bush to bush, digging on average 10-2 holes/km. Males engage in long-distance foraging, covering c. 27 km/day; only c. 1-3 holes/km are dug. Mean straightline distance between dens from one day to the next is c¢. 2: 5 kmfor short-distance foragers and c. 10- 1 kmfor long-distance foragers. Males and females differ significantly in their rate of travel (3-8 km/h and 2-7 km/h, respectively), straight line (6- 2 kmand 2.4 km) and actual distance (13- 8 kmand 7- 7 km) moved during an active period, but do not differ in the percentage of their home range area traversed in a single day (3%). Honey Badgers are mostly solitary, but pairs may be seen and aggregations may occur at feeding sites. Occasionally, after foraging in a particular area for most of the night, a male may suddenly move off to a location less than 9 kmaway, where it may meet up with other adults. On one occasion in Zimbabwe, six animals met up; they showed no aggression but continuously uttered a wide range of grunts, hisses, squeaks, and whines while rolling in the sand, sniffing each other, and scent marking. Such gatherings may last more than 18 min, and the Honey Badgers may retreat to the same den during the day. Radio-telemetry in the southern Kalahari revealed that the mean home range size of adult males (541 km?) wassignificantly larger than the mean home range size of adult females (126 km?). While mean home range overlap in females was moderate (13%) and home range centres were regularly spaced, females did not appearto actively defend a territory and no direct interactions between females were observed. Scent marking appears to mediate spatial-temporal separation and females show a loosely territorial spacing pattern. In contrast, the home ranges of males encompassed the overlapping home ranges of up to 13 females. Young males tended to have smaller home ranges (151 km?*) than adult males and showed a spacing pattern more similar to adult females than adult males.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Honey Badgers do not occur at high densities and are considered uncommon throughout their range. Persecution by beekeepers and livestock farmers is probably the greatest threat to this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 73: 3-95 cm(males), 81.2-96 cm(females), tail 14.3-23 cm(males), 15.2-22.5 cm(females); weight 7.7-10.5 kg(males), 6.2-13.6 kg(females). The Honey Badger is a short, stocky animal, with strong limbs and a short tail. The upperparts, from the top of the head to the base of the tail, are gray to pale yellow or whitish, and contrast sharply with the dark brown or black of the underparts. Completely black individuals have been reported from some parts of Africa. The tail is black, with a gray or white tip. The front feet are broad, with strong, long claws (> 25 mm), whereas the hindfeet have small claws (15 mm). There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is massive, with short orbital processes and robust teeth. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,.P 3/3, M1/1 =32.","habitat":"Honey Badgers are found in diverse habitats including deep forests, subtropical dry evergreen forests, tropical thorn forests, open Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia woodlands, open riparian woodland (dominated by Acacia albida), Tarai or marshes, floodplain grasslands (dominated by Vetivaria nigritana), bushveld, afro-alpine steppes, rocky hills and kopjes, Rhigozum scrub sandveld, savannah, dry swamps, waterless sandplains, coastal sandveld, and deserts. They tolerate habitats with a rainfall of over 2000 mm(annually) as well as arid areas with less than 100 mmannual rainfall. Honey Badgers are found from sea level up to 4050 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"621","verbatimText":"1.American BadgerTaxidea taxusFrench:Blaireau d’Amérique/ German:Amerikanischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon americanoTaxonomy.Ursus taxus Schreber, 1778,Canada.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778— S Canada(Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario& Saskatschewan) and NC USA.T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858— N & C Mexicoand SC USA(W of the MississippiRiver).T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946— NE USA(Great Lakes Region).T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825— W USA(NWto California).Descriptive notes.Head-body 42-72 cm, tail 10-15.5 cm; weight 7.6-8.7 kg(males), 6.3-7.1 kg(females), adult males weigh on average 25% more than females. The American Badger’s body appears flat dorso-ventrally, with a flat head, and shorttail and limbs. The upperparts are grayish-white to yellowish-brown orsilvery black; the underparts are buffy. The feet are dark brown to black. Black patches are present on the face, cheeks, chin, and throat. A dorsal white stripe runs from the nose to the neck, and in some populations, to the rump. The claws on the forefeet are long and strong. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is wedge-shaped, almost triangular. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M1/2=34Habitat.American Badgers are found in grasslands, prairie habitats, shrubs and steppes, and open woodlands. In British Columbia, they prefer open range and agricultural habitats that have fine sandy-loam and well-drained soils.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (especially marmots, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, chipmunks, and squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (insects and molluscs). Carrion is also eaten. In British Columbia, the six main prey species are the Columbian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota Slaviventris), Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Southern Red-backed Vole (Myodes gapperi), and Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). In south-eastern Wyoming, prairie dogs were found in 57% of stomach and fecal samples from female American Badgers. The most common food item in the diet in west-central Minnesotaand south-eastern North Dakotais small mammals (98%, primarily Muridae and Geomyidae). Other prey includes insects (40%), and birds and eggs (32%, mostly ducks Anatidae). Reptiles, amphibians and molluscs are also eaten, but are less common than other foods. Insects and birds’ eggs are more common in the diet during spring (April-May) than summer (June-July). Birds are more frequent in the diets of adults than juveniles. In South Dakota, 40% of stomach contents were mammals, 35% were of plant origin, 10% were birds, 10% were insects, and the remainder was mostly inorganic materials. American Badgers obtain most of their food by excavating the burrows of fossorial animals. If large prey is taken, such as a rabbit, the badger may dig a hole, carry in the prey, and remain below ground with it for several days. There are reports of American Badgers forming a “hunting partnership” with Coyotes. The Coyote apparently usesits keen sense of smell to locate burrowing rodents and the American Badger digs them up with its powerful claws. Both predators then share the proceeds. The techniques used by American Badgers when hunting Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) have been observed. They frequently hunted hibernating squirrels in the autumn, sometimes hunted infants in the spring, but rarely hunted active squirrels in the summer. They always captured hibernating and active squirrels underground, but sometimes intercepted fleeing squirrels aboveground. The most common hunting technique used was excavation of the burrow, but plugging of openings accounted for 5-23% of hunting actions. Plugging occurred predominantly in mid-June to late July, before most ground squirrels hibernated, and in late August to late October when juvenile males were active, but other squirrels were in hibernation. American Badgers usually used soil from around the tunnel opening or soil dragged 30-270 cmfrom a nearby mound to plug tunnels. Theykill ground squirrels with a single grasping bite directed dorsally or laterally to the thorax. The canines and third upper incisors generally only bruise the skin, without puncturing it, but cause extensive hemorrhaging in the thoracic cavity. Food items are sometimes buried and eaten later.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but can be active at any hour. American Badgers rest underground in burrows; these are either self-excavated or are modified burrows that were initially made by another animal. The burrow can be as long as 10 mand can extend 3 mbelow the surface. A bulky nest of grass is located in an enlarged chamber; the entrances are marked by mounds of earth. American Badgers are active all year, but during severe winter weather they may sleep in the den for several days or weeks.During this period of inactivity, heart rates are reduced by 50% and the body temperature decreases by 9 °C.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Daily movement may exceed 10 kmand dispersal movements may be greater than 100 km. Mean home range size is up to 12- 3 km? for males and up to 3-4 km? for females. Home ranges overlap, but adults are solitary except during the breeding season. In Utah, mean home range size was 5-83 km? the mean size of female home ranges (2-37 km?) was less than half that of the males. In Idaho, mean home range size was 2-4 km? for males and 1-6 km? for females. In south-eastern Wyoming, the mean home range size of females (3-4 km?) was smaller than that of males (12- 3 km?); mean overlap was less for females than for males, and the mean home rangesize of males was larger during the breeding season than during the non-breeding season (breeding = 11- 1 km?non-breeding = 5- 4 km?). A radio-tracked female in Minnesotaused an area of 752 ha during the summer. She had 50 dens within this area and was never found in the same den on two consecutive days. In the autumn, she shifted to an adjacent area of 52 ha and often reused dens. In the winter, she used a single den and traveled infrequently within an area of 2 ha. Population density may be as high as 5/km?. In south-eastern Wyoming, the density varies between 0-8-1-1/km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Badgers are considered common. Although this species haslittle importance in the fur trade,it is harvested for its fur in many parts of its range. American Badgers are also persecuted because of the damage they do to pasture and agricultural land.Bibliography.Anderson & Johns (1977), Armitage (2004), Azevedo et al. (2006), Eldridge (2004), Goodrich & Buskirk (1998), Harlow (1981), Hart & Trumbo (1983), Hoodicoff (2006), Lampe (1982), Lindzey (1978, 2003), Long (1973), Long &Killingley (1983), Messick & Hornocker (1981), Michener (2004), Michener & Iwaniuk (2001), Minta (1993), Minta et al. (1992), Murie (1992), Sargeant & Warner (1972), Sovada et al. (1999), VanVuren (2001), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Ursus taxus Schreber, 1778,Canada.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Blaireau d’Amérique @fr | Amerikanischer Dachs @de | Tejon americano @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Taxidea","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"621","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"taxus","name":"Taxidea taxus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778— S Canada(Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario& Saskatschewan) and NC USA.T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858— N & C Mexicoand SC USA(W of the MississippiRiver).T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946— NE USA(Great Lakes Region).T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825— W USA(NWto California).","bibliography":"Anderson & Johns (1977) | Armitage (2004) | Azevedo et al. (2006) | Eldridge (2004) | Goodrich & Buskirk (1998) | Harlow (1981) | Hart & Trumbo (1983) | Hoodicoff (2006) | Lampe (1982) | Lindzey (1978, 2003) | Long (1973) | Long &Killingley (1983) | Messick & Hornocker (1981) | Michener (2004) | Michener & Iwaniuk (2001) | Minta (1993) | Minta et al. (1992) | Murie (1992) | Sargeant & Warner (1972) | Sovada et al. (1999) | VanVuren (2001) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals (especially marmots, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, chipmunks, and squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (insects and molluscs). Carrion is also eaten. In British Columbia, the six main prey species are the Columbian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota Slaviventris), Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Southern Red-backed Vole (Myodes gapperi), and Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). In south-eastern Wyoming, prairie dogs were found in 57% of stomach and fecal samples from female American Badgers. The most common food item in the diet in west-central Minnesotaand south-eastern North Dakotais small mammals (98%, primarily Muridae and Geomyidae). Other prey includes insects (40%), and birds and eggs (32%, mostly ducks Anatidae). Reptiles, amphibians and molluscs are also eaten, but are less common than other foods. Insects and birds’ eggs are more common in the diet during spring (April-May) than summer (June-July). Birds are more frequent in the diets of adults than juveniles. In South Dakota, 40% of stomach contents were mammals, 35% were of plant origin, 10% were birds, 10% were insects, and the remainder was mostly inorganic materials. American Badgers obtain most of their food by excavating the burrows of fossorial animals. If large prey is taken, such as a rabbit, the badger may dig a hole, carry in the prey, and remain below ground with it for several days. There are reports of American Badgers forming a “hunting partnership” with Coyotes. The Coyote apparently usesits keen sense of smell to locate burrowing rodents and the American Badger digs them up with its powerful claws. Both predators then share the proceeds. The techniques used by American Badgers when hunting Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) have been observed. They frequently hunted hibernating squirrels in the autumn, sometimes hunted infants in the spring, but rarely hunted active squirrels in the summer. They always captured hibernating and active squirrels underground, but sometimes intercepted fleeing squirrels aboveground. The most common hunting technique used was excavation of the burrow, but plugging of openings accounted for 5-23% of hunting actions. Plugging occurred predominantly in mid-June to late July, before most ground squirrels hibernated, and in late August to late October when juvenile males were active, but other squirrels were in hibernation. American Badgers usually used soil from around the tunnel opening or soil dragged 30-270 cmfrom a nearby mound to plug tunnels. Theykill ground squirrels with a single grasping bite directed dorsally or laterally to the thorax. The canines and third upper incisors generally only bruise the skin, without puncturing it, but cause extensive hemorrhaging in the thoracic cavity. Food items are sometimes buried and eaten later.","breeding":"Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, but can be active at any hour. American Badgers rest underground in burrows; these are either self-excavated or are modified burrows that were initially made by another animal. The burrow can be as long as 10 mand can extend 3 mbelow the surface. A bulky nest of grass is located in an enlarged chamber; the entrances are marked by mounds of earth. American Badgers are active all year, but during severe winter weather they may sleep in the den for several days or weeks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Daily movement may exceed 10 kmand dispersal movements may be greater than 100 km. Mean home range size is up to 12- 3 km? for males and up to 3-4 km? for females. Home ranges overlap, but adults are solitary except during the breeding season. In Utah, mean home range size was 5-83 km? the mean size of female home ranges (2-37 km?) was less than half that of the males. In Idaho, mean home range size was 2-4 km? for males and 1-6 km? for females. In south-eastern Wyoming, the mean home range size of females (3-4 km?) was smaller than that of males (12- 3 km?); mean overlap was less for females than for males, and the mean home rangesize of males was larger during the breeding season than during the non-breeding season (breeding = 11- 1 km?non-breeding = 5- 4 km?). A radio-tracked female in Minnesotaused an area of 752 ha during the summer. She had 50 dens within this area and was never found in the same den on two consecutive days. In the autumn, she shifted to an adjacent area of 52 ha and often reused dens. In the winter, she used a single den and traveled infrequently within an area of 2 ha. Population density may be as high as 5/km?. In south-eastern Wyoming, the density varies between 0-8-1-1/km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Badgers are considered common. Although this species haslittle importance in the fur trade,it is harvested for its fur in many parts of its range. American Badgers are also persecuted because of the damage they do to pasture and agricultural land.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 42-72 cm, tail 10-15.5 cm; weight 7.6-8.7 kg(males), 6.3-7.1 kg(females), adult males weigh on average 25% more than females. The American Badger’s body appears flat dorso-ventrally, with a flat head, and shorttail and limbs. The upperparts are grayish-white to yellowish-brown orsilvery black; the underparts are buffy. The feet are dark brown to black. Black patches are present on the face, cheeks, chin, and throat. A dorsal white stripe runs from the nose to the neck, and in some populations, to the rump. The claws on the forefeet are long and strong. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is wedge-shaped, almost triangular.","habitat":"American Badgers are found in grasslands, prairie habitats, shrubs and steppes, and open woodlands. In British Columbia, they prefer open range and agricultural habitats that have fine sandy-loam and well-drained soils."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"621","verbatimText":"2.Honey BadgerMellivora capensisFrench:Ratel/ German:Honigdachs/ Spanish:RatelOther common names:RatelTaxonomy.Viverra capensis Schreber, 1776, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. c. capensis Schreber, 1776— S Africa N to Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia.M. c. buechneri Baryshnikov, 2000— C Asia including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.M. c. concisa Thomas & Wroughton, 1907— Algeria, Morocco, and Subsaharan Africa from Mauritaniato Ethiopia.M.c. cotton: Lydekker, 1906— C Africa from Gabonto Tanzania.M. M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.\\g M.c. indica Kerr, 1792— Indiaand Pakistan.M. M.c. maxwell Thomas, 1923— Kenyaand Somalia.\\J M.c. pumalio Pocock, 1946— S Arabian Peninsula and Yemen.M. M.c. signata Pocock, 1909— Guineaand Sierra Leone.\\f M.c. wilsoni Cheesman, 1920— Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 73: 3-95 cm(males), 81.2-96 cm(females), tail 14.3-23 cm(males), 15.2-22.5 cm(females); weight 7.7-10.5 kg(males), 6.2-13.6 kg(females). The Honey Badger is a short, stocky animal, with strong limbs and a short tail. The upperparts, from the top of the head to the base of the tail, are gray to pale yellow or whitish, and contrast sharply with the dark brown or black of the underparts. Completely black individuals have been reported from some parts of Africa. The tail is black, with a gray or white tip. The front feet are broad, with strong, long claws (> 25 mm), whereas the hindfeet have small claws (15 mm). There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is massive, with short orbital processes and robust teeth. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,.P 3/3, M1/1 =32.Habitat.Honey Badgers are found in diverse habitats including deep forests, subtropical dry evergreen forests, tropical thorn forests, open Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia woodlands, open riparian woodland (dominated by Acacia albida), Tarai or marshes, floodplain grasslands (dominated by Vetivaria nigritana), bushveld, afro-alpine steppes, rocky hills and kopjes, Rhigozum scrub sandveld, savannah, dry swamps, waterless sandplains, coastal sandveld, and deserts. They tolerate habitats with a rainfall of over 2000 mm(annually) as well as arid areas with less than 100 mmannual rainfall. Honey Badgers are found from sea level up to 4050 m.On following pages: 3. Hog Badger (Arctonyx collaris); 4. Japanese Badger (Melesanakuma); 5. Asian Badger (Melesleucurus): 6. European Badger (Melesmeles).Food and Feeding.The diet is mostly mammals, insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds, but also includes roots, berries, and fruit (such as ber Zizyphusjubata). Favorite foods are honey and the larvae of honeybees (Hymenoptera). However, their adaptation to burrowing, together with the abundance of subterranean animals found in six stomachs, suggests that honey is only a secondary food item. Consumption of honey may also be seasonal because it is more widely available in the drier months of the year. In October and November, Honey Badgers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa, were found to eat mainly rodents, which occurred in 60% of scats and made up c. 30% of the volume of food. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, Spring Hares (Pedetes capensis), Meerkats, as well as domestic sheep and goats, were also eaten. They are strong diggers, and do not hesitate to dig after rodents or other prey hiding underground. Food items are detected mostly by smell or sound. Excess food may be cached in a den. When Honey Badgers eat, the food is held between the front claws while the forelegs rest on the ground. Beehives are opened by tearing away the wood of trees; honey combs are also scooped out from the cracks of rocks with the claws of the forefeet. Grubs are removed from the comb with their incisors. The clay capsules of estivating lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus), cases of insect pupae, carapaces of turtles, or skins of animals are peeled away to expose the softer inner parts to be eaten. Honey Badgers dig large spiders out of holes 15-25 cmdeep in the ground. Fish are caught with the claws at the edge of streams or from drying pans. They may raid campgrounds or dumpsters at night and are widely blamed for breaking into poultry houses and apiaries. The anecdotal relationship between the Honey Badger and a bird, the greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), may be mythical. Although these two animals may occur together at the nests of bees, a complete observation of this supposed symbiotic relationship, from the initial attraction by a greater honeyguide of a Honey Badger, through guiding to a nest by the honeyguide, to the breaking open of the nest by the Honey Badger does not exist.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, although diurnal observations are numerous. Honey Badgers shelter in burrows, thick brush, caves, clumps of fallen bamboo, hollow trees, old ruins, rock shelters, dens excavated by themselves, or abandoned burrows. Hollow trees are entered from the top.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Honey Badgers are good swimmers and can chase turtles underwater. They can also climb trees. Daily movements average 10-30 km, with males covering longer distances than females. Female Honey Badgers forage in a relatively small area, covering c. 10 km/day. They zig-zag short distances from bush to bush, digging on average 10-2 holes/km. Males engage in long-distance foraging, covering c. 27 km/day; only c. 1-3 holes/km are dug. Mean straightline distance between dens from one day to the next is c¢. 2: 5 kmfor short-distance foragers and c. 10- 1 kmfor long-distance foragers. Males and females differ significantly in their rate of travel (3-8 km/h and 2-7 km/h, respectively), straight line (6- 2 kmand 2.4 km) and actual distance (13- 8 kmand 7- 7 km) moved during an active period, but do not differ in the percentage of their home range area traversed in a single day (3%). Honey Badgers are mostly solitary, but pairs may be seen and aggregations may occur at feeding sites. Occasionally, after foraging in a particular area for most of the night, a male may suddenly move off to a location less than 9 kmaway, where it may meet up with other adults. On one occasion in Zimbabwe, six animals met up; they showed no aggression but continuously uttered a wide range of grunts, hisses, squeaks, and whines while rolling in the sand, sniffing each other, and scent marking. Such gatherings may last more than 18 min, and the Honey Badgers may retreat to the same den during the day. Radio-telemetry in the southern Kalahari revealed that the mean home range size of adult males (541 km?) wassignificantly larger than the mean home range size of adult females (126 km?). While mean home range overlap in females was moderate (13%) and home range centres were regularly spaced, females did not appearto actively defend a territory and no direct interactions between females were observed. Scent marking appears to mediate spatial-temporal separation and females show a loosely territorial spacing pattern. In contrast, the home ranges of males encompassed the overlapping home ranges of up to 13 females. Young males tended to have smaller home ranges (151 km?*) than adult males and showed a spacing pattern more similar to adult females than adult males.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Honey Badgers do not occur at high densities and are considered uncommon throughout their range. Persecution by beekeepers and livestock farmers is probably the greatest threat to this species.Bibliography.Begg, C. et al. (2005a, 2005b), Begg, K. (1995), Dean et al. (1990), Kruuk & Mills (1983), Smithers & Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Vanderhaar & Hwang (2003), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Viverra capensis Schreber, 1776, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Ten subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Ratel @fr | Honigdachs @de | Ratel @es | Ratel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1776","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mellivora","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"621","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"capensis","name":"Mellivora capensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. c. capensis Schreber, 1776— S Africa N to Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia.M. c. buechneri Baryshnikov, 2000— C Asia including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.M. c. concisa Thomas & Wroughton, 1907— Algeria, Morocco, and Subsaharan Africa from Mauritaniato Ethiopia.M.c. cotton: Lydekker, 1906— C Africa from Gabonto Tanzania.M. M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836— Nepal.\\g M.c. indica Kerr, 1792— Indiaand Pakistan.M. M.c. maxwell Thomas, 1923— Kenyaand Somalia.\\J M.c. pumalio Pocock, 1946— S Arabian Peninsula and Yemen.M. M.c. signata Pocock, 1909— Guineaand Sierra Leone.\\f M.c. wilsoni Cheesman, 1920— Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714133/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Begg, C. et al. (2005a, 2005b) | Begg, K. (1995) | Dean et al. (1990) | Kruuk & Mills (1983) | Smithers & Chimimba (2005) | Stuart (1981) | Vanderhaar & Hwang (2003) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mostly mammals, insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds, but also includes roots, berries, and fruit (such as ber Zizyphusjubata). Favorite foods are honey and the larvae of honeybees (Hymenoptera). However, their adaptation to burrowing, together with the abundance of subterranean animals found in six stomachs, suggests that honey is only a secondary food item. Consumption of honey may also be seasonal because it is more widely available in the drier months of the year. In October and November, Honey Badgers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa, were found to eat mainly rodents, which occurred in 60% of scats and made up c. 30% of the volume of food. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, Spring Hares (Pedetes capensis), Meerkats, as well as domestic sheep and goats, were also eaten. They are strong diggers, and do not hesitate to dig after rodents or other prey hiding underground. Food items are detected mostly by smell or sound. Excess food may be cached in a den. When Honey Badgers eat, the food is held between the front claws while the forelegs rest on the ground. Beehives are opened by tearing away the wood of trees; honey combs are also scooped out from the cracks of rocks with the claws of the forefeet. Grubs are removed from the comb with their incisors. The clay capsules of estivating lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus), cases of insect pupae, carapaces of turtles, or skins of animals are peeled away to expose the softer inner parts to be eaten. Honey Badgers dig large spiders out of holes 15-25 cmdeep in the ground. Fish are caught with the claws at the edge of streams or from drying pans. They may raid campgrounds or dumpsters at night and are widely blamed for breaking into poultry houses and apiaries. The anecdotal relationship between the Honey Badger and a bird, the greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), may be mythical. Although these two animals may occur together at the nests of bees, a complete observation of this supposed symbiotic relationship, from the initial attraction by a greater honeyguide of a Honey Badger, through guiding to a nest by the honeyguide, to the breaking open of the nest by the Honey Badger does not exist.","breeding":"Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, although diurnal observations are numerous. Honey Badgers shelter in burrows, thick brush, caves, clumps of fallen bamboo, hollow trees, old ruins, rock shelters, dens excavated by themselves, or abandoned burrows. Hollow trees are entered from the top.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Honey Badgers are good swimmers and can chase turtles underwater. They can also climb trees. Daily movements average 10-30 km, with males covering longer distances than females. Female Honey Badgers forage in a relatively small area, covering c. 10 km/day. They zig-zag short distances from bush to bush, digging on average 10-2 holes/km. Males engage in long-distance foraging, covering c. 27 km/day; only c. 1-3 holes/km are dug. Mean straightline distance between dens from one day to the next is c¢. 2: 5 kmfor short-distance foragers and c. 10- 1 kmfor long-distance foragers. Males and females differ significantly in their rate of travel (3-8 km/h and 2-7 km/h, respectively), straight line (6- 2 kmand 2.4 km) and actual distance (13- 8 kmand 7- 7 km) moved during an active period, but do not differ in the percentage of their home range area traversed in a single day (3%). Honey Badgers are mostly solitary, but pairs may be seen and aggregations may occur at feeding sites. Occasionally, after foraging in a particular area for most of the night, a male may suddenly move off to a location less than 9 kmaway, where it may meet up with other adults. On one occasion in Zimbabwe, six animals met up; they showed no aggression but continuously uttered a wide range of grunts, hisses, squeaks, and whines while rolling in the sand, sniffing each other, and scent marking. Such gatherings may last more than 18 min, and the Honey Badgers may retreat to the same den during the day. Radio-telemetry in the southern Kalahari revealed that the mean home range size of adult males (541 km?) wassignificantly larger than the mean home range size of adult females (126 km?). While mean home range overlap in females was moderate (13%) and home range centres were regularly spaced, females did not appearto actively defend a territory and no direct interactions between females were observed. Scent marking appears to mediate spatial-temporal separation and females show a loosely territorial spacing pattern. In contrast, the home ranges of males encompassed the overlapping home ranges of up to 13 females. Young males tended to have smaller home ranges (151 km?*) than adult males and showed a spacing pattern more similar to adult females than adult males.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kgand was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Honey Badgers do not occur at high densities and are considered uncommon throughout their range. Persecution by beekeepers and livestock farmers is probably the greatest threat to this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 73: 3-95 cm(males), 81.2-96 cm(females), tail 14.3-23 cm(males), 15.2-22.5 cm(females); weight 7.7-10.5 kg(males), 6.2-13.6 kg(females). The Honey Badger is a short, stocky animal, with strong limbs and a short tail. The upperparts, from the top of the head to the base of the tail, are gray to pale yellow or whitish, and contrast sharply with the dark brown or black of the underparts. Completely black individuals have been reported from some parts of Africa. The tail is black, with a gray or white tip. The front feet are broad, with strong, long claws (> 25 mm), whereas the hindfeet have small claws (15 mm). There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is massive, with short orbital processes and robust teeth. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,.P 3/3, M1/1 =32.","habitat":"Honey Badgers are found in diverse habitats including deep forests, subtropical dry evergreen forests, tropical thorn forests, open Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia woodlands, open riparian woodland (dominated by Acacia albida), Tarai or marshes, floodplain grasslands (dominated by Vetivaria nigritana), bushveld, afro-alpine steppes, rocky hills and kopjes, Rhigozum scrub sandveld, savannah, dry swamps, waterless sandplains, coastal sandveld, and deserts. They tolerate habitats with a rainfall of over 2000 mm(annually) as well as arid areas with less than 100 mmannual rainfall. Honey Badgers are found from sea level up to 4050 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"621","verbatimText":"1.American BadgerTaxidea taxusFrench:Blaireau d’Amérique/ German:Amerikanischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon americanoTaxonomy.Ursus taxus Schreber, 1778,Canada.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778— S Canada(Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario& Saskatschewan) and NC USA.T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858— N & C Mexicoand SC USA(W of the MississippiRiver).T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946— NE USA(Great Lakes Region).T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825— W USA(NWto California).Descriptive notes.Head-body 42-72 cm, tail 10-15.5 cm; weight 7.6-8.7 kg(males), 6.3-7.1 kg(females), adult males weigh on average 25% more than females. The American Badger’s body appears flat dorso-ventrally, with a flat head, and shorttail and limbs. The upperparts are grayish-white to yellowish-brown orsilvery black; the underparts are buffy. The feet are dark brown to black. Black patches are present on the face, cheeks, chin, and throat. A dorsal white stripe runs from the nose to the neck, and in some populations, to the rump. The claws on the forefeet are long and strong. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is wedge-shaped, almost triangular. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M1/2=34Habitat.American Badgers are found in grasslands, prairie habitats, shrubs and steppes, and open woodlands. In British Columbia, they prefer open range and agricultural habitats that have fine sandy-loam and well-drained soils.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals (especially marmots, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, chipmunks, and squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (insects and molluscs). Carrion is also eaten. In British Columbia, the six main prey species are the Columbian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota Slaviventris), Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Southern Red-backed Vole (Myodes gapperi), and Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). In south-eastern Wyoming, prairie dogs were found in 57% of stomach and fecal samples from female American Badgers. The most common food item in the diet in west-central Minnesotaand south-eastern North Dakotais small mammals (98%, primarily Muridae and Geomyidae). Other prey includes insects (40%), and birds and eggs (32%, mostly ducks Anatidae). Reptiles, amphibians and molluscs are also eaten, but are less common than other foods. Insects and birds’ eggs are more common in the diet during spring (April-May) than summer (June-July). Birds are more frequent in the diets of adults than juveniles. In South Dakota, 40% of stomach contents were mammals, 35% were of plant origin, 10% were birds, 10% were insects, and the remainder was mostly inorganic materials. American Badgers obtain most of their food by excavating the burrows of fossorial animals. If large prey is taken, such as a rabbit, the badger may dig a hole, carry in the prey, and remain below ground with it for several days. There are reports of American Badgers forming a “hunting partnership” with Coyotes. The Coyote apparently usesits keen sense of smell to locate burrowing rodents and the American Badger digs them up with its powerful claws. Both predators then share the proceeds. The techniques used by American Badgers when hunting Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) have been observed. They frequently hunted hibernating squirrels in the autumn, sometimes hunted infants in the spring, but rarely hunted active squirrels in the summer. They always captured hibernating and active squirrels underground, but sometimes intercepted fleeing squirrels aboveground. The most common hunting technique used was excavation of the burrow, but plugging of openings accounted for 5-23% of hunting actions. Plugging occurred predominantly in mid-June to late July, before most ground squirrels hibernated, and in late August to late October when juvenile males were active, but other squirrels were in hibernation. American Badgers usually used soil from around the tunnel opening or soil dragged 30-270 cmfrom a nearby mound to plug tunnels. Theykill ground squirrels with a single grasping bite directed dorsally or laterally to the thorax. The canines and third upper incisors generally only bruise the skin, without puncturing it, but cause extensive hemorrhaging in the thoracic cavity. Food items are sometimes buried and eaten later.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but can be active at any hour. American Badgers rest underground in burrows; these are either self-excavated or are modified burrows that were initially made by another animal. The burrow can be as long as 10 mand can extend 3 mbelow the surface. A bulky nest of grass is located in an enlarged chamber; the entrances are marked by mounds of earth. American Badgers are active all year, but during severe winter weather they may sleep in the den for several days or weeks.During this period of inactivity, heart rates are reduced by 50% and the body temperature decreases by 9 °C.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Daily movement may exceed 10 kmand dispersal movements may be greater than 100 km. Mean home range size is up to 12- 3 km? for males and up to 3-4 km? for females. Home ranges overlap, but adults are solitary except during the breeding season. In Utah, mean home range size was 5-83 km? the mean size of female home ranges (2-37 km?) was less than half that of the males. In Idaho, mean home range size was 2-4 km? for males and 1-6 km? for females. In south-eastern Wyoming, the mean home range size of females (3-4 km?) was smaller than that of males (12- 3 km?); mean overlap was less for females than for males, and the mean home rangesize of males was larger during the breeding season than during the non-breeding season (breeding = 11- 1 km?non-breeding = 5- 4 km?). A radio-tracked female in Minnesotaused an area of 752 ha during the summer. She had 50 dens within this area and was never found in the same den on two consecutive days. In the autumn, she shifted to an adjacent area of 52 ha and often reused dens. In the winter, she used a single den and traveled infrequently within an area of 2 ha. Population density may be as high as 5/km?. In south-eastern Wyoming, the density varies between 0-8-1-1/km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Badgers are considered common. Although this species haslittle importance in the fur trade,it is harvested for its fur in many parts of its range. American Badgers are also persecuted because of the damage they do to pasture and agricultural land.Bibliography.Anderson & Johns (1977), Armitage (2004), Azevedo et al. (2006), Eldridge (2004), Goodrich & Buskirk (1998), Harlow (1981), Hart & Trumbo (1983), Hoodicoff (2006), Lampe (1982), Lindzey (1978, 2003), Long (1973), Long &Killingley (1983), Messick & Hornocker (1981), Michener (2004), Michener & Iwaniuk (2001), Minta (1993), Minta et al. (1992), Murie (1992), Sargeant & Warner (1972), Sovada et al. (1999), VanVuren (2001), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Ursus taxus Schreber, 1778,Canada.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Blaireau d’Amérique @fr | Amerikanischer Dachs @de | Tejon americano @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Taxidea","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"621","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"taxus","name":"Taxidea taxus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778— S Canada(Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario& Saskatschewan) and NC USA.T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858— N & C Mexicoand SC USA(W of the MississippiRiver).T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946— NE USA(Great Lakes Region).T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825— W USA(NWto California).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714129/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson & Johns (1977) | Armitage (2004) | Azevedo et al. (2006) | Eldridge (2004) | Goodrich & Buskirk (1998) | Harlow (1981) | Hart & Trumbo (1983) | Hoodicoff (2006) | Lampe (1982) | Lindzey (1978, 2003) | Long (1973) | Long &Killingley (1983) | Messick & Hornocker (1981) | Michener (2004) | Michener & Iwaniuk (2001) | Minta (1993) | Minta et al. (1992) | Murie (1992) | Sargeant & Warner (1972) | Sovada et al. (1999) | VanVuren (2001) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals (especially marmots, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, chipmunks, and squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (insects and molluscs). Carrion is also eaten. In British Columbia, the six main prey species are the Columbian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota Slaviventris), Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Southern Red-backed Vole (Myodes gapperi), and Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). In south-eastern Wyoming, prairie dogs were found in 57% of stomach and fecal samples from female American Badgers. The most common food item in the diet in west-central Minnesotaand south-eastern North Dakotais small mammals (98%, primarily Muridae and Geomyidae). Other prey includes insects (40%), and birds and eggs (32%, mostly ducks Anatidae). Reptiles, amphibians and molluscs are also eaten, but are less common than other foods. Insects and birds’ eggs are more common in the diet during spring (April-May) than summer (June-July). Birds are more frequent in the diets of adults than juveniles. In South Dakota, 40% of stomach contents were mammals, 35% were of plant origin, 10% were birds, 10% were insects, and the remainder was mostly inorganic materials. American Badgers obtain most of their food by excavating the burrows of fossorial animals. If large prey is taken, such as a rabbit, the badger may dig a hole, carry in the prey, and remain below ground with it for several days. There are reports of American Badgers forming a “hunting partnership” with Coyotes. The Coyote apparently usesits keen sense of smell to locate burrowing rodents and the American Badger digs them up with its powerful claws. Both predators then share the proceeds. The techniques used by American Badgers when hunting Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) have been observed. They frequently hunted hibernating squirrels in the autumn, sometimes hunted infants in the spring, but rarely hunted active squirrels in the summer. They always captured hibernating and active squirrels underground, but sometimes intercepted fleeing squirrels aboveground. The most common hunting technique used was excavation of the burrow, but plugging of openings accounted for 5-23% of hunting actions. Plugging occurred predominantly in mid-June to late July, before most ground squirrels hibernated, and in late August to late October when juvenile males were active, but other squirrels were in hibernation. American Badgers usually used soil from around the tunnel opening or soil dragged 30-270 cmfrom a nearby mound to plug tunnels. Theykill ground squirrels with a single grasping bite directed dorsally or laterally to the thorax. The canines and third upper incisors generally only bruise the skin, without puncturing it, but cause extensive hemorrhaging in the thoracic cavity. Food items are sometimes buried and eaten later.","breeding":"Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, but can be active at any hour. American Badgers rest underground in burrows; these are either self-excavated or are modified burrows that were initially made by another animal. The burrow can be as long as 10 mand can extend 3 mbelow the surface. A bulky nest of grass is located in an enlarged chamber; the entrances are marked by mounds of earth. American Badgers are active all year, but during severe winter weather they may sleep in the den for several days or weeks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Daily movement may exceed 10 kmand dispersal movements may be greater than 100 km. Mean home range size is up to 12- 3 km? for males and up to 3-4 km? for females. Home ranges overlap, but adults are solitary except during the breeding season. In Utah, mean home range size was 5-83 km? the mean size of female home ranges (2-37 km?) was less than half that of the males. In Idaho, mean home range size was 2-4 km? for males and 1-6 km? for females. In south-eastern Wyoming, the mean home range size of females (3-4 km?) was smaller than that of males (12- 3 km?); mean overlap was less for females than for males, and the mean home rangesize of males was larger during the breeding season than during the non-breeding season (breeding = 11- 1 km?non-breeding = 5- 4 km?). A radio-tracked female in Minnesotaused an area of 752 ha during the summer. She had 50 dens within this area and was never found in the same den on two consecutive days. In the autumn, she shifted to an adjacent area of 52 ha and often reused dens. In the winter, she used a single den and traveled infrequently within an area of 2 ha. Population density may be as high as 5/km?. In south-eastern Wyoming, the density varies between 0-8-1-1/km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Badgers are considered common. Although this species haslittle importance in the fur trade,it is harvested for its fur in many parts of its range. American Badgers are also persecuted because of the damage they do to pasture and agricultural land.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 42-72 cm, tail 10-15.5 cm; weight 7.6-8.7 kg(males), 6.3-7.1 kg(females), adult males weigh on average 25% more than females. The American Badger’s body appears flat dorso-ventrally, with a flat head, and shorttail and limbs. The upperparts are grayish-white to yellowish-brown orsilvery black; the underparts are buffy. The feet are dark brown to black. Black patches are present on the face, cheeks, chin, and throat. A dorsal white stripe runs from the nose to the neck, and in some populations, to the rump. The claws on the forefeet are long and strong. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is wedge-shaped, almost triangular.","habitat":"American Badgers are found in grasslands, prairie habitats, shrubs and steppes, and open woodlands. In British Columbia, they prefer open range and agricultural habitats that have fine sandy-loam and well-drained soils."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA53FFBBCFAE3020FDBEF7B1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA53FFBBCFAE3020FDBEF7B1","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"622","verbatimText":"4.Japanese BadgerMeles anakumaFrench:Blaireau du Japon/ German:Japanischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon japonésTaxonomy.Meles anakuma Temminck, 1844. Japan.Some authors consider M. anakuma as a subspecies of the Asian Badger. Monotypic.Distribution.Japan(Honshu, Kyushu & Shikoku Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-80 cm,tail 14-20 cm; weight 6-17 kg. The Japanese Badger has a stocky body, short legs, grayish pelage, and contrasting black and white stripes on the head and upper neck. The foreclaws are well-developed for digging; the hindclaws are much smaller.Habitat.Japanese Badgers are found in fields and forests, often in close proximity to humans in suburban habitats.Food and Feeding.In Hinode, a suburb of Tokyo, scat analysis revealed that during spring and summer, earthworms (Megaseolocidae) occur at high frequency in the diet, with berries (Rubus sp.), beetles, and persimmon (Dymopyrus kaki) also eaten during summer months. Scavenged food is eaten in early spring when earthworm availability is low, and in the autumn, Japanese Badgers switch from eating worms when Persimmon is abundant.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, although sometimes active in the daytime. Breeding females, in particular, often forage during the day and in the spring. Between July and October, Japanese Badgers usually emerge from their setts around sunset and return around sunrise. After November, the time between emergence and return becomes shorter. From January to February, most activity ceases, and Japanese Badgers stay in their setts most of the time. The total hibernation period varies from 42-80 days, during which the body temperature is reduced. Den/resting sites are in underground burrows called setts or in couches. In Japan, the resting sites in each badger’s home range were found to be within 630 mof each other. Setts were sited within the core areas of home ranges and were mostly on a sub-ridge. Couches were mainly in deciduousforest, and along the forest edge, and were generally sited towards the periphery of home ranges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Japanese Badgers form family groups consisting of a mother and her offspring. Mature adult males seldom visit the family except in early spring, and they are found to have large home ranges that encompass the home ranges of two to three adultfemales. The home ranges of each sex do not overlap, suggesting intra-sexual territoriality. Japanese Badgers use an average of 13-5 setts in a year; adult males and females seldom stay in the samesett together. Male offspring share a sett with their mother for up to 26 months, whereas female offspring remain with the mother for only 14 months. The average time male offspring spend with their mothers decreases when young are between 15 and 19 months old. In Hinode, Tokyo, the mean home range size of males (40 ha) was found to be larger than that of females (11 ha).Breeding.Mating occurs from April to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until February. Litter size varies from one to three. Male offspring continue growing for 24 months, but females reach adult size in a year. Sexual maturity is reached after two years.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Field studies are needed are learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Japanese Badger.Bibliography.Abramov & Puzachenko (2006), Kaneko (2001, 2005), Kaneko et al. (2006), Sato et al. (2003), Tanaka (2005, 2006), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Meles anakuma Temminck, 1844. Japan.Some authors consider M. anakuma as a subspecies of the Asian Badger. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Blaireau du Japon @fr | Japanischer Dachs @de | Tejon japonés @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1844","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Meles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"622","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"anakuma","name":"Meles anakuma","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Japan(Honshu, Kyushu & Shikoku Is).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714139/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abramov & Puzachenko (2006) | Kaneko (2001, 2005) | Kaneko et al. (2006) | Sato et al. (2003) | Tanaka (2005, 2006) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"In Hinode, a suburb of Tokyo, scat analysis revealed that during spring and summer, earthworms (Megaseolocidae) occur at high frequency in the diet, with berries (Rubus sp.), beetles, and persimmon (Dymopyrus kaki) also eaten during summer months. Scavenged food is eaten in early spring when earthworm availability is low, and in the autumn, Japanese Badgers switch from eating worms when Persimmon is abundant.","breeding":"Mating occurs from April to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until February. Litter size varies from one to three. Male offspring continue growing for 24 months, but females reach adult size in a year. Sexual maturity is reached after two years.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, although sometimes active in the daytime. Breeding females, in particular, often forage during the day and in the spring. Between July and October, Japanese Badgers usually emerge from their setts around sunset and return around sunrise. After November, the time between emergence and return becomes shorter. From January to February, most activity ceases, and Japanese Badgers stay in their setts most of the time. The total hibernation period varies from 42-80 days, during which the body temperature is reduced. Den/resting sites are in underground burrows called setts or in couches. In Japan, the resting sites in each badger’s home range were found to be within 630 mof each other. Setts were sited within the core areas of home ranges and were mostly on a sub-ridge. Couches were mainly in deciduousforest, and along the forest edge, and were generally sited towards the periphery of home ranges.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Japanese Badgers form family groups consisting of a mother and her offspring. Mature adult males seldom visit the family except in early spring, and they are found to have large home ranges that encompass the home ranges of two to three adultfemales. The home ranges of each sex do not overlap, suggesting intra-sexual territoriality. Japanese Badgers use an average of 13-5 setts in a year; adult males and females seldom stay in the samesett together. Male offspring share a sett with their mother for up to 26 months, whereas female offspring remain with the mother for only 14 months. The average time male offspring spend with their mothers decreases when young are between 15 and 19 months old. In Hinode, Tokyo, the mean home range size of males (40 ha) was found to be larger than that of females (11 ha).Breeding.Mating occurs from April to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until February. Litter size varies from one to three. Male offspring continue growing for 24 months, but females reach adult size in a year. Sexual maturity is reached after two years.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Field studies are needed are learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Japanese Badger.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-80 cm,tail 14-20 cm; weight 6-17 kg. The Japanese Badger has a stocky body, short legs, grayish pelage, and contrasting black and white stripes on the head and upper neck. The foreclaws are well-developed for digging; the hindclaws are much smaller.","habitat":"Japanese Badgers are found in fields and forests, often in close proximity to humans in suburban habitats."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA53FFBCCFA73EC1F7B6F487.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA53FFBCCFA73EC1F7B6F487","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"622","verbatimText":"3.Hog BadgerArctonyx collarisFrench:Balisaur/ German:Schweinsdachs/ Spanish:Tejon porcinoTaxonomy.Arctonyx collaris Cuvier, 1825, Indonesia.Arctonyxwas regarded as monotypic until late 2008, when this volume was in proof. Based on a review of the most available specimens in world museums, three distinctive species are now recognized within this genus. A. albogularis (Blyth, 1853) is a shaggy-coated, medium-sized badger widely distributed in temperate Asia, from Tibetand the Himalayan region to eastern and southern China. A. collaris (Cuvier, 1825), is an extremely large, shorter-haired badger, distributed throughout South-east Asia, from eastern Indiato Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodiaand Laos. The disjunctly distributed species A. hoevenii (Hubrecht, 1891) is the smallest and darkest member of the genus and is endemic to the Barisan mountain chain of Sumatra.Distribution.C, E & S Chinaand E Mongoliato Sub-Himalayan zone in Bhutanand NE India; also, Bangladesh, Indochina, and Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-70 cm,tail 12-17 cm; weight 7-14 kg. The Hog Badger is stocky and sparsely furred, with a flat head, a long nose that extends to form a small “trunk”, conspicuous ears, small eyes, and long claws. The elongated snout is hairless and resembles the nose of a pig: hence the name Hog Badger. The pelage is yellowish or grayish with black and white hairs mixed throughout. There are alternating black and white stripes on the top of the head; the white stripes meet behind the ears and merge with the pale throat. The tail is short and sparsely covered with white hairs. The claws are well-developed on the forefeet and are pale in color. The skull is narrow and high with a long rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M1/2=36.Habitat.Forests, grasslands and plantations adjacent to forests, at elevations up to 3500 m.Food and Feeding.The diet includes earthworms, insects, small mammals, snails, reptiles, tubers, and roots. In China, Hog Badgers were found to eat more mammals and gastropods than other sympatric small carnivore species. They use their hoglike nose to root through the forest floor.Activity patterns.Nocturnal. Activity peaks occur between 03:00 h and 05:00 h and between 19:00 h and 21:00 h. Hog Badgers spend the day resting in underground burrows or in rock crevices; they can dig their own burrows. They undergo a period of inactivity during winter months and in central China, they may hibernate from November to February or March.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Solitary and terrestrial.Breeding.Mating occurs from May to September, depending on the locality. Births typically occur the following February or March. The long delay between mating and parturition suggests that this species undergoes delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus. Litter size is three to five. The young are weaned after four months and become independent soon after.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. The Hog Badger is thought to be common throughoutits range. However, hunting by dogsis a threat to this species and it is also susceptible to snaring. Hog Badgers are hunted and farmed for food in China. They are also eaten in India, and hunted in Vietnamand some areas of Laos.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Helgen, Lim & Helgen (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Parker (1979), Pocock (1941a), Wang & Fuller (2003a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Arctonyx collaris Cuvier, 1825, Indonesia.Arctonyxwas regarded as monotypic until late 2008, when this volume was in proof. Based on a review of the most available specimens in world museums, three distinctive species are now recognized within this genus. A. albogularis (Blyth, 1853) is a shaggy-coated, medium-sized badger widely distributed in temperate Asia, from Tibetand the Himalayan region to eastern and southern China. A. collaris (Cuvier, 1825), is an extremely large, shorter-haired badger, distributed throughout South-east Asia, from eastern Indiato Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodiaand Laos. The disjunctly distributed species A. hoevenii (Hubrecht, 1891) is the smallest and darkest member of the genus and is endemic to the Barisan mountain chain of Sumatra.","commonNames":"Balisaur @fr | Schweinsdachs @de | Tejon porcino @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1825","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Arctonyx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"622","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"collaris","name":"Arctonyx collaris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C, E & S Chinaand E Mongoliato Sub-Himalayan zone in Bhutanand NE India; also, Bangladesh, Indochina, and Sumatra.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714135/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Francis (2008) | Helgen, Lim & Helgen (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Parker (1979) | Pocock (1941a) | Wang & Fuller (2003a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes earthworms, insects, small mammals, snails, reptiles, tubers, and roots. In China, Hog Badgers were found to eat more mammals and gastropods than other sympatric small carnivore species. They use their hoglike nose to root through the forest floor.","breeding":"Mating occurs from May to September, depending on the locality. Births typically occur the following February or March. The long delay between mating and parturition suggests that this species undergoes delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus. Litter size is three to five. The young are weaned after four months and become independent soon after.","activityPatterns":"Nocturnal. Activity peaks occur between 03:00 h and 05:00 h and between 19:00 h and 21:00 h. Hog Badgers spend the day resting in underground burrows or in rock crevices; they can dig their own burrows. They undergo a period of inactivity during winter months and in central China, they may hibernate from November to February or March.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Solitary and terrestrial.Breeding.Mating occurs from May to September, depending on the locality. Births typically occur the following February or March. The long delay between mating and parturition suggests that this species undergoes delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus. Litter size is three to five. The young are weaned after four months and become independent soon after.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed List. The Hog Badger is thought to be common throughoutits range. However, hunting by dogsis a threat to this species and it is also susceptible to snaring. Hog Badgers are hunted and farmed for food in China. They are also eaten in India, and hunted in Vietnamand some areas of Laos.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-70 cm,tail 12-17 cm; weight 7-14 kg. The Hog Badger is stocky and sparsely furred, with a flat head, a long nose that extends to form a small “trunk”, conspicuous ears, small eyes, and long claws. The elongated snout is hairless and resembles the nose of a pig: hence the name Hog Badger. The pelage is yellowish or grayish with black and white hairs mixed throughout. There are alternating black and white stripes on the top of the head; the white stripes meet behind the ears and merge with the pale throat. The tail is short and sparsely covered with white hairs. The claws are well-developed on the forefeet and are pale in color. The skull is narrow and high with a long rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M1/2=36.","habitat":"Forests, grasslands and plantations adjacent to forests, at elevations up to 3500 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA54FFBACFEF3E38F9CBF9C6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA54FFBACFEF3E38F9CBF9C6","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"623","verbatimText":"6.European BadgerMeles melesFrench:Blaireau d'Europe/ German:Européischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tején europeoOther common names:Eurasian BadgerTaxonomy.Ursus meles Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Up to twenty-three subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Europe, E up to Volga River, Russia; also Caucasus and Middle East from Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria, to N Afghanistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 56-90 cm, tail 11.5-20.2 cm; weight 10-16 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Badger has a stocky body, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish, with black underparts and limbs. On each side of the face is a dark stripe that extends from the nose to the ear and encloses the eye; white stripes border the dark stripe. The tip of the ears is white. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. All the feet have strong claws. There are three pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Thefirst premolars are vestigial and sometimes absent.Habitat.European Badgers are mainly found in deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodland, hedges, scrub, riverine habitat, agricultural land, grassland, steppes, and semi-deserts. They prefer densely forested areas adjacent to open fields, up to 1700 m. Occasionally, they are found in suburban areas. In central Spain, European Badgers prefer mid-elevation mountain areas, where both dehesas (open woods with pastures) and pine forests prevail; lower elevation areas are avoided. They are associated with watercourses and prefer trees and rock covered areas. In the Swiss Jura Mountains, European Badgers use forests and wooded pastures in the winter and spring and grain fields in the summer and autumn.Food and Feeding.The diet includes earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) and other invertebrates (such as insects and molluscs), small mammals (mice, rabbits, rats, voles, shrews, moles, hedgehogs), birds, reptiles, amphibians, carrion, nuts, acorns, berries, fruits, tubers, and mushrooms. In forests, European Badgers rely predominantly on earthworms (on average, 62% in diets). In farmlands and pastures, earthworms and plant material (usually garden fruit and cereals) play equally important roles (34% each). In England, the main foods are earthworms, insects, fruit, and wheat; grass is also ingested in substantial quantities. Earthworms are the most frequent food items, but wheat is almost as important in terms of percentage volume. In Poland, earthworms constitute 82-89% of the biomass consumed in spring. In summer and autumn, the proportion declines to 56% in pristine forest, and to 24% in a mosaic of forests, fields, and orchards. Supplementary food items during this time are amphibians (in forests) and garden fruits (in a rural landscape). In Denmark, earthworms, small mammals, cereals, and arthropods dominate the diet. In central Switzerland, the diet comprises 55% faunal material and 45% vegetal material. Earthworms have the highest frequency of occurrence. Voles, insects, and maize are eaten during most of the year, but never in large volumes, while wasps, cherries, plums, and oats are eaten seasonally and in large volumes. In Italy, earthworms and maize are the staple foods and together account for 57% of the mean estimated volume. Earthworm consumption varies seasonally, with a marked decrease in summer; this decline is compensated by a significant increase in fruits eaten. Maize is consumed all year round with no significant seasonal variation (from 21% in summer to 44-6% in winter). Prey items include amphibians (9%) and mammals (7-2%, primarily rodents and lagomorphs). In a dry Mediterranean coastal habitat in central Italy, European Badgers feed primarily on fruits and insects (90% ofthe total amount of food eaten each year). Other less important food items include myriapods, molluscs, birds, and mammals; earthworms do not play an important role in the diet in any period ofthe year.Activity patterns.European Badgers show crepuscular or nocturnal activity, generally starting after sunset and ending before sunrise, and are active on average for about eight hours per day. The highestlevel of activity is between 20:00 h and 03:00 h. During the day, they mainly rest in elaborate, communal burrow systems (setts) with numerous entrances, passages, and chambers, but other typesof rest sites may be used. Setts may cover an area of 0-25 ha; they are used year after year and increase in complexity over time, and may eventually cover several hectares. There are two typesof burrows: “main” setts (with many entrances) and small “outliers” (with usually only one entrance). Nests may be located 10 mfrom an entrance, 2-3 mbelow the surface, and have a diameter of 1- 5 m.Within a burrow system, European Badgers may utilize one nest for several months and then move to another part of the burrow. The living quarters are kept quite clean. Bedding material (dry grass, bracken, moss, or leaves) is dragged backwards into the den. Around setts, there are several dung pits, sunning grounds, and play areas. Well-defined paths, up to 2-3 km, extend from the sett to foraging areas. In south-western Spain,setts are located almost everywhere, but European Badgers prefer easily dug, well-drained soils, with good vegetation cover within foraging habitats. They select sites with high surrounding shrub density, large shrubs covering the burrow, and close to the centre of the territory. During bouts of cold weather or deep snow, European Badgers may sleep in the sett for days or weeks. In northern Europe, this winter sleep may last several months. During this period, there is a substantial drop in body temperature and the badger lives off fat reserves accumulated in the summer and autumn. In south-west Portugal, main setts are the most frequently used restsites (62:3%); however, an average of 14 other resting sites are used in each territory. Females use more than twice as many occasional resting sites as do males. Generally burrows (predominantly main setts) are most frequently used during winter and autumn, whilst non-burrow shelters are preferred during spring and summer, when the weather is hot, dry and not windy. In northern Italy, ten setts (mean number of entrances = 2-1) were detected in the study area. Each radio-collared badger used 2-3 setts, occupying one sett from one to eight months before moving to another one. All badgers shared (although in different periods) one main sett located in the inner part of their ranges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mean daily movement ranges from 1-2 kmin Englandto 7 kmin Poland. Average speed of movement varies from 0-3 km/h in Spainto 1- 1 km/h in Switzerland. European Badgers in Britain form clans of mutli-male and multi-female groups, of up to 23 animals (average = six). Elsewhere in their range they commonly live alone, or in pairs with either intra- or inter-sexual territories. Clans are led by a dominant male and female, and usually have more females than males. Individuals move around alone within a clan range. These ranges are marked using latrine sites and secretions from the sub-caudal glands; sometimes fights may occur at territorial boundaries. In England, many clans have ranges of 50- 150 ha, with little overlap; the minimum distance between the main burrows of clans is 300 m.In the Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland, the daily home range was 2- 1 km? (19% oftheir total home rangesize). The size ofterritories varied from 8-4 to 25- 5 km? (mean 12- 8 km?). The mean individual home range was 9- 3 km? and varied seasonally and among animals of different age and sex classes (from 4-24- 4 km?). Home ranges of adult badgers were significantly larger than those of subadults. European Badgers occupied larger home ranges in summer, when earthworm availability was low. They moved with an average speed of 0-9 km/hour (maximum 7- 1 km/hour). Adults of both sexes visited territory boundaries significantly more often than subadult individuals. In Denmark, home range size varied between 2-96 km? and 3-94 km?; individuals from a social group had similar home ranges (95% overlap), whereas home ranges of individuals from neighboring social groups had little overlap (1-2%). In the Swiss Jura Mountains, radio-collared European Badgers travelled up to 9460 meach night; they avoided pastures and the vicinity of houses during their night trips. The average home range size was 320 ha, but the ranging behavior varied between seasons. Den-watching, night-lighting, and radio-tracking data suggested that European Badgerslive in pairs in this wet and cold region. In an area of agricultural lowland in northern Italy, radiotracked animals showed considerable home range overlap, with an overall mean size of 3-83 km?. Population density estimates range from 0-4 to 1-5 individuals per 100 ha.Breeding.Mating can occur year-round, but typically occurs in late winter to midsummer. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus can either be immediate or delayed for about ten months; the time of implantation seems to be controlled by light and temperature conditions. Embryonic developmentlasts six to eight weeks. The total gestation may thus be up to 9-12 months. Births occur mainly from February to March.Litter size is usually three or four, but can be as many as six. The young weigh 75 gat birth; their eyes open after one month. They nurse for 2:5 months and usually separate from the mother in the autumn. Both sexes reach sexual maturity after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. European Badgers are generally considered common and of no special conservation concern, although declines in numbers have occurred in some areas. They sometimes damage property or consume crops, and thus are often regarded as pests and persecuted. The hair is used to make various kinds of brushes, and badger skin has been used to make rugs. European Badgers are commonly killed on roads; as many as 50,000 may be killed each year in Great Britain. They are vectors of bovine tuberculosis, which has led to controversial efforts to reduce European Badger numbers in parts of Britain.Bibliography.Balestrieri et al. (2004), Elmeros et al. (2005), Fischer & Weber (2003), Goszczynski et al. (2000), Kowalczyk, Jedrzejewska & Zalewski (2003), Kowalczyk, Zalewski & Jedrzejewska (2004, 2006), Kowalczyk, Zalewski, Jedrzejewska & Jedrzejewski (2003), Kruuk & Parish (1987), Long & Killingley (1983), Loureiro et al. (2007), Madsen et al. (2002), Marassi & Biancardi (2002), Melis et al. (2002), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Page et al. (1994), Palphramand et al. (2007), Pigozzi (1991), Remonti et al. (2006), Revilla & Palomares (2002), Revilla et al. (2001), Rodriguez et al. (1996), Roper (1994), Roper & Lups (1995), Roperet al. (2001), Rosalino et al. (2002), San et al. (2007), Shepherdson et al. (1990), Virgos & Casanovas (1999), Weber & Ferrari (2005), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Ursus meles Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Up to twenty-three subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","commonNames":"Blaireau d'Europe @fr | Européischer Dachs @de | Tején europeo @es | Eurasian Badger @en","interpretedAuthority":"meles","interpretedAuthorityName":"Brisson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1762","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Meles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"623","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"meles","name":"Meles meles","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Europe, E up to Volga River, Russia; also Caucasus and Middle East from Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria, to N Afghanistan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714145/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Balestrieri et al. (2004) | Elmeros et al. (2005) | Fischer & Weber (2003) | Goszczynski et al. (2000) | Kowalczyk, Jedrzejewska & Zalewski (2003) | Kowalczyk, Zalewski & Jedrzejewska (2004, 2006) | Kowalczyk, Zalewski, Jedrzejewska & Jedrzejewski (2003) | Kruuk & Parish (1987) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Loureiro et al. (2007) | Madsen et al. (2002) | Marassi & Biancardi (2002) | Melis et al. (2002) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Page et al. (1994) | Palphramand et al. (2007) | Pigozzi (1991) | Remonti et al. (2006) | Revilla & Palomares (2002) | Revilla et al. (2001) | Rodriguez et al. (1996) | Roper (1994) | Roper & Lups (1995) | Roperet al. (2001) | Rosalino et al. (2002) | San et al. (2007) | Shepherdson et al. (1990) | Virgos & Casanovas (1999) | Weber & Ferrari (2005) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) and other invertebrates (such as insects and molluscs), small mammals (mice, rabbits, rats, voles, shrews, moles, hedgehogs), birds, reptiles, amphibians, carrion, nuts, acorns, berries, fruits, tubers, and mushrooms. In forests, European Badgers rely predominantly on earthworms (on average, 62% in diets). In farmlands and pastures, earthworms and plant material (usually garden fruit and cereals) play equally important roles (34% each). In England, the main foods are earthworms, insects, fruit, and wheat; grass is also ingested in substantial quantities. Earthworms are the most frequent food items, but wheat is almost as important in terms of percentage volume. In Poland, earthworms constitute 82-89% of the biomass consumed in spring. In summer and autumn, the proportion declines to 56% in pristine forest, and to 24% in a mosaic of forests, fields, and orchards. Supplementary food items during this time are amphibians (in forests) and garden fruits (in a rural landscape). In Denmark, earthworms, small mammals, cereals, and arthropods dominate the diet. In central Switzerland, the diet comprises 55% faunal material and 45% vegetal material. Earthworms have the highest frequency of occurrence. Voles, insects, and maize are eaten during most of the year, but never in large volumes, while wasps, cherries, plums, and oats are eaten seasonally and in large volumes. In Italy, earthworms and maize are the staple foods and together account for 57% of the mean estimated volume. Earthworm consumption varies seasonally, with a marked decrease in summer; this decline is compensated by a significant increase in fruits eaten. Maize is consumed all year round with no significant seasonal variation (from 21% in summer to 44-6% in winter). Prey items include amphibians (9%) and mammals (7-2%, primarily rodents and lagomorphs). In a dry Mediterranean coastal habitat in central Italy, European Badgers feed primarily on fruits and insects (90% ofthe total amount of food eaten each year). Other less important food items include myriapods, molluscs, birds, and mammals; earthworms do not play an important role in the diet in any period ofthe year.","breeding":"Mating can occur year-round, but typically occurs in late winter to midsummer. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus can either be immediate or delayed for about ten months; the time of implantation seems to be controlled by light and temperature conditions. Embryonic developmentlasts six to eight weeks. The total gestation may thus be up to 9-12 months. Births occur mainly from February to March.Litter size is usually three or four, but can be as many as six. The young weigh 75 gat birth; their eyes open after one month. They nurse for 2:5 months and usually separate from the mother in the autumn. Both sexes reach sexual maturity after one year.","activityPatterns":"European Badgers show crepuscular or nocturnal activity, generally starting after sunset and ending before sunrise, and are active on average for about eight hours per day. The highestlevel of activity is between 20:00 h and 03:00 h. During the day, they mainly rest in elaborate, communal burrow systems (setts) with numerous entrances, passages, and chambers, but other typesof rest sites may be used. Setts may cover an area of 0-25 ha; they are used year after year and increase in complexity over time, and may eventually cover several hectares. There are two typesof burrows: “main” setts (with many entrances) and small “outliers” (with usually only one entrance). Nests may be located 10 mfrom an entrance, 2-3 mbelow the surface, and have a diameter of 1- 5 m.Within a burrow system, European Badgers may utilize one nest for several months and then move to another part of the burrow. The living quarters are kept quite clean. Bedding material (dry grass, bracken, moss, or leaves) is dragged backwards into the den. Around setts, there are several dung pits, sunning grounds, and play areas. Well-defined paths, up to 2-3 km, extend from the sett to foraging areas. In south-western Spain,setts are located almost everywhere, but European Badgers prefer easily dug, well-drained soils, with good vegetation cover within foraging habitats. They select sites with high surrounding shrub density, large shrubs covering the burrow, and close to the centre of the territory. During bouts of cold weather or deep snow, European Badgers may sleep in the sett for days or weeks. In northern Europe, this winter sleep may last several months. During this period, there is a substantial drop in body temperature and the badger lives off fat reserves accumulated in the summer and autumn. In south-west Portugal, main setts are the most frequently used restsites (62:3%); however, an average of 14 other resting sites are used in each territory. Females use more than twice as many occasional resting sites as do males. Generally burrows (predominantly main setts) are most frequently used during winter and autumn, whilst non-burrow shelters are preferred during spring and summer, when the weather is hot, dry and not windy. In northern Italy, ten setts (mean number of entrances = 2-1) were detected in the study area. Each radio-collared badger used 2-3 setts, occupying one sett from one to eight months before moving to another one. All badgers shared (although in different periods) one main sett located in the inner part of their ranges.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mean daily movement ranges from 1-2 kmin Englandto 7 kmin Poland. Average speed of movement varies from 0-3 km/h in Spainto 1- 1 km/h in Switzerland. European Badgers in Britain form clans of mutli-male and multi-female groups, of up to 23 animals (average = six). Elsewhere in their range they commonly live alone, or in pairs with either intra- or inter-sexual territories. Clans are led by a dominant male and female, and usually have more females than males. Individuals move around alone within a clan range. These ranges are marked using latrine sites and secretions from the sub-caudal glands; sometimes fights may occur at territorial boundaries. In England, many clans have ranges of 50- 150 ha, with little overlap; the minimum distance between the main burrows of clans is 300 m.In the Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland, the daily home range was 2- 1 km? (19% oftheir total home rangesize). The size ofterritories varied from 8-4 to 25- 5 km? (mean 12- 8 km?). The mean individual home range was 9- 3 km? and varied seasonally and among animals of different age and sex classes (from 4-24- 4 km?). Home ranges of adult badgers were significantly larger than those of subadults. European Badgers occupied larger home ranges in summer, when earthworm availability was low. They moved with an average speed of 0-9 km/hour (maximum 7- 1 km/hour). Adults of both sexes visited territory boundaries significantly more often than subadult individuals. In Denmark, home range size varied between 2-96 km? and 3-94 km?; individuals from a social group had similar home ranges (95% overlap), whereas home ranges of individuals from neighboring social groups had little overlap (1-2%). In the Swiss Jura Mountains, radio-collared European Badgers travelled up to 9460 meach night; they avoided pastures and the vicinity of houses during their night trips. The average home range size was 320 ha, but the ranging behavior varied between seasons. Den-watching, night-lighting, and radio-tracking data suggested that European Badgerslive in pairs in this wet and cold region. In an area of agricultural lowland in northern Italy, radiotracked animals showed considerable home range overlap, with an overall mean size of 3-83 km?. Population density estimates range from 0-4 to 1-5 individuals per 100 ha.Breeding.Mating can occur year-round, but typically occurs in late winter to midsummer. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus can either be immediate or delayed for about ten months; the time of implantation seems to be controlled by light and temperature conditions. Embryonic developmentlasts six to eight weeks. The total gestation may thus be up to 9-12 months. Births occur mainly from February to March.Litter size is usually three or four, but can be as many as six. The young weigh 75 gat birth; their eyes open after one month. They nurse for 2:5 months and usually separate from the mother in the autumn. Both sexes reach sexual maturity after one year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. European Badgers are generally considered common and of no special conservation concern, although declines in numbers have occurred in some areas. They sometimes damage property or consume crops, and thus are often regarded as pests and persecuted. The hair is used to make various kinds of brushes, and badger skin has been used to make rugs. European Badgers are commonly killed on roads; as many as 50,000 may be killed each year in Great Britain. They are vectors of bovine tuberculosis, which has led to controversial efforts to reduce European Badger numbers in parts of Britain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 56-90 cm, tail 11.5-20.2 cm; weight 10-16 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Badger has a stocky body, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish, with black underparts and limbs. On each side of the face is a dark stripe that extends from the nose to the ear and encloses the eye; white stripes border the dark stripe. The tip of the ears is white. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. All the feet have strong claws. There are three pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Thefirst premolars are vestigial and sometimes absent.","habitat":"European Badgers are mainly found in deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodland, hedges, scrub, riverine habitat, agricultural land, grassland, steppes, and semi-deserts. They prefer densely forested areas adjacent to open fields, up to 1700 m. Occasionally, they are found in suburban areas. In central Spain, European Badgers prefer mid-elevation mountain areas, where both dehesas (open woods with pastures) and pine forests prevail; lower elevation areas are avoided. They are associated with watercourses and prefer trees and rock covered areas. In the Swiss Jura Mountains, European Badgers use forests and wooded pastures in the winter and spring and grain fields in the summer and autumn."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"623","verbatimText":"5.Asian BadgerMeles leucurusFrench:Blaireau d'Asie/ German:Asiatischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon asiaticoTaxonomy.Taxidea leucurus Hodgson, 1847, China.The Asian Badger has been considered conspecific with the European Badger by some authors, but is listed here as a distinct species. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M..l. leucurus Hodgson, 1847— C, E & S China..M. l. amurensis Schrenck, 1859— NE China(Manchuria), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Russia(E of Volga River).Descriptive notes.Head-body 49.5-70 cm, tail 13-20.5 cm; weight 3.5-9 kg. The Asian Badger bears a great resemblance to the European Badger. The bodyis stocky, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish-silver throughout. The face is white with two narrow blackish-brown stripes running over the eye and above the ear. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. The soles ofthe feet are naked. The front claws are well-developed for digging, whereas the hindclaws are much smaller. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is narrow with an elongated rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Forests and fields, and in close proximity to humans.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly invertebrates (earthworms and insects), small mammals, and plant material.Activity patterns.Nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Asian Badgers are gregarious and live in communalsetts with multiple tunnels and den entrances.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Although the European Badger has been well studied in Europe, little is known specifically about the Asian Badger, although it is presumed that there are few differences in basic natural history between these two species. Field studies are needed to learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Asian Badger. This speciesis legally hunted in China, Russia, and Mongolia.Bibliography.Abramov & Puzachenko (2006), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Taxidea leucurus Hodgson, 1847, China.The Asian Badger has been considered conspecific with the European Badger by some authors, but is listed here as a distinct species. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Blaireau d'Asie @fr | Asiatischer Dachs @de | Tejon asiatico @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Brisson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1762","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1847","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Meles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"623","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucurus","name":"Meles leucurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M..l. leucurus Hodgson, 1847— C, E & S China..M. l. amurensis Schrenck, 1859— NE China(Manchuria), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Russia(E of Volga River).","bibliography":"Abramov & Puzachenko (2006) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly invertebrates (earthworms and insects), small mammals, and plant material.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Asian Badgers are gregarious and live in communalsetts with multiple tunnels and den entrances.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Although the European Badger has been well studied in Europe, little is known specifically about the Asian Badger, although it is presumed that there are few differences in basic natural history between these two species. Field studies are needed to learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Asian Badger. This speciesis legally hunted in China, Russia, and Mongolia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 49.5-70 cm, tail 13-20.5 cm; weight 3.5-9 kg. The Asian Badger bears a great resemblance to the European Badger. The bodyis stocky, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish-silver throughout. The face is white with two narrow blackish-brown stripes running over the eye and above the ear. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. The soles ofthe feet are naked. The front claws are well-developed for digging, whereas the hindclaws are much smaller. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is narrow with an elongated rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","habitat":"Forests and fields, and in close proximity to humans."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"627","verbatimText":"8.WolverineGulo guloFrench:Carcajou/ German:Vielfrafls/ Spanish:GlotonTaxonomy.Mustela gulo Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. g. gulo Linnaeus, 1758— NE & NW China, Mongolia, Russia, and Scandinavia.G. g. luscus Linnaeus, 1758— Canadaand W USA(Alaska, California, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington& Wyoming).Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-105 cm, tail 21-26 cm; weight 11-18 kg(males), 6-12 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Wolverine is heavily built and stocky, and is the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae. The pelage is long and varies in color from almost blond to dark brown, with two distinctive yellowish stripes that run from the top of the neck to the rump. White patches on the throat, belly or limbs are common. The head is large, with a broad forehead, broad nose, and rounded ears. The limbs are relatively short and the tail is bushy. The feet are large, with well-developed claws. The skull is exceptionally robust and broad, with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are big and strong; the carnassials are very large.Habitat.Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas. Habitat associations of females were more complex, but in the summer they avoided roads and recently logged areas. In the Columbia Mountains, where winter recreation is widespread, females prefer alpine and avalanche environments where Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) and Columbia Ground Squirrel prey are found in the summer. During the winter, females tend to avoid areas with helicopter and backcountry skiing, and prefer areas where Moose (Alces alces) can be found.On following pages: 9. American Marten (Martesamericana); 10. Yellow-throated Marten (Martesflavigula); 11. Stone 14. Japanese Marten (Martesmelampus); 15. Fisher (Martespennant); 16. Sable (Martes zibellina).Marten (Martesfoina); 12. Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii); 13. European Pine Marten (Martes martes);Food and Feeding.The diet includes the carcasses of large ungulates, such as Moose and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In many areas, Wolverines are dependent on the ability of larger predators, especially Gray Wolves, to provide kills. In coastal areas, they also feed on the carcasses of whales and seals that wash ashore. Wolverines also prey opportunistically on deer, sheep, small mammals (rodents such as Marmota and Myodes, lagomorphs, and ground squirrels), birds, and eggs. Berries, nuts and fungus are occasionally eaten. Within two study areas in British Columbia, scat analysis revealed a diet that varied regionally and seasonally: Moose, Reindeer, and Hoary Marmots were abundant and common prey items within both study areas. Mountain Goats (Oreamnos americanus) and North American Porcupine (Erithizon dorsata) were more frequent prey items in the Columbia Mountains, while Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) and American Beaver (Castor canadensis) were more frequent prey items in the Omineca Mountains. Reindeer, Hoary Marmots, and North American Porcupines were found in significantly higher frequencies in the diet of reproductive females. Predation on ungulates (such as Reindeer)is facilitated when there is deep snow. Wolverines kill larger prey by a bite at the neck or throat. Small rodents may be chased, pounced upon, or dug out of the ground. Excess food is cached for later use and is covered with earth or snow, or sometimes wedged in the forks of trees. In Albertaand British Columbia, cache sites were in stands of black spruce (Picea mariana) or mixed-wood of high complexity, dominated by conifers, and in which the trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) component consisted of mostly dead or dying trees. These sites offered relatively good visibility of the surrounding area; caches were never located in the very dense homogenous spruce stands. Cache sites were classified as “simple caches”, composed of a single feeding site and/or excavation, and “cache complexes”, involving one or more feeding “stations”, latrines, resting sites, and climbing trees that may have been used as avenues of escape from competitors or predators. The better used cache complexes were accessed by numerous well-used trails made by the Wolverines themselves. Caches contained the remains of Moose that were believed to have been killed by Wolves.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but occasionally active during the day. Rest sites may be a rough bed of grass or leaves in a cave or rock crevice, in a burrow made by another animal, or under a fallen tree. In Albertaand British Columbia, resting sites were located on top of the snow in relatively open locations that offered good visibility of the surroundings. Wolverines do not appear to be hindered by deep snow and are active year round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Wolverines are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also strong swimmers and agile tree climbers. Their scavenging habits dictate covering long distances. Daily movements in excess of 30 kmare common; males travel more widely than females. They are capable of reaching speeds of 45 km/h. In north-western Alaska, the home ranges of males were 488-917 km* and 53-232 km? for females. In south-central Alaska, home ranges averaged 535 km” for males and 105 km? for females. In Yukon, home ranges were 209-269 km* for males and 76-269 km? for females. The home range of each male overlaps three or four females. However, in Montana, there was extensive overlap between the ranges of both the same and opposite sexes, and no territorial defense was observed. Population densities vary from one animal per 50 km? in Siberia to one per 500 km* in Scandinavia. North American densities vary from one per 65 km? to one per 200 km.Breeding.Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed Listt. Wolverines are harvested for their pelt; although their fur is not used widely in commerce it is valued for parkas. Fur trapping has contributed to a decline in numbers and distribution of the Wolverine. Wolverines are also intensely hunted because they are considered a nuisance animal: they follow traplines and devour trapped furbearers, they break into cabins and food caches, they allegedly prey on domestic reindeer, and they attack sheep. Protection and recovery measures are needed to restore populations acrossits previously known range.Bibliography.Aubry et al. (2007), Banci & Harestad (1988), Copeland & Whitman (2003), Copeland et al. (2007), Hedmarket al. (2007), Hornocker & Hash (1981), Krebs et al. (2007), Krott (1960), Landa, Linden & Kojola (2000), Landa, Strand, Linnell & Skogland (1998), Landa, Strand, Swenson & Skogland (1997), Lofroth et al. (2007), Magoun & Copeland (1998), Mead et al. (1991), Pasitschniak-Arts & Lariviere (1995), Stroganov (1969), Whitman et al. (1986), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Wright & Ernst (2004a, 2004b).","taxonomy":"Mustela gulo Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland.Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Carcajou @fr | Vielfrafls @de | Gloton @es","interpretedAuthority":"gulo","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Gulo","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"627","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gulo","name":"Gulo gulo","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G. g. gulo Linnaeus, 1758— NE & NW China, Mongolia, Russia, and Scandinavia.G. g. luscus Linnaeus, 1758— Canadaand W USA(Alaska, California, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington& Wyoming).","bibliography":"Aubry et al. (2007) | Banci & Harestad (1988) | Copeland & Whitman (2003) | Copeland et al. (2007) | Hedmarket al. (2007) | Hornocker & Hash (1981) | Krebs et al. (2007) | Krott (1960) | Landa, Linden & Kojola (2000) | Landa, Strand, Linnell & Skogland (1998) | Landa, Strand, Swenson & Skogland (1997) | Lofroth et al. (2007) | Magoun & Copeland (1998) | Mead et al. (1991) | Pasitschniak-Arts & Lariviere (1995) | Stroganov (1969) | Whitman et al. (1986) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Wright & Ernst (2004a, 2004b)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes the carcasses of large ungulates, such as Moose and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In many areas, Wolverines are dependent on the ability of larger predators, especially Gray Wolves, to provide kills. In coastal areas, they also feed on the carcasses of whales and seals that wash ashore. Wolverines also prey opportunistically on deer, sheep, small mammals (rodents such as Marmota and Myodes, lagomorphs, and ground squirrels), birds, and eggs. Berries, nuts and fungus are occasionally eaten. Within two study areas in British Columbia, scat analysis revealed a diet that varied regionally and seasonally: Moose, Reindeer, and Hoary Marmots were abundant and common prey items within both study areas. Mountain Goats (Oreamnos americanus) and North American Porcupine (Erithizon dorsata) were more frequent prey items in the Columbia Mountains, while Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) and American Beaver (Castor canadensis) were more frequent prey items in the Omineca Mountains. Reindeer, Hoary Marmots, and North American Porcupines were found in significantly higher frequencies in the diet of reproductive females. Predation on ungulates (such as Reindeer)is facilitated when there is deep snow. Wolverines kill larger prey by a bite at the neck or throat. Small rodents may be chased, pounced upon, or dug out of the ground. Excess food is cached for later use and is covered with earth or snow, or sometimes wedged in the forks of trees. In Albertaand British Columbia, cache sites were in stands of black spruce (Picea mariana) or mixed-wood of high complexity, dominated by conifers, and in which the trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) component consisted of mostly dead or dying trees. These sites offered relatively good visibility of the surrounding area; caches were never located in the very dense homogenous spruce stands. Cache sites were classified as “simple caches”, composed of a single feeding site and/or excavation, and “cache complexes”, involving one or more feeding “stations”, latrines, resting sites, and climbing trees that may have been used as avenues of escape from competitors or predators. The better used cache complexes were accessed by numerous well-used trails made by the Wolverines themselves. Caches contained the remains of Moose that were believed to have been killed by Wolves.","breeding":"Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, but occasionally active during the day. Rest sites may be a rough bed of grass or leaves in a cave or rock crevice, in a burrow made by another animal, or under a fallen tree. In Albertaand British Columbia, resting sites were located on top of the snow in relatively open locations that offered good visibility of the surroundings. Wolverines do not appear to be hindered by deep snow and are active year round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Wolverines are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also strong swimmers and agile tree climbers. Their scavenging habits dictate covering long distances. Daily movements in excess of 30 kmare common; males travel more widely than females. They are capable of reaching speeds of 45 km/h. In north-western Alaska, the home ranges of males were 488-917 km* and 53-232 km? for females. In south-central Alaska, home ranges averaged 535 km” for males and 105 km? for females. In Yukon, home ranges were 209-269 km* for males and 76-269 km? for females. The home range of each male overlaps three or four females. However, in Montana, there was extensive overlap between the ranges of both the same and opposite sexes, and no territorial defense was observed. Population densities vary from one animal per 50 km? in Siberia to one per 500 km* in Scandinavia. North American densities vary from one per 65 km? to one per 200 km.Breeding.Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed Listt. Wolverines are harvested for their pelt; although their fur is not used widely in commerce it is valued for parkas. Fur trapping has contributed to a decline in numbers and distribution of the Wolverine. Wolverines are also intensely hunted because they are considered a nuisance animal: they follow traplines and devour trapped furbearers, they break into cabins and food caches, they allegedly prey on domestic reindeer, and they attack sheep. Protection and recovery measures are needed to restore populations acrossits previously known range.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 65-105 cm, tail 21-26 cm; weight 11-18 kg(males), 6-12 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Wolverine is heavily built and stocky, and is the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae. The pelage is long and varies in color from almost blond to dark brown, with two distinctive yellowish stripes that run from the top of the neck to the rump. White patches on the throat, belly or limbs are common. The head is large, with a broad forehead, broad nose, and rounded ears. The limbs are relatively short and the tail is bushy. The feet are large, with well-developed claws. The skull is exceptionally robust and broad, with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are big and strong; the carnassials are very large.Habitat.Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas.","habitat":"Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas. Habitat associations of females were more complex, but in the summer they avoided roads and recently logged areas. In the Columbia Mountains, where winter recreation is widespread, females prefer alpine and avalanche environments where Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) and Columbia Ground Squirrel prey are found in the summer. During the winter, females tend to avoid areas with helicopter and backcountry skiing, and prefer areas where Moose (Alces alces) can be found."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"627","verbatimText":"7.TayraEira barbaraFrench:Tayra/ German:Tayra/ Spanish:TairaTaxonomy.Mustela barbara Linnaeus, 1758, “ Pernambuco”, Brazil.Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. b. barbara Linnaeus, 1758— Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.E. b. inserta J. A. Allen, 1908— El Salvadorand Hondurasto Costa Rica.E. b. madeirensis Lonnberg, 1913— W Brazll, E Ecuador, and NE Peru.E. b. peruana Tschudi, 1844— Amazonian Boliviaand SE Peru.E. b. poliocephala Traill, 1821— the Guianas, E Venezuela, and lower Amazon Basin.E. b. senex Thomas, 1900— Mexicoto Guatemala.E. b. sinuensis Humboldt, 1812— Panamato Colombia, W Ecuador, W Venezuela, and Trinidad.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55.9-71.2 cm, tail 36-5—- 46 cm; weight 2.7-7 kg, adult males are 30% larger than females. The Tayra is large and slender, with elongated limbs and a long brushy tail. The pelage is dark, but the head and neck are grayish or grizzled tan. In Guyana, a yellow morph also occurs. The feet have naked soles and strong claws. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3-4, M 1/1-2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are missing, although the upper first premolar is sometimes retained.Habitat.Tayras are found in tropical and subtropical forests, including secondary rainforests, gallery forests, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. They sometimes occur in gardens, plantations, and in agricultural fields. Tayras may hunt in grasslands, although much of their time is spent in forested areas. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, Tayras are usually found along gallery forests; at night, they may cross extensive grasslands, presumably moving from one forest to another. In Veracruz, Mexico, Tayras generally are restricted to forested habitats. They are found in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil, in deciduous and scrub forest of the Pantanal in Paraguayand Bolivia, and in gallery and scrub forest and tall grass savannas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. In Belize, no significant habitat preference was found for the Tayra.Food and Feeding.The diet includes fruits, small vertebrates, insects, and carrion. In Venezuela, three species of vertebrate (Echimys semivillous, Rhipidomys sp., and Iguana iguana) and four species of fruit (Genipa americana, Zanthozylum culantrillo, Guazuma tomentosa, and Psychotria anceps) were recorded from 18 scats; both FE. semivillous and G. americana were found in 50% of the scats. In Belize, four species of small mammals were found in 31 scats: Didelphis marsupialis (9-6%), Oryzomys palustris (22-5%), Sigmodon hispidus (32:3%), and Rattus rattus (29-0%). In addition, 19-4% small birds, 58-0% arthropods, and 67-7% fruit were found. The primary fruit eaten was Calocarpum mammosum. Additional fruits consumed included Cecropia mexicana, Astrocaryum standleyanum, and Spondias mombin. Prey and other foods are detected primarily by smell, as its eyesight is relatively poor. Prey are captured after persistent chases; the Tayra does not stalk or ambush prey.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon. On occasion, some nocturnal activity may occur, especially near human habitations. Rest sites are in hollow trees or underground burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tayras spend a large proportion of their time foraging or resting in trees. They are normally solitary, but adult pairs and small groups, consisting of a female with her young, are sometimes seen. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, a female with two young maintained a home range of 2: 25 km* around a den until the pups were about three months old, after which her range expanded to almost 9 km*. Upon expansion of her home range and weaning of the young, the female used new dens daily that were an average of 867 mapart. In Belize, Tayras traveled an average of 6-89 kmper day. A female had a home range of 16-03 km* over a 13-month period, one malehad a home range of 24-44 km” over a 10-month period, and another male had a home range of only 2-11 km? over a 3-month period; the short duration of radio-tracking for the last animal may have accounted for the small size of the observed home range. The home ranges of all three animals overlapped greatly. In south-eastern Brazil, a female had a home range of 5- 3 km?; she did not show a preference for any particular habitat typewithin her home range, but her use of secondary forest and grassland agreed with previous studies.Breeding.In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Tayra is considered common throughout most ofits range. However, the range of E. b. senex has been greatly reduced in Mexicobecause of the destruction of tropical forests and the spread of agriculture. Remaining populations are small and threatened by habitat loss and hunting. The Tayra is a popular species for zoo exhibits and is frequently kept In captivity.Bibliography.Galef et al. (1976), Michalski et al. (2006), Poglayen-Neuwall (1975, 1978), Presley (2000), Ramirez-Pulido et al. (2005), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela barbara Linnaeus, 1758, “ Pernambuco”, Brazil.Seven subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Tayra @fr | Tayra @de | Taira @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Eira","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"627","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"barbara","name":"Eira barbara","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E. b. barbara Linnaeus, 1758— Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.E. b. inserta J. A. Allen, 1908— El Salvadorand Hondurasto Costa Rica.E. b. madeirensis Lonnberg, 1913— W Brazll, E Ecuador, and NE Peru.E. b. peruana Tschudi, 1844— Amazonian Boliviaand SE Peru.E. b. poliocephala Traill, 1821— the Guianas, E Venezuela, and lower Amazon Basin.E. b. senex Thomas, 1900— Mexicoto Guatemala.E. b. sinuensis Humboldt, 1812— Panamato Colombia, W Ecuador, W Venezuela, and Trinidad.","bibliography":"Galef et al. (1976) | Michalski et al. (2006) | Poglayen-Neuwall (1975, 1978) | Presley (2000) | Ramirez-Pulido et al. (2005) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes fruits, small vertebrates, insects, and carrion. In Venezuela, three species of vertebrate (Echimys semivillous, Rhipidomys sp., and Iguana iguana) and four species of fruit (Genipa americana, Zanthozylum culantrillo, Guazuma tomentosa, and Psychotria anceps) were recorded from 18 scats; both FE. semivillous and G. americana were found in 50% of the scats. In Belize, four species of small mammals were found in 31 scats: Didelphis marsupialis (9-6%), Oryzomys palustris (22-5%), Sigmodon hispidus (32:3%), and Rattus rattus (29-0%). In addition, 19-4% small birds, 58-0% arthropods, and 67-7% fruit were found. The primary fruit eaten was Calocarpum mammosum. Additional fruits consumed included Cecropia mexicana, Astrocaryum standleyanum, and Spondias mombin. Prey and other foods are detected primarily by smell, as its eyesight is relatively poor. Prey are captured after persistent chases; the Tayra does not stalk or ambush prey.","breeding":"In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.","activityPatterns":"Primarily diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon. On occasion, some nocturnal activity may occur, especially near human habitations. Rest sites are in hollow trees or underground burrows.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Tayras spend a large proportion of their time foraging or resting in trees. They are normally solitary, but adult pairs and small groups, consisting of a female with her young, are sometimes seen. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, a female with two young maintained a home range of 2: 25 km* around a den until the pups were about three months old, after which her range expanded to almost 9 km*. Upon expansion of her home range and weaning of the young, the female used new dens daily that were an average of 867 mapart. In Belize, Tayras traveled an average of 6-89 kmper day. A female had a home range of 16-03 km* over a 13-month period, one malehad a home range of 24-44 km” over a 10-month period, and another male had a home range of only 2-11 km? over a 3-month period; the short duration of radio-tracking for the last animal may have accounted for the small size of the observed home range. The home ranges of all three animals overlapped greatly. In south-eastern Brazil, a female had a home range of 5- 3 km?; she did not show a preference for any particular habitat typewithin her home range, but her use of secondary forest and grassland agreed with previous studies.Breeding.In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Tayra is considered common throughout most ofits range. However, the range of E. b. senex has been greatly reduced in Mexicobecause of the destruction of tropical forests and the spread of agriculture. Remaining populations are small and threatened by habitat loss and hunting. The Tayra is a popular species for zoo exhibits and is frequently kept In captivity.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55.9-71.2 cm, tail 36-5—- 46 cm; weight 2.7-7 kg, adult males are 30% larger than females. The Tayra is large and slender, with elongated limbs and a long brushy tail. The pelage is dark, but the head and neck are grayish or grizzled tan. In Guyana, a yellow morph also occurs. The feet have naked soles and strong claws. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3-4, M 1/1-2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are missing, although the upper first premolar is sometimes retained.","habitat":"Tayras are found in tropical and subtropical forests, including secondary rainforests, gallery forests, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. They sometimes occur in gardens, plantations, and in agricultural fields. Tayras may hunt in grasslands, although much of their time is spent in forested areas. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, Tayras are usually found along gallery forests; at night, they may cross extensive grasslands, presumably moving from one forest to another. In Veracruz, Mexico, Tayras generally are restricted to forested habitats. They are found in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil, in deciduous and scrub forest of the Pantanal in Paraguayand Bolivia, and in gallery and scrub forest and tall grass savannas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. In Belize, no significant habitat preference was found for the Tayra."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"628","verbatimText":"9.American MartenMartes americanaFrench:Martre d’Amérique/ German:Fichtenmarder/ Spanish:Marta norteamericanaTaxonomy.Mustela americanus Turton, 1806, North America.The number of subspecies is debated and here we recognize eight.Subspecies and Distribution.M. a. americana Turton, 1806— E Canada(Ontario& Quebec) anf NE USA.M. a. abietinoides Gray, 1865— SW Canada(C British Columbia& SW Alberta) and NW USA(N Montana& Idaho).M. a. actuosa Osgood, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(N Alberta, N British Catan, Northwest Territories& Yukon).M. a. atrata Bangs, 1897— NE Canada(Newfoundland and Labrador).M. a. caurina Merriam, 1890— W Canada(W British Columbia) and USA(S Alaska& W Washington).M. a. humboldtensis Grinnell & Dixon, 1926— SW USA(NWCalifornia).M. a. kenaiensis Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).M. a. nesophila Osgood, 1901— SW Alaska and W Canada(islands off British Columbia, and perhaps along nearby mainland).Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-45 cm(males), 32-40 cm(females), tail 20-23 cm(males), 18-20 cm(females); weight 470-1250 g(males), 280-850 g(females), adult males are about 65% heavier than females. The American Marten has a long, slender body, with short limbs, bushy tail, and large rounded ears. The pelage ranges from light beige to dark brown, and often shows shades of orange. Many individuals have yellow to bright orange throat and upper chest patches. The head is pale gray and the legs and tail are almost black. The feet are fully furred, each digit has a strong claw. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, with elongated auditory bullae. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 1/2 = 38.Habitat.American Martens are found predominantly in mature conifer or coniferdominated mixed forests. Preferred habitats are mature old-growth spruce-fir communities, with greater than 30% canopy cover, a well-established understory of fallen logs and stumps, and lush shrub and forb vegetation. They avoid large open spaces such as clearcuttings, but may use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges, and rocky alpine areas above the timberline. In the coastal forests of California, American Martens select the largest available patches of old-growth, old-growth and late-mature, or serpentine habitat; dense, spatially extensive shrub cover is a key habitat element. In Alberta, during the winter, American Martens use young forests, and mature/old coniferous and deciduous stands, according to their availability. In the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains of south-west Canada, American Martens were detected in all habitats sampled including recently logged areas, regenerating stands, dry Douglas-fir (Pseudosuga menziesii) forest and subalpine parkland. They selected for greater crown closure and older stands at the finer resolution; no selection for forest structure was detected at the larger resolution except that American Martens selected against increased overstory heterogeneity. They preferred coniferous stands over deciduous-dominated stands and were more abundant in wetter than in dryer areas. In a clearcut boreal landscape in western Quebec, in which black spruce (Picea mariana) is the predominant forest type, American Martens avoid open regenerating stands composed mostly of recent clearcuts with sparse regeneration. They do not select coniferous stands, even those that are mature or overmature, but prefer deciduous and mixed stands, a large proportion of which has a dense coniferous shrub layer. Winter home ranges usually contain less than 30-35% open or closed regenerating stands and more than 40-50% uncut forest. In south-eastern Labrador, American Martens avoid areas with low productivity and low canopy cover (<20%), but show no selection for tree species composition or cover among more productive forests. In eastern Newfoundland, mature coniferous forest is the dominant cover typein most American Marten home ranges and is the only forest typeused proportionately more than its availability by resident individuals. Otherforest typesused in proportion to their availability include coniferous scrub and insect-defoliated stands; open areas and sites recently disturbed by fire are avoided at this scale. In northern Maine, in an area where trapping and timber harvesting had been excluded for more than 35 years, American Martens were found to use nearly all the available habitat, although during the summer, they preferred stands that had substantial mortality caused by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). Mature, well-stocked coniferous forest was the least abundant forest typein the home ranges of both sexes, in both seasons, whereas mature, well-stocked deciduous forest was the most abundant.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals, including voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels (7amiasciurus and Glaucomys sp.), and lagomorphs, especially the Snowshoe Hare. Other food items include birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, earthworms), fruits, and berries. In Newfoundland, Meadow Voles were the most prevalent food item found in scats (80% in summer and 47-5% in winter); Snowshoe Hares occurred in 28% of winter samples, and 16% other food typeswere found in scats during each season. In the mixed-conifer forests of southern Sierra Nevada, where the American Marten and Fisher are sympatric, the diet of Fishers appeared to include more remains of birds, lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens. However, the dietary overlap between these two species was high. The diets of both species were more diverse than previously reported in North America, perhaps due to the absence or rarity of large prey (Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevada. American Martens hunt and find food by constant searching, sometimes in trees, and often tunnel under snow during winter to search for microtines.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, but can be active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs ortrees, in rock crevices, or in burrows. Large logs, large snags, and large, live spruce and fir trees are important characteristics for den sites in the central Rocky Mountains. Squirrels provide important denning structures as well as prey for American Martens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Martens are solitary and partly arboreal, but spend a considerable amount of time on the ground. They can also swim and dive well. The home ranges of males are 2-3 times larger than those of females: up to 45 km” for males (overall average c. 9 km?) and up to 28 km? for females (overall average c. 3 km?). The degree of overlap of home ranges varies, but generally male home ranges overlap those of several females, and individuals are intolerant of conspecifics of the same sex. In Minnesota, the home ranges of three maleswere 10-5, 16-6 and 19- 9 km?, and 4- 3 km? for one female; there was considerable overlap between the ranges of two of the males. In Wisconsin, mean winter home range size was 3-29 km?, with the home ranges of males (mean = 4-25 km?) significantly larger than females (mean = 2-32 km?). In Newfoundland, home range estimates were 29-54 km? for males and 15-19 km?* for females. In Labrador, the mean home range for males was 45 km* and 27- 6 km” for females. In a forest preserve that was closed to trapping, the proportion of males maintaining residency throughout the study period was found to be higher than that of females, indicating that the home ranges of females were more dynamic than the home ranges of males. Neither males nor females adjusted the size of their home ranges among seasons; however, males tended to shift location of their home ranges in response to increases in available space. Females either maintained a high degree of fidelity among seasons or completely abandoned previously established home ranges. Abandonment of existing home ranges by some females may have resulted from stresses associated with a high density in an untrapped population. Population densities vary from 0-5 to 1-7 per km?Breeding.Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Martens are considered common in some parts of their range, and are legally harvested for the fur trade. However, by the early 20\" century, excessive trapping had severely depleted the American Marten in many areas, particularly in Alaska, Canada, and western United States. Protective regulations subsequently allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas and reintroduction programs have been carried out in Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of north-eastern USAand south-eastern Canada.Current low numbers or absences in some areas seem attributable to forestry practices; this species is very sensitive to habitat destruction, and clear-cutting can completely eliminate American Martens from an area. The availability of hollow trees for use as resting sites and natal densis especially critical, and logging procedures that eliminate old stumps or older trees may be detrimental to American Marten populations.Bibliography.Buskirk (1984), Buskirk & MacDonald (1984), Clark et al. (1987), Dumyahn & Zollner (2007), Gosse & Hearn (2005), Hagmeier (1961), Mowat (2006), Poole& Graf (1996), Potvin et al. (2000), Powell et al. (2003), Proulx (2006), Raine (1983), Ruggiero et al. (1998), Simon et al. (1999), Slauson et al. (2007), Smith & Schaefer (2002), Soutiere (1979), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela americanus Turton, 1806, North America.The number of subspecies is debated and here we recognize eight.","commonNames":"Martre d’Amérique @fr | Fichtenmarder @de | Marta norteamericana @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Turton","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1806","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"628","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"americana","name":"Martes americana","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. a. americana Turton, 1806— E Canada(Ontario& Quebec) anf NE USA.M. a. abietinoides Gray, 1865— SW Canada(C British Columbia& SW Alberta) and NW USA(N Montana& Idaho).M. a. actuosa Osgood, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(N Alberta, N British Catan, Northwest Territories& Yukon).M. a. atrata Bangs, 1897— NE Canada(Newfoundland and Labrador).M. a. caurina Merriam, 1890— W Canada(W British Columbia) and USA(S Alaska& W Washington).M. a. humboldtensis Grinnell & Dixon, 1926— SW USA(NWCalifornia).M. a. kenaiensis Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).M. a. nesophila Osgood, 1901— SW Alaska and W Canada(islands off British Columbia, and perhaps along nearby mainland).","bibliography":"Buskirk (1984) | Buskirk & MacDonald (1984) | Clark et al. (1987) | Dumyahn & Zollner (2007) | Gosse & Hearn (2005) | Hagmeier (1961) | Mowat (2006) | Poole& Graf (1996) | Potvin et al. (2000) | Powell et al. (2003) | Proulx (2006) | Raine (1983) | Ruggiero et al. (1998) | Simon et al. (1999) | Slauson et al. (2007) | Smith & Schaefer (2002) | Soutiere (1979) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals, including voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels (7amiasciurus and Glaucomys sp.), and lagomorphs, especially the Snowshoe Hare. Other food items include birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, earthworms), fruits, and berries. In Newfoundland, Meadow Voles were the most prevalent food item found in scats (80% in summer and 47-5% in winter); Snowshoe Hares occurred in 28% of winter samples, and 16% other food typeswere found in scats during each season. In the mixed-conifer forests of southern Sierra Nevada, where the American Marten and Fisher are sympatric, the diet of Fishers appeared to include more remains of birds, lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens. However, the dietary overlap between these two species was high. The diets of both species were more diverse than previously reported in North America, perhaps due to the absence or rarity of large prey (Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevada. American Martens hunt and find food by constant searching, sometimes in trees, and often tunnel under snow during winter to search for microtines.","breeding":"Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, but can be active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs ortrees, in rock crevices, or in burrows. Large logs, large snags, and large, live spruce and fir trees are important characteristics for den sites in the central Rocky Mountains. Squirrels provide important denning structures as well as prey for American Martens.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"American Martens are solitary and partly arboreal, but spend a considerable amount of time on the ground. They can also swim and dive well. The home ranges of males are 2-3 times larger than those of females: up to 45 km” for males (overall average c. 9 km?) and up to 28 km? for females (overall average c. 3 km?). The degree of overlap of home ranges varies, but generally male home ranges overlap those of several females, and individuals are intolerant of conspecifics of the same sex. In Minnesota, the home ranges of three maleswere 10-5, 16-6 and 19- 9 km?, and 4- 3 km? for one female; there was considerable overlap between the ranges of two of the males. In Wisconsin, mean winter home range size was 3-29 km?, with the home ranges of males (mean = 4-25 km?) significantly larger than females (mean = 2-32 km?). In Newfoundland, home range estimates were 29-54 km? for males and 15-19 km?* for females. In Labrador, the mean home range for males was 45 km* and 27- 6 km” for females. In a forest preserve that was closed to trapping, the proportion of males maintaining residency throughout the study period was found to be higher than that of females, indicating that the home ranges of females were more dynamic than the home ranges of males. Neither males nor females adjusted the size of their home ranges among seasons; however, males tended to shift location of their home ranges in response to increases in available space. Females either maintained a high degree of fidelity among seasons or completely abandoned previously established home ranges. Abandonment of existing home ranges by some females may have resulted from stresses associated with a high density in an untrapped population. Population densities vary from 0-5 to 1-7 per km?Breeding.Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Martens are considered common in some parts of their range, and are legally harvested for the fur trade. However, by the early 20\" century, excessive trapping had severely depleted the American Marten in many areas, particularly in Alaska, Canada, and western United States. Protective regulations subsequently allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas and reintroduction programs have been carried out in Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of north-eastern USAand south-eastern Canada.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 36-45 cm(males), 32-40 cm(females), tail 20-23 cm(males), 18-20 cm(females); weight 470-1250 g(males), 280-850 g(females), adult males are about 65% heavier than females. The American Marten has a long, slender body, with short limbs, bushy tail, and large rounded ears. The pelage ranges from light beige to dark brown, and often shows shades of orange. Many individuals have yellow to bright orange throat and upper chest patches. The head is pale gray and the legs and tail are almost black. The feet are fully furred, each digit has a strong claw. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, with elongated auditory bullae. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 1/2 = 38.","habitat":"American Martens are found predominantly in mature conifer or coniferdominated mixed forests. Preferred habitats are mature old-growth spruce-fir communities, with greater than 30% canopy cover, a well-established understory of fallen logs and stumps, and lush shrub and forb vegetation. They avoid large open spaces such as clearcuttings, but may use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges, and rocky alpine areas above the timberline. In the coastal forests of California, American Martens select the largest available patches of old-growth, old-growth and late-mature, or serpentine habitat; dense, spatially extensive shrub cover is a key habitat element. In Alberta, during the winter, American Martens use young forests, and mature/old coniferous and deciduous stands, according to their availability. In the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains of south-west Canada, American Martens were detected in all habitats sampled including recently logged areas, regenerating stands, dry Douglas-fir (Pseudosuga menziesii) forest and subalpine parkland. They selected for greater crown closure and older stands at the finer resolution; no selection for forest structure was detected at the larger resolution except that American Martens selected against increased overstory heterogeneity. They preferred coniferous stands over deciduous-dominated stands and were more abundant in wetter than in dryer areas. In a clearcut boreal landscape in western Quebec, in which black spruce (Picea mariana) is the predominant forest type, American Martens avoid open regenerating stands composed mostly of recent clearcuts with sparse regeneration. They do not select coniferous stands, even those that are mature or overmature, but prefer deciduous and mixed stands, a large proportion of which has a dense coniferous shrub layer. Winter home ranges usually contain less than 30-35% open or closed regenerating stands and more than 40-50% uncut forest. In south-eastern Labrador, American Martens avoid areas with low productivity and low canopy cover (<20%), but show no selection for tree species composition or cover among more productive forests. In eastern Newfoundland, mature coniferous forest is the dominant cover typein most American Marten home ranges and is the only forest typeused proportionately more than its availability by resident individuals. Otherforest typesused in proportion to their availability include coniferous scrub and insect-defoliated stands; open areas and sites recently disturbed by fire are avoided at this scale. In northern Maine, in an area where trapping and timber harvesting had been excluded for more than 35 years, American Martens were found to use nearly all the available habitat, although during the summer, they preferred stands that had substantial mortality caused by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). Mature, well-stocked coniferous forest was the least abundant forest typein the home ranges of both sexes, in both seasons, whereas mature, well-stocked deciduous forest was the most abundant."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"623","verbatimText":"5.Asian BadgerMeles leucurusFrench:Blaireau d'Asie/ German:Asiatischer Dachs/ Spanish:Tejon asiaticoTaxonomy.Taxidea leucurus Hodgson, 1847, China.The Asian Badger has been considered conspecific with the European Badger by some authors, but is listed here as a distinct species. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M..l. leucurus Hodgson, 1847— C, E & S China..M. l. amurensis Schrenck, 1859— NE China(Manchuria), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Russia(E of Volga River).Descriptive notes.Head-body 49.5-70 cm, tail 13-20.5 cm; weight 3.5-9 kg. The Asian Badger bears a great resemblance to the European Badger. The bodyis stocky, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish-silver throughout. The face is white with two narrow blackish-brown stripes running over the eye and above the ear. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. The soles ofthe feet are naked. The front claws are well-developed for digging, whereas the hindclaws are much smaller. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is narrow with an elongated rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Forests and fields, and in close proximity to humans.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly invertebrates (earthworms and insects), small mammals, and plant material.Activity patterns.Nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Asian Badgers are gregarious and live in communalsetts with multiple tunnels and den entrances.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Although the European Badger has been well studied in Europe, little is known specifically about the Asian Badger, although it is presumed that there are few differences in basic natural history between these two species. Field studies are needed to learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Asian Badger. This speciesis legally hunted in China, Russia, and Mongolia.Bibliography.Abramov & Puzachenko (2006), Neal & Cheeseman (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Taxidea leucurus Hodgson, 1847, China.The Asian Badger has been considered conspecific with the European Badger by some authors, but is listed here as a distinct species. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Blaireau d'Asie @fr | Asiatischer Dachs @de | Tejon asiatico @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Brisson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1762","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1847","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Meles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"623","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucurus","name":"Meles leucurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M..l. leucurus Hodgson, 1847— C, E & S China..M. l. amurensis Schrenck, 1859— NE China(Manchuria), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Russia(E of Volga River).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714141/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abramov & Puzachenko (2006) | Neal & Cheeseman (1996) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly invertebrates (earthworms and insects), small mammals, and plant material.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Asian Badgers are gregarious and live in communalsetts with multiple tunnels and den entrances.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Although the European Badger has been well studied in Europe, little is known specifically about the Asian Badger, although it is presumed that there are few differences in basic natural history between these two species. Field studies are needed to learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Asian Badger. This speciesis legally hunted in China, Russia, and Mongolia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 49.5-70 cm, tail 13-20.5 cm; weight 3.5-9 kg. The Asian Badger bears a great resemblance to the European Badger. The bodyis stocky, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish-silver throughout. The face is white with two narrow blackish-brown stripes running over the eye and above the ear. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. The soles ofthe feet are naked. The front claws are well-developed for digging, whereas the hindclaws are much smaller. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is narrow with an elongated rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","habitat":"Forests and fields, and in close proximity to humans."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"627","verbatimText":"8.WolverineGulo guloFrench:Carcajou/ German:Vielfrafls/ Spanish:GlotonTaxonomy.Mustela gulo Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.G. g. gulo Linnaeus, 1758— NE & NW China, Mongolia, Russia, and Scandinavia.G. g. luscus Linnaeus, 1758— Canadaand W USA(Alaska, California, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington& Wyoming).Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-105 cm, tail 21-26 cm; weight 11-18 kg(males), 6-12 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Wolverine is heavily built and stocky, and is the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae. The pelage is long and varies in color from almost blond to dark brown, with two distinctive yellowish stripes that run from the top of the neck to the rump. White patches on the throat, belly or limbs are common. The head is large, with a broad forehead, broad nose, and rounded ears. The limbs are relatively short and the tail is bushy. The feet are large, with well-developed claws. The skull is exceptionally robust and broad, with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are big and strong; the carnassials are very large.Habitat.Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas. Habitat associations of females were more complex, but in the summer they avoided roads and recently logged areas. In the Columbia Mountains, where winter recreation is widespread, females prefer alpine and avalanche environments where Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) and Columbia Ground Squirrel prey are found in the summer. During the winter, females tend to avoid areas with helicopter and backcountry skiing, and prefer areas where Moose (Alces alces) can be found.On following pages: 9. American Marten (Martesamericana); 10. Yellow-throated Marten (Martesflavigula); 11. Stone 14. Japanese Marten (Martesmelampus); 15. Fisher (Martespennant); 16. Sable (Martes zibellina).Marten (Martesfoina); 12. Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii); 13. European Pine Marten (Martes martes);Food and Feeding.The diet includes the carcasses of large ungulates, such as Moose and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In many areas, Wolverines are dependent on the ability of larger predators, especially Gray Wolves, to provide kills. In coastal areas, they also feed on the carcasses of whales and seals that wash ashore. Wolverines also prey opportunistically on deer, sheep, small mammals (rodents such as Marmota and Myodes, lagomorphs, and ground squirrels), birds, and eggs. Berries, nuts and fungus are occasionally eaten. Within two study areas in British Columbia, scat analysis revealed a diet that varied regionally and seasonally: Moose, Reindeer, and Hoary Marmots were abundant and common prey items within both study areas. Mountain Goats (Oreamnos americanus) and North American Porcupine (Erithizon dorsata) were more frequent prey items in the Columbia Mountains, while Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) and American Beaver (Castor canadensis) were more frequent prey items in the Omineca Mountains. Reindeer, Hoary Marmots, and North American Porcupines were found in significantly higher frequencies in the diet of reproductive females. Predation on ungulates (such as Reindeer)is facilitated when there is deep snow. Wolverines kill larger prey by a bite at the neck or throat. Small rodents may be chased, pounced upon, or dug out of the ground. Excess food is cached for later use and is covered with earth or snow, or sometimes wedged in the forks of trees. In Albertaand British Columbia, cache sites were in stands of black spruce (Picea mariana) or mixed-wood of high complexity, dominated by conifers, and in which the trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) component consisted of mostly dead or dying trees. These sites offered relatively good visibility of the surrounding area; caches were never located in the very dense homogenous spruce stands. Cache sites were classified as “simple caches”, composed of a single feeding site and/or excavation, and “cache complexes”, involving one or more feeding “stations”, latrines, resting sites, and climbing trees that may have been used as avenues of escape from competitors or predators. The better used cache complexes were accessed by numerous well-used trails made by the Wolverines themselves. Caches contained the remains of Moose that were believed to have been killed by Wolves.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but occasionally active during the day. Rest sites may be a rough bed of grass or leaves in a cave or rock crevice, in a burrow made by another animal, or under a fallen tree. In Albertaand British Columbia, resting sites were located on top of the snow in relatively open locations that offered good visibility of the surroundings. Wolverines do not appear to be hindered by deep snow and are active year round.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Wolverines are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also strong swimmers and agile tree climbers. Their scavenging habits dictate covering long distances. Daily movements in excess of 30 kmare common; males travel more widely than females. They are capable of reaching speeds of 45 km/h. In north-western Alaska, the home ranges of males were 488-917 km* and 53-232 km? for females. In south-central Alaska, home ranges averaged 535 km” for males and 105 km? for females. In Yukon, home ranges were 209-269 km* for males and 76-269 km? for females. The home range of each male overlaps three or four females. However, in Montana, there was extensive overlap between the ranges of both the same and opposite sexes, and no territorial defense was observed. Population densities vary from one animal per 50 km? in Siberia to one per 500 km* in Scandinavia. North American densities vary from one per 65 km? to one per 200 km.Breeding.Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed Listt. Wolverines are harvested for their pelt; although their fur is not used widely in commerce it is valued for parkas. Fur trapping has contributed to a decline in numbers and distribution of the Wolverine. Wolverines are also intensely hunted because they are considered a nuisance animal: they follow traplines and devour trapped furbearers, they break into cabins and food caches, they allegedly prey on domestic reindeer, and they attack sheep. Protection and recovery measures are needed to restore populations acrossits previously known range.Bibliography.Aubry et al. (2007), Banci & Harestad (1988), Copeland & Whitman (2003), Copeland et al. (2007), Hedmarket al. (2007), Hornocker & Hash (1981), Krebs et al. (2007), Krott (1960), Landa, Linden & Kojola (2000), Landa, Strand, Linnell & Skogland (1998), Landa, Strand, Swenson & Skogland (1997), Lofroth et al. (2007), Magoun & Copeland (1998), Mead et al. (1991), Pasitschniak-Arts & Lariviere (1995), Stroganov (1969), Whitman et al. (1986), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Wright & Ernst (2004a, 2004b).","taxonomy":"Mustela gulo Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland.Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Carcajou @fr | Vielfrafls @de | Gloton @es","interpretedAuthority":"gulo","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Gulo","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"627","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gulo","name":"Gulo gulo","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G. g. gulo Linnaeus, 1758— NE & NW China, Mongolia, Russia, and Scandinavia.G. g. luscus Linnaeus, 1758— Canadaand W USA(Alaska, California, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington& Wyoming).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714151/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aubry et al. (2007) | Banci & Harestad (1988) | Copeland & Whitman (2003) | Copeland et al. (2007) | Hedmarket al. (2007) | Hornocker & Hash (1981) | Krebs et al. (2007) | Krott (1960) | Landa, Linden & Kojola (2000) | Landa, Strand, Linnell & Skogland (1998) | Landa, Strand, Swenson & Skogland (1997) | Lofroth et al. (2007) | Magoun & Copeland (1998) | Mead et al. (1991) | Pasitschniak-Arts & Lariviere (1995) | Stroganov (1969) | Whitman et al. (1986) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Wright & Ernst (2004a, 2004b)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes the carcasses of large ungulates, such as Moose and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In many areas, Wolverines are dependent on the ability of larger predators, especially Gray Wolves, to provide kills. In coastal areas, they also feed on the carcasses of whales and seals that wash ashore. Wolverines also prey opportunistically on deer, sheep, small mammals (rodents such as Marmota and Myodes, lagomorphs, and ground squirrels), birds, and eggs. Berries, nuts and fungus are occasionally eaten. Within two study areas in British Columbia, scat analysis revealed a diet that varied regionally and seasonally: Moose, Reindeer, and Hoary Marmots were abundant and common prey items within both study areas. Mountain Goats (Oreamnos americanus) and North American Porcupine (Erithizon dorsata) were more frequent prey items in the Columbia Mountains, while Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) and American Beaver (Castor canadensis) were more frequent prey items in the Omineca Mountains. Reindeer, Hoary Marmots, and North American Porcupines were found in significantly higher frequencies in the diet of reproductive females. Predation on ungulates (such as Reindeer)is facilitated when there is deep snow. Wolverines kill larger prey by a bite at the neck or throat. Small rodents may be chased, pounced upon, or dug out of the ground. Excess food is cached for later use and is covered with earth or snow, or sometimes wedged in the forks of trees. In Albertaand British Columbia, cache sites were in stands of black spruce (Picea mariana) or mixed-wood of high complexity, dominated by conifers, and in which the trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) component consisted of mostly dead or dying trees. These sites offered relatively good visibility of the surrounding area; caches were never located in the very dense homogenous spruce stands. Cache sites were classified as “simple caches”, composed of a single feeding site and/or excavation, and “cache complexes”, involving one or more feeding “stations”, latrines, resting sites, and climbing trees that may have been used as avenues of escape from competitors or predators. The better used cache complexes were accessed by numerous well-used trails made by the Wolverines themselves. Caches contained the remains of Moose that were believed to have been killed by Wolves.","breeding":"Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, but occasionally active during the day. Rest sites may be a rough bed of grass or leaves in a cave or rock crevice, in a burrow made by another animal, or under a fallen tree. In Albertaand British Columbia, resting sites were located on top of the snow in relatively open locations that offered good visibility of the surroundings. Wolverines do not appear to be hindered by deep snow and are active year round.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Wolverines are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also strong swimmers and agile tree climbers. Their scavenging habits dictate covering long distances. Daily movements in excess of 30 kmare common; males travel more widely than females. They are capable of reaching speeds of 45 km/h. In north-western Alaska, the home ranges of males were 488-917 km* and 53-232 km? for females. In south-central Alaska, home ranges averaged 535 km” for males and 105 km? for females. In Yukon, home ranges were 209-269 km* for males and 76-269 km? for females. The home range of each male overlaps three or four females. However, in Montana, there was extensive overlap between the ranges of both the same and opposite sexes, and no territorial defense was observed. Population densities vary from one animal per 50 km? in Siberia to one per 500 km* in Scandinavia. North American densities vary from one per 65 km? to one per 200 km.Breeding.Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one femalein a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaskaare usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 mof snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 gat birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCNRed Listt. Wolverines are harvested for their pelt; although their fur is not used widely in commerce it is valued for parkas. Fur trapping has contributed to a decline in numbers and distribution of the Wolverine. Wolverines are also intensely hunted because they are considered a nuisance animal: they follow traplines and devour trapped furbearers, they break into cabins and food caches, they allegedly prey on domestic reindeer, and they attack sheep. Protection and recovery measures are needed to restore populations acrossits previously known range.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 65-105 cm, tail 21-26 cm; weight 11-18 kg(males), 6-12 kg(females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Wolverine is heavily built and stocky, and is the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae. The pelage is long and varies in color from almost blond to dark brown, with two distinctive yellowish stripes that run from the top of the neck to the rump. White patches on the throat, belly or limbs are common. The head is large, with a broad forehead, broad nose, and rounded ears. The limbs are relatively short and the tail is bushy. The feet are large, with well-developed claws. The skull is exceptionally robust and broad, with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are big and strong; the carnassials are very large.Habitat.Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas.","habitat":"Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover typesfrom whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas. Habitat associations of females were more complex, but in the summer they avoided roads and recently logged areas. In the Columbia Mountains, where winter recreation is widespread, females prefer alpine and avalanche environments where Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) and Columbia Ground Squirrel prey are found in the summer. During the winter, females tend to avoid areas with helicopter and backcountry skiing, and prefer areas where Moose (Alces alces) can be found."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"627","verbatimText":"7.TayraEira barbaraFrench:Tayra/ German:Tayra/ Spanish:TairaTaxonomy.Mustela barbara Linnaeus, 1758, “ Pernambuco”, Brazil.Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. b. barbara Linnaeus, 1758— Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.E. b. inserta J. A. Allen, 1908— El Salvadorand Hondurasto Costa Rica.E. b. madeirensis Lonnberg, 1913— W Brazll, E Ecuador, and NE Peru.E. b. peruana Tschudi, 1844— Amazonian Boliviaand SE Peru.E. b. poliocephala Traill, 1821— the Guianas, E Venezuela, and lower Amazon Basin.E. b. senex Thomas, 1900— Mexicoto Guatemala.E. b. sinuensis Humboldt, 1812— Panamato Colombia, W Ecuador, W Venezuela, and Trinidad.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55.9-71.2 cm, tail 36-5—- 46 cm; weight 2.7-7 kg, adult males are 30% larger than females. The Tayra is large and slender, with elongated limbs and a long brushy tail. The pelage is dark, but the head and neck are grayish or grizzled tan. In Guyana, a yellow morph also occurs. The feet have naked soles and strong claws. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3-4, M 1/1-2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are missing, although the upper first premolar is sometimes retained.Habitat.Tayras are found in tropical and subtropical forests, including secondary rainforests, gallery forests, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. They sometimes occur in gardens, plantations, and in agricultural fields. Tayras may hunt in grasslands, although much of their time is spent in forested areas. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, Tayras are usually found along gallery forests; at night, they may cross extensive grasslands, presumably moving from one forest to another. In Veracruz, Mexico, Tayras generally are restricted to forested habitats. They are found in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil, in deciduous and scrub forest of the Pantanal in Paraguayand Bolivia, and in gallery and scrub forest and tall grass savannas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. In Belize, no significant habitat preference was found for the Tayra.Food and Feeding.The diet includes fruits, small vertebrates, insects, and carrion. In Venezuela, three species of vertebrate (Echimys semivillous, Rhipidomys sp., and Iguana iguana) and four species of fruit (Genipa americana, Zanthozylum culantrillo, Guazuma tomentosa, and Psychotria anceps) were recorded from 18 scats; both FE. semivillous and G. americana were found in 50% of the scats. In Belize, four species of small mammals were found in 31 scats: Didelphis marsupialis (9-6%), Oryzomys palustris (22-5%), Sigmodon hispidus (32:3%), and Rattus rattus (29-0%). In addition, 19-4% small birds, 58-0% arthropods, and 67-7% fruit were found. The primary fruit eaten was Calocarpum mammosum. Additional fruits consumed included Cecropia mexicana, Astrocaryum standleyanum, and Spondias mombin. Prey and other foods are detected primarily by smell, as its eyesight is relatively poor. Prey are captured after persistent chases; the Tayra does not stalk or ambush prey.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon. On occasion, some nocturnal activity may occur, especially near human habitations. Rest sites are in hollow trees or underground burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tayras spend a large proportion of their time foraging or resting in trees. They are normally solitary, but adult pairs and small groups, consisting of a female with her young, are sometimes seen. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, a female with two young maintained a home range of 2: 25 km* around a den until the pups were about three months old, after which her range expanded to almost 9 km*. Upon expansion of her home range and weaning of the young, the female used new dens daily that were an average of 867 mapart. In Belize, Tayras traveled an average of 6-89 kmper day. A female had a home range of 16-03 km* over a 13-month period, one malehad a home range of 24-44 km” over a 10-month period, and another male had a home range of only 2-11 km? over a 3-month period; the short duration of radio-tracking for the last animal may have accounted for the small size of the observed home range. The home ranges of all three animals overlapped greatly. In south-eastern Brazil, a female had a home range of 5- 3 km?; she did not show a preference for any particular habitat typewithin her home range, but her use of secondary forest and grassland agreed with previous studies.Breeding.In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Tayra is considered common throughout most ofits range. However, the range of E. b. senex has been greatly reduced in Mexicobecause of the destruction of tropical forests and the spread of agriculture. Remaining populations are small and threatened by habitat loss and hunting. The Tayra is a popular species for zoo exhibits and is frequently kept In captivity.Bibliography.Galef et al. (1976), Michalski et al. (2006), Poglayen-Neuwall (1975, 1978), Presley (2000), Ramirez-Pulido et al. (2005), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela barbara Linnaeus, 1758, “ Pernambuco”, Brazil.Seven subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Tayra @fr | Tayra @de | Taira @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Eira","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"627","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"barbara","name":"Eira barbara","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E. b. barbara Linnaeus, 1758— Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.E. b. inserta J. A. Allen, 1908— El Salvadorand Hondurasto Costa Rica.E. b. madeirensis Lonnberg, 1913— W Brazll, E Ecuador, and NE Peru.E. b. peruana Tschudi, 1844— Amazonian Boliviaand SE Peru.E. b. poliocephala Traill, 1821— the Guianas, E Venezuela, and lower Amazon Basin.E. b. senex Thomas, 1900— Mexicoto Guatemala.E. b. sinuensis Humboldt, 1812— Panamato Colombia, W Ecuador, W Venezuela, and Trinidad.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714147/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Galef et al. (1976) | Michalski et al. (2006) | Poglayen-Neuwall (1975, 1978) | Presley (2000) | Ramirez-Pulido et al. (2005) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes fruits, small vertebrates, insects, and carrion. In Venezuela, three species of vertebrate (Echimys semivillous, Rhipidomys sp., and Iguana iguana) and four species of fruit (Genipa americana, Zanthozylum culantrillo, Guazuma tomentosa, and Psychotria anceps) were recorded from 18 scats; both FE. semivillous and G. americana were found in 50% of the scats. In Belize, four species of small mammals were found in 31 scats: Didelphis marsupialis (9-6%), Oryzomys palustris (22-5%), Sigmodon hispidus (32:3%), and Rattus rattus (29-0%). In addition, 19-4% small birds, 58-0% arthropods, and 67-7% fruit were found. The primary fruit eaten was Calocarpum mammosum. Additional fruits consumed included Cecropia mexicana, Astrocaryum standleyanum, and Spondias mombin. Prey and other foods are detected primarily by smell, as its eyesight is relatively poor. Prey are captured after persistent chases; the Tayra does not stalk or ambush prey.","breeding":"In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.","activityPatterns":"Primarily diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon. On occasion, some nocturnal activity may occur, especially near human habitations. Rest sites are in hollow trees or underground burrows.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Tayras spend a large proportion of their time foraging or resting in trees. They are normally solitary, but adult pairs and small groups, consisting of a female with her young, are sometimes seen. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, a female with two young maintained a home range of 2: 25 km* around a den until the pups were about three months old, after which her range expanded to almost 9 km*. Upon expansion of her home range and weaning of the young, the female used new dens daily that were an average of 867 mapart. In Belize, Tayras traveled an average of 6-89 kmper day. A female had a home range of 16-03 km* over a 13-month period, one malehad a home range of 24-44 km” over a 10-month period, and another male had a home range of only 2-11 km? over a 3-month period; the short duration of radio-tracking for the last animal may have accounted for the small size of the observed home range. The home ranges of all three animals overlapped greatly. In south-eastern Brazil, a female had a home range of 5- 3 km?; she did not show a preference for any particular habitat typewithin her home range, but her use of secondary forest and grassland agreed with previous studies.Breeding.In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two malesand one femalemay have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Tayra is considered common throughout most ofits range. However, the range of E. b. senex has been greatly reduced in Mexicobecause of the destruction of tropical forests and the spread of agriculture. Remaining populations are small and threatened by habitat loss and hunting. The Tayra is a popular species for zoo exhibits and is frequently kept In captivity.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55.9-71.2 cm, tail 36-5—- 46 cm; weight 2.7-7 kg, adult males are 30% larger than females. The Tayra is large and slender, with elongated limbs and a long brushy tail. The pelage is dark, but the head and neck are grayish or grizzled tan. In Guyana, a yellow morph also occurs. The feet have naked soles and strong claws. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3-4, M 1/1-2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are missing, although the upper first premolar is sometimes retained.","habitat":"Tayras are found in tropical and subtropical forests, including secondary rainforests, gallery forests, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. They sometimes occur in gardens, plantations, and in agricultural fields. Tayras may hunt in grasslands, although much of their time is spent in forested areas. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, Tayras are usually found along gallery forests; at night, they may cross extensive grasslands, presumably moving from one forest to another. In Veracruz, Mexico, Tayras generally are restricted to forested habitats. They are found in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil, in deciduous and scrub forest of the Pantanal in Paraguayand Bolivia, and in gallery and scrub forest and tall grass savannas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. In Belize, no significant habitat preference was found for the Tayra."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"628","verbatimText":"9.American MartenMartes americanaFrench:Martre d’Amérique/ German:Fichtenmarder/ Spanish:Marta norteamericanaTaxonomy.Mustela americanus Turton, 1806, North America.The number of subspecies is debated and here we recognize eight.Subspecies and Distribution.M. a. americana Turton, 1806— E Canada(Ontario& Quebec) anf NE USA.M. a. abietinoides Gray, 1865— SW Canada(C British Columbia& SW Alberta) and NW USA(N Montana& Idaho).M. a. actuosa Osgood, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(N Alberta, N British Catan, Northwest Territories& Yukon).M. a. atrata Bangs, 1897— NE Canada(Newfoundland and Labrador).M. a. caurina Merriam, 1890— W Canada(W British Columbia) and USA(S Alaska& W Washington).M. a. humboldtensis Grinnell & Dixon, 1926— SW USA(NWCalifornia).M. a. kenaiensis Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).M. a. nesophila Osgood, 1901— SW Alaska and W Canada(islands off British Columbia, and perhaps along nearby mainland).Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-45 cm(males), 32-40 cm(females), tail 20-23 cm(males), 18-20 cm(females); weight 470-1250 g(males), 280-850 g(females), adult males are about 65% heavier than females. The American Marten has a long, slender body, with short limbs, bushy tail, and large rounded ears. The pelage ranges from light beige to dark brown, and often shows shades of orange. Many individuals have yellow to bright orange throat and upper chest patches. The head is pale gray and the legs and tail are almost black. The feet are fully furred, each digit has a strong claw. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, with elongated auditory bullae. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 1/2 = 38.Habitat.American Martens are found predominantly in mature conifer or coniferdominated mixed forests. Preferred habitats are mature old-growth spruce-fir communities, with greater than 30% canopy cover, a well-established understory of fallen logs and stumps, and lush shrub and forb vegetation. They avoid large open spaces such as clearcuttings, but may use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges, and rocky alpine areas above the timberline. In the coastal forests of California, American Martens select the largest available patches of old-growth, old-growth and late-mature, or serpentine habitat; dense, spatially extensive shrub cover is a key habitat element. In Alberta, during the winter, American Martens use young forests, and mature/old coniferous and deciduous stands, according to their availability. In the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains of south-west Canada, American Martens were detected in all habitats sampled including recently logged areas, regenerating stands, dry Douglas-fir (Pseudosuga menziesii) forest and subalpine parkland. They selected for greater crown closure and older stands at the finer resolution; no selection for forest structure was detected at the larger resolution except that American Martens selected against increased overstory heterogeneity. They preferred coniferous stands over deciduous-dominated stands and were more abundant in wetter than in dryer areas. In a clearcut boreal landscape in western Quebec, in which black spruce (Picea mariana) is the predominant forest type, American Martens avoid open regenerating stands composed mostly of recent clearcuts with sparse regeneration. They do not select coniferous stands, even those that are mature or overmature, but prefer deciduous and mixed stands, a large proportion of which has a dense coniferous shrub layer. Winter home ranges usually contain less than 30-35% open or closed regenerating stands and more than 40-50% uncut forest. In south-eastern Labrador, American Martens avoid areas with low productivity and low canopy cover (<20%), but show no selection for tree species composition or cover among more productive forests. In eastern Newfoundland, mature coniferous forest is the dominant cover typein most American Marten home ranges and is the only forest typeused proportionately more than its availability by resident individuals. Otherforest typesused in proportion to their availability include coniferous scrub and insect-defoliated stands; open areas and sites recently disturbed by fire are avoided at this scale. In northern Maine, in an area where trapping and timber harvesting had been excluded for more than 35 years, American Martens were found to use nearly all the available habitat, although during the summer, they preferred stands that had substantial mortality caused by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). Mature, well-stocked coniferous forest was the least abundant forest typein the home ranges of both sexes, in both seasons, whereas mature, well-stocked deciduous forest was the most abundant.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals, including voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels (7amiasciurus and Glaucomys sp.), and lagomorphs, especially the Snowshoe Hare. Other food items include birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, earthworms), fruits, and berries. In Newfoundland, Meadow Voles were the most prevalent food item found in scats (80% in summer and 47-5% in winter); Snowshoe Hares occurred in 28% of winter samples, and 16% other food typeswere found in scats during each season. In the mixed-conifer forests of southern Sierra Nevada, where the American Marten and Fisher are sympatric, the diet of Fishers appeared to include more remains of birds, lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens. However, the dietary overlap between these two species was high. The diets of both species were more diverse than previously reported in North America, perhaps due to the absence or rarity of large prey (Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevada. American Martens hunt and find food by constant searching, sometimes in trees, and often tunnel under snow during winter to search for microtines.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, but can be active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs ortrees, in rock crevices, or in burrows. Large logs, large snags, and large, live spruce and fir trees are important characteristics for den sites in the central Rocky Mountains. Squirrels provide important denning structures as well as prey for American Martens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Martens are solitary and partly arboreal, but spend a considerable amount of time on the ground. They can also swim and dive well. The home ranges of males are 2-3 times larger than those of females: up to 45 km” for males (overall average c. 9 km?) and up to 28 km? for females (overall average c. 3 km?). The degree of overlap of home ranges varies, but generally male home ranges overlap those of several females, and individuals are intolerant of conspecifics of the same sex. In Minnesota, the home ranges of three maleswere 10-5, 16-6 and 19- 9 km?, and 4- 3 km? for one female; there was considerable overlap between the ranges of two of the males. In Wisconsin, mean winter home range size was 3-29 km?, with the home ranges of males (mean = 4-25 km?) significantly larger than females (mean = 2-32 km?). In Newfoundland, home range estimates were 29-54 km? for males and 15-19 km?* for females. In Labrador, the mean home range for males was 45 km* and 27- 6 km” for females. In a forest preserve that was closed to trapping, the proportion of males maintaining residency throughout the study period was found to be higher than that of females, indicating that the home ranges of females were more dynamic than the home ranges of males. Neither males nor females adjusted the size of their home ranges among seasons; however, males tended to shift location of their home ranges in response to increases in available space. Females either maintained a high degree of fidelity among seasons or completely abandoned previously established home ranges. Abandonment of existing home ranges by some females may have resulted from stresses associated with a high density in an untrapped population. Population densities vary from 0-5 to 1-7 per km?Breeding.Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Martens are considered common in some parts of their range, and are legally harvested for the fur trade. However, by the early 20\" century, excessive trapping had severely depleted the American Marten in many areas, particularly in Alaska, Canada, and western United States. Protective regulations subsequently allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas and reintroduction programs have been carried out in Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of north-eastern USAand south-eastern Canada.Current low numbers or absences in some areas seem attributable to forestry practices; this species is very sensitive to habitat destruction, and clear-cutting can completely eliminate American Martens from an area. The availability of hollow trees for use as resting sites and natal densis especially critical, and logging procedures that eliminate old stumps or older trees may be detrimental to American Marten populations.Bibliography.Buskirk (1984), Buskirk & MacDonald (1984), Clark et al. (1987), Dumyahn & Zollner (2007), Gosse & Hearn (2005), Hagmeier (1961), Mowat (2006), Poole& Graf (1996), Potvin et al. (2000), Powell et al. (2003), Proulx (2006), Raine (1983), Ruggiero et al. (1998), Simon et al. (1999), Slauson et al. (2007), Smith & Schaefer (2002), Soutiere (1979), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela americanus Turton, 1806, North America.The number of subspecies is debated and here we recognize eight.","commonNames":"Martre d’Amérique @fr | Fichtenmarder @de | Marta norteamericana @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Turton","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1806","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"628","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"americana","name":"Martes americana","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. a. americana Turton, 1806— E Canada(Ontario& Quebec) anf NE USA.M. a. abietinoides Gray, 1865— SW Canada(C British Columbia& SW Alberta) and NW USA(N Montana& Idaho).M. a. actuosa Osgood, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(N Alberta, N British Catan, Northwest Territories& Yukon).M. a. atrata Bangs, 1897— NE Canada(Newfoundland and Labrador).M. a. caurina Merriam, 1890— W Canada(W British Columbia) and USA(S Alaska& W Washington).M. a. humboldtensis Grinnell & Dixon, 1926— SW USA(NWCalifornia).M. a. kenaiensis Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).M. a. nesophila Osgood, 1901— SW Alaska and W Canada(islands off British Columbia, and perhaps along nearby mainland).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714153/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Buskirk (1984) | Buskirk & MacDonald (1984) | Clark et al. (1987) | Dumyahn & Zollner (2007) | Gosse & Hearn (2005) | Hagmeier (1961) | Mowat (2006) | Poole& Graf (1996) | Potvin et al. (2000) | Powell et al. (2003) | Proulx (2006) | Raine (1983) | Ruggiero et al. (1998) | Simon et al. (1999) | Slauson et al. (2007) | Smith & Schaefer (2002) | Soutiere (1979) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals, including voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels (7amiasciurus and Glaucomys sp.), and lagomorphs, especially the Snowshoe Hare. Other food items include birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, earthworms), fruits, and berries. In Newfoundland, Meadow Voles were the most prevalent food item found in scats (80% in summer and 47-5% in winter); Snowshoe Hares occurred in 28% of winter samples, and 16% other food typeswere found in scats during each season. In the mixed-conifer forests of southern Sierra Nevada, where the American Marten and Fisher are sympatric, the diet of Fishers appeared to include more remains of birds, lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens. However, the dietary overlap between these two species was high. The diets of both species were more diverse than previously reported in North America, perhaps due to the absence or rarity of large prey (Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevada. American Martens hunt and find food by constant searching, sometimes in trees, and often tunnel under snow during winter to search for microtines.","breeding":"Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, but can be active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs ortrees, in rock crevices, or in burrows. Large logs, large snags, and large, live spruce and fir trees are important characteristics for den sites in the central Rocky Mountains. Squirrels provide important denning structures as well as prey for American Martens.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"American Martens are solitary and partly arboreal, but spend a considerable amount of time on the ground. They can also swim and dive well. The home ranges of males are 2-3 times larger than those of females: up to 45 km” for males (overall average c. 9 km?) and up to 28 km? for females (overall average c. 3 km?). The degree of overlap of home ranges varies, but generally male home ranges overlap those of several females, and individuals are intolerant of conspecifics of the same sex. In Minnesota, the home ranges of three maleswere 10-5, 16-6 and 19- 9 km?, and 4- 3 km? for one female; there was considerable overlap between the ranges of two of the males. In Wisconsin, mean winter home range size was 3-29 km?, with the home ranges of males (mean = 4-25 km?) significantly larger than females (mean = 2-32 km?). In Newfoundland, home range estimates were 29-54 km? for males and 15-19 km?* for females. In Labrador, the mean home range for males was 45 km* and 27- 6 km” for females. In a forest preserve that was closed to trapping, the proportion of males maintaining residency throughout the study period was found to be higher than that of females, indicating that the home ranges of females were more dynamic than the home ranges of males. Neither males nor females adjusted the size of their home ranges among seasons; however, males tended to shift location of their home ranges in response to increases in available space. Females either maintained a high degree of fidelity among seasons or completely abandoned previously established home ranges. Abandonment of existing home ranges by some females may have resulted from stresses associated with a high density in an untrapped population. Population densities vary from 0-5 to 1-7 per km?Breeding.Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. American Martens are considered common in some parts of their range, and are legally harvested for the fur trade. However, by the early 20\" century, excessive trapping had severely depleted the American Marten in many areas, particularly in Alaska, Canada, and western United States. Protective regulations subsequently allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas and reintroduction programs have been carried out in Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of north-eastern USAand south-eastern Canada.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 36-45 cm(males), 32-40 cm(females), tail 20-23 cm(males), 18-20 cm(females); weight 470-1250 g(males), 280-850 g(females), adult males are about 65% heavier than females. The American Marten has a long, slender body, with short limbs, bushy tail, and large rounded ears. The pelage ranges from light beige to dark brown, and often shows shades of orange. Many individuals have yellow to bright orange throat and upper chest patches. The head is pale gray and the legs and tail are almost black. The feet are fully furred, each digit has a strong claw. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, with elongated auditory bullae. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 1/2 = 38.","habitat":"American Martens are found predominantly in mature conifer or coniferdominated mixed forests. Preferred habitats are mature old-growth spruce-fir communities, with greater than 30% canopy cover, a well-established understory of fallen logs and stumps, and lush shrub and forb vegetation. They avoid large open spaces such as clearcuttings, but may use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges, and rocky alpine areas above the timberline. In the coastal forests of California, American Martens select the largest available patches of old-growth, old-growth and late-mature, or serpentine habitat; dense, spatially extensive shrub cover is a key habitat element. In Alberta, during the winter, American Martens use young forests, and mature/old coniferous and deciduous stands, according to their availability. In the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains of south-west Canada, American Martens were detected in all habitats sampled including recently logged areas, regenerating stands, dry Douglas-fir (Pseudosuga menziesii) forest and subalpine parkland. They selected for greater crown closure and older stands at the finer resolution; no selection for forest structure was detected at the larger resolution except that American Martens selected against increased overstory heterogeneity. They preferred coniferous stands over deciduous-dominated stands and were more abundant in wetter than in dryer areas. In a clearcut boreal landscape in western Quebec, in which black spruce (Picea mariana) is the predominant forest type, American Martens avoid open regenerating stands composed mostly of recent clearcuts with sparse regeneration. They do not select coniferous stands, even those that are mature or overmature, but prefer deciduous and mixed stands, a large proportion of which has a dense coniferous shrub layer. Winter home ranges usually contain less than 30-35% open or closed regenerating stands and more than 40-50% uncut forest. In south-eastern Labrador, American Martens avoid areas with low productivity and low canopy cover (<20%), but show no selection for tree species composition or cover among more productive forests. In eastern Newfoundland, mature coniferous forest is the dominant cover typein most American Marten home ranges and is the only forest typeused proportionately more than its availability by resident individuals. Otherforest typesused in proportion to their availability include coniferous scrub and insect-defoliated stands; open areas and sites recently disturbed by fire are avoided at this scale. In northern Maine, in an area where trapping and timber harvesting had been excluded for more than 35 years, American Martens were found to use nearly all the available habitat, although during the summer, they preferred stands that had substantial mortality caused by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). Mature, well-stocked coniferous forest was the least abundant forest typein the home ranges of both sexes, in both seasons, whereas mature, well-stocked deciduous forest was the most abundant."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5AFFB4CFF73AFAFCF7FB31.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5AFFB4CFF73AFAFCF7FB31","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"629","verbatimText":"11.Stone MartenMartes foinaFrench:Fouine/ German:Steinmarder/ Spanish:GardunaOther common names:Beech MartenTaxonomy.Mustela foina Erxleben, 1777, Germany.Up to fifteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Mainland C & S Europe, Caucasus, Middle East, C Asia to Mongolia, C & SW China, and N Myanmar. Introduced to Ibiza I (Spain), but now extirpated, and to USA(Wisconsin).Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-54 cm, tail 22-30 cm; weight 1.1-2.3 kg. The Stone Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage ranges from grayish brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white or pale yellow neck and throat patch, which often splits into two parts that extend to the anterior part of the legs. The tail and legs are darker than the back. The upperlip has a medial rhinarial groove. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has slightly convex outer edges (they are concave in the European Pine Marten.Habitat.Stone Martens are found in forests and open and rocky areas,at elevations up to 4000 m. They also occur in fragmented forests, hedgerows, and cultivated areas, and in close proximity to humans. They are generally found in more open environments than other marten species and appear to avoid conifer forests. In a fragmented agricultural landscape, Stone Martens were found to prefer areas with wood and scrub vegetation and watercourses with continuous vegetation along their verges; they tended to avoid arable land.Food and Feeding.The diet consists of rodents, birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians,insects, fruits, and berries. In France, voles (Microtus sp.) make up to 30-55% of the total diet; there is strong seasonality, with microtines eaten more often in winter and spring. In the Swiss Jura, mammals are the main prey, representing 37-9% ofall food items; Water Voles (Arvicola terrestris) were found in 90-4% of scats during peak vole numbers. In central Italy, fruit and berries are the staple diet, but mammals and birds are also important; the diet varies seasonally in relation to resource availability, with a predominance of fruit in autumn and insects in summer. In east-central Italy, the winter diet is almost completely frugivorous; fruit represents 84% of the total volume in the diet, with a 55% occurrence. Berries from juniperus (42-2%, Juniperus sp.) and from sloe (29-7%, Prunus spinosa) are the most common food items. In south-eastern Romania, birds (45-2% of the biomass) and mammals (36-1%) predominate in the diet; reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fruits are supplementary food. In the Caucasus, the diet is 85% murine rodents during the summer; vegetable matter forms a major part of the late summer and early fall food in some areas.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/restsites are inside rock crevices, stone heaps, hollow trees, abandoned burrows, and in buildings.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Stone Martens are solitary. They are good climbers, but rarely go high into trees. Home ranges vary between 12-211 ha, being larger in summer and smaller during winter. The home ranges of males are generally larger than those of females, and adult ranges are larger than immature animals. In central Italy, radio-telemetry revealed intra-sexual territoriality; males travelled longer distances than females, although home range sizes did not differ significantly between the sexes.Breeding.Mating occurs in summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertlized eggs into the uterus, births do not occur until the following spring. The overall gestation lasts 230-275 days, although true gestation is c. 30 days. Littersize typically is three to four, but may reach up to eight. Sexual maturity may be attained at 15-27 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Stone Marten is considered common throughout most of Europe and Asia. It is hunted for its pelt, but this does not have the same quality of the European Pine Marten.Bibliography.Baghli et al. (2002), Canivenc et al. (1981), Feller (1993a, 1993b), Francis (2008), Genovesi & Boitani (1997), Genovesi, Secchi & Boitani (1996), Genovesi, Sinibaldi & Boitani (1997), Lodé (1994), Lopez-Martin et al. (1992), Michelat et al. (2001), Padial et al. (2002), Pandolfi et al. (1996), Posluszny et al. (2007), Roberts (1977), Romanowski & Lesinski (1991), Rondinini & Boitani (2002), Sacchi & Meriggi (1995), Stone & Cook (2002), Stroganov (1969), Virgos et al. (2000), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela foina Erxleben, 1777, Germany.Up to fifteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","commonNames":"Fouine @fr | Steinmarder @de | Garduna @es | Beech Marten @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Erxleben","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"629","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"foina","name":"Martes foina","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Mainland C & S Europe, Caucasus, Middle East, C Asia to Mongolia, C & SW China, and N Myanmar. Introduced to Ibiza I (Spain), but now extirpated, and to USA(Wisconsin).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714159/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baghli et al. (2002) | Canivenc et al. (1981) | Feller (1993a, 1993b) | Francis (2008) | Genovesi & Boitani (1997) | Genovesi, Secchi & Boitani (1996) | Genovesi, Sinibaldi & Boitani (1997) | Lodé (1994) | Lopez-Martin et al. (1992) | Michelat et al. (2001) | Padial et al. (2002) | Pandolfi et al. (1996) | Posluszny et al. (2007) | Roberts (1977) | Romanowski & Lesinski (1991) | Rondinini & Boitani (2002) | Sacchi & Meriggi (1995) | Stone & Cook (2002) | Stroganov (1969) | Virgos et al. (2000) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists of rodents, birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians,insects, fruits, and berries. In France, voles (Microtus sp.) make up to 30-55% of the total diet; there is strong seasonality, with microtines eaten more often in winter and spring. In the Swiss Jura, mammals are the main prey, representing 37-9% ofall food items; Water Voles (Arvicola terrestris) were found in 90-4% of scats during peak vole numbers. In central Italy, fruit and berries are the staple diet, but mammals and birds are also important; the diet varies seasonally in relation to resource availability, with a predominance of fruit in autumn and insects in summer. In east-central Italy, the winter diet is almost completely frugivorous; fruit represents 84% of the total volume in the diet, with a 55% occurrence. Berries from juniperus (42-2%, Juniperus sp.) and from sloe (29-7%, Prunus spinosa) are the most common food items. In south-eastern Romania, birds (45-2% of the biomass) and mammals (36-1%) predominate in the diet; reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fruits are supplementary food. In the Caucasus, the diet is 85% murine rodents during the summer; vegetable matter forms a major part of the late summer and early fall food in some areas.","breeding":"Mating occurs in summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertlized eggs into the uterus, births do not occur until the following spring. The overall gestation lasts 230-275 days, although true gestation is c. 30 days. Littersize typically is three to four, but may reach up to eight. Sexual maturity may be attained at 15-27 months.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/restsites are inside rock crevices, stone heaps, hollow trees, abandoned burrows, and in buildings.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Stone Martens are solitary. They are good climbers, but rarely go high into trees. Home ranges vary between 12-211 ha, being larger in summer and smaller during winter. The home ranges of males are generally larger than those of females, and adult ranges are larger than immature animals. In central Italy, radio-telemetry revealed intra-sexual territoriality; males travelled longer distances than females, although home range sizes did not differ significantly between the sexes.Breeding.Mating occurs in summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertlized eggs into the uterus, births do not occur until the following spring. The overall gestation lasts 230-275 days, although true gestation is c. 30 days. Littersize typically is three to four, but may reach up to eight. Sexual maturity may be attained at 15-27 months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Stone Marten is considered common throughout most of Europe and Asia. It is hunted for its pelt, but this does not have the same quality of the European Pine Marten.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-54 cm, tail 22-30 cm; weight 1.1-2.3 kg. The Stone Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage ranges from grayish brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white or pale yellow neck and throat patch, which often splits into two parts that extend to the anterior part of the legs. The tail and legs are darker than the back. The upperlip has a medial rhinarial groove. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has slightly convex outer edges (they are concave in the European Pine Marten.","habitat":"Stone Martens are found in forests and open and rocky areas,at elevations up to 4000 m. They also occur in fragmented forests, hedgerows, and cultivated areas, and in close proximity to humans. They are generally found in more open environments than other marten species and appear to avoid conifer forests. In a fragmented agricultural landscape, Stone Martens were found to prefer areas with wood and scrub vegetation and watercourses with continuous vegetation along their verges; they tended to avoid arable land."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"629","verbatimText":"10.Yellow-throated MartenMartes flavigulaFrench:Martre a gorge jaune/ German:Buntmarder/ Spanish:Marta papigualdaTaxonomy Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785, Nepal.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. f. flavigula Boddaert, 1785— Bangladesh, Bhutan, C, E & S China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.M. f. borealis Radde, 1862— NE China, North and South Korea, and Russia.M. f. chrysospila Swinhoe, 1866— Taiwan.M. f. indochinensis Kloss, 1916— Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.M. f. perunsularis Bonhote, 1901— Borneo, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.M. f. robinsoni Pocock, 1936— Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-65 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 1.3-3 kg. The Yellowthroated Marten has a long, slender body and a long, dark tail; the tail is 60-70% of head and body length. The ears are large and round. The pelage varies geographically and with season. The top of the head and neck,the tail, the lower limbs, and parts of the back are dark brown to black; the rest of the body is pale brown. There are bright orange-yellow markings from the chin to the chest. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is strong; the temporal ridges do not approach to form a sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Males have larger canines than females.Habitat.Forests, including dry and hill evergreen, mixed and moist deciduous, and dry dipterocarp forest, at elevations of 200-3000 m. In Thailand, radio-collared Yellowthroated Martens generally used the different typesof habitat in proportion to their availability; however, one malewas observed to use open forest-grassland less than it was available.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal; activity peaks occur during the morning (06:00- 08:00 h) and late afternoon (16:00-18:00 h). Reduced activity periods are scattered during the night (20:00-04:00 h) and are greater during lunar nights than other nights. The highest average monthly activity is during October, whereas the lowest is during March. Wet season activity is significantly greater than dry season activity. Den/ rest sites are in holes, rocks crevices, or hollow trees.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small rodents, pikas, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, birds, eggs, fruit, honey, berries, and nectar. It has been reported that Yellowthroated Martens prey on musk deer (Moschus sp.) and the young of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), deer, and gorals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Yellow-throated Martens climb trees with great agility, but often cometo the ground to hunt. They are seen in pairs or small family groups. In Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, five adultYellow-throated Martens were radio-tracked for 4-16 months. The mean daily movement was 770 mfor four malesand 1349 mfor one female. The cumulative home rangesizes for four maleswere 1-7, 3-5, 10-1 and 11- 8 km?, and 8- 8 km? for one female. Home ranges generally increased during the wet season; however, the range of one maleincreased marginally during the dry season. Mean range overlap was 34%.Breeding.Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. f. robinsoni is classified as Endangered. Little is known about Yellow-throated Martens and further field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Grassman, Tewes & Silvy (2005), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Nandini & Karthik (2007), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785, Nepal.Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Martre a gorge jaune @fr | Buntmarder @de | Marta papigualda @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"629","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"flavigula","name":"Martes flavigula","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. f. flavigula Boddaert, 1785— Bangladesh, Bhutan, C, E & S China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.M. f. borealis Radde, 1862— NE China, North and South Korea, and Russia.M. f. chrysospila Swinhoe, 1866— Taiwan.M. f. indochinensis Kloss, 1916— Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.M. f. perunsularis Bonhote, 1901— Borneo, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.M. f. robinsoni Pocock, 1936— Java.","bibliography":"Francis (2008) | Grassman, Tewes & Silvy (2005) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Nandini & Karthik (2007) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small rodents, pikas, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, birds, eggs, fruit, honey, berries, and nectar. It has been reported that Yellowthroated Martens prey on musk deer (Moschus sp.) and the young of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), deer, and gorals.","breeding":"Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.","activityPatterns":"Primarily diurnal; activity peaks occur during the morning (06:00- 08:00 h) and late afternoon (16:00-18:00 h). Reduced activity periods are scattered during the night (20:00-04:00 h) and are greater during lunar nights than other nights. The highest average monthly activity is during October, whereas the lowest is during March. Wet season activity is significantly greater than dry season activity. Den/ rest sites are in holes, rocks crevices, or hollow trees.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Yellow-throated Martens climb trees with great agility, but often cometo the ground to hunt. They are seen in pairs or small family groups. In Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, five adultYellow-throated Martens were radio-tracked for 4-16 months. The mean daily movement was 770 mfor four malesand 1349 mfor one female. The cumulative home rangesizes for four maleswere 1-7, 3-5, 10-1 and 11- 8 km?, and 8- 8 km? for one female. Home ranges generally increased during the wet season; however, the range of one maleincreased marginally during the dry season. Mean range overlap was 34%.Breeding.Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. f. robinsoni is classified as Endangered. Little is known about Yellow-throated Martens and further field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 45-65 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 1.3-3 kg. The Yellowthroated Marten has a long, slender body and a long, dark tail; the tail is 60-70% of head and body length. The ears are large and round. The pelage varies geographically and with season. The top of the head and neck,the tail, the lower limbs, and parts of the back are dark brown to black; the rest of the body is pale brown. There are bright orange-yellow markings from the chin to the chest. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is strong; the temporal ridges do not approach to form a sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Males have larger canines than females.","habitat":"Forests, including dry and hill evergreen, mixed and moist deciduous, and dry dipterocarp forest, at elevations of 200-3000 m. In Thailand, radio-collared Yellowthroated Martens generally used the different typesof habitat in proportion to their availability; however, one malewas observed to use open forest-grassland less than it was available."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"629","verbatimText":"10.Yellow-throated MartenMartes flavigulaFrench:Martre a gorge jaune/ German:Buntmarder/ Spanish:Marta papigualdaTaxonomy Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785, Nepal.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. f. flavigula Boddaert, 1785— Bangladesh, Bhutan, C, E & S China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.M. f. borealis Radde, 1862— NE China, North and South Korea, and Russia.M. f. chrysospila Swinhoe, 1866— Taiwan.M. f. indochinensis Kloss, 1916— Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.M. f. perunsularis Bonhote, 1901— Borneo, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.M. f. robinsoni Pocock, 1936— Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-65 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 1.3-3 kg. The Yellowthroated Marten has a long, slender body and a long, dark tail; the tail is 60-70% of head and body length. The ears are large and round. The pelage varies geographically and with season. The top of the head and neck,the tail, the lower limbs, and parts of the back are dark brown to black; the rest of the body is pale brown. There are bright orange-yellow markings from the chin to the chest. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is strong; the temporal ridges do not approach to form a sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Males have larger canines than females.Habitat.Forests, including dry and hill evergreen, mixed and moist deciduous, and dry dipterocarp forest, at elevations of 200-3000 m. In Thailand, radio-collared Yellowthroated Martens generally used the different typesof habitat in proportion to their availability; however, one malewas observed to use open forest-grassland less than it was available.Activity patterns.Primarily diurnal; activity peaks occur during the morning (06:00- 08:00 h) and late afternoon (16:00-18:00 h). Reduced activity periods are scattered during the night (20:00-04:00 h) and are greater during lunar nights than other nights. The highest average monthly activity is during October, whereas the lowest is during March. Wet season activity is significantly greater than dry season activity. Den/ rest sites are in holes, rocks crevices, or hollow trees.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small rodents, pikas, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, birds, eggs, fruit, honey, berries, and nectar. It has been reported that Yellowthroated Martens prey on musk deer (Moschus sp.) and the young of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), deer, and gorals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Yellow-throated Martens climb trees with great agility, but often cometo the ground to hunt. They are seen in pairs or small family groups. In Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, five adultYellow-throated Martens were radio-tracked for 4-16 months. The mean daily movement was 770 mfor four malesand 1349 mfor one female. The cumulative home rangesizes for four maleswere 1-7, 3-5, 10-1 and 11- 8 km?, and 8- 8 km? for one female. Home ranges generally increased during the wet season; however, the range of one maleincreased marginally during the dry season. Mean range overlap was 34%.Breeding.Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. f. robinsoni is classified as Endangered. Little is known about Yellow-throated Martens and further field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Grassman, Tewes & Silvy (2005), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Nandini & Karthik (2007), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785, Nepal.Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Martre a gorge jaune @fr | Buntmarder @de | Marta papigualda @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"629","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"flavigula","name":"Martes flavigula","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. f. flavigula Boddaert, 1785— Bangladesh, Bhutan, C, E & S China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.M. f. borealis Radde, 1862— NE China, North and South Korea, and Russia.M. f. chrysospila Swinhoe, 1866— Taiwan.M. f. indochinensis Kloss, 1916— Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.M. f. perunsularis Bonhote, 1901— Borneo, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.M. f. robinsoni Pocock, 1936— Java.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714157/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Francis (2008) | Grassman, Tewes & Silvy (2005) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Nandini & Karthik (2007) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small rodents, pikas, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, birds, eggs, fruit, honey, berries, and nectar. It has been reported that Yellowthroated Martens prey on musk deer (Moschus sp.) and the young of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), deer, and gorals.","breeding":"Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.","activityPatterns":"Primarily diurnal; activity peaks occur during the morning (06:00- 08:00 h) and late afternoon (16:00-18:00 h). Reduced activity periods are scattered during the night (20:00-04:00 h) and are greater during lunar nights than other nights. The highest average monthly activity is during October, whereas the lowest is during March. Wet season activity is significantly greater than dry season activity. Den/ rest sites are in holes, rocks crevices, or hollow trees.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Yellow-throated Martens climb trees with great agility, but often cometo the ground to hunt. They are seen in pairs or small family groups. In Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, five adultYellow-throated Martens were radio-tracked for 4-16 months. The mean daily movement was 770 mfor four malesand 1349 mfor one female. The cumulative home rangesizes for four maleswere 1-7, 3-5, 10-1 and 11- 8 km?, and 8- 8 km? for one female. Home ranges generally increased during the wet season; however, the range of one maleincreased marginally during the dry season. Mean range overlap was 34%.Breeding.Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. f. robinsoni is classified as Endangered. Little is known about Yellow-throated Martens and further field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 45-65 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 1.3-3 kg. The Yellowthroated Marten has a long, slender body and a long, dark tail; the tail is 60-70% of head and body length. The ears are large and round. The pelage varies geographically and with season. The top of the head and neck,the tail, the lower limbs, and parts of the back are dark brown to black; the rest of the body is pale brown. There are bright orange-yellow markings from the chin to the chest. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is strong; the temporal ridges do not approach to form a sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Males have larger canines than females.","habitat":"Forests, including dry and hill evergreen, mixed and moist deciduous, and dry dipterocarp forest, at elevations of 200-3000 m. In Thailand, radio-collared Yellowthroated Martens generally used the different typesof habitat in proportion to their availability; however, one malewas observed to use open forest-grassland less than it was available."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5BFFB3CAB13626FC52F9D7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5BFFB3CAB13626FC52F9D7","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"630","verbatimText":"13.European Pine MartenMartes martesFrench:Martre des pins/ German:Baummarder/ Spanish:Marta europeaOther common names:Pine MartenTaxonomy.Mustela martes Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. At least thirteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Most of Europe up to Russia(W Siberia) and major Mediterranean islands (Mallorca, Minorca, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily); also Middle East in Turkey, Caucasus, Iraq, and Iran.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-58 cm, tail 16-28 cm; weight 0.8-1.8 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Pine Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a light yellow patch on the throat and chest. The underfur is dark on the sides (it is lighter in the Stone Marten). The rhinarium is black. The plantar soles are hairy. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has outer edges that are slightly concave (they are convex in the Stone Marten).Habitat.European Pine Martens are found in mature deciduous and coniferous forests. In Norway, they prefer spruce-dominated forests with large trees, and avoid clearcuts and open habitats. In north-east Belarus, the higher food abundance in woodlands on clay soil results in a higher population density and a more even distribution of European Pine Martens than in woodlands on sandy soil, where they mainly live in valley habitats.Food and Feeding.The diet consists of small mammals (including mice, voles, and squirrels), birds, amphibians, invertebrates, honey, fruits, and berries. In western Scotland, European Pine Martens prey extensively on small mammals (particularly Field Voles Microtus agrestis) and birds. Invertebrates are also important dietary items, with a high intake of beetles (particularly Geotrupes sp.) from March to September. Predation on birds and the intake of earthwormsis highest during the winter;fruits (bramble and rowan berries) are also important in autumn and late winter. In the Scottish Highlands, the diet is very varied and includes small mammals, large mammal carrion, birds, insects, and fruits. Small mammals are consistently important, whereas large mammal carrion, fruits and insects, are seasonal; birds are eaten at all times of the year, but are not a major part of the diet. Although appearing to be opportunist feeders, European Pine Martens did have strong food preferences: of the small mammals eaten, 94% were Field Voles. Insect species were also selectively eaten. Beetles (Geotrupes stercorosus, Carabus sp., and Serica brunnea) and Hymenoptera (Vespula vulgaris and Bonibus spp.) were consumed in large numbers when encountered. The diet indicated that European Pine Martens foraged on the ground, in glade areas within the forest, around night-time. In northern boreal Finland, the analysis of 5677 scats revealed that the European Pine Marten is an opportunistic generalist;its most favored food being small rodents (especially Clethrionomys sp.). Snow cover decreased the consumption of Microtus sp., but not Clethrionomys sp. or the Wood Lemming (Myopus schisticolor). Other food items were: Eurasian Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus), carcasses of Reindeer, eggs, birds, common frog (Rana temporaria), berries, and mushrooms. In north-east Belarus, the diet includes rodents, birds, fruits, and carrion. In woodlands on sandy soil, European Pine Martens specialize in feeding on carrion in the cold season and on berries in the warm season. In winter, Bank Vole densities and the biomass of carrion are crucial food factors. In central Poland, where the European Pine Marten and Stone Marten are sympatric, both species feed mainly on small rodents, birds, and fruits. Although there is a high overlap in the trophic niches of both species, European Pine Martens feed more frequently on rodents and birds and Stone Martens on fruits and insects. In north-west Spain, mammals constitute the main prey all year round (50% ingested biomass), followed by fruit (28-1%), birds (20-9%), insects (0-8%) and reptiles (0-2%). Small mammals are the major prey species (41:6% ingested biomass), mainly Apodemus sp. (19-1%). Mammals are the most consumed prey in spring (65:8%) and winter (79-5%). However, in summer and autumn, European Pine Martens feed mainly on rowanberries (Sorbus aucuparia) (summer: 49-7%, autumn: 59-9%), followed by mammals (summer: 27-2%, autumn: 30-9%). On the island of Minorca, a total of 28 different food items were identified in 723 scats. Small mammals were the most important food overall, constituting 34% of the volume. During March to April, small mammals were the principal food consumed (63% of volume), followed by birds (19%). From May to June, birds were the main food (40%), followed by small mammals. Plant material and insects were the most important foods from July to August, when they made up 68% ofthe diet. Excess food may be cached for later use.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal. On the island of Minorca, radio-collared European Pine Martens were primarily nocturnal, being active at night 53% of the time in autumn/winter and 59% in spring; daytime activity levels were 19% and 14%, respectively. In Poland, radio-telemetry revealed that 69% of the martens’ active time was during the night. The activity rhythms of European Pine Martens vary between sexes and seasons. In spring, male activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h, whereas in summer and autumn/winter, activity is bimodal, peaking at 18:00-22:00 h and 02:00-04:00 h. Female activity in spring is more evenly distributed than that of males, but in summer their activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h. In autumn/winter, females have a bimodal rhythm, with peaks at 18:00-20:00 h and 02:00-06:00 h. In breeding females, activity rhythms change in the course of pregnancy and nursing. On average, European Pine Martensstart their activity 73 min before sunset and finish 87 min after sunrise. Females became active earlier than males, but both sexes terminate their activity at the same time. On average, both sexes are active for around nine hours per day; they decrease their activity from 13 hours per day on warm days to 2-5 hours per day on cooler days. The number of activity bouts per day varies from one to six (mean 2:6); the activity bouts of males are significantly longer (4 hours, on average) than those of females (3 hours). In the cold season, the duration of short inactive bouts increases and inactivity lasts longer in females than in males. Den/restsites are in hollow trees or logs, under debris, or under snow. In Great Britain, most dens are associated with trees (44-3%), rocks (27-6%) and buildings (13-:8%); 69-6% of all dens are elevated, although only 9-8% are in elevated tree cavities, perhaps indicating a scarcity of arboreal cavities.Movements, Home range and Social organization.European Pine Martens are terrestrial, but are also good climbers and will spend considerable time in trees exploring hollows and cavities in search of prey. Nightly movements may be up to 20-30 km. European Pine Martens are mostly solitary. Average home rangesize is 23 km? for males and 6- 5 km? for females. There is little or no overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but male home ranges greatly overlap those of one or more females. Independent subadults are tolerated within the exclusive ranges of adults of the same sex. In Bialowieza National Park, Poland, the mean annual home range of males (2-58 km?) was larger than that of females (1-41 km?). Daily ranges averaged 49 ha in females and 54 ha in males and constituted 0-3% to 88% of annual home ranges. Seasonal home ranges also differed significantly between males and females. Both sexes held the smallest ranges in December to January; female ranges increased in April to May, whereas those of males increased in June to September when they were mating. There was very little home range overlap between neighboring males (mean 4-6%) or females (mean 6%). Year-round, neighboring individuals of the same sex neither avoided nor attracted each other and females attracted males only during the spring/ summer mating season. Daily movement distance averaged 5- 1 kmand the mean speed was 0-6 km/h. With increasing temperature, European Pine Martens moved faster, covered longer distances, and used larger daily ranges. Mobility and home range use were affected by breeding activity. In spring, females rearing cubs had longer daily movement distances and moved faster than non-breeding females. In summer, males covered larger daily ranges during the mating period than outside it. On the island of Minorca, female home ranges were non-overlapping and averaged 0-47 km? (range = 0-31- 0-66 km®); two malehome ranges were partially exclusive, measuring 4-92 km? and 9-19 km?*male home ranges averaged 16 times greater than those of females. In Poland, population densities ranged from 3-6 to 7-6 individuals per 10 km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in mid-summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus, births do not take place until March or April of the following year. Total gestation is 230-275 days. During the breeding season, captive females exhibited one to four periods of sexual receptivity, which usually lasted one to four days and recurred at intervals of 6-17 days. Litter size is two to eight, usually three to five. In Great Britain, natal dens comprise buildings (44:3%), trees (22:8%), other man-made structures (17-1%), and rocks (14-:3%). At birth, the young weigh about 30 g. Their eyes open after 32-38 days, weaning occurs after six or seven weeks, and the young separate from the mother in the autumn. Sexual maturity is attained in the second year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The European Pine Marten was greatly hunted forits fur, leading to a serious decline of populations in the 1970s, but since then it has recovered in many areas.Bibliography.Bermejo & Guitian (2000), Birks et al. (2005), Brainerd & Rolstad (2002), Clevenger (1993a, 1993b, 1993c), Coope (2007), Goszczynski et al. (2007), Posluszny et al. (2007), Pulliainen & Ollinmaki (1996), Putman (2000), Rosellini et al. (2007), Russell & Storch (2004), Selas (1991), Sidorovich et al. (2005), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Zalewski (2000, 2001), Zalewski et al. (1995, 2004).","taxonomy":"Mustela martes Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. At least thirteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","commonNames":"Martre des pins @fr | Baummarder @de | Marta europea @es | Pine Marten @en","interpretedAuthority":"martes","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"630","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"martes","name":"Martes martes","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Most of Europe up to Russia(W Siberia) and major Mediterranean islands (Mallorca, Minorca, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily); also Middle East in Turkey, Caucasus, Iraq, and Iran.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714165/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bermejo & Guitian (2000) | Birks et al. (2005) | Brainerd & Rolstad (2002) | Clevenger (1993a, 1993b, 1993c) | Coope (2007) | Goszczynski et al. (2007) | Posluszny et al. (2007) | Pulliainen & Ollinmaki (1996) | Putman (2000) | Rosellini et al. (2007) | Russell & Storch (2004) | Selas (1991) | Sidorovich et al. (2005) | Stroganov (1969) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Zalewski (2000, 2001) | Zalewski et al. (1995, 2004)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists of small mammals (including mice, voles, and squirrels), birds, amphibians, invertebrates, honey, fruits, and berries. In western Scotland, European Pine Martens prey extensively on small mammals (particularly Field Voles Microtus agrestis) and birds. Invertebrates are also important dietary items, with a high intake of beetles (particularly Geotrupes sp.) from March to September. Predation on birds and the intake of earthwormsis highest during the winter;fruits (bramble and rowan berries) are also important in autumn and late winter. In the Scottish Highlands, the diet is very varied and includes small mammals, large mammal carrion, birds, insects, and fruits. Small mammals are consistently important, whereas large mammal carrion, fruits and insects, are seasonal; birds are eaten at all times of the year, but are not a major part of the diet. Although appearing to be opportunist feeders, European Pine Martens did have strong food preferences: of the small mammals eaten, 94% were Field Voles. Insect species were also selectively eaten. Beetles (Geotrupes stercorosus, Carabus sp., and Serica brunnea) and Hymenoptera (Vespula vulgaris and Bonibus spp.) were consumed in large numbers when encountered. The diet indicated that European Pine Martens foraged on the ground, in glade areas within the forest, around night-time. In northern boreal Finland, the analysis of 5677 scats revealed that the European Pine Marten is an opportunistic generalist;its most favored food being small rodents (especially Clethrionomys sp.). Snow cover decreased the consumption of Microtus sp., but not Clethrionomys sp. or the Wood Lemming (Myopus schisticolor). Other food items were: Eurasian Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus), carcasses of Reindeer, eggs, birds, common frog (Rana temporaria), berries, and mushrooms. In north-east Belarus, the diet includes rodents, birds, fruits, and carrion. In woodlands on sandy soil, European Pine Martens specialize in feeding on carrion in the cold season and on berries in the warm season. In winter, Bank Vole densities and the biomass of carrion are crucial food factors. In central Poland, where the European Pine Marten and Stone Marten are sympatric, both species feed mainly on small rodents, birds, and fruits. Although there is a high overlap in the trophic niches of both species, European Pine Martens feed more frequently on rodents and birds and Stone Martens on fruits and insects. In north-west Spain, mammals constitute the main prey all year round (50% ingested biomass), followed by fruit (28-1%), birds (20-9%), insects (0-8%) and reptiles (0-2%). Small mammals are the major prey species (41:6% ingested biomass), mainly Apodemus sp. (19-1%). Mammals are the most consumed prey in spring (65:8%) and winter (79-5%). However, in summer and autumn, European Pine Martens feed mainly on rowanberries (Sorbus aucuparia) (summer: 49-7%, autumn: 59-9%), followed by mammals (summer: 27-2%, autumn: 30-9%). On the island of Minorca, a total of 28 different food items were identified in 723 scats. Small mammals were the most important food overall, constituting 34% of the volume. During March to April, small mammals were the principal food consumed (63% of volume), followed by birds (19%). From May to June, birds were the main food (40%), followed by small mammals. Plant material and insects were the most important foods from July to August, when they made up 68% ofthe diet. Excess food may be cached for later use.","breeding":"Mating occurs in mid-summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus, births do not take place until March or April of the following year. Total gestation is 230-275 days. During the breeding season, captive females exhibited one to four periods of sexual receptivity, which usually lasted one to four days and recurred at intervals of 6-17 days. Litter size is two to eight, usually three to five. In Great Britain, natal dens comprise buildings (44:3%), trees (22:8%), other man-made structures (17-1%), and rocks (14-:3%). At birth, the young weigh about 30 g. Their eyes open after 32-38 days, weaning occurs after six or seven weeks, and the young separate from the mother in the autumn. Sexual maturity is attained in the second year.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal. On the island of Minorca, radio-collared European Pine Martens were primarily nocturnal, being active at night 53% of the time in autumn/winter and 59% in spring; daytime activity levels were 19% and 14%, respectively. In Poland, radio-telemetry revealed that 69% of the martens’ active time was during the night. The activity rhythms of European Pine Martens vary between sexes and seasons. In spring, male activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h, whereas in summer and autumn/winter, activity is bimodal, peaking at 18:00-22:00 h and 02:00-04:00 h. Female activity in spring is more evenly distributed than that of males, but in summer their activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h. In autumn/winter, females have a bimodal rhythm, with peaks at 18:00-20:00 h and 02:00-06:00 h. In breeding females, activity rhythms change in the course of pregnancy and nursing. On average, European Pine Martensstart their activity 73 min before sunset and finish 87 min after sunrise. Females became active earlier than males, but both sexes terminate their activity at the same time. On average, both sexes are active for around nine hours per day; they decrease their activity from 13 hours per day on warm days to 2-5 hours per day on cooler days. The number of activity bouts per day varies from one to six (mean 2:6); the activity bouts of males are significantly longer (4 hours, on average) than those of females (3 hours). In the cold season, the duration of short inactive bouts increases and inactivity lasts longer in females than in males. Den/restsites are in hollow trees or logs, under debris, or under snow. In Great Britain, most dens are associated with trees (44-3%), rocks (27-6%) and buildings (13-:8%); 69-6% of all dens are elevated, although only 9-8% are in elevated tree cavities, perhaps indicating a scarcity of arboreal cavities.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"European Pine Martens are terrestrial, but are also good climbers and will spend considerable time in trees exploring hollows and cavities in search of prey. Nightly movements may be up to 20-30 km. European Pine Martens are mostly solitary. Average home rangesize is 23 km? for males and 6- 5 km? for females. There is little or no overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but male home ranges greatly overlap those of one or more females. Independent subadults are tolerated within the exclusive ranges of adults of the same sex. In Bialowieza National Park, Poland, the mean annual home range of males (2-58 km?) was larger than that of females (1-41 km?). Daily ranges averaged 49 ha in females and 54 ha in males and constituted 0-3% to 88% of annual home ranges. Seasonal home ranges also differed significantly between males and females. Both sexes held the smallest ranges in December to January; female ranges increased in April to May, whereas those of males increased in June to September when they were mating. There was very little home range overlap between neighboring males (mean 4-6%) or females (mean 6%). Year-round, neighboring individuals of the same sex neither avoided nor attracted each other and females attracted males only during the spring/ summer mating season. Daily movement distance averaged 5- 1 kmand the mean speed was 0-6 km/h. With increasing temperature, European Pine Martens moved faster, covered longer distances, and used larger daily ranges. Mobility and home range use were affected by breeding activity. In spring, females rearing cubs had longer daily movement distances and moved faster than non-breeding females. In summer, males covered larger daily ranges during the mating period than outside it. On the island of Minorca, female home ranges were non-overlapping and averaged 0-47 km? (range = 0-31- 0-66 km®); two malehome ranges were partially exclusive, measuring 4-92 km? and 9-19 km?*male home ranges averaged 16 times greater than those of females. In Poland, population densities ranged from 3-6 to 7-6 individuals per 10 km?.Breeding.Mating occurs in mid-summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus, births do not take place until March or April of the following year. Total gestation is 230-275 days. During the breeding season, captive females exhibited one to four periods of sexual receptivity, which usually lasted one to four days and recurred at intervals of 6-17 days. Litter size is two to eight, usually three to five. In Great Britain, natal dens comprise buildings (44:3%), trees (22:8%), other man-made structures (17-1%), and rocks (14-:3%). At birth, the young weigh about 30 g. Their eyes open after 32-38 days, weaning occurs after six or seven weeks, and the young separate from the mother in the autumn. Sexual maturity is attained in the second year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The European Pine Marten was greatly hunted forits fur, leading to a serious decline of populations in the 1970s, but since then it has recovered in many areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 45-58 cm, tail 16-28 cm; weight 0.8-1.8 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Pine Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a light yellow patch on the throat and chest. The underfur is dark on the sides (it is lighter in the Stone Marten). The rhinarium is black. The plantar soles are hairy. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has outer edges that are slightly concave (they are convex in the Stone Marten).","habitat":"European Pine Martens are found in mature deciduous and coniferous forests. In Norway, they prefer spruce-dominated forests with large trees, and avoid clearcuts and open habitats. In north-east Belarus, the higher food abundance in woodlands on clay soil results in a higher population density and a more even distribution of European Pine Martens than in woodlands on sandy soil, where they mainly live in valley habitats."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5BFFB4CAAB38F2FC14F67B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5BFFB4CAAB38F2FC14F67B","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"630","verbatimText":"12.Nilgiri MartenMartes gwatkinsiiFrench:Martre des Nilgiri/ German:Sidindischer Buntmarder/ Spanish:Marta indiaTaxonomy.Martes gwatkinsii Horsfield, 1851, Madras, India.The Nilgiri Marten has been considered a subspecies of the Yellow-throated Marten by some authors. Monotypic.Distribution.India(Western Ghats).Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-70 cm(male), tail 35-50 cm(male); weight 1-3 kg(male). The Nilgiri Marten is very similar to the Yellow-throated Marten. The pelage is mostly dark brown; the shoulders and torso are rufous-brown. There are distinct rusty-yellow to lemon-yellow markings on the throat. The skull is low and flat.Habitat.Forests, between 120 and 2383 melevation.Food and Feeding.Very little known, but there are reports of Nilgiri Martens preying on crows, Indian Giant Squirrels (Ratufa indica), Indian Spotted Chevrotains (Tragulus meminna), and Bengal monitor lizards (Varanus bengalensis), and feeding on honey and nectar.Activity patterns.Appear to be diurnal. Nilgiri Martens are seen on the ground, but they atleast partly arboreal as several recent sightings were of individuals in the canopy or in the hollows of trees (Elaeocarpus sp.).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Solitary individuals and pairs have been seen.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.CITESAppendix III (India). Classified as Vulnerable in IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Balakrishnan (2005), Christopher & Jayson (1996), Kurup & Joseph (2001), Madhusudan (1995), Pocock (1941a), Wirth & VanRompaey (1991), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Martes gwatkinsii Horsfield, 1851, Madras, India.The Nilgiri Marten has been considered a subspecies of the Yellow-throated Marten by some authors. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Martre des Nilgiri @fr | Sidindischer Buntmarder @de | Marta india @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"630","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gwatkinsii","name":"Martes gwatkinsii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"India(Western Ghats).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714163/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Balakrishnan (2005) | Christopher & Jayson (1996) | Kurup & Joseph (2001) | Madhusudan (1995) | Pocock (1941a) | Wirth & VanRompaey (1991) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Very little known, but there are reports of Nilgiri Martens preying on crows, Indian Giant Squirrels (Ratufa indica), Indian Spotted Chevrotains (Tragulus meminna), and Bengal monitor lizards (Varanus bengalensis), and feeding on honey and nectar.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Appear to be diurnal. Nilgiri Martens are seen on the ground, but they atleast partly arboreal as several recent sightings were of individuals in the canopy or in the hollows of trees (Elaeocarpus sp.).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Solitary individuals and pairs have been seen.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"CITESAppendix III (India). Classified as Vulnerable in IUCNRed List. Very little is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-70 cm(male), tail 35-50 cm(male); weight 1-3 kg(male). The Nilgiri Marten is very similar to the Yellow-throated Marten. The pelage is mostly dark brown; the shoulders and torso are rufous-brown. There are distinct rusty-yellow to lemon-yellow markings on the throat. The skull is low and flat.","habitat":"Forests, between 120 and 2383 melevation."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"631","verbatimText":"15.FisherMartes pennantiFrench:Pekan/ German:Fischermarder/ Spanish:Marta pekanTaxonomy.Mustela pennant: Erxleben, 1777, Eastern Canada.Recent molecular studies have suggested that the Fisher should be placed in its own genus, Pekania. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. p. pennanti Exxleben, 1777— E Canadaand NE USA.M. p. columbiana Goldman, 1935— W Canadaand and USA(Rocky Mts).M. p. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W Canada(coastal British Columbia) and W USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-65 cm(males), 45-556 cm(females); tail 30-50 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females); weight 3.5-5.5 kg(males), 2.2-5 kg(females), adult males are roughly twice the weight of females. The Fisher has a long body, short limbs, a bushy tail, and large feet with strong claws. It is the largest member of the genus Martes. The pelage is silvery-brown to black; the back of the neck and head are often grayish or silver. White markings on the throat and upper chest are common. The skull has a strong sagittal crest, which is particularly well- developed in older males. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4.M1/2=238,Habitat.Fishers are found in dense forests with a closed canopy; they avoid open areas. In north-eastern Canadaand United States, they also occur in fragmented, mixed woodlots interspersed with agricultural land. In California, mid-seral Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) forest typescompose the greatest proportion of Fisher home ranges in the Coastal Mountains; the greatest proportion of home ranges in the Sierra Nevadas are in the intermediate tree size class with dense canopy closure, and in mixed conifer forests. In south-central Maine, Fishers use a variety of forest types, especially during summer. During winter, they hunt intensively in dense patches of coniferous undergrowth (where Snowshoe Hare tracks are common) and use deciduous stands less than expected by availability.Food and Feeding.The diet includes lagomorphs (especially the Snowshoe Hare), North American Porcupines, ungulate carrion, small mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. During the winter in British Columbia, 18 typesof mammalian and avian prey were found in 256 stomachs. The most commonly occurring prey species were Snowshoe Hares, Red Squirrels, and Southern Red-backed Voles. The diet varied between sexes: female fishers consumed small prey more frequently than did males. In the mountains of California’s Sierra Nevada, where the Snowshoe Hare and North American Porcupine are absent, other mammals are the most frequent food item; however, reptiles (20-4%) and insects (55-7%) are major components of the diet, and at least six fungal species are also eaten. In the mixed-conifer forests of the southern Sierra Nevada, where Fishers and American Martens occur together, the diets of both species are more diverse than reported elsewhere in North America. Although the diet of Fishers includes more birds,lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens, the dietary overlap is high. The great diversity of the diet in these two species may be due to the absence or rarity of large prey (such as Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevadacompared to other areas. In south-eastern Manitoba, Fishers prey heavily on Snowshoe Hares (84:3% frequency occurrence). In Vermont, most of the diet is mammalian (72%), with avian prey (15%) and fruit (10%) of secondary importance. In south-central Maine, winter foods include apples, porcupines, hares, Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), Red Squirrels, Northern Flying Squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), mice (Peromyscus), voles (Clethrionomys gapperi and Microtus), and shrews (Sorex and Blarina). The fall and winter diet in West Virginiaand Marylandincludes ten mammal species, four bird species, one gastropod species, and two typesof vegetation. White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most frequent dietary component. Medium-sized mammals such as Northern Raccoon and small mammals such as Peromyscus sp. are also major dietary components, although small mammals occur less frequently than reported elsewhere. Diet overlap between the sexes was found to be considerable and differences between the sexes in the occurrence of major food groups (small mammals, medium-sized mammals, large mammals, birds, and fruit) were not significant. Hunting strategies vary with prey type. Snowshoe Hares are caught after rapid zig-zagging chases. Fishers hunt porcupines by searching for their dens. The arboreal skills of Fishers enable them to chase porcupines down trees to the ground, where they kill them after lengthy attacks, during which the Fisher repeatedly bites the porcupine’s face (which is unprotected by quills).Activity patterns.Active during the day and night; most activity occurs shortly before sunrise and after sunset. Males and females show similar amounts of activity, and both sexes are active more frequently in summer than winter. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or trees, brush piles, or in rock crevices. Fishers in Californiaselect restsites in forested areas that have dense canopies, large trees, and steep slopes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, standing trees (live and dead) are the most common resting structures, with Californiablack oak (Quercus kelloggit) and Douglas-fir the most frequent species in the Sierra and Coastal areas, respectively. Resting structures are within the largest diameter trees available, averaging 117- 3 cmfor live conifers, 119- 8 cmfor conifer snags, and 69 cmfor hardwoods. Females use cavity structures more often than males, while males use platform structures significantly more than females. The diversity of typesand sizes of rest structures used by males suggests that males are less selective than females. In the Sierra Nevadastudy area, where surface water is less common, Fishers prefer rest sites within 100 mof water. In a central hardwood forest, Fishers were found to rest in hardwood, softwood, and mixedwood forest typesin proportion to their availability in the summer, but tended to avoid hardwood areas in winter. They used nests, cavities, and burrows in proportionto their availability in winter, but in the summer, Fishers preferred nests to cavities, and burrows were not used. Males tended to use larger cavity trees and mixed forest stands more often than females. During spring, summer, and fall in south-central Maine, Fishers prefer using rest sites in the branches of conifers, within coniferous stands.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Fishers are primarily terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are capable of long movements in short time spans; individuals have been reported to move 90 kmin three days, 45 kmin two days, and 10-11 kmin only a few hours. Usual daily movements are 1-5- 3 km. Movements of males are greatest during the spring breeding season; non-reproductive females move similar distances during all seasons. Adult Fishers are solitary outside of the breeding season. Mean home range sizes are up to 40 km* for males and up to 20 km* for females. There is little overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but there is extensive overlap between the ranges of opposite sexes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, the mean home range size of males (39- 4 km?) was significantly greater than that of females (9- 8 km”); the home ranges of females were significantly greater in the Coastal area than in the Sierras. In eastern Ontario, the mean adult home range size was 4- 4 km?, with up to 71% overlap of adjacent intrasexual home ranges. In Quebec, in an area where trapping had been prohibited for more than 20 years, mean home range size was 9- 2 km” for adult males and 5- 4 km?*for adult females. In south-central Maine, the home ranges of females were stable between seasons and years, but males moved extensively from February through April, and their ranges shifted between years. Home ranges averaged 30- 9 km” for males (range = 10-6-78- 2 km?) and 16- 3 km? for females (range = 8-1-39- 1 km?). The ranges of adults usually did not overlap with others of the same sex, except for males during spring. Fishers of both sexes shifted or enlarged their ranges to include areas left vacant when others of the same sex were removed. Population density in preferred habitat is one per 2:6-7- 5 km? but in other areas it may be as low as one per 200 km*. The adult population density was calculated as 327/ 100 km* in eastern Ontario, 2.7/ 10 km? in Quebec, and 1/2:8-10- 5 km? (summer) and 1/8- 3-20 km* (winter) in south-central Maine.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Fishers are considered common throughout most of their range, particularly in Canada, but they may be threatened in the western USA. They are trapped for their fur. In the 19\" and early 20™ centuries, excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging led to a decline in Fisher populations over most ofits range. Closed hunting seasons, protective regulations, and reintroductions were then initiated in many areas. The Fisher has made a comeback in parts of the eastern United States, but it is still vulnerable in the western states, where it seems to be dependent on old-growth forests.Bibliography.Arthur & Krohn (1991), Arthur et al. (1989a, 1989b), Dzialak et al. (2005), Garant & Crete(1997), Kilpatrick & Rego (1994), Koen et al. (2007), Koepfli et al. (2008), Paragi et al. (1994), Powell (1979, 1981, 1993), Powell et al. (2003), Raine (1983, 1987), VanWhy & Giuliano (2001), Weir & Corbould (2007), Wozencraft (2005), Zielinski, Duncan et al. (1999), Zielinski, Truex et al. (2004a, 2004Db).","taxonomy":"Mustela pennant: Erxleben, 1777, Eastern Canada.Recent molecular studies have suggested that the Fisher should be placed in its own genus, Pekania. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Pekan @fr | Fischermarder @de | Marta pekan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"631","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pennanti","name":"Martes pennanti","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. p. pennanti Exxleben, 1777— E Canadaand NE USA.M. p. columbiana Goldman, 1935— W Canadaand and USA(Rocky Mts).M. p. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W Canada(coastal British Columbia) and W USA.","bibliography":"Arthur & Krohn (1991) | Arthur et al. (1989a, 1989b) | Dzialak et al. (2005) | Garant & Crete(1997) | Kilpatrick & Rego (1994) | Koen et al. (2007) | Koepfli et al. (2008) | Paragi et al. (1994) | Powell (1979, 1981, 1993) | Powell et al. (2003) | Raine (1983, 1987) | VanWhy & Giuliano (2001) | Weir & Corbould (2007) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zielinski, Duncan et al. (1999) | Zielinski, Truex et al. (2004a, 2004Db)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes lagomorphs (especially the Snowshoe Hare), North American Porcupines, ungulate carrion, small mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. During the winter in British Columbia, 18 typesof mammalian and avian prey were found in 256 stomachs. The most commonly occurring prey species were Snowshoe Hares, Red Squirrels, and Southern Red-backed Voles. The diet varied between sexes: female fishers consumed small prey more frequently than did males. In the mountains of California’s Sierra Nevada, where the Snowshoe Hare and North American Porcupine are absent, other mammals are the most frequent food item; however, reptiles (20-4%) and insects (55-7%) are major components of the diet, and at least six fungal species are also eaten. In the mixed-conifer forests of the southern Sierra Nevada, where Fishers and American Martens occur together, the diets of both species are more diverse than reported elsewhere in North America. Although the diet of Fishers includes more birds,lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens, the dietary overlap is high. The great diversity of the diet in these two species may be due to the absence or rarity of large prey (such as Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevadacompared to other areas. In south-eastern Manitoba, Fishers prey heavily on Snowshoe Hares (84:3% frequency occurrence). In Vermont, most of the diet is mammalian (72%), with avian prey (15%) and fruit (10%) of secondary importance. In south-central Maine, winter foods include apples, porcupines, hares, Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), Red Squirrels, Northern Flying Squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), mice (Peromyscus), voles (Clethrionomys gapperi and Microtus), and shrews (Sorex and Blarina). The fall and winter diet in West Virginiaand Marylandincludes ten mammal species, four bird species, one gastropod species, and two typesof vegetation. White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most frequent dietary component. Medium-sized mammals such as Northern Raccoon and small mammals such as Peromyscus sp. are also major dietary components, although small mammals occur less frequently than reported elsewhere. Diet overlap between the sexes was found to be considerable and differences between the sexes in the occurrence of major food groups (small mammals, medium-sized mammals, large mammals, birds, and fruit) were not significant. Hunting strategies vary with prey type. Snowshoe Hares are caught after rapid zig-zagging chases. Fishers hunt porcupines by searching for their dens. The arboreal skills of Fishers enable them to chase porcupines down trees to the ground, where they kill them after lengthy attacks, during which the Fisher repeatedly bites the porcupine’s face (which is unprotected by quills).","breeding":"Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.","activityPatterns":"Active during the day and night; most activity occurs shortly before sunrise and after sunset. Males and females show similar amounts of activity, and both sexes are active more frequently in summer than winter. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or trees, brush piles, or in rock crevices. Fishers in Californiaselect restsites in forested areas that have dense canopies, large trees, and steep slopes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, standing trees (live and dead) are the most common resting structures, with Californiablack oak (Quercus kelloggit) and Douglas-fir the most frequent species in the Sierra and Coastal areas, respectively. Resting structures are within the largest diameter trees available, averaging 117- 3 cmfor live conifers, 119- 8 cmfor conifer snags, and 69 cmfor hardwoods. Females use cavity structures more often than males, while males use platform structures significantly more than females. The diversity of typesand sizes of rest structures used by males suggests that males are less selective than females. In the Sierra Nevadastudy area, where surface water is less common, Fishers prefer rest sites within 100 mof water. In a central hardwood forest, Fishers were found to rest in hardwood, softwood, and mixedwood forest typesin proportion to their availability in the summer, but tended to avoid hardwood areas in winter. They used nests, cavities, and burrows in proportionto their availability in winter, but in the summer, Fishers preferred nests to cavities, and burrows were not used. Males tended to use larger cavity trees and mixed forest stands more often than females. During spring, summer, and fall in south-central Maine, Fishers prefer using rest sites in the branches of conifers, within coniferous stands.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Fishers are primarily terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are capable of long movements in short time spans; individuals have been reported to move 90 kmin three days, 45 kmin two days, and 10-11 kmin only a few hours. Usual daily movements are 1-5- 3 km. Movements of males are greatest during the spring breeding season; non-reproductive females move similar distances during all seasons. Adult Fishers are solitary outside of the breeding season. Mean home range sizes are up to 40 km* for males and up to 20 km* for females. There is little overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but there is extensive overlap between the ranges of opposite sexes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, the mean home range size of males (39- 4 km?) was significantly greater than that of females (9- 8 km”); the home ranges of females were significantly greater in the Coastal area than in the Sierras. In eastern Ontario, the mean adult home range size was 4- 4 km?, with up to 71% overlap of adjacent intrasexual home ranges. In Quebec, in an area where trapping had been prohibited for more than 20 years, mean home range size was 9- 2 km” for adult males and 5- 4 km?*for adult females. In south-central Maine, the home ranges of females were stable between seasons and years, but males moved extensively from February through April, and their ranges shifted between years. Home ranges averaged 30- 9 km” for males (range = 10-6-78- 2 km?) and 16- 3 km? for females (range = 8-1-39- 1 km?). The ranges of adults usually did not overlap with others of the same sex, except for males during spring. Fishers of both sexes shifted or enlarged their ranges to include areas left vacant when others of the same sex were removed. Population density in preferred habitat is one per 2:6-7- 5 km? but in other areas it may be as low as one per 200 km*. The adult population density was calculated as 327/ 100 km* in eastern Ontario, 2.7/ 10 km? in Quebec, and 1/2:8-10- 5 km? (summer) and 1/8- 3-20 km* (winter) in south-central Maine.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Fishers are considered common throughout most of their range, particularly in Canada, but they may be threatened in the western USA. They are trapped for their fur. In the 19\" and early 20™ centuries, excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging led to a decline in Fisher populations over most ofits range. Closed hunting seasons, protective regulations, and reintroductions were then initiated in many areas. The Fisher has made a comeback in parts of the eastern United States, but it is still vulnerable in the western states, where it seems to be dependent on old-growth forests.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-65 cm(males), 45-556 cm(females); tail 30-50 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females); weight 3.5-5.5 kg(males), 2.2-5 kg(females), adult males are roughly twice the weight of females. The Fisher has a long body, short limbs, a bushy tail, and large feet with strong claws. It is the largest member of the genus Martes. The pelage is silvery-brown to black; the back of the neck and head are often grayish or silver. White markings on the throat and upper chest are common. The skull has a strong sagittal crest, which is particularly well- developed in older males. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4.","habitat":"Fishers are found in dense forests with a closed canopy; they avoid open areas. In north-eastern Canadaand United States, they also occur in fragmented, mixed woodlots interspersed with agricultural land. In California, mid-seral Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) forest typescompose the greatest proportion of Fisher home ranges in the Coastal Mountains; the greatest proportion of home ranges in the Sierra Nevadas are in the intermediate tree size class with dense canopy closure, and in mixed conifer forests. In south-central Maine, Fishers use a variety of forest types, especially during summer. During winter, they hunt intensively in dense patches of coniferous undergrowth (where Snowshoe Hare tracks are common) and use deciduous stands less than expected by availability."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"631","verbatimText":"14.Japanese MartenMartes melampusFrench:Martre du Japon/ German:Japanischer Marder/ Spanish:Marta japonesaTaxonomy.Mustela melampus Wagner, 1841, Japan.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. melampus Wagner, 1841— Japan(Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku Is).M. m. coreensis Kuroda & Mori, 1923— North and South Korea.M. m. tsuensis Thomas, 1897— Japan(Tsushima I).Introduced on Sado and HokkaidoIs.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-54.5 cm, tail 17-223 cm; average weight is 1-5 kgfor males and 1 kgfor females. The Japanese Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the throat and upper chest.Habitat.Broadleaf forests.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, centipedes, spiders, crustaceans, earthworms), fruits, and seeds. In the Kuju Highlandon Kyushu, the mean frequencies of occurrence of food items in scats were 79-7% animals and 511% plants. The diet comprised mainly insects, mammals, crustaceans, and 36 plant species. There were high frequencies of insects from June to October, mammals in February, April and December, crustaceans in August and October, and plants in October and December. Scats collected from the Tsushima Islands revealed that small mammals comprised a relatively stable proportion of the diet throughout the year (range 8-2 to 16-8%), whereas birds showed a peak from January (11-3%) to March (14:6%). Amphibians, mostly small adult frogs (Rana tsushimensis), were most common in the diet in February (9-7%). Insects were the most common animal prey, but their proportions in the diet varied greatly from 10-5% in May to 27-8% in August, and they were consistently least common throughout the winter. Centipedes (mostly Scolopendra subspinipes) were frequently eaten during May andJune (16:9-17-4%). Plant materials were the most common of all foods throughout the year (28:8-53-9%). Berries and seeds occurred at the highest frequency in April (41%, especially Rubus hirsutus and Elaeagnus pungens) and in September (47-3%, especially Vitis ficifolia and Ficus electa).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal. Resting sites are in trees and in ground burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On the Tsushima Islands, the mean home range size was 0-7 km? for eight malesand 0-63 km? for three females; home ranges were not significantly different between the sexes and ranged from 0-5- 1 km?®. There waslittle overlap of home ranges.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. m. tsuensisis classified as Vulnerable. The Japanese Marten is trapped forits fur during the hunting season (1 December to 31 January), except on HokkaidoIsland. The subspecies M. m. tsuensis, found only on the Tsushima Islands, has been protected from trapping since 1971. Predation by feral dogs and highway mortality appear to be major threats.Bibliography.Arai et al. (2003), Kuroda & Mori (1923), Otani (2002), Shusei et al. (2003), Tatara (1994), Tatara & Doi (1994), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela melampus Wagner, 1841, Japan.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Martre du Japon @fr | Japanischer Marder @de | Marta japonesa @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"631","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"melampus","name":"Martes melampus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. melampus Wagner, 1841— Japan(Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku Is).M. m. coreensis Kuroda & Mori, 1923— North and South Korea.M. m. tsuensis Thomas, 1897— Japan(Tsushima I).Introduced on Sado and HokkaidoIs.","bibliography":"Arai et al. (2003) | Kuroda & Mori (1923) | Otani (2002) | Shusei et al. (2003) | Tatara (1994) | Tatara & Doi (1994) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, centipedes, spiders, crustaceans, earthworms), fruits, and seeds. In the Kuju Highlandon Kyushu, the mean frequencies of occurrence of food items in scats were 79-7% animals and 511% plants. The diet comprised mainly insects, mammals, crustaceans, and 36 plant species. There were high frequencies of insects from June to October, mammals in February, April and December, crustaceans in August and October, and plants in October and December. Scats collected from the Tsushima Islands revealed that small mammals comprised a relatively stable proportion of the diet throughout the year (range 8-2 to 16-8%), whereas birds showed a peak from January (11-3%) to March (14:6%). Amphibians, mostly small adult frogs (Rana tsushimensis), were most common in the diet in February (9-7%). Insects were the most common animal prey, but their proportions in the diet varied greatly from 10-5% in May to 27-8% in August, and they were consistently least common throughout the winter. Centipedes (mostly Scolopendra subspinipes) were frequently eaten during May andJune (16:9-17-4%). Plant materials were the most common of all foods throughout the year (28:8-53-9%). Berries and seeds occurred at the highest frequency in April (41%, especially Rubus hirsutus and Elaeagnus pungens) and in September (47-3%, especially Vitis ficifolia and Ficus electa).","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal. Resting sites are in trees and in ground burrows.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"On the Tsushima Islands, the mean home range size was 0-7 km? for eight malesand 0-63 km? for three females; home ranges were not significantly different between the sexes and ranged from 0-5- 1 km?®. There waslittle overlap of home ranges.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. m. tsuensisis classified as Vulnerable. The Japanese Marten is trapped forits fur during the hunting season (1 December to 31 January), except on HokkaidoIsland. The subspecies M. m. tsuensis, found only on the Tsushima Islands, has been protected from trapping since 1971. Predation by feral dogs and highway mortality appear to be major threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47-54.5 cm, tail 17-223 cm; average weight is 1-5 kgfor males and 1 kgfor females. The Japanese Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the throat and upper chest.","habitat":"Broadleaf forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"631","verbatimText":"15.FisherMartes pennantiFrench:Pekan/ German:Fischermarder/ Spanish:Marta pekanTaxonomy.Mustela pennant: Erxleben, 1777, Eastern Canada.Recent molecular studies have suggested that the Fisher should be placed in its own genus, Pekania. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. p. pennanti Exxleben, 1777— E Canadaand NE USA.M. p. columbiana Goldman, 1935— W Canadaand and USA(Rocky Mts).M. p. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W Canada(coastal British Columbia) and W USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-65 cm(males), 45-556 cm(females); tail 30-50 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females); weight 3.5-5.5 kg(males), 2.2-5 kg(females), adult males are roughly twice the weight of females. The Fisher has a long body, short limbs, a bushy tail, and large feet with strong claws. It is the largest member of the genus Martes. The pelage is silvery-brown to black; the back of the neck and head are often grayish or silver. White markings on the throat and upper chest are common. The skull has a strong sagittal crest, which is particularly well- developed in older males. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4.M1/2=238,Habitat.Fishers are found in dense forests with a closed canopy; they avoid open areas. In north-eastern Canadaand United States, they also occur in fragmented, mixed woodlots interspersed with agricultural land. In California, mid-seral Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) forest typescompose the greatest proportion of Fisher home ranges in the Coastal Mountains; the greatest proportion of home ranges in the Sierra Nevadas are in the intermediate tree size class with dense canopy closure, and in mixed conifer forests. In south-central Maine, Fishers use a variety of forest types, especially during summer. During winter, they hunt intensively in dense patches of coniferous undergrowth (where Snowshoe Hare tracks are common) and use deciduous stands less than expected by availability.Food and Feeding.The diet includes lagomorphs (especially the Snowshoe Hare), North American Porcupines, ungulate carrion, small mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. During the winter in British Columbia, 18 typesof mammalian and avian prey were found in 256 stomachs. The most commonly occurring prey species were Snowshoe Hares, Red Squirrels, and Southern Red-backed Voles. The diet varied between sexes: female fishers consumed small prey more frequently than did males. In the mountains of California’s Sierra Nevada, where the Snowshoe Hare and North American Porcupine are absent, other mammals are the most frequent food item; however, reptiles (20-4%) and insects (55-7%) are major components of the diet, and at least six fungal species are also eaten. In the mixed-conifer forests of the southern Sierra Nevada, where Fishers and American Martens occur together, the diets of both species are more diverse than reported elsewhere in North America. Although the diet of Fishers includes more birds,lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens, the dietary overlap is high. The great diversity of the diet in these two species may be due to the absence or rarity of large prey (such as Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevadacompared to other areas. In south-eastern Manitoba, Fishers prey heavily on Snowshoe Hares (84:3% frequency occurrence). In Vermont, most of the diet is mammalian (72%), with avian prey (15%) and fruit (10%) of secondary importance. In south-central Maine, winter foods include apples, porcupines, hares, Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), Red Squirrels, Northern Flying Squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), mice (Peromyscus), voles (Clethrionomys gapperi and Microtus), and shrews (Sorex and Blarina). The fall and winter diet in West Virginiaand Marylandincludes ten mammal species, four bird species, one gastropod species, and two typesof vegetation. White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most frequent dietary component. Medium-sized mammals such as Northern Raccoon and small mammals such as Peromyscus sp. are also major dietary components, although small mammals occur less frequently than reported elsewhere. Diet overlap between the sexes was found to be considerable and differences between the sexes in the occurrence of major food groups (small mammals, medium-sized mammals, large mammals, birds, and fruit) were not significant. Hunting strategies vary with prey type. Snowshoe Hares are caught after rapid zig-zagging chases. Fishers hunt porcupines by searching for their dens. The arboreal skills of Fishers enable them to chase porcupines down trees to the ground, where they kill them after lengthy attacks, during which the Fisher repeatedly bites the porcupine’s face (which is unprotected by quills).Activity patterns.Active during the day and night; most activity occurs shortly before sunrise and after sunset. Males and females show similar amounts of activity, and both sexes are active more frequently in summer than winter. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or trees, brush piles, or in rock crevices. Fishers in Californiaselect restsites in forested areas that have dense canopies, large trees, and steep slopes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, standing trees (live and dead) are the most common resting structures, with Californiablack oak (Quercus kelloggit) and Douglas-fir the most frequent species in the Sierra and Coastal areas, respectively. Resting structures are within the largest diameter trees available, averaging 117- 3 cmfor live conifers, 119- 8 cmfor conifer snags, and 69 cmfor hardwoods. Females use cavity structures more often than males, while males use platform structures significantly more than females. The diversity of typesand sizes of rest structures used by males suggests that males are less selective than females. In the Sierra Nevadastudy area, where surface water is less common, Fishers prefer rest sites within 100 mof water. In a central hardwood forest, Fishers were found to rest in hardwood, softwood, and mixedwood forest typesin proportion to their availability in the summer, but tended to avoid hardwood areas in winter. They used nests, cavities, and burrows in proportionto their availability in winter, but in the summer, Fishers preferred nests to cavities, and burrows were not used. Males tended to use larger cavity trees and mixed forest stands more often than females. During spring, summer, and fall in south-central Maine, Fishers prefer using rest sites in the branches of conifers, within coniferous stands.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Fishers are primarily terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are capable of long movements in short time spans; individuals have been reported to move 90 kmin three days, 45 kmin two days, and 10-11 kmin only a few hours. Usual daily movements are 1-5- 3 km. Movements of males are greatest during the spring breeding season; non-reproductive females move similar distances during all seasons. Adult Fishers are solitary outside of the breeding season. Mean home range sizes are up to 40 km* for males and up to 20 km* for females. There is little overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but there is extensive overlap between the ranges of opposite sexes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, the mean home range size of males (39- 4 km?) was significantly greater than that of females (9- 8 km”); the home ranges of females were significantly greater in the Coastal area than in the Sierras. In eastern Ontario, the mean adult home range size was 4- 4 km?, with up to 71% overlap of adjacent intrasexual home ranges. In Quebec, in an area where trapping had been prohibited for more than 20 years, mean home range size was 9- 2 km” for adult males and 5- 4 km?*for adult females. In south-central Maine, the home ranges of females were stable between seasons and years, but males moved extensively from February through April, and their ranges shifted between years. Home ranges averaged 30- 9 km” for males (range = 10-6-78- 2 km?) and 16- 3 km? for females (range = 8-1-39- 1 km?). The ranges of adults usually did not overlap with others of the same sex, except for males during spring. Fishers of both sexes shifted or enlarged their ranges to include areas left vacant when others of the same sex were removed. Population density in preferred habitat is one per 2:6-7- 5 km? but in other areas it may be as low as one per 200 km*. The adult population density was calculated as 327/ 100 km* in eastern Ontario, 2.7/ 10 km? in Quebec, and 1/2:8-10- 5 km? (summer) and 1/8- 3-20 km* (winter) in south-central Maine.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Fishers are considered common throughout most of their range, particularly in Canada, but they may be threatened in the western USA. They are trapped for their fur. In the 19\" and early 20™ centuries, excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging led to a decline in Fisher populations over most ofits range. Closed hunting seasons, protective regulations, and reintroductions were then initiated in many areas. The Fisher has made a comeback in parts of the eastern United States, but it is still vulnerable in the western states, where it seems to be dependent on old-growth forests.Bibliography.Arthur & Krohn (1991), Arthur et al. (1989a, 1989b), Dzialak et al. (2005), Garant & Crete(1997), Kilpatrick & Rego (1994), Koen et al. (2007), Koepfli et al. (2008), Paragi et al. (1994), Powell (1979, 1981, 1993), Powell et al. (2003), Raine (1983, 1987), VanWhy & Giuliano (2001), Weir & Corbould (2007), Wozencraft (2005), Zielinski, Duncan et al. (1999), Zielinski, Truex et al. (2004a, 2004Db).","taxonomy":"Mustela pennant: Erxleben, 1777, Eastern Canada.Recent molecular studies have suggested that the Fisher should be placed in its own genus, Pekania. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Pekan @fr | Fischermarder @de | Marta pekan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"631","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pennanti","name":"Martes pennanti","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. p. pennanti Exxleben, 1777— E Canadaand NE USA.M. p. columbiana Goldman, 1935— W Canadaand and USA(Rocky Mts).M. p. pacifica Rhoads, 1898— W Canada(coastal British Columbia) and W USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714169/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arthur & Krohn (1991) | Arthur et al. (1989a, 1989b) | Dzialak et al. (2005) | Garant & Crete(1997) | Kilpatrick & Rego (1994) | Koen et al. (2007) | Koepfli et al. (2008) | Paragi et al. (1994) | Powell (1979, 1981, 1993) | Powell et al. (2003) | Raine (1983, 1987) | VanWhy & Giuliano (2001) | Weir & Corbould (2007) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zielinski, Duncan et al. (1999) | Zielinski, Truex et al. (2004a, 2004Db)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes lagomorphs (especially the Snowshoe Hare), North American Porcupines, ungulate carrion, small mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. During the winter in British Columbia, 18 typesof mammalian and avian prey were found in 256 stomachs. The most commonly occurring prey species were Snowshoe Hares, Red Squirrels, and Southern Red-backed Voles. The diet varied between sexes: female fishers consumed small prey more frequently than did males. In the mountains of California’s Sierra Nevada, where the Snowshoe Hare and North American Porcupine are absent, other mammals are the most frequent food item; however, reptiles (20-4%) and insects (55-7%) are major components of the diet, and at least six fungal species are also eaten. In the mixed-conifer forests of the southern Sierra Nevada, where Fishers and American Martens occur together, the diets of both species are more diverse than reported elsewhere in North America. Although the diet of Fishers includes more birds,lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens, the dietary overlap is high. The great diversity of the diet in these two species may be due to the absence or rarity of large prey (such as Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey typesin the southern Sierra Nevadacompared to other areas. In south-eastern Manitoba, Fishers prey heavily on Snowshoe Hares (84:3% frequency occurrence). In Vermont, most of the diet is mammalian (72%), with avian prey (15%) and fruit (10%) of secondary importance. In south-central Maine, winter foods include apples, porcupines, hares, Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), Red Squirrels, Northern Flying Squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), mice (Peromyscus), voles (Clethrionomys gapperi and Microtus), and shrews (Sorex and Blarina). The fall and winter diet in West Virginiaand Marylandincludes ten mammal species, four bird species, one gastropod species, and two typesof vegetation. White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most frequent dietary component. Medium-sized mammals such as Northern Raccoon and small mammals such as Peromyscus sp. are also major dietary components, although small mammals occur less frequently than reported elsewhere. Diet overlap between the sexes was found to be considerable and differences between the sexes in the occurrence of major food groups (small mammals, medium-sized mammals, large mammals, birds, and fruit) were not significant. Hunting strategies vary with prey type. Snowshoe Hares are caught after rapid zig-zagging chases. Fishers hunt porcupines by searching for their dens. The arboreal skills of Fishers enable them to chase porcupines down trees to the ground, where they kill them after lengthy attacks, during which the Fisher repeatedly bites the porcupine’s face (which is unprotected by quills).","breeding":"Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.","activityPatterns":"Active during the day and night; most activity occurs shortly before sunrise and after sunset. Males and females show similar amounts of activity, and both sexes are active more frequently in summer than winter. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or trees, brush piles, or in rock crevices. Fishers in Californiaselect restsites in forested areas that have dense canopies, large trees, and steep slopes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, standing trees (live and dead) are the most common resting structures, with Californiablack oak (Quercus kelloggit) and Douglas-fir the most frequent species in the Sierra and Coastal areas, respectively. Resting structures are within the largest diameter trees available, averaging 117- 3 cmfor live conifers, 119- 8 cmfor conifer snags, and 69 cmfor hardwoods. Females use cavity structures more often than males, while males use platform structures significantly more than females. The diversity of typesand sizes of rest structures used by males suggests that males are less selective than females. In the Sierra Nevadastudy area, where surface water is less common, Fishers prefer rest sites within 100 mof water. In a central hardwood forest, Fishers were found to rest in hardwood, softwood, and mixedwood forest typesin proportion to their availability in the summer, but tended to avoid hardwood areas in winter. They used nests, cavities, and burrows in proportionto their availability in winter, but in the summer, Fishers preferred nests to cavities, and burrows were not used. Males tended to use larger cavity trees and mixed forest stands more often than females. During spring, summer, and fall in south-central Maine, Fishers prefer using rest sites in the branches of conifers, within coniferous stands.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Fishers are primarily terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are capable of long movements in short time spans; individuals have been reported to move 90 kmin three days, 45 kmin two days, and 10-11 kmin only a few hours. Usual daily movements are 1-5- 3 km. Movements of males are greatest during the spring breeding season; non-reproductive females move similar distances during all seasons. Adult Fishers are solitary outside of the breeding season. Mean home range sizes are up to 40 km* for males and up to 20 km* for females. There is little overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but there is extensive overlap between the ranges of opposite sexes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevadain California, the mean home range size of males (39- 4 km?) was significantly greater than that of females (9- 8 km”); the home ranges of females were significantly greater in the Coastal area than in the Sierras. In eastern Ontario, the mean adult home range size was 4- 4 km?, with up to 71% overlap of adjacent intrasexual home ranges. In Quebec, in an area where trapping had been prohibited for more than 20 years, mean home range size was 9- 2 km” for adult males and 5- 4 km?*for adult females. In south-central Maine, the home ranges of females were stable between seasons and years, but males moved extensively from February through April, and their ranges shifted between years. Home ranges averaged 30- 9 km” for males (range = 10-6-78- 2 km?) and 16- 3 km? for females (range = 8-1-39- 1 km?). The ranges of adults usually did not overlap with others of the same sex, except for males during spring. Fishers of both sexes shifted or enlarged their ranges to include areas left vacant when others of the same sex were removed. Population density in preferred habitat is one per 2:6-7- 5 km? but in other areas it may be as low as one per 200 km*. The adult population density was calculated as 327/ 100 km* in eastern Ontario, 2.7/ 10 km? in Quebec, and 1/2:8-10- 5 km? (summer) and 1/8- 3-20 km* (winter) in south-central Maine.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 gand are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Fishers are considered common throughout most of their range, particularly in Canada, but they may be threatened in the western USA. They are trapped for their fur. In the 19\" and early 20™ centuries, excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging led to a decline in Fisher populations over most ofits range. Closed hunting seasons, protective regulations, and reintroductions were then initiated in many areas. The Fisher has made a comeback in parts of the eastern United States, but it is still vulnerable in the western states, where it seems to be dependent on old-growth forests.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-65 cm(males), 45-556 cm(females); tail 30-50 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females); weight 3.5-5.5 kg(males), 2.2-5 kg(females), adult males are roughly twice the weight of females. The Fisher has a long body, short limbs, a bushy tail, and large feet with strong claws. It is the largest member of the genus Martes. The pelage is silvery-brown to black; the back of the neck and head are often grayish or silver. White markings on the throat and upper chest are common. The skull has a strong sagittal crest, which is particularly well- developed in older males. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4.","habitat":"Fishers are found in dense forests with a closed canopy; they avoid open areas. In north-eastern Canadaand United States, they also occur in fragmented, mixed woodlots interspersed with agricultural land. In California, mid-seral Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) forest typescompose the greatest proportion of Fisher home ranges in the Coastal Mountains; the greatest proportion of home ranges in the Sierra Nevadas are in the intermediate tree size class with dense canopy closure, and in mixed conifer forests. In south-central Maine, Fishers use a variety of forest types, especially during summer. During winter, they hunt intensively in dense patches of coniferous undergrowth (where Snowshoe Hare tracks are common) and use deciduous stands less than expected by availability."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"631","verbatimText":"14.Japanese MartenMartes melampusFrench:Martre du Japon/ German:Japanischer Marder/ Spanish:Marta japonesaTaxonomy.Mustela melampus Wagner, 1841, Japan.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. melampus Wagner, 1841— Japan(Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku Is).M. m. coreensis Kuroda & Mori, 1923— North and South Korea.M. m. tsuensis Thomas, 1897— Japan(Tsushima I).Introduced on Sado and HokkaidoIs.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-54.5 cm, tail 17-223 cm; average weight is 1-5 kgfor males and 1 kgfor females. The Japanese Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the throat and upper chest.Habitat.Broadleaf forests.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, centipedes, spiders, crustaceans, earthworms), fruits, and seeds. In the Kuju Highlandon Kyushu, the mean frequencies of occurrence of food items in scats were 79-7% animals and 511% plants. The diet comprised mainly insects, mammals, crustaceans, and 36 plant species. There were high frequencies of insects from June to October, mammals in February, April and December, crustaceans in August and October, and plants in October and December. Scats collected from the Tsushima Islands revealed that small mammals comprised a relatively stable proportion of the diet throughout the year (range 8-2 to 16-8%), whereas birds showed a peak from January (11-3%) to March (14:6%). Amphibians, mostly small adult frogs (Rana tsushimensis), were most common in the diet in February (9-7%). Insects were the most common animal prey, but their proportions in the diet varied greatly from 10-5% in May to 27-8% in August, and they were consistently least common throughout the winter. Centipedes (mostly Scolopendra subspinipes) were frequently eaten during May andJune (16:9-17-4%). Plant materials were the most common of all foods throughout the year (28:8-53-9%). Berries and seeds occurred at the highest frequency in April (41%, especially Rubus hirsutus and Elaeagnus pungens) and in September (47-3%, especially Vitis ficifolia and Ficus electa).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal. Resting sites are in trees and in ground burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On the Tsushima Islands, the mean home range size was 0-7 km? for eight malesand 0-63 km? for three females; home ranges were not significantly different between the sexes and ranged from 0-5- 1 km?®. There waslittle overlap of home ranges.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. m. tsuensisis classified as Vulnerable. The Japanese Marten is trapped forits fur during the hunting season (1 December to 31 January), except on HokkaidoIsland. The subspecies M. m. tsuensis, found only on the Tsushima Islands, has been protected from trapping since 1971. Predation by feral dogs and highway mortality appear to be major threats.Bibliography.Arai et al. (2003), Kuroda & Mori (1923), Otani (2002), Shusei et al. (2003), Tatara (1994), Tatara & Doi (1994), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela melampus Wagner, 1841, Japan.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Martre du Japon @fr | Japanischer Marder @de | Marta japonesa @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pinel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"631","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"melampus","name":"Martes melampus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. melampus Wagner, 1841— Japan(Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku Is).M. m. coreensis Kuroda & Mori, 1923— North and South Korea.M. m. tsuensis Thomas, 1897— Japan(Tsushima I).Introduced on Sado and HokkaidoIs.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714167/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arai et al. (2003) | Kuroda & Mori (1923) | Otani (2002) | Shusei et al. (2003) | Tatara (1994) | Tatara & Doi (1994) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, centipedes, spiders, crustaceans, earthworms), fruits, and seeds. In the Kuju Highlandon Kyushu, the mean frequencies of occurrence of food items in scats were 79-7% animals and 511% plants. The diet comprised mainly insects, mammals, crustaceans, and 36 plant species. There were high frequencies of insects from June to October, mammals in February, April and December, crustaceans in August and October, and plants in October and December. Scats collected from the Tsushima Islands revealed that small mammals comprised a relatively stable proportion of the diet throughout the year (range 8-2 to 16-8%), whereas birds showed a peak from January (11-3%) to March (14:6%). Amphibians, mostly small adult frogs (Rana tsushimensis), were most common in the diet in February (9-7%). Insects were the most common animal prey, but their proportions in the diet varied greatly from 10-5% in May to 27-8% in August, and they were consistently least common throughout the winter. Centipedes (mostly Scolopendra subspinipes) were frequently eaten during May andJune (16:9-17-4%). Plant materials were the most common of all foods throughout the year (28:8-53-9%). Berries and seeds occurred at the highest frequency in April (41%, especially Rubus hirsutus and Elaeagnus pungens) and in September (47-3%, especially Vitis ficifolia and Ficus electa).","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal. Resting sites are in trees and in ground burrows.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"On the Tsushima Islands, the mean home range size was 0-7 km? for eight malesand 0-63 km? for three females; home ranges were not significantly different between the sexes and ranged from 0-5- 1 km?®. There waslittle overlap of home ranges.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The subspecies M. m. tsuensisis classified as Vulnerable. The Japanese Marten is trapped forits fur during the hunting season (1 December to 31 January), except on HokkaidoIsland. The subspecies M. m. tsuensis, found only on the Tsushima Islands, has been protected from trapping since 1971. Predation by feral dogs and highway mortality appear to be major threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47-54.5 cm, tail 17-223 cm; average weight is 1-5 kgfor males and 1 kgfor females. The Japanese Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the throat and upper chest.","habitat":"Broadleaf forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA5DFFB2CAAC36CAF8BEF3BF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA5DFFB2CAAC36CAF8BEF3BF","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"632","verbatimText":"16.SableMartes zibellinaFrench:Martre zibeline/ German:Zobel/ Spanish:Marta cibelinaTaxonomy.Mustela zibellina Linnaeus, 1758, Russia.Thirty subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.China, Japan(Hokkaido), Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 38-56 cm(males), 35-51 cm(females); tail 12-19 cm(males), 11.5-17.2 cm(females); weight 800-1800 g(males), 700-1560 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Sable has a long body and short legs, and a short bushy tail around a third of the head and body length. The pelage is long and silky, and varies from pale grayish-brown to dark brown, almost black. The summer pelageis shorter and darker. The top of the head is lighter than the body, and the white neck patch is vestigial. The soles are covered with extremely dense, stiff hairs. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4,M 1/2 = 38.Habitat.Sables are found in deciduous and coniferous forests, and often occur in mountain regions and near streams. They typically prefer mature forests of large trees with a dense canopy. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, Sables prefer late succession mixed forests, with large trees and coarse woody debris, intermediate to dense tree canopy cover, and high densities and diameters of larch tree holes. They avoid open areas, but use the middle of slopes and slope bottoms, and rest on ridge tops with abundant logs, boles, or roots.Food and Feeding.The diet consists mostly of small mammals (rodents, pikas, hares), but also includes birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, insects, fruits, honey, nuts, and berries. The summer diet in the Middle Yenisei taiga, Siberia, comprises microtine rodents, mainly Northern Red-backed Voles Clethrionomys rutilus (52-3% of the biomass). Plant food (seeds of Siberian pine Pinus sibiricaand berries of Vaccinium sp.) is also frequently eaten (79-4% of scats and 19-9% of biomass). Shrews, birds, and insects are supplementary food (25% of biomass). In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the winter diet is mainly small mammals (54-1%), berries and pine nuts (32:4%), birds (12-5%), eggs (2:2%), and ants (1%). The main small mammal prey is Gray Red-backed Voles (Clethrionomys rufocanus) and Northern Red-backed Voles (Myodes rutilus), followed by Mountain Hares (Lepus timidus) and Siberian Chipmunks (Eutamias sibiricus). Birds include hazel grouses Tetrastes bonasia (8-1%), Eurasian jays Garrulus glandarius (0-7%), and great tits Parus major (0-5%). Plant items include berries of Vaccinium vitisideae (20-9%) and pine nuts of Pinus pumila (8:8%). In north-eastern China, remains of mammals were found in 89% ofscats, followed in frequency by soft and hard mast, and birds. Sables selected for C. rufocanus more than shrews (Sorex caecutiens), but ate C. rutilus in proportion to its availability. In eastern Hokkaido, Japan, the diet includes mammals, insects, plants, birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, and crustaceans. Mammals are the commonest food items throughout the year, with voles Clethrionomyssp. (frequency of occurrence 56:5%), Siberian Chipmunks (19-3%) and mice Apodemus sp. (14:6%), most often found in scats. Insects are eaten mainly in the summer (48:8%) and less often in other seasons (9:3% on average). Plant materials, chiefly fruits, are consumed mainly in autumn (45-7%) and winter (68-4%), but are rare in the diet during spring (5-1%) and summer (1-3%).Activity patterns.Active both during the day and at night. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, radio-collared Sables were found to be nocturnal in spring and winter, and diurnal in summer and autumn. Den/rest sites are in holes among or under rocks, in hollow logs, under tree roots, or in burrows (which may be several meters long and lead to an enlarged nest chamber lined with dry vegetation and fur). In Japan, Sables prefer resting in dense tree forests that have many tree species and woody debris.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sables are mainly terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges may be up to 30 km?, especially in the desolate forests of Siberia. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the average home range size of males was 13-03 km® and 7-18 km? for females. There was considerable overlap of home ranges between males and females (average 62%), but virtually no overlap between male individuals. In a cooltemperate mixed forest in Japan, home ranges were 0-50- 1-78 km* (mean 1-12 km?); the home ranges of some individuals overlapped extensively. Reported population densities vary from one per 1-5 km? in pine forests to one per 25 km?® in larch forests.Breeding.Mating occurs from June to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur the following spring, in April or May. Total gestation is 250-300 days; actual embryonic development is 25-40 days. Litter size is one to five, usually three or four. The young weigh 30-35 gat birth, open their eyes after 30-36 days, emerge from the den at 38 days, and are weaned after seven weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 15-16 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Sable is considered common throughout most ofits distribution. It is hunted for its fur, which is one of the most valuable furs produced in Europe and Asia. Sables are also raised on fur farms to help sustain the fur trade; over 25,000 are harvested annually. This species was once common in China, but is now considered rare.Bibliography.Brzezinski (1994), Buskirk et al. (1996a, 1996b), Ma et al. (1999), Miyoshi & Higashi (2005), Murakami (2003), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Xu, Jiang, Ma, Jin et al. (1996), Xu, Jiang, Ma, Li & Buskirk (1997), Zhang & Ma (2000).","taxonomy":"Mustela zibellina Linnaeus, 1758, Russia.Thirty subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","commonNames":"Martre zibeline @fr | Zobel @de | Marta cibelina @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Martes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"632","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zibellina","name":"Martes zibellina","subspeciesAndDistribution":"China, Japan(Hokkaido), Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714173/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Brzezinski (1994) | Buskirk et al. (1996a, 1996b) | Ma et al. (1999) | Miyoshi & Higashi (2005) | Murakami (2003) | Stroganov (1969) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Xu, Jiang, Ma, Jin et al. (1996) | Xu, Jiang, Ma, Li & Buskirk (1997) | Zhang & Ma (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists mostly of small mammals (rodents, pikas, hares), but also includes birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, insects, fruits, honey, nuts, and berries. The summer diet in the Middle Yenisei taiga, Siberia, comprises microtine rodents, mainly Northern Red-backed Voles Clethrionomys rutilus (52-3% of the biomass). Plant food (seeds of Siberian pine Pinus sibiricaand berries of Vaccinium sp.) is also frequently eaten (79-4% of scats and 19-9% of biomass). Shrews, birds, and insects are supplementary food (25% of biomass). In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the winter diet is mainly small mammals (54-1%), berries and pine nuts (32:4%), birds (12-5%), eggs (2:2%), and ants (1%). The main small mammal prey is Gray Red-backed Voles (Clethrionomys rufocanus) and Northern Red-backed Voles (Myodes rutilus), followed by Mountain Hares (Lepus timidus) and Siberian Chipmunks (Eutamias sibiricus). Birds include hazel grouses Tetrastes bonasia (8-1%), Eurasian jays Garrulus glandarius (0-7%), and great tits Parus major (0-5%). Plant items include berries of Vaccinium vitisideae (20-9%) and pine nuts of Pinus pumila (8:8%). In north-eastern China, remains of mammals were found in 89% ofscats, followed in frequency by soft and hard mast, and birds. Sables selected for C. rufocanus more than shrews (Sorex caecutiens), but ate C. rutilus in proportion to its availability. In eastern Hokkaido, Japan, the diet includes mammals, insects, plants, birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, and crustaceans. Mammals are the commonest food items throughout the year, with voles Clethrionomyssp. (frequency of occurrence 56:5%), Siberian Chipmunks (19-3%) and mice Apodemus sp. (14:6%), most often found in scats. Insects are eaten mainly in the summer (48:8%) and less often in other seasons (9:3% on average). Plant materials, chiefly fruits, are consumed mainly in autumn (45-7%) and winter (68-4%), but are rare in the diet during spring (5-1%) and summer (1-3%).","breeding":"Mating occurs from June to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur the following spring, in April or May. Total gestation is 250-300 days; actual embryonic development is 25-40 days. Litter size is one to five, usually three or four. The young weigh 30-35 gat birth, open their eyes after 30-36 days, emerge from the den at 38 days, and are weaned after seven weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 15-16 months.","activityPatterns":"Active both during the day and at night. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, radio-collared Sables were found to be nocturnal in spring and winter, and diurnal in summer and autumn. Den/rest sites are in holes among or under rocks, in hollow logs, under tree roots, or in burrows (which may be several meters long and lead to an enlarged nest chamber lined with dry vegetation and fur). In Japan, Sables prefer resting in dense tree forests that have many tree species and woody debris.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sables are mainly terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges may be up to 30 km?, especially in the desolate forests of Siberia. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the average home range size of males was 13-03 km® and 7-18 km? for females. There was considerable overlap of home ranges between males and females (average 62%), but virtually no overlap between male individuals. In a cooltemperate mixed forest in Japan, home ranges were 0-50- 1-78 km* (mean 1-12 km?); the home ranges of some individuals overlapped extensively. Reported population densities vary from one per 1-5 km? in pine forests to one per 25 km?® in larch forests.Breeding.Mating occurs from June to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur the following spring, in April or May. Total gestation is 250-300 days; actual embryonic development is 25-40 days. Litter size is one to five, usually three or four. The young weigh 30-35 gat birth, open their eyes after 30-36 days, emerge from the den at 38 days, and are weaned after seven weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 15-16 months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Sable is considered common throughout most ofits distribution. It is hunted for its fur, which is one of the most valuable furs produced in Europe and Asia. Sables are also raised on fur farms to help sustain the fur trade; over 25,000 are harvested annually. This species was once common in China, but is now considered rare.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 38-56 cm(males), 35-51 cm(females); tail 12-19 cm(males), 11.5-17.2 cm(females); weight 800-1800 g(males), 700-1560 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Sable has a long body and short legs, and a short bushy tail around a third of the head and body length. The pelage is long and silky, and varies from pale grayish-brown to dark brown, almost black. The summer pelageis shorter and darker. The top of the head is lighter than the body, and the white neck patch is vestigial. The soles are covered with extremely dense, stiff hairs. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4,M 1/2 = 38.","habitat":"Sables are found in deciduous and coniferous forests, and often occur in mountain regions and near streams. They typically prefer mature forests of large trees with a dense canopy. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, Sables prefer late succession mixed forests, with large trees and coarse woody debris, intermediate to dense tree canopy cover, and high densities and diameters of larch tree holes. They avoid open areas, but use the middle of slopes and slope bottoms, and rest on ridge tops with abundant logs, boles, or roots."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA70FF9ECFEF367FFDB7FD34.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA70FF9ECFEF367FFDB7FD34","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"651","verbatimText":"46.Yellow-bellied WeaselMustela kathiahFrench:Belette a ventre jaune/ German:Gelbbauchwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja chinaTaxonomy.Mustela kathiah Hodgson, 1835, Nepal.Monotypic.Distribution.Bhutan, S & E China, N & NE India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, N Thailand, and Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 20-29 cm, tail 13-18 cm; weight 150-260 g. The Yellow-bellied Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The upperparts are dark chocolate to rusty brown; the underparts are pale yellow or light orange-brown. The chin and upper lip are whitish. The tail is bushy and the same color as the upperparts. Some white patches may occur on the feet.Habitat.Pine forests, up to 4000 m(above the timber line). In Western Himalaya from 3000-5200 min the cold deserts, but in Hong Kongfound in much lower altitudes, from close to sea-level to over 200 m.Food and Feeding.Diet is said to include rodents, birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, insects, and fruit.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Duckworth & Robichaud (2005), Francis (2008), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela kathiah Hodgson, 1835, Nepal.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Belette a ventre jaune @fr | Gelbbauchwiesel @de | Comadreja china @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"651","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kathiah","name":"Mustela kathiah","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Bhutan, S & E China, N & NE India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, N Thailand, and Vietnam.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714259/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Duckworth & Robichaud (2005) | Francis (2008) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Pocock (1941a) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet is said to include rodents, birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, insects, and fruit.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 20-29 cm, tail 13-18 cm; weight 150-260 g. The Yellow-bellied Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The upperparts are dark chocolate to rusty brown; the underparts are pale yellow or light orange-brown. The chin and upper lip are whitish. The tail is bushy and the same color as the upperparts. Some white patches may occur on the feet.","habitat":"Pine forests, up to 4000 m(above the timber line). In Western Himalaya from 3000-5200 min the cold deserts, but in Hong Kongfound in much lower altitudes, from close to sea-level to over 200 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA70FF9FCFEF38CDFA54F5B0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA70FF9FCFEF38CDFA54F5B0","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"651","verbatimText":"45.Japanese WeaselMustela itatsiFrench:Putois du Japon/ German:Japan-Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja japonesaTaxonomy.Mustela itatsi Temminck, 1844, Japan.The Japanese Weasel was previously considered a subspecies of the Siberian Weasel. Monotypic.Distribution.Japan. Introduced to Hokkaidoand Russia(S Sakhalin).Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-39 cm(males), 25-30- 56 cm(females); tail 15- 5— 21 cm(males), 13: 3-16.4 cm(females); weight 660-820 g(males), 360-430 g(females), adult males are almost twice the weight of females. The Japanese Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer, and becomes paler, almost yellowish brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white.Habitat.Forests. Often found in close proximity to water and sometimes near human dwellings.Food and Feeding.The diet includes insects, reptiles, and small mammals. In Hamura, Japanese Weasels eat rodents, fish, arthropods, and crustaceans throughout the year; seasonal changes in the diet are small. In Tachikawa, the main food items are rodents and fruits in winter and spring, and arthropods and crustaceans in summer and autumn. On Zamami Island, where Japanese Weasels were introduced in 1957 and 1958, they eat a wide variety of prey, mainly insects, followed by reptiles and small mammals.Activity patterns.Nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Solitary.Breeding.Mating occurs in late winter and births occur in the spring.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Japanese Weasel is considered common throughout its range. This species has been introduced to certain areas to control reptiles and rats. Very little is known about Japanese Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Fujii et al. (1998), Keishi et al. (2002), Okada et al. (2007), Sekiguchi et al. (2002), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela itatsi Temminck, 1844, Japan.The Japanese Weasel was previously considered a subspecies of the Siberian Weasel. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Putois du Japon @fr | Japan-Wiesel @de | Comadreja japonesa @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"651","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"itatsi","name":"Mustela itatsi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Japan. Introduced to Hokkaidoand Russia(S Sakhalin).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714257/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Fujii et al. (1998) | Keishi et al. (2002) | Okada et al. (2007) | Sekiguchi et al. (2002) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes insects, reptiles, and small mammals. In Hamura, Japanese Weasels eat rodents, fish, arthropods, and crustaceans throughout the year; seasonal changes in the diet are small. In Tachikawa, the main food items are rodents and fruits in winter and spring, and arthropods and crustaceans in summer and autumn. On Zamami Island, where Japanese Weasels were introduced in 1957 and 1958, they eat a wide variety of prey, mainly insects, followed by reptiles and small mammals.","breeding":"Mating occurs in late winter and births occur in the spring.","activityPatterns":"Nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Solitary.Breeding.Mating occurs in late winter and births occur in the spring.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Japanese Weasel is considered common throughout its range. This species has been introduced to certain areas to control reptiles and rats. Very little is known about Japanese Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 28-39 cm(males), 25-30- 56 cm(females); tail 15- 5— 21 cm(males), 13: 3-16.4 cm(females); weight 660-820 g(males), 360-430 g(females), adult males are almost twice the weight of females. The Japanese Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer, and becomes paler, almost yellowish brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white.","habitat":"Forests. Often found in close proximity to water and sometimes near human dwellings."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA71FF9DCFA53BBDFCD4F9BF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA71FF9DCFA53BBDFCD4F9BF","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"652","verbatimText":"49.Black-footed FerretMustela nigripesFrench:Putois d’Amérique/ German:Schwarzful3iltis/ Spanish:Turon patinegroTaxonomy.Putorius nigripes Audubon & Bachman, 1851, Wyoming, USA.Monotypic.Distribution.Great Plains of USA(Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming) and N Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-50 cm, tail 11.4-15 cm; weight 964-1078 g(males), 764-854 g(females), adult males are larger than females. The Black-footed Ferret has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-buff or beige with black hairs throughout; the underparts are paler. The forehead, muzzle, and throat are nearly white. The top of the head and middle of the back are brown. There is a distinctive, broad, horizontal black stripe across the face. The feet and terminal fourth of the tail are black. There are three pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34Habitat.Black-footed Ferrets are found on short/mid-grass prairies and semi-arid grasslands, in close association with prairie dogs.Food and Feeding.Black-footed Ferrets specialize in preying on prairie dogs (Cynomys), which they hunt by pursuing them inside their burrow systems. Occasionally, they may also eat other small mammals, such as microtine rodents and ground squirrels. One scat study revealed a diet that comprised 87% White-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni), 6% mice, and 3% lagomorphs.Activity pattern.Primarily nocturnal, although daytime activity is not uncommon. Black-footed Ferrets are active throughout the year and continue to hunt prairie dogs during the winter, even though they are in hibernation. Prairie dog burrows are used as den/rest sites and may be modified for their own use.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black-footed Ferrets are solitary, except during the breeding season. They seldom move from one prairie dog colony to another. The average nightly movement during winter is 1406 m. The average prairie dog town size occupied by a Black-footed Ferret is 8 ha, but the average size occupied by females with young is 36 ha (range = 10-120 ha). The mean distance between two towns occupied by Black-footed Ferrets is 5- 4 km. Population density in Wyomingwas estimated to be one ferret per 50 ha of prairie dog colonies.Breeding.Mating occurs in March and April. Gestation lasts 42-45 days and births occur in May and June. Litter size can range from one to six; the average is three. The young emerge from the burrow in early July and separate from the mother in September or early October. Young males disperse a considerable distance, but young females often remain in the vicinity of their mother’s territory. Sexual maturity is attained by one year.Status and Conservation.Listed as Extinct in the Wild in 1996, but the success of conservation measures has changed their status to Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The Black-footed Ferret may once have been common in southern Canada(Alberta, and Saskatchewan), west-central USA(Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, Arizona, and Texas), and northern Mexico. Destruction of prairie dog colonies for the sake of agriculture led to a decline in Black-footed Ferret numbers and eventually they became so rare that many people considered them to be extinct. However, unconfirmed sigh things continued from several states, and in 1981 a small population of Black-footed Ferrets was discovered in Wyoming. Intensive field studies were initiated, and byJuly 1984, the population was estimated to contain 129 individuals. However, the number of ferrets then began to fall, apparently due to a decline in their prairie dog prey; also, canine distemper was somehow introduced into the wild population. By 1987, the remaining 18 individuals were brought into captivity to start a breeding program. By 1991, there were 180 individuals in captivity and 49 ferrets were released into south-eastern Wyoming; 91 more were released in 1992, and another 48 in1993. Most of these animals are thought to have died, but some are known to have survived and reproduced; at least six litters were born in the wild in 1993. Additional reintroductions were carried out in Montana, South Dakota, and Arizona. Today, they are known from 18 reintroduction efforts, only three of which are self sustaining. These self-sustaining populations are in South Dakota and Wyoming; four populations of limited success are in Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, and Utah; eight populations recently introduced are in Arizona, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Mexico; and three other declining or extirpated populations are in Montana. The current status of this species is still extremely precarious.Bibliography.Biggins et al. (1986), Campbell et al. (1987), Hillman & Clark (1980), IUCN(2008), Svendsen (2003), Vargas& Anderson (1998), Wozencraft (2005), Young et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Putorius nigripes Audubon & Bachman, 1851, Wyoming, USA.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Putois d’Amérique @fr | Schwarzful3iltis @de | Turon patinegro @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"33","interpretedPageNumber":"652","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nigripes","name":"Mustela nigripes","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Great Plains of USA(Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, Utah& Wyoming) and N Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714265/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Biggins et al. (1986) | Campbell et al. (1987) | Hillman & Clark (1980) | IUCN(2008) | Svendsen (2003) | Vargas& Anderson (1998) | Wozencraft (2005) | Young et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Black-footed Ferrets specialize in preying on prairie dogs (Cynomys), which they hunt by pursuing them inside their burrow systems. Occasionally, they may also eat other small mammals, such as microtine rodents and ground squirrels. One scat study revealed a diet that comprised 87% White-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni), 6% mice, and 3% lagomorphs.","breeding":"Mating occurs in March and April. Gestation lasts 42-45 days and births occur in May and June. Litter size can range from one to six; the average is three. The young emerge from the burrow in early July and separate from the mother in September or early October. Young males disperse a considerable distance, but young females often remain in the vicinity of their mother’s territory. Sexual maturity is attained by one year.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Black-footed Ferrets are solitary, except during the breeding season. They seldom move from one prairie dog colony to another. The average nightly movement during winter is 1406 m. The average prairie dog town size occupied by a Black-footed Ferret is 8 ha, but the average size occupied by females with young is 36 ha (range = 10-120 ha). The mean distance between two towns occupied by Black-footed Ferrets is 5- 4 km. Population density in Wyomingwas estimated to be one ferret per 50 ha of prairie dog colonies.Breeding.Mating occurs in March and April. Gestation lasts 42-45 days and births occur in May and June. Litter size can range from one to six; the average is three. The young emerge from the burrow in early July and separate from the mother in September or early October. Young males disperse a considerable distance, but young females often remain in the vicinity of their mother’s territory. Sexual maturity is attained by one year.","statusAndConservation":"Listed as Extinct in the Wild in 1996, but the success of conservation measures has changed their status to Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The Black-footed Ferret may once have been common in southern Canada(Alberta, and Saskatchewan), west-central USA(Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, Arizona, and Texas), and northern Mexico. Destruction of prairie dog colonies for the sake of agriculture led to a decline in Black-footed Ferret numbers and eventually they became so rare that many people considered them to be extinct. However, unconfirmed sigh things continued from several states, and in 1981 a small population of Black-footed Ferrets was discovered in Wyoming. Intensive field studies were initiated, and byJuly 1984, the population was estimated to contain 129 individuals. However, the number of ferrets then began to fall, apparently due to a decline in their prairie dog prey; also, canine distemper was somehow introduced into the wild population. By 1987, the remaining 18 individuals were brought into captivity to start a breeding program. By 1991, there were 180 individuals in captivity and 49 ferrets were released into south-eastern Wyoming; 91 more were released in 1992, and another 48 in1993. Most of these animals are thought to have died, but some are known to have survived and reproduced; at least six litters were born in the wild in 1993. Additional reintroductions were carried out in Montana, South Dakota, and Arizona. Today, they are known from 18 reintroduction efforts, only three of which are self sustaining. These self-sustaining populations are in South Dakota and Wyoming; four populations of limited success are in Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, and Utah; eight populations recently introduced are in Arizona, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Mexico; and three other declining or extirpated populations are in Montana. The current status of this species is still extremely precarious.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-50 cm, tail 11.4-15 cm; weight 964-1078 g(males), 764-854 g(females), adult males are larger than females. The Black-footed Ferret has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-buff or beige with black hairs throughout; the underparts are paler. The forehead, muzzle, and throat are nearly white. The top of the head and middle of the back are brown. There is a distinctive, broad, horizontal black stripe across the face. The feet and terminal fourth of the tail are black. There are three pairs of mammae.","habitat":"Black-footed Ferrets are found on short/mid-grass prairies and semi-arid grasslands, in close association with prairie dogs."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA71FF9ECAAD3EE4F91AFD6B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA71FF9ECAAD3EE4F91AFD6B","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"652","verbatimText":"47.European MinkMustela lutreolaFrench:Vison d'Europe/ German:Europaischer Nerz/ Spanish:ison europeoTaxonomy.Viverra lutreola Linnaeus, 1761, Finland.Monotypic.Distribution.Belarus, Estonia, France, Latvia, Romania, Russia(W of Urals), and N Spain.Descriptive notes.Head-body 20-36 cm, tail 12-17.5 cm; weight 650-1000 g(males), 500-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The European Mink has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dense and short, and reddish-brown in color; the underparts are paler than the back. A margin of white occurs around the mouth and sometimes on the chest and throat. The skull is flat and narrow. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M1/2=34.Habitat.European Mink are found along streams, rivers, and lakes. They are rarely found more than 100 mfrom fresh water and prefer waterways with densely vegetated banks. In south-Western Europe, radio-collared European Mink used areas that had low forest cover and bramble or shrub cover along the riverbank; they avoided areas with dense forest cover. In south-western France, radio-collared European Mink had a strong preference for flooded habitats, particularly open marshes, flooded woodlands, and moorlands; they seldom left riparian forest corridors.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crabs, and insects. The chief prey is often the Water Vole. In northern Spain, scat analysis revealed a diet based on small mammals (relative frequency of occurrence 36:9%), fish (30-6%), and birds (17-8%). The Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) was the most consumed small mammal and cyprinids (mainly Barbus sp.) were the most frequently eaten fish. The average size of consumed fish was 13- 5 cm, and the average weight was 31- 5 g; males ate larger and heavierfish than females. In north-east Belarus, three out of nine individuals studied were specialists on frogs (77-97%, mainly the common frog Rana temporaria). One individual fed mostly on crayfish (Astacus astacus, 62%), and the other five were generalist predators. Excess food may be cached for later use.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in crevices, amongst tree roots and dense bramble patches, or in burrows, either self-excavated or taken from a Water Vole. In south-western France, rest sites were mainly found above ground in flooded areas, under bushes or in cavities between tree roots.Movements, Home range and Social organization.European Mink are terrestrial, but swim and dive well. Home ranges average 32 ha for males and 26 ha for females. In south-Western Europe, the length of home ranges varied between 11-17 kmalong watercourses for five males, and was 0-6 and 3-6 kmfor two females. The home ranges of males were larger than those found in previous studies and most females captured were found within the home range of a male. Males occupied adjoining river sections with minimal range overlap, suggesting an intra-sexual exclusive spacing pattern for males. In autumn and winter, there may be extensive movements to locate swift, nonfrozen streams. Population densities may reach 12 animals/ 10 kmof shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March. Gestation is 35-72 days. Births occur in April and May in rock piles, under roots, in hollow trees, or in abandoned buildings. Litter size is two to seven, usually four or five. The young are born blind, and at birth average 8- 4 gfor males and 7- 6 gfor females. The eyes open after 30-36 days. They are weaned at ten weeks and attain sexual maturity after 9-10 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The European Mink has declined over much of its former range and has been extirpated from Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, and Slovakia. Habitat loss and degradation is a serious threat in many parts of Europe. Ongoing destruction and degradation of freshwater and associated terrestrial habitats has been caused by hydroelectric development, river channelization, and water pollution. Although its fur is not as valuable as that of the American Mink, the European Mink was widely trapped for commercial purposes. It is now legally protected in all range states and at least part of the population occurs within protected areas. However, accidental trapping still poses a threat. In France, secondary poisoning and trapping of European Mink has occurred as a result of efforts to control Coypu (Myocastor coypus) and small carnivore species. Accidental mortality through vehicle collisions is a problem in some areas. Competition with the American Mink (an alien invasive species) has been hypothesized as a contributing factor. In Spainand France, hybridization with the European Polecat may also be a threat. Field studies have been undertaken to determine its ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability of western populations. In Spainand France, programmes have been started to control the American Mink population. A captive breeding programme was launched in 1992 under the European Zoo Association. Reintroduction efforts are underway in Germanyand Russia. The European Mink has recently colonized and spread into northern Spain; it was absent from this country before 1950. Recent genetic studies have shown there is very low genetic variability within this species, which could pose an additional threat.Bibliography.Dunstone (1993), Fournier et al. (2007), Garin, Aihartza et al. (2002), Garin, Zuberogoitia, et al. (2002), Michaux, Hardy et al. (2005), Michaux, Libois et al. (2004), Palazon et al. (2004), Sidorovich et al. (2001), Wozencraft (2005), Youngman (1990), Zabala, Zuberogoitia, Garin & Aihartza (2003), Zabala, Zuberogoitia & Martinez-Climent (2006).","taxonomy":"Viverra lutreola Linnaeus, 1761, Finland.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Vison d'Europe @fr | Europaischer Nerz @de | ison europeo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"33","interpretedPageNumber":"652","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lutreola","name":"Mustela lutreola","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Belarus, Estonia, France, Latvia, Romania, Russia(W of Urals), and N Spain.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714261/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dunstone (1993) | Fournier et al. (2007) | Garin, Aihartza et al. (2002) | Garin, Zuberogoitia, et al. (2002) | Michaux, Hardy et al. (2005) | Michaux, Libois et al. (2004) | Palazon et al. (2004) | Sidorovich et al. (2001) | Wozencraft (2005) | Youngman (1990) | Zabala, Zuberogoitia, Garin & Aihartza (2003) | Zabala, Zuberogoitia & Martinez-Climent (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crabs, and insects. The chief prey is often the Water Vole. In northern Spain, scat analysis revealed a diet based on small mammals (relative frequency of occurrence 36:9%), fish (30-6%), and birds (17-8%). The Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) was the most consumed small mammal and cyprinids (mainly Barbus sp.) were the most frequently eaten fish. The average size of consumed fish was 13- 5 cm, and the average weight was 31- 5 g; males ate larger and heavierfish than females. In north-east Belarus, three out of nine individuals studied were specialists on frogs (77-97%, mainly the common frog Rana temporaria). One individual fed mostly on crayfish (Astacus astacus, 62%), and the other five were generalist predators. Excess food may be cached for later use.","breeding":"Mating occurs from February to March. Gestation is 35-72 days. Births occur in April and May in rock piles, under roots, in hollow trees, or in abandoned buildings. Litter size is two to seven, usually four or five. The young are born blind, and at birth average 8- 4 gfor males and 7- 6 gfor females. The eyes open after 30-36 days. They are weaned at ten weeks and attain sexual maturity after 9-10 months.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in crevices, amongst tree roots and dense bramble patches, or in burrows, either self-excavated or taken from a Water Vole. In south-western France, rest sites were mainly found above ground in flooded areas, under bushes or in cavities between tree roots.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"European Mink are terrestrial, but swim and dive well. Home ranges average 32 ha for males and 26 ha for females. In south-Western Europe, the length of home ranges varied between 11-17 kmalong watercourses for five males, and was 0-6 and 3-6 kmfor two females. The home ranges of males were larger than those found in previous studies and most females captured were found within the home range of a male. Males occupied adjoining river sections with minimal range overlap, suggesting an intra-sexual exclusive spacing pattern for males. In autumn and winter, there may be extensive movements to locate swift, nonfrozen streams. Population densities may reach 12 animals/ 10 kmof shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March. Gestation is 35-72 days. Births occur in April and May in rock piles, under roots, in hollow trees, or in abandoned buildings. Litter size is two to seven, usually four or five. The young are born blind, and at birth average 8- 4 gfor males and 7- 6 gfor females. The eyes open after 30-36 days. They are weaned at ten weeks and attain sexual maturity after 9-10 months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The European Mink has declined over much of its former range and has been extirpated from Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, and Slovakia. Habitat loss and degradation is a serious threat in many parts of Europe. Ongoing destruction and degradation of freshwater and associated terrestrial habitats has been caused by hydroelectric development, river channelization, and water pollution. Although its fur is not as valuable as that of the American Mink, the European Mink was widely trapped for commercial purposes. It is now legally protected in all range states and at least part of the population occurs within protected areas. However, accidental trapping still poses a threat. In France, secondary poisoning and trapping of European Mink has occurred as a result of efforts to control Coypu (Myocastor coypus) and small carnivore species. Accidental mortality through vehicle collisions is a problem in some areas. Competition with the American Mink (an alien invasive species) has been hypothesized as a contributing factor. In Spainand France, hybridization with the European Polecat may also be a threat. Field studies have been undertaken to determine its ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability of western populations. In Spainand France, programmes have been started to control the American Mink population. A captive breeding programme was launched in 1992 under the European Zoo Association. Reintroduction efforts are underway in Germanyand Russia. The European Mink has recently colonized and spread into northern Spain; it was absent from this country before 1950. Recent genetic studies have shown there is very low genetic variability within this species, which could pose an additional threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 20-36 cm, tail 12-17.5 cm; weight 650-1000 g(males), 500-600 g(females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The European Mink has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dense and short, and reddish-brown in color; the underparts are paler than the back. A margin of white occurs around the mouth and sometimes on the chest and throat. The skull is flat and narrow. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M1/2=34.Habitat.European Mink are found along streams, rivers, and lakes. They are rarely found more than 100 mfrom fresh water and prefer waterways with densely vegetated banks. In south-Western Europe, radio-collared European Mink used areas that had low forest cover and bramble or shrub cover along the riverbank; they avoided areas with dense forest cover. In south-western France, radio-collared European Mink had a strong preference for flooded habitats, particularly open marshes, flooded woodlands, and moorlands; they seldom left riparian forest corridors.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crabs, and insects. The chief prey is often the Water Vole. In northern Spain, scat analysis revealed a diet based on small mammals (relative frequency of occurrence 36:9%), fish (30-6%), and birds (17-8%). The Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) was the most consumed small mammal and cyprinids (mainly Barbus sp.) were the most frequently eaten fish. The average size of consumed fish was 13- 5 cm, and the average weight was 31- 5 g; males ate larger and heavierfish than females. In north-east Belarus, three out of nine individuals studied were specialists on frogs (77-97%, mainly the common frog Rana temporaria). One individual fed mostly on crayfish (Astacus astacus, 62%), and the other five were generalist predators. Excess food may be cached for later use.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in crevices, amongst tree roots and dense bramble patches, or in burrows, either self-excavated or taken from a Water Vole. In south-western France, rest sites were mainly found above ground in flooded areas, under bushes or in cavities between tree roots.Movements, Home range and Social organization.European Mink are terrestrial, but swim and dive well. Home ranges average 32 ha for males and 26 ha for females. In south-Western Europe, the length of home ranges varied between 11-17 kmalong watercourses for five males, and was 0-6 and 3-6 kmfor two females. The home ranges of males were larger than those found in previous studies and most females captured were found within the home range of a male. Males occupied adjoining river sections with minimal range overlap, suggesting an intra-sexual exclusive spacing pattern for males. In autumn and winter, there may be extensive movements to locate swift, nonfrozen streams. Population densities may reach 12 animals/ 10 kmof shoreline.Breeding.Mating occurs from February to March. Gestation is 35-72 days. Births occur in April and May in rock piles, under roots, in hollow trees, or in abandoned buildings. Litter size is two to seven, usually four or five. The young are born blind, and at birth average 8- 4 gfor males and 7- 6 gfor females. The eyes open after 30-36 days. They are weaned at ten weeks and attain sexual maturity after 9-10 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered in The IUCNRed List. The European Mink has declined over much of its former range and has been extirpated from Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, and Slovakia.","habitat":"European Mink are found along streams, rivers, and lakes. They are rarely found more than 100 mfrom fresh water and prefer waterways with densely vegetated banks. In south-Western Europe, radio-collared European Mink used areas that had low forest cover and bramble or shrub cover along the riverbank; they avoided areas with dense forest cover. In south-western France, radio-collared European Mink had a strong preference for flooded habitats, particularly open marshes, flooded woodlands, and moorlands; they seldom left riparian forest corridors."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA71FF9ECFA43F40F8ADF8F0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA71FF9ECFA43F40F8ADF8F0","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"652","verbatimText":"48.Indonesian Mountain WeaselMustela lutreolinaFrench:Putois d'Indonésie/ German:Indonesisches Bergwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja javanesaTaxonomy.Mustela lutreolina Robinson & Thomas, 1917, west Java.Monotypic.Distribution.Javaand S Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head-body 29.7-32.1 cm, tail 13.6-17 cm; weight 295-340 g. Indonesian Mountain Weasels resemble European Mink in both size and color.; The pelage is brown throughout, with no facial markings.Habitat.Specimens have been collected at elevations from 1000-2200 m.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Virtually nothing is known about this species. This species is known only from the highlands of Sumatraand Java. On Javait occurs as far east as the Ijang plateau. On Sumatra, it is known from Bengkulu Province(Mount Dempo) and recently was recorded north to Kerinci. The Indonesian Mountain Weasel is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Lunde & Musser (2003), Meiri et al. (2007), VanBree & Boeadi (1978), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela lutreolina Robinson & Thomas, 1917, west Java.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Putois d' @fr | ndonésie @en | German @en | ndonesisches Bergwiesel @en | Comadreja javanesa @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"33","interpretedPageNumber":"652","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lutreolina","name":"Mustela lutreolina","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Javaand S Sumatra.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714263/files/figure.png","bibliography":"IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Lunde & Musser (2003) | Meiri et al. (2007) | VanBree & Boeadi (1978) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing known.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRed List. Virtually nothing is known about this species. This species is known only from the highlands of Sumatraand Java. On Javait occurs as far east as the Ijang plateau. On Sumatra, it is known from Bengkulu Province(Mount Dempo) and recently was recorded north to Kerinci. The Indonesian Mountain Weasel is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 29.7-32.1 cm, tail 13.6-17 cm; weight 295-340 g. Indonesian Mountain Weasels resemble European Mink in both size and color.; The pelage is brown throughout, with no facial markings.","habitat":"Specimens have been collected at elevations from 1000-2200 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"653","verbatimText":"50.Least WeaselMustela nivalisFrench:Belette pygmée/ German:Mauswiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja comunOther common names:WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766, Sweden.Nine subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. n. nivalis Linnaeus, 1766— China, North and South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Taiwan, and Scandinavia.M. n. allegheniensis Rhoads, 1900— NE USA(Allegheny Mts W to Wisconsin).M. n. boccamela Bechstein, 1800— Corsica, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain.M. n. campestris Jackson, 1913— C Great Plains, USA.M. n. eskimo Stone, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(Yukon).M. n. namiyer Kuroda, 1921— Japanand the Kurile Is.M. n. numidica Pucheran, 1855— N Africa.M. n. rnixosa Bangs, 1896— Canadaand N Great Plains of USA.M. n. vulgaris Erxleben, 1777= W & C Europe and most of C Eurasia.Introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azores Is, and apparently also Sao TomeI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 11.4-26 cm,tail 7-9 cm; weight 25-250 g, males are on average larger than females. There is much geographic variation in size. The tail is only slightly longer than the length of the hindfoot, and is less than 35% of head and body length. The Least Weasel is the smallest species within the Carnivora. It has a long and slender body, with short limbs and tail. Except in certain southern parts ofits range, the Least Weasel changes color during the spring and autumn. In summer, the upperparts are brown and the underparts are white. In winter, the entire coat is white, but unlike other weasels that turn white during the winter, the Least Weasel does not posses a black-tipped tail. There are three to four pairs of mammae. The skull has a short rostrum, and a large and long cerebral cranium. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.The Least Weasel is found in a wide range of habitats that provide good cover and prey abundance, including agricultural fields, grasslands, forests, prairies, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, mountains (up to 4000 m), alpine meadows, steppes, semi-deserts, and coastal dunes. They are also found near human habitations.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly small rodents, but other small mammals (such as lagomorphs, moles, and squirrels), birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, insects (mostly beetles), fish, worms, and carrion are also occasionally eaten. The proportions of different small rodent species in the diet roughly reflects their relative abundances throughout the year. In Europe and Russia, Microtus agrestris, M. arvalis, M. oeconomus, M. brandti, Arvicola terrestris, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Lemmus lemmus, and L. sibiricusare preyed upon. In North America, M. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogastere, C. rutilus, C. gapperi, Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Sigmodon hispidus, Dicrostonyx rubricatus, D. hudsonicus, and L. sibiricusare eaten. In Great Britain, one study showed that the diet consists of 68% rodents (mainly Microtus agrestis), 25% lagomorphs, and 5% birds and birds’ eggs. The small size of Least Weasels enables them to pursue prey into their burrows, so much of their hunting is underground or under snow. Males readily shift to larger prey such as birds, lagomorphs, and Water Voles, while females continue to search for Field Voles. Thus, males generally take larger prey than females and spend less time hunting in tunnels. Least Weasels take five to ten meals per day. Excess food may be stored, especially in the winter; the cache site may be within the home burrow or near a kill. Killing behavior is innate. Least Weasels respond to movements of prey as a stimulus for attack. The killing bite is delivered at the nape of the neck and penetrates the base of the skull or throat area.Activity patterns.Active day and night. The high-energy requirements of Least Weasels mean that they have to be constantly active, so active and rest periods occur in rapid succession. However, the timing and extent of their daily activity is related to the activity patterns of their prey. Least Weasels may spend the whole winter under snow. Den/ rest sites are in prey burrows, in rock piles, or in other well-concealed sites. Vocalizations in captive animals consist of a repertoire of five different sounds, including a chirp, a hiss, a trill, a squeal, and a squeak.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Least Weasels constantly move in search of prey. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also agile tree climbers and fairly good swimmers. Movements may reach 1-5 km/h. Least Weasels are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges are 0-6-26/ha for males and 0-2-7/ha for females. Male home ranges overlap with one or more females, but do not overlap with other males. Population densities range from 0-2-1 /ha.Breeding.Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Least Weasel is considered relatively common in Eurasia, but appears to be rare in North America. They are not known to prey on domestic animals and are beneficial to people through its destruction of mice and rats. However, Least Weasels have been introduced to some areas, such as New Zealand, with sometimes devastating effects on the local fauna. Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides and persecution. The Least Weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining in some parts of Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment).Bibliography.Brandt & Lambin (2007), Francis (2008), IUCN(2008), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska & Szymura (1995), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska, Zub & Nowakowski (2000), King (1990), Sheffield& King (1994), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766, Sweden.Nine subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Belette pygmée @fr | Mauswiesel @de | Comadreja comun @es | Weasel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1766","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"653","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nivalis","name":"Mustela nivalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. n. nivalis Linnaeus, 1766— China, North and South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Taiwan, and Scandinavia.M. n. allegheniensis Rhoads, 1900— NE USA(Allegheny Mts W to Wisconsin).M. n. boccamela Bechstein, 1800— Corsica, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain.M. n. campestris Jackson, 1913— C Great Plains, USA.M. n. eskimo Stone, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(Yukon).M. n. namiyer Kuroda, 1921— Japanand the Kurile Is.M. n. numidica Pucheran, 1855— N Africa.M. n. rnixosa Bangs, 1896— Canadaand N Great Plains of USA.M. n. vulgaris Erxleben, 1777= W & C Europe and most of C Eurasia.Introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azores Is, and apparently also Sao TomeI.","bibliography":"Brandt & Lambin (2007) | Francis (2008) | IUCN(2008) | Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska & Szymura (1995) | Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska, Zub & Nowakowski (2000) | King (1990) | Sheffield& King (1994) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly small rodents, but other small mammals (such as lagomorphs, moles, and squirrels), birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, insects (mostly beetles), fish, worms, and carrion are also occasionally eaten. The proportions of different small rodent species in the diet roughly reflects their relative abundances throughout the year. In Europe and Russia, Microtus agrestris, M. arvalis, M. oeconomus, M. brandti, Arvicola terrestris, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Lemmus lemmus, and L. sibiricusare preyed upon. In North America, M. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogastere, C. rutilus, C. gapperi, Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Sigmodon hispidus, Dicrostonyx rubricatus, D. hudsonicus, and L. sibiricusare eaten. In Great Britain, one study showed that the diet consists of 68% rodents (mainly Microtus agrestis), 25% lagomorphs, and 5% birds and birds’ eggs. The small size of Least Weasels enables them to pursue prey into their burrows, so much of their hunting is underground or under snow. Males readily shift to larger prey such as birds, lagomorphs, and Water Voles, while females continue to search for Field Voles. Thus, males generally take larger prey than females and spend less time hunting in tunnels. Least Weasels take five to ten meals per day. Excess food may be stored, especially in the winter; the cache site may be within the home burrow or near a kill. Killing behavior is innate. Least Weasels respond to movements of prey as a stimulus for attack. The killing bite is delivered at the nape of the neck and penetrates the base of the skull or throat area.","breeding":"Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.","activityPatterns":"Active day and night. The high-energy requirements of Least Weasels mean that they have to be constantly active, so active and rest periods occur in rapid succession. However, the timing and extent of their daily activity is related to the activity patterns of their prey. Least Weasels may spend the whole winter under snow. Den/ rest sites are in prey burrows, in rock piles, or in other well-concealed sites. Vocalizations in captive animals consist of a repertoire of five different sounds, including a chirp, a hiss, a trill, a squeal, and a squeak.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Least Weasels constantly move in search of prey. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also agile tree climbers and fairly good swimmers. Movements may reach 1-5 km/h. Least Weasels are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges are 0-6-26/ha for males and 0-2-7/ha for females. Male home ranges overlap with one or more females, but do not overlap with other males. Population densities range from 0-2-1 /ha.Breeding.Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Least Weasel is considered relatively common in Eurasia, but appears to be rare in North America. They are not known to prey on domestic animals and are beneficial to people through its destruction of mice and rats. However, Least Weasels have been introduced to some areas, such as New Zealand, with sometimes devastating effects on the local fauna. Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides and persecution. The Least Weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining in some parts of Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 11.4-26 cm,tail 7-9 cm; weight 25-250 g, males are on average larger than females. There is much geographic variation in size. The tail is only slightly longer than the length of the hindfoot, and is less than 35% of head and body length. The Least Weasel is the smallest species within the Carnivora. It has a long and slender body, with short limbs and tail. Except in certain southern parts ofits range, the Least Weasel changes color during the spring and autumn. In summer, the upperparts are brown and the underparts are white. In winter, the entire coat is white, but unlike other weasels that turn white during the winter, the Least Weasel does not posses a black-tipped tail. There are three to four pairs of mammae. The skull has a short rostrum, and a large and long cerebral cranium. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34.","habitat":"The Least Weasel is found in a wide range of habitats that provide good cover and prey abundance, including agricultural fields, grasslands, forests, prairies, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, mountains (up to 4000 m), alpine meadows, steppes, semi-deserts, and coastal dunes. They are also found near human habitations."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"653","verbatimText":"50.Least WeaselMustela nivalisFrench:Belette pygmée/ German:Mauswiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja comunOther common names:WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766, Sweden.Nine subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. n. nivalis Linnaeus, 1766— China, North and South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Taiwan, and Scandinavia.M. n. allegheniensis Rhoads, 1900— NE USA(Allegheny Mts W to Wisconsin).M. n. boccamela Bechstein, 1800— Corsica, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain.M. n. campestris Jackson, 1913— C Great Plains, USA.M. n. eskimo Stone, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(Yukon).M. n. namiyer Kuroda, 1921— Japanand the Kurile Is.M. n. numidica Pucheran, 1855— N Africa.M. n. rnixosa Bangs, 1896— Canadaand N Great Plains of USA.M. n. vulgaris Erxleben, 1777= W & C Europe and most of C Eurasia.Introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azores Is, and apparently also Sao TomeI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 11.4-26 cm,tail 7-9 cm; weight 25-250 g, males are on average larger than females. There is much geographic variation in size. The tail is only slightly longer than the length of the hindfoot, and is less than 35% of head and body length. The Least Weasel is the smallest species within the Carnivora. It has a long and slender body, with short limbs and tail. Except in certain southern parts ofits range, the Least Weasel changes color during the spring and autumn. In summer, the upperparts are brown and the underparts are white. In winter, the entire coat is white, but unlike other weasels that turn white during the winter, the Least Weasel does not posses a black-tipped tail. There are three to four pairs of mammae. The skull has a short rostrum, and a large and long cerebral cranium. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.The Least Weasel is found in a wide range of habitats that provide good cover and prey abundance, including agricultural fields, grasslands, forests, prairies, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, mountains (up to 4000 m), alpine meadows, steppes, semi-deserts, and coastal dunes. They are also found near human habitations.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly small rodents, but other small mammals (such as lagomorphs, moles, and squirrels), birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, insects (mostly beetles), fish, worms, and carrion are also occasionally eaten. The proportions of different small rodent species in the diet roughly reflects their relative abundances throughout the year. In Europe and Russia, Microtus agrestris, M. arvalis, M. oeconomus, M. brandti, Arvicola terrestris, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Lemmus lemmus, and L. sibiricusare preyed upon. In North America, M. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogastere, C. rutilus, C. gapperi, Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Sigmodon hispidus, Dicrostonyx rubricatus, D. hudsonicus, and L. sibiricusare eaten. In Great Britain, one study showed that the diet consists of 68% rodents (mainly Microtus agrestis), 25% lagomorphs, and 5% birds and birds’ eggs. The small size of Least Weasels enables them to pursue prey into their burrows, so much of their hunting is underground or under snow. Males readily shift to larger prey such as birds, lagomorphs, and Water Voles, while females continue to search for Field Voles. Thus, males generally take larger prey than females and spend less time hunting in tunnels. Least Weasels take five to ten meals per day. Excess food may be stored, especially in the winter; the cache site may be within the home burrow or near a kill. Killing behavior is innate. Least Weasels respond to movements of prey as a stimulus for attack. The killing bite is delivered at the nape of the neck and penetrates the base of the skull or throat area.Activity patterns.Active day and night. The high-energy requirements of Least Weasels mean that they have to be constantly active, so active and rest periods occur in rapid succession. However, the timing and extent of their daily activity is related to the activity patterns of their prey. Least Weasels may spend the whole winter under snow. Den/ rest sites are in prey burrows, in rock piles, or in other well-concealed sites. Vocalizations in captive animals consist of a repertoire of five different sounds, including a chirp, a hiss, a trill, a squeal, and a squeak.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Least Weasels constantly move in search of prey. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also agile tree climbers and fairly good swimmers. Movements may reach 1-5 km/h. Least Weasels are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges are 0-6-26/ha for males and 0-2-7/ha for females. Male home ranges overlap with one or more females, but do not overlap with other males. Population densities range from 0-2-1 /ha.Breeding.Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Least Weasel is considered relatively common in Eurasia, but appears to be rare in North America. They are not known to prey on domestic animals and are beneficial to people through its destruction of mice and rats. However, Least Weasels have been introduced to some areas, such as New Zealand, with sometimes devastating effects on the local fauna. Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides and persecution. The Least Weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining in some parts of Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment).Bibliography.Brandt & Lambin (2007), Francis (2008), IUCN(2008), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska & Szymura (1995), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska, Zub & Nowakowski (2000), King (1990), Sheffield& King (1994), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766, Sweden.Nine subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Belette pygmée @fr | Mauswiesel @de | Comadreja comun @es | Weasel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1766","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"653","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nivalis","name":"Mustela nivalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. n. nivalis Linnaeus, 1766— China, North and South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Taiwan, and Scandinavia.M. n. allegheniensis Rhoads, 1900— NE USA(Allegheny Mts W to Wisconsin).M. n. boccamela Bechstein, 1800— Corsica, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain.M. n. campestris Jackson, 1913— C Great Plains, USA.M. n. eskimo Stone, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(Yukon).M. n. namiyer Kuroda, 1921— Japanand the Kurile Is.M. n. numidica Pucheran, 1855— N Africa.M. n. rnixosa Bangs, 1896— Canadaand N Great Plains of USA.M. n. vulgaris Erxleben, 1777= W & C Europe and most of C Eurasia.Introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azores Is, and apparently also Sao TomeI.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714267/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Brandt & Lambin (2007) | Francis (2008) | IUCN(2008) | Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska & Szymura (1995) | Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska, Zub & Nowakowski (2000) | King (1990) | Sheffield& King (1994) | Svendsen (2003) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly small rodents, but other small mammals (such as lagomorphs, moles, and squirrels), birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, insects (mostly beetles), fish, worms, and carrion are also occasionally eaten. The proportions of different small rodent species in the diet roughly reflects their relative abundances throughout the year. In Europe and Russia, Microtus agrestris, M. arvalis, M. oeconomus, M. brandti, Arvicola terrestris, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Lemmus lemmus, and L. sibiricusare preyed upon. In North America, M. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogastere, C. rutilus, C. gapperi, Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Sigmodon hispidus, Dicrostonyx rubricatus, D. hudsonicus, and L. sibiricusare eaten. In Great Britain, one study showed that the diet consists of 68% rodents (mainly Microtus agrestis), 25% lagomorphs, and 5% birds and birds’ eggs. The small size of Least Weasels enables them to pursue prey into their burrows, so much of their hunting is underground or under snow. Males readily shift to larger prey such as birds, lagomorphs, and Water Voles, while females continue to search for Field Voles. Thus, males generally take larger prey than females and spend less time hunting in tunnels. Least Weasels take five to ten meals per day. Excess food may be stored, especially in the winter; the cache site may be within the home burrow or near a kill. Killing behavior is innate. Least Weasels respond to movements of prey as a stimulus for attack. The killing bite is delivered at the nape of the neck and penetrates the base of the skull or throat area.","breeding":"Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.","activityPatterns":"Active day and night. The high-energy requirements of Least Weasels mean that they have to be constantly active, so active and rest periods occur in rapid succession. However, the timing and extent of their daily activity is related to the activity patterns of their prey. Least Weasels may spend the whole winter under snow. Den/ rest sites are in prey burrows, in rock piles, or in other well-concealed sites. Vocalizations in captive animals consist of a repertoire of five different sounds, including a chirp, a hiss, a trill, a squeal, and a squeak.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Least Weasels constantly move in search of prey. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also agile tree climbers and fairly good swimmers. Movements may reach 1-5 km/h. Least Weasels are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges are 0-6-26/ha for males and 0-2-7/ha for females. Male home ranges overlap with one or more females, but do not overlap with other males. Population densities range from 0-2-1 /ha.Breeding.Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Least Weasel is considered relatively common in Eurasia, but appears to be rare in North America. They are not known to prey on domestic animals and are beneficial to people through its destruction of mice and rats. However, Least Weasels have been introduced to some areas, such as New Zealand, with sometimes devastating effects on the local fauna. Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides and persecution. The Least Weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining in some parts of Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 11.4-26 cm,tail 7-9 cm; weight 25-250 g, males are on average larger than females. There is much geographic variation in size. The tail is only slightly longer than the length of the hindfoot, and is less than 35% of head and body length. The Least Weasel is the smallest species within the Carnivora. It has a long and slender body, with short limbs and tail. Except in certain southern parts ofits range, the Least Weasel changes color during the spring and autumn. In summer, the upperparts are brown and the underparts are white. In winter, the entire coat is white, but unlike other weasels that turn white during the winter, the Least Weasel does not posses a black-tipped tail. There are three to four pairs of mammae. The skull has a short rostrum, and a large and long cerebral cranium. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34.","habitat":"The Least Weasel is found in a wide range of habitats that provide good cover and prey abundance, including agricultural fields, grasslands, forests, prairies, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, mountains (up to 4000 m), alpine meadows, steppes, semi-deserts, and coastal dunes. They are also found near human habitations."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA72FF9DCFE634EDF7ABF21B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA72FF9DCFE634EDF7ABF21B","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"653","verbatimText":"51.Malay WeaselMustela nudipesFrench:Putois a pieds nus/ German:NacktfuRwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja descalzaTaxonomy.Mustela nudipes Desmarest, 1822, Indonesia.Monotypic.Distribution.Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and S Thailand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-36 cm, tail 24-26 cm; weight 1000 g. The Malay Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown, almost orange throughout, with the head much paler than the rest of the body, often appearing white. The tail is long and bushy; the basal half is the same color as the back, but the distal halfis typically all white. The soles of the feet are naked around the pads. There are two pairs of mammae.Habitat.Rainforests, with records from 400 to 1700 m. Often found in close proximity to water.Food and Feeding.Diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.Activity patterns.Apparently active both day and night. Rests in holes underground.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Said to be solitary and terrestrial.Breeding.Litter size reported to be up to four.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is eaten in parts of Sarawakand there is some evidence of medicinal use.Bibliography.Banks (1949), Duckworth et al. (2006), Francis (2008), Franklin & Wells (2005), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Payne et al. (1985), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela nudipes Desmarest, 1822, Indonesia.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Putois a pieds nus @fr | Nacktfu Rwiesel @de | Comadreja descalza @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"653","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nudipes","name":"Mustela nudipes","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and S Thailand.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714269/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Banks (1949) | Duckworth et al. (2006) | Francis (2008) | Franklin & Wells (2005) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Payne et al. (1985) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.","breeding":"Litter size reported to be up to four.","activityPatterns":"Apparently active both day and night. Rests in holes underground.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Said to be solitary and terrestrial.Breeding.Litter size reported to be up to four.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is eaten in parts of Sarawakand there is some evidence of medicinal use.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 30-36 cm, tail 24-26 cm; weight 1000 g. The Malay Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown, almost orange throughout, with the head much paler than the rest of the body, often appearing white. The tail is long and bushy; the basal half is the same color as the back, but the distal halfis typically all white. The soles of the feet are naked around the pads. There are two pairs of mammae.","habitat":"Rainforests, with records from 400 to 1700 m. Often found in close proximity to water."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA73FF9BCFAE35FDFF66FC36.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA73FF9BCFAE35FDFF66FC36","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"654","verbatimText":"54.Back-striped WeaselMustela strigidorsaFrench:Putois a dos rayé/ German:Riickenstreifenwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja estriadaOther common names:Stripe-backed WeaselTaxonomy.Mustela strigodorsa Gray, 1853, India.Monotypic.Distribution.S China(Guangxi, Guizhou& Yunnan), NE India, N & C Laos, N & C Myanmar, N Thailand, and N & C Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 25-325 cm, tail 10.3-20.5 cm; weight 700-2000 g. The Back-striped Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown with yellowish-white upperlips, cheeks, chin, and throat. A narrow, whitish stripe runs along the back from the head to the base of the tail. Another narrow pale stripe runs along the abdomen. The bushy tail is less than half the head and body length. There are two pairs of mammae. The tympanic bullae are flattened. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Found mainly in evergreen forests in hills and mountains, but has also been recorded from plains forest, dense scrub, secondary forest, grassland, and farmland. Altitudinal range 90-2500 m.Food and Feeding.The dietis said to include small rodents.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Has been seen on the ground and in trees.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Populations in the wild are suspected to be declining. Back-striped Weasels are sold for traditional medicine in Laos. About 3000 to 4000 pelts were harvested annually in Chinain the 1970s. Outside China, this species is sold occasionally in Laosand Vietnam. Even though the Back-striped Weasel is not known to have high economic value, hunting or harvesting for trade could be causing major declines because many hunting methods (notably snares) are non-selective. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Davies (2006), Evans et al. (1994), Francis (2008), Hansel & Tizard (2006), IUCN(2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Pocock (1941a), Ratajszczak & Cox (1991), Schreiber et al. (1989), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).","taxonomy":"Mustela strigodorsa Gray, 1853, India.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Putois a dos rayé @fr | Riickenstreifenwiesel @de | Comadreja estriada @es | Stripe-backed Weasel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"654","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"strigidorsa","name":"Mustela strigidorsa","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S China(Guangxi, Guizhou& Yunnan), NE India, N & C Laos, N & C Myanmar, N Thailand, and N & C Vietnam.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714275/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Davies (2006) | Evans et al. (1994) | Francis (2008) | Hansel & Tizard (2006) | IUCN(2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Pocock (1941a) | Ratajszczak & Cox (1991) | Schreiber et al. (1989) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The dietis said to include small rodents.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Has been seen on the ground and in trees.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Populations in the wild are suspected to be declining. Back-striped Weasels are sold for traditional medicine in Laos. About 3000 to 4000 pelts were harvested annually in Chinain the 1970s. Outside China, this species is sold occasionally in Laosand Vietnam. Even though the Back-striped Weasel is not known to have high economic value, hunting or harvesting for trade could be causing major declines because many hunting methods (notably snares) are non-selective. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 25-325 cm, tail 10.3-20.5 cm; weight 700-2000 g. The Back-striped Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown with yellowish-white upperlips, cheeks, chin, and throat. A narrow, whitish stripe runs along the back from the head to the base of the tail. Another narrow pale stripe runs along the abdomen. The bushy tail is less than half the head and body length. There are two pairs of mammae. The tympanic bullae are flattened. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","habitat":"Found mainly in evergreen forests in hills and mountains, but has also been recorded from plains forest, dense scrub, secondary forest, grassland, and farmland. Altitudinal range 90-2500 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA73FF9CCAAD3D1BF76BFDBA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA73FF9CCAAD3D1BF76BFDBA","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"654","verbatimText":"52.European PolecatMustela putoriusFrench:Putois d'Europe/ German:Waldiltis/ Spanish:Turon europeoTaxonomy.Mustela putorius Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The European Polecat is possibly the ancestor of the domestic Ferret M. p. furo. Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.Distribution.Most of Europe W of Urals, and Morocco.Descriptive notes.Head-body 29.5-46 cm(males), 20.5-38.5 cm(females), tail 10-519 cm(males), 7-14 cm(females); weight 500-1710 g(males), 400-915 g(females), adult males are larger than females. The European Polecat has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown to black, with paler, yellowish undersides. The areas between the eye and ear and around the mouth, are silvery white. There are up to five pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 3/3. CV/1.P5/3. M1/2=34.Habitat.The European Polecat is found in forests, meadows, abandoned fields, and agricultural areas, often in close proximity to water. They sometimes occur near humans, but avoid dense urban areas.Food and Feeding.The diet consists of amphibians, small mammals, birds, fish, and invertebrates. In Switzerland, the diet of European Polecats is almost exclusively carnivorous, but somefruits are also eaten, mainly by juveniles. Anurans (frogs and toads; mainly Rana temporaria and Bufo bufo) are the staple food. Other foods of importance are small mammals (mainly Muridae, but also Microtidae and Soricidae), carrion, and eggs. The anuran proportion of the diet is higher in summer than in winter and higher in the mountains than in the lowlands. In mountainous regions, anurans are also the most important food in winter. Juveniles eat more fruits and invertebrates and fewer mammals than adults. Sex-related differences in the importance of the main food categories have not been detected. In Denmark, the stomach contents of 47 European Polecats revealed that they preyed mostly on amphibians (87%) and mammals (34%), and only occasionally on birds (9%) and fish (6%). In Poland, the analysis of 222 scats revealed that anurans (mainly R. temporaria) comprised 70 to 98% of the biomass consumed and were found in 60 to 95% of scats. Forest rodents (Apodemus flavicollis and Clethrionomys glareolus) constituted from 1-29% of the biomass eaten. The consumption of rodents grew with decreasing winter temperature and increasing numbers of rodents. Snow-tracking of individual European Polecats has shown that in wet forests, they move in close proximity to watercourses to search for anurans, whereas in the drier forests, they hunt rodents, mainly by digging. European Polecats constantly move as they search for prey, exploring burrows, hollow logs,trees, tree cavities, rock crevices, and farm buildings.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but can be crepuscular and active during the day. In Luxembourg, radio-collared European Polecats were 62% active during the night. Males were more active than females, and activity increased from winter to summer. In central Italy, ten malesand six femaleswere monitored using radio-telemetry. Males exhibited a regular and constant nocturnal pattern in every season, preferring the time between 20:00-06:00 h; activity was lower at dawn and dusk, and scarce during daylight hours. Females were significantly diurnal and crepuscular, but individuals revealed a flexibility in their activity pattern, including arrhythmic patterns without apparent temporal organization. Den/rest sites include crevices, hollow logs, burrows made by other animals, and sometimes buildings. In Luxembourg, European Polecats were located in 53 different resting sites, during the day. Aboveground shelters were used more often than underground shelters. Piles of branches, barns and stables, garden sheds and rat dens, were the most used sites, without specific preference for any one typeof shelter. However, buildings seem to be of prime importance during severe weather conditions.Movements, Home range and Social organization.European Polecats are solitary and terrestrial, but also capable of climbing. Daily movements average 1- 1 km. In some forest areas, home ranges are 100-150 ha. In Poland, European Polecats occupied stretches of 0-65 to 3-05 km along a stream. The home ranges of females were exclusive, but they could be completely overlapped by male home ranges. In Luxembourg, the home range size of European Polecats ranged from 42 to 428 ha, with an average of 181 ha. The mean home range size of males (246 ha) was significantly larger than that of females (84 ha). European Polecats concentrated 50% of their space use in only 15% of their home range, possibly indicating that suitable habitat was patchy. Average distance traveled per night by males was 3-6 times greater than that of females. Also, seasonal variation in movements was observed in males, but not in females. Population density is one per km”.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to June. The gestation period is about 42 days. Litter size is typically three to seven, but may be up to twelve. Neonates are blind and weigh 9-10 g. They open their eyes and are weaned after about one month, and become independent at around three months. Sexual maturity may be reached during the first year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. In Western Europe, the European Polecat was widely hunted for sport and fur and persecuted as a pest. However, these threats have become less seriousas this species is now protected in a number of range states, and rates of hunting have greatly reduced. Accidental mortality from car collisions and secondary rodenticide poisoning are threats. In Russiaand Morocco, this species is commonly hunted. Hybridization with the Ferret is a possible threat in the United Kingdom. Possible competition with the introduced American Mink may also be a problem.Bibliography.Baghli & Verhagen (2004, 2005), Baghli, Engel & Verhagen (2002), Baghli, Walzberg & Verhagen (2005), Blandford (1987), Brzezinski et al. (1992), Fournier et al. (2007), Hammershoj et al. (2004), Jedrzejewski et al. (1993), Lanszki & Heltai (2007), Lodé (1997, 2003), Marcelli et al. (2003), Rondinini et al. (2006), Stroganov (1969), Virgos (2003), Weber (1989), Wozencraft (2005), Zabala et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela putorius Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The European Polecat is possibly the ancestor of the domestic Ferret M. p. furo. Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.","commonNames":"Putois d'Europe @fr | Waldiltis @de | Turon europeo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"654","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"putorius","name":"Mustela putorius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Most of Europe W of Urals, and Morocco.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714271/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baghli & Verhagen (2004, 2005) | Baghli, Engel & Verhagen (2002) | Baghli, Walzberg & Verhagen (2005) | Blandford (1987) | Brzezinski et al. (1992) | Fournier et al. (2007) | Hammershoj et al. (2004) | Jedrzejewski et al. (1993) | Lanszki & Heltai (2007) | Lodé (1997, 2003) | Marcelli et al. (2003) | Rondinini et al. (2006) | Stroganov (1969) | Virgos (2003) | Weber (1989) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zabala et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet consists of amphibians, small mammals, birds, fish, and invertebrates. In Switzerland, the diet of European Polecats is almost exclusively carnivorous, but somefruits are also eaten, mainly by juveniles. Anurans (frogs and toads; mainly Rana temporaria and Bufo bufo) are the staple food. Other foods of importance are small mammals (mainly Muridae, but also Microtidae and Soricidae), carrion, and eggs. The anuran proportion of the diet is higher in summer than in winter and higher in the mountains than in the lowlands. In mountainous regions, anurans are also the most important food in winter. Juveniles eat more fruits and invertebrates and fewer mammals than adults. Sex-related differences in the importance of the main food categories have not been detected. In Denmark, the stomach contents of 47 European Polecats revealed that they preyed mostly on amphibians (87%) and mammals (34%), and only occasionally on birds (9%) and fish (6%). In Poland, the analysis of 222 scats revealed that anurans (mainly R. temporaria) comprised 70 to 98% of the biomass consumed and were found in 60 to 95% of scats. Forest rodents (Apodemus flavicollis and Clethrionomys glareolus) constituted from 1-29% of the biomass eaten. The consumption of rodents grew with decreasing winter temperature and increasing numbers of rodents. Snow-tracking of individual European Polecats has shown that in wet forests, they move in close proximity to watercourses to search for anurans, whereas in the drier forests, they hunt rodents, mainly by digging. European Polecats constantly move as they search for prey, exploring burrows, hollow logs,trees, tree cavities, rock crevices, and farm buildings.","breeding":"Mating occurs from March to June. The gestation period is about 42 days. Litter size is typically three to seven, but may be up to twelve. Neonates are blind and weigh 9-10 g. They open their eyes and are weaned after about one month, and become independent at around three months. Sexual maturity may be reached during the first year.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, but can be crepuscular and active during the day. In Luxembourg, radio-collared European Polecats were 62% active during the night. Males were more active than females, and activity increased from winter to summer. In central Italy, ten malesand six femaleswere monitored using radio-telemetry. Males exhibited a regular and constant nocturnal pattern in every season, preferring the time between 20:00-06:00 h; activity was lower at dawn and dusk, and scarce during daylight hours. Females were significantly diurnal and crepuscular, but individuals revealed a flexibility in their activity pattern, including arrhythmic patterns without apparent temporal organization. Den/rest sites include crevices, hollow logs, burrows made by other animals, and sometimes buildings. In Luxembourg, European Polecats were located in 53 different resting sites, during the day. Aboveground shelters were used more often than underground shelters. Piles of branches, barns and stables, garden sheds and rat dens, were the most used sites, without specific preference for any one typeof shelter. However, buildings seem to be of prime importance during severe weather conditions.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"European Polecats are solitary and terrestrial, but also capable of climbing. Daily movements average 1- 1 km. In some forest areas, home ranges are 100-150 ha. In Poland, European Polecats occupied stretches of 0-65 to 3-05 km along a stream. The home ranges of females were exclusive, but they could be completely overlapped by male home ranges. In Luxembourg, the home range size of European Polecats ranged from 42 to 428 ha, with an average of 181 ha. The mean home range size of males (246 ha) was significantly larger than that of females (84 ha). European Polecats concentrated 50% of their space use in only 15% of their home range, possibly indicating that suitable habitat was patchy. Average distance traveled per night by males was 3-6 times greater than that of females. Also, seasonal variation in movements was observed in males, but not in females. Population density is one per km”.Breeding.Mating occurs from March to June. The gestation period is about 42 days. Litter size is typically three to seven, but may be up to twelve. Neonates are blind and weigh 9-10 g. They open their eyes and are weaned after about one month, and become independent at around three months. Sexual maturity may be reached during the first year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. In Western Europe, the European Polecat was widely hunted for sport and fur and persecuted as a pest. However, these threats have become less seriousas this species is now protected in a number of range states, and rates of hunting have greatly reduced. Accidental mortality from car collisions and secondary rodenticide poisoning are threats. In Russiaand Morocco, this species is commonly hunted. Hybridization with the Ferret is a possible threat in the United Kingdom. Possible competition with the introduced American Mink may also be a problem.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 29.5-46 cm(males), 20.5-38.5 cm(females), tail 10-519 cm(males), 7-14 cm(females); weight 500-1710 g(males), 400-915 g(females), adult males are larger than females. The European Polecat has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown to black, with paler, yellowish undersides. The areas between the eye and ear and around the mouth, are silvery white. There are up to five pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 3/3. CV/1.P5/3. M1/2=34.","habitat":"The European Polecat is found in forests, meadows, abandoned fields, and agricultural areas, often in close proximity to water. They sometimes occur near humans, but avoid dense urban areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA73FF9CCFA73E7BF7ECF631.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA73FF9CCFA73E7BF7ECF631","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"654","verbatimText":"53.Siberian WeaselMustela sibiricaFrench:Putois de Sibérie/ German:Sibirisches Feuerwiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja siberianaTaxonomy.Mustela sibirica Pallas, 1773, Russia.Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision 1s needed.Distribution.Bhutan, China, India, Japan(Hokkaido), North and South Korea, Nepal, Laos, Mongolia, N Myanmar, Russia, Taiwan, and N Thailand. Introduced to several Japanese islands (Honshu, Kyushu & Shikoku Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-39 cm(males), 25-30.5 cm(females), tail 15.5-21 cm(males), 13.3-16.4 cm(females); weight 650-820 g(males), 360-430 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Siberian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer and becomes paler, almost yellowish-brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white. There is usually a dark mask around and in front of the eyes. The tail is about 50% of the head and body length, and may have a dark tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.Habitat.Siberian Weasels are found in forests, forest steppe, and mountains, from 1500 to 5000 m. They are often found in river valleys, near swamps, and in areas with dense ground vegetation, around villages, and in cultivated areas.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly small mammals (rodents, pikas), but may also include amphibians, birds, eggs,fish, invertebrates, berries, and nuts. Siberian Weasels search for prey by exploring hollow trees, logs,cavities, brush piles, and other enclosed spaces.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are under roots, in logs or tree hollows, modified rodent burrows, rock crevices, or buildings.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Siberian Weasels are solitary and terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Nightly movements may reach 8 km. There are reports of Siberian Weasels relocating to new areas if food becomes scarce locally.Breeding.Mating occursin late winter and early spring. The gestation period is 33-37 days. The young are born in April to June, inside hollow trees, cavities among rocks or stumps,inside buildings, or in a modified rodent burrow; the nest is lined with fur and feathers from prey killed by the mother. The litter size is 2-12, usually five or six. The young open their eyesafter one month, and lactation lasts two months. They leave their mother by the end of August.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Siberian Weasel is important in the fur trade. It occasionally attacks domestic fowl, but is generally considered beneficial because it preys on rodents. Little is known about Siberian Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Pocock (1941a), Rhim & Lee (2007), Sasaki & Ono (1994), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Wu (1999).","taxonomy":"Mustela sibirica Pallas, 1773, Russia.Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision 1s needed.","commonNames":"Putois de Sibérie @fr | Sibirisches Feuerwiesel @de | Comadreja siberiana @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1773","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"654","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sibirica","name":"Mustela sibirica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Bhutan, China, India, Japan(Hokkaido), North and South Korea, Nepal, Laos, Mongolia, N Myanmar, Russia, Taiwan, and N Thailand. Introduced to several Japanese islands (Honshu, Kyushu & Shikoku Is).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714273/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Francis (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Pocock (1941a) | Rhim & Lee (2007) | Sasaki & Ono (1994) | Stroganov (1969) | Wozencraft (2005, 2008) | Wu (1999)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly small mammals (rodents, pikas), but may also include amphibians, birds, eggs,fish, invertebrates, berries, and nuts. Siberian Weasels search for prey by exploring hollow trees, logs,cavities, brush piles, and other enclosed spaces.","breeding":"Mating occursin late winter and early spring. The gestation period is 33-37 days. The young are born in April to June, inside hollow trees, cavities among rocks or stumps,inside buildings, or in a modified rodent burrow; the nest is lined with fur and feathers from prey killed by the mother. The litter size is 2-12, usually five or six. The young open their eyesafter one month, and lactation lasts two months. They leave their mother by the end of August.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are under roots, in logs or tree hollows, modified rodent burrows, rock crevices, or buildings.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Siberian Weasels are solitary and terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Nightly movements may reach 8 km. There are reports of Siberian Weasels relocating to new areas if food becomes scarce locally.Breeding.Mating occursin late winter and early spring. The gestation period is 33-37 days. The young are born in April to June, inside hollow trees, cavities among rocks or stumps,inside buildings, or in a modified rodent burrow; the nest is lined with fur and feathers from prey killed by the mother. The litter size is 2-12, usually five or six. The young open their eyesafter one month, and lactation lasts two months. They leave their mother by the end of August.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The Siberian Weasel is important in the fur trade. It occasionally attacks domestic fowl, but is generally considered beneficial because it preys on rodents. Little is known about Siberian Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 28-39 cm(males), 25-30.5 cm(females), tail 15.5-21 cm(males), 13.3-16.4 cm(females); weight 650-820 g(males), 360-430 g(females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Siberian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer and becomes paler, almost yellowish-brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white. There is usually a dark mask around and in front of the eyes. The tail is about 50% of the head and body length, and may have a dark tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.","habitat":"Siberian Weasels are found in forests, forest steppe, and mountains, from 1500 to 5000 m. They are often found in river valleys, near swamps, and in areas with dense ground vegetation, around villages, and in cultivated areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"655","verbatimText":"56.American MinkNeovison visonFrench:Vison d’Amérique/ German:Amerikanischer Nerz/ Spanish:Visén americanoTaxonomy.Mustela vison Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Fifteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N. v. vison Schreber, 1776— E Canadaand NE USA(Allegheny Mts).N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916— SW USA(California& W Nevada).N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964— W Alaska.N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896— W Canadaand NW USA.N. v. evagor Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I).N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948— SE USA(SWFlorida).N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900— most of Alaska and NW Canada(N Mackenzie & Yukon).N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902— C Canada(Keewatin Region, Manitoba& Ontario).N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913— Great Plains of USA.N. v. low Anderson, 1945— E Canada(Labrador & Quebec).N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898— USA(S Carolina to Florida).N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE USA.N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909— SW Alaska.N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895— USA(Arkansas& Louisiana).Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan(Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.Descriptive notes.Head-body 33-43 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females), tail 16.7-20 cm(males), 15.2-18.5 cm(females); weight 850-1805 g(males), 450-840 g(females), adult males are generally 10% longer and 100% heavier than females. The American Mink has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is soft and luxurious; it is brown throughout, but white markings on the chest, throat and chin are common. The feet are fully furred and the claws are short and sharp. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and flat, with a small sagittal crest. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, P 3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.American Mink are found along the edges of small creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and in wetlands, swamps, marshes, and along coastal beaches. They prefer densely vegetated areas and are sometimes found far from water. Females have been found to prefer small streams, whereas males prefer large streams.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals,fish, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and earthworms. In much of North America, the American Mink is a major predator of Muskrats; fluctuations in Muskrat populations have a direct effect on American Mink abundance. In Eurasia, where the American Mink has been introduced, the staple food items on rivers and streamsare fish (average, 27%), mammals (30%), and amphibians (17%), whereas on lakes and ponds,it is predominantly birds (33%) and fish (28%). On the upper reaches of the Lovatriver, north-east Belarus, three out of ten American Mink were found to be small mammal specialists; 86-92% of their scats contained remains of small rodents (mostly the Water Vole and microtines), and small mammals constituted 83-88% of the food biomass consumed; the other seven were generalist predators. In western Poland, the diet of American Mink consists mainly of mammals, birds, and fish. In autumn-winter, mammals constitute up to 56%, fish up to 62%, and birds 4-16%, of the biomass consumed. In spring and summer, however, birds form 45-60% of the biomass eaten; the common coot (Fulica atra) is the most frequently consumed prey. Scat analysis in eastern Polandrevealed that American Mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring-summer and 10% in autumnwinter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Of the available small mammal species, American Mink strongly selected the Root Vole (Microtus oeconomus). The cold season diet depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, American Mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of a river increases and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forest), American Mink shift to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in the diet). The stomach contents of 211 individuals in Thy, Denmark, revealed that the diet was mostly mammals (55% occurrence), followed by amphibians (36%), birds (33%), and fish (30%). In Bornholm, Denmark, American Mink prey mostly on birds (50%), followed by mammals (42%), fish (25%) and amphibians (4%). In Italy, the diet is mainly fish, followed by small mammals and birds. American Mink spend most of their time hunting near water, but can also hunt underwater. In a coastal environment of Scotland, radio-tracked American Mink were found to forage selectively at low or mid-tide and within the core areas of their home range; they showed no preference for areas rich in prey when foraging at high tide and between core areas. They also avoided areas with freshwater streams and preferred foraging in the mid-tide zone. Prey on land are detected by sight or sound. Surplus food is sometimes cached.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but with frequent periods of daytime activity, especially in areas away from humans. Den/rest sites are in burrows, hollow logs, hollow trees, rock crevices, old buildings, or abandoned dwellings of Muskrats, American Beavers, or Woodchucks (Marmota sp.). Burrows may be about 3 mlong and 1 mbeneath the surface, and have one or more entrancesjust above the water level. On the northern Iberian Peninsula, radio-collared American Mink selected resting places within dense scrub,close to deep water. Both sexes also used underground dens, but during cold days females rested in buildings much more often than males. Active females used areas of dense scrub, and males used large scrub patches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Mink are good swimmers. They can dive to depths of 5-6 mand swim underwater for about 30 m.They are also agile climbers and occasionally forage in trees. Movements are either short foraging excursions or long travel movements between areas. Daily movements may reach up to 25 km, but usually are less than 5 km. American Mink are solitary outside of the breeding season. Females have home ranges of about 8-20 ha; the ranges of males are larger, sometimes up to 800 ha. Home ranges include 1-8-7- 5 kmof shoreline for males and 1-4- 2 kmfor females. In the prairies, the average home range of males was 7- 7 km*. The home ranges of males overlap with those of females, but there is little overlap with other males. Population densities of 1-8 per km? have been recorded.Breeding.Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The American Mink is considered common throughoutits range. It is harvested in the wild forits fur, particularly in North America; however, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms and American Mink are intensively raised in captivity. Most of the conservation issues with this species relate to its introduction to countries outside its natural distribution and the impacts on native fauna. Major threats to American Mink are linked with water pollution.Bibliography.Aulerich & Ringer (1979), Aulerich et al. (1974), Bartoszewicz & Zalewski (2003), Birks & Linn (1982), Bonesi et al. (2000), Dunstone (1979, 1983, 1993), Enders (1952), Errington (1954), Hammershoj et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999a, 2003b), Sidorovich et al. (2001), Wozencraft (2005), Zabala et al. (2007a, 2007b), Zuberogoitia et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Mustela vison Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Fifteen subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Vison d’Amérique @fr | Amerikanischer Nerz @de | Visén americano @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Neovison","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"36","interpretedPageNumber":"655","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vison","name":"Neovison vison","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N. v. vison Schreber, 1776— E Canadaand NE USA(Allegheny Mts).N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916— SW USA(California& W Nevada).N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964— W Alaska.N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896— W Canadaand NW USA.N. v. evagor Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I).N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948— SE USA(SWFlorida).N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900— most of Alaska and NW Canada(N Mackenzie & Yukon).N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902— C Canada(Keewatin Region, Manitoba& Ontario).N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913— Great Plains of USA.N. v. low Anderson, 1945— E Canada(Labrador & Quebec).N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898— USA(S Carolina to Florida).N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE USA.N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909— SW Alaska.N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895— USA(Arkansas& Louisiana).Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan(Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.","bibliography":"Aulerich & Ringer (1979) | Aulerich et al. (1974) | Bartoszewicz & Zalewski (2003) | Birks & Linn (1982) | Bonesi et al. (2000) | Dunstone (1979, 1983, 1993) | Enders (1952) | Errington (1954) | Hammershoj et al. (2004) | Lariviere (1999a, 2003b) | Sidorovich et al. (2001) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zabala et al. (2007a, 2007b) | Zuberogoitia et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals,fish, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and earthworms. In much of North America, the American Mink is a major predator of Muskrats; fluctuations in Muskrat populations have a direct effect on American Mink abundance. In Eurasia, where the American Mink has been introduced, the staple food items on rivers and streamsare fish (average, 27%), mammals (30%), and amphibians (17%), whereas on lakes and ponds,it is predominantly birds (33%) and fish (28%). On the upper reaches of the Lovatriver, north-east Belarus, three out of ten American Mink were found to be small mammal specialists; 86-92% of their scats contained remains of small rodents (mostly the Water Vole and microtines), and small mammals constituted 83-88% of the food biomass consumed; the other seven were generalist predators. In western Poland, the diet of American Mink consists mainly of mammals, birds, and fish. In autumn-winter, mammals constitute up to 56%, fish up to 62%, and birds 4-16%, of the biomass consumed. In spring and summer, however, birds form 45-60% of the biomass eaten; the common coot (Fulica atra) is the most frequently consumed prey. Scat analysis in eastern Polandrevealed that American Mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring-summer and 10% in autumnwinter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Of the available small mammal species, American Mink strongly selected the Root Vole (Microtus oeconomus). The cold season diet depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, American Mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of a river increases and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forest), American Mink shift to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in the diet). The stomach contents of 211 individuals in Thy, Denmark, revealed that the diet was mostly mammals (55% occurrence), followed by amphibians (36%), birds (33%), and fish (30%). In Bornholm, Denmark, American Mink prey mostly on birds (50%), followed by mammals (42%), fish (25%) and amphibians (4%). In Italy, the diet is mainly fish, followed by small mammals and birds. American Mink spend most of their time hunting near water, but can also hunt underwater. In a coastal environment of Scotland, radio-tracked American Mink were found to forage selectively at low or mid-tide and within the core areas of their home range; they showed no preference for areas rich in prey when foraging at high tide and between core areas. They also avoided areas with freshwater streams and preferred foraging in the mid-tide zone. Prey on land are detected by sight or sound. Surplus food is sometimes cached.","breeding":"Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, but with frequent periods of daytime activity, especially in areas away from humans. Den/rest sites are in burrows, hollow logs, hollow trees, rock crevices, old buildings, or abandoned dwellings of Muskrats, American Beavers, or Woodchucks (Marmota sp.). Burrows may be about 3 mlong and 1 mbeneath the surface, and have one or more entrancesjust above the water level. On the northern Iberian Peninsula, radio-collared American Mink selected resting places within dense scrub,close to deep water. Both sexes also used underground dens, but during cold days females rested in buildings much more often than males. Active females used areas of dense scrub, and males used large scrub patches.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"American Mink are good swimmers. They can dive to depths of 5-6 mand swim underwater for about 30 m.They are also agile climbers and occasionally forage in trees. Movements are either short foraging excursions or long travel movements between areas. Daily movements may reach up to 25 km, but usually are less than 5 km. American Mink are solitary outside of the breeding season. Females have home ranges of about 8-20 ha; the ranges of males are larger, sometimes up to 800 ha. Home ranges include 1-8-7- 5 kmof shoreline for males and 1-4- 2 kmfor females. In the prairies, the average home range of males was 7- 7 km*. The home ranges of males overlap with those of females, but there is little overlap with other males. Population densities of 1-8 per km? have been recorded.Breeding.Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The American Mink is considered common throughoutits range. It is harvested in the wild forits fur, particularly in North America; however, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms and American Mink are intensively raised in captivity. Most of the conservation issues with this species relate to its introduction to countries outside its natural distribution and the impacts on native fauna. Major threats to American Mink are linked with water pollution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 33-43 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females), tail 16.7-20 cm(males), 15.2-18.5 cm(females); weight 850-1805 g(males), 450-840 g(females), adult males are generally 10% longer and 100% heavier than females. The American Mink has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is soft and luxurious; it is brown throughout, but white markings on the chest, throat and chin are common. The feet are fully furred and the claws are short and sharp. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and flat, with a small sagittal crest. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, P 3/3,M1/2=34.","habitat":"American Mink are found along the edges of small creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and in wetlands, swamps, marshes, and along coastal beaches. They prefer densely vegetated areas and are sometimes found far from water. Females have been found to prefer small streams, whereas males prefer large streams."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"655","verbatimText":"56.American MinkNeovison visonFrench:Vison d’Amérique/ German:Amerikanischer Nerz/ Spanish:Visén americanoTaxonomy.Mustela vison Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Fifteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N. v. vison Schreber, 1776— E Canadaand NE USA(Allegheny Mts).N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916— SW USA(California& W Nevada).N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964— W Alaska.N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896— W Canadaand NW USA.N. v. evagor Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I).N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948— SE USA(SWFlorida).N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900— most of Alaska and NW Canada(N Mackenzie & Yukon).N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902— C Canada(Keewatin Region, Manitoba& Ontario).N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913— Great Plains of USA.N. v. low Anderson, 1945— E Canada(Labrador & Quebec).N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898— USA(S Carolina to Florida).N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE USA.N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909— SW Alaska.N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895— USA(Arkansas& Louisiana).Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan(Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.Descriptive notes.Head-body 33-43 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females), tail 16.7-20 cm(males), 15.2-18.5 cm(females); weight 850-1805 g(males), 450-840 g(females), adult males are generally 10% longer and 100% heavier than females. The American Mink has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is soft and luxurious; it is brown throughout, but white markings on the chest, throat and chin are common. The feet are fully furred and the claws are short and sharp. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and flat, with a small sagittal crest. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, P 3/3,M1/2=34.Habitat.American Mink are found along the edges of small creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and in wetlands, swamps, marshes, and along coastal beaches. They prefer densely vegetated areas and are sometimes found far from water. Females have been found to prefer small streams, whereas males prefer large streams.Food and Feeding.The diet includes small mammals,fish, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and earthworms. In much of North America, the American Mink is a major predator of Muskrats; fluctuations in Muskrat populations have a direct effect on American Mink abundance. In Eurasia, where the American Mink has been introduced, the staple food items on rivers and streamsare fish (average, 27%), mammals (30%), and amphibians (17%), whereas on lakes and ponds,it is predominantly birds (33%) and fish (28%). On the upper reaches of the Lovatriver, north-east Belarus, three out of ten American Mink were found to be small mammal specialists; 86-92% of their scats contained remains of small rodents (mostly the Water Vole and microtines), and small mammals constituted 83-88% of the food biomass consumed; the other seven were generalist predators. In western Poland, the diet of American Mink consists mainly of mammals, birds, and fish. In autumn-winter, mammals constitute up to 56%, fish up to 62%, and birds 4-16%, of the biomass consumed. In spring and summer, however, birds form 45-60% of the biomass eaten; the common coot (Fulica atra) is the most frequently consumed prey. Scat analysis in eastern Polandrevealed that American Mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring-summer and 10% in autumnwinter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Of the available small mammal species, American Mink strongly selected the Root Vole (Microtus oeconomus). The cold season diet depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, American Mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of a river increases and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forest), American Mink shift to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in the diet). The stomach contents of 211 individuals in Thy, Denmark, revealed that the diet was mostly mammals (55% occurrence), followed by amphibians (36%), birds (33%), and fish (30%). In Bornholm, Denmark, American Mink prey mostly on birds (50%), followed by mammals (42%), fish (25%) and amphibians (4%). In Italy, the diet is mainly fish, followed by small mammals and birds. American Mink spend most of their time hunting near water, but can also hunt underwater. In a coastal environment of Scotland, radio-tracked American Mink were found to forage selectively at low or mid-tide and within the core areas of their home range; they showed no preference for areas rich in prey when foraging at high tide and between core areas. They also avoided areas with freshwater streams and preferred foraging in the mid-tide zone. Prey on land are detected by sight or sound. Surplus food is sometimes cached.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, but with frequent periods of daytime activity, especially in areas away from humans. Den/rest sites are in burrows, hollow logs, hollow trees, rock crevices, old buildings, or abandoned dwellings of Muskrats, American Beavers, or Woodchucks (Marmota sp.). Burrows may be about 3 mlong and 1 mbeneath the surface, and have one or more entrancesjust above the water level. On the northern Iberian Peninsula, radio-collared American Mink selected resting places within dense scrub,close to deep water. Both sexes also used underground dens, but during cold days females rested in buildings much more often than males. Active females used areas of dense scrub, and males used large scrub patches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Mink are good swimmers. They can dive to depths of 5-6 mand swim underwater for about 30 m.They are also agile climbers and occasionally forage in trees. Movements are either short foraging excursions or long travel movements between areas. Daily movements may reach up to 25 km, but usually are less than 5 km. American Mink are solitary outside of the breeding season. Females have home ranges of about 8-20 ha; the ranges of males are larger, sometimes up to 800 ha. Home ranges include 1-8-7- 5 kmof shoreline for males and 1-4- 2 kmfor females. In the prairies, the average home range of males was 7- 7 km*. The home ranges of males overlap with those of females, but there is little overlap with other males. Population densities of 1-8 per km? have been recorded.Breeding.Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The American Mink is considered common throughoutits range. It is harvested in the wild forits fur, particularly in North America; however, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms and American Mink are intensively raised in captivity. Most of the conservation issues with this species relate to its introduction to countries outside its natural distribution and the impacts on native fauna. Major threats to American Mink are linked with water pollution.Bibliography.Aulerich & Ringer (1979), Aulerich et al. (1974), Bartoszewicz & Zalewski (2003), Birks & Linn (1982), Bonesi et al. (2000), Dunstone (1979, 1983, 1993), Enders (1952), Errington (1954), Hammershoj et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999a, 2003b), Sidorovich et al. (2001), Wozencraft (2005), Zabala et al. (2007a, 2007b), Zuberogoitia et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Mustela vison Schreber, 1776, Eastern Canada.Fifteen subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Vison d’Amérique @fr | Amerikanischer Nerz @de | Visén americano @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Neovison","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"36","interpretedPageNumber":"655","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vison","name":"Neovison vison","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N. v. vison Schreber, 1776— E Canadaand NE USA(Allegheny Mts).N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916— SW USA(California& W Nevada).N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964— W Alaska.N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896— W Canadaand NW USA.N. v. evagor Hall, 1932— SW Canada(Vancouver I).N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948— SE USA(SWFlorida).N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900— most of Alaska and NW Canada(N Mackenzie & Yukon).N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902— C Canada(Keewatin Region, Manitoba& Ontario).N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913— Great Plains of USA.N. v. low Anderson, 1945— E Canada(Labrador & Quebec).N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898— USA(S Carolina to Florida).N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).N. v. mink Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE USA.N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909— SW Alaska.N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895— USA(Arkansas& Louisiana).Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan(Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714279/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aulerich & Ringer (1979) | Aulerich et al. (1974) | Bartoszewicz & Zalewski (2003) | Birks & Linn (1982) | Bonesi et al. (2000) | Dunstone (1979, 1983, 1993) | Enders (1952) | Errington (1954) | Hammershoj et al. (2004) | Lariviere (1999a, 2003b) | Sidorovich et al. (2001) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zabala et al. (2007a, 2007b) | Zuberogoitia et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet includes small mammals,fish, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and earthworms. In much of North America, the American Mink is a major predator of Muskrats; fluctuations in Muskrat populations have a direct effect on American Mink abundance. In Eurasia, where the American Mink has been introduced, the staple food items on rivers and streamsare fish (average, 27%), mammals (30%), and amphibians (17%), whereas on lakes and ponds,it is predominantly birds (33%) and fish (28%). On the upper reaches of the Lovatriver, north-east Belarus, three out of ten American Mink were found to be small mammal specialists; 86-92% of their scats contained remains of small rodents (mostly the Water Vole and microtines), and small mammals constituted 83-88% of the food biomass consumed; the other seven were generalist predators. In western Poland, the diet of American Mink consists mainly of mammals, birds, and fish. In autumn-winter, mammals constitute up to 56%, fish up to 62%, and birds 4-16%, of the biomass consumed. In spring and summer, however, birds form 45-60% of the biomass eaten; the common coot (Fulica atra) is the most frequently consumed prey. Scat analysis in eastern Polandrevealed that American Mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring-summer and 10% in autumnwinter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Of the available small mammal species, American Mink strongly selected the Root Vole (Microtus oeconomus). The cold season diet depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, American Mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of a river increases and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forest), American Mink shift to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in the diet). The stomach contents of 211 individuals in Thy, Denmark, revealed that the diet was mostly mammals (55% occurrence), followed by amphibians (36%), birds (33%), and fish (30%). In Bornholm, Denmark, American Mink prey mostly on birds (50%), followed by mammals (42%), fish (25%) and amphibians (4%). In Italy, the diet is mainly fish, followed by small mammals and birds. American Mink spend most of their time hunting near water, but can also hunt underwater. In a coastal environment of Scotland, radio-tracked American Mink were found to forage selectively at low or mid-tide and within the core areas of their home range; they showed no preference for areas rich in prey when foraging at high tide and between core areas. They also avoided areas with freshwater streams and preferred foraging in the mid-tide zone. Prey on land are detected by sight or sound. Surplus food is sometimes cached.","breeding":"Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, but with frequent periods of daytime activity, especially in areas away from humans. Den/rest sites are in burrows, hollow logs, hollow trees, rock crevices, old buildings, or abandoned dwellings of Muskrats, American Beavers, or Woodchucks (Marmota sp.). Burrows may be about 3 mlong and 1 mbeneath the surface, and have one or more entrancesjust above the water level. On the northern Iberian Peninsula, radio-collared American Mink selected resting places within dense scrub,close to deep water. Both sexes also used underground dens, but during cold days females rested in buildings much more often than males. Active females used areas of dense scrub, and males used large scrub patches.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"American Mink are good swimmers. They can dive to depths of 5-6 mand swim underwater for about 30 m.They are also agile climbers and occasionally forage in trees. Movements are either short foraging excursions or long travel movements between areas. Daily movements may reach up to 25 km, but usually are less than 5 km. American Mink are solitary outside of the breeding season. Females have home ranges of about 8-20 ha; the ranges of males are larger, sometimes up to 800 ha. Home ranges include 1-8-7- 5 kmof shoreline for males and 1-4- 2 kmfor females. In the prairies, the average home range of males was 7- 7 km*. The home ranges of males overlap with those of females, but there is little overlap with other males. Population densities of 1-8 per km? have been recorded.Breeding.Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. The American Mink is considered common throughoutits range. It is harvested in the wild forits fur, particularly in North America; however, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms and American Mink are intensively raised in captivity. Most of the conservation issues with this species relate to its introduction to countries outside its natural distribution and the impacts on native fauna. Major threats to American Mink are linked with water pollution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 33-43 cm(males), 30-40 cm(females), tail 16.7-20 cm(males), 15.2-18.5 cm(females); weight 850-1805 g(males), 450-840 g(females), adult males are generally 10% longer and 100% heavier than females. The American Mink has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is soft and luxurious; it is brown throughout, but white markings on the chest, throat and chin are common. The feet are fully furred and the claws are short and sharp. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and flat, with a small sagittal crest. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, P 3/3,M1/2=34.","habitat":"American Mink are found along the edges of small creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and in wetlands, swamps, marshes, and along coastal beaches. They prefer densely vegetated areas and are sometimes found far from water. Females have been found to prefer small streams, whereas males prefer large streams."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA74FF9BCAFB3FFCFC20F836.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA74FF9BCAFB3FFCFC20F836","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"655","verbatimText":"55.Egyptian WeaselMustela subpalmataFrench:Belette d'Egypte/ German:Agyptisches Wiesel/ Spanish:Comadreja egipciaTaxonomy.Mustela subpalmata Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Egypt.The Egyptian Weasel has often been considered conspecific with the Least Weasel, but is now recognized as a separate species. Monotypic.Distribution.Egypt.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27-30 cm, tail 10.7-12.9 cm; weight 45-130 g, but females are smaller than males. The morphology is very similar to that of the Least Weasel.Habitat.Fields and along irrigation canals. Also found in towns and villages.Food and Feeding.Diet is said to include small mammals and insects.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Virtually nothing is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.Bibliography.Setzer (1958), VanZyll de Jong (1992), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela subpalmata Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833, Egypt.The Egyptian Weasel has often been considered conspecific with the Least Weasel, but is now recognized as a separate species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Belette d'Egypte @fr | Agyptisches Wiesel @de | Comadreja egipcia @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hemprich & Ehrenberg","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1833","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Mustela","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"36","interpretedPageNumber":"655","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"subpalmata","name":"Mustela subpalmata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Egypt.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714277/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Setzer (1958) | VanZyll de Jong (1992) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet is said to include small mammals and insects.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCNRed List. Virtually nothing is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 27-30 cm, tail 10.7-12.9 cm; weight 45-130 g, but females are smaller than males. The morphology is very similar to that of the Least Weasel.","habitat":"Fields and along irrigation canals. Also found in towns and villages."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/8F/87/038F87D4CA75FF9ACADA3EB6F656FC61.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"038F87D4CA75FF9ACADA3EB6F656FC61","docName":"hbmw_1_Mustelidae_0564.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffb6ffacca50ffbfca653c08ff86ff9c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"656","verbatimText":"57.Patagonian WeaselLyncodon patagonicusFrench:Belette de Patagonie/ German:Patagonisches Wiesel/ Spanish:Huron patagonicoTaxonomy.Mustela patagonica de Blainville, 1842, Argentina.Monotypic.Distribution.Argentinaand C & S Chile.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-35 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 200-250 g. The Patagonian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is grayish-white throughout, with a wide band of white fur on the top of head. The nape, cheeks, chin, throat and limbs are dark brown. Dental formula; 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 1/1=28.Habitat.Herbaceous and shrub steppes, and xerophytic woodlands.Food and Feeding.Reported to enter burrows and prey on fossorial rodents and birds. May be associated with tuco-tuco (Ctenomys spp.) communities.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRedList. Verylittle is known about the Patagonian Weasel as it is rarelyseen in the wild or collected. No information has been published onits current population status or major threats. Field studies are needed to learn more about its ecology and conservation status.Bibliography.Ewer (1973), IUCN(2008), Miller et al. (1983), Pocock (1926), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mustela patagonica de Blainville, 1842, Argentina.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Belette de Patagonie @fr | Patagonisches Wiesel @de | Huron patagonico @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gervais","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mustelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lyncodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"37","interpretedPageNumber":"656","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"patagonicus","name":"Lyncodon patagonicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Argentinaand C & S Chile.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714281/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ewer (1973) | IUCN(2008) | Miller et al. (1983) | Pocock (1926) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Reported to enter burrows and prey on fossorial rodents and birds. May be associated with tuco-tuco (Ctenomys spp.) communities.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Reported to be nocturnal and crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCNRedList. Verylittle is known about the Patagonian Weasel as it is rarelyseen in the wild or collected. No information has been published onits current population status or major threats. Field studies are needed to learn more about its ecology and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 30-35 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 200-250 g. The Patagonian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is grayish-white throughout, with a wide band of white fur on the top of head. The nape, cheeks, chin, throat and limbs are dark brown. Dental formula; 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 1/1=28.","habitat":"Herbaceous and shrub steppes, and xerophytic woodlands."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/91/87/039187AC5C3C2A51F0B408BA372BF81E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039187AC5C3C2A51F0B408BA372BF81E","docName":"hbmw_9_Furipteridae_412.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa8ffd45c3e2a53f03609113f64ffc4","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"417","verbatimText":"2.Thumbless BatFuripterus horrensFrench:Furiptere hérissé/ German:Gemeiner Stummeldaumen/ Spanish:Murciélagosin pulgarTaxonomy.Furia horrens F. Cuvier, 1828, “la Mana,” French Guiana.R. F. Tomes in 1856 was the first to use the current name combination. Relative to DNA barcoding studies, F horrensshowed a 2:5% mean intraspecific sequence divergence, which according to criteria of R. J. Baker and R. D. Bradley in 2006 could represent cryptic speciation but not distinct mitochondrial lineages or phylogroups. Monotypic.Distribution.S Central and N South America from SW Nicaragua(Refugio Bartola), S throughout Costa Ricaand Panamato Colombia, Venezuela, TrinidadI, the Guianas, Brazil, E Ecuador, E Peru, and N Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.34-41 mm (males) and 33-36 mm (females), tail 20-28 mm (males) and 21-38 mm (females), hindfoot 7-8 mm (males) and 7-9 mm (females), forearm 35-37 mm (males) and 36-5-38-5 mm (females); weight 3-1-3-6 g (males) and 3-2-4-2 g (females). Tail of the Thumbless Bat extends a little less than two-thirds the length of uropatagium, in which it is completely encased. Intraspecific divergence in measurements of Thumbless Bats in samples from Espirito Santoand the Guianas varied 2:1-2-5%. Zygomatic breadths are 7-3-7-8 mm, and maxillary tooth rows are 4:7-4-8 mm (females). Specific name horrensrefers to bristly hair on this bat. Thumbless Bats are small and delicate, with soft, thick, bluish gray to slate-gray fur on dorsum; venteris slightly paler. Height of braincase, including auditory bullae, is much less than distance from frontal angle to most posterior point of occipital region; muzzle and lips nearly simple. Rostrum is short, ¢.50% the length of braincase. Dental formula is 12/3, C 1/1, P 2/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 36; upper incisors are paired, outerslightly smaller than inner; space between two inner incisors and that between outer incisor and canine are distinct; C' is small, and its shaft is about equal in height to the large P% P! is ¢.50% the size of canine and second premolar; lower incisors have trifid cutting edges, forming continuous row between canines; C is as high as P, and P,, which are about equal in size; and P| is ¢.50% the height of canine. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 34 and FN = 62; Gand C-band data have not been published.Habitat.Humid tropical and subtropical forests in lowlands at elevations of 250-1200 m. Although Thumbless Bats have been associated with caves, they also use other shelters such as buildings (empty or occupied), tunnels, among boulders, hollow logs, and within or under fallen decomposing trees.Food and Feeding.Thumbless Bats are insectivorous and fly close to the ground, especially in search of moths. Species of Lepidoptera are more abundant in diets than species of Diptera or Coleoptera.Breeding.In Colombia,five females were caught in September: one gravid, three nongravid, and a young. Fifty-nine males were found on a fallen tree in Costa Ricain May, and there were isolated males in a cavern in Panamain February. In the most comprehensive study of the Thumbless Bat in Brazil, W. Uieda and colleagues in 1980 reported lactating females with young in January-February, and the young were ready to start flying. On an October night, three young (two males and one female) were hanging on a cliff inside a cave in Brazil. Female reproductive system has short, partially bicornuate uterus; while ovaries typically have abundant stromal type intersticial gland tissue. The placenta is discoidal; large vascular channels are hemodichorial, with widely scattered maternal endothelial cells; and smaller vascular channels are endotheliodichorial (somite stage embryo) (light microscopy). There was a developing discoidal chorioallantoic placenta in a female Thumbless Bat captured in a road culvert in the Western Andes Range of Colombia. Although she carried only a somite stage embryo, most maternal endotelial cells had already been eliminated from the larger vascular channels (establishing a hemodichorial condition) but were still common in the smaller channels.Activity patterns.It often occurs in small groups of 4-10 individuals but has recently been found in large aggregations (e.g. 59 males roosting inside a tree in Costa Ricaand 150-250 mixed-gender individuals in a few grottos in Brazil). Thumbless Bats begin to fly at twilight but do not leave their shelters until after dark. Echolocation calls have low-duty cycles, dominated by sounds less than 100 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Thumbless Bats are known to cooccur with several other bat species such as the Woolly False Vampire Bat (Chrotopterus auritus), the Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus), Pallas’s Long-tongued Bat (Glossophaga soricina), Geoffroy’s Tailless Bat (Anoura geoffroyi), Seba’s Short-tailed Bat (Carollia perspicillata), the White-lined Broad-nosed Bat (Platyrrhinus lineatus), the Lesser Dog-like Bat (Peropteryx macrotis), the Hairy-legged Vampire Bat (Diphylla ecaudata), Little Big-eared Bat (Micronycteris megalotis), and the Greater Spear-nosed Bat (Phyllostomus hastatus). Thumbless Bats could be preyed on by carnivorous bats in caves, and remains of Thumbless Bats have been found in stomach contents of the Fringe-lipped Bat (Trachops cirrhosus), the Greater Spear-nosed Bat, and the Woolly False Vampire Bat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Thumbless Bat is listed as least concern in the Ecuadorian Red Book of Endangered Species but vulnerable in the Brazilian Red Book of Endangered Species. The Thumbless Bat was long considered one of the most rare Neotropical bats, butit has been discovered recently in relatively large aggregations.Bibliography.Albuja (1999), Badwaik & Rasweiler (2000), Baker & Bradley (2006), Brosset & Charles-Dominique (1991), Duda et al. (2012), Falcaoet al. (2015), Fenton, Whitaker et al. (1999), Gardner (2008h), Husson (1962), LaVal & Fitch (1977), Leal et al. (2014), Medina-Fitoria et al. (2015), Miller (1907), Nowak (1994), Portella et al. (2017), Rasweiler & Badwaik (2000), Reid (2009), Reis et al. (2017), Salles et al. (2014), Simmons & Voss (1998), Tirira et al. (2012), Tomes (1856), Uieda et al. (1980).","taxonomy":"Furia horrens F. Cuvier, 1828, “la Mana,” French Guiana.R. F. Tomes in 1856 was the first to use the current name combination. Relative to DNA barcoding studies, F horrensshowed a 2:5% mean intraspecific sequence divergence, which according to criteria of R. J. Baker and R. D. Bradley in 2006 could represent cryptic speciation but not distinct mitochondrial lineages or phylogroups. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Furiptere hérissé @fr | Gemeiner Stummeldaumen @de | Murciélagosin pulgar @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1828","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Furipteridae","interpretedGenus":"Furipterus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"417","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"horrens","name":"Furipterus horrens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Central and N South America from SW Nicaragua(Refugio Bartola), S throughout Costa Ricaand Panamato Colombia, Venezuela, TrinidadI, the Guianas, Brazil, E Ecuador, E Peru, and N Bolivia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5733450/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Albuja (1999) | Badwaik & Rasweiler (2000) | Baker & Bradley (2006) | Brosset & Charles-Dominique (1991) | Duda et al. (2012) | Falcaoet al. (2015) | Fenton, Whitaker et al. (1999) | Gardner (2008h) | Husson (1962) | LaVal & Fitch (1977) | Leal et al. (2014) | Medina-Fitoria et al. (2015) | Miller (1907) | Nowak (1994) | Portella et al. (2017) | Rasweiler & Badwaik (2000) | Reid (2009) | Reis et al. (2017) | Salles et al. (2014) | Simmons & Voss (1998) | Tirira et al. (2012) | Tomes (1856) | Uieda et al. (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"Thumbless Bats are insectivorous and fly close to the ground, especially in search of moths. Species of Lepidoptera are more abundant in diets than species of Diptera or Coleoptera.","breeding":"In Colombia,five females were caught in September: one gravid, three nongravid, and a young. Fifty-nine males were found on a fallen tree in Costa Ricain May, and there were isolated males in a cavern in Panamain February. In the most comprehensive study of the Thumbless Bat in Brazil, W. Uieda and colleagues in 1980 reported lactating females with young in January-February, and the young were ready to start flying. On an October night, three young (two males and one female) were hanging on a cliff inside a cave in Brazil. Female reproductive system has short, partially bicornuate uterus; while ovaries typically have abundant stromal type intersticial gland tissue. The placenta is discoidal; large vascular channels are hemodichorial, with widely scattered maternal endothelial cells; and smaller vascular channels are endotheliodichorial (somite stage embryo) (light microscopy). There was a developing discoidal chorioallantoic placenta in a female Thumbless Bat captured in a road culvert in the Western Andes Range of Colombia. Although she carried only a somite stage embryo, most maternal endotelial cells had already been eliminated from the larger vascular channels (establishing a hemodichorial condition) but were still common in the smaller channels.","activityPatterns":"It often occurs in small groups of 4-10 individuals but has recently been found in large aggregations (e.g. 59 males roosting inside a tree in Costa Ricaand 150-250 mixed-gender individuals in a few grottos in Brazil). Thumbless Bats begin to fly at twilight but do not leave their shelters until after dark. Echolocation calls have low-duty cycles, dominated by sounds less than 100 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Thumbless Bats are known to cooccur with several other bat species such as the Woolly False Vampire Bat (Chrotopterus auritus), the Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus), Pallas’s Long-tongued Bat (Glossophaga soricina), Geoffroy’s Tailless Bat (Anoura geoffroyi), Seba’s Short-tailed Bat (Carollia perspicillata), the White-lined Broad-nosed Bat (Platyrrhinus lineatus), the Lesser Dog-like Bat (Peropteryx macrotis), the Hairy-legged Vampire Bat (Diphylla ecaudata), Little Big-eared Bat (Micronycteris megalotis), and the Greater Spear-nosed Bat (Phyllostomus hastatus). Thumbless Bats could be preyed on by carnivorous bats in caves, and remains of Thumbless Bats have been found in stomach contents of the Fringe-lipped Bat (Trachops cirrhosus), the Greater Spear-nosed Bat, and the Woolly False Vampire Bat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Thumbless Bat is listed as least concern in the Ecuadorian Red Book of Endangered Species but vulnerable in the Brazilian Red Book of Endangered Species. The Thumbless Bat was long considered one of the most rare Neotropical bats, butit has been discovered recently in relatively large aggregations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.34-41 mm (males) and 33-36 mm (females), tail 20-28 mm (males) and 21-38 mm (females), hindfoot 7-8 mm (males) and 7-9 mm (females), forearm 35-37 mm (males) and 36-5-38-5 mm (females); weight 3-1-3-6 g (males) and 3-2-4-2 g (females). Tail of the Thumbless Bat extends a little less than two-thirds the length of uropatagium, in which it is completely encased. Intraspecific divergence in measurements of Thumbless Bats in samples from Espirito Santoand the Guianas varied 2:1-2-5%. Zygomatic breadths are 7-3-7-8 mm, and maxillary tooth rows are 4:7-4-8 mm (females). Specific name horrensrefers to bristly hair on this bat. Thumbless Bats are small and delicate, with soft, thick, bluish gray to slate-gray fur on dorsum; venteris slightly paler. Height of braincase, including auditory bullae, is much less than distance from frontal angle to most posterior point of occipital region; muzzle and lips nearly simple. Rostrum is short, ¢.50% the length of braincase. Dental formula is 12/3, C 1/1, P 2/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 36; upper incisors are paired, outerslightly smaller than inner; space between two inner incisors and that between outer incisor and canine are distinct; C' is small, and its shaft is about equal in height to the large P% P! is ¢.50% the size of canine and second premolar; lower incisors have trifid cutting edges, forming continuous row between canines; C is as high as P, and P,, which are about equal in size; and P| is ¢.50% the height of canine. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 34 and FN = 62; Gand C-band data have not been published.","habitat":"Humid tropical and subtropical forests in lowlands at elevations of 250-1200 m. Although Thumbless Bats have been associated with caves, they also use other shelters such as buildings (empty or occupied), tunnels, among boulders, hollow logs, and within or under fallen decomposing trees."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/91/87/039187AC5C3F2A52F099001F399BF24E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039187AC5C3F2A52F099001F399BF24E","docName":"hbmw_9_Furipteridae_412.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa8ffd45c3e2a53f03609113f64ffc4","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"416","verbatimText":"1.Smoky BatAmorphochilus schnabliiFrench:Furie de Schnabl/ German:Felsenklsten-Stummeldaumen/ Spanish:MurciélagoahumadoOther common names:Schnabl's Smoky BatTaxonomy.Amorphochilusschnablii Peters, 1877. “Tumbez un noérdlichen Peru, an der Grenze von Ecuador.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Tumbes, departamento Tumbes, Peru.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Known only from a narrow strip Wofthe Andes in C & S Ecuador(including Puna I), Peru, and N Chile.Descriptive notes.Head-body 39-47 mm, tail 27-34 mm, ear 12-15 mm, hindfoot 6-10 mm, forearm 34-38 mm; weight 3-10 g. Tail extends nearly fourfifths the length of uropatagium andis entirely enclosed by that membrane. Height of braincase, including auditory bullae, is equal to distance from frontal angle to most posterior point of occipital region. Muzzleis relatively simple and well-furred; no fleshystructures occur under chin; palateis short, not extending much beyond last molar; and mesopterygoid fossa is longer than wide. The Smoky Bat has long, dark smokygrayfur, often with brownish tinge; hair tips are blackish; front and top of head have pale buffy suffusion; underparts are nearly the same color as the upperparts; ears are light brown; and wing and tail membranes arelittle darker than ears. Snout is prominently rimmedand blunt; lips are conspicuouslyfleshy; and chin excrescences and lowerlips havefleshy wart-like structures. On average, third metacarpal is 34 mm, tibia is 15-5 mm, total skull length is 12 mm, braincase breadthis 6 mm, and uppertooth rowlength (with canine) is 5 mm. Dental formula is I 2/3, Cl1/1,P2/3.M 3/3 (x2) =36.Habitat.South American west coast deserts from sea level up to elevations of 2680 m. Two Smoky Bats were found on Hacienda Limon, Cajamarca, Peru, in a small arid valley above the Rio Maranon in the Amazon Basin. It is found in arid regions and cultivated areas; it is a cave-dweller and known to roost in culverts, caves, sugar mills, irrigation tunnels, and abandoned urban-rural buildings near crop areas (banana, rice; etc.).Food and Feeding.Smoky Bats eat moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera). Adult moth scales were found in stomachs offive specimens from central Ecuador.Breeding.In central Ecuadorin middle November, a large colony included males that did not show testes in the scrotal position, and several females were pregnant (eight of ten) with single fetuses but not lactating. This high percentage of pregnant females suggested a relatively synchronized seasonal breeding period, undoubtedly related to the rainy season (January-May); similarly, a breeding colony was found in the rainy months (December-March) in southern Peru. In a single reproductively inactive male, the small, paired testes were attached to the posterior body wall and inferior pole of the kidney by a suspensoryligament. The Smoky Bat has an ampullary gland. One specimen appeared to contain a tiny baculum, capping the urethra at tip ofglans.Activity patterns.Echolocation calls of the SmokyBat are the FMtype, with an average duration of4-4 milliseconds, important for foraging in dense vegetation and taking small insects while flying. Maximum averagefrequencyat 75-8 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Guayas, Ecuador, a large monospecific colony(c.300 individuals) of Smoky Bats included males and females but not juveniles. This bat species has been collected along with Long-snouted Bat (Platalina genovensium) and Small Big-eared Brown Bat (Histiotusmontanus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. The Smoky Bat is considered an endangered species in Ecuadorbecause known populations are small, restricted to areas smaller than 20 km?, and known fromless than five localities. In Peru, it is considered a vulnerable species. In Chile, it has not been evaluated, but it is thought to be beneficial to agroforestry.Bibliography.Abuja (1999), Aragon & Aguirre (2014), Cabrera (1958), Gardner (2008h), Ibanez (1986), Krutzsch (2000), Miller (1907), Morgan & Czaplewski (1999), Nowak (1994), Rodriguez-San Pedro et al. (2016), Tirira et al. (2012), Ugarte-Nunez (2014).","taxonomy":"Amorphochilusschnablii Peters, 1877. “Tumbez un noérdlichen Peru, an der Grenze von Ecuador.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Tumbes, departamento Tumbes, Peru.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Furie de Schnabl @fr | Felsenklsten-Stummeldaumen @de | Murciélagoahumado @es | Schnabl's Smoky Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Furipteridae","interpretedGenus":"Amorphochilus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"416","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"schnablii","name":"Amorphochilus schnablii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from a narrow strip Wofthe Andes in C & S Ecuador(including Puna I), Peru, and N Chile.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5733448/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abuja (1999) | Aragon & Aguirre (2014) | Cabrera (1958) | Gardner (2008h) | Ibanez (1986) | Krutzsch (2000) | Miller (1907) | Morgan & Czaplewski (1999) | Nowak (1994) | Rodriguez-San Pedro et al. (2016) | Tirira et al. (2012) | Ugarte-Nunez (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"Smoky Bats eat moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera). Adult moth scales were found in stomachs offive specimens from central Ecuador.","breeding":"In central Ecuadorin middle November, a large colony included males that did not show testes in the scrotal position, and several females were pregnant (eight of ten) with single fetuses but not lactating. This high percentage of pregnant females suggested a relatively synchronized seasonal breeding period, undoubtedly related to the rainy season (January-May); similarly, a breeding colony was found in the rainy months (December-March) in southern Peru. In a single reproductively inactive male, the small, paired testes were attached to the posterior body wall and inferior pole of the kidney by a suspensoryligament. The Smoky Bat has an ampullary gland. One specimen appeared to contain a tiny baculum, capping the urethra at tip ofglans.","activityPatterns":"Echolocation calls of the SmokyBat are the FMtype, with an average duration of4-4 milliseconds, important for foraging in dense vegetation and taking small insects while flying. Maximum averagefrequencyat 75-8 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In Guayas, Ecuador, a large monospecific colony(c.300 individuals) of Smoky Bats included males and females but not juveniles. This bat species has been collected along with Long-snouted Bat (Platalina genovensium) and Small Big-eared Brown Bat (Histiotusmontanus).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. The Smoky Bat is considered an endangered species in Ecuadorbecause known populations are small, restricted to areas smaller than 20 km?, and known fromless than five localities. In Peru, it is considered a vulnerable species. In Chile, it has not been evaluated, but it is thought to be beneficial to agroforestry.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 39-47 mm, tail 27-34 mm, ear 12-15 mm, hindfoot 6-10 mm, forearm 34-38 mm; weight 3-10 g. Tail extends nearly fourfifths the length of uropatagium andis entirely enclosed by that membrane. Height of braincase, including auditory bullae, is equal to distance from frontal angle to most posterior point of occipital region. Muzzleis relatively simple and well-furred; no fleshystructures occur under chin; palateis short, not extending much beyond last molar; and mesopterygoid fossa is longer than wide. The Smoky Bat has long, dark smokygrayfur, often with brownish tinge; hair tips are blackish; front and top of head have pale buffy suffusion; underparts are nearly the same color as the upperparts; ears are light brown; and wing and tail membranes arelittle darker than ears. Snout is prominently rimmedand blunt; lips are conspicuouslyfleshy; and chin excrescences and lowerlips havefleshy wart-like structures. On average, third metacarpal is 34 mm, tibia is 15-5 mm, total skull length is 12 mm, braincase breadthis 6 mm, and uppertooth rowlength (with canine) is 5 mm. Dental formula is I 2/3, Cl1/1,P2/3.M 3/3 (x2) =36.","habitat":"South American west coast deserts from sea level up to elevations of 2680 m. Two Smoky Bats were found on Hacienda Limon, Cajamarca, Peru, in a small arid valley above the Rio Maranon in the Amazon Basin. It is found in arid regions and cultivated areas; it is a cave-dweller and known to roost in culverts, caves, sugar mills, irrigation tunnels, and abandoned urban-rural buildings near crop areas (banana, rice; etc.)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFE9FF8D2ADAF6DDF8B1C136.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928788FFE9FF8D2ADAF6DDF8B1C136","docName":"hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"254","verbatimText":"2.Spotted HyenaCrocuta crocutaFrench:Hyene tachetée/ German:TlUpfelhyane/ Spanish:Hiena manchadaTaxonomy.Canis crocuta Erxleben, 1777, Guinea, Aethiopia; restricted to “Senegambia”.The earliest members of the genus Crocutafirst appear in the fossil record of Africa in the early Pliocene, dated at roughly 3-7 million years ago. However, members of this genus soon dispersed out of Africa, and based on fossils from the period ofits greatest range expansion in the Pleistocene, the genus Crocutaoccupied virtually all of Europe and Asia, as well as most of sub-Saharan Africa. When exactly modern C. crocutaarose is not entirely certain, but this species is clearly very recent. C. crocutadoes not appear in the fossil record until sometime after 990,000 years ago, and probably substantially closer to the present, perhaps within the last 250,000 years. Modern Spotted Hyenas can be distinguished from members of the genus Crocutafound in the fossil record based on body size, limb length and stoutness, the length and shape of particular skull bones, and unique characteristics of the cheek teeth. In contrast to earlier members of the genus, including the Cave Hyenas of Europe and Asia (C. spelaea), modern Spotted Hyenas have a post-cranial skeleton that is modified for cursorial hunting. Currently only one subspeciesis recognized despite substantial variation in coloration and body mass throughout sub-Saharan Africa. For example, individuals from southern Africa are larger than those from eastern Africa. Monotypic.Distribution.Most of Africa S of the Sahara Desert, except in lowland tropical rainforests. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated from many areas of southern Africa.Descriptive notes.Largest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 125-160 cm,tail 22-27 cm, height at shoulder 77.3-80. 7 cm; weight 45-55 kg and up to 86 kg. Females approximately 10% larger than males, although size distributions for males and females overlap. Degree of sexual dimorphism in body size varies geographically, being most pronounced in southern Africa. Its general color is sandy, ginger, or dull gray to reddish-brown, with black or dark brown spots on the back, flanks, rump, and legs. Spots may turn brown and fade with age. The fur is shorter in this species than in the other extant hyaenids. The head is large, rounded and powerful, with a short and blunt muzzle. In contrast to the other extant hyaenids, all of which have pointed ears, Spotted Hyenas have ears with rounded tops. The tail ends in a black, bushy tip, with approximately 12 cmof hair extending beyond the end of the tail bone. Like the other hyaenids, the Spotted Hyena has a sloping back because the forelegs are longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. The mane in this speciesis more poorly developed than in other hyaenids. The feet have four toes. Females usually have only two teats. The Spotted Hyena has long been considered a hermaphrodite in many parts of Africa because the external genitalia of the female are very similar to those of the male. The female has a peniform clitoris that is only a few mm shorter than the male’s penis, and is fully erectile. The sexes can be distinguished by the shape of the penile glans: the male glans is pointed whereas that of the female is blunt. A single urogenital canal traverses the enlarged clitoris; through this canal the female urinates, copulates and gives birth. There is no external vaginal opening as the outer labiae are fused to form a structure that resembles the scrotal sac of the male. The female’s pseudoscrotum has a bi-lobed appearance; the testes of the adult male make the scrotal sac larger and give it more distinctly rounded bulges. Thus scientists who study these animals can distinguish males from females even when the animals are lying down.Habitat.Spotted Hyenas occupy an extraordinarily diverse array of habitats, including savanna, semi-desert, swamps, woodland, and montane forest up to 4000 mof elevation, but are absent in lowland tropical rainforests, in alpine areas at high elevation, and in extreme desert conditions. Although they require water for drinking, they are able to make do with very little water, and seldom require access to it. Even lactating females can survive without water for over one week. The highest population densities reported for this species occur on the prey-rich plains of Kenyaand Tanzania, and surprisingly, in the forests of the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya. In these areas, densities of Spotted Hyenas exceed one animal per square kilometer.Food and Feeding.The foraging behavior of Spotted Hyenas is remarkably flexible. Long believed to feed mainly on carrion, these animals are in fact efficient predators that kill 60% to 95% of their prey themselves. On average across populations in which the relative proportions of hunted and scavenged foods have been documented, two thirds of their diet is derived from kills they make themselves, and only one third from scavenged food items. In addition to being able to obtain food either by hunting or scavenging, Spotted Hyenas exhibit extraordinary plasticity with respect to their prey preferences. Spotted Hyenas have catholic tastes, they are extreme opportunists, and they are able to exploit a vast array of potential prey types, ranging from caterpillars to elephants; they may also occasionally consume some plant material. However, in most parts of Africa, Spotted Hyenas derive the large majority of their food intake from only a small subset of the prey species available to them locally. In most environments, they focus on the local mediumand large-sized ungulates, capture of which yields the greatest caloric return while demanding the least effort and the fewest risks. Thus, in eastern Africa, Spotted Hyenas prey most frequently on Blue Wildebeest, zebra, gazelles and Topi. In the arid parts of southern Africa, they prey most frequently on Gemsbok. In Kruger National Park, their most common prey is Impala, and in western Africa, common prey includes Red-fronted Gazelles and Hartebeest. Foraging behavior varies with the prey currently sought. Spotted Hyenas search for gazelle fawns by wandering upwind through open grassland in a zig-zag pattern. They may dig for crocodile eggs along large rivers, and snap flying termites out of the air with their jaws. When hunting, Spotted Hyenas modify their behavior to take advantage of the most abundant prey species, or the species thatis easiest to catch; these change seasonally in some localities with the migratory movements of particular ungulate species. Instead of using felid-like stealth as a primary hunting tactic, Spotted Hyenas rely on their extraordinary endurance for success in hunting. They can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h, but at slightly lower speeds, they can maintain a chase for several kilometres. If the antelope being chased becomes winded, and turns to defend itself with its horns, the Hyenas rush in and start tearing off pieces of the prey animal’s flesh. Like canids, Spotted Hyenas kill their prey by disembowelling and dismembering them rather than by using a particularkilling bite. Spotted Hyenas may hunt either solitarily or in groups; in the latter case group size varies with the typeof prey sought. Mean hunting group sizes among Hyenas in Kenyaare 1-2 for Topi, 1-7 for Impala, 2-08 for Thompson's Gazelle, 2-92 for Blue Wildebeest, and 9-1 for zebra. Thus only zebra hunts involve large groups of hunters, and most hunting parties contain only one or two Hyenas. Ungulates such as Topi and Blue Wildebeest weigh roughly three times as much as an adult Hyena, but solitary Hyenas routinely kill these antelope. Although hunting group size is often surprisingly small among Spotted Hyenas, the feeding groups formed by these animals are often very large once a prey animal has been killed. The noise produced by feeding Hyenas often draws members of the clan that were not involved in the hunt to the kill site. Feeding competition among the Hyenas present at a kill is usually very intense. In East Africa, often more than 30 Hyenas can be observed trying to feed from a single carcass. Because of this intense competition, each individual Hyena consumes as much food as possible in a very short period of time. A group of 20-30 hungry Hyenas can reduce an adult Blue Wildebeest to nothing more than a pile of rumen contents in only 13 minutes. It is estimated that an adult Spotted Hyena can consume a mass of food equal to 25%-30% ofits body weight, and individual Hyenas have been observed to ingest up to 18 kgof meat and bone in one hour. However,as a result of limited access to carcasses, average food intake ranges only from 1-5 to 3-8 kg per day. Spotted Hyenas sometimes engage in kleptoparasitism, which is the aggressive acquisition of a fresh carcass from other predators. They have been observed displacingjackals, Striped Hyenas, Leopards, Cheetahs, and African Wild Dogs from kills. However Spotted Hyenas most frequently compete for kills with Lions. Spotted Hyenas and Lions occur sympatrically in many areas of Africa, and in most of these habitats, bi-directional food stealing has been observed between these two species. Dominance relations between Spotted Hyenas and competing species are not absolute but depend on the numerical presence of both parties. For instance, Lions usually displace Spotted Hyenas at kills. However, if Hyena group size is large and the ratio of Spotted Hyenas to female and subadult Lions exceeds four to one, Hyenas are often able to displace Lions from kills unless a male Lion is present. A single Spotted Hyena can usually dominate a Cheetah, Leopard, Striped Hyena, Brown Hyena, any species ofjackal, or an African Wild Dog. Spotted Hyenas have been observed caching surplus food in thickets and under water in ponds. These animals are very comfortable in water; they often play in seasonal pools, and lie in shallow water or wet mud to keep cool on hot days. Compared to the other bone-cracking hyenas, Spotted Hyenas rarely carry food to their young at dens. This appears to be because the risk of having one’s food stolen, even by much smaller hyenas,is very high at dens, particularly for low-ranking individuals.Activity patterns.Spotted Hyenas are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular, although they may be active at midday when temperatures permit. Dens are typically modified holes dug by Aardvarks, although caves are used as den sites in some areas. Only cubslive in dens; adults sleep above ground, often in thickets, particularly when midday temperatures are high. Although Spotted Hyenas are active for roughly one third of each 24hour cycle, their activity is not continuous. Instead, activity occurs in bouts interspersed with periods of rest. Hyenas in Kenyathat were followed for complete 24hour cycles spent 32% of their time active, but 53% of their active time occurred during hours of darkness.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On average, Spotted Hyenas in Kenyamove 928 mper hour when active, and typically travel over 12 kmduring each 24hour period, with males moving more than females. In Serengeti, daily movements may be much greater than this, as resident hyenas often commute 30-40 km in orderto feed on migratory herbivores. Spotted Hyenas live in social groups, called clans, which contain from ten to eighty members. Large clans contain multiple matrilines of related females and their offspring, as well as a number of adult immigrant males that are generally unrelated to one another. Small clans may contain only a single matriline and a single breeding male. Clan size appears to be determined by abundance of local prey animals: where these are plentiful, as on the prey-rich plains of eastern Africa, clans are typically very large, but in desert areas of southern Africa, clans may be tiny. Clans are fission-fusion societies. That is, all clan members know each other individually, occupy a common territory, and rear their cubs together at a communal den, yet they also spend much of their time alone or in small sub-groups. Spotted Hyena clans bear little resemblance to canid packs or Lion prides, but they are remarkably similar in their size, structure, and complexity to the societies of cercopithecine primates. Like troops of baboons and macaques, Hyena clans typically contain individuals from multiple overlapping generations, and clans are structured by clear linear dominance hierarchies in which an individual’s rank determinesits priority of access to food and other resources. In contrast to the situation characteristic of other hyaenids and most other mammals, female Spotted Hyenas are socially dominant to all adult immigrant males. Rank relationships among female clan-mates are usually stable for periods of many years. Average relatedness among females from different matrilines within a clan is extremely low. Like most primates, Spotted Hyenas produce tiny litters at long intervals, and their offspring require an unusually long period of nutritional dependence on the mother. Young Hyenas typically nurse for well over a year, and because it takes them years to become proficient at hunting and feeding, their mothers continue to help them gain access to food at ungulate kills long after weaning. Similar to female baboons, the social status of a female Hyena is determined not by hersize or fighting ability, but by her mother’s social rank. Indeed, the acquisition of social rank during early development occurs in a pattern identical to that seen in many monkey species, a pattern called “maternal rank inheritance” by primatologists even though no literal inheritance occurs involving genetic transfer of status from mother to offspring. Instead, in both Hyenas and baboons, maternal rank “inheritance” involves a great deal of important social learning that occurs during a protractedjuvenile period. Young Hyenas initially direct their aggressive behaviors equally at higherand lower-ranking individuals. But this changes rapidly during the first year of life as cubs learn to direct aggression only at animals lower in rank than their own mother. When youngsters become involved in disputes with group-mates, the mother intervenes on their behalf against all individuals lower-ranking than herself. Interventions by high-ranking mothers are more frequent and more effective than those by lowranking females. In addition, like young baboons, Hyena cubs are often joined in fights by coalition partners who may be either kin or unrelated animals. Along with maternal interventions, coalition formation functions importantly in rank acquisition. Thus the mechanisms by which youngsters acquire their social ranks are virtually identical in Hyenas and old-world monkeys. Patterns of competition and cooperation among Spotted Hyenas are also remarkably like those found in baboons. Although Hyenas compete intensively for food, they also rely heavily on cooperative interactions with group-mates, particularly their close kin, to acquire and defend both their social rank and such key resources as food and territory. Young Spotted Hyenas of both sexes “inherit” the social rank of their motherearly in life, and retain their maternal rank as long as they remain in the natal clan. However, whereas females remain in their natal group throughouttheir lives, virtually all males disperse after puberty tojoin a new clan. When a male immigrates into a new group, he entersas the lowest-ranking Hyena in the dominance hierarchy; he behaves submissively to all Hyenas he encounters in the new territory, regardless of their size, fighting ability, or social rank. This results in a society in which adult females and their cubs are dominant to all adult male immigrants. A male Hyena loses his maternal social rank and its associated feeding privileges when he disperses. In their new clans, immigrant males sometimes invest a great deal of time and energy in developing amicable relationships with resident adult females, as males engaging in these amicable relationships may enjoy a high probability ofsiring cubs. Due to the female’s male-like genitalia, coercive sex is impossible, so female choice of mates is an important sexually selected force in this species. Mate choice by female Spotted Hyenas apparently drives males to disperse: females strongly prefer to mate with immigrants, and they appear to discriminate against adult natal males. Therefore, almost all offspring are sired by immigrant males. Immigrants queue for status within the male hierarchy of the new clan; the highest-ranking males are those that immigrated first into the clan. Malesrise in rank only when higherranking immigrants die or engage in secondary dispersal; roughly 40% of immigrants disperse again, although the potential benefits of secondary dispersal are unknown. Clan members defend group territories from neighboring Hyena groups. Territory size ranges from roughly 20 km?® in East Africa to approximately 1500 km? in the desert regions of southern Africa, and is negatively related to the density of available prey. Territorial behavior is exhibited by both sexes, although females engage in these activities more frequently than males. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the territory boundary. Border clashes with neighboring clans, called “clan wars”, are most commonly observed in habitats containing high densities of Hyenas, where intrusion pressure is most intense. Territorial behavioris rarely observed among Spotted Hyenas inhabiting the vast desert regions of southern Africa, where prey are sparse, clan size is small, intrusion pressure is low, and the home ranges of resident hyenas are enormous. In some parts of Africa, where densities of resident prey may be low but where migratory herbivores are available as prey, Spotted Hyenas are known to adopt patterns of space-use that differ strikingly from those seen in areas with year-round resident prey. Specifically, Spotted Hyenas may frequently commute long distances from their defended territory to herds of migratory prey. In the unusual “commuting system” exhibited by Spotted Hyenas in the Serengeti, individuals travel long distances north or south from their centrally-located clan territories in order to feed on migratory herbivores. Intruders are tolerated by territory residents when the intruders are merely passing through, although residents behave aggressively toward intruders found hunting or feeding. In Namibia, Spotted Hyenas defend territories that expand and contract in size seasonally, as migratory prey change locations. Territory boundaries are visited sporadically by multiple clan members performing border patrols, during which boundaries are marked by pasting. A strong-smelling, yellowish buttery secretion is deposited from the anal glands onto grass stalks during border patrols. Spotted Hyenas also commonly paste deep inside their territories, although the frequency with which this occurs is generally far less than in the other hyaenid species. The paste transmits information about an individual’s identity, sex, reproductive state, and clan membership. Young Hyenas engage in pasting behavior long before there is any paste in their anal sacs, suggesting that this behavior enables cubs to acquire group odors from sites where clan-mates had pasted earlier. Spotted Hyenas engage in ritualized greeting ceremonies in which two individuals stand parallel and face in opposite directions. Both individuals usually lift the hindleg nearest to the other and sniff or lick the anogenital region of the other. The unique aspect of their greetingsis the prominent role of the erect “penis” in animals of both sexes. This is used to signal submission. Greetings occur between hyenas of all ages and both sexes, although greetings between adult females and adult males are uncommon and restricted to high-ranking males. Cubs can erect their penis or clitoris and engage in greeting ceremonies as early as four weeks after birth. Spotted Hyenas recognize their group mates based on visual cues, odors, and individually distinctive vocalizations. These animals are well known fortheirrich vocal repertoire. They emit deep groansto call their cubs out of dens, high-pitched whines to beg for food or milk, and cattle-like lowing sounds to bring group-mates to a common state of high arousal. The sound most frequently heard during the night throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa is the long-distance vocalization of the Spotted Hyena, called a whoop. This loud call can be heard over several kilometers. Whoopsclearly serve a variety of functions. They can be rallying calls to gather scattered clan members together to defend territory boundaries, food resources, the communal den, or clan-mates in danger. Mothers whoop to locate their wandering cubs, and hungry cubs whoop to call their mothers so they can nurse. Spotted Hyenas sometimes whoop to recruit hunting partners. Whoops are also used as a form of individual display, particularly by males of high rank. Adult males whoop more frequently than females, and high-ranking males whoop more often than lower ranking males. Finally, Spotted Hyenas are well known for their laugh or giggle, which sounds much like maniacal human laughter. This vocalization is a signal of submission. A submissive individual giggles to signal to another Hyena thatit accepts a lower status.Breeding.Females bear young throughout the year in most parts of Africa, although there are distinct birth peaks and troughs in some populations. Both sexes mate promiscuously with multiple partners. Courtship by male Spotted Hyenas is unusual among mammals because it appears to reflect such extreme conflicting desires to approach the female and also to flee from her. Males often engage in approach-avoid and bowing displays, both of which appear to reflect strong motivational conflict and hesitancy on the part of the male. Their behavior suggests that interactions with females may be unusually risky for males in this species, and that males fear females. In general, the female seems to take little notice of the male hyena’s sexual advances. Estrus lasts 1-3 days, but the length of the female's cycle, and whether ovulation is spontaneous or induced, are not known. Copulation involves multiple mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations. Female receptivity is indicated by inhibited aggression toward the male and by assumption of a distinctive receptive stance in which the female lowers her head and keeps her mouth near the ground. The only behavior indicative of a female's interest in mating is that she may follow a male. Some males who sire cubs form consortships with females, but others do not, suggesting that individual male Hyenas may adopt multiple alternative reproductive tactics to attract and acquire mates. That is, male Hyenas may sometimes “shadow” or “guard” their mates, but intensive mate-guarding is not required to ensure that a male will sire the cubs of a particular female. Females have been observed mating with one to four maleswithin a single estrous period, and multiple paternity has been documented to occur in 25-30% of twin litters. Many copulations among Crocutaappear to be infertile. Female Spotted Hyenas are exposed to high concentrations of androgens in utero, and this early androgen exposure may have negative effects on female fertility by altering ovarian histology or other mechanisms. It has recently been determined that early androgen exposure is not necessary for formation of the female's peniform clitoris. Females give birth through their penis-like clitoris. During parturition, the clitoris tears to permit the passage of the young, creating a large bleeding wound on the posterior surface that may take weeks to heal. Females usually produce litters of two, although singletons are also common, and triplets are observed occasionally. Cubs weigh roughly 1 kgat birth. They are born with their eyes open, their deciduous canine and incisor teeth fully erupted, and they are capable of remarkably coordinated movement immediately after birth. They are thus relatively precocial compared to cubs in other hyaenid species or in most other carnivores. Their coats are pure black at birth; cubs start to molt at 5-6 weeks of age, and the natal coat is completely replaced by an adult-colored, spotted pelage by 4-5 months of age. The spots never change except to fade a bit with age. Cubs are usually born in an isolated natal den and are transferred to the clan’s communal den when they are 2-5 weeks old. They remain at the communal den until they are 8-12 months old, and then begin traveling around the clan’s territory, initially with their mothers and later alone. As in the other bone-cracking hyenas, weaning occurs surprisingly late, usually around 13-14 months of age, but twin litters borne by low-ranking females may be nursed as long as two years. Fifty percent of cubs die before puberty, and mortality rates are generally highest immediately after weaning. Males reach reproductive maturity at around two years of age, and most females start bearing young in their third or fourth year. However, age at first parturition varies between two and six years. All females in a clan reproduce, and females rear their young together in the communal den. Therefore occupied dens may contain up to 30 young of different ages from up to 20 litters. Females nurse only their own cubs and usually reject approaches by other cubs. The milk of Spotted Hyenas has the highest protein content (mean 14-9%) recorded for any terrestrial carnivore, a fat content (mean 141%) exceeded only by that of palaearctic bears and the sea otter, and a higher gross energy density than the milk of most other terrestrial carnivores. Due to the high energy content of their milk, and the long nursing period, Spotted Hyenas have the highest energetic investment per litter of any carnivore. Reproductive success in both sexes is related to dominancestatus, although this relationship is stronger among females than males. High-ranking females enjoy greater reproductive success than low-ranking females because they have longer reproductive life spans and shorter inter-birth intervals, and because their cubs experience lower mortality than do cubs of low-ranking females. Sex ratios among adults are usually slightly female-biased. Reproductive success among males varies with intra-sexual rank, although alpha males fare more poorly than would be expected based on social status alone. As most males disperse from their natal clan when they are at least two years old, most breeding males are immigrants. Spotted Hyenas are sometimes referred to as the “Cain and Abel” of the animal world because of the common belief that they routinely kill their siblings shortly after birth. Although littermates do engage in aggressive interactions within minutes after birth, and although this can result in obvious scarring of the subordinate littermate, these aggressive interactions seldom result in the death of a sibling. These early fights quickly lead to the establishment of a dominance relationship that allows the dominant cub to control access to the mother’s milk. Siblicide in the Spotted Hyena is facultative in that it occurs only in some twin litters rather than routinely. The purpose of the early fighting is to establish an unambiguous dominance relationship within the litter. It appears that the relative costs and benefits of killing one’s sibling vary with current socio-ecological conditions: a cub that killsits sibling may obtain significant benefits if its mother is unable to support multiple cubs. However, mothers can usually support two cubs in many parts of Africa without undue difficulty.Status and Conservation.Listed as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total world population of the Spotted Hyena is well above 10,000 individuals, several subpopulations exceed 1000 individuals and its range well exceeds 20,000 km®. The rapid decline of populations outside conservation areas due to persecution and habitat loss makes the species increasingly dependent on the continued existence of protected areas. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated in Algeriaand Lesotho, and they are listed as threatened in Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone. The largest remaining populations are found in Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, and Namibia. Most adult mortality is caused directly by lions and humans,although disease is an important mortality source in some areas. Human-caused mortality is common even inside protected areas. Spotted Hyenas may attack livestock, particularly where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse. Often in response to confirmed or assumed livestock depredation, Spotted Hyenas are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. Spotted Hyenas are also commonly killed on motor-ways. Habitat fragmentation and reduction are also having significant negative effects on the size of many Spotted Hyena populations. Finally, one of the most important threats to the conservation of Spotted Hyenas is their negative public image. Many people apparently believe these animals are not worth conserving. Educating the public about these complex and fascinating animals is expected to have a substantial positive effect on conservation efforts.Bibliography.Bearder (1977), Bearder & Randall (1978), Binder & Van Valkenburgh (2000), Binford et al. (1988), Boydston, Kapheim & Holekamp (2006), Boydston, Kapheim, Van Horn et al. (2005), Boydston, Morelli & Holekamp (2001), Cooper (1989, 1990, 1991, 1993), Cooper et al. (1999), Cunhaet al. (2005), Di Silvestre et al. (2000), Drea & Frank (2003), Drea, Coscia & Glickman (1999), Drea, Place et al. (2002), Drea, Vignieri, Cunningham & Glickman (2002), Drea, Vignieri, Kim et al. (2002), Drea, Weldele et al. (1998), East & Hofer (1991a, 1991b, 2001, 2002), East, Burke et al. (2003), East, Hofer & Wickler (1993), Eloff (1964, 1975), Engh, Esch et al. 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(1999), Honer, Wachter, East & Hofer (2002), Honer, Wachter, East, Streich et al. (2007), Koepfli et al. (2006), Kolowski & Holekamp (2006), Kolowski et al. (2007), Kruuk (1972, 1977), Lewis & Werdelin (2000) Licht et al. (1992), Lindeque & Skinner (1982), Matthews (1939), Mills, (1985, 1989, 1990), Mills & Gorman (1987), Mills & Hofer (1998), Neaves et al. (1980), Pienaar (1969), Pournelle (1965), Rensberger (1999), Rohland et al. (2005), Rosevear (1974), Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (19924, 1992b), Skinner, Funston et al. (1992), Skinner, Henschel & Van Jaarsveld (1986), Smale, Frank & Holekamp (1993), Smale, Holekamp & White (1999), Smale, Nunes & Holekamp (1997), Sutcliffe, (1970), Szykman, Engh et al. (2001), Szykman, Van Horn et al. (2007), Theis, Greene et al. (2007), Theis, Heckla et al. (2008), Tilson & Hamilton (1984), Tilson & Henschel (1984, 1986), Tilson, von Blottnitz & Henschel (1980), Trinkel & Kastberger (2005), Trinkel et al. (2004), Van Horn, McElhinny & Holekamp (2003), Van Horn, Wahaj & Holekamp (2004), Van Horn, Engh et al. (2004), Van Jaarsveld et al. (1988), Wachter et al. (2002), Wahaj & Holekamp (2006), Wahaj, Place et al. (2007), Wahaj, Van Horn et al. (2004), Watts (2007), Werdelin & Solounias (1991), Whateley (1980, 1981), Whateley & Brooks (1978).","taxonomy":"Canis crocuta Erxleben, 1777, Guinea, Aethiopia; restricted to “Senegambia”.The earliest members of the genus Crocutafirst appear in the fossil record of Africa in the early Pliocene, dated at roughly 3-7 million years ago. However, members of this genus soon dispersed out of Africa, and based on fossils from the period ofits greatest range expansion in the Pleistocene, the genus Crocutaoccupied virtually all of Europe and Asia, as well as most of sub-Saharan Africa. When exactly modern C. crocutaarose is not entirely certain, but this species is clearly very recent. C. crocutadoes not appear in the fossil record until sometime after 990,000 years ago, and probably substantially closer to the present, perhaps within the last 250,000 years. Modern Spotted Hyenas can be distinguished from members of the genus Crocutafound in the fossil record based on body size, limb length and stoutness, the length and shape of particular skull bones, and unique characteristics of the cheek teeth. In contrast to earlier members of the genus, including the Cave Hyenas of Europe and Asia (C. spelaea), modern Spotted Hyenas have a post-cranial skeleton that is modified for cursorial hunting. Currently only one subspeciesis recognized despite substantial variation in coloration and body mass throughout sub-Saharan Africa. For example, individuals from southern Africa are larger than those from eastern Africa. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hyene tachetée @fr | Tl Upfelhyane @de | Hiena manchada @es","interpretedAuthority":"crocuta","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyaenidae","interpretedGenus":"Crocuta","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"254","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"crocuta","name":"Crocuta crocuta","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Most of Africa S of the Sahara Desert, except in lowland tropical rainforests. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated from many areas of southern Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6350110/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bearder (1977) | Bearder & Randall (1978) | Binder & Van Valkenburgh (2000) | Binford et al. (1988) | Boydston, Kapheim & Holekamp (2006) | Boydston, Kapheim, Van Horn et al. (2005) | Boydston, Morelli & Holekamp (2001) | Cooper (1989, 1990, 1991, 1993) | Cooper et al. (1999) | Cunhaet al. (2005) | Di Silvestre et al. (2000) | Drea & Frank (2003) | Drea, Coscia & Glickman (1999) | Drea, Place et al. (2002) | Drea, Vignieri, Cunningham & Glickman (2002) | Drea, Vignieri, Kim et al. (2002) | Drea, Weldele et al. (1998) | East & Hofer (1991a, 1991b, 2001, 2002) | East, Burke et al. (2003) | East, Hofer & Wickler (1993) | Eloff (1964, 1975) | Engh, Esch et al. (2000) | Engh, Funk et al. (2002) | Frank (1986a, 1986b, 1994, 1997) | Frank & Glickman (1991, 1994) | Frank, Davidson & Smith (1985) | Frank, Glickman & Licht (1991) | Frank, Glickman & Powch (1990) | Frank, Glickman & Zabel (1989) | Frank, Holekamp & Smale (1995) | Frank, Weldele & Glickman (1995) | Gasaway et al. (1989, 1991) | Glickman, (1995) | Glickman, Cunhaet al. (2006) | Glickman, Frank et al. (1993) | Golla et al. (1999) | Hamilton et al. (1986) | Harvey (1992) | Hayward (2006) | Henschel & Skinner (1987, 1990a, 1990b, 1991) | Henschel, & Tilson (1988) | Hofer & East (1993a, 1993b, 1993c¢, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2008) | Hofer, Campbell et al. (1996) | Hofer, East & Campbell (1993) | Holekamp & Smale (1990, 1993, 2000) | Holekamp, Boydston & Smale (2000) | Holekamp, Boydston, Szykman et al. (1999) | Holekamp, Sakai & Lundrigan (2007) | Holekamp, Smale, Berg & Cooper (1997) | Holekamp, Smale & Szykman (1996) | Holekamp, Szykman et al. (1999) | Honer, Wachter, East & Hofer (2002) | Honer, Wachter, East, Streich et al. (2007) | Koepfli et al. (2006) | Kolowski & Holekamp (2006) | Kolowski et al. (2007) | Kruuk (1972, 1977) | Lewis & Werdelin (2000) | Licht et al. (1992) | Lindeque & Skinner (1982) | Matthews (1939) | Mills, (1985, 1989, 1990) | Mills & Gorman (1987) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Neaves et al. (1980) | Pienaar (1969) | Pournelle (1965) | Rensberger (1999) | Rohland et al. (2005) | Rosevear (1974) | Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (19924, 1992b) | Skinner, Funston et al. (1992) | Skinner, Henschel & Van Jaarsveld (1986) | Smale, Frank & Holekamp (1993) | Smale, Holekamp & White (1999) | Smale, Nunes & Holekamp (1997) | Sutcliffe, (1970) | Szykman, Engh et al. (2001) | Szykman, Van Horn et al. (2007) | Theis, Greene et al. (2007) | Theis, Heckla et al. (2008) | Tilson & Hamilton (1984) | Tilson & Henschel (1984, 1986) | Tilson, von Blottnitz & Henschel (1980) | Trinkel & Kastberger (2005) | Trinkel et al. (2004) | Van Horn, McElhinny & Holekamp (2003) | Van Horn, Wahaj & Holekamp (2004) | Van Horn, Engh et al. (2004) | Van Jaarsveld et al. (1988) | Wachter et al. (2002) | Wahaj & Holekamp (2006) | Wahaj, Place et al. (2007) | Wahaj, Van Horn et al. (2004) | Watts (2007) | Werdelin & Solounias (1991) | Whateley (1980, 1981) | Whateley & Brooks (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"The foraging behavior of Spotted Hyenas is remarkably flexible. Long believed to feed mainly on carrion, these animals are in fact efficient predators that kill 60% to 95% of their prey themselves. On average across populations in which the relative proportions of hunted and scavenged foods have been documented, two thirds of their diet is derived from kills they make themselves, and only one third from scavenged food items. In addition to being able to obtain food either by hunting or scavenging, Spotted Hyenas exhibit extraordinary plasticity with respect to their prey preferences. Spotted Hyenas have catholic tastes, they are extreme opportunists, and they are able to exploit a vast array of potential prey types, ranging from caterpillars to elephants; they may also occasionally consume some plant material. However, in most parts of Africa, Spotted Hyenas derive the large majority of their food intake from only a small subset of the prey species available to them locally. In most environments, they focus on the local mediumand large-sized ungulates, capture of which yields the greatest caloric return while demanding the least effort and the fewest risks. Thus, in eastern Africa, Spotted Hyenas prey most frequently on Blue Wildebeest, zebra, gazelles and Topi. In the arid parts of southern Africa, they prey most frequently on Gemsbok. In Kruger National Park, their most common prey is Impala, and in western Africa, common prey includes Red-fronted Gazelles and Hartebeest. Foraging behavior varies with the prey currently sought. Spotted Hyenas search for gazelle fawns by wandering upwind through open grassland in a zig-zag pattern. They may dig for crocodile eggs along large rivers, and snap flying termites out of the air with their jaws. When hunting, Spotted Hyenas modify their behavior to take advantage of the most abundant prey species, or the species thatis easiest to catch; these change seasonally in some localities with the migratory movements of particular ungulate species. Instead of using felid-like stealth as a primary hunting tactic, Spotted Hyenas rely on their extraordinary endurance for success in hunting. They can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h, but at slightly lower speeds, they can maintain a chase for several kilometres. If the antelope being chased becomes winded, and turns to defend itself with its horns, the Hyenas rush in and start tearing off pieces of the prey animal’s flesh. Like canids, Spotted Hyenas kill their prey by disembowelling and dismembering them rather than by using a particularkilling bite. Spotted Hyenas may hunt either solitarily or in groups; in the latter case group size varies with the typeof prey sought. Mean hunting group sizes among Hyenas in Kenyaare 1-2 for Topi, 1-7 for Impala, 2-08 for Thompson's Gazelle, 2-92 for Blue Wildebeest, and 9-1 for zebra. Thus only zebra hunts involve large groups of hunters, and most hunting parties contain only one or two Hyenas. Ungulates such as Topi and Blue Wildebeest weigh roughly three times as much as an adult Hyena, but solitary Hyenas routinely kill these antelope. Although hunting group size is often surprisingly small among Spotted Hyenas, the feeding groups formed by these animals are often very large once a prey animal has been killed. The noise produced by feeding Hyenas often draws members of the clan that were not involved in the hunt to the kill site. Feeding competition among the Hyenas present at a kill is usually very intense. In East Africa, often more than 30 Hyenas can be observed trying to feed from a single carcass. Because of this intense competition, each individual Hyena consumes as much food as possible in a very short period of time. A group of 20-30 hungry Hyenas can reduce an adult Blue Wildebeest to nothing more than a pile of rumen contents in only 13 minutes. It is estimated that an adult Spotted Hyena can consume a mass of food equal to 25%-30% ofits body weight, and individual Hyenas have been observed to ingest up to 18 kgof meat and bone in one hour. However,as a result of limited access to carcasses, average food intake ranges only from 1-5 to 3-8 kg per day. Spotted Hyenas sometimes engage in kleptoparasitism, which is the aggressive acquisition of a fresh carcass from other predators. They have been observed displacingjackals, Striped Hyenas, Leopards, Cheetahs, and African Wild Dogs from kills. However Spotted Hyenas most frequently compete for kills with Lions. Spotted Hyenas and Lions occur sympatrically in many areas of Africa, and in most of these habitats, bi-directional food stealing has been observed between these two species. Dominance relations between Spotted Hyenas and competing species are not absolute but depend on the numerical presence of both parties. For instance, Lions usually displace Spotted Hyenas at kills. However, if Hyena group size is large and the ratio of Spotted Hyenas to female and subadult Lions exceeds four to one, Hyenas are often able to displace Lions from kills unless a male Lion is present. A single Spotted Hyena can usually dominate a Cheetah, Leopard, Striped Hyena, Brown Hyena, any species ofjackal, or an African Wild Dog. Spotted Hyenas have been observed caching surplus food in thickets and under water in ponds. These animals are very comfortable in water; they often play in seasonal pools, and lie in shallow water or wet mud to keep cool on hot days. Compared to the other bone-cracking hyenas, Spotted Hyenas rarely carry food to their young at dens. This appears to be because the risk of having one’s food stolen, even by much smaller hyenas,is very high at dens, particularly for low-ranking individuals.","breeding":"Females bear young throughout the year in most parts of Africa, although there are distinct birth peaks and troughs in some populations. Both sexes mate promiscuously with multiple partners. Courtship by male Spotted Hyenas is unusual among mammals because it appears to reflect such extreme conflicting desires to approach the female and also to flee from her. Males often engage in approach-avoid and bowing displays, both of which appear to reflect strong motivational conflict and hesitancy on the part of the male. Their behavior suggests that interactions with females may be unusually risky for males in this species, and that males fear females. In general, the female seems to take little notice of the male hyena’s sexual advances. Estrus lasts 1-3 days, but the length of the female's cycle, and whether ovulation is spontaneous or induced, are not known. Copulation involves multiple mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations. Female receptivity is indicated by inhibited aggression toward the male and by assumption of a distinctive receptive stance in which the female lowers her head and keeps her mouth near the ground. The only behavior indicative of a female's interest in mating is that she may follow a male. Some males who sire cubs form consortships with females, but others do not, suggesting that individual male Hyenas may adopt multiple alternative reproductive tactics to attract and acquire mates. That is, male Hyenas may sometimes “shadow” or “guard” their mates, but intensive mate-guarding is not required to ensure that a male will sire the cubs of a particular female. Females have been observed mating with one to four maleswithin a single estrous period, and multiple paternity has been documented to occur in 25-30% of twin litters. Many copulations among Crocutaappear to be infertile. Female Spotted Hyenas are exposed to high concentrations of androgens in utero, and this early androgen exposure may have negative effects on female fertility by altering ovarian histology or other mechanisms. It has recently been determined that early androgen exposure is not necessary for formation of the female's peniform clitoris. Females give birth through their penis-like clitoris. During parturition, the clitoris tears to permit the passage of the young, creating a large bleeding wound on the posterior surface that may take weeks to heal. Females usually produce litters of two, although singletons are also common, and triplets are observed occasionally. Cubs weigh roughly 1 kgat birth. They are born with their eyes open, their deciduous canine and incisor teeth fully erupted, and they are capable of remarkably coordinated movement immediately after birth. They are thus relatively precocial compared to cubs in other hyaenid species or in most other carnivores. Their coats are pure black at birth; cubs start to molt at 5-6 weeks of age, and the natal coat is completely replaced by an adult-colored, spotted pelage by 4-5 months of age. The spots never change except to fade a bit with age. Cubs are usually born in an isolated natal den and are transferred to the clan’s communal den when they are 2-5 weeks old. They remain at the communal den until they are 8-12 months old, and then begin traveling around the clan’s territory, initially with their mothers and later alone. As in the other bone-cracking hyenas, weaning occurs surprisingly late, usually around 13-14 months of age, but twin litters borne by low-ranking females may be nursed as long as two years. Fifty percent of cubs die before puberty, and mortality rates are generally highest immediately after weaning. Males reach reproductive maturity at around two years of age, and most females start bearing young in their third or fourth year. However, age at first parturition varies between two and six years. All females in a clan reproduce, and females rear their young together in the communal den. Therefore occupied dens may contain up to 30 young of different ages from up to 20 litters. Females nurse only their own cubs and usually reject approaches by other cubs. The milk of Spotted Hyenas has the highest protein content (mean 14-9%) recorded for any terrestrial carnivore, a fat content (mean 141%) exceeded only by that of palaearctic bears and the sea otter, and a higher gross energy density than the milk of most other terrestrial carnivores. Due to the high energy content of their milk, and the long nursing period, Spotted Hyenas have the highest energetic investment per litter of any carnivore. Reproductive success in both sexes is related to dominancestatus, although this relationship is stronger among females than males. High-ranking females enjoy greater reproductive success than low-ranking females because they have longer reproductive life spans and shorter inter-birth intervals, and because their cubs experience lower mortality than do cubs of low-ranking females. Sex ratios among adults are usually slightly female-biased. Reproductive success among males varies with intra-sexual rank, although alpha males fare more poorly than would be expected based on social status alone. As most males disperse from their natal clan when they are at least two years old, most breeding males are immigrants. Spotted Hyenas are sometimes referred to as the “Cain and Abel” of the animal world because of the common belief that they routinely kill their siblings shortly after birth. Although littermates do engage in aggressive interactions within minutes after birth, and although this can result in obvious scarring of the subordinate littermate, these aggressive interactions seldom result in the death of a sibling. These early fights quickly lead to the establishment of a dominance relationship that allows the dominant cub to control access to the mother’s milk. Siblicide in the Spotted Hyena is facultative in that it occurs only in some twin litters rather than routinely. The purpose of the early fighting is to establish an unambiguous dominance relationship within the litter. It appears that the relative costs and benefits of killing one’s sibling vary with current socio-ecological conditions: a cub that killsits sibling may obtain significant benefits if its mother is unable to support multiple cubs. However, mothers can usually support two cubs in many parts of Africa without undue difficulty.","activityPatterns":"Spotted Hyenas are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular, although they may be active at midday when temperatures permit. Dens are typically modified holes dug by Aardvarks, although caves are used as den sites in some areas. Only cubslive in dens; adults sleep above ground, often in thickets, particularly when midday temperatures are high. Although Spotted Hyenas are active for roughly one third of each 24hour cycle, their activity is not continuous. Instead, activity occurs in bouts interspersed with periods of rest. Hyenas in Kenyathat were followed for complete 24hour cycles spent 32% of their time active, but 53% of their active time occurred during hours of darkness.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"On average, Spotted Hyenas in Kenyamove 928 mper hour when active, and typically travel over 12 kmduring each 24hour period, with males moving more than females. In Serengeti, daily movements may be much greater than this, as resident hyenas often commute 30-40 km in orderto feed on migratory herbivores. Spotted Hyenas live in social groups, called clans, which contain from ten to eighty members. Large clans contain multiple matrilines of related females and their offspring, as well as a number of adult immigrant males that are generally unrelated to one another. Small clans may contain only a single matriline and a single breeding male. Clan size appears to be determined by abundance of local prey animals: where these are plentiful, as on the prey-rich plains of eastern Africa, clans are typically very large, but in desert areas of southern Africa, clans may be tiny. Clans are fission-fusion societies. That is, all clan members know each other individually, occupy a common territory, and rear their cubs together at a communal den, yet they also spend much of their time alone or in small sub-groups. Spotted Hyena clans bear little resemblance to canid packs or Lion prides, but they are remarkably similar in their size, structure, and complexity to the societies of cercopithecine primates. Like troops of baboons and macaques, Hyena clans typically contain individuals from multiple overlapping generations, and clans are structured by clear linear dominance hierarchies in which an individual’s rank determinesits priority of access to food and other resources. In contrast to the situation characteristic of other hyaenids and most other mammals, female Spotted Hyenas are socially dominant to all adult immigrant males. Rank relationships among female clan-mates are usually stable for periods of many years. Average relatedness among females from different matrilines within a clan is extremely low. Like most primates, Spotted Hyenas produce tiny litters at long intervals, and their offspring require an unusually long period of nutritional dependence on the mother. Young Hyenas typically nurse for well over a year, and because it takes them years to become proficient at hunting and feeding, their mothers continue to help them gain access to food at ungulate kills long after weaning. Similar to female baboons, the social status of a female Hyena is determined not by hersize or fighting ability, but by her mother’s social rank. Indeed, the acquisition of social rank during early development occurs in a pattern identical to that seen in many monkey species, a pattern called “maternal rank inheritance” by primatologists even though no literal inheritance occurs involving genetic transfer of status from mother to offspring. Instead, in both Hyenas and baboons, maternal rank “inheritance” involves a great deal of important social learning that occurs during a protractedjuvenile period. Young Hyenas initially direct their aggressive behaviors equally at higherand lower-ranking individuals. But this changes rapidly during the first year of life as cubs learn to direct aggression only at animals lower in rank than their own mother. When youngsters become involved in disputes with group-mates, the mother intervenes on their behalf against all individuals lower-ranking than herself. Interventions by high-ranking mothers are more frequent and more effective than those by lowranking females. In addition, like young baboons, Hyena cubs are often joined in fights by coalition partners who may be either kin or unrelated animals. Along with maternal interventions, coalition formation functions importantly in rank acquisition. Thus the mechanisms by which youngsters acquire their social ranks are virtually identical in Hyenas and old-world monkeys. Patterns of competition and cooperation among Spotted Hyenas are also remarkably like those found in baboons. Although Hyenas compete intensively for food, they also rely heavily on cooperative interactions with group-mates, particularly their close kin, to acquire and defend both their social rank and such key resources as food and territory. Young Spotted Hyenas of both sexes “inherit” the social rank of their motherearly in life, and retain their maternal rank as long as they remain in the natal clan. However, whereas females remain in their natal group throughouttheir lives, virtually all males disperse after puberty tojoin a new clan. When a male immigrates into a new group, he entersas the lowest-ranking Hyena in the dominance hierarchy; he behaves submissively to all Hyenas he encounters in the new territory, regardless of their size, fighting ability, or social rank. This results in a society in which adult females and their cubs are dominant to all adult male immigrants. A male Hyena loses his maternal social rank and its associated feeding privileges when he disperses. In their new clans, immigrant males sometimes invest a great deal of time and energy in developing amicable relationships with resident adult females, as males engaging in these amicable relationships may enjoy a high probability ofsiring cubs. Due to the female’s male-like genitalia, coercive sex is impossible, so female choice of mates is an important sexually selected force in this species. Mate choice by female Spotted Hyenas apparently drives males to disperse: females strongly prefer to mate with immigrants, and they appear to discriminate against adult natal males. Therefore, almost all offspring are sired by immigrant males. Immigrants queue for status within the male hierarchy of the new clan; the highest-ranking males are those that immigrated first into the clan. Malesrise in rank only when higherranking immigrants die or engage in secondary dispersal; roughly 40% of immigrants disperse again, although the potential benefits of secondary dispersal are unknown. Clan members defend group territories from neighboring Hyena groups. Territory size ranges from roughly 20 km?® in East Africa to approximately 1500 km? in the desert regions of southern Africa, and is negatively related to the density of available prey. Territorial behavior is exhibited by both sexes, although females engage in these activities more frequently than males. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the territory boundary. Border clashes with neighboring clans, called “clan wars”, are most commonly observed in habitats containing high densities of Hyenas, where intrusion pressure is most intense. Territorial behavioris rarely observed among Spotted Hyenas inhabiting the vast desert regions of southern Africa, where prey are sparse, clan size is small, intrusion pressure is low, and the home ranges of resident hyenas are enormous. In some parts of Africa, where densities of resident prey may be low but where migratory herbivores are available as prey, Spotted Hyenas are known to adopt patterns of space-use that differ strikingly from those seen in areas with year-round resident prey. Specifically, Spotted Hyenas may frequently commute long distances from their defended territory to herds of migratory prey. In the unusual “commuting system” exhibited by Spotted Hyenas in the Serengeti, individuals travel long distances north or south from their centrally-located clan territories in order to feed on migratory herbivores. Intruders are tolerated by territory residents when the intruders are merely passing through, although residents behave aggressively toward intruders found hunting or feeding. In Namibia, Spotted Hyenas defend territories that expand and contract in size seasonally, as migratory prey change locations. Territory boundaries are visited sporadically by multiple clan members performing border patrols, during which boundaries are marked by pasting. A strong-smelling, yellowish buttery secretion is deposited from the anal glands onto grass stalks during border patrols. Spotted Hyenas also commonly paste deep inside their territories, although the frequency with which this occurs is generally far less than in the other hyaenid species. The paste transmits information about an individual’s identity, sex, reproductive state, and clan membership. Young Hyenas engage in pasting behavior long before there is any paste in their anal sacs, suggesting that this behavior enables cubs to acquire group odors from sites where clan-mates had pasted earlier. Spotted Hyenas engage in ritualized greeting ceremonies in which two individuals stand parallel and face in opposite directions. Both individuals usually lift the hindleg nearest to the other and sniff or lick the anogenital region of the other. The unique aspect of their greetingsis the prominent role of the erect “penis” in animals of both sexes. This is used to signal submission. Greetings occur between hyenas of all ages and both sexes, although greetings between adult females and adult males are uncommon and restricted to high-ranking males. Cubs can erect their penis or clitoris and engage in greeting ceremonies as early as four weeks after birth. Spotted Hyenas recognize their group mates based on visual cues, odors, and individually distinctive vocalizations. These animals are well known fortheirrich vocal repertoire. They emit deep groansto call their cubs out of dens, high-pitched whines to beg for food or milk, and cattle-like lowing sounds to bring group-mates to a common state of high arousal. The sound most frequently heard during the night throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa is the long-distance vocalization of the Spotted Hyena, called a whoop. This loud call can be heard over several kilometers. Whoopsclearly serve a variety of functions. They can be rallying calls to gather scattered clan members together to defend territory boundaries, food resources, the communal den, or clan-mates in danger. Mothers whoop to locate their wandering cubs, and hungry cubs whoop to call their mothers so they can nurse. Spotted Hyenas sometimes whoop to recruit hunting partners. Whoops are also used as a form of individual display, particularly by males of high rank. Adult males whoop more frequently than females, and high-ranking males whoop more often than lower ranking males. Finally, Spotted Hyenas are well known for their laugh or giggle, which sounds much like maniacal human laughter. This vocalization is a signal of submission. A submissive individual giggles to signal to another Hyena thatit accepts a lower status.Breeding.Females bear young throughout the year in most parts of Africa, although there are distinct birth peaks and troughs in some populations. Both sexes mate promiscuously with multiple partners. Courtship by male Spotted Hyenas is unusual among mammals because it appears to reflect such extreme conflicting desires to approach the female and also to flee from her. Males often engage in approach-avoid and bowing displays, both of which appear to reflect strong motivational conflict and hesitancy on the part of the male. Their behavior suggests that interactions with females may be unusually risky for males in this species, and that males fear females. In general, the female seems to take little notice of the male hyena’s sexual advances. Estrus lasts 1-3 days, but the length of the female's cycle, and whether ovulation is spontaneous or induced, are not known. Copulation involves multiple mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations. Female receptivity is indicated by inhibited aggression toward the male and by assumption of a distinctive receptive stance in which the female lowers her head and keeps her mouth near the ground. The only behavior indicative of a female's interest in mating is that she may follow a male. Some males who sire cubs form consortships with females, but others do not, suggesting that individual male Hyenas may adopt multiple alternative reproductive tactics to attract and acquire mates. That is, male Hyenas may sometimes “shadow” or “guard” their mates, but intensive mate-guarding is not required to ensure that a male will sire the cubs of a particular female. Females have been observed mating with one to four maleswithin a single estrous period, and multiple paternity has been documented to occur in 25-30% of twin litters. Many copulations among Crocutaappear to be infertile. Female Spotted Hyenas are exposed to high concentrations of androgens in utero, and this early androgen exposure may have negative effects on female fertility by altering ovarian histology or other mechanisms. It has recently been determined that early androgen exposure is not necessary for formation of the female's peniform clitoris. Females give birth through their penis-like clitoris. During parturition, the clitoris tears to permit the passage of the young, creating a large bleeding wound on the posterior surface that may take weeks to heal. Females usually produce litters of two, although singletons are also common, and triplets are observed occasionally. Cubs weigh roughly 1 kgat birth. They are born with their eyes open, their deciduous canine and incisor teeth fully erupted, and they are capable of remarkably coordinated movement immediately after birth. They are thus relatively precocial compared to cubs in other hyaenid species or in most other carnivores. Their coats are pure black at birth; cubs start to molt at 5-6 weeks of age, and the natal coat is completely replaced by an adult-colored, spotted pelage by 4-5 months of age. The spots never change except to fade a bit with age. Cubs are usually born in an isolated natal den and are transferred to the clan’s communal den when they are 2-5 weeks old. They remain at the communal den until they are 8-12 months old, and then begin traveling around the clan’s territory, initially with their mothers and later alone. As in the other bone-cracking hyenas, weaning occurs surprisingly late, usually around 13-14 months of age, but twin litters borne by low-ranking females may be nursed as long as two years. Fifty percent of cubs die before puberty, and mortality rates are generally highest immediately after weaning. Males reach reproductive maturity at around two years of age, and most females start bearing young in their third or fourth year. However, age at first parturition varies between two and six years. All females in a clan reproduce, and females rear their young together in the communal den. Therefore occupied dens may contain up to 30 young of different ages from up to 20 litters. Females nurse only their own cubs and usually reject approaches by other cubs. The milk of Spotted Hyenas has the highest protein content (mean 14-9%) recorded for any terrestrial carnivore, a fat content (mean 141%) exceeded only by that of palaearctic bears and the sea otter, and a higher gross energy density than the milk of most other terrestrial carnivores. Due to the high energy content of their milk, and the long nursing period, Spotted Hyenas have the highest energetic investment per litter of any carnivore. Reproductive success in both sexes is related to dominancestatus, although this relationship is stronger among females than males. High-ranking females enjoy greater reproductive success than low-ranking females because they have longer reproductive life spans and shorter inter-birth intervals, and because their cubs experience lower mortality than do cubs of low-ranking females. Sex ratios among adults are usually slightly female-biased. Reproductive success among males varies with intra-sexual rank, although alpha males fare more poorly than would be expected based on social status alone. As most males disperse from their natal clan when they are at least two years old, most breeding males are immigrants. Spotted Hyenas are sometimes referred to as the “Cain and Abel” of the animal world because of the common belief that they routinely kill their siblings shortly after birth. Although littermates do engage in aggressive interactions within minutes after birth, and although this can result in obvious scarring of the subordinate littermate, these aggressive interactions seldom result in the death of a sibling. These early fights quickly lead to the establishment of a dominance relationship that allows the dominant cub to control access to the mother’s milk. Siblicide in the Spotted Hyena is facultative in that it occurs only in some twin litters rather than routinely. The purpose of the early fighting is to establish an unambiguous dominance relationship within the litter. It appears that the relative costs and benefits of killing one’s sibling vary with current socio-ecological conditions: a cub that killsits sibling may obtain significant benefits if its mother is unable to support multiple cubs. However, mothers can usually support two cubs in many parts of Africa without undue difficulty.","statusAndConservation":"Listed as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total world population of the Spotted Hyena is well above 10,000 individuals, several subpopulations exceed 1000 individuals and its range well exceeds 20,000 km®. The rapid decline of populations outside conservation areas due to persecution and habitat loss makes the species increasingly dependent on the continued existence of protected areas. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated in Algeriaand Lesotho, and they are listed as threatened in Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone. The largest remaining populations are found in Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, and Namibia. Most adult mortality is caused directly by lions and humans,although disease is an important mortality source in some areas. Human-caused mortality is common even inside protected areas. Spotted Hyenas may attack livestock, particularly where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse. Often in response to confirmed or assumed livestock depredation, Spotted Hyenas are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. Spotted Hyenas are also commonly killed on motor-ways. Habitat fragmentation and reduction are also having significant negative effects on the size of many Spotted Hyena populations. Finally, one of the most important threats to the conservation of Spotted Hyenas is their negative public image. Many people apparently believe these animals are not worth conserving. Educating the public about these complex and fascinating animals is expected to have a substantial positive effect on conservation efforts.","descriptiveNotes":"Largest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 125-160 cm,tail 22-27 cm, height at shoulder 77.3-80. 7 cm; weight 45-55 kg and up to 86 kg. Females approximately 10% larger than males, although size distributions for males and females overlap. Degree of sexual dimorphism in body size varies geographically, being most pronounced in southern Africa. Its general color is sandy, ginger, or dull gray to reddish-brown, with black or dark brown spots on the back, flanks, rump, and legs. Spots may turn brown and fade with age. The fur is shorter in this species than in the other extant hyaenids. The head is large, rounded and powerful, with a short and blunt muzzle. In contrast to the other extant hyaenids, all of which have pointed ears, Spotted Hyenas have ears with rounded tops. The tail ends in a black, bushy tip, with approximately 12 cmof hair extending beyond the end of the tail bone. Like the other hyaenids, the Spotted Hyena has a sloping back because the forelegs are longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. The mane in this speciesis more poorly developed than in other hyaenids. The feet have four toes. Females usually have only two teats. The Spotted Hyena has long been considered a hermaphrodite in many parts of Africa because the external genitalia of the female are very similar to those of the male. The female has a peniform clitoris that is only a few mm shorter than the male’s penis, and is fully erectile. The sexes can be distinguished by the shape of the penile glans: the male glans is pointed whereas that of the female is blunt. A single urogenital canal traverses the enlarged clitoris; through this canal the female urinates, copulates and gives birth. There is no external vaginal opening as the outer labiae are fused to form a structure that resembles the scrotal sac of the male. The female’s pseudoscrotum has a bi-lobed appearance; the testes of the adult male make the scrotal sac larger and give it more distinctly rounded bulges. Thus scientists who study these animals can distinguish males from females even when the animals are lying down.Habitat.Spotted Hyenas occupy an extraordinarily diverse array of habitats, including savanna, semi-desert, swamps, woodland, and montane forest up to 4000 mof elevation, but are absent in lowland tropical rainforests, in alpine areas at high elevation, and in extreme desert conditions. Although they require water for drinking, they are able to make do with very little water, and seldom require access to it. Even lactating females can survive without water for over one week. The highest population densities reported for this species occur on the prey-rich plains of Kenyaand Tanzania, and surprisingly, in the forests of the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya. In these areas, densities of Spotted Hyenas exceed one animal per square kilometer.Food and Feeding.The foraging behavior of Spotted Hyenas is remarkably flexible. Long believed to feed mainly on carrion, these animals are in fact efficient predators that kill 60% to 95% of their prey themselves. On average across populations in which the relative proportions of hunted and scavenged foods have been documented, two thirds of their diet is derived from kills they make themselves, and only one third from scavenged food items. In addition to being able to obtain food either by hunting or scavenging, Spotted Hyenas exhibit extraordinary plasticity with respect to their prey preferences. Spotted Hyenas have catholic tastes, they are extreme opportunists, and they are able to exploit a vast array of potential prey types, ranging from caterpillars to elephants; they may also occasionally consume some plant material. However, in most parts of Africa, Spotted Hyenas derive the large majority of their food intake from only a small subset of the prey species available to them locally. In most environments, they focus on the local mediumand large-sized ungulates, capture of which yields the greatest caloric return while demanding the least effort and the fewest risks. Thus, in eastern Africa, Spotted Hyenas prey most frequently on Blue Wildebeest, zebra, gazelles and Topi. In the arid parts of southern Africa, they prey most frequently on Gemsbok. In Kruger National Park, their most common prey is Impala, and in western Africa, common prey includes Red-fronted Gazelles and Hartebeest. Foraging behavior varies with the prey currently sought. Spotted Hyenas search for gazelle fawns by wandering upwind through open grassland in a zig-zag pattern. They may dig for crocodile eggs along large rivers, and snap flying termites out of the air with their jaws. When hunting, Spotted Hyenas modify their behavior to take advantage of the most abundant prey species, or the species thatis easiest to catch; these change seasonally in some localities with the migratory movements of particular ungulate species. Instead of using felid-like stealth as a primary hunting tactic, Spotted Hyenas rely on their extraordinary endurance for success in hunting. They can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h, but at slightly lower speeds, they can maintain a chase for several kilometres. If the antelope being chased becomes winded, and turns to defend itself with its horns, the Hyenas rush in and start tearing off pieces of the prey animal’s flesh. Like canids, Spotted Hyenas kill their prey by disembowelling and dismembering them rather than by using a particularkilling bite. Spotted Hyenas may hunt either solitarily or in groups; in the latter case group size varies with the typeof prey sought. Mean hunting group sizes among Hyenas in Kenyaare 1-2 for Topi, 1-7 for Impala, 2-08 for Thompson's Gazelle, 2-92 for Blue Wildebeest, and 9-1 for zebra. Thus only zebra hunts involve large groups of hunters, and most hunting parties contain only one or two Hyenas. Ungulates such as Topi and Blue Wildebeest weigh roughly three times as much as an adult Hyena, but solitary Hyenas routinely kill these antelope. Although hunting group size is often surprisingly small among Spotted Hyenas, the feeding groups formed by these animals are often very large once a prey animal has been killed. The noise produced by feeding Hyenas often draws members of the clan that were not involved in the hunt to the kill site. Feeding competition among the Hyenas present at a kill is usually very intense. In East Africa, often more than 30 Hyenas can be observed trying to feed from a single carcass. Because of this intense competition, each individual Hyena consumes as much food as possible in a very short period of time. A group of 20-30 hungry Hyenas can reduce an adult Blue Wildebeest to nothing more than a pile of rumen contents in only 13 minutes. It is estimated that an adult Spotted Hyena can consume a mass of food equal to 25%-30% ofits body weight, and individual Hyenas have been observed to ingest up to 18 kgof meat and bone in one hour. However,as a result of limited access to carcasses, average food intake ranges only from 1-5 to 3-8 kg per day. Spotted Hyenas sometimes engage in kleptoparasitism, which is the aggressive acquisition of a fresh carcass from other predators. They have been observed displacingjackals, Striped Hyenas, Leopards, Cheetahs, and African Wild Dogs from kills. However Spotted Hyenas most frequently compete for kills with Lions. Spotted Hyenas and Lions occur sympatrically in many areas of Africa, and in most of these habitats, bi-directional food stealing has been observed between these two species. Dominance relations between Spotted Hyenas and competing species are not absolute but depend on the numerical presence of both parties. For instance, Lions usually displace Spotted Hyenas at kills. However, if Hyena group size is large and the ratio of Spotted Hyenas to female and subadult Lions exceeds four to one, Hyenas are often able to displace Lions from kills unless a male Lion is present. A single Spotted Hyena can usually dominate a Cheetah, Leopard, Striped Hyena, Brown Hyena, any species ofjackal, or an African Wild Dog. Spotted Hyenas have been observed caching surplus food in thickets and under water in ponds. These animals are very comfortable in water; they often play in seasonal pools, and lie in shallow water or wet mud to keep cool on hot days. Compared to the other bone-cracking hyenas, Spotted Hyenas rarely carry food to their young at dens. This appears to be because the risk of having one’s food stolen, even by much smaller hyenas,is very high at dens, particularly for low-ranking individuals.Activity patterns.Spotted Hyenas are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular, although they may be active at midday when temperatures permit. Dens are typically modified holes dug by Aardvarks, although caves are used as den sites in some areas. Only cubslive in dens; adults sleep above ground, often in thickets, particularly when midday temperatures are high. Although Spotted Hyenas are active for roughly one third of each 24hour cycle, their activity is not continuous. Instead, activity occurs in bouts interspersed with periods of rest. Hyenas in Kenyathat were followed for complete 24hour cycles spent 32% of their time active, but 53% of their active time occurred during hours of darkness.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On average, Spotted Hyenas in Kenyamove 928 mper hour when active, and typically travel over 12 kmduring each 24hour period, with males moving more than females. In Serengeti, daily movements may be much greater than this, as resident hyenas often commute 30-40 km in orderto feed on migratory herbivores. Spotted Hyenas live in social groups, called clans, which contain from ten to eighty members. Large clans contain multiple matrilines of related females and their offspring, as well as a number of adult immigrant males that are generally unrelated to one another. Small clans may contain only a single matriline and a single breeding male. Clan size appears to be determined by abundance of local prey animals: where these are plentiful, as on the prey-rich plains of eastern Africa, clans are typically very large, but in desert areas of southern Africa, clans may be tiny. Clans are fission-fusion societies. That is, all clan members know each other individually, occupy a common territory, and rear their cubs together at a communal den, yet they also spend much of their time alone or in small sub-groups. Spotted Hyena clans bear little resemblance to canid packs or Lion prides, but they are remarkably similar in their size, structure, and complexity to the societies of cercopithecine primates. Like troops of baboons and macaques, Hyena clans typically contain individuals from multiple overlapping generations, and clans are structured by clear linear dominance hierarchies in which an individual’s rank determinesits priority of access to food and other resources. In contrast to the situation characteristic of other hyaenids and most other mammals, female Spotted Hyenas are socially dominant to all adult immigrant males. Rank relationships among female clan-mates are usually stable for periods of many years. Average relatedness among females from different matrilines within a clan is extremely low. Like most primates, Spotted Hyenas produce tiny litters at long intervals, and their offspring require an unusually long period of nutritional dependence on the mother. Young Hyenas typically nurse for well over a year, and because it takes them years to become proficient at hunting and feeding, their mothers continue to help them gain access to food at ungulate kills long after weaning. Similar to female baboons, the social status of a female Hyena is determined not by hersize or fighting ability, but by her mother’s social rank. Indeed, the acquisition of social rank during early development occurs in a pattern identical to that seen in many monkey species, a pattern called “maternal rank inheritance” by primatologists even though no literal inheritance occurs involving genetic transfer of status from mother to offspring. Instead, in both Hyenas and baboons, maternal rank “inheritance” involves a great deal of important social learning that occurs during a protractedjuvenile period. Young Hyenas initially direct their aggressive behaviors equally at higherand lower-ranking individuals. But this changes rapidly during the first year of life as cubs learn to direct aggression only at animals lower in rank than their own mother. When youngsters become involved in disputes with group-mates, the mother intervenes on their behalf against all individuals lower-ranking than herself. Interventions by high-ranking mothers are more frequent and more effective than those by lowranking females. In addition, like young baboons, Hyena cubs are often joined in fights by coalition partners who may be either kin or unrelated animals. Along with maternal interventions, coalition formation functions importantly in rank acquisition. Thus the mechanisms by which youngsters acquire their social ranks are virtually identical in Hyenas and old-world monkeys. Patterns of competition and cooperation among Spotted Hyenas are also remarkably like those found in baboons. Although Hyenas compete intensively for food, they also rely heavily on cooperative interactions with group-mates, particularly their close kin, to acquire and defend both their social rank and such key resources as food and territory. Young Spotted Hyenas of both sexes “inherit” the social rank of their motherearly in life, and retain their maternal rank as long as they remain in the natal clan. However, whereas females remain in their natal group throughouttheir lives, virtually all males disperse after puberty tojoin a new clan. When a male immigrates into a new group, he entersas the lowest-ranking Hyena in the dominance hierarchy; he behaves submissively to all Hyenas he encounters in the new territory, regardless of their size, fighting ability, or social rank. This results in a society in which adult females and their cubs are dominant to all adult male immigrants. A male Hyena loses his maternal social rank and its associated feeding privileges when he disperses. In their new clans, immigrant males sometimes invest a great deal of time and energy in developing amicable relationships with resident adult females, as males engaging in these amicable relationships may enjoy a high probability ofsiring cubs. Due to the female’s male-like genitalia, coercive sex is impossible, so female choice of mates is an important sexually selected force in this species. Mate choice by female Spotted Hyenas apparently drives males to disperse: females strongly prefer to mate with immigrants, and they appear to discriminate against adult natal males. Therefore, almost all offspring are sired by immigrant males. Immigrants queue for status within the male hierarchy of the new clan; the highest-ranking males are those that immigrated first into the clan. Malesrise in rank only when higherranking immigrants die or engage in secondary dispersal; roughly 40% of immigrants disperse again, although the potential benefits of secondary dispersal are unknown. Clan members defend group territories from neighboring Hyena groups. Territory size ranges from roughly 20 km?® in East Africa to approximately 1500 km? in the desert regions of southern Africa, and is negatively related to the density of available prey. Territorial behavior is exhibited by both sexes, although females engage in these activities more frequently than males. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the territory boundary. Border clashes with neighboring clans, called “clan wars”, are most commonly observed in habitats containing high densities of Hyenas, where intrusion pressure is most intense. Territorial behavioris rarely observed among Spotted Hyenas inhabiting the vast desert regions of southern Africa, where prey are sparse, clan size is small, intrusion pressure is low, and the home ranges of resident hyenas are enormous. In some parts of Africa, where densities of resident prey may be low but where migratory herbivores are available as prey, Spotted Hyenas are known to adopt patterns of space-use that differ strikingly from those seen in areas with year-round resident prey. Specifically, Spotted Hyenas may frequently commute long distances from their defended territory to herds of migratory prey. In the unusual “commuting system” exhibited by Spotted Hyenas in the Serengeti, individuals travel long distances north or south from their centrally-located clan territories in order to feed on migratory herbivores. Intruders are tolerated by territory residents when the intruders are merely passing through, although residents behave aggressively toward intruders found hunting or feeding. In Namibia, Spotted Hyenas defend territories that expand and contract in size seasonally, as migratory prey change locations. Territory boundaries are visited sporadically by multiple clan members performing border patrols, during which boundaries are marked by pasting. A strong-smelling, yellowish buttery secretion is deposited from the anal glands onto grass stalks during border patrols. Spotted Hyenas also commonly paste deep inside their territories, although the frequency with which this occurs is generally far less than in the other hyaenid species. The paste transmits information about an individual’s identity, sex, reproductive state, and clan membership. Young Hyenas engage in pasting behavior long before there is any paste in their anal sacs, suggesting that this behavior enables cubs to acquire group odors from sites where clan-mates had pasted earlier. Spotted Hyenas engage in ritualized greeting ceremonies in which two individuals stand parallel and face in opposite directions. Both individuals usually lift the hindleg nearest to the other and sniff or lick the anogenital region of the other. The unique aspect of their greetingsis the prominent role of the erect “penis” in animals of both sexes. This is used to signal submission. Greetings occur between hyenas of all ages and both sexes, although greetings between adult females and adult males are uncommon and restricted to high-ranking males. Cubs can erect their penis or clitoris and engage in greeting ceremonies as early as four weeks after birth. Spotted Hyenas recognize their group mates based on visual cues, odors, and individually distinctive vocalizations. These animals are well known fortheirrich vocal repertoire. They emit deep groansto call their cubs out of dens, high-pitched whines to beg for food or milk, and cattle-like lowing sounds to bring group-mates to a common state of high arousal. The sound most frequently heard during the night throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa is the long-distance vocalization of the Spotted Hyena, called a whoop. This loud call can be heard over several kilometers. Whoopsclearly serve a variety of functions. They can be rallying calls to gather scattered clan members together to defend territory boundaries, food resources, the communal den, or clan-mates in danger. Mothers whoop to locate their wandering cubs, and hungry cubs whoop to call their mothers so they can nurse. Spotted Hyenas sometimes whoop to recruit hunting partners. Whoops are also used as a form of individual display, particularly by males of high rank. Adult males whoop more frequently than females, and high-ranking males whoop more often than lower ranking males. Finally, Spotted Hyenas are well known for their laugh or giggle, which sounds much like maniacal human laughter. This vocalization is a signal of submission. A submissive individual giggles to signal to another Hyena thatit accepts a lower status.Breeding.Females bear young throughout the year in most parts of Africa, although there are distinct birth peaks and troughs in some populations. Both sexes mate promiscuously with multiple partners. Courtship by male Spotted Hyenas is unusual among mammals because it appears to reflect such extreme conflicting desires to approach the female and also to flee from her. Males often engage in approach-avoid and bowing displays, both of which appear to reflect strong motivational conflict and hesitancy on the part of the male. Their behavior suggests that interactions with females may be unusually risky for males in this species, and that males fear females. In general, the female seems to take little notice of the male hyena’s sexual advances. Estrus lasts 1-3 days, but the length of the female's cycle, and whether ovulation is spontaneous or induced, are not known. Copulation involves multiple mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations. Female receptivity is indicated by inhibited aggression toward the male and by assumption of a distinctive receptive stance in which the female lowers her head and keeps her mouth near the ground. The only behavior indicative of a female's interest in mating is that she may follow a male. Some males who sire cubs form consortships with females, but others do not, suggesting that individual male Hyenas may adopt multiple alternative reproductive tactics to attract and acquire mates. That is, male Hyenas may sometimes “shadow” or “guard” their mates, but intensive mate-guarding is not required to ensure that a male will sire the cubs of a particular female. Females have been observed mating with one to four maleswithin a single estrous period, and multiple paternity has been documented to occur in 25-30% of twin litters. Many copulations among Crocutaappear to be infertile. Female Spotted Hyenas are exposed to high concentrations of androgens in utero, and this early androgen exposure may have negative effects on female fertility by altering ovarian histology or other mechanisms. It has recently been determined that early androgen exposure is not necessary for formation of the female's peniform clitoris. Females give birth through their penis-like clitoris. During parturition, the clitoris tears to permit the passage of the young, creating a large bleeding wound on the posterior surface that may take weeks to heal. Females usually produce litters of two, although singletons are also common, and triplets are observed occasionally. Cubs weigh roughly 1 kgat birth. They are born with their eyes open, their deciduous canine and incisor teeth fully erupted, and they are capable of remarkably coordinated movement immediately after birth. They are thus relatively precocial compared to cubs in other hyaenid species or in most other carnivores. Their coats are pure black at birth; cubs start to molt at 5-6 weeks of age, and the natal coat is completely replaced by an adult-colored, spotted pelage by 4-5 months of age. The spots never change except to fade a bit with age. Cubs are usually born in an isolated natal den and are transferred to the clan’s communal den when they are 2-5 weeks old. They remain at the communal den until they are 8-12 months old, and then begin traveling around the clan’s territory, initially with their mothers and later alone. As in the other bone-cracking hyenas, weaning occurs surprisingly late, usually around 13-14 months of age, but twin litters borne by low-ranking females may be nursed as long as two years. Fifty percent of cubs die before puberty, and mortality rates are generally highest immediately after weaning. Males reach reproductive maturity at around two years of age, and most females start bearing young in their third or fourth year. However, age at first parturition varies between two and six years. All females in a clan reproduce, and females rear their young together in the communal den. Therefore occupied dens may contain up to 30 young of different ages from up to 20 litters. Females nurse only their own cubs and usually reject approaches by other cubs. The milk of Spotted Hyenas has the highest protein content (mean 14-9%) recorded for any terrestrial carnivore, a fat content (mean 141%) exceeded only by that of palaearctic bears and the sea otter, and a higher gross energy density than the milk of most other terrestrial carnivores. Due to the high energy content of their milk, and the long nursing period, Spotted Hyenas have the highest energetic investment per litter of any carnivore. Reproductive success in both sexes is related to dominancestatus, although this relationship is stronger among females than males. High-ranking females enjoy greater reproductive success than low-ranking females because they have longer reproductive life spans and shorter inter-birth intervals, and because their cubs experience lower mortality than do cubs of low-ranking females. Sex ratios among adults are usually slightly female-biased. Reproductive success among males varies with intra-sexual rank, although alpha males fare more poorly than would be expected based on social status alone. As most males disperse from their natal clan when they are at least two years old, most breeding males are immigrants. Spotted Hyenas are sometimes referred to as the “Cain and Abel” of the animal world because of the common belief that they routinely kill their siblings shortly after birth. Although littermates do engage in aggressive interactions within minutes after birth, and although this can result in obvious scarring of the subordinate littermate, these aggressive interactions seldom result in the death of a sibling. These early fights quickly lead to the establishment of a dominance relationship that allows the dominant cub to control access to the mother’s milk. Siblicide in the Spotted Hyena is facultative in that it occurs only in some twin litters rather than routinely. The purpose of the early fighting is to establish an unambiguous dominance relationship within the litter. It appears that the relative costs and benefits of killing one’s sibling vary with current socio-ecological conditions: a cub that killsits sibling may obtain significant benefits if its mother is unable to support multiple cubs. However, mothers can usually support two cubs in many parts of Africa without undue difficulty.Status and Conservation.Listed as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total world population of the Spotted Hyena is well above 10,000 individuals, several subpopulations exceed 1000 individuals and its range well exceeds 20,000 km®. The rapid decline of populations outside conservation areas due to persecution and habitat loss makes the species increasingly dependent on the continued existence of protected areas. Spotted Hyenas have been extirpated in Algeriaand Lesotho, and they are listed as threatened in Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone. The largest remaining populations are found in Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, and Namibia. Most adult mortality is caused directly by lions and humans,although disease is an important mortality source in some areas. Human-caused mortality is common even inside protected areas. Spotted Hyenas may attack livestock, particularly where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse. Often in response to confirmed or assumed livestock depredation, Spotted Hyenas are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. Spotted Hyenas are also commonly killed on motor-ways.","habitat":"Spotted Hyenas occupy an extraordinarily diverse array of habitats, including savanna, semi-desert, swamps, woodland, and montane forest up to 4000 mof elevation, but are absent in lowland tropical rainforests, in alpine areas at high elevation, and in extreme desert conditions. Although they require water for drinking, they are able to make do with very little water, and seldom require access to it. Even lactating females can survive without water for over one week. The highest population densities reported for this species occur on the prey-rich plains of Kenyaand Tanzania, and surprisingly, in the forests of the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya. In these areas, densities of Spotted Hyenas exceed one animal per square kilometer."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEAFF8828B2FDA8F8E3C123.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928788FFEAFF8828B2FDA8F8E3C123","docName":"hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"234","verbatimText":"Family HYAENIDAE(HYENAS)• Mediumto large-sized mammals with round or pointed ears relatively large in comparison to body size, exceptionally powerfuljaw muscles, hindquarters long and sloping; somewhat dog-like in overall appearance, very muscular.• 85-185 cm.• Africa and Middle East to India.• Mainly savannas, but other semi-arid and desert regions to edges of forests, both tropical and temperate zones.• 4 genera, 4 species, at least 5 extant taxa.• All Lower Risk; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEBFF8B2AA6F458FAD2C3D3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928788FFEBFF8B2AA6F458FAD2C3D3","docName":"hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"252","verbatimText":"1.AardwolfProteles cristataFrench:Protele/ German:Erdwolf/ Spanish:ProtelesTaxonomy.Viverra cristata Sparrman, 1783, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Although previously placed in its own family (Protelidae), it is now considered a member of the family Hyaenidae. The Aardwolf belongs to the subfamily Protelinae, of which it is the only extant member. They occur in two distinct populations separated by about 1500 km. However, studies ofthe extent of genetic and morphological differences between these groups have not been conducted. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. c. cristata Sparrman, 1783— E African coast (S Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, NE Ugandato C Tanzania). P. c. septentrionalis Rothschild, 1902— most of S Africa (S Angola, S Zambia, SW Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa).Descriptive notes.By far the smallest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 55-80 cm, tail 20-30 cm, height at shoulder 45-50 cm; weight (adult) 8-12 kg with seasonal variation, and reported as high as 14 kg. No sexual size dimorphism. Superficially similar in appearance to the Striped Hyena, with dark vertical stripes on a buff, yellowish-white or rufous body, and irregular horizontal stripes on the legs. However, the Striped Hyena is more than twice as large with less regular striping. The Aardwolf’s coat is about 2-5 cm long, with longer hairs along the mane and in the bushy tail. The neck is long and the throat is a pale gray-white. The legs are long and slender and the striping terminates in black at the feet. As in the Striped and Brown Hyena, the Aardwolf has long, pointed ears and a long erectile mane extending the length ofits body. Like the other hyaenids, Proteleshas a sloping back with the forelegs longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. Females have two pairs of teats. Uniquely among the hyaenids, Profeles has a number of adaptations for feeding exclusively on termites, including a long, spatulate tongue with large and varied papillae, and a large submaxillary gland which produces copious amounts of sticky saliva. Very small peg-like cheek teeth are widely spaced along thejaw margins, yet large canines have been retained for use in territorial disputes with other Aardwolves and defense againstjackals. Their skulls also feature a relatively broad, nearly parallel-sided palate, and extraordinarily large tympanic bulla.Habitat.Aardwolves are primarily found on open, grassy plains or in bush country, but can live in a range of habitats with rainfall between 100-800 mm. They are most common where rainfall is 100-600 mm. They do not occur in forests or pure desert and are independent of drinking water. The northern subspecies occurs in grasslands and tree savannas of the Somali-Masai Arid Zone and the southern subspecies in the Southern Savanna and South-westArid Zone.Food and Feeding.Aardwolves are solitary foragers and feed almost exclusively on Trinervitermes termites, usually on one species in each particular region: 1. bettionianus in East Africa, 1. rhodesiensis in Zimbabweand Botswanaand 71. trinervoides in South Africa. These termites are largely avoided by other termite-eating mammals due to the noxious terpenoid chemicals secreted by the soldier termites, to which the Aardwolfis uniquely tolerant. In addition to the lack of competition, Aardwolf preference for this termite genus is likely due to the fact that these termites regularly congregate at night in large aboveground foraging parties. The termites are licked directly from the soil surface, and are easily obtainable in large quantities. Also, unlike true harvester termites, Trinervitermes forage throughout the year, making them a dependable year-round food source. Due to the small size of Trinervitermes and the wide dispersion of colonies, female Aardwolves must forage for at least six hours a night, during which up to 300,000 termites/night (1-2 kg) are consumed. Foraging Aardwolves travel approximately 1 km/h, with their ears cocked forward and head bentslightly down, following an erratic zig-zag route. Because they often approach termite colonies from downwind, and approach with directed movement before termites could be seen,it appears that termite foraging parties are detected at least partially by smell. However, the hearing of the Aardwolf is particularly acute and is assumed to play a role in colony detection. The average time spent foraging at individual termite patches was 20-28 seconds in East Africa, but in drier Namibian grassland, Aardwolves spent an average of 1-8 and 9-2 minutes at each patch in consecutive years of observation. In South Africa, a newly weaned four-month old cub spent an average of only eleven seconds at each patch, and juveniles frequently are seen vomiting after feeding on Trinervitermes, indicating that tolerance to the chemical secretions of Trinervitermes soldiers increases with age. Even adult Aardwolves maintain some aversion to the terpene chemicals, because they will avoid feeding on mounds under repair, where typically only dense concentrations of soldiers are found at the surface. Other surface-foraging termites, particularly Hodotermes and Microhodotermes (South Africa), Odontotermes and Macrotermes species (East Africa), make up a larger proportion of the diet when Trinervitermes are seasonally uncommon or unavailable, as during winter (May-August) in South Africa, and during the rainy season in East Africa. However, these species forage aboveground in much smaller parties (10-20 individuals vs. 4000 inTrinervitermes) and the reduced winter availability of Trinervitermes in South Africaresults in a significant seasonal reduction in Aardwolf body weight and field metabolic rate. Aardwolves here were found to consume only one-sixth the number of termites in winter that they did in summer. Winter is also the highest period of mortality in Aardwolf cubs, which are 7-10 months old at this time, further indicating that this is a period ofsignificant energetic stress. Other termites found in fecal samples have included Odontotermes, Macrotermes, and Lepidotermes that are not surface-foraging species and therefore not important components of the Aardwolf diet. Occasional additional food items include ants and Coleopterans, yet the Aardwolf appears to be surprisingly inefficient at foraging on non-termite insects. Due to the high degree of specialization of its tongue for licking small arthropods, and the almost complete degeneration ofits cheek teeth, it is thought that they are unable to handle larger food items, making the species highly dependent on Trinervitermes. This dependence is supported by the absence of Aardwolves from Zambiaand central and western Africa, where surface foraging Trinervitermes are either uncommon or available only a small part of the year. Aardwolves defecate in middens (also called latrines). The first defecation occurs when they exit the burrow in the evening and is typically very large, weighing up to 1 kg. Defecations are typically covered with soil. This practice of concentrating and burying their faeces, which retains some of the terpene smell of the soldier termites, has been suggested as a way of reducing the probability that an Aardwolf will mistake its own faeces for a termite colony when it is foraging. Up to 20 middens may be located in a territory.Activity patterns.Predominantly nocturnal, in South AfricaAardwolves are generally active for 8-9 hours a day in summer but only 3-4 hours a day in winter. In summer, they generally leave the den within an hour after sunset and return 1-4 hours before sunrise. However, during winter, some diurnal activity may be observed. Aardwolves typically become active up to an hour before sunset and return to their dens after 3—4 hours of foraging. A higher proportion of their time is spent feeding in winter than in summer, and a relatively large portion of the activity of both males and females in winter (12:6%) consists of breeding activities (e.g. courtship/copulation). Inactive hours during the day are spent in underground dens, which provide refuge from temperature extremes and predators, particularly Black-backed Jackals. Dens also function importantly in cub-rearing. Nighttime rest periods are also often spent near or inside dens. A territory may include up to ten different den holes, which are typically spring hare burrows that have been enlarged by Aardwolves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A social unit, which occupies a welldefined territory throughout the year, consists of a male-female pair and their most recent offspring. All natal animals disperse from the territory, usually 1-2 months before birth of the nextlitter. Pair bonds arefairly stable lasting 2-5 years. Males without mates (due to death or abandonment by females) establish pair bonds with adjacent females and may abandon their originalterritories. Territory size ranges from 1-5 km? in East Africa to 3-8 km? in South Africa, and appears to be negatively related to the density of available termite mounds. Territories in the Northern Cape Provinceof South Africagenerally supported 3000 termite mounds with an average of 55,000 termites/mound. Aardwolf density reaches 1 adult/km? in optimal habitat. Territories are maintained primarily by scent marking, which is concentrated along territory boundaries, but direct interactions between neighboring residents also occasionally occur. Both males and females actively defend territorial boundaries. Chasing and fighting, with manes raised, occurs between same-sex individuals defending territories. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the boundary and mutual avoidance is generally practiced along boundary areas. If physical contact occurs both combatants drop to their carpals and bite at each others’ necks. Although territorial behavior is exhibited by males and females,it differs between mating (June andJuly in South Africa) and non-mating seasons. Direct fights between Aardwolves appear restricted to the mating season. Whereas females tend to stay within territory boundaries year round, male behavior undergoes a marked change at the start of the mating season. After an approximately one-month “scouting” period at the beginning of the mating season, when males make frequent extra-territorial movements, yet largely refrain from pasting outside the territory, they begin more aggressive extra-territorial pasting. Their movements outside the territory continue to increase, peaking in frequency about a week before females come into estrus. These excursions are suggested to be advertizements of quality to both males and females in surrounding territories. Males engage in consecutive over-markings by pasting on particular grass stalks; the less aggressive, and apparently less fit, individual will eventually cease pasting, thus “losing” the contest. During pre-estrus females also increase their rate of pasting, primarily along territory boundaries and just outside them, apparently to encourage visits by extra-pair males. Visiting males during this period frequently “flirt” with resident females and chase or fight males that they encounter. “Flirting” typically involves the male running toward the female, then veering off and prancing past with his tail raised. However, by the time the female is in estrus (lasting 1-3 days) she is typically left with only her resident male, and potentially an aggressive neighbor. As in Striped Hyenas, there have been cases in which two maleAardwolves shared a territory with a female, both males mating with her and both guarding her cubs, but this appears to be exceptional and rare. Aardwolves are remarkably antisocial outside the breeding season. Members of resident mixed-sex pairs feed alone and typically ignore each other when they meet. Unlike the other three hyaenids, Aardwolves usually do not engage in greeting ceremonies between familiar individuals, with the exception of an occasional muzzle to muzzle sniff between mother and cub. In South Africa, nightly distance traveled by foraging females ranged from 1-5 to 9-1 km (average 4-2 km). Summer travel distances ranged from 8-12 km per night, whereas winter distances were highly variable (from less than 3 kmto more than 24 km) depending on whether males were conducting extra-territorial mating forays. Travel speed is 2-3 km/h when not feeding, and about I km/h when feeding intensely. Aardwolves return to underground burrows during the day. There are typically 5-6 dens per territory. Dens are used for only 1-2 months at a time, and mates rarely use the same dens concurrently. Because Aardwolves rarely interact, the primary form of communication is olfactory. Like the other three hyaenids, the Aardwolf engages in scent marking behavior called pasting, during which a strong-smelling, yellowish-orange secretion (which quickly turns black) is deposited onto grass stalks from an extruded anal gland, located just above the anus. In addition to marking frequently at dens and latrines, which generally are not associated with territory boundaries, Aardwolves appear to use pasting as a means of territory defense. Boundary marking occurs most frequently, and is most concentrated along borders where neighboring Aardwolves maintain territories. Pasting is generally frequent, occurring about twice every 100 mof travel, and about 200 times per night, with males pasting more than females. Based on experiments with translocated scent marks, information conveyed in scent marks appears to include the sex, female reproductive state, and individual identity, at least in the case of resident neighbors, partners, and self-recognition. Outside the mating season, pasting outside territory boundaries is rare if not nonexistent, but this behavior, particularly by males, changes notably during mating periods. Even though direct interactions are rare, Aardwolves possess an impressive visual display, during which the hairs along the mane are erected, resulting in a near doubling of the apparent size of the animal. This is used in intraspecific aggressive interactions involving territory defense and in interspecific defensive interactions. Although generally a silent species, the most comprehensive analysis of the vocal repertoire of Protelesidentified nine distinct sound types: “purr”, whine, jaw click, lip smack, growl, snarl, bark, squeal, and a whizzing sound which was only documented in one individual. Agonistic vocalizations are relatively diverse and increase in intensity in the following order: lip smack/jaw click, growl, snarl, bark. Squeals are heard only in cubs and appear to represent begging to mothers. The whineelicits a variety of reactions depending on the addressee and addressor, but likely functions as an appeasing or reassuring sound. As in striped and brown hyenas, Aardwolves lack a loud, longdistance vocalization like the whoop of spotted hyenas.On following pages: 2. Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta); 3. Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena); 4. Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea).Breeding.Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.Status and Conservation.Listed as a species of Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Due to their shy and nocturnal nature, Aardwolves are probably more common than usually believed. That notwithstanding, Aardwolves in southern Africa generally occur outside of protected areas, and the primary threat in these locationsis indirect poisoning aimed at locust outbreaks. Poisoning events can result in the death of up to half the local adult population and all the cubs. Within protected areas, the most important mortality sources are severe drought and predation on cubs by Black-backed Jackals. Human-caused mortality also occurs as a result of direct persecution from farmers suspecting Aardwolf involvement in lamb predation, harvesting of Aardwolves as a food source, and indirect persecution during organized hunting for jackals. Aardwolves may also be killed by vehicles during the night. However, all these other mortality sources appear insignificant relative to poisoning, jackal predation and drought. Across its range, habitat fragmentation and isolation may be the most serious threat to long-term population viability; however,its dependence on habitat preferred for use in livestock grazing makes extensive habitat loss improbable.Bibliography.Anderson, M.D. & Richardson (2005), Anderson, M.D. et al. (1992), Cooper & Skinner (1979), Kingdon (1971-1982), Koehler & Richardson (1990), Koepfli et al. (2006), Kruuk & Sands (1972), Mills & Hofer (1998), Peters & Sliwa (1997), Richardson (1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1991), Richardson & Bearder (1984), Richardson & Levitan (1994), Skinner & VanAarde (1986), Sliwa & Richardson (1998), Smithers (1983), Sparrman (1783), VanJaarsveld (1993), VanJaarsveld et al. (1995), Werdelin & Solounias (1991), Williams et al. (1997).","taxonomy":"Viverra cristata Sparrman, 1783, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Although previously placed in its own family (Protelidae), it is now considered a member of the family Hyaenidae. The Aardwolf belongs to the subfamily Protelinae, of which it is the only extant member. They occur in two distinct populations separated by about 1500 km. However, studies ofthe extent of genetic and morphological differences between these groups have not been conducted. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Protele @fr | Erdwolf @de | Proteles @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Sparrman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1783","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyaenidae","interpretedGenus":"Proteles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"252","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cristata","name":"Proteles cristata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. c. cristata Sparrman, 1783— E African coast (S Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, NE Ugandato C Tanzania). P. c. septentrionalis Rothschild, 1902— most of S Africa (S Angola, S Zambia, SW Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa).","bibliography":"Anderson, M.D. & Richardson (2005) | Anderson, M.D. et al. (1992) | Cooper & Skinner (1979) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Koehler & Richardson (1990) | Koepfli et al. (2006) | Kruuk & Sands (1972) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Peters & Sliwa (1997) | Richardson (1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1991) | Richardson & Bearder (1984) | Richardson & Levitan (1994) | Skinner & VanAarde (1986) | Sliwa & Richardson (1998) | Smithers (1983) | Sparrman (1783) | VanJaarsveld (1993) | VanJaarsveld et al. (1995) | Werdelin & Solounias (1991) | Williams et al. (1997)","foodAndFeeding":"Aardwolves are solitary foragers and feed almost exclusively on Trinervitermes termites, usually on one species in each particular region: 1. bettionianus in East Africa, 1. rhodesiensis in Zimbabweand Botswanaand 71. trinervoides in South Africa. These termites are largely avoided by other termite-eating mammals due to the noxious terpenoid chemicals secreted by the soldier termites, to which the Aardwolfis uniquely tolerant. In addition to the lack of competition, Aardwolf preference for this termite genus is likely due to the fact that these termites regularly congregate at night in large aboveground foraging parties. The termites are licked directly from the soil surface, and are easily obtainable in large quantities. Also, unlike true harvester termites, Trinervitermes forage throughout the year, making them a dependable year-round food source. Due to the small size of Trinervitermes and the wide dispersion of colonies, female Aardwolves must forage for at least six hours a night, during which up to 300,000 termites/night (1-2 kg) are consumed. Foraging Aardwolves travel approximately 1 km/h, with their ears cocked forward and head bentslightly down, following an erratic zig-zag route. Because they often approach termite colonies from downwind, and approach with directed movement before termites could be seen,it appears that termite foraging parties are detected at least partially by smell. However, the hearing of the Aardwolf is particularly acute and is assumed to play a role in colony detection. The average time spent foraging at individual termite patches was 20-28 seconds in East Africa, but in drier Namibian grassland, Aardwolves spent an average of 1-8 and 9-2 minutes at each patch in consecutive years of observation. In South Africa, a newly weaned four-month old cub spent an average of only eleven seconds at each patch, and juveniles frequently are seen vomiting after feeding on Trinervitermes, indicating that tolerance to the chemical secretions of Trinervitermes soldiers increases with age. Even adult Aardwolves maintain some aversion to the terpene chemicals, because they will avoid feeding on mounds under repair, where typically only dense concentrations of soldiers are found at the surface. Other surface-foraging termites, particularly Hodotermes and Microhodotermes (South Africa), Odontotermes and Macrotermes species (East Africa), make up a larger proportion of the diet when Trinervitermes are seasonally uncommon or unavailable, as during winter (May-August) in South Africa, and during the rainy season in East Africa. However, these species forage aboveground in much smaller parties (10-20 individuals vs. 4000 inTrinervitermes) and the reduced winter availability of Trinervitermes in South Africaresults in a significant seasonal reduction in Aardwolf body weight and field metabolic rate. Aardwolves here were found to consume only one-sixth the number of termites in winter that they did in summer. Winter is also the highest period of mortality in Aardwolf cubs, which are 7-10 months old at this time, further indicating that this is a period ofsignificant energetic stress. Other termites found in fecal samples have included Odontotermes, Macrotermes, and Lepidotermes that are not surface-foraging species and therefore not important components of the Aardwolf diet. Occasional additional food items include ants and Coleopterans, yet the Aardwolf appears to be surprisingly inefficient at foraging on non-termite insects. Due to the high degree of specialization of its tongue for licking small arthropods, and the almost complete degeneration ofits cheek teeth, it is thought that they are unable to handle larger food items, making the species highly dependent on Trinervitermes. This dependence is supported by the absence of Aardwolves from Zambiaand central and western Africa, where surface foraging Trinervitermes are either uncommon or available only a small part of the year. Aardwolves defecate in middens (also called latrines). The first defecation occurs when they exit the burrow in the evening and is typically very large, weighing up to 1 kg. Defecations are typically covered with soil. This practice of concentrating and burying their faeces, which retains some of the terpene smell of the soldier termites, has been suggested as a way of reducing the probability that an Aardwolf will mistake its own faeces for a termite colony when it is foraging. Up to 20 middens may be located in a territory.","breeding":"Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.","activityPatterns":"Predominantly nocturnal, in South AfricaAardwolves are generally active for 8-9 hours a day in summer but only 3-4 hours a day in winter. In summer, they generally leave the den within an hour after sunset and return 1-4 hours before sunrise. However, during winter, some diurnal activity may be observed. Aardwolves typically become active up to an hour before sunset and return to their dens after 3—4 hours of foraging. A higher proportion of their time is spent feeding in winter than in summer, and a relatively large portion of the activity of both males and females in winter (12:6%) consists of breeding activities (e.g. courtship/copulation). Inactive hours during the day are spent in underground dens, which provide refuge from temperature extremes and predators, particularly Black-backed Jackals. Dens also function importantly in cub-rearing. Nighttime rest periods are also often spent near or inside dens. A territory may include up to ten different den holes, which are typically spring hare burrows that have been enlarged by Aardwolves.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A social unit, which occupies a welldefined territory throughout the year, consists of a male-female pair and their most recent offspring. All natal animals disperse from the territory, usually 1-2 months before birth of the nextlitter. Pair bonds arefairly stable lasting 2-5 years. Males without mates (due to death or abandonment by females) establish pair bonds with adjacent females and may abandon their originalterritories. Territory size ranges from 1-5 km? in East Africa to 3-8 km? in South Africa, and appears to be negatively related to the density of available termite mounds. Territories in the Northern Cape Provinceof South Africagenerally supported 3000 termite mounds with an average of 55,000 termites/mound. Aardwolf density reaches 1 adult/km? in optimal habitat. Territories are maintained primarily by scent marking, which is concentrated along territory boundaries, but direct interactions between neighboring residents also occasionally occur. Both males and females actively defend territorial boundaries. Chasing and fighting, with manes raised, occurs between same-sex individuals defending territories. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the boundary and mutual avoidance is generally practiced along boundary areas. If physical contact occurs both combatants drop to their carpals and bite at each others’ necks. Although territorial behavior is exhibited by males and females,it differs between mating (June andJuly in South Africa) and non-mating seasons. Direct fights between Aardwolves appear restricted to the mating season. Whereas females tend to stay within territory boundaries year round, male behavior undergoes a marked change at the start of the mating season. After an approximately one-month “scouting” period at the beginning of the mating season, when males make frequent extra-territorial movements, yet largely refrain from pasting outside the territory, they begin more aggressive extra-territorial pasting. Their movements outside the territory continue to increase, peaking in frequency about a week before females come into estrus. These excursions are suggested to be advertizements of quality to both males and females in surrounding territories. Males engage in consecutive over-markings by pasting on particular grass stalks; the less aggressive, and apparently less fit, individual will eventually cease pasting, thus “losing” the contest. During pre-estrus females also increase their rate of pasting, primarily along territory boundaries and just outside them, apparently to encourage visits by extra-pair males. Visiting males during this period frequently “flirt” with resident females and chase or fight males that they encounter. “Flirting” typically involves the male running toward the female, then veering off and prancing past with his tail raised. However, by the time the female is in estrus (lasting 1-3 days) she is typically left with only her resident male, and potentially an aggressive neighbor. As in Striped Hyenas, there have been cases in which two maleAardwolves shared a territory with a female, both males mating with her and both guarding her cubs, but this appears to be exceptional and rare. Aardwolves are remarkably antisocial outside the breeding season. Members of resident mixed-sex pairs feed alone and typically ignore each other when they meet. Unlike the other three hyaenids, Aardwolves usually do not engage in greeting ceremonies between familiar individuals, with the exception of an occasional muzzle to muzzle sniff between mother and cub. In South Africa, nightly distance traveled by foraging females ranged from 1-5 to 9-1 km (average 4-2 km). Summer travel distances ranged from 8-12 km per night, whereas winter distances were highly variable (from less than 3 kmto more than 24 km) depending on whether males were conducting extra-territorial mating forays. Travel speed is 2-3 km/h when not feeding, and about I km/h when feeding intensely. Aardwolves return to underground burrows during the day. There are typically 5-6 dens per territory. Dens are used for only 1-2 months at a time, and mates rarely use the same dens concurrently. Because Aardwolves rarely interact, the primary form of communication is olfactory. Like the other three hyaenids, the Aardwolf engages in scent marking behavior called pasting, during which a strong-smelling, yellowish-orange secretion (which quickly turns black) is deposited onto grass stalks from an extruded anal gland, located just above the anus. In addition to marking frequently at dens and latrines, which generally are not associated with territory boundaries, Aardwolves appear to use pasting as a means of territory defense. Boundary marking occurs most frequently, and is most concentrated along borders where neighboring Aardwolves maintain territories. Pasting is generally frequent, occurring about twice every 100 mof travel, and about 200 times per night, with males pasting more than females. Based on experiments with translocated scent marks, information conveyed in scent marks appears to include the sex, female reproductive state, and individual identity, at least in the case of resident neighbors, partners, and self-recognition. Outside the mating season, pasting outside territory boundaries is rare if not nonexistent, but this behavior, particularly by males, changes notably during mating periods. Even though direct interactions are rare, Aardwolves possess an impressive visual display, during which the hairs along the mane are erected, resulting in a near doubling of the apparent size of the animal. This is used in intraspecific aggressive interactions involving territory defense and in interspecific defensive interactions. Although generally a silent species, the most comprehensive analysis of the vocal repertoire of Protelesidentified nine distinct sound types: “purr”, whine, jaw click, lip smack, growl, snarl, bark, squeal, and a whizzing sound which was only documented in one individual. Agonistic vocalizations are relatively diverse and increase in intensity in the following order: lip smack/jaw click, growl, snarl, bark. Squeals are heard only in cubs and appear to represent begging to mothers. The whineelicits a variety of reactions depending on the addressee and addressor, but likely functions as an appeasing or reassuring sound. As in striped and brown hyenas, Aardwolves lack a loud, longdistance vocalization like the whoop of spotted hyenas.On following pages: 2. Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta); 3. Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena); 4. Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea).Breeding.Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.","statusAndConservation":"Listed as a species of Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Due to their shy and nocturnal nature, Aardwolves are probably more common than usually believed. That notwithstanding, Aardwolves in southern Africa generally occur outside of protected areas, and the primary threat in these locationsis indirect poisoning aimed at locust outbreaks. Poisoning events can result in the death of up to half the local adult population and all the cubs. Within protected areas, the most important mortality sources are severe drought and predation on cubs by Black-backed Jackals. Human-caused mortality also occurs as a result of direct persecution from farmers suspecting Aardwolf involvement in lamb predation, harvesting of Aardwolves as a food source, and indirect persecution during organized hunting for jackals. Aardwolves may also be killed by vehicles during the night. However, all these other mortality sources appear insignificant relative to poisoning, jackal predation and drought. Across its range, habitat fragmentation and isolation may be the most serious threat to long-term population viability; however,its dependence on habitat preferred for use in livestock grazing makes extensive habitat loss improbable.","descriptiveNotes":"By far the smallest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 55-80 cm, tail 20-30 cm, height at shoulder 45-50 cm; weight (adult) 8-12 kg with seasonal variation, and reported as high as 14 kg. No sexual size dimorphism. Superficially similar in appearance to the Striped Hyena, with dark vertical stripes on a buff, yellowish-white or rufous body, and irregular horizontal stripes on the legs. However, the Striped Hyena is more than twice as large with less regular striping. The Aardwolf’s coat is about 2-5 cm long, with longer hairs along the mane and in the bushy tail. The neck is long and the throat is a pale gray-white. The legs are long and slender and the striping terminates in black at the feet. As in the Striped and Brown Hyena, the Aardwolf has long, pointed ears and a long erectile mane extending the length ofits body. Like the other hyaenids, Proteleshas a sloping back with the forelegs longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. Females have two pairs of teats. Uniquely among the hyaenids, Profeles has a number of adaptations for feeding exclusively on termites, including a long, spatulate tongue with large and varied papillae, and a large submaxillary gland which produces copious amounts of sticky saliva. Very small peg-like cheek teeth are widely spaced along thejaw margins, yet large canines have been retained for use in territorial disputes with other Aardwolves and defense againstjackals. Their skulls also feature a relatively broad, nearly parallel-sided palate, and extraordinarily large tympanic bulla.","habitat":"Aardwolves are primarily found on open, grassy plains or in bush country, but can live in a range of habitats with rainfall between 100-800 mm. They are most common where rainfall is 100-600 mm. They do not occur in forests or pure desert and are independent of drinking water. The northern subspecies occurs in grasslands and tree savannas of the Somali-Masai Arid Zone and the southern subspecies in the Southern Savanna and South-westArid Zone."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEBFF8B2AA6F458FAD2C3D3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928788FFEBFF8B2AA6F458FAD2C3D3","docName":"hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"252","verbatimText":"1.AardwolfProteles cristataFrench:Protele/ German:Erdwolf/ Spanish:ProtelesTaxonomy.Viverra cristata Sparrman, 1783, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Although previously placed in its own family (Protelidae), it is now considered a member of the family Hyaenidae. The Aardwolf belongs to the subfamily Protelinae, of which it is the only extant member. They occur in two distinct populations separated by about 1500 km. However, studies ofthe extent of genetic and morphological differences between these groups have not been conducted. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. c. cristata Sparrman, 1783— E African coast (S Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, NE Ugandato C Tanzania). P. c. septentrionalis Rothschild, 1902— most of S Africa (S Angola, S Zambia, SW Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa).Descriptive notes.By far the smallest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 55-80 cm, tail 20-30 cm, height at shoulder 45-50 cm; weight (adult) 8-12 kg with seasonal variation, and reported as high as 14 kg. No sexual size dimorphism. Superficially similar in appearance to the Striped Hyena, with dark vertical stripes on a buff, yellowish-white or rufous body, and irregular horizontal stripes on the legs. However, the Striped Hyena is more than twice as large with less regular striping. The Aardwolf’s coat is about 2-5 cm long, with longer hairs along the mane and in the bushy tail. The neck is long and the throat is a pale gray-white. The legs are long and slender and the striping terminates in black at the feet. As in the Striped and Brown Hyena, the Aardwolf has long, pointed ears and a long erectile mane extending the length ofits body. Like the other hyaenids, Proteleshas a sloping back with the forelegs longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. Females have two pairs of teats. Uniquely among the hyaenids, Profeles has a number of adaptations for feeding exclusively on termites, including a long, spatulate tongue with large and varied papillae, and a large submaxillary gland which produces copious amounts of sticky saliva. Very small peg-like cheek teeth are widely spaced along thejaw margins, yet large canines have been retained for use in territorial disputes with other Aardwolves and defense againstjackals. Their skulls also feature a relatively broad, nearly parallel-sided palate, and extraordinarily large tympanic bulla.Habitat.Aardwolves are primarily found on open, grassy plains or in bush country, but can live in a range of habitats with rainfall between 100-800 mm. They are most common where rainfall is 100-600 mm. They do not occur in forests or pure desert and are independent of drinking water. The northern subspecies occurs in grasslands and tree savannas of the Somali-Masai Arid Zone and the southern subspecies in the Southern Savanna and South-westArid Zone.Food and Feeding.Aardwolves are solitary foragers and feed almost exclusively on Trinervitermes termites, usually on one species in each particular region: 1. bettionianus in East Africa, 1. rhodesiensis in Zimbabweand Botswanaand 71. trinervoides in South Africa. These termites are largely avoided by other termite-eating mammals due to the noxious terpenoid chemicals secreted by the soldier termites, to which the Aardwolfis uniquely tolerant. In addition to the lack of competition, Aardwolf preference for this termite genus is likely due to the fact that these termites regularly congregate at night in large aboveground foraging parties. The termites are licked directly from the soil surface, and are easily obtainable in large quantities. Also, unlike true harvester termites, Trinervitermes forage throughout the year, making them a dependable year-round food source. Due to the small size of Trinervitermes and the wide dispersion of colonies, female Aardwolves must forage for at least six hours a night, during which up to 300,000 termites/night (1-2 kg) are consumed. Foraging Aardwolves travel approximately 1 km/h, with their ears cocked forward and head bentslightly down, following an erratic zig-zag route. Because they often approach termite colonies from downwind, and approach with directed movement before termites could be seen,it appears that termite foraging parties are detected at least partially by smell. However, the hearing of the Aardwolf is particularly acute and is assumed to play a role in colony detection. The average time spent foraging at individual termite patches was 20-28 seconds in East Africa, but in drier Namibian grassland, Aardwolves spent an average of 1-8 and 9-2 minutes at each patch in consecutive years of observation. In South Africa, a newly weaned four-month old cub spent an average of only eleven seconds at each patch, and juveniles frequently are seen vomiting after feeding on Trinervitermes, indicating that tolerance to the chemical secretions of Trinervitermes soldiers increases with age. Even adult Aardwolves maintain some aversion to the terpene chemicals, because they will avoid feeding on mounds under repair, where typically only dense concentrations of soldiers are found at the surface. Other surface-foraging termites, particularly Hodotermes and Microhodotermes (South Africa), Odontotermes and Macrotermes species (East Africa), make up a larger proportion of the diet when Trinervitermes are seasonally uncommon or unavailable, as during winter (May-August) in South Africa, and during the rainy season in East Africa. However, these species forage aboveground in much smaller parties (10-20 individuals vs. 4000 inTrinervitermes) and the reduced winter availability of Trinervitermes in South Africaresults in a significant seasonal reduction in Aardwolf body weight and field metabolic rate. Aardwolves here were found to consume only one-sixth the number of termites in winter that they did in summer. Winter is also the highest period of mortality in Aardwolf cubs, which are 7-10 months old at this time, further indicating that this is a period ofsignificant energetic stress. Other termites found in fecal samples have included Odontotermes, Macrotermes, and Lepidotermes that are not surface-foraging species and therefore not important components of the Aardwolf diet. Occasional additional food items include ants and Coleopterans, yet the Aardwolf appears to be surprisingly inefficient at foraging on non-termite insects. Due to the high degree of specialization of its tongue for licking small arthropods, and the almost complete degeneration ofits cheek teeth, it is thought that they are unable to handle larger food items, making the species highly dependent on Trinervitermes. This dependence is supported by the absence of Aardwolves from Zambiaand central and western Africa, where surface foraging Trinervitermes are either uncommon or available only a small part of the year. Aardwolves defecate in middens (also called latrines). The first defecation occurs when they exit the burrow in the evening and is typically very large, weighing up to 1 kg. Defecations are typically covered with soil. This practice of concentrating and burying their faeces, which retains some of the terpene smell of the soldier termites, has been suggested as a way of reducing the probability that an Aardwolf will mistake its own faeces for a termite colony when it is foraging. Up to 20 middens may be located in a territory.Activity patterns.Predominantly nocturnal, in South AfricaAardwolves are generally active for 8-9 hours a day in summer but only 3-4 hours a day in winter. In summer, they generally leave the den within an hour after sunset and return 1-4 hours before sunrise. However, during winter, some diurnal activity may be observed. Aardwolves typically become active up to an hour before sunset and return to their dens after 3—4 hours of foraging. A higher proportion of their time is spent feeding in winter than in summer, and a relatively large portion of the activity of both males and females in winter (12:6%) consists of breeding activities (e.g. courtship/copulation). Inactive hours during the day are spent in underground dens, which provide refuge from temperature extremes and predators, particularly Black-backed Jackals. Dens also function importantly in cub-rearing. Nighttime rest periods are also often spent near or inside dens. A territory may include up to ten different den holes, which are typically spring hare burrows that have been enlarged by Aardwolves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A social unit, which occupies a welldefined territory throughout the year, consists of a male-female pair and their most recent offspring. All natal animals disperse from the territory, usually 1-2 months before birth of the nextlitter. Pair bonds arefairly stable lasting 2-5 years. Males without mates (due to death or abandonment by females) establish pair bonds with adjacent females and may abandon their originalterritories. Territory size ranges from 1-5 km? in East Africa to 3-8 km? in South Africa, and appears to be negatively related to the density of available termite mounds. Territories in the Northern Cape Provinceof South Africagenerally supported 3000 termite mounds with an average of 55,000 termites/mound. Aardwolf density reaches 1 adult/km? in optimal habitat. Territories are maintained primarily by scent marking, which is concentrated along territory boundaries, but direct interactions between neighboring residents also occasionally occur. Both males and females actively defend territorial boundaries. Chasing and fighting, with manes raised, occurs between same-sex individuals defending territories. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the boundary and mutual avoidance is generally practiced along boundary areas. If physical contact occurs both combatants drop to their carpals and bite at each others’ necks. Although territorial behavior is exhibited by males and females,it differs between mating (June andJuly in South Africa) and non-mating seasons. Direct fights between Aardwolves appear restricted to the mating season. Whereas females tend to stay within territory boundaries year round, male behavior undergoes a marked change at the start of the mating season. After an approximately one-month “scouting” period at the beginning of the mating season, when males make frequent extra-territorial movements, yet largely refrain from pasting outside the territory, they begin more aggressive extra-territorial pasting. Their movements outside the territory continue to increase, peaking in frequency about a week before females come into estrus. These excursions are suggested to be advertizements of quality to both males and females in surrounding territories. Males engage in consecutive over-markings by pasting on particular grass stalks; the less aggressive, and apparently less fit, individual will eventually cease pasting, thus “losing” the contest. During pre-estrus females also increase their rate of pasting, primarily along territory boundaries and just outside them, apparently to encourage visits by extra-pair males. Visiting males during this period frequently “flirt” with resident females and chase or fight males that they encounter. “Flirting” typically involves the male running toward the female, then veering off and prancing past with his tail raised. However, by the time the female is in estrus (lasting 1-3 days) she is typically left with only her resident male, and potentially an aggressive neighbor. As in Striped Hyenas, there have been cases in which two maleAardwolves shared a territory with a female, both males mating with her and both guarding her cubs, but this appears to be exceptional and rare. Aardwolves are remarkably antisocial outside the breeding season. Members of resident mixed-sex pairs feed alone and typically ignore each other when they meet. Unlike the other three hyaenids, Aardwolves usually do not engage in greeting ceremonies between familiar individuals, with the exception of an occasional muzzle to muzzle sniff between mother and cub. In South Africa, nightly distance traveled by foraging females ranged from 1-5 to 9-1 km (average 4-2 km). Summer travel distances ranged from 8-12 km per night, whereas winter distances were highly variable (from less than 3 kmto more than 24 km) depending on whether males were conducting extra-territorial mating forays. Travel speed is 2-3 km/h when not feeding, and about I km/h when feeding intensely. Aardwolves return to underground burrows during the day. There are typically 5-6 dens per territory. Dens are used for only 1-2 months at a time, and mates rarely use the same dens concurrently. Because Aardwolves rarely interact, the primary form of communication is olfactory. Like the other three hyaenids, the Aardwolf engages in scent marking behavior called pasting, during which a strong-smelling, yellowish-orange secretion (which quickly turns black) is deposited onto grass stalks from an extruded anal gland, located just above the anus. In addition to marking frequently at dens and latrines, which generally are not associated with territory boundaries, Aardwolves appear to use pasting as a means of territory defense. Boundary marking occurs most frequently, and is most concentrated along borders where neighboring Aardwolves maintain territories. Pasting is generally frequent, occurring about twice every 100 mof travel, and about 200 times per night, with males pasting more than females. Based on experiments with translocated scent marks, information conveyed in scent marks appears to include the sex, female reproductive state, and individual identity, at least in the case of resident neighbors, partners, and self-recognition. Outside the mating season, pasting outside territory boundaries is rare if not nonexistent, but this behavior, particularly by males, changes notably during mating periods. Even though direct interactions are rare, Aardwolves possess an impressive visual display, during which the hairs along the mane are erected, resulting in a near doubling of the apparent size of the animal. This is used in intraspecific aggressive interactions involving territory defense and in interspecific defensive interactions. Although generally a silent species, the most comprehensive analysis of the vocal repertoire of Protelesidentified nine distinct sound types: “purr”, whine, jaw click, lip smack, growl, snarl, bark, squeal, and a whizzing sound which was only documented in one individual. Agonistic vocalizations are relatively diverse and increase in intensity in the following order: lip smack/jaw click, growl, snarl, bark. Squeals are heard only in cubs and appear to represent begging to mothers. The whineelicits a variety of reactions depending on the addressee and addressor, but likely functions as an appeasing or reassuring sound. As in striped and brown hyenas, Aardwolves lack a loud, longdistance vocalization like the whoop of spotted hyenas.On following pages: 2. Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta); 3. Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena); 4. Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea).Breeding.Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.Status and Conservation.Listed as a species of Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Due to their shy and nocturnal nature, Aardwolves are probably more common than usually believed. That notwithstanding, Aardwolves in southern Africa generally occur outside of protected areas, and the primary threat in these locationsis indirect poisoning aimed at locust outbreaks. Poisoning events can result in the death of up to half the local adult population and all the cubs. Within protected areas, the most important mortality sources are severe drought and predation on cubs by Black-backed Jackals. Human-caused mortality also occurs as a result of direct persecution from farmers suspecting Aardwolf involvement in lamb predation, harvesting of Aardwolves as a food source, and indirect persecution during organized hunting for jackals. Aardwolves may also be killed by vehicles during the night. However, all these other mortality sources appear insignificant relative to poisoning, jackal predation and drought. Across its range, habitat fragmentation and isolation may be the most serious threat to long-term population viability; however,its dependence on habitat preferred for use in livestock grazing makes extensive habitat loss improbable.Bibliography.Anderson, M.D. & Richardson (2005), Anderson, M.D. et al. (1992), Cooper & Skinner (1979), Kingdon (1971-1982), Koehler & Richardson (1990), Koepfli et al. (2006), Kruuk & Sands (1972), Mills & Hofer (1998), Peters & Sliwa (1997), Richardson (1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1991), Richardson & Bearder (1984), Richardson & Levitan (1994), Skinner & VanAarde (1986), Sliwa & Richardson (1998), Smithers (1983), Sparrman (1783), VanJaarsveld (1993), VanJaarsveld et al. (1995), Werdelin & Solounias (1991), Williams et al. (1997).","taxonomy":"Viverra cristata Sparrman, 1783, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Although previously placed in its own family (Protelidae), it is now considered a member of the family Hyaenidae. The Aardwolf belongs to the subfamily Protelinae, of which it is the only extant member. They occur in two distinct populations separated by about 1500 km. However, studies ofthe extent of genetic and morphological differences between these groups have not been conducted. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Protele @fr | Erdwolf @de | Proteles @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Sparrman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1783","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyaenidae","interpretedGenus":"Proteles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"252","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cristata","name":"Proteles cristata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. c. cristata Sparrman, 1783— E African coast (S Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, NE Ugandato C Tanzania). P. c. septentrionalis Rothschild, 1902— most of S Africa (S Angola, S Zambia, SW Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6350108/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson, M.D. & Richardson (2005) | Anderson, M.D. et al. (1992) | Cooper & Skinner (1979) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Koehler & Richardson (1990) | Koepfli et al. (2006) | Kruuk & Sands (1972) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Peters & Sliwa (1997) | Richardson (1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1991) | Richardson & Bearder (1984) | Richardson & Levitan (1994) | Skinner & VanAarde (1986) | Sliwa & Richardson (1998) | Smithers (1983) | Sparrman (1783) | VanJaarsveld (1993) | VanJaarsveld et al. (1995) | Werdelin & Solounias (1991) | Williams et al. (1997)","foodAndFeeding":"Aardwolves are solitary foragers and feed almost exclusively on Trinervitermes termites, usually on one species in each particular region: 1. bettionianus in East Africa, 1. rhodesiensis in Zimbabweand Botswanaand 71. trinervoides in South Africa. These termites are largely avoided by other termite-eating mammals due to the noxious terpenoid chemicals secreted by the soldier termites, to which the Aardwolfis uniquely tolerant. In addition to the lack of competition, Aardwolf preference for this termite genus is likely due to the fact that these termites regularly congregate at night in large aboveground foraging parties. The termites are licked directly from the soil surface, and are easily obtainable in large quantities. Also, unlike true harvester termites, Trinervitermes forage throughout the year, making them a dependable year-round food source. Due to the small size of Trinervitermes and the wide dispersion of colonies, female Aardwolves must forage for at least six hours a night, during which up to 300,000 termites/night (1-2 kg) are consumed. Foraging Aardwolves travel approximately 1 km/h, with their ears cocked forward and head bentslightly down, following an erratic zig-zag route. Because they often approach termite colonies from downwind, and approach with directed movement before termites could be seen,it appears that termite foraging parties are detected at least partially by smell. However, the hearing of the Aardwolf is particularly acute and is assumed to play a role in colony detection. The average time spent foraging at individual termite patches was 20-28 seconds in East Africa, but in drier Namibian grassland, Aardwolves spent an average of 1-8 and 9-2 minutes at each patch in consecutive years of observation. In South Africa, a newly weaned four-month old cub spent an average of only eleven seconds at each patch, and juveniles frequently are seen vomiting after feeding on Trinervitermes, indicating that tolerance to the chemical secretions of Trinervitermes soldiers increases with age. Even adult Aardwolves maintain some aversion to the terpene chemicals, because they will avoid feeding on mounds under repair, where typically only dense concentrations of soldiers are found at the surface. Other surface-foraging termites, particularly Hodotermes and Microhodotermes (South Africa), Odontotermes and Macrotermes species (East Africa), make up a larger proportion of the diet when Trinervitermes are seasonally uncommon or unavailable, as during winter (May-August) in South Africa, and during the rainy season in East Africa. However, these species forage aboveground in much smaller parties (10-20 individuals vs. 4000 inTrinervitermes) and the reduced winter availability of Trinervitermes in South Africaresults in a significant seasonal reduction in Aardwolf body weight and field metabolic rate. Aardwolves here were found to consume only one-sixth the number of termites in winter that they did in summer. Winter is also the highest period of mortality in Aardwolf cubs, which are 7-10 months old at this time, further indicating that this is a period ofsignificant energetic stress. Other termites found in fecal samples have included Odontotermes, Macrotermes, and Lepidotermes that are not surface-foraging species and therefore not important components of the Aardwolf diet. Occasional additional food items include ants and Coleopterans, yet the Aardwolf appears to be surprisingly inefficient at foraging on non-termite insects. Due to the high degree of specialization of its tongue for licking small arthropods, and the almost complete degeneration ofits cheek teeth, it is thought that they are unable to handle larger food items, making the species highly dependent on Trinervitermes. This dependence is supported by the absence of Aardwolves from Zambiaand central and western Africa, where surface foraging Trinervitermes are either uncommon or available only a small part of the year. Aardwolves defecate in middens (also called latrines). The first defecation occurs when they exit the burrow in the evening and is typically very large, weighing up to 1 kg. Defecations are typically covered with soil. This practice of concentrating and burying their faeces, which retains some of the terpene smell of the soldier termites, has been suggested as a way of reducing the probability that an Aardwolf will mistake its own faeces for a termite colony when it is foraging. Up to 20 middens may be located in a territory.","breeding":"Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.","activityPatterns":"Predominantly nocturnal, in South AfricaAardwolves are generally active for 8-9 hours a day in summer but only 3-4 hours a day in winter. In summer, they generally leave the den within an hour after sunset and return 1-4 hours before sunrise. However, during winter, some diurnal activity may be observed. Aardwolves typically become active up to an hour before sunset and return to their dens after 3—4 hours of foraging. A higher proportion of their time is spent feeding in winter than in summer, and a relatively large portion of the activity of both males and females in winter (12:6%) consists of breeding activities (e.g. courtship/copulation). Inactive hours during the day are spent in underground dens, which provide refuge from temperature extremes and predators, particularly Black-backed Jackals. Dens also function importantly in cub-rearing. Nighttime rest periods are also often spent near or inside dens. A territory may include up to ten different den holes, which are typically spring hare burrows that have been enlarged by Aardwolves.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A social unit, which occupies a welldefined territory throughout the year, consists of a male-female pair and their most recent offspring. All natal animals disperse from the territory, usually 1-2 months before birth of the nextlitter. Pair bonds arefairly stable lasting 2-5 years. Males without mates (due to death or abandonment by females) establish pair bonds with adjacent females and may abandon their originalterritories. Territory size ranges from 1-5 km? in East Africa to 3-8 km? in South Africa, and appears to be negatively related to the density of available termite mounds. Territories in the Northern Cape Provinceof South Africagenerally supported 3000 termite mounds with an average of 55,000 termites/mound. Aardwolf density reaches 1 adult/km? in optimal habitat. Territories are maintained primarily by scent marking, which is concentrated along territory boundaries, but direct interactions between neighboring residents also occasionally occur. Both males and females actively defend territorial boundaries. Chasing and fighting, with manes raised, occurs between same-sex individuals defending territories. Intruders encountered within the territory are usually chased to the boundary and mutual avoidance is generally practiced along boundary areas. If physical contact occurs both combatants drop to their carpals and bite at each others’ necks. Although territorial behavior is exhibited by males and females,it differs between mating (June andJuly in South Africa) and non-mating seasons. Direct fights between Aardwolves appear restricted to the mating season. Whereas females tend to stay within territory boundaries year round, male behavior undergoes a marked change at the start of the mating season. After an approximately one-month “scouting” period at the beginning of the mating season, when males make frequent extra-territorial movements, yet largely refrain from pasting outside the territory, they begin more aggressive extra-territorial pasting. Their movements outside the territory continue to increase, peaking in frequency about a week before females come into estrus. These excursions are suggested to be advertizements of quality to both males and females in surrounding territories. Males engage in consecutive over-markings by pasting on particular grass stalks; the less aggressive, and apparently less fit, individual will eventually cease pasting, thus “losing” the contest. During pre-estrus females also increase their rate of pasting, primarily along territory boundaries and just outside them, apparently to encourage visits by extra-pair males. Visiting males during this period frequently “flirt” with resident females and chase or fight males that they encounter. “Flirting” typically involves the male running toward the female, then veering off and prancing past with his tail raised. However, by the time the female is in estrus (lasting 1-3 days) she is typically left with only her resident male, and potentially an aggressive neighbor. As in Striped Hyenas, there have been cases in which two maleAardwolves shared a territory with a female, both males mating with her and both guarding her cubs, but this appears to be exceptional and rare. Aardwolves are remarkably antisocial outside the breeding season. Members of resident mixed-sex pairs feed alone and typically ignore each other when they meet. Unlike the other three hyaenids, Aardwolves usually do not engage in greeting ceremonies between familiar individuals, with the exception of an occasional muzzle to muzzle sniff between mother and cub. In South Africa, nightly distance traveled by foraging females ranged from 1-5 to 9-1 km (average 4-2 km). Summer travel distances ranged from 8-12 km per night, whereas winter distances were highly variable (from less than 3 kmto more than 24 km) depending on whether males were conducting extra-territorial mating forays. Travel speed is 2-3 km/h when not feeding, and about I km/h when feeding intensely. Aardwolves return to underground burrows during the day. There are typically 5-6 dens per territory. Dens are used for only 1-2 months at a time, and mates rarely use the same dens concurrently. Because Aardwolves rarely interact, the primary form of communication is olfactory. Like the other three hyaenids, the Aardwolf engages in scent marking behavior called pasting, during which a strong-smelling, yellowish-orange secretion (which quickly turns black) is deposited onto grass stalks from an extruded anal gland, located just above the anus. In addition to marking frequently at dens and latrines, which generally are not associated with territory boundaries, Aardwolves appear to use pasting as a means of territory defense. Boundary marking occurs most frequently, and is most concentrated along borders where neighboring Aardwolves maintain territories. Pasting is generally frequent, occurring about twice every 100 mof travel, and about 200 times per night, with males pasting more than females. Based on experiments with translocated scent marks, information conveyed in scent marks appears to include the sex, female reproductive state, and individual identity, at least in the case of resident neighbors, partners, and self-recognition. Outside the mating season, pasting outside territory boundaries is rare if not nonexistent, but this behavior, particularly by males, changes notably during mating periods. Even though direct interactions are rare, Aardwolves possess an impressive visual display, during which the hairs along the mane are erected, resulting in a near doubling of the apparent size of the animal. This is used in intraspecific aggressive interactions involving territory defense and in interspecific defensive interactions. Although generally a silent species, the most comprehensive analysis of the vocal repertoire of Protelesidentified nine distinct sound types: “purr”, whine, jaw click, lip smack, growl, snarl, bark, squeal, and a whizzing sound which was only documented in one individual. Agonistic vocalizations are relatively diverse and increase in intensity in the following order: lip smack/jaw click, growl, snarl, bark. Squeals are heard only in cubs and appear to represent begging to mothers. The whineelicits a variety of reactions depending on the addressee and addressor, but likely functions as an appeasing or reassuring sound. As in striped and brown hyenas, Aardwolves lack a loud, longdistance vocalization like the whoop of spotted hyenas.On following pages: 2. Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta); 3. Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena); 4. Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea).Breeding.Monogamous, yet during the mating season extra-pair copulations can be common (40% in South Africa). Strictly seasonal breeding in the Northern Capewhere most mating occurs during the first two weeks ofJuly. Females give birth every year in early October to 1-4 cubs (average of 2-5), after a 90day gestation period. In more northern parts of the range, breeding seasons appear to be less restricted. Estrus lasts 1-3 days but females may cycle again within two weeks if fertilization does not occur. Copulation lasts from 1-4-5 hours during which multiple ejaculations occur. Copulations may be interrupted by extra-pair males and in some cases females copulate with these new males. Cubs are born in a den and rarely emerge above ground during the first month. By three months, cubs have begun making short excursions from the den, usually accompanied by an adult. Weaning occurs around four months, and by this time cubs begin foraging alone within the territory. After weaning, cubs spend little time with their parents, are independent by about seven months, and are excluded from the territory soon after, usually by one year of age. Cubs grow quickly, reaching adult body mass by 3:6 months. Thisis likely an adaptation to maximize survival of cubs through their first winter, when cub mortality is highest. Sexual maturity is reached by 1-8 years. Each resident breeding male guards the female’s cubs during the period of den dependence. This is energetically costly asit typically leaves the males only 2-3 hours of foraging time before sunrise, compared to at least six hours for females. Due to the frequency of extrapair copulations, cuckoldry appears to be an established aspect of the mating system (“overt cuckoldry”), and males are likely to frequently help raise litters of mixed paternity or sired entirely by other males. Currently this appears to be unique among mammals.","statusAndConservation":"Listed as a species of Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Due to their shy and nocturnal nature, Aardwolves are probably more common than usually believed. That notwithstanding, Aardwolves in southern Africa generally occur outside of protected areas, and the primary threat in these locationsis indirect poisoning aimed at locust outbreaks. Poisoning events can result in the death of up to half the local adult population and all the cubs. Within protected areas, the most important mortality sources are severe drought and predation on cubs by Black-backed Jackals. Human-caused mortality also occurs as a result of direct persecution from farmers suspecting Aardwolf involvement in lamb predation, harvesting of Aardwolves as a food source, and indirect persecution during organized hunting for jackals. Aardwolves may also be killed by vehicles during the night. However, all these other mortality sources appear insignificant relative to poisoning, jackal predation and drought. Across its range, habitat fragmentation and isolation may be the most serious threat to long-term population viability; however,its dependence on habitat preferred for use in livestock grazing makes extensive habitat loss improbable.","descriptiveNotes":"By far the smallest of the four hyaenid species. Head-body 55-80 cm, tail 20-30 cm, height at shoulder 45-50 cm; weight (adult) 8-12 kg with seasonal variation, and reported as high as 14 kg. No sexual size dimorphism. Superficially similar in appearance to the Striped Hyena, with dark vertical stripes on a buff, yellowish-white or rufous body, and irregular horizontal stripes on the legs. However, the Striped Hyena is more than twice as large with less regular striping. The Aardwolf’s coat is about 2-5 cm long, with longer hairs along the mane and in the bushy tail. The neck is long and the throat is a pale gray-white. The legs are long and slender and the striping terminates in black at the feet. As in the Striped and Brown Hyena, the Aardwolf has long, pointed ears and a long erectile mane extending the length ofits body. Like the other hyaenids, Proteleshas a sloping back with the forelegs longer than the hindlegs, and a well-developed anal gland used for scent marking. Females have two pairs of teats. Uniquely among the hyaenids, Profeles has a number of adaptations for feeding exclusively on termites, including a long, spatulate tongue with large and varied papillae, and a large submaxillary gland which produces copious amounts of sticky saliva. Very small peg-like cheek teeth are widely spaced along thejaw margins, yet large canines have been retained for use in territorial disputes with other Aardwolves and defense againstjackals. Their skulls also feature a relatively broad, nearly parallel-sided palate, and extraordinarily large tympanic bulla.","habitat":"Aardwolves are primarily found on open, grassy plains or in bush country, but can live in a range of habitats with rainfall between 100-800 mm. They are most common where rainfall is 100-600 mm. They do not occur in forests or pure desert and are independent of drinking water. The northern subspecies occurs in grasslands and tree savannas of the Somali-Masai Arid Zone and the southern subspecies in the Southern Savanna and South-westArid Zone."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEDFF812FA7FBEBF8DECE95.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928788FFEDFF812FA7FBEBF8DECE95","docName":"hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"258","verbatimText":"4.Brown HyenaParahyaena brunneaFrench:Hyene brune/ German:Braune Hyane/ Spanish:Hiena pardaTaxonomy.Hyaena brunnea Thunberg, 1820, South Africa, Western Cape Province, Capeof Good Hope.Formerly classified as Hyaena brunnea, but a recent molecular analysis assigns this species to a separate genus from that of the Striped Hyena. Along with Striped and Spotted Hyenas, the Brown Hyena belongs to the subfamily Hyaeninae. Monotypic.Distribution.Namibia, Botswana, W & S Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, Swaziland, W Lesotho, and South Africa. Records from the SW of Angolaare all before 1970.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-136 cm; average 123 cm(males), 117 cm(females), tail 18.7-26. 5 cm, average height at shoulders 79 cm(males) and 74 cm(females); weight (adult) varies somewhat regionally, ranges from 28 to 47-5 kg and averages about 40 kg. Most studies show some sexual size dimorphism, but it is often minimal, with males slightly heavier and longer than females. Has a typical hyena appearance with front legs longer and more robust than the rear legs, a broad head and short muzzle, thick neck and short tail. Like the Striped Hyena it has large pointed ears and course shaggy fur that is longest along the back and on the tail. The general color is dark brown with lighter tawny hair on the neck and shoulders. The legs are banded with dark horizontalstripes and the front feet are large and well-developed for digging. Like the Spotted and Striped Hyenas, the Brown Hyena possesses the bonecrushing third premolar that is unique to this family. In contrast to Spotted Hyenas, there is no masculinization of the female genitalia in Brown Hyenas. Females have two to six pairs ofteats, but only the two most caudal pairs are functional.Habitat.Brown Hyenas are found in a variety of relatively arid habitats from open desert or semi-desert in the Namib and Kalahari, to dry open scrub and woodland savannah, mopani scrub and tree savannah, as well as the bushveld of the northern Transvaal. They do not need drinking water and inhabit areas where annual rainfall may be even lower than 100 mm, up to about 650 mm.Food and Feeding.These hyenas forage alone at night and do not cooperate in hunting or in feeding, although group members tolerate each other at large food items. Although not competent hunters, Brown Hyenas are extremely efficient scavengers with an omnivorous diet. They are opportunistic feeders on a range of vertebrates, primarily mammals, the vast majority of which are scavenged, often from the kills of other carnivores. Fruits, insects and reptiles can be important supplementary foods when carcasses are rare. In one population 58 different food items were identified from fecal analysis. Brown Hyenas in the southern Kalahari spent 30% of their feeding time eating carrion, 28% on vegetable matter, 4-5% on small mammals, 1-5% on birds’ eggs, and 29% on unknown items. Only 5-8% of food they were seen eating was killed by the hyenas themselves. In the central Kalahari 35-9% ofall observed feeding bouts were on fresh scavenged kills, 33-9% on old carcasses, 16% on their own kills, and 12:5% on vegetative food sources. Brown Hyenas do not depend on standing water. In the central Kalahari, no free water orrain is typically found for eight months of the year. Although they will drink on a daily basis when water is present, much of the water during dry seasons is obtained from Cucurbitaceaefruits such as the tsama melon, gemsbok cucumber, and Hookeri melon, which can compose significant proportions of the diet in these seasons. Brown Hyenas inhabiting the Namibian coast feed almost exclusively on subadult Brown Fur Seals. The majority of these seals are thought to be scavenged, although Brown Hyenas have been seen hunting seal pups. In fact, hunting efficiency on seal pups during the peak pupping season can be as high as 47%, and an average of almost five seals per day may be killed from a single colony. Small rodents and seabirds make up the rest of this unique diet. Elsewhere hunting attempts by Brown Hyenas are opportunistic and directed at small mammals such as Springbok lambs, spring hares, Bat-eared Foxes, and ground nesting birds. The hunting technique of the Brown Hyena is unspecialized, rarely successful (except in the case of Brown Fur Seal pups), and may include a brief lunge at a surprised prey, a prolonged chase of up 1 km, or an attempt to dig up a burrowed animal. The percent of observed hunting attempts that were successful was 4:7% in the southern Kalahari and 13-7% in the central Kalahari. The hyenas generally feed where they find food, but food from larger carcasses is frequently cached nearby in a clump of grass or under a bush. Considerable time is often spent at carcasses removing limbs for this purpose and one animal may remove and cache up to three legs before any competitors arrive. Sites where food is cached are scent-marked and may be re-visited over multiple days. In a remarkable example of food caching in the southern Kalahari, a Brown Hyena arrived at an abandoned ostrich (Struthio camelus) nest with 26 eggs, which are prized food items. The hyena spent four hours carrying 14 eggsdistances of 150-600 m from the nest, some of which it simply dropped in the open. It ate only three eggsduring this period. Brown Hyenas also carry food back to cubs at the den. This provisioning of cubs can result in significant bone accumulations at densites. In the southern Kalahari the average distance moved between significant meals was 7-2 km, and the average nightly distance traveled was 31-1 km. During the dry season, nightly movements were longer and were recorded as high as 54-4 km. During the wet season movements were reduced and ranged from 10-20 km. In Namibia, daily distances traveled ranged from 15-47 km. When foraging, Brown Hyenas move at a pace of about 4 km/h, often walking in a zig-zag pattern, probably to maximize their chance of coming across food items. They use smell to locate much of their food, as evidenced by frequent sniffing and moving upwind toward food sources. Their hearing appears to be acute as well and is likely also used in foraging. The Brown Hyena is subordinate at kills to Spotted Hyenas, Lions and African Wild Dogs, although it appears to dominate Leopards in most situations. While they always dominate Cheetahs, they compete heavily with the much smaller Black-backed Jackal, which is often able to steal scraps from hyenas at carcasses. There is some evidence that, where they are sympatric, Brown Hyenas avoid areas frequented by Spotted Hyenas, potentially to avoid direct aggression and competition. For example, dens in the southern Kalahari were rarely found in the prey-rich riverine habitat where most Spotted Hyena dens occurred. Although their presence at livestock carcasses has resulted in much antagonism toward, and persecution of, Brown Hyenas by livestock owners, predation on livestock by these animals appears to be done by a small number of individuals. However, these hyenas, which typically target cow calves and sheep, can account for a large number of kills. Removal of these problem individuals appears effective at halting stock losses.Activity patterns.Primarily a nocturnal animal, although activity is occasionally observed during the day, particularly on cool, cloudy days during the rainy season. There are typcally two peaks of activity, from 19:30 h to 24:00 h and 2:30 h to 6:00 h, with a rest period in between. Radio-collared adults in the southern Kalahari were active for 42.6% of the 24 h period, and 80.2% of the period between 18:00 h and 06:00 h. In Namibia, three maleswith satellite collars spent an average of 57-1-72-3% of 24 h active. Brown Hyenas typically rest during the day in a hole, or undera large tree or bush.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Approximately 65% of Brown Hyenas in a population are members of small social groups called clans, with the remaining individuals living as nomads. Clan size ranges from 4-14 individuals, including cubs, and clans defend large stable territories. In the southern Kalahari far-ranging nomadic males (8% of the adult population) were the only males observed to breed with clan-living females, yet in the central Kalahari, breeding also occurs with resident immigrant males. In the southern Kalahari territories averaged 308 km? (range: 215-461 km?) with never more than 20% overlap between territories. Brown Hyena density there was calculated to be 1-8 hyenas/ 100 km?®. In the central Kalahari territories averaged 170 km?, but varied greatly with annualrainfall, reaching a maximum of 400 km?. In Namibia, where Brown Hyenas depend almost entirely on Brown Fur Seals along the coast, territories of two clans in one study were 31-9 km? and 220 km? In another study the home ranges of three malesranged from 420-1460 km? with the largest home range being an inland location. Density in this latter Namibian study ranged from 1-0-2-9/ 100 km®. In general, group size appears to be correlated with food abundance and quality within the territory, whereas territory size is influenced by the distribution of food resources. Territories are maintained primarily through scent marking behavior (called “pasting”) and aggression toward intruders. Clan structure appears to vary across regions, but always includes 1-5 breeding females and their subadult offspring. In the central Kalahari, groups often also include at least one adultresident immigrant male. Mean clan size in the southern Kalahari was 3-7 adults and subadults, and total clan size ranged from 4-14. In the central Kalahari, a well-studied clan contained 13 members including cubs. Because adult females and their offspring are the core of a social group, the majority of clan members are related. However, dispersal from and immigration into the clan occurs. Although subadults of both sexes may disperse from their natal clan, males do so more often than females and most males disperse by 36-40 months of age. In two reported cases of female emigration in the central Kalahari, the number of resident adult females was atits zenith (five) and the dispersing females both were targets of severe aggression from other resident females prior to dispersal. In both cases, dispersal appeared to be prompted by conflicts with established adults of the same sex. The central Kalahari and southern Kalahari locales also apparently differ with respect to clan social hierarchies. In the central Kalahari a linear within-sex dominance hierarchy was apparent, and at carcasses with more than one hyena, rank determined priority of access to food. Although immigrant males were dominantto all natal males, the highest ranking male and female appeared to be of equal status. Adult females were typically dominant to natal males of less than 36 months of age. These natal males were tolerated until about 24 months, when aggression gradually increased until their dispersal. However, in one case, a natal male remained in the clan and eventually dominated the clan females. In the southern Kalahari no dominance hierarchy was apparent, with no sex, age-class, or individual consistently winning fights or monopolizing food resources in clans. Differences in the breeding systems and the existence or lack of a hierarchy are thought to be related to significant differences in Brown Hyena density in the two locales. In the central Kalahari, 37-81% of observations involve the association of two or more hyenas. In the southern Kalahari contact between group members appears to be less frequent. Although there is typically aggression between hyenas of the same sex from different groups when they meet, the level of aggression within clans appears to vary between the southern and central Kalahari. In the central Kalahari, neck-biting appears to be used to maintain rank relationships within the clan and is observed with some frequency, while in the southern Kalahari, fighting within the clan is rare, with clan members seldom interacting at all. Here, the only aggression observed is between same-sex members of neighboring clans, and this is extremely infrequent. Interestingly, in the southern Kalahari, where resident males do not breed with clan females, these males show little aggression to nomadic males, who are responsible for mating with groupliving females, suggesting that Brown Hyenas can differentiate between neighboring males and nomadic males. When they meet after being separated, Brown Hyenas from the same group engage in a greeting ceremony in which each animal in turn crouches and presents its extruded anal pouch to the other. This is accompanied by a lowering of the ears and a “grin” (teeth exposed by pulling lips up and corners of the mouth back) by the subordinate animal whenit is greeting a dominant. Greetings can last as long as five minutes. Two additional behaviors that appear to be important in Brown Hyena society are neck-biting and muzzle-wrestling. Neck-biting is a purely agonistic interaction (though cubs may engage in it during play) and is primarily intrasexual. In the southern Kalahari, this behavioris largely restricted to interactions between members of neighboring clans, whereas in the central Kalahari, it can be seen more frequently between clan members and is thought to function in maintenance of a dominance hierarchy. Neck-biting behavioris a ritualized, somewhat elaborate interaction in which dominant and subordinate animals are clear from the start. The submissive animal approaches a standing dominant individual grinning and with its mane and tail raised. Either before or at its approach, the dominant seizes the neck of the subordinate, holding the skin and hair of the neck with its incisors and one or both canines, and vigorously shakes the victim from side to side. This typeof interaction typically lasts less than five minutes, and only rarely does the subordinate flee at its conclusion. Muzzle wresting may be observed anywhere in the territory and is exhibited by all clan members. However, adults rarely engage in this behavior with other adults, though they will do so with cubs with some frequency. Most muzzle-wrestling occurs between cubs and subadults. The two participants stand face to face, and attemptto bite each other on the jowls or along the side of face. Their heads pitch rapidly from side to side with mouths open, and they often growl softly throughout. One or both hyenas may be crouched on their carpals, and in some cases one may lie beneath the other. This behavior is clearly less aggressive than neck biting and may often be play, although it can escalate into true aggression. There is no clear loser, and animals typically remain with each other after muzzle-wrestling, which may last from a few minutes to an hour. The most striking visual display of the Brown Hyena is pilo-erection of the long hairs along its neck and back, which is observed in situations calling for either an attack or flight response. Despite its rather elaborate social interactions, Brown Hyenas spend the vast majority of their time alone, and the primary form of communication between hyenas is olfactory. They convey information to conspecifics with latrines, which have accumulations of feces, and grass stalks on which they have deposited a strong-smelling white secretion and a smaller black secretion. Both secretions are deposited during pasting from an extruded anal scent pouch located between the rectum and base ofthe tail. Although all four hyaenid species paste, the deposition of two different secretionsis unique to Brown Hyenas. Whereas the lipid-rich white secretion is discernible to the human nose for well over 30 days, the more watery black secretion appears unscented after a few hours. This black secretion is thought to convey information relating to the time elapsed since it was deposited, and therefore signal that a hyena has recently foraged in the area. It is suggested that this allows other group members to avoid unproductive areas, and minimizes competition between group members for limited resources. The longer-lasting white secretion is thought to function in territory marking and defense. Pasting is done throughout a clan’s territory. Although most pasting occurs in the central part of the territory, where residents spend most of their time, frequency of pasting and over-pasting (deposition on an existing mark) is highest when individuals visit territory boundaries. Very little pasting is done by residents when they are outside of their territory. Pasting during traveling/foraging movements can be quite frequent, with ten individuals averaging a paste every six minutes. However,this is highly variable, with some individuals pasting only once or twice during a night-time observation period. Males and females do not differ in rate of pasting during their travels. At the den, adults and subadults frequently paste soon after arriving and before departing. At least in the southern Kalahari, the perimeter of hyena territories is thought to be too large to make strict border marking possible or effective. Instead, marks are scattered throughout the residents’ territory. This is known as hinterland marking. Given the frequency of pasting, and how widely pastes are deposited across a territory, simulations indicate that in the southern Kalahari, hinterland marking is effective. Intruders would likely encounter resident paste marks very soon after entering a territory. Indeed, individual hyenas are estimated to deposit some 29,000 paste marks in a year. Experiments with translocated pasted grass stalks indicate that hyenas can distinguish between pastes of group and non-group members and that over-pasting is more commonly done on pastings from non-group hyenas. Chemical analysis of white and black paste suggests that the scent of these substances probably varies between individuals, allowing for identification of the paster. In the southern Kalahari, latrines are not as regularly spaced as pastings, and show a clumped distribution, largely around primary foraging areas that occur along the territory border. Latrines are often associated with landmarks such as trees, bushes or roads, and those along the border are visited more frequently than those in the interior. The vocal repertoire of the Brown Hyena is relatively small, as in the Striped Hyena, and consists of eight vocalizations: a yell, a hoot, two whines and four growls, none of which functions as a longdistance communication. Some authors group these into five calls, the squeal/whine, squeak, scream,yell, and growl/grunt. The squeal is a shrill sharp cry emitted by a juvenile or other subordinate while approaching to greet or beg food from a dominant individual. The squeak is a hoarse rasping cry of abject submission associated with carpal crawling. A scream is a high-pitched, cackling shriek given by a hyena whose neck is being bitten. The yell is a loud, abrupt high-pitched call associated with defensive threat. A growl/grunt is low-pitched, breathless and throaty, and is given while muzzle-wrestling. All but the growl appear to indicate submission or appeasement in social contexts of varying intensity.Breeding.Brown Hyenas are polyestrous, non-seasonal breeders. Litters range from 1-4 cubs with a modallitter size of three. Estrus lasts approximately one week but mating in captivity occurs over a 15day period. Based on six observed mating bouts in the southern Kalahari, mating associations consist of multiple copulation attempts over a 5-90 minute period, and may be preceded by extended courtship, during which both animals may show aggression and there are mutual approaches and retreats. Gestation in captivity was 96 days. Interbirth intervals appear to range widely. In the southern Kalahari they were as short as a year and as long as 41 months apart, although lost litters in the interim could not be ruled out. Cubs are born with their eyes closed and their ears bent forward. Their fur is similar in color to that of adults. Their eyes begin to open at eight days and are completely open at 14 days. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, Brown Hyena cubs are born without teeth. As in the other bone-cracking hyaenids, den dependenceis long and weaning occurs late. Cubs from 0-3 months of age rarely leave the den hole except when their mother or another adult is present. During this period, mothers attend the den frequently, often at sunrise and sunset and cubs rely completely on their mother’s milk. At four months, visits by the mother become less frequent, with mothers visiting about once a night, but suckling periods are longer. At this time, mothers and other group members begin bringing food to the den for the cubs. Weaning normally occurs at 12-16 months of age, yet weaning conflicts have been observed at ten months. Starting at ten months, cubs begin extensive, and very often solitary, foraging movements away from the den. Length of den residence is variable however, ranging from 8-15 months. Regardless of their dependence on the den, by 16 months weaning has occurred and full adult dentition is present. As they mature, subadults themselves begin to bring food back to the den for younger cubs. This has been observed in subadults as young as 22 months. Adult size is reached at 30 months. The earliest breeding recorded in the wild is 35 months; breeding continues until at least ten years of age. Cubs are raised in underground, sometimes extensive, tunnels, always small enough to prevent adults and potential predators from entering. They are easily distinguished by accumulations of bones, hair, feathers, horns, pieces of hide, and hyena feces. In the southern Kalahari Brown Hyena dens appear to be used only rarely by multiple females at once, and cubs are typically raised in the same den in which they are born. However, communal denning appears to be common in the central Kalahari, with cubs of multiple females, and of different ages, raised together at a single den location. In this system, cubs are born in a solitary den and transported to the communal den sometime before they are four months of age. Throughout their development, den moves are common and cubs may reside at as many as seven different dens, though distances between dens are typically not large. In the central Kalahari, where a social rank system is evident, dominant females enjoy greater reproductive success in terms of number of surviving offspring, yet the number oflitters does not vary based on rank. There appears to be variation, both regionally and temporally, in the mating system of Brown Hyenas. In one system, females breed only with nomadic males that range over wide areas without defended territories or family groups. In the other, females breed not only with nomadic males but with resident immigrant males as well. These residents are members of the clan and assist in territory defense, yet their tenure, at least in the central Kalahari, is relatively short (less than three years). In this area, where both nomadic males and resident immigrant males are present, dominant clan males were observed to copulate with resident females more frequently than nomadic males. In the southern Kalahari, the only mating observed involved nomadic males, and no resident males, either immigrant or natal, were observed to mate. Although males known to be natal showed little sexual interest at all in any resident females, researchers were unable to observe immigrant males long enough to ascertain sexual interest in resident females. The source of the variation in the mating system of Brown Hyenas is unclear, although it may be related to dispersion of food. In the central Kalahari, where both systems were observed over time, mating with nomadic males was restricted to the dry season, when resident clan males would likely have difficulty maintaining contact with clan females (some were separated by 22 km). Because territories are very large in the southern Kalahari and only breeding with nomadic malesis seen, the food dispersion theory is further supported. Individual reproductive patterns in males are also likely to be influenced by individual status and the behavior of other males in the population. In either case, natal males are never observed to mate with females in their natal clan. Communal care of cubs is better developed among Brown Hyenas than in any of the other three hyaenid species. Non-parental aid in cub rearing includes communal suckling (although preference in nursing one’s own cubs has been shown), food provisioning, den maintenance, defense against predators, play, and adoption of orphans. Subadult and adult females ofall social ranks and reproductive states bring food items to the den for cubs. However, the extent of involvement in provisioning by adult males seems to vary by region. In the central Kalahari, subadult males provision cubs, but to a lesser degree than females, and they only bring food to closely related cubs. Neither immigrant nor natal adult males were seen provisioning cubs. It has been suggested thatthis is because males do not benefit from an increased group size, as they are likely to emigrate from their natal clan. In the southern Kalahari, however, group-living males and females, both adult and subadult, were observed to provision cubs regularly. Average distance in this population from which food was carried back to the den was 6-4 km.Status and Conservation.Listed as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. In 1994 the species was down-listed from Appendix I status, which was afforded the species in 1975, to Appendix II by the IUCN and it has since been deleted from CITES listing altogether. [tis generally considered to be widespread yet rare. The total population is estimated to be 5000 to 8000, but this may be an underestimate due to the secretive nature and nocturnal habits of this animal. It is estimated that areas in excess of 1000 km?” are required to maintain a viable population of Brown Hyenas. These populations currently exist in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africaand the adjacent Gemsbok National Park, Botswana, the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Botswana, and the coastal regions of the southern Namib Desert. These are also the sites of the primary research projects that provide much of what we know about this species in the wild. Much of the habitat where Brown Hyenas occur outside protected areas is used for livestock ranching, and the hyenas are heavily persecuted (shot, poisoned, trapped, and hunted with dogs) in these areas because they are assumed to be livestock predators. This persecution, and habitat loss and fragmentation, are the primary threats to persistence of Brown Hyena. Because they are scavengers, many livestock carcasses where they are seen feeding are likely not to have been killed by Brown Hyenas. Although the species can be involved in depredation,this is usually restricted to a few individuals. Regardless, management of Brown Hyenas on ranchlands must address livestock losses. Typically, removal of individual problem hyenas ends the depredation. Because there is evidence that Brown Hyenas may be limited by the presence of Spotted Hyenas and perhaps other large predators, which are often absent from ranches, these ranchlands have the potential to be developed as Brown Hyena conservation areas, given proper management and conservation education efforts. Brown Hyenas are uncommon in captivity and traditionally do not breed well in confinement. Due to difficulties in captive breeding, the international studbook was discontinued in 1993 and as of 1995 there were only 16 specimensin nine collections. There is no known illegal trade in the species.Bibliography.Eaton (1976), Gorman & Mills (1984), Maddock (1993), Mills (1982a, 1982b, 1982¢c, 1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1990), Mills & Hofer (1998), Mills & Mills (1978, 1982), Mills et al. (1980), Owens, D.D. & Owens (1979a, 1979b, 1984, 1996), Owens, M.J. & Owens (1978), Schultz (1966), Shoemaker (1983), Siegfried (1984), Skinner (1976), Skinner & llani (1979), Skinner & VanAarde (1981), Skinner et al. (1995), Stuart & Shaughnessy (1984), Wiesel (2006).","taxonomy":"Hyaena brunnea Thunberg, 1820, South Africa, Western Cape Province, Capeof Good Hope.Formerly classified as Hyaena brunnea, but a recent molecular analysis assigns this species to a separate genus from that of the Striped Hyena. Along with Striped and Spotted Hyenas, the Brown Hyena belongs to the subfamily Hyaeninae. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hyene brune @fr | Braune Hyane @de | Hiena parda @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thunberg","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1820","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyaenidae","interpretedGenus":"Parahyaena","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"258","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brunnea","name":"Parahyaena brunnea","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Namibia, Botswana, W & S Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, Swaziland, W Lesotho, and South Africa. Records from the SW of Angolaare all before 1970.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6350112/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eaton (1976) | Gorman & Mills (1984) | Maddock (1993) | Mills (1982a, 1982b, 1982¢c, 1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1990) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Mills & Mills (1978, 1982) | Mills et al. (1980) | Owens, D.D. & Owens (1979a, 1979b, 1984, 1996) | Owens, M.J. & Owens (1978) | Schultz (1966) | Shoemaker (1983) | Siegfried (1984) | Skinner (1976) | Skinner & llani (1979) | Skinner & VanAarde (1981) | Skinner et al. (1995) | Stuart & Shaughnessy (1984) | Wiesel (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"These hyenas forage alone at night and do not cooperate in hunting or in feeding, although group members tolerate each other at large food items. Although not competent hunters, Brown Hyenas are extremely efficient scavengers with an omnivorous diet. They are opportunistic feeders on a range of vertebrates, primarily mammals, the vast majority of which are scavenged, often from the kills of other carnivores. Fruits, insects and reptiles can be important supplementary foods when carcasses are rare. In one population 58 different food items were identified from fecal analysis. Brown Hyenas in the southern Kalahari spent 30% of their feeding time eating carrion, 28% on vegetable matter, 4-5% on small mammals, 1-5% on birds’ eggs, and 29% on unknown items. Only 5-8% of food they were seen eating was killed by the hyenas themselves. In the central Kalahari 35-9% ofall observed feeding bouts were on fresh scavenged kills, 33-9% on old carcasses, 16% on their own kills, and 12:5% on vegetative food sources. Brown Hyenas do not depend on standing water. In the central Kalahari, no free water orrain is typically found for eight months of the year. Although they will drink on a daily basis when water is present, much of the water during dry seasons is obtained from Cucurbitaceaefruits such as the tsama melon, gemsbok cucumber, and Hookeri melon, which can compose significant proportions of the diet in these seasons. Brown Hyenas inhabiting the Namibian coast feed almost exclusively on subadult Brown Fur Seals. The majority of these seals are thought to be scavenged, although Brown Hyenas have been seen hunting seal pups. In fact, hunting efficiency on seal pups during the peak pupping season can be as high as 47%, and an average of almost five seals per day may be killed from a single colony. Small rodents and seabirds make up the rest of this unique diet. Elsewhere hunting attempts by Brown Hyenas are opportunistic and directed at small mammals such as Springbok lambs, spring hares, Bat-eared Foxes, and ground nesting birds. The hunting technique of the Brown Hyena is unspecialized, rarely successful (except in the case of Brown Fur Seal pups), and may include a brief lunge at a surprised prey, a prolonged chase of up 1 km, or an attempt to dig up a burrowed animal. The percent of observed hunting attempts that were successful was 4:7% in the southern Kalahari and 13-7% in the central Kalahari. The hyenas generally feed where they find food, but food from larger carcasses is frequently cached nearby in a clump of grass or under a bush. Considerable time is often spent at carcasses removing limbs for this purpose and one animal may remove and cache up to three legs before any competitors arrive. Sites where food is cached are scent-marked and may be re-visited over multiple days. In a remarkable example of food caching in the southern Kalahari, a Brown Hyena arrived at an abandoned ostrich (Struthio camelus) nest with 26 eggs, which are prized food items. The hyena spent four hours carrying 14 eggsdistances of 150-600 m from the nest, some of which it simply dropped in the open. It ate only three eggsduring this period. Brown Hyenas also carry food back to cubs at the den. This provisioning of cubs can result in significant bone accumulations at densites. In the southern Kalahari the average distance moved between significant meals was 7-2 km, and the average nightly distance traveled was 31-1 km. During the dry season, nightly movements were longer and were recorded as high as 54-4 km. During the wet season movements were reduced and ranged from 10-20 km. In Namibia, daily distances traveled ranged from 15-47 km. When foraging, Brown Hyenas move at a pace of about 4 km/h, often walking in a zig-zag pattern, probably to maximize their chance of coming across food items. They use smell to locate much of their food, as evidenced by frequent sniffing and moving upwind toward food sources. Their hearing appears to be acute as well and is likely also used in foraging. The Brown Hyena is subordinate at kills to Spotted Hyenas, Lions and African Wild Dogs, although it appears to dominate Leopards in most situations. While they always dominate Cheetahs, they compete heavily with the much smaller Black-backed Jackal, which is often able to steal scraps from hyenas at carcasses. There is some evidence that, where they are sympatric, Brown Hyenas avoid areas frequented by Spotted Hyenas, potentially to avoid direct aggression and competition. For example, dens in the southern Kalahari were rarely found in the prey-rich riverine habitat where most Spotted Hyena dens occurred. Although their presence at livestock carcasses has resulted in much antagonism toward, and persecution of, Brown Hyenas by livestock owners, predation on livestock by these animals appears to be done by a small number of individuals. However, these hyenas, which typically target cow calves and sheep, can account for a large number of kills. Removal of these problem individuals appears effective at halting stock losses.","breeding":"Brown Hyenas are polyestrous, non-seasonal breeders. Litters range from 1-4 cubs with a modallitter size of three. Estrus lasts approximately one week but mating in captivity occurs over a 15day period. Based on six observed mating bouts in the southern Kalahari, mating associations consist of multiple copulation attempts over a 5-90 minute period, and may be preceded by extended courtship, during which both animals may show aggression and there are mutual approaches and retreats. Gestation in captivity was 96 days. Interbirth intervals appear to range widely. In the southern Kalahari they were as short as a year and as long as 41 months apart, although lost litters in the interim could not be ruled out. Cubs are born with their eyes closed and their ears bent forward. Their fur is similar in color to that of adults. Their eyes begin to open at eight days and are completely open at 14 days. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, Brown Hyena cubs are born without teeth. As in the other bone-cracking hyaenids, den dependenceis long and weaning occurs late. Cubs from 0-3 months of age rarely leave the den hole except when their mother or another adult is present. During this period, mothers attend the den frequently, often at sunrise and sunset and cubs rely completely on their mother’s milk. At four months, visits by the mother become less frequent, with mothers visiting about once a night, but suckling periods are longer. At this time, mothers and other group members begin bringing food to the den for the cubs. Weaning normally occurs at 12-16 months of age, yet weaning conflicts have been observed at ten months. Starting at ten months, cubs begin extensive, and very often solitary, foraging movements away from the den. Length of den residence is variable however, ranging from 8-15 months. Regardless of their dependence on the den, by 16 months weaning has occurred and full adult dentition is present. As they mature, subadults themselves begin to bring food back to the den for younger cubs. This has been observed in subadults as young as 22 months. Adult size is reached at 30 months. The earliest breeding recorded in the wild is 35 months; breeding continues until at least ten years of age. Cubs are raised in underground, sometimes extensive, tunnels, always small enough to prevent adults and potential predators from entering. They are easily distinguished by accumulations of bones, hair, feathers, horns, pieces of hide, and hyena feces. In the southern Kalahari Brown Hyena dens appear to be used only rarely by multiple females at once, and cubs are typically raised in the same den in which they are born. However, communal denning appears to be common in the central Kalahari, with cubs of multiple females, and of different ages, raised together at a single den location. In this system, cubs are born in a solitary den and transported to the communal den sometime before they are four months of age. Throughout their development, den moves are common and cubs may reside at as many as seven different dens, though distances between dens are typically not large. In the central Kalahari, where a social rank system is evident, dominant females enjoy greater reproductive success in terms of number of surviving offspring, yet the number oflitters does not vary based on rank. There appears to be variation, both regionally and temporally, in the mating system of Brown Hyenas. In one system, females breed only with nomadic males that range over wide areas without defended territories or family groups. In the other, females breed not only with nomadic males but with resident immigrant males as well. These residents are members of the clan and assist in territory defense, yet their tenure, at least in the central Kalahari, is relatively short (less than three years). In this area, where both nomadic males and resident immigrant males are present, dominant clan males were observed to copulate with resident females more frequently than nomadic males. In the southern Kalahari, the only mating observed involved nomadic males, and no resident males, either immigrant or natal, were observed to mate. Although males known to be natal showed little sexual interest at all in any resident females, researchers were unable to observe immigrant males long enough to ascertain sexual interest in resident females. The source of the variation in the mating system of Brown Hyenas is unclear, although it may be related to dispersion of food. In the central Kalahari, where both systems were observed over time, mating with nomadic males was restricted to the dry season, when resident clan males would likely have difficulty maintaining contact with clan females (some were separated by 22 km). Because territories are very large in the southern Kalahari and only breeding with nomadic malesis seen, the food dispersion theory is further supported. Individual reproductive patterns in males are also likely to be influenced by individual status and the behavior of other males in the population. In either case, natal males are never observed to mate with females in their natal clan. Communal care of cubs is better developed among Brown Hyenas than in any of the other three hyaenid species. Non-parental aid in cub rearing includes communal suckling (although preference in nursing one’s own cubs has been shown), food provisioning, den maintenance, defense against predators, play, and adoption of orphans. Subadult and adult females ofall social ranks and reproductive states bring food items to the den for cubs. However, the extent of involvement in provisioning by adult males seems to vary by region. In the central Kalahari, subadult males provision cubs, but to a lesser degree than females, and they only bring food to closely related cubs. Neither immigrant nor natal adult males were seen provisioning cubs. It has been suggested thatthis is because males do not benefit from an increased group size, as they are likely to emigrate from their natal clan. In the southern Kalahari, however, group-living males and females, both adult and subadult, were observed to provision cubs regularly. Average distance in this population from which food was carried back to the den was 6-4 km.","activityPatterns":"Primarily a nocturnal animal, although activity is occasionally observed during the day, particularly on cool, cloudy days during the rainy season. There are typcally two peaks of activity, from 19:30 h to 24:00 h and 2:30 h to 6:00 h, with a rest period in between. Radio-collared adults in the southern Kalahari were active for 42.6% of the 24 h period, and 80.2% of the period between 18:00 h and 06:00 h. In Namibia, three maleswith satellite collars spent an average of 57-1-72-3% of 24 h active. Brown Hyenas typically rest during the day in a hole, or undera large tree or bush.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Approximately 65% of Brown Hyenas in a population are members of small social groups called clans, with the remaining individuals living as nomads. Clan size ranges from 4-14 individuals, including cubs, and clans defend large stable territories. In the southern Kalahari far-ranging nomadic males (8% of the adult population) were the only males observed to breed with clan-living females, yet in the central Kalahari, breeding also occurs with resident immigrant males. In the southern Kalahari territories averaged 308 km? (range: 215-461 km?) with never more than 20% overlap between territories. Brown Hyena density there was calculated to be 1-8 hyenas/ 100 km?®. In the central Kalahari territories averaged 170 km?, but varied greatly with annualrainfall, reaching a maximum of 400 km?. In Namibia, where Brown Hyenas depend almost entirely on Brown Fur Seals along the coast, territories of two clans in one study were 31-9 km? and 220 km? In another study the home ranges of three malesranged from 420-1460 km? with the largest home range being an inland location. Density in this latter Namibian study ranged from 1-0-2-9/ 100 km®. In general, group size appears to be correlated with food abundance and quality within the territory, whereas territory size is influenced by the distribution of food resources. Territories are maintained primarily through scent marking behavior (called “pasting”) and aggression toward intruders. Clan structure appears to vary across regions, but always includes 1-5 breeding females and their subadult offspring. In the central Kalahari, groups often also include at least one adultresident immigrant male. Mean clan size in the southern Kalahari was 3-7 adults and subadults, and total clan size ranged from 4-14. In the central Kalahari, a well-studied clan contained 13 members including cubs. Because adult females and their offspring are the core of a social group, the majority of clan members are related. However, dispersal from and immigration into the clan occurs. Although subadults of both sexes may disperse from their natal clan, males do so more often than females and most males disperse by 36-40 months of age. In two reported cases of female emigration in the central Kalahari, the number of resident adult females was atits zenith (five) and the dispersing females both were targets of severe aggression from other resident females prior to dispersal. In both cases, dispersal appeared to be prompted by conflicts with established adults of the same sex. The central Kalahari and southern Kalahari locales also apparently differ with respect to clan social hierarchies. In the central Kalahari a linear within-sex dominance hierarchy was apparent, and at carcasses with more than one hyena, rank determined priority of access to food. Although immigrant males were dominantto all natal males, the highest ranking male and female appeared to be of equal status. Adult females were typically dominant to natal males of less than 36 months of age. These natal males were tolerated until about 24 months, when aggression gradually increased until their dispersal. However, in one case, a natal male remained in the clan and eventually dominated the clan females. In the southern Kalahari no dominance hierarchy was apparent, with no sex, age-class, or individual consistently winning fights or monopolizing food resources in clans. Differences in the breeding systems and the existence or lack of a hierarchy are thought to be related to significant differences in Brown Hyena density in the two locales. In the central Kalahari, 37-81% of observations involve the association of two or more hyenas. In the southern Kalahari contact between group members appears to be less frequent. Although there is typically aggression between hyenas of the same sex from different groups when they meet, the level of aggression within clans appears to vary between the southern and central Kalahari. In the central Kalahari, neck-biting appears to be used to maintain rank relationships within the clan and is observed with some frequency, while in the southern Kalahari, fighting within the clan is rare, with clan members seldom interacting at all. Here, the only aggression observed is between same-sex members of neighboring clans, and this is extremely infrequent. Interestingly, in the southern Kalahari, where resident males do not breed with clan females, these males show little aggression to nomadic males, who are responsible for mating with groupliving females, suggesting that Brown Hyenas can differentiate between neighboring males and nomadic males. When they meet after being separated, Brown Hyenas from the same group engage in a greeting ceremony in which each animal in turn crouches and presents its extruded anal pouch to the other. This is accompanied by a lowering of the ears and a “grin” (teeth exposed by pulling lips up and corners of the mouth back) by the subordinate animal whenit is greeting a dominant. Greetings can last as long as five minutes. Two additional behaviors that appear to be important in Brown Hyena society are neck-biting and muzzle-wrestling. Neck-biting is a purely agonistic interaction (though cubs may engage in it during play) and is primarily intrasexual. In the southern Kalahari, this behavioris largely restricted to interactions between members of neighboring clans, whereas in the central Kalahari, it can be seen more frequently between clan members and is thought to function in maintenance of a dominance hierarchy. Neck-biting behavioris a ritualized, somewhat elaborate interaction in which dominant and subordinate animals are clear from the start. The submissive animal approaches a standing dominant individual grinning and with its mane and tail raised. Either before or at its approach, the dominant seizes the neck of the subordinate, holding the skin and hair of the neck with its incisors and one or both canines, and vigorously shakes the victim from side to side. This typeof interaction typically lasts less than five minutes, and only rarely does the subordinate flee at its conclusion. Muzzle wresting may be observed anywhere in the territory and is exhibited by all clan members. However, adults rarely engage in this behavior with other adults, though they will do so with cubs with some frequency. Most muzzle-wrestling occurs between cubs and subadults. The two participants stand face to face, and attemptto bite each other on the jowls or along the side of face. Their heads pitch rapidly from side to side with mouths open, and they often growl softly throughout. One or both hyenas may be crouched on their carpals, and in some cases one may lie beneath the other. This behavior is clearly less aggressive than neck biting and may often be play, although it can escalate into true aggression. There is no clear loser, and animals typically remain with each other after muzzle-wrestling, which may last from a few minutes to an hour. The most striking visual display of the Brown Hyena is pilo-erection of the long hairs along its neck and back, which is observed in situations calling for either an attack or flight response. Despite its rather elaborate social interactions, Brown Hyenas spend the vast majority of their time alone, and the primary form of communication between hyenas is olfactory. They convey information to conspecifics with latrines, which have accumulations of feces, and grass stalks on which they have deposited a strong-smelling white secretion and a smaller black secretion. Both secretions are deposited during pasting from an extruded anal scent pouch located between the rectum and base ofthe tail. Although all four hyaenid species paste, the deposition of two different secretionsis unique to Brown Hyenas. Whereas the lipid-rich white secretion is discernible to the human nose for well over 30 days, the more watery black secretion appears unscented after a few hours. This black secretion is thought to convey information relating to the time elapsed since it was deposited, and therefore signal that a hyena has recently foraged in the area. It is suggested that this allows other group members to avoid unproductive areas, and minimizes competition between group members for limited resources. The longer-lasting white secretion is thought to function in territory marking and defense. Pasting is done throughout a clan’s territory. Although most pasting occurs in the central part of the territory, where residents spend most of their time, frequency of pasting and over-pasting (deposition on an existing mark) is highest when individuals visit territory boundaries. Very little pasting is done by residents when they are outside of their territory. Pasting during traveling/foraging movements can be quite frequent, with ten individuals averaging a paste every six minutes. However,this is highly variable, with some individuals pasting only once or twice during a night-time observation period. Males and females do not differ in rate of pasting during their travels. At the den, adults and subadults frequently paste soon after arriving and before departing. At least in the southern Kalahari, the perimeter of hyena territories is thought to be too large to make strict border marking possible or effective. Instead, marks are scattered throughout the residents’ territory. This is known as hinterland marking. Given the frequency of pasting, and how widely pastes are deposited across a territory, simulations indicate that in the southern Kalahari, hinterland marking is effective. Intruders would likely encounter resident paste marks very soon after entering a territory. Indeed, individual hyenas are estimated to deposit some 29,000 paste marks in a year. Experiments with translocated pasted grass stalks indicate that hyenas can distinguish between pastes of group and non-group members and that over-pasting is more commonly done on pastings from non-group hyenas. Chemical analysis of white and black paste suggests that the scent of these substances probably varies between individuals, allowing for identification of the paster. In the southern Kalahari, latrines are not as regularly spaced as pastings, and show a clumped distribution, largely around primary foraging areas that occur along the territory border. Latrines are often associated with landmarks such as trees, bushes or roads, and those along the border are visited more frequently than those in the interior. The vocal repertoire of the Brown Hyena is relatively small, as in the Striped Hyena, and consists of eight vocalizations: a yell, a hoot, two whines and four growls, none of which functions as a longdistance communication. Some authors group these into five calls, the squeal/whine, squeak, scream,yell, and growl/grunt. The squeal is a shrill sharp cry emitted by a juvenile or other subordinate while approaching to greet or beg food from a dominant individual. The squeak is a hoarse rasping cry of abject submission associated with carpal crawling. A scream is a high-pitched, cackling shriek given by a hyena whose neck is being bitten. The yell is a loud, abrupt high-pitched call associated with defensive threat. A growl/grunt is low-pitched, breathless and throaty, and is given while muzzle-wrestling. All but the growl appear to indicate submission or appeasement in social contexts of varying intensity.Breeding.Brown Hyenas are polyestrous, non-seasonal breeders. Litters range from 1-4 cubs with a modallitter size of three. Estrus lasts approximately one week but mating in captivity occurs over a 15day period. Based on six observed mating bouts in the southern Kalahari, mating associations consist of multiple copulation attempts over a 5-90 minute period, and may be preceded by extended courtship, during which both animals may show aggression and there are mutual approaches and retreats. Gestation in captivity was 96 days. Interbirth intervals appear to range widely. In the southern Kalahari they were as short as a year and as long as 41 months apart, although lost litters in the interim could not be ruled out. Cubs are born with their eyes closed and their ears bent forward. Their fur is similar in color to that of adults. Their eyes begin to open at eight days and are completely open at 14 days. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, Brown Hyena cubs are born without teeth. As in the other bone-cracking hyaenids, den dependenceis long and weaning occurs late. Cubs from 0-3 months of age rarely leave the den hole except when their mother or another adult is present. During this period, mothers attend the den frequently, often at sunrise and sunset and cubs rely completely on their mother’s milk. At four months, visits by the mother become less frequent, with mothers visiting about once a night, but suckling periods are longer. At this time, mothers and other group members begin bringing food to the den for the cubs. Weaning normally occurs at 12-16 months of age, yet weaning conflicts have been observed at ten months. Starting at ten months, cubs begin extensive, and very often solitary, foraging movements away from the den. Length of den residence is variable however, ranging from 8-15 months. Regardless of their dependence on the den, by 16 months weaning has occurred and full adult dentition is present. As they mature, subadults themselves begin to bring food back to the den for younger cubs. This has been observed in subadults as young as 22 months. Adult size is reached at 30 months. The earliest breeding recorded in the wild is 35 months; breeding continues until at least ten years of age. Cubs are raised in underground, sometimes extensive, tunnels, always small enough to prevent adults and potential predators from entering. They are easily distinguished by accumulations of bones, hair, feathers, horns, pieces of hide, and hyena feces. In the southern Kalahari Brown Hyena dens appear to be used only rarely by multiple females at once, and cubs are typically raised in the same den in which they are born. However, communal denning appears to be common in the central Kalahari, with cubs of multiple females, and of different ages, raised together at a single den location. In this system, cubs are born in a solitary den and transported to the communal den sometime before they are four months of age. Throughout their development, den moves are common and cubs may reside at as many as seven different dens, though distances between dens are typically not large. In the central Kalahari, where a social rank system is evident, dominant females enjoy greater reproductive success in terms of number of surviving offspring, yet the number oflitters does not vary based on rank. There appears to be variation, both regionally and temporally, in the mating system of Brown Hyenas. In one system, females breed only with nomadic males that range over wide areas without defended territories or family groups. In the other, females breed not only with nomadic males but with resident immigrant males as well. These residents are members of the clan and assist in territory defense, yet their tenure, at least in the central Kalahari, is relatively short (less than three years). In this area, where both nomadic males and resident immigrant males are present, dominant clan males were observed to copulate with resident females more frequently than nomadic males. In the southern Kalahari, the only mating observed involved nomadic males, and no resident males, either immigrant or natal, were observed to mate. Although males known to be natal showed little sexual interest at all in any resident females, researchers were unable to observe immigrant males long enough to ascertain sexual interest in resident females. The source of the variation in the mating system of Brown Hyenas is unclear, although it may be related to dispersion of food. In the central Kalahari, where both systems were observed over time, mating with nomadic males was restricted to the dry season, when resident clan males would likely have difficulty maintaining contact with clan females (some were separated by 22 km). Because territories are very large in the southern Kalahari and only breeding with nomadic malesis seen, the food dispersion theory is further supported. Individual reproductive patterns in males are also likely to be influenced by individual status and the behavior of other males in the population. In either case, natal males are never observed to mate with females in their natal clan. Communal care of cubs is better developed among Brown Hyenas than in any of the other three hyaenid species. Non-parental aid in cub rearing includes communal suckling (although preference in nursing one’s own cubs has been shown), food provisioning, den maintenance, defense against predators, play, and adoption of orphans. Subadult and adult females ofall social ranks and reproductive states bring food items to the den for cubs. However, the extent of involvement in provisioning by adult males seems to vary by region. In the central Kalahari, subadult males provision cubs, but to a lesser degree than females, and they only bring food to closely related cubs. Neither immigrant nor natal adult males were seen provisioning cubs. It has been suggested thatthis is because males do not benefit from an increased group size, as they are likely to emigrate from their natal clan. In the southern Kalahari, however, group-living males and females, both adult and subadult, were observed to provision cubs regularly. Average distance in this population from which food was carried back to the den was 6-4 km.","statusAndConservation":"Listed as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. In 1994 the species was down-listed from Appendix I status, which was afforded the species in 1975, to Appendix II by the IUCN and it has since been deleted from CITES listing altogether. [tis generally considered to be widespread yet rare. The total population is estimated to be 5000 to 8000, but this may be an underestimate due to the secretive nature and nocturnal habits of this animal. It is estimated that areas in excess of 1000 km?” are required to maintain a viable population of Brown Hyenas. These populations currently exist in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africaand the adjacent Gemsbok National Park, Botswana, the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Botswana, and the coastal regions of the southern Namib Desert. These are also the sites of the primary research projects that provide much of what we know about this species in the wild. Much of the habitat where Brown Hyenas occur outside protected areas is used for livestock ranching, and the hyenas are heavily persecuted (shot, poisoned, trapped, and hunted with dogs) in these areas because they are assumed to be livestock predators. This persecution, and habitat loss and fragmentation, are the primary threats to persistence of Brown Hyena. Because they are scavengers, many livestock carcasses where they are seen feeding are likely not to have been killed by Brown Hyenas. Although the species can be involved in depredation,this is usually restricted to a few individuals. Regardless, management of Brown Hyenas on ranchlands must address livestock losses. Typically, removal of individual problem hyenas ends the depredation. Because there is evidence that Brown Hyenas may be limited by the presence of Spotted Hyenas and perhaps other large predators, which are often absent from ranches, these ranchlands have the potential to be developed as Brown Hyena conservation areas, given proper management and conservation education efforts. Brown Hyenas are uncommon in captivity and traditionally do not breed well in confinement. Due to difficulties in captive breeding, the international studbook was discontinued in 1993 and as of 1995 there were only 16 specimensin nine collections. There is no known illegal trade in the species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 110-136 cm; average 123 cm(males), 117 cm(females), tail 18.7-26. 5 cm, average height at shoulders 79 cm(males) and 74 cm(females); weight (adult) varies somewhat regionally, ranges from 28 to 47-5 kg and averages about 40 kg. Most studies show some sexual size dimorphism, but it is often minimal, with males slightly heavier and longer than females. Has a typical hyena appearance with front legs longer and more robust than the rear legs, a broad head and short muzzle, thick neck and short tail. Like the Striped Hyena it has large pointed ears and course shaggy fur that is longest along the back and on the tail. The general color is dark brown with lighter tawny hair on the neck and shoulders. The legs are banded with dark horizontalstripes and the front feet are large and well-developed for digging. Like the Spotted and Striped Hyenas, the Brown Hyena possesses the bonecrushing third premolar that is unique to this family. In contrast to Spotted Hyenas, there is no masculinization of the female genitalia in Brown Hyenas. Females have two to six pairs ofteats, but only the two most caudal pairs are functional.","habitat":"Brown Hyenas are found in a variety of relatively arid habitats from open desert or semi-desert in the Namib and Kalahari, to dry open scrub and woodland savannah, mopani scrub and tree savannah, as well as the bushveld of the northern Transvaal. They do not need drinking water and inhabit areas where annual rainfall may be even lower than 100 mm, up to about 650 mm."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/87/03928788FFEFFF8F2FA5F9F5F9C3C731.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928788FFEFFF8F2FA5F9F5F9C3C731","docName":"hbmw_1_Hyaenidae_0234.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabfff0ffeaff882a1aff85ff96c40b","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"256","verbatimText":"3.Striped HyenaHyaena hyaenaFrench:Hyéne rayée/ German:Streifenhyane/ Spanish:Hiena rayadaTaxonomy.Canis hyaena Linnaeus, 1758, India.Of the extant hyaenids, the Striped Hyena is most closely related to the Brown Hyena, and its lifestyle, reproduction, and social behavior more closely resemble those of Brown Hyenas than those of Spotted Hyenas or Aardwolves. Some authorities provisionally recognize five subspecies, distinguished mainly by differences in size and pelage (hyaenafrom India, barbara from NW Africa, dubbah from NE Africa, sultana from the Arabian Peninsula, and syriaca from Syria, Asia Minorand the Caucasus). However, other authorities argue that current morphological data and other evidence do not support multiple subspecies.Distribution.The Striped Hyena has a very large range, covering much of Africa and western Asia. Although they do not occur in the central Sahara, these animals occur at low density in patches throughout eastern, western and northern Africa, including Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Mali, Nigeria, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Tanzania, and Tunisia. Striped Hyenas also occur in the Middle East and Central Asia. Middle Eastern and Asian countries included in the modern distribution of the Striped Hyena are Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Yemen. The current distribution of this species is patchy, and usually appears to occur in small, isolated populations.Descriptive notes.The Striped Hyena is the smallest of the three bone-cracking hyaenids, but is substantially larger than the Aardwolf. Head-body 100-115 cm,tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height between 66-75 cm; weight 26-41 kg (males) and 26-34 kg (females). Among the provisional subspecies, body mass and body size are only well studied in syriaca in Israeland dubbah in Kenya. In these populations, there was no significant sexual dimorphism in body size. However, in one recent study in Israel, sexual dimorphism accounted for 39% of the variation in adult body size. Like the other hyaenids, the Striped Hyena has a sloping back because the forelegs are longer than the hindlegs, and has well-developed anal glands used for scent marking. Large ducts from the anal glands open into an anal pouch dorsal to the anus. As in the other bonecracking Hyenas, the head, neck, and shoulders are relatively massive and powerful. The fur is pale gray or straw-colored, with black vertical stripes on the sides of the body. Like the Brown Hyena, the Striped Hyena has longer fur than the Spotted Hyena, giving it a rather shaggy appearance. The Striped Hyena has a black muzzle and a black patch on the throat. It has five to nine vertical stripes on the flanks, two cheek stripes, and clear black transverse and horizontal stripes on all four legs. The head is roundish with a pointed muzzle and long, pointed ears. It has a gray or blond mane that runs along its dorsal midline from the ears to the tail; the mane can be erected to increase the animal’s apparentsize by over 30%. The mane in this species is more pronounced than that in any other hyaenid, with hairs up to 20 cmlong. The black and white tail is long and bushy, with hair that is generally coarse and long. Females have two or three pairs of teats, but if they have three, only the caudal two pairs are functional. Juvenile females have well-defined labia-like folds anterior to the vagina. These ridges are hairless and darker and rougher than the surrounding tissue. Juvenile males have smaller, smooth, hairless skin folds along the middle septum close to, but anterior to, the scrotum. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, these genital characteristics are not severe enough to confuse sexing of juveniles, and adult genitalia appear normal. Subspecies descriptions are based on limited data except for syriaca in Israeland dubbah in Kenya. In general animals living in the northern parts of the range tend to be slightly larger than those living in southern regions. Variation in pelage color appearsslight, although the Lebanese population is reported to have a reddish coat color, and hyenas on the Arabian Peninsula are described as having a yellow mark below the eyes and a mixed gray and black dorsal crest.Habitat.In most ofits range the Striped Hyena occurs in rugged, arid habitat or light thorn bush country. These animals drink regularly where wateris available, but they can also survive in many waterless areas. In North Africa they prefer open woodlands and bushy and mountainous regions. The central Arabian and Sahara Deserts are not suitable habitat. In central Asia, Striped Hyenas avoid high altitudes and dense thickets and forests. The maximum elevations recorded are 2250 min Iran, 2500 min Indiaand 3300 min Pakistan. In the Caucasus region, Turkmenistan, Tadzhikistan, and Uzbekistan, prime habitats include savannah and semi-desert regions up to an elevation of 2100 m, mountain areas with strong relief, valleys with abundant caves or other resting sites, and riverine areas. The Striped Hyena avoids areas with minimum temperatures ofless than —15°C to —20°C and more than 80-120 days offrost per year. In Israel, Striped Hyenas are present even close to dense human settlements. In West Africa, they occur in dry scrub savanna and Sahel woodland, particularly in the belt of Acacia raddiana woodland that extends from Senegalto Chad. In eastern Africa, Striped Hyenas are found in a variety of habitats ranging from open savanna to rugged, bush-covered mountain terrain.Food and Feeding.The diet of Striped Hyenas apparently varies considerably from one part of their range to another, but these animals are clearly scavengers with catholic tastes. They are primarily carrion-eaters; their diet consists mainly of dried flesh and bones from carcasses of large vertebrates. They scavenge carrion and the remains of kills made by other predators, including Spotted Hyenas, Cheetahs, Leopards, Lions, and Tigers. The Hyena’s massive cheek teeth and supporting musculature easily permit the gnawing and breaking of bones, as well as the carapaces of tortoises and turtles. Striped Hyenas have also been reported to consume a wide variety of invertebrates, vegetables, fruit, garbage, and small vertebrates that the Hyenas hunt themselves. In central Kenya, analysis of bone fragments and hairs from fecal samples indicated that hyenas regularly consume small mammals and birds that are unlikely to be scavenged. The limited available diet data may underestimate the importance of active hunting in the lives of these animals. In various parts of eastern Africa, Striped Hyenas are reported to supplement their diet with Balanites fruits. The proportion of scavenged and killed prey items in the diet is still a matter of debate as there has been no detailed research on these Hyenas’ food intake. Some authors suggest that only individuals from the three larger subspecies, barbara, syriaca and hyaena, kill large prey, including livestock,as there is no evidence that the smaller subspecies, dubbah and sultana, attack large herbivores. In Turkmenistanthe Striped Hyena has been reported feeding on Wild Boar, Kulan, porcupine, and particularly tortoises. In Uzbekhistan and Tadzhikistan, seasonal abundance of oil willow fruits (Eleagnus angustifolia) is reflected in the diet; in the Caucasus region the diet includes abundant grasshoppers. In Israelthe Striped Hyena feeds on garbage, carrion, and fruits, particularly dates and melons. In eastern Jordan, the main sources of food are carcasses of feral horses and water buffalo and refuse from localvillages. The Striped Hyena can drink water of very variable quality, from fresh water to soda and salt water, but it may also satisfy its water requirements with melons or otherfruits. Very little is currently known about the hunting behavior of Striped Hyenas, but those few hunts that have been observed involved simple chases and grabs at prey. Seasonal influxes of Striped Hyenas follow migrations of large herds of domestic and wild ungulates in Turkmenistan, suggesting that the Hyenas cover long distances on foraging trips. In Egyptthey are known to move along ancient caravan roads where the chance of locating dead camels is high. In Serengeti and in southern Kenya, they spend most of the night actively searching for food or moving between established foraging sites. Striped Hyenas apparently can remember the locations offruiting trees, garbage dumps and other established feeding sites, although the routes taken to re-visit such food sources are seldom repeated on consecutive foraging trips. They are also able to locate tortoises in their hiding places during periods of aestivation and hibernation. Striped Hyenas frequently cache bones or pieces of skin, using their snouts to push these items deep into clumps of grass or stands of dense shrubs. They may also carry food items back to their dens. Bone collections are common at den sites used by Striped Hyenas, although it is often unclear whether these collections represent scavenged or killed prey, and whether the bones collected play a significant nutritional role in the lives of these animals. Several studies have inferred diet by combining data from bone collections and fecal samples. In central Kenya, however, bone collections indicated a much broader range of prey than did scat analysis, and significant portions of bone assemblages were very old bones unlikely to represent material scavenged from fresh kills. From fecal analysis alone, several researchers have found remains of prey items that are more likely to have been scavenged than hunted, and larger mammals are represented far less often in the analysis of hairs in fecal material than would be expected based only on bone collections at dens. Striped Hyenas appear to be strictly solitary foragers, although multiple individuals occasionally gather at rich food sources such as large carcasses or refuse pits. These animals are sometimes found in small groups while resting, but there is no indication that they ever forage cooperatively. Genetic relatedness among members of groups seen feeding together has not been investigated. Foraging activity in Kenyaand Tanzaniais restricted to hours of darkness except during rain or unusually cloudy weather. Under those circumstances, Striped Hyenas may return to previously visited kills or carcasses, but do not embark on full foraging forays. In many areas, and for many centuries, Striped Hyenas have been described as raiding human graves and carrying away bones. Fruit and vegetable crop raiding by Striped Hyenas is currently considered a serious problem in some parts of Israel. While foraging, Striped Hyenas zigzag across the landscape and do not appear to follow set routes, even when returning to the same food source on multiple nights. Minimum mean distance travelled per night is 19 kmat speeds of 2-4 km/h, occasionally trotting at speeds of up to 8 km/h, or running at a maximum of 50 km/h. Overall, the evidence indicates that Striped Hyenas are solitary foragers for which carrion, insects, fruits and vegetable matter represent significant portions of the diet.Activity patterns.The Striped Hyena is almost strictly nocturnal, although it does occasionally engage in some activity after dawn and before dusk. Some authorities suggest Striped Hyenas may be moststrictly nocturnal in areas characterized by relatively intensive anthropogenic activity, and where they are directly persecuted by humans.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Serengeti, Striped Hyenas travel an average of 19 kmper night (range 7-27 km), either following established animal tracks or zig-zagging cross-country. A similar pattern was observed in southern Kenya, where Striped Hyenas followed by human observers covered large distances, but stopped frequently to paste or to investigate grass clumps, carcasses, and other things found on the ground along the way. Home range sizes of one femaleand one malein the Serengeti were 44 km* and 72 km? respectively. There was little evidence of territorial behavior. Home range size was calculated for a single female in the Negev Desert in Israelto be approximately 61 km?; this range partly overlapped those of two other individuals. In the Laikipia Districtof Kenya, the mean home rangesize for 12 maleswas 82 km?, and for eight femaleswas 71 km? with no significant difference in home range sizes between sexes. No evidence ofterritorial defense has been recorded in any studied population, but in some populations these hyenas are known to scent-mark frequently within their home ranges while traveling, and also to defecate in “latrines” near feeding sites and along travel routes. Striped Hyenas are the least well-studied of the extant hyaenids, and their social behavior is very poorly understood. They are most often reported to be solitary. Nevertheless, there appears to be considerable variability with respect to patterns of social grouping among Striped Hyena populations. In some areas, such as central Asia, these animals are reported to form short-term monogamous pair bonds for breeding, with a resulting family unit that may endure for several years. Such family units may sometimes contain offspring from multiple litters. Under these circumstances, both parents and the older offspring may be observed provisioning den-dwelling cubs. Typical group sizes are one or two in all subspecies, but groups of up to seven have been reported in Libya. In Israel, Striped Hyenas are generally solitary, but occasionally several are seen together at a carcass, including both males and females, or females with large cubs. Age-specific foraging data are extremely limited, but cubs have occasionally been observed accompanying their mothers on foraging trips away from the den by 6-12 months of age. Otherwise, foraging is strictly solitary. Almost invariably described as solitary in sub-Saharan Africa, it was recently discovered that Striped Hyenas in the Laikipia Districtof Kenyaare behaviorally solitary but exhibit a polyandrous system of space use. These animals form groups of up to four adults; each group contains one adultfemale and one to three adultmales. Females in both wild and captive populations appear to be highly intolerant of one another, starting around the time they reach puberty. The overall adult sex ratio in the Laikipiapopulation was three malesto two females. Members of these groups share a common home range and may be found resting together during daylight hours. The home ranges of group-mates exhibit 85% overlap, whereas their ranges overlap only 22% with those of animals in other groups. Individual group members spend more than 90% of their time alone. Adult male group-mates included both closely-related and distantly related individuals. In contrast to spatial patterns of relatedness documented in other carnivores, pairs in non-adjacent groups tended to be more closely related genetically than pairs living in adjacent groups. This was true for females as well as males. As these animals are usually found alone, very little has been recorded regarding direct social interactions except for captive situations. In this species, males are slightly larger than females, and males also appear to be socially dominant to females in resource competition. The long dorsal hairs of the mane may be erected to enhance the apparentsize of the individual during confrontations with conspecifics. Both mane and tail hairs are erected when the animal assumes a defensive posture, but also when it adopts an aggressive stance. The mane is also commonly bristled whenever the animal pastes. When Striped Hyenas fight they bite at the throat and legs, rather than at the mane. During an agonistic interaction, the subordinate individual may hunch its body, lower its mane, and swing or turn its head from side to side whereas the dominant animal remains bristled and stands erect. The Striped Hyena exhibits a number of visual displays, the moststriking of which is the erection of the mane and bristling ofthe tail like a bottle brush. The mane and tail thus serve as signalling devices during social interactions. When members of the same social group meet after being separated, they engage in “meeting ceremonies”, which involve investigation and licking of the mid-back region and sniffing of the nose and extruded anal pouch. The tail is often held vertically during meeting ceremonies. Meeting ceremonies may also involve repeated pawing of the throat of the greeting partner. The well-developed anal pouch is inverted during scent marking, called pasting, and also during greetings. In scent marking, the anal pouch produces a pungent yellow to beige paste which is deposited at nose-height on grass stalks, stones, tree-trunks, or sticks. Foraging Striped Hyenas pause to paste at frequent intervals, and these scent marks appear to be deposited throughout the home range rather than exclusively at its borders. Pasting has also been observed at large carcasses in the wild, and, in captivity, on food bowls. Some Striped Hyena vocalizations resemble those of Spotted Hyenas, although calls emitted by Striped Hyenas tend to be much softer, and the sounds carry shorter distances. The vocal repertoire of the Spotted Hyenais also far more elaborate than that of the Striped Hyena. Most ofits vocalizations are uttered in the presence of conspecifics. Cubs whine while they are nursing. Giggling or yelling may occur when a Striped Hyena is frightened or being chased by another predator. A long, drawn-out lowing sound sometimes accompanies the defensive posture, and growling may occur during fighting or play-fighting with conspecifics.Breeding.Females are polyestrous and breed throughout the year. Estrus is reported to last one day. No detailed descriptions of sexual behavior in the wild have been reported, but during matings in captivity, females may mate several times at intervals of at least 15 minutes. In the wild, litter size varies from one to four (median of three), after a gestation period of 90-91 days. Average litter size in captivity is 2-4, with a range of one to five. Parturition is preceded by intensive digging behavior by the female. Cubs weigh approximately 700 gat birth; they have adult-like markings but lack manes, and instead have only black spinal stripes. They are born with eyes and ears closed, and they are barely able to crawl, so they are far more altricial than Spotted Hyena cubs at birth. Their eyesfirst open after five to nine days, and cubs may emerge from the den at around two weeks of age. Deciduous teeth start to erupt on day 21. Cubs begin to eat meat at the age of 30 days. In the wild cubs are known to nurse for over one year. They reach reproductive maturity during the second year oflife. The mating system is promiscuous or polyandrous. In the Laikipiapopulation in Kenya, females appear to mate with both group males and males that reside elsewhere. It is not known whether sires contribute in any way to parental care in this population, but lactating females are usually found alone at dens with their cubs, males do not spend significant periods of time at dens, and females appear to be solely responsible for care of young. Multiple paternity in this population occurred in half of sampled litters, and extra-group males sired roughly one third of the cubs born to group females. Striped Hyenas usually use caves, ravines or other sheltered rocky places as dens, although earthen dens may also be used. Den entrances are fairly narrow and may be hidden by large boulders. Two dens were measured in the Karakum Desert. The entrances were 0-67 m and 0-72 m wide. The dens sloped downward 3 mand 2bm and were 4-15 m and 5 mlong, with no lateral extensions or special chambers. These simple constructions contrast with much more elaborate dens found in Israel, which can exceed 27 min length.Status and Conservation.Listed as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Despite their broad distribution, the basic biology of Striped Hyenas, including their abundance in most parts of their range, remains very poorly known. Throughout its range, the Striped Hyena occurs at low densities. There have been only two local estimates of Striped Hyena density in Africa, and it is considered either threatened or data deficient throughout its African range. In Serengeti and Laikipia, density was estimated to be 0-02 per km? and 0-03 adults per km?, respectively. Remarkably little information is available on the species. This is undoubtedly due to its shy, nocturnal, mostly solitary nature, its apparent affinity for rugged terrain, its generally negative reputation, and frequent confusion with, or lack of differentiation from, Spotted Hyenas where the two species overlap. Most adult mortality is directly caused by Lions and humans. Striped Hyenas, particularly those inhabiting areas where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse, may attack livestock, and as a result they are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. It appears that the Striped Hyena is already extinct in many localities, and that populations are generally declining. The major reasonsfor this decline appear to be decreasing natural and domestic sources of carrion due to declines in the populations of other large carnivores and their prey, and changes in livestock practices. Moreover, the low densities and associated large home ranges of these animals are likely to increase the chances that populations will become fragmented into small, non-viable units. This must be considered a key problem if these animals are to be protected. The Striped Hyena evokes many superstitious fears because of putative and documented cases of grave-robbing and attacks on humans. In addition,its body parts are widely exploited as aphrodisiacs, and are utilized in folk medicine. Striped Hyenas are often killed because of suspected or real damage inflicted on agricultural produce and livestock, and they are often shot by livestock ranchers. These animals have also been widely hunted through poisoning, baiting traps, pits, or with the help of dogs. The Striped Hyena does sometimes cause damage to crops, and may sometimes also attack domestic animals, predominantly goats, sheep, dogs, and poultry. In many cases of damage to livestock, it is unclear whether the targeted individual was adult or young, healthy or sick, so Striped Hyenas may be blamed for livestock mortality for which they are not truly responsible. In any case, the records suggest that attacks on livestock by Striped Hyenas usually occur at very low frequencies. Tentative estimates of the total worldwide population size range from 5000 to 14,000 individuals. Fragmentation into many subpopulations is suspected even though the actual degree of fragmentation is unknown. In addition, habitat loss and declining population size are occurring at unknown rates. The Striped Hyena is considered threatened in all parts of its African range where data are sufficient to evaluate the local status, except in Ethiopiaand Kenya, whereit is considered at lowerrisk. As we currently know so little about the biology ofthis species, one of the most pressing conservation concerns is to study these animals in a number of different locales. In addition to knowing very little about their behavioral ecology, we also know virtually nothing about their abundance and population dynamics. Before we can make management decisions in the best interest of Striped Hyenas, we need more information. Fortunately, studies of these animals are currently underway in East Africa, India, and the Middle East.Bibliography.Bouskila (1984), Davidar (1990), Hofer (1998), Horwitz & Smith (1988), Kerbis-Peterhans & Horwitz (1992), Koepfli et al. (2006), Kolska (1991), Kruuk (1976), Leakey et al. (1999), Macdonald (1978), Mendelssohn (1985), Mills & Hofer (1998), Pocock (1934d), Rieger (1978, 1979a, 1979b, 1979¢, 1981), Skinner & llani (1979), Skinner et al. (1980), VanAarde et al. (1988), Wagner (2006, In press), Wagner, Creel et al. (2007), Wagner, Frank & Creel (2008), Wagner, Frank, Creel & Coscia (2007), Werdelin & Solounias (1991), Yom-Tov & Geffen (2006).","taxonomy":"Canis hyaena Linnaeus, 1758, India.Of the extant hyaenids, the Striped Hyena is most closely related to the Brown Hyena, and its lifestyle, reproduction, and social behavior more closely resemble those of Brown Hyenas than those of Spotted Hyenas or Aardwolves. Some authorities provisionally recognize five subspecies, distinguished mainly by differences in size and pelage (hyaenafrom India, barbara from NW Africa, dubbah from NE Africa, sultana from the Arabian Peninsula, and syriaca from Syria, Asia Minorand the Caucasus). However, other authorities argue that current morphological data and other evidence do not support multiple subspecies.","commonNames":"Hyéne rayée @fr | Streifenhyane @de | Hiena rayada @es","interpretedAuthority":"hyaena","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hyaenidae","interpretedGenus":"Hyaena","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"256","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hyaena","name":"Hyaena hyaena","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The Striped Hyena has a very large range, covering much of Africa and western Asia. Although they do not occur in the central Sahara, these animals occur at low density in patches throughout eastern, western and northern Africa, including Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Mali, Nigeria, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Tanzania, and Tunisia. Striped Hyenas also occur in the Middle East and Central Asia. Middle Eastern and Asian countries included in the modern distribution of the Striped Hyena are Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Yemen. The current distribution of this species is patchy, and usually appears to occur in small, isolated populations.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5676774/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bouskila (1984) | Davidar (1990) | Hofer (1998) | Horwitz & Smith (1988) | Kerbis-Peterhans & Horwitz (1992) | Koepfli et al. (2006) | Kolska (1991) | Kruuk (1976) | Leakey et al. (1999) | Macdonald (1978) | Mendelssohn (1985) | Mills & Hofer (1998) | Pocock (1934d) | Rieger (1978, 1979a, 1979b, 1979¢, 1981) | Skinner & llani (1979) | Skinner et al. (1980) | VanAarde et al. (1988) | Wagner (2006, In press) | Wagner, Creel et al. (2007) | Wagner, Frank & Creel (2008) | Wagner, Frank, Creel & Coscia (2007) | Werdelin & Solounias (1991) | Yom-Tov & Geffen (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet of Striped Hyenas apparently varies considerably from one part of their range to another, but these animals are clearly scavengers with catholic tastes. They are primarily carrion-eaters; their diet consists mainly of dried flesh and bones from carcasses of large vertebrates. They scavenge carrion and the remains of kills made by other predators, including Spotted Hyenas, Cheetahs, Leopards, Lions, and Tigers. The Hyena’s massive cheek teeth and supporting musculature easily permit the gnawing and breaking of bones, as well as the carapaces of tortoises and turtles. Striped Hyenas have also been reported to consume a wide variety of invertebrates, vegetables, fruit, garbage, and small vertebrates that the Hyenas hunt themselves. In central Kenya, analysis of bone fragments and hairs from fecal samples indicated that hyenas regularly consume small mammals and birds that are unlikely to be scavenged. The limited available diet data may underestimate the importance of active hunting in the lives of these animals. In various parts of eastern Africa, Striped Hyenas are reported to supplement their diet with Balanites fruits. The proportion of scavenged and killed prey items in the diet is still a matter of debate as there has been no detailed research on these Hyenas’ food intake. Some authors suggest that only individuals from the three larger subspecies, barbara, syriaca and hyaena, kill large prey, including livestock,as there is no evidence that the smaller subspecies, dubbah and sultana, attack large herbivores. In Turkmenistanthe Striped Hyena has been reported feeding on Wild Boar, Kulan, porcupine, and particularly tortoises. In Uzbekhistan and Tadzhikistan, seasonal abundance of oil willow fruits (Eleagnus angustifolia) is reflected in the diet; in the Caucasus region the diet includes abundant grasshoppers. In Israelthe Striped Hyena feeds on garbage, carrion, and fruits, particularly dates and melons. In eastern Jordan, the main sources of food are carcasses of feral horses and water buffalo and refuse from localvillages. The Striped Hyena can drink water of very variable quality, from fresh water to soda and salt water, but it may also satisfy its water requirements with melons or otherfruits. Very little is currently known about the hunting behavior of Striped Hyenas, but those few hunts that have been observed involved simple chases and grabs at prey. Seasonal influxes of Striped Hyenas follow migrations of large herds of domestic and wild ungulates in Turkmenistan, suggesting that the Hyenas cover long distances on foraging trips. In Egyptthey are known to move along ancient caravan roads where the chance of locating dead camels is high. In Serengeti and in southern Kenya, they spend most of the night actively searching for food or moving between established foraging sites. Striped Hyenas apparently can remember the locations offruiting trees, garbage dumps and other established feeding sites, although the routes taken to re-visit such food sources are seldom repeated on consecutive foraging trips. They are also able to locate tortoises in their hiding places during periods of aestivation and hibernation. Striped Hyenas frequently cache bones or pieces of skin, using their snouts to push these items deep into clumps of grass or stands of dense shrubs. They may also carry food items back to their dens. Bone collections are common at den sites used by Striped Hyenas, although it is often unclear whether these collections represent scavenged or killed prey, and whether the bones collected play a significant nutritional role in the lives of these animals. Several studies have inferred diet by combining data from bone collections and fecal samples. In central Kenya, however, bone collections indicated a much broader range of prey than did scat analysis, and significant portions of bone assemblages were very old bones unlikely to represent material scavenged from fresh kills. From fecal analysis alone, several researchers have found remains of prey items that are more likely to have been scavenged than hunted, and larger mammals are represented far less often in the analysis of hairs in fecal material than would be expected based only on bone collections at dens. Striped Hyenas appear to be strictly solitary foragers, although multiple individuals occasionally gather at rich food sources such as large carcasses or refuse pits. These animals are sometimes found in small groups while resting, but there is no indication that they ever forage cooperatively. Genetic relatedness among members of groups seen feeding together has not been investigated. Foraging activity in Kenyaand Tanzaniais restricted to hours of darkness except during rain or unusually cloudy weather. Under those circumstances, Striped Hyenas may return to previously visited kills or carcasses, but do not embark on full foraging forays. In many areas, and for many centuries, Striped Hyenas have been described as raiding human graves and carrying away bones. Fruit and vegetable crop raiding by Striped Hyenas is currently considered a serious problem in some parts of Israel. While foraging, Striped Hyenas zigzag across the landscape and do not appear to follow set routes, even when returning to the same food source on multiple nights. Minimum mean distance travelled per night is 19 kmat speeds of 2-4 km/h, occasionally trotting at speeds of up to 8 km/h, or running at a maximum of 50 km/h. Overall, the evidence indicates that Striped Hyenas are solitary foragers for which carrion, insects, fruits and vegetable matter represent significant portions of the diet.","breeding":"Females are polyestrous and breed throughout the year. Estrus is reported to last one day. No detailed descriptions of sexual behavior in the wild have been reported, but during matings in captivity, females may mate several times at intervals of at least 15 minutes. In the wild, litter size varies from one to four (median of three), after a gestation period of 90-91 days. Average litter size in captivity is 2-4, with a range of one to five. Parturition is preceded by intensive digging behavior by the female. Cubs weigh approximately 700 gat birth; they have adult-like markings but lack manes, and instead have only black spinal stripes. They are born with eyes and ears closed, and they are barely able to crawl, so they are far more altricial than Spotted Hyena cubs at birth. Their eyesfirst open after five to nine days, and cubs may emerge from the den at around two weeks of age. Deciduous teeth start to erupt on day 21. Cubs begin to eat meat at the age of 30 days. In the wild cubs are known to nurse for over one year. They reach reproductive maturity during the second year oflife. The mating system is promiscuous or polyandrous. In the Laikipiapopulation in Kenya, females appear to mate with both group males and males that reside elsewhere. It is not known whether sires contribute in any way to parental care in this population, but lactating females are usually found alone at dens with their cubs, males do not spend significant periods of time at dens, and females appear to be solely responsible for care of young. Multiple paternity in this population occurred in half of sampled litters, and extra-group males sired roughly one third of the cubs born to group females. Striped Hyenas usually use caves, ravines or other sheltered rocky places as dens, although earthen dens may also be used. Den entrances are fairly narrow and may be hidden by large boulders. Two dens were measured in the Karakum Desert. The entrances were 0-67 m and 0-72 m wide. The dens sloped downward 3 mand 2bm and were 4-15 m and 5 mlong, with no lateral extensions or special chambers. These simple constructions contrast with much more elaborate dens found in Israel, which can exceed 27 min length.","activityPatterns":"The Striped Hyena is almost strictly nocturnal, although it does occasionally engage in some activity after dawn and before dusk. Some authorities suggest Striped Hyenas may be moststrictly nocturnal in areas characterized by relatively intensive anthropogenic activity, and where they are directly persecuted by humans.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In Serengeti, Striped Hyenas travel an average of 19 kmper night (range 7-27 km), either following established animal tracks or zig-zagging cross-country. A similar pattern was observed in southern Kenya, where Striped Hyenas followed by human observers covered large distances, but stopped frequently to paste or to investigate grass clumps, carcasses, and other things found on the ground along the way. Home range sizes of one femaleand one malein the Serengeti were 44 km* and 72 km? respectively. There was little evidence of territorial behavior. Home range size was calculated for a single female in the Negev Desert in Israelto be approximately 61 km?; this range partly overlapped those of two other individuals. In the Laikipia Districtof Kenya, the mean home rangesize for 12 maleswas 82 km?, and for eight femaleswas 71 km? with no significant difference in home range sizes between sexes. No evidence ofterritorial defense has been recorded in any studied population, but in some populations these hyenas are known to scent-mark frequently within their home ranges while traveling, and also to defecate in “latrines” near feeding sites and along travel routes. Striped Hyenas are the least well-studied of the extant hyaenids, and their social behavior is very poorly understood. They are most often reported to be solitary. Nevertheless, there appears to be considerable variability with respect to patterns of social grouping among Striped Hyena populations. In some areas, such as central Asia, these animals are reported to form short-term monogamous pair bonds for breeding, with a resulting family unit that may endure for several years. Such family units may sometimes contain offspring from multiple litters. Under these circumstances, both parents and the older offspring may be observed provisioning den-dwelling cubs. Typical group sizes are one or two in all subspecies, but groups of up to seven have been reported in Libya. In Israel, Striped Hyenas are generally solitary, but occasionally several are seen together at a carcass, including both males and females, or females with large cubs. Age-specific foraging data are extremely limited, but cubs have occasionally been observed accompanying their mothers on foraging trips away from the den by 6-12 months of age. Otherwise, foraging is strictly solitary. Almost invariably described as solitary in sub-Saharan Africa, it was recently discovered that Striped Hyenas in the Laikipia Districtof Kenyaare behaviorally solitary but exhibit a polyandrous system of space use. These animals form groups of up to four adults; each group contains one adultfemale and one to three adultmales. Females in both wild and captive populations appear to be highly intolerant of one another, starting around the time they reach puberty. The overall adult sex ratio in the Laikipiapopulation was three malesto two females. Members of these groups share a common home range and may be found resting together during daylight hours. The home ranges of group-mates exhibit 85% overlap, whereas their ranges overlap only 22% with those of animals in other groups. Individual group members spend more than 90% of their time alone. Adult male group-mates included both closely-related and distantly related individuals. In contrast to spatial patterns of relatedness documented in other carnivores, pairs in non-adjacent groups tended to be more closely related genetically than pairs living in adjacent groups. This was true for females as well as males. As these animals are usually found alone, very little has been recorded regarding direct social interactions except for captive situations. In this species, males are slightly larger than females, and males also appear to be socially dominant to females in resource competition. The long dorsal hairs of the mane may be erected to enhance the apparentsize of the individual during confrontations with conspecifics. Both mane and tail hairs are erected when the animal assumes a defensive posture, but also when it adopts an aggressive stance. The mane is also commonly bristled whenever the animal pastes. When Striped Hyenas fight they bite at the throat and legs, rather than at the mane. During an agonistic interaction, the subordinate individual may hunch its body, lower its mane, and swing or turn its head from side to side whereas the dominant animal remains bristled and stands erect. The Striped Hyena exhibits a number of visual displays, the moststriking of which is the erection of the mane and bristling ofthe tail like a bottle brush. The mane and tail thus serve as signalling devices during social interactions. When members of the same social group meet after being separated, they engage in “meeting ceremonies”, which involve investigation and licking of the mid-back region and sniffing of the nose and extruded anal pouch. The tail is often held vertically during meeting ceremonies. Meeting ceremonies may also involve repeated pawing of the throat of the greeting partner. The well-developed anal pouch is inverted during scent marking, called pasting, and also during greetings. In scent marking, the anal pouch produces a pungent yellow to beige paste which is deposited at nose-height on grass stalks, stones, tree-trunks, or sticks. Foraging Striped Hyenas pause to paste at frequent intervals, and these scent marks appear to be deposited throughout the home range rather than exclusively at its borders. Pasting has also been observed at large carcasses in the wild, and, in captivity, on food bowls. Some Striped Hyena vocalizations resemble those of Spotted Hyenas, although calls emitted by Striped Hyenas tend to be much softer, and the sounds carry shorter distances. The vocal repertoire of the Spotted Hyenais also far more elaborate than that of the Striped Hyena. Most ofits vocalizations are uttered in the presence of conspecifics. Cubs whine while they are nursing. Giggling or yelling may occur when a Striped Hyena is frightened or being chased by another predator. A long, drawn-out lowing sound sometimes accompanies the defensive posture, and growling may occur during fighting or play-fighting with conspecifics.Breeding.Females are polyestrous and breed throughout the year. Estrus is reported to last one day. No detailed descriptions of sexual behavior in the wild have been reported, but during matings in captivity, females may mate several times at intervals of at least 15 minutes. In the wild, litter size varies from one to four (median of three), after a gestation period of 90-91 days. Average litter size in captivity is 2-4, with a range of one to five. Parturition is preceded by intensive digging behavior by the female. Cubs weigh approximately 700 gat birth; they have adult-like markings but lack manes, and instead have only black spinal stripes. They are born with eyes and ears closed, and they are barely able to crawl, so they are far more altricial than Spotted Hyena cubs at birth. Their eyesfirst open after five to nine days, and cubs may emerge from the den at around two weeks of age. Deciduous teeth start to erupt on day 21. Cubs begin to eat meat at the age of 30 days. In the wild cubs are known to nurse for over one year. They reach reproductive maturity during the second year oflife. The mating system is promiscuous or polyandrous. In the Laikipiapopulation in Kenya, females appear to mate with both group males and males that reside elsewhere. It is not known whether sires contribute in any way to parental care in this population, but lactating females are usually found alone at dens with their cubs, males do not spend significant periods of time at dens, and females appear to be solely responsible for care of young. Multiple paternity in this population occurred in half of sampled litters, and extra-group males sired roughly one third of the cubs born to group females. Striped Hyenas usually use caves, ravines or other sheltered rocky places as dens, although earthen dens may also be used. Den entrances are fairly narrow and may be hidden by large boulders. Two dens were measured in the Karakum Desert. The entrances were 0-67 m and 0-72 m wide. The dens sloped downward 3 mand 2bm and were 4-15 m and 5 mlong, with no lateral extensions or special chambers. These simple constructions contrast with much more elaborate dens found in Israel, which can exceed 27 min length.","statusAndConservation":"Listed as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Despite their broad distribution, the basic biology of Striped Hyenas, including their abundance in most parts of their range, remains very poorly known. Throughout its range, the Striped Hyena occurs at low densities. There have been only two local estimates of Striped Hyena density in Africa, and it is considered either threatened or data deficient throughout its African range. In Serengeti and Laikipia, density was estimated to be 0-02 per km? and 0-03 adults per km?, respectively. Remarkably little information is available on the species. This is undoubtedly due to its shy, nocturnal, mostly solitary nature, its apparent affinity for rugged terrain, its generally negative reputation, and frequent confusion with, or lack of differentiation from, Spotted Hyenas where the two species overlap. Most adult mortality is directly caused by Lions and humans. Striped Hyenas, particularly those inhabiting areas where natural prey are usually or seasonally sparse, may attack livestock, and as a result they are shot, snared, speared, or poisoned in many parts of their range by ranchers and pastoralists. It appears that the Striped Hyena is already extinct in many localities, and that populations are generally declining. The major reasonsfor this decline appear to be decreasing natural and domestic sources of carrion due to declines in the populations of other large carnivores and their prey, and changes in livestock practices. Moreover, the low densities and associated large home ranges of these animals are likely to increase the chances that populations will become fragmented into small, non-viable units. This must be considered a key problem if these animals are to be protected. The Striped Hyena evokes many superstitious fears because of putative and documented cases of grave-robbing and attacks on humans. In addition,its body parts are widely exploited as aphrodisiacs, and are utilized in folk medicine. Striped Hyenas are often killed because of suspected or real damage inflicted on agricultural produce and livestock, and they are often shot by livestock ranchers. These animals have also been widely hunted through poisoning, baiting traps, pits, or with the help of dogs. The Striped Hyena does sometimes cause damage to crops, and may sometimes also attack domestic animals, predominantly goats, sheep, dogs, and poultry. In many cases of damage to livestock, it is unclear whether the targeted individual was adult or young, healthy or sick, so Striped Hyenas may be blamed for livestock mortality for which they are not truly responsible. In any case, the records suggest that attacks on livestock by Striped Hyenas usually occur at very low frequencies. Tentative estimates of the total worldwide population size range from 5000 to 14,000 individuals. Fragmentation into many subpopulations is suspected even though the actual degree of fragmentation is unknown. In addition, habitat loss and declining population size are occurring at unknown rates. The Striped Hyena is considered threatened in all parts of its African range where data are sufficient to evaluate the local status, except in Ethiopiaand Kenya, whereit is considered at lowerrisk. As we currently know so little about the biology ofthis species, one of the most pressing conservation concerns is to study these animals in a number of different locales. In addition to knowing very little about their behavioral ecology, we also know virtually nothing about their abundance and population dynamics. Before we can make management decisions in the best interest of Striped Hyenas, we need more information. Fortunately, studies of these animals are currently underway in East Africa, India, and the Middle East.","descriptiveNotes":"The Striped Hyena is the smallest of the three bone-cracking hyaenids, but is substantially larger than the Aardwolf. Head-body 100-115 cm,tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height between 66-75 cm; weight 26-41 kg (males) and 26-34 kg (females). Among the provisional subspecies, body mass and body size are only well studied in syriaca in Israeland dubbah in Kenya. In these populations, there was no significant sexual dimorphism in body size. However, in one recent study in Israel, sexual dimorphism accounted for 39% of the variation in adult body size. Like the other hyaenids, the Striped Hyena has a sloping back because the forelegs are longer than the hindlegs, and has well-developed anal glands used for scent marking. Large ducts from the anal glands open into an anal pouch dorsal to the anus. As in the other bonecracking Hyenas, the head, neck, and shoulders are relatively massive and powerful. The fur is pale gray or straw-colored, with black vertical stripes on the sides of the body. Like the Brown Hyena, the Striped Hyena has longer fur than the Spotted Hyena, giving it a rather shaggy appearance. The Striped Hyena has a black muzzle and a black patch on the throat. It has five to nine vertical stripes on the flanks, two cheek stripes, and clear black transverse and horizontal stripes on all four legs. The head is roundish with a pointed muzzle and long, pointed ears. It has a gray or blond mane that runs along its dorsal midline from the ears to the tail; the mane can be erected to increase the animal’s apparentsize by over 30%. The mane in this species is more pronounced than that in any other hyaenid, with hairs up to 20 cmlong. The black and white tail is long and bushy, with hair that is generally coarse and long. Females have two or three pairs of teats, but if they have three, only the caudal two pairs are functional. Juvenile females have well-defined labia-like folds anterior to the vagina. These ridges are hairless and darker and rougher than the surrounding tissue. Juvenile males have smaller, smooth, hairless skin folds along the middle septum close to, but anterior to, the scrotum. Unlike Spotted Hyenas, these genital characteristics are not severe enough to confuse sexing of juveniles, and adult genitalia appear normal. Subspecies descriptions are based on limited data except for syriaca in Israeland dubbah in Kenya. In general animals living in the northern parts of the range tend to be slightly larger than those living in southern regions. Variation in pelage color appearsslight, although the Lebanese population is reported to have a reddish coat color, and hyenas on the Arabian Peninsula are described as having a yellow mark below the eyes and a mixed gray and black dorsal crest.","habitat":"In most ofits range the Striped Hyena occurs in rugged, arid habitat or light thorn bush country. These animals drink regularly where wateris available, but they can also survive in many waterless areas. In North Africa they prefer open woodlands and bushy and mountainous regions. The central Arabian and Sahara Deserts are not suitable habitat. In central Asia, Striped Hyenas avoid high altitudes and dense thickets and forests. The maximum elevations recorded are 2250 min Iran, 2500 min Indiaand 3300 min Pakistan. In the Caucasus region, Turkmenistan, Tadzhikistan, and Uzbekistan, prime habitats include savannah and semi-desert regions up to an elevation of 2100 m, mountain areas with strong relief, valleys with abundant caves or other resting sites, and riverine areas. The Striped Hyena avoids areas with minimum temperatures ofless than —15°C to —20°C and more than 80-120 days offrost per year. In Israel, Striped Hyenas are present even close to dense human settlements. In West Africa, they occur in dry scrub savanna and Sahel woodland, particularly in the belt of Acacia raddiana woodland that extends from Senegalto Chad. In eastern Africa, Striped Hyenas are found in a variety of habitats ranging from open savanna to rugged, bush-covered mountain terrain."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A40FFCED0DBF7C0FB4BF492.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A40FFCED0DBF7C0FB4BF492","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"236","verbatimText":"2.LlamaLama glamaFrench:Lama/ German:Lama/ Spanish:LlamaTaxonomy.Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758,Peru, Andes.The Llama was selectively bred from the Guanaco(L. guanicoe) for use as a pack animal and producer of meat. It is regarded throughout the world as the premier symbol of South American fauna. With the possibility of more than one center, Llama domestication occurred 4000-4500 years ago in the South-Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina) and/or 4500-5500 ago in the Central Andes (Junin de los Andes, Argentina). It is often assumed and reported that the Lake Titacaca region was a core of Llama domestication, but supporting data are lacking from early archaeological sites. Osteological remains and DNA analysis document the origin of domestication to be within the range of the northern subspecies of GuanacoL. g. cacsilensis. From its points of domestication, archeological evidence reveals that breeding and herding of Llamas spread widely throughout the Andean region to intermountain valleys, cloud forest on the eastern slope of the Central Andes, southern coast of Peru, to the mountains of Ecuador. Llamas closely resemble their progenitor the Guanacoin almost all aspects of physiology, behavior, general morphology, and adaptability to a wide range of environments. There are no subspecies, but two distinct phenotypic breeds: Short-Woolled and Long-Woolled Llamas.Distribution.Llamas are found at 3800-5000 m above sea level in the Central Andes, from C Peruto W Boliviaand N Argentina. Llama distribution reached its apex during the expansion of the Inca Empire (1470-1532 ap), when pack trains were used to carry supplies for the royal armies to S Colombiaand C Chile. Although originally indigenous and endemic to South America, Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, cottage industry and home use ofits wool, and in North America increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-229 cm, tail 18-22 cm, shoulder height 102-106 cm; weight 110-220 kg. Llamas are the largest of the four cameloids and tallest of all Neotropical animals. Classical, camelid-body shape with long slender necks, long legs, and small head compared to the body. Their pelage can be white, black, or brown with all intermediate shades occurring and a tendency for spots and irregular color patterns. Wild-type Llamas occur with Guanacocoloration. There are two distinct phenotypic breeds. SHORT-WOOLLED LLAMAS: Slim and long-bodied, with short coats and visible guard hairs, Short-Woolled Llamas are typically the breed utilized for carrying cargo and are the more common of the two. In the Altiplano regions of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi Departments the proportion of Short-Woolled Llamas varies between 65% and 83%, while in the Peruvian highlands they represent 80% of the total Llama population. The fleece is low density, low weight (1-3 + 1-1 kg biennially), and relatively thicker fibers with high medullation of 77-88%. Medullation refers to the presence and degree of medulla at the center of the fiber, and high medullation is “undesirable” because the greater the medullation, the bigger the fiber in diameter and so less fine. LONG-WOOLLED LLAMAS: The less common (17-35%) of the two, this breed is compact, short-bodied, and the pelage has fewer guard hairs. Their wool is longer, covering the entire body, generally uniform, and soft to the touch. The fleece is heavier (2-8 + 1-1 kg), denser, and has finer fibers (26-28 microns) with medullation of 26-33%, and on the average wool coarser than the Alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Genetic studies have revealed that 40% of the Llama population shows signs of hybridization with Alpacas. Intentional hybridization has been especially common during the past 25 years both in South America and abroad with the aim of improving wool quality, fleece weight, and economic value. Unfortunately the outcome has been a major loss of pure genetic lines. Indigenous Quechua peoples in the Andes subdivide hybrids into “llamawari” (Llama-like) and “pacowari” (Alpaca-like) based upon physical appearance. Llama ears are banana-shaped (distinctively curved inward) and relatively long (14-16 cm). They are docile, intelligent, and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. Mature Llamas weigh an average of 140 kgwith full body size reached by four years of age. There are no obvious differences between the sexes, but males tend to be slightly larger. The male prepuce is slightly bent down and directed posteriorly for urination. The female vulva is small, located immediately below the anus, with a nose-like structure pointing out from the base; the compact udderis in inguinal area with four small teats. Llamas are long-lived with a life span of 15-20 or more years. The Llama is woolly in appearance; individual fibers are often coarse, not homogeneous, and have a wide variation in diameter. Its fleece is the heaviest (1.8-3. 5 kg) of the four cameloids, but often of uneven quality. As with the other cameloids, Llama fleece lacks grease,is dry, highly hygroscopic, and naturally lanolin free. Through selective breeding and/or hybridization with Alpacas, some Llama bloodlines have finer-fibered fleeces. The typical Llama fleece is dominated by external guard hair covering (c.56% offleece with fiber diameter 50-70 microns) with an internal undercoat of smaller diameter fibers (c.44% with 25-30 microns). Llama wool is more variable in color and diameter than Alpaca wool. Due to its relative coarseness, [Llama wool has little textile value and is worth half the value of Alpaca wool. Llama woolis rougher to the touch, but with greater felting properties since the cuticle scales protrude more. However, because Llama wool is characteristically strong and warm, it is commonly used by indigenous families for making blankets, ponchos, carpets, rugs, shawls, rope, riding gear, sacks, and “costales\"—bags tied to the back of Llamas and used for carrying cargo. Only c.40% of the Llama population is shorn annually because producers want heavy fleeces with long fibers to sell commercially. Some Llamas are not shorn for years because the fleece pads the back for carrying cargo. Annually there are c.1,122,667 kg of Llama wool produced in Peru(60%), Bolivia(34%), and relatively small amounts from Argentinaand Chile. In Boliviaan estimated 70% is sold commercially and 30% used for home use. Although the textile industry prefers white, Llama fleeces are of different colors (47% solid, 27% mixed, 25% white). A major problem with Llama woolis its high medullation: without (20%), fragmented (37%), continuous (39%), and kemp/hair (4%). If the fleece wool is separated from different parts of the body and coarse fibers are removed, a favorable proportion of fine wool is obtained. There are no sustainable plans for genetic selection of animals with fine diameter of high value. Although the population of Llamas in Argentinais relatively low, fiber diameter is fine: 48% at 21 microns or less and only 16% at 25 microns and more.Habitat.In the Andean Altiplano where large numbers of Llamas are raised, the animals are a central part of the agro-pastoral system and the lifestyle of many people, since Llamas are heavily relied upon for carrying cargo and produce. In general these high-altitude grazing lands are low producing with annual production at 200-600 kg/ha for plains and mountainous zones and 600-2450 kg/ha for bofedales. The bofedal habitat is especially important for foraging Llamas during the dry season, yet fragile and susceptible to erosion if overgrazing is permitted.Food and Feeding.[lamas are considered by their indigenous herders to be extremely hardy because of their ability to prosper in desolate-Andean environments. They have similar feeding habits to Alpacas, but distinct enough to make joint husbandry compatible and possible. Herders view the land andits forage as a single valuable unit because it feeds their Llamas and Alpacas. Land ownership is not important, but traditional use and designated rights to graze particular areas is critical. Studies in the highlands of Peruand Chileon the botanical composition of the diets of Llamas feeding on wet (bofedales) and dry (gramadales) meadows found a high overlap with Alpaca and sheep feeding habits, but significantly differed from Alpacas in the summer (61%) and winter (74%) because the two camelids were managed by herders to minimize competition. Llamas had higher digestion coefficients than sheep of organic matter, crude protein, dry matter, and fiber fractions of bunchgrasses, important forage for Llamas. These feeding trials comparing the abilities of Llamas vs domestic sheep in digesting organic material ofvarious qualities revealed the coefficients of digestibility for low quality to be 51 vs. 41 (24% difference between the species), medium quality 60 vs. 52 (15%), high quality 73 vs. 75 (-=3%), high fiber 58 vs. 52 (12%), medium fiber 62 vs. 58 (7%), and low fiber 67 vs. 65 (3%). Thus Llamas were significantly more efficient than sheep when forage was low to medium quality and high in fiber. Maintenance energy requirements for a 108 kgLlama is 2% of its body weight, or 2-2 kg dry matter of forage per day.Breeding.The breeding season is from February to May. Males used for breeding are commonly familiar to the females, who when approached sit down in the copulatory position. Unfamiliar males usually have to chase the female and force her to recline. Research and extension agencies encourage herders to use one male with five females for three days, and then remove the male. The male is reintroduced 15 days later and the cycle is repeated until all females are bred. Gestation is 340-360 days. A single offspring is born, although exceptionally twins do occur. The female gives birth standing up, there is no licking of the neonate, and newborns can follow their mother within an hour. Llamas have a high potential for reproduction under good management: 85-95% annual reproductive rate on research and well-managed farms. However, in the Andes due to poor forage conditions frequently available to indigenous herders and the resulting poor condition of animals,fertility has been reported to be as low as 45-55%. In years of severe cold or droughts subadult mortality can be as high as 30-50%. Offspring regularly nurse up to the fifth month and are weaned by the herder at eight months, although if allowed to do so will continue to nurse irregularly until the female gives birth again the following year. Some females breed 8-10 days after parturition, but two to three weeks later is the norm. Mother Llamas are patient with suckling their young and some will accept nursing another female’s offspring. After weaning the young Llamas, some herders separate them from females until two years old, and then segregate them by sex. At three years of age a final selection is made for the best males to be sires with the balance to be used as pack animals or eventually meat. Females are bred at two and half years and not used as beasts of burden.Activity patterns.Daily activity patterns of Llamas are essentially the same as Alpacas. That is, after having spent the night in or next to a rudimentary stone corral adjacent to the family’s residence (often a single-room hut called “choza” made of stones with a thatched roof), the Llamas move out soon after sunrise to feed in the local highaltitude grasslands, moving and grazing often unattended by a herder, then return to the choza as darkness approaches. Activity budgets (percentage of time) of Llamas compared to sheep grazing on native Andean pasture dominated by favorable forage (Festucadolichophylla), have shown that all other activities were similar, but that Llamas feed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (15% vs. 25%) than sheep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.[Llamas (as well as Alpacas) of South America exist within a society of indigenous herders, whose main societal features are seasonal migration, a scattered population without villages or urban centers for permanent residence, and whose social structure is centered around large families with strong ties. Rules and traditions exist within each community that often determines important aspects of herd management. For example, in some systems male [lamas are maintained apart from the female segment in distant community pastures, and then reunited for the breeding/rainy season from January through March. The female segmentis a mixed herd of reproducing and replacement females, young, and one-year-olds of both sexes. When the yearlings are 12-18 months old some herders make a preliminary selection for meat production or future reproduction. Another system used extensively is one in which breeding males are permanently kept with the mixed herds of females year-round. Invariably Llama herders also maintain a flock of sheep that offers an important source of food for the family. A problem, however, is that the sheep compete for forage with the Llamas, reduce the land’s carrying capacity, and increase the probability of overgrazing. Llama herd size averages 40-60 in the more heavily populated communities, compared to 120-180 Llamas in the Altiplano with fewer people. In contrast, average accompanying flocks of sheep average 40-70 animals in both areas.Status and Conservation.Boliviahas most (58%) of South America’s ¢.3-91 million Llamas, followed by Peru(37%), Argentina(4%), and Chile(1%); nearly all of which (99%) are found in indigenous communities. The total number of Llamas has increased 12% during the past decade. In Bolivia370,000-500,000 families raise Llamas, in Peru297,414, Argentina2803, 80% of which have fewer than 90 animals. There are no known wild or feral populations. Llamas were intertwined with the rise and spread of the Inca Empire since its beginning in the Peruvian Andes in the early 1200s. With the help of Llamas, the Incas built sturdy walls, buildings, irrigation systems, and some 8700 kmof roads throughout their empire. These roads eventually extended around 2500 kmfrom Ecuadorsouth to central Chileand parts of Argentina. Before the Spanish Conquest of Peru, Llamas numbered into the multimillions, but were severely decimated during the post-conquest period. While early Spanish chroniclers recorded the “virtual disappearance” of these animals within a hundred years, that was obviously an exaggeration. Indigenous and endemic to the South America, [Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, and increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators. In the USAthere were 162,000 registered Llamas in 2010. Export of Llamas (as well as Alpacas) has increased international interest in these species, stimulating research in the medical, nutritional, reproductive, and disease disciplines. In the Andes, Llamas are viewed and described by native herders by masculine terminology. During ceremonies in which Llamas are being honored or sacrificed, they are referred to as “brothers” and when higher rank or importance is expressed, they are called “fathers.” Indigenous Llama terminology is based upon fleece color, patterns and patches, sex, reproductive status, age, size, shape, wool quality, and behavior. The combinations of these descriptive characters amount to over 20,000 words, forming a rich nomenclature used to identify and distinguish individual Llamas as well as Alpacas. Llamas have long been important beasts of burden for the Andean cultures and nations. Cargo-carrying Llamas have made it possible for peoples of the Andes to successfully inhabit this rugged-mountain environment. Extensive and ritualized prayers are said before departure of a Llama caravan, requesting permission and protection from local deities for the journey, safe passage, and that no incident will befall the Llamas or family members while traveling. Only men of the family travel with the Llama pack train, walking behind the animals. Castrated male Llamas are used primarily, and depending upon their maturity, size, and training, individuals are capable of carrying up to 25-30% of their body weight, or 25-35 kg, and traveling 20-30 km in a day for up to 20 days. The cargo is carried in a sack tied to the Llama’s back with a rope made from coarse Llama wool. Males are castrated at two years of age and training begins by accompanying the older animals on trips. Individual Llamas in the traveling caravan are not tied together, but follow the lead of two to three “Llama guides.” Such lead Llamas traditionally were adorned with colorful halters, frontal tapestries, and even a family or national flag atop its back. Animal leaders are given names to reflect their status, such as Road-Breaker, Condor Face, and Champion. Lead Llamas prevent junior animals from usurping the front position, and guide the way when fording rivers, crossing dangerous bridges, and when negotiating narrow paths along steep ravines. If the lead Llama stops, the entire caravan waits until it resumes traveling. At the end of the day, Llamas are unpacked and turned loose to graze and water. If available, they are kept in stone corrals for the night, otherwise they are grouped together with a rope running around them at neck level. Llama caravans use traditional trading circuits in the Altiplano, some descending into the Andean valleys, the Pacific coast to the west, or the Amazon jungle to the east. Goods are sold, purchased, and traded along the route as needed. From the coastal agricultural valleys fresh produce was obtained in exchange for corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley that were grown and carried down from the mountain agricultural valleys. In times past Llama trains traveled hundreds of kilometers to obtain highly prized salt from inland, natural-salt deposits and mines, some types of which were used for human consumption, others for animals. Today, the world of the Andean Llama herdsmen is rapidly changing with goods and produce now primarily transported by trucks and rail. Still, Llama caravans continue to be used and are especially important for transporting goods to remote regions of the Andes. Secondarily Llamas are used in South America for meat, fuel, and wool. Llama meatis often dried and stored as jerky, typically made by alternative freeze-drying during the Andean winter when nights are freezing and days sunny. With a dressing percentage of 44-48% yielding 25-30 kg of fresh meat, 12-15 kg ofjerky are produced. Jerky is not only a convenient form for long-term storage of meat, but is an excellent source of protein (55-60%). Llama hides are used for making shoes, ropes, and bags. Their fecal matter is valuable as fuel in regions where wood is scarce. It should be noted that despite the presence of many animals, the diet of Andean herdsmen is based upon agricultural produce. They eat little meat and drink no milk. Goat or cow cheese is consumed by some, and when meat is eaten,it is in the form of cameloid jerky or fresh sheep meat. Outside South America the Llama’s cargo-carrying ability has been discovered by hikers, hunters, and forest-work crews in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Llamas are quiet, gentle, unobtrusive, and easy to manage. Their hardiness, surefootedness, and trainability make them excellent pack animals and trail companions. The Llama’s agility allows them to negotiate terrain that would be difficult or impossible for other pack animals, and because of their padded feet and ability to browse, they have minimal impact on trails and mountain meadows. In North America Llamas have been used highly successfully as guard llamas for protecting sheep and goats from coyote and feral dog predation. Livestock owners report that their annual sheep losses dropped from 11% to 1% after the introduction of a guard llama, and more than half reported 100% reduction in predator losses. Single, gelded males are typically used, although females work equally well. In 2006, they were found across Canadaas well as in every USstate. In the USAthere were over 11,000 guard llamas in use on some 9500 sheep operations. Remarkably, half the sheep ranchers in Wyominghave guard llamas and they are common on sheep ranches in Colorado(39%), Montana(28%), and Utah(23%). In the Plains States, 23% of sheep producers in North Dakotaand 21% in South Dakotause guard llamas. In the Midwest and the Eastern States, Missouri(23%) and North Carolina(24%) lead the way, respectively. Although not a panacea, guard llamas have proven to be a viable non-lethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no special training and minimal care.Bibliography.Bravo et al. (2000), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995), Franklin (1982b), Franklin & Powell (2006), Gonzales (1990), Kadwell et al. (2001), Marin et al. (2007b), Novoa (1984), Quispe et al. (2009), San Martin (1989), Sumar (1996), Van Saun (2006), Wheeler (1984, 2006).","taxonomy":"Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758,Peru, Andes.The Llama was selectively bred from the Guanaco(L. guanicoe) for use as a pack animal and producer of meat. It is regarded throughout the world as the premier symbol of South American fauna. With the possibility of more than one center, Llama domestication occurred 4000-4500 years ago in the South-Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina) and/or 4500-5500 ago in the Central Andes (Junin de los Andes, Argentina). It is often assumed and reported that the Lake Titacaca region was a core of Llama domestication, but supporting data are lacking from early archaeological sites. Osteological remains and DNA analysis document the origin of domestication to be within the range of the northern subspecies of GuanacoL. g. cacsilensis. From its points of domestication, archeological evidence reveals that breeding and herding of Llamas spread widely throughout the Andean region to intermountain valleys, cloud forest on the eastern slope of the Central Andes, southern coast of Peru, to the mountains of Ecuador. Llamas closely resemble their progenitor the Guanacoin almost all aspects of physiology, behavior, general morphology, and adaptability to a wide range of environments. There are no subspecies, but two distinct phenotypic breeds: Short-Woolled and Long-Woolled Llamas.","commonNames":"Lama @fr | Lama @de | Llama @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"236","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"glama","name":"Lama glama","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Llamas are found at 3800-5000 m above sea level in the Central Andes, from C Peruto W Boliviaand N Argentina. Llama distribution reached its apex during the expansion of the Inca Empire (1470-1532 ap), when pack trains were used to carry supplies for the royal armies to S Colombiaand C Chile. Although originally indigenous and endemic to South America, Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, cottage industry and home use ofits wool, and in North America increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators.","bibliography":"Bravo et al. (2000) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995) | Franklin (1982b) | Franklin & Powell (2006) | Gonzales (1990) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Marin et al. (2007b) | Novoa (1984) | Quispe et al. (2009) | San Martin (1989) | Sumar (1996) | Van Saun (2006) | Wheeler (1984, 2006)","foodAndFeeding":"[lamas are considered by their indigenous herders to be extremely hardy because of their ability to prosper in desolate-Andean environments. They have similar feeding habits to Alpacas, but distinct enough to make joint husbandry compatible and possible. Herders view the land andits forage as a single valuable unit because it feeds their Llamas and Alpacas. Land ownership is not important, but traditional use and designated rights to graze particular areas is critical. Studies in the highlands of Peruand Chileon the botanical composition of the diets of Llamas feeding on wet (bofedales) and dry (gramadales) meadows found a high overlap with Alpaca and sheep feeding habits, but significantly differed from Alpacas in the summer (61%) and winter (74%) because the two camelids were managed by herders to minimize competition. Llamas had higher digestion coefficients than sheep of organic matter, crude protein, dry matter, and fiber fractions of bunchgrasses, important forage for Llamas. These feeding trials comparing the abilities of Llamas vs domestic sheep in digesting organic material ofvarious qualities revealed the coefficients of digestibility for low quality to be 51 vs. 41 (24% difference between the species), medium quality 60 vs. 52 (15%), high quality 73 vs. 75 (-=3%), high fiber 58 vs. 52 (12%), medium fiber 62 vs. 58 (7%), and low fiber 67 vs. 65 (3%). Thus Llamas were significantly more efficient than sheep when forage was low to medium quality and high in fiber. Maintenance energy requirements for a 108 kgLlama is 2% of its body weight, or 2-2 kg dry matter of forage per day.","breeding":"The breeding season is from February to May. Males used for breeding are commonly familiar to the females, who when approached sit down in the copulatory position. Unfamiliar males usually have to chase the female and force her to recline. Research and extension agencies encourage herders to use one male with five females for three days, and then remove the male. The male is reintroduced 15 days later and the cycle is repeated until all females are bred. Gestation is 340-360 days. A single offspring is born, although exceptionally twins do occur. The female gives birth standing up, there is no licking of the neonate, and newborns can follow their mother within an hour. Llamas have a high potential for reproduction under good management: 85-95% annual reproductive rate on research and well-managed farms. However, in the Andes due to poor forage conditions frequently available to indigenous herders and the resulting poor condition of animals,fertility has been reported to be as low as 45-55%. In years of severe cold or droughts subadult mortality can be as high as 30-50%. Offspring regularly nurse up to the fifth month and are weaned by the herder at eight months, although if allowed to do so will continue to nurse irregularly until the female gives birth again the following year. Some females breed 8-10 days after parturition, but two to three weeks later is the norm. Mother Llamas are patient with suckling their young and some will accept nursing another female’s offspring. After weaning the young Llamas, some herders separate them from females until two years old, and then segregate them by sex. At three years of age a final selection is made for the best males to be sires with the balance to be used as pack animals or eventually meat. Females are bred at two and half years and not used as beasts of burden.","activityPatterns":"Daily activity patterns of Llamas are essentially the same as Alpacas. That is, after having spent the night in or next to a rudimentary stone corral adjacent to the family’s residence (often a single-room hut called “choza” made of stones with a thatched roof), the Llamas move out soon after sunrise to feed in the local highaltitude grasslands, moving and grazing often unattended by a herder, then return to the choza as darkness approaches. Activity budgets (percentage of time) of Llamas compared to sheep grazing on native Andean pasture dominated by favorable forage (Festucadolichophylla), have shown that all other activities were similar, but that Llamas feed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (15% vs. 25%) than sheep.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"[Llamas (as well as Alpacas) of South America exist within a society of indigenous herders, whose main societal features are seasonal migration, a scattered population without villages or urban centers for permanent residence, and whose social structure is centered around large families with strong ties. Rules and traditions exist within each community that often determines important aspects of herd management. For example, in some systems male [lamas are maintained apart from the female segment in distant community pastures, and then reunited for the breeding/rainy season from January through March. The female segmentis a mixed herd of reproducing and replacement females, young, and one-year-olds of both sexes. When the yearlings are 12-18 months old some herders make a preliminary selection for meat production or future reproduction. Another system used extensively is one in which breeding males are permanently kept with the mixed herds of females year-round. Invariably Llama herders also maintain a flock of sheep that offers an important source of food for the family. A problem, however, is that the sheep compete for forage with the Llamas, reduce the land’s carrying capacity, and increase the probability of overgrazing. Llama herd size averages 40-60 in the more heavily populated communities, compared to 120-180 Llamas in the Altiplano with fewer people. In contrast, average accompanying flocks of sheep average 40-70 animals in both areas.","statusAndConservation":"Boliviahas most (58%) of South America’s ¢.3-91 million Llamas, followed by Peru(37%), Argentina(4%), and Chile(1%); nearly all of which (99%) are found in indigenous communities. The total number of Llamas has increased 12% during the past decade. In Bolivia370,000-500,000 families raise Llamas, in Peru297,414, Argentina2803, 80% of which have fewer than 90 animals. There are no known wild or feral populations. Llamas were intertwined with the rise and spread of the Inca Empire since its beginning in the Peruvian Andes in the early 1200s. With the help of Llamas, the Incas built sturdy walls, buildings, irrigation systems, and some 8700 kmof roads throughout their empire. These roads eventually extended around 2500 kmfrom Ecuadorsouth to central Chileand parts of Argentina. Before the Spanish Conquest of Peru, Llamas numbered into the multimillions, but were severely decimated during the post-conquest period. While early Spanish chroniclers recorded the “virtual disappearance” of these animals within a hundred years, that was obviously an exaggeration. Indigenous and endemic to the South America, [Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, and increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators. In the USAthere were 162,000 registered Llamas in 2010. Export of Llamas (as well as Alpacas) has increased international interest in these species, stimulating research in the medical, nutritional, reproductive, and disease disciplines. In the Andes, Llamas are viewed and described by native herders by masculine terminology. During ceremonies in which Llamas are being honored or sacrificed, they are referred to as “brothers” and when higher rank or importance is expressed, they are called “fathers.” Indigenous Llama terminology is based upon fleece color, patterns and patches, sex, reproductive status, age, size, shape, wool quality, and behavior. The combinations of these descriptive characters amount to over 20,000 words, forming a rich nomenclature used to identify and distinguish individual Llamas as well as Alpacas. Llamas have long been important beasts of burden for the Andean cultures and nations. Cargo-carrying Llamas have made it possible for peoples of the Andes to successfully inhabit this rugged-mountain environment. Extensive and ritualized prayers are said before departure of a Llama caravan, requesting permission and protection from local deities for the journey, safe passage, and that no incident will befall the Llamas or family members while traveling. Only men of the family travel with the Llama pack train, walking behind the animals. Castrated male Llamas are used primarily, and depending upon their maturity, size, and training, individuals are capable of carrying up to 25-30% of their body weight, or 25-35 kg, and traveling 20-30 km in a day for up to 20 days. The cargo is carried in a sack tied to the Llama’s back with a rope made from coarse Llama wool. Males are castrated at two years of age and training begins by accompanying the older animals on trips. Individual Llamas in the traveling caravan are not tied together, but follow the lead of two to three “Llama guides.” Such lead Llamas traditionally were adorned with colorful halters, frontal tapestries, and even a family or national flag atop its back. Animal leaders are given names to reflect their status, such as Road-Breaker, Condor Face, and Champion. Lead Llamas prevent junior animals from usurping the front position, and guide the way when fording rivers, crossing dangerous bridges, and when negotiating narrow paths along steep ravines. If the lead Llama stops, the entire caravan waits until it resumes traveling. At the end of the day, Llamas are unpacked and turned loose to graze and water. If available, they are kept in stone corrals for the night, otherwise they are grouped together with a rope running around them at neck level. Llama caravans use traditional trading circuits in the Altiplano, some descending into the Andean valleys, the Pacific coast to the west, or the Amazon jungle to the east. Goods are sold, purchased, and traded along the route as needed. From the coastal agricultural valleys fresh produce was obtained in exchange for corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley that were grown and carried down from the mountain agricultural valleys. In times past Llama trains traveled hundreds of kilometers to obtain highly prized salt from inland, natural-salt deposits and mines, some types of which were used for human consumption, others for animals. Today, the world of the Andean Llama herdsmen is rapidly changing with goods and produce now primarily transported by trucks and rail. Still, Llama caravans continue to be used and are especially important for transporting goods to remote regions of the Andes. Secondarily Llamas are used in South America for meat, fuel, and wool. Llama meatis often dried and stored as jerky, typically made by alternative freeze-drying during the Andean winter when nights are freezing and days sunny. With a dressing percentage of 44-48% yielding 25-30 kg of fresh meat, 12-15 kg ofjerky are produced. Jerky is not only a convenient form for long-term storage of meat, but is an excellent source of protein (55-60%). Llama hides are used for making shoes, ropes, and bags. Their fecal matter is valuable as fuel in regions where wood is scarce. It should be noted that despite the presence of many animals, the diet of Andean herdsmen is based upon agricultural produce. They eat little meat and drink no milk. Goat or cow cheese is consumed by some, and when meat is eaten,it is in the form of cameloid jerky or fresh sheep meat. Outside South America the Llama’s cargo-carrying ability has been discovered by hikers, hunters, and forest-work crews in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Llamas are quiet, gentle, unobtrusive, and easy to manage. Their hardiness, surefootedness, and trainability make them excellent pack animals and trail companions. The Llama’s agility allows them to negotiate terrain that would be difficult or impossible for other pack animals, and because of their padded feet and ability to browse, they have minimal impact on trails and mountain meadows. In North America Llamas have been used highly successfully as guard llamas for protecting sheep and goats from coyote and feral dog predation. Livestock owners report that their annual sheep losses dropped from 11% to 1% after the introduction of a guard llama, and more than half reported 100% reduction in predator losses. Single, gelded males are typically used, although females work equally well. In 2006, they were found across Canadaas well as in every USstate. In the USAthere were over 11,000 guard llamas in use on some 9500 sheep operations. Remarkably, half the sheep ranchers in Wyominghave guard llamas and they are common on sheep ranches in Colorado(39%), Montana(28%), and Utah(23%). In the Plains States, 23% of sheep producers in North Dakotaand 21% in South Dakotause guard llamas. In the Midwest and the Eastern States, Missouri(23%) and North Carolina(24%) lead the way, respectively. Although not a panacea, guard llamas have proven to be a viable non-lethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no special training and minimal care.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-229 cm, tail 18-22 cm, shoulder height 102-106 cm; weight 110-220 kg. Llamas are the largest of the four cameloids and tallest of all Neotropical animals. Classical, camelid-body shape with long slender necks, long legs, and small head compared to the body. Their pelage can be white, black, or brown with all intermediate shades occurring and a tendency for spots and irregular color patterns. Wild-type Llamas occur with Guanacocoloration. There are two distinct phenotypic breeds. SHORT-WOOLLED LLAMAS: Slim and long-bodied, with short coats and visible guard hairs, Short-Woolled Llamas are typically the breed utilized for carrying cargo and are the more common of the two. In the Altiplano regions of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi Departments the proportion of Short-Woolled Llamas varies between 65% and 83%, while in the Peruvian highlands they represent 80% of the total Llama population. The fleece is low density, low weight (1-3 + 1-1 kg biennially), and relatively thicker fibers with high medullation of 77-88%. Medullation refers to the presence and degree of medulla at the center of the fiber, and high medullation is “undesirable” because the greater the medullation, the bigger the fiber in diameter and so less fine. LONG-WOOLLED LLAMAS: The less common (17-35%) of the two, this breed is compact, short-bodied, and the pelage has fewer guard hairs. Their wool is longer, covering the entire body, generally uniform, and soft to the touch. The fleece is heavier (2-8 + 1-1 kg), denser, and has finer fibers (26-28 microns) with medullation of 26-33%, and on the average wool coarser than the Alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Genetic studies have revealed that 40% of the Llama population shows signs of hybridization with Alpacas. Intentional hybridization has been especially common during the past 25 years both in South America and abroad with the aim of improving wool quality, fleece weight, and economic value. Unfortunately the outcome has been a major loss of pure genetic lines. Indigenous Quechua peoples in the Andes subdivide hybrids into “llamawari” (Llama-like) and “pacowari” (Alpaca-like) based upon physical appearance. Llama ears are banana-shaped (distinctively curved inward) and relatively long (14-16 cm). They are docile, intelligent, and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. Mature Llamas weigh an average of 140 kgwith full body size reached by four years of age. There are no obvious differences between the sexes, but males tend to be slightly larger. The male prepuce is slightly bent down and directed posteriorly for urination. The female vulva is small, located immediately below the anus, with a nose-like structure pointing out from the base; the compact udderis in inguinal area with four small teats. Llamas are long-lived with a life span of 15-20 or more years. The Llama is woolly in appearance; individual fibers are often coarse, not homogeneous, and have a wide variation in diameter. Its fleece is the heaviest (1.8-3. 5 kg) of the four cameloids, but often of uneven quality. As with the other cameloids, Llama fleece lacks grease,is dry, highly hygroscopic, and naturally lanolin free. Through selective breeding and/or hybridization with Alpacas, some Llama bloodlines have finer-fibered fleeces. The typical Llama fleece is dominated by external guard hair covering (c.56% offleece with fiber diameter 50-70 microns) with an internal undercoat of smaller diameter fibers (c.44% with 25-30 microns). Llama wool is more variable in color and diameter than Alpaca wool. Due to its relative coarseness, [Llama wool has little textile value and is worth half the value of Alpaca wool. Llama woolis rougher to the touch, but with greater felting properties since the cuticle scales protrude more. However, because Llama wool is characteristically strong and warm, it is commonly used by indigenous families for making blankets, ponchos, carpets, rugs, shawls, rope, riding gear, sacks, and “costales\"—bags tied to the back of Llamas and used for carrying cargo. Only c.40% of the Llama population is shorn annually because producers want heavy fleeces with long fibers to sell commercially. Some Llamas are not shorn for years because the fleece pads the back for carrying cargo. Annually there are c.1,122,667 kg of Llama wool produced in Peru(60%), Bolivia(34%), and relatively small amounts from Argentinaand Chile. In Boliviaan estimated 70% is sold commercially and 30% used for home use. Although the textile industry prefers white, Llama fleeces are of different colors (47% solid, 27% mixed, 25% white). A major problem with Llama woolis its high medullation: without (20%), fragmented (37%), continuous (39%), and kemp/hair (4%). If the fleece wool is separated from different parts of the body and coarse fibers are removed, a favorable proportion of fine wool is obtained. There are no sustainable plans for genetic selection of animals with fine diameter of high value. Although the population of Llamas in Argentinais relatively low, fiber diameter is fine: 48% at 21 microns or less and only 16% at 25 microns and more.","habitat":"In the Andean Altiplano where large numbers of Llamas are raised, the animals are a central part of the agro-pastoral system and the lifestyle of many people, since Llamas are heavily relied upon for carrying cargo and produce. In general these high-altitude grazing lands are low producing with annual production at 200-600 kg/ha for plains and mountainous zones and 600-2450 kg/ha for bofedales. The bofedal habitat is especially important for foraging Llamas during the dry season, yet fragile and susceptible to erosion if overgrazing is permitted."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A41FFC8D579FE7AF5F5F837.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A41FFC8D579FE7AF5F5F837","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"235","verbatimText":"1.GuanacoLama guanicoeFrench:Guanaco/ German:Guanako/ Spanish:GuanacoTaxonomy.Camelus guanicoe Muller, 1776,Patagonia, Argentina.The Guanacois a direct descendent of Hemiauchenia, a genus of camelid that migrated from North to South America three million years ago. Two million yearold fossils of L. guanicoecan be found today in ArgentinePleistocene deposits and others in strata dated 73,000-97,000 years ago in Bolivia. Phylogenetically, L. guanicoeis monophyletic. Historically, four sub-species of Guanacos were recognized, albeit based upon incomplete information on skull measurements, coat coloration, distribution, and body size. However, recent molecular studies using mtDNA cytochrome-b sequences, recognize only two subspecies, placing the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations in subspecies cacsilensis and assigning the remainder of the clade to subspecies guanicoe. A significant biogeographic revision of the two valid subspecies is needed, especially an analysis and classification of populations on a regional and ecosystem basis.Subspecies and Distribution.L.g.guanicoeMiller,1776—Bolivia,Chile,WArgentina(fromJujuytoSPatagonia),TierradelFuego,andNavarinoI.L. g. cacsilensis Lonnberg, 1913— N Peruto N Chilebetween 8° Sand 22° S. Introduced from Argentinato Staats I (Falkland Is) during the late 1930s.Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-215 cm,tail 23-27 cm, shoulder height 90-130 cm; weight 90-140 kg. Measurements vary because of their wide distribution and differences between subspecies. Guanacos are extremely striking, with their contrasting colors, large, alert brown eyes, streamlined form, and energetic pace. Described by Darwin as “an elegant animal, with a long, slender neck and fine legs,” itis one of South America’s largest terrestrial mammals, reaching its maximum size in southern Chileand smallest in northern Peru. There is no obvious sexual dimorphism in size, color, or structure, except for the presence of large canines in the male. The color of the woolly pelage is similar for all Guanacos, varying from light brown with ocher yellow tones in the north to dark reddish brown in the south. The chest, front of neck, belly, and internal portion of the legs are more or less pure white, the head gray to black. Guanacowool is prized for its softness and warmth, and second only to that of the Vicuna (Vicugnavicugna). The pelts from “chulengos” (newborns and less than one-year-old juveniles) are particularly soft. Like their domestic descendant the Llama (L. glama), the Guanacois double-coated, with coarse guard hair (3-5% offleece) and a soft undercoat. The undercoatfibers range 12-17 (average 14-16) microns in diameter. Fiber (strand) length is 35 mm, the same as the Vicuna. Average fleece weights vary from 322 gto 350 g. Fiber diameter increases about two microns from one to seven year of age. Value of shorn, unclean wool is US$ 100-200/kg and US$ 400/kg for cleaned and dehaired wool. Guanacos have “thermal windows” in the front and rear flanks (underarms) that are nearly without wool. Both wild and captive Guanacos may live as long as 28 years.Habitat.The Guanacoinhabits environments from sea level up to 4500 mor more, characterized by highly seasonal weather, with snow cover or dry winters, cold to freezing temperatures, moderate to high winds, and low precipitation. These combine to produce high evapo-transpiration and dry conditions that lead to low primary productivity. At a broad scale, Guanacos inhabit four of the ten major habitats found in South America: desert and xeric shrublands, montane and lowland grasslands, savannas and shrublands, and temperate forests, which botanically include the categories of Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal, and the southern Pampa. They inhabit flatlands, hilly foothills, and mountainous environments. In the arid habitats of southern Chile, isolated mesic subsystems were the preferred plant community accounting for 85% of female sightings and 60% ofterritorial males. These “vegas” (meadows) were not only preferred for their productive, higher-quality succulent forage, but for females a major influence for their selection was the avoidance ofsites and habitats favored by Pumas (Puma concolor).Food and Feeding.The Guanacois a non-specialized, opportunistic, intermediate, mixed-feeding herbivore, foraging on a wide variety of plants. It is basically a grazer, but also browses. When the availability of the herbaceous strata decreases or becomes unavailable, especially during winter, Guanacos feed mainly on the shrub or tree strata. This flexibility as a generalist to change diet according to availability or preference extends to eating epiphytes, lichens, fungi, cacti, succulent plants, fruit, flowers, and leaves. Their summer diet in a mixed habitat of southern Chileaveraged 62% grasses (mainly Festuca), 15% browse (Nothofagusspp.), and 11% forbs, which were particularly important in the spring. In another study on Tierra del Fuego their diet was made up of 90% grasses and forbs. In austral coastal forests of southern Chile, Guanacobrowsing significantly diminishes the rate of regeneration of the commercially important southern beech tree (Nothofagus pumilio) and was a limiting factor on initial growth of seedlings and saplings (89% were browsed), although the Guanaco’s diet was less than 10% shrubs and trees. At Torres del Paine National Park, at the western edge of the Patagonia, vegas were highly utilized in summer (86% ofall feeding observations) and preferred by all feeding Guanacos (n = 1659) in family groups, whereas all other vegetation types were avoided (shrub = 3%, upland = 10%). Adult females in family groups showed the greatest feeding preference for vegas, followed by chulengos, yearlings, and adult males. In ArgentinePatagonia, Guanacodensities are low and negatively related to domestic sheep numbers. Guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences, with over 80% oftheir diets being identical. Histological analysis of fecal samples revealed that Guanacos and sheep were intermediate herbivores feeding on a wide range of grasses and forbs, capable of changing their diets seasonally, and their food niches greatly overlapped particularly in summer when food resources were more scarce than in spring.Breeding.Nearly all females breed at two years of age and have their first offspring as three-year olds. At Torres del Paine, Chilemales began breeding after obtaining a feeding territory when they were 2—4 years of age. Essentially all breeding took place within feeding territories during the summer. A high percentage (88%) of males established a territory for three or fewer years (average 2-3), although some males held territories for as long as eight years. Few solo males became family group males (19%), that is, 81% remained non-reproductive during their territorial tenure. Those males leaving male groups to become territorial, only 35% directly became family group territorial males while 65% became solo territorial males. Like other camelids, Guanacos are induced ovulators. The territorial mating period was from early Decemberto early January (91% of 88 observed copulations), so males defended their feeding territories for nine weeks before and eight weeks after the mating season. Mature female Guanacos give birth to a single offspring each year after a gestation of about 11-7 months (345-360 days). Only three sets of twins were documented in over two decades offield studies at Torres del Paine during which several thousand newborns were observed; in all cases no more than one survived past the first week. Half of all births occur in the last two weeks of spring. The timing of parturition varies with latitude. At Torres del Paine the birth season occurred from late November to early January. Parturition occurs during the day in Patagonia with 78% of births between 10:00 h and 14:00 h, when the young are able to dry during favorable midday temperature conditions. Birth weight averages 13 kg(7-15 kg) and shows marked density dependence, with lower birth weights at higher population densities. Low weight at birth is related to high rates of mortality. Newborns are very precocious. They can stand as early as 5-76 minutes after birth and can run within hours. Young are weaned at 6-8 months and are expelled from family groups by the territorial male when they are 11-15 months old. Dispersing yearling males join male groups and yearling females join family groups or female groups. Monitoring of 409 radio-collared chulengos at Torres del Paine over a seven-year period revealed an average first-year survival rate of 38% (31-55%). Puma predation was the primary cause of mortality of young Guanacos, especially in the first two weeks of life. Relative to their availabilities, chulengos were preyed upon about four times as much as adults. With every centimeter increase in winter snowfall, the risk of chulengo mortality increased by almost 6% because of greater vulnerability to predation. Out of 731 Guanacoskulls collected at Torres del Paine from 1979 to 1988, 33% showed clear evidence of having been killed by Pumas, and that was considered an underestimate. Observations of farmed Guanacos revealed that allosuckling (nursing of non-filial offspring) comprised 6% of all suckling events by 62% of calves and was allowed by 52% of dams. Dams whose calves performed allosuckling exhibited poorer body condition, suggesting juvenile Guanacos allosuckled to compensate for nutritional deficiencies. Preliminary research on the cytochrome-b gene sequence has found no evidence of hybridization between Guanacos and Vicunas.Activity patterns.Observations of both wild and captive Guanacos have shown peaks of eating, bedding, and ruminating in the morning and again later in the afternoon. Wild Guanacos spent a greater proportion of their time moving and less time resting, probably the result of the need to forage more and maintain intraspecific social interactions. At Torres del Paine during the summer, Guanacos in family groups in vega habitat fed 54% of time, rested 45%, and were involved in other behaviors 1% of the time (3084 focal observations). There was no difference in the activity-time budgets of 23 marked solo territorial males compared to family-group territorial males based on social group type, total number of females, total number of Guanacos present, or age of the ter ritorial males. The pattern suggested thatterritorial male behaviors were related to resource defense rather than to any direct ability to attract potential mates. Males, in all categories, spent most of their time foraging (65% of overall time budget). However, based upon habitat type there was a significant difference in time spent in aggressive and in miscellaneous activities (defecation, alertness to observer, scratching). Most aggressive encounters and miscellaneous activity occurred on hilltops of areas dominated by mata barrosa shrubs (Mulinum spinosum). Vigilance patterns were assessed in Chubut, Argentinafor Guanacos occupying a tall shrubland covering 40-60% of the area, where 40% of the mortality was from Puma predation. Family group territorial males devoted more time to scanning their surroundings and less time feeding than did females, and both sexes benefited from grouping by reducing the time invested in vigilance and increasing foraging time. Males reduced the time invested in vigilance as the number of females in the group increased, while the presence of chulengos increased territorial male vigilance. However, in closed habitats collective vigilance increased with the number of adults but decreased with the number of chulengos. Although male and female Guanacos differed in their time allocation, results supported the hypothesis that both sexes received significant anti-predator benefits from group living. Adjustments in Guanacobody posture can modify the exposure of body surface area H—22%. Guanacos can decrease and increase body heat loss through radiation and convection by “closing” and “opening” their thermal windows in the axillary and flank regions. Researchers report that when ambient temperatures were 0-10°C, animals used postural adjustments to decrease the area of the thermal windows by 5-7% oftotal surface area. At temperatures greater than 10°C they increased the area of the thermal windows up to 22% to regulate heat loss through radiation and convection. When the temperature was below 0—1°C Guanacos bedded and huddled together, often with their hindquarters into the wind.On following pages 2 Llama (Lama glama). 3 Vıcuña (Vicugna vlcuana), 4 Alpaca (Vicugna paces‘) 5 Bacman Camel (Camelus bactnanus), 6 Dromodary Camel (Camelus dromedanus)Movements, Home range and Social organization.Intensively studied Guanacopopulations have been either migratory or sedentary. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve (Argentina), both occur but most are sedentary, while on the island of Tierra del Fuego(Chile) both occur, but most are migratory. In Argentinapopulations have been reported to be migratory over short distances, altitudinal-facultative migratory, and strictly sedentary. On Tierra del Fuegosedentary populations were incompletely so, because during the winter when territories were snow covered, many or all of the family group members abandoned the site, leaving the territorial male by himself or only with a few members. The following spring the male regained his group membership. Although some local populations now appear to be sedentary at Torres del Paine, in the 1970s and 1980s the population was completely migratory. In those decades essentially all animals abandoned the summer range and moved in late autumn 8-18 km to where the snow was less deep and browse species were more abundant. The following spring the animals returned to their summer range. Daily movements of family groups on Tierra del Fuegowere highly predictable: days were spent in open meadows feeding and nights were spent resting in the adjacent closed Nothofagus forest. In the open habitat of Torres del Paine, the animals spent days on territories and nights on adjacent slopes or hill tops. The social organization of Guanacos is similar to that of Vicunas, except that territorial, resource-defense polygyny is seasonal instead of yearround and there is fluid movement of females between male territories. The social units of Guanacos for the migratory population at Torres del Paine were family groups, male groups, solo males, mixed groups, and female groups. Typical family groups were composed of one adult territorial male, seven females, and four juveniles less than 15 months old. Group size and composition frequently changed. Family groups occupied feeding territories 7-13 ha in size, which were defended by the resident male. With minor adjustments to the center of activity from year-to-year,territory locations were the same, spatially discrete, and non-overlapping. There was no indication of defended sleeping territories as found with Vicunas. Although family groups were “open” in the sense that females couldjoin and leave at will, the territorial male determined whether or not females were accepted into or rejected from the group. In a study of marked territorial males at Torres del Paine, most (73%, n = 60) returned to the same territorial location from year-to-year. Those males (27%) that shifted territorial locations showed no pattern in changes between solo territorial males and family-group territorial males. Male groups were composed of non-breeding, non-territorial, immature and mature males. Group size was highly variable (3-60) and averaged about 25. Male groups lived apart from family groups, in male-group zones. Solo males were mature males with an established territory, but commonly without females; the mean “group size” for solo males was three. Mixed groups formed in winter and included Guanacos of both sexes and all age classes. They averaged 60 animals with as many as 500. Female groups were gatherings of females of all ages and occasionally included a small number of immature males. These groups came together temporarily immediately before and after the winter migratory season. Female group size was highly variable, and could number 10-90 animals. At high population densities, the size of Guanacoterritories can decrease significantly. Large female groups and their chulengos can shift daily from territory to territory. The annual cycle of migratory Guanacos at Torres del Paine was divisible into four general socioecological periods: summer territorial, autumn transitional, winter aggregational, and spring transitional. The summer period was the longest, from mid-October to the end of March. This was reproductive season, during which males defended territories and when birth and mating occurred. The summer territorial social units were 35% family groups, 15% male groups, 42% solo male groups, and 8% female groups. Most of the animals (65%) were in family groups; 21% were in male groups, 7% were solo males, and 3% were in female groups. The autumn-transitional period was short, lasting from early April to late May, and Guanacos were mainly in family groups and male groups. During this period the territorial system broke down as the Guanacos began migrating to their winter range. The winter aggregational period extended from early June through late August. In this period, the social units were primarily mixed groups (39%) and female groups (41%) with most of the animals (80%) in mixed groups. The spring-transitional period started in late August and ended in mid-October. At this time all social units were found with equal proportion of Guanacos in family groups and male groups. Differences in the weather from year-to-year, especially at the beginning and end of winter, caused slight variations in the timing of animal movements, formation of social groups, and migration. Snow storms and snow cover were especially important in triggering sudden movements west to the winter grounds.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common. Conservation priorities for the Guanacoinclude all of the following: improved and accurate population surveys; adequate habitat protection; regulation of hunting quotas; where feasible, live-shearing; protection of remnant populations from poaching (especially in Peruand northern Chile); more explicit goals and policies (for example in southern Argentinaand Chile); confronting Patagonian land use practices, which focus on maximizing sheep numbers; addressing the need for unified laws and management schemes between countries; and finally and especially, the implementation of conservation oriented management at local, national, and international levels.Bibliography.Baldi, Lichtenstein et al. (2008), Baldi, Pelliza-Sbriller et al. (2004), Bank et al. (1999, 2002), Cavieres & Fajardo (2005), Franklin (1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, 2005), Franklin & Grigione (2005), Franklin, Bas et al. (1997), Franklin, Jonson et al. (1999), Franklin, Poncet & Poncet (2005), Garay et al. (1995), Gonzalez et al. (2006), de Lamo et al. (1998), Marin, Casey et al. (2007), Marin, Spotorno et al. (2008), Marin, Zapata et al. (2007), Marino & Baldi (2008), Montes et al. (2006), Nugent et al. (2006), Ortega & Franklin (1988, 1995), Puig et al. (1995, 1996, 1997, 2001), Raedeke et al. (1979, 1988), Riveros et al. (2009), Sarno et al. (1999a, 1999b, 1999¢, 2001, 2003), Sosa etal. (2005), Stanley et al. (1994), Wheeler (1995a, 2006a, 2006b), Young & Franklin (2004a, 2004b), Zapata et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Camelus guanicoe Muller, 1776,Patagonia, Argentina.The Guanacois a direct descendent of Hemiauchenia, a genus of camelid that migrated from North to South America three million years ago. Two million yearold fossils of L. guanicoecan be found today in ArgentinePleistocene deposits and others in strata dated 73,000-97,000 years ago in Bolivia. Phylogenetically, L. guanicoeis monophyletic. Historically, four sub-species of Guanacos were recognized, albeit based upon incomplete information on skull measurements, coat coloration, distribution, and body size. However, recent molecular studies using mtDNA cytochrome-b sequences, recognize only two subspecies, placing the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations in subspecies cacsilensis and assigning the remainder of the clade to subspecies guanicoe. A significant biogeographic revision of the two valid subspecies is needed, especially an analysis and classification of populations on a regional and ecosystem basis.","commonNames":"Guanaco @fr | Guanako @de | Guanaco @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Statius Muller","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1776","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"235","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"guanicoe","name":"Lama guanicoe","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.g.guanicoeMiller,1776—Bolivia,Chile,WArgentina(fromJujuytoSPatagonia),TierradelFuego,andNavarinoI.L. g. cacsilensis Lonnberg, 1913— N Peruto N Chilebetween 8° Sand 22° S. Introduced from Argentinato Staats I (Falkland Is) during the late 1930s.","bibliography":"Baldi, Lichtenstein et al. (2008) | Baldi, Pelliza-Sbriller et al. (2004) | Bank et al. (1999, 2002) | Cavieres & Fajardo (2005) | Franklin (1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, 2005) | Franklin & Grigione (2005) | Franklin, Bas et al. (1997) | Franklin, Jonson et al. (1999) | Franklin, Poncet & Poncet (2005) | Garay et al. (1995) | Gonzalez et al. (2006) | de Lamo et al. (1998) | Marin, Casey et al. (2007) | Marin, Spotorno et al. (2008) | Marin, Zapata et al. (2007) | Marino & Baldi (2008) | Montes et al. (2006) | Nugent et al. (2006) | Ortega & Franklin (1988, 1995) | Puig et al. (1995, 1996, 1997, 2001) | Raedeke et al. (1979, 1988) | Riveros et al. (2009) | Sarno et al. (1999a, 1999b, 1999¢, 2001, 2003) | Sosa etal. (2005) | Stanley et al. (1994) | Wheeler (1995a, 2006a, 2006b) | Young & Franklin (2004a, 2004b) | Zapata et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"The Guanacois a non-specialized, opportunistic, intermediate, mixed-feeding herbivore, foraging on a wide variety of plants. It is basically a grazer, but also browses. When the availability of the herbaceous strata decreases or becomes unavailable, especially during winter, Guanacos feed mainly on the shrub or tree strata. This flexibility as a generalist to change diet according to availability or preference extends to eating epiphytes, lichens, fungi, cacti, succulent plants, fruit, flowers, and leaves. Their summer diet in a mixed habitat of southern Chileaveraged 62% grasses (mainly Festuca), 15% browse (Nothofagusspp.), and 11% forbs, which were particularly important in the spring. In another study on Tierra del Fuego their diet was made up of 90% grasses and forbs. In austral coastal forests of southern Chile, Guanacobrowsing significantly diminishes the rate of regeneration of the commercially important southern beech tree (Nothofagus pumilio) and was a limiting factor on initial growth of seedlings and saplings (89% were browsed), although the Guanaco’s diet was less than 10% shrubs and trees. At Torres del Paine National Park, at the western edge of the Patagonia, vegas were highly utilized in summer (86% ofall feeding observations) and preferred by all feeding Guanacos (n = 1659) in family groups, whereas all other vegetation types were avoided (shrub = 3%, upland = 10%). Adult females in family groups showed the greatest feeding preference for vegas, followed by chulengos, yearlings, and adult males. In ArgentinePatagonia, Guanacodensities are low and negatively related to domestic sheep numbers. Guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences, with over 80% oftheir diets being identical. Histological analysis of fecal samples revealed that Guanacos and sheep were intermediate herbivores feeding on a wide range of grasses and forbs, capable of changing their diets seasonally, and their food niches greatly overlapped particularly in summer when food resources were more scarce than in spring.","breeding":"Nearly all females breed at two years of age and have their first offspring as three-year olds. At Torres del Paine, Chilemales began breeding after obtaining a feeding territory when they were 2—4 years of age. Essentially all breeding took place within feeding territories during the summer. A high percentage (88%) of males established a territory for three or fewer years (average 2-3), although some males held territories for as long as eight years. Few solo males became family group males (19%), that is, 81% remained non-reproductive during their territorial tenure. Those males leaving male groups to become territorial, only 35% directly became family group territorial males while 65% became solo territorial males. Like other camelids, Guanacos are induced ovulators. The territorial mating period was from early Decemberto early January (91% of 88 observed copulations), so males defended their feeding territories for nine weeks before and eight weeks after the mating season. Mature female Guanacos give birth to a single offspring each year after a gestation of about 11-7 months (345-360 days). Only three sets of twins were documented in over two decades offield studies at Torres del Paine during which several thousand newborns were observed; in all cases no more than one survived past the first week. Half of all births occur in the last two weeks of spring. The timing of parturition varies with latitude. At Torres del Paine the birth season occurred from late November to early January. Parturition occurs during the day in Patagonia with 78% of births between 10:00 h and 14:00 h, when the young are able to dry during favorable midday temperature conditions. Birth weight averages 13 kg(7-15 kg) and shows marked density dependence, with lower birth weights at higher population densities. Low weight at birth is related to high rates of mortality. Newborns are very precocious. They can stand as early as 5-76 minutes after birth and can run within hours. Young are weaned at 6-8 months and are expelled from family groups by the territorial male when they are 11-15 months old. Dispersing yearling males join male groups and yearling females join family groups or female groups. Monitoring of 409 radio-collared chulengos at Torres del Paine over a seven-year period revealed an average first-year survival rate of 38% (31-55%). Puma predation was the primary cause of mortality of young Guanacos, especially in the first two weeks of life. Relative to their availabilities, chulengos were preyed upon about four times as much as adults. With every centimeter increase in winter snowfall, the risk of chulengo mortality increased by almost 6% because of greater vulnerability to predation. Out of 731 Guanacoskulls collected at Torres del Paine from 1979 to 1988, 33% showed clear evidence of having been killed by Pumas, and that was considered an underestimate. Observations of farmed Guanacos revealed that allosuckling (nursing of non-filial offspring) comprised 6% of all suckling events by 62% of calves and was allowed by 52% of dams. Dams whose calves performed allosuckling exhibited poorer body condition, suggesting juvenile Guanacos allosuckled to compensate for nutritional deficiencies. Preliminary research on the cytochrome-b gene sequence has found no evidence of hybridization between Guanacos and Vicunas.","activityPatterns":"Observations of both wild and captive Guanacos have shown peaks of eating, bedding, and ruminating in the morning and again later in the afternoon. Wild Guanacos spent a greater proportion of their time moving and less time resting, probably the result of the need to forage more and maintain intraspecific social interactions. At Torres del Paine during the summer, Guanacos in family groups in vega habitat fed 54% of time, rested 45%, and were involved in other behaviors 1% of the time (3084 focal observations). There was no difference in the activity-time budgets of 23 marked solo territorial males compared to family-group territorial males based on social group type, total number of females, total number of Guanacos present, or age of the ter ritorial males. The pattern suggested thatterritorial male behaviors were related to resource defense rather than to any direct ability to attract potential mates. Males, in all categories, spent most of their time foraging (65% of overall time budget). However, based upon habitat type there was a significant difference in time spent in aggressive and in miscellaneous activities (defecation, alertness to observer, scratching). Most aggressive encounters and miscellaneous activity occurred on hilltops of areas dominated by mata barrosa shrubs (Mulinum spinosum). Vigilance patterns were assessed in Chubut, Argentinafor Guanacos occupying a tall shrubland covering 40-60% of the area, where 40% of the mortality was from Puma predation. Family group territorial males devoted more time to scanning their surroundings and less time feeding than did females, and both sexes benefited from grouping by reducing the time invested in vigilance and increasing foraging time. Males reduced the time invested in vigilance as the number of females in the group increased, while the presence of chulengos increased territorial male vigilance. However, in closed habitats collective vigilance increased with the number of adults but decreased with the number of chulengos. Although male and female Guanacos differed in their time allocation, results supported the hypothesis that both sexes received significant anti-predator benefits from group living. Adjustments in Guanacobody posture can modify the exposure of body surface area H—22%. Guanacos can decrease and increase body heat loss through radiation and convection by “closing” and “opening” their thermal windows in the axillary and flank regions. Researchers report that when ambient temperatures were 0-10°C, animals used postural adjustments to decrease the area of the thermal windows by 5-7% oftotal surface area. At temperatures greater than 10°C they increased the area of the thermal windows up to 22% to regulate heat loss through radiation and convection. When the temperature was below 0—1°C Guanacos bedded and huddled together, often with their hindquarters into the wind.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Intensively studied Guanacopopulations have been either migratory or sedentary. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve (Argentina), both occur but most are sedentary, while on the island of Tierra del Fuego(Chile) both occur, but most are migratory. In Argentinapopulations have been reported to be migratory over short distances, altitudinal-facultative migratory, and strictly sedentary. On Tierra del Fuegosedentary populations were incompletely so, because during the winter when territories were snow covered, many or all of the family group members abandoned the site, leaving the territorial male by himself or only with a few members. The following spring the male regained his group membership. Although some local populations now appear to be sedentary at Torres del Paine, in the 1970s and 1980s the population was completely migratory. In those decades essentially all animals abandoned the summer range and moved in late autumn 8-18 km to where the snow was less deep and browse species were more abundant. The following spring the animals returned to their summer range. Daily movements of family groups on Tierra del Fuegowere highly predictable: days were spent in open meadows feeding and nights were spent resting in the adjacent closed Nothofagus forest. In the open habitat of Torres del Paine, the animals spent days on territories and nights on adjacent slopes or hill tops. The social organization of Guanacos is similar to that of Vicunas, except that territorial, resource-defense polygyny is seasonal instead of yearround and there is fluid movement of females between male territories. The social units of Guanacos for the migratory population at Torres del Paine were family groups, male groups, solo males, mixed groups, and female groups. Typical family groups were composed of one adult territorial male, seven females, and four juveniles less than 15 months old. Group size and composition frequently changed. Family groups occupied feeding territories 7-13 ha in size, which were defended by the resident male. With minor adjustments to the center of activity from year-to-year,territory locations were the same, spatially discrete, and non-overlapping. There was no indication of defended sleeping territories as found with Vicunas. Although family groups were “open” in the sense that females couldjoin and leave at will, the territorial male determined whether or not females were accepted into or rejected from the group. In a study of marked territorial males at Torres del Paine, most (73%, n = 60) returned to the same territorial location from year-to-year. Those males (27%) that shifted territorial locations showed no pattern in changes between solo territorial males and family-group territorial males. Male groups were composed of non-breeding, non-territorial, immature and mature males. Group size was highly variable (3-60) and averaged about 25. Male groups lived apart from family groups, in male-group zones. Solo males were mature males with an established territory, but commonly without females; the mean “group size” for solo males was three. Mixed groups formed in winter and included Guanacos of both sexes and all age classes. They averaged 60 animals with as many as 500. Female groups were gatherings of females of all ages and occasionally included a small number of immature males. These groups came together temporarily immediately before and after the winter migratory season. Female group size was highly variable, and could number 10-90 animals. At high population densities, the size of Guanacoterritories can decrease significantly. Large female groups and their chulengos can shift daily from territory to territory. The annual cycle of migratory Guanacos at Torres del Paine was divisible into four general socioecological periods: summer territorial, autumn transitional, winter aggregational, and spring transitional. The summer period was the longest, from mid-October to the end of March. This was reproductive season, during which males defended territories and when birth and mating occurred. The summer territorial social units were 35% family groups, 15% male groups, 42% solo male groups, and 8% female groups. Most of the animals (65%) were in family groups; 21% were in male groups, 7% were solo males, and 3% were in female groups. The autumn-transitional period was short, lasting from early April to late May, and Guanacos were mainly in family groups and male groups. During this period the territorial system broke down as the Guanacos began migrating to their winter range. The winter aggregational period extended from early June through late August. In this period, the social units were primarily mixed groups (39%) and female groups (41%) with most of the animals (80%) in mixed groups. The spring-transitional period started in late August and ended in mid-October. At this time all social units were found with equal proportion of Guanacos in family groups and male groups. Differences in the weather from year-to-year, especially at the beginning and end of winter, caused slight variations in the timing of animal movements, formation of social groups, and migration. Snow storms and snow cover were especially important in triggering sudden movements west to the winter grounds.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common. Conservation priorities for the Guanacoinclude all of the following: improved and accurate population surveys; adequate habitat protection; regulation of hunting quotas; where feasible, live-shearing; protection of remnant populations from poaching (especially in Peruand northern Chile); more explicit goals and policies (for example in southern Argentinaand Chile); confronting Patagonian land use practices, which focus on maximizing sheep numbers; addressing the need for unified laws and management schemes between countries; and finally and especially, the implementation of conservation oriented management at local, national, and international levels.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 190-215 cm,tail 23-27 cm, shoulder height 90-130 cm; weight 90-140 kg. Measurements vary because of their wide distribution and differences between subspecies. Guanacos are extremely striking, with their contrasting colors, large, alert brown eyes, streamlined form, and energetic pace. Described by Darwin as “an elegant animal, with a long, slender neck and fine legs,” itis one of South America’s largest terrestrial mammals, reaching its maximum size in southern Chileand smallest in northern Peru. There is no obvious sexual dimorphism in size, color, or structure, except for the presence of large canines in the male. The color of the woolly pelage is similar for all Guanacos, varying from light brown with ocher yellow tones in the north to dark reddish brown in the south. The chest, front of neck, belly, and internal portion of the legs are more or less pure white, the head gray to black. Guanacowool is prized for its softness and warmth, and second only to that of the Vicuna (Vicugnavicugna). The pelts from “chulengos” (newborns and less than one-year-old juveniles) are particularly soft. Like their domestic descendant the Llama (L. glama), the Guanacois double-coated, with coarse guard hair (3-5% offleece) and a soft undercoat. The undercoatfibers range 12-17 (average 14-16) microns in diameter. Fiber (strand) length is 35 mm, the same as the Vicuna. Average fleece weights vary from 322 gto 350 g. Fiber diameter increases about two microns from one to seven year of age. Value of shorn, unclean wool is US$ 100-200/kg and US$ 400/kg for cleaned and dehaired wool. Guanacos have “thermal windows” in the front and rear flanks (underarms) that are nearly without wool. Both wild and captive Guanacos may live as long as 28 years.","habitat":"The Guanacoinhabits environments from sea level up to 4500 mor more, characterized by highly seasonal weather, with snow cover or dry winters, cold to freezing temperatures, moderate to high winds, and low precipitation. These combine to produce high evapo-transpiration and dry conditions that lead to low primary productivity. At a broad scale, Guanacos inhabit four of the ten major habitats found in South America: desert and xeric shrublands, montane and lowland grasslands, savannas and shrublands, and temperate forests, which botanically include the categories of Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal, and the southern Pampa. They inhabit flatlands, hilly foothills, and mountainous environments. In the arid habitats of southern Chile, isolated mesic subsystems were the preferred plant community accounting for 85% of female sightings and 60% ofterritorial males. These “vegas” (meadows) were not only preferred for their productive, higher-quality succulent forage, but for females a major influence for their selection was the avoidance ofsites and habitats favored by Pumas (Puma concolor)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A40FFCED0DBF7C0FB4BF492.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A40FFCED0DBF7C0FB4BF492","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"236","verbatimText":"2.LlamaLama glamaFrench:Lama/ German:Lama/ Spanish:LlamaTaxonomy.Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758,Peru, Andes.The Llama was selectively bred from the Guanaco(L. guanicoe) for use as a pack animal and producer of meat. It is regarded throughout the world as the premier symbol of South American fauna. With the possibility of more than one center, Llama domestication occurred 4000-4500 years ago in the South-Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina) and/or 4500-5500 ago in the Central Andes (Junin de los Andes, Argentina). It is often assumed and reported that the Lake Titacaca region was a core of Llama domestication, but supporting data are lacking from early archaeological sites. Osteological remains and DNA analysis document the origin of domestication to be within the range of the northern subspecies of GuanacoL. g. cacsilensis. From its points of domestication, archeological evidence reveals that breeding and herding of Llamas spread widely throughout the Andean region to intermountain valleys, cloud forest on the eastern slope of the Central Andes, southern coast of Peru, to the mountains of Ecuador. Llamas closely resemble their progenitor the Guanacoin almost all aspects of physiology, behavior, general morphology, and adaptability to a wide range of environments. There are no subspecies, but two distinct phenotypic breeds: Short-Woolled and Long-Woolled Llamas.Distribution.Llamas are found at 3800-5000 m above sea level in the Central Andes, from C Peruto W Boliviaand N Argentina. Llama distribution reached its apex during the expansion of the Inca Empire (1470-1532 ap), when pack trains were used to carry supplies for the royal armies to S Colombiaand C Chile. Although originally indigenous and endemic to South America, Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, cottage industry and home use ofits wool, and in North America increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-229 cm, tail 18-22 cm, shoulder height 102-106 cm; weight 110-220 kg. Llamas are the largest of the four cameloids and tallest of all Neotropical animals. Classical, camelid-body shape with long slender necks, long legs, and small head compared to the body. Their pelage can be white, black, or brown with all intermediate shades occurring and a tendency for spots and irregular color patterns. Wild-type Llamas occur with Guanacocoloration. There are two distinct phenotypic breeds. SHORT-WOOLLED LLAMAS: Slim and long-bodied, with short coats and visible guard hairs, Short-Woolled Llamas are typically the breed utilized for carrying cargo and are the more common of the two. In the Altiplano regions of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi Departments the proportion of Short-Woolled Llamas varies between 65% and 83%, while in the Peruvian highlands they represent 80% of the total Llama population. The fleece is low density, low weight (1-3 + 1-1 kg biennially), and relatively thicker fibers with high medullation of 77-88%. Medullation refers to the presence and degree of medulla at the center of the fiber, and high medullation is “undesirable” because the greater the medullation, the bigger the fiber in diameter and so less fine. LONG-WOOLLED LLAMAS: The less common (17-35%) of the two, this breed is compact, short-bodied, and the pelage has fewer guard hairs. Their wool is longer, covering the entire body, generally uniform, and soft to the touch. The fleece is heavier (2-8 + 1-1 kg), denser, and has finer fibers (26-28 microns) with medullation of 26-33%, and on the average wool coarser than the Alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Genetic studies have revealed that 40% of the Llama population shows signs of hybridization with Alpacas. Intentional hybridization has been especially common during the past 25 years both in South America and abroad with the aim of improving wool quality, fleece weight, and economic value. Unfortunately the outcome has been a major loss of pure genetic lines. Indigenous Quechua peoples in the Andes subdivide hybrids into “llamawari” (Llama-like) and “pacowari” (Alpaca-like) based upon physical appearance. Llama ears are banana-shaped (distinctively curved inward) and relatively long (14-16 cm). They are docile, intelligent, and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. Mature Llamas weigh an average of 140 kgwith full body size reached by four years of age. There are no obvious differences between the sexes, but males tend to be slightly larger. The male prepuce is slightly bent down and directed posteriorly for urination. The female vulva is small, located immediately below the anus, with a nose-like structure pointing out from the base; the compact udderis in inguinal area with four small teats. Llamas are long-lived with a life span of 15-20 or more years. The Llama is woolly in appearance; individual fibers are often coarse, not homogeneous, and have a wide variation in diameter. Its fleece is the heaviest (1.8-3. 5 kg) of the four cameloids, but often of uneven quality. As with the other cameloids, Llama fleece lacks grease,is dry, highly hygroscopic, and naturally lanolin free. Through selective breeding and/or hybridization with Alpacas, some Llama bloodlines have finer-fibered fleeces. The typical Llama fleece is dominated by external guard hair covering (c.56% offleece with fiber diameter 50-70 microns) with an internal undercoat of smaller diameter fibers (c.44% with 25-30 microns). Llama wool is more variable in color and diameter than Alpaca wool. Due to its relative coarseness, [Llama wool has little textile value and is worth half the value of Alpaca wool. Llama woolis rougher to the touch, but with greater felting properties since the cuticle scales protrude more. However, because Llama wool is characteristically strong and warm, it is commonly used by indigenous families for making blankets, ponchos, carpets, rugs, shawls, rope, riding gear, sacks, and “costales\"—bags tied to the back of Llamas and used for carrying cargo. Only c.40% of the Llama population is shorn annually because producers want heavy fleeces with long fibers to sell commercially. Some Llamas are not shorn for years because the fleece pads the back for carrying cargo. Annually there are c.1,122,667 kg of Llama wool produced in Peru(60%), Bolivia(34%), and relatively small amounts from Argentinaand Chile. In Boliviaan estimated 70% is sold commercially and 30% used for home use. Although the textile industry prefers white, Llama fleeces are of different colors (47% solid, 27% mixed, 25% white). A major problem with Llama woolis its high medullation: without (20%), fragmented (37%), continuous (39%), and kemp/hair (4%). If the fleece wool is separated from different parts of the body and coarse fibers are removed, a favorable proportion of fine wool is obtained. There are no sustainable plans for genetic selection of animals with fine diameter of high value. Although the population of Llamas in Argentinais relatively low, fiber diameter is fine: 48% at 21 microns or less and only 16% at 25 microns and more.Habitat.In the Andean Altiplano where large numbers of Llamas are raised, the animals are a central part of the agro-pastoral system and the lifestyle of many people, since Llamas are heavily relied upon for carrying cargo and produce. In general these high-altitude grazing lands are low producing with annual production at 200-600 kg/ha for plains and mountainous zones and 600-2450 kg/ha for bofedales. The bofedal habitat is especially important for foraging Llamas during the dry season, yet fragile and susceptible to erosion if overgrazing is permitted.Food and Feeding.[lamas are considered by their indigenous herders to be extremely hardy because of their ability to prosper in desolate-Andean environments. They have similar feeding habits to Alpacas, but distinct enough to make joint husbandry compatible and possible. Herders view the land andits forage as a single valuable unit because it feeds their Llamas and Alpacas. Land ownership is not important, but traditional use and designated rights to graze particular areas is critical. Studies in the highlands of Peruand Chileon the botanical composition of the diets of Llamas feeding on wet (bofedales) and dry (gramadales) meadows found a high overlap with Alpaca and sheep feeding habits, but significantly differed from Alpacas in the summer (61%) and winter (74%) because the two camelids were managed by herders to minimize competition. Llamas had higher digestion coefficients than sheep of organic matter, crude protein, dry matter, and fiber fractions of bunchgrasses, important forage for Llamas. These feeding trials comparing the abilities of Llamas vs domestic sheep in digesting organic material ofvarious qualities revealed the coefficients of digestibility for low quality to be 51 vs. 41 (24% difference between the species), medium quality 60 vs. 52 (15%), high quality 73 vs. 75 (-=3%), high fiber 58 vs. 52 (12%), medium fiber 62 vs. 58 (7%), and low fiber 67 vs. 65 (3%). Thus Llamas were significantly more efficient than sheep when forage was low to medium quality and high in fiber. Maintenance energy requirements for a 108 kgLlama is 2% of its body weight, or 2-2 kg dry matter of forage per day.Breeding.The breeding season is from February to May. Males used for breeding are commonly familiar to the females, who when approached sit down in the copulatory position. Unfamiliar males usually have to chase the female and force her to recline. Research and extension agencies encourage herders to use one male with five females for three days, and then remove the male. The male is reintroduced 15 days later and the cycle is repeated until all females are bred. Gestation is 340-360 days. A single offspring is born, although exceptionally twins do occur. The female gives birth standing up, there is no licking of the neonate, and newborns can follow their mother within an hour. Llamas have a high potential for reproduction under good management: 85-95% annual reproductive rate on research and well-managed farms. However, in the Andes due to poor forage conditions frequently available to indigenous herders and the resulting poor condition of animals,fertility has been reported to be as low as 45-55%. In years of severe cold or droughts subadult mortality can be as high as 30-50%. Offspring regularly nurse up to the fifth month and are weaned by the herder at eight months, although if allowed to do so will continue to nurse irregularly until the female gives birth again the following year. Some females breed 8-10 days after parturition, but two to three weeks later is the norm. Mother Llamas are patient with suckling their young and some will accept nursing another female’s offspring. After weaning the young Llamas, some herders separate them from females until two years old, and then segregate them by sex. At three years of age a final selection is made for the best males to be sires with the balance to be used as pack animals or eventually meat. Females are bred at two and half years and not used as beasts of burden.Activity patterns.Daily activity patterns of Llamas are essentially the same as Alpacas. That is, after having spent the night in or next to a rudimentary stone corral adjacent to the family’s residence (often a single-room hut called “choza” made of stones with a thatched roof), the Llamas move out soon after sunrise to feed in the local highaltitude grasslands, moving and grazing often unattended by a herder, then return to the choza as darkness approaches. Activity budgets (percentage of time) of Llamas compared to sheep grazing on native Andean pasture dominated by favorable forage (Festucadolichophylla), have shown that all other activities were similar, but that Llamas feed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (15% vs. 25%) than sheep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.[Llamas (as well as Alpacas) of South America exist within a society of indigenous herders, whose main societal features are seasonal migration, a scattered population without villages or urban centers for permanent residence, and whose social structure is centered around large families with strong ties. Rules and traditions exist within each community that often determines important aspects of herd management. For example, in some systems male [lamas are maintained apart from the female segment in distant community pastures, and then reunited for the breeding/rainy season from January through March. The female segmentis a mixed herd of reproducing and replacement females, young, and one-year-olds of both sexes. When the yearlings are 12-18 months old some herders make a preliminary selection for meat production or future reproduction. Another system used extensively is one in which breeding males are permanently kept with the mixed herds of females year-round. Invariably Llama herders also maintain a flock of sheep that offers an important source of food for the family. A problem, however, is that the sheep compete for forage with the Llamas, reduce the land’s carrying capacity, and increase the probability of overgrazing. Llama herd size averages 40-60 in the more heavily populated communities, compared to 120-180 Llamas in the Altiplano with fewer people. In contrast, average accompanying flocks of sheep average 40-70 animals in both areas.Status and Conservation.Boliviahas most (58%) of South America’s ¢.3-91 million Llamas, followed by Peru(37%), Argentina(4%), and Chile(1%); nearly all of which (99%) are found in indigenous communities. The total number of Llamas has increased 12% during the past decade. In Bolivia370,000-500,000 families raise Llamas, in Peru297,414, Argentina2803, 80% of which have fewer than 90 animals. There are no known wild or feral populations. Llamas were intertwined with the rise and spread of the Inca Empire since its beginning in the Peruvian Andes in the early 1200s. With the help of Llamas, the Incas built sturdy walls, buildings, irrigation systems, and some 8700 kmof roads throughout their empire. These roads eventually extended around 2500 kmfrom Ecuadorsouth to central Chileand parts of Argentina. Before the Spanish Conquest of Peru, Llamas numbered into the multimillions, but were severely decimated during the post-conquest period. While early Spanish chroniclers recorded the “virtual disappearance” of these animals within a hundred years, that was obviously an exaggeration. Indigenous and endemic to the South America, [Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, and increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators. In the USAthere were 162,000 registered Llamas in 2010. Export of Llamas (as well as Alpacas) has increased international interest in these species, stimulating research in the medical, nutritional, reproductive, and disease disciplines. In the Andes, Llamas are viewed and described by native herders by masculine terminology. During ceremonies in which Llamas are being honored or sacrificed, they are referred to as “brothers” and when higher rank or importance is expressed, they are called “fathers.” Indigenous Llama terminology is based upon fleece color, patterns and patches, sex, reproductive status, age, size, shape, wool quality, and behavior. The combinations of these descriptive characters amount to over 20,000 words, forming a rich nomenclature used to identify and distinguish individual Llamas as well as Alpacas. Llamas have long been important beasts of burden for the Andean cultures and nations. Cargo-carrying Llamas have made it possible for peoples of the Andes to successfully inhabit this rugged-mountain environment. Extensive and ritualized prayers are said before departure of a Llama caravan, requesting permission and protection from local deities for the journey, safe passage, and that no incident will befall the Llamas or family members while traveling. Only men of the family travel with the Llama pack train, walking behind the animals. Castrated male Llamas are used primarily, and depending upon their maturity, size, and training, individuals are capable of carrying up to 25-30% of their body weight, or 25-35 kg, and traveling 20-30 km in a day for up to 20 days. The cargo is carried in a sack tied to the Llama’s back with a rope made from coarse Llama wool. Males are castrated at two years of age and training begins by accompanying the older animals on trips. Individual Llamas in the traveling caravan are not tied together, but follow the lead of two to three “Llama guides.” Such lead Llamas traditionally were adorned with colorful halters, frontal tapestries, and even a family or national flag atop its back. Animal leaders are given names to reflect their status, such as Road-Breaker, Condor Face, and Champion. Lead Llamas prevent junior animals from usurping the front position, and guide the way when fording rivers, crossing dangerous bridges, and when negotiating narrow paths along steep ravines. If the lead Llama stops, the entire caravan waits until it resumes traveling. At the end of the day, Llamas are unpacked and turned loose to graze and water. If available, they are kept in stone corrals for the night, otherwise they are grouped together with a rope running around them at neck level. Llama caravans use traditional trading circuits in the Altiplano, some descending into the Andean valleys, the Pacific coast to the west, or the Amazon jungle to the east. Goods are sold, purchased, and traded along the route as needed. From the coastal agricultural valleys fresh produce was obtained in exchange for corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley that were grown and carried down from the mountain agricultural valleys. In times past Llama trains traveled hundreds of kilometers to obtain highly prized salt from inland, natural-salt deposits and mines, some types of which were used for human consumption, others for animals. Today, the world of the Andean Llama herdsmen is rapidly changing with goods and produce now primarily transported by trucks and rail. Still, Llama caravans continue to be used and are especially important for transporting goods to remote regions of the Andes. Secondarily Llamas are used in South America for meat, fuel, and wool. Llama meatis often dried and stored as jerky, typically made by alternative freeze-drying during the Andean winter when nights are freezing and days sunny. With a dressing percentage of 44-48% yielding 25-30 kg of fresh meat, 12-15 kg ofjerky are produced. Jerky is not only a convenient form for long-term storage of meat, but is an excellent source of protein (55-60%). Llama hides are used for making shoes, ropes, and bags. Their fecal matter is valuable as fuel in regions where wood is scarce. It should be noted that despite the presence of many animals, the diet of Andean herdsmen is based upon agricultural produce. They eat little meat and drink no milk. Goat or cow cheese is consumed by some, and when meat is eaten,it is in the form of cameloid jerky or fresh sheep meat. Outside South America the Llama’s cargo-carrying ability has been discovered by hikers, hunters, and forest-work crews in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Llamas are quiet, gentle, unobtrusive, and easy to manage. Their hardiness, surefootedness, and trainability make them excellent pack animals and trail companions. The Llama’s agility allows them to negotiate terrain that would be difficult or impossible for other pack animals, and because of their padded feet and ability to browse, they have minimal impact on trails and mountain meadows. In North America Llamas have been used highly successfully as guard llamas for protecting sheep and goats from coyote and feral dog predation. Livestock owners report that their annual sheep losses dropped from 11% to 1% after the introduction of a guard llama, and more than half reported 100% reduction in predator losses. Single, gelded males are typically used, although females work equally well. In 2006, they were found across Canadaas well as in every USstate. In the USAthere were over 11,000 guard llamas in use on some 9500 sheep operations. Remarkably, half the sheep ranchers in Wyominghave guard llamas and they are common on sheep ranches in Colorado(39%), Montana(28%), and Utah(23%). In the Plains States, 23% of sheep producers in North Dakotaand 21% in South Dakotause guard llamas. In the Midwest and the Eastern States, Missouri(23%) and North Carolina(24%) lead the way, respectively. Although not a panacea, guard llamas have proven to be a viable non-lethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no special training and minimal care.Bibliography.Bravo et al. (2000), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995), Franklin (1982b), Franklin & Powell (2006), Gonzales (1990), Kadwell et al. (2001), Marin et al. (2007b), Novoa (1984), Quispe et al. (2009), San Martin (1989), Sumar (1996), Van Saun (2006), Wheeler (1984, 2006).","taxonomy":"Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758,Peru, Andes.The Llama was selectively bred from the Guanaco(L. guanicoe) for use as a pack animal and producer of meat. It is regarded throughout the world as the premier symbol of South American fauna. With the possibility of more than one center, Llama domestication occurred 4000-4500 years ago in the South-Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina) and/or 4500-5500 ago in the Central Andes (Junin de los Andes, Argentina). It is often assumed and reported that the Lake Titacaca region was a core of Llama domestication, but supporting data are lacking from early archaeological sites. Osteological remains and DNA analysis document the origin of domestication to be within the range of the northern subspecies of GuanacoL. g. cacsilensis. From its points of domestication, archeological evidence reveals that breeding and herding of Llamas spread widely throughout the Andean region to intermountain valleys, cloud forest on the eastern slope of the Central Andes, southern coast of Peru, to the mountains of Ecuador. Llamas closely resemble their progenitor the Guanacoin almost all aspects of physiology, behavior, general morphology, and adaptability to a wide range of environments. There are no subspecies, but two distinct phenotypic breeds: Short-Woolled and Long-Woolled Llamas.","commonNames":"Lama @fr | Lama @de | Llama @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"236","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"glama","name":"Lama glama","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Llamas are found at 3800-5000 m above sea level in the Central Andes, from C Peruto W Boliviaand N Argentina. Llama distribution reached its apex during the expansion of the Inca Empire (1470-1532 ap), when pack trains were used to carry supplies for the royal armies to S Colombiaand C Chile. Although originally indigenous and endemic to South America, Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, cottage industry and home use ofits wool, and in North America increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719725/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bravo et al. (2000) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995) | Franklin (1982b) | Franklin & Powell (2006) | Gonzales (1990) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Marin et al. (2007b) | Novoa (1984) | Quispe et al. (2009) | San Martin (1989) | Sumar (1996) | Van Saun (2006) | Wheeler (1984, 2006)","foodAndFeeding":"[lamas are considered by their indigenous herders to be extremely hardy because of their ability to prosper in desolate-Andean environments. They have similar feeding habits to Alpacas, but distinct enough to make joint husbandry compatible and possible. Herders view the land andits forage as a single valuable unit because it feeds their Llamas and Alpacas. Land ownership is not important, but traditional use and designated rights to graze particular areas is critical. Studies in the highlands of Peruand Chileon the botanical composition of the diets of Llamas feeding on wet (bofedales) and dry (gramadales) meadows found a high overlap with Alpaca and sheep feeding habits, but significantly differed from Alpacas in the summer (61%) and winter (74%) because the two camelids were managed by herders to minimize competition. Llamas had higher digestion coefficients than sheep of organic matter, crude protein, dry matter, and fiber fractions of bunchgrasses, important forage for Llamas. These feeding trials comparing the abilities of Llamas vs domestic sheep in digesting organic material ofvarious qualities revealed the coefficients of digestibility for low quality to be 51 vs. 41 (24% difference between the species), medium quality 60 vs. 52 (15%), high quality 73 vs. 75 (-=3%), high fiber 58 vs. 52 (12%), medium fiber 62 vs. 58 (7%), and low fiber 67 vs. 65 (3%). Thus Llamas were significantly more efficient than sheep when forage was low to medium quality and high in fiber. Maintenance energy requirements for a 108 kgLlama is 2% of its body weight, or 2-2 kg dry matter of forage per day.","breeding":"The breeding season is from February to May. Males used for breeding are commonly familiar to the females, who when approached sit down in the copulatory position. Unfamiliar males usually have to chase the female and force her to recline. Research and extension agencies encourage herders to use one male with five females for three days, and then remove the male. The male is reintroduced 15 days later and the cycle is repeated until all females are bred. Gestation is 340-360 days. A single offspring is born, although exceptionally twins do occur. The female gives birth standing up, there is no licking of the neonate, and newborns can follow their mother within an hour. Llamas have a high potential for reproduction under good management: 85-95% annual reproductive rate on research and well-managed farms. However, in the Andes due to poor forage conditions frequently available to indigenous herders and the resulting poor condition of animals,fertility has been reported to be as low as 45-55%. In years of severe cold or droughts subadult mortality can be as high as 30-50%. Offspring regularly nurse up to the fifth month and are weaned by the herder at eight months, although if allowed to do so will continue to nurse irregularly until the female gives birth again the following year. Some females breed 8-10 days after parturition, but two to three weeks later is the norm. Mother Llamas are patient with suckling their young and some will accept nursing another female’s offspring. After weaning the young Llamas, some herders separate them from females until two years old, and then segregate them by sex. At three years of age a final selection is made for the best males to be sires with the balance to be used as pack animals or eventually meat. Females are bred at two and half years and not used as beasts of burden.","activityPatterns":"Daily activity patterns of Llamas are essentially the same as Alpacas. That is, after having spent the night in or next to a rudimentary stone corral adjacent to the family’s residence (often a single-room hut called “choza” made of stones with a thatched roof), the Llamas move out soon after sunrise to feed in the local highaltitude grasslands, moving and grazing often unattended by a herder, then return to the choza as darkness approaches. Activity budgets (percentage of time) of Llamas compared to sheep grazing on native Andean pasture dominated by favorable forage (Festucadolichophylla), have shown that all other activities were similar, but that Llamas feed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (15% vs. 25%) than sheep.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"[Llamas (as well as Alpacas) of South America exist within a society of indigenous herders, whose main societal features are seasonal migration, a scattered population without villages or urban centers for permanent residence, and whose social structure is centered around large families with strong ties. Rules and traditions exist within each community that often determines important aspects of herd management. For example, in some systems male [lamas are maintained apart from the female segment in distant community pastures, and then reunited for the breeding/rainy season from January through March. The female segmentis a mixed herd of reproducing and replacement females, young, and one-year-olds of both sexes. When the yearlings are 12-18 months old some herders make a preliminary selection for meat production or future reproduction. Another system used extensively is one in which breeding males are permanently kept with the mixed herds of females year-round. Invariably Llama herders also maintain a flock of sheep that offers an important source of food for the family. A problem, however, is that the sheep compete for forage with the Llamas, reduce the land’s carrying capacity, and increase the probability of overgrazing. Llama herd size averages 40-60 in the more heavily populated communities, compared to 120-180 Llamas in the Altiplano with fewer people. In contrast, average accompanying flocks of sheep average 40-70 animals in both areas.","statusAndConservation":"Boliviahas most (58%) of South America’s ¢.3-91 million Llamas, followed by Peru(37%), Argentina(4%), and Chile(1%); nearly all of which (99%) are found in indigenous communities. The total number of Llamas has increased 12% during the past decade. In Bolivia370,000-500,000 families raise Llamas, in Peru297,414, Argentina2803, 80% of which have fewer than 90 animals. There are no known wild or feral populations. Llamas were intertwined with the rise and spread of the Inca Empire since its beginning in the Peruvian Andes in the early 1200s. With the help of Llamas, the Incas built sturdy walls, buildings, irrigation systems, and some 8700 kmof roads throughout their empire. These roads eventually extended around 2500 kmfrom Ecuadorsouth to central Chileand parts of Argentina. Before the Spanish Conquest of Peru, Llamas numbered into the multimillions, but were severely decimated during the post-conquest period. While early Spanish chroniclers recorded the “virtual disappearance” of these animals within a hundred years, that was obviously an exaggeration. Indigenous and endemic to the South America, [Llamas have now been exported to countries around the world as a companion animal, featured in livestock shows, used for trekking and backpacking, and increasingly utilized as a guard animal for protecting sheep and goats from canid predators. In the USAthere were 162,000 registered Llamas in 2010. Export of Llamas (as well as Alpacas) has increased international interest in these species, stimulating research in the medical, nutritional, reproductive, and disease disciplines. In the Andes, Llamas are viewed and described by native herders by masculine terminology. During ceremonies in which Llamas are being honored or sacrificed, they are referred to as “brothers” and when higher rank or importance is expressed, they are called “fathers.” Indigenous Llama terminology is based upon fleece color, patterns and patches, sex, reproductive status, age, size, shape, wool quality, and behavior. The combinations of these descriptive characters amount to over 20,000 words, forming a rich nomenclature used to identify and distinguish individual Llamas as well as Alpacas. Llamas have long been important beasts of burden for the Andean cultures and nations. Cargo-carrying Llamas have made it possible for peoples of the Andes to successfully inhabit this rugged-mountain environment. Extensive and ritualized prayers are said before departure of a Llama caravan, requesting permission and protection from local deities for the journey, safe passage, and that no incident will befall the Llamas or family members while traveling. Only men of the family travel with the Llama pack train, walking behind the animals. Castrated male Llamas are used primarily, and depending upon their maturity, size, and training, individuals are capable of carrying up to 25-30% of their body weight, or 25-35 kg, and traveling 20-30 km in a day for up to 20 days. The cargo is carried in a sack tied to the Llama’s back with a rope made from coarse Llama wool. Males are castrated at two years of age and training begins by accompanying the older animals on trips. Individual Llamas in the traveling caravan are not tied together, but follow the lead of two to three “Llama guides.” Such lead Llamas traditionally were adorned with colorful halters, frontal tapestries, and even a family or national flag atop its back. Animal leaders are given names to reflect their status, such as Road-Breaker, Condor Face, and Champion. Lead Llamas prevent junior animals from usurping the front position, and guide the way when fording rivers, crossing dangerous bridges, and when negotiating narrow paths along steep ravines. If the lead Llama stops, the entire caravan waits until it resumes traveling. At the end of the day, Llamas are unpacked and turned loose to graze and water. If available, they are kept in stone corrals for the night, otherwise they are grouped together with a rope running around them at neck level. Llama caravans use traditional trading circuits in the Altiplano, some descending into the Andean valleys, the Pacific coast to the west, or the Amazon jungle to the east. Goods are sold, purchased, and traded along the route as needed. From the coastal agricultural valleys fresh produce was obtained in exchange for corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley that were grown and carried down from the mountain agricultural valleys. In times past Llama trains traveled hundreds of kilometers to obtain highly prized salt from inland, natural-salt deposits and mines, some types of which were used for human consumption, others for animals. Today, the world of the Andean Llama herdsmen is rapidly changing with goods and produce now primarily transported by trucks and rail. Still, Llama caravans continue to be used and are especially important for transporting goods to remote regions of the Andes. Secondarily Llamas are used in South America for meat, fuel, and wool. Llama meatis often dried and stored as jerky, typically made by alternative freeze-drying during the Andean winter when nights are freezing and days sunny. With a dressing percentage of 44-48% yielding 25-30 kg of fresh meat, 12-15 kg ofjerky are produced. Jerky is not only a convenient form for long-term storage of meat, but is an excellent source of protein (55-60%). Llama hides are used for making shoes, ropes, and bags. Their fecal matter is valuable as fuel in regions where wood is scarce. It should be noted that despite the presence of many animals, the diet of Andean herdsmen is based upon agricultural produce. They eat little meat and drink no milk. Goat or cow cheese is consumed by some, and when meat is eaten,it is in the form of cameloid jerky or fresh sheep meat. Outside South America the Llama’s cargo-carrying ability has been discovered by hikers, hunters, and forest-work crews in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Llamas are quiet, gentle, unobtrusive, and easy to manage. Their hardiness, surefootedness, and trainability make them excellent pack animals and trail companions. The Llama’s agility allows them to negotiate terrain that would be difficult or impossible for other pack animals, and because of their padded feet and ability to browse, they have minimal impact on trails and mountain meadows. In North America Llamas have been used highly successfully as guard llamas for protecting sheep and goats from coyote and feral dog predation. Livestock owners report that their annual sheep losses dropped from 11% to 1% after the introduction of a guard llama, and more than half reported 100% reduction in predator losses. Single, gelded males are typically used, although females work equally well. In 2006, they were found across Canadaas well as in every USstate. In the USAthere were over 11,000 guard llamas in use on some 9500 sheep operations. Remarkably, half the sheep ranchers in Wyominghave guard llamas and they are common on sheep ranches in Colorado(39%), Montana(28%), and Utah(23%). In the Plains States, 23% of sheep producers in North Dakotaand 21% in South Dakotause guard llamas. In the Midwest and the Eastern States, Missouri(23%) and North Carolina(24%) lead the way, respectively. Although not a panacea, guard llamas have proven to be a viable non-lethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no special training and minimal care.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-229 cm, tail 18-22 cm, shoulder height 102-106 cm; weight 110-220 kg. Llamas are the largest of the four cameloids and tallest of all Neotropical animals. Classical, camelid-body shape with long slender necks, long legs, and small head compared to the body. Their pelage can be white, black, or brown with all intermediate shades occurring and a tendency for spots and irregular color patterns. Wild-type Llamas occur with Guanacocoloration. There are two distinct phenotypic breeds. SHORT-WOOLLED LLAMAS: Slim and long-bodied, with short coats and visible guard hairs, Short-Woolled Llamas are typically the breed utilized for carrying cargo and are the more common of the two. In the Altiplano regions of La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi Departments the proportion of Short-Woolled Llamas varies between 65% and 83%, while in the Peruvian highlands they represent 80% of the total Llama population. The fleece is low density, low weight (1-3 + 1-1 kg biennially), and relatively thicker fibers with high medullation of 77-88%. Medullation refers to the presence and degree of medulla at the center of the fiber, and high medullation is “undesirable” because the greater the medullation, the bigger the fiber in diameter and so less fine. LONG-WOOLLED LLAMAS: The less common (17-35%) of the two, this breed is compact, short-bodied, and the pelage has fewer guard hairs. Their wool is longer, covering the entire body, generally uniform, and soft to the touch. The fleece is heavier (2-8 + 1-1 kg), denser, and has finer fibers (26-28 microns) with medullation of 26-33%, and on the average wool coarser than the Alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Genetic studies have revealed that 40% of the Llama population shows signs of hybridization with Alpacas. Intentional hybridization has been especially common during the past 25 years both in South America and abroad with the aim of improving wool quality, fleece weight, and economic value. Unfortunately the outcome has been a major loss of pure genetic lines. Indigenous Quechua peoples in the Andes subdivide hybrids into “llamawari” (Llama-like) and “pacowari” (Alpaca-like) based upon physical appearance. Llama ears are banana-shaped (distinctively curved inward) and relatively long (14-16 cm). They are docile, intelligent, and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. Mature Llamas weigh an average of 140 kgwith full body size reached by four years of age. There are no obvious differences between the sexes, but males tend to be slightly larger. The male prepuce is slightly bent down and directed posteriorly for urination. The female vulva is small, located immediately below the anus, with a nose-like structure pointing out from the base; the compact udderis in inguinal area with four small teats. Llamas are long-lived with a life span of 15-20 or more years. The Llama is woolly in appearance; individual fibers are often coarse, not homogeneous, and have a wide variation in diameter. Its fleece is the heaviest (1.8-3. 5 kg) of the four cameloids, but often of uneven quality. As with the other cameloids, Llama fleece lacks grease,is dry, highly hygroscopic, and naturally lanolin free. Through selective breeding and/or hybridization with Alpacas, some Llama bloodlines have finer-fibered fleeces. The typical Llama fleece is dominated by external guard hair covering (c.56% offleece with fiber diameter 50-70 microns) with an internal undercoat of smaller diameter fibers (c.44% with 25-30 microns). Llama wool is more variable in color and diameter than Alpaca wool. Due to its relative coarseness, [Llama wool has little textile value and is worth half the value of Alpaca wool. Llama woolis rougher to the touch, but with greater felting properties since the cuticle scales protrude more. However, because Llama wool is characteristically strong and warm, it is commonly used by indigenous families for making blankets, ponchos, carpets, rugs, shawls, rope, riding gear, sacks, and “costales\"—bags tied to the back of Llamas and used for carrying cargo. Only c.40% of the Llama population is shorn annually because producers want heavy fleeces with long fibers to sell commercially. Some Llamas are not shorn for years because the fleece pads the back for carrying cargo. Annually there are c.1,122,667 kg of Llama wool produced in Peru(60%), Bolivia(34%), and relatively small amounts from Argentinaand Chile. In Boliviaan estimated 70% is sold commercially and 30% used for home use. Although the textile industry prefers white, Llama fleeces are of different colors (47% solid, 27% mixed, 25% white). A major problem with Llama woolis its high medullation: without (20%), fragmented (37%), continuous (39%), and kemp/hair (4%). If the fleece wool is separated from different parts of the body and coarse fibers are removed, a favorable proportion of fine wool is obtained. There are no sustainable plans for genetic selection of animals with fine diameter of high value. Although the population of Llamas in Argentinais relatively low, fiber diameter is fine: 48% at 21 microns or less and only 16% at 25 microns and more.","habitat":"In the Andean Altiplano where large numbers of Llamas are raised, the animals are a central part of the agro-pastoral system and the lifestyle of many people, since Llamas are heavily relied upon for carrying cargo and produce. In general these high-altitude grazing lands are low producing with annual production at 200-600 kg/ha for plains and mountainous zones and 600-2450 kg/ha for bofedales. The bofedal habitat is especially important for foraging Llamas during the dry season, yet fragile and susceptible to erosion if overgrazing is permitted."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A41FFC8D579FE7AF5F5F837.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A41FFC8D579FE7AF5F5F837","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"235","verbatimText":"1.GuanacoLama guanicoeFrench:Guanaco/ German:Guanako/ Spanish:GuanacoTaxonomy.Camelus guanicoe Muller, 1776,Patagonia, Argentina.The Guanacois a direct descendent of Hemiauchenia, a genus of camelid that migrated from North to South America three million years ago. Two million yearold fossils of L. guanicoecan be found today in ArgentinePleistocene deposits and others in strata dated 73,000-97,000 years ago in Bolivia. Phylogenetically, L. guanicoeis monophyletic. Historically, four sub-species of Guanacos were recognized, albeit based upon incomplete information on skull measurements, coat coloration, distribution, and body size. However, recent molecular studies using mtDNA cytochrome-b sequences, recognize only two subspecies, placing the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations in subspecies cacsilensis and assigning the remainder of the clade to subspecies guanicoe. A significant biogeographic revision of the two valid subspecies is needed, especially an analysis and classification of populations on a regional and ecosystem basis.Subspecies and Distribution.L.g.guanicoeMiller,1776—Bolivia,Chile,WArgentina(fromJujuytoSPatagonia),TierradelFuego,andNavarinoI.L. g. cacsilensis Lonnberg, 1913— N Peruto N Chilebetween 8° Sand 22° S. Introduced from Argentinato Staats I (Falkland Is) during the late 1930s.Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-215 cm,tail 23-27 cm, shoulder height 90-130 cm; weight 90-140 kg. Measurements vary because of their wide distribution and differences between subspecies. Guanacos are extremely striking, with their contrasting colors, large, alert brown eyes, streamlined form, and energetic pace. Described by Darwin as “an elegant animal, with a long, slender neck and fine legs,” itis one of South America’s largest terrestrial mammals, reaching its maximum size in southern Chileand smallest in northern Peru. There is no obvious sexual dimorphism in size, color, or structure, except for the presence of large canines in the male. The color of the woolly pelage is similar for all Guanacos, varying from light brown with ocher yellow tones in the north to dark reddish brown in the south. The chest, front of neck, belly, and internal portion of the legs are more or less pure white, the head gray to black. Guanacowool is prized for its softness and warmth, and second only to that of the Vicuna (Vicugnavicugna). The pelts from “chulengos” (newborns and less than one-year-old juveniles) are particularly soft. Like their domestic descendant the Llama (L. glama), the Guanacois double-coated, with coarse guard hair (3-5% offleece) and a soft undercoat. The undercoatfibers range 12-17 (average 14-16) microns in diameter. Fiber (strand) length is 35 mm, the same as the Vicuna. Average fleece weights vary from 322 gto 350 g. Fiber diameter increases about two microns from one to seven year of age. Value of shorn, unclean wool is US$ 100-200/kg and US$ 400/kg for cleaned and dehaired wool. Guanacos have “thermal windows” in the front and rear flanks (underarms) that are nearly without wool. Both wild and captive Guanacos may live as long as 28 years.Habitat.The Guanacoinhabits environments from sea level up to 4500 mor more, characterized by highly seasonal weather, with snow cover or dry winters, cold to freezing temperatures, moderate to high winds, and low precipitation. These combine to produce high evapo-transpiration and dry conditions that lead to low primary productivity. At a broad scale, Guanacos inhabit four of the ten major habitats found in South America: desert and xeric shrublands, montane and lowland grasslands, savannas and shrublands, and temperate forests, which botanically include the categories of Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal, and the southern Pampa. They inhabit flatlands, hilly foothills, and mountainous environments. In the arid habitats of southern Chile, isolated mesic subsystems were the preferred plant community accounting for 85% of female sightings and 60% ofterritorial males. These “vegas” (meadows) were not only preferred for their productive, higher-quality succulent forage, but for females a major influence for their selection was the avoidance ofsites and habitats favored by Pumas (Puma concolor).Food and Feeding.The Guanacois a non-specialized, opportunistic, intermediate, mixed-feeding herbivore, foraging on a wide variety of plants. It is basically a grazer, but also browses. When the availability of the herbaceous strata decreases or becomes unavailable, especially during winter, Guanacos feed mainly on the shrub or tree strata. This flexibility as a generalist to change diet according to availability or preference extends to eating epiphytes, lichens, fungi, cacti, succulent plants, fruit, flowers, and leaves. Their summer diet in a mixed habitat of southern Chileaveraged 62% grasses (mainly Festuca), 15% browse (Nothofagusspp.), and 11% forbs, which were particularly important in the spring. In another study on Tierra del Fuego their diet was made up of 90% grasses and forbs. In austral coastal forests of southern Chile, Guanacobrowsing significantly diminishes the rate of regeneration of the commercially important southern beech tree (Nothofagus pumilio) and was a limiting factor on initial growth of seedlings and saplings (89% were browsed), although the Guanaco’s diet was less than 10% shrubs and trees. At Torres del Paine National Park, at the western edge of the Patagonia, vegas were highly utilized in summer (86% ofall feeding observations) and preferred by all feeding Guanacos (n = 1659) in family groups, whereas all other vegetation types were avoided (shrub = 3%, upland = 10%). Adult females in family groups showed the greatest feeding preference for vegas, followed by chulengos, yearlings, and adult males. In ArgentinePatagonia, Guanacodensities are low and negatively related to domestic sheep numbers. Guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences, with over 80% oftheir diets being identical. Histological analysis of fecal samples revealed that Guanacos and sheep were intermediate herbivores feeding on a wide range of grasses and forbs, capable of changing their diets seasonally, and their food niches greatly overlapped particularly in summer when food resources were more scarce than in spring.Breeding.Nearly all females breed at two years of age and have their first offspring as three-year olds. At Torres del Paine, Chilemales began breeding after obtaining a feeding territory when they were 2—4 years of age. Essentially all breeding took place within feeding territories during the summer. A high percentage (88%) of males established a territory for three or fewer years (average 2-3), although some males held territories for as long as eight years. Few solo males became family group males (19%), that is, 81% remained non-reproductive during their territorial tenure. Those males leaving male groups to become territorial, only 35% directly became family group territorial males while 65% became solo territorial males. Like other camelids, Guanacos are induced ovulators. The territorial mating period was from early Decemberto early January (91% of 88 observed copulations), so males defended their feeding territories for nine weeks before and eight weeks after the mating season. Mature female Guanacos give birth to a single offspring each year after a gestation of about 11-7 months (345-360 days). Only three sets of twins were documented in over two decades offield studies at Torres del Paine during which several thousand newborns were observed; in all cases no more than one survived past the first week. Half of all births occur in the last two weeks of spring. The timing of parturition varies with latitude. At Torres del Paine the birth season occurred from late November to early January. Parturition occurs during the day in Patagonia with 78% of births between 10:00 h and 14:00 h, when the young are able to dry during favorable midday temperature conditions. Birth weight averages 13 kg(7-15 kg) and shows marked density dependence, with lower birth weights at higher population densities. Low weight at birth is related to high rates of mortality. Newborns are very precocious. They can stand as early as 5-76 minutes after birth and can run within hours. Young are weaned at 6-8 months and are expelled from family groups by the territorial male when they are 11-15 months old. Dispersing yearling males join male groups and yearling females join family groups or female groups. Monitoring of 409 radio-collared chulengos at Torres del Paine over a seven-year period revealed an average first-year survival rate of 38% (31-55%). Puma predation was the primary cause of mortality of young Guanacos, especially in the first two weeks of life. Relative to their availabilities, chulengos were preyed upon about four times as much as adults. With every centimeter increase in winter snowfall, the risk of chulengo mortality increased by almost 6% because of greater vulnerability to predation. Out of 731 Guanacoskulls collected at Torres del Paine from 1979 to 1988, 33% showed clear evidence of having been killed by Pumas, and that was considered an underestimate. Observations of farmed Guanacos revealed that allosuckling (nursing of non-filial offspring) comprised 6% of all suckling events by 62% of calves and was allowed by 52% of dams. Dams whose calves performed allosuckling exhibited poorer body condition, suggesting juvenile Guanacos allosuckled to compensate for nutritional deficiencies. Preliminary research on the cytochrome-b gene sequence has found no evidence of hybridization between Guanacos and Vicunas.Activity patterns.Observations of both wild and captive Guanacos have shown peaks of eating, bedding, and ruminating in the morning and again later in the afternoon. Wild Guanacos spent a greater proportion of their time moving and less time resting, probably the result of the need to forage more and maintain intraspecific social interactions. At Torres del Paine during the summer, Guanacos in family groups in vega habitat fed 54% of time, rested 45%, and were involved in other behaviors 1% of the time (3084 focal observations). There was no difference in the activity-time budgets of 23 marked solo territorial males compared to family-group territorial males based on social group type, total number of females, total number of Guanacos present, or age of the ter ritorial males. The pattern suggested thatterritorial male behaviors were related to resource defense rather than to any direct ability to attract potential mates. Males, in all categories, spent most of their time foraging (65% of overall time budget). However, based upon habitat type there was a significant difference in time spent in aggressive and in miscellaneous activities (defecation, alertness to observer, scratching). Most aggressive encounters and miscellaneous activity occurred on hilltops of areas dominated by mata barrosa shrubs (Mulinum spinosum). Vigilance patterns were assessed in Chubut, Argentinafor Guanacos occupying a tall shrubland covering 40-60% of the area, where 40% of the mortality was from Puma predation. Family group territorial males devoted more time to scanning their surroundings and less time feeding than did females, and both sexes benefited from grouping by reducing the time invested in vigilance and increasing foraging time. Males reduced the time invested in vigilance as the number of females in the group increased, while the presence of chulengos increased territorial male vigilance. However, in closed habitats collective vigilance increased with the number of adults but decreased with the number of chulengos. Although male and female Guanacos differed in their time allocation, results supported the hypothesis that both sexes received significant anti-predator benefits from group living. Adjustments in Guanacobody posture can modify the exposure of body surface area H—22%. Guanacos can decrease and increase body heat loss through radiation and convection by “closing” and “opening” their thermal windows in the axillary and flank regions. Researchers report that when ambient temperatures were 0-10°C, animals used postural adjustments to decrease the area of the thermal windows by 5-7% oftotal surface area. At temperatures greater than 10°C they increased the area of the thermal windows up to 22% to regulate heat loss through radiation and convection. When the temperature was below 0—1°C Guanacos bedded and huddled together, often with their hindquarters into the wind.On following pages 2 Llama (Lama glama). 3 Vıcuña (Vicugna vlcuana), 4 Alpaca (Vicugna paces‘) 5 Bacman Camel (Camelus bactnanus), 6 Dromodary Camel (Camelus dromedanus)Movements, Home range and Social organization.Intensively studied Guanacopopulations have been either migratory or sedentary. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve (Argentina), both occur but most are sedentary, while on the island of Tierra del Fuego(Chile) both occur, but most are migratory. In Argentinapopulations have been reported to be migratory over short distances, altitudinal-facultative migratory, and strictly sedentary. On Tierra del Fuegosedentary populations were incompletely so, because during the winter when territories were snow covered, many or all of the family group members abandoned the site, leaving the territorial male by himself or only with a few members. The following spring the male regained his group membership. Although some local populations now appear to be sedentary at Torres del Paine, in the 1970s and 1980s the population was completely migratory. In those decades essentially all animals abandoned the summer range and moved in late autumn 8-18 km to where the snow was less deep and browse species were more abundant. The following spring the animals returned to their summer range. Daily movements of family groups on Tierra del Fuegowere highly predictable: days were spent in open meadows feeding and nights were spent resting in the adjacent closed Nothofagus forest. In the open habitat of Torres del Paine, the animals spent days on territories and nights on adjacent slopes or hill tops. The social organization of Guanacos is similar to that of Vicunas, except that territorial, resource-defense polygyny is seasonal instead of yearround and there is fluid movement of females between male territories. The social units of Guanacos for the migratory population at Torres del Paine were family groups, male groups, solo males, mixed groups, and female groups. Typical family groups were composed of one adult territorial male, seven females, and four juveniles less than 15 months old. Group size and composition frequently changed. Family groups occupied feeding territories 7-13 ha in size, which were defended by the resident male. With minor adjustments to the center of activity from year-to-year,territory locations were the same, spatially discrete, and non-overlapping. There was no indication of defended sleeping territories as found with Vicunas. Although family groups were “open” in the sense that females couldjoin and leave at will, the territorial male determined whether or not females were accepted into or rejected from the group. In a study of marked territorial males at Torres del Paine, most (73%, n = 60) returned to the same territorial location from year-to-year. Those males (27%) that shifted territorial locations showed no pattern in changes between solo territorial males and family-group territorial males. Male groups were composed of non-breeding, non-territorial, immature and mature males. Group size was highly variable (3-60) and averaged about 25. Male groups lived apart from family groups, in male-group zones. Solo males were mature males with an established territory, but commonly without females; the mean “group size” for solo males was three. Mixed groups formed in winter and included Guanacos of both sexes and all age classes. They averaged 60 animals with as many as 500. Female groups were gatherings of females of all ages and occasionally included a small number of immature males. These groups came together temporarily immediately before and after the winter migratory season. Female group size was highly variable, and could number 10-90 animals. At high population densities, the size of Guanacoterritories can decrease significantly. Large female groups and their chulengos can shift daily from territory to territory. The annual cycle of migratory Guanacos at Torres del Paine was divisible into four general socioecological periods: summer territorial, autumn transitional, winter aggregational, and spring transitional. The summer period was the longest, from mid-October to the end of March. This was reproductive season, during which males defended territories and when birth and mating occurred. The summer territorial social units were 35% family groups, 15% male groups, 42% solo male groups, and 8% female groups. Most of the animals (65%) were in family groups; 21% were in male groups, 7% were solo males, and 3% were in female groups. The autumn-transitional period was short, lasting from early April to late May, and Guanacos were mainly in family groups and male groups. During this period the territorial system broke down as the Guanacos began migrating to their winter range. The winter aggregational period extended from early June through late August. In this period, the social units were primarily mixed groups (39%) and female groups (41%) with most of the animals (80%) in mixed groups. The spring-transitional period started in late August and ended in mid-October. At this time all social units were found with equal proportion of Guanacos in family groups and male groups. Differences in the weather from year-to-year, especially at the beginning and end of winter, caused slight variations in the timing of animal movements, formation of social groups, and migration. Snow storms and snow cover were especially important in triggering sudden movements west to the winter grounds.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common. Conservation priorities for the Guanacoinclude all of the following: improved and accurate population surveys; adequate habitat protection; regulation of hunting quotas; where feasible, live-shearing; protection of remnant populations from poaching (especially in Peruand northern Chile); more explicit goals and policies (for example in southern Argentinaand Chile); confronting Patagonian land use practices, which focus on maximizing sheep numbers; addressing the need for unified laws and management schemes between countries; and finally and especially, the implementation of conservation oriented management at local, national, and international levels.Bibliography.Baldi, Lichtenstein et al. (2008), Baldi, Pelliza-Sbriller et al. (2004), Bank et al. (1999, 2002), Cavieres & Fajardo (2005), Franklin (1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, 2005), Franklin & Grigione (2005), Franklin, Bas et al. (1997), Franklin, Jonson et al. (1999), Franklin, Poncet & Poncet (2005), Garay et al. (1995), Gonzalez et al. (2006), de Lamo et al. (1998), Marin, Casey et al. (2007), Marin, Spotorno et al. (2008), Marin, Zapata et al. (2007), Marino & Baldi (2008), Montes et al. (2006), Nugent et al. (2006), Ortega & Franklin (1988, 1995), Puig et al. (1995, 1996, 1997, 2001), Raedeke et al. (1979, 1988), Riveros et al. (2009), Sarno et al. (1999a, 1999b, 1999¢, 2001, 2003), Sosa etal. (2005), Stanley et al. (1994), Wheeler (1995a, 2006a, 2006b), Young & Franklin (2004a, 2004b), Zapata et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Camelus guanicoe Muller, 1776,Patagonia, Argentina.The Guanacois a direct descendent of Hemiauchenia, a genus of camelid that migrated from North to South America three million years ago. Two million yearold fossils of L. guanicoecan be found today in ArgentinePleistocene deposits and others in strata dated 73,000-97,000 years ago in Bolivia. Phylogenetically, L. guanicoeis monophyletic. Historically, four sub-species of Guanacos were recognized, albeit based upon incomplete information on skull measurements, coat coloration, distribution, and body size. However, recent molecular studies using mtDNA cytochrome-b sequences, recognize only two subspecies, placing the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations in subspecies cacsilensis and assigning the remainder of the clade to subspecies guanicoe. A significant biogeographic revision of the two valid subspecies is needed, especially an analysis and classification of populations on a regional and ecosystem basis.","commonNames":"Guanaco @fr | Guanako @de | Guanaco @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Statius Muller","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1776","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Lama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"235","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"guanicoe","name":"Lama guanicoe","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.g.guanicoeMiller,1776—Bolivia,Chile,WArgentina(fromJujuytoSPatagonia),TierradelFuego,andNavarinoI.L. g. cacsilensis Lonnberg, 1913— N Peruto N Chilebetween 8° Sand 22° S. Introduced from Argentinato Staats I (Falkland Is) during the late 1930s.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719721/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baldi, Lichtenstein et al. (2008) | Baldi, Pelliza-Sbriller et al. (2004) | Bank et al. (1999, 2002) | Cavieres & Fajardo (2005) | Franklin (1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, 2005) | Franklin & Grigione (2005) | Franklin, Bas et al. (1997) | Franklin, Jonson et al. (1999) | Franklin, Poncet & Poncet (2005) | Garay et al. (1995) | Gonzalez et al. (2006) | de Lamo et al. (1998) | Marin, Casey et al. (2007) | Marin, Spotorno et al. (2008) | Marin, Zapata et al. (2007) | Marino & Baldi (2008) | Montes et al. (2006) | Nugent et al. (2006) | Ortega & Franklin (1988, 1995) | Puig et al. (1995, 1996, 1997, 2001) | Raedeke et al. (1979, 1988) | Riveros et al. (2009) | Sarno et al. (1999a, 1999b, 1999¢, 2001, 2003) | Sosa etal. (2005) | Stanley et al. (1994) | Wheeler (1995a, 2006a, 2006b) | Young & Franklin (2004a, 2004b) | Zapata et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"The Guanacois a non-specialized, opportunistic, intermediate, mixed-feeding herbivore, foraging on a wide variety of plants. It is basically a grazer, but also browses. When the availability of the herbaceous strata decreases or becomes unavailable, especially during winter, Guanacos feed mainly on the shrub or tree strata. This flexibility as a generalist to change diet according to availability or preference extends to eating epiphytes, lichens, fungi, cacti, succulent plants, fruit, flowers, and leaves. Their summer diet in a mixed habitat of southern Chileaveraged 62% grasses (mainly Festuca), 15% browse (Nothofagusspp.), and 11% forbs, which were particularly important in the spring. In another study on Tierra del Fuego their diet was made up of 90% grasses and forbs. In austral coastal forests of southern Chile, Guanacobrowsing significantly diminishes the rate of regeneration of the commercially important southern beech tree (Nothofagus pumilio) and was a limiting factor on initial growth of seedlings and saplings (89% were browsed), although the Guanaco’s diet was less than 10% shrubs and trees. At Torres del Paine National Park, at the western edge of the Patagonia, vegas were highly utilized in summer (86% ofall feeding observations) and preferred by all feeding Guanacos (n = 1659) in family groups, whereas all other vegetation types were avoided (shrub = 3%, upland = 10%). Adult females in family groups showed the greatest feeding preference for vegas, followed by chulengos, yearlings, and adult males. In ArgentinePatagonia, Guanacodensities are low and negatively related to domestic sheep numbers. Guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences, with over 80% oftheir diets being identical. Histological analysis of fecal samples revealed that Guanacos and sheep were intermediate herbivores feeding on a wide range of grasses and forbs, capable of changing their diets seasonally, and their food niches greatly overlapped particularly in summer when food resources were more scarce than in spring.","breeding":"Nearly all females breed at two years of age and have their first offspring as three-year olds. At Torres del Paine, Chilemales began breeding after obtaining a feeding territory when they were 2—4 years of age. Essentially all breeding took place within feeding territories during the summer. A high percentage (88%) of males established a territory for three or fewer years (average 2-3), although some males held territories for as long as eight years. Few solo males became family group males (19%), that is, 81% remained non-reproductive during their territorial tenure. Those males leaving male groups to become territorial, only 35% directly became family group territorial males while 65% became solo territorial males. Like other camelids, Guanacos are induced ovulators. The territorial mating period was from early Decemberto early January (91% of 88 observed copulations), so males defended their feeding territories for nine weeks before and eight weeks after the mating season. Mature female Guanacos give birth to a single offspring each year after a gestation of about 11-7 months (345-360 days). Only three sets of twins were documented in over two decades offield studies at Torres del Paine during which several thousand newborns were observed; in all cases no more than one survived past the first week. Half of all births occur in the last two weeks of spring. The timing of parturition varies with latitude. At Torres del Paine the birth season occurred from late November to early January. Parturition occurs during the day in Patagonia with 78% of births between 10:00 h and 14:00 h, when the young are able to dry during favorable midday temperature conditions. Birth weight averages 13 kg(7-15 kg) and shows marked density dependence, with lower birth weights at higher population densities. Low weight at birth is related to high rates of mortality. Newborns are very precocious. They can stand as early as 5-76 minutes after birth and can run within hours. Young are weaned at 6-8 months and are expelled from family groups by the territorial male when they are 11-15 months old. Dispersing yearling males join male groups and yearling females join family groups or female groups. Monitoring of 409 radio-collared chulengos at Torres del Paine over a seven-year period revealed an average first-year survival rate of 38% (31-55%). Puma predation was the primary cause of mortality of young Guanacos, especially in the first two weeks of life. Relative to their availabilities, chulengos were preyed upon about four times as much as adults. With every centimeter increase in winter snowfall, the risk of chulengo mortality increased by almost 6% because of greater vulnerability to predation. Out of 731 Guanacoskulls collected at Torres del Paine from 1979 to 1988, 33% showed clear evidence of having been killed by Pumas, and that was considered an underestimate. Observations of farmed Guanacos revealed that allosuckling (nursing of non-filial offspring) comprised 6% of all suckling events by 62% of calves and was allowed by 52% of dams. Dams whose calves performed allosuckling exhibited poorer body condition, suggesting juvenile Guanacos allosuckled to compensate for nutritional deficiencies. Preliminary research on the cytochrome-b gene sequence has found no evidence of hybridization between Guanacos and Vicunas.","activityPatterns":"Observations of both wild and captive Guanacos have shown peaks of eating, bedding, and ruminating in the morning and again later in the afternoon. Wild Guanacos spent a greater proportion of their time moving and less time resting, probably the result of the need to forage more and maintain intraspecific social interactions. At Torres del Paine during the summer, Guanacos in family groups in vega habitat fed 54% of time, rested 45%, and were involved in other behaviors 1% of the time (3084 focal observations). There was no difference in the activity-time budgets of 23 marked solo territorial males compared to family-group territorial males based on social group type, total number of females, total number of Guanacos present, or age of the ter ritorial males. The pattern suggested thatterritorial male behaviors were related to resource defense rather than to any direct ability to attract potential mates. Males, in all categories, spent most of their time foraging (65% of overall time budget). However, based upon habitat type there was a significant difference in time spent in aggressive and in miscellaneous activities (defecation, alertness to observer, scratching). Most aggressive encounters and miscellaneous activity occurred on hilltops of areas dominated by mata barrosa shrubs (Mulinum spinosum). Vigilance patterns were assessed in Chubut, Argentinafor Guanacos occupying a tall shrubland covering 40-60% of the area, where 40% of the mortality was from Puma predation. Family group territorial males devoted more time to scanning their surroundings and less time feeding than did females, and both sexes benefited from grouping by reducing the time invested in vigilance and increasing foraging time. Males reduced the time invested in vigilance as the number of females in the group increased, while the presence of chulengos increased territorial male vigilance. However, in closed habitats collective vigilance increased with the number of adults but decreased with the number of chulengos. Although male and female Guanacos differed in their time allocation, results supported the hypothesis that both sexes received significant anti-predator benefits from group living. Adjustments in Guanacobody posture can modify the exposure of body surface area H—22%. Guanacos can decrease and increase body heat loss through radiation and convection by “closing” and “opening” their thermal windows in the axillary and flank regions. Researchers report that when ambient temperatures were 0-10°C, animals used postural adjustments to decrease the area of the thermal windows by 5-7% oftotal surface area. At temperatures greater than 10°C they increased the area of the thermal windows up to 22% to regulate heat loss through radiation and convection. When the temperature was below 0—1°C Guanacos bedded and huddled together, often with their hindquarters into the wind.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Intensively studied Guanacopopulations have been either migratory or sedentary. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve (Argentina), both occur but most are sedentary, while on the island of Tierra del Fuego(Chile) both occur, but most are migratory. In Argentinapopulations have been reported to be migratory over short distances, altitudinal-facultative migratory, and strictly sedentary. On Tierra del Fuegosedentary populations were incompletely so, because during the winter when territories were snow covered, many or all of the family group members abandoned the site, leaving the territorial male by himself or only with a few members. The following spring the male regained his group membership. Although some local populations now appear to be sedentary at Torres del Paine, in the 1970s and 1980s the population was completely migratory. In those decades essentially all animals abandoned the summer range and moved in late autumn 8-18 km to where the snow was less deep and browse species were more abundant. The following spring the animals returned to their summer range. Daily movements of family groups on Tierra del Fuegowere highly predictable: days were spent in open meadows feeding and nights were spent resting in the adjacent closed Nothofagus forest. In the open habitat of Torres del Paine, the animals spent days on territories and nights on adjacent slopes or hill tops. The social organization of Guanacos is similar to that of Vicunas, except that territorial, resource-defense polygyny is seasonal instead of yearround and there is fluid movement of females between male territories. The social units of Guanacos for the migratory population at Torres del Paine were family groups, male groups, solo males, mixed groups, and female groups. Typical family groups were composed of one adult territorial male, seven females, and four juveniles less than 15 months old. Group size and composition frequently changed. Family groups occupied feeding territories 7-13 ha in size, which were defended by the resident male. With minor adjustments to the center of activity from year-to-year,territory locations were the same, spatially discrete, and non-overlapping. There was no indication of defended sleeping territories as found with Vicunas. Although family groups were “open” in the sense that females couldjoin and leave at will, the territorial male determined whether or not females were accepted into or rejected from the group. In a study of marked territorial males at Torres del Paine, most (73%, n = 60) returned to the same territorial location from year-to-year. Those males (27%) that shifted territorial locations showed no pattern in changes between solo territorial males and family-group territorial males. Male groups were composed of non-breeding, non-territorial, immature and mature males. Group size was highly variable (3-60) and averaged about 25. Male groups lived apart from family groups, in male-group zones. Solo males were mature males with an established territory, but commonly without females; the mean “group size” for solo males was three. Mixed groups formed in winter and included Guanacos of both sexes and all age classes. They averaged 60 animals with as many as 500. Female groups were gatherings of females of all ages and occasionally included a small number of immature males. These groups came together temporarily immediately before and after the winter migratory season. Female group size was highly variable, and could number 10-90 animals. At high population densities, the size of Guanacoterritories can decrease significantly. Large female groups and their chulengos can shift daily from territory to territory. The annual cycle of migratory Guanacos at Torres del Paine was divisible into four general socioecological periods: summer territorial, autumn transitional, winter aggregational, and spring transitional. The summer period was the longest, from mid-October to the end of March. This was reproductive season, during which males defended territories and when birth and mating occurred. The summer territorial social units were 35% family groups, 15% male groups, 42% solo male groups, and 8% female groups. Most of the animals (65%) were in family groups; 21% were in male groups, 7% were solo males, and 3% were in female groups. The autumn-transitional period was short, lasting from early April to late May, and Guanacos were mainly in family groups and male groups. During this period the territorial system broke down as the Guanacos began migrating to their winter range. The winter aggregational period extended from early June through late August. In this period, the social units were primarily mixed groups (39%) and female groups (41%) with most of the animals (80%) in mixed groups. The spring-transitional period started in late August and ended in mid-October. At this time all social units were found with equal proportion of Guanacos in family groups and male groups. Differences in the weather from year-to-year, especially at the beginning and end of winter, caused slight variations in the timing of animal movements, formation of social groups, and migration. Snow storms and snow cover were especially important in triggering sudden movements west to the winter grounds.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Northern subspecies cacsilensis is recognized as Endangered on The 2006 IUCN Red List with about 4000 remaining.The Guanacois the most widely distributed native artiodactyl in South America. It originally ranged from the Andean areas of northern Peru, south to Boliviaand adjacent parts of Paraguayand down to Tierra del Fuego, covering most of Argentinaand Chile. Based upon the carrying capacity of the territory Guanacos originally occupied, the pre-Hispanic Guanacopopulation in southern South America has been estimated to be 30-50 million. Indiscriminate hunting and competition with sheep, particularly during the past century, caused a steep decline in numbers. In the ArgentinePatagonia the introduced sheep reached 22 million head within 50 years in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, the best estimate of the total Guanacopopulation is 536,000-840,000 animals. Although still widely distributed, the Guanaco’s current distribution is less than 40% of its original range, with remaining populations often isolated and fragmented. The killing of young chulengos for their soft skins has had a serious impact on Guanacopopulations, especially in Patagonia. Some 444,000 skins were exported from Argentinabetween 1972 and 1979. The number dropped to 10,000 annually by 1984, reflecting decreased availability. Conservation classification and laws regarding the remaining Guanacopopulations vary from nation to nation, based primarily upon total numbers and without regard to subspecies. Percentage of total remaining numbers and conservation classification by countriesis as follows: Argentina87% (considered not endangered or potentially vulnerable), Chile12% (vulnerable and protected), Bolivia0-03% (endangered and protection in development), Paraguay0-02% (endangered and not protected), and Peru0-62% (endangered and active management being pursued). Thus at the national level, relict Guanacopopulations are faced with potential extinction in three out of the five countries where they were found historically. In Argentinamanagement plans are beginning to include utilization of the Guanacofor meat and wool. Today, around 35% of the high density populations identified in Argentinaare under programs that call for live-shearing Guanacos for sustained use of their valuable wool. Also in Argentina, the country with the most Guanacos, a National Management Plan has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest Guanacodensities. However, less than 1% of the area in the Patagonian steppe is estimated to be under effective protection. Guanacosstill have a wide distribution, an apparently stable population trend, and large populations in protected areas. However, it is not uncommon that protected areas are in name only because they contain competing livestock, there are no wardens or guards, and poaching is common. Conservation priorities for the Guanacoinclude all of the following: improved and accurate population surveys; adequate habitat protection; regulation of hunting quotas; where feasible, live-shearing; protection of remnant populations from poaching (especially in Peruand northern Chile); more explicit goals and policies (for example in southern Argentinaand Chile); confronting Patagonian land use practices, which focus on maximizing sheep numbers; addressing the need for unified laws and management schemes between countries; and finally and especially, the implementation of conservation oriented management at local, national, and international levels.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 190-215 cm,tail 23-27 cm, shoulder height 90-130 cm; weight 90-140 kg. Measurements vary because of their wide distribution and differences between subspecies. Guanacos are extremely striking, with their contrasting colors, large, alert brown eyes, streamlined form, and energetic pace. Described by Darwin as “an elegant animal, with a long, slender neck and fine legs,” itis one of South America’s largest terrestrial mammals, reaching its maximum size in southern Chileand smallest in northern Peru. There is no obvious sexual dimorphism in size, color, or structure, except for the presence of large canines in the male. The color of the woolly pelage is similar for all Guanacos, varying from light brown with ocher yellow tones in the north to dark reddish brown in the south. The chest, front of neck, belly, and internal portion of the legs are more or less pure white, the head gray to black. Guanacowool is prized for its softness and warmth, and second only to that of the Vicuna (Vicugnavicugna). The pelts from “chulengos” (newborns and less than one-year-old juveniles) are particularly soft. Like their domestic descendant the Llama (L. glama), the Guanacois double-coated, with coarse guard hair (3-5% offleece) and a soft undercoat. The undercoatfibers range 12-17 (average 14-16) microns in diameter. Fiber (strand) length is 35 mm, the same as the Vicuna. Average fleece weights vary from 322 gto 350 g. Fiber diameter increases about two microns from one to seven year of age. Value of shorn, unclean wool is US$ 100-200/kg and US$ 400/kg for cleaned and dehaired wool. Guanacos have “thermal windows” in the front and rear flanks (underarms) that are nearly without wool. Both wild and captive Guanacos may live as long as 28 years.","habitat":"The Guanacoinhabits environments from sea level up to 4500 mor more, characterized by highly seasonal weather, with snow cover or dry winters, cold to freezing temperatures, moderate to high winds, and low precipitation. These combine to produce high evapo-transpiration and dry conditions that lead to low primary productivity. At a broad scale, Guanacos inhabit four of the ten major habitats found in South America: desert and xeric shrublands, montane and lowland grasslands, savannas and shrublands, and temperate forests, which botanically include the categories of Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal, and the southern Pampa. They inhabit flatlands, hilly foothills, and mountainous environments. In the arid habitats of southern Chile, isolated mesic subsystems were the preferred plant community accounting for 85% of female sightings and 60% ofterritorial males. These “vegas” (meadows) were not only preferred for their productive, higher-quality succulent forage, but for females a major influence for their selection was the avoidance ofsites and habitats favored by Pumas (Puma concolor)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A43FFCBD786FD8AF8BEFAD2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A43FFCBD786FD8AF8BEFAD2","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"206","verbatimText":"Family CAMELIDAE(CAMELS)• Medium-sized to large mammals with forequarters larger than hindquarters, long, small head, slender muzzle with split upper lip, thin neck, padded feet with two toes and nails rather than hooves, and woolly pelage.• 130-410cm.• Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Neotropical Regions.• Desert, semi-arid to arid plains, grassland, steppe, and shrubland; from sea level to 4800 m.• 3 genera, 6 species (including 3 domestic), 9 taxa.• 1 subspecies Critically Endangered, 1 subspecies Endangered; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A44FFC1D0A7FD9EF7A7FE66.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A44FFC1D0A7FD9EF7A7FE66","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"4.AlpacaVicugna pacosFrench:Alpaca/ German:Alpaka/ Spanish:AlpacaTaxonomy.Camelus pacos Linnaeus, 1758,Peru.The Alpaca is a domesticated camelid indigenous and endemic to South America, well known for the characteristics of its fine-diameter wool: soft, silky, high luster, lightweight, and warm. Alpaca woolis used for luxurious blankets, sweaters, and cloth. The species was long classified in the genus Lama, but recent DNA studies (mtDNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite markers) have established that the Alpaca was domesticated from the Vicuna subspecies V. vicugnamensalis, showing significant genetic differentiation to warrant a change in its genus to Vicugnaand its designation as a separate species. Archeological digs at the Telarmachay site in the Central Andes of Peruindicate that the Alpaca was domesticated 5500-6500 years ago by a hunter-gatherer society. These early indigenous herders selected for an animal with a docile nature while maintaining the fineness of its progenitor’s wool. No remains of Alpaca have been found to date at archeological digs in the south of Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina), but only early domesticated Llamas (Lama glama). The Alpaca has no subspecies, but two distinct breeds are recognized: the Huacaya and Suri.Distribution.Alpacas are found in the Central Andes from C Peruinto mid-Bolivia and N Chile. In the 1980s—1990s Alpacas were imported into the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Europe. There are no known wild/feral populations of Alpacas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-150 cm,tail 18-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 55-65 kg. Alpacas have long necks; relatively short, straight ears (c. 15 cm), thin and agile legs, and fluffy-appearing bodies because of their long wool. When shorn, however, the bodyis slender and Vicuna-like. There are two distinct breeds. HUACAYA ALPACA: Huacayas are the more common (¢.90%) of the two breeds. Its body, legs, and neck are covered by wool that is long, fine (27-5 microns), and wavy; the head and feet are covered by short wool. Wool grows 5-15 cm/year depending upon nutrition and decreases with age. Huacaya wool is crimped (regular and successive undulations) and similar in appearance to Corriedale sheep wool. Huacayas are bigger in size, have shorter and relatively coarser wool, and lighter fleeces than Suris. There are three general categories of wool: “Baby Alpaca” (20-23 microns some as low as 16-17 microns)is the finest and most expensive wool from recently born animals; “Tui” wool is from the first shearing at 12-18 months; and “Standard” Alpaca wool (c.24 microns) is from animals of two years of age and older. White Huacayas are the most common (c.80%), especially on large commercial Alpaca ranches, compared to 30% white animals in indigenous flocks. White wool accounts for over 80% of the total annual Alpaca wool production. Although most Alpaca wool has little cortex in its fibers,it can be easily dyed just as sheep wool, giving woollen mills greater flexibility with white Alpaca wool. Huacaya Alpaca crossed with a Vicuna produces a Paco-Vicuna, which resembles a large-bodied Vicuna and has 17-19 micron wool. Resource managers are concerned that accidently escaped Paco-Vicunas could have harmful genetic consequences on populations of pure Vicunas. SURI ALPACA: Suris arise from a very small percentage (2%) of Huacaya x Huacaya crosses, thus the origin of the breed. Because of their long-hanging wool, phenotyically Suris are quite distinct from Huacayas. Suri wool is silky (24-27 microns), straight, without crimp, generally finer, longer, more lustrous, softer to the touch, less elastic, less resistant to tension, and faster-growing compared to the Huacaya. The wool parts on the animal’s back create a mid-body line that is capable of growing up to 15 cm/year. Some individual Suris, called “wasis” by Andean herders, are not shorn for years, resulting in the fleece growing until it touches the ground; only a few such special animals are kept and are revered by the indigenous people. Around 17% of the offspring from Suri x Suri crosses produce Huacaya types. In their South American homeland, Suri Alpacas are considered to be longerlived, more delicate, less hardy, and to have lower fertility than Huacaya Alpacas. Recent research has found thatjuvenile mortality is high because of lack of wool coverage on the midline. However, when given the right management and equally good pastures, they thrivejust as well and with similar fertility as Huacayas. During lactation Suri Alpacas lose weight more than Huacayas because they produce more milk (udders are larger on Suri females). As a result, Suri young are heavier than Huacayas because they have a greater availability of milk. Body wool is uniform or multicolored; 22 natural colors have been categorized, ranging from white to black, with intermediate shades of grays, fawns, and browns. The upperlip is split for grasping forage. The eyes are large, round, and slightly forward looking. The feet have soft-padded soles and two toes, each ending with large pointed nails. Testes are small, oval-shaped and located in the perineal region under the tail. Life span is 15-20 years. The cuticle on individual wool fibers is made up of poorly developed, elongated, and flattened cells. While such rudimentary cuticle scales without ridges results in poor felting qualities, it makes the Alpaca wool extraordinarily smooth and soft to the touch. Still, Alpaca wool is 3-6 times stronger than human hair. Based upon strand diameter and morphology, the fleece (pelt) of this ungulate is made up of two types of hair: wool and hair. Similar to fine sheep wool, the medulla can be non-existent in unusually fine Alpaca wool, but has been observed in Peruvian Alpaca fibers averaging 17 microns. Such pure Alpacas are considered “one coated” because their fleece consists only of the fine undercoat hairs and lack the outer coarser guard hairs. As the proportion of medullation increases (as it does with age), wool diameter increases and fineness decreases, thatis, the proportion of the medulla progressively increases with the thickness of the individual wool strand. Woolis of the cortex type of fineness, and hair is of the medullar type with larger diameter. Hair is especially common on the chest, face, and extremities, but it is not unusual to find individual hairs intermixed throughout the fleece. This is especially common in “Huarizos,” hybrids between an Alpaca female and a Llama male. Huarizos show intermediate physical characteristics of the two parents, and relatively coarse wool (c.32 microns in diameter). Their fleeces contain as much as 40% guard hair. Huarizos are considered undesirable by the Alpaca wool industry and are being selected against on commercial Alpaca farms. Nearly all (90%) Alpacas on large farms are shorn annually and done indoors with shearing scissors or by mechanized clippers. In indigenous family herds in the Andes only half of the animals are shorn each year, and done under rustic conditions in the out-of-doors with hand shears. Shearing of males, geldings, non-pregnant and some pregnant females takes place in November and December, while new mothers with young, yearlings, and thin males and females are done in February to April. Annual shearing yields 1.5-2. 8 kgof wool per Alpaca in South America (enough to make four sweaters), and up to 3-6 kg in USAand Australia. Fineness of Alpaca fleeces vary from farm to farm in Peru(24-7-32-3 microns, averaging 28-9 microns), but in other countries where it has been introduced, 16-24 microns is more typical. In the Andes Alpaca wool increases in diameter from 17-4 microns to 27-5 microns from the first shearing at ten months to six years of age. Large Alpaca farms in Peruare able to practice better husbandry through pasture management, selective breeding, and health care. Of 3762 shorn Alpacas on one such farm in Puno, Peru, in the 1980s, wool was sorted and classified into the following five quality categories: X 3% at 19 microns, AA 52% at 25 microns, A 17% at 37 microns, LP 23% at 44 microns, and K 5% at 49 microns. Still, nearly half was considered “thick” relative to the Alpaca’s potential for producing fine wool. Now, two decadeslater, better management and selection is beginning to improve wool quality. Alpaca wool production and quality is strongly influenced by artificial selection (genetics) and nutrition. Seasonally wool production varies under the extreme conditions of the Alpaca’s high-altitude habitat: fiber or strand length has been shown to be 25% longer during the rainy season in the Andean highlands, reflecting the percentage of crude plant protein that decreases from 11% in the wet season to 3-5% in the dry season. Wool quality decreases (increase in diameter) when Alpacas are grazed on high-quality pasture compared to native range of poor to very poor quality. For example during a 15month feeding trial relative to controls, Alpacas on diets in Andean rangeland vs. managed pastures of alfalfa, increased the body weight of mothers and young 10 kgand 22 kgrespectively, fleece weight 0-4 kg and 0-8 kg, staple length 2-3 cm and 1-8 cm, fiber diameter 5-2 microns and 6-9 microns, and yield 4-1% and 10-8%. In another study adult Alpacas on high-feeding regimes resulted in increased stand diameter (fine 21-22 microns to thick 27-28 microns), but wool production per head/year increased from 1-1 kg to 2-4 kg. But, because there is little commercial difference in value per kilogram in the two wool diameters, total monetary value was doubled on the higher feeding regime. Contrary to the long-time belief that Alpacas produce finer wool at higher elevations in the Andes, recent studies with controls have shown that when on the same diet wool quality was similar. Commercially, the majority of Alpaca wool is made into carded and semi-carded thread. In the textile industry it is often blended with merino sheep wool to be made into overcoats and high-fashion knitwear. In general, Alpaca wool quality in the Andes is lower than its potential due to poor management and the extensive Alpaca/ILlama hybridization that has occurred over the past 400 years since Spanish colonization. DNA studies have revealed that today’s Andean Alpaca population shows a high (80-92%) level of hybridization. Along with a significant reduction in Peru’s Alpaca population during colonization, pure colored animals significantly decreased to the point that they became rare. The difference between Alpaca and Llamas and between Huacaya and Suri Alpacas has also been impacted. Alpaca husbandry is now addressing these problems. Additionally, in the 1970s the Alpaca population in Perudropped resulting in a 40% decline of wool production due to land and agrarian reforms. A number of revealing physiological parameters have been measured in Alpaca. Body temperature of normal adult males (n = 50) and females (n = 50) is the same (38-7°C), pulse rate/minute in males (83-2 + 2-2) is higher than females (76:6 + 1-9), and respiration rate/minute is similar for males (29-2 + 1-1) and females (28-3 + 0-79). For young Alpaca 10-12 months old (n = 50) body temperature is 38-5 + 0-04, pulse rate 83-8 + 2-9, and respiration rate 33-1 + 0-19. For femalesin the last days of gestation body temperature (38-3 + 0-07) is the same as non-pregnant females, but pulse rates (83-5 + 2-3), and respiration rates (34-8 + 1-9) were higher.Habitat.Alpacas are raised in the Andean highlands; regionally known as the Altiplano and Puna. The Puna ecosystem is rolling grassland and isolated wetlands typically at c.3500-5200 m altitude with two marked periods: the rainy season from October to April and the dry season from May to September. Most (75%) precipitation falls from November to March in the form of both hail and rain. In Peruthe annual precipitation varies from 800 mmin the south to 1200 mmin the central mountains. The mean annual temperatures are less than 10°C and nocturnal frosts are common, especially during the dry season. Diurnal fluctuations can be as much as 20°C in the mesic Altiplano and even greater in the dry or desert Altiplano. The short growing season, as determined by moisture and night-time cloud cover, occurs between December and March. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous grasses and forbs. Few trees exist and shrubs are only locally abundant. Perennial bunchgrasses are common including the genera Festuca, Poa, Stipa, and Calamagrostis, as well as the grass-like sedges Carexand Scirpus. High-quality forage is more abundant during the rainy season and scarcer during the remainder of the year. A critical habitat and principal source of forage for Alpacas in the Andes that allows intensive-localized foraging are bofedales or mojadales. Providing lush forage and moist vegetation that Alpacas thrive on, bofedales are localized islands of perennial greenery with deep organic soils moistened by subterranean and considerable surface water often forming small pools. Both natural and artificial bofedales exist, some man-made ones dating back to pre-Inca times. These high-altitude marsh areas can provide year-round forage, allowing herders and their animals to remain in the same area for extended periods. Depending upon water availability, they are productive only during the rainy season or throughout the year. As a result, their carrying capacity is highly variable, from 2-8 Alpacas/ha/year. Natural mojadales compared to irrigated artificial ones, typically have greater plant cover with more palatable and nutritious forage. Vegetative composition of bofedales in the humid Puna varies between several dominant species, including Distichia muscoides, Eleocharisalbibracteata, Hypochoeris taraxacoides, Hidrocotilo ranunculoides, Liliaopsis andina, and others. A percentage cover of 64-72% of desirable species (Werneria nubigena, Werneria pymaea, Hipochoeris stenocephala, Ranunculos sp., Carexfragilaris) is excellent Alpaca forage. Reported total accumulated bofedal forage (dry weight) from January to August was 1021 kg/ha that grew at an average rate of 4-2 kg/ha/day. Protein ranged 8-3-13-4% and crude fiber 19-2-34-1%. Annual bofedal growth varies with season: 60% during the summer growing season (January-April), 21% during the transition to the dry season (May-June), and 19% in the dry season (July-December). Wet artificial bofedales have greater sustained productivity than natural bofedales with 10-11% protein in both the wet and dry seasons and capable of supporting 3—4 Alpaca/ha/year. Continuous year-round grazing of native grasslands is the most common grazing management practice used by indigenous herders, but technicians are encouraging enhancement of rangeland conditions through rotational grazing and reducing stocking rates of Alpacas and competing sheep. Recommended stocking rate for Alpacas on Andean native pastures is 2-7 animals/ha/year on excellent range, 2 good, 1 average, 0-33 poor, and 0-17 very poor. However, intensively managed, irrigated pastures of grasses and legumes at 3850 maltitude can support 25 Alpacas/ha/year. Research indicates that despite the high elevations and low night-time temperatures, it is possible to increase considerably the sustained carrying capacity of Andean rangeland by the introduction of improved forage species. Managed pastures of irrigated ryegrass (Loliumperenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) with application of nitrogen fertilizers can carry up to 30 adult ind/ha compared with the usual rate of 1-1-5 ind/ha on natural grasslands. On Andean rangelands grazed by Alpaca,tall grass communities are commonly set on fire during the dry season (June—October) by native indigenous herders. The objective is the destruction of bunch grasses that will encourage the growth of ground forage preferred by Alpaca and sheep. However, studies have shown that annual burns are not beneficial because they not only stimulate the rapid regrowth of bunchgrasses, but promote hillside soil erosion and encourage the growth of undesirable invasive plant species. Burning every third or more years during the wet season is a more effective approach for improving Alpaca range and habitat.Food and Feeding.Historically, an Alpaca was considered to be equivalent to three sheep, but modern animal nutritionists in Peruconsider that Alpacas consume 1-2—-1-5 times as much forage as one sheep. Alpacas are selective for these familiar Altiplano plants: Compositae/composites 31 4% (Hipochoires stenocephala, Werneria novigena), followed by Cyperaceae/sedges-rushes 26-1% (Eleocharisalbibracteata, Carexsp.), Gramineae/grasses 19-1% (Calamagrostisrigescens, Festucadolichophylla), Rosaceae/roses 14-6% (Alchemillapinnata, Alchemilladiplophylla) and minor percentages of Ranunculaceae/ buttercups 5:6% (Ranunculusbreviscapus), Leguminosae/legumes 1-7% (Trifolium amabile) and others. Plant leaves,stalks, and flowers with protein content as high as 17-4% are selected by Alpaca when feeding in quality bofedales in the rainy-growing season. Year-round feeding studies on the chemical composition of ingested forage with fistulated Alpacas in Peruand Boliviayielded the following: dry matter 9-9%, organic material 88-8%, minerals 11-2%, total protein 15-1%, ether extract 7-4%, crude fiber 27-5%, nitrogen-free extract 38-:8%, and detergent neutral fiber 61:6%. General apparent digestibility of bofedal nutrients was dry matter 64-9%, organic material 64-1%, and total protein 64-8%. Total digestible nutrients (TDN) of bofedal forage eaten by Alpacas was similar between the rainy (54-1%) and dry (66:5%) seasons, as was the average energy from TDN at 60-3%. Average daily weight gain per Alpaca grazed on typical (control) bofedales was 0-093 kg, but experimentally at low stocking rates (2 Alpaca/ha/year) weight gain was 0-101 kg/day, medium stocking (4 Alpaca) 0-084 kg/ day, and high stocking (6 Alpaca) 0-079 kg/day. Although the carrying capacity is around one Alpaca/ha/year, overgrazing occurs at 1-8-2-5 Alpaca/ha/year, lowering the quantity and quality of available forage. In indigenous Andean communities where herders own the animals but not the land and the communal grazing lands are used through permission from the community, overgrazing of the natural grasslands is not uncommon. Although efforts are being made to counter the situation, a long history of bofedal overuse by traditional Alpaca herders has frequently resulted in low live (50 kg) and carcass (25-5 kg) weights, reduced fleece weights (1-2 kg), low fertility (35%), and high juvenile mortality (30%). Like Vicunas, Alpacas need frequent water intake. Water consumption by Alpacas grazing on bofedales was high during the dry season at 3-08 kg/animal/day and less in the rainy growing season at 2-04 kg. In another Peruvian study digestibility of high-altitude forage by Alpacas in both Altplano and bofedal habitats was lowest (50-62%) in the winter-dry season and highest (66-76%) in the spring/summer-wet season. Comparative feeding trials measuring the coefficients of digestibility revealed that when fed dry forage low in protein (less than 7-5%) Alpacas were 14% more efficient than sheep, but at high protein levels (greater than 10-5%), sheep were slightly (2%) more efficient. Other studies have reported that Alpacas have a digestion coefficient 25% higher than sheep, particularly on low-quality forage. Maintenance-energy requirements for a 60 kgAlpaca is 2% of its body weight, or 1-2 kg dry forage per day. Alpacas in Peruforage more selectively than Llamas. Diets are highest in grass during the wet and early dry season. As the dry season progresses, the diets of Alpacas in bofedal habitat became largely sedges and reeds (81%). Animals in dryer habitats consume more grass (68%). A study of live weight changes of Alpaca adult males, females, and their progeny, was conducted for three seasons under continuous grazing on natural grasslands on the Mediterranean range of Central Chile. Live weight changes were highest in spring (100-200 g/day), moderate during winter (50-100 g/day), and negative only at the end of summer and in autumn (-110 g/day to — 150 g/day). Weight gains of newborn Alpacas were greatest (110-150 g/day) in the first 90 days after birth and then decreased slightly, reaching values of 75 g/day at 8-5 months old. Weight gainsstabilized at 10-20 g/day at three years of age.Breeding.Alpaca females in Perureach puberty at 60% (33-40 kg) of their adult weight, or at c.12-14 months of age when being grazed on native pastures. Although such young females exhibit sexual behavior, ovulation, fertilization, and embryonic survival similar to adults, most breeders waitto first breed females at two years of age when they have reached greater physical maturity. Male Alpacas in Peruare first used for reproduction at two to three years of age, because the penis is still adhered to the prepuce in one-(84%) and two-year-olds (50%), with all males adhesion free at three years old. The rate of detachment is dependent upon the level of testosterone secreted from the testes. The breeding season is from January to April using several different husbandry techniques. If the females are unfamiliar with the breeding male, they most likely will not accept him. Such males become familiarized by staying with the females in the same stone corral or encircled together by rope for a number of hours each day for 20 days; pregnancy rate is as high at 85% using this method. The most common technique is to run four to six breeding males per 100 females together, year-round. Artificial selection is less controlled by this approach, so males with desired traits are chosen (typically white colored, dense and good quality wool, and normally developed testes 4-5 cm long and 2-5 cm wide). On large, Peruvian Alpaca farms no more than 200 females are run with 10-12 males, half of which are rotated in one-week intervals for two months during the breeding season. Males work well for one week, but then begin to fight with each other and establish hierarchies and harems, thus the rotational system. Alpaca breed and give birth seasonally. When males and females are kept together year-round, births only occur during the rainy season from December to March. The continuous association of the sexes produces an inhibiting effect on the sexual activity of the male. But when males are separated from females and only brought together for breeding, births are year-round. Copulation occurs with the female in sternal recumbency, and lasts 20-50 minutes. Non-pregnant Alpaca have no well-defined cyclical sexual activity (estrus), but are always in the follicular phase and state of receptivity until ovulation is induced by copulation. There is no period of sexual inactivity in Alpaca and other cameloids, nor a relationship between size of ovarian follicle and sexual receptivity. Ovulation occurs ¢.26 hours after copulation. Ovulation can be also be induced by the injection of chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and then occurs c¢.24 hours later. Following ovulation the corpus luteum forms and reaches maximum size and secretory activity at approximately eight days. With no gestation the corpus luteum regresses within 12-18 days after mating, giving way to the formation of new follicles. With conception and gestation, the corpus luteum continues its secretory activity and thereafter the female is not sexually receptive. Pregnancy is assessed by sexual behavior of the female in presence of a new male. Studies have found that at least 85% of the females that ovulate in response to the coital stimulation have at least one fertilized ovum within three days of mating. However, in Peruthere is 34% embryonic mortality during the first 30 days of gestation, seriously affecting the annual birth rate of Alpacas. Nearly all (95%) of the pregnancies are in the left horn of the bifurcated uterus, although both ovaries are equally active. Thus, transuterine migration from the right to the left horn of the uterus is common, as evidenced by the corpus luteum in the right ovary and the fetus in the left horn of the uterus. The placenta is simple-diffuse and of the chorial epithelium type. Reproductive studies in Peruon Alpaca mothers (n = 1684) showed that age of the female, year of birth, and the quality of diet were important factors influencing the length of gestation and date of birth. First time mothers at two years of age and those 15 years and older had longer gestation periods (403 and 401 days respectively) than middle-aged females four to twelve years of age (380-390 days). Females grazing on higher quality, cultivated pastures had longer gestation periods than those on native rangelands (389 vs. 379 days). Also in years with favorable vs. poor range conditions, gestation was longer (392 vs. 381 days) and newborns weighed more (8-7 vs. 8-1 kg). The explanation for this may be that females on good forage can afford longer gestations, give birth to a larger young, and be assured that favorable forage will be available for costly lactation. In contrast, females on poor forage have shorter gestations, cannot afford long gestations because of the potential cost of lowering their own health, and need to start lactation as soon as possible while there is at least some forage available before the dry season begins. Age of the Alpaca mother and date of parturition also influenced offspring survival in the Peruvian studies. In a curvilinear fashion, survival of young born to mothers two and three years of age was lower than those with mothers 9-11 years old (82% vs. 91% survival), but declines to 88% for mothers 15 years of age. In Australia, the gestation of spring-mated females is ten days longer than fall-mated females. Birth weight of Alpaca neonates averages 8-4 kg in Peru, with significant variation as indicated among femaleage groups. The importance of good maternal nutrition is critical for such a species with an unusually long gestation. At 180 days or almost half way through gestation the fetus weighs 600 g, only 7% of its eventual 9 kgat birth. Some 93% ofits growth takes place in the last half of gestation, and at 230 days or two-thirds of the way into gestation, a remarkable 72% ofits growth is yet to be gained. The heavy energy demands of lactation lasting 6—8 months, mostly coincides with the Andean rainy, or growing season. Even though multiple ovulations occur c¢.10% of the time, Alpaca twins are extremely rare in Peruand in the USA; only one out of ¢.2000 births. If neonatal twins do occurthere is a significant difference in size, e.g. 4 kgand 6 kg, with the smaller one typically in the right horn of the uterus dying during gestation resulting in the death of the other. After giving birth the female comes into estrus within 48 hours, but only with initial follicular growth. Follicular size and activity capable of ovulation in response to copulation is observed from the fifth day, but the higher rates offertility begin ten days after parturition with the highest fertility 20-30 days postpartum. The Peruvian Alpaca birth season is from December to May. Females are not separated from the herd due to the lack of space. The umbilical of the newborn is treated with iodine or an herb solution to prevent infection and diarrhea. Newborns are watched closely by the herder to assure first nursing is successful (first milk is high in colostrum, rich in antibodies). Parturition in indigenous herds averages a low 50% and juvenile mortality is high (15-35%); itis estimated that no more than half of the female Alpaca of reproductive age produce young every year. Young born during the birth season also had higher survival than those born late. Additionally, juvenile survival is curvilinearly related to birth weight. Neonates weighing 9-11 kg had an average 92% survival but those weighing 4-5 kg survived at a rate of 30-50%. When pregnant females (n = 424) and their young were monitored,it was found that newborn birth weight, and weight and width of the placenta increased with age of the dam reaching a peak at nine years and then declined progressively. Placental efficiency also increased with female Alpaca age, showing a bimodal shape and peaking at 6-11year-old females; more young died from two-year-old females than any other age; and dead neonates weighed less (6-4 kg) than those that survived (7-8 kg). In indigenous herds, young-of-the-year are usually not weaned due to the lack of extra pastures and the labor involved. Instead, young nurse beyond one year of age, including up to the time the mother gives birth again. To impede the yearling from competing with the newborn for nursing, herders will sometimes temporarily pierce the yearling’s nose with a stick. In commercial Alpaca herds weaning occurs in September through October, sometimes until November, when young are 6-8 months old.Activity patterns.The daily routine or activity pattern of indigenous Alpaca family flocks is quite consistent. After having spent the night in a stone corral or next to the family house (usually a stone hut called a choza), the animals are released or move out on their own to graze for the day soon after sunrise. While the family’s sheep flock is tended by a herder, the Alpaca flock is not accompanied by a herder. Instead,its daily movements and activity patterns while grazing are self-directed within 1-2 km of their home base to local bofedales and other feeding areas of their choice. As sunset approaches, the flock returns to the home site by themselves without being escorted by a herder. Daytime activity budgets (percentage of time) of Alpacas compared to sheep while both species grazed on native-Andean pasture dominated by the favorable forage Festucadolichophylla, have shown that while other activities were similar, Alpacas fed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (11% vs. 25%) than sheep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Seasonal patterns of Alpaca movement are determined by herders as influenced by the availability of forage, varying from one locality to next. One common annual movement of Alpacas in the Andes is to graze herds during the rainy season (generallyJanuary to April) in lower mountains (3600-4100 m) areas characterized by pampas, slopes, and rounded ridges. Then in the dry season (generally May to December) they are moved up to the high altitudes (4100-5200 m) to find favorable forage, bofedales, and water. When the rainy season begins, they are moved back to lower areas where grasses are beginning to grow and to avoid severe hailstorms and other weather at higher altitudes. Herders, however, without access to two seasonal sites maintain their animals in the same area year-round. Indigenous families that raise livestock in the Peruvian Andes on the average have 70 Alpacas (30-120), 30 Llamas (4-50), and 50 sheep (10-80). More importance is placed upon Alpacas because they offer greater economic diversity. Most (90-95%) of the Alpaca woolis sold, the balance used for home use. Many of the young males one to two years old are sold for meat production, and old animals are culled to make jerky. In three Peruvian Alpaca farms that were cooperatively, family, and individually owned, percent herd composition was females: 60/ 65/ 70; gelded males: 25/30/25; breeding males: 3/4/5; white animals: 70/70/90; and colored animals: 30/30/10. With Alpacas that are owned as private property, each member of the family owns animals but herd control is under the family. Ownership is designated by ear markings or colored yarn. Animals are often given as presents or ceremonial gifts. They play an important role in the rituals, symbols, mythology, and ceremoniesin the life of Andean people. Individual animals are recognized and described by physical characteristics and usually given a name. Alpacas have feminine attributes in the Andean cosmic vision oflife and the world, and generically referred to as “mothers” and “dear mothers.” Alpacas are highly social with strong herding behavior, making them easier to drive when necessary. In small, mixed-sex herds, dominance is clear with a few adult males as the leaders. Alpacas are more skittish and shy with strangers than Llamas. When a free-ranging flock is approached on foot, they will distance themselves more quickly than a herd of Llamas. Once they become familiar with you, however, they are docile and easier to handle than sheep. There are no known unmanaged or feral populations of Alpaca that would allow us to assess their social organization and full repertoire of behavior. However, a number of subtle-contrasting characteristics exist in Alpaca behavior that turn out to be, not surprisingly, very similar to the Vicuna: tighter grouping, vocal communication more common, less communicative with their tails, love water and bathe regularly, greater susceptibility to heat stress, higher site fidelity, males more protective of females, less cooperative, and more distant and stand-offish.Status and Conservation.Alpacas and Llamas were important to ancient Andean civilizations such as the Tiwanaku Culture that dominated the Lake Titicaca region from ¢.300 BC to 1000 Ap, and the Inca Culture that dominated the Central Andes in the 15% and 16\" centuries. When the Incas captured the cameloid-rich kingdoms near Lake Titicaca and south, they acquired giant herds of Llamas and Alpacas. The Incas then sent “seed herds” throughout their empire and commanded that they be reproduced. State-controlled husbandry of Alpacas produced vast herds that numbered into the millions. The Incas placed special emphasis on avoidance of crossbreeding with Llamas and selective breeding of pure-colored Alpacas (brown, black, and white) for quality wool and sacrifice to deities. The Spanish invasion in the 16™ century destroyed that advanced management system and there ensued a breakdown of controlled breeding. Today, the raising of Alpacas in the high altitudes of Peruand Boliviacontributes substantially to the economy of the region. However, animal production is limited by the low level of technology, adverse climate, disease, herders with scarce resources, and frequent over utilization of native rangelands. The Andean grazing system is extensively based upon utilization of native high-altitude grasslands by mixed herds that include not only Alpacas, but sheep and Llamas as well. Pastoralism and mixed agropastoralism form the subsistence base for the agricultural segment of the high Andes. Indigenous communities control the greatest number of camelids and sheep, as well as half of the native rangelands, which comprise ¢.95% ofthe land area above 3800 m. The Alpaca population in South America is c.4-5 million, down some 20% since the mid-1960s, but up 25% from the early 2000s. Today, numbers are at least stable, if not increasing. Most Alpacas are in Peruwith 91%, followed by Bolivia8% and Chile1%. Few Alpacas occur in Argentinabecause of the lack of moist Puna and the dominance of the dry Puna. More than 73-87% are in southern Peru(Arequipa, Cuzco, Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna), with nearly half of the world’s Alpaca in the Department of Puno. Females represent c¢.70% of the total Alpaca population. A high percentage (85-95%) of Alpacas are owned and managed by native herders in small flocks ofless than 50 animals, but some commercial Alpaca herds are as large as 30,000-50,000 individuals. Although indigenous herders raise most Alpacas, productivity traditionally has been the lowest due to over stocking, improper health care, and inbreeding. Peruhas ¢.789,775 producers raising Alpacas; Boliviahas 13,603, and Chile916. Starting in the early 1980s Alpacas were exported from Chile, Bolivia, and Peruto the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, where cottage industries in Alpaca wool have developed. In the USAthe Alpaca Owners & Breeders Association numbered over 4500 members with 143,000 registered Alpacas in 2010. Peruexports c. US$ 24 million worth of Alpaca products (wool, tops, yarns, woven fabrics, and knitwear) annually to countries around the world, especially China, Germany, and Italy. Annual Alpaca wool production in South America is 4-1 million kg (90% from Peru), yet only represents 0-6% of the world’s fine-fibered wool production (fine sheep wool is ¢.90-95% followed by cashmere at 5-10%). Because of a high market demand for white wool from Huacaya Alpaca, which can be dyed to any desired color, the Alpaca population has become dominated (80-87%) by white individuals. The result has been a scarcity of individuals with pure natural colors and a reduction of genetic diversity in the species. Pure black Alpacas are the rarest. The problem has been recognized and pure natural colors are now beginning to recover. Alpaca wool prices were at their peak from the 1960s-1980s then declined due to land reforms and competition from synthetics. Prices, however, still remain high at four times the value of sheep wool. In North America in its raw state, an ounce of Alpaca varies from US$ 2 to US$ 5. Each stage of the process (cleaning, carding, spinning, knitting, finishing, etc) adds more value to the wool. As a finished garment, it can sell for US$ 10/0z. In addition to its importance as a producer of fine wool, Alpacas have been a valuable source of meat and hides in South America. In the late 1990s some eleven million kilograms of Alpaca meat were produced annually in Peru, representing 10-15% of the country’s total Alpaca population. The best yield and tenderest meat is from animals 1-5-2 years old, but most are slaughtered at 7-8 years old because their wool has become too coarse for economic production. Alpaca meat is healthful, rich in protein and low in cholesterol and fat. Prime cuts are 50% of the carcass and sold either fresh or frozen to meat markets, restaurants, hotels, and supermarkets. Hides are tanned for soft leather products or sold with the fleece intact as wall hangings, rugs, and toys. For indigenous peoples that raise most Alpacas, family income from these animals is primarily from meat (44% fresh, 16% dried) and secondarily from the wool (31%). Despite its excellent quality, the price received for Alpaca meat is 50% less than that for sheep and beef, due to long standing prejudice towards camelid meat. Beginning in the 1960s Peruwas the world leader in quality Alpaca research, especially by the progressive staff and visiting scientists working at the La Raya Research Station from CuzcoUniversity. With the export of Alpacas around the globe starting in the 1990s, serious science on this longneglected species and family expanded to a number of countries. Universities in the USAand Australiapursued vigorous research programs into reproduction, disease, genetics, and nutrition. The future for the Alpaca is encouraging. Wide opportunities exist for improved successful Alpaca production in the highlands of Peruand Bolivia, especially if the stewardship of the Alpaca’s principle habitat, bofedales, is improved towards sustained and balanced use.Bibliography.Allen (2010), Bravo & Varela (1993), Bravo, Garnica & Puma (2009), Bravo, Pezo & Alarcén (1995), Bryant et al. (1989), Bustinza (1989), Calle Escobar (1984), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), Castellaro et al. (1998), Fernandez-Baca et al. (1972a, 1972b), FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995), Florez (1991), Gonzales (1990), Groeneveld et al. (2010), Hoffman & Fowler (1995), Huacarpuma (1990), Kadwell et al. (2001), Moscoso & Bautista (2003), Munoz (2008), Novoa & Florez (1991), Orlove (1977), Quispe et al. (2009), San Martin (1989), Sumar (1996), Sumar et al. (1972), Tuckwell (1994), Villarroel (1991).","taxonomy":"Camelus pacos Linnaeus, 1758,Peru.The Alpaca is a domesticated camelid indigenous and endemic to South America, well known for the characteristics of its fine-diameter wool: soft, silky, high luster, lightweight, and warm. Alpaca woolis used for luxurious blankets, sweaters, and cloth. The species was long classified in the genus Lama, but recent DNA studies (mtDNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite markers) have established that the Alpaca was domesticated from the Vicuna subspecies V. vicugnamensalis, showing significant genetic differentiation to warrant a change in its genus to Vicugnaand its designation as a separate species. Archeological digs at the Telarmachay site in the Central Andes of Peruindicate that the Alpaca was domesticated 5500-6500 years ago by a hunter-gatherer society. These early indigenous herders selected for an animal with a docile nature while maintaining the fineness of its progenitor’s wool. No remains of Alpaca have been found to date at archeological digs in the south of Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina), but only early domesticated Llamas (Lama glama). The Alpaca has no subspecies, but two distinct breeds are recognized: the Huacaya and Suri.","commonNames":"Alpaca @fr | Alpaka @de | Alpaca @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Vicugna","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pacos","name":"Vicugna pacos","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Alpacas are found in the Central Andes from C Peruinto mid-Bolivia and N Chile. In the 1980s—1990s Alpacas were imported into the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Europe. There are no known wild/feral populations of Alpacas.","bibliography":"Allen (2010) | Bravo & Varela (1993) | Bravo, Garnica & Puma (2009) | Bravo, Pezo & Alarcén (1995) | Bryant et al. (1989) | Bustinza (1989) | Calle Escobar (1984) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | Castellaro et al. (1998) | Fernandez-Baca et al. (1972a, 1972b) | FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995) | Florez (1991) | Gonzales (1990) | Groeneveld et al. (2010) | Hoffman & Fowler (1995) | Huacarpuma (1990) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Moscoso & Bautista (2003) | Munoz (2008) | Novoa & Florez (1991) | Orlove (1977) | Quispe et al. (2009) | San Martin (1989) | Sumar (1996) | Sumar et al. (1972) | Tuckwell (1994) | Villarroel (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"Historically, an Alpaca was considered to be equivalent to three sheep, but modern animal nutritionists in Peruconsider that Alpacas consume 1-2—-1-5 times as much forage as one sheep. Alpacas are selective for these familiar Altiplano plants: Compositae/composites 31 4% (Hipochoires stenocephala, Werneria novigena), followed by Cyperaceae/sedges-rushes 26-1% (Eleocharisalbibracteata, Carexsp.), Gramineae/grasses 19-1% (Calamagrostisrigescens, Festucadolichophylla), Rosaceae/roses 14-6% (Alchemillapinnata, Alchemilladiplophylla) and minor percentages of Ranunculaceae/ buttercups 5:6% (Ranunculusbreviscapus), Leguminosae/legumes 1-7% (Trifolium amabile) and others. Plant leaves,stalks, and flowers with protein content as high as 17-4% are selected by Alpaca when feeding in quality bofedales in the rainy-growing season. Year-round feeding studies on the chemical composition of ingested forage with fistulated Alpacas in Peruand Boliviayielded the following: dry matter 9-9%, organic material 88-8%, minerals 11-2%, total protein 15-1%, ether extract 7-4%, crude fiber 27-5%, nitrogen-free extract 38-:8%, and detergent neutral fiber 61:6%. General apparent digestibility of bofedal nutrients was dry matter 64-9%, organic material 64-1%, and total protein 64-8%. Total digestible nutrients (TDN) of bofedal forage eaten by Alpacas was similar between the rainy (54-1%) and dry (66:5%) seasons, as was the average energy from TDN at 60-3%. Average daily weight gain per Alpaca grazed on typical (control) bofedales was 0-093 kg, but experimentally at low stocking rates (2 Alpaca/ha/year) weight gain was 0-101 kg/day, medium stocking (4 Alpaca) 0-084 kg/ day, and high stocking (6 Alpaca) 0-079 kg/day. Although the carrying capacity is around one Alpaca/ha/year, overgrazing occurs at 1-8-2-5 Alpaca/ha/year, lowering the quantity and quality of available forage. In indigenous Andean communities where herders own the animals but not the land and the communal grazing lands are used through permission from the community, overgrazing of the natural grasslands is not uncommon. Although efforts are being made to counter the situation, a long history of bofedal overuse by traditional Alpaca herders has frequently resulted in low live (50 kg) and carcass (25-5 kg) weights, reduced fleece weights (1-2 kg), low fertility (35%), and high juvenile mortality (30%). Like Vicunas, Alpacas need frequent water intake. Water consumption by Alpacas grazing on bofedales was high during the dry season at 3-08 kg/animal/day and less in the rainy growing season at 2-04 kg. In another Peruvian study digestibility of high-altitude forage by Alpacas in both Altplano and bofedal habitats was lowest (50-62%) in the winter-dry season and highest (66-76%) in the spring/summer-wet season. Comparative feeding trials measuring the coefficients of digestibility revealed that when fed dry forage low in protein (less than 7-5%) Alpacas were 14% more efficient than sheep, but at high protein levels (greater than 10-5%), sheep were slightly (2%) more efficient. Other studies have reported that Alpacas have a digestion coefficient 25% higher than sheep, particularly on low-quality forage. Maintenance-energy requirements for a 60 kgAlpaca is 2% of its body weight, or 1-2 kg dry forage per day. Alpacas in Peruforage more selectively than Llamas. Diets are highest in grass during the wet and early dry season. As the dry season progresses, the diets of Alpacas in bofedal habitat became largely sedges and reeds (81%). Animals in dryer habitats consume more grass (68%). A study of live weight changes of Alpaca adult males, females, and their progeny, was conducted for three seasons under continuous grazing on natural grasslands on the Mediterranean range of Central Chile. Live weight changes were highest in spring (100-200 g/day), moderate during winter (50-100 g/day), and negative only at the end of summer and in autumn (-110 g/day to — 150 g/day). Weight gains of newborn Alpacas were greatest (110-150 g/day) in the first 90 days after birth and then decreased slightly, reaching values of 75 g/day at 8-5 months old. Weight gainsstabilized at 10-20 g/day at three years of age.","breeding":"Alpaca females in Perureach puberty at 60% (33-40 kg) of their adult weight, or at c.12-14 months of age when being grazed on native pastures. Although such young females exhibit sexual behavior, ovulation, fertilization, and embryonic survival similar to adults, most breeders waitto first breed females at two years of age when they have reached greater physical maturity. Male Alpacas in Peruare first used for reproduction at two to three years of age, because the penis is still adhered to the prepuce in one-(84%) and two-year-olds (50%), with all males adhesion free at three years old. The rate of detachment is dependent upon the level of testosterone secreted from the testes. The breeding season is from January to April using several different husbandry techniques. If the females are unfamiliar with the breeding male, they most likely will not accept him. Such males become familiarized by staying with the females in the same stone corral or encircled together by rope for a number of hours each day for 20 days; pregnancy rate is as high at 85% using this method. The most common technique is to run four to six breeding males per 100 females together, year-round. Artificial selection is less controlled by this approach, so males with desired traits are chosen (typically white colored, dense and good quality wool, and normally developed testes 4-5 cm long and 2-5 cm wide). On large, Peruvian Alpaca farms no more than 200 females are run with 10-12 males, half of which are rotated in one-week intervals for two months during the breeding season. Males work well for one week, but then begin to fight with each other and establish hierarchies and harems, thus the rotational system. Alpaca breed and give birth seasonally. When males and females are kept together year-round, births only occur during the rainy season from December to March. The continuous association of the sexes produces an inhibiting effect on the sexual activity of the male. But when males are separated from females and only brought together for breeding, births are year-round. Copulation occurs with the female in sternal recumbency, and lasts 20-50 minutes. Non-pregnant Alpaca have no well-defined cyclical sexual activity (estrus), but are always in the follicular phase and state of receptivity until ovulation is induced by copulation. There is no period of sexual inactivity in Alpaca and other cameloids, nor a relationship between size of ovarian follicle and sexual receptivity. Ovulation occurs ¢.26 hours after copulation. Ovulation can be also be induced by the injection of chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and then occurs c¢.24 hours later. Following ovulation the corpus luteum forms and reaches maximum size and secretory activity at approximately eight days. With no gestation the corpus luteum regresses within 12-18 days after mating, giving way to the formation of new follicles. With conception and gestation, the corpus luteum continues its secretory activity and thereafter the female is not sexually receptive. Pregnancy is assessed by sexual behavior of the female in presence of a new male. Studies have found that at least 85% of the females that ovulate in response to the coital stimulation have at least one fertilized ovum within three days of mating. However, in Peruthere is 34% embryonic mortality during the first 30 days of gestation, seriously affecting the annual birth rate of Alpacas. Nearly all (95%) of the pregnancies are in the left horn of the bifurcated uterus, although both ovaries are equally active. Thus, transuterine migration from the right to the left horn of the uterus is common, as evidenced by the corpus luteum in the right ovary and the fetus in the left horn of the uterus. The placenta is simple-diffuse and of the chorial epithelium type. Reproductive studies in Peruon Alpaca mothers (n = 1684) showed that age of the female, year of birth, and the quality of diet were important factors influencing the length of gestation and date of birth. First time mothers at two years of age and those 15 years and older had longer gestation periods (403 and 401 days respectively) than middle-aged females four to twelve years of age (380-390 days). Females grazing on higher quality, cultivated pastures had longer gestation periods than those on native rangelands (389 vs. 379 days). Also in years with favorable vs. poor range conditions, gestation was longer (392 vs. 381 days) and newborns weighed more (8-7 vs. 8-1 kg). The explanation for this may be that females on good forage can afford longer gestations, give birth to a larger young, and be assured that favorable forage will be available for costly lactation. In contrast, females on poor forage have shorter gestations, cannot afford long gestations because of the potential cost of lowering their own health, and need to start lactation as soon as possible while there is at least some forage available before the dry season begins. Age of the Alpaca mother and date of parturition also influenced offspring survival in the Peruvian studies. In a curvilinear fashion, survival of young born to mothers two and three years of age was lower than those with mothers 9-11 years old (82% vs. 91% survival), but declines to 88% for mothers 15 years of age. In Australia, the gestation of spring-mated females is ten days longer than fall-mated females. Birth weight of Alpaca neonates averages 8-4 kg in Peru, with significant variation as indicated among femaleage groups. The importance of good maternal nutrition is critical for such a species with an unusually long gestation. At 180 days or almost half way through gestation the fetus weighs 600 g, only 7% of its eventual 9 kgat birth. Some 93% ofits growth takes place in the last half of gestation, and at 230 days or two-thirds of the way into gestation, a remarkable 72% ofits growth is yet to be gained. The heavy energy demands of lactation lasting 6—8 months, mostly coincides with the Andean rainy, or growing season. Even though multiple ovulations occur c¢.10% of the time, Alpaca twins are extremely rare in Peruand in the USA; only one out of ¢.2000 births. If neonatal twins do occurthere is a significant difference in size, e.g. 4 kgand 6 kg, with the smaller one typically in the right horn of the uterus dying during gestation resulting in the death of the other. After giving birth the female comes into estrus within 48 hours, but only with initial follicular growth. Follicular size and activity capable of ovulation in response to copulation is observed from the fifth day, but the higher rates offertility begin ten days after parturition with the highest fertility 20-30 days postpartum. The Peruvian Alpaca birth season is from December to May. Females are not separated from the herd due to the lack of space. The umbilical of the newborn is treated with iodine or an herb solution to prevent infection and diarrhea. Newborns are watched closely by the herder to assure first nursing is successful (first milk is high in colostrum, rich in antibodies). Parturition in indigenous herds averages a low 50% and juvenile mortality is high (15-35%); itis estimated that no more than half of the female Alpaca of reproductive age produce young every year. Young born during the birth season also had higher survival than those born late. Additionally, juvenile survival is curvilinearly related to birth weight. Neonates weighing 9-11 kg had an average 92% survival but those weighing 4-5 kg survived at a rate of 30-50%. When pregnant females (n = 424) and their young were monitored,it was found that newborn birth weight, and weight and width of the placenta increased with age of the dam reaching a peak at nine years and then declined progressively. Placental efficiency also increased with female Alpaca age, showing a bimodal shape and peaking at 6-11year-old females; more young died from two-year-old females than any other age; and dead neonates weighed less (6-4 kg) than those that survived (7-8 kg). In indigenous herds, young-of-the-year are usually not weaned due to the lack of extra pastures and the labor involved. Instead, young nurse beyond one year of age, including up to the time the mother gives birth again. To impede the yearling from competing with the newborn for nursing, herders will sometimes temporarily pierce the yearling’s nose with a stick. In commercial Alpaca herds weaning occurs in September through October, sometimes until November, when young are 6-8 months old.","activityPatterns":"The daily routine or activity pattern of indigenous Alpaca family flocks is quite consistent. After having spent the night in a stone corral or next to the family house (usually a stone hut called a choza), the animals are released or move out on their own to graze for the day soon after sunrise. While the family’s sheep flock is tended by a herder, the Alpaca flock is not accompanied by a herder. Instead,its daily movements and activity patterns while grazing are self-directed within 1-2 km of their home base to local bofedales and other feeding areas of their choice. As sunset approaches, the flock returns to the home site by themselves without being escorted by a herder. Daytime activity budgets (percentage of time) of Alpacas compared to sheep while both species grazed on native-Andean pasture dominated by the favorable forage Festucadolichophylla, have shown that while other activities were similar, Alpacas fed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (11% vs. 25%) than sheep.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Seasonal patterns of Alpaca movement are determined by herders as influenced by the availability of forage, varying from one locality to next. One common annual movement of Alpacas in the Andes is to graze herds during the rainy season (generallyJanuary to April) in lower mountains (3600-4100 m) areas characterized by pampas, slopes, and rounded ridges. Then in the dry season (generally May to December) they are moved up to the high altitudes (4100-5200 m) to find favorable forage, bofedales, and water. When the rainy season begins, they are moved back to lower areas where grasses are beginning to grow and to avoid severe hailstorms and other weather at higher altitudes. Herders, however, without access to two seasonal sites maintain their animals in the same area year-round. Indigenous families that raise livestock in the Peruvian Andes on the average have 70 Alpacas (30-120), 30 Llamas (4-50), and 50 sheep (10-80). More importance is placed upon Alpacas because they offer greater economic diversity. Most (90-95%) of the Alpaca woolis sold, the balance used for home use. Many of the young males one to two years old are sold for meat production, and old animals are culled to make jerky. In three Peruvian Alpaca farms that were cooperatively, family, and individually owned, percent herd composition was females: 60/ 65/ 70; gelded males: 25/30/25; breeding males: 3/4/5; white animals: 70/70/90; and colored animals: 30/30/10. With Alpacas that are owned as private property, each member of the family owns animals but herd control is under the family. Ownership is designated by ear markings or colored yarn. Animals are often given as presents or ceremonial gifts. They play an important role in the rituals, symbols, mythology, and ceremoniesin the life of Andean people. Individual animals are recognized and described by physical characteristics and usually given a name. Alpacas have feminine attributes in the Andean cosmic vision oflife and the world, and generically referred to as “mothers” and “dear mothers.” Alpacas are highly social with strong herding behavior, making them easier to drive when necessary. In small, mixed-sex herds, dominance is clear with a few adult males as the leaders. Alpacas are more skittish and shy with strangers than Llamas. When a free-ranging flock is approached on foot, they will distance themselves more quickly than a herd of Llamas. Once they become familiar with you, however, they are docile and easier to handle than sheep. There are no known unmanaged or feral populations of Alpaca that would allow us to assess their social organization and full repertoire of behavior. However, a number of subtle-contrasting characteristics exist in Alpaca behavior that turn out to be, not surprisingly, very similar to the Vicuna: tighter grouping, vocal communication more common, less communicative with their tails, love water and bathe regularly, greater susceptibility to heat stress, higher site fidelity, males more protective of females, less cooperative, and more distant and stand-offish.","statusAndConservation":"Alpacas and Llamas were important to ancient Andean civilizations such as the Tiwanaku Culture that dominated the Lake Titicaca region from ¢.300 BC to 1000 Ap, and the Inca Culture that dominated the Central Andes in the 15% and 16\" centuries. When the Incas captured the cameloid-rich kingdoms near Lake Titicaca and south, they acquired giant herds of Llamas and Alpacas. The Incas then sent “seed herds” throughout their empire and commanded that they be reproduced. State-controlled husbandry of Alpacas produced vast herds that numbered into the millions. The Incas placed special emphasis on avoidance of crossbreeding with Llamas and selective breeding of pure-colored Alpacas (brown, black, and white) for quality wool and sacrifice to deities. The Spanish invasion in the 16™ century destroyed that advanced management system and there ensued a breakdown of controlled breeding. Today, the raising of Alpacas in the high altitudes of Peruand Boliviacontributes substantially to the economy of the region. However, animal production is limited by the low level of technology, adverse climate, disease, herders with scarce resources, and frequent over utilization of native rangelands. The Andean grazing system is extensively based upon utilization of native high-altitude grasslands by mixed herds that include not only Alpacas, but sheep and Llamas as well. Pastoralism and mixed agropastoralism form the subsistence base for the agricultural segment of the high Andes. Indigenous communities control the greatest number of camelids and sheep, as well as half of the native rangelands, which comprise ¢.95% ofthe land area above 3800 m. The Alpaca population in South America is c.4-5 million, down some 20% since the mid-1960s, but up 25% from the early 2000s. Today, numbers are at least stable, if not increasing. Most Alpacas are in Peruwith 91%, followed by Bolivia8% and Chile1%. Few Alpacas occur in Argentinabecause of the lack of moist Puna and the dominance of the dry Puna. More than 73-87% are in southern Peru(Arequipa, Cuzco, Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna), with nearly half of the world’s Alpaca in the Department of Puno. Females represent c¢.70% of the total Alpaca population. A high percentage (85-95%) of Alpacas are owned and managed by native herders in small flocks ofless than 50 animals, but some commercial Alpaca herds are as large as 30,000-50,000 individuals. Although indigenous herders raise most Alpacas, productivity traditionally has been the lowest due to over stocking, improper health care, and inbreeding. Peruhas ¢.789,775 producers raising Alpacas; Boliviahas 13,603, and Chile916. Starting in the early 1980s Alpacas were exported from Chile, Bolivia, and Peruto the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, where cottage industries in Alpaca wool have developed. In the USAthe Alpaca Owners & Breeders Association numbered over 4500 members with 143,000 registered Alpacas in 2010. Peruexports c. US$ 24 million worth of Alpaca products (wool, tops, yarns, woven fabrics, and knitwear) annually to countries around the world, especially China, Germany, and Italy. Annual Alpaca wool production in South America is 4-1 million kg (90% from Peru), yet only represents 0-6% of the world’s fine-fibered wool production (fine sheep wool is ¢.90-95% followed by cashmere at 5-10%). Because of a high market demand for white wool from Huacaya Alpaca, which can be dyed to any desired color, the Alpaca population has become dominated (80-87%) by white individuals. The result has been a scarcity of individuals with pure natural colors and a reduction of genetic diversity in the species. Pure black Alpacas are the rarest. The problem has been recognized and pure natural colors are now beginning to recover. Alpaca wool prices were at their peak from the 1960s-1980s then declined due to land reforms and competition from synthetics. Prices, however, still remain high at four times the value of sheep wool. In North America in its raw state, an ounce of Alpaca varies from US$ 2 to US$ 5. Each stage of the process (cleaning, carding, spinning, knitting, finishing, etc) adds more value to the wool. As a finished garment, it can sell for US$ 10/0z. In addition to its importance as a producer of fine wool, Alpacas have been a valuable source of meat and hides in South America. In the late 1990s some eleven million kilograms of Alpaca meat were produced annually in Peru, representing 10-15% of the country’s total Alpaca population. The best yield and tenderest meat is from animals 1-5-2 years old, but most are slaughtered at 7-8 years old because their wool has become too coarse for economic production. Alpaca meat is healthful, rich in protein and low in cholesterol and fat. Prime cuts are 50% of the carcass and sold either fresh or frozen to meat markets, restaurants, hotels, and supermarkets. Hides are tanned for soft leather products or sold with the fleece intact as wall hangings, rugs, and toys. For indigenous peoples that raise most Alpacas, family income from these animals is primarily from meat (44% fresh, 16% dried) and secondarily from the wool (31%). Despite its excellent quality, the price received for Alpaca meat is 50% less than that for sheep and beef, due to long standing prejudice towards camelid meat. Beginning in the 1960s Peruwas the world leader in quality Alpaca research, especially by the progressive staff and visiting scientists working at the La Raya Research Station from CuzcoUniversity. With the export of Alpacas around the globe starting in the 1990s, serious science on this longneglected species and family expanded to a number of countries. Universities in the USAand Australiapursued vigorous research programs into reproduction, disease, genetics, and nutrition. The future for the Alpaca is encouraging. Wide opportunities exist for improved successful Alpaca production in the highlands of Peruand Bolivia, especially if the stewardship of the Alpaca’s principle habitat, bofedales, is improved towards sustained and balanced use.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 114-150 cm,tail 18-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 55-65 kg. Alpacas have long necks; relatively short, straight ears (c. 15 cm), thin and agile legs, and fluffy-appearing bodies because of their long wool. When shorn, however, the bodyis slender and Vicuna-like. There are two distinct breeds. HUACAYA ALPACA: Huacayas are the more common (¢.90%) of the two breeds. Its body, legs, and neck are covered by wool that is long, fine (27-5 microns), and wavy; the head and feet are covered by short wool. Wool grows 5-15 cm/year depending upon nutrition and decreases with age. Huacaya wool is crimped (regular and successive undulations) and similar in appearance to Corriedale sheep wool. Huacayas are bigger in size, have shorter and relatively coarser wool, and lighter fleeces than Suris. There are three general categories of wool: “Baby Alpaca” (20-23 microns some as low as 16-17 microns)is the finest and most expensive wool from recently born animals; “Tui” wool is from the first shearing at 12-18 months; and “Standard” Alpaca wool (c.24 microns) is from animals of two years of age and older. White Huacayas are the most common (c.80%), especially on large commercial Alpaca ranches, compared to 30% white animals in indigenous flocks. White wool accounts for over 80% of the total annual Alpaca wool production. Although most Alpaca wool has little cortex in its fibers,it can be easily dyed just as sheep wool, giving woollen mills greater flexibility with white Alpaca wool. Huacaya Alpaca crossed with a Vicuna produces a Paco-Vicuna, which resembles a large-bodied Vicuna and has 17-19 micron wool. Resource managers are concerned that accidently escaped Paco-Vicunas could have harmful genetic consequences on populations of pure Vicunas. SURI ALPACA: Suris arise from a very small percentage (2%) of Huacaya x Huacaya crosses, thus the origin of the breed. Because of their long-hanging wool, phenotyically Suris are quite distinct from Huacayas. Suri wool is silky (24-27 microns), straight, without crimp, generally finer, longer, more lustrous, softer to the touch, less elastic, less resistant to tension, and faster-growing compared to the Huacaya. The wool parts on the animal’s back create a mid-body line that is capable of growing up to 15 cm/year. Some individual Suris, called “wasis” by Andean herders, are not shorn for years, resulting in the fleece growing until it touches the ground; only a few such special animals are kept and are revered by the indigenous people. Around 17% of the offspring from Suri x Suri crosses produce Huacaya types. In their South American homeland, Suri Alpacas are considered to be longerlived, more delicate, less hardy, and to have lower fertility than Huacaya Alpacas. Recent research has found thatjuvenile mortality is high because of lack of wool coverage on the midline. However, when given the right management and equally good pastures, they thrivejust as well and with similar fertility as Huacayas. During lactation Suri Alpacas lose weight more than Huacayas because they produce more milk (udders are larger on Suri females). As a result, Suri young are heavier than Huacayas because they have a greater availability of milk. Body wool is uniform or multicolored; 22 natural colors have been categorized, ranging from white to black, with intermediate shades of grays, fawns, and browns. The upperlip is split for grasping forage. The eyes are large, round, and slightly forward looking. The feet have soft-padded soles and two toes, each ending with large pointed nails. Testes are small, oval-shaped and located in the perineal region under the tail. Life span is 15-20 years. The cuticle on individual wool fibers is made up of poorly developed, elongated, and flattened cells. While such rudimentary cuticle scales without ridges results in poor felting qualities, it makes the Alpaca wool extraordinarily smooth and soft to the touch. Still, Alpaca wool is 3-6 times stronger than human hair. Based upon strand diameter and morphology, the fleece (pelt) of this ungulate is made up of two types of hair: wool and hair. Similar to fine sheep wool, the medulla can be non-existent in unusually fine Alpaca wool, but has been observed in Peruvian Alpaca fibers averaging 17 microns. Such pure Alpacas are considered “one coated” because their fleece consists only of the fine undercoat hairs and lack the outer coarser guard hairs. As the proportion of medullation increases (as it does with age), wool diameter increases and fineness decreases, thatis, the proportion of the medulla progressively increases with the thickness of the individual wool strand. Woolis of the cortex type of fineness, and hair is of the medullar type with larger diameter. Hair is especially common on the chest, face, and extremities, but it is not unusual to find individual hairs intermixed throughout the fleece. This is especially common in “Huarizos,” hybrids between an Alpaca female and a Llama male. Huarizos show intermediate physical characteristics of the two parents, and relatively coarse wool (c.32 microns in diameter). Their fleeces contain as much as 40% guard hair. Huarizos are considered undesirable by the Alpaca wool industry and are being selected against on commercial Alpaca farms. Nearly all (90%) Alpacas on large farms are shorn annually and done indoors with shearing scissors or by mechanized clippers. In indigenous family herds in the Andes only half of the animals are shorn each year, and done under rustic conditions in the out-of-doors with hand shears. Shearing of males, geldings, non-pregnant and some pregnant females takes place in November and December, while new mothers with young, yearlings, and thin males and females are done in February to April. Annual shearing yields 1.5-2. 8 kgof wool per Alpaca in South America (enough to make four sweaters), and up to 3-6 kg in USAand Australia. Fineness of Alpaca fleeces vary from farm to farm in Peru(24-7-32-3 microns, averaging 28-9 microns), but in other countries where it has been introduced, 16-24 microns is more typical. In the Andes Alpaca wool increases in diameter from 17-4 microns to 27-5 microns from the first shearing at ten months to six years of age. Large Alpaca farms in Peruare able to practice better husbandry through pasture management, selective breeding, and health care. Of 3762 shorn Alpacas on one such farm in Puno, Peru, in the 1980s, wool was sorted and classified into the following five quality categories: X 3% at 19 microns, AA 52% at 25 microns, A 17% at 37 microns, LP 23% at 44 microns, and K 5% at 49 microns. Still, nearly half was considered “thick” relative to the Alpaca’s potential for producing fine wool. Now, two decadeslater, better management and selection is beginning to improve wool quality. Alpaca wool production and quality is strongly influenced by artificial selection (genetics) and nutrition. Seasonally wool production varies under the extreme conditions of the Alpaca’s high-altitude habitat: fiber or strand length has been shown to be 25% longer during the rainy season in the Andean highlands, reflecting the percentage of crude plant protein that decreases from 11% in the wet season to 3-5% in the dry season. Wool quality decreases (increase in diameter) when Alpacas are grazed on high-quality pasture compared to native range of poor to very poor quality. For example during a 15month feeding trial relative to controls, Alpacas on diets in Andean rangeland vs. managed pastures of alfalfa, increased the body weight of mothers and young 10 kgand 22 kgrespectively, fleece weight 0-4 kg and 0-8 kg, staple length 2-3 cm and 1-8 cm, fiber diameter 5-2 microns and 6-9 microns, and yield 4-1% and 10-8%. In another study adult Alpacas on high-feeding regimes resulted in increased stand diameter (fine 21-22 microns to thick 27-28 microns), but wool production per head/year increased from 1-1 kg to 2-4 kg. But, because there is little commercial difference in value per kilogram in the two wool diameters, total monetary value was doubled on the higher feeding regime. Contrary to the long-time belief that Alpacas produce finer wool at higher elevations in the Andes, recent studies with controls have shown that when on the same diet wool quality was similar. Commercially, the majority of Alpaca wool is made into carded and semi-carded thread. In the textile industry it is often blended with merino sheep wool to be made into overcoats and high-fashion knitwear. In general, Alpaca wool quality in the Andes is lower than its potential due to poor management and the extensive Alpaca/ILlama hybridization that has occurred over the past 400 years since Spanish colonization. DNA studies have revealed that today’s Andean Alpaca population shows a high (80-92%) level of hybridization. Along with a significant reduction in Peru’s Alpaca population during colonization, pure colored animals significantly decreased to the point that they became rare. The difference between Alpaca and Llamas and between Huacaya and Suri Alpacas has also been impacted. Alpaca husbandry is now addressing these problems. Additionally, in the 1970s the Alpaca population in Perudropped resulting in a 40% decline of wool production due to land and agrarian reforms. A number of revealing physiological parameters have been measured in Alpaca. Body temperature of normal adult males (n = 50) and females (n = 50) is the same (38-7°C), pulse rate/minute in males (83-2 + 2-2) is higher than females (76:6 + 1-9), and respiration rate/minute is similar for males (29-2 + 1-1) and females (28-3 + 0-79). For young Alpaca 10-12 months old (n = 50) body temperature is 38-5 + 0-04, pulse rate 83-8 + 2-9, and respiration rate 33-1 + 0-19. For femalesin the last days of gestation body temperature (38-3 + 0-07) is the same as non-pregnant females, but pulse rates (83-5 + 2-3), and respiration rates (34-8 + 1-9) were higher.","habitat":"Alpacas are raised in the Andean highlands; regionally known as the Altiplano and Puna. The Puna ecosystem is rolling grassland and isolated wetlands typically at c.3500-5200 m altitude with two marked periods: the rainy season from October to April and the dry season from May to September. Most (75%) precipitation falls from November to March in the form of both hail and rain. In Peruthe annual precipitation varies from 800 mmin the south to 1200 mmin the central mountains. The mean annual temperatures are less than 10°C and nocturnal frosts are common, especially during the dry season. Diurnal fluctuations can be as much as 20°C in the mesic Altiplano and even greater in the dry or desert Altiplano. The short growing season, as determined by moisture and night-time cloud cover, occurs between December and March. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous grasses and forbs. Few trees exist and shrubs are only locally abundant. Perennial bunchgrasses are common including the genera Festuca, Poa, Stipa, and Calamagrostis, as well as the grass-like sedges Carexand Scirpus. High-quality forage is more abundant during the rainy season and scarcer during the remainder of the year. A critical habitat and principal source of forage for Alpacas in the Andes that allows intensive-localized foraging are bofedales or mojadales. Providing lush forage and moist vegetation that Alpacas thrive on, bofedales are localized islands of perennial greenery with deep organic soils moistened by subterranean and considerable surface water often forming small pools. Both natural and artificial bofedales exist, some man-made ones dating back to pre-Inca times. These high-altitude marsh areas can provide year-round forage, allowing herders and their animals to remain in the same area for extended periods. Depending upon water availability, they are productive only during the rainy season or throughout the year. As a result, their carrying capacity is highly variable, from 2-8 Alpacas/ha/year. Natural mojadales compared to irrigated artificial ones, typically have greater plant cover with more palatable and nutritious forage. Vegetative composition of bofedales in the humid Puna varies between several dominant species, including Distichia muscoides, Eleocharisalbibracteata, Hypochoeris taraxacoides, Hidrocotilo ranunculoides, Liliaopsis andina, and others. A percentage cover of 64-72% of desirable species (Werneria nubigena, Werneria pymaea, Hipochoeris stenocephala, Ranunculos sp., Carexfragilaris) is excellent Alpaca forage. Reported total accumulated bofedal forage (dry weight) from January to August was 1021 kg/ha that grew at an average rate of 4-2 kg/ha/day. Protein ranged 8-3-13-4% and crude fiber 19-2-34-1%. Annual bofedal growth varies with season: 60% during the summer growing season (January-April), 21% during the transition to the dry season (May-June), and 19% in the dry season (July-December). Wet artificial bofedales have greater sustained productivity than natural bofedales with 10-11% protein in both the wet and dry seasons and capable of supporting 3—4 Alpaca/ha/year. Continuous year-round grazing of native grasslands is the most common grazing management practice used by indigenous herders, but technicians are encouraging enhancement of rangeland conditions through rotational grazing and reducing stocking rates of Alpacas and competing sheep. Recommended stocking rate for Alpacas on Andean native pastures is 2-7 animals/ha/year on excellent range, 2 good, 1 average, 0-33 poor, and 0-17 very poor. However, intensively managed, irrigated pastures of grasses and legumes at 3850 maltitude can support 25 Alpacas/ha/year. Research indicates that despite the high elevations and low night-time temperatures, it is possible to increase considerably the sustained carrying capacity of Andean rangeland by the introduction of improved forage species. Managed pastures of irrigated ryegrass (Loliumperenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) with application of nitrogen fertilizers can carry up to 30 adult ind/ha compared with the usual rate of 1-1-5 ind/ha on natural grasslands. On Andean rangelands grazed by Alpaca,tall grass communities are commonly set on fire during the dry season (June—October) by native indigenous herders. The objective is the destruction of bunch grasses that will encourage the growth of ground forage preferred by Alpaca and sheep. However, studies have shown that annual burns are not beneficial because they not only stimulate the rapid regrowth of bunchgrasses, but promote hillside soil erosion and encourage the growth of undesirable invasive plant species. Burning every third or more years during the wet season is a more effective approach for improving Alpaca range and habitat."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A46FFCCD5D0F3E6F6E9FE05.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A46FFCCD5D0F3E6F6E9FE05","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"238","verbatimText":"3.VicunaVicugna vicugnaFrench:Vigogne/ German:Vikunja/ Spanish:VicunaOther common names:ArgentineVicuna (vicugna), Peruvian Vicufa (mensalis)Taxonomy.Camelus vicugna Molina, 1782,Chile, “abondano nella parte della Cordigliera spettante alle Provincie de Coquimbo, e di Copiap6” (Cordilleras of Coquimboand Copiapo in northern Chile).The separation of the Vicuna and the Guanaco(Lama guanicoe) occurred 2-3 million years ago. Palaeontological evidence suggests the genus Vicugnaevolved from Hemiauchenia, a North American immigrant to South America, in the lowlands east of the Andes some two million years ago, with widespread distribution as recently as 10,000-13,000 years ago in lowland grasslands of Bolivia, Paraguay, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. Then 9000-12,000 years ago, during the last Pleistocene glacial advance and the subsequent establishment of the Holocene climate, Vicugnamoved from its lowland distribution to its present day, high-elevation habitat. Today, two subspecies are recognized, distinguished on the bases of genetics, habitat, and morphology. Northern subspecies mensalis is closely related to the domestic Alpaca (V. pacos).Subspecies and Distribution.V.v.vicugnaMolina,1782—WBolivia,NWArgentina,andNEChilefrom18°Sto29°S.V. v. mensalis Thomas, 1917— SE Peru, W Bolivia, and NE Chilefrom 9° Sto 19° S. Ecuadorhas a small population (c.3000) introduced from Peru, Chile, and Boliviain the 1980s.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-190 cm,tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 38-45 kg. The body color of the soft, woolly coat is pale cinnamon to reddishbrown, with insides of the legs and underside white. There is a bib of coarse white hairs 20-30 cm long on the chest at the base of the neck in the northern subspecies, which is short to almost unnoticeable in the southern subspecies. The body is slender with a long neck. The head is small and wedge-shaped; the ears are slender and pointed. The Vicuna has unique rodent-like incisors. Males and females weigh approximately the same, look alike, and are sexually indistinguishable in the field. Southern subspecies vicugna, sometimes called the “ ArgentineVicuna,” is ¢.15% larger (c. 45 kgvs. 38 kg), length of molars longer, taller at the withers, substantially shorter chest-bib hair, lighter colored, larger white underside countershading, and in general exhibits higher levels of genetic diversity than the northern subspecies mensalis, sometimes referred to as “Peruvian Vicuna.” Vicuna wool (often called fiber) is among the finest in the world at 12-5 + 1-5 microns (Cashmere goat fibers measure 14-19 microns; Chiru, Pantholops hodgsonii fiber is 9-12 microns). The shorn fleeces of 30,391 Vicunas in Peruaveraged 220 g/animal. With its silky texture, Vicuna woolis highly prized, retailing for US$ 250/0z in the USAand in 2004 selling at wholesale for US$ 566,/kg from certified liveshorn animals. World prices for Vicuna wool ranged from US$ 350/kg to US$ 900/kg over the past decade, promoting reference to it as the “Gold of the Andes.” The adaptations responsible for the animal’s outstanding physical endurance at high altitudes include lightweight insulating fleece, which protects against cold and the sun’s ultraviolet light, and high blood-oxygen affinity (highest of all mammals investigated). Full saturation of the blood with oxygen occurs at the lower partial pressure of oxygen that is found at high altitudes. The Vicuna’s heart muscle capillary densities are exceptionally high for a mammal of its body size. Its ability to load and unload oxygen is improved by a relatively high oxygen transfer conductance because ofits small red blood cells, and it has low blood viscosity due to a relative low percentage of red blood cells. Both are advantageous for maximum cardiac output. The Vicuna’slife span is 20 years, with a maximum age of 24 years and nine months recorded in captivity.Habitat.Vicunas are restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of the Andes.The Vicuna is the highest-altitude ungulate in all of South America, living in a unique montane zone from 3200 mto 4800 mabove sea level called the Puna, a high-altitude, equatorial grassland that is above the tree line but below the snow line. Summer precipitation is typically in the form of rain or hail, rarely snow. It is a dry and cold environment with summer nights hovering close to freezing. Winter nights plummet well below freezing, 10-20°C below the daytime highs. Two distinct habitats with different levels of precipitation can be found within this dry-Andean ecosystem: the high-elevation moist or semi-humid high-Andean Puna and the lower elevation dry or semi-arid Puna habitat. The dry Puna is an extremely dry belt called the Andean Dry Diagonal, a north-west/south-east transition zone between two major hemispheric wind belts centered at the junction of north-west Argentina, south-west Bolivia, and north-east Chile. Within the Dry Diagonalthere is essentially no precipitation, no lakes, and no glacier formation. The distribution of subspecies vicugnais within the Dry Diagonal. Subspecies mensalis is found to the north of it. From a landscape perspective the Puna is characterized by peaks and pronounced slopes, the typical elevated plain that defines the region (Puna or Altiplano), and the intermediate piedmont fringes of smooth slopes. Vicunas use the habitats within the Puna and piedmont zones. The most common habitats in the Puna are xerophytic shrub steppes that are often mixed with an understory of sparse short grasses and forbs (typically not an important habitat for Vicunas); bunchgrass steppes (variable importance); open rocky areas with sparse vegetation (not important); short grass and forb areas on lower slopes, gentle slopes, and plains (important); and wetlands of short plants with high ground cover associated with high ground water, surface water, streams, and lagoons, regionally called bofedales, mojadales, and vegas (important). Bofedales (around 4500 melevation in Peru) are perennially green sedge communities typically dominated by Eleocharisalbracteata and Carexecuadorica with vegetative cover of ¢.22% grasses, 42% sedges and reeds, and 33% forbs, and a crude protein content of 12%. Short-grass forb areas on lowerslopes (around 3190 min Peru) are dominated by the grass species Festucadolichophylla and Muhlenbergiafastigiata with a vegetative cover of 66% grass, 13% sedges and reeds, and 6% forbs, and a crude protein content of 10%.Food and Feeding.As with other ungulate herbivores, Vicuna habitat and forage selection is based not only upon availability, but heavily influenced by climate (wet vs. dry years), population density (high vs. low), and the social status and ranking of individual animals (high vs. low). Thus for studies done at different locations, landscapes, and animal densities,it is not surprising to see variable results. For example in Peruat the Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Vicunas were observed to be strict grazers on grasses and forbs, whereas in Argentinaat the Laguna Blanca National Park, Vicunas showed some diet plasticity by being grazers on grasses 16-19% ofthe time and browsers on shrubs 59-72% of the time with two grasses (Panicumchlorolewcum and Distichlisspp-) representing nearly 50% of the diet. Feeding preference in productive habitats dominated by grasses has been documented in several areas of the Vicuna’s distribution. Of the two main habitats (grass steppe and vegas) at the Ulla-Ulla Vicuna Reserve in Bolivia, Vicunas preferred vegas. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve of ArgentinaVicunaswere more abundant on the grassland plains. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve Vicunas preferred to forage in grass steppe communities characterized by Festucanigesens or by Calamagrostisvicunarum, the latter being the dominant species in the vegetative type known as Excrement Influenced Vegetation (EIV). EIV is the result of long-term defecation-urination by Vicunas on dung piles; the resulting fertilization and accumulation of organic matter accelerates soil and plant succession over a long period of time. The third sere is an isolated “putting-green,” an island of short, abundant plants in rocky terrain downhill from a single or series of dung piles. The top soil is deeper and the plants grow thickly, close to the ground. EIV covered 18% of the total surface area of Pampa Galeras National Reserve, andits third sere had the highest productivity and was the most preferred forage vegetation. The general pattern of Vicuna habitat selection for grass-dominated communities, especially those of high nutritional value, is consistent with the results of diet studies that found Vicunas forage mainly on grasses (Poaceae) and grass-like sedges (Ciperaceae). When Vicunas coexisted with domestic livestock (sheep, goats, donkeys) in Argentina, they were spatially segregated, had a high overlap in diets, and used preferred habitatless than expected. The native Vicuna and exotic domestic animals coexisted because Vicunas were able to utilize suboptimal habitats while herders kept livestock in the richest habitats. A sympatric population of Vicunas and Guanacos in the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve, Argentina, revealed that the diet of both species was similar, but Guanacos utilized more tall grasses and Vicuna fed more on forbs and short grasses.Breeding.Vicunas are strong seasonal breeders. Males reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years of age, and become reproductive after obtaining a feeding territory and recruiting females. Most females first mate as two-year-olds. Breeding is almost an unnoticeable event except for a short chase before mating, because the prolonged copulation takes place with the mating pair in sternal recumbency. Females show no unusual behavior to indicate they are in estrus and males do not persistently smell the female’s hindquarters as is common in other ungulates. There is no prolonged preoccupation or tending that ungulate males traditionally show for females in heat, because a territorial male has exclusive and immediate access to females within his territory. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve mating was observed from the end of February to the end of May, but peaked in April (3 matings/100 hours of observation), followed by May (1-8) and March (1-3). Almost all matings were in the morning and within the family group’s feeding territory. Gestation averages c.11-3 months (330-350 days). Females within a few weeks of parturition are visibly pregnant. At the start of the birth season at Pampa Galeras over a three year period, a high percentage of females two years of age or older were pregnant: 85%, 95%, and 85%. The non-pregnant females were mostly two-year-olds because only 20% of one-year-olds mated. Rectal palpation by experienced veterinarians of captive adult Vicunas in Puno(Peru) revealed 99% of females pregnant. Most (90%) births occurred from the last week of February through the first week of April with 75% of the births in March. February is the reported peak birth season for subspecies vicugnain Argentinaand Chile. Nearly all (96%) births occurred in the morning and within the feeding territory. Females give birth to one offspring, with twins not reported or observed. Morning births are likely a behavioral adaptation to the stormy weather typical of Andean afternoons. In summer and early autumn, daily storms regularly start around noon. Young born during the afternoon storms of rain and hail would not be able to dry their soft-insulating wool before entering the nearfreezing nights. Wet newborns would have little chance for survival. A female aboutto give birth separated herself 15-25 m from the group. During the usual one-hour labor the female looked back to inspect her hindquarters, laid down and stood intermittently, changed positions, and walked a few steps every few minutes. Parturition occurred while the female stood. The labor and birthing behaviors were subtle and not easily noticed, as females commonly continued to feed during the process— surely to avoid attracting potential predators in this wide-open habitat. The mother immediately smelled and inspected the head and muzzle of the newborn, but licking did not occur (thus no assistance with the newborn’s thermoregulation) nor was the afterbirth eaten (the latter two behaviors common in other ungulates). Other members of the group frequently came over to smell and inspect the newborn. Newborns weighed 4-6 kg, were on their feet and able to walk in a wobbly way 15-20 minutes after birth, and began nursing when they were 30-45 minutes old. Vicuna young are “followers” as opposed to “hiders” and stay close to their mothers, especially in the first few months. Most young are weaned during the dry season in July and August, when they are 4-6 months old. During the first four months after birth 10-30% of newborns died. The cause was undetermined, but predation by Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and Pumas (Puma concolor) was suspected. Reproductive success as measured in August by the ratio of young to adult females ranged 35-70 young per 100 females in different regions of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. In Chile, density dependency seemed to be operating: the more females in a family group the lower the number of young per female. Very little research has been conducted on the physiology of Vicuna reproduction, but a noteworthy study on reproduction in captive male Vicunas in the Puna of northern Chilefound higher levels of plasma testosterone, large testessize, greater size of seminiferous tubules, and large diameters of Leydig cell nuclei beginning in February, a month before the summer breeding season started. In the winter month of August spermatogenesis was in the regressive phase. Both findings suggested photoperiod as the mechanism for when males are sexually effective. Insight can be gained from studies on the Vicuna’s domesticated descendent, the Alpaca: an experimental study on Alpacas demonstrated that the continuous association of females and males exerted an inhibiting effect on male sexual activity. After continuous association of two weeks, there was no mating activity by the male even though receptive females were present. However, when mature males were separated from females and reunited at two week intervals, mating occurred. These observations shed light on why nonpregnant Vicunas (and other cameloids) are not bred during non-breeding seasons of the year.Activity patterns.During a year-round, 3-5yearfield study in Pampa Galeras National Reserve, home to a population of the northern subspecies mensalis, Vicuna family groups showed a predictable daily activity pattern in the large open valleys they occupied. Having spent the night on the upperflat ridges in small sleeping territories, within an hour after sunrise they moved as a group down to their daytime feeding territories. They spent the day on these lower slopes or flat plains, feeding at a constant rate. The sleeping territories, on higher ground, were warmer at night than feeding territories and were away from the streambeds where nocturnal predators hunted. The adult male Vicuna in the family group actively defended both territories by challenging and chasing away trespassing Vicunas. If human disturbance did not cause an early retreat back up the slope, the group returned to its sleeping territory in midto late afternoon. In the winter dry season, when small springs on the slopes dried up, groups left their feeding territory and moved to the center of the valley floor to drink from streams. Solo males holding a territory showed similar patterns. Male groups moved randomly and unpredictably through the area. In a separate study at Pampa Galeras National Reserve conducted during the March—-May breeding season, females spent significantly more time grazing than males (54 vs. 45 minutes/hour) and lactating females fed more than non-lactating females (56 vs. 53 minutes/hour). In general females fed 91% of the time; territorial males fed 75% of the time. In Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve above Arequipa, Peru, there was a positive correlation between frequency of alert behavior per adult and the number of offspring in the family group, and at the Laguna de Pozuelos Biosphere Reserve in Argentina, solitary Vicunas spent more time standing and being vigilant and less time foraging than did members of groups. In Abra Pampa (Argentina), territorial males spent more time being vigilant and less time feeding as the size of their family group increased, but not more time in territorial defense (walking, running). At the Laguna Blanca Reserve in Argentina, which is extremely arid, daily activity patterns during the dry season were similar to the patterns of family groups at Pampa Galeras in the same season, with morning feeding on slopes, midday movement to a river on the flat, and a return to the slope and more feeding in the afternoon. At Pampa Galeras there was no significant difference between the amount of time males spent in territorial behavior and the number of female group members or the total group size. Studies at Laguna Blanca on the other subspecies, however, found a substantial decrease in amount of time males spent foraging when the number of females in their group increased.Movements, Home range and Social organization.All Vicuna populations of both subspecies studied to date were sedentary and non-migratory. However, as described above, daily activity patterns and movements are greatly influenced by the need to drink water. Several studies have shown that water distribution and availability can have a major effect on local movement of Vicunas. Despite being well adapted to living in arid conditions, the Vicuna is an obligate drinker and needs to drink often, especially in the dry season when it seeks water daily. Visits to small streams often include water bathing accompanied by dust bathing in dust bowls. The home range of a family group encompasses the area where the group is typically found, thatis,its sleeping territory, feeding territory, and the space in between, as well as those areas it commonly moves through during the dry season on its way to drinking water. The two territories are defended by the male and exclusively occupied by the family group, but the balance of the home range is not;it overlaps and is shared with other groups. These are neutral zones, especially the corridors that groups move through on their way to water. The social units ofVicuna are family groups, male groups, and solo males. A characteristic family group is composed of one adult male, 3-4 females, and two juveniles. Although the permanent territorial family group is the classic Vicuna social unit occupying good habitat containing semi-permanent water, other groups found within Vicuna populations may include marginal territorial family groups occupying secondary habitat types without water, and temporary mobile family groups that lack a territory. Permanentterritorial family groups occupy a year-round feeding territory averaging 18-4 ha (2-56 ha), and sleeping territory averaging 2-6 ha. This is highly unusual for an ungulate. Territorial males defend their sites passively (standing guard near borders) and actively (walking towards, chasing, fighting, biting, etc.) multiple times daily. The territorial system is based upon resource-defense polygyny in which the territorial male defends food resources essential to females. This attracts females to the site, providing them with guaranteed forage in a food-limited environment, within which they can raise their offspring in a socially stable unit free from harassment. The family group male regulates group size by more often than not rejecting outside females, preventing resident females from leaving, and annually forcibly dispersing male young at 4-9 months and expelling female young at 10-11 months of age. The young malesjoin male groups and the females eventuallyjoin another territorial male. Family group size is significantly correlated with feeding territory size and total forage production within the territory. Vocalizations are most commonly used by territorial males, who give a loud alarm call when disturbed by strange objects or a frightening situation: people on foot, herders with dogs, or potential predators such as Culpeos and Pumas. Group size and territory size are density-dependent, decreasing with increasing population size. In extreme cases the system can appear to be more monogamous than polygynous. Male or bachelor groups are bands of 2-155 non-territorial males. The size fluctuates widely; 75% have fewer than 30 males, with 5-10 the most common group size. Male groups frequently invade the family group zones from which they were forced to leave, by individually or cooperatively attacking territorial males. Solo males are sexually mature individuals with an established territory or on the move looking for an available site to establish a territory. In Pampa Galeras, up to 16 months elapsed before solo males were able to attract or forcefully obtain females to form a family group. In intensely studied populations, 32% of all adult males were territorial and family groups made up 75% ofall social units. Territorial boundaries, albeit invisible to the human eye, were well defined and as narrow as one meter. The system was not perfect, as neighboring males were continually testing boundaries. Dung piles were abundant throughout the area. Adults and young of both sexes defecated and urinated only on dung piles, alwaysfirst smelling the dung pile. The primary function of dung piles appeared to be for intragroup orientation, i.e. for assisting members to stay within their territory and neutral zones. If a female inadvertently left her territory she was vehemently chased back by the neighboring territorial male. Dung piles did not keep non-neighbor outsiders out of a territory if the resident male was absent. Thus, the dung piles functioned more for keeping insiders in than outsiders out ofterritories. The highest frequency of dung pile use was when Vicunas were leaving their territories and when groups moved through neutral corridors as if “checking” their location, again suggesting individual self-orientation to avoid aggressive attack by adjacent territorial males. At Pampa Galeras the estimated age that males became territorial was 3—4 years; they remained territorial for at leastsix years. In studies with tagged animals at Aguada Blanca, the average age of solo males was 11-5 years, males in male groups averaged less than three years old, and the average age ofterritorial males was 9-5 years, suggesting significantly longer tenure than Guanacoterritorial males.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, except the populations of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile(I Region) which are included in Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List due to its total numbers, wide range of distribution, and occurrence in a number of protected areas. The genetic diversity of the northern subspecies mensalis is relatively low within populations and high between populations, a pattern commonly observed in threatened species with formerly large ranges that became isolated from each other and then suffered drastic demographic contraction. Total area occupied by Vicunas is around 250,000 km?. The distribution of the two subspecies can be seen as a continuum of scattered and fragmented groups that become less frequent north to south. The small populations of the subspecies vicugnain the south have survived in the Dry Diagonal, an extremely arid zone in the high Andes, where they show a genetic signature of demographic isolation. To the north, the subspecies mensalis populations underwent a rapid demographic expansion in the late Pleistocene due to increased precipitation and the subsequent appearance of highaltitude short grasslands. However, the Dry Diagonal is believed to have prevented both the expansion southward of the northern, moist Puna-adapted forms and the expansion northward of the southern, dry Puna-adapted forms, resulting in the two subspecies found today. The subspecies vicugnais most closely related to the basal taxon,i.e. the species’ primitive extinct ancestor. Both subspecies occur in Boliviaand Chile, but the subspecies mensalis has the highest numbers (73% ofall Vicunas) and widest distribution of the two subspecies. Relative abundance of the southern subspecies vicugnain Boliviais 34% of 112,249 Vicunas (data from 2009) and in Chile7% of a minimum 15,544 Vicunas (data from 2007). Majority of the world’s Vicunas in zoos and private collections are of the southern subspecies. The trend for the Vicuna’s general population is increasing. However, as recently as four decades ago, the Vicuna was threatened with extinction. The total population size was as low as 5000-10,000 individuals due to unrelenting poaching for the Vicuna’s valuable wool. In southern Peruthe Pampa Galeras National Reserve was established in the late 1960s to protect the largest remaining population. The first international treaty, The Vicuna Convention, was initially between Peruand Boliviaand in 1974 signed by Chileand Argentina. It established national parks, reserves, and private lands for the protection of Vicunas, with the goal of requiring live animals to be shorn. Since that time, programs for the sustainable harvest of Vicuna wool have been successfully applied and Vicuna populations began to increase. Ownership of the wild species varies between countries. In Peruand Boliviathey are the property of the state, while in Chileand Argentinano one owns wild Vicunas. Current population densities vary from 0-9 ind/km* to 1-8 ind/km? for Lauca National Park in northern Chileto as high as 87 ind/km* in Pampa Galeras, although optimum estimated density for Vicuna in Pampa Galeras National Reserve is 40-43 ind/km?. The total number of Vicunas is about ¢.421,500, with 52% in Peru, 27% in Bolivia, 17% in Argentina, 4% in Chile(not including the small number in Ecuador). Threats remain for the wild Vicuna: poaching; the fact that some protected areas are only “paper parks;” a lack of national management plans; competition with and overgrazing by domestic livestock; mange/scabies infections from domestic animals; crossbreeding of Alpacas and Vicunas for commercial purposes; and management of Vicuna as captive populations. Overall, conservation programs and their tight control at local, national, and international levels are critical for the conservation of this species.Bibliography.Arzamendia et al. (2006, 2010), Bonacic et al. (2002, 2003), Borgnia et al. (2008, 2010), Bosch & Svendsen (1987), Cassiniet al. (2009), Cajal (1989), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), Davies (2003), Franklin (1969, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1982, 1983), Gordon (2009), Hack (2001), Hoffman & Fowler (1995), Jurgens et al. (1988), Kadwell et al. (2001), Koford (1957), Lichtenstein et al. (2009), Lucherini et al. (2000), Marin et al. (2007), Novoa (1984), Renaudeau d’Arc (2000), Sarno et al. (2005), Stanley et al. (1994), Urquieta et al. (1994), Vila & Cassimi (1993, 1994) Vila & Roig (1992), Vila et al. (2009), Villalba (2003), Wheeler (1995a), Wheeler & Laker (2009), Wheeler, Chikhi & Bruford (2006), Wheeler, Fernandez et al. (2003), Yacobaccio (2009).","taxonomy":"Camelus vicugna Molina, 1782,Chile, “abondano nella parte della Cordigliera spettante alle Provincie de Coquimbo, e di Copiap6” (Cordilleras of Coquimboand Copiapo in northern Chile).The separation of the Vicuna and the Guanaco(Lama guanicoe) occurred 2-3 million years ago. Palaeontological evidence suggests the genus Vicugnaevolved from Hemiauchenia, a North American immigrant to South America, in the lowlands east of the Andes some two million years ago, with widespread distribution as recently as 10,000-13,000 years ago in lowland grasslands of Bolivia, Paraguay, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. Then 9000-12,000 years ago, during the last Pleistocene glacial advance and the subsequent establishment of the Holocene climate, Vicugnamoved from its lowland distribution to its present day, high-elevation habitat. Today, two subspecies are recognized, distinguished on the bases of genetics, habitat, and morphology. Northern subspecies mensalis is closely related to the domestic Alpaca (V. pacos).","commonNames":"Vigogne @fr | Vikunja @de | Vicuna @es | Argentine Vicuna (vicugna) @en | Peruvian Vicufa (mensalis) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Vicugna","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"238","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vicugna","name":"Vicugna vicugna","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V.v.vicugnaMolina,1782—WBolivia,NWArgentina,andNEChilefrom18°Sto29°S.V. v. mensalis Thomas, 1917— SE Peru, W Bolivia, and NE Chilefrom 9° Sto 19° S. Ecuadorhas a small population (c.3000) introduced from Peru, Chile, and Boliviain the 1980s.","bibliography":"Arzamendia et al. (2006, 2010) | Bonacic et al. (2002, 2003) | Borgnia et al. (2008, 2010) | Bosch & Svendsen (1987) | Cassiniet al. (2009) | Cajal (1989) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | Davies (2003) | Franklin (1969, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1982, 1983) | Gordon (2009) | Hack (2001) | Hoffman & Fowler (1995) | Jurgens et al. (1988) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Koford (1957) | Lichtenstein et al. (2009) | Lucherini et al. (2000) | Marin et al. (2007) | Novoa (1984) | Renaudeau d’Arc (2000) | Sarno et al. (2005) | Stanley et al. (1994) | Urquieta et al. (1994) | Vila & Cassimi (1993, 1994) | Vila & Roig (1992) | Vila et al. (2009) | Villalba (2003) | Wheeler (1995a) | Wheeler & Laker (2009) | Wheeler, Chikhi & Bruford (2006) | Wheeler, Fernandez et al. (2003) | Yacobaccio (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"As with other ungulate herbivores, Vicuna habitat and forage selection is based not only upon availability, but heavily influenced by climate (wet vs. dry years), population density (high vs. low), and the social status and ranking of individual animals (high vs. low). Thus for studies done at different locations, landscapes, and animal densities,it is not surprising to see variable results. For example in Peruat the Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Vicunas were observed to be strict grazers on grasses and forbs, whereas in Argentinaat the Laguna Blanca National Park, Vicunas showed some diet plasticity by being grazers on grasses 16-19% ofthe time and browsers on shrubs 59-72% of the time with two grasses (Panicumchlorolewcum and Distichlisspp-) representing nearly 50% of the diet. Feeding preference in productive habitats dominated by grasses has been documented in several areas of the Vicuna’s distribution. Of the two main habitats (grass steppe and vegas) at the Ulla-Ulla Vicuna Reserve in Bolivia, Vicunas preferred vegas. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve of ArgentinaVicunaswere more abundant on the grassland plains. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve Vicunas preferred to forage in grass steppe communities characterized by Festucanigesens or by Calamagrostisvicunarum, the latter being the dominant species in the vegetative type known as Excrement Influenced Vegetation (EIV). EIV is the result of long-term defecation-urination by Vicunas on dung piles; the resulting fertilization and accumulation of organic matter accelerates soil and plant succession over a long period of time. The third sere is an isolated “putting-green,” an island of short, abundant plants in rocky terrain downhill from a single or series of dung piles. The top soil is deeper and the plants grow thickly, close to the ground. EIV covered 18% of the total surface area of Pampa Galeras National Reserve, andits third sere had the highest productivity and was the most preferred forage vegetation. The general pattern of Vicuna habitat selection for grass-dominated communities, especially those of high nutritional value, is consistent with the results of diet studies that found Vicunas forage mainly on grasses (Poaceae) and grass-like sedges (Ciperaceae). When Vicunas coexisted with domestic livestock (sheep, goats, donkeys) in Argentina, they were spatially segregated, had a high overlap in diets, and used preferred habitatless than expected. The native Vicuna and exotic domestic animals coexisted because Vicunas were able to utilize suboptimal habitats while herders kept livestock in the richest habitats. A sympatric population of Vicunas and Guanacos in the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve, Argentina, revealed that the diet of both species was similar, but Guanacos utilized more tall grasses and Vicuna fed more on forbs and short grasses.","breeding":"Vicunas are strong seasonal breeders. Males reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years of age, and become reproductive after obtaining a feeding territory and recruiting females. Most females first mate as two-year-olds. Breeding is almost an unnoticeable event except for a short chase before mating, because the prolonged copulation takes place with the mating pair in sternal recumbency. Females show no unusual behavior to indicate they are in estrus and males do not persistently smell the female’s hindquarters as is common in other ungulates. There is no prolonged preoccupation or tending that ungulate males traditionally show for females in heat, because a territorial male has exclusive and immediate access to females within his territory. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve mating was observed from the end of February to the end of May, but peaked in April (3 matings/100 hours of observation), followed by May (1-8) and March (1-3). Almost all matings were in the morning and within the family group’s feeding territory. Gestation averages c.11-3 months (330-350 days). Females within a few weeks of parturition are visibly pregnant. At the start of the birth season at Pampa Galeras over a three year period, a high percentage of females two years of age or older were pregnant: 85%, 95%, and 85%. The non-pregnant females were mostly two-year-olds because only 20% of one-year-olds mated. Rectal palpation by experienced veterinarians of captive adult Vicunas in Puno(Peru) revealed 99% of females pregnant. Most (90%) births occurred from the last week of February through the first week of April with 75% of the births in March. February is the reported peak birth season for subspecies vicugnain Argentinaand Chile. Nearly all (96%) births occurred in the morning and within the feeding territory. Females give birth to one offspring, with twins not reported or observed. Morning births are likely a behavioral adaptation to the stormy weather typical of Andean afternoons. In summer and early autumn, daily storms regularly start around noon. Young born during the afternoon storms of rain and hail would not be able to dry their soft-insulating wool before entering the nearfreezing nights. Wet newborns would have little chance for survival. A female aboutto give birth separated herself 15-25 m from the group. During the usual one-hour labor the female looked back to inspect her hindquarters, laid down and stood intermittently, changed positions, and walked a few steps every few minutes. Parturition occurred while the female stood. The labor and birthing behaviors were subtle and not easily noticed, as females commonly continued to feed during the process— surely to avoid attracting potential predators in this wide-open habitat. The mother immediately smelled and inspected the head and muzzle of the newborn, but licking did not occur (thus no assistance with the newborn’s thermoregulation) nor was the afterbirth eaten (the latter two behaviors common in other ungulates). Other members of the group frequently came over to smell and inspect the newborn. Newborns weighed 4-6 kg, were on their feet and able to walk in a wobbly way 15-20 minutes after birth, and began nursing when they were 30-45 minutes old. Vicuna young are “followers” as opposed to “hiders” and stay close to their mothers, especially in the first few months. Most young are weaned during the dry season in July and August, when they are 4-6 months old. During the first four months after birth 10-30% of newborns died. The cause was undetermined, but predation by Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and Pumas (Puma concolor) was suspected. Reproductive success as measured in August by the ratio of young to adult females ranged 35-70 young per 100 females in different regions of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. In Chile, density dependency seemed to be operating: the more females in a family group the lower the number of young per female. Very little research has been conducted on the physiology of Vicuna reproduction, but a noteworthy study on reproduction in captive male Vicunas in the Puna of northern Chilefound higher levels of plasma testosterone, large testessize, greater size of seminiferous tubules, and large diameters of Leydig cell nuclei beginning in February, a month before the summer breeding season started. In the winter month of August spermatogenesis was in the regressive phase. Both findings suggested photoperiod as the mechanism for when males are sexually effective. Insight can be gained from studies on the Vicuna’s domesticated descendent, the Alpaca: an experimental study on Alpacas demonstrated that the continuous association of females and males exerted an inhibiting effect on male sexual activity. After continuous association of two weeks, there was no mating activity by the male even though receptive females were present. However, when mature males were separated from females and reunited at two week intervals, mating occurred. These observations shed light on why nonpregnant Vicunas (and other cameloids) are not bred during non-breeding seasons of the year.","activityPatterns":"During a year-round, 3-5yearfield study in Pampa Galeras National Reserve, home to a population of the northern subspecies mensalis, Vicuna family groups showed a predictable daily activity pattern in the large open valleys they occupied. Having spent the night on the upperflat ridges in small sleeping territories, within an hour after sunrise they moved as a group down to their daytime feeding territories. They spent the day on these lower slopes or flat plains, feeding at a constant rate. The sleeping territories, on higher ground, were warmer at night than feeding territories and were away from the streambeds where nocturnal predators hunted. The adult male Vicuna in the family group actively defended both territories by challenging and chasing away trespassing Vicunas. If human disturbance did not cause an early retreat back up the slope, the group returned to its sleeping territory in midto late afternoon. In the winter dry season, when small springs on the slopes dried up, groups left their feeding territory and moved to the center of the valley floor to drink from streams. Solo males holding a territory showed similar patterns. Male groups moved randomly and unpredictably through the area. In a separate study at Pampa Galeras National Reserve conducted during the March—-May breeding season, females spent significantly more time grazing than males (54 vs. 45 minutes/hour) and lactating females fed more than non-lactating females (56 vs. 53 minutes/hour). In general females fed 91% of the time; territorial males fed 75% of the time. In Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve above Arequipa, Peru, there was a positive correlation between frequency of alert behavior per adult and the number of offspring in the family group, and at the Laguna de Pozuelos Biosphere Reserve in Argentina, solitary Vicunas spent more time standing and being vigilant and less time foraging than did members of groups. In Abra Pampa (Argentina), territorial males spent more time being vigilant and less time feeding as the size of their family group increased, but not more time in territorial defense (walking, running). At the Laguna Blanca Reserve in Argentina, which is extremely arid, daily activity patterns during the dry season were similar to the patterns of family groups at Pampa Galeras in the same season, with morning feeding on slopes, midday movement to a river on the flat, and a return to the slope and more feeding in the afternoon. At Pampa Galeras there was no significant difference between the amount of time males spent in territorial behavior and the number of female group members or the total group size. Studies at Laguna Blanca on the other subspecies, however, found a substantial decrease in amount of time males spent foraging when the number of females in their group increased.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"All Vicuna populations of both subspecies studied to date were sedentary and non-migratory. However, as described above, daily activity patterns and movements are greatly influenced by the need to drink water. Several studies have shown that water distribution and availability can have a major effect on local movement of Vicunas. Despite being well adapted to living in arid conditions, the Vicuna is an obligate drinker and needs to drink often, especially in the dry season when it seeks water daily. Visits to small streams often include water bathing accompanied by dust bathing in dust bowls. The home range of a family group encompasses the area where the group is typically found, thatis,its sleeping territory, feeding territory, and the space in between, as well as those areas it commonly moves through during the dry season on its way to drinking water. The two territories are defended by the male and exclusively occupied by the family group, but the balance of the home range is not;it overlaps and is shared with other groups. These are neutral zones, especially the corridors that groups move through on their way to water. The social units ofVicuna are family groups, male groups, and solo males. A characteristic family group is composed of one adult male, 3-4 females, and two juveniles. Although the permanent territorial family group is the classic Vicuna social unit occupying good habitat containing semi-permanent water, other groups found within Vicuna populations may include marginal territorial family groups occupying secondary habitat types without water, and temporary mobile family groups that lack a territory. Permanentterritorial family groups occupy a year-round feeding territory averaging 18-4 ha (2-56 ha), and sleeping territory averaging 2-6 ha. This is highly unusual for an ungulate. Territorial males defend their sites passively (standing guard near borders) and actively (walking towards, chasing, fighting, biting, etc.) multiple times daily. The territorial system is based upon resource-defense polygyny in which the territorial male defends food resources essential to females. This attracts females to the site, providing them with guaranteed forage in a food-limited environment, within which they can raise their offspring in a socially stable unit free from harassment. The family group male regulates group size by more often than not rejecting outside females, preventing resident females from leaving, and annually forcibly dispersing male young at 4-9 months and expelling female young at 10-11 months of age. The young malesjoin male groups and the females eventuallyjoin another territorial male. Family group size is significantly correlated with feeding territory size and total forage production within the territory. Vocalizations are most commonly used by territorial males, who give a loud alarm call when disturbed by strange objects or a frightening situation: people on foot, herders with dogs, or potential predators such as Culpeos and Pumas. Group size and territory size are density-dependent, decreasing with increasing population size. In extreme cases the system can appear to be more monogamous than polygynous. Male or bachelor groups are bands of 2-155 non-territorial males. The size fluctuates widely; 75% have fewer than 30 males, with 5-10 the most common group size. Male groups frequently invade the family group zones from which they were forced to leave, by individually or cooperatively attacking territorial males. Solo males are sexually mature individuals with an established territory or on the move looking for an available site to establish a territory. In Pampa Galeras, up to 16 months elapsed before solo males were able to attract or forcefully obtain females to form a family group. In intensely studied populations, 32% of all adult males were territorial and family groups made up 75% ofall social units. Territorial boundaries, albeit invisible to the human eye, were well defined and as narrow as one meter. The system was not perfect, as neighboring males were continually testing boundaries. Dung piles were abundant throughout the area. Adults and young of both sexes defecated and urinated only on dung piles, alwaysfirst smelling the dung pile. The primary function of dung piles appeared to be for intragroup orientation, i.e. for assisting members to stay within their territory and neutral zones. If a female inadvertently left her territory she was vehemently chased back by the neighboring territorial male. Dung piles did not keep non-neighbor outsiders out of a territory if the resident male was absent. Thus, the dung piles functioned more for keeping insiders in than outsiders out ofterritories. The highest frequency of dung pile use was when Vicunas were leaving their territories and when groups moved through neutral corridors as if “checking” their location, again suggesting individual self-orientation to avoid aggressive attack by adjacent territorial males. At Pampa Galeras the estimated age that males became territorial was 3—4 years; they remained territorial for at leastsix years. In studies with tagged animals at Aguada Blanca, the average age of solo males was 11-5 years, males in male groups averaged less than three years old, and the average age ofterritorial males was 9-5 years, suggesting significantly longer tenure than Guanacoterritorial males.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I, except the populations of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile(I Region) which are included in Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List due to its total numbers, wide range of distribution, and occurrence in a number of protected areas. The genetic diversity of the northern subspecies mensalis is relatively low within populations and high between populations, a pattern commonly observed in threatened species with formerly large ranges that became isolated from each other and then suffered drastic demographic contraction. Total area occupied by Vicunas is around 250,000 km?. The distribution of the two subspecies can be seen as a continuum of scattered and fragmented groups that become less frequent north to south. The small populations of the subspecies vicugnain the south have survived in the Dry Diagonal, an extremely arid zone in the high Andes, where they show a genetic signature of demographic isolation. To the north, the subspecies mensalis populations underwent a rapid demographic expansion in the late Pleistocene due to increased precipitation and the subsequent appearance of highaltitude short grasslands. However, the Dry Diagonal is believed to have prevented both the expansion southward of the northern, moist Puna-adapted forms and the expansion northward of the southern, dry Puna-adapted forms, resulting in the two subspecies found today. The subspecies vicugnais most closely related to the basal taxon,i.e. the species’ primitive extinct ancestor. Both subspecies occur in Boliviaand Chile, but the subspecies mensalis has the highest numbers (73% ofall Vicunas) and widest distribution of the two subspecies. Relative abundance of the southern subspecies vicugnain Boliviais 34% of 112,249 Vicunas (data from 2009) and in Chile7% of a minimum 15,544 Vicunas (data from 2007). Majority of the world’s Vicunas in zoos and private collections are of the southern subspecies. The trend for the Vicuna’s general population is increasing. However, as recently as four decades ago, the Vicuna was threatened with extinction. The total population size was as low as 5000-10,000 individuals due to unrelenting poaching for the Vicuna’s valuable wool. In southern Peruthe Pampa Galeras National Reserve was established in the late 1960s to protect the largest remaining population. The first international treaty, The Vicuna Convention, was initially between Peruand Boliviaand in 1974 signed by Chileand Argentina. It established national parks, reserves, and private lands for the protection of Vicunas, with the goal of requiring live animals to be shorn. Since that time, programs for the sustainable harvest of Vicuna wool have been successfully applied and Vicuna populations began to increase. Ownership of the wild species varies between countries. In Peruand Boliviathey are the property of the state, while in Chileand Argentinano one owns wild Vicunas. Current population densities vary from 0-9 ind/km* to 1-8 ind/km? for Lauca National Park in northern Chileto as high as 87 ind/km* in Pampa Galeras, although optimum estimated density for Vicuna in Pampa Galeras National Reserve is 40-43 ind/km?. The total number of Vicunas is about ¢.421,500, with 52% in Peru, 27% in Bolivia, 17% in Argentina, 4% in Chile(not including the small number in Ecuador). Threats remain for the wild Vicuna: poaching; the fact that some protected areas are only “paper parks;” a lack of national management plans; competition with and overgrazing by domestic livestock; mange/scabies infections from domestic animals; crossbreeding of Alpacas and Vicunas for commercial purposes; and management of Vicuna as captive populations. Overall, conservation programs and their tight control at local, national, and international levels are critical for the conservation of this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 125-190 cm,tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 38-45 kg. The body color of the soft, woolly coat is pale cinnamon to reddishbrown, with insides of the legs and underside white. There is a bib of coarse white hairs 20-30 cm long on the chest at the base of the neck in the northern subspecies, which is short to almost unnoticeable in the southern subspecies. The body is slender with a long neck. The head is small and wedge-shaped; the ears are slender and pointed. The Vicuna has unique rodent-like incisors. Males and females weigh approximately the same, look alike, and are sexually indistinguishable in the field. Southern subspecies vicugna, sometimes called the “ ArgentineVicuna,” is ¢.15% larger (c. 45 kgvs. 38 kg), length of molars longer, taller at the withers, substantially shorter chest-bib hair, lighter colored, larger white underside countershading, and in general exhibits higher levels of genetic diversity than the northern subspecies mensalis, sometimes referred to as “Peruvian Vicuna.” Vicuna wool (often called fiber) is among the finest in the world at 12-5 + 1-5 microns (Cashmere goat fibers measure 14-19 microns; Chiru, Pantholops hodgsonii fiber is 9-12 microns). The shorn fleeces of 30,391 Vicunas in Peruaveraged 220 g/animal. With its silky texture, Vicuna woolis highly prized, retailing for US$ 250/0z in the USAand in 2004 selling at wholesale for US$ 566,/kg from certified liveshorn animals. World prices for Vicuna wool ranged from US$ 350/kg to US$ 900/kg over the past decade, promoting reference to it as the “Gold of the Andes.” The adaptations responsible for the animal’s outstanding physical endurance at high altitudes include lightweight insulating fleece, which protects against cold and the sun’s ultraviolet light, and high blood-oxygen affinity (highest of all mammals investigated). Full saturation of the blood with oxygen occurs at the lower partial pressure of oxygen that is found at high altitudes. The Vicuna’s heart muscle capillary densities are exceptionally high for a mammal of its body size. Its ability to load and unload oxygen is improved by a relatively high oxygen transfer conductance because ofits small red blood cells, and it has low blood viscosity due to a relative low percentage of red blood cells. Both are advantageous for maximum cardiac output. The Vicuna’slife span is 20 years, with a maximum age of 24 years and nine months recorded in captivity.","habitat":"Vicunas are restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of the Andes.The Vicuna is the highest-altitude ungulate in all of South America, living in a unique montane zone from 3200 mto 4800 mabove sea level called the Puna, a high-altitude, equatorial grassland that is above the tree line but below the snow line. Summer precipitation is typically in the form of rain or hail, rarely snow. It is a dry and cold environment with summer nights hovering close to freezing. Winter nights plummet well below freezing, 10-20°C below the daytime highs. Two distinct habitats with different levels of precipitation can be found within this dry-Andean ecosystem: the high-elevation moist or semi-humid high-Andean Puna and the lower elevation dry or semi-arid Puna habitat. The dry Puna is an extremely dry belt called the Andean Dry Diagonal, a north-west/south-east transition zone between two major hemispheric wind belts centered at the junction of north-west Argentina, south-west Bolivia, and north-east Chile. Within the Dry Diagonalthere is essentially no precipitation, no lakes, and no glacier formation. The distribution of subspecies vicugnais within the Dry Diagonal. Subspecies mensalis is found to the north of it. From a landscape perspective the Puna is characterized by peaks and pronounced slopes, the typical elevated plain that defines the region (Puna or Altiplano), and the intermediate piedmont fringes of smooth slopes. Vicunas use the habitats within the Puna and piedmont zones. The most common habitats in the Puna are xerophytic shrub steppes that are often mixed with an understory of sparse short grasses and forbs (typically not an important habitat for Vicunas); bunchgrass steppes (variable importance); open rocky areas with sparse vegetation (not important); short grass and forb areas on lower slopes, gentle slopes, and plains (important); and wetlands of short plants with high ground cover associated with high ground water, surface water, streams, and lagoons, regionally called bofedales, mojadales, and vegas (important). Bofedales (around 4500 melevation in Peru) are perennially green sedge communities typically dominated by Eleocharisalbracteata and Carexecuadorica with vegetative cover of ¢.22% grasses, 42% sedges and reeds, and 33% forbs, and a crude protein content of 12%. Short-grass forb areas on lowerslopes (around 3190 min Peru) are dominated by the grass species Festucadolichophylla and Muhlenbergiafastigiata with a vegetative cover of 66% grass, 13% sedges and reeds, and 6% forbs, and a crude protein content of 10%."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A49FFC0D040FC84F6FFF24B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A49FFC0D040FC84F6FFF24B","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"243","verbatimText":"5.Bactrian CamelCamelus bactrianusFrench:Chameau/ German:Kamel/ Spanish:CamellobactrianoOther common names:Two-Humped Camel, Double-Humped Camel, Asiatic Camel, Wild Bactrian CamelTaxonomy.Camelus bactrianus Linnaeus, 1758,habitat in Africa. Restricted to “Bactria” (Uzbekistan, Bokhara) by Thomas in 1911 based on domestic stock.Bactria and Bactriana were the Greek and Latin names for the ancient Persian provincial capital Baxtriya in Central Asia. Aristotle (384-322 Bc) applied the term “Bactrian” to the domestic camel associated with this eastern region of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which prospered from Bactrian Camel caravans that transported goods between the East and West over the famed Silk Road. The question of the relatedness and genetic distinctiveness of wild and domestic Bactrian Camelsis actively being pursued. Scientists argue variously that: 1) the wild Bactrian is the progenitor of today’s domestic Bactrian; 2) wild Bactrians are escapees and feral forms of domestics; 3) both derived from a common ancestor now extinct; or 4) both derived from separate ancestors now extinct. Preliminary work by Chinese geneticists first suggested the two Bactrians were sufficiently different to warrant subspecies or potentially even species separation. Recent mtDNA studies by Austrian scientists favor the final argument, estimating divergence between the two camelids at 700,000 years ago in the Pleistocene long before Bactrian domestication (4000-6000 years ago). Some classify the wild Bactrian as Camelusgobi or Camelus bactrianusgobi, while others apply the name Camelus ferusdue to a ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature because C. feruswas first applied to the wild species. In this account, the two animals are differentiated at the subspecies level (wild = C. b. ferusand domestic = C. b. bactrianus). Genetic justification for recognizing the domestic form as a separate species is growing, and all workers agree that the critically endangered wild Bactrian is in desperate need of protective conservation measures. Two subspecies recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C.b.bactrianusLinnaeus,1758—aridlandsanddesertsofC&SAsiaasdomesticatedlivestock.C. b. ferus Przewalski, 1878— NW China(C & SE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, NW Qinghai& NW Gansu) and Mongolia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 320-350 cm, tail 51-64 cm, shoulder height 160-180 cm; weight 450-500 kg. Compared to Dromedary Camels (C. dromedarius), Bactrians have stouter and thicker bodies with relatively shorter legs, and two humps instead of one. Dromedaries are slimmer and taller. In winter the Bactrian’s long, woolly coat is sandy beige to dark brown, shedding in large clumps as temperatures warm in spring. They have a mane and a beard of long hair on the neck and throat, with hairs up to 25 cmlong. Long eyelashes and sealable nostrils help to keep out dust in sandstorms. Two broad toes on each foot with undivided soles create a large, flat footpad that spreads widely as an adaptation for walking on sand. Their long face is somewhat triangular, with a split upper lip. Bactrians are well suited to cold and hot temperatures and are suspected to have physiological adaptations similar to those of Dromedaries. Their humps function the same way as Dromedaries’ humps, storing fat convertible to water and energy when there is a shortage of sustenance and enabling the animals to endure harsh desert conditions and periods of travel without water. As the fat depletes, the humps become floppy and flabby. Like Dromedaries, Bactrians rarely sweat, facilitating conservation of fluids. Dehydrated animals are able to drink 135 1 of water in 13 minutes. Although wild and domestic Bactrians have similar conformation and body structure, field observers report obvious differences in behavior, habits, and general appearance. Unlike the ponderous domestic Bactrians, wild ones are relatively lithe. Wild Bactrians are slimmer and smaller-bodied (laterally compressed), with slender limbs. They are sandy-gray-brown rather than predominantly dark brown, with shorter, sparser wool. There is no tuft of hair on top of the head, and the hair on the neck,tail, and knee joints is shorter. They do not have growths on the inner foreleg or callosities on the knees. The wild form has smaller ears and very narrow feet. Notably, their humps are lower, pointed, conical-shaped, and usually about half the size orless of the domestic Bactrian’s. They are timid and elusive.Habitat.Bactrians are adapted for living in plains and hills where vegetation and water sources are sparse. They inhabit some of most inhospitable terrain in the world, centered in the extreme Gobi Desert of Central Asia. Gobi means “the rocky place” and it is primarily a rocky desert covered with small stones. There are low valleys and eroded hills, rocky-mountain massifs, “hamadas” (flat pavement-like stony plains), vast washed-out plains, high sand dunes, and rarely, poplarfringed oases. Summers are torrid, winters are cold. Annual precipitation is 50-200 mm. This is a region of extreme drought and scarce food and water. The Taklamankan Desert is sandy; Lop Nur Desert is both a rocky and sandy desert. Field studies in the Lop Nur Lake region of Chinarevealed a Bactrian habitat preference for riparian communities and piedmont foothills; they were more often found in higher,hilly landscape than in the open. The Bactrians avoided gravel desert substrate and areas with hard, salt-crusted soil or moving sand dunes, preferring moderately hard ground. They stayed away from areas occupied by people. They used locations where the distance between foraging habitats and water sources did not exceed ¢.50-60 km and where there was relatively high coverage of halophytic vegetation, especially along lakeshores. In Mongolia preliminary results of satellite telemetry revealed a weak preference for habitat dominated by saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendrum) and no selection of areas with higher productivity or closer to permanent water sources. Climate change has altered Bactrian habitat by increasing the rate of desertification and reducing water resources and vegetation. Wild Bactrians have few native predators. Contrary to some accounts, Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) pose no threat, and although Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) predation does occur,its impact is poorly understood.Food and Feeding.Bactrians are opportunistic feeders capable of utilizing low-quality forage when more desirable herbage is unavailable. They are both grazers and browsers. Research on free-ranging domestic Bactrians in wild Bactrian habitat in the Gobi Desert provides the best information available on feeding habits. Those studies found that the camels’ main diet switched from senesced forbs in winter to a shrub in spring and to an increasing dependence on forbs in autumn. Although the shrub Haloxylon ammodendron was the dominant and highest biomass species in this desert community and a staple component of the camels’ diet each season, it was not preferred forage. Still, the shrub was essential when preferred forbs were not available in spring and summer. In autumn preferred annual forbs provided sufficient biomass. New plant growth during the wet season in summer and autumn was vitally important for replenishing the camels’ depleted fat reserves in preparation for winter. Domestic Bactrians are dependent on a year-long forage supply from the fragile and extremely arid environment they occupy. They show a preference for grazing on forbs, but are highly dependent upon browsing on shrubs. It has been reported that Bactrians can utilize salt water, with some researchers stating that salty water is necessary for their survival. When sufficient food is available in spring, summer, and autumn, Bactrians rarely have to drink, obtaining water requirements from plant moisture. In winter they have been observed to eat ice and snow.Breeding.Breeding season is called the “musth” after the thick fluid exuded from a gland on the neck behind the head in adult males. A study of semi-captive wild Bactrians found that females reached puberty after three years and males at 5-7 years of age. Wild rutting males in Mongoliabegin forming harems in late autumn (November) and mating in early winter, with most mating in January and February, but occasionally as late at March, or even May. Young males are driven out of the harems by rutting males and form bachelor herds; young females remain with their mothers. Males employ spitting (saliva and pseudorumen contents), kicking, biting, and screaming as offensive and defensive behaviors against each other during mating season. During the rut, wild males stretch their necks, shake their heads while roaring, and make loud noises with their teeth. Simultaneously they are foaming/frothing from the mouth and shaking their lips to throw foam on their head and chests. Occasionally they widen their hindlegs to urinate on their tails, using the tail to spread urine on their hips, hump, and head. The concentrated brown secretion from the 1-5 cm x 5 cmgland behind the head is rubbed on the forehump, giving it a darker color. The penis is 4 cmwide x 13-5 cm long. There is no use of dung piles by either sex. Estrous females are usually receptive in January or February for 4-7 days, at which time they follow males, knocking mating males off females and occasionally urinating. To mate, females lift theirtails after lying down in a sternal recumbancy position. Males typically mate with females 2-3 times in the morning or evening for 3-5 minutes each time. After mating, the genitals of females swell and become pink. Females are semen-induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs 30-48 hours after mating. Gestation of semi-captives in Mongoliawas 390-430 days (13-14 months) depending upon the age of the female and the number of previous calves. Females give birth to a single offspring while standing, but only every 2-3 years. Spring birth season is from March to April. Females giving birth isolate themselves from other animals and people, remaining alone for about two weeks. Calves are able to stumble-walk within 15-30 minutes. They weigh 32-34 kg at birth and nurse every 1-2 hours. Body growth levels off at seven years. Domestic Bactrians produce ¢.760 I of milk during 16 months of lactation. Calves are commonly weaned at 10-11 months but may nurse for up to 18 months. In captive Bactrians there is liberal and indiscriminate allonursing (adult females nursing non-offspring); this has been observed about one-third of the time, and was not correlated with the age of the mother or relatedness of the calf. Spring to autumn calf mortality is high, at 50%. Poor calf survival is often the result of drought, sandstorms, and freezing temperatures. Aerial surveys in the early 2000s counted only 3-9 young/ 100 adults,significantly lower than surveys in 1980 and 1998. The remaining Bactrian population cannot sustain itself with such a low calf-survival rate. Wild and domestic Bactrian Camels readily interbreed, producing fertile-hybrid offspring that can be differentiated by genetic testing based upon fixed mitochondrial sequence polymorphism. They can live as long as 35 years.Activity patterns.Activity budgets are an indication of an animal’s welfare since its primary activities are centered on energy acquisition, conservation, or expenditure. Bactrian Camels are diurnal feeders and nocturnal sleepers. In winter they spend less time foraging and more time resting than in spring and summer. There is high foraging activity in spring, triggered by readily available shrubs with minimal walking required. Daily patterns of activity are structured to expend the least amount of energy to obtain food, even when the food is not preferred forage.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bactrians often move 50-100 km seeking permanent surface water and patches of foraging habitat. Some populations are suspected to be migratory, especially those in the Chinese Lop Nur Lake region where the animals move between lakeside riparian communities in winter and cooler foothills in the summer. Researchers tracked seven wild camels in the Mongolian Gobi for one year, using satellite telemetry. One adult female moved a minimum of 4527 kmin a home range of 17,232 km. She spent 75% of her time within 8699 km?. Ground surveys in Mongoliareport that the Bactrian population was composed of 82% adults, 12% juveniles (non-reproductive young), and 6% calves (depending upon the time of year). Groups sighted in Chinanumbered 4-40 individuals and in Mongoliafrom one animal to dozens, with researchers frequently encountering groups of more than 50 animals. From 1982 to 1989, when a total of 2370 wild Bactrians and 675 groups were sighted, average herd size was six (5-3—-6-5) with 6-20 animals/group the most common. Other than sporadic and irregular sightings in the vast Gobi Desert, where low densities of Bactrian Camels occur, we know almost nothing of their year-round social organization. However, it would not be surprising to find that the Bactrian social system is similar to that observed in wild/feral Dromedaries of Australia. Gray Wolves have been cited as a contributing factor to the Bactrian’s decline in both Chinaand Mongolia, but the evidence is weak because it is primarily based upon camel remains in scats, which could have been from scavenging.Status and Conservation.The wild subspecies is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List and Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It is considered by some to be on the verge of extinction. Protected nationally in Chinaand Mongolia. The Bactrian’s original distribution and natural habitat was the entire Asian Trans-Altai Gobi Desert, stretching from the great bend of the Yellow River in north-east Chinathroughout Mongoliato central Kazakhstanin the west, at elevations 1500-2000 m above sea level in an area that encompassed nearly 100,000 km*. Today they are greatly reduced to a few small and fragmented populations in south-western Mongoliaand nearby areas of north-western Chinain a total area ¢. 28,000 km*. Four populations of wild Bactrians survive: the Taklamakan Desert; Altun Mountains and Archik Valley; and Gashun Desert populations in China; and the Outer Gobi Desert population of Mongoliaand China, which migrates between the two countries. Overall numbers greatly reduced in the past century because of hunting for their meat and hides, habitat loss due to grazing, and competition for water with domestic livestock (domestic camels, sheep, goats, horses, and cattle), interbreeding with domestic camels, mining activities, and poor reproduction and survival of young. Because of harsh climatic conditions, lack of appropriate aircraft for aerial surveys, and the remote and vast region where the remaining Bactrians live, there is uncertainty as to the total numbers remaining. The famous Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, who is given credit for discovering the wild Bactrian Camel of Asia during his travels to Mongoliaand China, noted in 1876: “According to our informants wild camels are numerous in north-western Tsaidam, where the country is barren, the soil being clay, overgrown with budarbana, and so destitute of water that they have to go several miles to drink, and in winter are obligated to satisfy their thirst with snow. The herds are small, averaging five to ten in each, never more than twenty. Their appearanceis slightly different from the domesticated breed: their humps are smaller, the muzzle more pointed, and the color of the hair gray.” It has been reported that wild Bactrians experienced drastic reduction in numbers and range over the past 10-20 years, but the most recent and reliable data suggests that populations in Mongoliahave been relatively stable if not increasing. Actual numbers are unclear and little is known. Estimates of total population size from incomplete ground surveys are as low as 730-950 individuals with projections from aerial surveys in Mongoliaof 4335 individuals. Attempts to assist with Bactrian conservation efforts in Mongoliathrough a captive breeding program have been unsuccessful. In China, the population is suspected to be decreasing in the Taklamakan Desert, because of oil development, but not in the Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve. The wild Bactrian Camel may well be one of the most endangered large mammals on Earth, and our knowledge ofits basic biology and ecology is dismally poor. Research is needed on the comparative genetics of wild and domestic forms, reproductive physiology, population structure and dynamics, and habitat requirements. Bactrian camels need immediate conservation attention, including standardization of methodology for accurate population surveys in both Chinaand Mongolia; development of a comprehensive conservation program; increasing support among local people, including control of illegal hunting; habitat improvement; prevention of hybridization with domestic camels that threatens the gene pool of the Mongolian wild camel population, particularly in the Great Gobi “A” Strictly Protected Area and its associated Buffer Zone; and an increase in the number and size of protected areas. The Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve in China, a former nuclear test site, is especially critical because it is believed to contain the most genetically pure individuals of the species.Bibliography.Adiya et al. (2004), Al-Ani (2004), Bannikov (1976), Burger & Charruau (2011), ChinaStatistical Yearbook (2008), Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981), Gentry et al. (2004), Grubb (2005), Guoying (2001), Han Jie et al. (2002), Hare (1996, 1997, 1998, 2008), Indra et al. (2002, 2003), Ji Rimutu et al. (2009), Menglia et al. (2006), Mijiddorj (2002a, 2002b), Mix et al. (2002), Peters & von den Driesch (1997b), Potts (2004), Reading, Blumeret al. (2005), Reading, Enkhbileg & Galbataar (2002), Reading, Mix, Blumer et al. (2002), Reading, Mix, Lhagvasuren & Blumer (1999), Schaller (1998), Silbermayr et al. (2010) Tilson (1986), Tserenbaljid (2002), Tulgat (2002), Tulgat & Schaller (1992), Weidong et al. (2002), Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2002).","taxonomy":"Camelus bactrianus Linnaeus, 1758,habitat in Africa. Restricted to “Bactria” (Uzbekistan, Bokhara) by Thomas in 1911 based on domestic stock.Bactria and Bactriana were the Greek and Latin names for the ancient Persian provincial capital Baxtriya in Central Asia. Aristotle (384-322 Bc) applied the term “Bactrian” to the domestic camel associated with this eastern region of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which prospered from Bactrian Camel caravans that transported goods between the East and West over the famed Silk Road. The question of the relatedness and genetic distinctiveness of wild and domestic Bactrian Camelsis actively being pursued. Scientists argue variously that: 1) the wild Bactrian is the progenitor of today’s domestic Bactrian; 2) wild Bactrians are escapees and feral forms of domestics; 3) both derived from a common ancestor now extinct; or 4) both derived from separate ancestors now extinct. Preliminary work by Chinese geneticists first suggested the two Bactrians were sufficiently different to warrant subspecies or potentially even species separation. Recent mtDNA studies by Austrian scientists favor the final argument, estimating divergence between the two camelids at 700,000 years ago in the Pleistocene long before Bactrian domestication (4000-6000 years ago). Some classify the wild Bactrian as Camelusgobi or Camelus bactrianusgobi, while others apply the name Camelus ferusdue to a ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature because C. feruswas first applied to the wild species. In this account, the two animals are differentiated at the subspecies level (wild = C. b. ferusand domestic = C. b. bactrianus). Genetic justification for recognizing the domestic form as a separate species is growing, and all workers agree that the critically endangered wild Bactrian is in desperate need of protective conservation measures. Two subspecies recognized here.","commonNames":"Chameau @fr | Kamel @de | Camellobactriano @es | Two-Humped Camel @en | Double-Humped Camel @en | Asiatic Camel @en | Wild Bactrian Camel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Camelus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"243","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bactrianus","name":"Camelus bactrianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.b.bactrianusLinnaeus,1758—aridlandsanddesertsofC&SAsiaasdomesticatedlivestock.C. b. ferus Przewalski, 1878— NW China(C & SE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, NW Qinghai& NW Gansu) and Mongolia.","bibliography":"Adiya et al. (2004) | Al-Ani (2004) | Bannikov (1976) | Burger & Charruau (2011) | ChinaStatistical Yearbook (2008) | Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981) | Gentry et al. (2004) | Grubb (2005) | Guoying (2001) | Han Jie et al. (2002) | Hare (1996, 1997, 1998, 2008) | Indra et al. (2002, 2003) | Ji Rimutu et al. (2009) | Menglia et al. (2006) | Mijiddorj (2002a, 2002b) | Mix et al. (2002) | Peters & von den Driesch (1997b) | Potts (2004) | Reading, Blumeret al. (2005) | Reading, Enkhbileg & Galbataar (2002) | Reading, Mix, Blumer et al. (2002) | Reading, Mix, Lhagvasuren & Blumer (1999) | Schaller (1998) | Silbermayr et al. (2010) | Tilson (1986) | Tserenbaljid (2002) | Tulgat (2002) | Tulgat & Schaller (1992) | Weidong et al. (2002) | Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"Bactrians are opportunistic feeders capable of utilizing low-quality forage when more desirable herbage is unavailable. They are both grazers and browsers. Research on free-ranging domestic Bactrians in wild Bactrian habitat in the Gobi Desert provides the best information available on feeding habits. Those studies found that the camels’ main diet switched from senesced forbs in winter to a shrub in spring and to an increasing dependence on forbs in autumn. Although the shrub Haloxylon ammodendron was the dominant and highest biomass species in this desert community and a staple component of the camels’ diet each season, it was not preferred forage. Still, the shrub was essential when preferred forbs were not available in spring and summer. In autumn preferred annual forbs provided sufficient biomass. New plant growth during the wet season in summer and autumn was vitally important for replenishing the camels’ depleted fat reserves in preparation for winter. Domestic Bactrians are dependent on a year-long forage supply from the fragile and extremely arid environment they occupy. They show a preference for grazing on forbs, but are highly dependent upon browsing on shrubs. It has been reported that Bactrians can utilize salt water, with some researchers stating that salty water is necessary for their survival. When sufficient food is available in spring, summer, and autumn, Bactrians rarely have to drink, obtaining water requirements from plant moisture. In winter they have been observed to eat ice and snow.","breeding":"Breeding season is called the “musth” after the thick fluid exuded from a gland on the neck behind the head in adult males. A study of semi-captive wild Bactrians found that females reached puberty after three years and males at 5-7 years of age. Wild rutting males in Mongoliabegin forming harems in late autumn (November) and mating in early winter, with most mating in January and February, but occasionally as late at March, or even May. Young males are driven out of the harems by rutting males and form bachelor herds; young females remain with their mothers. Males employ spitting (saliva and pseudorumen contents), kicking, biting, and screaming as offensive and defensive behaviors against each other during mating season. During the rut, wild males stretch their necks, shake their heads while roaring, and make loud noises with their teeth. Simultaneously they are foaming/frothing from the mouth and shaking their lips to throw foam on their head and chests. Occasionally they widen their hindlegs to urinate on their tails, using the tail to spread urine on their hips, hump, and head. The concentrated brown secretion from the 1-5 cm x 5 cmgland behind the head is rubbed on the forehump, giving it a darker color. The penis is 4 cmwide x 13-5 cm long. There is no use of dung piles by either sex. Estrous females are usually receptive in January or February for 4-7 days, at which time they follow males, knocking mating males off females and occasionally urinating. To mate, females lift theirtails after lying down in a sternal recumbancy position. Males typically mate with females 2-3 times in the morning or evening for 3-5 minutes each time. After mating, the genitals of females swell and become pink. Females are semen-induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs 30-48 hours after mating. Gestation of semi-captives in Mongoliawas 390-430 days (13-14 months) depending upon the age of the female and the number of previous calves. Females give birth to a single offspring while standing, but only every 2-3 years. Spring birth season is from March to April. Females giving birth isolate themselves from other animals and people, remaining alone for about two weeks. Calves are able to stumble-walk within 15-30 minutes. They weigh 32-34 kg at birth and nurse every 1-2 hours. Body growth levels off at seven years. Domestic Bactrians produce ¢.760 I of milk during 16 months of lactation. Calves are commonly weaned at 10-11 months but may nurse for up to 18 months. In captive Bactrians there is liberal and indiscriminate allonursing (adult females nursing non-offspring); this has been observed about one-third of the time, and was not correlated with the age of the mother or relatedness of the calf. Spring to autumn calf mortality is high, at 50%. Poor calf survival is often the result of drought, sandstorms, and freezing temperatures. Aerial surveys in the early 2000s counted only 3-9 young/ 100 adults,significantly lower than surveys in 1980 and 1998. The remaining Bactrian population cannot sustain itself with such a low calf-survival rate. Wild and domestic Bactrian Camels readily interbreed, producing fertile-hybrid offspring that can be differentiated by genetic testing based upon fixed mitochondrial sequence polymorphism. They can live as long as 35 years.","activityPatterns":"Activity budgets are an indication of an animal’s welfare since its primary activities are centered on energy acquisition, conservation, or expenditure. Bactrian Camels are diurnal feeders and nocturnal sleepers. In winter they spend less time foraging and more time resting than in spring and summer. There is high foraging activity in spring, triggered by readily available shrubs with minimal walking required. Daily patterns of activity are structured to expend the least amount of energy to obtain food, even when the food is not preferred forage.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Bactrians often move 50-100 km seeking permanent surface water and patches of foraging habitat. Some populations are suspected to be migratory, especially those in the Chinese Lop Nur Lake region where the animals move between lakeside riparian communities in winter and cooler foothills in the summer. Researchers tracked seven wild camels in the Mongolian Gobi for one year, using satellite telemetry. One adult female moved a minimum of 4527 kmin a home range of 17,232 km. She spent 75% of her time within 8699 km?. Ground surveys in Mongoliareport that the Bactrian population was composed of 82% adults, 12% juveniles (non-reproductive young), and 6% calves (depending upon the time of year). Groups sighted in Chinanumbered 4-40 individuals and in Mongoliafrom one animal to dozens, with researchers frequently encountering groups of more than 50 animals. From 1982 to 1989, when a total of 2370 wild Bactrians and 675 groups were sighted, average herd size was six (5-3—-6-5) with 6-20 animals/group the most common. Other than sporadic and irregular sightings in the vast Gobi Desert, where low densities of Bactrian Camels occur, we know almost nothing of their year-round social organization. However, it would not be surprising to find that the Bactrian social system is similar to that observed in wild/feral Dromedaries of Australia. Gray Wolves have been cited as a contributing factor to the Bactrian’s decline in both Chinaand Mongolia, but the evidence is weak because it is primarily based upon camel remains in scats, which could have been from scavenging.","statusAndConservation":"The wild subspecies is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List and Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It is considered by some to be on the verge of extinction. Protected nationally in Chinaand Mongolia. The Bactrian’s original distribution and natural habitat was the entire Asian Trans-Altai Gobi Desert, stretching from the great bend of the Yellow River in north-east Chinathroughout Mongoliato central Kazakhstanin the west, at elevations 1500-2000 m above sea level in an area that encompassed nearly 100,000 km*. Today they are greatly reduced to a few small and fragmented populations in south-western Mongoliaand nearby areas of north-western Chinain a total area ¢. 28,000 km*. Four populations of wild Bactrians survive: the Taklamakan Desert; Altun Mountains and Archik Valley; and Gashun Desert populations in China; and the Outer Gobi Desert population of Mongoliaand China, which migrates between the two countries. Overall numbers greatly reduced in the past century because of hunting for their meat and hides, habitat loss due to grazing, and competition for water with domestic livestock (domestic camels, sheep, goats, horses, and cattle), interbreeding with domestic camels, mining activities, and poor reproduction and survival of young. Because of harsh climatic conditions, lack of appropriate aircraft for aerial surveys, and the remote and vast region where the remaining Bactrians live, there is uncertainty as to the total numbers remaining. The famous Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, who is given credit for discovering the wild Bactrian Camel of Asia during his travels to Mongoliaand China, noted in 1876: “According to our informants wild camels are numerous in north-western Tsaidam, where the country is barren, the soil being clay, overgrown with budarbana, and so destitute of water that they have to go several miles to drink, and in winter are obligated to satisfy their thirst with snow. The herds are small, averaging five to ten in each, never more than twenty. Their appearanceis slightly different from the domesticated breed: their humps are smaller, the muzzle more pointed, and the color of the hair gray.” It has been reported that wild Bactrians experienced drastic reduction in numbers and range over the past 10-20 years, but the most recent and reliable data suggests that populations in Mongoliahave been relatively stable if not increasing. Actual numbers are unclear and little is known. Estimates of total population size from incomplete ground surveys are as low as 730-950 individuals with projections from aerial surveys in Mongoliaof 4335 individuals. Attempts to assist with Bactrian conservation efforts in Mongoliathrough a captive breeding program have been unsuccessful. In China, the population is suspected to be decreasing in the Taklamakan Desert, because of oil development, but not in the Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve. The wild Bactrian Camel may well be one of the most endangered large mammals on Earth, and our knowledge ofits basic biology and ecology is dismally poor. Research is needed on the comparative genetics of wild and domestic forms, reproductive physiology, population structure and dynamics, and habitat requirements. Bactrian camels need immediate conservation attention, including standardization of methodology for accurate population surveys in both Chinaand Mongolia; development of a comprehensive conservation program; increasing support among local people, including control of illegal hunting; habitat improvement; prevention of hybridization with domestic camels that threatens the gene pool of the Mongolian wild camel population, particularly in the Great Gobi “A” Strictly Protected Area and its associated Buffer Zone; and an increase in the number and size of protected areas. The Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve in China, a former nuclear test site, is especially critical because it is believed to contain the most genetically pure individuals of the species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 320-350 cm, tail 51-64 cm, shoulder height 160-180 cm; weight 450-500 kg. Compared to Dromedary Camels (C. dromedarius), Bactrians have stouter and thicker bodies with relatively shorter legs, and two humps instead of one. Dromedaries are slimmer and taller. In winter the Bactrian’s long, woolly coat is sandy beige to dark brown, shedding in large clumps as temperatures warm in spring. They have a mane and a beard of long hair on the neck and throat, with hairs up to 25 cmlong. Long eyelashes and sealable nostrils help to keep out dust in sandstorms. Two broad toes on each foot with undivided soles create a large, flat footpad that spreads widely as an adaptation for walking on sand. Their long face is somewhat triangular, with a split upper lip. Bactrians are well suited to cold and hot temperatures and are suspected to have physiological adaptations similar to those of Dromedaries. Their humps function the same way as Dromedaries’ humps, storing fat convertible to water and energy when there is a shortage of sustenance and enabling the animals to endure harsh desert conditions and periods of travel without water. As the fat depletes, the humps become floppy and flabby. Like Dromedaries, Bactrians rarely sweat, facilitating conservation of fluids. Dehydrated animals are able to drink 135 1 of water in 13 minutes. Although wild and domestic Bactrians have similar conformation and body structure, field observers report obvious differences in behavior, habits, and general appearance. Unlike the ponderous domestic Bactrians, wild ones are relatively lithe. Wild Bactrians are slimmer and smaller-bodied (laterally compressed), with slender limbs. They are sandy-gray-brown rather than predominantly dark brown, with shorter, sparser wool. There is no tuft of hair on top of the head, and the hair on the neck,tail, and knee joints is shorter. They do not have growths on the inner foreleg or callosities on the knees. The wild form has smaller ears and very narrow feet. Notably, their humps are lower, pointed, conical-shaped, and usually about half the size orless of the domestic Bactrian’s. They are timid and elusive.","habitat":"Bactrians are adapted for living in plains and hills where vegetation and water sources are sparse. They inhabit some of most inhospitable terrain in the world, centered in the extreme Gobi Desert of Central Asia. Gobi means “the rocky place” and it is primarily a rocky desert covered with small stones. There are low valleys and eroded hills, rocky-mountain massifs, “hamadas” (flat pavement-like stony plains), vast washed-out plains, high sand dunes, and rarely, poplarfringed oases. Summers are torrid, winters are cold. Annual precipitation is 50-200 mm. This is a region of extreme drought and scarce food and water. The Taklamankan Desert is sandy; Lop Nur Desert is both a rocky and sandy desert. Field studies in the Lop Nur Lake region of Chinarevealed a Bactrian habitat preference for riparian communities and piedmont foothills; they were more often found in higher,hilly landscape than in the open. The Bactrians avoided gravel desert substrate and areas with hard, salt-crusted soil or moving sand dunes, preferring moderately hard ground. They stayed away from areas occupied by people. They used locations where the distance between foraging habitats and water sources did not exceed ¢.50-60 km and where there was relatively high coverage of halophytic vegetation, especially along lakeshores. In Mongolia preliminary results of satellite telemetry revealed a weak preference for habitat dominated by saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendrum) and no selection of areas with higher productivity or closer to permanent water sources. Climate change has altered Bactrian habitat by increasing the rate of desertification and reducing water resources and vegetation. Wild Bactrians have few native predators. Contrary to some accounts, Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) pose no threat, and although Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) predation does occur,its impact is poorly understood."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A4FFFC6D57EFE83F6A8F649.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A4FFFC6D57EFE83F6A8F649","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"245","verbatimText":"6.Dromedary CamelCamelus dromedariusFrench:Dromadaire/ German:Dromedar/ Spanish:DromedarioOther common names:Camel, Arabian Camel, One-Humped Camel, Single-Humped Camel, Ship of the DesertTaxonomy.Camelus dromedarius Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Africae desertis arenosis siticulosis.” Restricted to “deserts of Libyaand Arabia” by Thomas in 1911.This species is monotypic.Distribution.A species found in the arid and semi-arid regions of N Africa to the Middle East, and parts of C Asia. A sizeabledfreeranging/feral population in C&W Australia. The Dromedary overlaps with the domestic Bactrian Camel (C. bactrianus) in Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, India, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Dromedaries are a domestic species with c¢.50 breeds selected and used for pulling carts, plowing, lifting water at wells, carrying packs, milk production, smooth riding, and racing. The breeds include those in Saudi Arabia(Mojaheem, Maghateer, Wadah, and Awarik), India(Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, and Mewari), Pakistan(Marecha, Dhatti, Larri, Kohi, Campbelpuri, and Sakrai), and Turkmenistan(Arvana). The evidence for domestication comes from archaeological sites dating ¢.4000-5000 years ago in the S Arabian Peninsula with the wild form becoming extinct ¢.2000-5000 years ago. No non-introduced wild populations exist. In Asia Dromedaries occur from Turkeyto W Indiaand N to Kazahkstan. All camels in Africa are Dromedaries, 80-85% in the Sahel and NE portion of the continent (Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya), with the S distribution limited by humidity and trypanosomiasis. Dromedaries in S Africa show no evidence of loss of genetic diversity within 16 populations and very low differentiation among populations. In Kenyan Dromedaries two separate genetic entities have been identified: the Somali and a group including the Gabbra, Rendille, and Turkanapopulations. In Indiatwo distinct genetic clusters have been described for Dromedaries: the Mewari breed being differentiated from the Bikaneri, Kutchi, and the Jaisalmeri breeds. From the 17\" to the early 20\" century unsuccessful attempts were made to introduce Dromedaries to the Caribbean, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Namibia, and south-western USA. Successful introductions of camels were made to the Canary Islands in 1405 and some 10,000 to Australiafrom 1840 to 1907. Camels were important for exploring and developing the Outback of C&W Australia, where they were used for riding; drafting; transporting supplies, railway, and telegraph materials; and as a source of meat and wool. Most (6600) introduced Dromedaries came from India. Three breeds were originally introduced: camels for riding from Rajasthan, India, camels for heavy work from the Kandahar regionof Afghanistan, and camels for riding and carrying moderate cargo loads from Sind, Pakistan. The camels in Australiatoday are a blend of these original imports. By the 1920s, there were an estimated 20,000 domesticated camels in Australia, but by 1930, with the arrival of rail and motor transportation, camels were no longer needed and many were released to the wild. Well suited to the Australian deserts, the camels bred prolifically, spreading across arid and semi-arid areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, and into parts of Queensland, and today they occupy 37% of the continent.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-340 cm, tail 45-55 cm, shoulder height 180-200 cm; weight 400-600 kg. Males and females of near equal size, but in some breeds the females are ¢.10% smaller than males. Body is often sandy colored, but can range from nearly all white to black or even two-colored piebald. Body shape characterized by a long-curved neck, long and thin legs, and deep narrow chest. The hindquarters are less developed than the weight-bearing front legs. Large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges. Facial features include thick eyebrows, long eyelashes, and transparent eyelids that allow partial vision when the eyes close in sandstorms. Thick fine hair in winter for warmth sheds in summer. Hair is longer on throat, shoulder, and hump. The single hump, on the middle of the back (c. 20 cmhigher than shoulder)is a reservoir offatty cells bound by fibroustissues, used in times of food and water scarcity. Hump size varies, depending upon an individual's nutritional status. In a state of starvation, the hump can be almost non-existent. The head is small relative to body size. Slit-like nostrils, surrounded by sphincter muscles, can close to keep out dust and sand. Split upperlip with two independently moving halves and a pendulous lowerlip allow for prehensile-like grasping of forage. Upper middle and inner incisors are replaced by a tough dental pad that opposes the lower incisors. Canines, especially the upper, are massive and pointed. Skin is tightly attached to underlying tissues and modified into horny pads at the sternum, elbows, carpals,stifles, and tarsals: these protect the body when a camelis lying down on hot or rough ground. No facial glands, but males have well-developed occipital glands 5-6 cm below the nuchal crest on either side of the neck midline. The glands increase in size with age, and during the rut they secrete a pungent coffee-colored fluid. Small oval erythrocytes may enhance blood circulation and oxygen carrying capacity. Dromedaries are digitgrade each with two dorsal nails and padded feet well adapted for sandy substrates; the front feet are larger than the hindfeet. The mammary gland has four quarters and teats. Adult dental formula: 11/3,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32 with permanent lower incisors appearing at 2:5—6-5 years and all teeth emerged by eight years. A triangular bone ¢.3 x 2: 5 cmis lodged in the tendinous fibers in the center of the diaphragm, preventing compression of the interior vena cava and distributing muscular pull over a larger surface. Lungs are not lobed. The stomach is complex, with three compartments. When foraging on green and moist plants Dromedaries do not require drinking water. If wateris available in summer, they will drink regularly at dawn. In extreme drought, they need access to waterholes. The Dromedary’s ability to endure severe heat and dryness does not depend upon water storage; instead, numerous mechanisms minimize water loss. In well-watered animals body temperature fluctuates only c.2°C. When necessary, water conservation is aided by heat storage (hyperthermia): camels do not sweat until body temperature exceeds 41-42°C, thus avoiding water loss through perspiration. The body temperature of camels deprived of water can fluctuate as much as 6°C by heating up during the day to 41°C and then cooling at night to 35°C. Dehydrated Dromedaries have a depressed rate of breathing, minimizing water loss through respiration. Paired, fluid-producing sacs connecting the nasal cavities and a pair of lateral nasal glands and sacs serve to moisten incoming dry air. Dromedaries can tolerate water loss greater than 30% of their body mass, whereas 15% lossis lethal for most mammals. Such water loss is from intraand intercellular fluids, and not from plasma, allowing for relatively constant circulation of blood and maintaining the ability to cool. Water loss is ¢.50% greater in shorn compared to unshorn camels. Dromedaries often go without water in the Sahara Desert for seven or eight months, beginning in October, existing only on water content of plants. At temperatures between 30°C and 50°C they can go without water for 10-15 days, and even in the hottest weather need water only every 4-7 days. They can quickly rehydrate by drinking large quantities of water (10-20 1/minute and up to 130 1/minute), consuming up to 30% of their body weight within minutes. Dromedaries can drink salt water in even greater concentrations than seawater. They can consume water containing 19,000 ppm (parts-per-million) in dissolved salt without a decline in condition, compared to sheep, which can consume water at 10,000 ppm and cattle 5000 ppm. Dehydrated camels excrete less fecal water, greatly reduce urine volume, highly increase urine concentration, and recycle urea from the kidneys to the rumen for protein synthesis and water recirculation. Their erythrocytes have high osmotic resistance and can swell to 240% of their initial size without hemolysis during rehydration. Accumulation of fat in the hump instead of subcutaneously facilitates heat dissipation. The gallbladderis absent. The dulla, a pink, tongue-like bladder that hangs out the side of mouth of rutting-agitated males,is actually an inflation ofthe soft palate and unique to Dromedaries. Dulla inflation is typically accompanied by large amounts of saliva foam and gurgling vocalization.Habitat.In Africa Dromedaries occupy the Sahara Desert, known forits long, hot-dry season and a short rainy season. In Australia, Dromedaries favor bushy semi-arid lands and sand plains because of the availability of year-round forage, and avoid heavily vegetated and hard rocky areas.Food and Feeding.Dromedaries are capable of surviving on poor-quality forage under arid conditions, aided by their ability to select high-quality plant species, increase digestion of low-quality forage, cover large distances while foraging, and diversify the nature of their diet by being both browsers (shrubs and trees) and grazers (forbs and grasses). In the Sahara browse and forbs make up 70% oftheir diet in winter and 90% in summer. Over 300 forage plants have been reported, with Acacia, Atriplex, and Salsola common in their diet. In Syriashrubs dominated the diet during the dry season, but camels switched mainly to herbaceous species with the onset of the wet season. In Australian deserts food intake by volume is 53% browse, 42% forbs, and 5% grasses. Dromedaries browse on trees and tall shrubs up to 3-5 m by grasping with their lips and either breaking off branches or stripping leaves. Under extreme cases of limited forage, the Dromedary can not only decrease its food intake, but also reduce its metabolic rate. Compared to sheep and cattle, Dromedaries require less energy for maintenance; their protein requirements are at least 30% lower than cattle, sheep, or goats. Feeding trials have revealed that Dromedaries utilized fed energy for maintenance with an efficiency of 73% comparable to sheep, and for growth with an efficiency of 61% better than sheep and cattle. The relationship of food intake to body size is low. They can live on only 2 kgof dry matter for limited periods, and 8-12 kg are sufficient for a working Dromedary carrying 130-227 kg load for six hours a day at a speed of 5 km/h for a 24day trip. When forage conditions are lush, camels tend to overeat for their immediate needs and store the excess energy in their humps. Dromedaries require six to eight times more salt than other animals, with 30% oftheir diet from halophytes (plants that tolerate and even require salty conditions). High salt intake is imperative for alimentary absorption of water by camels, with salt deficiencies leading to cramps and cutaneous necrosis. Although consumption of grain can cause indigestion in animals unaccustomed to it, working Dromedaries require 2 kgof grain per day.Breeding.The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and climate patterns. Dromedaries typically breed in winter, except near the Equator, where there can be two mating seasons or even year-round mating. In the Arabian camel, sexual receptivity is triggered by rainfall and subsequent availability of forage. There is follicular activity in the female year-round, but it peaks in winter and spring. Mating induces ovulation, which occurs 30-40 hours afterwards; estrus ceases three days later. An unmated female's cycle averages 28 days;follicles mature within six days, are maintained for 13 days, and regress over eight days. The percentage of females that conceived: 50% after a single copulation, 30% after two, and 20% after three or more, during the first two days of estrus. Left and right ovaries are equally active and alternate in follicle production. Egg migration is common, 50% of left-horn implants form corpora lutea in the right ovary, explaining the long oviductal transport time of six days. Simultaneous ovulation from both ovaries occurs 14% of time, but twin pregnancies only 0-4%. The left horn of the uterus is larger than the right and carries 99% of pregnancies. Normal pregnancy produces one offspring, with twins being extremely unusual. The scrotum is high in the perineal region with testes larger during rut. Penis is covered with a triangular sheath opening pointing posteriorally and directed between the hindlegs. A complete separation of the penis from preputial adhesions prevents erections at 6-10 months before sexual maturity. Female lies down in sternal recumbency during copulations averaging 8-120 minutes involving 3-5 ejaculatory pulses by the male, each stimulated by intracervical pressure on his highly mobile urethral process. Mating females normally ruminate; the male may salivate, inflate his dulla, or gurgle during mating. Gestation averages 377-390 days (range of 360-411 days), regardless of whether the calf is male or female. The typical calving interval is 2-3 years (two in Australia), with estrus occurring 4-5—-10 months after parturition. The mean birth massis 37-3 kg (26-4-52-3) with no difference between sexes. Annual calving rates are low (35-40%) because of high (18-20%) embryonic death, abortions, and stillborns. In free-ranging herds, young remain with their mothers for first two years. Males begin rutting at three years but are not fully active sexually until they are 6-8 years old. They continue to breed until 18-20 years of age. Females are sexually mature at three years and typically first mate at 4-5 years and reproduce until they are 20-25, and some until the age of 30. Puberty is delayed by inadequate body weight caused by insufficient food. Birthing duration is typically 30 minutes, with the female in a sitting position. The mother noses and nibbles, but does not lick her newborn. The main birth season in Australiais June to November, during the rut, but newborns have been observed year-round. Before parturition cows segregate themselves (without their previous twoyear-old calf) from their original group and give birth in seclusion in dense vegetation. Isolation thought to be both an anti-predator behavior and perhaps more significantly, avoidance of infanticide by rutting males. After remaining alone for up to three weeks, when the new calf is fully mobile, the female joins other recent new mothers, forming a new cow group. These core groups remain stable until the calves are weaned at 15-18 months, the length of time depending on environmental conditions. Life span of wild/feral animals is 20-35 years. Domestic Dromedaries live substantially longer, with reported maximum longevity 40-49 years. The first cloned camelid was a Dromedary Camel achieved in 2010 by use of somatic cell nuclear transfer.Activity patterns.Wild/feral populations exist only in Australia, where they show a daily pattern of feeding in the morning and afternoon hours and increased resting in the middle of the day. Midday resting is highest in winter. Elsewhere Dromedaries are domestic and intensely managed and regulated by traditional pastoral communities, often in conjunction with other livestock. In the Sahara, when they are allowed to roam without herders, they form stable groups of 2-20 animals. Dromedaries graze for 8-12 hours per day and then ruminate for an equal amount of time. When forage is especially poor they spread out over large areas and break up into units of 1-2 individuals. Guarded herds feed by day (lying down during the hottest hours) and rest by night, but unguarded, their activity pattern is reversed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dromedaries are extremely mobile and capable of using large areas to fulfill their nutritional needs. Depending upon environmental and social parameters, wild/feral populations of Australiamay be nomadic, migratory, or move within a home range. They commonly travel 30 km/day even when food is plentiful. In summer, when plants are dry, they comfortably walk up to 60 kmto waterholes every second or third day; in winter they drink water only irregularly, some once per month, others less often. In free-ranging Australian populations, social groups are core cow groups, breeding groups, male groups, and solitary males. Core cow groups occur only in summer (October to March/April) outside the breeding season. These groups of about 24 animals consist of females and their calves of similar age; the groups are stable for up to 1-5-2 years until the young are weaned. Summer cow groups are open to all other individuals (cows with and without calves, including younger and weaker adult males). Individuals join for irregular periods of time. Breeding groups are seen in winter (April/May to September). They are composed of one mature male and several cows with their calves; the male defends the females against other males in a classical harem arrangement. Soon after taking over a cow group the rutting male aggressively chases away weaned two-year-old males; these young males join male groups. The rutting male herds cows for 3-5 months, leaves voluntarily, and does not return to the same cow group the following year; thus the rutting male is never the father of the calves in his group. Male or bachelor groups of up to 30 non-breeding males of all ages are present year-round. These are loose groupings that regularly split up as individuals leave the group and join other males. Solitary males tend to be old males. A rutting male shows ritualized postures and patterns, including vigorous biting when fighting with and defending his breeding group against other males. It should be noted that aggressive spitting, as observed in Bactrians and the South American cameloids has not been observed in Australian Dromedaries. However, Dromedaries may vomit when severely frightened or overly excited. Night time hypothermia in a rutting male may increase the duration and success of his daytime fighting before the male overheats. No classical territoriality has been observed in Australia, but short-term home ranges of 50-150 km* and an annual range, commonly of 5000 km?, shows a tendency forsite attachment to home ranges. Dromedaries show amazing plasticity of social organization with extremes in environmental conditions. During two years of extremely high rainfall in the Australian Outback when food productivity was extraordinarily high, animals coalesced into large herds of up to 200. During the rutting season the herd was subdivided into several breeding groups, each with one herding male, all roaming around together. The subgroup holders tolerated each other to a certain point within the big herd and even showed some cooperation in defending their cows when intruding bachelors came too close. However, during two years of virtually no rainfall (although water was always available for drinking) when food became acutely sparse, normal cow groups split up, even to the extreme of only one mother with her calf. In such harsh droughts conspecifics became each other’s strongest competitors. A social system similar to that seen in Australiaoccurs in Africa at Equatorial latitudes, except the non-breeding season is in winter. Mixed herds (males and females of all age classes), some as large as 500 camels, are more common. In Algeriadomestic herds were much less rigid: 46% of the herds were males, females, and young; 21% males and females without young; 18% females and young; and 14% males only. In Turkmenistandomestic populations were divided into the social units similar to those in Australia. In breeding groups of wildferal populations the male directs the movements of his group from behind, while females rotate in the lead. Domestic herds have a natural tendency to walk in single file, especially when moving to water wells. Dromedaries do not use dung piles for defecation or urination. Freeranging camels showed no marking behavior in the Sahara, but males in Israelmark particular areas with poll-gland secretions. They like to roll in sandy locations and will form lines waiting their turn.Status and Conservation.World Dromedary population decreased 15% from 1960 to 2000, with current numbers 18-21 million, including one million camels in Australia. In some countries the decline has been severe over the last century; for example in Syriathe population decreased from 250,000 in1922 to not more than 22,000 in2010. In AustraliaDromedary competition with livestock for forage and water, and significant environmental and infrastructure damage caused by Dromedaries, have prompted culling, with the goal of maintaining a sustainable population for utilization of their meat, hides, and wool. Despite groups of Dromedaries seen moving and grazing without a herder in the Sahara and Arabian deserts, they all have owners. Numbers have drastically declined in Arabian countries during past half century due to modernization and industrialization, forced settlement of nomads, desert forage resources not well developed, low reproductive rate, decreased demand for camel meat and milk, poor genetic selection for breed improvement, and government encouragement of other domestic species.Bibliography.Al-Ani (2004), Arnautovic & Abdel-Magid (1974), Baker (1964), Baskin (1974), Bhargava et al. (1963), Dagg (1974), Dorges et al. (1995, 2003), EI-Amin (1984), Ellard (2000), Gee & Greenfield (2007), Gidad & El-Bovevy (1992), Grigg et al. (1995), Guerouali & Wardeh (1998), Guerouali & Zine Filali (1992), Gauthier-Pilters (1984), Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981), Klingel (1985), Kohler-Rollefson (1991). McKnight (1969), Mehta et al. (1962), Newman (1984), Novoa (1970), Peters (1997a) Peters & von den Driesch (1997b), Saalfeld & Edwards (2008), Schmidt-Nielsen, B. et al. (1956), Schmidth-Nielsen, K. (1964), Schmidt-Nielsen, K. et al. (1967), Singh, U.B. & Bharadwaj (1978), Singh, V. & Prakash (1964), Wilson (1984), Yagil (1985).","taxonomy":"Camelus dromedarius Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Africae desertis arenosis siticulosis.” Restricted to “deserts of Libyaand Arabia” by Thomas in 1911.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Dromadaire @fr | Dromedar @de | Dromedario @es | Camel @en | Arabian Camel @en | One-Humped Camel @en | Single-Humped Camel @en | Ship of the Desert @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Camelus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"245","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dromedarius","name":"Camelus dromedarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A species found in the arid and semi-arid regions of N Africa to the Middle East, and parts of C Asia. A sizeabledfreeranging/feral population in C&W Australia. The Dromedary overlaps with the domestic Bactrian Camel (C. bactrianus) in Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, India, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Dromedaries are a domestic species with c¢.50 breeds selected and used for pulling carts, plowing, lifting water at wells, carrying packs, milk production, smooth riding, and racing. The breeds include those in Saudi Arabia(Mojaheem, Maghateer, Wadah, and Awarik), India(Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, and Mewari), Pakistan(Marecha, Dhatti, Larri, Kohi, Campbelpuri, and Sakrai), and Turkmenistan(Arvana). The evidence for domestication comes from archaeological sites dating ¢.4000-5000 years ago in the S Arabian Peninsula with the wild form becoming extinct ¢.2000-5000 years ago. No non-introduced wild populations exist. In Asia Dromedaries occur from Turkeyto W Indiaand N to Kazahkstan. All camels in Africa are Dromedaries, 80-85% in the Sahel and NE portion of the continent (Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya), with the S distribution limited by humidity and trypanosomiasis. Dromedaries in S Africa show no evidence of loss of genetic diversity within 16 populations and very low differentiation among populations. In Kenyan Dromedaries two separate genetic entities have been identified: the Somali and a group including the Gabbra, Rendille, and Turkanapopulations. In Indiatwo distinct genetic clusters have been described for Dromedaries: the Mewari breed being differentiated from the Bikaneri, Kutchi, and the Jaisalmeri breeds. From the 17\" to the early 20\" century unsuccessful attempts were made to introduce Dromedaries to the Caribbean, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Namibia, and south-western USA. Successful introductions of camels were made to the Canary Islands in 1405 and some 10,000 to Australiafrom 1840 to 1907. Camels were important for exploring and developing the Outback of C&W Australia, where they were used for riding; drafting; transporting supplies, railway, and telegraph materials; and as a source of meat and wool. Most (6600) introduced Dromedaries came from India. Three breeds were originally introduced: camels for riding from Rajasthan, India, camels for heavy work from the Kandahar regionof Afghanistan, and camels for riding and carrying moderate cargo loads from Sind, Pakistan. The camels in Australiatoday are a blend of these original imports. By the 1920s, there were an estimated 20,000 domesticated camels in Australia, but by 1930, with the arrival of rail and motor transportation, camels were no longer needed and many were released to the wild. Well suited to the Australian deserts, the camels bred prolifically, spreading across arid and semi-arid areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, and into parts of Queensland, and today they occupy 37% of the continent.","bibliography":"Al-Ani (2004) | Arnautovic & Abdel-Magid (1974) | Baker (1964) | Baskin (1974) | Bhargava et al. (1963) | Dagg (1974) | Dorges et al. (1995, 2003) | EI-Amin (1984) | Ellard (2000) | Gee & Greenfield (2007) | Gidad & El-Bovevy (1992) | Grigg et al. (1995) | Guerouali & Wardeh (1998) | Guerouali & Zine Filali (1992) | Gauthier-Pilters (1984) | Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981) | Klingel (1985) | Kohler-Rollefson (1991) | McKnight (1969) | Mehta et al. (1962) | Newman (1984) | Novoa (1970) | Peters (1997a) | Peters & von den Driesch (1997b) | Saalfeld & Edwards (2008) | Schmidt-Nielsen, B. et al. (1956) | Schmidth-Nielsen, K. (1964) | Schmidt-Nielsen, K. et al. (1967) | Singh, U.B. & Bharadwaj (1978) | Singh, V. & Prakash (1964) | Wilson (1984) | Yagil (1985)","foodAndFeeding":"Dromedaries are capable of surviving on poor-quality forage under arid conditions, aided by their ability to select high-quality plant species, increase digestion of low-quality forage, cover large distances while foraging, and diversify the nature of their diet by being both browsers (shrubs and trees) and grazers (forbs and grasses). In the Sahara browse and forbs make up 70% oftheir diet in winter and 90% in summer. Over 300 forage plants have been reported, with Acacia, Atriplex, and Salsola common in their diet. In Syriashrubs dominated the diet during the dry season, but camels switched mainly to herbaceous species with the onset of the wet season. In Australian deserts food intake by volume is 53% browse, 42% forbs, and 5% grasses. Dromedaries browse on trees and tall shrubs up to 3-5 m by grasping with their lips and either breaking off branches or stripping leaves. Under extreme cases of limited forage, the Dromedary can not only decrease its food intake, but also reduce its metabolic rate. Compared to sheep and cattle, Dromedaries require less energy for maintenance; their protein requirements are at least 30% lower than cattle, sheep, or goats. Feeding trials have revealed that Dromedaries utilized fed energy for maintenance with an efficiency of 73% comparable to sheep, and for growth with an efficiency of 61% better than sheep and cattle. The relationship of food intake to body size is low. They can live on only 2 kgof dry matter for limited periods, and 8-12 kg are sufficient for a working Dromedary carrying 130-227 kg load for six hours a day at a speed of 5 km/h for a 24day trip. When forage conditions are lush, camels tend to overeat for their immediate needs and store the excess energy in their humps. Dromedaries require six to eight times more salt than other animals, with 30% oftheir diet from halophytes (plants that tolerate and even require salty conditions). High salt intake is imperative for alimentary absorption of water by camels, with salt deficiencies leading to cramps and cutaneous necrosis. Although consumption of grain can cause indigestion in animals unaccustomed to it, working Dromedaries require 2 kgof grain per day.","breeding":"The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and climate patterns. Dromedaries typically breed in winter, except near the Equator, where there can be two mating seasons or even year-round mating. In the Arabian camel, sexual receptivity is triggered by rainfall and subsequent availability of forage. There is follicular activity in the female year-round, but it peaks in winter and spring. Mating induces ovulation, which occurs 30-40 hours afterwards; estrus ceases three days later. An unmated female's cycle averages 28 days;follicles mature within six days, are maintained for 13 days, and regress over eight days. The percentage of females that conceived: 50% after a single copulation, 30% after two, and 20% after three or more, during the first two days of estrus. Left and right ovaries are equally active and alternate in follicle production. Egg migration is common, 50% of left-horn implants form corpora lutea in the right ovary, explaining the long oviductal transport time of six days. Simultaneous ovulation from both ovaries occurs 14% of time, but twin pregnancies only 0-4%. The left horn of the uterus is larger than the right and carries 99% of pregnancies. Normal pregnancy produces one offspring, with twins being extremely unusual. The scrotum is high in the perineal region with testes larger during rut. Penis is covered with a triangular sheath opening pointing posteriorally and directed between the hindlegs. A complete separation of the penis from preputial adhesions prevents erections at 6-10 months before sexual maturity. Female lies down in sternal recumbency during copulations averaging 8-120 minutes involving 3-5 ejaculatory pulses by the male, each stimulated by intracervical pressure on his highly mobile urethral process. Mating females normally ruminate; the male may salivate, inflate his dulla, or gurgle during mating. Gestation averages 377-390 days (range of 360-411 days), regardless of whether the calf is male or female. The typical calving interval is 2-3 years (two in Australia), with estrus occurring 4-5—-10 months after parturition. The mean birth massis 37-3 kg (26-4-52-3) with no difference between sexes. Annual calving rates are low (35-40%) because of high (18-20%) embryonic death, abortions, and stillborns. In free-ranging herds, young remain with their mothers for first two years. Males begin rutting at three years but are not fully active sexually until they are 6-8 years old. They continue to breed until 18-20 years of age. Females are sexually mature at three years and typically first mate at 4-5 years and reproduce until they are 20-25, and some until the age of 30. Puberty is delayed by inadequate body weight caused by insufficient food. Birthing duration is typically 30 minutes, with the female in a sitting position. The mother noses and nibbles, but does not lick her newborn. The main birth season in Australiais June to November, during the rut, but newborns have been observed year-round. Before parturition cows segregate themselves (without their previous twoyear-old calf) from their original group and give birth in seclusion in dense vegetation. Isolation thought to be both an anti-predator behavior and perhaps more significantly, avoidance of infanticide by rutting males. After remaining alone for up to three weeks, when the new calf is fully mobile, the female joins other recent new mothers, forming a new cow group. These core groups remain stable until the calves are weaned at 15-18 months, the length of time depending on environmental conditions. Life span of wild/feral animals is 20-35 years. Domestic Dromedaries live substantially longer, with reported maximum longevity 40-49 years. The first cloned camelid was a Dromedary Camel achieved in 2010 by use of somatic cell nuclear transfer.","activityPatterns":"Wild/feral populations exist only in Australia, where they show a daily pattern of feeding in the morning and afternoon hours and increased resting in the middle of the day. Midday resting is highest in winter. Elsewhere Dromedaries are domestic and intensely managed and regulated by traditional pastoral communities, often in conjunction with other livestock. In the Sahara, when they are allowed to roam without herders, they form stable groups of 2-20 animals. Dromedaries graze for 8-12 hours per day and then ruminate for an equal amount of time. When forage is especially poor they spread out over large areas and break up into units of 1-2 individuals. Guarded herds feed by day (lying down during the hottest hours) and rest by night, but unguarded, their activity pattern is reversed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dromedaries are extremely mobile and capable of using large areas to fulfill their nutritional needs. Depending upon environmental and social parameters, wild/feral populations of Australiamay be nomadic, migratory, or move within a home range. They commonly travel 30 km/day even when food is plentiful. In summer, when plants are dry, they comfortably walk up to 60 kmto waterholes every second or third day; in winter they drink water only irregularly, some once per month, others less often. In free-ranging Australian populations, social groups are core cow groups, breeding groups, male groups, and solitary males. Core cow groups occur only in summer (October to March/April) outside the breeding season. These groups of about 24 animals consist of females and their calves of similar age; the groups are stable for up to 1-5-2 years until the young are weaned. Summer cow groups are open to all other individuals (cows with and without calves, including younger and weaker adult males). Individuals join for irregular periods of time. Breeding groups are seen in winter (April/May to September). They are composed of one mature male and several cows with their calves; the male defends the females against other males in a classical harem arrangement. Soon after taking over a cow group the rutting male aggressively chases away weaned two-year-old males; these young males join male groups. The rutting male herds cows for 3-5 months, leaves voluntarily, and does not return to the same cow group the following year; thus the rutting male is never the father of the calves in his group. Male or bachelor groups of up to 30 non-breeding males of all ages are present year-round. These are loose groupings that regularly split up as individuals leave the group and join other males. Solitary males tend to be old males. A rutting male shows ritualized postures and patterns, including vigorous biting when fighting with and defending his breeding group against other males. It should be noted that aggressive spitting, as observed in Bactrians and the South American cameloids has not been observed in Australian Dromedaries. However, Dromedaries may vomit when severely frightened or overly excited. Night time hypothermia in a rutting male may increase the duration and success of his daytime fighting before the male overheats. No classical territoriality has been observed in Australia, but short-term home ranges of 50-150 km* and an annual range, commonly of 5000 km?, shows a tendency forsite attachment to home ranges. Dromedaries show amazing plasticity of social organization with extremes in environmental conditions. During two years of extremely high rainfall in the Australian Outback when food productivity was extraordinarily high, animals coalesced into large herds of up to 200. During the rutting season the herd was subdivided into several breeding groups, each with one herding male, all roaming around together. The subgroup holders tolerated each other to a certain point within the big herd and even showed some cooperation in defending their cows when intruding bachelors came too close. However, during two years of virtually no rainfall (although water was always available for drinking) when food became acutely sparse, normal cow groups split up, even to the extreme of only one mother with her calf. In such harsh droughts conspecifics became each other’s strongest competitors. A social system similar to that seen in Australiaoccurs in Africa at Equatorial latitudes, except the non-breeding season is in winter. Mixed herds (males and females of all age classes), some as large as 500 camels, are more common. In Algeriadomestic herds were much less rigid: 46% of the herds were males, females, and young; 21% males and females without young; 18% females and young; and 14% males only. In Turkmenistandomestic populations were divided into the social units similar to those in Australia. In breeding groups of wildferal populations the male directs the movements of his group from behind, while females rotate in the lead. Domestic herds have a natural tendency to walk in single file, especially when moving to water wells. Dromedaries do not use dung piles for defecation or urination. Freeranging camels showed no marking behavior in the Sahara, but males in Israelmark particular areas with poll-gland secretions. They like to roll in sandy locations and will form lines waiting their turn.","statusAndConservation":"World Dromedary population decreased 15% from 1960 to 2000, with current numbers 18-21 million, including one million camels in Australia. In some countries the decline has been severe over the last century; for example in Syriathe population decreased from 250,000 in1922 to not more than 22,000 in2010. In AustraliaDromedary competition with livestock for forage and water, and significant environmental and infrastructure damage caused by Dromedaries, have prompted culling, with the goal of maintaining a sustainable population for utilization of their meat, hides, and wool. Despite groups of Dromedaries seen moving and grazing without a herder in the Sahara and Arabian deserts, they all have owners. Numbers have drastically declined in Arabian countries during past half century due to modernization and industrialization, forced settlement of nomads, desert forage resources not well developed, low reproductive rate, decreased demand for camel meat and milk, poor genetic selection for breed improvement, and government encouragement of other domestic species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-340 cm, tail 45-55 cm, shoulder height 180-200 cm; weight 400-600 kg. Males and females of near equal size, but in some breeds the females are ¢.10% smaller than males. Body is often sandy colored, but can range from nearly all white to black or even two-colored piebald. Body shape characterized by a long-curved neck, long and thin legs, and deep narrow chest. The hindquarters are less developed than the weight-bearing front legs. Large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges. Facial features include thick eyebrows, long eyelashes, and transparent eyelids that allow partial vision when the eyes close in sandstorms. Thick fine hair in winter for warmth sheds in summer. Hair is longer on throat, shoulder, and hump. The single hump, on the middle of the back (c. 20 cmhigher than shoulder)is a reservoir offatty cells bound by fibroustissues, used in times of food and water scarcity. Hump size varies, depending upon an individual's nutritional status. In a state of starvation, the hump can be almost non-existent. The head is small relative to body size. Slit-like nostrils, surrounded by sphincter muscles, can close to keep out dust and sand. Split upperlip with two independently moving halves and a pendulous lowerlip allow for prehensile-like grasping of forage. Upper middle and inner incisors are replaced by a tough dental pad that opposes the lower incisors. Canines, especially the upper, are massive and pointed. Skin is tightly attached to underlying tissues and modified into horny pads at the sternum, elbows, carpals,stifles, and tarsals: these protect the body when a camelis lying down on hot or rough ground. No facial glands, but males have well-developed occipital glands 5-6 cm below the nuchal crest on either side of the neck midline. The glands increase in size with age, and during the rut they secrete a pungent coffee-colored fluid. Small oval erythrocytes may enhance blood circulation and oxygen carrying capacity. Dromedaries are digitgrade each with two dorsal nails and padded feet well adapted for sandy substrates; the front feet are larger than the hindfeet. The mammary gland has four quarters and teats. Adult dental formula: 11/3,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32 with permanent lower incisors appearing at 2:5—6-5 years and all teeth emerged by eight years. A triangular bone ¢.3 x 2: 5 cmis lodged in the tendinous fibers in the center of the diaphragm, preventing compression of the interior vena cava and distributing muscular pull over a larger surface. Lungs are not lobed. The stomach is complex, with three compartments. When foraging on green and moist plants Dromedaries do not require drinking water. If wateris available in summer, they will drink regularly at dawn. In extreme drought, they need access to waterholes. The Dromedary’s ability to endure severe heat and dryness does not depend upon water storage; instead, numerous mechanisms minimize water loss. In well-watered animals body temperature fluctuates only c.2°C. When necessary, water conservation is aided by heat storage (hyperthermia): camels do not sweat until body temperature exceeds 41-42°C, thus avoiding water loss through perspiration. The body temperature of camels deprived of water can fluctuate as much as 6°C by heating up during the day to 41°C and then cooling at night to 35°C. Dehydrated Dromedaries have a depressed rate of breathing, minimizing water loss through respiration. Paired, fluid-producing sacs connecting the nasal cavities and a pair of lateral nasal glands and sacs serve to moisten incoming dry air. Dromedaries can tolerate water loss greater than 30% of their body mass, whereas 15% lossis lethal for most mammals. Such water loss is from intraand intercellular fluids, and not from plasma, allowing for relatively constant circulation of blood and maintaining the ability to cool. Water loss is ¢.50% greater in shorn compared to unshorn camels. Dromedaries often go without water in the Sahara Desert for seven or eight months, beginning in October, existing only on water content of plants. At temperatures between 30°C and 50°C they can go without water for 10-15 days, and even in the hottest weather need water only every 4-7 days. They can quickly rehydrate by drinking large quantities of water (10-20 1/minute and up to 130 1/minute), consuming up to 30% of their body weight within minutes. Dromedaries can drink salt water in even greater concentrations than seawater. They can consume water containing 19,000 ppm (parts-per-million) in dissolved salt without a decline in condition, compared to sheep, which can consume water at 10,000 ppm and cattle 5000 ppm. Dehydrated camels excrete less fecal water, greatly reduce urine volume, highly increase urine concentration, and recycle urea from the kidneys to the rumen for protein synthesis and water recirculation. Their erythrocytes have high osmotic resistance and can swell to 240% of their initial size without hemolysis during rehydration. Accumulation of fat in the hump instead of subcutaneously facilitates heat dissipation. The gallbladderis absent. The dulla, a pink, tongue-like bladder that hangs out the side of mouth of rutting-agitated males,is actually an inflation ofthe soft palate and unique to Dromedaries. Dulla inflation is typically accompanied by large amounts of saliva foam and gurgling vocalization.","habitat":"In Africa Dromedaries occupy the Sahara Desert, known forits long, hot-dry season and a short rainy season. In Australia, Dromedaries favor bushy semi-arid lands and sand plains because of the availability of year-round forage, and avoid heavily vegetated and hard rocky areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FAFAFE0DC54FF8BC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE00F44FAFAFE0DC54FF8BC","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"58.Velvet African Climbing MouseDendroprionomys rousselotiFrench:Dendromus de Brazzaville/ German:Samtklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de terciopeloOther common names:Congo Tree Mouse, Velvet Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendroprionomys rousseloti Petter, 1966,Zoological Gardens, Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from the type locality in Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.77 mm, tail ¢.108 mm, ear c.16 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and russet-brown dorsally and grayish-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Each eye has a black ring that extends anteriorly onto muzzle. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit short but present.Habitat.Only known from the vicinity of the type locality in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, which is situated in a sand forest at ¢.300 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.Dentition of the Velvet African Climbing Mouse suggests thatit could be insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is known from just eight specimens collected from the type locality—the last one in 1966.Bibliography.Denys (2013a), Denys et al. (1995), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966b).","taxonomy":"Dendroprionomys rousseloti Petter, 1966,Zoological Gardens, Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Brazzaville @fr | Samtklettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de terciopelo @es | Congo Tree Mouse @en | Velvet Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Petter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1966","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendroprionomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rousseloti","name":"Dendroprionomys rousseloti","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Only known from the type locality in Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.","bibliography":"Denys (2013a) | Denys et al. (1995) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966b)","foodAndFeeding":"Dentition of the Velvet African Climbing Mouse suggests thatit could be insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is known from just eight specimens collected from the type locality—the last one in 1966.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.77 mm, tail ¢.108 mm, ear c.16 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and russet-brown dorsally and grayish-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Each eye has a black ring that extends anteriorly onto muzzle. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit short but present.","habitat":"Only known from the vicinity of the type locality in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, which is situated in a sand forest at ¢.300 m above sea level."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FAFBF792C419F235.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE00F44FAFBF792C419F235","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"59.Bates’s African Climbing MousePrionomys batesFrench:Dendromus de Bates/ German:Dollman-Baummaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de BatesOther common names:Dollman’s African Tree Mouse, Dollman’s Tree MouseTaxonomy.Prionomys batesi Dollman, 1910,“ Bitye, Ja River, Cameroons[= Cameroon |. Altitude 2000 feet[= 610 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to S Cameroon, SW Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 79-85 mm, tail 103-112 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 15-17 mm; weight 15-21 g. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Furis relatively short, soft, and dense. Dorsum is brown or gray-brown, and venter is paler. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Each eye has a faint dark ring. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fifth digits have elongated claws, and first digit is greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits, with first digit opposable and fifth digit not opposable.Habitat.L.ow-lying rainforest, particularly in forest-savanna mosaic. Elevational range is between 100 m and 300 m.Food and Feeding.Bates’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be entirely insectivorous, preying on ants and spiders.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and appears to be predominantly arboreal but descends to the ground to reach the nest, which is excavated in the soil. It climbs on twings and lianas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is known from only a handful of localities in its relatively restricted distribution. Its forest habitat is not currently under threat.Bibliography.Denys (2013b), Denys, Colyn & Nicolas (2006), Denys, Michaux et al. (1995), Genest-Villard (1980), Monadjem et al. (2015), Nicolas & Colyn (2006), Petter (1966b).","taxonomy":"Prionomys batesi Dollman, 1910,“ Bitye, Ja River, Cameroons[= Cameroon |. Altitude 2000 feet[= 610 m].”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Bates @fr | Dollman-Baummaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Bates @es | Dollman’s African Tree Mouse @en | Dollman’s Tree Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Dollman, 1910","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dollman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Prionomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"batesi","name":"Prionomys bates","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Restricted to S Cameroon, SW Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.","bibliography":"Denys (2013b) | Denys, Colyn & Nicolas (2006) | Denys, Michaux et al. (1995) | Genest-Villard (1980) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Nicolas & Colyn (2006) | Petter (1966b)","foodAndFeeding":"Bates’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be entirely insectivorous, preying on ants and spiders.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and appears to be predominantly arboreal but descends to the ground to reach the nest, which is excavated in the soil. It climbs on twings and lianas.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is known from only a handful of localities in its relatively restricted distribution. Its forest habitat is not currently under threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 79-85 mm, tail 103-112 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 15-17 mm; weight 15-21 g. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Furis relatively short, soft, and dense. Dorsum is brown or gray-brown, and venter is paler. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Each eye has a faint dark ring. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fifth digits have elongated claws, and first digit is greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits, with first digit opposable and fifth digit not opposable.","habitat":"L.ow-lying rainforest, particularly in forest-savanna mosaic. Elevational range is between 100 m and 300 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FFFFF924C894F235.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE00F44FFFFF924C894F235","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"57.Brants’s African Climbing MouseDendromus mesomelasFrench:Dendromus de Brants/ German:Brants-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de BrantsOther common names:Brants's Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys mesomelas Brants, 1827,east of Port Elizabeth, Sunday’s River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Dendromus mesomelaswas previously considered to extend its distribution across to the highlands of East Africa, but these populations have been assigned to a variety of other species. Taxonomic relationships among various isolated populations in southern Africa require investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.E & S South Africa and W Swaziland, with isolated records from extreme S DR Congo, NW Zambia, N Botswana, NE Namibia (Caprivi Strip), and C Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 67-88 mm, tail 77-121 mm, ear 11-17 mm, hindfoot 16-23 mm; weight 6-15 g. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile; it is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown to rufous-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base of tail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various grassland habitats, especially those associated with wetlands or moist environments. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse can also be relatively abundant in Afro-montane forest.Food and Feeding.Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats insects.Breeding.In South Africa, pregnant Brants’s African Climbing Mice have been collected during the rainy season. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level; they also use bird nests. Litter sizes are 2-6 young.Activity patterns.Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In captivity, Brants’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be gregarious, suggesting thatit is social.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996), Avery (1992b), Choate (1972), De Graaff (1981), Monadjem (1997b, 1999a), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Plavsic (2015), Rowe-Rowe (1986), Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982), Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a), Smithers (1971), Solano et al. (2014), Taylor (1998).","taxonomy":"Dendromys mesomelas Brants, 1827,east of Port Elizabeth, Sunday’s River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Dendromus mesomelaswas previously considered to extend its distribution across to the highlands of East Africa, but these populations have been assigned to a variety of other species. Taxonomic relationships among various isolated populations in southern Africa require investigation. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Brants @fr | Brants-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Brants @es | Brants's Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Brants","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1827","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mesomelas","name":"Dendromus mesomelas","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E & S South Africa and W Swaziland, with isolated records from extreme S DR Congo, NW Zambia, N Botswana, NE Namibia (Caprivi Strip), and C Mozambique.","bibliography":"Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996) | Avery (1992b) | Choate (1972) | De Graaff (1981) | Monadjem (1997b, 1999a) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Plavsic (2015) | Rowe-Rowe (1986) | Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982) | Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a) | Smithers (1971) | Solano et al. (2014) | Taylor (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats insects.","breeding":"In South Africa, pregnant Brants’s African Climbing Mice have been collected during the rainy season. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level; they also use bird nests. Litter sizes are 2-6 young.","activityPatterns":"Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In captivity, Brants’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be gregarious, suggesting thatit is social.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 67-88 mm, tail 77-121 mm, ear 11-17 mm, hindfoot 16-23 mm; weight 6-15 g. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile; it is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown to rufous-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base of tail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various grassland habitats, especially those associated with wetlands or moist environments. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse can also be relatively abundant in Afro-montane forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F42FA20F5C3C811FDAF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE10F42FA20F5C3C811FDAF","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"64.Bocage’s Fat MouseSteatomys bocagerFrench:Rat-adipeux de Bocage/ German:Bocage-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de BocageOther common names:Bocage's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys bocage: Thomas, 1892,Caconda, Angola.Steatomys bocageiwas previously included in S. pratensis. Monotypic.Distribution.SW DR Congo and Angola.Descriptive notes.Head—body 97-124 mm, tail 52-72 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. Bocage’s Fat Mouse is medium-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is noticeable short and hairy, darker above than below. Fur is reddish brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.Habitat.Moist savannas and woodlands,typically above elevations of 500 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Poorly known. Bocage’s Fat Mouseis terrestrial and excavates its own burrow.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Cabral (1966), Crawford-Cabral (1998), Happold (2013i), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Steatomys bocage: Thomas, 1892,Caconda, Angola.Steatomys bocageiwas previously included in S. pratensis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux de Bocage @fr | Bocage-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Bocage @es | Bocage's African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1892","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1892","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bocage","name":"Steatomys bocager","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW DR Congo and Angola.","bibliography":"Cabral (1966) | Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Happold (2013i) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Poorly known. Bocage’s Fat Mouseis terrestrial and excavates its own burrow.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 97-124 mm, tail 52-72 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. Bocage’s Fat Mouse is medium-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is noticeable short and hairy, darker above than below. Fur is reddish brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.","habitat":"Moist savannas and woodlands,typically above elevations of 500 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A44FFC1D0A7FD9EF7A7FE66.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A44FFC1D0A7FD9EF7A7FE66","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"4.AlpacaVicugna pacosFrench:Alpaca/ German:Alpaka/ Spanish:AlpacaTaxonomy.Camelus pacos Linnaeus, 1758,Peru.The Alpaca is a domesticated camelid indigenous and endemic to South America, well known for the characteristics of its fine-diameter wool: soft, silky, high luster, lightweight, and warm. Alpaca woolis used for luxurious blankets, sweaters, and cloth. The species was long classified in the genus Lama, but recent DNA studies (mtDNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite markers) have established that the Alpaca was domesticated from the Vicuna subspecies V. vicugnamensalis, showing significant genetic differentiation to warrant a change in its genus to Vicugnaand its designation as a separate species. Archeological digs at the Telarmachay site in the Central Andes of Peruindicate that the Alpaca was domesticated 5500-6500 years ago by a hunter-gatherer society. These early indigenous herders selected for an animal with a docile nature while maintaining the fineness of its progenitor’s wool. No remains of Alpaca have been found to date at archeological digs in the south of Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina), but only early domesticated Llamas (Lama glama). The Alpaca has no subspecies, but two distinct breeds are recognized: the Huacaya and Suri.Distribution.Alpacas are found in the Central Andes from C Peruinto mid-Bolivia and N Chile. In the 1980s—1990s Alpacas were imported into the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Europe. There are no known wild/feral populations of Alpacas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-150 cm,tail 18-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 55-65 kg. Alpacas have long necks; relatively short, straight ears (c. 15 cm), thin and agile legs, and fluffy-appearing bodies because of their long wool. When shorn, however, the bodyis slender and Vicuna-like. There are two distinct breeds. HUACAYA ALPACA: Huacayas are the more common (¢.90%) of the two breeds. Its body, legs, and neck are covered by wool that is long, fine (27-5 microns), and wavy; the head and feet are covered by short wool. Wool grows 5-15 cm/year depending upon nutrition and decreases with age. Huacaya wool is crimped (regular and successive undulations) and similar in appearance to Corriedale sheep wool. Huacayas are bigger in size, have shorter and relatively coarser wool, and lighter fleeces than Suris. There are three general categories of wool: “Baby Alpaca” (20-23 microns some as low as 16-17 microns)is the finest and most expensive wool from recently born animals; “Tui” wool is from the first shearing at 12-18 months; and “Standard” Alpaca wool (c.24 microns) is from animals of two years of age and older. White Huacayas are the most common (c.80%), especially on large commercial Alpaca ranches, compared to 30% white animals in indigenous flocks. White wool accounts for over 80% of the total annual Alpaca wool production. Although most Alpaca wool has little cortex in its fibers,it can be easily dyed just as sheep wool, giving woollen mills greater flexibility with white Alpaca wool. Huacaya Alpaca crossed with a Vicuna produces a Paco-Vicuna, which resembles a large-bodied Vicuna and has 17-19 micron wool. Resource managers are concerned that accidently escaped Paco-Vicunas could have harmful genetic consequences on populations of pure Vicunas. SURI ALPACA: Suris arise from a very small percentage (2%) of Huacaya x Huacaya crosses, thus the origin of the breed. Because of their long-hanging wool, phenotyically Suris are quite distinct from Huacayas. Suri wool is silky (24-27 microns), straight, without crimp, generally finer, longer, more lustrous, softer to the touch, less elastic, less resistant to tension, and faster-growing compared to the Huacaya. The wool parts on the animal’s back create a mid-body line that is capable of growing up to 15 cm/year. Some individual Suris, called “wasis” by Andean herders, are not shorn for years, resulting in the fleece growing until it touches the ground; only a few such special animals are kept and are revered by the indigenous people. Around 17% of the offspring from Suri x Suri crosses produce Huacaya types. In their South American homeland, Suri Alpacas are considered to be longerlived, more delicate, less hardy, and to have lower fertility than Huacaya Alpacas. Recent research has found thatjuvenile mortality is high because of lack of wool coverage on the midline. However, when given the right management and equally good pastures, they thrivejust as well and with similar fertility as Huacayas. During lactation Suri Alpacas lose weight more than Huacayas because they produce more milk (udders are larger on Suri females). As a result, Suri young are heavier than Huacayas because they have a greater availability of milk. Body wool is uniform or multicolored; 22 natural colors have been categorized, ranging from white to black, with intermediate shades of grays, fawns, and browns. The upperlip is split for grasping forage. The eyes are large, round, and slightly forward looking. The feet have soft-padded soles and two toes, each ending with large pointed nails. Testes are small, oval-shaped and located in the perineal region under the tail. Life span is 15-20 years. The cuticle on individual wool fibers is made up of poorly developed, elongated, and flattened cells. While such rudimentary cuticle scales without ridges results in poor felting qualities, it makes the Alpaca wool extraordinarily smooth and soft to the touch. Still, Alpaca wool is 3-6 times stronger than human hair. Based upon strand diameter and morphology, the fleece (pelt) of this ungulate is made up of two types of hair: wool and hair. Similar to fine sheep wool, the medulla can be non-existent in unusually fine Alpaca wool, but has been observed in Peruvian Alpaca fibers averaging 17 microns. Such pure Alpacas are considered “one coated” because their fleece consists only of the fine undercoat hairs and lack the outer coarser guard hairs. As the proportion of medullation increases (as it does with age), wool diameter increases and fineness decreases, thatis, the proportion of the medulla progressively increases with the thickness of the individual wool strand. Woolis of the cortex type of fineness, and hair is of the medullar type with larger diameter. Hair is especially common on the chest, face, and extremities, but it is not unusual to find individual hairs intermixed throughout the fleece. This is especially common in “Huarizos,” hybrids between an Alpaca female and a Llama male. Huarizos show intermediate physical characteristics of the two parents, and relatively coarse wool (c.32 microns in diameter). Their fleeces contain as much as 40% guard hair. Huarizos are considered undesirable by the Alpaca wool industry and are being selected against on commercial Alpaca farms. Nearly all (90%) Alpacas on large farms are shorn annually and done indoors with shearing scissors or by mechanized clippers. In indigenous family herds in the Andes only half of the animals are shorn each year, and done under rustic conditions in the out-of-doors with hand shears. Shearing of males, geldings, non-pregnant and some pregnant females takes place in November and December, while new mothers with young, yearlings, and thin males and females are done in February to April. Annual shearing yields 1.5-2. 8 kgof wool per Alpaca in South America (enough to make four sweaters), and up to 3-6 kg in USAand Australia. Fineness of Alpaca fleeces vary from farm to farm in Peru(24-7-32-3 microns, averaging 28-9 microns), but in other countries where it has been introduced, 16-24 microns is more typical. In the Andes Alpaca wool increases in diameter from 17-4 microns to 27-5 microns from the first shearing at ten months to six years of age. Large Alpaca farms in Peruare able to practice better husbandry through pasture management, selective breeding, and health care. Of 3762 shorn Alpacas on one such farm in Puno, Peru, in the 1980s, wool was sorted and classified into the following five quality categories: X 3% at 19 microns, AA 52% at 25 microns, A 17% at 37 microns, LP 23% at 44 microns, and K 5% at 49 microns. Still, nearly half was considered “thick” relative to the Alpaca’s potential for producing fine wool. Now, two decadeslater, better management and selection is beginning to improve wool quality. Alpaca wool production and quality is strongly influenced by artificial selection (genetics) and nutrition. Seasonally wool production varies under the extreme conditions of the Alpaca’s high-altitude habitat: fiber or strand length has been shown to be 25% longer during the rainy season in the Andean highlands, reflecting the percentage of crude plant protein that decreases from 11% in the wet season to 3-5% in the dry season. Wool quality decreases (increase in diameter) when Alpacas are grazed on high-quality pasture compared to native range of poor to very poor quality. For example during a 15month feeding trial relative to controls, Alpacas on diets in Andean rangeland vs. managed pastures of alfalfa, increased the body weight of mothers and young 10 kgand 22 kgrespectively, fleece weight 0-4 kg and 0-8 kg, staple length 2-3 cm and 1-8 cm, fiber diameter 5-2 microns and 6-9 microns, and yield 4-1% and 10-8%. In another study adult Alpacas on high-feeding regimes resulted in increased stand diameter (fine 21-22 microns to thick 27-28 microns), but wool production per head/year increased from 1-1 kg to 2-4 kg. But, because there is little commercial difference in value per kilogram in the two wool diameters, total monetary value was doubled on the higher feeding regime. Contrary to the long-time belief that Alpacas produce finer wool at higher elevations in the Andes, recent studies with controls have shown that when on the same diet wool quality was similar. Commercially, the majority of Alpaca wool is made into carded and semi-carded thread. In the textile industry it is often blended with merino sheep wool to be made into overcoats and high-fashion knitwear. In general, Alpaca wool quality in the Andes is lower than its potential due to poor management and the extensive Alpaca/ILlama hybridization that has occurred over the past 400 years since Spanish colonization. DNA studies have revealed that today’s Andean Alpaca population shows a high (80-92%) level of hybridization. Along with a significant reduction in Peru’s Alpaca population during colonization, pure colored animals significantly decreased to the point that they became rare. The difference between Alpaca and Llamas and between Huacaya and Suri Alpacas has also been impacted. Alpaca husbandry is now addressing these problems. Additionally, in the 1970s the Alpaca population in Perudropped resulting in a 40% decline of wool production due to land and agrarian reforms. A number of revealing physiological parameters have been measured in Alpaca. Body temperature of normal adult males (n = 50) and females (n = 50) is the same (38-7°C), pulse rate/minute in males (83-2 + 2-2) is higher than females (76:6 + 1-9), and respiration rate/minute is similar for males (29-2 + 1-1) and females (28-3 + 0-79). For young Alpaca 10-12 months old (n = 50) body temperature is 38-5 + 0-04, pulse rate 83-8 + 2-9, and respiration rate 33-1 + 0-19. For femalesin the last days of gestation body temperature (38-3 + 0-07) is the same as non-pregnant females, but pulse rates (83-5 + 2-3), and respiration rates (34-8 + 1-9) were higher.Habitat.Alpacas are raised in the Andean highlands; regionally known as the Altiplano and Puna. The Puna ecosystem is rolling grassland and isolated wetlands typically at c.3500-5200 m altitude with two marked periods: the rainy season from October to April and the dry season from May to September. Most (75%) precipitation falls from November to March in the form of both hail and rain. In Peruthe annual precipitation varies from 800 mmin the south to 1200 mmin the central mountains. The mean annual temperatures are less than 10°C and nocturnal frosts are common, especially during the dry season. Diurnal fluctuations can be as much as 20°C in the mesic Altiplano and even greater in the dry or desert Altiplano. The short growing season, as determined by moisture and night-time cloud cover, occurs between December and March. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous grasses and forbs. Few trees exist and shrubs are only locally abundant. Perennial bunchgrasses are common including the genera Festuca, Poa, Stipa, and Calamagrostis, as well as the grass-like sedges Carexand Scirpus. High-quality forage is more abundant during the rainy season and scarcer during the remainder of the year. A critical habitat and principal source of forage for Alpacas in the Andes that allows intensive-localized foraging are bofedales or mojadales. Providing lush forage and moist vegetation that Alpacas thrive on, bofedales are localized islands of perennial greenery with deep organic soils moistened by subterranean and considerable surface water often forming small pools. Both natural and artificial bofedales exist, some man-made ones dating back to pre-Inca times. These high-altitude marsh areas can provide year-round forage, allowing herders and their animals to remain in the same area for extended periods. Depending upon water availability, they are productive only during the rainy season or throughout the year. As a result, their carrying capacity is highly variable, from 2-8 Alpacas/ha/year. Natural mojadales compared to irrigated artificial ones, typically have greater plant cover with more palatable and nutritious forage. Vegetative composition of bofedales in the humid Puna varies between several dominant species, including Distichia muscoides, Eleocharisalbibracteata, Hypochoeris taraxacoides, Hidrocotilo ranunculoides, Liliaopsis andina, and others. A percentage cover of 64-72% of desirable species (Werneria nubigena, Werneria pymaea, Hipochoeris stenocephala, Ranunculos sp., Carexfragilaris) is excellent Alpaca forage. Reported total accumulated bofedal forage (dry weight) from January to August was 1021 kg/ha that grew at an average rate of 4-2 kg/ha/day. Protein ranged 8-3-13-4% and crude fiber 19-2-34-1%. Annual bofedal growth varies with season: 60% during the summer growing season (January-April), 21% during the transition to the dry season (May-June), and 19% in the dry season (July-December). Wet artificial bofedales have greater sustained productivity than natural bofedales with 10-11% protein in both the wet and dry seasons and capable of supporting 3—4 Alpaca/ha/year. Continuous year-round grazing of native grasslands is the most common grazing management practice used by indigenous herders, but technicians are encouraging enhancement of rangeland conditions through rotational grazing and reducing stocking rates of Alpacas and competing sheep. Recommended stocking rate for Alpacas on Andean native pastures is 2-7 animals/ha/year on excellent range, 2 good, 1 average, 0-33 poor, and 0-17 very poor. However, intensively managed, irrigated pastures of grasses and legumes at 3850 maltitude can support 25 Alpacas/ha/year. Research indicates that despite the high elevations and low night-time temperatures, it is possible to increase considerably the sustained carrying capacity of Andean rangeland by the introduction of improved forage species. Managed pastures of irrigated ryegrass (Loliumperenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) with application of nitrogen fertilizers can carry up to 30 adult ind/ha compared with the usual rate of 1-1-5 ind/ha on natural grasslands. On Andean rangelands grazed by Alpaca,tall grass communities are commonly set on fire during the dry season (June—October) by native indigenous herders. The objective is the destruction of bunch grasses that will encourage the growth of ground forage preferred by Alpaca and sheep. However, studies have shown that annual burns are not beneficial because they not only stimulate the rapid regrowth of bunchgrasses, but promote hillside soil erosion and encourage the growth of undesirable invasive plant species. Burning every third or more years during the wet season is a more effective approach for improving Alpaca range and habitat.Food and Feeding.Historically, an Alpaca was considered to be equivalent to three sheep, but modern animal nutritionists in Peruconsider that Alpacas consume 1-2—-1-5 times as much forage as one sheep. Alpacas are selective for these familiar Altiplano plants: Compositae/composites 31 4% (Hipochoires stenocephala, Werneria novigena), followed by Cyperaceae/sedges-rushes 26-1% (Eleocharisalbibracteata, Carexsp.), Gramineae/grasses 19-1% (Calamagrostisrigescens, Festucadolichophylla), Rosaceae/roses 14-6% (Alchemillapinnata, Alchemilladiplophylla) and minor percentages of Ranunculaceae/ buttercups 5:6% (Ranunculusbreviscapus), Leguminosae/legumes 1-7% (Trifolium amabile) and others. Plant leaves,stalks, and flowers with protein content as high as 17-4% are selected by Alpaca when feeding in quality bofedales in the rainy-growing season. Year-round feeding studies on the chemical composition of ingested forage with fistulated Alpacas in Peruand Boliviayielded the following: dry matter 9-9%, organic material 88-8%, minerals 11-2%, total protein 15-1%, ether extract 7-4%, crude fiber 27-5%, nitrogen-free extract 38-:8%, and detergent neutral fiber 61:6%. General apparent digestibility of bofedal nutrients was dry matter 64-9%, organic material 64-1%, and total protein 64-8%. Total digestible nutrients (TDN) of bofedal forage eaten by Alpacas was similar between the rainy (54-1%) and dry (66:5%) seasons, as was the average energy from TDN at 60-3%. Average daily weight gain per Alpaca grazed on typical (control) bofedales was 0-093 kg, but experimentally at low stocking rates (2 Alpaca/ha/year) weight gain was 0-101 kg/day, medium stocking (4 Alpaca) 0-084 kg/ day, and high stocking (6 Alpaca) 0-079 kg/day. Although the carrying capacity is around one Alpaca/ha/year, overgrazing occurs at 1-8-2-5 Alpaca/ha/year, lowering the quantity and quality of available forage. In indigenous Andean communities where herders own the animals but not the land and the communal grazing lands are used through permission from the community, overgrazing of the natural grasslands is not uncommon. Although efforts are being made to counter the situation, a long history of bofedal overuse by traditional Alpaca herders has frequently resulted in low live (50 kg) and carcass (25-5 kg) weights, reduced fleece weights (1-2 kg), low fertility (35%), and high juvenile mortality (30%). Like Vicunas, Alpacas need frequent water intake. Water consumption by Alpacas grazing on bofedales was high during the dry season at 3-08 kg/animal/day and less in the rainy growing season at 2-04 kg. In another Peruvian study digestibility of high-altitude forage by Alpacas in both Altplano and bofedal habitats was lowest (50-62%) in the winter-dry season and highest (66-76%) in the spring/summer-wet season. Comparative feeding trials measuring the coefficients of digestibility revealed that when fed dry forage low in protein (less than 7-5%) Alpacas were 14% more efficient than sheep, but at high protein levels (greater than 10-5%), sheep were slightly (2%) more efficient. Other studies have reported that Alpacas have a digestion coefficient 25% higher than sheep, particularly on low-quality forage. Maintenance-energy requirements for a 60 kgAlpaca is 2% of its body weight, or 1-2 kg dry forage per day. Alpacas in Peruforage more selectively than Llamas. Diets are highest in grass during the wet and early dry season. As the dry season progresses, the diets of Alpacas in bofedal habitat became largely sedges and reeds (81%). Animals in dryer habitats consume more grass (68%). A study of live weight changes of Alpaca adult males, females, and their progeny, was conducted for three seasons under continuous grazing on natural grasslands on the Mediterranean range of Central Chile. Live weight changes were highest in spring (100-200 g/day), moderate during winter (50-100 g/day), and negative only at the end of summer and in autumn (-110 g/day to — 150 g/day). Weight gains of newborn Alpacas were greatest (110-150 g/day) in the first 90 days after birth and then decreased slightly, reaching values of 75 g/day at 8-5 months old. Weight gainsstabilized at 10-20 g/day at three years of age.Breeding.Alpaca females in Perureach puberty at 60% (33-40 kg) of their adult weight, or at c.12-14 months of age when being grazed on native pastures. Although such young females exhibit sexual behavior, ovulation, fertilization, and embryonic survival similar to adults, most breeders waitto first breed females at two years of age when they have reached greater physical maturity. Male Alpacas in Peruare first used for reproduction at two to three years of age, because the penis is still adhered to the prepuce in one-(84%) and two-year-olds (50%), with all males adhesion free at three years old. The rate of detachment is dependent upon the level of testosterone secreted from the testes. The breeding season is from January to April using several different husbandry techniques. If the females are unfamiliar with the breeding male, they most likely will not accept him. Such males become familiarized by staying with the females in the same stone corral or encircled together by rope for a number of hours each day for 20 days; pregnancy rate is as high at 85% using this method. The most common technique is to run four to six breeding males per 100 females together, year-round. Artificial selection is less controlled by this approach, so males with desired traits are chosen (typically white colored, dense and good quality wool, and normally developed testes 4-5 cm long and 2-5 cm wide). On large, Peruvian Alpaca farms no more than 200 females are run with 10-12 males, half of which are rotated in one-week intervals for two months during the breeding season. Males work well for one week, but then begin to fight with each other and establish hierarchies and harems, thus the rotational system. Alpaca breed and give birth seasonally. When males and females are kept together year-round, births only occur during the rainy season from December to March. The continuous association of the sexes produces an inhibiting effect on the sexual activity of the male. But when males are separated from females and only brought together for breeding, births are year-round. Copulation occurs with the female in sternal recumbency, and lasts 20-50 minutes. Non-pregnant Alpaca have no well-defined cyclical sexual activity (estrus), but are always in the follicular phase and state of receptivity until ovulation is induced by copulation. There is no period of sexual inactivity in Alpaca and other cameloids, nor a relationship between size of ovarian follicle and sexual receptivity. Ovulation occurs ¢.26 hours after copulation. Ovulation can be also be induced by the injection of chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and then occurs c¢.24 hours later. Following ovulation the corpus luteum forms and reaches maximum size and secretory activity at approximately eight days. With no gestation the corpus luteum regresses within 12-18 days after mating, giving way to the formation of new follicles. With conception and gestation, the corpus luteum continues its secretory activity and thereafter the female is not sexually receptive. Pregnancy is assessed by sexual behavior of the female in presence of a new male. Studies have found that at least 85% of the females that ovulate in response to the coital stimulation have at least one fertilized ovum within three days of mating. However, in Peruthere is 34% embryonic mortality during the first 30 days of gestation, seriously affecting the annual birth rate of Alpacas. Nearly all (95%) of the pregnancies are in the left horn of the bifurcated uterus, although both ovaries are equally active. Thus, transuterine migration from the right to the left horn of the uterus is common, as evidenced by the corpus luteum in the right ovary and the fetus in the left horn of the uterus. The placenta is simple-diffuse and of the chorial epithelium type. Reproductive studies in Peruon Alpaca mothers (n = 1684) showed that age of the female, year of birth, and the quality of diet were important factors influencing the length of gestation and date of birth. First time mothers at two years of age and those 15 years and older had longer gestation periods (403 and 401 days respectively) than middle-aged females four to twelve years of age (380-390 days). Females grazing on higher quality, cultivated pastures had longer gestation periods than those on native rangelands (389 vs. 379 days). Also in years with favorable vs. poor range conditions, gestation was longer (392 vs. 381 days) and newborns weighed more (8-7 vs. 8-1 kg). The explanation for this may be that females on good forage can afford longer gestations, give birth to a larger young, and be assured that favorable forage will be available for costly lactation. In contrast, females on poor forage have shorter gestations, cannot afford long gestations because of the potential cost of lowering their own health, and need to start lactation as soon as possible while there is at least some forage available before the dry season begins. Age of the Alpaca mother and date of parturition also influenced offspring survival in the Peruvian studies. In a curvilinear fashion, survival of young born to mothers two and three years of age was lower than those with mothers 9-11 years old (82% vs. 91% survival), but declines to 88% for mothers 15 years of age. In Australia, the gestation of spring-mated females is ten days longer than fall-mated females. Birth weight of Alpaca neonates averages 8-4 kg in Peru, with significant variation as indicated among femaleage groups. The importance of good maternal nutrition is critical for such a species with an unusually long gestation. At 180 days or almost half way through gestation the fetus weighs 600 g, only 7% of its eventual 9 kgat birth. Some 93% ofits growth takes place in the last half of gestation, and at 230 days or two-thirds of the way into gestation, a remarkable 72% ofits growth is yet to be gained. The heavy energy demands of lactation lasting 6—8 months, mostly coincides with the Andean rainy, or growing season. Even though multiple ovulations occur c¢.10% of the time, Alpaca twins are extremely rare in Peruand in the USA; only one out of ¢.2000 births. If neonatal twins do occurthere is a significant difference in size, e.g. 4 kgand 6 kg, with the smaller one typically in the right horn of the uterus dying during gestation resulting in the death of the other. After giving birth the female comes into estrus within 48 hours, but only with initial follicular growth. Follicular size and activity capable of ovulation in response to copulation is observed from the fifth day, but the higher rates offertility begin ten days after parturition with the highest fertility 20-30 days postpartum. The Peruvian Alpaca birth season is from December to May. Females are not separated from the herd due to the lack of space. The umbilical of the newborn is treated with iodine or an herb solution to prevent infection and diarrhea. Newborns are watched closely by the herder to assure first nursing is successful (first milk is high in colostrum, rich in antibodies). Parturition in indigenous herds averages a low 50% and juvenile mortality is high (15-35%); itis estimated that no more than half of the female Alpaca of reproductive age produce young every year. Young born during the birth season also had higher survival than those born late. Additionally, juvenile survival is curvilinearly related to birth weight. Neonates weighing 9-11 kg had an average 92% survival but those weighing 4-5 kg survived at a rate of 30-50%. When pregnant females (n = 424) and their young were monitored,it was found that newborn birth weight, and weight and width of the placenta increased with age of the dam reaching a peak at nine years and then declined progressively. Placental efficiency also increased with female Alpaca age, showing a bimodal shape and peaking at 6-11year-old females; more young died from two-year-old females than any other age; and dead neonates weighed less (6-4 kg) than those that survived (7-8 kg). In indigenous herds, young-of-the-year are usually not weaned due to the lack of extra pastures and the labor involved. Instead, young nurse beyond one year of age, including up to the time the mother gives birth again. To impede the yearling from competing with the newborn for nursing, herders will sometimes temporarily pierce the yearling’s nose with a stick. In commercial Alpaca herds weaning occurs in September through October, sometimes until November, when young are 6-8 months old.Activity patterns.The daily routine or activity pattern of indigenous Alpaca family flocks is quite consistent. After having spent the night in a stone corral or next to the family house (usually a stone hut called a choza), the animals are released or move out on their own to graze for the day soon after sunrise. While the family’s sheep flock is tended by a herder, the Alpaca flock is not accompanied by a herder. Instead,its daily movements and activity patterns while grazing are self-directed within 1-2 km of their home base to local bofedales and other feeding areas of their choice. As sunset approaches, the flock returns to the home site by themselves without being escorted by a herder. Daytime activity budgets (percentage of time) of Alpacas compared to sheep while both species grazed on native-Andean pasture dominated by the favorable forage Festucadolichophylla, have shown that while other activities were similar, Alpacas fed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (11% vs. 25%) than sheep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Seasonal patterns of Alpaca movement are determined by herders as influenced by the availability of forage, varying from one locality to next. One common annual movement of Alpacas in the Andes is to graze herds during the rainy season (generallyJanuary to April) in lower mountains (3600-4100 m) areas characterized by pampas, slopes, and rounded ridges. Then in the dry season (generally May to December) they are moved up to the high altitudes (4100-5200 m) to find favorable forage, bofedales, and water. When the rainy season begins, they are moved back to lower areas where grasses are beginning to grow and to avoid severe hailstorms and other weather at higher altitudes. Herders, however, without access to two seasonal sites maintain their animals in the same area year-round. Indigenous families that raise livestock in the Peruvian Andes on the average have 70 Alpacas (30-120), 30 Llamas (4-50), and 50 sheep (10-80). More importance is placed upon Alpacas because they offer greater economic diversity. Most (90-95%) of the Alpaca woolis sold, the balance used for home use. Many of the young males one to two years old are sold for meat production, and old animals are culled to make jerky. In three Peruvian Alpaca farms that were cooperatively, family, and individually owned, percent herd composition was females: 60/ 65/ 70; gelded males: 25/30/25; breeding males: 3/4/5; white animals: 70/70/90; and colored animals: 30/30/10. With Alpacas that are owned as private property, each member of the family owns animals but herd control is under the family. Ownership is designated by ear markings or colored yarn. Animals are often given as presents or ceremonial gifts. They play an important role in the rituals, symbols, mythology, and ceremoniesin the life of Andean people. Individual animals are recognized and described by physical characteristics and usually given a name. Alpacas have feminine attributes in the Andean cosmic vision oflife and the world, and generically referred to as “mothers” and “dear mothers.” Alpacas are highly social with strong herding behavior, making them easier to drive when necessary. In small, mixed-sex herds, dominance is clear with a few adult males as the leaders. Alpacas are more skittish and shy with strangers than Llamas. When a free-ranging flock is approached on foot, they will distance themselves more quickly than a herd of Llamas. Once they become familiar with you, however, they are docile and easier to handle than sheep. There are no known unmanaged or feral populations of Alpaca that would allow us to assess their social organization and full repertoire of behavior. However, a number of subtle-contrasting characteristics exist in Alpaca behavior that turn out to be, not surprisingly, very similar to the Vicuna: tighter grouping, vocal communication more common, less communicative with their tails, love water and bathe regularly, greater susceptibility to heat stress, higher site fidelity, males more protective of females, less cooperative, and more distant and stand-offish.Status and Conservation.Alpacas and Llamas were important to ancient Andean civilizations such as the Tiwanaku Culture that dominated the Lake Titicaca region from ¢.300 BC to 1000 Ap, and the Inca Culture that dominated the Central Andes in the 15% and 16\" centuries. When the Incas captured the cameloid-rich kingdoms near Lake Titicaca and south, they acquired giant herds of Llamas and Alpacas. The Incas then sent “seed herds” throughout their empire and commanded that they be reproduced. State-controlled husbandry of Alpacas produced vast herds that numbered into the millions. The Incas placed special emphasis on avoidance of crossbreeding with Llamas and selective breeding of pure-colored Alpacas (brown, black, and white) for quality wool and sacrifice to deities. The Spanish invasion in the 16™ century destroyed that advanced management system and there ensued a breakdown of controlled breeding. Today, the raising of Alpacas in the high altitudes of Peruand Boliviacontributes substantially to the economy of the region. However, animal production is limited by the low level of technology, adverse climate, disease, herders with scarce resources, and frequent over utilization of native rangelands. The Andean grazing system is extensively based upon utilization of native high-altitude grasslands by mixed herds that include not only Alpacas, but sheep and Llamas as well. Pastoralism and mixed agropastoralism form the subsistence base for the agricultural segment of the high Andes. Indigenous communities control the greatest number of camelids and sheep, as well as half of the native rangelands, which comprise ¢.95% ofthe land area above 3800 m. The Alpaca population in South America is c.4-5 million, down some 20% since the mid-1960s, but up 25% from the early 2000s. Today, numbers are at least stable, if not increasing. Most Alpacas are in Peruwith 91%, followed by Bolivia8% and Chile1%. Few Alpacas occur in Argentinabecause of the lack of moist Puna and the dominance of the dry Puna. More than 73-87% are in southern Peru(Arequipa, Cuzco, Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna), with nearly half of the world’s Alpaca in the Department of Puno. Females represent c¢.70% of the total Alpaca population. A high percentage (85-95%) of Alpacas are owned and managed by native herders in small flocks ofless than 50 animals, but some commercial Alpaca herds are as large as 30,000-50,000 individuals. Although indigenous herders raise most Alpacas, productivity traditionally has been the lowest due to over stocking, improper health care, and inbreeding. Peruhas ¢.789,775 producers raising Alpacas; Boliviahas 13,603, and Chile916. Starting in the early 1980s Alpacas were exported from Chile, Bolivia, and Peruto the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, where cottage industries in Alpaca wool have developed. In the USAthe Alpaca Owners & Breeders Association numbered over 4500 members with 143,000 registered Alpacas in 2010. Peruexports c. US$ 24 million worth of Alpaca products (wool, tops, yarns, woven fabrics, and knitwear) annually to countries around the world, especially China, Germany, and Italy. Annual Alpaca wool production in South America is 4-1 million kg (90% from Peru), yet only represents 0-6% of the world’s fine-fibered wool production (fine sheep wool is ¢.90-95% followed by cashmere at 5-10%). Because of a high market demand for white wool from Huacaya Alpaca, which can be dyed to any desired color, the Alpaca population has become dominated (80-87%) by white individuals. The result has been a scarcity of individuals with pure natural colors and a reduction of genetic diversity in the species. Pure black Alpacas are the rarest. The problem has been recognized and pure natural colors are now beginning to recover. Alpaca wool prices were at their peak from the 1960s-1980s then declined due to land reforms and competition from synthetics. Prices, however, still remain high at four times the value of sheep wool. In North America in its raw state, an ounce of Alpaca varies from US$ 2 to US$ 5. Each stage of the process (cleaning, carding, spinning, knitting, finishing, etc) adds more value to the wool. As a finished garment, it can sell for US$ 10/0z. In addition to its importance as a producer of fine wool, Alpacas have been a valuable source of meat and hides in South America. In the late 1990s some eleven million kilograms of Alpaca meat were produced annually in Peru, representing 10-15% of the country’s total Alpaca population. The best yield and tenderest meat is from animals 1-5-2 years old, but most are slaughtered at 7-8 years old because their wool has become too coarse for economic production. Alpaca meat is healthful, rich in protein and low in cholesterol and fat. Prime cuts are 50% of the carcass and sold either fresh or frozen to meat markets, restaurants, hotels, and supermarkets. Hides are tanned for soft leather products or sold with the fleece intact as wall hangings, rugs, and toys. For indigenous peoples that raise most Alpacas, family income from these animals is primarily from meat (44% fresh, 16% dried) and secondarily from the wool (31%). Despite its excellent quality, the price received for Alpaca meat is 50% less than that for sheep and beef, due to long standing prejudice towards camelid meat. Beginning in the 1960s Peruwas the world leader in quality Alpaca research, especially by the progressive staff and visiting scientists working at the La Raya Research Station from CuzcoUniversity. With the export of Alpacas around the globe starting in the 1990s, serious science on this longneglected species and family expanded to a number of countries. Universities in the USAand Australiapursued vigorous research programs into reproduction, disease, genetics, and nutrition. The future for the Alpaca is encouraging. Wide opportunities exist for improved successful Alpaca production in the highlands of Peruand Bolivia, especially if the stewardship of the Alpaca’s principle habitat, bofedales, is improved towards sustained and balanced use.Bibliography.Allen (2010), Bravo & Varela (1993), Bravo, Garnica & Puma (2009), Bravo, Pezo & Alarcén (1995), Bryant et al. (1989), Bustinza (1989), Calle Escobar (1984), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), Castellaro et al. (1998), Fernandez-Baca et al. (1972a, 1972b), FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995), Florez (1991), Gonzales (1990), Groeneveld et al. (2010), Hoffman & Fowler (1995), Huacarpuma (1990), Kadwell et al. (2001), Moscoso & Bautista (2003), Munoz (2008), Novoa & Florez (1991), Orlove (1977), Quispe et al. (2009), San Martin (1989), Sumar (1996), Sumar et al. (1972), Tuckwell (1994), Villarroel (1991).","taxonomy":"Camelus pacos Linnaeus, 1758,Peru.The Alpaca is a domesticated camelid indigenous and endemic to South America, well known for the characteristics of its fine-diameter wool: soft, silky, high luster, lightweight, and warm. Alpaca woolis used for luxurious blankets, sweaters, and cloth. The species was long classified in the genus Lama, but recent DNA studies (mtDNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite markers) have established that the Alpaca was domesticated from the Vicuna subspecies V. vicugnamensalis, showing significant genetic differentiation to warrant a change in its genus to Vicugnaand its designation as a separate species. Archeological digs at the Telarmachay site in the Central Andes of Peruindicate that the Alpaca was domesticated 5500-6500 years ago by a hunter-gatherer society. These early indigenous herders selected for an animal with a docile nature while maintaining the fineness of its progenitor’s wool. No remains of Alpaca have been found to date at archeological digs in the south of Central Andes (northern Chileand north-western Argentina), but only early domesticated Llamas (Lama glama). The Alpaca has no subspecies, but two distinct breeds are recognized: the Huacaya and Suri.","commonNames":"Alpaca @fr | Alpaka @de | Alpaca @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Vicugna","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pacos","name":"Vicugna pacos","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Alpacas are found in the Central Andes from C Peruinto mid-Bolivia and N Chile. In the 1980s—1990s Alpacas were imported into the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Europe. There are no known wild/feral populations of Alpacas.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719731/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (2010) | Bravo & Varela (1993) | Bravo, Garnica & Puma (2009) | Bravo, Pezo & Alarcén (1995) | Bryant et al. (1989) | Bustinza (1989) | Calle Escobar (1984) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | Castellaro et al. (1998) | Fernandez-Baca et al. (1972a, 1972b) | FloresOchoa & MacQuarrie (1995) | Florez (1991) | Gonzales (1990) | Groeneveld et al. (2010) | Hoffman & Fowler (1995) | Huacarpuma (1990) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Moscoso & Bautista (2003) | Munoz (2008) | Novoa & Florez (1991) | Orlove (1977) | Quispe et al. (2009) | San Martin (1989) | Sumar (1996) | Sumar et al. (1972) | Tuckwell (1994) | Villarroel (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"Historically, an Alpaca was considered to be equivalent to three sheep, but modern animal nutritionists in Peruconsider that Alpacas consume 1-2—-1-5 times as much forage as one sheep. Alpacas are selective for these familiar Altiplano plants: Compositae/composites 31 4% (Hipochoires stenocephala, Werneria novigena), followed by Cyperaceae/sedges-rushes 26-1% (Eleocharisalbibracteata, Carexsp.), Gramineae/grasses 19-1% (Calamagrostisrigescens, Festucadolichophylla), Rosaceae/roses 14-6% (Alchemillapinnata, Alchemilladiplophylla) and minor percentages of Ranunculaceae/ buttercups 5:6% (Ranunculusbreviscapus), Leguminosae/legumes 1-7% (Trifolium amabile) and others. Plant leaves,stalks, and flowers with protein content as high as 17-4% are selected by Alpaca when feeding in quality bofedales in the rainy-growing season. Year-round feeding studies on the chemical composition of ingested forage with fistulated Alpacas in Peruand Boliviayielded the following: dry matter 9-9%, organic material 88-8%, minerals 11-2%, total protein 15-1%, ether extract 7-4%, crude fiber 27-5%, nitrogen-free extract 38-:8%, and detergent neutral fiber 61:6%. General apparent digestibility of bofedal nutrients was dry matter 64-9%, organic material 64-1%, and total protein 64-8%. Total digestible nutrients (TDN) of bofedal forage eaten by Alpacas was similar between the rainy (54-1%) and dry (66:5%) seasons, as was the average energy from TDN at 60-3%. Average daily weight gain per Alpaca grazed on typical (control) bofedales was 0-093 kg, but experimentally at low stocking rates (2 Alpaca/ha/year) weight gain was 0-101 kg/day, medium stocking (4 Alpaca) 0-084 kg/ day, and high stocking (6 Alpaca) 0-079 kg/day. Although the carrying capacity is around one Alpaca/ha/year, overgrazing occurs at 1-8-2-5 Alpaca/ha/year, lowering the quantity and quality of available forage. In indigenous Andean communities where herders own the animals but not the land and the communal grazing lands are used through permission from the community, overgrazing of the natural grasslands is not uncommon. Although efforts are being made to counter the situation, a long history of bofedal overuse by traditional Alpaca herders has frequently resulted in low live (50 kg) and carcass (25-5 kg) weights, reduced fleece weights (1-2 kg), low fertility (35%), and high juvenile mortality (30%). Like Vicunas, Alpacas need frequent water intake. Water consumption by Alpacas grazing on bofedales was high during the dry season at 3-08 kg/animal/day and less in the rainy growing season at 2-04 kg. In another Peruvian study digestibility of high-altitude forage by Alpacas in both Altplano and bofedal habitats was lowest (50-62%) in the winter-dry season and highest (66-76%) in the spring/summer-wet season. Comparative feeding trials measuring the coefficients of digestibility revealed that when fed dry forage low in protein (less than 7-5%) Alpacas were 14% more efficient than sheep, but at high protein levels (greater than 10-5%), sheep were slightly (2%) more efficient. Other studies have reported that Alpacas have a digestion coefficient 25% higher than sheep, particularly on low-quality forage. Maintenance-energy requirements for a 60 kgAlpaca is 2% of its body weight, or 1-2 kg dry forage per day. Alpacas in Peruforage more selectively than Llamas. Diets are highest in grass during the wet and early dry season. As the dry season progresses, the diets of Alpacas in bofedal habitat became largely sedges and reeds (81%). Animals in dryer habitats consume more grass (68%). A study of live weight changes of Alpaca adult males, females, and their progeny, was conducted for three seasons under continuous grazing on natural grasslands on the Mediterranean range of Central Chile. Live weight changes were highest in spring (100-200 g/day), moderate during winter (50-100 g/day), and negative only at the end of summer and in autumn (-110 g/day to — 150 g/day). Weight gains of newborn Alpacas were greatest (110-150 g/day) in the first 90 days after birth and then decreased slightly, reaching values of 75 g/day at 8-5 months old. Weight gainsstabilized at 10-20 g/day at three years of age.","breeding":"Alpaca females in Perureach puberty at 60% (33-40 kg) of their adult weight, or at c.12-14 months of age when being grazed on native pastures. Although such young females exhibit sexual behavior, ovulation, fertilization, and embryonic survival similar to adults, most breeders waitto first breed females at two years of age when they have reached greater physical maturity. Male Alpacas in Peruare first used for reproduction at two to three years of age, because the penis is still adhered to the prepuce in one-(84%) and two-year-olds (50%), with all males adhesion free at three years old. The rate of detachment is dependent upon the level of testosterone secreted from the testes. The breeding season is from January to April using several different husbandry techniques. If the females are unfamiliar with the breeding male, they most likely will not accept him. Such males become familiarized by staying with the females in the same stone corral or encircled together by rope for a number of hours each day for 20 days; pregnancy rate is as high at 85% using this method. The most common technique is to run four to six breeding males per 100 females together, year-round. Artificial selection is less controlled by this approach, so males with desired traits are chosen (typically white colored, dense and good quality wool, and normally developed testes 4-5 cm long and 2-5 cm wide). On large, Peruvian Alpaca farms no more than 200 females are run with 10-12 males, half of which are rotated in one-week intervals for two months during the breeding season. Males work well for one week, but then begin to fight with each other and establish hierarchies and harems, thus the rotational system. Alpaca breed and give birth seasonally. When males and females are kept together year-round, births only occur during the rainy season from December to March. The continuous association of the sexes produces an inhibiting effect on the sexual activity of the male. But when males are separated from females and only brought together for breeding, births are year-round. Copulation occurs with the female in sternal recumbency, and lasts 20-50 minutes. Non-pregnant Alpaca have no well-defined cyclical sexual activity (estrus), but are always in the follicular phase and state of receptivity until ovulation is induced by copulation. There is no period of sexual inactivity in Alpaca and other cameloids, nor a relationship between size of ovarian follicle and sexual receptivity. Ovulation occurs ¢.26 hours after copulation. Ovulation can be also be induced by the injection of chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and then occurs c¢.24 hours later. Following ovulation the corpus luteum forms and reaches maximum size and secretory activity at approximately eight days. With no gestation the corpus luteum regresses within 12-18 days after mating, giving way to the formation of new follicles. With conception and gestation, the corpus luteum continues its secretory activity and thereafter the female is not sexually receptive. Pregnancy is assessed by sexual behavior of the female in presence of a new male. Studies have found that at least 85% of the females that ovulate in response to the coital stimulation have at least one fertilized ovum within three days of mating. However, in Peruthere is 34% embryonic mortality during the first 30 days of gestation, seriously affecting the annual birth rate of Alpacas. Nearly all (95%) of the pregnancies are in the left horn of the bifurcated uterus, although both ovaries are equally active. Thus, transuterine migration from the right to the left horn of the uterus is common, as evidenced by the corpus luteum in the right ovary and the fetus in the left horn of the uterus. The placenta is simple-diffuse and of the chorial epithelium type. Reproductive studies in Peruon Alpaca mothers (n = 1684) showed that age of the female, year of birth, and the quality of diet were important factors influencing the length of gestation and date of birth. First time mothers at two years of age and those 15 years and older had longer gestation periods (403 and 401 days respectively) than middle-aged females four to twelve years of age (380-390 days). Females grazing on higher quality, cultivated pastures had longer gestation periods than those on native rangelands (389 vs. 379 days). Also in years with favorable vs. poor range conditions, gestation was longer (392 vs. 381 days) and newborns weighed more (8-7 vs. 8-1 kg). The explanation for this may be that females on good forage can afford longer gestations, give birth to a larger young, and be assured that favorable forage will be available for costly lactation. In contrast, females on poor forage have shorter gestations, cannot afford long gestations because of the potential cost of lowering their own health, and need to start lactation as soon as possible while there is at least some forage available before the dry season begins. Age of the Alpaca mother and date of parturition also influenced offspring survival in the Peruvian studies. In a curvilinear fashion, survival of young born to mothers two and three years of age was lower than those with mothers 9-11 years old (82% vs. 91% survival), but declines to 88% for mothers 15 years of age. In Australia, the gestation of spring-mated females is ten days longer than fall-mated females. Birth weight of Alpaca neonates averages 8-4 kg in Peru, with significant variation as indicated among femaleage groups. The importance of good maternal nutrition is critical for such a species with an unusually long gestation. At 180 days or almost half way through gestation the fetus weighs 600 g, only 7% of its eventual 9 kgat birth. Some 93% ofits growth takes place in the last half of gestation, and at 230 days or two-thirds of the way into gestation, a remarkable 72% ofits growth is yet to be gained. The heavy energy demands of lactation lasting 6—8 months, mostly coincides with the Andean rainy, or growing season. Even though multiple ovulations occur c¢.10% of the time, Alpaca twins are extremely rare in Peruand in the USA; only one out of ¢.2000 births. If neonatal twins do occurthere is a significant difference in size, e.g. 4 kgand 6 kg, with the smaller one typically in the right horn of the uterus dying during gestation resulting in the death of the other. After giving birth the female comes into estrus within 48 hours, but only with initial follicular growth. Follicular size and activity capable of ovulation in response to copulation is observed from the fifth day, but the higher rates offertility begin ten days after parturition with the highest fertility 20-30 days postpartum. The Peruvian Alpaca birth season is from December to May. Females are not separated from the herd due to the lack of space. The umbilical of the newborn is treated with iodine or an herb solution to prevent infection and diarrhea. Newborns are watched closely by the herder to assure first nursing is successful (first milk is high in colostrum, rich in antibodies). Parturition in indigenous herds averages a low 50% and juvenile mortality is high (15-35%); itis estimated that no more than half of the female Alpaca of reproductive age produce young every year. Young born during the birth season also had higher survival than those born late. Additionally, juvenile survival is curvilinearly related to birth weight. Neonates weighing 9-11 kg had an average 92% survival but those weighing 4-5 kg survived at a rate of 30-50%. When pregnant females (n = 424) and their young were monitored,it was found that newborn birth weight, and weight and width of the placenta increased with age of the dam reaching a peak at nine years and then declined progressively. Placental efficiency also increased with female Alpaca age, showing a bimodal shape and peaking at 6-11year-old females; more young died from two-year-old females than any other age; and dead neonates weighed less (6-4 kg) than those that survived (7-8 kg). In indigenous herds, young-of-the-year are usually not weaned due to the lack of extra pastures and the labor involved. Instead, young nurse beyond one year of age, including up to the time the mother gives birth again. To impede the yearling from competing with the newborn for nursing, herders will sometimes temporarily pierce the yearling’s nose with a stick. In commercial Alpaca herds weaning occurs in September through October, sometimes until November, when young are 6-8 months old.","activityPatterns":"The daily routine or activity pattern of indigenous Alpaca family flocks is quite consistent. After having spent the night in a stone corral or next to the family house (usually a stone hut called a choza), the animals are released or move out on their own to graze for the day soon after sunrise. While the family’s sheep flock is tended by a herder, the Alpaca flock is not accompanied by a herder. Instead,its daily movements and activity patterns while grazing are self-directed within 1-2 km of their home base to local bofedales and other feeding areas of their choice. As sunset approaches, the flock returns to the home site by themselves without being escorted by a herder. Daytime activity budgets (percentage of time) of Alpacas compared to sheep while both species grazed on native-Andean pasture dominated by the favorable forage Festucadolichophylla, have shown that while other activities were similar, Alpacas fed more (71% vs. 57%) and rested less (11% vs. 25%) than sheep.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Seasonal patterns of Alpaca movement are determined by herders as influenced by the availability of forage, varying from one locality to next. One common annual movement of Alpacas in the Andes is to graze herds during the rainy season (generallyJanuary to April) in lower mountains (3600-4100 m) areas characterized by pampas, slopes, and rounded ridges. Then in the dry season (generally May to December) they are moved up to the high altitudes (4100-5200 m) to find favorable forage, bofedales, and water. When the rainy season begins, they are moved back to lower areas where grasses are beginning to grow and to avoid severe hailstorms and other weather at higher altitudes. Herders, however, without access to two seasonal sites maintain their animals in the same area year-round. Indigenous families that raise livestock in the Peruvian Andes on the average have 70 Alpacas (30-120), 30 Llamas (4-50), and 50 sheep (10-80). More importance is placed upon Alpacas because they offer greater economic diversity. Most (90-95%) of the Alpaca woolis sold, the balance used for home use. Many of the young males one to two years old are sold for meat production, and old animals are culled to make jerky. In three Peruvian Alpaca farms that were cooperatively, family, and individually owned, percent herd composition was females: 60/ 65/ 70; gelded males: 25/30/25; breeding males: 3/4/5; white animals: 70/70/90; and colored animals: 30/30/10. With Alpacas that are owned as private property, each member of the family owns animals but herd control is under the family. Ownership is designated by ear markings or colored yarn. Animals are often given as presents or ceremonial gifts. They play an important role in the rituals, symbols, mythology, and ceremoniesin the life of Andean people. Individual animals are recognized and described by physical characteristics and usually given a name. Alpacas have feminine attributes in the Andean cosmic vision oflife and the world, and generically referred to as “mothers” and “dear mothers.” Alpacas are highly social with strong herding behavior, making them easier to drive when necessary. In small, mixed-sex herds, dominance is clear with a few adult males as the leaders. Alpacas are more skittish and shy with strangers than Llamas. When a free-ranging flock is approached on foot, they will distance themselves more quickly than a herd of Llamas. Once they become familiar with you, however, they are docile and easier to handle than sheep. There are no known unmanaged or feral populations of Alpaca that would allow us to assess their social organization and full repertoire of behavior. However, a number of subtle-contrasting characteristics exist in Alpaca behavior that turn out to be, not surprisingly, very similar to the Vicuna: tighter grouping, vocal communication more common, less communicative with their tails, love water and bathe regularly, greater susceptibility to heat stress, higher site fidelity, males more protective of females, less cooperative, and more distant and stand-offish.","statusAndConservation":"Alpacas and Llamas were important to ancient Andean civilizations such as the Tiwanaku Culture that dominated the Lake Titicaca region from ¢.300 BC to 1000 Ap, and the Inca Culture that dominated the Central Andes in the 15% and 16\" centuries. When the Incas captured the cameloid-rich kingdoms near Lake Titicaca and south, they acquired giant herds of Llamas and Alpacas. The Incas then sent “seed herds” throughout their empire and commanded that they be reproduced. State-controlled husbandry of Alpacas produced vast herds that numbered into the millions. The Incas placed special emphasis on avoidance of crossbreeding with Llamas and selective breeding of pure-colored Alpacas (brown, black, and white) for quality wool and sacrifice to deities. The Spanish invasion in the 16™ century destroyed that advanced management system and there ensued a breakdown of controlled breeding. Today, the raising of Alpacas in the high altitudes of Peruand Boliviacontributes substantially to the economy of the region. However, animal production is limited by the low level of technology, adverse climate, disease, herders with scarce resources, and frequent over utilization of native rangelands. The Andean grazing system is extensively based upon utilization of native high-altitude grasslands by mixed herds that include not only Alpacas, but sheep and Llamas as well. Pastoralism and mixed agropastoralism form the subsistence base for the agricultural segment of the high Andes. Indigenous communities control the greatest number of camelids and sheep, as well as half of the native rangelands, which comprise ¢.95% ofthe land area above 3800 m. The Alpaca population in South America is c.4-5 million, down some 20% since the mid-1960s, but up 25% from the early 2000s. Today, numbers are at least stable, if not increasing. Most Alpacas are in Peruwith 91%, followed by Bolivia8% and Chile1%. Few Alpacas occur in Argentinabecause of the lack of moist Puna and the dominance of the dry Puna. More than 73-87% are in southern Peru(Arequipa, Cuzco, Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna), with nearly half of the world’s Alpaca in the Department of Puno. Females represent c¢.70% of the total Alpaca population. A high percentage (85-95%) of Alpacas are owned and managed by native herders in small flocks ofless than 50 animals, but some commercial Alpaca herds are as large as 30,000-50,000 individuals. Although indigenous herders raise most Alpacas, productivity traditionally has been the lowest due to over stocking, improper health care, and inbreeding. Peruhas ¢.789,775 producers raising Alpacas; Boliviahas 13,603, and Chile916. Starting in the early 1980s Alpacas were exported from Chile, Bolivia, and Peruto the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, where cottage industries in Alpaca wool have developed. In the USAthe Alpaca Owners & Breeders Association numbered over 4500 members with 143,000 registered Alpacas in 2010. Peruexports c. US$ 24 million worth of Alpaca products (wool, tops, yarns, woven fabrics, and knitwear) annually to countries around the world, especially China, Germany, and Italy. Annual Alpaca wool production in South America is 4-1 million kg (90% from Peru), yet only represents 0-6% of the world’s fine-fibered wool production (fine sheep wool is ¢.90-95% followed by cashmere at 5-10%). Because of a high market demand for white wool from Huacaya Alpaca, which can be dyed to any desired color, the Alpaca population has become dominated (80-87%) by white individuals. The result has been a scarcity of individuals with pure natural colors and a reduction of genetic diversity in the species. Pure black Alpacas are the rarest. The problem has been recognized and pure natural colors are now beginning to recover. Alpaca wool prices were at their peak from the 1960s-1980s then declined due to land reforms and competition from synthetics. Prices, however, still remain high at four times the value of sheep wool. In North America in its raw state, an ounce of Alpaca varies from US$ 2 to US$ 5. Each stage of the process (cleaning, carding, spinning, knitting, finishing, etc) adds more value to the wool. As a finished garment, it can sell for US$ 10/0z. In addition to its importance as a producer of fine wool, Alpacas have been a valuable source of meat and hides in South America. In the late 1990s some eleven million kilograms of Alpaca meat were produced annually in Peru, representing 10-15% of the country’s total Alpaca population. The best yield and tenderest meat is from animals 1-5-2 years old, but most are slaughtered at 7-8 years old because their wool has become too coarse for economic production. Alpaca meat is healthful, rich in protein and low in cholesterol and fat. Prime cuts are 50% of the carcass and sold either fresh or frozen to meat markets, restaurants, hotels, and supermarkets. Hides are tanned for soft leather products or sold with the fleece intact as wall hangings, rugs, and toys. For indigenous peoples that raise most Alpacas, family income from these animals is primarily from meat (44% fresh, 16% dried) and secondarily from the wool (31%). Despite its excellent quality, the price received for Alpaca meat is 50% less than that for sheep and beef, due to long standing prejudice towards camelid meat. Beginning in the 1960s Peruwas the world leader in quality Alpaca research, especially by the progressive staff and visiting scientists working at the La Raya Research Station from CuzcoUniversity. With the export of Alpacas around the globe starting in the 1990s, serious science on this longneglected species and family expanded to a number of countries. Universities in the USAand Australiapursued vigorous research programs into reproduction, disease, genetics, and nutrition. The future for the Alpaca is encouraging. Wide opportunities exist for improved successful Alpaca production in the highlands of Peruand Bolivia, especially if the stewardship of the Alpaca’s principle habitat, bofedales, is improved towards sustained and balanced use.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 114-150 cm,tail 18-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 55-65 kg. Alpacas have long necks; relatively short, straight ears (c. 15 cm), thin and agile legs, and fluffy-appearing bodies because of their long wool. When shorn, however, the bodyis slender and Vicuna-like. There are two distinct breeds. HUACAYA ALPACA: Huacayas are the more common (¢.90%) of the two breeds. Its body, legs, and neck are covered by wool that is long, fine (27-5 microns), and wavy; the head and feet are covered by short wool. Wool grows 5-15 cm/year depending upon nutrition and decreases with age. Huacaya wool is crimped (regular and successive undulations) and similar in appearance to Corriedale sheep wool. Huacayas are bigger in size, have shorter and relatively coarser wool, and lighter fleeces than Suris. There are three general categories of wool: “Baby Alpaca” (20-23 microns some as low as 16-17 microns)is the finest and most expensive wool from recently born animals; “Tui” wool is from the first shearing at 12-18 months; and “Standard” Alpaca wool (c.24 microns) is from animals of two years of age and older. White Huacayas are the most common (c.80%), especially on large commercial Alpaca ranches, compared to 30% white animals in indigenous flocks. White wool accounts for over 80% of the total annual Alpaca wool production. Although most Alpaca wool has little cortex in its fibers,it can be easily dyed just as sheep wool, giving woollen mills greater flexibility with white Alpaca wool. Huacaya Alpaca crossed with a Vicuna produces a Paco-Vicuna, which resembles a large-bodied Vicuna and has 17-19 micron wool. Resource managers are concerned that accidently escaped Paco-Vicunas could have harmful genetic consequences on populations of pure Vicunas. SURI ALPACA: Suris arise from a very small percentage (2%) of Huacaya x Huacaya crosses, thus the origin of the breed. Because of their long-hanging wool, phenotyically Suris are quite distinct from Huacayas. Suri wool is silky (24-27 microns), straight, without crimp, generally finer, longer, more lustrous, softer to the touch, less elastic, less resistant to tension, and faster-growing compared to the Huacaya. The wool parts on the animal’s back create a mid-body line that is capable of growing up to 15 cm/year. Some individual Suris, called “wasis” by Andean herders, are not shorn for years, resulting in the fleece growing until it touches the ground; only a few such special animals are kept and are revered by the indigenous people. Around 17% of the offspring from Suri x Suri crosses produce Huacaya types. In their South American homeland, Suri Alpacas are considered to be longerlived, more delicate, less hardy, and to have lower fertility than Huacaya Alpacas. Recent research has found thatjuvenile mortality is high because of lack of wool coverage on the midline. However, when given the right management and equally good pastures, they thrivejust as well and with similar fertility as Huacayas. During lactation Suri Alpacas lose weight more than Huacayas because they produce more milk (udders are larger on Suri females). As a result, Suri young are heavier than Huacayas because they have a greater availability of milk. Body wool is uniform or multicolored; 22 natural colors have been categorized, ranging from white to black, with intermediate shades of grays, fawns, and browns. The upperlip is split for grasping forage. The eyes are large, round, and slightly forward looking. The feet have soft-padded soles and two toes, each ending with large pointed nails. Testes are small, oval-shaped and located in the perineal region under the tail. Life span is 15-20 years. The cuticle on individual wool fibers is made up of poorly developed, elongated, and flattened cells. While such rudimentary cuticle scales without ridges results in poor felting qualities, it makes the Alpaca wool extraordinarily smooth and soft to the touch. Still, Alpaca wool is 3-6 times stronger than human hair. Based upon strand diameter and morphology, the fleece (pelt) of this ungulate is made up of two types of hair: wool and hair. Similar to fine sheep wool, the medulla can be non-existent in unusually fine Alpaca wool, but has been observed in Peruvian Alpaca fibers averaging 17 microns. Such pure Alpacas are considered “one coated” because their fleece consists only of the fine undercoat hairs and lack the outer coarser guard hairs. As the proportion of medullation increases (as it does with age), wool diameter increases and fineness decreases, thatis, the proportion of the medulla progressively increases with the thickness of the individual wool strand. Woolis of the cortex type of fineness, and hair is of the medullar type with larger diameter. Hair is especially common on the chest, face, and extremities, but it is not unusual to find individual hairs intermixed throughout the fleece. This is especially common in “Huarizos,” hybrids between an Alpaca female and a Llama male. Huarizos show intermediate physical characteristics of the two parents, and relatively coarse wool (c.32 microns in diameter). Their fleeces contain as much as 40% guard hair. Huarizos are considered undesirable by the Alpaca wool industry and are being selected against on commercial Alpaca farms. Nearly all (90%) Alpacas on large farms are shorn annually and done indoors with shearing scissors or by mechanized clippers. In indigenous family herds in the Andes only half of the animals are shorn each year, and done under rustic conditions in the out-of-doors with hand shears. Shearing of males, geldings, non-pregnant and some pregnant females takes place in November and December, while new mothers with young, yearlings, and thin males and females are done in February to April. Annual shearing yields 1.5-2. 8 kgof wool per Alpaca in South America (enough to make four sweaters), and up to 3-6 kg in USAand Australia. Fineness of Alpaca fleeces vary from farm to farm in Peru(24-7-32-3 microns, averaging 28-9 microns), but in other countries where it has been introduced, 16-24 microns is more typical. In the Andes Alpaca wool increases in diameter from 17-4 microns to 27-5 microns from the first shearing at ten months to six years of age. Large Alpaca farms in Peruare able to practice better husbandry through pasture management, selective breeding, and health care. Of 3762 shorn Alpacas on one such farm in Puno, Peru, in the 1980s, wool was sorted and classified into the following five quality categories: X 3% at 19 microns, AA 52% at 25 microns, A 17% at 37 microns, LP 23% at 44 microns, and K 5% at 49 microns. Still, nearly half was considered “thick” relative to the Alpaca’s potential for producing fine wool. Now, two decadeslater, better management and selection is beginning to improve wool quality. Alpaca wool production and quality is strongly influenced by artificial selection (genetics) and nutrition. Seasonally wool production varies under the extreme conditions of the Alpaca’s high-altitude habitat: fiber or strand length has been shown to be 25% longer during the rainy season in the Andean highlands, reflecting the percentage of crude plant protein that decreases from 11% in the wet season to 3-5% in the dry season. Wool quality decreases (increase in diameter) when Alpacas are grazed on high-quality pasture compared to native range of poor to very poor quality. For example during a 15month feeding trial relative to controls, Alpacas on diets in Andean rangeland vs. managed pastures of alfalfa, increased the body weight of mothers and young 10 kgand 22 kgrespectively, fleece weight 0-4 kg and 0-8 kg, staple length 2-3 cm and 1-8 cm, fiber diameter 5-2 microns and 6-9 microns, and yield 4-1% and 10-8%. In another study adult Alpacas on high-feeding regimes resulted in increased stand diameter (fine 21-22 microns to thick 27-28 microns), but wool production per head/year increased from 1-1 kg to 2-4 kg. But, because there is little commercial difference in value per kilogram in the two wool diameters, total monetary value was doubled on the higher feeding regime. Contrary to the long-time belief that Alpacas produce finer wool at higher elevations in the Andes, recent studies with controls have shown that when on the same diet wool quality was similar. Commercially, the majority of Alpaca wool is made into carded and semi-carded thread. In the textile industry it is often blended with merino sheep wool to be made into overcoats and high-fashion knitwear. In general, Alpaca wool quality in the Andes is lower than its potential due to poor management and the extensive Alpaca/ILlama hybridization that has occurred over the past 400 years since Spanish colonization. DNA studies have revealed that today’s Andean Alpaca population shows a high (80-92%) level of hybridization. Along with a significant reduction in Peru’s Alpaca population during colonization, pure colored animals significantly decreased to the point that they became rare. The difference between Alpaca and Llamas and between Huacaya and Suri Alpacas has also been impacted. Alpaca husbandry is now addressing these problems. Additionally, in the 1970s the Alpaca population in Perudropped resulting in a 40% decline of wool production due to land and agrarian reforms. A number of revealing physiological parameters have been measured in Alpaca. Body temperature of normal adult males (n = 50) and females (n = 50) is the same (38-7°C), pulse rate/minute in males (83-2 + 2-2) is higher than females (76:6 + 1-9), and respiration rate/minute is similar for males (29-2 + 1-1) and females (28-3 + 0-79). For young Alpaca 10-12 months old (n = 50) body temperature is 38-5 + 0-04, pulse rate 83-8 + 2-9, and respiration rate 33-1 + 0-19. For femalesin the last days of gestation body temperature (38-3 + 0-07) is the same as non-pregnant females, but pulse rates (83-5 + 2-3), and respiration rates (34-8 + 1-9) were higher.","habitat":"Alpacas are raised in the Andean highlands; regionally known as the Altiplano and Puna. The Puna ecosystem is rolling grassland and isolated wetlands typically at c.3500-5200 m altitude with two marked periods: the rainy season from October to April and the dry season from May to September. Most (75%) precipitation falls from November to March in the form of both hail and rain. In Peruthe annual precipitation varies from 800 mmin the south to 1200 mmin the central mountains. The mean annual temperatures are less than 10°C and nocturnal frosts are common, especially during the dry season. Diurnal fluctuations can be as much as 20°C in the mesic Altiplano and even greater in the dry or desert Altiplano. The short growing season, as determined by moisture and night-time cloud cover, occurs between December and March. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous grasses and forbs. Few trees exist and shrubs are only locally abundant. Perennial bunchgrasses are common including the genera Festuca, Poa, Stipa, and Calamagrostis, as well as the grass-like sedges Carexand Scirpus. High-quality forage is more abundant during the rainy season and scarcer during the remainder of the year. A critical habitat and principal source of forage for Alpacas in the Andes that allows intensive-localized foraging are bofedales or mojadales. Providing lush forage and moist vegetation that Alpacas thrive on, bofedales are localized islands of perennial greenery with deep organic soils moistened by subterranean and considerable surface water often forming small pools. Both natural and artificial bofedales exist, some man-made ones dating back to pre-Inca times. These high-altitude marsh areas can provide year-round forage, allowing herders and their animals to remain in the same area for extended periods. Depending upon water availability, they are productive only during the rainy season or throughout the year. As a result, their carrying capacity is highly variable, from 2-8 Alpacas/ha/year. Natural mojadales compared to irrigated artificial ones, typically have greater plant cover with more palatable and nutritious forage. Vegetative composition of bofedales in the humid Puna varies between several dominant species, including Distichia muscoides, Eleocharisalbibracteata, Hypochoeris taraxacoides, Hidrocotilo ranunculoides, Liliaopsis andina, and others. A percentage cover of 64-72% of desirable species (Werneria nubigena, Werneria pymaea, Hipochoeris stenocephala, Ranunculos sp., Carexfragilaris) is excellent Alpaca forage. Reported total accumulated bofedal forage (dry weight) from January to August was 1021 kg/ha that grew at an average rate of 4-2 kg/ha/day. Protein ranged 8-3-13-4% and crude fiber 19-2-34-1%. Annual bofedal growth varies with season: 60% during the summer growing season (January-April), 21% during the transition to the dry season (May-June), and 19% in the dry season (July-December). Wet artificial bofedales have greater sustained productivity than natural bofedales with 10-11% protein in both the wet and dry seasons and capable of supporting 3—4 Alpaca/ha/year. Continuous year-round grazing of native grasslands is the most common grazing management practice used by indigenous herders, but technicians are encouraging enhancement of rangeland conditions through rotational grazing and reducing stocking rates of Alpacas and competing sheep. Recommended stocking rate for Alpacas on Andean native pastures is 2-7 animals/ha/year on excellent range, 2 good, 1 average, 0-33 poor, and 0-17 very poor. However, intensively managed, irrigated pastures of grasses and legumes at 3850 maltitude can support 25 Alpacas/ha/year. Research indicates that despite the high elevations and low night-time temperatures, it is possible to increase considerably the sustained carrying capacity of Andean rangeland by the introduction of improved forage species. Managed pastures of irrigated ryegrass (Loliumperenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) with application of nitrogen fertilizers can carry up to 30 adult ind/ha compared with the usual rate of 1-1-5 ind/ha on natural grasslands. On Andean rangelands grazed by Alpaca,tall grass communities are commonly set on fire during the dry season (June—October) by native indigenous herders. The objective is the destruction of bunch grasses that will encourage the growth of ground forage preferred by Alpaca and sheep. However, studies have shown that annual burns are not beneficial because they not only stimulate the rapid regrowth of bunchgrasses, but promote hillside soil erosion and encourage the growth of undesirable invasive plant species. Burning every third or more years during the wet season is a more effective approach for improving Alpaca range and habitat."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A46FFCCD5D0F3E6F6E9FE05.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A46FFCCD5D0F3E6F6E9FE05","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"238","verbatimText":"3.VicunaVicugna vicugnaFrench:Vigogne/ German:Vikunja/ Spanish:VicunaOther common names:ArgentineVicuna (vicugna), Peruvian Vicufa (mensalis)Taxonomy.Camelus vicugna Molina, 1782,Chile, “abondano nella parte della Cordigliera spettante alle Provincie de Coquimbo, e di Copiap6” (Cordilleras of Coquimboand Copiapo in northern Chile).The separation of the Vicuna and the Guanaco(Lama guanicoe) occurred 2-3 million years ago. Palaeontological evidence suggests the genus Vicugnaevolved from Hemiauchenia, a North American immigrant to South America, in the lowlands east of the Andes some two million years ago, with widespread distribution as recently as 10,000-13,000 years ago in lowland grasslands of Bolivia, Paraguay, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. Then 9000-12,000 years ago, during the last Pleistocene glacial advance and the subsequent establishment of the Holocene climate, Vicugnamoved from its lowland distribution to its present day, high-elevation habitat. Today, two subspecies are recognized, distinguished on the bases of genetics, habitat, and morphology. Northern subspecies mensalis is closely related to the domestic Alpaca (V. pacos).Subspecies and Distribution.V.v.vicugnaMolina,1782—WBolivia,NWArgentina,andNEChilefrom18°Sto29°S.V. v. mensalis Thomas, 1917— SE Peru, W Bolivia, and NE Chilefrom 9° Sto 19° S. Ecuadorhas a small population (c.3000) introduced from Peru, Chile, and Boliviain the 1980s.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-190 cm,tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 38-45 kg. The body color of the soft, woolly coat is pale cinnamon to reddishbrown, with insides of the legs and underside white. There is a bib of coarse white hairs 20-30 cm long on the chest at the base of the neck in the northern subspecies, which is short to almost unnoticeable in the southern subspecies. The body is slender with a long neck. The head is small and wedge-shaped; the ears are slender and pointed. The Vicuna has unique rodent-like incisors. Males and females weigh approximately the same, look alike, and are sexually indistinguishable in the field. Southern subspecies vicugna, sometimes called the “ ArgentineVicuna,” is ¢.15% larger (c. 45 kgvs. 38 kg), length of molars longer, taller at the withers, substantially shorter chest-bib hair, lighter colored, larger white underside countershading, and in general exhibits higher levels of genetic diversity than the northern subspecies mensalis, sometimes referred to as “Peruvian Vicuna.” Vicuna wool (often called fiber) is among the finest in the world at 12-5 + 1-5 microns (Cashmere goat fibers measure 14-19 microns; Chiru, Pantholops hodgsonii fiber is 9-12 microns). The shorn fleeces of 30,391 Vicunas in Peruaveraged 220 g/animal. With its silky texture, Vicuna woolis highly prized, retailing for US$ 250/0z in the USAand in 2004 selling at wholesale for US$ 566,/kg from certified liveshorn animals. World prices for Vicuna wool ranged from US$ 350/kg to US$ 900/kg over the past decade, promoting reference to it as the “Gold of the Andes.” The adaptations responsible for the animal’s outstanding physical endurance at high altitudes include lightweight insulating fleece, which protects against cold and the sun’s ultraviolet light, and high blood-oxygen affinity (highest of all mammals investigated). Full saturation of the blood with oxygen occurs at the lower partial pressure of oxygen that is found at high altitudes. The Vicuna’s heart muscle capillary densities are exceptionally high for a mammal of its body size. Its ability to load and unload oxygen is improved by a relatively high oxygen transfer conductance because ofits small red blood cells, and it has low blood viscosity due to a relative low percentage of red blood cells. Both are advantageous for maximum cardiac output. The Vicuna’slife span is 20 years, with a maximum age of 24 years and nine months recorded in captivity.Habitat.Vicunas are restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of the Andes.The Vicuna is the highest-altitude ungulate in all of South America, living in a unique montane zone from 3200 mto 4800 mabove sea level called the Puna, a high-altitude, equatorial grassland that is above the tree line but below the snow line. Summer precipitation is typically in the form of rain or hail, rarely snow. It is a dry and cold environment with summer nights hovering close to freezing. Winter nights plummet well below freezing, 10-20°C below the daytime highs. Two distinct habitats with different levels of precipitation can be found within this dry-Andean ecosystem: the high-elevation moist or semi-humid high-Andean Puna and the lower elevation dry or semi-arid Puna habitat. The dry Puna is an extremely dry belt called the Andean Dry Diagonal, a north-west/south-east transition zone between two major hemispheric wind belts centered at the junction of north-west Argentina, south-west Bolivia, and north-east Chile. Within the Dry Diagonalthere is essentially no precipitation, no lakes, and no glacier formation. The distribution of subspecies vicugnais within the Dry Diagonal. Subspecies mensalis is found to the north of it. From a landscape perspective the Puna is characterized by peaks and pronounced slopes, the typical elevated plain that defines the region (Puna or Altiplano), and the intermediate piedmont fringes of smooth slopes. Vicunas use the habitats within the Puna and piedmont zones. The most common habitats in the Puna are xerophytic shrub steppes that are often mixed with an understory of sparse short grasses and forbs (typically not an important habitat for Vicunas); bunchgrass steppes (variable importance); open rocky areas with sparse vegetation (not important); short grass and forb areas on lower slopes, gentle slopes, and plains (important); and wetlands of short plants with high ground cover associated with high ground water, surface water, streams, and lagoons, regionally called bofedales, mojadales, and vegas (important). Bofedales (around 4500 melevation in Peru) are perennially green sedge communities typically dominated by Eleocharisalbracteata and Carexecuadorica with vegetative cover of ¢.22% grasses, 42% sedges and reeds, and 33% forbs, and a crude protein content of 12%. Short-grass forb areas on lowerslopes (around 3190 min Peru) are dominated by the grass species Festucadolichophylla and Muhlenbergiafastigiata with a vegetative cover of 66% grass, 13% sedges and reeds, and 6% forbs, and a crude protein content of 10%.Food and Feeding.As with other ungulate herbivores, Vicuna habitat and forage selection is based not only upon availability, but heavily influenced by climate (wet vs. dry years), population density (high vs. low), and the social status and ranking of individual animals (high vs. low). Thus for studies done at different locations, landscapes, and animal densities,it is not surprising to see variable results. For example in Peruat the Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Vicunas were observed to be strict grazers on grasses and forbs, whereas in Argentinaat the Laguna Blanca National Park, Vicunas showed some diet plasticity by being grazers on grasses 16-19% ofthe time and browsers on shrubs 59-72% of the time with two grasses (Panicumchlorolewcum and Distichlisspp-) representing nearly 50% of the diet. Feeding preference in productive habitats dominated by grasses has been documented in several areas of the Vicuna’s distribution. Of the two main habitats (grass steppe and vegas) at the Ulla-Ulla Vicuna Reserve in Bolivia, Vicunas preferred vegas. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve of ArgentinaVicunaswere more abundant on the grassland plains. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve Vicunas preferred to forage in grass steppe communities characterized by Festucanigesens or by Calamagrostisvicunarum, the latter being the dominant species in the vegetative type known as Excrement Influenced Vegetation (EIV). EIV is the result of long-term defecation-urination by Vicunas on dung piles; the resulting fertilization and accumulation of organic matter accelerates soil and plant succession over a long period of time. The third sere is an isolated “putting-green,” an island of short, abundant plants in rocky terrain downhill from a single or series of dung piles. The top soil is deeper and the plants grow thickly, close to the ground. EIV covered 18% of the total surface area of Pampa Galeras National Reserve, andits third sere had the highest productivity and was the most preferred forage vegetation. The general pattern of Vicuna habitat selection for grass-dominated communities, especially those of high nutritional value, is consistent with the results of diet studies that found Vicunas forage mainly on grasses (Poaceae) and grass-like sedges (Ciperaceae). When Vicunas coexisted with domestic livestock (sheep, goats, donkeys) in Argentina, they were spatially segregated, had a high overlap in diets, and used preferred habitatless than expected. The native Vicuna and exotic domestic animals coexisted because Vicunas were able to utilize suboptimal habitats while herders kept livestock in the richest habitats. A sympatric population of Vicunas and Guanacos in the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve, Argentina, revealed that the diet of both species was similar, but Guanacos utilized more tall grasses and Vicuna fed more on forbs and short grasses.Breeding.Vicunas are strong seasonal breeders. Males reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years of age, and become reproductive after obtaining a feeding territory and recruiting females. Most females first mate as two-year-olds. Breeding is almost an unnoticeable event except for a short chase before mating, because the prolonged copulation takes place with the mating pair in sternal recumbency. Females show no unusual behavior to indicate they are in estrus and males do not persistently smell the female’s hindquarters as is common in other ungulates. There is no prolonged preoccupation or tending that ungulate males traditionally show for females in heat, because a territorial male has exclusive and immediate access to females within his territory. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve mating was observed from the end of February to the end of May, but peaked in April (3 matings/100 hours of observation), followed by May (1-8) and March (1-3). Almost all matings were in the morning and within the family group’s feeding territory. Gestation averages c.11-3 months (330-350 days). Females within a few weeks of parturition are visibly pregnant. At the start of the birth season at Pampa Galeras over a three year period, a high percentage of females two years of age or older were pregnant: 85%, 95%, and 85%. The non-pregnant females were mostly two-year-olds because only 20% of one-year-olds mated. Rectal palpation by experienced veterinarians of captive adult Vicunas in Puno(Peru) revealed 99% of females pregnant. Most (90%) births occurred from the last week of February through the first week of April with 75% of the births in March. February is the reported peak birth season for subspecies vicugnain Argentinaand Chile. Nearly all (96%) births occurred in the morning and within the feeding territory. Females give birth to one offspring, with twins not reported or observed. Morning births are likely a behavioral adaptation to the stormy weather typical of Andean afternoons. In summer and early autumn, daily storms regularly start around noon. Young born during the afternoon storms of rain and hail would not be able to dry their soft-insulating wool before entering the nearfreezing nights. Wet newborns would have little chance for survival. A female aboutto give birth separated herself 15-25 m from the group. During the usual one-hour labor the female looked back to inspect her hindquarters, laid down and stood intermittently, changed positions, and walked a few steps every few minutes. Parturition occurred while the female stood. The labor and birthing behaviors were subtle and not easily noticed, as females commonly continued to feed during the process— surely to avoid attracting potential predators in this wide-open habitat. The mother immediately smelled and inspected the head and muzzle of the newborn, but licking did not occur (thus no assistance with the newborn’s thermoregulation) nor was the afterbirth eaten (the latter two behaviors common in other ungulates). Other members of the group frequently came over to smell and inspect the newborn. Newborns weighed 4-6 kg, were on their feet and able to walk in a wobbly way 15-20 minutes after birth, and began nursing when they were 30-45 minutes old. Vicuna young are “followers” as opposed to “hiders” and stay close to their mothers, especially in the first few months. Most young are weaned during the dry season in July and August, when they are 4-6 months old. During the first four months after birth 10-30% of newborns died. The cause was undetermined, but predation by Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and Pumas (Puma concolor) was suspected. Reproductive success as measured in August by the ratio of young to adult females ranged 35-70 young per 100 females in different regions of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. In Chile, density dependency seemed to be operating: the more females in a family group the lower the number of young per female. Very little research has been conducted on the physiology of Vicuna reproduction, but a noteworthy study on reproduction in captive male Vicunas in the Puna of northern Chilefound higher levels of plasma testosterone, large testessize, greater size of seminiferous tubules, and large diameters of Leydig cell nuclei beginning in February, a month before the summer breeding season started. In the winter month of August spermatogenesis was in the regressive phase. Both findings suggested photoperiod as the mechanism for when males are sexually effective. Insight can be gained from studies on the Vicuna’s domesticated descendent, the Alpaca: an experimental study on Alpacas demonstrated that the continuous association of females and males exerted an inhibiting effect on male sexual activity. After continuous association of two weeks, there was no mating activity by the male even though receptive females were present. However, when mature males were separated from females and reunited at two week intervals, mating occurred. These observations shed light on why nonpregnant Vicunas (and other cameloids) are not bred during non-breeding seasons of the year.Activity patterns.During a year-round, 3-5yearfield study in Pampa Galeras National Reserve, home to a population of the northern subspecies mensalis, Vicuna family groups showed a predictable daily activity pattern in the large open valleys they occupied. Having spent the night on the upperflat ridges in small sleeping territories, within an hour after sunrise they moved as a group down to their daytime feeding territories. They spent the day on these lower slopes or flat plains, feeding at a constant rate. The sleeping territories, on higher ground, were warmer at night than feeding territories and were away from the streambeds where nocturnal predators hunted. The adult male Vicuna in the family group actively defended both territories by challenging and chasing away trespassing Vicunas. If human disturbance did not cause an early retreat back up the slope, the group returned to its sleeping territory in midto late afternoon. In the winter dry season, when small springs on the slopes dried up, groups left their feeding territory and moved to the center of the valley floor to drink from streams. Solo males holding a territory showed similar patterns. Male groups moved randomly and unpredictably through the area. In a separate study at Pampa Galeras National Reserve conducted during the March—-May breeding season, females spent significantly more time grazing than males (54 vs. 45 minutes/hour) and lactating females fed more than non-lactating females (56 vs. 53 minutes/hour). In general females fed 91% of the time; territorial males fed 75% of the time. In Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve above Arequipa, Peru, there was a positive correlation between frequency of alert behavior per adult and the number of offspring in the family group, and at the Laguna de Pozuelos Biosphere Reserve in Argentina, solitary Vicunas spent more time standing and being vigilant and less time foraging than did members of groups. In Abra Pampa (Argentina), territorial males spent more time being vigilant and less time feeding as the size of their family group increased, but not more time in territorial defense (walking, running). At the Laguna Blanca Reserve in Argentina, which is extremely arid, daily activity patterns during the dry season were similar to the patterns of family groups at Pampa Galeras in the same season, with morning feeding on slopes, midday movement to a river on the flat, and a return to the slope and more feeding in the afternoon. At Pampa Galeras there was no significant difference between the amount of time males spent in territorial behavior and the number of female group members or the total group size. Studies at Laguna Blanca on the other subspecies, however, found a substantial decrease in amount of time males spent foraging when the number of females in their group increased.Movements, Home range and Social organization.All Vicuna populations of both subspecies studied to date were sedentary and non-migratory. However, as described above, daily activity patterns and movements are greatly influenced by the need to drink water. Several studies have shown that water distribution and availability can have a major effect on local movement of Vicunas. Despite being well adapted to living in arid conditions, the Vicuna is an obligate drinker and needs to drink often, especially in the dry season when it seeks water daily. Visits to small streams often include water bathing accompanied by dust bathing in dust bowls. The home range of a family group encompasses the area where the group is typically found, thatis,its sleeping territory, feeding territory, and the space in between, as well as those areas it commonly moves through during the dry season on its way to drinking water. The two territories are defended by the male and exclusively occupied by the family group, but the balance of the home range is not;it overlaps and is shared with other groups. These are neutral zones, especially the corridors that groups move through on their way to water. The social units ofVicuna are family groups, male groups, and solo males. A characteristic family group is composed of one adult male, 3-4 females, and two juveniles. Although the permanent territorial family group is the classic Vicuna social unit occupying good habitat containing semi-permanent water, other groups found within Vicuna populations may include marginal territorial family groups occupying secondary habitat types without water, and temporary mobile family groups that lack a territory. Permanentterritorial family groups occupy a year-round feeding territory averaging 18-4 ha (2-56 ha), and sleeping territory averaging 2-6 ha. This is highly unusual for an ungulate. Territorial males defend their sites passively (standing guard near borders) and actively (walking towards, chasing, fighting, biting, etc.) multiple times daily. The territorial system is based upon resource-defense polygyny in which the territorial male defends food resources essential to females. This attracts females to the site, providing them with guaranteed forage in a food-limited environment, within which they can raise their offspring in a socially stable unit free from harassment. The family group male regulates group size by more often than not rejecting outside females, preventing resident females from leaving, and annually forcibly dispersing male young at 4-9 months and expelling female young at 10-11 months of age. The young malesjoin male groups and the females eventuallyjoin another territorial male. Family group size is significantly correlated with feeding territory size and total forage production within the territory. Vocalizations are most commonly used by territorial males, who give a loud alarm call when disturbed by strange objects or a frightening situation: people on foot, herders with dogs, or potential predators such as Culpeos and Pumas. Group size and territory size are density-dependent, decreasing with increasing population size. In extreme cases the system can appear to be more monogamous than polygynous. Male or bachelor groups are bands of 2-155 non-territorial males. The size fluctuates widely; 75% have fewer than 30 males, with 5-10 the most common group size. Male groups frequently invade the family group zones from which they were forced to leave, by individually or cooperatively attacking territorial males. Solo males are sexually mature individuals with an established territory or on the move looking for an available site to establish a territory. In Pampa Galeras, up to 16 months elapsed before solo males were able to attract or forcefully obtain females to form a family group. In intensely studied populations, 32% of all adult males were territorial and family groups made up 75% ofall social units. Territorial boundaries, albeit invisible to the human eye, were well defined and as narrow as one meter. The system was not perfect, as neighboring males were continually testing boundaries. Dung piles were abundant throughout the area. Adults and young of both sexes defecated and urinated only on dung piles, alwaysfirst smelling the dung pile. The primary function of dung piles appeared to be for intragroup orientation, i.e. for assisting members to stay within their territory and neutral zones. If a female inadvertently left her territory she was vehemently chased back by the neighboring territorial male. Dung piles did not keep non-neighbor outsiders out of a territory if the resident male was absent. Thus, the dung piles functioned more for keeping insiders in than outsiders out ofterritories. The highest frequency of dung pile use was when Vicunas were leaving their territories and when groups moved through neutral corridors as if “checking” their location, again suggesting individual self-orientation to avoid aggressive attack by adjacent territorial males. At Pampa Galeras the estimated age that males became territorial was 3—4 years; they remained territorial for at leastsix years. In studies with tagged animals at Aguada Blanca, the average age of solo males was 11-5 years, males in male groups averaged less than three years old, and the average age ofterritorial males was 9-5 years, suggesting significantly longer tenure than Guanacoterritorial males.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, except the populations of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile(I Region) which are included in Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List due to its total numbers, wide range of distribution, and occurrence in a number of protected areas. The genetic diversity of the northern subspecies mensalis is relatively low within populations and high between populations, a pattern commonly observed in threatened species with formerly large ranges that became isolated from each other and then suffered drastic demographic contraction. Total area occupied by Vicunas is around 250,000 km?. The distribution of the two subspecies can be seen as a continuum of scattered and fragmented groups that become less frequent north to south. The small populations of the subspecies vicugnain the south have survived in the Dry Diagonal, an extremely arid zone in the high Andes, where they show a genetic signature of demographic isolation. To the north, the subspecies mensalis populations underwent a rapid demographic expansion in the late Pleistocene due to increased precipitation and the subsequent appearance of highaltitude short grasslands. However, the Dry Diagonal is believed to have prevented both the expansion southward of the northern, moist Puna-adapted forms and the expansion northward of the southern, dry Puna-adapted forms, resulting in the two subspecies found today. The subspecies vicugnais most closely related to the basal taxon,i.e. the species’ primitive extinct ancestor. Both subspecies occur in Boliviaand Chile, but the subspecies mensalis has the highest numbers (73% ofall Vicunas) and widest distribution of the two subspecies. Relative abundance of the southern subspecies vicugnain Boliviais 34% of 112,249 Vicunas (data from 2009) and in Chile7% of a minimum 15,544 Vicunas (data from 2007). Majority of the world’s Vicunas in zoos and private collections are of the southern subspecies. The trend for the Vicuna’s general population is increasing. However, as recently as four decades ago, the Vicuna was threatened with extinction. The total population size was as low as 5000-10,000 individuals due to unrelenting poaching for the Vicuna’s valuable wool. In southern Peruthe Pampa Galeras National Reserve was established in the late 1960s to protect the largest remaining population. The first international treaty, The Vicuna Convention, was initially between Peruand Boliviaand in 1974 signed by Chileand Argentina. It established national parks, reserves, and private lands for the protection of Vicunas, with the goal of requiring live animals to be shorn. Since that time, programs for the sustainable harvest of Vicuna wool have been successfully applied and Vicuna populations began to increase. Ownership of the wild species varies between countries. In Peruand Boliviathey are the property of the state, while in Chileand Argentinano one owns wild Vicunas. Current population densities vary from 0-9 ind/km* to 1-8 ind/km? for Lauca National Park in northern Chileto as high as 87 ind/km* in Pampa Galeras, although optimum estimated density for Vicuna in Pampa Galeras National Reserve is 40-43 ind/km?. The total number of Vicunas is about ¢.421,500, with 52% in Peru, 27% in Bolivia, 17% in Argentina, 4% in Chile(not including the small number in Ecuador). Threats remain for the wild Vicuna: poaching; the fact that some protected areas are only “paper parks;” a lack of national management plans; competition with and overgrazing by domestic livestock; mange/scabies infections from domestic animals; crossbreeding of Alpacas and Vicunas for commercial purposes; and management of Vicuna as captive populations. Overall, conservation programs and their tight control at local, national, and international levels are critical for the conservation of this species.Bibliography.Arzamendia et al. (2006, 2010), Bonacic et al. (2002, 2003), Borgnia et al. (2008, 2010), Bosch & Svendsen (1987), Cassiniet al. (2009), Cajal (1989), Cardellino & Mueller (2009), Davies (2003), Franklin (1969, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1982, 1983), Gordon (2009), Hack (2001), Hoffman & Fowler (1995), Jurgens et al. (1988), Kadwell et al. (2001), Koford (1957), Lichtenstein et al. (2009), Lucherini et al. (2000), Marin et al. (2007), Novoa (1984), Renaudeau d’Arc (2000), Sarno et al. (2005), Stanley et al. (1994), Urquieta et al. (1994), Vila & Cassimi (1993, 1994) Vila & Roig (1992), Vila et al. (2009), Villalba (2003), Wheeler (1995a), Wheeler & Laker (2009), Wheeler, Chikhi & Bruford (2006), Wheeler, Fernandez et al. (2003), Yacobaccio (2009).","taxonomy":"Camelus vicugna Molina, 1782,Chile, “abondano nella parte della Cordigliera spettante alle Provincie de Coquimbo, e di Copiap6” (Cordilleras of Coquimboand Copiapo in northern Chile).The separation of the Vicuna and the Guanaco(Lama guanicoe) occurred 2-3 million years ago. Palaeontological evidence suggests the genus Vicugnaevolved from Hemiauchenia, a North American immigrant to South America, in the lowlands east of the Andes some two million years ago, with widespread distribution as recently as 10,000-13,000 years ago in lowland grasslands of Bolivia, Paraguay, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. Then 9000-12,000 years ago, during the last Pleistocene glacial advance and the subsequent establishment of the Holocene climate, Vicugnamoved from its lowland distribution to its present day, high-elevation habitat. Today, two subspecies are recognized, distinguished on the bases of genetics, habitat, and morphology. Northern subspecies mensalis is closely related to the domestic Alpaca (V. pacos).","commonNames":"Vigogne @fr | Vikunja @de | Vicuna @es | Argentine Vicuna (vicugna) @en | Peruvian Vicufa (mensalis) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Vicugna","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"238","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vicugna","name":"Vicugna vicugna","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V.v.vicugnaMolina,1782—WBolivia,NWArgentina,andNEChilefrom18°Sto29°S.V. v. mensalis Thomas, 1917— SE Peru, W Bolivia, and NE Chilefrom 9° Sto 19° S. Ecuadorhas a small population (c.3000) introduced from Peru, Chile, and Boliviain the 1980s.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719729/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arzamendia et al. (2006, 2010) | Bonacic et al. (2002, 2003) | Borgnia et al. (2008, 2010) | Bosch & Svendsen (1987) | Cassiniet al. (2009) | Cajal (1989) | Cardellino & Mueller (2009) | Davies (2003) | Franklin (1969, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1982, 1983) | Gordon (2009) | Hack (2001) | Hoffman & Fowler (1995) | Jurgens et al. (1988) | Kadwell et al. (2001) | Koford (1957) | Lichtenstein et al. (2009) | Lucherini et al. (2000) | Marin et al. (2007) | Novoa (1984) | Renaudeau d’Arc (2000) | Sarno et al. (2005) | Stanley et al. (1994) | Urquieta et al. (1994) | Vila & Cassimi (1993, 1994) | Vila & Roig (1992) | Vila et al. (2009) | Villalba (2003) | Wheeler (1995a) | Wheeler & Laker (2009) | Wheeler, Chikhi & Bruford (2006) | Wheeler, Fernandez et al. (2003) | Yacobaccio (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"As with other ungulate herbivores, Vicuna habitat and forage selection is based not only upon availability, but heavily influenced by climate (wet vs. dry years), population density (high vs. low), and the social status and ranking of individual animals (high vs. low). Thus for studies done at different locations, landscapes, and animal densities,it is not surprising to see variable results. For example in Peruat the Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Vicunas were observed to be strict grazers on grasses and forbs, whereas in Argentinaat the Laguna Blanca National Park, Vicunas showed some diet plasticity by being grazers on grasses 16-19% ofthe time and browsers on shrubs 59-72% of the time with two grasses (Panicumchlorolewcum and Distichlisspp-) representing nearly 50% of the diet. Feeding preference in productive habitats dominated by grasses has been documented in several areas of the Vicuna’s distribution. Of the two main habitats (grass steppe and vegas) at the Ulla-Ulla Vicuna Reserve in Bolivia, Vicunas preferred vegas. In the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve of ArgentinaVicunaswere more abundant on the grassland plains. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve Vicunas preferred to forage in grass steppe communities characterized by Festucanigesens or by Calamagrostisvicunarum, the latter being the dominant species in the vegetative type known as Excrement Influenced Vegetation (EIV). EIV is the result of long-term defecation-urination by Vicunas on dung piles; the resulting fertilization and accumulation of organic matter accelerates soil and plant succession over a long period of time. The third sere is an isolated “putting-green,” an island of short, abundant plants in rocky terrain downhill from a single or series of dung piles. The top soil is deeper and the plants grow thickly, close to the ground. EIV covered 18% of the total surface area of Pampa Galeras National Reserve, andits third sere had the highest productivity and was the most preferred forage vegetation. The general pattern of Vicuna habitat selection for grass-dominated communities, especially those of high nutritional value, is consistent with the results of diet studies that found Vicunas forage mainly on grasses (Poaceae) and grass-like sedges (Ciperaceae). When Vicunas coexisted with domestic livestock (sheep, goats, donkeys) in Argentina, they were spatially segregated, had a high overlap in diets, and used preferred habitatless than expected. The native Vicuna and exotic domestic animals coexisted because Vicunas were able to utilize suboptimal habitats while herders kept livestock in the richest habitats. A sympatric population of Vicunas and Guanacos in the San Guillermo Biosphere Reserve, Argentina, revealed that the diet of both species was similar, but Guanacos utilized more tall grasses and Vicuna fed more on forbs and short grasses.","breeding":"Vicunas are strong seasonal breeders. Males reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years of age, and become reproductive after obtaining a feeding territory and recruiting females. Most females first mate as two-year-olds. Breeding is almost an unnoticeable event except for a short chase before mating, because the prolonged copulation takes place with the mating pair in sternal recumbency. Females show no unusual behavior to indicate they are in estrus and males do not persistently smell the female’s hindquarters as is common in other ungulates. There is no prolonged preoccupation or tending that ungulate males traditionally show for females in heat, because a territorial male has exclusive and immediate access to females within his territory. In Pampa Galeras National Reserve mating was observed from the end of February to the end of May, but peaked in April (3 matings/100 hours of observation), followed by May (1-8) and March (1-3). Almost all matings were in the morning and within the family group’s feeding territory. Gestation averages c.11-3 months (330-350 days). Females within a few weeks of parturition are visibly pregnant. At the start of the birth season at Pampa Galeras over a three year period, a high percentage of females two years of age or older were pregnant: 85%, 95%, and 85%. The non-pregnant females were mostly two-year-olds because only 20% of one-year-olds mated. Rectal palpation by experienced veterinarians of captive adult Vicunas in Puno(Peru) revealed 99% of females pregnant. Most (90%) births occurred from the last week of February through the first week of April with 75% of the births in March. February is the reported peak birth season for subspecies vicugnain Argentinaand Chile. Nearly all (96%) births occurred in the morning and within the feeding territory. Females give birth to one offspring, with twins not reported or observed. Morning births are likely a behavioral adaptation to the stormy weather typical of Andean afternoons. In summer and early autumn, daily storms regularly start around noon. Young born during the afternoon storms of rain and hail would not be able to dry their soft-insulating wool before entering the nearfreezing nights. Wet newborns would have little chance for survival. A female aboutto give birth separated herself 15-25 m from the group. During the usual one-hour labor the female looked back to inspect her hindquarters, laid down and stood intermittently, changed positions, and walked a few steps every few minutes. Parturition occurred while the female stood. The labor and birthing behaviors were subtle and not easily noticed, as females commonly continued to feed during the process— surely to avoid attracting potential predators in this wide-open habitat. The mother immediately smelled and inspected the head and muzzle of the newborn, but licking did not occur (thus no assistance with the newborn’s thermoregulation) nor was the afterbirth eaten (the latter two behaviors common in other ungulates). Other members of the group frequently came over to smell and inspect the newborn. Newborns weighed 4-6 kg, were on their feet and able to walk in a wobbly way 15-20 minutes after birth, and began nursing when they were 30-45 minutes old. Vicuna young are “followers” as opposed to “hiders” and stay close to their mothers, especially in the first few months. Most young are weaned during the dry season in July and August, when they are 4-6 months old. During the first four months after birth 10-30% of newborns died. The cause was undetermined, but predation by Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and Pumas (Puma concolor) was suspected. Reproductive success as measured in August by the ratio of young to adult females ranged 35-70 young per 100 females in different regions of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. In Chile, density dependency seemed to be operating: the more females in a family group the lower the number of young per female. Very little research has been conducted on the physiology of Vicuna reproduction, but a noteworthy study on reproduction in captive male Vicunas in the Puna of northern Chilefound higher levels of plasma testosterone, large testessize, greater size of seminiferous tubules, and large diameters of Leydig cell nuclei beginning in February, a month before the summer breeding season started. In the winter month of August spermatogenesis was in the regressive phase. Both findings suggested photoperiod as the mechanism for when males are sexually effective. Insight can be gained from studies on the Vicuna’s domesticated descendent, the Alpaca: an experimental study on Alpacas demonstrated that the continuous association of females and males exerted an inhibiting effect on male sexual activity. After continuous association of two weeks, there was no mating activity by the male even though receptive females were present. However, when mature males were separated from females and reunited at two week intervals, mating occurred. These observations shed light on why nonpregnant Vicunas (and other cameloids) are not bred during non-breeding seasons of the year.","activityPatterns":"During a year-round, 3-5yearfield study in Pampa Galeras National Reserve, home to a population of the northern subspecies mensalis, Vicuna family groups showed a predictable daily activity pattern in the large open valleys they occupied. Having spent the night on the upperflat ridges in small sleeping territories, within an hour after sunrise they moved as a group down to their daytime feeding territories. They spent the day on these lower slopes or flat plains, feeding at a constant rate. The sleeping territories, on higher ground, were warmer at night than feeding territories and were away from the streambeds where nocturnal predators hunted. The adult male Vicuna in the family group actively defended both territories by challenging and chasing away trespassing Vicunas. If human disturbance did not cause an early retreat back up the slope, the group returned to its sleeping territory in midto late afternoon. In the winter dry season, when small springs on the slopes dried up, groups left their feeding territory and moved to the center of the valley floor to drink from streams. Solo males holding a territory showed similar patterns. Male groups moved randomly and unpredictably through the area. In a separate study at Pampa Galeras National Reserve conducted during the March—-May breeding season, females spent significantly more time grazing than males (54 vs. 45 minutes/hour) and lactating females fed more than non-lactating females (56 vs. 53 minutes/hour). In general females fed 91% of the time; territorial males fed 75% of the time. In Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve above Arequipa, Peru, there was a positive correlation between frequency of alert behavior per adult and the number of offspring in the family group, and at the Laguna de Pozuelos Biosphere Reserve in Argentina, solitary Vicunas spent more time standing and being vigilant and less time foraging than did members of groups. In Abra Pampa (Argentina), territorial males spent more time being vigilant and less time feeding as the size of their family group increased, but not more time in territorial defense (walking, running). At the Laguna Blanca Reserve in Argentina, which is extremely arid, daily activity patterns during the dry season were similar to the patterns of family groups at Pampa Galeras in the same season, with morning feeding on slopes, midday movement to a river on the flat, and a return to the slope and more feeding in the afternoon. At Pampa Galeras there was no significant difference between the amount of time males spent in territorial behavior and the number of female group members or the total group size. Studies at Laguna Blanca on the other subspecies, however, found a substantial decrease in amount of time males spent foraging when the number of females in their group increased.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"All Vicuna populations of both subspecies studied to date were sedentary and non-migratory. However, as described above, daily activity patterns and movements are greatly influenced by the need to drink water. Several studies have shown that water distribution and availability can have a major effect on local movement of Vicunas. Despite being well adapted to living in arid conditions, the Vicuna is an obligate drinker and needs to drink often, especially in the dry season when it seeks water daily. Visits to small streams often include water bathing accompanied by dust bathing in dust bowls. The home range of a family group encompasses the area where the group is typically found, thatis,its sleeping territory, feeding territory, and the space in between, as well as those areas it commonly moves through during the dry season on its way to drinking water. The two territories are defended by the male and exclusively occupied by the family group, but the balance of the home range is not;it overlaps and is shared with other groups. These are neutral zones, especially the corridors that groups move through on their way to water. The social units ofVicuna are family groups, male groups, and solo males. A characteristic family group is composed of one adult male, 3-4 females, and two juveniles. Although the permanent territorial family group is the classic Vicuna social unit occupying good habitat containing semi-permanent water, other groups found within Vicuna populations may include marginal territorial family groups occupying secondary habitat types without water, and temporary mobile family groups that lack a territory. Permanentterritorial family groups occupy a year-round feeding territory averaging 18-4 ha (2-56 ha), and sleeping territory averaging 2-6 ha. This is highly unusual for an ungulate. Territorial males defend their sites passively (standing guard near borders) and actively (walking towards, chasing, fighting, biting, etc.) multiple times daily. The territorial system is based upon resource-defense polygyny in which the territorial male defends food resources essential to females. This attracts females to the site, providing them with guaranteed forage in a food-limited environment, within which they can raise their offspring in a socially stable unit free from harassment. The family group male regulates group size by more often than not rejecting outside females, preventing resident females from leaving, and annually forcibly dispersing male young at 4-9 months and expelling female young at 10-11 months of age. The young malesjoin male groups and the females eventuallyjoin another territorial male. Family group size is significantly correlated with feeding territory size and total forage production within the territory. Vocalizations are most commonly used by territorial males, who give a loud alarm call when disturbed by strange objects or a frightening situation: people on foot, herders with dogs, or potential predators such as Culpeos and Pumas. Group size and territory size are density-dependent, decreasing with increasing population size. In extreme cases the system can appear to be more monogamous than polygynous. Male or bachelor groups are bands of 2-155 non-territorial males. The size fluctuates widely; 75% have fewer than 30 males, with 5-10 the most common group size. Male groups frequently invade the family group zones from which they were forced to leave, by individually or cooperatively attacking territorial males. Solo males are sexually mature individuals with an established territory or on the move looking for an available site to establish a territory. In Pampa Galeras, up to 16 months elapsed before solo males were able to attract or forcefully obtain females to form a family group. In intensely studied populations, 32% of all adult males were territorial and family groups made up 75% ofall social units. Territorial boundaries, albeit invisible to the human eye, were well defined and as narrow as one meter. The system was not perfect, as neighboring males were continually testing boundaries. Dung piles were abundant throughout the area. Adults and young of both sexes defecated and urinated only on dung piles, alwaysfirst smelling the dung pile. The primary function of dung piles appeared to be for intragroup orientation, i.e. for assisting members to stay within their territory and neutral zones. If a female inadvertently left her territory she was vehemently chased back by the neighboring territorial male. Dung piles did not keep non-neighbor outsiders out of a territory if the resident male was absent. Thus, the dung piles functioned more for keeping insiders in than outsiders out ofterritories. The highest frequency of dung pile use was when Vicunas were leaving their territories and when groups moved through neutral corridors as if “checking” their location, again suggesting individual self-orientation to avoid aggressive attack by adjacent territorial males. At Pampa Galeras the estimated age that males became territorial was 3—4 years; they remained territorial for at leastsix years. In studies with tagged animals at Aguada Blanca, the average age of solo males was 11-5 years, males in male groups averaged less than three years old, and the average age ofterritorial males was 9-5 years, suggesting significantly longer tenure than Guanacoterritorial males.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I, except the populations of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile(I Region) which are included in Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List due to its total numbers, wide range of distribution, and occurrence in a number of protected areas. The genetic diversity of the northern subspecies mensalis is relatively low within populations and high between populations, a pattern commonly observed in threatened species with formerly large ranges that became isolated from each other and then suffered drastic demographic contraction. Total area occupied by Vicunas is around 250,000 km?. The distribution of the two subspecies can be seen as a continuum of scattered and fragmented groups that become less frequent north to south. The small populations of the subspecies vicugnain the south have survived in the Dry Diagonal, an extremely arid zone in the high Andes, where they show a genetic signature of demographic isolation. To the north, the subspecies mensalis populations underwent a rapid demographic expansion in the late Pleistocene due to increased precipitation and the subsequent appearance of highaltitude short grasslands. However, the Dry Diagonal is believed to have prevented both the expansion southward of the northern, moist Puna-adapted forms and the expansion northward of the southern, dry Puna-adapted forms, resulting in the two subspecies found today. The subspecies vicugnais most closely related to the basal taxon,i.e. the species’ primitive extinct ancestor. Both subspecies occur in Boliviaand Chile, but the subspecies mensalis has the highest numbers (73% ofall Vicunas) and widest distribution of the two subspecies. Relative abundance of the southern subspecies vicugnain Boliviais 34% of 112,249 Vicunas (data from 2009) and in Chile7% of a minimum 15,544 Vicunas (data from 2007). Majority of the world’s Vicunas in zoos and private collections are of the southern subspecies. The trend for the Vicuna’s general population is increasing. However, as recently as four decades ago, the Vicuna was threatened with extinction. The total population size was as low as 5000-10,000 individuals due to unrelenting poaching for the Vicuna’s valuable wool. In southern Peruthe Pampa Galeras National Reserve was established in the late 1960s to protect the largest remaining population. The first international treaty, The Vicuna Convention, was initially between Peruand Boliviaand in 1974 signed by Chileand Argentina. It established national parks, reserves, and private lands for the protection of Vicunas, with the goal of requiring live animals to be shorn. Since that time, programs for the sustainable harvest of Vicuna wool have been successfully applied and Vicuna populations began to increase. Ownership of the wild species varies between countries. In Peruand Boliviathey are the property of the state, while in Chileand Argentinano one owns wild Vicunas. Current population densities vary from 0-9 ind/km* to 1-8 ind/km? for Lauca National Park in northern Chileto as high as 87 ind/km* in Pampa Galeras, although optimum estimated density for Vicuna in Pampa Galeras National Reserve is 40-43 ind/km?. The total number of Vicunas is about ¢.421,500, with 52% in Peru, 27% in Bolivia, 17% in Argentina, 4% in Chile(not including the small number in Ecuador). Threats remain for the wild Vicuna: poaching; the fact that some protected areas are only “paper parks;” a lack of national management plans; competition with and overgrazing by domestic livestock; mange/scabies infections from domestic animals; crossbreeding of Alpacas and Vicunas for commercial purposes; and management of Vicuna as captive populations. Overall, conservation programs and their tight control at local, national, and international levels are critical for the conservation of this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 125-190 cm,tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm; weight 38-45 kg. The body color of the soft, woolly coat is pale cinnamon to reddishbrown, with insides of the legs and underside white. There is a bib of coarse white hairs 20-30 cm long on the chest at the base of the neck in the northern subspecies, which is short to almost unnoticeable in the southern subspecies. The body is slender with a long neck. The head is small and wedge-shaped; the ears are slender and pointed. The Vicuna has unique rodent-like incisors. Males and females weigh approximately the same, look alike, and are sexually indistinguishable in the field. Southern subspecies vicugna, sometimes called the “ ArgentineVicuna,” is ¢.15% larger (c. 45 kgvs. 38 kg), length of molars longer, taller at the withers, substantially shorter chest-bib hair, lighter colored, larger white underside countershading, and in general exhibits higher levels of genetic diversity than the northern subspecies mensalis, sometimes referred to as “Peruvian Vicuna.” Vicuna wool (often called fiber) is among the finest in the world at 12-5 + 1-5 microns (Cashmere goat fibers measure 14-19 microns; Chiru, Pantholops hodgsonii fiber is 9-12 microns). The shorn fleeces of 30,391 Vicunas in Peruaveraged 220 g/animal. With its silky texture, Vicuna woolis highly prized, retailing for US$ 250/0z in the USAand in 2004 selling at wholesale for US$ 566,/kg from certified liveshorn animals. World prices for Vicuna wool ranged from US$ 350/kg to US$ 900/kg over the past decade, promoting reference to it as the “Gold of the Andes.” The adaptations responsible for the animal’s outstanding physical endurance at high altitudes include lightweight insulating fleece, which protects against cold and the sun’s ultraviolet light, and high blood-oxygen affinity (highest of all mammals investigated). Full saturation of the blood with oxygen occurs at the lower partial pressure of oxygen that is found at high altitudes. The Vicuna’s heart muscle capillary densities are exceptionally high for a mammal of its body size. Its ability to load and unload oxygen is improved by a relatively high oxygen transfer conductance because ofits small red blood cells, and it has low blood viscosity due to a relative low percentage of red blood cells. Both are advantageous for maximum cardiac output. The Vicuna’slife span is 20 years, with a maximum age of 24 years and nine months recorded in captivity.","habitat":"Vicunas are restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of the Andes.The Vicuna is the highest-altitude ungulate in all of South America, living in a unique montane zone from 3200 mto 4800 mabove sea level called the Puna, a high-altitude, equatorial grassland that is above the tree line but below the snow line. Summer precipitation is typically in the form of rain or hail, rarely snow. It is a dry and cold environment with summer nights hovering close to freezing. Winter nights plummet well below freezing, 10-20°C below the daytime highs. Two distinct habitats with different levels of precipitation can be found within this dry-Andean ecosystem: the high-elevation moist or semi-humid high-Andean Puna and the lower elevation dry or semi-arid Puna habitat. The dry Puna is an extremely dry belt called the Andean Dry Diagonal, a north-west/south-east transition zone between two major hemispheric wind belts centered at the junction of north-west Argentina, south-west Bolivia, and north-east Chile. Within the Dry Diagonalthere is essentially no precipitation, no lakes, and no glacier formation. The distribution of subspecies vicugnais within the Dry Diagonal. Subspecies mensalis is found to the north of it. From a landscape perspective the Puna is characterized by peaks and pronounced slopes, the typical elevated plain that defines the region (Puna or Altiplano), and the intermediate piedmont fringes of smooth slopes. Vicunas use the habitats within the Puna and piedmont zones. The most common habitats in the Puna are xerophytic shrub steppes that are often mixed with an understory of sparse short grasses and forbs (typically not an important habitat for Vicunas); bunchgrass steppes (variable importance); open rocky areas with sparse vegetation (not important); short grass and forb areas on lower slopes, gentle slopes, and plains (important); and wetlands of short plants with high ground cover associated with high ground water, surface water, streams, and lagoons, regionally called bofedales, mojadales, and vegas (important). Bofedales (around 4500 melevation in Peru) are perennially green sedge communities typically dominated by Eleocharisalbracteata and Carexecuadorica with vegetative cover of ¢.22% grasses, 42% sedges and reeds, and 33% forbs, and a crude protein content of 12%. Short-grass forb areas on lowerslopes (around 3190 min Peru) are dominated by the grass species Festucadolichophylla and Muhlenbergiafastigiata with a vegetative cover of 66% grass, 13% sedges and reeds, and 6% forbs, and a crude protein content of 10%."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A49FFC0D040FC84F6FFF24B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A49FFC0D040FC84F6FFF24B","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"243","verbatimText":"5.Bactrian CamelCamelus bactrianusFrench:Chameau/ German:Kamel/ Spanish:CamellobactrianoOther common names:Two-Humped Camel, Double-Humped Camel, Asiatic Camel, Wild Bactrian CamelTaxonomy.Camelus bactrianus Linnaeus, 1758,habitat in Africa. Restricted to “Bactria” (Uzbekistan, Bokhara) by Thomas in 1911 based on domestic stock.Bactria and Bactriana were the Greek and Latin names for the ancient Persian provincial capital Baxtriya in Central Asia. Aristotle (384-322 Bc) applied the term “Bactrian” to the domestic camel associated with this eastern region of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which prospered from Bactrian Camel caravans that transported goods between the East and West over the famed Silk Road. The question of the relatedness and genetic distinctiveness of wild and domestic Bactrian Camelsis actively being pursued. Scientists argue variously that: 1) the wild Bactrian is the progenitor of today’s domestic Bactrian; 2) wild Bactrians are escapees and feral forms of domestics; 3) both derived from a common ancestor now extinct; or 4) both derived from separate ancestors now extinct. Preliminary work by Chinese geneticists first suggested the two Bactrians were sufficiently different to warrant subspecies or potentially even species separation. Recent mtDNA studies by Austrian scientists favor the final argument, estimating divergence between the two camelids at 700,000 years ago in the Pleistocene long before Bactrian domestication (4000-6000 years ago). Some classify the wild Bactrian as Camelusgobi or Camelus bactrianusgobi, while others apply the name Camelus ferusdue to a ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature because C. feruswas first applied to the wild species. In this account, the two animals are differentiated at the subspecies level (wild = C. b. ferusand domestic = C. b. bactrianus). Genetic justification for recognizing the domestic form as a separate species is growing, and all workers agree that the critically endangered wild Bactrian is in desperate need of protective conservation measures. Two subspecies recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C.b.bactrianusLinnaeus,1758—aridlandsanddesertsofC&SAsiaasdomesticatedlivestock.C. b. ferus Przewalski, 1878— NW China(C & SE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, NW Qinghai& NW Gansu) and Mongolia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 320-350 cm, tail 51-64 cm, shoulder height 160-180 cm; weight 450-500 kg. Compared to Dromedary Camels (C. dromedarius), Bactrians have stouter and thicker bodies with relatively shorter legs, and two humps instead of one. Dromedaries are slimmer and taller. In winter the Bactrian’s long, woolly coat is sandy beige to dark brown, shedding in large clumps as temperatures warm in spring. They have a mane and a beard of long hair on the neck and throat, with hairs up to 25 cmlong. Long eyelashes and sealable nostrils help to keep out dust in sandstorms. Two broad toes on each foot with undivided soles create a large, flat footpad that spreads widely as an adaptation for walking on sand. Their long face is somewhat triangular, with a split upper lip. Bactrians are well suited to cold and hot temperatures and are suspected to have physiological adaptations similar to those of Dromedaries. Their humps function the same way as Dromedaries’ humps, storing fat convertible to water and energy when there is a shortage of sustenance and enabling the animals to endure harsh desert conditions and periods of travel without water. As the fat depletes, the humps become floppy and flabby. Like Dromedaries, Bactrians rarely sweat, facilitating conservation of fluids. Dehydrated animals are able to drink 135 1 of water in 13 minutes. Although wild and domestic Bactrians have similar conformation and body structure, field observers report obvious differences in behavior, habits, and general appearance. Unlike the ponderous domestic Bactrians, wild ones are relatively lithe. Wild Bactrians are slimmer and smaller-bodied (laterally compressed), with slender limbs. They are sandy-gray-brown rather than predominantly dark brown, with shorter, sparser wool. There is no tuft of hair on top of the head, and the hair on the neck,tail, and knee joints is shorter. They do not have growths on the inner foreleg or callosities on the knees. The wild form has smaller ears and very narrow feet. Notably, their humps are lower, pointed, conical-shaped, and usually about half the size orless of the domestic Bactrian’s. They are timid and elusive.Habitat.Bactrians are adapted for living in plains and hills where vegetation and water sources are sparse. They inhabit some of most inhospitable terrain in the world, centered in the extreme Gobi Desert of Central Asia. Gobi means “the rocky place” and it is primarily a rocky desert covered with small stones. There are low valleys and eroded hills, rocky-mountain massifs, “hamadas” (flat pavement-like stony plains), vast washed-out plains, high sand dunes, and rarely, poplarfringed oases. Summers are torrid, winters are cold. Annual precipitation is 50-200 mm. This is a region of extreme drought and scarce food and water. The Taklamankan Desert is sandy; Lop Nur Desert is both a rocky and sandy desert. Field studies in the Lop Nur Lake region of Chinarevealed a Bactrian habitat preference for riparian communities and piedmont foothills; they were more often found in higher,hilly landscape than in the open. The Bactrians avoided gravel desert substrate and areas with hard, salt-crusted soil or moving sand dunes, preferring moderately hard ground. They stayed away from areas occupied by people. They used locations where the distance between foraging habitats and water sources did not exceed ¢.50-60 km and where there was relatively high coverage of halophytic vegetation, especially along lakeshores. In Mongolia preliminary results of satellite telemetry revealed a weak preference for habitat dominated by saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendrum) and no selection of areas with higher productivity or closer to permanent water sources. Climate change has altered Bactrian habitat by increasing the rate of desertification and reducing water resources and vegetation. Wild Bactrians have few native predators. Contrary to some accounts, Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) pose no threat, and although Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) predation does occur,its impact is poorly understood.Food and Feeding.Bactrians are opportunistic feeders capable of utilizing low-quality forage when more desirable herbage is unavailable. They are both grazers and browsers. Research on free-ranging domestic Bactrians in wild Bactrian habitat in the Gobi Desert provides the best information available on feeding habits. Those studies found that the camels’ main diet switched from senesced forbs in winter to a shrub in spring and to an increasing dependence on forbs in autumn. Although the shrub Haloxylon ammodendron was the dominant and highest biomass species in this desert community and a staple component of the camels’ diet each season, it was not preferred forage. Still, the shrub was essential when preferred forbs were not available in spring and summer. In autumn preferred annual forbs provided sufficient biomass. New plant growth during the wet season in summer and autumn was vitally important for replenishing the camels’ depleted fat reserves in preparation for winter. Domestic Bactrians are dependent on a year-long forage supply from the fragile and extremely arid environment they occupy. They show a preference for grazing on forbs, but are highly dependent upon browsing on shrubs. It has been reported that Bactrians can utilize salt water, with some researchers stating that salty water is necessary for their survival. When sufficient food is available in spring, summer, and autumn, Bactrians rarely have to drink, obtaining water requirements from plant moisture. In winter they have been observed to eat ice and snow.Breeding.Breeding season is called the “musth” after the thick fluid exuded from a gland on the neck behind the head in adult males. A study of semi-captive wild Bactrians found that females reached puberty after three years and males at 5-7 years of age. Wild rutting males in Mongoliabegin forming harems in late autumn (November) and mating in early winter, with most mating in January and February, but occasionally as late at March, or even May. Young males are driven out of the harems by rutting males and form bachelor herds; young females remain with their mothers. Males employ spitting (saliva and pseudorumen contents), kicking, biting, and screaming as offensive and defensive behaviors against each other during mating season. During the rut, wild males stretch their necks, shake their heads while roaring, and make loud noises with their teeth. Simultaneously they are foaming/frothing from the mouth and shaking their lips to throw foam on their head and chests. Occasionally they widen their hindlegs to urinate on their tails, using the tail to spread urine on their hips, hump, and head. The concentrated brown secretion from the 1-5 cm x 5 cmgland behind the head is rubbed on the forehump, giving it a darker color. The penis is 4 cmwide x 13-5 cm long. There is no use of dung piles by either sex. Estrous females are usually receptive in January or February for 4-7 days, at which time they follow males, knocking mating males off females and occasionally urinating. To mate, females lift theirtails after lying down in a sternal recumbancy position. Males typically mate with females 2-3 times in the morning or evening for 3-5 minutes each time. After mating, the genitals of females swell and become pink. Females are semen-induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs 30-48 hours after mating. Gestation of semi-captives in Mongoliawas 390-430 days (13-14 months) depending upon the age of the female and the number of previous calves. Females give birth to a single offspring while standing, but only every 2-3 years. Spring birth season is from March to April. Females giving birth isolate themselves from other animals and people, remaining alone for about two weeks. Calves are able to stumble-walk within 15-30 minutes. They weigh 32-34 kg at birth and nurse every 1-2 hours. Body growth levels off at seven years. Domestic Bactrians produce ¢.760 I of milk during 16 months of lactation. Calves are commonly weaned at 10-11 months but may nurse for up to 18 months. In captive Bactrians there is liberal and indiscriminate allonursing (adult females nursing non-offspring); this has been observed about one-third of the time, and was not correlated with the age of the mother or relatedness of the calf. Spring to autumn calf mortality is high, at 50%. Poor calf survival is often the result of drought, sandstorms, and freezing temperatures. Aerial surveys in the early 2000s counted only 3-9 young/ 100 adults,significantly lower than surveys in 1980 and 1998. The remaining Bactrian population cannot sustain itself with such a low calf-survival rate. Wild and domestic Bactrian Camels readily interbreed, producing fertile-hybrid offspring that can be differentiated by genetic testing based upon fixed mitochondrial sequence polymorphism. They can live as long as 35 years.Activity patterns.Activity budgets are an indication of an animal’s welfare since its primary activities are centered on energy acquisition, conservation, or expenditure. Bactrian Camels are diurnal feeders and nocturnal sleepers. In winter they spend less time foraging and more time resting than in spring and summer. There is high foraging activity in spring, triggered by readily available shrubs with minimal walking required. Daily patterns of activity are structured to expend the least amount of energy to obtain food, even when the food is not preferred forage.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bactrians often move 50-100 km seeking permanent surface water and patches of foraging habitat. Some populations are suspected to be migratory, especially those in the Chinese Lop Nur Lake region where the animals move between lakeside riparian communities in winter and cooler foothills in the summer. Researchers tracked seven wild camels in the Mongolian Gobi for one year, using satellite telemetry. One adult female moved a minimum of 4527 kmin a home range of 17,232 km. She spent 75% of her time within 8699 km?. Ground surveys in Mongoliareport that the Bactrian population was composed of 82% adults, 12% juveniles (non-reproductive young), and 6% calves (depending upon the time of year). Groups sighted in Chinanumbered 4-40 individuals and in Mongoliafrom one animal to dozens, with researchers frequently encountering groups of more than 50 animals. From 1982 to 1989, when a total of 2370 wild Bactrians and 675 groups were sighted, average herd size was six (5-3—-6-5) with 6-20 animals/group the most common. Other than sporadic and irregular sightings in the vast Gobi Desert, where low densities of Bactrian Camels occur, we know almost nothing of their year-round social organization. However, it would not be surprising to find that the Bactrian social system is similar to that observed in wild/feral Dromedaries of Australia. Gray Wolves have been cited as a contributing factor to the Bactrian’s decline in both Chinaand Mongolia, but the evidence is weak because it is primarily based upon camel remains in scats, which could have been from scavenging.Status and Conservation.The wild subspecies is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List and Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It is considered by some to be on the verge of extinction. Protected nationally in Chinaand Mongolia. The Bactrian’s original distribution and natural habitat was the entire Asian Trans-Altai Gobi Desert, stretching from the great bend of the Yellow River in north-east Chinathroughout Mongoliato central Kazakhstanin the west, at elevations 1500-2000 m above sea level in an area that encompassed nearly 100,000 km*. Today they are greatly reduced to a few small and fragmented populations in south-western Mongoliaand nearby areas of north-western Chinain a total area ¢. 28,000 km*. Four populations of wild Bactrians survive: the Taklamakan Desert; Altun Mountains and Archik Valley; and Gashun Desert populations in China; and the Outer Gobi Desert population of Mongoliaand China, which migrates between the two countries. Overall numbers greatly reduced in the past century because of hunting for their meat and hides, habitat loss due to grazing, and competition for water with domestic livestock (domestic camels, sheep, goats, horses, and cattle), interbreeding with domestic camels, mining activities, and poor reproduction and survival of young. Because of harsh climatic conditions, lack of appropriate aircraft for aerial surveys, and the remote and vast region where the remaining Bactrians live, there is uncertainty as to the total numbers remaining. The famous Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, who is given credit for discovering the wild Bactrian Camel of Asia during his travels to Mongoliaand China, noted in 1876: “According to our informants wild camels are numerous in north-western Tsaidam, where the country is barren, the soil being clay, overgrown with budarbana, and so destitute of water that they have to go several miles to drink, and in winter are obligated to satisfy their thirst with snow. The herds are small, averaging five to ten in each, never more than twenty. Their appearanceis slightly different from the domesticated breed: their humps are smaller, the muzzle more pointed, and the color of the hair gray.” It has been reported that wild Bactrians experienced drastic reduction in numbers and range over the past 10-20 years, but the most recent and reliable data suggests that populations in Mongoliahave been relatively stable if not increasing. Actual numbers are unclear and little is known. Estimates of total population size from incomplete ground surveys are as low as 730-950 individuals with projections from aerial surveys in Mongoliaof 4335 individuals. Attempts to assist with Bactrian conservation efforts in Mongoliathrough a captive breeding program have been unsuccessful. In China, the population is suspected to be decreasing in the Taklamakan Desert, because of oil development, but not in the Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve. The wild Bactrian Camel may well be one of the most endangered large mammals on Earth, and our knowledge ofits basic biology and ecology is dismally poor. Research is needed on the comparative genetics of wild and domestic forms, reproductive physiology, population structure and dynamics, and habitat requirements. Bactrian camels need immediate conservation attention, including standardization of methodology for accurate population surveys in both Chinaand Mongolia; development of a comprehensive conservation program; increasing support among local people, including control of illegal hunting; habitat improvement; prevention of hybridization with domestic camels that threatens the gene pool of the Mongolian wild camel population, particularly in the Great Gobi “A” Strictly Protected Area and its associated Buffer Zone; and an increase in the number and size of protected areas. The Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve in China, a former nuclear test site, is especially critical because it is believed to contain the most genetically pure individuals of the species.Bibliography.Adiya et al. (2004), Al-Ani (2004), Bannikov (1976), Burger & Charruau (2011), ChinaStatistical Yearbook (2008), Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981), Gentry et al. (2004), Grubb (2005), Guoying (2001), Han Jie et al. (2002), Hare (1996, 1997, 1998, 2008), Indra et al. (2002, 2003), Ji Rimutu et al. (2009), Menglia et al. (2006), Mijiddorj (2002a, 2002b), Mix et al. (2002), Peters & von den Driesch (1997b), Potts (2004), Reading, Blumeret al. (2005), Reading, Enkhbileg & Galbataar (2002), Reading, Mix, Blumer et al. (2002), Reading, Mix, Lhagvasuren & Blumer (1999), Schaller (1998), Silbermayr et al. (2010) Tilson (1986), Tserenbaljid (2002), Tulgat (2002), Tulgat & Schaller (1992), Weidong et al. (2002), Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2002).","taxonomy":"Camelus bactrianus Linnaeus, 1758,habitat in Africa. Restricted to “Bactria” (Uzbekistan, Bokhara) by Thomas in 1911 based on domestic stock.Bactria and Bactriana were the Greek and Latin names for the ancient Persian provincial capital Baxtriya in Central Asia. Aristotle (384-322 Bc) applied the term “Bactrian” to the domestic camel associated with this eastern region of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which prospered from Bactrian Camel caravans that transported goods between the East and West over the famed Silk Road. The question of the relatedness and genetic distinctiveness of wild and domestic Bactrian Camelsis actively being pursued. Scientists argue variously that: 1) the wild Bactrian is the progenitor of today’s domestic Bactrian; 2) wild Bactrians are escapees and feral forms of domestics; 3) both derived from a common ancestor now extinct; or 4) both derived from separate ancestors now extinct. Preliminary work by Chinese geneticists first suggested the two Bactrians were sufficiently different to warrant subspecies or potentially even species separation. Recent mtDNA studies by Austrian scientists favor the final argument, estimating divergence between the two camelids at 700,000 years ago in the Pleistocene long before Bactrian domestication (4000-6000 years ago). Some classify the wild Bactrian as Camelusgobi or Camelus bactrianusgobi, while others apply the name Camelus ferusdue to a ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature because C. feruswas first applied to the wild species. In this account, the two animals are differentiated at the subspecies level (wild = C. b. ferusand domestic = C. b. bactrianus). Genetic justification for recognizing the domestic form as a separate species is growing, and all workers agree that the critically endangered wild Bactrian is in desperate need of protective conservation measures. Two subspecies recognized here.","commonNames":"Chameau @fr | Kamel @de | Camellobactriano @es | Two-Humped Camel @en | Double-Humped Camel @en | Asiatic Camel @en | Wild Bactrian Camel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Camelus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"243","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bactrianus","name":"Camelus bactrianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.b.bactrianusLinnaeus,1758—aridlandsanddesertsofC&SAsiaasdomesticatedlivestock.C. b. ferus Przewalski, 1878— NW China(C & SE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, NW Qinghai& NW Gansu) and Mongolia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719735/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Adiya et al. (2004) | Al-Ani (2004) | Bannikov (1976) | Burger & Charruau (2011) | ChinaStatistical Yearbook (2008) | Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981) | Gentry et al. (2004) | Grubb (2005) | Guoying (2001) | Han Jie et al. (2002) | Hare (1996, 1997, 1998, 2008) | Indra et al. (2002, 2003) | Ji Rimutu et al. (2009) | Menglia et al. (2006) | Mijiddorj (2002a, 2002b) | Mix et al. (2002) | Peters & von den Driesch (1997b) | Potts (2004) | Reading, Blumeret al. (2005) | Reading, Enkhbileg & Galbataar (2002) | Reading, Mix, Blumer et al. (2002) | Reading, Mix, Lhagvasuren & Blumer (1999) | Schaller (1998) | Silbermayr et al. (2010) | Tilson (1986) | Tserenbaljid (2002) | Tulgat (2002) | Tulgat & Schaller (1992) | Weidong et al. (2002) | Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"Bactrians are opportunistic feeders capable of utilizing low-quality forage when more desirable herbage is unavailable. They are both grazers and browsers. Research on free-ranging domestic Bactrians in wild Bactrian habitat in the Gobi Desert provides the best information available on feeding habits. Those studies found that the camels’ main diet switched from senesced forbs in winter to a shrub in spring and to an increasing dependence on forbs in autumn. Although the shrub Haloxylon ammodendron was the dominant and highest biomass species in this desert community and a staple component of the camels’ diet each season, it was not preferred forage. Still, the shrub was essential when preferred forbs were not available in spring and summer. In autumn preferred annual forbs provided sufficient biomass. New plant growth during the wet season in summer and autumn was vitally important for replenishing the camels’ depleted fat reserves in preparation for winter. Domestic Bactrians are dependent on a year-long forage supply from the fragile and extremely arid environment they occupy. They show a preference for grazing on forbs, but are highly dependent upon browsing on shrubs. It has been reported that Bactrians can utilize salt water, with some researchers stating that salty water is necessary for their survival. When sufficient food is available in spring, summer, and autumn, Bactrians rarely have to drink, obtaining water requirements from plant moisture. In winter they have been observed to eat ice and snow.","breeding":"Breeding season is called the “musth” after the thick fluid exuded from a gland on the neck behind the head in adult males. A study of semi-captive wild Bactrians found that females reached puberty after three years and males at 5-7 years of age. Wild rutting males in Mongoliabegin forming harems in late autumn (November) and mating in early winter, with most mating in January and February, but occasionally as late at March, or even May. Young males are driven out of the harems by rutting males and form bachelor herds; young females remain with their mothers. Males employ spitting (saliva and pseudorumen contents), kicking, biting, and screaming as offensive and defensive behaviors against each other during mating season. During the rut, wild males stretch their necks, shake their heads while roaring, and make loud noises with their teeth. Simultaneously they are foaming/frothing from the mouth and shaking their lips to throw foam on their head and chests. Occasionally they widen their hindlegs to urinate on their tails, using the tail to spread urine on their hips, hump, and head. The concentrated brown secretion from the 1-5 cm x 5 cmgland behind the head is rubbed on the forehump, giving it a darker color. The penis is 4 cmwide x 13-5 cm long. There is no use of dung piles by either sex. Estrous females are usually receptive in January or February for 4-7 days, at which time they follow males, knocking mating males off females and occasionally urinating. To mate, females lift theirtails after lying down in a sternal recumbancy position. Males typically mate with females 2-3 times in the morning or evening for 3-5 minutes each time. After mating, the genitals of females swell and become pink. Females are semen-induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs 30-48 hours after mating. Gestation of semi-captives in Mongoliawas 390-430 days (13-14 months) depending upon the age of the female and the number of previous calves. Females give birth to a single offspring while standing, but only every 2-3 years. Spring birth season is from March to April. Females giving birth isolate themselves from other animals and people, remaining alone for about two weeks. Calves are able to stumble-walk within 15-30 minutes. They weigh 32-34 kg at birth and nurse every 1-2 hours. Body growth levels off at seven years. Domestic Bactrians produce ¢.760 I of milk during 16 months of lactation. Calves are commonly weaned at 10-11 months but may nurse for up to 18 months. In captive Bactrians there is liberal and indiscriminate allonursing (adult females nursing non-offspring); this has been observed about one-third of the time, and was not correlated with the age of the mother or relatedness of the calf. Spring to autumn calf mortality is high, at 50%. Poor calf survival is often the result of drought, sandstorms, and freezing temperatures. Aerial surveys in the early 2000s counted only 3-9 young/ 100 adults,significantly lower than surveys in 1980 and 1998. The remaining Bactrian population cannot sustain itself with such a low calf-survival rate. Wild and domestic Bactrian Camels readily interbreed, producing fertile-hybrid offspring that can be differentiated by genetic testing based upon fixed mitochondrial sequence polymorphism. They can live as long as 35 years.","activityPatterns":"Activity budgets are an indication of an animal’s welfare since its primary activities are centered on energy acquisition, conservation, or expenditure. Bactrian Camels are diurnal feeders and nocturnal sleepers. In winter they spend less time foraging and more time resting than in spring and summer. There is high foraging activity in spring, triggered by readily available shrubs with minimal walking required. Daily patterns of activity are structured to expend the least amount of energy to obtain food, even when the food is not preferred forage.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Bactrians often move 50-100 km seeking permanent surface water and patches of foraging habitat. Some populations are suspected to be migratory, especially those in the Chinese Lop Nur Lake region where the animals move between lakeside riparian communities in winter and cooler foothills in the summer. Researchers tracked seven wild camels in the Mongolian Gobi for one year, using satellite telemetry. One adult female moved a minimum of 4527 kmin a home range of 17,232 km. She spent 75% of her time within 8699 km?. Ground surveys in Mongoliareport that the Bactrian population was composed of 82% adults, 12% juveniles (non-reproductive young), and 6% calves (depending upon the time of year). Groups sighted in Chinanumbered 4-40 individuals and in Mongoliafrom one animal to dozens, with researchers frequently encountering groups of more than 50 animals. From 1982 to 1989, when a total of 2370 wild Bactrians and 675 groups were sighted, average herd size was six (5-3—-6-5) with 6-20 animals/group the most common. Other than sporadic and irregular sightings in the vast Gobi Desert, where low densities of Bactrian Camels occur, we know almost nothing of their year-round social organization. However, it would not be surprising to find that the Bactrian social system is similar to that observed in wild/feral Dromedaries of Australia. Gray Wolves have been cited as a contributing factor to the Bactrian’s decline in both Chinaand Mongolia, but the evidence is weak because it is primarily based upon camel remains in scats, which could have been from scavenging.","statusAndConservation":"The wild subspecies is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List and Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It is considered by some to be on the verge of extinction. Protected nationally in Chinaand Mongolia. The Bactrian’s original distribution and natural habitat was the entire Asian Trans-Altai Gobi Desert, stretching from the great bend of the Yellow River in north-east Chinathroughout Mongoliato central Kazakhstanin the west, at elevations 1500-2000 m above sea level in an area that encompassed nearly 100,000 km*. Today they are greatly reduced to a few small and fragmented populations in south-western Mongoliaand nearby areas of north-western Chinain a total area ¢. 28,000 km*. Four populations of wild Bactrians survive: the Taklamakan Desert; Altun Mountains and Archik Valley; and Gashun Desert populations in China; and the Outer Gobi Desert population of Mongoliaand China, which migrates between the two countries. Overall numbers greatly reduced in the past century because of hunting for their meat and hides, habitat loss due to grazing, and competition for water with domestic livestock (domestic camels, sheep, goats, horses, and cattle), interbreeding with domestic camels, mining activities, and poor reproduction and survival of young. Because of harsh climatic conditions, lack of appropriate aircraft for aerial surveys, and the remote and vast region where the remaining Bactrians live, there is uncertainty as to the total numbers remaining. The famous Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, who is given credit for discovering the wild Bactrian Camel of Asia during his travels to Mongoliaand China, noted in 1876: “According to our informants wild camels are numerous in north-western Tsaidam, where the country is barren, the soil being clay, overgrown with budarbana, and so destitute of water that they have to go several miles to drink, and in winter are obligated to satisfy their thirst with snow. The herds are small, averaging five to ten in each, never more than twenty. Their appearanceis slightly different from the domesticated breed: their humps are smaller, the muzzle more pointed, and the color of the hair gray.” It has been reported that wild Bactrians experienced drastic reduction in numbers and range over the past 10-20 years, but the most recent and reliable data suggests that populations in Mongoliahave been relatively stable if not increasing. Actual numbers are unclear and little is known. Estimates of total population size from incomplete ground surveys are as low as 730-950 individuals with projections from aerial surveys in Mongoliaof 4335 individuals. Attempts to assist with Bactrian conservation efforts in Mongoliathrough a captive breeding program have been unsuccessful. In China, the population is suspected to be decreasing in the Taklamakan Desert, because of oil development, but not in the Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve. The wild Bactrian Camel may well be one of the most endangered large mammals on Earth, and our knowledge ofits basic biology and ecology is dismally poor. Research is needed on the comparative genetics of wild and domestic forms, reproductive physiology, population structure and dynamics, and habitat requirements. Bactrian camels need immediate conservation attention, including standardization of methodology for accurate population surveys in both Chinaand Mongolia; development of a comprehensive conservation program; increasing support among local people, including control of illegal hunting; habitat improvement; prevention of hybridization with domestic camels that threatens the gene pool of the Mongolian wild camel population, particularly in the Great Gobi “A” Strictly Protected Area and its associated Buffer Zone; and an increase in the number and size of protected areas. The Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve in China, a former nuclear test site, is especially critical because it is believed to contain the most genetically pure individuals of the species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 320-350 cm, tail 51-64 cm, shoulder height 160-180 cm; weight 450-500 kg. Compared to Dromedary Camels (C. dromedarius), Bactrians have stouter and thicker bodies with relatively shorter legs, and two humps instead of one. Dromedaries are slimmer and taller. In winter the Bactrian’s long, woolly coat is sandy beige to dark brown, shedding in large clumps as temperatures warm in spring. They have a mane and a beard of long hair on the neck and throat, with hairs up to 25 cmlong. Long eyelashes and sealable nostrils help to keep out dust in sandstorms. Two broad toes on each foot with undivided soles create a large, flat footpad that spreads widely as an adaptation for walking on sand. Their long face is somewhat triangular, with a split upper lip. Bactrians are well suited to cold and hot temperatures and are suspected to have physiological adaptations similar to those of Dromedaries. Their humps function the same way as Dromedaries’ humps, storing fat convertible to water and energy when there is a shortage of sustenance and enabling the animals to endure harsh desert conditions and periods of travel without water. As the fat depletes, the humps become floppy and flabby. Like Dromedaries, Bactrians rarely sweat, facilitating conservation of fluids. Dehydrated animals are able to drink 135 1 of water in 13 minutes. Although wild and domestic Bactrians have similar conformation and body structure, field observers report obvious differences in behavior, habits, and general appearance. Unlike the ponderous domestic Bactrians, wild ones are relatively lithe. Wild Bactrians are slimmer and smaller-bodied (laterally compressed), with slender limbs. They are sandy-gray-brown rather than predominantly dark brown, with shorter, sparser wool. There is no tuft of hair on top of the head, and the hair on the neck,tail, and knee joints is shorter. They do not have growths on the inner foreleg or callosities on the knees. The wild form has smaller ears and very narrow feet. Notably, their humps are lower, pointed, conical-shaped, and usually about half the size orless of the domestic Bactrian’s. They are timid and elusive.","habitat":"Bactrians are adapted for living in plains and hills where vegetation and water sources are sparse. They inhabit some of most inhospitable terrain in the world, centered in the extreme Gobi Desert of Central Asia. Gobi means “the rocky place” and it is primarily a rocky desert covered with small stones. There are low valleys and eroded hills, rocky-mountain massifs, “hamadas” (flat pavement-like stony plains), vast washed-out plains, high sand dunes, and rarely, poplarfringed oases. Summers are torrid, winters are cold. Annual precipitation is 50-200 mm. This is a region of extreme drought and scarce food and water. The Taklamankan Desert is sandy; Lop Nur Desert is both a rocky and sandy desert. Field studies in the Lop Nur Lake region of Chinarevealed a Bactrian habitat preference for riparian communities and piedmont foothills; they were more often found in higher,hilly landscape than in the open. The Bactrians avoided gravel desert substrate and areas with hard, salt-crusted soil or moving sand dunes, preferring moderately hard ground. They stayed away from areas occupied by people. They used locations where the distance between foraging habitats and water sources did not exceed ¢.50-60 km and where there was relatively high coverage of halophytic vegetation, especially along lakeshores. In Mongolia preliminary results of satellite telemetry revealed a weak preference for habitat dominated by saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendrum) and no selection of areas with higher productivity or closer to permanent water sources. Climate change has altered Bactrian habitat by increasing the rate of desertification and reducing water resources and vegetation. Wild Bactrians have few native predators. Contrary to some accounts, Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) pose no threat, and although Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) predation does occur,its impact is poorly understood."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/92/8E/03928E699A4FFFC6D57EFE83F6A8F649.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03928E699A4FFFC6D57EFE83F6A8F649","docName":"hbmw_2_Camelidae_0206.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffabf6119a43ffcbd51bff89ff98ffcb","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"245","verbatimText":"6.Dromedary CamelCamelus dromedariusFrench:Dromadaire/ German:Dromedar/ Spanish:DromedarioOther common names:Camel, Arabian Camel, One-Humped Camel, Single-Humped Camel, Ship of the DesertTaxonomy.Camelus dromedarius Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Africae desertis arenosis siticulosis.” Restricted to “deserts of Libyaand Arabia” by Thomas in 1911.This species is monotypic.Distribution.A species found in the arid and semi-arid regions of N Africa to the Middle East, and parts of C Asia. A sizeabledfreeranging/feral population in C&W Australia. The Dromedary overlaps with the domestic Bactrian Camel (C. bactrianus) in Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, India, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Dromedaries are a domestic species with c¢.50 breeds selected and used for pulling carts, plowing, lifting water at wells, carrying packs, milk production, smooth riding, and racing. The breeds include those in Saudi Arabia(Mojaheem, Maghateer, Wadah, and Awarik), India(Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, and Mewari), Pakistan(Marecha, Dhatti, Larri, Kohi, Campbelpuri, and Sakrai), and Turkmenistan(Arvana). The evidence for domestication comes from archaeological sites dating ¢.4000-5000 years ago in the S Arabian Peninsula with the wild form becoming extinct ¢.2000-5000 years ago. No non-introduced wild populations exist. In Asia Dromedaries occur from Turkeyto W Indiaand N to Kazahkstan. All camels in Africa are Dromedaries, 80-85% in the Sahel and NE portion of the continent (Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya), with the S distribution limited by humidity and trypanosomiasis. Dromedaries in S Africa show no evidence of loss of genetic diversity within 16 populations and very low differentiation among populations. In Kenyan Dromedaries two separate genetic entities have been identified: the Somali and a group including the Gabbra, Rendille, and Turkanapopulations. In Indiatwo distinct genetic clusters have been described for Dromedaries: the Mewari breed being differentiated from the Bikaneri, Kutchi, and the Jaisalmeri breeds. From the 17\" to the early 20\" century unsuccessful attempts were made to introduce Dromedaries to the Caribbean, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Namibia, and south-western USA. Successful introductions of camels were made to the Canary Islands in 1405 and some 10,000 to Australiafrom 1840 to 1907. Camels were important for exploring and developing the Outback of C&W Australia, where they were used for riding; drafting; transporting supplies, railway, and telegraph materials; and as a source of meat and wool. Most (6600) introduced Dromedaries came from India. Three breeds were originally introduced: camels for riding from Rajasthan, India, camels for heavy work from the Kandahar regionof Afghanistan, and camels for riding and carrying moderate cargo loads from Sind, Pakistan. The camels in Australiatoday are a blend of these original imports. By the 1920s, there were an estimated 20,000 domesticated camels in Australia, but by 1930, with the arrival of rail and motor transportation, camels were no longer needed and many were released to the wild. Well suited to the Australian deserts, the camels bred prolifically, spreading across arid and semi-arid areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, and into parts of Queensland, and today they occupy 37% of the continent.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-340 cm, tail 45-55 cm, shoulder height 180-200 cm; weight 400-600 kg. Males and females of near equal size, but in some breeds the females are ¢.10% smaller than males. Body is often sandy colored, but can range from nearly all white to black or even two-colored piebald. Body shape characterized by a long-curved neck, long and thin legs, and deep narrow chest. The hindquarters are less developed than the weight-bearing front legs. Large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges. Facial features include thick eyebrows, long eyelashes, and transparent eyelids that allow partial vision when the eyes close in sandstorms. Thick fine hair in winter for warmth sheds in summer. Hair is longer on throat, shoulder, and hump. The single hump, on the middle of the back (c. 20 cmhigher than shoulder)is a reservoir offatty cells bound by fibroustissues, used in times of food and water scarcity. Hump size varies, depending upon an individual's nutritional status. In a state of starvation, the hump can be almost non-existent. The head is small relative to body size. Slit-like nostrils, surrounded by sphincter muscles, can close to keep out dust and sand. Split upperlip with two independently moving halves and a pendulous lowerlip allow for prehensile-like grasping of forage. Upper middle and inner incisors are replaced by a tough dental pad that opposes the lower incisors. Canines, especially the upper, are massive and pointed. Skin is tightly attached to underlying tissues and modified into horny pads at the sternum, elbows, carpals,stifles, and tarsals: these protect the body when a camelis lying down on hot or rough ground. No facial glands, but males have well-developed occipital glands 5-6 cm below the nuchal crest on either side of the neck midline. The glands increase in size with age, and during the rut they secrete a pungent coffee-colored fluid. Small oval erythrocytes may enhance blood circulation and oxygen carrying capacity. Dromedaries are digitgrade each with two dorsal nails and padded feet well adapted for sandy substrates; the front feet are larger than the hindfeet. The mammary gland has four quarters and teats. Adult dental formula: 11/3,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32 with permanent lower incisors appearing at 2:5—6-5 years and all teeth emerged by eight years. A triangular bone ¢.3 x 2: 5 cmis lodged in the tendinous fibers in the center of the diaphragm, preventing compression of the interior vena cava and distributing muscular pull over a larger surface. Lungs are not lobed. The stomach is complex, with three compartments. When foraging on green and moist plants Dromedaries do not require drinking water. If wateris available in summer, they will drink regularly at dawn. In extreme drought, they need access to waterholes. The Dromedary’s ability to endure severe heat and dryness does not depend upon water storage; instead, numerous mechanisms minimize water loss. In well-watered animals body temperature fluctuates only c.2°C. When necessary, water conservation is aided by heat storage (hyperthermia): camels do not sweat until body temperature exceeds 41-42°C, thus avoiding water loss through perspiration. The body temperature of camels deprived of water can fluctuate as much as 6°C by heating up during the day to 41°C and then cooling at night to 35°C. Dehydrated Dromedaries have a depressed rate of breathing, minimizing water loss through respiration. Paired, fluid-producing sacs connecting the nasal cavities and a pair of lateral nasal glands and sacs serve to moisten incoming dry air. Dromedaries can tolerate water loss greater than 30% of their body mass, whereas 15% lossis lethal for most mammals. Such water loss is from intraand intercellular fluids, and not from plasma, allowing for relatively constant circulation of blood and maintaining the ability to cool. Water loss is ¢.50% greater in shorn compared to unshorn camels. Dromedaries often go without water in the Sahara Desert for seven or eight months, beginning in October, existing only on water content of plants. At temperatures between 30°C and 50°C they can go without water for 10-15 days, and even in the hottest weather need water only every 4-7 days. They can quickly rehydrate by drinking large quantities of water (10-20 1/minute and up to 130 1/minute), consuming up to 30% of their body weight within minutes. Dromedaries can drink salt water in even greater concentrations than seawater. They can consume water containing 19,000 ppm (parts-per-million) in dissolved salt without a decline in condition, compared to sheep, which can consume water at 10,000 ppm and cattle 5000 ppm. Dehydrated camels excrete less fecal water, greatly reduce urine volume, highly increase urine concentration, and recycle urea from the kidneys to the rumen for protein synthesis and water recirculation. Their erythrocytes have high osmotic resistance and can swell to 240% of their initial size without hemolysis during rehydration. Accumulation of fat in the hump instead of subcutaneously facilitates heat dissipation. The gallbladderis absent. The dulla, a pink, tongue-like bladder that hangs out the side of mouth of rutting-agitated males,is actually an inflation ofthe soft palate and unique to Dromedaries. Dulla inflation is typically accompanied by large amounts of saliva foam and gurgling vocalization.Habitat.In Africa Dromedaries occupy the Sahara Desert, known forits long, hot-dry season and a short rainy season. In Australia, Dromedaries favor bushy semi-arid lands and sand plains because of the availability of year-round forage, and avoid heavily vegetated and hard rocky areas.Food and Feeding.Dromedaries are capable of surviving on poor-quality forage under arid conditions, aided by their ability to select high-quality plant species, increase digestion of low-quality forage, cover large distances while foraging, and diversify the nature of their diet by being both browsers (shrubs and trees) and grazers (forbs and grasses). In the Sahara browse and forbs make up 70% oftheir diet in winter and 90% in summer. Over 300 forage plants have been reported, with Acacia, Atriplex, and Salsola common in their diet. In Syriashrubs dominated the diet during the dry season, but camels switched mainly to herbaceous species with the onset of the wet season. In Australian deserts food intake by volume is 53% browse, 42% forbs, and 5% grasses. Dromedaries browse on trees and tall shrubs up to 3-5 m by grasping with their lips and either breaking off branches or stripping leaves. Under extreme cases of limited forage, the Dromedary can not only decrease its food intake, but also reduce its metabolic rate. Compared to sheep and cattle, Dromedaries require less energy for maintenance; their protein requirements are at least 30% lower than cattle, sheep, or goats. Feeding trials have revealed that Dromedaries utilized fed energy for maintenance with an efficiency of 73% comparable to sheep, and for growth with an efficiency of 61% better than sheep and cattle. The relationship of food intake to body size is low. They can live on only 2 kgof dry matter for limited periods, and 8-12 kg are sufficient for a working Dromedary carrying 130-227 kg load for six hours a day at a speed of 5 km/h for a 24day trip. When forage conditions are lush, camels tend to overeat for their immediate needs and store the excess energy in their humps. Dromedaries require six to eight times more salt than other animals, with 30% oftheir diet from halophytes (plants that tolerate and even require salty conditions). High salt intake is imperative for alimentary absorption of water by camels, with salt deficiencies leading to cramps and cutaneous necrosis. Although consumption of grain can cause indigestion in animals unaccustomed to it, working Dromedaries require 2 kgof grain per day.Breeding.The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and climate patterns. Dromedaries typically breed in winter, except near the Equator, where there can be two mating seasons or even year-round mating. In the Arabian camel, sexual receptivity is triggered by rainfall and subsequent availability of forage. There is follicular activity in the female year-round, but it peaks in winter and spring. Mating induces ovulation, which occurs 30-40 hours afterwards; estrus ceases three days later. An unmated female's cycle averages 28 days;follicles mature within six days, are maintained for 13 days, and regress over eight days. The percentage of females that conceived: 50% after a single copulation, 30% after two, and 20% after three or more, during the first two days of estrus. Left and right ovaries are equally active and alternate in follicle production. Egg migration is common, 50% of left-horn implants form corpora lutea in the right ovary, explaining the long oviductal transport time of six days. Simultaneous ovulation from both ovaries occurs 14% of time, but twin pregnancies only 0-4%. The left horn of the uterus is larger than the right and carries 99% of pregnancies. Normal pregnancy produces one offspring, with twins being extremely unusual. The scrotum is high in the perineal region with testes larger during rut. Penis is covered with a triangular sheath opening pointing posteriorally and directed between the hindlegs. A complete separation of the penis from preputial adhesions prevents erections at 6-10 months before sexual maturity. Female lies down in sternal recumbency during copulations averaging 8-120 minutes involving 3-5 ejaculatory pulses by the male, each stimulated by intracervical pressure on his highly mobile urethral process. Mating females normally ruminate; the male may salivate, inflate his dulla, or gurgle during mating. Gestation averages 377-390 days (range of 360-411 days), regardless of whether the calf is male or female. The typical calving interval is 2-3 years (two in Australia), with estrus occurring 4-5—-10 months after parturition. The mean birth massis 37-3 kg (26-4-52-3) with no difference between sexes. Annual calving rates are low (35-40%) because of high (18-20%) embryonic death, abortions, and stillborns. In free-ranging herds, young remain with their mothers for first two years. Males begin rutting at three years but are not fully active sexually until they are 6-8 years old. They continue to breed until 18-20 years of age. Females are sexually mature at three years and typically first mate at 4-5 years and reproduce until they are 20-25, and some until the age of 30. Puberty is delayed by inadequate body weight caused by insufficient food. Birthing duration is typically 30 minutes, with the female in a sitting position. The mother noses and nibbles, but does not lick her newborn. The main birth season in Australiais June to November, during the rut, but newborns have been observed year-round. Before parturition cows segregate themselves (without their previous twoyear-old calf) from their original group and give birth in seclusion in dense vegetation. Isolation thought to be both an anti-predator behavior and perhaps more significantly, avoidance of infanticide by rutting males. After remaining alone for up to three weeks, when the new calf is fully mobile, the female joins other recent new mothers, forming a new cow group. These core groups remain stable until the calves are weaned at 15-18 months, the length of time depending on environmental conditions. Life span of wild/feral animals is 20-35 years. Domestic Dromedaries live substantially longer, with reported maximum longevity 40-49 years. The first cloned camelid was a Dromedary Camel achieved in 2010 by use of somatic cell nuclear transfer.Activity patterns.Wild/feral populations exist only in Australia, where they show a daily pattern of feeding in the morning and afternoon hours and increased resting in the middle of the day. Midday resting is highest in winter. Elsewhere Dromedaries are domestic and intensely managed and regulated by traditional pastoral communities, often in conjunction with other livestock. In the Sahara, when they are allowed to roam without herders, they form stable groups of 2-20 animals. Dromedaries graze for 8-12 hours per day and then ruminate for an equal amount of time. When forage is especially poor they spread out over large areas and break up into units of 1-2 individuals. Guarded herds feed by day (lying down during the hottest hours) and rest by night, but unguarded, their activity pattern is reversed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dromedaries are extremely mobile and capable of using large areas to fulfill their nutritional needs. Depending upon environmental and social parameters, wild/feral populations of Australiamay be nomadic, migratory, or move within a home range. They commonly travel 30 km/day even when food is plentiful. In summer, when plants are dry, they comfortably walk up to 60 kmto waterholes every second or third day; in winter they drink water only irregularly, some once per month, others less often. In free-ranging Australian populations, social groups are core cow groups, breeding groups, male groups, and solitary males. Core cow groups occur only in summer (October to March/April) outside the breeding season. These groups of about 24 animals consist of females and their calves of similar age; the groups are stable for up to 1-5-2 years until the young are weaned. Summer cow groups are open to all other individuals (cows with and without calves, including younger and weaker adult males). Individuals join for irregular periods of time. Breeding groups are seen in winter (April/May to September). They are composed of one mature male and several cows with their calves; the male defends the females against other males in a classical harem arrangement. Soon after taking over a cow group the rutting male aggressively chases away weaned two-year-old males; these young males join male groups. The rutting male herds cows for 3-5 months, leaves voluntarily, and does not return to the same cow group the following year; thus the rutting male is never the father of the calves in his group. Male or bachelor groups of up to 30 non-breeding males of all ages are present year-round. These are loose groupings that regularly split up as individuals leave the group and join other males. Solitary males tend to be old males. A rutting male shows ritualized postures and patterns, including vigorous biting when fighting with and defending his breeding group against other males. It should be noted that aggressive spitting, as observed in Bactrians and the South American cameloids has not been observed in Australian Dromedaries. However, Dromedaries may vomit when severely frightened or overly excited. Night time hypothermia in a rutting male may increase the duration and success of his daytime fighting before the male overheats. No classical territoriality has been observed in Australia, but short-term home ranges of 50-150 km* and an annual range, commonly of 5000 km?, shows a tendency forsite attachment to home ranges. Dromedaries show amazing plasticity of social organization with extremes in environmental conditions. During two years of extremely high rainfall in the Australian Outback when food productivity was extraordinarily high, animals coalesced into large herds of up to 200. During the rutting season the herd was subdivided into several breeding groups, each with one herding male, all roaming around together. The subgroup holders tolerated each other to a certain point within the big herd and even showed some cooperation in defending their cows when intruding bachelors came too close. However, during two years of virtually no rainfall (although water was always available for drinking) when food became acutely sparse, normal cow groups split up, even to the extreme of only one mother with her calf. In such harsh droughts conspecifics became each other’s strongest competitors. A social system similar to that seen in Australiaoccurs in Africa at Equatorial latitudes, except the non-breeding season is in winter. Mixed herds (males and females of all age classes), some as large as 500 camels, are more common. In Algeriadomestic herds were much less rigid: 46% of the herds were males, females, and young; 21% males and females without young; 18% females and young; and 14% males only. In Turkmenistandomestic populations were divided into the social units similar to those in Australia. In breeding groups of wildferal populations the male directs the movements of his group from behind, while females rotate in the lead. Domestic herds have a natural tendency to walk in single file, especially when moving to water wells. Dromedaries do not use dung piles for defecation or urination. Freeranging camels showed no marking behavior in the Sahara, but males in Israelmark particular areas with poll-gland secretions. They like to roll in sandy locations and will form lines waiting their turn.Status and Conservation.World Dromedary population decreased 15% from 1960 to 2000, with current numbers 18-21 million, including one million camels in Australia. In some countries the decline has been severe over the last century; for example in Syriathe population decreased from 250,000 in1922 to not more than 22,000 in2010. In AustraliaDromedary competition with livestock for forage and water, and significant environmental and infrastructure damage caused by Dromedaries, have prompted culling, with the goal of maintaining a sustainable population for utilization of their meat, hides, and wool. Despite groups of Dromedaries seen moving and grazing without a herder in the Sahara and Arabian deserts, they all have owners. Numbers have drastically declined in Arabian countries during past half century due to modernization and industrialization, forced settlement of nomads, desert forage resources not well developed, low reproductive rate, decreased demand for camel meat and milk, poor genetic selection for breed improvement, and government encouragement of other domestic species.Bibliography.Al-Ani (2004), Arnautovic & Abdel-Magid (1974), Baker (1964), Baskin (1974), Bhargava et al. (1963), Dagg (1974), Dorges et al. (1995, 2003), EI-Amin (1984), Ellard (2000), Gee & Greenfield (2007), Gidad & El-Bovevy (1992), Grigg et al. (1995), Guerouali & Wardeh (1998), Guerouali & Zine Filali (1992), Gauthier-Pilters (1984), Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981), Klingel (1985), Kohler-Rollefson (1991). McKnight (1969), Mehta et al. (1962), Newman (1984), Novoa (1970), Peters (1997a) Peters & von den Driesch (1997b), Saalfeld & Edwards (2008), Schmidt-Nielsen, B. et al. (1956), Schmidth-Nielsen, K. (1964), Schmidt-Nielsen, K. et al. (1967), Singh, U.B. & Bharadwaj (1978), Singh, V. & Prakash (1964), Wilson (1984), Yagil (1985).","taxonomy":"Camelus dromedarius Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Africae desertis arenosis siticulosis.” Restricted to “deserts of Libyaand Arabia” by Thomas in 1911.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Dromadaire @fr | Dromedar @de | Dromedario @es | Camel @en | Arabian Camel @en | One-Humped Camel @en | Single-Humped Camel @en | Ship of the Desert @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Camelidae","interpretedGenus":"Camelus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"245","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dromedarius","name":"Camelus dromedarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A species found in the arid and semi-arid regions of N Africa to the Middle East, and parts of C Asia. A sizeabledfreeranging/feral population in C&W Australia. The Dromedary overlaps with the domestic Bactrian Camel (C. bactrianus) in Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, India, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Dromedaries are a domestic species with c¢.50 breeds selected and used for pulling carts, plowing, lifting water at wells, carrying packs, milk production, smooth riding, and racing. The breeds include those in Saudi Arabia(Mojaheem, Maghateer, Wadah, and Awarik), India(Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, and Mewari), Pakistan(Marecha, Dhatti, Larri, Kohi, Campbelpuri, and Sakrai), and Turkmenistan(Arvana). The evidence for domestication comes from archaeological sites dating ¢.4000-5000 years ago in the S Arabian Peninsula with the wild form becoming extinct ¢.2000-5000 years ago. No non-introduced wild populations exist. In Asia Dromedaries occur from Turkeyto W Indiaand N to Kazahkstan. All camels in Africa are Dromedaries, 80-85% in the Sahel and NE portion of the continent (Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya), with the S distribution limited by humidity and trypanosomiasis. Dromedaries in S Africa show no evidence of loss of genetic diversity within 16 populations and very low differentiation among populations. In Kenyan Dromedaries two separate genetic entities have been identified: the Somali and a group including the Gabbra, Rendille, and Turkanapopulations. In Indiatwo distinct genetic clusters have been described for Dromedaries: the Mewari breed being differentiated from the Bikaneri, Kutchi, and the Jaisalmeri breeds. From the 17\" to the early 20\" century unsuccessful attempts were made to introduce Dromedaries to the Caribbean, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Namibia, and south-western USA. Successful introductions of camels were made to the Canary Islands in 1405 and some 10,000 to Australiafrom 1840 to 1907. Camels were important for exploring and developing the Outback of C&W Australia, where they were used for riding; drafting; transporting supplies, railway, and telegraph materials; and as a source of meat and wool. Most (6600) introduced Dromedaries came from India. Three breeds were originally introduced: camels for riding from Rajasthan, India, camels for heavy work from the Kandahar regionof Afghanistan, and camels for riding and carrying moderate cargo loads from Sind, Pakistan. The camels in Australiatoday are a blend of these original imports. By the 1920s, there were an estimated 20,000 domesticated camels in Australia, but by 1930, with the arrival of rail and motor transportation, camels were no longer needed and many were released to the wild. Well suited to the Australian deserts, the camels bred prolifically, spreading across arid and semi-arid areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, and into parts of Queensland, and today they occupy 37% of the continent.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719737/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Al-Ani (2004) | Arnautovic & Abdel-Magid (1974) | Baker (1964) | Baskin (1974) | Bhargava et al. (1963) | Dagg (1974) | Dorges et al. (1995, 2003) | EI-Amin (1984) | Ellard (2000) | Gee & Greenfield (2007) | Gidad & El-Bovevy (1992) | Grigg et al. (1995) | Guerouali & Wardeh (1998) | Guerouali & Zine Filali (1992) | Gauthier-Pilters (1984) | Gauthier-Pilters & Dagg (1981) | Klingel (1985) | Kohler-Rollefson (1991) | McKnight (1969) | Mehta et al. (1962) | Newman (1984) | Novoa (1970) | Peters (1997a) | Peters & von den Driesch (1997b) | Saalfeld & Edwards (2008) | Schmidt-Nielsen, B. et al. (1956) | Schmidth-Nielsen, K. (1964) | Schmidt-Nielsen, K. et al. (1967) | Singh, U.B. & Bharadwaj (1978) | Singh, V. & Prakash (1964) | Wilson (1984) | Yagil (1985)","foodAndFeeding":"Dromedaries are capable of surviving on poor-quality forage under arid conditions, aided by their ability to select high-quality plant species, increase digestion of low-quality forage, cover large distances while foraging, and diversify the nature of their diet by being both browsers (shrubs and trees) and grazers (forbs and grasses). In the Sahara browse and forbs make up 70% oftheir diet in winter and 90% in summer. Over 300 forage plants have been reported, with Acacia, Atriplex, and Salsola common in their diet. In Syriashrubs dominated the diet during the dry season, but camels switched mainly to herbaceous species with the onset of the wet season. In Australian deserts food intake by volume is 53% browse, 42% forbs, and 5% grasses. Dromedaries browse on trees and tall shrubs up to 3-5 m by grasping with their lips and either breaking off branches or stripping leaves. Under extreme cases of limited forage, the Dromedary can not only decrease its food intake, but also reduce its metabolic rate. Compared to sheep and cattle, Dromedaries require less energy for maintenance; their protein requirements are at least 30% lower than cattle, sheep, or goats. Feeding trials have revealed that Dromedaries utilized fed energy for maintenance with an efficiency of 73% comparable to sheep, and for growth with an efficiency of 61% better than sheep and cattle. The relationship of food intake to body size is low. They can live on only 2 kgof dry matter for limited periods, and 8-12 kg are sufficient for a working Dromedary carrying 130-227 kg load for six hours a day at a speed of 5 km/h for a 24day trip. When forage conditions are lush, camels tend to overeat for their immediate needs and store the excess energy in their humps. Dromedaries require six to eight times more salt than other animals, with 30% oftheir diet from halophytes (plants that tolerate and even require salty conditions). High salt intake is imperative for alimentary absorption of water by camels, with salt deficiencies leading to cramps and cutaneous necrosis. Although consumption of grain can cause indigestion in animals unaccustomed to it, working Dromedaries require 2 kgof grain per day.","breeding":"The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and climate patterns. Dromedaries typically breed in winter, except near the Equator, where there can be two mating seasons or even year-round mating. In the Arabian camel, sexual receptivity is triggered by rainfall and subsequent availability of forage. There is follicular activity in the female year-round, but it peaks in winter and spring. Mating induces ovulation, which occurs 30-40 hours afterwards; estrus ceases three days later. An unmated female's cycle averages 28 days;follicles mature within six days, are maintained for 13 days, and regress over eight days. The percentage of females that conceived: 50% after a single copulation, 30% after two, and 20% after three or more, during the first two days of estrus. Left and right ovaries are equally active and alternate in follicle production. Egg migration is common, 50% of left-horn implants form corpora lutea in the right ovary, explaining the long oviductal transport time of six days. Simultaneous ovulation from both ovaries occurs 14% of time, but twin pregnancies only 0-4%. The left horn of the uterus is larger than the right and carries 99% of pregnancies. Normal pregnancy produces one offspring, with twins being extremely unusual. The scrotum is high in the perineal region with testes larger during rut. Penis is covered with a triangular sheath opening pointing posteriorally and directed between the hindlegs. A complete separation of the penis from preputial adhesions prevents erections at 6-10 months before sexual maturity. Female lies down in sternal recumbency during copulations averaging 8-120 minutes involving 3-5 ejaculatory pulses by the male, each stimulated by intracervical pressure on his highly mobile urethral process. Mating females normally ruminate; the male may salivate, inflate his dulla, or gurgle during mating. Gestation averages 377-390 days (range of 360-411 days), regardless of whether the calf is male or female. The typical calving interval is 2-3 years (two in Australia), with estrus occurring 4-5—-10 months after parturition. The mean birth massis 37-3 kg (26-4-52-3) with no difference between sexes. Annual calving rates are low (35-40%) because of high (18-20%) embryonic death, abortions, and stillborns. In free-ranging herds, young remain with their mothers for first two years. Males begin rutting at three years but are not fully active sexually until they are 6-8 years old. They continue to breed until 18-20 years of age. Females are sexually mature at three years and typically first mate at 4-5 years and reproduce until they are 20-25, and some until the age of 30. Puberty is delayed by inadequate body weight caused by insufficient food. Birthing duration is typically 30 minutes, with the female in a sitting position. The mother noses and nibbles, but does not lick her newborn. The main birth season in Australiais June to November, during the rut, but newborns have been observed year-round. Before parturition cows segregate themselves (without their previous twoyear-old calf) from their original group and give birth in seclusion in dense vegetation. Isolation thought to be both an anti-predator behavior and perhaps more significantly, avoidance of infanticide by rutting males. After remaining alone for up to three weeks, when the new calf is fully mobile, the female joins other recent new mothers, forming a new cow group. These core groups remain stable until the calves are weaned at 15-18 months, the length of time depending on environmental conditions. Life span of wild/feral animals is 20-35 years. Domestic Dromedaries live substantially longer, with reported maximum longevity 40-49 years. The first cloned camelid was a Dromedary Camel achieved in 2010 by use of somatic cell nuclear transfer.","activityPatterns":"Wild/feral populations exist only in Australia, where they show a daily pattern of feeding in the morning and afternoon hours and increased resting in the middle of the day. Midday resting is highest in winter. Elsewhere Dromedaries are domestic and intensely managed and regulated by traditional pastoral communities, often in conjunction with other livestock. In the Sahara, when they are allowed to roam without herders, they form stable groups of 2-20 animals. Dromedaries graze for 8-12 hours per day and then ruminate for an equal amount of time. When forage is especially poor they spread out over large areas and break up into units of 1-2 individuals. Guarded herds feed by day (lying down during the hottest hours) and rest by night, but unguarded, their activity pattern is reversed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dromedaries are extremely mobile and capable of using large areas to fulfill their nutritional needs. Depending upon environmental and social parameters, wild/feral populations of Australiamay be nomadic, migratory, or move within a home range. They commonly travel 30 km/day even when food is plentiful. In summer, when plants are dry, they comfortably walk up to 60 kmto waterholes every second or third day; in winter they drink water only irregularly, some once per month, others less often. In free-ranging Australian populations, social groups are core cow groups, breeding groups, male groups, and solitary males. Core cow groups occur only in summer (October to March/April) outside the breeding season. These groups of about 24 animals consist of females and their calves of similar age; the groups are stable for up to 1-5-2 years until the young are weaned. Summer cow groups are open to all other individuals (cows with and without calves, including younger and weaker adult males). Individuals join for irregular periods of time. Breeding groups are seen in winter (April/May to September). They are composed of one mature male and several cows with their calves; the male defends the females against other males in a classical harem arrangement. Soon after taking over a cow group the rutting male aggressively chases away weaned two-year-old males; these young males join male groups. The rutting male herds cows for 3-5 months, leaves voluntarily, and does not return to the same cow group the following year; thus the rutting male is never the father of the calves in his group. Male or bachelor groups of up to 30 non-breeding males of all ages are present year-round. These are loose groupings that regularly split up as individuals leave the group and join other males. Solitary males tend to be old males. A rutting male shows ritualized postures and patterns, including vigorous biting when fighting with and defending his breeding group against other males. It should be noted that aggressive spitting, as observed in Bactrians and the South American cameloids has not been observed in Australian Dromedaries. However, Dromedaries may vomit when severely frightened or overly excited. Night time hypothermia in a rutting male may increase the duration and success of his daytime fighting before the male overheats. No classical territoriality has been observed in Australia, but short-term home ranges of 50-150 km* and an annual range, commonly of 5000 km?, shows a tendency forsite attachment to home ranges. Dromedaries show amazing plasticity of social organization with extremes in environmental conditions. During two years of extremely high rainfall in the Australian Outback when food productivity was extraordinarily high, animals coalesced into large herds of up to 200. During the rutting season the herd was subdivided into several breeding groups, each with one herding male, all roaming around together. The subgroup holders tolerated each other to a certain point within the big herd and even showed some cooperation in defending their cows when intruding bachelors came too close. However, during two years of virtually no rainfall (although water was always available for drinking) when food became acutely sparse, normal cow groups split up, even to the extreme of only one mother with her calf. In such harsh droughts conspecifics became each other’s strongest competitors. A social system similar to that seen in Australiaoccurs in Africa at Equatorial latitudes, except the non-breeding season is in winter. Mixed herds (males and females of all age classes), some as large as 500 camels, are more common. In Algeriadomestic herds were much less rigid: 46% of the herds were males, females, and young; 21% males and females without young; 18% females and young; and 14% males only. In Turkmenistandomestic populations were divided into the social units similar to those in Australia. In breeding groups of wildferal populations the male directs the movements of his group from behind, while females rotate in the lead. Domestic herds have a natural tendency to walk in single file, especially when moving to water wells. Dromedaries do not use dung piles for defecation or urination. Freeranging camels showed no marking behavior in the Sahara, but males in Israelmark particular areas with poll-gland secretions. They like to roll in sandy locations and will form lines waiting their turn.","statusAndConservation":"World Dromedary population decreased 15% from 1960 to 2000, with current numbers 18-21 million, including one million camels in Australia. In some countries the decline has been severe over the last century; for example in Syriathe population decreased from 250,000 in1922 to not more than 22,000 in2010. In AustraliaDromedary competition with livestock for forage and water, and significant environmental and infrastructure damage caused by Dromedaries, have prompted culling, with the goal of maintaining a sustainable population for utilization of their meat, hides, and wool. Despite groups of Dromedaries seen moving and grazing without a herder in the Sahara and Arabian deserts, they all have owners. Numbers have drastically declined in Arabian countries during past half century due to modernization and industrialization, forced settlement of nomads, desert forage resources not well developed, low reproductive rate, decreased demand for camel meat and milk, poor genetic selection for breed improvement, and government encouragement of other domestic species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-340 cm, tail 45-55 cm, shoulder height 180-200 cm; weight 400-600 kg. Males and females of near equal size, but in some breeds the females are ¢.10% smaller than males. Body is often sandy colored, but can range from nearly all white to black or even two-colored piebald. Body shape characterized by a long-curved neck, long and thin legs, and deep narrow chest. The hindquarters are less developed than the weight-bearing front legs. Large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges. Facial features include thick eyebrows, long eyelashes, and transparent eyelids that allow partial vision when the eyes close in sandstorms. Thick fine hair in winter for warmth sheds in summer. Hair is longer on throat, shoulder, and hump. The single hump, on the middle of the back (c. 20 cmhigher than shoulder)is a reservoir offatty cells bound by fibroustissues, used in times of food and water scarcity. Hump size varies, depending upon an individual's nutritional status. In a state of starvation, the hump can be almost non-existent. The head is small relative to body size. Slit-like nostrils, surrounded by sphincter muscles, can close to keep out dust and sand. Split upperlip with two independently moving halves and a pendulous lowerlip allow for prehensile-like grasping of forage. Upper middle and inner incisors are replaced by a tough dental pad that opposes the lower incisors. Canines, especially the upper, are massive and pointed. Skin is tightly attached to underlying tissues and modified into horny pads at the sternum, elbows, carpals,stifles, and tarsals: these protect the body when a camelis lying down on hot or rough ground. No facial glands, but males have well-developed occipital glands 5-6 cm below the nuchal crest on either side of the neck midline. The glands increase in size with age, and during the rut they secrete a pungent coffee-colored fluid. Small oval erythrocytes may enhance blood circulation and oxygen carrying capacity. Dromedaries are digitgrade each with two dorsal nails and padded feet well adapted for sandy substrates; the front feet are larger than the hindfeet. The mammary gland has four quarters and teats. Adult dental formula: 11/3,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32 with permanent lower incisors appearing at 2:5—6-5 years and all teeth emerged by eight years. A triangular bone ¢.3 x 2: 5 cmis lodged in the tendinous fibers in the center of the diaphragm, preventing compression of the interior vena cava and distributing muscular pull over a larger surface. Lungs are not lobed. The stomach is complex, with three compartments. When foraging on green and moist plants Dromedaries do not require drinking water. If wateris available in summer, they will drink regularly at dawn. In extreme drought, they need access to waterholes. The Dromedary’s ability to endure severe heat and dryness does not depend upon water storage; instead, numerous mechanisms minimize water loss. In well-watered animals body temperature fluctuates only c.2°C. When necessary, water conservation is aided by heat storage (hyperthermia): camels do not sweat until body temperature exceeds 41-42°C, thus avoiding water loss through perspiration. The body temperature of camels deprived of water can fluctuate as much as 6°C by heating up during the day to 41°C and then cooling at night to 35°C. Dehydrated Dromedaries have a depressed rate of breathing, minimizing water loss through respiration. Paired, fluid-producing sacs connecting the nasal cavities and a pair of lateral nasal glands and sacs serve to moisten incoming dry air. Dromedaries can tolerate water loss greater than 30% of their body mass, whereas 15% lossis lethal for most mammals. Such water loss is from intraand intercellular fluids, and not from plasma, allowing for relatively constant circulation of blood and maintaining the ability to cool. Water loss is ¢.50% greater in shorn compared to unshorn camels. Dromedaries often go without water in the Sahara Desert for seven or eight months, beginning in October, existing only on water content of plants. At temperatures between 30°C and 50°C they can go without water for 10-15 days, and even in the hottest weather need water only every 4-7 days. They can quickly rehydrate by drinking large quantities of water (10-20 1/minute and up to 130 1/minute), consuming up to 30% of their body weight within minutes. Dromedaries can drink salt water in even greater concentrations than seawater. They can consume water containing 19,000 ppm (parts-per-million) in dissolved salt without a decline in condition, compared to sheep, which can consume water at 10,000 ppm and cattle 5000 ppm. Dehydrated camels excrete less fecal water, greatly reduce urine volume, highly increase urine concentration, and recycle urea from the kidneys to the rumen for protein synthesis and water recirculation. Their erythrocytes have high osmotic resistance and can swell to 240% of their initial size without hemolysis during rehydration. Accumulation of fat in the hump instead of subcutaneously facilitates heat dissipation. The gallbladderis absent. The dulla, a pink, tongue-like bladder that hangs out the side of mouth of rutting-agitated males,is actually an inflation ofthe soft palate and unique to Dromedaries. Dulla inflation is typically accompanied by large amounts of saliva foam and gurgling vocalization.","habitat":"In Africa Dromedaries occupy the Sahara Desert, known forits long, hot-dry season and a short rainy season. In Australia, Dromedaries favor bushy semi-arid lands and sand plains because of the availability of year-round forage, and avoid heavily vegetated and hard rocky areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FAFAFE0DC54FF8BC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE00F44FAFAFE0DC54FF8BC","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"58.Velvet African Climbing MouseDendroprionomys rousselotiFrench:Dendromus de Brazzaville/ German:Samtklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de terciopeloOther common names:Congo Tree Mouse, Velvet Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendroprionomys rousseloti Petter, 1966,Zoological Gardens, Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from the type locality in Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.77 mm, tail ¢.108 mm, ear c.16 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and russet-brown dorsally and grayish-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Each eye has a black ring that extends anteriorly onto muzzle. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit short but present.Habitat.Only known from the vicinity of the type locality in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, which is situated in a sand forest at ¢.300 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.Dentition of the Velvet African Climbing Mouse suggests thatit could be insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is known from just eight specimens collected from the type locality—the last one in 1966.Bibliography.Denys (2013a), Denys et al. (1995), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966b).","taxonomy":"Dendroprionomys rousseloti Petter, 1966,Zoological Gardens, Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Brazzaville @fr | Samtklettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de terciopelo @es | Congo Tree Mouse @en | Velvet Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Petter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1966","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendroprionomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rousseloti","name":"Dendroprionomys rousseloti","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Only known from the type locality in Brazzaville, SE Republic of the Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600490/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Denys (2013a) | Denys et al. (1995) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966b)","foodAndFeeding":"Dentition of the Velvet African Climbing Mouse suggests thatit could be insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is known from just eight specimens collected from the type locality—the last one in 1966.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.77 mm, tail ¢.108 mm, ear c.16 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Velvet African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and russet-brown dorsally and grayish-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Each eye has a black ring that extends anteriorly onto muzzle. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit short but present.","habitat":"Only known from the vicinity of the type locality in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, which is situated in a sand forest at ¢.300 m above sea level."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FAFBF792C419F235.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE00F44FAFBF792C419F235","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"59.Bates’s African Climbing MousePrionomys batesFrench:Dendromus de Bates/ German:Dollman-Baummaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de BatesOther common names:Dollman’s African Tree Mouse, Dollman’s Tree MouseTaxonomy.Prionomys batesi Dollman, 1910,“ Bitye, Ja River, Cameroons[= Cameroon |. Altitude 2000 feet[= 610 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to S Cameroon, SW Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 79-85 mm, tail 103-112 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 15-17 mm; weight 15-21 g. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Furis relatively short, soft, and dense. Dorsum is brown or gray-brown, and venter is paler. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Each eye has a faint dark ring. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fifth digits have elongated claws, and first digit is greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits, with first digit opposable and fifth digit not opposable.Habitat.L.ow-lying rainforest, particularly in forest-savanna mosaic. Elevational range is between 100 m and 300 m.Food and Feeding.Bates’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be entirely insectivorous, preying on ants and spiders.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and appears to be predominantly arboreal but descends to the ground to reach the nest, which is excavated in the soil. It climbs on twings and lianas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is known from only a handful of localities in its relatively restricted distribution. Its forest habitat is not currently under threat.Bibliography.Denys (2013b), Denys, Colyn & Nicolas (2006), Denys, Michaux et al. (1995), Genest-Villard (1980), Monadjem et al. (2015), Nicolas & Colyn (2006), Petter (1966b).","taxonomy":"Prionomys batesi Dollman, 1910,“ Bitye, Ja River, Cameroons[= Cameroon |. Altitude 2000 feet[= 610 m].”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Bates @fr | Dollman-Baummaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Bates @es | Dollman’s African Tree Mouse @en | Dollman’s Tree Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Dollman, 1910","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dollman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Prionomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"batesi","name":"Prionomys bates","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Restricted to S Cameroon, SW Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600492/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Denys (2013b) | Denys, Colyn & Nicolas (2006) | Denys, Michaux et al. (1995) | Genest-Villard (1980) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Nicolas & Colyn (2006) | Petter (1966b)","foodAndFeeding":"Bates’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be entirely insectivorous, preying on ants and spiders.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and appears to be predominantly arboreal but descends to the ground to reach the nest, which is excavated in the soil. It climbs on twings and lianas.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is known from only a handful of localities in its relatively restricted distribution. Its forest habitat is not currently under threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 79-85 mm, tail 103-112 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 15-17 mm; weight 15-21 g. Bates’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Furis relatively short, soft, and dense. Dorsum is brown or gray-brown, and venter is paler. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Each eye has a faint dark ring. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fifth digits have elongated claws, and first digit is greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits, with first digit opposable and fifth digit not opposable.","habitat":"L.ow-lying rainforest, particularly in forest-savanna mosaic. Elevational range is between 100 m and 300 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE00F44FFFFF924C894F235.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE00F44FFFFF924C894F235","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"57.Brants’s African Climbing MouseDendromus mesomelasFrench:Dendromus de Brants/ German:Brants-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de BrantsOther common names:Brants's Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys mesomelas Brants, 1827,east of Port Elizabeth, Sunday’s River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Dendromus mesomelaswas previously considered to extend its distribution across to the highlands of East Africa, but these populations have been assigned to a variety of other species. Taxonomic relationships among various isolated populations in southern Africa require investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.E & S South Africa and W Swaziland, with isolated records from extreme S DR Congo, NW Zambia, N Botswana, NE Namibia (Caprivi Strip), and C Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 67-88 mm, tail 77-121 mm, ear 11-17 mm, hindfoot 16-23 mm; weight 6-15 g. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile; it is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown to rufous-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base of tail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various grassland habitats, especially those associated with wetlands or moist environments. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse can also be relatively abundant in Afro-montane forest.Food and Feeding.Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats insects.Breeding.In South Africa, pregnant Brants’s African Climbing Mice have been collected during the rainy season. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level; they also use bird nests. Litter sizes are 2-6 young.Activity patterns.Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In captivity, Brants’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be gregarious, suggesting thatit is social.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996), Avery (1992b), Choate (1972), De Graaff (1981), Monadjem (1997b, 1999a), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Plavsic (2015), Rowe-Rowe (1986), Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982), Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a), Smithers (1971), Solano et al. (2014), Taylor (1998).","taxonomy":"Dendromys mesomelas Brants, 1827,east of Port Elizabeth, Sunday’s River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Dendromus mesomelaswas previously considered to extend its distribution across to the highlands of East Africa, but these populations have been assigned to a variety of other species. Taxonomic relationships among various isolated populations in southern Africa require investigation. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Brants @fr | Brants-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Brants @es | Brants's Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Brants","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1827","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mesomelas","name":"Dendromus mesomelas","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E & S South Africa and W Swaziland, with isolated records from extreme S DR Congo, NW Zambia, N Botswana, NE Namibia (Caprivi Strip), and C Mozambique.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600488/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996) | Avery (1992b) | Choate (1972) | De Graaff (1981) | Monadjem (1997b, 1999a) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Plavsic (2015) | Rowe-Rowe (1986) | Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982) | Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a) | Smithers (1971) | Solano et al. (2014) | Taylor (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats insects.","breeding":"In South Africa, pregnant Brants’s African Climbing Mice have been collected during the rainy season. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level; they also use bird nests. Litter sizes are 2-6 young.","activityPatterns":"Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In captivity, Brants’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be gregarious, suggesting thatit is social.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 67-88 mm, tail 77-121 mm, ear 11-17 mm, hindfoot 16-23 mm; weight 6-15 g. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile; it is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown to rufous-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base of tail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various grassland habitats, especially those associated with wetlands or moist environments. Brants’s African Climbing Mouse can also be relatively abundant in Afro-montane forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F42FA20F5C3C811FDAF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE10F42FA20F5C3C811FDAF","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"64.Bocage’s Fat MouseSteatomys bocagerFrench:Rat-adipeux de Bocage/ German:Bocage-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de BocageOther common names:Bocage's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys bocage: Thomas, 1892,Caconda, Angola.Steatomys bocageiwas previously included in S. pratensis. Monotypic.Distribution.SW DR Congo and Angola.Descriptive notes.Head—body 97-124 mm, tail 52-72 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. Bocage’s Fat Mouse is medium-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is noticeable short and hairy, darker above than below. Fur is reddish brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.Habitat.Moist savannas and woodlands,typically above elevations of 500 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Poorly known. Bocage’s Fat Mouseis terrestrial and excavates its own burrow.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Cabral (1966), Crawford-Cabral (1998), Happold (2013i), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Steatomys bocage: Thomas, 1892,Caconda, Angola.Steatomys bocageiwas previously included in S. pratensis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux de Bocage @fr | Bocage-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Bocage @es | Bocage's African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1892","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1892","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bocage","name":"Steatomys bocager","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW DR Congo and Angola.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600504/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cabral (1966) | Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Happold (2013i) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Poorly known. Bocage’s Fat Mouseis terrestrial and excavates its own burrow.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 97-124 mm, tail 52-72 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. Bocage’s Fat Mouse is medium-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is noticeable short and hairy, darker above than below. Fur is reddish brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.","habitat":"Moist savannas and woodlands,typically above elevations of 500 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FA20FB79CB37F590.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE10F45FA20FB79CB37F590","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"63.Pousargues’s Fat MouseSteatomys opimusFrench:Rat-adipeux de Pousargues/ German:Pousargues-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de PousarguesOther common names:Pousargues African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys opimus Pousargues, 1894,“ Balao, dans le pays des Dakoas, par 5° 26’ de latitude Nord et environ 17° 40’ de longitude Est,” Central African Republic.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Narrowly distributed from S Cameroon E through Central African Republic, N DR Congo, and extreme SW South Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 115-125 mm, tail 52-65 mm, ear 17-20 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-50 g. Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is small-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, darker above than below. Furis soft and grayish-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has ten nipples.Habitat.Tall tropical grasslands in savanna-forest mosaics, particularly those that are burned regularly.Food and Feeding.Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on termites.Breeding.Pousargues’s Fat Mouse breed during the wet season (June-December), and litter size is about three young.Activity patterns.Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a complex burrow, typically in a termite mound or burrow of an Aardvark (Orycteropus afer). Individuals put on fat during the wet season, allowing them to reduce activity during the dry season when they enter torpor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nests of Pousargues’s Fat Mice are typically occupied by a single individual.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Genest-Villard (1979), Happold (2013k), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966¢), Petter & Genest (1970), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978).","taxonomy":"Steatomys opimus Pousargues, 1894,“ Balao, dans le pays des Dakoas, par 5° 26’ de latitude Nord et environ 17° 40’ de longitude Est,” Central African Republic.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux de Pousargues @fr | Pousargues-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Pousargues @es | Pousargues African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pousargues","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1894","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"opimus","name":"Steatomys opimus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Narrowly distributed from S Cameroon E through Central African Republic, N DR Congo, and extreme SW South Sudan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600502/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Genest-Villard (1979) | Happold (2013k) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966¢) | Petter & Genest (1970) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on termites.","breeding":"Pousargues’s Fat Mouse breed during the wet season (June-December), and litter size is about three young.","activityPatterns":"Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a complex burrow, typically in a termite mound or burrow of an Aardvark (Orycteropus afer). Individuals put on fat during the wet season, allowing them to reduce activity during the dry season when they enter torpor.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nests of Pousargues’s Fat Mice are typically occupied by a single individual.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 115-125 mm, tail 52-65 mm, ear 17-20 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-50 g. Pousargues’s Fat Mouse is small-sized but large for a species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, darker above than below. Furis soft and grayish-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has ten nipples.","habitat":"Tall tropical grasslands in savanna-forest mosaics, particularly those that are burned regularly."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF24FE09C913F909.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE10F45FF24FE09C913F909","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"60.North-western Fat MouseSteatomys caurinusFrench:Rat-adipeux du Nord-Ouest/ German:\\Westafrikanische Fettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso noroccidentalOther common names:North-western African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys caurinus Thomas, 1912,Panyam Plateau, Nigeria, 4000 ft(= 1219 m).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Continously from Senegal E through Mali, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, to NW Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 96-122 mm, tail 35-50 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-66 g. The North-western Fat Mouse 1s small, with shorttail. Tail is sparsely haired, darker above than below. Fur is coarse and reddishbrown dorsally and clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Numbers of nipples variable but are more than eight (usually twelve).Habitat.Various savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Female North-western Fat Mice have 5-9 young in their burrows.Activity patterns.North-western Fat Mice are terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. Individuals accumulate fat during rains and become torpid during the dry season. They are well adapted to dehydration.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Usually only a single North-western Fat Mouse is present in a burrow (except for females with young).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ba et al. (2013), Granjon & Duplantier (2009, 2011), Lacas etal. (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter & Genest (1970), Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996), Sicard & Duplantier (2013), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978).","taxonomy":"Steatomys caurinus Thomas, 1912,Panyam Plateau, Nigeria, 4000 ft(= 1219 m).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux du Nord-Ouest @fr | \\Westafrikanische Fettmaus @de | Raton grueso noroccidental @es | North-western African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"caurinus","name":"Steatomys caurinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Continously from Senegal E through Mali, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, to NW Nigeria.","bibliography":"Ba et al. (2013) | Granjon & Duplantier (2009, 2011) | Lacas etal. (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter & Genest (1970) | Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996) | Sicard & Duplantier (2013) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Female North-western Fat Mice have 5-9 young in their burrows.","activityPatterns":"North-western Fat Mice are terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. Individuals accumulate fat during rains and become torpid during the dry season. They are well adapted to dehydration.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Usually only a single North-western Fat Mouse is present in a burrow (except for females with young).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 96-122 mm, tail 35-50 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-66 g. The North-western Fat Mouse 1s small, with shorttail. Tail is sparsely haired, darker above than below. Fur is coarse and reddishbrown dorsally and clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Numbers of nipples variable but are more than eight (usually twelve).","habitat":"Various savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF24FE09C913F909.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE10F45FF24FE09C913F909","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"60.North-western Fat MouseSteatomys caurinusFrench:Rat-adipeux du Nord-Ouest/ German:\\Westafrikanische Fettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso noroccidentalOther common names:North-western African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys caurinus Thomas, 1912,Panyam Plateau, Nigeria, 4000 ft(= 1219 m).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Continously from Senegal E through Mali, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, to NW Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 96-122 mm, tail 35-50 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-66 g. The North-western Fat Mouse 1s small, with shorttail. Tail is sparsely haired, darker above than below. Fur is coarse and reddishbrown dorsally and clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Numbers of nipples variable but are more than eight (usually twelve).Habitat.Various savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Female North-western Fat Mice have 5-9 young in their burrows.Activity patterns.North-western Fat Mice are terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. Individuals accumulate fat during rains and become torpid during the dry season. They are well adapted to dehydration.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Usually only a single North-western Fat Mouse is present in a burrow (except for females with young).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ba et al. (2013), Granjon & Duplantier (2009, 2011), Lacas etal. (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter & Genest (1970), Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996), Sicard & Duplantier (2013), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978).","taxonomy":"Steatomys caurinus Thomas, 1912,Panyam Plateau, Nigeria, 4000 ft(= 1219 m).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux du Nord-Ouest @fr | \\Westafrikanische Fettmaus @de | Raton grueso noroccidental @es | North-western African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"caurinus","name":"Steatomys caurinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Continously from Senegal E through Mali, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, to NW Nigeria.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600494/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ba et al. (2013) | Granjon & Duplantier (2009, 2011) | Lacas etal. (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter & Genest (1970) | Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996) | Sicard & Duplantier (2013) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Female North-western Fat Mice have 5-9 young in their burrows.","activityPatterns":"North-western Fat Mice are terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. Individuals accumulate fat during rains and become torpid during the dry season. They are well adapted to dehydration.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Usually only a single North-western Fat Mouse is present in a burrow (except for females with young).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 96-122 mm, tail 35-50 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 30-66 g. The North-western Fat Mouse 1s small, with shorttail. Tail is sparsely haired, darker above than below. Fur is coarse and reddishbrown dorsally and clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Numbers of nipples variable but are more than eight (usually twelve).","habitat":"Various savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF25F3B9CBFEFB21.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE10F45FF25F3B9CBFEFB21","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"62.Jackson's Fat MouseSteatomys jacksoniFrench:Rat-adipeux de Jackson/ German:Jackson-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de JacksonOther common names:Jackson's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys jackson: Hayman, 1936, Wenchi, Ashanti, Ghana.Validity of S. jacksoniis not certain, and more specimens are needed to properly diagnose it. Specimens from Nigeria are significantly smaller than the type specimen and may have been misidentified. Monotypic.Distribution.Known with certainty from W Ghana and also reported from two localities in W Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.120 mm, tail ¢.b0 mm, ear c.18 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Jackson’s Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot.Specimens from Nigeria have twelve nipples.Habitat.Apparently savanna. The type locality was open habitat on the edge of forest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. At present, Jackson’s Fat Mouse is known from too few specimens at too few localities to be able to assess its conservation status.Bibliography.Anadu (1979b), Happold (2013j), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978), Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992).","taxonomy":"Steatomys jackson: Hayman, 1936, Wenchi, Ashanti, Ghana.Validity of S. jacksoniis not certain, and more specimens are needed to properly diagnose it. Specimens from Nigeria are significantly smaller than the type specimen and may have been misidentified. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux de Jackson @fr | Jackson-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Jackson @es | Jackson's African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hayman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1936","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"jacksoni","name":"Steatomys jacksoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known with certainty from W Ghana and also reported from two localities in W Nigeria.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600500/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anadu (1979b) | Happold (2013j) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978) | Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. At present, Jackson’s Fat Mouse is known from too few specimens at too few localities to be able to assess its conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body c.120 mm, tail ¢.b0 mm, ear c.18 mm, hindfoot c.18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Jackson’s Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot.Specimens from Nigeria have twelve nipples.","habitat":"Apparently savanna. The type locality was open habitat on the edge of forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF25F94DC966F41D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE10F45FF25F94DC966F41D","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"61.Dainty Fat MouseSteatomys cuppediusFrench:Rat-adipeux élégant/ German:Zierliche Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso delicadoOther common names:Dainty African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys cuppedius Thomas & Hinton, 1920,“ Farniso, near Kano, North Nigeria(altitude 1,700 ft.[= 518 m]).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Senegal, Benin, N Nigeria, and S Niger.Descriptive notes.Head-body 78-93 mm, tail 41-50 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 15-16 mm; weight 14-24 g. The Dainty Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short, sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and pale sandy-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. There are always eight nipples.Habitat.Arid savanna.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Dainty Fat Mouse is terrestrial. Individuals rest in burrows during the day and accumulate fat during rains, becoming torpid during the dry season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.At a few localities, the Dainty Fat Mouse has been trapped in relatively large numbers, but generally it is rare or absent within its overall distribution. Its presence in Senegal is only known from prey remains in owl pellets.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Decher (1997), Duplantier & Granjon (1992), Duplantier & Sicard (2013), Granjon & Duplantier (2009), Happold (1987), Monadjem et al. (2015), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978), Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992).","taxonomy":"Steatomys cuppedius Thomas & Hinton, 1920,“ Farniso, near Kano, North Nigeria(altitude 1,700 ft.[= 518 m]).”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux élégant @fr | Zierliche Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso delicado @es | Dainty African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas & Hinton, 1920","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas & Hinton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1920","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cuppedius","name":"Steatomys cuppedius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Senegal, Benin, N Nigeria, and S Niger.","bibliography":"Decher (1997) | Duplantier & Granjon (1992) | Duplantier & Sicard (2013) | Granjon & Duplantier (2009) | Happold (1987) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978) | Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Dainty Fat Mouse is terrestrial. Individuals rest in burrows during the day and accumulate fat during rains, becoming torpid during the dry season.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"At a few localities, the Dainty Fat Mouse has been trapped in relatively large numbers, but generally it is rare or absent within its overall distribution. Its presence in Senegal is only known from prey remains in owl pellets.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 78-93 mm, tail 41-50 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 15-16 mm; weight 14-24 g. The Dainty Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short, sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and pale sandy-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. There are always eight nipples.","habitat":"Arid savanna."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FAF2FB8BCB20F774.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE20F46FAF2FB8BCB20F774","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"199","verbatimText":"51.Vernay’s African Climbing MouseDendromus vernayiFrench:Dendromus de Vernay/ German:Vernay-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepadorafricano de VernayTaxonomy.Dendromus mesomelas vernayi Hill & Carter, 1937,“Chitau, alt. 4930 ft. [= 1503 m], Angola.”Dendromus vernayiwas previously recognized as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C Angola where it 1s currently known only from the type locality.Descriptive notes.Head—body 63-77 mm, tail 80-86 mm, hindfoot 20-20 mm. No specific data are available for body weight.Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Earsare relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is only known from a single locality and may therefore be atrisk.Bibliography.Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (2013e), Hill & Carter (1941), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005).","taxonomy":"Dendromus mesomelas vernayi Hill & Carter, 1937,“Chitau, alt. 4930 ft. [= 1503 m], Angola.”Dendromus vernayiwas previously recognized as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Vernay @fr | Vernay-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepadorafricano de Vernay @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hill & Carter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1937","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"199","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vernayi","name":"Dendromus vernayi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to C Angola where it 1s currently known only from the type locality.","bibliography":"Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (2013e) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is only known from a single locality and may therefore be atrisk.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 63-77 mm, tail 80-86 mm, hindfoot 20-20 mm. No specific data are available for body weight.Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Earsare relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"No information."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE10F45FF25F94DC966F41D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE10F45FF25F94DC966F41D","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"61.Dainty Fat MouseSteatomys cuppediusFrench:Rat-adipeux élégant/ German:Zierliche Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso delicadoOther common names:Dainty African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys cuppedius Thomas & Hinton, 1920,“ Farniso, near Kano, North Nigeria(altitude 1,700 ft.[= 518 m]).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Senegal, Benin, N Nigeria, and S Niger.Descriptive notes.Head-body 78-93 mm, tail 41-50 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 15-16 mm; weight 14-24 g. The Dainty Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short, sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and pale sandy-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. There are always eight nipples.Habitat.Arid savanna.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Dainty Fat Mouse is terrestrial. Individuals rest in burrows during the day and accumulate fat during rains, becoming torpid during the dry season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.At a few localities, the Dainty Fat Mouse has been trapped in relatively large numbers, but generally it is rare or absent within its overall distribution. Its presence in Senegal is only known from prey remains in owl pellets.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Decher (1997), Duplantier & Granjon (1992), Duplantier & Sicard (2013), Granjon & Duplantier (2009), Happold (1987), Monadjem et al. (2015), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978), Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992).","taxonomy":"Steatomys cuppedius Thomas & Hinton, 1920,“ Farniso, near Kano, North Nigeria(altitude 1,700 ft.[= 518 m]).”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux élégant @fr | Zierliche Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso delicado @es | Dainty African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas & Hinton, 1920","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas & Hinton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1920","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cuppedius","name":"Steatomys cuppedius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Senegal, Benin, N Nigeria, and S Niger.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600497/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Decher (1997) | Duplantier & Granjon (1992) | Duplantier & Sicard (2013) | Granjon & Duplantier (2009) | Happold (1987) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978) | Van der Straeten & Dieterlen (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Dainty Fat Mouse is terrestrial. Individuals rest in burrows during the day and accumulate fat during rains, becoming torpid during the dry season.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"At a few localities, the Dainty Fat Mouse has been trapped in relatively large numbers, but generally it is rare or absent within its overall distribution. Its presence in Senegal is only known from prey remains in owl pellets.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 78-93 mm, tail 41-50 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 15-16 mm; weight 14-24 g. The Dainty Fat Mouse is small, with a noticeably short, sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and pale sandy-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. There are always eight nipples.","habitat":"Arid savanna."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FAF2FB8BCB20F774.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE20F46FAF2FB8BCB20F774","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"199","verbatimText":"51.Vernay’s African Climbing MouseDendromus vernayiFrench:Dendromus de Vernay/ German:Vernay-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepadorafricano de VernayTaxonomy.Dendromus mesomelas vernayi Hill & Carter, 1937,“Chitau, alt. 4930 ft. [= 1503 m], Angola.”Dendromus vernayiwas previously recognized as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C Angola where it 1s currently known only from the type locality.Descriptive notes.Head—body 63-77 mm, tail 80-86 mm, hindfoot 20-20 mm. No specific data are available for body weight.Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Earsare relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is only known from a single locality and may therefore be atrisk.Bibliography.Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (2013e), Hill & Carter (1941), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005).","taxonomy":"Dendromus mesomelas vernayi Hill & Carter, 1937,“Chitau, alt. 4930 ft. [= 1503 m], Angola.”Dendromus vernayiwas previously recognized as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Vernay @fr | Vernay-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepadorafricano de Vernay @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hill & Carter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1937","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"199","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vernayi","name":"Dendromus vernayi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to C Angola where it 1s currently known only from the type locality.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600476/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (2013e) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is only known from a single locality and may therefore be atrisk.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 63-77 mm, tail 80-86 mm, hindfoot 20-20 mm. No specific data are available for body weight.Vernay’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Earsare relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"No information."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FFF1F663CAB2FC49.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE20F46FFF1F663CAB2FC49","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"199","verbatimText":"50.Montane African Climbing MouseDendromus insignisFrench:Dendromus des montagnes/ German:Gebirgsklettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de montanaOther common names:Remarkable Climbing MouseDendromys insignis Thomas, 1903,“ Nandi, British East Africa [= Kenya].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Montane areas of E Africa, in East DR Congo, W Uganda, Rwanda, S Kenya, and Eastern Arc Mts of Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 78- 92 mm, tail 82-111 mm, ear 12-18 mm, hindfoot 20-23 mm; weight 12-17 g. The Montane African Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Its tail is very long and Eg Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally, with considerable variation in color, and paler ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray, giving pelage a gray wash. Obvious black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Montane grasslands, moist grasslands, and herbaceous vegetation above elevations of 1500 m and moorlands at 3000-4700 m.Food and Feeding.The Montane African Climbing Mouse mostly eats grass seeds and insects.Breeding.The Montane African Climbing Mouse builds small grass nests or uses small bird nests. Littersizes are 1-7 young, typically four young.Activity patterns.The Montane African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal with peak in activity between 22:00 h and 02:00 h. It isterrestrial but also an agile climber, climbing grass stalks using its prehensile tail and opposable fifth digits on hindfeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Montane African Climbing Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of all small mammals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. It forms a small part of diets of Cape eagle-owls (Bubo capensis) and Leopards (Panthera pardus) in the alpine zone of Mount Kenya, Kenya.Bibliography.Clausnitzer & Kityo (2001), Delany (1975), Dieterlen (1971, 2013b), Grimshaw et al. (1995), Kaleme et al. (2007), Kerbis Peterhans et al. (1998), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rodel, Scholze & Kock (2002), Rodel, Scholze & Paulsch (2004)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FFF6FB16C822F63B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE20F46FFF6FB16C822F63B","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"199","verbatimText":"49.Mount Kahuzi African Climbing MouseDendromus kahuziensisFrench:Dendromus du Kahuzi/ German:Kahuzi-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepadorafricano de KahuziOther common names:Kahuzi African Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus kahuziensis Dieterlen, 1969,Mount Kahuzi, Kivu, DR Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Mt Kahuz1, E DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 77-82 mm, tail 120-132 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 10-12 g. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Furis long, soft, and dark-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Broad black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Only known from montane forest with bamboo at elevations of ¢.2100 m.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of a single Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse contained plant material.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is known from a single site in protected Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, DR Congo; this region has experienced political conflict and associated habitat degradation.Bibliography.Dieterlen (1969b, 1976¢, 2013c), Kaleme et al. (2007), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Dendromus kahuziensis Dieterlen, 1969,Mount Kahuzi, Kivu, DR Congo.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus du Kahuzi @fr | Kahuzi-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepadorafricano de Kahuzi @es | Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dieterlen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1969","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"199","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kahuziensis","name":"Dendromus kahuziensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Only known from Mt Kahuz1, E DR Congo.","bibliography":"Dieterlen (1969b, 1976¢, 2013c) | Kaleme et al. (2007) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"Stomach contents of a single Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse contained plant material.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is known from a single site in protected Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, DR Congo; this region has experienced political conflict and associated habitat degradation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 77-82 mm, tail 120-132 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 10-12 g. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Furis long, soft, and dark-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Broad black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Only known from montane forest with bamboo at elevations of ¢.2100 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F47FACCF6A7CDF7FECC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE20F47FACCF6A7CDF7FECC","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"199","verbatimText":"52.Monard’s African Climbing MouseDendromus leucostomusFrench:Dendromus de Monard/ German:Monard-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de MonardTaxonomy.Dendromus leucostomus Monard, 1933,Caluquembe, Angola.Dendromus leucostomusis considered conspecific with D. melanotisby some authorities but differs from it by lacking mid-dorsal stripe. Monotypic.Distribution.Only known from a single site in EC Angola.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-69 mm, tail 57-80 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 16—-18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long,soft, and rich brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsalline or stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is known fromjust a single site in a region that is experiencing rapid habitat transformation. Special conservation actions might be necessary to preventits extinction.Bibliography.Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Hill & Carter (1941), Monadjem (2013a), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Dendromus leucostomus Monard, 1933,Caluquembe, Angola.Dendromus leucostomusis considered conspecific with D. melanotisby some authorities but differs from it by lacking mid-dorsal stripe. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Monard @fr | Monard-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Monard @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Monard","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1933","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"199","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucostomus","name":"Dendromus leucostomus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Only known from a single site in EC Angola.","bibliography":"Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Monadjem (2013a) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is known fromjust a single site in a region that is experiencing rapid habitat transformation. Special conservation actions might be necessary to preventits extinction.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47-69 mm, tail 57-80 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 16—-18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long,soft, and rich brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsalline or stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"No information."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F44FA26F5C3C968F9F9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE30F44FA26F5C3C968F9F9","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"56.Gray African Climbing MouseDendromus melanotusFrench:Dendromus gris/ German:Graue Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano grisTaxonomy.Dendromys melanotis A. Smith, 1834,“ South Africa,—on shrubs near Port Natal.”Dendromus melanotisis in need of revision. It shows significant genetic variation, suggesting a species complex. Records from West Africa have recently been described as a new species, D. lachaisei. Based on recently molecular work, D. melanotiscomprises at least four cryptic lineages in South Africa, but taxonomic implications are not yet clear. Furthermore, relationships of outlying populations in Nigeria and perhaps Ethiopia require investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in S Africa, from SW Angola and NW & E Namibia E to Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and S to E & S South Africa and Swaziland; isolated populations occur in C Nigeria, SW Uganda, SW Ethiopia, C & S Kenya, and N & S Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head—body 50-77 mm, tail 55-96 mm, ear 8-18 mm, hindfoot 12-20 mm; weight 6-15 g. The Gray African Climbing Mouse is small, with long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and brown to grayish-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Obvious mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Wide range of habitats including stands of tall Hyparrhenia(Poaceae) grassland, short montane grassland, dry Kalahari scrub, fringes of rivers, dry Baikiaeaand Isoberlinia(both Fabaceae) woodland, and flood-plains. The Gray African Climbing Mouse can recolonize burnt grasslands within one month offire, but itis typically associated with grasslands of high ecological integrity and therefore may be a good indicator of high-quality grasslands. In East Africa, it is typically associated with dry savanna but also occurs into moist habitats such as marshes and montane forest.Food and Feeding.Poorly known. At one site in South Africa, all examined stomach contents from Gray African Climbing Mice contained seeds and about one-quarter had insects—similar to that reported in East Africa.Breeding.In South Africa, pregnant Gray African Climbing Mice were collected during the rainy season and juveniles when rains had ended. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level. They also use burrows. Litter sizes are 2-8 young.Activity patterns.The Gray African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly terrestrial, although it can climb.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gray African Climbing Mouse can occur in relatively high numbers in high-elevation grasslands of South Africa, where it has been recorded as the second or third most abundant small mammal species in certain habitats.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ansell (1978), Avenant (2011), Avenant & Cavallini (2007), Avery (1987), De Graaff (1981), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (1971), Dippenaar et al. (1983), Goheen et al. (2004), Kerley (1992b), Kingdon (1974), Korn (1992), Lynch (1994), Martin (1985), Mendelsohn (1982), Monadjem et al. (2015), Perrin & Campbell (1980), Rautenbach et al. (2014), Robbins & Baker (1978), Rosevear (1969), Rowe-Rowe (1986), Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982), Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a, 1982b), Sheppe & Haas (1981), Smithers (1971), Solano et al. (2014), Taylor (1998).","taxonomy":"Dendromys melanotis A. Smith, 1834,“ South Africa,—on shrubs near Port Natal.”Dendromus melanotisis in need of revision. It shows significant genetic variation, suggesting a species complex. Records from West Africa have recently been described as a new species, D. lachaisei. Based on recently molecular work, D. melanotiscomprises at least four cryptic lineages in South Africa, but taxonomic implications are not yet clear. Furthermore, relationships of outlying populations in Nigeria and perhaps Ethiopia require investigation. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus gris @fr | Graue Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano gris @es","interpretedAuthority":"A. Smith, 1834","interpretedAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"melanotis","name":"Dendromus melanotus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in S Africa, from SW Angola and NW & E Namibia E to Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and S to E & S South Africa and Swaziland; isolated populations occur in C Nigeria, SW Uganda, SW Ethiopia, C & S Kenya, and N & S Tanzania.","bibliography":"Ansell (1978) | Avenant (2011) | Avenant & Cavallini (2007) | Avery (1987) | De Graaff (1981) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (1971) | Dippenaar et al. (1983) | Goheen et al. (2004) | Kerley (1992b) | Kingdon (1974) | Korn (1992) | Lynch (1994) | Martin (1985) | Mendelsohn (1982) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Perrin & Campbell (1980) | Rautenbach et al. (2014) | Robbins & Baker (1978) | Rosevear (1969) | Rowe-Rowe (1986) | Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982) | Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a, 1982b) | Sheppe & Haas (1981) | Smithers (1971) | Solano et al. (2014) | Taylor (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Poorly known. At one site in South Africa, all examined stomach contents from Gray African Climbing Mice contained seeds and about one-quarter had insects—similar to that reported in East Africa.","breeding":"In South Africa, pregnant Gray African Climbing Mice were collected during the rainy season and juveniles when rains had ended. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level. They also use burrows. Litter sizes are 2-8 young.","activityPatterns":"The Gray African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly terrestrial, although it can climb.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Gray African Climbing Mouse can occur in relatively high numbers in high-elevation grasslands of South Africa, where it has been recorded as the second or third most abundant small mammal species in certain habitats.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 50-77 mm, tail 55-96 mm, ear 8-18 mm, hindfoot 12-20 mm; weight 6-15 g. The Gray African Climbing Mouse is small, with long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and brown to grayish-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Obvious mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Wide range of habitats including stands of tall Hyparrhenia(Poaceae) grassland, short montane grassland, dry Kalahari scrub, fringes of rivers, dry Baikiaeaand Isoberlinia(both Fabaceae) woodland, and flood-plains. The Gray African Climbing Mouse can recolonize burnt grasslands within one month offire, but itis typically associated with grasslands of high ecological integrity and therefore may be a good indicator of high-quality grasslands. In East Africa, it is typically associated with dry savanna but also occurs into moist habitats such as marshes and montane forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FA22FD98C47BF597.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE30F47FA22FD98C47BF597","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"55.Chestnut African Climbing MouseDendromus mystacalisFrench:Dendromus de Heuglin/ German:Kastanienbraune Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano castanoOther common names:Chestnut Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys mystacalis Heuglin, 1863,Baschlo region, Ethiopia.Dendromus mystacalismay represent a species complex. In particular, the population from Ethiopia occurs in different habitat and elevations compared with populations elsewhere in its distribution and may represent a distinct species. Taxonomic significance of geographical variation in pelage also needs to be investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.Occurs widely in E & S Africa (SW Angola E to S DR Congo, Zambia, extreme N Botswana, and Malawi, and S to Zimbabwe, C & S Mozambique, Swaziland, and E South Africa; isolated populations occur in the highlands of Ethiopia, NE DR Congo and extreme S South Sudan E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and NW Tanzania; also recorded in SE Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-80 mm, tail 64-101 mm, ear 7-18 mm, hindfoot 14— 20 mm; weight 4-11 g. The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright chestnutbrown dorsally and pure white ventrally; some populations have grayish ventral pelage. Base of each dorsal hair is dark gray. Thin or faint mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail, which is absent in populations with grayish ventral pelage. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various grasslands and savannas, especially at elevations below 1000 m (except in Ethiopia). Vegetation cover immediately above the ground appears to be important to the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse. In Swaziland, tall Hyperthelia-Hyparrhenia grassland is favored, but it also occurs in thick tangles adjacent to wetlands and edges of Afro-montane forest.Food and Feeding.In Swaziland, the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.Breeding.In Zimbabwe, young Chestnut African Climbing Mice have been observed in nests during the rainy season. They build grass nests with multiple entrances, usually placed c.1 m aboveground in tall grass or a bush clump. They also use old bird nests, especially of the family Ploceidae. Litter sizes are 3-8 young.Activity patterns.The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It forages both terrestrially and on grass stalks and low bushes. In Swaziland, pairs were regularly captured in the same trap, suggesting that they forage together.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Densities of the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse can be high in appropriate habitat (2-5-19-8 ind/ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Adam et al. (2015), Avenant & Kuyler (2002), Bekele (1996a), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (2009), Fitzherbert et al. (2007), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Misonne (1963), Monadjem (1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b), Monadjem & Perrin (2003), Monadjem etal. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Rautenbach, A. et al. (2014), Rautenbach, |.L. (1982), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers &Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Solano et al. (2014), Stanley & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Dendromys mystacalis Heuglin, 1863,Baschlo region, Ethiopia.Dendromus mystacalismay represent a species complex. In particular, the population from Ethiopia occurs in different habitat and elevations compared with populations elsewhere in its distribution and may represent a distinct species. Taxonomic significance of geographical variation in pelage also needs to be investigated. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Heuglin @fr | Kastanienbraune Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano castano @es | Chestnut Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Heuglin, 1863","interpretedAuthorityName":"Heuglin","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1863","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mystacalis","name":"Dendromus mystacalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Occurs widely in E & S Africa (SW Angola E to S DR Congo, Zambia, extreme N Botswana, and Malawi, and S to Zimbabwe, C & S Mozambique, Swaziland, and E South Africa; isolated populations occur in the highlands of Ethiopia, NE DR Congo and extreme S South Sudan E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and NW Tanzania; also recorded in SE Tanzania.","bibliography":"Adam et al. (2015) | Avenant & Kuyler (2002) | Bekele (1996a) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (2009) | Fitzherbert et al. (2007) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Misonne (1963) | Monadjem (1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b) | Monadjem & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem etal. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Rautenbach, A. et al. (2014) | Rautenbach, |.L. (1982) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers &Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Solano et al. (2014) | Stanley & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"In Swaziland, the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.","breeding":"In Zimbabwe, young Chestnut African Climbing Mice have been observed in nests during the rainy season. They build grass nests with multiple entrances, usually placed c.1 m aboveground in tall grass or a bush clump. They also use old bird nests, especially of the family Ploceidae. Litter sizes are 3-8 young.","activityPatterns":"The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It forages both terrestrially and on grass stalks and low bushes. In Swaziland, pairs were regularly captured in the same trap, suggesting that they forage together.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Densities of the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse can be high in appropriate habitat (2-5-19-8 ind/ha).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47-80 mm, tail 64-101 mm, ear 7-18 mm, hindfoot 14— 20 mm; weight 4-11 g. The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright chestnutbrown dorsally and pure white ventrally; some populations have grayish ventral pelage. Base of each dorsal hair is dark gray. Thin or faint mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail, which is absent in populations with grayish ventral pelage. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various grasslands and savannas, especially at elevations below 1000 m (except in Ethiopia). Vegetation cover immediately above the ground appears to be important to the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse. In Swaziland, tall Hyperthelia-Hyparrhenia grassland is favored, but it also occurs in thick tangles adjacent to wetlands and edges of Afro-montane forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FF25FE08CEF9F7FE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE30F47FF25FE08CEF9F7FE","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"53.Kivu African Climbing MouseDendromus nyasaeFrench:Dendromus du Kivu/ German:Kivu-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de KivuTaxonomy.Dendromus mnyasae Thomas, 1916,“ Nyika Plateau, N. Nyasa[District]. Alt. 6500’ [= 1981 m],” Malawi.Relationship between the two subspeciesrequires investigation because they could be distinct species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D.n.nyasaeThomas,1916—STanzania,extremeNEZambia,andNMalawi.D. n. kivu Thomas, 1916— NE DR Congo, SW Uganda, and Rwanda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 64-80 mm,tail 84-105 mm, ear 11-16 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 6-20 g. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which may occasionally be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various upland grasslands, especially those associated with water, typically above elevations of 1300 m. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can also occur on edges of swamps and agriculturalfields.Food and Feeding.The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating seeds and insects.Breeding.Most female KivuAfrican Climbing Mice are reproductively active during the wet season (September—May), although reproduction can occur throughout the year at lower intensity. Average litter size 4 young. Gestation is ¢.23-27 days. Neonates grow rapidly and are able to walk ¢.22 days of age when eyes also open. Weaning occurs at ¢.24 days and is completed at 35 days. It builds a grass nest that is usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level.Activity patterns.The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In appropriate habitat, the KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can comprise 10% of the small mammal community.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Subspecies kivuclassified as Least Concern (as D. kivu). Due to its nature of occupying a variety of habitats, it is unlikely to be currently threatened although individual populations may be at risk in areas facing severe habitat transformation.Bibliography.Dieterlen (1967a, 1967b, 1971, 1976c¢), Kaleme et al. (2007), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Stanley & Hutterer (2007).","taxonomy":"Dendromus mnyasae Thomas, 1916,“ Nyika Plateau, N. Nyasa[District]. Alt. 6500’ [= 1981 m],” Malawi.Relationship between the two subspeciesrequires investigation because they could be distinct species. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Dendromus du Kivu @fr | Kivu-Klettermaus @de | Ratén trepador africano de Kivu @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1916","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nyasae","name":"Dendromus nyasae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"D.n.nyasaeThomas,1916—STanzania,extremeNEZambia,andNMalawi.D. n. kivu Thomas, 1916— NE DR Congo, SW Uganda, and Rwanda.","bibliography":"Dieterlen (1967a, 1967b, 1971, 1976c¢) | Kaleme et al. (2007) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Stanley & Hutterer (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating seeds and insects.","breeding":"Most female KivuAfrican Climbing Mice are reproductively active during the wet season (September—May), although reproduction can occur throughout the year at lower intensity. Average litter size 4 young. Gestation is ¢.23-27 days. Neonates grow rapidly and are able to walk ¢.22 days of age when eyes also open. Weaning occurs at ¢.24 days and is completed at 35 days. It builds a grass nest that is usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level.","activityPatterns":"The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In appropriate habitat, the KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can comprise 10% of the small mammal community.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Subspecies kivuclassified as Least Concern (as D. kivu). Due to its nature of occupying a variety of habitats, it is unlikely to be currently threatened although individual populations may be at risk in areas facing severe habitat transformation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 64-80 mm,tail 84-105 mm, ear 11-16 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 6-20 g. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which may occasionally be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various upland grasslands, especially those associated with water, typically above elevations of 1300 m. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can also occur on edges of swamps and agriculturalfields."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F46FFF6FB16C822F63B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE20F46FFF6FB16C822F63B","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"199","verbatimText":"49.Mount Kahuzi African Climbing MouseDendromus kahuziensisFrench:Dendromus du Kahuzi/ German:Kahuzi-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepadorafricano de KahuziOther common names:Kahuzi African Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus kahuziensis Dieterlen, 1969,Mount Kahuzi, Kivu, DR Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Mt Kahuz1, E DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head—body 77-82 mm, tail 120-132 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 10-12 g. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Furis long, soft, and dark-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Broad black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Only known from montane forest with bamboo at elevations of ¢.2100 m.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of a single Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse contained plant material.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is known from a single site in protected Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, DR Congo; this region has experienced political conflict and associated habitat degradation.Bibliography.Dieterlen (1969b, 1976¢, 2013c), Kaleme et al. (2007), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Dendromus kahuziensis Dieterlen, 1969,Mount Kahuzi, Kivu, DR Congo.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus du Kahuzi @fr | Kahuzi-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepadorafricano de Kahuzi @es | Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dieterlen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1969","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"199","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kahuziensis","name":"Dendromus kahuziensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Only known from Mt Kahuz1, E DR Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600472/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dieterlen (1969b, 1976¢, 2013c) | Kaleme et al. (2007) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"Stomach contents of a single Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse contained plant material.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is known from a single site in protected Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, DR Congo; this region has experienced political conflict and associated habitat degradation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 77-82 mm, tail 120-132 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 21-22 mm; weight 10-12 g. The Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Furis long, soft, and dark-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Broad black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Only known from montane forest with bamboo at elevations of ¢.2100 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE20F47FACCF6A7CDF7FECC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE20F47FACCF6A7CDF7FECC","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"199","verbatimText":"52.Monard’s African Climbing MouseDendromus leucostomusFrench:Dendromus de Monard/ German:Monard-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de MonardTaxonomy.Dendromus leucostomus Monard, 1933,Caluquembe, Angola.Dendromus leucostomusis considered conspecific with D. melanotisby some authorities but differs from it by lacking mid-dorsal stripe. Monotypic.Distribution.Only known from a single site in EC Angola.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-69 mm, tail 57-80 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 16—-18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long,soft, and rich brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsalline or stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is known fromjust a single site in a region that is experiencing rapid habitat transformation. Special conservation actions might be necessary to preventits extinction.Bibliography.Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Hill & Carter (1941), Monadjem (2013a), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Dendromus leucostomus Monard, 1933,Caluquembe, Angola.Dendromus leucostomusis considered conspecific with D. melanotisby some authorities but differs from it by lacking mid-dorsal stripe. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Monard @fr | Monard-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Monard @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Monard","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1933","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"199","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucostomus","name":"Dendromus leucostomus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Only known from a single site in EC Angola.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600478/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Hill & Carter (1941) | Monadjem (2013a) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is known fromjust a single site in a region that is experiencing rapid habitat transformation. Special conservation actions might be necessary to preventits extinction.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47-69 mm, tail 57-80 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 16—-18 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Monard’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long,soft, and rich brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsalline or stripe. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"No information."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F44FA26F5C3C968F9F9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE30F44FA26F5C3C968F9F9","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"56.Gray African Climbing MouseDendromus melanotusFrench:Dendromus gris/ German:Graue Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano grisTaxonomy.Dendromys melanotis A. Smith, 1834,“ South Africa,—on shrubs near Port Natal.”Dendromus melanotisis in need of revision. It shows significant genetic variation, suggesting a species complex. Records from West Africa have recently been described as a new species, D. lachaisei. Based on recently molecular work, D. melanotiscomprises at least four cryptic lineages in South Africa, but taxonomic implications are not yet clear. Furthermore, relationships of outlying populations in Nigeria and perhaps Ethiopia require investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in S Africa, from SW Angola and NW & E Namibia E to Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and S to E & S South Africa and Swaziland; isolated populations occur in C Nigeria, SW Uganda, SW Ethiopia, C & S Kenya, and N & S Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head—body 50-77 mm, tail 55-96 mm, ear 8-18 mm, hindfoot 12-20 mm; weight 6-15 g. The Gray African Climbing Mouse is small, with long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and brown to grayish-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Obvious mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Wide range of habitats including stands of tall Hyparrhenia(Poaceae) grassland, short montane grassland, dry Kalahari scrub, fringes of rivers, dry Baikiaeaand Isoberlinia(both Fabaceae) woodland, and flood-plains. The Gray African Climbing Mouse can recolonize burnt grasslands within one month offire, but itis typically associated with grasslands of high ecological integrity and therefore may be a good indicator of high-quality grasslands. In East Africa, it is typically associated with dry savanna but also occurs into moist habitats such as marshes and montane forest.Food and Feeding.Poorly known. At one site in South Africa, all examined stomach contents from Gray African Climbing Mice contained seeds and about one-quarter had insects—similar to that reported in East Africa.Breeding.In South Africa, pregnant Gray African Climbing Mice were collected during the rainy season and juveniles when rains had ended. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level. They also use burrows. Litter sizes are 2-8 young.Activity patterns.The Gray African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly terrestrial, although it can climb.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gray African Climbing Mouse can occur in relatively high numbers in high-elevation grasslands of South Africa, where it has been recorded as the second or third most abundant small mammal species in certain habitats.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Ansell (1978), Avenant (2011), Avenant & Cavallini (2007), Avery (1987), De Graaff (1981), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (1971), Dippenaar et al. (1983), Goheen et al. (2004), Kerley (1992b), Kingdon (1974), Korn (1992), Lynch (1994), Martin (1985), Mendelsohn (1982), Monadjem et al. (2015), Perrin & Campbell (1980), Rautenbach et al. (2014), Robbins & Baker (1978), Rosevear (1969), Rowe-Rowe (1986), Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982), Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a, 1982b), Sheppe & Haas (1981), Smithers (1971), Solano et al. (2014), Taylor (1998).","taxonomy":"Dendromys melanotis A. Smith, 1834,“ South Africa,—on shrubs near Port Natal.”Dendromus melanotisis in need of revision. It shows significant genetic variation, suggesting a species complex. Records from West Africa have recently been described as a new species, D. lachaisei. Based on recently molecular work, D. melanotiscomprises at least four cryptic lineages in South Africa, but taxonomic implications are not yet clear. Furthermore, relationships of outlying populations in Nigeria and perhaps Ethiopia require investigation. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus gris @fr | Graue Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano gris @es","interpretedAuthority":"A. Smith, 1834","interpretedAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"melanotis","name":"Dendromus melanotus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in S Africa, from SW Angola and NW & E Namibia E to Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and S to E & S South Africa and Swaziland; isolated populations occur in C Nigeria, SW Uganda, SW Ethiopia, C & S Kenya, and N & S Tanzania.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600486/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ansell (1978) | Avenant (2011) | Avenant & Cavallini (2007) | Avery (1987) | De Graaff (1981) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (1971) | Dippenaar et al. (1983) | Goheen et al. (2004) | Kerley (1992b) | Kingdon (1974) | Korn (1992) | Lynch (1994) | Martin (1985) | Mendelsohn (1982) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Perrin & Campbell (1980) | Rautenbach et al. (2014) | Robbins & Baker (1978) | Rosevear (1969) | Rowe-Rowe (1986) | Rowe-Rowe & Lowry (1982) | Rowe-Rowe & Meester (1982a, 1982b) | Sheppe & Haas (1981) | Smithers (1971) | Solano et al. (2014) | Taylor (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Poorly known. At one site in South Africa, all examined stomach contents from Gray African Climbing Mice contained seeds and about one-quarter had insects—similar to that reported in East Africa.","breeding":"In South Africa, pregnant Gray African Climbing Mice were collected during the rainy season and juveniles when rains had ended. They build grass nests with single entrances, usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level. They also use burrows. Litter sizes are 2-8 young.","activityPatterns":"The Gray African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal and apparently predominantly terrestrial, although it can climb.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Gray African Climbing Mouse can occur in relatively high numbers in high-elevation grasslands of South Africa, where it has been recorded as the second or third most abundant small mammal species in certain habitats.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 50-77 mm, tail 55-96 mm, ear 8-18 mm, hindfoot 12-20 mm; weight 6-15 g. The Gray African Climbing Mouse is small, with long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and brown to grayish-brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Obvious mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Wide range of habitats including stands of tall Hyparrhenia(Poaceae) grassland, short montane grassland, dry Kalahari scrub, fringes of rivers, dry Baikiaeaand Isoberlinia(both Fabaceae) woodland, and flood-plains. The Gray African Climbing Mouse can recolonize burnt grasslands within one month offire, but itis typically associated with grasslands of high ecological integrity and therefore may be a good indicator of high-quality grasslands. In East Africa, it is typically associated with dry savanna but also occurs into moist habitats such as marshes and montane forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FA22FD98C47BF597.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE30F47FA22FD98C47BF597","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"55.Chestnut African Climbing MouseDendromus mystacalisFrench:Dendromus de Heuglin/ German:Kastanienbraune Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano castanoOther common names:Chestnut Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys mystacalis Heuglin, 1863,Baschlo region, Ethiopia.Dendromus mystacalismay represent a species complex. In particular, the population from Ethiopia occurs in different habitat and elevations compared with populations elsewhere in its distribution and may represent a distinct species. Taxonomic significance of geographical variation in pelage also needs to be investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.Occurs widely in E & S Africa (SW Angola E to S DR Congo, Zambia, extreme N Botswana, and Malawi, and S to Zimbabwe, C & S Mozambique, Swaziland, and E South Africa; isolated populations occur in the highlands of Ethiopia, NE DR Congo and extreme S South Sudan E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and NW Tanzania; also recorded in SE Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-80 mm, tail 64-101 mm, ear 7-18 mm, hindfoot 14— 20 mm; weight 4-11 g. The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright chestnutbrown dorsally and pure white ventrally; some populations have grayish ventral pelage. Base of each dorsal hair is dark gray. Thin or faint mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail, which is absent in populations with grayish ventral pelage. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various grasslands and savannas, especially at elevations below 1000 m (except in Ethiopia). Vegetation cover immediately above the ground appears to be important to the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse. In Swaziland, tall Hyperthelia-Hyparrhenia grassland is favored, but it also occurs in thick tangles adjacent to wetlands and edges of Afro-montane forest.Food and Feeding.In Swaziland, the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.Breeding.In Zimbabwe, young Chestnut African Climbing Mice have been observed in nests during the rainy season. They build grass nests with multiple entrances, usually placed c.1 m aboveground in tall grass or a bush clump. They also use old bird nests, especially of the family Ploceidae. Litter sizes are 3-8 young.Activity patterns.The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It forages both terrestrially and on grass stalks and low bushes. In Swaziland, pairs were regularly captured in the same trap, suggesting that they forage together.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Densities of the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse can be high in appropriate habitat (2-5-19-8 ind/ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Adam et al. (2015), Avenant & Kuyler (2002), Bekele (1996a), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Dieterlen (2009), Fitzherbert et al. (2007), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Misonne (1963), Monadjem (1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b), Monadjem & Perrin (2003), Monadjem etal. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Rautenbach, A. et al. (2014), Rautenbach, |.L. (1982), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers &Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Solano et al. (2014), Stanley & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Dendromys mystacalis Heuglin, 1863,Baschlo region, Ethiopia.Dendromus mystacalismay represent a species complex. In particular, the population from Ethiopia occurs in different habitat and elevations compared with populations elsewhere in its distribution and may represent a distinct species. Taxonomic significance of geographical variation in pelage also needs to be investigated. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Heuglin @fr | Kastanienbraune Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano castano @es | Chestnut Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Heuglin, 1863","interpretedAuthorityName":"Heuglin","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1863","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mystacalis","name":"Dendromus mystacalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Occurs widely in E & S Africa (SW Angola E to S DR Congo, Zambia, extreme N Botswana, and Malawi, and S to Zimbabwe, C & S Mozambique, Swaziland, and E South Africa; isolated populations occur in the highlands of Ethiopia, NE DR Congo and extreme S South Sudan E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and NW Tanzania; also recorded in SE Tanzania.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600484/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Adam et al. (2015) | Avenant & Kuyler (2002) | Bekele (1996a) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Dieterlen (2009) | Fitzherbert et al. (2007) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Misonne (1963) | Monadjem (1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b) | Monadjem & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem etal. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Rautenbach, A. et al. (2014) | Rautenbach, |.L. (1982) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers &Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Solano et al. (2014) | Stanley & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"In Swaziland, the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.","breeding":"In Zimbabwe, young Chestnut African Climbing Mice have been observed in nests during the rainy season. They build grass nests with multiple entrances, usually placed c.1 m aboveground in tall grass or a bush clump. They also use old bird nests, especially of the family Ploceidae. Litter sizes are 3-8 young.","activityPatterns":"The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It forages both terrestrially and on grass stalks and low bushes. In Swaziland, pairs were regularly captured in the same trap, suggesting that they forage together.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Densities of the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse can be high in appropriate habitat (2-5-19-8 ind/ha).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47-80 mm, tail 64-101 mm, ear 7-18 mm, hindfoot 14— 20 mm; weight 4-11 g. The Chestnut African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Fur is long, soft, and bright chestnutbrown dorsally and pure white ventrally; some populations have grayish ventral pelage. Base of each dorsal hair is dark gray. Thin or faint mid-dorsal stripe extends from neck to base oftail, which is absent in populations with grayish ventral pelage. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various grasslands and savannas, especially at elevations below 1000 m (except in Ethiopia). Vegetation cover immediately above the ground appears to be important to the Chestnut African Climbing Mouse. In Swaziland, tall Hyperthelia-Hyparrhenia grassland is favored, but it also occurs in thick tangles adjacent to wetlands and edges of Afro-montane forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FF25FE08CEF9F7FE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE30F47FF25FE08CEF9F7FE","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"53.Kivu African Climbing MouseDendromus nyasaeFrench:Dendromus du Kivu/ German:Kivu-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de KivuTaxonomy.Dendromus mnyasae Thomas, 1916,“ Nyika Plateau, N. Nyasa[District]. Alt. 6500’ [= 1981 m],” Malawi.Relationship between the two subspeciesrequires investigation because they could be distinct species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D.n.nyasaeThomas,1916—STanzania,extremeNEZambia,andNMalawi.D. n. kivu Thomas, 1916— NE DR Congo, SW Uganda, and Rwanda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 64-80 mm,tail 84-105 mm, ear 11-16 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 6-20 g. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which may occasionally be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various upland grasslands, especially those associated with water, typically above elevations of 1300 m. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can also occur on edges of swamps and agriculturalfields.Food and Feeding.The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating seeds and insects.Breeding.Most female KivuAfrican Climbing Mice are reproductively active during the wet season (September—May), although reproduction can occur throughout the year at lower intensity. Average litter size 4 young. Gestation is ¢.23-27 days. Neonates grow rapidly and are able to walk ¢.22 days of age when eyes also open. Weaning occurs at ¢.24 days and is completed at 35 days. It builds a grass nest that is usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level.Activity patterns.The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In appropriate habitat, the KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can comprise 10% of the small mammal community.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Subspecies kivuclassified as Least Concern (as D. kivu). Due to its nature of occupying a variety of habitats, it is unlikely to be currently threatened although individual populations may be at risk in areas facing severe habitat transformation.Bibliography.Dieterlen (1967a, 1967b, 1971, 1976c¢), Kaleme et al. (2007), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Stanley & Hutterer (2007).","taxonomy":"Dendromus mnyasae Thomas, 1916,“ Nyika Plateau, N. Nyasa[District]. Alt. 6500’ [= 1981 m],” Malawi.Relationship between the two subspeciesrequires investigation because they could be distinct species. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Dendromus du Kivu @fr | Kivu-Klettermaus @de | Ratén trepador africano de Kivu @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1916","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nyasae","name":"Dendromus nyasae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"D.n.nyasaeThomas,1916—STanzania,extremeNEZambia,andNMalawi.D. n. kivu Thomas, 1916— NE DR Congo, SW Uganda, and Rwanda.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600480/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dieterlen (1967a, 1967b, 1971, 1976c¢) | Kaleme et al. (2007) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Stanley & Hutterer (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating seeds and insects.","breeding":"Most female KivuAfrican Climbing Mice are reproductively active during the wet season (September—May), although reproduction can occur throughout the year at lower intensity. Average litter size 4 young. Gestation is ¢.23-27 days. Neonates grow rapidly and are able to walk ¢.22 days of age when eyes also open. Weaning occurs at ¢.24 days and is completed at 35 days. It builds a grass nest that is usually attached to a grass stem or shrub close to ground level.","activityPatterns":"The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In appropriate habitat, the KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can comprise 10% of the small mammal community.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Subspecies kivuclassified as Least Concern (as D. kivu). Due to its nature of occupying a variety of habitats, it is unlikely to be currently threatened although individual populations may be at risk in areas facing severe habitat transformation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 64-80 mm,tail 84-105 mm, ear 11-16 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 6-20 g. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse is small but large for a species of Dendromus. Tail is very long and prehensile. Fur is long, soft, and bright brown dorsally and off-white ventrally. Base of each hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which may occasionally be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various upland grasslands, especially those associated with water, typically above elevations of 1300 m. The KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse can also occur on edges of swamps and agriculturalfields."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE30F47FF29F71AC610FE41.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE30F47FF29F71AC610FE41","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"54.Nyika African Climbing MouseDendromus nyikaeFrench:Dendromus du Nyika/ German:Nyika-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de NyikaOther common names:Nyika Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus nyikae Wroughton, 1909,Nyika Plateau, Malawi.Dendromus nyikaeis closely related to D. melanotis, and the two species are placed in the subgenus Poemysby some authors. Monotypic.Distribution.Angola E through S DR Congo and Zambia to Malawi, extreme SW Tanzania, and C Mozambique, and S to Zimbabwe and extreme NE South Africa; also recorded in the Eastern Arc Mts (West Usambara and Udzungwa).Descriptive notes.Head-body 61-79 mm, tail 85-97 mm, ear 12-16 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 10-14 g. The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and white or offwhite ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various upland grasslands and savannas, particularly with tall grass, typically above elevations of 1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.Breeding.A single pregnant female was collected in November (beginning of the wet season) and had four embryos. Nests occur in underground burrows.Activity patterns.The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Nyika African Climbing Mouse can comprise 9% of the small mammal community in suitable montane grasslands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Chitaukali et al. (2001), Crawford-Cabral (1998), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Hanney (1965), Happold (20139), Happold & Happold (1986, 1989a, 1989b), Monadjem et al. (2015), Solano et al. (2014), Stanley et al. (1998).","taxonomy":"Dendromus nyikae Wroughton, 1909,Nyika Plateau, Malawi.Dendromus nyikaeis closely related to D. melanotis, and the two species are placed in the subgenus Poemysby some authors. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus du Nyika @fr | Nyika-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Nyika @es | Nyika Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wroughton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"17","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nyikae","name":"Dendromus nyikae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Angola E through S DR Congo and Zambia to Malawi, extreme SW Tanzania, and C Mozambique, and S to Zimbabwe and extreme NE South Africa; also recorded in the Eastern Arc Mts (West Usambara and Udzungwa).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600482/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chitaukali et al. (2001) | Crawford-Cabral (1998) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Hanney (1965) | Happold (20139) | Happold & Happold (1986, 1989a, 1989b) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Solano et al. (2014) | Stanley et al. (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is omnivorous, eating green plant material, seeds, and insects.","breeding":"A single pregnant female was collected in November (beginning of the wet season) and had four embryos. Nests occur in underground burrows.","activityPatterns":"The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also climbs.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Nyika African Climbing Mouse can comprise 9% of the small mammal community in suitable montane grasslands.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 61-79 mm, tail 85-97 mm, ear 12-16 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 10-14 g. The Nyika African Climbing Mouse is small, with a very long prehensile tail. Fur is relatively short, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and white or offwhite ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Mid-dorsalstripe extends from neck to base oftail, which can be indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a flattened nail, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various upland grasslands and savannas, particularly with tall grass, typically above elevations of 1000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FACDF790C5EAF2EB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE60F42FACDF790C5EAF2EB","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"203","verbatimText":"68.Long-eared Desert MouseMalacothrix typicaFrench:Malacothrix a grandes oreilles/ German:Afrikanische Langohrmaus/ Spanish:Raton de desierto de orejas largasOther common names:Gerbil Mouse, Large-eared African Desert Mouse, Long-eared MouseTaxonomy.Otomys typicus A. Smith, 1834,Graaff Reinet District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in extreme SW Angola, Namibia, SW Botswana, and W & C South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 60-87 mm, tail 29-41 mm, ear 14-21 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 15-23 g. The Longeared Desert Mouse 1s small, with a short tail. Fur is relatively long, soft, and grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Three obvious dark stripes or patches are usually present on back. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are short. Forelimb and hindlimb with four functional digits, with first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various semiarid savanna and desert habitats, particularly where grass is short, soil is hard and compact and, rainfall is less than 550 mm.Food and Feeding.The LLong-eared Desert Mouse feeds predominantly on green plant material but also eats seeds and insects.Breeding.Pregnant LLong-eared Desert Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in August-March. Litter sizes are 2-9 young. Gestation is 22-26 days. Neonates are c.1 gin weight and weaned after ¢.32 days. First litters occur at 34 months of age.Activity patterns.The Long-eared Desert Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Activity in captivity peaks between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. It rests in a burrow thatis excavated in soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-eared Desert Mouse forages at least up to 100 m from its burrow.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bosing et al. (2014), Happold (2013h), Jooste & Palmer (1982), Kamleret al. (2015), Keogh (1985), Kerley (1992a), Klare et al. (2014), Knight & Skinner (1981), Monadjem et al. (2015), Smithers (1971).","taxonomy":"Otomys typicus A. Smith, 1834,Graaff Reinet District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Malacothrix a grandes oreilles @fr | Afrikanische Langohrmaus @de | Raton de desierto de orejas largas @es | Gerbil Mouse @en | Large-eared African Desert Mouse @en | Long-eared Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"(A. Smith, 1834)","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Malacothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"203","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"typica","name":"Malacothrix typica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widely distributed in extreme SW Angola, Namibia, SW Botswana, and W & C South Africa.","bibliography":"Bosing et al. (2014) | Happold (2013h) | Jooste & Palmer (1982) | Kamleret al. (2015) | Keogh (1985) | Kerley (1992a) | Klare et al. (2014) | Knight & Skinner (1981) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Smithers (1971)","foodAndFeeding":"The LLong-eared Desert Mouse feeds predominantly on green plant material but also eats seeds and insects.","breeding":"Pregnant LLong-eared Desert Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in August-March. Litter sizes are 2-9 young. Gestation is 22-26 days. Neonates are c.1 gin weight and weaned after ¢.32 days. First litters occur at 34 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Long-eared Desert Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Activity in captivity peaks between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. It rests in a burrow thatis excavated in soil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Long-eared Desert Mouse forages at least up to 100 m from its burrow.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 60-87 mm, tail 29-41 mm, ear 14-21 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 15-23 g. The Longeared Desert Mouse 1s small, with a short tail. Fur is relatively long, soft, and grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Three obvious dark stripes or patches are usually present on back. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are short. Forelimb and hindlimb with four functional digits, with first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various semiarid savanna and desert habitats, particularly where grass is short, soil is hard and compact and, rainfall is less than 550 mm."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FACEFD1FCB12F882.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE60F42FACEFD1FCB12F882","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"203","verbatimText":"67.Krebs’s Fat MouseSteatomys krebsiiFrench:Rat-adipeux de Krebs/ German:Krebs-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de KrebsOther common names:Krebs's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys krebsii Peters, 1852,“ Kaffraria,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in three populations: one in Angola, W Zambia, N Namibia, and extreme N Botswana, and the other two in NE and extreme SW South Africa, respectively.Descriptive notes.Head—body 73-100 mm, tail 32-56 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 14-21 mm; weight 15-42 g. Krebs’s Fat Mouse is small, with short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable in color, ranging from orange-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or grayish white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has always eight nipples.Habitat.Wide variety of savannas.Food and Feeding.A single stomach of a Krebs’s Fat Mouse contained insects.Breeding.Three female Krebs’s Fat Mice had 4-5 embryos.Activity patterns.Krebs’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates burrows in the soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.De Graaff (1981), Monadjem (2013b), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rautenbach & Nel (1980), Rautenbach et al. (1981), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978).","taxonomy":"Steatomys krebsii Peters, 1852,“ Kaffraria,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux de Krebs @fr | Krebs-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Krebs @es | Krebs's African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"203","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"krebsii","name":"Steatomys krebsii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widely distributed in three populations: one in Angola, W Zambia, N Namibia, and extreme N Botswana, and the other two in NE and extreme SW South Africa, respectively.","bibliography":"De Graaff (1981) | Monadjem (2013b) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rautenbach & Nel (1980) | Rautenbach et al. (1981) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"A single stomach of a Krebs’s Fat Mouse contained insects.","breeding":"Three female Krebs’s Fat Mice had 4-5 embryos.","activityPatterns":"Krebs’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates burrows in the soil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 73-100 mm, tail 32-56 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 14-21 mm; weight 15-42 g. Krebs’s Fat Mouse is small, with short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable in color, ranging from orange-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or grayish white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has always eight nipples.","habitat":"Wide variety of savannas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FFF2F82EC400FDF8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE60F42FFF2F82EC400FDF8","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"203","verbatimText":"66.Common Fat MouseSteatomys pratensisFrench:Rat-adipeux de Peters/ German:Gewohnliche Fettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso cominOther common names:Common African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys pratensis Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Mozambique.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in S Africa (S DR Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, S Tanzania, Mozambique, NE Namibia, N & SE Botswana, Zimbabwe, N South Africa, and Swaziland; isolated records from Ethiopia and Kenya require verification.Descriptive notes.Head-body 82-102 mm, tail 40-56 mm, ear 14-17 mm, hindfoot 14-19 mm; weight 22-48 g. The Common Fat Mouse is small, with noticeably short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable from reddish-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from the pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are also white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Number of nipples varies, but there are usually 10-14.Habitat.Wide variety of savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover and often on sandy soils. The Common Fat Mouse appears to select recently burned areas.Food and Feeding.The Common Fat Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats green plant material and insects.Breeding.Breeding of the Common Fat Mouse takes place in the wet season. In Swaziland, pregnant and lactating females have been recorded inJanuary-March, and recruitment of young occurs in March—May. Litter size varies considerably, with 1-9 young.Activity patterns.The Common Fat Mouse is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. A single burrow was ¢.30 cm deep with four entrances, three of which were plugged with soil. Individuals accumulate copious amounts of subcutaneous fat during the wet season, becoming torpid for variable duration during the dry season. Individuals achieve high body weights during the rainy season, becoming significantly lighter during the dry season. Activity is reduced but not eliminated during the dry season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Common Fat Mouse is relatively sedentary, focusing its activity in a small area; mean monthly distances between captures was 36 m in Swaziland. Burrows are usually occupied singly, occasionally two per burrow. Densities are relatively low; maximum densities of ¢.5-6 ind/ha noted in Swaziland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.De Graaff & Nel (1992), Ellison (1995), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014), Kinahan & Pillay (2008), Linzey & Kesner (1997a), Mahlaba & Perrin (2003), Monadjem (1999a, 1999b, 2013d), Monadjem & Perrin (2003), Monadjem et al. (2015), Perrin & Curtis (1980), Perrin & Richardson (2004, 2005a, 2005b), Plavsic (2015), Rautenbach et al. (2014), Richardson & Perrin (1992), Saetnan & Skarpe (2006), Schneider & Jorge (2007), Yarnell et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Steatomys pratensis Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Mozambique.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux de Peters @fr | Gewohnliche Fettmaus @de | Raton grueso comin @es | Common African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1846","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"203","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pratensis","name":"Steatomys pratensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widely distributed in S Africa (S DR Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, S Tanzania, Mozambique, NE Namibia, N & SE Botswana, Zimbabwe, N South Africa, and Swaziland; isolated records from Ethiopia and Kenya require verification.","bibliography":"De Graaff & Nel (1992) | Ellison (1995) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014) | Kinahan & Pillay (2008) | Linzey & Kesner (1997a) | Mahlaba & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem (1999a, 1999b, 2013d) | Monadjem & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Perrin & Curtis (1980) | Perrin & Richardson (2004, 2005a, 2005b) | Plavsic (2015) | Rautenbach et al. (2014) | Richardson & Perrin (1992) | Saetnan & Skarpe (2006) | Schneider & Jorge (2007) | Yarnell et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"The Common Fat Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats green plant material and insects.","breeding":"Breeding of the Common Fat Mouse takes place in the wet season. In Swaziland, pregnant and lactating females have been recorded inJanuary-March, and recruitment of young occurs in March—May. Litter size varies considerably, with 1-9 young.","activityPatterns":"The Common Fat Mouse is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. A single burrow was ¢.30 cm deep with four entrances, three of which were plugged with soil. Individuals accumulate copious amounts of subcutaneous fat during the wet season, becoming torpid for variable duration during the dry season. Individuals achieve high body weights during the rainy season, becoming significantly lighter during the dry season. Activity is reduced but not eliminated during the dry season.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Common Fat Mouse is relatively sedentary, focusing its activity in a small area; mean monthly distances between captures was 36 m in Swaziland. Burrows are usually occupied singly, occasionally two per burrow. Densities are relatively low; maximum densities of ¢.5-6 ind/ha noted in Swaziland.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 82-102 mm, tail 40-56 mm, ear 14-17 mm, hindfoot 14-19 mm; weight 22-48 g. The Common Fat Mouse is small, with noticeably short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable from reddish-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from the pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are also white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Number of nipples varies, but there are usually 10-14.","habitat":"Wide variety of savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover and often on sandy soils. The Common Fat Mouse appears to select recently burned areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FFF2FDEACEA9F8EB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE60F42FFF2FDEACEA9F8EB","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"203","verbatimText":"65.Tiny Fat MouseSteatomys parvusFrench:Petit Rat-adipeux/ German:Zwergfettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso diminutoOther common names:Tiny African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys parvus Rhoads, 1896,“ Rusia, Lake Rudolf[= on the shore of Lake Turkana, Ethiopia], Africa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Broadly distributed in at least two widely separated populations: one in E Africa (E Uganda, extreme SW Ethiopia, W & S Kenya, and N & W Tanzania), the other in S Africa (S Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana, W Zambia, and extreme W Zimbabwe); isolated population in Jebel Marra, W Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-83 mm, tail 34-51 mm, ear 11-15 mm, hindfoot 12-16 mm; weight 8-15 g. The Tiny Fat Mouse is very small—the smallest species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, white above and below. Furis soft and pale orange-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or off-white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.Habitat.Arid savannas and woodlands, particularly those on sandy soils.Food and Feeding.Poorly known, but the Tiny Fat Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.Breeding.Poorly known. A single lactating Tiny Fat Mouse was captured at the end of the dry season in November in Botswana.Activity patterns.Poorly known. The Tiny Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a burrow in which food might be hoarded.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Byrom et al. (2015), Coetzee (1977), Monadjem (2013c), Monadjem et al. (2015), Smithers (1971), Stanley et al. (2007), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978).","taxonomy":"Steatomys parvus Rhoads, 1896,“ Rusia, Lake Rudolf[= on the shore of Lake Turkana, Ethiopia], Africa.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Petit Rat-adipeux @fr | Zwergfettmaus @de | Raton grueso diminuto @es | Tiny African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rhoads","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"203","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"parvus","name":"Steatomys parvus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Broadly distributed in at least two widely separated populations: one in E Africa (E Uganda, extreme SW Ethiopia, W & S Kenya, and N & W Tanzania), the other in S Africa (S Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana, W Zambia, and extreme W Zimbabwe); isolated population in Jebel Marra, W Sudan.","bibliography":"Byrom et al. (2015) | Coetzee (1977) | Monadjem (2013c) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Smithers (1971) | Stanley et al. (2007) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"Poorly known, but the Tiny Fat Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.","breeding":"Poorly known. A single lactating Tiny Fat Mouse was captured at the end of the dry season in November in Botswana.","activityPatterns":"Poorly known. The Tiny Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a burrow in which food might be hoarded.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-83 mm, tail 34-51 mm, ear 11-15 mm, hindfoot 12-16 mm; weight 8-15 g. The Tiny Fat Mouse is very small—the smallest species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, white above and below. Furis soft and pale orange-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or off-white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.","habitat":"Arid savannas and woodlands, particularly those on sandy soils."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FAFDFBB8C48FF681.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF00F54FAFDFBB8C48FF681","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"185","verbatimText":"3.Sleek-furred Ground RatGymnuromys robertFrench:Voalavoanala/ German:Voalavoanala/ Spanish:Rata terrestre de pelaje lisoOther common names:\\VoalavoanalaTaxonomy.Gymnuromys robert: Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest,” Fianarantsoa Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 156-172 mm, tail 149-199 mm; weight 98-128 g. Coat of the Sleek-furred Ground Rat is dense and short, with mottled gray white dorsal fur that becomes gray to cream on venter. It has round and very prominent ears. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, with dark two-tone gray above and white or light gray below; distal portion ofthe tail has sparse and short white fur. Hindlegs are large.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 500-1625 m.Food and Feeding.The Sleek-furred Ground Rat consumes a variety of seeds, such as those from Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It presumably feeds on fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.Activity patterns.The Sleek-furred Ground Rat is nocturnal, perhaps partially cathemeral, and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Sleekfurred Ground Rat is forest-dwelling, and it is found in much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar in numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003b), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Gymnuromys robert: Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest,” Fianarantsoa Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Voalavoanala @fr | Voalavoanala @de | Rata terrestre de pelaje liso @es | \\Voalavoanala @en","interpretedAuthority":"Forsyth Major, 1896","interpretedAuthorityName":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Gymnuromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"185","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"robert","name":"Gymnuromys robert","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2003b) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Sleek-furred Ground Rat consumes a variety of seeds, such as those from Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It presumably feeds on fruits and invertebrates.","breeding":"Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.","activityPatterns":"The Sleek-furred Ground Rat is nocturnal, perhaps partially cathemeral, and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Sleekfurred Ground Rat is forest-dwelling, and it is found in much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar in numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 156-172 mm, tail 149-199 mm; weight 98-128 g. Coat of the Sleek-furred Ground Rat is dense and short, with mottled gray white dorsal fur that becomes gray to cream on venter. It has round and very prominent ears. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, with dark two-tone gray above and white or light gray below; distal portion ofthe tail has sparse and short white fur. Hindlegs are large.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 500-1625 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FFE2F807C52CFD5A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF00F54FFE2F807C52CFD5A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"185","verbatimText":"2.Hairy-tailed Tree RatBrachytarsomys villosusFrench:Antsangy a queue touffue/ German:Nordliche Madagaskar\\WeiRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola peludaOther common names:Hairy-tailed AntsangyTaxonomy.Brachytarsomys albicauda villosa [sic] Petter, 1962,“ Vivarium de Tsimbazaza[= Parc botanique et zoologique de Tsimbazazal.”Widely used name villosahas been changed for gender agreement. In 1990, M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt proposed that it might occur in “vast areas of lowland forest around Antongil Bay or the forested slopes of Tsaratanana.” This species was indeed subsequently found on the slopes of Tsaratanana and neighboring Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. F. Petter’s original subspecies villosus has been elevated to species rank. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Northern Highlands of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 228-245 mm, tail 260 mm, 272 mm (two individuals); weight 236-350 g. Muzzle of the Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft with woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and merges to light gray or cream on flanks and venter. Feet are short and beige. Ears are short. Tail has relatively dense hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Tail is prehensile. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, red on flanks extends onto dorsum.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1200-2030 m.Food and Feeding.Diet is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage.Breeding.Female Hairy-tailed Tree Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litters up to six young. Females carrying large embryos in late October have been observed, and males during this same period had developed scrotal testes. Subadults have been captured in April.Activity patterns.The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as B. villosa). The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is forest-dwelling and known from only five localities in mountains of northern Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 5514 km?. Given continued declines in forest cover in its limited distribution, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003a), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala, Raheriarisena & Rakotondravony (2013), Goodman, Soarimalala & Rakotondravony (2001), Maminirina et al. (2008), Petter (1962), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Brachytarsomys albicauda villosa [sic] Petter, 1962,“ Vivarium de Tsimbazaza[= Parc botanique et zoologique de Tsimbazazal.”Widely used name villosahas been changed for gender agreement. In 1990, M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt proposed that it might occur in “vast areas of lowland forest around Antongil Bay or the forested slopes of Tsaratanana.” This species was indeed subsequently found on the slopes of Tsaratanana and neighboring Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. F. Petter’s original subspecies villosus has been elevated to species rank. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Antsangy a queue touffue @fr | Nordliche Madagaskar\\Wei Rschwanzratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola peluda @es | Hairy-tailed Antsangy @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Petter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1962","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Brachytarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"185","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"villosus","name":"Brachytarsomys villosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Northern Highlands of Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2003a) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala, Raheriarisena & Rakotondravony (2013) | Goodman, Soarimalala & Rakotondravony (2001) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Petter (1962) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage.","breeding":"Female Hairy-tailed Tree Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litters up to six young. Females carrying large embryos in late October have been observed, and males during this same period had developed scrotal testes. Subadults have been captured in April.","activityPatterns":"The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as B. villosa). The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is forest-dwelling and known from only five localities in mountains of northern Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 5514 km?. Given continued declines in forest cover in its limited distribution, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 228-245 mm, tail 260 mm, 272 mm (two individuals); weight 236-350 g. Muzzle of the Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft with woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and merges to light gray or cream on flanks and venter. Feet are short and beige. Ears are short. Tail has relatively dense hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Tail is prehensile. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, red on flanks extends onto dorsum.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1200-2030 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FFE5FDBACE61F8CD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF00F54FFE5FDBACE61F8CD","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"185","verbatimText":"1.White-tailed Tree RatBrachytarsomys albicaudaFrench:Antsangy a queue blanche/ German:MadagaskarWeilRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola blancaOther common names:White-tailed AntsangyTaxonomy.Brachytarsomys albicauda Gunther, 1875,“ Tamantave[= Toamasina| to Murundava [= Morondava].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 223-235 mm, tail 220-245 mm; weight 235-280 g. Muzzle of the White-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft, somewhat shaggy with dense woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and more reddish toward sides and head. Belly and legs are cream. Ears are short. Tail has scattered hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, reddish color on flanks extends to dorsum.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 875-1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the White-tailed Tree Rat is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage. It enters traps baited with banana. A large cache of seed capsules from Canarium(Burseraceae) was found in hollow broken tree limb.Breeding.There are four pairs of mammae, and maximum known littersizeis six young.Activity patterns.The White-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. It is known to roost in tree holes. Its tail is prehensile, and at night, it seems primate-like.Movements, Home range and Social organization.At one site, a White-tailed Tree Rat shared a tree hole with a Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur (Allocebus trichotis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tree Rat is a forest-dwelling species and is known from less than 15 localities spanning eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines ofits habitat, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Biebouw et al. (2009), Carleton & Goodman (2003a), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Ramanana (2010), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Brachytarsomys albicauda Gunther, 1875,“ Tamantave[= Toamasina| to Murundava [= Morondava].”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Antsangy a queue blanche @fr | MadagaskarWeil Rschwanzratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola blanca @es | White-tailed Antsangy @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gunther","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1875","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Brachytarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"185","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albicauda","name":"Brachytarsomys albicauda","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Biebouw et al. (2009) | Carleton & Goodman (2003a) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Ramanana (2010) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the White-tailed Tree Rat is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage. It enters traps baited with banana. A large cache of seed capsules from Canarium(Burseraceae) was found in hollow broken tree limb.","breeding":"There are four pairs of mammae, and maximum known littersizeis six young.","activityPatterns":"The White-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. It is known to roost in tree holes. Its tail is prehensile, and at night, it seems primate-like.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"At one site, a White-tailed Tree Rat shared a tree hole with a Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur (Allocebus trichotis).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tree Rat is a forest-dwelling species and is known from less than 15 localities spanning eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines ofits habitat, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 223-235 mm, tail 220-245 mm; weight 235-280 g. Muzzle of the White-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft, somewhat shaggy with dense woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and more reddish toward sides and head. Belly and legs are cream. Ears are short. Tail has scattered hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, reddish color on flanks extends to dorsum.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 875-1875 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F55FAFBF590CE22FB22.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF00F55FAFBF590CE22FB22","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"185","verbatimText":"4.AntsingyTufted-tail RatEliurus antsingyFrench:Rat-loir dAntsingy/ German:Antsingy-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de AntsingyOther common names:Tsingy Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus antsingy Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony, 2001,“ Madagascar, Toliara Province, Antsingy Forest, near Bekopaka, about 19°07.5’S, 44°49.0’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 142-153 mm, tail 153-195 mm; weight 87-101 g. Dorsal fur of AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is generally drab dark brown or gray-brown, and undercoat fur is nearly black. Ventral pelage varies and is often entirely white, sometimes mottled gray-white. Last one-half of tail has brown or grayish brown hair and, in some individuals, mixed with white hair. Tail ends with well-defined tuft, and some individuals have consecutive white and brown whorls. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.On following pages: 5. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliuruscarletoni); 6. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusdaniel); 7. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus ellermani); 8. Grandidier's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus grandidieri); 9. Major's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus majori); 10. Lesser Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusminon; 11. Milne-Edwards's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus myoxinus); 12. White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus penicillatus); 13. Petters Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus petteri); 14. Tanala Tuftedtail Rat (Eliurus tanala); 15. Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus webbi); 16. Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo antsahabensis); 17. Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo gymnocaudus); 18. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomysbastard); 19. Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys ingens); 20. Petter's Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys petteri); 21. Koopman's Forest Mouse (Monticolomys koopmani); 22. Giant Jumping Rat (Hypogeomys antimena); 23. Small Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysbetsileoensis); 24. Large Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysramirohitra); 25. Audebert’s Forest Rat (Nesomys audeberti); 26. Lamberton’s Forest Rat (Nesomys lambertoni); 27. Red Forest Rat (Nesomys rufus); 28. Delany's Swamp Mouse (Delanymys brooksi); 29. African White-tailed Rat(Mystromys albicaudatus); 30. Shortridge’'s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusshortridgei): 31. Short-eared Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus monticularis); 32. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusbarbouri); 33. Common Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus collinus).Habitat.Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone towers) habitat, at elevations of 100-430 m.Food and Feeding.The Antsingy Tuftedtail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and largely terrestrial, although it often lives off the ground in limestone outcrops. A few individuals have been trapped in trees in relatively narrow canyons and close proximity to rock outcrops.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests resting on limestone. Its extent of occurrence is 23,700 km?. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton et al. (2001), Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus antsingy Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony, 2001,“ Madagascar, Toliara Province, Antsingy Forest, near Bekopaka, about 19°07.5’S, 44°49.0’E.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir d Antsingy @fr | Antsingy-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Antsingy @es | Tsingy Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2001","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"185","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antsingy","name":"Eliurus antsingy","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to W Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton et al. (2001) | Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Antsingy Tuftedtail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and largely terrestrial, although it often lives off the ground in limestone outcrops. A few individuals have been trapped in trees in relatively narrow canyons and close proximity to rock outcrops.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests resting on limestone. Its extent of occurrence is 23,700 km?. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 142-153 mm, tail 153-195 mm; weight 87-101 g. Dorsal fur of AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is generally drab dark brown or gray-brown, and undercoat fur is nearly black. Ventral pelage varies and is often entirely white, sometimes mottled gray-white. Last one-half of tail has brown or grayish brown hair and, in some individuals, mixed with white hair. Tail ends with well-defined tuft, and some individuals have consecutive white and brown whorls. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.On following pages: 5. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliuruscarletoni); 6. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusdaniel); 7. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus ellermani); 8. Grandidier's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus grandidieri); 9. Major's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus majori); 10. Lesser Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusminon; 11. Milne-Edwards's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus myoxinus); 12. White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus penicillatus); 13. Petters Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus petteri); 14. Tanala Tuftedtail Rat (Eliurus tanala); 15. Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus webbi); 16. Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo antsahabensis); 17. Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo gymnocaudus); 18. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomysbastard); 19. Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys ingens); 20. Petter's Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys petteri); 21. Koopman's Forest Mouse (Monticolomys koopmani); 22. Giant Jumping Rat (Hypogeomys antimena); 23. Small Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysbetsileoensis); 24. Large Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysramirohitra); 25. Audebert’s Forest Rat (Nesomys audeberti); 26. Lamberton’s Forest Rat (Nesomys lambertoni); 27. Red Forest Rat (Nesomys rufus); 28. Delany's Swamp Mouse (Delanymys brooksi); 29. African White-tailed Rat(Mystromys albicaudatus); 30. Shortridge’'s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusshortridgei): 31. Short-eared Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus monticularis); 32. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusbarbouri); 33. Common Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus collinus).","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone towers) habitat, at elevations of 100-430 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F52FA3FF74ECF8AFDFE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF10F52FA3FF74ECF8AFDFE","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"186","verbatimText":"8.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus grandidieriFrench:Rat-loir de Grandidier/ German:GrandidierBilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de GrandidierOther common names:Grandidier’s Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus grandidieri Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 11 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1550 m, 14°44.5’S, 49°27.5 'E”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 111-164 mm, tail 144-176 mm; weight 42-62 g. Dorsum of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is blackish brown to blackish gray, flanks are dominated by light gray with brown or blackish gray appearance, and venter is grayish white. Muzzle is proportionately more elongated than other congeneric species. Ears are relatively long. Tail is bicolored, with gray dorsum and light venter, covered along distal one-third with white sparse fur becoming thicker and longer toward distal tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are distinctly white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest as far south as the centraleast and parts of the Northern Highlands at elevations of ¢.410-2050 m.Food and Feeding.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Breeding season of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat seems to vary among sites and perhaps along elevational gradients. Females generally give birth at the end of the dry season, sometime in late August or September. Females have six pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.Activity patterns.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial but, in some cases, scansorial. On the basis of trap captures, it probably uses ground dens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Ratis forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the northern one-half of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests. Given its habitat preference of montane humid forest, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its mediumterm seems relatively assured.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus grandidieri Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 11 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1550 m, 14°44.5’S, 49°27.5 'E”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Grandidier @fr | Grandidier Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Grandidier @es | Grandidier’s Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton & Goodman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1998","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"186","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grandidieri","name":"Eliurus grandidieri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"Breeding season of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat seems to vary among sites and perhaps along elevational gradients. Females generally give birth at the end of the dry season, sometime in late August or September. Females have six pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.","activityPatterns":"Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial but, in some cases, scansorial. On the basis of trap captures, it probably uses ground dens.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Ratis forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the northern one-half of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests. Given its habitat preference of montane humid forest, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its mediumterm seems relatively assured.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 111-164 mm, tail 144-176 mm; weight 42-62 g. Dorsum of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is blackish brown to blackish gray, flanks are dominated by light gray with brown or blackish gray appearance, and venter is grayish white. Muzzle is proportionately more elongated than other congeneric species. Ears are relatively long. Tail is bicolored, with gray dorsum and light venter, covered along distal one-third with white sparse fur becoming thicker and longer toward distal tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are distinctly white.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest as far south as the centraleast and parts of the Northern Highlands at elevations of ¢.410-2050 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FA20FBE4C5D4F70A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF10F55FA20FBE4C5D4F70A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"186","verbatimText":"7.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus ellermaniFrench:Rat-loir d’Ellerman/ German:Ellerman-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de EllermanOther common names:Ellerman’s Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus ellermani Carleton, 1994,“ Hiaraka, near Maroantsetra, 850 maltitude.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 152 mm, tail 177 mm; weight ¢.100 g. Measurements were taken from one Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat; weight was estimated. Dorsum is dark grayish brown, and venter is off white. Distal one-third of tail is covered with dark hair that becomes progressively thicker toward tip.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland forest at elevations of 400-850 m.Food and Feeding.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from two specimens collected in the eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus ellermani Carleton, 1994,“ Hiaraka, near Maroantsetra, 850 maltitude.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir d’Ellerman @fr | Ellerman-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Ellerman @es | Ellerman’s Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1994","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"186","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ellermani","name":"Eliurus ellermani","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from two specimens collected in the eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 152 mm, tail 177 mm; weight ¢.100 g. Measurements were taken from one Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat; weight was estimated. Dorsum is dark grayish brown, and venter is off white. Distal one-third of tail is covered with dark hair that becomes progressively thicker toward tip.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland forest at elevations of 400-850 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FF23FB71CF83F50A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF10F55FF23FB71CF83F50A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"186","verbatimText":"5.Carleton’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus carletoniFrench:Rat-loir de Carleton/ German:Carleton-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de CarletonTaxonomy.Eliurus carletoni Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Campement des Anglais(Anilotra), 7.5 mNW Mahamasina, 12°54.4’S, 49°06.6’E; 125 kmabove sea-level.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 143-150 mm, tail 164-183 mm; weight 88-89 g. Dorsum typically dark brown, and in some individuals, forehead and face are light brown; venter is completely white or grayish white, with relatively well-demarcated line separating dorsum and venter. Distal onehalf of tail is covered with scattered blackish brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip. In some individuals, terminal tuft is white or composed of whorled bands alternating from white to blackish brown. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest in the extreme northern part of Madagascar, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacles) habitat or on sandy substrates, at elevations of 50-835 m.Food and Feeding.Presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Breeding season is probably at the end of the dry season, with young born in late November or December. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. Individuals are captured on the ground and moving across different size arboreal substrates. At least in the Ankarana, it seems to occupy niches within exposed limestone. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Ratis preyed on by Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagnei) and was 49-8% of the biomass consumed by this owl.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in extreme northern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 2000 km®. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Cardiff & Goodman (2008), Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013a, 2013b), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus carletoni Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Campement des Anglais(Anilotra), 7.5 mNW Mahamasina, 12°54.4’S, 49°06.6’E; 125 kmabove sea-level.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Carleton @fr | Carleton-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Carleton @es","interpretedAuthority":"Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2009","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"186","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"carletoni","name":"Eliurus carletoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to N Madagascar.","bibliography":"Cardiff & Goodman (2008) | Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013a, 2013b) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"Breeding season is probably at the end of the dry season, with young born in late November or December. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. Individuals are captured on the ground and moving across different size arboreal substrates. At least in the Ankarana, it seems to occupy niches within exposed limestone. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Ratis preyed on by Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagnei) and was 49-8% of the biomass consumed by this owl.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in extreme northern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 2000 km®. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 143-150 mm, tail 164-183 mm; weight 88-89 g. Dorsum typically dark brown, and in some individuals, forehead and face are light brown; venter is completely white or grayish white, with relatively well-demarcated line separating dorsum and venter. Distal onehalf of tail is covered with scattered blackish brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip. In some individuals, terminal tuft is white or composed of whorled bands alternating from white to blackish brown. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest in the extreme northern part of Madagascar, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacles) habitat or on sandy substrates, at elevations of 50-835 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FF25F545C59CFBA9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF10F55FF25F545C59CFBA9","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"186","verbatimText":"6.Daniel’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus danieliFrench:Rat-loir de Daniel/ German:Daniel-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de DanielOther common names:Daniel's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus danieli Carleton & Goodman, 2007,“ Madagascar, Fianarantsoa Province, Parc Nationalde I’' Isalo, 28 kmSEBerenty-Betsileo, along Sahanafa River near foot of Bevato Mountain, 650 m; geographic coordinates: 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6 'E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S Central Highlands of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-152 mm, tail 179 mm, 195 mm (two individuals); weight 91-100 g. Daniel's Tuftedtail Rat is easily recognizable by its gray dorsum that contrasts with grayish white venter. Flanks have brownish appearance. It has relatively long ears for a species of Eliwrus. Tail is covered with black hair along its distal one-half, which progressively become longer and white ¢.12-15 mm toward distal tip. Tarsi are brown, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Only known from sandstone canyons with transitional western dry and eastern humid forest vegetation or gallery forest at elevations of 600-700 m. Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is notstrictly forest-dependent; a few individuals have been captured in close proximity but outside of natural forest.Food and Feeding.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial. All known species have been captured at base of large exposed sedimentary rock outcrops.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat is known from two localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in the immediate vicinity of Isalo in the central west. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2007), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus danieli Carleton & Goodman, 2007,“ Madagascar, Fianarantsoa Province, Parc Nationalde I’' Isalo, 28 kmSEBerenty-Betsileo, along Sahanafa River near foot of Bevato Mountain, 650 m; geographic coordinates: 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6 'E.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Daniel @fr | Daniel-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Daniel @es | Daniel's Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Carleton & Goodman, 2007","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton & Goodman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2007","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"186","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"danieli","name":"Eliurus danieli","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to S Central Highlands of Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2007) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial. All known species have been captured at base of large exposed sedimentary rock outcrops.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat is known from two localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in the immediate vicinity of Isalo in the central west. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-152 mm, tail 179 mm, 195 mm (two individuals); weight 91-100 g. Daniel's Tuftedtail Rat is easily recognizable by its gray dorsum that contrasts with grayish white venter. Flanks have brownish appearance. It has relatively long ears for a species of Eliwrus. Tail is covered with black hair along its distal one-half, which progressively become longer and white ¢.12-15 mm toward distal tip. Tarsi are brown, and feet and toes are white.","habitat":"Only known from sandstone canyons with transitional western dry and eastern humid forest vegetation or gallery forest at elevations of 600-700 m. Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is notstrictly forest-dependent; a few individuals have been captured in close proximity but outside of natural forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FACDF790C5EAF2EB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE60F42FACDF790C5EAF2EB","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"203","verbatimText":"68.Long-eared Desert MouseMalacothrix typicaFrench:Malacothrix a grandes oreilles/ German:Afrikanische Langohrmaus/ Spanish:Raton de desierto de orejas largasOther common names:Gerbil Mouse, Large-eared African Desert Mouse, Long-eared MouseTaxonomy.Otomys typicus A. Smith, 1834,Graaff Reinet District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in extreme SW Angola, Namibia, SW Botswana, and W & C South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 60-87 mm, tail 29-41 mm, ear 14-21 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 15-23 g. The Longeared Desert Mouse 1s small, with a short tail. Fur is relatively long, soft, and grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Three obvious dark stripes or patches are usually present on back. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are short. Forelimb and hindlimb with four functional digits, with first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various semiarid savanna and desert habitats, particularly where grass is short, soil is hard and compact and, rainfall is less than 550 mm.Food and Feeding.The LLong-eared Desert Mouse feeds predominantly on green plant material but also eats seeds and insects.Breeding.Pregnant LLong-eared Desert Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in August-March. Litter sizes are 2-9 young. Gestation is 22-26 days. Neonates are c.1 gin weight and weaned after ¢.32 days. First litters occur at 34 months of age.Activity patterns.The Long-eared Desert Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Activity in captivity peaks between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. It rests in a burrow thatis excavated in soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-eared Desert Mouse forages at least up to 100 m from its burrow.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bosing et al. (2014), Happold (2013h), Jooste & Palmer (1982), Kamleret al. (2015), Keogh (1985), Kerley (1992a), Klare et al. (2014), Knight & Skinner (1981), Monadjem et al. (2015), Smithers (1971).","taxonomy":"Otomys typicus A. Smith, 1834,Graaff Reinet District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Malacothrix a grandes oreilles @fr | Afrikanische Langohrmaus @de | Raton de desierto de orejas largas @es | Gerbil Mouse @en | Large-eared African Desert Mouse @en | Long-eared Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"(A. Smith, 1834)","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Malacothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"203","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"typica","name":"Malacothrix typica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widely distributed in extreme SW Angola, Namibia, SW Botswana, and W & C South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600512/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bosing et al. (2014) | Happold (2013h) | Jooste & Palmer (1982) | Kamleret al. (2015) | Keogh (1985) | Kerley (1992a) | Klare et al. (2014) | Knight & Skinner (1981) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Smithers (1971)","foodAndFeeding":"The LLong-eared Desert Mouse feeds predominantly on green plant material but also eats seeds and insects.","breeding":"Pregnant LLong-eared Desert Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in August-March. Litter sizes are 2-9 young. Gestation is 22-26 days. Neonates are c.1 gin weight and weaned after ¢.32 days. First litters occur at 34 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Long-eared Desert Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Activity in captivity peaks between 19:00 h and 04:00 h. It rests in a burrow thatis excavated in soil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Long-eared Desert Mouse forages at least up to 100 m from its burrow.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 60-87 mm, tail 29-41 mm, ear 14-21 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 15-23 g. The Longeared Desert Mouse 1s small, with a short tail. Fur is relatively long, soft, and grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Three obvious dark stripes or patches are usually present on back. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are short. Forelimb and hindlimb with four functional digits, with first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various semiarid savanna and desert habitats, particularly where grass is short, soil is hard and compact and, rainfall is less than 550 mm."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FACEFD1FCB12F882.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE60F42FACEFD1FCB12F882","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"203","verbatimText":"67.Krebs’s Fat MouseSteatomys krebsiiFrench:Rat-adipeux de Krebs/ German:Krebs-Fettmaus/ Spanish:Ratén grueso de KrebsOther common names:Krebs's African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys krebsii Peters, 1852,“ Kaffraria,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in three populations: one in Angola, W Zambia, N Namibia, and extreme N Botswana, and the other two in NE and extreme SW South Africa, respectively.Descriptive notes.Head—body 73-100 mm, tail 32-56 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 14-21 mm; weight 15-42 g. Krebs’s Fat Mouse is small, with short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable in color, ranging from orange-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or grayish white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has always eight nipples.Habitat.Wide variety of savannas.Food and Feeding.A single stomach of a Krebs’s Fat Mouse contained insects.Breeding.Three female Krebs’s Fat Mice had 4-5 embryos.Activity patterns.Krebs’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates burrows in the soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.De Graaff (1981), Monadjem (2013b), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rautenbach & Nel (1980), Rautenbach et al. (1981), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978).","taxonomy":"Steatomys krebsii Peters, 1852,“ Kaffraria,” South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux de Krebs @fr | Krebs-Fettmaus @de | Ratén grueso de Krebs @es | Krebs's African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"203","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"krebsii","name":"Steatomys krebsii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widely distributed in three populations: one in Angola, W Zambia, N Namibia, and extreme N Botswana, and the other two in NE and extreme SW South Africa, respectively.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600510/files/figure.png","bibliography":"De Graaff (1981) | Monadjem (2013b) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rautenbach & Nel (1980) | Rautenbach et al. (1981) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"A single stomach of a Krebs’s Fat Mouse contained insects.","breeding":"Three female Krebs’s Fat Mice had 4-5 embryos.","activityPatterns":"Krebs’s Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates burrows in the soil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 73-100 mm, tail 32-56 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 14-21 mm; weight 15-42 g. Krebs’s Fat Mouse is small, with short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable in color, ranging from orange-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or grayish white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has always eight nipples.","habitat":"Wide variety of savannas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FFF2F82EC400FDF8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE60F42FFF2F82EC400FDF8","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"203","verbatimText":"66.Common Fat MouseSteatomys pratensisFrench:Rat-adipeux de Peters/ German:Gewohnliche Fettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso cominOther common names:Common African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys pratensis Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Mozambique.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in S Africa (S DR Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, S Tanzania, Mozambique, NE Namibia, N & SE Botswana, Zimbabwe, N South Africa, and Swaziland; isolated records from Ethiopia and Kenya require verification.Descriptive notes.Head-body 82-102 mm, tail 40-56 mm, ear 14-17 mm, hindfoot 14-19 mm; weight 22-48 g. The Common Fat Mouse is small, with noticeably short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable from reddish-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from the pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are also white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Number of nipples varies, but there are usually 10-14.Habitat.Wide variety of savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover and often on sandy soils. The Common Fat Mouse appears to select recently burned areas.Food and Feeding.The Common Fat Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats green plant material and insects.Breeding.Breeding of the Common Fat Mouse takes place in the wet season. In Swaziland, pregnant and lactating females have been recorded inJanuary-March, and recruitment of young occurs in March—May. Litter size varies considerably, with 1-9 young.Activity patterns.The Common Fat Mouse is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. A single burrow was ¢.30 cm deep with four entrances, three of which were plugged with soil. Individuals accumulate copious amounts of subcutaneous fat during the wet season, becoming torpid for variable duration during the dry season. Individuals achieve high body weights during the rainy season, becoming significantly lighter during the dry season. Activity is reduced but not eliminated during the dry season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Common Fat Mouse is relatively sedentary, focusing its activity in a small area; mean monthly distances between captures was 36 m in Swaziland. Burrows are usually occupied singly, occasionally two per burrow. Densities are relatively low; maximum densities of ¢.5-6 ind/ha noted in Swaziland.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.De Graaff & Nel (1992), Ellison (1995), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014), Kinahan & Pillay (2008), Linzey & Kesner (1997a), Mahlaba & Perrin (2003), Monadjem (1999a, 1999b, 2013d), Monadjem & Perrin (2003), Monadjem et al. (2015), Perrin & Curtis (1980), Perrin & Richardson (2004, 2005a, 2005b), Plavsic (2015), Rautenbach et al. (2014), Richardson & Perrin (1992), Saetnan & Skarpe (2006), Schneider & Jorge (2007), Yarnell et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Steatomys pratensis Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Mozambique.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-adipeux de Peters @fr | Gewohnliche Fettmaus @de | Raton grueso comin @es | Common African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1846","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"203","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pratensis","name":"Steatomys pratensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widely distributed in S Africa (S DR Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, S Tanzania, Mozambique, NE Namibia, N & SE Botswana, Zimbabwe, N South Africa, and Swaziland; isolated records from Ethiopia and Kenya require verification.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600508/files/figure.png","bibliography":"De Graaff & Nel (1992) | Ellison (1995) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014) | Kinahan & Pillay (2008) | Linzey & Kesner (1997a) | Mahlaba & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem (1999a, 1999b, 2013d) | Monadjem & Perrin (2003) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Perrin & Curtis (1980) | Perrin & Richardson (2004, 2005a, 2005b) | Plavsic (2015) | Rautenbach et al. (2014) | Richardson & Perrin (1992) | Saetnan & Skarpe (2006) | Schneider & Jorge (2007) | Yarnell et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"The Common Fat Mouse is predominantly granivorous but also eats green plant material and insects.","breeding":"Breeding of the Common Fat Mouse takes place in the wet season. In Swaziland, pregnant and lactating females have been recorded inJanuary-March, and recruitment of young occurs in March—May. Litter size varies considerably, with 1-9 young.","activityPatterns":"The Common Fat Mouse is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows during the day. A single burrow was ¢.30 cm deep with four entrances, three of which were plugged with soil. Individuals accumulate copious amounts of subcutaneous fat during the wet season, becoming torpid for variable duration during the dry season. Individuals achieve high body weights during the rainy season, becoming significantly lighter during the dry season. Activity is reduced but not eliminated during the dry season.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Common Fat Mouse is relatively sedentary, focusing its activity in a small area; mean monthly distances between captures was 36 m in Swaziland. Burrows are usually occupied singly, occasionally two per burrow. Densities are relatively low; maximum densities of ¢.5-6 ind/ha noted in Swaziland.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 82-102 mm, tail 40-56 mm, ear 14-17 mm, hindfoot 14-19 mm; weight 22-48 g. The Common Fat Mouse is small, with noticeably short and sparsely haired tail, darker above than below. Fur is soft and highly variable from reddish-brown to dark brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from the pure white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are also white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. Number of nipples varies, but there are usually 10-14.","habitat":"Wide variety of savannas, woodlands, and agricultural fields, typically with low vegetation cover and often on sandy soils. The Common Fat Mouse appears to select recently burned areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFE60F42FFF2FDEACEA9F8EB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFE60F42FFF2FDEACEA9F8EB","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"203","verbatimText":"65.Tiny Fat MouseSteatomys parvusFrench:Petit Rat-adipeux/ German:Zwergfettmaus/ Spanish:Raton grueso diminutoOther common names:Tiny African Fat MouseTaxonomy.Steatomys parvus Rhoads, 1896,“ Rusia, Lake Rudolf[= on the shore of Lake Turkana, Ethiopia], Africa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Broadly distributed in at least two widely separated populations: one in E Africa (E Uganda, extreme SW Ethiopia, W & S Kenya, and N & W Tanzania), the other in S Africa (S Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana, W Zambia, and extreme W Zimbabwe); isolated population in Jebel Marra, W Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-83 mm, tail 34-51 mm, ear 11-15 mm, hindfoot 12-16 mm; weight 8-15 g. The Tiny Fat Mouse is very small—the smallest species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, white above and below. Furis soft and pale orange-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or off-white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.Habitat.Arid savannas and woodlands, particularly those on sandy soils.Food and Feeding.Poorly known, but the Tiny Fat Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.Breeding.Poorly known. A single lactating Tiny Fat Mouse was captured at the end of the dry season in November in Botswana.Activity patterns.Poorly known. The Tiny Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a burrow in which food might be hoarded.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Byrom et al. (2015), Coetzee (1977), Monadjem (2013c), Monadjem et al. (2015), Smithers (1971), Stanley et al. (2007), Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978).","taxonomy":"Steatomys parvus Rhoads, 1896,“ Rusia, Lake Rudolf[= on the shore of Lake Turkana, Ethiopia], Africa.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Petit Rat-adipeux @fr | Zwergfettmaus @de | Raton grueso diminuto @es | Tiny African Fat Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rhoads","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Steatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"203","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"parvus","name":"Steatomys parvus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Broadly distributed in at least two widely separated populations: one in E Africa (E Uganda, extreme SW Ethiopia, W & S Kenya, and N & W Tanzania), the other in S Africa (S Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana, W Zambia, and extreme W Zimbabwe); isolated population in Jebel Marra, W Sudan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600506/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Byrom et al. (2015) | Coetzee (1977) | Monadjem (2013c) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Smithers (1971) | Stanley et al. (2007) | Swanepoel & Schlitter (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"Poorly known, but the Tiny Fat Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.","breeding":"Poorly known. A single lactating Tiny Fat Mouse was captured at the end of the dry season in November in Botswana.","activityPatterns":"Poorly known. The Tiny Fat Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. It excavates a burrow in which food might be hoarded.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-83 mm, tail 34-51 mm, ear 11-15 mm, hindfoot 12-16 mm; weight 8-15 g. The Tiny Fat Mouse is very small—the smallest species of Steatomys. Tail is short and sparsely haired, white above and below. Furis soft and pale orange-brown dorsally, clearly demarcated from pure white or off-white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefoot and five digits on hindfoot. It has eight nipples.","habitat":"Arid savannas and woodlands, particularly those on sandy soils."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FAFDFBB8C48FF681.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF00F54FAFDFBB8C48FF681","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"185","verbatimText":"3.Sleek-furred Ground RatGymnuromys robertFrench:Voalavoanala/ German:Voalavoanala/ Spanish:Rata terrestre de pelaje lisoOther common names:\\VoalavoanalaTaxonomy.Gymnuromys robert: Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest,” Fianarantsoa Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 156-172 mm, tail 149-199 mm; weight 98-128 g. Coat of the Sleek-furred Ground Rat is dense and short, with mottled gray white dorsal fur that becomes gray to cream on venter. It has round and very prominent ears. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, with dark two-tone gray above and white or light gray below; distal portion ofthe tail has sparse and short white fur. Hindlegs are large.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 500-1625 m.Food and Feeding.The Sleek-furred Ground Rat consumes a variety of seeds, such as those from Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It presumably feeds on fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.Activity patterns.The Sleek-furred Ground Rat is nocturnal, perhaps partially cathemeral, and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Sleekfurred Ground Rat is forest-dwelling, and it is found in much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar in numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003b), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Gymnuromys robert: Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest,” Fianarantsoa Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Voalavoanala @fr | Voalavoanala @de | Rata terrestre de pelaje liso @es | \\Voalavoanala @en","interpretedAuthority":"Forsyth Major, 1896","interpretedAuthorityName":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Gymnuromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"185","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"robert","name":"Gymnuromys robert","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600373/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2003b) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Sleek-furred Ground Rat consumes a variety of seeds, such as those from Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It presumably feeds on fruits and invertebrates.","breeding":"Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.","activityPatterns":"The Sleek-furred Ground Rat is nocturnal, perhaps partially cathemeral, and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Sleekfurred Ground Rat is forest-dwelling, and it is found in much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar in numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 156-172 mm, tail 149-199 mm; weight 98-128 g. Coat of the Sleek-furred Ground Rat is dense and short, with mottled gray white dorsal fur that becomes gray to cream on venter. It has round and very prominent ears. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, with dark two-tone gray above and white or light gray below; distal portion ofthe tail has sparse and short white fur. Hindlegs are large.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 500-1625 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FFE2F807C52CFD5A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF00F54FFE2F807C52CFD5A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"185","verbatimText":"2.Hairy-tailed Tree RatBrachytarsomys villosusFrench:Antsangy a queue touffue/ German:Nordliche Madagaskar\\WeiRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola peludaOther common names:Hairy-tailed AntsangyTaxonomy.Brachytarsomys albicauda villosa [sic] Petter, 1962,“ Vivarium de Tsimbazaza[= Parc botanique et zoologique de Tsimbazazal.”Widely used name villosahas been changed for gender agreement. In 1990, M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt proposed that it might occur in “vast areas of lowland forest around Antongil Bay or the forested slopes of Tsaratanana.” This species was indeed subsequently found on the slopes of Tsaratanana and neighboring Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. F. Petter’s original subspecies villosus has been elevated to species rank. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Northern Highlands of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 228-245 mm, tail 260 mm, 272 mm (two individuals); weight 236-350 g. Muzzle of the Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft with woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and merges to light gray or cream on flanks and venter. Feet are short and beige. Ears are short. Tail has relatively dense hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Tail is prehensile. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, red on flanks extends onto dorsum.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1200-2030 m.Food and Feeding.Diet is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage.Breeding.Female Hairy-tailed Tree Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litters up to six young. Females carrying large embryos in late October have been observed, and males during this same period had developed scrotal testes. Subadults have been captured in April.Activity patterns.The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as B. villosa). The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is forest-dwelling and known from only five localities in mountains of northern Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 5514 km?. Given continued declines in forest cover in its limited distribution, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003a), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala, Raheriarisena & Rakotondravony (2013), Goodman, Soarimalala & Rakotondravony (2001), Maminirina et al. (2008), Petter (1962), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Brachytarsomys albicauda villosa [sic] Petter, 1962,“ Vivarium de Tsimbazaza[= Parc botanique et zoologique de Tsimbazazal.”Widely used name villosahas been changed for gender agreement. In 1990, M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt proposed that it might occur in “vast areas of lowland forest around Antongil Bay or the forested slopes of Tsaratanana.” This species was indeed subsequently found on the slopes of Tsaratanana and neighboring Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. F. Petter’s original subspecies villosus has been elevated to species rank. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Antsangy a queue touffue @fr | Nordliche Madagaskar\\Wei Rschwanzratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola peluda @es | Hairy-tailed Antsangy @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Petter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1962","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Brachytarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"185","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"villosus","name":"Brachytarsomys villosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Northern Highlands of Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600371/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2003a) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala, Raheriarisena & Rakotondravony (2013) | Goodman, Soarimalala & Rakotondravony (2001) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Petter (1962) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage.","breeding":"Female Hairy-tailed Tree Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litters up to six young. Females carrying large embryos in late October have been observed, and males during this same period had developed scrotal testes. Subadults have been captured in April.","activityPatterns":"The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as B. villosa). The Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is forest-dwelling and known from only five localities in mountains of northern Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 5514 km?. Given continued declines in forest cover in its limited distribution, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 228-245 mm, tail 260 mm, 272 mm (two individuals); weight 236-350 g. Muzzle of the Hairy-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft with woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and merges to light gray or cream on flanks and venter. Feet are short and beige. Ears are short. Tail has relatively dense hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Tail is prehensile. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, red on flanks extends onto dorsum.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1200-2030 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F54FFE5FDBACE61F8CD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF00F54FFE5FDBACE61F8CD","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"185","verbatimText":"1.White-tailed Tree RatBrachytarsomys albicaudaFrench:Antsangy a queue blanche/ German:MadagaskarWeilRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola blancaOther common names:White-tailed AntsangyTaxonomy.Brachytarsomys albicauda Gunther, 1875,“ Tamantave[= Toamasina| to Murundava [= Morondava].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 223-235 mm, tail 220-245 mm; weight 235-280 g. Muzzle of the White-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft, somewhat shaggy with dense woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and more reddish toward sides and head. Belly and legs are cream. Ears are short. Tail has scattered hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, reddish color on flanks extends to dorsum.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 875-1875 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the White-tailed Tree Rat is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage. It enters traps baited with banana. A large cache of seed capsules from Canarium(Burseraceae) was found in hollow broken tree limb.Breeding.There are four pairs of mammae, and maximum known littersizeis six young.Activity patterns.The White-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. It is known to roost in tree holes. Its tail is prehensile, and at night, it seems primate-like.Movements, Home range and Social organization.At one site, a White-tailed Tree Rat shared a tree hole with a Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur (Allocebus trichotis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tree Rat is a forest-dwelling species and is known from less than 15 localities spanning eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines ofits habitat, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Biebouw et al. (2009), Carleton & Goodman (2003a), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Ramanana (2010), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Brachytarsomys albicauda Gunther, 1875,“ Tamantave[= Toamasina| to Murundava [= Morondava].”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Antsangy a queue blanche @fr | MadagaskarWeil Rschwanzratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola blanca @es | White-tailed Antsangy @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gunther","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1875","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Brachytarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"185","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albicauda","name":"Brachytarsomys albicauda","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600365/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Biebouw et al. (2009) | Carleton & Goodman (2003a) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Ramanana (2010) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the White-tailed Tree Rat is presumably composed offruits, seeds, and perhaps foliage. It enters traps baited with banana. A large cache of seed capsules from Canarium(Burseraceae) was found in hollow broken tree limb.","breeding":"There are four pairs of mammae, and maximum known littersizeis six young.","activityPatterns":"The White-tailed Tree Rat is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. It is known to roost in tree holes. Its tail is prehensile, and at night, it seems primate-like.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"At one site, a White-tailed Tree Rat shared a tree hole with a Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur (Allocebus trichotis).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tree Rat is a forest-dwelling species and is known from less than 15 localities spanning eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines ofits habitat, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 223-235 mm, tail 220-245 mm; weight 235-280 g. Muzzle of the White-tailed Tree Rat is short, and fur is soft, somewhat shaggy with dense woolly texture. Dorsum is grayish brown and more reddish toward sides and head. Belly and legs are cream. Ears are short. Tail has scattered hair, distal portion is black, and last 8-10 mm are white. Legs, digits, and toes are short. In some individuals, reddish color on flanks extends to dorsum.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 875-1875 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF00F55FAFBF590CE22FB22.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF00F55FAFBF590CE22FB22","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"185","verbatimText":"4.AntsingyTufted-tail RatEliurus antsingyFrench:Rat-loir dAntsingy/ German:Antsingy-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de AntsingyOther common names:Tsingy Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus antsingy Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony, 2001,“ Madagascar, Toliara Province, Antsingy Forest, near Bekopaka, about 19°07.5’S, 44°49.0’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 142-153 mm, tail 153-195 mm; weight 87-101 g. Dorsal fur of AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is generally drab dark brown or gray-brown, and undercoat fur is nearly black. Ventral pelage varies and is often entirely white, sometimes mottled gray-white. Last one-half of tail has brown or grayish brown hair and, in some individuals, mixed with white hair. Tail ends with well-defined tuft, and some individuals have consecutive white and brown whorls. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.On following pages: 5. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliuruscarletoni); 6. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusdaniel); 7. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus ellermani); 8. Grandidier's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus grandidieri); 9. Major's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus majori); 10. Lesser Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusminon; 11. Milne-Edwards's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus myoxinus); 12. White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus penicillatus); 13. Petters Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus petteri); 14. Tanala Tuftedtail Rat (Eliurus tanala); 15. Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus webbi); 16. Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo antsahabensis); 17. Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo gymnocaudus); 18. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomysbastard); 19. Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys ingens); 20. Petter's Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys petteri); 21. Koopman's Forest Mouse (Monticolomys koopmani); 22. Giant Jumping Rat (Hypogeomys antimena); 23. Small Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysbetsileoensis); 24. Large Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysramirohitra); 25. Audebert’s Forest Rat (Nesomys audeberti); 26. Lamberton’s Forest Rat (Nesomys lambertoni); 27. Red Forest Rat (Nesomys rufus); 28. Delany's Swamp Mouse (Delanymys brooksi); 29. African White-tailed Rat(Mystromys albicaudatus); 30. Shortridge’'s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusshortridgei): 31. Short-eared Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus monticularis); 32. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusbarbouri); 33. Common Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus collinus).Habitat.Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone towers) habitat, at elevations of 100-430 m.Food and Feeding.The Antsingy Tuftedtail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and largely terrestrial, although it often lives off the ground in limestone outcrops. A few individuals have been trapped in trees in relatively narrow canyons and close proximity to rock outcrops.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests resting on limestone. Its extent of occurrence is 23,700 km?. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton et al. (2001), Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus antsingy Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony, 2001,“ Madagascar, Toliara Province, Antsingy Forest, near Bekopaka, about 19°07.5’S, 44°49.0’E.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir d Antsingy @fr | Antsingy-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Antsingy @es | Tsingy Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton, Goodman & Rakotondravony","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2001","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"185","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antsingy","name":"Eliurus antsingy","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to W Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600375/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton et al. (2001) | Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Antsingy Tuftedtail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and largely terrestrial, although it often lives off the ground in limestone outcrops. A few individuals have been trapped in trees in relatively narrow canyons and close proximity to rock outcrops.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests resting on limestone. Its extent of occurrence is 23,700 km?. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 142-153 mm, tail 153-195 mm; weight 87-101 g. Dorsal fur of AntsingyTufted-tail Rat is generally drab dark brown or gray-brown, and undercoat fur is nearly black. Ventral pelage varies and is often entirely white, sometimes mottled gray-white. Last one-half of tail has brown or grayish brown hair and, in some individuals, mixed with white hair. Tail ends with well-defined tuft, and some individuals have consecutive white and brown whorls. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.On following pages: 5. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliuruscarletoni); 6. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusdaniel); 7. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus ellermani); 8. Grandidier's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus grandidieri); 9. Major's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus majori); 10. Lesser Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurusminon; 11. Milne-Edwards's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus myoxinus); 12. White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus penicillatus); 13. Petters Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus petteri); 14. Tanala Tuftedtail Rat (Eliurus tanala); 15. Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (Eliurus webbi); 16. Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo antsahabensis); 17. Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse (Voalavo gymnocaudus); 18. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomysbastard); 19. Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys ingens); 20. Petter's Big-footed Mouse (Macrotarsomys petteri); 21. Koopman's Forest Mouse (Monticolomys koopmani); 22. Giant Jumping Rat (Hypogeomys antimena); 23. Small Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysbetsileoensis); 24. Large Short-tailed Rat (Brachyuromysramirohitra); 25. Audebert’s Forest Rat (Nesomys audeberti); 26. Lamberton’s Forest Rat (Nesomys lambertoni); 27. Red Forest Rat (Nesomys rufus); 28. Delany's Swamp Mouse (Delanymys brooksi); 29. African White-tailed Rat(Mystromys albicaudatus); 30. Shortridge’'s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusshortridgei): 31. Short-eared Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus monticularis); 32. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscusbarbouri); 33. Common Pygmy Rock Mouse (Petromyscus collinus).","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone towers) habitat, at elevations of 100-430 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F52FA3FF74ECF8AFDFE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF10F52FA3FF74ECF8AFDFE","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"186","verbatimText":"8.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus grandidieriFrench:Rat-loir de Grandidier/ German:GrandidierBilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de GrandidierOther common names:Grandidier’s Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus grandidieri Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 11 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1550 m, 14°44.5’S, 49°27.5 'E”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 111-164 mm, tail 144-176 mm; weight 42-62 g. Dorsum of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is blackish brown to blackish gray, flanks are dominated by light gray with brown or blackish gray appearance, and venter is grayish white. Muzzle is proportionately more elongated than other congeneric species. Ears are relatively long. Tail is bicolored, with gray dorsum and light venter, covered along distal one-third with white sparse fur becoming thicker and longer toward distal tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are distinctly white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest as far south as the centraleast and parts of the Northern Highlands at elevations of ¢.410-2050 m.Food and Feeding.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Breeding season of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat seems to vary among sites and perhaps along elevational gradients. Females generally give birth at the end of the dry season, sometime in late August or September. Females have six pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.Activity patterns.Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial but, in some cases, scansorial. On the basis of trap captures, it probably uses ground dens.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Ratis forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the northern one-half of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests. Given its habitat preference of montane humid forest, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its mediumterm seems relatively assured.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus grandidieri Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 11 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1550 m, 14°44.5’S, 49°27.5 'E”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Grandidier @fr | Grandidier Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Grandidier @es | Grandidier’s Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton & Goodman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1998","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"186","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grandidieri","name":"Eliurus grandidieri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600383/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"Breeding season of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat seems to vary among sites and perhaps along elevational gradients. Females generally give birth at the end of the dry season, sometime in late August or September. Females have six pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is three young.","activityPatterns":"Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial but, in some cases, scansorial. On the basis of trap captures, it probably uses ground dens.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Ratis forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the northern one-half of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests. Given its habitat preference of montane humid forest, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its mediumterm seems relatively assured.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 111-164 mm, tail 144-176 mm; weight 42-62 g. Dorsum of Grandidier’s Tufted-tail Rat is blackish brown to blackish gray, flanks are dominated by light gray with brown or blackish gray appearance, and venter is grayish white. Muzzle is proportionately more elongated than other congeneric species. Ears are relatively long. Tail is bicolored, with gray dorsum and light venter, covered along distal one-third with white sparse fur becoming thicker and longer toward distal tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are distinctly white.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest as far south as the centraleast and parts of the Northern Highlands at elevations of ¢.410-2050 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FA20FBE4C5D4F70A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF10F55FA20FBE4C5D4F70A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"186","verbatimText":"7.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus ellermaniFrench:Rat-loir d’Ellerman/ German:Ellerman-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de EllermanOther common names:Ellerman’s Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus ellermani Carleton, 1994,“ Hiaraka, near Maroantsetra, 850 maltitude.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 152 mm, tail 177 mm; weight ¢.100 g. Measurements were taken from one Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat; weight was estimated. Dorsum is dark grayish brown, and venter is off white. Distal one-third of tail is covered with dark hair that becomes progressively thicker toward tip.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland forest at elevations of 400-850 m.Food and Feeding.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from two specimens collected in the eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus ellermani Carleton, 1994,“ Hiaraka, near Maroantsetra, 850 maltitude.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir d’Ellerman @fr | Ellerman-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Ellerman @es | Ellerman’s Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1994","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"186","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ellermani","name":"Eliurus ellermani","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600381/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from two specimens collected in the eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 152 mm, tail 177 mm; weight ¢.100 g. Measurements were taken from one Ellerman’s Tufted-tail Rat; weight was estimated. Dorsum is dark grayish brown, and venter is off white. Distal one-third of tail is covered with dark hair that becomes progressively thicker toward tip.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland forest at elevations of 400-850 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FF23FB71CF83F50A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF10F55FF23FB71CF83F50A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"186","verbatimText":"5.Carleton’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus carletoniFrench:Rat-loir de Carleton/ German:Carleton-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de CarletonTaxonomy.Eliurus carletoni Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Campement des Anglais(Anilotra), 7.5 mNW Mahamasina, 12°54.4’S, 49°06.6’E; 125 kmabove sea-level.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 143-150 mm, tail 164-183 mm; weight 88-89 g. Dorsum typically dark brown, and in some individuals, forehead and face are light brown; venter is completely white or grayish white, with relatively well-demarcated line separating dorsum and venter. Distal onehalf of tail is covered with scattered blackish brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip. In some individuals, terminal tuft is white or composed of whorled bands alternating from white to blackish brown. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest in the extreme northern part of Madagascar, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacles) habitat or on sandy substrates, at elevations of 50-835 m.Food and Feeding.Presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Breeding season is probably at the end of the dry season, with young born in late November or December. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. Individuals are captured on the ground and moving across different size arboreal substrates. At least in the Ankarana, it seems to occupy niches within exposed limestone. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Ratis preyed on by Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagnei) and was 49-8% of the biomass consumed by this owl.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in extreme northern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 2000 km®. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Cardiff & Goodman (2008), Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013a, 2013b), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus carletoni Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Campement des Anglais(Anilotra), 7.5 mNW Mahamasina, 12°54.4’S, 49°06.6’E; 125 kmabove sea-level.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Carleton @fr | Carleton-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Carleton @es","interpretedAuthority":"Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa, 2009","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2009","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"186","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"carletoni","name":"Eliurus carletoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to N Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600377/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cardiff & Goodman (2008) | Goodman, Raheriarisena & Jansa (2009) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013a, 2013b) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"Breeding season is probably at the end of the dry season, with young born in late November or December. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. Individuals are captured on the ground and moving across different size arboreal substrates. At least in the Ankarana, it seems to occupy niches within exposed limestone. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Ratis preyed on by Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagnei) and was 49-8% of the biomass consumed by this owl.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Carleton’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in extreme northern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is 2000 km®. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 143-150 mm, tail 164-183 mm; weight 88-89 g. Dorsum typically dark brown, and in some individuals, forehead and face are light brown; venter is completely white or grayish white, with relatively well-demarcated line separating dorsum and venter. Distal onehalf of tail is covered with scattered blackish brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip. In some individuals, terminal tuft is white or composed of whorled bands alternating from white to blackish brown. Tarsi, feet, and toes are white.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest in the extreme northern part of Madagascar, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacles) habitat or on sandy substrates, at elevations of 50-835 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF10F55FF25F545C59CFBA9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF10F55FF25F545C59CFBA9","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"186","verbatimText":"6.Daniel’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus danieliFrench:Rat-loir de Daniel/ German:Daniel-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de DanielOther common names:Daniel's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus danieli Carleton & Goodman, 2007,“ Madagascar, Fianarantsoa Province, Parc Nationalde I’' Isalo, 28 kmSEBerenty-Betsileo, along Sahanafa River near foot of Bevato Mountain, 650 m; geographic coordinates: 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6 'E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S Central Highlands of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-152 mm, tail 179 mm, 195 mm (two individuals); weight 91-100 g. Daniel's Tuftedtail Rat is easily recognizable by its gray dorsum that contrasts with grayish white venter. Flanks have brownish appearance. It has relatively long ears for a species of Eliwrus. Tail is covered with black hair along its distal one-half, which progressively become longer and white ¢.12-15 mm toward distal tip. Tarsi are brown, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Only known from sandstone canyons with transitional western dry and eastern humid forest vegetation or gallery forest at elevations of 600-700 m. Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is notstrictly forest-dependent; a few individuals have been captured in close proximity but outside of natural forest.Food and Feeding.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.Breeding.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial. All known species have been captured at base of large exposed sedimentary rock outcrops.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat is known from two localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in the immediate vicinity of Isalo in the central west. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2007), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus danieli Carleton & Goodman, 2007,“ Madagascar, Fianarantsoa Province, Parc Nationalde I’' Isalo, 28 kmSEBerenty-Betsileo, along Sahanafa River near foot of Bevato Mountain, 650 m; geographic coordinates: 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6 'E.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Daniel @fr | Daniel-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Daniel @es | Daniel's Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Carleton & Goodman, 2007","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton & Goodman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2007","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"186","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"danieli","name":"Eliurus danieli","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to S Central Highlands of Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600379/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2007) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous.","breeding":"Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat have three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial. All known species have been captured at base of large exposed sedimentary rock outcrops.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Daniel's Tufted-tail Rat is known from two localities in the Malagasy dry deciduous forests in the immediate vicinity of Isalo in the central west. Given its notably restricted distribution and continued declines in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-152 mm, tail 179 mm, 195 mm (two individuals); weight 91-100 g. Daniel's Tuftedtail Rat is easily recognizable by its gray dorsum that contrasts with grayish white venter. Flanks have brownish appearance. It has relatively long ears for a species of Eliwrus. Tail is covered with black hair along its distal one-half, which progressively become longer and white ¢.12-15 mm toward distal tip. Tarsi are brown, and feet and toes are white.","habitat":"Only known from sandstone canyons with transitional western dry and eastern humid forest vegetation or gallery forest at elevations of 600-700 m. Daniel’s Tufted-tail Rat is notstrictly forest-dependent; a few individuals have been captured in close proximity but outside of natural forest."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF20F56FE6BFDCDCBB2FADC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF20F56FE6BFDCDCBB2FADC","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"156","verbatimText":"Family NESOMYIDAE(POUCHED RATS, CLIMBING MICE AND FAT MICE)• Small to medium-sized rodents with short to relatively long bodies, short to long legs, short to long ears and tails, and moderately sized eyes.• 10-85 cm.• Afrotropical Region.• Forests, marshes, savannas, and arid habitats.• 21 genera, 68 species, 76 taxa.• 1 species Critically Endangered, 7 species Endangered, 2 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F50FFFCF3B9C581F8D2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF40F50FFFCF3B9C581F8D2","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"189","verbatimText":"18.Bastard’s Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys bastardiFrench:Kelibotra de Bastard/ German:Bastard-MadagaskarGrofRfuRmaus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de BastardOther common names:Lesser Big-footed Mouse, Western Big-footed Mouse, Western Forest MouseTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys bastardi Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier, 1898,“sud du Mangoky, entre Midongy et Thosy [= Ihosy].”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.b.bastard:Milne-Edwards&G.Grandidier,1898—moreuplandSCportionofMadagascar.M. b. occidentalis Ellerman, 1949— W & S Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 89-103 mm, tail 120-145 mm; weight 20-26 g. Dorsal pelage of Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is distinctly soft and fine, grayish brown and slightly dull yellow. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venteris uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, rostrum is slightly pointed, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brownish-gray dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with a few brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush from near sea level to elevations of c.915 m. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse occurs in areas with sandy soils.Food and Feeding.In captivity, Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse eats seeds and fruit and also has been noted to be folivore and insectivore.Breeding.Bastard’s Big-footed Mice live in pairs, but no details are available on their breeding systems and ecology. Maximum litter size is generally three young, but four embryos have been found in one case. Females have two sets of mammae.Activity patterns.Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and probably exclusively terrestrial. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil with small inconspicuous openings, which it backfills after entering. These plugs can be obvious in the early morning when soil is still slightly moist. End of the burrow system has an area of dried leaves and grass, which forms the nest. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is largely a dry deciduous forest or open bush-dwelling species and is known from various localities in southern and north-western Madagascar. Given its apparent adaptability to open and slightly degraded environments, Bastard’s Bigfooted Mouse appears more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae. It has been previously considered the most common native rodent in western Madagascar, but in certain areas,this is not the case. It has been proposed that introduced House Mice (Musmusculus) compete with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse for burrows.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003c), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Ellerman (1949), Ganzhorn et al. (1996), Goodman & Griffiths (2009), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Mittermeier et al. (2014), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Jansa et al. (2008), Petter (1972a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Rasoma & Goodman (2007), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Macrotarsomys bastardi Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier, 1898,“sud du Mangoky, entre Midongy et Thosy [= Ihosy].”Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Kelibotra de Bastard @fr | Bastard-MadagaskarGrofRfu Rmaus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Bastard @es | Lesser Big-footed Mouse @en | Western Big-footed Mouse @en | Western Forest Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Macrotarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"189","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bastardi","name":"Macrotarsomys bastardi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.b.bastard:Milne-Edwards&G.Grandidier,1898—moreuplandSCportionofMadagascar.M. b. occidentalis Ellerman, 1949— W & S Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2003c) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Ellerman (1949) | Ganzhorn et al. (1996) | Goodman & Griffiths (2009) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Mittermeier et al. (2014) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Jansa et al. (2008) | Petter (1972a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Rasoma & Goodman (2007) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"In captivity, Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse eats seeds and fruit and also has been noted to be folivore and insectivore.","breeding":"Bastard’s Big-footed Mice live in pairs, but no details are available on their breeding systems and ecology. Maximum litter size is generally three young, but four embryos have been found in one case. Females have two sets of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and probably exclusively terrestrial. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil with small inconspicuous openings, which it backfills after entering. These plugs can be obvious in the early morning when soil is still slightly moist. End of the burrow system has an area of dried leaves and grass, which forms the nest. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is largely a dry deciduous forest or open bush-dwelling species and is known from various localities in southern and north-western Madagascar. Given its apparent adaptability to open and slightly degraded environments, Bastard’s Bigfooted Mouse appears more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae. It has been previously considered the most common native rodent in western Madagascar, but in certain areas,this is not the case. It has been proposed that introduced House Mice (Musmusculus) compete with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse for burrows.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 89-103 mm, tail 120-145 mm; weight 20-26 g. Dorsal pelage of Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is distinctly soft and fine, grayish brown and slightly dull yellow. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venteris uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, rostrum is slightly pointed, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brownish-gray dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with a few brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush from near sea level to elevations of c.915 m. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse occurs in areas with sandy soils."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F50FFFDFAD7C893F55A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF40F50FFFDFAD7C893F55A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"189","verbatimText":"17.Northern Naked-tail Forest MouseVoalavo gymnocaudusFrench:Voalavo a queue nue/ German:Nordlicher Voalavo/ Spanish:Raton de bosque de cola desnuda septentrionalOther common names:Naked-tailed Voalavo, Northern VoalavoTaxonomy.Voalavo gymnocaudus Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 12.2 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1950 m, 14°44.8’S, 40°26.0’E”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 80-90 mm, tail 120-129 mm; weight 17-25-5 g. Fur of the Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1225-1950 m. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is only known from mountains surrounding the Andapa Basin.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Northern Naked-tail Forest Mice have a gland on their upper chest that produces a distinct odor and is most developed in reproductive males. Females probably give birth at the end of the dry season in late August through September. They have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.Activity patterns.The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a limited area of eastern montane forest in northern Madagascar. Currently, degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans is relatively limited.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Voalavo gymnocaudus Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 12.2 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1950 m, 14°44.8’S, 40°26.0’E”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Voalavo a queue nue @fr | Nordlicher Voalavo @de | Raton de bosque de cola desnuda septentrional @es | Naked-tailed Voalavo @en | Northern Voalavo @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton & Goodman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1998","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Voalavo","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"189","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gymnocaudus","name":"Voalavo gymnocaudus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to N Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Northern Naked-tail Forest Mice have a gland on their upper chest that produces a distinct odor and is most developed in reproductive males. Females probably give birth at the end of the dry season in late August through September. They have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.","activityPatterns":"The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a limited area of eastern montane forest in northern Madagascar. Currently, degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans is relatively limited.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 80-90 mm, tail 120-129 mm; weight 17-25-5 g. Fur of the Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1225-1950 m. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is only known from mountains surrounding the Andapa Basin."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F51FAF8F80ECF8CFD77.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF40F51FAF8F80ECF8CFD77","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"189","verbatimText":"19.Ankarafantsika Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys ingensFrench:Kelibotra dAnkarafantsika/ German:Ankarafantsika-MadagaskarGroRRfu3maus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de AnkarafantsikaOther common names:Greater Big-footed Mouse, Long-tailed Big-footed MouseTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys ingens Peter, 1959,“ 200 metresapres le village d’Ampijoroa,” Madagascar.The specimen named the holotype of M. ingenswas found injured along a main road and probably had fallen prey to a raptor. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to NW Madagascar (Ankarafantsika Forest).Descriptive notes.Head-body 112-150 mm, tail 183-240 mm; weight 42-74 g.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is similar to Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastardy) buts larger, with relatively smaller ears. Dorsal pelage is quite soft, fine, and light grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brown dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with tuft of brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest with sandy soils at elevations of 100-400 m.Food and Feeding.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is presumed to feed on seeds and fruits, as does Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse. The two species occur sympatrically in Ankarafantsika.Breeding.Maximum litter size of the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is two young, and females have two sets of mammae.Activity patterns.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial, being able to climb on small tree branches. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil, with inconspicuous openings that are backfilled upon entering. These plugs can be obvious in early morning when soilis still slightly moist.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is generally seen foraging alone; occasionally, two individuals have been observed in the same or nearby trees. When scared by a potential predator, the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse remains motionless on the ground or on thin tree branches. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It does not enter torpor or hibernate.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is dry deciduous forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in north-western Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢.250 km?, most of which is in Ankarafantsika National Park. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region and predation by feral dogs, cats, and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) its mediumand long-term future is at risk.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003c), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Lobban etal. (2014), Petter (1959a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Randrianjafy (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Macrotarsomys ingens Peter, 1959,“ 200 metresapres le village d’Ampijoroa,” Madagascar.The specimen named the holotype of M. ingenswas found injured along a main road and probably had fallen prey to a raptor. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Kelibotra d Ankarafantsika @fr | Ankarafantsika-MadagaskarGro RRfu3maus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Ankarafantsika @es | Greater Big-footed Mouse @en | Long-tailed Big-footed Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Peter, 1959","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1959","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Macrotarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"189","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ingens","name":"Macrotarsomys ingens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to NW Madagascar (Ankarafantsika Forest).","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2003c) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Lobban etal. (2014) | Petter (1959a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Randrianjafy (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is presumed to feed on seeds and fruits, as does Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse. The two species occur sympatrically in Ankarafantsika.","breeding":"Maximum litter size of the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is two young, and females have two sets of mammae.","activityPatterns":"The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial, being able to climb on small tree branches. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil, with inconspicuous openings that are backfilled upon entering. These plugs can be obvious in early morning when soilis still slightly moist.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is generally seen foraging alone; occasionally, two individuals have been observed in the same or nearby trees. When scared by a potential predator, the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse remains motionless on the ground or on thin tree branches. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It does not enter torpor or hibernate.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is dry deciduous forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in north-western Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢.250 km?, most of which is in Ankarafantsika National Park. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region and predation by feral dogs, cats, and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) its mediumand long-term future is at risk.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 112-150 mm, tail 183-240 mm; weight 42-74 g.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is similar to Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastardy) buts larger, with relatively smaller ears. Dorsal pelage is quite soft, fine, and light grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brown dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with tuft of brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest with sandy soils at elevations of 100-400 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F51FF28FCA2CEDDF70C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF50F51FF28FCA2CEDDF70C","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"190","verbatimText":"20.Petter’s Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys peterFrench:Kelibotra de Petter/ German:Pette-Madagaskar-Gro3fuldmaus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de PetterTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys petteri Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005,“ Province de Toliara, Foret des Mikea, 16 kmwest Vorehy, Foret d’Andaladomo, 22°16.0’S, 43°28.7’E, 80 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SW Madagascar (Andalomo Forest, Mikea Forest).Descriptive notes.Head-body 160 mm, tail 238 mm; weight 105 g. All measurements are from one Petter’s Big-footed Mouse. Dorsum is dark grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long and two-tone, dark brown dorsally and a little lighter ventrally; tip is covered with off-white elongated hair tuft. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Transitional dry deciduousforest-spiny bush. Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is only known from a singlesite at an elevation of 80 m. In the Mikea Forest, it occurs in sympatry with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastard).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and presumed to be exclusively terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Last. Petter’s Bigfooted Mouse is spiny bush—dwelling and is known from a single specimen in Mikea Forest, which has been extensively surveyed for small mammals. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, specifically the site the holotype was obtained, including conversion of forest to agriculture and frequent fires, its medium-term future is uncertain. On the basis of subfossil remains, Petter’s Big-footed Mouse had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar,specifically in the south, until about 1800.Bibliography.Goodman & Soarimalala (2005), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Goodman, Vasey & Burney (2006), Soarimalala & Goodman (2004, 2011).","taxonomy":"Macrotarsomys petteri Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005,“ Province de Toliara, Foret des Mikea, 16 kmwest Vorehy, Foret d’Andaladomo, 22°16.0’S, 43°28.7’E, 80 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Kelibotra de Petter @fr | Pette-Madagaskar-Gro3fuldmaus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Petter @es","interpretedAuthority":"Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goodman & Soarimalala","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2005","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Macrotarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"190","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"peter","name":"Macrotarsomys peter","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to SW Madagascar (Andalomo Forest, Mikea Forest).","bibliography":"Goodman & Soarimalala (2005) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Goodman, Vasey & Burney (2006) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2004, 2011)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and presumed to be exclusively terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Last. Petter’s Bigfooted Mouse is spiny bush—dwelling and is known from a single specimen in Mikea Forest, which has been extensively surveyed for small mammals. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, specifically the site the holotype was obtained, including conversion of forest to agriculture and frequent fires, its medium-term future is uncertain. On the basis of subfossil remains, Petter’s Big-footed Mouse had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar,specifically in the south, until about 1800.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 160 mm, tail 238 mm; weight 105 g. All measurements are from one Petter’s Big-footed Mouse. Dorsum is dark grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long and two-tone, dark brown dorsally and a little lighter ventrally; tip is covered with off-white elongated hair tuft. Hindlegs are elongated.","habitat":"Transitional dry deciduousforest-spiny bush. Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is only known from a singlesite at an elevation of 80 m. In the Mikea Forest, it occurs in sympatry with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastard)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F51FF2CF603C620FD72.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF50F51FF2CF603C620FD72","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"190","verbatimText":"21.Koopman'’s Forest MouseMonticolomys koopmaniFrench:Voalavo de Koopman/ German:MadagaskarBergmaus/ Spanish:Ratén de bosque de KoopmanOther common names:Koopman's Montane Voalavo, Malagasy Mountain MouseTaxonomy.Monticolomys koopmani Carleton & Goodman, 1996,“ Madagascar, Antananarivo Province, Manjakatompo, 1800 m, ca. 19°20’S, 47°26’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 94-101 mm, tail 134-143 mm; weight 25-27 g. Fur of Koopman’s Forest Mouse is relatively thick, soft, and fine, brownish gray dorsally and lighter gray ventrally. Ears are fairly short. Tail has sparse blackish fur at base, and hairs are progressively more numerous toward tip and sometimes with some white; it does not have distinct tail tuft. Legs are fairly long, with white cream fur, and feet and toes are flesh-pink.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 900-2030 m.Food and Feeding.Koopman’s Forest Mouse is presumed to be largely granivorous but may also eat fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Breeding period of Koopman’s Forest Mouse appears to occur during the rainy season. Females have three pairs of mammae, and largest known litter size is three young.Activity patterns.Koopman'’s Forest Mouse is nocturnal and largely arboreal, but because some individuals have been captured on the ground,it is best considered scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Koopman’s Forest Mouse is forest-dwelling and is known from a few widely separate sites in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, mostly from montane forests. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (1996), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Maminirina et al. (2008), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Monticolomys koopmani Carleton & Goodman, 1996,“ Madagascar, Antananarivo Province, Manjakatompo, 1800 m, ca. 19°20’S, 47°26’E.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Voalavo de Koopman @fr | Madagaskar Bergmaus @de | Ratén de bosque de Koopman @es | Koopman's Montane Voalavo @en | Malagasy Mountain Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton & Goodman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1996","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Monticolomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"190","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"koopmani","name":"Monticolomys koopmani","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (1996) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Koopman’s Forest Mouse is presumed to be largely granivorous but may also eat fruits and invertebrates.","breeding":"Breeding period of Koopman’s Forest Mouse appears to occur during the rainy season. Females have three pairs of mammae, and largest known litter size is three young.","activityPatterns":"Koopman'’s Forest Mouse is nocturnal and largely arboreal, but because some individuals have been captured on the ground,it is best considered scansorial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Koopman’s Forest Mouse is forest-dwelling and is known from a few widely separate sites in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, mostly from montane forests. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 94-101 mm, tail 134-143 mm; weight 25-27 g. Fur of Koopman’s Forest Mouse is relatively thick, soft, and fine, brownish gray dorsally and lighter gray ventrally. Ears are fairly short. Tail has sparse blackish fur at base, and hairs are progressively more numerous toward tip and sometimes with some white; it does not have distinct tail tuft. Legs are fairly long, with white cream fur, and feet and toes are flesh-pink.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 900-2030 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F5EFA24FC5FCC84FD8D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF50F5EFA24FC5FCC84FD8D","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"190","verbatimText":"22.Giant Jumping RatHypogeomys antimenaFrench:Vositse géant/ German:MadagaskarRiesenratte/ Spanish:Rata saltadora giganteOther common names:Malagasy Giant Jumping Rat, VotsovotsaTaxonomy.Hypogeomys antimena A. Grandidier, 1869,“sur les rives du Tsidsibon[= Tsiribihina] et de ’ Andranoumene[= Andranomena], deux rivieres du Ménabé indépendant.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to a narrow coastal zone of CW Madagascar (from the Tsiribihina River S to the northern portion of the Menabe AntimenaNational Park).Descriptive notes.Head-body 305-345 mm, tail 215-240 mm; weight 1.1-1.3 kg. The Giant Jumping Rat is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It is not sexually dimorphic in pelage color or body measurements. Dorsum has relatively stiff hairs that vary from brownish gray to reddish brown; head fur is slightly darker, and venter is light brown. Subadults are distinctly grayer than adults. Ears are long and pointed, measuring 60 mm. Front limbs are distinctly less developed than long plantigrade hindfeet.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest on sandy substrate at elevations of 40 —100 m.Food and Feeding.The Giant Jumping Rat feeds on fallen fruits of Adansonia spp.(Malvaceae), Commiphora spp.(Burseraceae), Poupartia spp.(Anacardiaceae), Berchemiadiscolor (Rhamnaceae), and Strychnos spp. (LLoganiaceae), as well as leaves, young shoots, and tubers.Breeding.Birthing of the GiantJumping Rat occurs at the start of the hot-rainy season toward the end of November when food resources are at their yearly high. Litters with 1-2 young are produced per pair, but there are reports of up to three young. Female have two pairs of mammae. Gestation is c.130 days. After birth, young remain in a burrow system for 4-6 weeks. They remain with parents after they nearly reach adult size. Sexual maturity is reached after two years of age.Activity patterns.The Giant Jumping Rat is strictly nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends the day in extensive burrow systems c.5 m in length and at least 1 m deep that it excavates. Multiple entrances to burrow system are often up to 40 cm in diameter and present a distinctive aspect to the forest landscape. When a burrow is abandoned by a pair, it is generally taken over by other pair. The Giant Jumping Rat normally walks on all four limbs, but it can break into kangaroo-like saltatorial hopping. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Breeding Giant Jumping Rats live in permanent monogamous pairs, with largely overlapping home ranges. Pairs remain in the same burrow systems over many years and have little overlap in home ranges with neighboring pairs. Mean home range size is 8300 m* and largely equivalent for males and females. Home ranges expand during the dry season and then contract before birthing; pairs with young have smaller home ranges than those without young. Social communication is seemingly complex, and at night, individuals and pairs can be observed tapping the ground with their large hindfeet, often with heads cocked and ears in close position, and emitting variable cries of “brou-brou-brououou” and “kouitsch-kouitsch.”Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The extant population of the Giant Jumping Rat was previously estimated at no more than a few hundred individuals and restricted to a small area of dry deciduous forest in the central Menabe Region. That region has experienced drastic reductions in native forest cover. The Giant Jumping Rat once occupied dry deciduous forests between the Andranomena and Tsiribihina rivers, but its distribution has shrunk considerably. In the past few decades,it has disappeared from Andranomena Reserve, although collapsed burrow systems are still found there. As early as 1961, it was considered to be close to extinction and in need of immediate conservation action. On the basis of subfossil remains, the Giant Jumping Rat had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar, specifically further to the south, until the 14™ century (c.1350). It does well in captivity, but little genetic variation remains in natural or captive populations. Given anthropogenic pressures on remaining natural forests, combined with low rates of recruitment of young into the adult breeding population, associated with inferred carnivore (native and introduced) and snake predation, its short-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Cook et al. (1991), Cowan (2000), Ganzhorn et al. (1996), Goodman & Rakotondravony (1996), Goodman et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Petter (1972a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Rasoloarison et al. (1995), Scharfe & Schlund (1996), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Sommer (1997 2000, 2003b), Sommer & Tichy (1999), Sommer, Schwab & Ganzhorn (2002), Sommer, Toto Volahy & Seal (2002), Veal (1992), Young et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Hypogeomys antimena A. Grandidier, 1869,“sur les rives du Tsidsibon[= Tsiribihina] et de ’ Andranoumene[= Andranomena], deux rivieres du Ménabé indépendant.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Vositse géant @fr | Madagaskar Riesenratte @de | Rata saltadora gigante @es | Malagasy Giant Jumping Rat @en | Votsovotsa @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"A. Grandidier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1869","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Hypogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"190","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antimena","name":"Hypogeomys antimena","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Restricted to a narrow coastal zone of CW Madagascar (from the Tsiribihina River S to the northern portion of the Menabe AntimenaNational Park).","bibliography":"Cook et al. (1991) | Cowan (2000) | Ganzhorn et al. (1996) | Goodman & Rakotondravony (1996) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Petter (1972a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Rasoloarison et al. (1995) | Scharfe & Schlund (1996) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Sommer (1997 2000, 2003b) | Sommer & Tichy (1999) | Sommer, Schwab & Ganzhorn (2002) | Sommer, Toto Volahy & Seal (2002) | Veal (1992) | Young et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The Giant Jumping Rat feeds on fallen fruits of Adansonia spp.(Malvaceae), Commiphora spp.(Burseraceae), Poupartia spp.(Anacardiaceae), Berchemiadiscolor (Rhamnaceae), and Strychnos spp. (LLoganiaceae), as well as leaves, young shoots, and tubers.","breeding":"Birthing of the GiantJumping Rat occurs at the start of the hot-rainy season toward the end of November when food resources are at their yearly high. Litters with 1-2 young are produced per pair, but there are reports of up to three young. Female have two pairs of mammae. Gestation is c.130 days. After birth, young remain in a burrow system for 4-6 weeks. They remain with parents after they nearly reach adult size. Sexual maturity is reached after two years of age.","activityPatterns":"The Giant Jumping Rat is strictly nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends the day in extensive burrow systems c.5 m in length and at least 1 m deep that it excavates. Multiple entrances to burrow system are often up to 40 cm in diameter and present a distinctive aspect to the forest landscape. When a burrow is abandoned by a pair, it is generally taken over by other pair. The Giant Jumping Rat normally walks on all four limbs, but it can break into kangaroo-like saltatorial hopping. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Breeding Giant Jumping Rats live in permanent monogamous pairs, with largely overlapping home ranges. Pairs remain in the same burrow systems over many years and have little overlap in home ranges with neighboring pairs. Mean home range size is 8300 m* and largely equivalent for males and females. Home ranges expand during the dry season and then contract before birthing; pairs with young have smaller home ranges than those without young. Social communication is seemingly complex, and at night, individuals and pairs can be observed tapping the ground with their large hindfeet, often with heads cocked and ears in close position, and emitting variable cries of “brou-brou-brououou” and “kouitsch-kouitsch.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The extant population of the Giant Jumping Rat was previously estimated at no more than a few hundred individuals and restricted to a small area of dry deciduous forest in the central Menabe Region. That region has experienced drastic reductions in native forest cover. The Giant Jumping Rat once occupied dry deciduous forests between the Andranomena and Tsiribihina rivers, but its distribution has shrunk considerably. In the past few decades,it has disappeared from Andranomena Reserve, although collapsed burrow systems are still found there. As early as 1961, it was considered to be close to extinction and in need of immediate conservation action. On the basis of subfossil remains, the Giant Jumping Rat had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar, specifically further to the south, until the 14™ century (c.1350). It does well in captivity, but little genetic variation remains in natural or captive populations. Given anthropogenic pressures on remaining natural forests, combined with low rates of recruitment of young into the adult breeding population, associated with inferred carnivore (native and introduced) and snake predation, its short-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 305-345 mm, tail 215-240 mm; weight 1.1-1.3 kg. The Giant Jumping Rat is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It is not sexually dimorphic in pelage color or body measurements. Dorsum has relatively stiff hairs that vary from brownish gray to reddish brown; head fur is slightly darker, and venter is light brown. Subadults are distinctly grayer than adults. Ears are long and pointed, measuring 60 mm. Front limbs are distinctly less developed than long plantigrade hindfeet.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest on sandy substrate at elevations of 40 —100 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FAFEFC2BC55FF576.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF60F52FAFEFC2BC55FF576","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"187","verbatimText":"11.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus myoxinusFrench:Rat-loir de Milne-Edwards/ German:Milne-Edwards-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de Milne-EdwardsOther common names:\\Vestern Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus myoxinus Milne-Edwards, 1885,“cote ouest de Madagascar.”Modified by P. Rode in 1945 to “Foréts de Tsilambany,” which M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt in 1990 considered a collection locality by A. Grandidier at “Riv. Tsilambana,” approximately 656 km SSE Morondava. Phylogeographic work indicates distinct geographical structure and possible cryptic species of E. myoxinus. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N, W & S Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 117-136 mm,tail 125-167 mm; weight 51-75 g. Dorsum of Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Ratis grayish brown, with obvious line on flank separating back from off-white venter. Ears are proportionately small compared with most other species of Eliurus. Distal one-half oftail is black or dark brown that becomes denser and longer toward tip, often forming distinct brush. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Dry deciduous and spiny bush formations from sea level to elevations of c.900 m (virtually all of the western one-half of Madagascar) and eastern humid forest formations (far north) at elevations of 700-1250 m.Food and Feeding.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be granivorous and probably consumes fruits.Breeding.During the breeding season, Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rats occupy arboreal nests or ground burrows. Nests are constructed with leaves and small branches or in tree holes located 2-6 m off the ground. In captivity, gestation is 24 days, and some females, which have three pairs of mammae, can have four litters a year; maximum litter size is four young.Activity patterns.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows and readily moves in woody vegetation, including vertical tree trunks and moderate to thin horizontal branches. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs in low density, but recent work, perhaps with different baits and trap types used by earlier researchers, has found moderate densities that can vary considerably by season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the western one-half of Madagascar and in the north-east. These habitats are exposed to extensive human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Goodman et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Randrianjafy (2003), Randrianjafy et al. (2007), Rasoma & Goodman (2007), Rode (1945), Shi et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus myoxinus Milne-Edwards, 1885,“cote ouest de Madagascar.”Modified by P. Rode in 1945 to “Foréts de Tsilambany,” which M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt in 1990 considered a collection locality by A. Grandidier at “Riv. Tsilambana,” approximately 656 km SSE Morondava. Phylogeographic work indicates distinct geographical structure and possible cryptic species of E. myoxinus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Milne-Edwards @fr | Milne-Edwards-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Milne-Edwards @es | \\Vestern Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Milne-Edwards, 1885","interpretedAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1885","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"187","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"myoxinus","name":"Eliurus myoxinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to N, W & S Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Randrianjafy (2003) | Randrianjafy et al. (2007) | Rasoma & Goodman (2007) | Rode (1945) | Shi et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be granivorous and probably consumes fruits.","breeding":"During the breeding season, Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rats occupy arboreal nests or ground burrows. Nests are constructed with leaves and small branches or in tree holes located 2-6 m off the ground. In captivity, gestation is 24 days, and some females, which have three pairs of mammae, can have four litters a year; maximum litter size is four young.","activityPatterns":"Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows and readily moves in woody vegetation, including vertical tree trunks and moderate to thin horizontal branches. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs in low density, but recent work, perhaps with different baits and trap types used by earlier researchers, has found moderate densities that can vary considerably by season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the western one-half of Madagascar and in the north-east. These habitats are exposed to extensive human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 117-136 mm,tail 125-167 mm; weight 51-75 g. Dorsum of Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Ratis grayish brown, with obvious line on flank separating back from off-white venter. Ears are proportionately small compared with most other species of Eliurus. Distal one-half oftail is black or dark brown that becomes denser and longer toward tip, often forming distinct brush. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.","habitat":"Dry deciduous and spiny bush formations from sea level to elevations of c.900 m (virtually all of the western one-half of Madagascar) and eastern humid forest formations (far north) at elevations of 700-1250 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F50FFFCF3B9C581F8D2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF40F50FFFCF3B9C581F8D2","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"189","verbatimText":"18.Bastard’s Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys bastardiFrench:Kelibotra de Bastard/ German:Bastard-MadagaskarGrofRfuRmaus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de BastardOther common names:Lesser Big-footed Mouse, Western Big-footed Mouse, Western Forest MouseTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys bastardi Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier, 1898,“sud du Mangoky, entre Midongy et Thosy [= Ihosy].”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.b.bastard:Milne-Edwards&G.Grandidier,1898—moreuplandSCportionofMadagascar.M. b. occidentalis Ellerman, 1949— W & S Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 89-103 mm, tail 120-145 mm; weight 20-26 g. Dorsal pelage of Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is distinctly soft and fine, grayish brown and slightly dull yellow. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venteris uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, rostrum is slightly pointed, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brownish-gray dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with a few brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush from near sea level to elevations of c.915 m. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse occurs in areas with sandy soils.Food and Feeding.In captivity, Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse eats seeds and fruit and also has been noted to be folivore and insectivore.Breeding.Bastard’s Big-footed Mice live in pairs, but no details are available on their breeding systems and ecology. Maximum litter size is generally three young, but four embryos have been found in one case. Females have two sets of mammae.Activity patterns.Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and probably exclusively terrestrial. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil with small inconspicuous openings, which it backfills after entering. These plugs can be obvious in the early morning when soil is still slightly moist. End of the burrow system has an area of dried leaves and grass, which forms the nest. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is largely a dry deciduous forest or open bush-dwelling species and is known from various localities in southern and north-western Madagascar. Given its apparent adaptability to open and slightly degraded environments, Bastard’s Bigfooted Mouse appears more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae. It has been previously considered the most common native rodent in western Madagascar, but in certain areas,this is not the case. It has been proposed that introduced House Mice (Musmusculus) compete with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse for burrows.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003c), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Ellerman (1949), Ganzhorn et al. (1996), Goodman & Griffiths (2009), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Mittermeier et al. (2014), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Jansa et al. (2008), Petter (1972a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Rasoma & Goodman (2007), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Macrotarsomys bastardi Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier, 1898,“sud du Mangoky, entre Midongy et Thosy [= Ihosy].”Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Kelibotra de Bastard @fr | Bastard-MadagaskarGrofRfu Rmaus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Bastard @es | Lesser Big-footed Mouse @en | Western Big-footed Mouse @en | Western Forest Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards & G. Grandidier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Macrotarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"189","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bastardi","name":"Macrotarsomys bastardi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.b.bastard:Milne-Edwards&G.Grandidier,1898—moreuplandSCportionofMadagascar.M. b. occidentalis Ellerman, 1949— W & S Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600406/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2003c) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Ellerman (1949) | Ganzhorn et al. (1996) | Goodman & Griffiths (2009) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Mittermeier et al. (2014) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Jansa et al. (2008) | Petter (1972a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Rasoma & Goodman (2007) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"In captivity, Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse eats seeds and fruit and also has been noted to be folivore and insectivore.","breeding":"Bastard’s Big-footed Mice live in pairs, but no details are available on their breeding systems and ecology. Maximum litter size is generally three young, but four embryos have been found in one case. Females have two sets of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and probably exclusively terrestrial. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil with small inconspicuous openings, which it backfills after entering. These plugs can be obvious in the early morning when soil is still slightly moist. End of the burrow system has an area of dried leaves and grass, which forms the nest. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is largely a dry deciduous forest or open bush-dwelling species and is known from various localities in southern and north-western Madagascar. Given its apparent adaptability to open and slightly degraded environments, Bastard’s Bigfooted Mouse appears more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae. It has been previously considered the most common native rodent in western Madagascar, but in certain areas,this is not the case. It has been proposed that introduced House Mice (Musmusculus) compete with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse for burrows.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 89-103 mm, tail 120-145 mm; weight 20-26 g. Dorsal pelage of Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse is distinctly soft and fine, grayish brown and slightly dull yellow. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venteris uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, rostrum is slightly pointed, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brownish-gray dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with a few brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush from near sea level to elevations of c.915 m. Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse occurs in areas with sandy soils."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F50FFFDFAD7C893F55A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF40F50FFFDFAD7C893F55A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"189","verbatimText":"17.Northern Naked-tail Forest MouseVoalavo gymnocaudusFrench:Voalavo a queue nue/ German:Nordlicher Voalavo/ Spanish:Raton de bosque de cola desnuda septentrionalOther common names:Naked-tailed Voalavo, Northern VoalavoTaxonomy.Voalavo gymnocaudus Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 12.2 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1950 m, 14°44.8’S, 40°26.0’E”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 80-90 mm, tail 120-129 mm; weight 17-25-5 g. Fur of the Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1225-1950 m. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is only known from mountains surrounding the Andapa Basin.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Northern Naked-tail Forest Mice have a gland on their upper chest that produces a distinct odor and is most developed in reproductive males. Females probably give birth at the end of the dry season in late August through September. They have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.Activity patterns.The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a limited area of eastern montane forest in northern Madagascar. Currently, degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans is relatively limited.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000), Goodman et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Voalavo gymnocaudus Carleton & Goodman, 1998,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, 12.2 kmWSW ofBefingitra, 1950 m, 14°44.8’S, 40°26.0’E”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Voalavo a queue nue @fr | Nordlicher Voalavo @de | Raton de bosque de cola desnuda septentrional @es | Naked-tailed Voalavo @en | Northern Voalavo @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton & Goodman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1998","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Voalavo","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"189","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gymnocaudus","name":"Voalavo gymnocaudus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to N Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600404/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (1998, 2000) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Northern Naked-tail Forest Mice have a gland on their upper chest that produces a distinct odor and is most developed in reproductive males. Females probably give birth at the end of the dry season in late August through September. They have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.","activityPatterns":"The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a limited area of eastern montane forest in northern Madagascar. Currently, degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans is relatively limited.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 80-90 mm, tail 120-129 mm; weight 17-25-5 g. Fur of the Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Tail is largely naked and bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1225-1950 m. The Northern Naked-tail Forest Mouse is only known from mountains surrounding the Andapa Basin."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF40F51FAF8F80ECF8CFD77.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF40F51FAF8F80ECF8CFD77","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"189","verbatimText":"19.Ankarafantsika Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys ingensFrench:Kelibotra dAnkarafantsika/ German:Ankarafantsika-MadagaskarGroRRfu3maus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de AnkarafantsikaOther common names:Greater Big-footed Mouse, Long-tailed Big-footed MouseTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys ingens Peter, 1959,“ 200 metresapres le village d’Ampijoroa,” Madagascar.The specimen named the holotype of M. ingenswas found injured along a main road and probably had fallen prey to a raptor. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to NW Madagascar (Ankarafantsika Forest).Descriptive notes.Head-body 112-150 mm, tail 183-240 mm; weight 42-74 g.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is similar to Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastardy) buts larger, with relatively smaller ears. Dorsal pelage is quite soft, fine, and light grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brown dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with tuft of brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest with sandy soils at elevations of 100-400 m.Food and Feeding.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is presumed to feed on seeds and fruits, as does Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse. The two species occur sympatrically in Ankarafantsika.Breeding.Maximum litter size of the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is two young, and females have two sets of mammae.Activity patterns.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial, being able to climb on small tree branches. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil, with inconspicuous openings that are backfilled upon entering. These plugs can be obvious in early morning when soilis still slightly moist.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is generally seen foraging alone; occasionally, two individuals have been observed in the same or nearby trees. When scared by a potential predator, the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse remains motionless on the ground or on thin tree branches. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It does not enter torpor or hibernate.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is dry deciduous forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in north-western Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢.250 km?, most of which is in Ankarafantsika National Park. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region and predation by feral dogs, cats, and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) its mediumand long-term future is at risk.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (2003c), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Lobban etal. (2014), Petter (1959a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Randrianjafy (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Macrotarsomys ingens Peter, 1959,“ 200 metresapres le village d’Ampijoroa,” Madagascar.The specimen named the holotype of M. ingenswas found injured along a main road and probably had fallen prey to a raptor. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Kelibotra d Ankarafantsika @fr | Ankarafantsika-MadagaskarGro RRfu3maus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Ankarafantsika @es | Greater Big-footed Mouse @en | Long-tailed Big-footed Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Peter, 1959","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1959","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Macrotarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"189","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ingens","name":"Macrotarsomys ingens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to NW Madagascar (Ankarafantsika Forest).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600408/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (2003c) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Lobban etal. (2014) | Petter (1959a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Randrianjafy (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is presumed to feed on seeds and fruits, as does Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse. The two species occur sympatrically in Ankarafantsika.","breeding":"Maximum litter size of the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is two young, and females have two sets of mammae.","activityPatterns":"The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial, being able to climb on small tree branches. It occupies shallow burrows in sandy soil, with inconspicuous openings that are backfilled upon entering. These plugs can be obvious in early morning when soilis still slightly moist.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is generally seen foraging alone; occasionally, two individuals have been observed in the same or nearby trees. When scared by a potential predator, the Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse remains motionless on the ground or on thin tree branches. It moves kangaroo-like, with bounding action on its proportionately long hindfeet and using tail as a stabilizer. It does not enter torpor or hibernate.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is dry deciduous forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in north-western Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢.250 km?, most of which is in Ankarafantsika National Park. Given continued declines in natural forests ofthis region and predation by feral dogs, cats, and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) its mediumand long-term future is at risk.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 112-150 mm, tail 183-240 mm; weight 42-74 g.The Ankarafantsika Big-footed Mouse is similar to Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastardy) buts larger, with relatively smaller ears. Dorsal pelage is quite soft, fine, and light grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long, brown dorsally and light gray ventrally; tip is trimmed with tuft of brown hairs. Hindlegs are elongated.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest with sandy soils at elevations of 100-400 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F51FF28FCA2CEDDF70C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF50F51FF28FCA2CEDDF70C","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"190","verbatimText":"20.Petter’s Big-footed MouseMacrotarsomys peterFrench:Kelibotra de Petter/ German:Pette-Madagaskar-Gro3fuldmaus/ Spanish:Raton de pies grandes de PetterTaxonomy.Macrotarsomys petteri Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005,“ Province de Toliara, Foret des Mikea, 16 kmwest Vorehy, Foret d’Andaladomo, 22°16.0’S, 43°28.7’E, 80 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SW Madagascar (Andalomo Forest, Mikea Forest).Descriptive notes.Head-body 160 mm, tail 238 mm; weight 105 g. All measurements are from one Petter’s Big-footed Mouse. Dorsum is dark grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long and two-tone, dark brown dorsally and a little lighter ventrally; tip is covered with off-white elongated hair tuft. Hindlegs are elongated.Habitat.Transitional dry deciduousforest-spiny bush. Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is only known from a singlesite at an elevation of 80 m. In the Mikea Forest, it occurs in sympatry with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastard).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and presumed to be exclusively terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Last. Petter’s Bigfooted Mouse is spiny bush—dwelling and is known from a single specimen in Mikea Forest, which has been extensively surveyed for small mammals. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, specifically the site the holotype was obtained, including conversion of forest to agriculture and frequent fires, its medium-term future is uncertain. On the basis of subfossil remains, Petter’s Big-footed Mouse had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar,specifically in the south, until about 1800.Bibliography.Goodman & Soarimalala (2005), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Goodman, Vasey & Burney (2006), Soarimalala & Goodman (2004, 2011).","taxonomy":"Macrotarsomys petteri Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005,“ Province de Toliara, Foret des Mikea, 16 kmwest Vorehy, Foret d’Andaladomo, 22°16.0’S, 43°28.7’E, 80 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Kelibotra de Petter @fr | Pette-Madagaskar-Gro3fuldmaus @de | Raton de pies grandes de Petter @es","interpretedAuthority":"Goodman & Soarimalala, 2005","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goodman & Soarimalala","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2005","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Macrotarsomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"190","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"peter","name":"Macrotarsomys peter","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to SW Madagascar (Andalomo Forest, Mikea Forest).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600410/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Goodman & Soarimalala (2005) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Goodman, Vasey & Burney (2006) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2004, 2011)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is nocturnal and presumed to be exclusively terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Last. Petter’s Bigfooted Mouse is spiny bush—dwelling and is known from a single specimen in Mikea Forest, which has been extensively surveyed for small mammals. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, specifically the site the holotype was obtained, including conversion of forest to agriculture and frequent fires, its medium-term future is uncertain. On the basis of subfossil remains, Petter’s Big-footed Mouse had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar,specifically in the south, until about 1800.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 160 mm, tail 238 mm; weight 105 g. All measurements are from one Petter’s Big-footed Mouse. Dorsum is dark grayish brown. Flanks have distinct line separating back, and venter is uniform white. Eyes are proportionately large, and ears are distinctly elongated. Tail is remarkably long and two-tone, dark brown dorsally and a little lighter ventrally; tip is covered with off-white elongated hair tuft. Hindlegs are elongated.","habitat":"Transitional dry deciduousforest-spiny bush. Petter’s Big-footed Mouse is only known from a singlesite at an elevation of 80 m. In the Mikea Forest, it occurs in sympatry with Bastard’s Big-footed Mouse (M. bastard)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F51FF2CF603C620FD72.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF50F51FF2CF603C620FD72","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"190","verbatimText":"21.Koopman'’s Forest MouseMonticolomys koopmaniFrench:Voalavo de Koopman/ German:MadagaskarBergmaus/ Spanish:Ratén de bosque de KoopmanOther common names:Koopman's Montane Voalavo, Malagasy Mountain MouseTaxonomy.Monticolomys koopmani Carleton & Goodman, 1996,“ Madagascar, Antananarivo Province, Manjakatompo, 1800 m, ca. 19°20’S, 47°26’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 94-101 mm, tail 134-143 mm; weight 25-27 g. Fur of Koopman’s Forest Mouse is relatively thick, soft, and fine, brownish gray dorsally and lighter gray ventrally. Ears are fairly short. Tail has sparse blackish fur at base, and hairs are progressively more numerous toward tip and sometimes with some white; it does not have distinct tail tuft. Legs are fairly long, with white cream fur, and feet and toes are flesh-pink.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 900-2030 m.Food and Feeding.Koopman’s Forest Mouse is presumed to be largely granivorous but may also eat fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Breeding period of Koopman’s Forest Mouse appears to occur during the rainy season. Females have three pairs of mammae, and largest known litter size is three young.Activity patterns.Koopman'’s Forest Mouse is nocturnal and largely arboreal, but because some individuals have been captured on the ground,it is best considered scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Koopman’s Forest Mouse is forest-dwelling and is known from a few widely separate sites in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, mostly from montane forests. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton & Goodman (1996), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Maminirina et al. (2008), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Monticolomys koopmani Carleton & Goodman, 1996,“ Madagascar, Antananarivo Province, Manjakatompo, 1800 m, ca. 19°20’S, 47°26’E.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Voalavo de Koopman @fr | Madagaskar Bergmaus @de | Ratén de bosque de Koopman @es | Koopman's Montane Voalavo @en | Malagasy Mountain Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton & Goodman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1996","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Monticolomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"190","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"koopmani","name":"Monticolomys koopmani","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600412/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton & Goodman (1996) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Koopman’s Forest Mouse is presumed to be largely granivorous but may also eat fruits and invertebrates.","breeding":"Breeding period of Koopman’s Forest Mouse appears to occur during the rainy season. Females have three pairs of mammae, and largest known litter size is three young.","activityPatterns":"Koopman'’s Forest Mouse is nocturnal and largely arboreal, but because some individuals have been captured on the ground,it is best considered scansorial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Koopman’s Forest Mouse is forest-dwelling and is known from a few widely separate sites in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, mostly from montane forests. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 94-101 mm, tail 134-143 mm; weight 25-27 g. Fur of Koopman’s Forest Mouse is relatively thick, soft, and fine, brownish gray dorsally and lighter gray ventrally. Ears are fairly short. Tail has sparse blackish fur at base, and hairs are progressively more numerous toward tip and sometimes with some white; it does not have distinct tail tuft. Legs are fairly long, with white cream fur, and feet and toes are flesh-pink.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 900-2030 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF50F5EFA24FC5FCC84FD8D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF50F5EFA24FC5FCC84FD8D","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"190","verbatimText":"22.Giant Jumping RatHypogeomys antimenaFrench:Vositse géant/ German:MadagaskarRiesenratte/ Spanish:Rata saltadora giganteOther common names:Malagasy Giant Jumping Rat, VotsovotsaTaxonomy.Hypogeomys antimena A. Grandidier, 1869,“sur les rives du Tsidsibon[= Tsiribihina] et de ’ Andranoumene[= Andranomena], deux rivieres du Ménabé indépendant.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to a narrow coastal zone of CW Madagascar (from the Tsiribihina River S to the northern portion of the Menabe AntimenaNational Park).Descriptive notes.Head-body 305-345 mm, tail 215-240 mm; weight 1.1-1.3 kg. The Giant Jumping Rat is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It is not sexually dimorphic in pelage color or body measurements. Dorsum has relatively stiff hairs that vary from brownish gray to reddish brown; head fur is slightly darker, and venter is light brown. Subadults are distinctly grayer than adults. Ears are long and pointed, measuring 60 mm. Front limbs are distinctly less developed than long plantigrade hindfeet.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest on sandy substrate at elevations of 40 —100 m.Food and Feeding.The Giant Jumping Rat feeds on fallen fruits of Adansonia spp.(Malvaceae), Commiphora spp.(Burseraceae), Poupartia spp.(Anacardiaceae), Berchemiadiscolor (Rhamnaceae), and Strychnos spp. (LLoganiaceae), as well as leaves, young shoots, and tubers.Breeding.Birthing of the GiantJumping Rat occurs at the start of the hot-rainy season toward the end of November when food resources are at their yearly high. Litters with 1-2 young are produced per pair, but there are reports of up to three young. Female have two pairs of mammae. Gestation is c.130 days. After birth, young remain in a burrow system for 4-6 weeks. They remain with parents after they nearly reach adult size. Sexual maturity is reached after two years of age.Activity patterns.The Giant Jumping Rat is strictly nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends the day in extensive burrow systems c.5 m in length and at least 1 m deep that it excavates. Multiple entrances to burrow system are often up to 40 cm in diameter and present a distinctive aspect to the forest landscape. When a burrow is abandoned by a pair, it is generally taken over by other pair. The Giant Jumping Rat normally walks on all four limbs, but it can break into kangaroo-like saltatorial hopping. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Breeding Giant Jumping Rats live in permanent monogamous pairs, with largely overlapping home ranges. Pairs remain in the same burrow systems over many years and have little overlap in home ranges with neighboring pairs. Mean home range size is 8300 m* and largely equivalent for males and females. Home ranges expand during the dry season and then contract before birthing; pairs with young have smaller home ranges than those without young. Social communication is seemingly complex, and at night, individuals and pairs can be observed tapping the ground with their large hindfeet, often with heads cocked and ears in close position, and emitting variable cries of “brou-brou-brououou” and “kouitsch-kouitsch.”Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The extant population of the Giant Jumping Rat was previously estimated at no more than a few hundred individuals and restricted to a small area of dry deciduous forest in the central Menabe Region. That region has experienced drastic reductions in native forest cover. The Giant Jumping Rat once occupied dry deciduous forests between the Andranomena and Tsiribihina rivers, but its distribution has shrunk considerably. In the past few decades,it has disappeared from Andranomena Reserve, although collapsed burrow systems are still found there. As early as 1961, it was considered to be close to extinction and in need of immediate conservation action. On the basis of subfossil remains, the Giant Jumping Rat had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar, specifically further to the south, until the 14™ century (c.1350). It does well in captivity, but little genetic variation remains in natural or captive populations. Given anthropogenic pressures on remaining natural forests, combined with low rates of recruitment of young into the adult breeding population, associated with inferred carnivore (native and introduced) and snake predation, its short-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Cook et al. (1991), Cowan (2000), Ganzhorn et al. (1996), Goodman & Rakotondravony (1996), Goodman et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Petter (1972a), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Rasoloarison et al. (1995), Scharfe & Schlund (1996), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Sommer (1997 2000, 2003b), Sommer & Tichy (1999), Sommer, Schwab & Ganzhorn (2002), Sommer, Toto Volahy & Seal (2002), Veal (1992), Young et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Hypogeomys antimena A. Grandidier, 1869,“sur les rives du Tsidsibon[= Tsiribihina] et de ’ Andranoumene[= Andranomena], deux rivieres du Ménabé indépendant.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Vositse géant @fr | Madagaskar Riesenratte @de | Rata saltadora gigante @es | Malagasy Giant Jumping Rat @en | Votsovotsa @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"A. Grandidier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1869","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Hypogeomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"190","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antimena","name":"Hypogeomys antimena","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Restricted to a narrow coastal zone of CW Madagascar (from the Tsiribihina River S to the northern portion of the Menabe AntimenaNational Park).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600414/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cook et al. (1991) | Cowan (2000) | Ganzhorn et al. (1996) | Goodman & Rakotondravony (1996) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Petter (1972a) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Rasoloarison et al. (1995) | Scharfe & Schlund (1996) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Sommer (1997 2000, 2003b) | Sommer & Tichy (1999) | Sommer, Schwab & Ganzhorn (2002) | Sommer, Toto Volahy & Seal (2002) | Veal (1992) | Young et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The Giant Jumping Rat feeds on fallen fruits of Adansonia spp.(Malvaceae), Commiphora spp.(Burseraceae), Poupartia spp.(Anacardiaceae), Berchemiadiscolor (Rhamnaceae), and Strychnos spp. (LLoganiaceae), as well as leaves, young shoots, and tubers.","breeding":"Birthing of the GiantJumping Rat occurs at the start of the hot-rainy season toward the end of November when food resources are at their yearly high. Litters with 1-2 young are produced per pair, but there are reports of up to three young. Female have two pairs of mammae. Gestation is c.130 days. After birth, young remain in a burrow system for 4-6 weeks. They remain with parents after they nearly reach adult size. Sexual maturity is reached after two years of age.","activityPatterns":"The Giant Jumping Rat is strictly nocturnal and terrestrial. It spends the day in extensive burrow systems c.5 m in length and at least 1 m deep that it excavates. Multiple entrances to burrow system are often up to 40 cm in diameter and present a distinctive aspect to the forest landscape. When a burrow is abandoned by a pair, it is generally taken over by other pair. The Giant Jumping Rat normally walks on all four limbs, but it can break into kangaroo-like saltatorial hopping. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Breeding Giant Jumping Rats live in permanent monogamous pairs, with largely overlapping home ranges. Pairs remain in the same burrow systems over many years and have little overlap in home ranges with neighboring pairs. Mean home range size is 8300 m* and largely equivalent for males and females. Home ranges expand during the dry season and then contract before birthing; pairs with young have smaller home ranges than those without young. Social communication is seemingly complex, and at night, individuals and pairs can be observed tapping the ground with their large hindfeet, often with heads cocked and ears in close position, and emitting variable cries of “brou-brou-brououou” and “kouitsch-kouitsch.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The extant population of the Giant Jumping Rat was previously estimated at no more than a few hundred individuals and restricted to a small area of dry deciduous forest in the central Menabe Region. That region has experienced drastic reductions in native forest cover. The Giant Jumping Rat once occupied dry deciduous forests between the Andranomena and Tsiribihina rivers, but its distribution has shrunk considerably. In the past few decades,it has disappeared from Andranomena Reserve, although collapsed burrow systems are still found there. As early as 1961, it was considered to be close to extinction and in need of immediate conservation action. On the basis of subfossil remains, the Giant Jumping Rat had a distinctly broader distribution on Madagascar, specifically further to the south, until the 14™ century (c.1350). It does well in captivity, but little genetic variation remains in natural or captive populations. Given anthropogenic pressures on remaining natural forests, combined with low rates of recruitment of young into the adult breeding population, associated with inferred carnivore (native and introduced) and snake predation, its short-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 305-345 mm, tail 215-240 mm; weight 1.1-1.3 kg. The Giant Jumping Rat is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It is not sexually dimorphic in pelage color or body measurements. Dorsum has relatively stiff hairs that vary from brownish gray to reddish brown; head fur is slightly darker, and venter is light brown. Subadults are distinctly grayer than adults. Ears are long and pointed, measuring 60 mm. Front limbs are distinctly less developed than long plantigrade hindfeet.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest on sandy substrate at elevations of 40 —100 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FAFEFC2BC55FF576.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF60F52FAFEFC2BC55FF576","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"187","verbatimText":"11.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus myoxinusFrench:Rat-loir de Milne-Edwards/ German:Milne-Edwards-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de Milne-EdwardsOther common names:\\Vestern Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus myoxinus Milne-Edwards, 1885,“cote ouest de Madagascar.”Modified by P. Rode in 1945 to “Foréts de Tsilambany,” which M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt in 1990 considered a collection locality by A. Grandidier at “Riv. Tsilambana,” approximately 656 km SSE Morondava. Phylogeographic work indicates distinct geographical structure and possible cryptic species of E. myoxinus. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N, W & S Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 117-136 mm,tail 125-167 mm; weight 51-75 g. Dorsum of Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Ratis grayish brown, with obvious line on flank separating back from off-white venter. Ears are proportionately small compared with most other species of Eliurus. Distal one-half oftail is black or dark brown that becomes denser and longer toward tip, often forming distinct brush. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Dry deciduous and spiny bush formations from sea level to elevations of c.900 m (virtually all of the western one-half of Madagascar) and eastern humid forest formations (far north) at elevations of 700-1250 m.Food and Feeding.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be granivorous and probably consumes fruits.Breeding.During the breeding season, Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rats occupy arboreal nests or ground burrows. Nests are constructed with leaves and small branches or in tree holes located 2-6 m off the ground. In captivity, gestation is 24 days, and some females, which have three pairs of mammae, can have four litters a year; maximum litter size is four young.Activity patterns.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows and readily moves in woody vegetation, including vertical tree trunks and moderate to thin horizontal branches. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs in low density, but recent work, perhaps with different baits and trap types used by earlier researchers, has found moderate densities that can vary considerably by season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the western one-half of Madagascar and in the north-east. These habitats are exposed to extensive human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Dollar et al. (2007), Goodman et al. (2013), Hawkins & Racey (2008), Petter & Randrianasolo (1961), Randrianjafy (2003), Randrianjafy et al. (2007), Rasoma & Goodman (2007), Rode (1945), Shi et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus myoxinus Milne-Edwards, 1885,“cote ouest de Madagascar.”Modified by P. Rode in 1945 to “Foréts de Tsilambany,” which M. D. Carleton and D. F. Schmidt in 1990 considered a collection locality by A. Grandidier at “Riv. Tsilambana,” approximately 656 km SSE Morondava. Phylogeographic work indicates distinct geographical structure and possible cryptic species of E. myoxinus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Milne-Edwards @fr | Milne-Edwards-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Milne-Edwards @es | \\Vestern Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Milne-Edwards, 1885","interpretedAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1885","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"187","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"myoxinus","name":"Eliurus myoxinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to N, W & S Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600390/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Dollar et al. (2007) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Hawkins & Racey (2008) | Petter & Randrianasolo (1961) | Randrianjafy (2003) | Randrianjafy et al. (2007) | Rasoma & Goodman (2007) | Rode (1945) | Shi et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be granivorous and probably consumes fruits.","breeding":"During the breeding season, Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rats occupy arboreal nests or ground burrows. Nests are constructed with leaves and small branches or in tree holes located 2-6 m off the ground. In captivity, gestation is 24 days, and some females, which have three pairs of mammae, can have four litters a year; maximum litter size is four young.","activityPatterns":"Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows and readily moves in woody vegetation, including vertical tree trunks and moderate to thin horizontal branches. It is preyed on by barn owls (7yto alba) and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs in low density, but recent work, perhaps with different baits and trap types used by earlier researchers, has found moderate densities that can vary considerably by season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities in the western one-half of Madagascar and in the north-east. These habitats are exposed to extensive human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 117-136 mm,tail 125-167 mm; weight 51-75 g. Dorsum of Milne-Edwards’s Tufted-tail Ratis grayish brown, with obvious line on flank separating back from off-white venter. Ears are proportionately small compared with most other species of Eliurus. Distal one-half oftail is black or dark brown that becomes denser and longer toward tip, often forming distinct brush. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.","habitat":"Dry deciduous and spiny bush formations from sea level to elevations of c.900 m (virtually all of the western one-half of Madagascar) and eastern humid forest formations (far north) at elevations of 700-1250 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FFE3F745C40EFCE9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF60F52FFE3F745C40EFCE9","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"187","verbatimText":"10.Lesser Tufted-taill RatElurus minorFrench:Petit Rat-loir/ German:Kleiner Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho pequenaOther common names:Lesser Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus minor Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest(N.E. Betsileo),” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 101-124 mm, tail 119-137 mm; weight 21-5-49-5 g. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is the smallest species of Eliurus. Dorsum is generally brownish gray, and venter is beige-cream, blended with gray. Ears are proportionately shorter than other congeneric species. Distal one-half of tail has dark brown to blackish hair, becoming denser and longer toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Broad distribution in humid lowland and montane forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.2030 m. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is known to occur in disturbed and degraded forest.Food and Feeding.The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and may eat fruit.Breeding.Reproduction of the Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is four young.Activity patterns.The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground dens and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than pencil width. It is known to be preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis), Madagascar red owls (71yto soumagne), Spotted Fanalokas (Fossa fossana), and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests from lowland to montane formations. In some areas, it can be at least seasonally common. Given its occurrence in more montane forest habitats, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its medium-term future seems relatively assured, but lowland forests are under severe threat.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Thorstrom (1998), Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Thorstrom et al. (1997).","taxonomy":"Eliurus minor Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest(N.E. Betsileo),” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Petit Rat-loir @fr | Kleiner Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho pequena @es | Lesser Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityName":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"187","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"minor","name":"Elurus minor","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600387/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Thorstrom (1998) | Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Thorstrom et al. (1997)","foodAndFeeding":"The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and may eat fruit.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is four young.","activityPatterns":"The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground dens and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than pencil width. It is known to be preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis), Madagascar red owls (71yto soumagne), Spotted Fanalokas (Fossa fossana), and Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern humid forests from lowland to montane formations. In some areas, it can be at least seasonally common. Given its occurrence in more montane forest habitats, which are to a large extent not under extensive human pressure, its medium-term future seems relatively assured, but lowland forests are under severe threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 101-124 mm, tail 119-137 mm; weight 21-5-49-5 g. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is the smallest species of Eliurus. Dorsum is generally brownish gray, and venter is beige-cream, blended with gray. Ears are proportionately shorter than other congeneric species. Distal one-half of tail has dark brown to blackish hair, becoming denser and longer toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","habitat":"Broad distribution in humid lowland and montane forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.2030 m. The Lesser Tufted-tail Rat is known to occur in disturbed and degraded forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FFFFFD1DCFD3F70E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF60F52FFFFFD1DCFD3F70E","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"187","verbatimText":"9.Major's Tufted-tail RatEliurus majoriFrench:Rat-loir de Major/ German:Major-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de MajorOther common names:Major's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus major: Thomas, 1895,“ Ambolimitombo Forest[= Ambohimitambo], Central Madagascar. Alt. 4500 feet[= 1372 m).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 138-164 mm, tail 150-192 mm; weight 56-5— 93 g. Pelage of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is silkier and woollier than most other congeneric species. Dorsum is slightly light to dark blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Distal one-fourth of tail is covered with sparse black hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip; tails of some individuals end with a terminal white tuft. Tarsi are gray, and broad feet and toes are white.Habitat.Broad distribution in humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forests at elevations of 875-2400 m.Food and Feeding.Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is largely granivorous but also eats fruits.Breeding.Reproduction of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.Activity patterns.Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is nocturnal and largely arboreal, although on rare occasions it is captured on the ground. Distinctly broad feet and associated toe structure are indicative of ability to move across trunks, branches, and lianas of different size. It is known to be preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern montane humid forests. Given its occurrence in forest habitats, which to a large extent are not under extensive human pressure,its medium-term future seems relatively assured.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Maminirina et al. (2008), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus major: Thomas, 1895,“ Ambolimitombo Forest[= Ambohimitambo], Central Madagascar. Alt. 4500 feet[= 1372 m).”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Major @fr | Major-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Major @es | Major's Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"187","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"majori","name":"Eliurus majori","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is largely granivorous but also eats fruits.","breeding":"Reproduction of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.","activityPatterns":"Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is nocturnal and largely arboreal, although on rare occasions it is captured on the ground. Distinctly broad feet and associated toe structure are indicative of ability to move across trunks, branches, and lianas of different size. It is known to be preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern montane humid forests. Given its occurrence in forest habitats, which to a large extent are not under extensive human pressure,its medium-term future seems relatively assured.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 138-164 mm, tail 150-192 mm; weight 56-5— 93 g. Pelage of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is silkier and woollier than most other congeneric species. Dorsum is slightly light to dark blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Distal one-fourth of tail is covered with sparse black hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip; tails of some individuals end with a terminal white tuft. Tarsi are gray, and broad feet and toes are white.","habitat":"Broad distribution in humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forests at elevations of 875-2400 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F53FAFEF49ECFF0FC35.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF60F53FAFEF49ECFF0FC35","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"187","verbatimText":"12.White-tailed Tufted-tail RatEliurus penicillatusFrench:Rat-loir a queue blanche/ German:Blischel-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de punta blancaOther common names:\\White-tipped Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus penicillatus Thomas, 1908,“ Ampitambé, N.E. Betsileo, Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SC part of E Madagascar (Ampitambe Forest and Ankerana).Descriptive notes.Head-body 145 mm, tail 169 mm; weight 70 g. Measurements are from one White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is generally brownish gray to blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Line on flank separating these two parts is not very obvious. Distal one-half oftail is covered with scattered white hairs that become progressively denser toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Only known from three localities in eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1100-1670 m.Food and Feeding.The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be mostly granivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from three localities in the central-eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued decline in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus penicillatus Thomas, 1908,“ Ampitambé, N.E. Betsileo, Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir a queue blanche @fr | Blischel-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de punta blanca @es | \\White-tipped Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"187","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"penicillatus","name":"Eliurus penicillatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to SC part of E Madagascar (Ampitambe Forest and Ankerana).","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be mostly granivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from three localities in the central-eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued decline in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 145 mm, tail 169 mm; weight 70 g. Measurements are from one White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is generally brownish gray to blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Line on flank separating these two parts is not very obvious. Distal one-half oftail is covered with scattered white hairs that become progressively denser toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.","habitat":"Only known from three localities in eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1100-1670 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F50FA26F4DACD54FABC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF70F50FA26F4DACD54FABC","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"188","verbatimText":"16.Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest MouseVoalavo antsahabensisFrench:V oalavo d 'Antsahabe/ German:Ostlicher Voalavo/ Spanish:Raton de bosque de cola desnuda de AnjozorobeOther common names:Eastern VoalavoTaxonomy.Voalavo antsahabensis Goodman et al, 2005,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antananarivo, Fivondronana d’Anjozorobe, Commune Rurale d’Anjozorobe, Fokontany d’Antsahabe, Forét d’Analamahavery, 6- 3 kmEAntsahabe(village), 18°24.60’S, 47°56.32’E, elevation 1425 mabove sea level.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E edge of the Central Highlands of Madagascar (Anjozorobe region).Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-100 mm, tail 102-123 mm; weight 19-26 g. Fur of the Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Largely naked tail is bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1250-1425 m.Food and Feeding.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is presumed to be a granivore and to a lesser extent frugiore.Breeding.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse has a gland on its upper chest that produces a distinct odor, most developed in reproductive males. Females have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.Activity patterns.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in the central eastern humid forest. Its extent of occurrence is only c.60 km*. Given continued degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans, its mediumand short-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Goodman, Rakotondravony et al. (2005), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Voalavo antsahabensis Goodman et al, 2005,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antananarivo, Fivondronana d’Anjozorobe, Commune Rurale d’Anjozorobe, Fokontany d’Antsahabe, Forét d’Analamahavery, 6- 3 kmEAntsahabe(village), 18°24.60’S, 47°56.32’E, elevation 1425 mabove sea level.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"V oalavo d 'Antsahabe @fr | Ostlicher Voalavo @de | Raton de bosque de cola desnuda de Anjozorobe @es | Eastern Voalavo @en","interpretedAuthority":"Goodman et al. 2005","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goodman et al.","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2005","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Voalavo","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"188","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antsahabensis","name":"Voalavo antsahabensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E edge of the Central Highlands of Madagascar (Anjozorobe region).","bibliography":"Goodman, Rakotondravony et al. (2005) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is presumed to be a granivore and to a lesser extent frugiore.","breeding":"The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse has a gland on its upper chest that produces a distinct odor, most developed in reproductive males. Females have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.","activityPatterns":"The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in the central eastern humid forest. Its extent of occurrence is only c.60 km*. Given continued degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans, its mediumand short-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 85-100 mm, tail 102-123 mm; weight 19-26 g. Fur of the Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Largely naked tail is bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1250-1425 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FA25FCD3C561F5F8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF70F53FA25FCD3C561F5F8","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"188","verbatimText":"15.Webb's Tufted-tail RatEliurus webbiFrench:Rat-loir de Webb/ German:\\Webb-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de WebbOther common names:Webb's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus myoxinus webb: Ellerman, 1949,“ 20 milessouth of Farafangana, south-east coast Madagascar.”Eliurus webbiwas originally described as a subspecies of E. myoxinusbut now is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the N & E portions of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 161-186 mm; weight 66— 97.5 g. Dorsal pelage of Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is generally dark brown, blackish brown toward middle of back, and belly is light gray with brown tint on sides. It has proportionally smaller ears than other members of Eliurus. Distal one-third of tail has dark brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward distal tip, forming thin tuft. Gray tarsi and are completely white feet and toes. Belly pelage of individuals from Amber Mountain in the far north is off-white.Habitat.Humid lowland (including littoral) and montane forest from sea level up to elevations of c.1450 m. Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat is distinctly more common in lowland formations and becomes less common with increasing elevation. It is known from degraded forest mixed with introduced trees.Food and Feeding.Webb's Tufted-tail Rat eats a variety of seeds, such as Canarium(Burseraceae), by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Reproduction of Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs during the wet season; young are born in late November—December. There appears to be geographical or annual differences in reproductive period. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.Activity patterns.Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows with nesting birds. It is preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis) and Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagne).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. This forestdwelling species is known from the full length of eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines in the natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat's mediumand long-term futures is uncertain.Bibliography.Andrianjakarivelo et al. (2005), Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Ellerman (1949), Goodman (1994), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman & Thorstrom (1998), Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991), Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Maminirina et al. (2008), Rakotondravony et al. (1998), Ramanamanjato & Ganzhorn (2001), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Thorstrom et al. (1997).","taxonomy":"Eliurus myoxinus webb: Ellerman, 1949,“ 20 milessouth of Farafangana, south-east coast Madagascar.”Eliurus webbiwas originally described as a subspecies of E. myoxinusbut now is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Webb @fr | \\Webb-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Webb @es | Webb's Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ellerman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1949","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"188","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"webbi","name":"Eliurus webbi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the N & E portions of Madagascar.","bibliography":"Andrianjakarivelo et al. (2005) | Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Ellerman (1949) | Goodman (1994) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman & Thorstrom (1998) | Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991) | Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Rakotondravony et al. (1998) | Ramanamanjato & Ganzhorn (2001) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Thorstrom et al. (1997)","foodAndFeeding":"Webb's Tufted-tail Rat eats a variety of seeds, such as Canarium(Burseraceae), by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and invertebrates.","breeding":"Reproduction of Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs during the wet season; young are born in late November—December. There appears to be geographical or annual differences in reproductive period. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.","activityPatterns":"Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows with nesting birds. It is preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis) and Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagne).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. This forestdwelling species is known from the full length of eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines in the natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat's mediumand long-term futures is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 161-186 mm; weight 66— 97.5 g. Dorsal pelage of Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is generally dark brown, blackish brown toward middle of back, and belly is light gray with brown tint on sides. It has proportionally smaller ears than other members of Eliurus. Distal one-third of tail has dark brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward distal tip, forming thin tuft. Gray tarsi and are completely white feet and toes. Belly pelage of individuals from Amber Mountain in the far north is off-white.","habitat":"Humid lowland (including littoral) and montane forest from sea level up to elevations of c.1450 m. Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat is distinctly more common in lowland formations and becomes less common with increasing elevation. It is known from degraded forest mixed with introduced trees."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FF29F6A0C597FCBC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF70F53FF29F6A0C597FCBC","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"188","verbatimText":"14.Tanala Tufted-taill RatElwurus tanalaFrench:Rat-loir tanala/ German:Tanala-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de los TanalaOther common names:Tanala Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus tanala Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Forest of the Independent Tanala of Ikongo, in the neighbourhood of Vinanitelo, thirty miles south of Fianarantsoa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 152-194 mm; weight 66— 97-5 g. Dorsum of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is grayish dark brown to dark brown, and venter is entirely white, sometimes spotted with gray. Distinct line on flank separates dorsum and venter. Distal one-half of tail is covered with short black hair that becomes progressively thicker and then white, forming distinct terminal tuft. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 400-1875 m. In some areas, the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is common. At lower elevations, Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (FE. webbi) is dominant to elevations at ¢.900-1100 m and then is gradually replaced by the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat.Food and Feeding.The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat eats various seeds, such as those of Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and perhaps invertebrates.Breeding.Reproduction of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is for the most part during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum littersize is four young.Activity patterns.The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. In general, it is more commonly captured in arboreal trap sets than those on the ground. Although in certain settings, such as forest along stream margins, it is regularly trapped in ground sets. It has been observed to climb vertical tree trunks and is capable of negotiating branches and relatively fine lianas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from the full expanse of eastern humid forests of Madagascar and from numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end of its elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman et al. (2013), Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013b), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus tanala Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Forest of the Independent Tanala of Ikongo, in the neighbourhood of Vinanitelo, thirty miles south of Fianarantsoa.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir tanala @fr | Tanala-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de los Tanala @es | Tanala Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityName":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"188","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tanala","name":"Elwurus tanala","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013b) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat eats various seeds, such as those of Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and perhaps invertebrates.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is for the most part during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum littersize is four young.","activityPatterns":"The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. In general, it is more commonly captured in arboreal trap sets than those on the ground. Although in certain settings, such as forest along stream margins, it is regularly trapped in ground sets. It has been observed to climb vertical tree trunks and is capable of negotiating branches and relatively fine lianas.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from the full expanse of eastern humid forests of Madagascar and from numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end of its elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 152-194 mm; weight 66— 97-5 g. Dorsum of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is grayish dark brown to dark brown, and venter is entirely white, sometimes spotted with gray. Distinct line on flank separates dorsum and venter. Distal one-half of tail is covered with short black hair that becomes progressively thicker and then white, forming distinct terminal tuft. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 400-1875 m. In some areas, the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is common. At lower elevations, Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (FE. webbi) is dominant to elevations at ¢.900-1100 m and then is gradually replaced by the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FF29FC60CDF3F771.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF70F53FF29FC60CDF3F771","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"188","verbatimText":"13.Petter’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus petteriFrench:Rat-loir de Petter/ German:Petter-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de PetterOther common names:Petters Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus petteri Carleton, 1994,“ 8 kmfrom Fanovana,” Toamasina Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C part of E Madagascar (Toamasina Province).Descriptive notes.Head-body 133 mm, tail 191 mm; weight 74 g. There are no more specific measurements for Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is grayish brown, and venter is crisp white; it is easily recognizable from adults of other species of Eliurusby this distinct color contrast. Distal one-fourth oftail is covered with sparse grayish brown hair, forming small terminal tuft that is white in some individuals. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 430-1200 m.Food and Feeding.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely a granivore and to a lesser extent frugivore and insectivore.Breeding.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red Lust. Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area of humid forest in the central-eastern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.1500 km*. Given its apparent restricted distribution and continued declines in the natural forest of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Goodman et al. (2013), Rakotondraparany & Medard (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus petteri Carleton, 1994,“ 8 kmfrom Fanovana,” Toamasina Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Petter @fr | Petter-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Petter @es | Petters Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1994","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"188","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"petteri","name":"Eliurus petteri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to C part of E Madagascar (Toamasina Province).","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Rakotondraparany & Medard (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely a granivore and to a lesser extent frugivore and insectivore.","breeding":"Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red Lust. Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area of humid forest in the central-eastern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.1500 km*. Given its apparent restricted distribution and continued declines in the natural forest of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 133 mm, tail 191 mm; weight 74 g. There are no more specific measurements for Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is grayish brown, and venter is crisp white; it is easily recognizable from adults of other species of Eliurusby this distinct color contrast. Distal one-fourth oftail is covered with sparse grayish brown hair, forming small terminal tuft that is white in some individuals. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 430-1200 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF80F5CFAF4FE0AC5C3F9F9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF80F5CFAF4FE0AC5C3F9F9","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"193","verbatimText":"32.Barbour’s Pygmy Rock MousePetromyscus barbouriFrench:Petromysque de Barbour/ German:BarbourZwergfelsenmaus/ Spanish:Raton de roca enano de BarbourOther common names:Barbour’'s Rock Mouse, Namaqua Pygmy Rock MouseTaxonomy.Petromyscus barbouri Shortridge & Carter, 1938,“ Witwater(Kamiesberg), Little Namaqualand,” South Africa.Formerly considered a subspecies ofP. collinusbut can be readily distinguished by unique morphological traits. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to a narrow range in W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 71-75 mm, tail 76-89 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 17-19 mm; weight 14-16 g. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with a relatively long tail. Furis soft andsilky, grayish brown speckled with pale brown dorsally; venteris grayish. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is long, gray above and white below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet andfive digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.Habitat.Rocky outcrops in arid environments with succulent vegetation.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis nocturnal andspecialized for climbing rocks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat that is unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.Bibliography.Avery & Avery (2011), Coetzee (2013a), Denys et al. (1995), Jansa et al. (1999), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Petter (1967), Skinner & Chimimba (2005).","taxonomy":"Petromyscus barbouri Shortridge & Carter, 1938,“ Witwater(Kamiesberg), Little Namaqualand,” South Africa.Formerly considered a subspecies ofP. collinusbut can be readily distinguished by unique morphological traits. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Petromysque de Barbour @fr | Barbour Zwergfelsenmaus @de | Raton de roca enano de Barbour @es | Barbour’'s Rock Mouse @en | Namaqua Pygmy Rock Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Shortridge & Carter, 1938","interpretedAuthorityName":"Shortridge & Carter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1938","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Petromyscus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"193","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"barbouri","name":"Petromyscus barbouri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to a narrow range in W South Africa.","bibliography":"Avery & Avery (2011) | Coetzee (2013a) | Denys et al. (1995) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Petter (1967) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis nocturnal andspecialized for climbing rocks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat that is unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 71-75 mm, tail 76-89 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 17-19 mm; weight 14-16 g. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with a relatively long tail. Furis soft andsilky, grayish brown speckled with pale brown dorsally; venteris grayish. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is long, gray above and white below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet andfive digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.","habitat":"Rocky outcrops in arid environments with succulent vegetation."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF80F5CFFF7FD55CEB4F842.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF80F5CFFF7FD55CEB4F842","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"193","verbatimText":"30.Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock MousePetromyscus shortridgerFrench:Petromysque de Shortridge/ German:Shortridge-Zwergfelsenmaus/ Spanish:Ratén de roca enano de ShortridgeOther common names:Kaokoveld Pygmy Rock Mouse, Shortridge’'s Rock MouseTaxonomy.Petromyscus shortridge: Thomas, 1926,“ Cunene Falls, N.W. Ovamboland, [southern Angola]. 3350’ [= 1022 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Narrow distribution restricted to extreme SW Angola and N Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 65-98 mm, tail 74-104 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 12-31 g. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with long tail. Fur is soft andsilky, dark brown speckled black dorsally and grayish ventrally. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is moderately long but relatively short for a species of Petromyscusand darker above than below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.Habitat.Rocky substrates in hilly, mountainous, and arid terrain.Food and Feeding.Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis primarily granivorous but also eats insects and green plant material.Breeding.Pregnant Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mice have been collected in August— May, with 2—4 embryos.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.Bibliography.Coetzee (2013d), Denys et al. (1995), Jansa et al. (1999), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1967), Shortridge (1934a, 1934b), Skinner & Chimimba (2005).","taxonomy":"Petromyscus shortridge: Thomas, 1926,“ Cunene Falls, N.W. Ovamboland, [southern Angola]. 3350’ [= 1022 m].”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Petromysque de Shortridge @fr | Shortridge-Zwergfelsenmaus @de | Ratén de roca enano de Shortridge @es | Kaokoveld Pygmy Rock Mouse @en | Shortridge’'s Rock Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1926","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1926","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Petromyscus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"193","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"shortridge","name":"Petromyscus shortridger","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Narrow distribution restricted to extreme SW Angola and N Namibia.","bibliography":"Coetzee (2013d) | Denys et al. (1995) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1967) | Shortridge (1934a, 1934b) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis primarily granivorous but also eats insects and green plant material.","breeding":"Pregnant Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mice have been collected in August— May, with 2—4 embryos.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 65-98 mm, tail 74-104 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 12-31 g. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with long tail. Fur is soft andsilky, dark brown speckled black dorsally and grayish ventrally. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is moderately long but relatively short for a species of Petromyscusand darker above than below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.","habitat":"Rocky substrates in hilly, mountainous, and arid terrain."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFAF7FBEFC661F483.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFA0F5EFAF7FBEFC661F483","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"191","verbatimText":"25.Audebert’s Forest RatNesomys audebertiFrench:Nésomys d’Audebert/ German:Audebert-Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque de AudebertOther common names:Lowland Red Forest Rat, White-bellied NesomysTaxonomy.Hallomys audeberti Jentink, 1879,“ Maisine and Savary, N. E. Madagascar.” Restricted by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 to “ Toamasina Province(former), Analanjirofo Région, west of Antongil Baytoward the western frontier of Fivondronana Mananara Avaratra, ‘ Savary.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-203 mm, tail 169-173 mm; weight 193-239 g. Dorsum of Audebert’s Forest Ratis reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and venteris largely rusty-red, with central portion and throat white. Snout is elongated, and ears are moderately long. Base oftail has short black hair that becomes progressively longer and denser toward tip, which can be white. Legs, feet, and toes have dark brown fur.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest from nearsea level to elevations of ¢.1050 m. Audebert’s Forest Rat has a patchy distribution and at some localities occurs in sympatry with the Red Forest Rat (N. rufus).Food and Feeding.Audebert’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and perhaps on occasion frugivorous or insectivorous.Breeding.Breeding season of Audebert’s Forest Rat coincides with the end of the dry season; reproductive activity begins in July-August, and young are born c.6 weekslater. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum recorded litter size is two young.Activity patterns.Audebert’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, with a tendency to be crepuscular. It lives in underground in complex burrows with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. These burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Average home range of Audebert’s Forest Rat is c.1-5 ha, almost three times larger than that of the Red Forest Rat, with some sexual differences (females averaging 0-5 ha and males 1-4 ha). Home ranges do not appear to be defended and can be occupied by a male and numerous females. An Audebert’s Forest Rat can travel a ground distance of ¢.500 m/day.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Audebert’s Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It frequents lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Rakotomalala et al. (2007), Ryan (2003), Ryan et al. (1993), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Hallomys audeberti Jentink, 1879,“ Maisine and Savary, N. E. Madagascar.” Restricted by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 to “ Toamasina Province(former), Analanjirofo Région, west of Antongil Baytoward the western frontier of Fivondronana Mananara Avaratra, ‘ Savary.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Nésomys d’Audebert @fr | Audebert- @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque de Audebert @es | Lowland Red Forest Rat @en | White-bellied Nesomys @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Jentink","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1879","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Nesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"191","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"audeberti","name":"Nesomys audeberti","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Rakotomalala et al. (2007) | Ryan (2003) | Ryan et al. (1993) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Audebert’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and perhaps on occasion frugivorous or insectivorous.","breeding":"Breeding season of Audebert’s Forest Rat coincides with the end of the dry season; reproductive activity begins in July-August, and young are born c.6 weekslater. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum recorded litter size is two young.","activityPatterns":"Audebert’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, with a tendency to be crepuscular. It lives in underground in complex burrows with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. These burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Average home range of Audebert’s Forest Rat is c.1-5 ha, almost three times larger than that of the Red Forest Rat, with some sexual differences (females averaging 0-5 ha and males 1-4 ha). Home ranges do not appear to be defended and can be occupied by a male and numerous females. An Audebert’s Forest Rat can travel a ground distance of ¢.500 m/day.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Audebert’s Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It frequents lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 195-203 mm, tail 169-173 mm; weight 193-239 g. Dorsum of Audebert’s Forest Ratis reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and venteris largely rusty-red, with central portion and throat white. Snout is elongated, and ears are moderately long. Base oftail has short black hair that becomes progressively longer and denser toward tip, which can be white. Legs, feet, and toes have dark brown fur.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest from nearsea level to elevations of ¢.1050 m. Audebert’s Forest Rat has a patchy distribution and at some localities occurs in sympatry with the Red Forest Rat (N. rufus)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFFF8F5F0C5DBFCE6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFA0F5EFFF8F5F0C5DBFCE6","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"191","verbatimText":"24.Large Short-tailed RatBrachyuromys ramirohitraFrench:Grand Ramirohitra/ German:Grol3e MadagaskarKurzschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola corta grandeOther common names:Greater Short-tailed Rat, Gregarious Short-tailed RatTaxonomy.Brachyuromys ramirohitra Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest, Betsimisaraka country(on the border of N.E. Betsileo), 6 hours S.E. of Fandriana.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-165 mm, tail 84-110 mm; weight 64-117 g. Muzzle of the Large Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown, with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter. Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 1210-1960 m. Large Short-tailed Rats are widely scattered and have been captured on ground and at openings of tree-root complexes in upper mossy forest.Food and Feeding.The Large Short-tailed Rat is presumed to be herbivorous.Breeding.Female Large Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and litters of up to two young.Activity patterns.The Large Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals have been trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Large Short-tailed Rat is largely forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoproctaferox). Given continued declines in forest cover in this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Bennie et al. (2014), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jansa & Carleton (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Brachyuromys ramirohitra Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest, Betsimisaraka country(on the border of N.E. Betsileo), 6 hours S.E. of Fandriana.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Grand Ramirohitra @fr | Grol3e Madagaskar Kurzschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola corta grande @es | Greater Short-tailed Rat @en | Gregarious Short-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Brachyuromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"191","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ramirohitra","name":"Brachyuromys ramirohitra","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Bennie et al. (2014) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jansa & Carleton (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Large Short-tailed Rat is presumed to be herbivorous.","breeding":"Female Large Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and litters of up to two young.","activityPatterns":"The Large Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals have been trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Large Short-tailed Rat is largely forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoproctaferox). Given continued declines in forest cover in this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-165 mm, tail 84-110 mm; weight 64-117 g. Muzzle of the Large Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown, with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter. Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 1210-1960 m. Large Short-tailed Rats are widely scattered and have been captured on ground and at openings of tree-root complexes in upper mossy forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFFFBFC81CDC9F5AA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFA0F5EFFFBFC81CDC9F5AA","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"191","verbatimText":"23.Small Short-tailed RatBrachywromys betsileoensisFrench:Petit Ramirohitra/ German:Kleine MadagaskarKurzschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola corta pequenaOther common names:Betsileo Short-tailed Rat, Lesser Short-tailed RatTaxonomy.Nesomys betsileoensis Bartlett, 1880,“S.E. Betsileo,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-184 mm, tail 77-95 mm; weight 96-140 g. Muzzle of the Small Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter.Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.Habitat.Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 900-2450 m. The Small Short-tailed Rat is widely scattered and also occurs in degraded forest areas, agricultural areas (including abandoned rice paddy), and marshlands of different types (edge of open water, grassy meadows). It is known to swim in open and relatively deep water. It is one of the small mammals found above tree line in the summit zone of the Andringitra Massif (2658 m) that experiences temperatures of =7°C and sometimes snow. In the highland marshes of Andringitraand othersites, it has been captured in small mammal runways with piles of grass clippings;it is very vole-like.Food and Feeding.The Small Short-tailed Rat is presumably completely or largely herbivorous.Breeding.Female Small Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litter sizes of two young. Reproduction takes place at least during the southern winter when pregnant and lactating females have been captured and males have enlarged scrotal testes.Activity patterns.The Small Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals are usually trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems. They are preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Small Short-tailed Rat is not necessarily forest-restricted but is known from less than ten localities in eastern Madagascar. It was trapped in the vicinity of a rice field and more than 11 km to the nearest forest. Given its ability to live outside forest-habitat, it appears much more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae.Bibliography.Bennie et al. (2014), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jansa & Carleton (2003), Langrand & Goodman (1997), Ramanana (2010), Randriamoria et al. (2015), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Nesomys betsileoensis Bartlett, 1880,“S.E. Betsileo,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Petit Ramirohitra @fr | Kleine Madagaskar Kurzschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola corta pequena @es | Betsileo Short-tailed Rat @en | Lesser Short-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"(Bartlett, 1880)","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bartlett","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1880","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Brachywromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"191","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"betsileoensis","name":"Brachywromys betsileoensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Bennie et al. (2014) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jansa & Carleton (2003) | Langrand & Goodman (1997) | Ramanana (2010) | Randriamoria et al. (2015) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Small Short-tailed Rat is presumably completely or largely herbivorous.","breeding":"Female Small Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litter sizes of two young. Reproduction takes place at least during the southern winter when pregnant and lactating females have been captured and males have enlarged scrotal testes.","activityPatterns":"The Small Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals are usually trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems. They are preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Small Short-tailed Rat is not necessarily forest-restricted but is known from less than ten localities in eastern Madagascar. It was trapped in the vicinity of a rice field and more than 11 km to the nearest forest. Given its ability to live outside forest-habitat, it appears much more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-184 mm, tail 77-95 mm; weight 96-140 g. Muzzle of the Small Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter.Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 900-2450 m. The Small Short-tailed Rat is widely scattered and also occurs in degraded forest areas, agricultural areas (including abandoned rice paddy), and marshlands of different types (edge of open water, grassy meadows). It is known to swim in open and relatively deep water. It is one of the small mammals found above tree line in the summit zone of the Andringitra Massif (2658 m) that experiences temperatures of =7°C and sometimes snow. In the highland marshes of Andringitraand othersites, it has been captured in small mammal runways with piles of grass clippings;it is very vole-like."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5FFAF3F4D6C8ADFB70.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFA0F5FFAF3F4D6C8ADFB70","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"191","verbatimText":"26.Lamberton’s Forest RatNesomys lambertoniFrench:Nésomys de Lamberton/ German:Lamberton-Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque de LambertonOther common names:Western Nesomys, Western Red Forest RatTaxonomy.Nesomys lambertoni G. Grandidier, 1928,type locality not given. Identified by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 as “Mahajanga Province (former), Melaky Région, Antsalova District, tsingy habitat at the western margin of the Bemaraha Massifand east of Antsalova.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to CW Madagascar (Tsingy de Bemaraha area).Descriptive notes.Head-body 189-195 mm, tail 183-191 mm (two individuals); weight 225-243 g. Lamberton’s Forest Rat is distinctly large and appears squirrel-like from a distance. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and it becomes more saturated with red along flanks. Venteris light brown. It has an elongated snout and distinctly long ears. Tail is completely covered with long, thick dark brown hair. Legs are dark brown, tending to be black.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacle) habitat, at elevations of ¢.100 m. Lamberton’s Forest Rat makes its dens in small caves and rock shelters in limestone.Food and Feeding.LLamberton’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and frugivorous.Breeding.Female Lamberton’s Forest Rats have three pairs of mammae, and based on limited information, litter size is one young.Activity patterns.Lamberton’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lamberton’s Forest Ratis strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a restricted zone of dry deciduous forest that grow on limestone substrate. Its complete known distribution occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is subjected to fire and other anthropogenic pressures.Bibliography.Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman & Schutz (2003), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Ryan (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Nesomys lambertoni G. Grandidier, 1928,type locality not given. Identified by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 as “Mahajanga Province (former), Melaky Région, Antsalova District, tsingy habitat at the western margin of the Bemaraha Massifand east of Antsalova.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Nésomys de Lamberton @fr | Lamberton- @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque de Lamberton @es | Western Nesomys @en | Western Red Forest Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. Grandidier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1928","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Nesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"191","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lambertoni","name":"Nesomys lambertoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to CW Madagascar (Tsingy de Bemaraha area).","bibliography":"Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman & Schutz (2003) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Ryan (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"LLamberton’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and frugivorous.","breeding":"Female Lamberton’s Forest Rats have three pairs of mammae, and based on limited information, litter size is one young.","activityPatterns":"Lamberton’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lamberton’s Forest Ratis strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a restricted zone of dry deciduous forest that grow on limestone substrate. Its complete known distribution occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is subjected to fire and other anthropogenic pressures.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 189-195 mm, tail 183-191 mm (two individuals); weight 225-243 g. Lamberton’s Forest Rat is distinctly large and appears squirrel-like from a distance. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and it becomes more saturated with red along flanks. Venteris light brown. It has an elongated snout and distinctly long ears. Tail is completely covered with long, thick dark brown hair. Legs are dark brown, tending to be black.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacle) habitat, at elevations of ¢.100 m. Lamberton’s Forest Rat makes its dens in small caves and rock shelters in limestone."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5CFA25F8A5CCDBFE31.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFB0F5CFA25F8A5CCDBFE31","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"192","verbatimText":"29.African White-tailed RatMystromys albicaudatusFrench:Mystromys a queue blanche/ German:Afrikanische WeiRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola blanca africanaOther common names:Southern African Hamster, White-tailed MouseTaxonomy.Otomys albicaudatus A. Smith, 1834,Albany District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SW & E South Africa and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 116-199 mm, tail 46-87 mm, ear 18-28 mm, hindfoot 23-32 mm; weight 49-111 g. The African White-tailed Rat 1s medium-sized, with a shorttail. Fur is soft and dense, grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally; each hair has dark gray base. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are dark brown and rounded. Tail is short with dense white hairs above and below. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.Food and Feeding.Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.Breeding.Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.Activity patterns.The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network. Habitat loss and degradation are thought to be the most important threats.Bibliography.Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996), Avenant (2011), Avenant & Cavallini (2007), Avery (1992b), Dean (1978), De Graaff (1981), Downs & Perrin (1995), Hallett & Meester (1971), Hickman & Machiné (1986), Jansa et al. (1999), Lynch (1983), Maddock & Perrin (1981, 1983), Meester & Hallett (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), O'Farrell et al. (2008), Perrin (2013b), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Perrin & Maddock (1983), Rautenbach (1982).","taxonomy":"Otomys albicaudatus A. Smith, 1834,Albany District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Mystromys a queue blanche @fr | Afrikanische Wei Rschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola blanca africana @es | Southern African Hamster @en | White-tailed Mouse @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mystromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"192","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albicaudatus","name":"Mystromys albicaudatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to SW & E South Africa and Lesotho.","bibliography":"Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996) | Avenant (2011) | Avenant & Cavallini (2007) | Avery (1992b) | Dean (1978) | De Graaff (1981) | Downs & Perrin (1995) | Hallett & Meester (1971) | Hickman & Machiné (1986) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Lynch (1983) | Maddock & Perrin (1981, 1983) | Meester & Hallett (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | O'Farrell et al. (2008) | Perrin (2013b) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Perrin & Maddock (1983) | Rautenbach (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.","breeding":"Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.","activityPatterns":"The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network. Habitat loss and degradation are thought to be the most important threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 116-199 mm, tail 46-87 mm, ear 18-28 mm, hindfoot 23-32 mm; weight 49-111 g. The African White-tailed Rat 1s medium-sized, with a shorttail. Fur is soft and dense, grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally; each hair has dark gray base. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are dark brown and rounded. Tail is short with dense white hairs above and below. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.Food and Feeding.Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.Breeding.Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.Activity patterns.The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network.","habitat":"Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5FFF29FAA7C93DF444.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFB0F5FFF29FAA7C93DF444","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"192","verbatimText":"27.Red Forest RatNesomys rufusFrench:Nésomys roux/ German:Rote Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque rojaOther common names:Eastern Red Forest Rat, Rufous NesomysTaxonomy.Nesomys rufus Peters, 1870,“Ein getrocknetes mannliches Exemplar aus Vohima,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-200 mm, tail 160-180 mm; weight 135-185 g. Dorsum of the Red Forest Rat is reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back and more saturated with red along flanks. Venter ranges from uniform rusty red, with some parts, particularly along midline, off-white. Ears are moderately long. Proximal part of tail has short and sparse black hair that becomes progressively slightly longer; distal 8-20 mm oftail is white. Legs, feet, and toes are dark brown.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 650-2000 m. The Red Forest Ratis distinctly uncommon above elevations of 1900 m, and occurs sympatrically with Audebert’s Forest Rat (N. audeberti) at certain locations.Food and Feeding.The Red Forest Rat eats seeds of different forest trees, including Cryptocarya(Lauraceae), Canarium(Burseraceae), and Sloanea (Elaecocarpaceae), and caches fatrich seeds such as Canarium. It has been observed in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture within short distances of relatively intact native forest.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Red Forest Rat is from mid-Octoberto late December. Females have three pairs of mammae and are known to have litters of up to four young.Activity patterns.The Red Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular. It lives in complex underground burrow systems, with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. Burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material. It is preyed on by snakes (boas and the genus Pseudoxyrhopus) and carnivores such as the Ring-tailed Vontsira (Galidia elegans) and the Fosa (Cryproproctaferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range of the Red Forest Rat has been calculated to average 0-5 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Red Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It occurs in lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and the mediumand long-term future in that habitat is uncertain.Bibliography.Cadle (1999), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman etal. (2013), Ryan (2003), Ryan et al. (1993), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Soarimalala etal. (2001).","taxonomy":"Nesomys rufus Peters, 1870,“Ein getrocknetes mannliches Exemplar aus Vohima,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Nésomys roux @fr | Rote @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque roja @es | Eastern Red Forest Rat @en | Rufous Nesomys @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1870","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Nesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"192","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufus","name":"Nesomys rufus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to N & E Madagascar.","bibliography":"Cadle (1999) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman etal. (2013) | Ryan (2003) | Ryan et al. (1993) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Soarimalala etal. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"The Red Forest Rat eats seeds of different forest trees, including Cryptocarya(Lauraceae), Canarium(Burseraceae), and Sloanea (Elaecocarpaceae), and caches fatrich seeds such as Canarium. It has been observed in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture within short distances of relatively intact native forest.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Red Forest Rat is from mid-Octoberto late December. Females have three pairs of mammae and are known to have litters of up to four young.","activityPatterns":"The Red Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular. It lives in complex underground burrow systems, with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. Burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material. It is preyed on by snakes (boas and the genus Pseudoxyrhopus) and carnivores such as the Ring-tailed Vontsira (Galidia elegans) and the Fosa (Cryproproctaferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range of the Red Forest Rat has been calculated to average 0-5 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Red Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It occurs in lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and the mediumand long-term future in that habitat is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-200 mm, tail 160-180 mm; weight 135-185 g. Dorsum of the Red Forest Rat is reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back and more saturated with red along flanks. Venter ranges from uniform rusty red, with some parts, particularly along midline, off-white. Ears are moderately long. Proximal part of tail has short and sparse black hair that becomes progressively slightly longer; distal 8-20 mm oftail is white. Legs, feet, and toes are dark brown.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 650-2000 m. The Red Forest Ratis distinctly uncommon above elevations of 1900 m, and occurs sympatrically with Audebert’s Forest Rat (N. audeberti) at certain locations."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5FFF2DF2FAC420FA1E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFB0F5FFF2DF2FAC420FA1E","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"192","verbatimText":"28.Delany’s Swamp MouseDelanymys brooksiFrench:Delanymyspalustre/ German:Delany-Sumpfklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton de los pantanos de DelanyTaxonomy.Delanymys brooks: Hayman, 1962,Echuya Swamp, near Kanaba, Kigezi, Uganda.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Albertine Rift E of Lake Kivuin SW Uganda, E DR Congo, and W Rwanda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-63 mm, tail 87-111 mm, ear 9-13 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 5-7 g. Delany’s Swamp Mouse is very small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and brown dorsally, paler ventrally. Long dark guard hairs are present dorsally. Small black patch is between eyes and nose. Ears are relatively large. Second to fifth digits are very long, with long claws. Thumbs are greatly reduced on forefeet but long and opposable on hindfeet.Habitat.Swamps in montane forests and grasslands at elevations of 1700-3100 m.Food and Feeding.Seeds and insects were found in two stomachs of Delany’s Swamp Mice.Breeding.Delany’s Swamp Mouse builds a small grass nest, with a single entrance. Litter sizes are 3—4 young.Activity patterns.Delany’s Swamp Mouse is nocturnal. It is a good climber, climbing grass stalks with ease using its prehensile tail and opposable thumbs on hindfeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Delany’s Swamp Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of small mammals captured.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Delany’s Swamp Mouse has a restricted distribution, occurring in a region with a high human population, and faces destruction of its wetland habitat.Bibliography.Delany (1975), Dieterlen (1967a, 1969a, 2013a), Hayman (1962a, 1962b, 1963), Monadjem et al. (2015), Van der Straeten & Verheyen (1983), Verheyen (1965a).","taxonomy":"Delanymys brooks: Hayman, 1962,Echuya Swamp, near Kanaba, Kigezi, Uganda.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Delanymyspalustre @fr | Delany-Sumpfklettermaus @de | Raton de los pantanos de Delany @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hayman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1962","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Delanymys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"192","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brooksi","name":"Delanymys brooksi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Albertine Rift E of Lake Kivuin SW Uganda, E DR Congo, and W Rwanda.","bibliography":"Delany (1975) | Dieterlen (1967a, 1969a, 2013a) | Hayman (1962a, 1962b, 1963) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Van der Straeten & Verheyen (1983) | Verheyen (1965a)","foodAndFeeding":"Seeds and insects were found in two stomachs of Delany’s Swamp Mice.","breeding":"Delany’s Swamp Mouse builds a small grass nest, with a single entrance. Litter sizes are 3—4 young.","activityPatterns":"Delany’s Swamp Mouse is nocturnal. It is a good climber, climbing grass stalks with ease using its prehensile tail and opposable thumbs on hindfeet.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Delany’s Swamp Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of small mammals captured.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Delany’s Swamp Mouse has a restricted distribution, occurring in a region with a high human population, and faces destruction of its wetland habitat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-63 mm, tail 87-111 mm, ear 9-13 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 5-7 g. Delany’s Swamp Mouse is very small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and brown dorsally, paler ventrally. Long dark guard hairs are present dorsally. Small black patch is between eyes and nose. Ears are relatively large. Second to fifth digits are very long, with long claws. Thumbs are greatly reduced on forefeet but long and opposable on hindfeet.","habitat":"Swamps in montane forests and grasslands at elevations of 1700-3100 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FAFFF7E9CA2CF238.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFC0F58FAFFF7E9CA2CF238","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"197","verbatimText":"43.Nikolaus’s African Climbing MouseMegadendromus nikolausiFrench:Dendromus des Bale/ German:Riesenklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de NikolausOther common names:Bale Mouse, Giant Climbing Mouse, Nikolaus's MouseTaxonomy.Megadendromus nikolausi Dieterlen & Rupp, 1978,Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.Recent molecular analysis suggests that this species belongs in the genus Dendromus. This would render the genus Megadendromusa synonym of Dendromus. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands E of the Rift Valley (Bale and Arsi Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 117- 129 mm,tail 92-106 mm, ear 23-26 mm, hindfoot 26-27 mm; weight 49-66 g. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a relatively short tail about the same length as the body. Fur is relatively long, soft and russet-brown dorsally and grayish brown ventrally. There is an obvious mid-dorsal stripe extending from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing, but short tail suggests predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits.Habitat.High-elevation montane forest and Ericaarborea (Ericaceae) scrub forest at 3000-3800 m ofaltitude.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is known from justfive specimens,collected at four localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains, Ethiopia.Bibliography.Demeter & Topél (1982), Dieterlen & Rupp (1978), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Monadjem et al. (2015), Yalden (2013c).","taxonomy":"Megadendromus nikolausi Dieterlen & Rupp, 1978,Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.Recent molecular analysis suggests that this species belongs in the genus Dendromus. This would render the genus Megadendromusa synonym of Dendromus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus des Bale @fr | Riesenklettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Nikolaus @es | Bale Mouse @en | Giant Climbing Mouse @en | Nikolaus's Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dieterlen & Rupp","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1978","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Megadendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"197","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nikolausi","name":"Megadendromus nikolausi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands E of the Rift Valley (Bale and Arsi Mts).","bibliography":"Demeter & Topél (1982) | Dieterlen & Rupp (1978) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Yalden (2013c)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is known from justfive specimens,collected at four localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains, Ethiopia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 117- 129 mm,tail 92-106 mm, ear 23-26 mm, hindfoot 26-27 mm; weight 49-66 g. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a relatively short tail about the same length as the body. Fur is relatively long, soft and russet-brown dorsally and grayish brown ventrally. There is an obvious mid-dorsal stripe extending from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing, but short tail suggests predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits.","habitat":"High-elevation montane forest and Ericaarborea (Ericaceae) scrub forest at 3000-3800 m ofaltitude."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FFE3F5B2C67CF95D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFC0F58FFE3F5B2C67CF95D","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"197","verbatimText":"42.Southern African Pouched MouseSaccostomus campestrisFrench:Saccostome du Cap/ German:Sidliche Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Raton de abazones de Africa meridionalOther common names:Cape Pouched MouseTaxonomy.Saccostomus campestris Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Tete District, Mozambique.Saccostomus campestrishas high chromosomal variability, prompting suggestions that it may represent a species complex. However, a recent study combining molecular and morphological analyses across southern and eastern Africa has shown that differ ences within this taxon do not represent species-level variation. Hence S. campestrisrefers to a single, but highly variable, species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.c.campestrisPeters,1846—SWTanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique;populationsfromAngolaandDRCongomayrefertothissubspecies.S. c. mashonae de Winton, 1897— Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 95-173 mm, tail 28-55 mm, ear 16-20 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 33-81 g. The Southern African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. There is significant geographical variation in size and pelage color, with individuals from dry arid zones paler than those from moister woodlands and savannas. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short, sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of low-lying savanna and woodlands from semi-desert conditions to moist miombo woodland, typically below elevations of ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.The Southern African Pouched Mouse eats mostly seeds, which can be cached in burrows. Seeds from more than 20 species of plants have so far been collected from burrows. It also eats green plant material.Breeding.Pregnant Southern African Pouched Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in October—-April. Average littersize varies considerably between locations from 5-1 young in Malawi to 6-7 in Zimbabwe, seven in Botswana, and 7-1 in captivity. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g by c.4 weeks of age. Gestation period c.21 days. Neonates are c.3 g in weight, growing to 15 g when weaned after 19-25 days. First conception occurs at 56 days, and litter interval is 53 days. Body mass of young individuals varies with season, but older individuals retain body weight throughoutthe year.Activity patterns.The Southern African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows in sandy soils or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds or holes excavated by other mammals. Burrows may be simple, containing a single chamber, or more complex with multiple chambers; they can extend up to 8:5 m. In the laboratory, individuals enter torpor at temperatures similar to those in the cool dry season of its distribution in southern Africa, although males are less inclined to enter torpor than females. Burrows provide thermal protection.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern African Pouched Mouse is solitary, with single adults occupying burrows. Based on trapping data, home range size is 0-12-0-28 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Corti et al. (2004), Ellison (1993, 1996), Ellison & Skinner (1992), Ellison, Bronner & Taylor (1993), Ellison, Taylor et al. (1993), Fitzherbert et al. (2007), Gordon (1986), Gordon & Rautenbach (1980), Gordon & Watson (1986), Hanney (1965), Hickman & Machiné (1986), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014), Kerley (1989), Lovegrove & Raman (1998), MacFadyen et al. (2012), Maputla etal. (2011), Mikula et al. (2016), Monadjem (1997b, 1999a), Monadjem et al. (2015), Mzilikazi & Lovegrove (2002), Perrin (2013a), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Petter (1966a), Rautenbach (1982), Smithers (1971), Smithers & Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Speakman et al. (1994), Westlin-van Aarde (1988, 1989), Yarnell et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Saccostomus campestris Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Tete District, Mozambique.Saccostomus campestrishas high chromosomal variability, prompting suggestions that it may represent a species complex. However, a recent study combining molecular and morphological analyses across southern and eastern Africa has shown that differ ences within this taxon do not represent species-level variation. Hence S. campestrisrefers to a single, but highly variable, species. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Saccostome du Cap @fr | Sidliche Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Raton de abazones de Africa meridional @es | Cape Pouched Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1846","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Saccostomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"197","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"campestris","name":"Saccostomus campestris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.c.campestrisPeters,1846—SWTanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique;populationsfromAngolaandDRCongomayrefertothissubspecies.S. c. mashonae de Winton, 1897— Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland.","bibliography":"Corti et al. (2004) | Ellison (1993, 1996) | Ellison & Skinner (1992) | Ellison, Bronner & Taylor (1993) | Ellison, Taylor et al. (1993) | Fitzherbert et al. (2007) | Gordon (1986) | Gordon & Rautenbach (1980) | Gordon & Watson (1986) | Hanney (1965) | Hickman & Machiné (1986) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014) | Kerley (1989) | Lovegrove & Raman (1998) | MacFadyen et al. (2012) | Maputla etal. (2011) | Mikula et al. (2016) | Monadjem (1997b, 1999a) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Mzilikazi & Lovegrove (2002) | Perrin (2013a) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Petter (1966a) | Rautenbach (1982) | Smithers (1971) | Smithers & Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Speakman et al. (1994) | Westlin-van Aarde (1988, 1989) | Yarnell et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"The Southern African Pouched Mouse eats mostly seeds, which can be cached in burrows. Seeds from more than 20 species of plants have so far been collected from burrows. It also eats green plant material.","breeding":"Pregnant Southern African Pouched Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in October—-April. Average littersize varies considerably between locations from 5-1 young in Malawi to 6-7 in Zimbabwe, seven in Botswana, and 7-1 in captivity. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g by c.4 weeks of age. Gestation period c.21 days. Neonates are c.3 g in weight, growing to 15 g when weaned after 19-25 days. First conception occurs at 56 days, and litter interval is 53 days. Body mass of young individuals varies with season, but older individuals retain body weight throughoutthe year.","activityPatterns":"The Southern African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows in sandy soils or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds or holes excavated by other mammals. Burrows may be simple, containing a single chamber, or more complex with multiple chambers; they can extend up to 8:5 m. In the laboratory, individuals enter torpor at temperatures similar to those in the cool dry season of its distribution in southern Africa, although males are less inclined to enter torpor than females. Burrows provide thermal protection.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern African Pouched Mouse is solitary, with single adults occupying burrows. Based on trapping data, home range size is 0-12-0-28 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 95-173 mm, tail 28-55 mm, ear 16-20 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 33-81 g. The Southern African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. There is significant geographical variation in size and pelage color, with individuals from dry arid zones paler than those from moister woodlands and savannas. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short, sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of low-lying savanna and woodlands from semi-desert conditions to moist miombo woodland, typically below elevations of ¢.1500 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FFE5FAD4CF27F663.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFC0F58FFE5FAD4CF27F663","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"197","verbatimText":"41.Gray-bellied Pouched MouseSaccostomus umbriventerFrench:Saccostome a ventre gris/ German:Graubauch-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Raton de abazones de vientre grisTaxonomy.Saccostomus umbriventer G.S. Miller, 1910,“ Njori Osolali(Sotik), British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation in S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.Distribution.N Tanzania and SW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 133-136 mm, tail 556-60 mm, hindfoot ¢.20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is mediums=sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Masai Steppe savanna.Food and Feeding.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Corti et al. (2004), Denys (1988), Mikula et al. (2016).","taxonomy":"Saccostomus umbriventer G.S. Miller, 1910,“ Njori Osolali(Sotik), British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation in S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Saccostome a ventre gris @fr | Graubauch-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Raton de abazones de vientre gris @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Miller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Saccostomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"197","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"umbriventer","name":"Saccostomus umbriventer","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Tanzania and SW Kenya.","bibliography":"Corti et al. (2004) | Denys (1988) | Mikula et al. (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 133-136 mm, tail 556-60 mm, hindfoot ¢.20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is mediums=sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Masai Steppe savanna."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F46FA39F4DACEE6FBF8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFD0F46FA39F4DACEE6FBF8","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"48.Lovat’s African Climbing MouseDendromus lovatiFrench:Dendromus de Lovat/ German:Lovat-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de LovatOther common names:Lovat's Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys lovati de Winton, 1900,Managasha, near Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Dendromus lovatiwas previously placed in its own subgenus Chortomys, but a recent molecular study showed that it is part of the Dendromuss.s.subgenus. Hence, its morphological distinctiveness is due to adaptations to its unique environment and unrelated to its phylogenetic history. Monotypic.Distribution.High-elevation regions of Ethiopia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 57-95 mm,tail 57-87 mm, ear 15-18 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 11-23 g. Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail but relatively short for a species of Dendromus. Fur is long, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There are three mid-dorsalstripes. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Grasslands above elevations of 2500 m and heathlands above 3300 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest under boulders.Activity patterns.Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be nocturnal, and typically, few individuals are captured in suitable habitat. Based on reduced captures during the cooler months, it has been proposed that it hibernates. Unlike other species of Dendromus,it appears to be mostly terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bekele & Yalden (2013), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Girma et al. (2012), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a), Yalden (2013b), Yalden & Largen (1992), Yalden, Largen & Kock (1976), Yalden, Largen, Kock & Hillman (1996).","taxonomy":"Dendromys lovati de Winton, 1900,Managasha, near Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Dendromus lovatiwas previously placed in its own subgenus Chortomys, but a recent molecular study showed that it is part of the Dendromuss.s.subgenus. Hence, its morphological distinctiveness is due to adaptations to its unique environment and unrelated to its phylogenetic history. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Lovat @fr | Lovat-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Lovat @es | Lovat's Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"de Winton","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lovati","name":"Dendromus lovati","subspeciesAndDistribution":"High-elevation regions of Ethiopia.","bibliography":"Bekele & Yalden (2013) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Girma et al. (2012) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a) | Yalden (2013b) | Yalden & Largen (1992) | Yalden, Largen & Kock (1976) | Yalden, Largen, Kock & Hillman (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest under boulders.","activityPatterns":"Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be nocturnal, and typically, few individuals are captured in suitable habitat. Based on reduced captures during the cooler months, it has been proposed that it hibernates. Unlike other species of Dendromus,it appears to be mostly terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 57-95 mm,tail 57-87 mm, ear 15-18 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 11-23 g. Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail but relatively short for a species of Dendromus. Fur is long, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There are three mid-dorsalstripes. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Grasslands above elevations of 2500 m and heathlands above 3300 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FA36F9EFC576F4BF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFD0F59FA36F9EFC576F4BF","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"47.Rupp’s African Climbing MouseDendromus ruppiFrench:Dendromus de Rupp/ German:Rupp-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de RuppTaxonomy.Dendromus ruppi Dieterlen, 2009,Imatong Mountains, South Sudan.Relationship between this recently described species and the population of D. mystacalisfrom the Ethiopian highlands needs to be investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Imatong Mts, S South Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 63-82 mm, tail 91-115 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 8-15 g. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and white with dark gray bases ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Only known from montane grasslands at elevations of 1800-1900 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A single female Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse captured in April had four embryos.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse has a highly restricted distribution and may therefore be at conservation risk.Bibliography.Dieterlen (2009), Dieterlen et al. (2013), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Dendromus ruppi Dieterlen, 2009,Imatong Mountains, South Sudan.Relationship between this recently described species and the population of D. mystacalisfrom the Ethiopian highlands needs to be investigated. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Rupp @fr | Rupp-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Rupp @es","interpretedAuthority":"Dieterlen, 2009","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dieterlen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2009","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ruppi","name":"Dendromus ruppi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Only known from Imatong Mts, S South Sudan.","bibliography":"Dieterlen (2009) | Dieterlen et al. (2013) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"A single female Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse captured in April had four embryos.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse has a highly restricted distribution and may therefore be at conservation risk.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 63-82 mm, tail 91-115 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 8-15 g. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and white with dark gray bases ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Only known from montane grasslands at elevations of 1800-1900 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F52FFFFFD1DCFD3F70E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF60F52FFFFFD1DCFD3F70E","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"187","verbatimText":"9.Major's Tufted-tail RatEliurus majoriFrench:Rat-loir de Major/ German:Major-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de MajorOther common names:Major's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus major: Thomas, 1895,“ Ambolimitombo Forest[= Ambohimitambo], Central Madagascar. Alt. 4500 feet[= 1372 m).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 138-164 mm, tail 150-192 mm; weight 56-5— 93 g. Pelage of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is silkier and woollier than most other congeneric species. Dorsum is slightly light to dark blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Distal one-fourth of tail is covered with sparse black hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip; tails of some individuals end with a terminal white tuft. Tarsi are gray, and broad feet and toes are white.Habitat.Broad distribution in humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forests at elevations of 875-2400 m.Food and Feeding.Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is largely granivorous but also eats fruits.Breeding.Reproduction of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.Activity patterns.Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is nocturnal and largely arboreal, although on rare occasions it is captured on the ground. Distinctly broad feet and associated toe structure are indicative of ability to move across trunks, branches, and lianas of different size. It is known to be preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern montane humid forests. Given its occurrence in forest habitats, which to a large extent are not under extensive human pressure,its medium-term future seems relatively assured.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Maminirina et al. (2008), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus major: Thomas, 1895,“ Ambolimitombo Forest[= Ambohimitambo], Central Madagascar. Alt. 4500 feet[= 1372 m).”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Major @fr | Major-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Major @es | Major's Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1895","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"187","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"majori","name":"Eliurus majori","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600385/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is largely granivorous but also eats fruits.","breeding":"Reproduction of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.","activityPatterns":"Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is nocturnal and largely arboreal, although on rare occasions it is captured on the ground. Distinctly broad feet and associated toe structure are indicative of ability to move across trunks, branches, and lianas of different size. It is known to be preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from numerous localities along the complete length of Madagascar’s eastern montane humid forests. Given its occurrence in forest habitats, which to a large extent are not under extensive human pressure,its medium-term future seems relatively assured.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 138-164 mm, tail 150-192 mm; weight 56-5— 93 g. Pelage of Major’s Tufted-tailed Rat is silkier and woollier than most other congeneric species. Dorsum is slightly light to dark blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Distal one-fourth of tail is covered with sparse black hairs that become progressively thicker toward tip; tails of some individuals end with a terminal white tuft. Tarsi are gray, and broad feet and toes are white.","habitat":"Broad distribution in humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forests at elevations of 875-2400 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF60F53FAFEF49ECFF0FC35.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF60F53FAFEF49ECFF0FC35","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"187","verbatimText":"12.White-tailed Tufted-tail RatEliurus penicillatusFrench:Rat-loir a queue blanche/ German:Blischel-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de punta blancaOther common names:\\White-tipped Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus penicillatus Thomas, 1908,“ Ampitambé, N.E. Betsileo, Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SC part of E Madagascar (Ampitambe Forest and Ankerana).Descriptive notes.Head-body 145 mm, tail 169 mm; weight 70 g. Measurements are from one White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is generally brownish gray to blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Line on flank separating these two parts is not very obvious. Distal one-half oftail is covered with scattered white hairs that become progressively denser toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.Habitat.Only known from three localities in eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1100-1670 m.Food and Feeding.The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be mostly granivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from three localities in the central-eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued decline in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman et al. (2013), Jenkins & Carleton (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus penicillatus Thomas, 1908,“ Ampitambé, N.E. Betsileo, Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir a queue blanche @fr | Blischel-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de punta blanca @es | \\White-tipped Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"187","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"penicillatus","name":"Eliurus penicillatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to SC part of E Madagascar (Ampitambe Forest and Ankerana).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600392/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Jenkins & Carleton (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be mostly granivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Whitetailed Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from three localities in the central-eastern humid forests. Given its apparent rarity and continued decline in natural forests of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 145 mm, tail 169 mm; weight 70 g. Measurements are from one White-tailed Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is generally brownish gray to blackish gray, and venter is light gray. Line on flank separating these two parts is not very obvious. Distal one-half oftail is covered with scattered white hairs that become progressively denser toward tip. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are white.","habitat":"Only known from three localities in eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1100-1670 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F50FA26F4DACD54FABC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF70F50FA26F4DACD54FABC","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"188","verbatimText":"16.Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest MouseVoalavo antsahabensisFrench:V oalavo d 'Antsahabe/ German:Ostlicher Voalavo/ Spanish:Raton de bosque de cola desnuda de AnjozorobeOther common names:Eastern VoalavoTaxonomy.Voalavo antsahabensis Goodman et al, 2005,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antananarivo, Fivondronana d’Anjozorobe, Commune Rurale d’Anjozorobe, Fokontany d’Antsahabe, Forét d’Analamahavery, 6- 3 kmEAntsahabe(village), 18°24.60’S, 47°56.32’E, elevation 1425 mabove sea level.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E edge of the Central Highlands of Madagascar (Anjozorobe region).Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-100 mm, tail 102-123 mm; weight 19-26 g. Fur of the Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Largely naked tail is bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1250-1425 m.Food and Feeding.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is presumed to be a granivore and to a lesser extent frugiore.Breeding.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse has a gland on its upper chest that produces a distinct odor, most developed in reproductive males. Females have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.Activity patterns.The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in the central eastern humid forest. Its extent of occurrence is only c.60 km*. Given continued degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans, its mediumand short-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Goodman, Rakotondravony et al. (2005), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Voalavo antsahabensis Goodman et al, 2005,“ Madagascar, Province d’Antananarivo, Fivondronana d’Anjozorobe, Commune Rurale d’Anjozorobe, Fokontany d’Antsahabe, Forét d’Analamahavery, 6- 3 kmEAntsahabe(village), 18°24.60’S, 47°56.32’E, elevation 1425 mabove sea level.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"V oalavo d 'Antsahabe @fr | Ostlicher Voalavo @de | Raton de bosque de cola desnuda de Anjozorobe @es | Eastern Voalavo @en","interpretedAuthority":"Goodman et al. 2005","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goodman et al.","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2005","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Voalavo","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"188","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antsahabensis","name":"Voalavo antsahabensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E edge of the Central Highlands of Madagascar (Anjozorobe region).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600402/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Goodman, Rakotondravony et al. (2005) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is presumed to be a granivore and to a lesser extent frugiore.","breeding":"The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse has a gland on its upper chest that produces a distinct odor, most developed in reproductive males. Females have three pairs of mammae, and litters have up to two young.","activityPatterns":"The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is nocturnal and scansorial. It probably lives in ground burrows and forages in an arboreal manner. It is capable of moving across very thin lianas, no larger than the width of a pencil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area in the central eastern humid forest. Its extent of occurrence is only c.60 km*. Given continued degradation ofits remaining forested habitat by humans, its mediumand short-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 85-100 mm, tail 102-123 mm; weight 19-26 g. Fur of the Anjozorobe Naked-tail Forest Mouse is soft and relatively thick, with silky texture. Dorsum is medium gray, flanks and neck are brownish, and venter is off-white, mixed with light gray. Largely naked tail is bicolored, gray dorsally and white ventrally. Tarsi are brownish gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane forest at elevations of 1250-1425 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FA25FCD3C561F5F8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF70F53FA25FCD3C561F5F8","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"188","verbatimText":"15.Webb's Tufted-tail RatEliurus webbiFrench:Rat-loir de Webb/ German:\\Webb-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de WebbOther common names:Webb's Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus myoxinus webb: Ellerman, 1949,“ 20 milessouth of Farafangana, south-east coast Madagascar.”Eliurus webbiwas originally described as a subspecies of E. myoxinusbut now is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the N & E portions of Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 161-186 mm; weight 66— 97.5 g. Dorsal pelage of Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is generally dark brown, blackish brown toward middle of back, and belly is light gray with brown tint on sides. It has proportionally smaller ears than other members of Eliurus. Distal one-third of tail has dark brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward distal tip, forming thin tuft. Gray tarsi and are completely white feet and toes. Belly pelage of individuals from Amber Mountain in the far north is off-white.Habitat.Humid lowland (including littoral) and montane forest from sea level up to elevations of c.1450 m. Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat is distinctly more common in lowland formations and becomes less common with increasing elevation. It is known from degraded forest mixed with introduced trees.Food and Feeding.Webb's Tufted-tail Rat eats a variety of seeds, such as Canarium(Burseraceae), by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and invertebrates.Breeding.Reproduction of Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs during the wet season; young are born in late November—December. There appears to be geographical or annual differences in reproductive period. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.Activity patterns.Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows with nesting birds. It is preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis) and Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagne).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. This forestdwelling species is known from the full length of eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines in the natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat's mediumand long-term futures is uncertain.Bibliography.Andrianjakarivelo et al. (2005), Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Goodman (2000), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Ellerman (1949), Goodman (1994), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman & Thorstrom (1998), Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991), Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Maminirina et al. (2008), Rakotondravony et al. (1998), Ramanamanjato & Ganzhorn (2001), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Thorstrom et al. (1997).","taxonomy":"Eliurus myoxinus webb: Ellerman, 1949,“ 20 milessouth of Farafangana, south-east coast Madagascar.”Eliurus webbiwas originally described as a subspecies of E. myoxinusbut now is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Webb @fr | \\Webb-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Webb @es | Webb's Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ellerman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1949","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"188","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"webbi","name":"Eliurus webbi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the N & E portions of Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600400/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Andrianjakarivelo et al. (2005) | Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Goodman (2000) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Ellerman (1949) | Goodman (1994) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman & Thorstrom (1998) | Goodman, Creighton & Raxworthy (1991) | Goodman, Langrand & Raxworthy (1993) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Maminirina et al. (2008) | Rakotondravony et al. (1998) | Ramanamanjato & Ganzhorn (2001) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Thorstrom et al. (1997)","foodAndFeeding":"Webb's Tufted-tail Rat eats a variety of seeds, such as Canarium(Burseraceae), by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and invertebrates.","breeding":"Reproduction of Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat occurs during the wet season; young are born in late November—December. There appears to be geographical or annual differences in reproductive period. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum litter size is five young.","activityPatterns":"Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. It occupies ground burrows with nesting birds. It is preyed on by Madagascar long-eared owls (Asio madagascariensis) and Madagascar red owls (7yto soumagne).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. This forestdwelling species is known from the full length of eastern humid forests of Madagascar. Given continued declines in the natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end ofits elevational range, Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat's mediumand long-term futures is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 161-186 mm; weight 66— 97.5 g. Dorsal pelage of Webb's Tufted-tail Rat is generally dark brown, blackish brown toward middle of back, and belly is light gray with brown tint on sides. It has proportionally smaller ears than other members of Eliurus. Distal one-third of tail has dark brown hairs that become progressively thicker toward distal tip, forming thin tuft. Gray tarsi and are completely white feet and toes. Belly pelage of individuals from Amber Mountain in the far north is off-white.","habitat":"Humid lowland (including littoral) and montane forest from sea level up to elevations of c.1450 m. Webb’s Tufted-tail Rat is distinctly more common in lowland formations and becomes less common with increasing elevation. It is known from degraded forest mixed with introduced trees."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FF29F6A0C597FCBC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF70F53FF29F6A0C597FCBC","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"188","verbatimText":"14.Tanala Tufted-taill RatElwurus tanalaFrench:Rat-loir tanala/ German:Tanala-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de los TanalaOther common names:Tanala Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus tanala Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Forest of the Independent Tanala of Ikongo, in the neighbourhood of Vinanitelo, thirty miles south of Fianarantsoa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 152-194 mm; weight 66— 97-5 g. Dorsum of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is grayish dark brown to dark brown, and venter is entirely white, sometimes spotted with gray. Distinct line on flank separates dorsum and venter. Distal one-half of tail is covered with short black hair that becomes progressively thicker and then white, forming distinct terminal tuft. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 400-1875 m. In some areas, the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is common. At lower elevations, Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (FE. webbi) is dominant to elevations at ¢.900-1100 m and then is gradually replaced by the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat.Food and Feeding.The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat eats various seeds, such as those of Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and perhaps invertebrates.Breeding.Reproduction of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is for the most part during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum littersize is four young.Activity patterns.The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. In general, it is more commonly captured in arboreal trap sets than those on the ground. Although in certain settings, such as forest along stream margins, it is regularly trapped in ground sets. It has been observed to climb vertical tree trunks and is capable of negotiating branches and relatively fine lianas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from the full expanse of eastern humid forests of Madagascar and from numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end of its elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Goodman & Carleton (1998), Goodman & Sterling (1996), Goodman et al. (2013), Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013b), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus tanala Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Forest of the Independent Tanala of Ikongo, in the neighbourhood of Vinanitelo, thirty miles south of Fianarantsoa.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir tanala @fr | Tanala-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de los Tanala @es | Tanala Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityName":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"188","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tanala","name":"Elwurus tanala","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and N & E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600396/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Goodman & Carleton (1998) | Goodman & Sterling (1996) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Rakotoarisoa et al. (2013b) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat eats various seeds, such as those of Canarium(Burseraceae) by gnawing a hole in the central part to extract the endocarp. It is presumed to feed on fruits and perhaps invertebrates.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is for the most part during the wet season, with young born in late November through December. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum littersize is four young.","activityPatterns":"The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is nocturnal and scansorial. In general, it is more commonly captured in arboreal trap sets than those on the ground. Although in certain settings, such as forest along stream margins, it is regularly trapped in ground sets. It has been observed to climb vertical tree trunks and is capable of negotiating branches and relatively fine lianas.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from the full expanse of eastern humid forests of Madagascar and from numerous localities. Given continued declines in natural forests of this region, particularly those at the lower end of its elevational range, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-159 mm, tail 152-194 mm; weight 66— 97-5 g. Dorsum of the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is grayish dark brown to dark brown, and venter is entirely white, sometimes spotted with gray. Distinct line on flank separates dorsum and venter. Distal one-half of tail is covered with short black hair that becomes progressively thicker and then white, forming distinct terminal tuft. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland, montane, and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 400-1875 m. In some areas, the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat is common. At lower elevations, Webb's Tufted-tail Rat (FE. webbi) is dominant to elevations at ¢.900-1100 m and then is gradually replaced by the Tanala Tufted-tail Rat."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF70F53FF29FC60CDF3F771.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF70F53FF29FC60CDF3F771","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"188","verbatimText":"13.Petter’s Tufted-tail RatEliurus petteriFrench:Rat-loir de Petter/ German:Petter-Bilchschwanz/ Spanish:Rata de cola de penacho de PetterOther common names:Petters Tuft-tailed RatTaxonomy.Eliurus petteri Carleton, 1994,“ 8 kmfrom Fanovana,” Toamasina Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C part of E Madagascar (Toamasina Province).Descriptive notes.Head-body 133 mm, tail 191 mm; weight 74 g. There are no more specific measurements for Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is grayish brown, and venter is crisp white; it is easily recognizable from adults of other species of Eliurusby this distinct color contrast. Distal one-fourth oftail is covered with sparse grayish brown hair, forming small terminal tuft that is white in some individuals. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 430-1200 m.Food and Feeding.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely a granivore and to a lesser extent frugivore and insectivore.Breeding.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.Activity patterns.Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red Lust. Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area of humid forest in the central-eastern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.1500 km*. Given its apparent restricted distribution and continued declines in the natural forest of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton (1994, 2003), Goodman et al. (2013), Rakotondraparany & Medard (2005), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Eliurus petteri Carleton, 1994,“ 8 kmfrom Fanovana,” Toamasina Province, Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-loir de Petter @fr | Petter-Bilchschwanz @de | Rata de cola de penacho de Petter @es | Petters Tuft-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Carleton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1994","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Eliurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"188","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"petteri","name":"Eliurus petteri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to C part of E Madagascar (Toamasina Province).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600394/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton (1994, 2003) | Goodman et al. (2013) | Rakotondraparany & Medard (2005) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be largely a granivore and to a lesser extent frugivore and insectivore.","breeding":"Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat has three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is presumed to be nocturnal and scansorial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red Lust. Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat is forest-dwelling and is known from a very restricted area of humid forest in the central-eastern part of Madagascar. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.1500 km*. Given its apparent restricted distribution and continued declines in the natural forest of this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 133 mm, tail 191 mm; weight 74 g. There are no more specific measurements for Petter’s Tufted-tail Rat. Dorsum is grayish brown, and venter is crisp white; it is easily recognizable from adults of other species of Eliurusby this distinct color contrast. Distal one-fourth oftail is covered with sparse grayish brown hair, forming small terminal tuft that is white in some individuals. Tarsi are gray, and feet and toes are completely white.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 430-1200 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF80F5CFAF4FE0AC5C3F9F9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF80F5CFAF4FE0AC5C3F9F9","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"193","verbatimText":"32.Barbour’s Pygmy Rock MousePetromyscus barbouriFrench:Petromysque de Barbour/ German:BarbourZwergfelsenmaus/ Spanish:Raton de roca enano de BarbourOther common names:Barbour’'s Rock Mouse, Namaqua Pygmy Rock MouseTaxonomy.Petromyscus barbouri Shortridge & Carter, 1938,“ Witwater(Kamiesberg), Little Namaqualand,” South Africa.Formerly considered a subspecies ofP. collinusbut can be readily distinguished by unique morphological traits. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to a narrow range in W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 71-75 mm, tail 76-89 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 17-19 mm; weight 14-16 g. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with a relatively long tail. Furis soft andsilky, grayish brown speckled with pale brown dorsally; venteris grayish. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is long, gray above and white below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet andfive digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.Habitat.Rocky outcrops in arid environments with succulent vegetation.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis nocturnal andspecialized for climbing rocks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat that is unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.Bibliography.Avery & Avery (2011), Coetzee (2013a), Denys et al. (1995), Jansa et al. (1999), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Petter (1967), Skinner & Chimimba (2005).","taxonomy":"Petromyscus barbouri Shortridge & Carter, 1938,“ Witwater(Kamiesberg), Little Namaqualand,” South Africa.Formerly considered a subspecies ofP. collinusbut can be readily distinguished by unique morphological traits. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Petromysque de Barbour @fr | Barbour Zwergfelsenmaus @de | Raton de roca enano de Barbour @es | Barbour’'s Rock Mouse @en | Namaqua Pygmy Rock Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Shortridge & Carter, 1938","interpretedAuthorityName":"Shortridge & Carter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1938","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Petromyscus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"193","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"barbouri","name":"Petromyscus barbouri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to a narrow range in W South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600438/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Avery & Avery (2011) | Coetzee (2013a) | Denys et al. (1995) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Petter (1967) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis nocturnal andspecialized for climbing rocks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat that is unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 71-75 mm, tail 76-89 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 17-19 mm; weight 14-16 g. Barbour’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with a relatively long tail. Furis soft andsilky, grayish brown speckled with pale brown dorsally; venteris grayish. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is long, gray above and white below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet andfive digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.","habitat":"Rocky outcrops in arid environments with succulent vegetation."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFF80F5CFFF7FD55CEB4F842.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFF80F5CFFF7FD55CEB4F842","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"193","verbatimText":"30.Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock MousePetromyscus shortridgerFrench:Petromysque de Shortridge/ German:Shortridge-Zwergfelsenmaus/ Spanish:Ratén de roca enano de ShortridgeOther common names:Kaokoveld Pygmy Rock Mouse, Shortridge’'s Rock MouseTaxonomy.Petromyscus shortridge: Thomas, 1926,“ Cunene Falls, N.W. Ovamboland, [southern Angola]. 3350’ [= 1022 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Narrow distribution restricted to extreme SW Angola and N Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 65-98 mm, tail 74-104 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 12-31 g. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with long tail. Fur is soft andsilky, dark brown speckled black dorsally and grayish ventrally. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is moderately long but relatively short for a species of Petromyscusand darker above than below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.Habitat.Rocky substrates in hilly, mountainous, and arid terrain.Food and Feeding.Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis primarily granivorous but also eats insects and green plant material.Breeding.Pregnant Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mice have been collected in August— May, with 2—4 embryos.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.Bibliography.Coetzee (2013d), Denys et al. (1995), Jansa et al. (1999), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1967), Shortridge (1934a, 1934b), Skinner & Chimimba (2005).","taxonomy":"Petromyscus shortridge: Thomas, 1926,“ Cunene Falls, N.W. Ovamboland, [southern Angola]. 3350’ [= 1022 m].”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Petromysque de Shortridge @fr | Shortridge-Zwergfelsenmaus @de | Ratén de roca enano de Shortridge @es | Kaokoveld Pygmy Rock Mouse @en | Shortridge’'s Rock Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1926","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1926","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Petromyscus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"193","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"shortridge","name":"Petromyscus shortridger","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Narrow distribution restricted to extreme SW Angola and N Namibia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600434/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Coetzee (2013d) | Denys et al. (1995) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1967) | Shortridge (1934a, 1934b) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis primarily granivorous but also eats insects and green plant material.","breeding":"Pregnant Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mice have been collected in August— May, with 2—4 embryos.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouse occupies rocky habitat unlikely to becomethreatened in the near future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 65-98 mm, tail 74-104 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 15-20 mm; weight 12-31 g. Shortridge’s Pygmy Rock Mouseis small, with long tail. Fur is soft andsilky, dark brown speckled black dorsally and grayish ventrally. Hairs have dark gray bases. Ears are large and rounded. Tail is moderately long but relatively short for a species of Petromyscusand darker above than below. Limbs are off-white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. It has four nipples.","habitat":"Rocky substrates in hilly, mountainous, and arid terrain."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFAF7FBEFC661F483.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFA0F5EFAF7FBEFC661F483","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"191","verbatimText":"25.Audebert’s Forest RatNesomys audebertiFrench:Nésomys d’Audebert/ German:Audebert-Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque de AudebertOther common names:Lowland Red Forest Rat, White-bellied NesomysTaxonomy.Hallomys audeberti Jentink, 1879,“ Maisine and Savary, N. E. Madagascar.” Restricted by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 to “ Toamasina Province(former), Analanjirofo Région, west of Antongil Baytoward the western frontier of Fivondronana Mananara Avaratra, ‘ Savary.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-203 mm, tail 169-173 mm; weight 193-239 g. Dorsum of Audebert’s Forest Ratis reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and venteris largely rusty-red, with central portion and throat white. Snout is elongated, and ears are moderately long. Base oftail has short black hair that becomes progressively longer and denser toward tip, which can be white. Legs, feet, and toes have dark brown fur.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest from nearsea level to elevations of ¢.1050 m. Audebert’s Forest Rat has a patchy distribution and at some localities occurs in sympatry with the Red Forest Rat (N. rufus).Food and Feeding.Audebert’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and perhaps on occasion frugivorous or insectivorous.Breeding.Breeding season of Audebert’s Forest Rat coincides with the end of the dry season; reproductive activity begins in July-August, and young are born c.6 weekslater. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum recorded litter size is two young.Activity patterns.Audebert’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, with a tendency to be crepuscular. It lives in underground in complex burrows with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. These burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Average home range of Audebert’s Forest Rat is c.1-5 ha, almost three times larger than that of the Red Forest Rat, with some sexual differences (females averaging 0-5 ha and males 1-4 ha). Home ranges do not appear to be defended and can be occupied by a male and numerous females. An Audebert’s Forest Rat can travel a ground distance of ¢.500 m/day.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Audebert’s Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It frequents lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Rakotomalala et al. (2007), Ryan (2003), Ryan et al. (1993), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Hallomys audeberti Jentink, 1879,“ Maisine and Savary, N. E. Madagascar.” Restricted by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 to “ Toamasina Province(former), Analanjirofo Région, west of Antongil Baytoward the western frontier of Fivondronana Mananara Avaratra, ‘ Savary.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Nésomys d’Audebert @fr | Audebert- @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque de Audebert @es | Lowland Red Forest Rat @en | White-bellied Nesomys @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Jentink","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1879","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Nesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"191","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"audeberti","name":"Nesomys audeberti","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600420/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Rakotomalala et al. (2007) | Ryan (2003) | Ryan et al. (1993) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Audebert’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and perhaps on occasion frugivorous or insectivorous.","breeding":"Breeding season of Audebert’s Forest Rat coincides with the end of the dry season; reproductive activity begins in July-August, and young are born c.6 weekslater. Females have three pairs of mammae, and maximum recorded litter size is two young.","activityPatterns":"Audebert’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, with a tendency to be crepuscular. It lives in underground in complex burrows with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. These burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Average home range of Audebert’s Forest Rat is c.1-5 ha, almost three times larger than that of the Red Forest Rat, with some sexual differences (females averaging 0-5 ha and males 1-4 ha). Home ranges do not appear to be defended and can be occupied by a male and numerous females. An Audebert’s Forest Rat can travel a ground distance of ¢.500 m/day.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Audebert’s Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It frequents lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 195-203 mm, tail 169-173 mm; weight 193-239 g. Dorsum of Audebert’s Forest Ratis reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and venteris largely rusty-red, with central portion and throat white. Snout is elongated, and ears are moderately long. Base oftail has short black hair that becomes progressively longer and denser toward tip, which can be white. Legs, feet, and toes have dark brown fur.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest from nearsea level to elevations of ¢.1050 m. Audebert’s Forest Rat has a patchy distribution and at some localities occurs in sympatry with the Red Forest Rat (N. rufus)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFFF8F5F0C5DBFCE6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFA0F5EFFF8F5F0C5DBFCE6","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"191","verbatimText":"24.Large Short-tailed RatBrachyuromys ramirohitraFrench:Grand Ramirohitra/ German:Grol3e MadagaskarKurzschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola corta grandeOther common names:Greater Short-tailed Rat, Gregarious Short-tailed RatTaxonomy.Brachyuromys ramirohitra Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest, Betsimisaraka country(on the border of N.E. Betsileo), 6 hours S.E. of Fandriana.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-165 mm, tail 84-110 mm; weight 64-117 g. Muzzle of the Large Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown, with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter. Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 1210-1960 m. Large Short-tailed Rats are widely scattered and have been captured on ground and at openings of tree-root complexes in upper mossy forest.Food and Feeding.The Large Short-tailed Rat is presumed to be herbivorous.Breeding.Female Large Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and litters of up to two young.Activity patterns.The Large Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals have been trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Large Short-tailed Rat is largely forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoproctaferox). Given continued declines in forest cover in this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.Bibliography.Bennie et al. (2014), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jansa & Carleton (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Brachyuromys ramirohitra Forsyth Major, 1896,“ Ampitambe forest, Betsimisaraka country(on the border of N.E. Betsileo), 6 hours S.E. of Fandriana.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Grand Ramirohitra @fr | Grol3e Madagaskar Kurzschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola corta grande @es | Greater Short-tailed Rat @en | Gregarious Short-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Forsyth Major","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Brachyuromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"191","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ramirohitra","name":"Brachyuromys ramirohitra","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600418/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennie et al. (2014) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jansa & Carleton (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Large Short-tailed Rat is presumed to be herbivorous.","breeding":"Female Large Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and litters of up to two young.","activityPatterns":"The Large Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals have been trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Large Short-tailed Rat is largely forest-dwelling and is known from less than ten localities in eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It is preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoproctaferox). Given continued declines in forest cover in this region, its mediumand long-term future is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-165 mm, tail 84-110 mm; weight 64-117 g. Muzzle of the Large Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown, with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter. Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland to montane forest at elevations of 1210-1960 m. Large Short-tailed Rats are widely scattered and have been captured on ground and at openings of tree-root complexes in upper mossy forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5EFFFBFC81CDC9F5AA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFA0F5EFFFBFC81CDC9F5AA","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"191","verbatimText":"23.Small Short-tailed RatBrachywromys betsileoensisFrench:Petit Ramirohitra/ German:Kleine MadagaskarKurzschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola corta pequenaOther common names:Betsileo Short-tailed Rat, Lesser Short-tailed RatTaxonomy.Nesomys betsileoensis Bartlett, 1880,“S.E. Betsileo,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-184 mm, tail 77-95 mm; weight 96-140 g. Muzzle of the Small Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter.Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.Habitat.Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 900-2450 m. The Small Short-tailed Rat is widely scattered and also occurs in degraded forest areas, agricultural areas (including abandoned rice paddy), and marshlands of different types (edge of open water, grassy meadows). It is known to swim in open and relatively deep water. It is one of the small mammals found above tree line in the summit zone of the Andringitra Massif (2658 m) that experiences temperatures of =7°C and sometimes snow. In the highland marshes of Andringitraand othersites, it has been captured in small mammal runways with piles of grass clippings;it is very vole-like.Food and Feeding.The Small Short-tailed Rat is presumably completely or largely herbivorous.Breeding.Female Small Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litter sizes of two young. Reproduction takes place at least during the southern winter when pregnant and lactating females have been captured and males have enlarged scrotal testes.Activity patterns.The Small Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals are usually trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems. They are preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Small Short-tailed Rat is not necessarily forest-restricted but is known from less than ten localities in eastern Madagascar. It was trapped in the vicinity of a rice field and more than 11 km to the nearest forest. Given its ability to live outside forest-habitat, it appears much more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae.Bibliography.Bennie et al. (2014), Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Jansa & Carleton (2003), Langrand & Goodman (1997), Ramanana (2010), Randriamoria et al. (2015), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Nesomys betsileoensis Bartlett, 1880,“S.E. Betsileo,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Petit Ramirohitra @fr | Kleine Madagaskar Kurzschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola corta pequena @es | Betsileo Short-tailed Rat @en | Lesser Short-tailed Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"(Bartlett, 1880)","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bartlett","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1880","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Brachywromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"191","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"betsileoensis","name":"Brachywromys betsileoensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Central Highlands and E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600416/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennie et al. (2014) | Goodman, Langrand & Rasolonandrasana (1997) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Jansa & Carleton (2003) | Langrand & Goodman (1997) | Ramanana (2010) | Randriamoria et al. (2015) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Small Short-tailed Rat is presumably completely or largely herbivorous.","breeding":"Female Small Short-tailed Rats have three pairs of mammae and maximum litter sizes of two young. Reproduction takes place at least during the southern winter when pregnant and lactating females have been captured and males have enlarged scrotal testes.","activityPatterns":"The Small Short-tailed Rat is cathemeral. Individuals are usually trapped in early morning and toward dusk, but also at night. They are presumed to live in underground burrow systems. They are preyed on by Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Small Short-tailed Rat is not necessarily forest-restricted but is known from less than ten localities in eastern Madagascar. It was trapped in the vicinity of a rice field and more than 11 km to the nearest forest. Given its ability to live outside forest-habitat, it appears much more adapted to anthropogenic changes than most species of Nesomyinae.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-184 mm, tail 77-95 mm; weight 96-140 g. Muzzle of the Small Short-tailed Rat is short. Fur is soft and dense, relatively short, and grayish brown with some rufous on dorsum and grayish beige on venter.Ears are short, velvety toward tips, and largely hairless toward bases. Dorsum oftail is black, and venter is distinctly lighter, with fine metallic gray sparse fur. Legs are short, and feet are relatively large.","habitat":"Eastern humid montane and sclerophyllous forest at elevations of 900-2450 m. The Small Short-tailed Rat is widely scattered and also occurs in degraded forest areas, agricultural areas (including abandoned rice paddy), and marshlands of different types (edge of open water, grassy meadows). It is known to swim in open and relatively deep water. It is one of the small mammals found above tree line in the summit zone of the Andringitra Massif (2658 m) that experiences temperatures of =7°C and sometimes snow. In the highland marshes of Andringitraand othersites, it has been captured in small mammal runways with piles of grass clippings;it is very vole-like."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFA0F5FFAF3F4D6C8ADFB70.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFA0F5FFAF3F4D6C8ADFB70","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"191","verbatimText":"26.Lamberton’s Forest RatNesomys lambertoniFrench:Nésomys de Lamberton/ German:Lamberton-Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque de LambertonOther common names:Western Nesomys, Western Red Forest RatTaxonomy.Nesomys lambertoni G. Grandidier, 1928,type locality not given. Identified by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 as “Mahajanga Province (former), Melaky Région, Antsalova District, tsingy habitat at the western margin of the Bemaraha Massifand east of Antsalova.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to CW Madagascar (Tsingy de Bemaraha area).Descriptive notes.Head-body 189-195 mm, tail 183-191 mm (two individuals); weight 225-243 g. Lamberton’s Forest Rat is distinctly large and appears squirrel-like from a distance. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and it becomes more saturated with red along flanks. Venteris light brown. It has an elongated snout and distinctly long ears. Tail is completely covered with long, thick dark brown hair. Legs are dark brown, tending to be black.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacle) habitat, at elevations of ¢.100 m. Lamberton’s Forest Rat makes its dens in small caves and rock shelters in limestone.Food and Feeding.LLamberton’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and frugivorous.Breeding.Female Lamberton’s Forest Rats have three pairs of mammae, and based on limited information, litter size is one young.Activity patterns.Lamberton’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lamberton’s Forest Ratis strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a restricted zone of dry deciduous forest that grow on limestone substrate. Its complete known distribution occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is subjected to fire and other anthropogenic pressures.Bibliography.Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman & Schutz (2003), Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003), Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013), Ryan (2003), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Nesomys lambertoni G. Grandidier, 1928,type locality not given. Identified by M. D. Carleton and colleagues in 2014 as “Mahajanga Province (former), Melaky Région, Antsalova District, tsingy habitat at the western margin of the Bemaraha Massifand east of Antsalova.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Nésomys de Lamberton @fr | Lamberton- @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque de Lamberton @es | Western Nesomys @en | Western Red Forest Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. Grandidier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1928","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Nesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"191","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lambertoni","name":"Nesomys lambertoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to CW Madagascar (Tsingy de Bemaraha area).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600422/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman & Schutz (2003) | Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony (2003) | Goodman, Soarimalala et al. (2013) | Ryan (2003) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"LLamberton’s Forest Rat is presumed to be largely granivorous and frugivorous.","breeding":"Female Lamberton’s Forest Rats have three pairs of mammae, and based on limited information, litter size is one young.","activityPatterns":"Lamberton’s Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lamberton’s Forest Ratis strictly forest-dwelling and is known from a restricted zone of dry deciduous forest that grow on limestone substrate. Its complete known distribution occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is subjected to fire and other anthropogenic pressures.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 189-195 mm, tail 183-191 mm (two individuals); weight 225-243 g. Lamberton’s Forest Rat is distinctly large and appears squirrel-like from a distance. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, mixed with black hair especially in middle of back, and it becomes more saturated with red along flanks. Venteris light brown. It has an elongated snout and distinctly long ears. Tail is completely covered with long, thick dark brown hair. Legs are dark brown, tending to be black.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest, specifically karst areas forming “tsingy” (limestone pinnacle) habitat, at elevations of ¢.100 m. Lamberton’s Forest Rat makes its dens in small caves and rock shelters in limestone."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5CFA25F8A5CCDBFE31.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFB0F5CFA25F8A5CCDBFE31","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"192","verbatimText":"29.African White-tailed RatMystromys albicaudatusFrench:Mystromys a queue blanche/ German:Afrikanische WeiRschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola blanca africanaOther common names:Southern African Hamster, White-tailed MouseTaxonomy.Otomys albicaudatus A. Smith, 1834,Albany District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SW & E South Africa and Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 116-199 mm, tail 46-87 mm, ear 18-28 mm, hindfoot 23-32 mm; weight 49-111 g. The African White-tailed Rat 1s medium-sized, with a shorttail. Fur is soft and dense, grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally; each hair has dark gray base. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are dark brown and rounded. Tail is short with dense white hairs above and below. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.Food and Feeding.Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.Breeding.Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.Activity patterns.The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network. Habitat loss and degradation are thought to be the most important threats.Bibliography.Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996), Avenant (2011), Avenant & Cavallini (2007), Avery (1992b), Dean (1978), De Graaff (1981), Downs & Perrin (1995), Hallett & Meester (1971), Hickman & Machiné (1986), Jansa et al. (1999), Lynch (1983), Maddock & Perrin (1981, 1983), Meester & Hallett (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), O'Farrell et al. (2008), Perrin (2013b), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Perrin & Maddock (1983), Rautenbach (1982).","taxonomy":"Otomys albicaudatus A. Smith, 1834,Albany District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Mystromys a queue blanche @fr | Afrikanische Wei Rschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola blanca africana @es | Southern African Hamster @en | White-tailed Mouse @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mystromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"192","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albicaudatus","name":"Mystromys albicaudatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to SW & E South Africa and Lesotho.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600432/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Armstrong & van Hensbergen (1996) | Avenant (2011) | Avenant & Cavallini (2007) | Avery (1992b) | Dean (1978) | De Graaff (1981) | Downs & Perrin (1995) | Hallett & Meester (1971) | Hickman & Machiné (1986) | Jansa et al. (1999) | Lynch (1983) | Maddock & Perrin (1981, 1983) | Meester & Hallett (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | O'Farrell et al. (2008) | Perrin (2013b) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Perrin & Maddock (1983) | Rautenbach (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.","breeding":"Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.","activityPatterns":"The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network. Habitat loss and degradation are thought to be the most important threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 116-199 mm, tail 46-87 mm, ear 18-28 mm, hindfoot 23-32 mm; weight 49-111 g. The African White-tailed Rat 1s medium-sized, with a shorttail. Fur is soft and dense, grayish brown dorsally and grayish white ventrally; each hair has dark gray base. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are dark brown and rounded. Tail is short with dense white hairs above and below. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity.Food and Feeding.Digestive system of the African White-tailed Rat suggests an omnivorous diet.Breeding.Reproductive female African White-tailed Rats have been observed in wet and dry seasons but with reduced rates in late wet seasons and early dry seasons. Average litter size in captivity is 1-6 young; number of embryos in the wild is 3—4. Gestation is ¢.37 days. Neonates are c.6-5 g in weight and weaned after ¢.38 days. Young nipple-cling to 19 days of age. Females give birth at c.6 months, and intervals between births is ¢.36 days.Activity patterns.The African White-tailed Rat is terrestrial and nocturnal. Individuals rest in burrows or cracks in soil during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The African White-tailed Rat typically occurs at low densities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The African White-tailed Rat is widely but sparsely distributed in a region that is poorly represented in the protected area network.","habitat":"Montane and arid grasslands and “fynbos” (natural shrubland or heathland) typically above elevations of 1000 m but down to sea level in extreme south-western South Africa. The African White-tailed Rat appears to be a mid-successional specialist, usually appearing six months after fire and then disappearing after grassland reached climax. It also seems to favor relatively degraded habitats and is absent from grasslands with high ecological integrity."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5FFF29FAA7C93DF444.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFB0F5FFF29FAA7C93DF444","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"192","verbatimText":"27.Red Forest RatNesomys rufusFrench:Nésomys roux/ German:Rote Inselratte/ Spanish:Rata de bosque rojaOther common names:Eastern Red Forest Rat, Rufous NesomysTaxonomy.Nesomys rufus Peters, 1870,“Ein getrocknetes mannliches Exemplar aus Vohima,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to N & E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-200 mm, tail 160-180 mm; weight 135-185 g. Dorsum of the Red Forest Rat is reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back and more saturated with red along flanks. Venter ranges from uniform rusty red, with some parts, particularly along midline, off-white. Ears are moderately long. Proximal part of tail has short and sparse black hair that becomes progressively slightly longer; distal 8-20 mm oftail is white. Legs, feet, and toes are dark brown.Habitat.Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 650-2000 m. The Red Forest Ratis distinctly uncommon above elevations of 1900 m, and occurs sympatrically with Audebert’s Forest Rat (N. audeberti) at certain locations.Food and Feeding.The Red Forest Rat eats seeds of different forest trees, including Cryptocarya(Lauraceae), Canarium(Burseraceae), and Sloanea (Elaecocarpaceae), and caches fatrich seeds such as Canarium. It has been observed in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture within short distances of relatively intact native forest.Breeding.Reproductive season of the Red Forest Rat is from mid-Octoberto late December. Females have three pairs of mammae and are known to have litters of up to four young.Activity patterns.The Red Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular. It lives in complex underground burrow systems, with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. Burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material. It is preyed on by snakes (boas and the genus Pseudoxyrhopus) and carnivores such as the Ring-tailed Vontsira (Galidia elegans) and the Fosa (Cryproproctaferox).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range of the Red Forest Rat has been calculated to average 0-5 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Red Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It occurs in lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and the mediumand long-term future in that habitat is uncertain.Bibliography.Cadle (1999), Carleton & Schmidt (1990), Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014), Goodman & Carleton (1996), Goodman etal. (2013), Ryan (2003), Ryan et al. (1993), Soarimalala & Goodman (2011), Soarimalala etal. (2001).","taxonomy":"Nesomys rufus Peters, 1870,“Ein getrocknetes mannliches Exemplar aus Vohima,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Nésomys roux @fr | Rote @de | nselratte @en | Rata de bosque roja @es | Eastern Red Forest Rat @en | Rufous Nesomys @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1870","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Nesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"192","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufus","name":"Nesomys rufus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to N & E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600424/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cadle (1999) | Carleton & Schmidt (1990) | Carleton, Smeenk et al. (2014) | Goodman & Carleton (1996) | Goodman etal. (2013) | Ryan (2003) | Ryan et al. (1993) | Soarimalala & Goodman (2011) | Soarimalala etal. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"The Red Forest Rat eats seeds of different forest trees, including Cryptocarya(Lauraceae), Canarium(Burseraceae), and Sloanea (Elaecocarpaceae), and caches fatrich seeds such as Canarium. It has been observed in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture within short distances of relatively intact native forest.","breeding":"Reproductive season of the Red Forest Rat is from mid-Octoberto late December. Females have three pairs of mammae and are known to have litters of up to four young.","activityPatterns":"The Red Forest Rat is diurnal and terrestrial, tending to be crepuscular. It lives in complex underground burrow systems, with numerous holes and often placed in root complexes. Burrows have sections with freshly clipped plant material and sleeping chambers with finer plant material. It is preyed on by snakes (boas and the genus Pseudoxyrhopus) and carnivores such as the Ring-tailed Vontsira (Galidia elegans) and the Fosa (Cryproproctaferox).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range of the Red Forest Rat has been calculated to average 0-5 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Red Forest Rat is strictly forest-dwelling and is known from widely separated localities across much of the eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It occurs in lowland formations that have been drastically reduced in their extent due to human pressure, and the mediumand long-term future in that habitat is uncertain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-200 mm, tail 160-180 mm; weight 135-185 g. Dorsum of the Red Forest Rat is reddish brown, often mixed with black hair especially in middle of back and more saturated with red along flanks. Venter ranges from uniform rusty red, with some parts, particularly along midline, off-white. Ears are moderately long. Proximal part of tail has short and sparse black hair that becomes progressively slightly longer; distal 8-20 mm oftail is white. Legs, feet, and toes are dark brown.","habitat":"Eastern humid lowland and montane forest at elevations of 650-2000 m. The Red Forest Ratis distinctly uncommon above elevations of 1900 m, and occurs sympatrically with Audebert’s Forest Rat (N. audeberti) at certain locations."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFB0F5FFF2DF2FAC420FA1E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFB0F5FFF2DF2FAC420FA1E","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"192","verbatimText":"28.Delany’s Swamp MouseDelanymys brooksiFrench:Delanymyspalustre/ German:Delany-Sumpfklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton de los pantanos de DelanyTaxonomy.Delanymys brooks: Hayman, 1962,Echuya Swamp, near Kanaba, Kigezi, Uganda.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Albertine Rift E of Lake Kivuin SW Uganda, E DR Congo, and W Rwanda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-63 mm, tail 87-111 mm, ear 9-13 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 5-7 g. Delany’s Swamp Mouse is very small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and brown dorsally, paler ventrally. Long dark guard hairs are present dorsally. Small black patch is between eyes and nose. Ears are relatively large. Second to fifth digits are very long, with long claws. Thumbs are greatly reduced on forefeet but long and opposable on hindfeet.Habitat.Swamps in montane forests and grasslands at elevations of 1700-3100 m.Food and Feeding.Seeds and insects were found in two stomachs of Delany’s Swamp Mice.Breeding.Delany’s Swamp Mouse builds a small grass nest, with a single entrance. Litter sizes are 3—4 young.Activity patterns.Delany’s Swamp Mouse is nocturnal. It is a good climber, climbing grass stalks with ease using its prehensile tail and opposable thumbs on hindfeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Delany’s Swamp Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of small mammals captured.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Delany’s Swamp Mouse has a restricted distribution, occurring in a region with a high human population, and faces destruction of its wetland habitat.Bibliography.Delany (1975), Dieterlen (1967a, 1969a, 2013a), Hayman (1962a, 1962b, 1963), Monadjem et al. (2015), Van der Straeten & Verheyen (1983), Verheyen (1965a).","taxonomy":"Delanymys brooks: Hayman, 1962,Echuya Swamp, near Kanaba, Kigezi, Uganda.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Delanymyspalustre @fr | Delany-Sumpfklettermaus @de | Raton de los pantanos de Delany @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hayman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1962","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Delanymys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"192","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brooksi","name":"Delanymys brooksi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Albertine Rift E of Lake Kivuin SW Uganda, E DR Congo, and W Rwanda.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600428/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Delany (1975) | Dieterlen (1967a, 1969a, 2013a) | Hayman (1962a, 1962b, 1963) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Van der Straeten & Verheyen (1983) | Verheyen (1965a)","foodAndFeeding":"Seeds and insects were found in two stomachs of Delany’s Swamp Mice.","breeding":"Delany’s Swamp Mouse builds a small grass nest, with a single entrance. Litter sizes are 3—4 young.","activityPatterns":"Delany’s Swamp Mouse is nocturnal. It is a good climber, climbing grass stalks with ease using its prehensile tail and opposable thumbs on hindfeet.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Delany’s Swamp Mouse is typically rare, even in prime habitat where it comprises less than 10% of small mammals captured.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Delany’s Swamp Mouse has a restricted distribution, occurring in a region with a high human population, and faces destruction of its wetland habitat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-63 mm, tail 87-111 mm, ear 9-13 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 5-7 g. Delany’s Swamp Mouse is very small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and brown dorsally, paler ventrally. Long dark guard hairs are present dorsally. Small black patch is between eyes and nose. Ears are relatively large. Second to fifth digits are very long, with long claws. Thumbs are greatly reduced on forefeet but long and opposable on hindfeet.","habitat":"Swamps in montane forests and grasslands at elevations of 1700-3100 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FAFFF7E9CA2CF238.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFC0F58FAFFF7E9CA2CF238","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"197","verbatimText":"43.Nikolaus’s African Climbing MouseMegadendromus nikolausiFrench:Dendromus des Bale/ German:Riesenklettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de NikolausOther common names:Bale Mouse, Giant Climbing Mouse, Nikolaus's MouseTaxonomy.Megadendromus nikolausi Dieterlen & Rupp, 1978,Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.Recent molecular analysis suggests that this species belongs in the genus Dendromus. This would render the genus Megadendromusa synonym of Dendromus. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands E of the Rift Valley (Bale and Arsi Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 117- 129 mm,tail 92-106 mm, ear 23-26 mm, hindfoot 26-27 mm; weight 49-66 g. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a relatively short tail about the same length as the body. Fur is relatively long, soft and russet-brown dorsally and grayish brown ventrally. There is an obvious mid-dorsal stripe extending from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing, but short tail suggests predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits.Habitat.High-elevation montane forest and Ericaarborea (Ericaceae) scrub forest at 3000-3800 m ofaltitude.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is known from justfive specimens,collected at four localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains, Ethiopia.Bibliography.Demeter & Topél (1982), Dieterlen & Rupp (1978), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Monadjem et al. (2015), Yalden (2013c).","taxonomy":"Megadendromus nikolausi Dieterlen & Rupp, 1978,Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.Recent molecular analysis suggests that this species belongs in the genus Dendromus. This would render the genus Megadendromusa synonym of Dendromus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus des Bale @fr | Riesenklettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Nikolaus @es | Bale Mouse @en | Giant Climbing Mouse @en | Nikolaus's Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dieterlen & Rupp","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1978","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Megadendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"197","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nikolausi","name":"Megadendromus nikolausi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands E of the Rift Valley (Bale and Arsi Mts).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600460/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Demeter & Topél (1982) | Dieterlen & Rupp (1978) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Yalden (2013c)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is known from justfive specimens,collected at four localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains, Ethiopia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 117- 129 mm,tail 92-106 mm, ear 23-26 mm, hindfoot 26-27 mm; weight 49-66 g. Nikolaus’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with a relatively short tail about the same length as the body. Fur is relatively long, soft and russet-brown dorsally and grayish brown ventrally. There is an obvious mid-dorsal stripe extending from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing, but short tail suggests predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced or absent. Hindlimb has five functional digits.","habitat":"High-elevation montane forest and Ericaarborea (Ericaceae) scrub forest at 3000-3800 m ofaltitude."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FFE3F5B2C67CF95D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFC0F58FFE3F5B2C67CF95D","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"197","verbatimText":"42.Southern African Pouched MouseSaccostomus campestrisFrench:Saccostome du Cap/ German:Sidliche Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Raton de abazones de Africa meridionalOther common names:Cape Pouched MouseTaxonomy.Saccostomus campestris Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Tete District, Mozambique.Saccostomus campestrishas high chromosomal variability, prompting suggestions that it may represent a species complex. However, a recent study combining molecular and morphological analyses across southern and eastern Africa has shown that differ ences within this taxon do not represent species-level variation. Hence S. campestrisrefers to a single, but highly variable, species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.c.campestrisPeters,1846—SWTanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique;populationsfromAngolaandDRCongomayrefertothissubspecies.S. c. mashonae de Winton, 1897— Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 95-173 mm, tail 28-55 mm, ear 16-20 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 33-81 g. The Southern African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. There is significant geographical variation in size and pelage color, with individuals from dry arid zones paler than those from moister woodlands and savannas. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short, sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of low-lying savanna and woodlands from semi-desert conditions to moist miombo woodland, typically below elevations of ¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.The Southern African Pouched Mouse eats mostly seeds, which can be cached in burrows. Seeds from more than 20 species of plants have so far been collected from burrows. It also eats green plant material.Breeding.Pregnant Southern African Pouched Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in October—-April. Average littersize varies considerably between locations from 5-1 young in Malawi to 6-7 in Zimbabwe, seven in Botswana, and 7-1 in captivity. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g by c.4 weeks of age. Gestation period c.21 days. Neonates are c.3 g in weight, growing to 15 g when weaned after 19-25 days. First conception occurs at 56 days, and litter interval is 53 days. Body mass of young individuals varies with season, but older individuals retain body weight throughoutthe year.Activity patterns.The Southern African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows in sandy soils or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds or holes excavated by other mammals. Burrows may be simple, containing a single chamber, or more complex with multiple chambers; they can extend up to 8:5 m. In the laboratory, individuals enter torpor at temperatures similar to those in the cool dry season of its distribution in southern Africa, although males are less inclined to enter torpor than females. Burrows provide thermal protection.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern African Pouched Mouse is solitary, with single adults occupying burrows. Based on trapping data, home range size is 0-12-0-28 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Corti et al. (2004), Ellison (1993, 1996), Ellison & Skinner (1992), Ellison, Bronner & Taylor (1993), Ellison, Taylor et al. (1993), Fitzherbert et al. (2007), Gordon (1986), Gordon & Rautenbach (1980), Gordon & Watson (1986), Hanney (1965), Hickman & Machiné (1986), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013), Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014), Kerley (1989), Lovegrove & Raman (1998), MacFadyen et al. (2012), Maputla etal. (2011), Mikula et al. (2016), Monadjem (1997b, 1999a), Monadjem et al. (2015), Mzilikazi & Lovegrove (2002), Perrin (2013a), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Petter (1966a), Rautenbach (1982), Smithers (1971), Smithers & Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Speakman et al. (1994), Westlin-van Aarde (1988, 1989), Yarnell et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Saccostomus campestris Peters, 1846,Tete, Zambezi River, Tete District, Mozambique.Saccostomus campestrishas high chromosomal variability, prompting suggestions that it may represent a species complex. However, a recent study combining molecular and morphological analyses across southern and eastern Africa has shown that differ ences within this taxon do not represent species-level variation. Hence S. campestrisrefers to a single, but highly variable, species. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Saccostome du Cap @fr | Sidliche Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Raton de abazones de Africa meridional @es | Cape Pouched Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1846","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Saccostomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"197","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"campestris","name":"Saccostomus campestris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.c.campestrisPeters,1846—SWTanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique;populationsfromAngolaandDRCongomayrefertothissubspecies.S. c. mashonae de Winton, 1897— Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600458/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corti et al. (2004) | Ellison (1993, 1996) | Ellison & Skinner (1992) | Ellison, Bronner & Taylor (1993) | Ellison, Taylor et al. (1993) | Fitzherbert et al. (2007) | Gordon (1986) | Gordon & Rautenbach (1980) | Gordon & Watson (1986) | Hanney (1965) | Hickman & Machiné (1986) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Fletcher et al. (2013) | Hurst, McCleery, Collier, Silvy et al. (2014) | Kerley (1989) | Lovegrove & Raman (1998) | MacFadyen et al. (2012) | Maputla etal. (2011) | Mikula et al. (2016) | Monadjem (1997b, 1999a) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Mzilikazi & Lovegrove (2002) | Perrin (2013a) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Petter (1966a) | Rautenbach (1982) | Smithers (1971) | Smithers & Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Speakman et al. (1994) | Westlin-van Aarde (1988, 1989) | Yarnell et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"The Southern African Pouched Mouse eats mostly seeds, which can be cached in burrows. Seeds from more than 20 species of plants have so far been collected from burrows. It also eats green plant material.","breeding":"Pregnant Southern African Pouched Mice have been recorded mostly during the warm rainy season in October—-April. Average littersize varies considerably between locations from 5-1 young in Malawi to 6-7 in Zimbabwe, seven in Botswana, and 7-1 in captivity. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g by c.4 weeks of age. Gestation period c.21 days. Neonates are c.3 g in weight, growing to 15 g when weaned after 19-25 days. First conception occurs at 56 days, and litter interval is 53 days. Body mass of young individuals varies with season, but older individuals retain body weight throughoutthe year.","activityPatterns":"The Southern African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows in sandy soils or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds or holes excavated by other mammals. Burrows may be simple, containing a single chamber, or more complex with multiple chambers; they can extend up to 8:5 m. In the laboratory, individuals enter torpor at temperatures similar to those in the cool dry season of its distribution in southern Africa, although males are less inclined to enter torpor than females. Burrows provide thermal protection.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern African Pouched Mouse is solitary, with single adults occupying burrows. Based on trapping data, home range size is 0-12-0-28 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 95-173 mm, tail 28-55 mm, ear 16-20 mm, hindfoot 17-22 mm; weight 33-81 g. The Southern African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. There is significant geographical variation in size and pelage color, with individuals from dry arid zones paler than those from moister woodlands and savannas. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short, sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of low-lying savanna and woodlands from semi-desert conditions to moist miombo woodland, typically below elevations of ¢.1500 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFC0F58FFE5FAD4CF27F663.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFC0F58FFE5FAD4CF27F663","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"197","verbatimText":"41.Gray-bellied Pouched MouseSaccostomus umbriventerFrench:Saccostome a ventre gris/ German:Graubauch-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Raton de abazones de vientre grisTaxonomy.Saccostomus umbriventer G.S. Miller, 1910,“ Njori Osolali(Sotik), British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation in S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.Distribution.N Tanzania and SW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 133-136 mm, tail 556-60 mm, hindfoot ¢.20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is mediums=sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Masai Steppe savanna.Food and Feeding.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Corti et al. (2004), Denys (1988), Mikula et al. (2016).","taxonomy":"Saccostomus umbriventer G.S. Miller, 1910,“ Njori Osolali(Sotik), British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation in S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Saccostome a ventre gris @fr | Graubauch-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Raton de abazones de vientre gris @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Miller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Saccostomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"197","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"umbriventer","name":"Saccostomus umbriventer","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Tanzania and SW Kenya.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600456/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corti et al. (2004) | Denys (1988) | Mikula et al. (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be granivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is presumed to be solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 133-136 mm, tail 556-60 mm, hindfoot ¢.20 mm. No specific data are available for ear length or body weight. The Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse is mediums=sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Masai Steppe savanna."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F46FA39F4DACEE6FBF8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFD0F46FA39F4DACEE6FBF8","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"48.Lovat’s African Climbing MouseDendromus lovatiFrench:Dendromus de Lovat/ German:Lovat-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de LovatOther common names:Lovat's Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys lovati de Winton, 1900,Managasha, near Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Dendromus lovatiwas previously placed in its own subgenus Chortomys, but a recent molecular study showed that it is part of the Dendromuss.s.subgenus. Hence, its morphological distinctiveness is due to adaptations to its unique environment and unrelated to its phylogenetic history. Monotypic.Distribution.High-elevation regions of Ethiopia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 57-95 mm,tail 57-87 mm, ear 15-18 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 11-23 g. Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail but relatively short for a species of Dendromus. Fur is long, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There are three mid-dorsalstripes. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Grasslands above elevations of 2500 m and heathlands above 3300 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest under boulders.Activity patterns.Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be nocturnal, and typically, few individuals are captured in suitable habitat. Based on reduced captures during the cooler months, it has been proposed that it hibernates. Unlike other species of Dendromus,it appears to be mostly terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bekele & Yalden (2013), Denys & Aniskine (2012), Girma et al. (2012), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a), Yalden (2013b), Yalden & Largen (1992), Yalden, Largen & Kock (1976), Yalden, Largen, Kock & Hillman (1996).","taxonomy":"Dendromys lovati de Winton, 1900,Managasha, near Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Dendromus lovatiwas previously placed in its own subgenus Chortomys, but a recent molecular study showed that it is part of the Dendromuss.s.subgenus. Hence, its morphological distinctiveness is due to adaptations to its unique environment and unrelated to its phylogenetic history. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Lovat @fr | Lovat-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Lovat @es | Lovat's Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"de Winton","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lovati","name":"Dendromus lovati","subspeciesAndDistribution":"High-elevation regions of Ethiopia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600468/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bekele & Yalden (2013) | Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Girma et al. (2012) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a) | Yalden (2013b) | Yalden & Largen (1992) | Yalden, Largen & Kock (1976) | Yalden, Largen, Kock & Hillman (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest under boulders.","activityPatterns":"Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse appears to be nocturnal, and typically, few individuals are captured in suitable habitat. Based on reduced captures during the cooler months, it has been proposed that it hibernates. Unlike other species of Dendromus,it appears to be mostly terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 57-95 mm,tail 57-87 mm, ear 15-18 mm, hindfoot 17-20 mm; weight 11-23 g. Lovat’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail but relatively short for a species of Dendromus. Fur is long, soft, and grayish-brown dorsally and grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There are three mid-dorsalstripes. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Grasslands above elevations of 2500 m and heathlands above 3300 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FA36F9EFC576F4BF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFD0F59FA36F9EFC576F4BF","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"47.Rupp’s African Climbing MouseDendromus ruppiFrench:Dendromus de Rupp/ German:Rupp-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de RuppTaxonomy.Dendromus ruppi Dieterlen, 2009,Imatong Mountains, South Sudan.Relationship between this recently described species and the population of D. mystacalisfrom the Ethiopian highlands needs to be investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Imatong Mts, S South Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 63-82 mm, tail 91-115 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 8-15 g. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and white with dark gray bases ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Only known from montane grasslands at elevations of 1800-1900 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A single female Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse captured in April had four embryos.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse has a highly restricted distribution and may therefore be at conservation risk.Bibliography.Dieterlen (2009), Dieterlen et al. (2013), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Dendromus ruppi Dieterlen, 2009,Imatong Mountains, South Sudan.Relationship between this recently described species and the population of D. mystacalisfrom the Ethiopian highlands needs to be investigated. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus de Rupp @fr | Rupp-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Rupp @es","interpretedAuthority":"Dieterlen, 2009","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dieterlen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2009","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ruppi","name":"Dendromus ruppi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Only known from Imatong Mts, S South Sudan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600466/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dieterlen (2009) | Dieterlen et al. (2013) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"A single female Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse captured in April had four embryos.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse has a highly restricted distribution and may therefore be at conservation risk.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 63-82 mm, tail 91-115 mm, ear 13-18 mm, hindfoot 18-20 mm; weight 8-15 g. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish-brown dorsally and white with dark gray bases ventrally. Base of each dorsal hairis dark gray. Black line runs mid-dorsally from neck to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Only known from montane grasslands at elevations of 1800-1900 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF38FE0ECE02F90B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFD0F59FF38FE0ECE02F90B","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"44.Lachaise’s African Climbing MouseDendromus lachaiserFrench: Dendromus de Lachaise / German: Lachaise-Klettermaus / Spanish: Ratén trepador africano de LachaiseOther common names: Lachaise’s Climbing MouseTaxonomy. Dendromus lachaisei Denys & Aniskine, 2012,Mount Nimba, Guinea.This species is monotypic.Distribution. SE Guinea, Liberia, and Ivory Coast.Descriptive notes. Head—body 55-78 mm, tail 79-98 mm, ear 10-13 mm, hindfoot 15-19 mm; weight c.11 g. Lachaise’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and bright ocherous brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal line or stripe. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat. Wide variety of habitats including grassland, savanna, secondary forest, and cultivated lands typically at elevations of 50-600 m. Proximity to permanent water appears to be important to Lachaise’s African Climbing Mouse.Food and Feeding. No information.Breeding. [achaise’s African Climbing Mouse apparently builds a grass nest. A single female had four embryos during the rainy season.Activity patterns. No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization. No information.Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography. Denys & Aniskine (2012), Gautun et al. (1986), Heim de Balsac & Bellier (1967), Heim de Balsac & Lamotte (1958), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Dendromus lachaisei Denys & Aniskine, 2012,Mount Nimba, Guinea.This species is monotypic.","interpretedAuthority":"Denys & Aniskine, 2012","interpretedAuthorityName":"Denys & Aniskine","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2012","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lachaisei","name":"Dendromus lachaiser","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Guinea, Liberia, and Ivory Coast.","bibliography":"Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Gautun et al. (1986) | Heim de Balsac & Bellier (1967) | Heim de Balsac & Lamotte (1958) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 55-78 mm, tail 79-98 mm, ear 10-13 mm, hindfoot 15-19 mm; weight c.11 g. Lachaise’s African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Fur is long, soft, and bright ocherous brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. There is no mid-dorsal line or stripe. Ears relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF3AF94EC807F30B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFD0F59FF3AF94EC807F30B","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"45.Cameroon African Climbing MouseDendromus oreasFrench:Dendromus du Cameroun/ German:Kamerun-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de CamerunOther common names:Cameroon Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus oreas Osgood, 1936,“southwest side of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon Mandate, British Nigeria. Alt. 9,000 ft[= 2743 m].”.Previously, oreas was included as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W Cameroon Mts (Manenguba, Kupé, and Cameroon Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 60-74 mm, tail 89-104 mm, ear 13-19 mm, hindfoot 18-21 mm; weight 9-13 g. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally and rufous or grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Indistinct black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Montane grasslands and savannas at elevations of ¢.850-2900 m. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse lives on the ground among boulders of lava (Mount Cameroon), dry grassy and scrubby slopes (Mount Manenguba), and plantations and farmlands (Mount Kupé).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A pregnant female captured in late November had five embryos.Activity patterns.The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also an agile climber.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse has a very restricted distribution on just three mountain ranges, but no specific conservation threats are known.Bibliography.Denys & Aniskine (2012), Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014), Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009), Dieterlen (2013d), Eisentraut (1963), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969).","taxonomy":"Dendromus oreas Osgood, 1936,“southwest side of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon Mandate, British Nigeria. Alt. 9,000 ft[= 2743 m].”.Previously, oreas was included as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus du Cameroun @fr | Kamerun-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Camerun @es | Cameroon Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Osgood","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1936","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"oreas","name":"Dendromus oreas","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to W Cameroon Mts (Manenguba, Kupé, and Cameroon Mts).","bibliography":"Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014) | Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009) | Dieterlen (2013d) | Eisentraut (1963) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"A pregnant female captured in late November had five embryos.","activityPatterns":"The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also an agile climber.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse has a very restricted distribution on just three mountain ranges, but no specific conservation threats are known.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 60-74 mm, tail 89-104 mm, ear 13-19 mm, hindfoot 18-21 mm; weight 9-13 g. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally and rufous or grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Indistinct black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Montane grasslands and savannas at elevations of ¢.850-2900 m. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse lives on the ground among boulders of lava (Mount Cameroon), dry grassy and scrubby slopes (Mount Manenguba), and plantations and farmlands (Mount Kupé)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF3EF353CBC5F9AA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFD0F59FF3EF353CBC5F9AA","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"46.Banana African Climbing MouseDendromus messoriusFrench:Dendromusdes bananiers/ German:Bananenklettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de bananeraOther common names:Banana Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys messorius Thomas, 1903,“ Efulen, Bulu Country, Cameroons[= Cameroon].”Dendromus messoriusis in urgent need of taxonomic revision. Monotypic.Distribution.Disjunct range in Ghana, Togo, Benin, SE Nigeria, Cameroon, extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, SE Uganda, and W Kenya; limits uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-70 mm, tail 78-95 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 16-20 mm; weight 7-10 g. The Banana African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and bright rufous-brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair on back is dark gray but white below. There is usually no mid-dorsal stripe, orif present,it is indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits on forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various habitats, such as croplands with banana (Musa, Musaceae) trees, gallery forest, and grassland.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Banana African Climbing Mouse includes green plant material and fruit.Breeding.A single litter of the Banana African Climbing Mouse had three young. It builds a nest with a single entrance in banana trees and tall grass.Activity patterns.The Banana African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nests of Banana African Climbing Mice are apparently occupied by one individual.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Denys & Aniskine (2012), Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014), Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009), Dieterlen (2009), Happold (2013f), Hatt (1940), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Matthey (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nicolas, Natta et al. (2010), Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996), Rosevear (1969), Verheyen & Verschuren (1966).","taxonomy":"Dendromys messorius Thomas, 1903,“ Efulen, Bulu Country, Cameroons[= Cameroon].”Dendromus messoriusis in urgent need of taxonomic revision. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromusdes bananiers @fr | Bananenklettermaus @de | Ratén trepador africano de bananera @es | Banana Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1903","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"messorius","name":"Dendromus messorius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Disjunct range in Ghana, Togo, Benin, SE Nigeria, Cameroon, extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, SE Uganda, and W Kenya; limits uncertain.","bibliography":"Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014) | Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009) | Dieterlen (2009) | Happold (2013f) | Hatt (1940) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Matthey (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nicolas, Natta et al. (2010) | Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996) | Rosevear (1969) | Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Banana African Climbing Mouse includes green plant material and fruit.","breeding":"A single litter of the Banana African Climbing Mouse had three young. It builds a nest with a single entrance in banana trees and tall grass.","activityPatterns":"The Banana African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nests of Banana African Climbing Mice are apparently occupied by one individual.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 57-70 mm, tail 78-95 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 16-20 mm; weight 7-10 g. The Banana African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and bright rufous-brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair on back is dark gray but white below. There is usually no mid-dorsal stripe, orif present,it is indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits on forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various habitats, such as croplands with banana (Musa, Musaceae) trees, gallery forest, and grassland."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5AFFE1F794C4F4FB5A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFE0F5AFFE1F794C4F4FB5A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"195","verbatimText":"35.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched RatBeamys hindeiFrench:Petit Rat-hamster/ German:Kleine Hamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones de HindeOther common names:Hinde's Pouched RatTaxonomy.Beamys hindei Thomas, 1909,“ Taveta, Coast region [= Kenya], British East Africa. Alt. 2000’ [= 610 m].”Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. major, but it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.Distribution.Coastal plains and montane areas of E Kenya and Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-155 mm, tail 114-127 mm, ear 20-23 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm; weight 49-76 g. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Ratis medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.Habitat.Coastal forests and woodlands below elevations of 400 m (but up to 1200 m in the Usambara Mountains), typically on sandy soils. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat enters fallow fields and cassava plantations. Sandy soils might facilitate burrow excavation, in which it rests during the day and stores cached seeds and fruits. Another important factor appears to be a dense shrub layer, but reasons for that are not known.Food and Feeding.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds, which may be cached in burrows. Insects are also eaten but constitute a smaller proportion of the diet.Breeding.Juveniles and reproductively active males and females appear throughout the year suggesting aseasonal breeding, but the proportion oflactating female Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats appears to increase during seasonal rains. A large proportion of males are scrotal throughout the year, but individuals enter reproductive condition at different times of the year. Gestation in captivity is 22-23 days, with average litter size of 2-8 young (1-5). Neonates have an average weight of 3-2 g and are pink. Lactation lasts for 5-6 weeks. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g at c.4 weeks old. Longevity is 3—4 years. Equivalent parameters for wild populations are not known.Activity patterns.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal and relatively slow moving. [tis mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges ofadult male Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats are larger than those of females. Densities in good-quality habitat are relatively stable at 14-31 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction, it occupies a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of coastal and montane forests in Kenya and Tanzania.Bibliography.Christensen (1987), Egoscue (1972), Fitzgibbon et al. (1995), Happold (2013e), Hubbard (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sabuni et al. (2015), Stanley & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Beamys hindei Thomas, 1909,“ Taveta, Coast region [= Kenya], British East Africa. Alt. 2000’ [= 610 m].”Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. major, but it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Petit Rat-hamster @fr | Kleine Hamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones de Hinde @es | Hinde's Pouched Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Beamys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"195","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hindei","name":"Beamys hindei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Coastal plains and montane areas of E Kenya and Tanzania.","bibliography":"Christensen (1987) | Egoscue (1972) | Fitzgibbon et al. (1995) | Happold (2013e) | Hubbard (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sabuni et al. (2015) | Stanley & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds, which may be cached in burrows. Insects are also eaten but constitute a smaller proportion of the diet.","breeding":"Juveniles and reproductively active males and females appear throughout the year suggesting aseasonal breeding, but the proportion oflactating female Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats appears to increase during seasonal rains. A large proportion of males are scrotal throughout the year, but individuals enter reproductive condition at different times of the year. Gestation in captivity is 22-23 days, with average litter size of 2-8 young (1-5). Neonates have an average weight of 3-2 g and are pink. Lactation lasts for 5-6 weeks. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g at c.4 weeks old. Longevity is 3—4 years. Equivalent parameters for wild populations are not known.","activityPatterns":"Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal and relatively slow moving. [tis mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges ofadult male Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats are larger than those of females. Densities in good-quality habitat are relatively stable at 14-31 ind/ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction, it occupies a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of coastal and montane forests in Kenya and Tanzania.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 125-155 mm, tail 114-127 mm, ear 20-23 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm; weight 49-76 g. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Ratis medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.","habitat":"Coastal forests and woodlands below elevations of 400 m (but up to 1200 m in the Usambara Mountains), typically on sandy soils. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat enters fallow fields and cassava plantations. Sandy soils might facilitate burrow excavation, in which it rests during the day and stores cached seeds and fruits. Another important factor appears to be a dense shrub layer, but reasons for that are not known."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5AFFE6FDBCCED1F842.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFE0F5AFFE6FDBCCED1F842","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"195","verbatimText":"34.Greater Long-tailed Pouched RatBeamys majorFrench:Grand Rat-hamster/ German:Grol3e Hamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones grandeOther common names:Greater Pouched RatTaxonomy.Beamys major Dollman, 1914,“ Mlanje, Nyasaland,” Malawi, south-east ern Africa.Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. hindeibut it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.Distribution.N & E Zambia, Malawi, and NC Mozambique (Mt Mabu).Descriptive notes.Head-body 136— 173 mm, tail 126-143 mm, ear 19-21 mm, hindfoot 21-25 mm; weight 95-102 g. The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.Habitat.Montane and riparian forests typically at elevations of 500-1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds that might be cached in burrows. Insects constitute a smaller proportion ofthe diet.Breeding.Pregnant Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rats have been recorded during the rainy season in November-May. Average litter size is 4-6 young. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g within the first four weeks. Gestation in captivity in the closely related Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat (B. hindei) is 22-23 days, and longevity is 3—4 years.Activity patterns.The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal. It is mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is apparently solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Although the Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction,it does occupy a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of forests in north-eastern Zambia, Malawi, and central Mozambique.Bibliography.Ansell (1978), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Egoscue (1972), Fitzgibbon et al. (1995), Hanney & Mor ris (1962), Happold (2013e), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Beamys major Dollman, 1914,“ Mlanje, Nyasaland,” Malawi, south-east ern Africa.Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. hindeibut it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Grand Rat-hamster @fr | Grol3e Hamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones grande @es | Greater Pouched Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dollman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1914","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Beamys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"195","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"major","name":"Beamys major","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N & E Zambia, Malawi, and NC Mozambique (Mt Mabu).","bibliography":"Ansell (1978) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Egoscue (1972) | Fitzgibbon et al. (1995) | Hanney & Mor ris (1962) | Happold (2013e) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds that might be cached in burrows. Insects constitute a smaller proportion ofthe diet.","breeding":"Pregnant Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rats have been recorded during the rainy season in November-May. Average litter size is 4-6 young. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g within the first four weeks. Gestation in captivity in the closely related Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat (B. hindei) is 22-23 days, and longevity is 3—4 years.","activityPatterns":"The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal. It is mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is apparently solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Although the Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction,it does occupy a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of forests in north-eastern Zambia, Malawi, and central Mozambique.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 136— 173 mm, tail 126-143 mm, ear 19-21 mm, hindfoot 21-25 mm; weight 95-102 g. The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.","habitat":"Montane and riparian forests typically at elevations of 500-1000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5BFAFFF9B7CDC5FDAE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFE0F5BFAFFF9B7CDC5FDAE","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"195","verbatimText":"36.Forest Giant Pouched RatCricetomys eminiFrench:Cricétome d'Emin/ German:Emin-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante de bosqueOther common names:Emin’s Giant Pouched RatTaxonomy.Cricetomys gambianus emini Wroughton, 1910,“ Gadda, Monbattu,” DR Congo.Taxonomy of C. eminiis currently in flux because it represents a species complex. Recent molecular studies have shown presence of at least three, if not four, different species, which are morphologically assignable to C. emini. Further studies are required to sort out taxonomic implications. Monotypic.Distribution.Tropical Africa extending continuously from Sierra Leone E to Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Angola; it also occurs on Bioko.Descriptive notes.Head—body 300-355 mm, tail 320-429 mm, ear 33-45 mm, hindfoot 64-71 mm; weight 0-5—1-3 kg. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroidrat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Furis relatively short and soft for a species of Cricetomys, bright brown to dark brown dorsally, which is clearly delineated from white or cream venter. Snout is long and pointed. There is no dark ring around eyes,as is typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of forest habitats. The Forest Giant Pouched Ratis often commensal with humans at forest edges, butit is replaced by the Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus) or the Southern Giant Pouched Rat (C. ansorgei) in large forest clearings.Food and Feeding.The Forest Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, palm nuts, and seeds, which may be cached in a burrow.Breeding.Litter of Forest Giant Pouched Rats are 2—4 young, and gestation is 42 days. They may survive over four years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial but may also climb. It excavates a burrow where it rests during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Forest Giant Pouched Rats are typically solitary, with one individual in each burrow system. A single study reported densities of 134 ind/km?.On following pages: 37 Northern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys gambianus); 38. Kivu Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomyskivuensis); 39. Southern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomysansorgel); 40. East African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi); 41. Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus umbriventer); 42. Southern African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus campestris); 43. Nikolaus's African Climbing Mouse (Megadendromusnikolaus)); 44. Lachaise's African Climbing Mouse(Dendromuslachaisei); 45. Cameroon African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus oreas); 46. Banana African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus messorius): 47. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse (Dendromusruppl); 48. Lovat's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromuslovati); 49. Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus kahuziensis); 50. Montane African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus insignis); 51. Vernay's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus vernayl); 52. Monard's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus leucostomus); 53. KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse (Dendromusnyasae); 54. Nyika African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus nyikae); 55. Chestnut African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mystacalis); 56. Gray African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus melanotis); 57 Brants's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mesomelas): 58. Velvet African Climbing Mouse (Dendroprionomysrousselot)); 59. Bates's African Climbing Mouse (Prionomysbates); 60. North-western Fat Mouse (Steatomys caurinus); 61. Dainty Fat Mouse (Steatomyscuppedius); 62. Jackson's Fat Mouse (Steatomysjackson); 63. Pousargues's Fat Mouse (Steatomys opimus); 64. Bocage’s Fat Mouse (Steatomys bocage); 65. Tiny Fat Mouse (Steatomys parvus); 66. Common Fat Mouse (Steatomys pratensis); 67. Krebs's Fat Mouse (Steatomys krebsii): 68. Long-eared Desert Mouse (Malacothrixtypical).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is hunted extensively for food over much of its distribution. Despitethis pressure,it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.Bibliography.Fa & Purvis (1997), Malcolm & Ray (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Ray (2013), Rosevear (1969).","taxonomy":"of C. eminiis currently in flux because it represents a species complex. Recent molecular studies have shown presence of at least three, if not four, different species, which are morphologically assignable to C. emini. Further studies are required to sort out taxonomic implications. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cricétome d'Emin @fr | Emin-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante de bosque @es | Emin’s Giant Pouched Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wroughton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cricetomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"195","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"emini","name":"Cricetomys emini","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Tropical Africa extending continuously from Sierra Leone E to Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Angola; it also occurs on Bioko.","bibliography":"Fa & Purvis (1997) | Malcolm & Ray (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Ray (2013) | Rosevear (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"The Forest Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, palm nuts, and seeds, which may be cached in a burrow.","breeding":"Litter of Forest Giant Pouched Rats are 2—4 young, and gestation is 42 days. They may survive over four years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial but may also climb. It excavates a burrow where it rests during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Forest Giant Pouched Rats are typically solitary, with one individual in each burrow system. A single study reported densities of 134 ind/km?.On following pages: 37 Northern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys gambianus); 38. Kivu Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomyskivuensis); 39. Southern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomysansorgel); 40. East African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi); 41. Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus umbriventer); 42. Southern African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus campestris); 43. Nikolaus's African Climbing Mouse (Megadendromusnikolaus)); 44. Lachaise's African Climbing Mouse(Dendromuslachaisei); 45. Cameroon African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus oreas); 46. Banana African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus messorius): 47. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse (Dendromusruppl); 48. Lovat's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromuslovati); 49. Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus kahuziensis); 50. Montane African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus insignis); 51. Vernay's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus vernayl); 52. Monard's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus leucostomus); 53. KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse (Dendromusnyasae); 54. Nyika African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus nyikae); 55. Chestnut African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mystacalis); 56. Gray African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus melanotis); 57 Brants's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mesomelas): 58. Velvet African Climbing Mouse (Dendroprionomysrousselot)); 59. Bates's African Climbing Mouse (Prionomysbates); 60. North-western Fat Mouse (Steatomys caurinus); 61. Dainty Fat Mouse (Steatomyscuppedius); 62. Jackson's Fat Mouse (Steatomysjackson); 63. Pousargues's Fat Mouse (Steatomys opimus); 64. Bocage’s Fat Mouse (Steatomys bocage); 65. Tiny Fat Mouse (Steatomys parvus); 66. Common Fat Mouse (Steatomys pratensis); 67. Krebs's Fat Mouse (Steatomys krebsii): 68. Long-eared Desert Mouse (Malacothrixtypical).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is hunted extensively for food over much of its distribution. Despitethis pressure,it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 300-355 mm, tail 320-429 mm, ear 33-45 mm, hindfoot 64-71 mm; weight 0-5—1-3 kg. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroidrat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Furis relatively short and soft for a species of Cricetomys, bright brown to dark brown dorsally, which is clearly delineated from white or cream venter. Snout is long and pointed. There is no dark ring around eyes,as is typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of forest habitats. The Forest Giant Pouched Ratis often commensal with humans at forest edges, butit is replaced by the Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus) or the Southern Giant Pouched Rat (C. ansorgei) in large forest clearings."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F58FA20F401C824FA81.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFF0F58FA20F401C824FA81","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"196","verbatimText":"40.East African Pouched MouseSaccostomus mearnstFrench:Saccostome de Mearns/ German:Ostafrika-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Ratén de abazones de Africa orientalOther common names:Mearn’'s Pouched MouseTaxonomy.Saccostomus mearnsi Heller, 1910,“ Changamwe, British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation within S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.Distribution.E Uganda, Kenya, SW Ethiopia, and S Somalia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 101-150 mm, tail 38-74 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 18-25 mm; weight 43-69 g. The East African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna and woodlands,typically below elevations of¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.The East African Pouched Mouse is omnivorous, switching from green plant matter during the dry season to seeds after rains. In laboratory tests, individuals prefer forbs more than seeds.Breeding.Proportion of female East African Pouched Mice in breeding condition increases after rains and then drops in the dry season. Proportion of breeding males, however, remains high throughout the year.Activity patterns.The East African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The East African Pouched Mouse is solitary. In central Kenya, densities fluctuate from 16 ind/ha to 42 ind/ha throughout the year. Interannual variation may be even larger. In the absence of mammalian predators, densities can reach more than 80 ind/ha. Females appear to be territorial. Males are randomly distributed, with larger home ranges (0-21 ha) than females (0-06 ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bergstrom (2013), Corti, Castiglia, Annesi & Verheyen (2004), Corti, Castiglia, Colangelo et al. (2005), Denys (1988, 1992), Hubert (1978a), Keesing (1998, 2013), Keesing & Crawford (2001), Keesing & Young (2014), Metz & Keesing (2001), Mikula et al. (2016), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966a).","taxonomy":"Saccostomus mearnsi Heller, 1910,“ Changamwe, British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation within S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Saccostome de Mearns @fr | Ostafrika-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Ratén de abazones de Africa oriental @es | Mearn’'s Pouched Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Heller, 1910","interpretedAuthorityName":"Heller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Saccostomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"196","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mearnsi","name":"Saccostomus mearnst","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Uganda, Kenya, SW Ethiopia, and S Somalia.","bibliography":"Bergstrom (2013) | Corti, Castiglia, Annesi & Verheyen (2004) | Corti, Castiglia, Colangelo et al. (2005) | Denys (1988, 1992) | Hubert (1978a) | Keesing (1998, 2013) | Keesing & Crawford (2001) | Keesing & Young (2014) | Metz & Keesing (2001) | Mikula et al. (2016) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966a)","foodAndFeeding":"The East African Pouched Mouse is omnivorous, switching from green plant matter during the dry season to seeds after rains. In laboratory tests, individuals prefer forbs more than seeds.","breeding":"Proportion of female East African Pouched Mice in breeding condition increases after rains and then drops in the dry season. Proportion of breeding males, however, remains high throughout the year.","activityPatterns":"The East African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The East African Pouched Mouse is solitary. In central Kenya, densities fluctuate from 16 ind/ha to 42 ind/ha throughout the year. Interannual variation may be even larger. In the absence of mammalian predators, densities can reach more than 80 ind/ha. Females appear to be territorial. Males are randomly distributed, with larger home ranges (0-21 ha) than females (0-06 ha).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 101-150 mm, tail 38-74 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 18-25 mm; weight 43-69 g. The East African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of savanna and woodlands,typically below elevations of¢.1500 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFA39FE0BC614F50B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFF0F5BFA39FE0BC614F50B","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"196","verbatimText":"39.Southern Giant Pouched RatCricetomys ansorgeiFrench:Cricétome d’Ansorge/ German:Sidliche Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante meridionalTaxonomy.Cricetomys ansorgei Thomas, 1904,Pungo Andongo, Angola.Taxonomy of C. ansorgeiis currently unclear, and it might represent a species complex. Recent molecular studies of Cricetomyshave not fully aligned with morphological studies, suggesting that traditional morphological traits may not be useful in distinguishing species in this genus. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. a. ansorgei Thomas, 1904— from DR Congo S of the Congo River extending E to Kenya, and S to Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa.a. cosenst Hinton, 1919 — Zanzibar, Tanzania. a. elgonis Thomas, 1910 — Mt Elgon, Uganda—Kenya. DoDD a. enguvi Heller, 1912 — Taita Hills, Kenya.a. kenyensis Osgood, 1910 — Mt Kenya.. a. microtis Lonnberg, 1917 — Virunga Mts, DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 288-413 mm, tail 345-449 mm, ear 32-42 mm, hindfoot 68-78 mm; weight 1.2-8 kg (males) and 0.9-1.4 kg (females). The Southern Giant Pouched Ratis the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, brown or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snout is long and pointed, with dark rings around eyes. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is often commensal with humans,living at high densities in some urban and periurban environments. It excavates burrows, primarily with its teeth, typically at bases of large trees or boulders.Food and Feeding.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, seeds, and tubers that might be cached in a burrow. Gut morphology is complex, and passage rates are slow, adaptations to exploit nutrient-poor foods. Coprophagy appears to pass on gut microbes from mother to offspring to assist with digestion.Breeding.Pregnant Southern Giant Pouched Rats have mostly been recorded during the rainy season in September—May. Averagelittersize is three young for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus). Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at c.20 weeks for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat. Southern Giant Pouched Rats can survive c.8 years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal, with two peaks in activity and a lull between 22:00 h and 01:00 h. Most of the night is spent in a burrow, and only one-quarter of the night spent outside. It is terrestrial but might also climb.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system. Average home range was 4-9 ha, with males wandering over larger areas than females. Densities might be high in prime habitat; 42 individuals were captured on a 0-5ha garden in Harare, Zimbabwe.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat causes damage to crops and orchards and is often persecuted. It is hunted for food over much ofits distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have suffered from a range contraction or reduced population. Due to its acute sense of smell and high level of intelligence,it has been trained to detect land mines.Bibliography.Ajayi (1975), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Ewer (1967), Genest-Villard (1967), Knight (1984), Knight & Knight-Eloff (1987), Monadjem et al. (2015), Morris (1963), Olayemi et al. (2012), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Poling et al. (2010), Ray & Duplantier (2013), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers &Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979).","taxonomy":"of C. ansorgeiis currently unclear, and it might represent a species complex. Recent molecular studies of Cricetomyshave not fully aligned with morphological studies, suggesting that traditional morphological traits may not be useful in distinguishing species in this genus. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Cricétome d’Ansorge @fr | Sidliche Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante meridional @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1904","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cricetomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"196","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ansorgei","name":"Cricetomys ansorgei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. a. ansorgei Thomas, 1904— from DR Congo S of the Congo River extending E to Kenya, and S to Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa.a. cosenst Hinton, 1919 — Zanzibar, Tanzania. a. elgonis Thomas, 1910 — Mt Elgon, Uganda—Kenya. DoDD a. enguvi Heller, 1912 — Taita Hills, Kenya.a. kenyensis Osgood, 1910 — Mt Kenya.. a. microtis Lonnberg, 1917 — Virunga Mts, DR Congo.","bibliography":"Ajayi (1975) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Ewer (1967) | Genest-Villard (1967) | Knight (1984) | Knight & Knight-Eloff (1987) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Morris (1963) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Poling et al. (2010) | Ray & Duplantier (2013) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers &Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"The Southern Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, seeds, and tubers that might be cached in a burrow. Gut morphology is complex, and passage rates are slow, adaptations to exploit nutrient-poor foods. Coprophagy appears to pass on gut microbes from mother to offspring to assist with digestion.","breeding":"Pregnant Southern Giant Pouched Rats have mostly been recorded during the rainy season in September—May. Averagelittersize is three young for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus). Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at c.20 weeks for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat. Southern Giant Pouched Rats can survive c.8 years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal, with two peaks in activity and a lull between 22:00 h and 01:00 h. Most of the night is spent in a burrow, and only one-quarter of the night spent outside. It is terrestrial but might also climb.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system. Average home range was 4-9 ha, with males wandering over larger areas than females. Densities might be high in prime habitat; 42 individuals were captured on a 0-5ha garden in Harare, Zimbabwe.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat causes damage to crops and orchards and is often persecuted. It is hunted for food over much ofits distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have suffered from a range contraction or reduced population. Due to its acute sense of smell and high level of intelligence,it has been trained to detect land mines.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 288-413 mm, tail 345-449 mm, ear 32-42 mm, hindfoot 68-78 mm; weight 1.2-8 kg (males) and 0.9-1.4 kg (females). The Southern Giant Pouched Ratis the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, brown or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snout is long and pointed, with dark rings around eyes. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is often commensal with humans,living at high densities in some urban and periurban environments. It excavates burrows, primarily with its teeth, typically at bases of large trees or boulders."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFF22F74BCB50FECE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFF0F5BFF22F74BCB50FECE","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"196","verbatimText":"38.Kivu Giant Pouched RatCricetomys kivuensisFrench:Cricétome du Kivu/ German:Kivu-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante de KivuTaxonomy.Cricetomys kivuensis Lonnberg, 1917,Masisi, DR Congo.The distinctiveness of this species has recently been questioned on molecular and morphological grounds, and may therefore not represent a distinct species. Further studies are required to resolve the taxonomy of this genus. Monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to the Albertine Rift in E DR Congo, SW Uganda, W Rwanda, and N Burundi.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.320 mm, tail ¢.340 mm, ear c.45 mm, hindfoot c.69 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroid rat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is relatively long and soft, grayish dorsally shading to off-white ventrally. Snout is long and pointed. There are no dark rings around eyes as are typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbsare relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane forest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Other species of Cricetomysare hunted extensively for food. If the Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is also hunted in its limited distribution, its conservation status could be negatively affected.Bibliography.Fa & Purvis (1997), Malcolm & Ray (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Ray & Duplantier (2013), Rosevear (1969).","taxonomy":"Cricetomys kivuensis Lonnberg, 1917,Masisi, DR Congo.The distinctiveness of this species has recently been questioned on molecular and morphological grounds, and may therefore not represent a distinct species. Further studies are required to resolve the taxonomy of this genus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cricétome du Kivu @fr | Kivu-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante de Kivu @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lonnberg","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1917","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cricetomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"196","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kivuensis","name":"Cricetomys kivuensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Restricted to the Albertine Rift in E DR Congo, SW Uganda, W Rwanda, and N Burundi.","bibliography":"Fa & Purvis (1997) | Malcolm & Ray (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Ray & Duplantier (2013) | Rosevear (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Other species of Cricetomysare hunted extensively for food. If the Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is also hunted in its limited distribution, its conservation status could be negatively affected.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.320 mm, tail ¢.340 mm, ear c.45 mm, hindfoot c.69 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroid rat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is relatively long and soft, grayish dorsally shading to off-white ventrally. Snout is long and pointed. There are no dark rings around eyes as are typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbsare relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Montane forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFF3DFDEAC867F70F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFF0F5BFF3DFDEAC867F70F","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"196","verbatimText":"37.Northern Giant Pouched RatCricetomys gambianusFrench:Cricétome de Gambie/ German:Gambia-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante septentrionalOther common names:Gambian Giant Pouched RatTaxonomy.Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse, 1840,Gambia River, The Gambia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Extending continuously from Senegal E to South Sudan and Uganda, and S to Congo River, DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 284-386 mm, tail 247-405 mm, ear 35-40 mm, hindfoot 62-73 mm; weight 0.5-1.5 kg. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, grayish or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snoutis long and pointed, with dark ring around eyes. Earsare relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests.Food and Feeding.The Northern Giant Pouched Rat eats mostly fruits, seeds, and tubers, which may be cached in a burrow. Coprophagy appears to pass gut microbes from motherto offspring to assist with digestion.Breeding.Pregnant Northern Giant Pouched Rats are present throughout the year, suggesting aseasonal breeding. Average litter size is three young. Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at ¢.20 weeks, and longevity is more than four years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, but it might also climb. It is often commensal with humans. It excavates burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Northern Giant Pouched Ratis typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system, but multiple individuals have been reported in a single burrow. Based on counts of burrows, densities can be high in prime habitat; 45 burrows were found on a 5ha farm in Nigeria.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat can damage crops and orchards and is therefore often persecuted. It is also hunted for food over much of its distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.Bibliography.Ajayi (1975, 1977), Anizoba (1982), Duplantier & Granjon (2013), Ewer (1967), Fa et al. (2005), Happold (1987), Monadjem etal. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Rosevear (1969).","taxonomy":"Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse, 1840,Gambia River, The Gambia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Cricétome de Gambie @fr | Gambia-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante septentrional @es | Gambian Giant Pouched Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1840","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cricetomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"196","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gambianus","name":"Cricetomys gambianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Extending continuously from Senegal E to South Sudan and Uganda, and S to Congo River, DR Congo.","bibliography":"Ajayi (1975, 1977) | Anizoba (1982) | Duplantier & Granjon (2013) | Ewer (1967) | Fa et al. (2005) | Happold (1987) | Monadjem etal. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Rosevear (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"The Northern Giant Pouched Rat eats mostly fruits, seeds, and tubers, which may be cached in a burrow. Coprophagy appears to pass gut microbes from motherto offspring to assist with digestion.","breeding":"Pregnant Northern Giant Pouched Rats are present throughout the year, suggesting aseasonal breeding. Average litter size is three young. Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at ¢.20 weeks, and longevity is more than four years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, but it might also climb. It is often commensal with humans. It excavates burrows.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Northern Giant Pouched Ratis typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system, but multiple individuals have been reported in a single burrow. Based on counts of burrows, densities can be high in prime habitat; 45 burrows were found on a 5ha farm in Nigeria.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat can damage crops and orchards and is therefore often persecuted. It is also hunted for food over much of its distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 284-386 mm, tail 247-405 mm, ear 35-40 mm, hindfoot 62-73 mm; weight 0.5-1.5 kg. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, grayish or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snoutis long and pointed, with dark ring around eyes. Earsare relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF3AF94EC807F30B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFD0F59FF3AF94EC807F30B","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"45.Cameroon African Climbing MouseDendromus oreasFrench:Dendromus du Cameroun/ German:Kamerun-Klettermaus/ Spanish:Raton trepador africano de CamerunOther common names:Cameroon Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromus oreas Osgood, 1936,“southwest side of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon Mandate, British Nigeria. Alt. 9,000 ft[= 2743 m].”.Previously, oreas was included as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W Cameroon Mts (Manenguba, Kupé, and Cameroon Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 60-74 mm, tail 89-104 mm, ear 13-19 mm, hindfoot 18-21 mm; weight 9-13 g. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally and rufous or grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Indistinct black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Montane grasslands and savannas at elevations of ¢.850-2900 m. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse lives on the ground among boulders of lava (Mount Cameroon), dry grassy and scrubby slopes (Mount Manenguba), and plantations and farmlands (Mount Kupé).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A pregnant female captured in late November had five embryos.Activity patterns.The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also an agile climber.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse has a very restricted distribution on just three mountain ranges, but no specific conservation threats are known.Bibliography.Denys & Aniskine (2012), Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014), Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009), Dieterlen (2013d), Eisentraut (1963), Monadjem et al. (2015), Rosevear (1969).","taxonomy":"Dendromus oreas Osgood, 1936,“southwest side of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon Mandate, British Nigeria. Alt. 9,000 ft[= 2743 m].”.Previously, oreas was included as a subspecies of D. mesomelas. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromus du Cameroun @fr | Kamerun-Klettermaus @de | Raton trepador africano de Camerun @es | Cameroon Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Osgood","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1936","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"oreas","name":"Dendromus oreas","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to W Cameroon Mts (Manenguba, Kupé, and Cameroon Mts).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600462/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014) | Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009) | Dieterlen (2013d) | Eisentraut (1963) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Rosevear (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"A pregnant female captured in late November had five embryos.","activityPatterns":"The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal. It is terrestrial but also an agile climber.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse has a very restricted distribution on just three mountain ranges, but no specific conservation threats are known.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 60-74 mm, tail 89-104 mm, ear 13-19 mm, hindfoot 18-21 mm; weight 9-13 g. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is bicolored, darker above and paler below. Fur is long, soft, and brown or reddish brown dorsally and rufous or grayish ventrally. Base of each hair is dark gray. Indistinct black line runs mid-dorsally from mid-back to base oftail. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits of forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits are greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated, fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Montane grasslands and savannas at elevations of ¢.850-2900 m. The Cameroon African Climbing Mouse lives on the ground among boulders of lava (Mount Cameroon), dry grassy and scrubby slopes (Mount Manenguba), and plantations and farmlands (Mount Kupé)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFD0F59FF3EF353CBC5F9AA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFD0F59FF3EF353CBC5F9AA","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"46.Banana African Climbing MouseDendromus messoriusFrench:Dendromusdes bananiers/ German:Bananenklettermaus/ Spanish:Ratén trepador africano de bananeraOther common names:Banana Climbing MouseTaxonomy.Dendromys messorius Thomas, 1903,“ Efulen, Bulu Country, Cameroons[= Cameroon].”Dendromus messoriusis in urgent need of taxonomic revision. Monotypic.Distribution.Disjunct range in Ghana, Togo, Benin, SE Nigeria, Cameroon, extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, SE Uganda, and W Kenya; limits uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-70 mm, tail 78-95 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 16-20 mm; weight 7-10 g. The Banana African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and bright rufous-brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair on back is dark gray but white below. There is usually no mid-dorsal stripe, orif present,it is indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits on forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.Habitat.Various habitats, such as croplands with banana (Musa, Musaceae) trees, gallery forest, and grassland.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Banana African Climbing Mouse includes green plant material and fruit.Breeding.A single litter of the Banana African Climbing Mouse had three young. It builds a nest with a single entrance in banana trees and tall grass.Activity patterns.The Banana African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nests of Banana African Climbing Mice are apparently occupied by one individual.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Denys & Aniskine (2012), Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014), Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009), Dieterlen (2009), Happold (2013f), Hatt (1940), Lavrenchenko et al. (2017), Matthey (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nicolas, Natta et al. (2010), Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996), Rosevear (1969), Verheyen & Verschuren (1966).","taxonomy":"Dendromys messorius Thomas, 1903,“ Efulen, Bulu Country, Cameroons[= Cameroon].”Dendromus messoriusis in urgent need of taxonomic revision. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Dendromusdes bananiers @fr | Bananenklettermaus @de | Ratén trepador africano de bananera @es | Banana Climbing Mouse @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1903","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dendromus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"messorius","name":"Dendromus messorius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Disjunct range in Ghana, Togo, Benin, SE Nigeria, Cameroon, extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, SE Uganda, and W Kenya; limits uncertain.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600464/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Denys & Aniskine (2012) | Denys, Missoup, Nicolas et al. (2014) | Denys, Missoup, Tchiengue et al. (2009) | Dieterlen (2009) | Happold (2013f) | Hatt (1940) | Lavrenchenko et al. (2017) | Matthey (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nicolas, Natta et al. (2010) | Robbins & Van der Straeten (1996) | Rosevear (1969) | Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Banana African Climbing Mouse includes green plant material and fruit.","breeding":"A single litter of the Banana African Climbing Mouse had three young. It builds a nest with a single entrance in banana trees and tall grass.","activityPatterns":"The Banana African Climbing Mouse is nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nests of Banana African Climbing Mice are apparently occupied by one individual.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 57-70 mm, tail 78-95 mm, ear 11-14 mm, hindfoot 16-20 mm; weight 7-10 g. The Banana African Climbing Mouse is small, with very long prehensile tail. Tail is darker above than below. Furis long, soft, and bright rufous-brown dorsally and pure white ventrally. Base of each hair on back is dark gray but white below. There is usually no mid-dorsal stripe, orif present,it is indistinct. Ears are relatively large and rounded. Limbs are adapted for climbing. Second to fourth digits on forelimbs have elongated claws, and first and fifth digits greatly reduced. Hindlimb has second to fourth digits elongated,fifth digit long and opposable with a claw, and first digit greatly reduced.","habitat":"Various habitats, such as croplands with banana (Musa, Musaceae) trees, gallery forest, and grassland."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5AFFE1F794C4F4FB5A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFE0F5AFFE1F794C4F4FB5A","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"195","verbatimText":"35.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched RatBeamys hindeiFrench:Petit Rat-hamster/ German:Kleine Hamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones de HindeOther common names:Hinde's Pouched RatTaxonomy.Beamys hindei Thomas, 1909,“ Taveta, Coast region [= Kenya], British East Africa. Alt. 2000’ [= 610 m].”Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. major, but it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.Distribution.Coastal plains and montane areas of E Kenya and Tanzania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-155 mm, tail 114-127 mm, ear 20-23 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm; weight 49-76 g. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Ratis medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.Habitat.Coastal forests and woodlands below elevations of 400 m (but up to 1200 m in the Usambara Mountains), typically on sandy soils. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat enters fallow fields and cassava plantations. Sandy soils might facilitate burrow excavation, in which it rests during the day and stores cached seeds and fruits. Another important factor appears to be a dense shrub layer, but reasons for that are not known.Food and Feeding.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds, which may be cached in burrows. Insects are also eaten but constitute a smaller proportion of the diet.Breeding.Juveniles and reproductively active males and females appear throughout the year suggesting aseasonal breeding, but the proportion oflactating female Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats appears to increase during seasonal rains. A large proportion of males are scrotal throughout the year, but individuals enter reproductive condition at different times of the year. Gestation in captivity is 22-23 days, with average litter size of 2-8 young (1-5). Neonates have an average weight of 3-2 g and are pink. Lactation lasts for 5-6 weeks. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g at c.4 weeks old. Longevity is 3—4 years. Equivalent parameters for wild populations are not known.Activity patterns.Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal and relatively slow moving. [tis mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges ofadult male Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats are larger than those of females. Densities in good-quality habitat are relatively stable at 14-31 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction, it occupies a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of coastal and montane forests in Kenya and Tanzania.Bibliography.Christensen (1987), Egoscue (1972), Fitzgibbon et al. (1995), Happold (2013e), Hubbard (1970), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sabuni et al. (2015), Stanley & Goodman (2011).","taxonomy":"Beamys hindei Thomas, 1909,“ Taveta, Coast region [= Kenya], British East Africa. Alt. 2000’ [= 610 m].”Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. major, but it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Petit Rat-hamster @fr | Kleine Hamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones de Hinde @es | Hinde's Pouched Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Beamys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"195","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hindei","name":"Beamys hindei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Coastal plains and montane areas of E Kenya and Tanzania.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600444/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Christensen (1987) | Egoscue (1972) | Fitzgibbon et al. (1995) | Happold (2013e) | Hubbard (1970) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sabuni et al. (2015) | Stanley & Goodman (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds, which may be cached in burrows. Insects are also eaten but constitute a smaller proportion of the diet.","breeding":"Juveniles and reproductively active males and females appear throughout the year suggesting aseasonal breeding, but the proportion oflactating female Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats appears to increase during seasonal rains. A large proportion of males are scrotal throughout the year, but individuals enter reproductive condition at different times of the year. Gestation in captivity is 22-23 days, with average litter size of 2-8 young (1-5). Neonates have an average weight of 3-2 g and are pink. Lactation lasts for 5-6 weeks. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g at c.4 weeks old. Longevity is 3—4 years. Equivalent parameters for wild populations are not known.","activityPatterns":"Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal and relatively slow moving. [tis mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges ofadult male Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rats are larger than those of females. Densities in good-quality habitat are relatively stable at 14-31 ind/ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction, it occupies a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of coastal and montane forests in Kenya and Tanzania.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 125-155 mm, tail 114-127 mm, ear 20-23 mm, hindfoot 22-25 mm; weight 49-76 g. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Ratis medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.","habitat":"Coastal forests and woodlands below elevations of 400 m (but up to 1200 m in the Usambara Mountains), typically on sandy soils. Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat enters fallow fields and cassava plantations. Sandy soils might facilitate burrow excavation, in which it rests during the day and stores cached seeds and fruits. Another important factor appears to be a dense shrub layer, but reasons for that are not known."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5AFFE6FDBCCED1F842.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFE0F5AFFE6FDBCCED1F842","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"195","verbatimText":"34.Greater Long-tailed Pouched RatBeamys majorFrench:Grand Rat-hamster/ German:Grol3e Hamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones grandeOther common names:Greater Pouched RatTaxonomy.Beamys major Dollman, 1914,“ Mlanje, Nyasaland,” Malawi, south-east ern Africa.Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. hindeibut it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.Distribution.N & E Zambia, Malawi, and NC Mozambique (Mt Mabu).Descriptive notes.Head-body 136— 173 mm, tail 126-143 mm, ear 19-21 mm, hindfoot 21-25 mm; weight 95-102 g. The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.Habitat.Montane and riparian forests typically at elevations of 500-1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds that might be cached in burrows. Insects constitute a smaller proportion ofthe diet.Breeding.Pregnant Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rats have been recorded during the rainy season in November-May. Average litter size is 4-6 young. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g within the first four weeks. Gestation in captivity in the closely related Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat (B. hindei) is 22-23 days, and longevity is 3—4 years.Activity patterns.The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal. It is mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is apparently solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Although the Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction,it does occupy a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of forests in north-eastern Zambia, Malawi, and central Mozambique.Bibliography.Ansell (1978), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Egoscue (1972), Fitzgibbon et al. (1995), Hanney & Mor ris (1962), Happold (2013e), Monadjem et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Beamys major Dollman, 1914,“ Mlanje, Nyasaland,” Malawi, south-east ern Africa.Some authorities have considered it conspecific with B. hindeibut it is morphologically distinct from that species and occupies a different habitat. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Grand Rat-hamster @fr | Grol3e Hamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones grande @es | Greater Pouched Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dollman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1914","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Beamys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"195","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"major","name":"Beamys major","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N & E Zambia, Malawi, and NC Mozambique (Mt Mabu).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600442/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ansell (1978) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Egoscue (1972) | Fitzgibbon et al. (1995) | Hanney & Mor ris (1962) | Happold (2013e) | Monadjem et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits and seeds that might be cached in burrows. Insects constitute a smaller proportion ofthe diet.","breeding":"Pregnant Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rats have been recorded during the rainy season in November-May. Average litter size is 4-6 young. Growth is rapid, with young reaching 43 g within the first four weeks. Gestation in captivity in the closely related Hinde’s Long-tailed Pouched Rat (B. hindei) is 22-23 days, and longevity is 3—4 years.","activityPatterns":"The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is nocturnal. It is mostly terrestrial but may also climb, using its prehensile tail to assist with negotiating thin branches.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is apparently solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Although the Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is not currently under threat of extinction,it does occupy a rapidly disappearing habitat. Its future survival depends on continued protection of forests in north-eastern Zambia, Malawi, and central Mozambique.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 136— 173 mm, tail 126-143 mm, ear 19-21 mm, hindfoot 21-25 mm; weight 95-102 g. The Greater Long-tailed Pouched Rat is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, shading to pure white ventrally. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are relatively large. Tail is long and prehensile, with conspicuous white markings. Limbs are relatively short and white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet. Males are on average larger than females, with considerable overlap in measurements between sexes.","habitat":"Montane and riparian forests typically at elevations of 500-1000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFE0F5BFAFFF9B7CDC5FDAE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFE0F5BFAFFF9B7CDC5FDAE","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"195","verbatimText":"36.Forest Giant Pouched RatCricetomys eminiFrench:Cricétome d'Emin/ German:Emin-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante de bosqueOther common names:Emin’s Giant Pouched RatTaxonomy.Cricetomys gambianus emini Wroughton, 1910,“ Gadda, Monbattu,” DR Congo.Taxonomy of C. eminiis currently in flux because it represents a species complex. Recent molecular studies have shown presence of at least three, if not four, different species, which are morphologically assignable to C. emini. Further studies are required to sort out taxonomic implications. Monotypic.Distribution.Tropical Africa extending continuously from Sierra Leone E to Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Angola; it also occurs on Bioko.Descriptive notes.Head—body 300-355 mm, tail 320-429 mm, ear 33-45 mm, hindfoot 64-71 mm; weight 0-5—1-3 kg. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroidrat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Furis relatively short and soft for a species of Cricetomys, bright brown to dark brown dorsally, which is clearly delineated from white or cream venter. Snout is long and pointed. There is no dark ring around eyes,as is typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of forest habitats. The Forest Giant Pouched Ratis often commensal with humans at forest edges, butit is replaced by the Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus) or the Southern Giant Pouched Rat (C. ansorgei) in large forest clearings.Food and Feeding.The Forest Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, palm nuts, and seeds, which may be cached in a burrow.Breeding.Litter of Forest Giant Pouched Rats are 2—4 young, and gestation is 42 days. They may survive over four years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial but may also climb. It excavates a burrow where it rests during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Forest Giant Pouched Rats are typically solitary, with one individual in each burrow system. A single study reported densities of 134 ind/km?.On following pages: 37 Northern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys gambianus); 38. Kivu Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomyskivuensis); 39. Southern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomysansorgel); 40. East African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi); 41. Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus umbriventer); 42. Southern African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus campestris); 43. Nikolaus's African Climbing Mouse (Megadendromusnikolaus)); 44. Lachaise's African Climbing Mouse(Dendromuslachaisei); 45. Cameroon African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus oreas); 46. Banana African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus messorius): 47. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse (Dendromusruppl); 48. Lovat's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromuslovati); 49. Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus kahuziensis); 50. Montane African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus insignis); 51. Vernay's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus vernayl); 52. Monard's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus leucostomus); 53. KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse (Dendromusnyasae); 54. Nyika African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus nyikae); 55. Chestnut African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mystacalis); 56. Gray African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus melanotis); 57 Brants's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mesomelas): 58. Velvet African Climbing Mouse (Dendroprionomysrousselot)); 59. Bates's African Climbing Mouse (Prionomysbates); 60. North-western Fat Mouse (Steatomys caurinus); 61. Dainty Fat Mouse (Steatomyscuppedius); 62. Jackson's Fat Mouse (Steatomysjackson); 63. Pousargues's Fat Mouse (Steatomys opimus); 64. Bocage’s Fat Mouse (Steatomys bocage); 65. Tiny Fat Mouse (Steatomys parvus); 66. Common Fat Mouse (Steatomys pratensis); 67. Krebs's Fat Mouse (Steatomys krebsii): 68. Long-eared Desert Mouse (Malacothrixtypical).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is hunted extensively for food over much of its distribution. Despitethis pressure,it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.Bibliography.Fa & Purvis (1997), Malcolm & Ray (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Ray (2013), Rosevear (1969).","taxonomy":"of C. eminiis currently in flux because it represents a species complex. Recent molecular studies have shown presence of at least three, if not four, different species, which are morphologically assignable to C. emini. Further studies are required to sort out taxonomic implications. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cricétome d'Emin @fr | Emin-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante de bosque @es | Emin’s Giant Pouched Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wroughton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cricetomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"195","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"emini","name":"Cricetomys emini","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Tropical Africa extending continuously from Sierra Leone E to Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Angola; it also occurs on Bioko.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600446/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Fa & Purvis (1997) | Malcolm & Ray (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Ray (2013) | Rosevear (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"The Forest Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, palm nuts, and seeds, which may be cached in a burrow.","breeding":"Litter of Forest Giant Pouched Rats are 2—4 young, and gestation is 42 days. They may survive over four years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial but may also climb. It excavates a burrow where it rests during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Forest Giant Pouched Rats are typically solitary, with one individual in each burrow system. A single study reported densities of 134 ind/km?.On following pages: 37 Northern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys gambianus); 38. Kivu Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomyskivuensis); 39. Southern Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomysansorgel); 40. East African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi); 41. Gray-bellied Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus umbriventer); 42. Southern African Pouched Mouse (Saccostomus campestris); 43. Nikolaus's African Climbing Mouse (Megadendromusnikolaus)); 44. Lachaise's African Climbing Mouse(Dendromuslachaisei); 45. Cameroon African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus oreas); 46. Banana African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus messorius): 47. Rupp’s African Climbing Mouse (Dendromusruppl); 48. Lovat's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromuslovati); 49. Mount Kahuzi African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus kahuziensis); 50. Montane African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus insignis); 51. Vernay's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus vernayl); 52. Monard's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus leucostomus); 53. KivuAfrican Climbing Mouse (Dendromusnyasae); 54. Nyika African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus nyikae); 55. Chestnut African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mystacalis); 56. Gray African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus melanotis); 57 Brants's African Climbing Mouse (Dendromus mesomelas): 58. Velvet African Climbing Mouse (Dendroprionomysrousselot)); 59. Bates's African Climbing Mouse (Prionomysbates); 60. North-western Fat Mouse (Steatomys caurinus); 61. Dainty Fat Mouse (Steatomyscuppedius); 62. Jackson's Fat Mouse (Steatomysjackson); 63. Pousargues's Fat Mouse (Steatomys opimus); 64. Bocage’s Fat Mouse (Steatomys bocage); 65. Tiny Fat Mouse (Steatomys parvus); 66. Common Fat Mouse (Steatomys pratensis); 67. Krebs's Fat Mouse (Steatomys krebsii): 68. Long-eared Desert Mouse (Malacothrixtypical).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is hunted extensively for food over much of its distribution. Despitethis pressure,it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 300-355 mm, tail 320-429 mm, ear 33-45 mm, hindfoot 64-71 mm; weight 0-5—1-3 kg. The Forest Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroidrat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Furis relatively short and soft for a species of Cricetomys, bright brown to dark brown dorsally, which is clearly delineated from white or cream venter. Snout is long and pointed. There is no dark ring around eyes,as is typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of forest habitats. The Forest Giant Pouched Ratis often commensal with humans at forest edges, butit is replaced by the Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus) or the Southern Giant Pouched Rat (C. ansorgei) in large forest clearings."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F58FA20F401C824FA81.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFF0F58FA20F401C824FA81","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"196","verbatimText":"40.East African Pouched MouseSaccostomus mearnstFrench:Saccostome de Mearns/ German:Ostafrika-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte/ Spanish:Ratén de abazones de Africa orientalOther common names:Mearn’'s Pouched MouseTaxonomy.Saccostomus mearnsi Heller, 1910,“ Changamwe, British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation within S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.Distribution.E Uganda, Kenya, SW Ethiopia, and S Somalia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 101-150 mm, tail 38-74 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 18-25 mm; weight 43-69 g. The East African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna and woodlands,typically below elevations of¢.1500 m.Food and Feeding.The East African Pouched Mouse is omnivorous, switching from green plant matter during the dry season to seeds after rains. In laboratory tests, individuals prefer forbs more than seeds.Breeding.Proportion of female East African Pouched Mice in breeding condition increases after rains and then drops in the dry season. Proportion of breeding males, however, remains high throughout the year.Activity patterns.The East African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The East African Pouched Mouse is solitary. In central Kenya, densities fluctuate from 16 ind/ha to 42 ind/ha throughout the year. Interannual variation may be even larger. In the absence of mammalian predators, densities can reach more than 80 ind/ha. Females appear to be territorial. Males are randomly distributed, with larger home ranges (0-21 ha) than females (0-06 ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bergstrom (2013), Corti, Castiglia, Annesi & Verheyen (2004), Corti, Castiglia, Colangelo et al. (2005), Denys (1988, 1992), Hubert (1978a), Keesing (1998, 2013), Keesing & Crawford (2001), Keesing & Young (2014), Metz & Keesing (2001), Mikula et al. (2016), Monadjem et al. (2015), Petter (1966a).","taxonomy":"Saccostomus mearnsi Heller, 1910,“ Changamwe, British East Africa [= Kenya].”Molecular and morphological variation within S. mearnsirecently demonstrated two different species, referable here as S. mearnsiand S. umbriventer. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Saccostome de Mearns @fr | Ostafrika-Kurzschwanzhamsterratte @de | Ratén de abazones de Africa oriental @es | Mearn’'s Pouched Mouse @en","interpretedAuthority":"Heller, 1910","interpretedAuthorityName":"Heller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Saccostomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"196","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mearnsi","name":"Saccostomus mearnst","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Uganda, Kenya, SW Ethiopia, and S Somalia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600454/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bergstrom (2013) | Corti, Castiglia, Annesi & Verheyen (2004) | Corti, Castiglia, Colangelo et al. (2005) | Denys (1988, 1992) | Hubert (1978a) | Keesing (1998, 2013) | Keesing & Crawford (2001) | Keesing & Young (2014) | Metz & Keesing (2001) | Mikula et al. (2016) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Petter (1966a)","foodAndFeeding":"The East African Pouched Mouse is omnivorous, switching from green plant matter during the dry season to seeds after rains. In laboratory tests, individuals prefer forbs more than seeds.","breeding":"Proportion of female East African Pouched Mice in breeding condition increases after rains and then drops in the dry season. Proportion of breeding males, however, remains high throughout the year.","activityPatterns":"The East African Pouched Mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial. Individuals excavate burrows or take over existing holes such as those in termite mounds.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The East African Pouched Mouse is solitary. In central Kenya, densities fluctuate from 16 ind/ha to 42 ind/ha throughout the year. Interannual variation may be even larger. In the absence of mammalian predators, densities can reach more than 80 ind/ha. Females appear to be territorial. Males are randomly distributed, with larger home ranges (0-21 ha) than females (0-06 ha).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 101-150 mm, tail 38-74 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 18-25 mm; weight 43-69 g. The East African Pouched Mouse is medium-sized, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is soft and gray dorsally, clearly demarcated from white belly. Chin, throat, and upper chest are white. Ears are rounded. Tail is noticeably short and sparsely covered in bristles. Limbs are white, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of savanna and woodlands,typically below elevations of¢.1500 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFA39FE0BC614F50B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFF0F5BFA39FE0BC614F50B","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"196","verbatimText":"39.Southern Giant Pouched RatCricetomys ansorgeiFrench:Cricétome d’Ansorge/ German:Sidliche Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante meridionalTaxonomy.Cricetomys ansorgei Thomas, 1904,Pungo Andongo, Angola.Taxonomy of C. ansorgeiis currently unclear, and it might represent a species complex. Recent molecular studies of Cricetomyshave not fully aligned with morphological studies, suggesting that traditional morphological traits may not be useful in distinguishing species in this genus. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. a. ansorgei Thomas, 1904— from DR Congo S of the Congo River extending E to Kenya, and S to Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa.a. cosenst Hinton, 1919 — Zanzibar, Tanzania. a. elgonis Thomas, 1910 — Mt Elgon, Uganda—Kenya. DoDD a. enguvi Heller, 1912 — Taita Hills, Kenya.a. kenyensis Osgood, 1910 — Mt Kenya.. a. microtis Lonnberg, 1917 — Virunga Mts, DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 288-413 mm, tail 345-449 mm, ear 32-42 mm, hindfoot 68-78 mm; weight 1.2-8 kg (males) and 0.9-1.4 kg (females). The Southern Giant Pouched Ratis the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, brown or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snout is long and pointed, with dark rings around eyes. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is often commensal with humans,living at high densities in some urban and periurban environments. It excavates burrows, primarily with its teeth, typically at bases of large trees or boulders.Food and Feeding.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, seeds, and tubers that might be cached in a burrow. Gut morphology is complex, and passage rates are slow, adaptations to exploit nutrient-poor foods. Coprophagy appears to pass on gut microbes from mother to offspring to assist with digestion.Breeding.Pregnant Southern Giant Pouched Rats have mostly been recorded during the rainy season in September—May. Averagelittersize is three young for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus). Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at c.20 weeks for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat. Southern Giant Pouched Rats can survive c.8 years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal, with two peaks in activity and a lull between 22:00 h and 01:00 h. Most of the night is spent in a burrow, and only one-quarter of the night spent outside. It is terrestrial but might also climb.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system. Average home range was 4-9 ha, with males wandering over larger areas than females. Densities might be high in prime habitat; 42 individuals were captured on a 0-5ha garden in Harare, Zimbabwe.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat causes damage to crops and orchards and is often persecuted. It is hunted for food over much ofits distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have suffered from a range contraction or reduced population. Due to its acute sense of smell and high level of intelligence,it has been trained to detect land mines.Bibliography.Ajayi (1975), Ansell & Dowsett (1988), Ewer (1967), Genest-Villard (1967), Knight (1984), Knight & Knight-Eloff (1987), Monadjem et al. (2015), Morris (1963), Olayemi et al. (2012), Perrin & Kokkinn (1986), Poling et al. (2010), Ray & Duplantier (2013), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers &Tello (1976), Smithers & Wilson (1979).","taxonomy":"of C. ansorgeiis currently unclear, and it might represent a species complex. Recent molecular studies of Cricetomyshave not fully aligned with morphological studies, suggesting that traditional morphological traits may not be useful in distinguishing species in this genus. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Cricétome d’Ansorge @fr | Sidliche Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante meridional @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1904","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cricetomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"196","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ansorgei","name":"Cricetomys ansorgei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. a. ansorgei Thomas, 1904— from DR Congo S of the Congo River extending E to Kenya, and S to Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa.a. cosenst Hinton, 1919 — Zanzibar, Tanzania. a. elgonis Thomas, 1910 — Mt Elgon, Uganda—Kenya. DoDD a. enguvi Heller, 1912 — Taita Hills, Kenya.a. kenyensis Osgood, 1910 — Mt Kenya.. a. microtis Lonnberg, 1917 — Virunga Mts, DR Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600452/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ajayi (1975) | Ansell & Dowsett (1988) | Ewer (1967) | Genest-Villard (1967) | Knight (1984) | Knight & Knight-Eloff (1987) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Morris (1963) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Perrin & Kokkinn (1986) | Poling et al. (2010) | Ray & Duplantier (2013) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers &Tello (1976) | Smithers & Wilson (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"The Southern Giant Pouched Rat mostly eats fruits, seeds, and tubers that might be cached in a burrow. Gut morphology is complex, and passage rates are slow, adaptations to exploit nutrient-poor foods. Coprophagy appears to pass on gut microbes from mother to offspring to assist with digestion.","breeding":"Pregnant Southern Giant Pouched Rats have mostly been recorded during the rainy season in September—May. Averagelittersize is three young for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat (C. gambianus). Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at c.20 weeks for the closely related Northern Giant Pouched Rat. Southern Giant Pouched Rats can survive c.8 years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal, with two peaks in activity and a lull between 22:00 h and 01:00 h. Most of the night is spent in a burrow, and only one-quarter of the night spent outside. It is terrestrial but might also climb.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system. Average home range was 4-9 ha, with males wandering over larger areas than females. Densities might be high in prime habitat; 42 individuals were captured on a 0-5ha garden in Harare, Zimbabwe.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat causes damage to crops and orchards and is often persecuted. It is hunted for food over much ofits distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have suffered from a range contraction or reduced population. Due to its acute sense of smell and high level of intelligence,it has been trained to detect land mines.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 288-413 mm, tail 345-449 mm, ear 32-42 mm, hindfoot 68-78 mm; weight 1.2-8 kg (males) and 0.9-1.4 kg (females). The Southern Giant Pouched Ratis the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, brown or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snout is long and pointed, with dark rings around eyes. Ears are relatively long. Tailis slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests. The Southern Giant Pouched Rat is often commensal with humans,living at high densities in some urban and periurban environments. It excavates burrows, primarily with its teeth, typically at bases of large trees or boulders."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFF22F74BCB50FECE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFF0F5BFF22F74BCB50FECE","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"196","verbatimText":"38.Kivu Giant Pouched RatCricetomys kivuensisFrench:Cricétome du Kivu/ German:Kivu-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante de KivuTaxonomy.Cricetomys kivuensis Lonnberg, 1917,Masisi, DR Congo.The distinctiveness of this species has recently been questioned on molecular and morphological grounds, and may therefore not represent a distinct species. Further studies are required to resolve the taxonomy of this genus. Monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to the Albertine Rift in E DR Congo, SW Uganda, W Rwanda, and N Burundi.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.320 mm, tail ¢.340 mm, ear c.45 mm, hindfoot c.69 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroid rat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is relatively long and soft, grayish dorsally shading to off-white ventrally. Snout is long and pointed. There are no dark rings around eyes as are typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbsare relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Montane forest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Other species of Cricetomysare hunted extensively for food. If the Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is also hunted in its limited distribution, its conservation status could be negatively affected.Bibliography.Fa & Purvis (1997), Malcolm & Ray (2000), Monadjem et al. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Ray & Duplantier (2013), Rosevear (1969).","taxonomy":"Cricetomys kivuensis Lonnberg, 1917,Masisi, DR Congo.The distinctiveness of this species has recently been questioned on molecular and morphological grounds, and may therefore not represent a distinct species. Further studies are required to resolve the taxonomy of this genus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cricétome du Kivu @fr | Kivu-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante de Kivu @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lonnberg","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1917","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cricetomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"196","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kivuensis","name":"Cricetomys kivuensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Restricted to the Albertine Rift in E DR Congo, SW Uganda, W Rwanda, and N Burundi.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600450/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Fa & Purvis (1997) | Malcolm & Ray (2000) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Ray & Duplantier (2013) | Rosevear (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Other species of Cricetomysare hunted extensively for food. If the Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is also hunted in its limited distribution, its conservation status could be negatively affected.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.320 mm, tail ¢.340 mm, ear c.45 mm, hindfoot c.69 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kivu Giant Pouched Rat is a very large muroid rat, with well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is relatively long and soft, grayish dorsally shading to off-white ventrally. Snout is long and pointed. There are no dark rings around eyes as are typical in other species of Cricetomys. Ears are relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal one-half. Limbsare relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Montane forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/99/38/03993828FFFF0F5BFF3DFDEAC867F70F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03993828FFFF0F5BFF3DFDEAC867F70F","docName":"hbmw_7_Nesomyidae_0156.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa04050fff20f56ff90ffbfcc75ffa3","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"196","verbatimText":"37.Northern Giant Pouched RatCricetomys gambianusFrench:Cricétome de Gambie/ German:Gambia-Riesenhamsterratte/ Spanish:Rata de abazones gigante septentrionalOther common names:Gambian Giant Pouched RatTaxonomy.Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse, 1840,Gambia River, The Gambia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Extending continuously from Senegal E to South Sudan and Uganda, and S to Congo River, DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 284-386 mm, tail 247-405 mm, ear 35-40 mm, hindfoot 62-73 mm; weight 0.5-1.5 kg. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, grayish or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snoutis long and pointed, with dark ring around eyes. Earsare relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.Habitat.Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests.Food and Feeding.The Northern Giant Pouched Rat eats mostly fruits, seeds, and tubers, which may be cached in a burrow. Coprophagy appears to pass gut microbes from motherto offspring to assist with digestion.Breeding.Pregnant Northern Giant Pouched Rats are present throughout the year, suggesting aseasonal breeding. Average litter size is three young. Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at ¢.20 weeks, and longevity is more than four years in captivity.Activity patterns.The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, but it might also climb. It is often commensal with humans. It excavates burrows.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Northern Giant Pouched Ratis typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system, but multiple individuals have been reported in a single burrow. Based on counts of burrows, densities can be high in prime habitat; 45 burrows were found on a 5ha farm in Nigeria.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat can damage crops and orchards and is therefore often persecuted. It is also hunted for food over much of its distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.Bibliography.Ajayi (1975, 1977), Anizoba (1982), Duplantier & Granjon (2013), Ewer (1967), Fa et al. (2005), Happold (1987), Monadjem etal. (2015), Olayemi et al. (2012), Rosevear (1969).","taxonomy":"Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse, 1840,Gambia River, The Gambia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Cricétome de Gambie @fr | Gambia-Riesenhamsterratte @de | Rata de abazones gigante septentrional @es | Gambian Giant Pouched Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1840","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Nesomyidae","interpretedGenus":"Cricetomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"196","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gambianus","name":"Cricetomys gambianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Extending continuously from Senegal E to South Sudan and Uganda, and S to Congo River, DR Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6600448/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ajayi (1975, 1977) | Anizoba (1982) | Duplantier & Granjon (2013) | Ewer (1967) | Fa et al. (2005) | Happold (1987) | Monadjem etal. (2015) | Olayemi et al. (2012) | Rosevear (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"The Northern Giant Pouched Rat eats mostly fruits, seeds, and tubers, which may be cached in a burrow. Coprophagy appears to pass gut microbes from motherto offspring to assist with digestion.","breeding":"Pregnant Northern Giant Pouched Rats are present throughout the year, suggesting aseasonal breeding. Average litter size is three young. Gestation is 27-42 days. Growth is rapid, with sexual maturity at ¢.20 weeks, and longevity is more than four years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, but it might also climb. It is often commensal with humans. It excavates burrows.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Northern Giant Pouched Ratis typically solitary, with one individual occupying a burrow system, but multiple individuals have been reported in a single burrow. Based on counts of burrows, densities can be high in prime habitat; 45 burrows were found on a 5ha farm in Nigeria.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat can damage crops and orchards and is therefore often persecuted. It is also hunted for food over much of its distribution. Despite these pressures, it does not appear to have a contracted distribution or reduced population.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 284-386 mm, tail 247-405 mm, ear 35-40 mm, hindfoot 62-73 mm; weight 0.5-1.5 kg. The Northern Giant Pouched Rat is the largest muroid rat within its distribution and has well-developed cheek pouches. Fur is long and harsh to the touch, grayish or grayish brown dorsally, shading to white or cream ventrally. Snoutis long and pointed, with dark ring around eyes. Earsare relatively long. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length, with terminal one-half conspicuously white compared with dark proximal onehalf. Limbs are relatively short, with four digits on forefeet and five digits on hindfeet.","habitat":"Wide range of savanna, woodlands, and forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF0087E3170D6E051EFFA84.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFF0087E3170D6E051EFFA84","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"218","verbatimText":"8.Bengal Slow LorisNycticebus bengalensisFrench:Loris du Bengale/ German:Bengalen-Plumplori/ Spanish:Loris perezoso de BengalaOther common names:Ashy Slow Loris, Northern Slow LorisTaxonomy.Lori bengalensis Lacépede, 1800, India, Bengal.There is considerable variation in body size and pelage coloration, but there are no consistent differences between individuals east and west of the Mekong River. There is a small hybrid zone between N. bengalensisand N. coucangin southern peninsular Thailand. Although sympatric with N. pygmaeus, there is no evidence of hybridization between the two. Monotypic.Distribution.E Bangladesh, NE India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur & Mizoram states), S China (S Yunnan Province, from about 25° Nin Yunnan and the Pearl River in the E, and possibly S Guangxi Province), Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), N & C Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and possibly N of Peninsular Malaysia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 34-38 cm,tail vestigial; weight 650-2100 g. Larger than the other species of slow lorises, with shorter ears and a pale head. The general color of the Bengal Slow Lorisis variable, but the pelage is generally orange-buff with considerable frosting on the neck and forelimbs. The head, nape, and forepart of shoulders are creamy-gray, white, or gray, and the dorsal stripe is thin and brown to gray to blackish-brown. The stripe can merge with indistinct head forks to very distinct head forks. The second incisor is always present.Habitat.Tropical evergreen rainforest, acacia-scrub forest, dry dipterocarp and semievergreen forest, and moist deciduous forest. The forest types where the Bengal Slow Loris is found are probably even more variable, because the geographic range is so large, but the species remainslittle studied. It is known to occur close to agricultural fields and plantations but is usually found in habitats with interconnecting branches and vines up to 20 m above the ground. The Bengal Slow Loris occurs at elevations from sea level to 2400 m. Individuals tend to use large diameter and tall trees, with greater crown depths, and tend to avoid habitats with sparsely crowned trees.Food and Feeding.Two of four recent studies found that gum is extremely important to the Bengal Slow Loris. Gum of Bauhinia(Fabaceae) lianas is commonly eaten in Thailand. In Tripura, India, gum is not a fallback food but preferred, because Bengal Slow Lorises feed on exudates 67-94% of the time, depending on the season. They also feed on nectar, fruit, bark, invertebrates, and bird eggs. They lick and scrape insects and gums off bark and also gouge holes to stimulate gum flow. In Cambodia, they eat leaves of Terminaliaalata (Combretaceae), flying insects that they catch with one hand, and tree bark.Breeding.Data on the breeding behavior of the Bengal Slow Loris are not available from the wild. The following data from the Duke Lemur Center are from individuals labeled as the Sunda Slow Loris (N. coucang) but that seem to be in the size range of the Bengal Slow Loris. The majority of animals in this colony at the Duke Lemur Center are Bengal Slow Lorises, but a few are Sunda Slow Lorises and some are definitely hybrids, so the Center’s data should be viewed with caution. Females born in the colony copulate for the first time at 18-24 months old. A male that reached sexual maturity in the colony sired hisfirst offspring at 17 months old. Estrous cycles were 29-45 days, with copulations usually occurring during one day of estrus. Gestation averaged 192-2 days. Although a postpartum estrus was observed in three cases following infant death, no conceptions resulted. Lactation lasts approximately six months.Activity patterns.The Bengal Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. In Cambodia, they are significantly more active under little moonlight than during bright moonlight. This predator-rich environment was also more open, and individuals had to move across vulnerable habitat; lunar phobia is likely a valuable tactic to lorises in such a situation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known about the social behavior of the Begal Slow Loris. Short studies have been carried out in Thailand, India (two), and Cambodia, but none of them used radio-tracking, and individuals could not be identified. Begal Slow Lorises seem to be relatively solitary and silent, although social grooming and social feeding at a gum lick have been observed. Individuals move 40-600 m in one hour. Bengal Slow Lorises move on the ground through grass to reach sparse trees and spend equal amounts of time traveling through the tallest trees at heights of 25 m. Surveys for the Bengal Slow Loris in seven protected areas in Cambodia in 2006-2009 resulted in sightings in two of them (Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Kulen National Park) with populations estimated at 25-75 ind/ km?. Sightings were at c.12 m above the ground. In a study of microhabitat selection in mostly undisturbed, evergreen tropical forest compared with 15-18year-old Acacia/ Leucaena(Fabaceae) plantations with significant secondary regrowth, loris densities in older plantations were nearly identical to primary forest (4:3 ind/km?®vs. 4 ind/km?).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. All species of Nycticebuswere transferred from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES in June 2007 due to increasing and unsustainable international trade. The Bengal Slow Lorisis protected throughoutits range under the national laws of India, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, and Thailand. Despite this and the upgrade to CITES Appendix I, abuse and trade certainly continues in Cambodia and undoubtedly throughout its range. It is threatened by loss of habitat. hunting for food, and use in traditional Asian medicine. In Cambodia, large numbers of dried lorises can be seen in market places, where they are sold in the belief that they provide a tonic for women after childbirth, are helpful for stomach problems and promote the healing of wounds and broken bones, and can serve in the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Corresponding to its enormous geographic range, the Begal Slow Lorisoccurs in numerous protected areas in Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, and possibly in Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia.Bibliography.Choudhury (1992, 2002), Das, N. et al. (2009), Fitch-Snyder & Ehrlich (2003), Fitch-Snyder & Vu (2002), Groves (2001), lzard et al. (1988), Johns (1986b), Le Khac Quet & Nguyen Vu Khoi (2010), Molur et al. (2003), Nekaris & Nijman (2007b), Pliosungnoen et al. (2010), Radhakrishna et al. (2006), Rogers & Nekaris (2011), Starr et al. (2010, 2011), Swapna et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Lori bengalensis Lacépede, 1800, India, Bengal.There is considerable variation in body size and pelage coloration, but there are no consistent differences between individuals east and west of the Mekong River. There is a small hybrid zone between N. bengalensisand N. coucangin southern peninsular Thailand. Although sympatric with N. pygmaeus, there is no evidence of hybridization between the two. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Loris du Bengale @fr | Bengalen-Plumplori @de | Loris perezoso de Bengala @es | Ashy Slow Loris @en | Northern Slow Loris @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lacepede","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1800","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Nycticebus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"218","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bengalensis","name":"Nycticebus bengalensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Bangladesh, NE India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur & Mizoram states), S China (S Yunnan Province, from about 25° Nin Yunnan and the Pearl River in the E, and possibly S Guangxi Province), Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), N & C Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and possibly N of Peninsular Malaysia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632669/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Choudhury (1992, 2002) | Das, N. et al. (2009) | Fitch-Snyder & Ehrlich (2003) | Fitch-Snyder & Vu (2002) | Groves (2001) | lzard et al. (1988) | Johns (1986b) | Le Khac Quet & Nguyen Vu Khoi (2010) | Molur et al. (2003) | Nekaris & Nijman (2007b) | Pliosungnoen et al. (2010) | Radhakrishna et al. (2006) | Rogers & Nekaris (2011) | Starr et al. (2010, 2011) | Swapna et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"Two of four recent studies found that gum is extremely important to the Bengal Slow Loris. Gum of Bauhinia(Fabaceae) lianas is commonly eaten in Thailand. In Tripura, India, gum is not a fallback food but preferred, because Bengal Slow Lorises feed on exudates 67-94% of the time, depending on the season. They also feed on nectar, fruit, bark, invertebrates, and bird eggs. They lick and scrape insects and gums off bark and also gouge holes to stimulate gum flow. In Cambodia, they eat leaves of Terminaliaalata (Combretaceae), flying insects that they catch with one hand, and tree bark.","breeding":"Data on the breeding behavior of the Bengal Slow Loris are not available from the wild. The following data from the Duke Lemur Center are from individuals labeled as the Sunda Slow Loris (N. coucang) but that seem to be in the size range of the Bengal Slow Loris. The majority of animals in this colony at the Duke Lemur Center are Bengal Slow Lorises, but a few are Sunda Slow Lorises and some are definitely hybrids, so the Center’s data should be viewed with caution. Females born in the colony copulate for the first time at 18-24 months old. A male that reached sexual maturity in the colony sired hisfirst offspring at 17 months old. Estrous cycles were 29-45 days, with copulations usually occurring during one day of estrus. Gestation averaged 192-2 days. Although a postpartum estrus was observed in three cases following infant death, no conceptions resulted. Lactation lasts approximately six months.","activityPatterns":"The Bengal Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. In Cambodia, they are significantly more active under little moonlight than during bright moonlight. This predator-rich environment was also more open, and individuals had to move across vulnerable habitat; lunar phobia is likely a valuable tactic to lorises in such a situation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Little is known about the social behavior of the Begal Slow Loris. Short studies have been carried out in Thailand, India (two), and Cambodia, but none of them used radio-tracking, and individuals could not be identified. Begal Slow Lorises seem to be relatively solitary and silent, although social grooming and social feeding at a gum lick have been observed. Individuals move 40-600 m in one hour. Bengal Slow Lorises move on the ground through grass to reach sparse trees and spend equal amounts of time traveling through the tallest trees at heights of 25 m. Surveys for the Bengal Slow Loris in seven protected areas in Cambodia in 2006-2009 resulted in sightings in two of them (Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Kulen National Park) with populations estimated at 25-75 ind/ km?. Sightings were at c.12 m above the ground. In a study of microhabitat selection in mostly undisturbed, evergreen tropical forest compared with 15-18year-old Acacia/ Leucaena(Fabaceae) plantations with significant secondary regrowth, loris densities in older plantations were nearly identical to primary forest (4:3 ind/km?®vs. 4 ind/km?).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. All species of Nycticebuswere transferred from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES in June 2007 due to increasing and unsustainable international trade. The Bengal Slow Lorisis protected throughoutits range under the national laws of India, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, and Thailand. Despite this and the upgrade to CITES Appendix I, abuse and trade certainly continues in Cambodia and undoubtedly throughout its range. It is threatened by loss of habitat. hunting for food, and use in traditional Asian medicine. In Cambodia, large numbers of dried lorises can be seen in market places, where they are sold in the belief that they provide a tonic for women after childbirth, are helpful for stomach problems and promote the healing of wounds and broken bones, and can serve in the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Corresponding to its enormous geographic range, the Begal Slow Lorisoccurs in numerous protected areas in Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, and possibly in Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 34-38 cm,tail vestigial; weight 650-2100 g. Larger than the other species of slow lorises, with shorter ears and a pale head. The general color of the Bengal Slow Lorisis variable, but the pelage is generally orange-buff with considerable frosting on the neck and forelimbs. The head, nape, and forepart of shoulders are creamy-gray, white, or gray, and the dorsal stripe is thin and brown to gray to blackish-brown. The stripe can merge with indistinct head forks to very distinct head forks. The second incisor is always present.","habitat":"Tropical evergreen rainforest, acacia-scrub forest, dry dipterocarp and semievergreen forest, and moist deciduous forest. The forest types where the Bengal Slow Loris is found are probably even more variable, because the geographic range is so large, but the species remainslittle studied. It is known to occur close to agricultural fields and plantations but is usually found in habitats with interconnecting branches and vines up to 20 m above the ground. The Bengal Slow Loris occurs at elevations from sea level to 2400 m. Individuals tend to use large diameter and tall trees, with greater crown depths, and tend to avoid habitats with sparsely crowned trees."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF0087F3468D0E3523AF86B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFF0087F3468D0E3523AF86B","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"218","verbatimText":"9.Sunda Slow LorisNycticebus coucangFrench:Loris lent/ German:Sunda-Plumplori/ Spanish:Loris perezoso de SondaOther common names:Greater Slow Loris, Sumatran Slow LorisTaxonomy.Tardigradus coucang Boddaert, 1785Malaysia, Malacca.Initial research seems to indicate that there may be two distinct forms on Sumatra and that populations in Singapore, Malaysia, peninsular Thailand, and Bangka are also very distinct. There is a small hybrid zone of this species and N. bengalensisin the south of peninsular Thailand. Monotypic.Distribution.S Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (including Pinang, Langkawi & Tioman Is), Singapore, and Sumatra, also Malacca Straits Is and Riau Archipelago (Batam, Galang, Tebingtinggi), and Bunguran in the North Natuna Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-34 cm, tail vestigial; weight 635-850 g. The Sunda Slow Loris is small to medium-sized and the most richly colored of the lorises, with pelage light brown to crimson red and slight frosting on the flanks, and not paler on the neck. The chestis a little grayer than the belly. There is a variable broad, dark dorsal stripe that divides on the head into two distinct branches and encircles the eyes—the pattern of this stripe and the circumocular fork shapes may prove to be useful in identifying the Sunda Slow Loris. Color of the circumocular patch varies depending on the region from where an individual comes, and it may be region-specific. Ears are short.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforest, lower freshwater swamp forest, secondary Padang savanna and resin plantations. The Sunda Slow Loris can be found in forest edge among interconnecting branches and vines, up to 20 m above the ground. It also occurs in relatively urban areas, feeding near street lamps.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Sunda Slow Loris includes mainly fruits, supplemented with leaves, shoots, saps, gums, flowers, seeds, bird eggs, and animal prey (including insects and the occasional bird). Its diet in Malaysia comprised five food types: floral nectar and nectar-producing parts mainly from flowers of the bertram palm (Eugeissona tristis, Arecaceae), phloem sap,fruits, gum, and arthropods. The largest proportion of feeding time was spent on phloem sap (34:9%), floral nectar and nectar-producing parts (31:7%), and fruits (22:5%). Sunda Slow Lorises gouge with their toothcomb to extract gum, excavating large holes in the wood of trees, and use their long tongues to lap it up. Their slow metabolic rate is linked to detoxifying toxic compounds in this plantrich diet.Breeding.Breeding may occur at any time of the year. Female Sunda Slow Lorises are at peak sexual receptivity every 42 days, and their mating call tends to increase in frequency at this time. Normally, a single young is born (occasionally twins) after a 185— 197day gestation. It is difficult to know how accurate this gestation length is because most slow lorises in captivity seem to be Bengal Slow Lorises or hybrids. Newborns are gray with silvery-white limbs and hands, with long glistening hairs that disappear after about eleven weeks. Young cling to their mother until they are four to six weeks old. She then parks them. Rather than learning how to choose food sources by scrounging from the mother, infant Sunda Slow Loris seem to use other mechanisms, one of which may be scent because this species vigorously scent-marks both floral nectaries and gum sites. Captive individuals live for 20 years or more.Activity patterns.The Sunda Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. It is a slow climber but capable of rapid and steady movement through a continuous canopy. It prefers the small-branch niche but can move on trunks and on the ground to cross roads and fields.Movements, Home range and Social organization.One to three Sunda Slow Lorises interact in overlapping home ranges of 10-25 ha. Adult males and adult females are highly territorial and defend their territories aggressively. Many individuals have numerous healed scars and wounds. The Sunda Slow Loris often occurs at very low densities (e.g. 0-01-0-02 ind/km?® in Pasoh Forest Reserve or 0-4 ind/km* in Petaling Jaya, both in Malaysia), but in some areas with better habitat, such as unlogged primary forest, densities are higher (e.g. 0-5—1-2 ind/km?® in the Sungai Tekam Forest, Malaysia or 1-6-4 ind/km?® in the Manjung District, Malaysia). Their social organization is unimale— unifemale, but mating is promiscuous, with multiple males pursuing a single estrous female. Social behaviors include allogrooming, foraging together and contact during the night, adult/infant play, and interactive vocalizations. Sunda Slow Lorises spend 3-10% oftheir time in social proximity during the night. Depending on the site, two to three individuals regularly sleep in contact. They use sleeping sites repeatedly but swap them regularly. They do not sleep in nests, and sleeping sites always comprise branch tangles, bamboo thickets, or dense lianas. Scent marking with urine is the dominant form of communication. Nevertheless, it is becoming clear that various calls are used by Sunda Slow Lorises, but it is difficult for humans to hear some of them. A whistle or irritated “chitter” may be used during conflict. Other vocalizations include an affiliative “krik” call, and a louder call resembling a crow’s caw specific to the Sunda Slow Loris. When mildly disturbed (e.g. when pushed out of a nest box in captivity), they may also produce a low buzzing hiss or growl. To make contact with other individuals, they emit a single high-pitched rising tone, and females use a high whistle when in estrus.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Despite legal protection in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia, Sunda Slow Lorises are frequently taken for use in the pet and medicinal trade, and they are occasionally shot as a crop pest. For the pet trade, incisors are often removed before sale, frequently causing infection and death; if an individual survives and is confiscated, it cannot be rehabilitated for release into the wild. They are frequently killed when crossing powerlines and roads. Although the Sunda Slow Loris is adaptable to various human-induced habitat changes, severe loss of forest cover is a serious threat. They are known to occur in Berbak, Gunung Leuser, and Kerinci-Seblat national parks in Indonesia and Klong Yan Wildife Sanctuary in Thailand. It may occur in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve in Singapore and in the Tarutao and Taman Negara national parks in Malaysia.Bibliography.Acharjyo & Misra (1973), Alterman (1990), Alterman & Hale (1991), Barrett (1981), Chasen (1940), Dykyj (1980), Egozcue & Egozcue (1966), Ehrlich & Macbride (1989), Ehrlich & Musicant (1977), Elliot & Elliot (1967), Fooden (1991a), Garcia et al. (1978), Glassman & Wells (1984), Groves (2001), Heffner & Masterton (1970), lzard et al. (1988), Johns (1986a, 1986b), Montagna et al. (1961), Muller (1979), Munds et al. (2008), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Munds (2010), Nekaris & Nijman (2007a, 2007b), Nekaris, Collins et al. (2010), Nekaris, Shepherd et al. (2010), Rumpler et al. (1987), Seitz (1969), Stanyon et al. (2006), Su et al. (1998), Tenaza et al. (1969), Trent et al. (1977), Weisenseel et al. (1998), Wiens (1995, 2002), Wiens & Zitzmann (1999, 2003a, 2003b), Wilde (1972), Zimmermann (1985a, 1989b).","taxonomy":"Tardigradus coucang Boddaert, 1785Malaysia, Malacca.Initial research seems to indicate that there may be two distinct forms on Sumatra and that populations in Singapore, Malaysia, peninsular Thailand, and Bangka are also very distinct. There is a small hybrid zone of this species and N. bengalensisin the south of peninsular Thailand. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Loris lent @fr | Sunda-Plumplori @de | Loris perezoso de Sonda @es | Greater Slow Loris @en | Sumatran Slow Loris @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Boddaert","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1785","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Nycticebus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"218","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"coucang","name":"Nycticebus coucang","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (including Pinang, Langkawi & Tioman Is), Singapore, and Sumatra, also Malacca Straits Is and Riau Archipelago (Batam, Galang, Tebingtinggi), and Bunguran in the North Natuna Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632671/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Acharjyo & Misra (1973) | Alterman (1990) | Alterman & Hale (1991) | Barrett (1981) | Chasen (1940) | Dykyj (1980) | Egozcue & Egozcue (1966) | Ehrlich & Macbride (1989) | Ehrlich & Musicant (1977) | Elliot & Elliot (1967) | Fooden (1991a) | Garcia et al. (1978) | Glassman & Wells (1984) | Groves (2001) | Heffner & Masterton (1970) | lzard et al. (1988) | Johns (1986a, 1986b) | Montagna et al. (1961) | Muller (1979) | Munds et al. (2008) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Munds (2010) | Nekaris & Nijman (2007a, 2007b) | Nekaris, Collins et al. (2010) | Nekaris, Shepherd et al. (2010) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Seitz (1969) | Stanyon et al. (2006) | Su et al. (1998) | Tenaza et al. (1969) | Trent et al. (1977) | Weisenseel et al. (1998) | Wiens (1995, 2002) | Wiens & Zitzmann (1999, 2003a, 2003b) | Wilde (1972) | Zimmermann (1985a, 1989b)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Sunda Slow Loris includes mainly fruits, supplemented with leaves, shoots, saps, gums, flowers, seeds, bird eggs, and animal prey (including insects and the occasional bird). Its diet in Malaysia comprised five food types: floral nectar and nectar-producing parts mainly from flowers of the bertram palm (Eugeissona tristis, Arecaceae), phloem sap,fruits, gum, and arthropods. The largest proportion of feeding time was spent on phloem sap (34:9%), floral nectar and nectar-producing parts (31:7%), and fruits (22:5%). Sunda Slow Lorises gouge with their toothcomb to extract gum, excavating large holes in the wood of trees, and use their long tongues to lap it up. Their slow metabolic rate is linked to detoxifying toxic compounds in this plantrich diet.","breeding":"Breeding may occur at any time of the year. Female Sunda Slow Lorises are at peak sexual receptivity every 42 days, and their mating call tends to increase in frequency at this time. Normally, a single young is born (occasionally twins) after a 185— 197day gestation. It is difficult to know how accurate this gestation length is because most slow lorises in captivity seem to be Bengal Slow Lorises or hybrids. Newborns are gray with silvery-white limbs and hands, with long glistening hairs that disappear after about eleven weeks. Young cling to their mother until they are four to six weeks old. She then parks them. Rather than learning how to choose food sources by scrounging from the mother, infant Sunda Slow Loris seem to use other mechanisms, one of which may be scent because this species vigorously scent-marks both floral nectaries and gum sites. Captive individuals live for 20 years or more.","activityPatterns":"The Sunda Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. It is a slow climber but capable of rapid and steady movement through a continuous canopy. It prefers the small-branch niche but can move on trunks and on the ground to cross roads and fields.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"One to three Sunda Slow Lorises interact in overlapping home ranges of 10-25 ha. Adult males and adult females are highly territorial and defend their territories aggressively. Many individuals have numerous healed scars and wounds. The Sunda Slow Loris often occurs at very low densities (e.g. 0-01-0-02 ind/km?® in Pasoh Forest Reserve or 0-4 ind/km* in Petaling Jaya, both in Malaysia), but in some areas with better habitat, such as unlogged primary forest, densities are higher (e.g. 0-5—1-2 ind/km?® in the Sungai Tekam Forest, Malaysia or 1-6-4 ind/km?® in the Manjung District, Malaysia). Their social organization is unimale— unifemale, but mating is promiscuous, with multiple males pursuing a single estrous female. Social behaviors include allogrooming, foraging together and contact during the night, adult/infant play, and interactive vocalizations. Sunda Slow Lorises spend 3-10% oftheir time in social proximity during the night. Depending on the site, two to three individuals regularly sleep in contact. They use sleeping sites repeatedly but swap them regularly. They do not sleep in nests, and sleeping sites always comprise branch tangles, bamboo thickets, or dense lianas. Scent marking with urine is the dominant form of communication. Nevertheless, it is becoming clear that various calls are used by Sunda Slow Lorises, but it is difficult for humans to hear some of them. A whistle or irritated “chitter” may be used during conflict. Other vocalizations include an affiliative “krik” call, and a louder call resembling a crow’s caw specific to the Sunda Slow Loris. When mildly disturbed (e.g. when pushed out of a nest box in captivity), they may also produce a low buzzing hiss or growl. To make contact with other individuals, they emit a single high-pitched rising tone, and females use a high whistle when in estrus.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Despite legal protection in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia, Sunda Slow Lorises are frequently taken for use in the pet and medicinal trade, and they are occasionally shot as a crop pest. For the pet trade, incisors are often removed before sale, frequently causing infection and death; if an individual survives and is confiscated, it cannot be rehabilitated for release into the wild. They are frequently killed when crossing powerlines and roads. Although the Sunda Slow Loris is adaptable to various human-induced habitat changes, severe loss of forest cover is a serious threat. They are known to occur in Berbak, Gunung Leuser, and Kerinci-Seblat national parks in Indonesia and Klong Yan Wildife Sanctuary in Thailand. It may occur in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve in Singapore and in the Tarutao and Taman Negara national parks in Malaysia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 30-34 cm, tail vestigial; weight 635-850 g. The Sunda Slow Loris is small to medium-sized and the most richly colored of the lorises, with pelage light brown to crimson red and slight frosting on the flanks, and not paler on the neck. The chestis a little grayer than the belly. There is a variable broad, dark dorsal stripe that divides on the head into two distinct branches and encircles the eyes—the pattern of this stripe and the circumocular fork shapes may prove to be useful in identifying the Sunda Slow Loris. Color of the circumocular patch varies depending on the region from where an individual comes, and it may be region-specific. Ears are short.","habitat":"Primary and secondary lowland rainforest, lower freshwater swamp forest, secondary Padang savanna and resin plantations. The Sunda Slow Loris can be found in forest edge among interconnecting branches and vines, up to 20 m above the ground. It also occurs in relatively urban areas, feeding near street lamps."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF1087C34BED26E527FF74D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFF1087C34BED26E527FF74D","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"219","verbatimText":"11.Bornean Slow LorisNycticebus menagensisFrench:Loris de Menage/ German:Borneo-Plumplori/ Spanish:Loris perezoso de BorneoOther common names:Philippine Slow LorisTaxonomy.Nycticebus menagensis Trouessart, 1897, Philippines, Tawitawi.Extremely variable in color and size on the island of Borneo and surrounding small islands. Earlier authors recognized distinct taxa in the region. Two described by Lyon in 1906: bancanus, from Klabat Bay, Bangka Island, and borneanus from the Sakaiam River, Sanggau District, western Kalimantan, Borneo; and a third philippinus described by Cabrera in 1908, supposedly from Mindanao, but now restricted to the Sulu Archipelago, Philippines. In 1953, W. C. O. Hill subsumed these to subspecies of N. coucang. C. P. Groves in his taxonomic review of the genus published in 1971 concluded that these three forms should be considered junior synonyms of N. coucang menagensis. This taxonomy he maintained in subsequent publications in 2001 and 2005, as well as in a paper written with I. Maryanto in 2008. Current assessments based on museum specimens, however, suggest that these three forms may be taxonomically distinct. Their appearances are described below, but further research is needed. The form natunae described by Stone and Rehn in 1902, from Bunguran, one of the Natuna Islands,is considered by Groves to be a synonym of N. coucang, the Sunda Slow Loris, but modern-day photos ally it, in appearance, to the Bornean Slow Loris. Hill described it as russet in color with very dark facial markings and dorsal stripe, which does not match photos of slow lorises sent from Bunguran. This too deserves further investigation. Monotypic.Distribution.Borneo, the islands off the SE coast of Sumatra Bangka and Belitung, and the Philippines (Sulu Archipelago); old reports from Mindanao are erroneous.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27-30 cm,tail vestigial; weight 265— 800 g. The Bornean Slow Loris is the smallest of the Indonesian slow lorises, although weights vary considerably. The very smallest weights are adults from museum records, whose skins and teeth confirm adult status. This suggests that these animals may indeed be a distinct smaller species. In “true” Bornean Slow Loris, the fur is pale golden to red; head markings are virtually lacking, but a dark dorsal stripe is almost always present. Ears are short and close to the head, almost giving the appearance of no ears at all. There is a consistent absence of a second upper incisor. Three variants of the Bornean Slow Loris exist and correspond with earlier descriptions (see Taxonomy section). The form philippinusfrom the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines is similar to typical N. menagensis(the “true form”), but itis even paler and almost always lacks a dorsal stripe. The form borneanus from West Kalimantan is easily confused with the Sunda Slow Loris (N. coucang), but it is larger and more woody brown, with much darker facial markings, a deep woody brown dorsal stripe, longer fur, and more prominent ears; two variants of this forms exist with unique facial patterns. The form bancanusfrom Bangka Island is ruby colored and has no frosting;its facial markings are similarly rufousin tint, and the spinal stripe is ill-defined.Habitat.Primary, secondary, tropical, moist, montane, evergreen, peat swamp, submontane evergreen, coastal lowland, riparian, dry coastal, gallery, and deciduous forests.Food and Feeding.One observation was made of the Bornean Slow Loris eating gum. Based onits cranio-dental morphology, it has been proposed that it is more insectivorous than its congeners.Breeding.The Bornean Slow Loris has not yet been held in captivity, and little is known about its breeding. It gives birth to a single infant. Infants have been seen throughout the year in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo.Activity patterns.The Bornean Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. It is sympatric with tarsiers in many parts of its range, and it might move higher in the canopy than other slow lorises as a result. It goes to the ground, butit is mostly seen above 10 m high in the forest.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Very little is known about the social organization of the Bornean Slow Loris. It is very reluctant to enter traps. A first attempt to study it at the Sabangau National Park, Central Kalimantan, yielded only twelve sightings in 75 days. The median distance of a loris from the transect line was about 13 m, and all individuals were seen at heights of 15-20 m in the trees. Lorises were encountered singly, in mother—offspring pairs, or in adult trios. Two trios were observed in fruiting trees: Calophyllumhose: (Calophyllaceae) and Syzygiumcf. nigricans (Myrtaceae). Another survey at Wehea, East Kalimantan, yielded similar results, with only one loris encountered in more than 30 km (0-02 ind/km). It was seen in the canopy at 30 m. Other attempts to find the Bornean Slow Loris have proved equally futile. In 46,000 trap nights in Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, K. Wells and coworkers caught only one animal (three times). J]. W. Duckworth reported in 1997 that he was unable to record loris presence in Similajau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo, after 77 hours of nocturnal walks. In her study in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sabah, Malaysia, R. Munds found low densities of the Bornean Slow Loris. The primary study site there, the Danau Girang Field Centre, was a riparian secondary forest. Only three lorises (on average at 20 m in the canopy) were spotted during 35 night surveys. All were alone and traveling between two trees by lianas or vines. All lorises were sighted at least 100 m away from any of the major rivers that surrounded the Danau Girang Field Centre. One loris, spotted at 05:30 h, moved along a branch toward a 15 m high thicket of vines and leaves. The sighting may indicate that such thickets provide sleeping sites for Bornean Slow Lorises.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Bornean Slow Loris appears to be rare throughoutits range, with a 30% reduction in its population over that last 24 years. Extensive use in the pet trade and habitat loss are primary threats. Ethnographic survey records suggest local extinction on some islands of the Tawi-Tawi group (Philippines), although it is still likely found on some other small islands. It occurs in a number of protected areas: Tasek Merimbun Wildlife Sanctuary in Brunei; national parks of Berbak, Bukit Baka Buki Raya, Kayan Mentarang, and Sabangau in Indonesia; and national parks of Bako, Crocker Range, Gunung Mulu, and Kinabalu in Malaysia.Bibliography.Chen Jinghua et al. (2006), Duckworth (1997), Fooden (1991a), Groves (1971, 1998, 2001), Groves & Maryanto (2008), Hill (1953d), Munds (2010), Munds et al. (2008), Nekaris & Munds (2010), Nekaris & Nijman (2007b), Nekaris, Blackham & Nijman (2008), Nekaris, Collins et al. (2010), Nekaris, Shepherd et al. (2010), Ravosa (1998), Su Bing et al. (1998), Timm & Birney (1992), Wells et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Nycticebus menagensis Trouessart, 1897, Philippines, Tawitawi.Extremely variable in color and size on the island of Borneo and surrounding small islands. Earlier authors recognized distinct taxa in the region. Two described by Lyon in 1906: bancanus, from Klabat Bay, Bangka Island, and borneanus from the Sakaiam River, Sanggau District, western Kalimantan, Borneo; and a third philippinus described by Cabrera in 1908, supposedly from Mindanao, but now restricted to the Sulu Archipelago, Philippines. In 1953, W. C. O. Hill subsumed these to subspecies of N. coucang. C. P. Groves in his taxonomic review of the genus published in 1971 concluded that these three forms should be considered junior synonyms of N. coucang menagensis. This taxonomy he maintained in subsequent publications in 2001 and 2005, as well as in a paper written with I. Maryanto in 2008. Current assessments based on museum specimens, however, suggest that these three forms may be taxonomically distinct. Their appearances are described below, but further research is needed. The form natunae described by Stone and Rehn in 1902, from Bunguran, one of the Natuna Islands,is considered by Groves to be a synonym of N. coucang, the Sunda Slow Loris, but modern-day photos ally it, in appearance, to the Bornean Slow Loris. Hill described it as russet in color with very dark facial markings and dorsal stripe, which does not match photos of slow lorises sent from Bunguran. This too deserves further investigation. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Loris de Menage @fr | Borneo-Plumplori @de | Loris perezoso de Borneo @es | Philippine Slow Loris @en","interpretedAuthority":"Trouessart, 1897","interpretedAuthorityName":"Trouessart","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1897","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Nycticebus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"219","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"menagensis","name":"Nycticebus menagensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Borneo, the islands off the SE coast of Sumatra Bangka and Belitung, and the Philippines (Sulu Archipelago); old reports from Mindanao are erroneous.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632677/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chen Jinghua et al. (2006) | Duckworth (1997) | Fooden (1991a) | Groves (1971, 1998, 2001) | Groves & Maryanto (2008) | Hill (1953d) | Munds (2010) | Munds et al. (2008) | Nekaris & Munds (2010) | Nekaris & Nijman (2007b) | Nekaris, Blackham & Nijman (2008) | Nekaris, Collins et al. (2010) | Nekaris, Shepherd et al. (2010) | Ravosa (1998) | Su Bing et al. (1998) | Timm & Birney (1992) | Wells et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"One observation was made of the Bornean Slow Loris eating gum. Based onits cranio-dental morphology, it has been proposed that it is more insectivorous than its congeners.","breeding":"The Bornean Slow Loris has not yet been held in captivity, and little is known about its breeding. It gives birth to a single infant. Infants have been seen throughout the year in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo.","activityPatterns":"The Bornean Slow Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. It is sympatric with tarsiers in many parts of its range, and it might move higher in the canopy than other slow lorises as a result. It goes to the ground, butit is mostly seen above 10 m high in the forest.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Very little is known about the social organization of the Bornean Slow Loris. It is very reluctant to enter traps. A first attempt to study it at the Sabangau National Park, Central Kalimantan, yielded only twelve sightings in 75 days. The median distance of a loris from the transect line was about 13 m, and all individuals were seen at heights of 15-20 m in the trees. Lorises were encountered singly, in mother—offspring pairs, or in adult trios. Two trios were observed in fruiting trees: Calophyllumhose: (Calophyllaceae) and Syzygiumcf. nigricans (Myrtaceae). Another survey at Wehea, East Kalimantan, yielded similar results, with only one loris encountered in more than 30 km (0-02 ind/km). It was seen in the canopy at 30 m. Other attempts to find the Bornean Slow Loris have proved equally futile. In 46,000 trap nights in Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, K. Wells and coworkers caught only one animal (three times). J]. W. Duckworth reported in 1997 that he was unable to record loris presence in Similajau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo, after 77 hours of nocturnal walks. In her study in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sabah, Malaysia, R. Munds found low densities of the Bornean Slow Loris. The primary study site there, the Danau Girang Field Centre, was a riparian secondary forest. Only three lorises (on average at 20 m in the canopy) were spotted during 35 night surveys. All were alone and traveling between two trees by lianas or vines. All lorises were sighted at least 100 m away from any of the major rivers that surrounded the Danau Girang Field Centre. One loris, spotted at 05:30 h, moved along a branch toward a 15 m high thicket of vines and leaves. The sighting may indicate that such thickets provide sleeping sites for Bornean Slow Lorises.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Bornean Slow Loris appears to be rare throughoutits range, with a 30% reduction in its population over that last 24 years. Extensive use in the pet trade and habitat loss are primary threats. Ethnographic survey records suggest local extinction on some islands of the Tawi-Tawi group (Philippines), although it is still likely found on some other small islands. It occurs in a number of protected areas: Tasek Merimbun Wildlife Sanctuary in Brunei; national parks of Berbak, Bukit Baka Buki Raya, Kayan Mentarang, and Sabangau in Indonesia; and national parks of Bako, Crocker Range, Gunung Mulu, and Kinabalu in Malaysia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 27-30 cm,tail vestigial; weight 265— 800 g. The Bornean Slow Loris is the smallest of the Indonesian slow lorises, although weights vary considerably. The very smallest weights are adults from museum records, whose skins and teeth confirm adult status. This suggests that these animals may indeed be a distinct smaller species. In “true” Bornean Slow Loris, the fur is pale golden to red; head markings are virtually lacking, but a dark dorsal stripe is almost always present. Ears are short and close to the head, almost giving the appearance of no ears at all. There is a consistent absence of a second upper incisor. Three variants of the Bornean Slow Loris exist and correspond with earlier descriptions (see Taxonomy section). The form philippinusfrom the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines is similar to typical N. menagensis(the “true form”), but itis even paler and almost always lacks a dorsal stripe. The form borneanus from West Kalimantan is easily confused with the Sunda Slow Loris (N. coucang), but it is larger and more woody brown, with much darker facial markings, a deep woody brown dorsal stripe, longer fur, and more prominent ears; two variants of this forms exist with unique facial patterns. The form bancanusfrom Bangka Island is ruby colored and has no frosting;its facial markings are similarly rufousin tint, and the spinal stripe is ill-defined.","habitat":"Primary, secondary, tropical, moist, montane, evergreen, peat swamp, submontane evergreen, coastal lowland, riparian, dry coastal, gallery, and deciduous forests."} @@ -372,77 +372,77 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF80876326DD73F539BFA06.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFF80876326DD73F539BFA06","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"210","verbatimText":"Family LORISIDAE(ANGWANTIBOS, POTTOS AND LORISES)• Small prosimians with forelimbs and hindlimbs of similar length, rounded head, large eyes, small ears, opposable hands and feet, and vestigial tail.• 20-50 cm.• Afrotropical and Indo-Malayan Regions.• Swamp, lowland, flooded, riparian, semi-evergreen, dry dipterocarp, and mid-elevation to montane forests and secondary and forest-edge, coastal scrub, woodland, and plantations.• 4 genera, 12 species, 18 taxa.• 2 species Endangered, 4 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFF908743193DD8A5455FED9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFF908743193DD8A5455FED9","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"211","verbatimText":"1.Calabar AngwantiboArctocebus calabarensisFrench:Potto de Calabar/ German:Barenmaki/ Spanish:Poto dorado de CalabarOther common names:Angwantibo, Golden Potto of CalabarTaxonomy.Perodicticus calabarensis J. A. Smith, 1860, Nigeria, Old Calabar.“Angwantibo” is the name ofthis primate in the Ibibio language from southern Nigeria. The Golden Potto (A. aureus) was formerly considered to be a subspecies. Monotypic.Distribution.W Central Africa, from SW Cameroon (E Niger River) to S Nigeria (Sanaga River).Descriptive notes.Head-body 26-35 cm, tail 1 cm; weight 230-465 g. Small and woolly with a vestigial tail that can be mistaken as testes and confuses identification ofsexes at night. Sexes alike in size and color and are difficult to tell apart from a distance; yellow-brown above, with a whitish or grayish underside. The muzzle is pointed, and no facial markings are evident. Ears are small and rounded. There is a white line on the face from the brow to the nose. Second and third digits of the hand are greatly reduced. Infants are woollier and more muted in color but otherwise resemble adults.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforest, high deciduous forest, and derived savanna zone, where they are most typicalin tree-fall zones. The Calabar Angwantibois sometimes found on farmland edges and plantations. Individuals spend much of their time in the tangle shrub layer and are able to use very small branches, vines, and lianas; they are usually encountered below 3 m above the ground.Food and Feeding.The Calabar Angwantibo seems to be primarily insectivorous. Diet is mainly known from analyses of stomach contents; insects (mostly caterpillars and beetles) make up the bulk ofthe diet, but snails, lizards, and fruits are also eaten. Recently captured angwantibos have eaten orthopterans, mantids, beetles, and snails.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, but they are more common between January and April. The estrous cycle is 36-45 days. Gestation is 130-133 days, producing one offspring of about 35 g, which is weaned at 3-5 months. Minimum interbirth interval is 4-5 months, meaning that two young can be produced in one year—a very different system from the Asian lorises. Sexual maturity occurs at 9-10 months. Young are carried on the mother’s fur or parked while she forages. Longevity in captivity 1s c.13 years.Activity patterns.Calabar Angwantibos are arboreal and nocturnal, and they can be seen throughout the night, almost always alone. They move in a continuous and slow fashion using small branches on which they can maintain a grip with their shortened digits. They travel on the ground when they have to. Rapid movement is possible when threatened, but they also adopt a defense posture. An angwantibo will hunch its back and tuck its head between its arms. It will then thrust its back toward a predator with mouth open, confounding the predator that cannot detect which end is the head. In this way, the angwantibo can bite the predator from beneath its armpit.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Calabar Angwantibo has a steady non-leaping locomotion and relies on continuous supports. No study has yet been undertaken ofthe species’ home range or social organization. The Calabar Angwantibo was mainly solitary and did not appear to vocalize in the Rhoko Forest, adjacent to Cross River National Park in south-eastern Nigeria. Adult males fight if placed together in captivity. The Calabar Angwantibosleeps by day in an upright position in dense vegetation where it is protected from sun, wind, rain, and predators.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Calabar Angwantibo is sometimes hunted for food in Nigeria. Broadscale forest clearing for plantations, agriculture, and wood products negatively affect the Calabar Angwantibo, but it can use secondary forests if sufficient undergrowth for movement and safety remains. It is known to occur in four protected areas: Korup National Park in Cameroon and Cross River National Park, Akpaka Forest Reserve, and MamuRiver Forest Reserve in Nigeria. It also occurs in the proposed Mount Kupe Forest Reserve in Cameroon.Bibliography.Bearder & Honess (1992), Charles-Dominique (1966), Groves (2001), Hill (1953d), Hill & Meester (1971), Jenkins (1987), Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b), Jones (1982), Kingdon (1997), Manley (1974), Montagna et al. (1966), Oates & Jewell (1967), Pimley (2009), Rode (1947), Sanderson (1940), Schein (2008), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b).","taxonomy":"Perodicticus calabarensis J. A. Smith, 1860, Nigeria, Old Calabar.“Angwantibo” is the name ofthis primate in the Ibibio language from southern Nigeria. The Golden Potto (A. aureus) was formerly considered to be a subspecies. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Potto de Calabar @fr | Barenmaki @de | Poto dorado de Calabar @es | Angwantibo @en | Golden Potto of Calabar @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1860","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Arctocebus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"211","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"calabarensis","name":"Arctocebus calabarensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Central Africa, from SW Cameroon (E Niger River) to S Nigeria (Sanaga River).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632653/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bearder & Honess (1992) | Charles-Dominique (1966) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1953d) | Hill & Meester (1971) | Jenkins (1987) | Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b) | Jones (1982) | Kingdon (1997) | Manley (1974) | Montagna et al. (1966) | Oates & Jewell (1967) | Pimley (2009) | Rode (1947) | Sanderson (1940) | Schein (2008) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Calabar Angwantibo seems to be primarily insectivorous. Diet is mainly known from analyses of stomach contents; insects (mostly caterpillars and beetles) make up the bulk ofthe diet, but snails, lizards, and fruits are also eaten. Recently captured angwantibos have eaten orthopterans, mantids, beetles, and snails.","breeding":"Births occur throughout the year, but they are more common between January and April. The estrous cycle is 36-45 days. Gestation is 130-133 days, producing one offspring of about 35 g, which is weaned at 3-5 months. Minimum interbirth interval is 4-5 months, meaning that two young can be produced in one year—a very different system from the Asian lorises. Sexual maturity occurs at 9-10 months. Young are carried on the mother’s fur or parked while she forages. Longevity in captivity 1s c.13 years.","activityPatterns":"Calabar Angwantibos are arboreal and nocturnal, and they can be seen throughout the night, almost always alone. They move in a continuous and slow fashion using small branches on which they can maintain a grip with their shortened digits. They travel on the ground when they have to. Rapid movement is possible when threatened, but they also adopt a defense posture. An angwantibo will hunch its back and tuck its head between its arms. It will then thrust its back toward a predator with mouth open, confounding the predator that cannot detect which end is the head. In this way, the angwantibo can bite the predator from beneath its armpit.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Calabar Angwantibo has a steady non-leaping locomotion and relies on continuous supports. No study has yet been undertaken ofthe species’ home range or social organization. The Calabar Angwantibo was mainly solitary and did not appear to vocalize in the Rhoko Forest, adjacent to Cross River National Park in south-eastern Nigeria. Adult males fight if placed together in captivity. The Calabar Angwantibosleeps by day in an upright position in dense vegetation where it is protected from sun, wind, rain, and predators.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Calabar Angwantibo is sometimes hunted for food in Nigeria. Broadscale forest clearing for plantations, agriculture, and wood products negatively affect the Calabar Angwantibo, but it can use secondary forests if sufficient undergrowth for movement and safety remains. It is known to occur in four protected areas: Korup National Park in Cameroon and Cross River National Park, Akpaka Forest Reserve, and MamuRiver Forest Reserve in Nigeria. It also occurs in the proposed Mount Kupe Forest Reserve in Cameroon.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 26-35 cm, tail 1 cm; weight 230-465 g. Small and woolly with a vestigial tail that can be mistaken as testes and confuses identification ofsexes at night. Sexes alike in size and color and are difficult to tell apart from a distance; yellow-brown above, with a whitish or grayish underside. The muzzle is pointed, and no facial markings are evident. Ears are small and rounded. There is a white line on the face from the brow to the nose. Second and third digits of the hand are greatly reduced. Infants are woollier and more muted in color but otherwise resemble adults.","habitat":"Primary and secondary lowland rainforest, high deciduous forest, and derived savanna zone, where they are most typicalin tree-fall zones. The Calabar Angwantibois sometimes found on farmland edges and plantations. Individuals spend much of their time in the tangle shrub layer and are able to use very small branches, vines, and lianas; they are usually encountered below 3 m above the ground."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFA0874316BD4D25034FE36.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFFA0874316BD4D25034FE36","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"212","verbatimText":"2.Golden AngwantiboArctocebus aureusFrench:Potto doré/ German:Gold-Barenmaki/ Spanish:Poto doradoOther common names:Golden PottoTaxonomy.Arctocebus aureus de Winton, 1902, 80 km from mouth of Benito River, Equatorial Guinea.This species was for many years considered a subspecies of A. calabarensis. Monotypic.Distribution.Cameroon (S Sanaga River) S and E to the Congo/Ubangiriver system in Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Angola; it may be present in W DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22-26 cm, tail 1-2 cm; weight 200-270 g. The Golden Angwantibo is much smaller and more slender than the Calabar Angwantibo, with golden-red dorsal pelage and reddish-buftf underparts. Small and woolly with a vestigial tail that can be mistaken for male testes in the field. Sexes are alike in size and color. The muzzle is pointed, and ears are small, rounded, and naked. Limbs are slender and the second and third digits on the hand are greatly reduced. Juveniles are darker than adults.Habitat.Primary and secondary rainforest and high deciduous forest, especially in tree-fall areas at low to medium elevations. Golden Angwantibos are sometimes found on farmland edges and plantations. Individuals spend much of their time in the tangled shrub layer. They tend to use branches and lianas of small size classes around which they can firmly clasp their hands and feet. They prefer dense forest that provides continuous walkways through the vegetation.Food and Feeding.Diet is known from limited observations: analyses of stomach contents and controlled taste tests of wild animals in field conditions. The Golden Angwantibo is mainly insectivorous, consuming animal prey, especially caterpillars and other noxious prey ignored by the up to five sympatric nocturnal primate species with which it might occur. Insects are supplemented with fruits and gums. In Gabon, 85% of the diet was insects, 14% fruit, and 1% wood fiber, with the most common prey being caterpillars (65%) and beetles (20%). The Golden Angwantibo often forages in the undergrowth below a height of 5 m but occasionally to 15 m. It sometimes feeds on the ground, probably using scent and olfaction. Angwantibos hold caterpillars by the head with their mouth and wipe their hands along the caterpillar’s body, for up to 20 seconds, to removeirritating hairs. Captive angwantibos have refused fruit but have accepted all insect species offered to them.Breeding.The Golden Angwantibo gives birth to one infant weighing 24-30 g and can give birth twice a year. Births can occur throughout the year, but there seem to be fewer during the dry season. Parturition takes place on a branch. Gestation is 131-136 days, with weaning at 100-130 days. Interbirth interval is 4-5 months. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months of age.Activity patterns.The Golden Angwantibos are arboreal and nocturnal, and they move slowly in dense vegetation. Like the Calabar Angwantibo, it adopts a threat posture when disturbed. Guard hairs on the back allow an individual to feel its environment and also probably allow it to detect predators or dangers on conspicuous parts ofits body. If disturbed in a tree, the Golden Angwantibo may roll into a ball and fall to the ground or a lower branch. It relies on small branches that it can clasp, giving it a sense of security. It sleeps in dense tangles of vegetation where it is protected from sun, wind, rain, and predators.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Golden Angwantibo has a steady non-leaping locomotion, and it relies on continuous supports. No study has been done on its home range. In north-eastern Gabon, Golden Angwantibos seem to forage alone c.97% of the time and in pairs only ¢.2% of the time. They sleep singly except for a mother with her infant. They utter few audible vocalizations and scent-mark copiously. Studies of similar Asian lorises, however, suggest that high-frequency whistles that are difficult for humans to hear may be emitted by the Golden Angwantibo. Known vocalizations are a “tsic” for mother—infant contact, a deep two-phase groan (inhalation, exhalation) for threat, and a “wheet” for distress.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Golden Angwantibo is listed as a Class B species under the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; Class B species are protected but may be hunted, collected, or captured only “under special authorization granted by the competent authority.” Because ofits small size, the Golden Agwantibo is not hunted by humans to any great extent, but like the Calabar Angwantibo, loss of habitat is a significant threat, particularly broad-scale disturbances that removed forest undergrowth. The Golden Agwantibo may occur in Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea and in some newly established parks in Gabon, but these areas have not been adequately surveyed.Bibliography.Charles-Dominique (1966, 1971, 1974a, 1974b, 1977a), Groves (2001), Hill (1953d), Jenkins (1987), Kingdon (1997), Maier (1980), Manley (1967), Sanderson (1940), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b), Thomas (1913).","taxonomy":"Arctocebus aureus de Winton, 1902, 80 km from mouth of Benito River, Equatorial Guinea.This species was for many years considered a subspecies of A. calabarensis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Potto doré @fr | Gold-Barenmaki @de | Poto dorado @es | Golden Potto @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"de Winton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1902","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Arctocebus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"212","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aureus","name":"Arctocebus aureus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Cameroon (S Sanaga River) S and E to the Congo/Ubangiriver system in Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Angola; it may be present in W DR Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632655/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Charles-Dominique (1966, 1971, 1974a, 1974b, 1977a) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1953d) | Jenkins (1987) | Kingdon (1997) | Maier (1980) | Manley (1967) | Sanderson (1940) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b) | Thomas (1913)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet is known from limited observations: analyses of stomach contents and controlled taste tests of wild animals in field conditions. The Golden Angwantibo is mainly insectivorous, consuming animal prey, especially caterpillars and other noxious prey ignored by the up to five sympatric nocturnal primate species with which it might occur. Insects are supplemented with fruits and gums. In Gabon, 85% of the diet was insects, 14% fruit, and 1% wood fiber, with the most common prey being caterpillars (65%) and beetles (20%). The Golden Angwantibo often forages in the undergrowth below a height of 5 m but occasionally to 15 m. It sometimes feeds on the ground, probably using scent and olfaction. Angwantibos hold caterpillars by the head with their mouth and wipe their hands along the caterpillar’s body, for up to 20 seconds, to removeirritating hairs. Captive angwantibos have refused fruit but have accepted all insect species offered to them.","breeding":"The Golden Angwantibo gives birth to one infant weighing 24-30 g and can give birth twice a year. Births can occur throughout the year, but there seem to be fewer during the dry season. Parturition takes place on a branch. Gestation is 131-136 days, with weaning at 100-130 days. Interbirth interval is 4-5 months. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months of age.","activityPatterns":"The Golden Angwantibos are arboreal and nocturnal, and they move slowly in dense vegetation. Like the Calabar Angwantibo, it adopts a threat posture when disturbed. Guard hairs on the back allow an individual to feel its environment and also probably allow it to detect predators or dangers on conspicuous parts ofits body. If disturbed in a tree, the Golden Angwantibo may roll into a ball and fall to the ground or a lower branch. It relies on small branches that it can clasp, giving it a sense of security. It sleeps in dense tangles of vegetation where it is protected from sun, wind, rain, and predators.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Golden Angwantibo has a steady non-leaping locomotion, and it relies on continuous supports. No study has been done on its home range. In north-eastern Gabon, Golden Angwantibos seem to forage alone c.97% of the time and in pairs only ¢.2% of the time. They sleep singly except for a mother with her infant. They utter few audible vocalizations and scent-mark copiously. Studies of similar Asian lorises, however, suggest that high-frequency whistles that are difficult for humans to hear may be emitted by the Golden Angwantibo. Known vocalizations are a “tsic” for mother—infant contact, a deep two-phase groan (inhalation, exhalation) for threat, and a “wheet” for distress.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Golden Angwantibo is listed as a Class B species under the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; Class B species are protected but may be hunted, collected, or captured only “under special authorization granted by the competent authority.” Because ofits small size, the Golden Agwantibo is not hunted by humans to any great extent, but like the Calabar Angwantibo, loss of habitat is a significant threat, particularly broad-scale disturbances that removed forest undergrowth. The Golden Agwantibo may occur in Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea and in some newly established parks in Gabon, but these areas have not been adequately surveyed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 22-26 cm, tail 1-2 cm; weight 200-270 g. The Golden Angwantibo is much smaller and more slender than the Calabar Angwantibo, with golden-red dorsal pelage and reddish-buftf underparts. Small and woolly with a vestigial tail that can be mistaken for male testes in the field. Sexes are alike in size and color. The muzzle is pointed, and ears are small, rounded, and naked. Limbs are slender and the second and third digits on the hand are greatly reduced. Juveniles are darker than adults.","habitat":"Primary and secondary rainforest and high deciduous forest, especially in tree-fall areas at low to medium elevations. Golden Angwantibos are sometimes found on farmland edges and plantations. Individuals spend much of their time in the tangled shrub layer. They tend to use branches and lianas of small size classes around which they can firmly clasp their hands and feet. They prefer dense forest that provides continuous walkways through the vegetation."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFA08753460D7FA57A0FB23.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFFA08753460D7FA57A0FB23","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"212","verbatimText":"3.West African PottoPerodicticus pottoFrench:Potto de Bosman/ German:Potto/ Spanish:Poto occidentalOther common names:Potto, Western Potto; Benin Potto (juju), Bosman'’s Potto (potto), Mount Kenya Potto (stockleyi)Taxonomy.Lemur potto P. L. S. Miller, 1766, Ghana, Elmina.Data from mtDNA indicated that pottoand former subspecies edwards: and ibeanus deserved species designation as shown by C. Roos and coworkers in 2004, a finding supported by marked differences in body size and skull morphology. The form from Benin (juju) is probably also a distinct species, but it is not recognized here. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, but others may well be found in the future.Subspecies and Distribution.P.p.pottoP.LL.S.Miller,1766—SESenegal,SEGuinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana(WVoltaRiver);itspresenceinGambia,Guinea-Bissau,andmostofGuineahasnotyetbeenconfirmed.P.p.jyyuThomas,1910—EbankofVoltaRiverinSEGhanathroughSTogoandSBeninintoSWNigeria.P. p. stockleyi Butynski & de Jong, 2007— SW Kenya (Mt Kenya).Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.30 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 850-1000 g. The West African Potto is the smallest of the potto species, also notable for its relatively long tail and small teeth. Its body is covered by a coat of dense, dark brown fur, with a dark median stripe and pale hands and feet. Ears are slightly yellowish inside and prominent due to short pelage on the head. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a nuchal shield. There are long, black, guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region. The “Mount Kenya Potto” (P. p. stockleyi) is quite distinct with a reddish snout; relatively short, creamy, ventral hairs; pale to yellowish brown chin; and cinnamon colored face. Hair on the crown is short (5 mm) and tipped with glossy cinnamon. The shoulder saddle is not very woolly but glossy and strongly tipped with cinnamon; hairs behind the shoulders are tipped with cinnamon and mostly silvery gray.Habitat.Primary, montane, successional, flooded, riparian, and secondary lowland rainforest. The West African Potto is sometimes found in farms, plantations, and wooded savanna. It commonly moves in the midto upper canopy, 10-20 m or more from the ground. The type specimen of the Mount Kenya Potto was found in montane forest at 1830 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum.Breeding.The West African Potto has one or occasionally two offspring a year. Infants are rarely parked in trees. Data from captivity indicate a gestation of 193-205 days (but the species in captivity are not always known and may be hybrids). Weight at birth is 30-42 g. Weaning occurs at 120-180 days. Young are sexually mature at six months, and young males disperse. Pottos, in general, may live 26 years in captivity.Activity patterns.The West African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and slow-climbing, but it is capable of swift continuous movement. It moves in the canopy at 5-30 m on medium-sized oblique branches. Basal metabolic rate (36-40 kcal/day/kg “7) is about one-half that expected for a mammal of its size. The potto has a larger brain than predicted from its low metabolic rate. When faced with predators, all species of pottos are equipped with three physical adaptations that make them a formidable adversary: a scapular shield produced by a combination of raised apophyseal cervical spines, some of which protrude above the skin in the form of tubercles, covered by thick skin and bristles of sensory hair, that offers protection, defense, and acute sensitivity; muscular hands that allow the potto to firmly grip a substrate without falling off (a potto can support up to 15 times its weight); and the retia mirabilia of the proximal limbs, a dense web of blood vessels that allow stillness for extended periods. The potto first faces a predator uttering a series of grunts, open-mouthed, and butting with the shield. If it fails to dislodge the predator, the potto simply drops to the ground, moves rapidly through the undergrowth and disappears to safety. Low vertebral spines of the thorax may increase flexibility allowing a potto to twist serpentine-like through the canopy. Such movements enable pottos to bridge gaps and search for food while remaining suspended in one spot.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other pottos, the West African relies on continuous substrates for movement through the canopy. It has not been studied in detail in the wild. Pottos sleep in dense foliage or clumps with branches or forks and do not build nests. Densities range from 4-7 ind/km* on Mount Kupe in Cameroon to 810 ind/km? in north-eastern Gabon.On following pages: 4. Milne-Edwards’s Potto(Perodicticus edwardsi); 5. East African Potto(Perodicticus ibeanus).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies potto is also classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, and the subspecies stockleyi is classified as Data Deficient; it is known only from a single specimen in the Kenya National Museum, Nairobi, and efforts through interviews and field surveys to locate a surviving wild population have been unsuccessful, which means it may be extinct. The subspecies juju (the “Benin Potto”) is not listed on The IUCN Red List, and its conservation status has not been assessed. The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas: the national parks of Bia, Kakum, and Kyabobo in Ghana; Tai National Park and Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in the Ivory Coast; Sapo National Park in Liberia; Okomu National Park in Nigeria; Tiwali Island Wildlife Sanctuary in Sierra Leone; and Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal. Overall, West African Pottos are widespread and common.Bibliography.Bearder & Pitts (1987), Bearder et al. (2003), Bender & Chu (1963), Buckanoff et al. (2006), Butler & Juma (1970), Butynski & de Jong (2007), Charles-Dominique (1977a), Cowgill (1969, 1974), Cowgill et al. (1989), Frederick (1998), Frederick & Fernandes (1994, 1996), Gosling (1982), Grand et al. (1964a, 1964b), Groves (2001), Grubb (1978), Grubb et al. (2003), Heffner & Masterton (1970), Hildwein & Goffart (1975), Hill (1953d), Ioannou (1966), Jenkins (1987), Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b), Jouffroy et al. (1983), Kingdon (1971), Manley (1966), McGrew et al. (1978), Montagna & Ellis (1959), Montagna & Yun Jeung-Soon (1962b), Napier & Napier (1967), Oates (1984, 2011), Petter & Petter-Rousseaux (1979), Pollock (1986d), Ravosa (2007), Roos et al. (2004), Rumpler et al. (1987), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b), Suckling et al. (1969), Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970).","taxonomy":"Lemur potto P. L. S. Miller, 1766, Ghana, Elmina.Data from mtDNA indicated that pottoand former subspecies edwards: and ibeanus deserved species designation as shown by C. Roos and coworkers in 2004, a finding supported by marked differences in body size and skull morphology. The form from Benin (juju) is probably also a distinct species, but it is not recognized here. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, but others may well be found in the future.","commonNames":"Potto de Bosman @fr | Potto @de | Poto occidental @es | Potto @en | Western Potto; Benin Potto (juju) @en | Bosman'’s Potto (potto) @en | Mount Kenya Potto (stockleyi) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Muller","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1766","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Perodicticus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"212","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"potto","name":"Perodicticus potto","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.p.pottoP.LL.S.Miller,1766—SESenegal,SEGuinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana(WVoltaRiver);itspresenceinGambia,Guinea-Bissau,andmostofGuineahasnotyetbeenconfirmed.P.p.jyyuThomas,1910—EbankofVoltaRiverinSEGhanathroughSTogoandSBeninintoSWNigeria.P. p. stockleyi Butynski & de Jong, 2007— SW Kenya (Mt Kenya).","bibliography":"Bearder & Pitts (1987) | Bearder et al. (2003) | Bender & Chu (1963) | Buckanoff et al. (2006) | Butler & Juma (1970) | Butynski & de Jong (2007) | Charles-Dominique (1977a) | Cowgill (1969, 1974) | Cowgill et al. (1989) | Frederick (1998) | Frederick & Fernandes (1994, 1996) | Gosling (1982) | Grand et al. (1964a, 1964b) | Groves (2001) | Grubb (1978) | Grubb et al. (2003) | Heffner & Masterton (1970) | Hildwein & Goffart (1975) | Hill (1953d) | Ioannou (1966) | Jenkins (1987) | Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b) | Jouffroy et al. (1983) | Kingdon (1971) | Manley (1966) | McGrew et al. (1978) | Montagna & Ellis (1959) | Montagna & Yun Jeung-Soon (1962b) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Oates (1984, 2011) | Petter & Petter-Rousseaux (1979) | Pollock (1986d) | Ravosa (2007) | Roos et al. (2004) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b) | Suckling et al. (1969) | Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information for this species, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum.","breeding":"The West African Potto has one or occasionally two offspring a year. Infants are rarely parked in trees. Data from captivity indicate a gestation of 193-205 days (but the species in captivity are not always known and may be hybrids). Weight at birth is 30-42 g. Weaning occurs at 120-180 days. Young are sexually mature at six months, and young males disperse. Pottos, in general, may live 26 years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"The West African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and slow-climbing, but it is capable of swift continuous movement. It moves in the canopy at 5-30 m on medium-sized oblique branches. Basal metabolic rate (36-40 kcal/day/kg “7) is about one-half that expected for a mammal of its size. The potto has a larger brain than predicted from its low metabolic rate. When faced with predators, all species of pottos are equipped with three physical adaptations that make them a formidable adversary: a scapular shield produced by a combination of raised apophyseal cervical spines, some of which protrude above the skin in the form of tubercles, covered by thick skin and bristles of sensory hair, that offers protection, defense, and acute sensitivity; muscular hands that allow the potto to firmly grip a substrate without falling off (a potto can support up to 15 times its weight); and the retia mirabilia of the proximal limbs, a dense web of blood vessels that allow stillness for extended periods. The potto first faces a predator uttering a series of grunts, open-mouthed, and butting with the shield. If it fails to dislodge the predator, the potto simply drops to the ground, moves rapidly through the undergrowth and disappears to safety. Low vertebral spines of the thorax may increase flexibility allowing a potto to twist serpentine-like through the canopy. Such movements enable pottos to bridge gaps and search for food while remaining suspended in one spot.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like other pottos, the West African relies on continuous substrates for movement through the canopy. It has not been studied in detail in the wild. Pottos sleep in dense foliage or clumps with branches or forks and do not build nests. Densities range from 4-7 ind/km* on Mount Kupe in Cameroon to 810 ind/km? in north-eastern Gabon.On following pages: 4. Milne-Edwards’s Potto(Perodicticus edwardsi); 5. East African Potto(Perodicticus ibeanus).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies potto is also classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, and the subspecies stockleyi is classified as Data Deficient; it is known only from a single specimen in the Kenya National Museum, Nairobi, and efforts through interviews and field surveys to locate a surviving wild population have been unsuccessful, which means it may be extinct. The subspecies juju (the “Benin Potto”) is not listed on The IUCN Red List, and its conservation status has not been assessed. The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas: the national parks of Bia, Kakum, and Kyabobo in Ghana; Tai National Park and Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in the Ivory Coast; Sapo National Park in Liberia; Okomu National Park in Nigeria; Tiwali Island Wildlife Sanctuary in Sierra Leone; and Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal. Overall, West African Pottos are widespread and common.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.30 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 850-1000 g. The West African Potto is the smallest of the potto species, also notable for its relatively long tail and small teeth. Its body is covered by a coat of dense, dark brown fur, with a dark median stripe and pale hands and feet. Ears are slightly yellowish inside and prominent due to short pelage on the head. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a nuchal shield. There are long, black, guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region. The “Mount Kenya Potto” (P. p. stockleyi) is quite distinct with a reddish snout; relatively short, creamy, ventral hairs; pale to yellowish brown chin; and cinnamon colored face. Hair on the crown is short (5 mm) and tipped with glossy cinnamon. The shoulder saddle is not very woolly but glossy and strongly tipped with cinnamon; hairs behind the shoulders are tipped with cinnamon and mostly silvery gray.","habitat":"Primary, montane, successional, flooded, riparian, and secondary lowland rainforest. The West African Potto is sometimes found in farms, plantations, and wooded savanna. It commonly moves in the midto upper canopy, 10-20 m or more from the ground. The type specimen of the Mount Kenya Potto was found in montane forest at 1830 m above sea level."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFA08753460D7FA57A0FB23.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFFA08753460D7FA57A0FB23","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"212","verbatimText":"3.West African PottoPerodicticus pottoFrench:Potto de Bosman/ German:Potto/ Spanish:Poto occidentalOther common names:Potto, Western Potto; Benin Potto (juju), Bosman'’s Potto (potto), Mount Kenya Potto (stockleyi)Taxonomy.Lemur potto P. L. S. Miller, 1766, Ghana, Elmina.Data from mtDNA indicated that pottoand former subspecies edwards: and ibeanus deserved species designation as shown by C. Roos and coworkers in 2004, a finding supported by marked differences in body size and skull morphology. The form from Benin (juju) is probably also a distinct species, but it is not recognized here. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, but others may well be found in the future.Subspecies and Distribution.P.p.pottoP.LL.S.Miller,1766—SESenegal,SEGuinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana(WVoltaRiver);itspresenceinGambia,Guinea-Bissau,andmostofGuineahasnotyetbeenconfirmed.P.p.jyyuThomas,1910—EbankofVoltaRiverinSEGhanathroughSTogoandSBeninintoSWNigeria.P. p. stockleyi Butynski & de Jong, 2007— SW Kenya (Mt Kenya).Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.30 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 850-1000 g. The West African Potto is the smallest of the potto species, also notable for its relatively long tail and small teeth. Its body is covered by a coat of dense, dark brown fur, with a dark median stripe and pale hands and feet. Ears are slightly yellowish inside and prominent due to short pelage on the head. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a nuchal shield. There are long, black, guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region. The “Mount Kenya Potto” (P. p. stockleyi) is quite distinct with a reddish snout; relatively short, creamy, ventral hairs; pale to yellowish brown chin; and cinnamon colored face. Hair on the crown is short (5 mm) and tipped with glossy cinnamon. The shoulder saddle is not very woolly but glossy and strongly tipped with cinnamon; hairs behind the shoulders are tipped with cinnamon and mostly silvery gray.Habitat.Primary, montane, successional, flooded, riparian, and secondary lowland rainforest. The West African Potto is sometimes found in farms, plantations, and wooded savanna. It commonly moves in the midto upper canopy, 10-20 m or more from the ground. The type specimen of the Mount Kenya Potto was found in montane forest at 1830 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum.Breeding.The West African Potto has one or occasionally two offspring a year. Infants are rarely parked in trees. Data from captivity indicate a gestation of 193-205 days (but the species in captivity are not always known and may be hybrids). Weight at birth is 30-42 g. Weaning occurs at 120-180 days. Young are sexually mature at six months, and young males disperse. Pottos, in general, may live 26 years in captivity.Activity patterns.The West African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and slow-climbing, but it is capable of swift continuous movement. It moves in the canopy at 5-30 m on medium-sized oblique branches. Basal metabolic rate (36-40 kcal/day/kg “7) is about one-half that expected for a mammal of its size. The potto has a larger brain than predicted from its low metabolic rate. When faced with predators, all species of pottos are equipped with three physical adaptations that make them a formidable adversary: a scapular shield produced by a combination of raised apophyseal cervical spines, some of which protrude above the skin in the form of tubercles, covered by thick skin and bristles of sensory hair, that offers protection, defense, and acute sensitivity; muscular hands that allow the potto to firmly grip a substrate without falling off (a potto can support up to 15 times its weight); and the retia mirabilia of the proximal limbs, a dense web of blood vessels that allow stillness for extended periods. The potto first faces a predator uttering a series of grunts, open-mouthed, and butting with the shield. If it fails to dislodge the predator, the potto simply drops to the ground, moves rapidly through the undergrowth and disappears to safety. Low vertebral spines of the thorax may increase flexibility allowing a potto to twist serpentine-like through the canopy. Such movements enable pottos to bridge gaps and search for food while remaining suspended in one spot.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other pottos, the West African relies on continuous substrates for movement through the canopy. It has not been studied in detail in the wild. Pottos sleep in dense foliage or clumps with branches or forks and do not build nests. Densities range from 4-7 ind/km* on Mount Kupe in Cameroon to 810 ind/km? in north-eastern Gabon.On following pages: 4. Milne-Edwards’s Potto(Perodicticus edwardsi); 5. East African Potto(Perodicticus ibeanus).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies potto is also classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, and the subspecies stockleyi is classified as Data Deficient; it is known only from a single specimen in the Kenya National Museum, Nairobi, and efforts through interviews and field surveys to locate a surviving wild population have been unsuccessful, which means it may be extinct. The subspecies juju (the “Benin Potto”) is not listed on The IUCN Red List, and its conservation status has not been assessed. The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas: the national parks of Bia, Kakum, and Kyabobo in Ghana; Tai National Park and Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in the Ivory Coast; Sapo National Park in Liberia; Okomu National Park in Nigeria; Tiwali Island Wildlife Sanctuary in Sierra Leone; and Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal. Overall, West African Pottos are widespread and common.Bibliography.Bearder & Pitts (1987), Bearder et al. (2003), Bender & Chu (1963), Buckanoff et al. (2006), Butler & Juma (1970), Butynski & de Jong (2007), Charles-Dominique (1977a), Cowgill (1969, 1974), Cowgill et al. (1989), Frederick (1998), Frederick & Fernandes (1994, 1996), Gosling (1982), Grand et al. (1964a, 1964b), Groves (2001), Grubb (1978), Grubb et al. (2003), Heffner & Masterton (1970), Hildwein & Goffart (1975), Hill (1953d), Ioannou (1966), Jenkins (1987), Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b), Jouffroy et al. (1983), Kingdon (1971), Manley (1966), McGrew et al. (1978), Montagna & Ellis (1959), Montagna & Yun Jeung-Soon (1962b), Napier & Napier (1967), Oates (1984, 2011), Petter & Petter-Rousseaux (1979), Pollock (1986d), Ravosa (2007), Roos et al. (2004), Rumpler et al. (1987), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b), Suckling et al. (1969), Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970).","taxonomy":"Lemur potto P. L. S. Miller, 1766, Ghana, Elmina.Data from mtDNA indicated that pottoand former subspecies edwards: and ibeanus deserved species designation as shown by C. Roos and coworkers in 2004, a finding supported by marked differences in body size and skull morphology. The form from Benin (juju) is probably also a distinct species, but it is not recognized here. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, but others may well be found in the future.","commonNames":"Potto de Bosman @fr | Potto @de | Poto occidental @es | Potto @en | Western Potto; Benin Potto (juju) @en | Bosman'’s Potto (potto) @en | Mount Kenya Potto (stockleyi) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Muller","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1766","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Perodicticus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"212","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"potto","name":"Perodicticus potto","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.p.pottoP.LL.S.Miller,1766—SESenegal,SEGuinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana(WVoltaRiver);itspresenceinGambia,Guinea-Bissau,andmostofGuineahasnotyetbeenconfirmed.P.p.jyyuThomas,1910—EbankofVoltaRiverinSEGhanathroughSTogoandSBeninintoSWNigeria.P. p. stockleyi Butynski & de Jong, 2007— SW Kenya (Mt Kenya).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632657/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bearder & Pitts (1987) | Bearder et al. (2003) | Bender & Chu (1963) | Buckanoff et al. (2006) | Butler & Juma (1970) | Butynski & de Jong (2007) | Charles-Dominique (1977a) | Cowgill (1969, 1974) | Cowgill et al. (1989) | Frederick (1998) | Frederick & Fernandes (1994, 1996) | Gosling (1982) | Grand et al. (1964a, 1964b) | Groves (2001) | Grubb (1978) | Grubb et al. (2003) | Heffner & Masterton (1970) | Hildwein & Goffart (1975) | Hill (1953d) | Ioannou (1966) | Jenkins (1987) | Jewell & Oates (1969a, 1969b) | Jouffroy et al. (1983) | Kingdon (1971) | Manley (1966) | McGrew et al. (1978) | Montagna & Ellis (1959) | Montagna & Yun Jeung-Soon (1962b) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Oates (1984, 2011) | Petter & Petter-Rousseaux (1979) | Pollock (1986d) | Ravosa (2007) | Roos et al. (2004) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b) | Suckling et al. (1969) | Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information for this species, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum.","breeding":"The West African Potto has one or occasionally two offspring a year. Infants are rarely parked in trees. Data from captivity indicate a gestation of 193-205 days (but the species in captivity are not always known and may be hybrids). Weight at birth is 30-42 g. Weaning occurs at 120-180 days. Young are sexually mature at six months, and young males disperse. Pottos, in general, may live 26 years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"The West African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and slow-climbing, but it is capable of swift continuous movement. It moves in the canopy at 5-30 m on medium-sized oblique branches. Basal metabolic rate (36-40 kcal/day/kg “7) is about one-half that expected for a mammal of its size. The potto has a larger brain than predicted from its low metabolic rate. When faced with predators, all species of pottos are equipped with three physical adaptations that make them a formidable adversary: a scapular shield produced by a combination of raised apophyseal cervical spines, some of which protrude above the skin in the form of tubercles, covered by thick skin and bristles of sensory hair, that offers protection, defense, and acute sensitivity; muscular hands that allow the potto to firmly grip a substrate without falling off (a potto can support up to 15 times its weight); and the retia mirabilia of the proximal limbs, a dense web of blood vessels that allow stillness for extended periods. The potto first faces a predator uttering a series of grunts, open-mouthed, and butting with the shield. If it fails to dislodge the predator, the potto simply drops to the ground, moves rapidly through the undergrowth and disappears to safety. Low vertebral spines of the thorax may increase flexibility allowing a potto to twist serpentine-like through the canopy. Such movements enable pottos to bridge gaps and search for food while remaining suspended in one spot.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like other pottos, the West African relies on continuous substrates for movement through the canopy. It has not been studied in detail in the wild. Pottos sleep in dense foliage or clumps with branches or forks and do not build nests. Densities range from 4-7 ind/km* on Mount Kupe in Cameroon to 810 ind/km? in north-eastern Gabon.On following pages: 4. Milne-Edwards’s Potto(Perodicticus edwardsi); 5. East African Potto(Perodicticus ibeanus).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies potto is also classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, and the subspecies stockleyi is classified as Data Deficient; it is known only from a single specimen in the Kenya National Museum, Nairobi, and efforts through interviews and field surveys to locate a surviving wild population have been unsuccessful, which means it may be extinct. The subspecies juju (the “Benin Potto”) is not listed on The IUCN Red List, and its conservation status has not been assessed. The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas: the national parks of Bia, Kakum, and Kyabobo in Ghana; Tai National Park and Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in the Ivory Coast; Sapo National Park in Liberia; Okomu National Park in Nigeria; Tiwali Island Wildlife Sanctuary in Sierra Leone; and Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal. Overall, West African Pottos are widespread and common.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.30 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 850-1000 g. The West African Potto is the smallest of the potto species, also notable for its relatively long tail and small teeth. Its body is covered by a coat of dense, dark brown fur, with a dark median stripe and pale hands and feet. Ears are slightly yellowish inside and prominent due to short pelage on the head. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a nuchal shield. There are long, black, guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region. The “Mount Kenya Potto” (P. p. stockleyi) is quite distinct with a reddish snout; relatively short, creamy, ventral hairs; pale to yellowish brown chin; and cinnamon colored face. Hair on the crown is short (5 mm) and tipped with glossy cinnamon. The shoulder saddle is not very woolly but glossy and strongly tipped with cinnamon; hairs behind the shoulders are tipped with cinnamon and mostly silvery gray.","habitat":"Primary, montane, successional, flooded, riparian, and secondary lowland rainforest. The West African Potto is sometimes found in farms, plantations, and wooded savanna. It commonly moves in the midto upper canopy, 10-20 m or more from the ground. The type specimen of the Mount Kenya Potto was found in montane forest at 1830 m above sea level."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFB0875318FD1895FFDF920.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFFB0875318FD1895FFDF920","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"213","verbatimText":"4.Milne-Edwards’s PottoPerodicticus edwardsiFrench:Potto de Milne-Edwards/ German:Kamerun-Potto/ Spanish:Poto de Milne-EdwardsOther common names:Cameroon Potto, Central African Potto, Central PottoTaxonomy.Perodicticus edwardsi Bouvier, 1879, Congo-Brazzaville, north bank of the Congo River.Classified by C. P. Groves in 2001 as a subspecies of P. potto, but molecular genetic studies have shown it to be a distinct species. There appears to be significant variation among individuals collected from Cameroon and elsewhere, and it is believed that subspecies of P. edwards: may be found with further research. One of these may be a smaller form P. faustus, described by Thomas in 1910 from the Congo Basin, considered to be a synonym by Groves. Monotypic.Distribution.From the Niger River in S Nigeria E through Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Republic of the Congo, and then S of the Congo River through DR Congo as far E as Irneti and as far S as N Angola.Descriptive notes.Head—body 32-40 cm, tail c.10 cm; weight 1.1-6 kg. Milne-Edwards’s Potto is the largest of the pottos, and its tail, although short, is about 50% longer that those of the West African Potto (P. potto) and the East African Potto (P. itbeanus). Pelage is cinnamon-brown to orange above, and lighter underneath. Teeth are larger than those of the West African Potto. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a sort of neck guard. It has long black guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region.Habitat.Swamp, lowland, mid-altitude, and montane rainforests up to 1500 m above sea level. Milne-Edwards’s Potto is most frequently found 6-10 m above the ground in Cameroon, but in Gabon, it occurs 5-30 m above the ground.Food and Feeding.Milne-Edwards’s Potto is mainly frugivorous, but it supplements its diet with a variety of foods. It forages mainly in the canopy, which makes direct observation of their diet choice difficult. Milne-Edwards’s Pottos sometimes go to the ground to forage. Plant material consumed includes ripe fruit and nectaries. They engage in a nose-down foraging posture to lick up ants, other invertebrates, and gum from bark. Insects, presumably beetles and their larvae, may be scavenged from oil palms Elaeis guineensis(Arecaceae). Other prey includes giant West African land snails (Achatina achatina), moths, ants, beetles, beetle larvae, caterpillars, locusts, grasshoppers, spiders, millipedes, centipedes, slugs, frogs, bird eggs, small birds, and young bats. During dry periods, gum seems to become more important in some areas and can comprise 60% of the diet.Breeding.In some parts of their range, Milne-Edwards’s Pottos seem to have a birth peak, whereas in others, births occur year-round; variation is probably related to food abundance. Captive pottos show no seasonal estrus. The estrous cycle is 38 days. Copulations normally begin with side-by-side sniffing; a dorsal-ventral mating posture is adopted and copulation lasts 1-4 minutes. Parturition occurs on a branch. After a gestation of 193-205 days, pottos give birth to one young weighing 52 g; twins are rare. They tend to give birth again after 12-13 months. Infant Milne-Edwards’s Pottos are white and can have blue eyes. A mother carries her infant clinging to the ventrum until it is 3-4 months of age. After that time, the infant is parked among branches and lianas while the mother forages. She retrieves the infant before dawn, and both infant and mother utter high-pitched “tisc” contact calls. By 3-4 months, the young pottois constantly with its mother,either riding on her back or walkingjust behind her. Infants are weaned at 120-180 days. They become independent at 6-8 months, and full sexual maturity is reached by 18 months. Pottos, in general, can live ¢.26 years in captivity and at least nine years in the wild.Activity patterns.Milne-Edwards’s Potto is nocturnal and arboreal. It is an agile climber and does not move as slowly as one might think. When followed using radio-tracking in Cameroon, male pottos traveled an average of 2811 m/night (1330-6440 m/night), and females traveled an average of 707 m/night (951-3290 m/night). Anti-predator strategies are as described for the other taxa.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Milne-Edwards’s Potto is not gregarious, although it maintains complex social networks. In Gabon, they spent 4% of the time with conspecifics and slept alone, except for mothers and infants. In Cameroon, they spent 22% of the time with conspecifics and slept in close proximity 26% of the time. In Cameroon, social behavior, lack of sexual dimorphism, and ranging patterns imply a dispersed unimale—unifemale social system. In Gabon, pottos exhibit a dispersed unimale—multifemale social system, where the male patrols home ranges of one to three females. Home ranges of females in Gabon average 7-5 ha and are about one-half the size of male ranges (17-8-40 ha). Home ranges of males and females at Mount Kupe, south-western Cameroon, are a similar size, with females averaging 31-5 ha and males averaging 30-6 ha. Home ranges of one or two females and their infants overlapped the territory of one male in Gabon, while in Cameroon a male’s range overlapped extensively the range of just one female. Young adult females remain in or near their natal home ranges. Vocal exchanges are limited, with the majority of communication made by olfactory cues (urine marking and genital gland secretions). Such cues are deposited in the environment and on conspecifics. Milne-Edwards’s Pottos in captivity make a high-pitched whistle and growling threat.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as P. pottoedwardsi). Milne-Edwards’s Pottois widespread and common, and although declining in numbers in some areas, it occurs in at least eight protected areas: Korup National Park and Dja Biosphere Reserve in Cameroon; Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of the Congo; Salonga National Park in the DR Congo; Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea; and Cross River National Park, Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary and the Mamu Reserve in Nigeria. It also occurs in the proposed Mount Kupe Forest Reserve in Cameroon and Iko Esai Community Forest in Nigeria.Bibliography.Bearder & Pitts (1987), Bearder et al. (2003), Charles-Dominique (1971, 1974a, 1977a), Cowgill (1969), Cowgill et al. (1989), Groves (1998, 2001), Grubb (1978), Jenkins (1987), Kingdon (1971), Manley (1966), Oates (1984, 2011), Pimley (2002), Pimley et al. (2003, 2005a, 2005b), Pollock (1986d), Schwartz & Beutel (1995), Schwarz (1931b), Suckling et al. (1969), Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970).","taxonomy":"Perodicticus edwardsi Bouvier, 1879, Congo-Brazzaville, north bank of the Congo River.Classified by C. P. Groves in 2001 as a subspecies of P. potto, but molecular genetic studies have shown it to be a distinct species. There appears to be significant variation among individuals collected from Cameroon and elsewhere, and it is believed that subspecies of P. edwards: may be found with further research. One of these may be a smaller form P. faustus, described by Thomas in 1910 from the Congo Basin, considered to be a synonym by Groves. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Potto de Milne-Edwards @fr | Kamerun-Potto @de | Poto de Milne-Edwards @es | Cameroon Potto @en | Central African Potto @en | Central Potto @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bouvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1879","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Perodicticus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"213","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"edwardsi","name":"Perodicticus edwardsi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"From the Niger River in S Nigeria E through Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Republic of the Congo, and then S of the Congo River through DR Congo as far E as Irneti and as far S as N Angola.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632659/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bearder & Pitts (1987) | Bearder et al. (2003) | Charles-Dominique (1971, 1974a, 1977a) | Cowgill (1969) | Cowgill et al. (1989) | Groves (1998, 2001) | Grubb (1978) | Jenkins (1987) | Kingdon (1971) | Manley (1966) | Oates (1984, 2011) | Pimley (2002) | Pimley et al. (2003, 2005a, 2005b) | Pollock (1986d) | Schwartz & Beutel (1995) | Schwarz (1931b) | Suckling et al. (1969) | Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)","foodAndFeeding":"Milne-Edwards’s Potto is mainly frugivorous, but it supplements its diet with a variety of foods. It forages mainly in the canopy, which makes direct observation of their diet choice difficult. Milne-Edwards’s Pottos sometimes go to the ground to forage. Plant material consumed includes ripe fruit and nectaries. They engage in a nose-down foraging posture to lick up ants, other invertebrates, and gum from bark. Insects, presumably beetles and their larvae, may be scavenged from oil palms Elaeis guineensis(Arecaceae). Other prey includes giant West African land snails (Achatina achatina), moths, ants, beetles, beetle larvae, caterpillars, locusts, grasshoppers, spiders, millipedes, centipedes, slugs, frogs, bird eggs, small birds, and young bats. During dry periods, gum seems to become more important in some areas and can comprise 60% of the diet.","breeding":"In some parts of their range, Milne-Edwards’s Pottos seem to have a birth peak, whereas in others, births occur year-round; variation is probably related to food abundance. Captive pottos show no seasonal estrus. The estrous cycle is 38 days. Copulations normally begin with side-by-side sniffing; a dorsal-ventral mating posture is adopted and copulation lasts 1-4 minutes. Parturition occurs on a branch. After a gestation of 193-205 days, pottos give birth to one young weighing 52 g; twins are rare. They tend to give birth again after 12-13 months. Infant Milne-Edwards’s Pottos are white and can have blue eyes. A mother carries her infant clinging to the ventrum until it is 3-4 months of age. After that time, the infant is parked among branches and lianas while the mother forages. She retrieves the infant before dawn, and both infant and mother utter high-pitched “tisc” contact calls. By 3-4 months, the young pottois constantly with its mother,either riding on her back or walkingjust behind her. Infants are weaned at 120-180 days. They become independent at 6-8 months, and full sexual maturity is reached by 18 months. Pottos, in general, can live ¢.26 years in captivity and at least nine years in the wild.","activityPatterns":"Milne-Edwards’s Potto is nocturnal and arboreal. It is an agile climber and does not move as slowly as one might think. When followed using radio-tracking in Cameroon, male pottos traveled an average of 2811 m/night (1330-6440 m/night), and females traveled an average of 707 m/night (951-3290 m/night). Anti-predator strategies are as described for the other taxa.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Milne-Edwards’s Potto is not gregarious, although it maintains complex social networks. In Gabon, they spent 4% of the time with conspecifics and slept alone, except for mothers and infants. In Cameroon, they spent 22% of the time with conspecifics and slept in close proximity 26% of the time. In Cameroon, social behavior, lack of sexual dimorphism, and ranging patterns imply a dispersed unimale—unifemale social system. In Gabon, pottos exhibit a dispersed unimale—multifemale social system, where the male patrols home ranges of one to three females. Home ranges of females in Gabon average 7-5 ha and are about one-half the size of male ranges (17-8-40 ha). Home ranges of males and females at Mount Kupe, south-western Cameroon, are a similar size, with females averaging 31-5 ha and males averaging 30-6 ha. Home ranges of one or two females and their infants overlapped the territory of one male in Gabon, while in Cameroon a male’s range overlapped extensively the range of just one female. Young adult females remain in or near their natal home ranges. Vocal exchanges are limited, with the majority of communication made by olfactory cues (urine marking and genital gland secretions). Such cues are deposited in the environment and on conspecifics. Milne-Edwards’s Pottos in captivity make a high-pitched whistle and growling threat.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as P. pottoedwardsi). Milne-Edwards’s Pottois widespread and common, and although declining in numbers in some areas, it occurs in at least eight protected areas: Korup National Park and Dja Biosphere Reserve in Cameroon; Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of the Congo; Salonga National Park in the DR Congo; Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea; and Cross River National Park, Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary and the Mamu Reserve in Nigeria. It also occurs in the proposed Mount Kupe Forest Reserve in Cameroon and Iko Esai Community Forest in Nigeria.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 32-40 cm, tail c.10 cm; weight 1.1-6 kg. Milne-Edwards’s Potto is the largest of the pottos, and its tail, although short, is about 50% longer that those of the West African Potto (P. potto) and the East African Potto (P. itbeanus). Pelage is cinnamon-brown to orange above, and lighter underneath. Teeth are larger than those of the West African Potto. Vertebrae are specially adapted to form a sort of neck guard. It has long black guard hairs (specialized sensory hairs) dorsally from the crown to the scapular region.","habitat":"Swamp, lowland, mid-altitude, and montane rainforests up to 1500 m above sea level. Milne-Edwards’s Potto is most frequently found 6-10 m above the ground in Cameroon, but in Gabon, it occurs 5-30 m above the ground."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFB08753487D3885003F23B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFFB08753487D3885003F23B","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"213","verbatimText":"5.East African PottoPerodicticus ibeanusFrench:Potto est-africain/ German:Ostafrika-Potto/ Spanish:Poto orientalOther common names:Eastern PottoTaxonomy.Perodicticus ibeanus Thomas, 1910, Kenya, Kakamega Forest.This species is monotypic.Distribution.E DR Congo, E & S of the Ubangi River and N & E of the Congo River, extending E of the Lualaba River to NW Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda, and to the Kakamega and Nandi forests in SW Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.35 cm, tail c¢.5 cm; weight 1.1-2 kg. The East African Potto is intermediate in size compared with the other two recognized species of pottos. It is a relatively small-toothed form. The fur is especially thick and woolly, and hands and feet are dark brown. Dorsal pelage is blackish.Habitat.Swamp, lowland, and mid-altitude montane rainforest from 600 m above sea level. In Kakamega Forest in south-western Kenya, the East African Potto is found in the canopy at 6-15 m off the ground, and it rarely descends to the forest floor.Food and Feeding.Little is known about its foraging habits of the East African Potto, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum. It has been observed to snatch animal prey with two hands and to engage in typical nose-down searching for small insects on branches.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but infants have been seen throughout the year.Activity patterns.The East African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and capable of rapid locomotion. It does not readily enter live traps and despite an attempt to study it for several months in Kakamega Forest, it remained elusive. Whistle calls that probably are used for territorial spacing were heard during the study.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but most East African Pottos are seen alone.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as P. pottoibeanus). The East African Potto is relatively adaptable to human pressure and is widespread and common. Its populations are not threatened rangewide, and it occurs in at least eight protected areas: Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and Tayna Gorilla Reserve in DR Congo; Kakamega Nature Reserve and Mount Elgon National Park in Kenya; Volcans National Park in Rwanda; and Bwindi Impenetrable, Kibale, and Queen Elizabeth national parks in Uganda.Bibliography.Bearder et al. (2003), Cowgill (1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1972), Cowgill & Zeman (1980), Cowgill et al. (1989), Groves (2001), Kingdon (1971), Schwarz (1931b), Suckling et al. (1969), Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970).","taxonomy":"Perodicticus ibeanus Thomas, 1910, Kenya, Kakamega Forest.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Potto est-africain @fr | Ostafrika-Potto @de | Poto oriental @es | Eastern Potto @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Perodicticus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"213","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ibeanus","name":"Perodicticus ibeanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E DR Congo, E & S of the Ubangi River and N & E of the Congo River, extending E of the Lualaba River to NW Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda, and to the Kakamega and Nandi forests in SW Kenya.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632715/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bearder et al. (2003) | Cowgill (1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1972) | Cowgill & Zeman (1980) | Cowgill et al. (1989) | Groves (2001) | Kingdon (1971) | Schwarz (1931b) | Suckling et al. (1969) | Walker (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1970)","foodAndFeeding":"Little is known about its foraging habits of the East African Potto, but it probably eats animal prey, fruit, and gum. It has been observed to snatch animal prey with two hands and to engage in typical nose-down searching for small insects on branches.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but infants have been seen throughout the year.","activityPatterns":"The East African Potto is nocturnal, arboreal, and capable of rapid locomotion. It does not readily enter live traps and despite an attempt to study it for several months in Kakamega Forest, it remained elusive. Whistle calls that probably are used for territorial spacing were heard during the study.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but most East African Pottos are seen alone.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as P. pottoibeanus). The East African Potto is relatively adaptable to human pressure and is widespread and common. Its populations are not threatened rangewide, and it occurs in at least eight protected areas: Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and Tayna Gorilla Reserve in DR Congo; Kakamega Nature Reserve and Mount Elgon National Park in Kenya; Volcans National Park in Rwanda; and Bwindi Impenetrable, Kibale, and Queen Elizabeth national parks in Uganda.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.35 cm, tail c¢.5 cm; weight 1.1-2 kg. The East African Potto is intermediate in size compared with the other two recognized species of pottos. It is a relatively small-toothed form. The fur is especially thick and woolly, and hands and feet are dark brown. Dorsal pelage is blackish.","habitat":"Swamp, lowland, and mid-altitude montane rainforest from 600 m above sea level. In Kakamega Forest in south-western Kenya, the East African Potto is found in the canopy at 6-15 m off the ground, and it rarely descends to the forest floor."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFE08713168D49E5251F8A8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFFE08713168D49E5251F8A8","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"216","verbatimText":"6.Gray Slender LorisLoris lydekkerianusFrench:Loris de Lydekker/ German:Grauer Schlanklori/ Spanish:Loris esbelto grisOther common names:Dry Zone/Northern/Northern Ceylon Slender Loris (nordicus), Highland Slender Loris (grandis), Malabar Slender Loris (malabaricus), Mysore Slender Loris (lydekkerianus)Taxonomy.Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908, India, Madras.C. P. Groves in his book Primate Taxonomy in 2001 considered L. [. grandis and L. I. nordicus synonymous, but this is difficult to resolve. They are similar cranially, but their pelage and especially the muzzle and face are remarkably distinct. They are recognized as distinct subspecies here. K. Kar Gupta in 2007 reportedly studied iL. malabaricus, but the individuals from Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India, have the appearance of L. L lydekkerianus. Four subspecies are recognized here, but there is much overlap in their physical characteristics. Ongoing confusion over their taxonomy requires future research.Subspecies and Distribution.L.l.lydekkerianusCabrera,1908—S&EIndia(AndhraPradesh,Karnataka&TamilNadustates),foundinthedryforestsoftheEasternGhats.L.l.grandisHill&Phillips,1932—CSriLanka(CentralProvince);onlyknownfromtheEastMataleHillsbutprobablyoccursthroughoutthelowerfoothillsatanaverageelevationof900m.L.l.malabaricusWroughton,1917—SWIndia(Karnataka,Kerala&TamilNadustates),foundinthewetforestsoftheWesternGhatstoelevationsof1200m.L. l. nordicus Hill, 1933— NC & E Sri Lanka throughout the lowland Dry Zone;it is uncertain if its distribution extends to SE Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 21-26 cm,tail vestigial; weight varies among the subspecies. The Gray Slender Loris is similar to the Red Slender Loris (L. tardigradus) but larger, with a less pointed muzzle and more regional variation. Pelage is fairly short, and a dorsal stripe is sometimes present. Two subspecies are recognized in India. The “Mysore Slender Loris” (L. Ll. lydekkerianus) is a large subspecies, with head—body lengths of 20.3-22 cm and adult weight of ¢.294 g (males) and ¢.259 g (females). It is grayish-buff above, often with white frosting, and whitish-buff below with or without white frosting. Eye patches are gray to brown, pre-auricular hairs are white, and ears are yellowish brown. W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1953 reported specimens with black ears, but these have never been seen in the wild or found in subsequent museum specimens. Variation occurs across its very large range, especially in body size, and more Indian subspecies or even species are suspected. The “Malabar Slender Loris” (L. I. malabaricus), despite being in the Gray Slender Loris species, bears a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris, perhaps because it shares similar forest habitat. Pelage is red-brown with or without white frosting on the dorsum and head, and the dorsal stripe is usually absent or indistinct. Head-body length is 18:3-19.8 cm, and adult weight is 180 g. Two subspecies of the Gray Slender Loris are found in Sri Lanka. The “Northern Ceylon Slender Loris” (L. [. nordicus) has a dense woolly pelage and is gray, gray-brown, or buff-brown dorsally and white or light buff ventrally. The throat and median line of the belly are usually creamy buff throughout with no gray hair bases, although medium to pale gray hair bases may intergrade with hairs on the outer part of the creamy underside. The head and dorsum can either have frosting or not, and there is usually a dark dorsal stripe that meets a dark crown. Circumocular patches are dark gray, gray, or gray-brown, and preauricular hairs are either white or light gray extending to white cheeks, making the facial mask more outstanding than in the Red Slender Loris. Ears are large compared with the eyes and are yellow or yellow with dusky ear rims. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris has a head-body length of 21.5-23.8 cm (males 22-7 cm, females 21-7 cm). Male weight (228-285 g) is slightly higher than that of females (238-287 g). The “Highland Slender Loris” (L. I. grandis) was described by Hill and W. Phillips in 1932. The plates of the living animals in the original description bear a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris but no resemblance to living Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises—therefore the separate taxon recognized here. The type was found in Gammaduwa at 675 m above sea level. This medium-size slender loris has a head-body length of 20.9-25.6 cm, and a weight of ¢.220 g. Pelage of grandis makes it distinct from other subspecies. It is dark gray or gray-brown dorsally and sometimes a rusty-brown on the lumbar region. It is ventrally white or light buff on distal ends of the hairs, with the basal one-half being black, unlike the subspecies nor dicus where ventral hairs have pale hair bases fading to pure white at the midline. The throat of grandis is pure white, and it has an indistinct dark dorsal stripe that usually is frosted. Circumocular patches are black, brown, or red-brown. The white interocular stripe bifurcates above circumocular patches. Cheeks and preauricular hairs are mainly white, similar to nordicus. The coat of grandis is thicker than that of tardigradus; it is sometimes so thick as to resemble a subspecies of the Red Slender Loris (the “Horton Plains Slender Loris,” L. t. nycticeboides). The heart-shaped face of grandis has a very long muzzle, which also distinguishes it from other subspecies. As in all the Sri Lankan lorises, infants of grandis are reddish and assume the adult coloration at 8-9 months of age. It would be difficult to tell grandis from nordicus by observing only an infant.Habitat.The Gray Slender Loris occurs in tropical primary and some secondary rainforest, dry semi-deciduous forest, shrub, evergreen, swamp, acacia, bamboo, edge, and montane cloud forest to 2000 m above sea level. It occupies the understory in dry forests and the canopy in wetter areas. It can persist in home gardens, tea plantations, and hotel grounds, where it probably lives mainly on insects. Gray Slender Lorises move at heights of 2-5 m, depending on their habitat. They move in a serpentine fashion, from ground to canopy, and also cross gaps of open ground, including roads and paddy fields.Food and Feeding.Faunivorous, consuming mainly invertebrates (including ants and mollusks), along with bird eggs, nestlings, geckos, birds, tree frogs, small mammals, unripened fruits, young leaves, and gum. In the only detailed long-term study of the species’ diet, 96% ofall feeding events focused on animal prey, the majority of which were ants and termites. In addition to spiders, mollusks, and lizards, other key insect orders in the diet include: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Lorises are able to eat insects with high levels of secondary compounds, accompanied by pre-ingestive urine washing, or slobbering and urine washing during ingestion. Gray Slender Lorises are terminal branch specialists that catch their prey visually with one or two hands, and they use acrobatic postures in the more dangerous and swaying branches. Lorises infrequently feed on gums and legume pods, but they can make holes in bark through active gouging. Observations of the Sri Lankan forms are in accordance with those of longer-term studies in India. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris was observed to eat only insect or animal prey, including lizards and snails. They nearly always detect their prey with their eyes and engage in acrobatic suspensory postures to catch their prey items. They grasp the prey with one or two hands, and prey items are rarely caught and eaten directly with the mouth. Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises do not appear to eat gum or drink water, and the only non-insect item they appear to eat is nectar from a flowering Cassiaroxburghii (Fabaceae). In captivity, the Highland Slender Loris feeds on tree frogs, geckos, and large insects.Breeding.Copulation patterns are similar among the two species of Loris. Mating can occur after play wrestling, but it most often commences after many males have pursued a female. Usually, males move into an area a few days before a female enters full estrus and start to follow her and try to groom her. These interactions can result in violent fights between males. During the pursuit, the males utter “krik” calls at irregular intervals and try to inspect the female’s genitals. The female may give defensive threats, but when she is ready to be mounted, she signals with a suspensory posture. Copulations take place with the male clinging to the female, who is suspended quadrupedally. A female supports herself by all four limbs orjust her hindlimbs. A single copulation may last 2-16 minutes and is ended with the female giving low-intensity threat gestures toward the male. Sometimes the male produces a liquid that forms a vaginal plug. Both sexeslick their genitals after copulation. Gray Slender Lorises give birth to singletons or twins after a gestation of 157-162 days. Births occur throughout the year. A female gives birth in a sitting or a hanging posture. Newborns have partially opened eyes. After birth, the mother may defend the infants against conspecifics if they become overly curious, but often she will allow an adult male from her social group to groom her and her offspring. The newborn clings to the mother’s belly for the first few weeks oflife. Weaning occurs after 148 days. The infantis carried less when it is 2-3 months old, and it may be parked while the mother goes off to feed.Activity patterns.The Gray Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal, and it moves quadrupedally in trees. Although it can move slowly when threatened,it is generally silent and swift. It prefers to move on the top of branches. Gaps between branches are crossed by using horizontal bridging, whereby hindlimbs hold on to a substrate while forelimbs grab for the desired branch. Three limbs are usually holding a support branch when moving in a quadrupedal fashion. The Gray Slender Loris is capable of rapidly scaling a large tree trunk or scampering along other large substrates, although it prefers small supports that it can clasp firmly in its hands. It crosses roads and agricultural fields when necessary.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social organization of the Gray Slender Loris has been described as dispersed multimale—multifemale, but with unimale—unifemale subunits. Home-range sizes of the Mysore Slender Loris are c.3-6 ha for adult males and 1-6 ha for adult females. Home-range sizes of the Malabar Slender Loris are 1-2-14 ha for adult males and 3-15-3 ha for adult females; roving males can have home ranges as large as 117 ha. Home ranges of adult males overlap one or more females, but home ranges of adult females are exclusive, except for their offspring. Social interactions are common; the Mysore Slender Loris, in particular, is among the most social of the lorises, with up to 38% ofits activity spent in association with other individuals. The Gray Slender Loris, in general, forages at night, alone or in groups of two or three, sometimes larger. An individual usually sleeps with one to four conspecifics and chooses one of three or four sleeping sites night after night. Sleeping site fidelity for resident individuals seems to be high, whereas roving males or dispersing individuals often change their sleeping sites and sleep alone. Sleeping sites are vine tangles, forks, or dense thickets. Grooming is common, and males frequently groom infants when they are parked or on the mother’s belly. Peaceful food sharing occurs among members of a group, although it is not active. The Gray Slender Loris engages in social play; adult males and juveniles play-wrestle most often, but older individuals may also participate. A typical wrestling bout includes two individuals facing each other and gripping the head from the back and pulling the head back. They try to gently bite the other’s hands and feet. A whistle is the most common call of the Gray Slender Loris, uttered throughout the night; it may be used as a countercall, a spacing mechanism, or a territorial call. This call is heard in situations of aggressive excitement and is emitted by adults of both sexes. The “chitter” call is heard in defensive situations between conspecifics and is emitted by males and females. The krik call may be uttered in situations where an infant will threaten its mother in response to other group members’ quarrel. The Gray Slender Loris screams when attacked by a predator; and one individual was also heard screaming when electrocuted crossing an open power line.On following pages: 7. Red Slender Loris(Loris tardigradus); 8. Bengal Slow Loris(Nycticebus bengalensis); 9. Sunda Slow Loris(Nycticebus coucang); 10. Javan Slow Loris(Nycticebus javanicus); 11. Bornean Slow Loris(Nycticebus menagensis); 12. Pygmy Slow Loris(Nycticebus pygmaeus).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies grandis and nordicus are classified as Endangered, and the nominate subspecies and malabaricus are classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The principal threat is loss of habitat. Loris eyes are valued in traditional Asian medicine because of the local belief that they contain certain properties that are effective against ocular complaints. In India, the eye of the loris is also widely used as a love charm in a preparation that is claimed to be helpful in seducing and kidnapping a woman. The Mysore Slender Loris is reported from three protected areas: Sri Venkateswara National Park and Biligiri Rangswamy Temple and Nelapattu wildlife sanctuaries in India. The Malabar Slender Loris is reported in Periyar National Park and a number of wildlife sanctuaries in India, including Aralam, Brahmagiri, Griz zled Giant Squirrel, Idukki, Indira Gandhi, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai, Parambikulam, Peechi-Vazhani, Shendurney, Someswara, Thattakkad, and Wynad. In Sri Lanka, the Northern Ceylon Slender Loris is reported from reserves and sanctuaries of Ampara, Girithale, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, Ritigala, Sigiriya, and Thangamale; national parks of Angammedilla, Flood Plains, Kaudulla, Maduru Oya, Minneriya, Somawathiya, Wasgamuwa, Wilpattu, and Yala; and forest reserves of Kanthale and Menikdena. The Highland Slender Loris is reported from only three protected areas: Knuckles Mountain Range, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe, and Udawatta Kele.Bibliography.Christie (1992), Devaraj Sarkar et al. (1981), Fitch-Snyder & Schulze (2001), Goonan (1993), Groves (2001), Hill (1933, 1953d), Ilse (1955), Izard & Rassmussen (1985), Kadam & Swayamprabha (1977, 1980), Kar Gupta (2007), Kumara et al. (2006), Meier (1989), Nanda Kumar et al. (2004), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Schulze (2004), Nekaris et al. (2006), Rao (1994), Rhadakrishna (2001), Rhadakrishna & Singh (2002, 2004a, 2004b), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Singh, Kumar et al. (2000), Singh, Lindburg et al. (1999), Swayamprabha & Kadam (1980).","taxonomy":"in 2001 considered L. [. grandis and L. I. nordicus synonymous, but this is difficult to resolve. They are similar cranially, but their pelage and especially the muzzle and face are remarkably distinct. They are recognized as distinct subspecies here. K. Kar Gupta in 2007 reportedly studied iL. malabaricus, but the individuals from Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India, have the appearance of L. L lydekkerianus. Four subspecies are recognized here, but there is much overlap in their physical characteristics. Ongoing confusion over their taxonomy requires future research.","commonNames":"Loris de Lydekker @fr | Grauer Schlanklori @de | Loris esbelto gris @es | Dry Zone @en | Northern @en | Northern Ceylon Slender Loris (nordicus) @en | Highland Slender Loris (grandis) @en | Malabar Slender Loris (malabaricus) @en | Mysore Slender Loris (lydekkerianus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Cabrera","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Loris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"216","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lydekkerianus","name":"Loris lydekkerianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.l.lydekkerianusCabrera,1908—S&EIndia(AndhraPradesh,Karnataka&TamilNadustates),foundinthedryforestsoftheEasternGhats.L.l.grandisHill&Phillips,1932—CSriLanka(CentralProvince);onlyknownfromtheEastMataleHillsbutprobablyoccursthroughoutthelowerfoothillsatanaverageelevationof900m.L.l.malabaricusWroughton,1917—SWIndia(Karnataka,Kerala&TamilNadustates),foundinthewetforestsoftheWesternGhatstoelevationsof1200m.L. l. nordicus Hill, 1933— NC & E Sri Lanka throughout the lowland Dry Zone;it is uncertain if its distribution extends to SE Sri Lanka.","bibliography":"Christie (1992) | Devaraj Sarkar et al. (1981) | Fitch-Snyder & Schulze (2001) | Goonan (1993) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1933, 1953d) | Ilse (1955) | Izard & Rassmussen (1985) | Kadam & Swayamprabha (1977, 1980) | Kar Gupta (2007) | Kumara et al. (2006) | Meier (1989) | Nanda Kumar et al. (2004) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris (1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004) | Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003) | Nekaris & Schulze (2004) | Nekaris et al. (2006) | Rao (1994) | Rhadakrishna (2001) | Rhadakrishna & Singh (2002, 2004a, 2004b) | Schulze & Meier (1995a) | Singh, Kumar et al. (2000) | Singh, Lindburg et al. (1999) | Swayamprabha & Kadam (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"Faunivorous, consuming mainly invertebrates (including ants and mollusks), along with bird eggs, nestlings, geckos, birds, tree frogs, small mammals, unripened fruits, young leaves, and gum. In the only detailed long-term study of the species’ diet, 96% ofall feeding events focused on animal prey, the majority of which were ants and termites. In addition to spiders, mollusks, and lizards, other key insect orders in the diet include: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Lorises are able to eat insects with high levels of secondary compounds, accompanied by pre-ingestive urine washing, or slobbering and urine washing during ingestion. Gray Slender Lorises are terminal branch specialists that catch their prey visually with one or two hands, and they use acrobatic postures in the more dangerous and swaying branches. Lorises infrequently feed on gums and legume pods, but they can make holes in bark through active gouging. Observations of the Sri Lankan forms are in accordance with those of longer-term studies in India. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris was observed to eat only insect or animal prey, including lizards and snails. They nearly always detect their prey with their eyes and engage in acrobatic suspensory postures to catch their prey items. They grasp the prey with one or two hands, and prey items are rarely caught and eaten directly with the mouth. Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises do not appear to eat gum or drink water, and the only non-insect item they appear to eat is nectar from a flowering Cassiaroxburghii (Fabaceae). In captivity, the Highland Slender Loris feeds on tree frogs, geckos, and large insects.","breeding":"Copulation patterns are similar among the two species of Loris. Mating can occur after play wrestling, but it most often commences after many males have pursued a female. Usually, males move into an area a few days before a female enters full estrus and start to follow her and try to groom her. These interactions can result in violent fights between males. During the pursuit, the males utter “krik” calls at irregular intervals and try to inspect the female’s genitals. The female may give defensive threats, but when she is ready to be mounted, she signals with a suspensory posture. Copulations take place with the male clinging to the female, who is suspended quadrupedally. A female supports herself by all four limbs orjust her hindlimbs. A single copulation may last 2-16 minutes and is ended with the female giving low-intensity threat gestures toward the male. Sometimes the male produces a liquid that forms a vaginal plug. Both sexeslick their genitals after copulation. Gray Slender Lorises give birth to singletons or twins after a gestation of 157-162 days. Births occur throughout the year. A female gives birth in a sitting or a hanging posture. Newborns have partially opened eyes. After birth, the mother may defend the infants against conspecifics if they become overly curious, but often she will allow an adult male from her social group to groom her and her offspring. The newborn clings to the mother’s belly for the first few weeks oflife. Weaning occurs after 148 days. The infantis carried less when it is 2-3 months old, and it may be parked while the mother goes off to feed.","activityPatterns":"The Gray Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal, and it moves quadrupedally in trees. Although it can move slowly when threatened,it is generally silent and swift. It prefers to move on the top of branches. Gaps between branches are crossed by using horizontal bridging, whereby hindlimbs hold on to a substrate while forelimbs grab for the desired branch. Three limbs are usually holding a support branch when moving in a quadrupedal fashion. The Gray Slender Loris is capable of rapidly scaling a large tree trunk or scampering along other large substrates, although it prefers small supports that it can clasp firmly in its hands. It crosses roads and agricultural fields when necessary.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social organization of the Gray Slender Loris has been described as dispersed multimale—multifemale, but with unimale—unifemale subunits. Home-range sizes of the Mysore Slender Loris are c.3-6 ha for adult males and 1-6 ha for adult females. Home-range sizes of the Malabar Slender Loris are 1-2-14 ha for adult males and 3-15-3 ha for adult females; roving males can have home ranges as large as 117 ha. Home ranges of adult males overlap one or more females, but home ranges of adult females are exclusive, except for their offspring. Social interactions are common; the Mysore Slender Loris, in particular, is among the most social of the lorises, with up to 38% ofits activity spent in association with other individuals. The Gray Slender Loris, in general, forages at night, alone or in groups of two or three, sometimes larger. An individual usually sleeps with one to four conspecifics and chooses one of three or four sleeping sites night after night. Sleeping site fidelity for resident individuals seems to be high, whereas roving males or dispersing individuals often change their sleeping sites and sleep alone. Sleeping sites are vine tangles, forks, or dense thickets. Grooming is common, and males frequently groom infants when they are parked or on the mother’s belly. Peaceful food sharing occurs among members of a group, although it is not active. The Gray Slender Loris engages in social play; adult males and juveniles play-wrestle most often, but older individuals may also participate. A typical wrestling bout includes two individuals facing each other and gripping the head from the back and pulling the head back. They try to gently bite the other’s hands and feet. A whistle is the most common call of the Gray Slender Loris, uttered throughout the night; it may be used as a countercall, a spacing mechanism, or a territorial call. This call is heard in situations of aggressive excitement and is emitted by adults of both sexes. The “chitter” call is heard in defensive situations between conspecifics and is emitted by males and females. The krik call may be uttered in situations where an infant will threaten its mother in response to other group members’ quarrel. The Gray Slender Loris screams when attacked by a predator; and one individual was also heard screaming when electrocuted crossing an open power line.On following pages: 7. Red Slender Loris(Loris tardigradus); 8. Bengal Slow Loris(Nycticebus bengalensis); 9. Sunda Slow Loris(Nycticebus coucang); 10. Javan Slow Loris(Nycticebus javanicus); 11. Bornean Slow Loris(Nycticebus menagensis); 12. Pygmy Slow Loris(Nycticebus pygmaeus).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies grandis and nordicus are classified as Endangered, and the nominate subspecies and malabaricus are classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The principal threat is loss of habitat. Loris eyes are valued in traditional Asian medicine because of the local belief that they contain certain properties that are effective against ocular complaints. In India, the eye of the loris is also widely used as a love charm in a preparation that is claimed to be helpful in seducing and kidnapping a woman. The Mysore Slender Loris is reported from three protected areas: Sri Venkateswara National Park and Biligiri Rangswamy Temple and Nelapattu wildlife sanctuaries in India. The Malabar Slender Loris is reported in Periyar National Park and a number of wildlife sanctuaries in India, including Aralam, Brahmagiri, Griz zled Giant Squirrel, Idukki, Indira Gandhi, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai, Parambikulam, Peechi-Vazhani, Shendurney, Someswara, Thattakkad, and Wynad. In Sri Lanka, the Northern Ceylon Slender Loris is reported from reserves and sanctuaries of Ampara, Girithale, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, Ritigala, Sigiriya, and Thangamale; national parks of Angammedilla, Flood Plains, Kaudulla, Maduru Oya, Minneriya, Somawathiya, Wasgamuwa, Wilpattu, and Yala; and forest reserves of Kanthale and Menikdena. The Highland Slender Loris is reported from only three protected areas: Knuckles Mountain Range, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe, and Udawatta Kele.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 21-26 cm,tail vestigial; weight varies among the subspecies. The Gray Slender Loris is similar to the Red Slender Loris (L. tardigradus) but larger, with a less pointed muzzle and more regional variation. Pelage is fairly short, and a dorsal stripe is sometimes present. Two subspecies are recognized in India. The “Mysore Slender Loris” (L. Ll. lydekkerianus) is a large subspecies, with head—body lengths of 20.3-22 cm and adult weight of ¢.294 g (males) and ¢.259 g (females). It is grayish-buff above, often with white frosting, and whitish-buff below with or without white frosting. Eye patches are gray to brown, pre-auricular hairs are white, and ears are yellowish brown. W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1953 reported specimens with black ears, but these have never been seen in the wild or found in subsequent museum specimens. Variation occurs across its very large range, especially in body size, and more Indian subspecies or even species are suspected. The “Malabar Slender Loris” (L. I. malabaricus), despite being in the Gray Slender Loris species, bears a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris, perhaps because it shares similar forest habitat. Pelage is red-brown with or without white frosting on the dorsum and head, and the dorsal stripe is usually absent or indistinct. Head-body length is 18:3-19.8 cm, and adult weight is 180 g. Two subspecies of the Gray Slender Loris are found in Sri Lanka. The “Northern Ceylon Slender Loris” (L. [. nordicus) has a dense woolly pelage and is gray, gray-brown, or buff-brown dorsally and white or light buff ventrally. The throat and median line of the belly are usually creamy buff throughout with no gray hair bases, although medium to pale gray hair bases may intergrade with hairs on the outer part of the creamy underside. The head and dorsum can either have frosting or not, and there is usually a dark dorsal stripe that meets a dark crown. Circumocular patches are dark gray, gray, or gray-brown, and preauricular hairs are either white or light gray extending to white cheeks, making the facial mask more outstanding than in the Red Slender Loris. Ears are large compared with the eyes and are yellow or yellow with dusky ear rims. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris has a head-body length of 21.5-23.8 cm (males 22-7 cm, females 21-7 cm). Male weight (228-285 g) is slightly higher than that of females (238-287 g). The “Highland Slender Loris” (L. I. grandis) was described by Hill and W. Phillips in 1932. The plates of the living animals in the original description bear a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris but no resemblance to living Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises—therefore the separate taxon recognized here. The type was found in Gammaduwa at 675 m above sea level. This medium-size slender loris has a head-body length of 20.9-25.6 cm, and a weight of ¢.220 g. Pelage of grandis makes it distinct from other subspecies. It is dark gray or gray-brown dorsally and sometimes a rusty-brown on the lumbar region. It is ventrally white or light buff on distal ends of the hairs, with the basal one-half being black, unlike the subspecies nor dicus where ventral hairs have pale hair bases fading to pure white at the midline. The throat of grandis is pure white, and it has an indistinct dark dorsal stripe that usually is frosted. Circumocular patches are black, brown, or red-brown. The white interocular stripe bifurcates above circumocular patches. Cheeks and preauricular hairs are mainly white, similar to nordicus. The coat of grandis is thicker than that of tardigradus; it is sometimes so thick as to resemble a subspecies of the Red Slender Loris (the “Horton Plains Slender Loris,” L. t. nycticeboides). The heart-shaped face of grandis has a very long muzzle, which also distinguishes it from other subspecies. As in all the Sri Lankan lorises, infants of grandis are reddish and assume the adult coloration at 8-9 months of age. It would be difficult to tell grandis from nordicus by observing only an infant.","habitat":"The Gray Slender Loris occurs in tropical primary and some secondary rainforest, dry semi-deciduous forest, shrub, evergreen, swamp, acacia, bamboo, edge, and montane cloud forest to 2000 m above sea level. It occupies the understory in dry forests and the canopy in wetter areas. It can persist in home gardens, tea plantations, and hotel grounds, where it probably lives mainly on insects. Gray Slender Lorises move at heights of 2-5 m, depending on their habitat. They move in a serpentine fashion, from ground to canopy, and also cross gaps of open ground, including roads and paddy fields."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFF087E3189D2385239FDC8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFFF087E3189D2385239FDC8","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"217","verbatimText":"7.Red Slender LorisLoris tardigradusFrench:Loris gréle/ German:Roter Schlanklori/ Spanish:Loris esbelto rojoOther common names:Horton Plains Slender Loris (nycticeboides)Taxonomy.Lemur tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758, Ceylon (= Sri Lanka).The precise type locality is unknown, but it was probably in the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. The subspecies nycticeboides was described by W. C. O. Hill in 1942 from the Horton Plains at an elevation of 1830 m in Sri Lanka’s Central Province, although there remains some dispute as to which species this taxon belongs. There is preliminary evidence for two additional subspecies in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tardigradusLinnaeus,1758—SWSriLanka(Western&Southernprovinces),fromtheoutskirtsofColombointheNtoRannaintheS,atlowerelevationsupto¢.470mabovesealevel.L. t. nycticeboides Hill, 1942— Sri Lanka (Central Province highlands), at elevations of 1650-2000 m above sea level.Descriptive notes.Head—body 18-21 cm, tail vestigial; weight 85-220 g. The nominate subspecies tardigradusis the smallest of the slender loris taxa (head-body length less than 20-5 cm; weight 122-170 g). Dorsally, its pelage is red-brown with or without a dorsal stripe. The ventral hair is yellowish white with dark gray hair bases. Its preauricular hair has dark bases intergrading to its ear from its dark brown-chestnut circumocular patches, which are rounded in shape. The white interocular stripe is very narrow or absent. Its hands and feet are pink or yellowish-pink in adults. It has very large eyes and relatively small ears that are generally a woody russet color. The muzzle is long and pointed. Fur on forearms, hands, and feetis short. The toilet claw of the second digit of the foot is well developed. The “Horton Plains Slender Loris” (L. t. nycticeboudes) 1s the most distinct of the Sri Lankan lorises. Its limbs are shorter relative to the trunk than in tardigradus, with their hindlimbs especially shortened. The skull (length 5-2 cm) is also considerably larger in all details than in the subspecies tardigradus. The fur of the Horton Plains Slender Lorisis very long, soft, and thick, and it makes the animal look much larger than its body measurements would suggest (head-body 20.4-21.3 cm; weight 140-220 g); it looks superficially like a slow loris (Nycticebus). Limbs, in particular, are thickly furred toward their extremities. This furriness makes this form difficultto confuse with other slender lorises.Habitat.Primary and some secondary wet lowland forest and tropical rainforest (tardigradus); cloud, montane, and highland evergreen forest (nycticeboides). The subspecies tardigradusis found in the wet lowland forests up to 470 m above sea level. Its habitat is heavily fragmented. It uses small twigs, lianas, and vines for movement, and it also forage on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Lorisis found in central Sri Lanka at elevations of 1800-2300 m in montane mist forests. It has been observed moving on the ground and crossing roads, and it is often seen low down in stunted vegetation. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts the Red Slender Loris; it is rarely found in home gardens and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches.Food and Feeding.In 1905,|. Still suggested that lorises were completely insectivorous, even carnivorous. Wild Red Slender Lorises have only been seen eating animal prey. They eat insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers), lizards (Calotes, Agamidae), and geckos. They have not been seen eating birds, but the speed with which they can grasp prey and kill with a bite to the head suggests this is possible. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas with Humboldtialaurifolia (Fabaceae), a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants and provides abundant food for lorises. Nothing is known of the diet of the Horton Plains Slender Loris.Breeding.Dominant males may form partnershipswith smaller beta males—coalitions to pursue estrous females. Males gather when a female is in estrus, some coming from other parts of the forest, and vocal battles are common. Gestation is 165-175 days; one twin birth in captivity occurred after 174 days. Births occur throughout the year, and singletons are more common than twins. Mothersstart to park their infants when they are about two months old, remaining near and rushing back to retrieve the infant at any sign of danger. Females have a 29-40day sexual cycle, with genital swelling and reddening at estrus. Individuals may live up to 15 years. Only one birth has been witnessed for the Horton Plains Slender Loris.Activity patterns.The Red Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. Although lorises are thought to be slow climbers, kinematic studies revealed that the nominate subspecies tardigraduscan move at speeds of 1-3 m/second. In a secondary tree-fall area, Red Slender Lorises are small-branch specialists, most often moving on supports less than 5 cm in diameter and only occasionally selecting branch clusters or substrates larger than 5 cm in diameter. Overall, they do not have strong preferences with respect to branch orientation. Rapid quadrupedalism is used on arboreal supports of all diameters and orientations, but individuals have never been seen moving on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris moves very much like its low-country counterpart and is also capable of incredible speed. It has been observed at low heights (2 m above the ground), and it crosses open ground. It also will occur in the highest trees available, for example, in alpine scrub at heights of 4 m.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the Horton Plains Slender Loris, so the description here refers to the subspecies tardigradus. Red Slender Lorises sleep in groups of up to five animals, most commonly a male, female, and their offspring. Some males change their sleeping site regularly and may sleep in the vicinity of a female. They engage in intense grooming sessions and social and solitary play at dawn and dusk. They communicate regularly using scent marking and loud calls. Individuals with overlapping home ranges interact throughout the night. Females have home ranges of 1-2-6-9 ha, whereas those of males are 1-4-3-4 ha. Males may affiliate with males and with more than one female. Females rarely affiliate with other females and may be aggressive toward males that attempt to follow or groom them. During the single long-term radio-tracking study on the Red Slender Loris, a single male’s home range overlapped a single female’s home range, but not all individuals in the area were caught, and more animals shared sleep sites. This, combined with promiscuous mating, implies that unimale—unifemale social pairs are not the rule for this species. Interestingly, lorises are very disturbed by white light and usually cease social behavior (e.g. partners will disperse) unless red or infrared light is used. The subspecies tardigradusutters “chitters,” “kriks,” and “zic” calls. A scream has not yet been recorded. They produce a soft whistle, barely audible to humans even when standing within 10 m of an individual. By far the most common call is the loud whistle, used to communicate location to friendly conspecifics, to warn non-group members, and to ward off encroaching males. Vocal battles are common and up to 60 calls per hour are not uncommon. The whistle is so common that it is a good indicator of loris presence or absence in a forest. At least six variations of the whistle have been described, with a potential twelve additional variants. The syllables within each call can be undulated, strangled, and short or long, and they occur in different combinations. Density estimates of lorises were 0-08-0-55 ind/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Red Slender Loris is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and the nominate subspecies tardigradusparticularly by gem mining. Individuals are regularly sold illegally in bazaars as pets, and they are valued in traditional medicine and killed because of superstitious folk beliefs. All populations are likely declining and at low levels, with as few as 1500 tardigradusin only c.3000 ha of highly fragmented forests and a critically low number of 80 nycticeboides in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. The subspecies tardigradusoccurs in Udawalawe National Park; the sanctuaries of Attidiya-Belanwila, Kurulukele, Peak Wilderness, Udawattekele, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe; and forest reserves of Ingiriya, Kanneliya, Kombala-Kottawa, Oliyagankele, Polgahaivalakande, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Aparekka, and Godakawela. It can also be found in Gampola-Ambuluwela Biodiversity Park, Maimbulkanda Nature Reserve, Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, and Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is known from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, and Conical Hill and Bomburella forest reserves. It may also occur in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Siripagama.Bibliography.Bernede (2009), Bernede et al. (2008), Gamage et al. (2010), Goonan (1993), Goonan et al.(1995), Groves (2001), Hill (1942b), Molur et al. (2003), Montagna & Ellis (1960), Muller et al. (1985), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (2003a, 2003b, 2002/2003), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Perera (2007), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Stevens (2007), Nekaris, Liyanage & Gamage (2005), Nekaris, Pimley & Ablard (2006, 2007), Petter & Hladik (1970), Rumpler et al. (1987), Schmitt & Lemelin (2004), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Sellers (1996), Still (1905), Subramoniam (1957).","taxonomy":"Lemur tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758, Ceylon (= Sri Lanka).The precise type locality is unknown, but it was probably in the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. The subspecies nycticeboides was described by W. C. O. Hill in 1942 from the Horton Plains at an elevation of 1830 m in Sri Lanka’s Central Province, although there remains some dispute as to which species this taxon belongs. There is preliminary evidence for two additional subspecies in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are recognized here.","commonNames":"Loris gréle @fr | Roter Schlanklori @de | Loris esbelto rojo @es | Horton Plains Slender Loris (nycticeboides) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Loris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"217","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tardigradus","name":"Loris tardigradus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.t.tardigradusLinnaeus,1758—SWSriLanka(Western&Southernprovinces),fromtheoutskirtsofColombointheNtoRannaintheS,atlowerelevationsupto¢.470mabovesealevel.L. t. nycticeboides Hill, 1942— Sri Lanka (Central Province highlands), at elevations of 1650-2000 m above sea level.","bibliography":"Bernede (2009) | Bernede et al. (2008) | Gamage et al. (2010) | Goonan (1993) | Goonan et al.(1995) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1942b) | Molur et al. (2003) | Montagna & Ellis (1960) | Muller et al. (1985) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris (2003a, 2003b, 2002/2003) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004) | Nekaris & Perera (2007) | Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003) | Nekaris & Stevens (2007) | Nekaris, Liyanage & Gamage (2005) | Nekaris, Pimley & Ablard (2006, 2007) | Petter & Hladik (1970) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Schmitt & Lemelin (2004) | Schulze & Meier (1995a) | Sellers (1996) | Still (1905) | Subramoniam (1957)","foodAndFeeding":"In 1905,|. Still suggested that lorises were completely insectivorous, even carnivorous. Wild Red Slender Lorises have only been seen eating animal prey. They eat insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers), lizards (Calotes, Agamidae), and geckos. They have not been seen eating birds, but the speed with which they can grasp prey and kill with a bite to the head suggests this is possible. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas with Humboldtialaurifolia (Fabaceae), a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants and provides abundant food for lorises. Nothing is known of the diet of the Horton Plains Slender Loris.","breeding":"Dominant males may form partnershipswith smaller beta males—coalitions to pursue estrous females. Males gather when a female is in estrus, some coming from other parts of the forest, and vocal battles are common. Gestation is 165-175 days; one twin birth in captivity occurred after 174 days. Births occur throughout the year, and singletons are more common than twins. Mothersstart to park their infants when they are about two months old, remaining near and rushing back to retrieve the infant at any sign of danger. Females have a 29-40day sexual cycle, with genital swelling and reddening at estrus. Individuals may live up to 15 years. Only one birth has been witnessed for the Horton Plains Slender Loris.","activityPatterns":"The Red Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. Although lorises are thought to be slow climbers, kinematic studies revealed that the nominate subspecies tardigraduscan move at speeds of 1-3 m/second. In a secondary tree-fall area, Red Slender Lorises are small-branch specialists, most often moving on supports less than 5 cm in diameter and only occasionally selecting branch clusters or substrates larger than 5 cm in diameter. Overall, they do not have strong preferences with respect to branch orientation. Rapid quadrupedalism is used on arboreal supports of all diameters and orientations, but individuals have never been seen moving on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris moves very much like its low-country counterpart and is also capable of incredible speed. It has been observed at low heights (2 m above the ground), and it crosses open ground. It also will occur in the highest trees available, for example, in alpine scrub at heights of 4 m.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the Horton Plains Slender Loris, so the description here refers to the subspecies tardigradus. Red Slender Lorises sleep in groups of up to five animals, most commonly a male, female, and their offspring. Some males change their sleeping site regularly and may sleep in the vicinity of a female. They engage in intense grooming sessions and social and solitary play at dawn and dusk. They communicate regularly using scent marking and loud calls. Individuals with overlapping home ranges interact throughout the night. Females have home ranges of 1-2-6-9 ha, whereas those of males are 1-4-3-4 ha. Males may affiliate with males and with more than one female. Females rarely affiliate with other females and may be aggressive toward males that attempt to follow or groom them. During the single long-term radio-tracking study on the Red Slender Loris, a single male’s home range overlapped a single female’s home range, but not all individuals in the area were caught, and more animals shared sleep sites. This, combined with promiscuous mating, implies that unimale—unifemale social pairs are not the rule for this species. Interestingly, lorises are very disturbed by white light and usually cease social behavior (e.g. partners will disperse) unless red or infrared light is used. The subspecies tardigradusutters “chitters,” “kriks,” and “zic” calls. A scream has not yet been recorded. They produce a soft whistle, barely audible to humans even when standing within 10 m of an individual. By far the most common call is the loud whistle, used to communicate location to friendly conspecifics, to warn non-group members, and to ward off encroaching males. Vocal battles are common and up to 60 calls per hour are not uncommon. The whistle is so common that it is a good indicator of loris presence or absence in a forest. At least six variations of the whistle have been described, with a potential twelve additional variants. The syllables within each call can be undulated, strangled, and short or long, and they occur in different combinations. Density estimates of lorises were 0-08-0-55 ind/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Red Slender Loris is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and the nominate subspecies tardigradusparticularly by gem mining. Individuals are regularly sold illegally in bazaars as pets, and they are valued in traditional medicine and killed because of superstitious folk beliefs. All populations are likely declining and at low levels, with as few as 1500 tardigradusin only c.3000 ha of highly fragmented forests and a critically low number of 80 nycticeboides in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. The subspecies tardigradusoccurs in Udawalawe National Park; the sanctuaries of Attidiya-Belanwila, Kurulukele, Peak Wilderness, Udawattekele, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe; and forest reserves of Ingiriya, Kanneliya, Kombala-Kottawa, Oliyagankele, Polgahaivalakande, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Aparekka, and Godakawela. It can also be found in Gampola-Ambuluwela Biodiversity Park, Maimbulkanda Nature Reserve, Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, and Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is known from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, and Conical Hill and Bomburella forest reserves. It may also occur in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Siripagama.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 18-21 cm, tail vestigial; weight 85-220 g. The nominate subspecies tardigradusis the smallest of the slender loris taxa (head-body length less than 20-5 cm; weight 122-170 g). Dorsally, its pelage is red-brown with or without a dorsal stripe. The ventral hair is yellowish white with dark gray hair bases. Its preauricular hair has dark bases intergrading to its ear from its dark brown-chestnut circumocular patches, which are rounded in shape. The white interocular stripe is very narrow or absent. Its hands and feet are pink or yellowish-pink in adults. It has very large eyes and relatively small ears that are generally a woody russet color. The muzzle is long and pointed. Fur on forearms, hands, and feetis short. The toilet claw of the second digit of the foot is well developed. The “Horton Plains Slender Loris” (L. t. nycticeboudes) 1s the most distinct of the Sri Lankan lorises. Its limbs are shorter relative to the trunk than in tardigradus, with their hindlimbs especially shortened. The skull (length 5-2 cm) is also considerably larger in all details than in the subspecies tardigradus. The fur of the Horton Plains Slender Lorisis very long, soft, and thick, and it makes the animal look much larger than its body measurements would suggest (head-body 20.4-21.3 cm; weight 140-220 g); it looks superficially like a slow loris (Nycticebus). Limbs, in particular, are thickly furred toward their extremities. This furriness makes this form difficultto confuse with other slender lorises.","habitat":"Primary and some secondary wet lowland forest and tropical rainforest (tardigradus); cloud, montane, and highland evergreen forest (nycticeboides). The subspecies tardigradusis found in the wet lowland forests up to 470 m above sea level. Its habitat is heavily fragmented. It uses small twigs, lianas, and vines for movement, and it also forage on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Lorisis found in central Sri Lanka at elevations of 1800-2300 m in montane mist forests. It has been observed moving on the ground and crossing roads, and it is often seen low down in stunted vegetation. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts the Red Slender Loris; it is rarely found in home gardens and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5","docName":"hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"1.Lowland TapirTapirus terrestrisFrench:Tapir du Brésil/ German:Flachlandtapir/ Spanish:TapiramazonicoOther common names:Brazilian Tapir, South American TapirTaxonomy.Hippopotamus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Brasillia” i.e. Pernambuco, Brazil.Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.terrestrisLinnaeus,1758—VenezuelathroughtheGuianastoCBrazilandNEArgentina(N&CMisiones).T.t.aenigmaticusGray,1872—SEColombia,EEcuador,andNEPeru.T.t.colombianusHershkovitz,1954—tropicalzonesofNColombiaintheareasofMagdalena,Bolivar,Atlantico,Cordoba,andNWAntioquia,asfarastheAtrataRiver,andasfarNastheRancheriaRiverinLaGuajira.T. t. spegazzinii Ameghino, 1909— SE Braz1l (Mato Grosso State), E Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentinato NE Santa Fe, NE Santiago del Estero, SE Jujuy, and E Salta.Descriptive notes.Head-body 191-242 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 83-118 cm (males), 83-113 cm (females); weight 180-300 kg. Female Lowland Tapirs are usually larger than males. Data collected from 35 Lowland Tapirs captured during a long-term telemetry study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed that the average weight of adult tapirs was 233 kgfor females (200-300 kg) and 208 kgfor males (180-280 kg). Measurements oftapirs in Morro do Diabo demonstrated that adult females are significantly longer andtaller than males. Full length offemales 208-242 cm, full length of males 191-223 cm; rear height of females 90-120 cm, rear height of males 89-109 cm. In captivity, newborn Lowland Tapirs usually weigh 3-2— 5-8 kg. Calves gain an average of2-27 kg per week and are completely weaned at four months of age. Growth is usually completed by 18 months of age. The color of adult Lowland Tapirs is blackish-brown dorsally with the ears edged in white; the chest, venter and limbs are dark brown; the cheeks are grizzled brown and gray. Young of all four tapir species are born dark with yellowish or white stripes and spots, a pattern that is lost after the first six months, although some vestiges of spotting may remain in young adults. The skin of Lowland Tapirs is thickest at the nape, and often covered by scars, scratches, and bruises; beneath the epidermis is a fibrous tissue layer. There is a well-developed sagittal crest that runs from the base of the muzzle to the middle of the back, which is derived from fat and soft tissues and covered by very long black hair. The short, erect mane is prominent, and is thought to help the tapirs escape predators, which seize the dorsum of the neck. This crest is not present in the other three tapir species.Habitat.The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.Food and Feeding.Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.Breeding.There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males. A Lowland Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2007 modelled the dynamics of the species’ populations in the wild. Given that natural situations impose a toll on the animals, age offirst reproduction in the wild was estimated to be four years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Lowland Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. The sex ratio at birth in captivity is 3:1. The sex ratio observed in Morro do Diabo, Brazil, was 1:1-33. Monitored subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in the central Amazon of Brazilrecorded a sex ratio of kills of 1:1:03. Therefore, the sex ratio at birth in the wild is generally assumed to be 50% males and 50% females. Data on Lowland Tapir longevity comes from captivity and reveals that these animals live over 35 years.Activity patterns.Tapirs are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular. Lowland Tapir rest during the day and begin their activity after sunset, at around 18:00 h. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park in Brazil, their main periods of activity are from 19:00 h to 00:00 h, with a peak between 20:00 h and 21:00 h (63% active); and from 01:00 h to 07:00 h, with a peak between 05:00 h and 06:00 h (60% active). Tapirs in Morro do Diabo are largely inactive between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. Overall, tapirs in Morro do Diabo foraged for approximately five hours in the early evening, and then seemed to rest for a few hours in the middle of the night. There followed a second foraging bout, of approximately six hours in the early hours of the day. Tapir activity patterns were analyzed separately for wet and dry season, as well for both sexes and different age classes in Morro do Diabo, and were fairly consistent. In Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs are mostly active between 18:00 h and 22:00 h, and between 00:00 h and 06:00 h, with a main activity peak between 01:00 h and 06:30 h, and very little activity between 11:00 h and 15:30 h. In the Peruvian Amazon, tapir activity peaks were observed between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and between 03:00 h and 04:00 h, with the main foraging time between 21:00 h and 03:00 h. Nocturnal line-transect sampling in Morro do Diabo State Park allowed for an analysis of the effect of moonlight intensity on tapir activity. Approximately 47% of the tapir encounters occurred during the waning crescent, 21% during the new moon, 18% during the waxing crescent, and only 14% during the full moon. It was clear that tapirs in Morro do Diabo were considerably less active during the brighter phases of the moon. Previous studies suggested that a lower level of animal activity during moonlit nights is a result of higher predation risk. In El Rey National Park, Argentina, tapirs were typically diurnal, perhaps due to lack of human disturbance.Movements, Home range and Social organization.L.owland Tapirs can move fairly easily through areas of low quality habitat (e.g. agricultural crops, pasture lands, and eucalyptus plantations) to get from one patch of forest to another. Parameters of Lowland Tapir spatial ecology reported in the literature, particularly home range size, vary widely. Tapirs are large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals that usually require considerably large home ranges. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, tapirs use very large home ranges (4-67 km?, varying from 1-12 km? to 14-19 km?®). These home ranges have very complex internal structures, including multiple core areas, which comprise a very small proportion of the home range (50% core area = 17% of the home range; 25% core area = 6% of the home range). Little seasonal variation in size and location of home ranges and core areas was observed. These patterns are consistent for both sexes and different age classes. In the Peruvian Amazon, the home ranges of Lowland Tapirs are much smaller, ranging from 1-06 km? to 3-86 km?®, with an average of 2: 61 km®. In Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs had an average home range size of 2: 48 km?*Neighboring tapirs in Morro do Diabo State Park showed very strong home range overlap between individuals (around 30%, although in some cases as high as 92%). This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. Estimates of Lowland Tapir population density range from a high of 1-6 ind/km? reported for the species in Neotropical forests in undisturbed, non-hunted, or lightly hunted sites to less than 0-3 ind/km? in other regions and habitat types. In Amazonian forests, Lowland Tapirs are usually found in densities around 0-5 ind/ km?. Exceptionally high densities (3:3-3-7 ind/km?) were observed in the Amazonian dry forests of Roraima, Brazil. In the Brazilian Pantanal, tapir densities range from 0-13 ind/km? in open grassland habitat to 0-4 ind/km? in forested habitats. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, densities range from 0-21 ind/km? to 1-35 ind/km?. This wide variation in density estimates can be explained by several factors, including differences in environments, habitat types studied,levels of habitat conservation, levels of hunting, and, most importantly, differences in the methods used to estimate densities. Another factor is that the Lowland Tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (e.g. around saltlicks, in palm forests, and near permanent water sources). Great variation in density can also reflect the ability of tapirs to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water). Tapirs are primarily solitary. Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for approximately twelve months. In Morro do Diabo, from a total of 81 tapir sightings obtained through nocturnal line-transect sampling, 77-78% were of one individual and 12-35% of pairs (adult female/adult male, adult female/offspring). On one occasion, three individuals were sighted. In terms of intraspecific interactions and social organization, tapirs in Morro do Diabo showed a strong home range overlap (30%) as well as overlap of core areas of use (20%) between neighboring individuals. This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. The great majority of the individuals shared varying portions of their home ranges with several other individual tapirs. Thus, while tapirs in Morro do Diabo had well-defined home ranges and lived within their boundaries, no evidence was found that they defended their areas against conspecifics. In the Peruvian Amazon, Lowland Tapirs monitored through GPS telemetry regularly walked along the boundaries of their home ranges, which appeared to provide some evidence that they were defining their territory against other individuals by maintaining clear home range boundaries.On following pages 2 Central Amencan Tapır (Taprms ba/rdnl. 3 Mountam Taper (Tapnus pmchaque). 4 Malayan Taplr (Taprrus mdrcuslStatus and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although the species has been listed as Vulnerable across its entire range, several populations in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuelapresent considerably higher levels of threat. A few examples include tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil, as well as Colombian and Venezuelan populations in Catatumbo, Maracaibo, and Lake Valencia watershed. The Lowland Tapir has the broadest geographic distribution of the four living species of tapirs and the species occurs in 21 different biomes in eleven countries. Historically, this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina, throughout the Chaco, Pantanal, Cerrado, Llanos, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Amazonian/Orinoco biomes. The historic distribution of the species covered approximately 13,129,874 km*. Nevertheless, populations have been severely reduced and are currently often limited to forested biomes and wetlands. The species is believed to have gone extinct in approximately 14% ofits range and the current distribution declined to 11,232,018 km*. The species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agricultural frontiers that are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. In Brazil, which constitutes a large portion of its range, the Lowland Tapir has disappeared from over one million km? (12-4% of its countrywide range). Although only about 15-20% of the Amazon has been deforested in the past 30 years, 85-90% of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared and 40% of the Pantanal has been converted to human use. Most of the Cerrado and Caatinga biomes in Brazilhave been converted to agriculture and cattle ranching. As a consequence, the Lowland Tapir has been extirpated from the Caatinga; most populations in the Cerrado are small and in protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Some exceptions include remote areas of Cerrado (e.g. Chapada das Mangabeiras, Jalapao region in Tocantins State) where tapirs are still common. The Lowland Tapir is now either completely absent or severely fragmented across much of its historic range, with the Northern and Central Amazon as well as the remaining Pantanal (Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) becoming important strongholds as southern, eastern, and north-western populations are declining rapidly. The IUCN Red Lust published in 1996 listed Lowland Tapirs as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Therefore, the species has deteriorated in Red List status over a period of twelve years. There is an ongoing reduction of Lowland Tapir populations estimated to be slightly greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). This rate of decline is predicted to continue for the next three generations. The main identified threats responsible for the decline include habitat deforestation and/or alteration; habitat fragmentation (resulting in small populations and low connectivity); hunting; cattle ranching; infectious diseases; road-kill; fire; human density; plantations of monocultures (sugar cane, soy bean); lack of patrolling of protected areas; small size of protected areas; resource extraction; and impact of tourism. Hunting is one of the most important threats. Tapirs are among the preferred game species for subsistence and commercial hunters throughout the Amazon. Estimates of tapir harvest in the State of Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon range from 15,447 to 17,886 individuals per year. Due to their individualistic lifestyle, low reproductive rate, long generation time, and low population density Lowland Tapirs rarely achieve high local abundance, which makes them highly susceptible to overhunting, and populations show rapid decline when harvested. There are a number of infectious diseases (Bluetongue, Equine Encephalitis, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, and Leptospirosis) and parasites known in Lowland Tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Pantanal biomes in Brazil. These diseases spread to tapirs from domestic livestock, particularly cattle and horses, and can potentially increase tapir mortality and affect reproductive rates. Another serious threat to this species is road-kill. Morro do Diabo State Park in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is crossed by a highway that, from 1996 to 2006, killed an average of six tapirs per year. Most of the tapirs killed were adult individuals capable of breeding. Road-kill is also a serious threat in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes of Brazil. Estimates of the total population size for the species throughoutits entire range are not available. This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. However a large proportion of the total Lowland Tapir population is found outside the boundaries of legally protected areas, where tapirs are hunted, chased by dogs, and face many other threats. Although the species is protected legally in most countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and have proven ineffective.Bibliography.Affonso (1998), Aquino et al. (2001), Aquino & Calle (2003), Ayala (2002, 2003), Barongi (1986, 1993), Bodmer (1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1995), Bodmer & Lozano (2001), Bodmer et al. (1997), Brooks et al. (1997), Chiarello (1999), CITES (2005), Cordeiro (2004), Cullen et al. (2000), Desbiez (2009), Eisenberg (1989, 1997), Emmons (1990), Emmons & Feer (1997), Flesher (2007), Fradrich & Thenius (1972), Fragoso (1997), Fragoso & Huffman (2000), Fragoso et al. (2000), Galetti et al. (2001), Gomez et al. (2005), Goncalves da Silva (2007), Haugaasen & Peres (2005), Henry et al. (2000), Herrera et al. (1999), Hershkovitz (1954), Hunsaker & Hahn (1965), Janson & Emmons (1990), Maffei et al. (2002), Mallinson (1969, 1974), Mangini (2001), Mangini & Medici (2001), Mangini et al. (2000), Medici (1999, 2001, 2002, 2010), Medici et al. (2007), Mendes-Pontes (2004), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002), Montenegro(1998, 1999, 2004), Montenegroet al. (2000), Naveda et al. (2008), Noss et al. (2003), Novaro etal. (2000), Olmos (1997), Olmos et al. (1999), Padilla & Dowler (1994), Pena et al. (1996), Peres (2000), Robinson & Redford (1986, 1991), Rodrigues et al. (1993), Salas (1996), Salas & Fuller (1996), Schaller (1983), Schipper et al. (2008), Soto (2002), Souza-Mazurek et al. (2000), Taber et al. (2008), Tobler (2008), Tobler et al. (2009), Téfoli (2006), Trolle (2003), Trolle et al. (2007), Velastin et al. (2004), Vickers (1991), Vié et al. (2009), Young (1961).","taxonomy":"Hippopotamus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Brasillia” i.e. Pernambuco, Brazil.Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Tapir du Brésil @fr | Flachlandtapir @de | Tapiramazonico @es | Brazilian Tapir @en | South American Tapir @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tapiridae","interpretedGenus":"Tapirus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"terrestris","name":"Tapirus terrestris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.t.terrestrisLinnaeus,1758—VenezuelathroughtheGuianastoCBrazilandNEArgentina(N&CMisiones).T.t.aenigmaticusGray,1872—SEColombia,EEcuador,andNEPeru.T.t.colombianusHershkovitz,1954—tropicalzonesofNColombiaintheareasofMagdalena,Bolivar,Atlantico,Cordoba,andNWAntioquia,asfarastheAtrataRiver,andasfarNastheRancheriaRiverinLaGuajira.T. t. spegazzinii Ameghino, 1909— SE Braz1l (Mato Grosso State), E Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentinato NE Santa Fe, NE Santiago del Estero, SE Jujuy, and E Salta.","bibliography":"Affonso (1998) | Aquino et al. (2001) | Aquino & Calle (2003) | Ayala (2002, 2003) | Barongi (1986, 1993) | Bodmer (1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1995) | Bodmer & Lozano (2001) | Bodmer et al. (1997) | Brooks et al. (1997) | Chiarello (1999) | CITES (2005) | Cordeiro (2004) | Cullen et al. (2000) | Desbiez (2009) | Eisenberg (1989, 1997) | Emmons (1990) | Emmons & Feer (1997) | Flesher (2007) | Fradrich & Thenius (1972) | Fragoso (1997) | Fragoso & Huffman (2000) | Fragoso et al. (2000) | Galetti et al. (2001) | Gomez et al. (2005) | Goncalves da Silva (2007) | Haugaasen & Peres (2005) | Henry et al. (2000) | Herrera et al. (1999) | Hershkovitz (1954) | Hunsaker & Hahn (1965) | Janson & Emmons (1990) | Maffei et al. (2002) | Mallinson (1969, 1974) | Mangini (2001) | Mangini & Medici (2001) | Mangini et al. (2000) | Medici (1999, 2001, 2002, 2010) | Medici et al. (2007) | Mendes-Pontes (2004) | Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002) | Montenegro(1998, 1999, 2004) | Montenegroet al. (2000) | Naveda et al. (2008) | Noss et al. (2003) | Novaro etal. (2000) | Olmos (1997) | Olmos et al. (1999) | Padilla & Dowler (1994) | Pena et al. (1996) | Peres (2000) | Robinson & Redford (1986, 1991) | Rodrigues et al. (1993) | Salas (1996) | Salas & Fuller (1996) | Schaller (1983) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Soto (2002) | Souza-Mazurek et al. (2000) | Taber et al. (2008) | Tobler (2008) | Tobler et al. (2009) | Téfoli (2006) | Trolle (2003) | Trolle et al. (2007) | Velastin et al. (2004) | Vickers (1991) | Vié et al. (2009) | Young (1961)","foodAndFeeding":"Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.","breeding":"There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males. A Lowland Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2007 modelled the dynamics of the species’ populations in the wild. Given that natural situations impose a toll on the animals, age offirst reproduction in the wild was estimated to be four years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Lowland Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. The sex ratio at birth in captivity is 3:1. The sex ratio observed in Morro do Diabo, Brazil, was 1:1-33. Monitored subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in the central Amazon of Brazilrecorded a sex ratio of kills of 1:1:03. Therefore, the sex ratio at birth in the wild is generally assumed to be 50% males and 50% females. Data on Lowland Tapir longevity comes from captivity and reveals that these animals live over 35 years.","activityPatterns":"Tapirs are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular. Lowland Tapir rest during the day and begin their activity after sunset, at around 18:00 h. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park in Brazil, their main periods of activity are from 19:00 h to 00:00 h, with a peak between 20:00 h and 21:00 h (63% active); and from 01:00 h to 07:00 h, with a peak between 05:00 h and 06:00 h (60% active). Tapirs in Morro do Diabo are largely inactive between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. Overall, tapirs in Morro do Diabo foraged for approximately five hours in the early evening, and then seemed to rest for a few hours in the middle of the night. There followed a second foraging bout, of approximately six hours in the early hours of the day. Tapir activity patterns were analyzed separately for wet and dry season, as well for both sexes and different age classes in Morro do Diabo, and were fairly consistent. In Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs are mostly active between 18:00 h and 22:00 h, and between 00:00 h and 06:00 h, with a main activity peak between 01:00 h and 06:30 h, and very little activity between 11:00 h and 15:30 h. In the Peruvian Amazon, tapir activity peaks were observed between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and between 03:00 h and 04:00 h, with the main foraging time between 21:00 h and 03:00 h. Nocturnal line-transect sampling in Morro do Diabo State Park allowed for an analysis of the effect of moonlight intensity on tapir activity. Approximately 47% of the tapir encounters occurred during the waning crescent, 21% during the new moon, 18% during the waxing crescent, and only 14% during the full moon. It was clear that tapirs in Morro do Diabo were considerably less active during the brighter phases of the moon. Previous studies suggested that a lower level of animal activity during moonlit nights is a result of higher predation risk. In El Rey National Park, Argentina, tapirs were typically diurnal, perhaps due to lack of human disturbance.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"L.owland Tapirs can move fairly easily through areas of low quality habitat (e.g. agricultural crops, pasture lands, and eucalyptus plantations) to get from one patch of forest to another. Parameters of Lowland Tapir spatial ecology reported in the literature, particularly home range size, vary widely. Tapirs are large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals that usually require considerably large home ranges. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, tapirs use very large home ranges (4-67 km?, varying from 1-12 km? to 14-19 km?®). These home ranges have very complex internal structures, including multiple core areas, which comprise a very small proportion of the home range (50% core area = 17% of the home range; 25% core area = 6% of the home range). Little seasonal variation in size and location of home ranges and core areas was observed. These patterns are consistent for both sexes and different age classes. In the Peruvian Amazon, the home ranges of Lowland Tapirs are much smaller, ranging from 1-06 km? to 3-86 km?®, with an average of 2: 61 km®. In Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs had an average home range size of 2: 48 km?*Neighboring tapirs in Morro do Diabo State Park showed very strong home range overlap between individuals (around 30%, although in some cases as high as 92%). This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. Estimates of Lowland Tapir population density range from a high of 1-6 ind/km? reported for the species in Neotropical forests in undisturbed, non-hunted, or lightly hunted sites to less than 0-3 ind/km? in other regions and habitat types. In Amazonian forests, Lowland Tapirs are usually found in densities around 0-5 ind/ km?. Exceptionally high densities (3:3-3-7 ind/km?) were observed in the Amazonian dry forests of Roraima, Brazil. In the Brazilian Pantanal, tapir densities range from 0-13 ind/km? in open grassland habitat to 0-4 ind/km? in forested habitats. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, densities range from 0-21 ind/km? to 1-35 ind/km?. This wide variation in density estimates can be explained by several factors, including differences in environments, habitat types studied,levels of habitat conservation, levels of hunting, and, most importantly, differences in the methods used to estimate densities. Another factor is that the Lowland Tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (e.g. around saltlicks, in palm forests, and near permanent water sources). Great variation in density can also reflect the ability of tapirs to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water). Tapirs are primarily solitary. Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for approximately twelve months. In Morro do Diabo, from a total of 81 tapir sightings obtained through nocturnal line-transect sampling, 77-78% were of one individual and 12-35% of pairs (adult female/adult male, adult female/offspring). On one occasion, three individuals were sighted. In terms of intraspecific interactions and social organization, tapirs in Morro do Diabo showed a strong home range overlap (30%) as well as overlap of core areas of use (20%) between neighboring individuals. This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. The great majority of the individuals shared varying portions of their home ranges with several other individual tapirs. Thus, while tapirs in Morro do Diabo had well-defined home ranges and lived within their boundaries, no evidence was found that they defended their areas against conspecifics. In the Peruvian Amazon, Lowland Tapirs monitored through GPS telemetry regularly walked along the boundaries of their home ranges, which appeared to provide some evidence that they were defining their territory against other individuals by maintaining clear home range boundaries.On following pages 2 Central Amencan Tapır (Taprms ba/rdnl. 3 Mountam Taper (Tapnus pmchaque).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although the species has been listed as Vulnerable across its entire range, several populations in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuelapresent considerably higher levels of threat. A few examples include tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil, as well as Colombian and Venezuelan populations in Catatumbo, Maracaibo, and Lake Valencia watershed. The Lowland Tapir has the broadest geographic distribution of the four living species of tapirs and the species occurs in 21 different biomes in eleven countries. Historically, this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina, throughout the Chaco, Pantanal, Cerrado, Llanos, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Amazonian/Orinoco biomes. The historic distribution of the species covered approximately 13,129,874 km*. Nevertheless, populations have been severely reduced and are currently often limited to forested biomes and wetlands. The species is believed to have gone extinct in approximately 14% ofits range and the current distribution declined to 11,232,018 km*. The species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agricultural frontiers that are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. In Brazil, which constitutes a large portion of its range, the Lowland Tapir has disappeared from over one million km? (12-4% of its countrywide range). Although only about 15-20% of the Amazon has been deforested in the past 30 years, 85-90% of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared and 40% of the Pantanal has been converted to human use. Most of the Cerrado and Caatinga biomes in Brazilhave been converted to agriculture and cattle ranching. As a consequence, the Lowland Tapir has been extirpated from the Caatinga; most populations in the Cerrado are small and in protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Some exceptions include remote areas of Cerrado (e.g. Chapada das Mangabeiras, Jalapao region in Tocantins State) where tapirs are still common. The Lowland Tapir is now either completely absent or severely fragmented across much of its historic range, with the Northern and Central Amazon as well as the remaining Pantanal (Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) becoming important strongholds as southern, eastern, and north-western populations are declining rapidly. The IUCN Red Lust published in 1996 listed Lowland Tapirs as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Therefore, the species has deteriorated in Red List status over a period of twelve years. There is an ongoing reduction of Lowland Tapir populations estimated to be slightly greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). This rate of decline is predicted to continue for the next three generations. The main identified threats responsible for the decline include habitat deforestation and/or alteration; habitat fragmentation (resulting in small populations and low connectivity); hunting; cattle ranching; infectious diseases; road-kill; fire; human density; plantations of monocultures (sugar cane, soy bean); lack of patrolling of protected areas; small size of protected areas; resource extraction; and impact of tourism. Hunting is one of the most important threats. Tapirs are among the preferred game species for subsistence and commercial hunters throughout the Amazon. Estimates of tapir harvest in the State of Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon range from 15,447 to 17,886 individuals per year. Due to their individualistic lifestyle, low reproductive rate, long generation time, and low population density Lowland Tapirs rarely achieve high local abundance, which makes them highly susceptible to overhunting, and populations show rapid decline when harvested. There are a number of infectious diseases (Bluetongue, Equine Encephalitis, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, and Leptospirosis) and parasites known in Lowland Tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Pantanal biomes in Brazil. These diseases spread to tapirs from domestic livestock, particularly cattle and horses, and can potentially increase tapir mortality and affect reproductive rates. Another serious threat to this species is road-kill. Morro do Diabo State Park in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is crossed by a highway that, from 1996 to 2006, killed an average of six tapirs per year. Most of the tapirs killed were adult individuals capable of breeding. Road-kill is also a serious threat in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes of Brazil. Estimates of the total population size for the species throughoutits entire range are not available. This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. However a large proportion of the total Lowland Tapir population is found outside the boundaries of legally protected areas, where tapirs are hunted, chased by dogs, and face many other threats. Although the species is protected legally in most countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and have proven ineffective.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 191-242 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 83-118 cm (males), 83-113 cm (females); weight 180-300 kg. Female Lowland Tapirs are usually larger than males. Data collected from 35 Lowland Tapirs captured during a long-term telemetry study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed that the average weight of adult tapirs was 233 kgfor females (200-300 kg) and 208 kgfor males (180-280 kg). Measurements oftapirs in Morro do Diabo demonstrated that adult females are significantly longer andtaller than males. Full length offemales 208-242 cm, full length of males 191-223 cm; rear height of females 90-120 cm, rear height of males 89-109 cm. In captivity, newborn Lowland Tapirs usually weigh 3-2— 5-8 kg. Calves gain an average of2-27 kg per week and are completely weaned at four months of age. Growth is usually completed by 18 months of age. The color of adult Lowland Tapirs is blackish-brown dorsally with the ears edged in white; the chest, venter and limbs are dark brown; the cheeks are grizzled brown and gray. Young of all four tapir species are born dark with yellowish or white stripes and spots, a pattern that is lost after the first six months, although some vestiges of spotting may remain in young adults. The skin of Lowland Tapirs is thickest at the nape, and often covered by scars, scratches, and bruises; beneath the epidermis is a fibrous tissue layer. There is a well-developed sagittal crest that runs from the base of the muzzle to the middle of the back, which is derived from fat and soft tissues and covered by very long black hair. The short, erect mane is prominent, and is thought to help the tapirs escape predators, which seize the dorsum of the neck. This crest is not present in the other three tapir species.Habitat.The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.Food and Feeding.Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.Breeding.There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males.","habitat":"The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFE08713168D49E5251F8A8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFFE08713168D49E5251F8A8","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"216","verbatimText":"6.Gray Slender LorisLoris lydekkerianusFrench:Loris de Lydekker/ German:Grauer Schlanklori/ Spanish:Loris esbelto grisOther common names:Dry Zone/Northern/Northern Ceylon Slender Loris (nordicus), Highland Slender Loris (grandis), Malabar Slender Loris (malabaricus), Mysore Slender Loris (lydekkerianus)Taxonomy.Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908, India, Madras.C. P. Groves in his book Primate Taxonomy in 2001 considered L. [. grandis and L. I. nordicus synonymous, but this is difficult to resolve. They are similar cranially, but their pelage and especially the muzzle and face are remarkably distinct. They are recognized as distinct subspecies here. K. Kar Gupta in 2007 reportedly studied iL. malabaricus, but the individuals from Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India, have the appearance of L. L lydekkerianus. Four subspecies are recognized here, but there is much overlap in their physical characteristics. Ongoing confusion over their taxonomy requires future research.Subspecies and Distribution.L.l.lydekkerianusCabrera,1908—S&EIndia(AndhraPradesh,Karnataka&TamilNadustates),foundinthedryforestsoftheEasternGhats.L.l.grandisHill&Phillips,1932—CSriLanka(CentralProvince);onlyknownfromtheEastMataleHillsbutprobablyoccursthroughoutthelowerfoothillsatanaverageelevationof900m.L.l.malabaricusWroughton,1917—SWIndia(Karnataka,Kerala&TamilNadustates),foundinthewetforestsoftheWesternGhatstoelevationsof1200m.L. l. nordicus Hill, 1933— NC & E Sri Lanka throughout the lowland Dry Zone;it is uncertain if its distribution extends to SE Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 21-26 cm,tail vestigial; weight varies among the subspecies. The Gray Slender Loris is similar to the Red Slender Loris (L. tardigradus) but larger, with a less pointed muzzle and more regional variation. Pelage is fairly short, and a dorsal stripe is sometimes present. Two subspecies are recognized in India. The “Mysore Slender Loris” (L. Ll. lydekkerianus) is a large subspecies, with head—body lengths of 20.3-22 cm and adult weight of ¢.294 g (males) and ¢.259 g (females). It is grayish-buff above, often with white frosting, and whitish-buff below with or without white frosting. Eye patches are gray to brown, pre-auricular hairs are white, and ears are yellowish brown. W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1953 reported specimens with black ears, but these have never been seen in the wild or found in subsequent museum specimens. Variation occurs across its very large range, especially in body size, and more Indian subspecies or even species are suspected. The “Malabar Slender Loris” (L. I. malabaricus), despite being in the Gray Slender Loris species, bears a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris, perhaps because it shares similar forest habitat. Pelage is red-brown with or without white frosting on the dorsum and head, and the dorsal stripe is usually absent or indistinct. Head-body length is 18:3-19.8 cm, and adult weight is 180 g. Two subspecies of the Gray Slender Loris are found in Sri Lanka. The “Northern Ceylon Slender Loris” (L. [. nordicus) has a dense woolly pelage and is gray, gray-brown, or buff-brown dorsally and white or light buff ventrally. The throat and median line of the belly are usually creamy buff throughout with no gray hair bases, although medium to pale gray hair bases may intergrade with hairs on the outer part of the creamy underside. The head and dorsum can either have frosting or not, and there is usually a dark dorsal stripe that meets a dark crown. Circumocular patches are dark gray, gray, or gray-brown, and preauricular hairs are either white or light gray extending to white cheeks, making the facial mask more outstanding than in the Red Slender Loris. Ears are large compared with the eyes and are yellow or yellow with dusky ear rims. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris has a head-body length of 21.5-23.8 cm (males 22-7 cm, females 21-7 cm). Male weight (228-285 g) is slightly higher than that of females (238-287 g). The “Highland Slender Loris” (L. I. grandis) was described by Hill and W. Phillips in 1932. The plates of the living animals in the original description bear a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris but no resemblance to living Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises—therefore the separate taxon recognized here. The type was found in Gammaduwa at 675 m above sea level. This medium-size slender loris has a head-body length of 20.9-25.6 cm, and a weight of ¢.220 g. Pelage of grandis makes it distinct from other subspecies. It is dark gray or gray-brown dorsally and sometimes a rusty-brown on the lumbar region. It is ventrally white or light buff on distal ends of the hairs, with the basal one-half being black, unlike the subspecies nor dicus where ventral hairs have pale hair bases fading to pure white at the midline. The throat of grandis is pure white, and it has an indistinct dark dorsal stripe that usually is frosted. Circumocular patches are black, brown, or red-brown. The white interocular stripe bifurcates above circumocular patches. Cheeks and preauricular hairs are mainly white, similar to nordicus. The coat of grandis is thicker than that of tardigradus; it is sometimes so thick as to resemble a subspecies of the Red Slender Loris (the “Horton Plains Slender Loris,” L. t. nycticeboides). The heart-shaped face of grandis has a very long muzzle, which also distinguishes it from other subspecies. As in all the Sri Lankan lorises, infants of grandis are reddish and assume the adult coloration at 8-9 months of age. It would be difficult to tell grandis from nordicus by observing only an infant.Habitat.The Gray Slender Loris occurs in tropical primary and some secondary rainforest, dry semi-deciduous forest, shrub, evergreen, swamp, acacia, bamboo, edge, and montane cloud forest to 2000 m above sea level. It occupies the understory in dry forests and the canopy in wetter areas. It can persist in home gardens, tea plantations, and hotel grounds, where it probably lives mainly on insects. Gray Slender Lorises move at heights of 2-5 m, depending on their habitat. They move in a serpentine fashion, from ground to canopy, and also cross gaps of open ground, including roads and paddy fields.Food and Feeding.Faunivorous, consuming mainly invertebrates (including ants and mollusks), along with bird eggs, nestlings, geckos, birds, tree frogs, small mammals, unripened fruits, young leaves, and gum. In the only detailed long-term study of the species’ diet, 96% ofall feeding events focused on animal prey, the majority of which were ants and termites. In addition to spiders, mollusks, and lizards, other key insect orders in the diet include: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Lorises are able to eat insects with high levels of secondary compounds, accompanied by pre-ingestive urine washing, or slobbering and urine washing during ingestion. Gray Slender Lorises are terminal branch specialists that catch their prey visually with one or two hands, and they use acrobatic postures in the more dangerous and swaying branches. Lorises infrequently feed on gums and legume pods, but they can make holes in bark through active gouging. Observations of the Sri Lankan forms are in accordance with those of longer-term studies in India. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris was observed to eat only insect or animal prey, including lizards and snails. They nearly always detect their prey with their eyes and engage in acrobatic suspensory postures to catch their prey items. They grasp the prey with one or two hands, and prey items are rarely caught and eaten directly with the mouth. Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises do not appear to eat gum or drink water, and the only non-insect item they appear to eat is nectar from a flowering Cassiaroxburghii (Fabaceae). In captivity, the Highland Slender Loris feeds on tree frogs, geckos, and large insects.Breeding.Copulation patterns are similar among the two species of Loris. Mating can occur after play wrestling, but it most often commences after many males have pursued a female. Usually, males move into an area a few days before a female enters full estrus and start to follow her and try to groom her. These interactions can result in violent fights between males. During the pursuit, the males utter “krik” calls at irregular intervals and try to inspect the female’s genitals. The female may give defensive threats, but when she is ready to be mounted, she signals with a suspensory posture. Copulations take place with the male clinging to the female, who is suspended quadrupedally. A female supports herself by all four limbs orjust her hindlimbs. A single copulation may last 2-16 minutes and is ended with the female giving low-intensity threat gestures toward the male. Sometimes the male produces a liquid that forms a vaginal plug. Both sexeslick their genitals after copulation. Gray Slender Lorises give birth to singletons or twins after a gestation of 157-162 days. Births occur throughout the year. A female gives birth in a sitting or a hanging posture. Newborns have partially opened eyes. After birth, the mother may defend the infants against conspecifics if they become overly curious, but often she will allow an adult male from her social group to groom her and her offspring. The newborn clings to the mother’s belly for the first few weeks oflife. Weaning occurs after 148 days. The infantis carried less when it is 2-3 months old, and it may be parked while the mother goes off to feed.Activity patterns.The Gray Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal, and it moves quadrupedally in trees. Although it can move slowly when threatened,it is generally silent and swift. It prefers to move on the top of branches. Gaps between branches are crossed by using horizontal bridging, whereby hindlimbs hold on to a substrate while forelimbs grab for the desired branch. Three limbs are usually holding a support branch when moving in a quadrupedal fashion. The Gray Slender Loris is capable of rapidly scaling a large tree trunk or scampering along other large substrates, although it prefers small supports that it can clasp firmly in its hands. It crosses roads and agricultural fields when necessary.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social organization of the Gray Slender Loris has been described as dispersed multimale—multifemale, but with unimale—unifemale subunits. Home-range sizes of the Mysore Slender Loris are c.3-6 ha for adult males and 1-6 ha for adult females. Home-range sizes of the Malabar Slender Loris are 1-2-14 ha for adult males and 3-15-3 ha for adult females; roving males can have home ranges as large as 117 ha. Home ranges of adult males overlap one or more females, but home ranges of adult females are exclusive, except for their offspring. Social interactions are common; the Mysore Slender Loris, in particular, is among the most social of the lorises, with up to 38% ofits activity spent in association with other individuals. The Gray Slender Loris, in general, forages at night, alone or in groups of two or three, sometimes larger. An individual usually sleeps with one to four conspecifics and chooses one of three or four sleeping sites night after night. Sleeping site fidelity for resident individuals seems to be high, whereas roving males or dispersing individuals often change their sleeping sites and sleep alone. Sleeping sites are vine tangles, forks, or dense thickets. Grooming is common, and males frequently groom infants when they are parked or on the mother’s belly. Peaceful food sharing occurs among members of a group, although it is not active. The Gray Slender Loris engages in social play; adult males and juveniles play-wrestle most often, but older individuals may also participate. A typical wrestling bout includes two individuals facing each other and gripping the head from the back and pulling the head back. They try to gently bite the other’s hands and feet. A whistle is the most common call of the Gray Slender Loris, uttered throughout the night; it may be used as a countercall, a spacing mechanism, or a territorial call. This call is heard in situations of aggressive excitement and is emitted by adults of both sexes. The “chitter” call is heard in defensive situations between conspecifics and is emitted by males and females. The krik call may be uttered in situations where an infant will threaten its mother in response to other group members’ quarrel. The Gray Slender Loris screams when attacked by a predator; and one individual was also heard screaming when electrocuted crossing an open power line.On following pages: 7. Red Slender Loris(Loris tardigradus); 8. Bengal Slow Loris(Nycticebus bengalensis); 9. Sunda Slow Loris(Nycticebus coucang); 10. Javan Slow Loris(Nycticebus javanicus); 11. Bornean Slow Loris(Nycticebus menagensis); 12. Pygmy Slow Loris(Nycticebus pygmaeus).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies grandis and nordicus are classified as Endangered, and the nominate subspecies and malabaricus are classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The principal threat is loss of habitat. Loris eyes are valued in traditional Asian medicine because of the local belief that they contain certain properties that are effective against ocular complaints. In India, the eye of the loris is also widely used as a love charm in a preparation that is claimed to be helpful in seducing and kidnapping a woman. The Mysore Slender Loris is reported from three protected areas: Sri Venkateswara National Park and Biligiri Rangswamy Temple and Nelapattu wildlife sanctuaries in India. The Malabar Slender Loris is reported in Periyar National Park and a number of wildlife sanctuaries in India, including Aralam, Brahmagiri, Griz zled Giant Squirrel, Idukki, Indira Gandhi, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai, Parambikulam, Peechi-Vazhani, Shendurney, Someswara, Thattakkad, and Wynad. In Sri Lanka, the Northern Ceylon Slender Loris is reported from reserves and sanctuaries of Ampara, Girithale, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, Ritigala, Sigiriya, and Thangamale; national parks of Angammedilla, Flood Plains, Kaudulla, Maduru Oya, Minneriya, Somawathiya, Wasgamuwa, Wilpattu, and Yala; and forest reserves of Kanthale and Menikdena. The Highland Slender Loris is reported from only three protected areas: Knuckles Mountain Range, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe, and Udawatta Kele.Bibliography.Christie (1992), Devaraj Sarkar et al. (1981), Fitch-Snyder & Schulze (2001), Goonan (1993), Groves (2001), Hill (1933, 1953d), Ilse (1955), Izard & Rassmussen (1985), Kadam & Swayamprabha (1977, 1980), Kar Gupta (2007), Kumara et al. (2006), Meier (1989), Nanda Kumar et al. (2004), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Schulze (2004), Nekaris et al. (2006), Rao (1994), Rhadakrishna (2001), Rhadakrishna & Singh (2002, 2004a, 2004b), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Singh, Kumar et al. (2000), Singh, Lindburg et al. (1999), Swayamprabha & Kadam (1980).","taxonomy":"in 2001 considered L. [. grandis and L. I. nordicus synonymous, but this is difficult to resolve. They are similar cranially, but their pelage and especially the muzzle and face are remarkably distinct. They are recognized as distinct subspecies here. K. Kar Gupta in 2007 reportedly studied iL. malabaricus, but the individuals from Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India, have the appearance of L. L lydekkerianus. Four subspecies are recognized here, but there is much overlap in their physical characteristics. Ongoing confusion over their taxonomy requires future research.","commonNames":"Loris de Lydekker @fr | Grauer Schlanklori @de | Loris esbelto gris @es | Dry Zone @en | Northern @en | Northern Ceylon Slender Loris (nordicus) @en | Highland Slender Loris (grandis) @en | Malabar Slender Loris (malabaricus) @en | Mysore Slender Loris (lydekkerianus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Cabrera","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Loris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"216","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lydekkerianus","name":"Loris lydekkerianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.l.lydekkerianusCabrera,1908—S&EIndia(AndhraPradesh,Karnataka&TamilNadustates),foundinthedryforestsoftheEasternGhats.L.l.grandisHill&Phillips,1932—CSriLanka(CentralProvince);onlyknownfromtheEastMataleHillsbutprobablyoccursthroughoutthelowerfoothillsatanaverageelevationof900m.L.l.malabaricusWroughton,1917—SWIndia(Karnataka,Kerala&TamilNadustates),foundinthewetforestsoftheWesternGhatstoelevationsof1200m.L. l. nordicus Hill, 1933— NC & E Sri Lanka throughout the lowland Dry Zone;it is uncertain if its distribution extends to SE Sri Lanka.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632665/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Christie (1992) | Devaraj Sarkar et al. (1981) | Fitch-Snyder & Schulze (2001) | Goonan (1993) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1933, 1953d) | Ilse (1955) | Izard & Rassmussen (1985) | Kadam & Swayamprabha (1977, 1980) | Kar Gupta (2007) | Kumara et al. (2006) | Meier (1989) | Nanda Kumar et al. (2004) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris (1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004) | Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003) | Nekaris & Schulze (2004) | Nekaris et al. (2006) | Rao (1994) | Rhadakrishna (2001) | Rhadakrishna & Singh (2002, 2004a, 2004b) | Schulze & Meier (1995a) | Singh, Kumar et al. (2000) | Singh, Lindburg et al. (1999) | Swayamprabha & Kadam (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"Faunivorous, consuming mainly invertebrates (including ants and mollusks), along with bird eggs, nestlings, geckos, birds, tree frogs, small mammals, unripened fruits, young leaves, and gum. In the only detailed long-term study of the species’ diet, 96% ofall feeding events focused on animal prey, the majority of which were ants and termites. In addition to spiders, mollusks, and lizards, other key insect orders in the diet include: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Lorises are able to eat insects with high levels of secondary compounds, accompanied by pre-ingestive urine washing, or slobbering and urine washing during ingestion. Gray Slender Lorises are terminal branch specialists that catch their prey visually with one or two hands, and they use acrobatic postures in the more dangerous and swaying branches. Lorises infrequently feed on gums and legume pods, but they can make holes in bark through active gouging. Observations of the Sri Lankan forms are in accordance with those of longer-term studies in India. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris was observed to eat only insect or animal prey, including lizards and snails. They nearly always detect their prey with their eyes and engage in acrobatic suspensory postures to catch their prey items. They grasp the prey with one or two hands, and prey items are rarely caught and eaten directly with the mouth. Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises do not appear to eat gum or drink water, and the only non-insect item they appear to eat is nectar from a flowering Cassiaroxburghii (Fabaceae). In captivity, the Highland Slender Loris feeds on tree frogs, geckos, and large insects.","breeding":"Copulation patterns are similar among the two species of Loris. Mating can occur after play wrestling, but it most often commences after many males have pursued a female. Usually, males move into an area a few days before a female enters full estrus and start to follow her and try to groom her. These interactions can result in violent fights between males. During the pursuit, the males utter “krik” calls at irregular intervals and try to inspect the female’s genitals. The female may give defensive threats, but when she is ready to be mounted, she signals with a suspensory posture. Copulations take place with the male clinging to the female, who is suspended quadrupedally. A female supports herself by all four limbs orjust her hindlimbs. A single copulation may last 2-16 minutes and is ended with the female giving low-intensity threat gestures toward the male. Sometimes the male produces a liquid that forms a vaginal plug. Both sexeslick their genitals after copulation. Gray Slender Lorises give birth to singletons or twins after a gestation of 157-162 days. Births occur throughout the year. A female gives birth in a sitting or a hanging posture. Newborns have partially opened eyes. After birth, the mother may defend the infants against conspecifics if they become overly curious, but often she will allow an adult male from her social group to groom her and her offspring. The newborn clings to the mother’s belly for the first few weeks oflife. Weaning occurs after 148 days. The infantis carried less when it is 2-3 months old, and it may be parked while the mother goes off to feed.","activityPatterns":"The Gray Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal, and it moves quadrupedally in trees. Although it can move slowly when threatened,it is generally silent and swift. It prefers to move on the top of branches. Gaps between branches are crossed by using horizontal bridging, whereby hindlimbs hold on to a substrate while forelimbs grab for the desired branch. Three limbs are usually holding a support branch when moving in a quadrupedal fashion. The Gray Slender Loris is capable of rapidly scaling a large tree trunk or scampering along other large substrates, although it prefers small supports that it can clasp firmly in its hands. It crosses roads and agricultural fields when necessary.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social organization of the Gray Slender Loris has been described as dispersed multimale—multifemale, but with unimale—unifemale subunits. Home-range sizes of the Mysore Slender Loris are c.3-6 ha for adult males and 1-6 ha for adult females. Home-range sizes of the Malabar Slender Loris are 1-2-14 ha for adult males and 3-15-3 ha for adult females; roving males can have home ranges as large as 117 ha. Home ranges of adult males overlap one or more females, but home ranges of adult females are exclusive, except for their offspring. Social interactions are common; the Mysore Slender Loris, in particular, is among the most social of the lorises, with up to 38% ofits activity spent in association with other individuals. The Gray Slender Loris, in general, forages at night, alone or in groups of two or three, sometimes larger. An individual usually sleeps with one to four conspecifics and chooses one of three or four sleeping sites night after night. Sleeping site fidelity for resident individuals seems to be high, whereas roving males or dispersing individuals often change their sleeping sites and sleep alone. Sleeping sites are vine tangles, forks, or dense thickets. Grooming is common, and males frequently groom infants when they are parked or on the mother’s belly. Peaceful food sharing occurs among members of a group, although it is not active. The Gray Slender Loris engages in social play; adult males and juveniles play-wrestle most often, but older individuals may also participate. A typical wrestling bout includes two individuals facing each other and gripping the head from the back and pulling the head back. They try to gently bite the other’s hands and feet. A whistle is the most common call of the Gray Slender Loris, uttered throughout the night; it may be used as a countercall, a spacing mechanism, or a territorial call. This call is heard in situations of aggressive excitement and is emitted by adults of both sexes. The “chitter” call is heard in defensive situations between conspecifics and is emitted by males and females. The krik call may be uttered in situations where an infant will threaten its mother in response to other group members’ quarrel. The Gray Slender Loris screams when attacked by a predator; and one individual was also heard screaming when electrocuted crossing an open power line.On following pages: 7. Red Slender Loris(Loris tardigradus); 8. Bengal Slow Loris(Nycticebus bengalensis); 9. Sunda Slow Loris(Nycticebus coucang); 10. Javan Slow Loris(Nycticebus javanicus); 11. Bornean Slow Loris(Nycticebus menagensis); 12. Pygmy Slow Loris(Nycticebus pygmaeus).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies grandis and nordicus are classified as Endangered, and the nominate subspecies and malabaricus are classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The principal threat is loss of habitat. Loris eyes are valued in traditional Asian medicine because of the local belief that they contain certain properties that are effective against ocular complaints. In India, the eye of the loris is also widely used as a love charm in a preparation that is claimed to be helpful in seducing and kidnapping a woman. The Mysore Slender Loris is reported from three protected areas: Sri Venkateswara National Park and Biligiri Rangswamy Temple and Nelapattu wildlife sanctuaries in India. The Malabar Slender Loris is reported in Periyar National Park and a number of wildlife sanctuaries in India, including Aralam, Brahmagiri, Griz zled Giant Squirrel, Idukki, Indira Gandhi, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai, Parambikulam, Peechi-Vazhani, Shendurney, Someswara, Thattakkad, and Wynad. In Sri Lanka, the Northern Ceylon Slender Loris is reported from reserves and sanctuaries of Ampara, Girithale, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, Ritigala, Sigiriya, and Thangamale; national parks of Angammedilla, Flood Plains, Kaudulla, Maduru Oya, Minneriya, Somawathiya, Wasgamuwa, Wilpattu, and Yala; and forest reserves of Kanthale and Menikdena. The Highland Slender Loris is reported from only three protected areas: Knuckles Mountain Range, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe, and Udawatta Kele.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 21-26 cm,tail vestigial; weight varies among the subspecies. The Gray Slender Loris is similar to the Red Slender Loris (L. tardigradus) but larger, with a less pointed muzzle and more regional variation. Pelage is fairly short, and a dorsal stripe is sometimes present. Two subspecies are recognized in India. The “Mysore Slender Loris” (L. Ll. lydekkerianus) is a large subspecies, with head—body lengths of 20.3-22 cm and adult weight of ¢.294 g (males) and ¢.259 g (females). It is grayish-buff above, often with white frosting, and whitish-buff below with or without white frosting. Eye patches are gray to brown, pre-auricular hairs are white, and ears are yellowish brown. W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1953 reported specimens with black ears, but these have never been seen in the wild or found in subsequent museum specimens. Variation occurs across its very large range, especially in body size, and more Indian subspecies or even species are suspected. The “Malabar Slender Loris” (L. I. malabaricus), despite being in the Gray Slender Loris species, bears a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris, perhaps because it shares similar forest habitat. Pelage is red-brown with or without white frosting on the dorsum and head, and the dorsal stripe is usually absent or indistinct. Head-body length is 18:3-19.8 cm, and adult weight is 180 g. Two subspecies of the Gray Slender Loris are found in Sri Lanka. The “Northern Ceylon Slender Loris” (L. [. nordicus) has a dense woolly pelage and is gray, gray-brown, or buff-brown dorsally and white or light buff ventrally. The throat and median line of the belly are usually creamy buff throughout with no gray hair bases, although medium to pale gray hair bases may intergrade with hairs on the outer part of the creamy underside. The head and dorsum can either have frosting or not, and there is usually a dark dorsal stripe that meets a dark crown. Circumocular patches are dark gray, gray, or gray-brown, and preauricular hairs are either white or light gray extending to white cheeks, making the facial mask more outstanding than in the Red Slender Loris. Ears are large compared with the eyes and are yellow or yellow with dusky ear rims. The Northern Ceylon Slender Loris has a head-body length of 21.5-23.8 cm (males 22-7 cm, females 21-7 cm). Male weight (228-285 g) is slightly higher than that of females (238-287 g). The “Highland Slender Loris” (L. I. grandis) was described by Hill and W. Phillips in 1932. The plates of the living animals in the original description bear a striking resemblance to the Red Slender Loris but no resemblance to living Northern Ceylon Slender Lorises—therefore the separate taxon recognized here. The type was found in Gammaduwa at 675 m above sea level. This medium-size slender loris has a head-body length of 20.9-25.6 cm, and a weight of ¢.220 g. Pelage of grandis makes it distinct from other subspecies. It is dark gray or gray-brown dorsally and sometimes a rusty-brown on the lumbar region. It is ventrally white or light buff on distal ends of the hairs, with the basal one-half being black, unlike the subspecies nor dicus where ventral hairs have pale hair bases fading to pure white at the midline. The throat of grandis is pure white, and it has an indistinct dark dorsal stripe that usually is frosted. Circumocular patches are black, brown, or red-brown. The white interocular stripe bifurcates above circumocular patches. Cheeks and preauricular hairs are mainly white, similar to nordicus. The coat of grandis is thicker than that of tardigradus; it is sometimes so thick as to resemble a subspecies of the Red Slender Loris (the “Horton Plains Slender Loris,” L. t. nycticeboides). The heart-shaped face of grandis has a very long muzzle, which also distinguishes it from other subspecies. As in all the Sri Lankan lorises, infants of grandis are reddish and assume the adult coloration at 8-9 months of age. It would be difficult to tell grandis from nordicus by observing only an infant.","habitat":"The Gray Slender Loris occurs in tropical primary and some secondary rainforest, dry semi-deciduous forest, shrub, evergreen, swamp, acacia, bamboo, edge, and montane cloud forest to 2000 m above sea level. It occupies the understory in dry forests and the canopy in wetter areas. It can persist in home gardens, tea plantations, and hotel grounds, where it probably lives mainly on insects. Gray Slender Lorises move at heights of 2-5 m, depending on their habitat. They move in a serpentine fashion, from ground to canopy, and also cross gaps of open ground, including roads and paddy fields."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/94/039C9423FFFF087E3189D2385239FDC8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039C9423FFFF087E3189D2385239FDC8","docName":"hbmw_3_Lorisidae_0210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5ec5bfff808763122d562567effbd","docISBN":"978-84-96553-89-7","docPageNumber":"217","verbatimText":"7.Red Slender LorisLoris tardigradusFrench:Loris gréle/ German:Roter Schlanklori/ Spanish:Loris esbelto rojoOther common names:Horton Plains Slender Loris (nycticeboides)Taxonomy.Lemur tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758, Ceylon (= Sri Lanka).The precise type locality is unknown, but it was probably in the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. The subspecies nycticeboides was described by W. C. O. Hill in 1942 from the Horton Plains at an elevation of 1830 m in Sri Lanka’s Central Province, although there remains some dispute as to which species this taxon belongs. There is preliminary evidence for two additional subspecies in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.L.t.tardigradusLinnaeus,1758—SWSriLanka(Western&Southernprovinces),fromtheoutskirtsofColombointheNtoRannaintheS,atlowerelevationsupto¢.470mabovesealevel.L. t. nycticeboides Hill, 1942— Sri Lanka (Central Province highlands), at elevations of 1650-2000 m above sea level.Descriptive notes.Head—body 18-21 cm, tail vestigial; weight 85-220 g. The nominate subspecies tardigradusis the smallest of the slender loris taxa (head-body length less than 20-5 cm; weight 122-170 g). Dorsally, its pelage is red-brown with or without a dorsal stripe. The ventral hair is yellowish white with dark gray hair bases. Its preauricular hair has dark bases intergrading to its ear from its dark brown-chestnut circumocular patches, which are rounded in shape. The white interocular stripe is very narrow or absent. Its hands and feet are pink or yellowish-pink in adults. It has very large eyes and relatively small ears that are generally a woody russet color. The muzzle is long and pointed. Fur on forearms, hands, and feetis short. The toilet claw of the second digit of the foot is well developed. The “Horton Plains Slender Loris” (L. t. nycticeboudes) 1s the most distinct of the Sri Lankan lorises. Its limbs are shorter relative to the trunk than in tardigradus, with their hindlimbs especially shortened. The skull (length 5-2 cm) is also considerably larger in all details than in the subspecies tardigradus. The fur of the Horton Plains Slender Lorisis very long, soft, and thick, and it makes the animal look much larger than its body measurements would suggest (head-body 20.4-21.3 cm; weight 140-220 g); it looks superficially like a slow loris (Nycticebus). Limbs, in particular, are thickly furred toward their extremities. This furriness makes this form difficultto confuse with other slender lorises.Habitat.Primary and some secondary wet lowland forest and tropical rainforest (tardigradus); cloud, montane, and highland evergreen forest (nycticeboides). The subspecies tardigradusis found in the wet lowland forests up to 470 m above sea level. Its habitat is heavily fragmented. It uses small twigs, lianas, and vines for movement, and it also forage on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Lorisis found in central Sri Lanka at elevations of 1800-2300 m in montane mist forests. It has been observed moving on the ground and crossing roads, and it is often seen low down in stunted vegetation. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts the Red Slender Loris; it is rarely found in home gardens and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches.Food and Feeding.In 1905,|. Still suggested that lorises were completely insectivorous, even carnivorous. Wild Red Slender Lorises have only been seen eating animal prey. They eat insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers), lizards (Calotes, Agamidae), and geckos. They have not been seen eating birds, but the speed with which they can grasp prey and kill with a bite to the head suggests this is possible. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas with Humboldtialaurifolia (Fabaceae), a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants and provides abundant food for lorises. Nothing is known of the diet of the Horton Plains Slender Loris.Breeding.Dominant males may form partnershipswith smaller beta males—coalitions to pursue estrous females. Males gather when a female is in estrus, some coming from other parts of the forest, and vocal battles are common. Gestation is 165-175 days; one twin birth in captivity occurred after 174 days. Births occur throughout the year, and singletons are more common than twins. Mothersstart to park their infants when they are about two months old, remaining near and rushing back to retrieve the infant at any sign of danger. Females have a 29-40day sexual cycle, with genital swelling and reddening at estrus. Individuals may live up to 15 years. Only one birth has been witnessed for the Horton Plains Slender Loris.Activity patterns.The Red Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. Although lorises are thought to be slow climbers, kinematic studies revealed that the nominate subspecies tardigraduscan move at speeds of 1-3 m/second. In a secondary tree-fall area, Red Slender Lorises are small-branch specialists, most often moving on supports less than 5 cm in diameter and only occasionally selecting branch clusters or substrates larger than 5 cm in diameter. Overall, they do not have strong preferences with respect to branch orientation. Rapid quadrupedalism is used on arboreal supports of all diameters and orientations, but individuals have never been seen moving on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris moves very much like its low-country counterpart and is also capable of incredible speed. It has been observed at low heights (2 m above the ground), and it crosses open ground. It also will occur in the highest trees available, for example, in alpine scrub at heights of 4 m.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the Horton Plains Slender Loris, so the description here refers to the subspecies tardigradus. Red Slender Lorises sleep in groups of up to five animals, most commonly a male, female, and their offspring. Some males change their sleeping site regularly and may sleep in the vicinity of a female. They engage in intense grooming sessions and social and solitary play at dawn and dusk. They communicate regularly using scent marking and loud calls. Individuals with overlapping home ranges interact throughout the night. Females have home ranges of 1-2-6-9 ha, whereas those of males are 1-4-3-4 ha. Males may affiliate with males and with more than one female. Females rarely affiliate with other females and may be aggressive toward males that attempt to follow or groom them. During the single long-term radio-tracking study on the Red Slender Loris, a single male’s home range overlapped a single female’s home range, but not all individuals in the area were caught, and more animals shared sleep sites. This, combined with promiscuous mating, implies that unimale—unifemale social pairs are not the rule for this species. Interestingly, lorises are very disturbed by white light and usually cease social behavior (e.g. partners will disperse) unless red or infrared light is used. The subspecies tardigradusutters “chitters,” “kriks,” and “zic” calls. A scream has not yet been recorded. They produce a soft whistle, barely audible to humans even when standing within 10 m of an individual. By far the most common call is the loud whistle, used to communicate location to friendly conspecifics, to warn non-group members, and to ward off encroaching males. Vocal battles are common and up to 60 calls per hour are not uncommon. The whistle is so common that it is a good indicator of loris presence or absence in a forest. At least six variations of the whistle have been described, with a potential twelve additional variants. The syllables within each call can be undulated, strangled, and short or long, and they occur in different combinations. Density estimates of lorises were 0-08-0-55 ind/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Red Slender Loris is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and the nominate subspecies tardigradusparticularly by gem mining. Individuals are regularly sold illegally in bazaars as pets, and they are valued in traditional medicine and killed because of superstitious folk beliefs. All populations are likely declining and at low levels, with as few as 1500 tardigradusin only c.3000 ha of highly fragmented forests and a critically low number of 80 nycticeboides in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. The subspecies tardigradusoccurs in Udawalawe National Park; the sanctuaries of Attidiya-Belanwila, Kurulukele, Peak Wilderness, Udawattekele, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe; and forest reserves of Ingiriya, Kanneliya, Kombala-Kottawa, Oliyagankele, Polgahaivalakande, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Aparekka, and Godakawela. It can also be found in Gampola-Ambuluwela Biodiversity Park, Maimbulkanda Nature Reserve, Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, and Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is known from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, and Conical Hill and Bomburella forest reserves. It may also occur in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Siripagama.Bibliography.Bernede (2009), Bernede et al. (2008), Gamage et al. (2010), Goonan (1993), Goonan et al.(1995), Groves (2001), Hill (1942b), Molur et al. (2003), Montagna & Ellis (1960), Muller et al. (1985), Napier & Napier (1967), Nekaris (2003a, 2003b, 2002/2003), Nekaris & Bearder (2007), Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004), Nekaris & Perera (2007), Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003), Nekaris & Stevens (2007), Nekaris, Liyanage & Gamage (2005), Nekaris, Pimley & Ablard (2006, 2007), Petter & Hladik (1970), Rumpler et al. (1987), Schmitt & Lemelin (2004), Schulze & Meier (1995a), Sellers (1996), Still (1905), Subramoniam (1957).","taxonomy":"Lemur tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758, Ceylon (= Sri Lanka).The precise type locality is unknown, but it was probably in the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. The subspecies nycticeboides was described by W. C. O. Hill in 1942 from the Horton Plains at an elevation of 1830 m in Sri Lanka’s Central Province, although there remains some dispute as to which species this taxon belongs. There is preliminary evidence for two additional subspecies in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are recognized here.","commonNames":"Loris gréle @fr | Roter Schlanklori @de | Loris esbelto rojo @es | Horton Plains Slender Loris (nycticeboides) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Lorisidae","interpretedGenus":"Loris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"217","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tardigradus","name":"Loris tardigradus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"L.t.tardigradusLinnaeus,1758—SWSriLanka(Western&Southernprovinces),fromtheoutskirtsofColombointheNtoRannaintheS,atlowerelevationsupto¢.470mabovesealevel.L. t. nycticeboides Hill, 1942— Sri Lanka (Central Province highlands), at elevations of 1650-2000 m above sea level.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6632667/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bernede (2009) | Bernede et al. (2008) | Gamage et al. (2010) | Goonan (1993) | Goonan et al.(1995) | Groves (2001) | Hill (1942b) | Molur et al. (2003) | Montagna & Ellis (1960) | Muller et al. (1985) | Napier & Napier (1967) | Nekaris (2003a, 2003b, 2002/2003) | Nekaris & Bearder (2007) | Nekaris & Jayewardene (2003, 2004) | Nekaris & Perera (2007) | Nekaris & Rasmussen (2003) | Nekaris & Stevens (2007) | Nekaris, Liyanage & Gamage (2005) | Nekaris, Pimley & Ablard (2006, 2007) | Petter & Hladik (1970) | Rumpler et al. (1987) | Schmitt & Lemelin (2004) | Schulze & Meier (1995a) | Sellers (1996) | Still (1905) | Subramoniam (1957)","foodAndFeeding":"In 1905,|. Still suggested that lorises were completely insectivorous, even carnivorous. Wild Red Slender Lorises have only been seen eating animal prey. They eat insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, and grasshoppers), lizards (Calotes, Agamidae), and geckos. They have not been seen eating birds, but the speed with which they can grasp prey and kill with a bite to the head suggests this is possible. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas with Humboldtialaurifolia (Fabaceae), a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants and provides abundant food for lorises. Nothing is known of the diet of the Horton Plains Slender Loris.","breeding":"Dominant males may form partnershipswith smaller beta males—coalitions to pursue estrous females. Males gather when a female is in estrus, some coming from other parts of the forest, and vocal battles are common. Gestation is 165-175 days; one twin birth in captivity occurred after 174 days. Births occur throughout the year, and singletons are more common than twins. Mothersstart to park their infants when they are about two months old, remaining near and rushing back to retrieve the infant at any sign of danger. Females have a 29-40day sexual cycle, with genital swelling and reddening at estrus. Individuals may live up to 15 years. Only one birth has been witnessed for the Horton Plains Slender Loris.","activityPatterns":"The Red Slender Loris is nocturnal and arboreal. Although lorises are thought to be slow climbers, kinematic studies revealed that the nominate subspecies tardigraduscan move at speeds of 1-3 m/second. In a secondary tree-fall area, Red Slender Lorises are small-branch specialists, most often moving on supports less than 5 cm in diameter and only occasionally selecting branch clusters or substrates larger than 5 cm in diameter. Overall, they do not have strong preferences with respect to branch orientation. Rapid quadrupedalism is used on arboreal supports of all diameters and orientations, but individuals have never been seen moving on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Loris moves very much like its low-country counterpart and is also capable of incredible speed. It has been observed at low heights (2 m above the ground), and it crosses open ground. It also will occur in the highest trees available, for example, in alpine scrub at heights of 4 m.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the Horton Plains Slender Loris, so the description here refers to the subspecies tardigradus. Red Slender Lorises sleep in groups of up to five animals, most commonly a male, female, and their offspring. Some males change their sleeping site regularly and may sleep in the vicinity of a female. They engage in intense grooming sessions and social and solitary play at dawn and dusk. They communicate regularly using scent marking and loud calls. Individuals with overlapping home ranges interact throughout the night. Females have home ranges of 1-2-6-9 ha, whereas those of males are 1-4-3-4 ha. Males may affiliate with males and with more than one female. Females rarely affiliate with other females and may be aggressive toward males that attempt to follow or groom them. During the single long-term radio-tracking study on the Red Slender Loris, a single male’s home range overlapped a single female’s home range, but not all individuals in the area were caught, and more animals shared sleep sites. This, combined with promiscuous mating, implies that unimale—unifemale social pairs are not the rule for this species. Interestingly, lorises are very disturbed by white light and usually cease social behavior (e.g. partners will disperse) unless red or infrared light is used. The subspecies tardigradusutters “chitters,” “kriks,” and “zic” calls. A scream has not yet been recorded. They produce a soft whistle, barely audible to humans even when standing within 10 m of an individual. By far the most common call is the loud whistle, used to communicate location to friendly conspecifics, to warn non-group members, and to ward off encroaching males. Vocal battles are common and up to 60 calls per hour are not uncommon. The whistle is so common that it is a good indicator of loris presence or absence in a forest. At least six variations of the whistle have been described, with a potential twelve additional variants. The syllables within each call can be undulated, strangled, and short or long, and they occur in different combinations. Density estimates of lorises were 0-08-0-55 ind/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Red Slender Loris is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and the nominate subspecies tardigradusparticularly by gem mining. Individuals are regularly sold illegally in bazaars as pets, and they are valued in traditional medicine and killed because of superstitious folk beliefs. All populations are likely declining and at low levels, with as few as 1500 tardigradusin only c.3000 ha of highly fragmented forests and a critically low number of 80 nycticeboides in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. The subspecies tardigradusoccurs in Udawalawe National Park; the sanctuaries of Attidiya-Belanwila, Kurulukele, Peak Wilderness, Udawattekele, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe; and forest reserves of Ingiriya, Kanneliya, Kombala-Kottawa, Oliyagankele, Polgahaivalakande, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Aparekka, and Godakawela. It can also be found in Gampola-Ambuluwela Biodiversity Park, Maimbulkanda Nature Reserve, Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, and Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve. The Horton Plains Slender Loris is known from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, and Conical Hill and Bomburella forest reserves. It may also occur in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Siripagama.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 18-21 cm, tail vestigial; weight 85-220 g. The nominate subspecies tardigradusis the smallest of the slender loris taxa (head-body length less than 20-5 cm; weight 122-170 g). Dorsally, its pelage is red-brown with or without a dorsal stripe. The ventral hair is yellowish white with dark gray hair bases. Its preauricular hair has dark bases intergrading to its ear from its dark brown-chestnut circumocular patches, which are rounded in shape. The white interocular stripe is very narrow or absent. Its hands and feet are pink or yellowish-pink in adults. It has very large eyes and relatively small ears that are generally a woody russet color. The muzzle is long and pointed. Fur on forearms, hands, and feetis short. The toilet claw of the second digit of the foot is well developed. The “Horton Plains Slender Loris” (L. t. nycticeboudes) 1s the most distinct of the Sri Lankan lorises. Its limbs are shorter relative to the trunk than in tardigradus, with their hindlimbs especially shortened. The skull (length 5-2 cm) is also considerably larger in all details than in the subspecies tardigradus. The fur of the Horton Plains Slender Lorisis very long, soft, and thick, and it makes the animal look much larger than its body measurements would suggest (head-body 20.4-21.3 cm; weight 140-220 g); it looks superficially like a slow loris (Nycticebus). Limbs, in particular, are thickly furred toward their extremities. This furriness makes this form difficultto confuse with other slender lorises.","habitat":"Primary and some secondary wet lowland forest and tropical rainforest (tardigradus); cloud, montane, and highland evergreen forest (nycticeboides). The subspecies tardigradusis found in the wet lowland forests up to 470 m above sea level. Its habitat is heavily fragmented. It uses small twigs, lianas, and vines for movement, and it also forage on the ground. The Horton Plains Slender Lorisis found in central Sri Lanka at elevations of 1800-2300 m in montane mist forests. It has been observed moving on the ground and crossing roads, and it is often seen low down in stunted vegetation. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts the Red Slender Loris; it is rarely found in home gardens and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5","docName":"hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"1.Lowland TapirTapirus terrestrisFrench:Tapir du Brésil/ German:Flachlandtapir/ Spanish:TapiramazonicoOther common names:Brazilian Tapir, South American TapirTaxonomy.Hippopotamus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Brasillia” i.e. Pernambuco, Brazil.Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.t.terrestrisLinnaeus,1758—VenezuelathroughtheGuianastoCBrazilandNEArgentina(N&CMisiones).T.t.aenigmaticusGray,1872—SEColombia,EEcuador,andNEPeru.T.t.colombianusHershkovitz,1954—tropicalzonesofNColombiaintheareasofMagdalena,Bolivar,Atlantico,Cordoba,andNWAntioquia,asfarastheAtrataRiver,andasfarNastheRancheriaRiverinLaGuajira.T. t. spegazzinii Ameghino, 1909— SE Braz1l (Mato Grosso State), E Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentinato NE Santa Fe, NE Santiago del Estero, SE Jujuy, and E Salta.Descriptive notes.Head-body 191-242 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 83-118 cm (males), 83-113 cm (females); weight 180-300 kg. Female Lowland Tapirs are usually larger than males. Data collected from 35 Lowland Tapirs captured during a long-term telemetry study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed that the average weight of adult tapirs was 233 kgfor females (200-300 kg) and 208 kgfor males (180-280 kg). Measurements oftapirs in Morro do Diabo demonstrated that adult females are significantly longer andtaller than males. Full length offemales 208-242 cm, full length of males 191-223 cm; rear height of females 90-120 cm, rear height of males 89-109 cm. In captivity, newborn Lowland Tapirs usually weigh 3-2— 5-8 kg. Calves gain an average of2-27 kg per week and are completely weaned at four months of age. Growth is usually completed by 18 months of age. The color of adult Lowland Tapirs is blackish-brown dorsally with the ears edged in white; the chest, venter and limbs are dark brown; the cheeks are grizzled brown and gray. Young of all four tapir species are born dark with yellowish or white stripes and spots, a pattern that is lost after the first six months, although some vestiges of spotting may remain in young adults. The skin of Lowland Tapirs is thickest at the nape, and often covered by scars, scratches, and bruises; beneath the epidermis is a fibrous tissue layer. There is a well-developed sagittal crest that runs from the base of the muzzle to the middle of the back, which is derived from fat and soft tissues and covered by very long black hair. The short, erect mane is prominent, and is thought to help the tapirs escape predators, which seize the dorsum of the neck. This crest is not present in the other three tapir species.Habitat.The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.Food and Feeding.Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.Breeding.There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males. A Lowland Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2007 modelled the dynamics of the species’ populations in the wild. Given that natural situations impose a toll on the animals, age offirst reproduction in the wild was estimated to be four years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Lowland Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. The sex ratio at birth in captivity is 3:1. The sex ratio observed in Morro do Diabo, Brazil, was 1:1-33. Monitored subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in the central Amazon of Brazilrecorded a sex ratio of kills of 1:1:03. Therefore, the sex ratio at birth in the wild is generally assumed to be 50% males and 50% females. Data on Lowland Tapir longevity comes from captivity and reveals that these animals live over 35 years.Activity patterns.Tapirs are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular. Lowland Tapir rest during the day and begin their activity after sunset, at around 18:00 h. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park in Brazil, their main periods of activity are from 19:00 h to 00:00 h, with a peak between 20:00 h and 21:00 h (63% active); and from 01:00 h to 07:00 h, with a peak between 05:00 h and 06:00 h (60% active). Tapirs in Morro do Diabo are largely inactive between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. Overall, tapirs in Morro do Diabo foraged for approximately five hours in the early evening, and then seemed to rest for a few hours in the middle of the night. There followed a second foraging bout, of approximately six hours in the early hours of the day. Tapir activity patterns were analyzed separately for wet and dry season, as well for both sexes and different age classes in Morro do Diabo, and were fairly consistent. In Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs are mostly active between 18:00 h and 22:00 h, and between 00:00 h and 06:00 h, with a main activity peak between 01:00 h and 06:30 h, and very little activity between 11:00 h and 15:30 h. In the Peruvian Amazon, tapir activity peaks were observed between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and between 03:00 h and 04:00 h, with the main foraging time between 21:00 h and 03:00 h. Nocturnal line-transect sampling in Morro do Diabo State Park allowed for an analysis of the effect of moonlight intensity on tapir activity. Approximately 47% of the tapir encounters occurred during the waning crescent, 21% during the new moon, 18% during the waxing crescent, and only 14% during the full moon. It was clear that tapirs in Morro do Diabo were considerably less active during the brighter phases of the moon. Previous studies suggested that a lower level of animal activity during moonlit nights is a result of higher predation risk. In El Rey National Park, Argentina, tapirs were typically diurnal, perhaps due to lack of human disturbance.Movements, Home range and Social organization.L.owland Tapirs can move fairly easily through areas of low quality habitat (e.g. agricultural crops, pasture lands, and eucalyptus plantations) to get from one patch of forest to another. Parameters of Lowland Tapir spatial ecology reported in the literature, particularly home range size, vary widely. Tapirs are large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals that usually require considerably large home ranges. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, tapirs use very large home ranges (4-67 km?, varying from 1-12 km? to 14-19 km?®). These home ranges have very complex internal structures, including multiple core areas, which comprise a very small proportion of the home range (50% core area = 17% of the home range; 25% core area = 6% of the home range). Little seasonal variation in size and location of home ranges and core areas was observed. These patterns are consistent for both sexes and different age classes. In the Peruvian Amazon, the home ranges of Lowland Tapirs are much smaller, ranging from 1-06 km? to 3-86 km?®, with an average of 2: 61 km®. In Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs had an average home range size of 2: 48 km?*Neighboring tapirs in Morro do Diabo State Park showed very strong home range overlap between individuals (around 30%, although in some cases as high as 92%). This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. Estimates of Lowland Tapir population density range from a high of 1-6 ind/km? reported for the species in Neotropical forests in undisturbed, non-hunted, or lightly hunted sites to less than 0-3 ind/km? in other regions and habitat types. In Amazonian forests, Lowland Tapirs are usually found in densities around 0-5 ind/ km?. Exceptionally high densities (3:3-3-7 ind/km?) were observed in the Amazonian dry forests of Roraima, Brazil. In the Brazilian Pantanal, tapir densities range from 0-13 ind/km? in open grassland habitat to 0-4 ind/km? in forested habitats. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, densities range from 0-21 ind/km? to 1-35 ind/km?. This wide variation in density estimates can be explained by several factors, including differences in environments, habitat types studied,levels of habitat conservation, levels of hunting, and, most importantly, differences in the methods used to estimate densities. Another factor is that the Lowland Tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (e.g. around saltlicks, in palm forests, and near permanent water sources). Great variation in density can also reflect the ability of tapirs to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water). Tapirs are primarily solitary. Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for approximately twelve months. In Morro do Diabo, from a total of 81 tapir sightings obtained through nocturnal line-transect sampling, 77-78% were of one individual and 12-35% of pairs (adult female/adult male, adult female/offspring). On one occasion, three individuals were sighted. In terms of intraspecific interactions and social organization, tapirs in Morro do Diabo showed a strong home range overlap (30%) as well as overlap of core areas of use (20%) between neighboring individuals. This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. The great majority of the individuals shared varying portions of their home ranges with several other individual tapirs. Thus, while tapirs in Morro do Diabo had well-defined home ranges and lived within their boundaries, no evidence was found that they defended their areas against conspecifics. In the Peruvian Amazon, Lowland Tapirs monitored through GPS telemetry regularly walked along the boundaries of their home ranges, which appeared to provide some evidence that they were defining their territory against other individuals by maintaining clear home range boundaries.On following pages 2 Central Amencan Tapır (Taprms ba/rdnl. 3 Mountam Taper (Tapnus pmchaque). 4 Malayan Taplr (Taprrus mdrcuslStatus and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although the species has been listed as Vulnerable across its entire range, several populations in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuelapresent considerably higher levels of threat. A few examples include tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil, as well as Colombian and Venezuelan populations in Catatumbo, Maracaibo, and Lake Valencia watershed. The Lowland Tapir has the broadest geographic distribution of the four living species of tapirs and the species occurs in 21 different biomes in eleven countries. Historically, this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina, throughout the Chaco, Pantanal, Cerrado, Llanos, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Amazonian/Orinoco biomes. The historic distribution of the species covered approximately 13,129,874 km*. Nevertheless, populations have been severely reduced and are currently often limited to forested biomes and wetlands. The species is believed to have gone extinct in approximately 14% ofits range and the current distribution declined to 11,232,018 km*. The species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agricultural frontiers that are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. In Brazil, which constitutes a large portion of its range, the Lowland Tapir has disappeared from over one million km? (12-4% of its countrywide range). Although only about 15-20% of the Amazon has been deforested in the past 30 years, 85-90% of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared and 40% of the Pantanal has been converted to human use. Most of the Cerrado and Caatinga biomes in Brazilhave been converted to agriculture and cattle ranching. As a consequence, the Lowland Tapir has been extirpated from the Caatinga; most populations in the Cerrado are small and in protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Some exceptions include remote areas of Cerrado (e.g. Chapada das Mangabeiras, Jalapao region in Tocantins State) where tapirs are still common. The Lowland Tapir is now either completely absent or severely fragmented across much of its historic range, with the Northern and Central Amazon as well as the remaining Pantanal (Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) becoming important strongholds as southern, eastern, and north-western populations are declining rapidly. The IUCN Red Lust published in 1996 listed Lowland Tapirs as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Therefore, the species has deteriorated in Red List status over a period of twelve years. There is an ongoing reduction of Lowland Tapir populations estimated to be slightly greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). This rate of decline is predicted to continue for the next three generations. The main identified threats responsible for the decline include habitat deforestation and/or alteration; habitat fragmentation (resulting in small populations and low connectivity); hunting; cattle ranching; infectious diseases; road-kill; fire; human density; plantations of monocultures (sugar cane, soy bean); lack of patrolling of protected areas; small size of protected areas; resource extraction; and impact of tourism. Hunting is one of the most important threats. Tapirs are among the preferred game species for subsistence and commercial hunters throughout the Amazon. Estimates of tapir harvest in the State of Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon range from 15,447 to 17,886 individuals per year. Due to their individualistic lifestyle, low reproductive rate, long generation time, and low population density Lowland Tapirs rarely achieve high local abundance, which makes them highly susceptible to overhunting, and populations show rapid decline when harvested. There are a number of infectious diseases (Bluetongue, Equine Encephalitis, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, and Leptospirosis) and parasites known in Lowland Tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Pantanal biomes in Brazil. These diseases spread to tapirs from domestic livestock, particularly cattle and horses, and can potentially increase tapir mortality and affect reproductive rates. Another serious threat to this species is road-kill. Morro do Diabo State Park in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is crossed by a highway that, from 1996 to 2006, killed an average of six tapirs per year. Most of the tapirs killed were adult individuals capable of breeding. Road-kill is also a serious threat in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes of Brazil. Estimates of the total population size for the species throughoutits entire range are not available. This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. However a large proportion of the total Lowland Tapir population is found outside the boundaries of legally protected areas, where tapirs are hunted, chased by dogs, and face many other threats. Although the species is protected legally in most countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and have proven ineffective.Bibliography.Affonso (1998), Aquino et al. (2001), Aquino & Calle (2003), Ayala (2002, 2003), Barongi (1986, 1993), Bodmer (1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1995), Bodmer & Lozano (2001), Bodmer et al. (1997), Brooks et al. (1997), Chiarello (1999), CITES (2005), Cordeiro (2004), Cullen et al. (2000), Desbiez (2009), Eisenberg (1989, 1997), Emmons (1990), Emmons & Feer (1997), Flesher (2007), Fradrich & Thenius (1972), Fragoso (1997), Fragoso & Huffman (2000), Fragoso et al. (2000), Galetti et al. (2001), Gomez et al. (2005), Goncalves da Silva (2007), Haugaasen & Peres (2005), Henry et al. (2000), Herrera et al. (1999), Hershkovitz (1954), Hunsaker & Hahn (1965), Janson & Emmons (1990), Maffei et al. (2002), Mallinson (1969, 1974), Mangini (2001), Mangini & Medici (2001), Mangini et al. (2000), Medici (1999, 2001, 2002, 2010), Medici et al. (2007), Mendes-Pontes (2004), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002), Montenegro(1998, 1999, 2004), Montenegroet al. (2000), Naveda et al. (2008), Noss et al. (2003), Novaro etal. (2000), Olmos (1997), Olmos et al. (1999), Padilla & Dowler (1994), Pena et al. (1996), Peres (2000), Robinson & Redford (1986, 1991), Rodrigues et al. (1993), Salas (1996), Salas & Fuller (1996), Schaller (1983), Schipper et al. (2008), Soto (2002), Souza-Mazurek et al. (2000), Taber et al. (2008), Tobler (2008), Tobler et al. (2009), Téfoli (2006), Trolle (2003), Trolle et al. (2007), Velastin et al. (2004), Vickers (1991), Vié et al. (2009), Young (1961).","taxonomy":"Hippopotamus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758,“Habitat in Brasillia” i.e. Pernambuco, Brazil.Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Tapir du Brésil @fr | Flachlandtapir @de | Tapiramazonico @es | Brazilian Tapir @en | South American Tapir @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tapiridae","interpretedGenus":"Tapirus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"terrestris","name":"Tapirus terrestris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.t.terrestrisLinnaeus,1758—VenezuelathroughtheGuianastoCBrazilandNEArgentina(N&CMisiones).T.t.aenigmaticusGray,1872—SEColombia,EEcuador,andNEPeru.T.t.colombianusHershkovitz,1954—tropicalzonesofNColombiaintheareasofMagdalena,Bolivar,Atlantico,Cordoba,andNWAntioquia,asfarastheAtrataRiver,andasfarNastheRancheriaRiverinLaGuajira.T. t. spegazzinii Ameghino, 1909— SE Braz1l (Mato Grosso State), E Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentinato NE Santa Fe, NE Santiago del Estero, SE Jujuy, and E Salta.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721163/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Affonso (1998) | Aquino et al. (2001) | Aquino & Calle (2003) | Ayala (2002, 2003) | Barongi (1986, 1993) | Bodmer (1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1995) | Bodmer & Lozano (2001) | Bodmer et al. (1997) | Brooks et al. (1997) | Chiarello (1999) | CITES (2005) | Cordeiro (2004) | Cullen et al. (2000) | Desbiez (2009) | Eisenberg (1989, 1997) | Emmons (1990) | Emmons & Feer (1997) | Flesher (2007) | Fradrich & Thenius (1972) | Fragoso (1997) | Fragoso & Huffman (2000) | Fragoso et al. (2000) | Galetti et al. (2001) | Gomez et al. (2005) | Goncalves da Silva (2007) | Haugaasen & Peres (2005) | Henry et al. (2000) | Herrera et al. (1999) | Hershkovitz (1954) | Hunsaker & Hahn (1965) | Janson & Emmons (1990) | Maffei et al. (2002) | Mallinson (1969, 1974) | Mangini (2001) | Mangini & Medici (2001) | Mangini et al. (2000) | Medici (1999, 2001, 2002, 2010) | Medici et al. (2007) | Mendes-Pontes (2004) | Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002) | Montenegro(1998, 1999, 2004) | Montenegroet al. (2000) | Naveda et al. (2008) | Noss et al. (2003) | Novaro etal. (2000) | Olmos (1997) | Olmos et al. (1999) | Padilla & Dowler (1994) | Pena et al. (1996) | Peres (2000) | Robinson & Redford (1986, 1991) | Rodrigues et al. (1993) | Salas (1996) | Salas & Fuller (1996) | Schaller (1983) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Soto (2002) | Souza-Mazurek et al. (2000) | Taber et al. (2008) | Tobler (2008) | Tobler et al. (2009) | Téfoli (2006) | Trolle (2003) | Trolle et al. (2007) | Velastin et al. (2004) | Vickers (1991) | Vié et al. (2009) | Young (1961)","foodAndFeeding":"Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.","breeding":"There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males. A Lowland Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2007 modelled the dynamics of the species’ populations in the wild. Given that natural situations impose a toll on the animals, age offirst reproduction in the wild was estimated to be four years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Lowland Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. The sex ratio at birth in captivity is 3:1. The sex ratio observed in Morro do Diabo, Brazil, was 1:1-33. Monitored subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in the central Amazon of Brazilrecorded a sex ratio of kills of 1:1:03. Therefore, the sex ratio at birth in the wild is generally assumed to be 50% males and 50% females. Data on Lowland Tapir longevity comes from captivity and reveals that these animals live over 35 years.","activityPatterns":"Tapirs are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular. Lowland Tapir rest during the day and begin their activity after sunset, at around 18:00 h. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park in Brazil, their main periods of activity are from 19:00 h to 00:00 h, with a peak between 20:00 h and 21:00 h (63% active); and from 01:00 h to 07:00 h, with a peak between 05:00 h and 06:00 h (60% active). Tapirs in Morro do Diabo are largely inactive between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. Overall, tapirs in Morro do Diabo foraged for approximately five hours in the early evening, and then seemed to rest for a few hours in the middle of the night. There followed a second foraging bout, of approximately six hours in the early hours of the day. Tapir activity patterns were analyzed separately for wet and dry season, as well for both sexes and different age classes in Morro do Diabo, and were fairly consistent. In Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs are mostly active between 18:00 h and 22:00 h, and between 00:00 h and 06:00 h, with a main activity peak between 01:00 h and 06:30 h, and very little activity between 11:00 h and 15:30 h. In the Peruvian Amazon, tapir activity peaks were observed between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and between 03:00 h and 04:00 h, with the main foraging time between 21:00 h and 03:00 h. Nocturnal line-transect sampling in Morro do Diabo State Park allowed for an analysis of the effect of moonlight intensity on tapir activity. Approximately 47% of the tapir encounters occurred during the waning crescent, 21% during the new moon, 18% during the waxing crescent, and only 14% during the full moon. It was clear that tapirs in Morro do Diabo were considerably less active during the brighter phases of the moon. Previous studies suggested that a lower level of animal activity during moonlit nights is a result of higher predation risk. In El Rey National Park, Argentina, tapirs were typically diurnal, perhaps due to lack of human disturbance.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"L.owland Tapirs can move fairly easily through areas of low quality habitat (e.g. agricultural crops, pasture lands, and eucalyptus plantations) to get from one patch of forest to another. Parameters of Lowland Tapir spatial ecology reported in the literature, particularly home range size, vary widely. Tapirs are large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals that usually require considerably large home ranges. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, tapirs use very large home ranges (4-67 km?, varying from 1-12 km? to 14-19 km?®). These home ranges have very complex internal structures, including multiple core areas, which comprise a very small proportion of the home range (50% core area = 17% of the home range; 25% core area = 6% of the home range). Little seasonal variation in size and location of home ranges and core areas was observed. These patterns are consistent for both sexes and different age classes. In the Peruvian Amazon, the home ranges of Lowland Tapirs are much smaller, ranging from 1-06 km? to 3-86 km?®, with an average of 2: 61 km®. In Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs had an average home range size of 2: 48 km?*Neighboring tapirs in Morro do Diabo State Park showed very strong home range overlap between individuals (around 30%, although in some cases as high as 92%). This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. Estimates of Lowland Tapir population density range from a high of 1-6 ind/km? reported for the species in Neotropical forests in undisturbed, non-hunted, or lightly hunted sites to less than 0-3 ind/km? in other regions and habitat types. In Amazonian forests, Lowland Tapirs are usually found in densities around 0-5 ind/ km?. Exceptionally high densities (3:3-3-7 ind/km?) were observed in the Amazonian dry forests of Roraima, Brazil. In the Brazilian Pantanal, tapir densities range from 0-13 ind/km? in open grassland habitat to 0-4 ind/km? in forested habitats. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, densities range from 0-21 ind/km? to 1-35 ind/km?. This wide variation in density estimates can be explained by several factors, including differences in environments, habitat types studied,levels of habitat conservation, levels of hunting, and, most importantly, differences in the methods used to estimate densities. Another factor is that the Lowland Tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (e.g. around saltlicks, in palm forests, and near permanent water sources). Great variation in density can also reflect the ability of tapirs to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water). Tapirs are primarily solitary. Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for approximately twelve months. In Morro do Diabo, from a total of 81 tapir sightings obtained through nocturnal line-transect sampling, 77-78% were of one individual and 12-35% of pairs (adult female/adult male, adult female/offspring). On one occasion, three individuals were sighted. In terms of intraspecific interactions and social organization, tapirs in Morro do Diabo showed a strong home range overlap (30%) as well as overlap of core areas of use (20%) between neighboring individuals. This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. The great majority of the individuals shared varying portions of their home ranges with several other individual tapirs. Thus, while tapirs in Morro do Diabo had well-defined home ranges and lived within their boundaries, no evidence was found that they defended their areas against conspecifics. In the Peruvian Amazon, Lowland Tapirs monitored through GPS telemetry regularly walked along the boundaries of their home ranges, which appeared to provide some evidence that they were defining their territory against other individuals by maintaining clear home range boundaries.On following pages 2 Central Amencan Tapır (Taprms ba/rdnl. 3 Mountam Taper (Tapnus pmchaque).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although the species has been listed as Vulnerable across its entire range, several populations in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuelapresent considerably higher levels of threat. A few examples include tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil, as well as Colombian and Venezuelan populations in Catatumbo, Maracaibo, and Lake Valencia watershed. The Lowland Tapir has the broadest geographic distribution of the four living species of tapirs and the species occurs in 21 different biomes in eleven countries. Historically, this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina, throughout the Chaco, Pantanal, Cerrado, Llanos, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Amazonian/Orinoco biomes. The historic distribution of the species covered approximately 13,129,874 km*. Nevertheless, populations have been severely reduced and are currently often limited to forested biomes and wetlands. The species is believed to have gone extinct in approximately 14% ofits range and the current distribution declined to 11,232,018 km*. The species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agricultural frontiers that are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. In Brazil, which constitutes a large portion of its range, the Lowland Tapir has disappeared from over one million km? (12-4% of its countrywide range). Although only about 15-20% of the Amazon has been deforested in the past 30 years, 85-90% of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared and 40% of the Pantanal has been converted to human use. Most of the Cerrado and Caatinga biomes in Brazilhave been converted to agriculture and cattle ranching. As a consequence, the Lowland Tapir has been extirpated from the Caatinga; most populations in the Cerrado are small and in protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Some exceptions include remote areas of Cerrado (e.g. Chapada das Mangabeiras, Jalapao region in Tocantins State) where tapirs are still common. The Lowland Tapir is now either completely absent or severely fragmented across much of its historic range, with the Northern and Central Amazon as well as the remaining Pantanal (Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) becoming important strongholds as southern, eastern, and north-western populations are declining rapidly. The IUCN Red Lust published in 1996 listed Lowland Tapirs as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Therefore, the species has deteriorated in Red List status over a period of twelve years. There is an ongoing reduction of Lowland Tapir populations estimated to be slightly greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). This rate of decline is predicted to continue for the next three generations. The main identified threats responsible for the decline include habitat deforestation and/or alteration; habitat fragmentation (resulting in small populations and low connectivity); hunting; cattle ranching; infectious diseases; road-kill; fire; human density; plantations of monocultures (sugar cane, soy bean); lack of patrolling of protected areas; small size of protected areas; resource extraction; and impact of tourism. Hunting is one of the most important threats. Tapirs are among the preferred game species for subsistence and commercial hunters throughout the Amazon. Estimates of tapir harvest in the State of Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon range from 15,447 to 17,886 individuals per year. Due to their individualistic lifestyle, low reproductive rate, long generation time, and low population density Lowland Tapirs rarely achieve high local abundance, which makes them highly susceptible to overhunting, and populations show rapid decline when harvested. There are a number of infectious diseases (Bluetongue, Equine Encephalitis, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, and Leptospirosis) and parasites known in Lowland Tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Pantanal biomes in Brazil. These diseases spread to tapirs from domestic livestock, particularly cattle and horses, and can potentially increase tapir mortality and affect reproductive rates. Another serious threat to this species is road-kill. Morro do Diabo State Park in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is crossed by a highway that, from 1996 to 2006, killed an average of six tapirs per year. Most of the tapirs killed were adult individuals capable of breeding. Road-kill is also a serious threat in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes of Brazil. Estimates of the total population size for the species throughoutits entire range are not available. This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. However a large proportion of the total Lowland Tapir population is found outside the boundaries of legally protected areas, where tapirs are hunted, chased by dogs, and face many other threats. Although the species is protected legally in most countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and have proven ineffective.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 191-242 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 83-118 cm (males), 83-113 cm (females); weight 180-300 kg. Female Lowland Tapirs are usually larger than males. Data collected from 35 Lowland Tapirs captured during a long-term telemetry study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed that the average weight of adult tapirs was 233 kgfor females (200-300 kg) and 208 kgfor males (180-280 kg). Measurements oftapirs in Morro do Diabo demonstrated that adult females are significantly longer andtaller than males. Full length offemales 208-242 cm, full length of males 191-223 cm; rear height of females 90-120 cm, rear height of males 89-109 cm. In captivity, newborn Lowland Tapirs usually weigh 3-2— 5-8 kg. Calves gain an average of2-27 kg per week and are completely weaned at four months of age. Growth is usually completed by 18 months of age. The color of adult Lowland Tapirs is blackish-brown dorsally with the ears edged in white; the chest, venter and limbs are dark brown; the cheeks are grizzled brown and gray. Young of all four tapir species are born dark with yellowish or white stripes and spots, a pattern that is lost after the first six months, although some vestiges of spotting may remain in young adults. The skin of Lowland Tapirs is thickest at the nape, and often covered by scars, scratches, and bruises; beneath the epidermis is a fibrous tissue layer. There is a well-developed sagittal crest that runs from the base of the muzzle to the middle of the back, which is derived from fat and soft tissues and covered by very long black hair. The short, erect mane is prominent, and is thought to help the tapirs escape predators, which seize the dorsum of the neck. This crest is not present in the other three tapir species.Habitat.The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.Food and Feeding.Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guianatheir diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosaseeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.Breeding.There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males.","habitat":"The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC1FF8FFD2B27E51BC09088.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039CED53FFC1FF8FFD2B27E51BC09088","docName":"hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"182","verbatimText":"Family TAPIRIDAE(TAPIRS)• [Large mammals with rounded back and hindquarters, tapering forequarters and nose, short, muscular legs, dark color, thick skin, and bristly, scattered hairs.• 180-300 cm.• Indo-Malayan and Neotropical Regions.• Tropical and subtropical montane, lowland moist, swamp, and cloud forests, paramos, seasonally moist grassland, and savanna; strongly associated with water and riparian environments.• 1 genus, 4 species, 7 taxa.• 3 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC2FF8BFF292B4A19D293E0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039CED53FFC2FF8BFF292B4A19D293E0","docName":"hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"2.Central American TapirTapirus bairdiiFrench:Tapir de Baird/ German:Mittelamerika-Tapir/ Spanish:TapircentroamericanoOther common names:Baird's TapirTaxonomy.Elasmognathus bairdu Gill, 1865,Isthmus of Panama, Panama.Recent studies have suggested to include it in the genus Tapirella. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Mexico to NW Colombia; formerly also W EcuadorS to Gulf of Guayaquil, but their occurrence there is now uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-230 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height in adults approximately 120 cm; weight 250-350 kg. The Central American Tapir is the largest of the three Latin American species and is the largest terrestrial mammal found in the Neotropics. The Central American Tapir is dark brown or grayish-brown and has a distinctive cream-colored marking on its face and throat and a dark spot on each cheek, behind and below the eye. The edges of the ears are white. Like the other species of tapir, they have small stubby tails and a long, flexible proboscis.Habitat.The Central American Tapir is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3600 m. The speciesis strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramos. Overall, Central American Tapirs prefer habitat types with permanent water bodies, diverse and dense understory, riparian vegetation, low incidence offires, and less hunting pressure and human presence. Some studies in Mexicohave noted that Central American Tapirs prefer densely forested areas rather than open, more disturbed habitats. In the mixed deciduous forest of Santa Rosa National Park in the north-west of Costa Rica, the tapirs relied on small pools of water in dried-up riverbeds for their drinking and wallowing requirements. Much of the habitat there was subclimax forest. In Corcovado National Park, also in Costa Rica, tapir sign (tracks, dung, rubbings, and evidence of foraging) was more abundant in lowland, second-growth forests and palm swamps than mature forests. In fact, tapirs in Corcovado strongly selected secondary forests and avoided mature forests. Seasonal variations in habitat selection correlated with fruit availability were observed. Tapir sign in Corcovado showed positive correlation with distance from perennial water bodies and rain intensity; there was a negative correlation between sign and slope steepness. Central American Tapirs have been observed in the Costa Rican paramos, particularly near ponds surrounded by dense bush of Chusquea. Lacking a dense hair coat like that of the Mountain Tapir, an extraordinarily thick skin and subcutaneous fat deposits probably help Central American Tapirs withstand the low temperatures prevailing in the paramos. In La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, tapir sign has been observed along mountain crests at 1000-1500 m. These mountain crests are often covered by strips of oak forest, which are believed to be used by tapirs as both marking sites and transit areas between tropical subdeciduous and montane cloud forest slopes.Food and Feeding.The Central American Tapir selectively consumes a wide array of fruit, leaves, shoots, bark, and flowers. Long-term direct observations of one Central American Tapir in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, revealed that these animals consume an average of 15-63 kg of fruit and fibrous materials per day. The tapir observed consumed 126 different plant species. The percentages of bites taken of each food item during the study were 67% leaves, 18:6% fruits, 11-7% stems, 2-1% bark, and 0-1% flowers. Three species accounted for 40% ofthe tapir’s bites for the entire study. The information available on feeding habits of Central American Tapirs in Mexicocomes from a few studies in which about 98 plant species of 50 families were recorded as consumed by this ungulate. The plant families most frequently represented in the diet of Central American Tapirs in Mexicoare Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae. A previous study carried out in a tropical lowland forest in Guatemalanoted that 49 species of plants are consumed by tapirs, with three species representing the highest percentage of the diet. Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceaewere the most important plant families. In the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, plant species of the families Arecaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, and Rubiaceaeaccounted for 33% of total plant species in the tapirs’ diet. Asteraceae, Ericaceae, and Poaceae(especially Chusquea subtessellata) seem to be the predominant plant families in the 3000 mhigh paramos of Chirripé National Park, Costa Rica. The most evident changes in proportions of food items ingested by Central American Tapirs throughout the year are those related to fruit consumption. Fruit usually constitutes a smaller proportion of the diet of Central American Tapirs compared to leaves and other fiber sources. Average fruit proportions found in their feces generally ranges from 7-1% to 18:6% in different areas. However, in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, some fecal samples consisted almost entirely of fruit pieces and tapirs there depended heavily on a wide range offruits (and fruit sizes) during the dry season. Fruit provides significant amounts of the nutrition and calories consumed by this ungulate. Palm swamps composed primarily of Raphia taedigeraand Bactris balanoideaare regularly patrolled by the tapirs and other ungulates, White-lipped Peccaries (7ayassu pecari) in particular, in search of fruit. The role of Central American Tapirs in seed dispersal and seed predation is not completely understood but studies in Santa Rosademonstrated that they widely dispersed viable seeds of many species in their dung, including seeds incidentally ingested while browsing. In Guatemalaand Mexico, Central American Tapirs appear to be important dispersers of Manilkara zapota seeds.Breeding.Most information about reproduction of Central American Tapirs in the wild comes from a long-term field study carried out in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. Direct and indirect evidence from this study indicates that they are facultatively polygamous. Adult female tapirs usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. The calf stays with its mother for 12-18 months. An adult female Central American Tapir was monitored in Corcovado for approximately 14 years. During this period, this female produced nine offspring at intervals of approximately 18 months. Reports from zoos and field observations for wild tapirs in Corcovado indicate that females may become pregnant while lactating, which can reduce the interbirth interval to 16 months. Some females may lose their offspring during lactation, or due to stillbirths or neonatal deaths, and come into estrus sooner, therefore reducing the interbirth interval. Lastly, veterinarians who were part of the field team in Corcovado found pregnant females who had month-old calves; the females were one month pregnant, the fetus visible on ultrasound. Thus, it is highly probable that tapirs present a “foal heat” similar to horses, coming into estrus immediately after giving birth and able to get pregnant. The AZA Studbook for Central American Tapirs notes that tapirs in captivity sire their first offspring as young as two years old. A Central American Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2005 modelled the dynamics of populations in the wild. Because conditions are assumed to be harsher in the wild than in captivity, the age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years, for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Central American Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Although field data from Corcovado shows a larger —although not significant— percentage of males, there is no evidence to suggest a skewed sex ratio at birth.Activity patterns.Central American Tapirs are substantially more active nocturnally than during the day. Their main peaks of activity are between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and 03:00 h and 04:00 h. In Santa RosaNational Park, tapirs were often active for short periods during the day, particularly in the dry season, when they entered residual pools in riverbeds to rest. However, tapirs are known to become almost completely nocturnal when there is heavy hunting pressure.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The mean home range size of Central American Tapirs studied via radio-telemetry in the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, was 1-25 km®. Male tapirs showed somewhat larger but not statistically different average home ranges than females. Researchers found no seasonal changes in size or location of home ranges. In the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park, also in Costa Rica, mean tapir home range size was 1-71 km? These home range variations may be due to differences in dominant vegetation types in those areas, as well as a considerably lower number of perennial water bodies in the latter. Tapir home ranges in Corcovado highly overlapped (33-16%) those of neighboring individuals. Central American Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for 12-18 months. It has been found that once they separate, in most cases, young tapirs in Corcovado stay in the vicinity of the mother’s home range for 3—4years prior to dispersal from the area and establishment of their own home ranges. Therefore, the ranging behavior of tapirs in Corcovado included the establishment of so called “family units,” where pairs of adult male and female tapirs maintained an almost entirely exclusive “territory” with no other resident adults over long periods of time, which they shared with 1-3 offspring from previous years. Although very high percentages of home range overlap occur within the family units, very little overlap occurs between neighboring tapir families. Estimates of Central American Tapir population density vary widely, ranging from a high 1-6 ind/km? in Corcovado National Park to a very low 0-21 ind/km? in the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park. The data from Corcovado National Park may not be applicable to other populations, as the region ofthis research (Sirena Biological Station) has a unique mixture of ideal habitat and almost complete protection from poaching, which perhaps contributes to higher density of the species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Central American Tapir had a continuous distribution from south-eastern Mexicoto the northern portion of Colombia(west of the CaucaRiver) to the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador. The historic distribution ofthis species covered 1,186,300 km®. High rates of habitat destruction and fragmentation throughoutits former range have resulted in the current tapir distribution, which is mostly restricted to protected and/or remote areas in eight countries. A recent range extension of 377 kmbrought Central American Tapir to a new northern limit; La Tuza de Monroy, near the municipality of Santiago Jamiltepec in Oaxaca, Mexico. In Colombia, the species is present in Los Katios National Park. This population is poorly understood due to the presence of guerrilla activity, which has made research in the area extremely difficult. Anecdotally, biologists in Los Katios report that there are a few tapirs between the park and the Pacific Ocean. Large fragments of forest extending to the Pacific, combined with the Darien region, which is shared with the Republic of Panama, could have 160 km? of habitat for a total of 227 km?There is an ongoing reduction of Central American Tapir populations estimated to be greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth oftapirs, coupled with habitat loss/fragmentation and hunting, are the main factors contributing to population declines. It is estimated that approximately 70% of Central American forests have been lost through deforestation and alteration over the last 40 years. In Costa Ricaalone, it is now estimated that 80% of the country has been deforested, up from about 67% approximately 25 years ago. Overall, it is inferred that at least 50% of the Central American Tapir habitat has been lost in the past three generations, causing drastic population declines and making remnant populations more susceptible to extinction from natural disasters and disease. This rate of decline is predicted to continue. In Belize, unremitting forest destruction and fragmentation of the Selva Maya continues to threaten tapir populations. The construction of roads through the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemalais likely to become a major problem for tapirs in that area, as well as the isolation of smaller protected areas. In Costa Rica, logging and destructive farming practices are widespread. Gold mining is another problem in some parts of this country. The effect of hunting is notable given that Central American Tapirs are common where not hunted and nearly absent where hunting pressure is high. Even minimal hunting has proven to significantly decrease their populations, which is expected given their low reproductive rate. Some evidence exists that tapirs are susceptible and have been exposed to pathogens that also cause disease in livestock and horses; however, to date, there is no proof that infectious diseases have caused significant mortalities or have affected population levels. Nevertheless, several adult tapirs have been found dead nearlivestock areas in Chimalapas rain forest, Mexico, and were thought to have died from infectious diseases. Although most Central American Tapir populations have not been quantified and monitored yet, the current overall population estimate for this species is approximately 5000 mature individuals (Mexico, 1000; Belize, no current estimates; Guatemala, 1000; Honduras, 500; Nicaragua, 500; Costa Rica, 1000; Panama, 1000; Colombia, 250). There appear to be several strongholds for tapir populations, including La Amistad International Park in Costa Ricaand Panama. The Selva Maya shared by Belize, Guatemala, and Mexicois the largest continuoustract of forest where Central American Tapirs can be found. Recent surveys in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, found tapirs to be among the most abundant large vertebrates above 2000 melevation, where large populationsstill remain in areas where they are not hunted. In the Republic of Panama, reports suggest that tapirs are distributed continuously along the forests of the Caribbean slope. Their range extends from Bocas del Toro Provincein western Panamathroughout the PanamaCanal watershed to the Kuna YalaComarca. These reports also confirmed their presence along the Cordillera Central in western Panama, including prime habitat above 3000 m,as well as in the Darien regionnear the Colombian border. The Mosquitia area of Hondurasand Nicaraguais particularly important because of its large size and low human population density. The species is believed to have been extirpated from El Salvador, but there are recent sightings and reports suggesting the speciesstill persists there at some level. Central American Tapirs occur in a number of protected areas throughout their range. Six large Biosphere Reserves in Campeche, Chiapas, and Quintana Rooin Mexicoare thought to hold numerous tapirs. In Guatemala, the Maya and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserves could hold several hundred more individuals, as could some other small parks in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Although the species is protected nationally throughout its range, these laws are often not enforced in many areas.Bibliography.Barongi (1986, 1993), Bolanos & Naranjo (2001), Brooks et al. (1997), Carrillo et al. (2000), Castellanos et al. (2008), CITES (2005), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Escamilla et al. (2000), Foerster (1998), Foerster & Medici (2002), Foerster & Vaughan (2002), Fragoso (1991a, 1991b), Garcia (2006), Garcia, Leonardo et al. (2009), Garcia, Ruiz & Morales (2008), Harmsen et al. (2009), Hernédndez-Divers et al. (2005), Hernandez-Divers & Foerster (2001), Hershkovitz (1954), Lira et al. (2004), Medici (2001, 2010), Medici et al. (2006), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002), Muench (2001), Naranjo (1995, 2009), Naranjo & Bodmer (2002), Naranjo & Cruz-Aldan (1998), Read (1986), Reid (1997), Schipper et al. (2008), Terwilliger (1978), Tobler (2002), Tobler et al. (2006), Vié et al. (2009), Williams (1984).","taxonomy":"Elasmognathus bairdu Gill, 1865,Isthmus of Panama, Panama.Recent studies have suggested to include it in the genus Tapirella. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Tapir de Baird @fr | Mittelamerika-Tapir @de | Tapircentroamericano @es | Baird's Tapir @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gill","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1865","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tapiridae","interpretedGenus":"Tapirus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bairdii","name":"Tapirus bairdii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Mexico to NW Colombia; formerly also W EcuadorS to Gulf of Guayaquil, but their occurrence there is now uncertain.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721167/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Barongi (1986, 1993) | Bolanos & Naranjo (2001) | Brooks et al. (1997) | Carrillo et al. (2000) | Castellanos et al. (2008) | CITES (2005) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Escamilla et al. (2000) | Foerster (1998) | Foerster & Medici (2002) | Foerster & Vaughan (2002) | Fragoso (1991a, 1991b) | Garcia (2006) | Garcia, Leonardo et al. (2009) | Garcia, Ruiz & Morales (2008) | Harmsen et al. (2009) | Hernédndez-Divers et al. (2005) | Hernandez-Divers & Foerster (2001) | Hershkovitz (1954) | Lira et al. (2004) | Medici (2001, 2010) | Medici et al. (2006) | Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002) | Muench (2001) | Naranjo (1995, 2009) | Naranjo & Bodmer (2002) | Naranjo & Cruz-Aldan (1998) | Read (1986) | Reid (1997) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Terwilliger (1978) | Tobler (2002) | Tobler et al. (2006) | Vié et al. (2009) | Williams (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"The Central American Tapir selectively consumes a wide array of fruit, leaves, shoots, bark, and flowers. Long-term direct observations of one Central American Tapir in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, revealed that these animals consume an average of 15-63 kg of fruit and fibrous materials per day. The tapir observed consumed 126 different plant species. The percentages of bites taken of each food item during the study were 67% leaves, 18:6% fruits, 11-7% stems, 2-1% bark, and 0-1% flowers. Three species accounted for 40% ofthe tapir’s bites for the entire study. The information available on feeding habits of Central American Tapirs in Mexicocomes from a few studies in which about 98 plant species of 50 families were recorded as consumed by this ungulate. The plant families most frequently represented in the diet of Central American Tapirs in Mexicoare Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae. A previous study carried out in a tropical lowland forest in Guatemalanoted that 49 species of plants are consumed by tapirs, with three species representing the highest percentage of the diet. Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceaewere the most important plant families. In the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, plant species of the families Arecaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, and Rubiaceaeaccounted for 33% of total plant species in the tapirs’ diet. Asteraceae, Ericaceae, and Poaceae(especially Chusquea subtessellata) seem to be the predominant plant families in the 3000 mhigh paramos of Chirripé National Park, Costa Rica. The most evident changes in proportions of food items ingested by Central American Tapirs throughout the year are those related to fruit consumption. Fruit usually constitutes a smaller proportion of the diet of Central American Tapirs compared to leaves and other fiber sources. Average fruit proportions found in their feces generally ranges from 7-1% to 18:6% in different areas. However, in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, some fecal samples consisted almost entirely of fruit pieces and tapirs there depended heavily on a wide range offruits (and fruit sizes) during the dry season. Fruit provides significant amounts of the nutrition and calories consumed by this ungulate. Palm swamps composed primarily of Raphia taedigeraand Bactris balanoideaare regularly patrolled by the tapirs and other ungulates, White-lipped Peccaries (7ayassu pecari) in particular, in search of fruit. The role of Central American Tapirs in seed dispersal and seed predation is not completely understood but studies in Santa Rosademonstrated that they widely dispersed viable seeds of many species in their dung, including seeds incidentally ingested while browsing. In Guatemalaand Mexico, Central American Tapirs appear to be important dispersers of Manilkara zapota seeds.","breeding":"Most information about reproduction of Central American Tapirs in the wild comes from a long-term field study carried out in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. Direct and indirect evidence from this study indicates that they are facultatively polygamous. Adult female tapirs usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. The calf stays with its mother for 12-18 months. An adult female Central American Tapir was monitored in Corcovado for approximately 14 years. During this period, this female produced nine offspring at intervals of approximately 18 months. Reports from zoos and field observations for wild tapirs in Corcovado indicate that females may become pregnant while lactating, which can reduce the interbirth interval to 16 months. Some females may lose their offspring during lactation, or due to stillbirths or neonatal deaths, and come into estrus sooner, therefore reducing the interbirth interval. Lastly, veterinarians who were part of the field team in Corcovado found pregnant females who had month-old calves; the females were one month pregnant, the fetus visible on ultrasound. Thus, it is highly probable that tapirs present a “foal heat” similar to horses, coming into estrus immediately after giving birth and able to get pregnant. The AZA Studbook for Central American Tapirs notes that tapirs in captivity sire their first offspring as young as two years old. A Central American Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2005 modelled the dynamics of populations in the wild. Because conditions are assumed to be harsher in the wild than in captivity, the age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years, for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Central American Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Although field data from Corcovado shows a larger —although not significant— percentage of males, there is no evidence to suggest a skewed sex ratio at birth.","activityPatterns":"Central American Tapirs are substantially more active nocturnally than during the day. Their main peaks of activity are between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and 03:00 h and 04:00 h. In Santa RosaNational Park, tapirs were often active for short periods during the day, particularly in the dry season, when they entered residual pools in riverbeds to rest. However, tapirs are known to become almost completely nocturnal when there is heavy hunting pressure.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The mean home range size of Central American Tapirs studied via radio-telemetry in the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, was 1-25 km®. Male tapirs showed somewhat larger but not statistically different average home ranges than females. Researchers found no seasonal changes in size or location of home ranges. In the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park, also in Costa Rica, mean tapir home range size was 1-71 km? These home range variations may be due to differences in dominant vegetation types in those areas, as well as a considerably lower number of perennial water bodies in the latter. Tapir home ranges in Corcovado highly overlapped (33-16%) those of neighboring individuals. Central American Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for 12-18 months. It has been found that once they separate, in most cases, young tapirs in Corcovado stay in the vicinity of the mother’s home range for 3—4years prior to dispersal from the area and establishment of their own home ranges. Therefore, the ranging behavior of tapirs in Corcovado included the establishment of so called “family units,” where pairs of adult male and female tapirs maintained an almost entirely exclusive “territory” with no other resident adults over long periods of time, which they shared with 1-3 offspring from previous years. Although very high percentages of home range overlap occur within the family units, very little overlap occurs between neighboring tapir families. Estimates of Central American Tapir population density vary widely, ranging from a high 1-6 ind/km? in Corcovado National Park to a very low 0-21 ind/km? in the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park. The data from Corcovado National Park may not be applicable to other populations, as the region ofthis research (Sirena Biological Station) has a unique mixture of ideal habitat and almost complete protection from poaching, which perhaps contributes to higher density of the species.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Central American Tapir had a continuous distribution from south-eastern Mexicoto the northern portion of Colombia(west of the CaucaRiver) to the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador. The historic distribution ofthis species covered 1,186,300 km®. High rates of habitat destruction and fragmentation throughoutits former range have resulted in the current tapir distribution, which is mostly restricted to protected and/or remote areas in eight countries. A recent range extension of 377 kmbrought Central American Tapir to a new northern limit; La Tuza de Monroy, near the municipality of Santiago Jamiltepec in Oaxaca, Mexico. In Colombia, the species is present in Los Katios National Park. This population is poorly understood due to the presence of guerrilla activity, which has made research in the area extremely difficult. Anecdotally, biologists in Los Katios report that there are a few tapirs between the park and the Pacific Ocean. Large fragments of forest extending to the Pacific, combined with the Darien region, which is shared with the Republic of Panama, could have 160 km? of habitat for a total of 227 km?There is an ongoing reduction of Central American Tapir populations estimated to be greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth oftapirs, coupled with habitat loss/fragmentation and hunting, are the main factors contributing to population declines. It is estimated that approximately 70% of Central American forests have been lost through deforestation and alteration over the last 40 years. In Costa Ricaalone, it is now estimated that 80% of the country has been deforested, up from about 67% approximately 25 years ago. Overall, it is inferred that at least 50% of the Central American Tapir habitat has been lost in the past three generations, causing drastic population declines and making remnant populations more susceptible to extinction from natural disasters and disease. This rate of decline is predicted to continue. In Belize, unremitting forest destruction and fragmentation of the Selva Maya continues to threaten tapir populations. The construction of roads through the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemalais likely to become a major problem for tapirs in that area, as well as the isolation of smaller protected areas. In Costa Rica, logging and destructive farming practices are widespread. Gold mining is another problem in some parts of this country. The effect of hunting is notable given that Central American Tapirs are common where not hunted and nearly absent where hunting pressure is high. Even minimal hunting has proven to significantly decrease their populations, which is expected given their low reproductive rate. Some evidence exists that tapirs are susceptible and have been exposed to pathogens that also cause disease in livestock and horses; however, to date, there is no proof that infectious diseases have caused significant mortalities or have affected population levels. Nevertheless, several adult tapirs have been found dead nearlivestock areas in Chimalapas rain forest, Mexico, and were thought to have died from infectious diseases. Although most Central American Tapir populations have not been quantified and monitored yet, the current overall population estimate for this species is approximately 5000 mature individuals (Mexico, 1000; Belize, no current estimates; Guatemala, 1000; Honduras, 500; Nicaragua, 500; Costa Rica, 1000; Panama, 1000; Colombia, 250). There appear to be several strongholds for tapir populations, including La Amistad International Park in Costa Ricaand Panama. The Selva Maya shared by Belize, Guatemala, and Mexicois the largest continuoustract of forest where Central American Tapirs can be found. Recent surveys in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, found tapirs to be among the most abundant large vertebrates above 2000 melevation, where large populationsstill remain in areas where they are not hunted. In the Republic of Panama, reports suggest that tapirs are distributed continuously along the forests of the Caribbean slope. Their range extends from Bocas del Toro Provincein western Panamathroughout the PanamaCanal watershed to the Kuna YalaComarca. These reports also confirmed their presence along the Cordillera Central in western Panama, including prime habitat above 3000 m,as well as in the Darien regionnear the Colombian border. The Mosquitia area of Hondurasand Nicaraguais particularly important because of its large size and low human population density. The species is believed to have been extirpated from El Salvador, but there are recent sightings and reports suggesting the speciesstill persists there at some level. Central American Tapirs occur in a number of protected areas throughout their range. Six large Biosphere Reserves in Campeche, Chiapas, and Quintana Rooin Mexicoare thought to hold numerous tapirs. In Guatemala, the Maya and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserves could hold several hundred more individuals, as could some other small parks in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Although the species is protected nationally throughout its range, these laws are often not enforced in many areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-230 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height in adults approximately 120 cm; weight 250-350 kg. The Central American Tapir is the largest of the three Latin American species and is the largest terrestrial mammal found in the Neotropics. The Central American Tapir is dark brown or grayish-brown and has a distinctive cream-colored marking on its face and throat and a dark spot on each cheek, behind and below the eye. The edges of the ears are white. Like the other species of tapir, they have small stubby tails and a long, flexible proboscis.Habitat.The Central American Tapir is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3600 m. The speciesis strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramos. Overall, Central American Tapirs prefer habitat types with permanent water bodies, diverse and dense understory, riparian vegetation, low incidence offires, and less hunting pressure and human presence. Some studies in Mexicohave noted that Central American Tapirs prefer densely forested areas rather than open, more disturbed habitats. In the mixed deciduous forest of Santa Rosa National Park in the north-west of Costa Rica, the tapirs relied on small pools of water in dried-up riverbeds for their drinking and wallowing requirements. Much of the habitat there was subclimax forest. In Corcovado National Park, also in Costa Rica, tapir sign (tracks, dung, rubbings, and evidence of foraging) was more abundant in lowland, second-growth forests and palm swamps than mature forests. In fact, tapirs in Corcovado strongly selected secondary forests and avoided mature forests. Seasonal variations in habitat selection correlated with fruit availability were observed. Tapir sign in Corcovado showed positive correlation with distance from perennial water bodies and rain intensity; there was a negative correlation between sign and slope steepness. Central American Tapirs have been observed in the Costa Rican paramos, particularly near ponds surrounded by dense bush of Chusquea. Lacking a dense hair coat like that of the Mountain Tapir, an extraordinarily thick skin and subcutaneous fat deposits probably help Central American Tapirs withstand the low temperatures prevailing in the paramos. In La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, tapir sign has been observed along mountain crests at 1000-1500 m. These mountain crests are often covered by strips of oak forest, which are believed to be used by tapirs as both marking sites and transit areas between tropical subdeciduous and montane cloud forest slopes.Food and Feeding.The Central American Tapir selectively consumes a wide array of fruit, leaves, shoots, bark, and flowers. Long-term direct observations of one Central American Tapir in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, revealed that these animals consume an average of 15-63 kg of fruit and fibrous materials per day. The tapir observed consumed 126 different plant species. The percentages of bites taken of each food item during the study were 67% leaves, 18:6% fruits, 11-7% stems, 2-1% bark, and 0-1% flowers. Three species accounted for 40% ofthe tapir’s bites for the entire study. The information available on feeding habits of Central American Tapirs in Mexicocomes from a few studies in which about 98 plant species of 50 families were recorded as consumed by this ungulate. The plant families most frequently represented in the diet of Central American Tapirs in Mexicoare Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae. A previous study carried out in a tropical lowland forest in Guatemalanoted that 49 species of plants are consumed by tapirs, with three species representing the highest percentage of the diet. Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceaewere the most important plant families. In the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, plant species of the families Arecaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, and Rubiaceaeaccounted for 33% of total plant species in the tapirs’ diet. Asteraceae, Ericaceae, and Poaceae(especially Chusquea subtessellata) seem to be the predominant plant families in the 3000 mhigh paramos of Chirripé National Park, Costa Rica. The most evident changes in proportions of food items ingested by Central American Tapirs throughout the year are those related to fruit consumption. Fruit usually constitutes a smaller proportion of the diet of Central American Tapirs compared to leaves and other fiber sources. Average fruit proportions found in their feces generally ranges from 7-1% to 18:6% in different areas. However, in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, some fecal samples consisted almost entirely of fruit pieces and tapirs there depended heavily on a wide range offruits (and fruit sizes) during the dry season. Fruit provides significant amounts of the nutrition and calories consumed by this ungulate. Palm swamps composed primarily of Raphia taedigeraand Bactris balanoideaare regularly patrolled by the tapirs and other ungulates, White-lipped Peccaries (7ayassu pecari) in particular, in search of fruit. The role of Central American Tapirs in seed dispersal and seed predation is not completely understood but studies in Santa Rosademonstrated that they widely dispersed viable seeds of many species in their dung, including seeds incidentally ingested while browsing. In Guatemalaand Mexico, Central American Tapirs appear to be important dispersers of Manilkara zapota seeds.Breeding.Most information about reproduction of Central American Tapirs in the wild comes from a long-term field study carried out in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. Direct and indirect evidence from this study indicates that they are facultatively polygamous. Adult female tapirs usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. The calf stays with its mother for 12-18 months. An adult female Central American Tapir was monitored in Corcovado for approximately 14 years. During this period, this female produced nine offspring at intervals of approximately 18 months. Reports from zoos and field observations for wild tapirs in Corcovado indicate that females may become pregnant while lactating, which can reduce the interbirth interval to 16 months. Some females may lose their offspring during lactation, or due to stillbirths or neonatal deaths, and come into estrus sooner, therefore reducing the interbirth interval. Lastly, veterinarians who were part of the field team in Corcovado found pregnant females who had month-old calves; the females were one month pregnant, the fetus visible on ultrasound. Thus, it is highly probable that tapirs present a “foal heat” similar to horses, coming into estrus immediately after giving birth and able to get pregnant. The AZA Studbook for Central American Tapirs notes that tapirs in captivity sire their first offspring as young as two years old.","habitat":"The Central American Tapir is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3600 m. The speciesis strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramos. Overall, Central American Tapirs prefer habitat types with permanent water bodies, diverse and dense understory, riparian vegetation, low incidence offires, and less hunting pressure and human presence. Some studies in Mexicohave noted that Central American Tapirs prefer densely forested areas rather than open, more disturbed habitats. In the mixed deciduous forest of Santa Rosa National Park in the north-west of Costa Rica, the tapirs relied on small pools of water in dried-up riverbeds for their drinking and wallowing requirements. Much of the habitat there was subclimax forest. In Corcovado National Park, also in Costa Rica, tapir sign (tracks, dung, rubbings, and evidence of foraging) was more abundant in lowland, second-growth forests and palm swamps than mature forests. In fact, tapirs in Corcovado strongly selected secondary forests and avoided mature forests. Seasonal variations in habitat selection correlated with fruit availability were observed. Tapir sign in Corcovado showed positive correlation with distance from perennial water bodies and rain intensity; there was a negative correlation between sign and slope steepness. Central American Tapirs have been observed in the Costa Rican paramos, particularly near ponds surrounded by dense bush of Chusquea. Lacking a dense hair coat like that of the Mountain Tapir, an extraordinarily thick skin and subcutaneous fat deposits probably help Central American Tapirs withstand the low temperatures prevailing in the paramos. In La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, tapir sign has been observed along mountain crests at 1000-1500 m. These mountain crests are often covered by strips of oak forest, which are believed to be used by tapirs as both marking sites and transit areas between tropical subdeciduous and montane cloud forest slopes."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC4FF88FA5021E814549604.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039CED53FFC4FF88FA5021E814549604","docName":"hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"4.Malayan TapirTapirus indicusFrench:Tapir de Malaisie/ German:Schabrackentapir/ Spanish:TapirmalayoOther common names:Asian Tapir, Indian Tapir, Malay TapirTaxonomy.Tapirus indicus Desmarest, 1819,Malaysia, Malay Peninsula.Recent studies have suggested including it in the genus Acrocordia. Considered monotypic here, although an all-black form from Sumatra was named brevetianus on the basis of two individuals.Distribution.Malayan Tapirs occur in two disjunct and isolated populations, one on mainland SE Asia in peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, and Myanmar, and the other in the S & C Sumatra, in Indonesia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 250-300 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 100-130 cm; weight 280-400 kg. Malayan Tapirs are the largest ofall tapir species. In fact, the Malayan Tapir is one of the largest herbivores of the South-east Asian rainforest, with only wild cattle species, rhinos, and elephants surpassing it in size. The Malayan Tapir can be easily identified by its color pattern. A white saddle starts behind the front legs and extends over the back to the tail. The contrasting colors form a disruptive pattern that blends the animal with its environment and makes it more difficult for predators to recognize it as potential prey. Completely black individuals have been photographed by camera-traps, particularly in Sumatra and Malaysia. Young Malayan Tapirs have length-wise stripes and pale spots; the white saddle only starts to show after approximately 70 days. It takes approximately 5-6 months for the last remains of the juvenilestripes to completely disappear. Although Malayan Tapirs do not have the crest seen on Lowland Tapirs, the skin on the back of the head and nape is nearly 2-3 cm thick, presumably for protection from predator fangs. It also protects the neck when the tapir is moving through dense undergrowth. The proboscis of the Malayan Tapir is longer and stronger than that of its Latin American relatives. Malayan Tapirs have a well-developed sense of smell and hearing and can move with great speed through dense undergrowth. Interestingly, it has been observed that they can escape predators by going under water and staying submerged for considerable lengths of time.Habitat.Malayan Tapirs are found predominantly in tropical lowland moist forests and occur in both primary and mature secondary forests offering good cover. In the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailandtapirs range from 100 mto 1500 min alttude, and in Sumatra, tapirs may reach an altitude of 1500 m, or possibly 2000 mwhen crossing a ridge. They are not found in northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia,likely because of the more seasonal climate and harsher dry season of the forest in these areas. In Thailand, tapirs are associated with a variety of forest types including dry dipterocarp, mixed deciduous, dry evergreen, and hill evergreen. Tapirs move into evergreen forest during the dry season when food is scarce and forestfires are present. They return to the dry dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forest in the rainy season when sprouts of leaves and twigs emerge. Although Malayan Tapirs are generally considered to be lowland animals, they do travel a long way up mountains. In Indonesia, they inhabit lowland areas during the dry season and move to mountain areas during the wet season. Because the lowland forests are disappearing at a faster rate than the montane forests, an accelerated reduction in range and population is suspected. The Malayan Tapir habitat in Indonesiahas been described as humid, swampy, densejungle with an understory of shrubby plants and grassy meadows bordering streams. In southern Sumatra, researchers found the highest densities of tapirs in undisturbed swamp areas and lowland forests on well-drained soil. The same researchers further stated that tapir densities were lower in early-stage successional forest than in late-stage successional forest that was formerly logged. Similarly, in the Jambi Provinceof southern Sumatra, a study showed that undisturbed areas were preferred over disturbed areas; however, signs of their presence were abundant in forest fringes as well as logged or otherwise disturbed forest, and sometimes these animals wandered into rubber and oil palm plantations. In Bengkulu, Sumatra, tapirs are considered to be a problem species for stripping bark from rubber trees. The Malaysian Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) inventories show that Malayan Tapirs are found within a 5 kmradius of major cities like Seremban, Kuantan, and Temerloh. Another important aspect of their habitat use is that saltlicks apparently are visited once or twice a month, preferably with the new and the full moon. Malayan Tapirs generally stay in the vicinity of water. They like to spend a considerable time in the water and often defecate there. Several individuals have been rescued after falling into village wells or getting stuck in mud wallows.Food and Feeding.Malayan Tapirs are selective browsers, concentrating their diet on young leaves and growing twigs. Preferred food plants mostly (42%) belong to the plant families Euphorbiaceaeand Rubiaceae. Most of the plants consumed are woody and only a few herbaceous plants are consumed. In addition to foliage, Malayan Tapirs consume considerable amounts of fruit that they pick up from the ground. During feeding they sometimes push over small trees and break smaller sapling stems and branches in orderto get to the leaves and twigs. The heights at which they break stems were found to range between 0-8 m and 1-4 m. Feeding is not concentrated in particular locations. Suitable leaves and fruits appear to be eaten as encountered. Whereasit was reported by one source that their preferred food plants are characteristic of forest fringe and secondary growth, another source stated that the only feeding signs were found on understory plants in the primary rainforest. More than 115 species of plants are known to be eaten by Malayan Tapirs. Approximately 75% of these plants comprised 27 species and these are considered to be the most highly preferred food items. In Thailand, 39 species of plants were preferred. Their diet comprised 86-5% leaves, 8:1% fruit, and 5-4% leaf/twig matter. The most common plant species consumed by Malayan Tapirs in Sumatra are Symplocos, and Asplenium, Artocarpus, and Durio are occasionally eaten in secondary forests. Some herbaceous plants (Curculigo latifolia) and low-growing succulents (Homalomena and Phyllagathis rotundifolia) are also consumed, as is club moss (Selaginella willdenonii). The saplings of Baccaurea parviflora are browsed heavily.Breeding.There is very little data about the reproduction of Malayan Tapirs in the wild. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). In May 2007, a female held at the Malay Tapir Conservation Centre (MTCC) at the Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve in Malaysiagave birth to twin calves, one male and one female. This was the first recorded twinning in the species. To model the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild, data from captivity have been used to estimate reproductive parameters. Captive females return to a cyclic estrus during lactation, but allow males to mount 153 days, on average, after giving birth. Mating was once observed in a captive pair on five consecutive occasions, averaging 29-4 days (range 29-31) between copulations, suggesting interestrous intervals of about 30 days. The earliest known mating ages are three years for males and average 2-8 (range 2-3-3) years for females. The earliest recorded conception by a female Malayan Tapir, at Saint Louis Zoo in the USA, occurred at 36 months, although females have mated as early as 31-32 months of age. The life span is about 30 years. A Malayan Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2003 modelled the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild. Considering that natural situations impose a toll on growth and achieving sexual maturity, it was assumed that in the wild both sexes are capable of reproducing for the first time at age five. Maximum age of reproduction in the wild was estimated to be 24 (+ 2) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Malayan Tapirs was estimated to be twelve years. A female Malayan Tapir could potentially bring up some 5-15 young in her lifetime. Zoo records from the Zoo Negara, Malaysia, show birth rates with a 1:1 sex ratio.Activity patterns.A Malayan Tapir camera-trap study in Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia, found the tapirs to be strictly nocturnal, with an activity pattern that peaks at 19:00 h, when their only possible predator, the Sumatran Tiger, is least active. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village, West Sumatra, noted an activity peak at 22:00 h. Tapirs studied in Taman Negara in Malaysiawere observed to browse occasionally during the daytime hours but were mostly encountered atrest.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A telemetry study on Malayan Tapirs in Taman Negara, Malaysia, revealed a very large home range size of 12-75 km?.The home range of one of the monitored males overlapped the home ranges of several other individuals. An area of 0-52 km?® was occupied over a period of 27 days, during which time the male associated with a female and her young. The average straight line distance traveled per day by a male was 0-32 km. A more recent telemetry study in Krau Wildlife Reserve, also in Malaysia, estimated a home range of approximately 10-15 km?®. One ofthe study animals moved within a range of 70 km? Malayan Tapir density estimates appear to be lower when compared to the three Latin American tapir species. In Thailand, nine individuals were observed in an area of approximately 256 km?, resulting in approximately 0-035 ind/km?In southern Sumatra, the density of tapirs has been estimated to range from 0-3 ind/km? to 0-44 ind/km? in undisturbed swamp forests and lowland forests on well-drained soil, and 0-02 ind/km? in more hilly and mountainous areas in the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. In Kerinci-Seblat National Park, also in Sumatra, Malayan Tapir density based on tapir signs on line-transects and camera-traps was 0-15 ind/km?. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village in Sumatra resulted in a density estimate of 0-5 ind/km?. Several camera-trap studies have noted that Malayan Tapirs are predominantly solitary. A camera-trap study in Krau Wildlife Reserve revealed that they disperse substantial distances and that they visit saltlicks significantly more often than any other animal speciesin the reserve. There have been sporadic records of Malayan Tapirs crossing palm oil estates as the animals travelled from one forested area to the next.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The species previously was listed as occurring in northern India, southern China, southern Cambodia, and possibly southern Vietnam. There was an authenticsounding record from Laosin 1902. Further investigation of historical records and other indications from Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, northern Thailand, and even southern Chinahave found none that has any compelling evidence in its support. There is no credible historical-era record from north of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, although there are fossil remains from Vietnamand Chinathat indicate a much wider range under different climatic scenarios. In Thailand, Malayan Tapirs are found along the western border, on the peninsula south to the Malaysian border, and in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in the north. In Myanmar, the species is found restricted to the Tenasserim region, a narrow strip of territory between Thailandand the Indian Ocean.The speciesis listed as Endangered due to an ongoing population decline caused by habitat loss and fragmentation and increasing hunting pressure throughout its range. Malayan Tapirs are shy animals and appear to be highly sensitive to forest fragmentation. Population declines were estimated to have been greater than 50% in the past three generations (36 years), driven primarily by large-scale conversion of habitat to palm oil plantations and other human land-use. The rate of reduction in population is inferred to be proportional to the reduction of the tropical rainforest area in South-east Asia over the same period; however, it may be higher due to indirect threats. The population on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, historically the main stronghold of the species,is considered to be the most endangered because of largescale habitat destruction. Approximately 60% of the forest cover of Sumatrahas been lost over the past 15 years. As a consequence, more than 50% of the Malayan Tapir habitat is thought to have been lost, with much of the remaining forest either outside of protected areas or outside of the range of the species. Even in the protected areas, illegal logging continues. Less than 10% of the suitable habitat has been preserved, and much of that is degraded. In Thailand, remaining populations are isolated in protected areas and forest fragments, which are mostly discontinuous and offer little opportunity for genetic exchange. In Malaysia, forest loss is extremely severe, especially because of expanding oil palm plantations. Nevertheless, the current forestry trend seems to have stabilized at approximately 43% remaining forest cover (57% lost), of which at least half can be considered tapir habitat. In Myanmar, 3-2% of the land is protected and most tapir habitat lies outside of these protected areas. Although hunting has been a minor threat to the species in the past, it seems to be increasing as people are beginning to see the Malayan Tapir as a food source. Historically, tapirs were not hunted for subsistence or commercial trade in Thailandor Myanmar, since their flesh was considered distasteful, and some hill tribes believed that killing a tapir brings bad luck, so they are not hunted. However, some recent localized hunting has been reported in Sumatra. Nevertheless, it is uncertain how many individuals are actually hunted every year. Hunting could become a cause for concern, as already reduced and isolated populations would be at great risk for extirpation. Another problem is the removal of tapirs for zoos in Indonesia. In the past, several Indonesian zoos, especially Pekanbaru Zoo, traded in live tapirs for sale to other Indonesian zoos or private collections, or for sale as meat in local markets to the non-Muslim community. Fifty tapirs are reported to have passed through the Pekanbaru Zoo since 1993. Some of these animals are suspected of having originated from protected areas. Lastly, there have been reports of tapir road-kills in Malaysia. Further research efforts are needed to determine the total population size of Malayan Tapirs. In 2008, the population in Malaysiawas estimated to be approximately 1500-2000 individuals. The speciesis legally protected in all range states and the habitat of large parts of the range is protected, including a number of National Parks in Thailand, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. Thailandsupports one of the most comprehensive systems of protected areas in South-east Asia, comprising 17% of land area. Malayan Tapirs are recorded from forest areas in the west and south of the country, including transboundary forests in border areas and large isolated forest remnants. The transboundary forests represent the most extensive contiguous habitats for large mammals left in the country. They include the Western Forest Complex (Thai-Myanmar border), which includes twelve protected areas and covers over 18,730 km?, including both dry and wet forests, and the Kaeng Krachan/Chumpol complex, which covers 4373 km? mostly wet evergreen forest on the Thai-Myanmar border. The Balahala Forest is an expanse of 1850 km? of tropical rainforest on the Thai-Malay border. All areas are contiguous with large forest areas on opposite sides of the border. Recent survey efforts suggest that tapirs are present though uncommon in each of these transboundary forest areas. Thus, most existing Malayan Tapir habitat in Thailandis protected and the future for conservation of the species in that country is positive. In Myanmar, Malayan Tapirs are entirely restricted to rainforests in the Tenasserim Ranges along the Thai-Myanmar border. Two new protected areas have been designated in the Tenasserims, TanintharyiNational Park and Lenya River Wildlife Sanctuary. If these areas can be protected, they will preserve valuable tapir habitat in the future. Currently, civil unrest in Myanmarmakes these areas inaccessible for wildlife surveys.Bibliography.Abdul Ghani (2009), Barongi (1986, 1993), Blouch (1984), Brooks et al. (2007), CITES (2005), Duckworth et al. (1999), DWNP (2003), Ferris (1905), Fountaine (1962), Harper (1945), Holden et al. (2003), Holmes (2001), Kaewsirisuk (2001), Kawanishi (2002), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Lynam (1996, 1999, 2000, 2003), Lynam et al. (2008), Medici (2001), Medici et al. (2003), Medway (1974), Meijaard (1998), Pournelle (1966), Prayurasiddhi et al. (1999), Read (1986), Santiapillai & Ramono (1990), Schipper et al. (2008), Steinmetz et al. (2008), Traeholt (2002), WCS (2001, 2003), Williams (1978, 1979), Williams & Petrides (1980), Yin (1993).","taxonomy":"Tapirus indicus Desmarest, 1819,Malaysia, Malay Peninsula.Recent studies have suggested including it in the genus Acrocordia. Considered monotypic here, although an all-black form from Sumatra was named brevetianus on the basis of two individuals.","commonNames":"Tapir de Malaisie @fr | Schabrackentapir @de | Tapirmalayo @es | Asian Tapir @en | @en | ndian Tapir @en | Malay Tapir @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1819","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tapiridae","interpretedGenus":"Tapirus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"indicus","name":"Tapirus indicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Malayan Tapirs occur in two disjunct and isolated populations, one on mainland SE Asia in peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, and Myanmar, and the other in the S & C Sumatra, in Indonesia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721173/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abdul Ghani (2009) | Barongi (1986, 1993) | Blouch (1984) | Brooks et al. (2007) | CITES (2005) | Duckworth et al. (1999) | DWNP (2003) | Ferris (1905) | Fountaine (1962) | Harper (1945) | Holden et al. (2003) | Holmes (2001) | Kaewsirisuk (2001) | Kawanishi (2002) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Lynam (1996, 1999, 2000, 2003) | Lynam et al. (2008) | Medici (2001) | Medici et al. (2003) | Medway (1974) | Meijaard (1998) | Pournelle (1966) | Prayurasiddhi et al. (1999) | Read (1986) | Santiapillai & Ramono (1990) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Steinmetz et al. (2008) | Traeholt (2002) | WCS (2001, 2003) | Williams (1978, 1979) | Williams & Petrides (1980) | Yin (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"Malayan Tapirs are selective browsers, concentrating their diet on young leaves and growing twigs. Preferred food plants mostly (42%) belong to the plant families Euphorbiaceaeand Rubiaceae. Most of the plants consumed are woody and only a few herbaceous plants are consumed. In addition to foliage, Malayan Tapirs consume considerable amounts of fruit that they pick up from the ground. During feeding they sometimes push over small trees and break smaller sapling stems and branches in orderto get to the leaves and twigs. The heights at which they break stems were found to range between 0-8 m and 1-4 m. Feeding is not concentrated in particular locations. Suitable leaves and fruits appear to be eaten as encountered. Whereasit was reported by one source that their preferred food plants are characteristic of forest fringe and secondary growth, another source stated that the only feeding signs were found on understory plants in the primary rainforest. More than 115 species of plants are known to be eaten by Malayan Tapirs. Approximately 75% of these plants comprised 27 species and these are considered to be the most highly preferred food items. In Thailand, 39 species of plants were preferred. Their diet comprised 86-5% leaves, 8:1% fruit, and 5-4% leaf/twig matter. The most common plant species consumed by Malayan Tapirs in Sumatra are Symplocos, and Asplenium, Artocarpus, and Durio are occasionally eaten in secondary forests. Some herbaceous plants (Curculigo latifolia) and low-growing succulents (Homalomena and Phyllagathis rotundifolia) are also consumed, as is club moss (Selaginella willdenonii). The saplings of Baccaurea parviflora are browsed heavily.","breeding":"There is very little data about the reproduction of Malayan Tapirs in the wild. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). In May 2007, a female held at the Malay Tapir Conservation Centre (MTCC) at the Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve in Malaysiagave birth to twin calves, one male and one female. This was the first recorded twinning in the species. To model the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild, data from captivity have been used to estimate reproductive parameters. Captive females return to a cyclic estrus during lactation, but allow males to mount 153 days, on average, after giving birth. Mating was once observed in a captive pair on five consecutive occasions, averaging 29-4 days (range 29-31) between copulations, suggesting interestrous intervals of about 30 days. The earliest known mating ages are three years for males and average 2-8 (range 2-3-3) years for females. The earliest recorded conception by a female Malayan Tapir, at Saint Louis Zoo in the USA, occurred at 36 months, although females have mated as early as 31-32 months of age. The life span is about 30 years. A Malayan Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2003 modelled the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild. Considering that natural situations impose a toll on growth and achieving sexual maturity, it was assumed that in the wild both sexes are capable of reproducing for the first time at age five. Maximum age of reproduction in the wild was estimated to be 24 (+ 2) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Malayan Tapirs was estimated to be twelve years. A female Malayan Tapir could potentially bring up some 5-15 young in her lifetime. Zoo records from the Zoo Negara, Malaysia, show birth rates with a 1:1 sex ratio.","activityPatterns":"A Malayan Tapir camera-trap study in Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia, found the tapirs to be strictly nocturnal, with an activity pattern that peaks at 19:00 h, when their only possible predator, the Sumatran Tiger, is least active. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village, West Sumatra, noted an activity peak at 22:00 h. Tapirs studied in Taman Negara in Malaysiawere observed to browse occasionally during the daytime hours but were mostly encountered atrest.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A telemetry study on Malayan Tapirs in Taman Negara, Malaysia, revealed a very large home range size of 12-75 km?.The home range of one of the monitored males overlapped the home ranges of several other individuals. An area of 0-52 km?® was occupied over a period of 27 days, during which time the male associated with a female and her young. The average straight line distance traveled per day by a male was 0-32 km. A more recent telemetry study in Krau Wildlife Reserve, also in Malaysia, estimated a home range of approximately 10-15 km?®. One ofthe study animals moved within a range of 70 km? Malayan Tapir density estimates appear to be lower when compared to the three Latin American tapir species. In Thailand, nine individuals were observed in an area of approximately 256 km?, resulting in approximately 0-035 ind/km?In southern Sumatra, the density of tapirs has been estimated to range from 0-3 ind/km? to 0-44 ind/km? in undisturbed swamp forests and lowland forests on well-drained soil, and 0-02 ind/km? in more hilly and mountainous areas in the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. In Kerinci-Seblat National Park, also in Sumatra, Malayan Tapir density based on tapir signs on line-transects and camera-traps was 0-15 ind/km?. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village in Sumatra resulted in a density estimate of 0-5 ind/km?. Several camera-trap studies have noted that Malayan Tapirs are predominantly solitary. A camera-trap study in Krau Wildlife Reserve revealed that they disperse substantial distances and that they visit saltlicks significantly more often than any other animal speciesin the reserve. There have been sporadic records of Malayan Tapirs crossing palm oil estates as the animals travelled from one forested area to the next.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The species previously was listed as occurring in northern India, southern China, southern Cambodia, and possibly southern Vietnam. There was an authenticsounding record from Laosin 1902. Further investigation of historical records and other indications from Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, northern Thailand, and even southern Chinahave found none that has any compelling evidence in its support. There is no credible historical-era record from north of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, although there are fossil remains from Vietnamand Chinathat indicate a much wider range under different climatic scenarios. In Thailand, Malayan Tapirs are found along the western border, on the peninsula south to the Malaysian border, and in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in the north. In Myanmar, the species is found restricted to the Tenasserim region, a narrow strip of territory between Thailandand the Indian Ocean.The speciesis listed as Endangered due to an ongoing population decline caused by habitat loss and fragmentation and increasing hunting pressure throughout its range. Malayan Tapirs are shy animals and appear to be highly sensitive to forest fragmentation. Population declines were estimated to have been greater than 50% in the past three generations (36 years), driven primarily by large-scale conversion of habitat to palm oil plantations and other human land-use. The rate of reduction in population is inferred to be proportional to the reduction of the tropical rainforest area in South-east Asia over the same period; however, it may be higher due to indirect threats. The population on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, historically the main stronghold of the species,is considered to be the most endangered because of largescale habitat destruction. Approximately 60% of the forest cover of Sumatrahas been lost over the past 15 years. As a consequence, more than 50% of the Malayan Tapir habitat is thought to have been lost, with much of the remaining forest either outside of protected areas or outside of the range of the species. Even in the protected areas, illegal logging continues. Less than 10% of the suitable habitat has been preserved, and much of that is degraded. In Thailand, remaining populations are isolated in protected areas and forest fragments, which are mostly discontinuous and offer little opportunity for genetic exchange. In Malaysia, forest loss is extremely severe, especially because of expanding oil palm plantations. Nevertheless, the current forestry trend seems to have stabilized at approximately 43% remaining forest cover (57% lost), of which at least half can be considered tapir habitat. In Myanmar, 3-2% of the land is protected and most tapir habitat lies outside of these protected areas. Although hunting has been a minor threat to the species in the past, it seems to be increasing as people are beginning to see the Malayan Tapir as a food source. Historically, tapirs were not hunted for subsistence or commercial trade in Thailandor Myanmar, since their flesh was considered distasteful, and some hill tribes believed that killing a tapir brings bad luck, so they are not hunted. However, some recent localized hunting has been reported in Sumatra. Nevertheless, it is uncertain how many individuals are actually hunted every year. Hunting could become a cause for concern, as already reduced and isolated populations would be at great risk for extirpation. Another problem is the removal of tapirs for zoos in Indonesia. In the past, several Indonesian zoos, especially Pekanbaru Zoo, traded in live tapirs for sale to other Indonesian zoos or private collections, or for sale as meat in local markets to the non-Muslim community. Fifty tapirs are reported to have passed through the Pekanbaru Zoo since 1993. Some of these animals are suspected of having originated from protected areas. Lastly, there have been reports of tapir road-kills in Malaysia. Further research efforts are needed to determine the total population size of Malayan Tapirs. In 2008, the population in Malaysiawas estimated to be approximately 1500-2000 individuals. The speciesis legally protected in all range states and the habitat of large parts of the range is protected, including a number of National Parks in Thailand, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. Thailandsupports one of the most comprehensive systems of protected areas in South-east Asia, comprising 17% of land area. Malayan Tapirs are recorded from forest areas in the west and south of the country, including transboundary forests in border areas and large isolated forest remnants. The transboundary forests represent the most extensive contiguous habitats for large mammals left in the country. They include the Western Forest Complex (Thai-Myanmar border), which includes twelve protected areas and covers over 18,730 km?, including both dry and wet forests, and the Kaeng Krachan/Chumpol complex, which covers 4373 km? mostly wet evergreen forest on the Thai-Myanmar border. The Balahala Forest is an expanse of 1850 km? of tropical rainforest on the Thai-Malay border. All areas are contiguous with large forest areas on opposite sides of the border. Recent survey efforts suggest that tapirs are present though uncommon in each of these transboundary forest areas. Thus, most existing Malayan Tapir habitat in Thailandis protected and the future for conservation of the species in that country is positive. In Myanmar, Malayan Tapirs are entirely restricted to rainforests in the Tenasserim Ranges along the Thai-Myanmar border. Two new protected areas have been designated in the Tenasserims, TanintharyiNational Park and Lenya River Wildlife Sanctuary. If these areas can be protected, they will preserve valuable tapir habitat in the future. Currently, civil unrest in Myanmarmakes these areas inaccessible for wildlife surveys.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 250-300 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 100-130 cm; weight 280-400 kg. Malayan Tapirs are the largest ofall tapir species. In fact, the Malayan Tapir is one of the largest herbivores of the South-east Asian rainforest, with only wild cattle species, rhinos, and elephants surpassing it in size. The Malayan Tapir can be easily identified by its color pattern. A white saddle starts behind the front legs and extends over the back to the tail. The contrasting colors form a disruptive pattern that blends the animal with its environment and makes it more difficult for predators to recognize it as potential prey. Completely black individuals have been photographed by camera-traps, particularly in Sumatra and Malaysia. Young Malayan Tapirs have length-wise stripes and pale spots; the white saddle only starts to show after approximately 70 days. It takes approximately 5-6 months for the last remains of the juvenilestripes to completely disappear. Although Malayan Tapirs do not have the crest seen on Lowland Tapirs, the skin on the back of the head and nape is nearly 2-3 cm thick, presumably for protection from predator fangs. It also protects the neck when the tapir is moving through dense undergrowth. The proboscis of the Malayan Tapir is longer and stronger than that of its Latin American relatives. Malayan Tapirs have a well-developed sense of smell and hearing and can move with great speed through dense undergrowth. Interestingly, it has been observed that they can escape predators by going under water and staying submerged for considerable lengths of time.Habitat.Malayan Tapirs are found predominantly in tropical lowland moist forests and occur in both primary and mature secondary forests offering good cover. In the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailandtapirs range from 100 mto 1500 min alttude, and in Sumatra, tapirs may reach an altitude of 1500 m, or possibly 2000 mwhen crossing a ridge. They are not found in northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia,likely because of the more seasonal climate and harsher dry season of the forest in these areas. In Thailand, tapirs are associated with a variety of forest types including dry dipterocarp, mixed deciduous, dry evergreen, and hill evergreen. Tapirs move into evergreen forest during the dry season when food is scarce and forestfires are present. They return to the dry dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forest in the rainy season when sprouts of leaves and twigs emerge. Although Malayan Tapirs are generally considered to be lowland animals, they do travel a long way up mountains. In Indonesia, they inhabit lowland areas during the dry season and move to mountain areas during the wet season. Because the lowland forests are disappearing at a faster rate than the montane forests, an accelerated reduction in range and population is suspected. The Malayan Tapir habitat in Indonesiahas been described as humid, swampy, densejungle with an understory of shrubby plants and grassy meadows bordering streams. In southern Sumatra, researchers found the highest densities of tapirs in undisturbed swamp areas and lowland forests on well-drained soil. The same researchers further stated that tapir densities were lower in early-stage successional forest than in late-stage successional forest that was formerly logged. Similarly, in the Jambi Provinceof southern Sumatra, a study showed that undisturbed areas were preferred over disturbed areas; however, signs of their presence were abundant in forest fringes as well as logged or otherwise disturbed forest, and sometimes these animals wandered into rubber and oil palm plantations. In Bengkulu, Sumatra, tapirs are considered to be a problem species for stripping bark from rubber trees. The Malaysian Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) inventories show that Malayan Tapirs are found within a 5 kmradius of major cities like Seremban, Kuantan, and Temerloh. Another important aspect of their habitat use is that saltlicks apparently are visited once or twice a month, preferably with the new and the full moon. Malayan Tapirs generally stay in the vicinity of water. They like to spend a considerable time in the water and often defecate there. Several individuals have been rescued after falling into village wells or getting stuck in mud wallows.Food and Feeding.Malayan Tapirs are selective browsers, concentrating their diet on young leaves and growing twigs. Preferred food plants mostly (42%) belong to the plant families Euphorbiaceaeand Rubiaceae. Most of the plants consumed are woody and only a few herbaceous plants are consumed. In addition to foliage, Malayan Tapirs consume considerable amounts of fruit that they pick up from the ground. During feeding they sometimes push over small trees and break smaller sapling stems and branches in orderto get to the leaves and twigs. The heights at which they break stems were found to range between 0-8 m and 1-4 m. Feeding is not concentrated in particular locations. Suitable leaves and fruits appear to be eaten as encountered. Whereasit was reported by one source that their preferred food plants are characteristic of forest fringe and secondary growth, another source stated that the only feeding signs were found on understory plants in the primary rainforest. More than 115 species of plants are known to be eaten by Malayan Tapirs. Approximately 75% of these plants comprised 27 species and these are considered to be the most highly preferred food items. In Thailand, 39 species of plants were preferred. Their diet comprised 86-5% leaves, 8:1% fruit, and 5-4% leaf/twig matter. The most common plant species consumed by Malayan Tapirs in Sumatra are Symplocos, and Asplenium, Artocarpus, and Durio are occasionally eaten in secondary forests. Some herbaceous plants (Curculigo latifolia) and low-growing succulents (Homalomena and Phyllagathis rotundifolia) are also consumed, as is club moss (Selaginella willdenonii). The saplings of Baccaurea parviflora are browsed heavily.Breeding.There is very little data about the reproduction of Malayan Tapirs in the wild. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). In May 2007, a female held at the Malay Tapir Conservation Centre (MTCC) at the Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve in Malaysiagave birth to twin calves, one male and one female. This was the first recorded twinning in the species. To model the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild, data from captivity have been used to estimate reproductive parameters. Captive females return to a cyclic estrus during lactation, but allow males to mount 153 days, on average, after giving birth. Mating was once observed in a captive pair on five consecutive occasions, averaging 29-4 days (range 29-31) between copulations, suggesting interestrous intervals of about 30 days. The earliest known mating ages are three years for males and average 2-8 (range 2-3-3) years for females. The earliest recorded conception by a female Malayan Tapir, at Saint Louis Zoo in the USA, occurred at 36 months, although females have mated as early as 31-32 months of age. The life span is about 30 years.","habitat":"Malayan Tapirs are found predominantly in tropical lowland moist forests and occur in both primary and mature secondary forests offering good cover. In the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailandtapirs range from 100 mto 1500 min alttude, and in Sumatra, tapirs may reach an altitude of 1500 m, or possibly 2000 mwhen crossing a ridge. They are not found in northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia,likely because of the more seasonal climate and harsher dry season of the forest in these areas. In Thailand, tapirs are associated with a variety of forest types including dry dipterocarp, mixed deciduous, dry evergreen, and hill evergreen. Tapirs move into evergreen forest during the dry season when food is scarce and forestfires are present. They return to the dry dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forest in the rainy season when sprouts of leaves and twigs emerge. Although Malayan Tapirs are generally considered to be lowland animals, they do travel a long way up mountains. In Indonesia, they inhabit lowland areas during the dry season and move to mountain areas during the wet season. Because the lowland forests are disappearing at a faster rate than the montane forests, an accelerated reduction in range and population is suspected. The Malayan Tapir habitat in Indonesiahas been described as humid, swampy, densejungle with an understory of shrubby plants and grassy meadows bordering streams. In southern Sumatra, researchers found the highest densities of tapirs in undisturbed swamp areas and lowland forests on well-drained soil. The same researchers further stated that tapir densities were lower in early-stage successional forest than in late-stage successional forest that was formerly logged. Similarly, in the Jambi Provinceof southern Sumatra, a study showed that undisturbed areas were preferred over disturbed areas; however, signs of their presence were abundant in forest fringes as well as logged or otherwise disturbed forest, and sometimes these animals wandered into rubber and oil palm plantations. In Bengkulu, Sumatra, tapirs are considered to be a problem species for stripping bark from rubber trees. The Malaysian Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) inventories show that Malayan Tapirs are found within a 5 kmradius of major cities like Seremban, Kuantan, and Temerloh. Another important aspect of their habitat use is that saltlicks apparently are visited once or twice a month, preferably with the new and the full moon. Malayan Tapirs generally stay in the vicinity of water. They like to spend a considerable time in the water and often defecate there. Several individuals have been rescued after falling into village wells or getting stuck in mud wallows."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9C/ED/039CED53FFC5FF8AFAB221BE16799315.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039CED53FFC5FF8AFAB221BE16799315","docName":"hbmw_2_Tapiridae_0182.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa5952bffc1ff8fffec264b1e3d944e","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"3.Mountain TapirTapirus pinchaqueFrench:Tapir des Andes/ German:Andentapir/ Spanish:Tapirde montanaOther common names:Andean Tapir, Woolly TapirTaxonomy.Tapir pinchaque Roulin, 1829,Paramo de Sumapaz, Cundinamarca, Colombia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The species is known to occur in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, and N Peru; historically also in W Venezuela, but now extirpated.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-200 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 80-90 cm; weight 150-200 kg. The Mountain Tapir is the smallest of the four tapir species. Nevertheless,it is the largest terrestrial mammal in the Andes. Females tend to be slightly larger than males but this is generally indistinguishable in the wild. Newborn Mountain Tapirs usually weigh 4-7 kg. Adults have dark brown to coal-black fur, with white furry fringes around the lips, hoofed toes, and usually the tips of the rounded ears. The fur is 3-4 cm long. The species is adapted to live at high elevations with its thick undercoat and long, woolly outercoat, which both insulates and absorbs heat from the sun, providing protection against the cool night temperatures. The eyes are a glazy bluish-brown. Its splayed hooves allow it considerable versatility for locomotion in the high Andes, even on the snow banks and glaciers.Habitat.The five major habitat types for Mountain Tapirs are chaparral, tropical montane (Andean) forests, paramos, ecotones, and riverine meadows between 2200 mand 4800 m. Mountain Tapirs rarely use open habitats (pampas), in spite of the considerable quantity and quality of food available. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, Mountain Tapirs selected secondary forests, avoided paramos and ecotones, and showed no preference for or against mature forests. Their density in secondary forests was higher than in mature forest, ecotones, and paramos. Bedding sites are frequently encountered in forest thickets. In areas with cattle, the tapirs tend to be found on steep, forested mountain slopes inaccessible to cattle.Food and Feeding.Mountain Tapirs are classified as selective browsers according to their craniodental patterns and dental morphology. The Mountain Tapir diet includes a variety of understory plant species including herbs, grasses, shrubs, fruits and berries, twigs, and a predominance ofleaves. A field study in Ecuadorshowed that of 28 plant families, Asteraceaeranked highest in the number of different species eaten, followed in diminishing order by Gramineae, Rosaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Scrophulareaceae, and Valerianaceae. The same study indicated that Mountain Tapirs select certain favored plants regardless of their relative abundance. Flower parts were noted in five out of 37 fecal samples. A more recentfield study in Colombiashowed that a total of 109 species of plants were consumed, and 45 of them were strongly selected. Mountain Tapirs consumed 54% woody species, 30% herbs, and 16% grasses. Once again, Asteraceaewas the most frequent family in the Mountain Tapir diet. Patches of Chusqueamake up a high proportion of secondary forest vegetation in Los Nevados National Park and make up a large part of the tapirs’ diet. The Mountain Tapir uses the sensitive bristles on the tip of its proboscis, as well as its senses of smell, taste, and, to a lesser degree,sight in selecting palatable items. Like other tropical species living in areas of high rainfall, the Mountain Tapir depends upon supplementary mineral intake from mineral seeps and natural saltlicks. Additionally, Mountain Tapir occasionally eat certain types of clayish mud, according to native Puruhaes Indians.Breeding.There is virtually no information about reproduction of Mountain Tapirs in the wild. Adult females produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births have never been recorded. Estrus lasts 3—4 days and is on a lunar cycle. A Mountain Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2004 modelled the dynamics of mountain tapir populations in the wild. The age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years for females and four years for males. Maximum age of reproduction was estimated to be 15 (+ 3) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Mountain Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Male Mountain Tapirs are reported to engage in violent confrontations over females.Activity patterns.Daily activity of Mountain Tapirs in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, was clearly bimodal, with peaks in the early hours of the day (05:00-07:00 h) and early hours of the evening (18:00-20:00 h). In the cloud forests and wet paramos of Ecuador, the activity of a young Mountain Tapir was higher during the morning (07:00-09:00 h) and late afternoon /evening (15:00-21:00 h). Increased nocturnal activity may be witnessed in areas with a greater presence of humans and livestock. In Colombia,it has been hypothesized that the Mountain Tapir is more active at higher elevations (i.e. paramos and the upper limit of montane forests) during the dry season; during the wet season, activity increases at lower elevations. Apparently, domestic livestock management activities during the dry season at lower elevations forces the tapirs to move to paramos. A camera-trap study carried out in Los Nevados National Park revealed higher Mountain Tapir nighttime activity along trails and at a natural lick during the full moon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Very little is known about the spatial ecology, intraspecific interactions and social organization of Mountain Tapirs. GPS telemetry was used to monitor a few individuals in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia. The estimated mean home range size was 2-5 km*. Home range size did not seem to vary seasonally. Home ranges of adults overlap by as much as a third, with a core territory belonging to the male, his mate, and offspring. Males show greater fidelity to their more circular territory and are more likely to defend territories than females. Markings by dung piles and rubbings on trees seem to be part of the territorial behavior of males as well as females who share the same territory. Urinary demarcation has been noted and is often associated with an instinctive pawing of the hindfoot. Mountain Tapir density estimates appear to be much lower when compared to South American and Central American Tapirs. The Mountain Tapir density estimated through telemetry in Sangay National Park, Ecuador, was 0-17 ind/km?. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, a GPS telemetry study resulted in an estimate of 0-1 ind/km?®. Density estimates based on track counts were 0-18 ind/km? in Los Nevados and 0-25 ind/km? in the Parque Regional Ucumari, also in Colombia.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. In Colombia, it occurs in the central Andes, south of Los Nevados National Park, and in the eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz, near Bogota. There are no Mountain Tapirs in the Western Cordillera, northern part of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serrania de la Macarena, and Cerro Tacarcuna. Nevertheless, there are reports of their presence (footprints, feces, and poaching remains) in the junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of Colombia. In Ecuador, Mountain Tapirs are found in the eastern Andes, including Sangay National Park, Llanganates National Park, Podocarpus National Park, and Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve. In Peru, the species is distributed from the Ayabaca province, PiuraDepartment (04° 20° S) in the Western Cordillera to the Chota Province, CajamarcaDepartment (06° 20° S) in the Eastern Cordillera. In the southern part of the distribution in Peru, the species occurs in the Huancabamba depression, which includes the Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary and the Pagaibamba Protection Forest. Historically, the species has been recorded in Venezuela, in the vicinities of El Tama National Park, opposite the north Santander State of Colombia. However, there is no recent evidence ofits occurrence in the area. The most threatened populations are those of the Central Cordillera in Colombia, between Parque Natural Las Hermosas and Parque Natural Nevado del Huila, where large tracts of mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields. The Mountain Tapir is now extinct in much of its former range. The major threat to the Mountain Tapir throughoutits range is human population growth in the Andean region. People settling in the region need land, consumables, and services, and their activities lead to habitat destruction. Mountain Tapir population declines have been estimated to be greater than 50% in the past three generations (33 years). It has been predicted that that there will be a decline of at least 20% in the next two generations (22 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth characteristic of tapir species, coupled with habitat loss and fragmentation and hunting, are the major factors contributing to population declines. Habitat fragmentation is caused by conversion of forests and paramosto cattle ranching and agricultural lands. There is significant hunting pressure on this species. It is extremely rare to encounter an area with Mountain Tapirs where they are not being overhunted. Local poachers use the tapir skin to manufacture working tools (e.g. backpacks, ropes to ride horses, baskets) and domestic artifacts such as carpets and covers for beds. In addition, poachers sell tapir skins and feet for medicinal purposes. Additional threats include the development of hydroelectric dams, highways crossing protected areas, petroleum exploration, and electrical networks. Road construction is a major threat in Puracé National Park, Colombia. There has also been widespread cattle introduction into the last remaining patches of Mountain Tapir habitat, which leads to competition for food resources and a potential risk of transmission of infectious diseases and other etiological agents carried by the cattle. Cattle have been observed forming reproducing herds in western Sangay National Park in Ecuador, causing Mountain Tapirs to abandon areas north of Sangay Volcano. Information from other areas where the species is found (Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve in Ecuador, Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary in Peru, and Natural Parks in Colombia) indicates that the same problem with cattle is occurring there, too, and negatively affecting the species. Other threats include cattle roundups, which can result in increased hunting of the tapirs; poppy growing and eradication; and guerilla warfare in Colombia. The presence of guerillas may benefit the tapirs by halting settlement of some areas, but most local biologists feel that the overall impact on the conservation of Mountain Tapirs is negative. In addition, a mining project in northern Peruthreatens to destroy the headwater cloud forest and paramo habitat of a scant population of Mountain Tapirs. It has been estimated that fewer than 2500 mature individuals still remain in the wild. The Mountain Tapir population in Peruhas been estimated to be approximately 450 individuals. There is no connectivity between the northern and southern Mountain Tapir populations in Peru. The area of suitable habitat for the Mountain Tapir inside National Parks in Colombiais 13% ofthe total area where tapirsare still found. In the Andes of Colombia, there are 23 National Parks, of which tapirs are found in only seven (Cordillera de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, Las Hermosas, Los Nevados, Nevado del Huila, Puracé, and Sumapaz). Legal protection of the speciesis in place in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, but law enforcement is not effective.Bibliography.Acosta et al. (1996), Brooks et al. (2007), CITES (2005), Davalos (2001), Diaz et al. (2008), Downer (1996, 2001, 2003), Hershkovitz (1954), Lizcano (2006), Lizcano & Cavelier (2000a, 2000b, 2004), Lizcano & Sissa (2003), Lizcano, Cavelier & Mangini (2001), Lizcano, Guarnizo et al. (2006), Lizcano, Mangini et al. (2001), Lizcano, Medici et al. (2005), Lizcano, Pizarro et al. (2002), Medici (2001, 2010), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002), Schauenberg (1968, 1969), Schipper et al. (2008), Semple (2000), Suarez-Mejia & Lizcano (2002), Thornback & Jenkins (1982), Tirira (1999).","taxonomy":"Tapir pinchaque Roulin, 1829,Paramo de Sumapaz, Cundinamarca, Colombia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Tapir des Andes @fr | Andentapir @de | Tapirde montana @es | Andean Tapir @en | Woolly Tapir @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Roulin","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1829","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tapiridae","interpretedGenus":"Tapirus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pinchaque","name":"Tapirus pinchaque","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The species is known to occur in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, and N Peru; historically also in W Venezuela, but now extirpated.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721169/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Acosta et al. (1996) | Brooks et al. (2007) | CITES (2005) | Davalos (2001) | Diaz et al. (2008) | Downer (1996, 2001, 2003) | Hershkovitz (1954) | Lizcano (2006) | Lizcano & Cavelier (2000a, 2000b, 2004) | Lizcano & Sissa (2003) | Lizcano, Cavelier & Mangini (2001) | Lizcano, Guarnizo et al. (2006) | Lizcano, Mangini et al. (2001) | Lizcano, Medici et al. (2005) | Lizcano, Pizarro et al. (2002) | Medici (2001, 2010) | Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia(2002) | Schauenberg (1968, 1969) | Schipper et al. (2008) | Semple (2000) | Suarez-Mejia & Lizcano (2002) | Thornback & Jenkins (1982) | Tirira (1999)","foodAndFeeding":"Mountain Tapirs are classified as selective browsers according to their craniodental patterns and dental morphology. The Mountain Tapir diet includes a variety of understory plant species including herbs, grasses, shrubs, fruits and berries, twigs, and a predominance ofleaves. A field study in Ecuadorshowed that of 28 plant families, Asteraceaeranked highest in the number of different species eaten, followed in diminishing order by Gramineae, Rosaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Scrophulareaceae, and Valerianaceae. The same study indicated that Mountain Tapirs select certain favored plants regardless of their relative abundance. Flower parts were noted in five out of 37 fecal samples. A more recentfield study in Colombiashowed that a total of 109 species of plants were consumed, and 45 of them were strongly selected. Mountain Tapirs consumed 54% woody species, 30% herbs, and 16% grasses. Once again, Asteraceaewas the most frequent family in the Mountain Tapir diet. Patches of Chusqueamake up a high proportion of secondary forest vegetation in Los Nevados National Park and make up a large part of the tapirs’ diet. The Mountain Tapir uses the sensitive bristles on the tip of its proboscis, as well as its senses of smell, taste, and, to a lesser degree,sight in selecting palatable items. Like other tropical species living in areas of high rainfall, the Mountain Tapir depends upon supplementary mineral intake from mineral seeps and natural saltlicks. Additionally, Mountain Tapir occasionally eat certain types of clayish mud, according to native Puruhaes Indians.","breeding":"There is virtually no information about reproduction of Mountain Tapirs in the wild. Adult females produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births have never been recorded. Estrus lasts 3—4 days and is on a lunar cycle. A Mountain Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2004 modelled the dynamics of mountain tapir populations in the wild. The age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years for females and four years for males. Maximum age of reproduction was estimated to be 15 (+ 3) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Mountain Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Male Mountain Tapirs are reported to engage in violent confrontations over females.","activityPatterns":"Daily activity of Mountain Tapirs in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, was clearly bimodal, with peaks in the early hours of the day (05:00-07:00 h) and early hours of the evening (18:00-20:00 h). In the cloud forests and wet paramos of Ecuador, the activity of a young Mountain Tapir was higher during the morning (07:00-09:00 h) and late afternoon /evening (15:00-21:00 h). Increased nocturnal activity may be witnessed in areas with a greater presence of humans and livestock. In Colombia,it has been hypothesized that the Mountain Tapir is more active at higher elevations (i.e. paramos and the upper limit of montane forests) during the dry season; during the wet season, activity increases at lower elevations. Apparently, domestic livestock management activities during the dry season at lower elevations forces the tapirs to move to paramos. A camera-trap study carried out in Los Nevados National Park revealed higher Mountain Tapir nighttime activity along trails and at a natural lick during the full moon.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Very little is known about the spatial ecology, intraspecific interactions and social organization of Mountain Tapirs. GPS telemetry was used to monitor a few individuals in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia. The estimated mean home range size was 2-5 km*. Home range size did not seem to vary seasonally. Home ranges of adults overlap by as much as a third, with a core territory belonging to the male, his mate, and offspring. Males show greater fidelity to their more circular territory and are more likely to defend territories than females. Markings by dung piles and rubbings on trees seem to be part of the territorial behavior of males as well as females who share the same territory. Urinary demarcation has been noted and is often associated with an instinctive pawing of the hindfoot. Mountain Tapir density estimates appear to be much lower when compared to South American and Central American Tapirs. The Mountain Tapir density estimated through telemetry in Sangay National Park, Ecuador, was 0-17 ind/km?. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, a GPS telemetry study resulted in an estimate of 0-1 ind/km?®. Density estimates based on track counts were 0-18 ind/km? in Los Nevados and 0-25 ind/km? in the Parque Regional Ucumari, also in Colombia.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. In Colombia, it occurs in the central Andes, south of Los Nevados National Park, and in the eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz, near Bogota. There are no Mountain Tapirs in the Western Cordillera, northern part of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serrania de la Macarena, and Cerro Tacarcuna. Nevertheless, there are reports of their presence (footprints, feces, and poaching remains) in the junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of Colombia. In Ecuador, Mountain Tapirs are found in the eastern Andes, including Sangay National Park, Llanganates National Park, Podocarpus National Park, and Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve. In Peru, the species is distributed from the Ayabaca province, PiuraDepartment (04° 20° S) in the Western Cordillera to the Chota Province, CajamarcaDepartment (06° 20° S) in the Eastern Cordillera. In the southern part of the distribution in Peru, the species occurs in the Huancabamba depression, which includes the Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary and the Pagaibamba Protection Forest. Historically, the species has been recorded in Venezuela, in the vicinities of El Tama National Park, opposite the north Santander State of Colombia. However, there is no recent evidence ofits occurrence in the area. The most threatened populations are those of the Central Cordillera in Colombia, between Parque Natural Las Hermosas and Parque Natural Nevado del Huila, where large tracts of mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields. The Mountain Tapir is now extinct in much of its former range. The major threat to the Mountain Tapir throughoutits range is human population growth in the Andean region. People settling in the region need land, consumables, and services, and their activities lead to habitat destruction. Mountain Tapir population declines have been estimated to be greater than 50% in the past three generations (33 years). It has been predicted that that there will be a decline of at least 20% in the next two generations (22 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth characteristic of tapir species, coupled with habitat loss and fragmentation and hunting, are the major factors contributing to population declines. Habitat fragmentation is caused by conversion of forests and paramosto cattle ranching and agricultural lands. There is significant hunting pressure on this species. It is extremely rare to encounter an area with Mountain Tapirs where they are not being overhunted. Local poachers use the tapir skin to manufacture working tools (e.g. backpacks, ropes to ride horses, baskets) and domestic artifacts such as carpets and covers for beds. In addition, poachers sell tapir skins and feet for medicinal purposes. Additional threats include the development of hydroelectric dams, highways crossing protected areas, petroleum exploration, and electrical networks. Road construction is a major threat in Puracé National Park, Colombia. There has also been widespread cattle introduction into the last remaining patches of Mountain Tapir habitat, which leads to competition for food resources and a potential risk of transmission of infectious diseases and other etiological agents carried by the cattle. Cattle have been observed forming reproducing herds in western Sangay National Park in Ecuador, causing Mountain Tapirs to abandon areas north of Sangay Volcano. Information from other areas where the species is found (Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve in Ecuador, Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary in Peru, and Natural Parks in Colombia) indicates that the same problem with cattle is occurring there, too, and negatively affecting the species. Other threats include cattle roundups, which can result in increased hunting of the tapirs; poppy growing and eradication; and guerilla warfare in Colombia. The presence of guerillas may benefit the tapirs by halting settlement of some areas, but most local biologists feel that the overall impact on the conservation of Mountain Tapirs is negative. In addition, a mining project in northern Peruthreatens to destroy the headwater cloud forest and paramo habitat of a scant population of Mountain Tapirs. It has been estimated that fewer than 2500 mature individuals still remain in the wild. The Mountain Tapir population in Peruhas been estimated to be approximately 450 individuals. There is no connectivity between the northern and southern Mountain Tapir populations in Peru. The area of suitable habitat for the Mountain Tapir inside National Parks in Colombiais 13% ofthe total area where tapirsare still found. In the Andes of Colombia, there are 23 National Parks, of which tapirs are found in only seven (Cordillera de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, Las Hermosas, Los Nevados, Nevado del Huila, Puracé, and Sumapaz). Legal protection of the speciesis in place in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, but law enforcement is not effective.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-200 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 80-90 cm; weight 150-200 kg. The Mountain Tapir is the smallest of the four tapir species. Nevertheless,it is the largest terrestrial mammal in the Andes. Females tend to be slightly larger than males but this is generally indistinguishable in the wild. Newborn Mountain Tapirs usually weigh 4-7 kg. Adults have dark brown to coal-black fur, with white furry fringes around the lips, hoofed toes, and usually the tips of the rounded ears. The fur is 3-4 cm long. The species is adapted to live at high elevations with its thick undercoat and long, woolly outercoat, which both insulates and absorbs heat from the sun, providing protection against the cool night temperatures. The eyes are a glazy bluish-brown. Its splayed hooves allow it considerable versatility for locomotion in the high Andes, even on the snow banks and glaciers.Habitat.The five major habitat types for Mountain Tapirs are chaparral, tropical montane (Andean) forests, paramos, ecotones, and riverine meadows between 2200 mand 4800 m. Mountain Tapirs rarely use open habitats (pampas), in spite of the considerable quantity and quality of food available. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, Mountain Tapirs selected secondary forests, avoided paramos and ecotones, and showed no preference for or against mature forests. Their density in secondary forests was higher than in mature forest, ecotones, and paramos. Bedding sites are frequently encountered in forest thickets. In areas with cattle, the tapirs tend to be found on steep, forested mountain slopes inaccessible to cattle.Food and Feeding.Mountain Tapirs are classified as selective browsers according to their craniodental patterns and dental morphology. The Mountain Tapir diet includes a variety of understory plant species including herbs, grasses, shrubs, fruits and berries, twigs, and a predominance ofleaves. A field study in Ecuadorshowed that of 28 plant families, Asteraceaeranked highest in the number of different species eaten, followed in diminishing order by Gramineae, Rosaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Scrophulareaceae, and Valerianaceae. The same study indicated that Mountain Tapirs select certain favored plants regardless of their relative abundance. Flower parts were noted in five out of 37 fecal samples. A more recentfield study in Colombiashowed that a total of 109 species of plants were consumed, and 45 of them were strongly selected. Mountain Tapirs consumed 54% woody species, 30% herbs, and 16% grasses. Once again, Asteraceaewas the most frequent family in the Mountain Tapir diet. Patches of Chusqueamake up a high proportion of secondary forest vegetation in Los Nevados National Park and make up a large part of the tapirs’ diet. The Mountain Tapir uses the sensitive bristles on the tip of its proboscis, as well as its senses of smell, taste, and, to a lesser degree,sight in selecting palatable items. Like other tropical species living in areas of high rainfall, the Mountain Tapir depends upon supplementary mineral intake from mineral seeps and natural saltlicks. Additionally, Mountain Tapir occasionally eat certain types of clayish mud, according to native Puruhaes Indians.Breeding.There is virtually no information about reproduction of Mountain Tapirs in the wild. Adult females produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births have never been recorded. Estrus lasts 3—4 days and is on a lunar cycle. A Mountain Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2004 modelled the dynamics of mountain tapir populations in the wild. The age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years for females and four years for males. Maximum age of reproduction was estimated to be 15 (+ 3) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Mountain Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Male Mountain Tapirs are reported to engage in violent confrontations over females.Activity patterns.Daily activity of Mountain Tapirs in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, was clearly bimodal, with peaks in the early hours of the day (05:00-07:00 h) and early hours of the evening (18:00-20:00 h). In the cloud forests and wet paramos of Ecuador, the activity of a young Mountain Tapir was higher during the morning (07:00-09:00 h) and late afternoon /evening (15:00-21:00 h). Increased nocturnal activity may be witnessed in areas with a greater presence of humans and livestock. In Colombia,it has been hypothesized that the Mountain Tapir is more active at higher elevations (i.e. paramos and the upper limit of montane forests) during the dry season; during the wet season, activity increases at lower elevations. Apparently, domestic livestock management activities during the dry season at lower elevations forces the tapirs to move to paramos. A camera-trap study carried out in Los Nevados National Park revealed higher Mountain Tapir nighttime activity along trails and at a natural lick during the full moon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Very little is known about the spatial ecology, intraspecific interactions and social organization of Mountain Tapirs. GPS telemetry was used to monitor a few individuals in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia. The estimated mean home range size was 2-5 km*. Home range size did not seem to vary seasonally. Home ranges of adults overlap by as much as a third, with a core territory belonging to the male, his mate, and offspring. Males show greater fidelity to their more circular territory and are more likely to defend territories than females. Markings by dung piles and rubbings on trees seem to be part of the territorial behavior of males as well as females who share the same territory. Urinary demarcation has been noted and is often associated with an instinctive pawing of the hindfoot. Mountain Tapir density estimates appear to be much lower when compared to South American and Central American Tapirs. The Mountain Tapir density estimated through telemetry in Sangay National Park, Ecuador, was 0-17 ind/km?. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, a GPS telemetry study resulted in an estimate of 0-1 ind/km?®. Density estimates based on track counts were 0-18 ind/km? in Los Nevados and 0-25 ind/km? in the Parque Regional Ucumari, also in Colombia.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. In Colombia, it occurs in the central Andes, south of Los Nevados National Park, and in the eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz, near Bogota. There are no Mountain Tapirs in the Western Cordillera, northern part of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serrania de la Macarena, and Cerro Tacarcuna. Nevertheless, there are reports of their presence (footprints, feces, and poaching remains) in the junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of Colombia. In Ecuador, Mountain Tapirs are found in the eastern Andes, including Sangay National Park, Llanganates National Park, Podocarpus National Park, and Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve. In Peru, the species is distributed from the Ayabaca province, PiuraDepartment (04° 20° S) in the Western Cordillera to the Chota Province, CajamarcaDepartment (06° 20° S) in the Eastern Cordillera. In the southern part of the distribution in Peru, the species occurs in the Huancabamba depression, which includes the Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary and the Pagaibamba Protection Forest. Historically, the species has been recorded in Venezuela, in the vicinities of El Tama National Park, opposite the north Santander State of Colombia. However, there is no recent evidence ofits occurrence in the area. The most threatened populations are those of the Central Cordillera in Colombia, between Parque Natural Las Hermosas and Parque Natural Nevado del Huila, where large tracts of mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields. The Mountain Tapir is now extinct in much of its former range. The major threat to the Mountain Tapir throughoutits range is human population growth in the Andean region. People settling in the region need land, consumables, and services, and their activities lead to habitat destruction. Mountain Tapir population declines have been estimated to be greater than 50% in the past three generations (33 years). It has been predicted that that there will be a decline of at least 20% in the next two generations (22 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth characteristic of tapir species, coupled with habitat loss and fragmentation and hunting, are the major factors contributing to population declines.","habitat":"The five major habitat types for Mountain Tapirs are chaparral, tropical montane (Andean) forests, paramos, ecotones, and riverine meadows between 2200 mand 4800 m. Mountain Tapirs rarely use open habitats (pampas), in spite of the considerable quantity and quality of food available. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, Mountain Tapirs selected secondary forests, avoided paramos and ecotones, and showed no preference for or against mature forests. Their density in secondary forests was higher than in mature forest, ecotones, and paramos. Bedding sites are frequently encountered in forest thickets. In areas with cattle, the tapirs tend to be found on steep, forested mountain slopes inaccessible to cattle."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"496","verbatimText":"8.Polar BearUrsus maritimusFrench:Ours blanc/ German:Eisbar/ Spanish:Oso polarOther common names:\\White Bear, NanookTaxonomy.Ursus maritimus Phipps, 1774, Spitsbergen, (Svalbard) Norway.Considered a sister species to U. arctos. Most closely related to Brown Bears on the Admiralty, Baranof, Chichagof islands of south-east Alaska. Although several distinct populations or stocks have been delineated, small genetic differences have been found among these, and no subspecies have been differentiated. Monotypic.Distribution.Arctic Ocean: Canada, USA(Alaska), Greenland, Norway(Svalbard), Russia. Have been sighted within 0-5° of North Pole.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-280 cm, shoulder height up to 170 cm,tail 6-13 cm; adult males are about twice as heavy (300-650 kg, but up to 800 kg) as adult females (150-250 kg, but up to 500 kgwhen pregnant), making them one of the most sexuallydimorphic mammals. Size varies regionally, being smallest in eastern Greenland, and progressively larger westward to the Bering Sea. Facial profile is straight, the neck is longer than in other bears, and the ears are small in relation to head and body size. Coat color appears white or yellowish, with no other markings, but can accumulate colors from the environment (e.g. blood and oils from killed prey). In reality, both guard hairs and underfur are translucent, and guard hairs are hollow, thus enhancing their insulation properties. However, a previous assertion that they act as fiber optic tubes, funneling sunlight to the skin for warmth, has been disproven. The skin is black, but only the black nose is visible. Summer coats are shorter than winter coats, but unlike other bears, coat thickness is not sparser ventrally. Additionally, the paws are well-furred on the underside, and have small soft papillae and vacuoles that may act as suction cups for traction on ice. The feet are also relatively large, providing more surface area for swimming and walking on thin ice. The claws are shorter and more curved than Brown Bears, and are usually dark-colored.Habitat.Arctic ice provides a necessary platform for hunting seals. Annual ice adjacent to coastlines (shore fast ice) regularly fractures, providing open leads where seals can breathe. The seasonal fluctuations between freezing and open water also promotes high productivity of fish, the prey of seals. Thus, this habitat is preferred by seals, and is consequently a favored habitat for Polar Bears, which hunt seals along the ice cracks and edges. Polar Bears also hunt from large chunks of drifting ice, and to a lesser extent, multiannual pack ice, where seal density is lower and access to seals more difficult. For this reason, density of Polar Bearsis low close to the North Pole. In summer, when the ice retreats, bears either migrate northward or use nearshore terrestrial habitats. Parturient females stay ashore to den and give birth. In Hudson Bay (Canada) they den 10-80 km inland in peat banks; elsewhere maternity dens are typically in snow caves along coastal areas. However, in the Beaufort Sea, half the pregnant females den on drifting sea ice. Non-pregnant bears do not hibernate, but do use shelter dens. At lower latitudes, they use shelters on land during ice-free periods to escape heat and conserve energy when precluded from hunting seals; at high latitudes (above 75° N) they seek shelters on thick sea ice during winter, when foraging is most difficult and weather conditions harshest.Food and Feeding.Almoststrictly carnivorous, preying mainly on young Ringed Seals (Pusa hispida), to a lesser extent Bearded Seals (Erignathus barbatus), and in some areas, Harp Seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus). The principal focus on Ringed Seals is evident in the close association between Polar Bear density and Ringed Seal density, and in the unique behavior of these seals, which give birth in subnivian lairs as an anti-predation strategy. One study found that an average Polar Bear consumes fewer than 50 Ringed Seals a year, 80% being pups caught either in their lairs or shortly after emerging from their lairs. Polar Bears also occasionally prey on other marine mammals, such as Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus), and Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) whales. These large prey, including Bearded Seals (which are much larger than Ringed Seals), are taken mainly by adult male bears. When ashore, depending on availability, Polar Bears have been observed to prey on Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), seabirds, or fish; and eat carrion (dead whales), berries, vegetation, and human garbage.Activity patterns.Appear to be mainly diurnal. Seasonal changes in activity vary regionally with dynamics of sea ice and abundance of prey. Activity, measured by percent of time active and distance moved,is elevated when seal pups are particularly naive and vulnerable to predation, and when older seals are molting and basking on the ice. In contrast to other predators, Polar Bears are most active when prey is most abundant. They become hyperphagic, and are able to store fat to withstand extended periods when foraging is more difficult, such as during the winter on the pack ice. Periods of rapid annual ice formation and ablation, during summer and fall, also result in greater activity. Parturient females den for about six months (mid-September to mid-March in most areas); non-pregnant Polar Bears do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Although once thought to wander aimlessly or be carried passively on shifting ice, recent data collected using satellite radio collars have shown that Polar Bears have definite home ranges that are used year to year. However, these ranges can be enormous: one female bear traveled over 5200 kmfrom Alaska to Greenlandin four months. Nevertheless, most bears seem to remain within a discrete population, or stock; 19 or 20 such populations have been identified across the geographic range. Home ranges and movements are highly variable by region, habitat, season, and reproductive condition or family association. Around Svalbard, nearshore bears tend to have smaller home ranges than pelagic bears. In the Canadian Arctic, bears that live in areas with highly variable and unpredictable ice conditions (including ice-free periods) have larger ranges than bears living on more stable ice. Individual ranges as large as 600,000 km* have been reported, but so have ranges of less than 1000 km®. Means among different populations range from 20,000-250,000 km?. Little movement data have been collected on males, because they cannot be radio-collared (their necks are bigger than their heads), but data from implanted transmitters indicate that, unlike terrestrial bears, their ranges are not larger than those of females. With females being so mobile, and having highly overlapping ranges, males can include multiple potential breeding partners within their range, even if their range is not larger than the females’. Female maternity dens are highly congregated in some areas, such as Wrangel Island, parts of Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and near Churchill, Manitoba.Breeding.Breeding occurs from March to June. Mating induces ovulation, and males spar for mating partners. Implantation of the fertilized egg is delayed until autumn, about the time that females enter maternity dens. In some areas this follows a period of on-shore fasting, so by the time these mothers emerge from dens the following spring they may not have eaten for eight months. Birthing occurs mid-November to January, so the total gestation, including the period of delayed implantation, is from 6:5 to more than 8-5 months. Cubs stay in the den until March or early April. Two-cublitters are most common, and average litter size is less than two in virtually all populations; however, litters of three are not uncommon in some areas, and litters of four have been reported. Females have only four mammae (other bears, except Sun Bears and Giant Pandas have six), so this is the maximum litter size. Average age offirst birthing ranges among different populations from 4-6-7-2 years. Productivity increases into the teen years, but then declines through the early 20s, and ceases by the late 20s. Intervals between litters average 2-1-3-6 years. Cubs separate from their mother either at 17 months, or more commonly a year later. Cubs may nurse through their second birthday. The fat content of milk is very high initially (more than 30%), but declines through the nursing period.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. In 2006 The IUCN Red List status was upgraded to Vulnerable due to projections of dramatic reductions in habitat (coverage and stability of the ice sheet) over the next 50-100 years. Demographic consequences to Polar Bears are already becoming apparent in some areas, in terms of reduced numbers and reduced survival ofjuveniles and old adults. Ringed Seals are also suffering increased mortality from Polar Bear predation because of melting of their subnivian dens. Accordingly, the USAlisted the species as nationally threatened and Canadalisted it as a species of special concern. This would impose further constraints on activities that affect these bears or their habitat, such as hunting, recreational viewing, shipping, and oil and gas exploration and development. The effects of sea ice change will vary enormously by region, which is difficult to forecast, but overall arelikely to be dramatic and permanent. Nineteen fairly discrete populations have been identified, with a total world population estimated at 20,000-25,000; about half this number resides in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. Under an agreement for co-management of Polar Bear populations that was ratified in 1976, the five range countries coordinate and consult with each other on research activities, methods of population estimation and monitoring, and proposals for increased protection. Most importantly, under this treaty, harvestis restricted: the taking of cubs or females with cubs is prohibited, and harvest is limited to native people for subsistence use. This includes consumption of meat, use of hides for clothing, and creation of handicrafts. In some territories of Canada, a portion of the annual harvest is allocated to non-native sport hunters who employ native guides and hunt using dogsleds and other traditional methods. This generates income for the native communities. Harvests are regulated to be sustainable. Recently, pressure has mounted to reduce or prohibit harvests so as not to compound the effects of diminishing sea ice habitat from global warming.Bibliography.Amstrup (2003), Amstrup & Gardner (1994), Amstrup et al. (2001), Bentzen et al. (2007), Derocher (1999), Derocher, Andersen & Wiig (2005), Derocher, Andriashek & Stirling (1993), Derocher, Wiig & Anderson (2002), Durner & Amstrup (1995), Ferguson, Taylor, Born et al. (1999), Ferguson, Taylor, Rosing-Asvid et al. (2000), Garshelis (2004), Linnell et al. (2000), Mauritzen et al. (2001), Messier et al. (1992, 1994), Paetkau et al. (1999), Parks et al. (2006), Ramsay & Stirling (1990), Regehr et al. (2007), Rosing-Asvid (2006), Schliebe et al. (2006), Shields et al. (2000), Stirling (1988, 2002), Stirling & Jritsland (1995), Stirling & Parkinson (2006), Taylor et al. (2001), Thiemann et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Ursus maritimus Phipps, 1774, Spitsbergen, (Svalbard) Norway.Considered a sister species to U. arctos. Most closely related to Brown Bears on the Admiralty, Baranof, Chichagof islands of south-east Alaska. Although several distinct populations or stocks have been delineated, small genetic differences have been found among these, and no subspecies have been differentiated. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Ours blanc @fr | Eisbar @de | Oso polar @es | \\White Bear @en | Nanook @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Phipps","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1774","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Ursus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"496","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"maritimus","name":"Ursus maritimus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Arctic Ocean: Canada, USA(Alaska), Greenland, Norway(Svalbard), Russia. Have been sighted within 0-5° of North Pole.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714511/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amstrup (2003) | Amstrup & Gardner (1994) | Amstrup et al. (2001) | Bentzen et al. (2007) | Derocher (1999) | Derocher, Andersen & Wiig (2005) | Derocher, Andriashek & Stirling (1993) | Derocher, Wiig & Anderson (2002) | Durner & Amstrup (1995) | Ferguson, Taylor, Born et al. (1999) | Ferguson, Taylor, Rosing-Asvid et al. (2000) | Garshelis (2004) | Linnell et al. (2000) | Mauritzen et al. (2001) | Messier et al. (1992, 1994) | Paetkau et al. (1999) | Parks et al. (2006) | Ramsay & Stirling (1990) | Regehr et al. (2007) | Rosing-Asvid (2006) | Schliebe et al. (2006) | Shields et al. (2000) | Stirling (1988, 2002) | Stirling & Jritsland (1995) | Stirling & Parkinson (2006) | Taylor et al. (2001) | Thiemann et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Almoststrictly carnivorous, preying mainly on young Ringed Seals (Pusa hispida), to a lesser extent Bearded Seals (Erignathus barbatus), and in some areas, Harp Seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus). The principal focus on Ringed Seals is evident in the close association between Polar Bear density and Ringed Seal density, and in the unique behavior of these seals, which give birth in subnivian lairs as an anti-predation strategy. One study found that an average Polar Bear consumes fewer than 50 Ringed Seals a year, 80% being pups caught either in their lairs or shortly after emerging from their lairs. Polar Bears also occasionally prey on other marine mammals, such as Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus), and Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) whales. These large prey, including Bearded Seals (which are much larger than Ringed Seals), are taken mainly by adult male bears. When ashore, depending on availability, Polar Bears have been observed to prey on Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), seabirds, or fish; and eat carrion (dead whales), berries, vegetation, and human garbage.","breeding":"Breeding occurs from March to June. Mating induces ovulation, and males spar for mating partners. Implantation of the fertilized egg is delayed until autumn, about the time that females enter maternity dens. In some areas this follows a period of on-shore fasting, so by the time these mothers emerge from dens the following spring they may not have eaten for eight months. Birthing occurs mid-November to January, so the total gestation, including the period of delayed implantation, is from 6:5 to more than 8-5 months. Cubs stay in the den until March or early April. Two-cublitters are most common, and average litter size is less than two in virtually all populations; however, litters of three are not uncommon in some areas, and litters of four have been reported. Females have only four mammae (other bears, except Sun Bears and Giant Pandas have six), so this is the maximum litter size. Average age offirst birthing ranges among different populations from 4-6-7-2 years. Productivity increases into the teen years, but then declines through the early 20s, and ceases by the late 20s. Intervals between litters average 2-1-3-6 years. Cubs separate from their mother either at 17 months, or more commonly a year later. Cubs may nurse through their second birthday. The fat content of milk is very high initially (more than 30%), but declines through the nursing period.","activityPatterns":"Appear to be mainly diurnal. Seasonal changes in activity vary regionally with dynamics of sea ice and abundance of prey. Activity, measured by percent of time active and distance moved,is elevated when seal pups are particularly naive and vulnerable to predation, and when older seals are molting and basking on the ice. In contrast to other predators, Polar Bears are most active when prey is most abundant. They become hyperphagic, and are able to store fat to withstand extended periods when foraging is more difficult, such as during the winter on the pack ice. Periods of rapid annual ice formation and ablation, during summer and fall, also result in greater activity. Parturient females den for about six months (mid-September to mid-March in most areas); non-pregnant Polar Bears do not hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Although once thought to wander aimlessly or be carried passively on shifting ice, recent data collected using satellite radio collars have shown that Polar Bears have definite home ranges that are used year to year. However, these ranges can be enormous: one female bear traveled over 5200 kmfrom Alaska to Greenlandin four months. Nevertheless, most bears seem to remain within a discrete population, or stock; 19 or 20 such populations have been identified across the geographic range. Home ranges and movements are highly variable by region, habitat, season, and reproductive condition or family association. Around Svalbard, nearshore bears tend to have smaller home ranges than pelagic bears. In the Canadian Arctic, bears that live in areas with highly variable and unpredictable ice conditions (including ice-free periods) have larger ranges than bears living on more stable ice. Individual ranges as large as 600,000 km* have been reported, but so have ranges of less than 1000 km®. Means among different populations range from 20,000-250,000 km?. Little movement data have been collected on males, because they cannot be radio-collared (their necks are bigger than their heads), but data from implanted transmitters indicate that, unlike terrestrial bears, their ranges are not larger than those of females. With females being so mobile, and having highly overlapping ranges, males can include multiple potential breeding partners within their range, even if their range is not larger than the females’. Female maternity dens are highly congregated in some areas, such as Wrangel Island, parts of Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and near Churchill, Manitoba.Breeding.Breeding occurs from March to June. Mating induces ovulation, and males spar for mating partners. Implantation of the fertilized egg is delayed until autumn, about the time that females enter maternity dens. In some areas this follows a period of on-shore fasting, so by the time these mothers emerge from dens the following spring they may not have eaten for eight months. Birthing occurs mid-November to January, so the total gestation, including the period of delayed implantation, is from 6:5 to more than 8-5 months. Cubs stay in the den until March or early April. Two-cublitters are most common, and average litter size is less than two in virtually all populations; however, litters of three are not uncommon in some areas, and litters of four have been reported. Females have only four mammae (other bears, except Sun Bears and Giant Pandas have six), so this is the maximum litter size. Average age offirst birthing ranges among different populations from 4-6-7-2 years. Productivity increases into the teen years, but then declines through the early 20s, and ceases by the late 20s. Intervals between litters average 2-1-3-6 years. Cubs separate from their mother either at 17 months, or more commonly a year later. Cubs may nurse through their second birthday. The fat content of milk is very high initially (more than 30%), but declines through the nursing period.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. In 2006 The IUCN Red List status was upgraded to Vulnerable due to projections of dramatic reductions in habitat (coverage and stability of the ice sheet) over the next 50-100 years. Demographic consequences to Polar Bears are already becoming apparent in some areas, in terms of reduced numbers and reduced survival ofjuveniles and old adults. Ringed Seals are also suffering increased mortality from Polar Bear predation because of melting of their subnivian dens. Accordingly, the USAlisted the species as nationally threatened and Canadalisted it as a species of special concern. This would impose further constraints on activities that affect these bears or their habitat, such as hunting, recreational viewing, shipping, and oil and gas exploration and development. The effects of sea ice change will vary enormously by region, which is difficult to forecast, but overall arelikely to be dramatic and permanent. Nineteen fairly discrete populations have been identified, with a total world population estimated at 20,000-25,000; about half this number resides in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. Under an agreement for co-management of Polar Bear populations that was ratified in 1976, the five range countries coordinate and consult with each other on research activities, methods of population estimation and monitoring, and proposals for increased protection. Most importantly, under this treaty, harvestis restricted: the taking of cubs or females with cubs is prohibited, and harvest is limited to native people for subsistence use. This includes consumption of meat, use of hides for clothing, and creation of handicrafts. In some territories of Canada, a portion of the annual harvest is allocated to non-native sport hunters who employ native guides and hunt using dogsleds and other traditional methods. This generates income for the native communities. Harvests are regulated to be sustainable. Recently, pressure has mounted to reduce or prohibit harvests so as not to compound the effects of diminishing sea ice habitat from global warming.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-280 cm, shoulder height up to 170 cm,tail 6-13 cm; adult males are about twice as heavy (300-650 kg, but up to 800 kg) as adult females (150-250 kg, but up to 500 kgwhen pregnant), making them one of the most sexuallydimorphic mammals. Size varies regionally, being smallest in eastern Greenland, and progressively larger westward to the Bering Sea. Facial profile is straight, the neck is longer than in other bears, and the ears are small in relation to head and body size. Coat color appears white or yellowish, with no other markings, but can accumulate colors from the environment (e.g. blood and oils from killed prey). In reality, both guard hairs and underfur are translucent, and guard hairs are hollow, thus enhancing their insulation properties. However, a previous assertion that they act as fiber optic tubes, funneling sunlight to the skin for warmth, has been disproven. The skin is black, but only the black nose is visible. Summer coats are shorter than winter coats, but unlike other bears, coat thickness is not sparser ventrally. Additionally, the paws are well-furred on the underside, and have small soft papillae and vacuoles that may act as suction cups for traction on ice. The feet are also relatively large, providing more surface area for swimming and walking on thin ice. The claws are shorter and more curved than Brown Bears, and are usually dark-colored.","habitat":"Arctic ice provides a necessary platform for hunting seals. Annual ice adjacent to coastlines (shore fast ice) regularly fractures, providing open leads where seals can breathe. The seasonal fluctuations between freezing and open water also promotes high productivity of fish, the prey of seals. Thus, this habitat is preferred by seals, and is consequently a favored habitat for Polar Bears, which hunt seals along the ice cracks and edges. Polar Bears also hunt from large chunks of drifting ice, and to a lesser extent, multiannual pack ice, where seal density is lower and access to seals more difficult. For this reason, density of Polar Bearsis low close to the North Pole. In summer, when the ice retreats, bears either migrate northward or use nearshore terrestrial habitats. Parturient females stay ashore to den and give birth. In Hudson Bay (Canada) they den 10-80 km inland in peat banks; elsewhere maternity dens are typically in snow caves along coastal areas. However, in the Beaufort Sea, half the pregnant females den on drifting sea ice. Non-pregnant bears do not hibernate, but do use shelter dens. At lower latitudes, they use shelters on land during ice-free periods to escape heat and conserve energy when precluded from hunting seals; at high latitudes (above 75° N) they seek shelters on thick sea ice during winter, when foraging is most difficult and weather conditions harshest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"495","verbatimText":"7.Brown BearUrsus arctosFrench:Ours brun/ German:Braunbär/ Spanish:Oso pardoOther common names:Grizzly Bear, Kodiak BearTaxonomy.Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, northern Sweden.Genetic data corroborate the distinctiveness of some subspecies, such as isabellinus in Central Asia, but not others. Eight subspecies have been recognized in North America (seven of which are extant), but genetically these group into only three or four discrete clades, none of which match current subspecies designations. Conversely, whereas only one subspecies (artos) has been recognized for Europe, two geographically distinct lineages have been identified. Californiarace californicus (Merriam, 1896)and north-western Africa race crowthert (Schinz, 1844)are extinct. Fourteen extant subspecies currently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758— Europe and W Russia.U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896— most of Alaska(excluding AlaskaPeninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group).U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853— NE Russia(Kamchatka Peninsula& N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk).U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824— Russia(Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatkaand more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia.U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(N of Alexander Archipelago).U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902— Alaskapeninsula.U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815—W Canada(Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia& Alberta), inland W USA(extirpated from S Wyomingto Mexico).U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826— N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstanand Mongolia(Gobi Desert).U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867— Russia(Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/ Amurriver region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan(Hokkaido).U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak Island & nearby islands).U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853— Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal.U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area).U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914— W Canada(W British Columbia), and formerly W USA(W Washingtonand Oregon).U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828— Middle East, from Turkeyto Iran(extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armeniaand Azerbaijan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-280 cm, shoulder height up to 150 cm, tail 6-21 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, with food availability. Adult males are heavier (130-550 kg; rarely up to 725 kg) than adult females (80-250 kg, but occasionally up to 340 kg). Facial profile from forehead to nose is concave. Body profile includes a distinct muscular shoulder hump with long hairs. Coat color varies from uniform brown to mixed shades of brown, blond, and silver-tipped (grizzled), to partly gray or black, or fully black. The grizzled phase (Grizzly Bear) occurs in interior North America, whereas the black and partially black phases occur in eastern and central Asia. Color can lighten with bleaching from the sun. Prominent markings, from a white or creamcolored chest patch to a solid band that wrap across the chest and around the shoulders to the back, vary regionally and individually. Such markings are often present on cubs, but may be lost with age. Body hairs are sparser ventrally. Underfur is grown in fall, and molted in spring. Long, powerful, slightly curved front claws (4-10 cm) varying from dark brown to yellow to white, are characteristic. Foot pads are like that of the American Black Bear.Habitat.Brown Bears occupy a wider range of habitats than any other bear, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, meadows, grasslands, Arctic shrublands and tundra, alpine tundra, semi-deserts and deserts. Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic Black Bear, and also slightly that of the Polar Bear. They exist at elevations from sea level (temperate rainforests and Arctic tundra) to well above treeline (dry Asian steppes); highest elevation sightings (tracks in snow) have been at 5500 m(possibly 5800 m) in the Himalayas, and highest latitude sightings at 74° N(Canada), well into Polar Bear range.Food and Feeding.Food habits vary regionally from principally herbivorous to principally carnivorous, depending on habitat. Plant foods include grasses, sedges, horsetails, forbs, roots, berries, and nuts. Animal foods include insects, rodents, ungulates, and fish. Insects are a significant dietary component in broadleaved forests of Europe, rodents and ungulates are most important in Arctic and alpine areas and some Boreal forests, and fish are paramount along the Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to Alaska to Kamchatka(Russia). Herbaceous vegetation tends to be the chief component of the spring diet. Later the bears switch to roots, berries, pine nuts, acorns, ants, bees, moths, ground squirrels, marmots, pikas, neonate ungulates, or spawning salmon, depending on availability. This species is morphologically and behaviorally well adapted to digging up insects and underground rodents,killing ungulates (including domestic species, like sheep and cattle), and catching salmon. In North America they rarely climb trees, whereas in Europe and parts of Asia they do so more regularly.Activity patterns.Active diurnally in North America, except where human activity is high. Nocturnally active in most of Europe, possibly due to more frequent contact with humans, both historically and presently. Young bears in Europe are active uniformly through the day, but apparently learn to become more nocturnal through negative experiences with people. Total time active per day (40-80%) varies with local conditions (food, day length). The period of hibernation also varies regionally: at the northern extremes of their range they may hibernate for seven months (October-May); conversely, on Kodiak Island, Alaska, where winters are mild and some food may remain available, about one-quarter of the males do not den all winter, an unusual anomaly among Brown Bears. In Russia, following seasons with very poor food, large numbers of malnourished bears may wander about for much of the winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individual home range sizes vary by nearly four orders of magnitude (7-30,000 km?), related to food supply and bear density. Home ranges are largest in the barren-ground Arctic tundra, averaging 8000 km? for males. Rangesizes are smaller in boreal or montane forests, where large mammals are a main dietary component, and smaller yet in deciduous or mixed forests with hard mast. In coastal areas, with abundant food and high bear density, home ranges are smallest, averaging less than 200 km” for males and less than 100 km? for females. Male home ranges are typically three to four times larger than those of females; both sexes increase their ranges during the mating season to maximize overlap with potential mates. Bear density and home range overlap are high in coastal populations with abundant and predictable food (spawning salmon). In interior populations, with less abundant or more variable food, home ranges overlap less, and bears may be somewhat territorial. In extreme northern populations, where food resources are scarce, home ranges are large and indefensible, so overlap is high. Home range overlap is also positively associated with relatedness, because female offspring often settle near their mother, assuming part of their natal home range. Multigenerational, matrilineal assemblages occur in established populations, whereas females may be more prone to disperse and settle among unrelated individuals in expanding populations. Males disperse in either case, but their dispersal age (1-4 years old) is related to their growth rate, and dispersal distance is inversely related to bear density. In a low density, expanding population in Scandinavia, one-third to half the females dispersed,settling 15 kmfrom the natal range, on average, and 80-90% of males dispersed, generally settling over 100 kmand up to nearly 500 kmaway. Seasonal movements are common for both sexes. In mountainous terrain, regular seasonal altitudinalshifts correspond with changing food conditions at different elevations and habitats. Lateral movements to seasonally abundant food sources may involve large numbers of bears traveling along well-worn routes, akin to a migration. Movements to fall feeding areas, followed by returns to denning sites, are often direct and rapid: travels exceeding 20 kmin twelve hours have been recorded. At rich feeding areas, such as salmon streams, females with cubs avoid places with a high density of males, apparently because of threats of infanticide.Breeding.Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.Status and Conservation.Only populations in central Asia (Mongoliato the Himalayas, China, Nepal, Bhutan) fall under CITES Appendix I; all others are CITES Appendix II. The species as a whole is not considered threatened by The IUCN Red List (Least Concern), but some individual European populations are separately red-listed (Vulnerable-Critically Endangered), and other threatened populations will be added in the near future. These small populations tend to exist in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development, which act as mortality sinks. Forty-seven countries in North America, Europe, and Asia are inhabited by Brown Bears. During the past 500 years they have been extirpated from 17 other countries, including large parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Mexico. In the lower 48 states of the USA, they were exterminated from more than 98% of their original range within 100 years of the arrival of European settlers, and have not since recovered. The total world population is estimated to exceed 200,000. Fairly reliable population estimates exist for several areas in North America (USA33,000; Canada25,000) and Europe (14,000, excluding Russia), but for few areas in Asia. Russiahas the largest number of Brown Bears, believed to exceed 100,000. The species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, but smaller, fragmented populations exist farther south. Populations are sufficiently large to sustain legal hunting in Russia, several former Soviet Republics, Japan(HokkaidoIsland), Canada, Alaska(USA), and several European countries. Conversely, populations with fewer than 100 individuals exist along the USA-Canadian border and in southern Europe where several small, isolated populations persist: two in the Pyrenees (Franceand Spain), one with less than 10 bears and the other with about 20, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) containing 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) with 40-50 bears, and in the the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) with 35-40 bears. Small, disconnected populations are also scattered across southern Asia, and in some areas even the present existence of this species is unknown (Bhutan, Iraq). As wide-ranging omnivores, Brown Bears are attracted to areas with human-related foods, where they may threaten life and damage property (livestock, cropfields) and may be killed as a consequence. Small numbers of mortalities, especially adult females, can threaten the viability of small, isolated populations. Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, but with varying degrees of enforcement. Moreover, even where hunting is banned, other sorts of human-caused mortality (management removals, self-defense, malicious killing, poaching, mistaken hunting of Black Bear) dominate the population dynamics of these bears. Reintroductions and population augmentations have helped to restore numbers and expand geographic range in the USAand Western Europe. Numerous protected areas around the world have Brown Bears, but few are large enough to support a self-sustaining population; therefore, Brown Bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses.On following pages: 8. Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus).Bibliography.Bellemain, Nawaz et al. (2007), Bellemain, Swenson & Taberlet (2006), Bromlei (1965), Brown (1985), Ciarniello et al. (2007), Clark et al. (2002), Craighead, F.C. (1976), Craighead, J.J. et al. (1995), Dahle & Swenson (2003a, 2003b, 2003c), Doupé et al. (2007), Ferguson & McLoughlin (2000), Fernandez-Gil et al. (2006), Galbreath et al. (2007), Garshelis (2004), Garshelis et al. (2005), Groupe National Ours dans les Pyrénées (2008), Hall (1984), Hilderbrand, Jenkins et al. (1999), Hilderbrand, Schwartz et al. (1999), IUCN (2008), JapanBear Network (2006), Kaczensky et al. (2006), Kasworm et al. (2007), LeFranc et al. (1987), Linnell et al. (2000), MacHutchon & Wellwood (2003), Mattson & Merrill (2002), McLellan & Hovey (1995, 2001), McLellan, Hovey et al. (1999), McLellan, Servheen & Huber (2007), McLoughlin, Case et al. (1999), McLoughlin, Ferguson & Messier (2000), Miller et al. (2006), Mowat & Heard(2006), Munro et al. (2006), Nellerman et al. (2007), Nielsen, Herrero et al. (2004), Nielsen, Stenhouse & Boyce (2006), Pasitschniak-Arts (1993), Proctor et al. (2004, 2005), Rode et al. (2006), Saarma etal. (2007), Schwartz, Haroldson et al. (2006), Schwartz, Keating et al. (2003), Schwartz, Miller & Haroldson (2003), Servheen et al. (1999), Seryodkin et al. (2003), Steen, Bellemain et al. (2005), Steen, Zedrosser et al. (2006), Swenson et al. (2000), Talbot & Shields (1996), Vaisfeld & Chestin (1993), Valdiosera, Garciaet al. (2007), Valdiosera, Garcia-Garitagoitia et al. (2008), Van Daele (2007), Waits et al. (1998), Xu et al. (2006), Zager & Beecham (2006), Zedrosser et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, northern Sweden.Genetic data corroborate the distinctiveness of some subspecies, such as isabellinus in Central Asia, but not others. Eight subspecies have been recognized in North America (seven of which are extant), but genetically these group into only three or four discrete clades, none of which match current subspecies designations. Conversely, whereas only one subspecies (artos) has been recognized for Europe, two geographically distinct lineages have been identified. Californiarace californicus (Merriam, 1896)and north-western Africa race crowthert (Schinz, 1844)are extinct. Fourteen extant subspecies currently recognized.","commonNames":"Ours brun @fr | Braunbär @de | Oso pardo @es | Grizzly Bear @en | Kodiak Bear @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Ursus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"495","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arctos","name":"Ursus arctos","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758— Europe and W Russia.U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896— most of Alaska(excluding AlaskaPeninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group).U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853— NE Russia(Kamchatka Peninsula& N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk).U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824— Russia(Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatkaand more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia.U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(N of Alexander Archipelago).U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902— Alaskapeninsula.U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815—W Canada(Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia& Alberta), inland W USA(extirpated from S Wyomingto Mexico).U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826— N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstanand Mongolia(Gobi Desert).U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867— Russia(Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/ Amurriver region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan(Hokkaido).U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak Island & nearby islands).U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853— Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal.U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area).U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914— W Canada(W British Columbia), and formerly W USA(W Washingtonand Oregon).U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828— Middle East, from Turkeyto Iran(extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armeniaand Azerbaijan.","bibliography":"Bellemain, Nawaz et al. (2007) | Bellemain, Swenson & Taberlet (2006) | Bromlei (1965) | Brown (1985) | Ciarniello et al. (2007) | Clark et al. (2002) | Craighead, F.C. (1976) | Craighead, J.J. et al. (1995) | Dahle & Swenson (2003a, 2003b, 2003c) | Doupé et al. (2007) | Ferguson & McLoughlin (2000) | Fernandez-Gil et al. (2006) | Galbreath et al. (2007) | Garshelis (2004) | Garshelis et al. (2005) | Groupe National Ours dans les Pyrénées (2008) | Hall (1984) | Hilderbrand, Jenkins et al. (1999) | Hilderbrand, Schwartz et al. (1999) | IUCN (2008) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Kaczensky et al. (2006) | Kasworm et al. (2007) | LeFranc et al. (1987) | Linnell et al. (2000) | MacHutchon & Wellwood (2003) | Mattson & Merrill (2002) | McLellan & Hovey (1995, 2001) | McLellan, Hovey et al. (1999) | McLellan, Servheen & Huber (2007) | McLoughlin, Case et al. (1999) | McLoughlin, Ferguson & Messier (2000) | Miller et al. (2006) | Mowat & Heard(2006) | Munro et al. (2006) | Nellerman et al. (2007) | Nielsen, Herrero et al. (2004) | Nielsen, Stenhouse & Boyce (2006) | Pasitschniak-Arts (1993) | Proctor et al. (2004, 2005) | Rode et al. (2006) | Saarma etal. (2007) | Schwartz, Haroldson et al. (2006) | Schwartz, Keating et al. (2003) | Schwartz, Miller & Haroldson (2003) | Servheen et al. (1999) | Seryodkin et al. (2003) | Steen, Bellemain et al. (2005) | Steen, Zedrosser et al. (2006) | Swenson et al. (2000) | Talbot & Shields (1996) | Vaisfeld & Chestin (1993) | Valdiosera, Garciaet al. (2007) | Valdiosera, Garcia-Garitagoitia et al. (2008) | Van Daele (2007) | Waits et al. (1998) | Xu et al. (2006) | Zager & Beecham (2006) | Zedrosser et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Food habits vary regionally from principally herbivorous to principally carnivorous, depending on habitat. Plant foods include grasses, sedges, horsetails, forbs, roots, berries, and nuts. Animal foods include insects, rodents, ungulates, and fish. Insects are a significant dietary component in broadleaved forests of Europe, rodents and ungulates are most important in Arctic and alpine areas and some Boreal forests, and fish are paramount along the Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to Alaska to Kamchatka(Russia). Herbaceous vegetation tends to be the chief component of the spring diet. Later the bears switch to roots, berries, pine nuts, acorns, ants, bees, moths, ground squirrels, marmots, pikas, neonate ungulates, or spawning salmon, depending on availability. This species is morphologically and behaviorally well adapted to digging up insects and underground rodents,killing ungulates (including domestic species, like sheep and cattle), and catching salmon. In North America they rarely climb trees, whereas in Europe and parts of Asia they do so more regularly.","breeding":"Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.","activityPatterns":"Active diurnally in North America, except where human activity is high. Nocturnally active in most of Europe, possibly due to more frequent contact with humans, both historically and presently. Young bears in Europe are active uniformly through the day, but apparently learn to become more nocturnal through negative experiences with people. Total time active per day (40-80%) varies with local conditions (food, day length). The period of hibernation also varies regionally: at the northern extremes of their range they may hibernate for seven months (October-May); conversely, on Kodiak Island, Alaska, where winters are mild and some food may remain available, about one-quarter of the males do not den all winter, an unusual anomaly among Brown Bears. In Russia, following seasons with very poor food, large numbers of malnourished bears may wander about for much of the winter.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Individual home range sizes vary by nearly four orders of magnitude (7-30,000 km?), related to food supply and bear density. Home ranges are largest in the barren-ground Arctic tundra, averaging 8000 km? for males. Rangesizes are smaller in boreal or montane forests, where large mammals are a main dietary component, and smaller yet in deciduous or mixed forests with hard mast. In coastal areas, with abundant food and high bear density, home ranges are smallest, averaging less than 200 km” for males and less than 100 km? for females. Male home ranges are typically three to four times larger than those of females; both sexes increase their ranges during the mating season to maximize overlap with potential mates. Bear density and home range overlap are high in coastal populations with abundant and predictable food (spawning salmon). In interior populations, with less abundant or more variable food, home ranges overlap less, and bears may be somewhat territorial. In extreme northern populations, where food resources are scarce, home ranges are large and indefensible, so overlap is high. Home range overlap is also positively associated with relatedness, because female offspring often settle near their mother, assuming part of their natal home range. Multigenerational, matrilineal assemblages occur in established populations, whereas females may be more prone to disperse and settle among unrelated individuals in expanding populations. Males disperse in either case, but their dispersal age (1-4 years old) is related to their growth rate, and dispersal distance is inversely related to bear density. In a low density, expanding population in Scandinavia, one-third to half the females dispersed,settling 15 kmfrom the natal range, on average, and 80-90% of males dispersed, generally settling over 100 kmand up to nearly 500 kmaway. Seasonal movements are common for both sexes. In mountainous terrain, regular seasonal altitudinalshifts correspond with changing food conditions at different elevations and habitats. Lateral movements to seasonally abundant food sources may involve large numbers of bears traveling along well-worn routes, akin to a migration. Movements to fall feeding areas, followed by returns to denning sites, are often direct and rapid: travels exceeding 20 kmin twelve hours have been recorded. At rich feeding areas, such as salmon streams, females with cubs avoid places with a high density of males, apparently because of threats of infanticide.Breeding.Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.","statusAndConservation":"Only populations in central Asia (Mongoliato the Himalayas, China, Nepal, Bhutan) fall under CITES Appendix I; all others are CITES Appendix II. The species as a whole is not considered threatened by The IUCN Red List (Least Concern), but some individual European populations are separately red-listed (Vulnerable-Critically Endangered), and other threatened populations will be added in the near future. These small populations tend to exist in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development, which act as mortality sinks. Forty-seven countries in North America, Europe, and Asia are inhabited by Brown Bears. During the past 500 years they have been extirpated from 17 other countries, including large parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Mexico. In the lower 48 states of the USA, they were exterminated from more than 98% of their original range within 100 years of the arrival of European settlers, and have not since recovered. The total world population is estimated to exceed 200,000. Fairly reliable population estimates exist for several areas in North America (USA33,000; Canada25,000) and Europe (14,000, excluding Russia), but for few areas in Asia. Russiahas the largest number of Brown Bears, believed to exceed 100,000. The species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, but smaller, fragmented populations exist farther south. Populations are sufficiently large to sustain legal hunting in Russia, several former Soviet Republics, Japan(HokkaidoIsland), Canada, Alaska(USA), and several European countries. Conversely, populations with fewer than 100 individuals exist along the USA-Canadian border and in southern Europe where several small, isolated populations persist: two in the Pyrenees (Franceand Spain), one with less than 10 bears and the other with about 20, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) containing 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) with 40-50 bears, and in the the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) with 35-40 bears. Small, disconnected populations are also scattered across southern Asia, and in some areas even the present existence of this species is unknown (Bhutan, Iraq). As wide-ranging omnivores, Brown Bears are attracted to areas with human-related foods, where they may threaten life and damage property (livestock, cropfields) and may be killed as a consequence. Small numbers of mortalities, especially adult females, can threaten the viability of small, isolated populations. Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, but with varying degrees of enforcement. Moreover, even where hunting is banned, other sorts of human-caused mortality (management removals, self-defense, malicious killing, poaching, mistaken hunting of Black Bear) dominate the population dynamics of these bears. Reintroductions and population augmentations have helped to restore numbers and expand geographic range in the USAand Western Europe. Numerous protected areas around the world have Brown Bears, but few are large enough to support a self-sustaining population; therefore, Brown Bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-280 cm, shoulder height up to 150 cm, tail 6-21 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, with food availability. Adult males are heavier (130-550 kg; rarely up to 725 kg) than adult females (80-250 kg, but occasionally up to 340 kg). Facial profile from forehead to nose is concave. Body profile includes a distinct muscular shoulder hump with long hairs. Coat color varies from uniform brown to mixed shades of brown, blond, and silver-tipped (grizzled), to partly gray or black, or fully black. The grizzled phase (Grizzly Bear) occurs in interior North America, whereas the black and partially black phases occur in eastern and central Asia. Color can lighten with bleaching from the sun. Prominent markings, from a white or creamcolored chest patch to a solid band that wrap across the chest and around the shoulders to the back, vary regionally and individually. Such markings are often present on cubs, but may be lost with age. Body hairs are sparser ventrally. Underfur is grown in fall, and molted in spring. Long, powerful, slightly curved front claws (4-10 cm) varying from dark brown to yellow to white, are characteristic. Foot pads are like that of the American Black Bear.","habitat":"Brown Bears occupy a wider range of habitats than any other bear, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, meadows, grasslands, Arctic shrublands and tundra, alpine tundra, semi-deserts and deserts. Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic Black Bear, and also slightly that of the Polar Bear. They exist at elevations from sea level (temperate rainforests and Arctic tundra) to well above treeline (dry Asian steppes); highest elevation sightings (tracks in snow) have been at 5500 m(possibly 5800 m) in the Himalayas, and highest latitude sightings at 74° N(Canada), well into Polar Bear range."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"488","verbatimText":"3.Sun BearHelarctos malayanusFrench:Ours malais/ German:Malaienbar/ Spanish:OsomalayoOther common names:Malayan Sun Bear, Dog Bear, Honey BearTaxonomy.Ursus malayanus Raffles, 1822[presented orally in 1820, often incorrectly ascribed as 1821], Sumatra, Indonesia.Cranial differences support separation into two subspecies.Subspecies and Distribution.H. m. malayanus Raffles, 1822— Bangladesh, NE India, and S China(Yunnan) through SE Asia to Malaysia, and Sumatra.H. m. euryspilus Horsfield, 1825— Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-150 cm, tail 3-7 cm; weight 30-80 kg. Males are heavier than females, but the degree of sexual dimorphism (10-20%) is less than most other bears. The Bornean subspeciesis notably smaller, with a maximum weight of 65 kg. The body is stocky, and compared to other bears, the front legs more bowed, front feet turned more inward, muzzle shortened, ears especially small, and hair very short, often with obvious whorls. Coat coloris black or less commonly dark brown, typically with a prominent white, yellow, or orange chest marking. The chest marking is highly variable among individuals, usually a U or circular shape, but occasionally more amorphous, and sometimes with dark patches or spots. The bear takes its common name from this marking, which may look like a sun. The muzzle is pale, and the forehead may be wrinkled. The exceptionally long tongue (20-25 cm) is used for feeding on insects and honey. The canine teeth, which are particularly large in relation to the head, and the large front feet with long claws, are used for breaking into wood (e.g. to prey on stingless bees) and termite colonies. Soles of the feet have little hair.Habitat.In mainland South-east Asia, where there is a prolonged dry season, Sun Bears inhabit semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, and montane evergreen forest, largely sympatric with Asiatic Black Bears. In Borneo, Sumatra, and peninsular Malaysia, areas with high rainfall throughout the year, they inhabit mainly tropical evergreen dipterocarp rainforest and peat swamps. They also use mangrove forest and oil palm plantations in proximity to other, more favored habitats. They occur from near sea level to over 2100 melevation, but are most common in lower elevation forests.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous diet includes insects (over 100 species, mainly termites, ants, beetles and bees), honey, and a wide variety of fruits. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae(figs), Burseraceaeand Myrtaceaemake up more than 50% of the fruit diet, but consumption of fruits from at least 20 other families of trees and lianas were identified in just one small study site (100 km?) in East Kalimantan. Availability of foods varies markedly from masting years when most species fruit synchronously, to inter-masting years when little fruit is available and the bears turn mainly to insects. Figs (Ficus) are a staple food during inter-mast periods. On the mainland, fruiting is more uniform (predictable) from year to year, but varies seasonally. However, there is an enormous diversity of fruits, so some fruit is available at all times of year. In Thailand, about 40 families of trees are climbed by Sun Bears, mostly for food; fruits from Lauraceae(cinnamon) and Fagaceae(oak) are favorites. Sun Bears are especially known for preying on colonies of stingless bees (7Trigona), including their resinous nesting material. The bees form nestsin cavities of live trees, so to prey on them Sun Bears chew and claw through the tree, leaving a conspicuous hole. These bears consume little vegetative matter, although they seem to relish the growth shoots of palm trees (palm hearts), the consumption of which kills the tree. Occasionally they also take reptiles, small mammals, and bird eggs.Activity patterns.Activity has been described as mainly nocturnal or mainly diurnal. This variability depends on proximity to human activities: in heavily disturbed areas, such as oil palm plantations, Sun Bears are chiefly nocturnal. Camera traps along roads typically obtain photographs of bears mainly at night, whereas signals from radio-collared bears farther from roads indicate that they are active mainly during the day. They spend a large proportion of time feeding in trees when fruit is abundant. They also sometimes build tree nests of branches and leaves for sleeping. This behavior has been attributed to previous predation pressure by Tigers; however,it appears to occur commonly only in heavily-disturbed forests or near people. Sun Bears have been observed to slide rapidly down tree trunks when disturbed by people. Although arboreally adept, they cannot swing orjump from tree to tree. Normally they sleep on the ground, often in cavities of either standing or fallen trees, or under such trees. Females use similar sites for birthing dens. This species does not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range information is very limited. Two males radio-tracked for about one year in Borneo during a fruiting failure had minimum known ranges of 15-20 km? (butlikely ranged beyond this); one of them centered his activity on a garbage dump. Two Bornean females living in a small, isolated forest patch (100 km? more than half of which had been burned in a forest fire and was rarely used by Sun Bears) had home ranges of only about 4 km®. Most sightings have been ofsolitary bears or mothers with a cub, but gatherings of multiple bears have been witnessed at rich feeding sites.Breeding.This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although quantitative estimates of population sizes and trends are lacking, rates of habitat loss and degradation, combined with persistent poaching, indicate that the global population ofthis species has declined by more than 30% during the past three decades. Additionally, it is strictly protected under national wildlife laws throughout its range; however, there is generally insufficient enforcement of these laws. None of the eleven countries where the Sun Bear occurs has implemented any conservation measures specifically for this species. Commercial poaching, especially for gall bladders (used in traditional Chinese medicine) and paws (a delicacy), is a considerable threat, especially in mainland South-east Asia. Local hunters in one area of Thailandestimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of Sun Bears by 50% in 20 years. In Malaysiaand Indonesia, deforestation is the prime threat. Clear-cutting to expand oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) plantations (which is likely to worsen with increased biofuel production) and unsustainable logging (both legal and illegal) are escalating at alarming rates. Prolonged droughts, spurring natural and human-caused fires, are compounding the habitat-loss problem, resulting in diminished availability of food and space for bears, sometimes causing their starvation. Where bears do not die directly from food scarcity, they seek out agricultural crops adjacent to the forest, and are poisoned or trapped and killed by local people. Some headway has been made in establishing buffer zones around protected forested areas, educating local people on nonlethal deterrents, and increasing communication between local people and sanctuary managers, resulting in shared problem solving.Bibliography.Augeri (2005), Fredriksson (2005), Fredriksson, Danielsen & Swenson (2007), Fredriksson, Steinmetz et al. (2007), Fredriksson, Wich & Trisno (2006), Hesterman et al. (2005), JapanBear Network (2006), McCusker (1974), Meijaard (1999a, 1999b, 2001, 2004), Normua et al. (2004), Schwarzenbergeret al. (2004), Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008), Steinmetz et al. (2006), Wong, Servheen & Ambu (2002, 2004), Wong, Servheen, Ambu & Norhayati (2005).","taxonomy":"Ursus malayanus Raffles, 1822[presented orally in 1820, often incorrectly ascribed as 1821], Sumatra, Indonesia.Cranial differences support separation into two subspecies.","commonNames":"Ours malais @fr | Malaienbar @de | Osomalayo @es | Malayan Sun Bear @en | Dog Bear @en | Honey Bear @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Raffles","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Helarctos","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"488","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"malayanus","name":"Helarctos malayanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. m. malayanus Raffles, 1822— Bangladesh, NE India, and S China(Yunnan) through SE Asia to Malaysia, and Sumatra.H. m. euryspilus Horsfield, 1825— Borneo.","bibliography":"Augeri (2005) | Fredriksson (2005) | Fredriksson, Danielsen & Swenson (2007) | Fredriksson, Steinmetz et al. (2007) | Fredriksson, Wich & Trisno (2006) | Hesterman et al. (2005) | JapanBear Network (2006) | McCusker (1974) | Meijaard (1999a, 1999b, 2001, 2004) | Normua et al. (2004) | Schwarzenbergeret al. (2004) | Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008) | Steinmetz et al. (2006) | Wong, Servheen & Ambu (2002, 2004) | Wong, Servheen, Ambu & Norhayati (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous diet includes insects (over 100 species, mainly termites, ants, beetles and bees), honey, and a wide variety of fruits. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae(figs), Burseraceaeand Myrtaceaemake up more than 50% of the fruit diet, but consumption of fruits from at least 20 other families of trees and lianas were identified in just one small study site (100 km?) in East Kalimantan. Availability of foods varies markedly from masting years when most species fruit synchronously, to inter-masting years when little fruit is available and the bears turn mainly to insects. Figs (Ficus) are a staple food during inter-mast periods. On the mainland, fruiting is more uniform (predictable) from year to year, but varies seasonally. However, there is an enormous diversity of fruits, so some fruit is available at all times of year. In Thailand, about 40 families of trees are climbed by Sun Bears, mostly for food; fruits from Lauraceae(cinnamon) and Fagaceae(oak) are favorites. Sun Bears are especially known for preying on colonies of stingless bees (7Trigona), including their resinous nesting material. The bees form nestsin cavities of live trees, so to prey on them Sun Bears chew and claw through the tree, leaving a conspicuous hole. These bears consume little vegetative matter, although they seem to relish the growth shoots of palm trees (palm hearts), the consumption of which kills the tree. Occasionally they also take reptiles, small mammals, and bird eggs.","breeding":"This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.","activityPatterns":"Activity has been described as mainly nocturnal or mainly diurnal. This variability depends on proximity to human activities: in heavily disturbed areas, such as oil palm plantations, Sun Bears are chiefly nocturnal. Camera traps along roads typically obtain photographs of bears mainly at night, whereas signals from radio-collared bears farther from roads indicate that they are active mainly during the day. They spend a large proportion of time feeding in trees when fruit is abundant. They also sometimes build tree nests of branches and leaves for sleeping. This behavior has been attributed to previous predation pressure by Tigers; however,it appears to occur commonly only in heavily-disturbed forests or near people. Sun Bears have been observed to slide rapidly down tree trunks when disturbed by people. Although arboreally adept, they cannot swing orjump from tree to tree. Normally they sleep on the ground, often in cavities of either standing or fallen trees, or under such trees. Females use similar sites for birthing dens. This species does not hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range information is very limited. Two males radio-tracked for about one year in Borneo during a fruiting failure had minimum known ranges of 15-20 km? (butlikely ranged beyond this); one of them centered his activity on a garbage dump. Two Bornean females living in a small, isolated forest patch (100 km? more than half of which had been burned in a forest fire and was rarely used by Sun Bears) had home ranges of only about 4 km®. Most sightings have been ofsolitary bears or mothers with a cub, but gatherings of multiple bears have been witnessed at rich feeding sites.Breeding.This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although quantitative estimates of population sizes and trends are lacking, rates of habitat loss and degradation, combined with persistent poaching, indicate that the global population ofthis species has declined by more than 30% during the past three decades. Additionally, it is strictly protected under national wildlife laws throughout its range; however, there is generally insufficient enforcement of these laws. None of the eleven countries where the Sun Bear occurs has implemented any conservation measures specifically for this species. Commercial poaching, especially for gall bladders (used in traditional Chinese medicine) and paws (a delicacy), is a considerable threat, especially in mainland South-east Asia. Local hunters in one area of Thailandestimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of Sun Bears by 50% in 20 years. In Malaysiaand Indonesia, deforestation is the prime threat. Clear-cutting to expand oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) plantations (which is likely to worsen with increased biofuel production) and unsustainable logging (both legal and illegal) are escalating at alarming rates. Prolonged droughts, spurring natural and human-caused fires, are compounding the habitat-loss problem, resulting in diminished availability of food and space for bears, sometimes causing their starvation. Where bears do not die directly from food scarcity, they seek out agricultural crops adjacent to the forest, and are poisoned or trapped and killed by local people. Some headway has been made in establishing buffer zones around protected forested areas, educating local people on nonlethal deterrents, and increasing communication between local people and sanctuary managers, resulting in shared problem solving.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-150 cm, tail 3-7 cm; weight 30-80 kg. Males are heavier than females, but the degree of sexual dimorphism (10-20%) is less than most other bears. The Bornean subspeciesis notably smaller, with a maximum weight of 65 kg. The body is stocky, and compared to other bears, the front legs more bowed, front feet turned more inward, muzzle shortened, ears especially small, and hair very short, often with obvious whorls. Coat coloris black or less commonly dark brown, typically with a prominent white, yellow, or orange chest marking. The chest marking is highly variable among individuals, usually a U or circular shape, but occasionally more amorphous, and sometimes with dark patches or spots. The bear takes its common name from this marking, which may look like a sun. The muzzle is pale, and the forehead may be wrinkled. The exceptionally long tongue (20-25 cm) is used for feeding on insects and honey. The canine teeth, which are particularly large in relation to the head, and the large front feet with long claws, are used for breaking into wood (e.g. to prey on stingless bees) and termite colonies. Soles of the feet have little hair.","habitat":"In mainland South-east Asia, where there is a prolonged dry season, Sun Bears inhabit semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, and montane evergreen forest, largely sympatric with Asiatic Black Bears. In Borneo, Sumatra, and peninsular Malaysia, areas with high rainfall throughout the year, they inhabit mainly tropical evergreen dipterocarp rainforest and peat swamps. They also use mangrove forest and oil palm plantations in proximity to other, more favored habitats. They occur from near sea level to over 2100 melevation, but are most common in lower elevation forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"495","verbatimText":"7.Brown BearUrsus arctosFrench:Ours brun/ German:Braunbär/ Spanish:Oso pardoOther common names:Grizzly Bear, Kodiak BearTaxonomy.Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, northern Sweden.Genetic data corroborate the distinctiveness of some subspecies, such as isabellinus in Central Asia, but not others. Eight subspecies have been recognized in North America (seven of which are extant), but genetically these group into only three or four discrete clades, none of which match current subspecies designations. Conversely, whereas only one subspecies (artos) has been recognized for Europe, two geographically distinct lineages have been identified. Californiarace californicus (Merriam, 1896)and north-western Africa race crowthert (Schinz, 1844)are extinct. Fourteen extant subspecies currently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758— Europe and W Russia.U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896— most of Alaska(excluding AlaskaPeninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group).U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853— NE Russia(Kamchatka Peninsula& N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk).U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824— Russia(Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatkaand more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia.U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(N of Alexander Archipelago).U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902— Alaskapeninsula.U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815—W Canada(Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia& Alberta), inland W USA(extirpated from S Wyomingto Mexico).U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826— N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstanand Mongolia(Gobi Desert).U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867— Russia(Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/ Amurriver region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan(Hokkaido).U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak Island & nearby islands).U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853— Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal.U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area).U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914— W Canada(W British Columbia), and formerly W USA(W Washingtonand Oregon).U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828— Middle East, from Turkeyto Iran(extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armeniaand Azerbaijan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-280 cm, shoulder height up to 150 cm, tail 6-21 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, with food availability. Adult males are heavier (130-550 kg; rarely up to 725 kg) than adult females (80-250 kg, but occasionally up to 340 kg). Facial profile from forehead to nose is concave. Body profile includes a distinct muscular shoulder hump with long hairs. Coat color varies from uniform brown to mixed shades of brown, blond, and silver-tipped (grizzled), to partly gray or black, or fully black. The grizzled phase (Grizzly Bear) occurs in interior North America, whereas the black and partially black phases occur in eastern and central Asia. Color can lighten with bleaching from the sun. Prominent markings, from a white or creamcolored chest patch to a solid band that wrap across the chest and around the shoulders to the back, vary regionally and individually. Such markings are often present on cubs, but may be lost with age. Body hairs are sparser ventrally. Underfur is grown in fall, and molted in spring. Long, powerful, slightly curved front claws (4-10 cm) varying from dark brown to yellow to white, are characteristic. Foot pads are like that of the American Black Bear.Habitat.Brown Bears occupy a wider range of habitats than any other bear, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, meadows, grasslands, Arctic shrublands and tundra, alpine tundra, semi-deserts and deserts. Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic Black Bear, and also slightly that of the Polar Bear. They exist at elevations from sea level (temperate rainforests and Arctic tundra) to well above treeline (dry Asian steppes); highest elevation sightings (tracks in snow) have been at 5500 m(possibly 5800 m) in the Himalayas, and highest latitude sightings at 74° N(Canada), well into Polar Bear range.Food and Feeding.Food habits vary regionally from principally herbivorous to principally carnivorous, depending on habitat. Plant foods include grasses, sedges, horsetails, forbs, roots, berries, and nuts. Animal foods include insects, rodents, ungulates, and fish. Insects are a significant dietary component in broadleaved forests of Europe, rodents and ungulates are most important in Arctic and alpine areas and some Boreal forests, and fish are paramount along the Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to Alaska to Kamchatka(Russia). Herbaceous vegetation tends to be the chief component of the spring diet. Later the bears switch to roots, berries, pine nuts, acorns, ants, bees, moths, ground squirrels, marmots, pikas, neonate ungulates, or spawning salmon, depending on availability. This species is morphologically and behaviorally well adapted to digging up insects and underground rodents,killing ungulates (including domestic species, like sheep and cattle), and catching salmon. In North America they rarely climb trees, whereas in Europe and parts of Asia they do so more regularly.Activity patterns.Active diurnally in North America, except where human activity is high. Nocturnally active in most of Europe, possibly due to more frequent contact with humans, both historically and presently. Young bears in Europe are active uniformly through the day, but apparently learn to become more nocturnal through negative experiences with people. Total time active per day (40-80%) varies with local conditions (food, day length). The period of hibernation also varies regionally: at the northern extremes of their range they may hibernate for seven months (October-May); conversely, on Kodiak Island, Alaska, where winters are mild and some food may remain available, about one-quarter of the males do not den all winter, an unusual anomaly among Brown Bears. In Russia, following seasons with very poor food, large numbers of malnourished bears may wander about for much of the winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individual home range sizes vary by nearly four orders of magnitude (7-30,000 km?), related to food supply and bear density. Home ranges are largest in the barren-ground Arctic tundra, averaging 8000 km? for males. Rangesizes are smaller in boreal or montane forests, where large mammals are a main dietary component, and smaller yet in deciduous or mixed forests with hard mast. In coastal areas, with abundant food and high bear density, home ranges are smallest, averaging less than 200 km” for males and less than 100 km? for females. Male home ranges are typically three to four times larger than those of females; both sexes increase their ranges during the mating season to maximize overlap with potential mates. Bear density and home range overlap are high in coastal populations with abundant and predictable food (spawning salmon). In interior populations, with less abundant or more variable food, home ranges overlap less, and bears may be somewhat territorial. In extreme northern populations, where food resources are scarce, home ranges are large and indefensible, so overlap is high. Home range overlap is also positively associated with relatedness, because female offspring often settle near their mother, assuming part of their natal home range. Multigenerational, matrilineal assemblages occur in established populations, whereas females may be more prone to disperse and settle among unrelated individuals in expanding populations. Males disperse in either case, but their dispersal age (1-4 years old) is related to their growth rate, and dispersal distance is inversely related to bear density. In a low density, expanding population in Scandinavia, one-third to half the females dispersed,settling 15 kmfrom the natal range, on average, and 80-90% of males dispersed, generally settling over 100 kmand up to nearly 500 kmaway. Seasonal movements are common for both sexes. In mountainous terrain, regular seasonal altitudinalshifts correspond with changing food conditions at different elevations and habitats. Lateral movements to seasonally abundant food sources may involve large numbers of bears traveling along well-worn routes, akin to a migration. Movements to fall feeding areas, followed by returns to denning sites, are often direct and rapid: travels exceeding 20 kmin twelve hours have been recorded. At rich feeding areas, such as salmon streams, females with cubs avoid places with a high density of males, apparently because of threats of infanticide.Breeding.Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.Status and Conservation.Only populations in central Asia (Mongoliato the Himalayas, China, Nepal, Bhutan) fall under CITES Appendix I; all others are CITES Appendix II. The species as a whole is not considered threatened by The IUCN Red List (Least Concern), but some individual European populations are separately red-listed (Vulnerable-Critically Endangered), and other threatened populations will be added in the near future. These small populations tend to exist in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development, which act as mortality sinks. Forty-seven countries in North America, Europe, and Asia are inhabited by Brown Bears. During the past 500 years they have been extirpated from 17 other countries, including large parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Mexico. In the lower 48 states of the USA, they were exterminated from more than 98% of their original range within 100 years of the arrival of European settlers, and have not since recovered. The total world population is estimated to exceed 200,000. Fairly reliable population estimates exist for several areas in North America (USA33,000; Canada25,000) and Europe (14,000, excluding Russia), but for few areas in Asia. Russiahas the largest number of Brown Bears, believed to exceed 100,000. The species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, but smaller, fragmented populations exist farther south. Populations are sufficiently large to sustain legal hunting in Russia, several former Soviet Republics, Japan(HokkaidoIsland), Canada, Alaska(USA), and several European countries. Conversely, populations with fewer than 100 individuals exist along the USA-Canadian border and in southern Europe where several small, isolated populations persist: two in the Pyrenees (Franceand Spain), one with less than 10 bears and the other with about 20, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) containing 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) with 40-50 bears, and in the the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) with 35-40 bears. Small, disconnected populations are also scattered across southern Asia, and in some areas even the present existence of this species is unknown (Bhutan, Iraq). As wide-ranging omnivores, Brown Bears are attracted to areas with human-related foods, where they may threaten life and damage property (livestock, cropfields) and may be killed as a consequence. Small numbers of mortalities, especially adult females, can threaten the viability of small, isolated populations. Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, but with varying degrees of enforcement. Moreover, even where hunting is banned, other sorts of human-caused mortality (management removals, self-defense, malicious killing, poaching, mistaken hunting of Black Bear) dominate the population dynamics of these bears. Reintroductions and population augmentations have helped to restore numbers and expand geographic range in the USAand Western Europe. Numerous protected areas around the world have Brown Bears, but few are large enough to support a self-sustaining population; therefore, Brown Bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses.On following pages: 8. Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus).Bibliography.Bellemain, Nawaz et al. (2007), Bellemain, Swenson & Taberlet (2006), Bromlei (1965), Brown (1985), Ciarniello et al. (2007), Clark et al. (2002), Craighead, F.C. (1976), Craighead, J.J. et al. (1995), Dahle & Swenson (2003a, 2003b, 2003c), Doupé et al. (2007), Ferguson & McLoughlin (2000), Fernandez-Gil et al. (2006), Galbreath et al. (2007), Garshelis (2004), Garshelis et al. (2005), Groupe National Ours dans les Pyrénées (2008), Hall (1984), Hilderbrand, Jenkins et al. (1999), Hilderbrand, Schwartz et al. (1999), IUCN (2008), JapanBear Network (2006), Kaczensky et al. (2006), Kasworm et al. (2007), LeFranc et al. (1987), Linnell et al. (2000), MacHutchon & Wellwood (2003), Mattson & Merrill (2002), McLellan & Hovey (1995, 2001), McLellan, Hovey et al. (1999), McLellan, Servheen & Huber (2007), McLoughlin, Case et al. (1999), McLoughlin, Ferguson & Messier (2000), Miller et al. (2006), Mowat & Heard(2006), Munro et al. (2006), Nellerman et al. (2007), Nielsen, Herrero et al. (2004), Nielsen, Stenhouse & Boyce (2006), Pasitschniak-Arts (1993), Proctor et al. (2004, 2005), Rode et al. (2006), Saarma etal. (2007), Schwartz, Haroldson et al. (2006), Schwartz, Keating et al. (2003), Schwartz, Miller & Haroldson (2003), Servheen et al. (1999), Seryodkin et al. (2003), Steen, Bellemain et al. (2005), Steen, Zedrosser et al. (2006), Swenson et al. (2000), Talbot & Shields (1996), Vaisfeld & Chestin (1993), Valdiosera, Garciaet al. (2007), Valdiosera, Garcia-Garitagoitia et al. (2008), Van Daele (2007), Waits et al. (1998), Xu et al. (2006), Zager & Beecham (2006), Zedrosser et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758, northern Sweden.Genetic data corroborate the distinctiveness of some subspecies, such as isabellinus in Central Asia, but not others. Eight subspecies have been recognized in North America (seven of which are extant), but genetically these group into only three or four discrete clades, none of which match current subspecies designations. Conversely, whereas only one subspecies (artos) has been recognized for Europe, two geographically distinct lineages have been identified. Californiarace californicus (Merriam, 1896)and north-western Africa race crowthert (Schinz, 1844)are extinct. Fourteen extant subspecies currently recognized.","commonNames":"Ours brun @fr | Braunbär @de | Oso pardo @es | Grizzly Bear @en | Kodiak Bear @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Ursus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"495","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arctos","name":"Ursus arctos","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758— Europe and W Russia.U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896— most of Alaska(excluding AlaskaPeninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group).U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853— NE Russia(Kamchatka Peninsula& N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk).U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824— Russia(Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatkaand more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia.U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(N of Alexander Archipelago).U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902— Alaskapeninsula.U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815—W Canada(Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia& Alberta), inland W USA(extirpated from S Wyomingto Mexico).U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826— N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstanand Mongolia(Gobi Desert).U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867— Russia(Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri/ Amurriver region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan(Hokkaido).U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896— Alaska(Kodiak Island & nearby islands).U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853— Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal.U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896— SE Alaska(Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area).U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914— W Canada(W British Columbia), and formerly W USA(W Washingtonand Oregon).U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828— Middle East, from Turkeyto Iran(extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armeniaand Azerbaijan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714509/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bellemain, Nawaz et al. (2007) | Bellemain, Swenson & Taberlet (2006) | Bromlei (1965) | Brown (1985) | Ciarniello et al. (2007) | Clark et al. (2002) | Craighead, F.C. (1976) | Craighead, J.J. et al. (1995) | Dahle & Swenson (2003a, 2003b, 2003c) | Doupé et al. (2007) | Ferguson & McLoughlin (2000) | Fernandez-Gil et al. (2006) | Galbreath et al. (2007) | Garshelis (2004) | Garshelis et al. (2005) | Groupe National Ours dans les Pyrénées (2008) | Hall (1984) | Hilderbrand, Jenkins et al. (1999) | Hilderbrand, Schwartz et al. (1999) | IUCN (2008) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Kaczensky et al. (2006) | Kasworm et al. (2007) | LeFranc et al. (1987) | Linnell et al. (2000) | MacHutchon & Wellwood (2003) | Mattson & Merrill (2002) | McLellan & Hovey (1995, 2001) | McLellan, Hovey et al. (1999) | McLellan, Servheen & Huber (2007) | McLoughlin, Case et al. (1999) | McLoughlin, Ferguson & Messier (2000) | Miller et al. (2006) | Mowat & Heard(2006) | Munro et al. (2006) | Nellerman et al. (2007) | Nielsen, Herrero et al. (2004) | Nielsen, Stenhouse & Boyce (2006) | Pasitschniak-Arts (1993) | Proctor et al. (2004, 2005) | Rode et al. (2006) | Saarma etal. (2007) | Schwartz, Haroldson et al. (2006) | Schwartz, Keating et al. (2003) | Schwartz, Miller & Haroldson (2003) | Servheen et al. (1999) | Seryodkin et al. (2003) | Steen, Bellemain et al. (2005) | Steen, Zedrosser et al. (2006) | Swenson et al. (2000) | Talbot & Shields (1996) | Vaisfeld & Chestin (1993) | Valdiosera, Garciaet al. (2007) | Valdiosera, Garcia-Garitagoitia et al. (2008) | Van Daele (2007) | Waits et al. (1998) | Xu et al. (2006) | Zager & Beecham (2006) | Zedrosser et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Food habits vary regionally from principally herbivorous to principally carnivorous, depending on habitat. Plant foods include grasses, sedges, horsetails, forbs, roots, berries, and nuts. Animal foods include insects, rodents, ungulates, and fish. Insects are a significant dietary component in broadleaved forests of Europe, rodents and ungulates are most important in Arctic and alpine areas and some Boreal forests, and fish are paramount along the Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to Alaska to Kamchatka(Russia). Herbaceous vegetation tends to be the chief component of the spring diet. Later the bears switch to roots, berries, pine nuts, acorns, ants, bees, moths, ground squirrels, marmots, pikas, neonate ungulates, or spawning salmon, depending on availability. This species is morphologically and behaviorally well adapted to digging up insects and underground rodents,killing ungulates (including domestic species, like sheep and cattle), and catching salmon. In North America they rarely climb trees, whereas in Europe and parts of Asia they do so more regularly.","breeding":"Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.","activityPatterns":"Active diurnally in North America, except where human activity is high. Nocturnally active in most of Europe, possibly due to more frequent contact with humans, both historically and presently. Young bears in Europe are active uniformly through the day, but apparently learn to become more nocturnal through negative experiences with people. Total time active per day (40-80%) varies with local conditions (food, day length). The period of hibernation also varies regionally: at the northern extremes of their range they may hibernate for seven months (October-May); conversely, on Kodiak Island, Alaska, where winters are mild and some food may remain available, about one-quarter of the males do not den all winter, an unusual anomaly among Brown Bears. In Russia, following seasons with very poor food, large numbers of malnourished bears may wander about for much of the winter.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Individual home range sizes vary by nearly four orders of magnitude (7-30,000 km?), related to food supply and bear density. Home ranges are largest in the barren-ground Arctic tundra, averaging 8000 km? for males. Rangesizes are smaller in boreal or montane forests, where large mammals are a main dietary component, and smaller yet in deciduous or mixed forests with hard mast. In coastal areas, with abundant food and high bear density, home ranges are smallest, averaging less than 200 km” for males and less than 100 km? for females. Male home ranges are typically three to four times larger than those of females; both sexes increase their ranges during the mating season to maximize overlap with potential mates. Bear density and home range overlap are high in coastal populations with abundant and predictable food (spawning salmon). In interior populations, with less abundant or more variable food, home ranges overlap less, and bears may be somewhat territorial. In extreme northern populations, where food resources are scarce, home ranges are large and indefensible, so overlap is high. Home range overlap is also positively associated with relatedness, because female offspring often settle near their mother, assuming part of their natal home range. Multigenerational, matrilineal assemblages occur in established populations, whereas females may be more prone to disperse and settle among unrelated individuals in expanding populations. Males disperse in either case, but their dispersal age (1-4 years old) is related to their growth rate, and dispersal distance is inversely related to bear density. In a low density, expanding population in Scandinavia, one-third to half the females dispersed,settling 15 kmfrom the natal range, on average, and 80-90% of males dispersed, generally settling over 100 kmand up to nearly 500 kmaway. Seasonal movements are common for both sexes. In mountainous terrain, regular seasonal altitudinalshifts correspond with changing food conditions at different elevations and habitats. Lateral movements to seasonally abundant food sources may involve large numbers of bears traveling along well-worn routes, akin to a migration. Movements to fall feeding areas, followed by returns to denning sites, are often direct and rapid: travels exceeding 20 kmin twelve hours have been recorded. At rich feeding areas, such as salmon streams, females with cubs avoid places with a high density of males, apparently because of threats of infanticide.Breeding.Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10-40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1-3-2-5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5-7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20s, but may live another ten years after that.","statusAndConservation":"Only populations in central Asia (Mongoliato the Himalayas, China, Nepal, Bhutan) fall under CITES Appendix I; all others are CITES Appendix II. The species as a whole is not considered threatened by The IUCN Red List (Least Concern), but some individual European populations are separately red-listed (Vulnerable-Critically Endangered), and other threatened populations will be added in the near future. These small populations tend to exist in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development, which act as mortality sinks. Forty-seven countries in North America, Europe, and Asia are inhabited by Brown Bears. During the past 500 years they have been extirpated from 17 other countries, including large parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Mexico. In the lower 48 states of the USA, they were exterminated from more than 98% of their original range within 100 years of the arrival of European settlers, and have not since recovered. The total world population is estimated to exceed 200,000. Fairly reliable population estimates exist for several areas in North America (USA33,000; Canada25,000) and Europe (14,000, excluding Russia), but for few areas in Asia. Russiahas the largest number of Brown Bears, believed to exceed 100,000. The species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, but smaller, fragmented populations exist farther south. Populations are sufficiently large to sustain legal hunting in Russia, several former Soviet Republics, Japan(HokkaidoIsland), Canada, Alaska(USA), and several European countries. Conversely, populations with fewer than 100 individuals exist along the USA-Canadian border and in southern Europe where several small, isolated populations persist: two in the Pyrenees (Franceand Spain), one with less than 10 bears and the other with about 20, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) containing 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) with 40-50 bears, and in the the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) with 35-40 bears. Small, disconnected populations are also scattered across southern Asia, and in some areas even the present existence of this species is unknown (Bhutan, Iraq). As wide-ranging omnivores, Brown Bears are attracted to areas with human-related foods, where they may threaten life and damage property (livestock, cropfields) and may be killed as a consequence. Small numbers of mortalities, especially adult females, can threaten the viability of small, isolated populations. Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, but with varying degrees of enforcement. Moreover, even where hunting is banned, other sorts of human-caused mortality (management removals, self-defense, malicious killing, poaching, mistaken hunting of Black Bear) dominate the population dynamics of these bears. Reintroductions and population augmentations have helped to restore numbers and expand geographic range in the USAand Western Europe. Numerous protected areas around the world have Brown Bears, but few are large enough to support a self-sustaining population; therefore, Brown Bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-280 cm, shoulder height up to 150 cm, tail 6-21 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, with food availability. Adult males are heavier (130-550 kg; rarely up to 725 kg) than adult females (80-250 kg, but occasionally up to 340 kg). Facial profile from forehead to nose is concave. Body profile includes a distinct muscular shoulder hump with long hairs. Coat color varies from uniform brown to mixed shades of brown, blond, and silver-tipped (grizzled), to partly gray or black, or fully black. The grizzled phase (Grizzly Bear) occurs in interior North America, whereas the black and partially black phases occur in eastern and central Asia. Color can lighten with bleaching from the sun. Prominent markings, from a white or creamcolored chest patch to a solid band that wrap across the chest and around the shoulders to the back, vary regionally and individually. Such markings are often present on cubs, but may be lost with age. Body hairs are sparser ventrally. Underfur is grown in fall, and molted in spring. Long, powerful, slightly curved front claws (4-10 cm) varying from dark brown to yellow to white, are characteristic. Foot pads are like that of the American Black Bear.","habitat":"Brown Bears occupy a wider range of habitats than any other bear, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, meadows, grasslands, Arctic shrublands and tundra, alpine tundra, semi-deserts and deserts. Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic Black Bear, and also slightly that of the Polar Bear. They exist at elevations from sea level (temperate rainforests and Arctic tundra) to well above treeline (dry Asian steppes); highest elevation sightings (tracks in snow) have been at 5500 m(possibly 5800 m) in the Himalayas, and highest latitude sightings at 74° N(Canada), well into Polar Bear range."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"488","verbatimText":"3.Sun BearHelarctos malayanusFrench:Ours malais/ German:Malaienbar/ Spanish:OsomalayoOther common names:Malayan Sun Bear, Dog Bear, Honey BearTaxonomy.Ursus malayanus Raffles, 1822[presented orally in 1820, often incorrectly ascribed as 1821], Sumatra, Indonesia.Cranial differences support separation into two subspecies.Subspecies and Distribution.H. m. malayanus Raffles, 1822— Bangladesh, NE India, and S China(Yunnan) through SE Asia to Malaysia, and Sumatra.H. m. euryspilus Horsfield, 1825— Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-150 cm, tail 3-7 cm; weight 30-80 kg. Males are heavier than females, but the degree of sexual dimorphism (10-20%) is less than most other bears. The Bornean subspeciesis notably smaller, with a maximum weight of 65 kg. The body is stocky, and compared to other bears, the front legs more bowed, front feet turned more inward, muzzle shortened, ears especially small, and hair very short, often with obvious whorls. Coat coloris black or less commonly dark brown, typically with a prominent white, yellow, or orange chest marking. The chest marking is highly variable among individuals, usually a U or circular shape, but occasionally more amorphous, and sometimes with dark patches or spots. The bear takes its common name from this marking, which may look like a sun. The muzzle is pale, and the forehead may be wrinkled. The exceptionally long tongue (20-25 cm) is used for feeding on insects and honey. The canine teeth, which are particularly large in relation to the head, and the large front feet with long claws, are used for breaking into wood (e.g. to prey on stingless bees) and termite colonies. Soles of the feet have little hair.Habitat.In mainland South-east Asia, where there is a prolonged dry season, Sun Bears inhabit semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, and montane evergreen forest, largely sympatric with Asiatic Black Bears. In Borneo, Sumatra, and peninsular Malaysia, areas with high rainfall throughout the year, they inhabit mainly tropical evergreen dipterocarp rainforest and peat swamps. They also use mangrove forest and oil palm plantations in proximity to other, more favored habitats. They occur from near sea level to over 2100 melevation, but are most common in lower elevation forests.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous diet includes insects (over 100 species, mainly termites, ants, beetles and bees), honey, and a wide variety of fruits. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae(figs), Burseraceaeand Myrtaceaemake up more than 50% of the fruit diet, but consumption of fruits from at least 20 other families of trees and lianas were identified in just one small study site (100 km?) in East Kalimantan. Availability of foods varies markedly from masting years when most species fruit synchronously, to inter-masting years when little fruit is available and the bears turn mainly to insects. Figs (Ficus) are a staple food during inter-mast periods. On the mainland, fruiting is more uniform (predictable) from year to year, but varies seasonally. However, there is an enormous diversity of fruits, so some fruit is available at all times of year. In Thailand, about 40 families of trees are climbed by Sun Bears, mostly for food; fruits from Lauraceae(cinnamon) and Fagaceae(oak) are favorites. Sun Bears are especially known for preying on colonies of stingless bees (7Trigona), including their resinous nesting material. The bees form nestsin cavities of live trees, so to prey on them Sun Bears chew and claw through the tree, leaving a conspicuous hole. These bears consume little vegetative matter, although they seem to relish the growth shoots of palm trees (palm hearts), the consumption of which kills the tree. Occasionally they also take reptiles, small mammals, and bird eggs.Activity patterns.Activity has been described as mainly nocturnal or mainly diurnal. This variability depends on proximity to human activities: in heavily disturbed areas, such as oil palm plantations, Sun Bears are chiefly nocturnal. Camera traps along roads typically obtain photographs of bears mainly at night, whereas signals from radio-collared bears farther from roads indicate that they are active mainly during the day. They spend a large proportion of time feeding in trees when fruit is abundant. They also sometimes build tree nests of branches and leaves for sleeping. This behavior has been attributed to previous predation pressure by Tigers; however,it appears to occur commonly only in heavily-disturbed forests or near people. Sun Bears have been observed to slide rapidly down tree trunks when disturbed by people. Although arboreally adept, they cannot swing orjump from tree to tree. Normally they sleep on the ground, often in cavities of either standing or fallen trees, or under such trees. Females use similar sites for birthing dens. This species does not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range information is very limited. Two males radio-tracked for about one year in Borneo during a fruiting failure had minimum known ranges of 15-20 km? (butlikely ranged beyond this); one of them centered his activity on a garbage dump. Two Bornean females living in a small, isolated forest patch (100 km? more than half of which had been burned in a forest fire and was rarely used by Sun Bears) had home ranges of only about 4 km®. Most sightings have been ofsolitary bears or mothers with a cub, but gatherings of multiple bears have been witnessed at rich feeding sites.Breeding.This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although quantitative estimates of population sizes and trends are lacking, rates of habitat loss and degradation, combined with persistent poaching, indicate that the global population ofthis species has declined by more than 30% during the past three decades. Additionally, it is strictly protected under national wildlife laws throughout its range; however, there is generally insufficient enforcement of these laws. None of the eleven countries where the Sun Bear occurs has implemented any conservation measures specifically for this species. Commercial poaching, especially for gall bladders (used in traditional Chinese medicine) and paws (a delicacy), is a considerable threat, especially in mainland South-east Asia. Local hunters in one area of Thailandestimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of Sun Bears by 50% in 20 years. In Malaysiaand Indonesia, deforestation is the prime threat. Clear-cutting to expand oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) plantations (which is likely to worsen with increased biofuel production) and unsustainable logging (both legal and illegal) are escalating at alarming rates. Prolonged droughts, spurring natural and human-caused fires, are compounding the habitat-loss problem, resulting in diminished availability of food and space for bears, sometimes causing their starvation. Where bears do not die directly from food scarcity, they seek out agricultural crops adjacent to the forest, and are poisoned or trapped and killed by local people. Some headway has been made in establishing buffer zones around protected forested areas, educating local people on nonlethal deterrents, and increasing communication between local people and sanctuary managers, resulting in shared problem solving.Bibliography.Augeri (2005), Fredriksson (2005), Fredriksson, Danielsen & Swenson (2007), Fredriksson, Steinmetz et al. (2007), Fredriksson, Wich & Trisno (2006), Hesterman et al. (2005), JapanBear Network (2006), McCusker (1974), Meijaard (1999a, 1999b, 2001, 2004), Normua et al. (2004), Schwarzenbergeret al. (2004), Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008), Steinmetz et al. (2006), Wong, Servheen & Ambu (2002, 2004), Wong, Servheen, Ambu & Norhayati (2005).","taxonomy":"Ursus malayanus Raffles, 1822[presented orally in 1820, often incorrectly ascribed as 1821], Sumatra, Indonesia.Cranial differences support separation into two subspecies.","commonNames":"Ours malais @fr | Malaienbar @de | Osomalayo @es | Malayan Sun Bear @en | Dog Bear @en | Honey Bear @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Raffles","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Helarctos","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"488","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"malayanus","name":"Helarctos malayanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. m. malayanus Raffles, 1822— Bangladesh, NE India, and S China(Yunnan) through SE Asia to Malaysia, and Sumatra.H. m. euryspilus Horsfield, 1825— Borneo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714499/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Augeri (2005) | Fredriksson (2005) | Fredriksson, Danielsen & Swenson (2007) | Fredriksson, Steinmetz et al. (2007) | Fredriksson, Wich & Trisno (2006) | Hesterman et al. (2005) | JapanBear Network (2006) | McCusker (1974) | Meijaard (1999a, 1999b, 2001, 2004) | Normua et al. (2004) | Schwarzenbergeret al. (2004) | Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008) | Steinmetz et al. (2006) | Wong, Servheen & Ambu (2002, 2004) | Wong, Servheen, Ambu & Norhayati (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous diet includes insects (over 100 species, mainly termites, ants, beetles and bees), honey, and a wide variety of fruits. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae(figs), Burseraceaeand Myrtaceaemake up more than 50% of the fruit diet, but consumption of fruits from at least 20 other families of trees and lianas were identified in just one small study site (100 km?) in East Kalimantan. Availability of foods varies markedly from masting years when most species fruit synchronously, to inter-masting years when little fruit is available and the bears turn mainly to insects. Figs (Ficus) are a staple food during inter-mast periods. On the mainland, fruiting is more uniform (predictable) from year to year, but varies seasonally. However, there is an enormous diversity of fruits, so some fruit is available at all times of year. In Thailand, about 40 families of trees are climbed by Sun Bears, mostly for food; fruits from Lauraceae(cinnamon) and Fagaceae(oak) are favorites. Sun Bears are especially known for preying on colonies of stingless bees (7Trigona), including their resinous nesting material. The bees form nestsin cavities of live trees, so to prey on them Sun Bears chew and claw through the tree, leaving a conspicuous hole. These bears consume little vegetative matter, although they seem to relish the growth shoots of palm trees (palm hearts), the consumption of which kills the tree. Occasionally they also take reptiles, small mammals, and bird eggs.","breeding":"This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.","activityPatterns":"Activity has been described as mainly nocturnal or mainly diurnal. This variability depends on proximity to human activities: in heavily disturbed areas, such as oil palm plantations, Sun Bears are chiefly nocturnal. Camera traps along roads typically obtain photographs of bears mainly at night, whereas signals from radio-collared bears farther from roads indicate that they are active mainly during the day. They spend a large proportion of time feeding in trees when fruit is abundant. They also sometimes build tree nests of branches and leaves for sleeping. This behavior has been attributed to previous predation pressure by Tigers; however,it appears to occur commonly only in heavily-disturbed forests or near people. Sun Bears have been observed to slide rapidly down tree trunks when disturbed by people. Although arboreally adept, they cannot swing orjump from tree to tree. Normally they sleep on the ground, often in cavities of either standing or fallen trees, or under such trees. Females use similar sites for birthing dens. This species does not hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range information is very limited. Two males radio-tracked for about one year in Borneo during a fruiting failure had minimum known ranges of 15-20 km? (butlikely ranged beyond this); one of them centered his activity on a garbage dump. Two Bornean females living in a small, isolated forest patch (100 km? more than half of which had been burned in a forest fire and was rarely used by Sun Bears) had home ranges of only about 4 km®. Most sightings have been ofsolitary bears or mothers with a cub, but gatherings of multiple bears have been witnessed at rich feeding sites.Breeding.This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3-3-5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6-8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3-6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2-5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4-4-5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although quantitative estimates of population sizes and trends are lacking, rates of habitat loss and degradation, combined with persistent poaching, indicate that the global population ofthis species has declined by more than 30% during the past three decades. Additionally, it is strictly protected under national wildlife laws throughout its range; however, there is generally insufficient enforcement of these laws. None of the eleven countries where the Sun Bear occurs has implemented any conservation measures specifically for this species. Commercial poaching, especially for gall bladders (used in traditional Chinese medicine) and paws (a delicacy), is a considerable threat, especially in mainland South-east Asia. Local hunters in one area of Thailandestimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of Sun Bears by 50% in 20 years. In Malaysiaand Indonesia, deforestation is the prime threat. Clear-cutting to expand oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) plantations (which is likely to worsen with increased biofuel production) and unsustainable logging (both legal and illegal) are escalating at alarming rates. Prolonged droughts, spurring natural and human-caused fires, are compounding the habitat-loss problem, resulting in diminished availability of food and space for bears, sometimes causing their starvation. Where bears do not die directly from food scarcity, they seek out agricultural crops adjacent to the forest, and are poisoned or trapped and killed by local people. Some headway has been made in establishing buffer zones around protected forested areas, educating local people on nonlethal deterrents, and increasing communication between local people and sanctuary managers, resulting in shared problem solving.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-150 cm, tail 3-7 cm; weight 30-80 kg. Males are heavier than females, but the degree of sexual dimorphism (10-20%) is less than most other bears. The Bornean subspeciesis notably smaller, with a maximum weight of 65 kg. The body is stocky, and compared to other bears, the front legs more bowed, front feet turned more inward, muzzle shortened, ears especially small, and hair very short, often with obvious whorls. Coat coloris black or less commonly dark brown, typically with a prominent white, yellow, or orange chest marking. The chest marking is highly variable among individuals, usually a U or circular shape, but occasionally more amorphous, and sometimes with dark patches or spots. The bear takes its common name from this marking, which may look like a sun. The muzzle is pale, and the forehead may be wrinkled. The exceptionally long tongue (20-25 cm) is used for feeding on insects and honey. The canine teeth, which are particularly large in relation to the head, and the large front feet with long claws, are used for breaking into wood (e.g. to prey on stingless bees) and termite colonies. Soles of the feet have little hair.","habitat":"In mainland South-east Asia, where there is a prolonged dry season, Sun Bears inhabit semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, and montane evergreen forest, largely sympatric with Asiatic Black Bears. In Borneo, Sumatra, and peninsular Malaysia, areas with high rainfall throughout the year, they inhabit mainly tropical evergreen dipterocarp rainforest and peat swamps. They also use mangrove forest and oil palm plantations in proximity to other, more favored habitats. They occur from near sea level to over 2100 melevation, but are most common in lower elevation forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"488","verbatimText":"2.Andean BearTremarctos ornatusFrench:Ours a lunettes/ German:Brillenbar/ Spanish:Osode anteojosOther common names:Spectacled Bear, UcumariTaxonomy.Ursus ornatus Cuvier, 1825, type specimen purportedly from northern Chile, but the species does not occur there.No subspecies have been designated, but substantial variation exists in color patterns within different portions of the range. Recent genetic examination in the northern part of the range indicates that gene flow is extremely low (populations are isolated), and that this situation predates the invasion of Europeans (i.e. it is not human-caused). Monotypic.Distribution.Andes Mountains of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peruand Boliva, with controversial evidence of existence in N Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-190 cm, tail less than 10 cm; weight of males 100-175 kg (rarely to 200 kg), females 60-80 kg. Coatis black or sometimes dark brown with creamy white biblike marking on chin, neck, and/or chest and typically some white markings around the muzzle and eyes. The extent of white markings is highly variable. Individuals with complete white circles around both eyes gave rise to the common name Spectacled Bear. However, many if not most do not have complete circles around both eyes; some have partial circles, some are highly asymmetrical, and some have virtually no facial markings or, conversely, an almost all buff-white face. The muzzle is variably-colored and short compared to the ursine bears. Claws are short on both front and rear feet. The underside of the feet have hair between the digital and plantar pads, but not between the plantar and carpal front pads (similar to Asiatic Black Bears).Habitat.Andean Bears range in elevation from 200 to over 4700 m. Preferred habitat includes various sorts of humid and very humid montane cloud forest. They also occupy higher elevation elfin forest, and puna and paramo (high-altitude) grasslands, as well as lower elevation thorn forest and scrub desert (in western Peru).Food and Feeding.Omnivorous diet includes many kinds of fruits, vegetative material, and meat. Especially important through most parts of the range are the succulent parts of plants in the family Bromeliaceae, both epiphytic and terrestrial bromeliads. In high altitude grasslands, the heart of the terrestrial Puyais a dietary mainstay, as this bromeliad is the only abundant food available for much of the year. The bears must strip away the stiff thorny leaves to get to the heart, which looks somewhat like a pineapple but is vegetative and bland. Bears may eat only one in ten of this obiquitous plant, possibly related to differences in nutritional composition. In the forest, they regularly climb trees to obtain Tillandsia, an epiphytic bromeliad; they eat the basal meristematic tissue and drop the remaining pieces of leaves to the forest floor, providing a highly visible sign of their feeding activity. Bears select patches (with Puya) or trees (with Tillandsia) that have a high density of large bromeliads. Bromeliads compose from 90% to less than 15% of their diet, depending on season and geographic area. Fruits compose the other core part of the diet, varying inversely to the bromeliads. Both shrub and tree-borne fruits are consumed (e.g. Lauraceae, Moraceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae). Fruit abundance varies seasonally with rainfall. Other foods include palm petioles, bamboo shoots, bulbs of orchids, and in drier habitats, fruits and pulp of cacti and, remarkably, the soft cortex of the pasallo tree (Bombax discolor). Near human settlements, they routinely raid cornfields. Animal matter is another potentially important food, although never a large dietary component. They eat insects, snails, and small mammals, but more significantly in terms of total nutrition, they occasionally take large mammals such as deer and free-ranging or unguarded pastured cattle. Considerable controversy has surrounded the issue of whether most meat in their diet is from animals that they killed or scavenged—there is clear evidence that they sometimes prey on cattle, but they probably also find carrion. A test of their attraction to beef demonstrated this: a small (0-5 kg) chunk of meat placed in an open area attracted two different radio-collared bears from a distance of 1-5 km in 5-15 hours. When feeding on a cattle carcass, which may take several days to consume, they often construct ground and tree nests for resting. Tree nests are made from a collection of bent and broken branches. They also sometimes build nests in fruit trees.Activity patterns.In one high-elevation site in Bolivia, composed of mixed grassland and cloud forest, Andean Bears were entirely diurnal. They slept 9-12 hours at night, awoke near sunrise, took brief rests during the day, and began their night's rest just after sunset. This pattern did not vary seasonally. In other areas, bears are reported to be somewhat more active at night, but are still principally diurnal. Because food is available year-round throughout their range, Andean Bears do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Limited information indicates that home ranges may be as small as 10 km? or as large as 150 km®. Males have larger ranges than females, and ranges within and between sexes broadly overlap. They are reported to move along an altitudinal gradient among different habitat types, following seasonal changes in available food resources. Andean Bears may gather at rich feeding areas (e.g. cornfields and cactus groves) and at waterholes in arid environments.Breeding. Presumed mating pairs have been seen between March and October; however, no real information is available on the normal timing of breeding of wild Andean Bears. In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere, births occur from December through February, coinciding with the timing of births in northern species of bears. However, in zoos in South America, Andean Bear births tend to occur more regularly during May-October. Anecdotal information on probable birthing dates in the wild is equivocal. Gestation periods in captivity range from 5-5-8-5 months, indicating a variable period of delayed implantation, and litter size is most commonly two. Litters in the wild are commonly one or two (but up to three or four). Females can produce cubs at two-year intervals, beginning at 4-7 years of age.Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Andean Bears are also protected by national legislation in each of the five range countries. However, loopholes in these laws and lack of adequate enforcement result in bears being killed while depredating crops or livestock, or poached for their parts. Andean Bear products are used for medicinal or ritual purposes, and live bears are also sometimes captured and sold. These problems are exacerbated by habitat loss and fragmentation, which not only reduces their natural foraging area, but also puts the bears in closer proximity to people, crops, and livestock. In a few select areas, management plans have been established, with community involvement, to ameliorate bear-human conflicts. A survey in 1998 revealed that less than 20% of the range was legally protected as parks, reserves or sanctuaries. Since then, additional protected areas have been created and others enlarged, but at the same time, more forested land outside the protected areas has been lost to agriculture or fragmented by road development, and mining activities. Some conservation organizations are working to maintain or establish corridors among populations, especially in the northern part of the range, where many Andean Bear populations are isolated in small to mediumsized patches. Habitat patches are larger in the southern part of the range (Peru, Bolivia). Valid rangewide or country-wide population estimates are lacking; guesstimates range from about 13,000-25,000. Efforts are underway to survey various parts of the range to obtain information on presence-absence and relative abundance, based on incidence of sign (bear trails, climbed or rubbed trees, tree nests, bed sites, feeding remains, scats).Bibliography. Cuesta et al. (2003), Garshelis (2004), Goldstein (2002, 2004), Goldstein, Paisley et al. (2006), Goldstein, Velez-Liendo et al. (2007), Jorgenson & Sandoval (2005), Kattan et al. (2004), Mondolfi (1983, 1989), Paisley (2001), Paisley & Garshelis (2006), Peralvo et al. (2005), Peyton (1980, 1987), Peyton et al. (1998), Rodriguez-Clark & Sanchez-Mercado (2006), Ruiz-Garcia (2003), Troya et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Ursus ornatus Cuvier, 1825, type specimen purportedly from northern Chile, but the species does not occur there.No subspecies have been designated, but substantial variation exists in color patterns within different portions of the range. Recent genetic examination in the northern part of the range indicates that gene flow is extremely low (populations are isolated), and that this situation predates the invasion of Europeans (i.e. it is not human-caused). Monotypic.","commonNames":"Ours a lunettes @fr | Brillenbar @de | Osode anteojos @es | Spectacled Bear @en | Ucumari @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Cuvier","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1825","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Tremarctos","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"488","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ornatus","name":"Tremarctos ornatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Andes Mountains of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peruand Boliva, with controversial evidence of existence in N Argentina.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714497/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cuesta et al. (2003) | Garshelis (2004) | Goldstein (2002, 2004) | Goldstein, Paisley et al. (2006) | Goldstein, Velez-Liendo et al. (2007) | Jorgenson & Sandoval (2005) | Kattan et al. (2004) | Mondolfi (1983, 1989) | Paisley (2001) | Paisley & Garshelis (2006) | Peralvo et al. (2005) | Peyton (1980, 1987) | Peyton et al. (1998) | Rodriguez-Clark & Sanchez-Mercado (2006) | Ruiz-Garcia (2003) | Troya et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous diet includes many kinds of fruits, vegetative material, and meat. Especially important through most parts of the range are the succulent parts of plants in the family Bromeliaceae, both epiphytic and terrestrial bromeliads. In high altitude grasslands, the heart of the terrestrial Puyais a dietary mainstay, as this bromeliad is the only abundant food available for much of the year. The bears must strip away the stiff thorny leaves to get to the heart, which looks somewhat like a pineapple but is vegetative and bland. Bears may eat only one in ten of this obiquitous plant, possibly related to differences in nutritional composition. In the forest, they regularly climb trees to obtain Tillandsia, an epiphytic bromeliad; they eat the basal meristematic tissue and drop the remaining pieces of leaves to the forest floor, providing a highly visible sign of their feeding activity. Bears select patches (with Puya) or trees (with Tillandsia) that have a high density of large bromeliads. Bromeliads compose from 90% to less than 15% of their diet, depending on season and geographic area. Fruits compose the other core part of the diet, varying inversely to the bromeliads. Both shrub and tree-borne fruits are consumed (e.g. Lauraceae, Moraceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae). Fruit abundance varies seasonally with rainfall. Other foods include palm petioles, bamboo shoots, bulbs of orchids, and in drier habitats, fruits and pulp of cacti and, remarkably, the soft cortex of the pasallo tree (Bombax discolor). Near human settlements, they routinely raid cornfields. Animal matter is another potentially important food, although never a large dietary component. They eat insects, snails, and small mammals, but more significantly in terms of total nutrition, they occasionally take large mammals such as deer and free-ranging or unguarded pastured cattle. Considerable controversy has surrounded the issue of whether most meat in their diet is from animals that they killed or scavenged—there is clear evidence that they sometimes prey on cattle, but they probably also find carrion. A test of their attraction to beef demonstrated this: a small (0-5 kg) chunk of meat placed in an open area attracted two different radio-collared bears from a distance of 1-5 km in 5-15 hours. When feeding on a cattle carcass, which may take several days to consume, they often construct ground and tree nests for resting. Tree nests are made from a collection of bent and broken branches. They also sometimes build nests in fruit trees.","breeding":"Presumed mating pairs have been seen between March and October; however, no real information is available on the normal timing of breeding of wild Andean Bears. In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere, births occur from December through February, coinciding with the timing of births in northern species of bears. However, in zoos in South America, Andean Bear births tend to occur more regularly during May-October. Anecdotal information on probable birthing dates in the wild is equivocal. Gestation periods in captivity range from 5-5-8-5 months, indicating a variable period of delayed implantation, and litter size is most commonly two. Litters in the wild are commonly one or two (but up to three or four). Females can produce cubs at two-year intervals, beginning at 4-7 years of age.","activityPatterns":"In one high-elevation site in Bolivia, composed of mixed grassland and cloud forest, Andean Bears were entirely diurnal. They slept 9-12 hours at night, awoke near sunrise, took brief rests during the day, and began their night's rest just after sunset. This pattern did not vary seasonally. In other areas, bears are reported to be somewhat more active at night, but are still principally diurnal. Because food is available year-round throughout their range, Andean Bears do not hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Limited information indicates that home ranges may be as small as 10 km? or as large as 150 km®. Males have larger ranges than females, and ranges within and between sexes broadly overlap. They are reported to move along an altitudinal gradient among different habitat types, following seasonal changes in available food resources. Andean Bears may gather at rich feeding areas (e.g. cornfields and cactus groves) and at waterholes in arid environments.Breeding. Presumed mating pairs have been seen between March and October; however, no real information is available on the normal timing of breeding of wild Andean Bears. In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere, births occur from December through February, coinciding with the timing of births in northern species of bears. However, in zoos in South America, Andean Bear births tend to occur more regularly during May-October. Anecdotal information on probable birthing dates in the wild is equivocal. Gestation periods in captivity range from 5-5-8-5 months, indicating a variable period of delayed implantation, and litter size is most commonly two. Litters in the wild are commonly one or two (but up to three or four). Females can produce cubs at two-year intervals, beginning at 4-7 years of age.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Andean Bears are also protected by national legislation in each of the five range countries. However, loopholes in these laws and lack of adequate enforcement result in bears being killed while depredating crops or livestock, or poached for their parts. Andean Bear products are used for medicinal or ritual purposes, and live bears are also sometimes captured and sold. These problems are exacerbated by habitat loss and fragmentation, which not only reduces their natural foraging area, but also puts the bears in closer proximity to people, crops, and livestock. In a few select areas, management plans have been established, with community involvement, to ameliorate bear-human conflicts. A survey in 1998 revealed that less than 20% of the range was legally protected as parks, reserves or sanctuaries. Since then, additional protected areas have been created and others enlarged, but at the same time, more forested land outside the protected areas has been lost to agriculture or fragmented by road development, and mining activities. Some conservation organizations are working to maintain or establish corridors among populations, especially in the northern part of the range, where many Andean Bear populations are isolated in small to mediumsized patches. Habitat patches are larger in the southern part of the range (Peru, Bolivia). Valid rangewide or country-wide population estimates are lacking; guesstimates range from about 13,000-25,000. Efforts are underway to survey various parts of the range to obtain information on presence-absence and relative abundance, based on incidence of sign (bear trails, climbed or rubbed trees, tree nests, bed sites, feeding remains, scats).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130-190 cm, tail less than 10 cm; weight of males 100-175 kg (rarely to 200 kg), females 60-80 kg. Coatis black or sometimes dark brown with creamy white biblike marking on chin, neck, and/or chest and typically some white markings around the muzzle and eyes. The extent of white markings is highly variable. Individuals with complete white circles around both eyes gave rise to the common name Spectacled Bear. However, many if not most do not have complete circles around both eyes; some have partial circles, some are highly asymmetrical, and some have virtually no facial markings or, conversely, an almost all buff-white face. The muzzle is variably-colored and short compared to the ursine bears. Claws are short on both front and rear feet. The underside of the feet have hair between the digital and plantar pads, but not between the plantar and carpal front pads (similar to Asiatic Black Bears).Habitat.Andean Bears range in elevation from 200 to over 4700 m. Preferred habitat includes various sorts of humid and very humid montane cloud forest. They also occupy higher elevation elfin forest, and puna and paramo (high-altitude) grasslands, as well as lower elevation thorn forest and scrub desert (in western Peru).Food and Feeding.Omnivorous diet includes many kinds of fruits, vegetative material, and meat. Especially important through most parts of the range are the succulent parts of plants in the family Bromeliaceae, both epiphytic and terrestrial bromeliads. In high altitude grasslands, the heart of the terrestrial Puyais a dietary mainstay, as this bromeliad is the only abundant food available for much of the year. The bears must strip away the stiff thorny leaves to get to the heart, which looks somewhat like a pineapple but is vegetative and bland. Bears may eat only one in ten of this obiquitous plant, possibly related to differences in nutritional composition. In the forest, they regularly climb trees to obtain Tillandsia, an epiphytic bromeliad; they eat the basal meristematic tissue and drop the remaining pieces of leaves to the forest floor, providing a highly visible sign of their feeding activity. Bears select patches (with Puya) or trees (with Tillandsia) that have a high density of large bromeliads. Bromeliads compose from 90% to less than 15% of their diet, depending on season and geographic area. Fruits compose the other core part of the diet, varying inversely to the bromeliads. Both shrub and tree-borne fruits are consumed (e.g. Lauraceae, Moraceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae). Fruit abundance varies seasonally with rainfall. Other foods include palm petioles, bamboo shoots, bulbs of orchids, and in drier habitats, fruits and pulp of cacti and, remarkably, the soft cortex of the pasallo tree (Bombax discolor). Near human settlements, they routinely raid cornfields. Animal matter is another potentially important food, although never a large dietary component. They eat insects, snails, and small mammals, but more significantly in terms of total nutrition, they occasionally take large mammals such as deer and free-ranging or unguarded pastured cattle. Considerable controversy has surrounded the issue of whether most meat in their diet is from animals that they killed or scavenged—there is clear evidence that they sometimes prey on cattle, but they probably also find carrion. A test of their attraction to beef demonstrated this: a small (0-5 kg) chunk of meat placed in an open area attracted two different radio-collared bears from a distance of 1-5 km in 5-15 hours. When feeding on a cattle carcass, which may take several days to consume, they often construct ground and tree nests for resting. Tree nests are made from a collection of bent and broken branches. They also sometimes build nests in fruit trees.Activity patterns.In one high-elevation site in Bolivia, composed of mixed grassland and cloud forest, Andean Bears were entirely diurnal. They slept 9-12 hours at night, awoke near sunrise, took brief rests during the day, and began their night's rest just after sunset. This pattern did not vary seasonally. In other areas, bears are reported to be somewhat more active at night, but are still principally diurnal. Because food is available year-round throughout their range, Andean Bears do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Limited information indicates that home ranges may be as small as 10 km? or as large as 150 km®. Males have larger ranges than females, and ranges within and between sexes broadly overlap. They are reported to move along an altitudinal gradient among different habitat types, following seasonal changes in available food resources. Andean Bears may gather at rich feeding areas (e.g. cornfields and cactus groves) and at waterholes in arid environments.Breeding. Presumed mating pairs have been seen between March and October; however, no real information is available on the normal timing of breeding of wild Andean Bears. In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere, births occur from December through February, coinciding with the timing of births in northern species of bears. However, in zoos in South America, Andean Bear births tend to occur more regularly during May-October. Anecdotal information on probable birthing dates in the wild is equivocal. Gestation periods in captivity range from 5-5-8-5 months, indicating a variable period of delayed implantation, and litter size is most commonly two. Litters in the wild are commonly one or two (but up to three or four). Females can produce cubs at two-year intervals, beginning at 4-7 years of age.Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Andean Bears are also protected by national legislation in each of the five range countries. However, loopholes in these laws and lack of adequate enforcement result in bears being killed while depredating crops or livestock, or poached for their parts. Andean Bear products are used for medicinal or ritual purposes, and live bears are also sometimes captured and sold. These problems are exacerbated by habitat loss and fragmentation, which not only reduces their natural foraging area, but also puts the bears in closer proximity to people, crops, and livestock. In a few select areas, management plans have been established, with community involvement, to ameliorate bear-human conflicts. A survey in 1998 revealed that less than 20% of the range was legally protected as parks, reserves or sanctuaries. Since then, additional protected areas have been created and others enlarged, but at the same time, more forested land outside the protected areas has been lost to agriculture or fragmented by road development, and mining activities. Some conservation organizations are working to maintain or establish corridors among populations, especially in the northern part of the range, where many Andean Bear populations are isolated in small to mediumsized patches.","habitat":"Andean Bears range in elevation from 200 to over 4700 m. Preferred habitat includes various sorts of humid and very humid montane cloud forest. They also occupy higher elevation elfin forest, and puna and paramo (high-altitude) grasslands, as well as lower elevation thorn forest and scrub desert (in western Peru)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"487","verbatimText":"1.Giant PandaAiluropoda melanoleucaFrench:Ours panda/ German:Bambusbar/ Spanish:PandaOther common names:Da Xiong Mao (meaning large bear cat)Taxonomy. Ursus melanoleucus David, 1869, Sichuan Province, China.Previously included in genus Ursus. Once placed in a separate family, morphological and molecular evidence now strongly supports placement in Ursidae. No subspecies yet recognized, although one population in Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi Province, shows differences in cranial and dental morphology, pelage characteristics, and genetics indicative of isolation for several thousand years, and a subspecies designation (ginlingensis) has been proposed.Distribution. C China(Sichuan, Gansu& ShaanxiProvinces).Descriptive notes. Head-body 120-180 cm, tail 10-16 cm; males weigh 85-125 kg (sometimes exceeding 150 kgin captivity), about 10-20% more than females, which weigh 70-100 kg. Stocky, barrel-shaped body, large forelimbs, wide massive head with short muzzle and erect ears (10 cm). Hairs are coarse and oily. Specific name melanoleucarefers to distinctive black and white color pattern, which is unique among mammals. Face is white with an oblong black patch around each eye, black ears, and a black nose. Forelegs are black, continuing up over shoulders with a narrower band across the back. Hindlegs below the hips are also black. The remainder of the body, including the tail, is white. Occasionally, individuals may have more brown than black coloration. Forepaws are modified with a greatly enlarged radial sesamoid bone, which functions as a sixth digit for grasping bamboo. This “false thumb” is nearly equal in size to the metacarpal bones of the five true digits, and has its own pad that opposes the first digit, although it cannot be moved like an independent thumb. Bamboo is held within the haired furrow between the digits and plantar (palmar) pad, which can be tightly flexed. The Giant Panda’s generic name, meaning panda foot, derives from the foot’s likeness to the structure and function of the foot of the Red Panda, a bamboo-eater that was discovered and named earlier. Claws are short, both front and rear.Habitat. Occupy temperate montane forests with dense stands of bamboo at altitudes of 1200-4100m, or more typically 1500-3000m. Bamboo is a dominant understory plant in broad-leaved, broad-leaved mixed with conifer, and subalpine conifer forests in the mountainous regions of central China. However, the type and density of bamboo greatly affect habitat use by Giant Pandas. The growth rate of bamboo, and hence its suitability to Pandas,is also related to the amount of overstory tree canopy. Remaining habitat for Pandas is steep and rugged, being the only land that was not farmed and settled by people in a once-extensive range that extended from Beijingto eastern Chinaand south to present day Vietnamand Myanmar. Within this remaining habitat, Pandas seek areas with relatively gentle slopes and high moisture.Food and Feeding. Their diet is almost entirely bamboo (over 99%); however, they occasionally feed on leaves, stems or roots of other plants as well as some meat, from rodents and young ungulates, either killed or scavenged. During large-scale flowering and die-off of bamboo, individuals may seek other foods, including crops and human garbage. For unknown reasons, some individuals do this even when bamboo is readily available. Across the six mountain ranges that they inhabit, Giant Pandas utilize over 60 species of bamboo, 35 of which constitute their main food source. They select species higher in protein and lower in fiber, hence more digestible. They use different species of bamboo in different elevational bands, varying with the seasons and coinciding with the germination and growth of the plants. They eat different parts of bamboo at different times of year, alternating between young tender leaves and shoots, versus stems and branches. They prefer shoots and stems of certain lengths and diameters, selecting those that are easier to hold and chew. Pandas sit or recline to eat. Holding a stem in one paw, a Panda inserts it in the side of its mouth and repeatedly and rapidly bites off chunks approximately the width of its palate, chewing very little. Scats of any individual Panda thus have intact fragments of bamboo that are all approximately the same length. This characteristic has been exploited in population surveys, where the size of bamboo fragments in scats is used to differentiate individuals with overlapping home ranges.Activity patterns. Pandas are active about 50% of the day, mostly collecting or eating bamboo. Activity occurs rather uniformly through the day and night, in bursts of a few hours. Little variation occurs seasonally. Unlike other bears, which exhibit an energymaximizing strategy, increasing consumption and activity when food is most plentiful, Pandas are least active when feeding on abundant and nutritious leaves. Because food is available throughout the year, Pandas do not hibernate, although during cold and snowy conditions they may take temporary shelter in hollow trees, rock crevices, and caves. They climb trees, although infrequently, to escape danger, to rest, or in courtship—during the mating season males may vocalize from trees to attract females, and estrous females may climb to fend off suitors. However, they spend less time in trees than several other species of bears (Andean Bears, Sun Bears, Asiatic Black Bears) because they do not feed there.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Individuals have home ranges of 1-60 km?, averaging 5-15 km? depending on gender and habitat. Range size changes seasonally, and they make seasonal elevational shifts (sometimes referred to as vertical migrations), which vary by area, corresponding with growth patterns of various kinds of bamboo. Typically they descend to lower elevations during winter, to escape deep snow, and to high elevations in summer. They can move several hundred meters in elevation in just a few days. Home ranges overlap, but pandas may remain in smaller core areas of only about 30 ha for half their time; these core ranges overlap little among animals of the same sex, but adult males overlap the core ranges of several females. Communication and spacing appears to be maintained by extensive scent marking, using secretions from anogenital glands. Secretions are often deposited on stumps, logs or trees along prominent ridges. One study used fecal genetics to investigate relatedness of Pandas living in the same vicinity, and inferred that, unlike all other bears, females rather than males disperse from their natal area. In another study, two radio-collared males settled near their mother, whereas two young females dispersed. As Panda range has expanded, several young, apparently dispersing females have appeared in several new areas, including a large city.Breeding. Mating occurs from March through May. Vocalizations (bleating, chirping) and scent marking are used to attract mates. Pairs may remain together for days or weeks prior to mating. Both sexes may mate with multiple (3-5) partners. Peak estrus lasts less than one week. Females use rock dens or hollow trees for birthing. Cubs are born in August or September, 3-5-5 months after mating; a variable period of delayed implantation accounts for the variability in total gestation. At 80-200 grams, the infant at birth is only about 0-1% of the mother’s weight, one-third to one-quarter that of other bears. Infants are born pink in color, with short, sparse white hair; the typical black and white pelage is achieved by three weeks of age. Litter size at birth is often two, generally born about two hours (but up to 36 hours) apart; however, the mother raises just the first born, if it is healthy. Thus, functional litter size in the wild is only one. In captivity, females can be fooled into raising two cubs by switching them every twelve hours. This is the only species of bear to regularly give birth to more cubs than it can raise—the explanation for this unusual reproductive strategy remains elusive. Also, unusual for bears, Panda mothers change dens multiple times, carrying their cub in their mouth, and also periodically leave the den to feed. During the birthing process they only fast for 2-3 weeks. Pandas are often erroneously believed to be poor breeders. This impression stemmed from the previous low reproductive performance of captive animals, now known to have resulted from inadequate captive conditions. Studies of wild Pandas indicate that their reproductive rates are comparable to some other species of bears, with cub production beginning at 5-7 years and inter-litter intervals of two or three years. Breeding continues into the early-20s, so a female could wean six or more cubs in her lifetime.Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Panda is considered a threatened and precious species in China. They are also listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act, thereby regulating import of captive animals into the USA. Their total population in the wild has been estimated at less than 2000, but this may be revised as better methodology is developed for estimating numbers (e.g. using DNA in their feces to identify individuals). They are a Category I species (maximum level of protection) under the Chinese Wildlife Conservation Law. A national conservation plan, adopted by the Chinese government in 1992, guides conservation initiatives for this species. Intentional poaching of Pandas has been largely curtailed by severe penalties and increased patrolling in their remaining habitats. Markets for their skins have virtually disappeared, and other body parts are not used in traditional Chinese medicine. However, they are still sometimes killed in snares set for Musk Deer and other species. Limited and degraded habitat remains their greatest threat. The species only exists in portions of six mountain ranges separated by expanses of agriculture, and within these, inhabitable bamboo forests are separated by a patchwork of clearings and forested areas without bamboo. Conservation measures have included the establishment of a network of more than 60 Panda reserves, a ban on logging, and a policy that compensates farmers who convert agricultural fields on steep slopes to forest. However, small population size and restricted total range remains a threat to the viability of this species. A further threat relates to the panda’s reliance on bamboo for food. Bamboo is subject to periodic, synchronous flowering and dieoffs at intervals of 15-120 years, and the fragmented habitat restricts where Pandas can move when such die-offs occur. Effects of climate change on bamboo abundance and flowering cycles are as yet very uncertain. Captive breeding in Chinahas now succeeded (with the aid of artificial insemination) to the extent that captive facilities will soon be overpopulated, providing a potential stock for augmenting wild Panda populations. However, the lack of suitable release sites—having adequate habitat but few resident pandas—Ilimits hopes of eventually releasing many of these captive Pandas into the wild.Bibliography. Endo et al. (1999), Garshelis et al. (2008), Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988b), Lindburg & Baragona (2004), Liu et al. (2005), Loucks, Lu, Dinerstein, Wang, Fu & Wang (2003), Loucks, Lu, Dinerstein, Wang, Olson et al. (2001), LG, Johnson et al. (2001), LU, Pan et al. (2000), Li, Wang & Garshelis (2007), Lumpkin & Seidensticker (2002), Pan et al. (2001), Reid & Gong (1999), Schaller, Hu et al. (1985), Schaller, Teng et al. (1989), Wanet al. (2005), Xu et al. (2007), Zhan, Li et al. (2006), Zhan, Zhang et al. (2007), Zhu et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Ursus melanoleucus David, 1869, Sichuan Province, China.Previously included in genus Ursus. Once placed in a separate family, morphological and molecular evidence now strongly supports placement in Ursidae. No subspecies yet recognized, although one population in Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi Province, shows differences in cranial and dental morphology, pelage characteristics, and genetics indicative of isolation for several thousand years, and a subspecies designation (ginlingensis) has been proposed.","commonNames":"Ours panda @fr | Bambusbar @de | Panda @es | Da Xiong Mao (meaning large bear cat) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"David","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1869","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Ailuropoda","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"487","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"melanoleuca","name":"Ailuropoda melanoleuca","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C China(Sichuan, Gansu& ShaanxiProvinces).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714495/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Endo et al. (1999) | Garshelis et al. (2008) | Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988b) | Lindburg & Baragona (2004) | Liu et al. (2005) | Loucks, Lu, Dinerstein, Wang, Fu & Wang (2003) | Loucks, Lu, Dinerstein, Wang, Olson et al. (2001) | LG, Johnson et al. (2001) | LU, Pan et al. (2000) | Li, Wang & Garshelis (2007) | Lumpkin & Seidensticker (2002) | Pan et al. (2001) | Reid & Gong (1999) | Schaller, Hu et al. (1985) | Schaller, Teng et al. (1989) | Wanet al. (2005) | Xu et al. (2007) | Zhan, Li et al. (2006) | Zhan, Zhang et al. (2007) | Zhu et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Their diet is almost entirely bamboo (over 99%); however, they occasionally feed on leaves, stems or roots of other plants as well as some meat, from rodents and young ungulates, either killed or scavenged. During large-scale flowering and die-off of bamboo, individuals may seek other foods, including crops and human garbage. For unknown reasons, some individuals do this even when bamboo is readily available. Across the six mountain ranges that they inhabit, Giant Pandas utilize over 60 species of bamboo, 35 of which constitute their main food source. They select species higher in protein and lower in fiber, hence more digestible. They use different species of bamboo in different elevational bands, varying with the seasons and coinciding with the germination and growth of the plants. They eat different parts of bamboo at different times of year, alternating between young tender leaves and shoots, versus stems and branches. They prefer shoots and stems of certain lengths and diameters, selecting those that are easier to hold and chew. Pandas sit or recline to eat. Holding a stem in one paw, a Panda inserts it in the side of its mouth and repeatedly and rapidly bites off chunks approximately the width of its palate, chewing very little. Scats of any individual Panda thus have intact fragments of bamboo that are all approximately the same length. This characteristic has been exploited in population surveys, where the size of bamboo fragments in scats is used to differentiate individuals with overlapping home ranges.","breeding":"Mating occurs from March through May. Vocalizations (bleating, chirping) and scent marking are used to attract mates. Pairs may remain together for days or weeks prior to mating. Both sexes may mate with multiple (3-5) partners. Peak estrus lasts less than one week. Females use rock dens or hollow trees for birthing. Cubs are born in August or September, 3-5-5 months after mating; a variable period of delayed implantation accounts for the variability in total gestation. At 80-200 grams, the infant at birth is only about 0-1% of the mother’s weight, one-third to one-quarter that of other bears. Infants are born pink in color, with short, sparse white hair; the typical black and white pelage is achieved by three weeks of age. Litter size at birth is often two, generally born about two hours (but up to 36 hours) apart; however, the mother raises just the first born, if it is healthy. Thus, functional litter size in the wild is only one. In captivity, females can be fooled into raising two cubs by switching them every twelve hours. This is the only species of bear to regularly give birth to more cubs than it can raise—the explanation for this unusual reproductive strategy remains elusive. Also, unusual for bears, Panda mothers change dens multiple times, carrying their cub in their mouth, and also periodically leave the den to feed. During the birthing process they only fast for 2-3 weeks. Pandas are often erroneously believed to be poor breeders. This impression stemmed from the previous low reproductive performance of captive animals, now known to have resulted from inadequate captive conditions. Studies of wild Pandas indicate that their reproductive rates are comparable to some other species of bears, with cub production beginning at 5-7 years and inter-litter intervals of two or three years. Breeding continues into the early-20s, so a female could wean six or more cubs in her lifetime.","activityPatterns":"Pandas are active about 50% of the day, mostly collecting or eating bamboo. Activity occurs rather uniformly through the day and night, in bursts of a few hours. Little variation occurs seasonally. Unlike other bears, which exhibit an energymaximizing strategy, increasing consumption and activity when food is most plentiful, Pandas are least active when feeding on abundant and nutritious leaves. Because food is available throughout the year, Pandas do not hibernate, although during cold and snowy conditions they may take temporary shelter in hollow trees, rock crevices, and caves. They climb trees, although infrequently, to escape danger, to rest, or in courtship—during the mating season males may vocalize from trees to attract females, and estrous females may climb to fend off suitors. However, they spend less time in trees than several other species of bears (Andean Bears, Sun Bears, Asiatic Black Bears) because they do not feed there.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Individuals have home ranges of 1-60 km?, averaging 5-15 km? depending on gender and habitat. Range size changes seasonally, and they make seasonal elevational shifts (sometimes referred to as vertical migrations), which vary by area, corresponding with growth patterns of various kinds of bamboo. Typically they descend to lower elevations during winter, to escape deep snow, and to high elevations in summer. They can move several hundred meters in elevation in just a few days. Home ranges overlap, but pandas may remain in smaller core areas of only about 30 ha for half their time; these core ranges overlap little among animals of the same sex, but adult males overlap the core ranges of several females. Communication and spacing appears to be maintained by extensive scent marking, using secretions from anogenital glands. Secretions are often deposited on stumps, logs or trees along prominent ridges. One study used fecal genetics to investigate relatedness of Pandas living in the same vicinity, and inferred that, unlike all other bears, females rather than males disperse from their natal area. In another study, two radio-collared males settled near their mother, whereas two young females dispersed. As Panda range has expanded, several young, apparently dispersing females have appeared in several new areas, including a large city.Breeding. Mating occurs from March through May. Vocalizations (bleating, chirping) and scent marking are used to attract mates. Pairs may remain together for days or weeks prior to mating. Both sexes may mate with multiple (3-5) partners. Peak estrus lasts less than one week. Females use rock dens or hollow trees for birthing. Cubs are born in August or September, 3-5-5 months after mating; a variable period of delayed implantation accounts for the variability in total gestation. At 80-200 grams, the infant at birth is only about 0-1% of the mother’s weight, one-third to one-quarter that of other bears. Infants are born pink in color, with short, sparse white hair; the typical black and white pelage is achieved by three weeks of age. Litter size at birth is often two, generally born about two hours (but up to 36 hours) apart; however, the mother raises just the first born, if it is healthy. Thus, functional litter size in the wild is only one. In captivity, females can be fooled into raising two cubs by switching them every twelve hours. This is the only species of bear to regularly give birth to more cubs than it can raise—the explanation for this unusual reproductive strategy remains elusive. Also, unusual for bears, Panda mothers change dens multiple times, carrying their cub in their mouth, and also periodically leave the den to feed. During the birthing process they only fast for 2-3 weeks. Pandas are often erroneously believed to be poor breeders. This impression stemmed from the previous low reproductive performance of captive animals, now known to have resulted from inadequate captive conditions. Studies of wild Pandas indicate that their reproductive rates are comparable to some other species of bears, with cub production beginning at 5-7 years and inter-litter intervals of two or three years. Breeding continues into the early-20s, so a female could wean six or more cubs in her lifetime.Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Panda is considered a threatened and precious species in China. They are also listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act, thereby regulating import of captive animals into the USA. Their total population in the wild has been estimated at less than 2000, but this may be revised as better methodology is developed for estimating numbers (e.g. using DNA in their feces to identify individuals). They are a Category I species (maximum level of protection) under the Chinese Wildlife Conservation Law. A national conservation plan, adopted by the Chinese government in 1992, guides conservation initiatives for this species. Intentional poaching of Pandas has been largely curtailed by severe penalties and increased patrolling in their remaining habitats. Markets for their skins have virtually disappeared, and other body parts are not used in traditional Chinese medicine. However, they are still sometimes killed in snares set for Musk Deer and other species. Limited and degraded habitat remains their greatest threat. The species only exists in portions of six mountain ranges separated by expanses of agriculture, and within these, inhabitable bamboo forests are separated by a patchwork of clearings and forested areas without bamboo.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Panda is considered a threatened and precious species in China. They are also listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act, thereby regulating import of captive animals into the USA. Their total population in the wild has been estimated at less than 2000, but this may be revised as better methodology is developed for estimating numbers (e.g. using DNA in their feces to identify individuals). They are a Category I species (maximum level of protection) under the Chinese Wildlife Conservation Law. A national conservation plan, adopted by the Chinese government in 1992, guides conservation initiatives for this species. Intentional poaching of Pandas has been largely curtailed by severe penalties and increased patrolling in their remaining habitats. Markets for their skins have virtually disappeared, and other body parts are not used in traditional Chinese medicine. However, they are still sometimes killed in snares set for Musk Deer and other species. Limited and degraded habitat remains their greatest threat. The species only exists in portions of six mountain ranges separated by expanses of agriculture, and within these, inhabitable bamboo forests are separated by a patchwork of clearings and forested areas without bamboo. Conservation measures have included the establishment of a network of more than 60 Panda reserves, a ban on logging, and a policy that compensates farmers who convert agricultural fields on steep slopes to forest. However, small population size and restricted total range remains a threat to the viability of this species. A further threat relates to the panda’s reliance on bamboo for food. Bamboo is subject to periodic, synchronous flowering and dieoffs at intervals of 15-120 years, and the fragmented habitat restricts where Pandas can move when such die-offs occur. Effects of climate change on bamboo abundance and flowering cycles are as yet very uncertain. Captive breeding in Chinahas now succeeded (with the aid of artificial insemination) to the extent that captive facilities will soon be overpopulated, providing a potential stock for augmenting wild Panda populations. However, the lack of suitable release sites—having adequate habitat but few resident pandas—Ilimits hopes of eventually releasing many of these captive Pandas into the wild.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-180 cm, tail 10-16 cm; males weigh 85-125 kg (sometimes exceeding 150 kgin captivity), about 10-20% more than females, which weigh 70-100 kg. Stocky, barrel-shaped body, large forelimbs, wide massive head with short muzzle and erect ears (10 cm). Hairs are coarse and oily. Specific name melanoleucarefers to distinctive black and white color pattern, which is unique among mammals. Face is white with an oblong black patch around each eye, black ears, and a black nose. Forelegs are black, continuing up over shoulders with a narrower band across the back. Hindlegs below the hips are also black. The remainder of the body, including the tail, is white. Occasionally, individuals may have more brown than black coloration. Forepaws are modified with a greatly enlarged radial sesamoid bone, which functions as a sixth digit for grasping bamboo. This “false thumb” is nearly equal in size to the metacarpal bones of the five true digits, and has its own pad that opposes the first digit, although it cannot be moved like an independent thumb. Bamboo is held within the haired furrow between the digits and plantar (palmar) pad, which can be tightly flexed. The Giant Panda’s generic name, meaning panda foot, derives from the foot’s likeness to the structure and function of the foot of the Red Panda, a bamboo-eater that was discovered and named earlier. Claws are short, both front and rear.","habitat":"Occupy temperate montane forests with dense stands of bamboo at altitudes of 1200-4100m, or more typically 1500-3000m. Bamboo is a dominant understory plant in broad-leaved, broad-leaved mixed with conifer, and subalpine conifer forests in the mountainous regions of central China. However, the type and density of bamboo greatly affect habitat use by Giant Pandas. The growth rate of bamboo, and hence its suitability to Pandas,is also related to the amount of overstory tree canopy. Remaining habitat for Pandas is steep and rugged, being the only land that was not farmed and settled by people in a once-extensive range that extended from Beijingto eastern Chinaand south to present day Vietnamand Myanmar. Within this remaining habitat, Pandas seek areas with relatively gentle slopes and high moisture."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66BC76697F97D56F983FA82.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F66BC76697F97D56F983FA82","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"448","verbatimText":"Family URSIDAE(BEARS)• Large mammals with big head and thick neck, small eyes, rounded ears, no facial vibrissae; muscular bodies with stout legs, large paws, and short tail.• 100-280 cm.• Holarctic, Neotropical, and Oriental regions.• Forested environments (boreal, temperate, and tropical) to tundra and semi-desert; one species in Arctic.• 5 genera, 8 species, at least 44 extant taxa.• 1 species Endangered, 5 Vulnerable; 2 subspecies Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"491","verbatimText":"6.American Black BearUrsus americanusFrench:Ours noir/ German:Baribal/ Spanish:Oso negro americanoTaxonomy.Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780, eastern North America.Genetic comparisons among the various purported subspecies have not been performed, except in a few cases. Recent genetic evidence indicates that luteolus, formerly thought to occur only in Louisiana, extends northward to Arkansas, and also may not be differentiated from floridanus in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. a. americanus Pallas, 1780— Alaska to E Canadaand E USA.U. a. altifrontalis Elliot, 1903— Pacific coast USAand Canada(S British Columbia).U. a. amblyceps Baird, 1859— SW USA.U. a. californiensisJ. Miller, 1900— SW USA(interior California).U. a. carlottae Osgood, 1901— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).U. a. cinnamomum Audubon & Bachman, 1854— Rocky Mts of Canadaand USA.U. a. emmonsu Dall, 1895— SE Alaska.U. a. eremicus Merriam, 1904— E Mexico.U. a. floridanus Merriam, 1896— SE USA(Florida).U. a. hamilton: Cameron, 1957— E Canada(Newfoundland).U. a. kermodei Hornaday, 1905— W Canada(coastal British Columbia).U. a. luteolus Griffith, 1821— S USA(Louisiana).U. a. machetes Elliot, 1903— W Mexico.U. a. pernigerJ. A. Allen, 1910— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).U. a. pugnax Swarth, 1911— islands of SE Alaska.U. a. vancouver: Hall, 1928— SW Canada(Vancouver I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, adult males are heavier (60-225 kg, rarely up to 400 kg) than adult females (40-150 kg, but occasionally more than 180 kg). Straight facial profile, from forehead to nose, distinguishes this species from the partially sympatric Brown (Grizzly) Bear. Muzzle color is usually tan, with short hairs. Sometimes a small tan circular mark occurs slightly above each eye. Eyes are often blue at birth, but turn brown during the first year. Body hairs are rather uniform in length, but much sparser ventrally. A thick underfur is grown in fall, and molted in late spring. Coat color varies from uniformly black to various shades of brown, including cinnamon (reddish-brown) and blond. Brown-phase American Black Bears are common in western USA, less common in western Canadian Provinces, and rare along the west coast of Canada, across Alaska, and in eastern North America and Mexico. Rare white-colored (non-albino) bears occur in coastal British Columbia and gray (often called blue) bears occur in south-east Alaska. White chest markings, from one or more small spots to a large crescent-shaped blaze, occur to varying degrees, but in most populations are uncommon (except in cubs). Claws are short. Hair separates the digital pads from the main foot pad on the front and rear feet. There is also hair between the front (palmar) foot pad and carpal pad, which in normal walking does not touch the ground. Foot pads are shed in winter, when bears are in dens.Habitat.Found primarily in temperate and boreal forests, but also range into subtropical areas (Florida and Mexico) as well as into the subarctic. They inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the Grizzly Bear). They tend to occupy more forested habitats than the Grizzly Bear, especially where the two species are sympatric. Elevationally they range from sea level to 3000 m, and up to 3500 mfor winter denning.Food and Feeding.American Black Bears are generalist, opportunistic omnivores with diets varying seasonally from herbaceous vegetation (mainly in spring) to roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion. They are also attracted to human-related foods, including garbage, birdseed, corn, oats, apples, honey and brood in apiaries. Feeding increases dramatically in the fall, in preparation for hibernation, and focuses on foods rich in fat. American chestnuts (Castaneadentata) were once a key fall food in eastern North America, but after blight destroyed this food source in the early to mid-1900s, oak (Quercus) acorns and beechnuts (Fagusgrandifolia) became the main fall foods. Farther west, hazelnuts (Corylus), whitebark pine nuts (Pinus albicaulis), madrone (Arbutusxalapensis), mansanita (Arctostaphylos), huckleberries (Vaccinium), and buffalo berries (Shepherdia canadensis) are principalfall foods. In arid regions, succulents such as yucca and cacti are important, especially during droughts.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, commonly with an early morning and evening peak in activity and a lull in midday. They tend to sleep through the night, but nocturnal activity may increase during fall, especially in places with clumped, abundant foods. It has been theorized that gut capacity and passage rates of food may limit the length of feeding bouts when intake rates are high, prompting more uniform feeding throughout the day. Alternately, or additionally, large weight gains in fall may pose energetic constraints on feeding. More nocturnal activity also occurs when feeding in areas near human activity. Total time active per day averages 50-60%, but may be less when abundant human-related foods are available. Virtually no activity occurs for the 3-7 months of winter hibernation. In some southern portions of the range, where food is available year-round, only parturient females and those with cubs from the previous year hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes vary widely, from 3—- 1100 km? among individuals, and from 5-500 km?* among population means. In one unusual case on the tundra of Labrador, Canada, where food supplies were especially sparse, males ranged over 7000 km*, much like Brown Bears in similar environments. Home ranges are compressed where and when food is abundant, and where bear density is high. Likewise, overlap among home ranges tends to be greater where food abundance and bear density are high. Male home ranges are 2-10 times larger than those of females. Males thus overlap a number of potential breeding partners. In some areas, females (but not males) appear to be territorial, with portions of their home range not shared by other females. Female offspring remain within their natal range for a few years, gaining continued protection from the presence of their mother, and gradually expand their range to include other areas and less of their mother’s range as they age. Males, when 1-4 years old, disperse from the natal range. Dispersal distances vary from less than 10 to more than 200 km; dispersers may travel more than 40 kmin a week. Seasonal movements, especially to fall mast areas, are common for both sexes, although again, males move farther. In mountainous areas,shifts occur elevationally in accordance with changing food conditions; in flatter terrain, fall movements of 20 kmto more than 50 kmare not unusual, with greater movements in years when food supplies are particularly sparse. Single-day movements of more than 20 kmhave been reported. Such fall excursions are commonly referred to as the “fall shuffle”, in reference to the intermixing of individuals from various places (as well as the shuffling gait). Typically, bears that leave their normal home range in the fall return to a more familiar area to den.Breeding.Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.Status and Conservation.Not globally threatened, listed as Least Concern by The IUCN Red Lust, but is listed on Appendix II of CITES under the similarity of appearance provision; this mandates tagging of exported parts legally taken by hunters, so they cannot be confused with parts from illegally taken bears ofother species. With a total population estimated at about 900,000, American Black Bears are more than twice as abundant as all other species of bears combined, even though they exist in only three countries in North America (Canada, USA, Mexico). Continent-wide, numbers appear to be increasing by about 2% per year, and more than 60% of USAstates and Canadian provinces report increasing populations. Approximately 40,000-50,000 are harvested annually by sport hunters in 28 USAstates and twelve Canadian provinces and territories. In Mexico, no hunting is allowed, and the species is considered nationally endangered, but appears to be increasing and expanding its range. The Louisianasubspecies (luteolus) was listed as threatened under the USAEndangered Species Act because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality. U. a. floridanusis listed as threatened by the state ofFlorida. The Kermode Bear (kermodei) or “spirit bear”, a white-phase American Black Bear, was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia, and provided the inspiration for a large system of protected areas (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) where logging in coastal temperate rainforest is severely restricted.Bibliography.Alt (1989), Ayres et al. (1986), Barber & Lindzey (1986), Beck (1991), Beckman & Berger (2003), Beecham & Rohliman (1994), Boone et al. (2003), Costello et al. (2003), Czetwertynski et al. (2007), Fair (1990), Garshelis (2004), Garshelis & Hellgren (1994), Garshelis & Hristienko (2006), Garshelis & Noyce (2008), Garshelis & Pelton (1980), Garshelis, Crider & VanManen (2007), Garshelis, Quigley et al. (1983), Hellgren et al. (2005), Hewitt & Doan-Crider (2008), Inman & Pelton (2002), Kilham & Gray (2002), Kovach & Powell (2003), Lariviere (2001d), Lee & Vaughan (2003), Linnell et al. (2000), Mitchell et al. (2005), Noyce & Garshelis (1994), Onorato et al. (2007), Pelton (2003), Pelton et al. (1999), Ritland et al. (2001), Rogers (1987), Rounds (1987), Samson & Huot (1995), Vaughan (2002), Veitch & Harrington (1996), Warrillow et al. (2001), White et al. (2000), Williamson (2002).","taxonomy":"Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780, eastern North America.Genetic comparisons among the various purported subspecies have not been performed, except in a few cases. Recent genetic evidence indicates that luteolus, formerly thought to occur only in Louisiana, extends northward to Arkansas, and also may not be differentiated from floridanus in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.","commonNames":"Ours noir @fr | Baribal @de | Oso negro americano @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Ursus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"491","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"americanus","name":"Ursus americanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. a. americanus Pallas, 1780— Alaska to E Canadaand E USA.U. a. altifrontalis Elliot, 1903— Pacific coast USAand Canada(S British Columbia).U. a. amblyceps Baird, 1859— SW USA.U. a. californiensisJ. Miller, 1900— SW USA(interior California).U. a. carlottae Osgood, 1901— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).U. a. cinnamomum Audubon & Bachman, 1854— Rocky Mts of Canadaand USA.U. a. emmonsu Dall, 1895— SE Alaska.U. a. eremicus Merriam, 1904— E Mexico.U. a. floridanus Merriam, 1896— SE USA(Florida).U. a. hamilton: Cameron, 1957— E Canada(Newfoundland).U. a. kermodei Hornaday, 1905— W Canada(coastal British Columbia).U. a. luteolus Griffith, 1821— S USA(Louisiana).U. a. machetes Elliot, 1903— W Mexico.U. a. pernigerJ. A. Allen, 1910— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).U. a. pugnax Swarth, 1911— islands of SE Alaska.U. a. vancouver: Hall, 1928— SW Canada(Vancouver I).","bibliography":"Alt (1989) | Ayres et al. (1986) | Barber & Lindzey (1986) | Beck (1991) | Beckman & Berger (2003) | Beecham & Rohliman (1994) | Boone et al. (2003) | Costello et al. (2003) | Czetwertynski et al. (2007) | Fair (1990) | Garshelis (2004) | Garshelis & Hellgren (1994) | Garshelis & Hristienko (2006) | Garshelis & Noyce (2008) | Garshelis & Pelton (1980) | Garshelis, Crider & VanManen (2007) | Garshelis, Quigley et al. (1983) | Hellgren et al. (2005) | Hewitt & Doan-Crider (2008) | Inman & Pelton (2002) | Kilham & Gray (2002) | Kovach & Powell (2003) | Lariviere (2001d) | Lee & Vaughan (2003) | Linnell et al. (2000) | Mitchell et al. (2005) | Noyce & Garshelis (1994) | Onorato et al. (2007) | Pelton (2003) | Pelton et al. (1999) | Ritland et al. (2001) | Rogers (1987) | Rounds (1987) | Samson & Huot (1995) | Vaughan (2002) | Veitch & Harrington (1996) | Warrillow et al. (2001) | White et al. (2000) | Williamson (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"American Black Bears are generalist, opportunistic omnivores with diets varying seasonally from herbaceous vegetation (mainly in spring) to roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion. They are also attracted to human-related foods, including garbage, birdseed, corn, oats, apples, honey and brood in apiaries. Feeding increases dramatically in the fall, in preparation for hibernation, and focuses on foods rich in fat. American chestnuts (Castaneadentata) were once a key fall food in eastern North America, but after blight destroyed this food source in the early to mid-1900s, oak (Quercus) acorns and beechnuts (Fagusgrandifolia) became the main fall foods. Farther west, hazelnuts (Corylus), whitebark pine nuts (Pinus albicaulis), madrone (Arbutusxalapensis), mansanita (Arctostaphylos), huckleberries (Vaccinium), and buffalo berries (Shepherdia canadensis) are principalfall foods. In arid regions, succulents such as yucca and cacti are important, especially during droughts.","breeding":"Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.","activityPatterns":"Mainly diurnal, commonly with an early morning and evening peak in activity and a lull in midday. They tend to sleep through the night, but nocturnal activity may increase during fall, especially in places with clumped, abundant foods. It has been theorized that gut capacity and passage rates of food may limit the length of feeding bouts when intake rates are high, prompting more uniform feeding throughout the day. Alternately, or additionally, large weight gains in fall may pose energetic constraints on feeding. More nocturnal activity also occurs when feeding in areas near human activity. Total time active per day averages 50-60%, but may be less when abundant human-related foods are available. Virtually no activity occurs for the 3-7 months of winter hibernation. In some southern portions of the range, where food is available year-round, only parturient females and those with cubs from the previous year hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range sizes vary widely, from 3—- 1100 km? among individuals, and from 5-500 km?* among population means. In one unusual case on the tundra of Labrador, Canada, where food supplies were especially sparse, males ranged over 7000 km*, much like Brown Bears in similar environments. Home ranges are compressed where and when food is abundant, and where bear density is high. Likewise, overlap among home ranges tends to be greater where food abundance and bear density are high. Male home ranges are 2-10 times larger than those of females. Males thus overlap a number of potential breeding partners. In some areas, females (but not males) appear to be territorial, with portions of their home range not shared by other females. Female offspring remain within their natal range for a few years, gaining continued protection from the presence of their mother, and gradually expand their range to include other areas and less of their mother’s range as they age. Males, when 1-4 years old, disperse from the natal range. Dispersal distances vary from less than 10 to more than 200 km; dispersers may travel more than 40 kmin a week. Seasonal movements, especially to fall mast areas, are common for both sexes, although again, males move farther. In mountainous areas,shifts occur elevationally in accordance with changing food conditions; in flatter terrain, fall movements of 20 kmto more than 50 kmare not unusual, with greater movements in years when food supplies are particularly sparse. Single-day movements of more than 20 kmhave been reported. Such fall excursions are commonly referred to as the “fall shuffle”, in reference to the intermixing of individuals from various places (as well as the shuffling gait). Typically, bears that leave their normal home range in the fall return to a more familiar area to den.Breeding.Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.","statusAndConservation":"Not globally threatened, listed as Least Concern by The IUCN Red Lust, but is listed on Appendix II of CITES under the similarity of appearance provision; this mandates tagging of exported parts legally taken by hunters, so they cannot be confused with parts from illegally taken bears ofother species. With a total population estimated at about 900,000, American Black Bears are more than twice as abundant as all other species of bears combined, even though they exist in only three countries in North America (Canada, USA, Mexico). Continent-wide, numbers appear to be increasing by about 2% per year, and more than 60% of USAstates and Canadian provinces report increasing populations. Approximately 40,000-50,000 are harvested annually by sport hunters in 28 USAstates and twelve Canadian provinces and territories. In Mexico, no hunting is allowed, and the species is considered nationally endangered, but appears to be increasing and expanding its range. The Louisianasubspecies (luteolus) was listed as threatened under the USAEndangered Species Act because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality. U. a. floridanusis listed as threatened by the state ofFlorida. The Kermode Bear (kermodei) or “spirit bear”, a white-phase American Black Bear, was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia, and provided the inspiration for a large system of protected areas (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) where logging in coastal temperate rainforest is severely restricted.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, adult males are heavier (60-225 kg, rarely up to 400 kg) than adult females (40-150 kg, but occasionally more than 180 kg). Straight facial profile, from forehead to nose, distinguishes this species from the partially sympatric Brown (Grizzly) Bear. Muzzle color is usually tan, with short hairs. Sometimes a small tan circular mark occurs slightly above each eye. Eyes are often blue at birth, but turn brown during the first year. Body hairs are rather uniform in length, but much sparser ventrally. A thick underfur is grown in fall, and molted in late spring. Coat color varies from uniformly black to various shades of brown, including cinnamon (reddish-brown) and blond. Brown-phase American Black Bears are common in western USA, less common in western Canadian Provinces, and rare along the west coast of Canada, across Alaska, and in eastern North America and Mexico. Rare white-colored (non-albino) bears occur in coastal British Columbia and gray (often called blue) bears occur in south-east Alaska. White chest markings, from one or more small spots to a large crescent-shaped blaze, occur to varying degrees, but in most populations are uncommon (except in cubs). Claws are short. Hair separates the digital pads from the main foot pad on the front and rear feet. There is also hair between the front (palmar) foot pad and carpal pad, which in normal walking does not touch the ground. Foot pads are shed in winter, when bears are in dens.","habitat":"Found primarily in temperate and boreal forests, but also range into subtropical areas (Florida and Mexico) as well as into the subarctic. They inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the Grizzly Bear). They tend to occupy more forested habitats than the Grizzly Bear, especially where the two species are sympatric. Elevationally they range from sea level to 3000 m, and up to 3500 mfor winter denning."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"490","verbatimText":"5.Asiatic Black BearUrsus thibetanusFrench:Ours a collier/ German:Kragenbér/ Spanish:Oso negro asiaticoOther common names:Himalayan Black Bear, Moon Bear, White-breasted Bear, Asian Black BearTaxonomy.Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823, Sylhet region (presently divided between AssamIndiaand Bangladesh).Previously included in genus Selenarctos = moon bear. Some subspecies have been corroborated as distinct genetic clades (formosanus, japonicus, ussuricus). Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823— Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam.U. t. formosanus Swinhoe, 1864— Taiwan.U. t. gedrosianus Blanford, 1877— SE Iran, C & S Pakistan.U. t. japonicus Schlegel, 1857— Japan.U. t. laniger Pocock, 1932— Himalayas from Afghanistanto N India(Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh& Uttarakhand).U. t. mupinensis Heude, 1901— C & S China.U. t. ussuricus Heude, 1901— Russian Far East, NE China, Korean Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm; adult males are heavier (60-200 kg; rarely to 250 kg) than adult females (35-140 kg; rarely to 170 kg). Maximum weights occur in autumn, prior to hibernation. Islandpopulations (Japan, Taiwan) tend to be smaller-bodied than mainland populations. Ears are rounded and relatively large compared to other bears. Coat color black, typically with prominent white marking on the chest, often in the shape of a V or crescent (from which the common name “moon bear” derives), and white chin patch. However, white markings vary in size and color, sometimes being small or absent. Uncommonly the coat coloris brown (gedrosianus) or blond (rare color phase in South-east Asia). Muzzle color varies from light to dark. Typically there are long, coarse hairs around the neck, sometimes also extending to the cheeks; the extent and frequency of these characteristics varies regionally, as does overall hair length and density of underfur. Some subspecies were differentiated largely by the degree of shagginess of pelts from collected specimens. Proportional length of legs to body also varies considerably, with some individuals being quite short and squat. Both front and rear foot pads have hair separating the toes from the plantar pad, but unlike other Ursusspecies, the front carpal pad (corny protuberance) is connected with the plantar pad by bare skin. Front claws are about 5 cmlong, slightly longer than the rear claws, and curved.Habitat.Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).Food and Feeding.Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.Activity patterns.Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching. Habitat loss from logging, agriculture, human settlements, roadways, and erosion is most severe in southern portions of the range. The species is protected throughout its range by national and international laws. Sport hunting for Asiatic Black Bears is legal only in Japanand Russia, with annual harvests of about 500 and 100 bears, respectively; however, illegalkills and nuisance kills exceed hunting kills by a factor of five or more in both countries. Bear depredations on crops and apiaries, and attacks on people, have increased throughout the range, and have led to more direct killing, using guns, poisons, and bombs that explode when bitten. Poaching also appears to be increasing, spurred by commercial demands for meat,skins, paws, and gall bladders. The demand for these products has fueled a growing network of international trade throughout South-east Asia, and has encouraged many subsistence hunters to turn to commercial hunting. Paws are sold as an expensive delicacy (made into a soup), especially in China. Bile in gall bladdersis dried and sold as a traditional Chinese medicine; it has been used as such for nearly 3000 years. To supply an increasing demand, bear farms have been established in Chinaand Vietnam, where bile is drained from over 12,000 Asiatic Black Bears and sold commercially. This technique was originally developed in North Koreain the 1970s, and “perfected” over the years in China. Some officials assert that the increased production of bile from farming reduces poaching of wild bears; conversely, the cheaper and more available farmed bile also may encourage more use, and thus ultimately more demand for wild bile, which is considered more potent. Farmed bile is now produced in such surplus that it is incorporated into many non-traditional Chinese medicine products, such as shampoos, lotions, cosmetics, sports drinks, and toothpaste. Prompted by animal welfare-related concerns, several hundred bears have been removed from farms and taken to rescue facilities run by non-governmental organizations. However, the large total number of captive, non-releasable bears and the opinion of government officials that farming aids in the conservation of wild bears, make the situation rather intractable.Bibliography.Bromlei (1965), Carr et al. (2002), Erdbrink (1953), Fan & Song (1997), Galbreath et al. (2000), Garshelis & Steinmetz (2007), Gutleb & Ziaie (1999), Hashimoto (2002), Hashimoto et al. (2003), Huygens & Hayashi (2001), Huygens, Goto et al. (2001), Huygens, Miyashita et al. (2003), Hwang (2003), Hwang & Garshelis (2006), Hwang et al. (2002), Izumiyama & Shiraishi (2004), JapanBear Network (2006), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Li (2004), Mizukami et al. (2005), Ohnishi et al. (2007), Oka et al. (2004), Pocock (1932d), Reid, Jiang et al. (1991), Sathyakumar (2001), Schaller et al. (1989), Servheen et al. (1999), Seryodkin et al. (2003), Shepherd & Nijman (2008), Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008), Stubblefield & Shrestha (2007).","taxonomy":"Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823, Sylhet region (presently divided between AssamIndiaand Bangladesh).Previously included in genus Selenarctos = moon bear. Some subspecies have been corroborated as distinct genetic clades (formosanus, japonicus, ussuricus). Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ours a collier @fr | Kragenbér @de | Oso negro asiatico @es | Himalayan Black Bear @en | Moon Bear @en | White-breasted Bear @en | Asian Black Bear @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Cuvier","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Ursus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"490","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"thibetanus","name":"Ursus thibetanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823— Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam.U. t. formosanus Swinhoe, 1864— Taiwan.U. t. gedrosianus Blanford, 1877— SE Iran, C & S Pakistan.U. t. japonicus Schlegel, 1857— Japan.U. t. laniger Pocock, 1932— Himalayas from Afghanistanto N India(Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh& Uttarakhand).U. t. mupinensis Heude, 1901— C & S China.U. t. ussuricus Heude, 1901— Russian Far East, NE China, Korean Peninsula.","bibliography":"Bromlei (1965) | Carr et al. (2002) | Erdbrink (1953) | Fan & Song (1997) | Galbreath et al. (2000) | Garshelis & Steinmetz (2007) | Gutleb & Ziaie (1999) | Hashimoto (2002) | Hashimoto et al. (2003) | Huygens & Hayashi (2001) | Huygens, Goto et al. (2001) | Huygens, Miyashita et al. (2003) | Hwang (2003) | Hwang & Garshelis (2006) | Hwang et al. (2002) | Izumiyama & Shiraishi (2004) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Li (2004) | Mizukami et al. (2005) | Ohnishi et al. (2007) | Oka et al. (2004) | Pocock (1932d) | Reid, Jiang et al. (1991) | Sathyakumar (2001) | Schaller et al. (1989) | Servheen et al. (1999) | Seryodkin et al. (2003) | Shepherd & Nijman (2008) | Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008) | Stubblefield & Shrestha (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.","breeding":"Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.","activityPatterns":"Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching. Habitat loss from logging, agriculture, human settlements, roadways, and erosion is most severe in southern portions of the range. The species is protected throughout its range by national and international laws. Sport hunting for Asiatic Black Bears is legal only in Japanand Russia, with annual harvests of about 500 and 100 bears, respectively; however, illegalkills and nuisance kills exceed hunting kills by a factor of five or more in both countries. Bear depredations on crops and apiaries, and attacks on people, have increased throughout the range, and have led to more direct killing, using guns, poisons, and bombs that explode when bitten. Poaching also appears to be increasing, spurred by commercial demands for meat,skins, paws, and gall bladders. The demand for these products has fueled a growing network of international trade throughout South-east Asia, and has encouraged many subsistence hunters to turn to commercial hunting. Paws are sold as an expensive delicacy (made into a soup), especially in China. Bile in gall bladdersis dried and sold as a traditional Chinese medicine; it has been used as such for nearly 3000 years. To supply an increasing demand, bear farms have been established in Chinaand Vietnam, where bile is drained from over 12,000 Asiatic Black Bears and sold commercially. This technique was originally developed in North Koreain the 1970s, and “perfected” over the years in China. Some officials assert that the increased production of bile from farming reduces poaching of wild bears; conversely, the cheaper and more available farmed bile also may encourage more use, and thus ultimately more demand for wild bile, which is considered more potent. Farmed bile is now produced in such surplus that it is incorporated into many non-traditional Chinese medicine products, such as shampoos, lotions, cosmetics, sports drinks, and toothpaste. Prompted by animal welfare-related concerns, several hundred bears have been removed from farms and taken to rescue facilities run by non-governmental organizations. However, the large total number of captive, non-releasable bears and the opinion of government officials that farming aids in the conservation of wild bears, make the situation rather intractable.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 110-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm; adult males are heavier (60-200 kg; rarely to 250 kg) than adult females (35-140 kg; rarely to 170 kg). Maximum weights occur in autumn, prior to hibernation. Islandpopulations (Japan, Taiwan) tend to be smaller-bodied than mainland populations. Ears are rounded and relatively large compared to other bears. Coat color black, typically with prominent white marking on the chest, often in the shape of a V or crescent (from which the common name “moon bear” derives), and white chin patch. However, white markings vary in size and color, sometimes being small or absent. Uncommonly the coat coloris brown (gedrosianus) or blond (rare color phase in South-east Asia). Muzzle color varies from light to dark. Typically there are long, coarse hairs around the neck, sometimes also extending to the cheeks; the extent and frequency of these characteristics varies regionally, as does overall hair length and density of underfur. Some subspecies were differentiated largely by the degree of shagginess of pelts from collected specimens. Proportional length of legs to body also varies considerably, with some individuals being quite short and squat. Both front and rear foot pads have hair separating the toes from the plantar pad, but unlike other Ursusspecies, the front carpal pad (corny protuberance) is connected with the plantar pad by bare skin. Front claws are about 5 cmlong, slightly longer than the rear claws, and curved.Habitat.Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).Food and Feeding.Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.Activity patterns.Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching.","habitat":"Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"489","verbatimText":"4.Sloth BearMelursus ursinusFrench:Ours paresseux/ German:Lippenbar/ Spanish:OsobezudoOther common names:Honey Bear, Lip BearTaxonomy.Bradypus ursinus Shaw, 1791, Bihar(earlier Bengal), India.Previously included in genus Bradypus = sloth. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. u. wrsinus Shaw, 1791— India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.M. u. inornatus Pucheran, 1855— Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-190 cm, tail 8-17 cm; weight of males 70-145 kg (rarely to 190 kg), females 50-95 kg (rarely to 120 kg). The Sri Lankan subspecies is smaller, and with a less-shaggy (shorter, sparser) coat than the nominate subspecies. Coat color is black, with rare brown or reddish-brown individuals. Hair length tends to be longer than in other bears, especially around the neck, shoulders, and back (up to 15-20 cm). The ears are also covered with long hair. Underfur is lacking, and ventral body hair is sparse. The muzzle has very short hair, and is distinctly light-colored up to the eyes. The lips are highly protrusible (hence this bear is sometimes called the Lip Bear), adapted for sucking termites, and the nose can be closed during such sucking, by pushing it against the side of the feeding excavation. The chest is normally marked by a prominent white V or U-shaped band. Sloth Bears have long (6-8 cm) slightly curved, ivory-colored front claws (for digging), and shorter rear claws. The long front claws (along with their coarse, shaggy coat and missing two upper incisors) are what seem to have caused an early taxonomist to call it a sloth. Soles of the feet are naked; unlike other bears, there is no hair between the digital pads and plantar pad on front and hindfeet, and also no hair separating the carpal and plantar (palmar) pad on the front. Unique among the bears, the digital pads are partially fused and are in a nearly straight line.Habitat.Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.Food and Feeding.Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.Activity patterns.These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected. Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads. Commercial trade in bear parts has been reported, but its current extent and impact on Sloth Bears is uncertain. Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g. male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration). Capture of live cubs to raise as “dancing bears” remains a significant threat in some parts of Indiabecause laws against this are not adequately enforced. Some non-governmental organizations have been rescuing these bears (although they cannot be released to the wild) and training the people who hunted them in alternate types of work, in exchange for a commitment that they will not resume the practice.Bibliography.Akhtar et al. (2004, 2007), Bargali et al. (2004, 2005), Chhangani (2002), Garshelis, Joshi & Smith (1999), Garshelis, Joshi, Smith & Rice (1999), Garshelis, Ratnayeke & Chauhan (2007), JapanBear Network (2006), Joshi, Garshelis & Smith (1995, 1997), Joshi, Smith & Garshelis (1999), Laurie & Seidensticker (1977), Rajpurohit & Krausman (2000), Ratnayeke, Van Manen & Padmalal (2007), Ratnayeke, Van Manen, Pieris & Pragash (2007), Yoganand et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Bradypus ursinus Shaw, 1791, Bihar(earlier Bengal), India.Previously included in genus Bradypus = sloth. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ours paresseux @fr | Lippenbar @de | Osobezudo @es | Honey Bear @en | Lip Bear @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1791","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Melursus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"489","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ursinus","name":"Melursus ursinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. u. wrsinus Shaw, 1791— India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.M. u. inornatus Pucheran, 1855— Sri Lanka.","bibliography":"Akhtar et al. (2004, 2007) | Bargali et al. (2004, 2005) | Chhangani (2002) | Garshelis, Joshi & Smith (1999) | Garshelis, Joshi, Smith & Rice (1999) | Garshelis, Ratnayeke & Chauhan (2007) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Joshi, Garshelis & Smith (1995, 1997) | Joshi, Smith & Garshelis (1999) | Laurie & Seidensticker (1977) | Rajpurohit & Krausman (2000) | Ratnayeke, Van Manen & Padmalal (2007) | Ratnayeke, Van Manen, Pieris & Pragash (2007) | Yoganand et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.","breeding":"Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.","activityPatterns":"These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected. Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads. Commercial trade in bear parts has been reported, but its current extent and impact on Sloth Bears is uncertain. Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g. male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration). Capture of live cubs to raise as “dancing bears” remains a significant threat in some parts of Indiabecause laws against this are not adequately enforced. Some non-governmental organizations have been rescuing these bears (although they cannot be released to the wild) and training the people who hunted them in alternate types of work, in exchange for a commitment that they will not resume the practice.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-190 cm, tail 8-17 cm; weight of males 70-145 kg (rarely to 190 kg), females 50-95 kg (rarely to 120 kg). The Sri Lankan subspecies is smaller, and with a less-shaggy (shorter, sparser) coat than the nominate subspecies. Coat color is black, with rare brown or reddish-brown individuals. Hair length tends to be longer than in other bears, especially around the neck, shoulders, and back (up to 15-20 cm). The ears are also covered with long hair. Underfur is lacking, and ventral body hair is sparse. The muzzle has very short hair, and is distinctly light-colored up to the eyes. The lips are highly protrusible (hence this bear is sometimes called the Lip Bear), adapted for sucking termites, and the nose can be closed during such sucking, by pushing it against the side of the feeding excavation. The chest is normally marked by a prominent white V or U-shaped band. Sloth Bears have long (6-8 cm) slightly curved, ivory-colored front claws (for digging), and shorter rear claws. The long front claws (along with their coarse, shaggy coat and missing two upper incisors) are what seem to have caused an early taxonomist to call it a sloth. Soles of the feet are naked; unlike other bears, there is no hair between the digital pads and plantar pad on front and hindfeet, and also no hair separating the carpal and plantar (palmar) pad on the front. Unique among the bears, the digital pads are partially fused and are in a nearly straight line.Habitat.Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.Food and Feeding.Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.Activity patterns.These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected.","habitat":"Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96CAD1C081CF80D7046DAD4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039F7D71A96CAD1C081CF80D7046DAD4","docName":"hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"801","verbatimText":"2.OkapiOkapia johnstoniiFrench:Okapi/ German:Okapi/ Spanish:OkapiTaxonomy.Equus johnston: Sclater, 1901,forests along Semliki River, Mundala, Democratic Republic of Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.Habitat.Okapis have been able to occupy closed forest in primary or older secondary forest types. Although preferring elevations of 500-1000 m, they may be found as high as 1500 min the eastern montane rainforests. Their range is limited to the high forests in the east, the swamp forests below 500 mto the west, savannah of the Sahel/ Sudanto the north, and open woodlands to the south. They do not occupy gallery forests or the forest islands on the savanna ecotone, nor are they to be found in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. They will use seasonally inundated areas while the substrate is still wet, but they do not occur in truly inundated sites or in extensive swamp forest. Tree fall gaps are their preferred foraging sites during the primary stages of regeneration.Food and Feeding.Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings. Distribution of the Okapi’s food plants favors dispersed rather than congregated foraging. Nowhere is the forage abundant enough to support a herd, nor do the Okapis converge on seasonally-varying food sources, as there is continuous growth of new leaves. Females occupy forest areas that are richest in their favored food plants. There is a greater density of suitable browse in tree-fall gaps, as indicated by a change in locomotion of Okapi when feeding in gaps. When browsing in the subcanopy, their gait is steady, whereas when feeding in a tree-fall gap they walk more slowly, frequently pausing to feed on several plants from one position. Under the canopy and in gaps Okapis are selective browsers, eating only a small proportion of the species present and focussing on the youngest leaves. Food supply in the Ituri forest is patchy and variable in quality and distribution. Okapis exhibit geophagia, ingesting dirt in search of minerals.Breeding.Male courtship is unobtrusive and cautious. Males may take the better part of a day to approach a female with overtures that include low, moaning calls. Cows may associate with two different bulls over several days. Following a gestation of 14 months, a single calf is born between August and October, and weaned after six months. Females become sexually mature at two years of age and males later, because like most ungulates in the wild, they have to become behaviorally mature to secure mating rights. The behavior of an individual female through the reproductive cycle and gestation does not change markedly. However, after parturition a considerable portion of the day is spent feeding, moving back and forth across the home range. The female travels some distance from the calf, which is hidden,visiting it a few times a day for only a few minutes each time. Calves have been observed allosuckling. A calf remains bonded with its mother for nine months. Calves make a wide range of noises, including coughs, bleats, and whistles. Males are not restricted to areas of food abundance and spend more time roaming in forest zones where palatable leaves are sparse, perhaps in an attempt to gain access to more females.Activity patterns.Okapis are primarily diurnal and are essentially solitary, only associating to breed, except for mother—offspring pairs. Okapis are vulnerable to Leopard (Panthera pardus)attacks, several animals having been killed by Leopards during the course of one field study. Estimated population densities vary from 0-8 ind/km? to 2-3 ind/km?.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Okapis have well-defined home ranges, the most stable of which belong to reproductive females and are in the range of 3-23-6-5 km*. Adult females have exclusive use of a territory except when nursing young. Males make brief incursions to mate. Young animals of both sexes have more restricted home ranges, overlapping with their mothers’, but eventually they emigrate. Adult males cover larger areas, sometimes more than 13 km? Males and females mark trees with an oily secretion from their skin and defecate in selected areas. They have overlapping home ranges of several square kilometres and typically occur at densities of about 1 ind/km?®. They have several methods of communicating, including pheromones from the scent glands on each foot, which leave behind a tar-like substance to signal their passage. They also mark with urine. Males defend territories. Okapis solicit allogrooming of body areas they cannot reach to groom themselves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Okapi was unknown to Europeans until 1901. Although it has been estimated that there are around 10,000-20,000 individuals in the wild, this estimate is likely to be optimistic because they are shy and rarely seen. The most numerous populations of Okapi are found in the Ituri/Aruwimi and adjacent Nepoko Basin forests, and the forests of the upper Lindi, Maiko and Tshopo Basins. The species is also present in the Rubi-Tele region in Bas Uele. It was once present in the Semliki Forest of Uganda, but appears not to have survived in this region. In Virunga National Park, DR Congo, the first official sighting since 1959 was made in 2006. As of 2010, about 160 specimens are on display in some 40 zoological gardens. The name Okapi combines two words in the Congolese Lese Karo dialect, “Oka,” meaning to cut, and “kpi,” which refers to the design made on Efé arrows by wrapping the arrows with bark, making the arrows striped when they are scorched by fire. Lese legend has it that the Okapi’s stripes add to the animal’s great camouflage. The specific epithet, johnstoni, recognizes the explorer Sir Harry Johnston, who organized the expedition thatfirst acquired an Okapi from the [turi forest. Accurate population assessments are difficult in the dense forests. The future of Okapis depends on preservation of their habitat, especially the Ituri forest, an unlikely prospect given the political instability of that region.Bibliography.Bodmer & Rabb (1992), Colbert (1938), Hart (1992, 2001), Hart & Hall (1996), Hart, J.A. & Hart T.B. (1989), Hart, T.B. & Hart J.A. (1992, 1998), IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008), Landsheere (1957), Lindsay (1999), Pellew (1984a).","taxonomy":"Equus johnston: Sclater, 1901,forests along Semliki River, Mundala, Democratic Republic of Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.Habitat.Okapis have been able to occupy closed forest in primary or older secondary forest types. Although preferring elevations of 500-1000 m, they may be found as high as 1500 min the eastern montane rainforests. Their range is limited to the high forests in the east, the swamp forests below 500 mto the west, savannah of the Sahel/ Sudanto the north, and open woodlands to the south. They do not occupy gallery forests or the forest islands on the savanna ecotone, nor are they to be found in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. They will use seasonally inundated areas while the substrate is still wet, but they do not occur in truly inundated sites or in extensive swamp forest. Tree fall gaps are their preferred foraging sites during the primary stages of regeneration.Food and Feeding.Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings.","commonNames":"Okapi @fr | Okapi @de | Okapi @es | French @en | German @en | Spanish @en","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Giraffidae","interpretedGenus":"Okapia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"801","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"johnstonii","name":"Okapia johnstonii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.","bibliography":"Bodmer & Rabb (1992) | Colbert (1938) | Hart (1992, 2001) | Hart & Hall (1996) | Hart, J.A. & Hart T.B. (1989) | Hart, T.B. & Hart J.A. (1992, 1998) | IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008) | Landsheere (1957) | Lindsay (1999) | Pellew (1984a)","foodAndFeeding":"Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings. Distribution of the Okapi’s food plants favors dispersed rather than congregated foraging. Nowhere is the forage abundant enough to support a herd, nor do the Okapis converge on seasonally-varying food sources, as there is continuous growth of new leaves. Females occupy forest areas that are richest in their favored food plants. There is a greater density of suitable browse in tree-fall gaps, as indicated by a change in locomotion of Okapi when feeding in gaps. When browsing in the subcanopy, their gait is steady, whereas when feeding in a tree-fall gap they walk more slowly, frequently pausing to feed on several plants from one position. Under the canopy and in gaps Okapis are selective browsers, eating only a small proportion of the species present and focussing on the youngest leaves. Food supply in the Ituri forest is patchy and variable in quality and distribution. Okapis exhibit geophagia, ingesting dirt in search of minerals.","breeding":"","activityPatterns":"","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Okapis have well-defined home ranges, the most stable of which belong to reproductive females and are in the range of 3-23-6-5 km*. Adult females have exclusive use of a territory except when nursing young. Males make brief incursions to mate. Young animals of both sexes have more restricted home ranges, overlapping with their mothers’, but eventually they emigrate. Adult males cover larger areas, sometimes more than 13 km? Males and females mark trees with an oily secretion from their skin and defecate in selected areas. They have overlapping home ranges of several square kilometres and typically occur at densities of about 1 ind/km?®. They have several methods of communicating, including pheromones from the scent glands on each foot, which leave behind a tar-like substance to signal their passage. They also mark with urine. Males defend territories. Okapis solicit allogrooming of body areas they cannot reach to groom themselves.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.","habitat":""} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96CAD1D0D12FE207077DB5B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039F7D71A96CAD1D0D12FE207077DB5B","docName":"hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"801","verbatimText":"1.GirafteGiraffa camelopardalisFrench:Girafe/ German:Giraffe/ Spanish:JirafaOther common names:Nubian Giraffe (camelopardalis), Kordofan Giraffe (antiquorum), Masai Giraffe (tippelskirchi), Reticulated/ SomaliGiraffe (reticulata), Rothschild Giraffe (rothschildi), Smoky/Angolan Giraffe (angolensis), South African Giraffe (giraffa), Thornicroft/Rhodesian Giraffe (thornicrofti), West African/Nigerian Giraffe (peralta)Taxonomy.Cervus camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758,Sennar, Sudan.It appears from genetic studies that Giraffes fall into three groups: West African Giraffes (peralta); North African Giraffes (antiguorum, reticulata, rothschildi, thornicrofti, and probably camelopardalis); and southern African Giraffes (angolensis and guraffa). The “Masai Giraffe,” tippelskirchi, exhibits similarities with both the southern and the northern groups. Genetic differences, ranging from 0-15% to 6-9%, are below those required for the establishment of distinct species. Nine regional variants are currently recognized as subspecies, all of which interbreed.Subspecies and Distribution.G.c.camelopardalisLinnaeus,1758—ESudanandWEthiopia.G.c.angolensisLydekkcr,1903-NNamibia,SZambia,NBotswana,andNWZimbabwe.G.c.antiquorumJardine,1835-SChad,Genua]AfricanRepublic,andNEDRCongo.G.c.giraffaSchreber.1784-SWMozambique,SZimbabwe,andSouthAfrica.G.c.peraltaThomas,1898-WAfrica.G.c.reticulataDeWinton,1899-SEthiopia,SWSomalia,andNKenya.G.c.rothschildiLydekker,1903-SSudan.NUganda,andWKenya.G.c.tippelskirchiMatschie,1898-SKenyaandTanzania.G. c. thornicrofti Lydekker, 1911-Zambia(Luangwa Valley).Descriptive notes.Head-body 350-480 cm,tail 76-110 cm, height to the crown 450-600 cm; weight 1800-1930 kg (males) and 450-1180 kg (females). Adult males are larger than females. Colored hair patches are separated by yellow-white bands and vary in the regional variants. Patches contain large active sweat glands and a unique arrangement of blood vessels, suggesting they act as thermal windows through which to dissipate heat. Pigmentation of the skin is uniformly dark gray. The extraordinary shape results from elongation of the neck skeleton and of the lower leg bones. Elongation of the legs is associated with thickening of the bone wall to provide strength and of the neck by uniform lengthening of all seven cervical vertebrae. Elongation of the skeleton is rapid and demands the accumulation of large amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Giraffe anatomy has necessitated physiological adaptations; e.g. systemic blood pressure is twice that for similar sized mammals. The cells of the left ventricular and interventricular walls of the heart are enlarged, their thickness linearly related to neck length. Simultaneous enlargement of artery and arteriole walls provides resistance to blood flow. This appears to be a coordinated reflex response that maintains blood flow to the brain to protect Giraffes from fainting when they raise their heads after drinking, and to prevent peripheral oedema in the legs. Valves in the jugular vein prevent regurgitation of blood returning to the heart into the jugular vein. The long trachea is significantly narrower than in similar-sized mammals, limiting increases in dead space. Giraffe skulls feature paired subconical ossicones, which resemble short, blunt horns, arising from the top of the brain case. Female skulls are smoother and lighter than those of males. Bulls may have another median horn, which is a male secondary sexual characteristic, arising from the forehead between the eyes.Habitat.Giraffes are thought to have coevolved with acacia trees in savanna biomes throughout Africa but their occurrence is now discontinuous. They have never occurred in the tropical rain forest of the CongoRiver Basin.Food and Feeding.Exclusively browsers of dicotyledons, their preferred browse is mainly various species of Acacia. Four species of Acacia and four species of Combretum predominate in their diet, as these are rich in protein and calcium to support growth of their large skeleton. Bulls browse at higher levels than cows. Giraffes are water dependent but can survive for long periods without drinking water, obtaining their daily water needs from succulent browse. Giraffids are foliovores, selecting succulent foliage, and have an efficient digestive system compared to that of grazers, which eat monocotiyledons. The Giraffe stomach is half the size of that of African buffalo (Syncerus sp.).Breeding.Giraffes are aseasonal breeders. Females become sexually mature at 4-5 years of age. Gestation lasts about 450 days; birth mass is around 100 kg. At birth shoulder height is 1-50-1-80 m. Calves are precocial, seeking the first suckle within an hour of birth. Calves lie isolated for up to three weeks. Lactation lasts for around twelve months. Calf mortality rate is up to 75% in the first year. In captivity Giraffes can live to 36 years of age. Bulls reach sexual maturity at 2-5—4 years of age but need to pass a behavioral threshold in the wild to compete with mature bulls.Activity patterns.Giraffes rest in the shade during the hottest time of day. Males orient their bodies towards the sun depending on whether they need to reduce or gain radiant heat, but females and calves select shade. They bend their heads backwards towards the body during deep sleep. They gallop in an ungainly manner, swinging the two legs on each side in unison.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giraffes are mainly diurnal, and most active hours are spent feeding. Their gait is unusual in that both legs on one side swing in unison making their walk ungainly. Their maximum speed is about 56 km/h, and they can jump fences 1-5 m high. Giraffes are not territorial and home ranges vary from 25 km? to 160 km?. Major rivers are barriers, as Giraffes cannot swim and do not easily cross flowing rivers. Strong social bonds are lacking, and herds, mostly of females and their young, rarely consist of the same individuals for more than a few days.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Giraffes were provisionally classified as not threatened by IUCN, as the population in the wild consisted of at least 100,000 individuals and their distribution was widespread. However the West African subspecies peralta is now classified as Endangered, its numbers and range having fallen sharply. Previously its range was from Senegalto Lake Chad, but currently the only viable surviving population in this entire area consists ofless than 200 individuals in south-western Niger, with a range of about 15,000 km? Recent population estimates indicate a downward trend in numbers, which might eventually result in a different category. Some populations remain stable, some are increasing, and others are decreasing. Further studies aimed at resolving the taxonomic status of the various subspecies and populations will also allow better assessment of conservation status. In southern Africa, Giraffe has been reintroduced to many parts of the range from which they were previously eliminated, and it has been introduced into Swaziland.Bibliography.Aschaffenburg et al. (1962), Badlangana et al. (2009), Berry (1978), Bigalke (1951), Bond & Loffell (2001), Bredin et al. (2008), Brown et al. (2007), Cameron & Du Toit (2005, 2007), Cerling et al. (2004), Ciofolo & Pendu (1998), Dagg (1962, 1971), Dagg & Foster (1976, 1982), Fennessy & Brown (2010), Fennessy et al. (2001), Foster & Dagg, (1972), Gallagher et al. (1994), Hall-Martin & Skinner (1978), Hall-Martin, Skinner & Hopkins (1978), Hall-Martin, Skinner & Smith (1977), Hamilton (1973), Harris (1976), Hugh-Jones et al. (1978), Jacobson et al. (1986), Kidd (1900), Kok (1982), Kok & Opperman (1980), Kuntsch & Nel (1990), Langman (1977, 1978), Langman et al. (1982), Le Pendu et al. (2000), Leuthold (1979) Leuthold & Leuthold (1972, 1978), Lightfoot (1978), Lydekker (1904), Madden & Young (1982), Miller (1994, 1996), Mitchell (2009), Mitchell & Hattingh (1993), Mitchell & Skinner (1993, 2003, 2004, 2009), Mitchell, Bobbitt & Devries (2008), Mitchell, Maloney et al. (2006), Mitchell, van Schalkwyk & Skinner (2005), Mitchell, van Sittert & Skinner (2009a, 2009b), Pellew (1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1984b), Pienaar (1969), Pilgrim (1911), Pratt & Anderson (1982), Ridewood (1904), Robin et al. (1960), Scheepers (1992), Shortridge (1934), Simmons & Scheepers (1996), Singer & Boné (1960), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Skinner & Hall-Martin (1975) Skinner & Smithers (1990), Solounias (1999), Spinage (1968, 1993), Van Aarde (1976), Van Sittert et al. (2010), Van Schalkwyk et al. (2004), Von Linnaeus (1758), Wyatt (1971), Young & Okello (1998).","taxonomy":"Cervus camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758,Sennar, Sudan.It appears from genetic studies that Giraffes fall into three groups: West African Giraffes (peralta); North African Giraffes (antiguorum, reticulata, rothschildi, thornicrofti, and probably camelopardalis); and southern African Giraffes (angolensis and guraffa). The “Masai Giraffe,” tippelskirchi, exhibits similarities with both the southern and the northern groups. Genetic differences, ranging from 0-15% to 6-9%, are below those required for the establishment of distinct species. Nine regional variants are currently recognized as subspecies, all of which interbreed.","commonNames":"Girafe @fr | Giraffe @de | Jirafa @es | Nubian Giraffe (camelopardalis) @en | Kordofan Giraffe (antiquorum) @en | Masai Giraffe (tippelskirchi) @en | Reticulated @en | Somali Giraffe (reticulata) @en | Rothschild Giraffe (rothschildi) @en | Smoky @en | Angolan Giraffe (angolensis) @en | South African Giraffe (giraffa) @en | Thornicroft @en | Rhodesian Giraffe (thornicrofti) @en | West African @en | Nigerian Giraffe (peralta) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Giraffidae","interpretedGenus":"Giraffa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"801","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"camelopardalis","name":"Giraffa camelopardalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.c.camelopardalisLinnaeus,1758—ESudanandWEthiopia.G.c.angolensisLydekkcr,1903-NNamibia,SZambia,NBotswana,andNWZimbabwe.G.c.antiquorumJardine,1835-SChad,Genua]AfricanRepublic,andNEDRCongo.G.c.giraffaSchreber.1784-SWMozambique,SZimbabwe,andSouthAfrica.G.c.peraltaThomas,1898-WAfrica.G.c.reticulataDeWinton,1899-SEthiopia,SWSomalia,andNKenya.G.c.rothschildiLydekker,1903-SSudan.NUganda,andWKenya.G.c.tippelskirchiMatschie,1898-SKenyaandTanzania.G. c. thornicrofti Lydekker, 1911-Zambia(Luangwa Valley).","bibliography":"Aschaffenburg et al. (1962) | Badlangana et al. (2009) | Berry (1978) | Bigalke (1951) | Bond & Loffell (2001) | Bredin et al. (2008) | Brown et al. (2007) | Cameron & Du Toit (2005, 2007) | Cerling et al. (2004) | Ciofolo & Pendu (1998) | Dagg (1962, 1971) | Dagg & Foster (1976, 1982) | Fennessy & Brown (2010) | Fennessy et al. (2001) | Foster & Dagg, (1972) | Gallagher et al. (1994) | Hall-Martin & Skinner (1978) | Hall-Martin, Skinner & Hopkins (1978) | Hall-Martin, Skinner & Smith (1977) | Hamilton (1973) | Harris (1976) | Hugh-Jones et al. (1978) | Jacobson et al. (1986) | Kidd (1900) | Kok (1982) | Kok & Opperman (1980) | Kuntsch & Nel (1990) | Langman (1977, 1978) | Langman et al. (1982) | Le Pendu et al. (2000) | Leuthold (1979) | Leuthold & Leuthold (1972, 1978) | Lightfoot (1978) | Lydekker (1904) | Madden & Young (1982) | Miller (1994, 1996) | Mitchell (2009) | Mitchell & Hattingh (1993) | Mitchell & Skinner (1993, 2003, 2004, 2009) | Mitchell, Bobbitt & Devries (2008) | Mitchell, Maloney et al. (2006) | Mitchell, van Schalkwyk & Skinner (2005) | Mitchell, van Sittert & Skinner (2009a, 2009b) | Pellew (1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1984b) | Pienaar (1969) | Pilgrim (1911) | Pratt & Anderson (1982) | Ridewood (1904) | Robin et al. (1960) | Scheepers (1992) | Shortridge (1934) | Simmons & Scheepers (1996) | Singer & Boné (1960) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Skinner & Hall-Martin (1975) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Solounias (1999) | Spinage (1968, 1993) | Van Aarde (1976) | Van Sittert et al. (2010) | Van Schalkwyk et al. (2004) | Von Linnaeus (1758) | Wyatt (1971) | Young & Okello (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Exclusively browsers of dicotyledons, their preferred browse is mainly various species of Acacia. Four species of Acacia and four species of Combretum predominate in their diet, as these are rich in protein and calcium to support growth of their large skeleton. Bulls browse at higher levels than cows. Giraffes are water dependent but can survive for long periods without drinking water, obtaining their daily water needs from succulent browse. Giraffids are foliovores, selecting succulent foliage, and have an efficient digestive system compared to that of grazers, which eat monocotiyledons. The Giraffe stomach is half the size of that of African buffalo (Syncerus sp.).","breeding":"","activityPatterns":"","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Giraffes are mainly diurnal, and most active hours are spent feeding. Their gait is unusual in that both legs on one side swing in unison making their walk ungainly. Their maximum speed is about 56 km/h, and they can jump fences 1-5 m high. Giraffes are not territorial and home ranges vary from 25 km? to 160 km?. Major rivers are barriers, as Giraffes cannot swim and do not easily cross flowing rivers. Strong social bonds are lacking, and herds, mostly of females and their young, rarely consist of the same individuals for more than a few days.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 350-480 cm,tail 76-110 cm, height to the crown 450-600 cm; weight 1800-1930 kg (males) and 450-1180 kg (females). Adult males are larger than females. Colored hair patches are separated by yellow-white bands and vary in the regional variants. Patches contain large active sweat glands and a unique arrangement of blood vessels, suggesting they act as thermal windows through which to dissipate heat. Pigmentation of the skin is uniformly dark gray. The extraordinary shape results from elongation of the neck skeleton and of the lower leg bones. Elongation of the legs is associated with thickening of the bone wall to provide strength and of the neck by uniform lengthening of all seven cervical vertebrae. Elongation of the skeleton is rapid and demands the accumulation of large amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Giraffe anatomy has necessitated physiological adaptations; e.g. systemic blood pressure is twice that for similar sized mammals. The cells of the left ventricular and interventricular walls of the heart are enlarged, their thickness linearly related to neck length. Simultaneous enlargement of artery and arteriole walls provides resistance to blood flow. This appears to be a coordinated reflex response that maintains blood flow to the brain to protect Giraffes from fainting when they raise their heads after drinking, and to prevent peripheral oedema in the legs. Valves in the jugular vein prevent regurgitation of blood returning to the heart into the jugular vein. The long trachea is significantly narrower than in similar-sized mammals, limiting increases in dead space. Giraffe skulls feature paired subconical ossicones, which resemble short, blunt horns, arising from the top of the brain case. Female skulls are smoother and lighter than those of males. Bulls may have another median horn, which is a male secondary sexual characteristic, arising from the forehead between the eyes.","habitat":""} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"491","verbatimText":"6.American Black BearUrsus americanusFrench:Ours noir/ German:Baribal/ Spanish:Oso negro americanoTaxonomy.Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780, eastern North America.Genetic comparisons among the various purported subspecies have not been performed, except in a few cases. Recent genetic evidence indicates that luteolus, formerly thought to occur only in Louisiana, extends northward to Arkansas, and also may not be differentiated from floridanus in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. a. americanus Pallas, 1780— Alaska to E Canadaand E USA.U. a. altifrontalis Elliot, 1903— Pacific coast USAand Canada(S British Columbia).U. a. amblyceps Baird, 1859— SW USA.U. a. californiensisJ. Miller, 1900— SW USA(interior California).U. a. carlottae Osgood, 1901— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).U. a. cinnamomum Audubon & Bachman, 1854— Rocky Mts of Canadaand USA.U. a. emmonsu Dall, 1895— SE Alaska.U. a. eremicus Merriam, 1904— E Mexico.U. a. floridanus Merriam, 1896— SE USA(Florida).U. a. hamilton: Cameron, 1957— E Canada(Newfoundland).U. a. kermodei Hornaday, 1905— W Canada(coastal British Columbia).U. a. luteolus Griffith, 1821— S USA(Louisiana).U. a. machetes Elliot, 1903— W Mexico.U. a. pernigerJ. A. Allen, 1910— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).U. a. pugnax Swarth, 1911— islands of SE Alaska.U. a. vancouver: Hall, 1928— SW Canada(Vancouver I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 120-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, adult males are heavier (60-225 kg, rarely up to 400 kg) than adult females (40-150 kg, but occasionally more than 180 kg). Straight facial profile, from forehead to nose, distinguishes this species from the partially sympatric Brown (Grizzly) Bear. Muzzle color is usually tan, with short hairs. Sometimes a small tan circular mark occurs slightly above each eye. Eyes are often blue at birth, but turn brown during the first year. Body hairs are rather uniform in length, but much sparser ventrally. A thick underfur is grown in fall, and molted in late spring. Coat color varies from uniformly black to various shades of brown, including cinnamon (reddish-brown) and blond. Brown-phase American Black Bears are common in western USA, less common in western Canadian Provinces, and rare along the west coast of Canada, across Alaska, and in eastern North America and Mexico. Rare white-colored (non-albino) bears occur in coastal British Columbia and gray (often called blue) bears occur in south-east Alaska. White chest markings, from one or more small spots to a large crescent-shaped blaze, occur to varying degrees, but in most populations are uncommon (except in cubs). Claws are short. Hair separates the digital pads from the main foot pad on the front and rear feet. There is also hair between the front (palmar) foot pad and carpal pad, which in normal walking does not touch the ground. Foot pads are shed in winter, when bears are in dens.Habitat.Found primarily in temperate and boreal forests, but also range into subtropical areas (Florida and Mexico) as well as into the subarctic. They inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the Grizzly Bear). They tend to occupy more forested habitats than the Grizzly Bear, especially where the two species are sympatric. Elevationally they range from sea level to 3000 m, and up to 3500 mfor winter denning.Food and Feeding.American Black Bears are generalist, opportunistic omnivores with diets varying seasonally from herbaceous vegetation (mainly in spring) to roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion. They are also attracted to human-related foods, including garbage, birdseed, corn, oats, apples, honey and brood in apiaries. Feeding increases dramatically in the fall, in preparation for hibernation, and focuses on foods rich in fat. American chestnuts (Castaneadentata) were once a key fall food in eastern North America, but after blight destroyed this food source in the early to mid-1900s, oak (Quercus) acorns and beechnuts (Fagusgrandifolia) became the main fall foods. Farther west, hazelnuts (Corylus), whitebark pine nuts (Pinus albicaulis), madrone (Arbutusxalapensis), mansanita (Arctostaphylos), huckleberries (Vaccinium), and buffalo berries (Shepherdia canadensis) are principalfall foods. In arid regions, succulents such as yucca and cacti are important, especially during droughts.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal, commonly with an early morning and evening peak in activity and a lull in midday. They tend to sleep through the night, but nocturnal activity may increase during fall, especially in places with clumped, abundant foods. It has been theorized that gut capacity and passage rates of food may limit the length of feeding bouts when intake rates are high, prompting more uniform feeding throughout the day. Alternately, or additionally, large weight gains in fall may pose energetic constraints on feeding. More nocturnal activity also occurs when feeding in areas near human activity. Total time active per day averages 50-60%, but may be less when abundant human-related foods are available. Virtually no activity occurs for the 3-7 months of winter hibernation. In some southern portions of the range, where food is available year-round, only parturient females and those with cubs from the previous year hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home range sizes vary widely, from 3—- 1100 km? among individuals, and from 5-500 km?* among population means. In one unusual case on the tundra of Labrador, Canada, where food supplies were especially sparse, males ranged over 7000 km*, much like Brown Bears in similar environments. Home ranges are compressed where and when food is abundant, and where bear density is high. Likewise, overlap among home ranges tends to be greater where food abundance and bear density are high. Male home ranges are 2-10 times larger than those of females. Males thus overlap a number of potential breeding partners. In some areas, females (but not males) appear to be territorial, with portions of their home range not shared by other females. Female offspring remain within their natal range for a few years, gaining continued protection from the presence of their mother, and gradually expand their range to include other areas and less of their mother’s range as they age. Males, when 1-4 years old, disperse from the natal range. Dispersal distances vary from less than 10 to more than 200 km; dispersers may travel more than 40 kmin a week. Seasonal movements, especially to fall mast areas, are common for both sexes, although again, males move farther. In mountainous areas,shifts occur elevationally in accordance with changing food conditions; in flatter terrain, fall movements of 20 kmto more than 50 kmare not unusual, with greater movements in years when food supplies are particularly sparse. Single-day movements of more than 20 kmhave been reported. Such fall excursions are commonly referred to as the “fall shuffle”, in reference to the intermixing of individuals from various places (as well as the shuffling gait). Typically, bears that leave their normal home range in the fall return to a more familiar area to den.Breeding.Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.Status and Conservation.Not globally threatened, listed as Least Concern by The IUCN Red Lust, but is listed on Appendix II of CITES under the similarity of appearance provision; this mandates tagging of exported parts legally taken by hunters, so they cannot be confused with parts from illegally taken bears ofother species. With a total population estimated at about 900,000, American Black Bears are more than twice as abundant as all other species of bears combined, even though they exist in only three countries in North America (Canada, USA, Mexico). Continent-wide, numbers appear to be increasing by about 2% per year, and more than 60% of USAstates and Canadian provinces report increasing populations. Approximately 40,000-50,000 are harvested annually by sport hunters in 28 USAstates and twelve Canadian provinces and territories. In Mexico, no hunting is allowed, and the species is considered nationally endangered, but appears to be increasing and expanding its range. The Louisianasubspecies (luteolus) was listed as threatened under the USAEndangered Species Act because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality. U. a. floridanusis listed as threatened by the state ofFlorida. The Kermode Bear (kermodei) or “spirit bear”, a white-phase American Black Bear, was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia, and provided the inspiration for a large system of protected areas (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) where logging in coastal temperate rainforest is severely restricted.Bibliography.Alt (1989), Ayres et al. (1986), Barber & Lindzey (1986), Beck (1991), Beckman & Berger (2003), Beecham & Rohliman (1994), Boone et al. (2003), Costello et al. (2003), Czetwertynski et al. (2007), Fair (1990), Garshelis (2004), Garshelis & Hellgren (1994), Garshelis & Hristienko (2006), Garshelis & Noyce (2008), Garshelis & Pelton (1980), Garshelis, Crider & VanManen (2007), Garshelis, Quigley et al. (1983), Hellgren et al. (2005), Hewitt & Doan-Crider (2008), Inman & Pelton (2002), Kilham & Gray (2002), Kovach & Powell (2003), Lariviere (2001d), Lee & Vaughan (2003), Linnell et al. (2000), Mitchell et al. (2005), Noyce & Garshelis (1994), Onorato et al. (2007), Pelton (2003), Pelton et al. (1999), Ritland et al. (2001), Rogers (1987), Rounds (1987), Samson & Huot (1995), Vaughan (2002), Veitch & Harrington (1996), Warrillow et al. (2001), White et al. (2000), Williamson (2002).","taxonomy":"Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780, eastern North America.Genetic comparisons among the various purported subspecies have not been performed, except in a few cases. Recent genetic evidence indicates that luteolus, formerly thought to occur only in Louisiana, extends northward to Arkansas, and also may not be differentiated from floridanus in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.","commonNames":"Ours noir @fr | Baribal @de | Oso negro americano @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Ursus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"491","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"americanus","name":"Ursus americanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. a. americanus Pallas, 1780— Alaska to E Canadaand E USA.U. a. altifrontalis Elliot, 1903— Pacific coast USAand Canada(S British Columbia).U. a. amblyceps Baird, 1859— SW USA.U. a. californiensisJ. Miller, 1900— SW USA(interior California).U. a. carlottae Osgood, 1901— W Canada(Queen Charlotte Is).U. a. cinnamomum Audubon & Bachman, 1854— Rocky Mts of Canadaand USA.U. a. emmonsu Dall, 1895— SE Alaska.U. a. eremicus Merriam, 1904— E Mexico.U. a. floridanus Merriam, 1896— SE USA(Florida).U. a. hamilton: Cameron, 1957— E Canada(Newfoundland).U. a. kermodei Hornaday, 1905— W Canada(coastal British Columbia).U. a. luteolus Griffith, 1821— S USA(Louisiana).U. a. machetes Elliot, 1903— W Mexico.U. a. pernigerJ. A. Allen, 1910— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).U. a. pugnax Swarth, 1911— islands of SE Alaska.U. a. vancouver: Hall, 1928— SW Canada(Vancouver I).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714507/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alt (1989) | Ayres et al. (1986) | Barber & Lindzey (1986) | Beck (1991) | Beckman & Berger (2003) | Beecham & Rohliman (1994) | Boone et al. (2003) | Costello et al. (2003) | Czetwertynski et al. (2007) | Fair (1990) | Garshelis (2004) | Garshelis & Hellgren (1994) | Garshelis & Hristienko (2006) | Garshelis & Noyce (2008) | Garshelis & Pelton (1980) | Garshelis, Crider & VanManen (2007) | Garshelis, Quigley et al. (1983) | Hellgren et al. (2005) | Hewitt & Doan-Crider (2008) | Inman & Pelton (2002) | Kilham & Gray (2002) | Kovach & Powell (2003) | Lariviere (2001d) | Lee & Vaughan (2003) | Linnell et al. (2000) | Mitchell et al. (2005) | Noyce & Garshelis (1994) | Onorato et al. (2007) | Pelton (2003) | Pelton et al. (1999) | Ritland et al. (2001) | Rogers (1987) | Rounds (1987) | Samson & Huot (1995) | Vaughan (2002) | Veitch & Harrington (1996) | Warrillow et al. (2001) | White et al. (2000) | Williamson (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"American Black Bears are generalist, opportunistic omnivores with diets varying seasonally from herbaceous vegetation (mainly in spring) to roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion. They are also attracted to human-related foods, including garbage, birdseed, corn, oats, apples, honey and brood in apiaries. Feeding increases dramatically in the fall, in preparation for hibernation, and focuses on foods rich in fat. American chestnuts (Castaneadentata) were once a key fall food in eastern North America, but after blight destroyed this food source in the early to mid-1900s, oak (Quercus) acorns and beechnuts (Fagusgrandifolia) became the main fall foods. Farther west, hazelnuts (Corylus), whitebark pine nuts (Pinus albicaulis), madrone (Arbutusxalapensis), mansanita (Arctostaphylos), huckleberries (Vaccinium), and buffalo berries (Shepherdia canadensis) are principalfall foods. In arid regions, succulents such as yucca and cacti are important, especially during droughts.","breeding":"Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.","activityPatterns":"Mainly diurnal, commonly with an early morning and evening peak in activity and a lull in midday. They tend to sleep through the night, but nocturnal activity may increase during fall, especially in places with clumped, abundant foods. It has been theorized that gut capacity and passage rates of food may limit the length of feeding bouts when intake rates are high, prompting more uniform feeding throughout the day. Alternately, or additionally, large weight gains in fall may pose energetic constraints on feeding. More nocturnal activity also occurs when feeding in areas near human activity. Total time active per day averages 50-60%, but may be less when abundant human-related foods are available. Virtually no activity occurs for the 3-7 months of winter hibernation. In some southern portions of the range, where food is available year-round, only parturient females and those with cubs from the previous year hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home range sizes vary widely, from 3—- 1100 km? among individuals, and from 5-500 km?* among population means. In one unusual case on the tundra of Labrador, Canada, where food supplies were especially sparse, males ranged over 7000 km*, much like Brown Bears in similar environments. Home ranges are compressed where and when food is abundant, and where bear density is high. Likewise, overlap among home ranges tends to be greater where food abundance and bear density are high. Male home ranges are 2-10 times larger than those of females. Males thus overlap a number of potential breeding partners. In some areas, females (but not males) appear to be territorial, with portions of their home range not shared by other females. Female offspring remain within their natal range for a few years, gaining continued protection from the presence of their mother, and gradually expand their range to include other areas and less of their mother’s range as they age. Males, when 1-4 years old, disperse from the natal range. Dispersal distances vary from less than 10 to more than 200 km; dispersers may travel more than 40 kmin a week. Seasonal movements, especially to fall mast areas, are common for both sexes, although again, males move farther. In mountainous areas,shifts occur elevationally in accordance with changing food conditions; in flatter terrain, fall movements of 20 kmto more than 50 kmare not unusual, with greater movements in years when food supplies are particularly sparse. Single-day movements of more than 20 kmhave been reported. Such fall excursions are commonly referred to as the “fall shuffle”, in reference to the intermixing of individuals from various places (as well as the shuffling gait). Typically, bears that leave their normal home range in the fall return to a more familiar area to den.Breeding.Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200-450 g, 20 cmin length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3-8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2-:5-3-5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16-17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1-5, averaging 2-5 cubs in eastern North America and 2-0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.","statusAndConservation":"Not globally threatened, listed as Least Concern by The IUCN Red Lust, but is listed on Appendix II of CITES under the similarity of appearance provision; this mandates tagging of exported parts legally taken by hunters, so they cannot be confused with parts from illegally taken bears ofother species. With a total population estimated at about 900,000, American Black Bears are more than twice as abundant as all other species of bears combined, even though they exist in only three countries in North America (Canada, USA, Mexico). Continent-wide, numbers appear to be increasing by about 2% per year, and more than 60% of USAstates and Canadian provinces report increasing populations. Approximately 40,000-50,000 are harvested annually by sport hunters in 28 USAstates and twelve Canadian provinces and territories. In Mexico, no hunting is allowed, and the species is considered nationally endangered, but appears to be increasing and expanding its range. The Louisianasubspecies (luteolus) was listed as threatened under the USAEndangered Species Act because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality. U. a. floridanusis listed as threatened by the state ofFlorida. The Kermode Bear (kermodei) or “spirit bear”, a white-phase American Black Bear, was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia, and provided the inspiration for a large system of protected areas (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) where logging in coastal temperate rainforest is severely restricted.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 120-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, adult males are heavier (60-225 kg, rarely up to 400 kg) than adult females (40-150 kg, but occasionally more than 180 kg). Straight facial profile, from forehead to nose, distinguishes this species from the partially sympatric Brown (Grizzly) Bear. Muzzle color is usually tan, with short hairs. Sometimes a small tan circular mark occurs slightly above each eye. Eyes are often blue at birth, but turn brown during the first year. Body hairs are rather uniform in length, but much sparser ventrally. A thick underfur is grown in fall, and molted in late spring. Coat color varies from uniformly black to various shades of brown, including cinnamon (reddish-brown) and blond. Brown-phase American Black Bears are common in western USA, less common in western Canadian Provinces, and rare along the west coast of Canada, across Alaska, and in eastern North America and Mexico. Rare white-colored (non-albino) bears occur in coastal British Columbia and gray (often called blue) bears occur in south-east Alaska. White chest markings, from one or more small spots to a large crescent-shaped blaze, occur to varying degrees, but in most populations are uncommon (except in cubs). Claws are short. Hair separates the digital pads from the main foot pad on the front and rear feet. There is also hair between the front (palmar) foot pad and carpal pad, which in normal walking does not touch the ground. Foot pads are shed in winter, when bears are in dens.","habitat":"Found primarily in temperate and boreal forests, but also range into subtropical areas (Florida and Mexico) as well as into the subarctic. They inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the Grizzly Bear). They tend to occupy more forested habitats than the Grizzly Bear, especially where the two species are sympatric. Elevationally they range from sea level to 3000 m, and up to 3500 mfor winter denning."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"490","verbatimText":"5.Asiatic Black BearUrsus thibetanusFrench:Ours a collier/ German:Kragenbér/ Spanish:Oso negro asiaticoOther common names:Himalayan Black Bear, Moon Bear, White-breasted Bear, Asian Black BearTaxonomy.Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823, Sylhet region (presently divided between AssamIndiaand Bangladesh).Previously included in genus Selenarctos = moon bear. Some subspecies have been corroborated as distinct genetic clades (formosanus, japonicus, ussuricus). Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823— Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam.U. t. formosanus Swinhoe, 1864— Taiwan.U. t. gedrosianus Blanford, 1877— SE Iran, C & S Pakistan.U. t. japonicus Schlegel, 1857— Japan.U. t. laniger Pocock, 1932— Himalayas from Afghanistanto N India(Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh& Uttarakhand).U. t. mupinensis Heude, 1901— C & S China.U. t. ussuricus Heude, 1901— Russian Far East, NE China, Korean Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm; adult males are heavier (60-200 kg; rarely to 250 kg) than adult females (35-140 kg; rarely to 170 kg). Maximum weights occur in autumn, prior to hibernation. Islandpopulations (Japan, Taiwan) tend to be smaller-bodied than mainland populations. Ears are rounded and relatively large compared to other bears. Coat color black, typically with prominent white marking on the chest, often in the shape of a V or crescent (from which the common name “moon bear” derives), and white chin patch. However, white markings vary in size and color, sometimes being small or absent. Uncommonly the coat coloris brown (gedrosianus) or blond (rare color phase in South-east Asia). Muzzle color varies from light to dark. Typically there are long, coarse hairs around the neck, sometimes also extending to the cheeks; the extent and frequency of these characteristics varies regionally, as does overall hair length and density of underfur. Some subspecies were differentiated largely by the degree of shagginess of pelts from collected specimens. Proportional length of legs to body also varies considerably, with some individuals being quite short and squat. Both front and rear foot pads have hair separating the toes from the plantar pad, but unlike other Ursusspecies, the front carpal pad (corny protuberance) is connected with the plantar pad by bare skin. Front claws are about 5 cmlong, slightly longer than the rear claws, and curved.Habitat.Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).Food and Feeding.Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.Activity patterns.Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching. Habitat loss from logging, agriculture, human settlements, roadways, and erosion is most severe in southern portions of the range. The species is protected throughout its range by national and international laws. Sport hunting for Asiatic Black Bears is legal only in Japanand Russia, with annual harvests of about 500 and 100 bears, respectively; however, illegalkills and nuisance kills exceed hunting kills by a factor of five or more in both countries. Bear depredations on crops and apiaries, and attacks on people, have increased throughout the range, and have led to more direct killing, using guns, poisons, and bombs that explode when bitten. Poaching also appears to be increasing, spurred by commercial demands for meat,skins, paws, and gall bladders. The demand for these products has fueled a growing network of international trade throughout South-east Asia, and has encouraged many subsistence hunters to turn to commercial hunting. Paws are sold as an expensive delicacy (made into a soup), especially in China. Bile in gall bladdersis dried and sold as a traditional Chinese medicine; it has been used as such for nearly 3000 years. To supply an increasing demand, bear farms have been established in Chinaand Vietnam, where bile is drained from over 12,000 Asiatic Black Bears and sold commercially. This technique was originally developed in North Koreain the 1970s, and “perfected” over the years in China. Some officials assert that the increased production of bile from farming reduces poaching of wild bears; conversely, the cheaper and more available farmed bile also may encourage more use, and thus ultimately more demand for wild bile, which is considered more potent. Farmed bile is now produced in such surplus that it is incorporated into many non-traditional Chinese medicine products, such as shampoos, lotions, cosmetics, sports drinks, and toothpaste. Prompted by animal welfare-related concerns, several hundred bears have been removed from farms and taken to rescue facilities run by non-governmental organizations. However, the large total number of captive, non-releasable bears and the opinion of government officials that farming aids in the conservation of wild bears, make the situation rather intractable.Bibliography.Bromlei (1965), Carr et al. (2002), Erdbrink (1953), Fan & Song (1997), Galbreath et al. (2000), Garshelis & Steinmetz (2007), Gutleb & Ziaie (1999), Hashimoto (2002), Hashimoto et al. (2003), Huygens & Hayashi (2001), Huygens, Goto et al. (2001), Huygens, Miyashita et al. (2003), Hwang (2003), Hwang & Garshelis (2006), Hwang et al. (2002), Izumiyama & Shiraishi (2004), JapanBear Network (2006), Lekagul & McNeely (1991), Li (2004), Mizukami et al. (2005), Ohnishi et al. (2007), Oka et al. (2004), Pocock (1932d), Reid, Jiang et al. (1991), Sathyakumar (2001), Schaller et al. (1989), Servheen et al. (1999), Seryodkin et al. (2003), Shepherd & Nijman (2008), Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008), Stubblefield & Shrestha (2007).","taxonomy":"Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823, Sylhet region (presently divided between AssamIndiaand Bangladesh).Previously included in genus Selenarctos = moon bear. Some subspecies have been corroborated as distinct genetic clades (formosanus, japonicus, ussuricus). Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ours a collier @fr | Kragenbér @de | Oso negro asiatico @es | Himalayan Black Bear @en | Moon Bear @en | White-breasted Bear @en | Asian Black Bear @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Cuvier","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Ursus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"490","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"thibetanus","name":"Ursus thibetanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823— Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam.U. t. formosanus Swinhoe, 1864— Taiwan.U. t. gedrosianus Blanford, 1877— SE Iran, C & S Pakistan.U. t. japonicus Schlegel, 1857— Japan.U. t. laniger Pocock, 1932— Himalayas from Afghanistanto N India(Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh& Uttarakhand).U. t. mupinensis Heude, 1901— C & S China.U. t. ussuricus Heude, 1901— Russian Far East, NE China, Korean Peninsula.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714505/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bromlei (1965) | Carr et al. (2002) | Erdbrink (1953) | Fan & Song (1997) | Galbreath et al. (2000) | Garshelis & Steinmetz (2007) | Gutleb & Ziaie (1999) | Hashimoto (2002) | Hashimoto et al. (2003) | Huygens & Hayashi (2001) | Huygens, Goto et al. (2001) | Huygens, Miyashita et al. (2003) | Hwang (2003) | Hwang & Garshelis (2006) | Hwang et al. (2002) | Izumiyama & Shiraishi (2004) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Lekagul & McNeely (1991) | Li (2004) | Mizukami et al. (2005) | Ohnishi et al. (2007) | Oka et al. (2004) | Pocock (1932d) | Reid, Jiang et al. (1991) | Sathyakumar (2001) | Schaller et al. (1989) | Servheen et al. (1999) | Seryodkin et al. (2003) | Shepherd & Nijman (2008) | Steinmetz & Garshelis (2008) | Stubblefield & Shrestha (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.","breeding":"Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.","activityPatterns":"Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching. Habitat loss from logging, agriculture, human settlements, roadways, and erosion is most severe in southern portions of the range. The species is protected throughout its range by national and international laws. Sport hunting for Asiatic Black Bears is legal only in Japanand Russia, with annual harvests of about 500 and 100 bears, respectively; however, illegalkills and nuisance kills exceed hunting kills by a factor of five or more in both countries. Bear depredations on crops and apiaries, and attacks on people, have increased throughout the range, and have led to more direct killing, using guns, poisons, and bombs that explode when bitten. Poaching also appears to be increasing, spurred by commercial demands for meat,skins, paws, and gall bladders. The demand for these products has fueled a growing network of international trade throughout South-east Asia, and has encouraged many subsistence hunters to turn to commercial hunting. Paws are sold as an expensive delicacy (made into a soup), especially in China. Bile in gall bladdersis dried and sold as a traditional Chinese medicine; it has been used as such for nearly 3000 years. To supply an increasing demand, bear farms have been established in Chinaand Vietnam, where bile is drained from over 12,000 Asiatic Black Bears and sold commercially. This technique was originally developed in North Koreain the 1970s, and “perfected” over the years in China. Some officials assert that the increased production of bile from farming reduces poaching of wild bears; conversely, the cheaper and more available farmed bile also may encourage more use, and thus ultimately more demand for wild bile, which is considered more potent. Farmed bile is now produced in such surplus that it is incorporated into many non-traditional Chinese medicine products, such as shampoos, lotions, cosmetics, sports drinks, and toothpaste. Prompted by animal welfare-related concerns, several hundred bears have been removed from farms and taken to rescue facilities run by non-governmental organizations. However, the large total number of captive, non-releasable bears and the opinion of government officials that farming aids in the conservation of wild bears, make the situation rather intractable.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 110-190 cm, tail less than 12 cm; adult males are heavier (60-200 kg; rarely to 250 kg) than adult females (35-140 kg; rarely to 170 kg). Maximum weights occur in autumn, prior to hibernation. Islandpopulations (Japan, Taiwan) tend to be smaller-bodied than mainland populations. Ears are rounded and relatively large compared to other bears. Coat color black, typically with prominent white marking on the chest, often in the shape of a V or crescent (from which the common name “moon bear” derives), and white chin patch. However, white markings vary in size and color, sometimes being small or absent. Uncommonly the coat coloris brown (gedrosianus) or blond (rare color phase in South-east Asia). Muzzle color varies from light to dark. Typically there are long, coarse hairs around the neck, sometimes also extending to the cheeks; the extent and frequency of these characteristics varies regionally, as does overall hair length and density of underfur. Some subspecies were differentiated largely by the degree of shagginess of pelts from collected specimens. Proportional length of legs to body also varies considerably, with some individuals being quite short and squat. Both front and rear foot pads have hair separating the toes from the plantar pad, but unlike other Ursusspecies, the front carpal pad (corny protuberance) is connected with the plantar pad by bare skin. Front claws are about 5 cmlong, slightly longer than the rear claws, and curved.Habitat.Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).Food and Feeding.Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailandtheir diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “nest” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.Activity patterns.Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50-60% over a 24hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November—April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20-60 km” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100-250 km® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.Breeding.Breeding generally occurs duringJune—July and birthing during November— March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6-8 months includes 4-6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4-5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1-3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USAEndangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000-15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching.","habitat":"Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300min north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iranand Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9D/87/039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213","docName":"hbmw_1_Ursidae_0448.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa4ffecf66bc766950c7f53ff82ff9d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"489","verbatimText":"4.Sloth BearMelursus ursinusFrench:Ours paresseux/ German:Lippenbar/ Spanish:OsobezudoOther common names:Honey Bear, Lip BearTaxonomy.Bradypus ursinus Shaw, 1791, Bihar(earlier Bengal), India.Previously included in genus Bradypus = sloth. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. u. wrsinus Shaw, 1791— India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.M. u. inornatus Pucheran, 1855— Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-190 cm, tail 8-17 cm; weight of males 70-145 kg (rarely to 190 kg), females 50-95 kg (rarely to 120 kg). The Sri Lankan subspecies is smaller, and with a less-shaggy (shorter, sparser) coat than the nominate subspecies. Coat color is black, with rare brown or reddish-brown individuals. Hair length tends to be longer than in other bears, especially around the neck, shoulders, and back (up to 15-20 cm). The ears are also covered with long hair. Underfur is lacking, and ventral body hair is sparse. The muzzle has very short hair, and is distinctly light-colored up to the eyes. The lips are highly protrusible (hence this bear is sometimes called the Lip Bear), adapted for sucking termites, and the nose can be closed during such sucking, by pushing it against the side of the feeding excavation. The chest is normally marked by a prominent white V or U-shaped band. Sloth Bears have long (6-8 cm) slightly curved, ivory-colored front claws (for digging), and shorter rear claws. The long front claws (along with their coarse, shaggy coat and missing two upper incisors) are what seem to have caused an early taxonomist to call it a sloth. Soles of the feet are naked; unlike other bears, there is no hair between the digital pads and plantar pad on front and hindfeet, and also no hair separating the carpal and plantar (palmar) pad on the front. Unique among the bears, the digital pads are partially fused and are in a nearly straight line.Habitat.Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.Food and Feeding.Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.Activity patterns.These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected. Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads. Commercial trade in bear parts has been reported, but its current extent and impact on Sloth Bears is uncertain. Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g. male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration). Capture of live cubs to raise as “dancing bears” remains a significant threat in some parts of Indiabecause laws against this are not adequately enforced. Some non-governmental organizations have been rescuing these bears (although they cannot be released to the wild) and training the people who hunted them in alternate types of work, in exchange for a commitment that they will not resume the practice.Bibliography.Akhtar et al. (2004, 2007), Bargali et al. (2004, 2005), Chhangani (2002), Garshelis, Joshi & Smith (1999), Garshelis, Joshi, Smith & Rice (1999), Garshelis, Ratnayeke & Chauhan (2007), JapanBear Network (2006), Joshi, Garshelis & Smith (1995, 1997), Joshi, Smith & Garshelis (1999), Laurie & Seidensticker (1977), Rajpurohit & Krausman (2000), Ratnayeke, Van Manen & Padmalal (2007), Ratnayeke, Van Manen, Pieris & Pragash (2007), Yoganand et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Bradypus ursinus Shaw, 1791, Bihar(earlier Bengal), India.Previously included in genus Bradypus = sloth. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ours paresseux @fr | Lippenbar @de | Osobezudo @es | Honey Bear @en | Lip Bear @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1791","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ursidae","interpretedGenus":"Melursus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"489","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ursinus","name":"Melursus ursinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. u. wrsinus Shaw, 1791— India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.M. u. inornatus Pucheran, 1855— Sri Lanka.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5714503/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Akhtar et al. (2004, 2007) | Bargali et al. (2004, 2005) | Chhangani (2002) | Garshelis, Joshi & Smith (1999) | Garshelis, Joshi, Smith & Rice (1999) | Garshelis, Ratnayeke & Chauhan (2007) | JapanBear Network (2006) | Joshi, Garshelis & Smith (1995, 1997) | Joshi, Smith & Garshelis (1999) | Laurie & Seidensticker (1977) | Rajpurohit & Krausman (2000) | Ratnayeke, Van Manen & Padmalal (2007) | Ratnayeke, Van Manen, Pieris & Pragash (2007) | Yoganand et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.","breeding":"Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.","activityPatterns":"These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected. Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads. Commercial trade in bear parts has been reported, but its current extent and impact on Sloth Bears is uncertain. Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g. male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration). Capture of live cubs to raise as “dancing bears” remains a significant threat in some parts of Indiabecause laws against this are not adequately enforced. Some non-governmental organizations have been rescuing these bears (although they cannot be released to the wild) and training the people who hunted them in alternate types of work, in exchange for a commitment that they will not resume the practice.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-190 cm, tail 8-17 cm; weight of males 70-145 kg (rarely to 190 kg), females 50-95 kg (rarely to 120 kg). The Sri Lankan subspecies is smaller, and with a less-shaggy (shorter, sparser) coat than the nominate subspecies. Coat color is black, with rare brown or reddish-brown individuals. Hair length tends to be longer than in other bears, especially around the neck, shoulders, and back (up to 15-20 cm). The ears are also covered with long hair. Underfur is lacking, and ventral body hair is sparse. The muzzle has very short hair, and is distinctly light-colored up to the eyes. The lips are highly protrusible (hence this bear is sometimes called the Lip Bear), adapted for sucking termites, and the nose can be closed during such sucking, by pushing it against the side of the feeding excavation. The chest is normally marked by a prominent white V or U-shaped band. Sloth Bears have long (6-8 cm) slightly curved, ivory-colored front claws (for digging), and shorter rear claws. The long front claws (along with their coarse, shaggy coat and missing two upper incisors) are what seem to have caused an early taxonomist to call it a sloth. Soles of the feet are naked; unlike other bears, there is no hair between the digital pads and plantar pad on front and hindfeet, and also no hair separating the carpal and plantar (palmar) pad on the front. Unique among the bears, the digital pads are partially fused and are in a nearly straight line.Habitat.Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.Food and Feeding.Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90% of the diet during the fruiting season in southern Indiaand 70% in Sri Lanka, but less than 40% in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95% of the diet in Nepaland 75-80% in S Indiaand Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepaland Sri Lankathis ratio 1s more than 2:1, whereas in central Indiathe ratio varies from about 1:1 to 1:5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “vacuuming” sounds can be heard from 200 maway. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cmdeep, they occasionally dig down 1-2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.Activity patterns.These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40-70% of the 24hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25%) tree canopy, average 39°C (up to 44°C) compared to 28°C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them,like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km/h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations,it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.Breeding.Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1-2 days; copulations last 2-15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4-7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2-2-5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6-9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12-14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1-5 or 2-5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30% over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladeshhighlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in Indialive outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lankais not protected.","habitat":"Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 min the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka,it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96CAD1C081CF80D7046DAD4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039F7D71A96CAD1C081CF80D7046DAD4","docName":"hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"801","verbatimText":"2.OkapiOkapia johnstoniiFrench:Okapi/ German:Okapi/ Spanish:OkapiTaxonomy.Equus johnston: Sclater, 1901,forests along Semliki River, Mundala, Democratic Republic of Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.Habitat.Okapis have been able to occupy closed forest in primary or older secondary forest types. Although preferring elevations of 500-1000 m, they may be found as high as 1500 min the eastern montane rainforests. Their range is limited to the high forests in the east, the swamp forests below 500 mto the west, savannah of the Sahel/ Sudanto the north, and open woodlands to the south. They do not occupy gallery forests or the forest islands on the savanna ecotone, nor are they to be found in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. They will use seasonally inundated areas while the substrate is still wet, but they do not occur in truly inundated sites or in extensive swamp forest. Tree fall gaps are their preferred foraging sites during the primary stages of regeneration.Food and Feeding.Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings. Distribution of the Okapi’s food plants favors dispersed rather than congregated foraging. Nowhere is the forage abundant enough to support a herd, nor do the Okapis converge on seasonally-varying food sources, as there is continuous growth of new leaves. Females occupy forest areas that are richest in their favored food plants. There is a greater density of suitable browse in tree-fall gaps, as indicated by a change in locomotion of Okapi when feeding in gaps. When browsing in the subcanopy, their gait is steady, whereas when feeding in a tree-fall gap they walk more slowly, frequently pausing to feed on several plants from one position. Under the canopy and in gaps Okapis are selective browsers, eating only a small proportion of the species present and focussing on the youngest leaves. Food supply in the Ituri forest is patchy and variable in quality and distribution. Okapis exhibit geophagia, ingesting dirt in search of minerals.Breeding.Male courtship is unobtrusive and cautious. Males may take the better part of a day to approach a female with overtures that include low, moaning calls. Cows may associate with two different bulls over several days. Following a gestation of 14 months, a single calf is born between August and October, and weaned after six months. Females become sexually mature at two years of age and males later, because like most ungulates in the wild, they have to become behaviorally mature to secure mating rights. The behavior of an individual female through the reproductive cycle and gestation does not change markedly. However, after parturition a considerable portion of the day is spent feeding, moving back and forth across the home range. The female travels some distance from the calf, which is hidden,visiting it a few times a day for only a few minutes each time. Calves have been observed allosuckling. A calf remains bonded with its mother for nine months. Calves make a wide range of noises, including coughs, bleats, and whistles. Males are not restricted to areas of food abundance and spend more time roaming in forest zones where palatable leaves are sparse, perhaps in an attempt to gain access to more females.Activity patterns.Okapis are primarily diurnal and are essentially solitary, only associating to breed, except for mother—offspring pairs. Okapis are vulnerable to Leopard (Panthera pardus)attacks, several animals having been killed by Leopards during the course of one field study. Estimated population densities vary from 0-8 ind/km? to 2-3 ind/km?.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Okapis have well-defined home ranges, the most stable of which belong to reproductive females and are in the range of 3-23-6-5 km*. Adult females have exclusive use of a territory except when nursing young. Males make brief incursions to mate. Young animals of both sexes have more restricted home ranges, overlapping with their mothers’, but eventually they emigrate. Adult males cover larger areas, sometimes more than 13 km? Males and females mark trees with an oily secretion from their skin and defecate in selected areas. They have overlapping home ranges of several square kilometres and typically occur at densities of about 1 ind/km?®. They have several methods of communicating, including pheromones from the scent glands on each foot, which leave behind a tar-like substance to signal their passage. They also mark with urine. Males defend territories. Okapis solicit allogrooming of body areas they cannot reach to groom themselves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Okapi was unknown to Europeans until 1901. Although it has been estimated that there are around 10,000-20,000 individuals in the wild, this estimate is likely to be optimistic because they are shy and rarely seen. The most numerous populations of Okapi are found in the Ituri/Aruwimi and adjacent Nepoko Basin forests, and the forests of the upper Lindi, Maiko and Tshopo Basins. The species is also present in the Rubi-Tele region in Bas Uele. It was once present in the Semliki Forest of Uganda, but appears not to have survived in this region. In Virunga National Park, DR Congo, the first official sighting since 1959 was made in 2006. As of 2010, about 160 specimens are on display in some 40 zoological gardens. The name Okapi combines two words in the Congolese Lese Karo dialect, “Oka,” meaning to cut, and “kpi,” which refers to the design made on Efé arrows by wrapping the arrows with bark, making the arrows striped when they are scorched by fire. Lese legend has it that the Okapi’s stripes add to the animal’s great camouflage. The specific epithet, johnstoni, recognizes the explorer Sir Harry Johnston, who organized the expedition thatfirst acquired an Okapi from the [turi forest. Accurate population assessments are difficult in the dense forests. The future of Okapis depends on preservation of their habitat, especially the Ituri forest, an unlikely prospect given the political instability of that region.Bibliography.Bodmer & Rabb (1992), Colbert (1938), Hart (1992, 2001), Hart & Hall (1996), Hart, J.A. & Hart T.B. (1989), Hart, T.B. & Hart J.A. (1992, 1998), IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008), Landsheere (1957), Lindsay (1999), Pellew (1984a).","taxonomy":"Equus johnston: Sclater, 1901,forests along Semliki River, Mundala, Democratic Republic of Congo.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.Habitat.Okapis have been able to occupy closed forest in primary or older secondary forest types. Although preferring elevations of 500-1000 m, they may be found as high as 1500 min the eastern montane rainforests. Their range is limited to the high forests in the east, the swamp forests below 500 mto the west, savannah of the Sahel/ Sudanto the north, and open woodlands to the south. They do not occupy gallery forests or the forest islands on the savanna ecotone, nor are they to be found in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. They will use seasonally inundated areas while the substrate is still wet, but they do not occur in truly inundated sites or in extensive swamp forest. Tree fall gaps are their preferred foraging sites during the primary stages of regeneration.Food and Feeding.Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings.","commonNames":"Okapi @fr | Okapi @de | Okapi @es | French @en | German @en | Spanish @en","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Giraffidae","interpretedGenus":"Okapia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"801","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"johnstonii","name":"Okapia johnstonii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Okapis are endemic to the rain forests of the N & NE DR Congo, and the Ituri forest in particular.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719827/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bodmer & Rabb (1992) | Colbert (1938) | Hart (1992, 2001) | Hart & Hall (1996) | Hart, J.A. & Hart T.B. (1989) | Hart, T.B. & Hart J.A. (1992, 1998) | IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008) | Landsheere (1957) | Lindsay (1999) | Pellew (1984a)","foodAndFeeding":"Mature dicotyledonous browse dominates the diet of this folivorous ruminant. Okapis browse well over a hundred different species of plants of which twenty are favored, including Scaphopetalum dewevrei, Drypetes sp., and Diospyros bipendensis. They forage along well-trodden paths through the forests. They feed in small tree-fall gaps and on the edges of blowdowns. They browse by twining their long prehensile tongues around branchlets, stripping the leaves and pulling them into the mouth. They walk slowly, with a gait similar to that of the Giraffe’s, sampling leaves from right and left from palatable shrubs. They do not feed on herbaceous monocotyledons, some of which are important in the diets of chimpanzees (Pan spp.) and gorillas (Gorillaspp.), and they do not compete for browse with the relatively few other occupants of their forest biome. Duikers (Cephalophus spp.) and Water Chevrotains (Hyemoschus aquaticus) favor fallen fruits and seeds; Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus), African buffaloes (Syncerus spp.), sitatungas (Tragelaphus spp.), Giant Forest Hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), and African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) all feed on foliage from canopy trees in sunlit clearings and swampy openings. Distribution of the Okapi’s food plants favors dispersed rather than congregated foraging. Nowhere is the forage abundant enough to support a herd, nor do the Okapis converge on seasonally-varying food sources, as there is continuous growth of new leaves. Females occupy forest areas that are richest in their favored food plants. There is a greater density of suitable browse in tree-fall gaps, as indicated by a change in locomotion of Okapi when feeding in gaps. When browsing in the subcanopy, their gait is steady, whereas when feeding in a tree-fall gap they walk more slowly, frequently pausing to feed on several plants from one position. Under the canopy and in gaps Okapis are selective browsers, eating only a small proportion of the species present and focussing on the youngest leaves. Food supply in the Ituri forest is patchy and variable in quality and distribution. Okapis exhibit geophagia, ingesting dirt in search of minerals.","breeding":"","activityPatterns":"","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Okapis have well-defined home ranges, the most stable of which belong to reproductive females and are in the range of 3-23-6-5 km*. Adult females have exclusive use of a territory except when nursing young. Males make brief incursions to mate. Young animals of both sexes have more restricted home ranges, overlapping with their mothers’, but eventually they emigrate. Adult males cover larger areas, sometimes more than 13 km? Males and females mark trees with an oily secretion from their skin and defecate in selected areas. They have overlapping home ranges of several square kilometres and typically occur at densities of about 1 ind/km?®. They have several methods of communicating, including pheromones from the scent glands on each foot, which leave behind a tar-like substance to signal their passage. They also mark with urine. Males defend territories. Okapis solicit allogrooming of body areas they cannot reach to groom themselves.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-210 cm, tail 30-42 cm, height from the sole of the forefoot to the crown at maturity 180 cmand to the shoulder 150—170 cm; weight 180-320 kg. Cows are noticeably taller and more massive than bulls, weighing upward of 270 kg. Almost nothing is known of Okapi anatomy and physiology. The body shape resembles that of the Giraffe, except that Okapis have much shorter necks. The pelage is dark brown-purplish on the body, with black muzzle and white to yellow stripes on the rump and forelegs. The forehead and large ears are chestnut in color. The lower legs are white with dark garters at the joints. Stripes are specific to each individual and are thoughtto help calves follow their mothers through dense rain forests, and also to break up the outline of their body, creating camouflage in the light and shade of the forest understory. With age stripes become more clear and distinct. The hair is short and oily, enabling waterproofing in a damp forest environment. The mane hairs are 4 cmlong and extend from the back of the head to the rump. The tail is brown, with hair reaching almost to the hocks. There are small glands containing a waxy excretion on the front of each foot. The forefeet are used for stomping. The Okapi’s rightful place within the Giraffidaeis affirmed by the skin-covered ossicones (horns) in males and the bilobate canine teeth. Males have two ossicones, which develop at 1-5 years of age and grow to be 10-15 cm long; females are hornless. As in Giraffes, as the ossicones develop they fuse with the frontal bones of the skull, a process that takes up to three years. The tips of the horns become bare of skin with time. The Okapi’s eyes are situated more laterally than in Giraffes, affording a broad field of vision, and are smaller, suggesting poorer visual acuity. At birth, calves’ eyes are surrounded by a starburst pattern, making the eyes appear larger. Hearing is exceptionally acute; the ears are large. There is a distinct nasal septum separating the nostrils. The Okapi muzzle and tongue are longer than the Giraffe’s; the pointed, black tongue is so long (up to 30 cm) that an Okapi can wash its eyelids and clean its ears. As in Giraffes, the tongue is prehensile and used for plucking tree leaves as well as grooming.","habitat":""} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96CAD1D0D12FE207077DB5B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039F7D71A96CAD1D0D12FE207077DB5B","docName":"hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"801","verbatimText":"1.GirafteGiraffa camelopardalisFrench:Girafe/ German:Giraffe/ Spanish:JirafaOther common names:Nubian Giraffe (camelopardalis), Kordofan Giraffe (antiquorum), Masai Giraffe (tippelskirchi), Reticulated/ SomaliGiraffe (reticulata), Rothschild Giraffe (rothschildi), Smoky/Angolan Giraffe (angolensis), South African Giraffe (giraffa), Thornicroft/Rhodesian Giraffe (thornicrofti), West African/Nigerian Giraffe (peralta)Taxonomy.Cervus camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758,Sennar, Sudan.It appears from genetic studies that Giraffes fall into three groups: West African Giraffes (peralta); North African Giraffes (antiguorum, reticulata, rothschildi, thornicrofti, and probably camelopardalis); and southern African Giraffes (angolensis and guraffa). The “Masai Giraffe,” tippelskirchi, exhibits similarities with both the southern and the northern groups. Genetic differences, ranging from 0-15% to 6-9%, are below those required for the establishment of distinct species. Nine regional variants are currently recognized as subspecies, all of which interbreed.Subspecies and Distribution.G.c.camelopardalisLinnaeus,1758—ESudanandWEthiopia.G.c.angolensisLydekkcr,1903-NNamibia,SZambia,NBotswana,andNWZimbabwe.G.c.antiquorumJardine,1835-SChad,Genua]AfricanRepublic,andNEDRCongo.G.c.giraffaSchreber.1784-SWMozambique,SZimbabwe,andSouthAfrica.G.c.peraltaThomas,1898-WAfrica.G.c.reticulataDeWinton,1899-SEthiopia,SWSomalia,andNKenya.G.c.rothschildiLydekker,1903-SSudan.NUganda,andWKenya.G.c.tippelskirchiMatschie,1898-SKenyaandTanzania.G. c. thornicrofti Lydekker, 1911-Zambia(Luangwa Valley).Descriptive notes.Head-body 350-480 cm,tail 76-110 cm, height to the crown 450-600 cm; weight 1800-1930 kg (males) and 450-1180 kg (females). Adult males are larger than females. Colored hair patches are separated by yellow-white bands and vary in the regional variants. Patches contain large active sweat glands and a unique arrangement of blood vessels, suggesting they act as thermal windows through which to dissipate heat. Pigmentation of the skin is uniformly dark gray. The extraordinary shape results from elongation of the neck skeleton and of the lower leg bones. Elongation of the legs is associated with thickening of the bone wall to provide strength and of the neck by uniform lengthening of all seven cervical vertebrae. Elongation of the skeleton is rapid and demands the accumulation of large amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Giraffe anatomy has necessitated physiological adaptations; e.g. systemic blood pressure is twice that for similar sized mammals. The cells of the left ventricular and interventricular walls of the heart are enlarged, their thickness linearly related to neck length. Simultaneous enlargement of artery and arteriole walls provides resistance to blood flow. This appears to be a coordinated reflex response that maintains blood flow to the brain to protect Giraffes from fainting when they raise their heads after drinking, and to prevent peripheral oedema in the legs. Valves in the jugular vein prevent regurgitation of blood returning to the heart into the jugular vein. The long trachea is significantly narrower than in similar-sized mammals, limiting increases in dead space. Giraffe skulls feature paired subconical ossicones, which resemble short, blunt horns, arising from the top of the brain case. Female skulls are smoother and lighter than those of males. Bulls may have another median horn, which is a male secondary sexual characteristic, arising from the forehead between the eyes.Habitat.Giraffes are thought to have coevolved with acacia trees in savanna biomes throughout Africa but their occurrence is now discontinuous. They have never occurred in the tropical rain forest of the CongoRiver Basin.Food and Feeding.Exclusively browsers of dicotyledons, their preferred browse is mainly various species of Acacia. Four species of Acacia and four species of Combretum predominate in their diet, as these are rich in protein and calcium to support growth of their large skeleton. Bulls browse at higher levels than cows. Giraffes are water dependent but can survive for long periods without drinking water, obtaining their daily water needs from succulent browse. Giraffids are foliovores, selecting succulent foliage, and have an efficient digestive system compared to that of grazers, which eat monocotiyledons. The Giraffe stomach is half the size of that of African buffalo (Syncerus sp.).Breeding.Giraffes are aseasonal breeders. Females become sexually mature at 4-5 years of age. Gestation lasts about 450 days; birth mass is around 100 kg. At birth shoulder height is 1-50-1-80 m. Calves are precocial, seeking the first suckle within an hour of birth. Calves lie isolated for up to three weeks. Lactation lasts for around twelve months. Calf mortality rate is up to 75% in the first year. In captivity Giraffes can live to 36 years of age. Bulls reach sexual maturity at 2-5—4 years of age but need to pass a behavioral threshold in the wild to compete with mature bulls.Activity patterns.Giraffes rest in the shade during the hottest time of day. Males orient their bodies towards the sun depending on whether they need to reduce or gain radiant heat, but females and calves select shade. They bend their heads backwards towards the body during deep sleep. They gallop in an ungainly manner, swinging the two legs on each side in unison.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giraffes are mainly diurnal, and most active hours are spent feeding. Their gait is unusual in that both legs on one side swing in unison making their walk ungainly. Their maximum speed is about 56 km/h, and they can jump fences 1-5 m high. Giraffes are not territorial and home ranges vary from 25 km? to 160 km?. Major rivers are barriers, as Giraffes cannot swim and do not easily cross flowing rivers. Strong social bonds are lacking, and herds, mostly of females and their young, rarely consist of the same individuals for more than a few days.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Giraffes were provisionally classified as not threatened by IUCN, as the population in the wild consisted of at least 100,000 individuals and their distribution was widespread. However the West African subspecies peralta is now classified as Endangered, its numbers and range having fallen sharply. Previously its range was from Senegalto Lake Chad, but currently the only viable surviving population in this entire area consists ofless than 200 individuals in south-western Niger, with a range of about 15,000 km? Recent population estimates indicate a downward trend in numbers, which might eventually result in a different category. Some populations remain stable, some are increasing, and others are decreasing. Further studies aimed at resolving the taxonomic status of the various subspecies and populations will also allow better assessment of conservation status. In southern Africa, Giraffe has been reintroduced to many parts of the range from which they were previously eliminated, and it has been introduced into Swaziland.Bibliography.Aschaffenburg et al. (1962), Badlangana et al. (2009), Berry (1978), Bigalke (1951), Bond & Loffell (2001), Bredin et al. (2008), Brown et al. (2007), Cameron & Du Toit (2005, 2007), Cerling et al. (2004), Ciofolo & Pendu (1998), Dagg (1962, 1971), Dagg & Foster (1976, 1982), Fennessy & Brown (2010), Fennessy et al. (2001), Foster & Dagg, (1972), Gallagher et al. (1994), Hall-Martin & Skinner (1978), Hall-Martin, Skinner & Hopkins (1978), Hall-Martin, Skinner & Smith (1977), Hamilton (1973), Harris (1976), Hugh-Jones et al. (1978), Jacobson et al. (1986), Kidd (1900), Kok (1982), Kok & Opperman (1980), Kuntsch & Nel (1990), Langman (1977, 1978), Langman et al. (1982), Le Pendu et al. (2000), Leuthold (1979) Leuthold & Leuthold (1972, 1978), Lightfoot (1978), Lydekker (1904), Madden & Young (1982), Miller (1994, 1996), Mitchell (2009), Mitchell & Hattingh (1993), Mitchell & Skinner (1993, 2003, 2004, 2009), Mitchell, Bobbitt & Devries (2008), Mitchell, Maloney et al. (2006), Mitchell, van Schalkwyk & Skinner (2005), Mitchell, van Sittert & Skinner (2009a, 2009b), Pellew (1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1984b), Pienaar (1969), Pilgrim (1911), Pratt & Anderson (1982), Ridewood (1904), Robin et al. (1960), Scheepers (1992), Shortridge (1934), Simmons & Scheepers (1996), Singer & Boné (1960), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Skinner & Hall-Martin (1975) Skinner & Smithers (1990), Solounias (1999), Spinage (1968, 1993), Van Aarde (1976), Van Sittert et al. (2010), Van Schalkwyk et al. (2004), Von Linnaeus (1758), Wyatt (1971), Young & Okello (1998).","taxonomy":"Cervus camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758,Sennar, Sudan.It appears from genetic studies that Giraffes fall into three groups: West African Giraffes (peralta); North African Giraffes (antiguorum, reticulata, rothschildi, thornicrofti, and probably camelopardalis); and southern African Giraffes (angolensis and guraffa). The “Masai Giraffe,” tippelskirchi, exhibits similarities with both the southern and the northern groups. Genetic differences, ranging from 0-15% to 6-9%, are below those required for the establishment of distinct species. Nine regional variants are currently recognized as subspecies, all of which interbreed.","commonNames":"Girafe @fr | Giraffe @de | Jirafa @es | Nubian Giraffe (camelopardalis) @en | Kordofan Giraffe (antiquorum) @en | Masai Giraffe (tippelskirchi) @en | Reticulated @en | Somali Giraffe (reticulata) @en | Rothschild Giraffe (rothschildi) @en | Smoky @en | Angolan Giraffe (angolensis) @en | South African Giraffe (giraffa) @en | Thornicroft @en | Rhodesian Giraffe (thornicrofti) @en | West African @en | Nigerian Giraffe (peralta) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Giraffidae","interpretedGenus":"Giraffa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"801","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"camelopardalis","name":"Giraffa camelopardalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"G.c.camelopardalisLinnaeus,1758—ESudanandWEthiopia.G.c.angolensisLydekkcr,1903-NNamibia,SZambia,NBotswana,andNWZimbabwe.G.c.antiquorumJardine,1835-SChad,Genua]AfricanRepublic,andNEDRCongo.G.c.giraffaSchreber.1784-SWMozambique,SZimbabwe,andSouthAfrica.G.c.peraltaThomas,1898-WAfrica.G.c.reticulataDeWinton,1899-SEthiopia,SWSomalia,andNKenya.G.c.rothschildiLydekker,1903-SSudan.NUganda,andWKenya.G.c.tippelskirchiMatschie,1898-SKenyaandTanzania.G. c. thornicrofti Lydekker, 1911-Zambia(Luangwa Valley).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719823/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aschaffenburg et al. (1962) | Badlangana et al. (2009) | Berry (1978) | Bigalke (1951) | Bond & Loffell (2001) | Bredin et al. (2008) | Brown et al. (2007) | Cameron & Du Toit (2005, 2007) | Cerling et al. (2004) | Ciofolo & Pendu (1998) | Dagg (1962, 1971) | Dagg & Foster (1976, 1982) | Fennessy & Brown (2010) | Fennessy et al. (2001) | Foster & Dagg, (1972) | Gallagher et al. (1994) | Hall-Martin & Skinner (1978) | Hall-Martin, Skinner & Hopkins (1978) | Hall-Martin, Skinner & Smith (1977) | Hamilton (1973) | Harris (1976) | Hugh-Jones et al. (1978) | Jacobson et al. (1986) | Kidd (1900) | Kok (1982) | Kok & Opperman (1980) | Kuntsch & Nel (1990) | Langman (1977, 1978) | Langman et al. (1982) | Le Pendu et al. (2000) | Leuthold (1979) | Leuthold & Leuthold (1972, 1978) | Lightfoot (1978) | Lydekker (1904) | Madden & Young (1982) | Miller (1994, 1996) | Mitchell (2009) | Mitchell & Hattingh (1993) | Mitchell & Skinner (1993, 2003, 2004, 2009) | Mitchell, Bobbitt & Devries (2008) | Mitchell, Maloney et al. (2006) | Mitchell, van Schalkwyk & Skinner (2005) | Mitchell, van Sittert & Skinner (2009a, 2009b) | Pellew (1983a, 1983b, 1984a, 1984b) | Pienaar (1969) | Pilgrim (1911) | Pratt & Anderson (1982) | Ridewood (1904) | Robin et al. (1960) | Scheepers (1992) | Shortridge (1934) | Simmons & Scheepers (1996) | Singer & Boné (1960) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Skinner & Hall-Martin (1975) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Solounias (1999) | Spinage (1968, 1993) | Van Aarde (1976) | Van Sittert et al. (2010) | Van Schalkwyk et al. (2004) | Von Linnaeus (1758) | Wyatt (1971) | Young & Okello (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Exclusively browsers of dicotyledons, their preferred browse is mainly various species of Acacia. Four species of Acacia and four species of Combretum predominate in their diet, as these are rich in protein and calcium to support growth of their large skeleton. Bulls browse at higher levels than cows. Giraffes are water dependent but can survive for long periods without drinking water, obtaining their daily water needs from succulent browse. Giraffids are foliovores, selecting succulent foliage, and have an efficient digestive system compared to that of grazers, which eat monocotiyledons. The Giraffe stomach is half the size of that of African buffalo (Syncerus sp.).","breeding":"","activityPatterns":"","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Giraffes are mainly diurnal, and most active hours are spent feeding. Their gait is unusual in that both legs on one side swing in unison making their walk ungainly. Their maximum speed is about 56 km/h, and they can jump fences 1-5 m high. Giraffes are not territorial and home ranges vary from 25 km? to 160 km?. Major rivers are barriers, as Giraffes cannot swim and do not easily cross flowing rivers. Strong social bonds are lacking, and herds, mostly of females and their young, rarely consist of the same individuals for more than a few days.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 350-480 cm,tail 76-110 cm, height to the crown 450-600 cm; weight 1800-1930 kg (males) and 450-1180 kg (females). Adult males are larger than females. Colored hair patches are separated by yellow-white bands and vary in the regional variants. Patches contain large active sweat glands and a unique arrangement of blood vessels, suggesting they act as thermal windows through which to dissipate heat. Pigmentation of the skin is uniformly dark gray. The extraordinary shape results from elongation of the neck skeleton and of the lower leg bones. Elongation of the legs is associated with thickening of the bone wall to provide strength and of the neck by uniform lengthening of all seven cervical vertebrae. Elongation of the skeleton is rapid and demands the accumulation of large amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Giraffe anatomy has necessitated physiological adaptations; e.g. systemic blood pressure is twice that for similar sized mammals. The cells of the left ventricular and interventricular walls of the heart are enlarged, their thickness linearly related to neck length. Simultaneous enlargement of artery and arteriole walls provides resistance to blood flow. This appears to be a coordinated reflex response that maintains blood flow to the brain to protect Giraffes from fainting when they raise their heads after drinking, and to prevent peripheral oedema in the legs. Valves in the jugular vein prevent regurgitation of blood returning to the heart into the jugular vein. The long trachea is significantly narrower than in similar-sized mammals, limiting increases in dead space. Giraffe skulls feature paired subconical ossicones, which resemble short, blunt horns, arising from the top of the brain case. Female skulls are smoother and lighter than those of males. Bulls may have another median horn, which is a male secondary sexual characteristic, arising from the forehead between the eyes.","habitat":""} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/9F/7D/039F7D71A96EAD1F0CA3FDEC70DCD83D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"039F7D71A96EAD1F0CA3FDEC70DCD83D","docName":"hbmw_2_Giraffidae_0788.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffa60509a96ead1f0d6fff8f772ddd2a","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"788","verbatimText":"Family GIRAFFIDAE(GIRAFFE AND OKAPI)• Large ruminants with pair of horn-like protuberances called ossicones on the skull, characteristically long neck, and long, slender limbs.• 200-500 cm.• Afrotropical Region.• Savanna woodland and dense rainforest.• 2 genera, 2 species, 10 taxa.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA49FBFFEED7F7DF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA49FBFFEED7F7DF","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"411","verbatimText":"10.Puhoat MuntjacMuntiacus puhoatensisFrench:Muntjac de Pu Hoat/ German:Vietnam-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de Pu HoatTaxonomy.Muntiacus puhoatensis Trai, 1997, Puhoat, Nghe An province(Vietnam).The systematic status of this speciesis still very doubtful, as it is known only from the type specimen. It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex;it could be simply a synonym of M. truongsonensisor M. rooseveltorum. Monotypic.Distribution.NW Vietnam; possibly neighboring Laos.Descriptive notes.No specific body measurements available. Small-sized, morphologically similar to the Annamite Muntjac. The coat is reddish.Habitat.Recorded in closed canopy evergreen forest above 900 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, as the species is based on a partial specimen obtained with no ecological data.Breeding.Unknown, see above.Activity patterns.Unknown, see above.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Unknown, see above.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about its taxonomic identity.Bibliography.Binh Chau (1997), Francis (2008), Timmins & Duckworth (2008a).","taxonomy":"Muntiacus puhoatensis Trai, 1997, Puhoat, Nghe An province(Vietnam).The systematic status of this speciesis still very doubtful, as it is known only from the type specimen. It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex;it could be simply a synonym of M. truongsonensisor M. rooseveltorum. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Muntjac de Pu Hoat @fr | Vietnam-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Pu Hoat @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Trai","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1997","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"411","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"puhoatensis","name":"Muntiacus puhoatensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NW Vietnam; possibly neighboring Laos.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514413/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Binh Chau (1997) | Francis (2008) | Timmins & Duckworth (2008a)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing is known, as the species is based on a partial specimen obtained with no ecological data.","breeding":"Unknown, see above.","activityPatterns":"Unknown, see above.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Unknown, see above.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about its taxonomic identity.","descriptiveNotes":"No specific body measurements available. Small-sized, morphologically similar to the Annamite Muntjac. The coat is reddish.","habitat":"Recorded in closed canopy evergreen forest above 900 mabove sea level."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA4FF7DAEF12F38B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA4FF7DAEF12F38B","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"411","verbatimText":"11.Annamite MungacMuntiacus truongsonensisFrench:Muntjac des Truong Son/ German:Annam-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de Truong SonOther common names:Annamite Dark MuntjacTaxonomy.Caninmuntiacus truongsonensis Giaoet al, 1997, Quang Nam province(Vietnam).The systematic status ofthis speciesis also still unclear. It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex. Monotypic.Distribution.Laosand Vietnam; possibly also in S China(Yunnan).Descriptive notes.No specific body measurements available. Small, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm; estimated body weight of 15 kg. With short pedicles (4 cmin length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cmlong). The coatis dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is relatively long and dark brown dorsally.Habitat.More common in evergreen wet forests over 1000 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Browser and fruit-eater.Breeding.Nothing is known of the breeding system.Activity patterns.There are no ecological data available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known; see above.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing for overhunting.Bibliography.Francis (2008), Giao et al. (1998), Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008b).","taxonomy":"Caninmuntiacus truongsonensis Giaoet al, 1997, Quang Nam province(Vietnam).The systematic status ofthis speciesis also still unclear. It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Muntjac des Truong Son @fr | Annam-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Truong Son @es | Annamite Dark Muntjac @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Giao, Tuoc, Eric [Wikramanayake], Dung et al. in Ha","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1997","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"411","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"truongsonensis","name":"Muntiacus truongsonensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Laosand Vietnam; possibly also in S China(Yunnan).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514415/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Francis (2008) | Giao et al. (1998) | Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008b)","foodAndFeeding":"Browser and fruit-eater.","breeding":"Nothing is known of the breeding system.","activityPatterns":"There are no ecological data available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing is known; see above.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing for overhunting.","descriptiveNotes":"No specific body measurements available. Small, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm; estimated body weight of 15 kg. With short pedicles (4 cmin length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cmlong). The coatis dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is relatively long and dark brown dorsally.","habitat":"More common in evergreen wet forests over 1000 mabove sea level."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC1FFC0FF42F46EEEBAFBF9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC1FFC0FF42F46EEEBAFBF9","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"411","verbatimText":"9.Leat MungacMuntiacus putaoensisFrench:Muntjac de Putao/ German:Burma-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de PutaoTaxonomy.Muntiacus putaoensis Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999, Atanga, Putao (Myanmar). It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex. The name comes from its diminutive size, small enough to be wrapped in a leaf of Phrynium. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Indiaand N Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Few measurements available. Shoulder height 40 cm, weight 12 kg. Males and females of equal size. Smallest of the muntjacs, with short pedicles about 3 cmlong, tiny unbranched antlers 1-4 cm in length, often hidden by fur. Coat reddishbrown, legs and face slightly darker. The tail is orange-red dorsally. Preorbital fossa relatively large. Females have prominent upper canines. Fawns possibly unspotted.Habitat.Forest-dweller, it has been recorded from 700 mto 1200 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It feeds on browse and fruit. Stomach contents examined from specimens in Myanmarrevealed mainly fruit remains.Breeding.Both pregnant and lactating females have been taken in May, in Myanmar.Activity patterns.Nothing is known, but similar muntjacs are frequently crepuscular, with others both diurnal and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about morphology, taxonomy, distribution, and ecology. Evidence of persistent hunting by local people suggests that numbers may be decreasing.Bibliography.Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz (1999), Amato, Egan & Schaller (2000), Datta et al. (2003), James et al. (2008), Rabinowitz et al. (1999), Timmins, Duckwork & Zaw (2008b).","taxonomy":"Muntiacus putaoensis Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999, Atanga, Putao (Myanmar). It belongs to the rooseveltorumspecies complex. The name comes from its diminutive size, small enough to be wrapped in a leaf of Phrynium. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Muntjac de Putao @fr | Burma-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Putao @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1999","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"411","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"putaoensis","name":"Muntiacus putaoensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Indiaand N Myanmar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514409/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz (1999) | Amato, Egan & Schaller (2000) | Datta et al. (2003) | James et al. (2008) | Rabinowitz et al. (1999) | Timmins, Duckwork & Zaw (2008b)","foodAndFeeding":"It feeds on browse and fruit. Stomach contents examined from specimens in Myanmarrevealed mainly fruit remains.","breeding":"Both pregnant and lactating females have been taken in May, in Myanmar.","activityPatterns":"Nothing is known, but similar muntjacs are frequently crepuscular, with others both diurnal and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing is known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about morphology, taxonomy, distribution, and ecology. Evidence of persistent hunting by local people suggests that numbers may be decreasing.","descriptiveNotes":"Few measurements available. Shoulder height 40 cm, weight 12 kg. Males and females of equal size. Smallest of the muntjacs, with short pedicles about 3 cmlong, tiny unbranched antlers 1-4 cm in length, often hidden by fur. Coat reddishbrown, legs and face slightly darker. The tail is orange-red dorsally. Preorbital fossa relatively large. Females have prominent upper canines. Fawns possibly unspotted.","habitat":"Forest-dweller, it has been recorded from 700 mto 1200 mabove sea level."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC1FFC1FA4DF30DE117FD14.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC1FFC1FA4DF30DE117FD14","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"411","verbatimText":"12.Roosevelts’ MuntjacMuntiacus rooseveltorumFrench:Muntjac des Roosevelt/ German:Roosevelt-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de RooseveltTaxonomy.Muntiacus rooseveltorum Osgood, 1932, Muong Yo (Laos).It was collected for the first time by H. G. Coolidge in 1929 during the Kelley-Roosevelt Asiatic Expedition and was dedicated to the brothers Kermit and Theodore Jr., who sponsored and led the scientific mission. It was rediscovered in 1996. Monotypic.Distribution.Laos, possibly also in Viet namand S China.Descriptive notes.Nospecific body measurements available. Small muntjac, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm, with short pedicles (4 cmin length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cmlong). Females with well-developed upper canines. The coat is dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is brown dorsally.Habitat.More common in forests over 1000 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Browser and fruit-eater.Breeding.As with several other species of muntjac, the lack of systematic clarity makes it impossible to obtain reliable ecological data.Activity patterns.Nothing is known; see above.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known; see above.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing because of overhunting.Bibliography.Amato, Egan & Schaller (2000), Amato, Egan, Schaller, Baker et al. (1999), Francis (2008), Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008a).","taxonomy":"Muntiacus rooseveltorum Osgood, 1932, Muong Yo (Laos).It was collected for the first time by H. G. Coolidge in 1929 during the Kelley-Roosevelt Asiatic Expedition and was dedicated to the brothers Kermit and Theodore Jr., who sponsored and led the scientific mission. It was rediscovered in 1996. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Muntjac des Roosevelt @fr | Roosevelt-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Roosevelt @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Osgood","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1932","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"411","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rooseveltorum","name":"Muntiacus rooseveltorum","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Laos, possibly also in Viet namand S China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514419/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amato, Egan & Schaller (2000) | Amato, Egan, Schaller, Baker et al. (1999) | Francis (2008) | Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008a)","foodAndFeeding":"Browser and fruit-eater.","breeding":"As with several other species of muntjac, the lack of systematic clarity makes it impossible to obtain reliable ecological data.","activityPatterns":"Nothing is known; see above.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing is known; see above.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing because of overhunting.","descriptiveNotes":"Nospecific body measurements available. Small muntjac, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm, with short pedicles (4 cmin length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cmlong). Females with well-developed upper canines. The coat is dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is brown dorsally.","habitat":"More common in forests over 1000 mabove sea level."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC5FFC4FD26FDD3E392FA93.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC5FFC4FD26FDD3E392FA93","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"350","verbatimText":"Family CERVIDAE(DEER)• Small to large advanced ruminants with elongated head, long legs, and short tail; male typically with pair of deciduous antlers.• 70-310 cm.• Holarctic, Indo-Malayan, and Neotropical Regions.• Mainly forested habitats, but also grassland, swamps, and tundra.• 18 genera, 53 species,at least 169 extant taxa.• 1 species Critically Endangered, 7 species Endangered, 16 species Vulnerable; 1 species and 3 subspecies Extinct in the Wild; 1 species and 1 subspecies Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"410","verbatimText":"8.Red MuntjacMuntiacus muntjakFrench:Muntjac indien/ German:Muntjak/ Spanish:MuntiacorojoTaxonomy.Cervus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780, Java.Some authors have recently proposed recognizing three species, M. muntjakof the Malaysian and Sundaic region, M. montanus of the Sumatran mountains, and M. vaginalis of south and south-eastern continental Asia, mainly on the basis of different karyotypes and small differences in coat coloration. Until further study of the phylogenetic relationships, we will continue to treat them as one species. Ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.m.muntjakZimmermann,1780—PeninsularMalaysia,Sumatra,Java,Bali,Borneoandseveralassociatedsmallerislands.M.m.annamensisKloss,1928—SLaos,SVietnam,andCambodia.M.m.aureusC.H.Smith,1826—Pakistan,N&CIndia.M.m.curvostylisGray,1872—Myanmar,Thailand.M.m.malabaricusLydekker,1915—SIndiaandSriLanka.M.m.menglalisWang&Groves,1988—SChina(SYunnan);possiblyalsoinneighboringMyanmar,Laos,andVietnam.M.m.montanusRobinson&Kloss,1918—Sumatranhighlands.M.m.nigripesG.Allen,1930—HainanI.M.m.vaginalisBoddaert,1785—Nepal,Bhutan,NEIndia,andBangladesh.M. m. yunnanensis Ma & Wang, 1988— S China(from C & N Yunnanand S Sichuanto S Fujian& Guangdong).Forms from mainland Asia have been introduced into the Andaman Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-120 cm, tail 17-19 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 20-28 kg (up to 35 kgin VietnamandJava). Sexes are of equal size. Mediumto large-sized muntjacs, with long pedicles (8-15 cm in length) and thick frontal ridges; antlers generally well developed (8-20 cm; up to 27 cmlong), typically with a short brow tine; the tips of the antlers tend to curve inwards. The coat is reddish, with paler, sometimes whitish or grayish underparts. The tail is orange to red-brown; in subspecies montanus it is dark brown. Two black lines along antler pedicles extend down to the face. Fawns are spotted. Two straightslits on the face indicate the pair of frontal glands. Antler cycles are synchronized at the local level. Antler casting generally occurs in a three-month period with a peak in April-May. The lowest number of chromosomes of any mammal; diploid number is 7 or 9 (males) and 6 or 8 (females).Habitat.It is a flexible forest-dwelling species that lives in deciduous and evergreen forests, old-growth and secondary forests, in exotic commercial plantations, sometimes in grasslands and croplands close to the forest edge. On HainanIsland it uses shrubland and savanna and tends to avoid woods. Normally found up to 1000-1500 m above sea level, in Himalayas up to 3000-3500 m.Food and Feeding.The Red Muntjac eats mainly fruits, buds, young leaves, small seeds, twigs, and sometimes green grass near the forest edge. It has been described as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants.Breeding.Females may reach puberty at 8-10 months of age. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of about 18 days. Breeding occurs in all months of the year. The length of pregnancy is about 210 days. Females have a postpartum estrus and the interbirth interval may be only eight months. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.2-1. 5 kg. Weaning occurs very precociously at 70 days. Potential maximum longevity is around 17 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active all the day, more at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very secretive, usually moving in a network of pathways in dense cover. Males have relatively large home ranges encompassing those of a few females. In Nepalmales have mean home ranges of 7 km?; female ranges are 6 km?*. Red Muntjacs do not seem strictly territorial, with exclusive areas, but exhibit site-specific dominance. Males spend much time in scent marking and may be aggressive with individuals of the same sex. These muntjacs are essentially solitary, but not asocial; and it is possible that a local population forms some kind of social unit held together by a complex net of scent. The maximum number of animals observed together is four, generally undera fruiting tree or around a small waterhole. Groups of two individuals are a mating pair or mother and her young.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, two forms have been asessed independently; the race fromthe Sumatran mountains (montanus) was classified as Data Deficient and the mainland populations as Least Concern. It appears to be fairly resilient to hunting and habitat degradation and it is still common in most of its range, possibly decreasing. Its meat is among the most consumed in south and south-eastern Asia.Bibliography.Acharjyo & Patnaik (1984), Barrette (1977, 2004), Dubost (1971), Nagarkoti & Thapa (2007), Odden & Wegge (2007), Schaller (1967), Timmins, Duckworth, Hedges et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Cervus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780, Java.Some authors have recently proposed recognizing three species, M. muntjakof the Malaysian and Sundaic region, M. montanus of the Sumatran mountains, and M. vaginalis of south and south-eastern continental Asia, mainly on the basis of different karyotypes and small differences in coat coloration. Until further study of the phylogenetic relationships, we will continue to treat them as one species. Ten subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Muntjac indien @fr | Muntjak @de | Muntiacorojo @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"410","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"muntjak","name":"Muntiacus muntjak","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.m.muntjakZimmermann,1780—PeninsularMalaysia,Sumatra,Java,Bali,Borneoandseveralassociatedsmallerislands.M.m.annamensisKloss,1928—SLaos,SVietnam,andCambodia.M.m.aureusC.H.Smith,1826—Pakistan,N&CIndia.M.m.curvostylisGray,1872—Myanmar,Thailand.M.m.malabaricusLydekker,1915—SIndiaandSriLanka.M.m.menglalisWang&Groves,1988—SChina(SYunnan);possiblyalsoinneighboringMyanmar,Laos,andVietnam.M.m.montanusRobinson&Kloss,1918—Sumatranhighlands.M.m.nigripesG.Allen,1930—HainanI.M.m.vaginalisBoddaert,1785—Nepal,Bhutan,NEIndia,andBangladesh.M. m. yunnanensis Ma & Wang, 1988— S China(from C & N Yunnanand S Sichuanto S Fujian& Guangdong).Forms from mainland Asia have been introduced into the Andaman Is.","bibliography":"Acharjyo & Patnaik (1984) | Barrette (1977, 2004) | Dubost (1971) | Nagarkoti & Thapa (2007) | Odden & Wegge (2007) | Schaller (1967) | Timmins, Duckworth, Hedges et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The Red Muntjac eats mainly fruits, buds, young leaves, small seeds, twigs, and sometimes green grass near the forest edge. It has been described as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants.","breeding":"Females may reach puberty at 8-10 months of age. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of about 18 days. Breeding occurs in all months of the year. The length of pregnancy is about 210 days. Females have a postpartum estrus and the interbirth interval may be only eight months. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.2-1. 5 kg. Weaning occurs very precociously at 70 days. Potential maximum longevity is around 17 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.) are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"It is active all the day, more at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is very secretive, usually moving in a network of pathways in dense cover. Males have relatively large home ranges encompassing those of a few females. In Nepalmales have mean home ranges of 7 km?; female ranges are 6 km?*. Red Muntjacs do not seem strictly territorial, with exclusive areas, but exhibit site-specific dominance. Males spend much time in scent marking and may be aggressive with individuals of the same sex. These muntjacs are essentially solitary, but not asocial; and it is possible that a local population forms some kind of social unit held together by a complex net of scent. The maximum number of animals observed together is four, generally undera fruiting tree or around a small waterhole. Groups of two individuals are a mating pair or mother and her young.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, two forms have been asessed independently; the race fromthe Sumatran mountains (montanus) was classified as Data Deficient and the mainland populations as Least Concern. It appears to be fairly resilient to hunting and habitat degradation and it is still common in most of its range, possibly decreasing. Its meat is among the most consumed in south and south-eastern Asia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 90-120 cm, tail 17-19 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 20-28 kg (up to 35 kgin VietnamandJava). Sexes are of equal size. Mediumto large-sized muntjacs, with long pedicles (8-15 cm in length) and thick frontal ridges; antlers generally well developed (8-20 cm; up to 27 cmlong), typically with a short brow tine; the tips of the antlers tend to curve inwards. The coat is reddish, with paler, sometimes whitish or grayish underparts. The tail is orange to red-brown; in subspecies montanus it is dark brown. Two black lines along antler pedicles extend down to the face. Fawns are spotted. Two straightslits on the face indicate the pair of frontal glands. Antler cycles are synchronized at the local level. Antler casting generally occurs in a three-month period with a peak in April-May. The lowest number of chromosomes of any mammal; diploid number is 7 or 9 (males) and 6 or 8 (females).","habitat":"It is a flexible forest-dwelling species that lives in deciduous and evergreen forests, old-growth and secondary forests, in exotic commercial plantations, sometimes in grasslands and croplands close to the forest edge. On HainanIsland it uses shrubland and savanna and tends to avoid woods. Normally found up to 1000-1500 m above sea level, in Himalayas up to 3000-3500 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"410","verbatimText":"8.Red MuntjacMuntiacus muntjakFrench:Muntjac indien/ German:Muntjak/ Spanish:MuntiacorojoTaxonomy.Cervus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780, Java.Some authors have recently proposed recognizing three species, M. muntjakof the Malaysian and Sundaic region, M. montanus of the Sumatran mountains, and M. vaginalis of south and south-eastern continental Asia, mainly on the basis of different karyotypes and small differences in coat coloration. Until further study of the phylogenetic relationships, we will continue to treat them as one species. Ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.m.muntjakZimmermann,1780—PeninsularMalaysia,Sumatra,Java,Bali,Borneoandseveralassociatedsmallerislands.M.m.annamensisKloss,1928—SLaos,SVietnam,andCambodia.M.m.aureusC.H.Smith,1826—Pakistan,N&CIndia.M.m.curvostylisGray,1872—Myanmar,Thailand.M.m.malabaricusLydekker,1915—SIndiaandSriLanka.M.m.menglalisWang&Groves,1988—SChina(SYunnan);possiblyalsoinneighboringMyanmar,Laos,andVietnam.M.m.montanusRobinson&Kloss,1918—Sumatranhighlands.M.m.nigripesG.Allen,1930—HainanI.M.m.vaginalisBoddaert,1785—Nepal,Bhutan,NEIndia,andBangladesh.M. m. yunnanensis Ma & Wang, 1988— S China(from C & N Yunnanand S Sichuanto S Fujian& Guangdong).Forms from mainland Asia have been introduced into the Andaman Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-120 cm, tail 17-19 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 20-28 kg (up to 35 kgin VietnamandJava). Sexes are of equal size. Mediumto large-sized muntjacs, with long pedicles (8-15 cm in length) and thick frontal ridges; antlers generally well developed (8-20 cm; up to 27 cmlong), typically with a short brow tine; the tips of the antlers tend to curve inwards. The coat is reddish, with paler, sometimes whitish or grayish underparts. The tail is orange to red-brown; in subspecies montanus it is dark brown. Two black lines along antler pedicles extend down to the face. Fawns are spotted. Two straightslits on the face indicate the pair of frontal glands. Antler cycles are synchronized at the local level. Antler casting generally occurs in a three-month period with a peak in April-May. The lowest number of chromosomes of any mammal; diploid number is 7 or 9 (males) and 6 or 8 (females).Habitat.It is a flexible forest-dwelling species that lives in deciduous and evergreen forests, old-growth and secondary forests, in exotic commercial plantations, sometimes in grasslands and croplands close to the forest edge. On HainanIsland it uses shrubland and savanna and tends to avoid woods. Normally found up to 1000-1500 m above sea level, in Himalayas up to 3000-3500 m.Food and Feeding.The Red Muntjac eats mainly fruits, buds, young leaves, small seeds, twigs, and sometimes green grass near the forest edge. It has been described as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants.Breeding.Females may reach puberty at 8-10 months of age. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of about 18 days. Breeding occurs in all months of the year. The length of pregnancy is about 210 days. Females have a postpartum estrus and the interbirth interval may be only eight months. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.2-1. 5 kg. Weaning occurs very precociously at 70 days. Potential maximum longevity is around 17 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active all the day, more at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very secretive, usually moving in a network of pathways in dense cover. Males have relatively large home ranges encompassing those of a few females. In Nepalmales have mean home ranges of 7 km?; female ranges are 6 km?*. Red Muntjacs do not seem strictly territorial, with exclusive areas, but exhibit site-specific dominance. Males spend much time in scent marking and may be aggressive with individuals of the same sex. These muntjacs are essentially solitary, but not asocial; and it is possible that a local population forms some kind of social unit held together by a complex net of scent. The maximum number of animals observed together is four, generally undera fruiting tree or around a small waterhole. Groups of two individuals are a mating pair or mother and her young.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, two forms have been asessed independently; the race fromthe Sumatran mountains (montanus) was classified as Data Deficient and the mainland populations as Least Concern. It appears to be fairly resilient to hunting and habitat degradation and it is still common in most of its range, possibly decreasing. Its meat is among the most consumed in south and south-eastern Asia.Bibliography.Acharjyo & Patnaik (1984), Barrette (1977, 2004), Dubost (1971), Nagarkoti & Thapa (2007), Odden & Wegge (2007), Schaller (1967), Timmins, Duckworth, Hedges et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Cervus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780, Java.Some authors have recently proposed recognizing three species, M. muntjakof the Malaysian and Sundaic region, M. montanus of the Sumatran mountains, and M. vaginalis of south and south-eastern continental Asia, mainly on the basis of different karyotypes and small differences in coat coloration. Until further study of the phylogenetic relationships, we will continue to treat them as one species. Ten subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Muntjac indien @fr | Muntjak @de | Muntiacorojo @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"410","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"muntjak","name":"Muntiacus muntjak","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.m.muntjakZimmermann,1780—PeninsularMalaysia,Sumatra,Java,Bali,Borneoandseveralassociatedsmallerislands.M.m.annamensisKloss,1928—SLaos,SVietnam,andCambodia.M.m.aureusC.H.Smith,1826—Pakistan,N&CIndia.M.m.curvostylisGray,1872—Myanmar,Thailand.M.m.malabaricusLydekker,1915—SIndiaandSriLanka.M.m.menglalisWang&Groves,1988—SChina(SYunnan);possiblyalsoinneighboringMyanmar,Laos,andVietnam.M.m.montanusRobinson&Kloss,1918—Sumatranhighlands.M.m.nigripesG.Allen,1930—HainanI.M.m.vaginalisBoddaert,1785—Nepal,Bhutan,NEIndia,andBangladesh.M. m. yunnanensis Ma & Wang, 1988— S China(from C & N Yunnanand S Sichuanto S Fujian& Guangdong).Forms from mainland Asia have been introduced into the Andaman Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514407/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Acharjyo & Patnaik (1984) | Barrette (1977, 2004) | Dubost (1971) | Nagarkoti & Thapa (2007) | Odden & Wegge (2007) | Schaller (1967) | Timmins, Duckworth, Hedges et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The Red Muntjac eats mainly fruits, buds, young leaves, small seeds, twigs, and sometimes green grass near the forest edge. It has been described as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants.","breeding":"Females may reach puberty at 8-10 months of age. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of about 18 days. Breeding occurs in all months of the year. The length of pregnancy is about 210 days. Females have a postpartum estrus and the interbirth interval may be only eight months. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.2-1. 5 kg. Weaning occurs very precociously at 70 days. Potential maximum longevity is around 17 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.) are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"It is active all the day, more at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is very secretive, usually moving in a network of pathways in dense cover. Males have relatively large home ranges encompassing those of a few females. In Nepalmales have mean home ranges of 7 km?; female ranges are 6 km?*. Red Muntjacs do not seem strictly territorial, with exclusive areas, but exhibit site-specific dominance. Males spend much time in scent marking and may be aggressive with individuals of the same sex. These muntjacs are essentially solitary, but not asocial; and it is possible that a local population forms some kind of social unit held together by a complex net of scent. The maximum number of animals observed together is four, generally undera fruiting tree or around a small waterhole. Groups of two individuals are a mating pair or mother and her young.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, two forms have been asessed independently; the race fromthe Sumatran mountains (montanus) was classified as Data Deficient and the mainland populations as Least Concern. It appears to be fairly resilient to hunting and habitat degradation and it is still common in most of its range, possibly decreasing. Its meat is among the most consumed in south and south-eastern Asia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 90-120 cm, tail 17-19 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 20-28 kg (up to 35 kgin VietnamandJava). Sexes are of equal size. Mediumto large-sized muntjacs, with long pedicles (8-15 cm in length) and thick frontal ridges; antlers generally well developed (8-20 cm; up to 27 cmlong), typically with a short brow tine; the tips of the antlers tend to curve inwards. The coat is reddish, with paler, sometimes whitish or grayish underparts. The tail is orange to red-brown; in subspecies montanus it is dark brown. Two black lines along antler pedicles extend down to the face. Fawns are spotted. Two straightslits on the face indicate the pair of frontal glands. Antler cycles are synchronized at the local level. Antler casting generally occurs in a three-month period with a peak in April-May. The lowest number of chromosomes of any mammal; diploid number is 7 or 9 (males) and 6 or 8 (females).","habitat":"It is a flexible forest-dwelling species that lives in deciduous and evergreen forests, old-growth and secondary forests, in exotic commercial plantations, sometimes in grasslands and croplands close to the forest edge. On HainanIsland it uses shrubland and savanna and tends to avoid woods. Normally found up to 1000-1500 m above sea level, in Himalayas up to 3000-3500 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA74FEBAE152FA2C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA74FEBAE152FA2C","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"410","verbatimText":"6.Gongshan MuntjacMuntiacus gongshanensisFrench:Muntjac de Gongshan/ German:Gongshan-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de GongshanTaxonomy.Muntiacus gongshanensis Ma, 1990, Mijio, Gongshan county (Yunnan, China).Closely related to M. erinifrons, the divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. Monotypic.Distribution.S China(Yunnan) and N Myanmar; possibly SE Xizang, NE India, and Bhutan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Medium-sized; similar to the Black Muntjac (M. c¢rinifrons) but with males lacking the frontal tuft; females have a crown tuft more prominentlaterally than centrally. The coat is brown, with back and tail dark brown, the head pale brown with dark lines on pedicles. Antlers relatively short. The diploid number of chromosomesis 2 n =9 (males) and 8 (females).Habitat.The Gongshan Muntjac prefers evergreen, lowland forests.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, but likely a partially omnivorous browser.Breeding.No information for this species, but most other tropical muntjacs bear a single young, aseasonally.Activity patterns.Nothing is known forthis species; other muntjacs range from diurnal through crespucular to nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No data for this species, but likely solitary, as in other species of muntjacs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, probably decreasing. Hunting appears to be the major threat.Bibliography.Amato et al. (2000), Huang Ling et al. (2006), Ma Shilai et al. (1990), Timmins, Duckworth & Zaw (2008a), Wang Wen & Lan Hong (2000).","taxonomy":"Muntiacus gongshanensis Ma, 1990, Mijio, Gongshan county (Yunnan, China).Closely related to M. erinifrons, the divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Muntjac de Gongshan @fr | Gongshan-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Gongshan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ma","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1990","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"410","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gongshanensis","name":"Muntiacus gongshanensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S China(Yunnan) and N Myanmar; possibly SE Xizang, NE India, and Bhutan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514401/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amato et al. (2000) | Huang Ling et al. (2006) | Ma Shilai et al. (1990) | Timmins, Duckworth & Zaw (2008a) | Wang Wen & Lan Hong (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing is known, but likely a partially omnivorous browser.","breeding":"No information for this species, but most other tropical muntjacs bear a single young, aseasonally.","activityPatterns":"Nothing is known forthis species; other muntjacs range from diurnal through crespucular to nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No data for this species, but likely solitary, as in other species of muntjacs.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, probably decreasing. Hunting appears to be the major threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Medium-sized; similar to the Black Muntjac (M. c¢rinifrons) but with males lacking the frontal tuft; females have a crown tuft more prominentlaterally than centrally. The coat is brown, with back and tail dark brown, the head pale brown with dark lines on pedicles. Antlers relatively short. The diploid number of chromosomesis 2 n =9 (males) and 8 (females).","habitat":"The Gongshan Muntjac prefers evergreen, lowland forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA76F9AAEC6EF3B1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA76F9AAEC6EF3B1","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"410","verbatimText":"7.Black MuntjacMuntiacus crinifronsFrench:Muntjac noir/ German:Schwarzer Muntjak/ Spanish:MuntiaconegroOther common names:Hairy-fronted MuntjacTaxonomy.Cervulus crinifrons Sclater, 1885, Ningpo, Zhejiiang (China).For more than a century only five specimens were known. It is closely related to M. gongshanensisand sometimes confused with it. Monotypic.Distribution.Zhejiangand neighboring areas, E China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Females are slighter larger than males. Large-sized muntjac, with a rufous or golden-yellow long-haired frontal tuft, pointed ears;tail relatively long and fringed with white hair. Pedicles are 7-9 cm long, antlers are 7-8 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 9 (males) and 8 (females).Habitat.It lives in mountain forests with abundant undergrowth, sometimes also in scrubland. Up to 1000 mabove sea level. The forests consist of a mosaic of deciduous broadleaf, evergreen, and bamboo patches with dense undergrowth and subtropical monsoon conditions.Food and Feeding.Its diet consists of leaves, twigs, fruits, forbs, grasses.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding is aseasonal. After about 210 days of pregnancy, females give birth to a single fawn. In one study, some lactating females were found carrying fetuses, implying that post-partum estrus is possible in this species.Activity patterns.Nothing is known about activity in this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black muntjacs are solitary and territorial, but little is known of their movements. Secretions from the frontal and preorbital glands are rubbed against vegetation to mark territories. When the territory of a male Black Muntjac is invaded, he defendsit using the tusk-like upper canines to drive out the invader.Status and Conservation.CITES Annex I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The total population was assessed in late 1990s at 7000-8500 individuals. The Black Muntjac is declining; overhunting and habitat loss and degradation continue to represent important threats. Habitat fragmentation is responsible for a genetic differentiation among subpopulations.Bibliography.Amato et al. (2000), Groves & Grubb (1990), Harris (2008), Lan Hong et al. (1995), Lu Hogee & Sheng Helin (1984), Smith & Xie Yan (2008), Wang Wen & Lan Hong (2000), Wu Hailong et al. (2006, 2007).","taxonomy":"Cervulus crinifrons Sclater, 1885, Ningpo, Zhejiiang (China).For more than a century only five specimens were known. It is closely related to M. gongshanensisand sometimes confused with it. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Muntjac noir @fr | Schwarzer Muntjak @de | Muntiaconegro @es | Hairy-fronted Muntjac @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Sclater","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1885","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"410","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"crinifrons","name":"Muntiacus crinifrons","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Zhejiangand neighboring areas, E China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514403/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amato et al. (2000) | Groves & Grubb (1990) | Harris (2008) | Lan Hong et al. (1995) | Lu Hogee & Sheng Helin (1984) | Smith & Xie Yan (2008) | Wang Wen & Lan Hong (2000) | Wu Hailong et al. (2006, 2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Its diet consists of leaves, twigs, fruits, forbs, grasses.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding is aseasonal. After about 210 days of pregnancy, females give birth to a single fawn. In one study, some lactating females were found carrying fetuses, implying that post-partum estrus is possible in this species.","activityPatterns":"Nothing is known about activity in this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Black muntjacs are solitary and territorial, but little is known of their movements. Secretions from the frontal and preorbital glands are rubbed against vegetation to mark territories. When the territory of a male Black Muntjac is invaded, he defendsit using the tusk-like upper canines to drive out the invader.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Annex I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The total population was assessed in late 1990s at 7000-8500 individuals. The Black Muntjac is declining; overhunting and habitat loss and degradation continue to represent important threats. Habitat fragmentation is responsible for a genetic differentiation among subpopulations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Females are slighter larger than males. Large-sized muntjac, with a rufous or golden-yellow long-haired frontal tuft, pointed ears;tail relatively long and fringed with white hair. Pedicles are 7-9 cm long, antlers are 7-8 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 9 (males) and 8 (females).Habitat.It lives in mountain forests with abundant undergrowth, sometimes also in scrubland. Up to 1000 mabove sea level. The forests consist of a mosaic of deciduous broadleaf, evergreen, and bamboo patches with dense undergrowth and subtropical monsoon conditions.Food and Feeding.Its diet consists of leaves, twigs, fruits, forbs, grasses.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding is aseasonal. After about 210 days of pregnancy, females give birth to a single fawn. In one study, some lactating females were found carrying fetuses, implying that post-partum estrus is possible in this species.Activity patterns.Nothing is known about activity in this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Black muntjacs are solitary and territorial, but little is known of their movements. Secretions from the frontal and preorbital glands are rubbed against vegetation to mark territories. When the territory of a male Black Muntjac is invaded, he defendsit using the tusk-like upper canines to drive out the invader.Status and Conservation.CITES Annex I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The total population was assessed in late 1990s at 7000-8500 individuals. The Black Muntjac is declining; overhunting and habitat loss and degradation continue to represent important threats.","habitat":"It lives in mountain forests with abundant undergrowth, sometimes also in scrubland. Up to 1000 mabove sea level. The forests consist of a mosaic of deciduous broadleaf, evergreen, and bamboo patches with dense undergrowth and subtropical monsoon conditions."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF08F812E487F279.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF08F812E487F279","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"410","verbatimText":"5.Fea’s MuntjacMuntiacus feaeFrench:Muntjac de Fea/ German:Tenasserim-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de FeaTaxonomy.Cervulus feae Thomas & Doria, 1889, Thagata Juva, Tenasserim (Myanmar).Genetic analyses agree in considering this muntjac as a sister species to M. gongshanensis/ M. crinifrons. The name refers to the Italian zoologist and explorer L. Fea. Monotypic.Distribution.W Thailandand adjacent Myanmar; dubious reports from N Myanmarand S China.Descriptive notes.Head—body 90-100 cm, tail 10-17 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 20-22 kg. Females are heavier than males. Medium-sized, with short, bright yellow frontal tuft, rounded ears; pedicles 4-5 cm long, antlers 5-6 cm long. Tail relatively long, fringed with white hair. The coat is dark brown speckled with yellow; legs dark; forehead and pedicles yellowish; black stripes on pedicles. The diploid number of chromosomes is 14 (males) and 13 (females).Habitat.Seems to prefer evergreen forests of hills and mountains, inhabiting upland evergreen, mixed, or shrub forest at mid-elevations. They are also found in teak plantations.Food and Feeding.It feeds on leaves and fruits, with some grasses and shoots as well.Breeding.Females reach puberty at about one year of age. The young are usually born in dense vegetation, remaining hidden until able to travel with the mother. Males may compete for access to females by sparring with antlers or fighting using their fang-like canines, although little is known directly about mating in this species. Males likely defend a territory that encompasses that of several females, as in other muntjacs.Activity patterns.Fea’s Muntjac may be either diurnal or nocturnal, but little is known regarding its behavior in the wild.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing is known, but appears to be solitary, like other muntjacs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to doubts about the validity of many reports of the species, and, thus, about its geographic and ecological range and conservation status.Bibliography.Groves & Grubb (1990), Grubb (1977), Soma et al. (1987), Tanomtong et al. (2005), Timmins, Steinmetz, Pattanavibool & Duckworth (2008).","taxonomy":"Cervulus feae Thomas & Doria, 1889, Thagata Juva, Tenasserim (Myanmar).Genetic analyses agree in considering this muntjac as a sister species to M. gongshanensis/ M. crinifrons. The name refers to the Italian zoologist and explorer L. Fea. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Muntjac de Fea @fr | Tenasserim-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Fea @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas & Doria","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1889","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"410","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"feae","name":"Muntiacus feae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Thailandand adjacent Myanmar; dubious reports from N Myanmarand S China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514399/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Groves & Grubb (1990) | Grubb (1977) | Soma et al. (1987) | Tanomtong et al. (2005) | Timmins, Steinmetz, Pattanavibool & Duckworth (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"It feeds on leaves and fruits, with some grasses and shoots as well.","breeding":"Females reach puberty at about one year of age. The young are usually born in dense vegetation, remaining hidden until able to travel with the mother. Males may compete for access to females by sparring with antlers or fighting using their fang-like canines, although little is known directly about mating in this species. Males likely defend a territory that encompasses that of several females, as in other muntjacs.","activityPatterns":"Fea’s Muntjac may be either diurnal or nocturnal, but little is known regarding its behavior in the wild.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing is known, but appears to be solitary, like other muntjacs.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to doubts about the validity of many reports of the species, and, thus, about its geographic and ecological range and conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 90-100 cm, tail 10-17 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 20-22 kg. Females are heavier than males. Medium-sized, with short, bright yellow frontal tuft, rounded ears; pedicles 4-5 cm long, antlers 5-6 cm long. Tail relatively long, fringed with white hair. The coat is dark brown speckled with yellow; legs dark; forehead and pedicles yellowish; black stripes on pedicles. The diploid number of chromosomes is 14 (males) and 13 (females).","habitat":"Seems to prefer evergreen forests of hills and mountains, inhabiting upland evergreen, mixed, or shrub forest at mid-elevations. They are also found in teak plantations."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF0DFEBDE573F8A5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF0DFEBDE573F8A5","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"410","verbatimText":"4.Giant MuntjacMuntiacus vuquangensisFrench:Muntjac géant/ German:Riesenmuntjak/ Spanish:MuntiacogiganteOther common names:Large-antlered MuntjacTaxonomy.Megamuntiacus vuquangensis Tuoc et al., 1994, Vu Quang Nature Reserve (Vietnam).Some individuals belonging to this species were observed several decades ago but they were interpreted as large-sized specimens of M. muntjak. It has only recently been recognized as a new species. The phylogenetic relationships with other muntjacs have been studied, but with contrasting results; a Chinese team considered it in the same clade with M. reevesi, but an American study suggested more affinities with the M. rooseveltorumclade. Monotypic.Distribution.Annamite Mts (LLaos & Vietnam) and E Cambodia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 110-115 cm, tail 17 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm; weight 34 kg. The largest species of muntjac, with a short, broad, triangular tail; stout and short pedicles; antlers relatively long (about 23 cmin length, up to 28-5 cm) with a well-developed brow tine (on average 8 cmin length). The coat is yellow-brown to tan; white spot on knee in males.Habitat.It is possibly tied to the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Annamite Range, and normally occurs below 1000 mabove sea level, although it has been found at altitudes from 500 mto 1200 m. Although seemingly a denizen of primary forest, it has also been observed in second growth.Food and Feeding.It is a browser and a fruit-eater.Breeding.Little is known, but only single young have been observed with females. A female Giant Muntjac was pregnant with a 165 gfetus in January.Activity patterns.The periods of activity have not been documented, butit is likely diurnal, like most other muntjacs.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Although virtually unstudied, adults seem to be solitary.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, due to the restricted range, the very low density, and presumably the small and decreasing total population. The Giant Muntjac continues to be threatened by heavy hunting pressure, as well as by habitat degradation due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.Bibliography.Amato et al. (2000), Bauer (1997), Duckworth (1998), Evans etal. (2000), Schaller & Vrba (1996), Timmins et al. (1998), Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008c).","taxonomy":"Megamuntiacus vuquangensis Tuoc et al., 1994, Vu Quang Nature Reserve (Vietnam).Some individuals belonging to this species were observed several decades ago but they were interpreted as large-sized specimens of M. muntjak. It has only recently been recognized as a new species. The phylogenetic relationships with other muntjacs have been studied, but with contrasting results; a Chinese team considered it in the same clade with M. reevesi, but an American study suggested more affinities with the M. rooseveltorumclade. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Muntjac géant @fr | Riesenmuntjak @de | Muntiacogigante @es | Large-antlered Muntjac @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Do Tuoc, Vu Van Dung, Dawson, Arctander & Mackinnon","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1994","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"410","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vuquangensis","name":"Muntiacus vuquangensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Annamite Mts (LLaos & Vietnam) and E Cambodia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514395/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amato et al. (2000) | Bauer (1997) | Duckworth (1998) | Evans etal. (2000) | Schaller & Vrba (1996) | Timmins et al. (1998) | Timmins, Duckworth & Long (2008c)","foodAndFeeding":"It is a browser and a fruit-eater.","breeding":"Little is known, but only single young have been observed with females. A female Giant Muntjac was pregnant with a 165 gfetus in January.","activityPatterns":"The periods of activity have not been documented, butit is likely diurnal, like most other muntjacs.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Although virtually unstudied, adults seem to be solitary.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, due to the restricted range, the very low density, and presumably the small and decreasing total population. The Giant Muntjac continues to be threatened by heavy hunting pressure, as well as by habitat degradation due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 110-115 cm, tail 17 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm; weight 34 kg. The largest species of muntjac, with a short, broad, triangular tail; stout and short pedicles; antlers relatively long (about 23 cmin length, up to 28-5 cm) with a well-developed brow tine (on average 8 cmin length). The coat is yellow-brown to tan; white spot on knee in males.","habitat":"It is possibly tied to the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Annamite Range, and normally occurs below 1000 mabove sea level, although it has been found at altitudes from 500 mto 1200 m. Although seemingly a denizen of primary forest, it has also been observed in second growth."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"409","verbatimText":"3.Reeves’s MuntjacMuntiacus reevesiFrench:Muntjac de Chine/ German:China-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de ReevesTaxonomy.Cervus reevesi Ogilby, 1839, Canton (China).Because of the relatively high number of chromosomes of the karyotype this species is considered a primitive muntjac. According to a genetic study, together with M. vuquangensisit forms one of two clades; according to a second study it forms a distinct lineage not closely related to other muntjacs. Its scientific and common name honorJ. Reeves, a naturalist and Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East IndiaCompany, who worked for 19 years in China. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.r.reeves:Ogilby,1838—SEChina.M. r. micrurus Sclater, 1875— Taiwan.The subspecies from mainland Chinawas introduced into Englandin the early 20\" century.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-80 cm,tail 12-13 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight of adult males 14-15 kg and of adult females 12-13 kg. Males are on average 15% heavier than females. A small-sized muntjac with rounded ears. The tail is relatively short, chestnut dorsally, white below. The summer coatis red-brown, the winter coat is gray-brown. Males have a black stripe up each frontal ridge and pedicle, forming a V on the forehead. Fawn coat has ocher spots, which disappear by two months. A large preorbital sac, frontal glands, rear interdigital gland and (in males) a preputial gland are present. Upper canines are around 6 cmlong in males, of which one third is hidden in the alveolus; females have smaller upper canines, about 1-7 cm long, of which one third extends out of the alveolus. Antlers of adults are short and simple, 4-8 cm long, on pedicles 5-8 cm high. They generally have a very small basal brow tine and distally they tend to curve inward. Pedicles begin to grow at 5-7 months of age; first antlers appear at 8-11 months, generally minute spikes without a coronet. Subsequent antler sets grow in summer, are clean in September, and are cast in May. Hooves are very small, about 3 cmlong. The diploid number of chromosomesis 46.Habitat.In the original range it prefers dense temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests and scrub, at 200-400 m above sea level. Sometimesit also frequents alpine grasslands up to 3500 mabove sea level. Introduced populations in Englandare particularly common in dense habitat with a good diversity of vegetation.Food and Feeding.As a typical concentrate selector, it browses leaves and shoots and eats fruits.Breeding.Females attain puberty precociously, at 6-7 months of age. Breeding occurs throughout the year, with fawns born in any month. Females are polyestrous with a mean cycle of 14-15 days. After a gestation of 210 days, females give birth to one fawn weighing about 1-2 kg. Since a postpartum estrus is common, females may give birth every eight months. Fawns are weaned in four months. At six months of age they attain 60% of the final weight, at 18 months they reach 90% of their adult weight. Males may disperse at about 5-6 months, sometimes later. Reeves’s Muntjac can live to a maximum of 13 years.Activity patterns.It is active all day, with five distinct periods of feeding in 24 hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As a slinker, it generally moves with the head held down. When alarmed it lifts the tail, showing the white underneath. Usually home ranges are small, 10-30 ha, but can be up to 100 ha, generally larger in males. Males are territorial, with a defended area encompassing the home ranges of some females. Some territoriality is also evident in females, whose core areas are exclusive. It is basically a solitary species, sometimes observed in pairs or small family groups. Adult males are probably weakly serially polygynous, forming temporary tending bonds with estrous females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, mainly for its large range and its occurrence in many protected areas. It is decreasing, due to the industrial exploitation of hides and continuous habitat loss. In Chinait is considered vulnerable but it is not protected at a national scale. The population established in England, is now quite common, increasing and expanding its range to other parts of Great Britain. In 2005 the total estimate for this population was 118,000 individuals.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Chapman(2008), Chapmanet al. (1997), Leasor et al. (2008), McCullough et al. (2000), Miura (1984), Pei Kurtis & Liu Hwanwun (1994).","taxonomy":"Cervus reevesi Ogilby, 1839, Canton (China).Because of the relatively high number of chromosomes of the karyotype this species is considered a primitive muntjac. According to a genetic study, together with M. vuquangensisit forms one of two clades; according to a second study it forms a distinct lineage not closely related to other muntjacs. Its scientific and common name honorJ. Reeves, a naturalist and Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East IndiaCompany, who worked for 19 years in China. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Muntjac de Chine @fr | China-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Reeves @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ogilby","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"409","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"reevesi","name":"Muntiacus reevesi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.r.reeves:Ogilby,1838—SEChina.M. r. micrurus Sclater, 1875— Taiwan.The subspecies from mainland Chinawas introduced into Englandin the early 20\" century.","bibliography":"Apollonio et al. (2010) | Chapman(2008) | Chapmanet al. (1997) | Leasor et al. (2008) | McCullough et al. (2000) | Miura (1984) | Pei Kurtis & Liu Hwanwun (1994)","foodAndFeeding":"As a typical concentrate selector, it browses leaves and shoots and eats fruits.","breeding":"Females attain puberty precociously, at 6-7 months of age. Breeding occurs throughout the year, with fawns born in any month. Females are polyestrous with a mean cycle of 14-15 days. After a gestation of 210 days, females give birth to one fawn weighing about 1-2 kg. Since a postpartum estrus is common, females may give birth every eight months. Fawns are weaned in four months. At six months of age they attain 60% of the final weight, at 18 months they reach 90% of their adult weight. Males may disperse at about 5-6 months, sometimes later. Reeves’s Muntjac can live to a maximum of 13 years.","activityPatterns":"It is active all day, with five distinct periods of feeding in 24 hours.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"As a slinker, it generally moves with the head held down. When alarmed it lifts the tail, showing the white underneath. Usually home ranges are small, 10-30 ha, but can be up to 100 ha, generally larger in males. Males are territorial, with a defended area encompassing the home ranges of some females. Some territoriality is also evident in females, whose core areas are exclusive. It is basically a solitary species, sometimes observed in pairs or small family groups. Adult males are probably weakly serially polygynous, forming temporary tending bonds with estrous females.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, mainly for its large range and its occurrence in many protected areas. It is decreasing, due to the industrial exploitation of hides and continuous habitat loss. In Chinait is considered vulnerable but it is not protected at a national scale. The population established in England, is now quite common, increasing and expanding its range to other parts of Great Britain. In 2005 the total estimate for this population was 118,000 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70-80 cm,tail 12-13 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight of adult males 14-15 kg and of adult females 12-13 kg. Males are on average 15% heavier than females. A small-sized muntjac with rounded ears. The tail is relatively short, chestnut dorsally, white below. The summer coatis red-brown, the winter coat is gray-brown. Males have a black stripe up each frontal ridge and pedicle, forming a V on the forehead. Fawn coat has ocher spots, which disappear by two months. A large preorbital sac, frontal glands, rear interdigital gland and (in males) a preputial gland are present. Upper canines are around 6 cmlong in males, of which one third is hidden in the alveolus; females have smaller upper canines, about 1-7 cm long, of which one third extends out of the alveolus. Antlers of adults are short and simple, 4-8 cm long, on pedicles 5-8 cm high. They generally have a very small basal brow tine and distally they tend to curve inward. Pedicles begin to grow at 5-7 months of age; first antlers appear at 8-11 months, generally minute spikes without a coronet. Subsequent antler sets grow in summer, are clean in September, and are cast in May. Hooves are very small, about 3 cmlong. The diploid number of chromosomesis 46.","habitat":"In the original range it prefers dense temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests and scrub, at 200-400 m above sea level. Sometimesit also frequents alpine grasslands up to 3500 mabove sea level. Introduced populations in Englandare particularly common in dense habitat with a good diversity of vegetation."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"409","verbatimText":"3.Reeves’s MuntjacMuntiacus reevesiFrench:Muntjac de Chine/ German:China-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de ReevesTaxonomy.Cervus reevesi Ogilby, 1839, Canton (China).Because of the relatively high number of chromosomes of the karyotype this species is considered a primitive muntjac. According to a genetic study, together with M. vuquangensisit forms one of two clades; according to a second study it forms a distinct lineage not closely related to other muntjacs. Its scientific and common name honorJ. Reeves, a naturalist and Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East IndiaCompany, who worked for 19 years in China. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.r.reeves:Ogilby,1838—SEChina.M. r. micrurus Sclater, 1875— Taiwan.The subspecies from mainland Chinawas introduced into Englandin the early 20\" century.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-80 cm,tail 12-13 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight of adult males 14-15 kg and of adult females 12-13 kg. Males are on average 15% heavier than females. A small-sized muntjac with rounded ears. The tail is relatively short, chestnut dorsally, white below. The summer coatis red-brown, the winter coat is gray-brown. Males have a black stripe up each frontal ridge and pedicle, forming a V on the forehead. Fawn coat has ocher spots, which disappear by two months. A large preorbital sac, frontal glands, rear interdigital gland and (in males) a preputial gland are present. Upper canines are around 6 cmlong in males, of which one third is hidden in the alveolus; females have smaller upper canines, about 1-7 cm long, of which one third extends out of the alveolus. Antlers of adults are short and simple, 4-8 cm long, on pedicles 5-8 cm high. They generally have a very small basal brow tine and distally they tend to curve inward. Pedicles begin to grow at 5-7 months of age; first antlers appear at 8-11 months, generally minute spikes without a coronet. Subsequent antler sets grow in summer, are clean in September, and are cast in May. Hooves are very small, about 3 cmlong. The diploid number of chromosomesis 46.Habitat.In the original range it prefers dense temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests and scrub, at 200-400 m above sea level. Sometimesit also frequents alpine grasslands up to 3500 mabove sea level. Introduced populations in Englandare particularly common in dense habitat with a good diversity of vegetation.Food and Feeding.As a typical concentrate selector, it browses leaves and shoots and eats fruits.Breeding.Females attain puberty precociously, at 6-7 months of age. Breeding occurs throughout the year, with fawns born in any month. Females are polyestrous with a mean cycle of 14-15 days. After a gestation of 210 days, females give birth to one fawn weighing about 1-2 kg. Since a postpartum estrus is common, females may give birth every eight months. Fawns are weaned in four months. At six months of age they attain 60% of the final weight, at 18 months they reach 90% of their adult weight. Males may disperse at about 5-6 months, sometimes later. Reeves’s Muntjac can live to a maximum of 13 years.Activity patterns.It is active all day, with five distinct periods of feeding in 24 hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.As a slinker, it generally moves with the head held down. When alarmed it lifts the tail, showing the white underneath. Usually home ranges are small, 10-30 ha, but can be up to 100 ha, generally larger in males. Males are territorial, with a defended area encompassing the home ranges of some females. Some territoriality is also evident in females, whose core areas are exclusive. It is basically a solitary species, sometimes observed in pairs or small family groups. Adult males are probably weakly serially polygynous, forming temporary tending bonds with estrous females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, mainly for its large range and its occurrence in many protected areas. It is decreasing, due to the industrial exploitation of hides and continuous habitat loss. In Chinait is considered vulnerable but it is not protected at a national scale. The population established in England, is now quite common, increasing and expanding its range to other parts of Great Britain. In 2005 the total estimate for this population was 118,000 individuals.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Chapman(2008), Chapmanet al. (1997), Leasor et al. (2008), McCullough et al. (2000), Miura (1984), Pei Kurtis & Liu Hwanwun (1994).","taxonomy":"Cervus reevesi Ogilby, 1839, Canton (China).Because of the relatively high number of chromosomes of the karyotype this species is considered a primitive muntjac. According to a genetic study, together with M. vuquangensisit forms one of two clades; according to a second study it forms a distinct lineage not closely related to other muntjacs. Its scientific and common name honorJ. Reeves, a naturalist and Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East IndiaCompany, who worked for 19 years in China. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Muntjac de Chine @fr | China-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Reeves @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ogilby","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"409","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"reevesi","name":"Muntiacus reevesi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.r.reeves:Ogilby,1838—SEChina.M. r. micrurus Sclater, 1875— Taiwan.The subspecies from mainland Chinawas introduced into Englandin the early 20\" century.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514393/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Apollonio et al. (2010) | Chapman(2008) | Chapmanet al. (1997) | Leasor et al. (2008) | McCullough et al. (2000) | Miura (1984) | Pei Kurtis & Liu Hwanwun (1994)","foodAndFeeding":"As a typical concentrate selector, it browses leaves and shoots and eats fruits.","breeding":"Females attain puberty precociously, at 6-7 months of age. Breeding occurs throughout the year, with fawns born in any month. Females are polyestrous with a mean cycle of 14-15 days. After a gestation of 210 days, females give birth to one fawn weighing about 1-2 kg. Since a postpartum estrus is common, females may give birth every eight months. Fawns are weaned in four months. At six months of age they attain 60% of the final weight, at 18 months they reach 90% of their adult weight. Males may disperse at about 5-6 months, sometimes later. Reeves’s Muntjac can live to a maximum of 13 years.","activityPatterns":"It is active all day, with five distinct periods of feeding in 24 hours.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"As a slinker, it generally moves with the head held down. When alarmed it lifts the tail, showing the white underneath. Usually home ranges are small, 10-30 ha, but can be up to 100 ha, generally larger in males. Males are territorial, with a defended area encompassing the home ranges of some females. Some territoriality is also evident in females, whose core areas are exclusive. It is basically a solitary species, sometimes observed in pairs or small family groups. Adult males are probably weakly serially polygynous, forming temporary tending bonds with estrous females.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, mainly for its large range and its occurrence in many protected areas. It is decreasing, due to the industrial exploitation of hides and continuous habitat loss. In Chinait is considered vulnerable but it is not protected at a national scale. The population established in England, is now quite common, increasing and expanding its range to other parts of Great Britain. In 2005 the total estimate for this population was 118,000 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70-80 cm,tail 12-13 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight of adult males 14-15 kg and of adult females 12-13 kg. Males are on average 15% heavier than females. A small-sized muntjac with rounded ears. The tail is relatively short, chestnut dorsally, white below. The summer coatis red-brown, the winter coat is gray-brown. Males have a black stripe up each frontal ridge and pedicle, forming a V on the forehead. Fawn coat has ocher spots, which disappear by two months. A large preorbital sac, frontal glands, rear interdigital gland and (in males) a preputial gland are present. Upper canines are around 6 cmlong in males, of which one third is hidden in the alveolus; females have smaller upper canines, about 1-7 cm long, of which one third extends out of the alveolus. Antlers of adults are short and simple, 4-8 cm long, on pedicles 5-8 cm high. They generally have a very small basal brow tine and distally they tend to curve inward. Pedicles begin to grow at 5-7 months of age; first antlers appear at 8-11 months, generally minute spikes without a coronet. Subsequent antler sets grow in summer, are clean in September, and are cast in May. Hooves are very small, about 3 cmlong. The diploid number of chromosomesis 46.","habitat":"In the original range it prefers dense temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests and scrub, at 200-400 m above sea level. Sometimesit also frequents alpine grasslands up to 3500 mabove sea level. Introduced populations in Englandare particularly common in dense habitat with a good diversity of vegetation."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF42F6BDEF35FDDC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF42F6BDEF35FDDC","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"409","verbatimText":"2.Bornean Yellow MuntjacMuntiacus atherodesFrench:Muntjac de Bornéo/ German:Borneo-Muntjak/ Spanish:Muntiaco de BorneoTaxonomy.Muntiacus atherodes Groves & Grubb, 1982, Tawau, Sabah(Borneo).The first member of the genus probably occurred in south-western Chinaabout nine million years ago. All muntjacs are characterized by relatively long pedicles, small preorbital fossae, tusk-like upper canines; metatarsal glands are absent. The Bornean Yellow Muntjac has been confused with the sympatric M. muntjakfor many decades. It has been considered a primitive species for its rudimentary tiny antlers with irregular antler cycles, but the regression of antlers may be only an extreme adaptation to environment and climate. Monotypic.Distribution.Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 15-19 cm, shoulder height 65 cm; weight 14-18 kg. Small, with short slender pedicles and very short unbranched antlers (2-4 cm long). Males are slighter larger than females. The coat is predominantly yellow or yellowish-orange, with agouti-banded hairs and there is a broad dorsal stripe. The tail is dark brown dorsally; the underparts are pale yellow.Habitat.Uses both primary and secondary forests. It seems absent from mountains.Food and Feeding.Eats leaves, buds, forbs, seeds, fruits, and grass.Breeding.Nothing is known.Activity patterns.Active all day, with a tendency to be diurnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Observed alone or in pairs.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Still widespread, locally common but probably decreasing (especially in the Indonesian part of the island).Bibliography.Dong (2007), Groves & Grubb (1982, 1990), Payne & Francis (2005).","taxonomy":"Muntiacus atherodes Groves & Grubb, 1982, Tawau, Sabah(Borneo).The first member of the genus probably occurred in south-western Chinaabout nine million years ago. All muntjacs are characterized by relatively long pedicles, small preorbital fossae, tusk-like upper canines; metatarsal glands are absent. The Bornean Yellow Muntjac has been confused with the sympatric M. muntjakfor many decades. It has been considered a primitive species for its rudimentary tiny antlers with irregular antler cycles, but the regression of antlers may be only an extreme adaptation to environment and climate. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Muntjac de Bornéo @fr | Borneo-Muntjak @de | Muntiaco de Borneo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Groves & Grubb","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1982","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Muntiacus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"409","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"atherodes","name":"Muntiacus atherodes","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Borneo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514391/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dong (2007) | Groves & Grubb (1982, 1990) | Payne & Francis (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Eats leaves, buds, forbs, seeds, fruits, and grass.","breeding":"Nothing is known.","activityPatterns":"Active all day, with a tendency to be diurnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Observed alone or in pairs.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Still widespread, locally common but probably decreasing (especially in the Indonesian part of the island).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 15-19 cm, shoulder height 65 cm; weight 14-18 kg. Small, with short slender pedicles and very short unbranched antlers (2-4 cm long). Males are slighter larger than females. The coat is predominantly yellow or yellowish-orange, with agouti-banded hairs and there is a broad dorsal stripe. The tail is dark brown dorsally; the underparts are pale yellow.","habitat":"Uses both primary and secondary forests. It seems absent from mountains."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"409","verbatimText":"1.Tufted DeerElaphodus cephalophusFrench:Elaphode/ German:Schopfhirsch/ Spanish:ElafodoTaxonomy.Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872, Moupin, Sichuan(China).Distinct genus closely related to Muntiacus. Three subspecies are generally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.c.cephalophusMilne-Edwards,1872—SWChina;oldrecordsfromNMyanmar.E.c.ichangensisLydekker,1904—SChina.E. c. michianus Swinhoe, 1874— SE China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 7-13 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 17-30 kg. Relatively largesized muntiacine, with shortened head, short and thin pedicles, and diminutive unbranched antlers hidden by a distinct tuft of tall hair on the top of the head. Ears and tail are small. The coat is mainly dark brown, legs are black. White marks at the base and the tip of the ear. The underside of the tail is white. The fur is coarse. Frontal ridges are weak, large upper canines are present in both sexes. Frontal glands are absent, preorbital gland very large, metatarsal glands present but small. Newborn fawns have one or two rows of faint white spots. Antlers are not shed.Habitat.Compared to the members of genus Muntiacus, it is adapted to cooler climates. It lives in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, up to 4750 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Eats bamboo, forbs, fruit, and grass.Breeding.Females sexually mature at about 10-12 months of age. Mating season is September-December. After about 180 days of pregnancy, in April-July, females give birth to one or two fawns.Activity patterns.Active mainly at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Observed alone or in pairs. When disturbed it flees with cat-like jumps with tail held up and wagging. It barks like a muntjac when alarmed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List and it is decreasing. Overhunting is a major threat.Bibliography.Groves & Grubb (1990), Harris (2008a), Ohtaishi & Gao (1990), Smith & Xie Yan (2008), Zhang Zejun et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872, Moupin, Sichuan(China).Distinct genus closely related to Muntiacus. Three subspecies are generally recognized.","commonNames":"Elaphode @fr | Schopfhirsch @de | Elafodo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1872","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Elaphodus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"409","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cephalophus","name":"Elaphodus cephalophus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.c.cephalophusMilne-Edwards,1872—SWChina;oldrecordsfromNMyanmar.E.c.ichangensisLydekker,1904—SChina.E. c. michianus Swinhoe, 1874— SE China.","bibliography":"Groves & Grubb (1990) | Harris (2008a) | Ohtaishi & Gao (1990) | Smith & Xie Yan (2008) | Zhang Zejun et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Eats bamboo, forbs, fruit, and grass.","breeding":"Females sexually mature at about 10-12 months of age. Mating season is September-December. After about 180 days of pregnancy, in April-July, females give birth to one or two fawns.","activityPatterns":"Active mainly at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Observed alone or in pairs. When disturbed it flees with cat-like jumps with tail held up and wagging. It barks like a muntjac when alarmed.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List and it is decreasing. Overhunting is a major threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 7-13 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 17-30 kg. Relatively largesized muntiacine, with shortened head, short and thin pedicles, and diminutive unbranched antlers hidden by a distinct tuft of tall hair on the top of the head. Ears and tail are small. The coat is mainly dark brown, legs are black. White marks at the base and the tip of the ear. The underside of the tail is white. The fur is coarse. Frontal ridges are weak, large upper canines are present in both sexes. Frontal glands are absent, preorbital gland very large, metatarsal glands present but small. Newborn fawns have one or two rows of faint white spots. Antlers are not shed.","habitat":"Compared to the members of genus Muntiacus, it is adapted to cooler climates. It lives in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, up to 4750 mabove sea level."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"422","verbatimText":"25.Western Red DeerCervus elaphusFrench:Cerf élaphe/ German:Rothirsch/ Spanish:CiervoOther common names:Barbary Red Deer (barbarus), Bukhara Red Deer (bactrianus), Caspian Red Deer/Maral (maral), Tarim Red Deer (yarkandensis), Thyrrenian Red Deer (corsicanus)Taxonomy.Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Red deer appeared in Europe in late Early Pleistocene, about 900,000 years ago. They were large-sized deer bearing five-tined antlers with a terminal fork, replaced in Middle Pleistocene by deer characterized by antlers with a terminal crown. For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. The general body shape, the conspicuous rump patch, and the occurrence of the bez tine in the antler are common traits. But the various forms differ in many characteristics (degree of sexual dimorphism, coat coloration, antler conformation, behavior postures, vocalizations) and have only partial interfertility. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. The analysis of mtDNA revealed in the western part of the distribution range three main lineages: a western one that during the last glacial maximum (about 20,000 years ago) survived in an ice-free refugium in Spainand southern France, an eastern one subsisting in South-eastern Europe (Carpathians and Balkans) and a third lineage possibly living then in Italyand now represented only by “Thyrrenian Red Deer” (corsicanus) and “Barbary Red Deer” (barbarus). With the end of the last glaciacion most of Europe was recolonized from the western refugium. It is probable that the Thyrrenian Red Deer derives from introductions by man from mainland Italyinto Sardiniaabout 8000 years ago. Barbary Red Deer of North Africa, could have been translocated there in ancient times. Here six subspecies of Western Red Deer are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.e.elaphusLinnaeus,1758—GreatBritainandcontinentalEurope.C.e.bactrianusLydekker,1900—WTurkestan(Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan&NAfghanistan).C.e.barbarusBennett,1833—AtlasMts(Algeria,Tunisia).C.e.corsicanusErxleben,1777—Corsica(extinct,reintroducedin1985),Sardinia.C.e.maralGray,1850—Anatolia,Caucasus,andNWIran.C. e. yarkandensis Blanford, 1892— E Turkestan (S Xinjiang, China).It has been introduced into Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-205 cm for males (stags) and 165-180 cm for females (hinds), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 105-130 cm (stags) and 95-115 cm (hinds); post-rutting weight of stags 110-220 kg and hinds 75-120 kg. The heaviest animals occur in the Carpathians and Bulgaria(with records of 350 kglean weight for stags and 200 kgfor hinds), the lightest in the Scottish Highlands, southern Spain, Sardinia, and Mesola Wood (Italian Peninsula). Adult stags are on average 50-70% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with large head and elongated snout. There are two main genetic groups: a western advanced one (typically with six-tined antlers with a terminal crown, from Europe to Iran) and an Asian primitive one (with five-tined antlers, from the Aral Sea to the Tarim Basin). The rump patch is relatively small, orange on the upper portion, whitish on the lower part, and bordered below in dark brown. The tail is orange and relatively short. The summer coat is reddish or reddishbrown, with grayish legs and whitish belly. The winter coat is grayish-brown; adult stags have a thick neck mane and the belly is heavily stained black. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves have a brown coat with scattered white spots on the sides, which are lost after 2-3 months. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. The preorbitals are particularly well developed and open in young calves and in rutting stags. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Permanent teeth erupt at 5-25 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, cylindrical, and typically well branched, with two basal tines (brow and bez) and a terminal cup-like “royal” crown or an upper fork. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 5-40 cm long. At 8-13 years the antlers of Western Red Deer attain their full size. In high quality populations antlers are on average 90-105 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6.6-5 kg, but there are records of 130-140 cm for antler beam length and of 18-21 kg for trophy mass. There are normally 5-7 tines per antler beam, with records of 16 inthe wild and 24 inparks. In less productive habitats (Scottish Highlands, Sardinia, Mesola Wood, North Africa) antlers are on average only 60-70 cm in length, with 3-4 tines per beam. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in July, antler casting in late February-March. Antler regression occurs at 15-16 years of age, sometimes earlier. Hooves are 9-11 cm long in adult stags and 7-8 cm in hinds, with toe pads occupying one third of the hoof.Habitat.Originally associated with the interface between woodland and grassland, but highly adaptable. It also lives in Mediterranean maquis scrub, in alpine summit meadows, and in the treeless moorlands of Scotland. It prefers broadleaved woodlands interspersed by large meadows. Up to 2800 mabove sea level on the Alps. In west-central Asia it occurs in woody and shrubby thickets along riverbanks in desert areas.Food and Feeding.As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen,it tends to eat a mixed diet of about 30% grass and sedges and about 65% browse, without significant differences among seasons. Fruits and seeds are important items in autumn. It is a very versatile species, consuming up to 300 different species of plants. The two sexes tend to differ in diet composition, hinds eating higher quality food. Stags eat on average 14-16 kg and females around 9-10 kg offresh vegetation per day. Actual food intake follows appetite cycles related to photoperiod and hormones, which are highest in March—June and lowest in late September-December. Lactating hinds more than double their energy requirements.Breeding.In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16 months of age. In less productive habitats sexual maturity may be postponed by at least one year. Stags reach puberty at about 16 months, but can actually begin to reproduce at five years of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18 days. During estrus they are receptive for only 6-24 hours. Conceptions are well synchronized, occurring for 80% of females within 3-4 weeks. Stags leave their summer quarters and move to their traditional rutting stands, where they try to collect and defend a harem against other stags. Competition among stags is high, with some failing completely to reproduce and others able to father up to a dozen or more calves in a season. Stags are involved in roaring contests, dominance displays, and overt fights, with a real risk of serious injury, or more rarely, death. During rut stags lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight and up to 80% of body fat. The mean length of gestation is 235 days. Before giving birth, hinds leave their group and move away from their usual core areas, looking for better cover. Calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds almost invariably give birth to one calf, which weighs on average 8-9 kg (about 6-5 kg in Scottish moorlands). Male calves are about 5% heavier than females. For the first 7-10 days calves are kept hidden, usually lying in tall vegetation, then begin to follow their mother. During the first few days calves are fed ten times a day. From five days to 90 days they are nursed eight times, and after that, four times a day. Lactating hinds produce 2-4 liters of milk per day, with a peak 50 days after parturition and a decline after three months. By 15-18 days of age calves have doubled their birth weight. They begin to ingest their first vegetation at ten days, and at one month they feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months (November—February). Stags can typically breed for 3-5 years, peaking in Scotlandat 7-10 years of age (possibly at 9-12 years in continental Europe). Hinds have a much longer reproductive life span, of up to 12-16 years. The sexes have also a differential pattern of body growth; stags do not reach their full body weight before 8-9 years of age, whereas hinds attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally Western Red Deerlive to a maximum of 17-18 years, with records of 22 years for stags and 26 for hinds. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).Activity patterns.It is active all the day, with peaks at dawn and in early evening, alternating 6-8 periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving from place to place. It dedicates 7-12 hours to feeding. Human disturbance increases nocturnal activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Red Deer have home ranges of variable size, according to sex and habitat; sometimes they occupy only 2-5 km?, sometimes 8-40 km” and more. Adult stags tend to be more mobile and to have separate seasonal ranges. In mountains part of the population can be sedentary, part can make short distance movements, and part can be migratory, moving 10-60 km to reach lower pastures in the winter and high feeding areas in summer. Ranges are normally undefended. Red deer are social animals. The basic social unit is the matrilineal family group, with a dominant old hind associated with her daughters, granddaughters, and their dependent offspring. Stags segregate from hinds for most of the year and form small, less stable, bachelor bands. In woodlands, female family groups can split into smaller units; in open habitat they may unite with neighboring hind groups. During winter and early spring several groups can form temporary large aggregations in open ground.Status and Conservation.“Bukhara Red Deer” (bactrianus) CITES Annex I and Barbary Red Deer CITES Annex III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. elaphuscomplex), but it can be considered as not currently at risk and globally increasing. During the 18\" and the 19\" century overhunting with modern weapons resulted in a drastic contraction of the distribution range and abundance in most parts of Europe. Strict rules for culling, the enforcement of laws with precise hunting seasons, and reintroductions combined to produce an increase in range and numbers. This has become particularly evident since the 1950s-1960s. At the beginning of the 20\" century in the Italian Peninsula only a small population in the Po River delta (Mesola Wood) survived. Thanks to the natural recolonization from neighboring countries of the Alpine region and releases, in 1970 deer numbered 3000 individuals. The number grew to 41,000 in2000 and 57,000 in2005. In all of Europe, excluding Russia, Western Red Deer numbered 1-25 million individuals in 1985 and 2-4 million in 2005. The annual harvest grew in the same period from 270,000 to 500,000 individuals. Densities are normally 1-5 ind/km?, sometimes up to 15 ind/km?*; higher numbers often imply supplementary feeding. Densities are artificially raised to unnaturallevels (up to 100 ind/km?) to increase revenues from hunting. The Western Red Deeris extinct in Albaniaand in the Near East (Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Syria). Four subspecies are still rare: the Thyrrenian Red Deer, the Barbary Red Deer, the Bukhara Red Deer, and the “Tarim Red Deer” (yarkandensis). Thyrrenian Red Deer faced a dramatic decline in the 20™ century, disappearing from Corsicain 1969 and decreasing to a minimum population size of 100 animals in Sardinia in 1970. Deforestation,fires, and poaching with guns and snares were the main causes. Red Deer from Sardinia have recovered slowly, numbering 6000 animals in 2005. In 1985 a reintroduction program was started in Corsica. Barbary Red Deer became extinct in Moroccoby 1932, and in early 1960 only a few dozen animals survived in forests in the Atlas Mountains between Algeriaand Tunisia. More effective protection allowed a recovery in Algeriaand Tunisia, and in 1994 a reintroduction was begun in Morocco. The Bukhara Red Deer originally lived in the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Tree felling, cattle grazing, and overhunting led to a rapid decline during the 19\" century. In early 1900 it disappeared from Syr Darya. In the mid-1960s the population reached a minimum of 350-400 animals; in the early 1980s it had grown to 1100. The Tarim Red Deer of Chinese Xinjiang had a declining population of 4000-5000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakash rivers.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Butzler (1986), Carnevali et al. (2009), Clutton-Brock & Albon (1989), Clutton-Brock et al. (1982), Danilkin (1999), Gebert & Verheyden (2008), Gill (1990), Mattioli, Fico et al. (2003), Mattioli, Meneguz et al. (2001), von Raesfeld & Reulecke (1988), Skog et al. (2009), Sommeret al. (2008), Staines et al. (2008), Wagenknecht (1986), Zachos & Hartl (2011).","taxonomy":"Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Red deer appeared in Europe in late Early Pleistocene, about 900,000 years ago. They were large-sized deer bearing five-tined antlers with a terminal fork, replaced in Middle Pleistocene by deer characterized by antlers with a terminal crown. For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. The general body shape, the conspicuous rump patch, and the occurrence of the bez tine in the antler are common traits. But the various forms differ in many characteristics (degree of sexual dimorphism, coat coloration, antler conformation, behavior postures, vocalizations) and have only partial interfertility. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. The analysis of mtDNA revealed in the western part of the distribution range three main lineages: a western one that during the last glacial maximum (about 20,000 years ago) survived in an ice-free refugium in Spainand southern France, an eastern one subsisting in South-eastern Europe (Carpathians and Balkans) and a third lineage possibly living then in Italyand now represented only by “Thyrrenian Red Deer” (corsicanus) and “Barbary Red Deer” (barbarus). With the end of the last glaciacion most of Europe was recolonized from the western refugium. It is probable that the Thyrrenian Red Deer derives from introductions by man from mainland Italyinto Sardiniaabout 8000 years ago. Barbary Red Deer of North Africa, could have been translocated there in ancient times. Here six subspecies of Western Red Deer are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf élaphe @fr | Rothirsch @de | Ciervo @es | Barbary Red Deer (barbarus) @en | Bukhara Red Deer (bactrianus) @en | Caspian Red Deer @en | Maral (maral) @en | Tarim Red Deer (yarkandensis) @en | Thyrrenian Red Deer (corsicanus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Cervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"422","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"elaphus","name":"Cervus elaphus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.e.elaphusLinnaeus,1758—GreatBritainandcontinentalEurope.C.e.bactrianusLydekker,1900—WTurkestan(Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan&NAfghanistan).C.e.barbarusBennett,1833—AtlasMts(Algeria,Tunisia).C.e.corsicanusErxleben,1777—Corsica(extinct,reintroducedin1985),Sardinia.C.e.maralGray,1850—Anatolia,Caucasus,andNWIran.C. e. yarkandensis Blanford, 1892— E Turkestan (S Xinjiang, China).It has been introduced into Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.","bibliography":"Apollonio et al. (2010) | Butzler (1986) | Carnevali et al. (2009) | Clutton-Brock & Albon (1989) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1982) | Danilkin (1999) | Gebert & Verheyden (2008) | Gill (1990) | Mattioli, Fico et al. (2003) | Mattioli, Meneguz et al. (2001) | von Raesfeld & Reulecke (1988) | Skog et al. (2009) | Sommeret al. (2008) | Staines et al. (2008) | Wagenknecht (1986) | Zachos & Hartl (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen,it tends to eat a mixed diet of about 30% grass and sedges and about 65% browse, without significant differences among seasons. Fruits and seeds are important items in autumn. It is a very versatile species, consuming up to 300 different species of plants. The two sexes tend to differ in diet composition, hinds eating higher quality food. Stags eat on average 14-16 kg and females around 9-10 kg offresh vegetation per day. Actual food intake follows appetite cycles related to photoperiod and hormones, which are highest in March—June and lowest in late September-December. Lactating hinds more than double their energy requirements.","breeding":"In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16 months of age. In less productive habitats sexual maturity may be postponed by at least one year. Stags reach puberty at about 16 months, but can actually begin to reproduce at five years of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18 days. During estrus they are receptive for only 6-24 hours. Conceptions are well synchronized, occurring for 80% of females within 3-4 weeks. Stags leave their summer quarters and move to their traditional rutting stands, where they try to collect and defend a harem against other stags. Competition among stags is high, with some failing completely to reproduce and others able to father up to a dozen or more calves in a season. Stags are involved in roaring contests, dominance displays, and overt fights, with a real risk of serious injury, or more rarely, death. During rut stags lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight and up to 80% of body fat. The mean length of gestation is 235 days. Before giving birth, hinds leave their group and move away from their usual core areas, looking for better cover. Calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds almost invariably give birth to one calf, which weighs on average 8-9 kg (about 6-5 kg in Scottish moorlands). Male calves are about 5% heavier than females. For the first 7-10 days calves are kept hidden, usually lying in tall vegetation, then begin to follow their mother. During the first few days calves are fed ten times a day. From five days to 90 days they are nursed eight times, and after that, four times a day. Lactating hinds produce 2-4 liters of milk per day, with a peak 50 days after parturition and a decline after three months. By 15-18 days of age calves have doubled their birth weight. They begin to ingest their first vegetation at ten days, and at one month they feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months (November—February). Stags can typically breed for 3-5 years, peaking in Scotlandat 7-10 years of age (possibly at 9-12 years in continental Europe). Hinds have a much longer reproductive life span, of up to 12-16 years. The sexes have also a differential pattern of body growth; stags do not reach their full body weight before 8-9 years of age, whereas hinds attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally Western Red Deerlive to a maximum of 17-18 years, with records of 22 years for stags and 26 for hinds. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).","activityPatterns":"It is active all the day, with peaks at dawn and in early evening, alternating 6-8 periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving from place to place. It dedicates 7-12 hours to feeding. Human disturbance increases nocturnal activity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Western Red Deer have home ranges of variable size, according to sex and habitat; sometimes they occupy only 2-5 km?, sometimes 8-40 km” and more. Adult stags tend to be more mobile and to have separate seasonal ranges. In mountains part of the population can be sedentary, part can make short distance movements, and part can be migratory, moving 10-60 km to reach lower pastures in the winter and high feeding areas in summer. Ranges are normally undefended. Red deer are social animals. The basic social unit is the matrilineal family group, with a dominant old hind associated with her daughters, granddaughters, and their dependent offspring. Stags segregate from hinds for most of the year and form small, less stable, bachelor bands. In woodlands, female family groups can split into smaller units; in open habitat they may unite with neighboring hind groups. During winter and early spring several groups can form temporary large aggregations in open ground.","statusAndConservation":"“Bukhara Red Deer” (bactrianus) CITES Annex I and Barbary Red Deer CITES Annex III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. elaphuscomplex), but it can be considered as not currently at risk and globally increasing. During the 18\" and the 19\" century overhunting with modern weapons resulted in a drastic contraction of the distribution range and abundance in most parts of Europe. Strict rules for culling, the enforcement of laws with precise hunting seasons, and reintroductions combined to produce an increase in range and numbers. This has become particularly evident since the 1950s-1960s. At the beginning of the 20\" century in the Italian Peninsula only a small population in the Po River delta (Mesola Wood) survived. Thanks to the natural recolonization from neighboring countries of the Alpine region and releases, in 1970 deer numbered 3000 individuals. The number grew to 41,000 in2000 and 57,000 in2005. In all of Europe, excluding Russia, Western Red Deer numbered 1-25 million individuals in 1985 and 2-4 million in 2005. The annual harvest grew in the same period from 270,000 to 500,000 individuals. Densities are normally 1-5 ind/km?, sometimes up to 15 ind/km?*; higher numbers often imply supplementary feeding. Densities are artificially raised to unnaturallevels (up to 100 ind/km?) to increase revenues from hunting. The Western Red Deeris extinct in Albaniaand in the Near East (Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Syria). Four subspecies are still rare: the Thyrrenian Red Deer, the Barbary Red Deer, the Bukhara Red Deer, and the “Tarim Red Deer” (yarkandensis). Thyrrenian Red Deer faced a dramatic decline in the 20™ century, disappearing from Corsicain 1969 and decreasing to a minimum population size of 100 animals in Sardinia in 1970. Deforestation,fires, and poaching with guns and snares were the main causes. Red Deer from Sardinia have recovered slowly, numbering 6000 animals in 2005. In 1985 a reintroduction program was started in Corsica. Barbary Red Deer became extinct in Moroccoby 1932, and in early 1960 only a few dozen animals survived in forests in the Atlas Mountains between Algeriaand Tunisia. More effective protection allowed a recovery in Algeriaand Tunisia, and in 1994 a reintroduction was begun in Morocco. The Bukhara Red Deer originally lived in the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Tree felling, cattle grazing, and overhunting led to a rapid decline during the 19\" century. In early 1900 it disappeared from Syr Darya. In the mid-1960s the population reached a minimum of 350-400 animals; in the early 1980s it had grown to 1100. The Tarim Red Deer of Chinese Xinjiang had a declining population of 4000-5000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakash rivers.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-205 cm for males (stags) and 165-180 cm for females (hinds), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 105-130 cm (stags) and 95-115 cm (hinds); post-rutting weight of stags 110-220 kg and hinds 75-120 kg. The heaviest animals occur in the Carpathians and Bulgaria(with records of 350 kglean weight for stags and 200 kgfor hinds), the lightest in the Scottish Highlands, southern Spain, Sardinia, and Mesola Wood (Italian Peninsula). Adult stags are on average 50-70% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with large head and elongated snout. There are two main genetic groups: a western advanced one (typically with six-tined antlers with a terminal crown, from Europe to Iran) and an Asian primitive one (with five-tined antlers, from the Aral Sea to the Tarim Basin). The rump patch is relatively small, orange on the upper portion, whitish on the lower part, and bordered below in dark brown. The tail is orange and relatively short. The summer coat is reddish or reddishbrown, with grayish legs and whitish belly. The winter coat is grayish-brown; adult stags have a thick neck mane and the belly is heavily stained black. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves have a brown coat with scattered white spots on the sides, which are lost after 2-3 months. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. The preorbitals are particularly well developed and open in young calves and in rutting stags. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Permanent teeth erupt at 5-25 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, cylindrical, and typically well branched, with two basal tines (brow and bez) and a terminal cup-like “royal” crown or an upper fork. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 5-40 cm long. At 8-13 years the antlers of Western Red Deer attain their full size. In high quality populations antlers are on average 90-105 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6.6-5 kg, but there are records of 130-140 cm for antler beam length and of 18-21 kg for trophy mass. There are normally 5-7 tines per antler beam, with records of 16 inthe wild and 24 inparks. In less productive habitats (Scottish Highlands, Sardinia, Mesola Wood, North Africa) antlers are on average only 60-70 cm in length, with 3-4 tines per beam. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in July, antler casting in late February-March. Antler regression occurs at 15-16 years of age, sometimes earlier. Hooves are 9-11 cm long in adult stags and 7-8 cm in hinds, with toe pads occupying one third of the hoof.","habitat":"Originally associated with the interface between woodland and grassland, but highly adaptable. It also lives in Mediterranean maquis scrub, in alpine summit meadows, and in the treeless moorlands of Scotland. It prefers broadleaved woodlands interspersed by large meadows. Up to 2800 mabove sea level on the Alps. In west-central Asia it occurs in woody and shrubby thickets along riverbanks in desert areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"421","verbatimText":"23.Sika DeerCervus nipponFrench:Cerf sika/ German:Sikahirsch/ Spanish:SikaTaxonomy.Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838, Japan.The first true members of the genus Cervusprobably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japanwas colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.Subspecies and Distribution.C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884— N Japan(Hokkaido).It was anciently introduced to Solo I (Philippines) and in 17\" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19\" and 20\" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA.Descriptive notes.Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido(with records of 176 kgfor stags and 108 kgfor hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cmfor antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.Habitat.Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cmis limiting. Up to 3000 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japanthe deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.Breeding.Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).Activity patterns.Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 min length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 kmbetween summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Koreait is extinct, in North Koreavery rare or extinct. In Taiwanit became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnamit is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In Chinathere are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in Chinaand all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Irelandand 27,000 for Great Britain.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Bartos et al. (1998), Baskin & Danell (2003), Feldhamer (1980), Feldhameret al. (1985), Geist (1998), Groves (2006), Groves & Smeenk (1978), Hayden et al. (1994), Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006), McCullough et al. (2009), Miura (1984), Putman (2008), Suzuki et al. (2001), Zejda & Babicka (1983).","taxonomy":"Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838, Japan.The first true members of the genus Cervusprobably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japanwas colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.","commonNames":"Cerf sika @fr | Sikahirsch @de | Sika @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Cervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"421","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nippon","name":"Cervus nippon","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884— N Japan(Hokkaido).It was anciently introduced to Solo I (Philippines) and in 17\" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19\" and 20\" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA.","bibliography":"Apollonio et al. (2010) | Bartos et al. (1998) | Baskin & Danell (2003) | Feldhamer (1980) | Feldhameret al. (1985) | Geist (1998) | Groves (2006) | Groves & Smeenk (1978) | Hayden et al. (1994) | Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006) | McCullough et al. (2009) | Miura (1984) | Putman (2008) | Suzuki et al. (2001) | Zejda & Babicka (1983)","foodAndFeeding":"It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japanthe deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.","breeding":"Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).","activityPatterns":"Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 min length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 kmbetween summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Koreait is extinct, in North Koreavery rare or extinct. In Taiwanit became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnamit is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In Chinathere are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in Chinaand all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Irelandand 27,000 for Great Britain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido(with records of 176 kgfor stags and 108 kgfor hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cmfor antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.","habitat":"Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cmis limiting. Up to 3000 mabove sea level."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"421","verbatimText":"24.Central Asian Red DeerCervus wallichiiFrench:Cerf de Wallich/ German:China-Rothirsch/ Spanish:CiervoasiaticoOther common names:Hangul (hangl/u), MacNeill's Red Deer (macneilli), Shou (wallichii)Taxonomy.Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, 1823, Lake Mansarovar (S Tibet).For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. C. wallichiiis the most primitive representative of the red deer complex lineage. The scientific name refers to the Danish naturalist N. Wallich, who was superintendent of the Botanical Garden of the East IndiaCompany in Calcutta. Here three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.w.wallichi:G.Cuvier,1823—SWChina(SEXizang),Bhutan.C.w.hangluWagner,1844—NIndia(Kashmir).C. w. macneilli Lydekker, 1909—C & SW China(N Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, W Sichuan& E Xizang).Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-205 cm for males (stags) and 180-195 cm for females (hinds), tail length 8-12 cm, shoulder height 125-145 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of stags 150-240 kg and hinds 110-170 kg. Large-sized deer, with basically a five-tined antler plan, large ears, a short neck mane, a shorttail, massive haunches, and large broad hooves. The rump patch and the tail coloration vary among subspecies. Antlers tend to have a terminal transverse fork and a well-developed bez tine. The “Hangul” (hanglu) has a small rump patch bordered below by a broad black band and a dark tail. The belly is whitish, legs and chest are dark. The “Shou” (wallichii) seems to have a rump patch of variable size, often divided by a dark line. Thetail is whitish. The belly is gray, the lips are pale gray. “MacNeill’s Red Deer” (macneilli) has a narrow white rump patch that expands dorsally into a broad black croup patch, and a dark tail. The lips are gray-brown. This subspecies often has six-tined antlers.Habitat.Hanguls live in moist temperate forest. Shous occur in scrublands and alpine grasslands at 4300-4900 m above sea level. MacNeill’s Red Deeris found in montane conifer forest, willow-rhododendron scrublands, and alpine meadows.Food and Feeding.As mixed feeders they may graze grasses and forbs, then turn to browsing leaves and twigs.On following pages 25 Western Red Door (Corvus oluphusl, 26 Wapm (Corvus canodenswlBreeding.The rutting call begins as a roar but ends in a Wapiti-like bugle. The calving season of the Hangul peaks in July-August.Movements, Home range and Social organization.They are saltatorial, able to move with agility on steep slopes in scrub vegetation. They are gregarious, with large family groups. The rare Shou has been seen recently in herds of up to 55 animals.Status and Conservation.Hangul CITES Appendix I. Considered a subspecies of the C. elaphuscomplex by IUCN and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red Lust. It is a very rare species, possibly threatened, the Hangul declined from 2000 animals in 1947 to less than 200 animals in the early 1970s, then increased to 1000 by 1989, but dropped again to 150-200 in the last decade. The Shou was considered extinct and rediscovered in a few localities of south-east Tibet(Xizang) in 1995. The status of MacNeill’s Red Deer is unknown. Poaching and pressure from stock grazing continue to be significant threats.Bibliography.Dolan (1988), Dolan & Killmar (1988), Geist (1998), Groves (2003, 2006), Schaller (1998), Wemmer (1998).","taxonomy":"Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, 1823, Lake Mansarovar (S Tibet).For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. C. wallichiiis the most primitive representative of the red deer complex lineage. The scientific name refers to the Danish naturalist N. Wallich, who was superintendent of the Botanical Garden of the East IndiaCompany in Calcutta. Here three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf de Wallich @fr | China-Rothirsch @de | Ciervoasiatico @es | Hangul (hangl @en | u) @en | Mac Neill's Red Deer (macneilli) @en | Shou (wallichii) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Cervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"421","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"wallichii","name":"Cervus wallichii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.w.wallichi:G.Cuvier,1823—SWChina(SEXizang),Bhutan.C.w.hangluWagner,1844—NIndia(Kashmir).C. w. macneilli Lydekker, 1909—C & SW China(N Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, W Sichuan& E Xizang).","bibliography":"Dolan (1988) | Dolan & Killmar (1988) | Geist (1998) | Groves (2003, 2006) | Schaller (1998) | Wemmer (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"As mixed feeders they may graze grasses and forbs, then turn to browsing leaves and twigs.","breeding":"The rutting call begins as a roar but ends in a Wapiti-like bugle. The calving season of the Hangul peaks in July-August.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"They are saltatorial, able to move with agility on steep slopes in scrub vegetation. They are gregarious, with large family groups. The rare Shou has been seen recently in herds of up to 55 animals.","statusAndConservation":"Hangul CITES Appendix I. Considered a subspecies of the C. elaphuscomplex by IUCN and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red Lust. It is a very rare species, possibly threatened, the Hangul declined from 2000 animals in 1947 to less than 200 animals in the early 1970s, then increased to 1000 by 1989, but dropped again to 150-200 in the last decade. The Shou was considered extinct and rediscovered in a few localities of south-east Tibet(Xizang) in 1995. The status of MacNeill’s Red Deer is unknown. Poaching and pressure from stock grazing continue to be significant threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 190-205 cm for males (stags) and 180-195 cm for females (hinds), tail length 8-12 cm, shoulder height 125-145 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of stags 150-240 kg and hinds 110-170 kg. Large-sized deer, with basically a five-tined antler plan, large ears, a short neck mane, a shorttail, massive haunches, and large broad hooves. The rump patch and the tail coloration vary among subspecies. Antlers tend to have a terminal transverse fork and a well-developed bez tine. The “Hangul” (hanglu) has a small rump patch bordered below by a broad black band and a dark tail. The belly is whitish, legs and chest are dark. The “Shou” (wallichii) seems to have a rump patch of variable size, often divided by a dark line. Thetail is whitish. The belly is gray, the lips are pale gray. “MacNeill’s Red Deer” (macneilli) has a narrow white rump patch that expands dorsally into a broad black croup patch, and a dark tail. The lips are gray-brown. This subspecies often has six-tined antlers.","habitat":"Hanguls live in moist temperate forest. Shous occur in scrublands and alpine grasslands at 4300-4900 m above sea level. MacNeill’s Red Deeris found in montane conifer forest, willow-rhododendron scrublands, and alpine meadows."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"409","verbatimText":"1.Tufted DeerElaphodus cephalophusFrench:Elaphode/ German:Schopfhirsch/ Spanish:ElafodoTaxonomy.Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872, Moupin, Sichuan(China).Distinct genus closely related to Muntiacus. Three subspecies are generally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.c.cephalophusMilne-Edwards,1872—SWChina;oldrecordsfromNMyanmar.E.c.ichangensisLydekker,1904—SChina.E. c. michianus Swinhoe, 1874— SE China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 7-13 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 17-30 kg. Relatively largesized muntiacine, with shortened head, short and thin pedicles, and diminutive unbranched antlers hidden by a distinct tuft of tall hair on the top of the head. Ears and tail are small. The coat is mainly dark brown, legs are black. White marks at the base and the tip of the ear. The underside of the tail is white. The fur is coarse. Frontal ridges are weak, large upper canines are present in both sexes. Frontal glands are absent, preorbital gland very large, metatarsal glands present but small. Newborn fawns have one or two rows of faint white spots. Antlers are not shed.Habitat.Compared to the members of genus Muntiacus, it is adapted to cooler climates. It lives in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, up to 4750 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Eats bamboo, forbs, fruit, and grass.Breeding.Females sexually mature at about 10-12 months of age. Mating season is September-December. After about 180 days of pregnancy, in April-July, females give birth to one or two fawns.Activity patterns.Active mainly at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Observed alone or in pairs. When disturbed it flees with cat-like jumps with tail held up and wagging. It barks like a muntjac when alarmed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List and it is decreasing. Overhunting is a major threat.Bibliography.Groves & Grubb (1990), Harris (2008a), Ohtaishi & Gao (1990), Smith & Xie Yan (2008), Zhang Zejun et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872, Moupin, Sichuan(China).Distinct genus closely related to Muntiacus. Three subspecies are generally recognized.","commonNames":"Elaphode @fr | Schopfhirsch @de | Elafodo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1872","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Elaphodus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"409","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cephalophus","name":"Elaphodus cephalophus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.c.cephalophusMilne-Edwards,1872—SWChina;oldrecordsfromNMyanmar.E.c.ichangensisLydekker,1904—SChina.E. c. michianus Swinhoe, 1874— SE China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514387/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Groves & Grubb (1990) | Harris (2008a) | Ohtaishi & Gao (1990) | Smith & Xie Yan (2008) | Zhang Zejun et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Eats bamboo, forbs, fruit, and grass.","breeding":"Females sexually mature at about 10-12 months of age. Mating season is September-December. After about 180 days of pregnancy, in April-July, females give birth to one or two fawns.","activityPatterns":"Active mainly at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Observed alone or in pairs. When disturbed it flees with cat-like jumps with tail held up and wagging. It barks like a muntjac when alarmed.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List and it is decreasing. Overhunting is a major threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 7-13 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 17-30 kg. Relatively largesized muntiacine, with shortened head, short and thin pedicles, and diminutive unbranched antlers hidden by a distinct tuft of tall hair on the top of the head. Ears and tail are small. The coat is mainly dark brown, legs are black. White marks at the base and the tip of the ear. The underside of the tail is white. The fur is coarse. Frontal ridges are weak, large upper canines are present in both sexes. Frontal glands are absent, preorbital gland very large, metatarsal glands present but small. Newborn fawns have one or two rows of faint white spots. Antlers are not shed.","habitat":"Compared to the members of genus Muntiacus, it is adapted to cooler climates. It lives in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, up to 4750 mabove sea level."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"422","verbatimText":"25.Western Red DeerCervus elaphusFrench:Cerf élaphe/ German:Rothirsch/ Spanish:CiervoOther common names:Barbary Red Deer (barbarus), Bukhara Red Deer (bactrianus), Caspian Red Deer/Maral (maral), Tarim Red Deer (yarkandensis), Thyrrenian Red Deer (corsicanus)Taxonomy.Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Red deer appeared in Europe in late Early Pleistocene, about 900,000 years ago. They were large-sized deer bearing five-tined antlers with a terminal fork, replaced in Middle Pleistocene by deer characterized by antlers with a terminal crown. For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. The general body shape, the conspicuous rump patch, and the occurrence of the bez tine in the antler are common traits. But the various forms differ in many characteristics (degree of sexual dimorphism, coat coloration, antler conformation, behavior postures, vocalizations) and have only partial interfertility. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. The analysis of mtDNA revealed in the western part of the distribution range three main lineages: a western one that during the last glacial maximum (about 20,000 years ago) survived in an ice-free refugium in Spainand southern France, an eastern one subsisting in South-eastern Europe (Carpathians and Balkans) and a third lineage possibly living then in Italyand now represented only by “Thyrrenian Red Deer” (corsicanus) and “Barbary Red Deer” (barbarus). With the end of the last glaciacion most of Europe was recolonized from the western refugium. It is probable that the Thyrrenian Red Deer derives from introductions by man from mainland Italyinto Sardiniaabout 8000 years ago. Barbary Red Deer of North Africa, could have been translocated there in ancient times. Here six subspecies of Western Red Deer are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.e.elaphusLinnaeus,1758—GreatBritainandcontinentalEurope.C.e.bactrianusLydekker,1900—WTurkestan(Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan&NAfghanistan).C.e.barbarusBennett,1833—AtlasMts(Algeria,Tunisia).C.e.corsicanusErxleben,1777—Corsica(extinct,reintroducedin1985),Sardinia.C.e.maralGray,1850—Anatolia,Caucasus,andNWIran.C. e. yarkandensis Blanford, 1892— E Turkestan (S Xinjiang, China).It has been introduced into Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-205 cm for males (stags) and 165-180 cm for females (hinds), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 105-130 cm (stags) and 95-115 cm (hinds); post-rutting weight of stags 110-220 kg and hinds 75-120 kg. The heaviest animals occur in the Carpathians and Bulgaria(with records of 350 kglean weight for stags and 200 kgfor hinds), the lightest in the Scottish Highlands, southern Spain, Sardinia, and Mesola Wood (Italian Peninsula). Adult stags are on average 50-70% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with large head and elongated snout. There are two main genetic groups: a western advanced one (typically with six-tined antlers with a terminal crown, from Europe to Iran) and an Asian primitive one (with five-tined antlers, from the Aral Sea to the Tarim Basin). The rump patch is relatively small, orange on the upper portion, whitish on the lower part, and bordered below in dark brown. The tail is orange and relatively short. The summer coat is reddish or reddishbrown, with grayish legs and whitish belly. The winter coat is grayish-brown; adult stags have a thick neck mane and the belly is heavily stained black. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves have a brown coat with scattered white spots on the sides, which are lost after 2-3 months. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. The preorbitals are particularly well developed and open in young calves and in rutting stags. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Permanent teeth erupt at 5-25 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, cylindrical, and typically well branched, with two basal tines (brow and bez) and a terminal cup-like “royal” crown or an upper fork. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 5-40 cm long. At 8-13 years the antlers of Western Red Deer attain their full size. In high quality populations antlers are on average 90-105 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6.6-5 kg, but there are records of 130-140 cm for antler beam length and of 18-21 kg for trophy mass. There are normally 5-7 tines per antler beam, with records of 16 inthe wild and 24 inparks. In less productive habitats (Scottish Highlands, Sardinia, Mesola Wood, North Africa) antlers are on average only 60-70 cm in length, with 3-4 tines per beam. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in July, antler casting in late February-March. Antler regression occurs at 15-16 years of age, sometimes earlier. Hooves are 9-11 cm long in adult stags and 7-8 cm in hinds, with toe pads occupying one third of the hoof.Habitat.Originally associated with the interface between woodland and grassland, but highly adaptable. It also lives in Mediterranean maquis scrub, in alpine summit meadows, and in the treeless moorlands of Scotland. It prefers broadleaved woodlands interspersed by large meadows. Up to 2800 mabove sea level on the Alps. In west-central Asia it occurs in woody and shrubby thickets along riverbanks in desert areas.Food and Feeding.As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen,it tends to eat a mixed diet of about 30% grass and sedges and about 65% browse, without significant differences among seasons. Fruits and seeds are important items in autumn. It is a very versatile species, consuming up to 300 different species of plants. The two sexes tend to differ in diet composition, hinds eating higher quality food. Stags eat on average 14-16 kg and females around 9-10 kg offresh vegetation per day. Actual food intake follows appetite cycles related to photoperiod and hormones, which are highest in March—June and lowest in late September-December. Lactating hinds more than double their energy requirements.Breeding.In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16 months of age. In less productive habitats sexual maturity may be postponed by at least one year. Stags reach puberty at about 16 months, but can actually begin to reproduce at five years of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18 days. During estrus they are receptive for only 6-24 hours. Conceptions are well synchronized, occurring for 80% of females within 3-4 weeks. Stags leave their summer quarters and move to their traditional rutting stands, where they try to collect and defend a harem against other stags. Competition among stags is high, with some failing completely to reproduce and others able to father up to a dozen or more calves in a season. Stags are involved in roaring contests, dominance displays, and overt fights, with a real risk of serious injury, or more rarely, death. During rut stags lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight and up to 80% of body fat. The mean length of gestation is 235 days. Before giving birth, hinds leave their group and move away from their usual core areas, looking for better cover. Calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds almost invariably give birth to one calf, which weighs on average 8-9 kg (about 6-5 kg in Scottish moorlands). Male calves are about 5% heavier than females. For the first 7-10 days calves are kept hidden, usually lying in tall vegetation, then begin to follow their mother. During the first few days calves are fed ten times a day. From five days to 90 days they are nursed eight times, and after that, four times a day. Lactating hinds produce 2-4 liters of milk per day, with a peak 50 days after parturition and a decline after three months. By 15-18 days of age calves have doubled their birth weight. They begin to ingest their first vegetation at ten days, and at one month they feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months (November—February). Stags can typically breed for 3-5 years, peaking in Scotlandat 7-10 years of age (possibly at 9-12 years in continental Europe). Hinds have a much longer reproductive life span, of up to 12-16 years. The sexes have also a differential pattern of body growth; stags do not reach their full body weight before 8-9 years of age, whereas hinds attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally Western Red Deerlive to a maximum of 17-18 years, with records of 22 years for stags and 26 for hinds. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).Activity patterns.It is active all the day, with peaks at dawn and in early evening, alternating 6-8 periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving from place to place. It dedicates 7-12 hours to feeding. Human disturbance increases nocturnal activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Red Deer have home ranges of variable size, according to sex and habitat; sometimes they occupy only 2-5 km?, sometimes 8-40 km” and more. Adult stags tend to be more mobile and to have separate seasonal ranges. In mountains part of the population can be sedentary, part can make short distance movements, and part can be migratory, moving 10-60 km to reach lower pastures in the winter and high feeding areas in summer. Ranges are normally undefended. Red deer are social animals. The basic social unit is the matrilineal family group, with a dominant old hind associated with her daughters, granddaughters, and their dependent offspring. Stags segregate from hinds for most of the year and form small, less stable, bachelor bands. In woodlands, female family groups can split into smaller units; in open habitat they may unite with neighboring hind groups. During winter and early spring several groups can form temporary large aggregations in open ground.Status and Conservation.“Bukhara Red Deer” (bactrianus) CITES Annex I and Barbary Red Deer CITES Annex III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. elaphuscomplex), but it can be considered as not currently at risk and globally increasing. During the 18\" and the 19\" century overhunting with modern weapons resulted in a drastic contraction of the distribution range and abundance in most parts of Europe. Strict rules for culling, the enforcement of laws with precise hunting seasons, and reintroductions combined to produce an increase in range and numbers. This has become particularly evident since the 1950s-1960s. At the beginning of the 20\" century in the Italian Peninsula only a small population in the Po River delta (Mesola Wood) survived. Thanks to the natural recolonization from neighboring countries of the Alpine region and releases, in 1970 deer numbered 3000 individuals. The number grew to 41,000 in2000 and 57,000 in2005. In all of Europe, excluding Russia, Western Red Deer numbered 1-25 million individuals in 1985 and 2-4 million in 2005. The annual harvest grew in the same period from 270,000 to 500,000 individuals. Densities are normally 1-5 ind/km?, sometimes up to 15 ind/km?*; higher numbers often imply supplementary feeding. Densities are artificially raised to unnaturallevels (up to 100 ind/km?) to increase revenues from hunting. The Western Red Deeris extinct in Albaniaand in the Near East (Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Syria). Four subspecies are still rare: the Thyrrenian Red Deer, the Barbary Red Deer, the Bukhara Red Deer, and the “Tarim Red Deer” (yarkandensis). Thyrrenian Red Deer faced a dramatic decline in the 20™ century, disappearing from Corsicain 1969 and decreasing to a minimum population size of 100 animals in Sardinia in 1970. Deforestation,fires, and poaching with guns and snares were the main causes. Red Deer from Sardinia have recovered slowly, numbering 6000 animals in 2005. In 1985 a reintroduction program was started in Corsica. Barbary Red Deer became extinct in Moroccoby 1932, and in early 1960 only a few dozen animals survived in forests in the Atlas Mountains between Algeriaand Tunisia. More effective protection allowed a recovery in Algeriaand Tunisia, and in 1994 a reintroduction was begun in Morocco. The Bukhara Red Deer originally lived in the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Tree felling, cattle grazing, and overhunting led to a rapid decline during the 19\" century. In early 1900 it disappeared from Syr Darya. In the mid-1960s the population reached a minimum of 350-400 animals; in the early 1980s it had grown to 1100. The Tarim Red Deer of Chinese Xinjiang had a declining population of 4000-5000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakash rivers.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Butzler (1986), Carnevali et al. (2009), Clutton-Brock & Albon (1989), Clutton-Brock et al. (1982), Danilkin (1999), Gebert & Verheyden (2008), Gill (1990), Mattioli, Fico et al. (2003), Mattioli, Meneguz et al. (2001), von Raesfeld & Reulecke (1988), Skog et al. (2009), Sommeret al. (2008), Staines et al. (2008), Wagenknecht (1986), Zachos & Hartl (2011).","taxonomy":"Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Red deer appeared in Europe in late Early Pleistocene, about 900,000 years ago. They were large-sized deer bearing five-tined antlers with a terminal fork, replaced in Middle Pleistocene by deer characterized by antlers with a terminal crown. For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. The general body shape, the conspicuous rump patch, and the occurrence of the bez tine in the antler are common traits. But the various forms differ in many characteristics (degree of sexual dimorphism, coat coloration, antler conformation, behavior postures, vocalizations) and have only partial interfertility. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. The analysis of mtDNA revealed in the western part of the distribution range three main lineages: a western one that during the last glacial maximum (about 20,000 years ago) survived in an ice-free refugium in Spainand southern France, an eastern one subsisting in South-eastern Europe (Carpathians and Balkans) and a third lineage possibly living then in Italyand now represented only by “Thyrrenian Red Deer” (corsicanus) and “Barbary Red Deer” (barbarus). With the end of the last glaciacion most of Europe was recolonized from the western refugium. It is probable that the Thyrrenian Red Deer derives from introductions by man from mainland Italyinto Sardiniaabout 8000 years ago. Barbary Red Deer of North Africa, could have been translocated there in ancient times. Here six subspecies of Western Red Deer are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf élaphe @fr | Rothirsch @de | Ciervo @es | Barbary Red Deer (barbarus) @en | Bukhara Red Deer (bactrianus) @en | Caspian Red Deer @en | Maral (maral) @en | Tarim Red Deer (yarkandensis) @en | Thyrrenian Red Deer (corsicanus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Cervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"422","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"elaphus","name":"Cervus elaphus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.e.elaphusLinnaeus,1758—GreatBritainandcontinentalEurope.C.e.bactrianusLydekker,1900—WTurkestan(Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan&NAfghanistan).C.e.barbarusBennett,1833—AtlasMts(Algeria,Tunisia).C.e.corsicanusErxleben,1777—Corsica(extinct,reintroducedin1985),Sardinia.C.e.maralGray,1850—Anatolia,Caucasus,andNWIran.C. e. yarkandensis Blanford, 1892— E Turkestan (S Xinjiang, China).It has been introduced into Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514458/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Apollonio et al. (2010) | Butzler (1986) | Carnevali et al. (2009) | Clutton-Brock & Albon (1989) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1982) | Danilkin (1999) | Gebert & Verheyden (2008) | Gill (1990) | Mattioli, Fico et al. (2003) | Mattioli, Meneguz et al. (2001) | von Raesfeld & Reulecke (1988) | Skog et al. (2009) | Sommeret al. (2008) | Staines et al. (2008) | Wagenknecht (1986) | Zachos & Hartl (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen,it tends to eat a mixed diet of about 30% grass and sedges and about 65% browse, without significant differences among seasons. Fruits and seeds are important items in autumn. It is a very versatile species, consuming up to 300 different species of plants. The two sexes tend to differ in diet composition, hinds eating higher quality food. Stags eat on average 14-16 kg and females around 9-10 kg offresh vegetation per day. Actual food intake follows appetite cycles related to photoperiod and hormones, which are highest in March—June and lowest in late September-December. Lactating hinds more than double their energy requirements.","breeding":"In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16 months of age. In less productive habitats sexual maturity may be postponed by at least one year. Stags reach puberty at about 16 months, but can actually begin to reproduce at five years of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18 days. During estrus they are receptive for only 6-24 hours. Conceptions are well synchronized, occurring for 80% of females within 3-4 weeks. Stags leave their summer quarters and move to their traditional rutting stands, where they try to collect and defend a harem against other stags. Competition among stags is high, with some failing completely to reproduce and others able to father up to a dozen or more calves in a season. Stags are involved in roaring contests, dominance displays, and overt fights, with a real risk of serious injury, or more rarely, death. During rut stags lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight and up to 80% of body fat. The mean length of gestation is 235 days. Before giving birth, hinds leave their group and move away from their usual core areas, looking for better cover. Calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds almost invariably give birth to one calf, which weighs on average 8-9 kg (about 6-5 kg in Scottish moorlands). Male calves are about 5% heavier than females. For the first 7-10 days calves are kept hidden, usually lying in tall vegetation, then begin to follow their mother. During the first few days calves are fed ten times a day. From five days to 90 days they are nursed eight times, and after that, four times a day. Lactating hinds produce 2-4 liters of milk per day, with a peak 50 days after parturition and a decline after three months. By 15-18 days of age calves have doubled their birth weight. They begin to ingest their first vegetation at ten days, and at one month they feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months (November—February). Stags can typically breed for 3-5 years, peaking in Scotlandat 7-10 years of age (possibly at 9-12 years in continental Europe). Hinds have a much longer reproductive life span, of up to 12-16 years. The sexes have also a differential pattern of body growth; stags do not reach their full body weight before 8-9 years of age, whereas hinds attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally Western Red Deerlive to a maximum of 17-18 years, with records of 22 years for stags and 26 for hinds. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).","activityPatterns":"It is active all the day, with peaks at dawn and in early evening, alternating 6-8 periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving from place to place. It dedicates 7-12 hours to feeding. Human disturbance increases nocturnal activity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Western Red Deer have home ranges of variable size, according to sex and habitat; sometimes they occupy only 2-5 km?, sometimes 8-40 km” and more. Adult stags tend to be more mobile and to have separate seasonal ranges. In mountains part of the population can be sedentary, part can make short distance movements, and part can be migratory, moving 10-60 km to reach lower pastures in the winter and high feeding areas in summer. Ranges are normally undefended. Red deer are social animals. The basic social unit is the matrilineal family group, with a dominant old hind associated with her daughters, granddaughters, and their dependent offspring. Stags segregate from hinds for most of the year and form small, less stable, bachelor bands. In woodlands, female family groups can split into smaller units; in open habitat they may unite with neighboring hind groups. During winter and early spring several groups can form temporary large aggregations in open ground.","statusAndConservation":"“Bukhara Red Deer” (bactrianus) CITES Annex I and Barbary Red Deer CITES Annex III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. elaphuscomplex), but it can be considered as not currently at risk and globally increasing. During the 18\" and the 19\" century overhunting with modern weapons resulted in a drastic contraction of the distribution range and abundance in most parts of Europe. Strict rules for culling, the enforcement of laws with precise hunting seasons, and reintroductions combined to produce an increase in range and numbers. This has become particularly evident since the 1950s-1960s. At the beginning of the 20\" century in the Italian Peninsula only a small population in the Po River delta (Mesola Wood) survived. Thanks to the natural recolonization from neighboring countries of the Alpine region and releases, in 1970 deer numbered 3000 individuals. The number grew to 41,000 in2000 and 57,000 in2005. In all of Europe, excluding Russia, Western Red Deer numbered 1-25 million individuals in 1985 and 2-4 million in 2005. The annual harvest grew in the same period from 270,000 to 500,000 individuals. Densities are normally 1-5 ind/km?, sometimes up to 15 ind/km?*; higher numbers often imply supplementary feeding. Densities are artificially raised to unnaturallevels (up to 100 ind/km?) to increase revenues from hunting. The Western Red Deeris extinct in Albaniaand in the Near East (Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Syria). Four subspecies are still rare: the Thyrrenian Red Deer, the Barbary Red Deer, the Bukhara Red Deer, and the “Tarim Red Deer” (yarkandensis). Thyrrenian Red Deer faced a dramatic decline in the 20™ century, disappearing from Corsicain 1969 and decreasing to a minimum population size of 100 animals in Sardinia in 1970. Deforestation,fires, and poaching with guns and snares were the main causes. Red Deer from Sardinia have recovered slowly, numbering 6000 animals in 2005. In 1985 a reintroduction program was started in Corsica. Barbary Red Deer became extinct in Moroccoby 1932, and in early 1960 only a few dozen animals survived in forests in the Atlas Mountains between Algeriaand Tunisia. More effective protection allowed a recovery in Algeriaand Tunisia, and in 1994 a reintroduction was begun in Morocco. The Bukhara Red Deer originally lived in the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Tree felling, cattle grazing, and overhunting led to a rapid decline during the 19\" century. In early 1900 it disappeared from Syr Darya. In the mid-1960s the population reached a minimum of 350-400 animals; in the early 1980s it had grown to 1100. The Tarim Red Deer of Chinese Xinjiang had a declining population of 4000-5000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakash rivers.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-205 cm for males (stags) and 165-180 cm for females (hinds), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 105-130 cm (stags) and 95-115 cm (hinds); post-rutting weight of stags 110-220 kg and hinds 75-120 kg. The heaviest animals occur in the Carpathians and Bulgaria(with records of 350 kglean weight for stags and 200 kgfor hinds), the lightest in the Scottish Highlands, southern Spain, Sardinia, and Mesola Wood (Italian Peninsula). Adult stags are on average 50-70% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with large head and elongated snout. There are two main genetic groups: a western advanced one (typically with six-tined antlers with a terminal crown, from Europe to Iran) and an Asian primitive one (with five-tined antlers, from the Aral Sea to the Tarim Basin). The rump patch is relatively small, orange on the upper portion, whitish on the lower part, and bordered below in dark brown. The tail is orange and relatively short. The summer coat is reddish or reddishbrown, with grayish legs and whitish belly. The winter coat is grayish-brown; adult stags have a thick neck mane and the belly is heavily stained black. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves have a brown coat with scattered white spots on the sides, which are lost after 2-3 months. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. The preorbitals are particularly well developed and open in young calves and in rutting stags. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Permanent teeth erupt at 5-25 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, cylindrical, and typically well branched, with two basal tines (brow and bez) and a terminal cup-like “royal” crown or an upper fork. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 5-40 cm long. At 8-13 years the antlers of Western Red Deer attain their full size. In high quality populations antlers are on average 90-105 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6.6-5 kg, but there are records of 130-140 cm for antler beam length and of 18-21 kg for trophy mass. There are normally 5-7 tines per antler beam, with records of 16 inthe wild and 24 inparks. In less productive habitats (Scottish Highlands, Sardinia, Mesola Wood, North Africa) antlers are on average only 60-70 cm in length, with 3-4 tines per beam. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in July, antler casting in late February-March. Antler regression occurs at 15-16 years of age, sometimes earlier. Hooves are 9-11 cm long in adult stags and 7-8 cm in hinds, with toe pads occupying one third of the hoof.","habitat":"Originally associated with the interface between woodland and grassland, but highly adaptable. It also lives in Mediterranean maquis scrub, in alpine summit meadows, and in the treeless moorlands of Scotland. It prefers broadleaved woodlands interspersed by large meadows. Up to 2800 mabove sea level on the Alps. In west-central Asia it occurs in woody and shrubby thickets along riverbanks in desert areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"421","verbatimText":"23.Sika DeerCervus nipponFrench:Cerf sika/ German:Sikahirsch/ Spanish:SikaTaxonomy.Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838, Japan.The first true members of the genus Cervusprobably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japanwas colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.Subspecies and Distribution.C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884— N Japan(Hokkaido).It was anciently introduced to Solo I (Philippines) and in 17\" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19\" and 20\" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA.Descriptive notes.Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido(with records of 176 kgfor stags and 108 kgfor hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cmfor antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.Habitat.Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cmis limiting. Up to 3000 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japanthe deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.Breeding.Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).Activity patterns.Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 min length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 kmbetween summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Koreait is extinct, in North Koreavery rare or extinct. In Taiwanit became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnamit is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In Chinathere are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in Chinaand all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Irelandand 27,000 for Great Britain.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. (2010), Bartos et al. (1998), Baskin & Danell (2003), Feldhamer (1980), Feldhameret al. (1985), Geist (1998), Groves (2006), Groves & Smeenk (1978), Hayden et al. (1994), Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006), McCullough et al. (2009), Miura (1984), Putman (2008), Suzuki et al. (2001), Zejda & Babicka (1983).","taxonomy":"Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838, Japan.The first true members of the genus Cervusprobably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japanwas colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.","commonNames":"Cerf sika @fr | Sikahirsch @de | Sika @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Cervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"421","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nippon","name":"Cervus nippon","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884— N Japan(Hokkaido).It was anciently introduced to Solo I (Philippines) and in 17\" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19\" and 20\" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514452/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Apollonio et al. (2010) | Bartos et al. (1998) | Baskin & Danell (2003) | Feldhamer (1980) | Feldhameret al. (1985) | Geist (1998) | Groves (2006) | Groves & Smeenk (1978) | Hayden et al. (1994) | Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006) | McCullough et al. (2009) | Miura (1984) | Putman (2008) | Suzuki et al. (2001) | Zejda & Babicka (1983)","foodAndFeeding":"It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japanthe deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.","breeding":"Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).","activityPatterns":"Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 min length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 kmbetween summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Koreait is extinct, in North Koreavery rare or extinct. In Taiwanit became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnamit is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In Chinathere are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in Chinaand all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Irelandand 27,000 for Great Britain.","descriptiveNotes":"Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido(with records of 176 kgfor stags and 108 kgfor hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cmfor antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.","habitat":"Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cmis limiting. Up to 3000 mabove sea level."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"421","verbatimText":"24.Central Asian Red DeerCervus wallichiiFrench:Cerf de Wallich/ German:China-Rothirsch/ Spanish:CiervoasiaticoOther common names:Hangul (hangl/u), MacNeill's Red Deer (macneilli), Shou (wallichii)Taxonomy.Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, 1823, Lake Mansarovar (S Tibet).For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. C. wallichiiis the most primitive representative of the red deer complex lineage. The scientific name refers to the Danish naturalist N. Wallich, who was superintendent of the Botanical Garden of the East IndiaCompany in Calcutta. Here three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.w.wallichi:G.Cuvier,1823—SWChina(SEXizang),Bhutan.C.w.hangluWagner,1844—NIndia(Kashmir).C. w. macneilli Lydekker, 1909—C & SW China(N Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, W Sichuan& E Xizang).Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-205 cm for males (stags) and 180-195 cm for females (hinds), tail length 8-12 cm, shoulder height 125-145 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of stags 150-240 kg and hinds 110-170 kg. Large-sized deer, with basically a five-tined antler plan, large ears, a short neck mane, a shorttail, massive haunches, and large broad hooves. The rump patch and the tail coloration vary among subspecies. Antlers tend to have a terminal transverse fork and a well-developed bez tine. The “Hangul” (hanglu) has a small rump patch bordered below by a broad black band and a dark tail. The belly is whitish, legs and chest are dark. The “Shou” (wallichii) seems to have a rump patch of variable size, often divided by a dark line. Thetail is whitish. The belly is gray, the lips are pale gray. “MacNeill’s Red Deer” (macneilli) has a narrow white rump patch that expands dorsally into a broad black croup patch, and a dark tail. The lips are gray-brown. This subspecies often has six-tined antlers.Habitat.Hanguls live in moist temperate forest. Shous occur in scrublands and alpine grasslands at 4300-4900 m above sea level. MacNeill’s Red Deeris found in montane conifer forest, willow-rhododendron scrublands, and alpine meadows.Food and Feeding.As mixed feeders they may graze grasses and forbs, then turn to browsing leaves and twigs.On following pages 25 Western Red Door (Corvus oluphusl, 26 Wapm (Corvus canodenswlBreeding.The rutting call begins as a roar but ends in a Wapiti-like bugle. The calving season of the Hangul peaks in July-August.Movements, Home range and Social organization.They are saltatorial, able to move with agility on steep slopes in scrub vegetation. They are gregarious, with large family groups. The rare Shou has been seen recently in herds of up to 55 animals.Status and Conservation.Hangul CITES Appendix I. Considered a subspecies of the C. elaphuscomplex by IUCN and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red Lust. It is a very rare species, possibly threatened, the Hangul declined from 2000 animals in 1947 to less than 200 animals in the early 1970s, then increased to 1000 by 1989, but dropped again to 150-200 in the last decade. The Shou was considered extinct and rediscovered in a few localities of south-east Tibet(Xizang) in 1995. The status of MacNeill’s Red Deer is unknown. Poaching and pressure from stock grazing continue to be significant threats.Bibliography.Dolan (1988), Dolan & Killmar (1988), Geist (1998), Groves (2003, 2006), Schaller (1998), Wemmer (1998).","taxonomy":"Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, 1823, Lake Mansarovar (S Tibet).For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer (C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. C. wallichiiis the most primitive representative of the red deer complex lineage. The scientific name refers to the Danish naturalist N. Wallich, who was superintendent of the Botanical Garden of the East IndiaCompany in Calcutta. Here three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf de Wallich @fr | China-Rothirsch @de | Ciervoasiatico @es | Hangul (hangl @en | u) @en | Mac Neill's Red Deer (macneilli) @en | Shou (wallichii) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Cervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"421","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"wallichii","name":"Cervus wallichii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.w.wallichi:G.Cuvier,1823—SWChina(SEXizang),Bhutan.C.w.hangluWagner,1844—NIndia(Kashmir).C. w. macneilli Lydekker, 1909—C & SW China(N Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, W Sichuan& E Xizang).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514454/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dolan (1988) | Dolan & Killmar (1988) | Geist (1998) | Groves (2003, 2006) | Schaller (1998) | Wemmer (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"As mixed feeders they may graze grasses and forbs, then turn to browsing leaves and twigs.","breeding":"The rutting call begins as a roar but ends in a Wapiti-like bugle. The calving season of the Hangul peaks in July-August.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"They are saltatorial, able to move with agility on steep slopes in scrub vegetation. They are gregarious, with large family groups. The rare Shou has been seen recently in herds of up to 55 animals.","statusAndConservation":"Hangul CITES Appendix I. Considered a subspecies of the C. elaphuscomplex by IUCN and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red Lust. It is a very rare species, possibly threatened, the Hangul declined from 2000 animals in 1947 to less than 200 animals in the early 1970s, then increased to 1000 by 1989, but dropped again to 150-200 in the last decade. The Shou was considered extinct and rediscovered in a few localities of south-east Tibet(Xizang) in 1995. The status of MacNeill’s Red Deer is unknown. Poaching and pressure from stock grazing continue to be significant threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 190-205 cm for males (stags) and 180-195 cm for females (hinds), tail length 8-12 cm, shoulder height 125-145 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of stags 150-240 kg and hinds 110-170 kg. Large-sized deer, with basically a five-tined antler plan, large ears, a short neck mane, a shorttail, massive haunches, and large broad hooves. The rump patch and the tail coloration vary among subspecies. Antlers tend to have a terminal transverse fork and a well-developed bez tine. The “Hangul” (hanglu) has a small rump patch bordered below by a broad black band and a dark tail. The belly is whitish, legs and chest are dark. The “Shou” (wallichii) seems to have a rump patch of variable size, often divided by a dark line. Thetail is whitish. The belly is gray, the lips are pale gray. “MacNeill’s Red Deer” (macneilli) has a narrow white rump patch that expands dorsally into a broad black croup patch, and a dark tail. The lips are gray-brown. This subspecies often has six-tined antlers.","habitat":"Hanguls live in moist temperate forest. Shous occur in scrublands and alpine grasslands at 4300-4900 m above sea level. MacNeill’s Red Deeris found in montane conifer forest, willow-rhododendron scrublands, and alpine meadows."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF01FD23E21EF941.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF01FD23E21EF941","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"416","verbatimText":"16.Calamian DeerAxis calamianensisFrench:Cerf des Calamian/ German:Calamian-Schweinshirsch/ Spanish:Axis de CalamianesTaxonomy.Cervus calamianensis Heude, 1888, Calamian Islands.It has previously been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinus. Monotypic.Distribution.Calamian Is (Busuanga, Calauit, Culion, Marily & Dimaquiat).Descriptive notes.Head-body on average 130 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 60— 75 cm; weight 35-50 kg. Medium-sized, relatively long-legged deer with a bushy tail; males have prominent pedicles and short three-tined antlers 20-30 cm in length. The coat is tawny brown, with legs much darker than body; the muzzle is whitish.Habitat.It lives in grasslands, open woodlands, secondary forests.Food and Feeding.It primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about 8-15 months of age. After a gestation of around 222-226 days they give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-6 kg. Fawns are able to suckle an hour after birth. Weaning occurs after 4-6 months.Activity patterns.It is diurnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is often observed in small groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In 1996 the total population size was estimated at 550 animals. It is decreasing; hunting pressure and agricultural expansion are major threats.Bibliography.Groves & Grubb (1987), Villamor (1987, 1991), Wemmer (1998).","taxonomy":"Cervus calamianensis Heude, 1888, Calamian Islands.It has previously been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cerf des Calamian @fr | Calamian-Schweinshirsch @de | Axis de Calamianes @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Heude","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1888","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Axis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"416","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"calamianensis","name":"Axis calamianensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Calamian Is (Busuanga, Calauit, Culion, Marily & Dimaquiat).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514431/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Groves & Grubb (1987) | Villamor (1987, 1991) | Wemmer (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"It primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at about 8-15 months of age. After a gestation of around 222-226 days they give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-6 kg. Fawns are able to suckle an hour after birth. Weaning occurs after 4-6 months.","activityPatterns":"It is diurnal and crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is often observed in small groups.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In 1996 the total population size was estimated at 550 animals. It is decreasing; hunting pressure and agricultural expansion are major threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body on average 130 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 60— 75 cm; weight 35-50 kg. Medium-sized, relatively long-legged deer with a bushy tail; males have prominent pedicles and short three-tined antlers 20-30 cm in length. The coat is tawny brown, with legs much darker than body; the muzzle is whitish.","habitat":"It lives in grasslands, open woodlands, secondary forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF03F872E062F40B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF03F872E062F40B","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"416","verbatimText":"17.Common Fallow DeerDama damaFrench:Daim d'Europe/ German:Dambhirsch/ Spanish:GamoOther common names:European Fallow DeerTaxonomy.Cervus dama Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The first known species in the genus Dama, D. clactoniana, appeared in Europe in the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. Damais probably an Upper Pliocene genus adapted to savanna-like and open woodland habitats of Europe, and the first representatives are not yet unanimously identified among the many medium-sized deer of that period. The first D. damaoccurred in Europe about 200,000 years ago. During the first part of the last glaciation its range shrank and the species took refuge in southern Europe and Anatolia. The post-glacial range may have been reduced to Anatolia. Neolithic and Bronze Age records from Macedoniaand Bulgaria, and later from Greek islands, may be interpreted as the first translocations by humans. The Greeks and others probably contributed to an artificial dispersal on central and western Mediterranean coasts, including North Africa. Romans introduced Common Fallow Deer to some areas of mainland Europe and to Great Britain. When separated from D. mesopotamica, Common Fallow Deercan be considered monotypic.Distribution.Formerly Anatolia, Turkey, then has been introduced into Europe from ancient times and later into many other countries in North and South America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and FijiIs. The distribution map includes both the native range in Anatoliaand the European continent with its old introductions.Descriptive notes.Head-body 145-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130-145 cm for females (does), tail length 16-19 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); post-rutting weight of adult bucks 50-80 kg and of adult does 35-50 kg. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized deer with short and high head. Males have a prominent and mobile larynx (Adam’s apple) and a brush of hairs from the elongated penis sheath. The rump patch is conspicuous, white with a black upper edge. The tail is relatively long, black above and white below. The tail and the black stripe bordering the rump patch form an inverted anchor. The summer coat is typically reddish-brown, with white spots on the back and the upper half of the flanks; the underside of the head and neck and the lower parts of the legs are whitish, the chest and the belly are white; a black dorsal stripe extends from the nape to the end of the tail; a horizontal white line borders the middle of the flank and an oblique line fringes the rear portion of the haunch. The winter coatis gray-brown, with spots barely detectable or absent. Three other color variants are commonly observed: “menil” (a paler coat pattern retaining spots in winter), black (actually dark brown), and white. Molts in May-June and September—October. Newborn fawns are spotted. Preorbital, front and rear interdigital, metatarsal and (in males) preputial glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth; molars erupt at 5-22 months of age. Antlers of adult bucks (four years and older) are typically well palmated; above the trez tine the beam develops a broad thin palm with terminal short points (spellers). Pedicles begin to grow at 7-9 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are always spikers, with antlers 5-20 cm long. At 7-10 years antlers attain their full size. Adult antlers are on average 50-65 cm long, with records of 80-86 cm. Velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting mainly in April. Antler regression usually occurs at 13-14 years of age, sometimes as early as ten years. Hooves are elongated and pointed, 8 cmlong in adult bucks and 5-6 cm in does, with toe pads covering almost half of the hoof.Habitat.Very flexible, it is often associated with open broadleaved woodlands with adjacent open ground, but it can also live in conifer plantations or Mediterranean scrubs. Cold temperatures and long-lasting snow cover are limiting factors. Up to 800-1000 m above sea level in the Alps and Apennines, up to 1500 mand more in the Pyrenees.Food and Feeding.As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen, it is a preferential grazer, feeding on grass and ground vegetation among trees, and herbs and forbs in neighboring fields. In Mediterranean habitats browsing leaves and buds of shrubs and trees may become particularly important.Breeding.Most females attain puberty at 16 months of age; the minimum body weight compatible with reproduction is low, around 32 kg. Bucks reach physiological sexual maturity at about 16 months of age, but do not begin to mate before 3-4 years of age. Rutting season is in October. Does are polyestrous, with cycles of 22 days and a receptive time of only 15 hours. Males move into female areas and start competing to establish display grounds. Bucks are particularly flexible in adopting mating strategies. The most frequent one seems to be the defense of a single permanent territory, with males establishing non-contiguous rutting stands. But at least six other mating systems have been documented: temporary defense of stands, multiple stands (2-3 bucks in contiguous territories), leks (collective arenas with 5-25 bucks in symbolic display territories of few square meters), harem defense, multimale dominance groups (with the highest-ranking buck tolerating other males but achieving most matings) and following (pursuing single estrous does). Rutting bucks emit a series of repeated short groans up to exhaustion; they lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight. The gestation lenght is generally 229-234 days. Fawning season peaks in late May—early June. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 4-5 kg; male offspring are about 10% heavier than females. After ten days the fawn accompanies its mother. Allosucking, i.e. mothers permitting fawns of other females to nurse, has been observed. Weaning occurs at 8-9 months of age. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-6 years of age, and does attain final size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-16 years, with records of 20 years. Maximum longevity in captivity is 25 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active all day, alternating 6-8 periods of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving. More diurnal when it is less disturbed, more crepuscular when disturbance is high.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Common Fallow deer walk and trot; pronking is exhibited when alarmed. They are able to jump to 1-7-2 m. They tend to have relatively small home ranges, generally of 70-200 ha. Home ranges can overlap extensively. It is a social species. The basic unit is the family group, one or two adult females with their fawns of the current year and yearling does. Female groups are tolerant and open and can coalesce in larger herds. Males are solitary or form less stable bachelor groups. Groupsize varies according to the habitat, being larger in more open environments. Transitory aggregations of up to 200 animals are sometimes observed in open land on feeding grounds. Males and females tend to live apart most ofthe year.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing. It is rare and with a very restricted present range in its original post-glacial refugium in south-western Turkey, limited to the Termessos National Park near Antalya. The Greek island of Rhodes hosts a small ancient introduced population. In Europe it is a very common species, with a discontinuous range; in 1975 it numbered about 120,000 individuals, increased to 530,000 in2005; about 162,000 are annually harvested.Bibliography.Apollonio, Andersen & Putman (2010), Apollonio, Festa-Bianchet et al. (1992,), Chapman, D.I. & Chapman, N.G.(1975), Chapman, N.G.& Chapman, D.l. (1980), Langbein & Putman (1992), Langbein & Thirgood (1989), Langbein et al. (2008), McElligot & Hayden (2000), Siefke & Stubbe (2008), Ueckerman & Hansen (1994).","taxonomy":"Cervus dama Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The first known species in the genus Dama, D. clactoniana, appeared in Europe in the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. Damais probably an Upper Pliocene genus adapted to savanna-like and open woodland habitats of Europe, and the first representatives are not yet unanimously identified among the many medium-sized deer of that period. The first D. damaoccurred in Europe about 200,000 years ago. During the first part of the last glaciation its range shrank and the species took refuge in southern Europe and Anatolia. The post-glacial range may have been reduced to Anatolia. Neolithic and Bronze Age records from Macedoniaand Bulgaria, and later from Greek islands, may be interpreted as the first translocations by humans. The Greeks and others probably contributed to an artificial dispersal on central and western Mediterranean coasts, including North Africa. Romans introduced Common Fallow Deer to some areas of mainland Europe and to Great Britain. When separated from D. mesopotamica, Common Fallow Deercan be considered monotypic.","commonNames":"Daim d'Europe @fr | Dambhirsch @de | Gamo @es | European Fallow Deer @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Frisch","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Dama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"416","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dama","name":"Dama dama","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Formerly Anatolia, Turkey, then has been introduced into Europe from ancient times and later into many other countries in North and South America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and FijiIs. The distribution map includes both the native range in Anatoliaand the European continent with its old introductions.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514433/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Apollonio, Andersen & Putman (2010) | Apollonio, Festa-Bianchet et al. (1992,) | Chapman, D.I. & Chapman, N.G.(1975) | Chapman, N.G.& Chapman, D.l. (1980) | Langbein & Putman (1992) | Langbein & Thirgood (1989) | Langbein et al. (2008) | McElligot & Hayden (2000) | Siefke & Stubbe (2008) | Ueckerman & Hansen (1994)","foodAndFeeding":"As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen, it is a preferential grazer, feeding on grass and ground vegetation among trees, and herbs and forbs in neighboring fields. In Mediterranean habitats browsing leaves and buds of shrubs and trees may become particularly important.","breeding":"Most females attain puberty at 16 months of age; the minimum body weight compatible with reproduction is low, around 32 kg. Bucks reach physiological sexual maturity at about 16 months of age, but do not begin to mate before 3-4 years of age. Rutting season is in October. Does are polyestrous, with cycles of 22 days and a receptive time of only 15 hours. Males move into female areas and start competing to establish display grounds. Bucks are particularly flexible in adopting mating strategies. The most frequent one seems to be the defense of a single permanent territory, with males establishing non-contiguous rutting stands. But at least six other mating systems have been documented: temporary defense of stands, multiple stands (2-3 bucks in contiguous territories), leks (collective arenas with 5-25 bucks in symbolic display territories of few square meters), harem defense, multimale dominance groups (with the highest-ranking buck tolerating other males but achieving most matings) and following (pursuing single estrous does). Rutting bucks emit a series of repeated short groans up to exhaustion; they lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight. The gestation lenght is generally 229-234 days. Fawning season peaks in late May—early June. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 4-5 kg; male offspring are about 10% heavier than females. After ten days the fawn accompanies its mother. Allosucking, i.e. mothers permitting fawns of other females to nurse, has been observed. Weaning occurs at 8-9 months of age. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-6 years of age, and does attain final size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-16 years, with records of 20 years. Maximum longevity in captivity is 25 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"It is active all day, alternating 6-8 periods of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving. More diurnal when it is less disturbed, more crepuscular when disturbance is high.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Common Fallow deer walk and trot; pronking is exhibited when alarmed. They are able to jump to 1-7-2 m. They tend to have relatively small home ranges, generally of 70-200 ha. Home ranges can overlap extensively. It is a social species. The basic unit is the family group, one or two adult females with their fawns of the current year and yearling does. Female groups are tolerant and open and can coalesce in larger herds. Males are solitary or form less stable bachelor groups. Groupsize varies according to the habitat, being larger in more open environments. Transitory aggregations of up to 200 animals are sometimes observed in open land on feeding grounds. Males and females tend to live apart most ofthe year.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing. It is rare and with a very restricted present range in its original post-glacial refugium in south-western Turkey, limited to the Termessos National Park near Antalya. The Greek island of Rhodes hosts a small ancient introduced population. In Europe it is a very common species, with a discontinuous range; in 1975 it numbered about 120,000 individuals, increased to 530,000 in2005; about 162,000 are annually harvested.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 145-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130-145 cm for females (does), tail length 16-19 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); post-rutting weight of adult bucks 50-80 kg and of adult does 35-50 kg. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized deer with short and high head. Males have a prominent and mobile larynx (Adam’s apple) and a brush of hairs from the elongated penis sheath. The rump patch is conspicuous, white with a black upper edge. The tail is relatively long, black above and white below. The tail and the black stripe bordering the rump patch form an inverted anchor. The summer coat is typically reddish-brown, with white spots on the back and the upper half of the flanks; the underside of the head and neck and the lower parts of the legs are whitish, the chest and the belly are white; a black dorsal stripe extends from the nape to the end of the tail; a horizontal white line borders the middle of the flank and an oblique line fringes the rear portion of the haunch. The winter coatis gray-brown, with spots barely detectable or absent. Three other color variants are commonly observed: “menil” (a paler coat pattern retaining spots in winter), black (actually dark brown), and white. Molts in May-June and September—October. Newborn fawns are spotted. Preorbital, front and rear interdigital, metatarsal and (in males) preputial glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth; molars erupt at 5-22 months of age. Antlers of adult bucks (four years and older) are typically well palmated; above the trez tine the beam develops a broad thin palm with terminal short points (spellers). Pedicles begin to grow at 7-9 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are always spikers, with antlers 5-20 cm long. At 7-10 years antlers attain their full size. Adult antlers are on average 50-65 cm long, with records of 80-86 cm. Velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting mainly in April. Antler regression usually occurs at 13-14 years of age, sometimes as early as ten years. Hooves are elongated and pointed, 8 cmlong in adult bucks and 5-6 cm in does, with toe pads covering almost half of the hoof.","habitat":"Very flexible, it is often associated with open broadleaved woodlands with adjacent open ground, but it can also live in conifer plantations or Mediterranean scrubs. Cold temperatures and long-lasting snow cover are limiting factors. Up to 800-1000 m above sea level in the Alps and Apennines, up to 1500 mand more in the Pyrenees."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCCFFCEFA74F388E498F98A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCCFFCEFA74F388E498F98A","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"416","verbatimText":"18.Persian Fallow DeerDama mesopotamicaFrench:Daim de Perse/ German:Mesopotamien-Damhirsch/ Spanish:GamopersaOther common names:Mesopotamian Fallow DeerTaxonomy.Cervus mesopotamicus Brooke, 1875, Iran.It has often been considered a subspecies of the Common Fallow Deer (D. dama). The northern part of the distribution was contiguous to the refugium range of the Common Fallow Deer. Monotypic.Distribution.Iranand Israel(reintroduced). The map includes both the native relict population and the reintroduced ones.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-190 cm for males (adult bucks), 160-170 cm for females (does), tail 16-20 cm, shoulder height 100-110 cm (bucks), 90 cm(does); weight 120-140 kg (adult bucks) and 70-80 kg (adult does). Adult bucks are on average 50% heavier than does. Larger than the Common Fallow Deer, with minor differences in the color pattern of the coat and a distinct antler conformation. The dark upper edge of the rump patch is less developed and the shorter tail appears whitish except for the dark medial line, which is very thin. The naked rhinarium has a slightly different shape. The antlers are shorter, about 50-55 cm long, more robust, with a very short brow tine, a bez tine and a trez tine; some flattening is present in the lower half of the beam.Habitat.The relict population in south-western Iranoccurs in riparian woods of poplars, willows, and tamarisk.Food and Feeding.As an intermediate feeder living in thickets and scrublands it is probably more a browser of leaves and buds.Breeding.Rutting season in south-west Iranpeaks in late August-September, with most of the births in March. Antler casting peaks in late February—early March.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mainly solitary or lives in small groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Originally its range included Palestine, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, and it was introduced into Cyprusabout 8300 years ago. It has been represented in Assyrian and ancient Persian bas-reliefs and in an Armenian carpet. The two remnant wild populations (in Dez and in Karkeh Wildlife Refuges, south-west Iran) are on the verge of extinction, numbering a few dozen animals. Predators include Striped Hyenas (Hyaena hyaena), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and feral dogs. The populations in enclosures in North Iranand in Israel, a total of about 700 individuals, are slightly increasing.Bibliography.Bar-David et al. (2005), Chapman& Chapman(1975), Haltenorth (1959), Jantschke (1990), Masseti et al. (2008), Rabiei (2008), Uerpmann (1987).","taxonomy":"Cervus mesopotamicus Brooke, 1875, Iran.It has often been considered a subspecies of the Common Fallow Deer (D. dama). The northern part of the distribution was contiguous to the refugium range of the Common Fallow Deer. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Daim de Perse @fr | Mesopotamien-Damhirsch @de | Gamopersa @es | Mesopotamian Fallow Deer @en","interpretedAuthority":"(Brooke, 1875)","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Dama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"416","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mesopotamica","name":"Dama mesopotamica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Iranand Israel(reintroduced). The map includes both the native relict population and the reintroduced ones.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514437/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bar-David et al. (2005) | Chapman& Chapman(1975) | Haltenorth (1959) | Jantschke (1990) | Masseti et al. (2008) | Rabiei (2008) | Uerpmann (1987)","foodAndFeeding":"As an intermediate feeder living in thickets and scrublands it is probably more a browser of leaves and buds.","breeding":"Rutting season in south-west Iranpeaks in late August-September, with most of the births in March. Antler casting peaks in late February—early March.","activityPatterns":"It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mainly solitary or lives in small groups.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Originally its range included Palestine, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, and it was introduced into Cyprusabout 8300 years ago. It has been represented in Assyrian and ancient Persian bas-reliefs and in an Armenian carpet. The two remnant wild populations (in Dez and in Karkeh Wildlife Refuges, south-west Iran) are on the verge of extinction, numbering a few dozen animals. Predators include Striped Hyenas (Hyaena hyaena), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and feral dogs. The populations in enclosures in North Iranand in Israel, a total of about 700 individuals, are slightly increasing.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-190 cm for males (adult bucks), 160-170 cm for females (does), tail 16-20 cm, shoulder height 100-110 cm (bucks), 90 cm(does); weight 120-140 kg (adult bucks) and 70-80 kg (adult does). Adult bucks are on average 50% heavier than does. Larger than the Common Fallow Deer, with minor differences in the color pattern of the coat and a distinct antler conformation. The dark upper edge of the rump patch is less developed and the shorter tail appears whitish except for the dark medial line, which is very thin. The naked rhinarium has a slightly different shape. The antlers are shorter, about 50-55 cm long, more robust, with a very short brow tine, a bez tine and a trez tine; some flattening is present in the lower half of the beam.","habitat":"The relict population in south-western Iranoccurs in riparian woods of poplars, willows, and tamarisk."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF42FE4FE271F40F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF42FE4FE271F40F","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"415","verbatimText":"13.ChitalAxis axisFrench:Cerf axis/ German:Axishirsch/ Spanish:AxisOther common names:Axis Deer, Indian Spotted DeerTaxonomy.Cervus axis Erxleben, 1777, Banks of Ganges, Bihar(India).The genus Axisappeared in Chinaat the end of the Miocene. The monophyly of Axishas been questioned repeatedly but the most recent genetic analyses have confirmed it. Monotypic.Distribution.India, S Nepal, S Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Chital have been introduced in Europe (Croatia, Ukraine, Moldova), Armenia, the Andaman Is, New Guinea, Australia, USA(California, Texas& Hawaii), Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head—body 150-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 140-145 cm for females (does), tail 25-30 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); weight of adult bucks 70-85 kg (up to 110 kg) and of adult does 45-60 kg (up to 70 kg). Hooves are 4-7 cm long. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized elegant deer heavily spotted in all seasons. The coat is reddishfawn flecked with small white spots; white throat patch, whitish underparts, a dark band around the muzzle, and a dark dorsal stripe. Males carry a dark chevron over the face. Face and neck of does are paler. Long hairs at the distal end of the preorbital gland, normally folded inwards. Males have an elongated penis sheath. Preorbital, metatarsal, and rear interdigital glands are present. Adult males have lyre-shaped, long, three-tined antlers, with a brow tine and an inward-oriented trez tine. Antlers are on average 65-75 cm long, with records of 95-110 cm. Pedicles begin to grow at about twelve months of age and grow into spikes. Yearling bucks cast their antlers at 20-22 months of age. Antler cycles lack seasonality. In southern Indiaadult bucks attain peak hard antlers in May-June, yearlings and subadults later.Habitat.Chital are typical of the grassland-forest ecotone. They prefer moist and dry forest areas adjoining grassland or scrubland; they are also present in swampy meadows close to forests, riparian forests, and teak plantations. They tend to avoid dense forests and mountains.Food and Feeding.Chital are flexible intermediate feeders with a tendency to graze. Up to 190 plant species are recorded as consumed at the Indian subcontinental scale. They eat grasses, but also forbs, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Chital tend to use more wooded habitat during the cool-dry season and early summer (November-May), where they find browse and fruit, and use more open grassland with the monsoon rains and the flush of plant growth. In Sundarbans they are known to feed also on crabs.Breeding.Females reach puberty at 10-14 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from March to July. After a pregnancy of 231-235 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 3-4 kg. Weaning occurs at 5—6 months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the major predators.Activity patterns.Active mainly around dawn and dusk, with two major resting periods, one before dawn and the other at midday.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 200-350 ha, females of about 150-250 ha. It is a social species. The basic social unit is the family group consisting of the mother, the fawn, and the offspring of the previous year. Two or three families form fluid, temporary herds of 6-12 animals, often accompanied by subadult males and visited by adult bucks. Aggregations of more than 150-200 individuals are known in abundant pastures during rainy season or near water reservoirs in summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List for its relatively wide range and the network of protected areas. Due to overhunting and habitat loss Chital declined dramatically up to 1970; then they became more stable and sometimes locally abundant. The general demographic trend is unknown, but in some areas is still decreasing. In Bangladeshthey are restricted to the Sundarbans.Bibliography.Ables (1974), Azad et al. (2005), Barrette (1985, 1991), Chapple et al. (1993), Duckworth et al. (2008), Geist (1998), Gilbert et al. (2006), Mishra & Wemmer (1987), Miura (1981), Moe & Wegge (1997), Ouithavon et al. (2009), Raman (1997, 1998), Sankar & Acharya (2004a), Schaller (1967).","taxonomy":"Cervus axis Erxleben, 1777, Banks of Ganges, Bihar(India).The genus Axisappeared in Chinaat the end of the Miocene. The monophyly of Axishas been questioned repeatedly but the most recent genetic analyses have confirmed it. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cerf axis @fr | Axishirsch @de | Axis @es | Axis Deer @en | @en | ndian Spotted Deer @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Erxleben","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Axis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"415","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"axis","name":"Axis axis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"India, S Nepal, S Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Chital have been introduced in Europe (Croatia, Ukraine, Moldova), Armenia, the Andaman Is, New Guinea, Australia, USA(California, Texas& Hawaii), Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514421/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ables (1974) | Azad et al. (2005) | Barrette (1985, 1991) | Chapple et al. (1993) | Duckworth et al. (2008) | Geist (1998) | Gilbert et al. (2006) | Mishra & Wemmer (1987) | Miura (1981) | Moe & Wegge (1997) | Ouithavon et al. (2009) | Raman (1997, 1998) | Sankar & Acharya (2004a) | Schaller (1967)","foodAndFeeding":"Chital are flexible intermediate feeders with a tendency to graze. Up to 190 plant species are recorded as consumed at the Indian subcontinental scale. They eat grasses, but also forbs, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Chital tend to use more wooded habitat during the cool-dry season and early summer (November-May), where they find browse and fruit, and use more open grassland with the monsoon rains and the flush of plant growth. In Sundarbans they are known to feed also on crabs.","breeding":"Females reach puberty at 10-14 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from March to July. After a pregnancy of 231-235 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 3-4 kg. Weaning occurs at 5—6 months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the major predators.","activityPatterns":"Active mainly around dawn and dusk, with two major resting periods, one before dawn and the other at midday.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Males have home ranges of about 200-350 ha, females of about 150-250 ha. It is a social species. The basic social unit is the family group consisting of the mother, the fawn, and the offspring of the previous year. Two or three families form fluid, temporary herds of 6-12 animals, often accompanied by subadult males and visited by adult bucks. Aggregations of more than 150-200 individuals are known in abundant pastures during rainy season or near water reservoirs in summer.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List for its relatively wide range and the network of protected areas. Due to overhunting and habitat loss Chital declined dramatically up to 1970; then they became more stable and sometimes locally abundant. The general demographic trend is unknown, but in some areas is still decreasing. In Bangladeshthey are restricted to the Sundarbans.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 150-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 140-145 cm for females (does), tail 25-30 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); weight of adult bucks 70-85 kg (up to 110 kg) and of adult does 45-60 kg (up to 70 kg). Hooves are 4-7 cm long. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized elegant deer heavily spotted in all seasons. The coat is reddishfawn flecked with small white spots; white throat patch, whitish underparts, a dark band around the muzzle, and a dark dorsal stripe. Males carry a dark chevron over the face. Face and neck of does are paler. Long hairs at the distal end of the preorbital gland, normally folded inwards. Males have an elongated penis sheath. Preorbital, metatarsal, and rear interdigital glands are present. Adult males have lyre-shaped, long, three-tined antlers, with a brow tine and an inward-oriented trez tine. Antlers are on average 65-75 cm long, with records of 95-110 cm. Pedicles begin to grow at about twelve months of age and grow into spikes. Yearling bucks cast their antlers at 20-22 months of age. Antler cycles lack seasonality. In southern Indiaadult bucks attain peak hard antlers in May-June, yearlings and subadults later.","habitat":"Chital are typical of the grassland-forest ecotone. They prefer moist and dry forest areas adjoining grassland or scrubland; they are also present in swampy meadows close to forests, riparian forests, and teak plantations. They tend to avoid dense forests and mountains."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"415","verbatimText":"14.Hog DeerAxis porcinusFrench:Cerf cochon/ German:Schweinshirsch/ Spanish:AxisporcinoTaxonomy.Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, 1780, West Bengal(India).Sometimes it iS put in a separate genus, Hyelaphus. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.p.porcinusZimmermann,1780—Pakistan,NIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andMyanmar.A. p. annamiticus Heude, 1888— S China(Yunnan), Thailand(reintroduced), and Cambodia; formerly also Laosand Vietnam but may be extinct there now.Tt was introduced some centuries ago in Sri Lanka, and more recently into Australia, and South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head—body 140-150 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130 cmfor females (does), tail 17-21 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm (bucks) and 55-65 cm (does); weight of bucks 40-55 kg (up to 95 kg) and of does 30-40 kg. Adult bucks are on average 35% heavier than does. Medium-sized, relatively short-legged deer; males have prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers. Face moderately short,tail relatively long. The coat is yellow-brown to dark brown in summer, grayish-brown in winter; underparts dark, tail brown dorsally, white underneath. Newborn fawns are normally spotted, but in Cambodiaand Vietnamthey lack spots. Some spots may persist in adults. Adult antlers are generally 30-45 cm long (up to 61 cm), with a brow tine and fork. Antler casting occurs mainly between November and April.Habitat.Lowland wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with rivers: in South Asiaits original range fits with the Indo-Gangetic alluvial floodplain. It avoids closedcanopy forests.Food and Feeding.Primarily a grazer of young grasses, but also feeds on herbs, flowers, fruits, and young leaves.Breeding.Females reach puberty at 8=12 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from July to November and a peak in September—October. Males search widely for receptive females and guard them temporarily. After a pregnancy of about 230 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 2-3 kg. Weaning occurs at six months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and crocodiles are the main predators.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, early evening, and late evening hours. When under heavy hunting pressure, it becomes nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 50-80 ha, females of about 40-60 ha. It is essentially a solitary species. Mean group sizes are normally 2-3 individuals. Males are often alone. Groups are mating pairs or small families, mother and fawn, or mother, fawn, and female yearling. Temporary aggregations of 20-80 individuals are seen in rich pastures.Status and Conservation.Subspecies annamiticus CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Since the 1950s Hog Deer have undergone a dramatic decline due to habitat conversion (the Terai floodplains are among the most fertile lowlands of Asia) and direct persecution. By the mid-1980s it became extinct in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; in Bangladeshand possibly in South Chinaa few dozens survived. More recently the Cambodian population collapsed. In Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Hog Deer are declining at a slowerrate.Bibliography.Biswas (2004), Dhungel & O'Gara (1991), Moore & Mayze (1990), Odden & Wegge (2007), Odden et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, 1780, West Bengal(India).Sometimes it iS put in a separate genus, Hyelaphus. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf cochon @fr | Schweinshirsch @de | Axisporcino @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Axis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"415","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"porcinus","name":"Axis porcinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.p.porcinusZimmermann,1780—Pakistan,NIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andMyanmar.A. p. annamiticus Heude, 1888— S China(Yunnan), Thailand(reintroduced), and Cambodia; formerly also Laosand Vietnam but may be extinct there now.Tt was introduced some centuries ago in Sri Lanka, and more recently into Australia, and South Africa.","bibliography":"Biswas (2004) | Dhungel & O'Gara (1991) | Moore & Mayze (1990) | Odden & Wegge (2007) | Odden et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Primarily a grazer of young grasses, but also feeds on herbs, flowers, fruits, and young leaves.","breeding":"Females reach puberty at 8=12 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from July to November and a peak in September—October. Males search widely for receptive females and guard them temporarily. After a pregnancy of about 230 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 2-3 kg. Weaning occurs at six months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and crocodiles are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"Active during early morning, early evening, and late evening hours. When under heavy hunting pressure, it becomes nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Males have home ranges of about 50-80 ha, females of about 40-60 ha. It is essentially a solitary species. Mean group sizes are normally 2-3 individuals. Males are often alone. Groups are mating pairs or small families, mother and fawn, or mother, fawn, and female yearling. Temporary aggregations of 20-80 individuals are seen in rich pastures.","statusAndConservation":"Subspecies annamiticus CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Since the 1950s Hog Deer have undergone a dramatic decline due to habitat conversion (the Terai floodplains are among the most fertile lowlands of Asia) and direct persecution. By the mid-1980s it became extinct in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; in Bangladeshand possibly in South Chinaa few dozens survived. More recently the Cambodian population collapsed. In Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Hog Deer are declining at a slowerrate.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 140-150 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130 cmfor females (does), tail 17-21 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm (bucks) and 55-65 cm (does); weight of bucks 40-55 kg (up to 95 kg) and of does 30-40 kg. Adult bucks are on average 35% heavier than does. Medium-sized, relatively short-legged deer; males have prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers. Face moderately short,tail relatively long. The coat is yellow-brown to dark brown in summer, grayish-brown in winter; underparts dark, tail brown dorsally, white underneath. Newborn fawns are normally spotted, but in Cambodiaand Vietnamthey lack spots. Some spots may persist in adults. Adult antlers are generally 30-45 cm long (up to 61 cm), with a brow tine and fork. Antler casting occurs mainly between November and April.","habitat":"Lowland wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with rivers: in South Asiaits original range fits with the Indo-Gangetic alluvial floodplain. It avoids closedcanopy forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"415","verbatimText":"14.Hog DeerAxis porcinusFrench:Cerf cochon/ German:Schweinshirsch/ Spanish:AxisporcinoTaxonomy.Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, 1780, West Bengal(India).Sometimes it iS put in a separate genus, Hyelaphus. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.p.porcinusZimmermann,1780—Pakistan,NIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andMyanmar.A. p. annamiticus Heude, 1888— S China(Yunnan), Thailand(reintroduced), and Cambodia; formerly also Laosand Vietnam but may be extinct there now.Tt was introduced some centuries ago in Sri Lanka, and more recently into Australia, and South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head—body 140-150 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130 cmfor females (does), tail 17-21 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm (bucks) and 55-65 cm (does); weight of bucks 40-55 kg (up to 95 kg) and of does 30-40 kg. Adult bucks are on average 35% heavier than does. Medium-sized, relatively short-legged deer; males have prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers. Face moderately short,tail relatively long. The coat is yellow-brown to dark brown in summer, grayish-brown in winter; underparts dark, tail brown dorsally, white underneath. Newborn fawns are normally spotted, but in Cambodiaand Vietnamthey lack spots. Some spots may persist in adults. Adult antlers are generally 30-45 cm long (up to 61 cm), with a brow tine and fork. Antler casting occurs mainly between November and April.Habitat.Lowland wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with rivers: in South Asiaits original range fits with the Indo-Gangetic alluvial floodplain. It avoids closedcanopy forests.Food and Feeding.Primarily a grazer of young grasses, but also feeds on herbs, flowers, fruits, and young leaves.Breeding.Females reach puberty at 8=12 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from July to November and a peak in September—October. Males search widely for receptive females and guard them temporarily. After a pregnancy of about 230 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 2-3 kg. Weaning occurs at six months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and crocodiles are the main predators.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, early evening, and late evening hours. When under heavy hunting pressure, it becomes nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 50-80 ha, females of about 40-60 ha. It is essentially a solitary species. Mean group sizes are normally 2-3 individuals. Males are often alone. Groups are mating pairs or small families, mother and fawn, or mother, fawn, and female yearling. Temporary aggregations of 20-80 individuals are seen in rich pastures.Status and Conservation.Subspecies annamiticus CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Since the 1950s Hog Deer have undergone a dramatic decline due to habitat conversion (the Terai floodplains are among the most fertile lowlands of Asia) and direct persecution. By the mid-1980s it became extinct in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; in Bangladeshand possibly in South Chinaa few dozens survived. More recently the Cambodian population collapsed. In Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Hog Deer are declining at a slowerrate.Bibliography.Biswas (2004), Dhungel & O'Gara (1991), Moore & Mayze (1990), Odden & Wegge (2007), Odden et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, 1780, West Bengal(India).Sometimes it iS put in a separate genus, Hyelaphus. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf cochon @fr | Schweinshirsch @de | Axisporcino @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Axis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"415","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"porcinus","name":"Axis porcinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.p.porcinusZimmermann,1780—Pakistan,NIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andMyanmar.A. p. annamiticus Heude, 1888— S China(Yunnan), Thailand(reintroduced), and Cambodia; formerly also Laosand Vietnam but may be extinct there now.Tt was introduced some centuries ago in Sri Lanka, and more recently into Australia, and South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514425/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Biswas (2004) | Dhungel & O'Gara (1991) | Moore & Mayze (1990) | Odden & Wegge (2007) | Odden et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Primarily a grazer of young grasses, but also feeds on herbs, flowers, fruits, and young leaves.","breeding":"Females reach puberty at 8=12 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from July to November and a peak in September—October. Males search widely for receptive females and guard them temporarily. After a pregnancy of about 230 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 2-3 kg. Weaning occurs at six months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and crocodiles are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"Active during early morning, early evening, and late evening hours. When under heavy hunting pressure, it becomes nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Males have home ranges of about 50-80 ha, females of about 40-60 ha. It is essentially a solitary species. Mean group sizes are normally 2-3 individuals. Males are often alone. Groups are mating pairs or small families, mother and fawn, or mother, fawn, and female yearling. Temporary aggregations of 20-80 individuals are seen in rich pastures.","statusAndConservation":"Subspecies annamiticus CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Since the 1950s Hog Deer have undergone a dramatic decline due to habitat conversion (the Terai floodplains are among the most fertile lowlands of Asia) and direct persecution. By the mid-1980s it became extinct in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; in Bangladeshand possibly in South Chinaa few dozens survived. More recently the Cambodian population collapsed. In Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Hog Deer are declining at a slowerrate.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 140-150 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130 cmfor females (does), tail 17-21 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm (bucks) and 55-65 cm (does); weight of bucks 40-55 kg (up to 95 kg) and of does 30-40 kg. Adult bucks are on average 35% heavier than does. Medium-sized, relatively short-legged deer; males have prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers. Face moderately short,tail relatively long. The coat is yellow-brown to dark brown in summer, grayish-brown in winter; underparts dark, tail brown dorsally, white underneath. Newborn fawns are normally spotted, but in Cambodiaand Vietnamthey lack spots. Some spots may persist in adults. Adult antlers are generally 30-45 cm long (up to 61 cm), with a brow tine and fork. Antler casting occurs mainly between November and April.","habitat":"Lowland wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with rivers: in South Asiaits original range fits with the Indo-Gangetic alluvial floodplain. It avoids closedcanopy forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCDFFCDFA4FF6BBE511FDBD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCDFFCDFA4FF6BBE511FDBD","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"415","verbatimText":"15.Bawean DeerAxis kuhliiFrench:Cerf de Kuhl/ German:Bawean-Schweinshirsch/ Spanish:Axis de BaweanTaxonomy.Cervus kuhlii Temminck, 1836, Bawean Island.It has often been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinusand more recently it has been related to the extinct A. lydekkerii of Pleistocene. Fossils document an ancient occurrence in Java. The scientific name refers to the German naturalist H. Kuhl, who visited the East Indies in 1820-1821. Monotypic.Distribution.Bawean I, offJava.Descriptive notes.Head—body 130-140 cm, tail 17-20 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight of adult bucks 40-60 kg. Medium-sized short-legged deer with a bushy tail; males with prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers 30-45 cm in length. The coat is brown. Newborn fawns are not spotted. Pedicles begin to grow at six months of age, the first set of antlers at about eight months of age.Habitat.It is more common in hilly secondary forests.Food and Feeding.Primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.Breeding.Males may reproduce in every month of the year. Mating season peaks between July and December and births between February and June. Pregnancy lasts about 225-230 days. There is a postpartum estrus; interbirth intervals are about nine months. Feral dogs and pythons are the main predators.On followıng pages 16 Calamıan Deer (Axıs calamıanensıs) 17 Common Fallow Deer (Dama dama) 18 Persnun Fallow Deer (Dama mesopotamıca) 19 Sambar (Rusa unıoolon 20 Javan Deer (Rusa tlmoœnsls). 21 Phılıppıne Spotted Deer (Rusa alfredh 22 Phılıppıne Brown Deer (Husa manannalActivity patterns.Mainly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is typically solitary.Status and Conservation.CITES Annex I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In the 1960s—-1970s hunting and conversion to teak plantations caused a decline of the population, which now numbers around 300-500 individuals. Hunting ban began in 1977.Bibliography.Blouch & Atmosoedirdjo (1987), Groves & Grubb (1987), Meijaard & Groves (2004), Semiadi, Pudyatmoko et al. (2008), Semiadi, Subekti et al. (2003).","taxonomy":"Cervus kuhlii Temminck, 1836, Bawean Island.It has often been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinusand more recently it has been related to the extinct A. lydekkerii of Pleistocene. Fossils document an ancient occurrence in Java. The scientific name refers to the German naturalist H. Kuhl, who visited the East Indies in 1820-1821. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cerf de Kuhl @fr | Bawean-Schweinshirsch @de | Axis de Bawean @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1836","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Axis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"415","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kuhlii","name":"Axis kuhlii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Bawean I, offJava.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514427/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Blouch & Atmosoedirdjo (1987) | Groves & Grubb (1987) | Meijaard & Groves (2004) | Semiadi, Pudyatmoko et al. (2008) | Semiadi, Subekti et al. (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"Primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.","breeding":"Males may reproduce in every month of the year. Mating season peaks between July and December and births between February and June. Pregnancy lasts about 225-230 days. There is a postpartum estrus; interbirth intervals are about nine months. Feral dogs and pythons are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is typically solitary.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Annex I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In the 1960s—-1970s hunting and conversion to teak plantations caused a decline of the population, which now numbers around 300-500 individuals. Hunting ban began in 1977.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 130-140 cm, tail 17-20 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight of adult bucks 40-60 kg. Medium-sized short-legged deer with a bushy tail; males with prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers 30-45 cm in length. The coat is brown. Newborn fawns are not spotted. Pedicles begin to grow at six months of age, the first set of antlers at about eight months of age.","habitat":"It is more common in hilly secondary forests."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"418","verbatimText":"22.Philippine Brown DeerRusa mariannaFrench:Cerf des Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Hirsch/ Spanish:Sambarde FilipinasOther common names:Philippine Deer, Philippine SambarTaxonomy.Cervus mariannus Desmarest, 1822, Mariana Islands(introduced).Previously included in R. unicolor. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.m.mariannaDesmarest,1822—Luzon|andassociatedsmallerIs.R.m.barandanaHeude,1888—MindoroI.R. m. nigella Hollister, 1813— Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, and LeyteIs.In addition to its native range, introduced populations of this species are found on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Is and Pohnpei in the Caroline Is. The Philippine Brown Deer was also introduced to the Japanese Bonin Islands, where it later became extinct.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140 cm, tail 8-12 cm, shoulder height 55-70 cm; weight 40-60 kg. Small to medium-sized dark brown deer with an unspotted coat, darker above, paler on underparts and on legs. Fawns unspotted soon after birth. Very small ears. Adults have relatively short three-tined antlers, 20-40 cm in length. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth (upper canines absent). Broad lower central incisors and narrow lateral incisiform canines.Habitat.It formerly occurred in primary and secondary forests up to 2900 mabove sea level, including wooded lowlands and forested slopes.Food and Feeding.Philippine Brown Deer generally favor forest edges or clearings, browsing on a variety of vegetation such as grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and berries. In areas where it has been introduced, the Philippine Brown Deer causes significant damage to indigenous ecosystems, preventing forest regeneration as well as eating large amounts of crops.Breeding.Breeding most commonly occurs from September to January, with females giving birth to a single fawn marked with pale spots, which disappear after a few weeks.Activity patterns.The Philippine Brown Deer becomes active in the evenings and continues to feed throughout the night until dawn. They spend most of the day resting, hidden in dense vegetation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.During the mating season, females may form small groups of up to eight individuals, but the males remain solitary and are aggressive.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is declining throughout most of its range, due to hunting and deforestation. The Mindoro population is severely threatened by habitat loss. Despite portions of this species’ range being located in protected areas in the Philippines, poor enforcement allows widespread illegal logging activity, mining, and conversion of land to agriculture.Bibliography.Grubb & Groves (1983), Oliver, MacKinnon, Ong & Gonzales (2008), Wemmer (1998).","taxonomy":"Cervus mariannus Desmarest, 1822, Mariana Islands(introduced).Previously included in R. unicolor. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf des Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Hirsch @de | Sambarde Filipinas @es | Philippine Deer @en | Philippine Sambar @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rusa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"418","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"marianna","name":"Rusa marianna","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.m.mariannaDesmarest,1822—Luzon|andassociatedsmallerIs.R.m.barandanaHeude,1888—MindoroI.R. m. nigella Hollister, 1813— Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, and LeyteIs.In addition to its native range, introduced populations of this species are found on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Is and Pohnpei in the Caroline Is. The Philippine Brown Deer was also introduced to the Japanese Bonin Islands, where it later became extinct.","bibliography":"Grubb & Groves (1983) | Oliver, MacKinnon, Ong & Gonzales (2008) | Wemmer (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Philippine Brown Deer generally favor forest edges or clearings, browsing on a variety of vegetation such as grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and berries. In areas where it has been introduced, the Philippine Brown Deer causes significant damage to indigenous ecosystems, preventing forest regeneration as well as eating large amounts of crops.","breeding":"Breeding most commonly occurs from September to January, with females giving birth to a single fawn marked with pale spots, which disappear after a few weeks.","activityPatterns":"The Philippine Brown Deer becomes active in the evenings and continues to feed throughout the night until dawn. They spend most of the day resting, hidden in dense vegetation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"During the mating season, females may form small groups of up to eight individuals, but the males remain solitary and are aggressive.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is declining throughout most of its range, due to hunting and deforestation. The Mindoro population is severely threatened by habitat loss. Despite portions of this species’ range being located in protected areas in the Philippines, poor enforcement allows widespread illegal logging activity, mining, and conversion of land to agriculture.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140 cm, tail 8-12 cm, shoulder height 55-70 cm; weight 40-60 kg. Small to medium-sized dark brown deer with an unspotted coat, darker above, paler on underparts and on legs. Fawns unspotted soon after birth. Very small ears. Adults have relatively short three-tined antlers, 20-40 cm in length. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth (upper canines absent). Broad lower central incisors and narrow lateral incisiform canines.","habitat":"It formerly occurred in primary and secondary forests up to 2900 mabove sea level, including wooded lowlands and forested slopes."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"418","verbatimText":"22.Philippine Brown DeerRusa mariannaFrench:Cerf des Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Hirsch/ Spanish:Sambarde FilipinasOther common names:Philippine Deer, Philippine SambarTaxonomy.Cervus mariannus Desmarest, 1822, Mariana Islands(introduced).Previously included in R. unicolor. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.m.mariannaDesmarest,1822—Luzon|andassociatedsmallerIs.R.m.barandanaHeude,1888—MindoroI.R. m. nigella Hollister, 1813— Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, and LeyteIs.In addition to its native range, introduced populations of this species are found on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Is and Pohnpei in the Caroline Is. The Philippine Brown Deer was also introduced to the Japanese Bonin Islands, where it later became extinct.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140 cm, tail 8-12 cm, shoulder height 55-70 cm; weight 40-60 kg. Small to medium-sized dark brown deer with an unspotted coat, darker above, paler on underparts and on legs. Fawns unspotted soon after birth. Very small ears. Adults have relatively short three-tined antlers, 20-40 cm in length. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth (upper canines absent). Broad lower central incisors and narrow lateral incisiform canines.Habitat.It formerly occurred in primary and secondary forests up to 2900 mabove sea level, including wooded lowlands and forested slopes.Food and Feeding.Philippine Brown Deer generally favor forest edges or clearings, browsing on a variety of vegetation such as grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and berries. In areas where it has been introduced, the Philippine Brown Deer causes significant damage to indigenous ecosystems, preventing forest regeneration as well as eating large amounts of crops.Breeding.Breeding most commonly occurs from September to January, with females giving birth to a single fawn marked with pale spots, which disappear after a few weeks.Activity patterns.The Philippine Brown Deer becomes active in the evenings and continues to feed throughout the night until dawn. They spend most of the day resting, hidden in dense vegetation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.During the mating season, females may form small groups of up to eight individuals, but the males remain solitary and are aggressive.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is declining throughout most of its range, due to hunting and deforestation. The Mindoro population is severely threatened by habitat loss. Despite portions of this species’ range being located in protected areas in the Philippines, poor enforcement allows widespread illegal logging activity, mining, and conversion of land to agriculture.Bibliography.Grubb & Groves (1983), Oliver, MacKinnon, Ong & Gonzales (2008), Wemmer (1998).","taxonomy":"Cervus mariannus Desmarest, 1822, Mariana Islands(introduced).Previously included in R. unicolor. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf des Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Hirsch @de | Sambarde Filipinas @es | Philippine Deer @en | Philippine Sambar @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rusa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"418","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"marianna","name":"Rusa marianna","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.m.mariannaDesmarest,1822—Luzon|andassociatedsmallerIs.R.m.barandanaHeude,1888—MindoroI.R. m. nigella Hollister, 1813— Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, and LeyteIs.In addition to its native range, introduced populations of this species are found on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Is and Pohnpei in the Caroline Is. The Philippine Brown Deer was also introduced to the Japanese Bonin Islands, where it later became extinct.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514448/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Grubb & Groves (1983) | Oliver, MacKinnon, Ong & Gonzales (2008) | Wemmer (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Philippine Brown Deer generally favor forest edges or clearings, browsing on a variety of vegetation such as grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and berries. In areas where it has been introduced, the Philippine Brown Deer causes significant damage to indigenous ecosystems, preventing forest regeneration as well as eating large amounts of crops.","breeding":"Breeding most commonly occurs from September to January, with females giving birth to a single fawn marked with pale spots, which disappear after a few weeks.","activityPatterns":"The Philippine Brown Deer becomes active in the evenings and continues to feed throughout the night until dawn. They spend most of the day resting, hidden in dense vegetation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"During the mating season, females may form small groups of up to eight individuals, but the males remain solitary and are aggressive.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is declining throughout most of its range, due to hunting and deforestation. The Mindoro population is severely threatened by habitat loss. Despite portions of this species’ range being located in protected areas in the Philippines, poor enforcement allows widespread illegal logging activity, mining, and conversion of land to agriculture.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140 cm, tail 8-12 cm, shoulder height 55-70 cm; weight 40-60 kg. Small to medium-sized dark brown deer with an unspotted coat, darker above, paler on underparts and on legs. Fawns unspotted soon after birth. Very small ears. Adults have relatively short three-tined antlers, 20-40 cm in length. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth (upper canines absent). Broad lower central incisors and narrow lateral incisiform canines.","habitat":"It formerly occurred in primary and secondary forests up to 2900 mabove sea level, including wooded lowlands and forested slopes."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCEFFCFFF0CFCBEE5FAF800.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCEFFCFFF0CFCBEE5FAF800","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"418","verbatimText":"21.Philippine Spotted DeerRusa alfrediFrench:Cerf d'Alfred/ German:Prinz-Alfred-Hirsch/ Spanish:Sambarmanchado de FilipinasOther common names:Prince Alfred's Sambar, Visayan Spotted DeerTaxonomy.Cervus alfredi Sclater, 1870, Philippines.This species has been treated for decades as a dwarf island form of R. unicolor. The scientific name refers to Prince Alfred, son of Queen Victoria, who sent a specimen to P. L. Sclater. Monotypic.Distribution.Panay and Negros Is, in W Visayas, Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130 cm, tail 12 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm; weight of males around 40 kg. Small to medium-sized deer with a narrow skull and pointed face. Ears relatively small. Fur fine, soft, and dense. The coat is dark brown with beige and whitish spots and a blackish spinal band. Head and neck darker, underparts cream. White on chin and lowerlip. Antlers of adults three-tined and 25 cmin lenght.Habitat.It is now restricted to steep slopes of dipterocarp forests.Food and Feeding.It feeds on leaves, buds, forbs, young grasses, and fruits.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding occurs all year. Mating season peaks in November-December, births in May-June. Gestation is around 240 days. Females give birth to a single fawn.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is not very social, with males mostly solitary and females with their fawns.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and logging for plantations and agriculture have drastically fragmented its range and decreased its population.Bibliography.Cox (1987), Grubb & Groves (1983), Oliver et al. (1991).","taxonomy":"Cervus alfredi Sclater, 1870, Philippines.This species has been treated for decades as a dwarf island form of R. unicolor. The scientific name refers to Prince Alfred, son of Queen Victoria, who sent a specimen to P. L. Sclater. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cerf d'Alfred @fr | Prinz-Alfred-Hirsch @de | Sambarmanchado de Filipinas @es | Prince Alfred's Sambar @en | Visayan Spotted Deer @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Sclater","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1870","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rusa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"418","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alfredi","name":"Rusa alfredi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Panay and Negros Is, in W Visayas, Philippines.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514445/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cox (1987) | Grubb & Groves (1983) | Oliver et al. (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"It feeds on leaves, buds, forbs, young grasses, and fruits.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding occurs all year. Mating season peaks in November-December, births in May-June. Gestation is around 240 days. Females give birth to a single fawn.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is not very social, with males mostly solitary and females with their fawns.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and logging for plantations and agriculture have drastically fragmented its range and decreased its population.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130 cm, tail 12 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm; weight of males around 40 kg. Small to medium-sized deer with a narrow skull and pointed face. Ears relatively small. Fur fine, soft, and dense. The coat is dark brown with beige and whitish spots and a blackish spinal band. Head and neck darker, underparts cream. White on chin and lowerlip. Antlers of adults three-tined and 25 cmin lenght.","habitat":"It is now restricted to steep slopes of dipterocarp forests."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"417","verbatimText":"19.SambarRusa unicolorFrench:Cerf sambar/ German:Sambar/ Spanish:SambarTaxonomy.Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792, Sri Lanka.Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862— Taiwan.Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kgin Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cmin Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepalstags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.Bibliography.Acharjyo (1982), Geist (1998), Johnsingh & Sankar (1991), Leslie (2011), Ngampongsai (1987), Sankar & Acharya (2004b), Schaller (1967).","taxonomy":"Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792, Sri Lanka.Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf sambar @fr | Sambar @de | Sambar @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Kerr","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rusa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"417","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"unicolor","name":"Rusa unicolor","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862— Taiwan.Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.","bibliography":"Acharjyo (1982) | Geist (1998) | Johnsingh & Sankar (1991) | Leslie (2011) | Ngampongsai (1987) | Sankar & Acharya (2004b) | Schaller (1967)","foodAndFeeding":"It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.","activityPatterns":"It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kgin Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cmin Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepalstags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989.","habitat":"It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"417","verbatimText":"20.Javan DeerRusa timorensisFrench:Cerf de Timor/ German:Mahnenhirsch/ Spanish:Sambarde JavaOther common names:Maned Sambar, Rusa Deer, Sunda Sambar, Timor DeerTaxonomy.Cervus timorensis de Blainville, 1822, Timor Island.Seven subspecies are usually recognized, but their legitimacy is debatable.Subspecies and Distribution.R.t.timorensisdeBlainville,1822—TimorI.R.t.djongaVanBemmel,1949-MunaandButonIs.R.t.flovesiensisHeude,1897—Flores1.R.t.macassaricaHeude,1896—Sulawesi.R.t.moluccensisQuoy&Gaimard,1830—MoluccanIs.R.t.renschiSody,1932—Bali.R. t. russa Muller & Schlegel, 1845— Java.Possibly it is native only to Javaand Baliislands, introduced into Lombok, Flores, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, Sulawesi, and Moluccan Islands in ancient times. It was introduced during the last centuries in many locations, including New Guinea, Aru Islands, New Britain Is, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Mauritius, and Comoro Is. The map represents the native range and the oldest introductions.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-180 cm (males) and 140-170 (females), tail 25 cm, shoulder height 95-110 cm (males) and 85-100 (females); weight of males 70-135 kg and of females 50-90 kg. Males are 40-70% heavier than females. Medium-sized deer with relatively long and narrow tail; males have relatively slender and less rugose antlers, with a brow tine pointing forward and a trez tine in a median position. Males develop a conspicuous neck mane. The coat is dark brown to graybrown. Underparts are paler than back. Females are paler than males. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Adult antlers are 50-80 cm long, with records of 95 cm. Antler casting peaks in December—January, velvet shedding in May-June. Pedicles begin to grow at about 5-9 months of age. The first antler set begins to develop at 7-11 months of age.Habitat.It is basically a tropical grassland species, but very adaptable, with populations living in forests, shrubs, and marshes, from sea level to 900 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It has an extensive diet, feeding on grasses, herbs, leaves, and bark.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 7-15 months of age. Males are able to reproduce at about 24 months of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. Javan Deer seems to breed at any time of the year, with a rutting peak from June to September. After a gestation of 249-253 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-5 kg. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the main predator.Activity patterns.It is primarily diurnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a gregarious species, with males and females forming distinct groups except during the rutting season. Herds may comprise up to 25 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It may be locally common, but the global trend in its native range is negative, due to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and poaching.Bibliography.de Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2005), Hedges et al. (2008), VanMourik (1986), Woodford & Dunning (1992).","taxonomy":"Cervus timorensis de Blainville, 1822, Timor Island.Seven subspecies are usually recognized, but their legitimacy is debatable.","commonNames":"Cerf de Timor @fr | Mahnenhirsch @de | Sambarde Java @es | Maned Sambar @en | Rusa Deer @en | Sunda Sambar @en | Timor Deer @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Blainville","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rusa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"417","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"timorensis","name":"Rusa timorensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.t.timorensisdeBlainville,1822—TimorI.R.t.djongaVanBemmel,1949-MunaandButonIs.R.t.flovesiensisHeude,1897—Flores1.R.t.macassaricaHeude,1896—Sulawesi.R.t.moluccensisQuoy&Gaimard,1830—MoluccanIs.R.t.renschiSody,1932—Bali.R. t. russa Muller & Schlegel, 1845— Java.Possibly it is native only to Javaand Baliislands, introduced into Lombok, Flores, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, Sulawesi, and Moluccan Islands in ancient times. It was introduced during the last centuries in many locations, including New Guinea, Aru Islands, New Britain Is, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Mauritius, and Comoro Is. The map represents the native range and the oldest introductions.","bibliography":"de Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2005) | Hedges et al. (2008) | VanMourik (1986) | Woodford & Dunning (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"It has an extensive diet, feeding on grasses, herbs, leaves, and bark.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at 7-15 months of age. Males are able to reproduce at about 24 months of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. Javan Deer seems to breed at any time of the year, with a rutting peak from June to September. After a gestation of 249-253 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-5 kg. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the main predator.","activityPatterns":"It is primarily diurnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a gregarious species, with males and females forming distinct groups except during the rutting season. Herds may comprise up to 25 individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It may be locally common, but the global trend in its native range is negative, due to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and poaching.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-180 cm (males) and 140-170 (females), tail 25 cm, shoulder height 95-110 cm (males) and 85-100 (females); weight of males 70-135 kg and of females 50-90 kg. Males are 40-70% heavier than females. Medium-sized deer with relatively long and narrow tail; males have relatively slender and less rugose antlers, with a brow tine pointing forward and a trez tine in a median position. Males develop a conspicuous neck mane. The coat is dark brown to graybrown. Underparts are paler than back. Females are paler than males. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Adult antlers are 50-80 cm long, with records of 95 cm. Antler casting peaks in December—January, velvet shedding in May-June. Pedicles begin to grow at about 5-9 months of age. The first antler set begins to develop at 7-11 months of age.","habitat":"It is basically a tropical grassland species, but very adaptable, with populations living in forests, shrubs, and marshes, from sea level to 900 mabove sea level."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"428","verbatimText":"33.Eastern Roe DeerCapreolus pygargusFrench:Chevreuil de Sibérie/ German:Sibirisches Reh/ Spanish:CorzosiberianoOther common names:Siberian Roe DeerTaxonomy.Cervus pygargus Pallas, 1771, river Sok, Trans-Volga region (Russia).Here two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.p.pygargusPallas,1771—fromEuropeanRussiatoCSiberiaandYakutia.C. p. tianschanicus Satunin, 1906— from Kazakhstanto SE Siberia, C & NE China, and the Korean Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head body 125-145 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height 82-94 cm; weight 35-50 kg for males (adult bucks) and 32-47 kg for females (adult does). The heaviest animals are found in the Urals, Altai Mountains, and Yakutia (bucks up to 60-65 kg); the smallest possibly in China. It is a relatively large roe deer, with mostly uniform coat coloration. Facial markings are generally absent and the metatarsal glands are the same color as the legs. The antlers, which average 28-33 cm long on average in adult bucks, are well spread apart at the tips, but the pedicles are farther apart than in the Western Roe Deer (C. capreolus). The winter coat is gray or, in southern populations, graysh-brown, with a white rump patch. The summer coatis reddish. The molts occur in spring and autumn. Newborn fawns are spotted. The karyotype exhibits 1-14 additional Bchromosomes.Habitat.Eastern Roe Deerlive in forests with clearings and in treeless steppes with tall grass. They are particularly adapted to severe weather, tolerating temperatures from —60°C (Siberia) to more than 40°C (Central Asia). They occur up to 3300 mabove sea level on mountain ranges. Snow depth more than 50 cmis a limiting factor.Food and Feeding.As browsers, roe deer prefer herbaceous dycotyledons and woody species. In winter they feed on twigs, dry herbs, mosses, and lichens.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about one year of age. Males tend to begin to reproduce by two or three years of age. Rut takes place in August and September. Females are described by Russian scientists as polyestrous, contrary to Western Roe Deer. They exhibit an embryonic diapause, with the implantation occurring in earlyJanuary. Around June, does typically give birth to two fawns weighing 1.8-2. 2 kg. Newborn fawns suckle within 30 minutes after birth and walk within 40 minutes. For the first two days they remain hidden in vegetation and if disturbed they tend to freeze. Fawns begin to experiment eating plants when they are 5-10 days old, but continue to nurse for 4-5 months. Eastern Roe Deer live a maximum of 11-12 years. The main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx); in some areas they are also preyed upon by Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris). Natural mortality due to climatic factors (frigid temperature, snowy winters) may affect population dynamics.Activity patterns.Eastern Roe Deer are active all day, alternating bouts of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving, at least 4-7 times in 24 hours. Animals are particularly active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is saltatorial and cursorial with low endurance. Annual home ranges can be 1-5 km?®, but in some less productive regions can reach 10-15 km?In the Amur regionand Siberian Far East, annual mass migrations of 100-300 km (up to 500 km) occur to avoid deep snow and reach productive habitats. The migrations to winter quarters in September—October can take up to 40 days; the return usually takes place in March-April. Roe deer are solitary or weakly social, forming small matrilinear groups in autumn and winter with an adult doe as a leader. Mass migrations are conducted by family groups aggregated into large herds. Adult bucks are solitary and territorial during late spring and summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List but decreasing. Although it is still widespread,it is declining due to overhunting. Formerly its range extended to Belarusand Ukraine. During the 19\" century it was subjected to particularly heavy hunting pressure in Russia, and half a million were killed annually. Illegal hunting for meat and antlers is still frequent in Siberia. Logging and poaching are threatening the populations living in the Korean Peninsula.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Danilkin (1995, 1999), Danilkin & Hewison (1996), Randi et al. (1998), Sokolov & Gromov (1990), Xiao Chaoting et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Cervus pygargus Pallas, 1771, river Sok, Trans-Volga region (Russia).Here two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Chevreuil de Sibérie @fr | Sibirisches Reh @de | Corzosiberiano @es | Siberian Roe Deer @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1771","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Capreolus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"428","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pygargus","name":"Capreolus pygargus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.p.pygargusPallas,1771—fromEuropeanRussiatoCSiberiaandYakutia.C. p. tianschanicus Satunin, 1906— from Kazakhstanto SE Siberia, C & NE China, and the Korean Peninsula.","bibliography":"Baskin & Danell (2003) | Danilkin (1995, 1999) | Danilkin & Hewison (1996) | Randi et al. (1998) | Sokolov & Gromov (1990) | Xiao Chaoting et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"As browsers, roe deer prefer herbaceous dycotyledons and woody species. In winter they feed on twigs, dry herbs, mosses, and lichens.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at about one year of age. Males tend to begin to reproduce by two or three years of age. Rut takes place in August and September. Females are described by Russian scientists as polyestrous, contrary to Western Roe Deer. They exhibit an embryonic diapause, with the implantation occurring in earlyJanuary. Around June, does typically give birth to two fawns weighing 1.8-2. 2 kg. Newborn fawns suckle within 30 minutes after birth and walk within 40 minutes. For the first two days they remain hidden in vegetation and if disturbed they tend to freeze. Fawns begin to experiment eating plants when they are 5-10 days old, but continue to nurse for 4-5 months. Eastern Roe Deer live a maximum of 11-12 years. The main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx); in some areas they are also preyed upon by Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris). Natural mortality due to climatic factors (frigid temperature, snowy winters) may affect population dynamics.","activityPatterns":"Eastern Roe Deer are active all day, alternating bouts of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving, at least 4-7 times in 24 hours. Animals are particularly active at dusk and dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is saltatorial and cursorial with low endurance. Annual home ranges can be 1-5 km?®, but in some less productive regions can reach 10-15 km?In the Amur regionand Siberian Far East, annual mass migrations of 100-300 km (up to 500 km) occur to avoid deep snow and reach productive habitats. The migrations to winter quarters in September—October can take up to 40 days; the return usually takes place in March-April. Roe deer are solitary or weakly social, forming small matrilinear groups in autumn and winter with an adult doe as a leader. Mass migrations are conducted by family groups aggregated into large herds. Adult bucks are solitary and territorial during late spring and summer.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List but decreasing. Although it is still widespread,it is declining due to overhunting. Formerly its range extended to Belarusand Ukraine. During the 19\" century it was subjected to particularly heavy hunting pressure in Russia, and half a million were killed annually. Illegal hunting for meat and antlers is still frequent in Siberia. Logging and poaching are threatening the populations living in the Korean Peninsula.","descriptiveNotes":"Head body 125-145 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height 82-94 cm; weight 35-50 kg for males (adult bucks) and 32-47 kg for females (adult does). The heaviest animals are found in the Urals, Altai Mountains, and Yakutia (bucks up to 60-65 kg); the smallest possibly in China. It is a relatively large roe deer, with mostly uniform coat coloration. Facial markings are generally absent and the metatarsal glands are the same color as the legs. The antlers, which average 28-33 cm long on average in adult bucks, are well spread apart at the tips, but the pedicles are farther apart than in the Western Roe Deer (C. capreolus). The winter coat is gray or, in southern populations, graysh-brown, with a white rump patch. The summer coatis reddish. The molts occur in spring and autumn. Newborn fawns are spotted. The karyotype exhibits 1-14 additional Bchromosomes.","habitat":"Eastern Roe Deerlive in forests with clearings and in treeless steppes with tall grass. They are particularly adapted to severe weather, tolerating temperatures from —60°C (Siberia) to more than 40°C (Central Asia). They occur up to 3300 mabove sea level on mountain ranges. Snow depth more than 50 cmis a limiting factor."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"417","verbatimText":"19.SambarRusa unicolorFrench:Cerf sambar/ German:Sambar/ Spanish:SambarTaxonomy.Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792, Sri Lanka.Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862— Taiwan.Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kgin Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cmin Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepalstags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.Bibliography.Acharjyo (1982), Geist (1998), Johnsingh & Sankar (1991), Leslie (2011), Ngampongsai (1987), Sankar & Acharya (2004b), Schaller (1967).","taxonomy":"Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792, Sri Lanka.Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf sambar @fr | Sambar @de | Sambar @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Kerr","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rusa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"417","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"unicolor","name":"Rusa unicolor","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862— Taiwan.Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514439/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Acharjyo (1982) | Geist (1998) | Johnsingh & Sankar (1991) | Leslie (2011) | Ngampongsai (1987) | Sankar & Acharya (2004b) | Schaller (1967)","foodAndFeeding":"It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.","activityPatterns":"It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kgin Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cmin Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepalstags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.Habitat.It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In Indiait has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in Indiaand Nepaland slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989.","habitat":"It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 mabove sea level."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"417","verbatimText":"20.Javan DeerRusa timorensisFrench:Cerf de Timor/ German:Mahnenhirsch/ Spanish:Sambarde JavaOther common names:Maned Sambar, Rusa Deer, Sunda Sambar, Timor DeerTaxonomy.Cervus timorensis de Blainville, 1822, Timor Island.Seven subspecies are usually recognized, but their legitimacy is debatable.Subspecies and Distribution.R.t.timorensisdeBlainville,1822—TimorI.R.t.djongaVanBemmel,1949-MunaandButonIs.R.t.flovesiensisHeude,1897—Flores1.R.t.macassaricaHeude,1896—Sulawesi.R.t.moluccensisQuoy&Gaimard,1830—MoluccanIs.R.t.renschiSody,1932—Bali.R. t. russa Muller & Schlegel, 1845— Java.Possibly it is native only to Javaand Baliislands, introduced into Lombok, Flores, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, Sulawesi, and Moluccan Islands in ancient times. It was introduced during the last centuries in many locations, including New Guinea, Aru Islands, New Britain Is, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Mauritius, and Comoro Is. The map represents the native range and the oldest introductions.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-180 cm (males) and 140-170 (females), tail 25 cm, shoulder height 95-110 cm (males) and 85-100 (females); weight of males 70-135 kg and of females 50-90 kg. Males are 40-70% heavier than females. Medium-sized deer with relatively long and narrow tail; males have relatively slender and less rugose antlers, with a brow tine pointing forward and a trez tine in a median position. Males develop a conspicuous neck mane. The coat is dark brown to graybrown. Underparts are paler than back. Females are paler than males. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Adult antlers are 50-80 cm long, with records of 95 cm. Antler casting peaks in December—January, velvet shedding in May-June. Pedicles begin to grow at about 5-9 months of age. The first antler set begins to develop at 7-11 months of age.Habitat.It is basically a tropical grassland species, but very adaptable, with populations living in forests, shrubs, and marshes, from sea level to 900 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It has an extensive diet, feeding on grasses, herbs, leaves, and bark.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 7-15 months of age. Males are able to reproduce at about 24 months of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. Javan Deer seems to breed at any time of the year, with a rutting peak from June to September. After a gestation of 249-253 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-5 kg. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the main predator.Activity patterns.It is primarily diurnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a gregarious species, with males and females forming distinct groups except during the rutting season. Herds may comprise up to 25 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It may be locally common, but the global trend in its native range is negative, due to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and poaching.Bibliography.de Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2005), Hedges et al. (2008), VanMourik (1986), Woodford & Dunning (1992).","taxonomy":"Cervus timorensis de Blainville, 1822, Timor Island.Seven subspecies are usually recognized, but their legitimacy is debatable.","commonNames":"Cerf de Timor @fr | Mahnenhirsch @de | Sambarde Java @es | Maned Sambar @en | Rusa Deer @en | Sunda Sambar @en | Timor Deer @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Blainville","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rusa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"417","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"timorensis","name":"Rusa timorensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.t.timorensisdeBlainville,1822—TimorI.R.t.djongaVanBemmel,1949-MunaandButonIs.R.t.flovesiensisHeude,1897—Flores1.R.t.macassaricaHeude,1896—Sulawesi.R.t.moluccensisQuoy&Gaimard,1830—MoluccanIs.R.t.renschiSody,1932—Bali.R. t. russa Muller & Schlegel, 1845— Java.Possibly it is native only to Javaand Baliislands, introduced into Lombok, Flores, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, Sulawesi, and Moluccan Islands in ancient times. It was introduced during the last centuries in many locations, including New Guinea, Aru Islands, New Britain Is, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Mauritius, and Comoro Is. The map represents the native range and the oldest introductions.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514441/files/figure.png","bibliography":"de Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2005) | Hedges et al. (2008) | VanMourik (1986) | Woodford & Dunning (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"It has an extensive diet, feeding on grasses, herbs, leaves, and bark.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at 7-15 months of age. Males are able to reproduce at about 24 months of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. Javan Deer seems to breed at any time of the year, with a rutting peak from June to September. After a gestation of 249-253 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-5 kg. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the main predator.","activityPatterns":"It is primarily diurnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a gregarious species, with males and females forming distinct groups except during the rutting season. Herds may comprise up to 25 individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It may be locally common, but the global trend in its native range is negative, due to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and poaching.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-180 cm (males) and 140-170 (females), tail 25 cm, shoulder height 95-110 cm (males) and 85-100 (females); weight of males 70-135 kg and of females 50-90 kg. Males are 40-70% heavier than females. Medium-sized deer with relatively long and narrow tail; males have relatively slender and less rugose antlers, with a brow tine pointing forward and a trez tine in a median position. Males develop a conspicuous neck mane. The coat is dark brown to graybrown. Underparts are paler than back. Females are paler than males. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Adult antlers are 50-80 cm long, with records of 95 cm. Antler casting peaks in December—January, velvet shedding in May-June. Pedicles begin to grow at about 5-9 months of age. The first antler set begins to develop at 7-11 months of age.","habitat":"It is basically a tropical grassland species, but very adaptable, with populations living in forests, shrubs, and marshes, from sea level to 900 mabove sea level."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"428","verbatimText":"33.Eastern Roe DeerCapreolus pygargusFrench:Chevreuil de Sibérie/ German:Sibirisches Reh/ Spanish:CorzosiberianoOther common names:Siberian Roe DeerTaxonomy.Cervus pygargus Pallas, 1771, river Sok, Trans-Volga region (Russia).Here two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.p.pygargusPallas,1771—fromEuropeanRussiatoCSiberiaandYakutia.C. p. tianschanicus Satunin, 1906— from Kazakhstanto SE Siberia, C & NE China, and the Korean Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head body 125-145 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height 82-94 cm; weight 35-50 kg for males (adult bucks) and 32-47 kg for females (adult does). The heaviest animals are found in the Urals, Altai Mountains, and Yakutia (bucks up to 60-65 kg); the smallest possibly in China. It is a relatively large roe deer, with mostly uniform coat coloration. Facial markings are generally absent and the metatarsal glands are the same color as the legs. The antlers, which average 28-33 cm long on average in adult bucks, are well spread apart at the tips, but the pedicles are farther apart than in the Western Roe Deer (C. capreolus). The winter coat is gray or, in southern populations, graysh-brown, with a white rump patch. The summer coatis reddish. The molts occur in spring and autumn. Newborn fawns are spotted. The karyotype exhibits 1-14 additional Bchromosomes.Habitat.Eastern Roe Deerlive in forests with clearings and in treeless steppes with tall grass. They are particularly adapted to severe weather, tolerating temperatures from —60°C (Siberia) to more than 40°C (Central Asia). They occur up to 3300 mabove sea level on mountain ranges. Snow depth more than 50 cmis a limiting factor.Food and Feeding.As browsers, roe deer prefer herbaceous dycotyledons and woody species. In winter they feed on twigs, dry herbs, mosses, and lichens.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about one year of age. Males tend to begin to reproduce by two or three years of age. Rut takes place in August and September. Females are described by Russian scientists as polyestrous, contrary to Western Roe Deer. They exhibit an embryonic diapause, with the implantation occurring in earlyJanuary. Around June, does typically give birth to two fawns weighing 1.8-2. 2 kg. Newborn fawns suckle within 30 minutes after birth and walk within 40 minutes. For the first two days they remain hidden in vegetation and if disturbed they tend to freeze. Fawns begin to experiment eating plants when they are 5-10 days old, but continue to nurse for 4-5 months. Eastern Roe Deer live a maximum of 11-12 years. The main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx); in some areas they are also preyed upon by Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris). Natural mortality due to climatic factors (frigid temperature, snowy winters) may affect population dynamics.Activity patterns.Eastern Roe Deer are active all day, alternating bouts of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving, at least 4-7 times in 24 hours. Animals are particularly active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is saltatorial and cursorial with low endurance. Annual home ranges can be 1-5 km?®, but in some less productive regions can reach 10-15 km?In the Amur regionand Siberian Far East, annual mass migrations of 100-300 km (up to 500 km) occur to avoid deep snow and reach productive habitats. The migrations to winter quarters in September—October can take up to 40 days; the return usually takes place in March-April. Roe deer are solitary or weakly social, forming small matrilinear groups in autumn and winter with an adult doe as a leader. Mass migrations are conducted by family groups aggregated into large herds. Adult bucks are solitary and territorial during late spring and summer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List but decreasing. Although it is still widespread,it is declining due to overhunting. Formerly its range extended to Belarusand Ukraine. During the 19\" century it was subjected to particularly heavy hunting pressure in Russia, and half a million were killed annually. Illegal hunting for meat and antlers is still frequent in Siberia. Logging and poaching are threatening the populations living in the Korean Peninsula.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Danilkin (1995, 1999), Danilkin & Hewison (1996), Randi et al. (1998), Sokolov & Gromov (1990), Xiao Chaoting et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Cervus pygargus Pallas, 1771, river Sok, Trans-Volga region (Russia).Here two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Chevreuil de Sibérie @fr | Sibirisches Reh @de | Corzosiberiano @es | Siberian Roe Deer @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1771","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Capreolus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"428","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pygargus","name":"Capreolus pygargus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.p.pygargusPallas,1771—fromEuropeanRussiatoCSiberiaandYakutia.C. p. tianschanicus Satunin, 1906— from Kazakhstanto SE Siberia, C & NE China, and the Korean Peninsula.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514505/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baskin & Danell (2003) | Danilkin (1995, 1999) | Danilkin & Hewison (1996) | Randi et al. (1998) | Sokolov & Gromov (1990) | Xiao Chaoting et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"As browsers, roe deer prefer herbaceous dycotyledons and woody species. In winter they feed on twigs, dry herbs, mosses, and lichens.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at about one year of age. Males tend to begin to reproduce by two or three years of age. Rut takes place in August and September. Females are described by Russian scientists as polyestrous, contrary to Western Roe Deer. They exhibit an embryonic diapause, with the implantation occurring in earlyJanuary. Around June, does typically give birth to two fawns weighing 1.8-2. 2 kg. Newborn fawns suckle within 30 minutes after birth and walk within 40 minutes. For the first two days they remain hidden in vegetation and if disturbed they tend to freeze. Fawns begin to experiment eating plants when they are 5-10 days old, but continue to nurse for 4-5 months. Eastern Roe Deer live a maximum of 11-12 years. The main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx); in some areas they are also preyed upon by Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris). Natural mortality due to climatic factors (frigid temperature, snowy winters) may affect population dynamics.","activityPatterns":"Eastern Roe Deer are active all day, alternating bouts of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving, at least 4-7 times in 24 hours. Animals are particularly active at dusk and dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is saltatorial and cursorial with low endurance. Annual home ranges can be 1-5 km?®, but in some less productive regions can reach 10-15 km?In the Amur regionand Siberian Far East, annual mass migrations of 100-300 km (up to 500 km) occur to avoid deep snow and reach productive habitats. The migrations to winter quarters in September—October can take up to 40 days; the return usually takes place in March-April. Roe deer are solitary or weakly social, forming small matrilinear groups in autumn and winter with an adult doe as a leader. Mass migrations are conducted by family groups aggregated into large herds. Adult bucks are solitary and territorial during late spring and summer.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List but decreasing. Although it is still widespread,it is declining due to overhunting. Formerly its range extended to Belarusand Ukraine. During the 19\" century it was subjected to particularly heavy hunting pressure in Russia, and half a million were killed annually. Illegal hunting for meat and antlers is still frequent in Siberia. Logging and poaching are threatening the populations living in the Korean Peninsula.","descriptiveNotes":"Head body 125-145 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height 82-94 cm; weight 35-50 kg for males (adult bucks) and 32-47 kg for females (adult does). The heaviest animals are found in the Urals, Altai Mountains, and Yakutia (bucks up to 60-65 kg); the smallest possibly in China. It is a relatively large roe deer, with mostly uniform coat coloration. Facial markings are generally absent and the metatarsal glands are the same color as the legs. The antlers, which average 28-33 cm long on average in adult bucks, are well spread apart at the tips, but the pedicles are farther apart than in the Western Roe Deer (C. capreolus). The winter coat is gray or, in southern populations, graysh-brown, with a white rump patch. The summer coatis reddish. The molts occur in spring and autumn. Newborn fawns are spotted. The karyotype exhibits 1-14 additional Bchromosomes.","habitat":"Eastern Roe Deerlive in forests with clearings and in treeless steppes with tall grass. They are particularly adapted to severe weather, tolerating temperatures from —60°C (Siberia) to more than 40°C (Central Asia). They occur up to 3300 mabove sea level on mountain ranges. Snow depth more than 50 cmis a limiting factor."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD1FFD1FF5FFA77E24AF9CE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD1FFD1FF5FFA77E24AF9CE","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"427","verbatimText":"32.Western Roe DeerCapreolus capreolusFrench:Chevreuil d'Europe/ German:Reh/ Spanish:CorzoOther common names:European Roe DeerTaxonomy.Cervus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The Western Roe Deeris recorded in Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. It was present on most of the continent during Interglacial and mild stages of glacial periods. During the last glacial maximum, 21-15,000 years ago, roe deer retreated to a few ice-free refugia in the Mediterranean region and in South-eastern Europe. About 9600 years ago, the deer began to recolonize Western, Central, and Northern Europe, possibly from one eastern glacial refugium. Due to substantial morphological homogeneity, most recent authorities consider the species as monotypic.Distribution.Most of Europe (excluding Iceland, Ireland, and Mediterranean Is), Caucasus, and Near East.Descriptive notes.Head-body 107-127 cm,tail 1.5-3 cm, shoulder height 65-84 cm; postrutting weight 20-30 kg for males (adult bucks) and 17-29 kg for females (adult does). Bucks are on average 5-10% heavier than does. The heaviest animals are found in Scandinavia and the Baltic countries, the smallest in Mediterranean habitats of Spainand Italyand in cold alpine valleys. It is an elegant small deer with long neck, relatively short trunk, and rump higher than withers. The area around the muzzle is black, the lips and chin are white. The winter coat is grayish. Bucks have a large, white, kidney-shaped rump patch; in does the rump patch is heart-shaped and there is a prominent tuft of hairs close to the vulva. The summer coatis reddish, without a clear rump patch. The faces of bucks have a variable admixture of colors, from dark brown to grayish, sometimes with a whitish area toward the muzzle. The molt to summer coat occurs in April-June, and to winter coat in September—October. Newborn fawns have a brown coat flecked with black and with white spots on sides and back; the spots start to fade at six weeks and disappear by about five months. Preorbital glands are absent; metatarsal glands are brown and distinct; interdigital glands are well developed. An important glandular area, called the “frontal organ” by the first describers, is present on the forehead and between the pedicles of bucks. In late spring and summer, these sudoriferous glands produce a secrection used to mark territories. Western Roe Deer have a permanent dentition of 32 teeth; the teeth erupt at 3-13 months of age. Antlers are short (16-23 cm on average in adult bucks) and light, typically three-pointed, rugged by pearling in the lower half and with a well-developed burr. The basal anterior point (brow tine) is absent, replaced by a central one. Pedicles are close and the pair of antlers is often lyre-shaped. Pedicles grow precociously at about four months. Fawns normally develop their first rudimentary antler set (bony buttons or tiny spikes 1-2 cm long) at 6-7 months. These are retained for about two months. A second set of antlers begins to grow immediately, and is clean of velvet by May-June; yearling antlers are often spikes 10-14 cm long, but can be also have twoor three-pointed beams. Fawn males that weigh less than 14 kgby theirfirst winter do not develop antlers. Their first set, generally 3-5 cm spikes, appears the following spring. At 3-6 years antlers attain their full size. Regression begins by eight years. In adult bucks velvet shedding occurs in March-April, antler casting in October-November. Hooves are 4-5 cm long, narrow, pointed, with toe pads extending right out to the tips.Habitat.The body structure, with the hindquarters higher than the shoulders, makes Western Roe Deer particularly adapted to moving in thick vegetation. Originally it was associated with early successional stages of the forest, young tracts of woods and scrubland. During the Neolithic Revolution, when a transition occurred from huntinggathering to agriculture and settlements, progressive forest fragmentation and the creation of wood clearings, meadows, and cultivated areas, gave Western Roe Deer new opportunities. The higher proportion of forest edge in the mosaic landscapes typical of traditional agriculture was particularly suitable to the species. Today Western Roe Deer occur in a wide variety of habitats, from the maquis scrub of the Mediterranean coast to the boreal forests of Scandinavia, and from Scottish moorlands to modern farmland with scarce cover. They live in the Alps up to 2400 m. Northern and north-eastern range limits seem to be largely determined by snow depth. The heavy foot loading and the low chest height makeit difficult to move in snow more than 40 cmdeep.Food and Feeding.Western Roe Deer are typical selective feeders or concentrate selectors, preferring soft food rich in soluble carbohydrates, proteins, and water. They have a relatively small rumen (4-6 1) and abomasum, and large salivary glands and liver; they are able to detoxify secondary plant metabolites. They are opportunistic and flexible deer, consuming up to 370 plant species at the regional level and about 1000 at the continental scale. Buds, shoots, and leaves of shrubs and deciduous trees, and green leaves and flowers of forbs (dicotyledon herbs) are particularly important; seeds and fruits are also eaten, especially in autumn. It seems that roe deer have physiological mechanisms that allow soluble carbohydrates to avoid microbial fermentation in the rumen and to be directly absorbed in the small intestine. With the onset of vegetation growth in spring, metabolic rate and food intake increase, reaching a peak during early lactation and the rutting period in summer; in winter basal metabolism and appetite decline. Daily food intake is 2—4 kgof fresh vegetation. Since roe deer have very scarce body reserves of fat, they need to obtain most nutrients directly from their food. This requires a greater tolerance for food of low nutritional quality, especially in winter, which is unusual for a browser. Special adaptations of the salivary glands make roe deer, unlike most herbivores, insensitive to toxic effects of high concentrations of tannins.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 14 months of age and normally begin to reproduce immediately. Males reach physiological maturity at the same age but generally begin to participate in reproduction only at 2-3 years of age. Mature spermatozoa are present from March to October, but the rutting season is restricted to mid-July-mid-August. Females are monestrous, becoming receptive only for 36-48 hours during mid-summer, without the possibility of being fertilized a second time. Adult bucks follow olfactory traces of does, evaluate their status using the vomeronasal organ, and, having spotted a receptive doe, begin a courtship pursuit. This consists initially of a long chase in large circles, then in close runs in small circles or figure eights. Bucks remain with a doe for 2—4 days, and then move to find other estrous does residing in the neighborhood. During rut bucks lose about 10% of their weight. Females can take an active role in mate selection by making excursions out of their home range,visiting a territory holder, and mating with him. Fertilization is followed by a five-month period of “embryonic diapause.” The fertilized ovum penetrates into the uterus without implanting in the endometrium, reaching a blastocyst stage 0-1 mm in diameter, resulting in a blastula 5 mmin diameter. Implantation of the embryo occurs in January. The true gestation period lasts about 150 days, with the birth season in May-June. Does give birth to 1-3 fawns; in most of Europe two is the rule, but in Scandinavia, where mothers are particularly heavy, triplets are common, and in Mediterranean habitats frequently only one fawn is produced. Newborn fawns weigh on average 1.3-1. 9 kg, doubling their mass by 10-15 days. During the first weeks they remain hidden and in case of danger they “freeze”; their mother eats and rests about 50-150 m away. They are fed 5-9 times a day during the first month, 2-4 times during the second, and 1-2 times during the third month. Lactation lasts about three months. They begin to ingest their first leaves at about ten days and feed completely on vegetation by early September. At one month they are active for 1-1-5 hours per day. At weaning they synchronize the rhythms of activity with those of their mother. At 7-8 months males begin to be slightly heavier than females. At 3—4 years, roe deer attain full adult size. At eight years they enter senescence. Normally they live to a maximum of 10-12 years, with records of 14 years for bucks and 18 years for does. In populations subjected to hunting, averagelife expectancy is less than three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators; foxes may prey on young fawns.Activity patterns.The small size of the stomach requires the deer to feed frequently, generally 9-11 times during a 24hour day. Roe deer are active all day, alternating periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving. Feeding bouts at dawn and dusk have the longest duration.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Roe Deer are cursorial and saltatorial, able to jump up to 5 min length and 2-5 m in height. The deer are typically sedentary, with home ranges averaging 5-7 km? in wooded habitats and 8-10 km? in open habitats. Adult bucks from 2-3 years of age are territorial between April and August. When population density is low, defended territories are strictly exclusive. At high density they show some overlap, with each buck preserving a core area. Territories are defended and patrolled by means of self-advertisement, threat displays, and, more rarely, overt fights. Bucks mark by using olfactory and opticalsignals,i.e. rubbing saplings with forehead, fraying plants with antlers, and scraping ground with hooves. There can be about 90 scrapes per hectare and about 95 rubs and frayings per hectare. A buck can retain his territory for 5-7 years. When aged bucks lose their territory, they restrict their movements to a small area or become nomadic. Yearling bucks and sometimes two-year-old subadults are non-territorial and relatively mobile; some of them, known as “peripherals,” occupy a small range within the buffer zone between the territories of two adults, and others, known as “satellites,” associate with a territorial buck who tolerates a subordinate. In Scandinavia and the Alps, in areas where a snow depth gradient exists, part of the population tends to move to valley bottoms in late autumn and remain until spring, making small 4-12 km migrations. Western Roe Deer are not very social, living alone or in small groups. Bucks are solitary during the territorial period (late spring and summer), does in the last part of their pregnancy and at parturition time. From September to February adult does tend to form small groups of 2—4 animals, with their offspring, and occasionally with an adult buck. Two family units can form matrilinear clans of 6-8 animals, sometimes coalescing in larger fluid aggregations, especially in open habitats (meadows, farmland). Larger groups are particularly common in snowy winters and at the onset of spring, with the first green vegetation. Early spring aggregations are temporary and fragile, since adult bucks begin to be aggressive, to determine their rank order, to displace yearlings, and then to move to their territory.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Presently the Western Roe Deer is the most common deer species in Europe, numbering about nine million head, of which 2-9 million are annually harvested. Densities are normally 5—=25 ind/km?, with maximums of 50-70 ind/km?. In the Near East it is extinct in Lebanonand Israel(where a reintroduction program was begun in 1997). During Mesolithic times in Europe it was probably less abundant than the Western Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), confined to thick woods, glades, and clearings. But habitat changes caused by humans give it new opportunities. During the Medieval and Renaissance periods, roe deer hunting generally was not restricted to nobles or reigning houses. Overhunting was responsible for a significant decline in the species across most of Europe between the 17\" century and the first half of the 20\" century. The reinforcement of laws, the recovery of natural habitats, and reintroductions, coupled with the extreme ecological flexibility of the Western Roe Deer and its high reproductive potential, made possible a recolonization of vast areas and an increase in density. Populations in Mediterranean regions such as southern Italyand Spainare still threatened by poaching, feral dog predation, competition with livestock, and genetic pollution.Bibliography.Andersen et al. (1998), Apollonio et al. (2010), Danilkin & Hewison (1996), Melis et al. (2009), San José& Lovari (1998), Sempéré et al. (1996), Sommer et al. (2009), Stubbe (1990).","taxonomy":"Cervus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.The Western Roe Deeris recorded in Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. It was present on most of the continent during Interglacial and mild stages of glacial periods. During the last glacial maximum, 21-15,000 years ago, roe deer retreated to a few ice-free refugia in the Mediterranean region and in South-eastern Europe. About 9600 years ago, the deer began to recolonize Western, Central, and Northern Europe, possibly from one eastern glacial refugium. Due to substantial morphological homogeneity, most recent authorities consider the species as monotypic.","commonNames":"Chevreuil d'Europe @fr | Reh @de | Corzo @es | European Roe Deer @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1821","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Capreolus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"427","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"capreolus","name":"Capreolus capreolus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Most of Europe (excluding Iceland, Ireland, and Mediterranean Is), Caucasus, and Near East.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514501/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Andersen et al. (1998) | Apollonio et al. (2010) | Danilkin & Hewison (1996) | Melis et al. (2009) | San José& Lovari (1998) | Sempéré et al. (1996) | Sommer et al. (2009) | Stubbe (1990)","foodAndFeeding":"Western Roe Deer are typical selective feeders or concentrate selectors, preferring soft food rich in soluble carbohydrates, proteins, and water. They have a relatively small rumen (4-6 1) and abomasum, and large salivary glands and liver; they are able to detoxify secondary plant metabolites. They are opportunistic and flexible deer, consuming up to 370 plant species at the regional level and about 1000 at the continental scale. Buds, shoots, and leaves of shrubs and deciduous trees, and green leaves and flowers of forbs (dicotyledon herbs) are particularly important; seeds and fruits are also eaten, especially in autumn. It seems that roe deer have physiological mechanisms that allow soluble carbohydrates to avoid microbial fermentation in the rumen and to be directly absorbed in the small intestine. With the onset of vegetation growth in spring, metabolic rate and food intake increase, reaching a peak during early lactation and the rutting period in summer; in winter basal metabolism and appetite decline. Daily food intake is 2—4 kgof fresh vegetation. Since roe deer have very scarce body reserves of fat, they need to obtain most nutrients directly from their food. This requires a greater tolerance for food of low nutritional quality, especially in winter, which is unusual for a browser. Special adaptations of the salivary glands make roe deer, unlike most herbivores, insensitive to toxic effects of high concentrations of tannins.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at 14 months of age and normally begin to reproduce immediately. Males reach physiological maturity at the same age but generally begin to participate in reproduction only at 2-3 years of age. Mature spermatozoa are present from March to October, but the rutting season is restricted to mid-July-mid-August. Females are monestrous, becoming receptive only for 36-48 hours during mid-summer, without the possibility of being fertilized a second time. Adult bucks follow olfactory traces of does, evaluate their status using the vomeronasal organ, and, having spotted a receptive doe, begin a courtship pursuit. This consists initially of a long chase in large circles, then in close runs in small circles or figure eights. Bucks remain with a doe for 2—4 days, and then move to find other estrous does residing in the neighborhood. During rut bucks lose about 10% of their weight. Females can take an active role in mate selection by making excursions out of their home range,visiting a territory holder, and mating with him. Fertilization is followed by a five-month period of “embryonic diapause.” The fertilized ovum penetrates into the uterus without implanting in the endometrium, reaching a blastocyst stage 0-1 mm in diameter, resulting in a blastula 5 mmin diameter. Implantation of the embryo occurs in January. The true gestation period lasts about 150 days, with the birth season in May-June. Does give birth to 1-3 fawns; in most of Europe two is the rule, but in Scandinavia, where mothers are particularly heavy, triplets are common, and in Mediterranean habitats frequently only one fawn is produced. Newborn fawns weigh on average 1.3-1. 9 kg, doubling their mass by 10-15 days. During the first weeks they remain hidden and in case of danger they “freeze”; their mother eats and rests about 50-150 m away. They are fed 5-9 times a day during the first month, 2-4 times during the second, and 1-2 times during the third month. Lactation lasts about three months. They begin to ingest their first leaves at about ten days and feed completely on vegetation by early September. At one month they are active for 1-1-5 hours per day. At weaning they synchronize the rhythms of activity with those of their mother. At 7-8 months males begin to be slightly heavier than females. At 3—4 years, roe deer attain full adult size. At eight years they enter senescence. Normally they live to a maximum of 10-12 years, with records of 14 years for bucks and 18 years for does. In populations subjected to hunting, averagelife expectancy is less than three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators; foxes may prey on young fawns.","activityPatterns":"The small size of the stomach requires the deer to feed frequently, generally 9-11 times during a 24hour day. Roe deer are active all day, alternating periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving. Feeding bouts at dawn and dusk have the longest duration.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Western Roe Deer are cursorial and saltatorial, able to jump up to 5 min length and 2-5 m in height. The deer are typically sedentary, with home ranges averaging 5-7 km? in wooded habitats and 8-10 km? in open habitats. Adult bucks from 2-3 years of age are territorial between April and August. When population density is low, defended territories are strictly exclusive. At high density they show some overlap, with each buck preserving a core area. Territories are defended and patrolled by means of self-advertisement, threat displays, and, more rarely, overt fights. Bucks mark by using olfactory and opticalsignals,i.e. rubbing saplings with forehead, fraying plants with antlers, and scraping ground with hooves. There can be about 90 scrapes per hectare and about 95 rubs and frayings per hectare. A buck can retain his territory for 5-7 years. When aged bucks lose their territory, they restrict their movements to a small area or become nomadic. Yearling bucks and sometimes two-year-old subadults are non-territorial and relatively mobile; some of them, known as “peripherals,” occupy a small range within the buffer zone between the territories of two adults, and others, known as “satellites,” associate with a territorial buck who tolerates a subordinate. In Scandinavia and the Alps, in areas where a snow depth gradient exists, part of the population tends to move to valley bottoms in late autumn and remain until spring, making small 4-12 km migrations. Western Roe Deer are not very social, living alone or in small groups. Bucks are solitary during the territorial period (late spring and summer), does in the last part of their pregnancy and at parturition time. From September to February adult does tend to form small groups of 2—4 animals, with their offspring, and occasionally with an adult buck. Two family units can form matrilinear clans of 6-8 animals, sometimes coalescing in larger fluid aggregations, especially in open habitats (meadows, farmland). Larger groups are particularly common in snowy winters and at the onset of spring, with the first green vegetation. Early spring aggregations are temporary and fragile, since adult bucks begin to be aggressive, to determine their rank order, to displace yearlings, and then to move to their territory.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Presently the Western Roe Deer is the most common deer species in Europe, numbering about nine million head, of which 2-9 million are annually harvested. Densities are normally 5—=25 ind/km?, with maximums of 50-70 ind/km?. In the Near East it is extinct in Lebanonand Israel(where a reintroduction program was begun in 1997). During Mesolithic times in Europe it was probably less abundant than the Western Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), confined to thick woods, glades, and clearings. But habitat changes caused by humans give it new opportunities. During the Medieval and Renaissance periods, roe deer hunting generally was not restricted to nobles or reigning houses. Overhunting was responsible for a significant decline in the species across most of Europe between the 17\" century and the first half of the 20\" century. The reinforcement of laws, the recovery of natural habitats, and reintroductions, coupled with the extreme ecological flexibility of the Western Roe Deer and its high reproductive potential, made possible a recolonization of vast areas and an increase in density. Populations in Mediterranean regions such as southern Italyand Spainare still threatened by poaching, feral dog predation, competition with livestock, and genetic pollution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 107-127 cm,tail 1.5-3 cm, shoulder height 65-84 cm; postrutting weight 20-30 kg for males (adult bucks) and 17-29 kg for females (adult does). Bucks are on average 5-10% heavier than does. The heaviest animals are found in Scandinavia and the Baltic countries, the smallest in Mediterranean habitats of Spainand Italyand in cold alpine valleys. It is an elegant small deer with long neck, relatively short trunk, and rump higher than withers. The area around the muzzle is black, the lips and chin are white. The winter coat is grayish. Bucks have a large, white, kidney-shaped rump patch; in does the rump patch is heart-shaped and there is a prominent tuft of hairs close to the vulva. The summer coatis reddish, without a clear rump patch. The faces of bucks have a variable admixture of colors, from dark brown to grayish, sometimes with a whitish area toward the muzzle. The molt to summer coat occurs in April-June, and to winter coat in September—October. Newborn fawns have a brown coat flecked with black and with white spots on sides and back; the spots start to fade at six weeks and disappear by about five months. Preorbital glands are absent; metatarsal glands are brown and distinct; interdigital glands are well developed. An important glandular area, called the “frontal organ” by the first describers, is present on the forehead and between the pedicles of bucks. In late spring and summer, these sudoriferous glands produce a secrection used to mark territories. Western Roe Deer have a permanent dentition of 32 teeth; the teeth erupt at 3-13 months of age. Antlers are short (16-23 cm on average in adult bucks) and light, typically three-pointed, rugged by pearling in the lower half and with a well-developed burr. The basal anterior point (brow tine) is absent, replaced by a central one. Pedicles are close and the pair of antlers is often lyre-shaped. Pedicles grow precociously at about four months. Fawns normally develop their first rudimentary antler set (bony buttons or tiny spikes 1-2 cm long) at 6-7 months. These are retained for about two months. A second set of antlers begins to grow immediately, and is clean of velvet by May-June; yearling antlers are often spikes 10-14 cm long, but can be also have twoor three-pointed beams. Fawn males that weigh less than 14 kgby theirfirst winter do not develop antlers. Their first set, generally 3-5 cm spikes, appears the following spring. At 3-6 years antlers attain their full size. Regression begins by eight years. In adult bucks velvet shedding occurs in March-April, antler casting in October-November. Hooves are 4-5 cm long, narrow, pointed, with toe pads extending right out to the tips.","habitat":"The body structure, with the hindquarters higher than the shoulders, makes Western Roe Deer particularly adapted to moving in thick vegetation. Originally it was associated with early successional stages of the forest, young tracts of woods and scrubland. During the Neolithic Revolution, when a transition occurred from huntinggathering to agriculture and settlements, progressive forest fragmentation and the creation of wood clearings, meadows, and cultivated areas, gave Western Roe Deer new opportunities. The higher proportion of forest edge in the mosaic landscapes typical of traditional agriculture was particularly suitable to the species. Today Western Roe Deer occur in a wide variety of habitats, from the maquis scrub of the Mediterranean coast to the boreal forests of Scandinavia, and from Scottish moorlands to modern farmland with scarce cover. They live in the Alps up to 2400 m. Northern and north-eastern range limits seem to be largely determined by snow depth. The heavy foot loading and the low chest height makeit difficult to move in snow more than 40 cmdeep."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"423","verbatimText":"26.WapitiCervus canadensisFrench:Cerf wapiti/ German:Wapiti/ Spanish:UapitiOther common names:Elk (in North America); Alashan Wapiti (alashanicus), lzubra/Manchurian Wapiti (xanthopygus), Merriam'’s Wapiti (merriami), Tule Elk (in California)Taxonomy.Cervus canadensis Erxleben, 1777, E Canada.Here four subspecies are recognized. Two subspecies (the Siberian and the American ones) are more advanced, more associated to open habitats, with longer antlers and more contrasted coat markings. Wapiti likely originated in Beringia (NE Siberia-Alaska) during the last glaciation and about 12,000 years ago migrated westward into south Siberia and eastward into North America.Subspecies and Distribution.C.c.canadensisErxleben,1777—NorthAmerica.C.c.alashanicusBobrinskii&Flerov,1935—NChina(HelanShanMts,Ningxia&NeiMongol).C.c.sibiricusSevertzov,1873—fromTienShantoAltaiandWBaikal(KirgyzstanandNXinjiangtoSSiberiaandNMongolia).C. c. xanthopygus Milne-Edwards, 1867— SW Siberia, Ussuriland, and Manchuria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-240 cm for males (bulls) and 190-230 cm for females (cows), tail 10-16 cm, shoulder height 145-165 cm (bulls) and 130-150 cm (cows); postrutting weight 220-400 kg (bulls) and 150-250 kg (cows). The heaviest animals occur in southern Canadaand northern USA(with records of 470-530 kg lean weight for bulls and 345 kgfor cows), the lightest in Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), the Ussuri region, and California. Adult bulls are on average 30-60% heavier than cows. Large-sized deer with a large, pale rump patch extending into the croup, a short tail, and a six-tined antler plan. The color patterns of the coat and especially of the rump patch vary by subspecies. In the primitive “Alashan Wapiti” (alashanicus) the rump patch is white below and yellow-brown above, dorsally bisected by a dark stripe and laterally bordered by a dark rim that fades out in the upper portion; the tail is white and dark. In the other primitive subspecies, the “Izubra Wapiti” (xanthopygus) the rump patch is orange or reddish, laterally bordered on the lower half by a dark rim; the tail is orange. In the Siberian and North American advanced subspecies the large rump patch is pale yellowish, with a short tail of the same color. In advanced Wapiti both males and females develop a neck mane, with extentions onto the nape and the withers; the head, neck, and legs are dark and the back and flanks are paler in color. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 7-28 months of age. The antlers of stags are six-tined and are typically long, bending backward at the fourth tine (“dagger”). The terminal part of the beam branches serially. The third tine (trez) is relatively short, the fourth is long. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings may be “spikers” or may have forked or more complex antlers. At about ten years antlers attain their full size. They are on average 85-130 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6-12 kg, but there are records of 164 cmfor antler beam length and of 19-24 kg for trophy mass. Relative antler mass is lower than in Western Red Deer (C. elaphus). Wapiti rarely grow extra tines. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting in February— March. Hooves are 11-13 cm long in adult bulls and 10-12 cm in cows.Habitat.Alashan and Izubra Wapitilive in forests; Siberian and North American Wapiti are adapted to open grasslands, prairies, and steppes. High flexibility and lack of competition have allowed North American Wapiti to colonize moist cold forests, dry conifer forests, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests, and chaparral scrub. Snow deeper than 70-75 cm is a limiting factor. Wapiti occur up to 1900 mabove sea level in the Altai, 3300 min the Alatau, and 3100 min the Rocky Mountains.Food and Feeding.It is mainly a grazer, feeding on grasses, sedges, and forbs and supplementing the diet with twigs and leaves in winter. Alashan and Izubra Wapiti tend to eat higher proportions of browse.Breeding.Puberty may be attained by females at 16-28 months of age, depending on the physical condition. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at 16 months of age but usually begin to have a chance to breed when they are five years old. Rut occurs in September—October. Cows are seasonally polyestrous, with cycles of 21 days. Adult bulls move to the traditional rutting grounds and compete to defend a harem. Siberian and American bulls emit bugles, high-pitched rutting calls. Izubra bulls have a modified bugle with lower frequencies. Bulls spray urine on their chests, wallow, dig ground, and horn vegetation. The courtship posture is peculiar, with the head raised high and antlers tilted upwards. During the rut bulls lose up to 20% oftheir pre-rut body weight. The mean length of gestation is 247 days. Calving season peaks in May-June. Cows give birth to a single calf weighing 11-17 kg. Forthe first ten days calves are hidden and suckled 4-6 times a day. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months of age. Breeding life span in bulls is restricted to 3-5 years; cows may reproduce up to 12-16 years. Bulls do not reach their full body weight before 7-9 years of age, but cows attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 17-18 years. The main predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and (in North America) Pumas (Puma concolor) may prey on adults. Lynxes (Lynx spp.), Wolverines (Gulo gulo) and (in North America) Black Bears (U. americanus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) may kill calves.Activity patterns.Active all the day with peaks at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a cursorial long-legged deer, able to run at high speed in open ground. Bulls are more mobile than cows and have larger home ranges. In the mountains, some or all of the population may be migratory. Animals move 50-65 km on average from higher summer ranges to lower winter ranges. These seasonal migrations can be longer, up to 140 kmin the Altaiand Sayan Mountains and up to 130-180 km in the Rocky Mountains. Wapiti are social, with matrilinear family groups and small bands of bachelor bulls. In open ground, many groups form large aggregations, up to 400-500 animals in summer, up to 800-1500 in winter.Status and Conservation.Until recently often considered a subspecies of the Red Deer and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red List, but could be classified as not currently at risk and globally increasing. In North America from the second half of the 18\" century to the late 19\" century it was actively persecuted and disappeared from vast regions. In the early 1900sit reached the minimum population size, around 90,000 individuals. Active protection by means of national parks and refuges and law enforcement, and massive translocation programs, contributed to a recovery and range expansion. In the late 1980s the total population size was estimated at 800,000 animals; it grew to about one million in the late 1990s. Annual harvest in North America is around 200,000 individuals. Californian Wapiti, known as “Tule Elk,” had dropped to 2-5 individuals in 1875;strict protection and transplants contributed to the recovery of the population, which in 1971 numbered 500 animals in three herds and in 2010 numbered 3900 in22 herds. In the late 1990s there were 8000-10,000 deer in Mongoliaand around 160,000 inSiberia and Ussuriland. The status of Alashan Wapiti of northern Chinais unknown.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Benderet al. (2003), Bender& Haufler (1999), Boyce (1989), Boyce & Hayden-Wing (1979), Crete & Daigle (1999), Danilkin (1999), Flook (1970), Geist (1998), Gill (1990), Haigh (2001), McCullough (1969), Peek (2003), Struhsaker (1967), Thomas & Toweill (1982), Wolfe (1982).","taxonomy":"Cervus canadensis Erxleben, 1777, E Canada.Here four subspecies are recognized. Two subspecies (the Siberian and the American ones) are more advanced, more associated to open habitats, with longer antlers and more contrasted coat markings. Wapiti likely originated in Beringia (NE Siberia-Alaska) during the last glaciation and about 12,000 years ago migrated westward into south Siberia and eastward into North America.","commonNames":"Cerf wapiti @fr | Wapiti @de | Uapiti @es | Elk (in North America); Alashan Wapiti (alashanicus) @en | lzubra @en | Manchurian Wapiti (xanthopygus) @en | Merriam'’s Wapiti (merriami) @en | Tule Elk (in California) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Erxleben","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Cervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"423","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"canadensis","name":"Cervus canadensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.c.canadensisErxleben,1777—NorthAmerica.C.c.alashanicusBobrinskii&Flerov,1935—NChina(HelanShanMts,Ningxia&NeiMongol).C.c.sibiricusSevertzov,1873—fromTienShantoAltaiandWBaikal(KirgyzstanandNXinjiangtoSSiberiaandNMongolia).C. c. xanthopygus Milne-Edwards, 1867— SW Siberia, Ussuriland, and Manchuria.","bibliography":"Baskin & Danell (2003) | Benderet al. (2003) | Bender& Haufler (1999) | Boyce (1989) | Boyce & Hayden-Wing (1979) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Danilkin (1999) | Flook (1970) | Geist (1998) | Gill (1990) | Haigh (2001) | McCullough (1969) | Peek (2003) | Struhsaker (1967) | Thomas & Toweill (1982) | Wolfe (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"It is mainly a grazer, feeding on grasses, sedges, and forbs and supplementing the diet with twigs and leaves in winter. Alashan and Izubra Wapiti tend to eat higher proportions of browse.","breeding":"Puberty may be attained by females at 16-28 months of age, depending on the physical condition. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at 16 months of age but usually begin to have a chance to breed when they are five years old. Rut occurs in September—October. Cows are seasonally polyestrous, with cycles of 21 days. Adult bulls move to the traditional rutting grounds and compete to defend a harem. Siberian and American bulls emit bugles, high-pitched rutting calls. Izubra bulls have a modified bugle with lower frequencies. Bulls spray urine on their chests, wallow, dig ground, and horn vegetation. The courtship posture is peculiar, with the head raised high and antlers tilted upwards. During the rut bulls lose up to 20% oftheir pre-rut body weight. The mean length of gestation is 247 days. Calving season peaks in May-June. Cows give birth to a single calf weighing 11-17 kg. Forthe first ten days calves are hidden and suckled 4-6 times a day. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months of age. Breeding life span in bulls is restricted to 3-5 years; cows may reproduce up to 12-16 years. Bulls do not reach their full body weight before 7-9 years of age, but cows attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 17-18 years. The main predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and (in North America) Pumas (Puma concolor) may prey on adults. Lynxes (Lynx spp.), Wolverines (Gulo gulo) and (in North America) Black Bears (U. americanus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) may kill calves.","activityPatterns":"Active all the day with peaks at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a cursorial long-legged deer, able to run at high speed in open ground. Bulls are more mobile than cows and have larger home ranges. In the mountains, some or all of the population may be migratory. Animals move 50-65 km on average from higher summer ranges to lower winter ranges. These seasonal migrations can be longer, up to 140 kmin the Altaiand Sayan Mountains and up to 130-180 km in the Rocky Mountains. Wapiti are social, with matrilinear family groups and small bands of bachelor bulls. In open ground, many groups form large aggregations, up to 400-500 animals in summer, up to 800-1500 in winter.","statusAndConservation":"Until recently often considered a subspecies of the Red Deer and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red List, but could be classified as not currently at risk and globally increasing. In North America from the second half of the 18\" century to the late 19\" century it was actively persecuted and disappeared from vast regions. In the early 1900sit reached the minimum population size, around 90,000 individuals. Active protection by means of national parks and refuges and law enforcement, and massive translocation programs, contributed to a recovery and range expansion. In the late 1980s the total population size was estimated at 800,000 animals; it grew to about one million in the late 1990s. Annual harvest in North America is around 200,000 individuals. Californian Wapiti, known as “Tule Elk,” had dropped to 2-5 individuals in 1875;strict protection and transplants contributed to the recovery of the population, which in 1971 numbered 500 animals in three herds and in 2010 numbered 3900 in22 herds. In the late 1990s there were 8000-10,000 deer in Mongoliaand around 160,000 inSiberia and Ussuriland. The status of Alashan Wapiti of northern Chinais unknown.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-240 cm for males (bulls) and 190-230 cm for females (cows), tail 10-16 cm, shoulder height 145-165 cm (bulls) and 130-150 cm (cows); postrutting weight 220-400 kg (bulls) and 150-250 kg (cows). The heaviest animals occur in southern Canadaand northern USA(with records of 470-530 kg lean weight for bulls and 345 kgfor cows), the lightest in Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), the Ussuri region, and California. Adult bulls are on average 30-60% heavier than cows. Large-sized deer with a large, pale rump patch extending into the croup, a short tail, and a six-tined antler plan. The color patterns of the coat and especially of the rump patch vary by subspecies. In the primitive “Alashan Wapiti” (alashanicus) the rump patch is white below and yellow-brown above, dorsally bisected by a dark stripe and laterally bordered by a dark rim that fades out in the upper portion; the tail is white and dark. In the other primitive subspecies, the “Izubra Wapiti” (xanthopygus) the rump patch is orange or reddish, laterally bordered on the lower half by a dark rim; the tail is orange. In the Siberian and North American advanced subspecies the large rump patch is pale yellowish, with a short tail of the same color. In advanced Wapiti both males and females develop a neck mane, with extentions onto the nape and the withers; the head, neck, and legs are dark and the back and flanks are paler in color. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 7-28 months of age. The antlers of stags are six-tined and are typically long, bending backward at the fourth tine (“dagger”). The terminal part of the beam branches serially. The third tine (trez) is relatively short, the fourth is long. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings may be “spikers” or may have forked or more complex antlers. At about ten years antlers attain their full size. They are on average 85-130 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6-12 kg, but there are records of 164 cmfor antler beam length and of 19-24 kg for trophy mass. Relative antler mass is lower than in Western Red Deer (C. elaphus). Wapiti rarely grow extra tines. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting in February— March. Hooves are 11-13 cm long in adult bulls and 10-12 cm in cows.","habitat":"Alashan and Izubra Wapitilive in forests; Siberian and North American Wapiti are adapted to open grasslands, prairies, and steppes. High flexibility and lack of competition have allowed North American Wapiti to colonize moist cold forests, dry conifer forests, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests, and chaparral scrub. Snow deeper than 70-75 cm is a limiting factor. Wapiti occur up to 1900 mabove sea level in the Altai, 3300 min the Alatau, and 3100 min the Rocky Mountains."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"426","verbatimText":"31.Chinese Water DeerHydropotes inermisFrench:Hydropote/ German:Chinesisches Wasserreh/ Spanish:CiervoacuaticoTaxonomy.Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870, Yangtze River (China).Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.i.inermisSwinhoe,1870—EChina.H. i. argyropus Heude, 1884— Korean Peninsula.Introduced into England.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-100 cm, tail 6-7 cm, shoulder height 50-55 cm; weight of adult males 11-15 kg and adult females 12-15. 5 kg. Females are on average 10-15% heavier than males. Small-sized deer with relatively long legs, short tail, and large erect ears. Males are antlerless but provided with long curved upper canines. The canines of females are five times smaller and not visible in the field. The summer coat is reddish-brown, the winter coat is paler and thick. The chin is pale, the nose is black and surrounded by an area of white. Molts in May and October. Fawns have pale spots, lost after two months. Preorbital, interdigital, and inguinal glands are present. Permanent molars erupt at 1-14 months.Habitat.In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.Food and Feeding.Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.Breeding.Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.Activity patterns.Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin. Habitat destruction and poaching are the main threats. It has been kept in Woburn Park, England, since 1896; the first animals in the wild were sighted in 1945. In 2004 there were about 1500 free-living Chinese Water Deer in England.Bibliography.Cooke & Farrell (2008), Dubost et al. (2008, 2011a, 201 1b), Sun & Dai (1995), Sun & Xiao (1995), Zhang (2000).","taxonomy":"Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870, Yangtze River (China).Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hydropote @fr | Chinesisches Wasserreh @de | Ciervoacuatico @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Swinhoe","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1870","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Hydropotes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"426","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"inermis","name":"Hydropotes inermis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.i.inermisSwinhoe,1870—EChina.H. i. argyropus Heude, 1884— Korean Peninsula.Introduced into England.","bibliography":"Cooke & Farrell (2008) | Dubost et al. (2008, 2011a, 201 1b) | Sun & Dai (1995) | Sun & Xiao (1995) | Zhang (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.","breeding":"Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin. Habitat destruction and poaching are the main threats. It has been kept in Woburn Park, England, since 1896; the first animals in the wild were sighted in 1945. In 2004 there were about 1500 free-living Chinese Water Deer in England.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 90-100 cm, tail 6-7 cm, shoulder height 50-55 cm; weight of adult males 11-15 kg and adult females 12-15. 5 kg. Females are on average 10-15% heavier than males. Small-sized deer with relatively long legs, short tail, and large erect ears. Males are antlerless but provided with long curved upper canines. The canines of females are five times smaller and not visible in the field. The summer coat is reddish-brown, the winter coat is paler and thick. The chin is pale, the nose is black and surrounded by an area of white. Molts in May and October. Fawns have pale spots, lost after two months. Preorbital, interdigital, and inguinal glands are present. Permanent molars erupt at 1-14 months.Habitat.In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.Food and Feeding.Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.Breeding.Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.Activity patterns.Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin.","habitat":"In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"426","verbatimText":"30.Barasingha.Rucervus duvauceliiFrench:Cerf de Duvaucel/ German:Barasingha/ Spanish:Ciervo de DuvaucelOther common names:Swamp Deer; Eastern Barasingha (ranjitsinhi), Hard-ground Barasingha (branderi), Wetland Barasingha (duvaucelii)Taxonomy.Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823, N India.It is closely related to the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). Its scientific name refers to the French naturalist A. Duvaucel, who explored India. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R. d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823— N India, S Nepal.R. d. branderi Pocock, 1943— C India.R. d. ranpitsinhi Groves, 1982— NE India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-190 cm, tail 14-19 cm, shoulder height 120-135 cm for males (stags) and 115 cmfor females (hinds); weight of adult stags 170-200 kg (up to 270 kg) and adult hinds 140-145 kg. Stags are about 30% heavier than hinds. Largesized deer with a relatively short tail, large and rounded ears. The coat is basically golden brown to reddish-brown in summer, with a dark brown dorsal stripe and whitish underparts. In winter the coatis grayish-brown. Males have a poorly developed neck mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Antlers are dichotomously branched in the upper third of the beam, and each branch is also dichotomously branched. Most adults have five to name “barasingha\" means twelve-pointed in six times per beam; the common llong: up lo 104 cm. Pedicles begin to grow Hindi. Adult antlers UC generally * 60-80 cmare z antlers spikes. Antler cyles are iocally synchrtr at about:seven months. The first g “am ¡n April, in ranjitsinhi in October. nilnıl in subspecies dui-imizlu antler casti and in in May-June. or sandy grasslands; also in open forestsHabitat. Barasinghas occur mainly in marschy glades. Nonhem subspecies inhabit flooded with an abundant grass layer and gmss lives in dry grassland bordering tall gmsslandfi The open central Indian subspecies sal forest. on grasses and aquatic plants' Food and Feeding, Pnmarily a feeding grazer. of Females age. They are apparently monoestrous.Breeding' reach suberty at mo vears ' Maung î occurs ın October-January in Males begin ze to rfpwduce - rrom tour years of subspecies ranjitsinhi, I rn December-Febnrary rn branderi2. duvaucelii, in April August in Males move m mdiuoml] nmmg 'where bugling_ and wallowing_ are common. ground; After f abo 1 250 ds' give birth to a single fawn weighing around a pmgnancy „ da“ hi\" 7 kg. CÁI-; remain hidden for 10-Weaning occurs at six months ofage. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 of age. _ Tigers (Panthera _ tigris) are the main_ preda- years tom of adults. Goldenjarkals (Canis aumuzfomcümes kl\" calves and Yearllngs-Movements, Home range and Social organization.a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20\" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004. Habitat degradation, competition with livestock, and poaching are major current threats outside well-secured protected areas.Bibliography.Groves (1982), Martin (1977), Moe (1994), Qureshi et al. (2004), Schaller (1967), Wegge et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823, N India.It is closely related to the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). Its scientific name refers to the French naturalist A. Duvaucel, who explored India. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf de Duvaucel @fr | Barasingha @de | Ciervo de Duvaucel @es | Swamp Deer; Eastern Barasingha (ranjitsinhi) @en | Hard-ground Barasingha (branderi) @en | Wetland Barasingha (duvaucelii) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rucervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"426","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"duvaucelii","name":"Rucervus duvaucelii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R. d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823— N India, S Nepal.R. d. branderi Pocock, 1943— C India.R. d. ranpitsinhi Groves, 1982— NE India.","bibliography":"Groves (1982) | Martin (1977) | Moe (1994) | Qureshi et al. (2004) | Schaller (1967) | Wegge et al. (2006)","activityPatterns":"Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20\" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004. Habitat degradation, competition with livestock, and poaching are major current threats outside well-secured protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-190 cm, tail 14-19 cm, shoulder height 120-135 cm for males (stags) and 115 cmfor females (hinds); weight of adult stags 170-200 kg (up to 270 kg) and adult hinds 140-145 kg. Stags are about 30% heavier than hinds. Largesized deer with a relatively short tail, large and rounded ears. The coat is basically golden brown to reddish-brown in summer, with a dark brown dorsal stripe and whitish underparts. In winter the coatis grayish-brown. Males have a poorly developed neck mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Antlers are dichotomously branched in the upper third of the beam, and each branch is also dichotomously branched. Most adults have five to name “barasingha\" means twelve-pointed in six times per beam; the common llong: up lo 104 cm. Pedicles begin to grow Hindi. Adult antlers UC generally * 60-80 cmare z antlers spikes. Antler cyles are iocally synchrtr at about:seven months. The first g “am ¡n April, in ranjitsinhi in October. nilnıl in subspecies dui-imizlu antler casti and in in May-June. or sandy grasslands; also in open forestsHabitat. Barasinghas occur mainly in marschy glades. Nonhem subspecies inhabit flooded with an abundant grass layer and gmss lives in dry grassland bordering tall gmsslandfi The open central Indian subspecies sal forest. on grasses and aquatic plants' Food and Feeding, Pnmarily a feeding grazer. of Females age. They are apparently monoestrous.Breeding' reach suberty at mo vears ' Maung î occurs ın October-January in Males begin ze to rfpwduce - rrom tour years of subspecies ranjitsinhi, I rn December-Febnrary rn branderi2. duvaucelii, in April August in Males move m mdiuoml] nmmg 'where bugling_ and wallowing_ are common. ground; After f abo 1 250 ds' give birth to a single fawn weighing around a pmgnancy „ da“ hi\" 7 kg. CÁI-; remain hidden for 10-Weaning occurs at six months ofage. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 of age. _ Tigers (Panthera _ tigris) are the main_ preda- years tom of adults. Goldenjarkals (Canis aumuzfomcümes kl\" calves and Yearllngs-Movements, Home range and Social organization.a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20\" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"425","verbatimText":"28.Pere David's DeerElaphurus davidianusFrench ert du Père David Gaiman Davidshiisch Spenleh Ciervode Padre DavidTaxonomy.Elaphurus davidíanus Milne Edwards, 1866, Imperial Hunting Park near Peking.The genus appeared in the Late Pliocene of Chinaand japan. Some genetic studie have related to Ruœruus aldi. lts scientific and common names refer to Père A. David. French Lazarite missionary and naturalist. who was able to collect the first skins in 1865. Monotypic.Distribution.Reintroduced into E Chinasince 1985; main inirocduced populations marked on the map.Descriptive notes.Head-hody 195-210 cm for males (adult stags) and 180-190 cm for females (hinds), tail length 35 cm, shoulder height 120-140 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of 169-220 kg (stags) and 140-170 kg (hinds). Males are on average 40% heavier than females. A large-sized deer, with short neck, elongated and narrow head, large eyes, long legs, and long tail with a terminal tuft. The lachrymal pits are large. The permanent dentition is 34 teeth and the incisors are specialized for grazing. In summer, the coat is reddish-brown with a black dorsal stripe; the winter pelage is grayish-brown with the underside bright cream. Stags have a throat mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Only the preorbital gland is present. Males have very peculiar antlers, consisting of a very short basal beam and two shafts, an almost vertical branched foreshaft and a simpler, backward-pointing hindshaft with thorn-like snags Antler casting occurs in November—January, velvet shedding in April-May. Hooves are large and splayed.Habitat.Plains, grasslands, and reed marshes.Food and Feeding.It primarily feeds on grasses, reeds, and leaves.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 14-26 months of age. They are seasonally nolyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-20 days. Stags begin to compete for reproduction at four years of age. Mating season occurs in june-August. Stags join the female groups and compete to defend a harem. They roar, adorn their antlers with soil and vegetation, spray urine, and wallow. At high density they may adopt a lekking behavior. A stag following an estrous hind makes slow, rhythmic left-right antler movements (“swaggering”). After a gestation of 283-287 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 11-12 kg in March-April. The calf can stand after 40 minutes and nurses after one hour; it remains hidden for around five days. The white spots on its coat fade after two months. Weaning occurs at 6-10 months of age. Normally Pere David's Deer live to a maximum of 18 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years.Activity patterns.It is diurnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very agile on moist ground and spends a lot of time in water. It can swim well. It is a social species, forming male and female groups. Mixed-sex groups are present only during the mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. It became extinct a long time ago, perhaps 1800 years ago, and was preserved by the Chinese Emperor in his Imperial Hunting Park not far from Beijing. After the extermination of the last animals in the Hunting Park in 1900, the species was saved by a captive breeding program begun in Englandby the Duke of Bedford. In 1985-2002 the reintroduction into Chinatook place. Currently, there are in China53 herds, with a total of more than 2000 individuals. Four localities have the most numerous herds: Milu Park in Beijing, Dafeng Reserve, Tian’ezhou Wetland Reserve, and Yuanyang.Bibliography.Beck & Wemmer (1983), Geist (1998), Jiang Zigang et al. (2000), Schaller & Hamer (1978), Wemmeret al. (1989), Zeng Yan et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Elaphurus davidíanus Milne Edwards, 1866, Imperial Hunting Park near Peking.The genus appeared in the Late Pliocene of Chinaand japan. Some genetic studie have related to Ruœruus aldi. lts scientific and common names refer to Père A. David. French Lazarite missionary and naturalist. who was able to collect the first skins in 1865. Monotypic.","interpretedAuthorityName":"Milne Edwards","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1866","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Elaphurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"425","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"davidianus","name":"Elaphurus davidianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Reintroduced into E Chinasince 1985; main inirocduced populations marked on the map.","bibliography":"Beck & Wemmer (1983) | Geist (1998) | Jiang Zigang et al. (2000) | Schaller & Hamer (1978) | Wemmeret al. (1989) | Zeng Yan et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"It primarily feeds on grasses, reeds, and leaves.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at 14-26 months of age. They are seasonally nolyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-20 days. Stags begin to compete for reproduction at four years of age. Mating season occurs in june-August. Stags join the female groups and compete to defend a harem. They roar, adorn their antlers with soil and vegetation, spray urine, and wallow. At high density they may adopt a lekking behavior. A stag following an estrous hind makes slow, rhythmic left-right antler movements (“swaggering”). After a gestation of 283-287 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 11-12 kg in March-April. The calf can stand after 40 minutes and nurses after one hour; it remains hidden for around five days. The white spots on its coat fade after two months. Weaning occurs at 6-10 months of age. Normally Pere David's Deer live to a maximum of 18 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years.","activityPatterns":"It is diurnal and crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is very agile on moist ground and spends a lot of time in water. It can swim well. It is a social species, forming male and female groups. Mixed-sex groups are present only during the mating season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. It became extinct a long time ago, perhaps 1800 years ago, and was preserved by the Chinese Emperor in his Imperial Hunting Park not far from Beijing. After the extermination of the last animals in the Hunting Park in 1900, the species was saved by a captive breeding program begun in Englandby the Duke of Bedford. In 1985-2002 the reintroduction into Chinatook place. Currently, there are in China53 herds, with a total of more than 2000 individuals. Four localities have the most numerous herds: Milu Park in Beijing, Dafeng Reserve, Tian’ezhou Wetland Reserve, and Yuanyang.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-hody 195-210 cm for males (adult stags) and 180-190 cm for females (hinds), tail length 35 cm, shoulder height 120-140 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of 169-220 kg (stags) and 140-170 kg (hinds). Males are on average 40% heavier than females. A large-sized deer, with short neck, elongated and narrow head, large eyes, long legs, and long tail with a terminal tuft. The lachrymal pits are large. The permanent dentition is 34 teeth and the incisors are specialized for grazing. In summer, the coat is reddish-brown with a black dorsal stripe; the winter pelage is grayish-brown with the underside bright cream. Stags have a throat mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Only the preorbital gland is present. Males have very peculiar antlers, consisting of a very short basal beam and two shafts, an almost vertical branched foreshaft and a simpler, backward-pointing hindshaft with thorn-like snags Antler casting occurs in November—January, velvet shedding in April-May. Hooves are large and splayed.","habitat":"Plains, grasslands, and reed marshes."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"423","verbatimText":"26.WapitiCervus canadensisFrench:Cerf wapiti/ German:Wapiti/ Spanish:UapitiOther common names:Elk (in North America); Alashan Wapiti (alashanicus), lzubra/Manchurian Wapiti (xanthopygus), Merriam'’s Wapiti (merriami), Tule Elk (in California)Taxonomy.Cervus canadensis Erxleben, 1777, E Canada.Here four subspecies are recognized. Two subspecies (the Siberian and the American ones) are more advanced, more associated to open habitats, with longer antlers and more contrasted coat markings. Wapiti likely originated in Beringia (NE Siberia-Alaska) during the last glaciation and about 12,000 years ago migrated westward into south Siberia and eastward into North America.Subspecies and Distribution.C.c.canadensisErxleben,1777—NorthAmerica.C.c.alashanicusBobrinskii&Flerov,1935—NChina(HelanShanMts,Ningxia&NeiMongol).C.c.sibiricusSevertzov,1873—fromTienShantoAltaiandWBaikal(KirgyzstanandNXinjiangtoSSiberiaandNMongolia).C. c. xanthopygus Milne-Edwards, 1867— SW Siberia, Ussuriland, and Manchuria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-240 cm for males (bulls) and 190-230 cm for females (cows), tail 10-16 cm, shoulder height 145-165 cm (bulls) and 130-150 cm (cows); postrutting weight 220-400 kg (bulls) and 150-250 kg (cows). The heaviest animals occur in southern Canadaand northern USA(with records of 470-530 kg lean weight for bulls and 345 kgfor cows), the lightest in Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), the Ussuri region, and California. Adult bulls are on average 30-60% heavier than cows. Large-sized deer with a large, pale rump patch extending into the croup, a short tail, and a six-tined antler plan. The color patterns of the coat and especially of the rump patch vary by subspecies. In the primitive “Alashan Wapiti” (alashanicus) the rump patch is white below and yellow-brown above, dorsally bisected by a dark stripe and laterally bordered by a dark rim that fades out in the upper portion; the tail is white and dark. In the other primitive subspecies, the “Izubra Wapiti” (xanthopygus) the rump patch is orange or reddish, laterally bordered on the lower half by a dark rim; the tail is orange. In the Siberian and North American advanced subspecies the large rump patch is pale yellowish, with a short tail of the same color. In advanced Wapiti both males and females develop a neck mane, with extentions onto the nape and the withers; the head, neck, and legs are dark and the back and flanks are paler in color. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 7-28 months of age. The antlers of stags are six-tined and are typically long, bending backward at the fourth tine (“dagger”). The terminal part of the beam branches serially. The third tine (trez) is relatively short, the fourth is long. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings may be “spikers” or may have forked or more complex antlers. At about ten years antlers attain their full size. They are on average 85-130 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6-12 kg, but there are records of 164 cmfor antler beam length and of 19-24 kg for trophy mass. Relative antler mass is lower than in Western Red Deer (C. elaphus). Wapiti rarely grow extra tines. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting in February— March. Hooves are 11-13 cm long in adult bulls and 10-12 cm in cows.Habitat.Alashan and Izubra Wapitilive in forests; Siberian and North American Wapiti are adapted to open grasslands, prairies, and steppes. High flexibility and lack of competition have allowed North American Wapiti to colonize moist cold forests, dry conifer forests, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests, and chaparral scrub. Snow deeper than 70-75 cm is a limiting factor. Wapiti occur up to 1900 mabove sea level in the Altai, 3300 min the Alatau, and 3100 min the Rocky Mountains.Food and Feeding.It is mainly a grazer, feeding on grasses, sedges, and forbs and supplementing the diet with twigs and leaves in winter. Alashan and Izubra Wapiti tend to eat higher proportions of browse.Breeding.Puberty may be attained by females at 16-28 months of age, depending on the physical condition. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at 16 months of age but usually begin to have a chance to breed when they are five years old. Rut occurs in September—October. Cows are seasonally polyestrous, with cycles of 21 days. Adult bulls move to the traditional rutting grounds and compete to defend a harem. Siberian and American bulls emit bugles, high-pitched rutting calls. Izubra bulls have a modified bugle with lower frequencies. Bulls spray urine on their chests, wallow, dig ground, and horn vegetation. The courtship posture is peculiar, with the head raised high and antlers tilted upwards. During the rut bulls lose up to 20% oftheir pre-rut body weight. The mean length of gestation is 247 days. Calving season peaks in May-June. Cows give birth to a single calf weighing 11-17 kg. Forthe first ten days calves are hidden and suckled 4-6 times a day. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months of age. Breeding life span in bulls is restricted to 3-5 years; cows may reproduce up to 12-16 years. Bulls do not reach their full body weight before 7-9 years of age, but cows attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 17-18 years. The main predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and (in North America) Pumas (Puma concolor) may prey on adults. Lynxes (Lynx spp.), Wolverines (Gulo gulo) and (in North America) Black Bears (U. americanus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) may kill calves.Activity patterns.Active all the day with peaks at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a cursorial long-legged deer, able to run at high speed in open ground. Bulls are more mobile than cows and have larger home ranges. In the mountains, some or all of the population may be migratory. Animals move 50-65 km on average from higher summer ranges to lower winter ranges. These seasonal migrations can be longer, up to 140 kmin the Altaiand Sayan Mountains and up to 130-180 km in the Rocky Mountains. Wapiti are social, with matrilinear family groups and small bands of bachelor bulls. In open ground, many groups form large aggregations, up to 400-500 animals in summer, up to 800-1500 in winter.Status and Conservation.Until recently often considered a subspecies of the Red Deer and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red List, but could be classified as not currently at risk and globally increasing. In North America from the second half of the 18\" century to the late 19\" century it was actively persecuted and disappeared from vast regions. In the early 1900sit reached the minimum population size, around 90,000 individuals. Active protection by means of national parks and refuges and law enforcement, and massive translocation programs, contributed to a recovery and range expansion. In the late 1980s the total population size was estimated at 800,000 animals; it grew to about one million in the late 1990s. Annual harvest in North America is around 200,000 individuals. Californian Wapiti, known as “Tule Elk,” had dropped to 2-5 individuals in 1875;strict protection and transplants contributed to the recovery of the population, which in 1971 numbered 500 animals in three herds and in 2010 numbered 3900 in22 herds. In the late 1990s there were 8000-10,000 deer in Mongoliaand around 160,000 inSiberia and Ussuriland. The status of Alashan Wapiti of northern Chinais unknown.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Benderet al. (2003), Bender& Haufler (1999), Boyce (1989), Boyce & Hayden-Wing (1979), Crete & Daigle (1999), Danilkin (1999), Flook (1970), Geist (1998), Gill (1990), Haigh (2001), McCullough (1969), Peek (2003), Struhsaker (1967), Thomas & Toweill (1982), Wolfe (1982).","taxonomy":"Cervus canadensis Erxleben, 1777, E Canada.Here four subspecies are recognized. Two subspecies (the Siberian and the American ones) are more advanced, more associated to open habitats, with longer antlers and more contrasted coat markings. Wapiti likely originated in Beringia (NE Siberia-Alaska) during the last glaciation and about 12,000 years ago migrated westward into south Siberia and eastward into North America.","commonNames":"Cerf wapiti @fr | Wapiti @de | Uapiti @es | Elk (in North America); Alashan Wapiti (alashanicus) @en | lzubra @en | Manchurian Wapiti (xanthopygus) @en | Merriam'’s Wapiti (merriami) @en | Tule Elk (in California) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Erxleben","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Cervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"423","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"canadensis","name":"Cervus canadensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.c.canadensisErxleben,1777—NorthAmerica.C.c.alashanicusBobrinskii&Flerov,1935—NChina(HelanShanMts,Ningxia&NeiMongol).C.c.sibiricusSevertzov,1873—fromTienShantoAltaiandWBaikal(KirgyzstanandNXinjiangtoSSiberiaandNMongolia).C. c. xanthopygus Milne-Edwards, 1867— SW Siberia, Ussuriland, and Manchuria.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514462/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baskin & Danell (2003) | Benderet al. (2003) | Bender& Haufler (1999) | Boyce (1989) | Boyce & Hayden-Wing (1979) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Danilkin (1999) | Flook (1970) | Geist (1998) | Gill (1990) | Haigh (2001) | McCullough (1969) | Peek (2003) | Struhsaker (1967) | Thomas & Toweill (1982) | Wolfe (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"It is mainly a grazer, feeding on grasses, sedges, and forbs and supplementing the diet with twigs and leaves in winter. Alashan and Izubra Wapiti tend to eat higher proportions of browse.","breeding":"Puberty may be attained by females at 16-28 months of age, depending on the physical condition. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at 16 months of age but usually begin to have a chance to breed when they are five years old. Rut occurs in September—October. Cows are seasonally polyestrous, with cycles of 21 days. Adult bulls move to the traditional rutting grounds and compete to defend a harem. Siberian and American bulls emit bugles, high-pitched rutting calls. Izubra bulls have a modified bugle with lower frequencies. Bulls spray urine on their chests, wallow, dig ground, and horn vegetation. The courtship posture is peculiar, with the head raised high and antlers tilted upwards. During the rut bulls lose up to 20% oftheir pre-rut body weight. The mean length of gestation is 247 days. Calving season peaks in May-June. Cows give birth to a single calf weighing 11-17 kg. Forthe first ten days calves are hidden and suckled 4-6 times a day. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months of age. Breeding life span in bulls is restricted to 3-5 years; cows may reproduce up to 12-16 years. Bulls do not reach their full body weight before 7-9 years of age, but cows attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 17-18 years. The main predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and (in North America) Pumas (Puma concolor) may prey on adults. Lynxes (Lynx spp.), Wolverines (Gulo gulo) and (in North America) Black Bears (U. americanus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) may kill calves.","activityPatterns":"Active all the day with peaks at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a cursorial long-legged deer, able to run at high speed in open ground. Bulls are more mobile than cows and have larger home ranges. In the mountains, some or all of the population may be migratory. Animals move 50-65 km on average from higher summer ranges to lower winter ranges. These seasonal migrations can be longer, up to 140 kmin the Altaiand Sayan Mountains and up to 130-180 km in the Rocky Mountains. Wapiti are social, with matrilinear family groups and small bands of bachelor bulls. In open ground, many groups form large aggregations, up to 400-500 animals in summer, up to 800-1500 in winter.","statusAndConservation":"Until recently often considered a subspecies of the Red Deer and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red List, but could be classified as not currently at risk and globally increasing. In North America from the second half of the 18\" century to the late 19\" century it was actively persecuted and disappeared from vast regions. In the early 1900sit reached the minimum population size, around 90,000 individuals. Active protection by means of national parks and refuges and law enforcement, and massive translocation programs, contributed to a recovery and range expansion. In the late 1980s the total population size was estimated at 800,000 animals; it grew to about one million in the late 1990s. Annual harvest in North America is around 200,000 individuals. Californian Wapiti, known as “Tule Elk,” had dropped to 2-5 individuals in 1875;strict protection and transplants contributed to the recovery of the population, which in 1971 numbered 500 animals in three herds and in 2010 numbered 3900 in22 herds. In the late 1990s there were 8000-10,000 deer in Mongoliaand around 160,000 inSiberia and Ussuriland. The status of Alashan Wapiti of northern Chinais unknown.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-240 cm for males (bulls) and 190-230 cm for females (cows), tail 10-16 cm, shoulder height 145-165 cm (bulls) and 130-150 cm (cows); postrutting weight 220-400 kg (bulls) and 150-250 kg (cows). The heaviest animals occur in southern Canadaand northern USA(with records of 470-530 kg lean weight for bulls and 345 kgfor cows), the lightest in Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), the Ussuri region, and California. Adult bulls are on average 30-60% heavier than cows. Large-sized deer with a large, pale rump patch extending into the croup, a short tail, and a six-tined antler plan. The color patterns of the coat and especially of the rump patch vary by subspecies. In the primitive “Alashan Wapiti” (alashanicus) the rump patch is white below and yellow-brown above, dorsally bisected by a dark stripe and laterally bordered by a dark rim that fades out in the upper portion; the tail is white and dark. In the other primitive subspecies, the “Izubra Wapiti” (xanthopygus) the rump patch is orange or reddish, laterally bordered on the lower half by a dark rim; the tail is orange. In the Siberian and North American advanced subspecies the large rump patch is pale yellowish, with a short tail of the same color. In advanced Wapiti both males and females develop a neck mane, with extentions onto the nape and the withers; the head, neck, and legs are dark and the back and flanks are paler in color. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 7-28 months of age. The antlers of stags are six-tined and are typically long, bending backward at the fourth tine (“dagger”). The terminal part of the beam branches serially. The third tine (trez) is relatively short, the fourth is long. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings may be “spikers” or may have forked or more complex antlers. At about ten years antlers attain their full size. They are on average 85-130 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6-12 kg, but there are records of 164 cmfor antler beam length and of 19-24 kg for trophy mass. Relative antler mass is lower than in Western Red Deer (C. elaphus). Wapiti rarely grow extra tines. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting in February— March. Hooves are 11-13 cm long in adult bulls and 10-12 cm in cows.","habitat":"Alashan and Izubra Wapitilive in forests; Siberian and North American Wapiti are adapted to open grasslands, prairies, and steppes. High flexibility and lack of competition have allowed North American Wapiti to colonize moist cold forests, dry conifer forests, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests, and chaparral scrub. Snow deeper than 70-75 cm is a limiting factor. Wapiti occur up to 1900 mabove sea level in the Altai, 3300 min the Alatau, and 3100 min the Rocky Mountains."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"426","verbatimText":"31.Chinese Water DeerHydropotes inermisFrench:Hydropote/ German:Chinesisches Wasserreh/ Spanish:CiervoacuaticoTaxonomy.Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870, Yangtze River (China).Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.i.inermisSwinhoe,1870—EChina.H. i. argyropus Heude, 1884— Korean Peninsula.Introduced into England.Descriptive notes.Head-body 90-100 cm, tail 6-7 cm, shoulder height 50-55 cm; weight of adult males 11-15 kg and adult females 12-15. 5 kg. Females are on average 10-15% heavier than males. Small-sized deer with relatively long legs, short tail, and large erect ears. Males are antlerless but provided with long curved upper canines. The canines of females are five times smaller and not visible in the field. The summer coat is reddish-brown, the winter coat is paler and thick. The chin is pale, the nose is black and surrounded by an area of white. Molts in May and October. Fawns have pale spots, lost after two months. Preorbital, interdigital, and inguinal glands are present. Permanent molars erupt at 1-14 months.Habitat.In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.Food and Feeding.Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.Breeding.Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.Activity patterns.Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin. Habitat destruction and poaching are the main threats. It has been kept in Woburn Park, England, since 1896; the first animals in the wild were sighted in 1945. In 2004 there were about 1500 free-living Chinese Water Deer in England.Bibliography.Cooke & Farrell (2008), Dubost et al. (2008, 2011a, 201 1b), Sun & Dai (1995), Sun & Xiao (1995), Zhang (2000).","taxonomy":"Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870, Yangtze River (China).Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hydropote @fr | Chinesisches Wasserreh @de | Ciervoacuatico @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Swinhoe","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1870","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Hydropotes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"426","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"inermis","name":"Hydropotes inermis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.i.inermisSwinhoe,1870—EChina.H. i. argyropus Heude, 1884— Korean Peninsula.Introduced into England.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514497/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cooke & Farrell (2008) | Dubost et al. (2008, 2011a, 201 1b) | Sun & Dai (1995) | Sun & Xiao (1995) | Zhang (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.","breeding":"Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin. Habitat destruction and poaching are the main threats. It has been kept in Woburn Park, England, since 1896; the first animals in the wild were sighted in 1945. In 2004 there were about 1500 free-living Chinese Water Deer in England.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 90-100 cm, tail 6-7 cm, shoulder height 50-55 cm; weight of adult males 11-15 kg and adult females 12-15. 5 kg. Females are on average 10-15% heavier than males. Small-sized deer with relatively long legs, short tail, and large erect ears. Males are antlerless but provided with long curved upper canines. The canines of females are five times smaller and not visible in the field. The summer coat is reddish-brown, the winter coat is paler and thick. The chin is pale, the nose is black and surrounded by an area of white. Molts in May and October. Fawns have pale spots, lost after two months. Preorbital, interdigital, and inguinal glands are present. Permanent molars erupt at 1-14 months.Habitat.In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.Food and Feeding.Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In Englandit prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.Breeding.Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.Activity patterns.Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Koreaand eastern China(from Jilinin the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxiin the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Koreaand in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin.","habitat":"In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In Englandit prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"426","verbatimText":"30.Barasingha.Rucervus duvauceliiFrench:Cerf de Duvaucel/ German:Barasingha/ Spanish:Ciervo de DuvaucelOther common names:Swamp Deer; Eastern Barasingha (ranjitsinhi), Hard-ground Barasingha (branderi), Wetland Barasingha (duvaucelii)Taxonomy.Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823, N India.It is closely related to the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). Its scientific name refers to the French naturalist A. Duvaucel, who explored India. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R. d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823— N India, S Nepal.R. d. branderi Pocock, 1943— C India.R. d. ranpitsinhi Groves, 1982— NE India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-190 cm, tail 14-19 cm, shoulder height 120-135 cm for males (stags) and 115 cmfor females (hinds); weight of adult stags 170-200 kg (up to 270 kg) and adult hinds 140-145 kg. Stags are about 30% heavier than hinds. Largesized deer with a relatively short tail, large and rounded ears. The coat is basically golden brown to reddish-brown in summer, with a dark brown dorsal stripe and whitish underparts. In winter the coatis grayish-brown. Males have a poorly developed neck mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Antlers are dichotomously branched in the upper third of the beam, and each branch is also dichotomously branched. Most adults have five to name “barasingha\" means twelve-pointed in six times per beam; the common llong: up lo 104 cm. Pedicles begin to grow Hindi. Adult antlers UC generally * 60-80 cmare z antlers spikes. Antler cyles are iocally synchrtr at about:seven months. The first g “am ¡n April, in ranjitsinhi in October. nilnıl in subspecies dui-imizlu antler casti and in in May-June. or sandy grasslands; also in open forestsHabitat. Barasinghas occur mainly in marschy glades. Nonhem subspecies inhabit flooded with an abundant grass layer and gmss lives in dry grassland bordering tall gmsslandfi The open central Indian subspecies sal forest. on grasses and aquatic plants' Food and Feeding, Pnmarily a feeding grazer. of Females age. They are apparently monoestrous.Breeding' reach suberty at mo vears ' Maung î occurs ın October-January in Males begin ze to rfpwduce - rrom tour years of subspecies ranjitsinhi, I rn December-Febnrary rn branderi2. duvaucelii, in April August in Males move m mdiuoml] nmmg 'where bugling_ and wallowing_ are common. ground; After f abo 1 250 ds' give birth to a single fawn weighing around a pmgnancy „ da“ hi\" 7 kg. CÁI-; remain hidden for 10-Weaning occurs at six months ofage. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 of age. _ Tigers (Panthera _ tigris) are the main_ preda- years tom of adults. Goldenjarkals (Canis aumuzfomcümes kl\" calves and Yearllngs-Movements, Home range and Social organization.a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20\" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004. Habitat degradation, competition with livestock, and poaching are major current threats outside well-secured protected areas.Bibliography.Groves (1982), Martin (1977), Moe (1994), Qureshi et al. (2004), Schaller (1967), Wegge et al. (2006).","taxonomy":"Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823, N India.It is closely related to the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). Its scientific name refers to the French naturalist A. Duvaucel, who explored India. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf de Duvaucel @fr | Barasingha @de | Ciervo de Duvaucel @es | Swamp Deer; Eastern Barasingha (ranjitsinhi) @en | Hard-ground Barasingha (branderi) @en | Wetland Barasingha (duvaucelii) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rucervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"426","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"duvaucelii","name":"Rucervus duvaucelii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R. d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823— N India, S Nepal.R. d. branderi Pocock, 1943— C India.R. d. ranpitsinhi Groves, 1982— NE India.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514495/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Groves (1982) | Martin (1977) | Moe (1994) | Qureshi et al. (2004) | Schaller (1967) | Wegge et al. (2006)","activityPatterns":"Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20\" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004. Habitat degradation, competition with livestock, and poaching are major current threats outside well-secured protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-190 cm, tail 14-19 cm, shoulder height 120-135 cm for males (stags) and 115 cmfor females (hinds); weight of adult stags 170-200 kg (up to 270 kg) and adult hinds 140-145 kg. Stags are about 30% heavier than hinds. Largesized deer with a relatively short tail, large and rounded ears. The coat is basically golden brown to reddish-brown in summer, with a dark brown dorsal stripe and whitish underparts. In winter the coatis grayish-brown. Males have a poorly developed neck mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Antlers are dichotomously branched in the upper third of the beam, and each branch is also dichotomously branched. Most adults have five to name “barasingha\" means twelve-pointed in six times per beam; the common llong: up lo 104 cm. Pedicles begin to grow Hindi. Adult antlers UC generally * 60-80 cmare z antlers spikes. Antler cyles are iocally synchrtr at about:seven months. The first g “am ¡n April, in ranjitsinhi in October. nilnıl in subspecies dui-imizlu antler casti and in in May-June. or sandy grasslands; also in open forestsHabitat. Barasinghas occur mainly in marschy glades. Nonhem subspecies inhabit flooded with an abundant grass layer and gmss lives in dry grassland bordering tall gmsslandfi The open central Indian subspecies sal forest. on grasses and aquatic plants' Food and Feeding, Pnmarily a feeding grazer. of Females age. They are apparently monoestrous.Breeding' reach suberty at mo vears ' Maung î occurs ın October-January in Males begin ze to rfpwduce - rrom tour years of subspecies ranjitsinhi, I rn December-Febnrary rn branderi2. duvaucelii, in April August in Males move m mdiuoml] nmmg 'where bugling_ and wallowing_ are common. ground; After f abo 1 250 ds' give birth to a single fawn weighing around a pmgnancy „ da“ hi\" 7 kg. CÁI-; remain hidden for 10-Weaning occurs at six months ofage. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 of age. _ Tigers (Panthera _ tigris) are the main_ preda- years tom of adults. Goldenjarkals (Canis aumuzfomcümes kl\" calves and Yearllngs-Movements, Home range and Social organization.a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.Activity patterns.Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistanto southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20\" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central Indiaand south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvauceliiis the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assamthe population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in1984, then declined to 400-500 in2004. In central Indiathe subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in2004."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"425","verbatimText":"28.Pere David's DeerElaphurus davidianusFrench ert du Père David Gaiman Davidshiisch Spenleh Ciervode Padre DavidTaxonomy.Elaphurus davidíanus Milne Edwards, 1866, Imperial Hunting Park near Peking.The genus appeared in the Late Pliocene of Chinaand japan. Some genetic studie have related to Ruœruus aldi. lts scientific and common names refer to Père A. David. French Lazarite missionary and naturalist. who was able to collect the first skins in 1865. Monotypic.Distribution.Reintroduced into E Chinasince 1985; main inirocduced populations marked on the map.Descriptive notes.Head-hody 195-210 cm for males (adult stags) and 180-190 cm for females (hinds), tail length 35 cm, shoulder height 120-140 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of 169-220 kg (stags) and 140-170 kg (hinds). Males are on average 40% heavier than females. A large-sized deer, with short neck, elongated and narrow head, large eyes, long legs, and long tail with a terminal tuft. The lachrymal pits are large. The permanent dentition is 34 teeth and the incisors are specialized for grazing. In summer, the coat is reddish-brown with a black dorsal stripe; the winter pelage is grayish-brown with the underside bright cream. Stags have a throat mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Only the preorbital gland is present. Males have very peculiar antlers, consisting of a very short basal beam and two shafts, an almost vertical branched foreshaft and a simpler, backward-pointing hindshaft with thorn-like snags Antler casting occurs in November—January, velvet shedding in April-May. Hooves are large and splayed.Habitat.Plains, grasslands, and reed marshes.Food and Feeding.It primarily feeds on grasses, reeds, and leaves.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 14-26 months of age. They are seasonally nolyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-20 days. Stags begin to compete for reproduction at four years of age. Mating season occurs in june-August. Stags join the female groups and compete to defend a harem. They roar, adorn their antlers with soil and vegetation, spray urine, and wallow. At high density they may adopt a lekking behavior. A stag following an estrous hind makes slow, rhythmic left-right antler movements (“swaggering”). After a gestation of 283-287 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 11-12 kg in March-April. The calf can stand after 40 minutes and nurses after one hour; it remains hidden for around five days. The white spots on its coat fade after two months. Weaning occurs at 6-10 months of age. Normally Pere David's Deer live to a maximum of 18 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years.Activity patterns.It is diurnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very agile on moist ground and spends a lot of time in water. It can swim well. It is a social species, forming male and female groups. Mixed-sex groups are present only during the mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. It became extinct a long time ago, perhaps 1800 years ago, and was preserved by the Chinese Emperor in his Imperial Hunting Park not far from Beijing. After the extermination of the last animals in the Hunting Park in 1900, the species was saved by a captive breeding program begun in Englandby the Duke of Bedford. In 1985-2002 the reintroduction into Chinatook place. Currently, there are in China53 herds, with a total of more than 2000 individuals. Four localities have the most numerous herds: Milu Park in Beijing, Dafeng Reserve, Tian’ezhou Wetland Reserve, and Yuanyang.Bibliography.Beck & Wemmer (1983), Geist (1998), Jiang Zigang et al. (2000), Schaller & Hamer (1978), Wemmeret al. (1989), Zeng Yan et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Elaphurus davidíanus Milne Edwards, 1866, Imperial Hunting Park near Peking.The genus appeared in the Late Pliocene of Chinaand japan. Some genetic studie have related to Ruœruus aldi. lts scientific and common names refer to Père A. David. French Lazarite missionary and naturalist. who was able to collect the first skins in 1865. Monotypic.","interpretedAuthorityName":"Milne Edwards","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1866","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Elaphurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"425","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"davidianus","name":"Elaphurus davidianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Reintroduced into E Chinasince 1985; main inirocduced populations marked on the map.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514489/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Beck & Wemmer (1983) | Geist (1998) | Jiang Zigang et al. (2000) | Schaller & Hamer (1978) | Wemmeret al. (1989) | Zeng Yan et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"It primarily feeds on grasses, reeds, and leaves.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at 14-26 months of age. They are seasonally nolyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-20 days. Stags begin to compete for reproduction at four years of age. Mating season occurs in june-August. Stags join the female groups and compete to defend a harem. They roar, adorn their antlers with soil and vegetation, spray urine, and wallow. At high density they may adopt a lekking behavior. A stag following an estrous hind makes slow, rhythmic left-right antler movements (“swaggering”). After a gestation of 283-287 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 11-12 kg in March-April. The calf can stand after 40 minutes and nurses after one hour; it remains hidden for around five days. The white spots on its coat fade after two months. Weaning occurs at 6-10 months of age. Normally Pere David's Deer live to a maximum of 18 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years.","activityPatterns":"It is diurnal and crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is very agile on moist ground and spends a lot of time in water. It can swim well. It is a social species, forming male and female groups. Mixed-sex groups are present only during the mating season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. It became extinct a long time ago, perhaps 1800 years ago, and was preserved by the Chinese Emperor in his Imperial Hunting Park not far from Beijing. After the extermination of the last animals in the Hunting Park in 1900, the species was saved by a captive breeding program begun in Englandby the Duke of Bedford. In 1985-2002 the reintroduction into Chinatook place. Currently, there are in China53 herds, with a total of more than 2000 individuals. Four localities have the most numerous herds: Milu Park in Beijing, Dafeng Reserve, Tian’ezhou Wetland Reserve, and Yuanyang.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-hody 195-210 cm for males (adult stags) and 180-190 cm for females (hinds), tail length 35 cm, shoulder height 120-140 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of 169-220 kg (stags) and 140-170 kg (hinds). Males are on average 40% heavier than females. A large-sized deer, with short neck, elongated and narrow head, large eyes, long legs, and long tail with a terminal tuft. The lachrymal pits are large. The permanent dentition is 34 teeth and the incisors are specialized for grazing. In summer, the coat is reddish-brown with a black dorsal stripe; the winter pelage is grayish-brown with the underside bright cream. Stags have a throat mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Only the preorbital gland is present. Males have very peculiar antlers, consisting of a very short basal beam and two shafts, an almost vertical branched foreshaft and a simpler, backward-pointing hindshaft with thorn-like snags Antler casting occurs in November—January, velvet shedding in April-May. Hooves are large and splayed.","habitat":"Plains, grasslands, and reed marshes."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5EFF4AE228F461.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5EFF4AE228F461","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"425","verbatimText":"27.White-lipped DeerCervus albirostrisFrench cerf à museau blanc German Weißlippenhirsch Spanish Ciervo hociblanco Other common names Thoıolds DeerTaxonomy.Cervus albirostris Przewalski, 1883, NanShan, Humboldt’s Mountains, bansu (.is sometimes classified m4 distinct ge nus, Pnzuıalslıh Earlier thought to be related to sambaß (Rfßfl) › bl\" “WTPVQlogical, behavioral, and geflflic 81141 'WS align this species with the red deu' clade. wzsfizzwwvzdbwzvflewzlsfl » Russian office.Fìttexplorer of Polish origin. in 1879. W. G. 'l'l\\omld collected two i n' v specimens in 1891 and send them to Euro’): Distribution.E Tibetan Plateau (E Xizang. w Ggmurgnghah W “Chuan 8‘ Nwyunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body on average ioo cm for males (stags) and 180 cmfor females (hinds), tail lengt 12-13 cm, shoulder height 120-130 cm(stags) and 110- 120 cm(hinds); weight 190-220 kg(stags) and 90-150 kg(hinds). Stags are on average 60% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with a large face and relatively short legs. The rump patch large and reddish. The tail relatively short. The ears are long, pointed, and fringed with white. Hooves are short and broad. The coat is grayish-brown; the muzzle, chin, and upper throat are white. There is a pale ring around the eyes. The pelage is stiff, thick, and coarse. Newborn calves are spotted; the spots fade precociously at 1 - 5 months of age. Preorbital and metatarsal glands are well developed. Pennanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt at 3-30 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, typically with five points, a brow tine, a high trez tine, a dagger, and a tenninal fork. At full size the antler beam is 90-95 cmlong. Yearling males are normally spikers, and subadults 2-3 years old are three- to four-tined. The largest antlers of adults have up to seven tines and are 130-133 cmlong. ln adult stags velvet shedding occurs in September and antler rnclinrr in Mzffrhanfir Hıbitfit. lt is a high-elevation specialist, living in rhododendron scrub and alpine grasslands above spruce forests, at 3500-5100 mabove sea level. The short legs, massive haunches, and broad hooves allow it to use steep terrain.Food and Feeding.t is classified as an intermediated feeder, with a tendency to graze. prefers grasses and sedges but also eats leaves and shoots of woody plants. lts diet includes al least 95 species of plants.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 18-30 months of age. Males reach sexual maturity at about 18 months but do not begin to reproduce before four years of age. Gestation is about 246 days. Rutting season peaks in October. Stagsjoin female groups and maintain microscale harems within the large mixed group or tend individual estrous hinds, without strong competition or oven aggression from other males. lnjune hinds separate themselves from the group and seek an isolated place to give birth. The newborns weigh about 9 kgand are precocial. Half an hour after birth they are able to stand up and within a couple of hours they begin to move away from the birth site. After two weeks calves follow their mothers and rejoin the group. Maximum known longevity in the wild is nine years for stags and twelve years for hinds. They can attain 19 years of age in captivity. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Cams lupus) and Snow Leopards (Panthera unria).Activity patterns.1tis diurnal and active all day, with peaks at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Thanks to its robust build and specialized hooves, it is very agile on steep terrain. t is also a good swimmer. 1 thas been described as a nomadic species, moving slowly across vast areas to feed and to shelter from harsh weather. In autumn the deer descend from high summer ranges to low winter ranges. highly gregarious, forming large herds of 25-35 individuals on average. Males and females tend to live separately for most of the year, mixed groups are mainly observed during the rutting season. Aggregations of up to 100-170 animals have been recorded in recent times and up to 800 were documented in the past.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. Hunting, poaching, and competition with domestic stock (yaks, sheep, and goats) have dramatically reduced the distribution range and population size. Hunting has been prohibited since 1989. ln 1999 there were an estimated 15,800 individuals. A more recent estimate is around 7000 animals. Poaching for meat, antlers, and organs, and competition with livestock are still important threats. Bibliognphy Haırıs (2008c) Harris 8i Loggers (2004) Hams 8i MIIer (1995) Kay at al (1993) Koizumi er al (1993) Lesley (2010), Mıura er al (1993) Schaller (1998) Sheng à Ohtaıshı (1993)","taxonomy":"Cervus albirostris Przewalski, 1883, NanShan, Humboldt’s Mountains, bansu (.is sometimes classified m4 distinct ge nus, Pnzuıalslıh Earlier thought to be related to sambaß (Rfßfl) › bl\" “WTPVQlogical, behavioral, and geflflic 81141 'WS align this species with the red deu' clade. wzsfizzwwvzdbwzvflewzlsfl » Russian office.Fìttexplorer of Polish origin. in 1879. W. G.","interpretedAuthorityName":"Przewalski","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1883","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Cervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"425","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albirostris","name":"Cervus albirostris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Tibetan Plateau (E Xizang. w Ggmurgnghah W “Chuan 8‘ Nwyunnan).","bibliography":"","foodAndFeeding":"t is classified as an intermediated feeder, with a tendency to graze. prefers grasses and sedges but also eats leaves and shoots of woody plants. lts diet includes al least 95 species of plants.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at 18-30 months of age. Males reach sexual maturity at about 18 months but do not begin to reproduce before four years of age. Gestation is about 246 days. Rutting season peaks in October. Stagsjoin female groups and maintain microscale harems within the large mixed group or tend individual estrous hinds, without strong competition or oven aggression from other males. lnjune hinds separate themselves from the group and seek an isolated place to give birth. The newborns weigh about 9 kgand are precocial. Half an hour after birth they are able to stand up and within a couple of hours they begin to move away from the birth site. After two weeks calves follow their mothers and rejoin the group. Maximum known longevity in the wild is nine years for stags and twelve years for hinds. They can attain 19 years of age in captivity. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Cams lupus) and Snow Leopards (Panthera unria).","activityPatterns":"1tis diurnal and active all day, with peaks at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Thanks to its robust build and specialized hooves, it is very agile on steep terrain. t is also a good swimmer. 1 thas been described as a nomadic species, moving slowly across vast areas to feed and to shelter from harsh weather. In autumn the deer descend from high summer ranges to low winter ranges. highly gregarious, forming large herds of 25-35 individuals on average. Males and females tend to live separately for most of the year, mixed groups are mainly observed during the rutting season. Aggregations of up to 100-170 animals have been recorded in recent times and up to 800 were documented in the past.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. Hunting, poaching, and competition with domestic stock (yaks, sheep, and goats) have dramatically reduced the distribution range and population size. Hunting has been prohibited since 1989. ln 1999 there were an estimated 15,800 individuals. A more recent estimate is around 7000 animals. Poaching for meat, antlers, and organs, and competition with livestock are still important threats. Bibliognphy Haırıs (2008c) Harris 8i Loggers (2004) Hams 8i MIIer (1995) Kay at al (1993) Koizumi er al (1993) Lesley (2010), Mıura er al (1993) Schaller (1998) Sheng à Ohtaıshı (1993)"} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"425","verbatimText":"29.Brow-antlered DeerRucervus eldiiFrench:Cerf d'Eld/ German:Leierhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervo de EldOther common names:Eld's Deer; Sangai (eldii), Thamin (thamin)Taxonomy.Cervus eldii M’Clelland, 1842, Manipur, Assam(India).The genus Rucervusgenerally encompasses three species: Brow-antlered Deer, Barasingha (R. duvaucelit), and the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). They are all specialized grass-eaters with highcrowned, uniquelyfolded cheek teeth. The molars have relatively large columns and prominent styles and pillars. Recent genetic analyses have questioned the monophyly of the genus and Brow-antlered Deer might not be related closely to the other two species. It has been sometimes placed in Cervusor in a distinct genus, Panolia. The scientific and the other common name ofthis species refers to L. P. D. Eld, British officer, whofirst observed and described it when he was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assamin 1838. Three subspecies are recognized.On followmg pages 30 Barasıngha (Huoervus duvıuoelıı) 31 Chınose Water Deer (Hydroporos ınermısl 32 Western Roe Deer (Capreolus aıpmolus), 33 Eastern Roe Deer (Capraolus pyyaryus)Subspecies and Distribution.R.e.eldisM’Clelland,1842—NEIndia(Manipur).R.e.siamensisLydekker,1915-Vietnam(couldbeextinct),Laos,Cambodia,andHainanI.R. e. thamin Thomas, 1918— Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Head body 160-170 cm for males (stags) and 140-150 cin for females (hinds); tail 22-25 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (stags) and 90-100 cm (hinds); weight 90-125 kg (adult stags) and 60-80 kg (adult hinds). Males are about 60% heavier than females. Medium to large-sized deer; male antlers have a very long brow tine that forms a continuous curve with the main beam. The skull has a deep lacrimal pit. The coat is reddish-brown abeve, whitish underneath. The tail is brown above. Females are paler. Males develop a neck mane during the rutting season. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Antlers of adult stags are about 90-100 cm long. with a record of 112 cm. The main beam first grows backwards, thep outwaids, and terminates in a forward curve. Toward the tip the beam tends to develop several small tines. Antler cycles are synchronized; antler casting occurs in May-June and velvet cleaning is in December. The Indian subspecies “Sangai” (¢ldii) has splaying hooves with cornified skin on the back of the digits, an adaptation for waiking on moist ground.c 15 days.Habitat.In IndiaBrow-antlered Deerlive in: floating marshes. In South-east Asia it occurs in open-grass-dominated habitats, such as lowland open-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forests with grass understory and adjoining grassland patches. In Hainan Island it mainly occursin dry grassland with sparse trees and scrubland. In the recent pastit lived also in the pine savanna of Laotian plateaus.Food and Feeding.It tends to be a grazer of grasses and forbs and also feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits.Breeding.Females reach puberty at about 16 months of age. They are seasonally polyestrous with estrous cycles of 16-19 days and mean receptive periods of about 16 hours. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at about twelve months. For a tropical deer, breeding is very concentrated. Mating season occurs in 60-90 days between February and May (peak March-April), and calving season is in October-November. After a pregnancy of 240 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3.5-6 kg. At 10-15 days calves begin to eat grasses; at one month they follow their mother; at 50 days they begin to consume plants more regularly. Weaning occurs at 5-7 months of age. Primary predators are Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (FP. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus).Activity patterns.It is more active in early morning and early evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Where studied, males have home ranges of about 9 km? and females of 7 km®*. Maleslive for most of the year as solitary animals; females form small family groups with their fawns. During the rut in the hotdry season the most common groups are multimale mixed sex groups of aboutsix individuals; these may sometimes coalesce into larger herds of 50-70 or more.Status and Conservation.Cites Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Owing to hunting and habitat loss, the Brow-antlered Deer’s historical range has been contracted significantly and fragmented. The Indian subspecies eldiiis reduced to a single population in the Keibul Lamjao National Park, whereit is slowly increasing from a minimum of 14 animals in 1975 to about 180 in2004. The “Thamin” (thamin) of the central plain of Myanmar,still occurs in several localized areas and has been reintroduced in Thailand. The most eastern subspecies, siamensis, is scattered in small populations (one or two in Laos, a few in Cambodia, one on Hainan Island). In Vietnamit may be extinct and in mainland China(Yunnan) it is certainly extinct.Bibliography.Aung et al. (2001), Balakrishnan et al. (2003), Blakeslee et al. (1979), Gee (1961), McShea et al. (2001), Song Yanling & Zeng Zhigao (2003), Timmins & Duckworth (2008b), Wemmer & Grodinsky (1988), Wemmer & Montali (1988), Zeng Zhigao et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Cervus eldii M’Clelland, 1842, Manipur, Assam(India).The genus Rucervusgenerally encompasses three species: Brow-antlered Deer, Barasingha (R. duvaucelit), and the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). They are all specialized grass-eaters with highcrowned, uniquelyfolded cheek teeth. The molars have relatively large columns and prominent styles and pillars. Recent genetic analyses have questioned the monophyly of the genus and Brow-antlered Deer might not be related closely to the other two species. It has been sometimes placed in Cervusor in a distinct genus, Panolia. The scientific and the other common name ofthis species refers to L. P. D. Eld, British officer, whofirst observed and described it when he was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assamin 1838. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf d'Eld @fr | Leierhirsch @de | Ciervo de Eld @es | Eld's Deer; Sangai (eldii) @en | Thamin (thamin) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"M'Clelland","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rucervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"425","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"eldii","name":"Rucervus eldii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.e.eldisM’Clelland,1842—NEIndia(Manipur).R.e.siamensisLydekker,1915-Vietnam(couldbeextinct),Laos,Cambodia,andHainanI.R. e. thamin Thomas, 1918— Myanmar.","bibliography":"Aung et al. (2001) | Balakrishnan et al. (2003) | Blakeslee et al. (1979) | Gee (1961) | McShea et al. (2001) | Song Yanling & Zeng Zhigao (2003) | Timmins & Duckworth (2008b) | Wemmer & Grodinsky (1988) | Wemmer & Montali (1988) | Zeng Zhigao et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"It tends to be a grazer of grasses and forbs and also feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits.","breeding":"Females reach puberty at about 16 months of age. They are seasonally polyestrous with estrous cycles of 16-19 days and mean receptive periods of about 16 hours. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at about twelve months. For a tropical deer, breeding is very concentrated. Mating season occurs in 60-90 days between February and May (peak March-April), and calving season is in October-November. After a pregnancy of 240 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3.5-6 kg. At 10-15 days calves begin to eat grasses; at one month they follow their mother; at 50 days they begin to consume plants more regularly. Weaning occurs at 5-7 months of age. Primary predators are Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (FP. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus).","activityPatterns":"It is more active in early morning and early evening.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Where studied, males have home ranges of about 9 km? and females of 7 km®*. Maleslive for most of the year as solitary animals; females form small family groups with their fawns. During the rut in the hotdry season the most common groups are multimale mixed sex groups of aboutsix individuals; these may sometimes coalesce into larger herds of 50-70 or more.","statusAndConservation":"Cites Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Owing to hunting and habitat loss, the Brow-antlered Deer’s historical range has been contracted significantly and fragmented. The Indian subspecies eldiiis reduced to a single population in the Keibul Lamjao National Park, whereit is slowly increasing from a minimum of 14 animals in 1975 to about 180 in2004. The “Thamin” (thamin) of the central plain of Myanmar,still occurs in several localized areas and has been reintroduced in Thailand. The most eastern subspecies, siamensis, is scattered in small populations (one or two in Laos, a few in Cambodia, one on Hainan Island). In Vietnamit may be extinct and in mainland China(Yunnan) it is certainly extinct.","descriptiveNotes":"Head body 160-170 cm for males (stags) and 140-150 cin for females (hinds); tail 22-25 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (stags) and 90-100 cm (hinds); weight 90-125 kg (adult stags) and 60-80 kg (adult hinds). Males are about 60% heavier than females. Medium to large-sized deer; male antlers have a very long brow tine that forms a continuous curve with the main beam. The skull has a deep lacrimal pit. The coat is reddish-brown abeve, whitish underneath. The tail is brown above. Females are paler. Males develop a neck mane during the rutting season. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Antlers of adult stags are about 90-100 cm long. with a record of 112 cm. The main beam first grows backwards, thep outwaids, and terminates in a forward curve. Toward the tip the beam tends to develop several small tines. Antler cycles are synchronized; antler casting occurs in May-June and velvet cleaning is in December. The Indian subspecies “Sangai” (¢ldii) has splaying hooves with cornified skin on the back of the digits, an adaptation for waiking on moist ground.c 15 days.","habitat":"In IndiaBrow-antlered Deerlive in: floating marshes. In South-east Asia it occurs in open-grass-dominated habitats, such as lowland open-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forests with grass understory and adjoining grassland patches. In Hainan Island it mainly occursin dry grassland with sparse trees and scrubland. In the recent pastit lived also in the pine savanna of Laotian plateaus."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"436","verbatimText":"37.Mule DeerOdocoileus hemionusFrench:Cerf mulet/ German:Maultierhirsch/ Spanish:CiervomuloOther common names:Black-tailed Deer (columbianus and sitkensis)Taxonomy.Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, 1817, Big Sioux River, South Dakota(USA).A study on mtDNA has confirmed that there are two distinct groups, a northern coastal one (“Black-tailed Deer”) and an eastern and south-western one (true Mule Deer). The large divergence between these two lineages seems to provide evidence for separate ice-free refugia during the last glacial maximum, about 18,000 years ago. Mule Deer persisted south of the ice sheet in multiple refugial populations. Black-tailed Deer probably survived in a single refugium in the Pacific Northwest, with a slow post-glacial recolonization, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity. Here eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.h.hemionusRafinesque,1817—RockyMtsfromYukontoTexasandNewMexico.O.h.californicusCaton,1876—CCalifornia.O.h.cerrosensisMerriam,1898—NWMexico(CedrosI,BajaCalifornia).O.h.columbianusRichardson,1829—coastalregionfromPortSimpsoninBritishColumbia(WCanada)toCCalifornia(WUSA).O.h.eremicusMearns,1897—SWUSA(Arizona,NMexico).O.h.fulbiginatusCowan,1933—SWUSA(SCalifornia)andNWMexico(NBajaCalifornia).O.h.peninsulaeLydekker,1898—NWMexico(SBajaCalifornia).O. h. sitkensis Merriam, 1898— coastal S Alaska.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-180 cm for males (adult bucks) and 135-155 cm for females (does), tail 15-23 cm, shoulder height 85-105 cm (bucks) and 75-95 cm (does); weight 50-110 kg (adult bucks) and 35-65 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in the northern Rocky Mountains, with records of 210-230 kg for exceptional bucks. Adult bucks average 50-70% heavier than does. Generally a mediumsized deer similar to the White-tailed Deer (O. virginianus), but with a relatively shorter and narrower tail that is white to black above, or tipped with black. The ears are very large, around two thirds the length of the face. Males have antlers, with a main beam that grows upward and then bifurcates in equal-length forked tines (“dichotomous branching”); the subbasal snag is short. The lacrimal fossa is deep. The coat is reddishbrown in summer, grayish-yellow, gray, or dark brown in winter. The rostrum is pale and the forehead has a dark patch. Molts in May and September. Newborn fawns are spotted. Nasal, preorbital, metatarsal, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital and caudal glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is large. There are two main phenotypes, the Black-tailed Deer of the north-west coast, which has a tail thatis black above and a moderately large metatarsal gland, and the true Mule Deer of the south-west coast and inland, which has a conspicuous white rump patch, a white tail with a black tip, and a very large metatarsal gland. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males sprout antler pedicles at three months of age. The first antler set, small buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Adult antlers are usually 45-65 cm in length but can be longer, up to 75 cm. Antler casting occurs from to late January to March. Regrowth begins in April-May, from two weeks to two months after antler casting. Velvet shedding occurs in September.Habitat.It is an ecotone deer, preferring open forest and scrubland associated with steep and broken terrain. It also lives in coastal coniferous rain forests and on prairies and in semi-desert shrub habitats. Snow depth of 30 cmmay impede movements, and depth more than 50 cmprevents the use of an area.Food and Feeding.It is an opportunistic intermediate feeder, with a tendency to be selective on various types of browse.Breeding.Puberty is generally reached by females at about 18 months of age, rarely at 6-7 months. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at 18 months, but their opportunities to mate are low up to 2-3 years of age. Rutting season peaks between November and January. Dominant bucks court and mate estrous does. The courtship is initiated by a low-stretch approach of the buck, followed by a slow pursuit in small circles. Females are seasonally polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 23-28 days and a receptive period of 24-36 hours. Mean pregnancy length is 203 days, with a birth peak between June and July. Primiparous does give birth to a single fawn; adults tend to produce twins. The spotted newborns weighs 2.7-4 kg and remain hidden for the first week. At three months of age they lose the spots, and at three or four months are weaned. Full weight is attained at 2-3 years of age by females, at 7-8 years by males. Maximum longevity is 19-20 years, but very few animals survive beyond 8-10 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Bobcats (Lynx rufus).Activity patterns.Mule Deer are mainly active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial runner with a specialized flight gait, the fourfooted bound known as “stotting.” For short durations it can reach 40 km/h. Generally home ranges are relatively small, 2-5-5 km?, larger in males. In northern latitudes and in montane areas, decreasing temperatures and snow fall prompt 15-30 km seasonal movements from higher to lower elevations. It is a moderately social deer. Females form matrilinear groups. Males are solitary orlive in small bands of unrelated individuals. Large temporary feeding aggregations in open ground are common in winter and early spring.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. Persecution and habitat destruction were responsible for the dramatic decline in the 19\" century. Predator control, law enforcement, and habitat diversification caused by human activities (logging, burning, livestock ranching) all improved the living conditions for Mule Deer, which increased in abundance and distribution to a peak population of 7-5 million in late 1950s. From 1980 on, the total population has seemed substantially stable at about five million animals. Annual harvest in late 1990s was 535,000 individuals.Bibliography.Anderson et al. (1974), Anderson & Wallmo (1984), Crete & Daigle (1999), Geist (1998), Kie & Czech (2000), Mackie et al. (2003), Martinez-Munoz et al. (2003), Wallmo (1981).","taxonomy":"Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, 1817, Big Sioux River, South Dakota(USA).A study on mtDNA has confirmed that there are two distinct groups, a northern coastal one (“Black-tailed Deer”) and an eastern and south-western one (true Mule Deer). The large divergence between these two lineages seems to provide evidence for separate ice-free refugia during the last glacial maximum, about 18,000 years ago. Mule Deer persisted south of the ice sheet in multiple refugial populations. Black-tailed Deer probably survived in a single refugium in the Pacific Northwest, with a slow post-glacial recolonization, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity. Here eight subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf mulet @fr | Maultierhirsch @de | Ciervomulo @es | Black-tailed Deer (columbianus and sitkensis) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Odocoileus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"29","interpretedPageNumber":"436","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hemionus","name":"Odocoileus hemionus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.h.hemionusRafinesque,1817—RockyMtsfromYukontoTexasandNewMexico.O.h.californicusCaton,1876—CCalifornia.O.h.cerrosensisMerriam,1898—NWMexico(CedrosI,BajaCalifornia).O.h.columbianusRichardson,1829—coastalregionfromPortSimpsoninBritishColumbia(WCanada)toCCalifornia(WUSA).O.h.eremicusMearns,1897—SWUSA(Arizona,NMexico).O.h.fulbiginatusCowan,1933—SWUSA(SCalifornia)andNWMexico(NBajaCalifornia).O.h.peninsulaeLydekker,1898—NWMexico(SBajaCalifornia).O. h. sitkensis Merriam, 1898— coastal S Alaska.","bibliography":"Anderson et al. (1974) | Anderson & Wallmo (1984) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Geist (1998) | Kie & Czech (2000) | Mackie et al. (2003) | Martinez-Munoz et al. (2003) | Wallmo (1981)","foodAndFeeding":"It is an opportunistic intermediate feeder, with a tendency to be selective on various types of browse.","breeding":"Puberty is generally reached by females at about 18 months of age, rarely at 6-7 months. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at 18 months, but their opportunities to mate are low up to 2-3 years of age. Rutting season peaks between November and January. Dominant bucks court and mate estrous does. The courtship is initiated by a low-stretch approach of the buck, followed by a slow pursuit in small circles. Females are seasonally polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 23-28 days and a receptive period of 24-36 hours. Mean pregnancy length is 203 days, with a birth peak between June and July. Primiparous does give birth to a single fawn; adults tend to produce twins. The spotted newborns weighs 2.7-4 kg and remain hidden for the first week. At three months of age they lose the spots, and at three or four months are weaned. Full weight is attained at 2-3 years of age by females, at 7-8 years by males. Maximum longevity is 19-20 years, but very few animals survive beyond 8-10 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Bobcats (Lynx rufus).","activityPatterns":"Mule Deer are mainly active at dusk and dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a saltatorial runner with a specialized flight gait, the fourfooted bound known as “stotting.” For short durations it can reach 40 km/h. Generally home ranges are relatively small, 2-5-5 km?, larger in males. In northern latitudes and in montane areas, decreasing temperatures and snow fall prompt 15-30 km seasonal movements from higher to lower elevations. It is a moderately social deer. Females form matrilinear groups. Males are solitary orlive in small bands of unrelated individuals. Large temporary feeding aggregations in open ground are common in winter and early spring.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. Persecution and habitat destruction were responsible for the dramatic decline in the 19\" century. Predator control, law enforcement, and habitat diversification caused by human activities (logging, burning, livestock ranching) all improved the living conditions for Mule Deer, which increased in abundance and distribution to a peak population of 7-5 million in late 1950s. From 1980 on, the total population has seemed substantially stable at about five million animals. Annual harvest in late 1990s was 535,000 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-180 cm for males (adult bucks) and 135-155 cm for females (does), tail 15-23 cm, shoulder height 85-105 cm (bucks) and 75-95 cm (does); weight 50-110 kg (adult bucks) and 35-65 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in the northern Rocky Mountains, with records of 210-230 kg for exceptional bucks. Adult bucks average 50-70% heavier than does. Generally a mediumsized deer similar to the White-tailed Deer (O. virginianus), but with a relatively shorter and narrower tail that is white to black above, or tipped with black. The ears are very large, around two thirds the length of the face. Males have antlers, with a main beam that grows upward and then bifurcates in equal-length forked tines (“dichotomous branching”); the subbasal snag is short. The lacrimal fossa is deep. The coat is reddishbrown in summer, grayish-yellow, gray, or dark brown in winter. The rostrum is pale and the forehead has a dark patch. Molts in May and September. Newborn fawns are spotted. Nasal, preorbital, metatarsal, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital and caudal glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is large. There are two main phenotypes, the Black-tailed Deer of the north-west coast, which has a tail thatis black above and a moderately large metatarsal gland, and the true Mule Deer of the south-west coast and inland, which has a conspicuous white rump patch, a white tail with a black tip, and a very large metatarsal gland. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males sprout antler pedicles at three months of age. The first antler set, small buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Adult antlers are usually 45-65 cm in length but can be longer, up to 75 cm. Antler casting occurs from to late January to March. Regrowth begins in April-May, from two weeks to two months after antler casting. Velvet shedding occurs in September.","habitat":"It is an ecotone deer, preferring open forest and scrubland associated with steep and broken terrain. It also lives in coastal coniferous rain forests and on prairies and in semi-desert shrub habitats. Snow depth of 30 cmmay impede movements, and depth more than 50 cmprevents the use of an area."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"425","verbatimText":"29.Brow-antlered DeerRucervus eldiiFrench:Cerf d'Eld/ German:Leierhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervo de EldOther common names:Eld's Deer; Sangai (eldii), Thamin (thamin)Taxonomy.Cervus eldii M’Clelland, 1842, Manipur, Assam(India).The genus Rucervusgenerally encompasses three species: Brow-antlered Deer, Barasingha (R. duvaucelit), and the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). They are all specialized grass-eaters with highcrowned, uniquelyfolded cheek teeth. The molars have relatively large columns and prominent styles and pillars. Recent genetic analyses have questioned the monophyly of the genus and Brow-antlered Deer might not be related closely to the other two species. It has been sometimes placed in Cervusor in a distinct genus, Panolia. The scientific and the other common name ofthis species refers to L. P. D. Eld, British officer, whofirst observed and described it when he was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assamin 1838. Three subspecies are recognized.On followmg pages 30 Barasıngha (Huoervus duvıuoelıı) 31 Chınose Water Deer (Hydroporos ınermısl 32 Western Roe Deer (Capreolus aıpmolus), 33 Eastern Roe Deer (Capraolus pyyaryus)Subspecies and Distribution.R.e.eldisM’Clelland,1842—NEIndia(Manipur).R.e.siamensisLydekker,1915-Vietnam(couldbeextinct),Laos,Cambodia,andHainanI.R. e. thamin Thomas, 1918— Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Head body 160-170 cm for males (stags) and 140-150 cin for females (hinds); tail 22-25 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (stags) and 90-100 cm (hinds); weight 90-125 kg (adult stags) and 60-80 kg (adult hinds). Males are about 60% heavier than females. Medium to large-sized deer; male antlers have a very long brow tine that forms a continuous curve with the main beam. The skull has a deep lacrimal pit. The coat is reddish-brown abeve, whitish underneath. The tail is brown above. Females are paler. Males develop a neck mane during the rutting season. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Antlers of adult stags are about 90-100 cm long. with a record of 112 cm. The main beam first grows backwards, thep outwaids, and terminates in a forward curve. Toward the tip the beam tends to develop several small tines. Antler cycles are synchronized; antler casting occurs in May-June and velvet cleaning is in December. The Indian subspecies “Sangai” (¢ldii) has splaying hooves with cornified skin on the back of the digits, an adaptation for waiking on moist ground.c 15 days.Habitat.In IndiaBrow-antlered Deerlive in: floating marshes. In South-east Asia it occurs in open-grass-dominated habitats, such as lowland open-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forests with grass understory and adjoining grassland patches. In Hainan Island it mainly occursin dry grassland with sparse trees and scrubland. In the recent pastit lived also in the pine savanna of Laotian plateaus.Food and Feeding.It tends to be a grazer of grasses and forbs and also feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits.Breeding.Females reach puberty at about 16 months of age. They are seasonally polyestrous with estrous cycles of 16-19 days and mean receptive periods of about 16 hours. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at about twelve months. For a tropical deer, breeding is very concentrated. Mating season occurs in 60-90 days between February and May (peak March-April), and calving season is in October-November. After a pregnancy of 240 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3.5-6 kg. At 10-15 days calves begin to eat grasses; at one month they follow their mother; at 50 days they begin to consume plants more regularly. Weaning occurs at 5-7 months of age. Primary predators are Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (FP. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus).Activity patterns.It is more active in early morning and early evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Where studied, males have home ranges of about 9 km? and females of 7 km®*. Maleslive for most of the year as solitary animals; females form small family groups with their fawns. During the rut in the hotdry season the most common groups are multimale mixed sex groups of aboutsix individuals; these may sometimes coalesce into larger herds of 50-70 or more.Status and Conservation.Cites Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Owing to hunting and habitat loss, the Brow-antlered Deer’s historical range has been contracted significantly and fragmented. The Indian subspecies eldiiis reduced to a single population in the Keibul Lamjao National Park, whereit is slowly increasing from a minimum of 14 animals in 1975 to about 180 in2004. The “Thamin” (thamin) of the central plain of Myanmar,still occurs in several localized areas and has been reintroduced in Thailand. The most eastern subspecies, siamensis, is scattered in small populations (one or two in Laos, a few in Cambodia, one on Hainan Island). In Vietnamit may be extinct and in mainland China(Yunnan) it is certainly extinct.Bibliography.Aung et al. (2001), Balakrishnan et al. (2003), Blakeslee et al. (1979), Gee (1961), McShea et al. (2001), Song Yanling & Zeng Zhigao (2003), Timmins & Duckworth (2008b), Wemmer & Grodinsky (1988), Wemmer & Montali (1988), Zeng Zhigao et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Cervus eldii M’Clelland, 1842, Manipur, Assam(India).The genus Rucervusgenerally encompasses three species: Brow-antlered Deer, Barasingha (R. duvaucelit), and the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer (R. schomburgki). They are all specialized grass-eaters with highcrowned, uniquelyfolded cheek teeth. The molars have relatively large columns and prominent styles and pillars. Recent genetic analyses have questioned the monophyly of the genus and Brow-antlered Deer might not be related closely to the other two species. It has been sometimes placed in Cervusor in a distinct genus, Panolia. The scientific and the other common name ofthis species refers to L. P. D. Eld, British officer, whofirst observed and described it when he was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assamin 1838. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf d'Eld @fr | Leierhirsch @de | Ciervo de Eld @es | Eld's Deer; Sangai (eldii) @en | Thamin (thamin) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"M'Clelland","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rucervus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"425","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"eldii","name":"Rucervus eldii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.e.eldisM’Clelland,1842—NEIndia(Manipur).R.e.siamensisLydekker,1915-Vietnam(couldbeextinct),Laos,Cambodia,andHainanI.R. e. thamin Thomas, 1918— Myanmar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514491/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aung et al. (2001) | Balakrishnan et al. (2003) | Blakeslee et al. (1979) | Gee (1961) | McShea et al. (2001) | Song Yanling & Zeng Zhigao (2003) | Timmins & Duckworth (2008b) | Wemmer & Grodinsky (1988) | Wemmer & Montali (1988) | Zeng Zhigao et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"It tends to be a grazer of grasses and forbs and also feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits.","breeding":"Females reach puberty at about 16 months of age. They are seasonally polyestrous with estrous cycles of 16-19 days and mean receptive periods of about 16 hours. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at about twelve months. For a tropical deer, breeding is very concentrated. Mating season occurs in 60-90 days between February and May (peak March-April), and calving season is in October-November. After a pregnancy of 240 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3.5-6 kg. At 10-15 days calves begin to eat grasses; at one month they follow their mother; at 50 days they begin to consume plants more regularly. Weaning occurs at 5-7 months of age. Primary predators are Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (FP. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus).","activityPatterns":"It is more active in early morning and early evening.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Where studied, males have home ranges of about 9 km? and females of 7 km®*. Maleslive for most of the year as solitary animals; females form small family groups with their fawns. During the rut in the hotdry season the most common groups are multimale mixed sex groups of aboutsix individuals; these may sometimes coalesce into larger herds of 50-70 or more.","statusAndConservation":"Cites Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Owing to hunting and habitat loss, the Brow-antlered Deer’s historical range has been contracted significantly and fragmented. The Indian subspecies eldiiis reduced to a single population in the Keibul Lamjao National Park, whereit is slowly increasing from a minimum of 14 animals in 1975 to about 180 in2004. The “Thamin” (thamin) of the central plain of Myanmar,still occurs in several localized areas and has been reintroduced in Thailand. The most eastern subspecies, siamensis, is scattered in small populations (one or two in Laos, a few in Cambodia, one on Hainan Island). In Vietnamit may be extinct and in mainland China(Yunnan) it is certainly extinct.","descriptiveNotes":"Head body 160-170 cm for males (stags) and 140-150 cin for females (hinds); tail 22-25 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (stags) and 90-100 cm (hinds); weight 90-125 kg (adult stags) and 60-80 kg (adult hinds). Males are about 60% heavier than females. Medium to large-sized deer; male antlers have a very long brow tine that forms a continuous curve with the main beam. The skull has a deep lacrimal pit. The coat is reddish-brown abeve, whitish underneath. The tail is brown above. Females are paler. Males develop a neck mane during the rutting season. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Antlers of adult stags are about 90-100 cm long. with a record of 112 cm. The main beam first grows backwards, thep outwaids, and terminates in a forward curve. Toward the tip the beam tends to develop several small tines. Antler cycles are synchronized; antler casting occurs in May-June and velvet cleaning is in December. The Indian subspecies “Sangai” (¢ldii) has splaying hooves with cornified skin on the back of the digits, an adaptation for waiking on moist ground.c 15 days.","habitat":"In IndiaBrow-antlered Deerlive in: floating marshes. In South-east Asia it occurs in open-grass-dominated habitats, such as lowland open-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forests with grass understory and adjoining grassland patches. In Hainan Island it mainly occursin dry grassland with sparse trees and scrubland. In the recent pastit lived also in the pine savanna of Laotian plateaus."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"436","verbatimText":"37.Mule DeerOdocoileus hemionusFrench:Cerf mulet/ German:Maultierhirsch/ Spanish:CiervomuloOther common names:Black-tailed Deer (columbianus and sitkensis)Taxonomy.Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, 1817, Big Sioux River, South Dakota(USA).A study on mtDNA has confirmed that there are two distinct groups, a northern coastal one (“Black-tailed Deer”) and an eastern and south-western one (true Mule Deer). The large divergence between these two lineages seems to provide evidence for separate ice-free refugia during the last glacial maximum, about 18,000 years ago. Mule Deer persisted south of the ice sheet in multiple refugial populations. Black-tailed Deer probably survived in a single refugium in the Pacific Northwest, with a slow post-glacial recolonization, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity. Here eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.h.hemionusRafinesque,1817—RockyMtsfromYukontoTexasandNewMexico.O.h.californicusCaton,1876—CCalifornia.O.h.cerrosensisMerriam,1898—NWMexico(CedrosI,BajaCalifornia).O.h.columbianusRichardson,1829—coastalregionfromPortSimpsoninBritishColumbia(WCanada)toCCalifornia(WUSA).O.h.eremicusMearns,1897—SWUSA(Arizona,NMexico).O.h.fulbiginatusCowan,1933—SWUSA(SCalifornia)andNWMexico(NBajaCalifornia).O.h.peninsulaeLydekker,1898—NWMexico(SBajaCalifornia).O. h. sitkensis Merriam, 1898— coastal S Alaska.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-180 cm for males (adult bucks) and 135-155 cm for females (does), tail 15-23 cm, shoulder height 85-105 cm (bucks) and 75-95 cm (does); weight 50-110 kg (adult bucks) and 35-65 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in the northern Rocky Mountains, with records of 210-230 kg for exceptional bucks. Adult bucks average 50-70% heavier than does. Generally a mediumsized deer similar to the White-tailed Deer (O. virginianus), but with a relatively shorter and narrower tail that is white to black above, or tipped with black. The ears are very large, around two thirds the length of the face. Males have antlers, with a main beam that grows upward and then bifurcates in equal-length forked tines (“dichotomous branching”); the subbasal snag is short. The lacrimal fossa is deep. The coat is reddishbrown in summer, grayish-yellow, gray, or dark brown in winter. The rostrum is pale and the forehead has a dark patch. Molts in May and September. Newborn fawns are spotted. Nasal, preorbital, metatarsal, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital and caudal glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is large. There are two main phenotypes, the Black-tailed Deer of the north-west coast, which has a tail thatis black above and a moderately large metatarsal gland, and the true Mule Deer of the south-west coast and inland, which has a conspicuous white rump patch, a white tail with a black tip, and a very large metatarsal gland. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males sprout antler pedicles at three months of age. The first antler set, small buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Adult antlers are usually 45-65 cm in length but can be longer, up to 75 cm. Antler casting occurs from to late January to March. Regrowth begins in April-May, from two weeks to two months after antler casting. Velvet shedding occurs in September.Habitat.It is an ecotone deer, preferring open forest and scrubland associated with steep and broken terrain. It also lives in coastal coniferous rain forests and on prairies and in semi-desert shrub habitats. Snow depth of 30 cmmay impede movements, and depth more than 50 cmprevents the use of an area.Food and Feeding.It is an opportunistic intermediate feeder, with a tendency to be selective on various types of browse.Breeding.Puberty is generally reached by females at about 18 months of age, rarely at 6-7 months. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at 18 months, but their opportunities to mate are low up to 2-3 years of age. Rutting season peaks between November and January. Dominant bucks court and mate estrous does. The courtship is initiated by a low-stretch approach of the buck, followed by a slow pursuit in small circles. Females are seasonally polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 23-28 days and a receptive period of 24-36 hours. Mean pregnancy length is 203 days, with a birth peak between June and July. Primiparous does give birth to a single fawn; adults tend to produce twins. The spotted newborns weighs 2.7-4 kg and remain hidden for the first week. At three months of age they lose the spots, and at three or four months are weaned. Full weight is attained at 2-3 years of age by females, at 7-8 years by males. Maximum longevity is 19-20 years, but very few animals survive beyond 8-10 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Bobcats (Lynx rufus).Activity patterns.Mule Deer are mainly active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial runner with a specialized flight gait, the fourfooted bound known as “stotting.” For short durations it can reach 40 km/h. Generally home ranges are relatively small, 2-5-5 km?, larger in males. In northern latitudes and in montane areas, decreasing temperatures and snow fall prompt 15-30 km seasonal movements from higher to lower elevations. It is a moderately social deer. Females form matrilinear groups. Males are solitary orlive in small bands of unrelated individuals. Large temporary feeding aggregations in open ground are common in winter and early spring.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. Persecution and habitat destruction were responsible for the dramatic decline in the 19\" century. Predator control, law enforcement, and habitat diversification caused by human activities (logging, burning, livestock ranching) all improved the living conditions for Mule Deer, which increased in abundance and distribution to a peak population of 7-5 million in late 1950s. From 1980 on, the total population has seemed substantially stable at about five million animals. Annual harvest in late 1990s was 535,000 individuals.Bibliography.Anderson et al. (1974), Anderson & Wallmo (1984), Crete & Daigle (1999), Geist (1998), Kie & Czech (2000), Mackie et al. (2003), Martinez-Munoz et al. (2003), Wallmo (1981).","taxonomy":"Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, 1817, Big Sioux River, South Dakota(USA).A study on mtDNA has confirmed that there are two distinct groups, a northern coastal one (“Black-tailed Deer”) and an eastern and south-western one (true Mule Deer). The large divergence between these two lineages seems to provide evidence for separate ice-free refugia during the last glacial maximum, about 18,000 years ago. Mule Deer persisted south of the ice sheet in multiple refugial populations. Black-tailed Deer probably survived in a single refugium in the Pacific Northwest, with a slow post-glacial recolonization, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity. Here eight subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf mulet @fr | Maultierhirsch @de | Ciervomulo @es | Black-tailed Deer (columbianus and sitkensis) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Odocoileus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"29","interpretedPageNumber":"436","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hemionus","name":"Odocoileus hemionus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.h.hemionusRafinesque,1817—RockyMtsfromYukontoTexasandNewMexico.O.h.californicusCaton,1876—CCalifornia.O.h.cerrosensisMerriam,1898—NWMexico(CedrosI,BajaCalifornia).O.h.columbianusRichardson,1829—coastalregionfromPortSimpsoninBritishColumbia(WCanada)toCCalifornia(WUSA).O.h.eremicusMearns,1897—SWUSA(Arizona,NMexico).O.h.fulbiginatusCowan,1933—SWUSA(SCalifornia)andNWMexico(NBajaCalifornia).O.h.peninsulaeLydekker,1898—NWMexico(SBajaCalifornia).O. h. sitkensis Merriam, 1898— coastal S Alaska.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514517/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson et al. (1974) | Anderson & Wallmo (1984) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Geist (1998) | Kie & Czech (2000) | Mackie et al. (2003) | Martinez-Munoz et al. (2003) | Wallmo (1981)","foodAndFeeding":"It is an opportunistic intermediate feeder, with a tendency to be selective on various types of browse.","breeding":"Puberty is generally reached by females at about 18 months of age, rarely at 6-7 months. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at 18 months, but their opportunities to mate are low up to 2-3 years of age. Rutting season peaks between November and January. Dominant bucks court and mate estrous does. The courtship is initiated by a low-stretch approach of the buck, followed by a slow pursuit in small circles. Females are seasonally polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 23-28 days and a receptive period of 24-36 hours. Mean pregnancy length is 203 days, with a birth peak between June and July. Primiparous does give birth to a single fawn; adults tend to produce twins. The spotted newborns weighs 2.7-4 kg and remain hidden for the first week. At three months of age they lose the spots, and at three or four months are weaned. Full weight is attained at 2-3 years of age by females, at 7-8 years by males. Maximum longevity is 19-20 years, but very few animals survive beyond 8-10 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Bobcats (Lynx rufus).","activityPatterns":"Mule Deer are mainly active at dusk and dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a saltatorial runner with a specialized flight gait, the fourfooted bound known as “stotting.” For short durations it can reach 40 km/h. Generally home ranges are relatively small, 2-5-5 km?, larger in males. In northern latitudes and in montane areas, decreasing temperatures and snow fall prompt 15-30 km seasonal movements from higher to lower elevations. It is a moderately social deer. Females form matrilinear groups. Males are solitary orlive in small bands of unrelated individuals. Large temporary feeding aggregations in open ground are common in winter and early spring.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. Persecution and habitat destruction were responsible for the dramatic decline in the 19\" century. Predator control, law enforcement, and habitat diversification caused by human activities (logging, burning, livestock ranching) all improved the living conditions for Mule Deer, which increased in abundance and distribution to a peak population of 7-5 million in late 1950s. From 1980 on, the total population has seemed substantially stable at about five million animals. Annual harvest in late 1990s was 535,000 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-180 cm for males (adult bucks) and 135-155 cm for females (does), tail 15-23 cm, shoulder height 85-105 cm (bucks) and 75-95 cm (does); weight 50-110 kg (adult bucks) and 35-65 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in the northern Rocky Mountains, with records of 210-230 kg for exceptional bucks. Adult bucks average 50-70% heavier than does. Generally a mediumsized deer similar to the White-tailed Deer (O. virginianus), but with a relatively shorter and narrower tail that is white to black above, or tipped with black. The ears are very large, around two thirds the length of the face. Males have antlers, with a main beam that grows upward and then bifurcates in equal-length forked tines (“dichotomous branching”); the subbasal snag is short. The lacrimal fossa is deep. The coat is reddishbrown in summer, grayish-yellow, gray, or dark brown in winter. The rostrum is pale and the forehead has a dark patch. Molts in May and September. Newborn fawns are spotted. Nasal, preorbital, metatarsal, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital and caudal glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is large. There are two main phenotypes, the Black-tailed Deer of the north-west coast, which has a tail thatis black above and a moderately large metatarsal gland, and the true Mule Deer of the south-west coast and inland, which has a conspicuous white rump patch, a white tail with a black tip, and a very large metatarsal gland. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males sprout antler pedicles at three months of age. The first antler set, small buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Adult antlers are usually 45-65 cm in length but can be longer, up to 75 cm. Antler casting occurs from to late January to March. Regrowth begins in April-May, from two weeks to two months after antler casting. Velvet shedding occurs in September.","habitat":"It is an ecotone deer, preferring open forest and scrubland associated with steep and broken terrain. It also lives in coastal coniferous rain forests and on prairies and in semi-desert shrub habitats. Snow depth of 30 cmmay impede movements, and depth more than 50 cmprevents the use of an area."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD8FFDAFA70FB75E7FFFE9B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD8FFDAFA70FB75E7FFFE9B","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"436","verbatimText":"38.Marsh DeerBlastocerus dichotomusFrench:Cerf des marais/ German:Sumpfhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode los pantanosTaxonomy.Cervus dichotomus Illiger, 1815, Lake Ipoa, Paraguay.This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Peru, Bolivia, Brazil(S of Amazonia), Paraguay, and N Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180 cm(males) and 165 cm(females), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (males) and 100-115 cm (females); weight 110-130 kg (males) and 70-100 kg (females). Bucks are on average 30-50% heavier than does. Relatively large-sized deer, with a narrow face and long, thin legs; bushy tail. Legs black up to the radius. Muzzle black, white ring around eyes. Yellowish tail with black tip. Fawns unspotted. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, nasal, rear interdigital, and tarsal glands are present. Antlers of adult males are typically fourto five-tined, 40-45 cm long, with radial branching; the main beam bifurcates not far from the base and each tine tends to bifurcate. Yearling males have simple spikes; two-year-old subadults have forked beams. Antler casting occurs in almost every month of the year, with a peak in September. Hooves are elongated; the pads of the hoof are connected by a strong membrane and can be spread up to 10 cmapart.Habitat.It occurs in several kinds of wetlands, including marshy habitats and seasonally flooded areas. It avoids forests and selects areas with a water depth of 30-60 cm.Food and Feeding.It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to browse easily-digestible food. The diet consists mainly of semi-aquatic and aquatic plants.Breeding.It is not yet known at what age females attain puberty. They have an estrous cycle of 24 days. The mean length of gestation is 271 days. In captivity there is no clear seasonality in reproduction. In the Pantanal of Brazil, the main fawning season is in April-August, with a higher frequency of births in May-July, when the water level is declining. In Argentinabirths are mainly in December—March. Does give birth to a singleton, weighing on average 4-5 kg. The fawn is relatively precocious and at five days of age it begins to follow its mother. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), caimans and anacondas may prey on full-grown Marsh Deer; Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) may prey on fawns.Activity patterns.It is mostly diurnal, but it may become nocturnal when persecuted. It avoids eating during the hottest hours of the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Its large haunches and long limbs make it a saltatorial deer. Its movements follow the advance and recession of the water level. Males have home ranges of 800-5000 ha, females of 300-2400 ha. It is quite adept at swimming. It is a weakly gregarious species. Females form small family groups and males are mostly solitary.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting and habitat loss have drastically decreased the original distribution, creating small isolated populations. It was extinct in Uruguayby the late 1950s. The largest population lives in the Pantanal wetland, in Brazil, where in 1991-1992 a large scale survey estimated it at around 44,000 animals. In Argentina, estimates for Ibera marshes are around 1100-2000 animals, and other important populations are known from FormosaNatural Reserve and the Parana River Delta. In Bolivia, several populations are known from the Benisavannas and Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, and in Pampas del Heath, north of Madidi National Park, a recent survey gives an estimate of around 700 Marsh Deer. The main population in Paraguayis in the Yacyreta region where density is low. Hydroelectric dams and drainage for agriculture continue to reduce its range. Poaching and diseases transmitted by introduced livestock contribute to its decline. Pollution of water associated with gold mining is an additional threat in Pantanal, Brazil.Bibliography.Duarte et al. (2008), Pinder & Grosse (1991), Piovezan et al. (2010), Schaller & Vasconcelos (1978), Tomas & Salis (2000).","taxonomy":"Cervus dichotomus Illiger, 1815, Lake Ipoa, Paraguay.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Cerf des marais @fr | Sumpfhirsch @de | Ciervode los pantanos @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Illiger","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1815","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Blastocerus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"29","interpretedPageNumber":"436","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dichotomus","name":"Blastocerus dichotomus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Peru, Bolivia, Brazil(S of Amazonia), Paraguay, and N Argentina.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514519/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Duarte et al. (2008) | Pinder & Grosse (1991) | Piovezan et al. (2010) | Schaller & Vasconcelos (1978) | Tomas & Salis (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to browse easily-digestible food. The diet consists mainly of semi-aquatic and aquatic plants.","breeding":"It is not yet known at what age females attain puberty. They have an estrous cycle of 24 days. The mean length of gestation is 271 days. In captivity there is no clear seasonality in reproduction. In the Pantanal of Brazil, the main fawning season is in April-August, with a higher frequency of births in May-July, when the water level is declining. In Argentinabirths are mainly in December—March. Does give birth to a singleton, weighing on average 4-5 kg. The fawn is relatively precocious and at five days of age it begins to follow its mother. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), caimans and anacondas may prey on full-grown Marsh Deer; Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) may prey on fawns.","activityPatterns":"It is mostly diurnal, but it may become nocturnal when persecuted. It avoids eating during the hottest hours of the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Its large haunches and long limbs make it a saltatorial deer. Its movements follow the advance and recession of the water level. Males have home ranges of 800-5000 ha, females of 300-2400 ha. It is quite adept at swimming. It is a weakly gregarious species. Females form small family groups and males are mostly solitary.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting and habitat loss have drastically decreased the original distribution, creating small isolated populations. It was extinct in Uruguayby the late 1950s. The largest population lives in the Pantanal wetland, in Brazil, where in 1991-1992 a large scale survey estimated it at around 44,000 animals. In Argentina, estimates for Ibera marshes are around 1100-2000 animals, and other important populations are known from FormosaNatural Reserve and the Parana River Delta. In Bolivia, several populations are known from the Benisavannas and Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, and in Pampas del Heath, north of Madidi National Park, a recent survey gives an estimate of around 700 Marsh Deer. The main population in Paraguayis in the Yacyreta region where density is low. Hydroelectric dams and drainage for agriculture continue to reduce its range. Poaching and diseases transmitted by introduced livestock contribute to its decline. Pollution of water associated with gold mining is an additional threat in Pantanal, Brazil.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180 cm(males) and 165 cm(females), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (males) and 100-115 cm (females); weight 110-130 kg (males) and 70-100 kg (females). Bucks are on average 30-50% heavier than does. Relatively large-sized deer, with a narrow face and long, thin legs; bushy tail. Legs black up to the radius. Muzzle black, white ring around eyes. Yellowish tail with black tip. Fawns unspotted. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, nasal, rear interdigital, and tarsal glands are present. Antlers of adult males are typically fourto five-tined, 40-45 cm long, with radial branching; the main beam bifurcates not far from the base and each tine tends to bifurcate. Yearling males have simple spikes; two-year-old subadults have forked beams. Antler casting occurs in almost every month of the year, with a peak in September. Hooves are elongated; the pads of the hoof are connected by a strong membrane and can be spread up to 10 cmapart.","habitat":"It occurs in several kinds of wetlands, including marshy habitats and seasonally flooded areas. It avoids forests and selects areas with a water depth of 30-60 cm."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"435","verbatimText":"36.White-tailed DeerOdocoileus virginianusFrench:Cerf de Virginie/ German:WeilRwedelhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode cola blancaOther common names:FloridaKey Deer(clavium)Taxonomy.Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780, Virginia(USA).The first Odocoileusappeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.O.v.clamumBarbour&G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).O.v.macmurusRafinesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).O.v.semmalusGoldman&Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872-SE Mexico(Yucatan).White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canadaand northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kgfor does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cmand antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexicoantler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexicoto northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.Habitat.As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 mabove sea level in the Andes.Food and Feeding.As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.Breeding.Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Surinamemating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombiabetween February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.Activity patterns.Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.Status and Conservation.Populations of GuatemalaCITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canadaand USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexicoto northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finlandwas estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.On following pages 37 Mule Deer IOdocoı/eııs hemıonus) 38 Marsh Deer (Blastocerusdıchoromus) 39 Pampas Huemul (Hrppocamelus brsulcusl 42 Northern Pudu(Pudumephıstophılesl. 43 Southern Pudu(Pudupude) Deer (Ozoroceros bezoartrcusl, 40 North Andean Huomul (Hıppocamelusanrrsensrsl, 41 South AndeanBibliography.Crete & Daigle (1999), DelGiudice (2007), Demarais et al. (2000), Fuller et al. (1989), Geist (1998), Halls (1984), Hirth (1977), Lopez et al. (2004), McCullough (1979), Miller et al. (2003), Smith (1991).","taxonomy":"Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780, Virginia(USA).The first Odocoileusappeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf de Virginie @fr | Weil Rwedelhirsch @de | Ciervode cola blanca @es | Florida Key Deer(clavium) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Odocoileus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"28","interpretedPageNumber":"435","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"virginianus","name":"Odocoileus virginianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.O.v.clamumBarbour&G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).O.v.macmurusRafinesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).O.v.semmalusGoldman&Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872-SE Mexico(Yucatan).White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.","bibliography":"Crete & Daigle (1999) | DelGiudice (2007) | Demarais et al. (2000) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Geist (1998) | Halls (1984) | Hirth (1977) | Lopez et al. (2004) | McCullough (1979) | Miller et al. (2003) | Smith (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.","breeding":"Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Surinamemating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombiabetween February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.","activityPatterns":"Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.","statusAndConservation":"Populations of GuatemalaCITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canadaand USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexicoto northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finlandwas estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canadaand northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kgfor does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cmand antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexicoantler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexicoto northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.","habitat":"As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 mabove sea level in the Andes."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"435","verbatimText":"36.White-tailed DeerOdocoileus virginianusFrench:Cerf de Virginie/ German:WeilRwedelhirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode cola blancaOther common names:FloridaKey Deer(clavium)Taxonomy.Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780, Virginia(USA).The first Odocoileusappeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.O.v.clamumBarbour&G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).O.v.macmurusRafinesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).O.v.semmalusGoldman&Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872-SE Mexico(Yucatan).White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.Descriptive notes.Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canadaand northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kgfor does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cmand antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexicoantler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexicoto northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.Habitat.As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 mabove sea level in the Andes.Food and Feeding.As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.Breeding.Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Surinamemating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombiabetween February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.Activity patterns.Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.Status and Conservation.Populations of GuatemalaCITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canadaand USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexicoto northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finlandwas estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.On following pages 37 Mule Deer IOdocoı/eııs hemıonus) 38 Marsh Deer (Blastocerusdıchoromus) 39 Pampas Huemul (Hrppocamelus brsulcusl 42 Northern Pudu(Pudumephıstophılesl. 43 Southern Pudu(Pudupude) Deer (Ozoroceros bezoartrcusl, 40 North Andean Huomul (Hıppocamelusanrrsensrsl, 41 South AndeanBibliography.Crete & Daigle (1999), DelGiudice (2007), Demarais et al. (2000), Fuller et al. (1989), Geist (1998), Halls (1984), Hirth (1977), Lopez et al. (2004), McCullough (1979), Miller et al. (2003), Smith (1991).","taxonomy":"Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780, Virginia(USA).The first Odocoileusappeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf de Virginie @fr | Weil Rwedelhirsch @de | Ciervode cola blanca @es | Florida Key Deer(clavium) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Odocoileus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"28","interpretedPageNumber":"435","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"virginianus","name":"Odocoileus virginianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.O.v.clamumBarbour&G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).O.v.macmurusRafinesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).O.v.semmalusGoldman&Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872-SE Mexico(Yucatan).White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514515/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Crete & Daigle (1999) | DelGiudice (2007) | Demarais et al. (2000) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Geist (1998) | Halls (1984) | Hirth (1977) | Lopez et al. (2004) | McCullough (1979) | Miller et al. (2003) | Smith (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.","breeding":"Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Surinamemating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombiabetween February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.","activityPatterns":"Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.","statusAndConservation":"Populations of GuatemalaCITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canadaand USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexicoto northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finlandwas estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canadaand northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kgfor does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cmand antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexicoantler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexicoto northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.","habitat":"As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 mabove sea level in the Andes."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDAFFDBFA73FBAEEE34F3BB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDAFFDBFA73FBAEEE34F3BB","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"438","verbatimText":"43.Southern PuduPudu pudaFrench:Poudou austral/ German:Siidpudu/ Spanish:PuduOther common names:Chilean PuduTaxonomy.Capra puda Molina, 1782, Chiloé Province (Chile).This species is monotypic.Distribution.It is found in S Chilebetween 35° S(Mataquito River) and 47° S(Lake Buenos Aires, Peninsula Esmeralda & Laguna San Rafael) and in adjacent W Argentinafrom SW Neuquén Province, southward along the foothills of the Andes to Los Alerces National Park in Chubut Province.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80 cm, tail 4 cm, shoulder height 30-40 cm; weight 9-10 kg (up to 14 kg). Small-sized deer,slightly larger than the Northern Pudu. The coat is rufous in summer, dark brown in winter; the legs are paler. Fawns are spotted until they are three months of age. A large preorbital gland and a small interdigital gland are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes 5-9 cm long (up to 10 cm). Thefirst true set of antlers develops at 9-12 months of age. Antler cycle is synchronized: antler casting is in June—July, velvet cleaning in October. Hooves are short.Habitat.It lives in temperate pristine rain forests, from sea level to 1700 mabove sea level, more frequently at high elevations. It also occurs in secondary forests. It feeds along forest edges.Food and Feeding.As a browser,it eats young leaves, sprouts of trees and shrubs, forbs, and fruits.Breeding.Females attain puberty at 12-18 months of age, sometimes at 5—6 months. Males are able to reproduce at two or three years of age. Breeding is markedly seasonal, with a rut mainly in March-April and a fawning season in November-December. In the courtship approach males lower their body in an exaggerated crouched posture with belly almost touching the ground. Females have an estrous cycle of eleven days. The length of pregnancy is about 195 days. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing about 0.7-0. 9 kg. The first solid food is eaten at twelve days of age. Weaning occurs very early, possibly at two months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 17-18 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Kodkods (Leopardus guigna), foxes and Magellanic horned owls (Bubo magellanicus). On Chiloé Island, pudus comprise 3-7% of the diet of Darwin’s Fox (Pseudalopexfulvipes).Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular, but can be active both day and night as well.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Its small and compact body enables it to move in the thick understory of the forest. It occupies home ranges of 15-25 ha, sometimes larger, which it defends actively. Fighting includes jumping at the rival, biting, and thrashing him with the front legs. Marking includes depositing feces in latrines. It lives solitarily or in temporary pairs.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Total population is thought to be less than 10,000 animals. Poaching and habitat loss and fragmentation have caused a rapid decline in recent decades. Over 90% ofits former habitat in Chilehas been lost. Predation by domestic dogs and competition with domestic livestock and exotic wildlife are important additional threats.Bibliography.Blainvillain et al. (1997), Eldridge et al. (1987), Feer (1984), Hershkovitz (1982), Jimenez (2010), MacNamara & Eldridge (1987), Meier & Merino (2007).","taxonomy":"Capra puda Molina, 1782, Chiloé Province (Chile).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Poudou austral @fr | Siidpudu @de | Pudu @es | Chilean Pudu @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Pudu","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"438","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"puda","name":"Pudu puda","subspeciesAndDistribution":"It is found in S Chilebetween 35° S(Mataquito River) and 47° S(Lake Buenos Aires, Peninsula Esmeralda & Laguna San Rafael) and in adjacent W Argentinafrom SW Neuquén Province, southward along the foothills of the Andes to Los Alerces National Park in Chubut Province.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514539/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Blainvillain et al. (1997) | Eldridge et al. (1987) | Feer (1984) | Hershkovitz (1982) | Jimenez (2010) | MacNamara & Eldridge (1987) | Meier & Merino (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"As a browser,it eats young leaves, sprouts of trees and shrubs, forbs, and fruits.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at 12-18 months of age, sometimes at 5—6 months. Males are able to reproduce at two or three years of age. Breeding is markedly seasonal, with a rut mainly in March-April and a fawning season in November-December. In the courtship approach males lower their body in an exaggerated crouched posture with belly almost touching the ground. Females have an estrous cycle of eleven days. The length of pregnancy is about 195 days. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing about 0.7-0. 9 kg. The first solid food is eaten at twelve days of age. Weaning occurs very early, possibly at two months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 17-18 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Kodkods (Leopardus guigna), foxes and Magellanic horned owls (Bubo magellanicus). On Chiloé Island, pudus comprise 3-7% of the diet of Darwin’s Fox (Pseudalopexfulvipes).","activityPatterns":"It is mainly crepuscular, but can be active both day and night as well.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Its small and compact body enables it to move in the thick understory of the forest. It occupies home ranges of 15-25 ha, sometimes larger, which it defends actively. Fighting includes jumping at the rival, biting, and thrashing him with the front legs. Marking includes depositing feces in latrines. It lives solitarily or in temporary pairs.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Total population is thought to be less than 10,000 animals. Poaching and habitat loss and fragmentation have caused a rapid decline in recent decades. Over 90% ofits former habitat in Chilehas been lost. Predation by domestic dogs and competition with domestic livestock and exotic wildlife are important additional threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 80 cm, tail 4 cm, shoulder height 30-40 cm; weight 9-10 kg (up to 14 kg). Small-sized deer,slightly larger than the Northern Pudu. The coat is rufous in summer, dark brown in winter; the legs are paler. Fawns are spotted until they are three months of age. A large preorbital gland and a small interdigital gland are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes 5-9 cm long (up to 10 cm). Thefirst true set of antlers develops at 9-12 months of age. Antler cycle is synchronized: antler casting is in June—July, velvet cleaning in October. Hooves are short.","habitat":"It lives in temperate pristine rain forests, from sea level to 1700 mabove sea level, more frequently at high elevations. It also occurs in secondary forests. It feeds along forest edges."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDAFFDBFF74FA76EFFBFC29.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDAFFDBFF74FA76EFFBFC29","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"438","verbatimText":"42.Northern PuduPudu mephistophilesFrench:Poudou de I'Equateur/ German:Nordpudu/ Spanish:PuduchicoTaxonomy.Pudua mephistophiles De Winton, 1896, Papallacta, Napo-Pastaza (Ecuador).This species is monotypic.Distribution.It ranges through temperate zone forests and paramos from the Cordillera Central in C Colombiathrough the Cordillera Oriental of Ecuadorto the eastern Andean cloud forests in Peru, southward to Junindepartment. The exact range is unknown and there are obvious distributional gaps. One major natural gap is the dry forest south of the Huancabamba depression, which separates the northern population from the main Peruvian population.Descriptive notes.Head-body 75 cm, tail 3 cm, shoulder height 25-38 cm; weight 5-6 kg. Very small-sized deer, the smallest species of the family. The legs are short, the rostrum and the neck are shortened; the ears are rounded. The rhinarium is bulbous. The tail is rudimentary. Males and females are of similar size. The coatis rufous with dark brown on the back. The face is black; the legs are dark brown. Fawns are unspotted. Preorbital glands are very small or absent. Tarsal and metatarsal glands are lacking. There are small interdigital glands. Permanent dentition of 32-34 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes about 6 cmlong (up to 9 cm). Pedicles begin to grow at about three months. Hooves are narrow and pointed.Habitat.It mainly occurs in mountain forests and high elevation grasslands, from 1700 mto 4500 mabove sea level. Throughoutits range, the Northern Puduuses several habitat types, especially high altitude montane forests and the humid paramo grasslands above the tree-line. Montane forests occupied are humid rainforests such as elfin and cloud forests, frequently close to paramo grasslands, which are primarily used by populations in the northern part of the range. The main altitude used by Northern Pudus is 2000-4000 m, with records as high as 4500 min Ecuador. Paramo can be characterized as a humid grassland mixed with short, flowering vegetation such as terrestrial bromeliads, mosses, lichens, tree-ferns, and various other bushes. Throughout its distribution, this species endures low temperatures, with frequent night-time frost in the higher altitudes. Precipitation is high in all habitat types used, and includes rain, snow, and fog.Food and Feeding.The Northern Puduis assumed to be a browser feeding mainly on leaves and fruits. According to the observations of local people in Peru,it climbs trees to forage on fruit. The species is known to encroach on agriculturalfields to feed on crops in areas of higher human habitation.Breeding.It is not known at what age females attain puberty. Since the climate and the environment are less seasonal than in the southern Andes, reproduction is probably less seasonal. There are probably two main peaks of rutting activity, one in August— September and one in March-April. After a gestation of about seven months, a single fawn is born, weighing about 0-4 kg. Females experience a postpartum estrus. Fawns are precocious and at six months of age reach adult size.Activity patterns.It is crepuscular and nocturnal, but given the lack of good observational data on this species, it may have more complicated patterns of foraging and resting throughout the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a saltatorial, duiker-like deer, able to flee zig-zagging in dense cover. Pudus are mostly solitary but are sometimes seen in pairs. They are probably territorial, but no long term studies are available.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting from the 1950s through the early 1980s and habitat loss have fragmented the distribution range and decreased the population size. The expansion of human settlements, with consequent habitat conversion and persecution by dogs are important current threats.Bibliography.Barrio & Tirira (2008), Czernay (1987), Escamilo et al. (2010), Hershkovitz (1982).","taxonomy":"Pudua mephistophiles De Winton, 1896, Papallacta, Napo-Pastaza (Ecuador).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Poudou de @fr | 'Equateur @en | Nordpudu @de | Puduchico @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"De Winton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1896","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Pudu","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"438","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mephistophiles","name":"Pudu mephistophiles","subspeciesAndDistribution":"It ranges through temperate zone forests and paramos from the Cordillera Central in C Colombiathrough the Cordillera Oriental of Ecuadorto the eastern Andean cloud forests in Peru, southward to Junindepartment. The exact range is unknown and there are obvious distributional gaps. One major natural gap is the dry forest south of the Huancabamba depression, which separates the northern population from the main Peruvian population.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514537/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Barrio & Tirira (2008) | Czernay (1987) | Escamilo et al. (2010) | Hershkovitz (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"The Northern Puduis assumed to be a browser feeding mainly on leaves and fruits. According to the observations of local people in Peru,it climbs trees to forage on fruit. The species is known to encroach on agriculturalfields to feed on crops in areas of higher human habitation.","breeding":"It is not known at what age females attain puberty. Since the climate and the environment are less seasonal than in the southern Andes, reproduction is probably less seasonal. There are probably two main peaks of rutting activity, one in August— September and one in March-April. After a gestation of about seven months, a single fawn is born, weighing about 0-4 kg. Females experience a postpartum estrus. Fawns are precocious and at six months of age reach adult size.","activityPatterns":"It is crepuscular and nocturnal, but given the lack of good observational data on this species, it may have more complicated patterns of foraging and resting throughout the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a saltatorial, duiker-like deer, able to flee zig-zagging in dense cover. Pudus are mostly solitary but are sometimes seen in pairs. They are probably territorial, but no long term studies are available.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting from the 1950s through the early 1980s and habitat loss have fragmented the distribution range and decreased the population size. The expansion of human settlements, with consequent habitat conversion and persecution by dogs are important current threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 75 cm, tail 3 cm, shoulder height 25-38 cm; weight 5-6 kg. Very small-sized deer, the smallest species of the family. The legs are short, the rostrum and the neck are shortened; the ears are rounded. The rhinarium is bulbous. The tail is rudimentary. Males and females are of similar size. The coatis rufous with dark brown on the back. The face is black; the legs are dark brown. Fawns are unspotted. Preorbital glands are very small or absent. Tarsal and metatarsal glands are lacking. There are small interdigital glands. Permanent dentition of 32-34 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes about 6 cmlong (up to 9 cm). Pedicles begin to grow at about three months. Hooves are narrow and pointed.","habitat":"It mainly occurs in mountain forests and high elevation grasslands, from 1700 mto 4500 mabove sea level. Throughoutits range, the Northern Puduuses several habitat types, especially high altitude montane forests and the humid paramo grasslands above the tree-line. Montane forests occupied are humid rainforests such as elfin and cloud forests, frequently close to paramo grasslands, which are primarily used by populations in the northern part of the range. The main altitude used by Northern Pudus is 2000-4000 m, with records as high as 4500 min Ecuador. Paramo can be characterized as a humid grassland mixed with short, flowering vegetation such as terrestrial bromeliads, mosses, lichens, tree-ferns, and various other bushes. Throughout its distribution, this species endures low temperatures, with frequent night-time frost in the higher altitudes. Precipitation is high in all habitat types used, and includes rain, snow, and fog."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"437","verbatimText":"40.North Andean HuemulHippocamelus antisensisFrench: Taruca / German: Nordlicher Andenhirsch / Spanish: Huemul septentrionalOther common names: Northern Huemul, Peruvian Heumul, TarucaTaxonomy.Cervus antisensis d’Orbigny, 1834, Bolivian Andes.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-145 cm, tail 11-12 cm, shoulder height 75-80 cm (males) and 70-75 cm (females); weight 55-60 kg (males) and 45-55 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, with a stocky, short-legged body. Tail relatively short. Ears long and pointed. The coat is sandy-gray to grayish-brown, with a white rump-patch, a dark band over eyes, a whitish patch around the muzzle, and a pale throat. The hairs are coarse, long, and brittle. Fawns are unspotted. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present; the preorbital gland is very large. Antlers of adults are forked and 22-25 cm long. Antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting around September and velvet cleaning around January.Habitat.It lives at high elevations, up to 5000 mabove sea level, in open landscapes near rock outcrops, in alpine grasslands and scrublands. It seems to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources, usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh.Food and Feeding.It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to select more digestible plants. Its diet mainly consists of small forbs and young grasses.Breeding.Females likely reach puberty at about 18 months of age. Reproduction is markedly seasonal, with a rutting season around June-July, during the driest period of the year. The mean length of pregnancy is about 240 days. The peak of births is in February-March, in the middle of or towards the end of the rainy season. Females usually give birth to a singleton, but twins are recorded in particularly productive habitats.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal; most active in early morning and afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very agile on steep slopes and rocks. During the day it makes elevational movements, ascending toward noon and descending in late afternoon and night. It forms small, fluid, mixed groups led by a dominant female. These open groups, of three to six animals, which continuously change composition, are part of local cohesive population units.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is around 12,000-17,000 individuals, of which 9000-13,000 are in Peru. Habitatloss, competition with livestock, and predation by dogs are the main threats.Bibliography.Barrio (2010), Barrio & Ferreyra (2008), Merkt (1987), Roe & Rees (1976).","taxonomy":"Cervus antisensis d’Orbigny, 1834, Bolivian Andes.This species is monotypic.","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"d'Orbigny","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Hippocamelus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"437","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antisensis","name":"Hippocamelus antisensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina.","bibliography":"Barrio (2010) | Barrio & Ferreyra (2008) | Merkt (1987) | Roe & Rees (1976)","foodAndFeeding":"It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to select more digestible plants. Its diet mainly consists of small forbs and young grasses.","breeding":"Females likely reach puberty at about 18 months of age. Reproduction is markedly seasonal, with a rutting season around June-July, during the driest period of the year. The mean length of pregnancy is about 240 days. The peak of births is in February-March, in the middle of or towards the end of the rainy season. Females usually give birth to a singleton, but twins are recorded in particularly productive habitats.","activityPatterns":"Mainly diurnal; most active in early morning and afternoon.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is very agile on steep slopes and rocks. During the day it makes elevational movements, ascending toward noon and descending in late afternoon and night. It forms small, fluid, mixed groups led by a dominant female. These open groups, of three to six animals, which continuously change composition, are part of local cohesive population units.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is around 12,000-17,000 individuals, of which 9000-13,000 are in Peru. Habitatloss, competition with livestock, and predation by dogs are the main threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-145 cm, tail 11-12 cm, shoulder height 75-80 cm (males) and 70-75 cm (females); weight 55-60 kg (males) and 45-55 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, with a stocky, short-legged body. Tail relatively short. Ears long and pointed. The coat is sandy-gray to grayish-brown, with a white rump-patch, a dark band over eyes, a whitish patch around the muzzle, and a pale throat. The hairs are coarse, long, and brittle. Fawns are unspotted. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present; the preorbital gland is very large. Antlers of adults are forked and 22-25 cm long. Antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting around September and velvet cleaning around January.","habitat":"It lives at high elevations, up to 5000 mabove sea level, in open landscapes near rock outcrops, in alpine grasslands and scrublands. It seems to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources, usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"437","verbatimText":"39.Pampas DeerOzotoceros bezoarticusFrench:Cerf des pampas/ German:Pampashirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode la pampaTaxonomy. Cervus bezoarcticus Linnaeus, 1758, Pernanbuco (Brazil).The scientific name of the species originates from bezoar stone, a calcareous mass allegedly found in the stomachs of this deer. Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.b.bezoarcticusLinnaeus,1758—CBrazil(SofAmazonia).O.b.arerunguaensisGonzalezetal.,2002—WUruguay.O.b.celerCabrera,1943—ArgentinePampas(SanLuis&BuenosAiresprovinces).O.b.leucogasterGoldfuss,1817—Bolivia,WBrazil,Paraguay,NArgentineChaco(SantaFe&Corrientesprovinces).O. b. uruguayensis Gonzalez et al., 2002— E Uruguay.Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-120 cm (males) and 85-90 cm (females), tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm (males) and 60-65 cm (females); weight of males 24-34 kg (up to 40 kg) and of females 22-29 kg. Bucks are on average 15-20% heavier than females. Medium-sized, lightly built deer. The main color of the coat goes from pale reddish-brown or tawny-brown in the north to bay in the south. Whitish areas around the eyes, lips, throat, chest, and tarsal tuft. Females have two small white spots on the forehead. Fawns are spotted for three months. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, and rear interdigital glands are always present. Metatarsal glands are sometimes lacking. Permanent dentition is 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are about 30 cmlong and typically have three tines, a well-developed brow tine, and a terminal fork. Pedicles begin to grow at five months of age; the first antlers are buttons or short spikes. Antler cycles are seasonal and locally synchronized, but with variable timing according to latitude. Antler casting occurs in autumn (Brazil) or in winter (Argentinaand Uruguay). Regrowth starts immediately and lasts about 100 days. Velvet shedding peaks in winter or spring. At six years of age antlers attain their full size.Habitat. It prefers grassland (pampas, savanna, also seasonally flooded grassland). In Argentinait is able to tolerate winter temperatures as low as —15°C and a summer shade temperature of 42°C.Food and Feeding. As a mixed feeder,it is able to eat grass but often selects forbs and can browse shrubs.Breeding. Does generally attain puberty at around 14 months of age. Bucks reach sexual maturity at about twelve months but normally begin to reproduce later. Conceptions may occur year-round, but the mating season has often one main peak in summer-early autumn. Does have an estrous cycle of 21 days. Bucks may follow receptive does with long pursuits and approach them in a low stretch posture, uttering soft buzzing sounds, possibly an imitation ofthe distress call of the fawn. The mean length of gestation is around 220 days. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 2 kg. Fawns stand up and start to suckle 30-60 minutes after birth. By 2-3 weeks of age they begin to run and play. At four weeks they start to graze and by eight weeks they feed with their mother and other deer. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), and Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are the main predators; Pampas Foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) may kill fawns.Activity patterns. It is active all day, with recurrent feeding and resting bouts.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Near Threatened on The [UCN Red List and decreasing. Habitat destruction and habitat conversion to cropland and cattle ranching continue to be significant threats. Poaching and predation by dogs contribute to its decline. The main populations are in Brazil, in Pantanal with 20,000-40,000 individuals and in Cerrado with 2000 animals; small populations have been recently rediscovered in the Brazilian states of Parana, Santa Catarinaand Rio Grande do Sul. Around 1100 deer live in Uruguay(El Tapado in the north-west with 800 individuals and Los Ajos in the southeast with 300 deer). In Argentina, where originally Pampas Deer had half a million square kilometers of available grassland, now only four small populationssurvive, for a total of 1200-1400 individuals. A small population may still exist in northern Boliviaand small pockets still live in the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, in north-eastern Bolivia.Bibliography. Gonzalez, Alvarez & Maldonado(2002), Gonzalez, Cosse et al. (2010), Gonzalez, Maldonadoet al. (1998), Jackson (1986, 1987), Jackson & Langguth (1987), Redford (1987), Rodrigues& Monteiro Filho (2000), Tomas (1995), Ungerfeld, Bielli et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Pensado et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Sierra & Bielli (2008), Vila et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Cervus bezoarcticus Linnaeus, 1758, Pernanbuco (Brazil).The scientific name of the species originates from bezoar stone, a calcareous mass allegedly found in the stomachs of this deer. Five subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf des pampas @fr | Pampashirsch @de | Ciervode la pampa @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Ozotoceros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"437","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bezoarticus","name":"Ozotoceros bezoarticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.b.bezoarcticusLinnaeus,1758—CBrazil(SofAmazonia).O.b.arerunguaensisGonzalezetal.,2002—WUruguay.O.b.celerCabrera,1943—ArgentinePampas(SanLuis&BuenosAiresprovinces).O.b.leucogasterGoldfuss,1817—Bolivia,WBrazil,Paraguay,NArgentineChaco(SantaFe&Corrientesprovinces).O. b. uruguayensis Gonzalez et al., 2002— E Uruguay.","bibliography":"Gonzalez, Alvarez & Maldonado(2002) | Gonzalez, Cosse et al. (2010) | Gonzalez, Maldonadoet al. (1998) | Jackson (1986, 1987) | Jackson & Langguth (1987) | Redford (1987) | Rodrigues& Monteiro Filho (2000) | Tomas (1995) | Ungerfeld, Bielli et al. (2008) | Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Pensado et al. (2008) | Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Sierra & Bielli (2008) | Vila et al. (2008)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 90-120 cm (males) and 85-90 cm (females), tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm (males) and 60-65 cm (females); weight of males 24-34 kg (up to 40 kg) and of females 22-29 kg. Bucks are on average 15-20% heavier than females. Medium-sized, lightly built deer. The main color of the coat goes from pale reddish-brown or tawny-brown in the north to bay in the south. Whitish areas around the eyes, lips, throat, chest, and tarsal tuft. Females have two small white spots on the forehead. Fawns are spotted for three months. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, and rear interdigital glands are always present. Metatarsal glands are sometimes lacking. Permanent dentition is 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are about 30 cmlong and typically have three tines, a well-developed brow tine, and a terminal fork. Pedicles begin to grow at five months of age; the first antlers are buttons or short spikes. Antler cycles are seasonal and locally synchronized, but with variable timing according to latitude. Antler casting occurs in autumn (Brazil) or in winter (Argentinaand Uruguay). Regrowth starts immediately and lasts about 100 days. Velvet shedding peaks in winter or spring. At six years of age antlers attain their full size.Habitat. It prefers grassland (pampas, savanna, also seasonally flooded grassland). In Argentinait is able to tolerate winter temperatures as low as —15°C and a summer shade temperature of 42°C.Food and Feeding. As a mixed feeder,it is able to eat grass but often selects forbs and can browse shrubs.Breeding. Does generally attain puberty at around 14 months of age. Bucks reach sexual maturity at about twelve months but normally begin to reproduce later. Conceptions may occur year-round, but the mating season has often one main peak in summer-early autumn. Does have an estrous cycle of 21 days. Bucks may follow receptive does with long pursuits and approach them in a low stretch posture, uttering soft buzzing sounds, possibly an imitation ofthe distress call of the fawn. The mean length of gestation is around 220 days. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 2 kg. Fawns stand up and start to suckle 30-60 minutes after birth. By 2-3 weeks of age they begin to run and play. At four weeks they start to graze and by eight weeks they feed with their mother and other deer. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), and Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are the main predators; Pampas Foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) may kill fawns.Activity patterns. It is active all day, with recurrent feeding and resting bouts.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Near Threatened on The [UCN Red List and decreasing."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"437","verbatimText":"40.North Andean HuemulHippocamelus antisensisFrench: Taruca / German: Nordlicher Andenhirsch / Spanish: Huemul septentrionalOther common names: Northern Huemul, Peruvian Heumul, TarucaTaxonomy.Cervus antisensis d’Orbigny, 1834, Bolivian Andes.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-145 cm, tail 11-12 cm, shoulder height 75-80 cm (males) and 70-75 cm (females); weight 55-60 kg (males) and 45-55 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, with a stocky, short-legged body. Tail relatively short. Ears long and pointed. The coat is sandy-gray to grayish-brown, with a white rump-patch, a dark band over eyes, a whitish patch around the muzzle, and a pale throat. The hairs are coarse, long, and brittle. Fawns are unspotted. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present; the preorbital gland is very large. Antlers of adults are forked and 22-25 cm long. Antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting around September and velvet cleaning around January.Habitat.It lives at high elevations, up to 5000 mabove sea level, in open landscapes near rock outcrops, in alpine grasslands and scrublands. It seems to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources, usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh.Food and Feeding.It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to select more digestible plants. Its diet mainly consists of small forbs and young grasses.Breeding.Females likely reach puberty at about 18 months of age. Reproduction is markedly seasonal, with a rutting season around June-July, during the driest period of the year. The mean length of pregnancy is about 240 days. The peak of births is in February-March, in the middle of or towards the end of the rainy season. Females usually give birth to a singleton, but twins are recorded in particularly productive habitats.Activity patterns.Mainly diurnal; most active in early morning and afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very agile on steep slopes and rocks. During the day it makes elevational movements, ascending toward noon and descending in late afternoon and night. It forms small, fluid, mixed groups led by a dominant female. These open groups, of three to six animals, which continuously change composition, are part of local cohesive population units.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is around 12,000-17,000 individuals, of which 9000-13,000 are in Peru. Habitatloss, competition with livestock, and predation by dogs are the main threats.Bibliography.Barrio (2010), Barrio & Ferreyra (2008), Merkt (1987), Roe & Rees (1976).","taxonomy":"Cervus antisensis d’Orbigny, 1834, Bolivian Andes.This species is monotypic.","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"d'Orbigny","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Hippocamelus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"437","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antisensis","name":"Hippocamelus antisensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514531/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Barrio (2010) | Barrio & Ferreyra (2008) | Merkt (1987) | Roe & Rees (1976)","foodAndFeeding":"It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to select more digestible plants. Its diet mainly consists of small forbs and young grasses.","breeding":"Females likely reach puberty at about 18 months of age. Reproduction is markedly seasonal, with a rutting season around June-July, during the driest period of the year. The mean length of pregnancy is about 240 days. The peak of births is in February-March, in the middle of or towards the end of the rainy season. Females usually give birth to a singleton, but twins are recorded in particularly productive habitats.","activityPatterns":"Mainly diurnal; most active in early morning and afternoon.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is very agile on steep slopes and rocks. During the day it makes elevational movements, ascending toward noon and descending in late afternoon and night. It forms small, fluid, mixed groups led by a dominant female. These open groups, of three to six animals, which continuously change composition, are part of local cohesive population units.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is around 12,000-17,000 individuals, of which 9000-13,000 are in Peru. Habitatloss, competition with livestock, and predation by dogs are the main threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-145 cm, tail 11-12 cm, shoulder height 75-80 cm (males) and 70-75 cm (females); weight 55-60 kg (males) and 45-55 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, with a stocky, short-legged body. Tail relatively short. Ears long and pointed. The coat is sandy-gray to grayish-brown, with a white rump-patch, a dark band over eyes, a whitish patch around the muzzle, and a pale throat. The hairs are coarse, long, and brittle. Fawns are unspotted. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present; the preorbital gland is very large. Antlers of adults are forked and 22-25 cm long. Antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting around September and velvet cleaning around January.","habitat":"It lives at high elevations, up to 5000 mabove sea level, in open landscapes near rock outcrops, in alpine grasslands and scrublands. It seems to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources, usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"437","verbatimText":"39.Pampas DeerOzotoceros bezoarticusFrench:Cerf des pampas/ German:Pampashirsch/ Spanish:Ciervode la pampaTaxonomy. Cervus bezoarcticus Linnaeus, 1758, Pernanbuco (Brazil).The scientific name of the species originates from bezoar stone, a calcareous mass allegedly found in the stomachs of this deer. Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O.b.bezoarcticusLinnaeus,1758—CBrazil(SofAmazonia).O.b.arerunguaensisGonzalezetal.,2002—WUruguay.O.b.celerCabrera,1943—ArgentinePampas(SanLuis&BuenosAiresprovinces).O.b.leucogasterGoldfuss,1817—Bolivia,WBrazil,Paraguay,NArgentineChaco(SantaFe&Corrientesprovinces).O. b. uruguayensis Gonzalez et al., 2002— E Uruguay.Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-120 cm (males) and 85-90 cm (females), tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm (males) and 60-65 cm (females); weight of males 24-34 kg (up to 40 kg) and of females 22-29 kg. Bucks are on average 15-20% heavier than females. Medium-sized, lightly built deer. The main color of the coat goes from pale reddish-brown or tawny-brown in the north to bay in the south. Whitish areas around the eyes, lips, throat, chest, and tarsal tuft. Females have two small white spots on the forehead. Fawns are spotted for three months. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, and rear interdigital glands are always present. Metatarsal glands are sometimes lacking. Permanent dentition is 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are about 30 cmlong and typically have three tines, a well-developed brow tine, and a terminal fork. Pedicles begin to grow at five months of age; the first antlers are buttons or short spikes. Antler cycles are seasonal and locally synchronized, but with variable timing according to latitude. Antler casting occurs in autumn (Brazil) or in winter (Argentinaand Uruguay). Regrowth starts immediately and lasts about 100 days. Velvet shedding peaks in winter or spring. At six years of age antlers attain their full size.Habitat. It prefers grassland (pampas, savanna, also seasonally flooded grassland). In Argentinait is able to tolerate winter temperatures as low as —15°C and a summer shade temperature of 42°C.Food and Feeding. As a mixed feeder,it is able to eat grass but often selects forbs and can browse shrubs.Breeding. Does generally attain puberty at around 14 months of age. Bucks reach sexual maturity at about twelve months but normally begin to reproduce later. Conceptions may occur year-round, but the mating season has often one main peak in summer-early autumn. Does have an estrous cycle of 21 days. Bucks may follow receptive does with long pursuits and approach them in a low stretch posture, uttering soft buzzing sounds, possibly an imitation ofthe distress call of the fawn. The mean length of gestation is around 220 days. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 2 kg. Fawns stand up and start to suckle 30-60 minutes after birth. By 2-3 weeks of age they begin to run and play. At four weeks they start to graze and by eight weeks they feed with their mother and other deer. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), and Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are the main predators; Pampas Foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) may kill fawns.Activity patterns. It is active all day, with recurrent feeding and resting bouts.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Near Threatened on The [UCN Red List and decreasing. Habitat destruction and habitat conversion to cropland and cattle ranching continue to be significant threats. Poaching and predation by dogs contribute to its decline. The main populations are in Brazil, in Pantanal with 20,000-40,000 individuals and in Cerrado with 2000 animals; small populations have been recently rediscovered in the Brazilian states of Parana, Santa Catarinaand Rio Grande do Sul. Around 1100 deer live in Uruguay(El Tapado in the north-west with 800 individuals and Los Ajos in the southeast with 300 deer). In Argentina, where originally Pampas Deer had half a million square kilometers of available grassland, now only four small populationssurvive, for a total of 1200-1400 individuals. A small population may still exist in northern Boliviaand small pockets still live in the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, in north-eastern Bolivia.Bibliography. Gonzalez, Alvarez & Maldonado(2002), Gonzalez, Cosse et al. (2010), Gonzalez, Maldonadoet al. (1998), Jackson (1986, 1987), Jackson & Langguth (1987), Redford (1987), Rodrigues& Monteiro Filho (2000), Tomas (1995), Ungerfeld, Bielli et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Pensado et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Sierra & Bielli (2008), Vila et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Cervus bezoarcticus Linnaeus, 1758, Pernanbuco (Brazil).The scientific name of the species originates from bezoar stone, a calcareous mass allegedly found in the stomachs of this deer. Five subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Cerf des pampas @fr | Pampashirsch @de | Ciervode la pampa @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Ozotoceros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"437","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bezoarticus","name":"Ozotoceros bezoarticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O.b.bezoarcticusLinnaeus,1758—CBrazil(SofAmazonia).O.b.arerunguaensisGonzalezetal.,2002—WUruguay.O.b.celerCabrera,1943—ArgentinePampas(SanLuis&BuenosAiresprovinces).O.b.leucogasterGoldfuss,1817—Bolivia,WBrazil,Paraguay,NArgentineChaco(SantaFe&Corrientesprovinces).O. b. uruguayensis Gonzalez et al., 2002— E Uruguay.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514525/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Gonzalez, Alvarez & Maldonado(2002) | Gonzalez, Cosse et al. (2010) | Gonzalez, Maldonadoet al. (1998) | Jackson (1986, 1987) | Jackson & Langguth (1987) | Redford (1987) | Rodrigues& Monteiro Filho (2000) | Tomas (1995) | Ungerfeld, Bielli et al. (2008) | Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Pensado et al. (2008) | Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Sierra & Bielli (2008) | Vila et al. (2008)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 90-120 cm (males) and 85-90 cm (females), tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm (males) and 60-65 cm (females); weight of males 24-34 kg (up to 40 kg) and of females 22-29 kg. Bucks are on average 15-20% heavier than females. Medium-sized, lightly built deer. The main color of the coat goes from pale reddish-brown or tawny-brown in the north to bay in the south. Whitish areas around the eyes, lips, throat, chest, and tarsal tuft. Females have two small white spots on the forehead. Fawns are spotted for three months. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, and rear interdigital glands are always present. Metatarsal glands are sometimes lacking. Permanent dentition is 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are about 30 cmlong and typically have three tines, a well-developed brow tine, and a terminal fork. Pedicles begin to grow at five months of age; the first antlers are buttons or short spikes. Antler cycles are seasonal and locally synchronized, but with variable timing according to latitude. Antler casting occurs in autumn (Brazil) or in winter (Argentinaand Uruguay). Regrowth starts immediately and lasts about 100 days. Velvet shedding peaks in winter or spring. At six years of age antlers attain their full size.Habitat. It prefers grassland (pampas, savanna, also seasonally flooded grassland). In Argentinait is able to tolerate winter temperatures as low as —15°C and a summer shade temperature of 42°C.Food and Feeding. As a mixed feeder,it is able to eat grass but often selects forbs and can browse shrubs.Breeding. Does generally attain puberty at around 14 months of age. Bucks reach sexual maturity at about twelve months but normally begin to reproduce later. Conceptions may occur year-round, but the mating season has often one main peak in summer-early autumn. Does have an estrous cycle of 21 days. Bucks may follow receptive does with long pursuits and approach them in a low stretch posture, uttering soft buzzing sounds, possibly an imitation ofthe distress call of the fawn. The mean length of gestation is around 220 days. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 2 kg. Fawns stand up and start to suckle 30-60 minutes after birth. By 2-3 weeks of age they begin to run and play. At four weeks they start to graze and by eight weeks they feed with their mother and other deer. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), and Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are the main predators; Pampas Foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) may kill fawns.Activity patterns. It is active all day, with recurrent feeding and resting bouts.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Near Threatened on The [UCN Red List and decreasing."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDBFFDBFA48F727E294FB40.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDBFFDBFA48F727E294FB40","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"437","verbatimText":"41.South Andean HuemulHippocamelus bisulcusFrench:Guémal/ German:Sidlicher Andenhirsch/ Spanish:HuemulmeridionalOther common names:Chilean Huemul, Southern Huemul, Patagonian HuemulTaxonomy.Equus bisulcus Molina, 1782, Colchagua Province, Chile.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The Andes in S Chileand S Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 155-165 cm (males), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm (males) and 80-85 cm (females); weight 70-75 kg (males) and 60-70 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, very similar to the North Andean Huemul, butslightly larger, darker, and with a more uniform coloration. The coat is rusty brown in summer and grayish-yellow in winter. Bucks have a dark chevron along the face and muzzle. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital glands are present. Antlers of adults are forked and about 25 cmlong. The pedicle begins to grow at six months; the first antlers are short spikes. The antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting in early winter (late June-July) and velvet shedding in late spring (November).Habitat.It lives on bare rocks, alpine meadows, and at elevations from sea level to 3000 m. Forests, especially of southern beech (Nothofagus), may become more important in winter. In the past, it occurred also in completely treeless areas of the Patagonian grasslands.Food and Feeding.It mainly eats highly digestible plants, forbs, buds, young twigs, and young grass. More than 145 plant species have been identified in six different study areas.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about 18 months of age. Males are weakly polygynous, with a tending bond mating system. Rutting season peaks in February—-May. The gestation is about 240 days long. Births are mostly in mid-spring to early summer. Females usually give birth on bare cliffs, to a single fawn weighing 3-6 kg. Fawns remain hidden for the first days. At two months of age they consume vegetation frequently. Weaning occurs at four months of age. Pumas (Puma concolor), Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus), and dogs are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is mainly crepuscular. During midday it spends most of the time ruminating and resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is particularly adapted to moving on rugged terrain. Home ranges are relatively stable, small (40-80 ha) or medium sized (300-500 ha). The huemuls tend to move down during winter and up during summer, without long-distance migrations. They are weakly gregarious, forming small groups, generally consisting of a pair of adults (male and female) with offspring. Sexual segregation occurs only during the fawning season. In the past feeding aggregations of over 100 animals were observed in winter.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is probably around 1500 animals, of which 1000 are in Chileand 500 inArgentina. It is the rarest deer in South America. The present range is extremely fragmented, with about one hundred subpopulations, of which 63 are outside protected areas. The northernmost subpopulation (Nevados de Chillan-Laguna del Laja, in the Chilean Andes, 36° S) possibly amounts to less than 50 individuals dispersed in more than 2000 km*. Overhunting, introduction of livestock, competition with exotic deer and habitat conversion to agriculture have produced a dramatic decrease in range and abundance.Bibliography.Corti, Shaffer et al. (2011), Corti, Wittmer & Festa-Bianchet (2010), Diaz (1993), Frid (1994, 1999, 2001), Gill et al. (2007), Povilitis (1985, 1998), Saucedo & Gill (2004), Vila et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Equus bisulcus Molina, 1782, Colchagua Province, Chile.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Guémal @fr | Sidlicher Andenhirsch @de | Huemulmeridional @es | Chilean Huemul @en | Southern Huemul @en | Patagonian Huemul @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Hippocamelus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"437","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bisulcus","name":"Hippocamelus bisulcus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The Andes in S Chileand S Argentina.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514533/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corti, Shaffer et al. (2011) | Corti, Wittmer & Festa-Bianchet (2010) | Diaz (1993) | Frid (1994, 1999, 2001) | Gill et al. (2007) | Povilitis (1985, 1998) | Saucedo & Gill (2004) | Vila et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"It mainly eats highly digestible plants, forbs, buds, young twigs, and young grass. More than 145 plant species have been identified in six different study areas.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at about 18 months of age. Males are weakly polygynous, with a tending bond mating system. Rutting season peaks in February—-May. The gestation is about 240 days long. Births are mostly in mid-spring to early summer. Females usually give birth on bare cliffs, to a single fawn weighing 3-6 kg. Fawns remain hidden for the first days. At two months of age they consume vegetation frequently. Weaning occurs at four months of age. Pumas (Puma concolor), Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus), and dogs are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"It is mainly crepuscular. During midday it spends most of the time ruminating and resting.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is particularly adapted to moving on rugged terrain. Home ranges are relatively stable, small (40-80 ha) or medium sized (300-500 ha). The huemuls tend to move down during winter and up during summer, without long-distance migrations. They are weakly gregarious, forming small groups, generally consisting of a pair of adults (male and female) with offspring. Sexual segregation occurs only during the fawning season. In the past feeding aggregations of over 100 animals were observed in winter.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is probably around 1500 animals, of which 1000 are in Chileand 500 inArgentina. It is the rarest deer in South America. The present range is extremely fragmented, with about one hundred subpopulations, of which 63 are outside protected areas. The northernmost subpopulation (Nevados de Chillan-Laguna del Laja, in the Chilean Andes, 36° S) possibly amounts to less than 50 individuals dispersed in more than 2000 km*. Overhunting, introduction of livestock, competition with exotic deer and habitat conversion to agriculture have produced a dramatic decrease in range and abundance.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 155-165 cm (males), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm (males) and 80-85 cm (females); weight 70-75 kg (males) and 60-70 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, very similar to the North Andean Huemul, butslightly larger, darker, and with a more uniform coloration. The coat is rusty brown in summer and grayish-yellow in winter. Bucks have a dark chevron along the face and muzzle. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital glands are present. Antlers of adults are forked and about 25 cmlong. The pedicle begins to grow at six months; the first antlers are short spikes. The antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting in early winter (late June-July) and velvet shedding in late spring (November).","habitat":"It lives on bare rocks, alpine meadows, and at elevations from sea level to 3000 m. Forests, especially of southern beech (Nothofagus), may become more important in winter. In the past, it occurred also in completely treeless areas of the Patagonian grasslands."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"431","verbatimText":"34.MooseAlces alcesFrench:Elan/ German:Eich/ Spanish:AlceOther common names:Elk (in Europe); Caucasian Moose (caucasica)Taxonomy.Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Early Alceiniappeared in the Middle Miocene of central Siberia, about three million years ago. Modern Moose first occurred early in the Late Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, in Eurasia, and entered North America only about 10,000-14,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European, and one North American. North-eastern Siberia can be identified as the origin of all the extant lineages. East Siberian and Alaskan Moose have similar body size and antler design but are not closely related. The race caucasica (Vereshchagin, 1955)from the Caucasusis extinct. Eight extant subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.a.alcesLinnaeus,1758—fromScandinavia,Finland,BalticstatesandPolandEtotheYeniseyRiver.A.a.americanaClinton,1822—ECanada(COntariotoNewfoundland).A.a.andersoniPeterson,1950—fromBritishColumbiatoMinnesotaandOntario.A.a.buturliniChernyavsky&Zhelesnov,1982—NESiberiaandKamchatka.A.a.cameloidesMilne-Edwards,1867—NMongolia,Ussuriland,NManchuria.A.a.gigasMiller,1899—AlaskaandYukon.A.a.pfizenmayeriZukowsky,1910—fromCSiberiatoStanovoyMtsandCherskiyMts.A. a. shirasi Nelson, 1914— from S Albertato Wyomingand Utah.Descriptive notes.Head—body 250-300 cm for males (bulls) and 240-290 cm for females (cows), tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 190-210 cm (bulls) and 185-200 cm (cows); weight of adult bulls 300-600 kg and adult cows 280-460 kg. The heaviest animals occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska(with records of more than 770 kgfor bulls and 600 kgfor cows), the lightest in the Amur regionand Manchuria (with some bulls weighing just 260 kg). Bulls are on average 25-30% heavier than cows. The largest extant deer, with massive trunk, short neck, shoulder hump, long and pendulous nose, very small bare rhinarium, long dewlap (“bell”) from the throat; large head and elongated snout, long legs. The coat is prevailingly dark brown with grayish legs. The tail is short and of the same color as the rump. Molts in May and September. Newborn calves have a reddish-brown unspotted coat. Suborbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Permanent teeth erupt at 6-19 months of age. Antlers of adults are typically palmated, but a simpler design without any flattening is the rule in Manchuria and common in Europe. Pedicles appear at 4-5 months after birth; their apices, generally simple, minute buttons, ossify at 6-7 months and cast at 10-11 months. The second antler set, simple spikes or forked beams (in Alaskasometimes already with traces of palmation) develop at about 13-14 months and are cast the following February—March. At 7-11 years antlers attain their full size. In good quality populations of Europe, antlers of adult bulls have a span of 105 cmon average and a brutto (skull plus antlers) weight of 10 kg(with records of 145 cmand 18.5-20 kg); in Alaskamean antler span is 145 cmand antler mass is about 20 kg, with records of 205 cmand 30-35. 8 kg. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in September, antler casting in December, and the beginning of the new antler growth in April. Hooves are 13-18 cm long and 11-14 cm broad in adult bulls, with the pads extending right outto the tip of the hoof.Habitat.Boreal forests, mixed forests of the northern temperate zone, especially with damp, marshy areas. In Alaskaalso tundra. Up to 1700 mabove sea level on the AltaiMountains. Snow depth more than 70 cmand mean temperature in summer higher than 14°C are limiting factors. Males tend to select habitats with greater food abundance. Females select areas with better concealment cover.Food and Feeding.As a browser, it feeds on the vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, preferring birch, alder, and willow. Adult daily consumption is about 10-30 kg of fresh vegetation.Breeding.In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16-17 months of age. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at the same age, but in naturally structured populations yearling and subadults are excluded from breeding by dominant bulls and begin to reproduce only at five years of age; in heavily hunted populations with a low proportion of adults, subadults have a good chance of mating. Rutting season is in September—October. Typically an adult male locates and defends an estrous female until he mates with her, and then he moves on in search of other females (“tending bond mating system”). In tundra the dominant bull tends to herd and defend a group of females (“harem mating system”). Bulls thrash antlers on vegetation, rub trees, dig rutting pits, and urinate and wallow,salivating copiously. Females are polyestrous, with cycles on average of 24 days. During estrus they are receptive for 15-26 hours. Estrous females rub trees and visit rutting pits dug by males and wallow in them. Bulls lose 9-18% of their weight during the rut. Gestation lasts on average 234 days, with the birth season in May-June. Cows give birth to one or two calves, weighing on average 10-12 kg in Europe and 14-18 kg in Alaska; their mass doubles in about two weeks. Mothers remain within 50 mof their offspring for 5-7 days. Calves are nursed 7-9 times during the first days and four times at about 50 days of age. At 2-3 weeks calves begin to ingest solid food and at one month, half of their diet consists mostly of plants. Lactation lasts about 4-5 months. Final weight is attained at about eight years by bulls and four years by cows. Senescence occurs from 12-13 years onward. Normally they live to a maximum of 16-19 years, with records of 21 years for bulls and 25 for cows. In captivity the maximum longevity recorded is 27 years of age. In populations subjected only to natural mortality, average life expectancy in protected areas can be about seven years. In populations subjected to hunting, average life expectancy can decline to about three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active though the day, with peaks at dawn and dusk and 5-8 feeding bouts for a total of 9-13 hours in summer and 6-8 hours in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Moose have a specialized trotting gait, by which they glide over obstacles with little energetic cost. They can reach a speed of 60 km/h. Sedentary Moose have home ranges of 2-90 km®. A segment of the population can be migratory, moving 10-30 km on average, normally to reach areas with shallower snow and better food availability in winter. Migrations can sometimes be much longer, up to 200 kmin North America, up to 300-500 km in Siberia. Natal dispersal can be up to 180-250 km. The Moose is not particularly gregarious. The basic social unitis a female with her young offspring. Bulls are generally solitary and tend to spatially segregate from cows for most of the year. In open terrain in Alaskapredation risk favors some grouping behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In the early Holocene the European Moose extended its range to Great Britain, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. In the early Middle Ages it disappeared from the last relict areas of western Central Europe,its range restricted to Fennoscandia and Eastern Europe. At the beginning of the 19\" century Moose suffered a drastic decline due to overhunting and disappeared from the Caucasus. In the last 50 years European Moose populations have increased dramatically. In Europe there are at least 440,000 individuals, possibly more than half a million, of which about 214,000 are harvested every year.Vagrant individuals are currently recorded in Central and South-eastern Europe, from Germanyto Croatiaand Romania. A few very small populations are now established in South Czech Republicand North Austria. In North America the original population was estimated at about one million; overexploitation caused a decline to around 500,000 in1948, but in 1960 the number had grown to more than 900,000 and is now again about one million. Annual harvest in late 1990s was about 85,000 individuals.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. 2010, van Ballenberghe (1982), Baskin & Danell (2003), Bowyer, Stewart et al. (2001), Bowyer, van Ballengerghe & Kie (2003), Cederlund et al. (1988), Crete & Daigle (1999), Ericsson et al. (2001), Franzmann et al. (2008), Garel et al. (2006), Gasaway et al. (1987), Hundermark & Bowyer (2004), Nygrén (1986), Nygrén et al. (2007), Schmolcke & Zachos (2005).","taxonomy":"Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Early Alceiniappeared in the Middle Miocene of central Siberia, about three million years ago. Modern Moose first occurred early in the Late Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, in Eurasia, and entered North America only about 10,000-14,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European, and one North American. North-eastern Siberia can be identified as the origin of all the extant lineages. East Siberian and Alaskan Moose have similar body size and antler design but are not closely related. The race caucasica (Vereshchagin, 1955)from the Caucasusis extinct. Eight extant subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Elan @fr | Eich @de | Alce @es | Elk (in Europe); Caucasian Moose (caucasica) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1821","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Alces","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"431","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alces","name":"Alces alces","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.a.alcesLinnaeus,1758—fromScandinavia,Finland,BalticstatesandPolandEtotheYeniseyRiver.A.a.americanaClinton,1822—ECanada(COntariotoNewfoundland).A.a.andersoniPeterson,1950—fromBritishColumbiatoMinnesotaandOntario.A.a.buturliniChernyavsky&Zhelesnov,1982—NESiberiaandKamchatka.A.a.cameloidesMilne-Edwards,1867—NMongolia,Ussuriland,NManchuria.A.a.gigasMiller,1899—AlaskaandYukon.A.a.pfizenmayeriZukowsky,1910—fromCSiberiatoStanovoyMtsandCherskiyMts.A. a. shirasi Nelson, 1914— from S Albertato Wyomingand Utah.","bibliography":"Apollonio et al. 2010, van Ballenberghe (1982) | Baskin & Danell (2003) | Bowyer, Stewart et al. (2001) | Bowyer, van Ballengerghe & Kie (2003) | Cederlund et al. (1988) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Ericsson et al. (2001) | Franzmann et al. (2008) | Garel et al. (2006) | Gasaway et al. (1987) | Hundermark & Bowyer (2004) | Nygrén (1986) | Nygrén et al. (2007) | Schmolcke & Zachos (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"As a browser, it feeds on the vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, preferring birch, alder, and willow. Adult daily consumption is about 10-30 kg of fresh vegetation.","breeding":"In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16-17 months of age. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at the same age, but in naturally structured populations yearling and subadults are excluded from breeding by dominant bulls and begin to reproduce only at five years of age; in heavily hunted populations with a low proportion of adults, subadults have a good chance of mating. Rutting season is in September—October. Typically an adult male locates and defends an estrous female until he mates with her, and then he moves on in search of other females (“tending bond mating system”). In tundra the dominant bull tends to herd and defend a group of females (“harem mating system”). Bulls thrash antlers on vegetation, rub trees, dig rutting pits, and urinate and wallow,salivating copiously. Females are polyestrous, with cycles on average of 24 days. During estrus they are receptive for 15-26 hours. Estrous females rub trees and visit rutting pits dug by males and wallow in them. Bulls lose 9-18% of their weight during the rut. Gestation lasts on average 234 days, with the birth season in May-June. Cows give birth to one or two calves, weighing on average 10-12 kg in Europe and 14-18 kg in Alaska; their mass doubles in about two weeks. Mothers remain within 50 mof their offspring for 5-7 days. Calves are nursed 7-9 times during the first days and four times at about 50 days of age. At 2-3 weeks calves begin to ingest solid food and at one month, half of their diet consists mostly of plants. Lactation lasts about 4-5 months. Final weight is attained at about eight years by bulls and four years by cows. Senescence occurs from 12-13 years onward. Normally they live to a maximum of 16-19 years, with records of 21 years for bulls and 25 for cows. In captivity the maximum longevity recorded is 27 years of age. In populations subjected only to natural mortality, average life expectancy in protected areas can be about seven years. In populations subjected to hunting, average life expectancy can decline to about three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"It is active though the day, with peaks at dawn and dusk and 5-8 feeding bouts for a total of 9-13 hours in summer and 6-8 hours in winter.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Moose have a specialized trotting gait, by which they glide over obstacles with little energetic cost. They can reach a speed of 60 km/h. Sedentary Moose have home ranges of 2-90 km®. A segment of the population can be migratory, moving 10-30 km on average, normally to reach areas with shallower snow and better food availability in winter. Migrations can sometimes be much longer, up to 200 kmin North America, up to 300-500 km in Siberia. Natal dispersal can be up to 180-250 km. The Moose is not particularly gregarious. The basic social unitis a female with her young offspring. Bulls are generally solitary and tend to spatially segregate from cows for most of the year. In open terrain in Alaskapredation risk favors some grouping behavior.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In the early Holocene the European Moose extended its range to Great Britain, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. In the early Middle Ages it disappeared from the last relict areas of western Central Europe,its range restricted to Fennoscandia and Eastern Europe. At the beginning of the 19\" century Moose suffered a drastic decline due to overhunting and disappeared from the Caucasus. In the last 50 years European Moose populations have increased dramatically. In Europe there are at least 440,000 individuals, possibly more than half a million, of which about 214,000 are harvested every year.Vagrant individuals are currently recorded in Central and South-eastern Europe, from Germanyto Croatiaand Romania. A few very small populations are now established in South Czech Republicand North Austria. In North America the original population was estimated at about one million; overexploitation caused a decline to around 500,000 in1948, but in 1960 the number had grown to more than 900,000 and is now again about one million. Annual harvest in late 1990s was about 85,000 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 250-300 cm for males (bulls) and 240-290 cm for females (cows), tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 190-210 cm (bulls) and 185-200 cm (cows); weight of adult bulls 300-600 kg and adult cows 280-460 kg. The heaviest animals occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska(with records of more than 770 kgfor bulls and 600 kgfor cows), the lightest in the Amur regionand Manchuria (with some bulls weighing just 260 kg). Bulls are on average 25-30% heavier than cows. The largest extant deer, with massive trunk, short neck, shoulder hump, long and pendulous nose, very small bare rhinarium, long dewlap (“bell”) from the throat; large head and elongated snout, long legs. The coat is prevailingly dark brown with grayish legs. The tail is short and of the same color as the rump. Molts in May and September. Newborn calves have a reddish-brown unspotted coat. Suborbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Permanent teeth erupt at 6-19 months of age. Antlers of adults are typically palmated, but a simpler design without any flattening is the rule in Manchuria and common in Europe. Pedicles appear at 4-5 months after birth; their apices, generally simple, minute buttons, ossify at 6-7 months and cast at 10-11 months. The second antler set, simple spikes or forked beams (in Alaskasometimes already with traces of palmation) develop at about 13-14 months and are cast the following February—March. At 7-11 years antlers attain their full size. In good quality populations of Europe, antlers of adult bulls have a span of 105 cmon average and a brutto (skull plus antlers) weight of 10 kg(with records of 145 cmand 18.5-20 kg); in Alaskamean antler span is 145 cmand antler mass is about 20 kg, with records of 205 cmand 30-35. 8 kg. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in September, antler casting in December, and the beginning of the new antler growth in April. Hooves are 13-18 cm long and 11-14 cm broad in adult bulls, with the pads extending right outto the tip of the hoof.","habitat":"Boreal forests, mixed forests of the northern temperate zone, especially with damp, marshy areas. In Alaskaalso tundra. Up to 1700 mabove sea level on the AltaiMountains. Snow depth more than 70 cmand mean temperature in summer higher than 14°C are limiting factors. Males tend to select habitats with greater food abundance. Females select areas with better concealment cover."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"431","verbatimText":"35.CaribouRangifer tarandusFrench:Renne/ German:Ren/ Spanish:RenoOther common names:Reindeer (in Europe)Taxonomy.Cervus tarandus Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland, Sweden.The oldest evidence of the genus Rangiferdates back to the late Pliocene, about two million years ago, in Alaska. “Reindeer” were present in Siberia and Central Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 650,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three main haplogroups, possibly representing three separate populations during the last glacial period. The main population lived in Siberia and Beringia and has contributed to the gene pool of all the extant subspecies. One small refugial population supposedly lived in Western Europe and the other in eastern North America. The word caribou derives from the Micmac Indian term “xalibu,” which means “pawer,” “shoveller,” in reference to the habit of digging snow for obtaining food. Taxonomists are not concordant on the number of subspecies. Here ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.t.tarandusLinnaeus,1758—Norway.R.t.caribouGmelin,1788—SCanada(fromSYukontoLabradorandNewfoundland)andNWUSA(NEWashington,NIdaho&WMontana).R.t.fennicusLonnberg,1909—FinlandandNWRussia(Karelia).R.t.groenlandicusLinnaeus,1767—Alaska,NCanada,WGreenland.R.t.pearsoniLydekker,1903—NovayaZemlya(Russia).R.t.pearyiJ.A.Allen,1902—CanadianArcticIs.R. t. phylarchus Hollister, 1912— Russian Far East (Amur region, Okhotsk area, Sakhalin, Kamchatka).R.t.platyrhynchusVrolik,1829—Svalbard(Norway).R.t.sibiricusMurray,1866—NSiberiantundra,RussianArcticIs.R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933— Ural Mts (Russia), AltaiMts, Mongolia.Feral Icelandic population originated from animals introduced from Norwayin 1771; they have been introduced also into South GeorgiaIs (in 1911-1912 and 1925) and Kerguelen Is (in 1955).Descriptive notes.Head-body 185-210 cm for males (bulls) and 170-195 cm for females (cows), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 90-135 cm (bulls) and 70-100 cm (cows); post-rutting weight 65-170 kg (adult bulls) and 55-110 kg (adult cows). Males can reach 210-240 kg, females 140 kg. Size dimorphism very variable. Males are on average 30-90% heavier than females. A medium to large-sized deer, with long neck, rump, and legs, and short ears and tail. The rhinarium is furred. Hooves are wide, crescentshaped and splayed; the dewclaws are relatively large and low, providing a large surface to support the body. Toe pads are spongelike in summer, tightened and sharp-edged in winter. Both sexes have an inflatable laryngeal air sac; it is larger in males. The coat is made of particularly dense hair, of variable color, from grayish-brown to white. Males have a well-developed neck mane. The coat of the newborn calf is unspotted. There are three main ecotypes: a large-bodied forest form, a medium-sized tundra form, and a small, short-legged, whitish high Arctic ecotype. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, interdigital, and caudal glands are present. Permanent dentition is 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt fom 4-26 months of age. Males bear large antlers 90-120 cm long, with flattened and multipointed brow and bez tines. Most females develop simple, light-weight antlers 30-45 cm long. Pedicles begin to grow very early, at 7-10 days of age, and the first set of antlers (a pair of spikes 10-40 cm long) begins to grow at just 4-6 weeks, finishes growing at about five months of age, and is cast off at 11-12 months. Adult bulls clean their antlers in September and cast them in November—January. The new antler set begins to grow 1-2 months later. Adult cows retain their antlers though the winter and cast them in March-May. The species has the largest relative antler mass, with bulls of 230-240 kg carrying up to 15 kgof antler weight. The longest antler beams are 140-150 cm.Habitat.Mountain summit meadows, open taiga, tundra, and high Arctic desert up to 2700-3000 m above sea level. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -60°C and suffers when the temperature exceeds 15°C. More than 60-80 cm of snow impedes movements.Food and Feeding.The main diet consists of lichens, moss, ferns, grasses, leaves, and shoots of shrubs and trees (especially willow and birch). Lichens are particularly important in winter. Occasionally they may also feed on animal matter such as lemmings, fish, and bird eggs. To reach ground lichens in winter they dig craters in the snow.Breeding.Most females first conceive at 28-29 months of age. In highly productive habitats, some female calves can attain puberty at about six months of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18-19 days. During estrus they are receptive for 12-24 hours. In tundra conceptions are synchronized, with a 7-10 day peak; in woodland habitat they tend to be less synchronous. Tundra bulls form tending bonds within large mating aggregations. Woodland and high Arctic bulls tend to practice harem defense. During rut adult males lose as much as 20-25% of their weight. The gestation lenght is generally 221-237 days. The cow gives birth to a highly developed calf of 4-9 kg (2.5-3 kg in Svalbard), able to stand up one hour after birth and to follow its mother after 5-7 hours (precocial follower-type young). Calves are born with the ability to regulate body temperature. During the first days they nurse every 18 minutes. The milk is rich in fats and proteins. After one week the calf begins to eat lichens, at two weeks it doublesits weight, and at 4-5 months of age it is weaned. Bulls reach their full body weight at six years of age while cows attain adult size at four years. Senescence occurs at about 11-12 years of age. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-18 years. The maximum longevity in captivity is 22 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators. Juvenile mortality is high: Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), ravens, and eagles may prey on calves.Activity patterns.Cycles of activity of 4-5 hours, more active in summer than in winter. They are not crepuscular. In the summer, insects (oestrid flies, mosquitoes) may severely affect activity patterns and also impact body weight and reproduction.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is the most cursorial deer, able to run up to 80 km/h in open country and swim up to 11 km/h. In woodland habitats it tends to be sedentary, but sometimes makes small to medium-scaled movements, up to 50-100 km. In tundra it is typically migratory; in Taymyr migrations are 1000-2000 km long, in Yakutia 600-700 km. Animals cover 20-50 km per day. It is a highly gregarious species, particularly in open habitats. The basic social unit is the family group with females and calves. Males form small bands. Groups may coalesce in larger aggregations. Migratory Caribou can form impressive moving herds of 50,000-500,000. During migrations, 100,000 Caribou may move through an area of 30 km?®.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and stable. East GreenlandCaribou and Caribou of the Queen Charlotte Islands (once considered subspecies and known respectively as neogroenlandicus and dawsoni) were exterminated in the first decades of 20\" century. In Northern Europe wild Reindeer numbered 26,000 in2005. Feral Reindeer introduced to Icelandnumber about 1000 animals. In 1999 the population size in the Russian Federationwas estimated at 1-1 million individuals. In Mongolia there are fewer than 1000; in Chinathere are a few hundred, probably of domestic origin. In the early 1980s the total population in North America was 2-3-2-8 million animals. The number grew to four million in nearly 200 herds in 2000. Annual harvest in late 1990s was around 120,000 individuals. In a recent survey of 58 major herds around the world, 34 were reported as declining, eight as increasing, and 16 had no trend data. The simultaneous decrease of many herds is coincident with and could be a result of global warming and human-induced landscape changes. In North America, the Caribou is threatened by onshore petroleum explorations. Poaching is important in the Russian Federation. Hybridization with semi-domestic Reindeeris another threat. Natural densities are very low, 0-5 ind/ km?, but during migrations animals can reach 19,000 ind/km?®. Reindeer were domesticated about 3000 years ago in Fennoscandia and Russia.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Blake et al. (1998), Crete & Daigle (1999), Cronin et al. (2005), Geist (1998), Lincoln & Tyler (1994), Loe et al. (2007), Miller (2003), Reimers et al. (2005), Roed (2005), Roed et al. (2008), Schaefer & Mahoney (2001), Vors & Boyce (2009), Williams & Heard(1986).","taxonomy":"Cervus tarandus Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland, Sweden.The oldest evidence of the genus Rangiferdates back to the late Pliocene, about two million years ago, in Alaska. “Reindeer” were present in Siberia and Central Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 650,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three main haplogroups, possibly representing three separate populations during the last glacial period. The main population lived in Siberia and Beringia and has contributed to the gene pool of all the extant subspecies. One small refugial population supposedly lived in Western Europe and the other in eastern North America. The word caribou derives from the Micmac Indian term “xalibu,” which means “pawer,” “shoveller,” in reference to the habit of digging snow for obtaining food. Taxonomists are not concordant on the number of subspecies. Here ten subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renne @fr | Ren @de | Reno @es | Reindeer (in Europe) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rangifer","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"431","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tarandus","name":"Rangifer tarandus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.t.tarandusLinnaeus,1758—Norway.R.t.caribouGmelin,1788—SCanada(fromSYukontoLabradorandNewfoundland)andNWUSA(NEWashington,NIdaho&WMontana).R.t.fennicusLonnberg,1909—FinlandandNWRussia(Karelia).R.t.groenlandicusLinnaeus,1767—Alaska,NCanada,WGreenland.R.t.pearsoniLydekker,1903—NovayaZemlya(Russia).R.t.pearyiJ.A.Allen,1902—CanadianArcticIs.R. t. phylarchus Hollister, 1912— Russian Far East (Amur region, Okhotsk area, Sakhalin, Kamchatka).R.t.platyrhynchusVrolik,1829—Svalbard(Norway).R.t.sibiricusMurray,1866—NSiberiantundra,RussianArcticIs.R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933— Ural Mts (Russia), AltaiMts, Mongolia.Feral Icelandic population originated from animals introduced from Norwayin 1771; they have been introduced also into South GeorgiaIs (in 1911-1912 and 1925) and Kerguelen Is (in 1955).","bibliography":"Baskin & Danell (2003) | Blake et al. (1998) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Cronin et al. (2005) | Geist (1998) | Lincoln & Tyler (1994) | Loe et al. (2007) | Miller (2003) | Reimers et al. (2005) | Roed (2005) | Roed et al. (2008) | Schaefer & Mahoney (2001) | Vors & Boyce (2009) | Williams & Heard(1986)","foodAndFeeding":"The main diet consists of lichens, moss, ferns, grasses, leaves, and shoots of shrubs and trees (especially willow and birch). Lichens are particularly important in winter. Occasionally they may also feed on animal matter such as lemmings, fish, and bird eggs. To reach ground lichens in winter they dig craters in the snow.","breeding":"Most females first conceive at 28-29 months of age. In highly productive habitats, some female calves can attain puberty at about six months of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18-19 days. During estrus they are receptive for 12-24 hours. In tundra conceptions are synchronized, with a 7-10 day peak; in woodland habitat they tend to be less synchronous. Tundra bulls form tending bonds within large mating aggregations. Woodland and high Arctic bulls tend to practice harem defense. During rut adult males lose as much as 20-25% of their weight. The gestation lenght is generally 221-237 days. The cow gives birth to a highly developed calf of 4-9 kg (2.5-3 kg in Svalbard), able to stand up one hour after birth and to follow its mother after 5-7 hours (precocial follower-type young). Calves are born with the ability to regulate body temperature. During the first days they nurse every 18 minutes. The milk is rich in fats and proteins. After one week the calf begins to eat lichens, at two weeks it doublesits weight, and at 4-5 months of age it is weaned. Bulls reach their full body weight at six years of age while cows attain adult size at four years. Senescence occurs at about 11-12 years of age. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-18 years. The maximum longevity in captivity is 22 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators. Juvenile mortality is high: Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), ravens, and eagles may prey on calves.","activityPatterns":"Cycles of activity of 4-5 hours, more active in summer than in winter. They are not crepuscular. In the summer, insects (oestrid flies, mosquitoes) may severely affect activity patterns and also impact body weight and reproduction.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is the most cursorial deer, able to run up to 80 km/h in open country and swim up to 11 km/h. In woodland habitats it tends to be sedentary, but sometimes makes small to medium-scaled movements, up to 50-100 km. In tundra it is typically migratory; in Taymyr migrations are 1000-2000 km long, in Yakutia 600-700 km. Animals cover 20-50 km per day. It is a highly gregarious species, particularly in open habitats. The basic social unit is the family group with females and calves. Males form small bands. Groups may coalesce in larger aggregations. Migratory Caribou can form impressive moving herds of 50,000-500,000. During migrations, 100,000 Caribou may move through an area of 30 km?®.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and stable. East GreenlandCaribou and Caribou of the Queen Charlotte Islands (once considered subspecies and known respectively as neogroenlandicus and dawsoni) were exterminated in the first decades of 20\" century. In Northern Europe wild Reindeer numbered 26,000 in2005. Feral Reindeer introduced to Icelandnumber about 1000 animals. In 1999 the population size in the Russian Federationwas estimated at 1-1 million individuals. In Mongolia there are fewer than 1000; in Chinathere are a few hundred, probably of domestic origin. In the early 1980s the total population in North America was 2-3-2-8 million animals. The number grew to four million in nearly 200 herds in 2000. Annual harvest in late 1990s was around 120,000 individuals. In a recent survey of 58 major herds around the world, 34 were reported as declining, eight as increasing, and 16 had no trend data. The simultaneous decrease of many herds is coincident with and could be a result of global warming and human-induced landscape changes. In North America, the Caribou is threatened by onshore petroleum explorations. Poaching is important in the Russian Federation. Hybridization with semi-domestic Reindeeris another threat. Natural densities are very low, 0-5 ind/ km?, but during migrations animals can reach 19,000 ind/km?®. Reindeer were domesticated about 3000 years ago in Fennoscandia and Russia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 185-210 cm for males (bulls) and 170-195 cm for females (cows), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 90-135 cm (bulls) and 70-100 cm (cows); post-rutting weight 65-170 kg (adult bulls) and 55-110 kg (adult cows). Males can reach 210-240 kg, females 140 kg. Size dimorphism very variable. Males are on average 30-90% heavier than females. A medium to large-sized deer, with long neck, rump, and legs, and short ears and tail. The rhinarium is furred. Hooves are wide, crescentshaped and splayed; the dewclaws are relatively large and low, providing a large surface to support the body. Toe pads are spongelike in summer, tightened and sharp-edged in winter. Both sexes have an inflatable laryngeal air sac; it is larger in males. The coat is made of particularly dense hair, of variable color, from grayish-brown to white. Males have a well-developed neck mane. The coat of the newborn calf is unspotted. There are three main ecotypes: a large-bodied forest form, a medium-sized tundra form, and a small, short-legged, whitish high Arctic ecotype. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, interdigital, and caudal glands are present. Permanent dentition is 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt fom 4-26 months of age. Males bear large antlers 90-120 cm long, with flattened and multipointed brow and bez tines. Most females develop simple, light-weight antlers 30-45 cm long. Pedicles begin to grow very early, at 7-10 days of age, and the first set of antlers (a pair of spikes 10-40 cm long) begins to grow at just 4-6 weeks, finishes growing at about five months of age, and is cast off at 11-12 months. Adult bulls clean their antlers in September and cast them in November—January. The new antler set begins to grow 1-2 months later. Adult cows retain their antlers though the winter and cast them in March-May. The species has the largest relative antler mass, with bulls of 230-240 kg carrying up to 15 kgof antler weight. The longest antler beams are 140-150 cm.","habitat":"Mountain summit meadows, open taiga, tundra, and high Arctic desert up to 2700-3000 m above sea level. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -60°C and suffers when the temperature exceeds 15°C. More than 60-80 cm of snow impedes movements."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"431","verbatimText":"34.MooseAlces alcesFrench:Elan/ German:Eich/ Spanish:AlceOther common names:Elk (in Europe); Caucasian Moose (caucasica)Taxonomy.Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Early Alceiniappeared in the Middle Miocene of central Siberia, about three million years ago. Modern Moose first occurred early in the Late Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, in Eurasia, and entered North America only about 10,000-14,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European, and one North American. North-eastern Siberia can be identified as the origin of all the extant lineages. East Siberian and Alaskan Moose have similar body size and antler design but are not closely related. The race caucasica (Vereshchagin, 1955)from the Caucasusis extinct. Eight extant subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.a.alcesLinnaeus,1758—fromScandinavia,Finland,BalticstatesandPolandEtotheYeniseyRiver.A.a.americanaClinton,1822—ECanada(COntariotoNewfoundland).A.a.andersoniPeterson,1950—fromBritishColumbiatoMinnesotaandOntario.A.a.buturliniChernyavsky&Zhelesnov,1982—NESiberiaandKamchatka.A.a.cameloidesMilne-Edwards,1867—NMongolia,Ussuriland,NManchuria.A.a.gigasMiller,1899—AlaskaandYukon.A.a.pfizenmayeriZukowsky,1910—fromCSiberiatoStanovoyMtsandCherskiyMts.A. a. shirasi Nelson, 1914— from S Albertato Wyomingand Utah.Descriptive notes.Head—body 250-300 cm for males (bulls) and 240-290 cm for females (cows), tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 190-210 cm (bulls) and 185-200 cm (cows); weight of adult bulls 300-600 kg and adult cows 280-460 kg. The heaviest animals occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska(with records of more than 770 kgfor bulls and 600 kgfor cows), the lightest in the Amur regionand Manchuria (with some bulls weighing just 260 kg). Bulls are on average 25-30% heavier than cows. The largest extant deer, with massive trunk, short neck, shoulder hump, long and pendulous nose, very small bare rhinarium, long dewlap (“bell”) from the throat; large head and elongated snout, long legs. The coat is prevailingly dark brown with grayish legs. The tail is short and of the same color as the rump. Molts in May and September. Newborn calves have a reddish-brown unspotted coat. Suborbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Permanent teeth erupt at 6-19 months of age. Antlers of adults are typically palmated, but a simpler design without any flattening is the rule in Manchuria and common in Europe. Pedicles appear at 4-5 months after birth; their apices, generally simple, minute buttons, ossify at 6-7 months and cast at 10-11 months. The second antler set, simple spikes or forked beams (in Alaskasometimes already with traces of palmation) develop at about 13-14 months and are cast the following February—March. At 7-11 years antlers attain their full size. In good quality populations of Europe, antlers of adult bulls have a span of 105 cmon average and a brutto (skull plus antlers) weight of 10 kg(with records of 145 cmand 18.5-20 kg); in Alaskamean antler span is 145 cmand antler mass is about 20 kg, with records of 205 cmand 30-35. 8 kg. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in September, antler casting in December, and the beginning of the new antler growth in April. Hooves are 13-18 cm long and 11-14 cm broad in adult bulls, with the pads extending right outto the tip of the hoof.Habitat.Boreal forests, mixed forests of the northern temperate zone, especially with damp, marshy areas. In Alaskaalso tundra. Up to 1700 mabove sea level on the AltaiMountains. Snow depth more than 70 cmand mean temperature in summer higher than 14°C are limiting factors. Males tend to select habitats with greater food abundance. Females select areas with better concealment cover.Food and Feeding.As a browser, it feeds on the vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, preferring birch, alder, and willow. Adult daily consumption is about 10-30 kg of fresh vegetation.Breeding.In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16-17 months of age. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at the same age, but in naturally structured populations yearling and subadults are excluded from breeding by dominant bulls and begin to reproduce only at five years of age; in heavily hunted populations with a low proportion of adults, subadults have a good chance of mating. Rutting season is in September—October. Typically an adult male locates and defends an estrous female until he mates with her, and then he moves on in search of other females (“tending bond mating system”). In tundra the dominant bull tends to herd and defend a group of females (“harem mating system”). Bulls thrash antlers on vegetation, rub trees, dig rutting pits, and urinate and wallow,salivating copiously. Females are polyestrous, with cycles on average of 24 days. During estrus they are receptive for 15-26 hours. Estrous females rub trees and visit rutting pits dug by males and wallow in them. Bulls lose 9-18% of their weight during the rut. Gestation lasts on average 234 days, with the birth season in May-June. Cows give birth to one or two calves, weighing on average 10-12 kg in Europe and 14-18 kg in Alaska; their mass doubles in about two weeks. Mothers remain within 50 mof their offspring for 5-7 days. Calves are nursed 7-9 times during the first days and four times at about 50 days of age. At 2-3 weeks calves begin to ingest solid food and at one month, half of their diet consists mostly of plants. Lactation lasts about 4-5 months. Final weight is attained at about eight years by bulls and four years by cows. Senescence occurs from 12-13 years onward. Normally they live to a maximum of 16-19 years, with records of 21 years for bulls and 25 for cows. In captivity the maximum longevity recorded is 27 years of age. In populations subjected only to natural mortality, average life expectancy in protected areas can be about seven years. In populations subjected to hunting, average life expectancy can decline to about three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are the main predators.Activity patterns.It is active though the day, with peaks at dawn and dusk and 5-8 feeding bouts for a total of 9-13 hours in summer and 6-8 hours in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Moose have a specialized trotting gait, by which they glide over obstacles with little energetic cost. They can reach a speed of 60 km/h. Sedentary Moose have home ranges of 2-90 km®. A segment of the population can be migratory, moving 10-30 km on average, normally to reach areas with shallower snow and better food availability in winter. Migrations can sometimes be much longer, up to 200 kmin North America, up to 300-500 km in Siberia. Natal dispersal can be up to 180-250 km. The Moose is not particularly gregarious. The basic social unitis a female with her young offspring. Bulls are generally solitary and tend to spatially segregate from cows for most of the year. In open terrain in Alaskapredation risk favors some grouping behavior.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In the early Holocene the European Moose extended its range to Great Britain, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. In the early Middle Ages it disappeared from the last relict areas of western Central Europe,its range restricted to Fennoscandia and Eastern Europe. At the beginning of the 19\" century Moose suffered a drastic decline due to overhunting and disappeared from the Caucasus. In the last 50 years European Moose populations have increased dramatically. In Europe there are at least 440,000 individuals, possibly more than half a million, of which about 214,000 are harvested every year.Vagrant individuals are currently recorded in Central and South-eastern Europe, from Germanyto Croatiaand Romania. A few very small populations are now established in South Czech Republicand North Austria. In North America the original population was estimated at about one million; overexploitation caused a decline to around 500,000 in1948, but in 1960 the number had grown to more than 900,000 and is now again about one million. Annual harvest in late 1990s was about 85,000 individuals.Bibliography.Apollonio et al. 2010, van Ballenberghe (1982), Baskin & Danell (2003), Bowyer, Stewart et al. (2001), Bowyer, van Ballengerghe & Kie (2003), Cederlund et al. (1988), Crete & Daigle (1999), Ericsson et al. (2001), Franzmann et al. (2008), Garel et al. (2006), Gasaway et al. (1987), Hundermark & Bowyer (2004), Nygrén (1986), Nygrén et al. (2007), Schmolcke & Zachos (2005).","taxonomy":"Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.Early Alceiniappeared in the Middle Miocene of central Siberia, about three million years ago. Modern Moose first occurred early in the Late Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, in Eurasia, and entered North America only about 10,000-14,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European, and one North American. North-eastern Siberia can be identified as the origin of all the extant lineages. East Siberian and Alaskan Moose have similar body size and antler design but are not closely related. The race caucasica (Vereshchagin, 1955)from the Caucasusis extinct. Eight extant subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Elan @fr | Eich @de | Alce @es | Elk (in Europe); Caucasian Moose (caucasica) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1821","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Alces","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"431","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alces","name":"Alces alces","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.a.alcesLinnaeus,1758—fromScandinavia,Finland,BalticstatesandPolandEtotheYeniseyRiver.A.a.americanaClinton,1822—ECanada(COntariotoNewfoundland).A.a.andersoniPeterson,1950—fromBritishColumbiatoMinnesotaandOntario.A.a.buturliniChernyavsky&Zhelesnov,1982—NESiberiaandKamchatka.A.a.cameloidesMilne-Edwards,1867—NMongolia,Ussuriland,NManchuria.A.a.gigasMiller,1899—AlaskaandYukon.A.a.pfizenmayeriZukowsky,1910—fromCSiberiatoStanovoyMtsandCherskiyMts.A. a. shirasi Nelson, 1914— from S Albertato Wyomingand Utah.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514509/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Apollonio et al. 2010, van Ballenberghe (1982) | Baskin & Danell (2003) | Bowyer, Stewart et al. (2001) | Bowyer, van Ballengerghe & Kie (2003) | Cederlund et al. (1988) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Ericsson et al. (2001) | Franzmann et al. (2008) | Garel et al. (2006) | Gasaway et al. (1987) | Hundermark & Bowyer (2004) | Nygrén (1986) | Nygrén et al. (2007) | Schmolcke & Zachos (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"As a browser, it feeds on the vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, preferring birch, alder, and willow. Adult daily consumption is about 10-30 kg of fresh vegetation.","breeding":"In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16-17 months of age. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at the same age, but in naturally structured populations yearling and subadults are excluded from breeding by dominant bulls and begin to reproduce only at five years of age; in heavily hunted populations with a low proportion of adults, subadults have a good chance of mating. Rutting season is in September—October. Typically an adult male locates and defends an estrous female until he mates with her, and then he moves on in search of other females (“tending bond mating system”). In tundra the dominant bull tends to herd and defend a group of females (“harem mating system”). Bulls thrash antlers on vegetation, rub trees, dig rutting pits, and urinate and wallow,salivating copiously. Females are polyestrous, with cycles on average of 24 days. During estrus they are receptive for 15-26 hours. Estrous females rub trees and visit rutting pits dug by males and wallow in them. Bulls lose 9-18% of their weight during the rut. Gestation lasts on average 234 days, with the birth season in May-June. Cows give birth to one or two calves, weighing on average 10-12 kg in Europe and 14-18 kg in Alaska; their mass doubles in about two weeks. Mothers remain within 50 mof their offspring for 5-7 days. Calves are nursed 7-9 times during the first days and four times at about 50 days of age. At 2-3 weeks calves begin to ingest solid food and at one month, half of their diet consists mostly of plants. Lactation lasts about 4-5 months. Final weight is attained at about eight years by bulls and four years by cows. Senescence occurs from 12-13 years onward. Normally they live to a maximum of 16-19 years, with records of 21 years for bulls and 25 for cows. In captivity the maximum longevity recorded is 27 years of age. In populations subjected only to natural mortality, average life expectancy in protected areas can be about seven years. In populations subjected to hunting, average life expectancy can decline to about three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are the main predators.","activityPatterns":"It is active though the day, with peaks at dawn and dusk and 5-8 feeding bouts for a total of 9-13 hours in summer and 6-8 hours in winter.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Moose have a specialized trotting gait, by which they glide over obstacles with little energetic cost. They can reach a speed of 60 km/h. Sedentary Moose have home ranges of 2-90 km®. A segment of the population can be migratory, moving 10-30 km on average, normally to reach areas with shallower snow and better food availability in winter. Migrations can sometimes be much longer, up to 200 kmin North America, up to 300-500 km in Siberia. Natal dispersal can be up to 180-250 km. The Moose is not particularly gregarious. The basic social unitis a female with her young offspring. Bulls are generally solitary and tend to spatially segregate from cows for most of the year. In open terrain in Alaskapredation risk favors some grouping behavior.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In the early Holocene the European Moose extended its range to Great Britain, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. In the early Middle Ages it disappeared from the last relict areas of western Central Europe,its range restricted to Fennoscandia and Eastern Europe. At the beginning of the 19\" century Moose suffered a drastic decline due to overhunting and disappeared from the Caucasus. In the last 50 years European Moose populations have increased dramatically. In Europe there are at least 440,000 individuals, possibly more than half a million, of which about 214,000 are harvested every year.Vagrant individuals are currently recorded in Central and South-eastern Europe, from Germanyto Croatiaand Romania. A few very small populations are now established in South Czech Republicand North Austria. In North America the original population was estimated at about one million; overexploitation caused a decline to around 500,000 in1948, but in 1960 the number had grown to more than 900,000 and is now again about one million. Annual harvest in late 1990s was about 85,000 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 250-300 cm for males (bulls) and 240-290 cm for females (cows), tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 190-210 cm (bulls) and 185-200 cm (cows); weight of adult bulls 300-600 kg and adult cows 280-460 kg. The heaviest animals occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska(with records of more than 770 kgfor bulls and 600 kgfor cows), the lightest in the Amur regionand Manchuria (with some bulls weighing just 260 kg). Bulls are on average 25-30% heavier than cows. The largest extant deer, with massive trunk, short neck, shoulder hump, long and pendulous nose, very small bare rhinarium, long dewlap (“bell”) from the throat; large head and elongated snout, long legs. The coat is prevailingly dark brown with grayish legs. The tail is short and of the same color as the rump. Molts in May and September. Newborn calves have a reddish-brown unspotted coat. Suborbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Permanent teeth erupt at 6-19 months of age. Antlers of adults are typically palmated, but a simpler design without any flattening is the rule in Manchuria and common in Europe. Pedicles appear at 4-5 months after birth; their apices, generally simple, minute buttons, ossify at 6-7 months and cast at 10-11 months. The second antler set, simple spikes or forked beams (in Alaskasometimes already with traces of palmation) develop at about 13-14 months and are cast the following February—March. At 7-11 years antlers attain their full size. In good quality populations of Europe, antlers of adult bulls have a span of 105 cmon average and a brutto (skull plus antlers) weight of 10 kg(with records of 145 cmand 18.5-20 kg); in Alaskamean antler span is 145 cmand antler mass is about 20 kg, with records of 205 cmand 30-35. 8 kg. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in September, antler casting in December, and the beginning of the new antler growth in April. Hooves are 13-18 cm long and 11-14 cm broad in adult bulls, with the pads extending right outto the tip of the hoof.","habitat":"Boreal forests, mixed forests of the northern temperate zone, especially with damp, marshy areas. In Alaskaalso tundra. Up to 1700 mabove sea level on the AltaiMountains. Snow depth more than 70 cmand mean temperature in summer higher than 14°C are limiting factors. Males tend to select habitats with greater food abundance. Females select areas with better concealment cover."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"431","verbatimText":"35.CaribouRangifer tarandusFrench:Renne/ German:Ren/ Spanish:RenoOther common names:Reindeer (in Europe)Taxonomy.Cervus tarandus Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland, Sweden.The oldest evidence of the genus Rangiferdates back to the late Pliocene, about two million years ago, in Alaska. “Reindeer” were present in Siberia and Central Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 650,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three main haplogroups, possibly representing three separate populations during the last glacial period. The main population lived in Siberia and Beringia and has contributed to the gene pool of all the extant subspecies. One small refugial population supposedly lived in Western Europe and the other in eastern North America. The word caribou derives from the Micmac Indian term “xalibu,” which means “pawer,” “shoveller,” in reference to the habit of digging snow for obtaining food. Taxonomists are not concordant on the number of subspecies. Here ten subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.t.tarandusLinnaeus,1758—Norway.R.t.caribouGmelin,1788—SCanada(fromSYukontoLabradorandNewfoundland)andNWUSA(NEWashington,NIdaho&WMontana).R.t.fennicusLonnberg,1909—FinlandandNWRussia(Karelia).R.t.groenlandicusLinnaeus,1767—Alaska,NCanada,WGreenland.R.t.pearsoniLydekker,1903—NovayaZemlya(Russia).R.t.pearyiJ.A.Allen,1902—CanadianArcticIs.R. t. phylarchus Hollister, 1912— Russian Far East (Amur region, Okhotsk area, Sakhalin, Kamchatka).R.t.platyrhynchusVrolik,1829—Svalbard(Norway).R.t.sibiricusMurray,1866—NSiberiantundra,RussianArcticIs.R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933— Ural Mts (Russia), AltaiMts, Mongolia.Feral Icelandic population originated from animals introduced from Norwayin 1771; they have been introduced also into South GeorgiaIs (in 1911-1912 and 1925) and Kerguelen Is (in 1955).Descriptive notes.Head-body 185-210 cm for males (bulls) and 170-195 cm for females (cows), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 90-135 cm (bulls) and 70-100 cm (cows); post-rutting weight 65-170 kg (adult bulls) and 55-110 kg (adult cows). Males can reach 210-240 kg, females 140 kg. Size dimorphism very variable. Males are on average 30-90% heavier than females. A medium to large-sized deer, with long neck, rump, and legs, and short ears and tail. The rhinarium is furred. Hooves are wide, crescentshaped and splayed; the dewclaws are relatively large and low, providing a large surface to support the body. Toe pads are spongelike in summer, tightened and sharp-edged in winter. Both sexes have an inflatable laryngeal air sac; it is larger in males. The coat is made of particularly dense hair, of variable color, from grayish-brown to white. Males have a well-developed neck mane. The coat of the newborn calf is unspotted. There are three main ecotypes: a large-bodied forest form, a medium-sized tundra form, and a small, short-legged, whitish high Arctic ecotype. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, interdigital, and caudal glands are present. Permanent dentition is 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt fom 4-26 months of age. Males bear large antlers 90-120 cm long, with flattened and multipointed brow and bez tines. Most females develop simple, light-weight antlers 30-45 cm long. Pedicles begin to grow very early, at 7-10 days of age, and the first set of antlers (a pair of spikes 10-40 cm long) begins to grow at just 4-6 weeks, finishes growing at about five months of age, and is cast off at 11-12 months. Adult bulls clean their antlers in September and cast them in November—January. The new antler set begins to grow 1-2 months later. Adult cows retain their antlers though the winter and cast them in March-May. The species has the largest relative antler mass, with bulls of 230-240 kg carrying up to 15 kgof antler weight. The longest antler beams are 140-150 cm.Habitat.Mountain summit meadows, open taiga, tundra, and high Arctic desert up to 2700-3000 m above sea level. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -60°C and suffers when the temperature exceeds 15°C. More than 60-80 cm of snow impedes movements.Food and Feeding.The main diet consists of lichens, moss, ferns, grasses, leaves, and shoots of shrubs and trees (especially willow and birch). Lichens are particularly important in winter. Occasionally they may also feed on animal matter such as lemmings, fish, and bird eggs. To reach ground lichens in winter they dig craters in the snow.Breeding.Most females first conceive at 28-29 months of age. In highly productive habitats, some female calves can attain puberty at about six months of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18-19 days. During estrus they are receptive for 12-24 hours. In tundra conceptions are synchronized, with a 7-10 day peak; in woodland habitat they tend to be less synchronous. Tundra bulls form tending bonds within large mating aggregations. Woodland and high Arctic bulls tend to practice harem defense. During rut adult males lose as much as 20-25% of their weight. The gestation lenght is generally 221-237 days. The cow gives birth to a highly developed calf of 4-9 kg (2.5-3 kg in Svalbard), able to stand up one hour after birth and to follow its mother after 5-7 hours (precocial follower-type young). Calves are born with the ability to regulate body temperature. During the first days they nurse every 18 minutes. The milk is rich in fats and proteins. After one week the calf begins to eat lichens, at two weeks it doublesits weight, and at 4-5 months of age it is weaned. Bulls reach their full body weight at six years of age while cows attain adult size at four years. Senescence occurs at about 11-12 years of age. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-18 years. The maximum longevity in captivity is 22 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators. Juvenile mortality is high: Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), ravens, and eagles may prey on calves.Activity patterns.Cycles of activity of 4-5 hours, more active in summer than in winter. They are not crepuscular. In the summer, insects (oestrid flies, mosquitoes) may severely affect activity patterns and also impact body weight and reproduction.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is the most cursorial deer, able to run up to 80 km/h in open country and swim up to 11 km/h. In woodland habitats it tends to be sedentary, but sometimes makes small to medium-scaled movements, up to 50-100 km. In tundra it is typically migratory; in Taymyr migrations are 1000-2000 km long, in Yakutia 600-700 km. Animals cover 20-50 km per day. It is a highly gregarious species, particularly in open habitats. The basic social unit is the family group with females and calves. Males form small bands. Groups may coalesce in larger aggregations. Migratory Caribou can form impressive moving herds of 50,000-500,000. During migrations, 100,000 Caribou may move through an area of 30 km?®.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and stable. East GreenlandCaribou and Caribou of the Queen Charlotte Islands (once considered subspecies and known respectively as neogroenlandicus and dawsoni) were exterminated in the first decades of 20\" century. In Northern Europe wild Reindeer numbered 26,000 in2005. Feral Reindeer introduced to Icelandnumber about 1000 animals. In 1999 the population size in the Russian Federationwas estimated at 1-1 million individuals. In Mongolia there are fewer than 1000; in Chinathere are a few hundred, probably of domestic origin. In the early 1980s the total population in North America was 2-3-2-8 million animals. The number grew to four million in nearly 200 herds in 2000. Annual harvest in late 1990s was around 120,000 individuals. In a recent survey of 58 major herds around the world, 34 were reported as declining, eight as increasing, and 16 had no trend data. The simultaneous decrease of many herds is coincident with and could be a result of global warming and human-induced landscape changes. In North America, the Caribou is threatened by onshore petroleum explorations. Poaching is important in the Russian Federation. Hybridization with semi-domestic Reindeeris another threat. Natural densities are very low, 0-5 ind/ km?, but during migrations animals can reach 19,000 ind/km?®. Reindeer were domesticated about 3000 years ago in Fennoscandia and Russia.Bibliography.Baskin & Danell (2003), Blake et al. (1998), Crete & Daigle (1999), Cronin et al. (2005), Geist (1998), Lincoln & Tyler (1994), Loe et al. (2007), Miller (2003), Reimers et al. (2005), Roed (2005), Roed et al. (2008), Schaefer & Mahoney (2001), Vors & Boyce (2009), Williams & Heard(1986).","taxonomy":"Cervus tarandus Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland, Sweden.The oldest evidence of the genus Rangiferdates back to the late Pliocene, about two million years ago, in Alaska. “Reindeer” were present in Siberia and Central Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 650,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three main haplogroups, possibly representing three separate populations during the last glacial period. The main population lived in Siberia and Beringia and has contributed to the gene pool of all the extant subspecies. One small refugial population supposedly lived in Western Europe and the other in eastern North America. The word caribou derives from the Micmac Indian term “xalibu,” which means “pawer,” “shoveller,” in reference to the habit of digging snow for obtaining food. Taxonomists are not concordant on the number of subspecies. Here ten subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renne @fr | Ren @de | Reno @es | Reindeer (in Europe) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Rangifer","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"431","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tarandus","name":"Rangifer tarandus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.t.tarandusLinnaeus,1758—Norway.R.t.caribouGmelin,1788—SCanada(fromSYukontoLabradorandNewfoundland)andNWUSA(NEWashington,NIdaho&WMontana).R.t.fennicusLonnberg,1909—FinlandandNWRussia(Karelia).R.t.groenlandicusLinnaeus,1767—Alaska,NCanada,WGreenland.R.t.pearsoniLydekker,1903—NovayaZemlya(Russia).R.t.pearyiJ.A.Allen,1902—CanadianArcticIs.R. t. phylarchus Hollister, 1912— Russian Far East (Amur region, Okhotsk area, Sakhalin, Kamchatka).R.t.platyrhynchusVrolik,1829—Svalbard(Norway).R.t.sibiricusMurray,1866—NSiberiantundra,RussianArcticIs.R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933— Ural Mts (Russia), AltaiMts, Mongolia.Feral Icelandic population originated from animals introduced from Norwayin 1771; they have been introduced also into South GeorgiaIs (in 1911-1912 and 1925) and Kerguelen Is (in 1955).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514511/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baskin & Danell (2003) | Blake et al. (1998) | Crete & Daigle (1999) | Cronin et al. (2005) | Geist (1998) | Lincoln & Tyler (1994) | Loe et al. (2007) | Miller (2003) | Reimers et al. (2005) | Roed (2005) | Roed et al. (2008) | Schaefer & Mahoney (2001) | Vors & Boyce (2009) | Williams & Heard(1986)","foodAndFeeding":"The main diet consists of lichens, moss, ferns, grasses, leaves, and shoots of shrubs and trees (especially willow and birch). Lichens are particularly important in winter. Occasionally they may also feed on animal matter such as lemmings, fish, and bird eggs. To reach ground lichens in winter they dig craters in the snow.","breeding":"Most females first conceive at 28-29 months of age. In highly productive habitats, some female calves can attain puberty at about six months of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18-19 days. During estrus they are receptive for 12-24 hours. In tundra conceptions are synchronized, with a 7-10 day peak; in woodland habitat they tend to be less synchronous. Tundra bulls form tending bonds within large mating aggregations. Woodland and high Arctic bulls tend to practice harem defense. During rut adult males lose as much as 20-25% of their weight. The gestation lenght is generally 221-237 days. The cow gives birth to a highly developed calf of 4-9 kg (2.5-3 kg in Svalbard), able to stand up one hour after birth and to follow its mother after 5-7 hours (precocial follower-type young). Calves are born with the ability to regulate body temperature. During the first days they nurse every 18 minutes. The milk is rich in fats and proteins. After one week the calf begins to eat lichens, at two weeks it doublesits weight, and at 4-5 months of age it is weaned. Bulls reach their full body weight at six years of age while cows attain adult size at four years. Senescence occurs at about 11-12 years of age. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-18 years. The maximum longevity in captivity is 22 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators. Juvenile mortality is high: Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), ravens, and eagles may prey on calves.","activityPatterns":"Cycles of activity of 4-5 hours, more active in summer than in winter. They are not crepuscular. In the summer, insects (oestrid flies, mosquitoes) may severely affect activity patterns and also impact body weight and reproduction.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is the most cursorial deer, able to run up to 80 km/h in open country and swim up to 11 km/h. In woodland habitats it tends to be sedentary, but sometimes makes small to medium-scaled movements, up to 50-100 km. In tundra it is typically migratory; in Taymyr migrations are 1000-2000 km long, in Yakutia 600-700 km. Animals cover 20-50 km per day. It is a highly gregarious species, particularly in open habitats. The basic social unit is the family group with females and calves. Males form small bands. Groups may coalesce in larger aggregations. Migratory Caribou can form impressive moving herds of 50,000-500,000. During migrations, 100,000 Caribou may move through an area of 30 km?®.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and stable. East GreenlandCaribou and Caribou of the Queen Charlotte Islands (once considered subspecies and known respectively as neogroenlandicus and dawsoni) were exterminated in the first decades of 20\" century. In Northern Europe wild Reindeer numbered 26,000 in2005. Feral Reindeer introduced to Icelandnumber about 1000 animals. In 1999 the population size in the Russian Federationwas estimated at 1-1 million individuals. In Mongolia there are fewer than 1000; in Chinathere are a few hundred, probably of domestic origin. In the early 1980s the total population in North America was 2-3-2-8 million animals. The number grew to four million in nearly 200 herds in 2000. Annual harvest in late 1990s was around 120,000 individuals. In a recent survey of 58 major herds around the world, 34 were reported as declining, eight as increasing, and 16 had no trend data. The simultaneous decrease of many herds is coincident with and could be a result of global warming and human-induced landscape changes. In North America, the Caribou is threatened by onshore petroleum explorations. Poaching is important in the Russian Federation. Hybridization with semi-domestic Reindeeris another threat. Natural densities are very low, 0-5 ind/ km?, but during migrations animals can reach 19,000 ind/km?®. Reindeer were domesticated about 3000 years ago in Fennoscandia and Russia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 185-210 cm for males (bulls) and 170-195 cm for females (cows), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 90-135 cm (bulls) and 70-100 cm (cows); post-rutting weight 65-170 kg (adult bulls) and 55-110 kg (adult cows). Males can reach 210-240 kg, females 140 kg. Size dimorphism very variable. Males are on average 30-90% heavier than females. A medium to large-sized deer, with long neck, rump, and legs, and short ears and tail. The rhinarium is furred. Hooves are wide, crescentshaped and splayed; the dewclaws are relatively large and low, providing a large surface to support the body. Toe pads are spongelike in summer, tightened and sharp-edged in winter. Both sexes have an inflatable laryngeal air sac; it is larger in males. The coat is made of particularly dense hair, of variable color, from grayish-brown to white. Males have a well-developed neck mane. The coat of the newborn calf is unspotted. There are three main ecotypes: a large-bodied forest form, a medium-sized tundra form, and a small, short-legged, whitish high Arctic ecotype. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, interdigital, and caudal glands are present. Permanent dentition is 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt fom 4-26 months of age. Males bear large antlers 90-120 cm long, with flattened and multipointed brow and bez tines. Most females develop simple, light-weight antlers 30-45 cm long. Pedicles begin to grow very early, at 7-10 days of age, and the first set of antlers (a pair of spikes 10-40 cm long) begins to grow at just 4-6 weeks, finishes growing at about five months of age, and is cast off at 11-12 months. Adult bulls clean their antlers in September and cast them in November—January. The new antler set begins to grow 1-2 months later. Adult cows retain their antlers though the winter and cast them in March-May. The species has the largest relative antler mass, with bulls of 230-240 kg carrying up to 15 kgof antler weight. The longest antler beams are 140-150 cm.","habitat":"Mountain summit meadows, open taiga, tundra, and high Arctic desert up to 2700-3000 m above sea level. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -60°C and suffers when the temperature exceeds 15°C. More than 60-80 cm of snow impedes movements."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE1FFE0FAA6FDAEEE1BF886.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFE1FFE0FAA6FDAEEE1BF886","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"443","verbatimText":"53.Common Dwarf BrocketMazama chunyiFrench:Mazame pygmée/ German:Sudlicher Zwergmazama/ Spanish:CorzuelaenanaOther common names:Peruvian Dwarf Brocket, Andean BrocketTaxonomy.Mazama chunyi Hershkovitz, 1959, Cocapunco, Cordillera Real (Bolivia).It has been confused for decades with the sympatric Pudu mephistophiles. Its scientific name, chunyi, is from “chuni,” the Bolivian name for this species. Monotypic.Distribution.Andes of S Peruand N Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Few measurements available. Head-body 70-75 cm, shoulder height 38 cm; weight 11 kg. Small-sized brocket, with a dark coat, round ears, and a visible tail. The general color of the coat is brown, with reddish mid-back and flanks, blackish neck, head, and legs; the throat, chest, and belly are orange. White markings on ear margins and on the tip of the muzzle.Habitat.It occurs in montane forests and summit grasslands and scrublands, from 1000 mto 3500-4000 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.Itis frugivorous and folivorous, foraging for leaves and fruits in the lowerlayers of the forest.Breeding.Fairly little is known about the biology ofthis shy and seldom seen deer. Although almost nothing is known about reproduction in the Common Dwarf Brocket, it is likely to be similar to that of other brocket species. Brockets usually reproduce year-round, giving birth to a single calf after a fairly long gestation of 218-228 days. Young brocket deer mature rapidly, and females can breed before they are one year old in many species.Activity patterns.It is believed to be a solitary species thatis active during the day and night, but is mostly crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is very secretive and is basically solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Forest cutting and burning and small scale agriculture and cattle ranching are the primary threats.Bibliography.Rumiz & Pardo (2008, 2010), Rumiz et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Mazama chunyi Hershkovitz, 1959, Cocapunco, Cordillera Real (Bolivia).It has been confused for decades with the sympatric Pudu mephistophiles. Its scientific name, chunyi, is from “chuni,” the Bolivian name for this species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Mazame pygmée @fr | Sudlicher Zwergmazama @de | Corzuelaenana @es | Peruvian Dwarf Brocket @en | Andean Brocket @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hershkovitz","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1959","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Mazama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"36","interpretedPageNumber":"443","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"chunyi","name":"Mazama chunyi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Andes of S Peruand N Bolivia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514567/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Rumiz & Pardo (2008, 2010) | Rumiz et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Itis frugivorous and folivorous, foraging for leaves and fruits in the lowerlayers of the forest.","breeding":"Fairly little is known about the biology ofthis shy and seldom seen deer. Although almost nothing is known about reproduction in the Common Dwarf Brocket, it is likely to be similar to that of other brocket species. Brockets usually reproduce year-round, giving birth to a single calf after a fairly long gestation of 218-228 days. Young brocket deer mature rapidly, and females can breed before they are one year old in many species.","activityPatterns":"It is believed to be a solitary species thatis active during the day and night, but is mostly crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is very secretive and is basically solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Forest cutting and burning and small scale agriculture and cattle ranching are the primary threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Few measurements available. Head-body 70-75 cm, shoulder height 38 cm; weight 11 kg. Small-sized brocket, with a dark coat, round ears, and a visible tail. The general color of the coat is brown, with reddish mid-back and flanks, blackish neck, head, and legs; the throat, chest, and belly are orange. White markings on ear margins and on the tip of the muzzle.","habitat":"It occurs in montane forests and summit grasslands and scrublands, from 1000 mto 3500-4000 m above sea level."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE1FFE0FFBDFC35EF4FFE29.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFE1FFE0FFBDFC35EF4FFE29","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"443","verbatimText":"52.MeridaBrocketMazama briceniiFrench:Mazame du Merida/ German:Nordlicher Zwergmazama/ Spanish:Corzuelade MéridaOther common names:Meroia BrocketTaxonomy.Mazama briceni Thomas, 1908, Paramo de La Culata, Mérida(Venezuela).This species and M. chuny: have been considered subspecies of M. rufina. Collected for the first time by S. Briceno in 1907. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Colombiaand W Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 80-95 cm, tail 8-9 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 8-13 kg. Small-sized brocket with a long-haired coat. The coatis basically reddish, with dark head and legs, orange throat. Antler spikes are short, up to 6 cmin length. Deep cavity in the lacrimal bone.Habitat.It occurs in tropical montane cloud forests and alpine grasslands from 800 mto 3500 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, but presumably this speciesis a browser on understory leaves, shoots, and fruits, like other brockets.Breeding.Puberty is attained at twelve months of age. Births have mainly been observed in December. After a pregnancy of about 210 days, females give birth to a single fawn. Weaning occurs at six months of age.Activity patterns.No studies to date, butlikely to be active both day and night, based on its closest relatives.Movements. Home range and Social organization. Very shy and mostly solitary, but no data available.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and poaching continue to be the main threats.Bibliography.Czernay (1987), Lizcano & Alvarez (2008a), Linares (1998), Lizcano et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Mazama briceni Thomas, 1908, Paramo de La Culata, Mérida(Venezuela).This species and M. chuny: have been considered subspecies of M. rufina. Collected for the first time by S. Briceno in 1907. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Mazame du Merida @fr | Nordlicher Zwergmazama @de | Corzuelade Mérida @es | Meroia Brocket @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Mazama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"36","interpretedPageNumber":"443","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bricenii","name":"Mazama bricenii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Colombiaand W Venezuela.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514563/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Czernay (1987) | Lizcano & Alvarez (2008a) | Linares (1998) | Lizcano et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing is known, but presumably this speciesis a browser on understory leaves, shoots, and fruits, like other brockets.","breeding":"Puberty is attained at twelve months of age. Births have mainly been observed in December. After a pregnancy of about 210 days, females give birth to a single fawn. Weaning occurs at six months of age.","activityPatterns":"No studies to date, butlikely to be active both day and night, based on its closest relatives.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and poaching continue to be the main threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 80-95 cm, tail 8-9 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 8-13 kg. Small-sized brocket with a long-haired coat. The coatis basically reddish, with dark head and legs, orange throat. Antler spikes are short, up to 6 cmin length. Deep cavity in the lacrimal bone.Habitat.It occurs in tropical montane cloud forests and alpine grasslands from 800 mto 3500 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, but presumably this speciesis a browser on understory leaves, shoots, and fruits, like other brockets.Breeding.Puberty is attained at twelve months of age. Births have mainly been observed in December. After a pregnancy of about 210 days, females give birth to a single fawn. Weaning occurs at six months of age.Activity patterns.No studies to date, butlikely to be active both day and night, based on its closest relatives.Movements. Home range and Social organization. Very shy and mostly solitary, but no data available.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","habitat":"It occurs in tropical montane cloud forests and alpine grasslands from 800 mto 3500 mabove sea level."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE0FA7DF7D0E6F6FCCE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFE6FFE0FA7DF7D0E6F6FCCE","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"442","verbatimText":"51.Little Red BrocketMazama rufinaFrench:Mazame de I'Equateu/ German:Roter Kleinmazama/ Spanish:Corzuelaroja pequenaOther common names:EcuadorRed BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus rufinus Pucheran, 1851, Lloa Valley, Pichincha(Ecuador).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Andes from C Colombiato Ecuadorand NW Peru.Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-90 cm, tail 8 cm, shoulder height 45 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Small-sized brocket. The coat is reddish with black head and legs. The lacrimal fossa is deep. Antlers are up to 8 cmlong.Habitat.It prefers tropical montane cloud forests from 1400 mabove sea level to alpine grasslands (paramos) up to 3600 m. The main habitat of the Little Red Brocket is paramo and tropical montane cloud forests above 1500 m. These paramos are highaltitude grasslands dominated by Calamagrostis spp. and gigantic Andean rosette plants of the genus Espeletia, among others. The tropical montane cloud forestis a type of vegetation that has special climatic conditions allowing clouds and mist to be regularly in contact with the forest. These forests support an ecosystem of distinctive vegetation with lower canopy and thicker understory than lowland forests.Food and Feeding.The Little Red Brocket feeds mainly on forbs, but it may also eat leaves, buds, and fruits. It is expected to be a browser/frugivore in the forest understorey, but they are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. They are frequent visitors to salt licks. In the Central Andes of Colombiathe diet is composed of 40 species of plants, most of which are herbs, and they prefer Solanum spp. and Begonia umbellata, among others. Oxalis sp. has been identified among other plant species eaten by this species.Breeding.Females attain puberty at about one year of age. After a gestation of 200-220 days they give birth to a single fawn. The main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor and dogs.Activity patterns.Although it is often nocturnal, it seems to be active by day as well as at night, but details of its ecology are unknown.Movements, Home range and Social organization.They are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. It seems to be a territorial species with a small home range. Animals defecate in latrines to scent-mark. It is basically solitary, with most individuals observed alone or in pairs. Its density is low ranging from 0-06 ind/km? in mature forest to 0-3 ind/km?* in paramo-montane forest ecotone. They rely on small size and knowledge of the habitat in which they live to escape predators, diving into thick vegetation when threatened. Occasionally they freeze before escaping.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and habitat loss and conversion to agriculture and cattle ranching are the main threats.Bibliography.Bello et al. (2008), Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Lizcaino & Alvarez (2008b).","taxonomy":"Cervus rufinus Pucheran, 1851, Lloa Valley, Pichincha(Ecuador).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Mazame de @fr | 'Equateu @en | Roter Kleinmazama @de | Corzuelaroja pequena @es | Ecuador Red Brocket @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bourcier & Pucheran","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Mazama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"442","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufina","name":"Mazama rufina","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Andes from C Colombiato Ecuadorand NW Peru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514561/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bello et al. (2008) | Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Lizcaino & Alvarez (2008b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Little Red Brocket feeds mainly on forbs, but it may also eat leaves, buds, and fruits. It is expected to be a browser/frugivore in the forest understorey, but they are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. They are frequent visitors to salt licks. In the Central Andes of Colombiathe diet is composed of 40 species of plants, most of which are herbs, and they prefer Solanum spp. and Begonia umbellata, among others. Oxalis sp. has been identified among other plant species eaten by this species.","breeding":"Females attain puberty at about one year of age. After a gestation of 200-220 days they give birth to a single fawn. The main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor and dogs.","activityPatterns":"Although it is often nocturnal, it seems to be active by day as well as at night, but details of its ecology are unknown.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"They are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. It seems to be a territorial species with a small home range. Animals defecate in latrines to scent-mark. It is basically solitary, with most individuals observed alone or in pairs. Its density is low ranging from 0-06 ind/km? in mature forest to 0-3 ind/km?* in paramo-montane forest ecotone. They rely on small size and knowledge of the habitat in which they live to escape predators, diving into thick vegetation when threatened. Occasionally they freeze before escaping.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and habitat loss and conversion to agriculture and cattle ranching are the main threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 85-90 cm, tail 8 cm, shoulder height 45 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Small-sized brocket. The coat is reddish with black head and legs. The lacrimal fossa is deep. Antlers are up to 8 cmlong.","habitat":"It prefers tropical montane cloud forests from 1400 mabove sea level to alpine grasslands (paramos) up to 3600 m. The main habitat of the Little Red Brocket is paramo and tropical montane cloud forests above 1500 m. These paramos are highaltitude grasslands dominated by Calamagrostis spp. and gigantic Andean rosette plants of the genus Espeletia, among others. The tropical montane cloud forestis a type of vegetation that has special climatic conditions allowing clouds and mist to be regularly in contact with the forest. These forests support an ecosystem of distinctive vegetation with lower canopy and thicker understory than lowland forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FA73FD52EF18F7E6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFE6FFE7FA73FD52EF18F7E6","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"442","verbatimText":"50.Lesser BrocketMazama nanusFrench:Mazame nain/ German:Kleinmazama/ Spanish:CorzuelamenorOther common names:Brazilian Dwarf Brocket, Dwarf Red Brocket, Pigmy BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus nanus Hensel, 1872, Rio Grande do Sul(Brazil).Originally it was included in M. rufina. It is closely related to M. bororo. Although the name appears frequently as M. nana, the original nanus is a noun and must remain unchanged. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, SE Paraguay, and N Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70 cm, tail estimated 9-12 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small-sized brocket with small ears; forelegs shorter than hindlegs. The coat is reddish-chestnut. There is evidence of an annual cycle of antler growth and casting in the captive animals in Argentina. In Brazilthis cycle apparently does not exist. The diploid number of chromosomesis 36.Habitat.It is associated with mixed wet forests and southern pine (Awracaria) woodlands. It mainly lives in mountainous regions covered with dense vegetation. The habitat in eastern Paraguayis moist forest with an understory of bamboo thickets.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known, but surely a browser on fruits, leaves, and shoots of various plants, like other species of Mazama.Breeding.Birth have been observed between September and February. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-3 kg.Activity patterns.Their behavior is almost unknown but they appear to be active both by day and at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Basically solitary, but no field studies available.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is considered the most threatened deer of Brazil. It is probably declining, due to habitat loss (timber exploitation, expansion of agriculture) and range fragmentation.Bibliography.Abril & Duarte (2008), Abril, Vogliotti et al. (2010), Czernay (1987).","taxonomy":"Cervus nanus Hensel, 1872, Rio Grande do Sul(Brazil).Originally it was included in M. rufina. It is closely related to M. bororo. Although the name appears frequently as M. nana, the original nanus is a noun and must remain unchanged. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Mazame nain @fr | Kleinmazama @de | Corzuelamenor @es | Brazilian Dwarf Brocket @en | Dwarf Red Brocket @en | Pigmy Brocket @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Mazama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"442","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nanus","name":"Mazama nanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, SE Paraguay, and N Argentina.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514559/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abril & Duarte (2008) | Abril, Vogliotti et al. (2010) | Czernay (1987)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing is known, but surely a browser on fruits, leaves, and shoots of various plants, like other species of Mazama.","breeding":"Birth have been observed between September and February. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-3 kg.","activityPatterns":"Their behavior is almost unknown but they appear to be active both by day and at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Basically solitary, but no field studies available.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is considered the most threatened deer of Brazil. It is probably declining, due to habitat loss (timber exploitation, expansion of agriculture) and range fragmentation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70 cm, tail estimated 9-12 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small-sized brocket with small ears; forelegs shorter than hindlegs. The coat is reddish-chestnut. There is evidence of an annual cycle of antler growth and casting in the captive animals in Argentina. In Brazilthis cycle apparently does not exist. The diploid number of chromosomesis 36.","habitat":"It is associated with mixed wet forests and southern pine (Awracaria) woodlands. It mainly lives in mountainous regions covered with dense vegetation. The habitat in eastern Paraguayis moist forest with an understory of bamboo thickets."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"442","verbatimText":"48.Mexican Red BrocketMazama temamaFrench:Mazame de Hernandez/ German:Mexico-GroRmazama/ Spanish:CorzuelatemamaOther common names:Central American Red BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus temama Kerr, 1792, Mirador, Veracruz(Mexico).For decades this species was considered part of M. americana. The scientific name refers to an animal the explorer and naturalist F. Hernandez called “temamacame” in 1651. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.t.temamaKerr,1792—SMexico.M.t.cerasinaHollister,1914—PanamaandNWColombia.M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913— from Guatemalaand Belizeto Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80-110 cm, tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight 12-32 kg. The back is reddish, the head and throat are brown or reddish, the underparts are white. The forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs.Habitat.It is more common in well-preserved forests, especially humid ones. It can be found up to 2800 mabove sea level. It is a species that seems to prefer primary tropical rainforest areas but has been recorded in areas of secondary vegetation as well.Food and Feeding.Although it is mainly frugivorous, the diet includes fallen fruits and seeds, grasses, shoots, vines, and crops such as beans where available.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year. After a gestation of 225 days females give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 4 kg; occasionally twins are born. The young remain with the mother through the first year. Females can breed at about one year, but the age of sexual maturity of males is unknown. One captive lived almost 14 years.Activity patterns.Reported by different authorities as being diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular. Seldom seen and little known because of extreme shyness and wariness. Often remains motionless when danger is sensed. Lacks endurance compared to other deer, and can be run down and killed by an ordinary dog. Excellent swimmer, easily crossing large rivers.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Relatively sedentary, with a small home range, and adult males are territorial. The Mexican Red Brocket is basically solitary or a female may travel with her young. Males and females come together only briefly to mate.Status and Conservation.Race cerasina CITES Appendix III. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List since its taxonomic status is unclear and the information on distribution and abundance are scant. Hunting and habitat loss and degradation are the main threats.Bibliography.Bello et al. (2008), Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Cervus temama Kerr, 1792, Mirador, Veracruz(Mexico).For decades this species was considered part of M. americana. The scientific name refers to an animal the explorer and naturalist F. Hernandez called “temamacame” in 1651. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Mazame de Hernandez @fr | Mexico-Gro Rmazama @de | Corzuelatemama @es | Central American Red Brocket @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Kerr","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Mazama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"442","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"temama","name":"Mazama temama","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.t.temamaKerr,1792—SMexico.M.t.cerasinaHollister,1914—PanamaandNWColombia.M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913— from Guatemalaand Belizeto Costa Rica.","bibliography":"Bello et al. (2008) | Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"Although it is mainly frugivorous, the diet includes fallen fruits and seeds, grasses, shoots, vines, and crops such as beans where available.","breeding":"Mating occurs throughout the year. After a gestation of 225 days females give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 4 kg; occasionally twins are born. The young remain with the mother through the first year. Females can breed at about one year, but the age of sexual maturity of males is unknown. One captive lived almost 14 years.","activityPatterns":"Reported by different authorities as being diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular. Seldom seen and little known because of extreme shyness and wariness. Often remains motionless when danger is sensed. Lacks endurance compared to other deer, and can be run down and killed by an ordinary dog. Excellent swimmer, easily crossing large rivers.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Relatively sedentary, with a small home range, and adult males are territorial. The Mexican Red Brocket is basically solitary or a female may travel with her young. Males and females come together only briefly to mate.","statusAndConservation":"Race cerasina CITES Appendix III. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List since its taxonomic status is unclear and the information on distribution and abundance are scant. Hunting and habitat loss and degradation are the main threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 80-110 cm, tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight 12-32 kg. The back is reddish, the head and throat are brown or reddish, the underparts are white. The forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs.","habitat":"It is more common in well-preserved forests, especially humid ones. It can be found up to 2800 mabove sea level. It is a species that seems to prefer primary tropical rainforest areas but has been recorded in areas of secondary vegetation as well."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"442","verbatimText":"48.Mexican Red BrocketMazama temamaFrench:Mazame de Hernandez/ German:Mexico-GroRmazama/ Spanish:CorzuelatemamaOther common names:Central American Red BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus temama Kerr, 1792, Mirador, Veracruz(Mexico).For decades this species was considered part of M. americana. The scientific name refers to an animal the explorer and naturalist F. Hernandez called “temamacame” in 1651. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.t.temamaKerr,1792—SMexico.M.t.cerasinaHollister,1914—PanamaandNWColombia.M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913— from Guatemalaand Belizeto Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80-110 cm, tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight 12-32 kg. The back is reddish, the head and throat are brown or reddish, the underparts are white. The forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs.Habitat.It is more common in well-preserved forests, especially humid ones. It can be found up to 2800 mabove sea level. It is a species that seems to prefer primary tropical rainforest areas but has been recorded in areas of secondary vegetation as well.Food and Feeding.Although it is mainly frugivorous, the diet includes fallen fruits and seeds, grasses, shoots, vines, and crops such as beans where available.Breeding.Mating occurs throughout the year. After a gestation of 225 days females give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 4 kg; occasionally twins are born. The young remain with the mother through the first year. Females can breed at about one year, but the age of sexual maturity of males is unknown. One captive lived almost 14 years.Activity patterns.Reported by different authorities as being diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular. Seldom seen and little known because of extreme shyness and wariness. Often remains motionless when danger is sensed. Lacks endurance compared to other deer, and can be run down and killed by an ordinary dog. Excellent swimmer, easily crossing large rivers.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Relatively sedentary, with a small home range, and adult males are territorial. The Mexican Red Brocket is basically solitary or a female may travel with her young. Males and females come together only briefly to mate.Status and Conservation.Race cerasina CITES Appendix III. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List since its taxonomic status is unclear and the information on distribution and abundance are scant. Hunting and habitat loss and degradation are the main threats.Bibliography.Bello et al. (2008), Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Cervus temama Kerr, 1792, Mirador, Veracruz(Mexico).For decades this species was considered part of M. americana. The scientific name refers to an animal the explorer and naturalist F. Hernandez called “temamacame” in 1651. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Mazame de Hernandez @fr | Mexico-Gro Rmazama @de | Corzuelatemama @es | Central American Red Brocket @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Kerr","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Mazama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"442","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"temama","name":"Mazama temama","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.t.temamaKerr,1792—SMexico.M.t.cerasinaHollister,1914—PanamaandNWColombia.M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913— from Guatemalaand Belizeto Costa Rica.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514553/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bello et al. (2008) | Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"Although it is mainly frugivorous, the diet includes fallen fruits and seeds, grasses, shoots, vines, and crops such as beans where available.","breeding":"Mating occurs throughout the year. After a gestation of 225 days females give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 4 kg; occasionally twins are born. The young remain with the mother through the first year. Females can breed at about one year, but the age of sexual maturity of males is unknown. One captive lived almost 14 years.","activityPatterns":"Reported by different authorities as being diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular. Seldom seen and little known because of extreme shyness and wariness. Often remains motionless when danger is sensed. Lacks endurance compared to other deer, and can be run down and killed by an ordinary dog. Excellent swimmer, easily crossing large rivers.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Relatively sedentary, with a small home range, and adult males are territorial. The Mexican Red Brocket is basically solitary or a female may travel with her young. Males and females come together only briefly to mate.","statusAndConservation":"Race cerasina CITES Appendix III. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List since its taxonomic status is unclear and the information on distribution and abundance are scant. Hunting and habitat loss and degradation are the main threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 80-110 cm, tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight 12-32 kg. The back is reddish, the head and throat are brown or reddish, the underparts are white. The forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs.","habitat":"It is more common in well-preserved forests, especially humid ones. It can be found up to 2800 mabove sea level. It is a species that seems to prefer primary tropical rainforest areas but has been recorded in areas of secondary vegetation as well."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF75F500EF6CFD61.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF75F500EF6CFD61","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"442","verbatimText":"49.Small Red BrocketMazama bororoFrench:Mazame de Sao Paulo/ German:Kiistenwald-Mazama/ Spanish:CorzuelabororoTaxonomy.Mazama bororo Duarte, 1996, Capao Bonito, Sao Paulo(Brazil).This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil(SE Sao Paulo State& NE Parana State), the smallest distribution of any Neotropical deer species.Descriptive notes.Head-body 85 cm, tail estimated 11-14 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 25 kg. It is a mediumsized brocket. The coat is mainly reddish, with a grayish neck. The base of the ear, the chin, the throat, and the belly are whitish. The hindlegs are blackish from the calcaneus to the hoof. The diploid number of chromosomes is 32.Habitat.It lives in the remaining fragments of the Serra do Mar coastal Atlantic forest, from the coast up to 1200 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It feeds mainly on fruits, leaves, and sprouts.Breeding.Mating may occur throughout the year. Most births occur between August and September, at the end of winter.Activity patterns.It is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Females seem to have home ranges of 10-50 ha. It is a solitary deer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat fragmentation and destruction are the main threats. The total population has been assessed at about 4500 individuals.Bibliography.Duarte & Jorge (2003), Duarte et al. (2008), Vogliotti & Duarte (2010).","taxonomy":"Mazama bororo Duarte, 1996, Capao Bonito, Sao Paulo(Brazil).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Mazame de Sao Paulo @fr | Kiistenwald-Mazama @de | Corzuelabororo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Duarte","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1996","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Mazama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"442","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bororo","name":"Mazama bororo","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Brazil(SE Sao Paulo State& NE Parana State), the smallest distribution of any Neotropical deer species.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514557/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Duarte & Jorge (2003) | Duarte et al. (2008) | Vogliotti & Duarte (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"It feeds mainly on fruits, leaves, and sprouts.","breeding":"Mating may occur throughout the year. Most births occur between August and September, at the end of winter.","activityPatterns":"It is crepuscular and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Females seem to have home ranges of 10-50 ha. It is a solitary deer.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat fragmentation and destruction are the main threats. The total population has been assessed at about 4500 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 85 cm, tail estimated 11-14 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 25 kg. It is a mediumsized brocket. The coat is mainly reddish, with a grayish neck. The base of the ear, the chin, the throat, and the belly are whitish. The hindlegs are blackish from the calcaneus to the hoof. The diploid number of chromosomes is 32.Habitat.It lives in the remaining fragments of the Serra do Mar coastal Atlantic forest, from the coast up to 1200 mabove sea level.Food and Feeding.It feeds mainly on fruits, leaves, and sprouts.Breeding.Mating may occur throughout the year. Most births occur between August and September, at the end of winter.Activity patterns.It is crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Females seem to have home ranges of 10-50 ha. It is a solitary deer.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","habitat":"It lives in the remaining fragments of the Serra do Mar coastal Atlantic forest, from the coast up to 1200 mabove sea level."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE7FFE6FAB6FD0DEF95F747.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFE7FFE6FAB6FD0DEF95F747","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"441","verbatimText":"46.Amazonian Brown BrocketMazama nemorivagaFrench:Cariacou de Cayenne/ German:Amazonien-Mazama/ Spanish:CorzuelaamazénicaOther common names:Amazonian Gray BrocketTaxonomy.Cervus nemorivagus F. Cuvier, 1817, Cayenne (French Guiana).Long considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubira, it is now considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.From N & E Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas to E Ecuador, E Peru, Amazonian Brazil, and N Bolivia; an isolated population in San José I (Panama).Descriptive notes.Head—body 75-100 cm, tail 6-11 cm, shoulder height 50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small to medium-sized brocket, with relatively small rounded ears. Large eyes and orbital cavities. The coat is dark brown dorsally, including the rump and tail. The flanks are faded brown. Antlers are 3-11 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 66-70.Habitat.It inhabits the tropical broadleaf moist forests of Amazonia, avoiding the flooded forests. Up to 1500 min Peru. Most localities for Amazonian Brown Brockets are from tropical and subtropical broadleaf moist forests of the Amazon Basin. In addition, there are a few records from the desert and xeric scrubland biomes. They occur in non-flooded forests and are rare or absent in seasonally flooded forests.Food and Feeding.It is mainly a fruit-eater, but also feeds on a variety of leaves and shoots.Breeding.Mating occurs year-round. In Perubirths have two peaks, January-April and July-October. In Venezuelabirths are mainly in July-August and November. There is a postpartum estrus. No twinning was observed and half of the females were pregnant at any given time. Most pregnant females were adults between one and two years old.Activity patterns.It is active throughout the day, although perhaps more nocturnal than some other species of Mazama.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It is a solitary species. They are found foraging alone or in mated pairs within their own small territory, the boundaries of which are usually marked with urine or feces, or secretions from the eye glands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List forits relatively large distribution range. Hunting pressure and habitat destruction for cattle ranching and agriculture are major threats.Bibliography.Branan et al. (1985), Gayot et al. (2004), Rossi & Duarte (2008), Rossi et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Cervus nemorivagus F. Cuvier, 1817, Cayenne (French Guiana).Long considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubira, it is now considered a distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cariacou de Cayenne @fr | Amazonien-Mazama @de | Corzuelaamazénica @es | Amazonian Gray Brocket @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Mazama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"441","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nemorivaga","name":"Mazama nemorivaga","subspeciesAndDistribution":"From N & E Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas to E Ecuador, E Peru, Amazonian Brazil, and N Bolivia; an isolated population in San José I (Panama).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514547/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Branan et al. (1985) | Gayot et al. (2004) | Rossi & Duarte (2008) | Rossi et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"It is mainly a fruit-eater, but also feeds on a variety of leaves and shoots.","breeding":"Mating occurs year-round. In Perubirths have two peaks, January-April and July-October. In Venezuelabirths are mainly in July-August and November. There is a postpartum estrus. No twinning was observed and half of the females were pregnant at any given time. Most pregnant females were adults between one and two years old.","activityPatterns":"It is active throughout the day, although perhaps more nocturnal than some other species of Mazama.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It is a solitary species. They are found foraging alone or in mated pairs within their own small territory, the boundaries of which are usually marked with urine or feces, or secretions from the eye glands.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List forits relatively large distribution range. Hunting pressure and habitat destruction for cattle ranching and agriculture are major threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 75-100 cm, tail 6-11 cm, shoulder height 50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small to medium-sized brocket, with relatively small rounded ears. Large eyes and orbital cavities. The coat is dark brown dorsally, including the rump and tail. The flanks are faded brown. Antlers are 3-11 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 66-70.","habitat":"It inhabits the tropical broadleaf moist forests of Amazonia, avoiding the flooded forests. Up to 1500 min Peru. Most localities for Amazonian Brown Brockets are from tropical and subtropical broadleaf moist forests of the Amazon Basin. In addition, there are a few records from the desert and xeric scrubland biomes. They occur in non-flooded forests and are rare or absent in seasonally flooded forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A0/87/03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF43F69BEF32FD88.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF43F69BEF32FD88","docName":"hbmw_2_Cervidae_0350.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff99ffbcffc5ffc4ffcbffb7e63dfff9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"441","verbatimText":"45.YucatanBrown BrocketMazama pandoraFrench:Cariacou du Yucatan/ German:Yucatan-Mazama/ Spanish:Corzuelade YucatanTaxonomy.Mazama pandora Merriam, 1901, Tunkas, Yucatan(Mexico).It has been considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubiraand of M. americana. Monotypic.Distribution.YucatanPeninsula (Mexico); possibly also in N Guatemalaand N Belize.Descriptive notes.Few measuremets available. Shoulder height 70 cm; weight 17-21 kg. Medium-sized brocket, slightly larger than the sympatric Mexican Red Brocket (M. temama). The main color of the coatis gray-brown, with pale brown to whitish underparts. A tuft of stiff hairs grows on the forehead. Relatively long antlers, longitudinally furrowed; antler tips may curve inward.Habitat.It is a generalist, able to live in wet and dry forests as well as shrublands, with a preference for tall and medium semi-evergreen forests. It also occurs in mangrove forests, above high tide level. In populated areas,it will sometimes enter into agricultural plantations to feed.Food and Feeding.It is mainly frugivorous, but feeds on a wide range of plants. The diet is richer in species during the wet season.Breeding.It seems to breed during most of the year.Activity patterns.Nothing is known of the daily activity patterns, but almost surely crepuscular. In addition, it may be active at other times of the day and night, depending on hunting pressure.Movements, Home range and Social organization.It lives in small home ranges and is basically solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It is globally declining. Overhunting and habitat loss are the main threats.Bibliography.Medellin et al. (1998), Weber & Medellin (2010), Weber et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Mazama pandora Merriam, 1901, Tunkas, Yucatan(Mexico).It has been considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubiraand of M. americana. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cariacou du Yucatan @fr | Yucatan-Mazama @de | Corzuelade Yucatan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1901","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Cervidae","interpretedGenus":"Mazama","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"441","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pandora","name":"Mazama pandora","subspeciesAndDistribution":"YucatanPeninsula (Mexico); possibly also in N Guatemalaand N Belize.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6514545/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Medellin et al. (1998) | Weber & Medellin (2010) | Weber et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"It is mainly frugivorous, but feeds on a wide range of plants. The diet is richer in species during the wet season.","breeding":"It seems to breed during most of the year.","activityPatterns":"Nothing is known of the daily activity patterns, but almost surely crepuscular. In addition, it may be active at other times of the day and night, depending on hunting pressure.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"It lives in small home ranges and is basically solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It is globally declining. Overhunting and habitat loss are the main threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Few measuremets available. Shoulder height 70 cm; weight 17-21 kg. Medium-sized brocket, slightly larger than the sympatric Mexican Red Brocket (M. temama). The main color of the coatis gray-brown, with pale brown to whitish underparts. A tuft of stiff hairs grows on the forehead. Relatively long antlers, longitudinally furrowed; antler tips may curve inward.","habitat":"It is a generalist, able to live in wet and dry forests as well as shrublands, with a preference for tall and medium semi-evergreen forests. It also occurs in mangrove forests, above high tide level. In populated areas,it will sometimes enter into agricultural plantations to feed."} @@ -458,11 +458,11 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439150FFECE4EACCF02EB6ACD0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439150FFECE4EACCF02EB6ACD0","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"441","verbatimText":"11.Hispaniolan Common Mustached BatPteronotus pusillusFrench:Ptéronote d'Hispaniola/ German:Hispaniola-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de HispaniolaOther common names:Hispaniolan Mustached BatTaxonomy.Chilonycteris parnelliipusillus [sic] G. M. Allen, 1917, “Arroyo Salado, Santo Domingo,” Dominican Republic.Pteronotuspusillus was formerly classified as a subspecies of P. parnellir, but here it is considered a distinct species. Fossil subspecies gonavensis, described by K. F. Koopman in 1995 from an owl pellet deposit found in a cave near En Café, Gonave Island, off western Hispaniola,is considered a temporal variation of the population currently inhabiting Hispaniola (i.e. P. pusillus). Monotypic.Distribution.Haitiand Dominican Republic.Descriptive notes.Head—body ¢. 53 mm, tail 20 mm, ear 18 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 49-7-52-9 mm. The Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat is the smallest species of common mustached bat. It is easily distinguished from Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat (P. parnelliz) and the Puerto Rican Common Mustached Bat (P. portoricensis) based on smaller external and cranial sizes. Pelage is darker dorsally than ventrally; hairs on back have paler central zone similar to Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat. Skull of the Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat has delicate rostrum and comparatively robust, globular braincase. Condylo-basal lengths are 17-17-8 mm. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Phyllodia are listed in descriptive notes for Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat.Habitat.Dense vegetation in dry thorn scrub and forests or along streams.Food and Feeding.The Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat feeds on insects, but there is no specific information available on prey items in its diet.Breeding.No reproductive activity was observed in Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bats collected in May and August in three distinct localities in Haiti.Activity patterns.Echolocation calls of the Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat consist of long CF-FM pulses with most energy at ¢.67-5 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bats roost in caves with other mormoopids and phyllostomids. There are seasonal changes in colony sizes, probably related to reproductive activity.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat is included under Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat, which is classified as Least Concern. It is not particularly abundant compared with other species of mormoopids on Hispaniola.Bibliography.Davalos et al. (2019), Klingener et al. (1978), Koopman (1955), Nunez-Novas et al. (2016), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Smith (1972).","taxonomy":"Chilonycteris parnelliipusillus [sic] G. M. Allen, 1917, “Arroyo Salado, Santo Domingo,” Dominican Republic.Pteronotuspusillus was formerly classified as a subspecies of P. parnellir, but here it is considered a distinct species. Fossil subspecies gonavensis, described by K. F. Koopman in 1995 from an owl pellet deposit found in a cave near En Café, Gonave Island, off western Hispaniola,is considered a temporal variation of the population currently inhabiting Hispaniola (i.e. P. pusillus). Monotypic.","commonNames":"Ptéronote d'Hispaniola @fr | Hispaniola-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Hispaniola @es | Hispaniolan Mustached Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Allen","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Pteronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"441","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pusillus","name":"Pteronotus pusillus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Haitiand Dominican Republic.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6419830/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Davalos et al. (2019) | Klingener et al. (1978) | Koopman (1955) | Nunez-Novas et al. (2016) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Smith (1972)","foodAndFeeding":"The Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat feeds on insects, but there is no specific information available on prey items in its diet.","breeding":"No reproductive activity was observed in Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bats collected in May and August in three distinct localities in Haiti.","activityPatterns":"Echolocation calls of the Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat consist of long CF-FM pulses with most energy at ¢.67-5 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bats roost in caves with other mormoopids and phyllostomids. There are seasonal changes in colony sizes, probably related to reproductive activity.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat is included under Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat, which is classified as Least Concern. It is not particularly abundant compared with other species of mormoopids on Hispaniola.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body ¢. 53 mm, tail 20 mm, ear 18 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 49-7-52-9 mm. The Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat is the smallest species of common mustached bat. It is easily distinguished from Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat (P. parnelliz) and the Puerto Rican Common Mustached Bat (P. portoricensis) based on smaller external and cranial sizes. Pelage is darker dorsally than ventrally; hairs on back have paler central zone similar to Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat. Skull of the Hispaniolan Common Mustached Bat has delicate rostrum and comparatively robust, globular braincase. Condylo-basal lengths are 17-17-8 mm. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Phyllodia are listed in descriptive notes for Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat.","habitat":"Dense vegetation in dry thorn scrub and forests or along streams."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439151FFEDE4D8C82A2DB3A9C0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439151FFEDE4D8C82A2DB3A9C0","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"440","verbatimText":"8.Wagner's Lesser Mustached BatPteronotus personatusFrench:Ptéronote masqué/ German:Kleine \\WWagnerSchnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de WagnerOther common names:Lesser Mustached BatTaxonomy.Chilonycteris personata Wagner, 1843, “ Mato grosso[sic],” Brazil. Restricted byJ. A. Wagner in 1847 to “St. Vincente [= Sao Vicente] in der Provinz Mato grosso[sic],” Brazil.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized two subspecies of P. personatus: P. p. personatusand P. p. psilotis. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. personatusrepresents a species complex, supporting elevation of psilotisto a distinct species. Hence, P. personatussensu strictooccurs in South America; its distribution possibly extends northward to Costa Ricaat the border with Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of the Central American and Colombian populations has not been assessed. Fossil records of P. personatusare reported from Tobago Island. Monotypic.Distribution.From SW NicaraguaS through Costa Ricaand Panamato NE & C Brazil, E Peru, and NE Boliviaincluding lowlands of Colombiaand Venezuela, the Guianas, and TrinidadI.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.45-55 mm, tail 16-21 mm, ear 12-19 mm, hindfoot 8:5—-12 mm, forearm 43-48 mm; weight 6-5-10 g. Wagner’s Lesser Mustached Batis easily distinguished from other mormoopids occurring in sympatry based on small size and hair-covered back. Dorsal pelage varies from dark brown to reddish brown and ocherous. Ventral pelage is paler than on back and head. Ears are pointed, connected by two low ridges that meet on top of muzzle and form prominent rostral tubercle. Labionasal plate is simple, with typically smooth margin above nostrils. Skull is relatively flat in profile, with ovoid braincase. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-5-15 mm. Rostral breadth is usually equal to length of maxillary tooth row. Infraorbital foramen is located directly above anterior one-half of second upper molar. Lower incisors are reduced, inner pair is distinctly trilobed, and outer pair is weakly trilobed. There is non-linear variation in cranial size throughout the distribution, with individuals from Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombiaaveraging larger than individuals from Venezuelaand Trinidad Island, and individuals from Brazilincreasing in size again.Habitat.Tropical dry forests, rainforests, and gallery forests. Wagner’s Lesser Mustached Bat also occurs in areas of humid subtropical forest in Peru. Its occurrence is probably restricted to sites that provide specific roosting requirements.Food and Feeding.Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat feeds on insects, but there is no specific information available on prey itemsin its diet.Breeding.Two pregnant Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bats were reported in May from Venezuela.Activity patterns.Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat is most commonly reported foraging over water bodies or in dense vegetation near streams. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses with c.5 milliseconds. Second harmonic is most intense, starting with initial CF component at ¢.80 kHz, followed by downward FM sweep, and ending in short CF component at ¢.65 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat has been reported roosting in hot caves in association with other mormoopids, particularly the Big Naked-backed Bat (P. gymnonotus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Arias-Aguilar et al. (2018), Bernard et al. (2011), Bowles et al. (1979), Davalos (2006), Eshelman & Morgan (1985), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Goodwin & Greenhall (1961), Ibanez & Ochoa (1989), Montes et al. (2012), Ochoa & Ibanez (1985), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Rocha et al. (2011), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), de la Torre & Medellin (2010), Wagner (1847).","taxonomy":"Chilonycteris personata Wagner, 1843, “ Mato grosso[sic],” Brazil. Restricted byJ. A. Wagner in 1847 to “St. Vincente [= Sao Vicente] in der Provinz Mato grosso[sic],” Brazil.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized two subspecies of P. personatus: P. p. personatusand P. p. psilotis. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. personatusrepresents a species complex, supporting elevation of psilotisto a distinct species. Hence, P. personatussensu strictooccurs in South America; its distribution possibly extends northward to Costa Ricaat the border with Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of the Central American and Colombian populations has not been assessed. Fossil records of P. personatusare reported from Tobago Island. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Ptéronote masqué @fr | Kleine \\WWagner Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Wagner @es | Lesser Mustached Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Pteronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"440","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"personatus","name":"Pteronotus personatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"From SW NicaraguaS through Costa Ricaand Panamato NE & C Brazil, E Peru, and NE Boliviaincluding lowlands of Colombiaand Venezuela, the Guianas, and TrinidadI.","bibliography":"Arias-Aguilar et al. (2018) | Bernard et al. (2011) | Bowles et al. (1979) | Davalos (2006) | Eshelman & Morgan (1985) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Goodwin & Greenhall (1961) | Ibanez & Ochoa (1989) | Montes et al. (2012) | Ochoa & Ibanez (1985) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Rocha et al. (2011) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | de la Torre & Medellin (2010) | Wagner (1847)","foodAndFeeding":"Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat feeds on insects, but there is no specific information available on prey itemsin its diet.","breeding":"Two pregnant Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bats were reported in May from Venezuela.","activityPatterns":"Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat is most commonly reported foraging over water bodies or in dense vegetation near streams. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses with c.5 milliseconds. Second harmonic is most intense, starting with initial CF component at ¢.80 kHz, followed by downward FM sweep, and ending in short CF component at ¢.65 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat has been reported roosting in hot caves in association with other mormoopids, particularly the Big Naked-backed Bat (P. gymnonotus).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body c.45-55 mm, tail 16-21 mm, ear 12-19 mm, hindfoot 8:5—-12 mm, forearm 43-48 mm; weight 6-5-10 g. Wagner’s Lesser Mustached Batis easily distinguished from other mormoopids occurring in sympatry based on small size and hair-covered back. Dorsal pelage varies from dark brown to reddish brown and ocherous. Ventral pelage is paler than on back and head. Ears are pointed, connected by two low ridges that meet on top of muzzle and form prominent rostral tubercle. Labionasal plate is simple, with typically smooth margin above nostrils. Skull is relatively flat in profile, with ovoid braincase. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-5-15 mm. Rostral breadth is usually equal to length of maxillary tooth row. Infraorbital foramen is located directly above anterior one-half of second upper molar. Lower incisors are reduced, inner pair is distinctly trilobed, and outer pair is weakly trilobed. There is non-linear variation in cranial size throughout the distribution, with individuals from Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombiaaveraging larger than individuals from Venezuelaand Trinidad Island, and individuals from Brazilincreasing in size again.","habitat":"Tropical dry forests, rainforests, and gallery forests. Wagner’s Lesser Mustached Bat also occurs in areas of humid subtropical forest in Peru. Its occurrence is probably restricted to sites that provide specific roosting requirements."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439151FFEDE4DAC0D82672A6EE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439151FFEDE4DAC0D82672A6EE","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"440","verbatimText":"9.Dobson’s Lesser Mustached BatPteronotus psilotisFrench:Ptéronote a oreilles nues/ German:Kleine Dobson-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de DobsonOther common names:Dobson's Mustached BatTaxonomy.Chilonycteris psilotis Dobson, 1878, type locality unknown. Restricted by IL. de Ia Towe in 1955 to “Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico.”P. psilotiswas formerly classified as a subspecies of P. personatus, but here it is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.From Sonoraand Tamaulipasalong Pacific and Gulf coasts of N Mexico, respectively, S to El Salvadorand W Honduras.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.45-54 mm, tail 15-18 mm, ear 16-18 mm, hindfoot 9-4-12 mm, forearm 40-8-45 mm; weight 6:5-7-4 g. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is the smallest species of mormoopid on the mainland. Pelage is highly variable in color. Dorsal fur is gray to brownish when hairs are new, becoming reddish brown and ocherous as hairs age. Ventral fur is bicolored; hairs of new pelage have brown bases and grayish or cinnamon tips; as hairs age, tips get reddish or almost yellowish. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat resembles Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat (PF. personatus) externally and cranially but it has an average smaller overall size. Skull of Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Batis similar in size to that of Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat (PF. fulvus), which occurs in the same geographical area, but it is flatter in profile; rostrum 1s also narrower; and basioccipital region is less developed. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-2-14-5 mm.Habitat.Woodlands of tropical deciduous and semideciduous forest, rainforest, and vegetation with well-developed canopies. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is usually associated with streams and rivers. Similar to Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat, Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat has a narrow thermal tolerance for roosting;it prefers roosting in hot and humid caves or mines, which probably restricts habitats that it can use.Food and Feeding.Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat is known to eat insects, but there is no specific information available on prey items in its diet.Breeding.Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat is seasonally monoestrous, with females usually giving birth at beginning of rainy season. Males seem to form bachelor colonies during at least part of the year, with maternity colonies almost exclusively comprised of females. In Mexico, pregnant females have been reported in April-July, lactating females in July-September, and most records of young in August-December.Activity patterns.Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is reportedly crepuscular. On average, it uses the first four hours of the night to emerge and forage, returning immediately to its roost. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of 4-7 milliseconds. Second harmonic, which is most intense, is composed by initial short CF component at ¢.83 kHz, followed by downward FM sweep, and terminal short CF component of 65-68 kHz. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bats seem able to perform DSC.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Mexico, Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bats are found in colonies that can exceed 10,000 individuals and in association with other mormoopids, particularly Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat, phyllostomids, and natalids. Colonies exhibit seasonal changes in size, with larger numbers of individuals most commonly reported during dry seasons. Fluctuations in colony size are probably related to seasonal movements for reproduction. Individuals were reported to maintain specific flyways in arroyos and canyon bottoms, foraging in areas 3-5 km from roosts.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is included under Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat, which is classified as Least Concern.Bibliography.Avila & Medellin (2004), Bateman & Vaughan (1974), GBIF Secretariat (2017), MacSwiney etal. (2006), O'Farrell & Miller (1997), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Smith (1972), Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008), de la Torre, J.A. & Medellin (2010), de la Torre, L. (1955), Torres-Flores et al. (2012).","taxonomy":"Chilonycteris psilotis Dobson, 1878, type locality unknown. Restricted by IL. de Ia Towe in 1955 to “Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico.”P. psilotiswas formerly classified as a subspecies of P. personatus, but here it is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Ptéronote a oreilles nues @fr | Kleine Dobson-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Dobson @es | Dobson's Mustached Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dobson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1878","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Pteronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"440","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"psilotis","name":"Pteronotus psilotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"From Sonoraand Tamaulipasalong Pacific and Gulf coasts of N Mexico, respectively, S to El Salvadorand W Honduras.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6419826/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Avila & Medellin (2004) | Bateman & Vaughan (1974) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | MacSwiney etal. (2006) | O'Farrell & Miller (1997) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Smith (1972) | Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008) | de la Torre, J.A. & Medellin (2010) | de la Torre, L. (1955) | Torres-Flores et al. (2012)","foodAndFeeding":"Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat is known to eat insects, but there is no specific information available on prey items in its diet.","breeding":"Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat is seasonally monoestrous, with females usually giving birth at beginning of rainy season. Males seem to form bachelor colonies during at least part of the year, with maternity colonies almost exclusively comprised of females. In Mexico, pregnant females have been reported in April-July, lactating females in July-September, and most records of young in August-December.","activityPatterns":"Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is reportedly crepuscular. On average, it uses the first four hours of the night to emerge and forage, returning immediately to its roost. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of 4-7 milliseconds. Second harmonic, which is most intense, is composed by initial short CF component at ¢.83 kHz, followed by downward FM sweep, and terminal short CF component of 65-68 kHz. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bats seem able to perform DSC.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In Mexico, Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bats are found in colonies that can exceed 10,000 individuals and in association with other mormoopids, particularly Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat, phyllostomids, and natalids. Colonies exhibit seasonal changes in size, with larger numbers of individuals most commonly reported during dry seasons. Fluctuations in colony size are probably related to seasonal movements for reproduction. Individuals were reported to maintain specific flyways in arroyos and canyon bottoms, foraging in areas 3-5 km from roosts.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is included under Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat, which is classified as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body c.45-54 mm, tail 15-18 mm, ear 16-18 mm, hindfoot 9-4-12 mm, forearm 40-8-45 mm; weight 6:5-7-4 g. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is the smallest species of mormoopid on the mainland. Pelage is highly variable in color. Dorsal fur is gray to brownish when hairs are new, becoming reddish brown and ocherous as hairs age. Ventral fur is bicolored; hairs of new pelage have brown bases and grayish or cinnamon tips; as hairs age, tips get reddish or almost yellowish. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat resembles Wagner's Lesser Mustached Bat (PF. personatus) externally and cranially but it has an average smaller overall size. Skull of Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Batis similar in size to that of Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat (PF. fulvus), which occurs in the same geographical area, but it is flatter in profile; rostrum 1s also narrower; and basioccipital region is less developed. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-2-14-5 mm.","habitat":"Woodlands of tropical deciduous and semideciduous forest, rainforest, and vegetation with well-developed canopies. Dobson’s Lesser Mustached Bat is usually associated with streams and rivers. Similar to Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat, Dobson's Lesser Mustached Bat has a narrow thermal tolerance for roosting;it prefers roosting in hot and humid caves or mines, which probably restricts habitats that it can use."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439152FFEEE4E4CC8F27C9A2B6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439152FFEEE4E4CC8F27C9A2B6","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"439","verbatimText":"6.Macleay’s Mustached BatPleronotus macleayiiFrench:Ptéronote de Macleay/ German:Macleay-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de MacleayTaxonomy.Chilonycteris macleayii J. E.Gray, 1839, “ Cuba.” Restricted by G. SilvaTaboada in 1976 to Guanabacoa, Havana Province, Cuba.Description of macleayiiwas associated with three specimens from Cubapresented by W. S. Macleay to J. E. Gray; original description was detailed and accurate and apparently based on only one male among these specimens. It is believed that such material, however, contained both species of Antillean mustached bats, P. macleayiiand P. quadridens, and that during World WarII, the incorrect specimen (an individual of P. quadridens) was segregated as the holotype of P. macleayiiand subsequently labeled. J. D. Smith in 1972 designated another of these specimens as the holotype. Fossil records of P. macleayu: are reported from the DominicanRepublic and New Providence Island, Bahamas, suggesting a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than today. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.m.macleayii].E.Gray,1839—CubaandIsladelaJuventud.P. m. griseus Gosse, 1851— Jamaica.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.41-53 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 9-10 mm, hindfoot 9-15 mm, forearm 41-45 mm; weight 4-8 g. Pelage is tricolored dorsally, basal and tip bands vary from dark brown or olive-brown to orange, and central band is whitish to grayish. Ventral fur is paler. Tragus is long and spatulated, with prominent secondary fold. Labionasal plate is very distinct: nostrils have squared flaps above them and prominent lateral spikes to either side. Calcar length is c.1-5 times longer than hindfoot. Skull has slightly elevated rostrum, which is longer than one-half total length of skull. Braincase is globular. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-16 mm. Subspecies macleayi: is smaller than griseus based on external and cranial measurements.Habitat.Semi-open spaces over streams and watercourses for foraging. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is considered an obligate cave-dweller, preferably roosting in high-domed chambers in deep and wet cave systems.Food and Feeding.Macleay’s Mustached Bat feeds on a high diversity of arthropods, including lepidopterans, dipterans, coleopterans, orthopterans, hemipterans, ephemeropterans, and spiders.Breeding.Macleay’s Mustached Bat is monoestrous and bears one young each pregnancy. Breeding begins in March, pregnant females are observed in March—July, and lactation occurs in June-August.Activity patterns.Macleay’s Mustached Bat has an intermediate flight speed and is most active in edge habitats, usually foraging relatively higher than syntopic species of Pteronotus. There is temporal displacement in activity patterns among Macleay’s Mustached Bat, the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (Mormoops blainvillei), and the Sooty Mustached Bat (P. quadridens) when foraging in the same habitat. In Jamaica, its activity 1s more intense a few hours after sunset. In Cuba,it exhibits a unimodal peak of activity in the middle of the night. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM signals of ¢.4-3 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is usually most intense and starts at ¢.71 kHz and ends at ¢.56 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Macleay’s Mustached Bat roosts in association with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but it forms spatially separated clusters. In Cuba, colonies ofseveral thousand are found; in Jamaica, it sometimes congregates in smaller clusters. Males and females might disappear from daily roosts during mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is less abundant and has a more restricted distribution in Jamaicathan Cuba.Bibliography.Emrich et al. (2014), Genoways et al. (2005), Mancina (2005), Mancina, Echenique-Diaz et al. (2007), Mancina, Garcia-Rivera & Miller (2012), Mora & Macias (2011), Morgan (2001), Silva-Taboada (1976b), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013).","taxonomy":"Chilonycteris macleayii J. E.Gray, 1839, “ Cuba.” Restricted by G. SilvaTaboada in 1976 to Guanabacoa, Havana Province, Cuba.Description of macleayiiwas associated with three specimens from Cubapresented by W. S. Macleay to J. E. Gray; original description was detailed and accurate and apparently based on only one male among these specimens. It is believed that such material, however, contained both species of Antillean mustached bats, P. macleayiiand P. quadridens, and that during World WarII, the incorrect specimen (an individual of P. quadridens) was segregated as the holotype of P. macleayiiand subsequently labeled. J. D. Smith in 1972 designated another of these specimens as the holotype. Fossil records of P. macleayu: are reported from the DominicanRepublic and New Providence Island, Bahamas, suggesting a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than today. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ptéronote de Macleay @fr | Macleay-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Macleay @es","interpretedAuthority":"J. E.","interpretedClass":"Gastropoda","interpretedFamily":"Muricidae","interpretedGenus":"Pleronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Neogastropoda","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"439","interpretedPhylum":"Mollusca","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macleayii","name":"Pleronotus macleayii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.m.macleayii].E.Gray,1839—CubaandIsladelaJuventud.P. m. griseus Gosse, 1851— Jamaica.","bibliography":"Emrich et al. (2014) | Genoways et al. (2005) | Mancina (2005) | Mancina, Echenique-Diaz et al. (2007) | Mancina, Garcia-Rivera & Miller (2012) | Mora & Macias (2011) | Morgan (2001) | Silva-Taboada (1976b) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"Macleay’s Mustached Bat feeds on a high diversity of arthropods, including lepidopterans, dipterans, coleopterans, orthopterans, hemipterans, ephemeropterans, and spiders.","breeding":"Macleay’s Mustached Bat is monoestrous and bears one young each pregnancy. Breeding begins in March, pregnant females are observed in March—July, and lactation occurs in June-August.","activityPatterns":"Macleay’s Mustached Bat has an intermediate flight speed and is most active in edge habitats, usually foraging relatively higher than syntopic species of Pteronotus. There is temporal displacement in activity patterns among Macleay’s Mustached Bat, the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (Mormoops blainvillei), and the Sooty Mustached Bat (P. quadridens) when foraging in the same habitat. In Jamaica, its activity 1s more intense a few hours after sunset. In Cuba,it exhibits a unimodal peak of activity in the middle of the night. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM signals of ¢.4-3 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is usually most intense and starts at ¢.71 kHz and ends at ¢.56 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Macleay’s Mustached Bat roosts in association with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but it forms spatially separated clusters. In Cuba, colonies ofseveral thousand are found; in Jamaica, it sometimes congregates in smaller clusters. Males and females might disappear from daily roosts during mating season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is less abundant and has a more restricted distribution in Jamaicathan Cuba.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.41-53 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 9-10 mm, hindfoot 9-15 mm, forearm 41-45 mm; weight 4-8 g. Pelage is tricolored dorsally, basal and tip bands vary from dark brown or olive-brown to orange, and central band is whitish to grayish. Ventral fur is paler. Tragus is long and spatulated, with prominent secondary fold. Labionasal plate is very distinct: nostrils have squared flaps above them and prominent lateral spikes to either side. Calcar length is c.1-5 times longer than hindfoot. Skull has slightly elevated rostrum, which is longer than one-half total length of skull. Braincase is globular. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-16 mm. Subspecies macleayi: is smaller than griseus based on external and cranial measurements.","habitat":"Semi-open spaces over streams and watercourses for foraging. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is considered an obligate cave-dweller, preferably roosting in high-domed chambers in deep and wet cave systems."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439152FFEEE4E4CC8F27C9A2B6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439152FFEEE4E4CC8F27C9A2B6","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"439","verbatimText":"6.Macleay’s Mustached BatPleronotus macleayiiFrench:Ptéronote de Macleay/ German:Macleay-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de MacleayTaxonomy.Chilonycteris macleayii J. E.Gray, 1839, “ Cuba.” Restricted by G. SilvaTaboada in 1976 to Guanabacoa, Havana Province, Cuba.Description of macleayiiwas associated with three specimens from Cubapresented by W. S. Macleay to J. E. Gray; original description was detailed and accurate and apparently based on only one male among these specimens. It is believed that such material, however, contained both species of Antillean mustached bats, P. macleayiiand P. quadridens, and that during World WarII, the incorrect specimen (an individual of P. quadridens) was segregated as the holotype of P. macleayiiand subsequently labeled. J. D. Smith in 1972 designated another of these specimens as the holotype. Fossil records of P. macleayu: are reported from the DominicanRepublic and New Providence Island, Bahamas, suggesting a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than today. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.m.macleayii].E.Gray,1839—CubaandIsladelaJuventud.P. m. griseus Gosse, 1851— Jamaica.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.41-53 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 9-10 mm, hindfoot 9-15 mm, forearm 41-45 mm; weight 4-8 g. Pelage is tricolored dorsally, basal and tip bands vary from dark brown or olive-brown to orange, and central band is whitish to grayish. Ventral fur is paler. Tragus is long and spatulated, with prominent secondary fold. Labionasal plate is very distinct: nostrils have squared flaps above them and prominent lateral spikes to either side. Calcar length is c.1-5 times longer than hindfoot. Skull has slightly elevated rostrum, which is longer than one-half total length of skull. Braincase is globular. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-16 mm. Subspecies macleayi: is smaller than griseus based on external and cranial measurements.Habitat.Semi-open spaces over streams and watercourses for foraging. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is considered an obligate cave-dweller, preferably roosting in high-domed chambers in deep and wet cave systems.Food and Feeding.Macleay’s Mustached Bat feeds on a high diversity of arthropods, including lepidopterans, dipterans, coleopterans, orthopterans, hemipterans, ephemeropterans, and spiders.Breeding.Macleay’s Mustached Bat is monoestrous and bears one young each pregnancy. Breeding begins in March, pregnant females are observed in March—July, and lactation occurs in June-August.Activity patterns.Macleay’s Mustached Bat has an intermediate flight speed and is most active in edge habitats, usually foraging relatively higher than syntopic species of Pteronotus. There is temporal displacement in activity patterns among Macleay’s Mustached Bat, the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (Mormoops blainvillei), and the Sooty Mustached Bat (P. quadridens) when foraging in the same habitat. In Jamaica, its activity 1s more intense a few hours after sunset. In Cuba,it exhibits a unimodal peak of activity in the middle of the night. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM signals of ¢.4-3 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is usually most intense and starts at ¢.71 kHz and ends at ¢.56 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Macleay’s Mustached Bat roosts in association with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but it forms spatially separated clusters. In Cuba, colonies ofseveral thousand are found; in Jamaica, it sometimes congregates in smaller clusters. Males and females might disappear from daily roosts during mating season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is less abundant and has a more restricted distribution in Jamaicathan Cuba.Bibliography.Emrich et al. (2014), Genoways et al. (2005), Mancina (2005), Mancina, Echenique-Diaz et al. (2007), Mancina, Garcia-Rivera & Miller (2012), Mora & Macias (2011), Morgan (2001), Silva-Taboada (1976b), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013).","taxonomy":"Chilonycteris macleayii J. E.Gray, 1839, “ Cuba.” Restricted by G. SilvaTaboada in 1976 to Guanabacoa, Havana Province, Cuba.Description of macleayiiwas associated with three specimens from Cubapresented by W. S. Macleay to J. E. Gray; original description was detailed and accurate and apparently based on only one male among these specimens. It is believed that such material, however, contained both species of Antillean mustached bats, P. macleayiiand P. quadridens, and that during World WarII, the incorrect specimen (an individual of P. quadridens) was segregated as the holotype of P. macleayiiand subsequently labeled. J. D. Smith in 1972 designated another of these specimens as the holotype. Fossil records of P. macleayu: are reported from the DominicanRepublic and New Providence Island, Bahamas, suggesting a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than today. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ptéronote de Macleay @fr | Macleay-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Macleay @es","interpretedAuthority":"J. E.","interpretedClass":"Gastropoda","interpretedFamily":"Muricidae","interpretedGenus":"Pleronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Neogastropoda","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"439","interpretedPhylum":"Mollusca","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macleayii","name":"Pleronotus macleayii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.m.macleayii].E.Gray,1839—CubaandIsladelaJuventud.P. m. griseus Gosse, 1851— Jamaica.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6419813/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emrich et al. (2014) | Genoways et al. (2005) | Mancina (2005) | Mancina, Echenique-Diaz et al. (2007) | Mancina, Garcia-Rivera & Miller (2012) | Mora & Macias (2011) | Morgan (2001) | Silva-Taboada (1976b) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"Macleay’s Mustached Bat feeds on a high diversity of arthropods, including lepidopterans, dipterans, coleopterans, orthopterans, hemipterans, ephemeropterans, and spiders.","breeding":"Macleay’s Mustached Bat is monoestrous and bears one young each pregnancy. Breeding begins in March, pregnant females are observed in March—July, and lactation occurs in June-August.","activityPatterns":"Macleay’s Mustached Bat has an intermediate flight speed and is most active in edge habitats, usually foraging relatively higher than syntopic species of Pteronotus. There is temporal displacement in activity patterns among Macleay’s Mustached Bat, the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (Mormoops blainvillei), and the Sooty Mustached Bat (P. quadridens) when foraging in the same habitat. In Jamaica, its activity 1s more intense a few hours after sunset. In Cuba,it exhibits a unimodal peak of activity in the middle of the night. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM signals of ¢.4-3 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is usually most intense and starts at ¢.71 kHz and ends at ¢.56 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Macleay’s Mustached Bat roosts in association with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but it forms spatially separated clusters. In Cuba, colonies ofseveral thousand are found; in Jamaica, it sometimes congregates in smaller clusters. Males and females might disappear from daily roosts during mating season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is less abundant and has a more restricted distribution in Jamaicathan Cuba.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.41-53 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 9-10 mm, hindfoot 9-15 mm, forearm 41-45 mm; weight 4-8 g. Pelage is tricolored dorsally, basal and tip bands vary from dark brown or olive-brown to orange, and central band is whitish to grayish. Ventral fur is paler. Tragus is long and spatulated, with prominent secondary fold. Labionasal plate is very distinct: nostrils have squared flaps above them and prominent lateral spikes to either side. Calcar length is c.1-5 times longer than hindfoot. Skull has slightly elevated rostrum, which is longer than one-half total length of skull. Braincase is globular. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-16 mm. Subspecies macleayi: is smaller than griseus based on external and cranial measurements.","habitat":"Semi-open spaces over streams and watercourses for foraging. Macleay’s Mustached Bat is considered an obligate cave-dweller, preferably roosting in high-domed chambers in deep and wet cave systems."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439153FFEEE1D5C02C2DB2A510.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439153FFEEE1D5C02C2DB2A510","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"438","verbatimText":"5.Big Naked-backed BatPteronotus gymnonotusFrench:Ptéronote a dos nu/ German:GroRe Nacktrlickenfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotusde espalda desnudaTaxonomy.Chilonycteris gymnonotus[sic] Wagner, 1843, “Cuyaba [= Cuiabd],” Mato Grosso, Brazil.Some authors attribute the name P. gymnonotusto J. B. Natterer. When J. D. Smith in 1977 clarified the nomenclatural history recognizing P. gymnonotusas the senior synonym of P. suapurensis, he assigned Natterer as its authority. Smith argued that J.A. Wagner, when he described P. gymnonotus, attributed the name of the species to Natterer because the descriptive notes were taken directly from Natterer’s field diary. D. C. Carter and P. G. Dolan in 1978 examined a photocopy of Natterer’s field notes and stated that, even though Wagner used Natterer’s species name, he wrote the species diagnosis independently, and therefore Smith’s claim was not supported. Carter and Dolan’s argument is followed here. Fossil records of P. gymnonotusare reported from Tobago Island. Monotypic.Distribution.From S MexicoS along Central America, Caribbean coast of South America, and the Guianas to C & NE Brazil, E Peru, and NE Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.51-69 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 13-20 mm, hindfoot 9-13 mm, forearm 50-56 mm; weight 12-18 g. The Big Naked-backed Bat is the largest species of naked-backed bat, both externally and cranially. Fur color varies from dark brown to bright orange and is paler ventrally than dorsally. There are short hairs densely covering fused wing membrane, giving back a “velvety” appearance. Skull rostrum is conspicuously shorter than one-half total length of skull and very broad, with depressed nasals. Braincase is oblong, and basioccipital region between bullae is very broad. Condylo-basal lengths are 15-17 mm. There is a geographical trend of larger overall sizes in the northernmost distribution, but no population structuring at the molecular level is observed. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Pleronotusare listed in descriptive notes for Davy’s Naked-backed Bat (P. davyr).Habitat.Tropical rainforest, dry forest, xerophytic scrub, and savannas. The Big Naked-backed Bat is more abundant in dry and semi-open environments below elevations of 400 m, although there are several records from the Brazilian central plateau above 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Diets of Big Naked-backed Bats include moths, beetles, flies, and crickets.Breeding.In Nicaraguaand Mexico, pregnant Big Naked-backed Bats were reported in April, May, and June. In north-eastern Brazil, it has been suggested that the reproductive pattern is related to the wet season, with pregnant females reported in September—November.Activity patterns.The Big Naked-backed Bat forages more commonly in semi-open areas and over water bodies. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses averaging 6-6 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is the most intense, starting with a CF component at 55 kHz and ending with a QCF component of ¢.48-7 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Big Naked-backed Bat prefers roosting in large and humid cave systems, where it is found in association with other species of mormoopids and phyllostomids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bernard et al. (2011), Bredt et al. (1999), Cajaiba (2014), Carter & Dolan (1978), Eshelman & Morgan (1985), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Ibanez & Ochoa (1989), Ibanez et al. (2000), Patton & Gardner (2008), Pavan & Marroig (2016, 2017), Rocha et al. (2011), Sbragia & Cardoso (2008), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972, 1977), Vargas-Mena et al. (2018), Willig (1985a).","taxonomy":"Chilonycteris gymnonotus[sic] Wagner, 1843, “Cuyaba [= Cuiabd],” Mato Grosso, Brazil.Some authors attribute the name P. gymnonotusto J. B. Natterer. When J. D. Smith in 1977 clarified the nomenclatural history recognizing P. gymnonotusas the senior synonym of P. suapurensis, he assigned Natterer as its authority. Smith argued that J.A. Wagner, when he described P. gymnonotus, attributed the name of the species to Natterer because the descriptive notes were taken directly from Natterer’s field diary. D. C. Carter and P. G. Dolan in 1978 examined a photocopy of Natterer’s field notes and stated that, even though Wagner used Natterer’s species name, he wrote the species diagnosis independently, and therefore Smith’s claim was not supported. Carter and Dolan’s argument is followed here. Fossil records of P. gymnonotusare reported from Tobago Island. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Ptéronote a dos nu @fr | Gro Re Nacktrlickenfledermaus @de | Pteronotusde espalda desnuda @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Natterer","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Pteronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"438","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gymnonotus","name":"Pteronotus gymnonotus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"From S MexicoS along Central America, Caribbean coast of South America, and the Guianas to C & NE Brazil, E Peru, and NE Bolivia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6419811/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bernard et al. (2011) | Bredt et al. (1999) | Cajaiba (2014) | Carter & Dolan (1978) | Eshelman & Morgan (1985) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Ibanez & Ochoa (1989) | Ibanez et al. (2000) | Patton & Gardner (2008) | Pavan & Marroig (2016, 2017) | Rocha et al. (2011) | Sbragia & Cardoso (2008) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972, 1977) | Vargas-Mena et al. (2018) | Willig (1985a)","foodAndFeeding":"Diets of Big Naked-backed Bats include moths, beetles, flies, and crickets.","breeding":"In Nicaraguaand Mexico, pregnant Big Naked-backed Bats were reported in April, May, and June. In north-eastern Brazil, it has been suggested that the reproductive pattern is related to the wet season, with pregnant females reported in September—November.","activityPatterns":"The Big Naked-backed Bat forages more commonly in semi-open areas and over water bodies. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses averaging 6-6 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is the most intense, starting with a CF component at 55 kHz and ending with a QCF component of ¢.48-7 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Big Naked-backed Bat prefers roosting in large and humid cave systems, where it is found in association with other species of mormoopids and phyllostomids.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.51-69 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 13-20 mm, hindfoot 9-13 mm, forearm 50-56 mm; weight 12-18 g. The Big Naked-backed Bat is the largest species of naked-backed bat, both externally and cranially. Fur color varies from dark brown to bright orange and is paler ventrally than dorsally. There are short hairs densely covering fused wing membrane, giving back a “velvety” appearance. Skull rostrum is conspicuously shorter than one-half total length of skull and very broad, with depressed nasals. Braincase is oblong, and basioccipital region between bullae is very broad. Condylo-basal lengths are 15-17 mm. There is a geographical trend of larger overall sizes in the northernmost distribution, but no population structuring at the molecular level is observed. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Pleronotusare listed in descriptive notes for Davy’s Naked-backed Bat (P. davyr).","habitat":"Tropical rainforest, dry forest, xerophytic scrub, and savannas. The Big Naked-backed Bat is more abundant in dry and semi-open environments below elevations of 400 m, although there are several records from the Brazilian central plateau above 1000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439153FFEFE4D8C8852D71AC5E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439153FFEFE4D8C8852D71AC5E","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"438","verbatimText":"3.Davy’s Naked-backed BatPteronotus davyiFrench:Ptéronote de Davy/ German:Davy-Nacktrlickenfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de DavyOther common names:Lesser Naked-backed BatTaxonomy.Pteronotus davyi J. E. Gray, 1838“Trimidad [Island],” Trinidad and Tobago.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized three subspecies of P. davyi: P. d. davyi, P. d. fulvus, and P. d. incae. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. davy: represents a species complex, supporting elevation of fulvus to a distinct species.Hence, P davyisensu strictooccurs in coastal lowlands of Venezuelaand in the Lesser Antilles, and as an isolated population in Peru; its distribution might extend to Colombiaand northward to Costa Ricaand Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of these populations has not been assessed. Pteronotus davyiseems uncommon in Central America, and no extant populations are known in Panama, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, and Brazil. Occurrence records in north-eastern Brazilwere erroneous and corresponded to P. gymnonotus. Fossil records of P. davyiare reported from Bahiaand Goiasin Braziland Tobago Island. Based on fossil records, its distribution was more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.d.davyiJ.E.Gray,1838—Nicaragua,CostaRica,NColombia,andNVenezuela;LesserAntillesonMarie-Galante,Dominica,Martinique,St.Lucia,Grenada,Trinidad,andCuracao.P. d. incae]. D. Smith, 1972— Piura, Lambayeque, and Cajamarcadepartments, NW Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.50-57 mm, tail 18-25 mm, ear 16-19 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm, forearm 46-50 mm; weight 8-11 g. Dorsal fur under wing membranes is longer than ventral fur. Hairs are usually unicolored or only slightly bicolored, varying from grayish to reddish brown. Rostrum is very broad, with wide and concave nasals. Individuals of subspecies incae are overall larger than those of davyi. Some external and cranial features are shared with the other species currently recognized in the subgenus Pteronotus: wing membranes fused dorsally at midline; ears pointed, with anteromedial edge of pinna smooth (lacking serrations); skull rostrum noticeably upturned in lateral profile and shorter than one-half total length of skull; braincase oblong and basioccipital region broad between auditory bullae; and lower incisors reduced in size and trilobed. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-4-15-7 mm.Habitat.Tropical thorn forest, semideciduous forest, woodlands, and swamps. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat usually forages over water and near vegetation. It is sensitive to ambient temperatures below 15°C; it thermoregulates efficiently and usually maintains high body temperature (c.38°C) in warm environments. In Peru, subspecies incae occurs at higher elevations (up to 2700 m) on western slope of Andes and might be adapted to tolerate colder temperatures.Food and Feeding.Diet of Davy’s Naked-backed Bat includes lepidopterans, dipterans, and dermapterans.Breeding.In Dominica, pregnant Davy’s Naked-backed Bats were observed in March and one lactating female in July. Ajuvenile was reported in September in Curacao.Activity patterns.Davy’s Naked-backed Bats seem to be crepuscular, being the first to leave caves at dusk in multispecies assemblages. They prefer roosting in large and warm caves. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.4-5 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is frequently most intense, starting with a CF component of 68-70 kHz, followed by a FM sweep, and ending in a QCF segment averaging 54 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Davy’s Naked-backed Bats frequently share large and warm caves with other mormoopids, phyllostomids, and natalids. Males and females apparently roost in the same areas of caves. They select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature. There are no records of long-range movements by Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, but it is the only mormoopid inhabiting islands of the Lesser Antilles farther from the coast.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat is classified as endangered in Curacao.Bibliography.Adams (1989), Bonaccorso et al. (1992), Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998), Davalos (2006), Eshelman & Morgan (1985), Fracasso & Salles (2005), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Genoways et al. (2001), Ibanez et al. (1999), Jennings et al. (2004), Lenoble, Bochaton et al. (2014), Mares & Wilson (1971), Mares et al. (1981), Patton & Gardner (2008), Pavan & Marroig, (2016), Pedersen et al. (2013), Petit et al. (2006), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Willig (1985).","taxonomy":"Pteronotus davyi J. E. Gray, 1838“Trimidad [Island],” Trinidad and Tobago.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized three subspecies of P. davyi: P. d. davyi, P. d. fulvus, and P. d. incae. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. davy: represents a species complex, supporting elevation of fulvus to a distinct species.Hence, P davyisensu strictooccurs in coastal lowlands of Venezuelaand in the Lesser Antilles, and as an isolated population in Peru; its distribution might extend to Colombiaand northward to Costa Ricaand Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of these populations has not been assessed. Pteronotus davyiseems uncommon in Central America, and no extant populations are known in Panama, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, and Brazil. Occurrence records in north-eastern Brazilwere erroneous and corresponded to P. gymnonotus. Fossil records of P. davyiare reported from Bahiaand Goiasin Braziland Tobago Island. Based on fossil records, its distribution was more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ptéronote de Davy @fr | Davy-Nacktrlickenfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Davy @es | Lesser Naked-backed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. E. Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Pteronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"438","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"davyi","name":"Pteronotus davyi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.d.davyiJ.E.Gray,1838—Nicaragua,CostaRica,NColombia,andNVenezuela;LesserAntillesonMarie-Galante,Dominica,Martinique,St.Lucia,Grenada,Trinidad,andCuracao.P. d. incae]. D. Smith, 1972— Piura, Lambayeque, and Cajamarcadepartments, NW Peru.","bibliography":"Adams (1989) | Bonaccorso et al. (1992) | Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998) | Davalos (2006) | Eshelman & Morgan (1985) | Fracasso & Salles (2005) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Genoways et al. (2001) | Ibanez et al. (1999) | Jennings et al. (2004) | Lenoble, Bochaton et al. (2014) | Mares & Wilson (1971) | Mares et al. (1981) | Patton & Gardner (2008) | Pavan & Marroig, (2016) | Pedersen et al. (2013) | Petit et al. (2006) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Willig (1985)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Davy’s Naked-backed Bat includes lepidopterans, dipterans, and dermapterans.","breeding":"In Dominica, pregnant Davy’s Naked-backed Bats were observed in March and one lactating female in July. Ajuvenile was reported in September in Curacao.","activityPatterns":"Davy’s Naked-backed Bats seem to be crepuscular, being the first to leave caves at dusk in multispecies assemblages. They prefer roosting in large and warm caves. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.4-5 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is frequently most intense, starting with a CF component of 68-70 kHz, followed by a FM sweep, and ending in a QCF segment averaging 54 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Davy’s Naked-backed Bats frequently share large and warm caves with other mormoopids, phyllostomids, and natalids. Males and females apparently roost in the same areas of caves. They select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature. There are no records of long-range movements by Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, but it is the only mormoopid inhabiting islands of the Lesser Antilles farther from the coast.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat is classified as endangered in Curacao.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.50-57 mm, tail 18-25 mm, ear 16-19 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm, forearm 46-50 mm; weight 8-11 g. Dorsal fur under wing membranes is longer than ventral fur. Hairs are usually unicolored or only slightly bicolored, varying from grayish to reddish brown. Rostrum is very broad, with wide and concave nasals. Individuals of subspecies incae are overall larger than those of davyi. Some external and cranial features are shared with the other species currently recognized in the subgenus Pteronotus: wing membranes fused dorsally at midline; ears pointed, with anteromedial edge of pinna smooth (lacking serrations); skull rostrum noticeably upturned in lateral profile and shorter than one-half total length of skull; braincase oblong and basioccipital region broad between auditory bullae; and lower incisors reduced in size and trilobed. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-4-15-7 mm.","habitat":"Tropical thorn forest, semideciduous forest, woodlands, and swamps. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat usually forages over water and near vegetation. It is sensitive to ambient temperatures below 15°C; it thermoregulates efficiently and usually maintains high body temperature (c.38°C) in warm environments. In Peru, subspecies incae occurs at higher elevations (up to 2700 m) on western slope of Andes and might be adapted to tolerate colder temperatures."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439153FFEFE4D8C8852D71AC5E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439153FFEFE4D8C8852D71AC5E","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"438","verbatimText":"3.Davy’s Naked-backed BatPteronotus davyiFrench:Ptéronote de Davy/ German:Davy-Nacktrlickenfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de DavyOther common names:Lesser Naked-backed BatTaxonomy.Pteronotus davyi J. E. Gray, 1838“Trimidad [Island],” Trinidad and Tobago.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized three subspecies of P. davyi: P. d. davyi, P. d. fulvus, and P. d. incae. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. davy: represents a species complex, supporting elevation of fulvus to a distinct species.Hence, P davyisensu strictooccurs in coastal lowlands of Venezuelaand in the Lesser Antilles, and as an isolated population in Peru; its distribution might extend to Colombiaand northward to Costa Ricaand Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of these populations has not been assessed. Pteronotus davyiseems uncommon in Central America, and no extant populations are known in Panama, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, and Brazil. Occurrence records in north-eastern Brazilwere erroneous and corresponded to P. gymnonotus. Fossil records of P. davyiare reported from Bahiaand Goiasin Braziland Tobago Island. Based on fossil records, its distribution was more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.d.davyiJ.E.Gray,1838—Nicaragua,CostaRica,NColombia,andNVenezuela;LesserAntillesonMarie-Galante,Dominica,Martinique,St.Lucia,Grenada,Trinidad,andCuracao.P. d. incae]. D. Smith, 1972— Piura, Lambayeque, and Cajamarcadepartments, NW Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.50-57 mm, tail 18-25 mm, ear 16-19 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm, forearm 46-50 mm; weight 8-11 g. Dorsal fur under wing membranes is longer than ventral fur. Hairs are usually unicolored or only slightly bicolored, varying from grayish to reddish brown. Rostrum is very broad, with wide and concave nasals. Individuals of subspecies incae are overall larger than those of davyi. Some external and cranial features are shared with the other species currently recognized in the subgenus Pteronotus: wing membranes fused dorsally at midline; ears pointed, with anteromedial edge of pinna smooth (lacking serrations); skull rostrum noticeably upturned in lateral profile and shorter than one-half total length of skull; braincase oblong and basioccipital region broad between auditory bullae; and lower incisors reduced in size and trilobed. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-4-15-7 mm.Habitat.Tropical thorn forest, semideciduous forest, woodlands, and swamps. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat usually forages over water and near vegetation. It is sensitive to ambient temperatures below 15°C; it thermoregulates efficiently and usually maintains high body temperature (c.38°C) in warm environments. In Peru, subspecies incae occurs at higher elevations (up to 2700 m) on western slope of Andes and might be adapted to tolerate colder temperatures.Food and Feeding.Diet of Davy’s Naked-backed Bat includes lepidopterans, dipterans, and dermapterans.Breeding.In Dominica, pregnant Davy’s Naked-backed Bats were observed in March and one lactating female in July. Ajuvenile was reported in September in Curacao.Activity patterns.Davy’s Naked-backed Bats seem to be crepuscular, being the first to leave caves at dusk in multispecies assemblages. They prefer roosting in large and warm caves. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.4-5 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is frequently most intense, starting with a CF component of 68-70 kHz, followed by a FM sweep, and ending in a QCF segment averaging 54 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Davy’s Naked-backed Bats frequently share large and warm caves with other mormoopids, phyllostomids, and natalids. Males and females apparently roost in the same areas of caves. They select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature. There are no records of long-range movements by Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, but it is the only mormoopid inhabiting islands of the Lesser Antilles farther from the coast.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat is classified as endangered in Curacao.Bibliography.Adams (1989), Bonaccorso et al. (1992), Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998), Davalos (2006), Eshelman & Morgan (1985), Fracasso & Salles (2005), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Genoways et al. (2001), Ibanez et al. (1999), Jennings et al. (2004), Lenoble, Bochaton et al. (2014), Mares & Wilson (1971), Mares et al. (1981), Patton & Gardner (2008), Pavan & Marroig, (2016), Pedersen et al. (2013), Petit et al. (2006), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Willig (1985).","taxonomy":"Pteronotus davyi J. E. Gray, 1838“Trimidad [Island],” Trinidad and Tobago.J. D. Smith in 1972 recognized three subspecies of P. davyi: P. d. davyi, P. d. fulvus, and P. d. incae. Molecular and morphometric studies have shown that P. davy: represents a species complex, supporting elevation of fulvus to a distinct species.Hence, P davyisensu strictooccurs in coastal lowlands of Venezuelaand in the Lesser Antilles, and as an isolated population in Peru; its distribution might extend to Colombiaand northward to Costa Ricaand Nicaragua, but phylogenetic status of these populations has not been assessed. Pteronotus davyiseems uncommon in Central America, and no extant populations are known in Panama, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, and Brazil. Occurrence records in north-eastern Brazilwere erroneous and corresponded to P. gymnonotus. Fossil records of P. davyiare reported from Bahiaand Goiasin Braziland Tobago Island. Based on fossil records, its distribution was more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ptéronote de Davy @fr | Davy-Nacktrlickenfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Davy @es | Lesser Naked-backed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. E. Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Pteronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"438","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"davyi","name":"Pteronotus davyi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.d.davyiJ.E.Gray,1838—Nicaragua,CostaRica,NColombia,andNVenezuela;LesserAntillesonMarie-Galante,Dominica,Martinique,St.Lucia,Grenada,Trinidad,andCuracao.P. d. incae]. D. Smith, 1972— Piura, Lambayeque, and Cajamarcadepartments, NW Peru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6419804/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Adams (1989) | Bonaccorso et al. (1992) | Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998) | Davalos (2006) | Eshelman & Morgan (1985) | Fracasso & Salles (2005) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Genoways et al. (2001) | Ibanez et al. (1999) | Jennings et al. (2004) | Lenoble, Bochaton et al. (2014) | Mares & Wilson (1971) | Mares et al. (1981) | Patton & Gardner (2008) | Pavan & Marroig, (2016) | Pedersen et al. (2013) | Petit et al. (2006) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Willig (1985)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Davy’s Naked-backed Bat includes lepidopterans, dipterans, and dermapterans.","breeding":"In Dominica, pregnant Davy’s Naked-backed Bats were observed in March and one lactating female in July. Ajuvenile was reported in September in Curacao.","activityPatterns":"Davy’s Naked-backed Bats seem to be crepuscular, being the first to leave caves at dusk in multispecies assemblages. They prefer roosting in large and warm caves. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.4-5 milliseconds, with up to three harmonics. Second harmonic is frequently most intense, starting with a CF component of 68-70 kHz, followed by a FM sweep, and ending in a QCF segment averaging 54 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Davy’s Naked-backed Bats frequently share large and warm caves with other mormoopids, phyllostomids, and natalids. Males and females apparently roost in the same areas of caves. They select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature. There are no records of long-range movements by Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, but it is the only mormoopid inhabiting islands of the Lesser Antilles farther from the coast.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat is classified as endangered in Curacao.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.50-57 mm, tail 18-25 mm, ear 16-19 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm, forearm 46-50 mm; weight 8-11 g. Dorsal fur under wing membranes is longer than ventral fur. Hairs are usually unicolored or only slightly bicolored, varying from grayish to reddish brown. Rostrum is very broad, with wide and concave nasals. Individuals of subspecies incae are overall larger than those of davyi. Some external and cranial features are shared with the other species currently recognized in the subgenus Pteronotus: wing membranes fused dorsally at midline; ears pointed, with anteromedial edge of pinna smooth (lacking serrations); skull rostrum noticeably upturned in lateral profile and shorter than one-half total length of skull; braincase oblong and basioccipital region broad between auditory bullae; and lower incisors reduced in size and trilobed. Condylo-basal lengths are 14-4-15-7 mm.","habitat":"Tropical thorn forest, semideciduous forest, woodlands, and swamps. Davy’s Naked-backed Bat usually forages over water and near vegetation. It is sensitive to ambient temperatures below 15°C; it thermoregulates efficiently and usually maintains high body temperature (c.38°C) in warm environments. In Peru, subspecies incae occurs at higher elevations (up to 2700 m) on western slope of Andes and might be adapted to tolerate colder temperatures."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439153FFEFE4DEC5572767A8B4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439153FFEFE4DEC5572767A8B4","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"438","verbatimText":"4.Thomas's Naked-backed BatPteronotus fulvusFrench:Ptéronote fauve/ German:Thomas-Nacktriickenfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotus de ThomasTaxonomy.Chilonycteris davyifulvus [sic] Thomas, 1892, “Las Penas, west coast ofJalisco,” Mexico.Pteronotusfulvus was formerly classified as a subspecies of P. davyi, but here it is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution. From Sonoraand TamaulipasS along Pacific and Gulf coasts of N Mexico, respectively, to El Salvadorand W Honduras.Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢.48-52 mm, tail 20-23 mm, ear 17-18 mm, hindfoot 11 mm, forearm 40-5-46-7 mm; weight ¢.7-8: 7 g. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat is the smallest species of naked-backed bat. Dorsal and head pelage colors range from dark brown to bright orange; ventral hairs have grayish white tips. Rostrum is broad but comparatively narrower than in other species of naked-backed bats. Braincase is oval and less robust than in Davy’s Naked-backed Bat (P. davyi). Condylo-basal lengths are 13-7-15 mm. Individuals from Hondurasand El Salvadorare larger on average than in other areas of its distribution; a marked increase in overall size is also observed in the northernmost distributional limit in Sonora, Mexico. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Pteronotusare listed in descriptive notes for Davy’s Nakedbacked Bat.Habitat. Tropical dry forest, usually lowland habitats, mostly below 600 m. Thomas's Naked-backed Bat is abundant throughoutits distribution. It has narrow thermal specificity for roosting and is usually reported from hot caves (higher than 30°C), with 27°C being the lowest recorded roost temperature. This physiological limitation probably restricts habitats occupied by Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat.Food and Feeding. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat feeds mainly on dipterans, lepidopterans, and dermapterans, but diversity of insects included in diets might increase when prey abundance is low.Breeding. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat is seasonally monoestrous, with most females giving birth in the beginning of the rainy season. Maternity colonies mostly contain females, but males might be present in small numbers. In Mexico, mating occurs in January—March. Pregnant females are reported in April-May, with embryos ofvariable sizes (3-20 mm), and lactating females in July-September.Activity patterns. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat has a bimodal activity pattern, which seems to correspond to abundance peaks of crepuscular and nocturnal insects. It typically forages along riparian corridors, in open places 2-10 m aboveground, over water surfaces, and in forest trails. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.6 milliseconds. Second harmonic, which is the most intense, has two short CF components at 68-71 kHz and 58-60 kHz, joined by a FM downward sweep.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat roosts in hot and humid caves and usually forms large colonies. Fluctuations in colony sizes are commonly reported and are probably related to seasonal movements due to reproductive activity. It exhibits a limited tolerance to low temperatures, which probably excludes it from temperate areas in its northernmost distribution. It has been suggested that mountain peaks and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Mexico) act as physical barriers to dispersal of Thomas’s Naked-backed Bats.Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Thomas's Naked-backed Bat is included under Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, which is classified as Least Concern.Bibliography. Arriaga-Flores et al. (2012), Avila & Medellin (2004), Birney et al. (1974), GBIF Secretariat (2017), Guevara-Chumacero et al. (2010), O'Farrell & Miller (1997), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Rydell et al. (2002), Salinas-Ramos et al. (2015), Smith (1972), Torres-Flores et al. (2012).","taxonomy":"Chilonycteris davyifulvus [sic] Thomas, 1892, “Las Penas, west coast ofJalisco,” Mexico.Pteronotusfulvus was formerly classified as a subspecies of P. davyi, but here it is considered a distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Ptéronote fauve @fr | Thomas-Nacktriickenfledermaus @de | Pteronotus de Thomas @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1892","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Pteronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"438","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fulvus","name":"Pteronotus fulvus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"From Sonoraand TamaulipasS along Pacific and Gulf coasts of N Mexico, respectively, to El Salvadorand W Honduras.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6419809/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arriaga-Flores et al. (2012) | Avila & Medellin (2004) | Birney et al. (1974) | GBIF Secretariat (2017) | Guevara-Chumacero et al. (2010) | O'Farrell & Miller (1997) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Rydell et al. (2002) | Salinas-Ramos et al. (2015) | Smith (1972) | Torres-Flores et al. (2012)","foodAndFeeding":"Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat feeds mainly on dipterans, lepidopterans, and dermapterans, but diversity of insects included in diets might increase when prey abundance is low.","breeding":"Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat is seasonally monoestrous, with most females giving birth in the beginning of the rainy season. Maternity colonies mostly contain females, but males might be present in small numbers. In Mexico, mating occurs in January—March. Pregnant females are reported in April-May, with embryos ofvariable sizes (3-20 mm), and lactating females in July-September.","activityPatterns":"Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat has a bimodal activity pattern, which seems to correspond to abundance peaks of crepuscular and nocturnal insects. It typically forages along riparian corridors, in open places 2-10 m aboveground, over water surfaces, and in forest trails. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short CF-FM pulses of c.6 milliseconds. Second harmonic, which is the most intense, has two short CF components at 68-71 kHz and 58-60 kHz, joined by a FM downward sweep.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat roosts in hot and humid caves and usually forms large colonies. Fluctuations in colony sizes are commonly reported and are probably related to seasonal movements due to reproductive activity. It exhibits a limited tolerance to low temperatures, which probably excludes it from temperate areas in its northernmost distribution. It has been suggested that mountain peaks and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Mexico) act as physical barriers to dispersal of Thomas’s Naked-backed Bats.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Thomas's Naked-backed Bat is included under Davy’s Naked-backed Bat, which is classified as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.48-52 mm, tail 20-23 mm, ear 17-18 mm, hindfoot 11 mm, forearm 40-5-46-7 mm; weight ¢.7-8: 7 g. Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat is the smallest species of naked-backed bat. Dorsal and head pelage colors range from dark brown to bright orange; ventral hairs have grayish white tips. Rostrum is broad but comparatively narrower than in other species of naked-backed bats. Braincase is oval and less robust than in Davy’s Naked-backed Bat (P. davyi). Condylo-basal lengths are 13-7-15 mm. Individuals from Hondurasand El Salvadorare larger on average than in other areas of its distribution; a marked increase in overall size is also observed in the northernmost distributional limit in Sonora, Mexico. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Pteronotusare listed in descriptive notes for Davy’s Nakedbacked Bat.","habitat":"Tropical dry forest, usually lowland habitats, mostly below 600 m. Thomas's Naked-backed Bat is abundant throughoutits distribution. It has narrow thermal specificity for roosting and is usually reported from hot caves (higher than 30°C), with 27°C being the lowest recorded roost temperature. This physiological limitation probably restricts habitats occupied by Thomas’s Naked-backed Bat."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439154FFE8E4E7C52129FBAC0D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439154FFE8E4E7C52129FBAC0D","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"437","verbatimText":"2.Peters’s Ghostfaced BatMormoops megalophyllaFrench:Mormoops de Peters/ German:Peters-Kinnblattfledermaus/ Spanish:Mormépido de PetersOther common names:Ghost-faced Bat, Leaf-chinned Bat, Old-man BatTaxonomy. Mormops [sic] megalophylla Peters, 1864, “ Mexico.” Restricted by |.. D. Smith in 1972 to “Parris, Coahuila, México.”Fossil records of M. megalophyllaare reported from several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Bahamas, Florida(USA), and Bahia(Brazil). Based on these records, distribution of M. megalophyllawas more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. megalophylla Peters, 1864— from SW Arizonaand Texas, USA, and Baja California, Mexico, S to W Nicaragua.M. m. carteri J. D. Smith, 1972— Carchiand Pichinchaprovinces, N Ecuador, and LambayequeDepartment, NW Peru.M. m. intermedia G. S. Miller, 1900— Netherlands Antilles(Aruba, Curacao, and Bonaire).M. m. tumidiceps G. S. Miller, 1902— coastal and inland localities between C & E Andes ranges of Colombia, Caribbean coast of Venezuelaincluding Margarita I, and TrinidadI.Descriptive notes. Head—body ¢.56-73 mm, tail 18-31 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 9-14 mm, forearm 50-61 mm; weight 11-22 g.; individuals of subspecies intermediaare smallest (forearm 50-54 mm) and those of subspecies carteri are largest (forearm 56— 61 mm). Pelage is long and lax. Fur color varies from pale brown to deep cinnamonred; hairs usually have four color bands. Individuals from South American subspecies have cape of long hairs over shoulders, contrasting in color with dorsal fur. Ears are short and rounded. Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat is externally and cranially similar to the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (M. blainvillei) but larger. Skull rostrum is proportionally broader. Braincase is squared in profile, with parietals inflated. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-1-15-1 mm.Habitat. Temperate coniferous forest and lowland tropical rainforest to xerophytic scrub. In Ecuador, Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat occurs in cloud forest at elevations of 2350-2700 m. It seems to be more common in hot lowland areas in its northern distribution and in forested areas in tropical regions.Food and Feeding.Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat feeds mostly on large moths, usually with body lengths of 5-6 mm; other prey items include beetles and flies.Breeding.Female Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature to establish maternity roosts. Male Peters’s Ghostfaced Bats select cooler caves outside mating season. There is evidence that reproductive cycle differs throughout the distribution. Mating season in Venezuelareportedly occurs in March-April. Pregnant females were observed in May and November in Ecuadorand February—June in North America. Lactating females were reported in January, March, and October in Ecuador, March on Trinidad Island, and June-August in North America.Activity patterns.Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats usually roost in large and deep cave systems or in abandoned mine shafts. Although they have been observed in roosts with wide ranges of temperatures (over 15°C) and humidity (over 50%), females only use hot caves as maternity roosts. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats fly higher and faster than other mormoopids, usually foraging in open spaces along canyons and over streams. They are more commonly caught in caves or in other day roosts than in mist nets. They usually become active later than other species of mormoopids, emerging from day roosts after dark. In Ecuador, two activity peaks have been reported. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of steep FM downsweep pulses of ¢.3-5-5 milliseconds, with three harmonics; second harmonic of 48-54 kHz is usually of high intensity.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are found roosting with other bat species, including mormoopids, but spatially separated from them. Large clusters of hundreds of thousands have been observed in some localities, but small groups are more commonly reported. Individuals usually maintain a distance of ¢. 15 cmfrom each other within the colony. There are seasonal fluctuations in sizes of colonies, with higher numbers of individuals usually observed in the dry season. In Ecuador, populations occupying caves in different geographical regions might maintain gene flow, suggesting high dispersal abilities. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of the reproductive cycle.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are classified as vulnerable in Ecuadorand critically endangered in Curacaodue to size of declines and threats faced by populations known in these areas. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bat has a large but discontinuous distribution.Bibliography. Avila & Medellin (2004), Bateman & Vaughan (1974), Birney et al. (1974), Boada et al. (2003), Bonaccorso et al. (1992), Camacho et al. (2017), Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998), Goodwin & Greenhall (1961), Morgan (2001), Petit et al. (2006), Rezsutek & Cameron (1993), Rydell et al. (2002), Salles et al. (2014), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008), Torres-Flores et al. (2012), Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013).","taxonomy":"Mormops [sic] megalophylla Peters, 1864, “ Mexico.” Restricted by |.. D. Smith in 1972 to “Parris, Coahuila, México.”Fossil records of M. megalophyllaare reported from several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Bahamas, Florida(USA), and Bahia(Brazil). Based on these records, distribution of M. megalophyllawas more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Mormoops de Peters @fr | Peters-Kinnblattfledermaus @de | Mormépido de Peters @es | Ghost-faced Bat @en | Leaf-chinned Bat @en | Old-man Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Peters","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Mormoops","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"437","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"megalophylla","name":"Mormoops megalophylla","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. megalophylla Peters, 1864— from SW Arizonaand Texas, USA, and Baja California, Mexico, S to W Nicaragua.M. m. carteri J. D. Smith, 1972— Carchiand Pichinchaprovinces, N Ecuador, and LambayequeDepartment, NW Peru.M. m. intermedia G. S. Miller, 1900— Netherlands Antilles(Aruba, Curacao, and Bonaire).M. m. tumidiceps G. S. Miller, 1902— coastal and inland localities between C & E Andes ranges of Colombia, Caribbean coast of Venezuelaincluding Margarita I, and TrinidadI.","bibliography":"Avila & Medellin (2004) | Bateman & Vaughan (1974) | Birney et al. (1974) | Boada et al. (2003) | Bonaccorso et al. (1992) | Camacho et al. (2017) | Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998) | Goodwin & Greenhall (1961) | Morgan (2001) | Petit et al. (2006) | Rezsutek & Cameron (1993) | Rydell et al. (2002) | Salles et al. (2014) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008) | Torres-Flores et al. (2012) | Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat feeds mostly on large moths, usually with body lengths of 5-6 mm; other prey items include beetles and flies.","breeding":"Female Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature to establish maternity roosts. Male Peters’s Ghostfaced Bats select cooler caves outside mating season. There is evidence that reproductive cycle differs throughout the distribution. Mating season in Venezuelareportedly occurs in March-April. Pregnant females were observed in May and November in Ecuadorand February—June in North America. Lactating females were reported in January, March, and October in Ecuador, March on Trinidad Island, and June-August in North America.","activityPatterns":"Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats usually roost in large and deep cave systems or in abandoned mine shafts. Although they have been observed in roosts with wide ranges of temperatures (over 15°C) and humidity (over 50%), females only use hot caves as maternity roosts. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats fly higher and faster than other mormoopids, usually foraging in open spaces along canyons and over streams. They are more commonly caught in caves or in other day roosts than in mist nets. They usually become active later than other species of mormoopids, emerging from day roosts after dark. In Ecuador, two activity peaks have been reported. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of steep FM downsweep pulses of ¢.3-5-5 milliseconds, with three harmonics; second harmonic of 48-54 kHz is usually of high intensity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are found roosting with other bat species, including mormoopids, but spatially separated from them. Large clusters of hundreds of thousands have been observed in some localities, but small groups are more commonly reported. Individuals usually maintain a distance of ¢. 15 cmfrom each other within the colony. There are seasonal fluctuations in sizes of colonies, with higher numbers of individuals usually observed in the dry season. In Ecuador, populations occupying caves in different geographical regions might maintain gene flow, suggesting high dispersal abilities. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of the reproductive cycle.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are classified as vulnerable in Ecuadorand critically endangered in Curacaodue to size of declines and threats faced by populations known in these areas. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bat has a large but discontinuous distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body ¢.56-73 mm, tail 18-31 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 9-14 mm, forearm 50-61 mm; weight 11-22 g.; individuals of subspecies intermediaare smallest (forearm 50-54 mm) and those of subspecies carteri are largest (forearm 56— 61 mm). Pelage is long and lax. Fur color varies from pale brown to deep cinnamonred; hairs usually have four color bands. Individuals from South American subspecies have cape of long hairs over shoulders, contrasting in color with dorsal fur. Ears are short and rounded. Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat is externally and cranially similar to the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (M. blainvillei) but larger. Skull rostrum is proportionally broader. Braincase is squared in profile, with parietals inflated. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-1-15-1 mm.","habitat":"Temperate coniferous forest and lowland tropical rainforest to xerophytic scrub. In Ecuador, Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat occurs in cloud forest at elevations of 2350-2700 m. It seems to be more common in hot lowland areas in its northern distribution and in forested areas in tropical regions."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439154FFE8E4E7C52129FBAC0D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439154FFE8E4E7C52129FBAC0D","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"437","verbatimText":"2.Peters’s Ghostfaced BatMormoops megalophyllaFrench:Mormoops de Peters/ German:Peters-Kinnblattfledermaus/ Spanish:Mormépido de PetersOther common names:Ghost-faced Bat, Leaf-chinned Bat, Old-man BatTaxonomy. Mormops [sic] megalophylla Peters, 1864, “ Mexico.” Restricted by |.. D. Smith in 1972 to “Parris, Coahuila, México.”Fossil records of M. megalophyllaare reported from several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Bahamas, Florida(USA), and Bahia(Brazil). Based on these records, distribution of M. megalophyllawas more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. megalophylla Peters, 1864— from SW Arizonaand Texas, USA, and Baja California, Mexico, S to W Nicaragua.M. m. carteri J. D. Smith, 1972— Carchiand Pichinchaprovinces, N Ecuador, and LambayequeDepartment, NW Peru.M. m. intermedia G. S. Miller, 1900— Netherlands Antilles(Aruba, Curacao, and Bonaire).M. m. tumidiceps G. S. Miller, 1902— coastal and inland localities between C & E Andes ranges of Colombia, Caribbean coast of Venezuelaincluding Margarita I, and TrinidadI.Descriptive notes. Head—body ¢.56-73 mm, tail 18-31 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 9-14 mm, forearm 50-61 mm; weight 11-22 g.; individuals of subspecies intermediaare smallest (forearm 50-54 mm) and those of subspecies carteri are largest (forearm 56— 61 mm). Pelage is long and lax. Fur color varies from pale brown to deep cinnamonred; hairs usually have four color bands. Individuals from South American subspecies have cape of long hairs over shoulders, contrasting in color with dorsal fur. Ears are short and rounded. Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat is externally and cranially similar to the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (M. blainvillei) but larger. Skull rostrum is proportionally broader. Braincase is squared in profile, with parietals inflated. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-1-15-1 mm.Habitat. Temperate coniferous forest and lowland tropical rainforest to xerophytic scrub. In Ecuador, Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat occurs in cloud forest at elevations of 2350-2700 m. It seems to be more common in hot lowland areas in its northern distribution and in forested areas in tropical regions.Food and Feeding.Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat feeds mostly on large moths, usually with body lengths of 5-6 mm; other prey items include beetles and flies.Breeding.Female Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature to establish maternity roosts. Male Peters’s Ghostfaced Bats select cooler caves outside mating season. There is evidence that reproductive cycle differs throughout the distribution. Mating season in Venezuelareportedly occurs in March-April. Pregnant females were observed in May and November in Ecuadorand February—June in North America. Lactating females were reported in January, March, and October in Ecuador, March on Trinidad Island, and June-August in North America.Activity patterns.Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats usually roost in large and deep cave systems or in abandoned mine shafts. Although they have been observed in roosts with wide ranges of temperatures (over 15°C) and humidity (over 50%), females only use hot caves as maternity roosts. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats fly higher and faster than other mormoopids, usually foraging in open spaces along canyons and over streams. They are more commonly caught in caves or in other day roosts than in mist nets. They usually become active later than other species of mormoopids, emerging from day roosts after dark. In Ecuador, two activity peaks have been reported. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of steep FM downsweep pulses of ¢.3-5-5 milliseconds, with three harmonics; second harmonic of 48-54 kHz is usually of high intensity.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are found roosting with other bat species, including mormoopids, but spatially separated from them. Large clusters of hundreds of thousands have been observed in some localities, but small groups are more commonly reported. Individuals usually maintain a distance of ¢. 15 cmfrom each other within the colony. There are seasonal fluctuations in sizes of colonies, with higher numbers of individuals usually observed in the dry season. In Ecuador, populations occupying caves in different geographical regions might maintain gene flow, suggesting high dispersal abilities. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of the reproductive cycle.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are classified as vulnerable in Ecuadorand critically endangered in Curacaodue to size of declines and threats faced by populations known in these areas. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bat has a large but discontinuous distribution.Bibliography. Avila & Medellin (2004), Bateman & Vaughan (1974), Birney et al. (1974), Boada et al. (2003), Bonaccorso et al. (1992), Camacho et al. (2017), Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998), Goodwin & Greenhall (1961), Morgan (2001), Petit et al. (2006), Rezsutek & Cameron (1993), Rydell et al. (2002), Salles et al. (2014), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972), Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008), Torres-Flores et al. (2012), Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013).","taxonomy":"Mormops [sic] megalophylla Peters, 1864, “ Mexico.” Restricted by |.. D. Smith in 1972 to “Parris, Coahuila, México.”Fossil records of M. megalophyllaare reported from several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Bahamas, Florida(USA), and Bahia(Brazil). Based on these records, distribution of M. megalophyllawas more extensive in the late Quaternary than it is today. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Mormoops de Peters @fr | Peters-Kinnblattfledermaus @de | Mormépido de Peters @es | Ghost-faced Bat @en | Leaf-chinned Bat @en | Old-man Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Peters","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Mormoops","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"437","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"megalophylla","name":"Mormoops megalophylla","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. megalophylla Peters, 1864— from SW Arizonaand Texas, USA, and Baja California, Mexico, S to W Nicaragua.M. m. carteri J. D. Smith, 1972— Carchiand Pichinchaprovinces, N Ecuador, and LambayequeDepartment, NW Peru.M. m. intermedia G. S. Miller, 1900— Netherlands Antilles(Aruba, Curacao, and Bonaire).M. m. tumidiceps G. S. Miller, 1902— coastal and inland localities between C & E Andes ranges of Colombia, Caribbean coast of Venezuelaincluding Margarita I, and TrinidadI.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6419799/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Avila & Medellin (2004) | Bateman & Vaughan (1974) | Birney et al. (1974) | Boada et al. (2003) | Bonaccorso et al. (1992) | Camacho et al. (2017) | Czaplewski & Cartelle (1998) | Goodwin & Greenhall (1961) | Morgan (2001) | Petit et al. (2006) | Rezsutek & Cameron (1993) | Rydell et al. (2002) | Salles et al. (2014) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972) | Smotherman & Guillén-Servent (2008) | Torres-Flores et al. (2012) | Velazco, O'Neill et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat feeds mostly on large moths, usually with body lengths of 5-6 mm; other prey items include beetles and flies.","breeding":"Female Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats select areas of caves that minimize ventilation and maximize temperature to establish maternity roosts. Male Peters’s Ghostfaced Bats select cooler caves outside mating season. There is evidence that reproductive cycle differs throughout the distribution. Mating season in Venezuelareportedly occurs in March-April. Pregnant females were observed in May and November in Ecuadorand February—June in North America. Lactating females were reported in January, March, and October in Ecuador, March on Trinidad Island, and June-August in North America.","activityPatterns":"Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats usually roost in large and deep cave systems or in abandoned mine shafts. Although they have been observed in roosts with wide ranges of temperatures (over 15°C) and humidity (over 50%), females only use hot caves as maternity roosts. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats fly higher and faster than other mormoopids, usually foraging in open spaces along canyons and over streams. They are more commonly caught in caves or in other day roosts than in mist nets. They usually become active later than other species of mormoopids, emerging from day roosts after dark. In Ecuador, two activity peaks have been reported. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of steep FM downsweep pulses of ¢.3-5-5 milliseconds, with three harmonics; second harmonic of 48-54 kHz is usually of high intensity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are found roosting with other bat species, including mormoopids, but spatially separated from them. Large clusters of hundreds of thousands have been observed in some localities, but small groups are more commonly reported. Individuals usually maintain a distance of ¢. 15 cmfrom each other within the colony. There are seasonal fluctuations in sizes of colonies, with higher numbers of individuals usually observed in the dry season. In Ecuador, populations occupying caves in different geographical regions might maintain gene flow, suggesting high dispersal abilities. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of the reproductive cycle.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bats are classified as vulnerable in Ecuadorand critically endangered in Curacaodue to size of declines and threats faced by populations known in these areas. Peters’s Ghost-faced Bat has a large but discontinuous distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body ¢.56-73 mm, tail 18-31 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 9-14 mm, forearm 50-61 mm; weight 11-22 g.; individuals of subspecies intermediaare smallest (forearm 50-54 mm) and those of subspecies carteri are largest (forearm 56— 61 mm). Pelage is long and lax. Fur color varies from pale brown to deep cinnamonred; hairs usually have four color bands. Individuals from South American subspecies have cape of long hairs over shoulders, contrasting in color with dorsal fur. Ears are short and rounded. Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat is externally and cranially similar to the Antillean Ghostfaced Bat (M. blainvillei) but larger. Skull rostrum is proportionally broader. Braincase is squared in profile, with parietals inflated. Condylo-basal lengths are 13-1-15-1 mm.","habitat":"Temperate coniferous forest and lowland tropical rainforest to xerophytic scrub. In Ecuador, Peters’s Ghostfaced Bat occurs in cloud forest at elevations of 2350-2700 m. It seems to be more common in hot lowland areas in its northern distribution and in forested areas in tropical regions."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439154FFE8E4EBC8922E75ABCB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439154FFE8E4EBC8922E75ABCB","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"437","verbatimText":"1.Antllean Ghost-faced BatMormoops blainvilleiFrench:Mormoops de Blainville/ German:Antillen-Kinnblattfledermaus/ Spanish:Mormoépido de BlainvilleOther common names:Blainville's Ghost-faced BatTaxonomy.Mormoops blainvillii[sic] Leach, 1821, “ Jamaica.”W. E. Leach in 1821 described two new species, Aello cuviert and Mormoopsblainvilliz, in the same volume of the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, with Aello appearing eight pages before Mormoops. After examining the type specimens, G. E. Dobson in 1878 concluded that both names applied to the same species. Despite the page priority, he argued to retain the name Mormoopsbecause the definition of the genus Aello was incorrect, and the type specimen had lost many of the diagnostic characteristics. Based on Dobson’s recommendation, other subsequent revisions of the group chose the name Mormoops blainvillii over Aellocuvieri. Hence, opinion 462 of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) in 1957 officially recognized the name Mormoopsas having precedence over Aello. In this same document, the specific epithet blainvilleiwas placed as the correct spelling. Fossil records of M. blainvilleiare reported from several islands in the Bahamasand Greater Antilles and Anguilla, Antigua, and Barbudain the Lesser Antilles. Based on these records, M. blainvilleihad a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than it has today. Monotypic.Distribution.Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Mona I.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.52-56 mm, tail 28-30 mm, hindfoot 10-11 mm, forearm 43-50 mm; weight 6-11 g. Pelage is long, soft, and silky. Fur color varies from pale cinnamon to reddish; hairs are slightly darker dorsally than ventrally. Ears are short and rounded. Labionasal plate is complex, with nostrils surrounded by separate pads; margin above and between nostrils is characterized by several irregularly shaped tubercles. Skull rostrum is strongly upturned, almost at a 90° angle to braincase plane. Braincase is globular, with inflated parietals. Condylo-basal lengths are 12-14 mm. Incisors are delicate, separated from canines by conspicuous diastemata in upper tooth row. There is a geographical trend of increasing overall size from Cubato Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, with Jamaican populations being intermediate in size.Habitat.Semi-open spaces along riverine galleries and forested terraces to forage and caves to roost.Food and Feeding.The Antillean Ghost-faced Bat feeds exclusively on insects, mostly small lepidopterans, but dipterans, homopterans, coleopterans, and ephemeropterans have also been reported in diets.Breeding.The Antillean Ghostfaced Bat is monoestrous and has one young per year. Records on reproductive status in Cubanoted pregnancy in March—June and lactation until September. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of reproductive cycle.Activity patterns.The Antillean Ghost-faced Bat usually flies at greater heights and faster speeds compared with sympatric species of Pteronotus. It is nocturnal; foraging activity starts relatively late after dark and is consistent throughout the night. Higher activity levels are associated with primary forest sites. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short and steep FM pulses averaging c.3 milliseconds, with up to four harmonics; second harmonic of 48-69kHz is typically most intense.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Antillean Ghostfaced Bats roost in hot, humid, and large caves, where colonies containing many thousands of individuals can be observed. They are commonly found roosting with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but in spatially separated clusters.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Antillean Ghostfaced Bat is one of the most abundant species of insectivorous bats in the Greater Antilles.Bibliography.Dobson (1878), Emrich et al. (2014), Genoways et al. (2005), ICZN (1957), Jennings et al. (2004), Lancaster & Kalko (1996), Leach (1821), Macias et al. (2006), Mancina et al. (2012), Morgan (2001), Patton & Gardner (2008), Rodriguez-Duran & Padilla-Rodriguez (2010), Rolfe et al. (2014), Simmons & Conway (2001), Smith (1972).","taxonomy":"Mormoops blainvillii[sic] Leach, 1821, “ Jamaica.”W. E. Leach in 1821 described two new species, Aello cuviert and Mormoopsblainvilliz, in the same volume of the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, with Aello appearing eight pages before Mormoops. After examining the type specimens, G. E. Dobson in 1878 concluded that both names applied to the same species. Despite the page priority, he argued to retain the name Mormoopsbecause the definition of the genus Aello was incorrect, and the type specimen had lost many of the diagnostic characteristics. Based on Dobson’s recommendation, other subsequent revisions of the group chose the name Mormoops blainvillii over Aellocuvieri. Hence, opinion 462 of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) in 1957 officially recognized the name Mormoopsas having precedence over Aello. In this same document, the specific epithet blainvilleiwas placed as the correct spelling. Fossil records of M. blainvilleiare reported from several islands in the Bahamasand Greater Antilles and Anguilla, Antigua, and Barbudain the Lesser Antilles. Based on these records, M. blainvilleihad a more extensive distribution in the late Quaternary than it has today. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Mormoops de Blainville @fr | Antillen-Kinnblattfledermaus @de | Mormoépido de Blainville @es | Blainville's Ghost-faced Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Leach","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1821","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Mormoops","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"437","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"blainvillei","name":"Mormoops blainvillei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Mona I.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6419795/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dobson (1878) | Emrich et al. (2014) | Genoways et al. (2005) | ICZN (1957) | Jennings et al. (2004) | Lancaster & Kalko (1996) | Leach (1821) | Macias et al. (2006) | Mancina et al. (2012) | Morgan (2001) | Patton & Gardner (2008) | Rodriguez-Duran & Padilla-Rodriguez (2010) | Rolfe et al. (2014) | Simmons & Conway (2001) | Smith (1972)","foodAndFeeding":"The Antillean Ghost-faced Bat feeds exclusively on insects, mostly small lepidopterans, but dipterans, homopterans, coleopterans, and ephemeropterans have also been reported in diets.","breeding":"The Antillean Ghostfaced Bat is monoestrous and has one young per year. Records on reproductive status in Cubanoted pregnancy in March—June and lactation until September. There is sexual segregation in roosts at least during part of reproductive cycle.","activityPatterns":"The Antillean Ghost-faced Bat usually flies at greater heights and faster speeds compared with sympatric species of Pteronotus. It is nocturnal; foraging activity starts relatively late after dark and is consistent throughout the night. Higher activity levels are associated with primary forest sites. Echolocation calls during search phase consist of short and steep FM pulses averaging c.3 milliseconds, with up to four harmonics; second harmonic of 48-69kHz is typically most intense.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Antillean Ghostfaced Bats roost in hot, humid, and large caves, where colonies containing many thousands of individuals can be observed. They are commonly found roosting with other bat species, particularly mormoopids, but in spatially separated clusters.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Antillean Ghostfaced Bat is one of the most abundant species of insectivorous bats in the Greater Antilles.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.52-56 mm, tail 28-30 mm, hindfoot 10-11 mm, forearm 43-50 mm; weight 6-11 g. Pelage is long, soft, and silky. Fur color varies from pale cinnamon to reddish; hairs are slightly darker dorsally than ventrally. Ears are short and rounded. Labionasal plate is complex, with nostrils surrounded by separate pads; margin above and between nostrils is characterized by several irregularly shaped tubercles. Skull rostrum is strongly upturned, almost at a 90° angle to braincase plane. Braincase is globular, with inflated parietals. Condylo-basal lengths are 12-14 mm. Incisors are delicate, separated from canines by conspicuous diastemata in upper tooth row. There is a geographical trend of increasing overall size from Cubato Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, with Jamaican populations being intermediate in size.","habitat":"Semi-open spaces along riverine galleries and forested terraces to forage and caves to roost."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A637439157FFEBE687C89F289BA554.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A637439157FFEBE687C89F289BA554","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"424","verbatimText":"Family MORMOOPIDAE(GHOSTFACED, NAKED-BACKED AND MUSTACHED BATS)• Smallto medium-sized bats characterized by small eyes, large and funnel-shaped ears and complex lower lips with flap-like outgrowths.• 5-11 cm.• Nearctic and Neotropical Regions.• Arid and semiarid regions to coastal lowlands, tropical rainforest, and montane forests up to elevations of 2700 m.• 2 genera, 18 species, 24 taxa.•] species Endangered; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A6/37/03A63743915EFFE2E1E0CC2F27B1ABC6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A63743915EFFE2E1E0CC2F27B1ABC6","docName":"hbmw_9_Mormoopidae_424.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff9f4f3b9157ffebe472c9232f51a072","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"443","verbatimText":"18.Amazonian Common Mustached BatPteronotus alitonusFrench:Ptéronote alitone/ German:Amazonas-Schnurrbartfledermaus/ Spanish:Pteronotusbiogotudo amazoénicoOther common names:Amazonian Mustached BatTaxonomy.Pteronotus alitonus Pavan, Bobrowiec & Percequillo, 2018, “Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) area, 80 kmnorth of Manaus, Brazil(2°20’S, 60°6’W, elevation of 30- 125m).”Pteronotusalitonus was split from P. rubiginosus based on molecular, morphological, and acoustic evidence; it was referred to in some previous molecular studies as Pleronotus sp. 3or Pteronotus sp. 1. Monotypic.Distribution.The Guianas and N Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head—body ¢.65-70 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 17-19 mm, hindfoot 13-15 mm, forearm 59-64 mm; weight 18-26 g. Pelage is dense and short; color varies from pale brown to reddish. Skull rostrum is robust, and braincase is large and rounded. Condylo-basal lengths are 20-22 mm. Nasal bones form markedly concave area in rostrum at suture of maxillary and frontal bones; they are narrower and slightly upturned in their anterior part. Pterygoid canal has pair of foramina varying from almost indistinct perforations to small pits. Maxillary tooth row length is less than 9-7 mm. Greatest width across molars is more than 8: 1 mm. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Phyllodia are listed in descriptive notes for Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat (P. parnellii).Habitat.Continuous forests in the Amazon.Food and Feeding.The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat is insectivorous, but there is no specific information available on prey itemsin its diet.Breeding.In French Guiana, pregnant and lactating females were found in July, and post-lactating females between August and October.Activity patterns.The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat shows highest activity levels in forests in contrast to foraging sites over water bodies. Its activity patterns seem to be similar between dry and wet season in the central Amazon. Echolocation calls consist of long CF-FM pulses of ¢.25 milliseconds. Second harmonic has maximum energy at 59-60 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat exhibits high genetic structuring, which might be consequence of low dispersal capability related to limitations to cross open landscapes in the Amazon region.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List.Bibliography.Clare et al. (2013), Filippi-Codaccioni et al. (2018), Lépez-Baucells, Torrent et al. (2018), Pavan & Marroig (2016), Pavan et al. (2018), de Thoisy et al. (2014), Torrent et al. (2018).","taxonomy":"Pteronotus alitonus Pavan, Bobrowiec & Percequillo, 2018, “Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) area, 80 kmnorth of Manaus, Brazil(2°20’S, 60°6’W, elevation of 30- 125m).”Pteronotusalitonus was split from P. rubiginosus based on molecular, morphological, and acoustic evidence; it was referred to in some previous molecular studies as Pleronotus sp. 3or Pteronotus sp. 1. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Ptéronote alitone @fr | Amazonas-Schnurrbartfledermaus @de | Pteronotusbiogotudo amazoénico @es | Amazonian Mustached Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Pavan, Bobrowiec & Percequillo","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mormoopidae","interpretedGenus":"Pteronotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"443","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alitonus","name":"Pteronotus alitonus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The Guianas and N Brazil.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6419845/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Clare et al. (2013) | Filippi-Codaccioni et al. (2018) | Lépez-Baucells, Torrent et al. (2018) | Pavan & Marroig (2016) | Pavan et al. (2018) | de Thoisy et al. (2014) | Torrent et al. (2018)","foodAndFeeding":"The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat is insectivorous, but there is no specific information available on prey itemsin its diet.","breeding":"In French Guiana, pregnant and lactating females were found in July, and post-lactating females between August and October.","activityPatterns":"The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat shows highest activity levels in forests in contrast to foraging sites over water bodies. Its activity patterns seem to be similar between dry and wet season in the central Amazon. Echolocation calls consist of long CF-FM pulses of ¢.25 milliseconds. Second harmonic has maximum energy at 59-60 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Amazonian Common Mustached Bat exhibits high genetic structuring, which might be consequence of low dispersal capability related to limitations to cross open landscapes in the Amazon region.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The [UCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body ¢.65-70 mm, tail 24-31 mm, ear 17-19 mm, hindfoot 13-15 mm, forearm 59-64 mm; weight 18-26 g. Pelage is dense and short; color varies from pale brown to reddish. Skull rostrum is robust, and braincase is large and rounded. Condylo-basal lengths are 20-22 mm. Nasal bones form markedly concave area in rostrum at suture of maxillary and frontal bones; they are narrower and slightly upturned in their anterior part. Pterygoid canal has pair of foramina varying from almost indistinct perforations to small pits. Maxillary tooth row length is less than 9-7 mm. Greatest width across molars is more than 8: 1 mm. Additional external and cranial features shared with other species in the subgenus Phyllodia are listed in descriptive notes for Parnell’s Common Mustached Bat (P. parnellii).","habitat":"Continuous forests in the Amazon."} @@ -478,45 +478,45 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1544A66C9AAF8329A636A4A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A91B1CC1544A66C9AAF8329A636A4A","docName":"hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"309","verbatimText":"9.Crested PorcupineHystrix cristataFrench:Porc-épic a créte/ German:Gewohnliches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin crestadoOther common names:North African Crested PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix cristata Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “near Rome,Italy.”Hystrix cristatais in subgenus Hystrix. Two species, H. cristataand H. galeata, had been described from Africa north of the Equator, but wide overlap in all characteristics led G. B. Corbet and L. A. Jones in 1965 to regard them as a single species. Several subspecies had been described in Italy and North Africa, although D. C. D. Happold recognized none in 2013. Monotypic.Distribution.S Europe (mainland Italy and Sicily Is), N Africa (along the coast and in parts of the Atlas Mts in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, parts of Libyan and Egyptian coasts, and isolated populations in the semiarid parts of Mauritania, Mali, and Niger), E Africa (S Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, S Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Somalia), and across a narrow band extending from Senegal to Tanzania (and including Zanzibar I). Introduced in the 19\" century into Elba I (but now possibly extinct there) and from 2005 into Sardinia from mainland Italy.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 39 mm (one individual), hindfoot 86 mm (one individual); weight 8-27 kg. The Crested Porcupine is the second largest rodent in Europe (second to the Eurasian Beaver, Castorfiber) and, along with the similarly sized Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis), is the largest rodent in Africa. It is thickset, with coarse blackish brown fur and well-bristled body, relatively short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Male-biased and reverse sexualsize dimorphism has been reported, but two recent studies found no difference in body size between adult males and females. Quill type and distribution are similar to the Cape Porcupine. Head, neck, feet, and belly of the Crested Porcupine are covered with short, sturdy, flattened spines and bristles (20-45 mm long, 2 mm wide). Back and sides are covered with 300-400 mm long,stiff true quills, banded in black and white. Well-developed integumentary smooth muscles and subcutaneous muscles reflect quill arrangement on back; these muscles contract to raise quills. Microscopic spiny bristles are present on quill surfaces and oriented in opposite direction from quills, resulting in a “harpoonlike” effect. Legs and ventrum are covered with short, coarse black hairs. Short legs are stout, and feet have large pads and well-developed claws. Erectile, well-developed crest of coarse brownish white hair up to 500 mm in length spreads from top of head to shoulders and characterizes morphology of the subgenus Hystrix. White chin patch is often present. Yellow-gray head of the Crested Porcupine is large and blunt, with small dark eyes and darkly pigmented ears, and has long, dark mystacial vibrissae. Long, wide nasal bones are more than 57% of occipito-nasal length and extend posteriorly almost to anterior end of orbits. Frontal:nasal ratios are 23-38%. Upper incisors are smooth, and folds of enamel and dentine characterize cheekteeth. Rump is covered with short, flat, dark bristles on dorsal and ventral sides. Short tail is covered with short quills, mostly invisible beneath defensive quills on lower back, and has rattle-quills that rattle when tail is shaken. There are 4-6 mammae. Perianal glands are well developed. In the field, it is difficult to distinguish the Crested Porcupine from the Cape Porcupine; short quills on lower rump of the Crested Porcupine are black, whereas they are white on the Cape Porcupine. Skull differences are clear and were well described by van Weers. Compared with the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), short spines on rump of the Crested Porcupine form conspicuous white patches when raised, and crest is predominantly white. Premaxillae of medium width, and frontal-to-nasal ratio 23-38%.Habitat.Woodlands, warm and cold savanna grasslands, dry semi-deserts, and warm Mediterranean coastal shrublands. In Algeria and Morocco, the Crested Porcupine lives in forested hills and steppes. In the Atlas Mountains and on Kilimanjaro,it lives at elevations of up to 3500 m. It prefers rocky areas.Food and Feeding.The Crested Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats subterranean bulbs, roots,fruits, and bark. It can be a pest to farmers, damaging cassava, sweet potato, and groundnut crops in savanna farmlands. In Italy, the Crested Porcupine changesits diet seasonally, consuming roots as the predominant food year-round, supplemented by herbs in winter and spring, grass inflorescences and fruits in summer, and fruits in autumn.Breeding.The Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Indian Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Breeding takes place throughout the year, with a female giving birth to 1-2 precocial offspring once or twice per year. In captivity, there is a nightly rhythm of mounting. Multiple mountings per night are typical, but copulation takes place only during estrus (a difference from the Indian Crested Porcupine and the Cape Porcupine in which mounting and copulation take place independent of stage of estrus). The female Crested Porcupine presses her quills against her back to allow mating. Gestation lasts 7-8 weeks,after which litters of 1-4 young are born in a grass-lined burrow. Longevity is up to 20 years.Activity patterns.The Crested Porcupine is nocturnal. Individuals spend their days at rest in burrows. In Italy, a Crested Porcupine might share its burrow with a European Badger (Meles meles). The Crested Porcupine is active across a wide range of temperatures, with mean duration of nocturnal and crepuscular activity in central Italy lasting on average 9-2 hours/night, varying little throughout the year. In cold months when nights were longer, individuals left burrows after sunset and returned some hours before sunrise. In the warm season, they left at sunset or shortly before and returned at or shortly after sunrise. Moonlight avoidance is slight. Diurnal activity is scarce. When alarmed, a Crested Porcupine first raises its quills and erects its crest; second,it rattles its tail; and third, it stomps its hindfeet and growls. If these displays fail to deter a threat, it may attack by moving rapidly backward and sideways toward it, stabbing it with its long defensive quills that detach easily from the skin.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Crested Porcupines live in family groups. In captivity, males mark feeding sites with secretions from perianal glands. Chemical profiles from secretions of perianal glands may aid in individual recognition. Published studies of space use, home range, and social behavior report only on Italian populations. Home range size does not differ between males and females, although in one study in Tuscany, upper-limit of home range size was significantly higher for females than males. Home range size varies with habitat and season. Crested Porcupines in agricultural areas have larger home ranges than those in natural maquis shrubland (densely growing evergreen shrubs), and home range size decreases with increasing habitat richness. Home ranges were significantly larger in the warm season than the cold season in both habitats. Average minimum convex polygon home range size in agricultural areas was 151 ha in summer and 128 ha in winter vs. 50 ha in summer and 34 ha in winter in natural areas. For each male-female pair, median home range overlap is ¢.75%, with no change between seasons. Pair members show a strong and consistent spatial overlap throughout the year. Crested Porcupines prefer covered habitats by day. At night, those foraging in agricultural habitat spent 42-5% of time in ecotone areas, 28-5% in fields or fallows, and 28% in woods; those foraging in natural habitats stayed in cover 69% ofthe time, using the ecotone only 19% and open habitat 12% of the time. In terms of distance moved per night, Crested Porcupines moved greater distances in pine woods habitat (460-746 m) than grazed areas (210-225 m). Those living in pinewoods did not move to agricultural fields to forage, but those living in grazed areas did. Crested Porcupines will visit feeding areas as far as 10-12 km from their dens. Very little is known about densities and population dynamics of Crested Porcupines. In Italy, the Crested Porcupine has been found in feces of Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and, rarely, Gray Wolves (Canis lupus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Crested Porcupine is a nationally protected species in Italy, although its eradication from Sardinia, where it has been recently introduced, has been recommended. Some recommend listing the Crested Porcupine as an endangered species in Europe, due to destruction of maquis,its optimal habitat, and because of poaching (especially in recently colonized areas). Payments of up to €19,500/year are claimed for crop damage by farmers in southern Tuscany. Distributional expansion in Italy would suggest that the Crested Porcupine is in fact doing well. Lack of data on abundance and densities regionally and nationally in Italy makes management a challenge. In Africa, the Crested Porcupine is one of the most important species for subsistence and income in the Albertine Rift where it is used for human food and wearing apparel. Almost nothing is written about ecology or behavior of the Crested Porcupine from anywhere in Africa. Although there remains some debate about how the Crested Porcupine came to be in Italy, its presence there is likely the result of an introduction from North Africa. Although there are fossil remains from the genus Hystrixin Europe beyond Italy, recent molecular analysis of three genes from Italian and African specimens shows a pattern of diversity congruent with an introduction from northern Africa during the Roman Age; one of three clades revealed in the analysis grouped Italian specimens together with specimens from Tunisia. A large number of DNA haplotypes present in Italian specimens may indicate several introductions over historical time. Since the 1970s, distribution of the Crested Porcupine in Italy has been expanding northward and eastward, crossing the Apennines from the Tyrrhenian coast to Marche. Historical and social factors, including progressive urbanization and consequent abandonment of traditional land use in mountainous areas, probably have contributed to distributional expansion. Despite suggestions otherwise, the Crested Porcupine has never occurred on the Ionian and Aegean islands, the Balkans, or the Iberian Peninsula in the Holocene, even in the very recent past.Bibliography.Amori & Angelici (1992), Angelici, Cabras & Trucchi (2009), Angelici, Capizzi et al. (2003), Bruno & Riccardi (1995), Carr et al. (2013), Corbet (1978), Corbet & Jones (1965), Corsini et al. (1995), Felicioli et al. (1997), Fischer et al. (2002), Foley et al. (2014), Giotto (2011), Grubb et al. (2008), Happold (2013a), Hoath (2009), Lovari et al. (2013), Masseti (2012), Massolo et al. (2009), Mohr (1965), Mori & Lovari (2014), Mori et al. (2013), Nowak (1999a), Pigozzi (1987, 1992), Pigozzi & Patterson (1990), Sonnino (1998), Storch (1990), Thomas (1911c¢), Trucchi & Sbordoni (2009), van Weers (1979).","taxonomy":"Hystrix cristata Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “near Rome,Italy.”Hystrix cristatais in subgenus Hystrix. Two species, H. cristataand H. galeata, had been described from Africa north of the Equator, but wide overlap in all characteristics led G. B. Corbet and L. A. Jones in 1965 to regard them as a single species. Several subspecies had been described in Italy and North Africa, although D. C. D. Happold recognized none in 2013. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Porc-épic a créte @fr | Gewohnliches Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin crestado @es | North African Crested Porcupine @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hystricidae","interpretedGenus":"Hystrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"309","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cristata","name":"Hystrix cristata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Europe (mainland Italy and Sicily Is), N Africa (along the coast and in parts of the Atlas Mts in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, parts of Libyan and Egyptian coasts, and isolated populations in the semiarid parts of Mauritania, Mali, and Niger), E Africa (S Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, S Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Somalia), and across a narrow band extending from Senegal to Tanzania (and including Zanzibar I). Introduced in the 19\" century into Elba I (but now possibly extinct there) and from 2005 into Sardinia from mainland Italy.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6612239/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amori & Angelici (1992) | Angelici, Cabras & Trucchi (2009) | Angelici, Capizzi et al. (2003) | Bruno & Riccardi (1995) | Carr et al. (2013) | Corbet (1978) | Corbet & Jones (1965) | Corsini et al. (1995) | Felicioli et al. (1997) | Fischer et al. (2002) | Foley et al. (2014) | Giotto (2011) | Grubb et al. (2008) | Happold (2013a) | Hoath (2009) | Lovari et al. (2013) | Masseti (2012) | Massolo et al. (2009) | Mohr (1965) | Mori & Lovari (2014) | Mori et al. (2013) | Nowak (1999a) | Pigozzi (1987, 1992) | Pigozzi & Patterson (1990) | Sonnino (1998) | Storch (1990) | Thomas (1911c¢) | Trucchi & Sbordoni (2009) | van Weers (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"The Crested Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats subterranean bulbs, roots,fruits, and bark. It can be a pest to farmers, damaging cassava, sweet potato, and groundnut crops in savanna farmlands. In Italy, the Crested Porcupine changesits diet seasonally, consuming roots as the predominant food year-round, supplemented by herbs in winter and spring, grass inflorescences and fruits in summer, and fruits in autumn.","breeding":"The Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Indian Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Breeding takes place throughout the year, with a female giving birth to 1-2 precocial offspring once or twice per year. In captivity, there is a nightly rhythm of mounting. Multiple mountings per night are typical, but copulation takes place only during estrus (a difference from the Indian Crested Porcupine and the Cape Porcupine in which mounting and copulation take place independent of stage of estrus). The female Crested Porcupine presses her quills against her back to allow mating. Gestation lasts 7-8 weeks,after which litters of 1-4 young are born in a grass-lined burrow. Longevity is up to 20 years.","activityPatterns":"The Crested Porcupine is nocturnal. Individuals spend their days at rest in burrows. In Italy, a Crested Porcupine might share its burrow with a European Badger (Meles meles). The Crested Porcupine is active across a wide range of temperatures, with mean duration of nocturnal and crepuscular activity in central Italy lasting on average 9-2 hours/night, varying little throughout the year. In cold months when nights were longer, individuals left burrows after sunset and returned some hours before sunrise. In the warm season, they left at sunset or shortly before and returned at or shortly after sunrise. Moonlight avoidance is slight. Diurnal activity is scarce. When alarmed, a Crested Porcupine first raises its quills and erects its crest; second,it rattles its tail; and third, it stomps its hindfeet and growls. If these displays fail to deter a threat, it may attack by moving rapidly backward and sideways toward it, stabbing it with its long defensive quills that detach easily from the skin.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Crested Porcupines live in family groups. In captivity, males mark feeding sites with secretions from perianal glands. Chemical profiles from secretions of perianal glands may aid in individual recognition. Published studies of space use, home range, and social behavior report only on Italian populations. Home range size does not differ between males and females, although in one study in Tuscany, upper-limit of home range size was significantly higher for females than males. Home range size varies with habitat and season. Crested Porcupines in agricultural areas have larger home ranges than those in natural maquis shrubland (densely growing evergreen shrubs), and home range size decreases with increasing habitat richness. Home ranges were significantly larger in the warm season than the cold season in both habitats. Average minimum convex polygon home range size in agricultural areas was 151 ha in summer and 128 ha in winter vs. 50 ha in summer and 34 ha in winter in natural areas. For each male-female pair, median home range overlap is ¢.75%, with no change between seasons. Pair members show a strong and consistent spatial overlap throughout the year. Crested Porcupines prefer covered habitats by day. At night, those foraging in agricultural habitat spent 42-5% of time in ecotone areas, 28-5% in fields or fallows, and 28% in woods; those foraging in natural habitats stayed in cover 69% ofthe time, using the ecotone only 19% and open habitat 12% of the time. In terms of distance moved per night, Crested Porcupines moved greater distances in pine woods habitat (460-746 m) than grazed areas (210-225 m). Those living in pinewoods did not move to agricultural fields to forage, but those living in grazed areas did. Crested Porcupines will visit feeding areas as far as 10-12 km from their dens. Very little is known about densities and population dynamics of Crested Porcupines. In Italy, the Crested Porcupine has been found in feces of Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and, rarely, Gray Wolves (Canis lupus).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Crested Porcupine is a nationally protected species in Italy, although its eradication from Sardinia, where it has been recently introduced, has been recommended. Some recommend listing the Crested Porcupine as an endangered species in Europe, due to destruction of maquis,its optimal habitat, and because of poaching (especially in recently colonized areas). Payments of up to €19,500/year are claimed for crop damage by farmers in southern Tuscany. Distributional expansion in Italy would suggest that the Crested Porcupine is in fact doing well. Lack of data on abundance and densities regionally and nationally in Italy makes management a challenge. In Africa, the Crested Porcupine is one of the most important species for subsistence and income in the Albertine Rift where it is used for human food and wearing apparel. Almost nothing is written about ecology or behavior of the Crested Porcupine from anywhere in Africa. Although there remains some debate about how the Crested Porcupine came to be in Italy, its presence there is likely the result of an introduction from North Africa. Although there are fossil remains from the genus Hystrixin Europe beyond Italy, recent molecular analysis of three genes from Italian and African specimens shows a pattern of diversity congruent with an introduction from northern Africa during the Roman Age; one of three clades revealed in the analysis grouped Italian specimens together with specimens from Tunisia. A large number of DNA haplotypes present in Italian specimens may indicate several introductions over historical time. Since the 1970s, distribution of the Crested Porcupine in Italy has been expanding northward and eastward, crossing the Apennines from the Tyrrhenian coast to Marche. Historical and social factors, including progressive urbanization and consequent abandonment of traditional land use in mountainous areas, probably have contributed to distributional expansion. Despite suggestions otherwise, the Crested Porcupine has never occurred on the Ionian and Aegean islands, the Balkans, or the Iberian Peninsula in the Holocene, even in the very recent past.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 39 mm (one individual), hindfoot 86 mm (one individual); weight 8-27 kg. The Crested Porcupine is the second largest rodent in Europe (second to the Eurasian Beaver, Castorfiber) and, along with the similarly sized Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis), is the largest rodent in Africa. It is thickset, with coarse blackish brown fur and well-bristled body, relatively short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Male-biased and reverse sexualsize dimorphism has been reported, but two recent studies found no difference in body size between adult males and females. Quill type and distribution are similar to the Cape Porcupine. Head, neck, feet, and belly of the Crested Porcupine are covered with short, sturdy, flattened spines and bristles (20-45 mm long, 2 mm wide). Back and sides are covered with 300-400 mm long,stiff true quills, banded in black and white. Well-developed integumentary smooth muscles and subcutaneous muscles reflect quill arrangement on back; these muscles contract to raise quills. Microscopic spiny bristles are present on quill surfaces and oriented in opposite direction from quills, resulting in a “harpoonlike” effect. Legs and ventrum are covered with short, coarse black hairs. Short legs are stout, and feet have large pads and well-developed claws. Erectile, well-developed crest of coarse brownish white hair up to 500 mm in length spreads from top of head to shoulders and characterizes morphology of the subgenus Hystrix. White chin patch is often present. Yellow-gray head of the Crested Porcupine is large and blunt, with small dark eyes and darkly pigmented ears, and has long, dark mystacial vibrissae. Long, wide nasal bones are more than 57% of occipito-nasal length and extend posteriorly almost to anterior end of orbits. Frontal:nasal ratios are 23-38%. Upper incisors are smooth, and folds of enamel and dentine characterize cheekteeth. Rump is covered with short, flat, dark bristles on dorsal and ventral sides. Short tail is covered with short quills, mostly invisible beneath defensive quills on lower back, and has rattle-quills that rattle when tail is shaken. There are 4-6 mammae. Perianal glands are well developed. In the field, it is difficult to distinguish the Crested Porcupine from the Cape Porcupine; short quills on lower rump of the Crested Porcupine are black, whereas they are white on the Cape Porcupine. Skull differences are clear and were well described by van Weers. Compared with the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), short spines on rump of the Crested Porcupine form conspicuous white patches when raised, and crest is predominantly white. Premaxillae of medium width, and frontal-to-nasal ratio 23-38%.","habitat":"Woodlands, warm and cold savanna grasslands, dry semi-deserts, and warm Mediterranean coastal shrublands. In Algeria and Morocco, the Crested Porcupine lives in forested hills and steppes. In the Atlas Mountains and on Kilimanjaro,it lives at elevations of up to 3500 m. It prefers rocky areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1554A64C975FEF29C8C6899.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A91B1CC1554A64C975FEF29C8C6899","docName":"hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"308","verbatimText":"5.Thick-spined PorcupineHystrix crassispinisFrench:Porc-épic de Bornéo/ German:Borneo Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de espinas gruesasOther common names:Borneo Short-tailed PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix crassispinis Gunther, 1877, “Borneo.” A. Gunther in 1877 cross referenced an earlier paper of his in the same journal in which the type locality was given as “Borneo, opposite of Labuau.”H. crassispinisis in subgenus Thecurus. Monotypic.Distribution.Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-665 mm, tail 65-190 mm, ear 35-42 mm, hindfoot 80-90 mm; weight 3.8-5.4 kg.The Thick-spined Porcupine is medium-sized and brown, with extremely thick quills. It is the largest species in the subgenus Thecurus, with the largest quills, tactile bristles, and rattle-quills. It appears distinctly speckled by white tips of spines on cheeks, neck, shoulders, flanks, and sometimes anterior of back. Some large defensive quills on posterior of back have white tips ¢.25-65 mm long, while others are blackish up to their tips. Number of white-tipped quillsis larger than number of black quills; number of tactile bristles is small. As with other species in the subgenus Thecurus, there is no crest on head. Thick quills reach up to 8:3 mm in diameter, making them thicker than those in the largest specimens of subgenus Acanthion and as thick as those in subgenus Hystrix. Tail is short, with ratio of tail-to-head-body length less than 20%, and it has rattle-quills. Lengths of hollow capsule-like parts of rattle-quills are 12-16 mm. Long quills of hindquarters are dark brown, with fairly narrow white tips and bases, and quills beneath tail are brown and white. The Thick-spined Porcupine can be differentiated from the Sumatran Porcupine (H. sumatrae) byits larger skull with slightly longer nasals, longer rattle-quills, thicker quills, and largertactile bristles.Habitat.Primary lowland rainforest, old and young secondary forest, and open areas up to elevations of 1200 m in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Endemic island rodents such as the Thick-spined Porcupine may be particularly at risk of extinction and require further study.Bibliography.Amori, Gippoliti & Helgen (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Glinther (1877b), Helgen & Lunde (2008), Medway & Harrisson (1963), Nowak (1999a), Rustam et al. (2011), Storch (1990), van Weers (1978).","taxonomy":"Hystrix crassispinis Gunther, 1877, “Borneo.” A. Gunther in 1877 cross referenced an earlier paper of his in the same journal in which the type locality was given as “Borneo, opposite of Labuau.”H. crassispinisis in subgenus Thecurus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Porc-épic de Bornéo @fr | Borneo Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de espinas gruesas @es | Borneo Short-tailed Porcupine @en","interpretedAuthority":"Gunther, 1877","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gunther","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hystricidae","interpretedGenus":"Hystrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"308","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"crassispinis","name":"Hystrix crassispinis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Borneo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6612229/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amori, Gippoliti & Helgen (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Glinther (1877b) | Helgen & Lunde (2008) | Medway & Harrisson (1963) | Nowak (1999a) | Rustam et al. (2011) | Storch (1990) | van Weers (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Endemic island rodents such as the Thick-spined Porcupine may be particularly at risk of extinction and require further study.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-665 mm, tail 65-190 mm, ear 35-42 mm, hindfoot 80-90 mm; weight 3.8-5.4 kg.The Thick-spined Porcupine is medium-sized and brown, with extremely thick quills. It is the largest species in the subgenus Thecurus, with the largest quills, tactile bristles, and rattle-quills. It appears distinctly speckled by white tips of spines on cheeks, neck, shoulders, flanks, and sometimes anterior of back. Some large defensive quills on posterior of back have white tips ¢.25-65 mm long, while others are blackish up to their tips. Number of white-tipped quillsis larger than number of black quills; number of tactile bristles is small. As with other species in the subgenus Thecurus, there is no crest on head. Thick quills reach up to 8:3 mm in diameter, making them thicker than those in the largest specimens of subgenus Acanthion and as thick as those in subgenus Hystrix. Tail is short, with ratio of tail-to-head-body length less than 20%, and it has rattle-quills. Lengths of hollow capsule-like parts of rattle-quills are 12-16 mm. Long quills of hindquarters are dark brown, with fairly narrow white tips and bases, and quills beneath tail are brown and white. The Thick-spined Porcupine can be differentiated from the Sumatran Porcupine (H. sumatrae) byits larger skull with slightly longer nasals, longer rattle-quills, thicker quills, and largertactile bristles.","habitat":"Primary lowland rainforest, old and young secondary forest, and open areas up to elevations of 1200 m in East Kalimantan, Indonesia."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1554A64C97BF83B9BD4629A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A91B1CC1554A64C97BF83B9BD4629A","docName":"hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"308","verbatimText":"6.Philippine PorcupineHystrix pumilaFrench:Porc-épic des Philippines/ German:Palawan-Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de FilipinasOther common names:Indonesian Porcupine, Palawan Porcupine, Philippine Short-tailed PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix pumila Gunther, 1879, “Puerto Princesa, in the island of Paragua [= Palawan],” Philippines.Placed in subgenus Thecurus. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Philippines, endemic on Palawan and adjacent Busuanga and Balabac Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-665 mm, tail 64-190 mm, ear 31 mm (one individual), hindfoot 69 mm (one individual); weight 3.8-5.4 kg. The Philippine Porcupineis the smallest species of Hystrix. Spiny covering of bodyis poorly developed, with very small quills,tactile bristles, and rattle-quills and only a small number of quills on back. Like other species of Hystrix, tail has rattle-quills. Lengths of hollow capsulelike parts of rattle-quills are 10-11 mm. There is no crest on head. Maximum diameters of thickest defensive quills on back are 4-5 mm, and they are colored as single dark bands with no white tips. Absence of white tips on long quills of back differentiates Philippine Porcupines from Sumatran Porcupines and Thick-spined Porcupines.Habitat.There is no information available for this species.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Population of the Philippine Porcupine is expected to decline by more than 30% in the next three generations, based on rate of forest loss and numbers of individuals taken for bushmeat and the pet trade. The Philippine Porcupine is the most important game species of the Tagbanwa people and is often dug out of subterranean dens. Endemic island rodents such as the Philippine Porcupine may be particularly at risk of extinction and require further study.Bibliography.Amori, Gippoliti & Helgen (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Esselstyn et al. (2004), Heaney et al. (2008), Nowak (1999a), Storch (1990), van Weers (1978), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Hystrix pumila Gunther, 1879, “Puerto Princesa, in the island of Paragua [= Palawan],” Philippines.Placed in subgenus Thecurus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Porc-épic des Philippines @fr | Palawan-Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de Filipinas @es | Other common names @en | ndonesian Porcupine @en | Palawan Porcupine @en | Philippine Short-tailed Porcupine @en","interpretedAuthority":"Günther, 1879","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gunther","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1879","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hystricidae","interpretedGenus":"Hystrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"308","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pumila","name":"Hystrix pumila","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW Philippines, endemic on Palawan and adjacent Busuanga and Balabac Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6612233/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amori, Gippoliti & Helgen (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Esselstyn et al. (2004) | Heaney et al. (2008) | Nowak (1999a) | Storch (1990) | van Weers (1978) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Population of the Philippine Porcupine is expected to decline by more than 30% in the next three generations, based on rate of forest loss and numbers of individuals taken for bushmeat and the pet trade. The Philippine Porcupine is the most important game species of the Tagbanwa people and is often dug out of subterranean dens. Endemic island rodents such as the Philippine Porcupine may be particularly at risk of extinction and require further study.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-665 mm, tail 64-190 mm, ear 31 mm (one individual), hindfoot 69 mm (one individual); weight 3.8-5.4 kg. The Philippine Porcupineis the smallest species of Hystrix. Spiny covering of bodyis poorly developed, with very small quills,tactile bristles, and rattle-quills and only a small number of quills on back. Like other species of Hystrix, tail has rattle-quills. Lengths of hollow capsulelike parts of rattle-quills are 10-11 mm. There is no crest on head. Maximum diameters of thickest defensive quills on back are 4-5 mm, and they are colored as single dark bands with no white tips. Absence of white tips on long quills of back differentiates Philippine Porcupines from Sumatran Porcupines and Thick-spined Porcupines.","habitat":"There is no information available for this species."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1554A64CC72FEF59F20629E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A91B1CC1554A64CC72FEF59F20629E","docName":"hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"308","verbatimText":"7.Malayan PorcupineHystrix brachyuraFrench:Porc-épic de Malaisie/ German:Malaiisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de MalasiaOther common names:Himalayan Crestless Porcupine, Hodgson's PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Identified by A. Grote in J. E. Gray in 1866 as “Malacca,” Malaya.Hystrix brachyurais in subgenus Acanthion. Many different subspecies have been described (some based on single specimens) including four recent subspecies in China, butD. J. van Weers in 1979 concluded after careful measurements of many specimens that although some clearly different populations can be recognized,full subspecific designation was unwarranted due to a high degree of intergradation. Further examination of a larger number of specimens, especially a larger number from China, will help resolve subspecific taxonomy. Northern limit of H. brachyurain China is in southern Gansu and southern Shaanxi from where Pleistocene fossils have also been recorded as H. subcristata. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.b.brachyuraLinnaeus,1758— MalayPeninsula,PenangI(offWcoastofPeninsularMalaysia),Sumatra,andBorneo.H.b.hodgsoniGray,1847— SofHimalayasinENepal,NIndia(Sikkim).H. b. subcristata Swinhoe, 1870— S Bhutan, NE India, C & S China (including Hainan I), Bangladesh, Burma (= Myanmar), and mainland South-east Asia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 455-930 mm,tail 60-170 mm, ear 25-38 mm, hindfoot 75-95 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Malayan Porcupine is large, stocky, and blackish brown, with short tail. In some individuals, spines along back of neck form rudimentary dorsal crest. Quills of back, shoulders, and sides are brown without white tips. Dorsal quills are square anteriorly and become round posteriorly. Long defensive quills on lower back are white, with single brownish black band in middle of each quill and white tips ¢.200 mm in length. Diameters of thickest quills on back are 5-7 mm. Ears and eyes are relatively small. Nasals are long (41-60% of occipito-nasal length) and broad (37-62% of zygomatic breadth). Skull has inflated pneumatic cavities. Quills on hindquarters are white, with fairly narrow sub-terminal black bands, and quills under tail are entirely white. Length of short tail is less than 20% of head-body length. Tail carries hollow, goblet-shaped rattlequills, extending 200-300 mm in length that rattle when shaken. Lengths of hollow parts of rattle-quills are 15-34 mm. Channels in network of medulla in quills might serve to transport pheromones. There are three pairs of lateral mammae. Diploid number is 2n = 60. The Malayan Porcupine can be differentiated from the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), with which it overlaps in India, by having rudimentary crest, if any, and having quills with only single brown bands. The Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) is smaller than the Malayan Porcupine, with shorter brown quills, a longer scaly tail with a brush on the tip, and beaded tail quills.Habitat.Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.Breeding.Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.Activity patterns.The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food. Habitat loss and poaching are the main threats to populations of Malayan Porcupines in India.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Brooks et al. (2010), Chung & Corlett (2006), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008), Gray (1866), Lunde, Aplin & Molur (2008), Medway & Harrisson (1963), Menon (2009), Nowak (1999a), Raha et al. (2015), van Schaik & Griffiths (1996), Smith & Yan Xie (2008), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Storch (1990), Tempa et al. (2013), van Weers (1979).","taxonomy":"Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Identified by A. Grote in J. E. Gray in 1866 as “Malacca,” Malaya.Hystrix brachyurais in subgenus Acanthion. Many different subspecies have been described (some based on single specimens) including four recent subspecies in China, butD. J. van Weers in 1979 concluded after careful measurements of many specimens that although some clearly different populations can be recognized,full subspecific designation was unwarranted due to a high degree of intergradation. Further examination of a larger number of specimens, especially a larger number from China, will help resolve subspecific taxonomy. Northern limit of H. brachyurain China is in southern Gansu and southern Shaanxi from where Pleistocene fossils have also been recorded as H. subcristata. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Porc-épic de Malaisie @fr | Malaiisches Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de Malasia @es | Himalayan Crestless Porcupine @en | Hodgson's Porcupine @en","interpretedAuthority":"Linnaeus, 1758","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hystricidae","interpretedGenus":"Hystrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"308","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brachyura","name":"Hystrix brachyura","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.b.brachyuraLinnaeus,1758— MalayPeninsula,PenangI(offWcoastofPeninsularMalaysia),Sumatra,andBorneo.H.b.hodgsoniGray,1847— SofHimalayasinENepal,NIndia(Sikkim).H. b. subcristata Swinhoe, 1870— S Bhutan, NE India, C & S China (including Hainan I), Bangladesh, Burma (= Myanmar), and mainland South-east Asia.","bibliography":"Agrawal (2000) | Brooks et al. (2010) | Chung & Corlett (2006) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008) | Gray (1866) | Lunde, Aplin & Molur (2008) | Medway & Harrisson (1963) | Menon (2009) | Nowak (1999a) | Raha et al. (2015) | van Schaik & Griffiths (1996) | Smith & Yan Xie (2008) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Storch (1990) | Tempa et al. (2013) | van Weers (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.","breeding":"Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.","activityPatterns":"The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food. Habitat loss and poaching are the main threats to populations of Malayan Porcupines in India.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 455-930 mm,tail 60-170 mm, ear 25-38 mm, hindfoot 75-95 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Malayan Porcupine is large, stocky, and blackish brown, with short tail. In some individuals, spines along back of neck form rudimentary dorsal crest. Quills of back, shoulders, and sides are brown without white tips. Dorsal quills are square anteriorly and become round posteriorly. Long defensive quills on lower back are white, with single brownish black band in middle of each quill and white tips ¢.200 mm in length. Diameters of thickest quills on back are 5-7 mm. Ears and eyes are relatively small. Nasals are long (41-60% of occipito-nasal length) and broad (37-62% of zygomatic breadth). Skull has inflated pneumatic cavities. Quills on hindquarters are white, with fairly narrow sub-terminal black bands, and quills under tail are entirely white. Length of short tail is less than 20% of head-body length. Tail carries hollow, goblet-shaped rattlequills, extending 200-300 mm in length that rattle when shaken. Lengths of hollow parts of rattle-quills are 15-34 mm. Channels in network of medulla in quills might serve to transport pheromones. There are three pairs of lateral mammae. Diploid number is 2n = 60. The Malayan Porcupine can be differentiated from the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), with which it overlaps in India, by having rudimentary crest, if any, and having quills with only single brown bands. The Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) is smaller than the Malayan Porcupine, with shorter brown quills, a longer scaly tail with a brush on the tip, and beaded tail quills.Habitat.Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.Breeding.Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.Activity patterns.The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food.","habitat":"Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1564A68C9D5F9B49FB86B0B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A91B1CC1564A68C9D5F9B49FB86B0B","docName":"hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"311","verbatimText":"11.Indian Crested PorcupineHystrix indicaFrench:Porc-épic indien/ German:Indisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de IndiaOther common names:White-tailed PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix cristata indica Kerr, 1792, India.Hystrix indicais in subgenus Hystrix. Monotypic.Distribution.W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).Habitat Wide variety of natural, agricultural, and urbanized habitats. Distribution of the Indian Crested Porcupine is centered in steppe biomes and also includes desert margins and relatively mesic zones. In the central and northern Negev Desert of Israel, it occupies a variety of habitats including limestone hills, flat plateaus, seasonally dry wadis (riverbeds) and flood plains, and steep, narrow canyons. In India, it prefers rocky hillsides, open countryside, and deciduous and monsoon forests. Camera-trap data from Nepal showed a preponderance of photos from grasslandsvs. forests, which might result from distribution of food resources or presence of large predators (e.g. Leopards, Panthera pardus).Food and Feeding.The Indian Crested Porcupine is generalist herbivore. It is particularly adept at exploiting patchy vegetation of semiarid and arid habitats. In the Negev Desert,it eats at least 18 species of geophytes (tubers, bulbs, corms, rhizomes and other subterranean structures) and hemicryptophytes. Its use of geophytes increases water balance and reduce exposure to plants with low nutrient content, low digestibility, or high concentrations of secondary metabolites. Fasted captive Indian Crested Porcupines consumed 528-7 g potatoes within 45 minutes and averaged 147-9 g/hour thereafter. Averaged total intake was 1239-4 g fresh mass for 5-8 h of feeding. Nightly intakes were 198-3 g dry matter, 1092 ml preformed water, and 3056 kJ of energy. Maintenance energy requirement of captive porcupines was 220 kJ/kg/day. In the Negev Desert, daily water intake was significantly higher in summer than winter, although there were no differences in seasonal ad libitum food intake by captive individuals. The Indian Crested Porcupine also eats grains and fruits. Digging as a form of ecological disturbance has an important positive role in increasing plant biomass, density, and species richness across patchy landscapes of the Negev Desert. Density of porcupine digs in highlands of the Negev Desert varied from more than 1 dig/m? on a densely vegetated plateau to 0-1 dig/m? on a sparsely vegetated deep loess. Digs of Indian Crested Porcupines persist for 1-6-5 years, depending on size. Individuals appeared to exploit the same food patches over time. Investigatory sniffing is a major behavior probably associated with searching for food. Indian Crested Porcupines use a stereotypical posture when eating, in which body is prone, hindlegs are outstretched, and forelimbs rest on ground; food items are manipulated with inner front paws. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be a pest to agriculture by raiding crops and to forestry by debarking trees at ground level. In India, it is destructive to sweet potato, sugarcane, and maize crops and production forests. It gnaws bones, horns, and antlers. In Israel, consumption of roots and aboveground crops and bark of cultivated trees and damage to irrigation tubing causesit to be regarded as the most important agricultural pest among the country’s large mammals. Time required to forage might limit occurrence of Indian Crested Porcupines to areas where nights are not less than seven hours. Most northern populations are at ¢.44° N, where night duration at summersolstice is ¢.7-3 hours. To occur north of this boundary, Indian Crested Porcupines would have to forage during daylight or reduce food intake. Otherwise, northern distributional limits do not coincide with broad bioclimatic or vegetation boundaries.Breeding.The Indian Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Observations of captive pairs found that females presented themselves to males, and males copulated with them (including intromission) every night throughout the year. The male, who parades in front of the female and then stands motionless for several minutes with his quills erect, might also initiate mating. Next, he approaches and retreats from the female several times, while making squawking sounds. Copulation takes place during pregnancy and lactation and is not restricted to estrus. In Pakistan, breeding has been recorded in March-April. Females give birth to litters of 1-4 young in “maternity chambers,” cushioned with grass or leaves. Neonates weigh ¢.3% of their mother’s weight at birth and require a long nursing period. Eyes open at or within a few hours of birth, and incisors have broken through completely. Back spikes are still soft, short, and ¢.30 mm long; tail rattle-quills are soft and silent. Sensory bristles are developed and extend beyond lengths of spikes. Newborns are very active and agile within hours of birth. From birth to about three months of age, young are cared for by their fathers that perform all of the same parental care behaviors as their mothers, except nursing and licking their anogenital areas. Running toward a newborn when it utters a distress call is predominantly a male response. During the first month after birth of young, the male spends ¢.30% ofhis active time alone with newborns and ¢.20% of his time with the female and newborns. During the second and third month after birth, there is a gradual decrease in percent active time spent alone with newborns by both males and females and a gradual increase in percent active time that both parents spend with young.Activity patterns.Indian Crested Porcupines are strictly nocturnal. They spend daytime hours in dens (natural caves or excavated burrows). Timing of den emergence varies with season. In winter, they largely confine their behavior to darker nights or darker periods of the night and strongly avoid bright moonlight. In summer, they are active independent of moonlight given the shorter nights. Mean duration of nocturnal activity is 9-2 hours in summervs. 6-7 hours in winter. Indian Crested Porcupines remain closer to dens on bright nights than dark nights throughout the year. Rainfall curtails activity. Activity pattern may be influenced by predation risk; one study used the method of “giving up density” and found that porcupines have lowest foraging costs in habitats with densest cover and on dark nights. In a camera trapping study in western Nepal, porcupine activity was significantly more common during the central part of the night (23:00 h to 02:00 h) than in crepuscular or daylight periods. When sensing danger, Indian Crested Porcupines erect their quills and rattle their tails menacingly.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Indian Crested Porcupines live alone or in family groups. They spend daylight hours in communal dens in family units or clans. In deserts east of the Caspian Sea, Indian Crested Porcupines dig complicated burrow systems in compacted dunes and clay embankments. Most tunnels are up to 2:5 m underground, and main tunnels are more than 10-16 m long, ending in a deep living chamber. Chambers may be used by clans for decades and provide protection and constant temperature and humidity. Intraspecific communication and territorial marking occur mainly by anal gland secretions and urine. Quills of the Indian Crested Porcupine contain channels that may allow quills to serve as osmotrichia. Individuals from the same den share broadly overlapping home ranges and foraging areas that are substantially different from porcupines occupying different dens, although in one study three individuals from the same den had little home range overlap. Solitary males have different movement behavior than male-female pairs. In one study, a solitary male was active in part of his home range and then wandered up to 8 km defining another part of his home range. Pairs remained in underground shelters during the day, while solitary males used surface shelters. Average distance traveled per night was shorter for solitary males (1684 m) than for pairs (2310 m). Temperature, humidity, and rainfall did not influence movement. Home ranges averaged 1-5 km®, and individuals typically moved 2-8 km/night. Home range size differs between individuals that use agricultural areas and those that do not. In the Negev Desert, Indian Crested Porcupines that foraged in natural desert had exclusive home ranges that were 37% larger (1-2-1-8 km?) than the overlapping, smaller (0-38-1-3 km*) home ranges of individuals dependent on agricultural habitat. Movements averaged 2767 m/night at arate of 7 m/minute, but they were longer for individuals near vs. far from agricultural habitat. Near agriculture, individuals moved 3174 m/night at a rate of 8 m/minute, whereas in natural areas, individuals moved an average of 2361 m/night at 5-9 m/ minute. Indian Crested Porcupines with dens close to agriculturalfields had narrower home ranges and showed bimodal space use, moving between the den and agricultural fields. In contrast, individuals with dens further from agriculture had broader home ranges that largely or entirely included natural habitats; they had single activity centers near their dens and used many different food patches. Densities of Indian Crested Porcupines in different habitats in Israel are: 4 ind/km? on coastal plains, 2-1 ind/km? in semiarid natural areas, and 7-5 ind/km? in agricultural areas. Densities might be regulated in part by predation. Leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas, and perhaps Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) prey on Indian Crested Porcupines.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Poaching of the Indian Crested Porcupine is a conservation threat in India. It is threatened in western Asia because it is hunted for food and considered an agricultural pest. It serves as an intermediate host for Linguatula serrata, a zoonotic parasite whose definitive hosts are carnivores and humans. Much of what is known about ecology and behavior of the Indian Crested Porcupine comes from the Negev Desert; further research in other habitats across its broad distribution are warranted.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Alkon (1999), Alkon & Olsvig-Whittaker (1989), Alkon & Saltz (1985, 1988), Alkon et al. (1986), Amori, Hutterer, Krystufek, Yigit, Mitsain & Palomo (2008), Arslan (2008), Boeken et al. (1995), Brown & Alkon (1990), Chesemore (1970), Corbet (1978), Corbet & Hill (1992), Corbet & Jones (1965), Fattorini & Pokheral (2012), Khan et al. (2014), Menon (2009), Nowak (1999a), Poddar-Sarkar et al. (2011), Qumsiyeh (1996), Rajabloo et al. (2015), Saltz & Alkon (1989), Sever & Mendelssohn (1988, 1989, 1991), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Storch (1990), van Weers (1979).","taxonomy":"Hystrix cristata indica Kerr, 1792, India.Hystrix indicais in subgenus Hystrix. Monotypic.Distribution.W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).Habitat Wide variety of natural, agricultural, and urbanized habitats.","commonNames":"Porc-épic indien @fr | German @en | ndisches Stachelschwein @en | Puercoespin de @es | ndia @en | White-tailed Porcupine @en","interpretedAuthority":"Kerr, 1792","interpretedAuthorityName":"Kerr","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hystricidae","interpretedGenus":"Hystrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"311","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"indica","name":"Hystrix indica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.","bibliography":"Agrawal (2000) | Alkon (1999) | Alkon & Olsvig-Whittaker (1989) | Alkon & Saltz (1985, 1988) | Alkon et al. (1986) | Amori, Hutterer, Krystufek, Yigit, Mitsain & Palomo (2008) | Arslan (2008) | Boeken et al. (1995) | Brown & Alkon (1990) | Chesemore (1970) | Corbet (1978) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Corbet & Jones (1965) | Fattorini & Pokheral (2012) | Khan et al. (2014) | Menon (2009) | Nowak (1999a) | Poddar-Sarkar et al. (2011) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Rajabloo et al. (2015) | Saltz & Alkon (1989) | Sever & Mendelssohn (1988, 1989, 1991) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Storch (1990) | van Weers (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"The Indian Crested Porcupine is generalist herbivore. It is particularly adept at exploiting patchy vegetation of semiarid and arid habitats. In the Negev Desert,it eats at least 18 species of geophytes (tubers, bulbs, corms, rhizomes and other subterranean structures) and hemicryptophytes. Its use of geophytes increases water balance and reduce exposure to plants with low nutrient content, low digestibility, or high concentrations of secondary metabolites. Fasted captive Indian Crested Porcupines consumed 528-7 g potatoes within 45 minutes and averaged 147-9 g/hour thereafter. Averaged total intake was 1239-4 g fresh mass for 5-8 h of feeding. Nightly intakes were 198-3 g dry matter, 1092 ml preformed water, and 3056 kJ of energy. Maintenance energy requirement of captive porcupines was 220 kJ/kg/day. In the Negev Desert, daily water intake was significantly higher in summer than winter, although there were no differences in seasonal ad libitum food intake by captive individuals. The Indian Crested Porcupine also eats grains and fruits. Digging as a form of ecological disturbance has an important positive role in increasing plant biomass, density, and species richness across patchy landscapes of the Negev Desert. Density of porcupine digs in highlands of the Negev Desert varied from more than 1 dig/m? on a densely vegetated plateau to 0-1 dig/m? on a sparsely vegetated deep loess. Digs of Indian Crested Porcupines persist for 1-6-5 years, depending on size. Individuals appeared to exploit the same food patches over time. Investigatory sniffing is a major behavior probably associated with searching for food. Indian Crested Porcupines use a stereotypical posture when eating, in which body is prone, hindlegs are outstretched, and forelimbs rest on ground; food items are manipulated with inner front paws. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be a pest to agriculture by raiding crops and to forestry by debarking trees at ground level. In India, it is destructive to sweet potato, sugarcane, and maize crops and production forests. It gnaws bones, horns, and antlers. In Israel, consumption of roots and aboveground crops and bark of cultivated trees and damage to irrigation tubing causesit to be regarded as the most important agricultural pest among the country’s large mammals. Time required to forage might limit occurrence of Indian Crested Porcupines to areas where nights are not less than seven hours. Most northern populations are at ¢.44° N, where night duration at summersolstice is ¢.7-3 hours. To occur north of this boundary, Indian Crested Porcupines would have to forage during daylight or reduce food intake. Otherwise, northern distributional limits do not coincide with broad bioclimatic or vegetation boundaries.","breeding":"The Indian Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Observations of captive pairs found that females presented themselves to males, and males copulated with them (including intromission) every night throughout the year. The male, who parades in front of the female and then stands motionless for several minutes with his quills erect, might also initiate mating. Next, he approaches and retreats from the female several times, while making squawking sounds. Copulation takes place during pregnancy and lactation and is not restricted to estrus. In Pakistan, breeding has been recorded in March-April. Females give birth to litters of 1-4 young in “maternity chambers,” cushioned with grass or leaves. Neonates weigh ¢.3% of their mother’s weight at birth and require a long nursing period. Eyes open at or within a few hours of birth, and incisors have broken through completely. Back spikes are still soft, short, and ¢.30 mm long; tail rattle-quills are soft and silent. Sensory bristles are developed and extend beyond lengths of spikes. Newborns are very active and agile within hours of birth. From birth to about three months of age, young are cared for by their fathers that perform all of the same parental care behaviors as their mothers, except nursing and licking their anogenital areas. Running toward a newborn when it utters a distress call is predominantly a male response. During the first month after birth of young, the male spends ¢.30% ofhis active time alone with newborns and ¢.20% of his time with the female and newborns. During the second and third month after birth, there is a gradual decrease in percent active time spent alone with newborns by both males and females and a gradual increase in percent active time that both parents spend with young.","activityPatterns":"Indian Crested Porcupines are strictly nocturnal. They spend daytime hours in dens (natural caves or excavated burrows). Timing of den emergence varies with season. In winter, they largely confine their behavior to darker nights or darker periods of the night and strongly avoid bright moonlight. In summer, they are active independent of moonlight given the shorter nights. Mean duration of nocturnal activity is 9-2 hours in summervs. 6-7 hours in winter. Indian Crested Porcupines remain closer to dens on bright nights than dark nights throughout the year. Rainfall curtails activity. Activity pattern may be influenced by predation risk; one study used the method of “giving up density” and found that porcupines have lowest foraging costs in habitats with densest cover and on dark nights. In a camera trapping study in western Nepal, porcupine activity was significantly more common during the central part of the night (23:00 h to 02:00 h) than in crepuscular or daylight periods. When sensing danger, Indian Crested Porcupines erect their quills and rattle their tails menacingly.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Indian Crested Porcupines live alone or in family groups. They spend daylight hours in communal dens in family units or clans. In deserts east of the Caspian Sea, Indian Crested Porcupines dig complicated burrow systems in compacted dunes and clay embankments. Most tunnels are up to 2:5 m underground, and main tunnels are more than 10-16 m long, ending in a deep living chamber. Chambers may be used by clans for decades and provide protection and constant temperature and humidity. Intraspecific communication and territorial marking occur mainly by anal gland secretions and urine. Quills of the Indian Crested Porcupine contain channels that may allow quills to serve as osmotrichia. Individuals from the same den share broadly overlapping home ranges and foraging areas that are substantially different from porcupines occupying different dens, although in one study three individuals from the same den had little home range overlap. Solitary males have different movement behavior than male-female pairs. In one study, a solitary male was active in part of his home range and then wandered up to 8 km defining another part of his home range. Pairs remained in underground shelters during the day, while solitary males used surface shelters. Average distance traveled per night was shorter for solitary males (1684 m) than for pairs (2310 m). Temperature, humidity, and rainfall did not influence movement. Home ranges averaged 1-5 km®, and individuals typically moved 2-8 km/night. Home range size differs between individuals that use agricultural areas and those that do not. In the Negev Desert, Indian Crested Porcupines that foraged in natural desert had exclusive home ranges that were 37% larger (1-2-1-8 km?) than the overlapping, smaller (0-38-1-3 km*) home ranges of individuals dependent on agricultural habitat. Movements averaged 2767 m/night at arate of 7 m/minute, but they were longer for individuals near vs. far from agricultural habitat. Near agriculture, individuals moved 3174 m/night at a rate of 8 m/minute, whereas in natural areas, individuals moved an average of 2361 m/night at 5-9 m/ minute. Indian Crested Porcupines with dens close to agriculturalfields had narrower home ranges and showed bimodal space use, moving between the den and agricultural fields. In contrast, individuals with dens further from agriculture had broader home ranges that largely or entirely included natural habitats; they had single activity centers near their dens and used many different food patches. Densities of Indian Crested Porcupines in different habitats in Israel are: 4 ind/km? on coastal plains, 2-1 ind/km? in semiarid natural areas, and 7-5 ind/km? in agricultural areas. Densities might be regulated in part by predation. Leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas, and perhaps Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) prey on Indian Crested Porcupines.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Poaching of the Indian Crested Porcupine is a conservation threat in India. It is threatened in western Asia because it is hunted for food and considered an agricultural pest. It serves as an intermediate host for Linguatula serrata, a zoonotic parasite whose definitive hosts are carnivores and humans. Much of what is known about ecology and behavior of the Indian Crested Porcupine comes from the Negev Desert; further research in other habitats across its broad distribution are warranted.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1554A64CC72FEF59F20629E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A91B1CC1554A64CC72FEF59F20629E","docName":"hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"308","verbatimText":"7.Malayan PorcupineHystrix brachyuraFrench:Porc-épic de Malaisie/ German:Malaiisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de MalasiaOther common names:Himalayan Crestless Porcupine, Hodgson's PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Identified by A. Grote in J. E. Gray in 1866 as “Malacca,” Malaya.Hystrix brachyurais in subgenus Acanthion. Many different subspecies have been described (some based on single specimens) including four recent subspecies in China, butD. J. van Weers in 1979 concluded after careful measurements of many specimens that although some clearly different populations can be recognized,full subspecific designation was unwarranted due to a high degree of intergradation. Further examination of a larger number of specimens, especially a larger number from China, will help resolve subspecific taxonomy. Northern limit of H. brachyurain China is in southern Gansu and southern Shaanxi from where Pleistocene fossils have also been recorded as H. subcristata. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.b.brachyuraLinnaeus,1758— MalayPeninsula,PenangI(offWcoastofPeninsularMalaysia),Sumatra,andBorneo.H.b.hodgsoniGray,1847— SofHimalayasinENepal,NIndia(Sikkim).H. b. subcristata Swinhoe, 1870— S Bhutan, NE India, C & S China (including Hainan I), Bangladesh, Burma (= Myanmar), and mainland South-east Asia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 455-930 mm,tail 60-170 mm, ear 25-38 mm, hindfoot 75-95 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Malayan Porcupine is large, stocky, and blackish brown, with short tail. In some individuals, spines along back of neck form rudimentary dorsal crest. Quills of back, shoulders, and sides are brown without white tips. Dorsal quills are square anteriorly and become round posteriorly. Long defensive quills on lower back are white, with single brownish black band in middle of each quill and white tips ¢.200 mm in length. Diameters of thickest quills on back are 5-7 mm. Ears and eyes are relatively small. Nasals are long (41-60% of occipito-nasal length) and broad (37-62% of zygomatic breadth). Skull has inflated pneumatic cavities. Quills on hindquarters are white, with fairly narrow sub-terminal black bands, and quills under tail are entirely white. Length of short tail is less than 20% of head-body length. Tail carries hollow, goblet-shaped rattlequills, extending 200-300 mm in length that rattle when shaken. Lengths of hollow parts of rattle-quills are 15-34 mm. Channels in network of medulla in quills might serve to transport pheromones. There are three pairs of lateral mammae. Diploid number is 2n = 60. The Malayan Porcupine can be differentiated from the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), with which it overlaps in India, by having rudimentary crest, if any, and having quills with only single brown bands. The Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) is smaller than the Malayan Porcupine, with shorter brown quills, a longer scaly tail with a brush on the tip, and beaded tail quills.Habitat.Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.Breeding.Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.Activity patterns.The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food. Habitat loss and poaching are the main threats to populations of Malayan Porcupines in India.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Brooks et al. (2010), Chung & Corlett (2006), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008), Gray (1866), Lunde, Aplin & Molur (2008), Medway & Harrisson (1963), Menon (2009), Nowak (1999a), Raha et al. (2015), van Schaik & Griffiths (1996), Smith & Yan Xie (2008), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Storch (1990), Tempa et al. (2013), van Weers (1979).","taxonomy":"Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Asia.” Identified by A. Grote in J. E. Gray in 1866 as “Malacca,” Malaya.Hystrix brachyurais in subgenus Acanthion. Many different subspecies have been described (some based on single specimens) including four recent subspecies in China, butD. J. van Weers in 1979 concluded after careful measurements of many specimens that although some clearly different populations can be recognized,full subspecific designation was unwarranted due to a high degree of intergradation. Further examination of a larger number of specimens, especially a larger number from China, will help resolve subspecific taxonomy. Northern limit of H. brachyurain China is in southern Gansu and southern Shaanxi from where Pleistocene fossils have also been recorded as H. subcristata. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Porc-épic de Malaisie @fr | Malaiisches Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de Malasia @es | Himalayan Crestless Porcupine @en | Hodgson's Porcupine @en","interpretedAuthority":"Linnaeus, 1758","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hystricidae","interpretedGenus":"Hystrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"308","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brachyura","name":"Hystrix brachyura","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.b.brachyuraLinnaeus,1758— MalayPeninsula,PenangI(offWcoastofPeninsularMalaysia),Sumatra,andBorneo.H.b.hodgsoniGray,1847— SofHimalayasinENepal,NIndia(Sikkim).H. b. subcristata Swinhoe, 1870— S Bhutan, NE India, C & S China (including Hainan I), Bangladesh, Burma (= Myanmar), and mainland South-east Asia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6612235/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Agrawal (2000) | Brooks et al. (2010) | Chung & Corlett (2006) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008) | Gray (1866) | Lunde, Aplin & Molur (2008) | Medway & Harrisson (1963) | Menon (2009) | Nowak (1999a) | Raha et al. (2015) | van Schaik & Griffiths (1996) | Smith & Yan Xie (2008) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Storch (1990) | Tempa et al. (2013) | van Weers (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.","breeding":"Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.","activityPatterns":"The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food. Habitat loss and poaching are the main threats to populations of Malayan Porcupines in India.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 455-930 mm,tail 60-170 mm, ear 25-38 mm, hindfoot 75-95 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Malayan Porcupine is large, stocky, and blackish brown, with short tail. In some individuals, spines along back of neck form rudimentary dorsal crest. Quills of back, shoulders, and sides are brown without white tips. Dorsal quills are square anteriorly and become round posteriorly. Long defensive quills on lower back are white, with single brownish black band in middle of each quill and white tips ¢.200 mm in length. Diameters of thickest quills on back are 5-7 mm. Ears and eyes are relatively small. Nasals are long (41-60% of occipito-nasal length) and broad (37-62% of zygomatic breadth). Skull has inflated pneumatic cavities. Quills on hindquarters are white, with fairly narrow sub-terminal black bands, and quills under tail are entirely white. Length of short tail is less than 20% of head-body length. Tail carries hollow, goblet-shaped rattlequills, extending 200-300 mm in length that rattle when shaken. Lengths of hollow parts of rattle-quills are 15-34 mm. Channels in network of medulla in quills might serve to transport pheromones. There are three pairs of lateral mammae. Diploid number is 2n = 60. The Malayan Porcupine can be differentiated from the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), with which it overlaps in India, by having rudimentary crest, if any, and having quills with only single brown bands. The Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) is smaller than the Malayan Porcupine, with shorter brown quills, a longer scaly tail with a brush on the tip, and beaded tail quills.Habitat.Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land.Food and Feeding.The Malayan Porcupine is a generalist herbivore. It eats roots, tubers, bark, grains, vegetation, and fallen fruit including African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). It craves calcium and seeks out bones and antlers to gnaw.Breeding.Gestation of the Malayan Porcupine is c.110 days. Two (sometimes three) precocial young are born, and two litters can be produced per year.Activity patterns.The Malayan Porcupine is nocturnal and primarily terrestrial. In a camera trap survey of Indonesian rainforest mammals, 100% of photographs of Malayan Porcupines were at night. It digs extensive burrows beneath the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Malayan Porcupine lives alone or in groups of 2—4 individuals. Family groups can occupied burrows together and emerge at night to forage together along well-defined runways. Malayan Porcupines can reach very high densities, resulting in problems with vegetable farms and tree plantation when it feeds in agricultural areas. Frequent visual sightings and detections in camera-trap surveys suggest an increase in numbers around Hong Kong in the last 20 years, although the Malayan Porcupine was described as rare in that area in pre-1990 publications. When alarmed, an individual rattlesits tail quills, snorts, and stomps its feet. If the threat does not subside, it might attack by running backward, quills erect, into the enemy.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overhunting is the greatest threat to the Malayan Porcupine. It is hunted for meat and also farmed in Vietnam where populations have declined 20% since the 1990s. The Malayan Porcupine is one of three species of native rodents that remains in Hong Kong. Its presence and increase there is somewhat surprising given that, until recently, it was persecuted as an agricultural pest and hunted for food.","habitat":"Forests and open fields where large burrows are dug into banks and under rocks. Malayan Porcupines are often seen crossing open areas at night. In India, they prefer forests and grasslands of eastern Himalaya, especially near cultivated land."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1564A68C9D5F9B49FB86B0B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A91B1CC1564A68C9D5F9B49FB86B0B","docName":"hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"311","verbatimText":"11.Indian Crested PorcupineHystrix indicaFrench:Porc-épic indien/ German:Indisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de IndiaOther common names:White-tailed PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix cristata indica Kerr, 1792, India.Hystrix indicais in subgenus Hystrix. Monotypic.Distribution.W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).Habitat Wide variety of natural, agricultural, and urbanized habitats. Distribution of the Indian Crested Porcupine is centered in steppe biomes and also includes desert margins and relatively mesic zones. In the central and northern Negev Desert of Israel, it occupies a variety of habitats including limestone hills, flat plateaus, seasonally dry wadis (riverbeds) and flood plains, and steep, narrow canyons. In India, it prefers rocky hillsides, open countryside, and deciduous and monsoon forests. Camera-trap data from Nepal showed a preponderance of photos from grasslandsvs. forests, which might result from distribution of food resources or presence of large predators (e.g. Leopards, Panthera pardus).Food and Feeding.The Indian Crested Porcupine is generalist herbivore. It is particularly adept at exploiting patchy vegetation of semiarid and arid habitats. In the Negev Desert,it eats at least 18 species of geophytes (tubers, bulbs, corms, rhizomes and other subterranean structures) and hemicryptophytes. Its use of geophytes increases water balance and reduce exposure to plants with low nutrient content, low digestibility, or high concentrations of secondary metabolites. Fasted captive Indian Crested Porcupines consumed 528-7 g potatoes within 45 minutes and averaged 147-9 g/hour thereafter. Averaged total intake was 1239-4 g fresh mass for 5-8 h of feeding. Nightly intakes were 198-3 g dry matter, 1092 ml preformed water, and 3056 kJ of energy. Maintenance energy requirement of captive porcupines was 220 kJ/kg/day. In the Negev Desert, daily water intake was significantly higher in summer than winter, although there were no differences in seasonal ad libitum food intake by captive individuals. The Indian Crested Porcupine also eats grains and fruits. Digging as a form of ecological disturbance has an important positive role in increasing plant biomass, density, and species richness across patchy landscapes of the Negev Desert. Density of porcupine digs in highlands of the Negev Desert varied from more than 1 dig/m? on a densely vegetated plateau to 0-1 dig/m? on a sparsely vegetated deep loess. Digs of Indian Crested Porcupines persist for 1-6-5 years, depending on size. Individuals appeared to exploit the same food patches over time. Investigatory sniffing is a major behavior probably associated with searching for food. Indian Crested Porcupines use a stereotypical posture when eating, in which body is prone, hindlegs are outstretched, and forelimbs rest on ground; food items are manipulated with inner front paws. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be a pest to agriculture by raiding crops and to forestry by debarking trees at ground level. In India, it is destructive to sweet potato, sugarcane, and maize crops and production forests. It gnaws bones, horns, and antlers. In Israel, consumption of roots and aboveground crops and bark of cultivated trees and damage to irrigation tubing causesit to be regarded as the most important agricultural pest among the country’s large mammals. Time required to forage might limit occurrence of Indian Crested Porcupines to areas where nights are not less than seven hours. Most northern populations are at ¢.44° N, where night duration at summersolstice is ¢.7-3 hours. To occur north of this boundary, Indian Crested Porcupines would have to forage during daylight or reduce food intake. Otherwise, northern distributional limits do not coincide with broad bioclimatic or vegetation boundaries.Breeding.The Indian Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Observations of captive pairs found that females presented themselves to males, and males copulated with them (including intromission) every night throughout the year. The male, who parades in front of the female and then stands motionless for several minutes with his quills erect, might also initiate mating. Next, he approaches and retreats from the female several times, while making squawking sounds. Copulation takes place during pregnancy and lactation and is not restricted to estrus. In Pakistan, breeding has been recorded in March-April. Females give birth to litters of 1-4 young in “maternity chambers,” cushioned with grass or leaves. Neonates weigh ¢.3% of their mother’s weight at birth and require a long nursing period. Eyes open at or within a few hours of birth, and incisors have broken through completely. Back spikes are still soft, short, and ¢.30 mm long; tail rattle-quills are soft and silent. Sensory bristles are developed and extend beyond lengths of spikes. Newborns are very active and agile within hours of birth. From birth to about three months of age, young are cared for by their fathers that perform all of the same parental care behaviors as their mothers, except nursing and licking their anogenital areas. Running toward a newborn when it utters a distress call is predominantly a male response. During the first month after birth of young, the male spends ¢.30% ofhis active time alone with newborns and ¢.20% of his time with the female and newborns. During the second and third month after birth, there is a gradual decrease in percent active time spent alone with newborns by both males and females and a gradual increase in percent active time that both parents spend with young.Activity patterns.Indian Crested Porcupines are strictly nocturnal. They spend daytime hours in dens (natural caves or excavated burrows). Timing of den emergence varies with season. In winter, they largely confine their behavior to darker nights or darker periods of the night and strongly avoid bright moonlight. In summer, they are active independent of moonlight given the shorter nights. Mean duration of nocturnal activity is 9-2 hours in summervs. 6-7 hours in winter. Indian Crested Porcupines remain closer to dens on bright nights than dark nights throughout the year. Rainfall curtails activity. Activity pattern may be influenced by predation risk; one study used the method of “giving up density” and found that porcupines have lowest foraging costs in habitats with densest cover and on dark nights. In a camera trapping study in western Nepal, porcupine activity was significantly more common during the central part of the night (23:00 h to 02:00 h) than in crepuscular or daylight periods. When sensing danger, Indian Crested Porcupines erect their quills and rattle their tails menacingly.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Indian Crested Porcupines live alone or in family groups. They spend daylight hours in communal dens in family units or clans. In deserts east of the Caspian Sea, Indian Crested Porcupines dig complicated burrow systems in compacted dunes and clay embankments. Most tunnels are up to 2:5 m underground, and main tunnels are more than 10-16 m long, ending in a deep living chamber. Chambers may be used by clans for decades and provide protection and constant temperature and humidity. Intraspecific communication and territorial marking occur mainly by anal gland secretions and urine. Quills of the Indian Crested Porcupine contain channels that may allow quills to serve as osmotrichia. Individuals from the same den share broadly overlapping home ranges and foraging areas that are substantially different from porcupines occupying different dens, although in one study three individuals from the same den had little home range overlap. Solitary males have different movement behavior than male-female pairs. In one study, a solitary male was active in part of his home range and then wandered up to 8 km defining another part of his home range. Pairs remained in underground shelters during the day, while solitary males used surface shelters. Average distance traveled per night was shorter for solitary males (1684 m) than for pairs (2310 m). Temperature, humidity, and rainfall did not influence movement. Home ranges averaged 1-5 km®, and individuals typically moved 2-8 km/night. Home range size differs between individuals that use agricultural areas and those that do not. In the Negev Desert, Indian Crested Porcupines that foraged in natural desert had exclusive home ranges that were 37% larger (1-2-1-8 km?) than the overlapping, smaller (0-38-1-3 km*) home ranges of individuals dependent on agricultural habitat. Movements averaged 2767 m/night at arate of 7 m/minute, but they were longer for individuals near vs. far from agricultural habitat. Near agriculture, individuals moved 3174 m/night at a rate of 8 m/minute, whereas in natural areas, individuals moved an average of 2361 m/night at 5-9 m/ minute. Indian Crested Porcupines with dens close to agriculturalfields had narrower home ranges and showed bimodal space use, moving between the den and agricultural fields. In contrast, individuals with dens further from agriculture had broader home ranges that largely or entirely included natural habitats; they had single activity centers near their dens and used many different food patches. Densities of Indian Crested Porcupines in different habitats in Israel are: 4 ind/km? on coastal plains, 2-1 ind/km? in semiarid natural areas, and 7-5 ind/km? in agricultural areas. Densities might be regulated in part by predation. Leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas, and perhaps Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) prey on Indian Crested Porcupines.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Poaching of the Indian Crested Porcupine is a conservation threat in India. It is threatened in western Asia because it is hunted for food and considered an agricultural pest. It serves as an intermediate host for Linguatula serrata, a zoonotic parasite whose definitive hosts are carnivores and humans. Much of what is known about ecology and behavior of the Indian Crested Porcupine comes from the Negev Desert; further research in other habitats across its broad distribution are warranted.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Alkon (1999), Alkon & Olsvig-Whittaker (1989), Alkon & Saltz (1985, 1988), Alkon et al. (1986), Amori, Hutterer, Krystufek, Yigit, Mitsain & Palomo (2008), Arslan (2008), Boeken et al. (1995), Brown & Alkon (1990), Chesemore (1970), Corbet (1978), Corbet & Hill (1992), Corbet & Jones (1965), Fattorini & Pokheral (2012), Khan et al. (2014), Menon (2009), Nowak (1999a), Poddar-Sarkar et al. (2011), Qumsiyeh (1996), Rajabloo et al. (2015), Saltz & Alkon (1989), Sever & Mendelssohn (1988, 1989, 1991), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Storch (1990), van Weers (1979).","taxonomy":"Hystrix cristata indica Kerr, 1792, India.Hystrix indicais in subgenus Hystrix. Monotypic.Distribution.W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines).Habitat Wide variety of natural, agricultural, and urbanized habitats.","commonNames":"Porc-épic indien @fr | German @en | ndisches Stachelschwein @en | Puercoespin de @es | ndia @en | White-tailed Porcupine @en","interpretedAuthority":"Kerr, 1792","interpretedAuthorityName":"Kerr","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1792","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hystricidae","interpretedGenus":"Hystrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"311","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"indica","name":"Hystrix indica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W & S Asia, from the E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel) and Arabian Peninsula, NE to Transcaucasia, extreme S Russia (gagestan), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and S Kazakhstan, and S throughout Afghanistan to Iran, Pakistan, S Nepal, most of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6612245/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Agrawal (2000) | Alkon (1999) | Alkon & Olsvig-Whittaker (1989) | Alkon & Saltz (1985, 1988) | Alkon et al. (1986) | Amori, Hutterer, Krystufek, Yigit, Mitsain & Palomo (2008) | Arslan (2008) | Boeken et al. (1995) | Brown & Alkon (1990) | Chesemore (1970) | Corbet (1978) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Corbet & Jones (1965) | Fattorini & Pokheral (2012) | Khan et al. (2014) | Menon (2009) | Nowak (1999a) | Poddar-Sarkar et al. (2011) | Qumsiyeh (1996) | Rajabloo et al. (2015) | Saltz & Alkon (1989) | Sever & Mendelssohn (1988, 1989, 1991) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012) | Storch (1990) | van Weers (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"The Indian Crested Porcupine is generalist herbivore. It is particularly adept at exploiting patchy vegetation of semiarid and arid habitats. In the Negev Desert,it eats at least 18 species of geophytes (tubers, bulbs, corms, rhizomes and other subterranean structures) and hemicryptophytes. Its use of geophytes increases water balance and reduce exposure to plants with low nutrient content, low digestibility, or high concentrations of secondary metabolites. Fasted captive Indian Crested Porcupines consumed 528-7 g potatoes within 45 minutes and averaged 147-9 g/hour thereafter. Averaged total intake was 1239-4 g fresh mass for 5-8 h of feeding. Nightly intakes were 198-3 g dry matter, 1092 ml preformed water, and 3056 kJ of energy. Maintenance energy requirement of captive porcupines was 220 kJ/kg/day. In the Negev Desert, daily water intake was significantly higher in summer than winter, although there were no differences in seasonal ad libitum food intake by captive individuals. The Indian Crested Porcupine also eats grains and fruits. Digging as a form of ecological disturbance has an important positive role in increasing plant biomass, density, and species richness across patchy landscapes of the Negev Desert. Density of porcupine digs in highlands of the Negev Desert varied from more than 1 dig/m? on a densely vegetated plateau to 0-1 dig/m? on a sparsely vegetated deep loess. Digs of Indian Crested Porcupines persist for 1-6-5 years, depending on size. Individuals appeared to exploit the same food patches over time. Investigatory sniffing is a major behavior probably associated with searching for food. Indian Crested Porcupines use a stereotypical posture when eating, in which body is prone, hindlegs are outstretched, and forelimbs rest on ground; food items are manipulated with inner front paws. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be a pest to agriculture by raiding crops and to forestry by debarking trees at ground level. In India, it is destructive to sweet potato, sugarcane, and maize crops and production forests. It gnaws bones, horns, and antlers. In Israel, consumption of roots and aboveground crops and bark of cultivated trees and damage to irrigation tubing causesit to be regarded as the most important agricultural pest among the country’s large mammals. Time required to forage might limit occurrence of Indian Crested Porcupines to areas where nights are not less than seven hours. Most northern populations are at ¢.44° N, where night duration at summersolstice is ¢.7-3 hours. To occur north of this boundary, Indian Crested Porcupines would have to forage during daylight or reduce food intake. Otherwise, northern distributional limits do not coincide with broad bioclimatic or vegetation boundaries.","breeding":"The Indian Crested Porcupine, like the Cape Porcupine and the Crested Porcupine, is monogamous. Observations of captive pairs found that females presented themselves to males, and males copulated with them (including intromission) every night throughout the year. The male, who parades in front of the female and then stands motionless for several minutes with his quills erect, might also initiate mating. Next, he approaches and retreats from the female several times, while making squawking sounds. Copulation takes place during pregnancy and lactation and is not restricted to estrus. In Pakistan, breeding has been recorded in March-April. Females give birth to litters of 1-4 young in “maternity chambers,” cushioned with grass or leaves. Neonates weigh ¢.3% of their mother’s weight at birth and require a long nursing period. Eyes open at or within a few hours of birth, and incisors have broken through completely. Back spikes are still soft, short, and ¢.30 mm long; tail rattle-quills are soft and silent. Sensory bristles are developed and extend beyond lengths of spikes. Newborns are very active and agile within hours of birth. From birth to about three months of age, young are cared for by their fathers that perform all of the same parental care behaviors as their mothers, except nursing and licking their anogenital areas. Running toward a newborn when it utters a distress call is predominantly a male response. During the first month after birth of young, the male spends ¢.30% ofhis active time alone with newborns and ¢.20% of his time with the female and newborns. During the second and third month after birth, there is a gradual decrease in percent active time spent alone with newborns by both males and females and a gradual increase in percent active time that both parents spend with young.","activityPatterns":"Indian Crested Porcupines are strictly nocturnal. They spend daytime hours in dens (natural caves or excavated burrows). Timing of den emergence varies with season. In winter, they largely confine their behavior to darker nights or darker periods of the night and strongly avoid bright moonlight. In summer, they are active independent of moonlight given the shorter nights. Mean duration of nocturnal activity is 9-2 hours in summervs. 6-7 hours in winter. Indian Crested Porcupines remain closer to dens on bright nights than dark nights throughout the year. Rainfall curtails activity. Activity pattern may be influenced by predation risk; one study used the method of “giving up density” and found that porcupines have lowest foraging costs in habitats with densest cover and on dark nights. In a camera trapping study in western Nepal, porcupine activity was significantly more common during the central part of the night (23:00 h to 02:00 h) than in crepuscular or daylight periods. When sensing danger, Indian Crested Porcupines erect their quills and rattle their tails menacingly.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Indian Crested Porcupines live alone or in family groups. They spend daylight hours in communal dens in family units or clans. In deserts east of the Caspian Sea, Indian Crested Porcupines dig complicated burrow systems in compacted dunes and clay embankments. Most tunnels are up to 2:5 m underground, and main tunnels are more than 10-16 m long, ending in a deep living chamber. Chambers may be used by clans for decades and provide protection and constant temperature and humidity. Intraspecific communication and territorial marking occur mainly by anal gland secretions and urine. Quills of the Indian Crested Porcupine contain channels that may allow quills to serve as osmotrichia. Individuals from the same den share broadly overlapping home ranges and foraging areas that are substantially different from porcupines occupying different dens, although in one study three individuals from the same den had little home range overlap. Solitary males have different movement behavior than male-female pairs. In one study, a solitary male was active in part of his home range and then wandered up to 8 km defining another part of his home range. Pairs remained in underground shelters during the day, while solitary males used surface shelters. Average distance traveled per night was shorter for solitary males (1684 m) than for pairs (2310 m). Temperature, humidity, and rainfall did not influence movement. Home ranges averaged 1-5 km®, and individuals typically moved 2-8 km/night. Home range size differs between individuals that use agricultural areas and those that do not. In the Negev Desert, Indian Crested Porcupines that foraged in natural desert had exclusive home ranges that were 37% larger (1-2-1-8 km?) than the overlapping, smaller (0-38-1-3 km*) home ranges of individuals dependent on agricultural habitat. Movements averaged 2767 m/night at arate of 7 m/minute, but they were longer for individuals near vs. far from agricultural habitat. Near agriculture, individuals moved 3174 m/night at a rate of 8 m/minute, whereas in natural areas, individuals moved an average of 2361 m/night at 5-9 m/ minute. Indian Crested Porcupines with dens close to agriculturalfields had narrower home ranges and showed bimodal space use, moving between the den and agricultural fields. In contrast, individuals with dens further from agriculture had broader home ranges that largely or entirely included natural habitats; they had single activity centers near their dens and used many different food patches. Densities of Indian Crested Porcupines in different habitats in Israel are: 4 ind/km? on coastal plains, 2-1 ind/km? in semiarid natural areas, and 7-5 ind/km? in agricultural areas. Densities might be regulated in part by predation. Leopards (Panthera pardus), hyenas, and perhaps Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) prey on Indian Crested Porcupines.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Poaching of the Indian Crested Porcupine is a conservation threat in India. It is threatened in western Asia because it is hunted for food and considered an agricultural pest. It serves as an intermediate host for Linguatula serrata, a zoonotic parasite whose definitive hosts are carnivores and humans. Much of what is known about ecology and behavior of the Indian Crested Porcupine comes from the Negev Desert; further research in other habitats across its broad distribution are warranted.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 455-930 mm, tail 60-170 mm, ear 40-47 mm, hindfoot 95-104 mm; weight 8-27 kg. The Indian Crested Porcupine is large and brown, with stocky build, short legs, and short, well-hidden tail. Body is covered in a variety of quills, similar in type to those of the Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) and the Cape Porcupine (H. africaeaustralis). There is no sexual dimorphism. Thereis an erectile crest of coarse brown bristles exceeding 300 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Shoulders, flanks, and ventrum are covered with coarse blackish brown bristles. Back is covered with 300-400 mm long brown and white defensive quills; each has two or more alternating bands of brown and white along its length. Maximum diameter of thickest quills on back is 5-7 mm, and white tips of long back quills extend ¢.260 mm. Hands and feet are broad and are well adapted for digging; pollex is vestigial, and hallux is clawed and well developed. Feet are covered in bristles. Tail of the Indian Crested Porcupine is short, with tail to head-body length ofless than 20% and mostly invisible beneath defensive quills of lower back. Tail ends in a group of short (less than 60 mm), wide, white rattle-quills bearing hollow capsule sections, 35-60 mm in length, that together produce a rattle sound when tail is shaken. Frontal region of skull is expanded, and nasal region is inflated. Nasal bones are short, less than 57% of occipito-nasal length. Frontal:nasal bone ratios are 45-70%. Premaxillae are wide (more than 44% width of nasals). Infraorbital foramen is large. Cheekteeth are strongly hypsodont. There are three pairs of mammae. In southern India, some Indian Crested Porcupines have quills on back with rusty red tinge. The Indian Crested Porcupine can be distinguished from the Crested Porcupine by predominantly brown crest (white in Crested Porcupines) and white midline on rump (black or mottled in Crested Porcupines)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/A9/1B/03A91B1CC1574A67C974FA6B9B78690B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03A91B1CC1574A67C974FA6B9B78690B","docName":"hbmw_6_Hystricidae_0304.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff906364c1514a60c910ffe598296f0c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"310","verbatimText":"10.Cape PorcupineHystrix africaeaustralisFrench:Porc-épic du Cap/ German:Stidafrikanisches Stachelschwein/ Spanish:Puercoespin de El CaboOther common names:CapeCrested Porcupine, South African Porcupine, Southern African PorcupineTaxonomy.Hystrix africaeaustralis Peters, 1852, “Querimba” and “Tette.” Restricted by R. E. Moreau and colleagues in 1946 to Querimba coast (ca. 10° 30’ to 12° 00’S, 40° 30’E, sea level) Mozambique.Hystrix africaeaustralisis in the subgenus Hystrix. It is sympatric with the similar H. cristata, in parts of southern Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Up to three subspecies have been identified, but none was recognized by J. A. J. Meester in 1986 or D. C. D. Happold in 2013. Monotypic.Distribution.S one-half of Africa, from S of the Republic of the Congo and S DR Congo E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and Tanzania (not in Zanzibar I), and S to South Africa, excluding Namibian coast.Descriptive notes.Head-body 630-805 mm, tail 105-130 mm, ear 39-48 mm, hindfoot 89-114 mm; weight 10-24.1 kg. The Cape Porcupine and the similarly sized Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) are the largest rodents in Africa. The Cape Porcupine is stout, heavily built, and well-bristled, with relatively short legs and short, well-hidden tail. There is no sexual dimorphism. Quills of several types on the Cape Porcupine are most notable. True quills are defensive quills; they are the thickest of modified hairs, circular in cross section, long (up to 300 mm) with very sharp points, and relatively inflexible. Their diameters are greatest at mid-lengths of quills and taper toward both ends. True quills carry microstructural “feathering” along tips, analogous to barbed quills seen in the North American Porcupine (Erethizondorsatum), which may aid in reducing force required to allow muscle penetration by quills. Tactile bristles, also circular in cross section, are very flexible. Their diameters are greatest near bases and smaller than diameters of defensive quills. Transitional quills are intermediate between true quills and tactile bristles in length, diameter, and flexibility. Spines are long (up to 500 mm), sharp,stiff, flattened, and grooved bristly hairs that cover most of the body. Rattle-quills, located only on tail, are circular in cross section, hollow, capsule shaped, and open at ends. They attach to tail by stalks at bases of quills. Spines and quills are distributed across posterior two-thirds of dorsum and flanks but not on ventrum. Quills along dorsum are banded black and white; black bands are broader with white tips. Longer quills have multiple repeating bands of black and white, with up to six white sections per quill. There is an erectile crest of coarse hairs, up to 500 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Hairs at front of crest are black at bases with white tips. Some Cape Porcupines have triangular patches of white bristles (flattened hair) on either side of neck. Head is rounded, with grayish brown, bristled face and stout, movable vibrissae. Small eyes are situated far back on head, and ears are inconspicuous and humanlike in shape. Nasal bones are 51-58% of occipito-nasal length, wide, and posteriorly extended almost to anterior ends of orbits. Frontal-to-nasal bone ratio is 49-68%. Upper incisors are smooth, and folds of enamel and dentine characterize cheekteeth. Rump is covered with short, flat, white bristles on dorsal and ventral sides. Shorttail is covered with short quills, mostly invisible beneath defensive quills on lower back and has rattle-quills that rattle when tail is shaken. There are 4-6 mammae. In the field, it is difficult to distinguish Cape Porcupines from Crested Porcupines; short quills on lower rump of the Cape Porcupine are white, but they are black on the Crested Porcupine. Skull differences are clear and well described by van Weers.Habitat.[.owland and montane tropical forests, savanna grassland, brushland, Acacia and Brachystegia (miombo) woodlands, and semiarid deserts, with broad daily and seasonal temperature changes, from sea level to elevations of ¢.2000 m. In South Africa, Cape Porcupines prefer Burkea—Acacia savanna, probably due to concentration of preferred foods. They are not found in swampy areas.Food and Feeding.The Cape Porcupine is omnivorous and eats subterranean tubers, bulbs, and roots; shoots; fruits; and stems. Osteophagy is common, particularly in phosphorous-limited areas. It might eat carrion. It is considered a pest by farmers; it will raid melon, pumpkin, and maize crops; uproot young trees; and damage young plantations by debarking and feeding on innerliving tissue of trees from ground level to c.0-5 m up the trunk. Cape Porcupines are ecosystem engineers because their foraging has landscape-level effects through food choice and physical effects of digging. Selective bark feeding in some natural savanna ecosystems may influence patterns of succession. Cape Porcupines dig circular, conical holes in the soil surface in search of tubers, insect larvae, and seeds, which creates sites for seedlings and allows water to infiltrate the soil crust. Digging by Cape Porcupines annually disturbs 0-34% ofthe soil surface and displace 1-6 m®/ha/year ofsoil acrossits distribution.Breeding.The Cape Porcupine,like the Crested Porcupine and the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), is monogamous. Sexual maturity is reached at 8-18 months of age for males and in the second year oflife for females. Males and females are reproductive throughout the year. In both captive and wild individuals in South Africa, most litters are born in August-March, corresponding to periods of summer rain; this timing probably maximizes neonatal survival, especially in arid regions that experience cold, dry winters. Females are polyestrous, with cycle lengths of 17-42 days. Sexual activity (lordosis, mounting, and ejaculation) occurs throughout estrus, pregnancy, and lactation, but actual copulation outside of estrus is hindered by presence of a vaginal closure membrane. This physical contact between sexes maintains cyclic ovarian activity and may strengthen pair bonds. Estrus begins when vaginal membrane opens, coinciding with a surge in 17B-estradiol. Copulation is typically preceded by the female approaching the male and occurs ¢.2-8 days after onset of estrus. The female adopts a receptive posture, with tail and rump raised and quills pointed away from the male. He mounts the female from behind, with his forepaws resting on her back. Intromission only occurs when the female is in estrus. After mating, a copulatory plug is formed. Gestation lasts 93-105 days, and females average onelitter per year, with 1-3 precocial young; 59% oflitters produce singletons and 30% twins. Newborns weigh 300-400 g and have soft defensive quills and closed, pointed rattle-quills at birth. Young nibble on solid foods by 9-14 days of age and begin to feed alone at 4-6 weeks of age, although they continue to nurse for 13-19 weeks when they weigh 2.5-4.7 kg. Lactation averages 101 days and includes c.110 days of anestrus during lactation. The father provides paternal care by accompanying young on foraging trips, grooming and huddling with them, and protecting them from threats. Although Cape Porcupines live in family groups, only the adult pair reproduces. Females are almost continuously exposed to sexually mature males. Subordinate females experience cyclic ovarian activity, but only the dominant female conceives. Mechanism of reproductive suppression of subordinate females is unknown, but progesterone concentrations, despite cyclic changes, remain insufficient for implantation. Social factors may impact ovarian function. Females separated from males in captivity experience impairment of ovarian function. Physical contact with males may be required to sustain regular follicular and luteal activities of females. Densities might influence whether or not females reproduce during their first year. Conception in sexually mature females is suppressed until after dispersal from her natal group. Cape Porcupineslive for about ten years in the wild and up to 20 years in captivity.Activity patterns.Cape Porcupines are nocturnal. They spend their days at rest in shelters in rock crevices, caves, or abandoned burrows of Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer), which they modify to suit their needs with their front claws. They may excavate their own holes or use termite mounds as dens. Cape Porcupines often bring bones into their shelters. They forage alone at night, although pairs forage near one another, spending less than 25% of their active periods more than 400 m apart and spending more than 50% of active time within 200 m of one another. A pair of Cape Porcupines foraging in proximity of one other could be mate guarding because it is not apparent that they cooperate in foraging or anti-predator defense. When alarmed, defensive action is to raise quills and shake the rattle-quills. If a threat does not subside, a Cape Porcupine might attack by backing rapidly toward the threat, stabbing it with long defensive quills that detach easily from skin.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cape Porcupines are monogamous and live in family groups typically consisting of an adult male-female pair and subadult and juvenile offspring. Mature offspring may remain in their natal groups when dispersal opportunities are limited; groups of up to 14 individuals have been observed sharing a single burrow. One family unit will irregularly use up to six different burrows. Den entrances can be 10 m apart, and main tunnels can be 20 m long. A living chamber is found c.2 m below ground. Home range is a large, non-exclusive area surrounding a smaller, exclusive core area (territory) that is defended by an adult pair. Males scent-mark more frequently than females and more often in feeding than non-feeding areas, and scent marking may thus play a larger role in territory defense. Territorial boundaries are neither permanent nor rigidly defined. Space use changes with season, but home ranges of adult pairs tend to include the same general area throughout the year, and most activity occurs in a fairly small proportion of the home range. Home ranges of adjacent groups overlap little; neighbors rarely encounter one another in areas of overlap. Home range size is smaller for individuals that forage on natural food vs. individuals that raid crops. Cape Porcupines that feed in natural areas also have larger home ranges in winter (c.116 ha) than summer (c.67 ha). On average, home ranges of males and females in mated pairs overlap ¢.75%. Cape Porcupines exhibit bi-parental care of offspring. Adult males accompany young on foraging excursions and defend against territory intruders. Group huddling among parents and offspring while sleeping in the burrow also provides thermoregulatory benefits, particularly for newborns that do not leave burrows for about nine weeks. Assistance with thermoregulation allows newborns more energy to allocate toward growth. The monogamous pair bond, unusual in mammals, may allow for territory maintenance. There is immediate burrow take-over by a new pair upon the death of one member of a pair. Group living and a monogamous mating system appear to increase territory holding and juvenile success. In absence of natural predation, population age structure is variable, changing between seasons and years. Population regulation is densitydependent. High-density populations of 25 ind/km? have been observed on riverine plains in the South African Karoo. Eight Cape Porcupines per square kilometer is a high density for semiarid regions. Population size appears to be limited by available den sites and territory size. Populations can also be limited by extrinsic factors such as predation; Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (Panthera leo) are primary predators of Cape Porcupines.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Cape Porcupines damage crops and are a source of accessible meat protein to indigenous people, leaving them vulnerable to hunting, trapping, and snaring. Their role as an ecosystem engineer indicates that their protection should be included in conservation plans. Although the Cape Porcupine can hybridize with the Crested Porcupine in captivity, hybridization does not occur in their natural zone of overlap in East Africa.Bibliography.van Aarde (1985, 1987, 1998), van Aarde & Skinner (1986), van Aarde & van Wyk (1991), Alexander (1956), Barthelmess (2006), Bragg et al. (2005), Corbet & van Aarde (1996), Dean & Milton (1991), De Graaff (1981), Duthie & Skinner (1986), Ferguson et al. (2010), Findlay (1977), Foley et al. (2014), Gooden & Augee (2015), Greaves & Khan (1978), Grubb (2008b), Haim et al. (1992), Happold (2013a), Lawton & Jones (1995), Macdonald (2009), Meester et al. (1986), Mohr (1964), Moreau et al. (1946), Morris & van Aarde (1985), Nowak (1999a), Roberts (1951), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Skinner et al. (1984), Storch (1990), Thomson (1974), de Villiers & van Aarde (1994), van Weers (1979), Yeaton (1988).","taxonomy":"Hystrix africaeaustralis Peters, 1852, “Querimba” and “Tette.” Restricted by R. E. Moreau and colleagues in 1946 to Querimba coast (ca. 10° 30’ to 12° 00’S, 40° 30’E, sea level) Mozambique.Hystrix africaeaustralisis in the subgenus Hystrix. It is sympatric with the similar H. cristata, in parts of southern Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Up to three subspecies have been identified, but none was recognized by J. A. J. Meester in 1986 or D. C. D. Happold in 2013. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Porc-épic du Cap @fr | Stidafrikanisches Stachelschwein @de | Puercoespin de El Cabo @es | Cape Crested Porcupine @en | South African Porcupine @en | Southern African Porcupine @en","interpretedAuthority":"Peters, 1852","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hystricidae","interpretedGenus":"Hystrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"310","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"africaeaustralis","name":"Hystrix africaeaustralis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S one-half of Africa, from S of the Republic of the Congo and S DR Congo E to S Uganda, SW Kenya, and Tanzania (not in Zanzibar I), and S to South Africa, excluding Namibian coast.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6612243/files/figure.png","bibliography":"van Aarde (1985, 1987, 1998) | van Aarde & Skinner (1986) | van Aarde & van Wyk (1991) | Alexander (1956) | Barthelmess (2006) | Bragg et al. (2005) | Corbet & van Aarde (1996) | Dean & Milton (1991) | De Graaff (1981) | Duthie & Skinner (1986) | Ferguson et al. (2010) | Findlay (1977) | Foley et al. (2014) | Gooden & Augee (2015) | Greaves & Khan (1978) | Grubb (2008b) | Haim et al. (1992) | Happold (2013a) | Lawton & Jones (1995) | Macdonald (2009) | Meester et al. (1986) | Mohr (1964) | Moreau et al. (1946) | Morris & van Aarde (1985) | Nowak (1999a) | Roberts (1951) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Skinner et al. (1984) | Storch (1990) | Thomson (1974) | de Villiers & van Aarde (1994) | van Weers (1979) | Yeaton (1988)","foodAndFeeding":"The Cape Porcupine is omnivorous and eats subterranean tubers, bulbs, and roots; shoots; fruits; and stems. Osteophagy is common, particularly in phosphorous-limited areas. It might eat carrion. It is considered a pest by farmers; it will raid melon, pumpkin, and maize crops; uproot young trees; and damage young plantations by debarking and feeding on innerliving tissue of trees from ground level to c.0-5 m up the trunk. Cape Porcupines are ecosystem engineers because their foraging has landscape-level effects through food choice and physical effects of digging. Selective bark feeding in some natural savanna ecosystems may influence patterns of succession. Cape Porcupines dig circular, conical holes in the soil surface in search of tubers, insect larvae, and seeds, which creates sites for seedlings and allows water to infiltrate the soil crust. Digging by Cape Porcupines annually disturbs 0-34% ofthe soil surface and displace 1-6 m®/ha/year ofsoil acrossits distribution.","breeding":"The Cape Porcupine,like the Crested Porcupine and the Indian Crested Porcupine (H. indica), is monogamous. Sexual maturity is reached at 8-18 months of age for males and in the second year oflife for females. Males and females are reproductive throughout the year. In both captive and wild individuals in South Africa, most litters are born in August-March, corresponding to periods of summer rain; this timing probably maximizes neonatal survival, especially in arid regions that experience cold, dry winters. Females are polyestrous, with cycle lengths of 17-42 days. Sexual activity (lordosis, mounting, and ejaculation) occurs throughout estrus, pregnancy, and lactation, but actual copulation outside of estrus is hindered by presence of a vaginal closure membrane. This physical contact between sexes maintains cyclic ovarian activity and may strengthen pair bonds. Estrus begins when vaginal membrane opens, coinciding with a surge in 17B-estradiol. Copulation is typically preceded by the female approaching the male and occurs ¢.2-8 days after onset of estrus. The female adopts a receptive posture, with tail and rump raised and quills pointed away from the male. He mounts the female from behind, with his forepaws resting on her back. Intromission only occurs when the female is in estrus. After mating, a copulatory plug is formed. Gestation lasts 93-105 days, and females average onelitter per year, with 1-3 precocial young; 59% oflitters produce singletons and 30% twins. Newborns weigh 300-400 g and have soft defensive quills and closed, pointed rattle-quills at birth. Young nibble on solid foods by 9-14 days of age and begin to feed alone at 4-6 weeks of age, although they continue to nurse for 13-19 weeks when they weigh 2.5-4.7 kg. Lactation averages 101 days and includes c.110 days of anestrus during lactation. The father provides paternal care by accompanying young on foraging trips, grooming and huddling with them, and protecting them from threats. Although Cape Porcupines live in family groups, only the adult pair reproduces. Females are almost continuously exposed to sexually mature males. Subordinate females experience cyclic ovarian activity, but only the dominant female conceives. Mechanism of reproductive suppression of subordinate females is unknown, but progesterone concentrations, despite cyclic changes, remain insufficient for implantation. Social factors may impact ovarian function. Females separated from males in captivity experience impairment of ovarian function. Physical contact with males may be required to sustain regular follicular and luteal activities of females. Densities might influence whether or not females reproduce during their first year. Conception in sexually mature females is suppressed until after dispersal from her natal group. Cape Porcupineslive for about ten years in the wild and up to 20 years in captivity.","activityPatterns":"Cape Porcupines are nocturnal. They spend their days at rest in shelters in rock crevices, caves, or abandoned burrows of Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer), which they modify to suit their needs with their front claws. They may excavate their own holes or use termite mounds as dens. Cape Porcupines often bring bones into their shelters. They forage alone at night, although pairs forage near one another, spending less than 25% of their active periods more than 400 m apart and spending more than 50% of active time within 200 m of one another. A pair of Cape Porcupines foraging in proximity of one other could be mate guarding because it is not apparent that they cooperate in foraging or anti-predator defense. When alarmed, defensive action is to raise quills and shake the rattle-quills. If a threat does not subside, a Cape Porcupine might attack by backing rapidly toward the threat, stabbing it with long defensive quills that detach easily from skin.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Cape Porcupines are monogamous and live in family groups typically consisting of an adult male-female pair and subadult and juvenile offspring. Mature offspring may remain in their natal groups when dispersal opportunities are limited; groups of up to 14 individuals have been observed sharing a single burrow. One family unit will irregularly use up to six different burrows. Den entrances can be 10 m apart, and main tunnels can be 20 m long. A living chamber is found c.2 m below ground. Home range is a large, non-exclusive area surrounding a smaller, exclusive core area (territory) that is defended by an adult pair. Males scent-mark more frequently than females and more often in feeding than non-feeding areas, and scent marking may thus play a larger role in territory defense. Territorial boundaries are neither permanent nor rigidly defined. Space use changes with season, but home ranges of adult pairs tend to include the same general area throughout the year, and most activity occurs in a fairly small proportion of the home range. Home ranges of adjacent groups overlap little; neighbors rarely encounter one another in areas of overlap. Home range size is smaller for individuals that forage on natural food vs. individuals that raid crops. Cape Porcupines that feed in natural areas also have larger home ranges in winter (c.116 ha) than summer (c.67 ha). On average, home ranges of males and females in mated pairs overlap ¢.75%. Cape Porcupines exhibit bi-parental care of offspring. Adult males accompany young on foraging excursions and defend against territory intruders. Group huddling among parents and offspring while sleeping in the burrow also provides thermoregulatory benefits, particularly for newborns that do not leave burrows for about nine weeks. Assistance with thermoregulation allows newborns more energy to allocate toward growth. The monogamous pair bond, unusual in mammals, may allow for territory maintenance. There is immediate burrow take-over by a new pair upon the death of one member of a pair. Group living and a monogamous mating system appear to increase territory holding and juvenile success. In absence of natural predation, population age structure is variable, changing between seasons and years. Population regulation is densitydependent. High-density populations of 25 ind/km? have been observed on riverine plains in the South African Karoo. Eight Cape Porcupines per square kilometer is a high density for semiarid regions. Population size appears to be limited by available den sites and territory size. Populations can also be limited by extrinsic factors such as predation; Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (Panthera leo) are primary predators of Cape Porcupines.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Cape Porcupines damage crops and are a source of accessible meat protein to indigenous people, leaving them vulnerable to hunting, trapping, and snaring. Their role as an ecosystem engineer indicates that their protection should be included in conservation plans. Although the Cape Porcupine can hybridize with the Crested Porcupine in captivity, hybridization does not occur in their natural zone of overlap in East Africa.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 630-805 mm, tail 105-130 mm, ear 39-48 mm, hindfoot 89-114 mm; weight 10-24.1 kg. The Cape Porcupine and the similarly sized Crested Porcupine (H. cristata) are the largest rodents in Africa. The Cape Porcupine is stout, heavily built, and well-bristled, with relatively short legs and short, well-hidden tail. There is no sexual dimorphism. Quills of several types on the Cape Porcupine are most notable. True quills are defensive quills; they are the thickest of modified hairs, circular in cross section, long (up to 300 mm) with very sharp points, and relatively inflexible. Their diameters are greatest at mid-lengths of quills and taper toward both ends. True quills carry microstructural “feathering” along tips, analogous to barbed quills seen in the North American Porcupine (Erethizondorsatum), which may aid in reducing force required to allow muscle penetration by quills. Tactile bristles, also circular in cross section, are very flexible. Their diameters are greatest near bases and smaller than diameters of defensive quills. Transitional quills are intermediate between true quills and tactile bristles in length, diameter, and flexibility. Spines are long (up to 500 mm), sharp,stiff, flattened, and grooved bristly hairs that cover most of the body. Rattle-quills, located only on tail, are circular in cross section, hollow, capsule shaped, and open at ends. They attach to tail by stalks at bases of quills. Spines and quills are distributed across posterior two-thirds of dorsum and flanks but not on ventrum. Quills along dorsum are banded black and white; black bands are broader with white tips. Longer quills have multiple repeating bands of black and white, with up to six white sections per quill. There is an erectile crest of coarse hairs, up to 500 mm in length, occurring posteriorly from top of head to top of shoulders. Hairs at front of crest are black at bases with white tips. Some Cape Porcupines have triangular patches of white bristles (flattened hair) on either side of neck. Head is rounded, with grayish brown, bristled face and stout, movable vibrissae. Small eyes are situated far back on head, and ears are inconspicuous and humanlike in shape. Nasal bones are 51-58% of occipito-nasal length, wide, and posteriorly extended almost to anterior ends of orbits. Frontal-to-nasal bone ratio is 49-68%. Upper incisors are smooth, and folds of enamel and dentine characterize cheekteeth. Rump is covered with short, flat, white bristles on dorsal and ventral sides. Shorttail is covered with short quills, mostly invisible beneath defensive quills on lower back and has rattle-quills that rattle when tail is shaken. There are 4-6 mammae. In the field, it is difficult to distinguish Cape Porcupines from Crested Porcupines; short quills on lower rump of the Cape Porcupine are white, but they are black on the Crested Porcupine. Skull differences are clear and well described by van Weers.","habitat":"[.owland and montane tropical forests, savanna grassland, brushland, Acacia and Brachystegia (miombo) woodlands, and semiarid deserts, with broad daily and seasonal temperature changes, from sea level to elevations of ¢.2000 m. In South Africa, Cape Porcupines prefer Burkea—Acacia savanna, probably due to concentration of preferred foods. They are not found in swampy areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF15FFEA7B9FF5EAF9E8D88C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF15FFEA7B9FF5EAF9E8D88C","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"445","verbatimText":"35.Fennec FoxVulpes zerdaFrench:Renard fennec/ German:Fennek/ Spanish:FenecTaxonomy.Canis zerda Zimmermann, 1780,Sahara region.Previously placed in the genus Fennecus now included in the genus Vulpes. Two previously described races, saarensis and zaarensis are synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the sandy deserts and semi-deserts of N Africa to N Sinai.Descriptive notes.Head-body 33-3-39- 5 cm, tail 12- 5-25 cm; weight 0-8- 1-87 kg.The Fennec Fox is the smallest canid, with extremely large ears that give it the greatest ear to body ratio in the family. The muzzle and legs are slender and delicate. Pelage is typically sandy or cream-colored, although it may have a light fawn, red or gray cast; underparts are paler. The ears are darker dorsally and white or whitish inside and on the edges. Eyes are large and dark; dark streaks extend from the inner eye down and outward to either side of the muzzle. Upperparts of limbs reportedly colored reddish-sandy in individuals from North Africa, whereas those from farther south are nearly white in these areas. The coat is very thick and long; dense fur on the feet extends to cover the pads. The tail is also well-furred, with a darker tip and a slightly darker spot covering the caudal gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. It has a vulpine skull, but with very large tympanic bullae. The canines are small and narrow. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Fennecs subsist in arid desert environments. Stable sand dunes are believed to be ideal habitat, although the foxes also live in very sparsely vegetated sand dunes near the Atlantic coast. Annual rainfall is less than 100 mmper year on the northern fringe of the Fennec’s distribution. On the southern fringe, it may be found up to the Sahelian areas that receive as much as 300 mmrainfall per year. In the Sahara, sparse vegetation is usually dominated by Aristida spp., and Ephedra alata in large sand dunes. On small sand dunes, it is dominated by Panicum turgidum, Zygophyllum spp., and sometimes by trees like Acacia spp. and Capparis decidua.Food and Feeding.Fennecs are omnivorous, consuming insects, small rodents (e.g. Jaculus jaculus, Gerbillus spp., and Meriones spp.), lizards (e.g. Acanthodactylus spp.), geckos (e.g. Stenodactylus spp.), skinks (e.g. Scincus albifasciatus), eggs, small birds (e.g. larks and sandgrouse), and various fruits and tubers. Fennecs hunt alone. They have not been seen using the “mouse jump” hunting strategy typical of most fox species, but reportedly dig to find insects and small vertebrates. Like other foxes they cache food by burying it.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, although crepuscular activity is also reported. In southern Morocco, animals were commonly active in winter until around midmorning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements and home ranges are unknown. Fennecs are thought to be moderately social, with the basic social unit believed to be a mated pair and their offspring. Like some other canids, the young of the previous year may remain in the family even when a new litter is born. Play behavior is common, even among adults, although males show more aggression and urine-mark around the time of estrus. Captive Fennecs engage in high levels of social behavior, and typically rest in contact with each other.Breeding.First mating is reported to occur at nine months to one year. Fennecs mate in January and February and give birth in March and April. They most commonly give birth once annually, but more than one litter per year is possible under some conditions. The copulatory tie is exceptionally long, lasting as much as two hours and forty-five minutes. Gestation is 50-52 days. Litter size ranges from 1-4, and weaning takes place at 61-70 days. Dens are always dug in sand, in open areas or places sheltered by plants such as Aristida pungens and Calligonum comosum. Dens may be huge and labyrinthine, especially in the most compacted soils, covering up to 120 m? and with as many as 15 entrances, and may be close together or even interconnected. In soft sand, dens are usually small and simple, with just one entrance and one tunnel leading to a chamber.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Listed as “lower risk/least concern” in Morocco, which probably reflects the true status across their range. Legally protected in Morocco(including the Western Sahara). Current population size is unknown butis assumed to be adequate, based on observations that the Fennec Fox is still commonly trapped and sold commercially in northern Africa. In southern Morocco, Fennecs were commonly seen in all sandy areas away from permanent human settlements. The primary threat appears to be trapping for photographic exhibition, sale to the pet trade or tourists, and for fur by the indigenous people of North Africa. Though restricted to marginal areas, new permanent human settlements such as those in southern Moroccohave resulted in the disappearance of Fennecs in these areas.Bibliography.Asa et al. (2004), Bauman (2002), Bekoff et al. (1981), Bueler (1973), Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Coetzee (1977), Cuzin (1996), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Dragesco-Joffé (1993), Ewer (1973), Gangloff, L. (1972), Gauthier-Pilters (1962, 1967), Koenig (1970), Nowak (1999), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Petter (1957), Rosevear (1974), Saint Girons (1962), Saleh & Basuony (1998), Stains (1974), Valdespino (2000), Valdespino et al. (2002), Volf (1957).","taxonomy":"Canis zerda Zimmermann, 1780,Sahara region.Previously placed in the genus Fennecus now included in the genus Vulpes. Two previously described races, saarensis and zaarensis are synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard fennec @fr | Fennek @de | Fenec @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"445","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zerda","name":"Vulpes zerda","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in the sandy deserts and semi-deserts of N Africa to N Sinai.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331231/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Asa et al. (2004) | Bauman (2002) | Bekoff et al. (1981) | Bueler (1973) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Coetzee (1977) | Cuzin (1996) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Dragesco-Joffé (1993) | Ewer (1973) | Gangloff, L. (1972) | Gauthier-Pilters (1962, 1967) | Koenig (1970) | Nowak (1999) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Petter (1957) | Rosevear (1974) | Saint Girons (1962) | Saleh & Basuony (1998) | Stains (1974) | Valdespino (2000) | Valdespino et al. (2002) | Volf (1957)","foodAndFeeding":"Fennecs are omnivorous, consuming insects, small rodents (e.g. Jaculus jaculus, Gerbillus spp., and Meriones spp.), lizards (e.g. Acanthodactylus spp.), geckos (e.g. Stenodactylus spp.), skinks (e.g. Scincus albifasciatus), eggs, small birds (e.g. larks and sandgrouse), and various fruits and tubers. Fennecs hunt alone. They have not been seen using the “mouse jump” hunting strategy typical of most fox species, but reportedly dig to find insects and small vertebrates. Like other foxes they cache food by burying it.","breeding":"First mating is reported to occur at nine months to one year. Fennecs mate in January and February and give birth in March and April. They most commonly give birth once annually, but more than one litter per year is possible under some conditions. The copulatory tie is exceptionally long, lasting as much as two hours and forty-five minutes. Gestation is 50-52 days. Litter size ranges from 1-4, and weaning takes place at 61-70 days. Dens are always dug in sand, in open areas or places sheltered by plants such as Aristida pungens and Calligonum comosum. Dens may be huge and labyrinthine, especially in the most compacted soils, covering up to 120 m? and with as many as 15 entrances, and may be close together or even interconnected. In soft sand, dens are usually small and simple, with just one entrance and one tunnel leading to a chamber.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, although crepuscular activity is also reported. In southern Morocco, animals were commonly active in winter until around midmorning.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Movements and home ranges are unknown. Fennecs are thought to be moderately social, with the basic social unit believed to be a mated pair and their offspring. Like some other canids, the young of the previous year may remain in the family even when a new litter is born. Play behavior is common, even among adults, although males show more aggression and urine-mark around the time of estrus. Captive Fennecs engage in high levels of social behavior, and typically rest in contact with each other.Breeding.First mating is reported to occur at nine months to one year. Fennecs mate in January and February and give birth in March and April. They most commonly give birth once annually, but more than one litter per year is possible under some conditions. The copulatory tie is exceptionally long, lasting as much as two hours and forty-five minutes. Gestation is 50-52 days. Litter size ranges from 1-4, and weaning takes place at 61-70 days. Dens are always dug in sand, in open areas or places sheltered by plants such as Aristida pungens and Calligonum comosum. Dens may be huge and labyrinthine, especially in the most compacted soils, covering up to 120 m? and with as many as 15 entrances, and may be close together or even interconnected. In soft sand, dens are usually small and simple, with just one entrance and one tunnel leading to a chamber.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Listed as “lower risk/least concern” in Morocco, which probably reflects the true status across their range. Legally protected in Morocco(including the Western Sahara). Current population size is unknown butis assumed to be adequate, based on observations that the Fennec Fox is still commonly trapped and sold commercially in northern Africa. In southern Morocco, Fennecs were commonly seen in all sandy areas away from permanent human settlements. The primary threat appears to be trapping for photographic exhibition, sale to the pet trade or tourists, and for fur by the indigenous people of North Africa. Though restricted to marginal areas, new permanent human settlements such as those in southern Moroccohave resulted in the disappearance of Fennecs in these areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 33-3-39- 5 cm, tail 12- 5-25 cm; weight 0-8- 1-87 kg.The Fennec Fox is the smallest canid, with extremely large ears that give it the greatest ear to body ratio in the family. The muzzle and legs are slender and delicate. Pelage is typically sandy or cream-colored, although it may have a light fawn, red or gray cast; underparts are paler. The ears are darker dorsally and white or whitish inside and on the edges. Eyes are large and dark; dark streaks extend from the inner eye down and outward to either side of the muzzle. Upperparts of limbs reportedly colored reddish-sandy in individuals from North Africa, whereas those from farther south are nearly white in these areas. The coat is very thick and long; dense fur on the feet extends to cover the pads. The tail is also well-furred, with a darker tip and a slightly darker spot covering the caudal gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. It has a vulpine skull, but with very large tympanic bullae. The canines are small and narrow. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Fennecs subsist in arid desert environments. Stable sand dunes are believed to be ideal habitat, although the foxes also live in very sparsely vegetated sand dunes near the Atlantic coast. Annual rainfall is less than 100 mmper year on the northern fringe of the Fennec’s distribution. On the southern fringe, it may be found up to the Sahelian areas that receive as much as 300 mmrainfall per year. In the Sahara, sparse vegetation is usually dominated by Aristida spp., and Ephedra alata in large sand dunes. On small sand dunes, it is dominated by Panicum turgidum, Zygophyllum spp., and sometimes by trees like Acacia spp. and Capparis decidua."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF15FFEB7E96F977F722D72C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF15FFEB7E96F977F722D72C","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"445","verbatimText":"34.Blanford’s FoxVulpes canaFrench:Renard de Blanford/ German:Afghanfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro persaOther common names:Royal Fox, King Fox, Afghan FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes canus Blanford, 1877,Pakistan.Genetic analysis revealed that Blanford’s Fox and Fennec Fox (V. zerda) are consistently associated as sister taxa, and define a taxonomic grouping that previously had not been recognized. However, the two species diverged as much as 3-4 million years ago, which coincides with the appearance of desert regions in the Middle East and northern Africa. Monotypic.Distribution.Arid mountainous regions of the Middle East. Known populations in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. The species also ranges across much of Afghanistanand Iran, and surrounding regions in Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 38- 5-80 cmfor males and 38:5-76- 2 cmfor females, tail 26-35- 5 cmfor males and 29-35 cmfor females; weight 0-8- 1-4 kgfor males and 0-8- 1-6 kgfor females. A small fox with a long and very bushy tail. Males have 36% longer bodies and front legs than females. Head is orange buff, especially in winter. The face is slender with a distinctive dark band extending from the upper part of the sharply pointed muzzle to the internal angle of the eyes. The ears are pale brown on both sides with long white hairs along the antero-medial border. The body is brownishgray, fading to pale yellow on the belly. The winter coat is soft and woolly with a dense, black under wool. Its dorsal region is sprinkled with white-tipped hair. The summer coat is less dense, the fur is paler, and the white-tipped hairs are less apparent. Specimens from the eastern part of the distribution may be predominantly gray. A distinctive mid-dorsal black band extends from the nape of the neck caudally, becoming a mid-dorsal crest throughout the length of the tail. The tail is similar in color to the body, usually with a black tip, although in some individuals the tip is white. The feet are dorsally pale yellowish-white, while posteriorly they are dark gray. Unlike other fox species in the Middle East deserts, the blackish pads of the feet and digits are hairless and the claws are cat-like, curved, sharp, and semi-retractile. The dental formula is I 3/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.Habitat.Confined to dry, mountainous regions, generally below 2000 m. All the records collected on the Persian Plateau are from foothills and mountains in the vicinity of lower plains and basins, where the species’ habitat comprises the slopes of rocky mountains with stony plains and patches of cultivation. Appears to avoid higher mountain ranges and lower, warmer valleys, although the densest known population is found in the Judaean Desert, 100-350 mbelow sea level. In the Middle East, Blanford’s Foxes are confined to mountainous desert ranges and inhabit steep, rocky slopes, canyons, and cliffs. Blanford’s Foxes are not limited by access to water in the Arabian Desert, and in Israelthey inhabit the driest and hottest regions.Food and Feeding.Blanford’s Foxes in Israelare primarily insectivorous and frugivorous. Invertebrates are the major food, beetles, grasshoppers, ants, and termites being eaten most often. They eat the fruits of two caperbush species, Capparis cartilaginea and C. spinosa, fruits and plant material of Phoenix dactylifera, Ochradenus baccatus, Fagonia mollis, and various species of Gramineae. Remains of vertebrates were present in about 10% of fecal samples analysed in one study. Blanford’s Foxes in Pakistanare largely frugivorous, feeding on Russian olives (Eleagnus bortensis), melons, and grapes. They are almost always solitary foragers, only occasionally foraging in pairs. Foraging behavior includes unhurried movements back and forth between rocky patches in a small area, sniffing and looking under large stones and occasionally digging, standing near a bush prior to circling the bush or pouncing upon prey within, and short, fast sprints after small terrestrial or low-flying prey. Food caching is rare or absent, unlike other fox species.Activity patterns.Strictly nocturnal, likely an anti-predator response to diurnal raptors. The onset of activity is governed largely by light conditions, and closely follows sunset. Foxes are active about 8-9 hours per night, independent of the duration of darkness. Average distance travelled per night is approximately 9 km. Climatic conditions at night in the desert appear to have little direct effect on the activity of Blanford’s Foxes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Radio-tracking studies in Israelindicated that Blanford’s Foxes were organized as strictly monogamous pairsin territories of about 1-6 km” that overlapped minimally. Three of five territories contained one non-breeding, yearling female during the mating season, but there was no evidence of polygyny.Breeding.Blanford’s Foxes live in monogamous pairs. Females are monoestrous and come into estrus during January and February. Gestation period is about 50-60 days, and litter size is 1-3 pups. Females have 2-6 active teats, and the lactation period is 30- 45 days. Neonates are born with soft, black fur. The body mass of a sub-adult is reached in about 3—4 months (700-900 g). Young are entirely dependent upon their mother’s milk until they begin to forage for themselves. At two months of age the young start to forage, accompanied by one of the parents, and at three months of age they start to forage alone. Adult foxes have never been observed to carry food to the young. As in other small canids, food appears not to be regurgitated to the young. Males have been observed grooming and accompanying two- to four-month-old juveniles, but have not been seen feeding them or the female. Sexual maturity is reached at 10-12 months of age. Offspring often remain within their natal home range until autumn (October— November). Blanford’s Fox dens in Israelwere usually on a mountain slope and consisted of large rock and boulder piles or scree. The foxes appeared to use only available natural cavities and never dug burrows. Dens were used for rearing young during spring and for daytime resting throughout the year. During winter and spring, both members of a pair frequently occupied the same den, or adjacent dens at the same site, while during summer and autumn they often denned in separate locations. Frequent changes in den location from day to day were more common in summer and autumn.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Fully protected in Israel. There is a ban on hunting in Jordanand Oman, but no legal protection is known for Egypt, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Afghanistan, or Pakistan. Fairly common in south-eastern Israel, where density has been estimated at 2 km?*in Ein Gedi, and 0-5 km?in Eilat. The threat from habitat loss in Israelis limited, as most of the area where this species occurs is designated as protected. Political developments may change the status of the northern Judaean Desert. Human development along the Dead Sea coasts may also pose a considerable threat to existing habitat. Similar concerns exist for the populations in the UAE. Military activities may affect populations in Afghanistan.Bibliography.Al Khalili (1993), Geffen (1994), Geffen & Macdonald (1992, 1993), Geffen, Dagan et al. (1992), Geffen, Hefner, Macdonald & Ucko (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢, 1993), Geffen, Hefner & Wright (2004), Geffen, Mercure et al. (1992), Harrison & Bates (1989, 1991), Hassinger (1973), llany (1983), Lay (1967), Mendelssohn et al. (1987), Peters & Rodel (1994), Roberts (1977), Smith et al. (2003), Wickens (1984).","taxonomy":"Vulpes canus Blanford, 1877,Pakistan.Genetic analysis revealed that Blanford’s Fox and Fennec Fox (V. zerda) are consistently associated as sister taxa, and define a taxonomic grouping that previously had not been recognized. However, the two species diverged as much as 3-4 million years ago, which coincides with the appearance of desert regions in the Middle East and northern Africa. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard de Blanford @fr | Afghanfuchs @de | Zorro persa @es | Royal Fox @en | King Fox @en | Afghan Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blanford","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"445","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cana","name":"Vulpes cana","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Arid mountainous regions of the Middle East. Known populations in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. The species also ranges across much of Afghanistanand Iran, and surrounding regions in Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331229/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Al Khalili (1993) | Geffen (1994) | Geffen & Macdonald (1992, 1993) | Geffen, Dagan et al. (1992) | Geffen, Hefner, Macdonald & Ucko (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢, 1993) | Geffen, Hefner & Wright (2004) | Geffen, Mercure et al. (1992) | Harrison & Bates (1989, 1991) | Hassinger (1973) | llany (1983) | Lay (1967) | Mendelssohn et al. (1987) | Peters & Rodel (1994) | Roberts (1977) | Smith et al. (2003) | Wickens (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"Blanford’s Foxes in Israelare primarily insectivorous and frugivorous. Invertebrates are the major food, beetles, grasshoppers, ants, and termites being eaten most often. They eat the fruits of two caperbush species, Capparis cartilaginea and C. spinosa, fruits and plant material of Phoenix dactylifera, Ochradenus baccatus, Fagonia mollis, and various species of Gramineae. Remains of vertebrates were present in about 10% of fecal samples analysed in one study. Blanford’s Foxes in Pakistanare largely frugivorous, feeding on Russian olives (Eleagnus bortensis), melons, and grapes. They are almost always solitary foragers, only occasionally foraging in pairs. Foraging behavior includes unhurried movements back and forth between rocky patches in a small area, sniffing and looking under large stones and occasionally digging, standing near a bush prior to circling the bush or pouncing upon prey within, and short, fast sprints after small terrestrial or low-flying prey. Food caching is rare or absent, unlike other fox species.","breeding":"Blanford’s Foxes live in monogamous pairs. Females are monoestrous and come into estrus during January and February. Gestation period is about 50-60 days, and litter size is 1-3 pups. Females have 2-6 active teats, and the lactation period is 30- 45 days. Neonates are born with soft, black fur. The body mass of a sub-adult is reached in about 3—4 months (700-900 g). Young are entirely dependent upon their mother’s milk until they begin to forage for themselves. At two months of age the young start to forage, accompanied by one of the parents, and at three months of age they start to forage alone. Adult foxes have never been observed to carry food to the young. As in other small canids, food appears not to be regurgitated to the young. Males have been observed grooming and accompanying two- to four-month-old juveniles, but have not been seen feeding them or the female. Sexual maturity is reached at 10-12 months of age. Offspring often remain within their natal home range until autumn (October— November). Blanford’s Fox dens in Israelwere usually on a mountain slope and consisted of large rock and boulder piles or scree. The foxes appeared to use only available natural cavities and never dug burrows. Dens were used for rearing young during spring and for daytime resting throughout the year. During winter and spring, both members of a pair frequently occupied the same den, or adjacent dens at the same site, while during summer and autumn they often denned in separate locations. Frequent changes in den location from day to day were more common in summer and autumn.","activityPatterns":"Strictly nocturnal, likely an anti-predator response to diurnal raptors. The onset of activity is governed largely by light conditions, and closely follows sunset. Foxes are active about 8-9 hours per night, independent of the duration of darkness. Average distance travelled per night is approximately 9 km. Climatic conditions at night in the desert appear to have little direct effect on the activity of Blanford’s Foxes.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Radio-tracking studies in Israelindicated that Blanford’s Foxes were organized as strictly monogamous pairsin territories of about 1-6 km” that overlapped minimally. Three of five territories contained one non-breeding, yearling female during the mating season, but there was no evidence of polygyny.Breeding.Blanford’s Foxes live in monogamous pairs. Females are monoestrous and come into estrus during January and February. Gestation period is about 50-60 days, and litter size is 1-3 pups. Females have 2-6 active teats, and the lactation period is 30- 45 days. Neonates are born with soft, black fur. The body mass of a sub-adult is reached in about 3—4 months (700-900 g). Young are entirely dependent upon their mother’s milk until they begin to forage for themselves. At two months of age the young start to forage, accompanied by one of the parents, and at three months of age they start to forage alone. Adult foxes have never been observed to carry food to the young. As in other small canids, food appears not to be regurgitated to the young. Males have been observed grooming and accompanying two- to four-month-old juveniles, but have not been seen feeding them or the female. Sexual maturity is reached at 10-12 months of age. Offspring often remain within their natal home range until autumn (October— November). Blanford’s Fox dens in Israelwere usually on a mountain slope and consisted of large rock and boulder piles or scree. The foxes appeared to use only available natural cavities and never dug burrows. Dens were used for rearing young during spring and for daytime resting throughout the year. During winter and spring, both members of a pair frequently occupied the same den, or adjacent dens at the same site, while during summer and autumn they often denned in separate locations. Frequent changes in den location from day to day were more common in summer and autumn.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Fully protected in Israel. There is a ban on hunting in Jordanand Oman, but no legal protection is known for Egypt, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Afghanistan, or Pakistan. Fairly common in south-eastern Israel, where density has been estimated at 2 km?*in Ein Gedi, and 0-5 km?in Eilat. The threat from habitat loss in Israelis limited, as most of the area where this species occurs is designated as protected. Political developments may change the status of the northern Judaean Desert. Human development along the Dead Sea coasts may also pose a considerable threat to existing habitat. Similar concerns exist for the populations in the UAE. Military activities may affect populations in Afghanistan.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 38- 5-80 cmfor males and 38:5-76- 2 cmfor females, tail 26-35- 5 cmfor males and 29-35 cmfor females; weight 0-8- 1-4 kgfor males and 0-8- 1-6 kgfor females. A small fox with a long and very bushy tail. Males have 36% longer bodies and front legs than females. Head is orange buff, especially in winter. The face is slender with a distinctive dark band extending from the upper part of the sharply pointed muzzle to the internal angle of the eyes. The ears are pale brown on both sides with long white hairs along the antero-medial border. The body is brownishgray, fading to pale yellow on the belly. The winter coat is soft and woolly with a dense, black under wool. Its dorsal region is sprinkled with white-tipped hair. The summer coat is less dense, the fur is paler, and the white-tipped hairs are less apparent. Specimens from the eastern part of the distribution may be predominantly gray. A distinctive mid-dorsal black band extends from the nape of the neck caudally, becoming a mid-dorsal crest throughout the length of the tail. The tail is similar in color to the body, usually with a black tip, although in some individuals the tip is white. The feet are dorsally pale yellowish-white, while posteriorly they are dark gray. Unlike other fox species in the Middle East deserts, the blackish pads of the feet and digits are hairless and the claws are cat-like, curved, sharp, and semi-retractile. The dental formula is I 3/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.","habitat":"Confined to dry, mountainous regions, generally below 2000 m. All the records collected on the Persian Plateau are from foothills and mountains in the vicinity of lower plains and basins, where the species’ habitat comprises the slopes of rocky mountains with stony plains and patches of cultivation. Appears to avoid higher mountain ranges and lower, warmer valleys, although the densest known population is found in the Judaean Desert, 100-350 mbelow sea level. In the Middle East, Blanford’s Foxes are confined to mountainous desert ranges and inhabit steep, rocky slopes, canyons, and cliffs. Blanford’s Foxes are not limited by access to water in the Arabian Desert, and in Israelthey inhabit the driest and hottest regions."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF16FFEB7BA7FC1EFE03DB98.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF16FFEB7BA7FC1EFE03DB98","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"444","verbatimText":"33.CapeFoxVulpes chamaFrench:Renard du Cap/ German:Kap-Fuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de El CaboOther common names:Silver FoxTaxonomy.Canis chama A. Smith, 1833, South Africa.Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the C and W regions of S Africa, reaching to about 15° Nin SW Angola. Occupies mainly arid and semi-arid areas, but also occurs in regions with higher precipitation and denser vegetation, such as the fynbos biome of South Africa’s Western Cape Province.Cape Foxes have expanded their range over recent decades to the SW, where the species reaches the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coastlines. May occur in SW Swaziland, and possibly also in Lesotho.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-61 cmfor males and 51-62 cmfor females, tail 30- 40-6 cmfor males and 25-39 cmfor females; weight 2-4-2 kgfor males and 2-4 kgfor females. One of the smallest canids and only vulpine fox occurring in southern Africa has a slender build and a black-tipped tail. The overall coloration of the upperparts is grizzled silver-gray, the lower limbs, head, and back of the long ears being reddish-brown to pale tawny-brown. There is some freckling of white hairs on the face, concentrated mainly on the cheeks; the fronts of the ears are also fringed with white hairs. The upper chest is fawny-red, with the underparts colored off-white to pale fawn. The upper region of the front legs is reddish-yellow, with a dark brown patch on the backs of the thighs of the hindlegs. The body pelage is soft, with a dense underfur of wavy hairs overlaid by a thick guard coat of predominantly black hairs; the guard hairs are light-colored at the base and have silvery bands. During the molting period, from October to December, much of the guard coat is lost, giving the foxes a rather dull and “naked” appearance. The claws of the front feet are long, sharp, and curved and there is pronounced hair growth between the foot-pads. The tail is very bushy and the overall impression is that of a black to very dark-brown tail. Females have one pair of inguinal and two pairs of abdominal mammae. The skull is narrow and elongated, with a narrow rostrum and a rather weak zygomatic arch. The canines are long, slender and strongly curved and the two upper molars are broad as an adaptation to crushing. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.Habitat.Mainly open country, including grassland with scattered thickets and lightly wooded areas, particularly in the dry Karoo regions of South Africa, the Kalahari Desert, and the fringes of the Namib Desert. Also in lowland fynbos in the Western Cape, as well as agricultural lands, where the foxes lie up in surviving pockets of natural vegetation during the day and forage on arable and cultivated fields at night. Along the eastern flank of the Namib Desert in Namibia, they occupy rock outcroppings and inselbergs, ranging out onto bare gravel plains at night. In Botswana, they have been recorded in Acacia scrubland, short grassland, and especially on the edges of shallow seasonal pans, as well as cleared and overgrazed areas. In the central Karoo of South Africathey occupy the plains as well as low, rocky ridges and isolated rock outcroppings. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they have been recorded at elevations of 1000-1500 m.Food and Feeding.The CapeFox consumes a wide range of food items, including small rodents (murids), hares, reptiles, birds, invertebrates, and some wild fruits. An analysis of the contents of 57 stomachs collected across western and central South Africaand Botswanashowed that rodents were the most commonly eaten mammal prey; beetles (larvae and adults) and grasshoppers comprised the majority of invertebrate intake. Birds and reptiles are occasionally included in the diet, but are probably less important. The largest wild prey species recorded are hares and spring hares. Cape Foxes will also scavenge and occasionally take young lambs and goats. Foraging is solitary, although foxes may occasionally gather in loose groupings to forage at an abundant food source. They obtain their prey mostly by digging rapidly with their front paws, often preceded by periods of intentlistening. Caching of prey is common.Activity patterns.CapeFoxes forage almost exclusively at night, peaking shortly after sundown and just before dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.CapeFoxes live in monogamous pairs. In the Free Stateof South Africa, they appear to have overlapping home ranges, that vary from 1-4-6 km” in size. Defended territory is believed to consist of a limited area around the den in which the female has herlitter. Vocal communication mainly consists of a high-pitched howl, ending with a sharp bark. Females may bark when a potential predator approaches a den occupied by pups. Facial expressions and tail positions play an important role in visual communication.Breeding.Breeding appears to be non-seasonal in some areas, and strongly seasonal in others. The majority of births take place in spring and summer (August to October). Juveniles and sub-adults have been recorded in the Western and Northern CapeProvinces during November and December. Gestation lasts about 52 days, and litter size 1s from one to six pups. Young are born in burrows dug by adults in sandy soil, or in enlarged spring hare or Aardvark burrows. Births have also been known to occur in crevices, cavities amongst boulders, and occasionally, dense vegetation. Although both parents feed the pups, the female is the main provider and no helpers are found at dens. Both parents will defend the pups against potential predators. Their habit of abandoning one den for another could serve to avoid the accumulation of parasites and to confuse potential predators. Pups first begin to hunt at about 16 weeks, and become independent and disperse at the age of about five months. Communal denning has been recorded in the southern Kalahari, and a litter of eight pups found in the Free Stateperhaps reflects a similar situation.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although treated as a pest across most of its range, it is partially protected in several South African provinces and is not listed as a problem species; no permit, however, is required to kill this fox in pest control operations, resulting in population reductions in some areas. Generally common to fairly abundant across much of its range, the species is considered to be stable. Population estimates are only available for South Africa’s Free State province, where average density was 0-3 foxes per km? yielding a total population estimate of 31,000 individuals. Habitat loss/changes are not a major factor influencing the conservation status of the CapeFox. In fact, in the Western Cape Provinceand elsewhere, changing agricultural practices have resulted in range extensions for the species. Expansion of semi-arid karroid vegetation during the process of desertification, especially eastwards, has also resulted in range extensions of this canid. The illegal but widespread and indiscriminate use of agricultural poisons on commercial farms poses the greatest threat.Bibliography.Bester (1982), Bothma (1966, 1971c), Brand (1963), Coetzee (1977, 1979), Crawford-Cabral (1989), Kok (1996), Le Clus (1971), Lynch (1975, 1994), Meester et al. (1986), Monadjem (1998), Roberts (1951), Rowe-Rowe (1992b), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers (1971, 1983), Stuart (1975, 1981), Stuart & Stuart (2001, 2004), Travassos (1968).","taxonomy":"Canis chama A. Smith, 1833, South Africa.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard du Cap @fr | Kap-Fuchs @de | Zorro de El Cabo @es | Silver Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1833","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"33","interpretedPageNumber":"444","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"chama","name":"Vulpes chama","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in the C and W regions of S Africa, reaching to about 15° Nin SW Angola. Occupies mainly arid and semi-arid areas, but also occurs in regions with higher precipitation and denser vegetation, such as the fynbos biome of South Africa’s Western Cape Province.Cape Foxes have expanded their range over recent decades to the SW, where the species reaches the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coastlines. May occur in SW Swaziland, and possibly also in Lesotho.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331227/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bester (1982) | Bothma (1966, 1971c) | Brand (1963) | Coetzee (1977, 1979) | Crawford-Cabral (1989) | Kok (1996) | Le Clus (1971) | Lynch (1975, 1994) | Meester et al. (1986) | Monadjem (1998) | Roberts (1951) | Rowe-Rowe (1992b) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers (1971, 1983) | Stuart (1975, 1981) | Stuart & Stuart (2001, 2004) | Travassos (1968)","foodAndFeeding":"The CapeFox consumes a wide range of food items, including small rodents (murids), hares, reptiles, birds, invertebrates, and some wild fruits. An analysis of the contents of 57 stomachs collected across western and central South Africaand Botswanashowed that rodents were the most commonly eaten mammal prey; beetles (larvae and adults) and grasshoppers comprised the majority of invertebrate intake. Birds and reptiles are occasionally included in the diet, but are probably less important. The largest wild prey species recorded are hares and spring hares. Cape Foxes will also scavenge and occasionally take young lambs and goats. Foraging is solitary, although foxes may occasionally gather in loose groupings to forage at an abundant food source. They obtain their prey mostly by digging rapidly with their front paws, often preceded by periods of intentlistening. Caching of prey is common.","breeding":"Breeding appears to be non-seasonal in some areas, and strongly seasonal in others. The majority of births take place in spring and summer (August to October). Juveniles and sub-adults have been recorded in the Western and Northern CapeProvinces during November and December. Gestation lasts about 52 days, and litter size 1s from one to six pups. Young are born in burrows dug by adults in sandy soil, or in enlarged spring hare or Aardvark burrows. Births have also been known to occur in crevices, cavities amongst boulders, and occasionally, dense vegetation. Although both parents feed the pups, the female is the main provider and no helpers are found at dens. Both parents will defend the pups against potential predators. Their habit of abandoning one den for another could serve to avoid the accumulation of parasites and to confuse potential predators. Pups first begin to hunt at about 16 weeks, and become independent and disperse at the age of about five months. Communal denning has been recorded in the southern Kalahari, and a litter of eight pups found in the Free Stateperhaps reflects a similar situation.","activityPatterns":"CapeFoxes forage almost exclusively at night, peaking shortly after sundown and just before dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"CapeFoxes live in monogamous pairs. In the Free Stateof South Africa, they appear to have overlapping home ranges, that vary from 1-4-6 km” in size. Defended territory is believed to consist of a limited area around the den in which the female has herlitter. Vocal communication mainly consists of a high-pitched howl, ending with a sharp bark. Females may bark when a potential predator approaches a den occupied by pups. Facial expressions and tail positions play an important role in visual communication.Breeding.Breeding appears to be non-seasonal in some areas, and strongly seasonal in others. The majority of births take place in spring and summer (August to October). Juveniles and sub-adults have been recorded in the Western and Northern CapeProvinces during November and December. Gestation lasts about 52 days, and litter size 1s from one to six pups. Young are born in burrows dug by adults in sandy soil, or in enlarged spring hare or Aardvark burrows. Births have also been known to occur in crevices, cavities amongst boulders, and occasionally, dense vegetation. Although both parents feed the pups, the female is the main provider and no helpers are found at dens. Both parents will defend the pups against potential predators. Their habit of abandoning one den for another could serve to avoid the accumulation of parasites and to confuse potential predators. Pups first begin to hunt at about 16 weeks, and become independent and disperse at the age of about five months. Communal denning has been recorded in the southern Kalahari, and a litter of eight pups found in the Free Stateperhaps reflects a similar situation.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although treated as a pest across most of its range, it is partially protected in several South African provinces and is not listed as a problem species; no permit, however, is required to kill this fox in pest control operations, resulting in population reductions in some areas. Generally common to fairly abundant across much of its range, the species is considered to be stable. Population estimates are only available for South Africa’s Free State province, where average density was 0-3 foxes per km? yielding a total population estimate of 31,000 individuals. Habitat loss/changes are not a major factor influencing the conservation status of the CapeFox. In fact, in the Western Cape Provinceand elsewhere, changing agricultural practices have resulted in range extensions for the species. Expansion of semi-arid karroid vegetation during the process of desertification, especially eastwards, has also resulted in range extensions of this canid. The illegal but widespread and indiscriminate use of agricultural poisons on commercial farms poses the greatest threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 45-61 cmfor males and 51-62 cmfor females, tail 30- 40-6 cmfor males and 25-39 cmfor females; weight 2-4-2 kgfor males and 2-4 kgfor females. One of the smallest canids and only vulpine fox occurring in southern Africa has a slender build and a black-tipped tail. The overall coloration of the upperparts is grizzled silver-gray, the lower limbs, head, and back of the long ears being reddish-brown to pale tawny-brown. There is some freckling of white hairs on the face, concentrated mainly on the cheeks; the fronts of the ears are also fringed with white hairs. The upper chest is fawny-red, with the underparts colored off-white to pale fawn. The upper region of the front legs is reddish-yellow, with a dark brown patch on the backs of the thighs of the hindlegs. The body pelage is soft, with a dense underfur of wavy hairs overlaid by a thick guard coat of predominantly black hairs; the guard hairs are light-colored at the base and have silvery bands. During the molting period, from October to December, much of the guard coat is lost, giving the foxes a rather dull and “naked” appearance. The claws of the front feet are long, sharp, and curved and there is pronounced hair growth between the foot-pads. The tail is very bushy and the overall impression is that of a black to very dark-brown tail. Females have one pair of inguinal and two pairs of abdominal mammae. The skull is narrow and elongated, with a narrow rostrum and a rather weak zygomatic arch. The canines are long, slender and strongly curved and the two upper molars are broad as an adaptation to crushing. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.Habitat.Mainly open country, including grassland with scattered thickets and lightly wooded areas, particularly in the dry Karoo regions of South Africa, the Kalahari Desert, and the fringes of the Namib Desert. Also in lowland fynbos in the Western Cape, as well as agricultural lands, where the foxes lie up in surviving pockets of natural vegetation during the day and forage on arable and cultivated fields at night. Along the eastern flank of the Namib Desert in Namibia, they occupy rock outcroppings and inselbergs, ranging out onto bare gravel plains at night. In Botswana, they have been recorded in Acacia scrubland, short grassland, and especially on the edges of shallow seasonal pans, as well as cleared and overgrazed areas. In the central Karoo of South Africathey occupy the plains as well as low, rocky ridges and isolated rock outcroppings. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they have been recorded at elevations of 1000-1500 m.Food and Feeding.The CapeFox consumes a wide range of food items, including small rodents (murids), hares, reptiles, birds, invertebrates, and some wild fruits. An analysis of the contents of 57 stomachs collected across western and central South Africaand Botswanashowed that rodents were the most commonly eaten mammal prey; beetles (larvae and adults) and grasshoppers comprised the majority of invertebrate intake. Birds and reptiles are occasionally included in the diet, but are probably less important. The largest wild prey species recorded are hares and spring hares. Cape Foxes will also scavenge and occasionally take young lambs and goats. Foraging is solitary, although foxes may occasionally gather in loose groupings to forage at an abundant food source. They obtain their prey mostly by digging rapidly with their front paws, often preceded by periods of intentlistening. Caching of prey is common.Activity patterns.CapeFoxes forage almost exclusively at night, peaking shortly after sundown and just before dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.CapeFoxes live in monogamous pairs. In the Free Stateof South Africa, they appear to have overlapping home ranges, that vary from 1-4-6 km” in size. Defended territory is believed to consist of a limited area around the den in which the female has herlitter. Vocal communication mainly consists of a high-pitched howl, ending with a sharp bark. Females may bark when a potential predator approaches a den occupied by pups. Facial expressions and tail positions play an important role in visual communication.Breeding.Breeding appears to be non-seasonal in some areas, and strongly seasonal in others. The majority of births take place in spring and summer (August to October). Juveniles and sub-adults have been recorded in the Western and Northern CapeProvinces during November and December. Gestation lasts about 52 days, and litter size 1s from one to six pups. Young are born in burrows dug by adults in sandy soil, or in enlarged spring hare or Aardvark burrows. Births have also been known to occur in crevices, cavities amongst boulders, and occasionally, dense vegetation. Although both parents feed the pups, the female is the main provider and no helpers are found at dens. Both parents will defend the pups against potential predators. Their habit of abandoning one den for another could serve to avoid the accumulation of parasites and to confuse potential predators. Pups first begin to hunt at about 16 weeks, and become independent and disperse at the age of about five months. Communal denning has been recorded in the southern Kalahari, and a litter of eight pups found in the Free Stateperhaps reflects a similar situation.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although treated as a pest across most of its range, it is partially protected in several South African provinces and is not listed as a problem species; no permit, however, is required to kill this fox in pest control operations, resulting in population reductions in some areas. Generally common to fairly abundant across much of its range, the species is considered to be stable. Population estimates are only available for South Africa’s Free State province, where average density was 0-3 foxes per km? yielding a total population estimate of 31,000 individuals.","habitat":"Mainly open country, including grassland with scattered thickets and lightly wooded areas, particularly in the dry Karoo regions of South Africa, the Kalahari Desert, and the fringes of the Namib Desert. Also in lowland fynbos in the Western Cape, as well as agricultural lands, where the foxes lie up in surviving pockets of natural vegetation during the day and forage on arable and cultivated fields at night. Along the eastern flank of the Namib Desert in Namibia, they occupy rock outcroppings and inselbergs, ranging out onto bare gravel plains at night. In Botswana, they have been recorded in Acacia scrubland, short grassland, and especially on the edges of shallow seasonal pans, as well as cleared and overgrazed areas. In the central Karoo of South Africathey occupy the plains as well as low, rocky ridges and isolated rock outcroppings. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they have been recorded at elevations of 1000-1500 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE87B95F357F947DE42.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF17FFE87B95F357F947DE42","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"443","verbatimText":"32.Ruppell’s FoxVulpes rueppelliiFrench:Renard de Rippell/ German:Sandfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de RuppellOther common names:Sand Fox, Rippell's Sand FoxTaxonomy.Canis rüeppeliiSchinz, 1825, Sudan.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V.r. rueppellii Schinz, 1825— Egyptand Sudan(Nubian Desert).V. r. caesia Thomas & Hinton, 1921— N & W Africa.V. r. cyrenaica Festa, 1921— SW Egypt, Lybia, extreme NW Sudan.V. r. sabaea Pocock, 1934— Arabian Peninsula and Middle East.V. r. somaliae Thomas, 1918— Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.V. r. zarudny: Birula, 1913— Baluchistan in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-55 cmfor males and 34:5-55-9 cmfor females, tail 25-1-38-7 cmfor males and 22-36-3 cmfor females; weight 1-1-2-3 kgfor males and 1-1- 1-8 kgfor females. One of the smaller Vulpesspecies, Ruppell’s Fox is slighter in build than the Red Fox, and has smaller limbs. The ears are long and large in relation to the head, rather similar to Fennec Fox, but lack darker markings on the back of the ears. Coat color is variable. The head is beige to a pale sand color. The ears and face are usually pale, with most animals having black whisker patches running up to the eye, although this too is variable. Dorsal pelage varies from pale sandy to grayish and even sometimes reddish, with a more orless silvery sheen due to black speckling. Flanks and underbody are usually paler. The legs are beige to fawn, and the plantar and digital pads are almost completely covered by hairs. The black speckling from the back culminates in a dense black patch at the base of the tail, which is bushy and usually tipped white, a useful diagnostic feature. The furis very fine and soft, thicker and darker in winter and lighter colored in summer. Females have three pairs of mammae. The braincase is rounded, the postorbital processes are blunt and narrow, the zygomatic arches are strong, and the bullae are relatively large (though not so expanded as in Fennec Fox). The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.Food and Feeding.Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.Activity patterns.Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, direct and indirect persecution by hunting, and indiscriminate use of poisons, appear to be the main threats. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes, which are expanding their range following human settlement in the Negev Desert. Competitive pressure from Red Foxes may also be affecting populations in the United Arab Emirates.Bibliography.Coetzee (1977), Cuzin (1996), Cuzin & Lenain (2004), De Smet (1988), Dragesco-Joffé (1993), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hufnagl (1972), Kingdon (1997), Kowalski (1988), Lenain (2000), Lindsay & Macdonald (1986), Olfermann (1996), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Petter (1952), Rosevear (1974), Valverde (1957), Yom-Tov & Mendelssohn (1988).","taxonomy":"Canis rüeppeliiSchinz, 1825, Sudan.Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard de Rippell @fr | Sandfuchs @de | Zorro de Ruppell @es | Sand Fox @en | Rippell's Sand Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Frisch","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schinz","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1825","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"443","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rueppellii","name":"Vulpes rueppellii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V.r. rueppellii Schinz, 1825— Egyptand Sudan(Nubian Desert).V. r. caesia Thomas & Hinton, 1921— N & W Africa.V. r. cyrenaica Festa, 1921— SW Egypt, Lybia, extreme NW Sudan.V. r. sabaea Pocock, 1934— Arabian Peninsula and Middle East.V. r. somaliae Thomas, 1918— Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.V. r. zarudny: Birula, 1913— Baluchistan in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.","bibliography":"Coetzee (1977) | Cuzin (1996) | Cuzin & Lenain (2004) | De Smet (1988) | Dragesco-Joffé (1993) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hufnagl (1972) | Kingdon (1997) | Kowalski (1988) | Lenain (2000) | Lindsay & Macdonald (1986) | Olfermann (1996) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Petter (1952) | Rosevear (1974) | Valverde (1957) | Yom-Tov & Mendelssohn (1988)","foodAndFeeding":"Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.","breeding":"In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.","activityPatterns":"Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, direct and indirect persecution by hunting, and indiscriminate use of poisons, appear to be the main threats. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes, which are expanding their range following human settlement in the Negev Desert. Competitive pressure from Red Foxes may also be affecting populations in the United Arab Emirates.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-55 cmfor males and 34:5-55-9 cmfor females, tail 25-1-38-7 cmfor males and 22-36-3 cmfor females; weight 1-1-2-3 kgfor males and 1-1- 1-8 kgfor females. One of the smaller Vulpesspecies, Ruppell’s Fox is slighter in build than the Red Fox, and has smaller limbs. The ears are long and large in relation to the head, rather similar to Fennec Fox, but lack darker markings on the back of the ears. Coat color is variable. The head is beige to a pale sand color. The ears and face are usually pale, with most animals having black whisker patches running up to the eye, although this too is variable. Dorsal pelage varies from pale sandy to grayish and even sometimes reddish, with a more orless silvery sheen due to black speckling. Flanks and underbody are usually paler. The legs are beige to fawn, and the plantar and digital pads are almost completely covered by hairs. The black speckling from the back culminates in a dense black patch at the base of the tail, which is bushy and usually tipped white, a useful diagnostic feature. The furis very fine and soft, thicker and darker in winter and lighter colored in summer. Females have three pairs of mammae. The braincase is rounded, the postorbital processes are blunt and narrow, the zygomatic arches are strong, and the bullae are relatively large (though not so expanded as in Fennec Fox). The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.Food and Feeding.Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.Activity patterns.Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia.","habitat":"Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE97B96FBEDF7C0D179.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF17FFE97B96FBEDF7C0D179","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"443","verbatimText":"31.Pale FoxVulpes pallidaFrench:Renard pale/ German:Blassfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro palidoOther common names:Pallid Fox, African Sand FoxTaxonomy.Canis pallidus Cretzschmar, 1826,Sudan.Has been associated with V. rueppellic and V. zerda. It also has been suggested that these desert foxes are closely related to V. bengalensisand V. chama. Five races have been described, four of which are recognized here. Variation may be clinal.Subspecies and Distribution.V. p. pallida Cretzschmar, 1827— Sudan(Kordofan) to Eritrea, and Ethiopia.V. p. edwardsi Rochebrune, 1883— Mali, S Mauritania, and Senegal.V. p. harterti Thomas & Hinton, 1921— Burkina Faso, Niger, and N Nigeria.V. p. oertzeni Matschie, 1910— N Cameroon, Chad, and NE Nigeriato S Libyain the N and Sudan(Darfur province) in the S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 38-55 cm,tail 23-29 cm; weight 2-3-6 kg. A small, very pale fox with longish legs and large ears. Pale face, elongated muzzle with relatively long whiskers, and a black eye-ring. Large ears, white inside and rufous-brown on the outer surface. Body creamy-white to sandy fawn, relatively thin coat, back sometimes flecked with black or rufous, with darker mid-dorsal line. Flanks paler than dorsal pelage, merging into white or buffy-white undersides, and legs rufous. Long, bushy tail, reddish brown with conspicuous black tip and a dark patch above tail gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a relatively short maxillary region, and well-developed upper molars in relation to relatively weak carnassial teeth. Bullae of the Pale Fox are slightly larger and the nasals appreciably longer than in Ruippell’s Fox. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typically inhabits very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but its distribution extends southwards into moister Guinean savannahs to some extent. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats.Food and Feeding.Well-developed molars suggest Pale Foxes are essentially herbivorous, eating mainly berries, wild fruit such as melons, and vegetable matter. They also feed on small rodents, ground-nesting birds, small reptiles, and invertebrates. Foraging habits are unknown.Activity patterns.Active from dusk till dawn, resting during the day in extensive burrows occupied by several individuals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements and home ranges unknown. Little is known of their habits, but Pale Foxes are gregarious and have been observed in pairs and small family groups.Breeding.Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Threats are unknown, although occasional persecution due to livestock depredation (i.e. poultry) may take place.Bibliography.Bueler (1973), Coetzee (1977), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Haltenorth & Diller (1980), Happold (1987), Kingdon (1997), Rosevear (1974), Sillero-Zubiri (2004).","taxonomy":"Canis pallidus Cretzschmar, 1826,Sudan.Has been associated with V. rueppellic and V. zerda. It also has been suggested that these desert foxes are closely related to V. bengalensisand V. chama. Five races have been described, four of which are recognized here. Variation may be clinal.","commonNames":"Renard pale @fr | Blassfuchs @de | Zorro palido @es | Pallid Fox @en | African Sand Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Frisch","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Cretzschmar","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1826","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"443","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pallida","name":"Vulpes pallida","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. p. pallida Cretzschmar, 1827— Sudan(Kordofan) to Eritrea, and Ethiopia.V. p. edwardsi Rochebrune, 1883— Mali, S Mauritania, and Senegal.V. p. harterti Thomas & Hinton, 1921— Burkina Faso, Niger, and N Nigeria.V. p. oertzeni Matschie, 1910— N Cameroon, Chad, and NE Nigeriato S Libyain the N and Sudan(Darfur province) in the S.","bibliography":"Bueler (1973) | Coetzee (1977) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Haltenorth & Diller (1980) | Happold (1987) | Kingdon (1997) | Rosevear (1974) | Sillero-Zubiri (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Well-developed molars suggest Pale Foxes are essentially herbivorous, eating mainly berries, wild fruit such as melons, and vegetable matter. They also feed on small rodents, ground-nesting birds, small reptiles, and invertebrates. Foraging habits are unknown.","breeding":"Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.","activityPatterns":"Active from dusk till dawn, resting during the day in extensive burrows occupied by several individuals.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Movements and home ranges unknown. Little is known of their habits, but Pale Foxes are gregarious and have been observed in pairs and small family groups.Breeding.Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Threats are unknown, although occasional persecution due to livestock depredation (i.e. poultry) may take place.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 38-55 cm,tail 23-29 cm; weight 2-3-6 kg. A small, very pale fox with longish legs and large ears. Pale face, elongated muzzle with relatively long whiskers, and a black eye-ring. Large ears, white inside and rufous-brown on the outer surface. Body creamy-white to sandy fawn, relatively thin coat, back sometimes flecked with black or rufous, with darker mid-dorsal line. Flanks paler than dorsal pelage, merging into white or buffy-white undersides, and legs rufous. Long, bushy tail, reddish brown with conspicuous black tip and a dark patch above tail gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a relatively short maxillary region, and well-developed upper molars in relation to relatively weak carnassial teeth. Bullae of the Pale Fox are slightly larger and the nasals appreciably longer than in Ruippell’s Fox. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Typically inhabits very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but its distribution extends southwards into moister Guinean savannahs to some extent. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE87B95F357F947DE42.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF17FFE87B95F357F947DE42","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"443","verbatimText":"32.Ruppell’s FoxVulpes rueppelliiFrench:Renard de Rippell/ German:Sandfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de RuppellOther common names:Sand Fox, Rippell's Sand FoxTaxonomy.Canis rüeppeliiSchinz, 1825, Sudan.Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V.r. rueppellii Schinz, 1825— Egyptand Sudan(Nubian Desert).V. r. caesia Thomas & Hinton, 1921— N & W Africa.V. r. cyrenaica Festa, 1921— SW Egypt, Lybia, extreme NW Sudan.V. r. sabaea Pocock, 1934— Arabian Peninsula and Middle East.V. r. somaliae Thomas, 1918— Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.V. r. zarudny: Birula, 1913— Baluchistan in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-55 cmfor males and 34:5-55-9 cmfor females, tail 25-1-38-7 cmfor males and 22-36-3 cmfor females; weight 1-1-2-3 kgfor males and 1-1- 1-8 kgfor females. One of the smaller Vulpesspecies, Ruppell’s Fox is slighter in build than the Red Fox, and has smaller limbs. The ears are long and large in relation to the head, rather similar to Fennec Fox, but lack darker markings on the back of the ears. Coat color is variable. The head is beige to a pale sand color. The ears and face are usually pale, with most animals having black whisker patches running up to the eye, although this too is variable. Dorsal pelage varies from pale sandy to grayish and even sometimes reddish, with a more orless silvery sheen due to black speckling. Flanks and underbody are usually paler. The legs are beige to fawn, and the plantar and digital pads are almost completely covered by hairs. The black speckling from the back culminates in a dense black patch at the base of the tail, which is bushy and usually tipped white, a useful diagnostic feature. The furis very fine and soft, thicker and darker in winter and lighter colored in summer. Females have three pairs of mammae. The braincase is rounded, the postorbital processes are blunt and narrow, the zygomatic arches are strong, and the bullae are relatively large (though not so expanded as in Fennec Fox). The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.Food and Feeding.Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.Activity patterns.Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, direct and indirect persecution by hunting, and indiscriminate use of poisons, appear to be the main threats. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes, which are expanding their range following human settlement in the Negev Desert. Competitive pressure from Red Foxes may also be affecting populations in the United Arab Emirates.Bibliography.Coetzee (1977), Cuzin (1996), Cuzin & Lenain (2004), De Smet (1988), Dragesco-Joffé (1993), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hufnagl (1972), Kingdon (1997), Kowalski (1988), Lenain (2000), Lindsay & Macdonald (1986), Olfermann (1996), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Petter (1952), Rosevear (1974), Valverde (1957), Yom-Tov & Mendelssohn (1988).","taxonomy":"Canis rüeppeliiSchinz, 1825, Sudan.Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard de Rippell @fr | Sandfuchs @de | Zorro de Ruppell @es | Sand Fox @en | Rippell's Sand Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Frisch","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schinz","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1825","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"443","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rueppellii","name":"Vulpes rueppellii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V.r. rueppellii Schinz, 1825— Egyptand Sudan(Nubian Desert).V. r. caesia Thomas & Hinton, 1921— N & W Africa.V. r. cyrenaica Festa, 1921— SW Egypt, Lybia, extreme NW Sudan.V. r. sabaea Pocock, 1934— Arabian Peninsula and Middle East.V. r. somaliae Thomas, 1918— Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.V. r. zarudny: Birula, 1913— Baluchistan in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331225/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Coetzee (1977) | Cuzin (1996) | Cuzin & Lenain (2004) | De Smet (1988) | Dragesco-Joffé (1993) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hufnagl (1972) | Kingdon (1997) | Kowalski (1988) | Lenain (2000) | Lindsay & Macdonald (1986) | Olfermann (1996) | Osborn & Helmy (1980) | Petter (1952) | Rosevear (1974) | Valverde (1957) | Yom-Tov & Mendelssohn (1988)","foodAndFeeding":"Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.","breeding":"In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.","activityPatterns":"Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, direct and indirect persecution by hunting, and indiscriminate use of poisons, appear to be the main threats. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes, which are expanding their range following human settlement in the Negev Desert. Competitive pressure from Red Foxes may also be affecting populations in the United Arab Emirates.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-55 cmfor males and 34:5-55-9 cmfor females, tail 25-1-38-7 cmfor males and 22-36-3 cmfor females; weight 1-1-2-3 kgfor males and 1-1- 1-8 kgfor females. One of the smaller Vulpesspecies, Ruppell’s Fox is slighter in build than the Red Fox, and has smaller limbs. The ears are long and large in relation to the head, rather similar to Fennec Fox, but lack darker markings on the back of the ears. Coat color is variable. The head is beige to a pale sand color. The ears and face are usually pale, with most animals having black whisker patches running up to the eye, although this too is variable. Dorsal pelage varies from pale sandy to grayish and even sometimes reddish, with a more orless silvery sheen due to black speckling. Flanks and underbody are usually paler. The legs are beige to fawn, and the plantar and digital pads are almost completely covered by hairs. The black speckling from the back culminates in a dense black patch at the base of the tail, which is bushy and usually tipped white, a useful diagnostic feature. The furis very fine and soft, thicker and darker in winter and lighter colored in summer. Females have three pairs of mammae. The braincase is rounded, the postorbital processes are blunt and narrow, the zygomatic arches are strong, and the bullae are relatively large (though not so expanded as in Fennec Fox). The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara.Food and Feeding.Generalist predators, with a high invertebrate content in their diet, as well as rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, and wild fruits. Some studies have shown that Ruppell’s Foxes consume prey relative to availability, suggesting opportunistic feeding habits. Little is known about their feeding behavior except that they forage alone, and may scavenge at camps and permanent human settlements.Activity patterns.Mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. They tend to remain in dens throughout the day, although active animals have been seen during the daytime in winter. They leave the den in the hour following sunset and alternate periods of activity throughout the night. They are usually inactive in the early hours of the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known. Adults usually live as monogamous pairs, but the species may be gregarious. Groups of 3-15 individuals, which may represent extended family groups, have been sighted. Grouping may be incidental, however;it could be the result of close aggregation of dens in the few areas where denning sites are available. In Oman, large home ranges covered some 69 km? and social units were spatially separate. Mean annual home range in Mahazat as-Sayd, Saudi Arabiawas 16- 3 km?*. Males showed significantly larger seasonal home ranges than females.Breeding.In Saudi Arabia, mating takes place from December to February, which usually coincides with the first rains after the harsh summer period. Captures of young pups have been made in early March in Saudi Arabiaand in March in the western Sahara. Very young animals have been recorded in Algeriain May, and captures of young pups in Saudi Arabiapeaked from July to August, following the dependency period. In Mahazat as-Sayd gestation lasts 7-8 weeks and littersize is 2-3. Young pups remain dependent on their parents for an undefined period before they venture out from the den site area. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 9-10 months. Dens are commonly located under slabs of rock or dug at the base of trees or bushes. In areas with few shelters the species may use very exposed dens, often in the middle of plains. Some of these burrows are dug by Honey Badgers. In open areas any disturbance induces flight; in Niger, the animals often flee from their dens when threatened. In Oman, study animals changed den sites frequently, probably as an anti-predator strategy or perhaps due to resource availability. Shallow scrapes in a packed silt substrate may offer effective cooling, and midday temperatures may be 12-15°C lower inside these dens than outside.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Classed as “lower risk/near threatened” in Morocco(including W Sahara). In Saudi Arabia, there is currently no effective legislation for the protection of native carnivores. In Israel, the species is fully protected by law. In Morocco, Ruppell’s Foxes may be hunted as they are considered pests. Although widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, the speciesis limited by the large desert areas. Population density is usually low, but seems higher in areas where food is more freely available, for example near human settlements. In a fenced protected area of Saudi Arabia, density was 0-7/ km®. Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be very vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia.","habitat":"Typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, Ruppell’s Fox has been found in open and stony habitat, often with sparse vegetation that includes herb and grass species (Fagonia indica, Indigofera spinosa, Tribulus spp., Stipagrostis spp., and Panicum turgidum). Annual rainfall averages 100 mmper year, with a maximum of 240 mmper year. On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Ruppell’s Fox may be found in areas with up to 150 mmannual rainfall. In Moroccothe general habitat offers sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (Hammada scoparia, Panicum turgidum, Fagonia spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with Acacia Spp., Argania spinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maerua crassifolia, and Capparis decidua trees). Ruppell’s Foxes also live in coastal areas with extremely sparse vegetation and no trees. They can survive in areas without any available water, as in central Saudi Arabiaon the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter, in Algeria, and in the western Sahara."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE97B96FBEDF7C0D179.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF17FFE97B96FBEDF7C0D179","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"443","verbatimText":"31.Pale FoxVulpes pallidaFrench:Renard pale/ German:Blassfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro palidoOther common names:Pallid Fox, African Sand FoxTaxonomy.Canis pallidus Cretzschmar, 1826,Sudan.Has been associated with V. rueppellic and V. zerda. It also has been suggested that these desert foxes are closely related to V. bengalensisand V. chama. Five races have been described, four of which are recognized here. Variation may be clinal.Subspecies and Distribution.V. p. pallida Cretzschmar, 1827— Sudan(Kordofan) to Eritrea, and Ethiopia.V. p. edwardsi Rochebrune, 1883— Mali, S Mauritania, and Senegal.V. p. harterti Thomas & Hinton, 1921— Burkina Faso, Niger, and N Nigeria.V. p. oertzeni Matschie, 1910— N Cameroon, Chad, and NE Nigeriato S Libyain the N and Sudan(Darfur province) in the S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 38-55 cm,tail 23-29 cm; weight 2-3-6 kg. A small, very pale fox with longish legs and large ears. Pale face, elongated muzzle with relatively long whiskers, and a black eye-ring. Large ears, white inside and rufous-brown on the outer surface. Body creamy-white to sandy fawn, relatively thin coat, back sometimes flecked with black or rufous, with darker mid-dorsal line. Flanks paler than dorsal pelage, merging into white or buffy-white undersides, and legs rufous. Long, bushy tail, reddish brown with conspicuous black tip and a dark patch above tail gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a relatively short maxillary region, and well-developed upper molars in relation to relatively weak carnassial teeth. Bullae of the Pale Fox are slightly larger and the nasals appreciably longer than in Ruippell’s Fox. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Typically inhabits very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but its distribution extends southwards into moister Guinean savannahs to some extent. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats.Food and Feeding.Well-developed molars suggest Pale Foxes are essentially herbivorous, eating mainly berries, wild fruit such as melons, and vegetable matter. They also feed on small rodents, ground-nesting birds, small reptiles, and invertebrates. Foraging habits are unknown.Activity patterns.Active from dusk till dawn, resting during the day in extensive burrows occupied by several individuals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements and home ranges unknown. Little is known of their habits, but Pale Foxes are gregarious and have been observed in pairs and small family groups.Breeding.Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Threats are unknown, although occasional persecution due to livestock depredation (i.e. poultry) may take place.Bibliography.Bueler (1973), Coetzee (1977), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Haltenorth & Diller (1980), Happold (1987), Kingdon (1997), Rosevear (1974), Sillero-Zubiri (2004).","taxonomy":"Canis pallidus Cretzschmar, 1826,Sudan.Has been associated with V. rueppellic and V. zerda. It also has been suggested that these desert foxes are closely related to V. bengalensisand V. chama. Five races have been described, four of which are recognized here. Variation may be clinal.","commonNames":"Renard pale @fr | Blassfuchs @de | Zorro palido @es | Pallid Fox @en | African Sand Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Frisch","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Cretzschmar","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1826","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"443","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pallida","name":"Vulpes pallida","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. p. pallida Cretzschmar, 1827— Sudan(Kordofan) to Eritrea, and Ethiopia.V. p. edwardsi Rochebrune, 1883— Mali, S Mauritania, and Senegal.V. p. harterti Thomas & Hinton, 1921— Burkina Faso, Niger, and N Nigeria.V. p. oertzeni Matschie, 1910— N Cameroon, Chad, and NE Nigeriato S Libyain the N and Sudan(Darfur province) in the S.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331223/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bueler (1973) | Coetzee (1977) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Haltenorth & Diller (1980) | Happold (1987) | Kingdon (1997) | Rosevear (1974) | Sillero-Zubiri (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Well-developed molars suggest Pale Foxes are essentially herbivorous, eating mainly berries, wild fruit such as melons, and vegetable matter. They also feed on small rodents, ground-nesting birds, small reptiles, and invertebrates. Foraging habits are unknown.","breeding":"Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.","activityPatterns":"Active from dusk till dawn, resting during the day in extensive burrows occupied by several individuals.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Movements and home ranges unknown. Little is known of their habits, but Pale Foxes are gregarious and have been observed in pairs and small family groups.Breeding.Gestation period in captivity is 51-53 days. Three to six young are born; weaning takes six to eight weeks. Pale Foxes dig extensive burrows, 2-3 mdeep and up to 15 min length, often under sandy tracks or near villages, and line the inner chambers with dry vegetation.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Threats are unknown, although occasional persecution due to livestock depredation (i.e. poultry) may take place.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 38-55 cm,tail 23-29 cm; weight 2-3-6 kg. A small, very pale fox with longish legs and large ears. Pale face, elongated muzzle with relatively long whiskers, and a black eye-ring. Large ears, white inside and rufous-brown on the outer surface. Body creamy-white to sandy fawn, relatively thin coat, back sometimes flecked with black or rufous, with darker mid-dorsal line. Flanks paler than dorsal pelage, merging into white or buffy-white undersides, and legs rufous. Long, bushy tail, reddish brown with conspicuous black tip and a dark patch above tail gland. Females have three pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a relatively short maxillary region, and well-developed upper molars in relation to relatively weak carnassial teeth. Bullae of the Pale Fox are slightly larger and the nasals appreciably longer than in Ruippell’s Fox. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Typically inhabits very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but its distribution extends southwards into moister Guinean savannahs to some extent. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF17FFE97E8FFD5DF87FD933.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF17FFE97E8FFD5DF87FD933","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"443","verbatimText":"30.Indian FoxVulpes bengalensisFrench:Renard du Bengale/ German:Bengalfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro bengaliOther common names:Bengal FoxTaxonomy.Canis bengalensis Shaw, 1800, Bengal, India.Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to the Indian subcontinent. Ranges from the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepalto the S tip of the Indian peninsula, also in Bangladeshand Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 39-57-5 cmfor males and 46-48 cmfor females, tail 24-7-32 cmfor males and 24-5-31-2 cmfor females; weight 2:7-3-2 kgfor males and over 1-8 kgfor females. Mediumsized, with typical vulpine appearance, though smaller than Red Foxes (V. vulpes). The pelage varies from yellowish gray to silver gray, but lacks the rusty red hair that is typical of the Red Fox. The dorsal region is darker than the underparts, which are a pale cream. The ears have darker brown hair on the back. The nose and lips are black, and the eyes have dark tear marks. The muzzle is pointed, with tan to black hair around the upper part. The winter coat can be quite luxuriant. The limbs are slender, with some rufous coloring, and the tail is more than half the body length and has a black tip. The tail is carried trailing during normal travel, kept horizontal when the fox is running, and raised to almost vertical when the fox makes sudden turns. Females have three pairs of mammae. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Prefers semi-arid plains, open scrub and grassland habitats where it can easily hunt and dig dens. Avoids dense forests, steep terrain, tall grasslands, and true deserts. The species is relatively abundant in areas of Indiawhere rainfall is low and the typical vegetation is scrub, thorn, or dry deciduous forests, or short grasslands.Food and Feeding.Indian Foxes are omnivorous, opportunistic feeders. Their diet consists mainly of insects (e.g. crickets, winged termites, grasshoppers, ants, beetle grubs) and spiders, small rodents, including Soft-furred Field Rats (Millardia meltada), field mice (Musbooduga), and Indian Gerbils, and birds and their eggs, including indian mynahs (Acridotheres tristis), ashy-crowned finch larks (Eremopterix grisea) and gray partridges (Francolinus pondicerianus). Other prey species include ground lizards, rat snakes (Ptyas mucuosus), hedgehogs (Paraechinus nudiventris), and Indian Hares (Lepus naigricollis). Indian Foxes feed on fruits of ber (Ziziphus spp.), neem (Azadirachta indica), mango (Mangifera indica), jambu (Syizigium cumini), banyan (Ficus bengalenss), melons,fruits, and the shoots and pods of Cicer arietum. They have also been reported eating the freshly voided pellets of sheep. They forage alone.Activity patterns.In most parts of their range Indian Foxes are crepuscular and nocturnal. However, they may also hunt at middayif the temperature is mild, as on rainy days.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and pair bonds may last for several years. Larger aggregations may exist when grown pups remain in the natal group for longer than normal. Two lactating females have been observed suckling pups in a single den during one year. Four adult-sized foxes were also observed resting together on two occasions. The common vocalization of the Indian Fox is a chattering cry that seems to have a major role in maintaining territoriality and may also be used as an alarm call. Foxes also growl, whimper, whine, and growl-bark. Indian Foxes scent-mark with droppings and urine.Breeding.December to January. During the breeding season, the male vocalizes intensively, mostly in early evening and early morning. The gestation period is 50-53 days and parturition occurs between January and March. Littersize is usually 2-4. Both parents bring food to the pups and guard the den, and helpers have not been observed. The parents take turns foraging and rarely is the den left unguarded. Post-natal care lasts approximately 4-5 months, after which the young disperse, usually at the onset of the monsoon (June/July in north-west India), when food is plentiful. Dens are used primarily during the pup-rearing period, and are excavated in open habitat, never in dense vegetation. Indian Foxes will usually excavate their own dens but occasionally they will appropriate and enlarge gerbil holes. Dens consist of a mosaic of tunnels in various stages of excavation, leading to a small chamber about 0-5- 1 mbelow the surface where the pups are born. A den complex will usually have from two to seven holes, though as many as 43 have been recorded. The holes and tunnels of a well-used den site in Gujaratcovered an area 10 x 8 m. Breeding sites are reused by breeding pairs in consecutive years. Pups are rarely moved between dens during the denning period, though once the pups become more mobile, they may use any of the numerous dens within their parents’ territory.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) prohibits hunting of all wildlife and lists the Indian Fox in Schedule II. Although the Indian Fox is widespread, it occurs at low densities throughoutits range, and populations can undergo major fluctuations in response to prey availability. Densities of breeding pairs may range from 0-15-0-1/km? during periods of peak rodent abundance to 0-01/km?® during periods of low rodent abundance. In more diverse and stable prey systems, Fox densities are more constant (0-04-0-06/km?®). In protected grasslands such as in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, Fox density was 1-:6/km?* and in unprotected areas only 0-4/km? in the latter area, the population declined five-fold due to an epidemic in 1995. The Indian Fox population is decreasing, due to loss of short grassland-scrub habitat to intensive agriculture and development projects, although the rate of decline remains unknown. In certain states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan, Indian Fox habitat is widespread, with minimal threats, but in other states, like Karnatakaand Tamil Nadu, habitats are limited and decreasing. In Tamil Nadu, humans are a major mortality factor, especially nomadic tribal people who kill foxes for their flesh, teeth, claws, and skin. People also often block fox dens with stones, and foxes are hunted using smoke, nets and dogs at dens. Indian Foxes are often killed on roads, and major highways in the semi-arid tracts are likely to become barriers to dispersal.Bibliography.Acharjyo & Misra (1976), Johnsingh (1978), Johnsingh & Jhala (2004), Manakadan & Rahmani (2000), Mitchell (1977), Mivart (1890a), Prakash (1975), Prater (1980), Rahmani (1989), Roberts (1977), Rodgers et al. (2000), Shrestha (1997), Tripathi et al. (1992).","taxonomy":"Canis bengalensis Shaw, 1800, Bengal, India.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard du Bengale @fr | Bengalfuchs @de | Zorro bengali @es | Bengal Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1800","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"443","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bengalensis","name":"Vulpes bengalensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to the Indian subcontinent. Ranges from the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepalto the S tip of the Indian peninsula, also in Bangladeshand Pakistan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331221/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Acharjyo & Misra (1976) | Johnsingh (1978) | Johnsingh & Jhala (2004) | Manakadan & Rahmani (2000) | Mitchell (1977) | Mivart (1890a) | Prakash (1975) | Prater (1980) | Rahmani (1989) | Roberts (1977) | Rodgers et al. (2000) | Shrestha (1997) | Tripathi et al. (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"Indian Foxes are omnivorous, opportunistic feeders. Their diet consists mainly of insects (e.g. crickets, winged termites, grasshoppers, ants, beetle grubs) and spiders, small rodents, including Soft-furred Field Rats (Millardia meltada), field mice (Musbooduga), and Indian Gerbils, and birds and their eggs, including indian mynahs (Acridotheres tristis), ashy-crowned finch larks (Eremopterix grisea) and gray partridges (Francolinus pondicerianus). Other prey species include ground lizards, rat snakes (Ptyas mucuosus), hedgehogs (Paraechinus nudiventris), and Indian Hares (Lepus naigricollis). Indian Foxes feed on fruits of ber (Ziziphus spp.), neem (Azadirachta indica), mango (Mangifera indica), jambu (Syizigium cumini), banyan (Ficus bengalenss), melons,fruits, and the shoots and pods of Cicer arietum. They have also been reported eating the freshly voided pellets of sheep. They forage alone.","breeding":"December to January. During the breeding season, the male vocalizes intensively, mostly in early evening and early morning. The gestation period is 50-53 days and parturition occurs between January and March. Littersize is usually 2-4. Both parents bring food to the pups and guard the den, and helpers have not been observed. The parents take turns foraging and rarely is the den left unguarded. Post-natal care lasts approximately 4-5 months, after which the young disperse, usually at the onset of the monsoon (June/July in north-west India), when food is plentiful. Dens are used primarily during the pup-rearing period, and are excavated in open habitat, never in dense vegetation. Indian Foxes will usually excavate their own dens but occasionally they will appropriate and enlarge gerbil holes. Dens consist of a mosaic of tunnels in various stages of excavation, leading to a small chamber about 0-5- 1 mbelow the surface where the pups are born. A den complex will usually have from two to seven holes, though as many as 43 have been recorded. The holes and tunnels of a well-used den site in Gujaratcovered an area 10 x 8 m. Breeding sites are reused by breeding pairs in consecutive years. Pups are rarely moved between dens during the denning period, though once the pups become more mobile, they may use any of the numerous dens within their parents’ territory.","activityPatterns":"In most parts of their range Indian Foxes are crepuscular and nocturnal. However, they may also hunt at middayif the temperature is mild, as on rainy days.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and pair bonds may last for several years. Larger aggregations may exist when grown pups remain in the natal group for longer than normal. Two lactating females have been observed suckling pups in a single den during one year. Four adult-sized foxes were also observed resting together on two occasions. The common vocalization of the Indian Fox is a chattering cry that seems to have a major role in maintaining territoriality and may also be used as an alarm call. Foxes also growl, whimper, whine, and growl-bark. Indian Foxes scent-mark with droppings and urine.Breeding.December to January. During the breeding season, the male vocalizes intensively, mostly in early evening and early morning. The gestation period is 50-53 days and parturition occurs between January and March. Littersize is usually 2-4. Both parents bring food to the pups and guard the den, and helpers have not been observed. The parents take turns foraging and rarely is the den left unguarded. Post-natal care lasts approximately 4-5 months, after which the young disperse, usually at the onset of the monsoon (June/July in north-west India), when food is plentiful. Dens are used primarily during the pup-rearing period, and are excavated in open habitat, never in dense vegetation. Indian Foxes will usually excavate their own dens but occasionally they will appropriate and enlarge gerbil holes. Dens consist of a mosaic of tunnels in various stages of excavation, leading to a small chamber about 0-5- 1 mbelow the surface where the pups are born. A den complex will usually have from two to seven holes, though as many as 43 have been recorded. The holes and tunnels of a well-used den site in Gujaratcovered an area 10 x 8 m. Breeding sites are reused by breeding pairs in consecutive years. Pups are rarely moved between dens during the denning period, though once the pups become more mobile, they may use any of the numerous dens within their parents’ territory.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) prohibits hunting of all wildlife and lists the Indian Fox in Schedule II. Although the Indian Fox is widespread, it occurs at low densities throughoutits range, and populations can undergo major fluctuations in response to prey availability. Densities of breeding pairs may range from 0-15-0-1/km? during periods of peak rodent abundance to 0-01/km?® during periods of low rodent abundance. In more diverse and stable prey systems, Fox densities are more constant (0-04-0-06/km?®). In protected grasslands such as in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, Fox density was 1-:6/km?* and in unprotected areas only 0-4/km? in the latter area, the population declined five-fold due to an epidemic in 1995. The Indian Fox population is decreasing, due to loss of short grassland-scrub habitat to intensive agriculture and development projects, although the rate of decline remains unknown. In certain states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan, Indian Fox habitat is widespread, with minimal threats, but in other states, like Karnatakaand Tamil Nadu, habitats are limited and decreasing. In Tamil Nadu, humans are a major mortality factor, especially nomadic tribal people who kill foxes for their flesh, teeth, claws, and skin. People also often block fox dens with stones, and foxes are hunted using smoke, nets and dogs at dens. Indian Foxes are often killed on roads, and major highways in the semi-arid tracts are likely to become barriers to dispersal.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 39-57-5 cmfor males and 46-48 cmfor females, tail 24-7-32 cmfor males and 24-5-31-2 cmfor females; weight 2:7-3-2 kgfor males and over 1-8 kgfor females. Mediumsized, with typical vulpine appearance, though smaller than Red Foxes (V. vulpes). The pelage varies from yellowish gray to silver gray, but lacks the rusty red hair that is typical of the Red Fox. The dorsal region is darker than the underparts, which are a pale cream. The ears have darker brown hair on the back. The nose and lips are black, and the eyes have dark tear marks. The muzzle is pointed, with tan to black hair around the upper part. The winter coat can be quite luxuriant. The limbs are slender, with some rufous coloring, and the tail is more than half the body length and has a black tip. The tail is carried trailing during normal travel, kept horizontal when the fox is running, and raised to almost vertical when the fox makes sudden turns. Females have three pairs of mammae. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Prefers semi-arid plains, open scrub and grassland habitats where it can easily hunt and dig dens. Avoids dense forests, steep terrain, tall grasslands, and true deserts. The species is relatively abundant in areas of Indiawhere rainfall is low and the typical vegetation is scrub, thorn, or dry deciduous forests, or short grasslands."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF21FFDF7E92F685F6CBD128.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF21FFDF7E92F685F6CBD128","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"433","verbatimText":"21.Island FoxUrocyon littoralisFrench:Renard insulaire/ German:Insel-Graufuchs/ Spanish:Cachalillo islefoOther common names:Island Gray Fox, Channel Islands FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes littoralis Baird, 1858,San Miguel Island, California, USA.Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, U. cinereoargenteusand U. lttoralis. The latter is believed to be a direct descendant of the former, having reached the Channel Islands either by chance over-water dispersal or human-assisted dispersal. A series of genetic analyses justifies the current classification of Island Foxes as a separate species and the recognition ofsix subspecies.Subspecies and Distribution.U. l. littoralis Baird, 1858— SW USA(San Miguel I).U. l. catalinae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Catalina I).U. l. clementae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(San Clemente I).U. l. dickey: Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(San Nicolas I).U. l. santacruzae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Cruz I).U. l. santarosae Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(Santa Rosa I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-59 cmfor males and 45-6-63- 4 cmfor females, tail 14- 5-31 cmfor males and 11-5-29- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-4- 2-5 kgfor males an 1-3- 2-4 kgfor females. The Island Fox is the smallest North American canid. Males are significantly heavier than females. The head is gray with black patches on the sides of the muzzle, and the upper and lower lips are outlined in black. White patches on the muzzle extend behind the lateral black patches, to the cheek, and blend into the ventral surface of the neck, which is mostly white. There are small white patches on the side of the nose. Variable degrees of white and rufous color on the chest and belly. The body and tail are mostly gray, the tail with a conspicuous black stripe on the dorsal surface ending in a black tip. Pelage is relatively short. Eight mammae are present. Dental formulais 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Island Foxes typically have fewer caudal vertebrae (15-22) than the Northern Gray Fox (21-22).Habitat.Present in all habitats on the islands, including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland,riparian, and inland and coastal dune. Generally not found in areas highly degraded by human disturbance or overgrazing. Recently, Foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos); on those islands the foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover.Food and Feeding.Island Foxes are omnivorous and feed on a wide variety of insects, vertebrates, fruits, terrestrial molluscs, and nearshore invertebrates. The relative abundance of insects, mammals, and plant material in the diet has been found to differ by habitat type, and by island, depending upon availability of food items. For example, North American Deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) occur at high densities on San MiguelIsland, where they constitute a large proportion of Fox diet. On Santa CruzIsland, Jerusalemcrickets (Stenopelmatusfuscus) are a principal prey. The fruits of the coastal prickly pear cactus (Opuntia littoralis) are a principal food on San Clemente Island. Bird remains in droppings are usually occur infrequently (3- 6%), except in San MiguelIsland where bird remains were found in 22% (n = 208). Island Foxes primarily forage alone, by coursing back and forth through suitable habitat patches and then moving past little-used habitats to other suitable habitat patches.Activity patterns.Island Foxes forage mostly at night, but also during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Island Foxes typically form monogamous pairs occupying discrete territories. Full-grown young may remain within their natal range into their second year. The home ranges are among the smallest recorded for any canid, ranging between 0-15 and 0-9 km®*. On Santa CruzIsland, home ranges expanded when neighboring foxes were killed by golden eagles, suggesting that density of foxes and the spatial distribution of neighbors may influence territory size. Foxes communicate using visual, auditory and olfactory cues. Males have been observed chasing and fighting with other males. Foxes demarcate territory boundaries with latrine sites and have been observed urinating as frequently as every 6- 9 m.Breeding.Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Listed by the state of Californiaas “threatened”. Four of the six subspecies were also listed in 2004 as “ USAfederally endangered”, including santacruzae, santarosae, littoralis, and catalinae. In recent years there have been catastrophic population declines. Island Fox numbers fell from approximately 6000 individuals to less than 1500 in2002. The current primary threats to the species include golden eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands and the introduction of canine diseases, especially canine distemper virus (CDV), to all populations. An outbreak of CDV decimated the Santa Catalina Island Fox population from 1998-2000. All populations are small, several critically, and are thus especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes.Bibliography.Collins (1991a, 1991b, 1993), Collins & Laughrin (1979), Coonan (2002), Coonan & Rutz (2002), Cooper et al. (2001), Crooks & van Vuren (1995, 1996), Elliot & Popper (1999), Fausett (1982), Garcelon, Roemer etal. (1999), Garcelon, Wayne & Gonzales (1992), Goeden et al. (1967), Hall (1981), Kovach & Dow (1981), Laughrin (1973, 1977), Moore & Collins (1995), Roemer (1999), Roemer & Wayne (2003), Roemer, Coonan, Garcelon et al. (2001), Roemer, Coonan, Munson & Wayne (2004), Roemer, Donlan & Courchamp (2002), Roemer, Garcelon etal. (1994), Schmidt et al. (2002), Suckling & Garcelon (2000), Thompson et al. (1998), Timm, Barker et al. (2002), Timm, Stokely et al. (2000), Wayne, Geffen et al. (1997), Wayne, George et al. (1991).","taxonomy":"Vulpes littoralis Baird, 1858,San Miguel Island, California, USA.Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, U. cinereoargenteusand U. lttoralis. The latter is believed to be a direct descendant of the former, having reached the Channel Islands either by chance over-water dispersal or human-assisted dispersal. A series of genetic analyses justifies the current classification of Island Foxes as a separate species and the recognition ofsix subspecies.","commonNames":"Renard insulaire @fr | German @en | nsel-Graufuchs @en | Cachalillo islefo @es | Other common names @en | sland Gray Fox @en | Channel @en | slands Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1857","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1858","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Urocyon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"433","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"littoralis","name":"Urocyon littoralis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. l. littoralis Baird, 1858— SW USA(San Miguel I).U. l. catalinae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Catalina I).U. l. clementae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(San Clemente I).U. l. dickey: Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(San Nicolas I).U. l. santacruzae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Cruz I).U. l. santarosae Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(Santa Rosa I).","bibliography":"Collins (1991a, 1991b, 1993) | Collins & Laughrin (1979) | Coonan (2002) | Coonan & Rutz (2002) | Cooper et al. (2001) | Crooks & van Vuren (1995, 1996) | Elliot & Popper (1999) | Fausett (1982) | Garcelon, Roemer etal. (1999) | Garcelon, Wayne & Gonzales (1992) | Goeden et al. (1967) | Hall (1981) | Kovach & Dow (1981) | Laughrin (1973, 1977) | Moore & Collins (1995) | Roemer (1999) | Roemer & Wayne (2003) | Roemer, Coonan, Garcelon et al. (2001) | Roemer, Coonan, Munson & Wayne (2004) | Roemer, Donlan & Courchamp (2002) | Roemer, Garcelon etal. (1994) | Schmidt et al. (2002) | Suckling & Garcelon (2000) | Thompson et al. (1998) | Timm, Barker et al. (2002) | Timm, Stokely et al. (2000) | Wayne, Geffen et al. (1997) | Wayne, George et al. (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"Island Foxes are omnivorous and feed on a wide variety of insects, vertebrates, fruits, terrestrial molluscs, and nearshore invertebrates. The relative abundance of insects, mammals, and plant material in the diet has been found to differ by habitat type, and by island, depending upon availability of food items. For example, North American Deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) occur at high densities on San MiguelIsland, where they constitute a large proportion of Fox diet. On Santa CruzIsland, Jerusalemcrickets (Stenopelmatusfuscus) are a principal prey. The fruits of the coastal prickly pear cactus (Opuntia littoralis) are a principal food on San Clemente Island. Bird remains in droppings are usually occur infrequently (3- 6%), except in San MiguelIsland where bird remains were found in 22% (n = 208). Island Foxes primarily forage alone, by coursing back and forth through suitable habitat patches and then moving past little-used habitats to other suitable habitat patches.","breeding":"Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.","activityPatterns":"Island Foxes forage mostly at night, but also during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Island Foxes typically form monogamous pairs occupying discrete territories. Full-grown young may remain within their natal range into their second year. The home ranges are among the smallest recorded for any canid, ranging between 0-15 and 0-9 km®*. On Santa CruzIsland, home ranges expanded when neighboring foxes were killed by golden eagles, suggesting that density of foxes and the spatial distribution of neighbors may influence territory size. Foxes communicate using visual, auditory and olfactory cues. Males have been observed chasing and fighting with other males. Foxes demarcate territory boundaries with latrine sites and have been observed urinating as frequently as every 6- 9 m.Breeding.Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Listed by the state of Californiaas “threatened”. Four of the six subspecies were also listed in 2004 as “ USAfederally endangered”, including santacruzae, santarosae, littoralis, and catalinae. In recent years there have been catastrophic population declines. Island Fox numbers fell from approximately 6000 individuals to less than 1500 in2002. The current primary threats to the species include golden eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands and the introduction of canine diseases, especially canine distemper virus (CDV), to all populations. An outbreak of CDV decimated the Santa Catalina Island Fox population from 1998-2000. All populations are small, several critically, and are thus especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47-59 cmfor males and 45-6-63- 4 cmfor females, tail 14- 5-31 cmfor males and 11-5-29- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-4- 2-5 kgfor males an 1-3- 2-4 kgfor females. The Island Fox is the smallest North American canid. Males are significantly heavier than females. The head is gray with black patches on the sides of the muzzle, and the upper and lower lips are outlined in black. White patches on the muzzle extend behind the lateral black patches, to the cheek, and blend into the ventral surface of the neck, which is mostly white. There are small white patches on the side of the nose. Variable degrees of white and rufous color on the chest and belly. The body and tail are mostly gray, the tail with a conspicuous black stripe on the dorsal surface ending in a black tip. Pelage is relatively short. Eight mammae are present. Dental formulais 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Island Foxes typically have fewer caudal vertebrae (15-22) than the Northern Gray Fox (21-22).","habitat":"Present in all habitats on the islands, including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland,riparian, and inland and coastal dune. Generally not found in areas highly degraded by human disturbance or overgrazing. Recently, Foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos); on those islands the foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF21FFDF7E92F685F6CBD128.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF21FFDF7E92F685F6CBD128","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"433","verbatimText":"21.Island FoxUrocyon littoralisFrench:Renard insulaire/ German:Insel-Graufuchs/ Spanish:Cachalillo islefoOther common names:Island Gray Fox, Channel Islands FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes littoralis Baird, 1858,San Miguel Island, California, USA.Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, U. cinereoargenteusand U. lttoralis. The latter is believed to be a direct descendant of the former, having reached the Channel Islands either by chance over-water dispersal or human-assisted dispersal. A series of genetic analyses justifies the current classification of Island Foxes as a separate species and the recognition ofsix subspecies.Subspecies and Distribution.U. l. littoralis Baird, 1858— SW USA(San Miguel I).U. l. catalinae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Catalina I).U. l. clementae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(San Clemente I).U. l. dickey: Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(San Nicolas I).U. l. santacruzae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Cruz I).U. l. santarosae Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(Santa Rosa I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-59 cmfor males and 45-6-63- 4 cmfor females, tail 14- 5-31 cmfor males and 11-5-29- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-4- 2-5 kgfor males an 1-3- 2-4 kgfor females. The Island Fox is the smallest North American canid. Males are significantly heavier than females. The head is gray with black patches on the sides of the muzzle, and the upper and lower lips are outlined in black. White patches on the muzzle extend behind the lateral black patches, to the cheek, and blend into the ventral surface of the neck, which is mostly white. There are small white patches on the side of the nose. Variable degrees of white and rufous color on the chest and belly. The body and tail are mostly gray, the tail with a conspicuous black stripe on the dorsal surface ending in a black tip. Pelage is relatively short. Eight mammae are present. Dental formulais 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Island Foxes typically have fewer caudal vertebrae (15-22) than the Northern Gray Fox (21-22).Habitat.Present in all habitats on the islands, including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland,riparian, and inland and coastal dune. Generally not found in areas highly degraded by human disturbance or overgrazing. Recently, Foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos); on those islands the foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover.Food and Feeding.Island Foxes are omnivorous and feed on a wide variety of insects, vertebrates, fruits, terrestrial molluscs, and nearshore invertebrates. The relative abundance of insects, mammals, and plant material in the diet has been found to differ by habitat type, and by island, depending upon availability of food items. For example, North American Deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) occur at high densities on San MiguelIsland, where they constitute a large proportion of Fox diet. On Santa CruzIsland, Jerusalemcrickets (Stenopelmatusfuscus) are a principal prey. The fruits of the coastal prickly pear cactus (Opuntia littoralis) are a principal food on San Clemente Island. Bird remains in droppings are usually occur infrequently (3- 6%), except in San MiguelIsland where bird remains were found in 22% (n = 208). Island Foxes primarily forage alone, by coursing back and forth through suitable habitat patches and then moving past little-used habitats to other suitable habitat patches.Activity patterns.Island Foxes forage mostly at night, but also during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Island Foxes typically form monogamous pairs occupying discrete territories. Full-grown young may remain within their natal range into their second year. The home ranges are among the smallest recorded for any canid, ranging between 0-15 and 0-9 km®*. On Santa CruzIsland, home ranges expanded when neighboring foxes were killed by golden eagles, suggesting that density of foxes and the spatial distribution of neighbors may influence territory size. Foxes communicate using visual, auditory and olfactory cues. Males have been observed chasing and fighting with other males. Foxes demarcate territory boundaries with latrine sites and have been observed urinating as frequently as every 6- 9 m.Breeding.Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Listed by the state of Californiaas “threatened”. Four of the six subspecies were also listed in 2004 as “ USAfederally endangered”, including santacruzae, santarosae, littoralis, and catalinae. In recent years there have been catastrophic population declines. Island Fox numbers fell from approximately 6000 individuals to less than 1500 in2002. The current primary threats to the species include golden eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands and the introduction of canine diseases, especially canine distemper virus (CDV), to all populations. An outbreak of CDV decimated the Santa Catalina Island Fox population from 1998-2000. All populations are small, several critically, and are thus especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes.Bibliography.Collins (1991a, 1991b, 1993), Collins & Laughrin (1979), Coonan (2002), Coonan & Rutz (2002), Cooper et al. (2001), Crooks & van Vuren (1995, 1996), Elliot & Popper (1999), Fausett (1982), Garcelon, Roemer etal. (1999), Garcelon, Wayne & Gonzales (1992), Goeden et al. (1967), Hall (1981), Kovach & Dow (1981), Laughrin (1973, 1977), Moore & Collins (1995), Roemer (1999), Roemer & Wayne (2003), Roemer, Coonan, Garcelon et al. (2001), Roemer, Coonan, Munson & Wayne (2004), Roemer, Donlan & Courchamp (2002), Roemer, Garcelon etal. (1994), Schmidt et al. (2002), Suckling & Garcelon (2000), Thompson et al. (1998), Timm, Barker et al. (2002), Timm, Stokely et al. (2000), Wayne, Geffen et al. (1997), Wayne, George et al. (1991).","taxonomy":"Vulpes littoralis Baird, 1858,San Miguel Island, California, USA.Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, U. cinereoargenteusand U. lttoralis. The latter is believed to be a direct descendant of the former, having reached the Channel Islands either by chance over-water dispersal or human-assisted dispersal. A series of genetic analyses justifies the current classification of Island Foxes as a separate species and the recognition ofsix subspecies.","commonNames":"Renard insulaire @fr | German @en | nsel-Graufuchs @en | Cachalillo islefo @es | Other common names @en | sland Gray Fox @en | Channel @en | slands Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1857","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Baird","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1858","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Urocyon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"433","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"littoralis","name":"Urocyon littoralis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. l. littoralis Baird, 1858— SW USA(San Miguel I).U. l. catalinae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Catalina I).U. l. clementae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(San Clemente I).U. l. dickey: Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(San Nicolas I).U. l. santacruzae Merriam, 1903— SW USA(Santa Cruz I).U. l. santarosae Grinnell & Linsdale 1930— SW USA(Santa Rosa I).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331203/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Collins (1991a, 1991b, 1993) | Collins & Laughrin (1979) | Coonan (2002) | Coonan & Rutz (2002) | Cooper et al. (2001) | Crooks & van Vuren (1995, 1996) | Elliot & Popper (1999) | Fausett (1982) | Garcelon, Roemer etal. (1999) | Garcelon, Wayne & Gonzales (1992) | Goeden et al. (1967) | Hall (1981) | Kovach & Dow (1981) | Laughrin (1973, 1977) | Moore & Collins (1995) | Roemer (1999) | Roemer & Wayne (2003) | Roemer, Coonan, Garcelon et al. (2001) | Roemer, Coonan, Munson & Wayne (2004) | Roemer, Donlan & Courchamp (2002) | Roemer, Garcelon etal. (1994) | Schmidt et al. (2002) | Suckling & Garcelon (2000) | Thompson et al. (1998) | Timm, Barker et al. (2002) | Timm, Stokely et al. (2000) | Wayne, Geffen et al. (1997) | Wayne, George et al. (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"Island Foxes are omnivorous and feed on a wide variety of insects, vertebrates, fruits, terrestrial molluscs, and nearshore invertebrates. The relative abundance of insects, mammals, and plant material in the diet has been found to differ by habitat type, and by island, depending upon availability of food items. For example, North American Deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) occur at high densities on San MiguelIsland, where they constitute a large proportion of Fox diet. On Santa CruzIsland, Jerusalemcrickets (Stenopelmatusfuscus) are a principal prey. The fruits of the coastal prickly pear cactus (Opuntia littoralis) are a principal food on San Clemente Island. Bird remains in droppings are usually occur infrequently (3- 6%), except in San MiguelIsland where bird remains were found in 22% (n = 208). Island Foxes primarily forage alone, by coursing back and forth through suitable habitat patches and then moving past little-used habitats to other suitable habitat patches.","breeding":"Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.","activityPatterns":"Island Foxes forage mostly at night, but also during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Island Foxes typically form monogamous pairs occupying discrete territories. Full-grown young may remain within their natal range into their second year. The home ranges are among the smallest recorded for any canid, ranging between 0-15 and 0-9 km®*. On Santa CruzIsland, home ranges expanded when neighboring foxes were killed by golden eagles, suggesting that density of foxes and the spatial distribution of neighbors may influence territory size. Foxes communicate using visual, auditory and olfactory cues. Males have been observed chasing and fighting with other males. Foxes demarcate territory boundaries with latrine sites and have been observed urinating as frequently as every 6- 9 m.Breeding.Foxes breed once a year, mainly in April. Recent research suggests they may have induced ovulation, allowing for plasticity in the timing of reproduction. Litter size varies from one to five, but most litters are smaller, from one to three. Average litter size for 24 dens located on Santa Cruzwas 2-2. Weaning is complete by mid- to late June and pups reach adult weight and become independent by September. Although most foxes are typically monogamous, extra-pair fertilization has been recorded: of 16 pups whose paternity was tested genetically, 25% were the result of extra-pairfertilizations. Dens consist of rock piles, dense brush, and natural cavities in the ground or under tree trunks.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Listed by the state of Californiaas “threatened”. Four of the six subspecies were also listed in 2004 as “ USAfederally endangered”, including santacruzae, santarosae, littoralis, and catalinae. In recent years there have been catastrophic population declines. Island Fox numbers fell from approximately 6000 individuals to less than 1500 in2002. The current primary threats to the species include golden eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands and the introduction of canine diseases, especially canine distemper virus (CDV), to all populations. An outbreak of CDV decimated the Santa Catalina Island Fox population from 1998-2000. All populations are small, several critically, and are thus especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47-59 cmfor males and 45-6-63- 4 cmfor females, tail 14- 5-31 cmfor males and 11-5-29- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-4- 2-5 kgfor males an 1-3- 2-4 kgfor females. The Island Fox is the smallest North American canid. Males are significantly heavier than females. The head is gray with black patches on the sides of the muzzle, and the upper and lower lips are outlined in black. White patches on the muzzle extend behind the lateral black patches, to the cheek, and blend into the ventral surface of the neck, which is mostly white. There are small white patches on the side of the nose. Variable degrees of white and rufous color on the chest and belly. The body and tail are mostly gray, the tail with a conspicuous black stripe on the dorsal surface ending in a black tip. Pelage is relatively short. Eight mammae are present. Dental formulais 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Island Foxes typically have fewer caudal vertebrae (15-22) than the Northern Gray Fox (21-22).","habitat":"Present in all habitats on the islands, including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland,riparian, and inland and coastal dune. Generally not found in areas highly degraded by human disturbance or overgrazing. Recently, Foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos); on those islands the foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF22FFDC7ED0F90CF928D8B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF22FFDC7ED0F90CF928D8B3","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"432","verbatimText":"19.Hoary FoxPseudalopex vetulusFrench:Renard chenu/ German:Brasilianischer Kampfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro brasilenoOther common names:Small-toothed DogTaxonomy.Canis vetulus Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Monotypic.Distribution.Confined to Brazil, associated with the Cerrado habitats of the central Brazilian plateau.Descriptive notes.Head-body 49-71-5 cmfor males and 51-66 cmfor females, tail 27-38 cmfor males and 25-31 cmfor females; weight 2-5-4 kgfor males and 3-3-6 kgfor females. Slender with a relatively short, pointed muzzle and large ears. Pelage coloris variable: the upperparts are pale gray, whereas the underparts are generally buff yellow to chestnut, including the neck, chest and a patch behind the ears. The anterior part of the neck is buff white, but the underside of the lower jaw is dark, almost black, as are both the tail base and tail tip; a dark spot on the dorsal surface of the tail base is variably present. Near melanic forms have been described. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Occurs in open cerrado habitats, but readily adapts to insectrich livestock pastures and agricultural fields. Rarely observed in densely wooded cerrado, floodplains, or dry or gallery forests.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, though the diet is mainly insects, particularly grounddwelling harvester termites (Synthermes spp. and Cornitermes spp.), recorded in 87% of feces across its geographical range. Dung beetles are consumed in great quantities when seasonally abundant. Other prey includes small mammals, grasshoppers, birds, and reptiles. Hoary Foxes tend to hunt as individuals or in loosely-knit pairs, with or without their juvenile offspring. Foraging group sizes of 3-5 were most common during periods of insect swarming. Hoary Foxes consume termites directly from the ground surface, or from the underside of dried cattle dung, which they flip over by pushing the dung along the ground at speed. Fox pups start eating insects at the age of at least two months. During the early rainy season, adult and young foxes catch flying ant and termite elates, as well as dung beetles.Activity patterns.Predominantly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Monogamous. One study group living in pasture were an adult breeding pair and their five juvenileoffspring. They shared largely overlapping home ranges of 4-6 km® (range 4-5—4-6 km*). Contact rates of a single breeding pair estimated by radio-telemetry indicated that they spent up to 35% of their activity period in close proximity, though this varied substantially when they were rearing offspring (October to May). Spot sightings in different habitats and localities revealed that groups were composed of single animals on 75% of occasions, followed by pairs (30%), and groups larger than two (4%). Vocalizations are most common during the mating season and include a roar and threatening bark. Hoary Foxes urinate using a raised leg position; frequent urination in small quantities is typical of territory marking behavior.Breeding.In the wild, females produce litters of 4-5 offspring once a year during July and August. Pups are born in disused armadillo burrows, particularly dens of Euphractus sexcinctus. Offspring are cared for by the breeding male and female; there is no evidence that other foxes help. During late lactation, the female may visit the den a couple of times per night to nurse; in her absence, the male babysits, grooms, and guards the pups against potential predators. Post-weaning female contact declines substantially, whereas the male stays with the pups during hunting expeditions to insect patches close to the den. The estimated lactation period in the wild is three months. Juveniles of both sexes disperse when 9-10 months old and may establish home ranges adjacent to their natal territory.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in individual state faunal status accounts, but not listed in the Brazilian list of threatened mammals. No reliable data on population size, but considered locally abundant in the central highland cerrado biome, although populations appear smaller than those of the sympatric Crab-eating Fox, for which population estimates are similarly lacking. There is no specific hunting legislation for Hoary Foxes. The principal biome where Hoary Foxes occur is the cerrado, which is being destroyed at a rate of 3% each year, largely in the interests of agriculture (livestock and soybean). It appears that Hoary Foxes adapt to livestock pasture rich in termites and dung beetles. Breeding foxes are found in deforested wooded areas; thusit is possible that deforestation may not have a negative impact on the species. Areas of high human population density are unlikely to be suitable. Hoary Foxes are killed indiscriminately as predators of domestic fowl, although Crab-eating Foxes are probably more often the predators. Young foxes are often taken as pets. Some are killed by domestic dogs when dens are located in peri-urban areas. Road kills have been recorded.Bibliography.Cabrera & Yepes (1960), Coimbra-Filho (1966), Costa& Courtenay (2003), Courtenay & Maffei (2004), Dalponte (1997, 2003), Dalponte & Courtenay (2004), Fonseca et al. (1994), Juarez & Marinho (2002), Silveira (1999), Stains (1974).","taxonomy":"Canis vetulus Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard chenu @fr | Brasilianischer Kampfuchs @de | Zorro brasileno @es | Small-toothed Dog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lund","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Pseudalopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"432","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vetulus","name":"Pseudalopex vetulus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Confined to Brazil, associated with the Cerrado habitats of the central Brazilian plateau.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331199/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cabrera & Yepes (1960) | Coimbra-Filho (1966) | Costa& Courtenay (2003) | Courtenay & Maffei (2004) | Dalponte (1997, 2003) | Dalponte & Courtenay (2004) | Fonseca et al. (1994) | Juarez & Marinho (2002) | Silveira (1999) | Stains (1974)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous, though the diet is mainly insects, particularly grounddwelling harvester termites (Synthermes spp. and Cornitermes spp.), recorded in 87% of feces across its geographical range. Dung beetles are consumed in great quantities when seasonally abundant. Other prey includes small mammals, grasshoppers, birds, and reptiles. Hoary Foxes tend to hunt as individuals or in loosely-knit pairs, with or without their juvenile offspring. Foraging group sizes of 3-5 were most common during periods of insect swarming. Hoary Foxes consume termites directly from the ground surface, or from the underside of dried cattle dung, which they flip over by pushing the dung along the ground at speed. Fox pups start eating insects at the age of at least two months. During the early rainy season, adult and young foxes catch flying ant and termite elates, as well as dung beetles.","breeding":"In the wild, females produce litters of 4-5 offspring once a year during July and August. Pups are born in disused armadillo burrows, particularly dens of Euphractus sexcinctus. Offspring are cared for by the breeding male and female; there is no evidence that other foxes help. During late lactation, the female may visit the den a couple of times per night to nurse; in her absence, the male babysits, grooms, and guards the pups against potential predators. Post-weaning female contact declines substantially, whereas the male stays with the pups during hunting expeditions to insect patches close to the den. The estimated lactation period in the wild is three months. Juveniles of both sexes disperse when 9-10 months old and may establish home ranges adjacent to their natal territory.","activityPatterns":"Predominantly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Monogamous. One study group living in pasture were an adult breeding pair and their five juvenileoffspring. They shared largely overlapping home ranges of 4-6 km® (range 4-5—4-6 km*). Contact rates of a single breeding pair estimated by radio-telemetry indicated that they spent up to 35% of their activity period in close proximity, though this varied substantially when they were rearing offspring (October to May). Spot sightings in different habitats and localities revealed that groups were composed of single animals on 75% of occasions, followed by pairs (30%), and groups larger than two (4%). Vocalizations are most common during the mating season and include a roar and threatening bark. Hoary Foxes urinate using a raised leg position; frequent urination in small quantities is typical of territory marking behavior.Breeding.In the wild, females produce litters of 4-5 offspring once a year during July and August. Pups are born in disused armadillo burrows, particularly dens of Euphractus sexcinctus. Offspring are cared for by the breeding male and female; there is no evidence that other foxes help. During late lactation, the female may visit the den a couple of times per night to nurse; in her absence, the male babysits, grooms, and guards the pups against potential predators. Post-weaning female contact declines substantially, whereas the male stays with the pups during hunting expeditions to insect patches close to the den. The estimated lactation period in the wild is three months. Juveniles of both sexes disperse when 9-10 months old and may establish home ranges adjacent to their natal territory.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in individual state faunal status accounts, but not listed in the Brazilian list of threatened mammals. No reliable data on population size, but considered locally abundant in the central highland cerrado biome, although populations appear smaller than those of the sympatric Crab-eating Fox, for which population estimates are similarly lacking. There is no specific hunting legislation for Hoary Foxes. The principal biome where Hoary Foxes occur is the cerrado, which is being destroyed at a rate of 3% each year, largely in the interests of agriculture (livestock and soybean). It appears that Hoary Foxes adapt to livestock pasture rich in termites and dung beetles. Breeding foxes are found in deforested wooded areas; thusit is possible that deforestation may not have a negative impact on the species. Areas of high human population density are unlikely to be suitable. Hoary Foxes are killed indiscriminately as predators of domestic fowl, although Crab-eating Foxes are probably more often the predators. Young foxes are often taken as pets. Some are killed by domestic dogs when dens are located in peri-urban areas. Road kills have been recorded.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 49-71-5 cmfor males and 51-66 cmfor females, tail 27-38 cmfor males and 25-31 cmfor females; weight 2-5-4 kgfor males and 3-3-6 kgfor females. Slender with a relatively short, pointed muzzle and large ears. Pelage coloris variable: the upperparts are pale gray, whereas the underparts are generally buff yellow to chestnut, including the neck, chest and a patch behind the ears. The anterior part of the neck is buff white, but the underside of the lower jaw is dark, almost black, as are both the tail base and tail tip; a dark spot on the dorsal surface of the tail base is variably present. Near melanic forms have been described. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Occurs in open cerrado habitats, but readily adapts to insectrich livestock pastures and agricultural fields. Rarely observed in densely wooded cerrado, floodplains, or dry or gallery forests."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF22FFDF7BDAF92EFD19D5CA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF22FFDF7BDAF92EFD19D5CA","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"432","verbatimText":"20.Northern Gray FoxUrocyon cinereoargenteusFrench:Renard gris/ German:Graufuchs/ Spanish:Chacalillo grisOther common names:Tree FoxTaxonomy.Canis cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775,eastern North America.Sufficiently distinct from vulpine foxes to warrant recognition as a separate genus. The Northern Gray Fox often clusters genetically with two other ancient lineages, the Raccoon Dog and the Bat-eared Fox, but the exact relationship is unclear. Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, the Northern Gray Fox and Island Fox (U. lttoralis). Up to sixteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. c. cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775— E USA.U. c. borealis Merriam, 1903— SE Canadaand USA(New England).U. c. californicus Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).U. c. costaricensis Goodwin, 1938— Costa Rica.U. c. flornidanus Rhoads, 1895— Gulf of Mexico.U. c. fraterculus Elliot, 1896— Mexico(Yucatan).U. c. furvus G. M. Allen & Barbour, 1923— Panama.U. c. guatemalae G. S. Miller, 1899— S MexicoS to Nicaragua.U. c. madrensis Burt & Hooper, 1941— Mexico(S Sonora, SW Chihuahua& NW Durango).U. c. nigrirostris Lichtenstein, 1830— SW Mexico.U. c. ocythous Bangs, 1899— USA(Central Plains) and adjoining S Canada.U. c. orinomus Goldman, 1938— S Mexico(Isthmus of Tehuantepec).U. c. perunsularis Huey, 1928— NW Mexico(Baja California).U. c. scottit Mearns, 1891— N Mexicoand SW USA.U. c. townsend: Merriam, 1899— W USA(California& Oregon).U. c. venezuelae]. A. Allen, 1911— Colombia, Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 56-66 cmfor males, 54-57-8 cmfor females,tail 33-3 44-3 cmfor males, 28-0-40-7 cmfor females; weight 3-4-5-5 kgfor males and 2-3-9 kgfor females. Medium-sized with a stocky body, moderately short legs and medium-sized ears. Coat grizzled gray on the back and sides with a dark longitudinal stripe on top of a black-tipped tail. Conspicuous cinnamon-rusty color on its neck, sides and limbs. Face with dark and white markings. There is also white on its ears, throat, chest, belly and hind limbs. The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur has a coarse appearance. The dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The posterior ventral border of the dentition has a prominent notch or “step”, and on the cranium, the temporal ridges are separated anteriorly but connect posteriorly to form a distinctive “U” shape.Habitat.Closely associated with deciduous and southern pine forests interspersed with old fields and scrubby woodlands in eastern North America. In the west, commonly found in mixed agricultural, woodland, chaparral, riparian landscapes, and shrub habitats. In Central America, occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats, and in South America forested montane habitats. Northern Gray Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the south-western USAand northern Mexicowhere cover is sufficient. They also live at the margins of some urban areas.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous. During winter, prey consists largely of rabbits (Sylvilagus spp-) and rodents. In spring and summer it diversifies to include insects (e.g. grasshoppers), birds, and sometimes carrion. Northern Gray Foxes also feed on natural fruits and nuts, often consuming more of these foods in the fall as their availability increases.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Monogamy with occasional polygyny is probably most typical. The basic social unit is the mated pair and their offspring of the year; it is not known whether breeding pairs remain together during consecutive years. Offspring typically disperse at 9-10 months of age, and although long-distance dispersal (over 80 km) has been reported, young foxes may also return to and settle down near their natal ranges. Gray Foxes exhibit some territoriality, as home ranges of adjacent family groups may overlap, but core areas appear to be used exclusively by a single family. Home range size varies from 0-8 km? to 27- 6 km?. Foxes increase their home ranges during late fall and winter, possibly in response to changes in food resource availability. Scent marking consists of urine and feces depositions in conspicuous locations. The foxes communicate vocally with growls, alarm barks, screams, and “coos” and “mewing” sounds during greetings. Northern Gray Foxes engage in allogrooming, adults grooming juveniles and each other.Breeding.Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Common where it occurs, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by Coyotes and Bobcats. Reported densities range from 0-4/km?® in California to 1-5/km? in Florida. The Gray Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canadaand the USA. Trapping is legal throughout much of its range, and is likely to be the most important source of mortality where it occurs and probably limits populations locally.Bibliography.Chamberlain (2002), Chamberlain & Leopold (2000), Cohen & Fox (1976), Davis & Schmidly (1994), Eisenberg (1989), Farias, V. (2000), Follman (1973, 1978), Fox (1970), Fritzell (1987), Fritzell & Haroldson (1982), Fuller & Cypher (2004), Greenberg & Pelton (1994), Grinnell et al. (1937), Hall (1981), Harrison (1997), Nicholson (1982), Nicholson & Hill (1981), Nicholson et al. (1985), Sullivan (1956), Trapp & Hallberg (1975), Wayne et al. (1997), Wood (1958), Yearsley & Samuel (1982).","taxonomy":"Canis cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775,eastern North America.Sufficiently distinct from vulpine foxes to warrant recognition as a separate genus. The Northern Gray Fox often clusters genetically with two other ancient lineages, the Raccoon Dog and the Bat-eared Fox, but the exact relationship is unclear. Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, the Northern Gray Fox and Island Fox (U. lttoralis). Up to sixteen subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard gris @fr | Graufuchs @de | Chacalillo gris @es | Tree Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Urocyon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"432","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cinereoargenteus","name":"Urocyon cinereoargenteus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. c. cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775— E USA.U. c. borealis Merriam, 1903— SE Canadaand USA(New England).U. c. californicus Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).U. c. costaricensis Goodwin, 1938— Costa Rica.U. c. flornidanus Rhoads, 1895— Gulf of Mexico.U. c. fraterculus Elliot, 1896— Mexico(Yucatan).U. c. furvus G. M. Allen & Barbour, 1923— Panama.U. c. guatemalae G. S. Miller, 1899— S MexicoS to Nicaragua.U. c. madrensis Burt & Hooper, 1941— Mexico(S Sonora, SW Chihuahua& NW Durango).U. c. nigrirostris Lichtenstein, 1830— SW Mexico.U. c. ocythous Bangs, 1899— USA(Central Plains) and adjoining S Canada.U. c. orinomus Goldman, 1938— S Mexico(Isthmus of Tehuantepec).U. c. perunsularis Huey, 1928— NW Mexico(Baja California).U. c. scottit Mearns, 1891— N Mexicoand SW USA.U. c. townsend: Merriam, 1899— W USA(California& Oregon).U. c. venezuelae]. A. Allen, 1911— Colombia, Venezuela.","bibliography":"Chamberlain (2002) | Chamberlain & Leopold (2000) | Cohen & Fox (1976) | Davis & Schmidly (1994) | Eisenberg (1989) | Farias, V. (2000) | Follman (1973, 1978) | Fox (1970) | Fritzell (1987) | Fritzell & Haroldson (1982) | Fuller & Cypher (2004) | Greenberg & Pelton (1994) | Grinnell et al. (1937) | Hall (1981) | Harrison (1997) | Nicholson (1982) | Nicholson & Hill (1981) | Nicholson et al. (1985) | Sullivan (1956) | Trapp & Hallberg (1975) | Wayne et al. (1997) | Wood (1958) | Yearsley & Samuel (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous. During winter, prey consists largely of rabbits (Sylvilagus spp-) and rodents. In spring and summer it diversifies to include insects (e.g. grasshoppers), birds, and sometimes carrion. Northern Gray Foxes also feed on natural fruits and nuts, often consuming more of these foods in the fall as their availability increases.","breeding":"Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.","activityPatterns":"Mostly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Monogamy with occasional polygyny is probably most typical. The basic social unit is the mated pair and their offspring of the year; it is not known whether breeding pairs remain together during consecutive years. Offspring typically disperse at 9-10 months of age, and although long-distance dispersal (over 80 km) has been reported, young foxes may also return to and settle down near their natal ranges. Gray Foxes exhibit some territoriality, as home ranges of adjacent family groups may overlap, but core areas appear to be used exclusively by a single family. Home range size varies from 0-8 km? to 27- 6 km?. Foxes increase their home ranges during late fall and winter, possibly in response to changes in food resource availability. Scent marking consists of urine and feces depositions in conspicuous locations. The foxes communicate vocally with growls, alarm barks, screams, and “coos” and “mewing” sounds during greetings. Northern Gray Foxes engage in allogrooming, adults grooming juveniles and each other.Breeding.Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Common where it occurs, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by Coyotes and Bobcats. Reported densities range from 0-4/km?® in California to 1-5/km? in Florida. The Gray Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canadaand the USA. Trapping is legal throughout much of its range, and is likely to be the most important source of mortality where it occurs and probably limits populations locally.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 56-66 cmfor males, 54-57-8 cmfor females,tail 33-3 44-3 cmfor males, 28-0-40-7 cmfor females; weight 3-4-5-5 kgfor males and 2-3-9 kgfor females. Medium-sized with a stocky body, moderately short legs and medium-sized ears. Coat grizzled gray on the back and sides with a dark longitudinal stripe on top of a black-tipped tail. Conspicuous cinnamon-rusty color on its neck, sides and limbs. Face with dark and white markings. There is also white on its ears, throat, chest, belly and hind limbs. The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur has a coarse appearance. The dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The posterior ventral border of the dentition has a prominent notch or “step”, and on the cranium, the temporal ridges are separated anteriorly but connect posteriorly to form a distinctive “U” shape.","habitat":"Closely associated with deciduous and southern pine forests interspersed with old fields and scrubby woodlands in eastern North America. In the west, commonly found in mixed agricultural, woodland, chaparral, riparian landscapes, and shrub habitats. In Central America, occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats, and in South America forested montane habitats. Northern Gray Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the south-western USAand northern Mexicowhere cover is sufficient. They also live at the margins of some urban areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF22FFDF7BDAF92EFD19D5CA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF22FFDF7BDAF92EFD19D5CA","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"432","verbatimText":"20.Northern Gray FoxUrocyon cinereoargenteusFrench:Renard gris/ German:Graufuchs/ Spanish:Chacalillo grisOther common names:Tree FoxTaxonomy.Canis cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775,eastern North America.Sufficiently distinct from vulpine foxes to warrant recognition as a separate genus. The Northern Gray Fox often clusters genetically with two other ancient lineages, the Raccoon Dog and the Bat-eared Fox, but the exact relationship is unclear. Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, the Northern Gray Fox and Island Fox (U. lttoralis). Up to sixteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.U. c. cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775— E USA.U. c. borealis Merriam, 1903— SE Canadaand USA(New England).U. c. californicus Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).U. c. costaricensis Goodwin, 1938— Costa Rica.U. c. flornidanus Rhoads, 1895— Gulf of Mexico.U. c. fraterculus Elliot, 1896— Mexico(Yucatan).U. c. furvus G. M. Allen & Barbour, 1923— Panama.U. c. guatemalae G. S. Miller, 1899— S MexicoS to Nicaragua.U. c. madrensis Burt & Hooper, 1941— Mexico(S Sonora, SW Chihuahua& NW Durango).U. c. nigrirostris Lichtenstein, 1830— SW Mexico.U. c. ocythous Bangs, 1899— USA(Central Plains) and adjoining S Canada.U. c. orinomus Goldman, 1938— S Mexico(Isthmus of Tehuantepec).U. c. perunsularis Huey, 1928— NW Mexico(Baja California).U. c. scottit Mearns, 1891— N Mexicoand SW USA.U. c. townsend: Merriam, 1899— W USA(California& Oregon).U. c. venezuelae]. A. Allen, 1911— Colombia, Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 56-66 cmfor males, 54-57-8 cmfor females,tail 33-3 44-3 cmfor males, 28-0-40-7 cmfor females; weight 3-4-5-5 kgfor males and 2-3-9 kgfor females. Medium-sized with a stocky body, moderately short legs and medium-sized ears. Coat grizzled gray on the back and sides with a dark longitudinal stripe on top of a black-tipped tail. Conspicuous cinnamon-rusty color on its neck, sides and limbs. Face with dark and white markings. There is also white on its ears, throat, chest, belly and hind limbs. The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur has a coarse appearance. The dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The posterior ventral border of the dentition has a prominent notch or “step”, and on the cranium, the temporal ridges are separated anteriorly but connect posteriorly to form a distinctive “U” shape.Habitat.Closely associated with deciduous and southern pine forests interspersed with old fields and scrubby woodlands in eastern North America. In the west, commonly found in mixed agricultural, woodland, chaparral, riparian landscapes, and shrub habitats. In Central America, occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats, and in South America forested montane habitats. Northern Gray Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the south-western USAand northern Mexicowhere cover is sufficient. They also live at the margins of some urban areas.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous. During winter, prey consists largely of rabbits (Sylvilagus spp-) and rodents. In spring and summer it diversifies to include insects (e.g. grasshoppers), birds, and sometimes carrion. Northern Gray Foxes also feed on natural fruits and nuts, often consuming more of these foods in the fall as their availability increases.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Monogamy with occasional polygyny is probably most typical. The basic social unit is the mated pair and their offspring of the year; it is not known whether breeding pairs remain together during consecutive years. Offspring typically disperse at 9-10 months of age, and although long-distance dispersal (over 80 km) has been reported, young foxes may also return to and settle down near their natal ranges. Gray Foxes exhibit some territoriality, as home ranges of adjacent family groups may overlap, but core areas appear to be used exclusively by a single family. Home range size varies from 0-8 km? to 27- 6 km?. Foxes increase their home ranges during late fall and winter, possibly in response to changes in food resource availability. Scent marking consists of urine and feces depositions in conspicuous locations. The foxes communicate vocally with growls, alarm barks, screams, and “coos” and “mewing” sounds during greetings. Northern Gray Foxes engage in allogrooming, adults grooming juveniles and each other.Breeding.Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Common where it occurs, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by Coyotes and Bobcats. Reported densities range from 0-4/km?® in California to 1-5/km? in Florida. The Gray Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canadaand the USA. Trapping is legal throughout much of its range, and is likely to be the most important source of mortality where it occurs and probably limits populations locally.Bibliography.Chamberlain (2002), Chamberlain & Leopold (2000), Cohen & Fox (1976), Davis & Schmidly (1994), Eisenberg (1989), Farias, V. (2000), Follman (1973, 1978), Fox (1970), Fritzell (1987), Fritzell & Haroldson (1982), Fuller & Cypher (2004), Greenberg & Pelton (1994), Grinnell et al. (1937), Hall (1981), Harrison (1997), Nicholson (1982), Nicholson & Hill (1981), Nicholson et al. (1985), Sullivan (1956), Trapp & Hallberg (1975), Wayne et al. (1997), Wood (1958), Yearsley & Samuel (1982).","taxonomy":"Canis cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775,eastern North America.Sufficiently distinct from vulpine foxes to warrant recognition as a separate genus. The Northern Gray Fox often clusters genetically with two other ancient lineages, the Raccoon Dog and the Bat-eared Fox, but the exact relationship is unclear. Urocyonis currently considered a basal genus within the Canidaeand has only two surviving members, the Northern Gray Fox and Island Fox (U. lttoralis). Up to sixteen subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard gris @fr | Graufuchs @de | Chacalillo gris @es | Tree Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Urocyon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"432","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cinereoargenteus","name":"Urocyon cinereoargenteus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"U. c. cinereoargenteus Schreber, 1775— E USA.U. c. borealis Merriam, 1903— SE Canadaand USA(New England).U. c. californicus Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).U. c. costaricensis Goodwin, 1938— Costa Rica.U. c. flornidanus Rhoads, 1895— Gulf of Mexico.U. c. fraterculus Elliot, 1896— Mexico(Yucatan).U. c. furvus G. M. Allen & Barbour, 1923— Panama.U. c. guatemalae G. S. Miller, 1899— S MexicoS to Nicaragua.U. c. madrensis Burt & Hooper, 1941— Mexico(S Sonora, SW Chihuahua& NW Durango).U. c. nigrirostris Lichtenstein, 1830— SW Mexico.U. c. ocythous Bangs, 1899— USA(Central Plains) and adjoining S Canada.U. c. orinomus Goldman, 1938— S Mexico(Isthmus of Tehuantepec).U. c. perunsularis Huey, 1928— NW Mexico(Baja California).U. c. scottit Mearns, 1891— N Mexicoand SW USA.U. c. townsend: Merriam, 1899— W USA(California& Oregon).U. c. venezuelae]. A. Allen, 1911— Colombia, Venezuela.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331201/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chamberlain (2002) | Chamberlain & Leopold (2000) | Cohen & Fox (1976) | Davis & Schmidly (1994) | Eisenberg (1989) | Farias, V. (2000) | Follman (1973, 1978) | Fox (1970) | Fritzell (1987) | Fritzell & Haroldson (1982) | Fuller & Cypher (2004) | Greenberg & Pelton (1994) | Grinnell et al. (1937) | Hall (1981) | Harrison (1997) | Nicholson (1982) | Nicholson & Hill (1981) | Nicholson et al. (1985) | Sullivan (1956) | Trapp & Hallberg (1975) | Wayne et al. (1997) | Wood (1958) | Yearsley & Samuel (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous. During winter, prey consists largely of rabbits (Sylvilagus spp-) and rodents. In spring and summer it diversifies to include insects (e.g. grasshoppers), birds, and sometimes carrion. Northern Gray Foxes also feed on natural fruits and nuts, often consuming more of these foods in the fall as their availability increases.","breeding":"Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.","activityPatterns":"Mostly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Monogamy with occasional polygyny is probably most typical. The basic social unit is the mated pair and their offspring of the year; it is not known whether breeding pairs remain together during consecutive years. Offspring typically disperse at 9-10 months of age, and although long-distance dispersal (over 80 km) has been reported, young foxes may also return to and settle down near their natal ranges. Gray Foxes exhibit some territoriality, as home ranges of adjacent family groups may overlap, but core areas appear to be used exclusively by a single family. Home range size varies from 0-8 km? to 27- 6 km?. Foxes increase their home ranges during late fall and winter, possibly in response to changes in food resource availability. Scent marking consists of urine and feces depositions in conspicuous locations. The foxes communicate vocally with growls, alarm barks, screams, and “coos” and “mewing” sounds during greetings. Northern Gray Foxes engage in allogrooming, adults grooming juveniles and each other.Breeding.Northern Gray Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months of age, although not all females breed in their first year. Breeding generally occurs from January to April, with gestation lasting about 60 days. Litter size average is 4, ranging from 1-10. Pups accompany adults on foraging expeditions at three months and forage independently at four months. Pups are fed mainly by females, but males may also participate in parental care. Northern Gray Foxes give birth and rear their pups in earthen dens, which they either dig themselves or modify from other species. They will also den in wood and brush piles, rock crevices, hollow logs, hollows under shrubs, and under abandoned buildings. They may even den in hollows of trees up to nine meters above the ground. In eastern deciduous forests, dens are in brushy or wooded areas, where they are less conspicuous than the dens of sympatric Red Foxes. Use of dens diminishes greatly during non-reproductive seasons, when Northern Gray Foxes typically rest in dense vegetation during the day.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Common where it occurs, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by Coyotes and Bobcats. Reported densities range from 0-4/km?® in California to 1-5/km? in Florida. The Gray Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canadaand the USA. Trapping is legal throughout much of its range, and is likely to be the most important source of mortality where it occurs and probably limits populations locally.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 56-66 cmfor males, 54-57-8 cmfor females,tail 33-3 44-3 cmfor males, 28-0-40-7 cmfor females; weight 3-4-5-5 kgfor males and 2-3-9 kgfor females. Medium-sized with a stocky body, moderately short legs and medium-sized ears. Coat grizzled gray on the back and sides with a dark longitudinal stripe on top of a black-tipped tail. Conspicuous cinnamon-rusty color on its neck, sides and limbs. Face with dark and white markings. There is also white on its ears, throat, chest, belly and hind limbs. The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur has a coarse appearance. The dental formula is 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The posterior ventral border of the dentition has a prominent notch or “step”, and on the cranium, the temporal ridges are separated anteriorly but connect posteriorly to form a distinctive “U” shape.","habitat":"Closely associated with deciduous and southern pine forests interspersed with old fields and scrubby woodlands in eastern North America. In the west, commonly found in mixed agricultural, woodland, chaparral, riparian landscapes, and shrub habitats. In Central America, occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats, and in South America forested montane habitats. Northern Gray Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the south-western USAand northern Mexicowhere cover is sufficient. They also live at the margins of some urban areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF23FFDC7B9DF844FC9ADB55.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF23FFDC7B9DF844FC9ADB55","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"431","verbatimText":"18.Sechuran FoxPseudalopex sechuraeFrench:Renard de Sechura/ German:Sechura-Fuchs/ Spanish:Zorro del SechuraOther common names:Sechura Desert Fox, Peruvian Desert FoxTaxonomy.Canis sechurae Thomas, 1900, NW Peru.Monotypic.Distribution.Coastal zones of NW Peruand SW Ecuador, between 3° Sand 12° Slatitude.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-78 cmand tail 27-34 cmfor males; weight 2-6—4- 2 kgfor males. The smallest species of the genus Pseudalopex. The head is small, with relatively long ears (about two thirds the length of the head) and a short muzzle. Face is gray, and there is a rufous-brown ring around the eyes. The ears may be reddish on the back; the dark muzzle may have paler hairs around the lips. The pelage consists of pale underfur with agouti guard hairs; the underparts are fawn or cream-colored. There is sometimes a dark stripe down the back. The forelimbs (up to the elbows) and the hindlimbs (up to the heels) are usually reddish in color. The tail is relatively long and densely furred, ending in a dark tip. The dental formulais13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The carnassials are slightly smaller, and the grinding teeth larger, than in allied forms; the canines are “fox-like”.Habitat.Occupies a variety of habitats ranging from sandy deserts with low plant density to agricultural lands and dry forests. Few details of habitat preferences are known.Food and Feeding.The Sechuran Fox is a generalist omnivore that preferentially consumesvertebrate prey or carrion when available, but often depends predominantly on seeds or seed pods. Feces collected during late winter and early spring in the inland Sechuran Desert contained mainly the remnants of undigested seeds or seed pods of algarrobo (Prosopis juliflora), zapote (Capparis scabrida) and vizcacho (C. avicennifolia). The syrupy matrix surrounding the seeds may be the actual source of nourishment. In a germination experiment, seeds recovered from feces sprouted earlier than those gathered from the ground, suggesting that the foxes not only act as seed dispersers, but affect the ability of the seeds to germinate rapidly when sporadic rains occur. Fox droppings along the coast contained crabs and several bird species. Following El Nino rains, fox droppings revealed a dramatic dietary shift to grasshoppers and mice (Paralomys gerbillus) as these prey became more abundant. In central Peru, the main summer foods were insects, scorpions (Carica candicans), fruits, and rodents. The lack of standing water in the inland desert habitat suggests that the foxes can survive without drinking. However, they may lick condensation from vegetation on foggy mornings. No food caching has been recorded.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal. Radio-telemetry tracking indicated that individuals emerged from their rocky daytime sleeping dens before sunset and remained active through most of the night before re-entering the dens at dawn. The phases of the moon did not influence this activity pattern, perhaps because the foxes were consuming seeds and seed pods rather than hunting. Occasionally, they are seen during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little known. Groups larger than three individuals are rare, and usually only observed where food sources are concentrated. The home range of a radio-tracked adult male adjoined that of one adultfemale accompanied by two almost full-grown juveniles. However, they each foraged separately during the night and occupied separate dens during the day.Breeding.Few details of breeding behavior known. Births are reported to occur primarily in October and November.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. While the speciesis easily observed in rural areas and disturbed environments from the states of Piurato La Libertadin Peru, large population fluctuations due to disease and persecution are causes for concern. Footprint surveys in Piura, Peru, show an average of 12-6 foxes per km. The Sechuran Fox is uncommon in Ecuador. In Peru, hunting outside established areas and trade has been prohibited since 2000, but it has proven difficult to control trade in rural areas. The most important threats are the market for handicrafts and amulets that are made of Sechuran Fox parts, and persecution because of damage to livestock. In Peru, the attitude of rural inhabitants to the species is antagonistic (68-3% of correspondents) or indifferent (317%). The stated reasons for favoring persecution were predation on domestic fowl and guinea pigs (65% of correspondents), the consumption of vegetables or stored goods (13:3%), and belief that goat predation occurs (10%). The Sechuran Fox also faces some pressure in agricultural zones and from urbanization and habitat degradation; habitat loss is considered the principle threatto this species in Ecuador.Bibliography.Asa & Cossios (2004), Asa & Wallace (1990), Birdseye (1956), Cabrera (1931), Centrode Datos para la Conservacion (1989), Huey (1969), Langguth (1975).","taxonomy":"Canis sechurae Thomas, 1900, NW Peru.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard de Sechura @fr | Sechura-Fuchs @de | Zorro del Sechura @es | Sechura Desert Fox @en | Peruvian Desert Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Pseudalopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"431","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sechurae","name":"Pseudalopex sechurae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Coastal zones of NW Peruand SW Ecuador, between 3° Sand 12° Slatitude.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331197/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Asa & Cossios (2004) | Asa & Wallace (1990) | Birdseye (1956) | Cabrera (1931) | Centrode Datos para la Conservacion (1989) | Huey (1969) | Langguth (1975)","foodAndFeeding":"The Sechuran Fox is a generalist omnivore that preferentially consumesvertebrate prey or carrion when available, but often depends predominantly on seeds or seed pods. Feces collected during late winter and early spring in the inland Sechuran Desert contained mainly the remnants of undigested seeds or seed pods of algarrobo (Prosopis juliflora), zapote (Capparis scabrida) and vizcacho (C. avicennifolia). The syrupy matrix surrounding the seeds may be the actual source of nourishment. In a germination experiment, seeds recovered from feces sprouted earlier than those gathered from the ground, suggesting that the foxes not only act as seed dispersers, but affect the ability of the seeds to germinate rapidly when sporadic rains occur. Fox droppings along the coast contained crabs and several bird species. Following El Nino rains, fox droppings revealed a dramatic dietary shift to grasshoppers and mice (Paralomys gerbillus) as these prey became more abundant. In central Peru, the main summer foods were insects, scorpions (Carica candicans), fruits, and rodents. The lack of standing water in the inland desert habitat suggests that the foxes can survive without drinking. However, they may lick condensation from vegetation on foggy mornings. No food caching has been recorded.","breeding":"Few details of breeding behavior known. Births are reported to occur primarily in October and November.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal. Radio-telemetry tracking indicated that individuals emerged from their rocky daytime sleeping dens before sunset and remained active through most of the night before re-entering the dens at dawn. The phases of the moon did not influence this activity pattern, perhaps because the foxes were consuming seeds and seed pods rather than hunting. Occasionally, they are seen during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Little known. Groups larger than three individuals are rare, and usually only observed where food sources are concentrated. The home range of a radio-tracked adult male adjoined that of one adultfemale accompanied by two almost full-grown juveniles. However, they each foraged separately during the night and occupied separate dens during the day.Breeding.Few details of breeding behavior known. Births are reported to occur primarily in October and November.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. While the speciesis easily observed in rural areas and disturbed environments from the states of Piurato La Libertadin Peru, large population fluctuations due to disease and persecution are causes for concern. Footprint surveys in Piura, Peru, show an average of 12-6 foxes per km. The Sechuran Fox is uncommon in Ecuador. In Peru, hunting outside established areas and trade has been prohibited since 2000, but it has proven difficult to control trade in rural areas. The most important threats are the market for handicrafts and amulets that are made of Sechuran Fox parts, and persecution because of damage to livestock. In Peru, the attitude of rural inhabitants to the species is antagonistic (68-3% of correspondents) or indifferent (317%). The stated reasons for favoring persecution were predation on domestic fowl and guinea pigs (65% of correspondents), the consumption of vegetables or stored goods (13:3%), and belief that goat predation occurs (10%). The Sechuran Fox also faces some pressure in agricultural zones and from urbanization and habitat degradation; habitat loss is considered the principle threatto this species in Ecuador.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-78 cmand tail 27-34 cmfor males; weight 2-6—4- 2 kgfor males. The smallest species of the genus Pseudalopex. The head is small, with relatively long ears (about two thirds the length of the head) and a short muzzle. Face is gray, and there is a rufous-brown ring around the eyes. The ears may be reddish on the back; the dark muzzle may have paler hairs around the lips. The pelage consists of pale underfur with agouti guard hairs; the underparts are fawn or cream-colored. There is sometimes a dark stripe down the back. The forelimbs (up to the elbows) and the hindlimbs (up to the heels) are usually reddish in color. The tail is relatively long and densely furred, ending in a dark tip. The dental formulais13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The carnassials are slightly smaller, and the grinding teeth larger, than in allied forms; the canines are “fox-like”.","habitat":"Occupies a variety of habitats ranging from sandy deserts with low plant density to agricultural lands and dry forests. Few details of habitat preferences are known."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF23FFDD7E94FACCF89DDA8D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF23FFDD7E94FACCF89DDA8D","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"431","verbatimText":"17.Pampas FoxPseudalopex gymnocercusFrench:Renard d'Azara/ German:Pampasfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de La PampaOther common names:Azara's FoxTaxonomy.Procyon gymnocercus Fischer, 1814, Paraguay.Three subspecies have been proposed. Their geographic limits are not precise and it has been suggested that along their borders they could coexist and interbreed.Subspecies and Distribution.P. g. gymnocercus Fischer, 1814— subtropical grasslands of NE Argentina, SE Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.P.g. antiquus Ameghino, 1889— Pampas grasslands, monte scrublands, and open woodlands of C Argentina.P. g. lordi Massoia, 1982— Chaco-montane tropical forest ecotone in NW Argentina(Salta& JujuyProvinces).The subspecific status of the Pampas Fox from Entre Rios Provincein Argentinaremains unclear, and there are no data regarding the taxonomic position of Bolivian foxes.Descriptive notes.Head-body 59- 7-74 cmfor males and 50- 5-72 cmfor females, tail 28-38 cmfor males and 25-41 cmfor females; weight 4-8 kgfor males and 3-5- 7 kgfor females. Medium-sized, smaller than Culpeo. The head, somewhat triangular in shape, is reddish with a pale gray to white ventral surface. Ears triangular, broad and relatively large, reddish on the outer surface and white on the inner surface. The rostrum is narrow, ventrally pale, black in the chin and reddish to black dorsally. The eyes are oblique in appearance. The body, back, and sides are gray, like the outer surface of the hindlimbs, which have a characteristic black spot on the lower rear side. There is a dark, almost black band along the back and tail. Thetail is relatively long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip. The outer surface of the front limbs and the distal surface of the hindlimbs are reddish. Smaller size and lack of interparietal crest distinguish its skull from that of the Culpeo. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the pampas grasslands of South America’s Southern Cone. It prefers open habitats, tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrublands and open woodlands. In drier habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the speciesis replaced by the South American Gray Fox. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox selects more open areas. Apparently it has been able to adapt to the habitat alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities.Food and Feeding.Like most other medium-sized foxes, the Pampas Fox is a generalist and adaptable carnivore. Its diet shows great geographic variation and may include both wild and domestic vertebrates (particularly rodents and birds), fruit, insects, carrion, and garbage. Based on stomach contents, wild mammals and sheep appeared to be the two most common food items in Uruguay, while in La Pampa Province, Argentina, European Hares and rodents were the most common food items, followed by birds and carrion. In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, there was a high frequency of rodents and birds, but also of insects, fruits, and crabs. Seasonal and local variations in diet are likely connected to variations in food availability. The Pampas Fox is a solitary and opportunistic carnivore. Large, highly concentrated food resources (i.e. large mammal carcasses) may cause several individuals to gather, possibly beyond the borders of normal home ranges. Food caching behavior has been observed, apparently related to an increase in the availability of rodents.Activity patterns.Forages both day and night, although activity is mainly nocturnal in areas with severe hunting pressure.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pampas Foxes are thought to form monogamous pairs, but they are solitary most of the time: 88% of observations in the Paraguayan Chacoand 93% in ArgentineLa Pampa Provincewere of single individuals. Pairs are frequently observed from the time of mating until pups leave the natal den. In a Sierra grassland area, the respective home ranges of two adultmales were estimated at 0-4 and 0-45 km*. Defecation-site features suggest that droppings are used in intraspecific communication. Long-distance calls, which peak in frequency during the breeding period, may serve to maintain contact between pair members, as well as play a role in territorial behavior. When pairs are raising pups, both adult foxes have been observed using a brief and repeated alarm call if they detect a potential threat to the young.Breeding.In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List and the ArgentinaRed List of Mammals. Abundant or common in most areas. In Argentinatrade was prohibited in 1987. However,it continues to be hunted. In Uruguayand Paraguaythe species is protected by law. In Argentinaand southern Brazilthe Pampas Fox was considered an important predator of sheep and goats, and was consequently persecuted by livestock ranchers. The Pampas Fox is currently threatened by the official implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) and the use of non-selective methods of capture. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any thorough studies on population abundance or the real damage thatthis species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is illegal. Most of the species’ range in the Pampas region has suffered massive habitat alteration due to extensive cattle ranching and agriculture. Although apparently able to withstand hunting pressure and habitat loss, the sum of these threats may nevertheless eventually cause the depletion of fox populations. Rural residents have traditionally hunted the Pampas Fox forits fur, an important source of income. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in north-west Argentina. In Uruguay, illegal trade is still widespread. Pampas Foxes are also frequently struck by cars in some areas.Bibliography.Barquez et al. (1991), Branch (1994), Brooks (1992), Cabrera (1958), Cajal (1986), Chebez (1994), Cravino et al. (1997), Crespo (1971), Diaz & Ojeda (2000), Farias, A.A. (2000), Garcia, J. (1991), Garcia, V.B. (2001), Lucherini et al. (2004), Massoia (1982), Novaro & Funes (1994), Redford & Eisenberg (1992), Vuillermoz & Sapoznikow (1998), Zunino et al. (1995).","taxonomy":"Procyon gymnocercus Fischer, 1814, Paraguay.Three subspecies have been proposed. Their geographic limits are not precise and it has been suggested that along their borders they could coexist and interbreed.","commonNames":"Renard d'Azara @fr | Pampasfuchs @de | Zorro de La Pampa @es | Azara's Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Burmeister","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1856","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"G. Fischer","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1814","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Pseudalopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"431","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gymnocercus","name":"Pseudalopex gymnocercus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. g. gymnocercus Fischer, 1814— subtropical grasslands of NE Argentina, SE Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.P.g. antiquus Ameghino, 1889— Pampas grasslands, monte scrublands, and open woodlands of C Argentina.P. g. lordi Massoia, 1982— Chaco-montane tropical forest ecotone in NW Argentina(Salta& JujuyProvinces).The subspecific status of the Pampas Fox from Entre Rios Provincein Argentinaremains unclear, and there are no data regarding the taxonomic position of Bolivian foxes.","bibliography":"Barquez et al. (1991) | Branch (1994) | Brooks (1992) | Cabrera (1958) | Cajal (1986) | Chebez (1994) | Cravino et al. (1997) | Crespo (1971) | Diaz & Ojeda (2000) | Farias, A.A. (2000) | Garcia, J. (1991) | Garcia, V.B. (2001) | Lucherini et al. (2004) | Massoia (1982) | Novaro & Funes (1994) | Redford & Eisenberg (1992) | Vuillermoz & Sapoznikow (1998) | Zunino et al. (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Like most other medium-sized foxes, the Pampas Fox is a generalist and adaptable carnivore. Its diet shows great geographic variation and may include both wild and domestic vertebrates (particularly rodents and birds), fruit, insects, carrion, and garbage. Based on stomach contents, wild mammals and sheep appeared to be the two most common food items in Uruguay, while in La Pampa Province, Argentina, European Hares and rodents were the most common food items, followed by birds and carrion. In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, there was a high frequency of rodents and birds, but also of insects, fruits, and crabs. Seasonal and local variations in diet are likely connected to variations in food availability. The Pampas Fox is a solitary and opportunistic carnivore. Large, highly concentrated food resources (i.e. large mammal carcasses) may cause several individuals to gather, possibly beyond the borders of normal home ranges. Food caching behavior has been observed, apparently related to an increase in the availability of rodents.","breeding":"In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.","activityPatterns":"Forages both day and night, although activity is mainly nocturnal in areas with severe hunting pressure.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Pampas Foxes are thought to form monogamous pairs, but they are solitary most of the time: 88% of observations in the Paraguayan Chacoand 93% in ArgentineLa Pampa Provincewere of single individuals. Pairs are frequently observed from the time of mating until pups leave the natal den. In a Sierra grassland area, the respective home ranges of two adultmales were estimated at 0-4 and 0-45 km*. Defecation-site features suggest that droppings are used in intraspecific communication. Long-distance calls, which peak in frequency during the breeding period, may serve to maintain contact between pair members, as well as play a role in territorial behavior. When pairs are raising pups, both adult foxes have been observed using a brief and repeated alarm call if they detect a potential threat to the young.Breeding.In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List and the ArgentinaRed List of Mammals. Abundant or common in most areas. In Argentinatrade was prohibited in 1987. However,it continues to be hunted. In Uruguayand Paraguaythe species is protected by law. In Argentinaand southern Brazilthe Pampas Fox was considered an important predator of sheep and goats, and was consequently persecuted by livestock ranchers. The Pampas Fox is currently threatened by the official implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) and the use of non-selective methods of capture. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any thorough studies on population abundance or the real damage thatthis species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is illegal. Most of the species’ range in the Pampas region has suffered massive habitat alteration due to extensive cattle ranching and agriculture. Although apparently able to withstand hunting pressure and habitat loss, the sum of these threats may nevertheless eventually cause the depletion of fox populations. Rural residents have traditionally hunted the Pampas Fox forits fur, an important source of income. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in north-west Argentina. In Uruguay, illegal trade is still widespread. Pampas Foxes are also frequently struck by cars in some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 59- 7-74 cmfor males and 50- 5-72 cmfor females, tail 28-38 cmfor males and 25-41 cmfor females; weight 4-8 kgfor males and 3-5- 7 kgfor females. Medium-sized, smaller than Culpeo. The head, somewhat triangular in shape, is reddish with a pale gray to white ventral surface. Ears triangular, broad and relatively large, reddish on the outer surface and white on the inner surface. The rostrum is narrow, ventrally pale, black in the chin and reddish to black dorsally. The eyes are oblique in appearance. The body, back, and sides are gray, like the outer surface of the hindlimbs, which have a characteristic black spot on the lower rear side. There is a dark, almost black band along the back and tail. Thetail is relatively long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip. The outer surface of the front limbs and the distal surface of the hindlimbs are reddish. Smaller size and lack of interparietal crest distinguish its skull from that of the Culpeo. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the pampas grasslands of South America’s Southern Cone. It prefers open habitats, tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrublands and open woodlands. In drier habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the speciesis replaced by the South American Gray Fox. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox selects more open areas. Apparently it has been able to adapt to the habitat alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF24FFDD7ED2F43CFADFD812.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF24FFDD7ED2F43CFADFD812","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"430","verbatimText":"16.South American Gray FoxPseudalopex griseusFrench:Renard d’Argentine/ German:Argentinischer Kampfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de MagallanesOther common names:Chilla, Small Gray FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes griseus Gray, 1837, Chile.Formerly believed to include an island form, which since has been recognized as Darwin’s Fox. The Pampas Fox has recently been suggested to be conspecific with P. griseuson the basis of a craniometric and pelage-characters analysis, leading to the conclusion that P. gymnocercus and P. griseusare clinal variations of one single species, namely Lycalopex gymmnocercus. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. g. griseus Gray, 1837— Argentineand Chilean Patagonia.P. g. domeykoanus Philippi, 1901— N & C Chile, possibly S Peru.P. g. gracilis Burmeister, 1861— W Argentina(Monte Desert).P. g. maullinicus Philippi, 1903— S Argentineand Chilean temperate forests.Introduced (griseus) in Tierra del Fuego.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50- 1-66 cm, tail 11-5-34- 7 cm; weight 2-5- 5 kg. A small fox with large ears and a rufescent head flecked with white. Well-marked black spot on chin. Coat brindled gray, made up of agouti guard hairs with pale underfur. Black patch across thighs. Legs and feet pale tawny. Underparts pale gray. Tail long and bushy, with dorsal line and tip black and a mixed pale tawny and black pattern on the underside. The cranium is small, lacking an interparietal crest. Teeth widely separated. The dental formulaisI13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands and scrublands. South American Gray Foxes generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3500-4000 m. Although they occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat open patches of low scrub. In Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat consists of shrubby steppe composed of coiron (Festuca spp., Stipa spp.) and nires (Nothofagus antarctica). Burning and destruction of forests for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for these foxes. In Torres del Paine National Park, 58% of twelve individuals monitored showed preferential use of matorral shrubland or Nothofagus thicket habitat within their home ranges. In the Mendozadesert, Argentina, they prefer the lower levels of shrubby sand dunes rather than higher sections. They tolerate a variety of climates, including hot and dry areas such as the Atacamacoastal desert in northern Chile(less than 2 mmaverage annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), the humid, temperate Valdivian forest (2000 mmaverage annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature), and the cold environment of Tierra del Fuego (c. 400 mmaverage annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature).Food and Feeding.South American Gray Foxes are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a variety of foods, including mammals, arthropods, birds, reptiles, fruit, and carrion. Fruits ingested include berries of Cryptocarya alba and Lithraea caustica in Chile, pods of Prosopis spp., and the berry-like fruits of Prosopanche americana and of several Cactaceaein Argentina. A tendency to carnivory is apparent, however, since vertebrates, especially rodents, are reported to be the most important prey in most studies. Small mammals were the most frequently occurring vertebrate prey in most sites in the Chilean matorral and in the temperate rainforests of southern Chile. In Torres del Paine National Park, the European Hare was the most represented vertebrate prey, followed by carrion and akodontine rodents. In the ArgentinePatagonian steppe, carrion was the most important food item in 42 stomachs collected in winter (representing 62% of biomass ingested), followed by hares and cricetine rodents. In Argentina’s southern Patagonia, diet also consisted primarily of carrion, followed by birds, rodents, and fruit. Diet included invertebrates, carrion, birds, and rodents in Tierra del Fuego. In the harshest habitats ofits range, the foxes’ diets include increasingly higher proportions of non-mammal food as small mammal availability decreases. Lizards were the most consumed vertebrate prey in winter, the season of lowest small mammal availability in coastal northern Chile. Small-mammal consumption decreased from autumn to summer, and fruit consumption increased. In central Chile, berries appeared in 52% of the droppings (n = 127) collected in autumn, while in spring, when small mammal availability is highest, berries were present in only 18% of the feces (n = 62). In Mendoza (Monte desert), fruit was represented in 35% of feces (n = 116), followed by small mammals (19% frequency of occurrence). Foraging occurs mostly in open areas. Although hunting groups of up to 4-5 individuals have been reported, South American Gray Foxes mostly hunt solitarily, except perhaps at the end of the breeding season, when juveniles may join the parents in search of food. In Torres del Paine National Park, the most common foraging behavior consisted of slow walking, with abrupt, irregular turns through low vegetation. The same report noted that prey appear to be located by sound, sight, and smell. Mice are captured with a sudden leap or by rapidly digging holes. Scavenging is common, as well as defecation on and around Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and domestic goat carcasses. Caching behavior has also been reported.Activity patterns.Direct observations and prey activity patterns suggest that South American Gray Foxes are crepuscular, although they are commonly seen during the day. Radio-tracking showed that they were primarily nocturnal in Torres del Paine National Park, whereas they were active during both day and night in Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic component of social organization in Torres del Paine National Park is the breeding monogamous pair, accompanied by occasional female helpers. Male dispersal and occasional polygyny is also reported. Solitary individuals were seen from March to July, while pairs comprised 42% of sightings during August. The male and female of an observed pair maintained an exclusive home range year-round, which did not overlap with home ranges of neighboring pairs. Intraspecific interactions were few and usually aggressive. Individual home range sizes (n = 23) averaged 2-0 km”.Breeding.Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “locally common” in Argentinaand stable in the southern half of the country where habitat is more favorable. Reported to have expanded their range in Tierra del Fuegosince being introduced there: in 1996 their density was estimated at 1 per km®. Hunting them and fur trading are legal in ArgentinePatagonia and Tierra del Fuego. All Chilean populations are currently protected by law, except for those from Tierra del Fuego. The main threat to South American Gray Fox populations in the past was commercial hunting for fur. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recentyears. Illegal killing still occurs in some regions,as the foxes are perceived to be voracious predators of small livestock, poultry and game. The usual means of hunting are by shooting, dogs, poison, snares, and foothold traps. Around 45% of the mortality documented in Torres del Paine National Park resulted from either poaching or dog attacks. Road kills are frequently observed in Argentina, especially in summer.Bibliography.Cabrera (1958), Campos & Ojeda (1997), Duran et al. (1985), Gonzalez del Solar & Rau(2004), Gonzalez del Solar et al. (1997), Jaksic, Jiménez et al. (1990), Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980), Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983), Jayat et al. (1999), Jiménez (1993), Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996), Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b, 1994c), Mares et al. (1996), Marquet et al. (1993), Martinez et al. (1993), Medel & Jaksic (1988), Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000), Rauet al. (1995), Simonetti et al. (1984), Yanez & Jaksic (1978), Zunino et al. (1995).","taxonomy":"Vulpes griseus Gray, 1837, Chile.Formerly believed to include an island form, which since has been recognized as Darwin’s Fox. The Pampas Fox has recently been suggested to be conspecific with P. griseuson the basis of a craniometric and pelage-characters analysis, leading to the conclusion that P. gymnocercus and P. griseusare clinal variations of one single species, namely Lycalopex gymmnocercus. Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard d’Argentine @fr | Argentinischer Kampfuchs @de | Zorro de Magallanes @es | Chilla @en | Small Gray Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Pseudalopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"430","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"griseus","name":"Pseudalopex griseus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. g. griseus Gray, 1837— Argentineand Chilean Patagonia.P. g. domeykoanus Philippi, 1901— N & C Chile, possibly S Peru.P. g. gracilis Burmeister, 1861— W Argentina(Monte Desert).P. g. maullinicus Philippi, 1903— S Argentineand Chilean temperate forests.Introduced (griseus) in Tierra del Fuego.","bibliography":"Cabrera (1958) | Campos & Ojeda (1997) | Duran et al. (1985) | Gonzalez del Solar & Rau(2004) | Gonzalez del Solar et al. (1997) | Jaksic, Jiménez et al. (1990) | Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980) | Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983) | Jayat et al. (1999) | Jiménez (1993) | Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996) | Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) | Mares et al. (1996) | Marquet et al. (1993) | Martinez et al. (1993) | Medel & Jaksic (1988) | Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000) | Rauet al. (1995) | Simonetti et al. (1984) | Yanez & Jaksic (1978) | Zunino et al. (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"South American Gray Foxes are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a variety of foods, including mammals, arthropods, birds, reptiles, fruit, and carrion. Fruits ingested include berries of Cryptocarya alba and Lithraea caustica in Chile, pods of Prosopis spp., and the berry-like fruits of Prosopanche americana and of several Cactaceaein Argentina. A tendency to carnivory is apparent, however, since vertebrates, especially rodents, are reported to be the most important prey in most studies. Small mammals were the most frequently occurring vertebrate prey in most sites in the Chilean matorral and in the temperate rainforests of southern Chile. In Torres del Paine National Park, the European Hare was the most represented vertebrate prey, followed by carrion and akodontine rodents. In the ArgentinePatagonian steppe, carrion was the most important food item in 42 stomachs collected in winter (representing 62% of biomass ingested), followed by hares and cricetine rodents. In Argentina’s southern Patagonia, diet also consisted primarily of carrion, followed by birds, rodents, and fruit. Diet included invertebrates, carrion, birds, and rodents in Tierra del Fuego. In the harshest habitats ofits range, the foxes’ diets include increasingly higher proportions of non-mammal food as small mammal availability decreases. Lizards were the most consumed vertebrate prey in winter, the season of lowest small mammal availability in coastal northern Chile. Small-mammal consumption decreased from autumn to summer, and fruit consumption increased. In central Chile, berries appeared in 52% of the droppings (n = 127) collected in autumn, while in spring, when small mammal availability is highest, berries were present in only 18% of the feces (n = 62). In Mendoza (Monte desert), fruit was represented in 35% of feces (n = 116), followed by small mammals (19% frequency of occurrence). Foraging occurs mostly in open areas. Although hunting groups of up to 4-5 individuals have been reported, South American Gray Foxes mostly hunt solitarily, except perhaps at the end of the breeding season, when juveniles may join the parents in search of food. In Torres del Paine National Park, the most common foraging behavior consisted of slow walking, with abrupt, irregular turns through low vegetation. The same report noted that prey appear to be located by sound, sight, and smell. Mice are captured with a sudden leap or by rapidly digging holes. Scavenging is common, as well as defecation on and around Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and domestic goat carcasses. Caching behavior has also been reported.","breeding":"Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.","activityPatterns":"Direct observations and prey activity patterns suggest that South American Gray Foxes are crepuscular, although they are commonly seen during the day. Radio-tracking showed that they were primarily nocturnal in Torres del Paine National Park, whereas they were active during both day and night in Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic component of social organization in Torres del Paine National Park is the breeding monogamous pair, accompanied by occasional female helpers. Male dispersal and occasional polygyny is also reported. Solitary individuals were seen from March to July, while pairs comprised 42% of sightings during August. The male and female of an observed pair maintained an exclusive home range year-round, which did not overlap with home ranges of neighboring pairs. Intraspecific interactions were few and usually aggressive. Individual home range sizes (n = 23) averaged 2-0 km”.Breeding.Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “locally common” in Argentinaand stable in the southern half of the country where habitat is more favorable. Reported to have expanded their range in Tierra del Fuegosince being introduced there: in 1996 their density was estimated at 1 per km®. Hunting them and fur trading are legal in ArgentinePatagonia and Tierra del Fuego. All Chilean populations are currently protected by law, except for those from Tierra del Fuego. The main threat to South American Gray Fox populations in the past was commercial hunting for fur. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recentyears. Illegal killing still occurs in some regions,as the foxes are perceived to be voracious predators of small livestock, poultry and game. The usual means of hunting are by shooting, dogs, poison, snares, and foothold traps. Around 45% of the mortality documented in Torres del Paine National Park resulted from either poaching or dog attacks. Road kills are frequently observed in Argentina, especially in summer.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50- 1-66 cm, tail 11-5-34- 7 cm; weight 2-5- 5 kg. A small fox with large ears and a rufescent head flecked with white. Well-marked black spot on chin. Coat brindled gray, made up of agouti guard hairs with pale underfur. Black patch across thighs. Legs and feet pale tawny. Underparts pale gray. Tail long and bushy, with dorsal line and tip black and a mixed pale tawny and black pattern on the underside. The cranium is small, lacking an interparietal crest. Teeth widely separated. The dental formulaisI13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Steppes, grasslands and scrublands. South American Gray Foxes generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3500-4000 m. Although they occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat open patches of low scrub. In Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat consists of shrubby steppe composed of coiron (Festuca spp., Stipa spp.) and nires (Nothofagus antarctica). Burning and destruction of forests for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for these foxes. In Torres del Paine National Park, 58% of twelve individuals monitored showed preferential use of matorral shrubland or Nothofagus thicket habitat within their home ranges. In the Mendozadesert, Argentina, they prefer the lower levels of shrubby sand dunes rather than higher sections. They tolerate a variety of climates, including hot and dry areas such as the Atacamacoastal desert in northern Chile(less than 2 mmaverage annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), the humid, temperate Valdivian forest (2000 mmaverage annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature), and the cold environment of Tierra del Fuego (c. 400 mmaverage annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF23FFDD7E94FACCF89DDA8D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF23FFDD7E94FACCF89DDA8D","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"431","verbatimText":"17.Pampas FoxPseudalopex gymnocercusFrench:Renard d'Azara/ German:Pampasfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de La PampaOther common names:Azara's FoxTaxonomy.Procyon gymnocercus Fischer, 1814, Paraguay.Three subspecies have been proposed. Their geographic limits are not precise and it has been suggested that along their borders they could coexist and interbreed.Subspecies and Distribution.P. g. gymnocercus Fischer, 1814— subtropical grasslands of NE Argentina, SE Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.P.g. antiquus Ameghino, 1889— Pampas grasslands, monte scrublands, and open woodlands of C Argentina.P. g. lordi Massoia, 1982— Chaco-montane tropical forest ecotone in NW Argentina(Salta& JujuyProvinces).The subspecific status of the Pampas Fox from Entre Rios Provincein Argentinaremains unclear, and there are no data regarding the taxonomic position of Bolivian foxes.Descriptive notes.Head-body 59- 7-74 cmfor males and 50- 5-72 cmfor females, tail 28-38 cmfor males and 25-41 cmfor females; weight 4-8 kgfor males and 3-5- 7 kgfor females. Medium-sized, smaller than Culpeo. The head, somewhat triangular in shape, is reddish with a pale gray to white ventral surface. Ears triangular, broad and relatively large, reddish on the outer surface and white on the inner surface. The rostrum is narrow, ventrally pale, black in the chin and reddish to black dorsally. The eyes are oblique in appearance. The body, back, and sides are gray, like the outer surface of the hindlimbs, which have a characteristic black spot on the lower rear side. There is a dark, almost black band along the back and tail. Thetail is relatively long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip. The outer surface of the front limbs and the distal surface of the hindlimbs are reddish. Smaller size and lack of interparietal crest distinguish its skull from that of the Culpeo. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the pampas grasslands of South America’s Southern Cone. It prefers open habitats, tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrublands and open woodlands. In drier habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the speciesis replaced by the South American Gray Fox. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox selects more open areas. Apparently it has been able to adapt to the habitat alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities.Food and Feeding.Like most other medium-sized foxes, the Pampas Fox is a generalist and adaptable carnivore. Its diet shows great geographic variation and may include both wild and domestic vertebrates (particularly rodents and birds), fruit, insects, carrion, and garbage. Based on stomach contents, wild mammals and sheep appeared to be the two most common food items in Uruguay, while in La Pampa Province, Argentina, European Hares and rodents were the most common food items, followed by birds and carrion. In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, there was a high frequency of rodents and birds, but also of insects, fruits, and crabs. Seasonal and local variations in diet are likely connected to variations in food availability. The Pampas Fox is a solitary and opportunistic carnivore. Large, highly concentrated food resources (i.e. large mammal carcasses) may cause several individuals to gather, possibly beyond the borders of normal home ranges. Food caching behavior has been observed, apparently related to an increase in the availability of rodents.Activity patterns.Forages both day and night, although activity is mainly nocturnal in areas with severe hunting pressure.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pampas Foxes are thought to form monogamous pairs, but they are solitary most of the time: 88% of observations in the Paraguayan Chacoand 93% in ArgentineLa Pampa Provincewere of single individuals. Pairs are frequently observed from the time of mating until pups leave the natal den. In a Sierra grassland area, the respective home ranges of two adultmales were estimated at 0-4 and 0-45 km*. Defecation-site features suggest that droppings are used in intraspecific communication. Long-distance calls, which peak in frequency during the breeding period, may serve to maintain contact between pair members, as well as play a role in territorial behavior. When pairs are raising pups, both adult foxes have been observed using a brief and repeated alarm call if they detect a potential threat to the young.Breeding.In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List and the ArgentinaRed List of Mammals. Abundant or common in most areas. In Argentinatrade was prohibited in 1987. However,it continues to be hunted. In Uruguayand Paraguaythe species is protected by law. In Argentinaand southern Brazilthe Pampas Fox was considered an important predator of sheep and goats, and was consequently persecuted by livestock ranchers. The Pampas Fox is currently threatened by the official implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) and the use of non-selective methods of capture. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any thorough studies on population abundance or the real damage thatthis species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is illegal. Most of the species’ range in the Pampas region has suffered massive habitat alteration due to extensive cattle ranching and agriculture. Although apparently able to withstand hunting pressure and habitat loss, the sum of these threats may nevertheless eventually cause the depletion of fox populations. Rural residents have traditionally hunted the Pampas Fox forits fur, an important source of income. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in north-west Argentina. In Uruguay, illegal trade is still widespread. Pampas Foxes are also frequently struck by cars in some areas.Bibliography.Barquez et al. (1991), Branch (1994), Brooks (1992), Cabrera (1958), Cajal (1986), Chebez (1994), Cravino et al. (1997), Crespo (1971), Diaz & Ojeda (2000), Farias, A.A. (2000), Garcia, J. (1991), Garcia, V.B. (2001), Lucherini et al. (2004), Massoia (1982), Novaro & Funes (1994), Redford & Eisenberg (1992), Vuillermoz & Sapoznikow (1998), Zunino et al. (1995).","taxonomy":"Procyon gymnocercus Fischer, 1814, Paraguay.Three subspecies have been proposed. Their geographic limits are not precise and it has been suggested that along their borders they could coexist and interbreed.","commonNames":"Renard d'Azara @fr | Pampasfuchs @de | Zorro de La Pampa @es | Azara's Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Burmeister","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1856","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"G. Fischer","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1814","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Pseudalopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"431","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gymnocercus","name":"Pseudalopex gymnocercus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. g. gymnocercus Fischer, 1814— subtropical grasslands of NE Argentina, SE Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.P.g. antiquus Ameghino, 1889— Pampas grasslands, monte scrublands, and open woodlands of C Argentina.P. g. lordi Massoia, 1982— Chaco-montane tropical forest ecotone in NW Argentina(Salta& JujuyProvinces).The subspecific status of the Pampas Fox from Entre Rios Provincein Argentinaremains unclear, and there are no data regarding the taxonomic position of Bolivian foxes.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331195/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Barquez et al. (1991) | Branch (1994) | Brooks (1992) | Cabrera (1958) | Cajal (1986) | Chebez (1994) | Cravino et al. (1997) | Crespo (1971) | Diaz & Ojeda (2000) | Farias, A.A. (2000) | Garcia, J. (1991) | Garcia, V.B. (2001) | Lucherini et al. (2004) | Massoia (1982) | Novaro & Funes (1994) | Redford & Eisenberg (1992) | Vuillermoz & Sapoznikow (1998) | Zunino et al. (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Like most other medium-sized foxes, the Pampas Fox is a generalist and adaptable carnivore. Its diet shows great geographic variation and may include both wild and domestic vertebrates (particularly rodents and birds), fruit, insects, carrion, and garbage. Based on stomach contents, wild mammals and sheep appeared to be the two most common food items in Uruguay, while in La Pampa Province, Argentina, European Hares and rodents were the most common food items, followed by birds and carrion. In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, there was a high frequency of rodents and birds, but also of insects, fruits, and crabs. Seasonal and local variations in diet are likely connected to variations in food availability. The Pampas Fox is a solitary and opportunistic carnivore. Large, highly concentrated food resources (i.e. large mammal carcasses) may cause several individuals to gather, possibly beyond the borders of normal home ranges. Food caching behavior has been observed, apparently related to an increase in the availability of rodents.","breeding":"In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.","activityPatterns":"Forages both day and night, although activity is mainly nocturnal in areas with severe hunting pressure.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Pampas Foxes are thought to form monogamous pairs, but they are solitary most of the time: 88% of observations in the Paraguayan Chacoand 93% in ArgentineLa Pampa Provincewere of single individuals. Pairs are frequently observed from the time of mating until pups leave the natal den. In a Sierra grassland area, the respective home ranges of two adultmales were estimated at 0-4 and 0-45 km*. Defecation-site features suggest that droppings are used in intraspecific communication. Long-distance calls, which peak in frequency during the breeding period, may serve to maintain contact between pair members, as well as play a role in territorial behavior. When pairs are raising pups, both adult foxes have been observed using a brief and repeated alarm call if they detect a potential threat to the young.Breeding.In central Argentina, pups are born from October to December. Gestation lasts 55-60 days, and litter sizes range from 3-5. Dens may be located in a variety of shelters, such as a hole at the base of a tree trunk, an armadillo (Dasypodidaespp.) den, or among rocks. Pups are frequently moved to a new location. The young stay at the den for the first three months. Both pair mates have been observed to guard the den, and males provide food to pups and females at the den. Females may breed at 8-12 months of age.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List and the ArgentinaRed List of Mammals. Abundant or common in most areas. In Argentinatrade was prohibited in 1987. However,it continues to be hunted. In Uruguayand Paraguaythe species is protected by law. In Argentinaand southern Brazilthe Pampas Fox was considered an important predator of sheep and goats, and was consequently persecuted by livestock ranchers. The Pampas Fox is currently threatened by the official implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) and the use of non-selective methods of capture. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any thorough studies on population abundance or the real damage thatthis species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is illegal. Most of the species’ range in the Pampas region has suffered massive habitat alteration due to extensive cattle ranching and agriculture. Although apparently able to withstand hunting pressure and habitat loss, the sum of these threats may nevertheless eventually cause the depletion of fox populations. Rural residents have traditionally hunted the Pampas Fox forits fur, an important source of income. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in north-west Argentina. In Uruguay, illegal trade is still widespread. Pampas Foxes are also frequently struck by cars in some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 59- 7-74 cmfor males and 50- 5-72 cmfor females, tail 28-38 cmfor males and 25-41 cmfor females; weight 4-8 kgfor males and 3-5- 7 kgfor females. Medium-sized, smaller than Culpeo. The head, somewhat triangular in shape, is reddish with a pale gray to white ventral surface. Ears triangular, broad and relatively large, reddish on the outer surface and white on the inner surface. The rostrum is narrow, ventrally pale, black in the chin and reddish to black dorsally. The eyes are oblique in appearance. The body, back, and sides are gray, like the outer surface of the hindlimbs, which have a characteristic black spot on the lower rear side. There is a dark, almost black band along the back and tail. Thetail is relatively long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip. The outer surface of the front limbs and the distal surface of the hindlimbs are reddish. Smaller size and lack of interparietal crest distinguish its skull from that of the Culpeo. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the pampas grasslands of South America’s Southern Cone. It prefers open habitats, tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrublands and open woodlands. In drier habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the speciesis replaced by the South American Gray Fox. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox selects more open areas. Apparently it has been able to adapt to the habitat alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF24FFDD7ED2F43CFADFD812.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF24FFDD7ED2F43CFADFD812","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"430","verbatimText":"16.South American Gray FoxPseudalopex griseusFrench:Renard d’Argentine/ German:Argentinischer Kampfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro de MagallanesOther common names:Chilla, Small Gray FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes griseus Gray, 1837, Chile.Formerly believed to include an island form, which since has been recognized as Darwin’s Fox. The Pampas Fox has recently been suggested to be conspecific with P. griseuson the basis of a craniometric and pelage-characters analysis, leading to the conclusion that P. gymnocercus and P. griseusare clinal variations of one single species, namely Lycalopex gymmnocercus. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. g. griseus Gray, 1837— Argentineand Chilean Patagonia.P. g. domeykoanus Philippi, 1901— N & C Chile, possibly S Peru.P. g. gracilis Burmeister, 1861— W Argentina(Monte Desert).P. g. maullinicus Philippi, 1903— S Argentineand Chilean temperate forests.Introduced (griseus) in Tierra del Fuego.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50- 1-66 cm, tail 11-5-34- 7 cm; weight 2-5- 5 kg. A small fox with large ears and a rufescent head flecked with white. Well-marked black spot on chin. Coat brindled gray, made up of agouti guard hairs with pale underfur. Black patch across thighs. Legs and feet pale tawny. Underparts pale gray. Tail long and bushy, with dorsal line and tip black and a mixed pale tawny and black pattern on the underside. The cranium is small, lacking an interparietal crest. Teeth widely separated. The dental formulaisI13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands and scrublands. South American Gray Foxes generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3500-4000 m. Although they occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat open patches of low scrub. In Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat consists of shrubby steppe composed of coiron (Festuca spp., Stipa spp.) and nires (Nothofagus antarctica). Burning and destruction of forests for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for these foxes. In Torres del Paine National Park, 58% of twelve individuals monitored showed preferential use of matorral shrubland or Nothofagus thicket habitat within their home ranges. In the Mendozadesert, Argentina, they prefer the lower levels of shrubby sand dunes rather than higher sections. They tolerate a variety of climates, including hot and dry areas such as the Atacamacoastal desert in northern Chile(less than 2 mmaverage annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), the humid, temperate Valdivian forest (2000 mmaverage annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature), and the cold environment of Tierra del Fuego (c. 400 mmaverage annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature).Food and Feeding.South American Gray Foxes are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a variety of foods, including mammals, arthropods, birds, reptiles, fruit, and carrion. Fruits ingested include berries of Cryptocarya alba and Lithraea caustica in Chile, pods of Prosopis spp., and the berry-like fruits of Prosopanche americana and of several Cactaceaein Argentina. A tendency to carnivory is apparent, however, since vertebrates, especially rodents, are reported to be the most important prey in most studies. Small mammals were the most frequently occurring vertebrate prey in most sites in the Chilean matorral and in the temperate rainforests of southern Chile. In Torres del Paine National Park, the European Hare was the most represented vertebrate prey, followed by carrion and akodontine rodents. In the ArgentinePatagonian steppe, carrion was the most important food item in 42 stomachs collected in winter (representing 62% of biomass ingested), followed by hares and cricetine rodents. In Argentina’s southern Patagonia, diet also consisted primarily of carrion, followed by birds, rodents, and fruit. Diet included invertebrates, carrion, birds, and rodents in Tierra del Fuego. In the harshest habitats ofits range, the foxes’ diets include increasingly higher proportions of non-mammal food as small mammal availability decreases. Lizards were the most consumed vertebrate prey in winter, the season of lowest small mammal availability in coastal northern Chile. Small-mammal consumption decreased from autumn to summer, and fruit consumption increased. In central Chile, berries appeared in 52% of the droppings (n = 127) collected in autumn, while in spring, when small mammal availability is highest, berries were present in only 18% of the feces (n = 62). In Mendoza (Monte desert), fruit was represented in 35% of feces (n = 116), followed by small mammals (19% frequency of occurrence). Foraging occurs mostly in open areas. Although hunting groups of up to 4-5 individuals have been reported, South American Gray Foxes mostly hunt solitarily, except perhaps at the end of the breeding season, when juveniles may join the parents in search of food. In Torres del Paine National Park, the most common foraging behavior consisted of slow walking, with abrupt, irregular turns through low vegetation. The same report noted that prey appear to be located by sound, sight, and smell. Mice are captured with a sudden leap or by rapidly digging holes. Scavenging is common, as well as defecation on and around Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and domestic goat carcasses. Caching behavior has also been reported.Activity patterns.Direct observations and prey activity patterns suggest that South American Gray Foxes are crepuscular, although they are commonly seen during the day. Radio-tracking showed that they were primarily nocturnal in Torres del Paine National Park, whereas they were active during both day and night in Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic component of social organization in Torres del Paine National Park is the breeding monogamous pair, accompanied by occasional female helpers. Male dispersal and occasional polygyny is also reported. Solitary individuals were seen from March to July, while pairs comprised 42% of sightings during August. The male and female of an observed pair maintained an exclusive home range year-round, which did not overlap with home ranges of neighboring pairs. Intraspecific interactions were few and usually aggressive. Individual home range sizes (n = 23) averaged 2-0 km”.Breeding.Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “locally common” in Argentinaand stable in the southern half of the country where habitat is more favorable. Reported to have expanded their range in Tierra del Fuegosince being introduced there: in 1996 their density was estimated at 1 per km®. Hunting them and fur trading are legal in ArgentinePatagonia and Tierra del Fuego. All Chilean populations are currently protected by law, except for those from Tierra del Fuego. The main threat to South American Gray Fox populations in the past was commercial hunting for fur. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recentyears. Illegal killing still occurs in some regions,as the foxes are perceived to be voracious predators of small livestock, poultry and game. The usual means of hunting are by shooting, dogs, poison, snares, and foothold traps. Around 45% of the mortality documented in Torres del Paine National Park resulted from either poaching or dog attacks. Road kills are frequently observed in Argentina, especially in summer.Bibliography.Cabrera (1958), Campos & Ojeda (1997), Duran et al. (1985), Gonzalez del Solar & Rau(2004), Gonzalez del Solar et al. (1997), Jaksic, Jiménez et al. (1990), Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980), Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983), Jayat et al. (1999), Jiménez (1993), Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996), Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b, 1994c), Mares et al. (1996), Marquet et al. (1993), Martinez et al. (1993), Medel & Jaksic (1988), Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000), Rauet al. (1995), Simonetti et al. (1984), Yanez & Jaksic (1978), Zunino et al. (1995).","taxonomy":"Vulpes griseus Gray, 1837, Chile.Formerly believed to include an island form, which since has been recognized as Darwin’s Fox. The Pampas Fox has recently been suggested to be conspecific with P. griseuson the basis of a craniometric and pelage-characters analysis, leading to the conclusion that P. gymnocercus and P. griseusare clinal variations of one single species, namely Lycalopex gymmnocercus. Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard d’Argentine @fr | Argentinischer Kampfuchs @de | Zorro de Magallanes @es | Chilla @en | Small Gray Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Pseudalopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"430","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"griseus","name":"Pseudalopex griseus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. g. griseus Gray, 1837— Argentineand Chilean Patagonia.P. g. domeykoanus Philippi, 1901— N & C Chile, possibly S Peru.P. g. gracilis Burmeister, 1861— W Argentina(Monte Desert).P. g. maullinicus Philippi, 1903— S Argentineand Chilean temperate forests.Introduced (griseus) in Tierra del Fuego.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331193/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cabrera (1958) | Campos & Ojeda (1997) | Duran et al. (1985) | Gonzalez del Solar & Rau(2004) | Gonzalez del Solar et al. (1997) | Jaksic, Jiménez et al. (1990) | Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980) | Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983) | Jayat et al. (1999) | Jiménez (1993) | Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996) | Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) | Mares et al. (1996) | Marquet et al. (1993) | Martinez et al. (1993) | Medel & Jaksic (1988) | Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000) | Rauet al. (1995) | Simonetti et al. (1984) | Yanez & Jaksic (1978) | Zunino et al. (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"South American Gray Foxes are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a variety of foods, including mammals, arthropods, birds, reptiles, fruit, and carrion. Fruits ingested include berries of Cryptocarya alba and Lithraea caustica in Chile, pods of Prosopis spp., and the berry-like fruits of Prosopanche americana and of several Cactaceaein Argentina. A tendency to carnivory is apparent, however, since vertebrates, especially rodents, are reported to be the most important prey in most studies. Small mammals were the most frequently occurring vertebrate prey in most sites in the Chilean matorral and in the temperate rainforests of southern Chile. In Torres del Paine National Park, the European Hare was the most represented vertebrate prey, followed by carrion and akodontine rodents. In the ArgentinePatagonian steppe, carrion was the most important food item in 42 stomachs collected in winter (representing 62% of biomass ingested), followed by hares and cricetine rodents. In Argentina’s southern Patagonia, diet also consisted primarily of carrion, followed by birds, rodents, and fruit. Diet included invertebrates, carrion, birds, and rodents in Tierra del Fuego. In the harshest habitats ofits range, the foxes’ diets include increasingly higher proportions of non-mammal food as small mammal availability decreases. Lizards were the most consumed vertebrate prey in winter, the season of lowest small mammal availability in coastal northern Chile. Small-mammal consumption decreased from autumn to summer, and fruit consumption increased. In central Chile, berries appeared in 52% of the droppings (n = 127) collected in autumn, while in spring, when small mammal availability is highest, berries were present in only 18% of the feces (n = 62). In Mendoza (Monte desert), fruit was represented in 35% of feces (n = 116), followed by small mammals (19% frequency of occurrence). Foraging occurs mostly in open areas. Although hunting groups of up to 4-5 individuals have been reported, South American Gray Foxes mostly hunt solitarily, except perhaps at the end of the breeding season, when juveniles may join the parents in search of food. In Torres del Paine National Park, the most common foraging behavior consisted of slow walking, with abrupt, irregular turns through low vegetation. The same report noted that prey appear to be located by sound, sight, and smell. Mice are captured with a sudden leap or by rapidly digging holes. Scavenging is common, as well as defecation on and around Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and domestic goat carcasses. Caching behavior has also been reported.","breeding":"Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.","activityPatterns":"Direct observations and prey activity patterns suggest that South American Gray Foxes are crepuscular, although they are commonly seen during the day. Radio-tracking showed that they were primarily nocturnal in Torres del Paine National Park, whereas they were active during both day and night in Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic component of social organization in Torres del Paine National Park is the breeding monogamous pair, accompanied by occasional female helpers. Male dispersal and occasional polygyny is also reported. Solitary individuals were seen from March to July, while pairs comprised 42% of sightings during August. The male and female of an observed pair maintained an exclusive home range year-round, which did not overlap with home ranges of neighboring pairs. Intraspecific interactions were few and usually aggressive. Individual home range sizes (n = 23) averaged 2-0 km”.Breeding.Mating occurs in August and September, the gestation period is 53-58 days and 4-6 pups are born in October. Dens are located in a variety of natural and manmade places such as a hole at the base of a shrub or in culverts under a dirt road The pups may be moved to a new location during the nursing period. During the first few days the mother rarely leaves the den and the male provisions her with food. Pups are cared for by both parents on an approximately equal time basis. Young foxes start to emerge from the den when they are about one month old, and start to disperse (8-65 km) at 6-7 months of age. Two interesting phenomena concerning breeding behavior may occur: litters of two femalescombine (associated with polygyny) and the presence of female helpers. Both seem to be related to food availability and litter size. Female helpers contribute by bringing provisioning food to the den and increasing anti-predator vigilance.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Considered “locally common” in Argentinaand stable in the southern half of the country where habitat is more favorable. Reported to have expanded their range in Tierra del Fuegosince being introduced there: in 1996 their density was estimated at 1 per km®. Hunting them and fur trading are legal in ArgentinePatagonia and Tierra del Fuego. All Chilean populations are currently protected by law, except for those from Tierra del Fuego. The main threat to South American Gray Fox populations in the past was commercial hunting for fur. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recentyears. Illegal killing still occurs in some regions,as the foxes are perceived to be voracious predators of small livestock, poultry and game. The usual means of hunting are by shooting, dogs, poison, snares, and foothold traps. Around 45% of the mortality documented in Torres del Paine National Park resulted from either poaching or dog attacks. Road kills are frequently observed in Argentina, especially in summer.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50- 1-66 cm, tail 11-5-34- 7 cm; weight 2-5- 5 kg. A small fox with large ears and a rufescent head flecked with white. Well-marked black spot on chin. Coat brindled gray, made up of agouti guard hairs with pale underfur. Black patch across thighs. Legs and feet pale tawny. Underparts pale gray. Tail long and bushy, with dorsal line and tip black and a mixed pale tawny and black pattern on the underside. The cranium is small, lacking an interparietal crest. Teeth widely separated. The dental formulaisI13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Steppes, grasslands and scrublands. South American Gray Foxes generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3500-4000 m. Although they occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat open patches of low scrub. In Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat consists of shrubby steppe composed of coiron (Festuca spp., Stipa spp.) and nires (Nothofagus antarctica). Burning and destruction of forests for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for these foxes. In Torres del Paine National Park, 58% of twelve individuals monitored showed preferential use of matorral shrubland or Nothofagus thicket habitat within their home ranges. In the Mendozadesert, Argentina, they prefer the lower levels of shrubby sand dunes rather than higher sections. They tolerate a variety of climates, including hot and dry areas such as the Atacamacoastal desert in northern Chile(less than 2 mmaverage annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), the humid, temperate Valdivian forest (2000 mmaverage annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature), and the cold environment of Tierra del Fuego (c. 400 mmaverage annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF25FFDA7B97FAA9FBEFD662.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF25FFDA7B97FAA9FBEFD662","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"429","verbatimText":"15.Darwin’s FoxPseudalopex fulvipesFrench:Renard de Darwin/ German:Darwin-Fuchs/ Spanish:Zorro chiloteTaxonomy.Vulpes fulvipes Martin, 1837,Chile.Known until recently only from the Island of Chiloé, Chile. Taxonomic status previously uncertain and confusing; was considered to be an island form of the South American Gray Fox (P griseus). However, the discovery of a mainland population in sympatry with the South American Gray Fox and the analysis of mitochondrial DNA of the three Chilean foxes (including P. culpaeus), provides strong evidence for considering the Darwin’s Fox as a legitimate species. It is now accepted that current populations of Darwin's Fox are relicts of a former, more widely distributed species. Similarities in pelage coloration between P. fulvipesand P. sechuraefrom the coastal desert of Peru(2000 kmto the north) support speculations of a phylogenetic relationship between these two species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Chile, with a disjunct distribution in the forests of Chiloé Island, and on the mainland coastal mountains in Nahuelbuta National Park. Evidence of a new population was foud recently at Punta Chan Chan, N of Valdivia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 48-2-56- 1 cmfor males and 48-59- 1 cmfor females, tail 19-5-25- 5 cmfor males and 17- 5-25 cmfor females; weight 1-9- 3-95 kgfor males and 1-8- 3-7 kgfor females. A small, stout fox with an elongated body and short legs. Muzzle short and thin, extending into a rather rounded forehead. The agouti hair on the torso contributes to its dark appearance. Rufous markings on the ears and along the legs below the knees and elbows. White markings under the chin, along the lower mandible, on the underbelly and on the upper and inner part of the legs. The tail is dark gray, relatively short and quite bushy—all useful traits for distinguishing this species from congenerics. The skull is shorter and the auditory bulla smaller than the South American Gray Fox, but the dentition is heavier. Dental formulais 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M2/3=42.Habitat.Generally believed to be a forest obligate species found only in southern temperate rainforests. They inhabit dense Valdivian forest, which is very moist all year round. The forest is dominated by fruit-bearing trees in the family Mirtaceae; there are a few native conifers and several species of broad-leaved evergreens. Radio-tracking along a gradient of disturbance on Chiloé indicated that, in decreasing order, foxes use old-growth Valdivian forest followed by secondary forest followed by pastures and openings; about 70% of home ranges comprised old-growth forest. However, when compared to the availability of each forest gradient, foxes showed preference for secondary forest and avoided old growth. On the Pacific coast of Chiloé, Darwin’s Foxes live in a fragmented environment of coastal sand dunes and dense evergreen forest. On the northern part of the island, they use a relatively flat, fragmented landscape of broadleaf forest and cow pasture. The mainland population uses dense forest; animals are found with decreasing frequency in dense monkey-puzzle tree-southern beech (Araucaria-Nothofagus spp.) forest, open Nothofagus forest and open pasture, respectively.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, with a broad diet, and highly opportunistic. These traits facilitate its survival in a highly fluctuating environment with low prey availability. Fecal analysis showed that the mainland population ate primarily small mammals, followed, in decreasing levels of importance, by reptiles, insects, birds, and arachnids. The proportions of these prey classes fluctuated strongly according to season. Berries were also included in the diet, occurring in about. 20% of the feces. On the mainland Darwin’s Foxes rely heavily on the seeds of monkey-puzzle trees from March to May. On Chiloé,fecal analysis revealed that insects were the most abundant food item in the diet during the warm season, followed by amphibians, mammals, birds, and reptiles; 49% offeces contained seeds. During late summer and fall, the diet was almost entirely fruits of Mirtaceaetrees. Foxes may be considered a key species because of their role in dispersing the seeds of forest plants. An experiment indicated that a high percent age of the seeds of one tree species (Amomyrtus luma) collected from feces germinated underfield conditions. Darwin’s Foxes also eat carrion in small amounts, as evidenced by the remains (e.g. hair) of sheep, pigs, cattle, and horses in feces. Local settlers reported that lone foxes also kill Southern Pudu deer (Pudu puda; about 10 kgin weight) by biting their ankles and then the throat. In addition, coastal foxes feed on shellfish and shorebirds, and have been observed feeding on large brown algae on the beach.On following pages: 16. South American Gray Fox (Pseudalopex griseus); 17. Pampas Fox (Pseudalopexgymnocercus); 18. Sechuran Fox (Pseudalopex sechurae); 19. Hoary Fox (Pseudalopex vetulus); 20. Northern Gray Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus); 21. Island Fox (Urocyon littoralis).Activity patterns.Darwin’s Foxes seem to concentrate their activity during the daytime in forested areas. In Nahuelbuta, they forage mainly at night, when the sympatric and larger South American Gray Fox is less active. They have also been observed hunting ducks at midday in a coastal marsh.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In Chiloé¢, radio-tracking indicated that Darwin’s Foxes are solitary when not breeding, but will congregate at food sources, such as carcasses and seaweed stranded on beaches. A pair appears to be the basic social unit during the breeding season. Home ranges average about 1-6 km* for males and 1-5 km? for females. Given the very large range overlaps among neighboring foxes, and that individuals share their home range with an average of 4- 7 malesand 3- 3 females, Darwin’s Fox appears to be non-territorial. On the mainland, pairs persist throughout the year, and are often found in close proximity. In contrast with the Chiloé population, mainland pairs have been known to share their home ranges with offspring from previous years. All family members associate closely with each other, showing very little aggressive behavior towards one another. To date, no evidence has been reported of oldersiblings serving as helpers to new litters. The maintenance of a large family group may be influenced by a paucity of suitable territories for potentially dispersing juveniles. Dispersal appears to be delayed and may be opportunistic.Breeding.On the mainland, lactating females have been caught in October and pups have been documented leaving the den area and venturing out with both parents in December. Litter size is estimated to be 2-3 pups. Weaning occurs in February. During this period the female spends relatively less time with the pups, and a greater proportion of their interactions are agonistic, whereas the male spends more time playing with and grooming the pups. A den was located in a rock cavity (2 mdeep) in Araucaria—Nothofagus forest with a bamboo understory, and a small pup was found denning in a hollow rotten log. During mating, males and females are together for a few days. During the first few weeks after parturition, females move little and apparently stay in the den.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population size is currently estimated as less than 250 mature individuals with most of the foxes occurring in Chiloé Island. Protected by Chilean law since 1929, but enforcement is not always possible and some poaching occurs. The conservation status is “rare” on the mainland and “vulnerable” on Chiloé Island. More recently, Darwin’s Fox has been considered as “critical”, becoming the second most urgent Chilean terrestrial mammal conservation priority. The mainland population is reported to be vulnerable and its survival uncertain if current environmental trends continue. Although the species is protected in Nahuelbuta National Park, foxes are exposed to substantial mortality risks when they move to lower, unprotected private areas in search of milder conditions during the winter. Some foxes even breed in these areas. Unleashed dogs are common both on Chiloé and in Nahuelbuta and represent a significant conservation threat. Dogs have been reported to attack and kill foxes and are also vectors of potentially fatal diseases. The island population, being protected in Chiloé National Park, appears to be relatively safe. This 430 km® protected area encompasses most of the pristine rainforest on the island. However, although the park appears to have a sizable fox population, foxes also live in the surrounding areas where substantial forest cover remains. These areas are vulnerable and continuously subjected to logging, forest fragmentation, and poaching by locals.Bibliography.Armesto et al. (1987), Cabrera (1958), Cofré & Marquet (1999), Glade (1993), Iriarte & Jaksic (1986), IUCN (2008), Jaksic et al. (1990), Jiménez (2000), Jiménez & McMahon (2004), Jiménez et al. (1990), Mc-Mahon (2002), McMahon et al. (1999), Medel et al. (1990), Miller et al. (1983), Osgood (1943), Pine et al. (1979), Redford & Eisenberg (1992), Spotorno (1995), Yahnke (1995), Yahnke et al. (1996).","taxonomy":"Vulpes fulvipes Martin, 1837,Chile.Known until recently only from the Island of Chiloé, Chile. Taxonomic status previously uncertain and confusing; was considered to be an island form of the South American Gray Fox (P griseus). However, the discovery of a mainland population in sympatry with the South American Gray Fox and the analysis of mitochondrial DNA of the three Chilean foxes (including P. culpaeus), provides strong evidence for considering the Darwin’s Fox as a legitimate species. It is now accepted that current populations of Darwin's Fox are relicts of a former, more widely distributed species. Similarities in pelage coloration between P. fulvipesand P. sechuraefrom the coastal desert of Peru(2000 kmto the north) support speculations of a phylogenetic relationship between these two species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard de Darwin @fr | Darwin-Fuchs @de | Zorro chilote @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Burmeister","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1856","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Martin","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Pseudalopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"429","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fulvipes","name":"Pseudalopex fulvipes","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Chile, with a disjunct distribution in the forests of Chiloé Island, and on the mainland coastal mountains in Nahuelbuta National Park. Evidence of a new population was foud recently at Punta Chan Chan, N of Valdivia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331191/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Armesto et al. (1987) | Cabrera (1958) | Cofré & Marquet (1999) | Glade (1993) | Iriarte & Jaksic (1986) | IUCN (2008) | Jaksic et al. (1990) | Jiménez (2000) | Jiménez & McMahon (2004) | Jiménez et al. (1990) | Mc-Mahon (2002) | McMahon et al. (1999) | Medel et al. (1990) | Miller et al. (1983) | Osgood (1943) | Pine et al. (1979) | Redford & Eisenberg (1992) | Spotorno (1995) | Yahnke (1995) | Yahnke et al. (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous, with a broad diet, and highly opportunistic. These traits facilitate its survival in a highly fluctuating environment with low prey availability. Fecal analysis showed that the mainland population ate primarily small mammals, followed, in decreasing levels of importance, by reptiles, insects, birds, and arachnids. The proportions of these prey classes fluctuated strongly according to season. Berries were also included in the diet, occurring in about. 20% of the feces. On the mainland Darwin’s Foxes rely heavily on the seeds of monkey-puzzle trees from March to May. On Chiloé,fecal analysis revealed that insects were the most abundant food item in the diet during the warm season, followed by amphibians, mammals, birds, and reptiles; 49% offeces contained seeds. During late summer and fall, the diet was almost entirely fruits of Mirtaceaetrees. Foxes may be considered a key species because of their role in dispersing the seeds of forest plants. An experiment indicated that a high percent age of the seeds of one tree species (Amomyrtus luma) collected from feces germinated underfield conditions. Darwin’s Foxes also eat carrion in small amounts, as evidenced by the remains (e.g. hair) of sheep, pigs, cattle, and horses in feces. Local settlers reported that lone foxes also kill Southern Pudu deer (Pudu puda; about 10 kgin weight) by biting their ankles and then the throat. In addition, coastal foxes feed on shellfish and shorebirds, and have been observed feeding on large brown algae on the beach.","breeding":"On the mainland, lactating females have been caught in October and pups have been documented leaving the den area and venturing out with both parents in December. Litter size is estimated to be 2-3 pups. Weaning occurs in February. During this period the female spends relatively less time with the pups, and a greater proportion of their interactions are agonistic, whereas the male spends more time playing with and grooming the pups. A den was located in a rock cavity (2 mdeep) in Araucaria—Nothofagus forest with a bamboo understory, and a small pup was found denning in a hollow rotten log. During mating, males and females are together for a few days. During the first few weeks after parturition, females move little and apparently stay in the den.","activityPatterns":"Darwin’s Foxes seem to concentrate their activity during the daytime in forested areas. In Nahuelbuta, they forage mainly at night, when the sympatric and larger South American Gray Fox is less active. They have also been observed hunting ducks at midday in a coastal marsh.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In Chiloé¢, radio-tracking indicated that Darwin’s Foxes are solitary when not breeding, but will congregate at food sources, such as carcasses and seaweed stranded on beaches. A pair appears to be the basic social unit during the breeding season. Home ranges average about 1-6 km* for males and 1-5 km? for females. Given the very large range overlaps among neighboring foxes, and that individuals share their home range with an average of 4- 7 malesand 3- 3 females, Darwin’s Fox appears to be non-territorial. On the mainland, pairs persist throughout the year, and are often found in close proximity. In contrast with the Chiloé population, mainland pairs have been known to share their home ranges with offspring from previous years. All family members associate closely with each other, showing very little aggressive behavior towards one another. To date, no evidence has been reported of oldersiblings serving as helpers to new litters. The maintenance of a large family group may be influenced by a paucity of suitable territories for potentially dispersing juveniles. Dispersal appears to be delayed and may be opportunistic.Breeding.On the mainland, lactating females have been caught in October and pups have been documented leaving the den area and venturing out with both parents in December. Litter size is estimated to be 2-3 pups. Weaning occurs in February. During this period the female spends relatively less time with the pups, and a greater proportion of their interactions are agonistic, whereas the male spends more time playing with and grooming the pups. A den was located in a rock cavity (2 mdeep) in Araucaria—Nothofagus forest with a bamboo understory, and a small pup was found denning in a hollow rotten log. During mating, males and females are together for a few days. During the first few weeks after parturition, females move little and apparently stay in the den.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population size is currently estimated as less than 250 mature individuals with most of the foxes occurring in Chiloé Island. Protected by Chilean law since 1929, but enforcement is not always possible and some poaching occurs. The conservation status is “rare” on the mainland and “vulnerable” on Chiloé Island. More recently, Darwin’s Fox has been considered as “critical”, becoming the second most urgent Chilean terrestrial mammal conservation priority. The mainland population is reported to be vulnerable and its survival uncertain if current environmental trends continue. Although the species is protected in Nahuelbuta National Park, foxes are exposed to substantial mortality risks when they move to lower, unprotected private areas in search of milder conditions during the winter. Some foxes even breed in these areas. Unleashed dogs are common both on Chiloé and in Nahuelbuta and represent a significant conservation threat. Dogs have been reported to attack and kill foxes and are also vectors of potentially fatal diseases. The island population, being protected in Chiloé National Park, appears to be relatively safe. This 430 km® protected area encompasses most of the pristine rainforest on the island. However, although the park appears to have a sizable fox population, foxes also live in the surrounding areas where substantial forest cover remains. These areas are vulnerable and continuously subjected to logging, forest fragmentation, and poaching by locals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 48-2-56- 1 cmfor males and 48-59- 1 cmfor females, tail 19-5-25- 5 cmfor males and 17- 5-25 cmfor females; weight 1-9- 3-95 kgfor males and 1-8- 3-7 kgfor females. A small, stout fox with an elongated body and short legs. Muzzle short and thin, extending into a rather rounded forehead. The agouti hair on the torso contributes to its dark appearance. Rufous markings on the ears and along the legs below the knees and elbows. White markings under the chin, along the lower mandible, on the underbelly and on the upper and inner part of the legs. The tail is dark gray, relatively short and quite bushy—all useful traits for distinguishing this species from congenerics. The skull is shorter and the auditory bulla smaller than the South American Gray Fox, but the dentition is heavier. Dental formulais 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M2/3=42.","habitat":"Generally believed to be a forest obligate species found only in southern temperate rainforests. They inhabit dense Valdivian forest, which is very moist all year round. The forest is dominated by fruit-bearing trees in the family Mirtaceae; there are a few native conifers and several species of broad-leaved evergreens. Radio-tracking along a gradient of disturbance on Chiloé indicated that, in decreasing order, foxes use old-growth Valdivian forest followed by secondary forest followed by pastures and openings; about 70% of home ranges comprised old-growth forest. However, when compared to the availability of each forest gradient, foxes showed preference for secondary forest and avoided old growth. On the Pacific coast of Chiloé, Darwin’s Foxes live in a fragmented environment of coastal sand dunes and dense evergreen forest. On the northern part of the island, they use a relatively flat, fragmented landscape of broadleaf forest and cow pasture. The mainland population uses dense forest; animals are found with decreasing frequency in dense monkey-puzzle tree-southern beech (Araucaria-Nothofagus spp.) forest, open Nothofagus forest and open pasture, respectively."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"429","verbatimText":"14.CulpeoPseudalopex culpaeusFrench:Renard des Andes/ German:Andenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro andinoOther common names:Andean FoxTaxonomy.Canis culpaeus Molina, 1782.Santiago Province, Chile.The taxonomic status of the Culpeo is still unresolved, despite a range of propositions for including it under Dusicyon, Canis, and Lycalopex. Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. c. culpaeus Molina, 1782— W & C Argentinaand C Chile.P. c. andinus Thomas, 1914— altiplano of Bolivia, N Chile, and Peru.P.c. lycoides Philippi, 1895— Tierra del Fuego.P.c. magellanicus Gray, 1837— Argentinaand S Chile.P. c. reissu Hilzheimer, 1906— Ecuadorian Andes and extreme S Colombia(Narino).P. c. smithersi Thomas, 1914— Argentina(Cordoba Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 44-5-92- 5 cmfor males and 49-89 cmfor females, tail 30-5-49- 3 cmfor males and 31-45 cmfor females; weight 3-4-13- 8 kgfor males and 3: 9-10 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Pseudalopex. The broad head and wide muzzle impart a powerful appearance. Males larger and on average 1-5 times heavier than females. White to light tawny chin and body underparts. Dorsal parts of the head, including the ears and neck, as well as legs and flanks are tawny or rufous. The rump is darker, ranging in color from tawny to dark gray, according to the subspecies. The tail is long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip and a dark dorsal patch near its base. Feet and legs are bright tawny with no black. Specimens from northern ranges (1.e. andinus) are lighter in color. Compared to the South American Gray Fox, Culpeos have longer canines and shorter second molars. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.The Culpeo ranges from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, to deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, and broadleaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses the entire range of habitat moisture gradients from the dry desert to broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentinait reaches elevations of up to 4800 m, where it occupies colder and dryer environments than any other South American canid.Food and Feeding.Diet includes wild ungulates, domestic sheep (northern Patagonia), European Hares (Lepus europeus), European Rabbits, small mammals, lizards, birds, and insects. Although it is an opportunistic predator, the Culpeo is considered more carnivorous and a consumer of larger mammalian prey than the other South American foxes. Most trophic studies found seasonal differences in diet composition, probably in response to prey availability. In ArgentinePatagonia, Culpeos showed a preference for hares and selected among rodent species for those that may be more vulnerable. Culpeos in central Chileselected the largest small mammals available. Although the bulk of the diet consists of animal prey, Culpeos are often described as consumers offruits and berries and are therefore thought to disperse seeds of a variety of plant species. Highest fruit consumption occurs when small mammals are the least abundant. Culpeos tend to forage solitarily. Their foraging activity may be influenced by the nocturnal habits of their main prey, but also by persecution.Activity patterns.In Argentina, Magallanes, and the Chilean desert, and highland Peru(where it is intensively persecuted) the Culpeo is almost completely nocturnal. This contrasts with the diurnal activity shown in north-central Chile, where it is protected. Culpeos have been recorded moving linear distances of about 7 kmin north-western Patagonia, but desert-dwelling foxes in northern Chilehave been recorded moving three times as far.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Culpeos seem to be solitary foxes. Spatial studies throughout their range indicate that they have inter- and intra-sexual non-overlapping home ranges. Small areas of spatial overlap occur at sites of human refuse, but the foxes still segregate temporally. Females are apparently more spatially intolerant than males. In north-central Chile, home ranges of females averaged 8-9 km* and were 2-5 times larger than those of males. In contrast, Culpeo home ranges in Torres del Paine National Park (south Chile) were only 4-5 km? in size and similar for males and females. Desert-dwelling Culpeos show high variability in home range size, ranging from 10 km” for Culpeosliving in ravines to 800 km? for foxes associated with highland salt flats and lakes.Breeding.In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last. In Chilethe species is considered Insufficiently Known and the subspecies P. ¢. lycoides is considered Endangered. Despite being similarly decreed as “endangered” in Argentina, due to the number of Culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s, national trade and export of this product has remained legal. Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations. Recent estimates reported densities of 0-2-1-3 individuals/km? in north-western Patagonia, Argentina, and 0-3-1-3 individuals/km? in Chile. Hunting has been banned since 1980), although law enforcement is not strict. Although Culpeo fur exports were banned in Boliviain 1986, the species is not protected in that country. Culpeos are persecuted to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. They prey on newborn lambs and account for an estimated 60% of the attacks by predators in Patagonia. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may threaten Culpeos in some areas, and road kills occur frequently in Argentina.Bibliography.Bustamante et al. (1992), Cofré & Marquet (1999), Corley et al. (1995), Crespo (1975), Crespo & de Carlo (1963), Ebensperger et al. (1991), Glade (1993), Iriarte et al. (1989), Jaksic & Yanez (1983), Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980), Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983), Jiménez (1993), Jiménez & Novaro (2004), Jiménez, Yanez & Jaksic (1996), Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996), Johnson (1992), Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b), Langguth (1975), Marquet et al. (1993), Meserve et al. (1987), Novaro (1995, 1997a, 1997b), Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000), Novaro, Funes, Rambeaud & Monsalvo (2000), Romo (1995), Salvatori et al. (1999), Simonetti (1986), Travaini, Juste et al. (2000), Travaini, Zapata et al. (2000), Wayne et al. (1989), Yanez & Jaksic (1978), Yanez & Rau(1980), Zunino et al. (1995).","taxonomy":"Canis culpaeus Molina, 1782.Santiago Province, Chile.The taxonomic status of the Culpeo is still unresolved, despite a range of propositions for including it under Dusicyon, Canis, and Lycalopex. Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard des Andes @fr | Andenfuchs @de | Zorro andino @es | Andean Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Pseudalopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"429","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"culpaeus","name":"Pseudalopex culpaeus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. c. culpaeus Molina, 1782— W & C Argentinaand C Chile.P. c. andinus Thomas, 1914— altiplano of Bolivia, N Chile, and Peru.P.c. lycoides Philippi, 1895— Tierra del Fuego.P.c. magellanicus Gray, 1837— Argentinaand S Chile.P. c. reissu Hilzheimer, 1906— Ecuadorian Andes and extreme S Colombia(Narino).P. c. smithersi Thomas, 1914— Argentina(Cordoba Mts).","bibliography":"Bustamante et al. (1992) | Cofré & Marquet (1999) | Corley et al. (1995) | Crespo (1975) | Crespo & de Carlo (1963) | Ebensperger et al. (1991) | Glade (1993) | Iriarte et al. (1989) | Jaksic & Yanez (1983) | Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980) | Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983) | Jiménez (1993) | Jiménez & Novaro (2004) | Jiménez, Yanez & Jaksic (1996) | Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996) | Johnson (1992) | Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b) | Langguth (1975) | Marquet et al. (1993) | Meserve et al. (1987) | Novaro (1995, 1997a, 1997b) | Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000) | Novaro, Funes, Rambeaud & Monsalvo (2000) | Romo (1995) | Salvatori et al. (1999) | Simonetti (1986) | Travaini, Juste et al. (2000) | Travaini, Zapata et al. (2000) | Wayne et al. (1989) | Yanez & Jaksic (1978) | Yanez & Rau(1980) | Zunino et al. (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet includes wild ungulates, domestic sheep (northern Patagonia), European Hares (Lepus europeus), European Rabbits, small mammals, lizards, birds, and insects. Although it is an opportunistic predator, the Culpeo is considered more carnivorous and a consumer of larger mammalian prey than the other South American foxes. Most trophic studies found seasonal differences in diet composition, probably in response to prey availability. In ArgentinePatagonia, Culpeos showed a preference for hares and selected among rodent species for those that may be more vulnerable. Culpeos in central Chileselected the largest small mammals available. Although the bulk of the diet consists of animal prey, Culpeos are often described as consumers offruits and berries and are therefore thought to disperse seeds of a variety of plant species. Highest fruit consumption occurs when small mammals are the least abundant. Culpeos tend to forage solitarily. Their foraging activity may be influenced by the nocturnal habits of their main prey, but also by persecution.","breeding":"In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.","activityPatterns":"In Argentina, Magallanes, and the Chilean desert, and highland Peru(where it is intensively persecuted) the Culpeo is almost completely nocturnal. This contrasts with the diurnal activity shown in north-central Chile, where it is protected. Culpeos have been recorded moving linear distances of about 7 kmin north-western Patagonia, but desert-dwelling foxes in northern Chilehave been recorded moving three times as far.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Culpeos seem to be solitary foxes. Spatial studies throughout their range indicate that they have inter- and intra-sexual non-overlapping home ranges. Small areas of spatial overlap occur at sites of human refuse, but the foxes still segregate temporally. Females are apparently more spatially intolerant than males. In north-central Chile, home ranges of females averaged 8-9 km* and were 2-5 times larger than those of males. In contrast, Culpeo home ranges in Torres del Paine National Park (south Chile) were only 4-5 km? in size and similar for males and females. Desert-dwelling Culpeos show high variability in home range size, ranging from 10 km” for Culpeosliving in ravines to 800 km? for foxes associated with highland salt flats and lakes.Breeding.In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last. In Chilethe species is considered Insufficiently Known and the subspecies P. ¢. lycoides is considered Endangered. Despite being similarly decreed as “endangered” in Argentina, due to the number of Culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s, national trade and export of this product has remained legal. Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations. Recent estimates reported densities of 0-2-1-3 individuals/km? in north-western Patagonia, Argentina, and 0-3-1-3 individuals/km? in Chile. Hunting has been banned since 1980), although law enforcement is not strict. Although Culpeo fur exports were banned in Boliviain 1986, the species is not protected in that country. Culpeos are persecuted to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. They prey on newborn lambs and account for an estimated 60% of the attacks by predators in Patagonia. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may threaten Culpeos in some areas, and road kills occur frequently in Argentina.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 44-5-92- 5 cmfor males and 49-89 cmfor females, tail 30-5-49- 3 cmfor males and 31-45 cmfor females; weight 3-4-13- 8 kgfor males and 3: 9-10 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Pseudalopex. The broad head and wide muzzle impart a powerful appearance. Males larger and on average 1-5 times heavier than females. White to light tawny chin and body underparts. Dorsal parts of the head, including the ears and neck, as well as legs and flanks are tawny or rufous. The rump is darker, ranging in color from tawny to dark gray, according to the subspecies. The tail is long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip and a dark dorsal patch near its base. Feet and legs are bright tawny with no black. Specimens from northern ranges (1.e. andinus) are lighter in color. Compared to the South American Gray Fox, Culpeos have longer canines and shorter second molars. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"The Culpeo ranges from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, to deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, and broadleaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses the entire range of habitat moisture gradients from the dry desert to broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentinait reaches elevations of up to 4800 m, where it occupies colder and dryer environments than any other South American canid."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF25FFDB7E8DFE3DF842D9F6","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"429","verbatimText":"14.CulpeoPseudalopex culpaeusFrench:Renard des Andes/ German:Andenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro andinoOther common names:Andean FoxTaxonomy.Canis culpaeus Molina, 1782.Santiago Province, Chile.The taxonomic status of the Culpeo is still unresolved, despite a range of propositions for including it under Dusicyon, Canis, and Lycalopex. Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. c. culpaeus Molina, 1782— W & C Argentinaand C Chile.P. c. andinus Thomas, 1914— altiplano of Bolivia, N Chile, and Peru.P.c. lycoides Philippi, 1895— Tierra del Fuego.P.c. magellanicus Gray, 1837— Argentinaand S Chile.P. c. reissu Hilzheimer, 1906— Ecuadorian Andes and extreme S Colombia(Narino).P. c. smithersi Thomas, 1914— Argentina(Cordoba Mts).Descriptive notes.Head-body 44-5-92- 5 cmfor males and 49-89 cmfor females, tail 30-5-49- 3 cmfor males and 31-45 cmfor females; weight 3-4-13- 8 kgfor males and 3: 9-10 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Pseudalopex. The broad head and wide muzzle impart a powerful appearance. Males larger and on average 1-5 times heavier than females. White to light tawny chin and body underparts. Dorsal parts of the head, including the ears and neck, as well as legs and flanks are tawny or rufous. The rump is darker, ranging in color from tawny to dark gray, according to the subspecies. The tail is long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip and a dark dorsal patch near its base. Feet and legs are bright tawny with no black. Specimens from northern ranges (1.e. andinus) are lighter in color. Compared to the South American Gray Fox, Culpeos have longer canines and shorter second molars. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.The Culpeo ranges from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, to deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, and broadleaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses the entire range of habitat moisture gradients from the dry desert to broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentinait reaches elevations of up to 4800 m, where it occupies colder and dryer environments than any other South American canid.Food and Feeding.Diet includes wild ungulates, domestic sheep (northern Patagonia), European Hares (Lepus europeus), European Rabbits, small mammals, lizards, birds, and insects. Although it is an opportunistic predator, the Culpeo is considered more carnivorous and a consumer of larger mammalian prey than the other South American foxes. Most trophic studies found seasonal differences in diet composition, probably in response to prey availability. In ArgentinePatagonia, Culpeos showed a preference for hares and selected among rodent species for those that may be more vulnerable. Culpeos in central Chileselected the largest small mammals available. Although the bulk of the diet consists of animal prey, Culpeos are often described as consumers offruits and berries and are therefore thought to disperse seeds of a variety of plant species. Highest fruit consumption occurs when small mammals are the least abundant. Culpeos tend to forage solitarily. Their foraging activity may be influenced by the nocturnal habits of their main prey, but also by persecution.Activity patterns.In Argentina, Magallanes, and the Chilean desert, and highland Peru(where it is intensively persecuted) the Culpeo is almost completely nocturnal. This contrasts with the diurnal activity shown in north-central Chile, where it is protected. Culpeos have been recorded moving linear distances of about 7 kmin north-western Patagonia, but desert-dwelling foxes in northern Chilehave been recorded moving three times as far.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Culpeos seem to be solitary foxes. Spatial studies throughout their range indicate that they have inter- and intra-sexual non-overlapping home ranges. Small areas of spatial overlap occur at sites of human refuse, but the foxes still segregate temporally. Females are apparently more spatially intolerant than males. In north-central Chile, home ranges of females averaged 8-9 km* and were 2-5 times larger than those of males. In contrast, Culpeo home ranges in Torres del Paine National Park (south Chile) were only 4-5 km? in size and similar for males and females. Desert-dwelling Culpeos show high variability in home range size, ranging from 10 km” for Culpeosliving in ravines to 800 km? for foxes associated with highland salt flats and lakes.Breeding.In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last. In Chilethe species is considered Insufficiently Known and the subspecies P. ¢. lycoides is considered Endangered. Despite being similarly decreed as “endangered” in Argentina, due to the number of Culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s, national trade and export of this product has remained legal. Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations. Recent estimates reported densities of 0-2-1-3 individuals/km? in north-western Patagonia, Argentina, and 0-3-1-3 individuals/km? in Chile. Hunting has been banned since 1980), although law enforcement is not strict. Although Culpeo fur exports were banned in Boliviain 1986, the species is not protected in that country. Culpeos are persecuted to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. They prey on newborn lambs and account for an estimated 60% of the attacks by predators in Patagonia. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may threaten Culpeos in some areas, and road kills occur frequently in Argentina.Bibliography.Bustamante et al. (1992), Cofré & Marquet (1999), Corley et al. (1995), Crespo (1975), Crespo & de Carlo (1963), Ebensperger et al. (1991), Glade (1993), Iriarte et al. (1989), Jaksic & Yanez (1983), Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980), Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983), Jiménez (1993), Jiménez & Novaro (2004), Jiménez, Yanez & Jaksic (1996), Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996), Johnson (1992), Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b), Langguth (1975), Marquet et al. (1993), Meserve et al. (1987), Novaro (1995, 1997a, 1997b), Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000), Novaro, Funes, Rambeaud & Monsalvo (2000), Romo (1995), Salvatori et al. (1999), Simonetti (1986), Travaini, Juste et al. (2000), Travaini, Zapata et al. (2000), Wayne et al. (1989), Yanez & Jaksic (1978), Yanez & Rau(1980), Zunino et al. (1995).","taxonomy":"Canis culpaeus Molina, 1782.Santiago Province, Chile.The taxonomic status of the Culpeo is still unresolved, despite a range of propositions for including it under Dusicyon, Canis, and Lycalopex. Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard des Andes @fr | Andenfuchs @de | Zorro andino @es | Andean Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Pseudalopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"429","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"culpaeus","name":"Pseudalopex culpaeus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. c. culpaeus Molina, 1782— W & C Argentinaand C Chile.P. c. andinus Thomas, 1914— altiplano of Bolivia, N Chile, and Peru.P.c. lycoides Philippi, 1895— Tierra del Fuego.P.c. magellanicus Gray, 1837— Argentinaand S Chile.P. c. reissu Hilzheimer, 1906— Ecuadorian Andes and extreme S Colombia(Narino).P. c. smithersi Thomas, 1914— Argentina(Cordoba Mts).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331189/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bustamante et al. (1992) | Cofré & Marquet (1999) | Corley et al. (1995) | Crespo (1975) | Crespo & de Carlo (1963) | Ebensperger et al. (1991) | Glade (1993) | Iriarte et al. (1989) | Jaksic & Yanez (1983) | Jaksic, Schlatter & Yanez (1980) | Jaksic, Yanez & Rau(1983) | Jiménez (1993) | Jiménez & Novaro (2004) | Jiménez, Yanez & Jaksic (1996) | Jiménez, Yanez, Tabilo & Jaksic (1996) | Johnson (1992) | Johnson & Franklin (1994a, 1994b) | Langguth (1975) | Marquet et al. (1993) | Meserve et al. (1987) | Novaro (1995, 1997a, 1997b) | Novaro, Funes & Walker (2000) | Novaro, Funes, Rambeaud & Monsalvo (2000) | Romo (1995) | Salvatori et al. (1999) | Simonetti (1986) | Travaini, Juste et al. (2000) | Travaini, Zapata et al. (2000) | Wayne et al. (1989) | Yanez & Jaksic (1978) | Yanez & Rau(1980) | Zunino et al. (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet includes wild ungulates, domestic sheep (northern Patagonia), European Hares (Lepus europeus), European Rabbits, small mammals, lizards, birds, and insects. Although it is an opportunistic predator, the Culpeo is considered more carnivorous and a consumer of larger mammalian prey than the other South American foxes. Most trophic studies found seasonal differences in diet composition, probably in response to prey availability. In ArgentinePatagonia, Culpeos showed a preference for hares and selected among rodent species for those that may be more vulnerable. Culpeos in central Chileselected the largest small mammals available. Although the bulk of the diet consists of animal prey, Culpeos are often described as consumers offruits and berries and are therefore thought to disperse seeds of a variety of plant species. Highest fruit consumption occurs when small mammals are the least abundant. Culpeos tend to forage solitarily. Their foraging activity may be influenced by the nocturnal habits of their main prey, but also by persecution.","breeding":"In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.","activityPatterns":"In Argentina, Magallanes, and the Chilean desert, and highland Peru(where it is intensively persecuted) the Culpeo is almost completely nocturnal. This contrasts with the diurnal activity shown in north-central Chile, where it is protected. Culpeos have been recorded moving linear distances of about 7 kmin north-western Patagonia, but desert-dwelling foxes in northern Chilehave been recorded moving three times as far.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Culpeos seem to be solitary foxes. Spatial studies throughout their range indicate that they have inter- and intra-sexual non-overlapping home ranges. Small areas of spatial overlap occur at sites of human refuse, but the foxes still segregate temporally. Females are apparently more spatially intolerant than males. In north-central Chile, home ranges of females averaged 8-9 km* and were 2-5 times larger than those of males. In contrast, Culpeo home ranges in Torres del Paine National Park (south Chile) were only 4-5 km? in size and similar for males and females. Desert-dwelling Culpeos show high variability in home range size, ranging from 10 km” for Culpeosliving in ravines to 800 km? for foxes associated with highland salt flats and lakes.Breeding.In the Patagonian steppe of Argentina, male Culpeos produce sperm between June and mid-October (early winter to early spring). Females are monoestrous and mating occurs from the beginning of August through October. Gestation is 58 days. Based on embryo counts, estimated mean litter size is 5-2 (range 3-8). Neonates weigh about 170 g. Juveniles reach adult size within seven months and can reproduce during the first year. Although the sex ratio of 253 individuals was skewed in favor of males in the Neuquénpopulation, some 30 years later the sex ratio approached parity, as expected for intensively hunted populations.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last. In Chilethe species is considered Insufficiently Known and the subspecies P. ¢. lycoides is considered Endangered. Despite being similarly decreed as “endangered” in Argentina, due to the number of Culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s, national trade and export of this product has remained legal. Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations. Recent estimates reported densities of 0-2-1-3 individuals/km? in north-western Patagonia, Argentina, and 0-3-1-3 individuals/km? in Chile. Hunting has been banned since 1980), although law enforcement is not strict. Although Culpeo fur exports were banned in Boliviain 1986, the species is not protected in that country. Culpeos are persecuted to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. They prey on newborn lambs and account for an estimated 60% of the attacks by predators in Patagonia. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may threaten Culpeos in some areas, and road kills occur frequently in Argentina.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 44-5-92- 5 cmfor males and 49-89 cmfor females, tail 30-5-49- 3 cmfor males and 31-45 cmfor females; weight 3-4-13- 8 kgfor males and 3: 9-10 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Pseudalopex. The broad head and wide muzzle impart a powerful appearance. Males larger and on average 1-5 times heavier than females. White to light tawny chin and body underparts. Dorsal parts of the head, including the ears and neck, as well as legs and flanks are tawny or rufous. The rump is darker, ranging in color from tawny to dark gray, according to the subspecies. The tail is long, bushy, and gray, with a black tip and a dark dorsal patch near its base. Feet and legs are bright tawny with no black. Specimens from northern ranges (1.e. andinus) are lighter in color. Compared to the South American Gray Fox, Culpeos have longer canines and shorter second molars. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"The Culpeo ranges from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, to deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, and broadleaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses the entire range of habitat moisture gradients from the dry desert to broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentinait reaches elevations of up to 4800 m, where it occupies colder and dryer environments than any other South American canid."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF27FFD97E87FCAFF8E6D5A3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF27FFD97E87FCAFF8E6D5A3","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"427","verbatimText":"13.Short-eared DogAtelocynus microtisFrench:Renard a petites oreilles/ German:Kurzohrfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro orejicortoOther common names:Short-eared FoxTaxonomy.Canis macrotis Sclater, 1883,Para, Brazil.Phylogenetic analysis showed A. microtisto be a distinct taxon most closely related to another monotypic Amazonian canid genus, Speothos, and this hypothesis is now widely accepted. Monotypic.Distribution.W lowland Amazonia. Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 72-100 cm, tail 25-35 cm; weight 9-10 kg. The head is fox-like, with a long, slender muzzle and rounded, relatively short ears. The pelt color can range from black to brown to rufous gray. Pelage is often darkest in a dorsal line from the head to the tail. However, various color patterns are observed in different individuals, and it is not clear whether color varies with age, habitat, or molt; in Madre de Dios(Peru), both reddish and black individuals have been observed. The tail is bushy, particularly in comparison to the short pelage on the rest of the body, with a dark mid-dorsal band of thick erectile hairs and light-colored underside. The nasal bones are short; the forehead slightly convex; the frontal sinus small; the presphenoid very narrow with lateral wings and large bulla. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The lower third incisor is short and not caniniform. The upper canines are distinctively long, their tips projecting outside the closed mouth for about 50 mm. The upper molars are narrow for their length.Habitat.Favors undisturbed rainforest in the Amazonian lowlands. Recorded in a wide variety of lowland habitats, including terra firme forest, swamp forest, stands of bamboo, and primary succession along rivers. Sightings often associated with rivers and creeks, and there are reliable reports of Short-eared Dogs swimming in rivers. Records are very rare in areas with significant human disturbance, such as near towns or in agricultural areas. It is unclear whether the Short-eared Dog is able to utilize habitats outside wet lowland forests, although it has been documented at 1200 min the Ecuadoran Andes at the edge of cloud forest.Food and Feeding.A generalist carnivore with fish the most important item in their diet, according to one study at Cocha Cashu, Peru(presentin 28% of 21 scat samples). Insects (mainly Coleoptera) were the second most frequently occurring item (17% of samples). Mammal remains, including agouti (Dasyprocta spp.), marsupials, and small rodents) were present in 13% ofthe scats and the remains offruits were found in 10%. Fruits of the palm Euterpe precatoria were found germinating in two scats, suggesting that Short-eared Dogs may facilitate seed dispersal for some species. Short-eared Dogs have been reported to eat fallen Brosimum fruits, and the Cofan Indians of Ecuadorreport that they are attracted to fallen bananas. Close to 4% of droppings contained the remains of frogs, including Osteocephalus taurinus, and this dietary habit is supported by independent observations elsewhere. Crabs (10-3% of samples), birds (10-3%), reptiles (3-4%), and vegetable fiber (3-4%) were other components of the diet at Cocha Cashu. The Short-eared Dog has been reported hunting alone and in pairs.Activity patterns.Mostly diurnal, although it has also been photographed at night walking on trails of Madidi National Park, Bolivia, and one animal was captured in Colombiaswimming after a Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca) in a river at 03:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ranging behavior and patterns remain largely unknown. The Short-eared Dog is mainly solitary. Three adult animals were observed to use a 1-6 kmstretch of white sandy beach in Peru, infrequently using and sharing latrines with Neotropical Otters. Both wild and captive males have been reported to bear a strong musky odor, which is hardly noticeable in females.Breeding.Breeding time is not known precisely, but pups have been found throughout the species’ range from April to December, suggesting that parturition occurs in the dry season. Three dens have been found inside hollow logs, one of them containing two adultsand two pups, and another with the female and two pups. Another den containing three pups was found in a Lowland Paca burrow.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The species is on the Brazilian list of endangered species and on the preliminary list of Colombian endangered species. The Short-eared Dog is notoriously rare, and sightings are uncommon across its range. However, this may not always have been the case; the first biologists to study the species found it relatively easy to trap during mammal surveys in Amazonian Peruin 1969, and specimens were collected around the same time in Peru's Manu Basin (now Manu National Park), suggesting that the species was also relatively common in that area at that time. For unknown reasons, it appears to have temporarily vanished from the region between 1970 and 1987. Over the last decade, it appears that it may be recovering in south Peruand east Ecuador, with increasing numbers of sightings in recent years at both sites. Between 1987 and 1999, biologists working in the Peruvian department of Madre de Dios, mostly in the vicinity of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, reported 15 encounters with Short-eared Dogs. Threats include diseases from domestic dogs and habitat loss. There are no reports of widespread persecution of the species. An ongoing distribution survey suggests that the Short-eared Dog is rare throughout its range and threatened by the large-scale forest conversion underway in Amazonia. There are no known reports of the species being hunted or trapped for its fur. The species avoids developed areas, and there are no known cases of road kills, so the impact of vehicles on population numbers is probably minimal.Bibliography.Defler & Santacruz (1994), Emmons & Feer (1997), Grimwood (1969), Hershkovitz (1961), Leite & Williams (2004), Nowak (1999), Pacheco et al. (1995), Parker & Bailey (1990), Peres (1991), Pitman et al. (2002), Rodriguez (1998), Terborgh et al. (1984).","taxonomy":"Canis macrotis Sclater, 1883,Para, Brazil.Phylogenetic analysis showed A. microtisto be a distinct taxon most closely related to another monotypic Amazonian canid genus, Speothos, and this hypothesis is now widely accepted. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard a petites oreilles @fr | Kurzohrfuchs @de | Zorro orejicorto @es | Short-eared Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Cabrera","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1940","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Sclater","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1883","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Atelocynus","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"427","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"microtis","name":"Atelocynus microtis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W lowland Amazonia. Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331187/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Defler & Santacruz (1994) | Emmons & Feer (1997) | Grimwood (1969) | Hershkovitz (1961) | Leite & Williams (2004) | Nowak (1999) | Pacheco et al. (1995) | Parker & Bailey (1990) | Peres (1991) | Pitman et al. (2002) | Rodriguez (1998) | Terborgh et al. (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"A generalist carnivore with fish the most important item in their diet, according to one study at Cocha Cashu, Peru(presentin 28% of 21 scat samples). Insects (mainly Coleoptera) were the second most frequently occurring item (17% of samples). Mammal remains, including agouti (Dasyprocta spp.), marsupials, and small rodents) were present in 13% ofthe scats and the remains offruits were found in 10%. Fruits of the palm Euterpe precatoria were found germinating in two scats, suggesting that Short-eared Dogs may facilitate seed dispersal for some species. Short-eared Dogs have been reported to eat fallen Brosimum fruits, and the Cofan Indians of Ecuadorreport that they are attracted to fallen bananas. Close to 4% of droppings contained the remains of frogs, including Osteocephalus taurinus, and this dietary habit is supported by independent observations elsewhere. Crabs (10-3% of samples), birds (10-3%), reptiles (3-4%), and vegetable fiber (3-4%) were other components of the diet at Cocha Cashu. The Short-eared Dog has been reported hunting alone and in pairs.","breeding":"Breeding time is not known precisely, but pups have been found throughout the species’ range from April to December, suggesting that parturition occurs in the dry season. Three dens have been found inside hollow logs, one of them containing two adultsand two pups, and another with the female and two pups. Another den containing three pups was found in a Lowland Paca burrow.","activityPatterns":"Mostly diurnal, although it has also been photographed at night walking on trails of Madidi National Park, Bolivia, and one animal was captured in Colombiaswimming after a Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca) in a river at 03:00 h.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Ranging behavior and patterns remain largely unknown. The Short-eared Dog is mainly solitary. Three adult animals were observed to use a 1-6 kmstretch of white sandy beach in Peru, infrequently using and sharing latrines with Neotropical Otters. Both wild and captive males have been reported to bear a strong musky odor, which is hardly noticeable in females.Breeding.Breeding time is not known precisely, but pups have been found throughout the species’ range from April to December, suggesting that parturition occurs in the dry season. Three dens have been found inside hollow logs, one of them containing two adultsand two pups, and another with the female and two pups. Another den containing three pups was found in a Lowland Paca burrow.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The species is on the Brazilian list of endangered species and on the preliminary list of Colombian endangered species. The Short-eared Dog is notoriously rare, and sightings are uncommon across its range. However, this may not always have been the case; the first biologists to study the species found it relatively easy to trap during mammal surveys in Amazonian Peruin 1969, and specimens were collected around the same time in Peru's Manu Basin (now Manu National Park), suggesting that the species was also relatively common in that area at that time. For unknown reasons, it appears to have temporarily vanished from the region between 1970 and 1987. Over the last decade, it appears that it may be recovering in south Peruand east Ecuador, with increasing numbers of sightings in recent years at both sites. Between 1987 and 1999, biologists working in the Peruvian department of Madre de Dios, mostly in the vicinity of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, reported 15 encounters with Short-eared Dogs. Threats include diseases from domestic dogs and habitat loss. There are no reports of widespread persecution of the species. An ongoing distribution survey suggests that the Short-eared Dog is rare throughout its range and threatened by the large-scale forest conversion underway in Amazonia. There are no known reports of the species being hunted or trapped for its fur. The species avoids developed areas, and there are no known cases of road kills, so the impact of vehicles on population numbers is probably minimal.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 72-100 cm, tail 25-35 cm; weight 9-10 kg. The head is fox-like, with a long, slender muzzle and rounded, relatively short ears. The pelt color can range from black to brown to rufous gray. Pelage is often darkest in a dorsal line from the head to the tail. However, various color patterns are observed in different individuals, and it is not clear whether color varies with age, habitat, or molt; in Madre de Dios(Peru), both reddish and black individuals have been observed. The tail is bushy, particularly in comparison to the short pelage on the rest of the body, with a dark mid-dorsal band of thick erectile hairs and light-colored underside. The nasal bones are short; the forehead slightly convex; the frontal sinus small; the presphenoid very narrow with lateral wings and large bulla. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. The lower third incisor is short and not caniniform. The upper canines are distinctively long, their tips projecting outside the closed mouth for about 50 mm. The upper molars are narrow for their length.","habitat":"Favors undisturbed rainforest in the Amazonian lowlands. Recorded in a wide variety of lowland habitats, including terra firme forest, swamp forest, stands of bamboo, and primary succession along rivers. Sightings often associated with rivers and creeks, and there are reliable reports of Short-eared Dogs swimming in rivers. Records are very rare in areas with significant human disturbance, such as near towns or in agricultural areas. It is unclear whether the Short-eared Dog is able to utilize habitats outside wet lowland forests, although it has been documented at 1200 min the Ecuadoran Andes at the edge of cloud forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF28FFD67EDEFDE5F6BCD8B1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF28FFD67EDEFDE5F6BCD8B1","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"442","verbatimText":"28.Corsac FoxVulpes corsacFrench:Renard corsac/ German:Steppenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro esteparioOther common names:CorsacTaxonomy.Canis corsac Linnaeus, 1768,northern Kazakhstan.It has been suggested that Canis eklonifrom northern Tibetis a subspecies of the Corsac Fox. However, C. ekloni is a junior synonym of V. ferrilata. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. c. corsac Linnaeus, 1768— N part of range to pre-Altai steppe.Vc. kalmykorum Ognev, 1935 — Volgo-Ural steppes and Volga Basin.V. c. scorodumovi Dorogostaiski, 1935— N China, Mongolia, and Russia(Transbaikalia).V. c. turemenicus Ognev, 1935— plains of C Asia and N Afghanistan, NE Iran, and Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-59-5 cmfor males and 45-50 cmfor females, tail 19-30 cmfor males and 25-30 cmfor females; weight 1-6-3-2 kgfor males and 1-9-2-4 kgfor females. Typically vulpine in appearance. Males slightly bigger than females, but sexual dimorphism not pronounced. Head grayish-ocher or brown, ears banded brown on frontside, back of ears ocher-gray or reddish-brown. Breast, belly, and groin white or yellowish. Front of forelegs light yellow,sides rusty-yellow, hindlegs paler. Summer fur short and sparse, winter fur dense, soft and silky, straw-grayish with ocher. Awn hairs tipped silver-white. Tail about half body length or slightly more, grayish-brown, covered with dense bushy hair, tip dark, often black. Skull similar to that of V. vulpes, but smaller, shorter and wider, and with canine teeth more robust. The dental formula 813/38, C1/1,PM4/4.M2/3=42.Habitat.Typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas, and dense bush. In the western part of the range, Corsac Foxes occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall-grass steppes. They also occur in sandy habitats and shrubland semi-deserts, and in favorable years, in forested steppes. They avoid areas where depth of snow exceeds c. 15 cm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. Corsac Foxes appear to depend on ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) and marmots (Marmota spp.) for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for daytime refuge).Food and Feeding.Generally opportunistic, with a highly variable diet throughout its range that probably changes in accordance with availability. The bulk of the diet often includes the most common rodents of an area. Birds, reptiles (lizards, snakes and young tortoises), and insects are also frequently consumed, especially in summer, as well as small amounts of vegetation (including fruit and seeds). During winter and periods of low prey abundance, scavenged Gray Wolf kills and carcasses of wild and domestic ungulates are a major source of food in some areas. Typical prey in western Siberia includes voles (Microtus gregalis, Arvicola terrestris), lemmings (Lagurus spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and jerboas (Allactaga spp.) Common winter prey also often includes Arctic Hares (Lepus timidus) and birds such as gray partridges (Perdix perdix) and snow buntings (Pleptrophenax nivalis). In the forest-steppe of Kazakhstan, the diet consists primarily of lemmings and sousliks. On the Ustyurt Plateau and in Turkmenistanthe main prey are gerbils (Meriones spp., Rhombomysopimus); in Transbaikalia and Mongolia, the main prey species are gerbils (Meriones spp.), jerboas (Allactaga spp. and Dipus spp.), hamsters (Cricetulus spp. and Phodopus spp.), Brandt's Voles (Lasiopodomys brandltii), Siberian Marmots (Marmota sibirica), and pikas (Ochotona spp.). The foxes are solitary foragers, although near carrion or the remains of wolf kills several Corsacs may gather together. The foxes hunt by stalking prey and making sudden short-distance attacks. They locate ground-nesting birds and other small prey by sound and smell. Despite their small size they can kill prey up to the size of young marmots, hares, ducks, pheasants, and geese.Activity patterns.Corsac Foxesare active mainly at night. Hunting starts in the evening and continues through the first part of the night, with a second peak of activity before dawn. Sometimes they are also active in daytime, especially during the summer months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and monogamous pairs may persist for life. During winter, several Corsacs may gather in a single den, indicating a relatively high degree of sociality. Polygamous families may occur under favorable feeding conditions. In optimal habitats during years of high prey abundance, the home range of a family pair may be as small as 1 km?. In contrast, home ranges are significantly larger in habitats with low food abundance, and may reach 35-40 km?. Corsacs occupy dens, often the burrows of marmots, during the day. Dens provide shelter from weather, but may also serve as important refuges from predation by larger canids such as Wolves and Red Foxes. Scent marking is important for maintaining territories, and marking with urine and feces is most frequent near dens. Barking is the most common vocalization. Barks have many different tonal variations, and are used during courtship, territorial demonstrations, and alarm. They are higher in pitch than the barks of Red Foxes and sound similar to a cat’s mew. Close distance vocalizations include high-tone rhythmic sounds, peeping, chirping, and yelping.Breeding.Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current population status and the nature of major threats is unknown in most regions. Corsac Foxes were once considered ubiquitous across Central Asia, but notable declines have occurred in recent years following the collapse of the former Soviet Union. In Russiathe Corsac Fox is rare in most regions, but relatively common in western Siberia and Transbaikalia. The species is common between the Volga and Ural rivers, but probably declining in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and northern China. Corsac Foxes are rare in Tajikistanand Uzbekistanand the south-western portion of their range. In many countries, hunting them is legal during certain seasons, but enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations rarely occurs. Over-hunting and illegal poaching (even in protected areas) remains the most significant threat to the species. In Mongolia, increased hunting for furs in recent years has depleted populations throughout the country and led the species’ listing as “near threatened” in 2006.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Chirkova (1952), Geptner et al. (1967), Heptner & Naumov (1992), Kadyrbaev & Sludskii (1981), Murdoch et al. (2009, In press), Ognev (1962), Poyarkov & Ovsyanikov (2004), Sidorov & Botvinkin (1987), Sidorov & Polischuk (2002), Sludskyi & Lazarev (1966), Wingard & Zahler (2006).","taxonomy":"Canis corsac Linnaeus, 1768,northern Kazakhstan.It has been suggested that Canis eklonifrom northern Tibetis a subspecies of the Corsac Fox. However, C. ekloni is a junior synonym of V. ferrilata. Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard corsac @fr | Steppenfuchs @de | Zorro estepario @es | Corsac @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1768","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"442","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"corsac","name":"Vulpes corsac","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. c. corsac Linnaeus, 1768— N part of range to pre-Altai steppe.Vc. kalmykorum Ognev, 1935 — Volgo-Ural steppes and Volga Basin.V. c. scorodumovi Dorogostaiski, 1935— N China, Mongolia, and Russia(Transbaikalia).V. c. turemenicus Ognev, 1935— plains of C Asia and N Afghanistan, NE Iran, and Kazakhstan.","bibliography":"Allen (1938) | Chirkova (1952) | Geptner et al. (1967) | Heptner & Naumov (1992) | Kadyrbaev & Sludskii (1981) | Murdoch et al. (2009, In press) | Ognev (1962) | Poyarkov & Ovsyanikov (2004) | Sidorov & Botvinkin (1987) | Sidorov & Polischuk (2002) | Sludskyi & Lazarev (1966) | Wingard & Zahler (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"Generally opportunistic, with a highly variable diet throughout its range that probably changes in accordance with availability. The bulk of the diet often includes the most common rodents of an area. Birds, reptiles (lizards, snakes and young tortoises), and insects are also frequently consumed, especially in summer, as well as small amounts of vegetation (including fruit and seeds). During winter and periods of low prey abundance, scavenged Gray Wolf kills and carcasses of wild and domestic ungulates are a major source of food in some areas. Typical prey in western Siberia includes voles (Microtus gregalis, Arvicola terrestris), lemmings (Lagurus spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and jerboas (Allactaga spp.) Common winter prey also often includes Arctic Hares (Lepus timidus) and birds such as gray partridges (Perdix perdix) and snow buntings (Pleptrophenax nivalis). In the forest-steppe of Kazakhstan, the diet consists primarily of lemmings and sousliks. On the Ustyurt Plateau and in Turkmenistanthe main prey are gerbils (Meriones spp., Rhombomysopimus); in Transbaikalia and Mongolia, the main prey species are gerbils (Meriones spp.), jerboas (Allactaga spp. and Dipus spp.), hamsters (Cricetulus spp. and Phodopus spp.), Brandt's Voles (Lasiopodomys brandltii), Siberian Marmots (Marmota sibirica), and pikas (Ochotona spp.). The foxes are solitary foragers, although near carrion or the remains of wolf kills several Corsacs may gather together. The foxes hunt by stalking prey and making sudden short-distance attacks. They locate ground-nesting birds and other small prey by sound and smell. Despite their small size they can kill prey up to the size of young marmots, hares, ducks, pheasants, and geese.","breeding":"Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.","activityPatterns":"Corsac Foxesare active mainly at night. Hunting starts in the evening and continues through the first part of the night, with a second peak of activity before dawn. Sometimes they are also active in daytime, especially during the summer months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and monogamous pairs may persist for life. During winter, several Corsacs may gather in a single den, indicating a relatively high degree of sociality. Polygamous families may occur under favorable feeding conditions. In optimal habitats during years of high prey abundance, the home range of a family pair may be as small as 1 km?. In contrast, home ranges are significantly larger in habitats with low food abundance, and may reach 35-40 km?. Corsacs occupy dens, often the burrows of marmots, during the day. Dens provide shelter from weather, but may also serve as important refuges from predation by larger canids such as Wolves and Red Foxes. Scent marking is important for maintaining territories, and marking with urine and feces is most frequent near dens. Barking is the most common vocalization. Barks have many different tonal variations, and are used during courtship, territorial demonstrations, and alarm. They are higher in pitch than the barks of Red Foxes and sound similar to a cat’s mew. Close distance vocalizations include high-tone rhythmic sounds, peeping, chirping, and yelping.Breeding.Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current population status and the nature of major threats is unknown in most regions. Corsac Foxes were once considered ubiquitous across Central Asia, but notable declines have occurred in recent years following the collapse of the former Soviet Union. In Russiathe Corsac Fox is rare in most regions, but relatively common in western Siberia and Transbaikalia. The species is common between the Volga and Ural rivers, but probably declining in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and northern China. Corsac Foxes are rare in Tajikistanand Uzbekistanand the south-western portion of their range. In many countries, hunting them is legal during certain seasons, but enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations rarely occurs. Over-hunting and illegal poaching (even in protected areas) remains the most significant threat to the species. In Mongolia, increased hunting for furs in recent years has depleted populations throughout the country and led the species’ listing as “near threatened” in 2006.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 45-59-5 cmfor males and 45-50 cmfor females, tail 19-30 cmfor males and 25-30 cmfor females; weight 1-6-3-2 kgfor males and 1-9-2-4 kgfor females. Typically vulpine in appearance. Males slightly bigger than females, but sexual dimorphism not pronounced. Head grayish-ocher or brown, ears banded brown on frontside, back of ears ocher-gray or reddish-brown. Breast, belly, and groin white or yellowish. Front of forelegs light yellow,sides rusty-yellow, hindlegs paler. Summer fur short and sparse, winter fur dense, soft and silky, straw-grayish with ocher. Awn hairs tipped silver-white. Tail about half body length or slightly more, grayish-brown, covered with dense bushy hair, tip dark, often black. Skull similar to that of V. vulpes, but smaller, shorter and wider, and with canine teeth more robust. The dental formula 813/38, C1/1,PM4/4.M2/3=42.","habitat":"Typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas, and dense bush. In the western part of the range, Corsac Foxes occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall-grass steppes. They also occur in sandy habitats and shrubland semi-deserts, and in favorable years, in forested steppes. They avoid areas where depth of snow exceeds c. 15 cm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. Corsac Foxes appear to depend on ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) and marmots (Marmota spp.) for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for daytime refuge)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF28FFD67EDEFDE5F6BCD8B1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF28FFD67EDEFDE5F6BCD8B1","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"442","verbatimText":"28.Corsac FoxVulpes corsacFrench:Renard corsac/ German:Steppenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro esteparioOther common names:CorsacTaxonomy.Canis corsac Linnaeus, 1768,northern Kazakhstan.It has been suggested that Canis eklonifrom northern Tibetis a subspecies of the Corsac Fox. However, C. ekloni is a junior synonym of V. ferrilata. Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. c. corsac Linnaeus, 1768— N part of range to pre-Altai steppe.Vc. kalmykorum Ognev, 1935 — Volgo-Ural steppes and Volga Basin.V. c. scorodumovi Dorogostaiski, 1935— N China, Mongolia, and Russia(Transbaikalia).V. c. turemenicus Ognev, 1935— plains of C Asia and N Afghanistan, NE Iran, and Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-59-5 cmfor males and 45-50 cmfor females, tail 19-30 cmfor males and 25-30 cmfor females; weight 1-6-3-2 kgfor males and 1-9-2-4 kgfor females. Typically vulpine in appearance. Males slightly bigger than females, but sexual dimorphism not pronounced. Head grayish-ocher or brown, ears banded brown on frontside, back of ears ocher-gray or reddish-brown. Breast, belly, and groin white or yellowish. Front of forelegs light yellow,sides rusty-yellow, hindlegs paler. Summer fur short and sparse, winter fur dense, soft and silky, straw-grayish with ocher. Awn hairs tipped silver-white. Tail about half body length or slightly more, grayish-brown, covered with dense bushy hair, tip dark, often black. Skull similar to that of V. vulpes, but smaller, shorter and wider, and with canine teeth more robust. The dental formula 813/38, C1/1,PM4/4.M2/3=42.Habitat.Typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas, and dense bush. In the western part of the range, Corsac Foxes occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall-grass steppes. They also occur in sandy habitats and shrubland semi-deserts, and in favorable years, in forested steppes. They avoid areas where depth of snow exceeds c. 15 cm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. Corsac Foxes appear to depend on ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) and marmots (Marmota spp.) for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for daytime refuge).Food and Feeding.Generally opportunistic, with a highly variable diet throughout its range that probably changes in accordance with availability. The bulk of the diet often includes the most common rodents of an area. Birds, reptiles (lizards, snakes and young tortoises), and insects are also frequently consumed, especially in summer, as well as small amounts of vegetation (including fruit and seeds). During winter and periods of low prey abundance, scavenged Gray Wolf kills and carcasses of wild and domestic ungulates are a major source of food in some areas. Typical prey in western Siberia includes voles (Microtus gregalis, Arvicola terrestris), lemmings (Lagurus spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and jerboas (Allactaga spp.) Common winter prey also often includes Arctic Hares (Lepus timidus) and birds such as gray partridges (Perdix perdix) and snow buntings (Pleptrophenax nivalis). In the forest-steppe of Kazakhstan, the diet consists primarily of lemmings and sousliks. On the Ustyurt Plateau and in Turkmenistanthe main prey are gerbils (Meriones spp., Rhombomysopimus); in Transbaikalia and Mongolia, the main prey species are gerbils (Meriones spp.), jerboas (Allactaga spp. and Dipus spp.), hamsters (Cricetulus spp. and Phodopus spp.), Brandt's Voles (Lasiopodomys brandltii), Siberian Marmots (Marmota sibirica), and pikas (Ochotona spp.). The foxes are solitary foragers, although near carrion or the remains of wolf kills several Corsacs may gather together. The foxes hunt by stalking prey and making sudden short-distance attacks. They locate ground-nesting birds and other small prey by sound and smell. Despite their small size they can kill prey up to the size of young marmots, hares, ducks, pheasants, and geese.Activity patterns.Corsac Foxesare active mainly at night. Hunting starts in the evening and continues through the first part of the night, with a second peak of activity before dawn. Sometimes they are also active in daytime, especially during the summer months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and monogamous pairs may persist for life. During winter, several Corsacs may gather in a single den, indicating a relatively high degree of sociality. Polygamous families may occur under favorable feeding conditions. In optimal habitats during years of high prey abundance, the home range of a family pair may be as small as 1 km?. In contrast, home ranges are significantly larger in habitats with low food abundance, and may reach 35-40 km?. Corsacs occupy dens, often the burrows of marmots, during the day. Dens provide shelter from weather, but may also serve as important refuges from predation by larger canids such as Wolves and Red Foxes. Scent marking is important for maintaining territories, and marking with urine and feces is most frequent near dens. Barking is the most common vocalization. Barks have many different tonal variations, and are used during courtship, territorial demonstrations, and alarm. They are higher in pitch than the barks of Red Foxes and sound similar to a cat’s mew. Close distance vocalizations include high-tone rhythmic sounds, peeping, chirping, and yelping.Breeding.Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current population status and the nature of major threats is unknown in most regions. Corsac Foxes were once considered ubiquitous across Central Asia, but notable declines have occurred in recent years following the collapse of the former Soviet Union. In Russiathe Corsac Fox is rare in most regions, but relatively common in western Siberia and Transbaikalia. The species is common between the Volga and Ural rivers, but probably declining in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and northern China. Corsac Foxes are rare in Tajikistanand Uzbekistanand the south-western portion of their range. In many countries, hunting them is legal during certain seasons, but enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations rarely occurs. Over-hunting and illegal poaching (even in protected areas) remains the most significant threat to the species. In Mongolia, increased hunting for furs in recent years has depleted populations throughout the country and led the species’ listing as “near threatened” in 2006.Bibliography.Allen (1938), Chirkova (1952), Geptner et al. (1967), Heptner & Naumov (1992), Kadyrbaev & Sludskii (1981), Murdoch et al. (2009, In press), Ognev (1962), Poyarkov & Ovsyanikov (2004), Sidorov & Botvinkin (1987), Sidorov & Polischuk (2002), Sludskyi & Lazarev (1966), Wingard & Zahler (2006).","taxonomy":"Canis corsac Linnaeus, 1768,northern Kazakhstan.It has been suggested that Canis eklonifrom northern Tibetis a subspecies of the Corsac Fox. However, C. ekloni is a junior synonym of V. ferrilata. Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard corsac @fr | Steppenfuchs @de | Zorro estepario @es | Corsac @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1768","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"442","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"corsac","name":"Vulpes corsac","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. c. corsac Linnaeus, 1768— N part of range to pre-Altai steppe.Vc. kalmykorum Ognev, 1935 — Volgo-Ural steppes and Volga Basin.V. c. scorodumovi Dorogostaiski, 1935— N China, Mongolia, and Russia(Transbaikalia).V. c. turemenicus Ognev, 1935— plains of C Asia and N Afghanistan, NE Iran, and Kazakhstan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331217/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1938) | Chirkova (1952) | Geptner et al. (1967) | Heptner & Naumov (1992) | Kadyrbaev & Sludskii (1981) | Murdoch et al. (2009, In press) | Ognev (1962) | Poyarkov & Ovsyanikov (2004) | Sidorov & Botvinkin (1987) | Sidorov & Polischuk (2002) | Sludskyi & Lazarev (1966) | Wingard & Zahler (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"Generally opportunistic, with a highly variable diet throughout its range that probably changes in accordance with availability. The bulk of the diet often includes the most common rodents of an area. Birds, reptiles (lizards, snakes and young tortoises), and insects are also frequently consumed, especially in summer, as well as small amounts of vegetation (including fruit and seeds). During winter and periods of low prey abundance, scavenged Gray Wolf kills and carcasses of wild and domestic ungulates are a major source of food in some areas. Typical prey in western Siberia includes voles (Microtus gregalis, Arvicola terrestris), lemmings (Lagurus spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and jerboas (Allactaga spp.) Common winter prey also often includes Arctic Hares (Lepus timidus) and birds such as gray partridges (Perdix perdix) and snow buntings (Pleptrophenax nivalis). In the forest-steppe of Kazakhstan, the diet consists primarily of lemmings and sousliks. On the Ustyurt Plateau and in Turkmenistanthe main prey are gerbils (Meriones spp., Rhombomysopimus); in Transbaikalia and Mongolia, the main prey species are gerbils (Meriones spp.), jerboas (Allactaga spp. and Dipus spp.), hamsters (Cricetulus spp. and Phodopus spp.), Brandt's Voles (Lasiopodomys brandltii), Siberian Marmots (Marmota sibirica), and pikas (Ochotona spp.). The foxes are solitary foragers, although near carrion or the remains of wolf kills several Corsacs may gather together. The foxes hunt by stalking prey and making sudden short-distance attacks. They locate ground-nesting birds and other small prey by sound and smell. Despite their small size they can kill prey up to the size of young marmots, hares, ducks, pheasants, and geese.","breeding":"Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.","activityPatterns":"Corsac Foxesare active mainly at night. Hunting starts in the evening and continues through the first part of the night, with a second peak of activity before dawn. Sometimes they are also active in daytime, especially during the summer months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit is the breeding pair, and monogamous pairs may persist for life. During winter, several Corsacs may gather in a single den, indicating a relatively high degree of sociality. Polygamous families may occur under favorable feeding conditions. In optimal habitats during years of high prey abundance, the home range of a family pair may be as small as 1 km?. In contrast, home ranges are significantly larger in habitats with low food abundance, and may reach 35-40 km?. Corsacs occupy dens, often the burrows of marmots, during the day. Dens provide shelter from weather, but may also serve as important refuges from predation by larger canids such as Wolves and Red Foxes. Scent marking is important for maintaining territories, and marking with urine and feces is most frequent near dens. Barking is the most common vocalization. Barks have many different tonal variations, and are used during courtship, territorial demonstrations, and alarm. They are higher in pitch than the barks of Red Foxes and sound similar to a cat’s mew. Close distance vocalizations include high-tone rhythmic sounds, peeping, chirping, and yelping.Breeding.Across the range of the species, mating takes place from January to early March. There is only one litter per year and gestation varies from 52 to 60 days. The earliest birth time is mid-March, most births occurring in April. Average litter size in Kazakhstanwas 5-5 (range = 2-10). Pups usually emerge from dens in mid-May. At 28 days they start eating meat. The male takes an active part in parental care by feeding the young, and in favorable years helpers may assist with feeding and guarding the young. Pups reach adult size at four to five months, and in captivity sexual maturity is reached by nine months. They disperse by the end of summer, but do not venture far from their natal range, and some are likely to return to stay over the autumn-winter season.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current population status and the nature of major threats is unknown in most regions. Corsac Foxes were once considered ubiquitous across Central Asia, but notable declines have occurred in recent years following the collapse of the former Soviet Union. In Russiathe Corsac Fox is rare in most regions, but relatively common in western Siberia and Transbaikalia. The species is common between the Volga and Ural rivers, but probably declining in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and northern China. Corsac Foxes are rare in Tajikistanand Uzbekistanand the south-western portion of their range. In many countries, hunting them is legal during certain seasons, but enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations rarely occurs. Over-hunting and illegal poaching (even in protected areas) remains the most significant threat to the species. In Mongolia, increased hunting for furs in recent years has depleted populations throughout the country and led the species’ listing as “near threatened” in 2006.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 45-59-5 cmfor males and 45-50 cmfor females, tail 19-30 cmfor males and 25-30 cmfor females; weight 1-6-3-2 kgfor males and 1-9-2-4 kgfor females. Typically vulpine in appearance. Males slightly bigger than females, but sexual dimorphism not pronounced. Head grayish-ocher or brown, ears banded brown on frontside, back of ears ocher-gray or reddish-brown. Breast, belly, and groin white or yellowish. Front of forelegs light yellow,sides rusty-yellow, hindlegs paler. Summer fur short and sparse, winter fur dense, soft and silky, straw-grayish with ocher. Awn hairs tipped silver-white. Tail about half body length or slightly more, grayish-brown, covered with dense bushy hair, tip dark, often black. Skull similar to that of V. vulpes, but smaller, shorter and wider, and with canine teeth more robust. The dental formula 813/38, C1/1,PM4/4.M2/3=42.","habitat":"Typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas, and dense bush. In the western part of the range, Corsac Foxes occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall-grass steppes. They also occur in sandy habitats and shrubland semi-deserts, and in favorable years, in forested steppes. They avoid areas where depth of snow exceeds c. 15 cm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. Corsac Foxes appear to depend on ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) and marmots (Marmota spp.) for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for daytime refuge)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF28FFE97BA5F990FB57DF83.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF28FFE97BA5F990FB57DF83","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"442","verbatimText":"29.Tibetan FoxVulpes ferilataFrench:Renard du Tibet/ German:Tibet-Fuchs/ Spanish:Zorro tibetanoOther common names:Sand Fox, Tibetan Sand FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes ferrilatus Hodgson, 1842, near Lhasa, Tibet.Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the Tibetan Plateau from Ladakh in India, E across Chinaincluding parts of the Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, and Sichuanprovinces and all of the Xizang. In Nepal, N of the Himalaya, especially in the Mustang area.Descriptive notes.Head-body 51-5-65 cmfor males and 49-61 cmfor females, tail 26-29 cmfor males and 22-26 cmfor females; weight 3-2—4-6 kgfor males and 3-4-1 kgfor females. Small and compact, with a soft, dense coat, a conspicuously narrow muzzle, and a bushy gray tail with a white tip. Tan to rufous-colored on the muzzle, crown, neck, back, and lower legs. The cheeks, sides, upper legs, and rump are gray. The back of the relatively short ears is tan to grayish tan and the inside is white. The undersides are whitish to pale gray.Habitat.Upland plains and hills from about 2500-5200 m. Found in treeless alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Most of the range lies in semi-arid to arid environments with average annual precipitation of 100-500 mm, most of which occurs in summer. The climate is harsh, with temperatures reaching +30 °C in summer and dropping to —40°C in winter.Food and Feeding.Principal diet consists of pikas (Ochotona spp.) and rodents. An analysis of 113 droppings from north-western Tibetrevealed 95% Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) and small rodents (Pitymus, Alticola, and Cricetulus spp.). A further 2-7% consisted of Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni), probably scavenged, and the remainder was made up of insects, feathers, Ephedra berries, and other vegetation. Other reported prey items in the diet include Tibetan Woolly Hare (Lepus oiostolus), and a lizard species (Phrynocephalus spp.). Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana), musk deer (Moschus sp.), Bharal (Pseudois nayaur), and livestock were present in droppings from eastern Qinghai Province, China. The foxes mainly hunt alone by trotting through or stalking in Pika colonies.Activity patterns.Often hunts during the day, on account of the diurnal activity patterns of pikas and other main prey species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most aspects of the Tibetan Fox's reproductive and social behavior remain largely unknown. They are usually seen alone or in male-female pairs (of 90 foxes observed, all but six pairs were solitary), although one family of three adultsand two juvenileswas observed. Burrows are located at the base of boulders, along old beach lines, low on slopes, and other such sites. There may be one to four entrances to a den.Breeding.Mating is thought to occur in February, with 2-5 young born in May. Main habitat factors associated with the location of 54 summer dens were, in order of importance: distance to water, slope degree, position along the slope, small mammal den numbers, and vegetation type. Most dens were located in grasslands (96%) with moderate slope.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Species legally protected in several large Chinese reserves, but actual protection remains minimal, and there is no special protection outside reserves. Hunting pressure for fur is reported to be high on the entire Tibetan plateau since the 1960s. Over 300 foxes have been killed per year since the 1990s in Shiqu County, Sichuan Province, China. In general, Fox density appears to be low. Population abundanceis limited partly by prey availability and partly by human hunting pressure.Bibliography.Clark et al. (2008), Feng et al. (1986), Gao et al. (1987), Nowak (1999), Piao (1989), Schaller (1998), Schaller & Ginsberg (2004), Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2003), Wu Wei et al. (2002), Zheng (1985).","taxonomy":"Vulpes ferrilatus Hodgson, 1842, near Lhasa, Tibet.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard du Tibet @fr | Tibet-Fuchs @de | Zorro tibetano @es | Sand Fox @en | Tibetan Sand Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Frisch","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"442","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ferilata","name":"Vulpes ferilata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in the Tibetan Plateau from Ladakh in India, E across Chinaincluding parts of the Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, and Sichuanprovinces and all of the Xizang. In Nepal, N of the Himalaya, especially in the Mustang area.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331219/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Clark et al. (2008) | Feng et al. (1986) | Gao et al. (1987) | Nowak (1999) | Piao (1989) | Schaller (1998) | Schaller & Ginsberg (2004) | Wang Zhenghuan et al. (2003) | Wu Wei et al. (2002) | Zheng (1985)","foodAndFeeding":"Principal diet consists of pikas (Ochotona spp.) and rodents. An analysis of 113 droppings from north-western Tibetrevealed 95% Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) and small rodents (Pitymus, Alticola, and Cricetulus spp.). A further 2-7% consisted of Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni), probably scavenged, and the remainder was made up of insects, feathers, Ephedra berries, and other vegetation. Other reported prey items in the diet include Tibetan Woolly Hare (Lepus oiostolus), and a lizard species (Phrynocephalus spp.). Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana), musk deer (Moschus sp.), Bharal (Pseudois nayaur), and livestock were present in droppings from eastern Qinghai Province, China. The foxes mainly hunt alone by trotting through or stalking in Pika colonies.","breeding":"Mating is thought to occur in February, with 2-5 young born in May. Main habitat factors associated with the location of 54 summer dens were, in order of importance: distance to water, slope degree, position along the slope, small mammal den numbers, and vegetation type. Most dens were located in grasslands (96%) with moderate slope.","activityPatterns":"Often hunts during the day, on account of the diurnal activity patterns of pikas and other main prey species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Most aspects of the Tibetan Fox's reproductive and social behavior remain largely unknown. They are usually seen alone or in male-female pairs (of 90 foxes observed, all but six pairs were solitary), although one family of three adultsand two juvenileswas observed. Burrows are located at the base of boulders, along old beach lines, low on slopes, and other such sites. There may be one to four entrances to a den.Breeding.Mating is thought to occur in February, with 2-5 young born in May. Main habitat factors associated with the location of 54 summer dens were, in order of importance: distance to water, slope degree, position along the slope, small mammal den numbers, and vegetation type. Most dens were located in grasslands (96%) with moderate slope.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Species legally protected in several large Chinese reserves, but actual protection remains minimal, and there is no special protection outside reserves. Hunting pressure for fur is reported to be high on the entire Tibetan plateau since the 1960s. Over 300 foxes have been killed per year since the 1990s in Shiqu County, Sichuan Province, China. In general, Fox density appears to be low. Population abundanceis limited partly by prey availability and partly by human hunting pressure.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 51-5-65 cmfor males and 49-61 cmfor females, tail 26-29 cmfor males and 22-26 cmfor females; weight 3-2—4-6 kgfor males and 3-4-1 kgfor females. Small and compact, with a soft, dense coat, a conspicuously narrow muzzle, and a bushy gray tail with a white tip. Tan to rufous-colored on the muzzle, crown, neck, back, and lower legs. The cheeks, sides, upper legs, and rump are gray. The back of the relatively short ears is tan to grayish tan and the inside is white. The undersides are whitish to pale gray.","habitat":"Upland plains and hills from about 2500-5200 m. Found in treeless alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Most of the range lies in semi-arid to arid environments with average annual precipitation of 100-500 mm, most of which occurs in summer. The climate is harsh, with temperatures reaching +30 °C in summer and dropping to —40°C in winter."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF29FFD67E8EFE80FAA9DF36.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF29FFD67E8EFE80FAA9DF36","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"441","verbatimText":"27.Red FoxVulpes vulpesFrench:Renard roux/ German:Rotfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro rojoOther common names:Silver Fox, CrossFoxTaxonomy.Canis vulpes Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.The North American Red Fox, V. fulva, previously considered a separate species, is now considered conspecific with the Palaearctic V. vulpes. Forty-four subspecies were described on the basis of regional variation, but these have doubtful ecological significance as evidenced by successful introductions and re-introductions around the world.Subspecies and Distribution.V. v. vulpes Linnaeus, 1758— N Europe (Scandinavia).V. v. abietorum Merriam, 1900— SW Canada(Alberta& British Columbia).V. v. aegyptiacus Sonnini, 1816— Egypt, Israel, and Lybia.V. v. alascensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(NW Territories & Yukon).V. v. alpheraky: Satunin, 1906— Kazakhstan.V. v. anatolica Thomas, 1920— Turkey.V. v. arabica Thomas, 1902— Arabian peninsula.V. v. atlantica Wagner, 1841— Algeria(forested Atlas Mts).V. v. bangsi Merriam, 1900— NE Canada(Labrador).V. v. barbara Shaw, 1800— NW Africa (Barbary Coast).V. v. beringiana Middendorff, 1875— NE Siberia (shore of Bering Strait).V. v. cascadensis Merriam, 1900— NW USA(Cascade Mountains, Oregon& Washington).V. v. caucasica Dinnik, 1914— SW Russia(Caucasus).V. v. crucigera Bechstein, 1789— Europe through N & C Russia.V. v. daurica Ognev, 1931— E Russia(Amur, Siberia & Transbaikalia).V.v. deletrix Bangs, 1898— NE Canada(Newfoundland).V. v. dolichocrania Ognev, 1926— SE Siberia (S Ussuri).V. v. flavescens Gray, 1843— N Iran.V. v. fulva Desmarest, 1820— E USA.V. v. griffith: Blyth, 1854— Afghanistanand N Pakistan.V.v. harrimani Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kodiak I).V. v. hoole Swinhoe, 1870— S China(Fujianto Sichuan).V. v. ichnusae G. S. Miller, 1907— Corsicaand Sardinia.V. v. induta G. S. Miller, 1907— Cyprus.V. v. jakutensis Ognev, 1923— E Siberia (S of Yakutsk).V. v. japonica Gray, 1868— Japan.V. v. karagan Erxleben, 1777— Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kirgizstan.V. v. kenaiensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).V. v. kurdistanica Satunin, 1906— Armeniaand NE Turkey.V. v. macroura Baird, 1852— USA(Mountain States).V. v. montana Pearson, 1836— Himalayas form China(Yunnan) to C Pakistan.V. v. mecator Merriam, 1900— SW USA(California& Nevada).V. v. ochroxantha Ognev, 1926— E Russian Turkestan, Aksai, Kirgizstan, Semirechie.V. v. palaestina Thomas, 1920— Jordanand Lebanon.V.v. peculiosa Kishida, 1924— Korea.V. v. pusilla Blyth, 1854— NW Indiato Irak.V.v. regalis Merriam, 1900— N Great Plains of Canadaand USA.V. v. rubricosa Bangs, 1898— E Canada.V.v. schrencki Kishida, 1924— N Japan(Hokkaido) and NE Russia(Sakhalin).V. v. silacea G. S. Miller, 1907— Iberian Peninsula.V.v. splendidissima Kishida, 1924— E Russia(N & C Kurile Is).V. v. stepensis Brauner, 1914— steppes of S Russia.V. v. tobolica Ognev, 1926— Russia(lower basin of Ob River)V. v. tschiliensis Matschie, 1907— NE China.Foxes of European origin were introduced into E USAand Canadain the 17\" century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. Also introduced to Australiain 1800s, and the Falkland Islands(Malvinas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 59-90 cmfor males and 45-68 cmfor females, tail 36-44 cmfor males and 28-49 cmfor females; weight 4-14 kgfor males and 3-7 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Vulpes, with an enormous geographical variation in size. Males generally larger than females. The species is substantially smaller in the Middle East deserts than in Europe. Smaller also in North America. Muzzle slender and pointed, white on upper lip. Ears large, pointed, erect and black-backed. Pelage is reddish-brown but may vary from brown to russet red to yellowish-gray. Three main color morphs: red,silver, and cross (grayish-brown with long black guard hairs down back and across shoulders). Throat and/or chest may have white markings. Legs long and slender. Lower legs black. Tail long, thick, and bushy, sometimes with white tip. Red Foxes in North America are comparatively light weight, rather long for their mass, and with considerable sexual dimorphism. British foxes are heavier but relatively short. European foxes are closer to the general average among populations. Body mass and length are positively related to latitude (i.e. Bergmann’s Rule), but this is a smaller effect than that related to geographical origin. Dental formula 13/3, C 1/1, PM 3/4, M 3/3 = 42.Habitat.Red Foxes recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert, grassland, and forest, as well as in cities. Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with mosaics of scrub, woodland and farmland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains, deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4500 m. Red Foxes flourish in urban areas, where they are most common in low-density residential suburbs and less common in areas dominated by industry or commerce. In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with humans, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas. Also in large cities, including Washington DC, London, Paris, and Stockholm.Food and Feeding.Adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals, birds, fruit, and carrion. As predators, foxes typically kill birds and mammals up to about 3-5 kg. They cache food that is in excess of their requirements and have a highly developed memory for locations of hoards. They scavenge in rural areas (e.g. on deer and sheep carcasses in Europe and Canada, which may be the major food source in upland areas in winter), and in urban areas (on bird-feeding tables, compost heaps, and refuse). They are independent and thus generally solitary foragers, although individuals may forage in close proximity where resources are clumped.Activity patterns.Foraging is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, although more diurnal where undisturbed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is a pair, but groups with up to six members (usually one adultmale and 2-5 probably related females) may share a territory, depending on habitat. Range size is habitat-dependent and can vary from less than 0-4 km? to over 40 km®. There are reports of overlapping home ranges in some urban and rural environments, and of drifting territories in other urban settings. Mating behavior is highly variable, either monogamous pairs, a single male with two breeding females that may or may not share a communal den, or a single breeding female with several non-breeding female helpers. There is always only one breeding male in the group, although additional matings do occur outside the group. Territorial males make frequent excursions beyond their territories during the mating season, during which itinerant males also make incursions into territories. There is socially-mediated suppression of reproduction amongst females, with lowest productivity tending to occur where fox density is high or food supply poor. Where food is not limited, social status itself can suppress reproduction, with only the dominant female breeding. Behavioral mechanisms by which this occurs include harassment of subordinates, infanticide and cannibalism of subordinate vixens’ pups. A hormonal mechanism whereby stress leads to lowered productivity through fetal reabsorption has also been identified. In populations where productivity is low, reproductive performance is suppressed consistently at all stages of pregnancy from conception to birth. Juveniles may disperse between six and twelve months of age, mostly between October and January. All or most males disperse, but the proportion of each sex dispersing varies among habitats and may depend on extent of mortality (e.g. due to rabies or control). Males typically disperse farther than females. Dispersal distances generally range from less than 5 kmto more than 50 km, but distances of up to 394 kmhave been recorded in the USA. Red Foxes communicate with facial expressions, vocalizations, and scent marking. Scent marking involves urine and feces, anal sac secretions, the violet or supracaudal gland (more active in males during breeding season), and glands around thelips, in the angle of the jaw, and between pads of the feet. Some 28 different categories of vocalization have been described, used to communicate over long distances and at close quarters.Breeding.Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. V. v. necatorin the Sierra Nevada, California(USA) is rare, possibly declining. The subspecies griffithi, montana, and pusilla (= leucopus) are listed as CITES Appendix III (India). Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the EU, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated. Red Fox density is highly variable, ranging within the UKfrom 0-025 individuals/km? in Scotlandto 30/km? in some urban areas where food is superabundant. Density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerlandis 3/km?. In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, the foxes occur at densities of 0-1/km?, and in southern Ontario, Canadaat 1/km? Threats include habitat degradation and fragmentation, exploitation and persecution, and government policies. Other threats come from local, national, or international socio-economic and political factors, such as increasing human population and thus increasing development. The Red fox’s versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure its persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. There are currently bounties in Pakistanto protect game birds such as houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii).On following pages: 28. Corsac Fox(Vulpes corsac); 29. Tibetan Fox (Vulpes ferrilata); 30. Indian Fox (Vulpes bengalensis); 31. Pale Fox (Vulpes pallida); 32. Riippell's Fox (Vulpes rueppellii; 33. CapeFox (Vulpeschamal); 34. Blanford’s Fox (Vulpes cana); 35. Fennec Fox (Vulpes zerda).Bibliography.Ables (1975), Baker & Harris (2004), Cavallini (1995), Doncaster& Macdonald (1991), Englund (1970), Harris (1977, 1989), Harris & Rayner (1986), Harris & Smith (1987), Hatting (1956), Heydon & Reynolds (2000), Johnson & Hersteinsson (1993), Lariviere & Pasitschniak-Arts (1996), Macdonald (1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b, 1987), Macdonald & Bacon (1982), Macdonald & Newdick (1982), Macdonald & Reynolds (2004), Macdonald et al. (1999), McIntosh (1963), Meia (1994), Meia & Weber (1996), Voigt & Macdonald (1984).","taxonomy":"Canis vulpes Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.The North American Red Fox, V. fulva, previously considered a separate species, is now considered conspecific with the Palaearctic V. vulpes. Forty-four subspecies were described on the basis of regional variation, but these have doubtful ecological significance as evidenced by successful introductions and re-introductions around the world.","commonNames":"Renard roux @fr | Rotfuchs @de | Zorro rojo @es | Silver Fox @en | Cross Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Frisch","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"441","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vulpes","name":"Vulpes vulpes","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. v. vulpes Linnaeus, 1758— N Europe (Scandinavia).V. v. abietorum Merriam, 1900— SW Canada(Alberta& British Columbia).V. v. aegyptiacus Sonnini, 1816— Egypt, Israel, and Lybia.V. v. alascensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(NW Territories & Yukon).V. v. alpheraky: Satunin, 1906— Kazakhstan.V. v. anatolica Thomas, 1920— Turkey.V. v. arabica Thomas, 1902— Arabian peninsula.V. v. atlantica Wagner, 1841— Algeria(forested Atlas Mts).V. v. bangsi Merriam, 1900— NE Canada(Labrador).V. v. barbara Shaw, 1800— NW Africa (Barbary Coast).V. v. beringiana Middendorff, 1875— NE Siberia (shore of Bering Strait).V. v. cascadensis Merriam, 1900— NW USA(Cascade Mountains, Oregon& Washington).V. v. caucasica Dinnik, 1914— SW Russia(Caucasus).V. v. crucigera Bechstein, 1789— Europe through N & C Russia.V. v. daurica Ognev, 1931— E Russia(Amur, Siberia & Transbaikalia).V.v. deletrix Bangs, 1898— NE Canada(Newfoundland).V. v. dolichocrania Ognev, 1926— SE Siberia (S Ussuri).V. v. flavescens Gray, 1843— N Iran.V. v. fulva Desmarest, 1820— E USA.V. v. griffith: Blyth, 1854— Afghanistanand N Pakistan.V.v. harrimani Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kodiak I).V. v. hoole Swinhoe, 1870— S China(Fujianto Sichuan).V. v. ichnusae G. S. Miller, 1907— Corsicaand Sardinia.V. v. induta G. S. Miller, 1907— Cyprus.V. v. jakutensis Ognev, 1923— E Siberia (S of Yakutsk).V. v. japonica Gray, 1868— Japan.V. v. karagan Erxleben, 1777— Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kirgizstan.V. v. kenaiensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).V. v. kurdistanica Satunin, 1906— Armeniaand NE Turkey.V. v. macroura Baird, 1852— USA(Mountain States).V. v. montana Pearson, 1836— Himalayas form China(Yunnan) to C Pakistan.V. v. mecator Merriam, 1900— SW USA(California& Nevada).V. v. ochroxantha Ognev, 1926— E Russian Turkestan, Aksai, Kirgizstan, Semirechie.V. v. palaestina Thomas, 1920— Jordanand Lebanon.V.v. peculiosa Kishida, 1924— Korea.V. v. pusilla Blyth, 1854— NW Indiato Irak.V.v. regalis Merriam, 1900— N Great Plains of Canadaand USA.V. v. rubricosa Bangs, 1898— E Canada.V.v. schrencki Kishida, 1924— N Japan(Hokkaido) and NE Russia(Sakhalin).V. v. silacea G. S. Miller, 1907— Iberian Peninsula.V.v. splendidissima Kishida, 1924— E Russia(N & C Kurile Is).V. v. stepensis Brauner, 1914— steppes of S Russia.V. v. tobolica Ognev, 1926— Russia(lower basin of Ob River)V. v. tschiliensis Matschie, 1907— NE China.Foxes of European origin were introduced into E USAand Canadain the 17\" century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. Also introduced to Australiain 1800s, and the Falkland Islands(Malvinas).","bibliography":"Ables (1975) | Baker & Harris (2004) | Cavallini (1995) | Doncaster& Macdonald (1991) | Englund (1970) | Harris (1977, 1989) | Harris & Rayner (1986) | Harris & Smith (1987) | Hatting (1956) | Heydon & Reynolds (2000) | Johnson & Hersteinsson (1993) | Lariviere & Pasitschniak-Arts (1996) | Macdonald (1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b, 1987) | Macdonald & Bacon (1982) | Macdonald & Newdick (1982) | Macdonald & Reynolds (2004) | Macdonald et al. (1999) | McIntosh (1963) | Meia (1994) | Meia & Weber (1996) | Voigt & Macdonald (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"Adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals, birds, fruit, and carrion. As predators, foxes typically kill birds and mammals up to about 3-5 kg. They cache food that is in excess of their requirements and have a highly developed memory for locations of hoards. They scavenge in rural areas (e.g. on deer and sheep carcasses in Europe and Canada, which may be the major food source in upland areas in winter), and in urban areas (on bird-feeding tables, compost heaps, and refuse). They are independent and thus generally solitary foragers, although individuals may forage in close proximity where resources are clumped.","breeding":"Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.","activityPatterns":"Foraging is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, although more diurnal where undisturbed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit is a pair, but groups with up to six members (usually one adultmale and 2-5 probably related females) may share a territory, depending on habitat. Range size is habitat-dependent and can vary from less than 0-4 km? to over 40 km®. There are reports of overlapping home ranges in some urban and rural environments, and of drifting territories in other urban settings. Mating behavior is highly variable, either monogamous pairs, a single male with two breeding females that may or may not share a communal den, or a single breeding female with several non-breeding female helpers. There is always only one breeding male in the group, although additional matings do occur outside the group. Territorial males make frequent excursions beyond their territories during the mating season, during which itinerant males also make incursions into territories. There is socially-mediated suppression of reproduction amongst females, with lowest productivity tending to occur where fox density is high or food supply poor. Where food is not limited, social status itself can suppress reproduction, with only the dominant female breeding. Behavioral mechanisms by which this occurs include harassment of subordinates, infanticide and cannibalism of subordinate vixens’ pups. A hormonal mechanism whereby stress leads to lowered productivity through fetal reabsorption has also been identified. In populations where productivity is low, reproductive performance is suppressed consistently at all stages of pregnancy from conception to birth. Juveniles may disperse between six and twelve months of age, mostly between October and January. All or most males disperse, but the proportion of each sex dispersing varies among habitats and may depend on extent of mortality (e.g. due to rabies or control). Males typically disperse farther than females. Dispersal distances generally range from less than 5 kmto more than 50 km, but distances of up to 394 kmhave been recorded in the USA. Red Foxes communicate with facial expressions, vocalizations, and scent marking. Scent marking involves urine and feces, anal sac secretions, the violet or supracaudal gland (more active in males during breeding season), and glands around thelips, in the angle of the jaw, and between pads of the feet. Some 28 different categories of vocalization have been described, used to communicate over long distances and at close quarters.Breeding.Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. V. v. necatorin the Sierra Nevada, California(USA) is rare, possibly declining. The subspecies griffithi, montana, and pusilla (= leucopus) are listed as CITES Appendix III (India). Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the EU, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated. Red Fox density is highly variable, ranging within the UKfrom 0-025 individuals/km? in Scotlandto 30/km? in some urban areas where food is superabundant. Density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerlandis 3/km?. In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, the foxes occur at densities of 0-1/km?, and in southern Ontario, Canadaat 1/km? Threats include habitat degradation and fragmentation, exploitation and persecution, and government policies. Other threats come from local, national, or international socio-economic and political factors, such as increasing human population and thus increasing development. The Red fox’s versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure its persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. There are currently bounties in Pakistanto protect game birds such as houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 59-90 cmfor males and 45-68 cmfor females, tail 36-44 cmfor males and 28-49 cmfor females; weight 4-14 kgfor males and 3-7 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Vulpes, with an enormous geographical variation in size. Males generally larger than females. The species is substantially smaller in the Middle East deserts than in Europe. Smaller also in North America. Muzzle slender and pointed, white on upper lip. Ears large, pointed, erect and black-backed. Pelage is reddish-brown but may vary from brown to russet red to yellowish-gray. Three main color morphs: red,silver, and cross (grayish-brown with long black guard hairs down back and across shoulders). Throat and/or chest may have white markings. Legs long and slender. Lower legs black. Tail long, thick, and bushy, sometimes with white tip. Red Foxes in North America are comparatively light weight, rather long for their mass, and with considerable sexual dimorphism. British foxes are heavier but relatively short. European foxes are closer to the general average among populations. Body mass and length are positively related to latitude (i.e. Bergmann’s Rule), but this is a smaller effect than that related to geographical origin. Dental formula 13/3, C 1/1, PM 3/4, M 3/3 = 42.","habitat":"Red Foxes recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert, grassland, and forest, as well as in cities. Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with mosaics of scrub, woodland and farmland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains, deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4500 m. Red Foxes flourish in urban areas, where they are most common in low-density residential suburbs and less common in areas dominated by industry or commerce. In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with humans, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas. Also in large cities, including Washington DC, London, Paris, and Stockholm."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2CFFD27EDCF95DF82CD784.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF2CFFD27EDCF95DF82CD784","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"438","verbatimText":"26.Kit FoxVulpes macrotisFrench:Renard nain/ German:Wisten-Flinkfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro chicoOther common names:Desert FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes macrotis Merriam, 1888,California, USA.Has been considered conspecific with V. velox, based on morphometric similarities and protein-electrophoresis. Others have treated V. macrotisas a distinct species based on multivariate morphometric data and more recent mitochondrial DNA analysis. Nominal subspecies macrotis (Merriam, 1888)from sout-western Californiais extinct. Seven extant subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. m. arsipus Elliot, 1904— NW Mexico (N Sonora) and SW USA(SE California& S Arizona).V. m. devius Nelson & Goldman, 1909— NW Mexico(S Baja California).V. m. muticus Merriam, 1902— SW USA(San Joaquin Valley of California).V. m. neomexicanus Merriam, 1902— N Mexico(NW Chihuahua) and C USA(Colorado, New Mexico& W Texas).V. m. nevadensis Goldman, 1931— USA(Great Basin).V. m. tenwirostris Nelson & Goldman, 1931— NW Mexico(N Baja California).V. m. zanser: Benson, 1938— N-C Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 48- 5-52 cmfor males and 45-5-53- 5 cmfor females, tail 28-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-7- 2-7 kgfor males and 1-6-2- 2 kgfor females. One of the smallest foxes on the American continent. The large ears are its most conspicuous characteristic. The fur is short, with yellowish to grayish head, back and sides; the shoulders and the outside of the legs, are brownishyellow. The belly and the inner side of legs are yellowish-white and the tip of the tail is black. The neck, legs and belly may have buffy highlights. The hair is dense between the foot-pads. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Mean cranial measurements from 35 specimensof race mutica were: condylobasal length 114- 4mm; zygomatic breadth 62- 1mm; palatal length 57- 8mm; interorbital breadth 23- 1mm; postorbital breadth 21- 4mm.Habitat.Arid and semi-arid regions including desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities. It is found at elevations ranging from 400-1900 m, although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain. They use agricultural lands to some extent and can successfully inhabit urban environments.Food and Feeding.Kit Foxes primarily consume rodents, lagomorphs, and insects. Main prey includes kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), Blacktailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), and cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.). Other items consumed include birds, reptiles, and carrion. Plant material is rarely consumed, with the occasional exception of cactus fruits. Kit Foxes mostly forage solitarily.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and occasionally crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Kit Foxes are primarily monogamous with occasional polygyny (i.e. multiple paternity litters detected) and pairs usually mate for life. Young from previous litters, usually females, may delay dispersal and remain in natal home ranges assisting with raising the current litter. Kit Foxes are not strongly territorial and home ranges of 2-5-11- 6 km* may overlap, although core areas generally are used exclusively by one family group. Kit Foxes sometimes bark at approaching predators or to recall pups, and they may emit a loud “chittering” call, during intraspecific encounters. Foxes also emit barking sequences, probably to contact or attract mates or potential mates.Breeding.Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted (considered a subspecies of V. velox). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in Mexico. In the USA, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (muticus) is listed federally as “endangered”, and as “threatened” in the State of California. In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as “endangered”. The species is common to rare. In the USA, abundance is largely unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable where there are no significant threats. The endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox is probably still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. Human-induced habitat transformation is probably causing a decline of Kit Fox populations in Mexico, where Prairie Dog towns supporting important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields. In Mexico, Kit Foxes are sometimes shot opportunistically, but are not actively persecuted.Bibliography.Cotera (1996), Cypher et al. (2000), Dragoo et al. (1990), Egoscue (1956, 1962, 1975), Hall (1981), Jiménez-Guzman & Lopez-Soto (1992), Knapp (1978), Koopman, Cypher & Scrivner (2000), Koopman, Scrivner & Kato (1998), List (1997), List & Cypher (2004), McGrew (1979), Mercure et al. (1993), Morrell (1972), O'Farrell (1987), Ralls et al. (2001), Spiegel (1996), US Fish & Wildlife Service (1998), Warrick & Cypher (1998), White & Ralls (1993), White et al. (1995), Zoellick et al. (1987).","taxonomy":"Vulpes macrotis Merriam, 1888,California, USA.Has been considered conspecific with V. velox, based on morphometric similarities and protein-electrophoresis. Others have treated V. macrotisas a distinct species based on multivariate morphometric data and more recent mitochondrial DNA analysis. Nominal subspecies macrotis (Merriam, 1888)from sout-western Californiais extinct. Seven extant subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard nain @fr | Wisten-Flinkfuchs @de | Zorro chico @es | Desert Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1888","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"438","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macrotis","name":"Vulpes macrotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. m. arsipus Elliot, 1904— NW Mexico (N Sonora) and SW USA(SE California& S Arizona).V. m. devius Nelson & Goldman, 1909— NW Mexico(S Baja California).V. m. muticus Merriam, 1902— SW USA(San Joaquin Valley of California).V. m. neomexicanus Merriam, 1902— N Mexico(NW Chihuahua) and C USA(Colorado, New Mexico& W Texas).V. m. nevadensis Goldman, 1931— USA(Great Basin).V. m. tenwirostris Nelson & Goldman, 1931— NW Mexico(N Baja California).V. m. zanser: Benson, 1938— N-C Mexico.","bibliography":"Cotera (1996) | Cypher et al. (2000) | Dragoo et al. (1990) | Egoscue (1956, 1962, 1975) | Hall (1981) | Jiménez-Guzman & Lopez-Soto (1992) | Knapp (1978) | Koopman, Cypher & Scrivner (2000) | Koopman, Scrivner & Kato (1998) | List (1997) | List & Cypher (2004) | McGrew (1979) | Mercure et al. (1993) | Morrell (1972) | O'Farrell (1987) | Ralls et al. (2001) | Spiegel (1996) | US Fish & Wildlife Service (1998) | Warrick & Cypher (1998) | White & Ralls (1993) | White et al. (1995) | Zoellick et al. (1987)","foodAndFeeding":"Kit Foxes primarily consume rodents, lagomorphs, and insects. Main prey includes kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), Blacktailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), and cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.). Other items consumed include birds, reptiles, and carrion. Plant material is rarely consumed, with the occasional exception of cactus fruits. Kit Foxes mostly forage solitarily.","breeding":"Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal and occasionally crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Kit Foxes are primarily monogamous with occasional polygyny (i.e. multiple paternity litters detected) and pairs usually mate for life. Young from previous litters, usually females, may delay dispersal and remain in natal home ranges assisting with raising the current litter. Kit Foxes are not strongly territorial and home ranges of 2-5-11- 6 km* may overlap, although core areas generally are used exclusively by one family group. Kit Foxes sometimes bark at approaching predators or to recall pups, and they may emit a loud “chittering” call, during intraspecific encounters. Foxes also emit barking sequences, probably to contact or attract mates or potential mates.Breeding.Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted (considered a subspecies of V. velox). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in Mexico. In the USA, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (muticus) is listed federally as “endangered”, and as “threatened” in the State of California. In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as “endangered”. The species is common to rare. In the USA, abundance is largely unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable where there are no significant threats. The endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox is probably still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. Human-induced habitat transformation is probably causing a decline of Kit Fox populations in Mexico, where Prairie Dog towns supporting important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields. In Mexico, Kit Foxes are sometimes shot opportunistically, but are not actively persecuted.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 48- 5-52 cmfor males and 45-5-53- 5 cmfor females, tail 28-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-7- 2-7 kgfor males and 1-6-2- 2 kgfor females. One of the smallest foxes on the American continent. The large ears are its most conspicuous characteristic. The fur is short, with yellowish to grayish head, back and sides; the shoulders and the outside of the legs, are brownishyellow. The belly and the inner side of legs are yellowish-white and the tip of the tail is black. The neck, legs and belly may have buffy highlights. The hair is dense between the foot-pads. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Mean cranial measurements from 35 specimensof race mutica were: condylobasal length 114- 4mm; zygomatic breadth 62- 1mm; palatal length 57- 8mm; interorbital breadth 23- 1mm; postorbital breadth 21- 4mm.","habitat":"Arid and semi-arid regions including desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities. It is found at elevations ranging from 400-1900 m, although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain. They use agricultural lands to some extent and can successfully inhabit urban environments."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF29FFD67E8EFE80FAA9DF36.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF29FFD67E8EFE80FAA9DF36","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"441","verbatimText":"27.Red FoxVulpes vulpesFrench:Renard roux/ German:Rotfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro rojoOther common names:Silver Fox, CrossFoxTaxonomy.Canis vulpes Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.The North American Red Fox, V. fulva, previously considered a separate species, is now considered conspecific with the Palaearctic V. vulpes. Forty-four subspecies were described on the basis of regional variation, but these have doubtful ecological significance as evidenced by successful introductions and re-introductions around the world.Subspecies and Distribution.V. v. vulpes Linnaeus, 1758— N Europe (Scandinavia).V. v. abietorum Merriam, 1900— SW Canada(Alberta& British Columbia).V. v. aegyptiacus Sonnini, 1816— Egypt, Israel, and Lybia.V. v. alascensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(NW Territories & Yukon).V. v. alpheraky: Satunin, 1906— Kazakhstan.V. v. anatolica Thomas, 1920— Turkey.V. v. arabica Thomas, 1902— Arabian peninsula.V. v. atlantica Wagner, 1841— Algeria(forested Atlas Mts).V. v. bangsi Merriam, 1900— NE Canada(Labrador).V. v. barbara Shaw, 1800— NW Africa (Barbary Coast).V. v. beringiana Middendorff, 1875— NE Siberia (shore of Bering Strait).V. v. cascadensis Merriam, 1900— NW USA(Cascade Mountains, Oregon& Washington).V. v. caucasica Dinnik, 1914— SW Russia(Caucasus).V. v. crucigera Bechstein, 1789— Europe through N & C Russia.V. v. daurica Ognev, 1931— E Russia(Amur, Siberia & Transbaikalia).V.v. deletrix Bangs, 1898— NE Canada(Newfoundland).V. v. dolichocrania Ognev, 1926— SE Siberia (S Ussuri).V. v. flavescens Gray, 1843— N Iran.V. v. fulva Desmarest, 1820— E USA.V. v. griffith: Blyth, 1854— Afghanistanand N Pakistan.V.v. harrimani Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kodiak I).V. v. hoole Swinhoe, 1870— S China(Fujianto Sichuan).V. v. ichnusae G. S. Miller, 1907— Corsicaand Sardinia.V. v. induta G. S. Miller, 1907— Cyprus.V. v. jakutensis Ognev, 1923— E Siberia (S of Yakutsk).V. v. japonica Gray, 1868— Japan.V. v. karagan Erxleben, 1777— Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kirgizstan.V. v. kenaiensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).V. v. kurdistanica Satunin, 1906— Armeniaand NE Turkey.V. v. macroura Baird, 1852— USA(Mountain States).V. v. montana Pearson, 1836— Himalayas form China(Yunnan) to C Pakistan.V. v. mecator Merriam, 1900— SW USA(California& Nevada).V. v. ochroxantha Ognev, 1926— E Russian Turkestan, Aksai, Kirgizstan, Semirechie.V. v. palaestina Thomas, 1920— Jordanand Lebanon.V.v. peculiosa Kishida, 1924— Korea.V. v. pusilla Blyth, 1854— NW Indiato Irak.V.v. regalis Merriam, 1900— N Great Plains of Canadaand USA.V. v. rubricosa Bangs, 1898— E Canada.V.v. schrencki Kishida, 1924— N Japan(Hokkaido) and NE Russia(Sakhalin).V. v. silacea G. S. Miller, 1907— Iberian Peninsula.V.v. splendidissima Kishida, 1924— E Russia(N & C Kurile Is).V. v. stepensis Brauner, 1914— steppes of S Russia.V. v. tobolica Ognev, 1926— Russia(lower basin of Ob River)V. v. tschiliensis Matschie, 1907— NE China.Foxes of European origin were introduced into E USAand Canadain the 17\" century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. Also introduced to Australiain 1800s, and the Falkland Islands(Malvinas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 59-90 cmfor males and 45-68 cmfor females, tail 36-44 cmfor males and 28-49 cmfor females; weight 4-14 kgfor males and 3-7 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Vulpes, with an enormous geographical variation in size. Males generally larger than females. The species is substantially smaller in the Middle East deserts than in Europe. Smaller also in North America. Muzzle slender and pointed, white on upper lip. Ears large, pointed, erect and black-backed. Pelage is reddish-brown but may vary from brown to russet red to yellowish-gray. Three main color morphs: red,silver, and cross (grayish-brown with long black guard hairs down back and across shoulders). Throat and/or chest may have white markings. Legs long and slender. Lower legs black. Tail long, thick, and bushy, sometimes with white tip. Red Foxes in North America are comparatively light weight, rather long for their mass, and with considerable sexual dimorphism. British foxes are heavier but relatively short. European foxes are closer to the general average among populations. Body mass and length are positively related to latitude (i.e. Bergmann’s Rule), but this is a smaller effect than that related to geographical origin. Dental formula 13/3, C 1/1, PM 3/4, M 3/3 = 42.Habitat.Red Foxes recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert, grassland, and forest, as well as in cities. Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with mosaics of scrub, woodland and farmland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains, deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4500 m. Red Foxes flourish in urban areas, where they are most common in low-density residential suburbs and less common in areas dominated by industry or commerce. In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with humans, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas. Also in large cities, including Washington DC, London, Paris, and Stockholm.Food and Feeding.Adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals, birds, fruit, and carrion. As predators, foxes typically kill birds and mammals up to about 3-5 kg. They cache food that is in excess of their requirements and have a highly developed memory for locations of hoards. They scavenge in rural areas (e.g. on deer and sheep carcasses in Europe and Canada, which may be the major food source in upland areas in winter), and in urban areas (on bird-feeding tables, compost heaps, and refuse). They are independent and thus generally solitary foragers, although individuals may forage in close proximity where resources are clumped.Activity patterns.Foraging is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, although more diurnal where undisturbed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is a pair, but groups with up to six members (usually one adultmale and 2-5 probably related females) may share a territory, depending on habitat. Range size is habitat-dependent and can vary from less than 0-4 km? to over 40 km®. There are reports of overlapping home ranges in some urban and rural environments, and of drifting territories in other urban settings. Mating behavior is highly variable, either monogamous pairs, a single male with two breeding females that may or may not share a communal den, or a single breeding female with several non-breeding female helpers. There is always only one breeding male in the group, although additional matings do occur outside the group. Territorial males make frequent excursions beyond their territories during the mating season, during which itinerant males also make incursions into territories. There is socially-mediated suppression of reproduction amongst females, with lowest productivity tending to occur where fox density is high or food supply poor. Where food is not limited, social status itself can suppress reproduction, with only the dominant female breeding. Behavioral mechanisms by which this occurs include harassment of subordinates, infanticide and cannibalism of subordinate vixens’ pups. A hormonal mechanism whereby stress leads to lowered productivity through fetal reabsorption has also been identified. In populations where productivity is low, reproductive performance is suppressed consistently at all stages of pregnancy from conception to birth. Juveniles may disperse between six and twelve months of age, mostly between October and January. All or most males disperse, but the proportion of each sex dispersing varies among habitats and may depend on extent of mortality (e.g. due to rabies or control). Males typically disperse farther than females. Dispersal distances generally range from less than 5 kmto more than 50 km, but distances of up to 394 kmhave been recorded in the USA. Red Foxes communicate with facial expressions, vocalizations, and scent marking. Scent marking involves urine and feces, anal sac secretions, the violet or supracaudal gland (more active in males during breeding season), and glands around thelips, in the angle of the jaw, and between pads of the feet. Some 28 different categories of vocalization have been described, used to communicate over long distances and at close quarters.Breeding.Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. V. v. necatorin the Sierra Nevada, California(USA) is rare, possibly declining. The subspecies griffithi, montana, and pusilla (= leucopus) are listed as CITES Appendix III (India). Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the EU, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated. Red Fox density is highly variable, ranging within the UKfrom 0-025 individuals/km? in Scotlandto 30/km? in some urban areas where food is superabundant. Density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerlandis 3/km?. In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, the foxes occur at densities of 0-1/km?, and in southern Ontario, Canadaat 1/km? Threats include habitat degradation and fragmentation, exploitation and persecution, and government policies. Other threats come from local, national, or international socio-economic and political factors, such as increasing human population and thus increasing development. The Red fox’s versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure its persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. There are currently bounties in Pakistanto protect game birds such as houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii).On following pages: 28. Corsac Fox(Vulpes corsac); 29. Tibetan Fox (Vulpes ferrilata); 30. Indian Fox (Vulpes bengalensis); 31. Pale Fox (Vulpes pallida); 32. Riippell's Fox (Vulpes rueppellii; 33. CapeFox (Vulpeschamal); 34. Blanford’s Fox (Vulpes cana); 35. Fennec Fox (Vulpes zerda).Bibliography.Ables (1975), Baker & Harris (2004), Cavallini (1995), Doncaster& Macdonald (1991), Englund (1970), Harris (1977, 1989), Harris & Rayner (1986), Harris & Smith (1987), Hatting (1956), Heydon & Reynolds (2000), Johnson & Hersteinsson (1993), Lariviere & Pasitschniak-Arts (1996), Macdonald (1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b, 1987), Macdonald & Bacon (1982), Macdonald & Newdick (1982), Macdonald & Reynolds (2004), Macdonald et al. (1999), McIntosh (1963), Meia (1994), Meia & Weber (1996), Voigt & Macdonald (1984).","taxonomy":"Canis vulpes Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.The North American Red Fox, V. fulva, previously considered a separate species, is now considered conspecific with the Palaearctic V. vulpes. Forty-four subspecies were described on the basis of regional variation, but these have doubtful ecological significance as evidenced by successful introductions and re-introductions around the world.","commonNames":"Renard roux @fr | Rotfuchs @de | Zorro rojo @es | Silver Fox @en | Cross Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Frisch","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"441","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vulpes","name":"Vulpes vulpes","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. v. vulpes Linnaeus, 1758— N Europe (Scandinavia).V. v. abietorum Merriam, 1900— SW Canada(Alberta& British Columbia).V. v. aegyptiacus Sonnini, 1816— Egypt, Israel, and Lybia.V. v. alascensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska and NW Canada(NW Territories & Yukon).V. v. alpheraky: Satunin, 1906— Kazakhstan.V. v. anatolica Thomas, 1920— Turkey.V. v. arabica Thomas, 1902— Arabian peninsula.V. v. atlantica Wagner, 1841— Algeria(forested Atlas Mts).V. v. bangsi Merriam, 1900— NE Canada(Labrador).V. v. barbara Shaw, 1800— NW Africa (Barbary Coast).V. v. beringiana Middendorff, 1875— NE Siberia (shore of Bering Strait).V. v. cascadensis Merriam, 1900— NW USA(Cascade Mountains, Oregon& Washington).V. v. caucasica Dinnik, 1914— SW Russia(Caucasus).V. v. crucigera Bechstein, 1789— Europe through N & C Russia.V. v. daurica Ognev, 1931— E Russia(Amur, Siberia & Transbaikalia).V.v. deletrix Bangs, 1898— NE Canada(Newfoundland).V. v. dolichocrania Ognev, 1926— SE Siberia (S Ussuri).V. v. flavescens Gray, 1843— N Iran.V. v. fulva Desmarest, 1820— E USA.V. v. griffith: Blyth, 1854— Afghanistanand N Pakistan.V.v. harrimani Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kodiak I).V. v. hoole Swinhoe, 1870— S China(Fujianto Sichuan).V. v. ichnusae G. S. Miller, 1907— Corsicaand Sardinia.V. v. induta G. S. Miller, 1907— Cyprus.V. v. jakutensis Ognev, 1923— E Siberia (S of Yakutsk).V. v. japonica Gray, 1868— Japan.V. v. karagan Erxleben, 1777— Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kirgizstan.V. v. kenaiensis Merriam, 1900— Alaska(Kenai Peninsula).V. v. kurdistanica Satunin, 1906— Armeniaand NE Turkey.V. v. macroura Baird, 1852— USA(Mountain States).V. v. montana Pearson, 1836— Himalayas form China(Yunnan) to C Pakistan.V. v. mecator Merriam, 1900— SW USA(California& Nevada).V. v. ochroxantha Ognev, 1926— E Russian Turkestan, Aksai, Kirgizstan, Semirechie.V. v. palaestina Thomas, 1920— Jordanand Lebanon.V.v. peculiosa Kishida, 1924— Korea.V. v. pusilla Blyth, 1854— NW Indiato Irak.V.v. regalis Merriam, 1900— N Great Plains of Canadaand USA.V. v. rubricosa Bangs, 1898— E Canada.V.v. schrencki Kishida, 1924— N Japan(Hokkaido) and NE Russia(Sakhalin).V. v. silacea G. S. Miller, 1907— Iberian Peninsula.V.v. splendidissima Kishida, 1924— E Russia(N & C Kurile Is).V. v. stepensis Brauner, 1914— steppes of S Russia.V. v. tobolica Ognev, 1926— Russia(lower basin of Ob River)V. v. tschiliensis Matschie, 1907— NE China.Foxes of European origin were introduced into E USAand Canadain the 17\" century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. Also introduced to Australiain 1800s, and the Falkland Islands(Malvinas).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331215/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ables (1975) | Baker & Harris (2004) | Cavallini (1995) | Doncaster& Macdonald (1991) | Englund (1970) | Harris (1977, 1989) | Harris & Rayner (1986) | Harris & Smith (1987) | Hatting (1956) | Heydon & Reynolds (2000) | Johnson & Hersteinsson (1993) | Lariviere & Pasitschniak-Arts (1996) | Macdonald (1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b, 1987) | Macdonald & Bacon (1982) | Macdonald & Newdick (1982) | Macdonald & Reynolds (2004) | Macdonald et al. (1999) | McIntosh (1963) | Meia (1994) | Meia & Weber (1996) | Voigt & Macdonald (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"Adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals, birds, fruit, and carrion. As predators, foxes typically kill birds and mammals up to about 3-5 kg. They cache food that is in excess of their requirements and have a highly developed memory for locations of hoards. They scavenge in rural areas (e.g. on deer and sheep carcasses in Europe and Canada, which may be the major food source in upland areas in winter), and in urban areas (on bird-feeding tables, compost heaps, and refuse). They are independent and thus generally solitary foragers, although individuals may forage in close proximity where resources are clumped.","breeding":"Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.","activityPatterns":"Foraging is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, although more diurnal where undisturbed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit is a pair, but groups with up to six members (usually one adultmale and 2-5 probably related females) may share a territory, depending on habitat. Range size is habitat-dependent and can vary from less than 0-4 km? to over 40 km®. There are reports of overlapping home ranges in some urban and rural environments, and of drifting territories in other urban settings. Mating behavior is highly variable, either monogamous pairs, a single male with two breeding females that may or may not share a communal den, or a single breeding female with several non-breeding female helpers. There is always only one breeding male in the group, although additional matings do occur outside the group. Territorial males make frequent excursions beyond their territories during the mating season, during which itinerant males also make incursions into territories. There is socially-mediated suppression of reproduction amongst females, with lowest productivity tending to occur where fox density is high or food supply poor. Where food is not limited, social status itself can suppress reproduction, with only the dominant female breeding. Behavioral mechanisms by which this occurs include harassment of subordinates, infanticide and cannibalism of subordinate vixens’ pups. A hormonal mechanism whereby stress leads to lowered productivity through fetal reabsorption has also been identified. In populations where productivity is low, reproductive performance is suppressed consistently at all stages of pregnancy from conception to birth. Juveniles may disperse between six and twelve months of age, mostly between October and January. All or most males disperse, but the proportion of each sex dispersing varies among habitats and may depend on extent of mortality (e.g. due to rabies or control). Males typically disperse farther than females. Dispersal distances generally range from less than 5 kmto more than 50 km, but distances of up to 394 kmhave been recorded in the USA. Red Foxes communicate with facial expressions, vocalizations, and scent marking. Scent marking involves urine and feces, anal sac secretions, the violet or supracaudal gland (more active in males during breeding season), and glands around thelips, in the angle of the jaw, and between pads of the feet. Some 28 different categories of vocalization have been described, used to communicate over long distances and at close quarters.Breeding.Males are seasonally fecund. Mating occurs between December and February (June to October in Australia); the onset of breeding is correlated with day length and so starts earlier at more southerly latitudes. Following a gestation period of 49-55 days, births occur from March to May. Lactation lasts for four weeks, and the pups are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 9-10 months. The proportion of breeding females in the group, andlitter size (3-12 young perlitter), varies with food availability. Fox populations that are dense relative to food resources are generally less productive than those that are less dense. A single litter per year is the norm. In high-density populations where interactions with the dominant female are high, subordinate females do not usually breed. The male provides food to the lactating female, who is generally confined to the den prior to weaning. Food is provided for the pups by both parents. Non-breeding females may also feed, groom, and tend pups and have been known to adopt orphaned pups. If two femalesbreed within a group, they may share a den and litters may be communally suckled.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. V. v. necatorin the Sierra Nevada, California(USA) is rare, possibly declining. The subspecies griffithi, montana, and pusilla (= leucopus) are listed as CITES Appendix III (India). Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the EU, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated. Red Fox density is highly variable, ranging within the UKfrom 0-025 individuals/km? in Scotlandto 30/km? in some urban areas where food is superabundant. Density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerlandis 3/km?. In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, the foxes occur at densities of 0-1/km?, and in southern Ontario, Canadaat 1/km? Threats include habitat degradation and fragmentation, exploitation and persecution, and government policies. Other threats come from local, national, or international socio-economic and political factors, such as increasing human population and thus increasing development. The Red fox’s versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure its persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. There are currently bounties in Pakistanto protect game birds such as houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 59-90 cmfor males and 45-68 cmfor females, tail 36-44 cmfor males and 28-49 cmfor females; weight 4-14 kgfor males and 3-7 kgfor females. The largest fox in the genus Vulpes, with an enormous geographical variation in size. Males generally larger than females. The species is substantially smaller in the Middle East deserts than in Europe. Smaller also in North America. Muzzle slender and pointed, white on upper lip. Ears large, pointed, erect and black-backed. Pelage is reddish-brown but may vary from brown to russet red to yellowish-gray. Three main color morphs: red,silver, and cross (grayish-brown with long black guard hairs down back and across shoulders). Throat and/or chest may have white markings. Legs long and slender. Lower legs black. Tail long, thick, and bushy, sometimes with white tip. Red Foxes in North America are comparatively light weight, rather long for their mass, and with considerable sexual dimorphism. British foxes are heavier but relatively short. European foxes are closer to the general average among populations. Body mass and length are positively related to latitude (i.e. Bergmann’s Rule), but this is a smaller effect than that related to geographical origin. Dental formula 13/3, C 1/1, PM 3/4, M 3/3 = 42.","habitat":"Red Foxes recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert, grassland, and forest, as well as in cities. Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with mosaics of scrub, woodland and farmland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains, deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4500 m. Red Foxes flourish in urban areas, where they are most common in low-density residential suburbs and less common in areas dominated by industry or commerce. In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with humans, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas. Also in large cities, including Washington DC, London, Paris, and Stockholm."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2CFFD27EDCF95DF82CD784.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF2CFFD27EDCF95DF82CD784","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"438","verbatimText":"26.Kit FoxVulpes macrotisFrench:Renard nain/ German:Wisten-Flinkfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro chicoOther common names:Desert FoxTaxonomy.Vulpes macrotis Merriam, 1888,California, USA.Has been considered conspecific with V. velox, based on morphometric similarities and protein-electrophoresis. Others have treated V. macrotisas a distinct species based on multivariate morphometric data and more recent mitochondrial DNA analysis. Nominal subspecies macrotis (Merriam, 1888)from sout-western Californiais extinct. Seven extant subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.V. m. arsipus Elliot, 1904— NW Mexico (N Sonora) and SW USA(SE California& S Arizona).V. m. devius Nelson & Goldman, 1909— NW Mexico(S Baja California).V. m. muticus Merriam, 1902— SW USA(San Joaquin Valley of California).V. m. neomexicanus Merriam, 1902— N Mexico(NW Chihuahua) and C USA(Colorado, New Mexico& W Texas).V. m. nevadensis Goldman, 1931— USA(Great Basin).V. m. tenwirostris Nelson & Goldman, 1931— NW Mexico(N Baja California).V. m. zanser: Benson, 1938— N-C Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head-body 48- 5-52 cmfor males and 45-5-53- 5 cmfor females, tail 28-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-7- 2-7 kgfor males and 1-6-2- 2 kgfor females. One of the smallest foxes on the American continent. The large ears are its most conspicuous characteristic. The fur is short, with yellowish to grayish head, back and sides; the shoulders and the outside of the legs, are brownishyellow. The belly and the inner side of legs are yellowish-white and the tip of the tail is black. The neck, legs and belly may have buffy highlights. The hair is dense between the foot-pads. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Mean cranial measurements from 35 specimensof race mutica were: condylobasal length 114- 4mm; zygomatic breadth 62- 1mm; palatal length 57- 8mm; interorbital breadth 23- 1mm; postorbital breadth 21- 4mm.Habitat.Arid and semi-arid regions including desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities. It is found at elevations ranging from 400-1900 m, although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain. They use agricultural lands to some extent and can successfully inhabit urban environments.Food and Feeding.Kit Foxes primarily consume rodents, lagomorphs, and insects. Main prey includes kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), Blacktailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), and cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.). Other items consumed include birds, reptiles, and carrion. Plant material is rarely consumed, with the occasional exception of cactus fruits. Kit Foxes mostly forage solitarily.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal and occasionally crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Kit Foxes are primarily monogamous with occasional polygyny (i.e. multiple paternity litters detected) and pairs usually mate for life. Young from previous litters, usually females, may delay dispersal and remain in natal home ranges assisting with raising the current litter. Kit Foxes are not strongly territorial and home ranges of 2-5-11- 6 km* may overlap, although core areas generally are used exclusively by one family group. Kit Foxes sometimes bark at approaching predators or to recall pups, and they may emit a loud “chittering” call, during intraspecific encounters. Foxes also emit barking sequences, probably to contact or attract mates or potential mates.Breeding.Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted (considered a subspecies of V. velox). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in Mexico. In the USA, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (muticus) is listed federally as “endangered”, and as “threatened” in the State of California. In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as “endangered”. The species is common to rare. In the USA, abundance is largely unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable where there are no significant threats. The endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox is probably still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. Human-induced habitat transformation is probably causing a decline of Kit Fox populations in Mexico, where Prairie Dog towns supporting important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields. In Mexico, Kit Foxes are sometimes shot opportunistically, but are not actively persecuted.Bibliography.Cotera (1996), Cypher et al. (2000), Dragoo et al. (1990), Egoscue (1956, 1962, 1975), Hall (1981), Jiménez-Guzman & Lopez-Soto (1992), Knapp (1978), Koopman, Cypher & Scrivner (2000), Koopman, Scrivner & Kato (1998), List (1997), List & Cypher (2004), McGrew (1979), Mercure et al. (1993), Morrell (1972), O'Farrell (1987), Ralls et al. (2001), Spiegel (1996), US Fish & Wildlife Service (1998), Warrick & Cypher (1998), White & Ralls (1993), White et al. (1995), Zoellick et al. (1987).","taxonomy":"Vulpes macrotis Merriam, 1888,California, USA.Has been considered conspecific with V. velox, based on morphometric similarities and protein-electrophoresis. Others have treated V. macrotisas a distinct species based on multivariate morphometric data and more recent mitochondrial DNA analysis. Nominal subspecies macrotis (Merriam, 1888)from sout-western Californiais extinct. Seven extant subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard nain @fr | Wisten-Flinkfuchs @de | Zorro chico @es | Desert Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Merriam","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1888","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"438","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macrotis","name":"Vulpes macrotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"V. m. arsipus Elliot, 1904— NW Mexico (N Sonora) and SW USA(SE California& S Arizona).V. m. devius Nelson & Goldman, 1909— NW Mexico(S Baja California).V. m. muticus Merriam, 1902— SW USA(San Joaquin Valley of California).V. m. neomexicanus Merriam, 1902— N Mexico(NW Chihuahua) and C USA(Colorado, New Mexico& W Texas).V. m. nevadensis Goldman, 1931— USA(Great Basin).V. m. tenwirostris Nelson & Goldman, 1931— NW Mexico(N Baja California).V. m. zanser: Benson, 1938— N-C Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331213/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cotera (1996) | Cypher et al. (2000) | Dragoo et al. (1990) | Egoscue (1956, 1962, 1975) | Hall (1981) | Jiménez-Guzman & Lopez-Soto (1992) | Knapp (1978) | Koopman, Cypher & Scrivner (2000) | Koopman, Scrivner & Kato (1998) | List (1997) | List & Cypher (2004) | McGrew (1979) | Mercure et al. (1993) | Morrell (1972) | O'Farrell (1987) | Ralls et al. (2001) | Spiegel (1996) | US Fish & Wildlife Service (1998) | Warrick & Cypher (1998) | White & Ralls (1993) | White et al. (1995) | Zoellick et al. (1987)","foodAndFeeding":"Kit Foxes primarily consume rodents, lagomorphs, and insects. Main prey includes kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), Blacktailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), and cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.). Other items consumed include birds, reptiles, and carrion. Plant material is rarely consumed, with the occasional exception of cactus fruits. Kit Foxes mostly forage solitarily.","breeding":"Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal and occasionally crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Kit Foxes are primarily monogamous with occasional polygyny (i.e. multiple paternity litters detected) and pairs usually mate for life. Young from previous litters, usually females, may delay dispersal and remain in natal home ranges assisting with raising the current litter. Kit Foxes are not strongly territorial and home ranges of 2-5-11- 6 km* may overlap, although core areas generally are used exclusively by one family group. Kit Foxes sometimes bark at approaching predators or to recall pups, and they may emit a loud “chittering” call, during intraspecific encounters. Foxes also emit barking sequences, probably to contact or attract mates or potential mates.Breeding.Kit Foxes mate from December to January and give birth from February to March after a gestation of 49-55 days. Littersize ranges from 1-7 (mean 4). Reproductive success for yearling females is considerably lower and varies annually with food availability for all age classes. Pups emerge from dens at about four weeks, are weaned at about eight weeks, begin foraging with parents at about 3-4 months, and become independent at about 5-6 months. Mean dispersal age in Californiawas eight months. Kit Foxes use dens all year round and have multiple dens. Although they can excavate their own dens, preferring loose-textured soils, they frequently occupy and modify the burrows of praire dogs, kangaroo rats, ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), and American Badgers. Occasionally, they will den in man-made structures (e.g. culverts, pipes), but young are almost always born in earthen dens.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted (considered a subspecies of V. velox). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Considered “vulnerable” in Mexico. In the USA, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (muticus) is listed federally as “endangered”, and as “threatened” in the State of California. In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as “endangered”. The species is common to rare. In the USA, abundance is largely unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable where there are no significant threats. The endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox is probably still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. Human-induced habitat transformation is probably causing a decline of Kit Fox populations in Mexico, where Prairie Dog towns supporting important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields. In Mexico, Kit Foxes are sometimes shot opportunistically, but are not actively persecuted.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 48- 5-52 cmfor males and 45-5-53- 5 cmfor females, tail 28-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 5 cmfor females; weight 1-7- 2-7 kgfor males and 1-6-2- 2 kgfor females. One of the smallest foxes on the American continent. The large ears are its most conspicuous characteristic. The fur is short, with yellowish to grayish head, back and sides; the shoulders and the outside of the legs, are brownishyellow. The belly and the inner side of legs are yellowish-white and the tip of the tail is black. The neck, legs and belly may have buffy highlights. The hair is dense between the foot-pads. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Mean cranial measurements from 35 specimensof race mutica were: condylobasal length 114- 4mm; zygomatic breadth 62- 1mm; palatal length 57- 8mm; interorbital breadth 23- 1mm; postorbital breadth 21- 4mm.","habitat":"Arid and semi-arid regions including desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities. It is found at elevations ranging from 400-1900 m, although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain. They use agricultural lands to some extent and can successfully inhabit urban environments."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2DFFD27B96FB9FFE1DDB8E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF2DFFD27B96FB9FFE1DDB8E","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"437","verbatimText":"25.Swift FoxVulpes veloxFrench:Renard véloce/ German:Prarie-Flinkfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro velozTaxonomy.Canis velox Say, 1823,River Platte region, USA.Phenotypically and ecologically similar to V. macrotis; interbreeding occurs in western Texasand eastern New Mexico, and some suggest these foxes are conspecific. Both are closely related to Arctic Foxes, and some authorities place the latter under Vulpes. Although significant geographic variation exists among Swift Foxes, their classification into northern (hebes) and southern (velox) subspecies is probably unjustified. Monotypic.Distribution.Great Plains in S Canada(Alberta& Saskatchewan) and USA(Montana, and from N Wyomingand SW South Dakotato C New Mexico& NW Texas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-54- 5 cmfor males and 47- 5-54 cmfor females,tail 25-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 2 cmfor females; weight 2- 2-5 kgfor males and 1-6- 2-3 kgfor females. One of the smallest canids; characteristic black patches on each side of the muzzle. The winter pelage is dark grayish across the back and sides extending to yellow-tan across the lowersides, legs, and the ventral surface of the tail. Black tail tip. The ventral fur is white with some buff on the chest. In summer, the fur is shorter and more rufous. The Swift Fox can be easily confused with the closely related Kit Fox. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Predominately short-grass and mixed-grass prairies in gently rolling or level terrain. In Kansas, Swift Foxes have been found to den and forage in fallow wheat fields. Survival rates between foxes in grassland and cropland sites were not significant ly different, suggesting that Swift Foxes may be able to adapt to such habitat in some cases. The distribution and density of dens are considered important components of Swift Fox habitat requirements, particularly in terms of evading Coyote predation or Red Fox competition.Food and Feeding.Swift Foxes are opportunistic foragers, feeding on a variety of mammals, but also birds, insects, plants, and carrion. Leporids have been reported as a primary prey item in several studies. In South Dakota, mammals accounted for 49% of prey occurrences, with Black-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) as the primary prey item. In Kansasand Nebraska, murid rodents were the most frequently occurring prey. Insects also present, but likely to constitute only a small portion of biomass. Birds and their eggs are also consumed, as are plant materials, including prickly pear cactus fruit, wild plums, and sunflower seeds, which are consumed relatively frequently but most often in relatively small amounts. Swift Foxes are mostly solitary hunters. Caching of food has been observed.Activity patterns.Swift Foxes forage throughout the night, and show some crepuscular activity. They will hunt diurnal species such as birds and ground squirrels in the summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The typical social group consists of a mated pair with pups, although occasionally a trio or group of two malesand two or three femaleshave been reported, with one breeding female and non-breeding helpers. Home range size averages between 10- 4 km* and 32- 3 km”. They are territorial: an individual will nearly totally exclude same-sex individuals from its core activity area. Areas used by mated pairs have minimal overlap with areas used by adjacent pairs. Pups remain with the parents until dispersal; in a study only 33% ofjuveniles had left natal home ranges by 9-5 months of age while all recaptured individuals aged 18 months or older had dispersed. Vocal repertoire in captivity consists of courting/ territorial call, agonistic chatter, submissive whine, submissive chatter, precopulatory call, growls, excited yips and barks, and social yips.Breeding.Primarily monogamous, although additional female helpers are occasionally observed at den sites. Swift Foxes are monoestrous and the timing of breeding (December to March) is dependent upon latitude. The mean gestation period is 51 days and average litter sizes of 2-4-5-7 have been reported. In Colorado, litter sizes were greater for mated pairs with helpers than for those without. Pups open their eyes at 10-15 days, emerge from the natal den after approximately one month, and are weaned at 6-7 weeks of age. Both members of the pair provide for the young, and juveniles remain with the adults for 4-6 months. Swift Foxes are among the most burrowdependent canids and depend on dens throughout the year. They will excavate their own dens and modify the burrows of other species. Dens serve several functions, such as providing a refuge from predators, protection from extreme climate conditions in both summer and winter, and shelter for raising young.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Swift Fox has been down-listed from “extirpated” to “endangered” in Canadaas a result of reintroduction programs. Following their extirpation by 1938, reintroduction releases since 1983 have established a small Swift Fox population in Alberta, Saskatchewanand Montana, which now constitutes the northern extent of the species’ range. In the USA, the species was cited as “warranted, but precluded” from endangered status under the federal Endangered Species Act. Swift Foxes are primarily prairie specialists, and conversion of grassland to cropland threatens to reduce population sizes and further fragment populations. The conversion of native grassland prairies has been implicated as one of the most important factors in the contraction of the Swift Fox range. Landscape alteration likely influences local and seasonal prey availability, increases risk of predation on Swift Foxes, and leads to competition with other predators such as the Coyote and Red Fox. In Canada, expansion of the oil and gas industry and associated road development are impacting previously isolated prairie areas. Greater urbanization coupled with Coyote control may facilitate Red Fox expansion, which could lead to the competitive exclusion of Swift Foxes in established prairie areas. Landowners who are attempting to protect their livestock from Coyote depredation use poisons illegally and Swift Foxes readily consume such baits.Bibliography.Andersen et al. (2003), Asa & Valdespino (2003), Avery (1989), Cameron (1984), Carbyn et al. (1994), Covell (1992), Egoscue (1979), Harrison (2003), Herrero et al. (1991), Hillman & Sharps (1978), Hines & Case (1991), Jackson & Choate (2000), Kamler, Ballard, Fish et al. (2003), Kamler, Ballard, Gese et al. (2004), Kamler, Ballard, Gilliland et al. (2003), Kilgore (1969), Kitchen et al. (1999), Mercure et al. (1993), Moehrenschlager (2000), Moehrenschlager & Macdonald (2003), Moehrenschlager & Moehrenschlager (2001), Moehrenschlager & Sovada (2004), Olson et al. (1997), Pechacek et al. (2000), Pruss (1994), Rohwer & Kilgore (1973), Schauster et al. (2002a, 2002b), Sovada & Carbyn (2003), Sovada, Anthony & Batt (2001), Sovada, Roy, Bright & Gillis, (1998), Sovada, Roy & Telesco (2001), Sovada, Slivinski & Woodward (2003), Stromberg & Boyce (1986), Tannerfeldt et al. (2003), Uresk & Sharps (1986), Zimmerman (1998), Zimmerman et al. (2003), Zumbaugh et al. (1985).","taxonomy":"Canis velox Say, 1823,River Platte region, USA.Phenotypically and ecologically similar to V. macrotis; interbreeding occurs in western Texasand eastern New Mexico, and some suggest these foxes are conspecific. Both are closely related to Arctic Foxes, and some authorities place the latter under Vulpes. Although significant geographic variation exists among Swift Foxes, their classification into northern (hebes) and southern (velox) subspecies is probably unjustified. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard véloce @fr | Prarie-Flinkfuchs @de | Zorro veloz @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Say","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Vulpes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"437","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"velox","name":"Vulpes velox","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Great Plains in S Canada(Alberta& Saskatchewan) and USA(Montana, and from N Wyomingand SW South Dakotato C New Mexico& NW Texas).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331211/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Andersen et al. (2003) | Asa & Valdespino (2003) | Avery (1989) | Cameron (1984) | Carbyn et al. (1994) | Covell (1992) | Egoscue (1979) | Harrison (2003) | Herrero et al. (1991) | Hillman & Sharps (1978) | Hines & Case (1991) | Jackson & Choate (2000) | Kamler, Ballard, Fish et al. (2003) | Kamler, Ballard, Gese et al. (2004) | Kamler, Ballard, Gilliland et al. (2003) | Kilgore (1969) | Kitchen et al. (1999) | Mercure et al. (1993) | Moehrenschlager (2000) | Moehrenschlager & Macdonald (2003) | Moehrenschlager & Moehrenschlager (2001) | Moehrenschlager & Sovada (2004) | Olson et al. (1997) | Pechacek et al. (2000) | Pruss (1994) | Rohwer & Kilgore (1973) | Schauster et al. (2002a, 2002b) | Sovada & Carbyn (2003) | Sovada, Anthony & Batt (2001) | Sovada, Roy, Bright & Gillis, (1998) | Sovada, Roy & Telesco (2001) | Sovada, Slivinski & Woodward (2003) | Stromberg & Boyce (1986) | Tannerfeldt et al. (2003) | Uresk & Sharps (1986) | Zimmerman (1998) | Zimmerman et al. (2003) | Zumbaugh et al. (1985)","foodAndFeeding":"Swift Foxes are opportunistic foragers, feeding on a variety of mammals, but also birds, insects, plants, and carrion. Leporids have been reported as a primary prey item in several studies. In South Dakota, mammals accounted for 49% of prey occurrences, with Black-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) as the primary prey item. In Kansasand Nebraska, murid rodents were the most frequently occurring prey. Insects also present, but likely to constitute only a small portion of biomass. Birds and their eggs are also consumed, as are plant materials, including prickly pear cactus fruit, wild plums, and sunflower seeds, which are consumed relatively frequently but most often in relatively small amounts. Swift Foxes are mostly solitary hunters. Caching of food has been observed.","breeding":"Primarily monogamous, although additional female helpers are occasionally observed at den sites. Swift Foxes are monoestrous and the timing of breeding (December to March) is dependent upon latitude. The mean gestation period is 51 days and average litter sizes of 2-4-5-7 have been reported. In Colorado, litter sizes were greater for mated pairs with helpers than for those without. Pups open their eyes at 10-15 days, emerge from the natal den after approximately one month, and are weaned at 6-7 weeks of age. Both members of the pair provide for the young, and juveniles remain with the adults for 4-6 months. Swift Foxes are among the most burrowdependent canids and depend on dens throughout the year. They will excavate their own dens and modify the burrows of other species. Dens serve several functions, such as providing a refuge from predators, protection from extreme climate conditions in both summer and winter, and shelter for raising young.","activityPatterns":"Swift Foxes forage throughout the night, and show some crepuscular activity. They will hunt diurnal species such as birds and ground squirrels in the summer.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The typical social group consists of a mated pair with pups, although occasionally a trio or group of two malesand two or three femaleshave been reported, with one breeding female and non-breeding helpers. Home range size averages between 10- 4 km* and 32- 3 km”. They are territorial: an individual will nearly totally exclude same-sex individuals from its core activity area. Areas used by mated pairs have minimal overlap with areas used by adjacent pairs. Pups remain with the parents until dispersal; in a study only 33% ofjuveniles had left natal home ranges by 9-5 months of age while all recaptured individuals aged 18 months or older had dispersed. Vocal repertoire in captivity consists of courting/ territorial call, agonistic chatter, submissive whine, submissive chatter, precopulatory call, growls, excited yips and barks, and social yips.Breeding.Primarily monogamous, although additional female helpers are occasionally observed at den sites. Swift Foxes are monoestrous and the timing of breeding (December to March) is dependent upon latitude. The mean gestation period is 51 days and average litter sizes of 2-4-5-7 have been reported. In Colorado, litter sizes were greater for mated pairs with helpers than for those without. Pups open their eyes at 10-15 days, emerge from the natal den after approximately one month, and are weaned at 6-7 weeks of age. Both members of the pair provide for the young, and juveniles remain with the adults for 4-6 months. Swift Foxes are among the most burrowdependent canids and depend on dens throughout the year. They will excavate their own dens and modify the burrows of other species. Dens serve several functions, such as providing a refuge from predators, protection from extreme climate conditions in both summer and winter, and shelter for raising young.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Swift Fox has been down-listed from “extirpated” to “endangered” in Canadaas a result of reintroduction programs. Following their extirpation by 1938, reintroduction releases since 1983 have established a small Swift Fox population in Alberta, Saskatchewanand Montana, which now constitutes the northern extent of the species’ range. In the USA, the species was cited as “warranted, but precluded” from endangered status under the federal Endangered Species Act. Swift Foxes are primarily prairie specialists, and conversion of grassland to cropland threatens to reduce population sizes and further fragment populations. The conversion of native grassland prairies has been implicated as one of the most important factors in the contraction of the Swift Fox range. Landscape alteration likely influences local and seasonal prey availability, increases risk of predation on Swift Foxes, and leads to competition with other predators such as the Coyote and Red Fox. In Canada, expansion of the oil and gas industry and associated road development are impacting previously isolated prairie areas. Greater urbanization coupled with Coyote control may facilitate Red Fox expansion, which could lead to the competitive exclusion of Swift Foxes in established prairie areas. Landowners who are attempting to protect their livestock from Coyote depredation use poisons illegally and Swift Foxes readily consume such baits.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-54- 5 cmfor males and 47- 5-54 cmfor females,tail 25-34 cmfor males and 25-30- 2 cmfor females; weight 2- 2-5 kgfor males and 1-6- 2-3 kgfor females. One of the smallest canids; characteristic black patches on each side of the muzzle. The winter pelage is dark grayish across the back and sides extending to yellow-tan across the lowersides, legs, and the ventral surface of the tail. Black tail tip. The ventral fur is white with some buff on the chest. In summer, the fur is shorter and more rufous. The Swift Fox can be easily confused with the closely related Kit Fox. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Predominately short-grass and mixed-grass prairies in gently rolling or level terrain. In Kansas, Swift Foxes have been found to den and forage in fallow wheat fields. Survival rates between foxes in grassland and cropland sites were not significant ly different, suggesting that Swift Foxes may be able to adapt to such habitat in some cases. The distribution and density of dens are considered important components of Swift Fox habitat requirements, particularly in terms of evading Coyote predation or Red Fox competition."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2EFFD37BA2F972F749DFFB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF2EFFD37BA2F972F749DFFB","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"436","verbatimText":"24.Arctic FoxAlopex lagopusFrench:Renard arctique/ German:Polarfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro articoOther common names:Polar FoxTaxonomy.Canis lagopus Linnaeus, 1758,Lapland, Sweden.Sometimes placed as subgenus of Vulpesor Canis. The most closely related species are V. veloxand V. macrotis, neither of which occur in the tundra. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. l. lagopus Linnaeus, 1758— most of the circumpolar range, in all Arctic tundra habitats.A. l. beringensis Merriam, 1902— Russia(Commander Is).A. l. fuliginosus Bechstein, 1799— Iceland, Greenland, Svalbard.A.l. pribilofensis Merriam, 1902— Alaska(Pribilof Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-75 cm(males), 50-65 cm(females), tail 28-42- 5 cmfor males and 25- 5-32 cmfemales; weight 3-58- 4-23 kgfor males and 3-14- 3-69 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger than females. A small fox with rather short legs and a long fluffy tail. Thick and soft winter fur with dense underfur and long guard hairs. Occurs in two distinct color morphs, “blue” and “white”. Both morphs change seasonally: “blue” molts from chocolate brown in summer to paler brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, the “white” morph is almost pure white with a few dark hairs at the tip of the tail and along the spine; in summer,it is brown dorsally and pale gray to white on its underside. Color morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, “white” being recessive. The “blue” morph comprisesless than 1% of the population throughout most of its continental range, but comprises 25-30% in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland) and 65-70% in Iceland. The proportion of “blue” morphs also increases in coastal areas and on islands, where it can reach up to 100% (e.g. Mednyi Island, Russia; St. Paul Island, Alaska). Within each morph, there is considerable variation in appearance, which seems to be independent of the genetic locus for color morph. In Sweden, there occasionally are sand-colored foxes in summer, but they appear to be of the “white” morph without brown pigment, and in Iceland, cinnamon colored foxes of both the white and blue color morph occur. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Arctic and alpine tundra of Eurasia, North America, and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland, and Svalbard. Sub-Arctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands, and coastal Iceland.Food and Feeding.The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger. In most inland areasit is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. Main prey include Lemmings, both Lemmus spp. and Dicrostonyx spp. In Fennoscandia, L. lemmus was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in feces) followed by birds (Passeriformes,Galliformes,and Caridriiformes, 34%) and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus, 21%). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (Lagopusspp.) are common prey, in addition to rodents and Reindeer. Changes in Fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles. Foxes living near icefree coasts have access to inland prey and also sea birds, seal carcasses, fish, and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy. In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Icelandfeed on seabirds (Uria aalge, U. lomvia), seal carcasses, and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on Ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer. In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally. Arctic Foxes forage singly, presumably the most efficient foraging technique in view of the species’ main prey base of rodents and birds. When food is abundant, they cache food forlater use. Caches can contain single prey items or a variety of items, and sometimes include lemmings or goose eggs.Activity patterns.Arctic Foxes remain active year round. They are primarily nocturnal, but exhibit flexible activity patterns, often in accordance with main prey species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit of the Arctic Fox is the breeding pair. Both parents take an active part in rearing the pups. For the first three weeks after birth, the pups are mostly dependent on milk and the female rarely leaves the natal den. During this time, the male provides food for the female. As meat increasingly forms a larger proportion of the pups’ diet, the roles of the parents become more similar and the female takes an active part in hunting and provisioning the pups. Non-breeding foxes, usually yearlings from the previous litter, may help. Supernumerary females generally emigrate before the pups attain independence of the den at 8-10 weeks. However, on Mednyi Island, there are permanent Arctic Fox groups comprising up to six adults, and complex social systems have also been observed on otherislands. Temporary groups of non-breeding individuals are also sometimes formed. Arctic Foxes normally are strongly territorial when breeding, with natal dens generally used by only one family group. Breeding pairs remain together in the same territory and use the same natal den for up to five years. Territories may include more than a single breeding pair, and closely related breeding pairs may even share a den. Home ranges in inland areas vary with lemming abundance (15-36 km?), but generally are smaller in coastal habitats (e.g. 5-21 km? in Alaska). On Svalbard, home range sizes range from 10 km? to as large as 125 km®. Home ranges of group members generally overlap widely with each other, but very little with those of neighboring groups. Scent marking of territories with urine is common. Vocalizations and postures such as an erected tail to attract the attention of conspecifics are common during territory disputes. In Alaska, seasonal migrations are reported when individuals leave breeding grounds in autumn, travel to the coast, and return in late winter or early spring. Large-scale emigrations have been recorded in Canada, Fennoscandia, and Russia. These may result from drastic reductions in food supplies, such as a population crash in lemmings.Breeding.Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Fox, however, is regionally threatened in Sweden(“endangered”), Finland(“critical”) and mainland Norway(“endangered”). In 1983, following the introduction of mange caused by ear canker mites (Otodectes cynotis) transmitted by dogs, the Mednyi Island foxes were listed in the Russian Red Data Book. The world population of Arctic Foxes is on the order of several hundred thousand animals. In most areas, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland, and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia), and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations appear to be declining further. In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have received total legal protection in Swedensince 1928, in Norwaysince 1930, and in Finlandsince 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE) and is therefore given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining population currently has no legal protection. In Norway(Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of trapping laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves. Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox; however, the decline of the fur industry has reduced the threat of over-exploitation for most populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred Blue Foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution, as occurs on St. Paul Island. Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.Bibliography.Angerbjorn, Hersteinsson & Tannerfeldt (2004), Angerbjorn, Stroman & Becker (1997), Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt, Bjarvall et al. (1995), Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt & Erlinge (1999), Audet et al. (2002), Chesemore (1975), Dalerum et al. (2002), Eberhardt, Garrott & Hanson (1983), Eberhardt, Hanson et al. (1982), Eimhagen et al. (2000), Frafjord (1994), Frafjord & Kruchenkova (1995), Frafjord & Prestrud (1992), Garrott & Eberhardt (1982, 1987), Hersteinsson (1984), Hersteinsson & Macdonald (1982, 1992, 1996), Hersteinsson et al. (1989), Kaikusalo & Angerbjorn (1995), Macpherson (1969), Nasimovic & Isakov (1985), Ovsyanikov (1993), Prestrud (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢), Samelius & Lee (1998), Tannerfeldt & Angerbjorn (1998).","taxonomy":"Canis lagopus Linnaeus, 1758,Lapland, Sweden.Sometimes placed as subgenus of Vulpesor Canis. The most closely related species are V. veloxand V. macrotis, neither of which occur in the tundra. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Renard arctique @fr | Polarfuchs @de | Zorro artico @es | Polar Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Alopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"436","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lagopus","name":"Alopex lagopus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. l. lagopus Linnaeus, 1758— most of the circumpolar range, in all Arctic tundra habitats.A. l. beringensis Merriam, 1902— Russia(Commander Is).A. l. fuliginosus Bechstein, 1799— Iceland, Greenland, Svalbard.A.l. pribilofensis Merriam, 1902— Alaska(Pribilof Is).","bibliography":"Angerbjorn, Hersteinsson & Tannerfeldt (2004) | Angerbjorn, Stroman & Becker (1997) | Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt, Bjarvall et al. (1995) | Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt & Erlinge (1999) | Audet et al. (2002) | Chesemore (1975) | Dalerum et al. (2002) | Eberhardt, Garrott & Hanson (1983) | Eberhardt, Hanson et al. (1982) | Eimhagen et al. (2000) | Frafjord (1994) | Frafjord & Kruchenkova (1995) | Frafjord & Prestrud (1992) | Garrott & Eberhardt (1982, 1987) | Hersteinsson (1984) | Hersteinsson & Macdonald (1982, 1992, 1996) | Hersteinsson et al. (1989) | Kaikusalo & Angerbjorn (1995) | Macpherson (1969) | Nasimovic & Isakov (1985) | Ovsyanikov (1993) | Prestrud (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢) | Samelius & Lee (1998) | Tannerfeldt & Angerbjorn (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger. In most inland areasit is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. Main prey include Lemmings, both Lemmus spp. and Dicrostonyx spp. In Fennoscandia, L. lemmus was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in feces) followed by birds (Passeriformes,Galliformes,and Caridriiformes, 34%) and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus, 21%). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (Lagopusspp.) are common prey, in addition to rodents and Reindeer. Changes in Fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles. Foxes living near icefree coasts have access to inland prey and also sea birds, seal carcasses, fish, and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy. In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Icelandfeed on seabirds (Uria aalge, U. lomvia), seal carcasses, and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on Ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer. In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally. Arctic Foxes forage singly, presumably the most efficient foraging technique in view of the species’ main prey base of rodents and birds. When food is abundant, they cache food forlater use. Caches can contain single prey items or a variety of items, and sometimes include lemmings or goose eggs.","breeding":"Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.","activityPatterns":"Arctic Foxes remain active year round. They are primarily nocturnal, but exhibit flexible activity patterns, often in accordance with main prey species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit of the Arctic Fox is the breeding pair. Both parents take an active part in rearing the pups. For the first three weeks after birth, the pups are mostly dependent on milk and the female rarely leaves the natal den. During this time, the male provides food for the female. As meat increasingly forms a larger proportion of the pups’ diet, the roles of the parents become more similar and the female takes an active part in hunting and provisioning the pups. Non-breeding foxes, usually yearlings from the previous litter, may help. Supernumerary females generally emigrate before the pups attain independence of the den at 8-10 weeks. However, on Mednyi Island, there are permanent Arctic Fox groups comprising up to six adults, and complex social systems have also been observed on otherislands. Temporary groups of non-breeding individuals are also sometimes formed. Arctic Foxes normally are strongly territorial when breeding, with natal dens generally used by only one family group. Breeding pairs remain together in the same territory and use the same natal den for up to five years. Territories may include more than a single breeding pair, and closely related breeding pairs may even share a den. Home ranges in inland areas vary with lemming abundance (15-36 km?), but generally are smaller in coastal habitats (e.g. 5-21 km? in Alaska). On Svalbard, home range sizes range from 10 km? to as large as 125 km®. Home ranges of group members generally overlap widely with each other, but very little with those of neighboring groups. Scent marking of territories with urine is common. Vocalizations and postures such as an erected tail to attract the attention of conspecifics are common during territory disputes. In Alaska, seasonal migrations are reported when individuals leave breeding grounds in autumn, travel to the coast, and return in late winter or early spring. Large-scale emigrations have been recorded in Canada, Fennoscandia, and Russia. These may result from drastic reductions in food supplies, such as a population crash in lemmings.Breeding.Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Fox, however, is regionally threatened in Sweden(“endangered”), Finland(“critical”) and mainland Norway(“endangered”). In 1983, following the introduction of mange caused by ear canker mites (Otodectes cynotis) transmitted by dogs, the Mednyi Island foxes were listed in the Russian Red Data Book. The world population of Arctic Foxes is on the order of several hundred thousand animals. In most areas, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland, and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia), and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations appear to be declining further. In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have received total legal protection in Swedensince 1928, in Norwaysince 1930, and in Finlandsince 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE) and is therefore given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining population currently has no legal protection. In Norway(Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of trapping laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves. Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox; however, the decline of the fur industry has reduced the threat of over-exploitation for most populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred Blue Foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution, as occurs on St. Paul Island. Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-75 cm(males), 50-65 cm(females), tail 28-42- 5 cmfor males and 25- 5-32 cmfemales; weight 3-58- 4-23 kgfor males and 3-14- 3-69 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger than females. A small fox with rather short legs and a long fluffy tail. Thick and soft winter fur with dense underfur and long guard hairs. Occurs in two distinct color morphs, “blue” and “white”. Both morphs change seasonally: “blue” molts from chocolate brown in summer to paler brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, the “white” morph is almost pure white with a few dark hairs at the tip of the tail and along the spine; in summer,it is brown dorsally and pale gray to white on its underside. Color morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, “white” being recessive. The “blue” morph comprisesless than 1% of the population throughout most of its continental range, but comprises 25-30% in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland) and 65-70% in Iceland. The proportion of “blue” morphs also increases in coastal areas and on islands, where it can reach up to 100% (e.g. Mednyi Island, Russia; St. Paul Island, Alaska). Within each morph, there is considerable variation in appearance, which seems to be independent of the genetic locus for color morph. In Sweden, there occasionally are sand-colored foxes in summer, but they appear to be of the “white” morph without brown pigment, and in Iceland, cinnamon colored foxes of both the white and blue color morph occur. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Arctic and alpine tundra of Eurasia, North America, and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland, and Svalbard. Sub-Arctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands, and coastal Iceland."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2FFFD07B93F577F990D8DF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF2FFFD07B93F577F990D8DF","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"435","verbatimText":"23.Bat-eared FoxOtocyon megalotisFrench:Otocyon/ German:Loffelhund/ Spanish:Zorro orejudoTaxonomy.Canis megalotis Desmarest, 1822, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Included by some authors in a separate subfamily, the Otocyoninae, on account ofits atypical dentition. More recently this species was considered to have affinities with the vulpine line. Occurs in two distinct populations that are geographically separated by about 1000 km. The two populations were probably connected during the Pleistocene. Two subspecies are recognized.On following pages: 24. Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus); 25. Swift Fox (Vulpes velox); 26. Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis).Subspecies and Distribution.O. m. megalotis Desmarest, 1822— S Africa.O. m. virgatus G. S. Miller, 1909— E Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 46-2—-60- 7 cmfor males and 46-7-60- 7 cmfor females, tail 23-34 cmfor males and 27- 8-34 cmfor females; weight 3-4— 4-9 kgfor males and 3-2-5- 4 kgfor females. A small, slight animal with slender legs, a long bushy tail and conspicuouslylarge ears. Males are often slightly heavier than females. The back of the ears, front part of the snout, face mask, front and lower part of the back legs, and the mid-dorsal part of the tail are black. A whitish band extends from across the forehead up the first three quarters of the frontal rim of the ears. Some animals have a broad dark mid-dorsal band. Beige to honey-colored fur covers the lower jaw, the throat, chest, and underparts. The body and tail fur is thick and soft on the upper parts, with a black base and white tip, giving a grizzled or gray appearance. Bat-eared Foxes have 46-50 teeth, the largest number for any non-marsupial land mammal. They are unique amongst living eutherians (odontocetes excepted) in having four to five functional lower molars, and are the only modern canids with three to four upper molars.The milk dentition is typically canid, with unreduced carnassials. In adults, the carnassial shear is lost and molars become the most bunodont, verging on zalambdodont, of any canid. Supernumerary molars yield a dentition of 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3-4/4-5 = 46-50.Habitat.In southern Africa prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground, but foxes are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid or semi-arid shrub land and open arid savannah. The range of Bat-eared Foxes overlaps almost completely with that of termites of the Hodotermes and Microhodotermes genera that prevail in their diet. In East Africa Bat-eared Foxes are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries, but not on short-grass plains. Those areas occupied by Bateared Foxes usually contain more harvester termite (1. mossambicus) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates where beetles are likely to be found.Food and Feeding.Insects are the primary food sources in open grassland and woodland edge habitats. Harvester termites and beetles are typically the most commonly consumed prey items. Diet is supplemented by orthopterans, beetle larvae, and ants. In open shrub savannahs, arachnids and fruit (consumed seasonally) may be among the more common food items. Small mammals, birds, eggs, and reptiles are eaten sporadically in southern Africa, but rarely in eastern Africa. There 1s seasonal variation in the proportion of particular taxa consumed: in the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food during the rainy season, when termite activity is reduced. When both beetles and termites are scarce, Bat-eared Foxes will dig up beetle larvae from the ground. Harvester termites and dung beetles are more abundant in areas inhabited by clusters of Bat-eared Fox families, and local differences in H. mossambicus density are inversely related to territory size. Although Fox water requirements may be met by the high water content of their insect prey or by berries during the summer, water is nevertheless a critical resource during lactation. Groups forage as a unit. Foraging techniques depend on prey type, but food is often located by walking slowly, nose close to the ground and ears cocked forward. Prey is detected mostly by sound and often excavated by digging. Foraging and feeding rates are higher when feeding on termite patches than on more dispersed insects. When feeding on termite patches, group members feed closely together, but when feeding on beetles, beetle larvae or grasshoppers, they can forage up to 200 mapart.Activity patterns.Changes in daily and seasonal H. mossambicus availability directly affect Bat-eared Fox activity patterns. Activity is mostly nocturnal in eastern Africa. In southern Africa, nocturnal foraging during summer gradually changes to an almost exclusively diurnal pattern in winter, in accordance with the activity changes of H. mossambicus. Diurnal foraging peaks when insect activity is highest. Bat-eared Fox groups in the Serengeti frequently patrol known Hodotermes patches in their territory after leaving the den in the evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Africa Bat-eared Foxes live in monogamous pairs with their pups, while in eastern Africa they live in stable family groups consisting of a male and up to three closely related females with pups. Adult group size varies with the time of year, with a mean of 2-7 for southern Africa and 2-4 for eastern Africa; group size prior to pup dispersal is six. Additional females in extended family groups are usually philopatric daughters, sometimes from several generations, organized in an age-based hierarchy where all females breed. Young pups are taught to forage by the male, and social learning by pups also seemsto play a role. In the Serengeti, parents facilitate better access to H. mossambicus patches by regularly guiding the smaller and more vulnerable pups from the breeding den to “nocturnal feeding dens”. Nuclear family groups persist until cub dispersal. Home ranges vary from less than 1 km? to more than 3 km?. Home ranges overlap widely and may be clustered around harvester termite colonies. Territories are patrolled and urine-marked during part of the year. Group size determines the outcome of territorial conflicts. Territory inheritance is not uncommon in the Serengeti and neighboring groups can be closely related, with animals visiting each other from time to time. Foxes engage in frequent and extended allogrooming sessions, which increase markedly during courtship. Vigorous and extended social play is very common, including among adults after the young have dispersed. Communication is primarily visual, and often based on a variety of ear and tail positions. The unique “inverted U” position of the tail, for example,is indicative of variousstates of arousal including fear, play and alarm. Vocalizations are mostly soft and sparingly used, except when the Foxes are highly alarmed or excited during play.Breeding.Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. No current legal protection known. The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farmland. Primary threats are hunting for skins, persecution as erroneously perceived predators of young lambs, and road kills. Population numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability, breeding stage and disease. Rabies and canine distemper have been reported to cause drastic population declines in some areas.Bibliography.Berry (1978), Gittleman (1989), Guilday (1962), Kieser (1995), Koop & Velimirov (1982), Kuntzsch & Nel (1992), Lamprecht (1979), Le Clus (1971), Maas (1993a, 1993b), Maas & Macdonald (2004), Mackie (1988), Mackie & Nel (1989), Malcolm (1986), Nel (1978, 1990, 1993, 1999), Nel & Bester (1983), Nel & Maas (2004), Nel & Mackie (1990), Nel et al. (1984), Pauw (2000), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers (1971), Stuart (1981), Waser (1980).","taxonomy":"Canis megalotis Desmarest, 1822, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Included by some authors in a separate subfamily, the Otocyoninae, on account ofits atypical dentition. More recently this species was considered to have affinities with the vulpine line. Occurs in two distinct populations that are geographically separated by about 1000 km. The two populations were probably connected during the Pleistocene. Two subspecies are recognized.On following pages: 24. Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus); 25. Swift Fox (Vulpes velox); 26. Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis).","commonNames":"Otocyon @fr | Loffelhund @de | Zorro orejudo @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Otocyon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"435","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"megalotis","name":"Otocyon megalotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O. m. megalotis Desmarest, 1822— S Africa.O. m. virgatus G. S. Miller, 1909— E Africa.","bibliography":"Berry (1978) | Gittleman (1989) | Guilday (1962) | Kieser (1995) | Koop & Velimirov (1982) | Kuntzsch & Nel (1992) | Lamprecht (1979) | Le Clus (1971) | Maas (1993a, 1993b) | Maas & Macdonald (2004) | Mackie (1988) | Mackie & Nel (1989) | Malcolm (1986) | Nel (1978, 1990, 1993, 1999) | Nel & Bester (1983) | Nel & Maas (2004) | Nel & Mackie (1990) | Nel et al. (1984) | Pauw (2000) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers (1971) | Stuart (1981) | Waser (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"Insects are the primary food sources in open grassland and woodland edge habitats. Harvester termites and beetles are typically the most commonly consumed prey items. Diet is supplemented by orthopterans, beetle larvae, and ants. In open shrub savannahs, arachnids and fruit (consumed seasonally) may be among the more common food items. Small mammals, birds, eggs, and reptiles are eaten sporadically in southern Africa, but rarely in eastern Africa. There 1s seasonal variation in the proportion of particular taxa consumed: in the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food during the rainy season, when termite activity is reduced. When both beetles and termites are scarce, Bat-eared Foxes will dig up beetle larvae from the ground. Harvester termites and dung beetles are more abundant in areas inhabited by clusters of Bat-eared Fox families, and local differences in H. mossambicus density are inversely related to territory size. Although Fox water requirements may be met by the high water content of their insect prey or by berries during the summer, water is nevertheless a critical resource during lactation. Groups forage as a unit. Foraging techniques depend on prey type, but food is often located by walking slowly, nose close to the ground and ears cocked forward. Prey is detected mostly by sound and often excavated by digging. Foraging and feeding rates are higher when feeding on termite patches than on more dispersed insects. When feeding on termite patches, group members feed closely together, but when feeding on beetles, beetle larvae or grasshoppers, they can forage up to 200 mapart.","breeding":"Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.","activityPatterns":"Changes in daily and seasonal H. mossambicus availability directly affect Bat-eared Fox activity patterns. Activity is mostly nocturnal in eastern Africa. In southern Africa, nocturnal foraging during summer gradually changes to an almost exclusively diurnal pattern in winter, in accordance with the activity changes of H. mossambicus. Diurnal foraging peaks when insect activity is highest. Bat-eared Fox groups in the Serengeti frequently patrol known Hodotermes patches in their territory after leaving the den in the evening.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In southern Africa Bat-eared Foxes live in monogamous pairs with their pups, while in eastern Africa they live in stable family groups consisting of a male and up to three closely related females with pups. Adult group size varies with the time of year, with a mean of 2-7 for southern Africa and 2-4 for eastern Africa; group size prior to pup dispersal is six. Additional females in extended family groups are usually philopatric daughters, sometimes from several generations, organized in an age-based hierarchy where all females breed. Young pups are taught to forage by the male, and social learning by pups also seemsto play a role. In the Serengeti, parents facilitate better access to H. mossambicus patches by regularly guiding the smaller and more vulnerable pups from the breeding den to “nocturnal feeding dens”. Nuclear family groups persist until cub dispersal. Home ranges vary from less than 1 km? to more than 3 km?. Home ranges overlap widely and may be clustered around harvester termite colonies. Territories are patrolled and urine-marked during part of the year. Group size determines the outcome of territorial conflicts. Territory inheritance is not uncommon in the Serengeti and neighboring groups can be closely related, with animals visiting each other from time to time. Foxes engage in frequent and extended allogrooming sessions, which increase markedly during courtship. Vigorous and extended social play is very common, including among adults after the young have dispersed. Communication is primarily visual, and often based on a variety of ear and tail positions. The unique “inverted U” position of the tail, for example,is indicative of variousstates of arousal including fear, play and alarm. Vocalizations are mostly soft and sparingly used, except when the Foxes are highly alarmed or excited during play.Breeding.Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. No current legal protection known. The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farmland. Primary threats are hunting for skins, persecution as erroneously perceived predators of young lambs, and road kills. Population numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability, breeding stage and disease. Rabies and canine distemper have been reported to cause drastic population declines in some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 46-2—-60- 7 cmfor males and 46-7-60- 7 cmfor females, tail 23-34 cmfor males and 27- 8-34 cmfor females; weight 3-4— 4-9 kgfor males and 3-2-5- 4 kgfor females. A small, slight animal with slender legs, a long bushy tail and conspicuouslylarge ears. Males are often slightly heavier than females. The back of the ears, front part of the snout, face mask, front and lower part of the back legs, and the mid-dorsal part of the tail are black. A whitish band extends from across the forehead up the first three quarters of the frontal rim of the ears. Some animals have a broad dark mid-dorsal band. Beige to honey-colored fur covers the lower jaw, the throat, chest, and underparts. The body and tail fur is thick and soft on the upper parts, with a black base and white tip, giving a grizzled or gray appearance. Bat-eared Foxes have 46-50 teeth, the largest number for any non-marsupial land mammal. They are unique amongst living eutherians (odontocetes excepted) in having four to five functional lower molars, and are the only modern canids with three to four upper molars.The milk dentition is typically canid, with unreduced carnassials. In adults, the carnassial shear is lost and molars become the most bunodont, verging on zalambdodont, of any canid. Supernumerary molars yield a dentition of 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3-4/4-5 = 46-50.","habitat":"In southern Africa prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground, but foxes are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid or semi-arid shrub land and open arid savannah. The range of Bat-eared Foxes overlaps almost completely with that of termites of the Hodotermes and Microhodotermes genera that prevail in their diet. In East Africa Bat-eared Foxes are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries, but not on short-grass plains. Those areas occupied by Bateared Foxes usually contain more harvester termite (1. mossambicus) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates where beetles are likely to be found."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2FFFD17E8FFE39F964D4DF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF2FFFD17E8FFE39F964D4DF","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"435","verbatimText":"22.Raccoon DogNyctereutes procyonoidesFrench:Tanuki/ German:Marderhund/ Spanish:Perro mapacheOther common names:TanukiTaxonomy.Canis procyonoides Gray, 1834,Canton, China.The Raccoon Dog lineage probably diverged from other canids as early as 7-10 million years ago. Some features of the skull resemble those of South American canids, especially the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous), but genetic studies have revealed that they are not close relatives. Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N. p. procyonoides Gray, 1834— W & SW Chinaand N Indochina.N. p. albus Hornaday, 1904— Japan(Hokkaido).N. p. koreensis Mori, 1922— Korean Peninsula.N. p. orestes Thomas, 1923— C & S China.N. p. ussuriensis Matschie, 1907— NE China, E Mongolia, and SE Russia.N. p. viverrinus Temminck, 1839— Japan.Introduced (ussuriensis) to the Baltic states, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, W Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, and Ukraine, occasionally seen in Austria, Bosnia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Switzerland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 49-2-70- 5 cmfor males and 50- 5-69 cmfor females, tail 15-23 cmfor males and 15-20- 5 cmfor females; weight 2:9-12- 4 kgfor males and 3-12- 5 kgfor females. In autumn and winter, race ussuriensisis very fat and has thick fur, giving an expression of a round animal with short, thin legs. Black facial mask, small rounded ears, and pointed muzzle. Hair is long on cheeks. The body color varies from yellow to gray or reddish, with black hairs on the back and shoulders and also dorsally on the tail. Legs, feet, and chest are dark. Underhair is gray or reddish. The tail is rather short and covered with thick hair. In summer when the fur is thin and fat reserves small, the animal looks much slimmer than in autumn. Dental formula 1s13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; M, sometimes missing. Body size of race albusis smaller than that of ussuriensis. Race viverrinus is similar to albus but with somewhat shorter fur, shorter hindlegs, and generally darker color. Skull and teeth are smaller than those of ussuriensis. Mandible width and jaw height for the skull and the lower and upper molars clearly distinguish the two subspecies.Habitat.Typically found near water, and during autumn, habitat selection appears to be affected by reliance on fruits and berries. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to sub-alpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitats and is less likely to use Cryptomeria plantations throughout the year, although riparian areas are often used. In urban environments, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, they avoid dense forests in favor of open landscapes, especially damp meadows and agricultural land. In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favor moist forests and shores ofrivers and lakes, especially in early summer. In late summer and autumn they favor moist heaths with abundant berries. In the Finnish archipelago, however, they prefer barren pine forests, where they feed on crowberries (Empetrum nigrum).Food and Feeding.Raccoon Dogs are omnivores and seasonal food habits shift as food availability changes. In most areas small rodents form the bulk of their diet in all seasons. Frogs, lizards, invertebrates, insects (including adults and larvae of Orthoptera, Coleoptera,Hemiptera,Diptera,Lepidoptera,Odonata), and birds and their eggs are also consumed, especially in early summer. Plants are eaten frequently; berries and fruits serve as an important and favored food source in late summer and autumn, when Raccoon Dogs decrease their food intake before entering winter dormancy. Oats, sweet corn, watermelon, and other agriculture products often are found in Raccoon Dog stomachs. Carrion, fish, and crustaceans are consumed when available. As opportunistic generalists, Raccoon Dogs forage by searching close to the ground and may also climb trees for fruits. They mainly forage in pairs, usually wandering some distance from each other.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, leaving their dens 1-2 hours after sunset. When they have pups, females also forage during the daytime while the male is babysitting. In spring, Raccoon Dogs are also seen during daytime when sunbathing on south-facing slopes ofhills. In areas where winters are harsh they enter a form of hibernation (winter lethargy) in November and become active again in March. The Raccoon Dog is the only canid known to hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both males and females defend their home range against individuals of the same sex. Home range size varies according to the abundance of food. The core areas of different pairs are fully exclusive, especially during the breeding season. Peripheral areas of home ranges may overlap to some extent. In autumn there is more overlap than in spring and summer. Different pairs seem to avoid each other even when their home ranges partially overlap. Resting sites may be shared with related family members, and latrine sites may be shared by several individuals. Home range sizes in Russiavary from 0-4- 20 km? (larger ranges in introduced populations in western Russia). In southern Finland, home ranges recorded by radio-tracking ranged from 2-8 to 7 km®. In Japan, home range size varies from as little as 0-07 km? in an urban setting to 6- 1 km? in a sub-alpine area. Strictly monogamous, the male and female form a permanent pair, sharing a home range and foraging together. Only if one of the pair dies will the remaining member form a new pair bond. Some non-paired adults may stay within the same area and/or share the resting or feeding sites or dens, but usually do not move together. Raccoon Dogs do not bark, but growl when menaced. In Japantheir vocalizations are higher in tone than those of a domestic dog and more or less resemble the sounds of a domestic cat.Breeding.Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is hunted legally, hunting is permitted year round (e.g. Sweden, Hungaryand Poland). However, in Finlandfemales with pups are protected in May, June, and July, in Belarushunting is allowed from October to February, and in Mongoliahunting requires a license and is allowed only from October to February. In Japan, hunting and trapping of the species also requires a license or other form of permission and is restricted to a designated hunting season. Species abundance is unknown in the Far East outside ofJapan, where it is considered common. In its European range the species is common to abundant, although rare in Denmarkand Sweden. Threats across its range include road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper, and rabies), and pollution.Bibliography.Bannikov (1964), Fukue (1991, 1993), Helle & Kauhala (1995), Ikeda (1982, 1983), Kauhala (1992, 1996), Kauhala & Auniola (2000), Kauhala & Helle (1995), Kauhala & Saeki (2004), Kauhala, Helle & Pietila (1998), Kauhala, Helle & Taskinen (1993), Kauhala, Kaunisto & Helle (1993), Kauhala, Laukkanen & von Rége (1998), Korhonen (1988), Korhonen et al. (1991), Kowalczyk et al. (1999, 2000), Kozlov (1952), Nasimovic & Isakov (1985), Saeki (2001), Ward & Wurster-Hill (1990), Wayne (1993), Yachimori (1997), Yamamoto (1984), Yamsnamoto et al. (1994), Yoshioka et al. (1990).","taxonomy":"Canis procyonoides Gray, 1834,Canton, China.The Raccoon Dog lineage probably diverged from other canids as early as 7-10 million years ago. Some features of the skull resemble those of South American canids, especially the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous), but genetic studies have revealed that they are not close relatives. Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Tanuki @fr | Marderhund @de | Perro mapache @es | Tanuki @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Nyctereutes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"435","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"procyonoides","name":"Nyctereutes procyonoides","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N. p. procyonoides Gray, 1834— W & SW Chinaand N Indochina.N. p. albus Hornaday, 1904— Japan(Hokkaido).N. p. koreensis Mori, 1922— Korean Peninsula.N. p. orestes Thomas, 1923— C & S China.N. p. ussuriensis Matschie, 1907— NE China, E Mongolia, and SE Russia.N. p. viverrinus Temminck, 1839— Japan.Introduced (ussuriensis) to the Baltic states, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, W Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, and Ukraine, occasionally seen in Austria, Bosnia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Switzerland.","bibliography":"Bannikov (1964) | Fukue (1991, 1993) | Helle & Kauhala (1995) | Ikeda (1982, 1983) | Kauhala (1992, 1996) | Kauhala & Auniola (2000) | Kauhala & Helle (1995) | Kauhala & Saeki (2004) | Kauhala, Helle & Pietila (1998) | Kauhala, Helle & Taskinen (1993) | Kauhala, Kaunisto & Helle (1993) | Kauhala, Laukkanen & von Rége (1998) | Korhonen (1988) | Korhonen et al. (1991) | Kowalczyk et al. (1999, 2000) | Kozlov (1952) | Nasimovic & Isakov (1985) | Saeki (2001) | Ward & Wurster-Hill (1990) | Wayne (1993) | Yachimori (1997) | Yamamoto (1984) | Yamsnamoto et al. (1994) | Yoshioka et al. (1990)","foodAndFeeding":"Raccoon Dogs are omnivores and seasonal food habits shift as food availability changes. In most areas small rodents form the bulk of their diet in all seasons. Frogs, lizards, invertebrates, insects (including adults and larvae of Orthoptera, Coleoptera,Hemiptera,Diptera,Lepidoptera,Odonata), and birds and their eggs are also consumed, especially in early summer. Plants are eaten frequently; berries and fruits serve as an important and favored food source in late summer and autumn, when Raccoon Dogs decrease their food intake before entering winter dormancy. Oats, sweet corn, watermelon, and other agriculture products often are found in Raccoon Dog stomachs. Carrion, fish, and crustaceans are consumed when available. As opportunistic generalists, Raccoon Dogs forage by searching close to the ground and may also climb trees for fruits. They mainly forage in pairs, usually wandering some distance from each other.","breeding":"Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, leaving their dens 1-2 hours after sunset. When they have pups, females also forage during the daytime while the male is babysitting. In spring, Raccoon Dogs are also seen during daytime when sunbathing on south-facing slopes ofhills. In areas where winters are harsh they enter a form of hibernation (winter lethargy) in November and become active again in March. The Raccoon Dog is the only canid known to hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Both males and females defend their home range against individuals of the same sex. Home range size varies according to the abundance of food. The core areas of different pairs are fully exclusive, especially during the breeding season. Peripheral areas of home ranges may overlap to some extent. In autumn there is more overlap than in spring and summer. Different pairs seem to avoid each other even when their home ranges partially overlap. Resting sites may be shared with related family members, and latrine sites may be shared by several individuals. Home range sizes in Russiavary from 0-4- 20 km? (larger ranges in introduced populations in western Russia). In southern Finland, home ranges recorded by radio-tracking ranged from 2-8 to 7 km®. In Japan, home range size varies from as little as 0-07 km? in an urban setting to 6- 1 km? in a sub-alpine area. Strictly monogamous, the male and female form a permanent pair, sharing a home range and foraging together. Only if one of the pair dies will the remaining member form a new pair bond. Some non-paired adults may stay within the same area and/or share the resting or feeding sites or dens, but usually do not move together. Raccoon Dogs do not bark, but growl when menaced. In Japantheir vocalizations are higher in tone than those of a domestic dog and more or less resemble the sounds of a domestic cat.Breeding.Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is hunted legally, hunting is permitted year round (e.g. Sweden, Hungaryand Poland). However, in Finlandfemales with pups are protected in May, June, and July, in Belarushunting is allowed from October to February, and in Mongoliahunting requires a license and is allowed only from October to February. In Japan, hunting and trapping of the species also requires a license or other form of permission and is restricted to a designated hunting season. Species abundance is unknown in the Far East outside ofJapan, where it is considered common. In its European range the species is common to abundant, although rare in Denmarkand Sweden. Threats across its range include road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper, and rabies), and pollution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 49-2-70- 5 cmfor males and 50- 5-69 cmfor females, tail 15-23 cmfor males and 15-20- 5 cmfor females; weight 2:9-12- 4 kgfor males and 3-12- 5 kgfor females. In autumn and winter, race ussuriensisis very fat and has thick fur, giving an expression of a round animal with short, thin legs. Black facial mask, small rounded ears, and pointed muzzle. Hair is long on cheeks. The body color varies from yellow to gray or reddish, with black hairs on the back and shoulders and also dorsally on the tail. Legs, feet, and chest are dark. Underhair is gray or reddish. The tail is rather short and covered with thick hair. In summer when the fur is thin and fat reserves small, the animal looks much slimmer than in autumn. Dental formula 1s13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; M, sometimes missing. Body size of race albusis smaller than that of ussuriensis. Race viverrinus is similar to albus but with somewhat shorter fur, shorter hindlegs, and generally darker color. Skull and teeth are smaller than those of ussuriensis. Mandible width and jaw height for the skull and the lower and upper molars clearly distinguish the two subspecies.","habitat":"Typically found near water, and during autumn, habitat selection appears to be affected by reliance on fruits and berries. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to sub-alpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitats and is less likely to use Cryptomeria plantations throughout the year, although riparian areas are often used. In urban environments, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, they avoid dense forests in favor of open landscapes, especially damp meadows and agricultural land. In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favor moist forests and shores ofrivers and lakes, especially in early summer. In late summer and autumn they favor moist heaths with abundant berries. In the Finnish archipelago, however, they prefer barren pine forests, where they feed on crowberries (Empetrum nigrum)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2EFFD37BA2F972F749DFFB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF2EFFD37BA2F972F749DFFB","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"436","verbatimText":"24.Arctic FoxAlopex lagopusFrench:Renard arctique/ German:Polarfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro articoOther common names:Polar FoxTaxonomy.Canis lagopus Linnaeus, 1758,Lapland, Sweden.Sometimes placed as subgenus of Vulpesor Canis. The most closely related species are V. veloxand V. macrotis, neither of which occur in the tundra. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. l. lagopus Linnaeus, 1758— most of the circumpolar range, in all Arctic tundra habitats.A. l. beringensis Merriam, 1902— Russia(Commander Is).A. l. fuliginosus Bechstein, 1799— Iceland, Greenland, Svalbard.A.l. pribilofensis Merriam, 1902— Alaska(Pribilof Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-75 cm(males), 50-65 cm(females), tail 28-42- 5 cmfor males and 25- 5-32 cmfemales; weight 3-58- 4-23 kgfor males and 3-14- 3-69 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger than females. A small fox with rather short legs and a long fluffy tail. Thick and soft winter fur with dense underfur and long guard hairs. Occurs in two distinct color morphs, “blue” and “white”. Both morphs change seasonally: “blue” molts from chocolate brown in summer to paler brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, the “white” morph is almost pure white with a few dark hairs at the tip of the tail and along the spine; in summer,it is brown dorsally and pale gray to white on its underside. Color morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, “white” being recessive. The “blue” morph comprisesless than 1% of the population throughout most of its continental range, but comprises 25-30% in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland) and 65-70% in Iceland. The proportion of “blue” morphs also increases in coastal areas and on islands, where it can reach up to 100% (e.g. Mednyi Island, Russia; St. Paul Island, Alaska). Within each morph, there is considerable variation in appearance, which seems to be independent of the genetic locus for color morph. In Sweden, there occasionally are sand-colored foxes in summer, but they appear to be of the “white” morph without brown pigment, and in Iceland, cinnamon colored foxes of both the white and blue color morph occur. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Arctic and alpine tundra of Eurasia, North America, and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland, and Svalbard. Sub-Arctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands, and coastal Iceland.Food and Feeding.The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger. In most inland areasit is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. Main prey include Lemmings, both Lemmus spp. and Dicrostonyx spp. In Fennoscandia, L. lemmus was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in feces) followed by birds (Passeriformes,Galliformes,and Caridriiformes, 34%) and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus, 21%). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (Lagopusspp.) are common prey, in addition to rodents and Reindeer. Changes in Fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles. Foxes living near icefree coasts have access to inland prey and also sea birds, seal carcasses, fish, and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy. In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Icelandfeed on seabirds (Uria aalge, U. lomvia), seal carcasses, and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on Ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer. In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally. Arctic Foxes forage singly, presumably the most efficient foraging technique in view of the species’ main prey base of rodents and birds. When food is abundant, they cache food forlater use. Caches can contain single prey items or a variety of items, and sometimes include lemmings or goose eggs.Activity patterns.Arctic Foxes remain active year round. They are primarily nocturnal, but exhibit flexible activity patterns, often in accordance with main prey species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit of the Arctic Fox is the breeding pair. Both parents take an active part in rearing the pups. For the first three weeks after birth, the pups are mostly dependent on milk and the female rarely leaves the natal den. During this time, the male provides food for the female. As meat increasingly forms a larger proportion of the pups’ diet, the roles of the parents become more similar and the female takes an active part in hunting and provisioning the pups. Non-breeding foxes, usually yearlings from the previous litter, may help. Supernumerary females generally emigrate before the pups attain independence of the den at 8-10 weeks. However, on Mednyi Island, there are permanent Arctic Fox groups comprising up to six adults, and complex social systems have also been observed on otherislands. Temporary groups of non-breeding individuals are also sometimes formed. Arctic Foxes normally are strongly territorial when breeding, with natal dens generally used by only one family group. Breeding pairs remain together in the same territory and use the same natal den for up to five years. Territories may include more than a single breeding pair, and closely related breeding pairs may even share a den. Home ranges in inland areas vary with lemming abundance (15-36 km?), but generally are smaller in coastal habitats (e.g. 5-21 km? in Alaska). On Svalbard, home range sizes range from 10 km? to as large as 125 km®. Home ranges of group members generally overlap widely with each other, but very little with those of neighboring groups. Scent marking of territories with urine is common. Vocalizations and postures such as an erected tail to attract the attention of conspecifics are common during territory disputes. In Alaska, seasonal migrations are reported when individuals leave breeding grounds in autumn, travel to the coast, and return in late winter or early spring. Large-scale emigrations have been recorded in Canada, Fennoscandia, and Russia. These may result from drastic reductions in food supplies, such as a population crash in lemmings.Breeding.Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Fox, however, is regionally threatened in Sweden(“endangered”), Finland(“critical”) and mainland Norway(“endangered”). In 1983, following the introduction of mange caused by ear canker mites (Otodectes cynotis) transmitted by dogs, the Mednyi Island foxes were listed in the Russian Red Data Book. The world population of Arctic Foxes is on the order of several hundred thousand animals. In most areas, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland, and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia), and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations appear to be declining further. In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have received total legal protection in Swedensince 1928, in Norwaysince 1930, and in Finlandsince 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE) and is therefore given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining population currently has no legal protection. In Norway(Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of trapping laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves. Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox; however, the decline of the fur industry has reduced the threat of over-exploitation for most populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred Blue Foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution, as occurs on St. Paul Island. Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.Bibliography.Angerbjorn, Hersteinsson & Tannerfeldt (2004), Angerbjorn, Stroman & Becker (1997), Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt, Bjarvall et al. (1995), Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt & Erlinge (1999), Audet et al. (2002), Chesemore (1975), Dalerum et al. (2002), Eberhardt, Garrott & Hanson (1983), Eberhardt, Hanson et al. (1982), Eimhagen et al. (2000), Frafjord (1994), Frafjord & Kruchenkova (1995), Frafjord & Prestrud (1992), Garrott & Eberhardt (1982, 1987), Hersteinsson (1984), Hersteinsson & Macdonald (1982, 1992, 1996), Hersteinsson et al. (1989), Kaikusalo & Angerbjorn (1995), Macpherson (1969), Nasimovic & Isakov (1985), Ovsyanikov (1993), Prestrud (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢), Samelius & Lee (1998), Tannerfeldt & Angerbjorn (1998).","taxonomy":"Canis lagopus Linnaeus, 1758,Lapland, Sweden.Sometimes placed as subgenus of Vulpesor Canis. The most closely related species are V. veloxand V. macrotis, neither of which occur in the tundra. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Renard arctique @fr | Polarfuchs @de | Zorro artico @es | Polar Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Alopex","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"436","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lagopus","name":"Alopex lagopus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. l. lagopus Linnaeus, 1758— most of the circumpolar range, in all Arctic tundra habitats.A. l. beringensis Merriam, 1902— Russia(Commander Is).A. l. fuliginosus Bechstein, 1799— Iceland, Greenland, Svalbard.A.l. pribilofensis Merriam, 1902— Alaska(Pribilof Is).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331209/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Angerbjorn, Hersteinsson & Tannerfeldt (2004) | Angerbjorn, Stroman & Becker (1997) | Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt, Bjarvall et al. (1995) | Angerbjorn, Tannerfeldt & Erlinge (1999) | Audet et al. (2002) | Chesemore (1975) | Dalerum et al. (2002) | Eberhardt, Garrott & Hanson (1983) | Eberhardt, Hanson et al. (1982) | Eimhagen et al. (2000) | Frafjord (1994) | Frafjord & Kruchenkova (1995) | Frafjord & Prestrud (1992) | Garrott & Eberhardt (1982, 1987) | Hersteinsson (1984) | Hersteinsson & Macdonald (1982, 1992, 1996) | Hersteinsson et al. (1989) | Kaikusalo & Angerbjorn (1995) | Macpherson (1969) | Nasimovic & Isakov (1985) | Ovsyanikov (1993) | Prestrud (1992a, 1992b, 1992¢) | Samelius & Lee (1998) | Tannerfeldt & Angerbjorn (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger. In most inland areasit is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. Main prey include Lemmings, both Lemmus spp. and Dicrostonyx spp. In Fennoscandia, L. lemmus was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in feces) followed by birds (Passeriformes,Galliformes,and Caridriiformes, 34%) and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus, 21%). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (Lagopusspp.) are common prey, in addition to rodents and Reindeer. Changes in Fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles. Foxes living near icefree coasts have access to inland prey and also sea birds, seal carcasses, fish, and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy. In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Icelandfeed on seabirds (Uria aalge, U. lomvia), seal carcasses, and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on Ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer. In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally. Arctic Foxes forage singly, presumably the most efficient foraging technique in view of the species’ main prey base of rodents and birds. When food is abundant, they cache food forlater use. Caches can contain single prey items or a variety of items, and sometimes include lemmings or goose eggs.","breeding":"Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.","activityPatterns":"Arctic Foxes remain active year round. They are primarily nocturnal, but exhibit flexible activity patterns, often in accordance with main prey species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit of the Arctic Fox is the breeding pair. Both parents take an active part in rearing the pups. For the first three weeks after birth, the pups are mostly dependent on milk and the female rarely leaves the natal den. During this time, the male provides food for the female. As meat increasingly forms a larger proportion of the pups’ diet, the roles of the parents become more similar and the female takes an active part in hunting and provisioning the pups. Non-breeding foxes, usually yearlings from the previous litter, may help. Supernumerary females generally emigrate before the pups attain independence of the den at 8-10 weeks. However, on Mednyi Island, there are permanent Arctic Fox groups comprising up to six adults, and complex social systems have also been observed on otherislands. Temporary groups of non-breeding individuals are also sometimes formed. Arctic Foxes normally are strongly territorial when breeding, with natal dens generally used by only one family group. Breeding pairs remain together in the same territory and use the same natal den for up to five years. Territories may include more than a single breeding pair, and closely related breeding pairs may even share a den. Home ranges in inland areas vary with lemming abundance (15-36 km?), but generally are smaller in coastal habitats (e.g. 5-21 km? in Alaska). On Svalbard, home range sizes range from 10 km? to as large as 125 km®. Home ranges of group members generally overlap widely with each other, but very little with those of neighboring groups. Scent marking of territories with urine is common. Vocalizations and postures such as an erected tail to attract the attention of conspecifics are common during territory disputes. In Alaska, seasonal migrations are reported when individuals leave breeding grounds in autumn, travel to the coast, and return in late winter or early spring. Large-scale emigrations have been recorded in Canada, Fennoscandia, and Russia. These may result from drastic reductions in food supplies, such as a population crash in lemmings.Breeding.Mating occurs between February and May and births take place from April to July. Gestation lasts 51-54 days and pup weight at birth is 80-85 g, but may be lower in larger litters. Litter size varies with food availability, being larger in areas with rodents. Recorded mean litter sizes at weaning varied from 2-4 (St. Paul Island) to 7-1 (Russia). On WrangelIsland, Russia, in years with high lemming abundance, up to 19 pups per litter have been observed. The ability of Arctic Foxes to produce large litters is facilitated by their access to large and relatively safe dens. Den sites are large, with complex burrow systems, and the largest dens are preferred for breeding. These may have up to 150 entrances and are usually situated on elevated mounds, river banks or ridges. Good denning sites lie above the permafrost layer, accumulate comparatively little winter snow and are sun-exposed, often facing south. The average lifespan of dens in the Canadian tundra has been estimated at 330 years. Some are used repeatedly, year after year, others infrequently. Pup rearing is confined to the snow-free period from June to September, after which the young gradually become independent. Lactation generally lasts 8-10 weeks. Growth rate from weaning in early July to late August has been recorded at 30-34 g/day. Foxes reach sexual maturity at ten months.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Fox, however, is regionally threatened in Sweden(“endangered”), Finland(“critical”) and mainland Norway(“endangered”). In 1983, following the introduction of mange caused by ear canker mites (Otodectes cynotis) transmitted by dogs, the Mednyi Island foxes were listed in the Russian Red Data Book. The world population of Arctic Foxes is on the order of several hundred thousand animals. In most areas, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland, and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia), and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations appear to be declining further. In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have received total legal protection in Swedensince 1928, in Norwaysince 1930, and in Finlandsince 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE) and is therefore given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining population currently has no legal protection. In Norway(Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of trapping laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves. Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox; however, the decline of the fur industry has reduced the threat of over-exploitation for most populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred Blue Foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution, as occurs on St. Paul Island. Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-75 cm(males), 50-65 cm(females), tail 28-42- 5 cmfor males and 25- 5-32 cmfemales; weight 3-58- 4-23 kgfor males and 3-14- 3-69 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger than females. A small fox with rather short legs and a long fluffy tail. Thick and soft winter fur with dense underfur and long guard hairs. Occurs in two distinct color morphs, “blue” and “white”. Both morphs change seasonally: “blue” molts from chocolate brown in summer to paler brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, the “white” morph is almost pure white with a few dark hairs at the tip of the tail and along the spine; in summer,it is brown dorsally and pale gray to white on its underside. Color morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, “white” being recessive. The “blue” morph comprisesless than 1% of the population throughout most of its continental range, but comprises 25-30% in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland) and 65-70% in Iceland. The proportion of “blue” morphs also increases in coastal areas and on islands, where it can reach up to 100% (e.g. Mednyi Island, Russia; St. Paul Island, Alaska). Within each morph, there is considerable variation in appearance, which seems to be independent of the genetic locus for color morph. In Sweden, there occasionally are sand-colored foxes in summer, but they appear to be of the “white” morph without brown pigment, and in Iceland, cinnamon colored foxes of both the white and blue color morph occur. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Arctic and alpine tundra of Eurasia, North America, and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland, and Svalbard. Sub-Arctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands, and coastal Iceland."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2FFFD07B93F577F990D8DF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF2FFFD07B93F577F990D8DF","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"435","verbatimText":"23.Bat-eared FoxOtocyon megalotisFrench:Otocyon/ German:Loffelhund/ Spanish:Zorro orejudoTaxonomy.Canis megalotis Desmarest, 1822, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Included by some authors in a separate subfamily, the Otocyoninae, on account ofits atypical dentition. More recently this species was considered to have affinities with the vulpine line. Occurs in two distinct populations that are geographically separated by about 1000 km. The two populations were probably connected during the Pleistocene. Two subspecies are recognized.On following pages: 24. Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus); 25. Swift Fox (Vulpes velox); 26. Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis).Subspecies and Distribution.O. m. megalotis Desmarest, 1822— S Africa.O. m. virgatus G. S. Miller, 1909— E Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 46-2—-60- 7 cmfor males and 46-7-60- 7 cmfor females, tail 23-34 cmfor males and 27- 8-34 cmfor females; weight 3-4— 4-9 kgfor males and 3-2-5- 4 kgfor females. A small, slight animal with slender legs, a long bushy tail and conspicuouslylarge ears. Males are often slightly heavier than females. The back of the ears, front part of the snout, face mask, front and lower part of the back legs, and the mid-dorsal part of the tail are black. A whitish band extends from across the forehead up the first three quarters of the frontal rim of the ears. Some animals have a broad dark mid-dorsal band. Beige to honey-colored fur covers the lower jaw, the throat, chest, and underparts. The body and tail fur is thick and soft on the upper parts, with a black base and white tip, giving a grizzled or gray appearance. Bat-eared Foxes have 46-50 teeth, the largest number for any non-marsupial land mammal. They are unique amongst living eutherians (odontocetes excepted) in having four to five functional lower molars, and are the only modern canids with three to four upper molars.The milk dentition is typically canid, with unreduced carnassials. In adults, the carnassial shear is lost and molars become the most bunodont, verging on zalambdodont, of any canid. Supernumerary molars yield a dentition of 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3-4/4-5 = 46-50.Habitat.In southern Africa prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground, but foxes are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid or semi-arid shrub land and open arid savannah. The range of Bat-eared Foxes overlaps almost completely with that of termites of the Hodotermes and Microhodotermes genera that prevail in their diet. In East Africa Bat-eared Foxes are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries, but not on short-grass plains. Those areas occupied by Bateared Foxes usually contain more harvester termite (1. mossambicus) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates where beetles are likely to be found.Food and Feeding.Insects are the primary food sources in open grassland and woodland edge habitats. Harvester termites and beetles are typically the most commonly consumed prey items. Diet is supplemented by orthopterans, beetle larvae, and ants. In open shrub savannahs, arachnids and fruit (consumed seasonally) may be among the more common food items. Small mammals, birds, eggs, and reptiles are eaten sporadically in southern Africa, but rarely in eastern Africa. There 1s seasonal variation in the proportion of particular taxa consumed: in the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food during the rainy season, when termite activity is reduced. When both beetles and termites are scarce, Bat-eared Foxes will dig up beetle larvae from the ground. Harvester termites and dung beetles are more abundant in areas inhabited by clusters of Bat-eared Fox families, and local differences in H. mossambicus density are inversely related to territory size. Although Fox water requirements may be met by the high water content of their insect prey or by berries during the summer, water is nevertheless a critical resource during lactation. Groups forage as a unit. Foraging techniques depend on prey type, but food is often located by walking slowly, nose close to the ground and ears cocked forward. Prey is detected mostly by sound and often excavated by digging. Foraging and feeding rates are higher when feeding on termite patches than on more dispersed insects. When feeding on termite patches, group members feed closely together, but when feeding on beetles, beetle larvae or grasshoppers, they can forage up to 200 mapart.Activity patterns.Changes in daily and seasonal H. mossambicus availability directly affect Bat-eared Fox activity patterns. Activity is mostly nocturnal in eastern Africa. In southern Africa, nocturnal foraging during summer gradually changes to an almost exclusively diurnal pattern in winter, in accordance with the activity changes of H. mossambicus. Diurnal foraging peaks when insect activity is highest. Bat-eared Fox groups in the Serengeti frequently patrol known Hodotermes patches in their territory after leaving the den in the evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Africa Bat-eared Foxes live in monogamous pairs with their pups, while in eastern Africa they live in stable family groups consisting of a male and up to three closely related females with pups. Adult group size varies with the time of year, with a mean of 2-7 for southern Africa and 2-4 for eastern Africa; group size prior to pup dispersal is six. Additional females in extended family groups are usually philopatric daughters, sometimes from several generations, organized in an age-based hierarchy where all females breed. Young pups are taught to forage by the male, and social learning by pups also seemsto play a role. In the Serengeti, parents facilitate better access to H. mossambicus patches by regularly guiding the smaller and more vulnerable pups from the breeding den to “nocturnal feeding dens”. Nuclear family groups persist until cub dispersal. Home ranges vary from less than 1 km? to more than 3 km?. Home ranges overlap widely and may be clustered around harvester termite colonies. Territories are patrolled and urine-marked during part of the year. Group size determines the outcome of territorial conflicts. Territory inheritance is not uncommon in the Serengeti and neighboring groups can be closely related, with animals visiting each other from time to time. Foxes engage in frequent and extended allogrooming sessions, which increase markedly during courtship. Vigorous and extended social play is very common, including among adults after the young have dispersed. Communication is primarily visual, and often based on a variety of ear and tail positions. The unique “inverted U” position of the tail, for example,is indicative of variousstates of arousal including fear, play and alarm. Vocalizations are mostly soft and sparingly used, except when the Foxes are highly alarmed or excited during play.Breeding.Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. No current legal protection known. The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farmland. Primary threats are hunting for skins, persecution as erroneously perceived predators of young lambs, and road kills. Population numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability, breeding stage and disease. Rabies and canine distemper have been reported to cause drastic population declines in some areas.Bibliography.Berry (1978), Gittleman (1989), Guilday (1962), Kieser (1995), Koop & Velimirov (1982), Kuntzsch & Nel (1992), Lamprecht (1979), Le Clus (1971), Maas (1993a, 1993b), Maas & Macdonald (2004), Mackie (1988), Mackie & Nel (1989), Malcolm (1986), Nel (1978, 1990, 1993, 1999), Nel & Bester (1983), Nel & Maas (2004), Nel & Mackie (1990), Nel et al. (1984), Pauw (2000), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers (1971), Stuart (1981), Waser (1980).","taxonomy":"Canis megalotis Desmarest, 1822, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Included by some authors in a separate subfamily, the Otocyoninae, on account ofits atypical dentition. More recently this species was considered to have affinities with the vulpine line. Occurs in two distinct populations that are geographically separated by about 1000 km. The two populations were probably connected during the Pleistocene. Two subspecies are recognized.On following pages: 24. Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus); 25. Swift Fox (Vulpes velox); 26. Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis).","commonNames":"Otocyon @fr | Loffelhund @de | Zorro orejudo @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Otocyon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"435","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"megalotis","name":"Otocyon megalotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O. m. megalotis Desmarest, 1822— S Africa.O. m. virgatus G. S. Miller, 1909— E Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331207/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Berry (1978) | Gittleman (1989) | Guilday (1962) | Kieser (1995) | Koop & Velimirov (1982) | Kuntzsch & Nel (1992) | Lamprecht (1979) | Le Clus (1971) | Maas (1993a, 1993b) | Maas & Macdonald (2004) | Mackie (1988) | Mackie & Nel (1989) | Malcolm (1986) | Nel (1978, 1990, 1993, 1999) | Nel & Bester (1983) | Nel & Maas (2004) | Nel & Mackie (1990) | Nel et al. (1984) | Pauw (2000) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers (1971) | Stuart (1981) | Waser (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"Insects are the primary food sources in open grassland and woodland edge habitats. Harvester termites and beetles are typically the most commonly consumed prey items. Diet is supplemented by orthopterans, beetle larvae, and ants. In open shrub savannahs, arachnids and fruit (consumed seasonally) may be among the more common food items. Small mammals, birds, eggs, and reptiles are eaten sporadically in southern Africa, but rarely in eastern Africa. There 1s seasonal variation in the proportion of particular taxa consumed: in the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food during the rainy season, when termite activity is reduced. When both beetles and termites are scarce, Bat-eared Foxes will dig up beetle larvae from the ground. Harvester termites and dung beetles are more abundant in areas inhabited by clusters of Bat-eared Fox families, and local differences in H. mossambicus density are inversely related to territory size. Although Fox water requirements may be met by the high water content of their insect prey or by berries during the summer, water is nevertheless a critical resource during lactation. Groups forage as a unit. Foraging techniques depend on prey type, but food is often located by walking slowly, nose close to the ground and ears cocked forward. Prey is detected mostly by sound and often excavated by digging. Foraging and feeding rates are higher when feeding on termite patches than on more dispersed insects. When feeding on termite patches, group members feed closely together, but when feeding on beetles, beetle larvae or grasshoppers, they can forage up to 200 mapart.","breeding":"Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.","activityPatterns":"Changes in daily and seasonal H. mossambicus availability directly affect Bat-eared Fox activity patterns. Activity is mostly nocturnal in eastern Africa. In southern Africa, nocturnal foraging during summer gradually changes to an almost exclusively diurnal pattern in winter, in accordance with the activity changes of H. mossambicus. Diurnal foraging peaks when insect activity is highest. Bat-eared Fox groups in the Serengeti frequently patrol known Hodotermes patches in their territory after leaving the den in the evening.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In southern Africa Bat-eared Foxes live in monogamous pairs with their pups, while in eastern Africa they live in stable family groups consisting of a male and up to three closely related females with pups. Adult group size varies with the time of year, with a mean of 2-7 for southern Africa and 2-4 for eastern Africa; group size prior to pup dispersal is six. Additional females in extended family groups are usually philopatric daughters, sometimes from several generations, organized in an age-based hierarchy where all females breed. Young pups are taught to forage by the male, and social learning by pups also seemsto play a role. In the Serengeti, parents facilitate better access to H. mossambicus patches by regularly guiding the smaller and more vulnerable pups from the breeding den to “nocturnal feeding dens”. Nuclear family groups persist until cub dispersal. Home ranges vary from less than 1 km? to more than 3 km?. Home ranges overlap widely and may be clustered around harvester termite colonies. Territories are patrolled and urine-marked during part of the year. Group size determines the outcome of territorial conflicts. Territory inheritance is not uncommon in the Serengeti and neighboring groups can be closely related, with animals visiting each other from time to time. Foxes engage in frequent and extended allogrooming sessions, which increase markedly during courtship. Vigorous and extended social play is very common, including among adults after the young have dispersed. Communication is primarily visual, and often based on a variety of ear and tail positions. The unique “inverted U” position of the tail, for example,is indicative of variousstates of arousal including fear, play and alarm. Vocalizations are mostly soft and sparingly used, except when the Foxes are highly alarmed or excited during play.Breeding.Bat-eared Foxes become sexually mature at 8-9 months of age. Pair-bonding and mating occur from July to September, and involve up to ten copulations per day for several days. Copulatory ties last about four minutes, and are followed by post-copulatory play. Foxes have one litter per year. Births occur between October and December, following a gestation period of 60-75 days. Litter size ranges from 1-6, and neonates weigh 99-142 g. Dens are excavated or adapted from abandoned dens of other mammals, e.g. Spring hare, Aardvark, and even termite mounds and warthog (Phacochoerus spp.) holes. Dens can be located in clusters and may have several entrances, chambers, and tunnels. Small pups nurse inside the den and are sometimes moved between dens. They first emerge for brief periods when they are 8-12 days old. Dens are carefully maintained throughout the year and often used for generations. Parental care such as grooming, playing, and guarding against predators is mostly the responsibility of males. Female investment during lactation is high compared to other canids, and their insectivorous diet prevents mothers and/or pups from being provisioned directly. However, the high level of male parental care enables females to maximize their foraging time, compensating for the fact that their nutritional intake 1s limited to small, dispersed food items. Weaning (at 10-15 weeks) occurs after the first rains and the subsequent flush of insects. In Serengeti, the Bat-eared Fox commonly exhibits polygyny, communal breeding, and indiscriminate allosuckling. The number of pups raised averages 2-6, but in extended family units with more than one breeding female it averages 3-6. Sharing male partners enables additional breeding females to sustain the energetic costs associated with reproduction.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. No current legal protection known. The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farmland. Primary threats are hunting for skins, persecution as erroneously perceived predators of young lambs, and road kills. Population numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability, breeding stage and disease. Rabies and canine distemper have been reported to cause drastic population declines in some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 46-2—-60- 7 cmfor males and 46-7-60- 7 cmfor females, tail 23-34 cmfor males and 27- 8-34 cmfor females; weight 3-4— 4-9 kgfor males and 3-2-5- 4 kgfor females. A small, slight animal with slender legs, a long bushy tail and conspicuouslylarge ears. Males are often slightly heavier than females. The back of the ears, front part of the snout, face mask, front and lower part of the back legs, and the mid-dorsal part of the tail are black. A whitish band extends from across the forehead up the first three quarters of the frontal rim of the ears. Some animals have a broad dark mid-dorsal band. Beige to honey-colored fur covers the lower jaw, the throat, chest, and underparts. The body and tail fur is thick and soft on the upper parts, with a black base and white tip, giving a grizzled or gray appearance. Bat-eared Foxes have 46-50 teeth, the largest number for any non-marsupial land mammal. They are unique amongst living eutherians (odontocetes excepted) in having four to five functional lower molars, and are the only modern canids with three to four upper molars.The milk dentition is typically canid, with unreduced carnassials. In adults, the carnassial shear is lost and molars become the most bunodont, verging on zalambdodont, of any canid. Supernumerary molars yield a dentition of 13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3-4/4-5 = 46-50.","habitat":"In southern Africa prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground, but foxes are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid or semi-arid shrub land and open arid savannah. The range of Bat-eared Foxes overlaps almost completely with that of termites of the Hodotermes and Microhodotermes genera that prevail in their diet. In East Africa Bat-eared Foxes are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries, but not on short-grass plains. Those areas occupied by Bateared Foxes usually contain more harvester termite (1. mossambicus) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates where beetles are likely to be found."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF2FFFD17E8FFE39F964D4DF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF2FFFD17E8FFE39F964D4DF","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"435","verbatimText":"22.Raccoon DogNyctereutes procyonoidesFrench:Tanuki/ German:Marderhund/ Spanish:Perro mapacheOther common names:TanukiTaxonomy.Canis procyonoides Gray, 1834,Canton, China.The Raccoon Dog lineage probably diverged from other canids as early as 7-10 million years ago. Some features of the skull resemble those of South American canids, especially the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous), but genetic studies have revealed that they are not close relatives. Six subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N. p. procyonoides Gray, 1834— W & SW Chinaand N Indochina.N. p. albus Hornaday, 1904— Japan(Hokkaido).N. p. koreensis Mori, 1922— Korean Peninsula.N. p. orestes Thomas, 1923— C & S China.N. p. ussuriensis Matschie, 1907— NE China, E Mongolia, and SE Russia.N. p. viverrinus Temminck, 1839— Japan.Introduced (ussuriensis) to the Baltic states, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, W Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, and Ukraine, occasionally seen in Austria, Bosnia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Switzerland.Descriptive notes.Head-body 49-2-70- 5 cmfor males and 50- 5-69 cmfor females, tail 15-23 cmfor males and 15-20- 5 cmfor females; weight 2:9-12- 4 kgfor males and 3-12- 5 kgfor females. In autumn and winter, race ussuriensisis very fat and has thick fur, giving an expression of a round animal with short, thin legs. Black facial mask, small rounded ears, and pointed muzzle. Hair is long on cheeks. The body color varies from yellow to gray or reddish, with black hairs on the back and shoulders and also dorsally on the tail. Legs, feet, and chest are dark. Underhair is gray or reddish. The tail is rather short and covered with thick hair. In summer when the fur is thin and fat reserves small, the animal looks much slimmer than in autumn. Dental formula 1s13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; M, sometimes missing. Body size of race albusis smaller than that of ussuriensis. Race viverrinus is similar to albus but with somewhat shorter fur, shorter hindlegs, and generally darker color. Skull and teeth are smaller than those of ussuriensis. Mandible width and jaw height for the skull and the lower and upper molars clearly distinguish the two subspecies.Habitat.Typically found near water, and during autumn, habitat selection appears to be affected by reliance on fruits and berries. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to sub-alpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitats and is less likely to use Cryptomeria plantations throughout the year, although riparian areas are often used. In urban environments, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, they avoid dense forests in favor of open landscapes, especially damp meadows and agricultural land. In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favor moist forests and shores ofrivers and lakes, especially in early summer. In late summer and autumn they favor moist heaths with abundant berries. In the Finnish archipelago, however, they prefer barren pine forests, where they feed on crowberries (Empetrum nigrum).Food and Feeding.Raccoon Dogs are omnivores and seasonal food habits shift as food availability changes. In most areas small rodents form the bulk of their diet in all seasons. Frogs, lizards, invertebrates, insects (including adults and larvae of Orthoptera, Coleoptera,Hemiptera,Diptera,Lepidoptera,Odonata), and birds and their eggs are also consumed, especially in early summer. Plants are eaten frequently; berries and fruits serve as an important and favored food source in late summer and autumn, when Raccoon Dogs decrease their food intake before entering winter dormancy. Oats, sweet corn, watermelon, and other agriculture products often are found in Raccoon Dog stomachs. Carrion, fish, and crustaceans are consumed when available. As opportunistic generalists, Raccoon Dogs forage by searching close to the ground and may also climb trees for fruits. They mainly forage in pairs, usually wandering some distance from each other.Activity patterns.Mainly nocturnal, leaving their dens 1-2 hours after sunset. When they have pups, females also forage during the daytime while the male is babysitting. In spring, Raccoon Dogs are also seen during daytime when sunbathing on south-facing slopes ofhills. In areas where winters are harsh they enter a form of hibernation (winter lethargy) in November and become active again in March. The Raccoon Dog is the only canid known to hibernate.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both males and females defend their home range against individuals of the same sex. Home range size varies according to the abundance of food. The core areas of different pairs are fully exclusive, especially during the breeding season. Peripheral areas of home ranges may overlap to some extent. In autumn there is more overlap than in spring and summer. Different pairs seem to avoid each other even when their home ranges partially overlap. Resting sites may be shared with related family members, and latrine sites may be shared by several individuals. Home range sizes in Russiavary from 0-4- 20 km? (larger ranges in introduced populations in western Russia). In southern Finland, home ranges recorded by radio-tracking ranged from 2-8 to 7 km®. In Japan, home range size varies from as little as 0-07 km? in an urban setting to 6- 1 km? in a sub-alpine area. Strictly monogamous, the male and female form a permanent pair, sharing a home range and foraging together. Only if one of the pair dies will the remaining member form a new pair bond. Some non-paired adults may stay within the same area and/or share the resting or feeding sites or dens, but usually do not move together. Raccoon Dogs do not bark, but growl when menaced. In Japantheir vocalizations are higher in tone than those of a domestic dog and more or less resemble the sounds of a domestic cat.Breeding.Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is hunted legally, hunting is permitted year round (e.g. Sweden, Hungaryand Poland). However, in Finlandfemales with pups are protected in May, June, and July, in Belarushunting is allowed from October to February, and in Mongoliahunting requires a license and is allowed only from October to February. In Japan, hunting and trapping of the species also requires a license or other form of permission and is restricted to a designated hunting season. Species abundance is unknown in the Far East outside ofJapan, where it is considered common. In its European range the species is common to abundant, although rare in Denmarkand Sweden. Threats across its range include road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper, and rabies), and pollution.Bibliography.Bannikov (1964), Fukue (1991, 1993), Helle & Kauhala (1995), Ikeda (1982, 1983), Kauhala (1992, 1996), Kauhala & Auniola (2000), Kauhala & Helle (1995), Kauhala & Saeki (2004), Kauhala, Helle & Pietila (1998), Kauhala, Helle & Taskinen (1993), Kauhala, Kaunisto & Helle (1993), Kauhala, Laukkanen & von Rége (1998), Korhonen (1988), Korhonen et al. (1991), Kowalczyk et al. (1999, 2000), Kozlov (1952), Nasimovic & Isakov (1985), Saeki (2001), Ward & Wurster-Hill (1990), Wayne (1993), Yachimori (1997), Yamamoto (1984), Yamsnamoto et al. (1994), Yoshioka et al. (1990).","taxonomy":"Canis procyonoides Gray, 1834,Canton, China.The Raccoon Dog lineage probably diverged from other canids as early as 7-10 million years ago. Some features of the skull resemble those of South American canids, especially the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous), but genetic studies have revealed that they are not close relatives. Six subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Tanuki @fr | Marderhund @de | Perro mapache @es | Tanuki @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Nyctereutes","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"435","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"procyonoides","name":"Nyctereutes procyonoides","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N. p. procyonoides Gray, 1834— W & SW Chinaand N Indochina.N. p. albus Hornaday, 1904— Japan(Hokkaido).N. p. koreensis Mori, 1922— Korean Peninsula.N. p. orestes Thomas, 1923— C & S China.N. p. ussuriensis Matschie, 1907— NE China, E Mongolia, and SE Russia.N. p. viverrinus Temminck, 1839— Japan.Introduced (ussuriensis) to the Baltic states, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, W Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, and Ukraine, occasionally seen in Austria, Bosnia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Switzerland.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331205/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bannikov (1964) | Fukue (1991, 1993) | Helle & Kauhala (1995) | Ikeda (1982, 1983) | Kauhala (1992, 1996) | Kauhala & Auniola (2000) | Kauhala & Helle (1995) | Kauhala & Saeki (2004) | Kauhala, Helle & Pietila (1998) | Kauhala, Helle & Taskinen (1993) | Kauhala, Kaunisto & Helle (1993) | Kauhala, Laukkanen & von Rége (1998) | Korhonen (1988) | Korhonen et al. (1991) | Kowalczyk et al. (1999, 2000) | Kozlov (1952) | Nasimovic & Isakov (1985) | Saeki (2001) | Ward & Wurster-Hill (1990) | Wayne (1993) | Yachimori (1997) | Yamamoto (1984) | Yamsnamoto et al. (1994) | Yoshioka et al. (1990)","foodAndFeeding":"Raccoon Dogs are omnivores and seasonal food habits shift as food availability changes. In most areas small rodents form the bulk of their diet in all seasons. Frogs, lizards, invertebrates, insects (including adults and larvae of Orthoptera, Coleoptera,Hemiptera,Diptera,Lepidoptera,Odonata), and birds and their eggs are also consumed, especially in early summer. Plants are eaten frequently; berries and fruits serve as an important and favored food source in late summer and autumn, when Raccoon Dogs decrease their food intake before entering winter dormancy. Oats, sweet corn, watermelon, and other agriculture products often are found in Raccoon Dog stomachs. Carrion, fish, and crustaceans are consumed when available. As opportunistic generalists, Raccoon Dogs forage by searching close to the ground and may also climb trees for fruits. They mainly forage in pairs, usually wandering some distance from each other.","breeding":"Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.","activityPatterns":"Mainly nocturnal, leaving their dens 1-2 hours after sunset. When they have pups, females also forage during the daytime while the male is babysitting. In spring, Raccoon Dogs are also seen during daytime when sunbathing on south-facing slopes ofhills. In areas where winters are harsh they enter a form of hibernation (winter lethargy) in November and become active again in March. The Raccoon Dog is the only canid known to hibernate.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Both males and females defend their home range against individuals of the same sex. Home range size varies according to the abundance of food. The core areas of different pairs are fully exclusive, especially during the breeding season. Peripheral areas of home ranges may overlap to some extent. In autumn there is more overlap than in spring and summer. Different pairs seem to avoid each other even when their home ranges partially overlap. Resting sites may be shared with related family members, and latrine sites may be shared by several individuals. Home range sizes in Russiavary from 0-4- 20 km? (larger ranges in introduced populations in western Russia). In southern Finland, home ranges recorded by radio-tracking ranged from 2-8 to 7 km®. In Japan, home range size varies from as little as 0-07 km? in an urban setting to 6- 1 km? in a sub-alpine area. Strictly monogamous, the male and female form a permanent pair, sharing a home range and foraging together. Only if one of the pair dies will the remaining member form a new pair bond. Some non-paired adults may stay within the same area and/or share the resting or feeding sites or dens, but usually do not move together. Raccoon Dogs do not bark, but growl when menaced. In Japantheir vocalizations are higher in tone than those of a domestic dog and more or less resemble the sounds of a domestic cat.Breeding.Testosterone levels in males peak in February/March, and progesterone levels in females coincide even with absence of males, suggesting that the species is monoestrous, with seasonal and spontaneous ovulation. Raccoon Dogs reach sexual maturity at 9-11 months and can breed in the first year, but a first-year female will enter estrus more than one month later than older females. Females can reproduce every year. Mating usually occurs in March, and the onset of spring and the length of winter lethargy determine the time of ovulation. Mating occurs in the back-to-back copulatory posture typical of other canids. Gestation period is nine weeks, parturition mostly occurring in May (varies from April to June). The parents settle in a den about a week before the pups are born. Raccoon Dogs will den in old European Badger (Meles meles) setts or fox dens, or alternatively dig their own dens in soft sandy soil. They will also use active Badgersetts, usually together with Badgers. Winter dens usually are located within their home range, but if suitable dens are not available, they may be several kilometers outside the summer home range. Mean litter size varies between four and five in Japan(birth weight approximately 100 g) to nine in Finlandand Poland(birth weight about 120 g), and also in the original distribution area in south-eastern Russia. Litter size in north-western Russiais smaller (6-7) on average because of the harsh winters. Litter size is affected by the abundance of wild berries: when berries are abundant, females are in good condition the following spring, and fetal mortality is low and litter sizes are large. At higher latitudes, the young are born later and remain small and slim in late autumn, and may not reproduce the following spring. Therefore, the productivity of the population is lower in areas with long winters compared to areas with milder climates. Pups start emerging from the den at three to four weeks of age and are weaned at about one week later. Both sexes exhibit parental care, taking turns attending the den during the early nursing period. Because the food items of Raccoon Dogs are small, food is not carried to the den. The pups are fed with milk until they start to forage for themselves. The young usually reach adult body size by the first autumn.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is hunted legally, hunting is permitted year round (e.g. Sweden, Hungaryand Poland). However, in Finlandfemales with pups are protected in May, June, and July, in Belarushunting is allowed from October to February, and in Mongoliahunting requires a license and is allowed only from October to February. In Japan, hunting and trapping of the species also requires a license or other form of permission and is restricted to a designated hunting season. Species abundance is unknown in the Far East outside ofJapan, where it is considered common. In its European range the species is common to abundant, although rare in Denmarkand Sweden. Threats across its range include road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper, and rabies), and pollution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 49-2-70- 5 cmfor males and 50- 5-69 cmfor females, tail 15-23 cmfor males and 15-20- 5 cmfor females; weight 2:9-12- 4 kgfor males and 3-12- 5 kgfor females. In autumn and winter, race ussuriensisis very fat and has thick fur, giving an expression of a round animal with short, thin legs. Black facial mask, small rounded ears, and pointed muzzle. Hair is long on cheeks. The body color varies from yellow to gray or reddish, with black hairs on the back and shoulders and also dorsally on the tail. Legs, feet, and chest are dark. Underhair is gray or reddish. The tail is rather short and covered with thick hair. In summer when the fur is thin and fat reserves small, the animal looks much slimmer than in autumn. Dental formula 1s13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; M, sometimes missing. Body size of race albusis smaller than that of ussuriensis. Race viverrinus is similar to albus but with somewhat shorter fur, shorter hindlegs, and generally darker color. Skull and teeth are smaller than those of ussuriensis. Mandible width and jaw height for the skull and the lower and upper molars clearly distinguish the two subspecies.","habitat":"Typically found near water, and during autumn, habitat selection appears to be affected by reliance on fruits and berries. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to sub-alpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitats and is less likely to use Cryptomeria plantations throughout the year, although riparian areas are often used. In urban environments, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, they avoid dense forests in favor of open landscapes, especially damp meadows and agricultural land. In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favor moist forests and shores ofrivers and lakes, especially in early summer. In late summer and autumn they favor moist heaths with abundant berries. In the Finnish archipelago, however, they prefer barren pine forests, where they feed on crowberries (Empetrum nigrum)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF30FFC17BA7F8A4FC70D631.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF30FFC17BA7F8A4FC70D631","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"418","verbatimText":"6.Side-striped JackalCanis adustusFrench:Chacal rayé/ German:Streifenschakal/ Spanish:Chacal rayadoTaxonomy.Canis adustus Sundevall, 1847, South Africa.Concensus is lacking regarding number of subspecies, variously given as between three and seven. Many authorities have pointed out that, as with the Black-backed Jackal, subspecies are hard to distinguish, and the differences may be a consequence of individual variation.Distribution.W, C and S Africa; replaced in the arid SW and NW of the continent by the Black-backed Jackal and in N Africa by the Golden Jackal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-5-77-5 cmfor males and 69-76 cmfor females, tail 30- 5-39 cmfor males and 31-41 cmfor females; weight 7- 3-12 kgfor males and 7-3-10 kgfor females. Medium-sized canid, overall gray to buff-gray in color, with a white side stripe blazed on the flanks, and a diagnostic white tip to the tail. Head is gray-bufty, ears dark buffy. The back is gray, darker than the underside, and the flanks are marked by the indistinct white stripes running from elbow to hip, with black lower margins. The boldness of markings, in particular the side stripes, varies greatly among individuals; those ofjuveniles are less well defined than those of adults. The legs are often rufous-tinged, and the predominantly black tail nearly always bears the distinctive white tip, possibly a “badge” of the species’ nocturnal status. The female has two pairs of inguinalteats. Skull flatter than that of Black-backed Jackal, with a longer and narrower rostrum, a distinct sagittal crest, and zygomatic arches of lighter build. As a result of the elongation of the rostrum, the third upper premolar lies almost in line with the others and not at an angle as in the Black-backed Jackal. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M2/3=42.Habitat.Occupies a range of habitats, including broad-leaved savannah zones, wooded habitats, bush, grassland, marshes, montane habitats up to 2700 m, abandoned cultivation and farms. Tends to avoid open savannah, thickly wooded areas, and arid zones, but does enter the equatorial forest belt in the wake of human settlement. Side-striped Jackals frequently occur near rural dwellings and farm buildings, and penetrate suburban and urban areas. Where Side-striped Jackals occur sympatrically with Golden and Black-backed Jackals, they may avoid competition by ecological segregation. In such areas of sympatry, Side-striped Jackals usually occupy areas of denser vegetation, and Black-backed and Golden Jackals dominate in the more open areas.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, with a diet that is responsive to both seasonal and local variation in food availability. On commercial farmland in the Zimbabwehighveld, they eat mainly wild fruit (30%) and small (less than 1 kg) to medium-sized (more than 1 kg) mammals (27% and 23%, respectively). The remainder of their diet comprises birds, invertebrates, cattle cake, grass, and carrion. In wildlife areas of western Zimbabwe, Side-stripedJackals feed largely on invertebrates during the wet season and small mammals up to the size of Spring hares (Pedetes capensis) during the dry months of the year. They scavenge extensively from safari camp rubbish dumps and occasionally from large carnivore kills (although they are often out-competed for this resource by Black-backed Jackals). In the Ngorongoro Crater, Side-striped Jackals have been recorded competing with Black-backed Jackals for Grant's Gazelle (Nanger granti) fawns. Their diet may consist exclusively of certain fruits when in season. Apparently less predatory than other jackals, although according to one authority this may not hold when prey is highly available. The species forages solitarily, although in western Zimbabwefamily groups have been observed feeding together on abundant resources, and as many as twelve have been counted at kills or scavenging offal outside towns. Jackals have been described foraging opportunistically, exploiting food-rich habitats by random walks, and they display an amazing ability to find food where none seems obvious to the human observer.Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal, but can employ extremely flexible foraging strategies in areas where they are persecuted. May also adapt activity pattern to reduce competition when in sympatry with Black-backed Jackals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Side-striped Jackals occur solitarily, in pairs and in family groups of up to seven individuals. The basis of the family unit is the mated pair, which has been known to be stable over several years. In game areas of western Zimbabwe, home ranges varied seasonally from 0-2 km? (hot dry season) to 1-2 km?* (cold dry season), whereas in highveld farmland, home ranges were seasonally stable and in excess of 4 km? (a third of the yearly total range). Sub-adults disperse from the natal territory, up to 12 kmin Zimbabwe's highveld farmland and 20 kmin game areas. In highveld farmland, territories are configured to encompass patches of grassland where resources are most available, and the structure of the habitat mosaic appears an important factor. Home ranges overlap by about 20% in highveld farmland and 33% in game areas. The residents use the core territory almost exclusively. Vocal repertoire is broad, including an explosive bark, growls, yaps, cackles, whines, screams, a croaking distress call, and a hooting howl. Calling occurs all year round, but is especially common between pair members during the mating period. Jackals from neighboring territories sometimes answer each other. Captive pups have been heard calling at eight weeks, but may start earlier.Breeding.In Zimbabwe, mating occurs mostly during June and July, and the gestation period is about 60 days. Litters of 4-6 pups are born from August to November, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. Pup mortality is thought to be high. Abandoned Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes or excavated termitaria are common den sites, with the den chamber occurring 0-75— 1 mbelow the surface and 2-3 mfrom the entrance. The same pair may use such dens in consecutive years. After the pups are weaned, both parents assist in rearing them, returning at two- to three-hour intervals through the night to feed the pups on food that is probably regurgitated. The pups are aggressive towards each other, as evidenced by the degree of wounding observed. Yearold offspring remain in the parental territory while additional offspring are raised. It appears likely that alloparental care as observed in other jackals also occurs in this species, which may be more social than previously thought.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of population abundance are not available, but from work undertaken in two diverse habitats in Zimbabwe, it seems reasonable to assume the species is common and to estimate a total population in excess of three million. The species appears well capable of exploiting urban and suburban habitats, a factor which may help to ensure its persistence. It is likely that the population is at least stable. Side-striped Jackals are persecuted because of their role in rabies transmission and their putative role as stock killers. In areas of high human population density, snaring may be the commonest cause of death in adult jackals. It is unlikely that this persecution has an effect on the overall population, but indiscriminate culling through poisoning could affect local abundance. The species’ dietary flexibility and ability to co-exist with humans on the periphery of settlements and towns suggests that populations are only vulnerable in cases of extreme habitat modification or intense disease epidemics.Bibliography.Atkinson (1997a, 1997b), Atkinson & Loveridge (2004), Atkinson, Macdonald & Kamizola (2002), Atkinson, Rhodes et al. (2002), Estes (1991), Fuller et al. (1989), Kingdon (1997), Loveridge (1999), Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002, 2003), Moehlman (1979, 1989), Rowe-Rowe (1992b), Skinner & Smithers (1990), Smithers (1971, 1983), Smithers & Wilson (1979), Stuart & Stuart (1988).","taxonomy":"Canis adustus Sundevall, 1847, South Africa.Concensus is lacking regarding number of subspecies, variously given as between three and seven. Many authorities have pointed out that, as with the Black-backed Jackal, subspecies are hard to distinguish, and the differences may be a consequence of individual variation.","commonNames":"Chacal rayé @fr | Streifenschakal @de | Chacal rayado @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Sundevall","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1847","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"418","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"adustus","name":"Canis adustus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W, C and S Africa; replaced in the arid SW and NW of the continent by the Black-backed Jackal and in N Africa by the Golden Jackal.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331173/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Atkinson (1997a, 1997b) | Atkinson & Loveridge (2004) | Atkinson, Macdonald & Kamizola (2002) | Atkinson, Rhodes et al. (2002) | Estes (1991) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Kingdon (1997) | Loveridge (1999) | Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002, 2003) | Moehlman (1979, 1989) | Rowe-Rowe (1992b) | Skinner & Smithers (1990) | Smithers (1971, 1983) | Smithers & Wilson (1979) | Stuart & Stuart (1988)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous, with a diet that is responsive to both seasonal and local variation in food availability. On commercial farmland in the Zimbabwehighveld, they eat mainly wild fruit (30%) and small (less than 1 kg) to medium-sized (more than 1 kg) mammals (27% and 23%, respectively). The remainder of their diet comprises birds, invertebrates, cattle cake, grass, and carrion. In wildlife areas of western Zimbabwe, Side-stripedJackals feed largely on invertebrates during the wet season and small mammals up to the size of Spring hares (Pedetes capensis) during the dry months of the year. They scavenge extensively from safari camp rubbish dumps and occasionally from large carnivore kills (although they are often out-competed for this resource by Black-backed Jackals). In the Ngorongoro Crater, Side-striped Jackals have been recorded competing with Black-backed Jackals for Grant's Gazelle (Nanger granti) fawns. Their diet may consist exclusively of certain fruits when in season. Apparently less predatory than other jackals, although according to one authority this may not hold when prey is highly available. The species forages solitarily, although in western Zimbabwefamily groups have been observed feeding together on abundant resources, and as many as twelve have been counted at kills or scavenging offal outside towns. Jackals have been described foraging opportunistically, exploiting food-rich habitats by random walks, and they display an amazing ability to find food where none seems obvious to the human observer.","breeding":"In Zimbabwe, mating occurs mostly during June and July, and the gestation period is about 60 days. Litters of 4-6 pups are born from August to November, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. Pup mortality is thought to be high. Abandoned Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes or excavated termitaria are common den sites, with the den chamber occurring 0-75— 1 mbelow the surface and 2-3 mfrom the entrance. The same pair may use such dens in consecutive years. After the pups are weaned, both parents assist in rearing them, returning at two- to three-hour intervals through the night to feed the pups on food that is probably regurgitated. The pups are aggressive towards each other, as evidenced by the degree of wounding observed. Yearold offspring remain in the parental territory while additional offspring are raised. It appears likely that alloparental care as observed in other jackals also occurs in this species, which may be more social than previously thought.","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal, but can employ extremely flexible foraging strategies in areas where they are persecuted. May also adapt activity pattern to reduce competition when in sympatry with Black-backed Jackals.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Side-striped Jackals occur solitarily, in pairs and in family groups of up to seven individuals. The basis of the family unit is the mated pair, which has been known to be stable over several years. In game areas of western Zimbabwe, home ranges varied seasonally from 0-2 km? (hot dry season) to 1-2 km?* (cold dry season), whereas in highveld farmland, home ranges were seasonally stable and in excess of 4 km? (a third of the yearly total range). Sub-adults disperse from the natal territory, up to 12 kmin Zimbabwe's highveld farmland and 20 kmin game areas. In highveld farmland, territories are configured to encompass patches of grassland where resources are most available, and the structure of the habitat mosaic appears an important factor. Home ranges overlap by about 20% in highveld farmland and 33% in game areas. The residents use the core territory almost exclusively. Vocal repertoire is broad, including an explosive bark, growls, yaps, cackles, whines, screams, a croaking distress call, and a hooting howl. Calling occurs all year round, but is especially common between pair members during the mating period. Jackals from neighboring territories sometimes answer each other. Captive pups have been heard calling at eight weeks, but may start earlier.Breeding.In Zimbabwe, mating occurs mostly during June and July, and the gestation period is about 60 days. Litters of 4-6 pups are born from August to November, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. Pup mortality is thought to be high. Abandoned Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes or excavated termitaria are common den sites, with the den chamber occurring 0-75— 1 mbelow the surface and 2-3 mfrom the entrance. The same pair may use such dens in consecutive years. After the pups are weaned, both parents assist in rearing them, returning at two- to three-hour intervals through the night to feed the pups on food that is probably regurgitated. The pups are aggressive towards each other, as evidenced by the degree of wounding observed. Yearold offspring remain in the parental territory while additional offspring are raised. It appears likely that alloparental care as observed in other jackals also occurs in this species, which may be more social than previously thought.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of population abundance are not available, but from work undertaken in two diverse habitats in Zimbabwe, it seems reasonable to assume the species is common and to estimate a total population in excess of three million. The species appears well capable of exploiting urban and suburban habitats, a factor which may help to ensure its persistence. It is likely that the population is at least stable. Side-striped Jackals are persecuted because of their role in rabies transmission and their putative role as stock killers. In areas of high human population density, snaring may be the commonest cause of death in adult jackals. It is unlikely that this persecution has an effect on the overall population, but indiscriminate culling through poisoning could affect local abundance. The species’ dietary flexibility and ability to co-exist with humans on the periphery of settlements and towns suggests that populations are only vulnerable in cases of extreme habitat modification or intense disease epidemics.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 65-5-77-5 cmfor males and 69-76 cmfor females, tail 30- 5-39 cmfor males and 31-41 cmfor females; weight 7- 3-12 kgfor males and 7-3-10 kgfor females. Medium-sized canid, overall gray to buff-gray in color, with a white side stripe blazed on the flanks, and a diagnostic white tip to the tail. Head is gray-bufty, ears dark buffy. The back is gray, darker than the underside, and the flanks are marked by the indistinct white stripes running from elbow to hip, with black lower margins. The boldness of markings, in particular the side stripes, varies greatly among individuals; those ofjuveniles are less well defined than those of adults. The legs are often rufous-tinged, and the predominantly black tail nearly always bears the distinctive white tip, possibly a “badge” of the species’ nocturnal status. The female has two pairs of inguinalteats. Skull flatter than that of Black-backed Jackal, with a longer and narrower rostrum, a distinct sagittal crest, and zygomatic arches of lighter build. As a result of the elongation of the rostrum, the third upper premolar lies almost in line with the others and not at an angle as in the Black-backed Jackal. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M2/3=42.","habitat":"Occupies a range of habitats, including broad-leaved savannah zones, wooded habitats, bush, grassland, marshes, montane habitats up to 2700 m, abandoned cultivation and farms. Tends to avoid open savannah, thickly wooded areas, and arid zones, but does enter the equatorial forest belt in the wake of human settlement. Side-striped Jackals frequently occur near rural dwellings and farm buildings, and penetrate suburban and urban areas. Where Side-striped Jackals occur sympatrically with Golden and Black-backed Jackals, they may avoid competition by ecological segregation. In such areas of sympatry, Side-striped Jackals usually occupy areas of denser vegetation, and Black-backed and Golden Jackals dominate in the more open areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF31FFCE7B99F4A8F7E6DBEA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF31FFCE7B99F4A8F7E6DBEA","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"417","verbatimText":"5.Golden JackalCanis aureusFrench:Chacal doré/ German:Goldschakal/ Spanish:Chacal doradoOther common names:Asiatic Jackal, Common JackalTaxonomy.Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758, Iran.As many as twelve subspecies are distinguished across the range. However, there is much variation and populations need to be re-evaluated using modern molecular techniques.Distribution.Widespread in N and NE Africa, occurring from Senegalon the W coast of Africa to Egyptin the E, in a range that includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libyain the N to Nigeria, Chad, and Tanzaniain the S. They have expanded their range from the Arabian Peninsula into Western Europe, to Bulgaria, Austria, and NE Italyand E into Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, the entire Indian subcontinent, then E and S to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and parts of Indochina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76-84 cmfor males and 74-80 cmfor females, tail 20-24 cmfor males and 20-21 cmfor females; weight 7-6-9- 8 kgfor males and 6-5-7- 8 kgfor females. Medium-sized canid, considered the most typical representative of the genus Canis. Approximately 12% difference in body weight between sexes. Basic coat color is golden but varies seasonally from pale creamy yellow to a dark tawny hue. The pelage on the back is often a mixture of black, brown, and white hairs, giving the appearance of a dark saddle similar to that of Black-backed Jackals. Jackals inhabiting rocky, mountainous terrain may have grayer coats. The belly and underparts are a lighter pale ginger to cream. Unique paler markings on the throat and chest make it possible to differentiate individuals. Melanistic and piebald forms are sometimes reported. The tail is bushy with a tan to black tip. The legs are relatively long, and the feet slender with small pads. Females have four pairs of mammae. The skull is more similar to Coyote and Gray Wolf than to Black-backed Jackal, Side-striped Jackal, or Ethiopian Wolf. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.Habitat.Tolerance of arid zones and an omnivorous diet enable Golden Jackals to live in a wide variety of habitats. These range from the Sahel to the evergreen forests of Myanmarand Thailand. Golden Jackals occupy semi-desert, short to medium grasslands and savannahs in Africa, and forested, mangrove, agricultural, rural, and semi-urban habitats in Indiaand Bangladesh. Golden Jackals are opportunistic and will venture into human habitation at night to feed on garbage. They have been recorded at elevations of 3800 min the Bale Mountains of Ethiopiaand are well established around hill stations at 2000 min India.Food and Feeding.An omnivorous and opportunistic forager, the Golden Jackal’s diet varies according to season and habitat. According to one study in east Africa, although they consume invertebrates and fruit, over 60% of Golden Jackal diet consisted of rodents, lizards, snakes, birds (from quail to flamingoes), hares, and Thomson's Gazelle (Eudorcas thomsoni). In India, over 60% of the diet comprised rodents, birds, and fruit in Bharatpur, while in Kanha over 80% ofthe diet consisted of rodents, reptiles, and fruit. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, India, scat analysis (n = 36) revealed that Golden Jackal diet included mainly mammals (45% occurrence, of which 36% was rodents), vegetable matter (20%), birds (19%), and reptiles and invertebrates (8% each). Golden Jackals often ingest large quantities of vegetable matter, and during the fruiting season in Indiathey feed intensively on the fruits of Ziziphus sp., Carissa carvanda, Syzigium cuminii, and pods of Prosopis juliflora and Cassia fistula. Single jackals typically hunt smaller prey like rodents, hares, and birds. They use their hearing to locate rodents in the grass and then leap in the air and pounce on them; they also dig out Indian Gerbils (7atera indica) from their burrows. They have been observed to hunt young, old, and infirm ungulates that are sometimes 4-5 times their body weight. Although Golden Jackals are able to hunt alone, cooperative hunting in small packs of 2—4 individuals is often more successful and permits them to kill larger prey, including antelope fawns and langur monkeys (Presbytis pileata and P. entellus). Groups of 5-18 Golden Jackals have been sighted scavenging on carcasses of large ungulates, and there is a report of similar aggregations on clumped food resources in Israel. In several areas of Indiaand Bangladesh, jackals subsist primarily by scavenging on carrion and garbage. They also cache food.Activity patterns.Golden Jackals are mainly nocturnal, but have flexible activity patterns and may be active during the day. During Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) calving peaks in Velavadar National Park, India, for example, jackals were observed searching throughout the day for calves in hiding, searches intensifying during the early morning and late evening.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization of Golden Jackals is extremely flexible and depends on the availability and distribution of food resources. The basic social unit is the breeding pair, which is sometimes accompanied by its current litter of pups and/or by offspring from formerlitters. In Tanzaniabreeding pairs usually form long-term bonds, and both members mark and defend their territories, hunt together, share food, and cooperatively rear the young. Of a total of 270 recorded jackal sightings in the Bhal and Kutch areas of Gujarat, India, 35% consisted of two individuals, 14% of three, 20% of more than three, and the rest of single individuals. Average group sizes have been reported as 2-5 (Serengeti, Tanzania) and 3 (Velavadar National Park, India). Scent marking by urination and defecation is common around denning areas and on intensively used trails, and is thought to play an important role in territorial defense. Recent telemetry data from the Bhal area in Indiasuggest that most breeding pairs are spaced well apart and likely maintain a core territory around their dens. Feeding ranges of several Golden Jackals in the Bhal overlapped. Jackals were observed to range over large distances in search of food and suitable habitat, and linear forays of 12-15 kmin a single night were not uncommon. Non-breeding members of a pack may stay near a distant food source like a carcass for several days prior to returning to their original range. Recorded home range sizes vary from 1- 1-20 km? depending on the distribution and abundance of food resources. Greeting ceremonies, grooming, and group vocalizations are common social interactions. Vocalizations consist of a complex howl repertoire beginning with two to three simple, low-pitched howls and culminating in a high-pitched staccato ofcalls. Jackals are easily induced to howl. A single howl usually evokes responses from several jackals in the vicinity. In the presence of large carnivores, Golden Jackals often emit a warning call that is very different from their normal howling repertoire. In India, howling is more frequent between December and April, a time when pair bonds are being established and breeding occurs, perhaps suggesting a role in mate attraction, mate guarding, or territory defense.Breeding.Reproductive activity occurs from February to March in Indiaand Turkmenistan, and from October to March in Israel. In Tanzania, mating typically occurs from October to December, with pups being born from December to March. Timing of births coincides with abundance of food supply; for example, at the beginning of the monsoon season in northern and central India, and with the calving of Thomson's Gazelle in the Serengeti. Females are typically monoestrous, but there is evidence in Tanzaniaof multiple litters. Gestation lasts about 63 days. Meanlitter size has been recorded as 5-7 (range 1-8) in Tanzania. In the Bhal area in Indiaaverage litter size was 3-6 (range 2-5). In Tanzania, two pups on average have been recorded emerging from the den at three weeks of age. Golden Jackals in Indiaexcavate their dens in late April to May, mainly in natural and man-made embankments, usually in scrub habitat. Rivulets, gullies, road, and check-dam embankments are prime denning habitats, and drainage pipes and culverts are also used. Dens may have 1-3 openings and typically are about 2-3 mlong and 0-5- 1 mdeep. In Tanzaniaboth parents and “helpers” (offspring from previous litters) provision and guard the new pups, which results in higher pup survival. The male also feeds his mate during her pregnancy, and both the male and “helpers” (i.e. other social group members) provision the female during the period of lactation.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II (India). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jackals are on Schedule III of India’s Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and are afforded the least legal protection (mainly to control trade of pelts and tails). However, no hunting of any wildlife is permitted under the current legal system in India. Fairly common throughout its range, although considered to be steadily declining except in protected areas. High densities are observed in areas with abundant food and cover. Known density estimates for parts of Indiaenable a minimum population estimate of over 80,000 Golden Jackals for the Indian sub-continent. Population estimates for Africa are not available, but densities in the Serengeti National Park have been recorded as high as 4 adults/km?®. Traditional land use practices such as livestock rearing and dry farming are conducive to the survival of jackals and other wildlife, but are being steadily replaced by industrialization and intensive agriculture; similarly, wilderness areas and rural landscapes are being rapidly urbanized. Jackal populations adapt to some extent to these changes and may persist for a while, but will eventually disappear from such areas. There are no other known threats, except for local policies of extirpation and poisoning.Bibliography.Coetzee (1977), Fuller et al. (1989), Genov & Wassiley (1989), Golani & Keller (1975), Golani & Mendelssohn (1971), Jaeger et al. (1996), Jerdon (1874), Jhala & Moehliman (2004), Kingdon (1971-1982), Kruuk (1972), van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970), Macdonald (1979a), Moehliman (1983, 1986, 1989), Moehlman & Hofer (1997), Mukherjee (1998b), Newton (1985), Poche et al. (1987), Prater (1980), Rosevear (1974), Sankar (1988), Schaller (1967), Sillero-Zubiri (1996), Stanford (1989).","taxonomy":"Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758, Iran.As many as twelve subspecies are distinguished across the range. However, there is much variation and populations need to be re-evaluated using modern molecular techniques.","commonNames":"Chacal doré @fr | Goldschakal @de | Chacal dorado @es | Asiatic Jackal @en | Common Jackal @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"417","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aureus","name":"Canis aureus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in N and NE Africa, occurring from Senegalon the W coast of Africa to Egyptin the E, in a range that includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libyain the N to Nigeria, Chad, and Tanzaniain the S. They have expanded their range from the Arabian Peninsula into Western Europe, to Bulgaria, Austria, and NE Italyand E into Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, the entire Indian subcontinent, then E and S to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and parts of Indochina.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331171/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Coetzee (1977) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Genov & Wassiley (1989) | Golani & Keller (1975) | Golani & Mendelssohn (1971) | Jaeger et al. (1996) | Jerdon (1874) | Jhala & Moehliman (2004) | Kingdon (1971-1982) | Kruuk (1972) | van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970) | Macdonald (1979a) | Moehliman (1983, 1986, 1989) | Moehlman & Hofer (1997) | Mukherjee (1998b) | Newton (1985) | Poche et al. (1987) | Prater (1980) | Rosevear (1974) | Sankar (1988) | Schaller (1967) | Sillero-Zubiri (1996) | Stanford (1989)","foodAndFeeding":"An omnivorous and opportunistic forager, the Golden Jackal’s diet varies according to season and habitat. According to one study in east Africa, although they consume invertebrates and fruit, over 60% of Golden Jackal diet consisted of rodents, lizards, snakes, birds (from quail to flamingoes), hares, and Thomson's Gazelle (Eudorcas thomsoni). In India, over 60% of the diet comprised rodents, birds, and fruit in Bharatpur, while in Kanha over 80% ofthe diet consisted of rodents, reptiles, and fruit. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, India, scat analysis (n = 36) revealed that Golden Jackal diet included mainly mammals (45% occurrence, of which 36% was rodents), vegetable matter (20%), birds (19%), and reptiles and invertebrates (8% each). Golden Jackals often ingest large quantities of vegetable matter, and during the fruiting season in Indiathey feed intensively on the fruits of Ziziphus sp., Carissa carvanda, Syzigium cuminii, and pods of Prosopis juliflora and Cassia fistula. Single jackals typically hunt smaller prey like rodents, hares, and birds. They use their hearing to locate rodents in the grass and then leap in the air and pounce on them; they also dig out Indian Gerbils (7atera indica) from their burrows. They have been observed to hunt young, old, and infirm ungulates that are sometimes 4-5 times their body weight. Although Golden Jackals are able to hunt alone, cooperative hunting in small packs of 2—4 individuals is often more successful and permits them to kill larger prey, including antelope fawns and langur monkeys (Presbytis pileata and P. entellus). Groups of 5-18 Golden Jackals have been sighted scavenging on carcasses of large ungulates, and there is a report of similar aggregations on clumped food resources in Israel. In several areas of Indiaand Bangladesh, jackals subsist primarily by scavenging on carrion and garbage. They also cache food.","breeding":"Reproductive activity occurs from February to March in Indiaand Turkmenistan, and from October to March in Israel. In Tanzania, mating typically occurs from October to December, with pups being born from December to March. Timing of births coincides with abundance of food supply; for example, at the beginning of the monsoon season in northern and central India, and with the calving of Thomson's Gazelle in the Serengeti. Females are typically monoestrous, but there is evidence in Tanzaniaof multiple litters. Gestation lasts about 63 days. Meanlitter size has been recorded as 5-7 (range 1-8) in Tanzania. In the Bhal area in Indiaaverage litter size was 3-6 (range 2-5). In Tanzania, two pups on average have been recorded emerging from the den at three weeks of age. Golden Jackals in Indiaexcavate their dens in late April to May, mainly in natural and man-made embankments, usually in scrub habitat. Rivulets, gullies, road, and check-dam embankments are prime denning habitats, and drainage pipes and culverts are also used. Dens may have 1-3 openings and typically are about 2-3 mlong and 0-5- 1 mdeep. In Tanzaniaboth parents and “helpers” (offspring from previous litters) provision and guard the new pups, which results in higher pup survival. The male also feeds his mate during her pregnancy, and both the male and “helpers” (i.e. other social group members) provision the female during the period of lactation.","activityPatterns":"Golden Jackals are mainly nocturnal, but have flexible activity patterns and may be active during the day. During Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) calving peaks in Velavadar National Park, India, for example, jackals were observed searching throughout the day for calves in hiding, searches intensifying during the early morning and late evening.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The social organization of Golden Jackals is extremely flexible and depends on the availability and distribution of food resources. The basic social unit is the breeding pair, which is sometimes accompanied by its current litter of pups and/or by offspring from formerlitters. In Tanzaniabreeding pairs usually form long-term bonds, and both members mark and defend their territories, hunt together, share food, and cooperatively rear the young. Of a total of 270 recorded jackal sightings in the Bhal and Kutch areas of Gujarat, India, 35% consisted of two individuals, 14% of three, 20% of more than three, and the rest of single individuals. Average group sizes have been reported as 2-5 (Serengeti, Tanzania) and 3 (Velavadar National Park, India). Scent marking by urination and defecation is common around denning areas and on intensively used trails, and is thought to play an important role in territorial defense. Recent telemetry data from the Bhal area in Indiasuggest that most breeding pairs are spaced well apart and likely maintain a core territory around their dens. Feeding ranges of several Golden Jackals in the Bhal overlapped. Jackals were observed to range over large distances in search of food and suitable habitat, and linear forays of 12-15 kmin a single night were not uncommon. Non-breeding members of a pack may stay near a distant food source like a carcass for several days prior to returning to their original range. Recorded home range sizes vary from 1- 1-20 km? depending on the distribution and abundance of food resources. Greeting ceremonies, grooming, and group vocalizations are common social interactions. Vocalizations consist of a complex howl repertoire beginning with two to three simple, low-pitched howls and culminating in a high-pitched staccato ofcalls. Jackals are easily induced to howl. A single howl usually evokes responses from several jackals in the vicinity. In the presence of large carnivores, Golden Jackals often emit a warning call that is very different from their normal howling repertoire. In India, howling is more frequent between December and April, a time when pair bonds are being established and breeding occurs, perhaps suggesting a role in mate attraction, mate guarding, or territory defense.Breeding.Reproductive activity occurs from February to March in Indiaand Turkmenistan, and from October to March in Israel. In Tanzania, mating typically occurs from October to December, with pups being born from December to March. Timing of births coincides with abundance of food supply; for example, at the beginning of the monsoon season in northern and central India, and with the calving of Thomson's Gazelle in the Serengeti. Females are typically monoestrous, but there is evidence in Tanzaniaof multiple litters. Gestation lasts about 63 days. Meanlitter size has been recorded as 5-7 (range 1-8) in Tanzania. In the Bhal area in Indiaaverage litter size was 3-6 (range 2-5). In Tanzania, two pups on average have been recorded emerging from the den at three weeks of age. Golden Jackals in Indiaexcavate their dens in late April to May, mainly in natural and man-made embankments, usually in scrub habitat. Rivulets, gullies, road, and check-dam embankments are prime denning habitats, and drainage pipes and culverts are also used. Dens may have 1-3 openings and typically are about 2-3 mlong and 0-5- 1 mdeep. In Tanzaniaboth parents and “helpers” (offspring from previous litters) provision and guard the new pups, which results in higher pup survival. The male also feeds his mate during her pregnancy, and both the male and “helpers” (i.e. other social group members) provision the female during the period of lactation.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II (India). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jackals are on Schedule III of India’s Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and are afforded the least legal protection (mainly to control trade of pelts and tails). However, no hunting of any wildlife is permitted under the current legal system in India. Fairly common throughout its range, although considered to be steadily declining except in protected areas. High densities are observed in areas with abundant food and cover. Known density estimates for parts of Indiaenable a minimum population estimate of over 80,000 Golden Jackals for the Indian sub-continent. Population estimates for Africa are not available, but densities in the Serengeti National Park have been recorded as high as 4 adults/km?®. Traditional land use practices such as livestock rearing and dry farming are conducive to the survival of jackals and other wildlife, but are being steadily replaced by industrialization and intensive agriculture; similarly, wilderness areas and rural landscapes are being rapidly urbanized. Jackal populations adapt to some extent to these changes and may persist for a while, but will eventually disappear from such areas. There are no other known threats, except for local policies of extirpation and poisoning.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 76-84 cmfor males and 74-80 cmfor females, tail 20-24 cmfor males and 20-21 cmfor females; weight 7-6-9- 8 kgfor males and 6-5-7- 8 kgfor females. Medium-sized canid, considered the most typical representative of the genus Canis. Approximately 12% difference in body weight between sexes. Basic coat color is golden but varies seasonally from pale creamy yellow to a dark tawny hue. The pelage on the back is often a mixture of black, brown, and white hairs, giving the appearance of a dark saddle similar to that of Black-backed Jackals. Jackals inhabiting rocky, mountainous terrain may have grayer coats. The belly and underparts are a lighter pale ginger to cream. Unique paler markings on the throat and chest make it possible to differentiate individuals. Melanistic and piebald forms are sometimes reported. The tail is bushy with a tan to black tip. The legs are relatively long, and the feet slender with small pads. Females have four pairs of mammae. The skull is more similar to Coyote and Gray Wolf than to Black-backed Jackal, Side-striped Jackal, or Ethiopian Wolf. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 =42.","habitat":"Tolerance of arid zones and an omnivorous diet enable Golden Jackals to live in a wide variety of habitats. These range from the Sahel to the evergreen forests of Myanmarand Thailand. Golden Jackals occupy semi-desert, short to medium grasslands and savannahs in Africa, and forested, mangrove, agricultural, rural, and semi-urban habitats in Indiaand Bangladesh. Golden Jackals are opportunistic and will venture into human habitation at night to feed on garbage. They have been recorded at elevations of 3800 min the Bale Mountains of Ethiopiaand are well established around hill stations at 2000 min India."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF32FFCF7BDBFD50F8B0D7E9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF32FFCF7BDBFD50F8B0D7E9","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"416","verbatimText":"4.Ethiopian WolfCanis simensisFrench:Loup d'Abyssinie/ German:Athiopien-Wolf/ Spanish:Lobo etiopeOther common names:Simien Fox, Simien Jackal, Abyssinian Wolf, Abyssinian Red FoxTaxonomy.Canis simensis Ruppell, 1835,Ethiopia.Originally placed in the genus Simenia, C. simensiswas noted to be the most distinct species in the genus Canis, and was considered to bear close affinity to C. adustusand Dusicyon spp.The Ethiopian Wolf is not closely linked to the Vulpesgroup, despite having been called the Simien or Simenian Fox. Its other name of Simien or Ethiopian Jackal suggests a close relationship with jackals. Other, previously used vernacular names included Abyssinian Wolf and Red Fox, making clear the difficulty naturalists had in cataloguing this species. Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequencing suggested that C. simensisis more closely related to C. lupusand C. latransthan to any African canid, and that the species may have evolved from a Wolf-like ancestor crossing to northern Africa from Eurasia as recently as 100,000 years ago. There are fossils of wolf-like canids from the late Pleistocene in Eurasia, but unfortunately no fossil record of C. simensisitself. Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variability in C. simensisis small relative to other canid species, suggesting small population sizes may have characterized its recent evolution. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. s. stmensis Ruppell, 1835— NW of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.C. s. citernii de Beaux, 1922— SE of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.Descriptive notes.Head-body 92-8-101- 2 cmfor males and 84- 1-96 cmfor females, tail 29-39- 6 cmfor males and 27-29- 7 cmfor females; weight 14-2-19- 3 kgfor males and 11-2-14- 2 kgfor females. A medium-sized canid with a reddish coat, distinctive white markings, long legs, and an elongated muzzle, resembling a Coyote in conformation and size. Males weigh 20% more than females. The face, ears and upper parts of the muzzle are red. Ears broad, pointed, and directed forward; the pinnae are thickly fringed with long white hairs growing inward from the edge. Palate, gums, and naked borders of the lips entirely black. Characteristic facial markings include a white ascending crescent below the eyes, and a small white spot on the cheeks. The throat, chest, and underparts are white, the ventral part of the neck with a distinctive white band. Pelage is soft and short, ocher to rusty red, with a dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The boundary between the red coat and the white markings is sharp and well defined. The contrast of white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes; the female’s coat is generally paler than the male’s. The long, slender legs are reddish outside, with inner aspect white. There is a short rufouscolored stripe at the base of the tail, which becomes a black stripe leading to a thick brush of black-tipped guard hairs. The skull is very flat in profile, with only a shallow angle between frontals and nasals. The neuro-cranium is low and narrow, thick, and almost cylindrical. Its width is 30% of the total skull length. Facial length is 58% ofthe total skull length. The inter-parietal crest is slightly developed, and the coronal ridge is linear. Teeth small and widely spaced, especially the premolars. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; m3 occasionally absent. Sharply pointed canines average 19 mmin length (14-22 mm); carnassials (P* and M,) are relatively small.Habitat.A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.Food and Feeding.Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.Activity patterns.In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas. Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered in the past by political instability is currently less severe and is associated with conflicts over livestock losses. Recent wolf population decline in Bale is mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shootings as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threatto all populations. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves’ specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem. In Bale, the Ethiopian Wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs. Although hybrids are currently confined to the Web Valley in West Bale, they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. To date there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside West Bale.Bibliography.Ashenafi et al. (2005), Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Gottelli & Sillero-Zubiri (1992), Gottelli, Marino et al. (2004), Gottelli, Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1994), Haydon, Laurenson & Sillero-Zubiri (2002), Haydon, Randall et al. (2006), Marino (2003, 2004), Marino et al. (2006), Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (1994, 1995a, 1995b), Sillero-Zubiri & Macdonald (1997, 1998), Sillero-Zubiri & Marino (2004), Sillero-Zubiri, Gottelli & Macdonald (1996), Sillero-Zubiri, Johnson & Macdonald (1998), Sillero-Zubiri, King & Macdonald (1996), Sillero-Zubiri, Malcolm et al. (2000), Sillero-Zubiri, Tattersall & Macdonald (1995a, 1995b).","taxonomy":"Canis simensis Ruppell, 1835,Ethiopia.Originally placed in the genus Simenia, C. simensiswas noted to be the most distinct species in the genus Canis, and was considered to bear close affinity to C. adustusand Dusicyon spp.The Ethiopian Wolf is not closely linked to the Vulpesgroup, despite having been called the Simien or Simenian Fox. Its other name of Simien or Ethiopian Jackal suggests a close relationship with jackals. Other, previously used vernacular names included Abyssinian Wolf and Red Fox, making clear the difficulty naturalists had in cataloguing this species. Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequencing suggested that C. simensisis more closely related to C. lupusand C. latransthan to any African canid, and that the species may have evolved from a Wolf-like ancestor crossing to northern Africa from Eurasia as recently as 100,000 years ago. There are fossils of wolf-like canids from the late Pleistocene in Eurasia, but unfortunately no fossil record of C. simensisitself. Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variability in C. simensisis small relative to other canid species, suggesting small population sizes may have characterized its recent evolution. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loup d'Abyssinie @fr | Athiopien-Wolf @de | Lobo etiope @es | Simien Fox @en | Simien Jackal @en | Abyssinian Wolf @en | Abyssinian Red Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ruppell","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1835","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"416","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"simensis","name":"Canis simensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. s. stmensis Ruppell, 1835— NW of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.C. s. citernii de Beaux, 1922— SE of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.","bibliography":"Ashenafi et al. (2005) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Gottelli & Sillero-Zubiri (1992) | Gottelli, Marino et al. (2004) | Gottelli, Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1994) | Haydon, Laurenson & Sillero-Zubiri (2002) | Haydon, Randall et al. (2006) | Marino (2003, 2004) | Marino et al. (2006) | Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (1994, 1995a, 1995b) | Sillero-Zubiri & Macdonald (1997, 1998) | Sillero-Zubiri & Marino (2004) | Sillero-Zubiri, Gottelli & Macdonald (1996) | Sillero-Zubiri, Johnson & Macdonald (1998) | Sillero-Zubiri, King & Macdonald (1996) | Sillero-Zubiri, Malcolm et al. (2000) | Sillero-Zubiri, Tattersall & Macdonald (1995a, 1995b)","foodAndFeeding":"Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.","breeding":"The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.","activityPatterns":"In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas. Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered in the past by political instability is currently less severe and is associated with conflicts over livestock losses. Recent wolf population decline in Bale is mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shootings as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threatto all populations. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves’ specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem. In Bale, the Ethiopian Wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs. Although hybrids are currently confined to the Web Valley in West Bale, they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. To date there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside West Bale.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 92-8-101- 2 cmfor males and 84- 1-96 cmfor females, tail 29-39- 6 cmfor males and 27-29- 7 cmfor females; weight 14-2-19- 3 kgfor males and 11-2-14- 2 kgfor females. A medium-sized canid with a reddish coat, distinctive white markings, long legs, and an elongated muzzle, resembling a Coyote in conformation and size. Males weigh 20% more than females. The face, ears and upper parts of the muzzle are red. Ears broad, pointed, and directed forward; the pinnae are thickly fringed with long white hairs growing inward from the edge. Palate, gums, and naked borders of the lips entirely black. Characteristic facial markings include a white ascending crescent below the eyes, and a small white spot on the cheeks. The throat, chest, and underparts are white, the ventral part of the neck with a distinctive white band. Pelage is soft and short, ocher to rusty red, with a dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The boundary between the red coat and the white markings is sharp and well defined. The contrast of white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes; the female’s coat is generally paler than the male’s. The long, slender legs are reddish outside, with inner aspect white. There is a short rufouscolored stripe at the base of the tail, which becomes a black stripe leading to a thick brush of black-tipped guard hairs. The skull is very flat in profile, with only a shallow angle between frontals and nasals. The neuro-cranium is low and narrow, thick, and almost cylindrical. Its width is 30% of the total skull length. Facial length is 58% ofthe total skull length. The inter-parietal crest is slightly developed, and the coronal ridge is linear. Teeth small and widely spaced, especially the premolars. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; m3 occasionally absent. Sharply pointed canines average 19 mmin length (14-22 mm); carnassials (P* and M,) are relatively small.Habitat.A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.Food and Feeding.Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.Activity patterns.In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas.","habitat":"A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF33FFCC7B9DFBDAF837DF7E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF33FFCC7B9DFBDAF837DF7E","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"415","verbatimText":"3.CoyoteCanis latransFrench:Coyote/ German:Kojote/ Spanish:CoyoteOther common names:Brush Wolf, Prairie WolfTaxonomy.Canis latrans Say, 1823, Nebraska, USA.The ancestral Coyote, C. lepophagus, is believed to have become widespread throughout North America by the late Pliocene. In the north-eastern USA, the eastern Coyote may be a subspecies with some introgression of wolf and dog genes. Nineteen subspecies have been recognized. However, the taxonomic validity of some subspecies is questionable.Subspecies and Distribution.C. l. latrans Say, 1823— S Canadaand USA(Great Plains region).C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839— SE Mexico.C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903— Mexico(N Baja California) and USA(S California).C. l. dickeyi Nelson, 1932— Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.C. l. frustror Woodhouse, 1850— USA(Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma& E Texas).C. l. goldmani Merriam, 1904— Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico.C. l. hondurensis Goldman, 1936— E Honduras.C.l.impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903— W Mexico.C.l.incolatus Hall, 1934— Alaska and NW Canada.C.l.jamesi Townsend, 1912— Mexico(Tiburon I, Baja California).C.l.lestes Merriam, 1897— SW Canadaand W USA(Intermountain Region & NW).C.l.mearnsi Merriam, 1897— NW Mexico and SW USA.C.l.microdon Merriam, 1897— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).C.l.ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829— W USA(W coast).C.l.peninsulae Merriam, 1897— Mexico(S Baja California).C.l.exensis Bailey, 1905— S USA(W Texas& New Mexico).C.l.thamnos Jackson, 1949— N-C Canadaand E USA.C.l.umpquensis Jackson, 1949— USA(NW coast).C.l.vigilis Merriam, 1897— SW Mexico.Coyotes did not originally occur on the USAE coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia(subspecies unknown).Descriptive notes.Head-body 74-94 cmfor males and 74-94 cmfor females,tail 29— 36- 3 cmfor males and 26-34- 3 cmfor females; weight 7-8-15- 8 kgfor males and 7-7- 14- 5 kgfor females. Slender appearance with a long, pointed nose, large pointed ears, slender legs with small feet, and a bushy tail. Size varies geographically, although adult males are heavier and larger than adult females. Coyotes range in color from pure gray to rufous; melanistic Coyotes are rare. Fur texture and color varies geographically: northern subspecies have long coarse hair. Coyotes in the desert tend to be fulvous in color, while Coyotes at higher latitudes are darker and grayer. The belly and throat are paler than the rest of the body and have a mantle of darker hair over the shoulders. The tip of the tail is usually black. Hairs are about 50-90 mmlong, mane hairs tend to be 80-110 mmlong. Pelage during summer is shorter than in winter. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats throughout their range including prairie, forest, desert, mountain, and tropical ecosystems. Their ability to exploit human resources also allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit distribution in some desert environments.Food and Feeding.Opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a wide variety of food items, ranging from fruit and insects to small mammals to large ungulates and live-stock, typically consuming items in relation to availability. Livestock and wild ungulates are often consumed as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur. Predation on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning. Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume refuse, pet food or other human-related items. Studies of predatory behavior show that Coyote age, habitat, and wind and snow conditions all influence their ability to capture small mammals. Coyotes hunt small mammals alone, even when pack size is large. When preying on native ungulates, cooperation among pack members may facilitate the capture of prey, but is not essential. Environmental factors are important to the success of an attack on adult ungulates, as is the presence of the alpha Coyote pair, and younger animals generally do not participate. The number of Coyotes is not as important as which individuals are involved in the attack. The outcome is also affected by the ability of the quarry to escape into water, its defensive abilities, and its nutritional state. In areas with an ungulate prey base in winter, competition with other sympatric carnivores for a carcass may be intense and there can even be competition among members of the same pack.On following pages: 4. Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis); 5. Golden Jackal (Canis aureus); 6. Side-striped Jackal (Canis adustus); 7. Black-backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas).Activity patterns.Coyotes may be active throughout the day, but they tend to be more active during the early morning and around sunset. Activity patterns change seasonally (e.g. during winter, when there is a change in the food base in some areas) or in response to human disturbance and persecution.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the bonded alpha pair, which may breed for up to 10-12 years. Associate animals often remain in the pack and possibly inherit the pack or displace members of the breeding pair and become alphas themselves. Associates participate in territorial maintenance and pup rearing, but not to the extent of the alpha pair. Other Coyotes exist outside of the resident packs as transient or nomadic individuals. Transients travel alone over larger areas and do not breed, but will move into territories when vacancies occur. One factor that may affect Coyote sociality is prey size or prey biomass. In populations where rodents are the major prey, Coyotes tend to be in pairs or trios. In populations where Elk and deer are available, large packs of up to ten individuals may form. Coyotes are territorial, with a dominance hierarchy within each resident pack. The dominance hierarchy influences access to food resources within the pack. In captivity, pups show early development of aggressive behavior and engage in dominance fights when 19-24 days old. The process of establishing hierarchy within litters appears to last up to 4-5 months. Territoriality regulates Coyote numbers as packs space themselves across the landscape in relation to available food and habitat. Home range size varies with energetic requirements, physiographic makeup, habitat, and food distribution. Home range size is influenced by social organization, with transients using larger areas, and residents occupying distinct territories. Only packs (2-10 animals) maintain and defend territories, both by direct confrontation and indirectly with scent marking and howling. Fidelity to the home range is high and may persist for many years. Shifts in territorial boundaries may occur in response to the loss of one or both of the alpha pair. Pups, yearlings, and non-breeding adults of lower social rank may disperse from the natal site into adjacent areas or farther afield. Dispersal seems to be voluntary, as social and nutritional pressures intensify during winter when food becomes limited. Juveniles usually disperse during autumn and early winter. Pre-dispersal forays may occur. Coyotes communicate using auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile cues. Studies have identified different typesof vocalizations, seasonal patterns, and the influence of social status on vocalization rates. Howling plays a role in territorial maintenance and pack spacing by advertising boundaries and signaling the presence of alpha animals that will confront intruders and defend the territory. Scent marking contributes to territory maintenance and is performed mostly by alpha individuals. Scent marking may also be an indicator of sexual condition, maturity, or synchrony.Breeding.Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environments and occupy most developed habitats, including urban and agricultural areas. Hybridization with dogs and Gray Wolves may be occurring in Some areas.Bibliography.Andelt (1985, 1987), Bekoff (1978b), Bekoff & Diamond (1976), Bekoff & Gese (2003), Bekoff & Wells (1986), Bekoff et al. (1981), Camenzind (1978), Gese & Bekoff (2004), Gese & Grothe (1995), Gese et al. (1996a, 1996b, 1996¢), Gier (1968), Kitchen et al. (2000a, 2000b), Knowlton et al. (1999), Laundre & Keller (1984), O'Donoghue et al. (1997), Richens & Hugie (1974), Thurber & Peterson (1991), Todd & Keith (1983), Wayne & Lehman (1992), Young & Jackson (1951).","taxonomy":"Canis latrans Say, 1823, Nebraska, USA.The ancestral Coyote, C. lepophagus, is believed to have become widespread throughout North America by the late Pliocene. In the north-eastern USA, the eastern Coyote may be a subspecies with some introgression of wolf and dog genes. Nineteen subspecies have been recognized. However, the taxonomic validity of some subspecies is questionable.","commonNames":"Coyote @fr | Kojote @de | Coyote @es | Brush Wolf @en | Prairie Wolf @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Say","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"415","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"latrans","name":"Canis latrans","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. l. latrans Say, 1823— S Canadaand USA(Great Plains region).C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839— SE Mexico.C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903— Mexico(N Baja California) and USA(S California).C. l. dickeyi Nelson, 1932— Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.C. l. frustror Woodhouse, 1850— USA(Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma& E Texas).C. l. goldmani Merriam, 1904— Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico.C. l. hondurensis Goldman, 1936— E Honduras.C.l.impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903— W Mexico.C.l.incolatus Hall, 1934— Alaska and NW Canada.C.l.jamesi Townsend, 1912— Mexico(Tiburon I, Baja California).C.l.lestes Merriam, 1897— SW Canadaand W USA(Intermountain Region & NW).C.l.mearnsi Merriam, 1897— NW Mexico and SW USA.C.l.microdon Merriam, 1897— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).C.l.ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829— W USA(W coast).C.l.peninsulae Merriam, 1897— Mexico(S Baja California).C.l.exensis Bailey, 1905— S USA(W Texas& New Mexico).C.l.thamnos Jackson, 1949— N-C Canadaand E USA.C.l.umpquensis Jackson, 1949— USA(NW coast).C.l.vigilis Merriam, 1897— SW Mexico.Coyotes did not originally occur on the USAE coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia(subspecies unknown).","bibliography":"Andelt (1985, 1987) | Bekoff (1978b) | Bekoff & Diamond (1976) | Bekoff & Gese (2003) | Bekoff & Wells (1986) | Bekoff et al. (1981) | Camenzind (1978) | Gese & Bekoff (2004) | Gese & Grothe (1995) | Gese et al. (1996a, 1996b, 1996¢) | Gier (1968) | Kitchen et al. (2000a, 2000b) | Knowlton et al. (1999) | Laundre & Keller (1984) | O'Donoghue et al. (1997) | Richens & Hugie (1974) | Thurber & Peterson (1991) | Todd & Keith (1983) | Wayne & Lehman (1992) | Young & Jackson (1951)","foodAndFeeding":"Opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a wide variety of food items, ranging from fruit and insects to small mammals to large ungulates and live-stock, typically consuming items in relation to availability. Livestock and wild ungulates are often consumed as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur. Predation on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning. Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume refuse, pet food or other human-related items. Studies of predatory behavior show that Coyote age, habitat, and wind and snow conditions all influence their ability to capture small mammals. Coyotes hunt small mammals alone, even when pack size is large. When preying on native ungulates, cooperation among pack members may facilitate the capture of prey, but is not essential. Environmental factors are important to the success of an attack on adult ungulates, as is the presence of the alpha Coyote pair, and younger animals generally do not participate. The number of Coyotes is not as important as which individuals are involved in the attack. The outcome is also affected by the ability of the quarry to escape into water, its defensive abilities, and its nutritional state. In areas with an ungulate prey base in winter, competition with other sympatric carnivores for a carcass may be intense and there can even be competition among members of the same pack.","breeding":"Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.","activityPatterns":"Coyotes may be active throughout the day, but they tend to be more active during the early morning and around sunset. Activity patterns change seasonally (e.g. during winter, when there is a change in the food base in some areas) or in response to human disturbance and persecution.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit is the bonded alpha pair, which may breed for up to 10-12 years. Associate animals often remain in the pack and possibly inherit the pack or displace members of the breeding pair and become alphas themselves. Associates participate in territorial maintenance and pup rearing, but not to the extent of the alpha pair. Other Coyotes exist outside of the resident packs as transient or nomadic individuals. Transients travel alone over larger areas and do not breed, but will move into territories when vacancies occur. One factor that may affect Coyote sociality is prey size or prey biomass. In populations where rodents are the major prey, Coyotes tend to be in pairs or trios. In populations where Elk and deer are available, large packs of up to ten individuals may form. Coyotes are territorial, with a dominance hierarchy within each resident pack. The dominance hierarchy influences access to food resources within the pack. In captivity, pups show early development of aggressive behavior and engage in dominance fights when 19-24 days old. The process of establishing hierarchy within litters appears to last up to 4-5 months. Territoriality regulates Coyote numbers as packs space themselves across the landscape in relation to available food and habitat. Home range size varies with energetic requirements, physiographic makeup, habitat, and food distribution. Home range size is influenced by social organization, with transients using larger areas, and residents occupying distinct territories. Only packs (2-10 animals) maintain and defend territories, both by direct confrontation and indirectly with scent marking and howling. Fidelity to the home range is high and may persist for many years. Shifts in territorial boundaries may occur in response to the loss of one or both of the alpha pair. Pups, yearlings, and non-breeding adults of lower social rank may disperse from the natal site into adjacent areas or farther afield. Dispersal seems to be voluntary, as social and nutritional pressures intensify during winter when food becomes limited. Juveniles usually disperse during autumn and early winter. Pre-dispersal forays may occur. Coyotes communicate using auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile cues. Studies have identified different typesof vocalizations, seasonal patterns, and the influence of social status on vocalization rates. Howling plays a role in territorial maintenance and pack spacing by advertising boundaries and signaling the presence of alpha animals that will confront intruders and defend the territory. Scent marking contributes to territory maintenance and is performed mostly by alpha individuals. Scent marking may also be an indicator of sexual condition, maturity, or synchrony.Breeding.Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environments and occupy most developed habitats, including urban and agricultural areas. Hybridization with dogs and Gray Wolves may be occurring in Some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 74-94 cmfor males and 74-94 cmfor females,tail 29— 36- 3 cmfor males and 26-34- 3 cmfor females; weight 7-8-15- 8 kgfor males and 7-7- 14- 5 kgfor females. Slender appearance with a long, pointed nose, large pointed ears, slender legs with small feet, and a bushy tail. Size varies geographically, although adult males are heavier and larger than adult females. Coyotes range in color from pure gray to rufous; melanistic Coyotes are rare. Fur texture and color varies geographically: northern subspecies have long coarse hair. Coyotes in the desert tend to be fulvous in color, while Coyotes at higher latitudes are darker and grayer. The belly and throat are paler than the rest of the body and have a mantle of darker hair over the shoulders. The tip of the tail is usually black. Hairs are about 50-90 mmlong, mane hairs tend to be 80-110 mmlong. Pelage during summer is shorter than in winter. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats throughout their range including prairie, forest, desert, mountain, and tropical ecosystems. Their ability to exploit human resources also allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit distribution in some desert environments."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF32FFCF7BDBFD50F8B0D7E9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF32FFCF7BDBFD50F8B0D7E9","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"416","verbatimText":"4.Ethiopian WolfCanis simensisFrench:Loup d'Abyssinie/ German:Athiopien-Wolf/ Spanish:Lobo etiopeOther common names:Simien Fox, Simien Jackal, Abyssinian Wolf, Abyssinian Red FoxTaxonomy.Canis simensis Ruppell, 1835,Ethiopia.Originally placed in the genus Simenia, C. simensiswas noted to be the most distinct species in the genus Canis, and was considered to bear close affinity to C. adustusand Dusicyon spp.The Ethiopian Wolf is not closely linked to the Vulpesgroup, despite having been called the Simien or Simenian Fox. Its other name of Simien or Ethiopian Jackal suggests a close relationship with jackals. Other, previously used vernacular names included Abyssinian Wolf and Red Fox, making clear the difficulty naturalists had in cataloguing this species. Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequencing suggested that C. simensisis more closely related to C. lupusand C. latransthan to any African canid, and that the species may have evolved from a Wolf-like ancestor crossing to northern Africa from Eurasia as recently as 100,000 years ago. There are fossils of wolf-like canids from the late Pleistocene in Eurasia, but unfortunately no fossil record of C. simensisitself. Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variability in C. simensisis small relative to other canid species, suggesting small population sizes may have characterized its recent evolution. Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. s. stmensis Ruppell, 1835— NW of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.C. s. citernii de Beaux, 1922— SE of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.Descriptive notes.Head-body 92-8-101- 2 cmfor males and 84- 1-96 cmfor females, tail 29-39- 6 cmfor males and 27-29- 7 cmfor females; weight 14-2-19- 3 kgfor males and 11-2-14- 2 kgfor females. A medium-sized canid with a reddish coat, distinctive white markings, long legs, and an elongated muzzle, resembling a Coyote in conformation and size. Males weigh 20% more than females. The face, ears and upper parts of the muzzle are red. Ears broad, pointed, and directed forward; the pinnae are thickly fringed with long white hairs growing inward from the edge. Palate, gums, and naked borders of the lips entirely black. Characteristic facial markings include a white ascending crescent below the eyes, and a small white spot on the cheeks. The throat, chest, and underparts are white, the ventral part of the neck with a distinctive white band. Pelage is soft and short, ocher to rusty red, with a dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The boundary between the red coat and the white markings is sharp and well defined. The contrast of white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes; the female’s coat is generally paler than the male’s. The long, slender legs are reddish outside, with inner aspect white. There is a short rufouscolored stripe at the base of the tail, which becomes a black stripe leading to a thick brush of black-tipped guard hairs. The skull is very flat in profile, with only a shallow angle between frontals and nasals. The neuro-cranium is low and narrow, thick, and almost cylindrical. Its width is 30% of the total skull length. Facial length is 58% ofthe total skull length. The inter-parietal crest is slightly developed, and the coronal ridge is linear. Teeth small and widely spaced, especially the premolars. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; m3 occasionally absent. Sharply pointed canines average 19 mmin length (14-22 mm); carnassials (P* and M,) are relatively small.Habitat.A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.Food and Feeding.Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.Activity patterns.In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas. Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered in the past by political instability is currently less severe and is associated with conflicts over livestock losses. Recent wolf population decline in Bale is mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shootings as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threatto all populations. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves’ specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem. In Bale, the Ethiopian Wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs. Although hybrids are currently confined to the Web Valley in West Bale, they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. To date there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside West Bale.Bibliography.Ashenafi et al. (2005), Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Gottelli & Sillero-Zubiri (1992), Gottelli, Marino et al. (2004), Gottelli, Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1994), Haydon, Laurenson & Sillero-Zubiri (2002), Haydon, Randall et al. (2006), Marino (2003, 2004), Marino et al. (2006), Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (1994, 1995a, 1995b), Sillero-Zubiri & Macdonald (1997, 1998), Sillero-Zubiri & Marino (2004), Sillero-Zubiri, Gottelli & Macdonald (1996), Sillero-Zubiri, Johnson & Macdonald (1998), Sillero-Zubiri, King & Macdonald (1996), Sillero-Zubiri, Malcolm et al. (2000), Sillero-Zubiri, Tattersall & Macdonald (1995a, 1995b).","taxonomy":"Canis simensis Ruppell, 1835,Ethiopia.Originally placed in the genus Simenia, C. simensiswas noted to be the most distinct species in the genus Canis, and was considered to bear close affinity to C. adustusand Dusicyon spp.The Ethiopian Wolf is not closely linked to the Vulpesgroup, despite having been called the Simien or Simenian Fox. Its other name of Simien or Ethiopian Jackal suggests a close relationship with jackals. Other, previously used vernacular names included Abyssinian Wolf and Red Fox, making clear the difficulty naturalists had in cataloguing this species. Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequencing suggested that C. simensisis more closely related to C. lupusand C. latransthan to any African canid, and that the species may have evolved from a Wolf-like ancestor crossing to northern Africa from Eurasia as recently as 100,000 years ago. There are fossils of wolf-like canids from the late Pleistocene in Eurasia, but unfortunately no fossil record of C. simensisitself. Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variability in C. simensisis small relative to other canid species, suggesting small population sizes may have characterized its recent evolution. Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Loup d'Abyssinie @fr | Athiopien-Wolf @de | Lobo etiope @es | Simien Fox @en | Simien Jackal @en | Abyssinian Wolf @en | Abyssinian Red Fox @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ruppell","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1835","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"416","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"simensis","name":"Canis simensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. s. stmensis Ruppell, 1835— NW of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.C. s. citernii de Beaux, 1922— SE of Ethiopia’s Rift Valley.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331169/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ashenafi et al. (2005) | Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Gottelli & Sillero-Zubiri (1992) | Gottelli, Marino et al. (2004) | Gottelli, Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1994) | Haydon, Laurenson & Sillero-Zubiri (2002) | Haydon, Randall et al. (2006) | Marino (2003, 2004) | Marino et al. (2006) | Sillero-Zubiri & Gottelli (1994, 1995a, 1995b) | Sillero-Zubiri & Macdonald (1997, 1998) | Sillero-Zubiri & Marino (2004) | Sillero-Zubiri, Gottelli & Macdonald (1996) | Sillero-Zubiri, Johnson & Macdonald (1998) | Sillero-Zubiri, King & Macdonald (1996) | Sillero-Zubiri, Malcolm et al. (2000) | Sillero-Zubiri, Tattersall & Macdonald (1995a, 1995b)","foodAndFeeding":"Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.","breeding":"The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.","activityPatterns":"In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas. Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered in the past by political instability is currently less severe and is associated with conflicts over livestock losses. Recent wolf population decline in Bale is mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shootings as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threatto all populations. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves’ specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem. In Bale, the Ethiopian Wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs. Although hybrids are currently confined to the Web Valley in West Bale, they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. To date there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside West Bale.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 92-8-101- 2 cmfor males and 84- 1-96 cmfor females, tail 29-39- 6 cmfor males and 27-29- 7 cmfor females; weight 14-2-19- 3 kgfor males and 11-2-14- 2 kgfor females. A medium-sized canid with a reddish coat, distinctive white markings, long legs, and an elongated muzzle, resembling a Coyote in conformation and size. Males weigh 20% more than females. The face, ears and upper parts of the muzzle are red. Ears broad, pointed, and directed forward; the pinnae are thickly fringed with long white hairs growing inward from the edge. Palate, gums, and naked borders of the lips entirely black. Characteristic facial markings include a white ascending crescent below the eyes, and a small white spot on the cheeks. The throat, chest, and underparts are white, the ventral part of the neck with a distinctive white band. Pelage is soft and short, ocher to rusty red, with a dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The boundary between the red coat and the white markings is sharp and well defined. The contrast of white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes; the female’s coat is generally paler than the male’s. The long, slender legs are reddish outside, with inner aspect white. There is a short rufouscolored stripe at the base of the tail, which becomes a black stripe leading to a thick brush of black-tipped guard hairs. The skull is very flat in profile, with only a shallow angle between frontals and nasals. The neuro-cranium is low and narrow, thick, and almost cylindrical. Its width is 30% of the total skull length. Facial length is 58% ofthe total skull length. The inter-parietal crest is slightly developed, and the coronal ridge is linear. Teeth small and widely spaced, especially the premolars. The dental formula is13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; m3 occasionally absent. Sharply pointed canines average 19 mmin length (14-22 mm); carnassials (P* and M,) are relatively small.Habitat.A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat.Food and Feeding.Ethiopian Wolves feed almost exclusively upon diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afro-alpine grassland community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in feces, with 87% belonging to three Bale endemic species: the Ethiopian African Mole Rat (300-930 g), Blick’s Grass Rat (Arvicanthis blicki), and the Black-clawed Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys melanonyx). Other prey species include the Ethiopian Vlei Rat (Otomystypus), Ethiopian Buff-spotted Brush-furred Rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), Ethiopian Highland Hare (Lepus starcki), and occasionally goslings and eggs. On occasion, wolves were observed feeding on Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis), and young of Bush Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Common Reedbuck (Redunca redunca), and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Sedge leaves (Carex monostachya) are occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites. Where the Ethiopian African Mole Ratis absent (i.e. Gaysay montane grassland in Bale and Menz), it is replaced in the wolf diet by the smaller Northeast African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens). Similarly, in northern EthiopiaArvicanthis abyssinicusand Lophuromysflavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives (A. blickiand L. melanonyx) from Bale. Elsewhere, O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified as the commonest prey in droppings collected in the otherfive populations. The same study confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of diurnal rodents throughout their distribution, but that there is also some degree of variation in diet composition along climatic-induced gradients. Although the Ethiopian Wolfis primarily a solitary rodent hunter, it can also hunt cooperatively. Occasionally, small packs have been seen chasing young antelopes, lambs, and hares and making kills. Ethiopian Wolves will take carrion or feed on carcasses; in fact, a sheep carcass is the most successful bait for attracting wolves. The local name “jedalla farda”—the horse’s Jjackal—refers to wolves’ habit of following mares and cows about to give birth so they can eat the afterbirth. In areas of grazing in Bale, wolves were often seen foraging among herds ofcattle, a tactic that may aid in ambushing rodents out oftheir holes, by using the herd as a mobile hide. Wolves carefully explore rich food patches by walking slowly and pausing frequently to investigate holes or to localize the rodents by means of their excellent hearing. Once the prey is located they move with short, stealthy steps alternating with short periods of immobility, sometimes with belly pressed flat to the ground. The quarry is grabbed with the mouth after a short dash. A stalk can last from seconds to up to an hour, especially if the quarry is an Ethiopian African Mole Rat. Occasionally, wolves run in zig-zag through rat colonies, grabbing the rodents in passing. Digging prey out is common and is the favored technique to catch Ethiopian African Mole Rats. In such cases, hunting effort varies from a few scratches at a rat hole to the total destruction of a set of burrows, leaving mounds of earth often up to one meter high. Sometimes, digging serves to reach a nest of grassrats. Kills are often cached and later retrieved.Activity patterns.In Bale, wolves are mostly diurnal. Packs congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, around midday and in the evening, and rest together at night, but break up to forage individually in the morning and early afternoon. Peaks of foraging activity suggest a synchronization with the aboveground activity of rodents. There is little nocturnal activity, wolves seldom moving far from their evening resting site. They may become more crepuscular and nocturnal where human interference 1s severe.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ethiopian Wolves live in packs of 3- 13 adults, in discrete and cohesive social units that share and defend an exclusive territory. Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four years averaged 6 km? with some overlap. Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged 13- 4 km? (n = 4). Overlap and aggressive encounters between packs were highest during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly constrained by the scarcity ofsuitable habitat. Males do not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric packs; some females disperse at two years of age and become “floaters”, occupying narrow ranges between pack territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available. Breeding females are typically replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex ratio is biased toward males 1-8:1, with small family groups closer to 1:1. Wolves commonly advertize and maintain their territories by scent marking territory boundaries with urine posts, scratching, feces (deposited on conspicuoussites like mounds, rocks, and bushes), and by means of vocalizations. All pack members, independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighboring packs are common, highly vocal, and always end with the smaller group fleeing from the larger. Vocalizations can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls, given at the scent or sight of humans, dogs, or unfamiliar wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack members and to advertize pack size, composition, and position. Alarm calls start with a “huff” (rapid expulsion of air through mouth and nose), followed by a quick succession of highpitched yelps and barks. These sounds can also be made as contact calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls include a threatening growl, a high-frequency whine of submission, and intense “group yip-howls”. Lone and group howling are long-distance calls used to contact pack members, and can be heard up to 5 kmaway. Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members before a border patrol.Breeding.The only detailed information available on the reproductive habits of these animals comes from four years of observations of nine wild packs in the Bale Mountains. Pre-copulatory behavior by the dominant female includes an increased rate of scent marking, play-inducing and food-begging behavior towards the dominant male, and agonistic behavior towards subordinate females. The receptive period is synchronized in sympatric females to less than two weeks. Courtship may take place between adult members of a pack or with members of neighboring packs. After a brief courtship, which primarily involves the dominant male permanently accompanying the female, wolves copulate over a period of three to five days. Copulation involves a copulatory tie lasting up to 15 minutes. Other males may stand by a tied pair with no signs of aggression. Females exert mate preference, discouraging mating attempts from all but the pack’s dominant male, either by defensive snarls or moving away. Females are receptive to any visiting male from neighboring packs, and one study found that 70% of matings (n = 30) involved males from outside the pack. The dominant female of each pack gives birth once a year between October and January. Only about 60% of females breed successfully each year. During breeding and pregnancy, the female coat turns pale yellow and becomes woolly, and the tail turns brownish, and loses much ofits hair. Gestation lasts 60-62 days (based on the time from last day of mating to parturition). Pups are born in a den dug by the female in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. Neonates are born with their eyes closed. The natal coat is charcoal gray with a buff patch in chest and inguinal regions. Two to seven pups emerge from the den after three weeks. At this time, the dark natal coat begins to be replaced by the pelage typical of the species. Pups are regularly moved between dens up to 1300 mapart. In eight out of 18 observed natal dens, a subordinate female assisted the mother in suckling the pups. At least 50% of extra nursing females showed signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant female’s den. Five and six placental scars were counted in the uteri of two of these females. Development of the young takes place in three stages: early nesting (weeks 1-4), when the young are entirely dependent on milk; mixed nutritional dependency (weeks 5-10), when milk is supplemented by solid foods regurgitated by all pack members until pups are completely weaned; and postweaning dependency (week ten to six months), when the pups subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by helpers. Adults have been observed providing food to juveniles up to one year old. Juveniles join adults in patrols as early as six months of age, but do not urinate with a raised leg until eleven months, if male, or 18 months, if female. Yearlings attain 80-90% of adult body mass, and full adult appearance is reached at two years. Both sexes become sexually mature during their second year.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Full official protection under Ethiopia’s Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of imprisonment for up to two years. There is an estimated global population of 500 adults, of which more than half live in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore ofits size, ranging from 0- 1 adults/km® (ericaceous heath lands and barren peaks) to 1-1- 2 adults/km? (short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities). Elsewhere overall wolf density is lower; e.g. transect data from the region of Menz estimated wolf density at 0-2 animals per km?*. Recent comprehensive surveys indicate high abundance figures in North Wollo (0-20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0-10-0-11 and 0-10-0-14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0-08-0-13 and 0-06— 0-11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interviews with local residents. Continuous loss of habitat due to highaltitude subsistence agriculture is the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3200 mhas been converted into farmland, and all wolf populations below 3700 mare particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially in small and relatively flat areas.","habitat":"A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine grasslands and heath lands, where they prey on Afro-alpine rodents. Suitable habitats are above the tree-line, from about 3200 to 4500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3500-3800 min many areas, restricting the wolves to higher ranges. Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1000 and 2000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March. Wolves utilize all Afro-alpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (Alchemilla spp.) and grasses, and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of Ethiopian African Mole Rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (Festuca spp., Agrostis spp.), high-altitude shrubs dominated by Helichrysum spp., and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of “guassa” tussock grasses (Festuca spp.), “cherenfi” bushes (Euryops pinifolius) and giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (Erica and Phillipia spp.) at 3200-3600 mare of marginal value, whereas open moorlands containing patches of herbs and grasses offer relatively good habitat."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF33FFCC7B9DFBDAF837DF7E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF33FFCC7B9DFBDAF837DF7E","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"415","verbatimText":"3.CoyoteCanis latransFrench:Coyote/ German:Kojote/ Spanish:CoyoteOther common names:Brush Wolf, Prairie WolfTaxonomy.Canis latrans Say, 1823, Nebraska, USA.The ancestral Coyote, C. lepophagus, is believed to have become widespread throughout North America by the late Pliocene. In the north-eastern USA, the eastern Coyote may be a subspecies with some introgression of wolf and dog genes. Nineteen subspecies have been recognized. However, the taxonomic validity of some subspecies is questionable.Subspecies and Distribution.C. l. latrans Say, 1823— S Canadaand USA(Great Plains region).C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839— SE Mexico.C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903— Mexico(N Baja California) and USA(S California).C. l. dickeyi Nelson, 1932— Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.C. l. frustror Woodhouse, 1850— USA(Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma& E Texas).C. l. goldmani Merriam, 1904— Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico.C. l. hondurensis Goldman, 1936— E Honduras.C.l.impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903— W Mexico.C.l.incolatus Hall, 1934— Alaska and NW Canada.C.l.jamesi Townsend, 1912— Mexico(Tiburon I, Baja California).C.l.lestes Merriam, 1897— SW Canadaand W USA(Intermountain Region & NW).C.l.mearnsi Merriam, 1897— NW Mexico and SW USA.C.l.microdon Merriam, 1897— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).C.l.ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829— W USA(W coast).C.l.peninsulae Merriam, 1897— Mexico(S Baja California).C.l.exensis Bailey, 1905— S USA(W Texas& New Mexico).C.l.thamnos Jackson, 1949— N-C Canadaand E USA.C.l.umpquensis Jackson, 1949— USA(NW coast).C.l.vigilis Merriam, 1897— SW Mexico.Coyotes did not originally occur on the USAE coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia(subspecies unknown).Descriptive notes.Head-body 74-94 cmfor males and 74-94 cmfor females,tail 29— 36- 3 cmfor males and 26-34- 3 cmfor females; weight 7-8-15- 8 kgfor males and 7-7- 14- 5 kgfor females. Slender appearance with a long, pointed nose, large pointed ears, slender legs with small feet, and a bushy tail. Size varies geographically, although adult males are heavier and larger than adult females. Coyotes range in color from pure gray to rufous; melanistic Coyotes are rare. Fur texture and color varies geographically: northern subspecies have long coarse hair. Coyotes in the desert tend to be fulvous in color, while Coyotes at higher latitudes are darker and grayer. The belly and throat are paler than the rest of the body and have a mantle of darker hair over the shoulders. The tip of the tail is usually black. Hairs are about 50-90 mmlong, mane hairs tend to be 80-110 mmlong. Pelage during summer is shorter than in winter. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats throughout their range including prairie, forest, desert, mountain, and tropical ecosystems. Their ability to exploit human resources also allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit distribution in some desert environments.Food and Feeding.Opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a wide variety of food items, ranging from fruit and insects to small mammals to large ungulates and live-stock, typically consuming items in relation to availability. Livestock and wild ungulates are often consumed as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur. Predation on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning. Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume refuse, pet food or other human-related items. Studies of predatory behavior show that Coyote age, habitat, and wind and snow conditions all influence their ability to capture small mammals. Coyotes hunt small mammals alone, even when pack size is large. When preying on native ungulates, cooperation among pack members may facilitate the capture of prey, but is not essential. Environmental factors are important to the success of an attack on adult ungulates, as is the presence of the alpha Coyote pair, and younger animals generally do not participate. The number of Coyotes is not as important as which individuals are involved in the attack. The outcome is also affected by the ability of the quarry to escape into water, its defensive abilities, and its nutritional state. In areas with an ungulate prey base in winter, competition with other sympatric carnivores for a carcass may be intense and there can even be competition among members of the same pack.On following pages: 4. Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis); 5. Golden Jackal (Canis aureus); 6. Side-striped Jackal (Canis adustus); 7. Black-backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas).Activity patterns.Coyotes may be active throughout the day, but they tend to be more active during the early morning and around sunset. Activity patterns change seasonally (e.g. during winter, when there is a change in the food base in some areas) or in response to human disturbance and persecution.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The basic social unit is the bonded alpha pair, which may breed for up to 10-12 years. Associate animals often remain in the pack and possibly inherit the pack or displace members of the breeding pair and become alphas themselves. Associates participate in territorial maintenance and pup rearing, but not to the extent of the alpha pair. Other Coyotes exist outside of the resident packs as transient or nomadic individuals. Transients travel alone over larger areas and do not breed, but will move into territories when vacancies occur. One factor that may affect Coyote sociality is prey size or prey biomass. In populations where rodents are the major prey, Coyotes tend to be in pairs or trios. In populations where Elk and deer are available, large packs of up to ten individuals may form. Coyotes are territorial, with a dominance hierarchy within each resident pack. The dominance hierarchy influences access to food resources within the pack. In captivity, pups show early development of aggressive behavior and engage in dominance fights when 19-24 days old. The process of establishing hierarchy within litters appears to last up to 4-5 months. Territoriality regulates Coyote numbers as packs space themselves across the landscape in relation to available food and habitat. Home range size varies with energetic requirements, physiographic makeup, habitat, and food distribution. Home range size is influenced by social organization, with transients using larger areas, and residents occupying distinct territories. Only packs (2-10 animals) maintain and defend territories, both by direct confrontation and indirectly with scent marking and howling. Fidelity to the home range is high and may persist for many years. Shifts in territorial boundaries may occur in response to the loss of one or both of the alpha pair. Pups, yearlings, and non-breeding adults of lower social rank may disperse from the natal site into adjacent areas or farther afield. Dispersal seems to be voluntary, as social and nutritional pressures intensify during winter when food becomes limited. Juveniles usually disperse during autumn and early winter. Pre-dispersal forays may occur. Coyotes communicate using auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile cues. Studies have identified different typesof vocalizations, seasonal patterns, and the influence of social status on vocalization rates. Howling plays a role in territorial maintenance and pack spacing by advertising boundaries and signaling the presence of alpha animals that will confront intruders and defend the territory. Scent marking contributes to territory maintenance and is performed mostly by alpha individuals. Scent marking may also be an indicator of sexual condition, maturity, or synchrony.Breeding.Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environments and occupy most developed habitats, including urban and agricultural areas. Hybridization with dogs and Gray Wolves may be occurring in Some areas.Bibliography.Andelt (1985, 1987), Bekoff (1978b), Bekoff & Diamond (1976), Bekoff & Gese (2003), Bekoff & Wells (1986), Bekoff et al. (1981), Camenzind (1978), Gese & Bekoff (2004), Gese & Grothe (1995), Gese et al. (1996a, 1996b, 1996¢), Gier (1968), Kitchen et al. (2000a, 2000b), Knowlton et al. (1999), Laundre & Keller (1984), O'Donoghue et al. (1997), Richens & Hugie (1974), Thurber & Peterson (1991), Todd & Keith (1983), Wayne & Lehman (1992), Young & Jackson (1951).","taxonomy":"Canis latrans Say, 1823, Nebraska, USA.The ancestral Coyote, C. lepophagus, is believed to have become widespread throughout North America by the late Pliocene. In the north-eastern USA, the eastern Coyote may be a subspecies with some introgression of wolf and dog genes. Nineteen subspecies have been recognized. However, the taxonomic validity of some subspecies is questionable.","commonNames":"Coyote @fr | Kojote @de | Coyote @es | Brush Wolf @en | Prairie Wolf @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Say","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"415","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"latrans","name":"Canis latrans","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. l. latrans Say, 1823— S Canadaand USA(Great Plains region).C. l. cagottis Hamilton-Smith, 1839— SE Mexico.C. l. clepticus Elliot, 1903— Mexico(N Baja California) and USA(S California).C. l. dickeyi Nelson, 1932— Costa Rica, El Salvador, W Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.C. l. frustror Woodhouse, 1850— USA(Missouri, Kansas, parts of Oklahoma& E Texas).C. l. goldmani Merriam, 1904— Belize, Guatemala, and S Mexico.C. l. hondurensis Goldman, 1936— E Honduras.C.l.impavidusJ. A. Allen, 1903— W Mexico.C.l.incolatus Hall, 1934— Alaska and NW Canada.C.l.jamesi Townsend, 1912— Mexico(Tiburon I, Baja California).C.l.lestes Merriam, 1897— SW Canadaand W USA(Intermountain Region & NW).C.l.mearnsi Merriam, 1897— NW Mexico and SW USA.C.l.microdon Merriam, 1897— NE Mexico and S USA(S Texas).C.l.ochropus Eschscholtz, 1829— W USA(W coast).C.l.peninsulae Merriam, 1897— Mexico(S Baja California).C.l.exensis Bailey, 1905— S USA(W Texas& New Mexico).C.l.thamnos Jackson, 1949— N-C Canadaand E USA.C.l.umpquensis Jackson, 1949— USA(NW coast).C.l.vigilis Merriam, 1897— SW Mexico.Coyotes did not originally occur on the USAE coast or Florida. They (probably thamnos) have expanded into the area with the clearing of forests and been introduced to Florida and Georgia(subspecies unknown).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331167/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Andelt (1985, 1987) | Bekoff (1978b) | Bekoff & Diamond (1976) | Bekoff & Gese (2003) | Bekoff & Wells (1986) | Bekoff et al. (1981) | Camenzind (1978) | Gese & Bekoff (2004) | Gese & Grothe (1995) | Gese et al. (1996a, 1996b, 1996¢) | Gier (1968) | Kitchen et al. (2000a, 2000b) | Knowlton et al. (1999) | Laundre & Keller (1984) | O'Donoghue et al. (1997) | Richens & Hugie (1974) | Thurber & Peterson (1991) | Todd & Keith (1983) | Wayne & Lehman (1992) | Young & Jackson (1951)","foodAndFeeding":"Opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a wide variety of food items, ranging from fruit and insects to small mammals to large ungulates and live-stock, typically consuming items in relation to availability. Livestock and wild ungulates are often consumed as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur. Predation on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning. Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume refuse, pet food or other human-related items. Studies of predatory behavior show that Coyote age, habitat, and wind and snow conditions all influence their ability to capture small mammals. Coyotes hunt small mammals alone, even when pack size is large. When preying on native ungulates, cooperation among pack members may facilitate the capture of prey, but is not essential. Environmental factors are important to the success of an attack on adult ungulates, as is the presence of the alpha Coyote pair, and younger animals generally do not participate. The number of Coyotes is not as important as which individuals are involved in the attack. The outcome is also affected by the ability of the quarry to escape into water, its defensive abilities, and its nutritional state. In areas with an ungulate prey base in winter, competition with other sympatric carnivores for a carcass may be intense and there can even be competition among members of the same pack.","breeding":"Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.","activityPatterns":"Coyotes may be active throughout the day, but they tend to be more active during the early morning and around sunset. Activity patterns change seasonally (e.g. during winter, when there is a change in the food base in some areas) or in response to human disturbance and persecution.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The basic social unit is the bonded alpha pair, which may breed for up to 10-12 years. Associate animals often remain in the pack and possibly inherit the pack or displace members of the breeding pair and become alphas themselves. Associates participate in territorial maintenance and pup rearing, but not to the extent of the alpha pair. Other Coyotes exist outside of the resident packs as transient or nomadic individuals. Transients travel alone over larger areas and do not breed, but will move into territories when vacancies occur. One factor that may affect Coyote sociality is prey size or prey biomass. In populations where rodents are the major prey, Coyotes tend to be in pairs or trios. In populations where Elk and deer are available, large packs of up to ten individuals may form. Coyotes are territorial, with a dominance hierarchy within each resident pack. The dominance hierarchy influences access to food resources within the pack. In captivity, pups show early development of aggressive behavior and engage in dominance fights when 19-24 days old. The process of establishing hierarchy within litters appears to last up to 4-5 months. Territoriality regulates Coyote numbers as packs space themselves across the landscape in relation to available food and habitat. Home range size varies with energetic requirements, physiographic makeup, habitat, and food distribution. Home range size is influenced by social organization, with transients using larger areas, and residents occupying distinct territories. Only packs (2-10 animals) maintain and defend territories, both by direct confrontation and indirectly with scent marking and howling. Fidelity to the home range is high and may persist for many years. Shifts in territorial boundaries may occur in response to the loss of one or both of the alpha pair. Pups, yearlings, and non-breeding adults of lower social rank may disperse from the natal site into adjacent areas or farther afield. Dispersal seems to be voluntary, as social and nutritional pressures intensify during winter when food becomes limited. Juveniles usually disperse during autumn and early winter. Pre-dispersal forays may occur. Coyotes communicate using auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile cues. Studies have identified different typesof vocalizations, seasonal patterns, and the influence of social status on vocalization rates. Howling plays a role in territorial maintenance and pack spacing by advertising boundaries and signaling the presence of alpha animals that will confront intruders and defend the territory. Scent marking contributes to territory maintenance and is performed mostly by alpha individuals. Scent marking may also be an indicator of sexual condition, maturity, or synchrony.Breeding.Both males and females show annual cyclic changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology. Females are seasonally monoestrous, showing one period of estrus per year between January and March, depending on latitude. Courtship behavior begins 2-3 months before copulation. Copulation ends with a copulatory tie lasting up to 25 minutes. The percentage of females breeding each year varies with local conditions and food supply. Usually, about 60-90% of adult females and up to 70% of female yearlings producelitters. Gestation lasts approximately 63 days. Litter size averages six (range 1-9) and may be affected by population density and food availability during the previous winter. In northern latitudes, litter size changes in response to population cycles in Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus). Litter size has been found to increase after cold, snowy winters, when more ungulate carcasses are available to ovulating females. Coyotes may den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, under rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Dens of other animals may also be used, and may have more than one entrance and interconnecting tunnels. The same den may be used from year to year. Denning and pup rearing are the focal point of Coyote families for several months, until the pups are large and mobile. Pups are born blind and helpless in the den. Birth weight is 240-275 g. Their eyes open at about 14 days and they emerge from the den at about three weeks. The young are cared for by the parents and other associates, usually siblings from a previous year. Pups are weaned at about 5-7 weeks of age and reach adult weight by about nine months.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Coyotes are abundant throughout their range, which may be expanding due to their ability to successfully live in human-modified landscapes. Elimination of Wolves may also have facilitated Coyote expansion. Density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality, changes in pack structure, predator density and food abundance. Coyotes are considered a pest species in many regions. Control programs temporarily reduce numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations are generally stable in most areas and free of threats throughout their range. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environments and occupy most developed habitats, including urban and agricultural areas. Hybridization with dogs and Gray Wolves may be occurring in Some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 74-94 cmfor males and 74-94 cmfor females,tail 29— 36- 3 cmfor males and 26-34- 3 cmfor females; weight 7-8-15- 8 kgfor males and 7-7- 14- 5 kgfor females. Slender appearance with a long, pointed nose, large pointed ears, slender legs with small feet, and a bushy tail. Size varies geographically, although adult males are heavier and larger than adult females. Coyotes range in color from pure gray to rufous; melanistic Coyotes are rare. Fur texture and color varies geographically: northern subspecies have long coarse hair. Coyotes in the desert tend to be fulvous in color, while Coyotes at higher latitudes are darker and grayer. The belly and throat are paler than the rest of the body and have a mantle of darker hair over the shoulders. The tip of the tail is usually black. Hairs are about 50-90 mmlong, mane hairs tend to be 80-110 mmlong. Pelage during summer is shorter than in winter. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats throughout their range including prairie, forest, desert, mountain, and tropical ecosystems. Their ability to exploit human resources also allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit distribution in some desert environments."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF33FFCD7E94FE9CF883D907.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF33FFCD7E94FE9CF883D907","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"415","verbatimText":"2.Red WolfCanis rufusFrench:Loup roux/ German:Rotwolf/ Spanish:Lobo rojoTaxonomy.Canis rufus Audubon & Bachman, 1851,Texas, USA.The taxonomic status of the Red Wolf has been debated widely. Recent genetic and morphological evidence suggests the Red Wolf is a unique taxon, and not a hybrid of Gray Wolf and Coyote, as previously suggested. Three subspecies were initially recognized: rufus (Audubon & Bachman, 1851), gregory: (Goldman, 1937), and floridanus (Miller, 1912), of which only one, gregoryi, 1s believed to have survived. Genetic methodologies have not been applied to sub-specific designation, and current disagreement about the relatedness of wolves in eastern North America, if resolved, may alter currently accepted subspecific classification of C. rufus.Distribution.Red Wolves exist only as a reintroduced population in E North Carolina, USA.Descriptive notes.Head-body 104-125 cmfor males and 99-120- 1 cmfor females, tail 33-46 cmfor males and 29- 5-44 cmfor females; weight 22-34- 1 kgfor males and 20-1-29- 7 kgfor females. Generally appears long-legged and rangy with proportionately large ears. Intermediate in size between the Coyote and the Gray Wolf. The Red Wolf's almond-shaped eyes, broad muzzle, and wide nose pad contribute to its wolf-like appearance. The muzzle tends to be very pale in color with an area of white around the lips extending up the sides of the muzzle. Coloration is typically brownish or cinnamon with gray and black shading on the back and tail. A black phase occurred historically butis probably extinct. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Very little is known about Red Wolf habitat because the species’ range was severely reduced by the time scientific investigations began. Given their wide historical distribution, Red Wolves probably utilized a large suite of habitat typesat one time. The last naturally occurring population utilized the coastal prairie marshes of south-western Louisianaand south-eastern Texas. However, many agree that this environment probably does not typify preferred Red Wolf habitat. There is evidence that the species was found in highest numbers in the once extensive bottomland river forests and swamps of the South-east. Red wolves reintroduced into North Carolina, and their descendants, have made extensive use of habitat typesranging from agricultural lands to pocosins, which are forest/wetland mosaics with an understory of evergreen shrubs. This suggests that Red Wolves are habitat generalists and can thrive in most settings where prey populations are adequate and persecution by humans is slight. This generalization is supported by one study in which low human density, wetland soil type, and distance from roads were the most important predictors of potential wolf habitat in North Carolina.Food and Feeding.Mammals such as Coypu (Myocastor coypus), rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.), and rodents (Sigmodon hispidus, Oryzomys palustris, Ondatra zibethicus) are common in south-eastern Texasand appear to have been the primary prey of Red Wolves historically. Presently in North Carolina, White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Northern Raccoons, and rabbits are the primary prey species for the reintroduced population (86% of the diet). While it is not uncommon for Red Wolves to forage individually, there is also evidence of group hunting by pack members. Also, resource partitioning among members of a pack sometimes occurs. In one study of pack feeding, rodents were consumed more by juveniles than adults, and use of rodents diminished as the young wolves matured.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal with crepuscular peaks of activity. Hunting usually occurs at night or at dawn and dusk.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Red Wolves normally live in extended family units or packs, typically including a dominant breeding pair and their offspring from previous years. Dispersal of offspring tends to occur before individuals reach two years of age. Group size in the reintroduced population ranges from a single breeding pair to twelve individuals. Red Wolves are territorial, and like other canids, appear to scent-mark boundaries to exclude non-group members from their territory. Home range size (46-226 km?) varies with habitat availability.Breeding.Red Wolves typically reach sexual maturity by 22 months of age, though breeding at ten months may occur. Mating usually takes place between February and March, gestation lasting 61-63 days. Peak whelping dates occur from mid-April to mid-May, producing litters of 1-10 pups. In a given year, a dominant pair produces one litter per pack. During the denning season, pregnant females may establish several dens. Some dens are shallow surface depressions located in dense vegetation for shelter at locations where the water table is high; other dens are deep burrows, often in windrows between agricultural fields or in canal banks. Dens have also been found in the hollowed out bases of large trees. Pups are often moved from one den to another before leaving the den altogether, and den attendance by male and female yearlings and adult pack members is common.Status and Conservation.CITES notlisted. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extinct in the Wild by 1980, the Red Wolf was reintroduced by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1987 into eastern North Carolina. The Red Wolf is now common within the reintroduction area of roughly 6000 km*. However, the species’ abundance outside this area is unknown. Hybridization with Coyotes or Red Wolf/ Coyote hybrids is the primary threat to the species’ persistence in the wild. While hybridization with Coyotes was a factor in the Red Wolf's initial demise in the wild, it was not detected as a problem in North Carolinauntil approximately 1992. Indeed, the region was determined to be ideal for Red Wolf reintroductions because of a purported absence of Coyotes. However, during the 1990s the Coyote population apparently became well established in the area. In the absence of hybridization, recovery of the Red Wolf and subsequent removal of the species from the USAEndangered Species List is deemed possible. It is noteworthy that similar hybridization has been observed in the population of suspected Red Wolf-type wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. If these wolves are ultimately shown to be Red Wolf-type wolves, this will enhance the conservation status of the species and nearly triple the known number of Red Wolf-type wolves surviving in the wild. Human-induced mortality (vehicles and gunshot) can be significant. However, the threat this represents to the population is unclear. Most vehicle deaths occurred early in the reintroduction and were likely due to naive animals.Bibliography.Carley (1975), Goldman (1937), Hahn (2002), Kelly (2000), Kelly, Beyer & Phillips (2004), Kelly, Miller & Seal (1999), Nowak (1979, 2002), Paradiso & Nowak (1971, 1972), Parker (1986), Phillips & Henry (1992), Phillips, Henry & Kelly (2003), Phillips, Smith et al. (1995), Riley & McBride (1972), Shaw (1975), US Fish & Wildlife Service (1990), Wilson & Reeder (2005).","taxonomy":"Canis rufus Audubon & Bachman, 1851,Texas, USA.The taxonomic status of the Red Wolf has been debated widely. Recent genetic and morphological evidence suggests the Red Wolf is a unique taxon, and not a hybrid of Gray Wolf and Coyote, as previously suggested. Three subspecies were initially recognized: rufus (Audubon & Bachman, 1851), gregory: (Goldman, 1937), and floridanus (Miller, 1912), of which only one, gregoryi, 1s believed to have survived. Genetic methodologies have not been applied to sub-specific designation, and current disagreement about the relatedness of wolves in eastern North America, if resolved, may alter currently accepted subspecific classification of C. rufus.","commonNames":"Loup roux @fr | Rotwolf @de | Lobo rojo @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Audubon & Bachman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1851","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"415","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufus","name":"Canis rufus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Red Wolves exist only as a reintroduced population in E North Carolina, USA.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331163/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carley (1975) | Goldman (1937) | Hahn (2002) | Kelly (2000) | Kelly, Beyer & Phillips (2004) | Kelly, Miller & Seal (1999) | Nowak (1979, 2002) | Paradiso & Nowak (1971, 1972) | Parker (1986) | Phillips & Henry (1992) | Phillips, Henry & Kelly (2003) | Phillips, Smith et al. (1995) | Riley & McBride (1972) | Shaw (1975) | US Fish & Wildlife Service (1990) | Wilson & Reeder (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Mammals such as Coypu (Myocastor coypus), rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.), and rodents (Sigmodon hispidus, Oryzomys palustris, Ondatra zibethicus) are common in south-eastern Texasand appear to have been the primary prey of Red Wolves historically. Presently in North Carolina, White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Northern Raccoons, and rabbits are the primary prey species for the reintroduced population (86% of the diet). While it is not uncommon for Red Wolves to forage individually, there is also evidence of group hunting by pack members. Also, resource partitioning among members of a pack sometimes occurs. In one study of pack feeding, rodents were consumed more by juveniles than adults, and use of rodents diminished as the young wolves matured.","breeding":"Red Wolves typically reach sexual maturity by 22 months of age, though breeding at ten months may occur. Mating usually takes place between February and March, gestation lasting 61-63 days. Peak whelping dates occur from mid-April to mid-May, producing litters of 1-10 pups. In a given year, a dominant pair produces one litter per pack. During the denning season, pregnant females may establish several dens. Some dens are shallow surface depressions located in dense vegetation for shelter at locations where the water table is high; other dens are deep burrows, often in windrows between agricultural fields or in canal banks. Dens have also been found in the hollowed out bases of large trees. Pups are often moved from one den to another before leaving the den altogether, and den attendance by male and female yearlings and adult pack members is common.","activityPatterns":"Mostly nocturnal with crepuscular peaks of activity. Hunting usually occurs at night or at dawn and dusk.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Red Wolves normally live in extended family units or packs, typically including a dominant breeding pair and their offspring from previous years. Dispersal of offspring tends to occur before individuals reach two years of age. Group size in the reintroduced population ranges from a single breeding pair to twelve individuals. Red Wolves are territorial, and like other canids, appear to scent-mark boundaries to exclude non-group members from their territory. Home range size (46-226 km?) varies with habitat availability.Breeding.Red Wolves typically reach sexual maturity by 22 months of age, though breeding at ten months may occur. Mating usually takes place between February and March, gestation lasting 61-63 days. Peak whelping dates occur from mid-April to mid-May, producing litters of 1-10 pups. In a given year, a dominant pair produces one litter per pack. During the denning season, pregnant females may establish several dens. Some dens are shallow surface depressions located in dense vegetation for shelter at locations where the water table is high; other dens are deep burrows, often in windrows between agricultural fields or in canal banks. Dens have also been found in the hollowed out bases of large trees. Pups are often moved from one den to another before leaving the den altogether, and den attendance by male and female yearlings and adult pack members is common.","statusAndConservation":"CITES notlisted. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extinct in the Wild by 1980, the Red Wolf was reintroduced by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1987 into eastern North Carolina. The Red Wolf is now common within the reintroduction area of roughly 6000 km*. However, the species’ abundance outside this area is unknown. Hybridization with Coyotes or Red Wolf/ Coyote hybrids is the primary threat to the species’ persistence in the wild. While hybridization with Coyotes was a factor in the Red Wolf's initial demise in the wild, it was not detected as a problem in North Carolinauntil approximately 1992. Indeed, the region was determined to be ideal for Red Wolf reintroductions because of a purported absence of Coyotes. However, during the 1990s the Coyote population apparently became well established in the area. In the absence of hybridization, recovery of the Red Wolf and subsequent removal of the species from the USAEndangered Species List is deemed possible. It is noteworthy that similar hybridization has been observed in the population of suspected Red Wolf-type wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. If these wolves are ultimately shown to be Red Wolf-type wolves, this will enhance the conservation status of the species and nearly triple the known number of Red Wolf-type wolves surviving in the wild. Human-induced mortality (vehicles and gunshot) can be significant. However, the threat this represents to the population is unclear. Most vehicle deaths occurred early in the reintroduction and were likely due to naive animals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 104-125 cmfor males and 99-120- 1 cmfor females, tail 33-46 cmfor males and 29- 5-44 cmfor females; weight 22-34- 1 kgfor males and 20-1-29- 7 kgfor females. Generally appears long-legged and rangy with proportionately large ears. Intermediate in size between the Coyote and the Gray Wolf. The Red Wolf's almond-shaped eyes, broad muzzle, and wide nose pad contribute to its wolf-like appearance. The muzzle tends to be very pale in color with an area of white around the lips extending up the sides of the muzzle. Coloration is typically brownish or cinnamon with gray and black shading on the back and tail. A black phase occurred historically butis probably extinct. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Very little is known about Red Wolf habitat because the species’ range was severely reduced by the time scientific investigations began. Given their wide historical distribution, Red Wolves probably utilized a large suite of habitat typesat one time. The last naturally occurring population utilized the coastal prairie marshes of south-western Louisianaand south-eastern Texas. However, many agree that this environment probably does not typify preferred Red Wolf habitat. There is evidence that the species was found in highest numbers in the once extensive bottomland river forests and swamps of the South-east. Red wolves reintroduced into North Carolina, and their descendants, have made extensive use of habitat typesranging from agricultural lands to pocosins, which are forest/wetland mosaics with an understory of evergreen shrubs. This suggests that Red Wolves are habitat generalists and can thrive in most settings where prey populations are adequate and persecution by humans is slight. This generalization is supported by one study in which low human density, wetland soil type, and distance from roads were the most important predictors of potential wolf habitat in North Carolina."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"413","verbatimText":"1.Gray WolfCanis lupusFrench:Loup gris/ German:Wolf/ Spanish:LoboOther common names:Wolf, Timber Wolf, Tundra Wolf, Arctic WolfTaxonomy.Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia. Canis lycaonhas been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to Australiaby Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as C. antarticusor C. familiaris dingo. Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.Subspecies and Distribution.-_....r-..... _. - - __ ............C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758- Asia, Europe.C. l. albus Kerr, 1792— N Russia.C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935— Canadian High Arctic.C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Mexico, SW USA(extinct in the wild).C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804— C Russia.C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923— E-C Asia.C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793— SE Asia and Australasia.C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775— SE Canada, NE USA.C. l. nubilus Say, 1823— E-C Canadaand C USA.C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829— Alaska, NW Canada.C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831— Middle East and SW Asia to India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-130 cmfor males and 87-117 cmfor females, tail 40-52 cmfor males and 35-50 cmfor females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to 62 kg. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts.Food and Feeding.Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer Rangifer tarandus, deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from 100 mto more than 5 kmare the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6- 3 kgor more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey typesand over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in Australiacomposed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards (Ctenophorus nuchalis). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of 75-2500 km* depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (90-300 km?) occur in the deserts of south-western Australia. Elsewhere they range from 10-113 km? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about 250 km.Breeding.Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across Canadaand Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in Greenland(Denmark). Endangered in north-west USA, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other USArange states. Highly endangered in Mexico. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the USA, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the USA, and reintroduction in the western USA. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.Bibliography.Boitani (1995), Carbyn et al. (1995), Corbett (1995, 2004), Corbett & Newsome (1987), Daniels & Corbett (2003), Fuller (1989), Harrington & Paquet (1982), Koler-Matznick et al. (2000), Mech (1970, 1974, 2002), Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004), Mech et al. (1998), Nowak (1995), Wilson et al. (2000), Young & Goldman (1944).","taxonomy":"Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia. Canis lycaonhas been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to Australiaby Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as C. antarticusor C. familiaris dingo. Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.","commonNames":"Loup gris @fr | Wolf @de | Lobo @es | Wolf @en | Timber Wolf @en | Tundra Wolf @en | Arctic Wolf @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"413","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lupus","name":"Canis lupus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"-_....r-..... _. - - __ ............C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758- Asia, Europe.C. l. albus Kerr, 1792— N Russia.C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935— Canadian High Arctic.C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Mexico, SW USA(extinct in the wild).C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804— C Russia.C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923— E-C Asia.C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793— SE Asia and Australasia.C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775— SE Canada, NE USA.C. l. nubilus Say, 1823— E-C Canadaand C USA.C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829— Alaska, NW Canada.C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831— Middle East and SW Asia to India.","bibliography":"Boitani (1995) | Carbyn et al. (1995) | Corbett (1995, 2004) | Corbett & Newsome (1987) | Daniels & Corbett (2003) | Fuller (1989) | Harrington & Paquet (1982) | Koler-Matznick et al. (2000) | Mech (1970, 1974, 2002) | Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004) | Mech et al. (1998) | Nowak (1995) | Wilson et al. (2000) | Young & Goldman (1944)","foodAndFeeding":"Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer Rangifer tarandus, deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from 100 mto more than 5 kmare the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6- 3 kgor more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey typesand over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in Australiacomposed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards (Ctenophorus nuchalis). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.","breeding":"Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.","activityPatterns":"Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of 75-2500 km* depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (90-300 km?) occur in the deserts of south-western Australia. Elsewhere they range from 10-113 km? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about 250 km.Breeding.Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across Canadaand Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in Greenland(Denmark). Endangered in north-west USA, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other USArange states. Highly endangered in Mexico. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the USA, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the USA, and reintroduction in the western USA. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-130 cmfor males and 87-117 cmfor females, tail 40-52 cmfor males and 35-50 cmfor females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to 62 kg. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF35FFCB7E8BFE3EFA16D72F","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"413","verbatimText":"1.Gray WolfCanis lupusFrench:Loup gris/ German:Wolf/ Spanish:LoboOther common names:Wolf, Timber Wolf, Tundra Wolf, Arctic WolfTaxonomy.Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia. Canis lycaonhas been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to Australiaby Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as C. antarticusor C. familiaris dingo. Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.Subspecies and Distribution.-_....r-..... _. - - __ ............C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758- Asia, Europe.C. l. albus Kerr, 1792— N Russia.C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935— Canadian High Arctic.C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Mexico, SW USA(extinct in the wild).C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804— C Russia.C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923— E-C Asia.C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793— SE Asia and Australasia.C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775— SE Canada, NE USA.C. l. nubilus Say, 1823— E-C Canadaand C USA.C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829— Alaska, NW Canada.C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831— Middle East and SW Asia to India.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-130 cmfor males and 87-117 cmfor females, tail 40-52 cmfor males and 35-50 cmfor females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to 62 kg. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts.Food and Feeding.Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer Rangifer tarandus, deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from 100 mto more than 5 kmare the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6- 3 kgor more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey typesand over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in Australiacomposed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards (Ctenophorus nuchalis). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of 75-2500 km* depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (90-300 km?) occur in the deserts of south-western Australia. Elsewhere they range from 10-113 km? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about 250 km.Breeding.Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across Canadaand Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in Greenland(Denmark). Endangered in north-west USA, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other USArange states. Highly endangered in Mexico. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the USA, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the USA, and reintroduction in the western USA. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.Bibliography.Boitani (1995), Carbyn et al. (1995), Corbett (1995, 2004), Corbett & Newsome (1987), Daniels & Corbett (2003), Fuller (1989), Harrington & Paquet (1982), Koler-Matznick et al. (2000), Mech (1970, 1974, 2002), Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004), Mech et al. (1998), Nowak (1995), Wilson et al. (2000), Young & Goldman (1944).","taxonomy":"Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758,Sweden.There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia. Canis lycaonhas been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to Australiaby Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as C. antarticusor C. familiaris dingo. Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.","commonNames":"Loup gris @fr | Wolf @de | Lobo @es | Wolf @en | Timber Wolf @en | Tundra Wolf @en | Arctic Wolf @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"413","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lupus","name":"Canis lupus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"-_....r-..... _. - - __ ............C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758- Asia, Europe.C. l. albus Kerr, 1792— N Russia.C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935— Canadian High Arctic.C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929— Mexico, SW USA(extinct in the wild).C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804— C Russia.C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923— E-C Asia.C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793— SE Asia and Australasia.C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775— SE Canada, NE USA.C. l. nubilus Say, 1823— E-C Canadaand C USA.C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829— Alaska, NW Canada.C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831— Middle East and SW Asia to India.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331161/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Boitani (1995) | Carbyn et al. (1995) | Corbett (1995, 2004) | Corbett & Newsome (1987) | Daniels & Corbett (2003) | Fuller (1989) | Harrington & Paquet (1982) | Koler-Matznick et al. (2000) | Mech (1970, 1974, 2002) | Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004) | Mech et al. (1998) | Nowak (1995) | Wilson et al. (2000) | Young & Goldman (1944)","foodAndFeeding":"Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer Rangifer tarandus, deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from 100 mto more than 5 kmare the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6- 3 kgor more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey typesand over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in Australiacomposed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards (Ctenophorus nuchalis). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.","breeding":"Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.","activityPatterns":"Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of 75-2500 km* depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (90-300 km?) occur in the deserts of south-western Australia. Elsewhere they range from 10-113 km? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about 250 km.Breeding.Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across Canadaand Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in Greenland(Denmark). Endangered in north-west USA, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other USArange states. Highly endangered in Mexico. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the USA, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the USA, and reintroduction in the western USA. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-130 cmfor males and 87-117 cmfor females, tail 40-52 cmfor males and 35-50 cmfor females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to 62 kg. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF37FFC97CECFD9CF863D827.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF37FFC97CECFD9CF863D827","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"352","verbatimText":"Family CANIDAE (DOGS)• Small to quite large mammals with triangular heads, long, pointed muzzles, well-developed jaws, and prominent, roughly triangular pointed ears; muscular, deepchested body, long and slender limbs, and bushytail.• 45.8-182 cm.• Cosmopolitan, all regions except Antarcticaand many oceanic islands.• Occur in all major habitats, spanning tropical forests, woodland, savannah, deserts, alpine heathlands, and the Arctic; found at all altitudes from sea level to over 5000 m.• 13 genera, 35 species,at least 172 extant taxa.• 3 species Critically Endangered, 3 species Endangered; 1 species and 5 subspecies Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF38FFD97EDEFB7AFEDADF34.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF38FFD97EDEFB7AFEDADF34","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"426","verbatimText":"12.Crab-eating FoxCerdocyon thousFrench:Renard crabier/ German:Savannenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro cangrejeroOther common names:Savannah FoxTaxonomy.Canis thous Linnaeus, 1766.Suriname.Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. t. thous Linnaeus, 1766— N Brazil, the Guianas, and SE Venezuela.C. t. aquilus Bangs, 1898— N Colombia, N Venezuela.C. t. azarae Wied-Neuwied, 1824— NE & C Brazil.C. t. entrerianus Burmeister, 1861— Argentina, Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.C. t. germanus G. M. Allen, 1923— Colombia(Bogota region).Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-775 cmand tail 22-41 cm; weight 4-5-8-5 kg. Mediums-sized, tail moderately bushy, often with black tip and dark at base. No sexual dimorphism. Rostrum long and pointed, head relatively short and narrow. Pelage generally dark gray to black along dorsum down to midline; midline to ventrum including legs gray or black, sometimes with yellow to orange flecks; neck and underparts cream to buff white. Pelage notably bristly and coarse. Substantial inter- and intra-population pelage color variation including dark to almost black (e.g. northern Venezuela, Amazonia, central Brazil), silver gray (e.g. Venezuelan Llanos), and pale gray-yellow rufous (e.g. Ceara, Brazil). Continuous black dorsal line from neck to tail tip variably present. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 1/2 = 44.Habitat.Occupies most habitats including marshland, savannah, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savannah within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development(e.g. sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples), and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge. Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with individual fox’s social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajo, Brazil, preferred wooded savannah and regenerating scrub. In the central Llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges were generally located in open palm savannah (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32% of sightings). The foxes shifted to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest “vereidas” and less frequently in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%).Food and Feeding.Omnivorous: diet includes fruit, vertebrates, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, birds, and carrion. An opportunistic predator; diet at any one location varies according to availability, season, and probably social status. In areas of human disturbance, a large proportion of the diet may comprise foods such as cultivated fruits, domestic fowl, and refuse. In the Venezuelan Llanos, the percent volume of food items from the contents of 104 fox stomachs from four different locations included: small mammals (26%), fruit (24%), amphibians (13%), insects (11%); the dry season diet was predominantly small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, with insect and fruit becoming more frequent in the wet season. In one Venezuelan location, land crabs (Dilocarcinus spp.) were the most frequently occurring dietary item in the rainy season, and in the Ibera Wetlands (Corrientes, Argentina), aquatic birds were identified in 87% of 23 fox scats collected in the vicinity of a bird breeding colony. Vertebrates were the most frequently encountered food item (69%) of 74 prey items identified in 22 scats collected at elevations of above 2600 min the eastern Colombian Andes, but were the least favored food item (15%) in feces collected from the lowland wooded savannahs of Marajo (Brazil), where cultivated and wild fruit (57%) and insects (86%) were more frequently encountered. Crab-eating Foxes hunt individually, but most commonly as pairs; 1-3 adultsized offspring may accompany them. Cooperative hunting apparently is rare. They will tolerate close proximity when foraging on concentrated, easily available food items such as turtle eggs, fruit, insects (e.g. termites), and sizeable carrion (e.g. goat carcass). The young start to hunt with the parents at about six weeks of age. Hunting strategies include spring-pouncing to capture vertebrates, ground-level lateral head movements to snatch insects, and directional maneuvers in pursuit of land crabs. The foxes in Marajo deliver a series of shoulder blows, with face up-turned, to some food items (e.g. toads, eggs) prior to comsuming them. In the same region, foxes search for and consume small stones from specific open gravel sites, presumably as a source of minerals. Foxes cache food items but do not regularly urine-mark them. They probably act as seed dispersers of a range of wild and cultivated plant species, as indicated by the presence of germinating seeds in their scats. Examples include Acacia aroma and Celtis tala (montane Chaco, Argentina), Butia capitata (Uruguay), Hovenia dulcis (Iguacu National Park, Brazil), Ficus spp. (south-eastern Brazil), Psidiumguineense, Humiria balsamifera, and Anacardium occidentale (Amazonian Brazil).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social groups comprise a breeding pair and 1-5 offspring (older than one year). Family members usually travel around their home ranges in pairs or,if offspring are present, in loosely knit family groups. Separated foxes maintain contact by long distance, high-pitched, bird-like trill vocalizations. In Marajo, Brazil, territorial breeding pairs were located less than 100 mapart on a mean 54% (n = 7) of occasions during the period of activity, whereas close proximity of breeding adults and their adultsized offspring varied from 7-2% to 93-3% between given pairings. In Marajo, Braziladult foxes occupied stable territories of 5- 3 km? (range 0-5-10- 4 km?), whereas in pasture/eucalyptus habitats in Minas Gerais(Brazil), an adult male’s range was 2- 2 km? In dry forest sites in Santa Cruz, Boliviaan adult female and two adultmales occupied mean home ranges of 2- 2 km* (range 1-1-2- 8 km?). In the central Venezuelan Llanos, three adultfoxes and three adultfox pairs showed dry season home ranges (mean 0-7 km?*range 0-5- 1 km?) to be generally larger than wet season home ranges (mean 0-7 km? range 0-3- 1 km?). Shrinkage of fox range sizes in the wet season is thought to be in response to changes in the availability of dry habitats and/or prey density. Dispersing offspring established territories adjoining their natal range. The average distance between range centers was 2-4 km(range 1-9- 2-9 km). After dispersal, these foxes interacted amicably with kin members both inside and outside their natal ranges. Four male foxes returned to their natal range 3-13 months after their dispersal, in two cases following the death of their mate and in one case after breeding. Group latrines are not usual features of Crab-eating Fox society; however, a latrine comprising over 72 scats visited by at least four adultsized individuals was observed in Maraca Ecological Station, Brazil. The use of scat latrines located near resting sites has also been reported.Breeding.In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Crab-eating Foxes are considered common in most range countries, and populations are probably stable. The species is currently listed as “potentially vulnerable” in the ArgentineRed Data Book, but not listed as threatened in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. There is little documentation for populations in Suriname, French Guiana, and peripheral areas of lowland Amazon forest. No specific protective legislation exists for this species, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most range countries. Crab-eating Foxes are potentially threatened by pathogens from domestic dogs. The Crab-eating Fox is also perceived as a pest of poultry throughout much ofits range (and in Uruguayas a predator of lambs), and consequently is often shot, trapped, and poisoned indiscriminately. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not enforced. Trapping occurred extensively in dry forest regions in Boliviabefore the early 1980s, when single pelts were worth US$ 30, but the species currently has little commercial value as a furbearer. Crab-eating Foxes are also often killed by vehicles on roadways in some areas.Bibliography.Biben (1982, 1983), Bisbal (1988), Bisbal & Ojasti (1980), Brady (1978, 1979), Cabrera (1931, 1958), Cordero-Rodriguez & Nassar (1999), Courtenay (1998), Courtenay & Maffei (2004), Courtenay, Macdonald et al. (1994), Courtenay, Quinnell & Chalmers (2001), Courtenay, Quinnell, Garcez & Dye (2002), Courtenay, Santana et al. (1996), Cravino, Calvar, Berruti et al. (1997), Cravino, Calvar, Poetti et al. (2000), Eisenberg et al. (1979), Facure & Monteiro-Filho (1996), Hill et al. (1997), Macdonald & Courtenay (1996), Maffei & Taber (2003), Montgomery & Lubin (1978), Motta-Junior et al. (1994), Parera (1996), Paz et al. (1995), Sunquist et al. (1989).","taxonomy":"Canis thous Linnaeus, 1766.Suriname.Five subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard crabier @fr | Savannenfuchs @de | Zorro cangrejero @es | Savannah Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1766","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Cerdocyon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"426","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"thous","name":"Cerdocyon thous","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. t. thous Linnaeus, 1766— N Brazil, the Guianas, and SE Venezuela.C. t. aquilus Bangs, 1898— N Colombia, N Venezuela.C. t. azarae Wied-Neuwied, 1824— NE & C Brazil.C. t. entrerianus Burmeister, 1861— Argentina, Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.C. t. germanus G. M. Allen, 1923— Colombia(Bogota region).","bibliography":"Biben (1982, 1983) | Bisbal (1988) | Bisbal & Ojasti (1980) | Brady (1978, 1979) | Cabrera (1931, 1958) | Cordero-Rodriguez & Nassar (1999) | Courtenay (1998) | Courtenay & Maffei (2004) | Courtenay, Macdonald et al. (1994) | Courtenay, Quinnell & Chalmers (2001) | Courtenay, Quinnell, Garcez & Dye (2002) | Courtenay, Santana et al. (1996) | Cravino, Calvar, Berruti et al. (1997) | Cravino, Calvar, Poetti et al. (2000) | Eisenberg et al. (1979) | Facure & Monteiro-Filho (1996) | Hill et al. (1997) | Macdonald & Courtenay (1996) | Maffei & Taber (2003) | Montgomery & Lubin (1978) | Motta-Junior et al. (1994) | Parera (1996) | Paz et al. (1995) | Sunquist et al. (1989)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous: diet includes fruit, vertebrates, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, birds, and carrion. An opportunistic predator; diet at any one location varies according to availability, season, and probably social status. In areas of human disturbance, a large proportion of the diet may comprise foods such as cultivated fruits, domestic fowl, and refuse. In the Venezuelan Llanos, the percent volume of food items from the contents of 104 fox stomachs from four different locations included: small mammals (26%), fruit (24%), amphibians (13%), insects (11%); the dry season diet was predominantly small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, with insect and fruit becoming more frequent in the wet season. In one Venezuelan location, land crabs (Dilocarcinus spp.) were the most frequently occurring dietary item in the rainy season, and in the Ibera Wetlands (Corrientes, Argentina), aquatic birds were identified in 87% of 23 fox scats collected in the vicinity of a bird breeding colony. Vertebrates were the most frequently encountered food item (69%) of 74 prey items identified in 22 scats collected at elevations of above 2600 min the eastern Colombian Andes, but were the least favored food item (15%) in feces collected from the lowland wooded savannahs of Marajo (Brazil), where cultivated and wild fruit (57%) and insects (86%) were more frequently encountered. Crab-eating Foxes hunt individually, but most commonly as pairs; 1-3 adultsized offspring may accompany them. Cooperative hunting apparently is rare. They will tolerate close proximity when foraging on concentrated, easily available food items such as turtle eggs, fruit, insects (e.g. termites), and sizeable carrion (e.g. goat carcass). The young start to hunt with the parents at about six weeks of age. Hunting strategies include spring-pouncing to capture vertebrates, ground-level lateral head movements to snatch insects, and directional maneuvers in pursuit of land crabs. The foxes in Marajo deliver a series of shoulder blows, with face up-turned, to some food items (e.g. toads, eggs) prior to comsuming them. In the same region, foxes search for and consume small stones from specific open gravel sites, presumably as a source of minerals. Foxes cache food items but do not regularly urine-mark them. They probably act as seed dispersers of a range of wild and cultivated plant species, as indicated by the presence of germinating seeds in their scats. Examples include Acacia aroma and Celtis tala (montane Chaco, Argentina), Butia capitata (Uruguay), Hovenia dulcis (Iguacu National Park, Brazil), Ficus spp. (south-eastern Brazil), Psidiumguineense, Humiria balsamifera, and Anacardium occidentale (Amazonian Brazil).","breeding":"In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social groups comprise a breeding pair and 1-5 offspring (older than one year). Family members usually travel around their home ranges in pairs or,if offspring are present, in loosely knit family groups. Separated foxes maintain contact by long distance, high-pitched, bird-like trill vocalizations. In Marajo, Brazil, territorial breeding pairs were located less than 100 mapart on a mean 54% (n = 7) of occasions during the period of activity, whereas close proximity of breeding adults and their adultsized offspring varied from 7-2% to 93-3% between given pairings. In Marajo, Braziladult foxes occupied stable territories of 5- 3 km? (range 0-5-10- 4 km?), whereas in pasture/eucalyptus habitats in Minas Gerais(Brazil), an adult male’s range was 2- 2 km? In dry forest sites in Santa Cruz, Boliviaan adult female and two adultmales occupied mean home ranges of 2- 2 km* (range 1-1-2- 8 km?). In the central Venezuelan Llanos, three adultfoxes and three adultfox pairs showed dry season home ranges (mean 0-7 km?*range 0-5- 1 km?) to be generally larger than wet season home ranges (mean 0-7 km? range 0-3- 1 km?). Shrinkage of fox range sizes in the wet season is thought to be in response to changes in the availability of dry habitats and/or prey density. Dispersing offspring established territories adjoining their natal range. The average distance between range centers was 2-4 km(range 1-9- 2-9 km). After dispersal, these foxes interacted amicably with kin members both inside and outside their natal ranges. Four male foxes returned to their natal range 3-13 months after their dispersal, in two cases following the death of their mate and in one case after breeding. Group latrines are not usual features of Crab-eating Fox society; however, a latrine comprising over 72 scats visited by at least four adultsized individuals was observed in Maraca Ecological Station, Brazil. The use of scat latrines located near resting sites has also been reported.Breeding.In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Crab-eating Foxes are considered common in most range countries, and populations are probably stable. The species is currently listed as “potentially vulnerable” in the ArgentineRed Data Book, but not listed as threatened in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. There is little documentation for populations in Suriname, French Guiana, and peripheral areas of lowland Amazon forest. No specific protective legislation exists for this species, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most range countries. Crab-eating Foxes are potentially threatened by pathogens from domestic dogs. The Crab-eating Fox is also perceived as a pest of poultry throughout much ofits range (and in Uruguayas a predator of lambs), and consequently is often shot, trapped, and poisoned indiscriminately. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not enforced. Trapping occurred extensively in dry forest regions in Boliviabefore the early 1980s, when single pelts were worth US$ 30, but the species currently has little commercial value as a furbearer. Crab-eating Foxes are also often killed by vehicles on roadways in some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 57-775 cmand tail 22-41 cm; weight 4-5-8-5 kg. Mediums-sized, tail moderately bushy, often with black tip and dark at base. No sexual dimorphism. Rostrum long and pointed, head relatively short and narrow. Pelage generally dark gray to black along dorsum down to midline; midline to ventrum including legs gray or black, sometimes with yellow to orange flecks; neck and underparts cream to buff white. Pelage notably bristly and coarse. Substantial inter- and intra-population pelage color variation including dark to almost black (e.g. northern Venezuela, Amazonia, central Brazil), silver gray (e.g. Venezuelan Llanos), and pale gray-yellow rufous (e.g. Ceara, Brazil). Continuous black dorsal line from neck to tail tip variably present. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 1/2 = 44.","habitat":"Occupies most habitats including marshland, savannah, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savannah within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development(e.g. sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples), and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge. Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with individual fox’s social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajo, Brazil, preferred wooded savannah and regenerating scrub. In the central Llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges were generally located in open palm savannah (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32% of sightings). The foxes shifted to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest “vereidas” and less frequently in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF39FFC67B89FCF4FAB4DEDB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF39FFC67B89FCF4FAB4DEDB","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"425","verbatimText":"11.Bush DogSpeothos venaticusFrench:Chien des buissons/ German:Waldhund/ Spanish:Zorro vinagreOther common names:Vinegar Dog, Savannah DogTaxonomy.Cynogale venatica Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.S. pacivorus, an extinct species, is known only from fossil deposits in Lagoa Santa caves in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and may not have existed past the Holocene. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. v. venaticus Lund, 1842— Argentina(Misiones), Bolivia, N & C Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.S. v. panamensis Goldman, 1912— Panama.S. v. wingei Ihering, 1911- SE Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57- 5-75 cm, tail 12- 5-15 cm; weight 5-8 kg. Characterized by a long body, a short and sometimes stubbytail, and short legs. Broad face with short muzzle, small rounded ears, brown eyes. Head and neck are generally reddishtan or tawny, gradually darkening to black or dark brown hindquarters and legs. The underside is also dark and some individuals may show a pale white throat or chest patch. Coat patterns can be highly variable, from almost all black to very light blonde. Feet are partially webbed and tracks are nearly identical to those of the domestic dog. Bush Dogs are one of three canid species with trenchant heel dentition, a unicuspid talonid on the lower carnassial molar that increases the cutting blade length. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40.Habitat.The Bush Dog is a forest dweller, occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, and near available prey populations, especially Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1500 m) forested habitats, including primary and gallery forest, semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest. Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Braziland Paraguayand pampas (wet savannah) edge/riparian areas, and as far as 5700 mfrom forest habitat. Occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland, and fragmented cerrado ranchland.Food and Feeding.Primarily carnivorous, Bush Dogs mainly hunt large rodents such as Lowland Pacas and agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.). Their diet often includes other small mammals (e.g. rats, Oryzomys spp. and Proechimys spp., rabbits, Sylvilagus brasiliensis, opossums, Didelphis spp. and the Nine-banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus). Other prey items include teju lizards (Tupinambis sp.), snakes, and possibly ground-nesting birds. Bush Dogs can engage in group hunting to take prey considerably larger than themselves, such as Capybaras (Hydrochoeris hydrochaeris), and rheas (Rhea americana), deer (Mazama spp.), and even South American Tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Bush Dogs hunt in packs of 2-8 animals (mean 4-5) employing a variety of cooperative hunting strategies. Prey is pursued relentlessly by the pack, even into deep water. In Boliviathe dogs hunt Mazama deer by attacking the legs until the animaltires and falls. Olfaction may play a large role when foraging. Some individuals may enter the burrow of a prey species while other pack members wait at possible escape routes.Activity patterns.Mostly diurnal; the pair and any family members spend the night in a den.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bush Dogs are considered the most social of the small canids, reportedly living in groups ranging from 2-12 individuals, with most observed groups including 2-6 members. The ability of a pack to hunt cooperatively appears to be a primary benefit of the Bush Dog’s social organization. Estimated home range is between 4-6 and 4-7 km*. A monogamous pair-bond is likely with the offspring from multiple yearsliving with the pair. Urine-marking may be important for the formation and maintenance of pair-bonds. Bush Dogs tend to be associated with strong smell, lending evidence that urine is a particularly effective intra-specific communication medium. Males extrude the penis and move laterally, creating a spray rather than a stream, and females drag their ano-genital region over a surface or display either a forelimb handstand or a squat. The raised posture allows urine to be deposited some 150 mmhigher than the spray of the male. Adult Bush Dog vocalizations have been classified as whines, repetitive whines, pulsed vocalization, screams, barks, and growls. Infants whine, grunt, growl, and bark; these vocalizations are thought to eitherelicit care or reduce aggression. The elaborate set of close-contact calls assists in communicating subtle changes in mood as well as changes in location.Breeding.The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Currently, the population is estimated to number fewer than 15,000 mature individuals. Appears naturally rare throughoutits range, independent of human disturbance. Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela, and is prohibited elsewhere in the range. Perceived threats include habitat conversion and human encroachment. Bush dogs are occasionally killed in Boliviaand Ecuadoras predators of chickens, and road kills have been documented in Brazil.Bibliography.Aquino & Puertas (1997), Beccaceci (1994), Berta (1984), Brady (1981), Cabrera (1961a), Chebez (2008), Defler (1986a), Deutsch (1983), Driwa (1983), Emmons (1998), Gittleman & Harvey (1982), IUCN (2008), Kleiman (1972), Macdonald (1996b), Peres (1991), Porton (1983), Porton et al. (1987), Silveira et al. (1998), Strahl et al. (1992), VanHumbeck & Perez (1998), Zuercher & Villalba (2002), Zuercher et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Cynogale venatica Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.S. pacivorus, an extinct species, is known only from fossil deposits in Lagoa Santa caves in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and may not have existed past the Holocene. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Chien des buissons @fr | Waldhund @de | Zorro vinagre @es | Vinegar Dog @en | Savannah Dog @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lund","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lund","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Speothos","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"425","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"venaticus","name":"Speothos venaticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. v. venaticus Lund, 1842— Argentina(Misiones), Bolivia, N & C Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.S. v. panamensis Goldman, 1912— Panama.S. v. wingei Ihering, 1911- SE Brazil.","bibliography":"Aquino & Puertas (1997) | Beccaceci (1994) | Berta (1984) | Brady (1981) | Cabrera (1961a) | Chebez (2008) | Defler (1986a) | Deutsch (1983) | Driwa (1983) | Emmons (1998) | Gittleman & Harvey (1982) | IUCN (2008) | Kleiman (1972) | Macdonald (1996b) | Peres (1991) | Porton (1983) | Porton et al. (1987) | Silveira et al. (1998) | Strahl et al. (1992) | VanHumbeck & Perez (1998) | Zuercher & Villalba (2002) | Zuercher et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Primarily carnivorous, Bush Dogs mainly hunt large rodents such as Lowland Pacas and agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.). Their diet often includes other small mammals (e.g. rats, Oryzomys spp. and Proechimys spp., rabbits, Sylvilagus brasiliensis, opossums, Didelphis spp. and the Nine-banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus). Other prey items include teju lizards (Tupinambis sp.), snakes, and possibly ground-nesting birds. Bush Dogs can engage in group hunting to take prey considerably larger than themselves, such as Capybaras (Hydrochoeris hydrochaeris), and rheas (Rhea americana), deer (Mazama spp.), and even South American Tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Bush Dogs hunt in packs of 2-8 animals (mean 4-5) employing a variety of cooperative hunting strategies. Prey is pursued relentlessly by the pack, even into deep water. In Boliviathe dogs hunt Mazama deer by attacking the legs until the animaltires and falls. Olfaction may play a large role when foraging. Some individuals may enter the burrow of a prey species while other pack members wait at possible escape routes.","breeding":"The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.","activityPatterns":"Mostly diurnal; the pair and any family members spend the night in a den.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Bush Dogs are considered the most social of the small canids, reportedly living in groups ranging from 2-12 individuals, with most observed groups including 2-6 members. The ability of a pack to hunt cooperatively appears to be a primary benefit of the Bush Dog’s social organization. Estimated home range is between 4-6 and 4-7 km*. A monogamous pair-bond is likely with the offspring from multiple yearsliving with the pair. Urine-marking may be important for the formation and maintenance of pair-bonds. Bush Dogs tend to be associated with strong smell, lending evidence that urine is a particularly effective intra-specific communication medium. Males extrude the penis and move laterally, creating a spray rather than a stream, and females drag their ano-genital region over a surface or display either a forelimb handstand or a squat. The raised posture allows urine to be deposited some 150 mmhigher than the spray of the male. Adult Bush Dog vocalizations have been classified as whines, repetitive whines, pulsed vocalization, screams, barks, and growls. Infants whine, grunt, growl, and bark; these vocalizations are thought to eitherelicit care or reduce aggression. The elaborate set of close-contact calls assists in communicating subtle changes in mood as well as changes in location.Breeding.The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Currently, the population is estimated to number fewer than 15,000 mature individuals. Appears naturally rare throughoutits range, independent of human disturbance. Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela, and is prohibited elsewhere in the range. Perceived threats include habitat conversion and human encroachment. Bush dogs are occasionally killed in Boliviaand Ecuadoras predators of chickens, and road kills have been documented in Brazil.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 57- 5-75 cm, tail 12- 5-15 cm; weight 5-8 kg. Characterized by a long body, a short and sometimes stubbytail, and short legs. Broad face with short muzzle, small rounded ears, brown eyes. Head and neck are generally reddishtan or tawny, gradually darkening to black or dark brown hindquarters and legs. The underside is also dark and some individuals may show a pale white throat or chest patch. Coat patterns can be highly variable, from almost all black to very light blonde. Feet are partially webbed and tracks are nearly identical to those of the domestic dog. Bush Dogs are one of three canid species with trenchant heel dentition, a unicuspid talonid on the lower carnassial molar that increases the cutting blade length. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40.","habitat":"The Bush Dog is a forest dweller, occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, and near available prey populations, especially Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1500 m) forested habitats, including primary and gallery forest, semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest. Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Braziland Paraguayand pampas (wet savannah) edge/riparian areas, and as far as 5700 mfrom forest habitat. Occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland, and fragmented cerrado ranchland."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF38FFD97EDEFB7AFEDADF34.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF38FFD97EDEFB7AFEDADF34","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"426","verbatimText":"12.Crab-eating FoxCerdocyon thousFrench:Renard crabier/ German:Savannenfuchs/ Spanish:Zorro cangrejeroOther common names:Savannah FoxTaxonomy.Canis thous Linnaeus, 1766.Suriname.Five subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. t. thous Linnaeus, 1766— N Brazil, the Guianas, and SE Venezuela.C. t. aquilus Bangs, 1898— N Colombia, N Venezuela.C. t. azarae Wied-Neuwied, 1824— NE & C Brazil.C. t. entrerianus Burmeister, 1861— Argentina, Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.C. t. germanus G. M. Allen, 1923— Colombia(Bogota region).Descriptive notes.Head-body 57-775 cmand tail 22-41 cm; weight 4-5-8-5 kg. Mediums-sized, tail moderately bushy, often with black tip and dark at base. No sexual dimorphism. Rostrum long and pointed, head relatively short and narrow. Pelage generally dark gray to black along dorsum down to midline; midline to ventrum including legs gray or black, sometimes with yellow to orange flecks; neck and underparts cream to buff white. Pelage notably bristly and coarse. Substantial inter- and intra-population pelage color variation including dark to almost black (e.g. northern Venezuela, Amazonia, central Brazil), silver gray (e.g. Venezuelan Llanos), and pale gray-yellow rufous (e.g. Ceara, Brazil). Continuous black dorsal line from neck to tail tip variably present. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 1/2 = 44.Habitat.Occupies most habitats including marshland, savannah, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savannah within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development(e.g. sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples), and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge. Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with individual fox’s social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajo, Brazil, preferred wooded savannah and regenerating scrub. In the central Llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges were generally located in open palm savannah (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32% of sightings). The foxes shifted to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest “vereidas” and less frequently in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%).Food and Feeding.Omnivorous: diet includes fruit, vertebrates, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, birds, and carrion. An opportunistic predator; diet at any one location varies according to availability, season, and probably social status. In areas of human disturbance, a large proportion of the diet may comprise foods such as cultivated fruits, domestic fowl, and refuse. In the Venezuelan Llanos, the percent volume of food items from the contents of 104 fox stomachs from four different locations included: small mammals (26%), fruit (24%), amphibians (13%), insects (11%); the dry season diet was predominantly small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, with insect and fruit becoming more frequent in the wet season. In one Venezuelan location, land crabs (Dilocarcinus spp.) were the most frequently occurring dietary item in the rainy season, and in the Ibera Wetlands (Corrientes, Argentina), aquatic birds were identified in 87% of 23 fox scats collected in the vicinity of a bird breeding colony. Vertebrates were the most frequently encountered food item (69%) of 74 prey items identified in 22 scats collected at elevations of above 2600 min the eastern Colombian Andes, but were the least favored food item (15%) in feces collected from the lowland wooded savannahs of Marajo (Brazil), where cultivated and wild fruit (57%) and insects (86%) were more frequently encountered. Crab-eating Foxes hunt individually, but most commonly as pairs; 1-3 adultsized offspring may accompany them. Cooperative hunting apparently is rare. They will tolerate close proximity when foraging on concentrated, easily available food items such as turtle eggs, fruit, insects (e.g. termites), and sizeable carrion (e.g. goat carcass). The young start to hunt with the parents at about six weeks of age. Hunting strategies include spring-pouncing to capture vertebrates, ground-level lateral head movements to snatch insects, and directional maneuvers in pursuit of land crabs. The foxes in Marajo deliver a series of shoulder blows, with face up-turned, to some food items (e.g. toads, eggs) prior to comsuming them. In the same region, foxes search for and consume small stones from specific open gravel sites, presumably as a source of minerals. Foxes cache food items but do not regularly urine-mark them. They probably act as seed dispersers of a range of wild and cultivated plant species, as indicated by the presence of germinating seeds in their scats. Examples include Acacia aroma and Celtis tala (montane Chaco, Argentina), Butia capitata (Uruguay), Hovenia dulcis (Iguacu National Park, Brazil), Ficus spp. (south-eastern Brazil), Psidiumguineense, Humiria balsamifera, and Anacardium occidentale (Amazonian Brazil).Activity patterns.Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social groups comprise a breeding pair and 1-5 offspring (older than one year). Family members usually travel around their home ranges in pairs or,if offspring are present, in loosely knit family groups. Separated foxes maintain contact by long distance, high-pitched, bird-like trill vocalizations. In Marajo, Brazil, territorial breeding pairs were located less than 100 mapart on a mean 54% (n = 7) of occasions during the period of activity, whereas close proximity of breeding adults and their adultsized offspring varied from 7-2% to 93-3% between given pairings. In Marajo, Braziladult foxes occupied stable territories of 5- 3 km? (range 0-5-10- 4 km?), whereas in pasture/eucalyptus habitats in Minas Gerais(Brazil), an adult male’s range was 2- 2 km? In dry forest sites in Santa Cruz, Boliviaan adult female and two adultmales occupied mean home ranges of 2- 2 km* (range 1-1-2- 8 km?). In the central Venezuelan Llanos, three adultfoxes and three adultfox pairs showed dry season home ranges (mean 0-7 km?*range 0-5- 1 km?) to be generally larger than wet season home ranges (mean 0-7 km? range 0-3- 1 km?). Shrinkage of fox range sizes in the wet season is thought to be in response to changes in the availability of dry habitats and/or prey density. Dispersing offspring established territories adjoining their natal range. The average distance between range centers was 2-4 km(range 1-9- 2-9 km). After dispersal, these foxes interacted amicably with kin members both inside and outside their natal ranges. Four male foxes returned to their natal range 3-13 months after their dispersal, in two cases following the death of their mate and in one case after breeding. Group latrines are not usual features of Crab-eating Fox society; however, a latrine comprising over 72 scats visited by at least four adultsized individuals was observed in Maraca Ecological Station, Brazil. The use of scat latrines located near resting sites has also been reported.Breeding.In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Crab-eating Foxes are considered common in most range countries, and populations are probably stable. The species is currently listed as “potentially vulnerable” in the ArgentineRed Data Book, but not listed as threatened in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. There is little documentation for populations in Suriname, French Guiana, and peripheral areas of lowland Amazon forest. No specific protective legislation exists for this species, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most range countries. Crab-eating Foxes are potentially threatened by pathogens from domestic dogs. The Crab-eating Fox is also perceived as a pest of poultry throughout much ofits range (and in Uruguayas a predator of lambs), and consequently is often shot, trapped, and poisoned indiscriminately. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not enforced. Trapping occurred extensively in dry forest regions in Boliviabefore the early 1980s, when single pelts were worth US$ 30, but the species currently has little commercial value as a furbearer. Crab-eating Foxes are also often killed by vehicles on roadways in some areas.Bibliography.Biben (1982, 1983), Bisbal (1988), Bisbal & Ojasti (1980), Brady (1978, 1979), Cabrera (1931, 1958), Cordero-Rodriguez & Nassar (1999), Courtenay (1998), Courtenay & Maffei (2004), Courtenay, Macdonald et al. (1994), Courtenay, Quinnell & Chalmers (2001), Courtenay, Quinnell, Garcez & Dye (2002), Courtenay, Santana et al. (1996), Cravino, Calvar, Berruti et al. (1997), Cravino, Calvar, Poetti et al. (2000), Eisenberg et al. (1979), Facure & Monteiro-Filho (1996), Hill et al. (1997), Macdonald & Courtenay (1996), Maffei & Taber (2003), Montgomery & Lubin (1978), Motta-Junior et al. (1994), Parera (1996), Paz et al. (1995), Sunquist et al. (1989).","taxonomy":"Canis thous Linnaeus, 1766.Suriname.Five subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Renard crabier @fr | Savannenfuchs @de | Zorro cangrejero @es | Savannah Fox @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1766","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Cerdocyon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"426","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"thous","name":"Cerdocyon thous","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. t. thous Linnaeus, 1766— N Brazil, the Guianas, and SE Venezuela.C. t. aquilus Bangs, 1898— N Colombia, N Venezuela.C. t. azarae Wied-Neuwied, 1824— NE & C Brazil.C. t. entrerianus Burmeister, 1861— Argentina, Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.C. t. germanus G. M. Allen, 1923— Colombia(Bogota region).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331185/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Biben (1982, 1983) | Bisbal (1988) | Bisbal & Ojasti (1980) | Brady (1978, 1979) | Cabrera (1931, 1958) | Cordero-Rodriguez & Nassar (1999) | Courtenay (1998) | Courtenay & Maffei (2004) | Courtenay, Macdonald et al. (1994) | Courtenay, Quinnell & Chalmers (2001) | Courtenay, Quinnell, Garcez & Dye (2002) | Courtenay, Santana et al. (1996) | Cravino, Calvar, Berruti et al. (1997) | Cravino, Calvar, Poetti et al. (2000) | Eisenberg et al. (1979) | Facure & Monteiro-Filho (1996) | Hill et al. (1997) | Macdonald & Courtenay (1996) | Maffei & Taber (2003) | Montgomery & Lubin (1978) | Motta-Junior et al. (1994) | Parera (1996) | Paz et al. (1995) | Sunquist et al. (1989)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous: diet includes fruit, vertebrates, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, birds, and carrion. An opportunistic predator; diet at any one location varies according to availability, season, and probably social status. In areas of human disturbance, a large proportion of the diet may comprise foods such as cultivated fruits, domestic fowl, and refuse. In the Venezuelan Llanos, the percent volume of food items from the contents of 104 fox stomachs from four different locations included: small mammals (26%), fruit (24%), amphibians (13%), insects (11%); the dry season diet was predominantly small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, with insect and fruit becoming more frequent in the wet season. In one Venezuelan location, land crabs (Dilocarcinus spp.) were the most frequently occurring dietary item in the rainy season, and in the Ibera Wetlands (Corrientes, Argentina), aquatic birds were identified in 87% of 23 fox scats collected in the vicinity of a bird breeding colony. Vertebrates were the most frequently encountered food item (69%) of 74 prey items identified in 22 scats collected at elevations of above 2600 min the eastern Colombian Andes, but were the least favored food item (15%) in feces collected from the lowland wooded savannahs of Marajo (Brazil), where cultivated and wild fruit (57%) and insects (86%) were more frequently encountered. Crab-eating Foxes hunt individually, but most commonly as pairs; 1-3 adultsized offspring may accompany them. Cooperative hunting apparently is rare. They will tolerate close proximity when foraging on concentrated, easily available food items such as turtle eggs, fruit, insects (e.g. termites), and sizeable carrion (e.g. goat carcass). The young start to hunt with the parents at about six weeks of age. Hunting strategies include spring-pouncing to capture vertebrates, ground-level lateral head movements to snatch insects, and directional maneuvers in pursuit of land crabs. The foxes in Marajo deliver a series of shoulder blows, with face up-turned, to some food items (e.g. toads, eggs) prior to comsuming them. In the same region, foxes search for and consume small stones from specific open gravel sites, presumably as a source of minerals. Foxes cache food items but do not regularly urine-mark them. They probably act as seed dispersers of a range of wild and cultivated plant species, as indicated by the presence of germinating seeds in their scats. Examples include Acacia aroma and Celtis tala (montane Chaco, Argentina), Butia capitata (Uruguay), Hovenia dulcis (Iguacu National Park, Brazil), Ficus spp. (south-eastern Brazil), Psidiumguineense, Humiria balsamifera, and Anacardium occidentale (Amazonian Brazil).","breeding":"In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).","activityPatterns":"Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social groups comprise a breeding pair and 1-5 offspring (older than one year). Family members usually travel around their home ranges in pairs or,if offspring are present, in loosely knit family groups. Separated foxes maintain contact by long distance, high-pitched, bird-like trill vocalizations. In Marajo, Brazil, territorial breeding pairs were located less than 100 mapart on a mean 54% (n = 7) of occasions during the period of activity, whereas close proximity of breeding adults and their adultsized offspring varied from 7-2% to 93-3% between given pairings. In Marajo, Braziladult foxes occupied stable territories of 5- 3 km? (range 0-5-10- 4 km?), whereas in pasture/eucalyptus habitats in Minas Gerais(Brazil), an adult male’s range was 2- 2 km? In dry forest sites in Santa Cruz, Boliviaan adult female and two adultmales occupied mean home ranges of 2- 2 km* (range 1-1-2- 8 km?). In the central Venezuelan Llanos, three adultfoxes and three adultfox pairs showed dry season home ranges (mean 0-7 km?*range 0-5- 1 km?) to be generally larger than wet season home ranges (mean 0-7 km? range 0-3- 1 km?). Shrinkage of fox range sizes in the wet season is thought to be in response to changes in the availability of dry habitats and/or prey density. Dispersing offspring established territories adjoining their natal range. The average distance between range centers was 2-4 km(range 1-9- 2-9 km). After dispersal, these foxes interacted amicably with kin members both inside and outside their natal ranges. Four male foxes returned to their natal range 3-13 months after their dispersal, in two cases following the death of their mate and in one case after breeding. Group latrines are not usual features of Crab-eating Fox society; however, a latrine comprising over 72 scats visited by at least four adultsized individuals was observed in Maraca Ecological Station, Brazil. The use of scat latrines located near resting sites has also been reported.Breeding.In the wild, litters are produced once per breeding year. Litters were observed in Brazilin the months ofJune to December. In the Venezuelan Llanos,litters were recorded between December and February and lactating females were seen in June. Elsewhere in Venezuelalitters were observed year round (January, May, July, and October), and lactating foxes were recorded in August. On emergence from the natal den at 2-3 months, the mean littersize is 2:6 (range 2-3). It is not known whether the presence of a dominant female inhibits ovulation in subordinate females. In captivity, births have been recorded in January, February, March, June, and October, and foxes may breed twice annually at intervals of 7-8 months. Gestation period is 56 days (range 52-59 days), and neonatal weight is 120-160 g. Cub rearing is the responsibility of both breeding adults. Additional helpers have not been observed directly in the wild. However, the strong social affiliations between adults and dispersed returning offspring during subsequent breeding periods are strongly suggestive ofsibling helpers. In captivity, both sexes bring solid food (they do not regurgitate) to the young who consume solids from day 16-20. Pups first leave the den around day 28, but more regularly from day 45, at which time they develop the adult pelage. Lactation lasts for approximately 90 days. Post-weaning dependency lasts for up to five months, until sexual maturity, which occurs at approximately nine months. Offspring disperse when they are 18-24 months old. Crab-eating Foxes do not regularly excavate burrows, but rest aboveground in dense undergrowth (including when rearing pups), and also occasionally adopt abandoned burrows of other animals such as armadillos (Dasypodidaespp.).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Crab-eating Foxes are considered common in most range countries, and populations are probably stable. The species is currently listed as “potentially vulnerable” in the ArgentineRed Data Book, but not listed as threatened in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. There is little documentation for populations in Suriname, French Guiana, and peripheral areas of lowland Amazon forest. No specific protective legislation exists for this species, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most range countries. Crab-eating Foxes are potentially threatened by pathogens from domestic dogs. The Crab-eating Fox is also perceived as a pest of poultry throughout much ofits range (and in Uruguayas a predator of lambs), and consequently is often shot, trapped, and poisoned indiscriminately. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not enforced. Trapping occurred extensively in dry forest regions in Boliviabefore the early 1980s, when single pelts were worth US$ 30, but the species currently has little commercial value as a furbearer. Crab-eating Foxes are also often killed by vehicles on roadways in some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 57-775 cmand tail 22-41 cm; weight 4-5-8-5 kg. Mediums-sized, tail moderately bushy, often with black tip and dark at base. No sexual dimorphism. Rostrum long and pointed, head relatively short and narrow. Pelage generally dark gray to black along dorsum down to midline; midline to ventrum including legs gray or black, sometimes with yellow to orange flecks; neck and underparts cream to buff white. Pelage notably bristly and coarse. Substantial inter- and intra-population pelage color variation including dark to almost black (e.g. northern Venezuela, Amazonia, central Brazil), silver gray (e.g. Venezuelan Llanos), and pale gray-yellow rufous (e.g. Ceara, Brazil). Continuous black dorsal line from neck to tail tip variably present. The dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 1/2 = 44.","habitat":"Occupies most habitats including marshland, savannah, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savannah within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development(e.g. sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples), and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge. Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with individual fox’s social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajo, Brazil, preferred wooded savannah and regenerating scrub. In the central Llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges were generally located in open palm savannah (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32% of sightings). The foxes shifted to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest “vereidas” and less frequently in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF39FFC67B89FCF4FAB4DEDB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF39FFC67B89FCF4FAB4DEDB","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"425","verbatimText":"11.Bush DogSpeothos venaticusFrench:Chien des buissons/ German:Waldhund/ Spanish:Zorro vinagreOther common names:Vinegar Dog, Savannah DogTaxonomy.Cynogale venatica Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.S. pacivorus, an extinct species, is known only from fossil deposits in Lagoa Santa caves in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and may not have existed past the Holocene. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. v. venaticus Lund, 1842— Argentina(Misiones), Bolivia, N & C Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.S. v. panamensis Goldman, 1912— Panama.S. v. wingei Ihering, 1911- SE Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 57- 5-75 cm, tail 12- 5-15 cm; weight 5-8 kg. Characterized by a long body, a short and sometimes stubbytail, and short legs. Broad face with short muzzle, small rounded ears, brown eyes. Head and neck are generally reddishtan or tawny, gradually darkening to black or dark brown hindquarters and legs. The underside is also dark and some individuals may show a pale white throat or chest patch. Coat patterns can be highly variable, from almost all black to very light blonde. Feet are partially webbed and tracks are nearly identical to those of the domestic dog. Bush Dogs are one of three canid species with trenchant heel dentition, a unicuspid talonid on the lower carnassial molar that increases the cutting blade length. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40.Habitat.The Bush Dog is a forest dweller, occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, and near available prey populations, especially Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1500 m) forested habitats, including primary and gallery forest, semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest. Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Braziland Paraguayand pampas (wet savannah) edge/riparian areas, and as far as 5700 mfrom forest habitat. Occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland, and fragmented cerrado ranchland.Food and Feeding.Primarily carnivorous, Bush Dogs mainly hunt large rodents such as Lowland Pacas and agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.). Their diet often includes other small mammals (e.g. rats, Oryzomys spp. and Proechimys spp., rabbits, Sylvilagus brasiliensis, opossums, Didelphis spp. and the Nine-banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus). Other prey items include teju lizards (Tupinambis sp.), snakes, and possibly ground-nesting birds. Bush Dogs can engage in group hunting to take prey considerably larger than themselves, such as Capybaras (Hydrochoeris hydrochaeris), and rheas (Rhea americana), deer (Mazama spp.), and even South American Tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Bush Dogs hunt in packs of 2-8 animals (mean 4-5) employing a variety of cooperative hunting strategies. Prey is pursued relentlessly by the pack, even into deep water. In Boliviathe dogs hunt Mazama deer by attacking the legs until the animaltires and falls. Olfaction may play a large role when foraging. Some individuals may enter the burrow of a prey species while other pack members wait at possible escape routes.Activity patterns.Mostly diurnal; the pair and any family members spend the night in a den.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bush Dogs are considered the most social of the small canids, reportedly living in groups ranging from 2-12 individuals, with most observed groups including 2-6 members. The ability of a pack to hunt cooperatively appears to be a primary benefit of the Bush Dog’s social organization. Estimated home range is between 4-6 and 4-7 km*. A monogamous pair-bond is likely with the offspring from multiple yearsliving with the pair. Urine-marking may be important for the formation and maintenance of pair-bonds. Bush Dogs tend to be associated with strong smell, lending evidence that urine is a particularly effective intra-specific communication medium. Males extrude the penis and move laterally, creating a spray rather than a stream, and females drag their ano-genital region over a surface or display either a forelimb handstand or a squat. The raised posture allows urine to be deposited some 150 mmhigher than the spray of the male. Adult Bush Dog vocalizations have been classified as whines, repetitive whines, pulsed vocalization, screams, barks, and growls. Infants whine, grunt, growl, and bark; these vocalizations are thought to eitherelicit care or reduce aggression. The elaborate set of close-contact calls assists in communicating subtle changes in mood as well as changes in location.Breeding.The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Currently, the population is estimated to number fewer than 15,000 mature individuals. Appears naturally rare throughoutits range, independent of human disturbance. Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela, and is prohibited elsewhere in the range. Perceived threats include habitat conversion and human encroachment. Bush dogs are occasionally killed in Boliviaand Ecuadoras predators of chickens, and road kills have been documented in Brazil.Bibliography.Aquino & Puertas (1997), Beccaceci (1994), Berta (1984), Brady (1981), Cabrera (1961a), Chebez (2008), Defler (1986a), Deutsch (1983), Driwa (1983), Emmons (1998), Gittleman & Harvey (1982), IUCN (2008), Kleiman (1972), Macdonald (1996b), Peres (1991), Porton (1983), Porton et al. (1987), Silveira et al. (1998), Strahl et al. (1992), VanHumbeck & Perez (1998), Zuercher & Villalba (2002), Zuercher et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Cynogale venatica Lund, 1842, Minas Gerais, Brazil.S. pacivorus, an extinct species, is known only from fossil deposits in Lagoa Santa caves in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and may not have existed past the Holocene. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Chien des buissons @fr | Waldhund @de | Zorro vinagre @es | Vinegar Dog @en | Savannah Dog @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lund","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lund","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Speothos","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"425","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"venaticus","name":"Speothos venaticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. v. venaticus Lund, 1842— Argentina(Misiones), Bolivia, N & C Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.S. v. panamensis Goldman, 1912— Panama.S. v. wingei Ihering, 1911- SE Brazil.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331183/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aquino & Puertas (1997) | Beccaceci (1994) | Berta (1984) | Brady (1981) | Cabrera (1961a) | Chebez (2008) | Defler (1986a) | Deutsch (1983) | Driwa (1983) | Emmons (1998) | Gittleman & Harvey (1982) | IUCN (2008) | Kleiman (1972) | Macdonald (1996b) | Peres (1991) | Porton (1983) | Porton et al. (1987) | Silveira et al. (1998) | Strahl et al. (1992) | VanHumbeck & Perez (1998) | Zuercher & Villalba (2002) | Zuercher et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Primarily carnivorous, Bush Dogs mainly hunt large rodents such as Lowland Pacas and agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.). Their diet often includes other small mammals (e.g. rats, Oryzomys spp. and Proechimys spp., rabbits, Sylvilagus brasiliensis, opossums, Didelphis spp. and the Nine-banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus). Other prey items include teju lizards (Tupinambis sp.), snakes, and possibly ground-nesting birds. Bush Dogs can engage in group hunting to take prey considerably larger than themselves, such as Capybaras (Hydrochoeris hydrochaeris), and rheas (Rhea americana), deer (Mazama spp.), and even South American Tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Bush Dogs hunt in packs of 2-8 animals (mean 4-5) employing a variety of cooperative hunting strategies. Prey is pursued relentlessly by the pack, even into deep water. In Boliviathe dogs hunt Mazama deer by attacking the legs until the animaltires and falls. Olfaction may play a large role when foraging. Some individuals may enter the burrow of a prey species while other pack members wait at possible escape routes.","breeding":"The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.","activityPatterns":"Mostly diurnal; the pair and any family members spend the night in a den.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Bush Dogs are considered the most social of the small canids, reportedly living in groups ranging from 2-12 individuals, with most observed groups including 2-6 members. The ability of a pack to hunt cooperatively appears to be a primary benefit of the Bush Dog’s social organization. Estimated home range is between 4-6 and 4-7 km*. A monogamous pair-bond is likely with the offspring from multiple yearsliving with the pair. Urine-marking may be important for the formation and maintenance of pair-bonds. Bush Dogs tend to be associated with strong smell, lending evidence that urine is a particularly effective intra-specific communication medium. Males extrude the penis and move laterally, creating a spray rather than a stream, and females drag their ano-genital region over a surface or display either a forelimb handstand or a squat. The raised posture allows urine to be deposited some 150 mmhigher than the spray of the male. Adult Bush Dog vocalizations have been classified as whines, repetitive whines, pulsed vocalization, screams, barks, and growls. Infants whine, grunt, growl, and bark; these vocalizations are thought to eitherelicit care or reduce aggression. The elaborate set of close-contact calls assists in communicating subtle changes in mood as well as changes in location.Breeding.The Bush Dog mating season is unknown, although pups have been found in the wet season. Captive females have two estrous cycles per year. Estrus is aseasonal and likely influenced by social factors. Dominant females appear to suppress the estrus of daughters. Gestation in captivity is 67 days, and meanlitter size is 3-8 (range 1-6). Lactation lasts approximately eight weeks. Males exhibit a high degree of parental care that includes food supplementation to females prior to birth and throughout nursing. Bush dogs appear to be sexually mature by one year.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Currently, the population is estimated to number fewer than 15,000 mature individuals. Appears naturally rare throughoutits range, independent of human disturbance. Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela, and is prohibited elsewhere in the range. Perceived threats include habitat conversion and human encroachment. Bush dogs are occasionally killed in Boliviaand Ecuadoras predators of chickens, and road kills have been documented in Brazil.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 57- 5-75 cm, tail 12- 5-15 cm; weight 5-8 kg. Characterized by a long body, a short and sometimes stubbytail, and short legs. Broad face with short muzzle, small rounded ears, brown eyes. Head and neck are generally reddishtan or tawny, gradually darkening to black or dark brown hindquarters and legs. The underside is also dark and some individuals may show a pale white throat or chest patch. Coat patterns can be highly variable, from almost all black to very light blonde. Feet are partially webbed and tracks are nearly identical to those of the domestic dog. Bush Dogs are one of three canid species with trenchant heel dentition, a unicuspid talonid on the lower carnassial molar that increases the cutting blade length. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40.","habitat":"The Bush Dog is a forest dweller, occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, and near available prey populations, especially Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1500 m) forested habitats, including primary and gallery forest, semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest. Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Braziland Paraguayand pampas (wet savannah) edge/riparian areas, and as far as 5700 mfrom forest habitat. Occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland, and fragmented cerrado ranchland."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3AFFC77BA1F707F7BCDF51.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF3AFFC77BA1F707F7BCDF51","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"424","verbatimText":"10.Maned WolfChrysocyon brachyurusFrench:Renard a criniere/ German:Mahnenwolf/ Spanish:AguaraguazuTaxonomy.Canis brachyurus Illiger, 1815.Typelocality not specified, but later restricted to Paraguay.The species was originally placed in the genus Canis, but is now widely included in the monotypic genus Chrysocyon. Monotypic.Distribution.Grasslands and scrub forest of C South America, from NE Brazilthrough the Chaco of Paraguayinto Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, W to Boliviaand Peruborder, and S into Uruguayand Argentinato the 30° Sparallel.Descriptive notes.Head-body 95-115 cmand tail 38-50 cm; weight 20-5-30 kg. The Maned Wolf is hard to confuse with any other canid due to its long, thin legs, long reddish orange fur, and large ears. The English common name comes from the mane-like strip of black fur running from the back of the head to the shoulders, averaging 470 mmin length. Muzzle black, throat white, inner ears white, forelegs black, and most of distal part of hindlegs black. An average of 44% ofthe tail is white at the distal end, but the extent of white varies from 17-66% of the tail length. No underfur present. The adult dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.Habitat.Favors tall grasslands, shrub habitats, woodland with an open canopy “cerrado”, and wet fields (which may be seasonally flooded). Some evidence indicates that they may prefer areas with low to medium shrub density. Maned Wolves are also seen in cultivated areas and pastures. Daytime resting areas include gallery forests, cerrado, and marshy areas near rivers. There is some evidence that they can utilize cultivated land for hunting and resting, but additional studies are essential to quantify how well the species tolerates intensive agricultural activity.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, consuming principally fruits and small- to mediumsized vertebrates. Numerous studies document a broadly varied diet of c. 50% plant and c. 50% animal material. The fruit Solanum lycocarpum grows throughout much of the range and is a primary food source; other important items include small mammals (Caviidae, Muridae,Echimydae) and armadillos (Dasypodidae), other fruits (Annonaceae, Myrtaceae, Palmae, Bromeliaceae, and others), birds (Tinamidae, Emberizidae, and others), reptiles, and arthropods. Although the frequency of plant and animal items found in fecal samples is approximately equal, the biomass of animal items is usually greater than that of plant items. Certain items, such as rodents and Solanum, are consumed year round, but diet varies with food availability. At least occasionally, Pampas Deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) are also consumed. In one study, deer occurred in 2:4% of 1673 fecal samples analyzed. Strategies for hunting animal prey include stalking with a final pounce, digging after burrowing animals, leaping into the air to capture flying birds and insects, and sprinting after fleeing deer. Approximately 21% of all hunting attempts end with the successful capture of prey, and the strategies do not differ in their success rates. Maned Wolves have been recorded feeding on Coypu that were caught in traps set by hunters, and have been observed scavenging opportunistically on road-kill carcasses.Activity patterns.Nocturnal and crepuscular. May forage for up to eight consecutive hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maned Wolves appear to be facultatively monogamous. Pairs are not often seen together, although researchers have observed pairs resting, hunting, and traveling together. Home ranges ofpairs in Serra da Canastra National Park averaged 25-2 km? (21- 7-30 km? n = 3 pairs). Home ranges studied elsewhere are larger, averaging 57 km? (15:6-104-9 km? n = 5) in Aguas Emendadas Ecological Station and 49-0 km? (4-7-79-5 km? n = 5) in Emas National Park. Home range boundaries appear stable over time and are defended against adjacent pairs. Termite mounds are preferentially used as urine-markingsites, and more marks are placed on the upwind side of objects than on the downwind side. Floater individuals without territories appear to move along territory boundaries and do not scentmark. The most frequently heard vocalization is a loud roar-bark, which may occur during any time of the day or night throughout the year.Breeding.Females enter estrus once per year for approximately five days. Peak breeding season is from April to June. There are numerous published accounts of breeding behavior in captivity, but little information is available from wild populations. In captivity, the frequency of vocalizations (roar-bark) and scent marking increases during the weeks prior to mating, and the amount of time a pair spends in close proximity increases significantly during the estrous period. Courtship is characterized by frequent approaches, mutual anogenital investigation, and playful interactions. Mounting may occur frequently during estrus; successful breeding includes a copulatory tie that may last several minutes. In Emas National Park, Brazil, a breeding pair observed at night for approximately three and a half hours foraged together and vocalized frequently whenever one partner was out of sight. The male marked with urine or feces wherever the female marked. A breeding display lasting ten minutes concluded in a two-minute copulatory tie, after which the pair continued to forage together. Gestation length is approximately 65 days, the majority of births occurring from June to September, during the dry season. One female gave birth to three pups in a bed of tall marsh grass. At 45 days of age the pups had notyet left the den and weighed 2 kg(females) and 2-25 kg(males). All dens found in the wild have been above ground, sheltered by natural features such as shrub canopies, rock crevices, gullies, and dry mounds in marshy, tall-grass areas. In captivity, an analysis of 361 births indicated that parturition peaks in June (winter), and the average litter size is three (range 1-7). Birth weights average 390-456 g(n = 8). In captive animals, nursing bouts begin to decline after the first month, and weaning is complete at c. 15 weeks. Pups begin consuming solids regurgitated by the parents at about four weeks of age; regurgitation has been recorded up to seven months after birth. Females with 7-14-week-old pups have been observed hunting for continuous periods of eight hours over 3 kmfrom their den sites and pups. Pups stay in the mother’s home range for approximately one year, when they begin to disperse. Juveniles attain sexual maturity at around the same time, but usually do not reproduce until the second year. One of the many unknown aspects of Maned Wolf behavioris the role the male plays in rearing pups. Pups have been seen accompanied by two adults, and a female with pups was seen accompanied by a male many times. In captivity, males increase pup survival rates and are frequently observed regurgitating to pups and grooming them. Nonetheless, direct confirmation of male parental care in the wild isstill lacking.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Current global population is estimated to number c. 13,000 mature individuals. Maned Wolves are protected by law in many parts of their range, but enforcement is frequently problematic. Protected in Argentina(classified as “endangered” on the Red List) and included on the list of threatened animals in Brazil. Maned Wolves exist in low densities throughout their range, although in some areas of central Brazil, they appear to be more common. The most significant threat to Maned Wolf populations 1s habitat reduction, especially for agricultural conversion. The cerrado, for example, has been reduced to about 20% ofits original area, and only 1-5% is currently protected. In addition, habitat fragmentation causes the isolation of sub-populations.Road kills represent one of the main causes of mortality of Maned Wolves in Brazil, especially for young individuals and sub-adults. Highways border many of the Conservation Units of the Brazilian cerrado, and drivers often do not respect speed limits. Reserves close to urban areas often have problems with domestic dogs, which pursue and may kill Maned Wolves and can also be an important vector of disease. Diseases may represent a significant cause of mortality in the wild, but there is very little information available on the health of wild populations. Domestic dogs also possibly compete with the Maned Wolffor food. Maned Wolves are not viewed as a serious threat to livestock, although they may occasionally be shot when caught raiding chicken pens. Hunting them is prohibited in Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia.Bibliography.Azevedo & Gastal (1997), Bartmann & Nordhoff (1984), Beccaceci (1992), Bernardes et al. (1990), Bestelmeyer (2000), Bestelmeyer & Westbrook (1998), Brady (1981), Brady & Ditton (1979), Cabrera (1958), Carvalho & Vasconcellos (1995), Chebez (2008), Dietz (1984, 1985), Fonseca et al. (1994), IUCN (2008), Jacomo (1999), Juarez & Marinho (2002), Langguth (1975), Mones & Olazarri (1990), Motta-Junior (1997), Motta-Junior et al. (1996), Ratter et al. (1997), Richard et al. (1999), Rodden, Rodrigues & Bestelmeyer (2004), Rodden, Sorenson et al. (1996), Santos (1999), Silveira (1968, 1999), VanGelder (1978).","taxonomy":"Canis brachyurus Illiger, 1815.Typelocality not specified, but later restricted to Paraguay.The species was originally placed in the genus Canis, but is now widely included in the monotypic genus Chrysocyon. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Renard a criniere @fr | Mahnenwolf @de | Aguaraguazu @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Illiger","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1815","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Chrysocyon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"424","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brachyurus","name":"Chrysocyon brachyurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Grasslands and scrub forest of C South America, from NE Brazilthrough the Chaco of Paraguayinto Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, W to Boliviaand Peruborder, and S into Uruguayand Argentinato the 30° Sparallel.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331181/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Azevedo & Gastal (1997) | Bartmann & Nordhoff (1984) | Beccaceci (1992) | Bernardes et al. (1990) | Bestelmeyer (2000) | Bestelmeyer & Westbrook (1998) | Brady (1981) | Brady & Ditton (1979) | Cabrera (1958) | Carvalho & Vasconcellos (1995) | Chebez (2008) | Dietz (1984, 1985) | Fonseca et al. (1994) | IUCN (2008) | Jacomo (1999) | Juarez & Marinho (2002) | Langguth (1975) | Mones & Olazarri (1990) | Motta-Junior (1997) | Motta-Junior et al. (1996) | Ratter et al. (1997) | Richard et al. (1999) | Rodden, Rodrigues & Bestelmeyer (2004) | Rodden, Sorenson et al. (1996) | Santos (1999) | Silveira (1968, 1999) | VanGelder (1978)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous, consuming principally fruits and small- to mediumsized vertebrates. Numerous studies document a broadly varied diet of c. 50% plant and c. 50% animal material. The fruit Solanum lycocarpum grows throughout much of the range and is a primary food source; other important items include small mammals (Caviidae, Muridae,Echimydae) and armadillos (Dasypodidae), other fruits (Annonaceae, Myrtaceae, Palmae, Bromeliaceae, and others), birds (Tinamidae, Emberizidae, and others), reptiles, and arthropods. Although the frequency of plant and animal items found in fecal samples is approximately equal, the biomass of animal items is usually greater than that of plant items. Certain items, such as rodents and Solanum, are consumed year round, but diet varies with food availability. At least occasionally, Pampas Deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) are also consumed. In one study, deer occurred in 2:4% of 1673 fecal samples analyzed. Strategies for hunting animal prey include stalking with a final pounce, digging after burrowing animals, leaping into the air to capture flying birds and insects, and sprinting after fleeing deer. Approximately 21% of all hunting attempts end with the successful capture of prey, and the strategies do not differ in their success rates. Maned Wolves have been recorded feeding on Coypu that were caught in traps set by hunters, and have been observed scavenging opportunistically on road-kill carcasses.","breeding":"Females enter estrus once per year for approximately five days. Peak breeding season is from April to June. There are numerous published accounts of breeding behavior in captivity, but little information is available from wild populations. In captivity, the frequency of vocalizations (roar-bark) and scent marking increases during the weeks prior to mating, and the amount of time a pair spends in close proximity increases significantly during the estrous period. Courtship is characterized by frequent approaches, mutual anogenital investigation, and playful interactions. Mounting may occur frequently during estrus; successful breeding includes a copulatory tie that may last several minutes. In Emas National Park, Brazil, a breeding pair observed at night for approximately three and a half hours foraged together and vocalized frequently whenever one partner was out of sight. The male marked with urine or feces wherever the female marked. A breeding display lasting ten minutes concluded in a two-minute copulatory tie, after which the pair continued to forage together. Gestation length is approximately 65 days, the majority of births occurring from June to September, during the dry season. One female gave birth to three pups in a bed of tall marsh grass. At 45 days of age the pups had notyet left the den and weighed 2 kg(females) and 2-25 kg(males). All dens found in the wild have been above ground, sheltered by natural features such as shrub canopies, rock crevices, gullies, and dry mounds in marshy, tall-grass areas. In captivity, an analysis of 361 births indicated that parturition peaks in June (winter), and the average litter size is three (range 1-7). Birth weights average 390-456 g(n = 8). In captive animals, nursing bouts begin to decline after the first month, and weaning is complete at c. 15 weeks. Pups begin consuming solids regurgitated by the parents at about four weeks of age; regurgitation has been recorded up to seven months after birth. Females with 7-14-week-old pups have been observed hunting for continuous periods of eight hours over 3 kmfrom their den sites and pups. Pups stay in the mother’s home range for approximately one year, when they begin to disperse. Juveniles attain sexual maturity at around the same time, but usually do not reproduce until the second year. One of the many unknown aspects of Maned Wolf behavioris the role the male plays in rearing pups. Pups have been seen accompanied by two adults, and a female with pups was seen accompanied by a male many times. In captivity, males increase pup survival rates and are frequently observed regurgitating to pups and grooming them. Nonetheless, direct confirmation of male parental care in the wild isstill lacking.","activityPatterns":"Nocturnal and crepuscular. May forage for up to eight consecutive hours.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Maned Wolves appear to be facultatively monogamous. Pairs are not often seen together, although researchers have observed pairs resting, hunting, and traveling together. Home ranges ofpairs in Serra da Canastra National Park averaged 25-2 km? (21- 7-30 km? n = 3 pairs). Home ranges studied elsewhere are larger, averaging 57 km? (15:6-104-9 km? n = 5) in Aguas Emendadas Ecological Station and 49-0 km? (4-7-79-5 km? n = 5) in Emas National Park. Home range boundaries appear stable over time and are defended against adjacent pairs. Termite mounds are preferentially used as urine-markingsites, and more marks are placed on the upwind side of objects than on the downwind side. Floater individuals without territories appear to move along territory boundaries and do not scentmark. The most frequently heard vocalization is a loud roar-bark, which may occur during any time of the day or night throughout the year.Breeding.Females enter estrus once per year for approximately five days. Peak breeding season is from April to June. There are numerous published accounts of breeding behavior in captivity, but little information is available from wild populations. In captivity, the frequency of vocalizations (roar-bark) and scent marking increases during the weeks prior to mating, and the amount of time a pair spends in close proximity increases significantly during the estrous period. Courtship is characterized by frequent approaches, mutual anogenital investigation, and playful interactions. Mounting may occur frequently during estrus; successful breeding includes a copulatory tie that may last several minutes. In Emas National Park, Brazil, a breeding pair observed at night for approximately three and a half hours foraged together and vocalized frequently whenever one partner was out of sight. The male marked with urine or feces wherever the female marked. A breeding display lasting ten minutes concluded in a two-minute copulatory tie, after which the pair continued to forage together. Gestation length is approximately 65 days, the majority of births occurring from June to September, during the dry season. One female gave birth to three pups in a bed of tall marsh grass. At 45 days of age the pups had notyet left the den and weighed 2 kg(females) and 2-25 kg(males). All dens found in the wild have been above ground, sheltered by natural features such as shrub canopies, rock crevices, gullies, and dry mounds in marshy, tall-grass areas. In captivity, an analysis of 361 births indicated that parturition peaks in June (winter), and the average litter size is three (range 1-7). Birth weights average 390-456 g(n = 8). In captive animals, nursing bouts begin to decline after the first month, and weaning is complete at c. 15 weeks. Pups begin consuming solids regurgitated by the parents at about four weeks of age; regurgitation has been recorded up to seven months after birth. Females with 7-14-week-old pups have been observed hunting for continuous periods of eight hours over 3 kmfrom their den sites and pups. Pups stay in the mother’s home range for approximately one year, when they begin to disperse. Juveniles attain sexual maturity at around the same time, but usually do not reproduce until the second year. One of the many unknown aspects of Maned Wolf behavioris the role the male plays in rearing pups. Pups have been seen accompanied by two adults, and a female with pups was seen accompanied by a male many times. In captivity, males increase pup survival rates and are frequently observed regurgitating to pups and grooming them. Nonetheless, direct confirmation of male parental care in the wild isstill lacking.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Current global population is estimated to number c. 13,000 mature individuals. Maned Wolves are protected by law in many parts of their range, but enforcement is frequently problematic. Protected in Argentina(classified as “endangered” on the Red List) and included on the list of threatened animals in Brazil. Maned Wolves exist in low densities throughout their range, although in some areas of central Brazil, they appear to be more common. The most significant threat to Maned Wolf populations 1s habitat reduction, especially for agricultural conversion. The cerrado, for example, has been reduced to about 20% ofits original area, and only 1-5% is currently protected. In addition, habitat fragmentation causes the isolation of sub-populations.Road kills represent one of the main causes of mortality of Maned Wolves in Brazil, especially for young individuals and sub-adults.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Current global population is estimated to number c. 13,000 mature individuals. Maned Wolves are protected by law in many parts of their range, but enforcement is frequently problematic. Protected in Argentina(classified as “endangered” on the Red List) and included on the list of threatened animals in Brazil. Maned Wolves exist in low densities throughout their range, although in some areas of central Brazil, they appear to be more common. The most significant threat to Maned Wolf populations 1s habitat reduction, especially for agricultural conversion. The cerrado, for example, has been reduced to about 20% ofits original area, and only 1-5% is currently protected. In addition, habitat fragmentation causes the isolation of sub-populations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 95-115 cmand tail 38-50 cm; weight 20-5-30 kg. The Maned Wolf is hard to confuse with any other canid due to its long, thin legs, long reddish orange fur, and large ears. The English common name comes from the mane-like strip of black fur running from the back of the head to the shoulders, averaging 470 mmin length. Muzzle black, throat white, inner ears white, forelegs black, and most of distal part of hindlegs black. An average of 44% ofthe tail is white at the distal end, but the extent of white varies from 17-66% of the tail length. No underfur present. The adult dental formulais13/3,C1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.","habitat":"Favors tall grasslands, shrub habitats, woodland with an open canopy “cerrado”, and wet fields (which may be seasonally flooded). Some evidence indicates that they may prefer areas with low to medium shrub density. Maned Wolves are also seen in cultivated areas and pastures. Daytime resting areas include gallery forests, cerrado, and marshy areas near rivers. There is some evidence that they can utilize cultivated land for hunting and resting, but additional studies are essential to quantify how well the species tolerates intensive agricultural activity."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3BFFC47B94F4A2F587DA8C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF3BFFC47B94F4A2F587DA8C","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"423","verbatimText":"9.African Wild DogLycaon pictusFrench:Lycaon/ German:Afrikanischer Wildhund/ Spanish:LicadnOther common names:Painted Hunting DogTaxonomy.Hyaena picta Temminck, 1820,coastal Mozambique.The former placement of Lycaonin its own subfamily, the Simoncyoninae, is no longer recognized, and recent molecular studies have supported the separation of this species into its own genus. The African Wild Dog has been grouped with Dhole and Bush Dog, but the morphological similarities among these species are no longer considered to indicate common ancestry. Genetic and morphological studies initially suggested the existence of separate subspecies in eastern and southern Africa. However, no geographical boundaries separated these proposed subspecies, and dogs sampled from the intermediate area showed a mixture of southern and eastern haplotypes, indicating a cline rather than distinct subspecies.On following pages: 10. Maned Wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus); 11. Bush Dog (Speothos venaticus), 12. Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous); 13. Short-eared Dog (Atelocynus microtis).Distribution.Sub-Saharan Africa; virtually eradicated from W Africa, and greatly reduced in C and NE Africa. The largest populations exist in Botswana, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe, which account for approximately half of the estimated number of African Wild Dogs remaining in the wild.Other populations occur in Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Sudan, and Zambia. Potential small populations (less than 100 individuals) may exist in Cameroon, Chad, Senegal, and Somalia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 84:5-138- 5 cmfor males and 93-141 cmfor females, tail 32-42 cmfor males and 31-37 cmfor females; weight 21-34-5 kgfor males and 18-26-5 kgfor females. Males are slightly heavier than females, and are easily recognized by the conspicuous penis sheath. A large but lightly built canid, with long, slim legs and large, rounded ears. The coloration of the pelage is distinctive but highly variable, a combination of irregular black, yellow-brown, and white blotches on the back, sides, and legs. African Wild Dogs in north-eastern Africa are predominantly black, with small white and yellow patches. Dogs in southern Africa are lighter, with a mix of brown, black, and white. Pelage coloration is unique to each animal, and can thus be used to identify individuals. Head yellow-brown with a black mask, black ears, a black line following the sagittal crest, and a white-tipped tail. Hair is generally very short on the limbs and body and longer on the neck, sometimes giving a shaggy appearance at the throat. Females have six to eight pairs of mammae. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. As with Cuonand Speothosdeparture from the typical form of dentition within the Canidaeis apparent in the lower carnassial, where the inner cusp of the talonid is missing so that instead of forming a basin, this part of the tooth forms a subsidiary blade. This is indicative of a highly carnivorous diet.Habitat.Wild Dogs occupy a range of habitats including short-grass plains, semi-desert, bushy savannahs, and upland forest. Early studies in Tanzania’s Serengeti led to a belief that Wild Dogs were primarily an open-plains species, but they reach their highest densities in thicker bush (e.g. central Tanzania, western Zimbabweand northern Botswana). Several relict populations also occupy dense upland forest (e.g. Harenna Forest, Ethiopia; Ngare Ndare Forest, Kenya). Wild Dogs have been recorded in desert, although they appear unable to expand into the southern Kalahari or into montane habitats; they occur in some lowland forest areas. It appears that their current distribution is limited primarily by human activities and the availability of prey, rather than the loss of a specific habitat type.Food and Feeding.Wild Dogs mostly hunt medium-sized antelope. In most areas their principal prey are Impala, Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Thomson's Gazelle, and Blue Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). They will give chase to larger species, such as Common Eland (7Tragelaphus oryx) and African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), but rarely kill these species. Warthogs (Phacochoerus spp.), dik-diks (Madoqua spp.), Steenbok (Raphicerus campestris), and duikers (Cephalophini) are important prey items in some areas. African Wild Dogs also take small prey opportunistically, such as hares, lizards, and bird eggs, but these make a very small contribution to their diet. African Wild Dogs live and hunt in packs. Hunts appear to be highly coordinated and are often preceded by a “social rally”. During chases, African Wild Dogs may run at speeds of up to 60 km/h, and are specially adapted to cope with the heat stress that this involves. After one dog has made the first grab of an antelope or other prey species, other pack members join and help drag the quarry to the ground. In some hunts, one pack member may restrain the head of the prey by biting its nose and holding on while others make the kill. Individuals may also chase and bring down prey alone. Hunting success is high in comparison with other large carnivore species (e.g. in the Serengeti, 70% of 133 African Wild Dog hunts ended in a kill). Social hunting gives each pack member a higher foraging success rate (measured as kg killed per km chased) relative to hunting alone. African Wild Dogs very rarely scavenge.Activity patterns.African Wild Dogs are mainly crepuscular and hunt during the early morning and early evening hours. They may also hunt occasionally at night when moonlight is ample. Activity appears to be limited by ambient temperature and availability of light.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Wild Dogs are intensely social, living in close association with each other in a pack. Pack size varies from a pair to as many as 30 adultsand yearlings, although typically packs include between four and nine adultsalong with yearlings and pups. Packs form when small same-sex subgroups (usually littermates) leave their natal groups and join subgroups of the opposite sex. Occasionally, new packs form by fission from larger groups, males and females emigrating together. Because African Wild Dogs are obligate social breeders, the pack, rather than the individual, should be considered the basic unit within the population. African Wild Dogs have large home ranges, for example 620 to 2460 km* in Serengeti, which are much larger than would be expected on the basis of their body size. Ranges in other areas, however, are typically between 400 and 600 km*. Ranges are defended infrequently but aggressively against neighboring packs, and African Wild Dogs may thus be considered territorial, especially as such areas are scent-marked. During the breeding season, when they are feeding young pups at a den, packs are confined to relatively small core areas (50-200 km?®), but outside the denning period they range widely. As a result, the large home ranges of this species translate into low population densities. African Wild Dogs dispersing from their natal packs may travel distances exceeding hundreds of kilometers. African Wild Dogs have a complex communication system that includes unique vocalizations.Breeding.Fach pack includes a dominant pair that breeds each year. Subordinate females may breed on some occasions, but their pups rarely survive. Parental care involves all pack members. Such alloparental care is vital: small packs (less than four members) rarely manage to raise any pups. Cooperative care may even extend to caring for adopted pups. Whelping occurs once per year, and gestation lasts 71-73 days. Wild Dogs have large litters, averaging 10-11 pups, butlitters as large as 21 have been recorded. Pup sex ratios are male-biased in some populations. The pups each weigh approximately 300-350 gand are born in an underground den, which they use for the first three months of life. The dens are often those of Aardvarks, sometimes modified by warthogs or Spotted Hyenas. The mother is confined to the den during early lactation, and is reliant on other pack members to provision her during this time. Pack members feed the mother and pups (from four weeks of age) by regurgitating solid pieces of meat. Some also “babysit” the pups and chase predators off while the remainder of the pack is away hunting. Pups are generally fully weaned by eight weeks but continue to use a den for refuge until 12-16 weeks of age. They reach sexual maturity in their second year of life, but social suppression can mean that few animals breed at this age, or indeed at any age.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Estimated population size is 3000 to 5500 remaining in the wild. Legally protected across much ofits range. However, this protection is rarely enforced and Wild Dogs are extinct in several countries despite stringent legal measures. African Wild Dogs survive mainly in small isolated populations in reserves and protected areas, which makes them more prone to extinction and less likely to recover from potentially catastrophic events (i.e. outbreaks of epidemic disease). More than half of the mortality of adults is caused directly by human activities, even in some of the largest and best protected areas. African Wild dogs using protected areas often range outside borders and into areas used by people. Here they encounter a myriad of threats including high-speed vehicles, guns, snares, and poisoning, as well as domestic dogs, which can be reservoirs of potentially lethal diseases. Rabies, in particular, probably spread from domestic dogs, caused the extinction of African Wild Dogs in the Serengeti ecosystem on the Kenya/ Tanzaniaborder in 1990-91 and is suspected to have caused the deaths of several packs in northern Botswanain 1995 and 1996. Canine distemper may also affect African Wild Dog populations, although exposure may not always be fatal. The status of African Wild Dogs in several areas, including West and Central Africa, remains largely unknown.Bibliography.Creel & Creel (1995, 2002), Creel, Creel, Mills & Monfort (1997), Creel, Creel, Munson et al. (1997), Fanshawe & Fitzgibbon (1993), Fanshawe et al. (1997), Frame et al. (1979), Fuller, Kat et al. (1992), Fuller, Mills et al. (1992), Ginsberg & Woodroffe (1997), Girman et al. (1997), Malcolm & Marten (1982), Malcolm & Sillero-Zubiri (2001), McCreery & Robbins (2001), McNutt (1996a, 1996b), Mills & Biggs (1993), Robbins (2000), Taylor et al. (1971), VanHeerden (1981), Woodroffe, Ginsberg & Macdonald (1997), Woodroffe, McNutt & Mills (2004).","taxonomy":"Hyaena picta Temminck, 1820,coastal Mozambique.The former placement of Lycaonin its own subfamily, the Simoncyoninae, is no longer recognized, and recent molecular studies have supported the separation of this species into its own genus. The African Wild Dog has been grouped with Dhole and Bush Dog, but the morphological similarities among these species are no longer considered to indicate common ancestry. Genetic and morphological studies initially suggested the existence of separate subspecies in eastern and southern Africa. However, no geographical boundaries separated these proposed subspecies, and dogs sampled from the intermediate area showed a mixture of southern and eastern haplotypes, indicating a cline rather than distinct subspecies.On following pages: 10. Maned Wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus); 11. Bush Dog (Speothos venaticus), 12. Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyon thous); 13. Short-eared Dog (Atelocynus microtis).","commonNames":"Lycaon @fr | Afrikanischer Wildhund @de | Licadn @es | Painted Hunting Dog @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Brookes","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1827","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1820","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Lycaon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"423","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pictus","name":"Lycaon pictus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Sub-Saharan Africa; virtually eradicated from W Africa, and greatly reduced in C and NE Africa. The largest populations exist in Botswana, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe, which account for approximately half of the estimated number of African Wild Dogs remaining in the wild.Other populations occur in Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Sudan, and Zambia. Potential small populations (less than 100 individuals) may exist in Cameroon, Chad, Senegal, and Somalia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331179/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Creel & Creel (1995, 2002) | Creel, Creel, Mills & Monfort (1997) | Creel, Creel, Munson et al. (1997) | Fanshawe & Fitzgibbon (1993) | Fanshawe et al. (1997) | Frame et al. (1979) | Fuller, Kat et al. (1992) | Fuller, Mills et al. (1992) | Ginsberg & Woodroffe (1997) | Girman et al. (1997) | Malcolm & Marten (1982) | Malcolm & Sillero-Zubiri (2001) | McCreery & Robbins (2001) | McNutt (1996a, 1996b) | Mills & Biggs (1993) | Robbins (2000) | Taylor et al. (1971) | VanHeerden (1981) | Woodroffe, Ginsberg & Macdonald (1997) | Woodroffe, McNutt & Mills (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Wild Dogs mostly hunt medium-sized antelope. In most areas their principal prey are Impala, Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Thomson's Gazelle, and Blue Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). They will give chase to larger species, such as Common Eland (7Tragelaphus oryx) and African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), but rarely kill these species. Warthogs (Phacochoerus spp.), dik-diks (Madoqua spp.), Steenbok (Raphicerus campestris), and duikers (Cephalophini) are important prey items in some areas. African Wild Dogs also take small prey opportunistically, such as hares, lizards, and bird eggs, but these make a very small contribution to their diet. African Wild Dogs live and hunt in packs. Hunts appear to be highly coordinated and are often preceded by a “social rally”. During chases, African Wild Dogs may run at speeds of up to 60 km/h, and are specially adapted to cope with the heat stress that this involves. After one dog has made the first grab of an antelope or other prey species, other pack members join and help drag the quarry to the ground. In some hunts, one pack member may restrain the head of the prey by biting its nose and holding on while others make the kill. Individuals may also chase and bring down prey alone. Hunting success is high in comparison with other large carnivore species (e.g. in the Serengeti, 70% of 133 African Wild Dog hunts ended in a kill). Social hunting gives each pack member a higher foraging success rate (measured as kg killed per km chased) relative to hunting alone. African Wild Dogs very rarely scavenge.","breeding":"Fach pack includes a dominant pair that breeds each year. Subordinate females may breed on some occasions, but their pups rarely survive. Parental care involves all pack members. Such alloparental care is vital: small packs (less than four members) rarely manage to raise any pups. Cooperative care may even extend to caring for adopted pups. Whelping occurs once per year, and gestation lasts 71-73 days. Wild Dogs have large litters, averaging 10-11 pups, butlitters as large as 21 have been recorded. Pup sex ratios are male-biased in some populations. The pups each weigh approximately 300-350 gand are born in an underground den, which they use for the first three months of life. The dens are often those of Aardvarks, sometimes modified by warthogs or Spotted Hyenas. The mother is confined to the den during early lactation, and is reliant on other pack members to provision her during this time. Pack members feed the mother and pups (from four weeks of age) by regurgitating solid pieces of meat. Some also “babysit” the pups and chase predators off while the remainder of the pack is away hunting. Pups are generally fully weaned by eight weeks but continue to use a den for refuge until 12-16 weeks of age. They reach sexual maturity in their second year of life, but social suppression can mean that few animals breed at this age, or indeed at any age.","activityPatterns":"African Wild Dogs are mainly crepuscular and hunt during the early morning and early evening hours. They may also hunt occasionally at night when moonlight is ample. Activity appears to be limited by ambient temperature and availability of light.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"African Wild Dogs are intensely social, living in close association with each other in a pack. Pack size varies from a pair to as many as 30 adultsand yearlings, although typically packs include between four and nine adultsalong with yearlings and pups. Packs form when small same-sex subgroups (usually littermates) leave their natal groups and join subgroups of the opposite sex. Occasionally, new packs form by fission from larger groups, males and females emigrating together. Because African Wild Dogs are obligate social breeders, the pack, rather than the individual, should be considered the basic unit within the population. African Wild Dogs have large home ranges, for example 620 to 2460 km* in Serengeti, which are much larger than would be expected on the basis of their body size. Ranges in other areas, however, are typically between 400 and 600 km*. Ranges are defended infrequently but aggressively against neighboring packs, and African Wild Dogs may thus be considered territorial, especially as such areas are scent-marked. During the breeding season, when they are feeding young pups at a den, packs are confined to relatively small core areas (50-200 km?®), but outside the denning period they range widely. As a result, the large home ranges of this species translate into low population densities. African Wild Dogs dispersing from their natal packs may travel distances exceeding hundreds of kilometers. African Wild Dogs have a complex communication system that includes unique vocalizations.Breeding.Fach pack includes a dominant pair that breeds each year. Subordinate females may breed on some occasions, but their pups rarely survive. Parental care involves all pack members. Such alloparental care is vital: small packs (less than four members) rarely manage to raise any pups. Cooperative care may even extend to caring for adopted pups. Whelping occurs once per year, and gestation lasts 71-73 days. Wild Dogs have large litters, averaging 10-11 pups, butlitters as large as 21 have been recorded. Pup sex ratios are male-biased in some populations. The pups each weigh approximately 300-350 gand are born in an underground den, which they use for the first three months of life. The dens are often those of Aardvarks, sometimes modified by warthogs or Spotted Hyenas. The mother is confined to the den during early lactation, and is reliant on other pack members to provision her during this time. Pack members feed the mother and pups (from four weeks of age) by regurgitating solid pieces of meat. Some also “babysit” the pups and chase predators off while the remainder of the pack is away hunting. Pups are generally fully weaned by eight weeks but continue to use a den for refuge until 12-16 weeks of age. They reach sexual maturity in their second year of life, but social suppression can mean that few animals breed at this age, or indeed at any age.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Estimated population size is 3000 to 5500 remaining in the wild. Legally protected across much ofits range. However, this protection is rarely enforced and Wild Dogs are extinct in several countries despite stringent legal measures. African Wild Dogs survive mainly in small isolated populations in reserves and protected areas, which makes them more prone to extinction and less likely to recover from potentially catastrophic events (i.e. outbreaks of epidemic disease). More than half of the mortality of adults is caused directly by human activities, even in some of the largest and best protected areas. African Wild dogs using protected areas often range outside borders and into areas used by people. Here they encounter a myriad of threats including high-speed vehicles, guns, snares, and poisoning, as well as domestic dogs, which can be reservoirs of potentially lethal diseases. Rabies, in particular, probably spread from domestic dogs, caused the extinction of African Wild Dogs in the Serengeti ecosystem on the Kenya/ Tanzaniaborder in 1990-91 and is suspected to have caused the deaths of several packs in northern Botswanain 1995 and 1996. Canine distemper may also affect African Wild Dog populations, although exposure may not always be fatal. The status of African Wild Dogs in several areas, including West and Central Africa, remains largely unknown.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 84:5-138- 5 cmfor males and 93-141 cmfor females, tail 32-42 cmfor males and 31-37 cmfor females; weight 21-34-5 kgfor males and 18-26-5 kgfor females. Males are slightly heavier than females, and are easily recognized by the conspicuous penis sheath. A large but lightly built canid, with long, slim legs and large, rounded ears. The coloration of the pelage is distinctive but highly variable, a combination of irregular black, yellow-brown, and white blotches on the back, sides, and legs. African Wild Dogs in north-eastern Africa are predominantly black, with small white and yellow patches. Dogs in southern Africa are lighter, with a mix of brown, black, and white. Pelage coloration is unique to each animal, and can thus be used to identify individuals. Head yellow-brown with a black mask, black ears, a black line following the sagittal crest, and a white-tipped tail. Hair is generally very short on the limbs and body and longer on the neck, sometimes giving a shaggy appearance at the throat. Females have six to eight pairs of mammae. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1,PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. As with Cuonand Speothosdeparture from the typical form of dentition within the Canidaeis apparent in the lower carnassial, where the inner cusp of the talonid is missing so that instead of forming a basin, this part of the tooth forms a subsidiary blade. This is indicative of a highly carnivorous diet.","habitat":"Wild Dogs occupy a range of habitats including short-grass plains, semi-desert, bushy savannahs, and upland forest. Early studies in Tanzania’s Serengeti led to a belief that Wild Dogs were primarily an open-plains species, but they reach their highest densities in thicker bush (e.g. central Tanzania, western Zimbabweand northern Botswana). Several relict populations also occupy dense upland forest (e.g. Harenna Forest, Ethiopia; Ngare Ndare Forest, Kenya). Wild Dogs have been recorded in desert, although they appear unable to expand into the southern Kalahari or into montane habitats; they occur in some lowland forest areas. It appears that their current distribution is limited primarily by human activities and the availability of prey, rather than the loss of a specific habitat type."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3BFFC57E8DFE3DF7CED723.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF3BFFC57E8DFE3DF7CED723","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"423","verbatimText":"8.DholeCuon alpinusFrench:Dhole/ German:Asiatischer Wildhund/ Spanish:CuénOther common names:Asiatic Wild DogTaxonomy.Canis alpinus Pallas, 1811.Amur region, former USSR.The genus Cuonis post-Pleistocene in origin, and related more closely to the extant jackals than to wolves. Although initially placed in the subfamily Simocyoninae, together with Lycaon pictusand Speothos venaticus, analysis of morphological, ecological and behavioral characteristics across 39 canid species showed that Cuonwas actually more similar to Canis, Dusicyon, and even Alopex, the resemblance with Speothosor Lycaonbeing based solely on skull and dental characteristics. Analysis of sequences from mitochondrial DNA provided further evidence for the taxonomic distinctiveness among Speothos, Cuon, and Lycaon. Eleven subspecies have been recognized, although many of those forms are doubtful. Three subspecies recongnized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C. a. alpinus Pallas, 1811— C Russiaand W Chinasouthward through Indiato Bhutanand Bangladesh.C. a. hesperius Afanas’ev & Zolotarev, 1935— E Russia, China, and SE Asia.C. a. sumatrensis Hardwicke, 1821— Sumatra and Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-1355 cmand tail 32-50 cm; weight 15-20 kgfor males and 10-13 kgfor females. Large canids, usually with a reddish or brown coat and a darker, bushy tail (sometimes with a white tip). Sexual dimorphism is not very distinct. Ears triangular, about half the length of the face, with rounded tips. The pinnae are usually whitish-fawn on the inside and reddish-brown on the outside. The muzzle is brown, relatively short, and slightly convex in profile. Nose black and eyes slightly hooded;irises are amber. The dorsal and lateral pelage is red to brown and the foreneck, chest, and undersides are often whitish or pale ginger colored. In the south and south-west of the Dhole’s range, their fur is shorter and rusty-red colored. In the north and north-east, the fur is longer, brownish-red, or yellowish-brown. The legs are notably shorter in some alpine regions and the coat is a yellowish-gray color in Himalayan regions. In Thailand, the coat is more uniformly brown, lacking the paler throat and chest. The toes are red, brown, and/or white; the hairless foretoe pads (on all feet) are joined at the base (near the main pad) unlike most domestic dogs. Dentition is unique within the Canidae, having one fewer lower molar teeth (13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40), with the heel of the lower carnassial M, crested and with a single cusp (all other canids within the range of Dhole have two cusps). There are usually six or seven pairs of mammae.Habitat.Dholes are found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including primary, secondary, and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland—scrub—forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions. In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest Dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation typeswhen compared to others in the same region. Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels, and suitability of breeding sites (i.e. in terms of proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures, and sufficient prey).Food and Feeding.Diet includes beetles, rodents, birds, and occasionally grass and other plants like many other canids. However, Dholes hunt mainly vertebrate prey, with a preference for medium to large ungulates. They are also known to scavenge and occasionally have been observed eating carrion (e.g. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Gaur (Bos frontalis) carcasses). It has been suggested that such scavenging only occurs during periods of prey scarcity, particularly during the dry season. Grass is ingested, but may serve an anti-helminthic function rather than a nutritional one. Dholes are communal hunters, occasionally forming packs of over 30 animals, but are more often found in hunting groups of fewer than ten animals. Depending on prey availability, Dholes may also hunt alone or in pairs, taking smaller prey such as deer fawns or hares. During hunts, some Dholes may lie in ambush while others drive prey towards them. Dholes often drive deer into water, where they swim out to surround and capture them. It is common for certain individuals to take particular roles in the hunt, such as leading the chase or taking the first grab at the prey.Activity patterns.Primarily a crepuscular forager, but can hunt at any time of the day or night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dholes usually live in packs of 5-10 individuals, but groups of as many as 25 (including juveniles) have been recorded on a regular basis. Their ability to regurgitate small quantities of meat at will and thus transport food to pack-mates and neonates facilitates communal breeding, providing food for the pups, the mother, and other adult helpers that remain at the natal den. Group size and composition may vary under different environmental conditions, but most of the current data are from India. Packs have been reported to contain significantly more males than females, perhaps a reflection of female-biased dispersal. Pack members regularly play together, engaging in mock-fights, rolling, and allogrooming. Social rank is established by pushing and holding, but rarely by aggressive biting. Groups have a strong hierarchical structure, with a dominant male and female who are the main breeders. Pack members over-mark each other’s feces and urine on latrines throughout the group’s range. The ranges of neighboring packs often exhibit little overlap, though interactions between groups occur and can be either friendly or hostile. In India, reported home range size ranged from 40 to 83 km®. In Thailand, two radio-collared adult male Dholes occupied home range sizes of 12 km* and 49-5 km?. Dholes have a broad and unusual vocal repertoire that includes whines, mews, squeaks, growls, growl-barks, chattering calls, and screams. This large range of alarm calls may have evolved to alert pack members to danger from predators (e.g. Leopard, Tiger, Humans), and could serve to intimidate adversaries. A repetitive whistle-like contact call may allow dispersed pack members to identify one another and to regroup. Maintaining group cohesion in this way is likely to be highly adaptive in areas with other large predators.Breeding.Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Latest estimates state that fewer than 2500 mature individuals remain in the wild. Current wildlife decrees in Cambodiagive the Dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposalto list the species for full protection is under discussion. India’s 1972 Wildlife Act affords legal protection, specifying that permission is required to kill any individual unless in self-defense or if an individual is a man-killer. The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in Indiahas provided some protection for Dhole populations. In the former Soviet Union, Dholes received the status of “protected animal” in 1974; however, the poisoning and shooting of Gray Wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant Dhole populations. The Dhole is legally protected in Vietnam. Knowledge of Dhole abundance is limited to estimates of the number of packs within a few protected areas in southern and central India, where Dholes are generally thought to be abundant. Abundance is relatively lower in West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. In the rest of north-eastern India, Dholes are currently extinct or close to extinction. No remotely comparable information on density is available for any part of South-east Asia, and there are no empirical data on trends in this region. Threats include depletion of prey base, habitat loss and transformation, persecution by cattle grazers, and disease.Bibliography.Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Cohen (1977, 1978), Davidar (1973, 1975), Durbin (1998), Durbin et al. (2004), Fox (1984), IUCN (2008), Johnsingh (1979, 1982, 1983), Paulraj et al. (1992), Thenius (1954), Venkataraman (1998), Venkataraman et al. (1995), Wayne et al. (1997).","taxonomy":"Canis alpinus Pallas, 1811.Amur region, former USSR.The genus Cuonis post-Pleistocene in origin, and related more closely to the extant jackals than to wolves. Although initially placed in the subfamily Simocyoninae, together with Lycaon pictusand Speothos venaticus, analysis of morphological, ecological and behavioral characteristics across 39 canid species showed that Cuonwas actually more similar to Canis, Dusicyon, and even Alopex, the resemblance with Speothosor Lycaonbeing based solely on skull and dental characteristics. Analysis of sequences from mitochondrial DNA provided further evidence for the taxonomic distinctiveness among Speothos, Cuon, and Lycaon. Eleven subspecies have been recognized, although many of those forms are doubtful. Three subspecies recongnized here.","commonNames":"Dhole @fr | Asiatischer Wildhund @de | Cuén @es | Asiatic Wild Dog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1811","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Cuon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"423","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alpinus","name":"Cuon alpinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. a. alpinus Pallas, 1811— C Russiaand W Chinasouthward through Indiato Bhutanand Bangladesh.C. a. hesperius Afanas’ev & Zolotarev, 1935— E Russia, China, and SE Asia.C. a. sumatrensis Hardwicke, 1821— Sumatra and Java.","bibliography":"Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Cohen (1977, 1978) | Davidar (1973, 1975) | Durbin (1998) | Durbin et al. (2004) | Fox (1984) | IUCN (2008) | Johnsingh (1979, 1982, 1983) | Paulraj et al. (1992) | Thenius (1954) | Venkataraman (1998) | Venkataraman et al. (1995) | Wayne et al. (1997)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet includes beetles, rodents, birds, and occasionally grass and other plants like many other canids. However, Dholes hunt mainly vertebrate prey, with a preference for medium to large ungulates. They are also known to scavenge and occasionally have been observed eating carrion (e.g. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Gaur (Bos frontalis) carcasses). It has been suggested that such scavenging only occurs during periods of prey scarcity, particularly during the dry season. Grass is ingested, but may serve an anti-helminthic function rather than a nutritional one. Dholes are communal hunters, occasionally forming packs of over 30 animals, but are more often found in hunting groups of fewer than ten animals. Depending on prey availability, Dholes may also hunt alone or in pairs, taking smaller prey such as deer fawns or hares. During hunts, some Dholes may lie in ambush while others drive prey towards them. Dholes often drive deer into water, where they swim out to surround and capture them. It is common for certain individuals to take particular roles in the hunt, such as leading the chase or taking the first grab at the prey.","breeding":"Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.","activityPatterns":"Primarily a crepuscular forager, but can hunt at any time of the day or night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dholes usually live in packs of 5-10 individuals, but groups of as many as 25 (including juveniles) have been recorded on a regular basis. Their ability to regurgitate small quantities of meat at will and thus transport food to pack-mates and neonates facilitates communal breeding, providing food for the pups, the mother, and other adult helpers that remain at the natal den. Group size and composition may vary under different environmental conditions, but most of the current data are from India. Packs have been reported to contain significantly more males than females, perhaps a reflection of female-biased dispersal. Pack members regularly play together, engaging in mock-fights, rolling, and allogrooming. Social rank is established by pushing and holding, but rarely by aggressive biting. Groups have a strong hierarchical structure, with a dominant male and female who are the main breeders. Pack members over-mark each other’s feces and urine on latrines throughout the group’s range. The ranges of neighboring packs often exhibit little overlap, though interactions between groups occur and can be either friendly or hostile. In India, reported home range size ranged from 40 to 83 km®. In Thailand, two radio-collared adult male Dholes occupied home range sizes of 12 km* and 49-5 km?. Dholes have a broad and unusual vocal repertoire that includes whines, mews, squeaks, growls, growl-barks, chattering calls, and screams. This large range of alarm calls may have evolved to alert pack members to danger from predators (e.g. Leopard, Tiger, Humans), and could serve to intimidate adversaries. A repetitive whistle-like contact call may allow dispersed pack members to identify one another and to regroup. Maintaining group cohesion in this way is likely to be highly adaptive in areas with other large predators.Breeding.Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Latest estimates state that fewer than 2500 mature individuals remain in the wild. Current wildlife decrees in Cambodiagive the Dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposalto list the species for full protection is under discussion. India’s 1972 Wildlife Act affords legal protection, specifying that permission is required to kill any individual unless in self-defense or if an individual is a man-killer. The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in Indiahas provided some protection for Dhole populations. In the former Soviet Union, Dholes received the status of “protected animal” in 1974; however, the poisoning and shooting of Gray Wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant Dhole populations. The Dhole is legally protected in Vietnam. Knowledge of Dhole abundance is limited to estimates of the number of packs within a few protected areas in southern and central India, where Dholes are generally thought to be abundant. Abundance is relatively lower in West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. In the rest of north-eastern India, Dholes are currently extinct or close to extinction. No remotely comparable information on density is available for any part of South-east Asia, and there are no empirical data on trends in this region. Threats include depletion of prey base, habitat loss and transformation, persecution by cattle grazers, and disease.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 88-1355 cmand tail 32-50 cm; weight 15-20 kgfor males and 10-13 kgfor females. Large canids, usually with a reddish or brown coat and a darker, bushy tail (sometimes with a white tip). Sexual dimorphism is not very distinct. Ears triangular, about half the length of the face, with rounded tips. The pinnae are usually whitish-fawn on the inside and reddish-brown on the outside. The muzzle is brown, relatively short, and slightly convex in profile. Nose black and eyes slightly hooded;irises are amber. The dorsal and lateral pelage is red to brown and the foreneck, chest, and undersides are often whitish or pale ginger colored. In the south and south-west of the Dhole’s range, their fur is shorter and rusty-red colored. In the north and north-east, the fur is longer, brownish-red, or yellowish-brown. The legs are notably shorter in some alpine regions and the coat is a yellowish-gray color in Himalayan regions. In Thailand, the coat is more uniformly brown, lacking the paler throat and chest. The toes are red, brown, and/or white; the hairless foretoe pads (on all feet) are joined at the base (near the main pad) unlike most domestic dogs. Dentition is unique within the Canidae, having one fewer lower molar teeth (13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40), with the heel of the lower carnassial M, crested and with a single cusp (all other canids within the range of Dhole have two cusps). There are usually six or seven pairs of mammae.","habitat":"Dholes are found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including primary, secondary, and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland—scrub—forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions. In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest Dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation typeswhen compared to others in the same region. Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels, and suitability of breeding sites (i.e. in terms of proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures, and sufficient prey)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3FFFC07E94F4ECF75BD906.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF3FFFC07E94F4ECF75BD906","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"419","verbatimText":"7.Black-backed JackalCanis mesomelasFrench:Chacal a dos noir/ German:Schabrackenschakal/ Spanish:Chacal dorsinegroOther common names:Silver-backed JackalTaxonomy.Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1775, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Different authors have recognized between two and six subspecies. However, considering the regional variation in the species, only two geographically isolated subspecies are recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C. m. mesomelas Schreber, 1775— S Africa.C. m. schmidti Noack, 1897— E Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 69-90 cmfor males and 65-85 cmfor females,tail 27- 39-5 cmfor males and 26-38-1 cmfor females; weight 5-9-12 kgfor males and 6-2-9-9 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger and heavier than females. Somewhat foxlike in appearance, with a long, pointed muzzle. Diagnostic features include the dark saddle, black bushy tail and reddish flanks and limbs. The ears are large, erect, pointed, and constantly mobile. The overall body color is rufous brown, most intense on the ears, rump, and flanks. A black stripe midway up each flank slopes obliquely from behind the shoulder to the top of the rump; the dark saddle is broadest at the shoulders and tapers to a narrow point at the base of the tail. Anterior to this stripe, just behind the shoulder,is a small vertical stripe, diffuse in some individuals. Above the side markings, the back is marbled black and white giving an overall silver appearance in mature animals. Juveniles and sub-adults have similar markings, but these are drabber and only gain their full intensity at around two years of age. In the drier west and Namib coast in southern Africa the winter coat is a deep reddish brown (especially in males). The bushy tail is dark brown to black with a distinctive black sub-caudal marking. The markings, especially the side and shoulder stripes, are unique and can be used to identifiy individuals. Skull elongated, braincase pear-shaped, rostrum narrow, supra-occipital crest well-developed, bullae rounded, zygomatic arches broad and well-developed, and post-orbital bars incomplete. Dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Outer upper incisors larger, more pointed, and more caniniform than others. Upper canines long, curved, and pointed, with a sharp ridge on their posterior faces.Habitat.Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert, montane grassland, arid savannah and scrubland, open savannah, woodland savannah mosaics, and farmland. In general they show a preference for open habitats, tending to avoid dense vegetation. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3000 min the Drakensberg Mountains, and in localities receiving more than 2000 mmof rainfall. Where more than one jackal species occurs in sympatry the selection of habitat is partitioned. Black-backed Jackals preferentially use either open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal) or wooded savannah (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Blackbacked Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats.Food and Feeding.Generalist feeders. Diet varies according to food availability. When the jackals occur in sympatry with other carnivores using the same prey base, food resources are partitioned. Dietary items typically include small- to medium-sized mammals (e.g. murids, spring hares, young ungulates), reptiles, birds and bird eggs, carrion, and human refuse, as well as invertebrates and plants. In coastal areas, Black-backed Jackals will eat beached marine mammals, seals, fish, and mussels. Invertebrates such as termites and insects are also commonly eaten. Pairs and small groups are often seen foraging together. Groups of between eight and ten aggregate at large carcasses of herbivores, and more than 80 have been recorded at seal colonies on the Namib Desert coast. Such aggregations are accompanied by aggressive behavior between territorial individuals. However, in the south-western Kalahari, where antelope carcasses are uncommon, groups of up to 15 pairs can feed in succession without much overt aggression. Matedjackal pairs will often cooperate in the capture of prey, resulting in a higher success rate. In Botswana, they occasionally form “packs” in order to hunt adult Impala (Aepyceros melampus), and there are also records of their taking adult antelope. On the Namib Desert coast they patrol beaches for beached marine refuse and move along sheltered paths between food-rich patches; the tops of coastal hummocks are used as feeding sites. In this environment, they frequently follow Brown Hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea), from a distance in the hope of securing the odd food item. Their large, mobile ears are used to locate invertebrate and small mammalian prey, which are then captured with a leap followed by an accurate pounce, in a similar manner to Red Foxes.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The monogamous mated pair, which appears to be a life-long association in most cases, is the basis of social structure, and if one member of a pair dies the other often will lose its territory. Blackbacked Jackals are territorial and use feces and urine to demarcate their territorial boundaries. Territories are spatially and temporally relatively stable, and intruders are aggressively expelled by territory holders. Water sources are shared with intruders, but the intruders perform submissive behaviorto territory holders, even to their pups. Density and group size is dependent on food biomass and dispersion. In South Africa, home range size averaged 18-2 km® (n = 14). In the more arid south-western Kalahari, adult ranges varied from 2:6-5-2 km? (n = 7) and mean sub-adult ranges were 6-3 km? (n = 4). In Zimbabwe, home ranges were largest in the cold, dry season (c. 1:0-1-3 km?*) and smaller in the hot dry season (c. 0-3-0-6 km?), while in the Rift Valley in Kenya, home ranges varied from 0-7-3-5 km®*. Home ranges are universally defended and mutually exclusive for pairs, with the exception of a population on the Namibian coast for which average home range size varied from 7-1-24-9 km* (n = 4). A high-pitched, whining howl is used to communicate with group members and is often used to call the group together in the early evening; this may also function in territorial advertisement. Howling often stimulates the same behavior in adjacent territories or in nearby individuals. A three- to five-syllable alarm call, consisting of an explosive yelp followed by a series of shorter high-pitched yelps, is used when disturbed and may be frantic and prolonged when the jackals are mobbing a Leopard (Panthera pardus). A low-pitched, gruff bark is used to warn pups of intruders near the den, and whines are used to call to pups. Also noted is use of a “clattering distress call” and a loud yelp when alarmed. Interestingly, Black-backed Jackals are much less vocal where they occur alongside the Golden Jackal, which is the only jackal species heard to howl in East Africa.Breeding.Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread, and in Namibiaand South Africathey are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. Also occur in many livestock-producing areas, where they are considered vermin; however, despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa, this species is still relatively abundant. Snaring and road accidents may be the commonest cause of jackal mortality in areas of high human density. Black-backed Jackals are persecuted as livestock killers and as carriers of rabies. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers.Bibliography.Avery et al. (1987), Bernard & Stuart (1992), Bothma (1971a, 1971b), Bothma et al. (1984), Coetzee (1977), Dreyer & Nel (1990), Ferguson (1980), Ferguson et al. (1983), Fuller et al. (1989), Hiscocks & Perrin (1988), Kaunda (2000), Kaunda & Skinner (2003), Kingdon (1997), Kok (1996), Lamprecht (1978), van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970), Loveridge (1999), Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002), Loveridge & Nel (2004), McKenzie (1990), Meester et al. (1986), Moehlman (1978, 1979, 1983, 1987), Nel & Loutit (1986), Oosthuizen et al. (1997), Pienaar (1969), Rowe-Rowe (1982, 1983), Stuart (1976).","taxonomy":"Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1775, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Different authors have recognized between two and six subspecies. However, considering the regional variation in the species, only two geographically isolated subspecies are recognized here.","commonNames":"Chacal a dos noir @fr | Schabrackenschakal @de | Chacal dorsinegro @es | Silver-backed Jackal @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"419","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mesomelas","name":"Canis mesomelas","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. m. mesomelas Schreber, 1775— S Africa.C. m. schmidti Noack, 1897— E Africa.","bibliography":"Avery et al. (1987) | Bernard & Stuart (1992) | Bothma (1971a, 1971b) | Bothma et al. (1984) | Coetzee (1977) | Dreyer & Nel (1990) | Ferguson (1980) | Ferguson et al. (1983) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Hiscocks & Perrin (1988) | Kaunda (2000) | Kaunda & Skinner (2003) | Kingdon (1997) | Kok (1996) | Lamprecht (1978) | van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970) | Loveridge (1999) | Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002) | Loveridge & Nel (2004) | McKenzie (1990) | Meester et al. (1986) | Moehlman (1978, 1979, 1983, 1987) | Nel & Loutit (1986) | Oosthuizen et al. (1997) | Pienaar (1969) | Rowe-Rowe (1982, 1983) | Stuart (1976)","foodAndFeeding":"Generalist feeders. Diet varies according to food availability. When the jackals occur in sympatry with other carnivores using the same prey base, food resources are partitioned. Dietary items typically include small- to medium-sized mammals (e.g. murids, spring hares, young ungulates), reptiles, birds and bird eggs, carrion, and human refuse, as well as invertebrates and plants. In coastal areas, Black-backed Jackals will eat beached marine mammals, seals, fish, and mussels. Invertebrates such as termites and insects are also commonly eaten. Pairs and small groups are often seen foraging together. Groups of between eight and ten aggregate at large carcasses of herbivores, and more than 80 have been recorded at seal colonies on the Namib Desert coast. Such aggregations are accompanied by aggressive behavior between territorial individuals. However, in the south-western Kalahari, where antelope carcasses are uncommon, groups of up to 15 pairs can feed in succession without much overt aggression. Matedjackal pairs will often cooperate in the capture of prey, resulting in a higher success rate. In Botswana, they occasionally form “packs” in order to hunt adult Impala (Aepyceros melampus), and there are also records of their taking adult antelope. On the Namib Desert coast they patrol beaches for beached marine refuse and move along sheltered paths between food-rich patches; the tops of coastal hummocks are used as feeding sites. In this environment, they frequently follow Brown Hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea), from a distance in the hope of securing the odd food item. Their large, mobile ears are used to locate invertebrate and small mammalian prey, which are then captured with a leap followed by an accurate pounce, in a similar manner to Red Foxes.","breeding":"Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.","activityPatterns":"Mostly nocturnal, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The monogamous mated pair, which appears to be a life-long association in most cases, is the basis of social structure, and if one member of a pair dies the other often will lose its territory. Blackbacked Jackals are territorial and use feces and urine to demarcate their territorial boundaries. Territories are spatially and temporally relatively stable, and intruders are aggressively expelled by territory holders. Water sources are shared with intruders, but the intruders perform submissive behaviorto territory holders, even to their pups. Density and group size is dependent on food biomass and dispersion. In South Africa, home range size averaged 18-2 km® (n = 14). In the more arid south-western Kalahari, adult ranges varied from 2:6-5-2 km? (n = 7) and mean sub-adult ranges were 6-3 km? (n = 4). In Zimbabwe, home ranges were largest in the cold, dry season (c. 1:0-1-3 km?*) and smaller in the hot dry season (c. 0-3-0-6 km?), while in the Rift Valley in Kenya, home ranges varied from 0-7-3-5 km®*. Home ranges are universally defended and mutually exclusive for pairs, with the exception of a population on the Namibian coast for which average home range size varied from 7-1-24-9 km* (n = 4). A high-pitched, whining howl is used to communicate with group members and is often used to call the group together in the early evening; this may also function in territorial advertisement. Howling often stimulates the same behavior in adjacent territories or in nearby individuals. A three- to five-syllable alarm call, consisting of an explosive yelp followed by a series of shorter high-pitched yelps, is used when disturbed and may be frantic and prolonged when the jackals are mobbing a Leopard (Panthera pardus). A low-pitched, gruff bark is used to warn pups of intruders near the den, and whines are used to call to pups. Also noted is use of a “clattering distress call” and a loud yelp when alarmed. Interestingly, Black-backed Jackals are much less vocal where they occur alongside the Golden Jackal, which is the only jackal species heard to howl in East Africa.Breeding.Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread, and in Namibiaand South Africathey are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. Also occur in many livestock-producing areas, where they are considered vermin; however, despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa, this species is still relatively abundant. Snaring and road accidents may be the commonest cause of jackal mortality in areas of high human density. Black-backed Jackals are persecuted as livestock killers and as carriers of rabies. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 69-90 cmfor males and 65-85 cmfor females,tail 27- 39-5 cmfor males and 26-38-1 cmfor females; weight 5-9-12 kgfor males and 6-2-9-9 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger and heavier than females. Somewhat foxlike in appearance, with a long, pointed muzzle. Diagnostic features include the dark saddle, black bushy tail and reddish flanks and limbs. The ears are large, erect, pointed, and constantly mobile. The overall body color is rufous brown, most intense on the ears, rump, and flanks. A black stripe midway up each flank slopes obliquely from behind the shoulder to the top of the rump; the dark saddle is broadest at the shoulders and tapers to a narrow point at the base of the tail. Anterior to this stripe, just behind the shoulder,is a small vertical stripe, diffuse in some individuals. Above the side markings, the back is marbled black and white giving an overall silver appearance in mature animals. Juveniles and sub-adults have similar markings, but these are drabber and only gain their full intensity at around two years of age. In the drier west and Namib coast in southern Africa the winter coat is a deep reddish brown (especially in males). The bushy tail is dark brown to black with a distinctive black sub-caudal marking. The markings, especially the side and shoulder stripes, are unique and can be used to identifiy individuals. Skull elongated, braincase pear-shaped, rostrum narrow, supra-occipital crest well-developed, bullae rounded, zygomatic arches broad and well-developed, and post-orbital bars incomplete. Dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Outer upper incisors larger, more pointed, and more caniniform than others. Upper canines long, curved, and pointed, with a sharp ridge on their posterior faces.","habitat":"Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert, montane grassland, arid savannah and scrubland, open savannah, woodland savannah mosaics, and farmland. In general they show a preference for open habitats, tending to avoid dense vegetation. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3000 min the Drakensberg Mountains, and in localities receiving more than 2000 mmof rainfall. Where more than one jackal species occurs in sympatry the selection of habitat is partitioned. Black-backed Jackals preferentially use either open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal) or wooded savannah (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Blackbacked Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3BFFC57E8DFE3DF7CED723.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF3BFFC57E8DFE3DF7CED723","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"423","verbatimText":"8.DholeCuon alpinusFrench:Dhole/ German:Asiatischer Wildhund/ Spanish:CuénOther common names:Asiatic Wild DogTaxonomy.Canis alpinus Pallas, 1811.Amur region, former USSR.The genus Cuonis post-Pleistocene in origin, and related more closely to the extant jackals than to wolves. Although initially placed in the subfamily Simocyoninae, together with Lycaon pictusand Speothos venaticus, analysis of morphological, ecological and behavioral characteristics across 39 canid species showed that Cuonwas actually more similar to Canis, Dusicyon, and even Alopex, the resemblance with Speothosor Lycaonbeing based solely on skull and dental characteristics. Analysis of sequences from mitochondrial DNA provided further evidence for the taxonomic distinctiveness among Speothos, Cuon, and Lycaon. Eleven subspecies have been recognized, although many of those forms are doubtful. Three subspecies recongnized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C. a. alpinus Pallas, 1811— C Russiaand W Chinasouthward through Indiato Bhutanand Bangladesh.C. a. hesperius Afanas’ev & Zolotarev, 1935— E Russia, China, and SE Asia.C. a. sumatrensis Hardwicke, 1821— Sumatra and Java.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-1355 cmand tail 32-50 cm; weight 15-20 kgfor males and 10-13 kgfor females. Large canids, usually with a reddish or brown coat and a darker, bushy tail (sometimes with a white tip). Sexual dimorphism is not very distinct. Ears triangular, about half the length of the face, with rounded tips. The pinnae are usually whitish-fawn on the inside and reddish-brown on the outside. The muzzle is brown, relatively short, and slightly convex in profile. Nose black and eyes slightly hooded;irises are amber. The dorsal and lateral pelage is red to brown and the foreneck, chest, and undersides are often whitish or pale ginger colored. In the south and south-west of the Dhole’s range, their fur is shorter and rusty-red colored. In the north and north-east, the fur is longer, brownish-red, or yellowish-brown. The legs are notably shorter in some alpine regions and the coat is a yellowish-gray color in Himalayan regions. In Thailand, the coat is more uniformly brown, lacking the paler throat and chest. The toes are red, brown, and/or white; the hairless foretoe pads (on all feet) are joined at the base (near the main pad) unlike most domestic dogs. Dentition is unique within the Canidae, having one fewer lower molar teeth (13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40), with the heel of the lower carnassial M, crested and with a single cusp (all other canids within the range of Dhole have two cusps). There are usually six or seven pairs of mammae.Habitat.Dholes are found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including primary, secondary, and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland—scrub—forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions. In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest Dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation typeswhen compared to others in the same region. Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels, and suitability of breeding sites (i.e. in terms of proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures, and sufficient prey).Food and Feeding.Diet includes beetles, rodents, birds, and occasionally grass and other plants like many other canids. However, Dholes hunt mainly vertebrate prey, with a preference for medium to large ungulates. They are also known to scavenge and occasionally have been observed eating carrion (e.g. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Gaur (Bos frontalis) carcasses). It has been suggested that such scavenging only occurs during periods of prey scarcity, particularly during the dry season. Grass is ingested, but may serve an anti-helminthic function rather than a nutritional one. Dholes are communal hunters, occasionally forming packs of over 30 animals, but are more often found in hunting groups of fewer than ten animals. Depending on prey availability, Dholes may also hunt alone or in pairs, taking smaller prey such as deer fawns or hares. During hunts, some Dholes may lie in ambush while others drive prey towards them. Dholes often drive deer into water, where they swim out to surround and capture them. It is common for certain individuals to take particular roles in the hunt, such as leading the chase or taking the first grab at the prey.Activity patterns.Primarily a crepuscular forager, but can hunt at any time of the day or night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dholes usually live in packs of 5-10 individuals, but groups of as many as 25 (including juveniles) have been recorded on a regular basis. Their ability to regurgitate small quantities of meat at will and thus transport food to pack-mates and neonates facilitates communal breeding, providing food for the pups, the mother, and other adult helpers that remain at the natal den. Group size and composition may vary under different environmental conditions, but most of the current data are from India. Packs have been reported to contain significantly more males than females, perhaps a reflection of female-biased dispersal. Pack members regularly play together, engaging in mock-fights, rolling, and allogrooming. Social rank is established by pushing and holding, but rarely by aggressive biting. Groups have a strong hierarchical structure, with a dominant male and female who are the main breeders. Pack members over-mark each other’s feces and urine on latrines throughout the group’s range. The ranges of neighboring packs often exhibit little overlap, though interactions between groups occur and can be either friendly or hostile. In India, reported home range size ranged from 40 to 83 km®. In Thailand, two radio-collared adult male Dholes occupied home range sizes of 12 km* and 49-5 km?. Dholes have a broad and unusual vocal repertoire that includes whines, mews, squeaks, growls, growl-barks, chattering calls, and screams. This large range of alarm calls may have evolved to alert pack members to danger from predators (e.g. Leopard, Tiger, Humans), and could serve to intimidate adversaries. A repetitive whistle-like contact call may allow dispersed pack members to identify one another and to regroup. Maintaining group cohesion in this way is likely to be highly adaptive in areas with other large predators.Breeding.Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Latest estimates state that fewer than 2500 mature individuals remain in the wild. Current wildlife decrees in Cambodiagive the Dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposalto list the species for full protection is under discussion. India’s 1972 Wildlife Act affords legal protection, specifying that permission is required to kill any individual unless in self-defense or if an individual is a man-killer. The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in Indiahas provided some protection for Dhole populations. In the former Soviet Union, Dholes received the status of “protected animal” in 1974; however, the poisoning and shooting of Gray Wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant Dhole populations. The Dhole is legally protected in Vietnam. Knowledge of Dhole abundance is limited to estimates of the number of packs within a few protected areas in southern and central India, where Dholes are generally thought to be abundant. Abundance is relatively lower in West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. In the rest of north-eastern India, Dholes are currently extinct or close to extinction. No remotely comparable information on density is available for any part of South-east Asia, and there are no empirical data on trends in this region. Threats include depletion of prey base, habitat loss and transformation, persecution by cattle grazers, and disease.Bibliography.Clutton-Brock et al. (1976), Cohen (1977, 1978), Davidar (1973, 1975), Durbin (1998), Durbin et al. (2004), Fox (1984), IUCN (2008), Johnsingh (1979, 1982, 1983), Paulraj et al. (1992), Thenius (1954), Venkataraman (1998), Venkataraman et al. (1995), Wayne et al. (1997).","taxonomy":"Canis alpinus Pallas, 1811.Amur region, former USSR.The genus Cuonis post-Pleistocene in origin, and related more closely to the extant jackals than to wolves. Although initially placed in the subfamily Simocyoninae, together with Lycaon pictusand Speothos venaticus, analysis of morphological, ecological and behavioral characteristics across 39 canid species showed that Cuonwas actually more similar to Canis, Dusicyon, and even Alopex, the resemblance with Speothosor Lycaonbeing based solely on skull and dental characteristics. Analysis of sequences from mitochondrial DNA provided further evidence for the taxonomic distinctiveness among Speothos, Cuon, and Lycaon. Eleven subspecies have been recognized, although many of those forms are doubtful. Three subspecies recongnized here.","commonNames":"Dhole @fr | Asiatischer Wildhund @de | Cuén @es | Asiatic Wild Dog @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1811","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Cuon","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"423","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alpinus","name":"Cuon alpinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. a. alpinus Pallas, 1811— C Russiaand W Chinasouthward through Indiato Bhutanand Bangladesh.C. a. hesperius Afanas’ev & Zolotarev, 1935— E Russia, China, and SE Asia.C. a. sumatrensis Hardwicke, 1821— Sumatra and Java.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331177/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) | Cohen (1977, 1978) | Davidar (1973, 1975) | Durbin (1998) | Durbin et al. (2004) | Fox (1984) | IUCN (2008) | Johnsingh (1979, 1982, 1983) | Paulraj et al. (1992) | Thenius (1954) | Venkataraman (1998) | Venkataraman et al. (1995) | Wayne et al. (1997)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet includes beetles, rodents, birds, and occasionally grass and other plants like many other canids. However, Dholes hunt mainly vertebrate prey, with a preference for medium to large ungulates. They are also known to scavenge and occasionally have been observed eating carrion (e.g. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Gaur (Bos frontalis) carcasses). It has been suggested that such scavenging only occurs during periods of prey scarcity, particularly during the dry season. Grass is ingested, but may serve an anti-helminthic function rather than a nutritional one. Dholes are communal hunters, occasionally forming packs of over 30 animals, but are more often found in hunting groups of fewer than ten animals. Depending on prey availability, Dholes may also hunt alone or in pairs, taking smaller prey such as deer fawns or hares. During hunts, some Dholes may lie in ambush while others drive prey towards them. Dholes often drive deer into water, where they swim out to surround and capture them. It is common for certain individuals to take particular roles in the hunt, such as leading the chase or taking the first grab at the prey.","breeding":"Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.","activityPatterns":"Primarily a crepuscular forager, but can hunt at any time of the day or night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dholes usually live in packs of 5-10 individuals, but groups of as many as 25 (including juveniles) have been recorded on a regular basis. Their ability to regurgitate small quantities of meat at will and thus transport food to pack-mates and neonates facilitates communal breeding, providing food for the pups, the mother, and other adult helpers that remain at the natal den. Group size and composition may vary under different environmental conditions, but most of the current data are from India. Packs have been reported to contain significantly more males than females, perhaps a reflection of female-biased dispersal. Pack members regularly play together, engaging in mock-fights, rolling, and allogrooming. Social rank is established by pushing and holding, but rarely by aggressive biting. Groups have a strong hierarchical structure, with a dominant male and female who are the main breeders. Pack members over-mark each other’s feces and urine on latrines throughout the group’s range. The ranges of neighboring packs often exhibit little overlap, though interactions between groups occur and can be either friendly or hostile. In India, reported home range size ranged from 40 to 83 km®. In Thailand, two radio-collared adult male Dholes occupied home range sizes of 12 km* and 49-5 km?. Dholes have a broad and unusual vocal repertoire that includes whines, mews, squeaks, growls, growl-barks, chattering calls, and screams. This large range of alarm calls may have evolved to alert pack members to danger from predators (e.g. Leopard, Tiger, Humans), and could serve to intimidate adversaries. A repetitive whistle-like contact call may allow dispersed pack members to identify one another and to regroup. Maintaining group cohesion in this way is likely to be highly adaptive in areas with other large predators.Breeding.Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about nine weeks. Mating periods vary in different locations, occurring between November and April (dry season) in India, and January to May (end of the wet season) in East Java. Females are seasonally polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 weeks. The dominant pair engages in vigorous play and marking, culminating in a copulatory tie. Usually only the dominant female breeds, but exceptions have been noted. Subordinate males sometimes show sexual interest in the alpha female and may contribute to the paternity of the litter. Litter sizes vary dramatically, even within the same pack in different years. The largest litter size recorded is twelve, with only one lactating female in the group. In captivity, newborn pups can weigh 200-350 g, although by the age of ten days their body weight can double, and they have a total body length of about 340 mm. Pups suckle from the mother until they are about three weeks old, when they start to receive regurgitated meat from other pack members. Weaning occurs by about 6-7 weeks, although in captivity this can happen as late as 8-9 weeks. All adults take part in guarding, feeding, grooming, and playing with the pups. By about three months, the pups accompany the adults on hunts; however, the pack may not be fully mobile until about eight months. Dholes reach adult size by about 15 months. In captivity, Dholes of both sexes can reproduce at two years of age. Den typesrange from earthen burrows to rocky caverns.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Latest estimates state that fewer than 2500 mature individuals remain in the wild. Current wildlife decrees in Cambodiagive the Dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposalto list the species for full protection is under discussion. India’s 1972 Wildlife Act affords legal protection, specifying that permission is required to kill any individual unless in self-defense or if an individual is a man-killer. The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in Indiahas provided some protection for Dhole populations. In the former Soviet Union, Dholes received the status of “protected animal” in 1974; however, the poisoning and shooting of Gray Wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant Dhole populations. The Dhole is legally protected in Vietnam. Knowledge of Dhole abundance is limited to estimates of the number of packs within a few protected areas in southern and central India, where Dholes are generally thought to be abundant. Abundance is relatively lower in West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. In the rest of north-eastern India, Dholes are currently extinct or close to extinction. No remotely comparable information on density is available for any part of South-east Asia, and there are no empirical data on trends in this region. Threats include depletion of prey base, habitat loss and transformation, persecution by cattle grazers, and disease.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 88-1355 cmand tail 32-50 cm; weight 15-20 kgfor males and 10-13 kgfor females. Large canids, usually with a reddish or brown coat and a darker, bushy tail (sometimes with a white tip). Sexual dimorphism is not very distinct. Ears triangular, about half the length of the face, with rounded tips. The pinnae are usually whitish-fawn on the inside and reddish-brown on the outside. The muzzle is brown, relatively short, and slightly convex in profile. Nose black and eyes slightly hooded;irises are amber. The dorsal and lateral pelage is red to brown and the foreneck, chest, and undersides are often whitish or pale ginger colored. In the south and south-west of the Dhole’s range, their fur is shorter and rusty-red colored. In the north and north-east, the fur is longer, brownish-red, or yellowish-brown. The legs are notably shorter in some alpine regions and the coat is a yellowish-gray color in Himalayan regions. In Thailand, the coat is more uniformly brown, lacking the paler throat and chest. The toes are red, brown, and/or white; the hairless foretoe pads (on all feet) are joined at the base (near the main pad) unlike most domestic dogs. Dentition is unique within the Canidae, having one fewer lower molar teeth (13/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/2 = 40), with the heel of the lower carnassial M, crested and with a single cusp (all other canids within the range of Dhole have two cusps). There are usually six or seven pairs of mammae.","habitat":"Dholes are found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including primary, secondary, and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland—scrub—forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions. In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest Dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation typeswhen compared to others in the same region. Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels, and suitability of breeding sites (i.e. in terms of proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures, and sufficient prey)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AC/CF/03ACCF40BF3FFFC07E94F4ECF75BD906.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03ACCF40BF3FFFC07E94F4ECF75BD906","docName":"hbmw_1_Canidae_0352.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff95b738bf37ffc97e1bff90ffdbdd06","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"419","verbatimText":"7.Black-backed JackalCanis mesomelasFrench:Chacal a dos noir/ German:Schabrackenschakal/ Spanish:Chacal dorsinegroOther common names:Silver-backed JackalTaxonomy.Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1775, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Different authors have recognized between two and six subspecies. However, considering the regional variation in the species, only two geographically isolated subspecies are recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.C. m. mesomelas Schreber, 1775— S Africa.C. m. schmidti Noack, 1897— E Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 69-90 cmfor males and 65-85 cmfor females,tail 27- 39-5 cmfor males and 26-38-1 cmfor females; weight 5-9-12 kgfor males and 6-2-9-9 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger and heavier than females. Somewhat foxlike in appearance, with a long, pointed muzzle. Diagnostic features include the dark saddle, black bushy tail and reddish flanks and limbs. The ears are large, erect, pointed, and constantly mobile. The overall body color is rufous brown, most intense on the ears, rump, and flanks. A black stripe midway up each flank slopes obliquely from behind the shoulder to the top of the rump; the dark saddle is broadest at the shoulders and tapers to a narrow point at the base of the tail. Anterior to this stripe, just behind the shoulder,is a small vertical stripe, diffuse in some individuals. Above the side markings, the back is marbled black and white giving an overall silver appearance in mature animals. Juveniles and sub-adults have similar markings, but these are drabber and only gain their full intensity at around two years of age. In the drier west and Namib coast in southern Africa the winter coat is a deep reddish brown (especially in males). The bushy tail is dark brown to black with a distinctive black sub-caudal marking. The markings, especially the side and shoulder stripes, are unique and can be used to identifiy individuals. Skull elongated, braincase pear-shaped, rostrum narrow, supra-occipital crest well-developed, bullae rounded, zygomatic arches broad and well-developed, and post-orbital bars incomplete. Dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Outer upper incisors larger, more pointed, and more caniniform than others. Upper canines long, curved, and pointed, with a sharp ridge on their posterior faces.Habitat.Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert, montane grassland, arid savannah and scrubland, open savannah, woodland savannah mosaics, and farmland. In general they show a preference for open habitats, tending to avoid dense vegetation. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3000 min the Drakensberg Mountains, and in localities receiving more than 2000 mmof rainfall. Where more than one jackal species occurs in sympatry the selection of habitat is partitioned. Black-backed Jackals preferentially use either open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal) or wooded savannah (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Blackbacked Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats.Food and Feeding.Generalist feeders. Diet varies according to food availability. When the jackals occur in sympatry with other carnivores using the same prey base, food resources are partitioned. Dietary items typically include small- to medium-sized mammals (e.g. murids, spring hares, young ungulates), reptiles, birds and bird eggs, carrion, and human refuse, as well as invertebrates and plants. In coastal areas, Black-backed Jackals will eat beached marine mammals, seals, fish, and mussels. Invertebrates such as termites and insects are also commonly eaten. Pairs and small groups are often seen foraging together. Groups of between eight and ten aggregate at large carcasses of herbivores, and more than 80 have been recorded at seal colonies on the Namib Desert coast. Such aggregations are accompanied by aggressive behavior between territorial individuals. However, in the south-western Kalahari, where antelope carcasses are uncommon, groups of up to 15 pairs can feed in succession without much overt aggression. Matedjackal pairs will often cooperate in the capture of prey, resulting in a higher success rate. In Botswana, they occasionally form “packs” in order to hunt adult Impala (Aepyceros melampus), and there are also records of their taking adult antelope. On the Namib Desert coast they patrol beaches for beached marine refuse and move along sheltered paths between food-rich patches; the tops of coastal hummocks are used as feeding sites. In this environment, they frequently follow Brown Hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea), from a distance in the hope of securing the odd food item. Their large, mobile ears are used to locate invertebrate and small mammalian prey, which are then captured with a leap followed by an accurate pounce, in a similar manner to Red Foxes.Activity patterns.Mostly nocturnal, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The monogamous mated pair, which appears to be a life-long association in most cases, is the basis of social structure, and if one member of a pair dies the other often will lose its territory. Blackbacked Jackals are territorial and use feces and urine to demarcate their territorial boundaries. Territories are spatially and temporally relatively stable, and intruders are aggressively expelled by territory holders. Water sources are shared with intruders, but the intruders perform submissive behaviorto territory holders, even to their pups. Density and group size is dependent on food biomass and dispersion. In South Africa, home range size averaged 18-2 km® (n = 14). In the more arid south-western Kalahari, adult ranges varied from 2:6-5-2 km? (n = 7) and mean sub-adult ranges were 6-3 km? (n = 4). In Zimbabwe, home ranges were largest in the cold, dry season (c. 1:0-1-3 km?*) and smaller in the hot dry season (c. 0-3-0-6 km?), while in the Rift Valley in Kenya, home ranges varied from 0-7-3-5 km®*. Home ranges are universally defended and mutually exclusive for pairs, with the exception of a population on the Namibian coast for which average home range size varied from 7-1-24-9 km* (n = 4). A high-pitched, whining howl is used to communicate with group members and is often used to call the group together in the early evening; this may also function in territorial advertisement. Howling often stimulates the same behavior in adjacent territories or in nearby individuals. A three- to five-syllable alarm call, consisting of an explosive yelp followed by a series of shorter high-pitched yelps, is used when disturbed and may be frantic and prolonged when the jackals are mobbing a Leopard (Panthera pardus). A low-pitched, gruff bark is used to warn pups of intruders near the den, and whines are used to call to pups. Also noted is use of a “clattering distress call” and a loud yelp when alarmed. Interestingly, Black-backed Jackals are much less vocal where they occur alongside the Golden Jackal, which is the only jackal species heard to howl in East Africa.Breeding.Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.Status and Conservation.CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread, and in Namibiaand South Africathey are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. Also occur in many livestock-producing areas, where they are considered vermin; however, despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa, this species is still relatively abundant. Snaring and road accidents may be the commonest cause of jackal mortality in areas of high human density. Black-backed Jackals are persecuted as livestock killers and as carriers of rabies. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers.Bibliography.Avery et al. (1987), Bernard & Stuart (1992), Bothma (1971a, 1971b), Bothma et al. (1984), Coetzee (1977), Dreyer & Nel (1990), Ferguson (1980), Ferguson et al. (1983), Fuller et al. (1989), Hiscocks & Perrin (1988), Kaunda (2000), Kaunda & Skinner (2003), Kingdon (1997), Kok (1996), Lamprecht (1978), van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970), Loveridge (1999), Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002), Loveridge & Nel (2004), McKenzie (1990), Meester et al. (1986), Moehlman (1978, 1979, 1983, 1987), Nel & Loutit (1986), Oosthuizen et al. (1997), Pienaar (1969), Rowe-Rowe (1982, 1983), Stuart (1976).","taxonomy":"Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1775, Capeof Good Hope, South Africa.Different authors have recognized between two and six subspecies. However, considering the regional variation in the species, only two geographically isolated subspecies are recognized here.","commonNames":"Chacal a dos noir @fr | Schabrackenschakal @de | Chacal dorsinegro @es | Silver-backed Jackal @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schreber","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Canidae","interpretedGenus":"Canis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"419","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mesomelas","name":"Canis mesomelas","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. m. mesomelas Schreber, 1775— S Africa.C. m. schmidti Noack, 1897— E Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6331175/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Avery et al. (1987) | Bernard & Stuart (1992) | Bothma (1971a, 1971b) | Bothma et al. (1984) | Coetzee (1977) | Dreyer & Nel (1990) | Ferguson (1980) | Ferguson et al. (1983) | Fuller et al. (1989) | Hiscocks & Perrin (1988) | Kaunda (2000) | Kaunda & Skinner (2003) | Kingdon (1997) | Kok (1996) | Lamprecht (1978) | van Lawick & van Lawick-Goodall (1970) | Loveridge (1999) | Loveridge & Macdonald (2001, 2002) | Loveridge & Nel (2004) | McKenzie (1990) | Meester et al. (1986) | Moehlman (1978, 1979, 1983, 1987) | Nel & Loutit (1986) | Oosthuizen et al. (1997) | Pienaar (1969) | Rowe-Rowe (1982, 1983) | Stuart (1976)","foodAndFeeding":"Generalist feeders. Diet varies according to food availability. When the jackals occur in sympatry with other carnivores using the same prey base, food resources are partitioned. Dietary items typically include small- to medium-sized mammals (e.g. murids, spring hares, young ungulates), reptiles, birds and bird eggs, carrion, and human refuse, as well as invertebrates and plants. In coastal areas, Black-backed Jackals will eat beached marine mammals, seals, fish, and mussels. Invertebrates such as termites and insects are also commonly eaten. Pairs and small groups are often seen foraging together. Groups of between eight and ten aggregate at large carcasses of herbivores, and more than 80 have been recorded at seal colonies on the Namib Desert coast. Such aggregations are accompanied by aggressive behavior between territorial individuals. However, in the south-western Kalahari, where antelope carcasses are uncommon, groups of up to 15 pairs can feed in succession without much overt aggression. Matedjackal pairs will often cooperate in the capture of prey, resulting in a higher success rate. In Botswana, they occasionally form “packs” in order to hunt adult Impala (Aepyceros melampus), and there are also records of their taking adult antelope. On the Namib Desert coast they patrol beaches for beached marine refuse and move along sheltered paths between food-rich patches; the tops of coastal hummocks are used as feeding sites. In this environment, they frequently follow Brown Hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea), from a distance in the hope of securing the odd food item. Their large, mobile ears are used to locate invertebrate and small mammalian prey, which are then captured with a leap followed by an accurate pounce, in a similar manner to Red Foxes.","breeding":"Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.","activityPatterns":"Mostly nocturnal, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The monogamous mated pair, which appears to be a life-long association in most cases, is the basis of social structure, and if one member of a pair dies the other often will lose its territory. Blackbacked Jackals are territorial and use feces and urine to demarcate their territorial boundaries. Territories are spatially and temporally relatively stable, and intruders are aggressively expelled by territory holders. Water sources are shared with intruders, but the intruders perform submissive behaviorto territory holders, even to their pups. Density and group size is dependent on food biomass and dispersion. In South Africa, home range size averaged 18-2 km® (n = 14). In the more arid south-western Kalahari, adult ranges varied from 2:6-5-2 km? (n = 7) and mean sub-adult ranges were 6-3 km? (n = 4). In Zimbabwe, home ranges were largest in the cold, dry season (c. 1:0-1-3 km?*) and smaller in the hot dry season (c. 0-3-0-6 km?), while in the Rift Valley in Kenya, home ranges varied from 0-7-3-5 km®*. Home ranges are universally defended and mutually exclusive for pairs, with the exception of a population on the Namibian coast for which average home range size varied from 7-1-24-9 km* (n = 4). A high-pitched, whining howl is used to communicate with group members and is often used to call the group together in the early evening; this may also function in territorial advertisement. Howling often stimulates the same behavior in adjacent territories or in nearby individuals. A three- to five-syllable alarm call, consisting of an explosive yelp followed by a series of shorter high-pitched yelps, is used when disturbed and may be frantic and prolonged when the jackals are mobbing a Leopard (Panthera pardus). A low-pitched, gruff bark is used to warn pups of intruders near the den, and whines are used to call to pups. Also noted is use of a “clattering distress call” and a loud yelp when alarmed. Interestingly, Black-backed Jackals are much less vocal where they occur alongside the Golden Jackal, which is the only jackal species heard to howl in East Africa.Breeding.Mating is accompanied by increased vocalization and territoriality in both sexes. Dominant individuals within a territory constantly harass same-sex subordinates to prevent them from mating. In southern Africa mating generally occurs from late May to August, and following a gestation period of about 60 days, births occur from around July to October. It has been suggested that summerbirths are timed to coincide with the reproductive season of important rodent prey, and winter births with an increase in the availability of ungulate carcasses at the end of winter. Littersize is typically between one and six, and pups are born in modified termitaria or other convenient burrows, often with multiple entrances. The same den sites may be used from year to year. Pups first emerge from the den at three weeks, are weaned at 8-9 weeks, and are completely independent of the den at 14 weeks. Alloparental care is well documented and consists of feeding pups by regurgitation and guarding them when the parents are foraging. One “helper” may increase the average numberof pups surviving per mated pair from one to three, and two such “helpers” further increase survival to four pups. Pups reach sexual maturity at about eleven months, and even at this early age they can disperse at distances of more than 100 km.","statusAndConservation":"CITES not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. No legal protection outside protected areas. Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread, and in Namibiaand South Africathey are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. Also occur in many livestock-producing areas, where they are considered vermin; however, despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa, this species is still relatively abundant. Snaring and road accidents may be the commonest cause of jackal mortality in areas of high human density. Black-backed Jackals are persecuted as livestock killers and as carriers of rabies. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 69-90 cmfor males and 65-85 cmfor females,tail 27- 39-5 cmfor males and 26-38-1 cmfor females; weight 5-9-12 kgfor males and 6-2-9-9 kgfor females. Males are slightly larger and heavier than females. Somewhat foxlike in appearance, with a long, pointed muzzle. Diagnostic features include the dark saddle, black bushy tail and reddish flanks and limbs. The ears are large, erect, pointed, and constantly mobile. The overall body color is rufous brown, most intense on the ears, rump, and flanks. A black stripe midway up each flank slopes obliquely from behind the shoulder to the top of the rump; the dark saddle is broadest at the shoulders and tapers to a narrow point at the base of the tail. Anterior to this stripe, just behind the shoulder,is a small vertical stripe, diffuse in some individuals. Above the side markings, the back is marbled black and white giving an overall silver appearance in mature animals. Juveniles and sub-adults have similar markings, but these are drabber and only gain their full intensity at around two years of age. In the drier west and Namib coast in southern Africa the winter coat is a deep reddish brown (especially in males). The bushy tail is dark brown to black with a distinctive black sub-caudal marking. The markings, especially the side and shoulder stripes, are unique and can be used to identifiy individuals. Skull elongated, braincase pear-shaped, rostrum narrow, supra-occipital crest well-developed, bullae rounded, zygomatic arches broad and well-developed, and post-orbital bars incomplete. Dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42. Outer upper incisors larger, more pointed, and more caniniform than others. Upper canines long, curved, and pointed, with a sharp ridge on their posterior faces.","habitat":"Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert, montane grassland, arid savannah and scrubland, open savannah, woodland savannah mosaics, and farmland. In general they show a preference for open habitats, tending to avoid dense vegetation. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3000 min the Drakensberg Mountains, and in localities receiving more than 2000 mmof rainfall. Where more than one jackal species occurs in sympatry the selection of habitat is partitioned. Black-backed Jackals preferentially use either open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal) or wooded savannah (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Blackbacked Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFF87F6698C673517F9F0F5B1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AD87FAFF87F6698C673517F9F0F5B1","docName":"hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"125","verbatimText":"115.New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit BatNotopteris neocaledonicusFrench:Notoptére de Nouvelle-Calédonie/ German:Neukaledonien-Langschwanzflughund/ Spanish:Notéptero de Nueva CaledoniaOther common names:New Caledonian Blossom BatTaxonomy.Notopteris macdonaldi[sic] neocoledonica [sic] Trouessart, 1908, “la Roche d’Adio, dans la vallée de Nekliai, pres de Poya (Nouvelle-Calédonie) [= Adio Rock, inthe NekliaiValley, near Poya (New Caledonia)].”Widely used specific name neocaledonica has been changed for gender agreement. Notopteris neocaledonicushas been described as subspecies of N. macdonaldii, but the two are considered distinct based on size. Monotypic.Distribution.N & C New Caledonia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 93-101 mm, tail 43- 5-54 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 22 mm, forearm 58-60 mm. The New Caledonia[Long-tailed Fruit Bat has long rat-like tail disconnected from small uropatagium, very small tragus, wings that join over spine, and long tongue to collect nectar. It is smaller than the Fijian Long-tailed Fruit Bat (N. macdonaldii). Head is somewhat elongated and bare on most of long rostrum. Ears are relatively short but elongated, with narrowly pointed tips; eyes are large, with dark brownish irises. Dorsal pelage is grayish brown, with somewhat grizzled appearance, and darkest along head, neck, and shoulders. Lower back has only small light brown strip of fur along spine leading to tail and onto legs because wing membrane stretches onto lower back up to edge of spine, providing much greater wing surface area for maneuverability and gives lower back naked wrinkled appearance. Ventral pelage is paler than dorsum and generally light grayish or tannish brown. Wings are black, digits are pinkish brown, and index claw is absent. Tail is long, free from uropatagium, brown, and proportionately longer than in any other pteropodid. Skull is elongated and has infraorbital canal opening well forward on snout (as in most mammals) rather than immediately in front of eyes as in most other pteropodids. I', 1, P!, and P, are missing; molars and premolars are reduced and elongated; and C,is long and well developed.Habitat.Montane forest.Food and Feeding.New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats are nectarivorous.Breeding.Four female New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats with young gripping onto them, three lactating females without young, and three pregnant females were captured in December. Females captured in January had early embryos.Activity patterns.New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats are nocturnal. They are highly maneuverable fliers, allowing them to better avoid obstacles and also fly vertically. They roost in caves during the day but will temporarily roost in hollow trees while foraging at night. They will switch where they roost in the cave throughout the year, roosting in internal chambers throughout much of the year but closer to the entrance of the cave in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Roosts have had 200-300 New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bat is currently known from only a few caves in northern New Caledonia, with a single record in the central part of the island. It is considered uncommon and threatened by roost disturbance and (to a much lesser extent) hunting for consumption. Hunting is regulated by local wildlife laws and has been recorded in Riviere Bleue Provincial Park once. There are ongoing population, distribution, and ecology studies being overseen by the Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien.Bibliography.Boissenin & Brescia (2007), Brescia (2008a), Brescia & Borel (2004), Flannery (1995a), Giannini & Simmons (2007a).","taxonomy":"Notopteris macdonaldi[sic] neocoledonica [sic] Trouessart, 1908, “la Roche d’Adio, dans la vallée de Nekliai, pres de Poya (Nouvelle-Calédonie) [= Adio Rock, inthe NekliaiValley, near Poya (New Caledonia)].”Widely used specific name neocaledonica has been changed for gender agreement. Notopteris neocaledonicushas been described as subspecies of N. macdonaldii, but the two are considered distinct based on size. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Notoptére de Nouvelle-Calédonie @fr | Neukaledonien-Langschwanzflughund @de | Notéptero de Nueva Caledonia @es | New Caledonian Blossom Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Trouessart","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Pteropodidae","interpretedGenus":"Notopteris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"67","interpretedPageNumber":"125","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"neocaledonicus","name":"Notopteris neocaledonicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N & C New Caledonia.","bibliography":"Boissenin & Brescia (2007) | Brescia (2008a) | Brescia & Borel (2004) | Flannery (1995a) | Giannini & Simmons (2007a)","foodAndFeeding":"New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats are nectarivorous.","breeding":"Four female New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats with young gripping onto them, three lactating females without young, and three pregnant females were captured in December. Females captured in January had early embryos.","activityPatterns":"New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats are nocturnal. They are highly maneuverable fliers, allowing them to better avoid obstacles and also fly vertically. They roost in caves during the day but will temporarily roost in hollow trees while foraging at night. They will switch where they roost in the cave throughout the year, roosting in internal chambers throughout much of the year but closer to the entrance of the cave in March-April.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Roosts have had 200-300 New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bats.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The New CaledoniaLong-tailed Fruit Bat is currently known from only a few caves in northern New Caledonia, with a single record in the central part of the island. It is considered uncommon and threatened by roost disturbance and (to a much lesser extent) hunting for consumption. Hunting is regulated by local wildlife laws and has been recorded in Riviere Bleue Provincial Park once. There are ongoing population, distribution, and ecology studies being overseen by the Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 93-101 mm, tail 43- 5-54 mm, ear 14-15 mm, hindfoot 22 mm, forearm 58-60 mm. The New Caledonia[Long-tailed Fruit Bat has long rat-like tail disconnected from small uropatagium, very small tragus, wings that join over spine, and long tongue to collect nectar. It is smaller than the Fijian Long-tailed Fruit Bat (N. macdonaldii). Head is somewhat elongated and bare on most of long rostrum. Ears are relatively short but elongated, with narrowly pointed tips; eyes are large, with dark brownish irises. Dorsal pelage is grayish brown, with somewhat grizzled appearance, and darkest along head, neck, and shoulders. Lower back has only small light brown strip of fur along spine leading to tail and onto legs because wing membrane stretches onto lower back up to edge of spine, providing much greater wing surface area for maneuverability and gives lower back naked wrinkled appearance. Ventral pelage is paler than dorsum and generally light grayish or tannish brown. Wings are black, digits are pinkish brown, and index claw is absent. Tail is long, free from uropatagium, brown, and proportionately longer than in any other pteropodid. Skull is elongated and has infraorbital canal opening well forward on snout (as in most mammals) rather than immediately in front of eyes as in most other pteropodids. I', 1, P!, and P, are missing; molars and premolars are reduced and elongated; and C,is long and well developed.","habitat":"Montane forest."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFF88F6668CB235B8F593F81D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AD87FAFF88F6668CB235B8F593F81D","docName":"hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"131.Talaud Flying FoxAcerodon humilisFrench:Acérodon des Talaud/ German:Talaud-Flughund/ Spanish:Zorro volador de TalaudOther common names:Talaud Acerodon, Talaud Fruit BatTaxonomy.Acerodon humilis K. Andersen, 1909, “Lirong, Talaud Islands,” Indonesia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Only known from Salebabu and Karakelong in the Talaud Is.Descriptive notes.Tailless, ear 24 mm, hindfoot 46 mm, forearm 140 mm, greatest length of skull 63 mm, tibia 57 mm(holotype). Ears of the Talaud Flying Fox have rounded tips and are shorter than muzzle. Dentition, ears, and color of head and body are similar to the Golden-capped Flying Fox (A. jubatus), but the Talaud Flying Fox is smaller and has no buffy nuchal patch. Throat is blackish seal-brown, with some silvery hairs mixed in. K. Andersen in 1912 noted that external features resemble co-occurring Sulawesian subspecies of the Island Flying Fox (Pteropus hypomelanusmacassaricus) and ears are similar in shape to the Island Flying Fox instead of long, subacutely pointed ears of other species of Acerodon. T. F. Flannery in 1995 suggested that the holotype had a mismatched skull, although this remains unclear and more research is needed. Russet color of mantle, sides of neck, and fore neck does not extend to crown, chest, or body. Uropatagium is reduced; calcar is small. Skull is typical pteropine, similar to that of the SulawesiFlying Fox (A. celebensis) but with lower rostrum and smaller orbits.Habitat.Suspected to be forest-dependent. The Talaud Islands consist of subtropical and tropical swamp forests.Food and Feeding.The Talaud Flying Fox is presumably frugivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Talaud Flying Foxes are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Talaud Flying Fox has a very restricted distribution and is known only from two islands, Salebabu and Karakelong. Forest habitat is severely fragmented due to logging. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢. 1500 km? and it has no legal protections.Bibliography.Andersen (1912b), Corbet & Hill (1992), Flannery (1995a), Mildenstein (2016e), Riley (2002).","taxonomy":"Acerodon humilis K. Andersen, 1909, “Lirong, Talaud Islands,” Indonesia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Acérodon des Talaud @fr | Talaud-Flughund @de | Zorro volador de Talaud @es | Talaud Acerodon @en | Talaud Fruit Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"K. Andersen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Pteropodidae","interpretedGenus":"Acerodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"76","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"humilis","name":"Acerodon humilis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Only known from Salebabu and Karakelong in the Talaud Is.","bibliography":"Andersen (1912b) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Flannery (1995a) | Mildenstein (2016e) | Riley (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"The Talaud Flying Fox is presumably frugivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Talaud Flying Foxes are nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Talaud Flying Fox has a very restricted distribution and is known only from two islands, Salebabu and Karakelong. Forest habitat is severely fragmented due to logging. Its extent of occurrence is only ¢. 1500 km? and it has no legal protections.","descriptiveNotes":"Tailless, ear 24 mm, hindfoot 46 mm, forearm 140 mm, greatest length of skull 63 mm, tibia 57 mm(holotype). Ears of the Talaud Flying Fox have rounded tips and are shorter than muzzle. Dentition, ears, and color of head and body are similar to the Golden-capped Flying Fox (A. jubatus), but the Talaud Flying Fox is smaller and has no buffy nuchal patch. Throat is blackish seal-brown, with some silvery hairs mixed in. K. Andersen in 1912 noted that external features resemble co-occurring Sulawesian subspecies of the Island Flying Fox (Pteropus hypomelanusmacassaricus) and ears are similar in shape to the Island Flying Fox instead of long, subacutely pointed ears of other species of Acerodon. T. F. Flannery in 1995 suggested that the holotype had a mismatched skull, although this remains unclear and more research is needed. Russet color of mantle, sides of neck, and fore neck does not extend to crown, chest, or body. Uropatagium is reduced; calcar is small. Skull is typical pteropine, similar to that of the SulawesiFlying Fox (A. celebensis) but with lower rostrum and smaller orbits.","habitat":"Suspected to be forest-dependent. The Talaud Islands consist of subtropical and tropical swamp forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFF89F66789693EA7F755FAC6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AD87FAFF89F66789693EA7F755FAC6","docName":"hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"135","verbatimText":"133.PalawanFlying FoxAcerodon leucotisFrench:Acérodonde Palawan/ German:Palawan-Flughund/ Spanish:Zorro volador de PalawanOther common names:PalawanFruit BatTaxonomy.Pleropus leucotis Sanborn, 1950, “Singay, Busuanga Island, Calamianes Group, Philippine Islands.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. lL leucotis Sanborn, 1950— Calamian Is (Busuanga).A. l. obscurus Sanborn, 1950— Palawanand Balabac Is.Descriptive notes.Tailless, ear 29-32 mm, hindfoot 46 mm, forearm 130-165 mm.Greatest lengths of skulls are 67-69 mm. Ears of the PalawanFlying Fox have rounded tips and are shorter than muzzle, with no reduction above. Ears are light brown to whitish, almost translucent, with white to whitish silvery cap between ears flecked with light brown hairs. Body is generally light tan brown, with variable patches of large white to whitish silvery patches above and below. Mantle is slightly more golden russet than body. Uropatagium is reduced; calcar is small. Skull is typical pteropine, with long postorbital processes, although not quite reaching zygomatic process. P' is often early deciduous.Habitat.Primary and dense secondary forests. The PalawanFlying Fox has been observed in several disturbed forest remnants with dense secondary forest, suggesting some degree of tolerance for disturbance. It was previously recorded at sea level, but its upper elevational limit is not known. Dense secondary forests that it currently uses are threatened by potential exploitation from agroforestry as palm oil and rubber plantations.Food and Feeding.The PalawanFlying Fox eats mangoes and is also found in Ficus(Moraceae) trees. It has been recorded foraging at c¢. 8 mhigh in tree canopies.Breeding.Reproduction of the PalawanFlying Fox is thought to be similar to that of other Acerodonflying foxes. It is suspected to live up to 6-8 years, suggesting an estimated generation time of 3-5 years.Activity patterns.PalawanFlying Foxes are nocturnal and have been found in small tents at the canopy level.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Palawan, the PalawanFlying Fox does not form largecolonies, which might be a consequence of overhunting that makes observations and tracking difficult.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Population of the PalawanFlying Fox is projected to decline more than 30% over three generations due to hunting and habitat loss. In southern Palawan, unsustainable hunting of flying foxes for food is the primary threat. Expansion of palm oil and rubber plantations into Palawanwill degrade potential roosting and foraging habitats. It has been found in protected areas on Palawan, but enforcement of existing laws restricting hunting and habitat protection are lacking.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Esselstyn, Widmann & Heaney (2004), Ingle & Heaney (1992), Musser et al. (1982), Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza, Esselstyn et al. (2008), Sanborn (1950a).","taxonomy":"Pleropus leucotis Sanborn, 1950, “Singay, Busuanga Island, Calamianes Group, Philippine Islands.”Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Acérodonde Palawan @fr | Palawan-Flughund @de | Zorro volador de Palawan @es | Palawan Fruit Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Sanborn","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1950","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Pteropodidae","interpretedGenus":"Acerodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"77","interpretedPageNumber":"135","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucotis","name":"Acerodon leucotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. lL leucotis Sanborn, 1950— Calamian Is (Busuanga).A. l. obscurus Sanborn, 1950— Palawanand Balabac Is.","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Esselstyn, Widmann & Heaney (2004) | Ingle & Heaney (1992) | Musser et al. (1982) | Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza, Esselstyn et al. (2008) | Sanborn (1950a)","foodAndFeeding":"The PalawanFlying Fox eats mangoes and is also found in Ficus(Moraceae) trees. It has been recorded foraging at c¢. 8 mhigh in tree canopies.","breeding":"Reproduction of the PalawanFlying Fox is thought to be similar to that of other Acerodonflying foxes. It is suspected to live up to 6-8 years, suggesting an estimated generation time of 3-5 years.","activityPatterns":"PalawanFlying Foxes are nocturnal and have been found in small tents at the canopy level.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In southern Palawan, the PalawanFlying Fox does not form largecolonies, which might be a consequence of overhunting that makes observations and tracking difficult.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Population of the PalawanFlying Fox is projected to decline more than 30% over three generations due to hunting and habitat loss. In southern Palawan, unsustainable hunting of flying foxes for food is the primary threat. Expansion of palm oil and rubber plantations into Palawanwill degrade potential roosting and foraging habitats. It has been found in protected areas on Palawan, but enforcement of existing laws restricting hunting and habitat protection are lacking.","descriptiveNotes":"Tailless, ear 29-32 mm, hindfoot 46 mm, forearm 130-165 mm.Greatest lengths of skulls are 67-69 mm. Ears of the PalawanFlying Fox have rounded tips and are shorter than muzzle, with no reduction above. Ears are light brown to whitish, almost translucent, with white to whitish silvery cap between ears flecked with light brown hairs. Body is generally light tan brown, with variable patches of large white to whitish silvery patches above and below. Mantle is slightly more golden russet than body. Uropatagium is reduced; calcar is small. Skull is typical pteropine, with long postorbital processes, although not quite reaching zygomatic process. P' is often early deciduous.","habitat":"Primary and dense secondary forests. The PalawanFlying Fox has been observed in several disturbed forest remnants with dense secondary forest, suggesting some degree of tolerance for disturbance. It was previously recorded at sea level, but its upper elevational limit is not known. Dense secondary forests that it currently uses are threatened by potential exploitation from agroforestry as palm oil and rubber plantations."} @@ -594,57 +594,57 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFFFBF61589633272F902FD5A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AD87FAFFFBF61589633272F902FD5A","docName":"hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"121","verbatimText":"110.Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit BatNyctimene raboriFrench:Nyctimenedes Philippines/ German:Philippinen-Réhrennasenflughund/ Spanish:Nyctimeno de las FilipinasTaxonomy.Nyctimene rabori Heaney & Peterson, 1984, 6 km W of Dumaguete City, Balinsasaye: (9°21'N, 123° 10°E), 835 m, Sibulan Municipality, Negros Oriental Province, Negros Islands, Philippines.Nyctimene raboriis in the cephalotesspecies group. Some authors have speculated that it is a synonym of N. cephalotes, but it is retained as a distinct species here until additional research is conducted. Monotypic.Distribution.Visayas on C Philippines(Sibuyan, Cebu, Negros, and probably Panay Is), and tentatively on Talaud Is (Karakelong I), and Sangihe Is (Siaoand Greater Sangihe); it may have a much wider distribution across much of the Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head—body c. 113-124 mm, tail 19-30 mm, ear 18-21 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 73-81 mm; weight 60-74 g. Head of the Philippine Tube-nose Fruit Bat is broad, with deep face, broad, bluntly pointed ears, and tubular divergent nostrils. Eyes are large, with amberirises. Pelage is thick and woolly. Females are generally lighter than males, and young are intermediate in color. Dorsal pelage is light (females) to dark (males) brown, with distinctive thin dark blackish brown mid-dorsal stripe (3—4 mmthick) stretching from shoulders to rump. Head is more golden brown, and neck 1s brownish gray. Ventral pelage is light brown (females) to chocolate-brown (males). There is yellow spotting on wings, legs, and ears (ears sometimes not spotted); wings are brown to yellowish brown (substantially darker in males). Second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is short, black, and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are dark brown. Skull and mandible are robust, rostrum is short, sagittal crest is well developed, postorbital processes are strong, zygomatic arch is strongly arched dorsally, and posterior margin of palate is rounded and U-shaped. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; C, replaces incisors and is long and powerful; P,is elongated and longer than P, and P; and P* has very weak labial posterior cusp.Habitat.Primary and secondary forests, typically near water bodies, from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 1300 m. The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat occurs in degraded habitat on Negros and Cebu.Food and Feeding.The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat mainly eats figs (Ficus, Moraceae).Breeding.Reproduction of the Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat occurs in May-June. Two young were captured in March on Cebu.Activity patterns.Philippine Tube-nose Fruit Bats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat has a restricted distribution and is considered rare. Total population based on current known distribution and abundance estimates is probably less than 2500 individuals. It was previously thought to only occur in highquality primary forest, but it seems to tolerate degraded habitats on Negros and Cebu. Greatest threat is deforestation that has already destroyed much of its island habitat (especially Cebu). Deforestation rates have slowed in the Philippines, but only because there is such little forest left to cut down. Additional surveys and studies are needed to determine the full extent of its distribution and understand its ecology and threats.Bibliography.Alburo (2017), Bennett et al. (1997), Bergmans (2001), Carino (2004), Heaney & Peterson (1984), Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza, Heaney, Ingle et al. (2008), Paguntalan & Jakosalem (2008), Utzurrum (1995), Vinciguerra & Muller (1993).","taxonomy":"Nyctimene rabori Heaney & Peterson, 1984, 6 km W of Dumaguete City, Balinsasaye: (9°21'N, 123° 10°E), 835 m, Sibulan Municipality, Negros Oriental Province, Negros Islands, Philippines.Nyctimene raboriis in the cephalotesspecies group. Some authors have speculated that it is a synonym of N. cephalotes, but it is retained as a distinct species here until additional research is conducted. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Nyctimenedes Philippines @fr | Philippinen-Réhrennasenflughund @de | Nyctimeno de las Filipinas @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Heaney & Peterson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1984","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Pteropodidae","interpretedGenus":"Nyctimene","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"63","interpretedPageNumber":"121","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rabori","name":"Nyctimene rabori","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Visayas on C Philippines(Sibuyan, Cebu, Negros, and probably Panay Is), and tentatively on Talaud Is (Karakelong I), and Sangihe Is (Siaoand Greater Sangihe); it may have a much wider distribution across much of the Philippines.","bibliography":"Alburo (2017) | Bennett et al. (1997) | Bergmans (2001) | Carino (2004) | Heaney & Peterson (1984) | Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza, Heaney, Ingle et al. (2008) | Paguntalan & Jakosalem (2008) | Utzurrum (1995) | Vinciguerra & Muller (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat mainly eats figs (Ficus, Moraceae).","breeding":"Reproduction of the Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat occurs in May-June. Two young were captured in March on Cebu.","activityPatterns":"Philippine Tube-nose Fruit Bats are nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat has a restricted distribution and is considered rare. Total population based on current known distribution and abundance estimates is probably less than 2500 individuals. It was previously thought to only occur in highquality primary forest, but it seems to tolerate degraded habitats on Negros and Cebu. Greatest threat is deforestation that has already destroyed much of its island habitat (especially Cebu). Deforestation rates have slowed in the Philippines, but only because there is such little forest left to cut down. Additional surveys and studies are needed to determine the full extent of its distribution and understand its ecology and threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body c. 113-124 mm, tail 19-30 mm, ear 18-21 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 73-81 mm; weight 60-74 g. Head of the Philippine Tube-nose Fruit Bat is broad, with deep face, broad, bluntly pointed ears, and tubular divergent nostrils. Eyes are large, with amberirises. Pelage is thick and woolly. Females are generally lighter than males, and young are intermediate in color. Dorsal pelage is light (females) to dark (males) brown, with distinctive thin dark blackish brown mid-dorsal stripe (3—4 mmthick) stretching from shoulders to rump. Head is more golden brown, and neck 1s brownish gray. Ventral pelage is light brown (females) to chocolate-brown (males). There is yellow spotting on wings, legs, and ears (ears sometimes not spotted); wings are brown to yellowish brown (substantially darker in males). Second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is short, black, and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are dark brown. Skull and mandible are robust, rostrum is short, sagittal crest is well developed, postorbital processes are strong, zygomatic arch is strongly arched dorsally, and posterior margin of palate is rounded and U-shaped. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; C, replaces incisors and is long and powerful; P,is elongated and longer than P, and P; and P* has very weak labial posterior cusp.","habitat":"Primary and secondary forests, typically near water bodies, from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 1300 m. The Philippine Tube-nosed Fruit Bat occurs in degraded habitat on Negros and Cebu."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFFFEF6118CAF38BDFE93F642.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AD87FAFFFEF6118CAF38BDFE93F642","docName":"hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"116","verbatimText":"98.Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit BatParanyctimene tenaxFrench:Nyctiméne de Nijhoff/ German:Standhafter Rohrennasenflughund/ Spanish:Paranyctimeno de NijhoffTaxonomy.Nyctimene (Paranyctimene) tenax Bergmans, 2001, “upstream of Anadea (about 07°36’S, 146° 37°E), 32 kmSSW of Wau, Morobe Province[Papua New Guinea], alt. 850 m.”Paranyctimene tenaxis very similar to P. raptor, and they are often confused; thus, distributional limits between the two species have not been fully differentiated. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.t.tenaxBergmans,2001—presumablymuchofNewGuinea(possiblyfoundpri-marilyinSlowlands);distributionallimitsbetweenthisspeciesandtheUnstripedTube-noseFruitBat(FP.raptor)areuncer-tainandthusdistributiongivenhereistentative.P. t. marculus Bergmans, 2001— Waigeo I.Descriptive notes.Tail 15-3-21- 5 mm, ear 11:6-12- 7 mm, hindfoot 11:5-13- 5 mm, forearm 51-54- 9 mm; weight 25- 5 g. The Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is very similar to the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (P. raptor) but can be distinguished by its larger average body and skull measurements and its more robust skull, along with some skull and dental differences. Rostrum is short, with long tubular divergent nostrils. Ears are somewhat elongated, with bluntly pointed tips and thickened along top edges. Eyes are large, with amberirises, and there is often greenish ring around eyes and darker fur behind nostrils. Dorsal pelage is dark brown, being grayish brown on head and fading to medium brown on back of head and darker medium to dark brown on back. Females are typically lighter overall than males, with slightly orangish hue to back of head. Unlike most species of Nyctimene, there is no dorsal stripe down middle of back. Ventral pelage is yellowish white, being more yellowish brown on flanks, genital region, upper arms, and legs. Ears are dark blackish brown, occasionally with a few yellow spots on edges. Wings and uropatagium are uniquely tinged dark lime-green, being browner near dark brown digits. Wings occasionally have some randomly dispersed small white dots. Second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is black and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are black. Skull and mandible are comparatively robust, rostrum is short and wide, post-dental palate is longer than in species of Nyctimeneand the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat, sagittal crest is well developed, and occipital crest 1s well developed. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; canines and premolars are considerably longer and more slender than in Nyctimene, lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; lower canines replace incisors and are long and powerful; P| is some distance from C, and next premolar (P,) and is within tooth row; P, is narrow; and P, and M, have close and basally touching inner and outer cusps.Habitat.Primary and secondary tropical moist forests, rural gardens, and swamps at an elevation of 850 m(type locality). Specimens attributed to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat and the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat have been recorded from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 1350 m.Food and Feeding.Diets of the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are probably similar to those of the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat.Breeding.Records of pregnant females listed under the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat might apply to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat.Activity patterns.Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bats are nocturnal and roost in vegetation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bats are largely solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Distributional limits and threats to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are confused by the lack of taxonomic clarity between it and the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat. Additional studies are needed to clarify conservation status of both species.Bibliography.Bergmans (2001), Bonaccorso (1998), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), Helgen (2007a), Helgen, Opiang & Thomas (2009).","taxonomy":"Nyctimene (Paranyctimene) tenax Bergmans, 2001, “upstream of Anadea (about 07°36’S, 146° 37°E), 32 kmSSW of Wau, Morobe Province[Papua New Guinea], alt. 850 m.”Paranyctimene tenaxis very similar to P. raptor, and they are often confused; thus, distributional limits between the two species have not been fully differentiated. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Nyctiméne de Nijhoff @fr | Standhafter Rohrennasenflughund @de | Paranyctimeno de Nijhoff @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bergmans","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"2001","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Pteropodidae","interpretedGenus":"Paranyctimene","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"58","interpretedPageNumber":"116","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tenax","name":"Paranyctimene tenax","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.t.tenaxBergmans,2001—presumablymuchofNewGuinea(possiblyfoundpri-marilyinSlowlands);distributionallimitsbetweenthisspeciesandtheUnstripedTube-noseFruitBat(FP.raptor)areuncer-tainandthusdistributiongivenhereistentative.P. t. marculus Bergmans, 2001— Waigeo I.","bibliography":"Bergmans (2001) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | Helgen (2007a) | Helgen, Opiang & Thomas (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"Diets of the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are probably similar to those of the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat.","breeding":"Records of pregnant females listed under the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat might apply to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat.","activityPatterns":"Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bats are nocturnal and roost in vegetation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bats are largely solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Distributional limits and threats to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are confused by the lack of taxonomic clarity between it and the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat. Additional studies are needed to clarify conservation status of both species.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 15-3-21- 5 mm, ear 11:6-12- 7 mm, hindfoot 11:5-13- 5 mm, forearm 51-54- 9 mm; weight 25- 5 g. The Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is very similar to the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (P. raptor) but can be distinguished by its larger average body and skull measurements and its more robust skull, along with some skull and dental differences. Rostrum is short, with long tubular divergent nostrils. Ears are somewhat elongated, with bluntly pointed tips and thickened along top edges. Eyes are large, with amberirises, and there is often greenish ring around eyes and darker fur behind nostrils. Dorsal pelage is dark brown, being grayish brown on head and fading to medium brown on back of head and darker medium to dark brown on back. Females are typically lighter overall than males, with slightly orangish hue to back of head. Unlike most species of Nyctimene, there is no dorsal stripe down middle of back. Ventral pelage is yellowish white, being more yellowish brown on flanks, genital region, upper arms, and legs. Ears are dark blackish brown, occasionally with a few yellow spots on edges. Wings and uropatagium are uniquely tinged dark lime-green, being browner near dark brown digits. Wings occasionally have some randomly dispersed small white dots. Second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is black and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are black. Skull and mandible are comparatively robust, rostrum is short and wide, post-dental palate is longer than in species of Nyctimeneand the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat, sagittal crest is well developed, and occipital crest 1s well developed. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; canines and premolars are considerably longer and more slender than in Nyctimene, lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; lower canines replace incisors and are long and powerful; P| is some distance from C, and next premolar (P,) and is within tooth row; P, is narrow; and P, and M, have close and basally touching inner and outer cusps.","habitat":"Primary and secondary tropical moist forests, rural gardens, and swamps at an elevation of 850 m(type locality). Specimens attributed to the Steadfast Tube-nosed Fruit Bat and the Unstriped Tube-nosed Fruit Bat have been recorded from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 1350 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFFFFF6168C673329FE08FD05.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AD87FAFFFFF6168C673329FE08FD05","docName":"hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"117","verbatimText":"100.Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit BatNyctimene cyclotisFrench:Nyctimenea oreilles rondes/ German:RundohrRéhrennasenflughund/ Spanish:Nyctimeno de orejas redondasOther common names:Round-eared Tube-nosed BatTaxonomy.Nyctimene cyclotis K. Andersen, 1910, “Arfak Mts. [Manokwari Division], N.W. New Guinea,” Indonesia.Nyctimene cyclotis1s currently in the cyclotisspecies group along with N. certansand N. wrightae. Nyctimene certansis sometimes considered a subspecies of N. cyclotis, but morphological studies have confirmed their specific status. Distribution is often recorded encompassing much of New Guinea, but this is now recognized as a distinct species, N. wrightae. Specimens collected in Mansuar and Waigeo islands have been recently attributed to N. cyclotisbased on morphological grounds, but these island populations are currently under revision. They are tentatively included under N. cyclotishere until they are thoroughly investigated. Monotypic.Distribution.NW New Guinea(Arfak Mts); also tentatively on Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo and Mansuar).Descriptive notes.Ear 13-5-13- 7 mm, hindfoot 12-14- 6 mm, forearm 54- 2-56 mm. Rostrum of the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is short, with long tubular divergent nostrils. Ears are rounded, with blunt tips, and thickened along tops; eyes are large, with dark reddish-brown irises. Dorsal pelage is grizzled grayish brown and browner on head, with almost indistinguishable ill-defined, short, thin dorsal stripe extending from mid-back to rump. Ventral pelage is paler dull cream. Wings and ears are dark brown; ears, tube nostrils, and wing digits have some yellow spotting. Second digit of wing is shorter in the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat than in the Mountain Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (N. certans); second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is short, black, and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are black. Skull and mandible are robust, and rostrum is short. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; C, replaces incisors and is long and powerful; P,is elongated and longer than P and P,; they have narrow and rounded dental arcade; and it differs from the Mountain Tube-nosed Fruit Bat by having relatively longer upper post-canine tooth row.Habitat.No specific information but probably montane tropical forests. All ecological accounts on the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are based on specimens that are now primarily attributed to the Happy Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (N. wrightae).Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is currently known from two male specimens collected more than 100 years ago from the Arfak Mountains. Virtually nothing is known about its ecology and threats.Bibliography.Donnellan et al. (1995), Helgen (2007a), Hutson, Suyanto, Helgen & Bonaccorso (2008a), Irwin (2017), Wiantoro (2011).","taxonomy":"Nyctimene cyclotis K. Andersen, 1910, “Arfak Mts. [Manokwari Division], N.W. New Guinea,” Indonesia.Nyctimene cyclotis1s currently in the cyclotisspecies group along with N. certansand N. wrightae. Nyctimene certansis sometimes considered a subspecies of N. cyclotis, but morphological studies have confirmed their specific status. Distribution is often recorded encompassing much of New Guinea, but this is now recognized as a distinct species, N. wrightae. Specimens collected in Mansuar and Waigeo islands have been recently attributed to N. cyclotisbased on morphological grounds, but these island populations are currently under revision. They are tentatively included under N. cyclotishere until they are thoroughly investigated. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Nyctimenea oreilles rondes @fr | Rundohr Réhrennasenflughund @de | Nyctimeno de orejas redondas @es | Round-eared Tube-nosed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"K. Andersen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Pteropodidae","interpretedGenus":"Nyctimene","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"59","interpretedPageNumber":"117","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cyclotis","name":"Nyctimene cyclotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NW New Guinea(Arfak Mts); also tentatively on Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo and Mansuar).","bibliography":"Donnellan et al. (1995) | Helgen (2007a) | Hutson, Suyanto, Helgen & Bonaccorso (2008a) | Irwin (2017) | Wiantoro (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is currently known from two male specimens collected more than 100 years ago from the Arfak Mountains. Virtually nothing is known about its ecology and threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 13-5-13- 7 mm, hindfoot 12-14- 6 mm, forearm 54- 2-56 mm. Rostrum of the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat is short, with long tubular divergent nostrils. Ears are rounded, with blunt tips, and thickened along tops; eyes are large, with dark reddish-brown irises. Dorsal pelage is grizzled grayish brown and browner on head, with almost indistinguishable ill-defined, short, thin dorsal stripe extending from mid-back to rump. Ventral pelage is paler dull cream. Wings and ears are dark brown; ears, tube nostrils, and wing digits have some yellow spotting. Second digit of wing is shorter in the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat than in the Mountain Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (N. certans); second digit of wing has a claw, and wing attaches at second digit of foot. Tail is short, black, and wrinkled, and narrow uropatagium connects at base and stretches to calcar at ankles. Claws are black. Skull and mandible are robust, and rostrum is short. Single lower incisor is completely deciduous, falling out before adulthood; lower molars are broad and rounded in dorsal view; C, replaces incisors and is long and powerful; P,is elongated and longer than P and P,; they have narrow and rounded dental arcade; and it differs from the Mountain Tube-nosed Fruit Bat by having relatively longer upper post-canine tooth row.","habitat":"No specific information but probably montane tropical forests. All ecological accounts on the Round-eared Tube-nosed Fruit Bat are based on specimens that are now primarily attributed to the Happy Tube-nosed Fruit Bat (N. wrightae)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"141","verbatimText":"28.Middle East Blind Mole-ratNannospalax ehrenbergiFrench:Spalax d'Ehrenberg/ German:Ehrenberg-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de Oriente MedioOther common names:Ehrenberg’s Mole-rat, Palestine Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax ehrenbergi Nehring, 1898,Jaffa (= Tel Aviv), Israel.Included in subgenus Nannospalax. Its distinct phylogenetic position relative to other forms in the genus Nannospalaxhas long been proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics and has since been strongly supported in molecular analyses. Nannospalax ehrenbergirepresents a superspecies composed of complex allopatric, parapatric, and occasionally sympatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Strongest evidence that multiple good species are present in this complex comes from detailed analysis of N. ehrenbergiin Israel and Palestine by E. Nevo and colleagues in 2001 and in related studies. Four species are clearly present in Israel and Palestine, and these species were each given new names by Nevo and colleagues: golani(diploid number 2n = 54) from the Golan Heights, galili(2n = 52) from north-east of the Sea of Galilee, carmeli(2n = 58) from the Sea of Galilee southward to northern West Bank in the east and farther south along coast to Tel Aviv, and judaei(2n = 60) from Tel Aviv and northern West Bank southward. These four species differ not only in karyotype but also (often subtly) in body and cranial measurements, tooth and bacular morphology, ear ossicle shape, pelage color, habitat specialization, genetics, brain size, basal metabolic rate, urine concentrating ability, water turnover rate, relative kidney size, physiological response to cold, respiratory and circulatory physiology, mortality in captivity, timing of daily activity, exploratory behavior, and even swimming posture. Many of these differences appear to be adaptive. These four species appear to be maintained, even in narrow regions of overlap, by chromosomal incompatibilities, bacular morphology, and various behavioral barriers to reproduction involving olfaction, vocalizations, seismic communication, and differing levels of aggression. These species within the N. ehrenbergisuperspecies have emerged as important model systems in evolutionary biology. A series of recent studies even suggests that sympatric speciation has taken place within galili, which suggests that these species warrant further division. Unfortunately, when Nevo and colleagues named golani, galili, carmeli, and judaei, they failed to account for the much older name ehrenbergi, noting only that its type locality, Tel Aviv, is found in the hybrid zone between carmeliand judaei. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 attempted to resolve the problem of ehrenbergisuperspecies taxonomy by adopting the four species of Nevo and colleagues and then applying the name ehrenbergito populations immediately surrounding the type locality, all populations south of Israel and Palestine, and all populations north of Israel and Palestine. In contrast to their many other taxonomic recommendations, the unorthodox solution of Musser and Carleton in 2005 to the ehrenbergitaxonomy problem has not been widely adopted in subsequent mammal checklists, most of which reluctantly treat N. ehrenbergias a single species. The name aegyptiacusby A. Nehring in 1898 is available for populations south of Israel and Palestine, and V. A. Topachevskii and others in 1969 recognized the North African forms as a distinct subspecies, aegyptiacus. B. Krystufek and V. Vohralik in 2009 noted that two names are available for populations north of Israel and Palestine, kirgisorumand intermedius, both named by Nehring in 1898. The name kirgisorumhas page priority, but acquisition and provenance of type material are disputed. It was originally reported as being from Kazakhstan, well out of the known distribution of Nannospalax, but has subsequently been suggested as being from Syria. Clearly more than just one species exists to the east and north of Israel and Palestine, and future work will yield even more names. Recent molecular work further elucidates relationships among forms within the ehrenbergisuperspecies: golaniand galiliappear to be sister taxa, carmeliand judaeiform a clade with aegyptiacus, and Turkish and other northern populations are paraphyletic with respect to the four species from Israel and Palestine. The latter finding supports the hypothesis that N. ehrenbergi, and perhaps the genus Nannospalax, had its origin in Anatolia. Various sources of evidence clearly support existence of multiple species within the ehrenbergisuperspecies, but unresolved taxonomic problems mean that it is still prudent to treat it as a single species. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Libya (N Cyrenaica), N Egypt, Israel, W Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, SE Turkey, and N Iraq.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-220 mm, no visible externaltail; weight 73-252 g. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are small; males are slightly larger than females. In Israel and Palestine, individuals in cool mesic environments are larger, but the reverse appears to be true in Turkey. Egyptian individuals are smaller than those found farther north, and Libyan individuals are smaller still. Pelage color varies by soil color; it has slate-gray hairs, with dull buff, brown, or reddish tips. When worn, pelage looks uniform gray. Bristly keel of cream or yellow extends from triangular nose pad halfway to ear openings. Forefeet are brown; hindfeet are covered in gray hairs. Incisors have 2-3 grooves. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are pale yellow. Including cartilaginous base, baculum is 5-7-5 mm long and varies in shape and size by cytotype. There are four nipples: 0 pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. More than 30 chromosomal forms are known with diploid numbers of 2n = 52, 54, 56, 58, and 60.Habitat.Usually coastal Mediterranean and interior steppe habitat but also forest clearings, sandy coastal plains, mountainous areas, and some rocky habitat from sea level to elevations up to 2200 m. Although the Middle East Blind Mole-rat is present where precipitation is very low,it is absent in true desert. It is absent from the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta area. North African populations are fragmented and located near the coast.Food and Feeding.The Middle East Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on tubers and bulbs of a variety of plants but also eats aboveground green plant parts. These plants are usually accessed from tunnels belowground, but occasionally individuals emerge to clip plants aboveground and carry them to burrows. Seeds and insects also have been recorded. Stored food in caches can be 25 kg.Breeding.Female Middle East Blind Mole-rats breed once a year, although a second litter may occur in rare instances such as during a long rainy season or in close proximity to irrigation. Males and females can be rather aggressive at first interaction, but this aggression diminishes over time and copulation occurs. Gestation is 28-36 days. Females construct breeding mounds, with grass-lined nests with diameters of ¢.20 cm, located c¢.10 cm belowground. Peak births vary by region: early February at low elevations and early April at high elevations in Lebanon, early February and late March in Israel, and October-November in Egypt. Females give birth to 2-4 young that are 5 g and naked. Young disperse after c.2 months by digging tunnels adjacent to mothers’ burrows. At high densities, young may disperse aboveground. Females probably breed in their second year. Maximum life span in captivity is 20 years.Activity patterns.Middle East Blind Mole-rats are active year-round and ¢.50% of the day. During the rainy season, they appear to be diurnal and polyphasic. During dry season, they are nocturnal and monophasic. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is a chiseltooth digger. Although it can dislodge some material with head or forelimbs, almost all digging occurs with its lower incisors. Accumulated dirt is pushed to surface with head or back legs and ejected in mounds. More digging occurs in the rainy season when soil is easier to move. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat lives most ofits life underground, but it emerges and is active aboveground with some frequency in March-May and autumn. Aboveground activities include searching and foraging for food and dispersing.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Middle East Blind Mole-rats are 10-40 m long and 10-40 cm deep in winter and up to 1-5 m deep in summer. They contain a nest, toilets, and food caches. Typical mounds are 15-20 cm high, but breeding mounds can be 40 cm high, 160 cm long, and 135 cm wide. The Middle East Blind Mole-ratis solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Fights may lead to death of the loser. Densities in Israel and Palestine are 0-91-1-8 ind/ha. Individuals communicate seismically by head drumming and using frequencies of 50-100 Hz. Sounds are received by neighboring individuals pressing mandibles to tunnel walls. If an individual is removed,its territory is generally occupied by another within hours or days. Predators include the Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), domestic cats, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the black kite (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), the golden eagle (A. chrysaetos), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon SMYrnensis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax ehrenbergi). The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is considered vulnerable in Turkey. It is present in agricultural areas and is considered a pest in some regions. Intensive agriculture is a threat. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some forms are found in protected areas, but it is probable that species exist within this complex that are not protected.Bibliography.Coskun et al. (2012), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Hadid, Németh et al. (2012), Hadid, Tzur et al. (2013), Happold (2013d), Kankilic et al. (2013), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), KryStufek, lvanitsakaya et al. (2012), Li Kexin et al. (2015), Lovy et al. (2015), Méhely (1909), Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov (1999), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nehring (1898), Németh et al. (2016), Nevo (1991, 2013), Nevo et al. (2001), Ranck (1968), Schlitter, Shenbrot et al. (2008), Shanas et al. (1995), Singaravelan et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969).","taxonomy":"Spalax ehrenbergi Nehring, 1898,Jaffa (= Tel Aviv), Israel.Included in subgenus Nannospalax. Its distinct phylogenetic position relative to other forms in the genus Nannospalaxhas long been proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics and has since been strongly supported in molecular analyses. Nannospalax ehrenbergirepresents a superspecies composed of complex allopatric, parapatric, and occasionally sympatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Strongest evidence that multiple good species are present in this complex comes from detailed analysis of N. ehrenbergiin Israel and Palestine by E. Nevo and colleagues in 2001 and in related studies. Four species are clearly present in Israel and Palestine, and these species were each given new names by Nevo and colleagues: golani(diploid number 2n = 54) from the Golan Heights, galili(2n = 52) from north-east of the Sea of Galilee, carmeli(2n = 58) from the Sea of Galilee southward to northern West Bank in the east and farther south along coast to Tel Aviv, and judaei(2n = 60) from Tel Aviv and northern West Bank southward. These four species differ not only in karyotype but also (often subtly) in body and cranial measurements, tooth and bacular morphology, ear ossicle shape, pelage color, habitat specialization, genetics, brain size, basal metabolic rate, urine concentrating ability, water turnover rate, relative kidney size, physiological response to cold, respiratory and circulatory physiology, mortality in captivity, timing of daily activity, exploratory behavior, and even swimming posture. Many of these differences appear to be adaptive. These four species appear to be maintained, even in narrow regions of overlap, by chromosomal incompatibilities, bacular morphology, and various behavioral barriers to reproduction involving olfaction, vocalizations, seismic communication, and differing levels of aggression. These species within the N. ehrenbergisuperspecies have emerged as important model systems in evolutionary biology. A series of recent studies even suggests that sympatric speciation has taken place within galili, which suggests that these species warrant further division. Unfortunately, when Nevo and colleagues named golani, galili, carmeli, and judaei, they failed to account for the much older name ehrenbergi, noting only that its type locality, Tel Aviv, is found in the hybrid zone between carmeliand judaei. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 attempted to resolve the problem of ehrenbergisuperspecies taxonomy by adopting the four species of Nevo and colleagues and then applying the name ehrenbergito populations immediately surrounding the type locality, all populations south of Israel and Palestine, and all populations north of Israel and Palestine. In contrast to their many other taxonomic recommendations, the unorthodox solution of Musser and Carleton in 2005 to the ehrenbergitaxonomy problem has not been widely adopted in subsequent mammal checklists, most of which reluctantly treat N. ehrenbergias a single species. The name aegyptiacusby A. Nehring in 1898 is available for populations south of Israel and Palestine, and V. A. Topachevskii and others in 1969 recognized the North African forms as a distinct subspecies, aegyptiacus. B. Krystufek and V. Vohralik in 2009 noted that two names are available for populations north of Israel and Palestine, kirgisorumand intermedius, both named by Nehring in 1898. The name kirgisorumhas page priority, but acquisition and provenance of type material are disputed. It was originally reported as being from Kazakhstan, well out of the known distribution of Nannospalax, but has subsequently been suggested as being from Syria. Clearly more than just one species exists to the east and north of Israel and Palestine, and future work will yield even more names. Recent molecular work further elucidates relationships among forms within the ehrenbergisuperspecies: golaniand galiliappear to be sister taxa, carmeliand judaeiform a clade with aegyptiacus, and Turkish and other northern populations are paraphyletic with respect to the four species from Israel and Palestine. The latter finding supports the hypothesis that N. ehrenbergi, and perhaps the genus Nannospalax, had its origin in Anatolia. Various sources of evidence clearly support existence of multiple species within the ehrenbergisuperspecies, but unresolved taxonomic problems mean that it is still prudent to treat it as a single species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax d'Ehrenberg @fr | Ehrenberg-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Oriente Medio @es | Ehrenberg’s Mole-rat @en | Palestine Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Nehring","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Nannospalax","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"141","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ehrenbergi","name":"Nannospalax ehrenbergi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Libya (N Cyrenaica), N Egypt, Israel, W Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, SE Turkey, and N Iraq.","bibliography":"Coskun et al. (2012) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Hadid, Németh et al. (2012) | Hadid, Tzur et al. (2013) | Happold (2013d) | Kankilic et al. (2013) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | KryStufek, lvanitsakaya et al. (2012) | Li Kexin et al. (2015) | Lovy et al. (2015) | Méhely (1909) | Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov (1999) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nehring (1898) | Németh et al. (2016) | Nevo (1991, 2013) | Nevo et al. (2001) | Ranck (1968) | Schlitter, Shenbrot et al. (2008) | Shanas et al. (1995) | Singaravelan et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"The Middle East Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on tubers and bulbs of a variety of plants but also eats aboveground green plant parts. These plants are usually accessed from tunnels belowground, but occasionally individuals emerge to clip plants aboveground and carry them to burrows. Seeds and insects also have been recorded. Stored food in caches can be 25 kg.","breeding":"Female Middle East Blind Mole-rats breed once a year, although a second litter may occur in rare instances such as during a long rainy season or in close proximity to irrigation. Males and females can be rather aggressive at first interaction, but this aggression diminishes over time and copulation occurs. Gestation is 28-36 days. Females construct breeding mounds, with grass-lined nests with diameters of ¢.20 cm, located c¢.10 cm belowground. Peak births vary by region: early February at low elevations and early April at high elevations in Lebanon, early February and late March in Israel, and October-November in Egypt. Females give birth to 2-4 young that are 5 g and naked. Young disperse after c.2 months by digging tunnels adjacent to mothers’ burrows. At high densities, young may disperse aboveground. Females probably breed in their second year. Maximum life span in captivity is 20 years.","activityPatterns":"Middle East Blind Mole-rats are active year-round and ¢.50% of the day. During the rainy season, they appear to be diurnal and polyphasic. During dry season, they are nocturnal and monophasic. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is a chiseltooth digger. Although it can dislodge some material with head or forelimbs, almost all digging occurs with its lower incisors. Accumulated dirt is pushed to surface with head or back legs and ejected in mounds. More digging occurs in the rainy season when soil is easier to move. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat lives most ofits life underground, but it emerges and is active aboveground with some frequency in March-May and autumn. Aboveground activities include searching and foraging for food and dispersing.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Middle East Blind Mole-rats are 10-40 m long and 10-40 cm deep in winter and up to 1-5 m deep in summer. They contain a nest, toilets, and food caches. Typical mounds are 15-20 cm high, but breeding mounds can be 40 cm high, 160 cm long, and 135 cm wide. The Middle East Blind Mole-ratis solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Fights may lead to death of the loser. Densities in Israel and Palestine are 0-91-1-8 ind/ha. Individuals communicate seismically by head drumming and using frequencies of 50-100 Hz. Sounds are received by neighboring individuals pressing mandibles to tunnel walls. If an individual is removed,its territory is generally occupied by another within hours or days. Predators include the Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), domestic cats, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the black kite (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), the golden eagle (A. chrysaetos), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon SMYrnensis).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax ehrenbergi). The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is considered vulnerable in Turkey. It is present in agricultural areas and is considered a pest in some regions. Intensive agriculture is a threat. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some forms are found in protected areas, but it is probable that species exist within this complex that are not protected.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130-220 mm, no visible externaltail; weight 73-252 g. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are small; males are slightly larger than females. In Israel and Palestine, individuals in cool mesic environments are larger, but the reverse appears to be true in Turkey. Egyptian individuals are smaller than those found farther north, and Libyan individuals are smaller still. Pelage color varies by soil color; it has slate-gray hairs, with dull buff, brown, or reddish tips. When worn, pelage looks uniform gray. Bristly keel of cream or yellow extends from triangular nose pad halfway to ear openings. Forefeet are brown; hindfeet are covered in gray hairs. Incisors have 2-3 grooves. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are pale yellow. Including cartilaginous base, baculum is 5-7-5 mm long and varies in shape and size by cytotype. There are four nipples: 0 pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. More than 30 chromosomal forms are known with diploid numbers of 2n = 52, 54, 56, 58, and 60.","habitat":"Usually coastal Mediterranean and interior steppe habitat but also forest clearings, sandy coastal plains, mountainous areas, and some rocky habitat from sea level to elevations up to 2200 m. Although the Middle East Blind Mole-rat is present where precipitation is very low,it is absent in true desert. It is absent from the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta area. North African populations are fragmented and located near the coast."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"141","verbatimText":"28.Middle East Blind Mole-ratNannospalax ehrenbergiFrench:Spalax d'Ehrenberg/ German:Ehrenberg-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de Oriente MedioOther common names:Ehrenberg’s Mole-rat, Palestine Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax ehrenbergi Nehring, 1898,Jaffa (= Tel Aviv), Israel.Included in subgenus Nannospalax. Its distinct phylogenetic position relative to other forms in the genus Nannospalaxhas long been proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics and has since been strongly supported in molecular analyses. Nannospalax ehrenbergirepresents a superspecies composed of complex allopatric, parapatric, and occasionally sympatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Strongest evidence that multiple good species are present in this complex comes from detailed analysis of N. ehrenbergiin Israel and Palestine by E. Nevo and colleagues in 2001 and in related studies. Four species are clearly present in Israel and Palestine, and these species were each given new names by Nevo and colleagues: golani(diploid number 2n = 54) from the Golan Heights, galili(2n = 52) from north-east of the Sea of Galilee, carmeli(2n = 58) from the Sea of Galilee southward to northern West Bank in the east and farther south along coast to Tel Aviv, and judaei(2n = 60) from Tel Aviv and northern West Bank southward. These four species differ not only in karyotype but also (often subtly) in body and cranial measurements, tooth and bacular morphology, ear ossicle shape, pelage color, habitat specialization, genetics, brain size, basal metabolic rate, urine concentrating ability, water turnover rate, relative kidney size, physiological response to cold, respiratory and circulatory physiology, mortality in captivity, timing of daily activity, exploratory behavior, and even swimming posture. Many of these differences appear to be adaptive. These four species appear to be maintained, even in narrow regions of overlap, by chromosomal incompatibilities, bacular morphology, and various behavioral barriers to reproduction involving olfaction, vocalizations, seismic communication, and differing levels of aggression. These species within the N. ehrenbergisuperspecies have emerged as important model systems in evolutionary biology. A series of recent studies even suggests that sympatric speciation has taken place within galili, which suggests that these species warrant further division. Unfortunately, when Nevo and colleagues named golani, galili, carmeli, and judaei, they failed to account for the much older name ehrenbergi, noting only that its type locality, Tel Aviv, is found in the hybrid zone between carmeliand judaei. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 attempted to resolve the problem of ehrenbergisuperspecies taxonomy by adopting the four species of Nevo and colleagues and then applying the name ehrenbergito populations immediately surrounding the type locality, all populations south of Israel and Palestine, and all populations north of Israel and Palestine. In contrast to their many other taxonomic recommendations, the unorthodox solution of Musser and Carleton in 2005 to the ehrenbergitaxonomy problem has not been widely adopted in subsequent mammal checklists, most of which reluctantly treat N. ehrenbergias a single species. The name aegyptiacusby A. Nehring in 1898 is available for populations south of Israel and Palestine, and V. A. Topachevskii and others in 1969 recognized the North African forms as a distinct subspecies, aegyptiacus. B. Krystufek and V. Vohralik in 2009 noted that two names are available for populations north of Israel and Palestine, kirgisorumand intermedius, both named by Nehring in 1898. The name kirgisorumhas page priority, but acquisition and provenance of type material are disputed. It was originally reported as being from Kazakhstan, well out of the known distribution of Nannospalax, but has subsequently been suggested as being from Syria. Clearly more than just one species exists to the east and north of Israel and Palestine, and future work will yield even more names. Recent molecular work further elucidates relationships among forms within the ehrenbergisuperspecies: golaniand galiliappear to be sister taxa, carmeliand judaeiform a clade with aegyptiacus, and Turkish and other northern populations are paraphyletic with respect to the four species from Israel and Palestine. The latter finding supports the hypothesis that N. ehrenbergi, and perhaps the genus Nannospalax, had its origin in Anatolia. Various sources of evidence clearly support existence of multiple species within the ehrenbergisuperspecies, but unresolved taxonomic problems mean that it is still prudent to treat it as a single species. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Libya (N Cyrenaica), N Egypt, Israel, W Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, SE Turkey, and N Iraq.Descriptive notes.Head-body 130-220 mm, no visible externaltail; weight 73-252 g. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are small; males are slightly larger than females. In Israel and Palestine, individuals in cool mesic environments are larger, but the reverse appears to be true in Turkey. Egyptian individuals are smaller than those found farther north, and Libyan individuals are smaller still. Pelage color varies by soil color; it has slate-gray hairs, with dull buff, brown, or reddish tips. When worn, pelage looks uniform gray. Bristly keel of cream or yellow extends from triangular nose pad halfway to ear openings. Forefeet are brown; hindfeet are covered in gray hairs. Incisors have 2-3 grooves. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are pale yellow. Including cartilaginous base, baculum is 5-7-5 mm long and varies in shape and size by cytotype. There are four nipples: 0 pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. More than 30 chromosomal forms are known with diploid numbers of 2n = 52, 54, 56, 58, and 60.Habitat.Usually coastal Mediterranean and interior steppe habitat but also forest clearings, sandy coastal plains, mountainous areas, and some rocky habitat from sea level to elevations up to 2200 m. Although the Middle East Blind Mole-rat is present where precipitation is very low,it is absent in true desert. It is absent from the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta area. North African populations are fragmented and located near the coast.Food and Feeding.The Middle East Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on tubers and bulbs of a variety of plants but also eats aboveground green plant parts. These plants are usually accessed from tunnels belowground, but occasionally individuals emerge to clip plants aboveground and carry them to burrows. Seeds and insects also have been recorded. Stored food in caches can be 25 kg.Breeding.Female Middle East Blind Mole-rats breed once a year, although a second litter may occur in rare instances such as during a long rainy season or in close proximity to irrigation. Males and females can be rather aggressive at first interaction, but this aggression diminishes over time and copulation occurs. Gestation is 28-36 days. Females construct breeding mounds, with grass-lined nests with diameters of ¢.20 cm, located c¢.10 cm belowground. Peak births vary by region: early February at low elevations and early April at high elevations in Lebanon, early February and late March in Israel, and October-November in Egypt. Females give birth to 2-4 young that are 5 g and naked. Young disperse after c.2 months by digging tunnels adjacent to mothers’ burrows. At high densities, young may disperse aboveground. Females probably breed in their second year. Maximum life span in captivity is 20 years.Activity patterns.Middle East Blind Mole-rats are active year-round and ¢.50% of the day. During the rainy season, they appear to be diurnal and polyphasic. During dry season, they are nocturnal and monophasic. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is a chiseltooth digger. Although it can dislodge some material with head or forelimbs, almost all digging occurs with its lower incisors. Accumulated dirt is pushed to surface with head or back legs and ejected in mounds. More digging occurs in the rainy season when soil is easier to move. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat lives most ofits life underground, but it emerges and is active aboveground with some frequency in March-May and autumn. Aboveground activities include searching and foraging for food and dispersing.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Middle East Blind Mole-rats are 10-40 m long and 10-40 cm deep in winter and up to 1-5 m deep in summer. They contain a nest, toilets, and food caches. Typical mounds are 15-20 cm high, but breeding mounds can be 40 cm high, 160 cm long, and 135 cm wide. The Middle East Blind Mole-ratis solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Fights may lead to death of the loser. Densities in Israel and Palestine are 0-91-1-8 ind/ha. Individuals communicate seismically by head drumming and using frequencies of 50-100 Hz. Sounds are received by neighboring individuals pressing mandibles to tunnel walls. If an individual is removed,its territory is generally occupied by another within hours or days. Predators include the Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), domestic cats, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the black kite (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), the golden eagle (A. chrysaetos), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon SMYrnensis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax ehrenbergi). The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is considered vulnerable in Turkey. It is present in agricultural areas and is considered a pest in some regions. Intensive agriculture is a threat. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some forms are found in protected areas, but it is probable that species exist within this complex that are not protected.Bibliography.Coskun et al. (2012), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Hadid, Németh et al. (2012), Hadid, Tzur et al. (2013), Happold (2013d), Kankilic et al. (2013), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), KryStufek, lvanitsakaya et al. (2012), Li Kexin et al. (2015), Lovy et al. (2015), Méhely (1909), Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov (1999), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nehring (1898), Németh et al. (2016), Nevo (1991, 2013), Nevo et al. (2001), Ranck (1968), Schlitter, Shenbrot et al. (2008), Shanas et al. (1995), Singaravelan et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969).","taxonomy":"Spalax ehrenbergi Nehring, 1898,Jaffa (= Tel Aviv), Israel.Included in subgenus Nannospalax. Its distinct phylogenetic position relative to other forms in the genus Nannospalaxhas long been proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics and has since been strongly supported in molecular analyses. Nannospalax ehrenbergirepresents a superspecies composed of complex allopatric, parapatric, and occasionally sympatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Strongest evidence that multiple good species are present in this complex comes from detailed analysis of N. ehrenbergiin Israel and Palestine by E. Nevo and colleagues in 2001 and in related studies. Four species are clearly present in Israel and Palestine, and these species were each given new names by Nevo and colleagues: golani(diploid number 2n = 54) from the Golan Heights, galili(2n = 52) from north-east of the Sea of Galilee, carmeli(2n = 58) from the Sea of Galilee southward to northern West Bank in the east and farther south along coast to Tel Aviv, and judaei(2n = 60) from Tel Aviv and northern West Bank southward. These four species differ not only in karyotype but also (often subtly) in body and cranial measurements, tooth and bacular morphology, ear ossicle shape, pelage color, habitat specialization, genetics, brain size, basal metabolic rate, urine concentrating ability, water turnover rate, relative kidney size, physiological response to cold, respiratory and circulatory physiology, mortality in captivity, timing of daily activity, exploratory behavior, and even swimming posture. Many of these differences appear to be adaptive. These four species appear to be maintained, even in narrow regions of overlap, by chromosomal incompatibilities, bacular morphology, and various behavioral barriers to reproduction involving olfaction, vocalizations, seismic communication, and differing levels of aggression. These species within the N. ehrenbergisuperspecies have emerged as important model systems in evolutionary biology. A series of recent studies even suggests that sympatric speciation has taken place within galili, which suggests that these species warrant further division. Unfortunately, when Nevo and colleagues named golani, galili, carmeli, and judaei, they failed to account for the much older name ehrenbergi, noting only that its type locality, Tel Aviv, is found in the hybrid zone between carmeliand judaei. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 attempted to resolve the problem of ehrenbergisuperspecies taxonomy by adopting the four species of Nevo and colleagues and then applying the name ehrenbergito populations immediately surrounding the type locality, all populations south of Israel and Palestine, and all populations north of Israel and Palestine. In contrast to their many other taxonomic recommendations, the unorthodox solution of Musser and Carleton in 2005 to the ehrenbergitaxonomy problem has not been widely adopted in subsequent mammal checklists, most of which reluctantly treat N. ehrenbergias a single species. The name aegyptiacusby A. Nehring in 1898 is available for populations south of Israel and Palestine, and V. A. Topachevskii and others in 1969 recognized the North African forms as a distinct subspecies, aegyptiacus. B. Krystufek and V. Vohralik in 2009 noted that two names are available for populations north of Israel and Palestine, kirgisorumand intermedius, both named by Nehring in 1898. The name kirgisorumhas page priority, but acquisition and provenance of type material are disputed. It was originally reported as being from Kazakhstan, well out of the known distribution of Nannospalax, but has subsequently been suggested as being from Syria. Clearly more than just one species exists to the east and north of Israel and Palestine, and future work will yield even more names. Recent molecular work further elucidates relationships among forms within the ehrenbergisuperspecies: golaniand galiliappear to be sister taxa, carmeliand judaeiform a clade with aegyptiacus, and Turkish and other northern populations are paraphyletic with respect to the four species from Israel and Palestine. The latter finding supports the hypothesis that N. ehrenbergi, and perhaps the genus Nannospalax, had its origin in Anatolia. Various sources of evidence clearly support existence of multiple species within the ehrenbergisuperspecies, but unresolved taxonomic problems mean that it is still prudent to treat it as a single species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax d'Ehrenberg @fr | Ehrenberg-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Oriente Medio @es | Ehrenberg’s Mole-rat @en | Palestine Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Nehring","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Nannospalax","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"141","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ehrenbergi","name":"Nannospalax ehrenbergi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Libya (N Cyrenaica), N Egypt, Israel, W Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, SE Turkey, and N Iraq.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609165/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Coskun et al. (2012) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Hadid, Németh et al. (2012) | Hadid, Tzur et al. (2013) | Happold (2013d) | Kankilic et al. (2013) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | KryStufek, lvanitsakaya et al. (2012) | Li Kexin et al. (2015) | Lovy et al. (2015) | Méhely (1909) | Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov (1999) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nehring (1898) | Németh et al. (2016) | Nevo (1991, 2013) | Nevo et al. (2001) | Ranck (1968) | Schlitter, Shenbrot et al. (2008) | Shanas et al. (1995) | Singaravelan et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"The Middle East Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on tubers and bulbs of a variety of plants but also eats aboveground green plant parts. These plants are usually accessed from tunnels belowground, but occasionally individuals emerge to clip plants aboveground and carry them to burrows. Seeds and insects also have been recorded. Stored food in caches can be 25 kg.","breeding":"Female Middle East Blind Mole-rats breed once a year, although a second litter may occur in rare instances such as during a long rainy season or in close proximity to irrigation. Males and females can be rather aggressive at first interaction, but this aggression diminishes over time and copulation occurs. Gestation is 28-36 days. Females construct breeding mounds, with grass-lined nests with diameters of ¢.20 cm, located c¢.10 cm belowground. Peak births vary by region: early February at low elevations and early April at high elevations in Lebanon, early February and late March in Israel, and October-November in Egypt. Females give birth to 2-4 young that are 5 g and naked. Young disperse after c.2 months by digging tunnels adjacent to mothers’ burrows. At high densities, young may disperse aboveground. Females probably breed in their second year. Maximum life span in captivity is 20 years.","activityPatterns":"Middle East Blind Mole-rats are active year-round and ¢.50% of the day. During the rainy season, they appear to be diurnal and polyphasic. During dry season, they are nocturnal and monophasic. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is a chiseltooth digger. Although it can dislodge some material with head or forelimbs, almost all digging occurs with its lower incisors. Accumulated dirt is pushed to surface with head or back legs and ejected in mounds. More digging occurs in the rainy season when soil is easier to move. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat lives most ofits life underground, but it emerges and is active aboveground with some frequency in March-May and autumn. Aboveground activities include searching and foraging for food and dispersing.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Middle East Blind Mole-rats are 10-40 m long and 10-40 cm deep in winter and up to 1-5 m deep in summer. They contain a nest, toilets, and food caches. Typical mounds are 15-20 cm high, but breeding mounds can be 40 cm high, 160 cm long, and 135 cm wide. The Middle East Blind Mole-ratis solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Fights may lead to death of the loser. Densities in Israel and Palestine are 0-91-1-8 ind/ha. Individuals communicate seismically by head drumming and using frequencies of 50-100 Hz. Sounds are received by neighboring individuals pressing mandibles to tunnel walls. If an individual is removed,its territory is generally occupied by another within hours or days. Predators include the Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), domestic cats, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the black kite (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), the golden eagle (A. chrysaetos), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon SMYrnensis).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax ehrenbergi). The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is considered vulnerable in Turkey. It is present in agricultural areas and is considered a pest in some regions. Intensive agriculture is a threat. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some forms are found in protected areas, but it is probable that species exist within this complex that are not protected.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 130-220 mm, no visible externaltail; weight 73-252 g. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are small; males are slightly larger than females. In Israel and Palestine, individuals in cool mesic environments are larger, but the reverse appears to be true in Turkey. Egyptian individuals are smaller than those found farther north, and Libyan individuals are smaller still. Pelage color varies by soil color; it has slate-gray hairs, with dull buff, brown, or reddish tips. When worn, pelage looks uniform gray. Bristly keel of cream or yellow extends from triangular nose pad halfway to ear openings. Forefeet are brown; hindfeet are covered in gray hairs. Incisors have 2-3 grooves. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are pale yellow. Including cartilaginous base, baculum is 5-7-5 mm long and varies in shape and size by cytotype. There are four nipples: 0 pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. More than 30 chromosomal forms are known with diploid numbers of 2n = 52, 54, 56, 58, and 60.","habitat":"Usually coastal Mediterranean and interior steppe habitat but also forest clearings, sandy coastal plains, mountainous areas, and some rocky habitat from sea level to elevations up to 2200 m. Although the Middle East Blind Mole-rat is present where precipitation is very low,it is absent in true desert. It is absent from the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta area. North African populations are fragmented and located near the coast."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"137","verbatimText":"18.Oltenia Blind Mole-ratSpalax istricusFrench:Spalax d'Olténie/ German:Oltenien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de OlteniaTaxonomy.Spalax istricus Méhely, 1909,Barza, Olt County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 designated three syntypes from three different localities. G. S. Miller in 1912 restricted the type locality to Barza, and G. Csorba and A. Demeter in 1991 designated the specimen from Barza as the lectotype. Spalax istricusisa member of the S. graecusspecies group, which is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna. Spalax istricuswas traditionally united with S. graecusand S. antiquus into a single species, S. graecus. Spalax istricuswas usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor united with S. antiquus as a distinct subspecies, S. g. istricus. In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibit considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiqguus, and S. istricusthat led to their conclusion that these represent three distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.S Romania.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.242 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. Color of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat is variable; in the original description, it was referred to as reddish brown above and rust-colored below. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat differs from the other members of the S. graecusgroup in having a rostrum that is narrowed above but wider ventrally.Habitat.Steppes,fields, and orchards of Oltenia and Muntenia, Romania.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under S. graecus). Additional careful assessment of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat separate from the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat (S. graecus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus) is needed. The Oltenia Blind Mole-rat has not been recorded in 30 years and appears to be extremely rare or extinct.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Csorba & Demeter (1991), Hadid et al. (2012), Krystufek (1999a), Méhely (1909), Miller (1912a), Murariu & Torcea (1984), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008).","taxonomy":"Spalax istricus Méhely, 1909,Barza, Olt County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 designated three syntypes from three different localities. G. S. Miller in 1912 restricted the type locality to Barza, and G. Csorba and A. Demeter in 1991 designated the specimen from Barza as the lectotype. Spalax istricusisa member of the S. graecusspecies group, which is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna. Spalax istricuswas traditionally united with S. graecusand S. antiquus into a single species, S. graecus. Spalax istricuswas usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor united with S. antiquus as a distinct subspecies, S. g. istricus. In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibit considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiqguus, and S. istricusthat led to their conclusion that these represent three distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax d'Olténie @fr | Oltenien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Oltenia @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Mehely","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"137","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"istricus","name":"Spalax istricus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Romania.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609143/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chisamera et al. (2014) | Csorba & Demeter (1991) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Krystufek (1999a) | Méhely (1909) | Miller (1912a) | Murariu & Torcea (1984) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under S. graecus). Additional careful assessment of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat separate from the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat (S. graecus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus) is needed. The Oltenia Blind Mole-rat has not been recorded in 30 years and appears to be extremely rare or extinct.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body c.242 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. Color of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat is variable; in the original description, it was referred to as reddish brown above and rust-colored below. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat differs from the other members of the S. graecusgroup in having a rostrum that is narrowed above but wider ventrally.","habitat":"Steppes,fields, and orchards of Oltenia and Muntenia, Romania."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"137","verbatimText":"17.Giant Root RatTachyoryctes macrocephalusFrench:Rat-taupe géant/ German:Riesenmaulwurfsratte/ Spanish:Rata de raices giganteOther common names:Big-headed Mole-rat, Giant Mole-ratTaxonomy.Rhizomys macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842,Shoa, Ethiopia.Presence of 71. macrocephalusin the region known until 1995 as Shoa (= Shewa) Province, Ethiopia, is considered suspect. D. W. Yalden and M. J. Largen in 1992 suggested that type material was collected in Begemdir or Wollo Province in northern Ethiopia. No further records of 7. macrocephalushave been recorded from northern Ethiopia since the original description. In a cladistics analysis that included fossil and extant taxa, R. Lopez-Antonanzas and H. B. Wesselman in 2013 showed that the two living root rats are sister taxa with respect to the known fossil species 71. konjiti, 1 pliocaenicus, and 1. makooka. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T. m. macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842— N Ethiopia; no records since original description. T. m. hecki Neumann & Rummler, 1928— S Ethiopia, Bale Mts above 3000 m (Oromia Region).Descriptive notes.Head-body 224-313 mm, tail 40-65 mm; weight 330-930 g. The Giant Root Rat is stocky and short-limbed, with relatively large head and shorttail. It has soft dense pelage that is silver, brown, or orange. Hairs are gray at bases. Up to three darker lines may be present on crown of head, and dark spot is present on eyelids. Interorbital width is narrow, causing eyes to be distinctively high on face. Subspecies heck: has longer (greater than 7 mm) anterior palatal foramen and zygomatic plate that slopes down to premaxillary-maxillary suture than the nominate subspecies. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.Habitat.Restricted to alpine grassland habitat at elevations of 3000-4150 m. The Giant Root Rat prefers soil depths greater than 50 cm in swamp shore grasslands and mixed herbaceous moorlands. Moist soils are preferred. In the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, the African Root Rat (7. splendens) is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m.Food and Feeding.The Giant Root Rat feeds on grasses and forbs such as Festuca(Poaceae) and Alchemilla(Rosaceae). Food is gathered by opening a hole to the surface and consuming plant material within easy reach of the opening. An individual usually keeps its hindquarters in the opening to facilitate quick escape into the burrow. When food in an area is depleted, the Giant Root Ratseals the opening and creates a new burrow elsewhere. A mouthful of food is collected in short foraging bouts of 6-8 minutes and is taken belowground for consumption.Breeding.Little information is available. Female Giant Root Rats appear to have one young perlitter.Activity patterns.The Giant Root Rat is diurnal and active from 08:00 h to 16:00 h. Aboveground activity comes in short bursts, roughly ten bouts in dry season adding up to an hour of activity, with fewer during rainy season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Only a single Giant Root Rat is present in each burrow system. Burrows are up to 90 m long and 12-15 cm in cross section belowground, with openings c.8 cm. An individual's burrow system may be up to 360 m*. All burrow entrances are closed nightly. Densities of 6 ind/ha, 24 ind/ha, 60 ind/ha, and 90 ind/ha have been reported. The ground can feel spongy when Giant Root Rats occur at high densities because ofits burrows. It may reach 50-60% of total rodent biomass in certain locations. The Giant Root Rat is a preferred prey of the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), representing up to 47% (by volume) of its diet. Other predators include owls and probably raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Root Rat can be present in very high concentrations, butits distribution is restricted and is dependent on a unique ecosystem. Much of its known distribution is in Bale Mountains National Park, but overgrazing by livestock threatens grasslands. It is not clear if the northern subspecies, macrocephalus, persists.Bibliography.Corti & Lavrenchenko (2008), Lopez-Antonanzas & Wesselman (2013), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a), Yalden (1985, 2013a), Yalden & Largen (1992).","taxonomy":"Rhizomys macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842,Shoa, Ethiopia.Presence of 71. macrocephalusin the region known until 1995 as Shoa (= Shewa) Province, Ethiopia, is considered suspect. D. W. Yalden and M. J. Largen in 1992 suggested that type material was collected in Begemdir or Wollo Province in northern Ethiopia. No further records of 7. macrocephalushave been recorded from northern Ethiopia since the original description. In a cladistics analysis that included fossil and extant taxa, R. Lopez-Antonanzas and H. B. Wesselman in 2013 showed that the two living root rats are sister taxa with respect to the known fossil species 71. konjiti, 1 pliocaenicus, and 1. makooka. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-taupe géant @fr | Riesenmaulwurfsratte @de | Rata de raices gigante @es | Big-headed Mole-rat @en | Giant Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ruppell","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Tachyoryctes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"137","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macrocephalus","name":"Tachyoryctes macrocephalus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T. m. macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842— N Ethiopia; no records since original description. T. m. hecki Neumann & Rummler, 1928— S Ethiopia, Bale Mts above 3000 m (Oromia Region).","bibliography":"Corti & Lavrenchenko (2008) | Lopez-Antonanzas & Wesselman (2013) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a) | Yalden (1985, 2013a) | Yalden & Largen (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"The Giant Root Rat feeds on grasses and forbs such as Festuca(Poaceae) and Alchemilla(Rosaceae). Food is gathered by opening a hole to the surface and consuming plant material within easy reach of the opening. An individual usually keeps its hindquarters in the opening to facilitate quick escape into the burrow. When food in an area is depleted, the Giant Root Ratseals the opening and creates a new burrow elsewhere. A mouthful of food is collected in short foraging bouts of 6-8 minutes and is taken belowground for consumption.","breeding":"Little information is available. Female Giant Root Rats appear to have one young perlitter.","activityPatterns":"The Giant Root Rat is diurnal and active from 08:00 h to 16:00 h. Aboveground activity comes in short bursts, roughly ten bouts in dry season adding up to an hour of activity, with fewer during rainy season.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Only a single Giant Root Rat is present in each burrow system. Burrows are up to 90 m long and 12-15 cm in cross section belowground, with openings c.8 cm. An individual's burrow system may be up to 360 m*. All burrow entrances are closed nightly. Densities of 6 ind/ha, 24 ind/ha, 60 ind/ha, and 90 ind/ha have been reported. The ground can feel spongy when Giant Root Rats occur at high densities because ofits burrows. It may reach 50-60% of total rodent biomass in certain locations. The Giant Root Rat is a preferred prey of the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), representing up to 47% (by volume) of its diet. Other predators include owls and probably raptors.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Root Rat can be present in very high concentrations, butits distribution is restricted and is dependent on a unique ecosystem. Much of its known distribution is in Bale Mountains National Park, but overgrazing by livestock threatens grasslands. It is not clear if the northern subspecies, macrocephalus, persists.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 224-313 mm, tail 40-65 mm; weight 330-930 g. The Giant Root Rat is stocky and short-limbed, with relatively large head and shorttail. It has soft dense pelage that is silver, brown, or orange. Hairs are gray at bases. Up to three darker lines may be present on crown of head, and dark spot is present on eyelids. Interorbital width is narrow, causing eyes to be distinctively high on face. Subspecies heck: has longer (greater than 7 mm) anterior palatal foramen and zygomatic plate that slopes down to premaxillary-maxillary suture than the nominate subspecies. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.","habitat":"Restricted to alpine grassland habitat at elevations of 3000-4150 m. The Giant Root Rat prefers soil depths greater than 50 cm in swamp shore grasslands and mixed herbaceous moorlands. Moist soils are preferred. In the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, the African Root Rat (7. splendens) is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"137","verbatimText":"19.Mehely’s Blind Mole-ratSpalax antiquusFrench:Spalax de Méhely/ German:Mehely-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de MéhelyTaxonomy.Spalax graecus antiguus Méhely, 1909,near Apahida, Cluj County, Romania;Nadaselu, Cluj County, Romania;Lechinta de Muresnear Targu Mures, Mures County, Romania;near Gherla, Cluj County, Romania;and near Someseni, Cluj County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 based his description on multiple fragmentary archaeological specimens. He designated twelve syntypes from five different localities, and no one has subsequently designated a lectotype or otherwise restricted the type locality. Consequently, the type locality encompasses the place of origin of all syntypes in accordance with Article 73.2.3 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until a lectotype is designated. Spalaxantiquus is a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna, and it is supported by mitochondrial data. Spalaxantiguus was traditionally united with S. graecusand S. istricusinto a single species (S. graecus). Spalaxantiquus was usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor a synonym of the subspecies S. g. ustricus. In an analysis of mtDNA A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat led them to conclude that these represented three distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.C Romania.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. Mehely’s Blind Molerat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is buff, and venter and head are grayish, with some reddish hues throughout. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.Habitat.Grassy plains of the Carpathian Basin in Transylvania.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Confirmed predators of Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and domestic dog.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 argued that Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat should be ranked as endangered. Its extent of occurrence and habitat quality are predicted to decline over the next ten years, its area of occupancy is less than 500 km? and it is known to exist in no more than five locations. Four locations where it is present are partly protected. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat was once more common in the vast grasslands of the Carpathian basin, but this habitat was first converted to pasture and, more recently, to intensive modern agriculture and urbanized landscapes.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Csorba et al. (2015), Hadid et al. (2012), KryStufek (1999a), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008).","taxonomy":"Spalax graecus antiguus Méhely, 1909,near Apahida, Cluj County, Romania;Nadaselu, Cluj County, Romania;Lechinta de Muresnear Targu Mures, Mures County, Romania;near Gherla, Cluj County, Romania;and near Someseni, Cluj County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 based his description on multiple fragmentary archaeological specimens. He designated twelve syntypes from five different localities, and no one has subsequently designated a lectotype or otherwise restricted the type locality. Consequently, the type locality encompasses the place of origin of all syntypes in accordance with Article 73.2.3 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until a lectotype is designated. Spalaxantiquus is a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna, and it is supported by mitochondrial data. Spalaxantiguus was traditionally united with S. graecusand S. istricusinto a single species (S. graecus). Spalaxantiquus was usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor a synonym of the subspecies S. g. ustricus. In an analysis of mtDNA A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat led them to conclude that these represented three distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax de Méhely @fr | Mehely-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Méhely @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Méhely","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"137","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antiquus","name":"Spalax antiquus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Romania.","bibliography":"Chisamera et al. (2014) | Csorba et al. (2015) | Hadid et al. (2012) | KryStufek (1999a) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Confirmed predators of Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and domestic dog.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 argued that Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat should be ranked as endangered. Its extent of occurrence and habitat quality are predicted to decline over the next ten years, its area of occupancy is less than 500 km? and it is known to exist in no more than five locations. Four locations where it is present are partly protected. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat was once more common in the vast grasslands of the Carpathian basin, but this habitat was first converted to pasture and, more recently, to intensive modern agriculture and urbanized landscapes.","descriptiveNotes":"There are no specific measurements available. Mehely’s Blind Molerat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is buff, and venter and head are grayish, with some reddish hues throughout. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.","habitat":"Grassy plains of the Carpathian Basin in Transylvania."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"138","verbatimText":"21.Podolsk Blind Mole-ratSpalax zemniFrench:Spalax de Podolie/ German:Podolien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de PodoliaOther common names:Podolian Mole-rat, Podolsk Mole-ratTaxonomy.Glis zemni Erxleben, 1777,Ternopolskregion, Ukraine.Spalax zemniis frequently referred to as S. polonicusor S. podolicus, but zemninamed by J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 is the oldest available name. It includes the fossil form S. diluvii. Spalax zemniis the sister species to S. arenarius. Monotypic.Distribution.Ukraine.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-310 mm, no visible external tail; weight 370-570 g. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat has slate gray pelage, with reddish trim. Head is lighter gray, and white stripe or spots may be present. Venteris gray. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Undisturbed steppe but also roadsides, forest belts, and agricultural fields. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats can be found in sandy soils.Food and Feeding.Podolsk Blind Mole-rats feed on alfalfa, chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), field bindweed (Convolvulus, Concolvulaceae), mallows (Malva, Malvaceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae).Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are active year-round; digging continues throughout winter months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats contain feeding tunnels near the surface, deeper chambers, and 2-6 vertical tunnels connecting the two levels. Feeding tunnels are located at depths of 13-21 cm. Total length of feeding tunnels varies with age of burrow; it can range from 10 m in burrows of young individuals to 210 m in burrows of mature adults. Lower chambers are found at depths of 90-275 cm and include 1-2 nest chambers, 3-5 storage chambers, and toilets. Connecting tunnels can be complex and connect chambers in a circular manner. Mounds have diameters of 30-67 cm and heights of 10-23 cm. Densities are 1-8 ind/ha; in virgin steppe, density is ¢.8 ind/ha. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), the European Polecat (M. putorius), and the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are fragmented. Although they are found across a large geographic landscape, area of occupancy is only ¢.2000 km? The Podolsk Blind Mole-rat is threatened by loss of its natural steppe habitat due to cultivation and development.Bibliography.Erxleben (1777), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Hadid et al. (2012), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (20169), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008b).","taxonomy":"Glis zemni Erxleben, 1777,Ternopolskregion, Ukraine.Spalax zemniis frequently referred to as S. polonicusor S. podolicus, but zemninamed by J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 is the oldest available name. It includes the fossil form S. diluvii. Spalax zemniis the sister species to S. arenarius. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax de Podolie @fr | Podolien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Podolia @es | Podolian Mole-rat @en | Podolsk Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Erxleben","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"138","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zemni","name":"Spalax zemni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Ukraine.","bibliography":"Erxleben (1777) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (20169) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008b)","foodAndFeeding":"Podolsk Blind Mole-rats feed on alfalfa, chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), field bindweed (Convolvulus, Concolvulaceae), mallows (Malva, Malvaceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae).","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are active year-round; digging continues throughout winter months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats contain feeding tunnels near the surface, deeper chambers, and 2-6 vertical tunnels connecting the two levels. Feeding tunnels are located at depths of 13-21 cm. Total length of feeding tunnels varies with age of burrow; it can range from 10 m in burrows of young individuals to 210 m in burrows of mature adults. Lower chambers are found at depths of 90-275 cm and include 1-2 nest chambers, 3-5 storage chambers, and toilets. Connecting tunnels can be complex and connect chambers in a circular manner. Mounds have diameters of 30-67 cm and heights of 10-23 cm. Densities are 1-8 ind/ha; in virgin steppe, density is ¢.8 ind/ha. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), the European Polecat (M. putorius), and the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are fragmented. Although they are found across a large geographic landscape, area of occupancy is only ¢.2000 km? The Podolsk Blind Mole-rat is threatened by loss of its natural steppe habitat due to cultivation and development.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-310 mm, no visible external tail; weight 370-570 g. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat has slate gray pelage, with reddish trim. Head is lighter gray, and white stripe or spots may be present. Venteris gray. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","habitat":"Undisturbed steppe but also roadsides, forest belts, and agricultural fields. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats can be found in sandy soils."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"138","verbatimText":"20.Bukovina Blind Mole-ratSpalax graecusFrench:Spalax de Bucovine/ German:Bukowina-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de BucovinaOther common names:Balkan Blind Mole-rat, Balkan Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax graecus Nehring, 1898,vicinity of Athens, Greece. Corrected by V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 to the vicinity of Chernovtsy, Bukovina Region, Ukraine.Spalax graecusis a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position of sella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna and is supported by mitochondrial data. It was traditionally united with S. istricusand S. antiquus into a single species (S. graecus). In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiqguus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat lead them to conclude that these represent distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Ukraine and NE Romania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217-280 mm, no visible external tail; weight 415-700 g. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is butt, and venter and head are grayish. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat differs from other members of the S. graecusspecies group in having nasals that extend posteriorly beyond premaxilla and a flat bottom of incisura corono-alveolaris. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.Habitat.Strands of perennial grasses, steppes, and agricultural fields in the hilly Bukovina region of Romania and Ukraine. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat can occur in roadsides, pastures, beet and potato fields, gardens, and forest edge but not deep forest. Itis currently known from 13 localities, bordered on the east by the Prut River and on the west by the Carpathian Mountains. Ecological niche modeling suggests that suitable habitat may be found at elevations of 39-848 m.Food and Feeding.The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat feeds on a variety of plants including dropwort (Filipendulahexapetala, Rosaceae), yarrow (Achilleamillefolium, Asteraceae), plantain (Plantagomedia, Plantaginaceae), couch grass (Elytrigia repens, Poaceae), comfrey (Symphytumofficinale, Boraginaceae), and chicory (Cichoriumintybus, Asteraceae). Winter food stores weigh 0.4-12 kg.Breeding.Female Bukovina Blind Mole-rats breed in their second year. Breeding activity begins in January, peaks in February, and can continue into March. Females will give birth to 2—4 young in March-April. Young weigh 18-20 g and are weaned after c.3 weeks. They disperse aboveground in late April through May.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bukovina Blind Mole-rats are solitary. Burrows are constructed in relatively dry soil and usually reach maximum depths of 1 m (up to 3-5 m). Feeding tunnels occur at depths of 20-25 cm in spring and summer and 30-35 cm in winter. One or two nest chambers and multiple toilet and storage chambers are present. In the past, densities had been recorded at 1-10 ind/ ha in agricultural areas but up to 23 ind/ha under more natural conditions. Current densities in agricultural areas are closer to 0-2-2 ind/ha. Predators include foxes, mustelids, and, when dispersing, raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The assessment includes the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (S. istricus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus). It has a small range of occupancy and has not been recorded in Romania since the 1960s or in Ukraine over the last 20-40 years. Additional conservation assessment of the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat separate from the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat is needed.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Hadid et al. (2012), Krystufek (1999a), Musser & Carleton (2005), Méhely (1909), Németh et al. (2013), Puzachenko (2016b), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008).","taxonomy":"Spalax graecus Nehring, 1898,vicinity of Athens, Greece. Corrected by V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 to the vicinity of Chernovtsy, Bukovina Region, Ukraine.Spalax graecusis a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position of sella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna and is supported by mitochondrial data. It was traditionally united with S. istricusand S. antiquus into a single species (S. graecus). In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiqguus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat lead them to conclude that these represent distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax de Bucovine @fr | Bukowina-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Bucovina @es | Balkan Blind Mole-rat @en | Balkan Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Nehring","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"138","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"graecus","name":"Spalax graecus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW Ukraine and NE Romania.","bibliography":"Chisamera et al. (2014) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Krystufek (1999a) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Méhely (1909) | Németh et al. (2013) | Puzachenko (2016b) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat feeds on a variety of plants including dropwort (Filipendulahexapetala, Rosaceae), yarrow (Achilleamillefolium, Asteraceae), plantain (Plantagomedia, Plantaginaceae), couch grass (Elytrigia repens, Poaceae), comfrey (Symphytumofficinale, Boraginaceae), and chicory (Cichoriumintybus, Asteraceae). Winter food stores weigh 0.4-12 kg.","breeding":"Female Bukovina Blind Mole-rats breed in their second year. Breeding activity begins in January, peaks in February, and can continue into March. Females will give birth to 2—4 young in March-April. Young weigh 18-20 g and are weaned after c.3 weeks. They disperse aboveground in late April through May.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Bukovina Blind Mole-rats are solitary. Burrows are constructed in relatively dry soil and usually reach maximum depths of 1 m (up to 3-5 m). Feeding tunnels occur at depths of 20-25 cm in spring and summer and 30-35 cm in winter. One or two nest chambers and multiple toilet and storage chambers are present. In the past, densities had been recorded at 1-10 ind/ ha in agricultural areas but up to 23 ind/ha under more natural conditions. Current densities in agricultural areas are closer to 0-2-2 ind/ha. Predators include foxes, mustelids, and, when dispersing, raptors.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The assessment includes the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (S. istricus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus). It has a small range of occupancy and has not been recorded in Romania since the 1960s or in Ukraine over the last 20-40 years. Additional conservation assessment of the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat separate from the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat is needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 217-280 mm, no visible external tail; weight 415-700 g. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is butt, and venter and head are grayish. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat differs from other members of the S. graecusspecies group in having nasals that extend posteriorly beyond premaxilla and a flat bottom of incisura corono-alveolaris. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.","habitat":"Strands of perennial grasses, steppes, and agricultural fields in the hilly Bukovina region of Romania and Ukraine. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat can occur in roadsides, pastures, beet and potato fields, gardens, and forest edge but not deep forest. Itis currently known from 13 localities, bordered on the east by the Prut River and on the west by the Carpathian Mountains. Ecological niche modeling suggests that suitable habitat may be found at elevations of 39-848 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"138","verbatimText":"22.Sandy Blind Mole-ratSpalax arenariusFrench:Spalax des sables/ German:Sandblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de los arenalesOther common names:Sandy Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax arenarius Reshetnik, 1939,NW shore of Black Sea, Golaya Pristan, Nikolaev Region, Ukraine.Spalax arenariusis the sister species to S. zemni, and it has been treated as a subspecies or synonym of S. zemni, S. microphthalmus, and S. giganteusin the past. Its species status is supported by morphological features and is broadly accepted in recent texts. Monotypic.Distribution.E bank of the Dniepr River near its opening into the Black Sea (S Ukraine).Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-275 mm, no visible external tail; weight 380-660 g. Male Sandy Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large pale straw-yellow-gray. Front of head is lighter grayish white, and venter is pale mouse gray. Fringe of pale yellow-gray hair extends from nose to ears. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Sparsely vegetated absinth (Ar temisia, Asteraceae)grass and absinthspurge (Euphorbiaceae) steppes. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is found in light, moderately wet, sandy soils with a low water table and is never found in moving sands, dry feather-grass steppe, or alkali soils.Food and Feeding.Sandy Blind Mole-rats feed on a variety of plants including field eryngo (Eryngiumcampestre, Apiaceae), wormwood (Artemisiacampestris, Asteraceae), and goatsbeard (7 Tragopogonucrainicus, Asteraceae). Accumulated winter stores weigh 10-15 kg.Breeding.Breeding of the Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs once a year in March. Young are born in April-May, and lactation lasts c.1 month.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sandy Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Feeding tunnels can be 200 m long and occur at depths of 40-50 cm. Individual home ranges are more than 80 m?. Vertical shafts connect to chambers atjust over 1 m deep. Mounds are 35-93 cm in diameter and 20-45 cm in height. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs at densities of 5 ind/ha in optimal habitat and 0-9-1-2 ind/ha elsewhere. Predators include foxes, mustelids, domestic dogs, and raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is protected in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve, but it faces conservation threats and is declining outside ofthis area. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.2000 km? and its area of occupancy is ¢.55 km?®. It is threatened by afforestation activities that are intended to stabilize the landscape and to support commercial forestry. Total population is estimated at 15,000-20,000 individuals, which are known from fewer than five localities.Bibliography.Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Hadid et al. (2012), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2013), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (2016h), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina & Zagorodnyuk (2008).","taxonomy":"Spalax arenarius Reshetnik, 1939,NW shore of Black Sea, Golaya Pristan, Nikolaev Region, Ukraine.Spalax arenariusis the sister species to S. zemni, and it has been treated as a subspecies or synonym of S. zemni, S. microphthalmus, and S. giganteusin the past. Its species status is supported by morphological features and is broadly accepted in recent texts. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax des sables @fr | Sandblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de los arenales @es | Sandy Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Reshetnik","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1939","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"138","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arenarius","name":"Spalax arenarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E bank of the Dniepr River near its opening into the Black Sea (S Ukraine).","bibliography":"Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2013) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (2016h) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina & Zagorodnyuk (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Sandy Blind Mole-rats feed on a variety of plants including field eryngo (Eryngiumcampestre, Apiaceae), wormwood (Artemisiacampestris, Asteraceae), and goatsbeard (7 Tragopogonucrainicus, Asteraceae). Accumulated winter stores weigh 10-15 kg.","breeding":"Breeding of the Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs once a year in March. Young are born in April-May, and lactation lasts c.1 month.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sandy Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Feeding tunnels can be 200 m long and occur at depths of 40-50 cm. Individual home ranges are more than 80 m?. Vertical shafts connect to chambers atjust over 1 m deep. Mounds are 35-93 cm in diameter and 20-45 cm in height. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs at densities of 5 ind/ha in optimal habitat and 0-9-1-2 ind/ha elsewhere. Predators include foxes, mustelids, domestic dogs, and raptors.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is protected in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve, but it faces conservation threats and is declining outside ofthis area. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.2000 km? and its area of occupancy is ¢.55 km?®. It is threatened by afforestation activities that are intended to stabilize the landscape and to support commercial forestry. Total population is estimated at 15,000-20,000 individuals, which are known from fewer than five localities.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 190-275 mm, no visible external tail; weight 380-660 g. Male Sandy Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large pale straw-yellow-gray. Front of head is lighter grayish white, and venter is pale mouse gray. Fringe of pale yellow-gray hair extends from nose to ears. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","habitat":"Sparsely vegetated absinth (Ar temisia, Asteraceae)grass and absinthspurge (Euphorbiaceae) steppes. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is found in light, moderately wet, sandy soils with a low water table and is never found in moving sands, dry feather-grass steppe, or alkali soils."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"23.Greater Blind Mole-ratSpalax microphthalmusFrench:Grand Spalax/ German:Steppenblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega grandeOther common names:Greater Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax microphthalmus Guldenstadt, 1770,Novokhoper Steppe, Voronezhskaya Oblast, Russia.All members of the genus Spalaxhave at some time been treated as synonyms or subspecies of S. microphthalmus. 1. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012 treated S. microphthalmusas monotypic, but they noted the possibility that populations in the western part of its distribution may constitute a distinct subspecies. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 suggested that Ciscaucasian populations might be a distinct subspecies; the appropriate name for this form wouldappear to be typhlusby P. S. Pallas in 1779. M. Korobchenko and I. Zagorodnyuk in 2009 questioned inclusion of typhlusin microphthalmus, suggesting that it has affinities with giganteusand warrants recognition as a distinct species. Pending further study, they provisionally treated it as a distinct subspecies within S. microphthalmus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.m.microphthalmusGuldenstadt,1770—EUkraineandSWRussia.S. m. typhlus Pallas, 1779— Ciscaucasian Russia immediately E of the Sea of Azov.Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-315 mm, no visible external tail; weight 120-818 g. Male Greater Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large and straw-graybrown, with lighter and grayer head and straw-brown venter. Roots of hairs are mouse gray, and individuals can have this color when tips of hairs are worn off. Small yellowish white patch may be present on forehead. Some specimens have white longitudinal stripe on head. Fringe of yellowish hair extends outward from nose toward ears. Juveniles are much grayer than adults. Thicker winter pelage is present from September to May orJune. Three pairs of nipples are present. Diploid numberis 2n = 60 or 62.Habitat.Flat steppes and forest steppes in the region between the Dniepr and Volga rivers, from roughly Mordovia southward into Ciscaucasia. Northern populations are fragmented. The Greater Blind Mole-rat prefers to dig in rich black soils and avoids loam and sand. It can be found in agricultural fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards, and forests.Food and Feeding.The Greater Blind Mole-rat eats dandelion (7araxacum, Asteraceae), cow parsnip (Heracleum, Apiaceae), chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae). A higher ratio of leaves and shoots are eaten in spring than later in the year when roots and bulbs are preferred. Accumulated winterstores of food can weigh c.10-14 kg.Breeding.Greater Blind Mole-rats breed once a year. Females give birth to 2-5 young in late February to early May. Females usually breed in their second year. Life span is 2-54 years.Activity patterns.Digging activities of Greater Blind Mole-rat are most pronounced in spring when food stores are depleted. They are active year-round, but in winter, they reduce activity, focusing in deeper areas. An individual traversing aboveground facing a threat will immediately begin to burrow.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Greater Blind Mole-rats are solitary; individuals may fight until one retreats or dies. Fighting usually involves bites to the face. Juveniles leave their mothers’ burrows and either create a separate adjacent burrow or disperse up to several hundred meters aboveground. Individuals of any age might travel aboveground in search of better locations for burrows, and males might travel aboveground in search of females. Burrow systems can take on a variety of shapes including almost linear, 1-2 central areas with feeding tunnels emerging as spokes, or more irregular arrangements. They vary widely in length but can be 100-450 m or more across. Feeding tunnels are 10-25 cm deep, and deeper chambers are found at depths of 120-320 cm. Upper and lower regions are connected by 2—4 vertical shafts. One or two nest chambers are present, and these are lined with grass and leaves. Usually 4-9 storerooms are present alongside multiple empty chambers. Multiple toilets are present, and these are sealed after filled. Mounds are variable in shape and size, with diameters of 20-240 cm (average 50 cm). They are located 1-2 m apart. A single individualis estimated to displace 0-2-0-3 m® of earth daily. Densities are 3-10 ind/ha and can be 20 ind/ha in good conditions but lower elsewhere. Populations do not usually exhibit extreme oscillations. Predators include the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans), and carnivorous mammals such as mustelids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Broadly speaking, the Greater Blind Mole-rat has a large distribution in which it is abundant and common. It is found in protected areas. Many populations, particularly in the northern part ofits distribution, may be threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural practices. The Greater Blind Mole-rat can be an agricultural pest and is poisoned. It functions as an ecosystem engineer, affecting soil composition and plant communities. Its burrows are used by a variety of other animals such as small mammals and invertebrates.Bibliography.Corbet (1978), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2016), Nevo (1999), Ognev (1947), Pallas (1779), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016c), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008a).","taxonomy":"Spalax microphthalmus Guldenstadt, 1770,Novokhoper Steppe, Voronezhskaya Oblast, Russia.All members of the genus Spalaxhave at some time been treated as synonyms or subspecies of S. microphthalmus. 1. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012 treated S. microphthalmusas monotypic, but they noted the possibility that populations in the western part of its distribution may constitute a distinct subspecies. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 suggested that Ciscaucasian populations might be a distinct subspecies; the appropriate name for this form wouldappear to be typhlusby P. S. Pallas in 1779. M. Korobchenko and I. Zagorodnyuk in 2009 questioned inclusion of typhlusin microphthalmus, suggesting that it has affinities with giganteusand warrants recognition as a distinct species. Pending further study, they provisionally treated it as a distinct subspecies within S. microphthalmus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Spalax @fr | Steppenblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega grande @es | Greater Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Guldenstadt","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1770","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"microphthalmus","name":"Spalax microphthalmus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.m.microphthalmusGuldenstadt,1770—EUkraineandSWRussia.S. m. typhlus Pallas, 1779— Ciscaucasian Russia immediately E of the Sea of Azov.","bibliography":"Corbet (1978) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2016) | Nevo (1999) | Ognev (1947) | Pallas (1779) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016c) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Greater Blind Mole-rat eats dandelion (7araxacum, Asteraceae), cow parsnip (Heracleum, Apiaceae), chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae). A higher ratio of leaves and shoots are eaten in spring than later in the year when roots and bulbs are preferred. Accumulated winterstores of food can weigh c.10-14 kg.","breeding":"Greater Blind Mole-rats breed once a year. Females give birth to 2-5 young in late February to early May. Females usually breed in their second year. Life span is 2-54 years.","activityPatterns":"Digging activities of Greater Blind Mole-rat are most pronounced in spring when food stores are depleted. They are active year-round, but in winter, they reduce activity, focusing in deeper areas. An individual traversing aboveground facing a threat will immediately begin to burrow.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Greater Blind Mole-rats are solitary; individuals may fight until one retreats or dies. Fighting usually involves bites to the face. Juveniles leave their mothers’ burrows and either create a separate adjacent burrow or disperse up to several hundred meters aboveground. Individuals of any age might travel aboveground in search of better locations for burrows, and males might travel aboveground in search of females. Burrow systems can take on a variety of shapes including almost linear, 1-2 central areas with feeding tunnels emerging as spokes, or more irregular arrangements. They vary widely in length but can be 100-450 m or more across. Feeding tunnels are 10-25 cm deep, and deeper chambers are found at depths of 120-320 cm. Upper and lower regions are connected by 2—4 vertical shafts. One or two nest chambers are present, and these are lined with grass and leaves. Usually 4-9 storerooms are present alongside multiple empty chambers. Multiple toilets are present, and these are sealed after filled. Mounds are variable in shape and size, with diameters of 20-240 cm (average 50 cm). They are located 1-2 m apart. A single individualis estimated to displace 0-2-0-3 m® of earth daily. Densities are 3-10 ind/ha and can be 20 ind/ha in good conditions but lower elsewhere. Populations do not usually exhibit extreme oscillations. Predators include the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans), and carnivorous mammals such as mustelids.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Broadly speaking, the Greater Blind Mole-rat has a large distribution in which it is abundant and common. It is found in protected areas. Many populations, particularly in the northern part ofits distribution, may be threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural practices. The Greater Blind Mole-rat can be an agricultural pest and is poisoned. It functions as an ecosystem engineer, affecting soil composition and plant communities. Its burrows are used by a variety of other animals such as small mammals and invertebrates.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 190-315 mm, no visible external tail; weight 120-818 g. Male Greater Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large and straw-graybrown, with lighter and grayer head and straw-brown venter. Roots of hairs are mouse gray, and individuals can have this color when tips of hairs are worn off. Small yellowish white patch may be present on forehead. Some specimens have white longitudinal stripe on head. Fringe of yellowish hair extends outward from nose toward ears. Juveniles are much grayer than adults. Thicker winter pelage is present from September to May orJune. Three pairs of nipples are present. Diploid numberis 2n = 60 or 62.","habitat":"Flat steppes and forest steppes in the region between the Dniepr and Volga rivers, from roughly Mordovia southward into Ciscaucasia. Northern populations are fragmented. The Greater Blind Mole-rat prefers to dig in rich black soils and avoids loam and sand. It can be found in agricultural fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards, and forests."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"24.Giant Blind Mole-ratSpalax giganteusFrench:Spalax géant/ German:Riesenblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega giganteOther common names:Giant Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax giganteus Nehring, 1898,near Makhachkala, W shore of Caspian Sea, Dagestan, Russia.Spalax uralensishad been widely regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline. Habitat loss has been exacerbated by war,soil salinization, and agricultural practices such as irrigation, overgrazing, and plowing. Itis almost extinct in Chechnya and perhaps Dagestan. It can be a pest in orchards and fields.Bibliography.Iliashenko & lliashenko (2000), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (1993, 2016e), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov & Sheftel (2008).","taxonomy":"Spalax giganteus Nehring, 1898,near Makhachkala, W shore of Caspian Sea, Dagestan, Russia.Spalax uralensishad been widely regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia.","commonNames":"Spalax géant @fr | Riesenblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega gigante @es | Giant Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Nehring","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"giganteus","name":"Spalax giganteus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).","bibliography":"Iliashenko & lliashenko (2000) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (1993, 2016e) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov & Sheftel (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.","breeding":"Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.","activityPatterns":"Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline. Habitat loss has been exacerbated by war,soil salinization, and agricultural practices such as irrigation, overgrazing, and plowing. Itis almost extinct in Chechnya and perhaps Dagestan. It can be a pest in orchards and fields.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline.","habitat":"Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"26.Lesser Blind Mole-ratNannospalax leucodonFrench:Spalax de Hongrie/ German:\\Westblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega pequenaOther common names:Lesser Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax typhlus leucodon Nordmann, 1840,near Odessa, Ukraine.Nannospalax leucodonis included in subgenus Mesospalax. It represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric and parapatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Numerous names have been applied to these various forms, many of which are nomen nuda or otherwise unavailable. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 treated N. leucodonas a single species with two subspecies: leucodonfrom eastern Hungary, Romania, Moldovia, and Ukraine and monticolafrom Hungary and Bulgaria, southward to Greece and European Turkey. At the other extreme, I. Savi¢ and colleagues in 1984 recognized 13 species and ten additional subspecies, granting named status to all known cytotypes. Genetic diversity among populations of N. leucodonappears to be lower than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, but to date, sampling has been restricted to the western part ofits distribution. Assessing species boundaries will probably require combining data on karyotypes with molecular phylogenetics because morphological data appear to be of limited use. Monotypic.Distribution.E Hungary, SW Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, SE Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece (including NE Aegean Is of Samothrace and Lemnos), and European Turkey.Descriptive notes.Head—body 150-240 mm, no visible external tail; weight 162-504 g. Male Lesser Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. Color varies but is typically brownish to gray, with tinge of yellow, ginger, or yellow-red. Anterior of head is less brown and more gray. Ridge of longer white to yellow hair extends from sides of nose toward ears. Venter is mostly gray. White or yellow spots are common in northern populations but less so in other regions such as Turkey. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are yellow or white. Populations in Turkey are smaller. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 29 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 38-62.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands, meadows, and pastures from sea level to elevations up to 2400 m. Lesser Blind Mole-rats can be found in forest clearings, small fields adjacent to pasture, and orchards. They prefer deep, loose, and well-drained soil. They are usually absent in forest, wetlands, rocky areas, and heavily cultivated areas.Food and Feeding.Lesser Blind Mole-rats feed primarily on bulbs, roots, and tubers, with supplements from green plant parts. Green plant matter is important for weaned juveniles and adults in late spring. Insects are also sometimes eaten. The Lesser Blind Mole-rat eats ¢.36:5% ofits body mass daily. Its energy budgetis 0-17 kcal/g/day except in winter when it increases to 0-22 kcal/g/day. Food caches of 6-20 kg have been reported.Breeding.Pregnant female Lesser Blind Mole-rats are most commonly captured in March. Gestation is 30 days. Young are born in March-April and weigh 6-6-5 g. Litter size is usually 2—4 young, but 1-6 young have been recorded. Young are weaned after 2-2-5 months; young males weigh 137 g while females weigh 121 g by the end of May. Females start breeding in their second year. In captivity, females live up to 3-5 years, and males live 4-5 years.Activity patterns.Activity of the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is polyphasic, with two peaks at 13:00-14:00 h and 01:00-02:00 h in some reports and three peaks at 11:00-13:00 h, 07:00-09:00 h, and 17:00-21:00 h in others.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Lesser Blind Mole-rats have a main tunnel with secondary tunnels branching off. An individual digs c.1:7 m of tunnel daily, yielding 10 kg of excavated dirt. Total tunnel length is 65-195 m and spread over 194-1000 m?. Peripheral feeding tunnels are located at depths of 15-25 cm; deeper passages may reach 410 cm. Oval-shaped 28 x 18 x 16 cm nests are centrally located at depths of 25-50 cm; they are lined with grasses. Multiple food caches and toilet chambers are present. Mounds are located 21-30 m apart. Densities are usually 1-13 ind/ha, but 23 ind/ha have been recorded. Lesser Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Predators include the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis), the Ermine (M. erminea), the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmannii), domestic dog, domestic cat, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), and the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax leucodon). Species boundaries are poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, urbanization, and other development. The superspecies is found in protected areas, but several of the species in this complex are undoubtedly threatened, lack protection, and are in dire need of assessment as individual entities. For example, G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 evaluated conservation status of the N. leucodonsuperspecies in the Carpathian Basin, treating forms therein as four distinct species. They proposed that N. (leucodon) transylvanicus from north-eastern Hungary and north-western Romania warrants a status of vulnerable because area of occupancy is no more than 120 km?, it is known from under ten localities, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (l.) hungaricus from eastern Hungary and northern Serbia as endangered because extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is no more than 300 km?it is known from under five localities, more than 95% of the population is found at a single locality, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (lL) montanosyrmiensis from southern Hungary and northern Serbia as critically endangered because extent of occurrence is no more than 100 km? area of occupancy is less than 10 km?, it is known from only three localities, these populations continue to decline, and habitat size and quality continue to decline. Finally, they assessed N. (l.) syrmiensis from western Hungary and northern Serbia as data deficient because it has not been recorded in 30 years and is likely extinct. Similar detailed assessment is needed for the rest of the geographic distribution.Bibliography.Bego et al. (2014), Csorba et al. (2015), Hadid et al. (2012), Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009), Krystufek (1999b), Krystufek & Amori (2008), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Révay et al. (2009), Nevo et al. (2001), Ognev (1947), Savi¢ et al. (1984), Topachevskii (1969).","taxonomy":"Spalax typhlus leucodon Nordmann, 1840,near Odessa, Ukraine.Nannospalax leucodonis included in subgenus Mesospalax. It represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric and parapatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Numerous names have been applied to these various forms, many of which are nomen nuda or otherwise unavailable. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 treated N. leucodonas a single species with two subspecies: leucodonfrom eastern Hungary, Romania, Moldovia, and Ukraine and monticolafrom Hungary and Bulgaria, southward to Greece and European Turkey. At the other extreme, I. Savi¢ and colleagues in 1984 recognized 13 species and ten additional subspecies, granting named status to all known cytotypes. Genetic diversity among populations of N. leucodonappears to be lower than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, but to date, sampling has been restricted to the western part ofits distribution. Assessing species boundaries will probably require combining data on karyotypes with molecular phylogenetics because morphological data appear to be of limited use. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax de Hongrie @fr | \\Westblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega pequena @es | Lesser Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Nordmann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1840","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Nannospalax","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucodon","name":"Nannospalax leucodon","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Hungary, SW Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, SE Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece (including NE Aegean Is of Samothrace and Lemnos), and European Turkey.","bibliography":"Bego et al. (2014) | Csorba et al. (2015) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009) | Krystufek (1999b) | Krystufek & Amori (2008) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Révay et al. (2009) | Nevo et al. (2001) | Ognev (1947) | Savi¢ et al. (1984) | Topachevskii (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"Lesser Blind Mole-rats feed primarily on bulbs, roots, and tubers, with supplements from green plant parts. Green plant matter is important for weaned juveniles and adults in late spring. Insects are also sometimes eaten. The Lesser Blind Mole-rat eats ¢.36:5% ofits body mass daily. Its energy budgetis 0-17 kcal/g/day except in winter when it increases to 0-22 kcal/g/day. Food caches of 6-20 kg have been reported.","breeding":"Pregnant female Lesser Blind Mole-rats are most commonly captured in March. Gestation is 30 days. Young are born in March-April and weigh 6-6-5 g. Litter size is usually 2—4 young, but 1-6 young have been recorded. Young are weaned after 2-2-5 months; young males weigh 137 g while females weigh 121 g by the end of May. Females start breeding in their second year. In captivity, females live up to 3-5 years, and males live 4-5 years.","activityPatterns":"Activity of the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is polyphasic, with two peaks at 13:00-14:00 h and 01:00-02:00 h in some reports and three peaks at 11:00-13:00 h, 07:00-09:00 h, and 17:00-21:00 h in others.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Lesser Blind Mole-rats have a main tunnel with secondary tunnels branching off. An individual digs c.1:7 m of tunnel daily, yielding 10 kg of excavated dirt. Total tunnel length is 65-195 m and spread over 194-1000 m?. Peripheral feeding tunnels are located at depths of 15-25 cm; deeper passages may reach 410 cm. Oval-shaped 28 x 18 x 16 cm nests are centrally located at depths of 25-50 cm; they are lined with grasses. Multiple food caches and toilet chambers are present. Mounds are located 21-30 m apart. Densities are usually 1-13 ind/ha, but 23 ind/ha have been recorded. Lesser Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Predators include the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis), the Ermine (M. erminea), the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmannii), domestic dog, domestic cat, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), and the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax leucodon). Species boundaries are poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, urbanization, and other development. The superspecies is found in protected areas, but several of the species in this complex are undoubtedly threatened, lack protection, and are in dire need of assessment as individual entities. For example, G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 evaluated conservation status of the N. leucodonsuperspecies in the Carpathian Basin, treating forms therein as four distinct species. They proposed that N. (leucodon) transylvanicus from north-eastern Hungary and north-western Romania warrants a status of vulnerable because area of occupancy is no more than 120 km?, it is known from under ten localities, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (l.) hungaricus from eastern Hungary and northern Serbia as endangered because extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is no more than 300 km?it is known from under five localities, more than 95% of the population is found at a single locality, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (lL) montanosyrmiensis from southern Hungary and northern Serbia as critically endangered because extent of occurrence is no more than 100 km? area of occupancy is less than 10 km?, it is known from only three localities, these populations continue to decline, and habitat size and quality continue to decline. Finally, they assessed N. (l.) syrmiensis from western Hungary and northern Serbia as data deficient because it has not been recorded in 30 years and is likely extinct. Similar detailed assessment is needed for the rest of the geographic distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 150-240 mm, no visible external tail; weight 162-504 g. Male Lesser Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. Color varies but is typically brownish to gray, with tinge of yellow, ginger, or yellow-red. Anterior of head is less brown and more gray. Ridge of longer white to yellow hair extends from sides of nose toward ears. Venter is mostly gray. White or yellow spots are common in northern populations but less so in other regions such as Turkey. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are yellow or white. Populations in Turkey are smaller. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 29 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 38-62.","habitat":"Steppes, grasslands, meadows, and pastures from sea level to elevations up to 2400 m. Lesser Blind Mole-rats can be found in forest clearings, small fields adjacent to pasture, and orchards. They prefer deep, loose, and well-drained soil. They are usually absent in forest, wetlands, rocky areas, and heavily cultivated areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"25.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratSpalax uralensisFrench:Spalax de I'Oural/ German:Kasachstan-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de KazajistanOther common names:Ural Blind Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax uralensis Tiflov & Usov, 1939,Chingerlauz region, W Kazakhstan.Although originally described as a separate species, S. wuralensis was generally regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.W Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.Habitat.Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin. Distribution of the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is tied to presence ofits primary food source, Volga wild rye (Elymus giganteus, Poaceae).Food and Feeding.The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat feeds on multiple plant species, but Volga wild rye represents the bulk of its diet. Food caches reach sizes of 2-5 kg.Breeding.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats usually breed once a year in spring or summer, but females will occasionally have a second litter in autumn. Litter sizes are 2—6 young.Activity patterns.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activity peaks in spring and is lowest in June.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Kazakhstan Blind Molerats include feeding tunnels near the surface and deeperliving chambers. Burrows are 145-540 m long and 0-9-3 m deep. Densities are 0-26—1 ind/ha in marginal conditions and 4 ind/ha in quality habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratis listed as rare with limited distribution (category 3) on the Red List of Kazakhstan. It is threatened by overgrazing and experiences declines in drought years.Bibliography.Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (1993, 2016e), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina (2008b).","taxonomy":"Spalax uralensis Tiflov & Usov, 1939,Chingerlauz region, W Kazakhstan.Although originally described as a separate species, S. wuralensis was generally regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.W Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.Habitat.Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin.","commonNames":"Spalax de @fr | 'Oural @en | Kasachstan-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Kazajistan @es | Ural Blind Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Tiflov & Usov","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1939","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"uralensis","name":"Spalax uralensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Kazakhstan.","bibliography":"Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (1993, 2016e) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina (2008b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat feeds on multiple plant species, but Volga wild rye represents the bulk of its diet. Food caches reach sizes of 2-5 kg.","breeding":"Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats usually breed once a year in spring or summer, but females will occasionally have a second litter in autumn. Litter sizes are 2—6 young.","activityPatterns":"Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activity peaks in spring and is lowest in June.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Kazakhstan Blind Molerats include feeding tunnels near the surface and deeperliving chambers. Burrows are 145-540 m long and 0-9-3 m deep. Densities are 0-26—1 ind/ha in marginal conditions and 4 ind/ha in quality habitat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratis listed as rare with limited distribution (category 3) on the Red List of Kazakhstan. It is threatened by overgrazing and experiences declines in drought years.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.","habitat":"Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin. Distribution of the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is tied to presence ofits primary food source, Volga wild rye (Elymus giganteus, Poaceae)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"27.Anatolian Blind Mole-ratNannospalax xanthodonFrench:Spalax d’Anatolie/ German:Anatolien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de AnatoliaOther common names:Anatolian Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax typhlus xanthodon Nordmann, 1840,Smyrna, Turkey.Nannospalaxxanthodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. The name nehringiby K. A. Satunin in 1898 is frequently used to represent this species, but xanthodon used by A. von Nordmann in 1840 has priority. Nannospalaxxanthodon has been treated as a synonym of N. leucodon, and the two are clearly related, but both forms are themselves composed of multiple species, and recognition of two, if not more, species has been common since V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 characterized differences in their morphology. Like N. leucodon, N. xanthodon represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Topachevskii recognized two subspecies, nehringifrom eastern Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, and a western subspecies found in the rest of Asian Turkey, which he listed as cilicicus, but is probably more appropriately the nominate xanthodon. Recent studies have uncovered a number of karyotypes across the distribution of N. xanthodon, and some have argued that each of these warrant species or subspecies recognition, or at least recognition as evolutionary significant units. Genetic diversity among populations of N. xanthodon is higher than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, and Y. Hadid and colleagues in 2012 concluded that it is paraphyletic with respect to N. leucodon, although with weak support. Specifically, they found several populations with 2n = 60 or 62, including vasvariinamed byJ. Szunyoghy in 1941, as sister to a clade uniting N. leucodonwith the remaining populations of N. xanthodon. Populations with 2n = 60 or 62 are spread widely across central Turkey, and several older names are available for forms in this region, but blind mole-rats from at least part of this area will probably warrant recognition as a distinct species. In an RFLP study, T. Kankili¢ and C. Giirpinar in 2014 suggested that N. labaume: may be the appropriate name for this taxon. Their results also suggested the presence of a more westerly distributed N. xanthodon and an eastern N. nehringiwhose range essentially corresponds to Topachevskii’s definition of N. [x.] nehringi. In a study of bacular morphology, Kankili¢ and colleagues in 2014 further supported division ofthis species into three species: N. xanthodon, N. nehringi, and N. labaumei. Although geographical boundaries of these probable species are not fully defined and status of some older names such as cilicicus named by L. Méhely in 1909 are notclear, available evidence suggests that superspecies N. xanthodon probably warrants division into at least these three species. Monotypic.Distribution.Asian Turkey, SW Georgia, NW Armenia, extreme NW Iran, and several E Aegean Is (Lesbos in Greece and Bozcaada and Gokceada in Turkey).Descriptive notes.Head-body 143-248 mm, no visible external tail; weight 130-522 g. Male Anatolian Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is medium-sized, and on most of its body, individual hairs are slate-gray on most of the length, with terminal buff of gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown. Belly hairs are generally simply slate-gray but can range from almost black to whitish orsilver. Bristly keel of lighter yellowish hairs extends from large brownish triangular nose pad about halfway to ear openings. White hairs can line nose pad and lips, and white spots or streaks can be present elsewhere on head. Incisors are extrabuccal and can be white, yellow, or orange. Smaller upper incisors tend to be darker. Kankilic and colleagues in 2014 characterized differences in bacular morphologies across chromosomal races and probable species; mean lengths for individual cytotypes were 4-8-7-8 mm. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 25 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 36-62. Cytotypes do not appear to overlap geographically.Habitat.Mediterranean coastal environments, steppe, semi-deserts, and high-elevation pastures and meadows at elevations of 50-2900 m, most commonly 900-1600 m. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat avoids forest, rocky areas, and swamp and marsh habitat.Food and Feeding.The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on underground plant parts, particularly bulbs, but also roots and tubers. Geraniumtuberosum (Geraniaceae) has been reported as its most important food item. Individuals eat 22-2-59-4% of their body weight daily. Food is stored in cache chambers in burrows, and quantity varies by season with smallest caches in summer. Mean caches are 741-1556 g, but 10 kg of potatoes, beets, and carrots have been found in a single burrow. Anatolian Blind Mole-rats can damage agricultural crops, but they are not particularly successful in fields with intensive plowing.Breeding.Female Anatolian Blind Mole-rats have one litter annually. In Armenia, breeding starts in January, and pregnant females have been found until May. Scrotal males are most common in March-April but have been found year-round. In Turkey, reproduction occurs in January-June and peaks in February. Gestation is 26 days, and littersize is 1-6 young, usually 2-3 young. At birth, young are 50-60 mm long and weigh 9-9-5 g. They are weaned at weights of c¢.115 g and leave nests by summer. Breeding individuals have a minimum body mass of 147 g for males and 167 g for females.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of the Anatolian Blind Mole-rat include feeding tunnels, a nest chamber, food caches, and toilets. Feeding passages are 5-40 cm deep, and deeper passages are 80-150 cm. One or two nests are present; they are c.20 x 20 cm and are lined with dry plant material. Nests tend to be beneath largest mounds. Highest densities are 60 ind/ha. Predators include the little owl (Athene noctua), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the tawny owl (Strix aluco), and the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca). This species is solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax nehringi) because species boundaries are so poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Anatolian Blind Mole-ratis relatively common and known from multiple protected areas. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some chromosomal forms, for example, are extremely restricted in geographical distribution. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rate faces threats from large-scale agricultural practices, overgrazing, and habitat fragmentation.Bibliography.Bukhnikashvili et al. (2008), Hadid et al. (2012), Kankilic & Gurpinar (2014), Kankili¢, Kankilig, Seker & Kivang (2014), Kankilig, Kankilic, S6zen & Colak (2013), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2016), von Nordmann (1840), Ognev (1947), Satunin (1898), Szunyoghy (1941), Topachevskii (1969).","taxonomy":"Spalax typhlus xanthodon Nordmann, 1840,Smyrna, Turkey.Nannospalaxxanthodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. The name nehringiby K. A. Satunin in 1898 is frequently used to represent this species, but xanthodon used by A. von Nordmann in 1840 has priority. Nannospalaxxanthodon has been treated as a synonym of N. leucodon, and the two are clearly related, but both forms are themselves composed of multiple species, and recognition of two, if not more, species has been common since V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 characterized differences in their morphology. Like N. leucodon, N. xanthodon represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Topachevskii recognized two subspecies, nehringifrom eastern Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, and a western subspecies found in the rest of Asian Turkey, which he listed as cilicicus, but is probably more appropriately the nominate xanthodon. Recent studies have uncovered a number of karyotypes across the distribution of N. xanthodon, and some have argued that each of these warrant species or subspecies recognition, or at least recognition as evolutionary significant units. Genetic diversity among populations of N. xanthodon is higher than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, and Y. Hadid and colleagues in 2012 concluded that it is paraphyletic with respect to N. leucodon, although with weak support. Specifically, they found several populations with 2n = 60 or 62, including vasvariinamed byJ. Szunyoghy in 1941, as sister to a clade uniting N. leucodonwith the remaining populations of N. xanthodon. Populations with 2n = 60 or 62 are spread widely across central Turkey, and several older names are available for forms in this region, but blind mole-rats from at least part of this area will probably warrant recognition as a distinct species. In an RFLP study, T. Kankili¢ and C. Giirpinar in 2014 suggested that N. labaume: may be the appropriate name for this taxon. Their results also suggested the presence of a more westerly distributed N. xanthodon and an eastern N. nehringiwhose range essentially corresponds to Topachevskii’s definition of N. [x.] nehringi. In a study of bacular morphology, Kankili¢ and colleagues in 2014 further supported division ofthis species into three species: N. xanthodon, N. nehringi, and N. labaumei. Although geographical boundaries of these probable species are not fully defined and status of some older names such as cilicicus named by L. Méhely in 1909 are notclear, available evidence suggests that superspecies N. xanthodon probably warrants division into at least these three species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax d’Anatolie @fr | Anatolien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Anatolia @es | Anatolian Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Nordmann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1840","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Nannospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"xanthodon","name":"Nannospalax xanthodon","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Asian Turkey, SW Georgia, NW Armenia, extreme NW Iran, and several E Aegean Is (Lesbos in Greece and Bozcaada and Gokceada in Turkey).","bibliography":"Bukhnikashvili et al. (2008) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Kankilic & Gurpinar (2014) | Kankili¢, Kankilig, Seker & Kivang (2014) | Kankilig, Kankilic, S6zen & Colak (2013) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2016) | von Nordmann (1840) | Ognev (1947) | Satunin (1898) | Szunyoghy (1941) | Topachevskii (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on underground plant parts, particularly bulbs, but also roots and tubers. Geraniumtuberosum (Geraniaceae) has been reported as its most important food item. Individuals eat 22-2-59-4% of their body weight daily. Food is stored in cache chambers in burrows, and quantity varies by season with smallest caches in summer. Mean caches are 741-1556 g, but 10 kg of potatoes, beets, and carrots have been found in a single burrow. Anatolian Blind Mole-rats can damage agricultural crops, but they are not particularly successful in fields with intensive plowing.","breeding":"Female Anatolian Blind Mole-rats have one litter annually. In Armenia, breeding starts in January, and pregnant females have been found until May. Scrotal males are most common in March-April but have been found year-round. In Turkey, reproduction occurs in January-June and peaks in February. Gestation is 26 days, and littersize is 1-6 young, usually 2-3 young. At birth, young are 50-60 mm long and weigh 9-9-5 g. They are weaned at weights of c¢.115 g and leave nests by summer. Breeding individuals have a minimum body mass of 147 g for males and 167 g for females.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of the Anatolian Blind Mole-rat include feeding tunnels, a nest chamber, food caches, and toilets. Feeding passages are 5-40 cm deep, and deeper passages are 80-150 cm. One or two nests are present; they are c.20 x 20 cm and are lined with dry plant material. Nests tend to be beneath largest mounds. Highest densities are 60 ind/ha. Predators include the little owl (Athene noctua), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the tawny owl (Strix aluco), and the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca). This species is solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax nehringi) because species boundaries are so poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Anatolian Blind Mole-ratis relatively common and known from multiple protected areas. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some chromosomal forms, for example, are extremely restricted in geographical distribution. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rate faces threats from large-scale agricultural practices, overgrazing, and habitat fragmentation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 143-248 mm, no visible external tail; weight 130-522 g. Male Anatolian Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is medium-sized, and on most of its body, individual hairs are slate-gray on most of the length, with terminal buff of gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown. Belly hairs are generally simply slate-gray but can range from almost black to whitish orsilver. Bristly keel of lighter yellowish hairs extends from large brownish triangular nose pad about halfway to ear openings. White hairs can line nose pad and lips, and white spots or streaks can be present elsewhere on head. Incisors are extrabuccal and can be white, yellow, or orange. Smaller upper incisors tend to be darker. Kankilic and colleagues in 2014 characterized differences in bacular morphologies across chromosomal races and probable species; mean lengths for individual cytotypes were 4-8-7-8 mm. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 25 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 36-62. Cytotypes do not appear to overlap geographically.","habitat":"Mediterranean coastal environments, steppe, semi-deserts, and high-elevation pastures and meadows at elevations of 50-2900 m, most commonly 900-1600 m. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat avoids forest, rocky areas, and swamp and marsh habitat."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"8.Qinling ZokorEospalax rufescensFrench:Zokor roux/ German:Qin-Ling-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de QinlingTaxonomy.Myotalpa rufescens J. A. Allen, 1909,Taipai Shan, southern Shensi, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 reluctantly treated E. rufescensas synonymous with E. fontanieriicansusbased on limited and incomplete material. Fospalax rufescenshas been treated as conspecific with E. fontanieru, E. cansus, or E. bailey: (under the older name rufescens), but it had rarely been treated as a distinct species in its own right until recently. Various studies support distinctiveness of E. rufescensamong species of Fospalax based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. baileyr, but a sister relationship with E. cansushas also been suggested. Additional research is needed to assessits position within the genus Fospalax. Monotypic.Distribution.Qin Mts in S Gansu, S Shaanxi, and N Sichuan (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body c.186 mm, tail ¢.33 mm. No specific data available for body weight. The Qinling Zokoris dark gray to rufescent brown. Tail is brownish white and well-furred. Hindfeet are also well-furred. Nasals are long and slightly trapezoidal in shape, and incisive foramina extend well into maxilla. M? lacks a second re-entrant fold.Habitat.Grassy habitat and cropland at elevations above 2000 m in Qin Mountains.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Qinling Zokor prefers to construct burrows in soft soils with few rocks on sunny slopes with sparse shrubs.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as data deficient on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Qinling Zokor seems to benefit from an intermediate level of human disturbance such as cleared land near highways. It is an agricultural pest.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1940), Allen, J.A. (1909), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Lu Qingbin et al. (2011), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Zhou Caiguan & Zhou Kaiya (2008).","taxonomy":"Myotalpa rufescens J. A. Allen, 1909,Taipai Shan, southern Shensi, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 reluctantly treated E. rufescensas synonymous with E. fontanieriicansusbased on limited and incomplete material. Fospalax rufescenshas been treated as conspecific with E. fontanieru, E. cansus, or E. bailey: (under the older name rufescens), but it had rarely been treated as a distinct species in its own right until recently. Various studies support distinctiveness of E. rufescensamong species of Fospalax based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. baileyr, but a sister relationship with E. cansushas also been suggested. Additional research is needed to assessits position within the genus Fospalax. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor roux @fr | Qin-Ling-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Qinling @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufescens","name":"Eospalax rufescens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Qin Mts in S Gansu, S Shaanxi, and N Sichuan (C China).","bibliography":"Allen, G.M. (1940) | Allen, J.A. (1909) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Lu Qingbin et al. (2011) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Zhou Caiguan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Qinling Zokor prefers to construct burrows in soft soils with few rocks on sunny slopes with sparse shrubs.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as data deficient on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Qinling Zokor seems to benefit from an intermediate level of human disturbance such as cleared land near highways. It is an agricultural pest.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body c.186 mm, tail ¢.33 mm. No specific data available for body weight. The Qinling Zokoris dark gray to rufescent brown. Tail is brownish white and well-furred. Hindfeet are also well-furred. Nasals are long and slightly trapezoidal in shape, and incisive foramina extend well into maxilla. M? lacks a second re-entrant fold.","habitat":"Grassy habitat and cropland at elevations above 2000 m in Qin Mountains."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"7.Gansu ZokorEospalax cansusFrench:Zokor du Gansu/ German:Gansu-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de GansuTaxonomy.Myotalpa cansus Lyon, 1907,“ Taocheo[= Chaozhou], Kan-su, northwestern China.”Although O. Thomas and others had treated them as a separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusas a subspecies of Jfontaniern and treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontaniern in the literature pertain to the better-studied FE. cansus. In recent years, various studies have supported treating E. cansusas a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. baileyibased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. cansuswithin Eospalax, but it does not appear to be closely related to E. fontanierii. Three distinct mitochondrial clades of E. cansushave been identified that correspond to central Shaanxi; Ningxia and south-eastern Gansu; and eastern Qinghai and south-western Gansu. These appear to roughly correspond to groupings recovered based on morphometric analysis of Lu Qingbin and colleagues in 2013. Additional research is required to determine if E. cansuswarrants division into subspecies or even multiple species. Monotypic.Distribution.Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei (C & E China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 155-230 mm, tail 33-66 mm; weight 150-430 g. Male Gansu Zokors are larger than females, and populations at higher elevations tend to be larger. The Gansu Zokoris brownish, although slightly darker than Fontanier’s Zokor (E. fontanierii). Hairs are dark gray at bases. Unlike Fontanier’s Zokor, the Gansu Zokor usually lacks white blaze; when present, it is small. Tail and feet are sparsely haired. Immature individuals are gray. Median occipital crest is well-developed, and M? has two re-entrant folds.Habitat.Grassland, shrub-steppe, and forest at elevations of 1500-2500 m on the Loess Plateau. Burrows of Gansu Zokors have been excavated in areas with high concentrations of grasses, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae), and thyme (Thymus, Lamiaceae).Food and Feeding.Gansu Zokors eat underground plant matter.Breeding.Ganu Zokors breed primarily in April-July. As breeding approaches, males consume more food and increase digging activity, and their testes descend. When a captive male was placed in shared spaces with a female, the two initially acted aggressively, began to act more amicably, and finally mated. Courtship lasts ¢.25 days. Mating bouts appear to be most common in morning, last 10-30 minutes, and can continue for 8-10 days. Litter sizes are 1-5 young, usually 2-3 young.Activity patterns.When walking, claws of Gansu Zokors are folded undersoles offeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gansu Zokor lives almost entirely underground. Communication occurs seismically via call and head drumming; they squeal when frightened. Individuals clearly know status of neighboring individuals. If an individual is removed,its territory will be quickly occupied. This behavior appears to allow individuals to form overlappingburrow systems, allowing mates to find each other. Males have larger tunnel systems than females and are more aggressive. Predators include the Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii). Remains of the Gansu Zokor have also been found in owl pellets.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Gansu Zokor has a wide distribution and large population and is found in protected areas. Overgrazing is a common problem acrossits distribution, and research is needed to understand complex interactions among overgrazing, erosion, habitat restoration, and zokor activities. The Gansu Zokor is considered a pest because it is thought to exacerbate erosion and hinder forest restoration projects by feeding on seedlings. It is also an agricultural pest of several crops including soybeans.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Hongo et al. (1993), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Li Jingang, He Jianping & Wang Tingzheng (2001), Li Jingang, Wang Tingzheng & He Jianping (2001), Lu Qingbin et al. (2013), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Yang Chuanhua etal. (2012), Zhang Tongzuo et al. (2013), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008).","taxonomy":"Myotalpa cansus Lyon, 1907,“ Taocheo[= Chaozhou], Kan-su, northwestern China.”Although O. Thomas and others had treated them as a separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusas a subspecies of Jfontaniern and treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontaniern in the literature pertain to the better-studied FE. cansus. In recent years, various studies have supported treating E. cansusas a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. baileyibased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. cansuswithin Eospalax, but it does not appear to be closely related to E. fontanierii. Three distinct mitochondrial clades of E. cansushave been identified that correspond to central Shaanxi; Ningxia and south-eastern Gansu; and eastern Qinghai and south-western Gansu. These appear to roughly correspond to groupings recovered based on morphometric analysis of Lu Qingbin and colleagues in 2013. Additional research is required to determine if E. cansuswarrants division into subspecies or even multiple species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor du Gansu @fr | Gansu-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Gansu @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lyon","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cansus","name":"Eospalax cansus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei (C & E China).","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Hongo et al. (1993) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Li Jingang, He Jianping & Wang Tingzheng (2001) | Li Jingang, Wang Tingzheng & He Jianping (2001) | Lu Qingbin et al. (2013) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Yang Chuanhua etal. (2012) | Zhang Tongzuo et al. (2013) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Gansu Zokors eat underground plant matter.","breeding":"Ganu Zokors breed primarily in April-July. As breeding approaches, males consume more food and increase digging activity, and their testes descend. When a captive male was placed in shared spaces with a female, the two initially acted aggressively, began to act more amicably, and finally mated. Courtship lasts ¢.25 days. Mating bouts appear to be most common in morning, last 10-30 minutes, and can continue for 8-10 days. Litter sizes are 1-5 young, usually 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"When walking, claws of Gansu Zokors are folded undersoles offeet.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Gansu Zokor lives almost entirely underground. Communication occurs seismically via call and head drumming; they squeal when frightened. Individuals clearly know status of neighboring individuals. If an individual is removed,its territory will be quickly occupied. This behavior appears to allow individuals to form overlappingburrow systems, allowing mates to find each other. Males have larger tunnel systems than females and are more aggressive. Predators include the Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii). Remains of the Gansu Zokor have also been found in owl pellets.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Gansu Zokor has a wide distribution and large population and is found in protected areas. Overgrazing is a common problem acrossits distribution, and research is needed to understand complex interactions among overgrazing, erosion, habitat restoration, and zokor activities. The Gansu Zokor is considered a pest because it is thought to exacerbate erosion and hinder forest restoration projects by feeding on seedlings. It is also an agricultural pest of several crops including soybeans.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 155-230 mm, tail 33-66 mm; weight 150-430 g. Male Gansu Zokors are larger than females, and populations at higher elevations tend to be larger. The Gansu Zokoris brownish, although slightly darker than Fontanier’s Zokor (E. fontanierii). Hairs are dark gray at bases. Unlike Fontanier’s Zokor, the Gansu Zokor usually lacks white blaze; when present, it is small. Tail and feet are sparsely haired. Immature individuals are gray. Median occipital crest is well-developed, and M? has two re-entrant folds.","habitat":"Grassland, shrub-steppe, and forest at elevations of 1500-2500 m on the Loess Plateau. Burrows of Gansu Zokors have been excavated in areas with high concentrations of grasses, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae), and thyme (Thymus, Lamiaceae)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"9.Plateau ZokorEospalax baileyiFrench:Zokor des plateaux/ German:Qinghai-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de altiplanoTaxonomy.Myospalax baileyi Thomas, 1911,between Nagchuka(or Hokow) and Tatsienlu, Ramasong, W Szechwan, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated E. baileyias separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included it as a subspecies offontanieru. S. Y. Song in 1986 regarded baileyias a subspecies of rufescens. Many references to E. fontanieriiand E. rufescenspertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi. In recent years, various studies support treating E. bailey: as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. cansusbased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. rufescens. Four to six deeply divergent, geographically discrete, mitochondrial clades have been identified within E. baileyi, and these may show some overlap with the three morphological groups suggested by Tang Lizhou and colleagues in 2009. Additional research is required to determine if E. baileyiwarrants further division into multiple species or subspecies. Monotypic.Distribution.Qinghai, Gansu, and W Sichuan (China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-235 mm,tail 33-61 mm; weight 173-490 g. Male Plateau Zokorsare larger than females. They are pale rufous-brown with pinkish buff. Tail is short and densely furred with whitish hairs. Feet are also hairy. Young are gray. Incisive foramina is restricted to premaxilla.Habitat.Alpine meadows, steppe meadows, shrubs, and farmland. at elevations of 2800-4500 m on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Plateau Zokor prefers moist soil and degraded grassland and avoids desert, irrigated land, and boulder fields. Microclimate of its burrows allows for less extreme temperature swings and milder temperatures overall. While aboveground January temperatures may be —4 to —=38°C, burrows maintain a temperature of 0-5°C. Humidity is high (79-87-3%) in these burrows compared to dry external climate (31-7-53-3%). Nevertheless, microclimate in burrows presents challenges. Oxygen levels are low (17-18:4% in burrow compared to 20-4% externally), and carbon dioxide levels are extremely high (0-22-1-5% in burrow compared to 0-03% outside). The Plateau Zokoris a subterranean and a high-elevation species, and it has substantially elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentration; it is extremely efficient at delivering oxygen to tissue. Oxygen pressure in arterial blood of the Plateau Zokoris 1-5 times higher than laboratory rats, and oxygen pressure in venous blood is 0-26 times that of lab rats.Food and Feeding.Plateau Zokors feed on roots and shoots of forbs, grasses, and some shrubs. They prefer taproots and storage organs of plants such as Notopterygium forbesii (Apiaceae), Potentillaanserina (Rosaceae), Morina chinensis(Caprifoliaceae), and dandelions (Taraxacum, Asteraceae). Plants are accessed from feeding tunnels belowground. The Plateau Zokor will grab roots and pull the entire plant down into the tunnel system where it is consumed. All zokors have an adaptation in the thumb claw where it is shortened and wears away leaving a central gap. Under laboratory conditions, the Plateau Zokor uses this thumb claw to clean off taproots such as dandelions. The root is then held in both hands, resting in these thumb gaps,as it is consumed.Breeding.Male and female Plateau Zokors never share a burrow. Mating occursat the intersection of burrows of neighboring males and females. During the mating period, males will dig multiple long tunnels, presumably in hopes of entering female territories. Males and females mate with multiple partners during a single mating period. Females give birth once a year, usually in April-May. Litter sizes are about three young (1-5), and lactation lasts c.50 days.Activity patterns.Plateau Zokors live mostly belowground. They are active year-round but have higher activity levels in spring and autumn and lowest in winter. The Plateau Zokorsleeps very deeply and can be handled or subjected to loud noises without waking up.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Plateau Zokors are complex, with tunnel systems reaching ¢.100 m in length and depths of 0-8-1-5 m for males and 2-2-5 m for females. Burrow systems contain transportation and foraging tunnels, 1-2 nest chambers, food stores, and dead end tunnels. Soil is brought to the surface when digging, and their presence is evident by presence of mounds that can take up 15-20% of the surface above the burrow system. Dispersal is probably aboveground and male-biased, but this has not been observed directly. They are solitary and intolerant of one another, becoming aggressive when encountering others. Densities are 5-70 ind/ha and average 15 ind/ha. Predators include the Tibetan Fox (Vulpesferrilata), the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmannii), the Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bietr), Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul), the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), the upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) and the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) occasionally eat Plateau Zokors.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List whereit is treated as a distinct species. The Plateau Zokor has a wide distribution and large population. An annual eradication program was implemented in the 1990s, which reduced population size to less than one-third of its formersize. Livestock grazing appears to increase prevalence of Plateau Zokors because it leads to an increase in the types of plants with taproots they prefer. This increase in zokors may in turn further accelerate landscape deterioration, but the system is complex, and researchers debate positive and negative impacts. The Plateau Zokor is considered an ecosystem engineer. A single individual transfers more than 1000 kg of soil to the surface annually. Its burrowing activities mix and aerate soil, increase environmental heterogeneity, enhance infiltration of water into the soil, and thereby curtail erosion. These activities also lessen uptake of greenhouse gases and appear to facilitate spread of invasive plant species. Abandoned burrows are used as shelters by a variety of small mammals (such as the Root Vole, Microtusoeconomus, and Gansu Pika, Ochotona cansus), birds (such as the ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis, the black-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla adamsi, and several species of ground-sparrows such as Pyrgilauda blanfordi, P. davidiana, P. ruficollis, and P. taczanowski), amphibians and reptiles. Dried bone of Plateau Zokor, known as “Sailonggu,” is used in traditional Tibetan medicine as a treatment for inflammation. It is used as a medicinal replacement for Tiger (Panthera tigris) bone, which serves a similar function.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Li Wenjing et al. (2009), Lin Gonghua, Li Wenjing et al. (2011), Lin Gonghua, Zhao Fang et al. (2014), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Tang Lizhou, Wang Liuyang et al. (2010), Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo, Lin Gonhua & Su Jianping (2010), Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo & Su Jianping (2009), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wei Dengbang et al. (2006), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Yang Chuanhua et al. (2012), Zhang Weiet al. (2014), Zhang Yanming (2007a, 2007b), Zeng Jinxiang et al. (1984), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008), Zhou Caiquan et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Myospalax baileyi Thomas, 1911,between Nagchuka(or Hokow) and Tatsienlu, Ramasong, W Szechwan, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated E. baileyias separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included it as a subspecies offontanieru. S. Y. Song in 1986 regarded baileyias a subspecies of rufescens. Many references to E. fontanieriiand E. rufescenspertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi. In recent years, various studies support treating E. bailey: as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. cansusbased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. rufescens. Four to six deeply divergent, geographically discrete, mitochondrial clades have been identified within E. baileyi, and these may show some overlap with the three morphological groups suggested by Tang Lizhou and colleagues in 2009. Additional research is required to determine if E. baileyiwarrants further division into multiple species or subspecies. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor des plateaux @fr | Qinghai-Blindmull @de | Zocor de altiplano @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"baileyi","name":"Eospalax baileyi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Qinghai, Gansu, and W Sichuan (China).","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Li Wenjing et al. (2009) | Lin Gonghua, Li Wenjing et al. (2011) | Lin Gonghua, Zhao Fang et al. (2014) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Tang Lizhou, Wang Liuyang et al. (2010) | Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo, Lin Gonhua & Su Jianping (2010) | Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo & Su Jianping (2009) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wei Dengbang et al. (2006) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Yang Chuanhua et al. (2012) | Zhang Weiet al. (2014) | Zhang Yanming (2007a, 2007b) | Zeng Jinxiang et al. (1984) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008) | Zhou Caiquan et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Plateau Zokors feed on roots and shoots of forbs, grasses, and some shrubs. They prefer taproots and storage organs of plants such as Notopterygium forbesii (Apiaceae), Potentillaanserina (Rosaceae), Morina chinensis(Caprifoliaceae), and dandelions (Taraxacum, Asteraceae). Plants are accessed from feeding tunnels belowground. The Plateau Zokor will grab roots and pull the entire plant down into the tunnel system where it is consumed. All zokors have an adaptation in the thumb claw where it is shortened and wears away leaving a central gap. Under laboratory conditions, the Plateau Zokor uses this thumb claw to clean off taproots such as dandelions. The root is then held in both hands, resting in these thumb gaps,as it is consumed.","breeding":"Male and female Plateau Zokors never share a burrow. Mating occursat the intersection of burrows of neighboring males and females. During the mating period, males will dig multiple long tunnels, presumably in hopes of entering female territories. Males and females mate with multiple partners during a single mating period. Females give birth once a year, usually in April-May. Litter sizes are about three young (1-5), and lactation lasts c.50 days.","activityPatterns":"Plateau Zokors live mostly belowground. They are active year-round but have higher activity levels in spring and autumn and lowest in winter. The Plateau Zokorsleeps very deeply and can be handled or subjected to loud noises without waking up.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Plateau Zokors are complex, with tunnel systems reaching ¢.100 m in length and depths of 0-8-1-5 m for males and 2-2-5 m for females. Burrow systems contain transportation and foraging tunnels, 1-2 nest chambers, food stores, and dead end tunnels. Soil is brought to the surface when digging, and their presence is evident by presence of mounds that can take up 15-20% of the surface above the burrow system. Dispersal is probably aboveground and male-biased, but this has not been observed directly. They are solitary and intolerant of one another, becoming aggressive when encountering others. Densities are 5-70 ind/ha and average 15 ind/ha. Predators include the Tibetan Fox (Vulpesferrilata), the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmannii), the Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bietr), Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul), the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), the upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) and the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) occasionally eat Plateau Zokors.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List whereit is treated as a distinct species. The Plateau Zokor has a wide distribution and large population. An annual eradication program was implemented in the 1990s, which reduced population size to less than one-third of its formersize. Livestock grazing appears to increase prevalence of Plateau Zokors because it leads to an increase in the types of plants with taproots they prefer. This increase in zokors may in turn further accelerate landscape deterioration, but the system is complex, and researchers debate positive and negative impacts. The Plateau Zokor is considered an ecosystem engineer. A single individual transfers more than 1000 kg of soil to the surface annually. Its burrowing activities mix and aerate soil, increase environmental heterogeneity, enhance infiltration of water into the soil, and thereby curtail erosion. These activities also lessen uptake of greenhouse gases and appear to facilitate spread of invasive plant species. Abandoned burrows are used as shelters by a variety of small mammals (such as the Root Vole, Microtusoeconomus, and Gansu Pika, Ochotona cansus), birds (such as the ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis, the black-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla adamsi, and several species of ground-sparrows such as Pyrgilauda blanfordi, P. davidiana, P. ruficollis, and P. taczanowski), amphibians and reptiles. Dried bone of Plateau Zokor, known as “Sailonggu,” is used in traditional Tibetan medicine as a treatment for inflammation. It is used as a medicinal replacement for Tiger (Panthera tigris) bone, which serves a similar function.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 160-235 mm,tail 33-61 mm; weight 173-490 g. Male Plateau Zokorsare larger than females. They are pale rufous-brown with pinkish buff. Tail is short and densely furred with whitish hairs. Feet are also hairy. Young are gray. Incisive foramina is restricted to premaxilla.","habitat":"Alpine meadows, steppe meadows, shrubs, and farmland. at elevations of 2800-4500 m on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Plateau Zokor prefers moist soil and degraded grassland and avoids desert, irrigated land, and boulder fields. Microclimate of its burrows allows for less extreme temperature swings and milder temperatures overall. While aboveground January temperatures may be —4 to —=38°C, burrows maintain a temperature of 0-5°C. Humidity is high (79-87-3%) in these burrows compared to dry external climate (31-7-53-3%). Nevertheless, microclimate in burrows presents challenges. Oxygen levels are low (17-18:4% in burrow compared to 20-4% externally), and carbon dioxide levels are extremely high (0-22-1-5% in burrow compared to 0-03% outside). The Plateau Zokoris a subterranean and a high-elevation species, and it has substantially elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentration; it is extremely efficient at delivering oxygen to tissue. Oxygen pressure in arterial blood of the Plateau Zokoris 1-5 times higher than laboratory rats, and oxygen pressure in venous blood is 0-26 times that of lab rats."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"11.Smith’s ZokorEospalax smithiiFrench:Zokor de Smith/ German:Smith-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de SmithTaxonomy.Myospalax smithii Thomas, 1911,30 mi(48 km) SE of Tao-chou, Gansu, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 suggested that E. smith#2 may be a hybrid between E. rothschildix E. cansus, but subsequent authorities have not adopted this position. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. rothschildi. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. rufescensor E. baileyi. Monotypic.Distribution.Gansu, Ningxia, N Sichuan, and W Shaanxi (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 162-255 mm,tail 34-39 mm; weight 180-460 g. Smith's Zokor has dark brown dorsal pelage, with slight cinnamon colored tips. Back of head is dark gray to velvety black, area around ears is dark brown, and vibrissae are black and white. White forehead blaze is present in some individuals. Venter is grayish brown, also mixed with cinnamon. Immature individuals are bluish gray, with sooty gray head. Temporal ridges are more pronounced, and auditory bullae are more flattened compared with other species of zokors.Habitat.Steppe, open fields, grassland, and cropland at elevations above 2000 m.Food and Feeding.Smith’s Zokor eats primarily grasses.Breeding.Breeding of Smith’s Zokor peaks in June-July, and offspring are born in May-September. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be as high as eight young. Females produce two litters annually.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Zokors construct complex burrows in soft wetsoils.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and as near threatened on the 2016 China Red List. Smith’s Zokor reportedly has a wide distribution and large population, does not face major threats, and is found in one or more protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya etal. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith (2008), Smith & Johnston (2008c), Su Junhu et al. (2014).","taxonomy":"Myospalax smithii Thomas, 1911,30 mi(48 km) SE of Tao-chou, Gansu, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 suggested that E. smith#2 may be a hybrid between E. rothschildix E. cansus, but subsequent authorities have not adopted this position. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. rothschildi. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. rufescensor E. baileyi. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor de Smith @fr | Smith-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Smith @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"smithii","name":"Eospalax smithii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Gansu, Ningxia, N Sichuan, and W Shaanxi (C China).","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya etal. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith (2008) | Smith & Johnston (2008c) | Su Junhu et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"Smith’s Zokor eats primarily grasses.","breeding":"Breeding of Smith’s Zokor peaks in June-July, and offspring are born in May-September. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be as high as eight young. Females produce two litters annually.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Smith’s Zokors construct complex burrows in soft wetsoils.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and as near threatened on the 2016 China Red List. Smith’s Zokor reportedly has a wide distribution and large population, does not face major threats, and is found in one or more protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 162-255 mm,tail 34-39 mm; weight 180-460 g. Smith's Zokor has dark brown dorsal pelage, with slight cinnamon colored tips. Back of head is dark gray to velvety black, area around ears is dark brown, and vibrissae are black and white. White forehead blaze is present in some individuals. Venter is grayish brown, also mixed with cinnamon. Immature individuals are bluish gray, with sooty gray head. Temporal ridges are more pronounced, and auditory bullae are more flattened compared with other species of zokors.","habitat":"Steppe, open fields, grassland, and cropland at elevations above 2000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"10.Rothschild’s ZokorEospalax rothschildiFrench:Zokor de Rothschild/ German:Rothschild-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de RothschildTaxonomy.Myospalax rothschildi Thomas, 1911,40 miles(64 km) SE Taochow, Kansu, China.Eospalax rothschildihas been synonymized with E. fontanieriiby some authorities, butitis generally regarded as a distinct species. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. smithii. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. rothschildiwithin Eospalax, but it does not appearto be closely related to E. fontanierii. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.rothschildiThomas,1911—SGansu,SShaanxi,andNSichuan(CChina).E. r. hubeinensis Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan, 1989— SE Shaanxi, W Henan, and W Hubei (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 149-172 mm,tail 29-37 mm; weight 160-440 g. Male Rothschild’s Zokors can be slightly larger than females. They are small and grayish brown, with red-tipped fur. White blaze is present on forehead of some but not all individuals. Venter is light grayish brown. Tail is hairy and bicolored, grayish yellow above and white below. Backs of feet are well-furred, with light colored hairs. They are distinguished from other species of Eospalaxby smaller size, more slender claws, and smaller molars. Diploid numberis 2n = 58.Habitat.Forest, scrub, grassland, and cropland at elevations of 1000-3000 m.Food and Feeding.Rothschilds Zokor feeds on a wide variety of grasses and roots and can be a crop pest.Breeding.Rothschild’s Zokor breeds in spring, beginning in April. Females give birth to onelitter of 1-5 young/year.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Rothschild’s Zokors are known to construct complex burrows in soft soils.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Rothschild’s Zokor has a wide distribution and large population, and it is found in protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith (2008b), Smith & Johnston (2008b), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008).","taxonomy":"Myospalax rothschildi Thomas, 1911,40 miles(64 km) SE Taochow, Kansu, China.Eospalax rothschildihas been synonymized with E. fontanieriiby some authorities, butitis generally regarded as a distinct species. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. smithii. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. rothschildiwithin Eospalax, but it does not appearto be closely related to E. fontanierii. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Zokor de Rothschild @fr | Rothschild-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Rothschild @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rothschildi","name":"Eospalax rothschildi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.r.rothschildiThomas,1911—SGansu,SShaanxi,andNSichuan(CChina).E. r. hubeinensis Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan, 1989— SE Shaanxi, W Henan, and W Hubei (C China).","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith (2008b) | Smith & Johnston (2008b) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Rothschilds Zokor feeds on a wide variety of grasses and roots and can be a crop pest.","breeding":"Rothschild’s Zokor breeds in spring, beginning in April. Females give birth to onelitter of 1-5 young/year.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Rothschild’s Zokors are known to construct complex burrows in soft soils.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Rothschild’s Zokor has a wide distribution and large population, and it is found in protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 149-172 mm,tail 29-37 mm; weight 160-440 g. Male Rothschild’s Zokors can be slightly larger than females. They are small and grayish brown, with red-tipped fur. White blaze is present on forehead of some but not all individuals. Venter is light grayish brown. Tail is hairy and bicolored, grayish yellow above and white below. Backs of feet are well-furred, with light colored hairs. They are distinguished from other species of Eospalaxby smaller size, more slender claws, and smaller molars. Diploid numberis 2n = 58.","habitat":"Forest, scrub, grassland, and cropland at elevations of 1000-3000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"12.Chinese Bamboo RatRhizomys sinensisFrench:Rhizomys de Chine/ German:China-Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu de ChinaTaxonomy.Rhizomys sinensis Gray, 1831,near Canton, Guangdong, China.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Wang Yingxiang in 2003 treated ward: as a distinct species and named neowardi as a new subspecies of wardi. Subspecies vestitusis also sometimes treated as a distinct species. These approaches were not adopted by A. T. Smith in 2008, but presence of multiple species within what is currently recognized as R. sinensisseemslikely. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.s.sinensisGray,1831—SEYunnan,Guangxi,andGuangdong(SChina).R.s.davidiThomas,1911—SChongqing,SHubei,Anhui,Zhejiang,SGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,andNEGuangdong(C&SEChina).R.s.pediculusWangYingxiang,2003—WYunnan(SWChina).R.s.reductusDaoVanTien&CaoVanSung,1990—NVietnam.R.s.vestitusMilne-Edwards,1871—SGansu,SShaanxi,Sichuan,NChongqing,andNHubei(CChina).R. s. wardi Thomas, 1921— NW Yunnan (SW China) and N Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Head—body 216-450 mm,tail 50-96 mm; weight 1-9 kg. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is brownish gray or pinkish gray above, with darker forehead and sides of face. Dorsal pelage is soft, and venter is more sparsely haired. Throatis lighter than rest of venter. Upper incisors are extrabuccal and orange, and they rise perpendicularly from maxilla and then curve slightly inward toward tips. They are not proodont. Single thin sagittal crest is present. There are eight nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal.Habitat.Usually bamboo thickets but also pine forests at elevations of 1219-3962 m.Food and Feeding.Bamboo roots and shoots are primary foods of Chinese Bamboo Rats, but they also reportedly eat grass seeds and crops. They usually feed at night on the surface.Breeding.Reproduction of the Chinese Bamboo Rat peaks in spring but can occur year-round. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be up to eight. Young are naked and weaned after c.3 months.Activity patterns.Chinese Bamboo Rats appear to leave their burrows to feed on nearby bamboo plants, primarily at night, but they are occasionally active in daytime. This dual subterranean and aboveground life is reflected in morphology of middle and inner ears that have adaptations found in subterranean and terrestrial mammals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Chinese Bamboo Rats are up to 45 m long and extend up to 20-30 cm below the surface. Burrows have 4-7 external entrances indicated by mounds 50-80 cm in diameter and 20-40 cm high. Den chamber of 20-25 cm is present. Burrows are abandoned after a year as an individual uses up food resources in the area. Predators include the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), the Leopard (P. pardus), and occasionally the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The Chinese Bamboo Rat might fiercely defend itself with its powerful incisors when cornered.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Subspecies vestitusis assessed separately as data deficient on the China Red List. It is a crop pest and can be found in agricultural areas. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and is hunted for food.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lunde, Aplin & Musser (2008), Plestilovéa et al. (2016), Smith (2008), Wang Yingxiang (2003).","taxonomy":"Rhizomys sinensis Gray, 1831,near Canton, Guangdong, China.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Wang Yingxiang in 2003 treated ward: as a distinct species and named neowardi as a new subspecies of wardi. Subspecies vestitusis also sometimes treated as a distinct species. These approaches were not adopted by A. T. Smith in 2008, but presence of multiple species within what is currently recognized as R. sinensisseemslikely. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rhizomys de Chine @fr | China-Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu de China @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1831","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Rhizomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sinensis","name":"Rhizomys sinensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.s.sinensisGray,1831—SEYunnan,Guangxi,andGuangdong(SChina).R.s.davidiThomas,1911—SChongqing,SHubei,Anhui,Zhejiang,SGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,andNEGuangdong(C&SEChina).R.s.pediculusWangYingxiang,2003—WYunnan(SWChina).R.s.reductusDaoVanTien&CaoVanSung,1990—NVietnam.R.s.vestitusMilne-Edwards,1871—SGansu,SShaanxi,Sichuan,NChongqing,andNHubei(CChina).R. s. wardi Thomas, 1921— NW Yunnan (SW China) and N Myanmar.","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lunde, Aplin & Musser (2008) | Plestilovéa et al. (2016) | Smith (2008) | Wang Yingxiang (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"Bamboo roots and shoots are primary foods of Chinese Bamboo Rats, but they also reportedly eat grass seeds and crops. They usually feed at night on the surface.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Chinese Bamboo Rat peaks in spring but can occur year-round. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be up to eight. Young are naked and weaned after c.3 months.","activityPatterns":"Chinese Bamboo Rats appear to leave their burrows to feed on nearby bamboo plants, primarily at night, but they are occasionally active in daytime. This dual subterranean and aboveground life is reflected in morphology of middle and inner ears that have adaptations found in subterranean and terrestrial mammals.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Chinese Bamboo Rats are up to 45 m long and extend up to 20-30 cm below the surface. Burrows have 4-7 external entrances indicated by mounds 50-80 cm in diameter and 20-40 cm high. Den chamber of 20-25 cm is present. Burrows are abandoned after a year as an individual uses up food resources in the area. Predators include the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), the Leopard (P. pardus), and occasionally the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The Chinese Bamboo Rat might fiercely defend itself with its powerful incisors when cornered.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Subspecies vestitusis assessed separately as data deficient on the China Red List. It is a crop pest and can be found in agricultural areas. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and is hunted for food.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 216-450 mm,tail 50-96 mm; weight 1-9 kg. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is brownish gray or pinkish gray above, with darker forehead and sides of face. Dorsal pelage is soft, and venter is more sparsely haired. Throatis lighter than rest of venter. Upper incisors are extrabuccal and orange, and they rise perpendicularly from maxilla and then curve slightly inward toward tips. They are not proodont. Single thin sagittal crest is present. There are eight nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal.","habitat":"Usually bamboo thickets but also pine forests at elevations of 1219-3962 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"135","verbatimText":"13.Hoary Bamboo RatRhizomys pruinosusFrench:Rhizomys grisonnant/ German:Graue Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu canosaTaxonomy.Rhizomys pruinosus Blyth, 1851,Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, India.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.p.pruinosusBlyth,1851—Meghalaya,SAssam,extremeNEArunachalPradesh,Nagaland,Manipur,NTripura,andNMizoram(NEIndia),NWMyanmar,andWYunnan(SWChina).R.p.latoucheiThomas,1915—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver,includingGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,Guangxi,andGuangdong.R.p.pannosusThomas,1915—EMyanmar,Thailand,Laos,SCambodia,andVietnam.R.p.senexThomas,1915—NEMyanmarandSYunnan(SWChina).R. p. umbriceps Thomas, 1916— N Malay Peninsula S to Perak (N Malaysia). Also present in NW India (Himachal Pradesh), but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head-body 240-350 mm, tail 90-130 mm; weight 1.5-2.5 kg. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is grayish brown to chocolate-brown, with lighter venter. Intermittent long white-tipped guard hairs give grizzled appearance. Pelage is dense and soft. White-tipped hairs and dense pelage are less pronounced in the southern part of its distribution. Almost hairless tail is longer relative to head-body length than on the Chinese Bamboo Rat (R. sinensis). Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont; molars are orange. Rostrum is narrower than in the Chinese Bamboo Rat, and sagittal crest is lyre-shaped. There are 8-10 nipples: 1 or 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Minute, presumably non-functional, pair of pectoral nipples is present on some individuals. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.Habitat.Bamboo thickets, bamboo hillsides and montane forest, tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, grassland mixed with secondary forest, shrub forest, and, with less frequency, pine and fir forests. The Hoary Bamboo Ratis not common in agricultural areas or mature forest. In the northern parts of its distribution, it is found in bamboo thickets or beardgrass (Polypogon, Poaceae) at elevations of less than 1000 m in China and less than 1500 m in north-eastern India, especially where it overlaps with the Chinese Bamboo Rat, which lives at higher elevations. In the southern part ofits distribution, the Hoary Bamboo Rat is found at a broader range of elevations of 100-4000 m. In China, individuals appear to move among habitats seasonally, preferring large bamboo groves, secondary forest, and shrub forest in spring and summer and sparsely forested regions with silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis, Poaceae) or forked ferns (Dicranopteris, Gleicheniaceae) in autumn and winter.Food and Feeding.Hoary Bamboo Rats feed on roots and shoots of bamboo, beardgrass,silvergrass, and occasionally other plant types. Individuals generally feed on plants within 5-10 m from their burrow entrance. Food may be eaten outside the burrow or dragged back into the burrow. Stalks are held in place by front paws, while outer layers are stripped by incisors. Food is consumed in a manner where upper incisors are held motionless, lower incisors plane the object, and food is chewed by molars. Small uneaten nubs remain after feeding. Captive individuals manually remove cylindrical fecal pellets using incisors and toss them into dung piles. Presumably similar behavior occurs in the wild either in a toilet chamber, or fecal pellets are brought to the toilet.Breeding.A female Hoary Bamboo Rat in estrus does not seal her burrow entrance, and a male moves in to breed. Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in November— December and March—June. Females line nest chambers with dry grass. After gestation of 22 days, a female gives birth to a litter of 1-5 young. Young are born naked and weigh 35-40 g at birth. Eyes open after 28-30 days, and offspring grow a coat ofjet black fur. Weaning takes place 56-78 days later, and females appear to reach sexual maturity at c.160 days.Activity patterns.The Hoary Bamboo Rat exits its burrow at night to feed on the surface. It appears to be less aggressive than the Chinese Bamboo Rat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Hoary Bamboo Rats are relatively simple, containing a single entrance (rarely 2—4 entrances), characterized by a mound of dirt. A 1-2 m long tunnel connects the entrance to the nest chamber, which is 12 x 32 cm and often contains a store of food. A toilet chamberis located 20-40 cm from the nest chamber and a bolt-hole is present. Burrows are temporary; females with young may extend their time in a single burrow to just over a month. Burrows are primarily excavated with incisors; feet are used to push loosened dirt behind. The individual will then turn and push accumulated soil out of the entrance. Hoary Bamboo Rats are solitary except for breeding when males move into females’ burrows. Same-sex adult individuals are never found in the same burrow. Males forced to cohabit in artificial settings will fight and even kill each other. Conspecifics are attacked with bites to head, neck, and cheeks; wild males have been observed with scars in these areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas. It is hunted for food and faces habitat loss in parts of its distribution, particularly in western areas. Populations in India appear to be declining and warrant protection.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Allen (1940), Aplin, Lunde & Molur (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Molur et al. (2005), Smith (2008), Tanomtong et al. (2013), Xu Longhui (1984).","taxonomy":"Rhizomys pruinosus Blyth, 1851,Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, India.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rhizomys grisonnant @fr | Graue Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu canosa @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blyth","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1851","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Rhizomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"135","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pruinosus","name":"Rhizomys pruinosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.p.pruinosusBlyth,1851—Meghalaya,SAssam,extremeNEArunachalPradesh,Nagaland,Manipur,NTripura,andNMizoram(NEIndia),NWMyanmar,andWYunnan(SWChina).R.p.latoucheiThomas,1915—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver,includingGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,Guangxi,andGuangdong.R.p.pannosusThomas,1915—EMyanmar,Thailand,Laos,SCambodia,andVietnam.R.p.senexThomas,1915—NEMyanmarandSYunnan(SWChina).R. p. umbriceps Thomas, 1916— N Malay Peninsula S to Perak (N Malaysia). Also present in NW India (Himachal Pradesh), but subspecies involved not known.","bibliography":"Agrawal (2000) | Allen (1940) | Aplin, Lunde & Molur (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Molur et al. (2005) | Smith (2008) | Tanomtong et al. (2013) | Xu Longhui (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"Hoary Bamboo Rats feed on roots and shoots of bamboo, beardgrass,silvergrass, and occasionally other plant types. Individuals generally feed on plants within 5-10 m from their burrow entrance. Food may be eaten outside the burrow or dragged back into the burrow. Stalks are held in place by front paws, while outer layers are stripped by incisors. Food is consumed in a manner where upper incisors are held motionless, lower incisors plane the object, and food is chewed by molars. Small uneaten nubs remain after feeding. Captive individuals manually remove cylindrical fecal pellets using incisors and toss them into dung piles. Presumably similar behavior occurs in the wild either in a toilet chamber, or fecal pellets are brought to the toilet.","breeding":"A female Hoary Bamboo Rat in estrus does not seal her burrow entrance, and a male moves in to breed. Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in November— December and March—June. Females line nest chambers with dry grass. After gestation of 22 days, a female gives birth to a litter of 1-5 young. Young are born naked and weigh 35-40 g at birth. Eyes open after 28-30 days, and offspring grow a coat ofjet black fur. Weaning takes place 56-78 days later, and females appear to reach sexual maturity at c.160 days.","activityPatterns":"The Hoary Bamboo Rat exits its burrow at night to feed on the surface. It appears to be less aggressive than the Chinese Bamboo Rat.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Hoary Bamboo Rats are relatively simple, containing a single entrance (rarely 2—4 entrances), characterized by a mound of dirt. A 1-2 m long tunnel connects the entrance to the nest chamber, which is 12 x 32 cm and often contains a store of food. A toilet chamberis located 20-40 cm from the nest chamber and a bolt-hole is present. Burrows are temporary; females with young may extend their time in a single burrow to just over a month. Burrows are primarily excavated with incisors; feet are used to push loosened dirt behind. The individual will then turn and push accumulated soil out of the entrance. Hoary Bamboo Rats are solitary except for breeding when males move into females’ burrows. Same-sex adult individuals are never found in the same burrow. Males forced to cohabit in artificial settings will fight and even kill each other. Conspecifics are attacked with bites to head, neck, and cheeks; wild males have been observed with scars in these areas.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas. It is hunted for food and faces habitat loss in parts of its distribution, particularly in western areas. Populations in India appear to be declining and warrant protection.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 240-350 mm, tail 90-130 mm; weight 1.5-2.5 kg. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is grayish brown to chocolate-brown, with lighter venter. Intermittent long white-tipped guard hairs give grizzled appearance. Pelage is dense and soft. White-tipped hairs and dense pelage are less pronounced in the southern part of its distribution. Almost hairless tail is longer relative to head-body length than on the Chinese Bamboo Rat (R. sinensis). Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont; molars are orange. Rostrum is narrower than in the Chinese Bamboo Rat, and sagittal crest is lyre-shaped. There are 8-10 nipples: 1 or 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Minute, presumably non-functional, pair of pectoral nipples is present on some individuals. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.","habitat":"Bamboo thickets, bamboo hillsides and montane forest, tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, grassland mixed with secondary forest, shrub forest, and, with less frequency, pine and fir forests. The Hoary Bamboo Ratis not common in agricultural areas or mature forest. In the northern parts of its distribution, it is found in bamboo thickets or beardgrass (Polypogon, Poaceae) at elevations of less than 1000 m in China and less than 1500 m in north-eastern India, especially where it overlaps with the Chinese Bamboo Rat, which lives at higher elevations. In the southern part ofits distribution, the Hoary Bamboo Rat is found at a broader range of elevations of 100-4000 m. In China, individuals appear to move among habitats seasonally, preferring large bamboo groves, secondary forest, and shrub forest in spring and summer and sparsely forested regions with silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis, Poaceae) or forked ferns (Dicranopteris, Gleicheniaceae) in autumn and winter."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"136","verbatimText":"15.Lesser Bamboo RatCannomys badiusFrench:Cannomys/ German:Kleine Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu pequenaOther common names:Bay Bamboo RatTaxonomy.Rhizomys badius Hodgson, 1841,Nepal.It is the only species in the genus Cannomys, which is sister to Rhizomys. J. R. Ellerman in 1961 recognized castaneusnamed by E. Blyth in 1843, paternamed by O. Thomas in 1915, and plumbescens named by Thomas in 1915 as distinct subspecies on the basis of differences in head— body length and cranial measurements. V. C. Agrawal in 2000 did not recover evidence to support these differences and suggested that they be synonymized. Nevertheless, it seems likely that C. badiuswill be split into multiple subspecies, or even species, by future studies. Cannomyshas no fossil record. Monotypic.Distribution.E Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram (NE India), Bhutan, SE Bangladesh, Myanmar, SW Yunnan (SW China), N Laos, NW Vietnam, Thailand, and N Cambodia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 147-265 mm,tail 47-96 mm; weight 210-800 g. The Lesser Bamboo Rat ranges from reddish cinnamon, red-brown to chestnut-brown, ashy gray, to purple-black. Venter is lighter. One or more white blazes can occur on top of head, and narrow white band can be present on chin. Eyes and ear pinnae are small, body is stocky, and legs are short. Tail is sparsely haired. Forelimbs are equipped with long, powerful claws. Incisors are red to yellow. The Lesser Bamboo Rat differs from species of Rhizomysin having much smaller body size, smooth instead of granular footpads, more protruding incisors, longer rostrum,larger auditory bullae, longer and more prominent sagittal crest, and the first molar largest and third molar smallest. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. A. Tanomtong and colleagues in 2011 demonstrated diploid number of 2n = 50, but other sources report 2n = 60.Habitat.Most strongly associated with bamboo thickets. The Lesser Bamboo Rat also occurs in grassy areas, montane forests, brush, and gardens, butit is absent in rice paddies. It has been observed from sea level to elevations of 4000 m.Food and Feeding.The Lesser Bamboo Rat feeds on shoots, roots, and leaves from a variety of plants. It prefers young plants and shoots, particularly bamboo and cereals.Breeding.One to five naked Lesser Bamboo Rats are born per litter after gestation of 40-43 days. Young are weaned after ¢.8 weeks and are sexually mature after c.1 year.Activity patterns.The Lesser Bamboo Rat is nocturnal and leaves its burrow to feed. It moves slowly aboveground.It is primarily a chisel-tooth digger but also uses its front claws.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Lesser Bamboo Rats can be extensive, reaching lengths of ¢.58 m and depths of ¢.60 cm. Burrows are plugged in the day. Densities can reach 600 ind/ha. Predators include small carnivores.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and data deficient on the 2016 China Red List. The Lesser Bamboo Rat can be an agricultural pest, especially of tea and rubber, and is hunted for food. Certain populations may be threatened by habitat loss and overhunting. It is known from several protected areas.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Aplin, Lunde et al. (2008), Blyth (1843), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman (1961), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nevo (1999), Nowak (1999), Smith (2008), Tanomtong et al. (2011), Thomas (1915b).","taxonomy":"Rhizomys badius Hodgson, 1841,Nepal.It is the only species in the genus Cannomys, which is sister to Rhizomys. J. R. Ellerman in 1961 recognized castaneusnamed by E. Blyth in 1843, paternamed by O. Thomas in 1915, and plumbescens named by Thomas in 1915 as distinct subspecies on the basis of differences in head— body length and cranial measurements. V. C. Agrawal in 2000 did not recover evidence to support these differences and suggested that they be synonymized. Nevertheless, it seems likely that C. badiuswill be split into multiple subspecies, or even species, by future studies. Cannomyshas no fossil record. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cannomys @fr | Kleine Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu pequena @es | Bay Bamboo Rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Cannomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"136","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"badius","name":"Cannomys badius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram (NE India), Bhutan, SE Bangladesh, Myanmar, SW Yunnan (SW China), N Laos, NW Vietnam, Thailand, and N Cambodia.","bibliography":"Agrawal (2000) | Aplin, Lunde et al. (2008) | Blyth (1843) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman (1961) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nevo (1999) | Nowak (1999) | Smith (2008) | Tanomtong et al. (2011) | Thomas (1915b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Lesser Bamboo Rat feeds on shoots, roots, and leaves from a variety of plants. It prefers young plants and shoots, particularly bamboo and cereals.","breeding":"One to five naked Lesser Bamboo Rats are born per litter after gestation of 40-43 days. Young are weaned after ¢.8 weeks and are sexually mature after c.1 year.","activityPatterns":"The Lesser Bamboo Rat is nocturnal and leaves its burrow to feed. It moves slowly aboveground.It is primarily a chisel-tooth digger but also uses its front claws.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Lesser Bamboo Rats can be extensive, reaching lengths of ¢.58 m and depths of ¢.60 cm. Burrows are plugged in the day. Densities can reach 600 ind/ha. Predators include small carnivores.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and data deficient on the 2016 China Red List. The Lesser Bamboo Rat can be an agricultural pest, especially of tea and rubber, and is hunted for food. Certain populations may be threatened by habitat loss and overhunting. It is known from several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 147-265 mm,tail 47-96 mm; weight 210-800 g. The Lesser Bamboo Rat ranges from reddish cinnamon, red-brown to chestnut-brown, ashy gray, to purple-black. Venter is lighter. One or more white blazes can occur on top of head, and narrow white band can be present on chin. Eyes and ear pinnae are small, body is stocky, and legs are short. Tail is sparsely haired. Forelimbs are equipped with long, powerful claws. Incisors are red to yellow. The Lesser Bamboo Rat differs from species of Rhizomysin having much smaller body size, smooth instead of granular footpads, more protruding incisors, longer rostrum,larger auditory bullae, longer and more prominent sagittal crest, and the first molar largest and third molar smallest. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. A. Tanomtong and colleagues in 2011 demonstrated diploid number of 2n = 50, but other sources report 2n = 60.","habitat":"Most strongly associated with bamboo thickets. The Lesser Bamboo Rat also occurs in grassy areas, montane forests, brush, and gardens, butit is absent in rice paddies. It has been observed from sea level to elevations of 4000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"137","verbatimText":"17.Giant Root RatTachyoryctes macrocephalusFrench:Rat-taupe géant/ German:Riesenmaulwurfsratte/ Spanish:Rata de raices giganteOther common names:Big-headed Mole-rat, Giant Mole-ratTaxonomy.Rhizomys macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842,Shoa, Ethiopia.Presence of 71. macrocephalusin the region known until 1995 as Shoa (= Shewa) Province, Ethiopia, is considered suspect. D. W. Yalden and M. J. Largen in 1992 suggested that type material was collected in Begemdir or Wollo Province in northern Ethiopia. No further records of 7. macrocephalushave been recorded from northern Ethiopia since the original description. In a cladistics analysis that included fossil and extant taxa, R. Lopez-Antonanzas and H. B. Wesselman in 2013 showed that the two living root rats are sister taxa with respect to the known fossil species 71. konjiti, 1 pliocaenicus, and 1. makooka. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T. m. macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842— N Ethiopia; no records since original description. T. m. hecki Neumann & Rummler, 1928— S Ethiopia, Bale Mts above 3000 m (Oromia Region).Descriptive notes.Head-body 224-313 mm, tail 40-65 mm; weight 330-930 g. The Giant Root Rat is stocky and short-limbed, with relatively large head and shorttail. It has soft dense pelage that is silver, brown, or orange. Hairs are gray at bases. Up to three darker lines may be present on crown of head, and dark spot is present on eyelids. Interorbital width is narrow, causing eyes to be distinctively high on face. Subspecies heck: has longer (greater than 7 mm) anterior palatal foramen and zygomatic plate that slopes down to premaxillary-maxillary suture than the nominate subspecies. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.Habitat.Restricted to alpine grassland habitat at elevations of 3000-4150 m. The Giant Root Rat prefers soil depths greater than 50 cm in swamp shore grasslands and mixed herbaceous moorlands. Moist soils are preferred. In the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, the African Root Rat (7. splendens) is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m.Food and Feeding.The Giant Root Rat feeds on grasses and forbs such as Festuca(Poaceae) and Alchemilla(Rosaceae). Food is gathered by opening a hole to the surface and consuming plant material within easy reach of the opening. An individual usually keeps its hindquarters in the opening to facilitate quick escape into the burrow. When food in an area is depleted, the Giant Root Ratseals the opening and creates a new burrow elsewhere. A mouthful of food is collected in short foraging bouts of 6-8 minutes and is taken belowground for consumption.Breeding.Little information is available. Female Giant Root Rats appear to have one young perlitter.Activity patterns.The Giant Root Rat is diurnal and active from 08:00 h to 16:00 h. Aboveground activity comes in short bursts, roughly ten bouts in dry season adding up to an hour of activity, with fewer during rainy season.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Only a single Giant Root Rat is present in each burrow system. Burrows are up to 90 m long and 12-15 cm in cross section belowground, with openings c.8 cm. An individual's burrow system may be up to 360 m*. All burrow entrances are closed nightly. Densities of 6 ind/ha, 24 ind/ha, 60 ind/ha, and 90 ind/ha have been reported. The ground can feel spongy when Giant Root Rats occur at high densities because ofits burrows. It may reach 50-60% of total rodent biomass in certain locations. The Giant Root Rat is a preferred prey of the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), representing up to 47% (by volume) of its diet. Other predators include owls and probably raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Root Rat can be present in very high concentrations, butits distribution is restricted and is dependent on a unique ecosystem. Much of its known distribution is in Bale Mountains National Park, but overgrazing by livestock threatens grasslands. It is not clear if the northern subspecies, macrocephalus, persists.Bibliography.Corti & Lavrenchenko (2008), Lopez-Antonanzas & Wesselman (2013), Monadjem et al. (2015), Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a), Yalden (1985, 2013a), Yalden & Largen (1992).","taxonomy":"Rhizomys macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842,Shoa, Ethiopia.Presence of 71. macrocephalusin the region known until 1995 as Shoa (= Shewa) Province, Ethiopia, is considered suspect. D. W. Yalden and M. J. Largen in 1992 suggested that type material was collected in Begemdir or Wollo Province in northern Ethiopia. No further records of 7. macrocephalushave been recorded from northern Ethiopia since the original description. In a cladistics analysis that included fossil and extant taxa, R. Lopez-Antonanzas and H. B. Wesselman in 2013 showed that the two living root rats are sister taxa with respect to the known fossil species 71. konjiti, 1 pliocaenicus, and 1. makooka. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-taupe géant @fr | Riesenmaulwurfsratte @de | Rata de raices gigante @es | Big-headed Mole-rat @en | Giant Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ruppell","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Tachyoryctes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"137","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macrocephalus","name":"Tachyoryctes macrocephalus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T. m. macrocephalus Ruppell, 1842— N Ethiopia; no records since original description. T. m. hecki Neumann & Rummler, 1928— S Ethiopia, Bale Mts above 3000 m (Oromia Region).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609141/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corti & Lavrenchenko (2008) | Lopez-Antonanzas & Wesselman (2013) | Monadjem et al. (2015) | Sillero-Zubiri et al. (1995a) | Yalden (1985, 2013a) | Yalden & Largen (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"The Giant Root Rat feeds on grasses and forbs such as Festuca(Poaceae) and Alchemilla(Rosaceae). Food is gathered by opening a hole to the surface and consuming plant material within easy reach of the opening. An individual usually keeps its hindquarters in the opening to facilitate quick escape into the burrow. When food in an area is depleted, the Giant Root Ratseals the opening and creates a new burrow elsewhere. A mouthful of food is collected in short foraging bouts of 6-8 minutes and is taken belowground for consumption.","breeding":"Little information is available. Female Giant Root Rats appear to have one young perlitter.","activityPatterns":"The Giant Root Rat is diurnal and active from 08:00 h to 16:00 h. Aboveground activity comes in short bursts, roughly ten bouts in dry season adding up to an hour of activity, with fewer during rainy season.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Only a single Giant Root Rat is present in each burrow system. Burrows are up to 90 m long and 12-15 cm in cross section belowground, with openings c.8 cm. An individual's burrow system may be up to 360 m*. All burrow entrances are closed nightly. Densities of 6 ind/ha, 24 ind/ha, 60 ind/ha, and 90 ind/ha have been reported. The ground can feel spongy when Giant Root Rats occur at high densities because ofits burrows. It may reach 50-60% of total rodent biomass in certain locations. The Giant Root Rat is a preferred prey of the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), representing up to 47% (by volume) of its diet. Other predators include owls and probably raptors.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Root Rat can be present in very high concentrations, butits distribution is restricted and is dependent on a unique ecosystem. Much of its known distribution is in Bale Mountains National Park, but overgrazing by livestock threatens grasslands. It is not clear if the northern subspecies, macrocephalus, persists.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 224-313 mm, tail 40-65 mm; weight 330-930 g. The Giant Root Rat is stocky and short-limbed, with relatively large head and shorttail. It has soft dense pelage that is silver, brown, or orange. Hairs are gray at bases. Up to three darker lines may be present on crown of head, and dark spot is present on eyelids. Interorbital width is narrow, causing eyes to be distinctively high on face. Subspecies heck: has longer (greater than 7 mm) anterior palatal foramen and zygomatic plate that slopes down to premaxillary-maxillary suture than the nominate subspecies. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.","habitat":"Restricted to alpine grassland habitat at elevations of 3000-4150 m. The Giant Root Rat prefers soil depths greater than 50 cm in swamp shore grasslands and mixed herbaceous moorlands. Moist soils are preferred. In the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, the African Root Rat (7. splendens) is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"137","verbatimText":"19.Mehely’s Blind Mole-ratSpalax antiquusFrench:Spalax de Méhely/ German:Mehely-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de MéhelyTaxonomy.Spalax graecus antiguus Méhely, 1909,near Apahida, Cluj County, Romania;Nadaselu, Cluj County, Romania;Lechinta de Muresnear Targu Mures, Mures County, Romania;near Gherla, Cluj County, Romania;and near Someseni, Cluj County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 based his description on multiple fragmentary archaeological specimens. He designated twelve syntypes from five different localities, and no one has subsequently designated a lectotype or otherwise restricted the type locality. Consequently, the type locality encompasses the place of origin of all syntypes in accordance with Article 73.2.3 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until a lectotype is designated. Spalaxantiquus is a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna, and it is supported by mitochondrial data. Spalaxantiguus was traditionally united with S. graecusand S. istricusinto a single species (S. graecus). Spalaxantiquus was usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor a synonym of the subspecies S. g. ustricus. In an analysis of mtDNA A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat led them to conclude that these represented three distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.C Romania.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. Mehely’s Blind Molerat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is buff, and venter and head are grayish, with some reddish hues throughout. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.Habitat.Grassy plains of the Carpathian Basin in Transylvania.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Confirmed predators of Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and domestic dog.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 argued that Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat should be ranked as endangered. Its extent of occurrence and habitat quality are predicted to decline over the next ten years, its area of occupancy is less than 500 km? and it is known to exist in no more than five locations. Four locations where it is present are partly protected. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat was once more common in the vast grasslands of the Carpathian basin, but this habitat was first converted to pasture and, more recently, to intensive modern agriculture and urbanized landscapes.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Csorba et al. (2015), Hadid et al. (2012), KryStufek (1999a), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008).","taxonomy":"Spalax graecus antiguus Méhely, 1909,near Apahida, Cluj County, Romania;Nadaselu, Cluj County, Romania;Lechinta de Muresnear Targu Mures, Mures County, Romania;near Gherla, Cluj County, Romania;and near Someseni, Cluj County, Romania.L. Méhely in 1909 based his description on multiple fragmentary archaeological specimens. He designated twelve syntypes from five different localities, and no one has subsequently designated a lectotype or otherwise restricted the type locality. Consequently, the type locality encompasses the place of origin of all syntypes in accordance with Article 73.2.3 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until a lectotype is designated. Spalaxantiquus is a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna, and it is supported by mitochondrial data. Spalaxantiguus was traditionally united with S. graecusand S. istricusinto a single species (S. graecus). Spalaxantiquus was usually treated as a synonym of S. graecusor a synonym of the subspecies S. g. ustricus. In an analysis of mtDNA A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiquus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat led them to conclude that these represented three distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax de Méhely @fr | Mehely-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Méhely @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Méhely","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"137","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"antiquus","name":"Spalax antiquus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Romania.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609145/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chisamera et al. (2014) | Csorba et al. (2015) | Hadid et al. (2012) | KryStufek (1999a) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Confirmed predators of Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and domestic dog.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 argued that Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat should be ranked as endangered. Its extent of occurrence and habitat quality are predicted to decline over the next ten years, its area of occupancy is less than 500 km? and it is known to exist in no more than five locations. Four locations where it is present are partly protected. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat was once more common in the vast grasslands of the Carpathian basin, but this habitat was first converted to pasture and, more recently, to intensive modern agriculture and urbanized landscapes.","descriptiveNotes":"There are no specific measurements available. Mehely’s Blind Molerat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is buff, and venter and head are grayish, with some reddish hues throughout. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.","habitat":"Grassy plains of the Carpathian Basin in Transylvania."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"138","verbatimText":"21.Podolsk Blind Mole-ratSpalax zemniFrench:Spalax de Podolie/ German:Podolien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de PodoliaOther common names:Podolian Mole-rat, Podolsk Mole-ratTaxonomy.Glis zemni Erxleben, 1777,Ternopolskregion, Ukraine.Spalax zemniis frequently referred to as S. polonicusor S. podolicus, but zemninamed by J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 is the oldest available name. It includes the fossil form S. diluvii. Spalax zemniis the sister species to S. arenarius. Monotypic.Distribution.Ukraine.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-310 mm, no visible external tail; weight 370-570 g. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat has slate gray pelage, with reddish trim. Head is lighter gray, and white stripe or spots may be present. Venteris gray. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Undisturbed steppe but also roadsides, forest belts, and agricultural fields. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats can be found in sandy soils.Food and Feeding.Podolsk Blind Mole-rats feed on alfalfa, chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), field bindweed (Convolvulus, Concolvulaceae), mallows (Malva, Malvaceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae).Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are active year-round; digging continues throughout winter months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats contain feeding tunnels near the surface, deeper chambers, and 2-6 vertical tunnels connecting the two levels. Feeding tunnels are located at depths of 13-21 cm. Total length of feeding tunnels varies with age of burrow; it can range from 10 m in burrows of young individuals to 210 m in burrows of mature adults. Lower chambers are found at depths of 90-275 cm and include 1-2 nest chambers, 3-5 storage chambers, and toilets. Connecting tunnels can be complex and connect chambers in a circular manner. Mounds have diameters of 30-67 cm and heights of 10-23 cm. Densities are 1-8 ind/ha; in virgin steppe, density is ¢.8 ind/ha. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), the European Polecat (M. putorius), and the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are fragmented. Although they are found across a large geographic landscape, area of occupancy is only ¢.2000 km? The Podolsk Blind Mole-rat is threatened by loss of its natural steppe habitat due to cultivation and development.Bibliography.Erxleben (1777), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Hadid et al. (2012), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (20169), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008b).","taxonomy":"Glis zemni Erxleben, 1777,Ternopolskregion, Ukraine.Spalax zemniis frequently referred to as S. polonicusor S. podolicus, but zemninamed by J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 is the oldest available name. It includes the fossil form S. diluvii. Spalax zemniis the sister species to S. arenarius. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax de Podolie @fr | Podolien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Podolia @es | Podolian Mole-rat @en | Podolsk Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Erxleben","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"138","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zemni","name":"Spalax zemni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Ukraine.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609149/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Erxleben (1777) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Homonnay et al. (2013) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (20169) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008b)","foodAndFeeding":"Podolsk Blind Mole-rats feed on alfalfa, chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), field bindweed (Convolvulus, Concolvulaceae), mallows (Malva, Malvaceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae).","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are active year-round; digging continues throughout winter months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats contain feeding tunnels near the surface, deeper chambers, and 2-6 vertical tunnels connecting the two levels. Feeding tunnels are located at depths of 13-21 cm. Total length of feeding tunnels varies with age of burrow; it can range from 10 m in burrows of young individuals to 210 m in burrows of mature adults. Lower chambers are found at depths of 90-275 cm and include 1-2 nest chambers, 3-5 storage chambers, and toilets. Connecting tunnels can be complex and connect chambers in a circular manner. Mounds have diameters of 30-67 cm and heights of 10-23 cm. Densities are 1-8 ind/ha; in virgin steppe, density is ¢.8 ind/ha. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), the European Polecat (M. putorius), and the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are fragmented. Although they are found across a large geographic landscape, area of occupancy is only ¢.2000 km? The Podolsk Blind Mole-rat is threatened by loss of its natural steppe habitat due to cultivation and development.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-310 mm, no visible external tail; weight 370-570 g. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat has slate gray pelage, with reddish trim. Head is lighter gray, and white stripe or spots may be present. Venteris gray. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","habitat":"Undisturbed steppe but also roadsides, forest belts, and agricultural fields. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats can be found in sandy soils."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"138","verbatimText":"20.Bukovina Blind Mole-ratSpalax graecusFrench:Spalax de Bucovine/ German:Bukowina-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de BucovinaOther common names:Balkan Blind Mole-rat, Balkan Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax graecus Nehring, 1898,vicinity of Athens, Greece. Corrected by V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 to the vicinity of Chernovtsy, Bukovina Region, Ukraine.Spalax graecusis a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position of sella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna and is supported by mitochondrial data. It was traditionally united with S. istricusand S. antiquus into a single species (S. graecus). In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiqguus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat lead them to conclude that these represent distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.SW Ukraine and NE Romania.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217-280 mm, no visible external tail; weight 415-700 g. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is butt, and venter and head are grayish. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat differs from other members of the S. graecusspecies group in having nasals that extend posteriorly beyond premaxilla and a flat bottom of incisura corono-alveolaris. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.Habitat.Strands of perennial grasses, steppes, and agricultural fields in the hilly Bukovina region of Romania and Ukraine. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat can occur in roadsides, pastures, beet and potato fields, gardens, and forest edge but not deep forest. Itis currently known from 13 localities, bordered on the east by the Prut River and on the west by the Carpathian Mountains. Ecological niche modeling suggests that suitable habitat may be found at elevations of 39-848 m.Food and Feeding.The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat feeds on a variety of plants including dropwort (Filipendulahexapetala, Rosaceae), yarrow (Achilleamillefolium, Asteraceae), plantain (Plantagomedia, Plantaginaceae), couch grass (Elytrigia repens, Poaceae), comfrey (Symphytumofficinale, Boraginaceae), and chicory (Cichoriumintybus, Asteraceae). Winter food stores weigh 0.4-12 kg.Breeding.Female Bukovina Blind Mole-rats breed in their second year. Breeding activity begins in January, peaks in February, and can continue into March. Females will give birth to 2—4 young in March-April. Young weigh 18-20 g and are weaned after c.3 weeks. They disperse aboveground in late April through May.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bukovina Blind Mole-rats are solitary. Burrows are constructed in relatively dry soil and usually reach maximum depths of 1 m (up to 3-5 m). Feeding tunnels occur at depths of 20-25 cm in spring and summer and 30-35 cm in winter. One or two nest chambers and multiple toilet and storage chambers are present. In the past, densities had been recorded at 1-10 ind/ ha in agricultural areas but up to 23 ind/ha under more natural conditions. Current densities in agricultural areas are closer to 0-2-2 ind/ha. Predators include foxes, mustelids, and, when dispersing, raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The assessment includes the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (S. istricus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus). It has a small range of occupancy and has not been recorded in Romania since the 1960s or in Ukraine over the last 20-40 years. Additional conservation assessment of the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat separate from the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat is needed.Bibliography.Chisamera et al. (2014), Hadid et al. (2012), Krystufek (1999a), Musser & Carleton (2005), Méhely (1909), Németh et al. (2013), Puzachenko (2016b), Topachevskii (1969), Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008).","taxonomy":"Spalax graecus Nehring, 1898,vicinity of Athens, Greece. Corrected by V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 to the vicinity of Chernovtsy, Bukovina Region, Ukraine.Spalax graecusis a member of the S. graecusspecies group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position of sella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna and is supported by mitochondrial data. It was traditionally united with S. istricusand S. antiquus into a single species (S. graecus). In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecusand S. antiqguus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricusthat lead them to conclude that these represent distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax de Bucovine @fr | Bukowina-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Bucovina @es | Balkan Blind Mole-rat @en | Balkan Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Nehring","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"138","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"graecus","name":"Spalax graecus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW Ukraine and NE Romania.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609147/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chisamera et al. (2014) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Krystufek (1999a) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Méhely (1909) | Németh et al. (2013) | Puzachenko (2016b) | Topachevskii (1969) | Zagorodnyuk & Coroiu (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat feeds on a variety of plants including dropwort (Filipendulahexapetala, Rosaceae), yarrow (Achilleamillefolium, Asteraceae), plantain (Plantagomedia, Plantaginaceae), couch grass (Elytrigia repens, Poaceae), comfrey (Symphytumofficinale, Boraginaceae), and chicory (Cichoriumintybus, Asteraceae). Winter food stores weigh 0.4-12 kg.","breeding":"Female Bukovina Blind Mole-rats breed in their second year. Breeding activity begins in January, peaks in February, and can continue into March. Females will give birth to 2—4 young in March-April. Young weigh 18-20 g and are weaned after c.3 weeks. They disperse aboveground in late April through May.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Bukovina Blind Mole-rats are solitary. Burrows are constructed in relatively dry soil and usually reach maximum depths of 1 m (up to 3-5 m). Feeding tunnels occur at depths of 20-25 cm in spring and summer and 30-35 cm in winter. One or two nest chambers and multiple toilet and storage chambers are present. In the past, densities had been recorded at 1-10 ind/ ha in agricultural areas but up to 23 ind/ha under more natural conditions. Current densities in agricultural areas are closer to 0-2-2 ind/ha. Predators include foxes, mustelids, and, when dispersing, raptors.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The assessment includes the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (S. istricus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus). It has a small range of occupancy and has not been recorded in Romania since the 1960s or in Ukraine over the last 20-40 years. Additional conservation assessment of the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat separate from the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat is needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 217-280 mm, no visible external tail; weight 415-700 g. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is butt, and venter and head are grayish. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat differs from other members of the S. graecusspecies group in having nasals that extend posteriorly beyond premaxilla and a flat bottom of incisura corono-alveolaris. Diploid numberis 2n = 62.","habitat":"Strands of perennial grasses, steppes, and agricultural fields in the hilly Bukovina region of Romania and Ukraine. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat can occur in roadsides, pastures, beet and potato fields, gardens, and forest edge but not deep forest. Itis currently known from 13 localities, bordered on the east by the Prut River and on the west by the Carpathian Mountains. Ecological niche modeling suggests that suitable habitat may be found at elevations of 39-848 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"138","verbatimText":"22.Sandy Blind Mole-ratSpalax arenariusFrench:Spalax des sables/ German:Sandblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de los arenalesOther common names:Sandy Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax arenarius Reshetnik, 1939,NW shore of Black Sea, Golaya Pristan, Nikolaev Region, Ukraine.Spalax arenariusis the sister species to S. zemni, and it has been treated as a subspecies or synonym of S. zemni, S. microphthalmus, and S. giganteusin the past. Its species status is supported by morphological features and is broadly accepted in recent texts. Monotypic.Distribution.E bank of the Dniepr River near its opening into the Black Sea (S Ukraine).Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-275 mm, no visible external tail; weight 380-660 g. Male Sandy Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large pale straw-yellow-gray. Front of head is lighter grayish white, and venter is pale mouse gray. Fringe of pale yellow-gray hair extends from nose to ears. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Sparsely vegetated absinth (Ar temisia, Asteraceae)grass and absinthspurge (Euphorbiaceae) steppes. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is found in light, moderately wet, sandy soils with a low water table and is never found in moving sands, dry feather-grass steppe, or alkali soils.Food and Feeding.Sandy Blind Mole-rats feed on a variety of plants including field eryngo (Eryngiumcampestre, Apiaceae), wormwood (Artemisiacampestris, Asteraceae), and goatsbeard (7 Tragopogonucrainicus, Asteraceae). Accumulated winter stores weigh 10-15 kg.Breeding.Breeding of the Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs once a year in March. Young are born in April-May, and lactation lasts c.1 month.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sandy Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Feeding tunnels can be 200 m long and occur at depths of 40-50 cm. Individual home ranges are more than 80 m?. Vertical shafts connect to chambers atjust over 1 m deep. Mounds are 35-93 cm in diameter and 20-45 cm in height. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs at densities of 5 ind/ha in optimal habitat and 0-9-1-2 ind/ha elsewhere. Predators include foxes, mustelids, domestic dogs, and raptors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is protected in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve, but it faces conservation threats and is declining outside ofthis area. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.2000 km? and its area of occupancy is ¢.55 km?®. It is threatened by afforestation activities that are intended to stabilize the landscape and to support commercial forestry. Total population is estimated at 15,000-20,000 individuals, which are known from fewer than five localities.Bibliography.Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Hadid et al. (2012), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2013), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (2016h), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina & Zagorodnyuk (2008).","taxonomy":"Spalax arenarius Reshetnik, 1939,NW shore of Black Sea, Golaya Pristan, Nikolaev Region, Ukraine.Spalax arenariusis the sister species to S. zemni, and it has been treated as a subspecies or synonym of S. zemni, S. microphthalmus, and S. giganteusin the past. Its species status is supported by morphological features and is broadly accepted in recent texts. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax des sables @fr | Sandblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de los arenales @es | Sandy Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Reshetnik","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1939","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"138","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arenarius","name":"Spalax arenarius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E bank of the Dniepr River near its opening into the Black Sea (S Ukraine).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609151/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2013) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (2016h) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina & Zagorodnyuk (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Sandy Blind Mole-rats feed on a variety of plants including field eryngo (Eryngiumcampestre, Apiaceae), wormwood (Artemisiacampestris, Asteraceae), and goatsbeard (7 Tragopogonucrainicus, Asteraceae). Accumulated winter stores weigh 10-15 kg.","breeding":"Breeding of the Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs once a year in March. Young are born in April-May, and lactation lasts c.1 month.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sandy Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Feeding tunnels can be 200 m long and occur at depths of 40-50 cm. Individual home ranges are more than 80 m?. Vertical shafts connect to chambers atjust over 1 m deep. Mounds are 35-93 cm in diameter and 20-45 cm in height. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs at densities of 5 ind/ha in optimal habitat and 0-9-1-2 ind/ha elsewhere. Predators include foxes, mustelids, domestic dogs, and raptors.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is protected in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve, but it faces conservation threats and is declining outside ofthis area. Its extent of occurrence is ¢.2000 km? and its area of occupancy is ¢.55 km?®. It is threatened by afforestation activities that are intended to stabilize the landscape and to support commercial forestry. Total population is estimated at 15,000-20,000 individuals, which are known from fewer than five localities.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 190-275 mm, no visible external tail; weight 380-660 g. Male Sandy Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large pale straw-yellow-gray. Front of head is lighter grayish white, and venter is pale mouse gray. Fringe of pale yellow-gray hair extends from nose to ears. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","habitat":"Sparsely vegetated absinth (Ar temisia, Asteraceae)grass and absinthspurge (Euphorbiaceae) steppes. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is found in light, moderately wet, sandy soils with a low water table and is never found in moving sands, dry feather-grass steppe, or alkali soils."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"23.Greater Blind Mole-ratSpalax microphthalmusFrench:Grand Spalax/ German:Steppenblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega grandeOther common names:Greater Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax microphthalmus Guldenstadt, 1770,Novokhoper Steppe, Voronezhskaya Oblast, Russia.All members of the genus Spalaxhave at some time been treated as synonyms or subspecies of S. microphthalmus. 1. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012 treated S. microphthalmusas monotypic, but they noted the possibility that populations in the western part of its distribution may constitute a distinct subspecies. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 suggested that Ciscaucasian populations might be a distinct subspecies; the appropriate name for this form wouldappear to be typhlusby P. S. Pallas in 1779. M. Korobchenko and I. Zagorodnyuk in 2009 questioned inclusion of typhlusin microphthalmus, suggesting that it has affinities with giganteusand warrants recognition as a distinct species. Pending further study, they provisionally treated it as a distinct subspecies within S. microphthalmus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S.m.microphthalmusGuldenstadt,1770—EUkraineandSWRussia.S. m. typhlus Pallas, 1779— Ciscaucasian Russia immediately E of the Sea of Azov.Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-315 mm, no visible external tail; weight 120-818 g. Male Greater Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large and straw-graybrown, with lighter and grayer head and straw-brown venter. Roots of hairs are mouse gray, and individuals can have this color when tips of hairs are worn off. Small yellowish white patch may be present on forehead. Some specimens have white longitudinal stripe on head. Fringe of yellowish hair extends outward from nose toward ears. Juveniles are much grayer than adults. Thicker winter pelage is present from September to May orJune. Three pairs of nipples are present. Diploid numberis 2n = 60 or 62.Habitat.Flat steppes and forest steppes in the region between the Dniepr and Volga rivers, from roughly Mordovia southward into Ciscaucasia. Northern populations are fragmented. The Greater Blind Mole-rat prefers to dig in rich black soils and avoids loam and sand. It can be found in agricultural fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards, and forests.Food and Feeding.The Greater Blind Mole-rat eats dandelion (7araxacum, Asteraceae), cow parsnip (Heracleum, Apiaceae), chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae). A higher ratio of leaves and shoots are eaten in spring than later in the year when roots and bulbs are preferred. Accumulated winterstores of food can weigh c.10-14 kg.Breeding.Greater Blind Mole-rats breed once a year. Females give birth to 2-5 young in late February to early May. Females usually breed in their second year. Life span is 2-54 years.Activity patterns.Digging activities of Greater Blind Mole-rat are most pronounced in spring when food stores are depleted. They are active year-round, but in winter, they reduce activity, focusing in deeper areas. An individual traversing aboveground facing a threat will immediately begin to burrow.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Greater Blind Mole-rats are solitary; individuals may fight until one retreats or dies. Fighting usually involves bites to the face. Juveniles leave their mothers’ burrows and either create a separate adjacent burrow or disperse up to several hundred meters aboveground. Individuals of any age might travel aboveground in search of better locations for burrows, and males might travel aboveground in search of females. Burrow systems can take on a variety of shapes including almost linear, 1-2 central areas with feeding tunnels emerging as spokes, or more irregular arrangements. They vary widely in length but can be 100-450 m or more across. Feeding tunnels are 10-25 cm deep, and deeper chambers are found at depths of 120-320 cm. Upper and lower regions are connected by 2—4 vertical shafts. One or two nest chambers are present, and these are lined with grass and leaves. Usually 4-9 storerooms are present alongside multiple empty chambers. Multiple toilets are present, and these are sealed after filled. Mounds are variable in shape and size, with diameters of 20-240 cm (average 50 cm). They are located 1-2 m apart. A single individualis estimated to displace 0-2-0-3 m® of earth daily. Densities are 3-10 ind/ha and can be 20 ind/ha in good conditions but lower elsewhere. Populations do not usually exhibit extreme oscillations. Predators include the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans), and carnivorous mammals such as mustelids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Broadly speaking, the Greater Blind Mole-rat has a large distribution in which it is abundant and common. It is found in protected areas. Many populations, particularly in the northern part ofits distribution, may be threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural practices. The Greater Blind Mole-rat can be an agricultural pest and is poisoned. It functions as an ecosystem engineer, affecting soil composition and plant communities. Its burrows are used by a variety of other animals such as small mammals and invertebrates.Bibliography.Corbet (1978), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2016), Nevo (1999), Ognev (1947), Pallas (1779), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016c), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008a).","taxonomy":"Spalax microphthalmus Guldenstadt, 1770,Novokhoper Steppe, Voronezhskaya Oblast, Russia.All members of the genus Spalaxhave at some time been treated as synonyms or subspecies of S. microphthalmus. 1. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012 treated S. microphthalmusas monotypic, but they noted the possibility that populations in the western part of its distribution may constitute a distinct subspecies. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 suggested that Ciscaucasian populations might be a distinct subspecies; the appropriate name for this form wouldappear to be typhlusby P. S. Pallas in 1779. M. Korobchenko and I. Zagorodnyuk in 2009 questioned inclusion of typhlusin microphthalmus, suggesting that it has affinities with giganteusand warrants recognition as a distinct species. Pending further study, they provisionally treated it as a distinct subspecies within S. microphthalmus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Spalax @fr | Steppenblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega grande @es | Greater Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Guldenstadt","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1770","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"microphthalmus","name":"Spalax microphthalmus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S.m.microphthalmusGuldenstadt,1770—EUkraineandSWRussia.S. m. typhlus Pallas, 1779— Ciscaucasian Russia immediately E of the Sea of Azov.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609153/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corbet (1978) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2016) | Nevo (1999) | Ognev (1947) | Pallas (1779) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016c) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov, Zagorodnyuk & Sheftel (2008a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Greater Blind Mole-rat eats dandelion (7araxacum, Asteraceae), cow parsnip (Heracleum, Apiaceae), chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae). A higher ratio of leaves and shoots are eaten in spring than later in the year when roots and bulbs are preferred. Accumulated winterstores of food can weigh c.10-14 kg.","breeding":"Greater Blind Mole-rats breed once a year. Females give birth to 2-5 young in late February to early May. Females usually breed in their second year. Life span is 2-54 years.","activityPatterns":"Digging activities of Greater Blind Mole-rat are most pronounced in spring when food stores are depleted. They are active year-round, but in winter, they reduce activity, focusing in deeper areas. An individual traversing aboveground facing a threat will immediately begin to burrow.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Greater Blind Mole-rats are solitary; individuals may fight until one retreats or dies. Fighting usually involves bites to the face. Juveniles leave their mothers’ burrows and either create a separate adjacent burrow or disperse up to several hundred meters aboveground. Individuals of any age might travel aboveground in search of better locations for burrows, and males might travel aboveground in search of females. Burrow systems can take on a variety of shapes including almost linear, 1-2 central areas with feeding tunnels emerging as spokes, or more irregular arrangements. They vary widely in length but can be 100-450 m or more across. Feeding tunnels are 10-25 cm deep, and deeper chambers are found at depths of 120-320 cm. Upper and lower regions are connected by 2—4 vertical shafts. One or two nest chambers are present, and these are lined with grass and leaves. Usually 4-9 storerooms are present alongside multiple empty chambers. Multiple toilets are present, and these are sealed after filled. Mounds are variable in shape and size, with diameters of 20-240 cm (average 50 cm). They are located 1-2 m apart. A single individualis estimated to displace 0-2-0-3 m® of earth daily. Densities are 3-10 ind/ha and can be 20 ind/ha in good conditions but lower elsewhere. Populations do not usually exhibit extreme oscillations. Predators include the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans), and carnivorous mammals such as mustelids.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Broadly speaking, the Greater Blind Mole-rat has a large distribution in which it is abundant and common. It is found in protected areas. Many populations, particularly in the northern part ofits distribution, may be threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural practices. The Greater Blind Mole-rat can be an agricultural pest and is poisoned. It functions as an ecosystem engineer, affecting soil composition and plant communities. Its burrows are used by a variety of other animals such as small mammals and invertebrates.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 190-315 mm, no visible external tail; weight 120-818 g. Male Greater Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large and straw-graybrown, with lighter and grayer head and straw-brown venter. Roots of hairs are mouse gray, and individuals can have this color when tips of hairs are worn off. Small yellowish white patch may be present on forehead. Some specimens have white longitudinal stripe on head. Fringe of yellowish hair extends outward from nose toward ears. Juveniles are much grayer than adults. Thicker winter pelage is present from September to May orJune. Three pairs of nipples are present. Diploid numberis 2n = 60 or 62.","habitat":"Flat steppes and forest steppes in the region between the Dniepr and Volga rivers, from roughly Mordovia southward into Ciscaucasia. Northern populations are fragmented. The Greater Blind Mole-rat prefers to dig in rich black soils and avoids loam and sand. It can be found in agricultural fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards, and forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"24.Giant Blind Mole-ratSpalax giganteusFrench:Spalax géant/ German:Riesenblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega giganteOther common names:Giant Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax giganteus Nehring, 1898,near Makhachkala, W shore of Caspian Sea, Dagestan, Russia.Spalax uralensishad been widely regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline. Habitat loss has been exacerbated by war,soil salinization, and agricultural practices such as irrigation, overgrazing, and plowing. Itis almost extinct in Chechnya and perhaps Dagestan. It can be a pest in orchards and fields.Bibliography.Iliashenko & lliashenko (2000), Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (1993, 2016e), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina, Formozov & Sheftel (2008).","taxonomy":"Spalax giganteus Nehring, 1898,near Makhachkala, W shore of Caspian Sea, Dagestan, Russia.Spalax uralensishad been widely regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia.","commonNames":"Spalax géant @fr | Riesenblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega gigante @es | Giant Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Nehring","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"giganteus","name":"Spalax giganteus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Stavropol, Kalmykia, Chechnya, and Dagestan (Russia).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609157/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Iliashenko & lliashenko (2000) | Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (1993, 2016e) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina, Formozov & Sheftel (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.","breeding":"Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.","activityPatterns":"Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline. Habitat loss has been exacerbated by war,soil salinization, and agricultural practices such as irrigation, overgrazing, and plowing. Itis almost extinct in Chechnya and perhaps Dagestan. It can be a pest in orchards and fields.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 250-350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.Food and Feeding.Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.Breeding.Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December—January. Litter sizes are 2-3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.Activity patterns.Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20-50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2:5 cm/h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢.0-5-2 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline.","habitat":"Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"26.Lesser Blind Mole-ratNannospalax leucodonFrench:Spalax de Hongrie/ German:\\Westblindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega pequenaOther common names:Lesser Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax typhlus leucodon Nordmann, 1840,near Odessa, Ukraine.Nannospalax leucodonis included in subgenus Mesospalax. It represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric and parapatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Numerous names have been applied to these various forms, many of which are nomen nuda or otherwise unavailable. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 treated N. leucodonas a single species with two subspecies: leucodonfrom eastern Hungary, Romania, Moldovia, and Ukraine and monticolafrom Hungary and Bulgaria, southward to Greece and European Turkey. At the other extreme, I. Savi¢ and colleagues in 1984 recognized 13 species and ten additional subspecies, granting named status to all known cytotypes. Genetic diversity among populations of N. leucodonappears to be lower than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, but to date, sampling has been restricted to the western part ofits distribution. Assessing species boundaries will probably require combining data on karyotypes with molecular phylogenetics because morphological data appear to be of limited use. Monotypic.Distribution.E Hungary, SW Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, SE Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece (including NE Aegean Is of Samothrace and Lemnos), and European Turkey.Descriptive notes.Head—body 150-240 mm, no visible external tail; weight 162-504 g. Male Lesser Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. Color varies but is typically brownish to gray, with tinge of yellow, ginger, or yellow-red. Anterior of head is less brown and more gray. Ridge of longer white to yellow hair extends from sides of nose toward ears. Venter is mostly gray. White or yellow spots are common in northern populations but less so in other regions such as Turkey. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are yellow or white. Populations in Turkey are smaller. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 29 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 38-62.Habitat.Steppes, grasslands, meadows, and pastures from sea level to elevations up to 2400 m. Lesser Blind Mole-rats can be found in forest clearings, small fields adjacent to pasture, and orchards. They prefer deep, loose, and well-drained soil. They are usually absent in forest, wetlands, rocky areas, and heavily cultivated areas.Food and Feeding.Lesser Blind Mole-rats feed primarily on bulbs, roots, and tubers, with supplements from green plant parts. Green plant matter is important for weaned juveniles and adults in late spring. Insects are also sometimes eaten. The Lesser Blind Mole-rat eats ¢.36:5% ofits body mass daily. Its energy budgetis 0-17 kcal/g/day except in winter when it increases to 0-22 kcal/g/day. Food caches of 6-20 kg have been reported.Breeding.Pregnant female Lesser Blind Mole-rats are most commonly captured in March. Gestation is 30 days. Young are born in March-April and weigh 6-6-5 g. Litter size is usually 2—4 young, but 1-6 young have been recorded. Young are weaned after 2-2-5 months; young males weigh 137 g while females weigh 121 g by the end of May. Females start breeding in their second year. In captivity, females live up to 3-5 years, and males live 4-5 years.Activity patterns.Activity of the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is polyphasic, with two peaks at 13:00-14:00 h and 01:00-02:00 h in some reports and three peaks at 11:00-13:00 h, 07:00-09:00 h, and 17:00-21:00 h in others.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Lesser Blind Mole-rats have a main tunnel with secondary tunnels branching off. An individual digs c.1:7 m of tunnel daily, yielding 10 kg of excavated dirt. Total tunnel length is 65-195 m and spread over 194-1000 m?. Peripheral feeding tunnels are located at depths of 15-25 cm; deeper passages may reach 410 cm. Oval-shaped 28 x 18 x 16 cm nests are centrally located at depths of 25-50 cm; they are lined with grasses. Multiple food caches and toilet chambers are present. Mounds are located 21-30 m apart. Densities are usually 1-13 ind/ha, but 23 ind/ha have been recorded. Lesser Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Predators include the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis), the Ermine (M. erminea), the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmannii), domestic dog, domestic cat, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), and the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax leucodon). Species boundaries are poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, urbanization, and other development. The superspecies is found in protected areas, but several of the species in this complex are undoubtedly threatened, lack protection, and are in dire need of assessment as individual entities. For example, G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 evaluated conservation status of the N. leucodonsuperspecies in the Carpathian Basin, treating forms therein as four distinct species. They proposed that N. (leucodon) transylvanicus from north-eastern Hungary and north-western Romania warrants a status of vulnerable because area of occupancy is no more than 120 km?, it is known from under ten localities, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (l.) hungaricus from eastern Hungary and northern Serbia as endangered because extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is no more than 300 km?it is known from under five localities, more than 95% of the population is found at a single locality, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (lL) montanosyrmiensis from southern Hungary and northern Serbia as critically endangered because extent of occurrence is no more than 100 km? area of occupancy is less than 10 km?, it is known from only three localities, these populations continue to decline, and habitat size and quality continue to decline. Finally, they assessed N. (l.) syrmiensis from western Hungary and northern Serbia as data deficient because it has not been recorded in 30 years and is likely extinct. Similar detailed assessment is needed for the rest of the geographic distribution.Bibliography.Bego et al. (2014), Csorba et al. (2015), Hadid et al. (2012), Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009), Krystufek (1999b), Krystufek & Amori (2008), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016), Németh, Révay et al. (2009), Nevo et al. (2001), Ognev (1947), Savi¢ et al. (1984), Topachevskii (1969).","taxonomy":"Spalax typhlus leucodon Nordmann, 1840,near Odessa, Ukraine.Nannospalax leucodonis included in subgenus Mesospalax. It represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric and parapatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Numerous names have been applied to these various forms, many of which are nomen nuda or otherwise unavailable. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 treated N. leucodonas a single species with two subspecies: leucodonfrom eastern Hungary, Romania, Moldovia, and Ukraine and monticolafrom Hungary and Bulgaria, southward to Greece and European Turkey. At the other extreme, I. Savi¢ and colleagues in 1984 recognized 13 species and ten additional subspecies, granting named status to all known cytotypes. Genetic diversity among populations of N. leucodonappears to be lower than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, but to date, sampling has been restricted to the western part ofits distribution. Assessing species boundaries will probably require combining data on karyotypes with molecular phylogenetics because morphological data appear to be of limited use. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax de Hongrie @fr | \\Westblindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega pequena @es | Lesser Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Nordmann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1840","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Nannospalax","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucodon","name":"Nannospalax leucodon","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Hungary, SW Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, SE Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece (including NE Aegean Is of Samothrace and Lemnos), and European Turkey.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609161/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bego et al. (2014) | Csorba et al. (2015) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Korobchenko & Zagorodnyuk (2009) | Krystufek (1999b) | Krystufek & Amori (2008) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh, Hegyeli et al. (2016) | Németh, Révay et al. (2009) | Nevo et al. (2001) | Ognev (1947) | Savi¢ et al. (1984) | Topachevskii (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"Lesser Blind Mole-rats feed primarily on bulbs, roots, and tubers, with supplements from green plant parts. Green plant matter is important for weaned juveniles and adults in late spring. Insects are also sometimes eaten. The Lesser Blind Mole-rat eats ¢.36:5% ofits body mass daily. Its energy budgetis 0-17 kcal/g/day except in winter when it increases to 0-22 kcal/g/day. Food caches of 6-20 kg have been reported.","breeding":"Pregnant female Lesser Blind Mole-rats are most commonly captured in March. Gestation is 30 days. Young are born in March-April and weigh 6-6-5 g. Litter size is usually 2—4 young, but 1-6 young have been recorded. Young are weaned after 2-2-5 months; young males weigh 137 g while females weigh 121 g by the end of May. Females start breeding in their second year. In captivity, females live up to 3-5 years, and males live 4-5 years.","activityPatterns":"Activity of the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is polyphasic, with two peaks at 13:00-14:00 h and 01:00-02:00 h in some reports and three peaks at 11:00-13:00 h, 07:00-09:00 h, and 17:00-21:00 h in others.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Lesser Blind Mole-rats have a main tunnel with secondary tunnels branching off. An individual digs c.1:7 m of tunnel daily, yielding 10 kg of excavated dirt. Total tunnel length is 65-195 m and spread over 194-1000 m?. Peripheral feeding tunnels are located at depths of 15-25 cm; deeper passages may reach 410 cm. Oval-shaped 28 x 18 x 16 cm nests are centrally located at depths of 25-50 cm; they are lined with grasses. Multiple food caches and toilet chambers are present. Mounds are located 21-30 m apart. Densities are usually 1-13 ind/ha, but 23 ind/ha have been recorded. Lesser Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Predators include the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis), the Ermine (M. erminea), the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmannii), domestic dog, domestic cat, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), and the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax leucodon). Species boundaries are poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, urbanization, and other development. The superspecies is found in protected areas, but several of the species in this complex are undoubtedly threatened, lack protection, and are in dire need of assessment as individual entities. For example, G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 evaluated conservation status of the N. leucodonsuperspecies in the Carpathian Basin, treating forms therein as four distinct species. They proposed that N. (leucodon) transylvanicus from north-eastern Hungary and north-western Romania warrants a status of vulnerable because area of occupancy is no more than 120 km?, it is known from under ten localities, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (l.) hungaricus from eastern Hungary and northern Serbia as endangered because extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is no more than 300 km?it is known from under five localities, more than 95% of the population is found at a single locality, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (lL) montanosyrmiensis from southern Hungary and northern Serbia as critically endangered because extent of occurrence is no more than 100 km? area of occupancy is less than 10 km?, it is known from only three localities, these populations continue to decline, and habitat size and quality continue to decline. Finally, they assessed N. (l.) syrmiensis from western Hungary and northern Serbia as data deficient because it has not been recorded in 30 years and is likely extinct. Similar detailed assessment is needed for the rest of the geographic distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 150-240 mm, no visible external tail; weight 162-504 g. Male Lesser Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. Color varies but is typically brownish to gray, with tinge of yellow, ginger, or yellow-red. Anterior of head is less brown and more gray. Ridge of longer white to yellow hair extends from sides of nose toward ears. Venter is mostly gray. White or yellow spots are common in northern populations but less so in other regions such as Turkey. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are yellow or white. Populations in Turkey are smaller. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 29 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 38-62.","habitat":"Steppes, grasslands, meadows, and pastures from sea level to elevations up to 2400 m. Lesser Blind Mole-rats can be found in forest clearings, small fields adjacent to pasture, and orchards. They prefer deep, loose, and well-drained soil. They are usually absent in forest, wetlands, rocky areas, and heavily cultivated areas."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"25.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratSpalax uralensisFrench:Spalax de I'Oural/ German:Kasachstan-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de KazajistanOther common names:Ural Blind Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax uralensis Tiflov & Usov, 1939,Chingerlauz region, W Kazakhstan.Although originally described as a separate species, S. wuralensis was generally regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.W Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.Habitat.Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin. Distribution of the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is tied to presence ofits primary food source, Volga wild rye (Elymus giganteus, Poaceae).Food and Feeding.The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat feeds on multiple plant species, but Volga wild rye represents the bulk of its diet. Food caches reach sizes of 2-5 kg.Breeding.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats usually breed once a year in spring or summer, but females will occasionally have a second litter in autumn. Litter sizes are 2—6 young.Activity patterns.Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activity peaks in spring and is lowest in June.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Kazakhstan Blind Molerats include feeding tunnels near the surface and deeperliving chambers. Burrows are 145-540 m long and 0-9-3 m deep. Densities are 0-26—1 ind/ha in marginal conditions and 4 ind/ha in quality habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratis listed as rare with limited distribution (category 3) on the Red List of Kazakhstan. It is threatened by overgrazing and experiences declines in drought years.Bibliography.Gromov & Erbajeva (1995), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Puzachenko (1993, 2016e), Topachevskii (1969), Tsytsulina (2008b).","taxonomy":"Spalax uralensis Tiflov & Usov, 1939,Chingerlauz region, W Kazakhstan.Although originally described as a separate species, S. wuralensis was generally regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteusuntil 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.Distribution.W Kazakhstan.Descriptive notes.Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.Habitat.Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin.","commonNames":"Spalax de @fr | 'Oural @en | Kasachstan-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Kazajistan @es | Ural Blind Mole-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Tiflov & Usov","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1939","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Spalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"uralensis","name":"Spalax uralensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Kazakhstan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609159/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Gromov & Erbajeva (1995) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Puzachenko (1993, 2016e) | Topachevskii (1969) | Tsytsulina (2008b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat feeds on multiple plant species, but Volga wild rye represents the bulk of its diet. Food caches reach sizes of 2-5 kg.","breeding":"Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats usually breed once a year in spring or summer, but females will occasionally have a second litter in autumn. Litter sizes are 2—6 young.","activityPatterns":"Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activity peaks in spring and is lowest in June.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Kazakhstan Blind Molerats include feeding tunnels near the surface and deeperliving chambers. Burrows are 145-540 m long and 0-9-3 m deep. Densities are 0-26—1 ind/ha in marginal conditions and 4 ind/ha in quality habitat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratis listed as rare with limited distribution (category 3) on the Red List of Kazakhstan. It is threatened by overgrazing and experiences declines in drought years.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.","habitat":"Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin. Distribution of the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is tied to presence ofits primary food source, Volga wild rye (Elymus giganteus, Poaceae)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"27.Anatolian Blind Mole-ratNannospalax xanthodonFrench:Spalax d’Anatolie/ German:Anatolien-Blindmaus/ Spanish:Rata topo ciega de AnatoliaOther common names:Anatolian Mole-ratTaxonomy.Spalax typhlus xanthodon Nordmann, 1840,Smyrna, Turkey.Nannospalaxxanthodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. The name nehringiby K. A. Satunin in 1898 is frequently used to represent this species, but xanthodon used by A. von Nordmann in 1840 has priority. Nannospalaxxanthodon has been treated as a synonym of N. leucodon, and the two are clearly related, but both forms are themselves composed of multiple species, and recognition of two, if not more, species has been common since V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 characterized differences in their morphology. Like N. leucodon, N. xanthodon represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Topachevskii recognized two subspecies, nehringifrom eastern Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, and a western subspecies found in the rest of Asian Turkey, which he listed as cilicicus, but is probably more appropriately the nominate xanthodon. Recent studies have uncovered a number of karyotypes across the distribution of N. xanthodon, and some have argued that each of these warrant species or subspecies recognition, or at least recognition as evolutionary significant units. Genetic diversity among populations of N. xanthodon is higher than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, and Y. Hadid and colleagues in 2012 concluded that it is paraphyletic with respect to N. leucodon, although with weak support. Specifically, they found several populations with 2n = 60 or 62, including vasvariinamed byJ. Szunyoghy in 1941, as sister to a clade uniting N. leucodonwith the remaining populations of N. xanthodon. Populations with 2n = 60 or 62 are spread widely across central Turkey, and several older names are available for forms in this region, but blind mole-rats from at least part of this area will probably warrant recognition as a distinct species. In an RFLP study, T. Kankili¢ and C. Giirpinar in 2014 suggested that N. labaume: may be the appropriate name for this taxon. Their results also suggested the presence of a more westerly distributed N. xanthodon and an eastern N. nehringiwhose range essentially corresponds to Topachevskii’s definition of N. [x.] nehringi. In a study of bacular morphology, Kankili¢ and colleagues in 2014 further supported division ofthis species into three species: N. xanthodon, N. nehringi, and N. labaumei. Although geographical boundaries of these probable species are not fully defined and status of some older names such as cilicicus named by L. Méhely in 1909 are notclear, available evidence suggests that superspecies N. xanthodon probably warrants division into at least these three species. Monotypic.Distribution.Asian Turkey, SW Georgia, NW Armenia, extreme NW Iran, and several E Aegean Is (Lesbos in Greece and Bozcaada and Gokceada in Turkey).Descriptive notes.Head-body 143-248 mm, no visible external tail; weight 130-522 g. Male Anatolian Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is medium-sized, and on most of its body, individual hairs are slate-gray on most of the length, with terminal buff of gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown. Belly hairs are generally simply slate-gray but can range from almost black to whitish orsilver. Bristly keel of lighter yellowish hairs extends from large brownish triangular nose pad about halfway to ear openings. White hairs can line nose pad and lips, and white spots or streaks can be present elsewhere on head. Incisors are extrabuccal and can be white, yellow, or orange. Smaller upper incisors tend to be darker. Kankilic and colleagues in 2014 characterized differences in bacular morphologies across chromosomal races and probable species; mean lengths for individual cytotypes were 4-8-7-8 mm. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 25 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 36-62. Cytotypes do not appear to overlap geographically.Habitat.Mediterranean coastal environments, steppe, semi-deserts, and high-elevation pastures and meadows at elevations of 50-2900 m, most commonly 900-1600 m. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat avoids forest, rocky areas, and swamp and marsh habitat.Food and Feeding.The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on underground plant parts, particularly bulbs, but also roots and tubers. Geraniumtuberosum (Geraniaceae) has been reported as its most important food item. Individuals eat 22-2-59-4% of their body weight daily. Food is stored in cache chambers in burrows, and quantity varies by season with smallest caches in summer. Mean caches are 741-1556 g, but 10 kg of potatoes, beets, and carrots have been found in a single burrow. Anatolian Blind Mole-rats can damage agricultural crops, but they are not particularly successful in fields with intensive plowing.Breeding.Female Anatolian Blind Mole-rats have one litter annually. In Armenia, breeding starts in January, and pregnant females have been found until May. Scrotal males are most common in March-April but have been found year-round. In Turkey, reproduction occurs in January-June and peaks in February. Gestation is 26 days, and littersize is 1-6 young, usually 2-3 young. At birth, young are 50-60 mm long and weigh 9-9-5 g. They are weaned at weights of c¢.115 g and leave nests by summer. Breeding individuals have a minimum body mass of 147 g for males and 167 g for females.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of the Anatolian Blind Mole-rat include feeding tunnels, a nest chamber, food caches, and toilets. Feeding passages are 5-40 cm deep, and deeper passages are 80-150 cm. One or two nests are present; they are c.20 x 20 cm and are lined with dry plant material. Nests tend to be beneath largest mounds. Highest densities are 60 ind/ha. Predators include the little owl (Athene noctua), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the tawny owl (Strix aluco), and the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca). This species is solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax nehringi) because species boundaries are so poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Anatolian Blind Mole-ratis relatively common and known from multiple protected areas. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some chromosomal forms, for example, are extremely restricted in geographical distribution. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rate faces threats from large-scale agricultural practices, overgrazing, and habitat fragmentation.Bibliography.Bukhnikashvili et al. (2008), Hadid et al. (2012), Kankilic & Gurpinar (2014), Kankili¢, Kankilig, Seker & Kivang (2014), Kankilig, Kankilic, S6zen & Colak (2013), Krystufek & Vohralik (2009), Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012), Méhely (1909), Musser & Carleton (2005), Németh et al. (2016), von Nordmann (1840), Ognev (1947), Satunin (1898), Szunyoghy (1941), Topachevskii (1969).","taxonomy":"Spalax typhlus xanthodon Nordmann, 1840,Smyrna, Turkey.Nannospalaxxanthodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. The name nehringiby K. A. Satunin in 1898 is frequently used to represent this species, but xanthodon used by A. von Nordmann in 1840 has priority. Nannospalaxxanthodon has been treated as a synonym of N. leucodon, and the two are clearly related, but both forms are themselves composed of multiple species, and recognition of two, if not more, species has been common since V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 characterized differences in their morphology. Like N. leucodon, N. xanthodon represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Topachevskii recognized two subspecies, nehringifrom eastern Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, and a western subspecies found in the rest of Asian Turkey, which he listed as cilicicus, but is probably more appropriately the nominate xanthodon. Recent studies have uncovered a number of karyotypes across the distribution of N. xanthodon, and some have argued that each of these warrant species or subspecies recognition, or at least recognition as evolutionary significant units. Genetic diversity among populations of N. xanthodon is higher than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, and Y. Hadid and colleagues in 2012 concluded that it is paraphyletic with respect to N. leucodon, although with weak support. Specifically, they found several populations with 2n = 60 or 62, including vasvariinamed byJ. Szunyoghy in 1941, as sister to a clade uniting N. leucodonwith the remaining populations of N. xanthodon. Populations with 2n = 60 or 62 are spread widely across central Turkey, and several older names are available for forms in this region, but blind mole-rats from at least part of this area will probably warrant recognition as a distinct species. In an RFLP study, T. Kankili¢ and C. Giirpinar in 2014 suggested that N. labaume: may be the appropriate name for this taxon. Their results also suggested the presence of a more westerly distributed N. xanthodon and an eastern N. nehringiwhose range essentially corresponds to Topachevskii’s definition of N. [x.] nehringi. In a study of bacular morphology, Kankili¢ and colleagues in 2014 further supported division ofthis species into three species: N. xanthodon, N. nehringi, and N. labaumei. Although geographical boundaries of these probable species are not fully defined and status of some older names such as cilicicus named by L. Méhely in 1909 are notclear, available evidence suggests that superspecies N. xanthodon probably warrants division into at least these three species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Spalax d’Anatolie @fr | Anatolien-Blindmaus @de | Rata topo ciega de Anatolia @es | Anatolian Mole-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Nordmann","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1840","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Nannospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"xanthodon","name":"Nannospalax xanthodon","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Asian Turkey, SW Georgia, NW Armenia, extreme NW Iran, and several E Aegean Is (Lesbos in Greece and Bozcaada and Gokceada in Turkey).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609163/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bukhnikashvili et al. (2008) | Hadid et al. (2012) | Kankilic & Gurpinar (2014) | Kankili¢, Kankilig, Seker & Kivang (2014) | Kankilig, Kankilic, S6zen & Colak (2013) | Krystufek & Vohralik (2009) | Krystufek, Ivanitskaya et al. (2012) | Méhely (1909) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Németh et al. (2016) | von Nordmann (1840) | Ognev (1947) | Satunin (1898) | Szunyoghy (1941) | Topachevskii (1969)","foodAndFeeding":"The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on underground plant parts, particularly bulbs, but also roots and tubers. Geraniumtuberosum (Geraniaceae) has been reported as its most important food item. Individuals eat 22-2-59-4% of their body weight daily. Food is stored in cache chambers in burrows, and quantity varies by season with smallest caches in summer. Mean caches are 741-1556 g, but 10 kg of potatoes, beets, and carrots have been found in a single burrow. Anatolian Blind Mole-rats can damage agricultural crops, but they are not particularly successful in fields with intensive plowing.","breeding":"Female Anatolian Blind Mole-rats have one litter annually. In Armenia, breeding starts in January, and pregnant females have been found until May. Scrotal males are most common in March-April but have been found year-round. In Turkey, reproduction occurs in January-June and peaks in February. Gestation is 26 days, and littersize is 1-6 young, usually 2-3 young. At birth, young are 50-60 mm long and weigh 9-9-5 g. They are weaned at weights of c¢.115 g and leave nests by summer. Breeding individuals have a minimum body mass of 147 g for males and 167 g for females.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of the Anatolian Blind Mole-rat include feeding tunnels, a nest chamber, food caches, and toilets. Feeding passages are 5-40 cm deep, and deeper passages are 80-150 cm. One or two nests are present; they are c.20 x 20 cm and are lined with dry plant material. Nests tend to be beneath largest mounds. Highest densities are 60 ind/ha. Predators include the little owl (Athene noctua), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the tawny owl (Strix aluco), and the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca). This species is solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax nehringi) because species boundaries are so poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Anatolian Blind Mole-ratis relatively common and known from multiple protected areas. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some chromosomal forms, for example, are extremely restricted in geographical distribution. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rate faces threats from large-scale agricultural practices, overgrazing, and habitat fragmentation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 143-248 mm, no visible external tail; weight 130-522 g. Male Anatolian Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is medium-sized, and on most of its body, individual hairs are slate-gray on most of the length, with terminal buff of gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown. Belly hairs are generally simply slate-gray but can range from almost black to whitish orsilver. Bristly keel of lighter yellowish hairs extends from large brownish triangular nose pad about halfway to ear openings. White hairs can line nose pad and lips, and white spots or streaks can be present elsewhere on head. Incisors are extrabuccal and can be white, yellow, or orange. Smaller upper incisors tend to be darker. Kankilic and colleagues in 2014 characterized differences in bacular morphologies across chromosomal races and probable species; mean lengths for individual cytotypes were 4-8-7-8 mm. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 25 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2n = 36-62. Cytotypes do not appear to overlap geographically.","habitat":"Mediterranean coastal environments, steppe, semi-deserts, and high-elevation pastures and meadows at elevations of 50-2900 m, most commonly 900-1600 m. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat avoids forest, rocky areas, and swamp and marsh habitat."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"8.Qinling ZokorEospalax rufescensFrench:Zokor roux/ German:Qin-Ling-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de QinlingTaxonomy.Myotalpa rufescens J. A. Allen, 1909,Taipai Shan, southern Shensi, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 reluctantly treated E. rufescensas synonymous with E. fontanieriicansusbased on limited and incomplete material. Fospalax rufescenshas been treated as conspecific with E. fontanieru, E. cansus, or E. bailey: (under the older name rufescens), but it had rarely been treated as a distinct species in its own right until recently. Various studies support distinctiveness of E. rufescensamong species of Fospalax based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. baileyr, but a sister relationship with E. cansushas also been suggested. Additional research is needed to assessits position within the genus Fospalax. Monotypic.Distribution.Qin Mts in S Gansu, S Shaanxi, and N Sichuan (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body c.186 mm, tail ¢.33 mm. No specific data available for body weight. The Qinling Zokoris dark gray to rufescent brown. Tail is brownish white and well-furred. Hindfeet are also well-furred. Nasals are long and slightly trapezoidal in shape, and incisive foramina extend well into maxilla. M? lacks a second re-entrant fold.Habitat.Grassy habitat and cropland at elevations above 2000 m in Qin Mountains.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Qinling Zokor prefers to construct burrows in soft soils with few rocks on sunny slopes with sparse shrubs.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as data deficient on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Qinling Zokor seems to benefit from an intermediate level of human disturbance such as cleared land near highways. It is an agricultural pest.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1940), Allen, J.A. (1909), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Lu Qingbin et al. (2011), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Zhou Caiguan & Zhou Kaiya (2008).","taxonomy":"Myotalpa rufescens J. A. Allen, 1909,Taipai Shan, southern Shensi, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 reluctantly treated E. rufescensas synonymous with E. fontanieriicansusbased on limited and incomplete material. Fospalax rufescenshas been treated as conspecific with E. fontanieru, E. cansus, or E. bailey: (under the older name rufescens), but it had rarely been treated as a distinct species in its own right until recently. Various studies support distinctiveness of E. rufescensamong species of Fospalax based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. baileyr, but a sister relationship with E. cansushas also been suggested. Additional research is needed to assessits position within the genus Fospalax. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor roux @fr | Qin-Ling-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Qinling @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufescens","name":"Eospalax rufescens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Qin Mts in S Gansu, S Shaanxi, and N Sichuan (C China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609122/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen, G.M. (1940) | Allen, J.A. (1909) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Lu Qingbin et al. (2011) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Zhou Caiguan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Qinling Zokor prefers to construct burrows in soft soils with few rocks on sunny slopes with sparse shrubs.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as data deficient on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Qinling Zokor seems to benefit from an intermediate level of human disturbance such as cleared land near highways. It is an agricultural pest.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body c.186 mm, tail ¢.33 mm. No specific data available for body weight. The Qinling Zokoris dark gray to rufescent brown. Tail is brownish white and well-furred. Hindfeet are also well-furred. Nasals are long and slightly trapezoidal in shape, and incisive foramina extend well into maxilla. M? lacks a second re-entrant fold.","habitat":"Grassy habitat and cropland at elevations above 2000 m in Qin Mountains."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"7.Gansu ZokorEospalax cansusFrench:Zokor du Gansu/ German:Gansu-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de GansuTaxonomy.Myotalpa cansus Lyon, 1907,“ Taocheo[= Chaozhou], Kan-su, northwestern China.”Although O. Thomas and others had treated them as a separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusas a subspecies of Jfontaniern and treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontaniern in the literature pertain to the better-studied FE. cansus. In recent years, various studies have supported treating E. cansusas a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. baileyibased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. cansuswithin Eospalax, but it does not appear to be closely related to E. fontanierii. Three distinct mitochondrial clades of E. cansushave been identified that correspond to central Shaanxi; Ningxia and south-eastern Gansu; and eastern Qinghai and south-western Gansu. These appear to roughly correspond to groupings recovered based on morphometric analysis of Lu Qingbin and colleagues in 2013. Additional research is required to determine if E. cansuswarrants division into subspecies or even multiple species. Monotypic.Distribution.Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei (C & E China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 155-230 mm, tail 33-66 mm; weight 150-430 g. Male Gansu Zokors are larger than females, and populations at higher elevations tend to be larger. The Gansu Zokoris brownish, although slightly darker than Fontanier’s Zokor (E. fontanierii). Hairs are dark gray at bases. Unlike Fontanier’s Zokor, the Gansu Zokor usually lacks white blaze; when present, it is small. Tail and feet are sparsely haired. Immature individuals are gray. Median occipital crest is well-developed, and M? has two re-entrant folds.Habitat.Grassland, shrub-steppe, and forest at elevations of 1500-2500 m on the Loess Plateau. Burrows of Gansu Zokors have been excavated in areas with high concentrations of grasses, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae), and thyme (Thymus, Lamiaceae).Food and Feeding.Gansu Zokors eat underground plant matter.Breeding.Ganu Zokors breed primarily in April-July. As breeding approaches, males consume more food and increase digging activity, and their testes descend. When a captive male was placed in shared spaces with a female, the two initially acted aggressively, began to act more amicably, and finally mated. Courtship lasts ¢.25 days. Mating bouts appear to be most common in morning, last 10-30 minutes, and can continue for 8-10 days. Litter sizes are 1-5 young, usually 2-3 young.Activity patterns.When walking, claws of Gansu Zokors are folded undersoles offeet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Gansu Zokor lives almost entirely underground. Communication occurs seismically via call and head drumming; they squeal when frightened. Individuals clearly know status of neighboring individuals. If an individual is removed,its territory will be quickly occupied. This behavior appears to allow individuals to form overlappingburrow systems, allowing mates to find each other. Males have larger tunnel systems than females and are more aggressive. Predators include the Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii). Remains of the Gansu Zokor have also been found in owl pellets.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Gansu Zokor has a wide distribution and large population and is found in protected areas. Overgrazing is a common problem acrossits distribution, and research is needed to understand complex interactions among overgrazing, erosion, habitat restoration, and zokor activities. The Gansu Zokor is considered a pest because it is thought to exacerbate erosion and hinder forest restoration projects by feeding on seedlings. It is also an agricultural pest of several crops including soybeans.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Hongo et al. (1993), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Li Jingang, He Jianping & Wang Tingzheng (2001), Li Jingang, Wang Tingzheng & He Jianping (2001), Lu Qingbin et al. (2013), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Yang Chuanhua etal. (2012), Zhang Tongzuo et al. (2013), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008).","taxonomy":"Myotalpa cansus Lyon, 1907,“ Taocheo[= Chaozhou], Kan-su, northwestern China.”Although O. Thomas and others had treated them as a separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusas a subspecies of Jfontaniern and treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontaniern in the literature pertain to the better-studied FE. cansus. In recent years, various studies have supported treating E. cansusas a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. baileyibased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. cansuswithin Eospalax, but it does not appear to be closely related to E. fontanierii. Three distinct mitochondrial clades of E. cansushave been identified that correspond to central Shaanxi; Ningxia and south-eastern Gansu; and eastern Qinghai and south-western Gansu. These appear to roughly correspond to groupings recovered based on morphometric analysis of Lu Qingbin and colleagues in 2013. Additional research is required to determine if E. cansuswarrants division into subspecies or even multiple species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor du Gansu @fr | Gansu-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Gansu @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lyon","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cansus","name":"Eospalax cansus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei (C & E China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609120/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Hongo et al. (1993) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Li Jingang, He Jianping & Wang Tingzheng (2001) | Li Jingang, Wang Tingzheng & He Jianping (2001) | Lu Qingbin et al. (2013) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Yang Chuanhua etal. (2012) | Zhang Tongzuo et al. (2013) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Gansu Zokors eat underground plant matter.","breeding":"Ganu Zokors breed primarily in April-July. As breeding approaches, males consume more food and increase digging activity, and their testes descend. When a captive male was placed in shared spaces with a female, the two initially acted aggressively, began to act more amicably, and finally mated. Courtship lasts ¢.25 days. Mating bouts appear to be most common in morning, last 10-30 minutes, and can continue for 8-10 days. Litter sizes are 1-5 young, usually 2-3 young.","activityPatterns":"When walking, claws of Gansu Zokors are folded undersoles offeet.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Gansu Zokor lives almost entirely underground. Communication occurs seismically via call and head drumming; they squeal when frightened. Individuals clearly know status of neighboring individuals. If an individual is removed,its territory will be quickly occupied. This behavior appears to allow individuals to form overlappingburrow systems, allowing mates to find each other. Males have larger tunnel systems than females and are more aggressive. Predators include the Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii). Remains of the Gansu Zokor have also been found in owl pellets.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Gansu Zokor has a wide distribution and large population and is found in protected areas. Overgrazing is a common problem acrossits distribution, and research is needed to understand complex interactions among overgrazing, erosion, habitat restoration, and zokor activities. The Gansu Zokor is considered a pest because it is thought to exacerbate erosion and hinder forest restoration projects by feeding on seedlings. It is also an agricultural pest of several crops including soybeans.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 155-230 mm, tail 33-66 mm; weight 150-430 g. Male Gansu Zokors are larger than females, and populations at higher elevations tend to be larger. The Gansu Zokoris brownish, although slightly darker than Fontanier’s Zokor (E. fontanierii). Hairs are dark gray at bases. Unlike Fontanier’s Zokor, the Gansu Zokor usually lacks white blaze; when present, it is small. Tail and feet are sparsely haired. Immature individuals are gray. Median occipital crest is well-developed, and M? has two re-entrant folds.","habitat":"Grassland, shrub-steppe, and forest at elevations of 1500-2500 m on the Loess Plateau. Burrows of Gansu Zokors have been excavated in areas with high concentrations of grasses, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae), and thyme (Thymus, Lamiaceae)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"133","verbatimText":"9.Plateau ZokorEospalax baileyiFrench:Zokor des plateaux/ German:Qinghai-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de altiplanoTaxonomy.Myospalax baileyi Thomas, 1911,between Nagchuka(or Hokow) and Tatsienlu, Ramasong, W Szechwan, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated E. baileyias separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included it as a subspecies offontanieru. S. Y. Song in 1986 regarded baileyias a subspecies of rufescens. Many references to E. fontanieriiand E. rufescenspertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi. In recent years, various studies support treating E. bailey: as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. cansusbased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. rufescens. Four to six deeply divergent, geographically discrete, mitochondrial clades have been identified within E. baileyi, and these may show some overlap with the three morphological groups suggested by Tang Lizhou and colleagues in 2009. Additional research is required to determine if E. baileyiwarrants further division into multiple species or subspecies. Monotypic.Distribution.Qinghai, Gansu, and W Sichuan (China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 160-235 mm,tail 33-61 mm; weight 173-490 g. Male Plateau Zokorsare larger than females. They are pale rufous-brown with pinkish buff. Tail is short and densely furred with whitish hairs. Feet are also hairy. Young are gray. Incisive foramina is restricted to premaxilla.Habitat.Alpine meadows, steppe meadows, shrubs, and farmland. at elevations of 2800-4500 m on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Plateau Zokor prefers moist soil and degraded grassland and avoids desert, irrigated land, and boulder fields. Microclimate of its burrows allows for less extreme temperature swings and milder temperatures overall. While aboveground January temperatures may be —4 to —=38°C, burrows maintain a temperature of 0-5°C. Humidity is high (79-87-3%) in these burrows compared to dry external climate (31-7-53-3%). Nevertheless, microclimate in burrows presents challenges. Oxygen levels are low (17-18:4% in burrow compared to 20-4% externally), and carbon dioxide levels are extremely high (0-22-1-5% in burrow compared to 0-03% outside). The Plateau Zokoris a subterranean and a high-elevation species, and it has substantially elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentration; it is extremely efficient at delivering oxygen to tissue. Oxygen pressure in arterial blood of the Plateau Zokoris 1-5 times higher than laboratory rats, and oxygen pressure in venous blood is 0-26 times that of lab rats.Food and Feeding.Plateau Zokors feed on roots and shoots of forbs, grasses, and some shrubs. They prefer taproots and storage organs of plants such as Notopterygium forbesii (Apiaceae), Potentillaanserina (Rosaceae), Morina chinensis(Caprifoliaceae), and dandelions (Taraxacum, Asteraceae). Plants are accessed from feeding tunnels belowground. The Plateau Zokor will grab roots and pull the entire plant down into the tunnel system where it is consumed. All zokors have an adaptation in the thumb claw where it is shortened and wears away leaving a central gap. Under laboratory conditions, the Plateau Zokor uses this thumb claw to clean off taproots such as dandelions. The root is then held in both hands, resting in these thumb gaps,as it is consumed.Breeding.Male and female Plateau Zokors never share a burrow. Mating occursat the intersection of burrows of neighboring males and females. During the mating period, males will dig multiple long tunnels, presumably in hopes of entering female territories. Males and females mate with multiple partners during a single mating period. Females give birth once a year, usually in April-May. Litter sizes are about three young (1-5), and lactation lasts c.50 days.Activity patterns.Plateau Zokors live mostly belowground. They are active year-round but have higher activity levels in spring and autumn and lowest in winter. The Plateau Zokorsleeps very deeply and can be handled or subjected to loud noises without waking up.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Plateau Zokors are complex, with tunnel systems reaching ¢.100 m in length and depths of 0-8-1-5 m for males and 2-2-5 m for females. Burrow systems contain transportation and foraging tunnels, 1-2 nest chambers, food stores, and dead end tunnels. Soil is brought to the surface when digging, and their presence is evident by presence of mounds that can take up 15-20% of the surface above the burrow system. Dispersal is probably aboveground and male-biased, but this has not been observed directly. They are solitary and intolerant of one another, becoming aggressive when encountering others. Densities are 5-70 ind/ha and average 15 ind/ha. Predators include the Tibetan Fox (Vulpesferrilata), the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmannii), the Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bietr), Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul), the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), the upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) and the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) occasionally eat Plateau Zokors.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List whereit is treated as a distinct species. The Plateau Zokor has a wide distribution and large population. An annual eradication program was implemented in the 1990s, which reduced population size to less than one-third of its formersize. Livestock grazing appears to increase prevalence of Plateau Zokors because it leads to an increase in the types of plants with taproots they prefer. This increase in zokors may in turn further accelerate landscape deterioration, but the system is complex, and researchers debate positive and negative impacts. The Plateau Zokor is considered an ecosystem engineer. A single individual transfers more than 1000 kg of soil to the surface annually. Its burrowing activities mix and aerate soil, increase environmental heterogeneity, enhance infiltration of water into the soil, and thereby curtail erosion. These activities also lessen uptake of greenhouse gases and appear to facilitate spread of invasive plant species. Abandoned burrows are used as shelters by a variety of small mammals (such as the Root Vole, Microtusoeconomus, and Gansu Pika, Ochotona cansus), birds (such as the ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis, the black-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla adamsi, and several species of ground-sparrows such as Pyrgilauda blanfordi, P. davidiana, P. ruficollis, and P. taczanowski), amphibians and reptiles. Dried bone of Plateau Zokor, known as “Sailonggu,” is used in traditional Tibetan medicine as a treatment for inflammation. It is used as a medicinal replacement for Tiger (Panthera tigris) bone, which serves a similar function.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Li Wenjing et al. (2009), Lin Gonghua, Li Wenjing et al. (2011), Lin Gonghua, Zhao Fang et al. (2014), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Tang Lizhou, Wang Liuyang et al. (2010), Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo, Lin Gonhua & Su Jianping (2010), Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo & Su Jianping (2009), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wei Dengbang et al. (2006), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Yang Chuanhua et al. (2012), Zhang Weiet al. (2014), Zhang Yanming (2007a, 2007b), Zeng Jinxiang et al. (1984), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008), Zhou Caiquan et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Myospalax baileyi Thomas, 1911,between Nagchuka(or Hokow) and Tatsienlu, Ramasong, W Szechwan, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated E. baileyias separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included it as a subspecies offontanieru. S. Y. Song in 1986 regarded baileyias a subspecies of rufescens. Many references to E. fontanieriiand E. rufescenspertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi. In recent years, various studies support treating E. bailey: as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. cansusbased on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithiior E. rufescens. Four to six deeply divergent, geographically discrete, mitochondrial clades have been identified within E. baileyi, and these may show some overlap with the three morphological groups suggested by Tang Lizhou and colleagues in 2009. Additional research is required to determine if E. baileyiwarrants further division into multiple species or subspecies. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor des plateaux @fr | Qinghai-Blindmull @de | Zocor de altiplano @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"133","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"baileyi","name":"Eospalax baileyi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Qinghai, Gansu, and W Sichuan (China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609124/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Li Wenjing et al. (2009) | Lin Gonghua, Li Wenjing et al. (2011) | Lin Gonghua, Zhao Fang et al. (2014) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Tang Lizhou, Wang Liuyang et al. (2010) | Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo, Lin Gonhua & Su Jianping (2010) | Tang Lizhou, Zhang Tongzuo & Su Jianping (2009) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wei Dengbang et al. (2006) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Yang Chuanhua et al. (2012) | Zhang Weiet al. (2014) | Zhang Yanming (2007a, 2007b) | Zeng Jinxiang et al. (1984) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008) | Zhou Caiquan et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Plateau Zokors feed on roots and shoots of forbs, grasses, and some shrubs. They prefer taproots and storage organs of plants such as Notopterygium forbesii (Apiaceae), Potentillaanserina (Rosaceae), Morina chinensis(Caprifoliaceae), and dandelions (Taraxacum, Asteraceae). Plants are accessed from feeding tunnels belowground. The Plateau Zokor will grab roots and pull the entire plant down into the tunnel system where it is consumed. All zokors have an adaptation in the thumb claw where it is shortened and wears away leaving a central gap. Under laboratory conditions, the Plateau Zokor uses this thumb claw to clean off taproots such as dandelions. The root is then held in both hands, resting in these thumb gaps,as it is consumed.","breeding":"Male and female Plateau Zokors never share a burrow. Mating occursat the intersection of burrows of neighboring males and females. During the mating period, males will dig multiple long tunnels, presumably in hopes of entering female territories. Males and females mate with multiple partners during a single mating period. Females give birth once a year, usually in April-May. Litter sizes are about three young (1-5), and lactation lasts c.50 days.","activityPatterns":"Plateau Zokors live mostly belowground. They are active year-round but have higher activity levels in spring and autumn and lowest in winter. The Plateau Zokorsleeps very deeply and can be handled or subjected to loud noises without waking up.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Plateau Zokors are complex, with tunnel systems reaching ¢.100 m in length and depths of 0-8-1-5 m for males and 2-2-5 m for females. Burrow systems contain transportation and foraging tunnels, 1-2 nest chambers, food stores, and dead end tunnels. Soil is brought to the surface when digging, and their presence is evident by presence of mounds that can take up 15-20% of the surface above the burrow system. Dispersal is probably aboveground and male-biased, but this has not been observed directly. They are solitary and intolerant of one another, becoming aggressive when encountering others. Densities are 5-70 ind/ha and average 15 ind/ha. Predators include the Tibetan Fox (Vulpesferrilata), the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmannii), the Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bietr), Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul), the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), the upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) and the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) occasionally eat Plateau Zokors.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List whereit is treated as a distinct species. The Plateau Zokor has a wide distribution and large population. An annual eradication program was implemented in the 1990s, which reduced population size to less than one-third of its formersize. Livestock grazing appears to increase prevalence of Plateau Zokors because it leads to an increase in the types of plants with taproots they prefer. This increase in zokors may in turn further accelerate landscape deterioration, but the system is complex, and researchers debate positive and negative impacts. The Plateau Zokor is considered an ecosystem engineer. A single individual transfers more than 1000 kg of soil to the surface annually. Its burrowing activities mix and aerate soil, increase environmental heterogeneity, enhance infiltration of water into the soil, and thereby curtail erosion. These activities also lessen uptake of greenhouse gases and appear to facilitate spread of invasive plant species. Abandoned burrows are used as shelters by a variety of small mammals (such as the Root Vole, Microtusoeconomus, and Gansu Pika, Ochotona cansus), birds (such as the ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis, the black-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla adamsi, and several species of ground-sparrows such as Pyrgilauda blanfordi, P. davidiana, P. ruficollis, and P. taczanowski), amphibians and reptiles. Dried bone of Plateau Zokor, known as “Sailonggu,” is used in traditional Tibetan medicine as a treatment for inflammation. It is used as a medicinal replacement for Tiger (Panthera tigris) bone, which serves a similar function.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 160-235 mm,tail 33-61 mm; weight 173-490 g. Male Plateau Zokorsare larger than females. They are pale rufous-brown with pinkish buff. Tail is short and densely furred with whitish hairs. Feet are also hairy. Young are gray. Incisive foramina is restricted to premaxilla.","habitat":"Alpine meadows, steppe meadows, shrubs, and farmland. at elevations of 2800-4500 m on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Plateau Zokor prefers moist soil and degraded grassland and avoids desert, irrigated land, and boulder fields. Microclimate of its burrows allows for less extreme temperature swings and milder temperatures overall. While aboveground January temperatures may be —4 to —=38°C, burrows maintain a temperature of 0-5°C. Humidity is high (79-87-3%) in these burrows compared to dry external climate (31-7-53-3%). Nevertheless, microclimate in burrows presents challenges. Oxygen levels are low (17-18:4% in burrow compared to 20-4% externally), and carbon dioxide levels are extremely high (0-22-1-5% in burrow compared to 0-03% outside). The Plateau Zokoris a subterranean and a high-elevation species, and it has substantially elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentration; it is extremely efficient at delivering oxygen to tissue. Oxygen pressure in arterial blood of the Plateau Zokoris 1-5 times higher than laboratory rats, and oxygen pressure in venous blood is 0-26 times that of lab rats."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"11.Smith’s ZokorEospalax smithiiFrench:Zokor de Smith/ German:Smith-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de SmithTaxonomy.Myospalax smithii Thomas, 1911,30 mi(48 km) SE of Tao-chou, Gansu, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 suggested that E. smith#2 may be a hybrid between E. rothschildix E. cansus, but subsequent authorities have not adopted this position. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. rothschildi. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. rufescensor E. baileyi. Monotypic.Distribution.Gansu, Ningxia, N Sichuan, and W Shaanxi (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 162-255 mm,tail 34-39 mm; weight 180-460 g. Smith's Zokor has dark brown dorsal pelage, with slight cinnamon colored tips. Back of head is dark gray to velvety black, area around ears is dark brown, and vibrissae are black and white. White forehead blaze is present in some individuals. Venter is grayish brown, also mixed with cinnamon. Immature individuals are bluish gray, with sooty gray head. Temporal ridges are more pronounced, and auditory bullae are more flattened compared with other species of zokors.Habitat.Steppe, open fields, grassland, and cropland at elevations above 2000 m.Food and Feeding.Smith’s Zokor eats primarily grasses.Breeding.Breeding of Smith’s Zokor peaks in June-July, and offspring are born in May-September. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be as high as eight young. Females produce two litters annually.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Smith’s Zokors construct complex burrows in soft wetsoils.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and as near threatened on the 2016 China Red List. Smith’s Zokor reportedly has a wide distribution and large population, does not face major threats, and is found in one or more protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), He Ya etal. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith (2008), Smith & Johnston (2008c), Su Junhu et al. (2014).","taxonomy":"Myospalax smithii Thomas, 1911,30 mi(48 km) SE of Tao-chou, Gansu, China.G. M. Allen in 1940 suggested that E. smith#2 may be a hybrid between E. rothschildix E. cansus, but subsequent authorities have not adopted this position. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. rothschildi. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. rufescensor E. baileyi. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor de Smith @fr | Smith-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Smith @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"smithii","name":"Eospalax smithii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Gansu, Ningxia, N Sichuan, and W Shaanxi (C China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609128/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | He Ya etal. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith (2008) | Smith & Johnston (2008c) | Su Junhu et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"Smith’s Zokor eats primarily grasses.","breeding":"Breeding of Smith’s Zokor peaks in June-July, and offspring are born in May-September. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be as high as eight young. Females produce two litters annually.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Smith’s Zokors construct complex burrows in soft wetsoils.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and as near threatened on the 2016 China Red List. Smith’s Zokor reportedly has a wide distribution and large population, does not face major threats, and is found in one or more protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 162-255 mm,tail 34-39 mm; weight 180-460 g. Smith's Zokor has dark brown dorsal pelage, with slight cinnamon colored tips. Back of head is dark gray to velvety black, area around ears is dark brown, and vibrissae are black and white. White forehead blaze is present in some individuals. Venter is grayish brown, also mixed with cinnamon. Immature individuals are bluish gray, with sooty gray head. Temporal ridges are more pronounced, and auditory bullae are more flattened compared with other species of zokors.","habitat":"Steppe, open fields, grassland, and cropland at elevations above 2000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"10.Rothschild’s ZokorEospalax rothschildiFrench:Zokor de Rothschild/ German:Rothschild-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de RothschildTaxonomy.Myospalax rothschildi Thomas, 1911,40 miles(64 km) SE Taochow, Kansu, China.Eospalax rothschildihas been synonymized with E. fontanieriiby some authorities, butitis generally regarded as a distinct species. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. smithii. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. rothschildiwithin Eospalax, but it does not appearto be closely related to E. fontanierii. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.rothschildiThomas,1911—SGansu,SShaanxi,andNSichuan(CChina).E. r. hubeinensis Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan, 1989— SE Shaanxi, W Henan, and W Hubei (C China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 149-172 mm,tail 29-37 mm; weight 160-440 g. Male Rothschild’s Zokors can be slightly larger than females. They are small and grayish brown, with red-tipped fur. White blaze is present on forehead of some but not all individuals. Venter is light grayish brown. Tail is hairy and bicolored, grayish yellow above and white below. Backs of feet are well-furred, with light colored hairs. They are distinguished from other species of Eospalaxby smaller size, more slender claws, and smaller molars. Diploid numberis 2n = 58.Habitat.Forest, scrub, grassland, and cropland at elevations of 1000-3000 m.Food and Feeding.Rothschilds Zokor feeds on a wide variety of grasses and roots and can be a crop pest.Breeding.Rothschild’s Zokor breeds in spring, beginning in April. Females give birth to onelitter of 1-5 young/year.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Rothschild’s Zokors are known to construct complex burrows in soft soils.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Rothschild’s Zokor has a wide distribution and large population, and it is found in protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Smith (2008b), Smith & Johnston (2008b), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008).","taxonomy":"Myospalax rothschildi Thomas, 1911,40 miles(64 km) SE Taochow, Kansu, China.Eospalax rothschildihas been synonymized with E. fontanieriiby some authorities, butitis generally regarded as a distinct species. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. smithii. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. rothschildiwithin Eospalax, but it does not appearto be closely related to E. fontanierii. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Zokor de Rothschild @fr | Rothschild-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Rothschild @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rothschildi","name":"Eospalax rothschildi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.r.rothschildiThomas,1911—SGansu,SShaanxi,andNSichuan(CChina).E. r. hubeinensis Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan, 1989— SE Shaanxi, W Henan, and W Hubei (C China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609126/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Fan Naichang & Shi Yinzhu (1982) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Smith (2008b) | Smith & Johnston (2008b) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Rothschilds Zokor feeds on a wide variety of grasses and roots and can be a crop pest.","breeding":"Rothschild’s Zokor breeds in spring, beginning in April. Females give birth to onelitter of 1-5 young/year.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Rothschild’s Zokors are known to construct complex burrows in soft soils.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Rothschild’s Zokor has a wide distribution and large population, and it is found in protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 149-172 mm,tail 29-37 mm; weight 160-440 g. Male Rothschild’s Zokors can be slightly larger than females. They are small and grayish brown, with red-tipped fur. White blaze is present on forehead of some but not all individuals. Venter is light grayish brown. Tail is hairy and bicolored, grayish yellow above and white below. Backs of feet are well-furred, with light colored hairs. They are distinguished from other species of Eospalaxby smaller size, more slender claws, and smaller molars. Diploid numberis 2n = 58.","habitat":"Forest, scrub, grassland, and cropland at elevations of 1000-3000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"134","verbatimText":"12.Chinese Bamboo RatRhizomys sinensisFrench:Rhizomys de Chine/ German:China-Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu de ChinaTaxonomy.Rhizomys sinensis Gray, 1831,near Canton, Guangdong, China.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Wang Yingxiang in 2003 treated ward: as a distinct species and named neowardi as a new subspecies of wardi. Subspecies vestitusis also sometimes treated as a distinct species. These approaches were not adopted by A. T. Smith in 2008, but presence of multiple species within what is currently recognized as R. sinensisseemslikely. Six subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.s.sinensisGray,1831—SEYunnan,Guangxi,andGuangdong(SChina).R.s.davidiThomas,1911—SChongqing,SHubei,Anhui,Zhejiang,SGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,andNEGuangdong(C&SEChina).R.s.pediculusWangYingxiang,2003—WYunnan(SWChina).R.s.reductusDaoVanTien&CaoVanSung,1990—NVietnam.R.s.vestitusMilne-Edwards,1871—SGansu,SShaanxi,Sichuan,NChongqing,andNHubei(CChina).R. s. wardi Thomas, 1921— NW Yunnan (SW China) and N Myanmar.Descriptive notes.Head—body 216-450 mm,tail 50-96 mm; weight 1-9 kg. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is brownish gray or pinkish gray above, with darker forehead and sides of face. Dorsal pelage is soft, and venter is more sparsely haired. Throatis lighter than rest of venter. Upper incisors are extrabuccal and orange, and they rise perpendicularly from maxilla and then curve slightly inward toward tips. They are not proodont. Single thin sagittal crest is present. There are eight nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal.Habitat.Usually bamboo thickets but also pine forests at elevations of 1219-3962 m.Food and Feeding.Bamboo roots and shoots are primary foods of Chinese Bamboo Rats, but they also reportedly eat grass seeds and crops. They usually feed at night on the surface.Breeding.Reproduction of the Chinese Bamboo Rat peaks in spring but can occur year-round. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be up to eight. Young are naked and weaned after c.3 months.Activity patterns.Chinese Bamboo Rats appear to leave their burrows to feed on nearby bamboo plants, primarily at night, but they are occasionally active in daytime. This dual subterranean and aboveground life is reflected in morphology of middle and inner ears that have adaptations found in subterranean and terrestrial mammals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Chinese Bamboo Rats are up to 45 m long and extend up to 20-30 cm below the surface. Burrows have 4-7 external entrances indicated by mounds 50-80 cm in diameter and 20-40 cm high. Den chamber of 20-25 cm is present. Burrows are abandoned after a year as an individual uses up food resources in the area. Predators include the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), the Leopard (P. pardus), and occasionally the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The Chinese Bamboo Rat might fiercely defend itself with its powerful incisors when cornered.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Subspecies vestitusis assessed separately as data deficient on the China Red List. It is a crop pest and can be found in agricultural areas. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and is hunted for food.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lunde, Aplin & Musser (2008), Plestilovéa et al. (2016), Smith (2008), Wang Yingxiang (2003).","taxonomy":"Rhizomys sinensis Gray, 1831,near Canton, Guangdong, China.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Wang Yingxiang in 2003 treated ward: as a distinct species and named neowardi as a new subspecies of wardi. Subspecies vestitusis also sometimes treated as a distinct species. These approaches were not adopted by A. T. Smith in 2008, but presence of multiple species within what is currently recognized as R. sinensisseemslikely. Six subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rhizomys de Chine @fr | China-Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu de China @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1831","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Rhizomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"134","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sinensis","name":"Rhizomys sinensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.s.sinensisGray,1831—SEYunnan,Guangxi,andGuangdong(SChina).R.s.davidiThomas,1911—SChongqing,SHubei,Anhui,Zhejiang,SGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,andNEGuangdong(C&SEChina).R.s.pediculusWangYingxiang,2003—WYunnan(SWChina).R.s.reductusDaoVanTien&CaoVanSung,1990—NVietnam.R.s.vestitusMilne-Edwards,1871—SGansu,SShaanxi,Sichuan,NChongqing,andNHubei(CChina).R. s. wardi Thomas, 1921— NW Yunnan (SW China) and N Myanmar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609130/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lunde, Aplin & Musser (2008) | Plestilovéa et al. (2016) | Smith (2008) | Wang Yingxiang (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"Bamboo roots and shoots are primary foods of Chinese Bamboo Rats, but they also reportedly eat grass seeds and crops. They usually feed at night on the surface.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Chinese Bamboo Rat peaks in spring but can occur year-round. Litter size is usually 2-4 young but can be up to eight. Young are naked and weaned after c.3 months.","activityPatterns":"Chinese Bamboo Rats appear to leave their burrows to feed on nearby bamboo plants, primarily at night, but they are occasionally active in daytime. This dual subterranean and aboveground life is reflected in morphology of middle and inner ears that have adaptations found in subterranean and terrestrial mammals.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Chinese Bamboo Rats are up to 45 m long and extend up to 20-30 cm below the surface. Burrows have 4-7 external entrances indicated by mounds 50-80 cm in diameter and 20-40 cm high. Den chamber of 20-25 cm is present. Burrows are abandoned after a year as an individual uses up food resources in the area. Predators include the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), the Leopard (P. pardus), and occasionally the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The Chinese Bamboo Rat might fiercely defend itself with its powerful incisors when cornered.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Subspecies vestitusis assessed separately as data deficient on the China Red List. It is a crop pest and can be found in agricultural areas. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and is hunted for food.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 216-450 mm,tail 50-96 mm; weight 1-9 kg. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is brownish gray or pinkish gray above, with darker forehead and sides of face. Dorsal pelage is soft, and venter is more sparsely haired. Throatis lighter than rest of venter. Upper incisors are extrabuccal and orange, and they rise perpendicularly from maxilla and then curve slightly inward toward tips. They are not proodont. Single thin sagittal crest is present. There are eight nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal.","habitat":"Usually bamboo thickets but also pine forests at elevations of 1219-3962 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"135","verbatimText":"13.Hoary Bamboo RatRhizomys pruinosusFrench:Rhizomys grisonnant/ German:Graue Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu canosaTaxonomy.Rhizomys pruinosus Blyth, 1851,Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, India.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.R.p.pruinosusBlyth,1851—Meghalaya,SAssam,extremeNEArunachalPradesh,Nagaland,Manipur,NTripura,andNMizoram(NEIndia),NWMyanmar,andWYunnan(SWChina).R.p.latoucheiThomas,1915—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver,includingGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,Guangxi,andGuangdong.R.p.pannosusThomas,1915—EMyanmar,Thailand,Laos,SCambodia,andVietnam.R.p.senexThomas,1915—NEMyanmarandSYunnan(SWChina).R. p. umbriceps Thomas, 1916— N Malay Peninsula S to Perak (N Malaysia). Also present in NW India (Himachal Pradesh), but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head-body 240-350 mm, tail 90-130 mm; weight 1.5-2.5 kg. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is grayish brown to chocolate-brown, with lighter venter. Intermittent long white-tipped guard hairs give grizzled appearance. Pelage is dense and soft. White-tipped hairs and dense pelage are less pronounced in the southern part of its distribution. Almost hairless tail is longer relative to head-body length than on the Chinese Bamboo Rat (R. sinensis). Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont; molars are orange. Rostrum is narrower than in the Chinese Bamboo Rat, and sagittal crest is lyre-shaped. There are 8-10 nipples: 1 or 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Minute, presumably non-functional, pair of pectoral nipples is present on some individuals. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.Habitat.Bamboo thickets, bamboo hillsides and montane forest, tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, grassland mixed with secondary forest, shrub forest, and, with less frequency, pine and fir forests. The Hoary Bamboo Ratis not common in agricultural areas or mature forest. In the northern parts of its distribution, it is found in bamboo thickets or beardgrass (Polypogon, Poaceae) at elevations of less than 1000 m in China and less than 1500 m in north-eastern India, especially where it overlaps with the Chinese Bamboo Rat, which lives at higher elevations. In the southern part ofits distribution, the Hoary Bamboo Rat is found at a broader range of elevations of 100-4000 m. In China, individuals appear to move among habitats seasonally, preferring large bamboo groves, secondary forest, and shrub forest in spring and summer and sparsely forested regions with silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis, Poaceae) or forked ferns (Dicranopteris, Gleicheniaceae) in autumn and winter.Food and Feeding.Hoary Bamboo Rats feed on roots and shoots of bamboo, beardgrass,silvergrass, and occasionally other plant types. Individuals generally feed on plants within 5-10 m from their burrow entrance. Food may be eaten outside the burrow or dragged back into the burrow. Stalks are held in place by front paws, while outer layers are stripped by incisors. Food is consumed in a manner where upper incisors are held motionless, lower incisors plane the object, and food is chewed by molars. Small uneaten nubs remain after feeding. Captive individuals manually remove cylindrical fecal pellets using incisors and toss them into dung piles. Presumably similar behavior occurs in the wild either in a toilet chamber, or fecal pellets are brought to the toilet.Breeding.A female Hoary Bamboo Rat in estrus does not seal her burrow entrance, and a male moves in to breed. Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in November— December and March—June. Females line nest chambers with dry grass. After gestation of 22 days, a female gives birth to a litter of 1-5 young. Young are born naked and weigh 35-40 g at birth. Eyes open after 28-30 days, and offspring grow a coat ofjet black fur. Weaning takes place 56-78 days later, and females appear to reach sexual maturity at c.160 days.Activity patterns.The Hoary Bamboo Rat exits its burrow at night to feed on the surface. It appears to be less aggressive than the Chinese Bamboo Rat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Hoary Bamboo Rats are relatively simple, containing a single entrance (rarely 2—4 entrances), characterized by a mound of dirt. A 1-2 m long tunnel connects the entrance to the nest chamber, which is 12 x 32 cm and often contains a store of food. A toilet chamberis located 20-40 cm from the nest chamber and a bolt-hole is present. Burrows are temporary; females with young may extend their time in a single burrow to just over a month. Burrows are primarily excavated with incisors; feet are used to push loosened dirt behind. The individual will then turn and push accumulated soil out of the entrance. Hoary Bamboo Rats are solitary except for breeding when males move into females’ burrows. Same-sex adult individuals are never found in the same burrow. Males forced to cohabit in artificial settings will fight and even kill each other. Conspecifics are attacked with bites to head, neck, and cheeks; wild males have been observed with scars in these areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas. It is hunted for food and faces habitat loss in parts of its distribution, particularly in western areas. Populations in India appear to be declining and warrant protection.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Allen (1940), Aplin, Lunde & Molur (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Molur et al. (2005), Smith (2008), Tanomtong et al. (2013), Xu Longhui (1984).","taxonomy":"Rhizomys pruinosus Blyth, 1851,Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, India.Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rhizomys grisonnant @fr | Graue Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu canosa @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blyth","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1851","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Rhizomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"135","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pruinosus","name":"Rhizomys pruinosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"R.p.pruinosusBlyth,1851—Meghalaya,SAssam,extremeNEArunachalPradesh,Nagaland,Manipur,NTripura,andNMizoram(NEIndia),NWMyanmar,andWYunnan(SWChina).R.p.latoucheiThomas,1915—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver,includingGuizhou,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian,Guangxi,andGuangdong.R.p.pannosusThomas,1915—EMyanmar,Thailand,Laos,SCambodia,andVietnam.R.p.senexThomas,1915—NEMyanmarandSYunnan(SWChina).R. p. umbriceps Thomas, 1916— N Malay Peninsula S to Perak (N Malaysia). Also present in NW India (Himachal Pradesh), but subspecies involved not known.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609133/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Agrawal (2000) | Allen (1940) | Aplin, Lunde & Molur (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Molur et al. (2005) | Smith (2008) | Tanomtong et al. (2013) | Xu Longhui (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"Hoary Bamboo Rats feed on roots and shoots of bamboo, beardgrass,silvergrass, and occasionally other plant types. Individuals generally feed on plants within 5-10 m from their burrow entrance. Food may be eaten outside the burrow or dragged back into the burrow. Stalks are held in place by front paws, while outer layers are stripped by incisors. Food is consumed in a manner where upper incisors are held motionless, lower incisors plane the object, and food is chewed by molars. Small uneaten nubs remain after feeding. Captive individuals manually remove cylindrical fecal pellets using incisors and toss them into dung piles. Presumably similar behavior occurs in the wild either in a toilet chamber, or fecal pellets are brought to the toilet.","breeding":"A female Hoary Bamboo Rat in estrus does not seal her burrow entrance, and a male moves in to breed. Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in November— December and March—June. Females line nest chambers with dry grass. After gestation of 22 days, a female gives birth to a litter of 1-5 young. Young are born naked and weigh 35-40 g at birth. Eyes open after 28-30 days, and offspring grow a coat ofjet black fur. Weaning takes place 56-78 days later, and females appear to reach sexual maturity at c.160 days.","activityPatterns":"The Hoary Bamboo Rat exits its burrow at night to feed on the surface. It appears to be less aggressive than the Chinese Bamboo Rat.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Hoary Bamboo Rats are relatively simple, containing a single entrance (rarely 2—4 entrances), characterized by a mound of dirt. A 1-2 m long tunnel connects the entrance to the nest chamber, which is 12 x 32 cm and often contains a store of food. A toilet chamberis located 20-40 cm from the nest chamber and a bolt-hole is present. Burrows are temporary; females with young may extend their time in a single burrow to just over a month. Burrows are primarily excavated with incisors; feet are used to push loosened dirt behind. The individual will then turn and push accumulated soil out of the entrance. Hoary Bamboo Rats are solitary except for breeding when males move into females’ burrows. Same-sex adult individuals are never found in the same burrow. Males forced to cohabit in artificial settings will fight and even kill each other. Conspecifics are attacked with bites to head, neck, and cheeks; wild males have been observed with scars in these areas.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas. It is hunted for food and faces habitat loss in parts of its distribution, particularly in western areas. Populations in India appear to be declining and warrant protection.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 240-350 mm, tail 90-130 mm; weight 1.5-2.5 kg. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is grayish brown to chocolate-brown, with lighter venter. Intermittent long white-tipped guard hairs give grizzled appearance. Pelage is dense and soft. White-tipped hairs and dense pelage are less pronounced in the southern part of its distribution. Almost hairless tail is longer relative to head-body length than on the Chinese Bamboo Rat (R. sinensis). Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont; molars are orange. Rostrum is narrower than in the Chinese Bamboo Rat, and sagittal crest is lyre-shaped. There are 8-10 nipples: 1 or 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Minute, presumably non-functional, pair of pectoral nipples is present on some individuals. Diploid numberis 2n = 50.","habitat":"Bamboo thickets, bamboo hillsides and montane forest, tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, grassland mixed with secondary forest, shrub forest, and, with less frequency, pine and fir forests. The Hoary Bamboo Ratis not common in agricultural areas or mature forest. In the northern parts of its distribution, it is found in bamboo thickets or beardgrass (Polypogon, Poaceae) at elevations of less than 1000 m in China and less than 1500 m in north-eastern India, especially where it overlaps with the Chinese Bamboo Rat, which lives at higher elevations. In the southern part ofits distribution, the Hoary Bamboo Rat is found at a broader range of elevations of 100-4000 m. In China, individuals appear to move among habitats seasonally, preferring large bamboo groves, secondary forest, and shrub forest in spring and summer and sparsely forested regions with silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis, Poaceae) or forked ferns (Dicranopteris, Gleicheniaceae) in autumn and winter."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"136","verbatimText":"15.Lesser Bamboo RatCannomys badiusFrench:Cannomys/ German:Kleine Bambusratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu pequenaOther common names:Bay Bamboo RatTaxonomy.Rhizomys badius Hodgson, 1841,Nepal.It is the only species in the genus Cannomys, which is sister to Rhizomys. J. R. Ellerman in 1961 recognized castaneusnamed by E. Blyth in 1843, paternamed by O. Thomas in 1915, and plumbescens named by Thomas in 1915 as distinct subspecies on the basis of differences in head— body length and cranial measurements. V. C. Agrawal in 2000 did not recover evidence to support these differences and suggested that they be synonymized. Nevertheless, it seems likely that C. badiuswill be split into multiple subspecies, or even species, by future studies. Cannomyshas no fossil record. Monotypic.Distribution.E Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram (NE India), Bhutan, SE Bangladesh, Myanmar, SW Yunnan (SW China), N Laos, NW Vietnam, Thailand, and N Cambodia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 147-265 mm,tail 47-96 mm; weight 210-800 g. The Lesser Bamboo Rat ranges from reddish cinnamon, red-brown to chestnut-brown, ashy gray, to purple-black. Venter is lighter. One or more white blazes can occur on top of head, and narrow white band can be present on chin. Eyes and ear pinnae are small, body is stocky, and legs are short. Tail is sparsely haired. Forelimbs are equipped with long, powerful claws. Incisors are red to yellow. The Lesser Bamboo Rat differs from species of Rhizomysin having much smaller body size, smooth instead of granular footpads, more protruding incisors, longer rostrum,larger auditory bullae, longer and more prominent sagittal crest, and the first molar largest and third molar smallest. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. A. Tanomtong and colleagues in 2011 demonstrated diploid number of 2n = 50, but other sources report 2n = 60.Habitat.Most strongly associated with bamboo thickets. The Lesser Bamboo Rat also occurs in grassy areas, montane forests, brush, and gardens, butit is absent in rice paddies. It has been observed from sea level to elevations of 4000 m.Food and Feeding.The Lesser Bamboo Rat feeds on shoots, roots, and leaves from a variety of plants. It prefers young plants and shoots, particularly bamboo and cereals.Breeding.One to five naked Lesser Bamboo Rats are born per litter after gestation of 40-43 days. Young are weaned after ¢.8 weeks and are sexually mature after c.1 year.Activity patterns.The Lesser Bamboo Rat is nocturnal and leaves its burrow to feed. It moves slowly aboveground.It is primarily a chisel-tooth digger but also uses its front claws.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Lesser Bamboo Rats can be extensive, reaching lengths of ¢.58 m and depths of ¢.60 cm. Burrows are plugged in the day. Densities can reach 600 ind/ha. Predators include small carnivores.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and data deficient on the 2016 China Red List. The Lesser Bamboo Rat can be an agricultural pest, especially of tea and rubber, and is hunted for food. Certain populations may be threatened by habitat loss and overhunting. It is known from several protected areas.Bibliography.Agrawal (2000), Aplin, Lunde et al. (2008), Blyth (1843), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ellerman (1961), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Musser & Carleton (2005), Nevo (1999), Nowak (1999), Smith (2008), Tanomtong et al. (2011), Thomas (1915b).","taxonomy":"Rhizomys badius Hodgson, 1841,Nepal.It is the only species in the genus Cannomys, which is sister to Rhizomys. J. R. Ellerman in 1961 recognized castaneusnamed by E. Blyth in 1843, paternamed by O. Thomas in 1915, and plumbescens named by Thomas in 1915 as distinct subspecies on the basis of differences in head— body length and cranial measurements. V. C. Agrawal in 2000 did not recover evidence to support these differences and suggested that they be synonymized. Nevertheless, it seems likely that C. badiuswill be split into multiple subspecies, or even species, by future studies. Cannomyshas no fossil record. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cannomys @fr | Kleine Bambusratte @de | Rata de bambu pequena @es | Bay Bamboo Rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Cannomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"136","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"badius","name":"Cannomys badius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram (NE India), Bhutan, SE Bangladesh, Myanmar, SW Yunnan (SW China), N Laos, NW Vietnam, Thailand, and N Cambodia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609137/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Agrawal (2000) | Aplin, Lunde et al. (2008) | Blyth (1843) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Ellerman (1961) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Nevo (1999) | Nowak (1999) | Smith (2008) | Tanomtong et al. (2011) | Thomas (1915b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Lesser Bamboo Rat feeds on shoots, roots, and leaves from a variety of plants. It prefers young plants and shoots, particularly bamboo and cereals.","breeding":"One to five naked Lesser Bamboo Rats are born per litter after gestation of 40-43 days. Young are weaned after ¢.8 weeks and are sexually mature after c.1 year.","activityPatterns":"The Lesser Bamboo Rat is nocturnal and leaves its burrow to feed. It moves slowly aboveground.It is primarily a chisel-tooth digger but also uses its front claws.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Lesser Bamboo Rats can be extensive, reaching lengths of ¢.58 m and depths of ¢.60 cm. Burrows are plugged in the day. Densities can reach 600 ind/ha. Predators include small carnivores.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and data deficient on the 2016 China Red List. The Lesser Bamboo Rat can be an agricultural pest, especially of tea and rubber, and is hunted for food. Certain populations may be threatened by habitat loss and overhunting. It is known from several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 147-265 mm,tail 47-96 mm; weight 210-800 g. The Lesser Bamboo Rat ranges from reddish cinnamon, red-brown to chestnut-brown, ashy gray, to purple-black. Venter is lighter. One or more white blazes can occur on top of head, and narrow white band can be present on chin. Eyes and ear pinnae are small, body is stocky, and legs are short. Tail is sparsely haired. Forelimbs are equipped with long, powerful claws. Incisors are red to yellow. The Lesser Bamboo Rat differs from species of Rhizomysin having much smaller body size, smooth instead of granular footpads, more protruding incisors, longer rostrum,larger auditory bullae, longer and more prominent sagittal crest, and the first molar largest and third molar smallest. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. A. Tanomtong and colleagues in 2011 demonstrated diploid number of 2n = 50, but other sources report 2n = 60.","habitat":"Most strongly associated with bamboo thickets. The Lesser Bamboo Rat also occurs in grassy areas, montane forests, brush, and gardens, butit is absent in rice paddies. It has been observed from sea level to elevations of 4000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9CBD10FE35FDCCFA64FAD1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9CBD10FE35FDCCFA64FAD1","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"108","verbatimText":"Family SPALACIDAE(MUROID MOLE-RATS)• Small to medium-sized rodents with adaptations for subterranean life such as cylindrical bodies, enlarged incisors, and reduced tails, eyes, and ear pinnae.• 13-70 cm.• Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Indo-Malayan regions.• Steppes, grasslands, meadows, forests, bamboo thickets, and farmlands.• 7 genera, 28 species, 4H taxa.• 2 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"131","verbatimText":"3.Armand’s ZokorMyospalax armandiiFrench:Zokor dArmand/ German:Armand-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de ArmandTaxonomy.Siphneus armandii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Mongolianplateau (N Shanxi).Member of M. myospalaxspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax armandiiis the sister species of M. aspalax, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. armandiiis distinct from but closely related to M. aspalax. They are united into the aspalaxsuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.Distribution.E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), N Shanxi, N Hebei, W Liaoning, W Jilin, and S Heilongjiang (NE China), and SE Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-233 mm, tail 48-69 mm; weight 225-422 g. Measurements are from A. T. Smith in 2008, which may include specimens of the Steppe Zokor (M. aspalax). Armand’s Zokor looks similar to the Steppe Zokor. It is grayish, with yellow or light brown tinge. Lips are white, and forehead and other parts of head and ears can have white spots. Venter is grayish white, and tail and feet have short white hairs. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Steppe, meadows, and farmland.Food and Feeding.Armand’s Zokor feeds on underground roots, rhizomes, leaves, and buds.Breeding.No information.On following pages: 4. Manchurian Zokor (Myospalax psilurus); 5. Khingan Zokor (Myospalax epsilanus); 6. Fontanier's Zokor (Eospalax baileyi); 10. Rothschild’s Zokor (Eospalax rothschildi); 11. Smith's Zokor (Eospalaxsmithi); 12. Chinese Bamboo sumatrensis); 15. Lesser Bamboo Rat (Cannomys badius); 16. African Root Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens); 17. Giant Root antiquus); 20. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat (Spalax graecus); 21. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat (Spalax zemni); 22. Sandy Blind Mole-rat giganteus); 25. Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (Spalax uralensis); 26. Lesser Blind Mole-rat (Nannospalax leucodon); 27. Anatolian (Eospalaxfontanieril); 7. Gansu Zokor (Eospalax cansus); 8. Qinling Zokor (Eospalaxrufescens); 9. Plateau Zokor Rat (Rhizomys sinensis); 13. Hoary Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys pruinosus); 14. Indomalayan Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys Rat(Tachyoryctes macrocephalus); 18. Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (Spalax istricus); 19. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (Spalax(Spalax arenarius); 23. Greater Blind Mole-rat (Spalax microphthalmus); 24. Giant Blind Mole-rat (Spalax BlindMole-rat (Nannospalaxxanthodon); 28. Middle East Blind Mole-rat (Nannospalax ehrenbergi).Activity patterns.Armand’s Zokor constructs burrows in rich, dark, soft soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. aspalaxin both).Bibliography.Allen (1940), Chelomina et al. (2011), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlienko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar & Lkhagvasuren (2008), Smith (2008b), Tarasov et al. (2011), Tsvirka et al. (2011).","taxonomy":"Siphneus armandii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Mongolianplateau (N Shanxi).Member of M. myospalaxspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax armandiiis the sister species of M. aspalax, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. armandiiis distinct from but closely related to M. aspalax. They are united into the aspalaxsuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor d Armand @fr | Armand-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Armand @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1867","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Myospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"131","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"armandii","name":"Myospalax armandii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), N Shanxi, N Hebei, W Liaoning, W Jilin, and S Heilongjiang (NE China), and SE Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia).","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Chelomina et al. (2011) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlienko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar & Lkhagvasuren (2008) | Smith (2008b) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Armand’s Zokor feeds on underground roots, rhizomes, leaves, and buds.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Armand’s Zokor constructs burrows in rich, dark, soft soil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. aspalaxin both).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-233 mm, tail 48-69 mm; weight 225-422 g. Measurements are from A. T. Smith in 2008, which may include specimens of the Steppe Zokor (M. aspalax). Armand’s Zokor looks similar to the Steppe Zokor. It is grayish, with yellow or light brown tinge. Lips are white, and forehead and other parts of head and ears can have white spots. Venter is grayish white, and tail and feet have short white hairs. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","habitat":"Steppe, meadows, and farmland."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"132","verbatimText":"4.Manchurian ZokorMyospalax psilurusFrench:Zokor mandchou/ German:Mandschurei-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de ManchuriaOther common names:North China Zokor, Transbaikal ZokorTaxonomy.Siphneus psilurus Milne-Edwards, 1874,south of Beijing, Chihli (= Hebei), China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. It is the sister species of M. epsilanus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. psiluruswas more closely related to other species of Myospalaxthan to M. epsilanus, butthis idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. psilurusis distinct from but closely related to M. epsilanus. They were united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Populations from Primorsky Krai, Russia, had been assumed to be M. epsilanusuntil recently. Monotypic.Distribution.S Gansu to S Heilongjiang (NE China) and SW Primorsky Krai (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 35-55 mm; weight 185-400 g. Measurements are taken from A. T. Smith in 2008 and probably include size ranges for the Khingan Zokor (M. epsilanus). The Manchurian Zokoris straw gray with slight reddish or yellow tones. Cheeks and forehead are ashy fawn. White blaze is present on back of head. Venter is grayer. Tail and feet are almost naked; long sparse white hairs are present. Incisive foramen of the Manchurian Zokor is longer than that of the Khingan Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.Habitat.Rivervalleys, fallow land, steppe woodland, and early succession forest, preferring steppe meadows.Food and Feeding.Manchurian Zokors feed on roots, rhizomes, stems, bulbs, and shoots of a variety of plants. Small rodents (Apodemusand Phodopus) have been found in the stomachs of Manchurian Zokors.Breeding.Mating of Manchurian Zokors occursin late April to early May. One litter of 2-4 young is produced per year. Young are typically born in early May, weaned in early June, and remain with their mother through spring and early summer. By October,at a length of c.190 mm, juveniles establish their own small burrows near their mothers. Longer distance aboveground dispersal may take place the following spring.Activity patterns.Manchurian Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Manchurian Zokors include feeding tunnels located 12-20 cm belowground and a deeper (40-110 cm) section that includes a nest, storage chambers, and toilets. Active digging occurs in feeding tunnels while food is sought. Feeding tunnels are plugged when they are abandoned. Digging activity markedly increases in October when extra food is gathered for winter.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. epsilanus). Populations of Manchurian Zokor in Primorsky Krai, Russia, are declining.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016f), Puzachenko, Pavlienko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar et al. (2008), Smith (2008b), Tarasov et al. (2011), Tsvirka et al. (2011).","taxonomy":"Siphneus psilurus Milne-Edwards, 1874,south of Beijing, Chihli (= Hebei), China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. It is the sister species of M. epsilanus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. psiluruswas more closely related to other species of Myospalaxthan to M. epsilanus, butthis idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. psilurusis distinct from but closely related to M. epsilanus. They were united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Populations from Primorsky Krai, Russia, had been assumed to be M. epsilanusuntil recently. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor mandchou @fr | Mandschurei-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Manchuria @es | North China Zokor @en | Transbaikal Zokor @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1874","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Myospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"132","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"psilurus","name":"Myospalax psilurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Gansu to S Heilongjiang (NE China) and SW Primorsky Krai (Russia).","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016f) | Puzachenko, Pavlienko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar et al. (2008) | Smith (2008b) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Manchurian Zokors feed on roots, rhizomes, stems, bulbs, and shoots of a variety of plants. Small rodents (Apodemusand Phodopus) have been found in the stomachs of Manchurian Zokors.","breeding":"Mating of Manchurian Zokors occursin late April to early May. One litter of 2-4 young is produced per year. Young are typically born in early May, weaned in early June, and remain with their mother through spring and early summer. By October,at a length of c.190 mm, juveniles establish their own small burrows near their mothers. Longer distance aboveground dispersal may take place the following spring.","activityPatterns":"Manchurian Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Manchurian Zokors include feeding tunnels located 12-20 cm belowground and a deeper (40-110 cm) section that includes a nest, storage chambers, and toilets. Active digging occurs in feeding tunnels while food is sought. Feeding tunnels are plugged when they are abandoned. Digging activity markedly increases in October when extra food is gathered for winter.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. epsilanus). Populations of Manchurian Zokor in Primorsky Krai, Russia, are declining.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 35-55 mm; weight 185-400 g. Measurements are taken from A. T. Smith in 2008 and probably include size ranges for the Khingan Zokor (M. epsilanus). The Manchurian Zokoris straw gray with slight reddish or yellow tones. Cheeks and forehead are ashy fawn. White blaze is present on back of head. Venter is grayer. Tail and feet are almost naked; long sparse white hairs are present. Incisive foramen of the Manchurian Zokor is longer than that of the Khingan Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.","habitat":"Rivervalleys, fallow land, steppe woodland, and early succession forest, preferring steppe meadows."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"132","verbatimText":"5.Khingan ZokorMyospalax epsilanusFrench:Zokor des Khingan/ German:Hinggan-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de KhinganTaxonomy.Myospalax epsilanus Thomas, 1912,“ Khingan Mts., Manchuria, 3400 [= 1036 m],” Heilongjiang Province, China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated (along with M. psilurus) as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax epsilanusis the sister species of M. psilurus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. epsilanuswas sister to all other extant Myospalacinae, but this idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCRsupport the conclusion that M. epsilanusis distinct from but closely related to M. psilurus. They are united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. On the basis of differences in incisive foramen and molar morphology, A. Yu. Puzachenko and colleagues in 2014 suggested that a distinct subspecies may be present in Zabaykalsky Krai and E Mongolia, but it has not been named. Monotypic.Distribution.S Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia), E Mongolia, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol) and Heilongjiang (NE China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 198-223 mm, tail ¢.43 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Khingan Zokoris slightly larger than the Manchurian Zokor (M. psilurus). It is straw gray-brown, with slight reddish tones. Nose and forehead are lighter and grayer. Chin and throat are whitish, and additional white patches can be present elsewhere on head. Venter is grayer. Tail is almost naked; hairs are sparse. Young are lighter than adults. Pterygoid fossa is deeper and M® is smaller compared with the Manchurian Zokor. Incisive foramen is shorter on the Khingan Zokor than the Manchurian Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.Habitat.River valleys, steppe-woodland, and mixed grassy meadows, preferring steppe and meadows. The Khingan Zokoris not as much of an agricultural pest as many other species of zokor.Food and Feeding.The Khingan Zokor eats cereal rhizomes, stems, and shoots under natural conditions. Roots and shoots of other plant varieties constitute the remainder of the diet.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Khingan Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. psilurusin both). The Khingan Zokor is classified as “declining” in the Red Data Book of Russia (as M. psilurusepsilanus). It is threatened by habitat degradation as natural landscapes are converted to agriculture. It occurs in protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), lliashenko & lliashenko (2000), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016f), Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar et al. (2008), Tarasov et al. (2011), Thomas (1912a, 1912b), Tsvirka et al. (2011).","taxonomy":"Myospalax epsilanus Thomas, 1912,“ Khingan Mts., Manchuria, 3400 [= 1036 m],” Heilongjiang Province, China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated (along with M. psilurus) as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax epsilanusis the sister species of M. psilurus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. epsilanuswas sister to all other extant Myospalacinae, but this idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCRsupport the conclusion that M. epsilanusis distinct from but closely related to M. psilurus. They are united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. On the basis of differences in incisive foramen and molar morphology, A. Yu. Puzachenko and colleagues in 2014 suggested that a distinct subspecies may be present in Zabaykalsky Krai and E Mongolia, but it has not been named. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor des Khingan @fr | Hinggan-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Khingan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Myospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"132","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"epsilanus","name":"Myospalax epsilanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia), E Mongolia, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol) and Heilongjiang (NE China).","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | lliashenko & lliashenko (2000) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016f) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar et al. (2008) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Thomas (1912a, 1912b) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Khingan Zokor eats cereal rhizomes, stems, and shoots under natural conditions. Roots and shoots of other plant varieties constitute the remainder of the diet.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Khingan Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. psilurusin both). The Khingan Zokor is classified as “declining” in the Red Data Book of Russia (as M. psilurusepsilanus). It is threatened by habitat degradation as natural landscapes are converted to agriculture. It occurs in protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 198-223 mm, tail ¢.43 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Khingan Zokoris slightly larger than the Manchurian Zokor (M. psilurus). It is straw gray-brown, with slight reddish tones. Nose and forehead are lighter and grayer. Chin and throat are whitish, and additional white patches can be present elsewhere on head. Venter is grayer. Tail is almost naked; hairs are sparse. Young are lighter than adults. Pterygoid fossa is deeper and M® is smaller compared with the Manchurian Zokor. Incisive foramen is shorter on the Khingan Zokor than the Manchurian Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.","habitat":"River valleys, steppe-woodland, and mixed grassy meadows, preferring steppe and meadows. The Khingan Zokoris not as much of an agricultural pest as many other species of zokor."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"132","verbatimText":"6.Fontanier’s ZokorEospalax fontanieriiFrench:Zokor de Fontanier/ German:China-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de FontanierOther common names:Chinese ZokorTaxonomy.Siphneus fontanierii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Kansu, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated them as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusand bailey: as subspecies of fontanieriiand treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontanieri pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyior E. cansus. In recent years, a variety of studies support treating E. fontanieriias a distinct species from these other forms based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data recover E. fontanieriias sister to a clade that contains all other species of Eospalaxwith moderate support. Monotypic.Distribution.N Shaanxi, Shanxi, W Hebei, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), E China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 163-245 mm,tail 38-69 mm; weight 184-563 g. Male Fontanier’s Zokors are larger than females. They are large and gray to yellowish brown overall. Hairs are slate-gray at the base and tipped with a more brownish color that shine enough to give slightsilvered effect. Chin and throat are gray, and underside is slightly grayer than dorsum. Upper lips and muzzle are white or light, and distinctive white streak is usually present running down midline of head. Additional white patches may be present elsewhere on body. Tail is long and sparsely haired, nearly naked. Feet are also sparsely haired. Young are dark gray; hairs are paler at tips. M”* has three re-entrant folds. Diploid numberis 2n = 60.Habitat.Steppe, grassland, farmland, pastures, and lawns.Food and Feeding.Fontanier’s Zokor feeds on roots and underparts of plants, usually accessing them from below. Food plants include Chinese artichoke (Stachyssieboldu, Lamiaceae), ladybells (Adenophora, Campanulaceae), Bupleurum(Apiaceae), great burnet (Sanguisorbaofficinalis, Rosaceae), Chinese red pine saplings (Pinustabuliformas, Pinaceae), and sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae). It builds up food stores during summer and autumn that are eaten in winter.Breeding.Reproduction of Fontanier’s Zokor peaks in March—June. Males and females are thoughtto live separately, only coming together during breeding, but they have been observed in the same burrow at other times. Litter sizes are 1-6 young, usually 2—4 young.Activity patterns.Underground activity of Fontanier’s Zokors peaks in morning and evening. When an individual ventures aboveground, it does so at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Fontanier’s Zokors are elaborate with multiple chambers and tunnels, but little indication of a burrow’s presence might be visible aboveground. They are 66-127 m long. Food-finding, pathway, and communication tunnels are present along with toilet, nesting, and food storage chambers. Nest chamber is ¢.35 x 30 x 25 cm, lined with dry grasses and leaves, and located deep in the burrow system (c.93 cm deep). One to three storage chambers are present. Toilets tend to be located at the far ends of the system. When a toilet is full, it is blocked off, and another one is dug. Parts of the burrow may be abandoned over time; these are walled off. Specific communication tunnels are constructed wherein individuals communicate seismically with neighbors. Predators include the Altai Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (an assessment that includes E. cansus, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi) and the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. Fontanier’s Zokoris an agricultural pest and is the subject of control measures, including poison.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Gu Shougin (1981), Fan Naichang & ShiYinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008).","taxonomy":"Siphneus fontanierii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Kansu, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated them as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusand bailey: as subspecies of fontanieriiand treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontanieri pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyior E. cansus. In recent years, a variety of studies support treating E. fontanieriias a distinct species from these other forms based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data recover E. fontanieriias sister to a clade that contains all other species of Eospalaxwith moderate support. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor de Fontanier @fr | China-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Fontanier @es | Chinese Zokor @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1867","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"132","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fontanierii","name":"Eospalax fontanierii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Shaanxi, Shanxi, W Hebei, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), E China.","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Gu Shougin (1981) | Fan Naichang & ShiYinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Fontanier’s Zokor feeds on roots and underparts of plants, usually accessing them from below. Food plants include Chinese artichoke (Stachyssieboldu, Lamiaceae), ladybells (Adenophora, Campanulaceae), Bupleurum(Apiaceae), great burnet (Sanguisorbaofficinalis, Rosaceae), Chinese red pine saplings (Pinustabuliformas, Pinaceae), and sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae). It builds up food stores during summer and autumn that are eaten in winter.","breeding":"Reproduction of Fontanier’s Zokor peaks in March—June. Males and females are thoughtto live separately, only coming together during breeding, but they have been observed in the same burrow at other times. Litter sizes are 1-6 young, usually 2—4 young.","activityPatterns":"Underground activity of Fontanier’s Zokors peaks in morning and evening. When an individual ventures aboveground, it does so at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Fontanier’s Zokors are elaborate with multiple chambers and tunnels, but little indication of a burrow’s presence might be visible aboveground. They are 66-127 m long. Food-finding, pathway, and communication tunnels are present along with toilet, nesting, and food storage chambers. Nest chamber is ¢.35 x 30 x 25 cm, lined with dry grasses and leaves, and located deep in the burrow system (c.93 cm deep). One to three storage chambers are present. Toilets tend to be located at the far ends of the system. When a toilet is full, it is blocked off, and another one is dug. Parts of the burrow may be abandoned over time; these are walled off. Specific communication tunnels are constructed wherein individuals communicate seismically with neighbors. Predators include the Altai Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (an assessment that includes E. cansus, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi) and the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. Fontanier’s Zokoris an agricultural pest and is the subject of control measures, including poison.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 163-245 mm,tail 38-69 mm; weight 184-563 g. Male Fontanier’s Zokors are larger than females. They are large and gray to yellowish brown overall. Hairs are slate-gray at the base and tipped with a more brownish color that shine enough to give slightsilvered effect. Chin and throat are gray, and underside is slightly grayer than dorsum. Upper lips and muzzle are white or light, and distinctive white streak is usually present running down midline of head. Additional white patches may be present elsewhere on body. Tail is long and sparsely haired, nearly naked. Feet are also sparsely haired. Young are dark gray; hairs are paler at tips. M”* has three re-entrant folds. Diploid numberis 2n = 60.","habitat":"Steppe, grassland, farmland, pastures, and lawns."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"131","verbatimText":"3.Armand’s ZokorMyospalax armandiiFrench:Zokor dArmand/ German:Armand-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de ArmandTaxonomy.Siphneus armandii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Mongolianplateau (N Shanxi).Member of M. myospalaxspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax armandiiis the sister species of M. aspalax, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. armandiiis distinct from but closely related to M. aspalax. They are united into the aspalaxsuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.Distribution.E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), N Shanxi, N Hebei, W Liaoning, W Jilin, and S Heilongjiang (NE China), and SE Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head-body 140-233 mm, tail 48-69 mm; weight 225-422 g. Measurements are from A. T. Smith in 2008, which may include specimens of the Steppe Zokor (M. aspalax). Armand’s Zokor looks similar to the Steppe Zokor. It is grayish, with yellow or light brown tinge. Lips are white, and forehead and other parts of head and ears can have white spots. Venter is grayish white, and tail and feet have short white hairs. Diploid number is 2n = 62.Habitat.Steppe, meadows, and farmland.Food and Feeding.Armand’s Zokor feeds on underground roots, rhizomes, leaves, and buds.Breeding.No information.On following pages: 4. Manchurian Zokor (Myospalax psilurus); 5. Khingan Zokor (Myospalax epsilanus); 6. Fontanier's Zokor (Eospalax baileyi); 10. Rothschild’s Zokor (Eospalax rothschildi); 11. Smith's Zokor (Eospalaxsmithi); 12. Chinese Bamboo sumatrensis); 15. Lesser Bamboo Rat (Cannomys badius); 16. African Root Rat (Tachyoryctes splendens); 17. Giant Root antiquus); 20. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat (Spalax graecus); 21. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat (Spalax zemni); 22. Sandy Blind Mole-rat giganteus); 25. Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (Spalax uralensis); 26. Lesser Blind Mole-rat (Nannospalax leucodon); 27. Anatolian (Eospalaxfontanieril); 7. Gansu Zokor (Eospalax cansus); 8. Qinling Zokor (Eospalaxrufescens); 9. Plateau Zokor Rat (Rhizomys sinensis); 13. Hoary Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys pruinosus); 14. Indomalayan Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys Rat(Tachyoryctes macrocephalus); 18. Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (Spalax istricus); 19. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (Spalax(Spalax arenarius); 23. Greater Blind Mole-rat (Spalax microphthalmus); 24. Giant Blind Mole-rat (Spalax BlindMole-rat (Nannospalaxxanthodon); 28. Middle East Blind Mole-rat (Nannospalax ehrenbergi).Activity patterns.Armand’s Zokor constructs burrows in rich, dark, soft soil.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. aspalaxin both).Bibliography.Allen (1940), Chelomina et al. (2011), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlienko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar & Lkhagvasuren (2008), Smith (2008b), Tarasov et al. (2011), Tsvirka et al. (2011).","taxonomy":"Siphneus armandii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Mongolianplateau (N Shanxi).Member of M. myospalaxspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax armandiiis the sister species of M. aspalax, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. armandiiis distinct from but closely related to M. aspalax. They are united into the aspalaxsuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor d Armand @fr | Armand-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Armand @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1867","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Myospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"131","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"armandii","name":"Myospalax armandii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), N Shanxi, N Hebei, W Liaoning, W Jilin, and S Heilongjiang (NE China), and SE Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609110/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Chelomina et al. (2011) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlienko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar & Lkhagvasuren (2008) | Smith (2008b) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Armand’s Zokor feeds on underground roots, rhizomes, leaves, and buds.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Armand’s Zokor constructs burrows in rich, dark, soft soil.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. aspalaxin both).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 140-233 mm, tail 48-69 mm; weight 225-422 g. Measurements are from A. T. Smith in 2008, which may include specimens of the Steppe Zokor (M. aspalax). Armand’s Zokor looks similar to the Steppe Zokor. It is grayish, with yellow or light brown tinge. Lips are white, and forehead and other parts of head and ears can have white spots. Venter is grayish white, and tail and feet have short white hairs. Diploid number is 2n = 62.","habitat":"Steppe, meadows, and farmland."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"132","verbatimText":"4.Manchurian ZokorMyospalax psilurusFrench:Zokor mandchou/ German:Mandschurei-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de ManchuriaOther common names:North China Zokor, Transbaikal ZokorTaxonomy.Siphneus psilurus Milne-Edwards, 1874,south of Beijing, Chihli (= Hebei), China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. It is the sister species of M. epsilanus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. psiluruswas more closely related to other species of Myospalaxthan to M. epsilanus, butthis idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. psilurusis distinct from but closely related to M. epsilanus. They were united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Populations from Primorsky Krai, Russia, had been assumed to be M. epsilanusuntil recently. Monotypic.Distribution.S Gansu to S Heilongjiang (NE China) and SW Primorsky Krai (Russia).Descriptive notes.Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 35-55 mm; weight 185-400 g. Measurements are taken from A. T. Smith in 2008 and probably include size ranges for the Khingan Zokor (M. epsilanus). The Manchurian Zokoris straw gray with slight reddish or yellow tones. Cheeks and forehead are ashy fawn. White blaze is present on back of head. Venter is grayer. Tail and feet are almost naked; long sparse white hairs are present. Incisive foramen of the Manchurian Zokor is longer than that of the Khingan Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.Habitat.Rivervalleys, fallow land, steppe woodland, and early succession forest, preferring steppe meadows.Food and Feeding.Manchurian Zokors feed on roots, rhizomes, stems, bulbs, and shoots of a variety of plants. Small rodents (Apodemusand Phodopus) have been found in the stomachs of Manchurian Zokors.Breeding.Mating of Manchurian Zokors occursin late April to early May. One litter of 2-4 young is produced per year. Young are typically born in early May, weaned in early June, and remain with their mother through spring and early summer. By October,at a length of c.190 mm, juveniles establish their own small burrows near their mothers. Longer distance aboveground dispersal may take place the following spring.Activity patterns.Manchurian Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Manchurian Zokors include feeding tunnels located 12-20 cm belowground and a deeper (40-110 cm) section that includes a nest, storage chambers, and toilets. Active digging occurs in feeding tunnels while food is sought. Feeding tunnels are plugged when they are abandoned. Digging activity markedly increases in October when extra food is gathered for winter.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. epsilanus). Populations of Manchurian Zokor in Primorsky Krai, Russia, are declining.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016f), Puzachenko, Pavlienko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar et al. (2008), Smith (2008b), Tarasov et al. (2011), Tsvirka et al. (2011).","taxonomy":"Siphneus psilurus Milne-Edwards, 1874,south of Beijing, Chihli (= Hebei), China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. It is the sister species of M. epsilanus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. psiluruswas more closely related to other species of Myospalaxthan to M. epsilanus, butthis idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. psilurusis distinct from but closely related to M. epsilanus. They were united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Populations from Primorsky Krai, Russia, had been assumed to be M. epsilanusuntil recently. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor mandchou @fr | Mandschurei-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Manchuria @es | North China Zokor @en | Transbaikal Zokor @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1874","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Myospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"132","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"psilurus","name":"Myospalax psilurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Gansu to S Heilongjiang (NE China) and SW Primorsky Krai (Russia).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609112/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016f) | Puzachenko, Pavlienko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar et al. (2008) | Smith (2008b) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Manchurian Zokors feed on roots, rhizomes, stems, bulbs, and shoots of a variety of plants. Small rodents (Apodemusand Phodopus) have been found in the stomachs of Manchurian Zokors.","breeding":"Mating of Manchurian Zokors occursin late April to early May. One litter of 2-4 young is produced per year. Young are typically born in early May, weaned in early June, and remain with their mother through spring and early summer. By October,at a length of c.190 mm, juveniles establish their own small burrows near their mothers. Longer distance aboveground dispersal may take place the following spring.","activityPatterns":"Manchurian Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Manchurian Zokors include feeding tunnels located 12-20 cm belowground and a deeper (40-110 cm) section that includes a nest, storage chambers, and toilets. Active digging occurs in feeding tunnels while food is sought. Feeding tunnels are plugged when they are abandoned. Digging activity markedly increases in October when extra food is gathered for winter.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. epsilanus). Populations of Manchurian Zokor in Primorsky Krai, Russia, are declining.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 200-270 mm, tail 35-55 mm; weight 185-400 g. Measurements are taken from A. T. Smith in 2008 and probably include size ranges for the Khingan Zokor (M. epsilanus). The Manchurian Zokoris straw gray with slight reddish or yellow tones. Cheeks and forehead are ashy fawn. White blaze is present on back of head. Venter is grayer. Tail and feet are almost naked; long sparse white hairs are present. Incisive foramen of the Manchurian Zokor is longer than that of the Khingan Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.","habitat":"Rivervalleys, fallow land, steppe woodland, and early succession forest, preferring steppe meadows."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"132","verbatimText":"5.Khingan ZokorMyospalax epsilanusFrench:Zokor des Khingan/ German:Hinggan-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de KhinganTaxonomy.Myospalax epsilanus Thomas, 1912,“ Khingan Mts., Manchuria, 3400 [= 1036 m],” Heilongjiang Province, China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated (along with M. psilurus) as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax epsilanusis the sister species of M. psilurus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. epsilanuswas sister to all other extant Myospalacinae, but this idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCRsupport the conclusion that M. epsilanusis distinct from but closely related to M. psilurus. They are united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. On the basis of differences in incisive foramen and molar morphology, A. Yu. Puzachenko and colleagues in 2014 suggested that a distinct subspecies may be present in Zabaykalsky Krai and E Mongolia, but it has not been named. Monotypic.Distribution.S Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia), E Mongolia, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol) and Heilongjiang (NE China).Descriptive notes.Head-body 198-223 mm, tail ¢.43 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Khingan Zokoris slightly larger than the Manchurian Zokor (M. psilurus). It is straw gray-brown, with slight reddish tones. Nose and forehead are lighter and grayer. Chin and throat are whitish, and additional white patches can be present elsewhere on head. Venter is grayer. Tail is almost naked; hairs are sparse. Young are lighter than adults. Pterygoid fossa is deeper and M® is smaller compared with the Manchurian Zokor. Incisive foramen is shorter on the Khingan Zokor than the Manchurian Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.Habitat.River valleys, steppe-woodland, and mixed grassy meadows, preferring steppe and meadows. The Khingan Zokoris not as much of an agricultural pest as many other species of zokor.Food and Feeding.The Khingan Zokor eats cereal rhizomes, stems, and shoots under natural conditions. Roots and shoots of other plant varieties constitute the remainder of the diet.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Khingan Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. psilurusin both). The Khingan Zokor is classified as “declining” in the Red Data Book of Russia (as M. psilurusepsilanus). It is threatened by habitat degradation as natural landscapes are converted to agriculture. It occurs in protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1940), lliashenko & lliashenko (2000), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Musser & Carleton (2005), Ognev (1947), Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014), Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012), Puzachenko (2016f), Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009), Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014), Shar et al. (2008), Tarasov et al. (2011), Thomas (1912a, 1912b), Tsvirka et al. (2011).","taxonomy":"Myospalax epsilanus Thomas, 1912,“ Khingan Mts., Manchuria, 3400 [= 1036 m],” Heilongjiang Province, China.Member of M. psilurusspecies group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated (along with M. psilurus) as a member of the M. aspalaxgroup in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax epsilanusis the sister species of M. psilurus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. epsilanuswas sister to all other extant Myospalacinae, but this idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCRsupport the conclusion that M. epsilanusis distinct from but closely related to M. psilurus. They are united into the psilurussuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. On the basis of differences in incisive foramen and molar morphology, A. Yu. Puzachenko and colleagues in 2014 suggested that a distinct subspecies may be present in Zabaykalsky Krai and E Mongolia, but it has not been named. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor des Khingan @fr | Hinggan-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Khingan @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Myospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"132","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"epsilanus","name":"Myospalax epsilanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Zabaykalsky Krai (Russia), E Mongolia, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol) and Heilongjiang (NE China).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609114/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | lliashenko & lliashenko (2000) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Ognev (1947) | Pavlenko, Tsvirka et al. (2014) | Pavlinov & Lissovsky (2012) | Puzachenko (2016f) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko & Korablev (2009) | Puzachenko, Pavlenko, Korablev & Tsvirka (2014) | Shar et al. (2008) | Tarasov et al. (2011) | Thomas (1912a, 1912b) | Tsvirka et al. (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Khingan Zokor eats cereal rhizomes, stems, and shoots under natural conditions. Roots and shoots of other plant varieties constitute the remainder of the diet.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Khingan Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. psilurusin both). The Khingan Zokor is classified as “declining” in the Red Data Book of Russia (as M. psilurusepsilanus). It is threatened by habitat degradation as natural landscapes are converted to agriculture. It occurs in protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 198-223 mm, tail ¢.43 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Khingan Zokoris slightly larger than the Manchurian Zokor (M. psilurus). It is straw gray-brown, with slight reddish tones. Nose and forehead are lighter and grayer. Chin and throat are whitish, and additional white patches can be present elsewhere on head. Venter is grayer. Tail is almost naked; hairs are sparse. Young are lighter than adults. Pterygoid fossa is deeper and M® is smaller compared with the Manchurian Zokor. Incisive foramen is shorter on the Khingan Zokor than the Manchurian Zokor. Diploid numberis 2n = 64.","habitat":"River valleys, steppe-woodland, and mixed grassy meadows, preferring steppe and meadows. The Khingan Zokoris not as much of an agricultural pest as many other species of zokor."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AE/87/03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1","docName":"hbmw_7_Spalacidae_0108.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff97ffa5ff9cbd10ff87ffbfff9bffaa","docISBN":"978-84-16728-04-6","docPageNumber":"132","verbatimText":"6.Fontanier’s ZokorEospalax fontanieriiFrench:Zokor de Fontanier/ German:China-Blindmull/ Spanish:Zocor de FontanierOther common names:Chinese ZokorTaxonomy.Siphneus fontanierii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Kansu, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated them as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusand bailey: as subspecies of fontanieriiand treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontanieri pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyior E. cansus. In recent years, a variety of studies support treating E. fontanieriias a distinct species from these other forms based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data recover E. fontanieriias sister to a clade that contains all other species of Eospalaxwith moderate support. Monotypic.Distribution.N Shaanxi, Shanxi, W Hebei, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), E China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 163-245 mm,tail 38-69 mm; weight 184-563 g. Male Fontanier’s Zokors are larger than females. They are large and gray to yellowish brown overall. Hairs are slate-gray at the base and tipped with a more brownish color that shine enough to give slightsilvered effect. Chin and throat are gray, and underside is slightly grayer than dorsum. Upper lips and muzzle are white or light, and distinctive white streak is usually present running down midline of head. Additional white patches may be present elsewhere on body. Tail is long and sparsely haired, nearly naked. Feet are also sparsely haired. Young are dark gray; hairs are paler at tips. M”* has three re-entrant folds. Diploid numberis 2n = 60.Habitat.Steppe, grassland, farmland, pastures, and lawns.Food and Feeding.Fontanier’s Zokor feeds on roots and underparts of plants, usually accessing them from below. Food plants include Chinese artichoke (Stachyssieboldu, Lamiaceae), ladybells (Adenophora, Campanulaceae), Bupleurum(Apiaceae), great burnet (Sanguisorbaofficinalis, Rosaceae), Chinese red pine saplings (Pinustabuliformas, Pinaceae), and sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae). It builds up food stores during summer and autumn that are eaten in winter.Breeding.Reproduction of Fontanier’s Zokor peaks in March—June. Males and females are thoughtto live separately, only coming together during breeding, but they have been observed in the same burrow at other times. Litter sizes are 1-6 young, usually 2—4 young.Activity patterns.Underground activity of Fontanier’s Zokors peaks in morning and evening. When an individual ventures aboveground, it does so at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrows of Fontanier’s Zokors are elaborate with multiple chambers and tunnels, but little indication of a burrow’s presence might be visible aboveground. They are 66-127 m long. Food-finding, pathway, and communication tunnels are present along with toilet, nesting, and food storage chambers. Nest chamber is ¢.35 x 30 x 25 cm, lined with dry grasses and leaves, and located deep in the burrow system (c.93 cm deep). One to three storage chambers are present. Toilets tend to be located at the far ends of the system. When a toilet is full, it is blocked off, and another one is dug. Parts of the burrow may be abandoned over time; these are walled off. Specific communication tunnels are constructed wherein individuals communicate seismically with neighbors. Predators include the Altai Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (an assessment that includes E. cansus, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi) and the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. Fontanier’s Zokoris an agricultural pest and is the subject of control measures, including poison.Bibliography.Allen (1940), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Fan Naichang & Gu Shougin (1981), Fan Naichang & ShiYinzhu (1982), He Ya et al. (2012), Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016), Lawrence (1991), Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989), Musser & Carleton (2005), Norris et al. (2004), Smith & Johnston (2008a), Song (1986), Su Junhu et al. (2014), Thomas (1911a, 1911b), Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993), Wang Yingxiang (2003), Wu Panwen et al. (2007), Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008).","taxonomy":"Siphneus fontanierii Milne-Edwards, 1867,Kansu, China.Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated them as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansusand bailey: as subspecies of fontanieriiand treated rufescensas a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontanieri pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyior E. cansus. In recent years, a variety of studies support treating E. fontanieriias a distinct species from these other forms based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data recover E. fontanieriias sister to a clade that contains all other species of Eospalaxwith moderate support. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zokor de Fontanier @fr | China-Blindmull @de | Zocor de Fontanier @es | Chinese Zokor @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1867","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Spalacidae","interpretedGenus":"Eospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"132","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fontanierii","name":"Eospalax fontanierii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Shaanxi, Shanxi, W Hebei, and NE Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol), E China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6609118/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1940) | Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) | Fan Naichang & Gu Shougin (1981) | Fan Naichang & ShiYinzhu (1982) | He Ya et al. (2012) | Jiang Zhigang et al. (2016) | Lawrence (1991) | Li Baoguo & Chen Fuguan (1989) | Musser & Carleton (2005) | Norris et al. (2004) | Smith & Johnston (2008a) | Song (1986) | Su Junhu et al. (2014) | Thomas (1911a, 1911b) | Wang Tingzheng & Li Xiaochen (1993) | Wang Yingxiang (2003) | Wu Panwen et al. (2007) | Zhou Caiquan & Zhou Kaiya (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Fontanier’s Zokor feeds on roots and underparts of plants, usually accessing them from below. Food plants include Chinese artichoke (Stachyssieboldu, Lamiaceae), ladybells (Adenophora, Campanulaceae), Bupleurum(Apiaceae), great burnet (Sanguisorbaofficinalis, Rosaceae), Chinese red pine saplings (Pinustabuliformas, Pinaceae), and sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae). It builds up food stores during summer and autumn that are eaten in winter.","breeding":"Reproduction of Fontanier’s Zokor peaks in March—June. Males and females are thoughtto live separately, only coming together during breeding, but they have been observed in the same burrow at other times. Litter sizes are 1-6 young, usually 2—4 young.","activityPatterns":"Underground activity of Fontanier’s Zokors peaks in morning and evening. When an individual ventures aboveground, it does so at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrows of Fontanier’s Zokors are elaborate with multiple chambers and tunnels, but little indication of a burrow’s presence might be visible aboveground. They are 66-127 m long. Food-finding, pathway, and communication tunnels are present along with toilet, nesting, and food storage chambers. Nest chamber is ¢.35 x 30 x 25 cm, lined with dry grasses and leaves, and located deep in the burrow system (c.93 cm deep). One to three storage chambers are present. Toilets tend to be located at the far ends of the system. When a toilet is full, it is blocked off, and another one is dug. Parts of the burrow may be abandoned over time; these are walled off. Specific communication tunnels are constructed wherein individuals communicate seismically with neighbors. Predators include the Altai Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (an assessment that includes E. cansus, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi) and the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. Fontanier’s Zokoris an agricultural pest and is the subject of control measures, including poison.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 163-245 mm,tail 38-69 mm; weight 184-563 g. Male Fontanier’s Zokors are larger than females. They are large and gray to yellowish brown overall. Hairs are slate-gray at the base and tipped with a more brownish color that shine enough to give slightsilvered effect. Chin and throat are gray, and underside is slightly grayer than dorsum. Upper lips and muzzle are white or light, and distinctive white streak is usually present running down midline of head. Additional white patches may be present elsewhere on body. Tail is long and sparsely haired, nearly naked. Feet are also sparsely haired. Young are dark gray; hairs are paler at tips. M”* has three re-entrant folds. Diploid numberis 2n = 60.","habitat":"Steppe, grassland, farmland, pastures, and lawns."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/BC/03B0BC062412FFD4FA37EFE7F687F24D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0BC062412FFD4FA37EFE7F687F24D","docName":"hbmw_9_Myzopodidae_388.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff89c47e2413ffd5ff87ea47ff90ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"393","verbatimText":"2.Eastern Sucker-footed BatMyzopoda auritaFrench:Myzopode de Madagascar/ German:Madagaskar-Haftscheibenfledermaus/ Spanish:Mizopoda de MadagascarOther common names:MadagascarSuckerfooted BatTaxonomy.Myzopoda aurita Milne-Edwards & A. Grandidier, 1878, “ Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Total length 111-114 mm, tail 44-50 mm, ear 32-34 mm, hindfoot (without claw) 5-6 mm, forearm 46-49 mm; weight 9-9-5 g. The Eastern Sucker-footed Bat is characterized by sucker-like structures on wrists and ankles. Dorsal fur is slightly long, uniformly golden dark brown, and unicolored; venter is light brown, paler than dorsum. Wings and interfemoral membraneare dark brown. Ears are notably long, and pointed, with odd-shaped mushroom-like structure at bases. Tail protrudes beyond hind margin oftail membrane. Upperlips extend beyond limit of mandible and are flexible.Habitat.Lowland andlittoral forests, often toward edges or in degraded forests, and large stands oftraveler’s palms (Ravenalamadagascariensis, Strelitziaceae) associated with anthropogenicforest degradation, from sealevel to elevations of¢. 1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Eastern Suckerfooted Bat specializes on Lepidoptera, which was present in 100%offeces from eleven individuals, followed byBlattodea (55%), Coleoptera (55%), and Araneae(9%). Presence of Araneaeindicates some form of gleaning ofpreyoffsurfaces.Breeding.Juvenile Eastern Sucker-footed Bats were captured only in February—March and October-November.Activity patterns.Eastern Sucker-footed Bats are nocturnal. Vast majority of known roost sites of Eastern Sucker-footed Bats are in furled leaves oftraveler’s palms. They emit distinct complex FM echolocation calls, with 2-4 elements of increased amplitude and long call duration and maximumenergies at 24-42 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Radio-tagged Eastern Suckerfooted Bats in south-eastern Madagascarforaged in 4-108 ha that collectively included 70% open wooded anthropogenic grasslands, 8%degraded natural forest, 6%relatively intact humid forest, 5%coffee plantations, 4%rice paddy, 4% banana plantations, and 3%in close proximity to human habitation. Average maximum distance traveled from the roost site was 862 m, and greatest recorded distance was 1-8 km. At this locality, roost sites were only found in traveler’s palms. All 593 captured individuals were males that often changed their day roost sites. Females were captured a few kilometers from the roosts with males and at slightly lowerelevations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Because the Eastern Suckerfooted Bat can be common in secondary habitats with large concentrations ofpioneering traveler’s palms, it seems adaptable to human degradation of natural eastern forest formations.Bibliography.Bayliss & Hayes (1999), Goodman (2011), Goodman et al. (2014), Jenkins et al. (2007), Milne-Edwards & Grandidier (1878), Peterson et al. (1995), Ralisata (2018), Ralisata, Andriamboavonjy et al. (2010), Ralisata, Rakotondravony & Racey (2015), Ramasindrazana et al. (2010), Rasoanoro et al. (2015), Riskin & Racey (2010), Russ, Bennett et al. (2003), Schliemann & Maas (1978), Thomas (1904c).","taxonomy":"Myzopoda aurita Milne-Edwards & A. Grandidier, 1878, “ Madagascar.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Myzopode de Madagascar @fr | Madagaskar-Haftscheibenfledermaus @de | Mizopoda de Madagascar @es | Madagascar Suckerfooted Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Milne-Edwards & A. Grandidier","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Myzopodidae","interpretedGenus":"Myzopoda","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"393","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aurita","name":"Myzopoda aurita","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6418927/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bayliss & Hayes (1999) | Goodman (2011) | Goodman et al. (2014) | Jenkins et al. (2007) | Milne-Edwards & Grandidier (1878) | Peterson et al. (1995) | Ralisata (2018) | Ralisata, Andriamboavonjy et al. (2010) | Ralisata, Rakotondravony & Racey (2015) | Ramasindrazana et al. (2010) | Rasoanoro et al. (2015) | Riskin & Racey (2010) | Russ, Bennett et al. (2003) | Schliemann & Maas (1978) | Thomas (1904c)","foodAndFeeding":"The Eastern Suckerfooted Bat specializes on Lepidoptera, which was present in 100%offeces from eleven individuals, followed byBlattodea (55%), Coleoptera (55%), and Araneae(9%). Presence of Araneaeindicates some form of gleaning ofpreyoffsurfaces.","breeding":"Juvenile Eastern Sucker-footed Bats were captured only in February—March and October-November.","activityPatterns":"Eastern Sucker-footed Bats are nocturnal. Vast majority of known roost sites of Eastern Sucker-footed Bats are in furled leaves oftraveler’s palms. They emit distinct complex FM echolocation calls, with 2-4 elements of increased amplitude and long call duration and maximumenergies at 24-42 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Radio-tagged Eastern Suckerfooted Bats in south-eastern Madagascarforaged in 4-108 ha that collectively included 70% open wooded anthropogenic grasslands, 8%degraded natural forest, 6%relatively intact humid forest, 5%coffee plantations, 4%rice paddy, 4% banana plantations, and 3%in close proximity to human habitation. Average maximum distance traveled from the roost site was 862 m, and greatest recorded distance was 1-8 km. At this locality, roost sites were only found in traveler’s palms. All 593 captured individuals were males that often changed their day roost sites. Females were captured a few kilometers from the roosts with males and at slightly lowerelevations.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN RedList. Because the Eastern Suckerfooted Bat can be common in secondary habitats with large concentrations ofpioneering traveler’s palms, it seems adaptable to human degradation of natural eastern forest formations.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 111-114 mm, tail 44-50 mm, ear 32-34 mm, hindfoot (without claw) 5-6 mm, forearm 46-49 mm; weight 9-9-5 g. The Eastern Sucker-footed Bat is characterized by sucker-like structures on wrists and ankles. Dorsal fur is slightly long, uniformly golden dark brown, and unicolored; venter is light brown, paler than dorsum. Wings and interfemoral membraneare dark brown. Ears are notably long, and pointed, with odd-shaped mushroom-like structure at bases. Tail protrudes beyond hind margin oftail membrane. Upperlips extend beyond limit of mandible and are flexible.","habitat":"Lowland andlittoral forests, often toward edges or in degraded forests, and large stands oftraveler’s palms (Ravenalamadagascariensis, Strelitziaceae) associated with anthropogenicforest degradation, from sealevel to elevations of¢. 1000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/BC/03B0BC062412FFD4FF31EC79FBA6F24C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0BC062412FFD4FF31EC79FBA6F24C","docName":"hbmw_9_Myzopodidae_388.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff89c47e2413ffd5ff87ea47ff90ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"393","verbatimText":"1.Western Sucker-footed BatMyzopoda schliemanniFrench:Myzopode de Schliemann/ German:Schliemann-Haftscheibenfledermaus/ Spanish:Mizopoda de SchliemannOther common names:Schliemann's Suckerfooted BatTaxonomy.Myzopoda schliemanni Goodman, Rakotondraparany & Kofoky, 2007, “Province de Mahajanga[Parc National d’Ankarafantsika], SF [Station Forestiere] d’Ampijoroa, Jardin Botanique A, 16°19.4’S, 46°48.4’E, 160 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.Distribution.NW Madagascar.Descriptive notes.Total length 92-107 mm, tail 44-47 mm, ear 30-32 mm, hindfoot (without claw) 5-6 mm, forearm 45-49 mm; weight 7-8-10-3 g. The Western Sucker-footed Bat is characterized by sucker-like structures on wrists and ankles. Dorsal fur is slightly long, uniformlylight brown, and unicolored; venter is mouse-gray. Wings and interfemoral membrane are dark brown. Ears are notably long and pointed, with odd-shaped mushroom-likestructure at bases. Tail protrudes beyond hind margin oftail membrane. Upper lips extend beyond limit of mandible and areflexible.Habitat.Lowland dry deciduous forests, often heavily degraded with remnant vegetation and stands of Bismarck palms (Bismarckianobilis, Arecaceae), foraging in open grasslands, particularly zones with marshland and open water, fromsealevel to ¢. 200 m.Food and Feeding.Feces from 18 Western Sucker-footed Bats contained 65% Lepidoptera, 23% Coleoptera, and 11% Hymenoptera; no evidence of Hemiptera and Homoptera were found, and females tended to eat more lepidopterans than males. Another study foundthat Blattodea was widely consumed.Breeding.During transition between dry and wet seasons in late October to mid-December, more than 50%offemale Western Sucker-footed Bats captured were pregnant.Activity patterns.Western Sucker-footed Bats are nocturnal. Vast majority of known roost sites of Western Sucker-footed Bats are in furled fronds of Bismarck palms, although it roosted on the wall of a limestone cave on one occasion. They emit distinct complex FM echolocationcalls that have four elements with decreasing frequency and maximum energy at ¢.46-5 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Radio-tagged Western Suckerfooted Bats regularly changed their day roost sites. No sexual segregation based on knownsites forthis species is documented, and both sexes are represented at a given locality. Dayroost sites in Bismarck palms contained 1-32 individuals, and these roosting groups included breeding/maternity colonies of pregnant or lactating females or male bachelor colonies that group together during austral winter.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Because the Western Suckerfooted Bat can be common in secondary habitats with stands of Bismarck palms, it seems adaptable to human degradation of natural dry deciduous forest formations.Bibliography.Goodman (2011), Goodman, Rakotondraparany & Kofoky (2007), Kofoky (2009), Kofoky et al. (2006), Rajemison & Goodman (2007), Rakotoarivelo & Randrianandrianina (2007).","taxonomy":"Myzopoda schliemanni Goodman, Rakotondraparany & Kofoky, 2007, “Province de Mahajanga[Parc National d’Ankarafantsika], SF [Station Forestiere] d’Ampijoroa, Jardin Botanique A, 16°19.4’S, 46°48.4’E, 160 m,” Madagascar.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Myzopode de Schliemann @fr | Schliemann-Haftscheibenfledermaus @de | Mizopoda de Schliemann @es | Schliemann's Suckerfooted Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Goodman, Rakotondraparany & Kofoky","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Myzopodidae","interpretedGenus":"Myzopoda","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"393","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"schliemanni","name":"Myzopoda schliemanni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NW Madagascar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6418925/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Goodman (2011) | Goodman, Rakotondraparany & Kofoky (2007) | Kofoky (2009) | Kofoky et al. (2006) | Rajemison & Goodman (2007) | Rakotoarivelo & Randrianandrianina (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Feces from 18 Western Sucker-footed Bats contained 65% Lepidoptera, 23% Coleoptera, and 11% Hymenoptera; no evidence of Hemiptera and Homoptera were found, and females tended to eat more lepidopterans than males. Another study foundthat Blattodea was widely consumed.","breeding":"During transition between dry and wet seasons in late October to mid-December, more than 50%offemale Western Sucker-footed Bats captured were pregnant.","activityPatterns":"Western Sucker-footed Bats are nocturnal. Vast majority of known roost sites of Western Sucker-footed Bats are in furled fronds of Bismarck palms, although it roosted on the wall of a limestone cave on one occasion. They emit distinct complex FM echolocationcalls that have four elements with decreasing frequency and maximum energy at ¢.46-5 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Radio-tagged Western Suckerfooted Bats regularly changed their day roost sites. No sexual segregation based on knownsites forthis species is documented, and both sexes are represented at a given locality. Dayroost sites in Bismarck palms contained 1-32 individuals, and these roosting groups included breeding/maternity colonies of pregnant or lactating females or male bachelor colonies that group together during austral winter.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Because the Western Suckerfooted Bat can be common in secondary habitats with stands of Bismarck palms, it seems adaptable to human degradation of natural dry deciduous forest formations.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 92-107 mm, tail 44-47 mm, ear 30-32 mm, hindfoot (without claw) 5-6 mm, forearm 45-49 mm; weight 7-8-10-3 g. The Western Sucker-footed Bat is characterized by sucker-like structures on wrists and ankles. Dorsal fur is slightly long, uniformlylight brown, and unicolored; venter is mouse-gray. Wings and interfemoral membrane are dark brown. Ears are notably long and pointed, with odd-shaped mushroom-likestructure at bases. Tail protrudes beyond hind margin oftail membrane. Upper lips extend beyond limit of mandible and areflexible.","habitat":"Lowland dry deciduous forests, often heavily degraded with remnant vegetation and stands of Bismarck palms (Bismarckianobilis, Arecaceae), foraging in open grasslands, particularly zones with marshland and open water, fromsealevel to ¢. 200 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/BC/03B0BC062413FFD5FC8BEB8EF84CFB3A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0BC062413FFD5FC8BEB8EF84CFB3A","docName":"hbmw_9_Myzopodidae_388.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff89c47e2413ffd5ff87ea47ff90ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"388","verbatimText":"Family MYZOPODIDAE(MADAGASCARSUCKER-FOOTED BATS)• Relatively small insectivorous bats, with distinctive sucker-like structure on wrists and ankles, as well as elon-gated ears with mushroom-like structure at their bases.• 9-11 cm.• Afrotropical Region (Madagascar).• Humid and dry deciduous forests, forest edges, and open areas with palms, and often marshy areas.• 1 genus, 2 species, 2 taxa.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8105865FE7EABE6E367FB6B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8105865FE7EABE6E367FB6B","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"106","verbatimText":"Family EQUIDAE(HORSES AND RELATIVES)• [Large mammals with large head, elongated face, long neck, large ears, eyes set to the side and high on the head, long, slender legs ending in a single hoof each, long tail, and mane erect or droopy when very long.• 200-300 cm.• Palearctic and Afrotropical Regions.• Mesic grassland to semi-arid savanna, arid lowland, and mountain desert.• 1 genus, 7 species, at least 19 extant taxa.• 2 species Critically Endangered, 2 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; 4 subspecies Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8125866FABEACFDEF26F67F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8125866FABEACFDEF26F67F","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"2.Asiatic Wild AssEquus hemionusFrench:Hémione/ German:Asiatischer Halbesel/ Spanish:OnagroOther common names:Onager; Gobi Kulan (luteus), Khur(khun, Kulan (kulan), Mongolian Kulan (hemionus), Persian Onager(onager), Syrian Onager(hemippus)Taxonomy.Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775,North-eastern boundary of Mongoliawith Russia, Transbaikalia, S. Chitinsk, 50° N, 115° E.The “Syrian Onager” race hemippus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1855)from Syriaand the Arabian Peninsula is extinct. The “Gobi Kulan” luteus is probably a synonym of the nominate race hemionus. Four extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.h.hemionusPallas,1775—SMongoliaandextendingintoNChina.E.h.khurLesson,1827—LittleRannofKutch,Gujarat,India.E.h.kulanGroves&Mazak,1967—KazakhstanandTurkmenistan(Badkhyzregion).E. h. onager Boddaert, 1785— two reserves in Iran(Touran and Bahram-e-Goor), Israel(Negev Desert), and Saudi Arabia(Taif).Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-250 cm, tail 30-49 cm, shoulder height 126— 130 cm; weight 200-260 kg. Asiatic Wild Asses are characterized by reddish-brown coats in the summer that become paler brown, sandy, or even gray in the winter, depending on subspecies. The flanks and belly are white and some subspecies have a dark brown stripe running along the back. The mane is black and erect and consists of short bristly hair. The tail is short, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The legs are short and thin when compared to other equid species. The hooves are broader and rounder than those of the African Wild Ass (E. africanus) and are the most horse-like of all the asses. Males are slightly larger than females. The subspecies differ in skull morphology. The Transcaspian and Mongolian forms have narrower supraoccipital crests than the Iranian and Indian forms. The Asiatic Wild Ass can reach speeds up to 70 km/h.Habitat.Asiatic Wild Asses live in xeric habitats where rainfall is limited. Many of the subspecies live in flat semi-deserts with extremely hot days and cool nights.Food and Feeding.When grass is abundant, Asiatic Wild Asses are primarily grazers. During the dry season, or in the driest habitats, they will switch to browse, even consuming woody parts of plants. They also eat seedpods and will use their hooves to break apart woody material to reach succulent forbs. In Mongolia, asses often eat snow in the winter as a substitute for drinking water and have been known to dig holes 60 cmdeep to reach water in the summer.On following pages 3 Tibetan Wıld Ass (Equus kiang), 4 African Wild Ass (Equus africanus), 5 Plains Zebra (Equus quagga),6Zebra Grevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi) 7Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra) pages (Equus), 5 (Equus quagga), Gravy’: Equus grevyı, (Equus zebra)Breeding.Gestation in Asiatic Wild Asses is eleven months and breeding is highly seasonal. Births peak during April and September, depending on subspecies and location. Within any one population births occur within a 2-3 month period. Females reach puberty at three years of age and give birth to only one foal at a time. Foals generally stay with their mothers for two years.Activity patterns.Asiatic Wild Asses are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler. Although they obtain most of their water from food, they are almost always seen within 30 kmof water. Lactating females in particular need to drink frequently; at least once per day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The ranging and social behavior of Asiatic Wild Asses is highly variable. Many populations show seasonal movements. Male Asiatic Wild Asses in Israelreturn each spring to breeding areas several weeks before females, typically to claim territories held the previous year. The territories of dominant males are generally distributed around water points. Males unable to defend territories either form all-male bachelor groups or remain on the winter grazing grounds. Females coalesce into groups on the breeding grounds, but the groups are fluid. When populations contain many territorial males, some females move frequently among territories, suggesting that some of them move in search of mating opportunities as well as key resources. Others, especially those with young foals, remain on the territory of one male. Some subspecies, such as the “ Khur” of India, exhibit the same types of social associations as do the Israeli Asiatic Wild Asses, but members of both sexes remain in one area year-round. Others, such as the “Kulan” of the Gobi, exhibit more horse-like social behavior, in which females and their offspring live in closed membership groups and travel to and from water with one male. Males in the Gobi population actively herd females if they stray too far, a behavior not seen in the Khurof the Little Rann of Kutch. Kulan males in the Gobi also defend females and their young from predators, suggesting that some interspecific variation in social organization is related to predation threat.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (subspecies hemionusand khur) and the rest listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Syrian Onager, went extinct in 1927. The largest population of Asiatic Wild Asses in the world is currently in southern Mongolia, and makes up almost 80% of the global population. The “Mongolian Kulan” population was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 + 898 infour areas. There are estimates of 4800-6000 Kulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but they may be a population migrating seasonally from Mongolia. The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur, estimated in 2004 at 3900, in the Little Rann of Kutch. Thisis the only subpopulation of the Asiatic Wild Ass that has steadily increased in size from 1976 to the present day. In 2005 the Kulan populations consisted of about 1300 animals in Turkmenistan(850-900 in Badkhyz Reserve and 445 inseven reintroduction sites). In 1991 the reintroduced population in Uzbekistanin Dzheiran Ecocentre numbered 34. There is limited information on the status of the “Persian Onager” in Iran, but recent estimates give a figure of 600 inthe two protected areas (471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, 96 inBahramgor Reserve in 1996, and four reintroduced animals in Yazd Provincein 2000). There were also five reintroduced onagers in Taif (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and a further 100 reintroduced animals in Israelin the same year. The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Asses has fallen in the last 16 years by 52%, the current estimate of mature individuals being 8358. Today in Iran, the Persian Onageris threatened by poaching, overgrazing by livestock, and by competition with livestock at watering points. Shrub removal also degrades the habitat. Khurare threatened by competition with livestock as well as other economic activity such as salt mining and canal building. Kulan have experienced rapid declines in numbers because of increased demand for bushmeat. The threat from pastoralists who complain that Kulan are reducing forage for livestock is increasing. Trophy hunting does not appear to be a problem.Bibliography.Asa (2002), Feh, Munkhtuya et al. (2001), Feh, Shah et al. (2002), Goyal et al. (1999), Moehlman, Shah & Feh (2008), Reading et al. (2001), Saltz & Rubenstein (1995), Saltz et al. (2000).","taxonomy":"Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775,North-eastern boundary of Mongoliawith Russia, Transbaikalia, S. Chitinsk, 50° N, 115° E.The “Syrian Onager” race hemippus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1855)from Syriaand the Arabian Peninsula is extinct. The “Gobi Kulan” luteus is probably a synonym of the nominate race hemionus. Four extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Hémione @fr | Asiatischer Halbesel @de | Onagro @es | Onager; Gobi Kulan (luteus) @en | Khur(khun @en | Kulan (kulan) @en | Mongolian Kulan (hemionus) @en | Persian Onager(onager) @en | Syrian Onager(hemippus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hemionus","name":"Equus hemionus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.h.hemionusPallas,1775—SMongoliaandextendingintoNChina.E.h.khurLesson,1827—LittleRannofKutch,Gujarat,India.E.h.kulanGroves&Mazak,1967—KazakhstanandTurkmenistan(Badkhyzregion).E. h. onager Boddaert, 1785— two reserves in Iran(Touran and Bahram-e-Goor), Israel(Negev Desert), and Saudi Arabia(Taif).","bibliography":"Asa (2002) | Feh, Munkhtuya et al. (2001) | Feh, Shah et al. (2002) | Goyal et al. (1999) | Moehlman, Shah & Feh (2008) | Reading et al. (2001) | Saltz & Rubenstein (1995) | Saltz et al. (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"When grass is abundant, Asiatic Wild Asses are primarily grazers. During the dry season, or in the driest habitats, they will switch to browse, even consuming woody parts of plants. They also eat seedpods and will use their hooves to break apart woody material to reach succulent forbs. In Mongolia, asses often eat snow in the winter as a substitute for drinking water and have been known to dig holes 60 cmdeep to reach water in the summer.","breeding":"Gestation in Asiatic Wild Asses is eleven months and breeding is highly seasonal. Births peak during April and September, depending on subspecies and location. Within any one population births occur within a 2-3 month period. Females reach puberty at three years of age and give birth to only one foal at a time. Foals generally stay with their mothers for two years.","activityPatterns":"Asiatic Wild Asses are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler. Although they obtain most of their water from food, they are almost always seen within 30 kmof water. Lactating females in particular need to drink frequently; at least once per day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The ranging and social behavior of Asiatic Wild Asses is highly variable. Many populations show seasonal movements. Male Asiatic Wild Asses in Israelreturn each spring to breeding areas several weeks before females, typically to claim territories held the previous year. The territories of dominant males are generally distributed around water points. Males unable to defend territories either form all-male bachelor groups or remain on the winter grazing grounds. Females coalesce into groups on the breeding grounds, but the groups are fluid. When populations contain many territorial males, some females move frequently among territories, suggesting that some of them move in search of mating opportunities as well as key resources. Others, especially those with young foals, remain on the territory of one male. Some subspecies, such as the “ Khur” of India, exhibit the same types of social associations as do the Israeli Asiatic Wild Asses, but members of both sexes remain in one area year-round. Others, such as the “Kulan” of the Gobi, exhibit more horse-like social behavior, in which females and their offspring live in closed membership groups and travel to and from water with one male. Males in the Gobi population actively herd females if they stray too far, a behavior not seen in the Khurof the Little Rann of Kutch. Kulan males in the Gobi also defend females and their young from predators, suggesting that some interspecific variation in social organization is related to predation threat.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I (subspecies hemionusand khur) and the rest listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Syrian Onager, went extinct in 1927. The largest population of Asiatic Wild Asses in the world is currently in southern Mongolia, and makes up almost 80% of the global population. The “Mongolian Kulan” population was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 + 898 infour areas. There are estimates of 4800-6000 Kulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but they may be a population migrating seasonally from Mongolia. The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur, estimated in 2004 at 3900, in the Little Rann of Kutch. Thisis the only subpopulation of the Asiatic Wild Ass that has steadily increased in size from 1976 to the present day. In 2005 the Kulan populations consisted of about 1300 animals in Turkmenistan(850-900 in Badkhyz Reserve and 445 inseven reintroduction sites). In 1991 the reintroduced population in Uzbekistanin Dzheiran Ecocentre numbered 34. There is limited information on the status of the “Persian Onager” in Iran, but recent estimates give a figure of 600 inthe two protected areas (471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, 96 inBahramgor Reserve in 1996, and four reintroduced animals in Yazd Provincein 2000). There were also five reintroduced onagers in Taif (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and a further 100 reintroduced animals in Israelin the same year. The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Asses has fallen in the last 16 years by 52%, the current estimate of mature individuals being 8358. Today in Iran, the Persian Onageris threatened by poaching, overgrazing by livestock, and by competition with livestock at watering points. Shrub removal also degrades the habitat. Khurare threatened by competition with livestock as well as other economic activity such as salt mining and canal building. Kulan have experienced rapid declines in numbers because of increased demand for bushmeat. The threat from pastoralists who complain that Kulan are reducing forage for livestock is increasing. Trophy hunting does not appear to be a problem.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-250 cm, tail 30-49 cm, shoulder height 126— 130 cm; weight 200-260 kg. Asiatic Wild Asses are characterized by reddish-brown coats in the summer that become paler brown, sandy, or even gray in the winter, depending on subspecies. The flanks and belly are white and some subspecies have a dark brown stripe running along the back. The mane is black and erect and consists of short bristly hair. The tail is short, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The legs are short and thin when compared to other equid species. The hooves are broader and rounder than those of the African Wild Ass (E. africanus) and are the most horse-like of all the asses. Males are slightly larger than females. The subspecies differ in skull morphology. The Transcaspian and Mongolian forms have narrower supraoccipital crests than the Iranian and Indian forms. The Asiatic Wild Ass can reach speeds up to 70 km/h.","habitat":"Asiatic Wild Asses live in xeric habitats where rainfall is limited. Many of the subspecies live in flat semi-deserts with extremely hot days and cool nights."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8125867FFAAAB80EEA6F941.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8125867FFAAAB80EEA6F941","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"1.Przewalski’s HorseEquus przewalskiiFrench:Cheval de Przewalski/ German:Przewalski-Pferd/ Spanish:Caballo de PrzewalskiOther common names:Asian Wild Horse, Dzungarian Horse, Mongolian Wild Horse, TakhiTaxonomy.Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881,Gutschen, Chinese—Russian border.The taxonomy of Prezwalski’s Horse is problematic and unresolved. C. P. Groves proposed that all horses surviving into modern times belonged to one species, E. ferus, with three subspecies: E. f. ferus(the “Tarpan”), E. f. sylvestrisat the eastern edge of Eastern Europe, and E. f. przewalskiiof Western Asia. Although feral descendants of the domestic Horse (E. caballus) roam freely in many locations around the world, Przewalski’s Horse is the only truly wild horse, although all its populations derive from reintroductions from zoos around the world. Analyses of nucleotide sequences on X and Y chromosomes place the two species in the same clade. Despite the fact that Prezwalski’s Horses have 66 chromosomes and domestic Horses have 64, introgression from interbreeding has occurred in the wild and in captivity. When coupled with the fact that Przewalski’s Horses have gone through a genetic bottleneck via captive breeding in zoos, the likelihood remains that it and the domestic Horse species today remain within the same clade. Monotypic.Distribution.Limited to small populations that have been reintroduced to the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal and Khomin Tal Nature Reserves of Mongolia, and the Ka La Mai Li Shan Nature Reserve of China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-280 cm,tail 99-111 cm (including hair), shoulder height 120-146 cm; weight 200-300 kg. Przewalski’s Horses are stockier than domestic Horses and have long tails, thick black erect manes that only fall to the side when very long, chestnuts on both hind and forelimbs, and large rounded hooves. Their coats are a uniform dusty or dun color on the body and flanks; the belly and face are yellowish-white, and there are traces of yellowish-white stripes just above the hooves. Przewalski’s Horses have a relatively small skull, with a long diastema, and a long, rounded occipital crest.Habitat.The historic range of Przewalski’s Horse is not known. The last wild horse was seen in the very arid Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia, and there has been much debate about whether it was in its preferred habitat or justits last refuge. One view holds that of the three wild horse species that once inhabited the grasslands of Europe, Central Asia, and China, Przewalski’s Horse was the one that thrived at the easternmost edge of the range, where it encountered limited water and arid conditions as part of its natural habitat. Another view holds that these horses favored the more mesic grassland steppes of Mongolia, but as a result of more than a thousand years of competitive exclusion by nomadic pastoralists, they were forced into the deserts, where they fared poorly and died out. Domestic Horses do not fare well in dry climes, but ecological studies on feral horses show that some populations can survive in arid environments where food is scare and the best patches are often far from water. However, other studies show that populations survive and reproduce better in more mesic areas where vegetation is more abundant, more evenly distributed, and water is close to feeding areas. Grass and water are more plentiful in the mesic grasslands of Mongolia, but the winters there are harsher than in the Dzungarian Gobi. Today, populations of Przewalski’s Horses have been reintroduced into the mesic grasslands of central Mongoliaas well as arid areas on the edge of the Gobi Desert and the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, which lies adjacent to the painted desert of China. Populations continue to survive in both xeric and mesic areas, although the population in Chinarequires more active management than the ones in Mongolia.Food and Feeding.Like feral horses, Przewalski’s Horses are grazers. They inhabit steppe vegetation, especially the grasslands and shrublands of Central Asia. In summer they consume high-quality forage near water. In the winter, however, they must subsist on more fibrous food that can be difficult to locate because of snow cover. Fortunately, strong winds often blow the snow away, making succulent vegetation available.Breeding.Females come into estrus for the first time at two years of age, but usually do not breed until three. Males reach sexual maturity at three years old, but do not mate until 5-6 years of age, when they are able to dominate enough males so they can maintain long-term associations with mature females. As in domestic horses, females commence cycling in spring and continue cycling throughout the summer. Since gestation is 11-12 months (330-350 days), periods of breeding and birthing coincide.Activity patterns.Przewalski’s Horses are active day and night, but generally sleep for four hours per day, mostly at night. In Mongolia, during the summer they are most active and move to streams and brooks to forage and drink. During the hottest times of the day they move up to ridge tops where cool breezes reduce attacks by biting flies. Przewalski’s Horses of the Khustain Nuruu National Park in Mongolia coexist with Gray Wolves (Canis lupus). Foals are at the highest risk, and when wolves are detected, females, both mothers and non-mothers, form a defensive circle around the foals. As long as three or more females are present, foal chances of survival are high.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Przewalski’s Horses exhibit many of the same behaviors as feral horses. Females live in family groups that associate with a single breeding male. These harems move within large home ranges that overlap those of other family groups. Males unable to form long-term associations with females live in all-male bachelor groups whose membership is more fluid than that of family groups. Competition among males over mating access to females is common, yet ritualized signaling before escalating to physical violenceis the norm. Males typically mark the urine of females with their own urine and they repeatedly defecate in communal dung piles along well-traveled routes as a way of indicating and assessing how recently other males were present. Both sexes disperse from their natal groups upon reaching sexual maturity. As populations expanded at release sites, home ranges changed from virtually non-overlapping areas of 200-1100 ha to overlapping ranges averaging 1000 ha in size. Ranges tend to be larger in summer.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It was classified as Extinct in the Wild until 2008, but since then a series of reintroductions have created free ranging populations in both mesic and arid environments in Mongoliaand China. It likely once roamed the steppes of Chinaand Central Asia; there are written accounts from Tibetfrom around 900 Ap. Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in Mongolia, but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shara-Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi. Since the late 1970s, matings of captive animals have been managed world-wide, with the goal of maintaining over 95% of the existing genetic diversity for the next 200 years. Preventing the rapid loss of genetic diversity has helped enhance the genetic potential of free ranging populations. In 2008 there were approximately 325 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia. All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program. In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) in Xinjianghas established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses. Since 2007 one harem group 1s roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi; another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter.Bibliography.Ballou (1994), Berger (1986), Bokonyi (1974), Boyd & Houpt (1994), Boyd et al. (2008), Dierendonck et al. (1996), Groves (1994), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b), Ryder & Chemnick (1990), Zimmerman & Ryder (1995).","taxonomy":"Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881,Gutschen, Chinese—Russian border.The taxonomy of Prezwalski’s Horse is problematic and unresolved. C. P. Groves proposed that all horses surviving into modern times belonged to one species, E. ferus, with three subspecies: E. f. ferus(the “Tarpan”), E. f. sylvestrisat the eastern edge of Eastern Europe, and E. f. przewalskiiof Western Asia. Although feral descendants of the domestic Horse (E. caballus) roam freely in many locations around the world, Przewalski’s Horse is the only truly wild horse, although all its populations derive from reintroductions from zoos around the world. Analyses of nucleotide sequences on X and Y chromosomes place the two species in the same clade. Despite the fact that Prezwalski’s Horses have 66 chromosomes and domestic Horses have 64, introgression from interbreeding has occurred in the wild and in captivity. When coupled with the fact that Przewalski’s Horses have gone through a genetic bottleneck via captive breeding in zoos, the likelihood remains that it and the domestic Horse species today remain within the same clade. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cheval de Przewalski @fr | Przewalski-Pferd @de | Caballo de Przewalski @es | Asian Wild Horse @en | Dzungarian Horse @en | Mongolian Wild Horse @en | Takhi @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Poliakov","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1881","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"przewalskii","name":"Equus przewalskii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Limited to small populations that have been reintroduced to the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal and Khomin Tal Nature Reserves of Mongolia, and the Ka La Mai Li Shan Nature Reserve of China.","bibliography":"Ballou (1994) | Berger (1986) | Bokonyi (1974) | Boyd & Houpt (1994) | Boyd et al. (2008) | Dierendonck et al. (1996) | Groves (1994) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b) | Ryder & Chemnick (1990) | Zimmerman & Ryder (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Like feral horses, Przewalski’s Horses are grazers. They inhabit steppe vegetation, especially the grasslands and shrublands of Central Asia. In summer they consume high-quality forage near water. In the winter, however, they must subsist on more fibrous food that can be difficult to locate because of snow cover. Fortunately, strong winds often blow the snow away, making succulent vegetation available.","breeding":"Females come into estrus for the first time at two years of age, but usually do not breed until three. Males reach sexual maturity at three years old, but do not mate until 5-6 years of age, when they are able to dominate enough males so they can maintain long-term associations with mature females. As in domestic horses, females commence cycling in spring and continue cycling throughout the summer. Since gestation is 11-12 months (330-350 days), periods of breeding and birthing coincide.","activityPatterns":"Przewalski’s Horses are active day and night, but generally sleep for four hours per day, mostly at night. In Mongolia, during the summer they are most active and move to streams and brooks to forage and drink. During the hottest times of the day they move up to ridge tops where cool breezes reduce attacks by biting flies. Przewalski’s Horses of the Khustain Nuruu National Park in Mongolia coexist with Gray Wolves (Canis lupus). Foals are at the highest risk, and when wolves are detected, females, both mothers and non-mothers, form a defensive circle around the foals. As long as three or more females are present, foal chances of survival are high.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Przewalski’s Horses exhibit many of the same behaviors as feral horses. Females live in family groups that associate with a single breeding male. These harems move within large home ranges that overlap those of other family groups. Males unable to form long-term associations with females live in all-male bachelor groups whose membership is more fluid than that of family groups. Competition among males over mating access to females is common, yet ritualized signaling before escalating to physical violenceis the norm. Males typically mark the urine of females with their own urine and they repeatedly defecate in communal dung piles along well-traveled routes as a way of indicating and assessing how recently other males were present. Both sexes disperse from their natal groups upon reaching sexual maturity. As populations expanded at release sites, home ranges changed from virtually non-overlapping areas of 200-1100 ha to overlapping ranges averaging 1000 ha in size. Ranges tend to be larger in summer.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It was classified as Extinct in the Wild until 2008, but since then a series of reintroductions have created free ranging populations in both mesic and arid environments in Mongoliaand China. It likely once roamed the steppes of Chinaand Central Asia; there are written accounts from Tibetfrom around 900 Ap. Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in Mongolia, but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shara-Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi. Since the late 1970s, matings of captive animals have been managed world-wide, with the goal of maintaining over 95% of the existing genetic diversity for the next 200 years. Preventing the rapid loss of genetic diversity has helped enhance the genetic potential of free ranging populations. In 2008 there were approximately 325 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia. All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program. In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) in Xinjianghas established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses. Since 2007 one harem group 1s roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi; another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-280 cm,tail 99-111 cm (including hair), shoulder height 120-146 cm; weight 200-300 kg. Przewalski’s Horses are stockier than domestic Horses and have long tails, thick black erect manes that only fall to the side when very long, chestnuts on both hind and forelimbs, and large rounded hooves. Their coats are a uniform dusty or dun color on the body and flanks; the belly and face are yellowish-white, and there are traces of yellowish-white stripes just above the hooves. Przewalski’s Horses have a relatively small skull, with a long diastema, and a long, rounded occipital crest.","habitat":"The historic range of Przewalski’s Horse is not known. The last wild horse was seen in the very arid Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia, and there has been much debate about whether it was in its preferred habitat or justits last refuge. One view holds that of the three wild horse species that once inhabited the grasslands of Europe, Central Asia, and China, Przewalski’s Horse was the one that thrived at the easternmost edge of the range, where it encountered limited water and arid conditions as part of its natural habitat. Another view holds that these horses favored the more mesic grassland steppes of Mongolia, but as a result of more than a thousand years of competitive exclusion by nomadic pastoralists, they were forced into the deserts, where they fared poorly and died out. Domestic Horses do not fare well in dry climes, but ecological studies on feral horses show that some populations can survive in arid environments where food is scare and the best patches are often far from water. However, other studies show that populations survive and reproduce better in more mesic areas where vegetation is more abundant, more evenly distributed, and water is close to feeding areas. Grass and water are more plentiful in the mesic grasslands of Mongolia, but the winters there are harsher than in the Dzungarian Gobi. Today, populations of Przewalski’s Horses have been reintroduced into the mesic grasslands of central Mongoliaas well as arid areas on the edge of the Gobi Desert and the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, which lies adjacent to the painted desert of China. Populations continue to survive in both xeric and mesic areas, although the population in Chinarequires more active management than the ones in Mongolia."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8135861FA63A123EFB2F480.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8135861FA63A123EFB2F480","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"4.African Wild AssEquus africanusFrench:Ane sauvage/ German:Afrikanischer Wildesel/ Spanish:AsnosalvajeOther common names:Atlas Wild Ass (atlanticus), Nubian Wild Ass (africanus), SomaliWild Ass (somalicus)Taxonomy.Asinusafricanus Heuglin & Fitzinger, 1866,Nubia. Restricted to Ain Saba, Eritrea, by Schlawe in 1980.The “Atlas Wild Ass” race atlanticus (Thomas, 1884)from North Africa is extinct. Two extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct.E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea(Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia(Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somaliafrom the Meti and Erigavo in the N to NugaalValley and Shebelle River in the S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-205 cm, tail 40-45 cm, shoulder height 115-125 cm; weight 270-280 kg. The African Wild Ass is the ancestor of the domestic Donkey (E. asinus). It is strong, lean, and muscular, with a fawn or gray coat dorsally and a white belly and legs. It has long ears, a stiff erect mane,a tail ending with a tuft of black hair, and extremely narrow hooves that appear designed for surefootedness rather than speed. The “Nubian Wild Ass” is gray with a shoulder stripe; the “ SomaliWild Ass”is gray and has both leg and shoulder stripes.Habitat.The African Wild Ass inhabits hilly and stony deserts as well as semi-desert grasslands and euphorbia and aloe shrublands that receive 100-200 mm of rainfall annually. Sandy habitats are avoided. Recorded up to 1500 mof elevation in Ethiopia.Food and Feeding.The African Wild Ass mostly grazes, eating grasses, especially Eragrostis, Dactyloctenium, and Chrysopogon when available, and tougher Panicum and Lasiurus species, as well as herbs and general browse. The asses use their incisors and hooves to break apart the tougher foods. Although they can sustain water losses of up to 30% of their body weight, they can replenish these losses within two to five minutes. Nevertheless, they need to drink water at least once every three days and most individuals are observed within 30 kmof a water source.Breeding.Although the age of first estrus has not been documented in African Wild Asses, in feral asses, first estrus occurs at about twelve months of age. Most females, however, give birth at 2-2-5 years of age and give birth to one foal every other year thereafter. Females cycle every 20-21 days until they conceive and gestation ranges from 330 to 365 days. Foals are independent soon after birth, often remaining alone for long periods as mothers seek water to maintain lactation. Foals begin grazing within weeks of birth but typically suckle for six months. Males tolerate other males within their territories even when females are present; dominance ensures that mating access is controlled mostly by territory holders. Breeding occurs during the wet season, with most births between October and February. The life span of wild asses is thought to be around 25-30 years.Activity patterns.The species is most active in the early morning, late afternoon, or at night, when the desert is cooler. During the hottest part of the day it seeks shade in nearby rocky hills whereit rests. Its body temperature can range from 35°C to 41-5°C, depending on ambient temperature. Females maintain higher body temperatures than males by sweating less, thus retaining water longer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Wild Asses live in small groups that are typically composed of fewer than five individuals. Associations are usually temporary, with the only permanent one consisting of a mother and her young. Gatherings occur at watering places or when searching for scarce forage. Low food availability and poor-quality forage prevent females from feeding in close proximity and associating consistently. Temporary groups vary in composition, sometimes containing only members of a single sex, sometimes members of both sexes. Breeding males defend large territories with essential resources, especially water, that females need. Males associate with females who enter their territories, and the better the territory, the longer females will stay, thus increasing a territorial male’s reproductive success. When conditions on a territory are not yet attractive to females, territorial males are found alone or occasionally in bachelor male groups. Territories are often 20 km? in size, with boundaries marked by conspicuous dung piles. Females range more widely, readily moving among male territories.Status and Conservation.CITES I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly, the African Wild Ass was distributed across large stretches of northern Africa, but now only occupies a small part ofits historic range. The Atlas Wild Ass occupied the north-west region of Algeriaand adjacent parts of Moroccoand Tunisia, becoming extinct around 300 ap. Threats to its survival come from hunting for food and body parts used in traditional healing, competition with livestock for food and water, and possible interbreeding and introgression from the domestic donkey. Fewer than 600 individuals of the Somali Wild Ass are thoughtto survive in the wild. Only Eritrea, where up to 400 individuals may survive,is thought to have a stable population. Fewer than 160 are believed to survive in Ethiopia, and fewer than ten in Somalia. The Nubian Wild Ass was present in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the Red Sea, south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. However no sightings have been confirmed since the 1970s, and their survival in these regions is now in doubt.Bibliography.Antonious (1938), Groves & Willoughby (1981), Kingdon (1997), Maloiy (1970), McCort (1980), Moehlman (1998, 2002), Moehiman, Yohannes et al. (2008), Wilson & Reeder (1993), Woodward (1979).","taxonomy":"Asinusafricanus Heuglin & Fitzinger, 1866,Nubia. Restricted to Ain Saba, Eritrea, by Schlawe in 1980.The “Atlas Wild Ass” race atlanticus (Thomas, 1884)from North Africa is extinct. Two extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ane sauvage @fr | Afrikanischer Wildesel @de | Asnosalvaje @es | Asno @es | Atlas Wild Ass (atlanticus) @en | Nubian Wild Ass (africanus) @en | Somali Wild Ass (somalicus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Heuglin & Fitzinger","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1866","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"africanus","name":"Equus africanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct.E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea(Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia(Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somaliafrom the Meti and Erigavo in the N to NugaalValley and Shebelle River in the S.","bibliography":"Antonious (1938) | Groves & Willoughby (1981) | Kingdon (1997) | Maloiy (1970) | McCort (1980) | Moehlman (1998, 2002) | Moehiman, Yohannes et al. (2008) | Wilson & Reeder (1993) | Woodward (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"The African Wild Ass mostly grazes, eating grasses, especially Eragrostis, Dactyloctenium, and Chrysopogon when available, and tougher Panicum and Lasiurus species, as well as herbs and general browse. The asses use their incisors and hooves to break apart the tougher foods. Although they can sustain water losses of up to 30% of their body weight, they can replenish these losses within two to five minutes. Nevertheless, they need to drink water at least once every three days and most individuals are observed within 30 kmof a water source.","breeding":"Although the age of first estrus has not been documented in African Wild Asses, in feral asses, first estrus occurs at about twelve months of age. Most females, however, give birth at 2-2-5 years of age and give birth to one foal every other year thereafter. Females cycle every 20-21 days until they conceive and gestation ranges from 330 to 365 days. Foals are independent soon after birth, often remaining alone for long periods as mothers seek water to maintain lactation. Foals begin grazing within weeks of birth but typically suckle for six months. Males tolerate other males within their territories even when females are present; dominance ensures that mating access is controlled mostly by territory holders. Breeding occurs during the wet season, with most births between October and February. The life span of wild asses is thought to be around 25-30 years.","activityPatterns":"The species is most active in the early morning, late afternoon, or at night, when the desert is cooler. During the hottest part of the day it seeks shade in nearby rocky hills whereit rests. Its body temperature can range from 35°C to 41-5°C, depending on ambient temperature. Females maintain higher body temperatures than males by sweating less, thus retaining water longer.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"African Wild Asses live in small groups that are typically composed of fewer than five individuals. Associations are usually temporary, with the only permanent one consisting of a mother and her young. Gatherings occur at watering places or when searching for scarce forage. Low food availability and poor-quality forage prevent females from feeding in close proximity and associating consistently. Temporary groups vary in composition, sometimes containing only members of a single sex, sometimes members of both sexes. Breeding males defend large territories with essential resources, especially water, that females need. Males associate with females who enter their territories, and the better the territory, the longer females will stay, thus increasing a territorial male’s reproductive success. When conditions on a territory are not yet attractive to females, territorial males are found alone or occasionally in bachelor male groups. Territories are often 20 km? in size, with boundaries marked by conspicuous dung piles. Females range more widely, readily moving among male territories.","statusAndConservation":"CITES I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly, the African Wild Ass was distributed across large stretches of northern Africa, but now only occupies a small part ofits historic range. The Atlas Wild Ass occupied the north-west region of Algeriaand adjacent parts of Moroccoand Tunisia, becoming extinct around 300 ap. Threats to its survival come from hunting for food and body parts used in traditional healing, competition with livestock for food and water, and possible interbreeding and introgression from the domestic donkey. Fewer than 600 individuals of the Somali Wild Ass are thoughtto survive in the wild. Only Eritrea, where up to 400 individuals may survive,is thought to have a stable population. Fewer than 160 are believed to survive in Ethiopia, and fewer than ten in Somalia. The Nubian Wild Ass was present in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the Red Sea, south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. However no sightings have been confirmed since the 1970s, and their survival in these regions is now in doubt.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 195-205 cm, tail 40-45 cm, shoulder height 115-125 cm; weight 270-280 kg. The African Wild Ass is the ancestor of the domestic Donkey (E. asinus). It is strong, lean, and muscular, with a fawn or gray coat dorsally and a white belly and legs. It has long ears, a stiff erect mane,a tail ending with a tuft of black hair, and extremely narrow hooves that appear designed for surefootedness rather than speed. The “Nubian Wild Ass” is gray with a shoulder stripe; the “ SomaliWild Ass”is gray and has both leg and shoulder stripes.","habitat":"The African Wild Ass inhabits hilly and stony deserts as well as semi-desert grasslands and euphorbia and aloe shrublands that receive 100-200 mm of rainfall annually. Sandy habitats are avoided. Recorded up to 1500 mof elevation in Ethiopia."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8135866FF1AA3CDEC6BF56D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8135866FF1AA3CDEC6BF56D","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"3.Tibetan Wild AssEquus kiangFrench:Kiang/ German:Kiang/ Spanish:KiangOther common names:Kiang; Eastern Kiang(holdereri), Southern Kiang(polyodon), Western Kiang(kiang)Taxonomy.Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841,Ladakh, state ofJammu and Kashmir, India.Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.k.kiangMoorcroft,1841—WChina(SWXinjiang,C&WXizang),NEPakistan(KhunjerabNationalPark),NIndia(Ladakh),andNNepal(Mustang).E.k.holderersMatschie,1911—WCChina(SEXinjiang,Quinghai,Gansu&EXizang).E. k. polyodon Hodgson, 1847— SW China(S Xizang) and N India(N Sikkim); also possibly in extreme N & NW Bhutan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 182-214 cm, tail 32-45 cm, shoulder height 132-142 cm; weight 250-400 kg. Tibetan Wild Asses have large heads, thick muzzles, relatively long manes, and tails with long hairs not restricted to the tip. Their hooves are broad and rounded like the hooves of horses. Tibetan Wild Asses have dark chestnut-brown coats covering the upper flanks and thighs and white bellies, lower flanks, legs, and rump patches. The coat is paler in the winter and redder in the summer. The mane and the edges and tips of the ears are black. A dark brown dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the tail and each hoofis circled by a thin black ring. Chestnuts are found only on the forelegs. Males are slightly larger than females.Habitat.The Tibetan Wild Ass is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia at elevations from 2700 mto 5300 m. It rangesas far south as the Himalayas and north to the Kunlun-Arjin Shan Mountains. Tibetan Wild Asses inhabit three major vegetation zones: alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Alpine meadows are generally found at elevations below 4500 min areas where precipitation exceeds 400 mmper year. Vegetation in these meadows starts growing earlier than in the other areas and short sedges, such as Kobresia, and forbs cover about 25-30% of the surface. Alpine steppe is the most abundant habitat on the Tibetan Plateau, occurring at elevations between 4000 mand 5000 m. Precipitation is low and vegetation is sparse, covering less than 15% of the ground, with Stipa, Festuca, and Poa being the most common grasses. Desert steppe occurs at elevations greater than 5000 m. Although the vegetation of the desert steppe is similar to that of the alpine steppe, only 5% of the ground is covered in vegetation. Not surprisingly, the Tibetan Wild Ass occupies mostly alpine meadows and steppe. Almost 80% of Tibetan Wild Ass sightings are in the basins in these habitats. Most of the other sightings are on the hills. Open plains seem to be used as refuges from predators.Food and Feeding.Tibetan Wild Asses are grazers, mostly concentrating on Stipa, which comprises up to 656% ofits diet in summer and up to 95% in winter. Small amounts of forbs and shrubs are also consumed, and in winter, digging for roots is also common. Waterholes are scarce in the summer and often frozen in the winter, when snow is eaten instead. When the vegetation is of high quality, Tibetan Wild Asses acquire most of their water from vegetation.Breeding.The mating season is late and short compared to other seasonally breeding equids, running from late July to the end of August. Gestation length appears to vary from eleven to twelve months. Females typically give birth to one foal every other year. Little is known about the age of sexual maturity in the wild, but it is likely that it is similar to the desert-living “Kulan” (E. hemionuskulan), which begins breeding between three and four years of age. The age of maturity in males is even less certain. In captivity one male showed no signs of sexual activity by 3-5 years of age. In the wild, males occasionally injure newborn foals while attempting to mate with their mothers.Activity patterns.Tibetan Wild Asses move seasonally among habitats. They disperse in small groups into the hills during the summer in search of high-quality food. As harsh winter conditions set in, they return to basins and flatlands at lower elevations, often forming large concentrations. In the summer, they move daily from lower areas where they spend the night to higher elevations as daytime temperatures rise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tibetan Wild Asses are typically found alone or in small groups. Aggregations of several hundred individuals occur, but these seem to be seasonally driven. During the summer, individuals disperse and scatter, but during winter groups coalesce. Tibetan Wild Ass groups are not cohesive. The only strong bond is between mothers and their foals. Adults come together for short periods and then disperse. Tibetan Wild Asses show the same fission-fusion social system as Asiatic Wild Asses (E. hemionus), African Wild Asses (E. africanus), and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). In this system lone males establish territories containing critical resources that females need. In the Ladakh region, territories are 0-5-5 km? in size. Young males unable to defend territories join all-male bachelor groups. Old males wander alone. Territorial males aggressively defend their territories. Ritualized displays involving a head-up, ears laid back, horizontaltail display are often accompanied by a wheezing bray. Long chases and contests involving rearing, kicking, and biting on the mane, neck, and tail occur when ritualized signals fail to determine dominance.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current global population of the Tibetan Wild Ass is estimated at 60,000-70,000 individuals, 90% of them in China. This Chinese population of approximately 56,000-68,500 individuals is divided between Qinghaiand Gansu(15,000), Xinjiang(4500-5500), and Xizang(37,000-48,000). The population outside Chinais estimated at 1600-2145. Within this wide range, Tibetan Wild Ass distribution is fragmented, and currently most populations are found in protected areas or areas which are under armyjurisdiction.Bibliography.Feng Zuojian (1991a, 1991b), Fox et al. (1991), Goldstein & Beall (1989), Groves & Mazak (1967), Harris & Miller (1995), Schaller (1998), Schaller & Gu (1994), Shah (2002), Shah et al. (2008), St. Louis & Coté(2009), Zhang Chieh (1984).","taxonomy":"Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841,Ladakh, state ofJammu and Kashmir, India.Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Kiang @fr | Kiang @de | Kiang @es | Kiang; Eastern Kiang(holdereri) @en | Southern Kiang(polyodon) @en | Western Kiang(kiang) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Moorcroft","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kiang","name":"Equus kiang","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.k.kiangMoorcroft,1841—WChina(SWXinjiang,C&WXizang),NEPakistan(KhunjerabNationalPark),NIndia(Ladakh),andNNepal(Mustang).E.k.holderersMatschie,1911—WCChina(SEXinjiang,Quinghai,Gansu&EXizang).E. k. polyodon Hodgson, 1847— SW China(S Xizang) and N India(N Sikkim); also possibly in extreme N & NW Bhutan.","bibliography":"Feng Zuojian (1991a, 1991b) | Fox et al. (1991) | Goldstein & Beall (1989) | Groves & Mazak (1967) | Harris & Miller (1995) | Schaller (1998) | Schaller & Gu (1994) | Shah (2002) | Shah et al. (2008) | St. Louis & Coté(2009) | Zhang Chieh (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"Tibetan Wild Asses are grazers, mostly concentrating on Stipa, which comprises up to 656% ofits diet in summer and up to 95% in winter. Small amounts of forbs and shrubs are also consumed, and in winter, digging for roots is also common. Waterholes are scarce in the summer and often frozen in the winter, when snow is eaten instead. When the vegetation is of high quality, Tibetan Wild Asses acquire most of their water from vegetation.","breeding":"The mating season is late and short compared to other seasonally breeding equids, running from late July to the end of August. Gestation length appears to vary from eleven to twelve months. Females typically give birth to one foal every other year. Little is known about the age of sexual maturity in the wild, but it is likely that it is similar to the desert-living “Kulan” (E. hemionuskulan), which begins breeding between three and four years of age. The age of maturity in males is even less certain. In captivity one male showed no signs of sexual activity by 3-5 years of age. In the wild, males occasionally injure newborn foals while attempting to mate with their mothers.","activityPatterns":"Tibetan Wild Asses move seasonally among habitats. They disperse in small groups into the hills during the summer in search of high-quality food. As harsh winter conditions set in, they return to basins and flatlands at lower elevations, often forming large concentrations. In the summer, they move daily from lower areas where they spend the night to higher elevations as daytime temperatures rise.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Tibetan Wild Asses are typically found alone or in small groups. Aggregations of several hundred individuals occur, but these seem to be seasonally driven. During the summer, individuals disperse and scatter, but during winter groups coalesce. Tibetan Wild Ass groups are not cohesive. The only strong bond is between mothers and their foals. Adults come together for short periods and then disperse. Tibetan Wild Asses show the same fission-fusion social system as Asiatic Wild Asses (E. hemionus), African Wild Asses (E. africanus), and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). In this system lone males establish territories containing critical resources that females need. In the Ladakh region, territories are 0-5-5 km? in size. Young males unable to defend territories join all-male bachelor groups. Old males wander alone. Territorial males aggressively defend their territories. Ritualized displays involving a head-up, ears laid back, horizontaltail display are often accompanied by a wheezing bray. Long chases and contests involving rearing, kicking, and biting on the mane, neck, and tail occur when ritualized signals fail to determine dominance.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current global population of the Tibetan Wild Ass is estimated at 60,000-70,000 individuals, 90% of them in China. This Chinese population of approximately 56,000-68,500 individuals is divided between Qinghaiand Gansu(15,000), Xinjiang(4500-5500), and Xizang(37,000-48,000). The population outside Chinais estimated at 1600-2145. Within this wide range, Tibetan Wild Ass distribution is fragmented, and currently most populations are found in protected areas or areas which are under armyjurisdiction.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 182-214 cm, tail 32-45 cm, shoulder height 132-142 cm; weight 250-400 kg. Tibetan Wild Asses have large heads, thick muzzles, relatively long manes, and tails with long hairs not restricted to the tip. Their hooves are broad and rounded like the hooves of horses. Tibetan Wild Asses have dark chestnut-brown coats covering the upper flanks and thighs and white bellies, lower flanks, legs, and rump patches. The coat is paler in the winter and redder in the summer. The mane and the edges and tips of the ears are black. A dark brown dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the tail and each hoofis circled by a thin black ring. Chestnuts are found only on the forelegs. Males are slightly larger than females.","habitat":"The Tibetan Wild Ass is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia at elevations from 2700 mto 5300 m. It rangesas far south as the Himalayas and north to the Kunlun-Arjin Shan Mountains. Tibetan Wild Asses inhabit three major vegetation zones: alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Alpine meadows are generally found at elevations below 4500 min areas where precipitation exceeds 400 mmper year. Vegetation in these meadows starts growing earlier than in the other areas and short sedges, such as Kobresia, and forbs cover about 25-30% of the surface. Alpine steppe is the most abundant habitat on the Tibetan Plateau, occurring at elevations between 4000 mand 5000 m. Precipitation is low and vegetation is sparse, covering less than 15% of the ground, with Stipa, Festuca, and Poa being the most common grasses. Desert steppe occurs at elevations greater than 5000 m. Although the vegetation of the desert steppe is similar to that of the alpine steppe, only 5% of the ground is covered in vegetation. Not surprisingly, the Tibetan Wild Ass occupies mostly alpine meadows and steppe. Almost 80% of Tibetan Wild Ass sightings are in the basins in these habitats. Most of the other sightings are on the hills. Open plains seem to be used as refuges from predators."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8145860FFB0A181E90EF9C9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8145860FFB0A181E90EF9C9","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"141","verbatimText":"5.Plains ZebraEquus quaggaFrench:Zebre de Burchell/ German:Steppenzebra/ Spanish:Cebra de BurchellOther common names:Common Zebra, Painted Quagga; Burchell's Zebra(burchell), Chapman's Zebra(chapmanni), Crawshay's Zebra(crawshaii), Damara Zebra(antiquorum), Grant's Zebra(boehmi), Quagga(quagga), ZambeziZebra(selousi)Taxonomy.Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785,South Africa, south of Vaal River.Revisions have been made to the taxonomy of the Plains Zebra, whose extant species complex was until recently named E.burchelli, with the extinct form designated as a distinct species, the “ Quagga” (FE. quagga), which occupied the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal rivers and west of the Drakensberg mountain range. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the ranges of Quaggas and “Burchell’s Zebra” (E. q. burchelli) overlapped in a narrow zone north of the Orange River, unlike the other Plains Zebrasubspecies whose ranges do not overlap, but they apparently did not interbreed. However, recent molecular analyses using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA demonstrate that the variation among living and extinct forms is no greater than among modern breeds of domestic Horses (FE. caballus). Thus the Plains Zebraand the extinct Quaggaare now considered a single species, E. quagga. The Plains Zebrashows a genetic and morphological cline from northern Kenyato southern Africa; generally, the farther south, the less the degree of stripe coverage, while body size increases. With the nominate subspecies’ demise, only six extant subspecies are recognized, located around three widely separated regional centres.Subspecies and Distribution.E.q.antiguorumC.H.Smith,1841—Angola,Namibia,andWBotswana.E.q.boehmiMatschie,1892—ZambiaWofLuangwaRiver,DRCongo,NTanzania,Uganda,Kenya,Ethiopia,andSomalia.E.q.burchelliGray,1824—CSouthAfrica.E.q.chapmanniLayard,1865—NSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandEBotswana.E.q.crawshaiDeWinton,1896—ZambiaEofLuangwaRiver,Malawi,SETanzania,andMozambique.E. q. selousi Pocock, 1897— E Zimbabweand W Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217-246 cm, tail 47-57 cm, shoulder height 127-140 cm; weight 175-320 kg. The Plains Zebrais a muscular horse with a short neck, barrel chest, and sturdy legs. The stripes are variable, but in general they are wide, broader than those of Mountain Zebras (LE. zebra) and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). Apart from Burchell’s and “Damara” Zebras,stripes cover the flanks and touch under the belly. Stripes on the rump are typically bold and wide in all subspecies except the Damara Zebra, where they are thin and often wavy. In Burchell’s and Damara Zebras, both southern African subspecies, there are often grayish shadow stripes in the center of the white stripes. In all subspecies, males are slightly larger than females and have stripes that are blacker than the browner ones of females.Habitat.Plains Zebras inhabit tropical, subtropical, and temperate grasslands, steppes, savannas, and woodlands, from sea level to 4300 mon Mount Kenya. Since Plains Zebras need to drink daily, they are restricted to habitats where water can be accessed within half a day’s walk. Only deserts, dense woodlands, and permanent wetlands are avoided.Food and Feeding.Plains Zebraare true grazers. As hindgut fermenters, they require large quantities of food, so it is not surprising that they spend up to 20 hours per day foraging. Yet they are selective foragers, disproportionately consuming Perisetum and Themeda grasses when available. They can only forage in mesic areas where feeding sites and watering points are close together.Breeding.Plains Zebras give birth to one young after a gestation period of twelve months. Females generally stay near their groups when giving birth. When the foal is strong enough to move about, the mother and foal rejoin the group. Foals nurse for about six months, but begin feeding on grass by about one month of age. Females become sexually mature between two and three years of age, but often cycle without conceiving for the first year. Males generally only begin maintaining harems at five years of age.Activity patterns.Plains Zebras are active day and night and organize their daily activities around drinking. Most individuals need to drink once per day, but in very dry conditions, some drink more often. During the dry season the need for water constrains Plains Zebragroups from wandering more than 5-10 km from reliable water. After the rains, they spread out and range widely, seeking superior grazing areas located near transient water sources.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Because Plains Zebras are restricted to habitats where food and water are in close proximity, females of different reproductive classes can stay together. As a result, females, regardless of reproductive state, form groups and associate with a single male, who keeps away marauding males. By reducing sexual harassment, stallions provide females with a valuable material reward— increased foraging time. As in feral horses, females that associate with high-ranking males, or males rising rapidly in rank, can feed for up to six minutes longer per hour than females associating with less able males. Since Plains Zebras feed for up to 20 hours per day, females associating with the best males typically gain an additional two hours of foraging per day, thus increasing their fitness. Plains Zebraassociations are often large, consisting of hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals. Since these herds include both harem and bachelor male groups, Plains Zebras live in the most complex societies of all equids. Herd size varies. It depends directly on the abundance of vegetation, but also on the strength of a social factor—the degree of cuckolding pressure exerted by bachelor males. When vegetation is abundant, groups tend to be large. But the largest herds form when bachelor groups are large. By banding together, breeding stallions amortize costs and collectively dominate large bachelor associations. For females, harassment reduction helps maximize foraging. Apparently females find life in herds no different from life in isolated and unchallenged harems, thus permitting herds to form. Many Plains Zebrapopulations are seasonally migratory, traveling hundreds of kilometers as they track vegetation flushes induced by predictable seasonal shifts in rainfall. Others stay put when the migrants leave, suggesting that these strategies are alternative solutions, shaped by trade-offs between vegetation quality and quantity. At any one locale, migratory or resident populations also exhibit local movements among landscape zones. During the rains, Plains Zebras graze on hilltops where vegetation productivity is high and good visibility increases safety from predators. When the rains cease and grasses stop growing, the zebras seek habitats where food is more abundant, because of dietary demands associated with their relatively large body size. They move to valleys and basins where grass is abundant, even though it is fibrous and of low quality. Their grazing transforms these habitats. Residual moisture and increased light penetration induces vegetation growth, which benefits the zebras as well as wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) and Thompson's gazelles (Eudorcas spp.). As ruminants, these species require higher-quality vegetation than zebras. It is their good fortune that by the time they are forced to leave the hilltops, high-quality vegetation in the valleys is abundant enough to sustain them. Thus Plains Zebras play an important role as engineers stabilizing herbivore communities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In 2002, total numbers were estimated at ¢.660,000. More than 75% of the world’s Plains Zebras are “Grant’s Zebras” (boehmi), some 200,000 of them in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. The two countries they inhabit, Kenyaand Tanzania, have extensive national park systems earning revenue from tourism, coupled with sophisticated government-supported monitoring systems. Wildlife-friendly ranching practices tend to protect even zebras living on private land in Kenya. Plains Zebras will probably not become threatened in these locales, but aerial survey data from Tanzaniasuggests a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s. Elsewhere, Grant’s Zebras and the other subspecies are faring less well. Civil strife in many countries has led to widespread poaching. Continued habitat conversion to agriculture and loss due to development isolate and threaten the demographic and genetic integrity of small populations. In the past Plains Zebras have shown resilience and an ability to bounce back quickly from population reductions. With the establishment of effective management, protection, and monitoring, most Plains Zebrapopulations are likely to survive. Current information on total population size is limited.Bibliography.Bell (1971), Bennett (1980), George & Ryder (1986), Groves (1974), Hack & Lorenzen (2008), Hack et al. (2202), Higuchi et al. (1984), Kgathi & Kalikawe (1993), Kingdon (1979, 1997), Klingel (1969), Oakenful et al. (2000), Ogawa (1975), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1989, 1994), Rubenstein & Hack (2004), Sinclair & Norton-Griffiths (1982), Smuts (1975).","taxonomy":"Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785,South Africa, south of Vaal River.Revisions have been made to the taxonomy of the Plains Zebra, whose extant species complex was until recently named E.burchelli, with the extinct form designated as a distinct species, the “ Quagga” (FE. quagga), which occupied the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal rivers and west of the Drakensberg mountain range. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the ranges of Quaggas and “Burchell’s Zebra” (E. q. burchelli) overlapped in a narrow zone north of the Orange River, unlike the other Plains Zebrasubspecies whose ranges do not overlap, but they apparently did not interbreed. However, recent molecular analyses using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA demonstrate that the variation among living and extinct forms is no greater than among modern breeds of domestic Horses (FE. caballus). Thus the Plains Zebraand the extinct Quaggaare now considered a single species, E. quagga. The Plains Zebrashows a genetic and morphological cline from northern Kenyato southern Africa; generally, the farther south, the less the degree of stripe coverage, while body size increases. With the nominate subspecies’ demise, only six extant subspecies are recognized, located around three widely separated regional centres.","commonNames":"Zebre de Burchell @fr | Steppenzebra @de | Cebra de Burchell @es | Common Zebra @en | Painted Quagga; Burchell's Zebra(burchell) @en | Chapman's Zebra(chapmanni) @en | Crawshay's Zebra(crawshaii) @en | Damara Zebra(antiquorum) @en | Grant's Zebra(boehmi) @en | Quagga(quagga) @en | Zambezi Zebra(selousi) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Boddaert","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1785","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"141","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"quagga","name":"Equus quagga","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.q.antiguorumC.H.Smith,1841—Angola,Namibia,andWBotswana.E.q.boehmiMatschie,1892—ZambiaWofLuangwaRiver,DRCongo,NTanzania,Uganda,Kenya,Ethiopia,andSomalia.E.q.burchelliGray,1824—CSouthAfrica.E.q.chapmanniLayard,1865—NSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandEBotswana.E.q.crawshaiDeWinton,1896—ZambiaEofLuangwaRiver,Malawi,SETanzania,andMozambique.E. q. selousi Pocock, 1897— E Zimbabweand W Mozambique.","bibliography":"Bell (1971) | Bennett (1980) | George & Ryder (1986) | Groves (1974) | Hack & Lorenzen (2008) | Hack et al. (2202) | Higuchi et al. (1984) | Kgathi & Kalikawe (1993) | Kingdon (1979, 1997) | Klingel (1969) | Oakenful et al. (2000) | Ogawa (1975) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1989, 1994) | Rubenstein & Hack (2004) | Sinclair & Norton-Griffiths (1982) | Smuts (1975)","foodAndFeeding":"Plains Zebraare true grazers. As hindgut fermenters, they require large quantities of food, so it is not surprising that they spend up to 20 hours per day foraging. Yet they are selective foragers, disproportionately consuming Perisetum and Themeda grasses when available. They can only forage in mesic areas where feeding sites and watering points are close together.","breeding":"Plains Zebras give birth to one young after a gestation period of twelve months. Females generally stay near their groups when giving birth. When the foal is strong enough to move about, the mother and foal rejoin the group. Foals nurse for about six months, but begin feeding on grass by about one month of age. Females become sexually mature between two and three years of age, but often cycle without conceiving for the first year. Males generally only begin maintaining harems at five years of age.","activityPatterns":"Plains Zebras are active day and night and organize their daily activities around drinking. Most individuals need to drink once per day, but in very dry conditions, some drink more often. During the dry season the need for water constrains Plains Zebragroups from wandering more than 5-10 km from reliable water. After the rains, they spread out and range widely, seeking superior grazing areas located near transient water sources.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Because Plains Zebras are restricted to habitats where food and water are in close proximity, females of different reproductive classes can stay together. As a result, females, regardless of reproductive state, form groups and associate with a single male, who keeps away marauding males. By reducing sexual harassment, stallions provide females with a valuable material reward— increased foraging time. As in feral horses, females that associate with high-ranking males, or males rising rapidly in rank, can feed for up to six minutes longer per hour than females associating with less able males. Since Plains Zebras feed for up to 20 hours per day, females associating with the best males typically gain an additional two hours of foraging per day, thus increasing their fitness. Plains Zebraassociations are often large, consisting of hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals. Since these herds include both harem and bachelor male groups, Plains Zebras live in the most complex societies of all equids. Herd size varies. It depends directly on the abundance of vegetation, but also on the strength of a social factor—the degree of cuckolding pressure exerted by bachelor males. When vegetation is abundant, groups tend to be large. But the largest herds form when bachelor groups are large. By banding together, breeding stallions amortize costs and collectively dominate large bachelor associations. For females, harassment reduction helps maximize foraging. Apparently females find life in herds no different from life in isolated and unchallenged harems, thus permitting herds to form. Many Plains Zebrapopulations are seasonally migratory, traveling hundreds of kilometers as they track vegetation flushes induced by predictable seasonal shifts in rainfall. Others stay put when the migrants leave, suggesting that these strategies are alternative solutions, shaped by trade-offs between vegetation quality and quantity. At any one locale, migratory or resident populations also exhibit local movements among landscape zones. During the rains, Plains Zebras graze on hilltops where vegetation productivity is high and good visibility increases safety from predators. When the rains cease and grasses stop growing, the zebras seek habitats where food is more abundant, because of dietary demands associated with their relatively large body size. They move to valleys and basins where grass is abundant, even though it is fibrous and of low quality. Their grazing transforms these habitats. Residual moisture and increased light penetration induces vegetation growth, which benefits the zebras as well as wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) and Thompson's gazelles (Eudorcas spp.). As ruminants, these species require higher-quality vegetation than zebras. It is their good fortune that by the time they are forced to leave the hilltops, high-quality vegetation in the valleys is abundant enough to sustain them. Thus Plains Zebras play an important role as engineers stabilizing herbivore communities.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In 2002, total numbers were estimated at ¢.660,000. More than 75% of the world’s Plains Zebras are “Grant’s Zebras” (boehmi), some 200,000 of them in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. The two countries they inhabit, Kenyaand Tanzania, have extensive national park systems earning revenue from tourism, coupled with sophisticated government-supported monitoring systems. Wildlife-friendly ranching practices tend to protect even zebras living on private land in Kenya. Plains Zebras will probably not become threatened in these locales, but aerial survey data from Tanzaniasuggests a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s. Elsewhere, Grant’s Zebras and the other subspecies are faring less well. Civil strife in many countries has led to widespread poaching. Continued habitat conversion to agriculture and loss due to development isolate and threaten the demographic and genetic integrity of small populations. In the past Plains Zebras have shown resilience and an ability to bounce back quickly from population reductions. With the establishment of effective management, protection, and monitoring, most Plains Zebrapopulations are likely to survive. Current information on total population size is limited.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 217-246 cm, tail 47-57 cm, shoulder height 127-140 cm; weight 175-320 kg. The Plains Zebrais a muscular horse with a short neck, barrel chest, and sturdy legs. The stripes are variable, but in general they are wide, broader than those of Mountain Zebras (LE. zebra) and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). Apart from Burchell’s and “Damara” Zebras,stripes cover the flanks and touch under the belly. Stripes on the rump are typically bold and wide in all subspecies except the Damara Zebra, where they are thin and often wavy. In Burchell’s and Damara Zebras, both southern African subspecies, there are often grayish shadow stripes in the center of the white stripes. In all subspecies, males are slightly larger than females and have stripes that are blacker than the browner ones of females.","habitat":"Plains Zebras inhabit tropical, subtropical, and temperate grasslands, steppes, savannas, and woodlands, from sea level to 4300 mon Mount Kenya. Since Plains Zebras need to drink daily, they are restricted to habitats where water can be accessed within half a day’s walk. Only deserts, dense woodlands, and permanent wetlands are avoided."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8155860FF1AAC47ECEDF4E7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8155860FF1AAC47ECEDF4E7","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"142","verbatimText":"6.Grevy’s ZebraEquus grevyiFrench:Zebre de Grévy/ German:Grévy-Zebra/ Spanish:Cebra de GrévyOther common names:Imperial ZebraTaxonomy.Equus grevyi Oustalet, 1882,Ethiopia, Galla Country.Grevy’s Zebrawas described by French zoologist E. Oustalet and named after French President J. Grévy, who received the zebraas a gift from the Abyssinian government. Most DNA analyses agree that Grevy’s Zebrais in the same clade as the Plains Zebra(E.quagga), and the Mountain Zebra(FE. zebra). Most studies also concur that the Mountain Zebrawas the last species in the clade to evolve, but it remains unclear whether Grevy’s Zebraor the Plains Zebraappeared first, because there are so few nucleotide differences between them. The species differ in chromosome number, Grevy’s Zebras having 46 and Plains Zebras 44, but they are so close evolutionarily that fertile hybrids have appeared at the southern edge of the Grevy’s Zebra's range. Monotypic.Distribution.Ethiopiaand C & N Kenya; perhaps also in S Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-275 cm, tail 38-75 cm, shoulder height 140-160 cm; weight 350-450 kg. Grevy’s Zebrais the largest of the equids, with a large head, long face, and elongated nostril openings. Its ears are large and round and can rotate independently in different directions. It has narrow stripes on its face, body, and rump; the stripes on the neck are slightly broader. The belly is white, as is the area around the base of the tail. Its muzzle is distinctively brown. It has an erect mane and the tail is tufted at the tip. Its hooves are large and rounded.Habitat.Grevy’s Zebrainhabits semi-arid grasslands and thornbush scrublands typified by acacias and commiphoras. It does not need to drink daily and lives in habitats intermediate between the arid habitats of the true desert-dwelling African Wild Ass (FE. africanus), and the more water dependant Plains Zebra, which inhabits mesic tropical grasslands. Lactating females stay in the most open areas around water; non-lactating females and territorial males prefer grassy areas with light tree cover. Bachelor males grade into areas of medium or moderate bush, but overall, Grevy’s Zebras avoid densely wooded areas except during periods of extreme drought.Food and Feeding.Grevy’s Zebras are predominantly grazers, but browse can account for up to 30% oftheir diet during drought or when foraging on landscapes degraded by livestock. They move through habitats quickly, taking many steps per bite, selectively choosing certain grass species over others. As a result, when grazing herds of Grevy’s and Plains Zebras form, the herds don’t persist for long, since Grevy’s Zebras simply pass through them. Availability of water and individual water requirements ultimately determine where Grevy’s Zebras can forage. Since non-lactating females can go without water for up to five days, they typically range far from water, seeking out previously well-watered areas with large quantities of vegetation. Lactating females, with their need to produce milk, must drink daily. Thus they remain near water, feeding on closely cropped grazing lawns that offer forage of high nutritive quality even if the amount of available food is limited.Breeding.Grevy’s Zebras can breed year-round, but most births are timed to coincide with the arrival of the long rains that normally fall between April and June. Where Grevy’s Zebras reside, two rainy seasons are expected, since the intertropical convergence zone sweeps across the Equator twice per year. But often one or more of the rains fails. This severely limits the species’ ability to rebound after environmental or anthropogenic shocks. When females are in estrus they typically move through many male territories. Males only mate when on their own territories, and because females rarely stay with one male, Grevy’s Zebramales engage in post-copulatory sperm competition. Therefore, not surprisingly, they have larger testes than the other zebraspecies. To help ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible, when there are no females on their territories, territorial males wander widely in search of bachelor males and aggressively challenge them. By preemptively reinforcing dominance in low-risk settings, territorial males are able to devote more time to mating than to fighting when bachelors invade territories containing many females.Activity patterns.Grevy’s Zebras are opportunists and move great distances in search of food and water. Females and their young, as well as bachelor males, have large home ranges, often moving with the rains to areas where grass is growing or abundant. Territorial males tend to linger on their territories until well after all other zebras have left and only depart when conditions have deteriorated dramatically. During normal dry seasons, when all Grevy’s Zebras are dependent on water, concentrations of males and females develop. Given that Grevy’s Zebras often move 35 kmper day if food and water are widely separated, aggregations tend to split apart and are never very large. Sightings of a few hundred Grevy’s Zebras at a time are rare. Although the availability of food and water determine most movements, predation plays a role. Grevy’s Zebras avoid human settlements during the day because of stresses associated with human activity, but at night settlements are sought as refuges against predators.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Grevy’s Zebras differ socially from the other two species of zebras; they do notlive in closed-membership family groups, or harems. Like the asses, Grevy’s Zebras live in open-membership groups in which the only long-lasting bond is between mothers and their young. Adult females come together at water sources and good grazing sites and continue to travel together as long as their needs can be satisfied. When they cannot, such as when lactating females need to return daily to water and those without young or with older young do not, then the social ties that bind females become severed and groups dissolve. Given that both types of females are sexually active, and males cannot simultaneously associate with both, dominant males instead establish territories adjacent to water. In this way high-status males have mating access to both lactating and non-lactating females whenever they come to water. Less dominant males also establish territories, but in areas of abundant vegetation far from water, where they gain access to the subset of females searching for quality foraging areas. Territories can be as large as 10 km?, the largest of any equid. Males of the lowest rank are unable to maintain territories, so they join bachelor groups. They range widely, grow quickly, and by interacting with many males they improve their fighting ability.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Grevy’s Zebras exist only in the Horn of Africa. According to recent surveys, an estimated 2000-2300 live in Kenya, around 150 inEthiopia, and there may be a few in southern Sudan. Historically Grevy’s Zebras ranged more widely, from Somaliato western Ethiopia, Djbouti, and Eritrea, and from southern Ethiopiasouth tojust north and west of Mount Kenya. Extensive hunting ceased at the start of the 1980s, yet populations of Grevy’s Zebras did not rebound. They are still decreasing and from 1988 to 2007, the global population declined approximately 55%. Increasing competition with the livestock of pastoral herders for water and forage appears to be the culprit. As human populations and their herds grew, water disappeared more quickly than in the past. In addition, the presence of humans and livestock prevented the zebras from accessing drinking sites during the day. Constrained lactation, in addition to greater predation risks associated with night-time drinking, reduced infant and juvenile survival. Since less than 5% of Grevy’s Zebra’s current range is located within protected areas, the best hope for enhancing population growth involves encouraging communities to better manage rangelands, as well as increasing the value of Grevy’s Zebras by training community members to become scouts or ambassadors and hiring them to help monitor Grevy’s Zebrapopulation dynamics and harmful human impacts.Bibliography.Cordingley et al. (2009), Ginsberg & Rubenstein (1990), Groves (2002), Kingdon (1997), Klingel (1974), Low et al. (2009), Moehlman, Rubenstein & Kebede (2008), Rowen & Ginsberg (1992), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1994), Sundaresan et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Equus grevyi Oustalet, 1882,Ethiopia, Galla Country.Grevy’s Zebrawas described by French zoologist E. Oustalet and named after French President J. Grévy, who received the zebraas a gift from the Abyssinian government. Most DNA analyses agree that Grevy’s Zebrais in the same clade as the Plains Zebra(E.quagga), and the Mountain Zebra(FE. zebra). Most studies also concur that the Mountain Zebrawas the last species in the clade to evolve, but it remains unclear whether Grevy’s Zebraor the Plains Zebraappeared first, because there are so few nucleotide differences between them. The species differ in chromosome number, Grevy’s Zebras having 46 and Plains Zebras 44, but they are so close evolutionarily that fertile hybrids have appeared at the southern edge of the Grevy’s Zebra's range. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zebre de Grévy @fr | Grévy-Zebra @de | Cebra de Grévy @es | Other common names @en | mperial Zebra @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Oustalet","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1882","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"142","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grevyi","name":"Equus grevyi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Ethiopiaand C & N Kenya; perhaps also in S Sudan.","bibliography":"Cordingley et al. (2009) | Ginsberg & Rubenstein (1990) | Groves (2002) | Kingdon (1997) | Klingel (1974) | Low et al. (2009) | Moehlman, Rubenstein & Kebede (2008) | Rowen & Ginsberg (1992) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1994) | Sundaresan et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Grevy’s Zebras are predominantly grazers, but browse can account for up to 30% oftheir diet during drought or when foraging on landscapes degraded by livestock. They move through habitats quickly, taking many steps per bite, selectively choosing certain grass species over others. As a result, when grazing herds of Grevy’s and Plains Zebras form, the herds don’t persist for long, since Grevy’s Zebras simply pass through them. Availability of water and individual water requirements ultimately determine where Grevy’s Zebras can forage. Since non-lactating females can go without water for up to five days, they typically range far from water, seeking out previously well-watered areas with large quantities of vegetation. Lactating females, with their need to produce milk, must drink daily. Thus they remain near water, feeding on closely cropped grazing lawns that offer forage of high nutritive quality even if the amount of available food is limited.","breeding":"Grevy’s Zebras can breed year-round, but most births are timed to coincide with the arrival of the long rains that normally fall between April and June. Where Grevy’s Zebras reside, two rainy seasons are expected, since the intertropical convergence zone sweeps across the Equator twice per year. But often one or more of the rains fails. This severely limits the species’ ability to rebound after environmental or anthropogenic shocks. When females are in estrus they typically move through many male territories. Males only mate when on their own territories, and because females rarely stay with one male, Grevy’s Zebramales engage in post-copulatory sperm competition. Therefore, not surprisingly, they have larger testes than the other zebraspecies. To help ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible, when there are no females on their territories, territorial males wander widely in search of bachelor males and aggressively challenge them. By preemptively reinforcing dominance in low-risk settings, territorial males are able to devote more time to mating than to fighting when bachelors invade territories containing many females.","activityPatterns":"Grevy’s Zebras are opportunists and move great distances in search of food and water. Females and their young, as well as bachelor males, have large home ranges, often moving with the rains to areas where grass is growing or abundant. Territorial males tend to linger on their territories until well after all other zebras have left and only depart when conditions have deteriorated dramatically. During normal dry seasons, when all Grevy’s Zebras are dependent on water, concentrations of males and females develop. Given that Grevy’s Zebras often move 35 kmper day if food and water are widely separated, aggregations tend to split apart and are never very large. Sightings of a few hundred Grevy’s Zebras at a time are rare. Although the availability of food and water determine most movements, predation plays a role. Grevy’s Zebras avoid human settlements during the day because of stresses associated with human activity, but at night settlements are sought as refuges against predators.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Grevy’s Zebras differ socially from the other two species of zebras; they do notlive in closed-membership family groups, or harems. Like the asses, Grevy’s Zebras live in open-membership groups in which the only long-lasting bond is between mothers and their young. Adult females come together at water sources and good grazing sites and continue to travel together as long as their needs can be satisfied. When they cannot, such as when lactating females need to return daily to water and those without young or with older young do not, then the social ties that bind females become severed and groups dissolve. Given that both types of females are sexually active, and males cannot simultaneously associate with both, dominant males instead establish territories adjacent to water. In this way high-status males have mating access to both lactating and non-lactating females whenever they come to water. Less dominant males also establish territories, but in areas of abundant vegetation far from water, where they gain access to the subset of females searching for quality foraging areas. Territories can be as large as 10 km?, the largest of any equid. Males of the lowest rank are unable to maintain territories, so they join bachelor groups. They range widely, grow quickly, and by interacting with many males they improve their fighting ability.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Grevy’s Zebras exist only in the Horn of Africa. According to recent surveys, an estimated 2000-2300 live in Kenya, around 150 inEthiopia, and there may be a few in southern Sudan. Historically Grevy’s Zebras ranged more widely, from Somaliato western Ethiopia, Djbouti, and Eritrea, and from southern Ethiopiasouth tojust north and west of Mount Kenya. Extensive hunting ceased at the start of the 1980s, yet populations of Grevy’s Zebras did not rebound. They are still decreasing and from 1988 to 2007, the global population declined approximately 55%. Increasing competition with the livestock of pastoral herders for water and forage appears to be the culprit. As human populations and their herds grew, water disappeared more quickly than in the past. In addition, the presence of humans and livestock prevented the zebras from accessing drinking sites during the day. Constrained lactation, in addition to greater predation risks associated with night-time drinking, reduced infant and juvenile survival. Since less than 5% of Grevy’s Zebra’s current range is located within protected areas, the best hope for enhancing population growth involves encouraging communities to better manage rangelands, as well as increasing the value of Grevy’s Zebras by training community members to become scouts or ambassadors and hiring them to help monitor Grevy’s Zebrapopulation dynamics and harmful human impacts.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 250-275 cm, tail 38-75 cm, shoulder height 140-160 cm; weight 350-450 kg. Grevy’s Zebrais the largest of the equids, with a large head, long face, and elongated nostril openings. Its ears are large and round and can rotate independently in different directions. It has narrow stripes on its face, body, and rump; the stripes on the neck are slightly broader. The belly is white, as is the area around the base of the tail. Its muzzle is distinctively brown. It has an erect mane and the tail is tufted at the tip. Its hooves are large and rounded.","habitat":"Grevy’s Zebrainhabits semi-arid grasslands and thornbush scrublands typified by acacias and commiphoras. It does not need to drink daily and lives in habitats intermediate between the arid habitats of the true desert-dwelling African Wild Ass (FE. africanus), and the more water dependant Plains Zebra, which inhabits mesic tropical grasslands. Lactating females stay in the most open areas around water; non-lactating females and territorial males prefer grassy areas with light tree cover. Bachelor males grade into areas of medium or moderate bush, but overall, Grevy’s Zebras avoid densely wooded areas except during periods of extreme drought."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8155863FA60A155ED43F996.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8155863FA60A155ED43F996","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"142","verbatimText":"7.Mountain ZebraEquus zebraFrench:Zebre de montagne/ German:Bergzebra/ Spanish:Cebrade montanaOther common names:CapeMountain Zebra(zebra), Hartmann's Mountain Zebra(hartmannae)Taxonomy.Equus zebra Linnaeus, 1758,South Africa, south-western Cape Province.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.z.zebraLinnaeus,1758—SSouthAfrica(S&WedgeofthecentralplateauintheEasternandWesternCapeProvinces).E. z. hartmannae Matschie, 1898— W Namibia(mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the Namibian central plateau); possibly in SW Angola.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-260 cm, tail 40-55 cm, shoulder height 115-150 cm; weight 240-380 kg. The Mountain Zebracan be distinguished from other zebraspecies by the dewlap under its neck. The pattern of striping is also intermediate between the other two species. The stripes are half as wide as and more numerous than those of Plains Zebras (FE. quagga) and the belly is white as in Grevy’s Zebras (FE. grevyi). Mountain Zebras have a “waffle-iron” pattern on the rump near the root of the tail. On the rump, the narrow stripes change to broad and bold stripes, more like those of “Grant’s Zebra” (E. boehmi). The “ CapeMountain Zebra” is smaller than “Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra” and it has slightly wider stripes.Habitat.As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.Food and Feeding.Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola. Habitat conversion to agriculture, competition with domestic livestock, hunting, and persecution are the main threats facing Mountain Zebras. Crossbreeding between the two subspecies is considered a potential threat in South Africa, where both subspecies occur,since this would mix and disrupt the genetic diversity of the species. Crossbreeding with Plains Zebras is also a potential threat just asit is for Grevy’s Zebras. CapeMountain Zebras suffered devastating declines because of trophy hunting and land conversion to agriculture in South Africaduring the 19\" and early 20™ centuries. By the 1930s they were on the brink of extinction—a 1937 census countedjust 45 individuals. Since the establishment of national parks in the locations where the few surviving individuals remained, the population has increased to around 1400. CapeMountain Zebras now live in 17 provincial nature reserves and national parks, the largest being the Addo Elephant and the CapePeninsula National Parks. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebraalso suffered massive population declines during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily due to persecution from an expanding livestock industry. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras continue to come into conflict with livestock farmers, particularly during drought years when resources are in short supply. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebrais a protected species in Namibiaand any use requires permits. The Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism therefore has encouraged the commercial use of Mountain Zebras to provide an incentive for promoting tolerance. Numbers are increasing on communal land and overall numbers are in the range of 30,000. Today, populations are isolated, inhabiting the Mkambati and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserves, Amaqwati Tribal Resource Area, and Richtersveld National Park. The animals are also present on numerous private estates in the Northern and Eastern CapeProvinces of South Africa, as well as in fenced, protected areas, and game farms in Namibia.Bibliography.Kingdon (1997), Lloyd (1984), Millar (1970a, 1970b), Novellie (2008), Novellie et al (2002), Penzhorn (1975).","taxonomy":"Equus zebra Linnaeus, 1758,South Africa, south-western Cape Province.Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Zebre de montagne @fr | Bergzebra @de | Cebrade montana @es | Cebra @es | Cape Mountain Zebra(zebra) @en | Hartmann's Mountain Zebra(hartmannae) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"142","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zebra","name":"Equus zebra","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.z.zebraLinnaeus,1758—SSouthAfrica(S&WedgeofthecentralplateauintheEasternandWesternCapeProvinces).E. z. hartmannae Matschie, 1898— W Namibia(mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the Namibian central plateau); possibly in SW Angola.","bibliography":"Kingdon (1997) | Lloyd (1984) | Millar (1970a, 1970b) | Novellie (2008) | Novellie et al (2002) | Penzhorn (1975)","foodAndFeeding":"Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.","breeding":"Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.","activityPatterns":"Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola. Habitat conversion to agriculture, competition with domestic livestock, hunting, and persecution are the main threats facing Mountain Zebras. Crossbreeding between the two subspecies is considered a potential threat in South Africa, where both subspecies occur,since this would mix and disrupt the genetic diversity of the species. Crossbreeding with Plains Zebras is also a potential threat just asit is for Grevy’s Zebras. CapeMountain Zebras suffered devastating declines because of trophy hunting and land conversion to agriculture in South Africaduring the 19\" and early 20™ centuries. By the 1930s they were on the brink of extinction—a 1937 census countedjust 45 individuals. Since the establishment of national parks in the locations where the few surviving individuals remained, the population has increased to around 1400. CapeMountain Zebras now live in 17 provincial nature reserves and national parks, the largest being the Addo Elephant and the CapePeninsula National Parks. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebraalso suffered massive population declines during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily due to persecution from an expanding livestock industry. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras continue to come into conflict with livestock farmers, particularly during drought years when resources are in short supply. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebrais a protected species in Namibiaand any use requires permits. The Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism therefore has encouraged the commercial use of Mountain Zebras to provide an incentive for promoting tolerance. Numbers are increasing on communal land and overall numbers are in the range of 30,000. Today, populations are isolated, inhabiting the Mkambati and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserves, Amaqwati Tribal Resource Area, and Richtersveld National Park. The animals are also present on numerous private estates in the Northern and Eastern CapeProvinces of South Africa, as well as in fenced, protected areas, and game farms in Namibia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-260 cm, tail 40-55 cm, shoulder height 115-150 cm; weight 240-380 kg. The Mountain Zebracan be distinguished from other zebraspecies by the dewlap under its neck. The pattern of striping is also intermediate between the other two species. The stripes are half as wide as and more numerous than those of Plains Zebras (FE. quagga) and the belly is white as in Grevy’s Zebras (FE. grevyi). Mountain Zebras have a “waffle-iron” pattern on the rump near the root of the tail. On the rump, the narrow stripes change to broad and bold stripes, more like those of “Grant’s Zebra” (E. boehmi). The “ CapeMountain Zebra” is smaller than “Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra” and it has slightly wider stripes.Habitat.As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.Food and Feeding.Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola.","habitat":"As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B28FFBEFAA37CACF7E58B01.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B28FFBEFAA37CACF7E58B01","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"543","verbatimText":"6.Harbor PorpoisePhocoena phocoenaFrench:Marsouin commun/ German:Schweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa comunOther common names:Common Porpoise, Sea-hog, Sea-pig; Atlantic Harbor Porpoise, North Atlantic Harbor Porpoise (phocoena); Black Sea Harbor Porpoise (relicta); Eastern North Pacific Harbor Porpoise, Eastern Pacific Harbor Porpoise (vomerina)Taxonomy.Delphinus phocaena Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Oceano Europao & Balthico” (= Baltic Sea, “Swedish Seas”).In addition to the subspecies listed below, there is also an unnamed subspecies recognized from the western North Pacific Ocean. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.p.phocoenaLinnaeus,1758—coastalwatersoftheNAtlanticOcean.P.p.relictaAbel,1905—coastalwatersoftheBlackSea,theAzovandMarmaraseas(isolatedpopulation).AfewstragglersfromthispopulationshowupperiodicallyintheAegeanSea,buttheydonotoccurthroughoutmostoftheMediterraneanSea.P.p. vomerina Gill, 1865— coastal waters of the NE Pacific Ocean.A still unnamed form is present in the coastal waters of the NW Pacific Ocean.Descriptive notes.Total length 130-200 cm; weight 45-75 kg. Harbor Porpoises are small cetaceans, growing to a maximum length of only ¢.200 cm. Most adults are less than 180 cm long. Body is robust, with small appendages. There are small tubercles (or denticles) on the leading edge of the dorsal fin and sometimes also on flippers. Beak is very short and poorly defined, and dorsalfin is low, triangular, and wide-based. Color pattern is somewhat bland at first appearance, but it is actually more complex when analyzed in detail. Body is generally counter-shaded, with a dark gray back and white belly. Generally, dark and pale regions blend into each other, but margins between the two are often splotchy and streaked. Appendages are all dark, and there is a dark stripe running from gape to flipper, and there are also dark streaks on the lower jaw. There is a great deal of individual variation in color pattern, but no obvious differences among different populations have been identified. Thirty-four records of anomalously white individuals (three patterns have been observed, some perhaps albinos) have been recorded in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Newborns have a muted color pattern, generally of subdued tones of dark and pale gray. Tooth counts generally are 19-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby. Habitat of the Harbor Porpoise is cool temperate to subpolar waters, generally with low water temperatures.Food and Feeding.Harbor Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, although their main prey appears to vary on regional and seasonal scales. In the North Atlantic, they feed primarily on clupeoids and gadoids, while in the North Pacific, they prey largely on engraulids and scorpaenids. They eat a wide variety offish and cephalopods, although the diet in any specific area may be dominated by just a few species. Harbor Porpoises feed heavily on small schooling fish that occur in the water column, such as herring and sprat (Clupeidae), capelin (Mallotus), hake (Merluccius), and mackerel (Scomber, Scombridae); they also consume market squid (Loligo) in some areas. Although many of these prey species occur in the water column, many of the other prey species are benthic or demersal. Benthic invertebrates are sometimes also consumed, but these are generally considered to be secondarily ingested. In the north-eastern Atlantic, there has apparently been a long-term shift from predation on declining stocks of clupeid fish (mainly herring, Clupea harengus) to sand lance (Ammodytidae) and gadoid fish.Breeding.Reproductive biology of the Harbor Porpoise has been studied more extensively than for any other member of the family, due to the large number of specimens that have been available from strandings and incidental catches in fisheries. Mating system of the Harbor Porpoise is thought to be promiscuous. Anatomical evidence (Harbor Porpoises have some of the largest testes relative to body mass of any mammal species) has for some time suggested that sperm competition may be the primary way that males compete to inseminate females. Recent behavioral observations of Harbor Porpoises in the San Francisco Bay area (USA) appear to support this idea. Young are typically born in April-August (late spring through mid-summer), after gestation of ¢.10-11 months. Offspring are weaned before they reach one year of age. Sexual maturity occurs at 3—4 years of age and lengths of 120-150 cm. There is geographic variation in these parameters among different populations, and densitydependent variation has also been documented. Harbor Porpoises regularly interbreed and produce hybrids with Dall’s Porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) in the inshore waters of the Pacific Northwest (Washington State, USA and southern British Columbia, Canada) and occasionally elsewhere where the two species are sympatric. It is virtually always the case that the mother is a Dall’s Porpoise and the father is a Harbor Porpoise, and this is what would be predicted, based on their respective mating systems (Dall’s are considered polygynous, with males apparently not using sperm competition, but guarding females to prevent insemination by other males). Harbor Porpoiseslive into their 20s, although in some areas most individuals may die before they reach twelve years of age.Activity patterns.Harbor Porpoises are shy and unobtrusive animals, with a low surfacing profile and not a great deal of aerial behavior. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and in many cases, they appear to actively avoid motorized vessels. There are exceptions to this, and at least in the San Francisco Bay area, they may be more approachable. These individuals sometimes lie nearly motionless at the surface for several seconds, and it is not clear why they do this. The typical surfacing pattern is a slow roll, in which the individual does not create any splash. At times, they do move faster and surface with a sloppy splash (this is called “pop-splashing,” and the splash looks very different from the more V-shaped splash of a rooster-tailing Dall’s Porpoise). Diving behavior of Harbor Porpoises has been studied with time-depth recording tags. Although most dives last less than one minute, Harbor Porpoises have been found to be capable of diving to depths of at least 220 m and for periods of more than five minutes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Singles or small groups of less than a half-dozen Harbor Porpoises are most commonly seen, although they do aggregate, at times, into loose groupings of 50 to several hundred individuals. This occurs mostly when feeding on an aggregated food source or during migration, and these large groups generally have little structure. Movement patterns of individual Harbor Porpoises are not very well known, but it is known that they are capable of large-scale movements of many hundreds to thousands of kilometers. On the other hand, repeated sightings of identifiable individuals in San Francisco Bay show that some populations may have more limited movements. Not much is known about social organization of Harbor Porpoises, but most bonds outside the mother—offspring pair appear to be weak, and there do not seem to be any other long-term associations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List. The subspecies relictais classified as Endangered, and the Baltic Sea population, which only numbers ¢.500-600 individuals,is classified as Critically Endangered. Other subspecies have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. There has been a long and somewhat tragic history of human interactions with Harbor Porpoises. Hunting has occurred in many different parts ofits distribution, especially in northern European waters. Major hunts have occurred in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Bay of Fundy, and in the waters off western Greenland (the latter is still active). Many of these caused depletion of local populations. More recently, bycatch from fisheries, especially in various forms of gillnets or trammel nets, has been responsible for threatening existence of populations throughout the distribution of the Harbor Porpoise. The largest mortality has occurred in fisheries in the Gulf of Maine, western Greenland, North Sea, and Celtic Shelf, but smaller kills have occurred almost everywhere the Harbor Porpoise occurs. It is believed that Harbor Porpoises can normally detect gillnets at distances necessary to avoid entanglement, but accidents may happen due to attention shifts or auditory masking. Use of acoustic alarms (“pingers”) and other mitigation measures have managed to reduce mortality in many areas, but the only way to eliminate bycatch completely is to eliminate gillnets. Catches of Harbor Porpoises in trawls, set nets, herring weirs, pound nets, cod traps, and even anti-submarine nets have also been documented and have taken their toll. Other threats include detrimental effects of environmental contaminants, vessel traffic, anthropogenic noise impacts, prey depletion, and habitat deterioration or destruction. The Harbor Porpoise is not rare and not endangered. Globally, there may be more than 675,000 Harbor Porpoises. Nevertheless, particular populations in many areas have been impacted by human activities and quite a few of these are indeed threatened and in need of protection.Bibliography.Amano (1996), Andersen et al. (2001), Barlow & Hanan (1995), Berggren & Wang (2008), Bjerge (2003), Bjerge & Tolley (2009), Borrell et al. (2007), Carretta et al. (2001), Caswell et al. (1998), Dahlheim et al. (2000), Fontaine & Barrette (1997), Forney (1999), Frantzis et al. (2001), Goodson & Sturtivant (1996), Haelters et al. (2012), Hammond et al. (2002), Heide-Jergensen & Lockyer (1999), Jepson et al. (2005), Keener et al. (2011), Kompanje & van Leeuwen (2009), Koschinski (2002), Larrat et al. (2012), Larsen (1997), Lockyer (2003), Lockyer & Andreasen (2004), Lockyer & Kinze (2003), McLellan et al. (2002), Nielsen et al. (2012), Northridge (1996), Palka (2008), Read (1999b), Read & Hohn (1995), Read & Westgate (1997), Rosel (1997), Rosel et al. (2003), Schofield et al. (2008), Siebert et al. (2006), Sonntag et al. (1999), Stenson (2003), Teilmann (2003), Thomsen et al. (2007), Tolley & Rosel (2006), Tonay et al. (2012), Verfuld et al. (2007), Viaud-Martinez et al. (2007), Westgate & Read (1998), Westgate & Tolley (1999), Westgate, Read, Berggren et al. (1995), Westgate, Read, Cox et al. (1998), Willis et al. (2004), Woodley (1995).","taxonomy":"Delphinus phocaena Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Oceano Europao & Balthico” (= Baltic Sea, “Swedish Seas”).In addition to the subspecies listed below, there is also an unnamed subspecies recognized from the western North Pacific Ocean. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Marsouin commun @fr | Schweinswal @de | Marsopa comun @es | Common Porpoise @en | Sea-hog @en | Sea-pig; Atlantic Harbor Porpoise @en | North Atlantic Harbor Porpoise (phocoena); Black Sea Harbor Porpoise (relicta); Eastern North Pacific Harbor Porpoise @en | Eastern Pacific Harbor Porpoise (vomerina) @en","interpretedAuthority":"phocoena","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Phocoena","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"543","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"phocoena","name":"Phocoena phocoena","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.p.phocoenaLinnaeus,1758—coastalwatersoftheNAtlanticOcean.P.p.relictaAbel,1905—coastalwatersoftheBlackSea,theAzovandMarmaraseas(isolatedpopulation).AfewstragglersfromthispopulationshowupperiodicallyintheAegeanSea,buttheydonotoccurthroughoutmostoftheMediterraneanSea.P.p. vomerina Gill, 1865— coastal waters of the NE Pacific Ocean.A still unnamed form is present in the coastal waters of the NW Pacific Ocean.","bibliography":"Amano (1996) | Andersen et al. (2001) | Barlow & Hanan (1995) | Berggren & Wang (2008) | Bjerge (2003) | Bjerge & Tolley (2009) | Borrell et al. (2007) | Carretta et al. (2001) | Caswell et al. (1998) | Dahlheim et al. (2000) | Fontaine & Barrette (1997) | Forney (1999) | Frantzis et al. (2001) | Goodson & Sturtivant (1996) | Haelters et al. (2012) | Hammond et al. (2002) | Heide-Jergensen & Lockyer (1999) | Jepson et al. (2005) | Keener et al. (2011) | Kompanje & van Leeuwen (2009) | Koschinski (2002) | Larrat et al. (2012) | Larsen (1997) | Lockyer (2003) | Lockyer & Andreasen (2004) | Lockyer & Kinze (2003) | McLellan et al. (2002) | Nielsen et al. (2012) | Northridge (1996) | Palka (2008) | Read (1999b) | Read & Hohn (1995) | Read & Westgate (1997) | Rosel (1997) | Rosel et al. (2003) | Schofield et al. (2008) | Siebert et al. (2006) | Sonntag et al. (1999) | Stenson (2003) | Teilmann (2003) | Thomsen et al. (2007) | Tolley & Rosel (2006) | Tonay et al. (2012) | Verfuld et al. (2007) | Viaud-Martinez et al. (2007) | Westgate & Read (1998) | Westgate & Tolley (1999) | Westgate, Read, Berggren et al. (1995) | Westgate, Read, Cox et al. (1998) | Willis et al. (2004) | Woodley (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Harbor Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, although their main prey appears to vary on regional and seasonal scales. In the North Atlantic, they feed primarily on clupeoids and gadoids, while in the North Pacific, they prey largely on engraulids and scorpaenids. They eat a wide variety offish and cephalopods, although the diet in any specific area may be dominated by just a few species. Harbor Porpoises feed heavily on small schooling fish that occur in the water column, such as herring and sprat (Clupeidae), capelin (Mallotus), hake (Merluccius), and mackerel (Scomber, Scombridae); they also consume market squid (Loligo) in some areas. Although many of these prey species occur in the water column, many of the other prey species are benthic or demersal. Benthic invertebrates are sometimes also consumed, but these are generally considered to be secondarily ingested. In the north-eastern Atlantic, there has apparently been a long-term shift from predation on declining stocks of clupeid fish (mainly herring, Clupea harengus) to sand lance (Ammodytidae) and gadoid fish.","breeding":"Reproductive biology of the Harbor Porpoise has been studied more extensively than for any other member of the family, due to the large number of specimens that have been available from strandings and incidental catches in fisheries. Mating system of the Harbor Porpoise is thought to be promiscuous. Anatomical evidence (Harbor Porpoises have some of the largest testes relative to body mass of any mammal species) has for some time suggested that sperm competition may be the primary way that males compete to inseminate females. Recent behavioral observations of Harbor Porpoises in the San Francisco Bay area (USA) appear to support this idea. Young are typically born in April-August (late spring through mid-summer), after gestation of ¢.10-11 months. Offspring are weaned before they reach one year of age. Sexual maturity occurs at 3—4 years of age and lengths of 120-150 cm. There is geographic variation in these parameters among different populations, and densitydependent variation has also been documented. Harbor Porpoises regularly interbreed and produce hybrids with Dall’s Porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) in the inshore waters of the Pacific Northwest (Washington State, USA and southern British Columbia, Canada) and occasionally elsewhere where the two species are sympatric. It is virtually always the case that the mother is a Dall’s Porpoise and the father is a Harbor Porpoise, and this is what would be predicted, based on their respective mating systems (Dall’s are considered polygynous, with males apparently not using sperm competition, but guarding females to prevent insemination by other males). Harbor Porpoiseslive into their 20s, although in some areas most individuals may die before they reach twelve years of age.","activityPatterns":"Harbor Porpoises are shy and unobtrusive animals, with a low surfacing profile and not a great deal of aerial behavior. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and in many cases, they appear to actively avoid motorized vessels. There are exceptions to this, and at least in the San Francisco Bay area, they may be more approachable. These individuals sometimes lie nearly motionless at the surface for several seconds, and it is not clear why they do this. The typical surfacing pattern is a slow roll, in which the individual does not create any splash. At times, they do move faster and surface with a sloppy splash (this is called “pop-splashing,” and the splash looks very different from the more V-shaped splash of a rooster-tailing Dall’s Porpoise). Diving behavior of Harbor Porpoises has been studied with time-depth recording tags. Although most dives last less than one minute, Harbor Porpoises have been found to be capable of diving to depths of at least 220 m and for periods of more than five minutes.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Singles or small groups of less than a half-dozen Harbor Porpoises are most commonly seen, although they do aggregate, at times, into loose groupings of 50 to several hundred individuals. This occurs mostly when feeding on an aggregated food source or during migration, and these large groups generally have little structure. Movement patterns of individual Harbor Porpoises are not very well known, but it is known that they are capable of large-scale movements of many hundreds to thousands of kilometers. On the other hand, repeated sightings of identifiable individuals in San Francisco Bay show that some populations may have more limited movements. Not much is known about social organization of Harbor Porpoises, but most bonds outside the mother—offspring pair appear to be weak, and there do not seem to be any other long-term associations.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List. The subspecies relictais classified as Endangered, and the Baltic Sea population, which only numbers ¢.500-600 individuals,is classified as Critically Endangered. Other subspecies have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. There has been a long and somewhat tragic history of human interactions with Harbor Porpoises. Hunting has occurred in many different parts ofits distribution, especially in northern European waters. Major hunts have occurred in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Bay of Fundy, and in the waters off western Greenland (the latter is still active). Many of these caused depletion of local populations. More recently, bycatch from fisheries, especially in various forms of gillnets or trammel nets, has been responsible for threatening existence of populations throughout the distribution of the Harbor Porpoise. The largest mortality has occurred in fisheries in the Gulf of Maine, western Greenland, North Sea, and Celtic Shelf, but smaller kills have occurred almost everywhere the Harbor Porpoise occurs. It is believed that Harbor Porpoises can normally detect gillnets at distances necessary to avoid entanglement, but accidents may happen due to attention shifts or auditory masking. Use of acoustic alarms (“pingers”) and other mitigation measures have managed to reduce mortality in many areas, but the only way to eliminate bycatch completely is to eliminate gillnets. Catches of Harbor Porpoises in trawls, set nets, herring weirs, pound nets, cod traps, and even anti-submarine nets have also been documented and have taken their toll. Other threats include detrimental effects of environmental contaminants, vessel traffic, anthropogenic noise impacts, prey depletion, and habitat deterioration or destruction. The Harbor Porpoise is not rare and not endangered. Globally, there may be more than 675,000 Harbor Porpoises. Nevertheless, particular populations in many areas have been impacted by human activities and quite a few of these are indeed threatened and in need of protection.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 130-200 cm; weight 45-75 kg. Harbor Porpoises are small cetaceans, growing to a maximum length of only ¢.200 cm. Most adults are less than 180 cm long. Body is robust, with small appendages. There are small tubercles (or denticles) on the leading edge of the dorsal fin and sometimes also on flippers. Beak is very short and poorly defined, and dorsalfin is low, triangular, and wide-based. Color pattern is somewhat bland at first appearance, but it is actually more complex when analyzed in detail. Body is generally counter-shaded, with a dark gray back and white belly. Generally, dark and pale regions blend into each other, but margins between the two are often splotchy and streaked. Appendages are all dark, and there is a dark stripe running from gape to flipper, and there are also dark streaks on the lower jaw. There is a great deal of individual variation in color pattern, but no obvious differences among different populations have been identified. Thirty-four records of anomalously white individuals (three patterns have been observed, some perhaps albinos) have been recorded in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Newborns have a muted color pattern, generally of subdued tones of dark and pale gray. Tooth counts generally are 19-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby.","habitat":"Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby. Habitat of the Harbor Porpoise is cool temperate to subpolar waters, generally with low water temperatures."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8125866FABEACFDEF26F67F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8125866FABEACFDEF26F67F","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"2.Asiatic Wild AssEquus hemionusFrench:Hémione/ German:Asiatischer Halbesel/ Spanish:OnagroOther common names:Onager; Gobi Kulan (luteus), Khur(khun, Kulan (kulan), Mongolian Kulan (hemionus), Persian Onager(onager), Syrian Onager(hemippus)Taxonomy.Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775,North-eastern boundary of Mongoliawith Russia, Transbaikalia, S. Chitinsk, 50° N, 115° E.The “Syrian Onager” race hemippus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1855)from Syriaand the Arabian Peninsula is extinct. The “Gobi Kulan” luteus is probably a synonym of the nominate race hemionus. Four extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.h.hemionusPallas,1775—SMongoliaandextendingintoNChina.E.h.khurLesson,1827—LittleRannofKutch,Gujarat,India.E.h.kulanGroves&Mazak,1967—KazakhstanandTurkmenistan(Badkhyzregion).E. h. onager Boddaert, 1785— two reserves in Iran(Touran and Bahram-e-Goor), Israel(Negev Desert), and Saudi Arabia(Taif).Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-250 cm, tail 30-49 cm, shoulder height 126— 130 cm; weight 200-260 kg. Asiatic Wild Asses are characterized by reddish-brown coats in the summer that become paler brown, sandy, or even gray in the winter, depending on subspecies. The flanks and belly are white and some subspecies have a dark brown stripe running along the back. The mane is black and erect and consists of short bristly hair. The tail is short, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The legs are short and thin when compared to other equid species. The hooves are broader and rounder than those of the African Wild Ass (E. africanus) and are the most horse-like of all the asses. Males are slightly larger than females. The subspecies differ in skull morphology. The Transcaspian and Mongolian forms have narrower supraoccipital crests than the Iranian and Indian forms. The Asiatic Wild Ass can reach speeds up to 70 km/h.Habitat.Asiatic Wild Asses live in xeric habitats where rainfall is limited. Many of the subspecies live in flat semi-deserts with extremely hot days and cool nights.Food and Feeding.When grass is abundant, Asiatic Wild Asses are primarily grazers. During the dry season, or in the driest habitats, they will switch to browse, even consuming woody parts of plants. They also eat seedpods and will use their hooves to break apart woody material to reach succulent forbs. In Mongolia, asses often eat snow in the winter as a substitute for drinking water and have been known to dig holes 60 cmdeep to reach water in the summer.On following pages 3 Tibetan Wıld Ass (Equus kiang), 4 African Wild Ass (Equus africanus), 5 Plains Zebra (Equus quagga),6Zebra Grevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi) 7Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra) pages (Equus), 5 (Equus quagga), Gravy’: Equus grevyı, (Equus zebra)Breeding.Gestation in Asiatic Wild Asses is eleven months and breeding is highly seasonal. Births peak during April and September, depending on subspecies and location. Within any one population births occur within a 2-3 month period. Females reach puberty at three years of age and give birth to only one foal at a time. Foals generally stay with their mothers for two years.Activity patterns.Asiatic Wild Asses are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler. Although they obtain most of their water from food, they are almost always seen within 30 kmof water. Lactating females in particular need to drink frequently; at least once per day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The ranging and social behavior of Asiatic Wild Asses is highly variable. Many populations show seasonal movements. Male Asiatic Wild Asses in Israelreturn each spring to breeding areas several weeks before females, typically to claim territories held the previous year. The territories of dominant males are generally distributed around water points. Males unable to defend territories either form all-male bachelor groups or remain on the winter grazing grounds. Females coalesce into groups on the breeding grounds, but the groups are fluid. When populations contain many territorial males, some females move frequently among territories, suggesting that some of them move in search of mating opportunities as well as key resources. Others, especially those with young foals, remain on the territory of one male. Some subspecies, such as the “ Khur” of India, exhibit the same types of social associations as do the Israeli Asiatic Wild Asses, but members of both sexes remain in one area year-round. Others, such as the “Kulan” of the Gobi, exhibit more horse-like social behavior, in which females and their offspring live in closed membership groups and travel to and from water with one male. Males in the Gobi population actively herd females if they stray too far, a behavior not seen in the Khurof the Little Rann of Kutch. Kulan males in the Gobi also defend females and their young from predators, suggesting that some interspecific variation in social organization is related to predation threat.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (subspecies hemionusand khur) and the rest listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Syrian Onager, went extinct in 1927. The largest population of Asiatic Wild Asses in the world is currently in southern Mongolia, and makes up almost 80% of the global population. The “Mongolian Kulan” population was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 + 898 infour areas. There are estimates of 4800-6000 Kulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but they may be a population migrating seasonally from Mongolia. The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur, estimated in 2004 at 3900, in the Little Rann of Kutch. Thisis the only subpopulation of the Asiatic Wild Ass that has steadily increased in size from 1976 to the present day. In 2005 the Kulan populations consisted of about 1300 animals in Turkmenistan(850-900 in Badkhyz Reserve and 445 inseven reintroduction sites). In 1991 the reintroduced population in Uzbekistanin Dzheiran Ecocentre numbered 34. There is limited information on the status of the “Persian Onager” in Iran, but recent estimates give a figure of 600 inthe two protected areas (471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, 96 inBahramgor Reserve in 1996, and four reintroduced animals in Yazd Provincein 2000). There were also five reintroduced onagers in Taif (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and a further 100 reintroduced animals in Israelin the same year. The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Asses has fallen in the last 16 years by 52%, the current estimate of mature individuals being 8358. Today in Iran, the Persian Onageris threatened by poaching, overgrazing by livestock, and by competition with livestock at watering points. Shrub removal also degrades the habitat. Khurare threatened by competition with livestock as well as other economic activity such as salt mining and canal building. Kulan have experienced rapid declines in numbers because of increased demand for bushmeat. The threat from pastoralists who complain that Kulan are reducing forage for livestock is increasing. Trophy hunting does not appear to be a problem.Bibliography.Asa (2002), Feh, Munkhtuya et al. (2001), Feh, Shah et al. (2002), Goyal et al. (1999), Moehlman, Shah & Feh (2008), Reading et al. (2001), Saltz & Rubenstein (1995), Saltz et al. (2000).","taxonomy":"Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775,North-eastern boundary of Mongoliawith Russia, Transbaikalia, S. Chitinsk, 50° N, 115° E.The “Syrian Onager” race hemippus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1855)from Syriaand the Arabian Peninsula is extinct. The “Gobi Kulan” luteus is probably a synonym of the nominate race hemionus. Four extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Hémione @fr | Asiatischer Halbesel @de | Onagro @es | Onager; Gobi Kulan (luteus) @en | Khur(khun @en | Kulan (kulan) @en | Mongolian Kulan (hemionus) @en | Persian Onager(onager) @en | Syrian Onager(hemippus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Pallas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1775","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hemionus","name":"Equus hemionus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.h.hemionusPallas,1775—SMongoliaandextendingintoNChina.E.h.khurLesson,1827—LittleRannofKutch,Gujarat,India.E.h.kulanGroves&Mazak,1967—KazakhstanandTurkmenistan(Badkhyzregion).E. h. onager Boddaert, 1785— two reserves in Iran(Touran and Bahram-e-Goor), Israel(Negev Desert), and Saudi Arabia(Taif).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719784/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Asa (2002) | Feh, Munkhtuya et al. (2001) | Feh, Shah et al. (2002) | Goyal et al. (1999) | Moehlman, Shah & Feh (2008) | Reading et al. (2001) | Saltz & Rubenstein (1995) | Saltz et al. (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"When grass is abundant, Asiatic Wild Asses are primarily grazers. During the dry season, or in the driest habitats, they will switch to browse, even consuming woody parts of plants. They also eat seedpods and will use their hooves to break apart woody material to reach succulent forbs. In Mongolia, asses often eat snow in the winter as a substitute for drinking water and have been known to dig holes 60 cmdeep to reach water in the summer.","breeding":"Gestation in Asiatic Wild Asses is eleven months and breeding is highly seasonal. Births peak during April and September, depending on subspecies and location. Within any one population births occur within a 2-3 month period. Females reach puberty at three years of age and give birth to only one foal at a time. Foals generally stay with their mothers for two years.","activityPatterns":"Asiatic Wild Asses are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler. Although they obtain most of their water from food, they are almost always seen within 30 kmof water. Lactating females in particular need to drink frequently; at least once per day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The ranging and social behavior of Asiatic Wild Asses is highly variable. Many populations show seasonal movements. Male Asiatic Wild Asses in Israelreturn each spring to breeding areas several weeks before females, typically to claim territories held the previous year. The territories of dominant males are generally distributed around water points. Males unable to defend territories either form all-male bachelor groups or remain on the winter grazing grounds. Females coalesce into groups on the breeding grounds, but the groups are fluid. When populations contain many territorial males, some females move frequently among territories, suggesting that some of them move in search of mating opportunities as well as key resources. Others, especially those with young foals, remain on the territory of one male. Some subspecies, such as the “ Khur” of India, exhibit the same types of social associations as do the Israeli Asiatic Wild Asses, but members of both sexes remain in one area year-round. Others, such as the “Kulan” of the Gobi, exhibit more horse-like social behavior, in which females and their offspring live in closed membership groups and travel to and from water with one male. Males in the Gobi population actively herd females if they stray too far, a behavior not seen in the Khurof the Little Rann of Kutch. Kulan males in the Gobi also defend females and their young from predators, suggesting that some interspecific variation in social organization is related to predation threat.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I (subspecies hemionusand khur) and the rest listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Syrian Onager, went extinct in 1927. The largest population of Asiatic Wild Asses in the world is currently in southern Mongolia, and makes up almost 80% of the global population. The “Mongolian Kulan” population was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 + 898 infour areas. There are estimates of 4800-6000 Kulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but they may be a population migrating seasonally from Mongolia. The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur, estimated in 2004 at 3900, in the Little Rann of Kutch. Thisis the only subpopulation of the Asiatic Wild Ass that has steadily increased in size from 1976 to the present day. In 2005 the Kulan populations consisted of about 1300 animals in Turkmenistan(850-900 in Badkhyz Reserve and 445 inseven reintroduction sites). In 1991 the reintroduced population in Uzbekistanin Dzheiran Ecocentre numbered 34. There is limited information on the status of the “Persian Onager” in Iran, but recent estimates give a figure of 600 inthe two protected areas (471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, 96 inBahramgor Reserve in 1996, and four reintroduced animals in Yazd Provincein 2000). There were also five reintroduced onagers in Taif (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and a further 100 reintroduced animals in Israelin the same year. The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Asses has fallen in the last 16 years by 52%, the current estimate of mature individuals being 8358. Today in Iran, the Persian Onageris threatened by poaching, overgrazing by livestock, and by competition with livestock at watering points. Shrub removal also degrades the habitat. Khurare threatened by competition with livestock as well as other economic activity such as salt mining and canal building. Kulan have experienced rapid declines in numbers because of increased demand for bushmeat. The threat from pastoralists who complain that Kulan are reducing forage for livestock is increasing. Trophy hunting does not appear to be a problem.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-250 cm, tail 30-49 cm, shoulder height 126— 130 cm; weight 200-260 kg. Asiatic Wild Asses are characterized by reddish-brown coats in the summer that become paler brown, sandy, or even gray in the winter, depending on subspecies. The flanks and belly are white and some subspecies have a dark brown stripe running along the back. The mane is black and erect and consists of short bristly hair. The tail is short, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The legs are short and thin when compared to other equid species. The hooves are broader and rounder than those of the African Wild Ass (E. africanus) and are the most horse-like of all the asses. Males are slightly larger than females. The subspecies differ in skull morphology. The Transcaspian and Mongolian forms have narrower supraoccipital crests than the Iranian and Indian forms. The Asiatic Wild Ass can reach speeds up to 70 km/h.","habitat":"Asiatic Wild Asses live in xeric habitats where rainfall is limited. Many of the subspecies live in flat semi-deserts with extremely hot days and cool nights."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8125867FFAAAB80EEA6F941.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8125867FFAAAB80EEA6F941","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"139","verbatimText":"1.Przewalski’s HorseEquus przewalskiiFrench:Cheval de Przewalski/ German:Przewalski-Pferd/ Spanish:Caballo de PrzewalskiOther common names:Asian Wild Horse, Dzungarian Horse, Mongolian Wild Horse, TakhiTaxonomy.Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881,Gutschen, Chinese—Russian border.The taxonomy of Prezwalski’s Horse is problematic and unresolved. C. P. Groves proposed that all horses surviving into modern times belonged to one species, E. ferus, with three subspecies: E. f. ferus(the “Tarpan”), E. f. sylvestrisat the eastern edge of Eastern Europe, and E. f. przewalskiiof Western Asia. Although feral descendants of the domestic Horse (E. caballus) roam freely in many locations around the world, Przewalski’s Horse is the only truly wild horse, although all its populations derive from reintroductions from zoos around the world. Analyses of nucleotide sequences on X and Y chromosomes place the two species in the same clade. Despite the fact that Prezwalski’s Horses have 66 chromosomes and domestic Horses have 64, introgression from interbreeding has occurred in the wild and in captivity. When coupled with the fact that Przewalski’s Horses have gone through a genetic bottleneck via captive breeding in zoos, the likelihood remains that it and the domestic Horse species today remain within the same clade. Monotypic.Distribution.Limited to small populations that have been reintroduced to the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal and Khomin Tal Nature Reserves of Mongolia, and the Ka La Mai Li Shan Nature Reserve of China.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-280 cm,tail 99-111 cm (including hair), shoulder height 120-146 cm; weight 200-300 kg. Przewalski’s Horses are stockier than domestic Horses and have long tails, thick black erect manes that only fall to the side when very long, chestnuts on both hind and forelimbs, and large rounded hooves. Their coats are a uniform dusty or dun color on the body and flanks; the belly and face are yellowish-white, and there are traces of yellowish-white stripes just above the hooves. Przewalski’s Horses have a relatively small skull, with a long diastema, and a long, rounded occipital crest.Habitat.The historic range of Przewalski’s Horse is not known. The last wild horse was seen in the very arid Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia, and there has been much debate about whether it was in its preferred habitat or justits last refuge. One view holds that of the three wild horse species that once inhabited the grasslands of Europe, Central Asia, and China, Przewalski’s Horse was the one that thrived at the easternmost edge of the range, where it encountered limited water and arid conditions as part of its natural habitat. Another view holds that these horses favored the more mesic grassland steppes of Mongolia, but as a result of more than a thousand years of competitive exclusion by nomadic pastoralists, they were forced into the deserts, where they fared poorly and died out. Domestic Horses do not fare well in dry climes, but ecological studies on feral horses show that some populations can survive in arid environments where food is scare and the best patches are often far from water. However, other studies show that populations survive and reproduce better in more mesic areas where vegetation is more abundant, more evenly distributed, and water is close to feeding areas. Grass and water are more plentiful in the mesic grasslands of Mongolia, but the winters there are harsher than in the Dzungarian Gobi. Today, populations of Przewalski’s Horses have been reintroduced into the mesic grasslands of central Mongoliaas well as arid areas on the edge of the Gobi Desert and the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, which lies adjacent to the painted desert of China. Populations continue to survive in both xeric and mesic areas, although the population in Chinarequires more active management than the ones in Mongolia.Food and Feeding.Like feral horses, Przewalski’s Horses are grazers. They inhabit steppe vegetation, especially the grasslands and shrublands of Central Asia. In summer they consume high-quality forage near water. In the winter, however, they must subsist on more fibrous food that can be difficult to locate because of snow cover. Fortunately, strong winds often blow the snow away, making succulent vegetation available.Breeding.Females come into estrus for the first time at two years of age, but usually do not breed until three. Males reach sexual maturity at three years old, but do not mate until 5-6 years of age, when they are able to dominate enough males so they can maintain long-term associations with mature females. As in domestic horses, females commence cycling in spring and continue cycling throughout the summer. Since gestation is 11-12 months (330-350 days), periods of breeding and birthing coincide.Activity patterns.Przewalski’s Horses are active day and night, but generally sleep for four hours per day, mostly at night. In Mongolia, during the summer they are most active and move to streams and brooks to forage and drink. During the hottest times of the day they move up to ridge tops where cool breezes reduce attacks by biting flies. Przewalski’s Horses of the Khustain Nuruu National Park in Mongolia coexist with Gray Wolves (Canis lupus). Foals are at the highest risk, and when wolves are detected, females, both mothers and non-mothers, form a defensive circle around the foals. As long as three or more females are present, foal chances of survival are high.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Przewalski’s Horses exhibit many of the same behaviors as feral horses. Females live in family groups that associate with a single breeding male. These harems move within large home ranges that overlap those of other family groups. Males unable to form long-term associations with females live in all-male bachelor groups whose membership is more fluid than that of family groups. Competition among males over mating access to females is common, yet ritualized signaling before escalating to physical violenceis the norm. Males typically mark the urine of females with their own urine and they repeatedly defecate in communal dung piles along well-traveled routes as a way of indicating and assessing how recently other males were present. Both sexes disperse from their natal groups upon reaching sexual maturity. As populations expanded at release sites, home ranges changed from virtually non-overlapping areas of 200-1100 ha to overlapping ranges averaging 1000 ha in size. Ranges tend to be larger in summer.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It was classified as Extinct in the Wild until 2008, but since then a series of reintroductions have created free ranging populations in both mesic and arid environments in Mongoliaand China. It likely once roamed the steppes of Chinaand Central Asia; there are written accounts from Tibetfrom around 900 Ap. Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in Mongolia, but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shara-Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi. Since the late 1970s, matings of captive animals have been managed world-wide, with the goal of maintaining over 95% of the existing genetic diversity for the next 200 years. Preventing the rapid loss of genetic diversity has helped enhance the genetic potential of free ranging populations. In 2008 there were approximately 325 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia. All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program. In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) in Xinjianghas established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses. Since 2007 one harem group 1s roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi; another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter.Bibliography.Ballou (1994), Berger (1986), Bokonyi (1974), Boyd & Houpt (1994), Boyd et al. (2008), Dierendonck et al. (1996), Groves (1994), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b), Ryder & Chemnick (1990), Zimmerman & Ryder (1995).","taxonomy":"Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881,Gutschen, Chinese—Russian border.The taxonomy of Prezwalski’s Horse is problematic and unresolved. C. P. Groves proposed that all horses surviving into modern times belonged to one species, E. ferus, with three subspecies: E. f. ferus(the “Tarpan”), E. f. sylvestrisat the eastern edge of Eastern Europe, and E. f. przewalskiiof Western Asia. Although feral descendants of the domestic Horse (E. caballus) roam freely in many locations around the world, Przewalski’s Horse is the only truly wild horse, although all its populations derive from reintroductions from zoos around the world. Analyses of nucleotide sequences on X and Y chromosomes place the two species in the same clade. Despite the fact that Prezwalski’s Horses have 66 chromosomes and domestic Horses have 64, introgression from interbreeding has occurred in the wild and in captivity. When coupled with the fact that Przewalski’s Horses have gone through a genetic bottleneck via captive breeding in zoos, the likelihood remains that it and the domestic Horse species today remain within the same clade. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Cheval de Przewalski @fr | Przewalski-Pferd @de | Caballo de Przewalski @es | Asian Wild Horse @en | Dzungarian Horse @en | Mongolian Wild Horse @en | Takhi @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Poliakov","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1881","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"139","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"przewalskii","name":"Equus przewalskii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Limited to small populations that have been reintroduced to the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal and Khomin Tal Nature Reserves of Mongolia, and the Ka La Mai Li Shan Nature Reserve of China.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719780/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ballou (1994) | Berger (1986) | Bokonyi (1974) | Boyd & Houpt (1994) | Boyd et al. (2008) | Dierendonck et al. (1996) | Groves (1994) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b) | Ryder & Chemnick (1990) | Zimmerman & Ryder (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Like feral horses, Przewalski’s Horses are grazers. They inhabit steppe vegetation, especially the grasslands and shrublands of Central Asia. In summer they consume high-quality forage near water. In the winter, however, they must subsist on more fibrous food that can be difficult to locate because of snow cover. Fortunately, strong winds often blow the snow away, making succulent vegetation available.","breeding":"Females come into estrus for the first time at two years of age, but usually do not breed until three. Males reach sexual maturity at three years old, but do not mate until 5-6 years of age, when they are able to dominate enough males so they can maintain long-term associations with mature females. As in domestic horses, females commence cycling in spring and continue cycling throughout the summer. Since gestation is 11-12 months (330-350 days), periods of breeding and birthing coincide.","activityPatterns":"Przewalski’s Horses are active day and night, but generally sleep for four hours per day, mostly at night. In Mongolia, during the summer they are most active and move to streams and brooks to forage and drink. During the hottest times of the day they move up to ridge tops where cool breezes reduce attacks by biting flies. Przewalski’s Horses of the Khustain Nuruu National Park in Mongolia coexist with Gray Wolves (Canis lupus). Foals are at the highest risk, and when wolves are detected, females, both mothers and non-mothers, form a defensive circle around the foals. As long as three or more females are present, foal chances of survival are high.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Przewalski’s Horses exhibit many of the same behaviors as feral horses. Females live in family groups that associate with a single breeding male. These harems move within large home ranges that overlap those of other family groups. Males unable to form long-term associations with females live in all-male bachelor groups whose membership is more fluid than that of family groups. Competition among males over mating access to females is common, yet ritualized signaling before escalating to physical violenceis the norm. Males typically mark the urine of females with their own urine and they repeatedly defecate in communal dung piles along well-traveled routes as a way of indicating and assessing how recently other males were present. Both sexes disperse from their natal groups upon reaching sexual maturity. As populations expanded at release sites, home ranges changed from virtually non-overlapping areas of 200-1100 ha to overlapping ranges averaging 1000 ha in size. Ranges tend to be larger in summer.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It was classified as Extinct in the Wild until 2008, but since then a series of reintroductions have created free ranging populations in both mesic and arid environments in Mongoliaand China. It likely once roamed the steppes of Chinaand Central Asia; there are written accounts from Tibetfrom around 900 Ap. Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in Mongolia, but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shara-Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi. Since the late 1970s, matings of captive animals have been managed world-wide, with the goal of maintaining over 95% of the existing genetic diversity for the next 200 years. Preventing the rapid loss of genetic diversity has helped enhance the genetic potential of free ranging populations. In 2008 there were approximately 325 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia. All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program. In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) in Xinjianghas established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses. Since 2007 one harem group 1s roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi; another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-280 cm,tail 99-111 cm (including hair), shoulder height 120-146 cm; weight 200-300 kg. Przewalski’s Horses are stockier than domestic Horses and have long tails, thick black erect manes that only fall to the side when very long, chestnuts on both hind and forelimbs, and large rounded hooves. Their coats are a uniform dusty or dun color on the body and flanks; the belly and face are yellowish-white, and there are traces of yellowish-white stripes just above the hooves. Przewalski’s Horses have a relatively small skull, with a long diastema, and a long, rounded occipital crest.","habitat":"The historic range of Przewalski’s Horse is not known. The last wild horse was seen in the very arid Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia, and there has been much debate about whether it was in its preferred habitat or justits last refuge. One view holds that of the three wild horse species that once inhabited the grasslands of Europe, Central Asia, and China, Przewalski’s Horse was the one that thrived at the easternmost edge of the range, where it encountered limited water and arid conditions as part of its natural habitat. Another view holds that these horses favored the more mesic grassland steppes of Mongolia, but as a result of more than a thousand years of competitive exclusion by nomadic pastoralists, they were forced into the deserts, where they fared poorly and died out. Domestic Horses do not fare well in dry climes, but ecological studies on feral horses show that some populations can survive in arid environments where food is scare and the best patches are often far from water. However, other studies show that populations survive and reproduce better in more mesic areas where vegetation is more abundant, more evenly distributed, and water is close to feeding areas. Grass and water are more plentiful in the mesic grasslands of Mongolia, but the winters there are harsher than in the Dzungarian Gobi. Today, populations of Przewalski’s Horses have been reintroduced into the mesic grasslands of central Mongoliaas well as arid areas on the edge of the Gobi Desert and the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, which lies adjacent to the painted desert of China. Populations continue to survive in both xeric and mesic areas, although the population in Chinarequires more active management than the ones in Mongolia."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8135861FA63A123EFB2F480.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8135861FA63A123EFB2F480","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"4.African Wild AssEquus africanusFrench:Ane sauvage/ German:Afrikanischer Wildesel/ Spanish:AsnosalvajeOther common names:Atlas Wild Ass (atlanticus), Nubian Wild Ass (africanus), SomaliWild Ass (somalicus)Taxonomy.Asinusafricanus Heuglin & Fitzinger, 1866,Nubia. Restricted to Ain Saba, Eritrea, by Schlawe in 1980.The “Atlas Wild Ass” race atlanticus (Thomas, 1884)from North Africa is extinct. Two extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct.E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea(Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia(Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somaliafrom the Meti and Erigavo in the N to NugaalValley and Shebelle River in the S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-205 cm, tail 40-45 cm, shoulder height 115-125 cm; weight 270-280 kg. The African Wild Ass is the ancestor of the domestic Donkey (E. asinus). It is strong, lean, and muscular, with a fawn or gray coat dorsally and a white belly and legs. It has long ears, a stiff erect mane,a tail ending with a tuft of black hair, and extremely narrow hooves that appear designed for surefootedness rather than speed. The “Nubian Wild Ass” is gray with a shoulder stripe; the “ SomaliWild Ass”is gray and has both leg and shoulder stripes.Habitat.The African Wild Ass inhabits hilly and stony deserts as well as semi-desert grasslands and euphorbia and aloe shrublands that receive 100-200 mm of rainfall annually. Sandy habitats are avoided. Recorded up to 1500 mof elevation in Ethiopia.Food and Feeding.The African Wild Ass mostly grazes, eating grasses, especially Eragrostis, Dactyloctenium, and Chrysopogon when available, and tougher Panicum and Lasiurus species, as well as herbs and general browse. The asses use their incisors and hooves to break apart the tougher foods. Although they can sustain water losses of up to 30% of their body weight, they can replenish these losses within two to five minutes. Nevertheless, they need to drink water at least once every three days and most individuals are observed within 30 kmof a water source.Breeding.Although the age of first estrus has not been documented in African Wild Asses, in feral asses, first estrus occurs at about twelve months of age. Most females, however, give birth at 2-2-5 years of age and give birth to one foal every other year thereafter. Females cycle every 20-21 days until they conceive and gestation ranges from 330 to 365 days. Foals are independent soon after birth, often remaining alone for long periods as mothers seek water to maintain lactation. Foals begin grazing within weeks of birth but typically suckle for six months. Males tolerate other males within their territories even when females are present; dominance ensures that mating access is controlled mostly by territory holders. Breeding occurs during the wet season, with most births between October and February. The life span of wild asses is thought to be around 25-30 years.Activity patterns.The species is most active in the early morning, late afternoon, or at night, when the desert is cooler. During the hottest part of the day it seeks shade in nearby rocky hills whereit rests. Its body temperature can range from 35°C to 41-5°C, depending on ambient temperature. Females maintain higher body temperatures than males by sweating less, thus retaining water longer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.African Wild Asses live in small groups that are typically composed of fewer than five individuals. Associations are usually temporary, with the only permanent one consisting of a mother and her young. Gatherings occur at watering places or when searching for scarce forage. Low food availability and poor-quality forage prevent females from feeding in close proximity and associating consistently. Temporary groups vary in composition, sometimes containing only members of a single sex, sometimes members of both sexes. Breeding males defend large territories with essential resources, especially water, that females need. Males associate with females who enter their territories, and the better the territory, the longer females will stay, thus increasing a territorial male’s reproductive success. When conditions on a territory are not yet attractive to females, territorial males are found alone or occasionally in bachelor male groups. Territories are often 20 km? in size, with boundaries marked by conspicuous dung piles. Females range more widely, readily moving among male territories.Status and Conservation.CITES I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly, the African Wild Ass was distributed across large stretches of northern Africa, but now only occupies a small part ofits historic range. The Atlas Wild Ass occupied the north-west region of Algeriaand adjacent parts of Moroccoand Tunisia, becoming extinct around 300 ap. Threats to its survival come from hunting for food and body parts used in traditional healing, competition with livestock for food and water, and possible interbreeding and introgression from the domestic donkey. Fewer than 600 individuals of the Somali Wild Ass are thoughtto survive in the wild. Only Eritrea, where up to 400 individuals may survive,is thought to have a stable population. Fewer than 160 are believed to survive in Ethiopia, and fewer than ten in Somalia. The Nubian Wild Ass was present in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the Red Sea, south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. However no sightings have been confirmed since the 1970s, and their survival in these regions is now in doubt.Bibliography.Antonious (1938), Groves & Willoughby (1981), Kingdon (1997), Maloiy (1970), McCort (1980), Moehlman (1998, 2002), Moehiman, Yohannes et al. (2008), Wilson & Reeder (1993), Woodward (1979).","taxonomy":"Asinusafricanus Heuglin & Fitzinger, 1866,Nubia. Restricted to Ain Saba, Eritrea, by Schlawe in 1980.The “Atlas Wild Ass” race atlanticus (Thomas, 1884)from North Africa is extinct. Two extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ane sauvage @fr | Afrikanischer Wildesel @de | Asnosalvaje @es | Asno @es | Atlas Wild Ass (atlanticus) @en | Nubian Wild Ass (africanus) @en | Somali Wild Ass (somalicus) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Heuglin & Fitzinger","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1866","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"africanus","name":"Equus africanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.a.africanusHeuglin&Fitzinger,1866—NEritrea(BarkaValley)andborderareabetweenEritreaandSudan;couldbeextinct.E. a. somalicus Sclater, 1885. — Eritrea(Denkelia region), NE & E Ethiopia(Danakil Desert, Awash River Valley, and Ogaden), W Djibouti, and Somaliafrom the Meti and Erigavo in the N to NugaalValley and Shebelle River in the S.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719790/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Antonious (1938) | Groves & Willoughby (1981) | Kingdon (1997) | Maloiy (1970) | McCort (1980) | Moehlman (1998, 2002) | Moehiman, Yohannes et al. (2008) | Wilson & Reeder (1993) | Woodward (1979)","foodAndFeeding":"The African Wild Ass mostly grazes, eating grasses, especially Eragrostis, Dactyloctenium, and Chrysopogon when available, and tougher Panicum and Lasiurus species, as well as herbs and general browse. The asses use their incisors and hooves to break apart the tougher foods. Although they can sustain water losses of up to 30% of their body weight, they can replenish these losses within two to five minutes. Nevertheless, they need to drink water at least once every three days and most individuals are observed within 30 kmof a water source.","breeding":"Although the age of first estrus has not been documented in African Wild Asses, in feral asses, first estrus occurs at about twelve months of age. Most females, however, give birth at 2-2-5 years of age and give birth to one foal every other year thereafter. Females cycle every 20-21 days until they conceive and gestation ranges from 330 to 365 days. Foals are independent soon after birth, often remaining alone for long periods as mothers seek water to maintain lactation. Foals begin grazing within weeks of birth but typically suckle for six months. Males tolerate other males within their territories even when females are present; dominance ensures that mating access is controlled mostly by territory holders. Breeding occurs during the wet season, with most births between October and February. The life span of wild asses is thought to be around 25-30 years.","activityPatterns":"The species is most active in the early morning, late afternoon, or at night, when the desert is cooler. During the hottest part of the day it seeks shade in nearby rocky hills whereit rests. Its body temperature can range from 35°C to 41-5°C, depending on ambient temperature. Females maintain higher body temperatures than males by sweating less, thus retaining water longer.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"African Wild Asses live in small groups that are typically composed of fewer than five individuals. Associations are usually temporary, with the only permanent one consisting of a mother and her young. Gatherings occur at watering places or when searching for scarce forage. Low food availability and poor-quality forage prevent females from feeding in close proximity and associating consistently. Temporary groups vary in composition, sometimes containing only members of a single sex, sometimes members of both sexes. Breeding males defend large territories with essential resources, especially water, that females need. Males associate with females who enter their territories, and the better the territory, the longer females will stay, thus increasing a territorial male’s reproductive success. When conditions on a territory are not yet attractive to females, territorial males are found alone or occasionally in bachelor male groups. Territories are often 20 km? in size, with boundaries marked by conspicuous dung piles. Females range more widely, readily moving among male territories.","statusAndConservation":"CITES I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly, the African Wild Ass was distributed across large stretches of northern Africa, but now only occupies a small part ofits historic range. The Atlas Wild Ass occupied the north-west region of Algeriaand adjacent parts of Moroccoand Tunisia, becoming extinct around 300 ap. Threats to its survival come from hunting for food and body parts used in traditional healing, competition with livestock for food and water, and possible interbreeding and introgression from the domestic donkey. Fewer than 600 individuals of the Somali Wild Ass are thoughtto survive in the wild. Only Eritrea, where up to 400 individuals may survive,is thought to have a stable population. Fewer than 160 are believed to survive in Ethiopia, and fewer than ten in Somalia. The Nubian Wild Ass was present in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the Red Sea, south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. However no sightings have been confirmed since the 1970s, and their survival in these regions is now in doubt.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 195-205 cm, tail 40-45 cm, shoulder height 115-125 cm; weight 270-280 kg. The African Wild Ass is the ancestor of the domestic Donkey (E. asinus). It is strong, lean, and muscular, with a fawn or gray coat dorsally and a white belly and legs. It has long ears, a stiff erect mane,a tail ending with a tuft of black hair, and extremely narrow hooves that appear designed for surefootedness rather than speed. The “Nubian Wild Ass” is gray with a shoulder stripe; the “ SomaliWild Ass”is gray and has both leg and shoulder stripes.","habitat":"The African Wild Ass inhabits hilly and stony deserts as well as semi-desert grasslands and euphorbia and aloe shrublands that receive 100-200 mm of rainfall annually. Sandy habitats are avoided. Recorded up to 1500 mof elevation in Ethiopia."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8135866FF1AA3CDEC6BF56D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8135866FF1AA3CDEC6BF56D","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"140","verbatimText":"3.Tibetan Wild AssEquus kiangFrench:Kiang/ German:Kiang/ Spanish:KiangOther common names:Kiang; Eastern Kiang(holdereri), Southern Kiang(polyodon), Western Kiang(kiang)Taxonomy.Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841,Ladakh, state ofJammu and Kashmir, India.Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.k.kiangMoorcroft,1841—WChina(SWXinjiang,C&WXizang),NEPakistan(KhunjerabNationalPark),NIndia(Ladakh),andNNepal(Mustang).E.k.holderersMatschie,1911—WCChina(SEXinjiang,Quinghai,Gansu&EXizang).E. k. polyodon Hodgson, 1847— SW China(S Xizang) and N India(N Sikkim); also possibly in extreme N & NW Bhutan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 182-214 cm, tail 32-45 cm, shoulder height 132-142 cm; weight 250-400 kg. Tibetan Wild Asses have large heads, thick muzzles, relatively long manes, and tails with long hairs not restricted to the tip. Their hooves are broad and rounded like the hooves of horses. Tibetan Wild Asses have dark chestnut-brown coats covering the upper flanks and thighs and white bellies, lower flanks, legs, and rump patches. The coat is paler in the winter and redder in the summer. The mane and the edges and tips of the ears are black. A dark brown dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the tail and each hoofis circled by a thin black ring. Chestnuts are found only on the forelegs. Males are slightly larger than females.Habitat.The Tibetan Wild Ass is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia at elevations from 2700 mto 5300 m. It rangesas far south as the Himalayas and north to the Kunlun-Arjin Shan Mountains. Tibetan Wild Asses inhabit three major vegetation zones: alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Alpine meadows are generally found at elevations below 4500 min areas where precipitation exceeds 400 mmper year. Vegetation in these meadows starts growing earlier than in the other areas and short sedges, such as Kobresia, and forbs cover about 25-30% of the surface. Alpine steppe is the most abundant habitat on the Tibetan Plateau, occurring at elevations between 4000 mand 5000 m. Precipitation is low and vegetation is sparse, covering less than 15% of the ground, with Stipa, Festuca, and Poa being the most common grasses. Desert steppe occurs at elevations greater than 5000 m. Although the vegetation of the desert steppe is similar to that of the alpine steppe, only 5% of the ground is covered in vegetation. Not surprisingly, the Tibetan Wild Ass occupies mostly alpine meadows and steppe. Almost 80% of Tibetan Wild Ass sightings are in the basins in these habitats. Most of the other sightings are on the hills. Open plains seem to be used as refuges from predators.Food and Feeding.Tibetan Wild Asses are grazers, mostly concentrating on Stipa, which comprises up to 656% ofits diet in summer and up to 95% in winter. Small amounts of forbs and shrubs are also consumed, and in winter, digging for roots is also common. Waterholes are scarce in the summer and often frozen in the winter, when snow is eaten instead. When the vegetation is of high quality, Tibetan Wild Asses acquire most of their water from vegetation.Breeding.The mating season is late and short compared to other seasonally breeding equids, running from late July to the end of August. Gestation length appears to vary from eleven to twelve months. Females typically give birth to one foal every other year. Little is known about the age of sexual maturity in the wild, but it is likely that it is similar to the desert-living “Kulan” (E. hemionuskulan), which begins breeding between three and four years of age. The age of maturity in males is even less certain. In captivity one male showed no signs of sexual activity by 3-5 years of age. In the wild, males occasionally injure newborn foals while attempting to mate with their mothers.Activity patterns.Tibetan Wild Asses move seasonally among habitats. They disperse in small groups into the hills during the summer in search of high-quality food. As harsh winter conditions set in, they return to basins and flatlands at lower elevations, often forming large concentrations. In the summer, they move daily from lower areas where they spend the night to higher elevations as daytime temperatures rise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tibetan Wild Asses are typically found alone or in small groups. Aggregations of several hundred individuals occur, but these seem to be seasonally driven. During the summer, individuals disperse and scatter, but during winter groups coalesce. Tibetan Wild Ass groups are not cohesive. The only strong bond is between mothers and their foals. Adults come together for short periods and then disperse. Tibetan Wild Asses show the same fission-fusion social system as Asiatic Wild Asses (E. hemionus), African Wild Asses (E. africanus), and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). In this system lone males establish territories containing critical resources that females need. In the Ladakh region, territories are 0-5-5 km? in size. Young males unable to defend territories join all-male bachelor groups. Old males wander alone. Territorial males aggressively defend their territories. Ritualized displays involving a head-up, ears laid back, horizontaltail display are often accompanied by a wheezing bray. Long chases and contests involving rearing, kicking, and biting on the mane, neck, and tail occur when ritualized signals fail to determine dominance.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current global population of the Tibetan Wild Ass is estimated at 60,000-70,000 individuals, 90% of them in China. This Chinese population of approximately 56,000-68,500 individuals is divided between Qinghaiand Gansu(15,000), Xinjiang(4500-5500), and Xizang(37,000-48,000). The population outside Chinais estimated at 1600-2145. Within this wide range, Tibetan Wild Ass distribution is fragmented, and currently most populations are found in protected areas or areas which are under armyjurisdiction.Bibliography.Feng Zuojian (1991a, 1991b), Fox et al. (1991), Goldstein & Beall (1989), Groves & Mazak (1967), Harris & Miller (1995), Schaller (1998), Schaller & Gu (1994), Shah (2002), Shah et al. (2008), St. Louis & Coté(2009), Zhang Chieh (1984).","taxonomy":"Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841,Ladakh, state ofJammu and Kashmir, India.Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Kiang @fr | Kiang @de | Kiang @es | Kiang; Eastern Kiang(holdereri) @en | Southern Kiang(polyodon) @en | Western Kiang(kiang) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Moorcroft","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"140","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kiang","name":"Equus kiang","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.k.kiangMoorcroft,1841—WChina(SWXinjiang,C&WXizang),NEPakistan(KhunjerabNationalPark),NIndia(Ladakh),andNNepal(Mustang).E.k.holderersMatschie,1911—WCChina(SEXinjiang,Quinghai,Gansu&EXizang).E. k. polyodon Hodgson, 1847— SW China(S Xizang) and N India(N Sikkim); also possibly in extreme N & NW Bhutan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719788/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Feng Zuojian (1991a, 1991b) | Fox et al. (1991) | Goldstein & Beall (1989) | Groves & Mazak (1967) | Harris & Miller (1995) | Schaller (1998) | Schaller & Gu (1994) | Shah (2002) | Shah et al. (2008) | St. Louis & Coté(2009) | Zhang Chieh (1984)","foodAndFeeding":"Tibetan Wild Asses are grazers, mostly concentrating on Stipa, which comprises up to 656% ofits diet in summer and up to 95% in winter. Small amounts of forbs and shrubs are also consumed, and in winter, digging for roots is also common. Waterholes are scarce in the summer and often frozen in the winter, when snow is eaten instead. When the vegetation is of high quality, Tibetan Wild Asses acquire most of their water from vegetation.","breeding":"The mating season is late and short compared to other seasonally breeding equids, running from late July to the end of August. Gestation length appears to vary from eleven to twelve months. Females typically give birth to one foal every other year. Little is known about the age of sexual maturity in the wild, but it is likely that it is similar to the desert-living “Kulan” (E. hemionuskulan), which begins breeding between three and four years of age. The age of maturity in males is even less certain. In captivity one male showed no signs of sexual activity by 3-5 years of age. In the wild, males occasionally injure newborn foals while attempting to mate with their mothers.","activityPatterns":"Tibetan Wild Asses move seasonally among habitats. They disperse in small groups into the hills during the summer in search of high-quality food. As harsh winter conditions set in, they return to basins and flatlands at lower elevations, often forming large concentrations. In the summer, they move daily from lower areas where they spend the night to higher elevations as daytime temperatures rise.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Tibetan Wild Asses are typically found alone or in small groups. Aggregations of several hundred individuals occur, but these seem to be seasonally driven. During the summer, individuals disperse and scatter, but during winter groups coalesce. Tibetan Wild Ass groups are not cohesive. The only strong bond is between mothers and their foals. Adults come together for short periods and then disperse. Tibetan Wild Asses show the same fission-fusion social system as Asiatic Wild Asses (E. hemionus), African Wild Asses (E. africanus), and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). In this system lone males establish territories containing critical resources that females need. In the Ladakh region, territories are 0-5-5 km? in size. Young males unable to defend territories join all-male bachelor groups. Old males wander alone. Territorial males aggressively defend their territories. Ritualized displays involving a head-up, ears laid back, horizontaltail display are often accompanied by a wheezing bray. Long chases and contests involving rearing, kicking, and biting on the mane, neck, and tail occur when ritualized signals fail to determine dominance.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current global population of the Tibetan Wild Ass is estimated at 60,000-70,000 individuals, 90% of them in China. This Chinese population of approximately 56,000-68,500 individuals is divided between Qinghaiand Gansu(15,000), Xinjiang(4500-5500), and Xizang(37,000-48,000). The population outside Chinais estimated at 1600-2145. Within this wide range, Tibetan Wild Ass distribution is fragmented, and currently most populations are found in protected areas or areas which are under armyjurisdiction.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 182-214 cm, tail 32-45 cm, shoulder height 132-142 cm; weight 250-400 kg. Tibetan Wild Asses have large heads, thick muzzles, relatively long manes, and tails with long hairs not restricted to the tip. Their hooves are broad and rounded like the hooves of horses. Tibetan Wild Asses have dark chestnut-brown coats covering the upper flanks and thighs and white bellies, lower flanks, legs, and rump patches. The coat is paler in the winter and redder in the summer. The mane and the edges and tips of the ears are black. A dark brown dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the tail and each hoofis circled by a thin black ring. Chestnuts are found only on the forelegs. Males are slightly larger than females.","habitat":"The Tibetan Wild Ass is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia at elevations from 2700 mto 5300 m. It rangesas far south as the Himalayas and north to the Kunlun-Arjin Shan Mountains. Tibetan Wild Asses inhabit three major vegetation zones: alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and desert steppe. Alpine meadows are generally found at elevations below 4500 min areas where precipitation exceeds 400 mmper year. Vegetation in these meadows starts growing earlier than in the other areas and short sedges, such as Kobresia, and forbs cover about 25-30% of the surface. Alpine steppe is the most abundant habitat on the Tibetan Plateau, occurring at elevations between 4000 mand 5000 m. Precipitation is low and vegetation is sparse, covering less than 15% of the ground, with Stipa, Festuca, and Poa being the most common grasses. Desert steppe occurs at elevations greater than 5000 m. Although the vegetation of the desert steppe is similar to that of the alpine steppe, only 5% of the ground is covered in vegetation. Not surprisingly, the Tibetan Wild Ass occupies mostly alpine meadows and steppe. Almost 80% of Tibetan Wild Ass sightings are in the basins in these habitats. Most of the other sightings are on the hills. Open plains seem to be used as refuges from predators."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8145860FFB0A181E90EF9C9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8145860FFB0A181E90EF9C9","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"141","verbatimText":"5.Plains ZebraEquus quaggaFrench:Zebre de Burchell/ German:Steppenzebra/ Spanish:Cebra de BurchellOther common names:Common Zebra, Painted Quagga; Burchell's Zebra(burchell), Chapman's Zebra(chapmanni), Crawshay's Zebra(crawshaii), Damara Zebra(antiquorum), Grant's Zebra(boehmi), Quagga(quagga), ZambeziZebra(selousi)Taxonomy.Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785,South Africa, south of Vaal River.Revisions have been made to the taxonomy of the Plains Zebra, whose extant species complex was until recently named E.burchelli, with the extinct form designated as a distinct species, the “ Quagga” (FE. quagga), which occupied the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal rivers and west of the Drakensberg mountain range. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the ranges of Quaggas and “Burchell’s Zebra” (E. q. burchelli) overlapped in a narrow zone north of the Orange River, unlike the other Plains Zebrasubspecies whose ranges do not overlap, but they apparently did not interbreed. However, recent molecular analyses using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA demonstrate that the variation among living and extinct forms is no greater than among modern breeds of domestic Horses (FE. caballus). Thus the Plains Zebraand the extinct Quaggaare now considered a single species, E. quagga. The Plains Zebrashows a genetic and morphological cline from northern Kenyato southern Africa; generally, the farther south, the less the degree of stripe coverage, while body size increases. With the nominate subspecies’ demise, only six extant subspecies are recognized, located around three widely separated regional centres.Subspecies and Distribution.E.q.antiguorumC.H.Smith,1841—Angola,Namibia,andWBotswana.E.q.boehmiMatschie,1892—ZambiaWofLuangwaRiver,DRCongo,NTanzania,Uganda,Kenya,Ethiopia,andSomalia.E.q.burchelliGray,1824—CSouthAfrica.E.q.chapmanniLayard,1865—NSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandEBotswana.E.q.crawshaiDeWinton,1896—ZambiaEofLuangwaRiver,Malawi,SETanzania,andMozambique.E. q. selousi Pocock, 1897— E Zimbabweand W Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217-246 cm, tail 47-57 cm, shoulder height 127-140 cm; weight 175-320 kg. The Plains Zebrais a muscular horse with a short neck, barrel chest, and sturdy legs. The stripes are variable, but in general they are wide, broader than those of Mountain Zebras (LE. zebra) and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). Apart from Burchell’s and “Damara” Zebras,stripes cover the flanks and touch under the belly. Stripes on the rump are typically bold and wide in all subspecies except the Damara Zebra, where they are thin and often wavy. In Burchell’s and Damara Zebras, both southern African subspecies, there are often grayish shadow stripes in the center of the white stripes. In all subspecies, males are slightly larger than females and have stripes that are blacker than the browner ones of females.Habitat.Plains Zebras inhabit tropical, subtropical, and temperate grasslands, steppes, savannas, and woodlands, from sea level to 4300 mon Mount Kenya. Since Plains Zebras need to drink daily, they are restricted to habitats where water can be accessed within half a day’s walk. Only deserts, dense woodlands, and permanent wetlands are avoided.Food and Feeding.Plains Zebraare true grazers. As hindgut fermenters, they require large quantities of food, so it is not surprising that they spend up to 20 hours per day foraging. Yet they are selective foragers, disproportionately consuming Perisetum and Themeda grasses when available. They can only forage in mesic areas where feeding sites and watering points are close together.Breeding.Plains Zebras give birth to one young after a gestation period of twelve months. Females generally stay near their groups when giving birth. When the foal is strong enough to move about, the mother and foal rejoin the group. Foals nurse for about six months, but begin feeding on grass by about one month of age. Females become sexually mature between two and three years of age, but often cycle without conceiving for the first year. Males generally only begin maintaining harems at five years of age.Activity patterns.Plains Zebras are active day and night and organize their daily activities around drinking. Most individuals need to drink once per day, but in very dry conditions, some drink more often. During the dry season the need for water constrains Plains Zebragroups from wandering more than 5-10 km from reliable water. After the rains, they spread out and range widely, seeking superior grazing areas located near transient water sources.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Because Plains Zebras are restricted to habitats where food and water are in close proximity, females of different reproductive classes can stay together. As a result, females, regardless of reproductive state, form groups and associate with a single male, who keeps away marauding males. By reducing sexual harassment, stallions provide females with a valuable material reward— increased foraging time. As in feral horses, females that associate with high-ranking males, or males rising rapidly in rank, can feed for up to six minutes longer per hour than females associating with less able males. Since Plains Zebras feed for up to 20 hours per day, females associating with the best males typically gain an additional two hours of foraging per day, thus increasing their fitness. Plains Zebraassociations are often large, consisting of hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals. Since these herds include both harem and bachelor male groups, Plains Zebras live in the most complex societies of all equids. Herd size varies. It depends directly on the abundance of vegetation, but also on the strength of a social factor—the degree of cuckolding pressure exerted by bachelor males. When vegetation is abundant, groups tend to be large. But the largest herds form when bachelor groups are large. By banding together, breeding stallions amortize costs and collectively dominate large bachelor associations. For females, harassment reduction helps maximize foraging. Apparently females find life in herds no different from life in isolated and unchallenged harems, thus permitting herds to form. Many Plains Zebrapopulations are seasonally migratory, traveling hundreds of kilometers as they track vegetation flushes induced by predictable seasonal shifts in rainfall. Others stay put when the migrants leave, suggesting that these strategies are alternative solutions, shaped by trade-offs between vegetation quality and quantity. At any one locale, migratory or resident populations also exhibit local movements among landscape zones. During the rains, Plains Zebras graze on hilltops where vegetation productivity is high and good visibility increases safety from predators. When the rains cease and grasses stop growing, the zebras seek habitats where food is more abundant, because of dietary demands associated with their relatively large body size. They move to valleys and basins where grass is abundant, even though it is fibrous and of low quality. Their grazing transforms these habitats. Residual moisture and increased light penetration induces vegetation growth, which benefits the zebras as well as wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) and Thompson's gazelles (Eudorcas spp.). As ruminants, these species require higher-quality vegetation than zebras. It is their good fortune that by the time they are forced to leave the hilltops, high-quality vegetation in the valleys is abundant enough to sustain them. Thus Plains Zebras play an important role as engineers stabilizing herbivore communities.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In 2002, total numbers were estimated at ¢.660,000. More than 75% of the world’s Plains Zebras are “Grant’s Zebras” (boehmi), some 200,000 of them in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. The two countries they inhabit, Kenyaand Tanzania, have extensive national park systems earning revenue from tourism, coupled with sophisticated government-supported monitoring systems. Wildlife-friendly ranching practices tend to protect even zebras living on private land in Kenya. Plains Zebras will probably not become threatened in these locales, but aerial survey data from Tanzaniasuggests a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s. Elsewhere, Grant’s Zebras and the other subspecies are faring less well. Civil strife in many countries has led to widespread poaching. Continued habitat conversion to agriculture and loss due to development isolate and threaten the demographic and genetic integrity of small populations. In the past Plains Zebras have shown resilience and an ability to bounce back quickly from population reductions. With the establishment of effective management, protection, and monitoring, most Plains Zebrapopulations are likely to survive. Current information on total population size is limited.Bibliography.Bell (1971), Bennett (1980), George & Ryder (1986), Groves (1974), Hack & Lorenzen (2008), Hack et al. (2202), Higuchi et al. (1984), Kgathi & Kalikawe (1993), Kingdon (1979, 1997), Klingel (1969), Oakenful et al. (2000), Ogawa (1975), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1989, 1994), Rubenstein & Hack (2004), Sinclair & Norton-Griffiths (1982), Smuts (1975).","taxonomy":"Equus quagga Boddaert, 1785,South Africa, south of Vaal River.Revisions have been made to the taxonomy of the Plains Zebra, whose extant species complex was until recently named E.burchelli, with the extinct form designated as a distinct species, the “ Quagga” (FE. quagga), which occupied the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal rivers and west of the Drakensberg mountain range. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the ranges of Quaggas and “Burchell’s Zebra” (E. q. burchelli) overlapped in a narrow zone north of the Orange River, unlike the other Plains Zebrasubspecies whose ranges do not overlap, but they apparently did not interbreed. However, recent molecular analyses using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA demonstrate that the variation among living and extinct forms is no greater than among modern breeds of domestic Horses (FE. caballus). Thus the Plains Zebraand the extinct Quaggaare now considered a single species, E. quagga. The Plains Zebrashows a genetic and morphological cline from northern Kenyato southern Africa; generally, the farther south, the less the degree of stripe coverage, while body size increases. With the nominate subspecies’ demise, only six extant subspecies are recognized, located around three widely separated regional centres.","commonNames":"Zebre de Burchell @fr | Steppenzebra @de | Cebra de Burchell @es | Common Zebra @en | Painted Quagga; Burchell's Zebra(burchell) @en | Chapman's Zebra(chapmanni) @en | Crawshay's Zebra(crawshaii) @en | Damara Zebra(antiquorum) @en | Grant's Zebra(boehmi) @en | Quagga(quagga) @en | Zambezi Zebra(selousi) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Boddaert","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1785","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"141","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"quagga","name":"Equus quagga","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.q.antiguorumC.H.Smith,1841—Angola,Namibia,andWBotswana.E.q.boehmiMatschie,1892—ZambiaWofLuangwaRiver,DRCongo,NTanzania,Uganda,Kenya,Ethiopia,andSomalia.E.q.burchelliGray,1824—CSouthAfrica.E.q.chapmanniLayard,1865—NSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandEBotswana.E.q.crawshaiDeWinton,1896—ZambiaEofLuangwaRiver,Malawi,SETanzania,andMozambique.E. q. selousi Pocock, 1897— E Zimbabweand W Mozambique.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719794/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bell (1971) | Bennett (1980) | George & Ryder (1986) | Groves (1974) | Hack & Lorenzen (2008) | Hack et al. (2202) | Higuchi et al. (1984) | Kgathi & Kalikawe (1993) | Kingdon (1979, 1997) | Klingel (1969) | Oakenful et al. (2000) | Ogawa (1975) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1989, 1994) | Rubenstein & Hack (2004) | Sinclair & Norton-Griffiths (1982) | Smuts (1975)","foodAndFeeding":"Plains Zebraare true grazers. As hindgut fermenters, they require large quantities of food, so it is not surprising that they spend up to 20 hours per day foraging. Yet they are selective foragers, disproportionately consuming Perisetum and Themeda grasses when available. They can only forage in mesic areas where feeding sites and watering points are close together.","breeding":"Plains Zebras give birth to one young after a gestation period of twelve months. Females generally stay near their groups when giving birth. When the foal is strong enough to move about, the mother and foal rejoin the group. Foals nurse for about six months, but begin feeding on grass by about one month of age. Females become sexually mature between two and three years of age, but often cycle without conceiving for the first year. Males generally only begin maintaining harems at five years of age.","activityPatterns":"Plains Zebras are active day and night and organize their daily activities around drinking. Most individuals need to drink once per day, but in very dry conditions, some drink more often. During the dry season the need for water constrains Plains Zebragroups from wandering more than 5-10 km from reliable water. After the rains, they spread out and range widely, seeking superior grazing areas located near transient water sources.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Because Plains Zebras are restricted to habitats where food and water are in close proximity, females of different reproductive classes can stay together. As a result, females, regardless of reproductive state, form groups and associate with a single male, who keeps away marauding males. By reducing sexual harassment, stallions provide females with a valuable material reward— increased foraging time. As in feral horses, females that associate with high-ranking males, or males rising rapidly in rank, can feed for up to six minutes longer per hour than females associating with less able males. Since Plains Zebras feed for up to 20 hours per day, females associating with the best males typically gain an additional two hours of foraging per day, thus increasing their fitness. Plains Zebraassociations are often large, consisting of hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals. Since these herds include both harem and bachelor male groups, Plains Zebras live in the most complex societies of all equids. Herd size varies. It depends directly on the abundance of vegetation, but also on the strength of a social factor—the degree of cuckolding pressure exerted by bachelor males. When vegetation is abundant, groups tend to be large. But the largest herds form when bachelor groups are large. By banding together, breeding stallions amortize costs and collectively dominate large bachelor associations. For females, harassment reduction helps maximize foraging. Apparently females find life in herds no different from life in isolated and unchallenged harems, thus permitting herds to form. Many Plains Zebrapopulations are seasonally migratory, traveling hundreds of kilometers as they track vegetation flushes induced by predictable seasonal shifts in rainfall. Others stay put when the migrants leave, suggesting that these strategies are alternative solutions, shaped by trade-offs between vegetation quality and quantity. At any one locale, migratory or resident populations also exhibit local movements among landscape zones. During the rains, Plains Zebras graze on hilltops where vegetation productivity is high and good visibility increases safety from predators. When the rains cease and grasses stop growing, the zebras seek habitats where food is more abundant, because of dietary demands associated with their relatively large body size. They move to valleys and basins where grass is abundant, even though it is fibrous and of low quality. Their grazing transforms these habitats. Residual moisture and increased light penetration induces vegetation growth, which benefits the zebras as well as wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) and Thompson's gazelles (Eudorcas spp.). As ruminants, these species require higher-quality vegetation than zebras. It is their good fortune that by the time they are forced to leave the hilltops, high-quality vegetation in the valleys is abundant enough to sustain them. Thus Plains Zebras play an important role as engineers stabilizing herbivore communities.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In 2002, total numbers were estimated at ¢.660,000. More than 75% of the world’s Plains Zebras are “Grant’s Zebras” (boehmi), some 200,000 of them in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. The two countries they inhabit, Kenyaand Tanzania, have extensive national park systems earning revenue from tourism, coupled with sophisticated government-supported monitoring systems. Wildlife-friendly ranching practices tend to protect even zebras living on private land in Kenya. Plains Zebras will probably not become threatened in these locales, but aerial survey data from Tanzaniasuggests a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s. Elsewhere, Grant’s Zebras and the other subspecies are faring less well. Civil strife in many countries has led to widespread poaching. Continued habitat conversion to agriculture and loss due to development isolate and threaten the demographic and genetic integrity of small populations. In the past Plains Zebras have shown resilience and an ability to bounce back quickly from population reductions. With the establishment of effective management, protection, and monitoring, most Plains Zebrapopulations are likely to survive. Current information on total population size is limited.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 217-246 cm, tail 47-57 cm, shoulder height 127-140 cm; weight 175-320 kg. The Plains Zebrais a muscular horse with a short neck, barrel chest, and sturdy legs. The stripes are variable, but in general they are wide, broader than those of Mountain Zebras (LE. zebra) and Grevy’s Zebras (E. grevyi). Apart from Burchell’s and “Damara” Zebras,stripes cover the flanks and touch under the belly. Stripes on the rump are typically bold and wide in all subspecies except the Damara Zebra, where they are thin and often wavy. In Burchell’s and Damara Zebras, both southern African subspecies, there are often grayish shadow stripes in the center of the white stripes. In all subspecies, males are slightly larger than females and have stripes that are blacker than the browner ones of females.","habitat":"Plains Zebras inhabit tropical, subtropical, and temperate grasslands, steppes, savannas, and woodlands, from sea level to 4300 mon Mount Kenya. Since Plains Zebras need to drink daily, they are restricted to habitats where water can be accessed within half a day’s walk. Only deserts, dense woodlands, and permanent wetlands are avoided."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8155860FF1AAC47ECEDF4E7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8155860FF1AAC47ECEDF4E7","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"142","verbatimText":"6.Grevy’s ZebraEquus grevyiFrench:Zebre de Grévy/ German:Grévy-Zebra/ Spanish:Cebra de GrévyOther common names:Imperial ZebraTaxonomy.Equus grevyi Oustalet, 1882,Ethiopia, Galla Country.Grevy’s Zebrawas described by French zoologist E. Oustalet and named after French President J. Grévy, who received the zebraas a gift from the Abyssinian government. Most DNA analyses agree that Grevy’s Zebrais in the same clade as the Plains Zebra(E.quagga), and the Mountain Zebra(FE. zebra). Most studies also concur that the Mountain Zebrawas the last species in the clade to evolve, but it remains unclear whether Grevy’s Zebraor the Plains Zebraappeared first, because there are so few nucleotide differences between them. The species differ in chromosome number, Grevy’s Zebras having 46 and Plains Zebras 44, but they are so close evolutionarily that fertile hybrids have appeared at the southern edge of the Grevy’s Zebra's range. Monotypic.Distribution.Ethiopiaand C & N Kenya; perhaps also in S Sudan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-275 cm, tail 38-75 cm, shoulder height 140-160 cm; weight 350-450 kg. Grevy’s Zebrais the largest of the equids, with a large head, long face, and elongated nostril openings. Its ears are large and round and can rotate independently in different directions. It has narrow stripes on its face, body, and rump; the stripes on the neck are slightly broader. The belly is white, as is the area around the base of the tail. Its muzzle is distinctively brown. It has an erect mane and the tail is tufted at the tip. Its hooves are large and rounded.Habitat.Grevy’s Zebrainhabits semi-arid grasslands and thornbush scrublands typified by acacias and commiphoras. It does not need to drink daily and lives in habitats intermediate between the arid habitats of the true desert-dwelling African Wild Ass (FE. africanus), and the more water dependant Plains Zebra, which inhabits mesic tropical grasslands. Lactating females stay in the most open areas around water; non-lactating females and territorial males prefer grassy areas with light tree cover. Bachelor males grade into areas of medium or moderate bush, but overall, Grevy’s Zebras avoid densely wooded areas except during periods of extreme drought.Food and Feeding.Grevy’s Zebras are predominantly grazers, but browse can account for up to 30% oftheir diet during drought or when foraging on landscapes degraded by livestock. They move through habitats quickly, taking many steps per bite, selectively choosing certain grass species over others. As a result, when grazing herds of Grevy’s and Plains Zebras form, the herds don’t persist for long, since Grevy’s Zebras simply pass through them. Availability of water and individual water requirements ultimately determine where Grevy’s Zebras can forage. Since non-lactating females can go without water for up to five days, they typically range far from water, seeking out previously well-watered areas with large quantities of vegetation. Lactating females, with their need to produce milk, must drink daily. Thus they remain near water, feeding on closely cropped grazing lawns that offer forage of high nutritive quality even if the amount of available food is limited.Breeding.Grevy’s Zebras can breed year-round, but most births are timed to coincide with the arrival of the long rains that normally fall between April and June. Where Grevy’s Zebras reside, two rainy seasons are expected, since the intertropical convergence zone sweeps across the Equator twice per year. But often one or more of the rains fails. This severely limits the species’ ability to rebound after environmental or anthropogenic shocks. When females are in estrus they typically move through many male territories. Males only mate when on their own territories, and because females rarely stay with one male, Grevy’s Zebramales engage in post-copulatory sperm competition. Therefore, not surprisingly, they have larger testes than the other zebraspecies. To help ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible, when there are no females on their territories, territorial males wander widely in search of bachelor males and aggressively challenge them. By preemptively reinforcing dominance in low-risk settings, territorial males are able to devote more time to mating than to fighting when bachelors invade territories containing many females.Activity patterns.Grevy’s Zebras are opportunists and move great distances in search of food and water. Females and their young, as well as bachelor males, have large home ranges, often moving with the rains to areas where grass is growing or abundant. Territorial males tend to linger on their territories until well after all other zebras have left and only depart when conditions have deteriorated dramatically. During normal dry seasons, when all Grevy’s Zebras are dependent on water, concentrations of males and females develop. Given that Grevy’s Zebras often move 35 kmper day if food and water are widely separated, aggregations tend to split apart and are never very large. Sightings of a few hundred Grevy’s Zebras at a time are rare. Although the availability of food and water determine most movements, predation plays a role. Grevy’s Zebras avoid human settlements during the day because of stresses associated with human activity, but at night settlements are sought as refuges against predators.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Grevy’s Zebras differ socially from the other two species of zebras; they do notlive in closed-membership family groups, or harems. Like the asses, Grevy’s Zebras live in open-membership groups in which the only long-lasting bond is between mothers and their young. Adult females come together at water sources and good grazing sites and continue to travel together as long as their needs can be satisfied. When they cannot, such as when lactating females need to return daily to water and those without young or with older young do not, then the social ties that bind females become severed and groups dissolve. Given that both types of females are sexually active, and males cannot simultaneously associate with both, dominant males instead establish territories adjacent to water. In this way high-status males have mating access to both lactating and non-lactating females whenever they come to water. Less dominant males also establish territories, but in areas of abundant vegetation far from water, where they gain access to the subset of females searching for quality foraging areas. Territories can be as large as 10 km?, the largest of any equid. Males of the lowest rank are unable to maintain territories, so they join bachelor groups. They range widely, grow quickly, and by interacting with many males they improve their fighting ability.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Grevy’s Zebras exist only in the Horn of Africa. According to recent surveys, an estimated 2000-2300 live in Kenya, around 150 inEthiopia, and there may be a few in southern Sudan. Historically Grevy’s Zebras ranged more widely, from Somaliato western Ethiopia, Djbouti, and Eritrea, and from southern Ethiopiasouth tojust north and west of Mount Kenya. Extensive hunting ceased at the start of the 1980s, yet populations of Grevy’s Zebras did not rebound. They are still decreasing and from 1988 to 2007, the global population declined approximately 55%. Increasing competition with the livestock of pastoral herders for water and forage appears to be the culprit. As human populations and their herds grew, water disappeared more quickly than in the past. In addition, the presence of humans and livestock prevented the zebras from accessing drinking sites during the day. Constrained lactation, in addition to greater predation risks associated with night-time drinking, reduced infant and juvenile survival. Since less than 5% of Grevy’s Zebra’s current range is located within protected areas, the best hope for enhancing population growth involves encouraging communities to better manage rangelands, as well as increasing the value of Grevy’s Zebras by training community members to become scouts or ambassadors and hiring them to help monitor Grevy’s Zebrapopulation dynamics and harmful human impacts.Bibliography.Cordingley et al. (2009), Ginsberg & Rubenstein (1990), Groves (2002), Kingdon (1997), Klingel (1974), Low et al. (2009), Moehlman, Rubenstein & Kebede (2008), Rowen & Ginsberg (1992), Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1994), Sundaresan et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Equus grevyi Oustalet, 1882,Ethiopia, Galla Country.Grevy’s Zebrawas described by French zoologist E. Oustalet and named after French President J. Grévy, who received the zebraas a gift from the Abyssinian government. Most DNA analyses agree that Grevy’s Zebrais in the same clade as the Plains Zebra(E.quagga), and the Mountain Zebra(FE. zebra). Most studies also concur that the Mountain Zebrawas the last species in the clade to evolve, but it remains unclear whether Grevy’s Zebraor the Plains Zebraappeared first, because there are so few nucleotide differences between them. The species differ in chromosome number, Grevy’s Zebras having 46 and Plains Zebras 44, but they are so close evolutionarily that fertile hybrids have appeared at the southern edge of the Grevy’s Zebra's range. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Zebre de Grévy @fr | Grévy-Zebra @de | Cebra de Grévy @es | Other common names @en | mperial Zebra @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Oustalet","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1882","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"142","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grevyi","name":"Equus grevyi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Ethiopiaand C & N Kenya; perhaps also in S Sudan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719796/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cordingley et al. (2009) | Ginsberg & Rubenstein (1990) | Groves (2002) | Kingdon (1997) | Klingel (1974) | Low et al. (2009) | Moehlman, Rubenstein & Kebede (2008) | Rowen & Ginsberg (1992) | Rubenstein (1986a, 1986b, 1994) | Sundaresan et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Grevy’s Zebras are predominantly grazers, but browse can account for up to 30% oftheir diet during drought or when foraging on landscapes degraded by livestock. They move through habitats quickly, taking many steps per bite, selectively choosing certain grass species over others. As a result, when grazing herds of Grevy’s and Plains Zebras form, the herds don’t persist for long, since Grevy’s Zebras simply pass through them. Availability of water and individual water requirements ultimately determine where Grevy’s Zebras can forage. Since non-lactating females can go without water for up to five days, they typically range far from water, seeking out previously well-watered areas with large quantities of vegetation. Lactating females, with their need to produce milk, must drink daily. Thus they remain near water, feeding on closely cropped grazing lawns that offer forage of high nutritive quality even if the amount of available food is limited.","breeding":"Grevy’s Zebras can breed year-round, but most births are timed to coincide with the arrival of the long rains that normally fall between April and June. Where Grevy’s Zebras reside, two rainy seasons are expected, since the intertropical convergence zone sweeps across the Equator twice per year. But often one or more of the rains fails. This severely limits the species’ ability to rebound after environmental or anthropogenic shocks. When females are in estrus they typically move through many male territories. Males only mate when on their own territories, and because females rarely stay with one male, Grevy’s Zebramales engage in post-copulatory sperm competition. Therefore, not surprisingly, they have larger testes than the other zebraspecies. To help ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible, when there are no females on their territories, territorial males wander widely in search of bachelor males and aggressively challenge them. By preemptively reinforcing dominance in low-risk settings, territorial males are able to devote more time to mating than to fighting when bachelors invade territories containing many females.","activityPatterns":"Grevy’s Zebras are opportunists and move great distances in search of food and water. Females and their young, as well as bachelor males, have large home ranges, often moving with the rains to areas where grass is growing or abundant. Territorial males tend to linger on their territories until well after all other zebras have left and only depart when conditions have deteriorated dramatically. During normal dry seasons, when all Grevy’s Zebras are dependent on water, concentrations of males and females develop. Given that Grevy’s Zebras often move 35 kmper day if food and water are widely separated, aggregations tend to split apart and are never very large. Sightings of a few hundred Grevy’s Zebras at a time are rare. Although the availability of food and water determine most movements, predation plays a role. Grevy’s Zebras avoid human settlements during the day because of stresses associated with human activity, but at night settlements are sought as refuges against predators.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Grevy’s Zebras differ socially from the other two species of zebras; they do notlive in closed-membership family groups, or harems. Like the asses, Grevy’s Zebras live in open-membership groups in which the only long-lasting bond is between mothers and their young. Adult females come together at water sources and good grazing sites and continue to travel together as long as their needs can be satisfied. When they cannot, such as when lactating females need to return daily to water and those without young or with older young do not, then the social ties that bind females become severed and groups dissolve. Given that both types of females are sexually active, and males cannot simultaneously associate with both, dominant males instead establish territories adjacent to water. In this way high-status males have mating access to both lactating and non-lactating females whenever they come to water. Less dominant males also establish territories, but in areas of abundant vegetation far from water, where they gain access to the subset of females searching for quality foraging areas. Territories can be as large as 10 km?, the largest of any equid. Males of the lowest rank are unable to maintain territories, so they join bachelor groups. They range widely, grow quickly, and by interacting with many males they improve their fighting ability.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Grevy’s Zebras exist only in the Horn of Africa. According to recent surveys, an estimated 2000-2300 live in Kenya, around 150 inEthiopia, and there may be a few in southern Sudan. Historically Grevy’s Zebras ranged more widely, from Somaliato western Ethiopia, Djbouti, and Eritrea, and from southern Ethiopiasouth tojust north and west of Mount Kenya. Extensive hunting ceased at the start of the 1980s, yet populations of Grevy’s Zebras did not rebound. They are still decreasing and from 1988 to 2007, the global population declined approximately 55%. Increasing competition with the livestock of pastoral herders for water and forage appears to be the culprit. As human populations and their herds grew, water disappeared more quickly than in the past. In addition, the presence of humans and livestock prevented the zebras from accessing drinking sites during the day. Constrained lactation, in addition to greater predation risks associated with night-time drinking, reduced infant and juvenile survival. Since less than 5% of Grevy’s Zebra’s current range is located within protected areas, the best hope for enhancing population growth involves encouraging communities to better manage rangelands, as well as increasing the value of Grevy’s Zebras by training community members to become scouts or ambassadors and hiring them to help monitor Grevy’s Zebrapopulation dynamics and harmful human impacts.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 250-275 cm, tail 38-75 cm, shoulder height 140-160 cm; weight 350-450 kg. Grevy’s Zebrais the largest of the equids, with a large head, long face, and elongated nostril openings. Its ears are large and round and can rotate independently in different directions. It has narrow stripes on its face, body, and rump; the stripes on the neck are slightly broader. The belly is white, as is the area around the base of the tail. Its muzzle is distinctively brown. It has an erect mane and the tail is tufted at the tip. Its hooves are large and rounded.","habitat":"Grevy’s Zebrainhabits semi-arid grasslands and thornbush scrublands typified by acacias and commiphoras. It does not need to drink daily and lives in habitats intermediate between the arid habitats of the true desert-dwelling African Wild Ass (FE. africanus), and the more water dependant Plains Zebra, which inhabits mesic tropical grasslands. Lactating females stay in the most open areas around water; non-lactating females and territorial males prefer grassy areas with light tree cover. Bachelor males grade into areas of medium or moderate bush, but overall, Grevy’s Zebras avoid densely wooded areas except during periods of extreme drought."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B0/E5/03B0E520E8155863FA60A155ED43F996.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B0E520E8155863FA60A155ED43F996","docName":"hbmw_2_Equidae_0106.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff899d58e8105865ffdbaa21eb53ffd7","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"142","verbatimText":"7.Mountain ZebraEquus zebraFrench:Zebre de montagne/ German:Bergzebra/ Spanish:Cebrade montanaOther common names:CapeMountain Zebra(zebra), Hartmann's Mountain Zebra(hartmannae)Taxonomy.Equus zebra Linnaeus, 1758,South Africa, south-western Cape Province.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.z.zebraLinnaeus,1758—SSouthAfrica(S&WedgeofthecentralplateauintheEasternandWesternCapeProvinces).E. z. hartmannae Matschie, 1898— W Namibia(mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the Namibian central plateau); possibly in SW Angola.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-260 cm, tail 40-55 cm, shoulder height 115-150 cm; weight 240-380 kg. The Mountain Zebracan be distinguished from other zebraspecies by the dewlap under its neck. The pattern of striping is also intermediate between the other two species. The stripes are half as wide as and more numerous than those of Plains Zebras (FE. quagga) and the belly is white as in Grevy’s Zebras (FE. grevyi). Mountain Zebras have a “waffle-iron” pattern on the rump near the root of the tail. On the rump, the narrow stripes change to broad and bold stripes, more like those of “Grant’s Zebra” (E. boehmi). The “ CapeMountain Zebra” is smaller than “Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra” and it has slightly wider stripes.Habitat.As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.Food and Feeding.Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola. Habitat conversion to agriculture, competition with domestic livestock, hunting, and persecution are the main threats facing Mountain Zebras. Crossbreeding between the two subspecies is considered a potential threat in South Africa, where both subspecies occur,since this would mix and disrupt the genetic diversity of the species. Crossbreeding with Plains Zebras is also a potential threat just asit is for Grevy’s Zebras. CapeMountain Zebras suffered devastating declines because of trophy hunting and land conversion to agriculture in South Africaduring the 19\" and early 20™ centuries. By the 1930s they were on the brink of extinction—a 1937 census countedjust 45 individuals. Since the establishment of national parks in the locations where the few surviving individuals remained, the population has increased to around 1400. CapeMountain Zebras now live in 17 provincial nature reserves and national parks, the largest being the Addo Elephant and the CapePeninsula National Parks. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebraalso suffered massive population declines during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily due to persecution from an expanding livestock industry. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras continue to come into conflict with livestock farmers, particularly during drought years when resources are in short supply. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebrais a protected species in Namibiaand any use requires permits. The Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism therefore has encouraged the commercial use of Mountain Zebras to provide an incentive for promoting tolerance. Numbers are increasing on communal land and overall numbers are in the range of 30,000. Today, populations are isolated, inhabiting the Mkambati and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserves, Amaqwati Tribal Resource Area, and Richtersveld National Park. The animals are also present on numerous private estates in the Northern and Eastern CapeProvinces of South Africa, as well as in fenced, protected areas, and game farms in Namibia.Bibliography.Kingdon (1997), Lloyd (1984), Millar (1970a, 1970b), Novellie (2008), Novellie et al (2002), Penzhorn (1975).","taxonomy":"Equus zebra Linnaeus, 1758,South Africa, south-western Cape Province.Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Zebre de montagne @fr | Bergzebra @de | Cebrade montana @es | Cebra @es | Cape Mountain Zebra(zebra) @en | Hartmann's Mountain Zebra(hartmannae) @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Equidae","interpretedGenus":"Equus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Perissodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"142","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zebra","name":"Equus zebra","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.z.zebraLinnaeus,1758—SSouthAfrica(S&WedgeofthecentralplateauintheEasternandWesternCapeProvinces).E. z. hartmannae Matschie, 1898— W Namibia(mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the Namibian central plateau); possibly in SW Angola.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5719798/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Kingdon (1997) | Lloyd (1984) | Millar (1970a, 1970b) | Novellie (2008) | Novellie et al (2002) | Penzhorn (1975)","foodAndFeeding":"Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.","breeding":"Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.","activityPatterns":"Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola. Habitat conversion to agriculture, competition with domestic livestock, hunting, and persecution are the main threats facing Mountain Zebras. Crossbreeding between the two subspecies is considered a potential threat in South Africa, where both subspecies occur,since this would mix and disrupt the genetic diversity of the species. Crossbreeding with Plains Zebras is also a potential threat just asit is for Grevy’s Zebras. CapeMountain Zebras suffered devastating declines because of trophy hunting and land conversion to agriculture in South Africaduring the 19\" and early 20™ centuries. By the 1930s they were on the brink of extinction—a 1937 census countedjust 45 individuals. Since the establishment of national parks in the locations where the few surviving individuals remained, the population has increased to around 1400. CapeMountain Zebras now live in 17 provincial nature reserves and national parks, the largest being the Addo Elephant and the CapePeninsula National Parks. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebraalso suffered massive population declines during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily due to persecution from an expanding livestock industry. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras continue to come into conflict with livestock farmers, particularly during drought years when resources are in short supply. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebrais a protected species in Namibiaand any use requires permits. The Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism therefore has encouraged the commercial use of Mountain Zebras to provide an incentive for promoting tolerance. Numbers are increasing on communal land and overall numbers are in the range of 30,000. Today, populations are isolated, inhabiting the Mkambati and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserves, Amaqwati Tribal Resource Area, and Richtersveld National Park. The animals are also present on numerous private estates in the Northern and Eastern CapeProvinces of South Africa, as well as in fenced, protected areas, and game farms in Namibia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-260 cm, tail 40-55 cm, shoulder height 115-150 cm; weight 240-380 kg. The Mountain Zebracan be distinguished from other zebraspecies by the dewlap under its neck. The pattern of striping is also intermediate between the other two species. The stripes are half as wide as and more numerous than those of Plains Zebras (FE. quagga) and the belly is white as in Grevy’s Zebras (FE. grevyi). Mountain Zebras have a “waffle-iron” pattern on the rump near the root of the tail. On the rump, the narrow stripes change to broad and bold stripes, more like those of “Grant’s Zebra” (E. boehmi). The “ CapeMountain Zebra” is smaller than “Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra” and it has slightly wider stripes.Habitat.As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist.Food and Feeding.Mountain Zebras eat mostly grass, although browse in the form of leaves and bark is occasionally consumed. Mountain Zebras generally drink twice per day.Breeding.Births occur throughout the year, with peaks in December—January for CapeMountain Zebras and in November—April for Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras. Females give birth to a single young every 1-3 years, after a gestation period of approximately one year. The young are weaned at around ten months and leave the natal group at 1-3 years of age. Males are capable of establishing and holding a harem at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.Mountain Zebras are most active in the morning and in the late afternoon until sunset. They remain inactive during the middle of the day and seek shelter from the heat when possible. Individuals feed for more than half the daylight hours. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have a grazing area of 6-20 km* during winter and considerably smaller areas in the summer. Their home ranges are thought to be around 3-16 km?*.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Zebras generally live in small permanent membership groups with overlapping home ranges. Most groups contain a single stallion and 1-5 mares with their young. Sometimes groups join to form temporary herds of 30 or more individuals. Stallions can maintain haremsfor more than 15 years, but they are usually driven out by younger males before then. Bachelor groups are composed of both young males and old stallions that have lost their groups. There is a strict hierarchy amongst males in bachelor groups, and between females in breeding groups.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (zebra) and Appendix II (hartmannae). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Mountain Zebras ranged from southern South Africathrough Namibiato extreme south-western Angola.","habitat":"As its name implies, the Mountain Zebrainhabits slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas. CapeMountain Zebras are found up to 2000 min the summer. Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras sometimes are found on salt flats. In the recent past they were commonly found in the bushy karoo upland shrub where summer droughts were compensated for by night-time dew and mist."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B28FFBEFAA37CACF7E58B01.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B28FFBEFAA37CACF7E58B01","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"543","verbatimText":"6.Harbor PorpoisePhocoena phocoenaFrench:Marsouin commun/ German:Schweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa comunOther common names:Common Porpoise, Sea-hog, Sea-pig; Atlantic Harbor Porpoise, North Atlantic Harbor Porpoise (phocoena); Black Sea Harbor Porpoise (relicta); Eastern North Pacific Harbor Porpoise, Eastern Pacific Harbor Porpoise (vomerina)Taxonomy.Delphinus phocaena Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Oceano Europao & Balthico” (= Baltic Sea, “Swedish Seas”).In addition to the subspecies listed below, there is also an unnamed subspecies recognized from the western North Pacific Ocean. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.p.phocoenaLinnaeus,1758—coastalwatersoftheNAtlanticOcean.P.p.relictaAbel,1905—coastalwatersoftheBlackSea,theAzovandMarmaraseas(isolatedpopulation).AfewstragglersfromthispopulationshowupperiodicallyintheAegeanSea,buttheydonotoccurthroughoutmostoftheMediterraneanSea.P.p. vomerina Gill, 1865— coastal waters of the NE Pacific Ocean.A still unnamed form is present in the coastal waters of the NW Pacific Ocean.Descriptive notes.Total length 130-200 cm; weight 45-75 kg. Harbor Porpoises are small cetaceans, growing to a maximum length of only ¢.200 cm. Most adults are less than 180 cm long. Body is robust, with small appendages. There are small tubercles (or denticles) on the leading edge of the dorsal fin and sometimes also on flippers. Beak is very short and poorly defined, and dorsalfin is low, triangular, and wide-based. Color pattern is somewhat bland at first appearance, but it is actually more complex when analyzed in detail. Body is generally counter-shaded, with a dark gray back and white belly. Generally, dark and pale regions blend into each other, but margins between the two are often splotchy and streaked. Appendages are all dark, and there is a dark stripe running from gape to flipper, and there are also dark streaks on the lower jaw. There is a great deal of individual variation in color pattern, but no obvious differences among different populations have been identified. Thirty-four records of anomalously white individuals (three patterns have been observed, some perhaps albinos) have been recorded in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Newborns have a muted color pattern, generally of subdued tones of dark and pale gray. Tooth counts generally are 19-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby. Habitat of the Harbor Porpoise is cool temperate to subpolar waters, generally with low water temperatures.Food and Feeding.Harbor Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, although their main prey appears to vary on regional and seasonal scales. In the North Atlantic, they feed primarily on clupeoids and gadoids, while in the North Pacific, they prey largely on engraulids and scorpaenids. They eat a wide variety offish and cephalopods, although the diet in any specific area may be dominated by just a few species. Harbor Porpoises feed heavily on small schooling fish that occur in the water column, such as herring and sprat (Clupeidae), capelin (Mallotus), hake (Merluccius), and mackerel (Scomber, Scombridae); they also consume market squid (Loligo) in some areas. Although many of these prey species occur in the water column, many of the other prey species are benthic or demersal. Benthic invertebrates are sometimes also consumed, but these are generally considered to be secondarily ingested. In the north-eastern Atlantic, there has apparently been a long-term shift from predation on declining stocks of clupeid fish (mainly herring, Clupea harengus) to sand lance (Ammodytidae) and gadoid fish.Breeding.Reproductive biology of the Harbor Porpoise has been studied more extensively than for any other member of the family, due to the large number of specimens that have been available from strandings and incidental catches in fisheries. Mating system of the Harbor Porpoise is thought to be promiscuous. Anatomical evidence (Harbor Porpoises have some of the largest testes relative to body mass of any mammal species) has for some time suggested that sperm competition may be the primary way that males compete to inseminate females. Recent behavioral observations of Harbor Porpoises in the San Francisco Bay area (USA) appear to support this idea. Young are typically born in April-August (late spring through mid-summer), after gestation of ¢.10-11 months. Offspring are weaned before they reach one year of age. Sexual maturity occurs at 3—4 years of age and lengths of 120-150 cm. There is geographic variation in these parameters among different populations, and densitydependent variation has also been documented. Harbor Porpoises regularly interbreed and produce hybrids with Dall’s Porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) in the inshore waters of the Pacific Northwest (Washington State, USA and southern British Columbia, Canada) and occasionally elsewhere where the two species are sympatric. It is virtually always the case that the mother is a Dall’s Porpoise and the father is a Harbor Porpoise, and this is what would be predicted, based on their respective mating systems (Dall’s are considered polygynous, with males apparently not using sperm competition, but guarding females to prevent insemination by other males). Harbor Porpoiseslive into their 20s, although in some areas most individuals may die before they reach twelve years of age.Activity patterns.Harbor Porpoises are shy and unobtrusive animals, with a low surfacing profile and not a great deal of aerial behavior. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and in many cases, they appear to actively avoid motorized vessels. There are exceptions to this, and at least in the San Francisco Bay area, they may be more approachable. These individuals sometimes lie nearly motionless at the surface for several seconds, and it is not clear why they do this. The typical surfacing pattern is a slow roll, in which the individual does not create any splash. At times, they do move faster and surface with a sloppy splash (this is called “pop-splashing,” and the splash looks very different from the more V-shaped splash of a rooster-tailing Dall’s Porpoise). Diving behavior of Harbor Porpoises has been studied with time-depth recording tags. Although most dives last less than one minute, Harbor Porpoises have been found to be capable of diving to depths of at least 220 m and for periods of more than five minutes.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Singles or small groups of less than a half-dozen Harbor Porpoises are most commonly seen, although they do aggregate, at times, into loose groupings of 50 to several hundred individuals. This occurs mostly when feeding on an aggregated food source or during migration, and these large groups generally have little structure. Movement patterns of individual Harbor Porpoises are not very well known, but it is known that they are capable of large-scale movements of many hundreds to thousands of kilometers. On the other hand, repeated sightings of identifiable individuals in San Francisco Bay show that some populations may have more limited movements. Not much is known about social organization of Harbor Porpoises, but most bonds outside the mother—offspring pair appear to be weak, and there do not seem to be any other long-term associations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List. The subspecies relictais classified as Endangered, and the Baltic Sea population, which only numbers ¢.500-600 individuals,is classified as Critically Endangered. Other subspecies have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. There has been a long and somewhat tragic history of human interactions with Harbor Porpoises. Hunting has occurred in many different parts ofits distribution, especially in northern European waters. Major hunts have occurred in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Bay of Fundy, and in the waters off western Greenland (the latter is still active). Many of these caused depletion of local populations. More recently, bycatch from fisheries, especially in various forms of gillnets or trammel nets, has been responsible for threatening existence of populations throughout the distribution of the Harbor Porpoise. The largest mortality has occurred in fisheries in the Gulf of Maine, western Greenland, North Sea, and Celtic Shelf, but smaller kills have occurred almost everywhere the Harbor Porpoise occurs. It is believed that Harbor Porpoises can normally detect gillnets at distances necessary to avoid entanglement, but accidents may happen due to attention shifts or auditory masking. Use of acoustic alarms (“pingers”) and other mitigation measures have managed to reduce mortality in many areas, but the only way to eliminate bycatch completely is to eliminate gillnets. Catches of Harbor Porpoises in trawls, set nets, herring weirs, pound nets, cod traps, and even anti-submarine nets have also been documented and have taken their toll. Other threats include detrimental effects of environmental contaminants, vessel traffic, anthropogenic noise impacts, prey depletion, and habitat deterioration or destruction. The Harbor Porpoise is not rare and not endangered. Globally, there may be more than 675,000 Harbor Porpoises. Nevertheless, particular populations in many areas have been impacted by human activities and quite a few of these are indeed threatened and in need of protection.Bibliography.Amano (1996), Andersen et al. (2001), Barlow & Hanan (1995), Berggren & Wang (2008), Bjerge (2003), Bjerge & Tolley (2009), Borrell et al. (2007), Carretta et al. (2001), Caswell et al. (1998), Dahlheim et al. (2000), Fontaine & Barrette (1997), Forney (1999), Frantzis et al. (2001), Goodson & Sturtivant (1996), Haelters et al. (2012), Hammond et al. (2002), Heide-Jergensen & Lockyer (1999), Jepson et al. (2005), Keener et al. (2011), Kompanje & van Leeuwen (2009), Koschinski (2002), Larrat et al. (2012), Larsen (1997), Lockyer (2003), Lockyer & Andreasen (2004), Lockyer & Kinze (2003), McLellan et al. (2002), Nielsen et al. (2012), Northridge (1996), Palka (2008), Read (1999b), Read & Hohn (1995), Read & Westgate (1997), Rosel (1997), Rosel et al. (2003), Schofield et al. (2008), Siebert et al. (2006), Sonntag et al. (1999), Stenson (2003), Teilmann (2003), Thomsen et al. (2007), Tolley & Rosel (2006), Tonay et al. (2012), Verfuld et al. (2007), Viaud-Martinez et al. (2007), Westgate & Read (1998), Westgate & Tolley (1999), Westgate, Read, Berggren et al. (1995), Westgate, Read, Cox et al. (1998), Willis et al. (2004), Woodley (1995).","taxonomy":"Delphinus phocaena Linnaeus, 1758, “Habitat in Oceano Europao & Balthico” (= Baltic Sea, “Swedish Seas”).In addition to the subspecies listed below, there is also an unnamed subspecies recognized from the western North Pacific Ocean. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Marsouin commun @fr | Schweinswal @de | Marsopa comun @es | Common Porpoise @en | Sea-hog @en | Sea-pig; Atlantic Harbor Porpoise @en | North Atlantic Harbor Porpoise (phocoena); Black Sea Harbor Porpoise (relicta); Eastern North Pacific Harbor Porpoise @en | Eastern Pacific Harbor Porpoise (vomerina) @en","interpretedAuthority":"phocoena","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Phocoena","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"543","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"phocoena","name":"Phocoena phocoena","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.p.phocoenaLinnaeus,1758—coastalwatersoftheNAtlanticOcean.P.p.relictaAbel,1905—coastalwatersoftheBlackSea,theAzovandMarmaraseas(isolatedpopulation).AfewstragglersfromthispopulationshowupperiodicallyintheAegeanSea,buttheydonotoccurthroughoutmostoftheMediterraneanSea.P.p. vomerina Gill, 1865— coastal waters of the NE Pacific Ocean.A still unnamed form is present in the coastal waters of the NW Pacific Ocean.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6607341/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amano (1996) | Andersen et al. (2001) | Barlow & Hanan (1995) | Berggren & Wang (2008) | Bjerge (2003) | Bjerge & Tolley (2009) | Borrell et al. (2007) | Carretta et al. (2001) | Caswell et al. (1998) | Dahlheim et al. (2000) | Fontaine & Barrette (1997) | Forney (1999) | Frantzis et al. (2001) | Goodson & Sturtivant (1996) | Haelters et al. (2012) | Hammond et al. (2002) | Heide-Jergensen & Lockyer (1999) | Jepson et al. (2005) | Keener et al. (2011) | Kompanje & van Leeuwen (2009) | Koschinski (2002) | Larrat et al. (2012) | Larsen (1997) | Lockyer (2003) | Lockyer & Andreasen (2004) | Lockyer & Kinze (2003) | McLellan et al. (2002) | Nielsen et al. (2012) | Northridge (1996) | Palka (2008) | Read (1999b) | Read & Hohn (1995) | Read & Westgate (1997) | Rosel (1997) | Rosel et al. (2003) | Schofield et al. (2008) | Siebert et al. (2006) | Sonntag et al. (1999) | Stenson (2003) | Teilmann (2003) | Thomsen et al. (2007) | Tolley & Rosel (2006) | Tonay et al. (2012) | Verfuld et al. (2007) | Viaud-Martinez et al. (2007) | Westgate & Read (1998) | Westgate & Tolley (1999) | Westgate, Read, Berggren et al. (1995) | Westgate, Read, Cox et al. (1998) | Willis et al. (2004) | Woodley (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"Harbor Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, although their main prey appears to vary on regional and seasonal scales. In the North Atlantic, they feed primarily on clupeoids and gadoids, while in the North Pacific, they prey largely on engraulids and scorpaenids. They eat a wide variety offish and cephalopods, although the diet in any specific area may be dominated by just a few species. Harbor Porpoises feed heavily on small schooling fish that occur in the water column, such as herring and sprat (Clupeidae), capelin (Mallotus), hake (Merluccius), and mackerel (Scomber, Scombridae); they also consume market squid (Loligo) in some areas. Although many of these prey species occur in the water column, many of the other prey species are benthic or demersal. Benthic invertebrates are sometimes also consumed, but these are generally considered to be secondarily ingested. In the north-eastern Atlantic, there has apparently been a long-term shift from predation on declining stocks of clupeid fish (mainly herring, Clupea harengus) to sand lance (Ammodytidae) and gadoid fish.","breeding":"Reproductive biology of the Harbor Porpoise has been studied more extensively than for any other member of the family, due to the large number of specimens that have been available from strandings and incidental catches in fisheries. Mating system of the Harbor Porpoise is thought to be promiscuous. Anatomical evidence (Harbor Porpoises have some of the largest testes relative to body mass of any mammal species) has for some time suggested that sperm competition may be the primary way that males compete to inseminate females. Recent behavioral observations of Harbor Porpoises in the San Francisco Bay area (USA) appear to support this idea. Young are typically born in April-August (late spring through mid-summer), after gestation of ¢.10-11 months. Offspring are weaned before they reach one year of age. Sexual maturity occurs at 3—4 years of age and lengths of 120-150 cm. There is geographic variation in these parameters among different populations, and densitydependent variation has also been documented. Harbor Porpoises regularly interbreed and produce hybrids with Dall’s Porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) in the inshore waters of the Pacific Northwest (Washington State, USA and southern British Columbia, Canada) and occasionally elsewhere where the two species are sympatric. It is virtually always the case that the mother is a Dall’s Porpoise and the father is a Harbor Porpoise, and this is what would be predicted, based on their respective mating systems (Dall’s are considered polygynous, with males apparently not using sperm competition, but guarding females to prevent insemination by other males). Harbor Porpoiseslive into their 20s, although in some areas most individuals may die before they reach twelve years of age.","activityPatterns":"Harbor Porpoises are shy and unobtrusive animals, with a low surfacing profile and not a great deal of aerial behavior. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and in many cases, they appear to actively avoid motorized vessels. There are exceptions to this, and at least in the San Francisco Bay area, they may be more approachable. These individuals sometimes lie nearly motionless at the surface for several seconds, and it is not clear why they do this. The typical surfacing pattern is a slow roll, in which the individual does not create any splash. At times, they do move faster and surface with a sloppy splash (this is called “pop-splashing,” and the splash looks very different from the more V-shaped splash of a rooster-tailing Dall’s Porpoise). Diving behavior of Harbor Porpoises has been studied with time-depth recording tags. Although most dives last less than one minute, Harbor Porpoises have been found to be capable of diving to depths of at least 220 m and for periods of more than five minutes.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Singles or small groups of less than a half-dozen Harbor Porpoises are most commonly seen, although they do aggregate, at times, into loose groupings of 50 to several hundred individuals. This occurs mostly when feeding on an aggregated food source or during migration, and these large groups generally have little structure. Movement patterns of individual Harbor Porpoises are not very well known, but it is known that they are capable of large-scale movements of many hundreds to thousands of kilometers. On the other hand, repeated sightings of identifiable individuals in San Francisco Bay show that some populations may have more limited movements. Not much is known about social organization of Harbor Porpoises, but most bonds outside the mother—offspring pair appear to be weak, and there do not seem to be any other long-term associations.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List. The subspecies relictais classified as Endangered, and the Baltic Sea population, which only numbers ¢.500-600 individuals,is classified as Critically Endangered. Other subspecies have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. There has been a long and somewhat tragic history of human interactions with Harbor Porpoises. Hunting has occurred in many different parts ofits distribution, especially in northern European waters. Major hunts have occurred in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Bay of Fundy, and in the waters off western Greenland (the latter is still active). Many of these caused depletion of local populations. More recently, bycatch from fisheries, especially in various forms of gillnets or trammel nets, has been responsible for threatening existence of populations throughout the distribution of the Harbor Porpoise. The largest mortality has occurred in fisheries in the Gulf of Maine, western Greenland, North Sea, and Celtic Shelf, but smaller kills have occurred almost everywhere the Harbor Porpoise occurs. It is believed that Harbor Porpoises can normally detect gillnets at distances necessary to avoid entanglement, but accidents may happen due to attention shifts or auditory masking. Use of acoustic alarms (“pingers”) and other mitigation measures have managed to reduce mortality in many areas, but the only way to eliminate bycatch completely is to eliminate gillnets. Catches of Harbor Porpoises in trawls, set nets, herring weirs, pound nets, cod traps, and even anti-submarine nets have also been documented and have taken their toll. Other threats include detrimental effects of environmental contaminants, vessel traffic, anthropogenic noise impacts, prey depletion, and habitat deterioration or destruction. The Harbor Porpoise is not rare and not endangered. Globally, there may be more than 675,000 Harbor Porpoises. Nevertheless, particular populations in many areas have been impacted by human activities and quite a few of these are indeed threatened and in need of protection.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 130-200 cm; weight 45-75 kg. Harbor Porpoises are small cetaceans, growing to a maximum length of only ¢.200 cm. Most adults are less than 180 cm long. Body is robust, with small appendages. There are small tubercles (or denticles) on the leading edge of the dorsal fin and sometimes also on flippers. Beak is very short and poorly defined, and dorsalfin is low, triangular, and wide-based. Color pattern is somewhat bland at first appearance, but it is actually more complex when analyzed in detail. Body is generally counter-shaded, with a dark gray back and white belly. Generally, dark and pale regions blend into each other, but margins between the two are often splotchy and streaked. Appendages are all dark, and there is a dark stripe running from gape to flipper, and there are also dark streaks on the lower jaw. There is a great deal of individual variation in color pattern, but no obvious differences among different populations have been identified. Thirty-four records of anomalously white individuals (three patterns have been observed, some perhaps albinos) have been recorded in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Newborns have a muted color pattern, generally of subdued tones of dark and pale gray. Tooth counts generally are 19-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby.","habitat":"Shallow waters throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, over the continental shelf, and usually near shore, although Harbor Porpoises may travel quite far from shore in some places and have been recorded in deep waters between land masses. They may also occur in deep waters in some inshore regions, such as in south-eastern Alaska, but only where there are shallow waters nearby. Habitat of the Harbor Porpoise is cool temperate to subpolar waters, generally with low water temperatures."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B28FFBFFFA97DBDF6F08C43.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B28FFBFFFA97DBDF6F08C43","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"543","verbatimText":"5.VaquitaPhocoena sinusFrench:Marsouin de Californie/ German:Kalifornien-Schweinswal/ Spanish:Vaquita marinaOther common names:Cochito, Gulf of California Porpoise, Gulf PorpoiseTaxonomy.Phocoena sinus Norris & McFarland, 1958, “from the northeast shore of Punta San Felipe, Baja California Norte, Gulf of California, Mexico.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Gulf of California (also called the Sea of Cortez) in N Mexico, the smallest known distribution of any marine cetacean.Descriptive notes.Total length 120-150 cm; weight 30-48 kg. Few fresh specimens of the Vaquita have been measured fully and weighed. Dorsalfin is relatively tall for a porpoise ofthis genus (up to 15 cm, or c.10% ofthe total body length). Head is blunt, with little or no beak, as in other species of the genus. General body color is dark brownish-gray on back, fading to pale gray or white on belly. There are black patches around eyes and around lips. There is also a darker chin-to-flipper stripe. Neonates are born darker than adults and gradually get paler in color as they age. Tooth counts generally are 16-22 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Very specific habitat in the northern Gulf of California, although there are some suggestions the distribution of the Vaquita may have extended somewhatfarther south in the past, before it was badly depleted by gillnet fishing. The current range of the Vaquita is characterized by moderately shallow waters (mostly less than 40 m deep) just south of the mouth of the Colorado River. These waters are murky and sedimentladen. They are biologically very productive, with high chlorophyll levels, and can reach very high temperatures in summer and autumn.Food and Feeding.The Vaquita appears to be an opportunistic feeder, eating a variety of small benthic and demersal fish species. Some cephalopods and crustaceans are also eaten. Although only a handful of stomachs have been examined to determine feeding habits, the Vaquita appears to feed mostly on several species of grunts and croakers (Sciaenidae). They also occasionally feed on squid (e.g. Lolliguncula).Breeding.Very little is known about reproduction of the Vaquita because there has only been a single study (using small samples) of its life history. Porpoises, in general, reach sexual maturity at 3-6 years of age, and females appear to give birth every other year (unusual for porpoises that usually have annual reproduction). Gestation is ¢.10-11 months. Breeding of the Vaquita appears to be strongly seasonal, with most births occurring in March-April. The oldest known Vaquita was 21 years old, but they may sometimes live a bit beyond this age.Activity patterns.There have been no detailed studies of the behavior of the Vaquita, and all that has been learned comes from opportunistic sightings or those that occurred during other types of studies. Vaquitas are generally considered to be elusive and difficult to approach. They have a low, cryptic surfacing pattern that generally does not produce any splash or visible blow. They tend to stay many hundreds of meters away from large, motorized vessels, but they may occasionally approach smaller, idling vessels. When foraging, they generally surface 3-5 times and then perform a longer dive that may last several minutes. Their surfacing behavior is very unpredictable. They do not ride bow waves of boats and have never been observed breaching or performing other aerial displays.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Essentially nothing is known of individual movements or home range patterns of Vaquitas because specimens have never been tagged. Photo-identification of individuals is possible, and although it has not been used much to date, such studies in the future may shed some light on this issue. Porpoises are generally observed alone or in small groups of 2-4 individuals (often consisting of several mother—offspring pairs). Vaquitas occasionally gather into large foraging aggregations that may consist of up to ten or more individuals, but these groups havelittle or no cohesion. These aggregations are presumably related to good feeding opportunities.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Vaquita is also listed as endangered on nationallegislation in Mexico and the USA. It is currently considered by many to be the most endangered marine mammal species in the world. The entire population of the Vaquita was estimated at 245 individuals in 2008, and this represents a nearly 8% annual decline in numbers estimated by the same methods in 1997. If this decline has continued, then the Vaquita would number less than 200 individuals in 2013. There are a number of potential threats, but only entanglement in gillnets has been documented as the definite cause of death for most specimens examined. Until recently, the major culprit was the fishery for totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi, a sea bass found in the northern Gulf of California), but in the last couple of decades, other gillnetfisheries have become more prominent within the distribution of the Vaquita. Targets of these fisheries include several species of finfish, sharks, rays, and in particular shrimps. The Mexican government has embarked on an ambitious program to save the Vaquita, involving elimination of gillnetfishing within its distribution. New fishing gear (mini trawl nets) has been developed to replace gillnets that cause most mortality, but implementation has been slow. Mortality in gillnets continues, and it 1s uncertain whether it can be reduced to insignificant levels in time to save the Vaquita—the next 5-10 years will be critical. The new presidential administration in Mexico appears to be genuinely supportive of conservation of the Vaquita.Bibliography.Barlow et al. (2010), D'/Agrosa et al. (2000), Gerrodette & Rojas-Bracho (2011), Gerrodette et al. (2011), Jaramillo-Legorreta (2008), Jaramillo-Legorreta, Rojas-Bracho, Brownell et al. (2007), Jaramillo-Legor reta, Rojas-Bracho & Gerrodette (1999), Jefferson & Curry (1994), Jefferson, Olson et al. (2009), Ortega-Ortiz et al. (2000), Rojas-Bracho & Fueyo (2010), Rojas-Bracho & Jaramillo-Legorreta (2009), Rojas-Bracho & Reeves (2013), Rojas-Bracho & Taylor (1999), Rojas-Bracho et al. (2006), Silber (1990, 1991), Silber & Norris (1991), Silber et al. (1994), Taylor & Rojas-Bracho (1999), Vidal (1990), Villa-Ramirez et al. (1993).","taxonomy":"Phocoena sinus Norris & McFarland, 1958, “from the northeast shore of Punta San Felipe, Baja California Norte, Gulf of California, Mexico.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Marsouin de Californie @fr | Kalifornien-Schweinswal @de | Vaquita marina @es | Cochito @en | Gulf of California Porpoise @en | Gulf Porpoise @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Norris & McFarland","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1958","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Phocoena","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"543","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sinus","name":"Phocoena sinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Gulf of California (also called the Sea of Cortez) in N Mexico, the smallest known distribution of any marine cetacean.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6607339/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Barlow et al. (2010) | D'/Agrosa et al. (2000) | Gerrodette & Rojas-Bracho (2011) | Gerrodette et al. (2011) | Jaramillo-Legorreta (2008) | Jaramillo-Legorreta, Rojas-Bracho, Brownell et al. (2007) | Jaramillo-Legor reta, Rojas-Bracho & Gerrodette (1999) | Jefferson & Curry (1994) | Jefferson, Olson et al. (2009) | Ortega-Ortiz et al. (2000) | Rojas-Bracho & Fueyo (2010) | Rojas-Bracho & Jaramillo-Legorreta (2009) | Rojas-Bracho & Reeves (2013) | Rojas-Bracho & Taylor (1999) | Rojas-Bracho et al. (2006) | Silber (1990, 1991) | Silber & Norris (1991) | Silber et al. (1994) | Taylor & Rojas-Bracho (1999) | Vidal (1990) | Villa-Ramirez et al. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"The Vaquita appears to be an opportunistic feeder, eating a variety of small benthic and demersal fish species. Some cephalopods and crustaceans are also eaten. Although only a handful of stomachs have been examined to determine feeding habits, the Vaquita appears to feed mostly on several species of grunts and croakers (Sciaenidae). They also occasionally feed on squid (e.g. Lolliguncula).","breeding":"Very little is known about reproduction of the Vaquita because there has only been a single study (using small samples) of its life history. Porpoises, in general, reach sexual maturity at 3-6 years of age, and females appear to give birth every other year (unusual for porpoises that usually have annual reproduction). Gestation is ¢.10-11 months. Breeding of the Vaquita appears to be strongly seasonal, with most births occurring in March-April. The oldest known Vaquita was 21 years old, but they may sometimes live a bit beyond this age.","activityPatterns":"There have been no detailed studies of the behavior of the Vaquita, and all that has been learned comes from opportunistic sightings or those that occurred during other types of studies. Vaquitas are generally considered to be elusive and difficult to approach. They have a low, cryptic surfacing pattern that generally does not produce any splash or visible blow. They tend to stay many hundreds of meters away from large, motorized vessels, but they may occasionally approach smaller, idling vessels. When foraging, they generally surface 3-5 times and then perform a longer dive that may last several minutes. Their surfacing behavior is very unpredictable. They do not ride bow waves of boats and have never been observed breaching or performing other aerial displays.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Essentially nothing is known of individual movements or home range patterns of Vaquitas because specimens have never been tagged. Photo-identification of individuals is possible, and although it has not been used much to date, such studies in the future may shed some light on this issue. Porpoises are generally observed alone or in small groups of 2-4 individuals (often consisting of several mother—offspring pairs). Vaquitas occasionally gather into large foraging aggregations that may consist of up to ten or more individuals, but these groups havelittle or no cohesion. These aggregations are presumably related to good feeding opportunities.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Vaquita is also listed as endangered on nationallegislation in Mexico and the USA. It is currently considered by many to be the most endangered marine mammal species in the world. The entire population of the Vaquita was estimated at 245 individuals in 2008, and this represents a nearly 8% annual decline in numbers estimated by the same methods in 1997. If this decline has continued, then the Vaquita would number less than 200 individuals in 2013. There are a number of potential threats, but only entanglement in gillnets has been documented as the definite cause of death for most specimens examined. Until recently, the major culprit was the fishery for totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi, a sea bass found in the northern Gulf of California), but in the last couple of decades, other gillnetfisheries have become more prominent within the distribution of the Vaquita. Targets of these fisheries include several species of finfish, sharks, rays, and in particular shrimps. The Mexican government has embarked on an ambitious program to save the Vaquita, involving elimination of gillnetfishing within its distribution. New fishing gear (mini trawl nets) has been developed to replace gillnets that cause most mortality, but implementation has been slow. Mortality in gillnets continues, and it 1s uncertain whether it can be reduced to insignificant levels in time to save the Vaquita—the next 5-10 years will be critical. The new presidential administration in Mexico appears to be genuinely supportive of conservation of the Vaquita.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 120-150 cm; weight 30-48 kg. Few fresh specimens of the Vaquita have been measured fully and weighed. Dorsalfin is relatively tall for a porpoise ofthis genus (up to 15 cm, or c.10% ofthe total body length). Head is blunt, with little or no beak, as in other species of the genus. General body color is dark brownish-gray on back, fading to pale gray or white on belly. There are black patches around eyes and around lips. There is also a darker chin-to-flipper stripe. Neonates are born darker than adults and gradually get paler in color as they age. Tooth counts generally are 16-22 in each half of each jaw.","habitat":"Very specific habitat in the northern Gulf of California, although there are some suggestions the distribution of the Vaquita may have extended somewhatfarther south in the past, before it was badly depleted by gillnet fishing. The current range of the Vaquita is characterized by moderately shallow waters (mostly less than 40 m deep) just south of the mouth of the Colorado River. These waters are murky and sedimentladen. They are biologically very productive, with high chlorophyll levels, and can reach very high temperatures in summer and autumn."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B29FFBDFA6C7A28F60D8BEB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B29FFBDFA6C7A28F60D8BEB","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"544","verbatimText":"7.Dall’s9 Porpoise. Phocoenoides dalli.French: Marsouin de Dall / German: Weilflanken-Schweinswal / Spanish: Marsopa de DallOther common names: Dall Porpoise, True Porpoise; Dalli-type Dall's Porpoise (dalli); Truei-type Dall’s Porpoise, True's Porpoise (true)Taxonomy.Phocaena dalli True, 1885, USA, Alaska, “in the strait west of Adakh [sic] Island, one of the Aleutian group.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. d. dalli True, 1885 — cool temperate regions of the N Pacific Ocean from Japan to Alaska and S to N Baja California, Mexico. P d. truee Andrews, 1911 — NW Pacific ÚCCZUI waters ¢.35-534° N, including the Okhotsk Sea.Descriptive notes.Total length 165-240 cm; weight 60-200 kg. Dall’s Porpoise is the largest member of the family, reaching lengths of up to 240 cm for males and 220 cm for females. It is very stocky, with a very small head and small appendages. There is a very slight, poorly defined beak. Dorsal fin is wide-based and triangular, and in males,it is extremely canted forward. Tailstock is deepened, exceedingly in adult males. Flukes may have a convex trailing edge, especially in adult males. Color pattern is contrasting black and white, with a large, ventrally continuous, white flank patch (extending farther forward in the subspecies truei) and white frosting on upper margins of dorsal fin and trailing edge of flukes. In newborns, color pattern is muted, consisting of various shades of gray, and frosting on fin and flukes is absent. Color pattern becomes bolder as individuals age, and frosting (or trim) begins to appear in the first year of age. Tooth counts generally are 23-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Deep, cold waters. Dall’s Porpoises are generally found far offshore, but they do occur in nearshore waters where there is water deeper than 100-200 m nearby. They are commonly seen in the inshore waters of north-western USA (Washington, Alaska) and west Canada (British Columbia), where they inhabit deep channels and passes.Food and Feeding.Dall’s Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, taking a wide variety of prey items. These include mostly mid-water and surface-living fish and cephalopods, such as herring (Clupea), anchovies (Engraulis), sardines (Sardinops, Clupeidae), hake (Merluccius), sauries (Cololabis, Scomberesocidae), lanternfish (Myctophidae), and gonatid squid (Gonatidae). They occasionally consume invertebrates such as krill, decapods, and various species of shrimps, but these latter items are not considered to be their primary prey.Breeding.Dall’s Porpoise is a seasonal breeder, with all populations known to have a very strong birthing peak in summer. Age and length at sexual maturity appear to vary among different populations, but they generally occur at 4-7 years of age and lengths of 170-190 cm for females and 3-5-8 years and 180-200 cm for males. Gestation lasts c.11 months, and offspring are generally nursed for less than one year. Mating system of Dall’s Porpoise is strongly polygynous, with males apparently using their sexually dimorphic morphologic characters to compete directly for females, and then guarding the female from other potential suitors. In inshore waters of Washington, where they overlap in distribution with Harbor Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), the two species regularly appear to interbreed and produce hybrids, and this also is known to occur elsewhere in their distributions. In these cases, a Dall’s Porpoise is generally the maternal parent. Longevity is rarely much greater than 20 years.Activity patterns.Dall’s Porpoise is an active, energetic species. It may be the fastest swimmer of the cetaceans, at least for short bursts. They are most frequently seen swimming very quickly and throwing up a large V-shaped rooster-tail of spray as they surface to breathe at high speed, bringing only very little of their body above the surface. When riding bow waves of vessels, which they do frequently, they rooster-tail on virtually every surfacing, but at other times, they slow down and surface in a slow roll, with no splash. Breaching, spy hopping, and other types of aerial displays are not common, and they very rarely porpoise completely clear of the water.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dall’s Porpoises are most commonly found as singletons and pairs, or in small groups of up to a dozen. They occasionally gather in large groups of several dozens or even hundreds (although these opportunistic aggregations do not have any particular structure). Groups of up to several thousand have been reported, but there is some doubt as to correct species identification in these cases. Seasonal movements of population segments of Dall’s Porpoises are known, with increased densities near shore and in more southern areas in winter, and corresponding northern and offshore shifts in summer. Little is known about home ranges or movements of individual Dall’s Porpoises because specimens have rarely been identified, either through photo-identification studies or tagging work. Based on what little is known, however, it would appear that they can undergorather extensive movements of at least several hundred kilometers in pelagic portions of their distribution.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last, reflecting the large numbers that occur throughout the North Pacific Ocean. The subspecies dalli and true: have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Dall’s Porpoise has been hunted heavily in Japanese waters, where they are the main target species of a harpoon fishery based in Hokkaido. Meatis used for human consumption and pet food. It has also been incidentally killed in very large numbers in several pelagic driftnet fisheries that have operated in waters ofJapan, Russia, and the USA (Alaska). Other potential threats include occasional kills in trawl nets, environmental contamination, anthropogenic noise disturbance, and habitat deterioration, but fishery kills are major factors affecting populations. Several populations in the western Pacific have been depleted by these kills, and their future is uncertain because Japan has often set kill quotas that are unsustainable, ignoring advice from their own nationals and the international community. The total number of Dall’s Porpoises in the North Pacific may be over 1-2 million individuals. Specific populations are estimated at 104,000 in waters offJapan, 554,000 in the Okhotsk Sea, 83,000 off Alaska, and 100,000 off the US West Coast.Bibliography.Amano & Hayano (2007), Amano & Miyazaki (1996), Curry (1992), Escorza-Trevino et al. (2004), Ferrero & Walker (1999), Forney & Barlow (1998), Hanson & Baird (1998), Houck & Jefferson (1999), Jefferson (1990, 1991, 2009c), Kajiwara et al. (2002), Kasuya (1978), Kubota et al. (2005), Miller (1990), Miyashita (1991), Ohizumi et al. (2003), Rosel et al. (1995), Szczepaniak et al. (1992), Temte (1991), Turnock & Buckland (1995), Turnock et al. (1995), Walker (1996, 2001), Willis & Dill (2007), Willis et al. (2004), Yang Jian et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Phocaena dalli True, 1885, USA, Alaska, “in the strait west of Adakh [sic] Island, one of the Aleutian group.”Two subspecies are recognized.","interpretedAuthorityName":"True","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1885","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Phocoenoides","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"544","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dalli","name":"Phocoenoides dalli","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. d. dalli True, 1885 — cool temperate regions of the N Pacific Ocean from Japan to Alaska and S to N Baja California, Mexico. P d. truee Andrews, 1911 — NW Pacific ÚCCZUI waters ¢.35-534° N, including the Okhotsk Sea.","bibliography":"Amano & Hayano (2007) | Amano & Miyazaki (1996) | Curry (1992) | Escorza-Trevino et al. (2004) | Ferrero & Walker (1999) | Forney & Barlow (1998) | Hanson & Baird (1998) | Houck & Jefferson (1999) | Jefferson (1990, 1991, 2009c) | Kajiwara et al. (2002) | Kasuya (1978) | Kubota et al. (2005) | Miller (1990) | Miyashita (1991) | Ohizumi et al. (2003) | Rosel et al. (1995) | Szczepaniak et al. (1992) | Temte (1991) | Turnock & Buckland (1995) | Turnock et al. (1995) | Walker (1996, 2001) | Willis & Dill (2007) | Willis et al. (2004) | Yang Jian et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Dall’s Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, taking a wide variety of prey items. These include mostly mid-water and surface-living fish and cephalopods, such as herring (Clupea), anchovies (Engraulis), sardines (Sardinops, Clupeidae), hake (Merluccius), sauries (Cololabis, Scomberesocidae), lanternfish (Myctophidae), and gonatid squid (Gonatidae). They occasionally consume invertebrates such as krill, decapods, and various species of shrimps, but these latter items are not considered to be their primary prey.","breeding":"Dall’s Porpoise is a seasonal breeder, with all populations known to have a very strong birthing peak in summer. Age and length at sexual maturity appear to vary among different populations, but they generally occur at 4-7 years of age and lengths of 170-190 cm for females and 3-5-8 years and 180-200 cm for males. Gestation lasts c.11 months, and offspring are generally nursed for less than one year. Mating system of Dall’s Porpoise is strongly polygynous, with males apparently using their sexually dimorphic morphologic characters to compete directly for females, and then guarding the female from other potential suitors. In inshore waters of Washington, where they overlap in distribution with Harbor Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), the two species regularly appear to interbreed and produce hybrids, and this also is known to occur elsewhere in their distributions. In these cases, a Dall’s Porpoise is generally the maternal parent. Longevity is rarely much greater than 20 years.","activityPatterns":"Dall’s Porpoise is an active, energetic species. It may be the fastest swimmer of the cetaceans, at least for short bursts. They are most frequently seen swimming very quickly and throwing up a large V-shaped rooster-tail of spray as they surface to breathe at high speed, bringing only very little of their body above the surface. When riding bow waves of vessels, which they do frequently, they rooster-tail on virtually every surfacing, but at other times, they slow down and surface in a slow roll, with no splash. Breaching, spy hopping, and other types of aerial displays are not common, and they very rarely porpoise completely clear of the water.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dall’s Porpoises are most commonly found as singletons and pairs, or in small groups of up to a dozen. They occasionally gather in large groups of several dozens or even hundreds (although these opportunistic aggregations do not have any particular structure). Groups of up to several thousand have been reported, but there is some doubt as to correct species identification in these cases. Seasonal movements of population segments of Dall’s Porpoises are known, with increased densities near shore and in more southern areas in winter, and corresponding northern and offshore shifts in summer. Little is known about home ranges or movements of individual Dall’s Porpoises because specimens have rarely been identified, either through photo-identification studies or tagging work. Based on what little is known, however, it would appear that they can undergorather extensive movements of at least several hundred kilometers in pelagic portions of their distribution.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last, reflecting the large numbers that occur throughout the North Pacific Ocean. The subspecies dalli and true: have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Dall’s Porpoise has been hunted heavily in Japanese waters, where they are the main target species of a harpoon fishery based in Hokkaido. Meatis used for human consumption and pet food. It has also been incidentally killed in very large numbers in several pelagic driftnet fisheries that have operated in waters ofJapan, Russia, and the USA (Alaska). Other potential threats include occasional kills in trawl nets, environmental contamination, anthropogenic noise disturbance, and habitat deterioration, but fishery kills are major factors affecting populations. Several populations in the western Pacific have been depleted by these kills, and their future is uncertain because Japan has often set kill quotas that are unsustainable, ignoring advice from their own nationals and the international community. The total number of Dall’s Porpoises in the North Pacific may be over 1-2 million individuals. Specific populations are estimated at 104,000 in waters offJapan, 554,000 in the Okhotsk Sea, 83,000 off Alaska, and 100,000 off the US West Coast.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 165-240 cm; weight 60-200 kg. Dall’s Porpoise is the largest member of the family, reaching lengths of up to 240 cm for males and 220 cm for females. It is very stocky, with a very small head and small appendages. There is a very slight, poorly defined beak. Dorsal fin is wide-based and triangular, and in males,it is extremely canted forward. Tailstock is deepened, exceedingly in adult males. Flukes may have a convex trailing edge, especially in adult males. Color pattern is contrasting black and white, with a large, ventrally continuous, white flank patch (extending farther forward in the subspecies truei) and white frosting on upper margins of dorsal fin and trailing edge of flukes. In newborns, color pattern is muted, consisting of various shades of gray, and frosting on fin and flukes is absent. Color pattern becomes bolder as individuals age, and frosting (or trim) begins to appear in the first year of age. Tooth counts generally are 23-28 in each half of each jaw.","habitat":"Deep, cold waters. Dall’s Porpoises are generally found far offshore, but they do occur in nearshore waters where there is water deeper than 100-200 m nearby. They are commonly seen in the inshore waters of north-western USA (Washington, Alaska) and west Canada (British Columbia), where they inhabit deep channels and passes."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B29FFBDFA6C7A28F60D8BEB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B29FFBDFA6C7A28F60D8BEB","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"544","verbatimText":"7.Dall’s9 Porpoise. Phocoenoides dalli.French: Marsouin de Dall / German: Weilflanken-Schweinswal / Spanish: Marsopa de DallOther common names: Dall Porpoise, True Porpoise; Dalli-type Dall's Porpoise (dalli); Truei-type Dall’s Porpoise, True's Porpoise (true)Taxonomy.Phocaena dalli True, 1885, USA, Alaska, “in the strait west of Adakh [sic] Island, one of the Aleutian group.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. d. dalli True, 1885 — cool temperate regions of the N Pacific Ocean from Japan to Alaska and S to N Baja California, Mexico. P d. truee Andrews, 1911 — NW Pacific ÚCCZUI waters ¢.35-534° N, including the Okhotsk Sea.Descriptive notes.Total length 165-240 cm; weight 60-200 kg. Dall’s Porpoise is the largest member of the family, reaching lengths of up to 240 cm for males and 220 cm for females. It is very stocky, with a very small head and small appendages. There is a very slight, poorly defined beak. Dorsal fin is wide-based and triangular, and in males,it is extremely canted forward. Tailstock is deepened, exceedingly in adult males. Flukes may have a convex trailing edge, especially in adult males. Color pattern is contrasting black and white, with a large, ventrally continuous, white flank patch (extending farther forward in the subspecies truei) and white frosting on upper margins of dorsal fin and trailing edge of flukes. In newborns, color pattern is muted, consisting of various shades of gray, and frosting on fin and flukes is absent. Color pattern becomes bolder as individuals age, and frosting (or trim) begins to appear in the first year of age. Tooth counts generally are 23-28 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Deep, cold waters. Dall’s Porpoises are generally found far offshore, but they do occur in nearshore waters where there is water deeper than 100-200 m nearby. They are commonly seen in the inshore waters of north-western USA (Washington, Alaska) and west Canada (British Columbia), where they inhabit deep channels and passes.Food and Feeding.Dall’s Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, taking a wide variety of prey items. These include mostly mid-water and surface-living fish and cephalopods, such as herring (Clupea), anchovies (Engraulis), sardines (Sardinops, Clupeidae), hake (Merluccius), sauries (Cololabis, Scomberesocidae), lanternfish (Myctophidae), and gonatid squid (Gonatidae). They occasionally consume invertebrates such as krill, decapods, and various species of shrimps, but these latter items are not considered to be their primary prey.Breeding.Dall’s Porpoise is a seasonal breeder, with all populations known to have a very strong birthing peak in summer. Age and length at sexual maturity appear to vary among different populations, but they generally occur at 4-7 years of age and lengths of 170-190 cm for females and 3-5-8 years and 180-200 cm for males. Gestation lasts c.11 months, and offspring are generally nursed for less than one year. Mating system of Dall’s Porpoise is strongly polygynous, with males apparently using their sexually dimorphic morphologic characters to compete directly for females, and then guarding the female from other potential suitors. In inshore waters of Washington, where they overlap in distribution with Harbor Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), the two species regularly appear to interbreed and produce hybrids, and this also is known to occur elsewhere in their distributions. In these cases, a Dall’s Porpoise is generally the maternal parent. Longevity is rarely much greater than 20 years.Activity patterns.Dall’s Porpoise is an active, energetic species. It may be the fastest swimmer of the cetaceans, at least for short bursts. They are most frequently seen swimming very quickly and throwing up a large V-shaped rooster-tail of spray as they surface to breathe at high speed, bringing only very little of their body above the surface. When riding bow waves of vessels, which they do frequently, they rooster-tail on virtually every surfacing, but at other times, they slow down and surface in a slow roll, with no splash. Breaching, spy hopping, and other types of aerial displays are not common, and they very rarely porpoise completely clear of the water.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dall’s Porpoises are most commonly found as singletons and pairs, or in small groups of up to a dozen. They occasionally gather in large groups of several dozens or even hundreds (although these opportunistic aggregations do not have any particular structure). Groups of up to several thousand have been reported, but there is some doubt as to correct species identification in these cases. Seasonal movements of population segments of Dall’s Porpoises are known, with increased densities near shore and in more southern areas in winter, and corresponding northern and offshore shifts in summer. Little is known about home ranges or movements of individual Dall’s Porpoises because specimens have rarely been identified, either through photo-identification studies or tagging work. Based on what little is known, however, it would appear that they can undergorather extensive movements of at least several hundred kilometers in pelagic portions of their distribution.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last, reflecting the large numbers that occur throughout the North Pacific Ocean. The subspecies dalli and true: have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Dall’s Porpoise has been hunted heavily in Japanese waters, where they are the main target species of a harpoon fishery based in Hokkaido. Meatis used for human consumption and pet food. It has also been incidentally killed in very large numbers in several pelagic driftnet fisheries that have operated in waters ofJapan, Russia, and the USA (Alaska). Other potential threats include occasional kills in trawl nets, environmental contamination, anthropogenic noise disturbance, and habitat deterioration, but fishery kills are major factors affecting populations. Several populations in the western Pacific have been depleted by these kills, and their future is uncertain because Japan has often set kill quotas that are unsustainable, ignoring advice from their own nationals and the international community. The total number of Dall’s Porpoises in the North Pacific may be over 1-2 million individuals. Specific populations are estimated at 104,000 in waters offJapan, 554,000 in the Okhotsk Sea, 83,000 off Alaska, and 100,000 off the US West Coast.Bibliography.Amano & Hayano (2007), Amano & Miyazaki (1996), Curry (1992), Escorza-Trevino et al. (2004), Ferrero & Walker (1999), Forney & Barlow (1998), Hanson & Baird (1998), Houck & Jefferson (1999), Jefferson (1990, 1991, 2009c), Kajiwara et al. (2002), Kasuya (1978), Kubota et al. (2005), Miller (1990), Miyashita (1991), Ohizumi et al. (2003), Rosel et al. (1995), Szczepaniak et al. (1992), Temte (1991), Turnock & Buckland (1995), Turnock et al. (1995), Walker (1996, 2001), Willis & Dill (2007), Willis et al. (2004), Yang Jian et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Phocaena dalli True, 1885, USA, Alaska, “in the strait west of Adakh [sic] Island, one of the Aleutian group.”Two subspecies are recognized.","interpretedAuthorityName":"True","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1885","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Phocoenoides","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"544","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dalli","name":"Phocoenoides dalli","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. d. dalli True, 1885 — cool temperate regions of the N Pacific Ocean from Japan to Alaska and S to N Baja California, Mexico. P d. truee Andrews, 1911 — NW Pacific ÚCCZUI waters ¢.35-534° N, including the Okhotsk Sea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6607343/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amano & Hayano (2007) | Amano & Miyazaki (1996) | Curry (1992) | Escorza-Trevino et al. (2004) | Ferrero & Walker (1999) | Forney & Barlow (1998) | Hanson & Baird (1998) | Houck & Jefferson (1999) | Jefferson (1990, 1991, 2009c) | Kajiwara et al. (2002) | Kasuya (1978) | Kubota et al. (2005) | Miller (1990) | Miyashita (1991) | Ohizumi et al. (2003) | Rosel et al. (1995) | Szczepaniak et al. (1992) | Temte (1991) | Turnock & Buckland (1995) | Turnock et al. (1995) | Walker (1996, 2001) | Willis & Dill (2007) | Willis et al. (2004) | Yang Jian et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Dall’s Porpoises are opportunistic feeders, taking a wide variety of prey items. These include mostly mid-water and surface-living fish and cephalopods, such as herring (Clupea), anchovies (Engraulis), sardines (Sardinops, Clupeidae), hake (Merluccius), sauries (Cololabis, Scomberesocidae), lanternfish (Myctophidae), and gonatid squid (Gonatidae). They occasionally consume invertebrates such as krill, decapods, and various species of shrimps, but these latter items are not considered to be their primary prey.","breeding":"Dall’s Porpoise is a seasonal breeder, with all populations known to have a very strong birthing peak in summer. Age and length at sexual maturity appear to vary among different populations, but they generally occur at 4-7 years of age and lengths of 170-190 cm for females and 3-5-8 years and 180-200 cm for males. Gestation lasts c.11 months, and offspring are generally nursed for less than one year. Mating system of Dall’s Porpoise is strongly polygynous, with males apparently using their sexually dimorphic morphologic characters to compete directly for females, and then guarding the female from other potential suitors. In inshore waters of Washington, where they overlap in distribution with Harbor Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), the two species regularly appear to interbreed and produce hybrids, and this also is known to occur elsewhere in their distributions. In these cases, a Dall’s Porpoise is generally the maternal parent. Longevity is rarely much greater than 20 years.","activityPatterns":"Dall’s Porpoise is an active, energetic species. It may be the fastest swimmer of the cetaceans, at least for short bursts. They are most frequently seen swimming very quickly and throwing up a large V-shaped rooster-tail of spray as they surface to breathe at high speed, bringing only very little of their body above the surface. When riding bow waves of vessels, which they do frequently, they rooster-tail on virtually every surfacing, but at other times, they slow down and surface in a slow roll, with no splash. Breaching, spy hopping, and other types of aerial displays are not common, and they very rarely porpoise completely clear of the water.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dall’s Porpoises are most commonly found as singletons and pairs, or in small groups of up to a dozen. They occasionally gather in large groups of several dozens or even hundreds (although these opportunistic aggregations do not have any particular structure). Groups of up to several thousand have been reported, but there is some doubt as to correct species identification in these cases. Seasonal movements of population segments of Dall’s Porpoises are known, with increased densities near shore and in more southern areas in winter, and corresponding northern and offshore shifts in summer. Little is known about home ranges or movements of individual Dall’s Porpoises because specimens have rarely been identified, either through photo-identification studies or tagging work. Based on what little is known, however, it would appear that they can undergorather extensive movements of at least several hundred kilometers in pelagic portions of their distribution.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last, reflecting the large numbers that occur throughout the North Pacific Ocean. The subspecies dalli and true: have not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Dall’s Porpoise has been hunted heavily in Japanese waters, where they are the main target species of a harpoon fishery based in Hokkaido. Meatis used for human consumption and pet food. It has also been incidentally killed in very large numbers in several pelagic driftnet fisheries that have operated in waters ofJapan, Russia, and the USA (Alaska). Other potential threats include occasional kills in trawl nets, environmental contamination, anthropogenic noise disturbance, and habitat deterioration, but fishery kills are major factors affecting populations. Several populations in the western Pacific have been depleted by these kills, and their future is uncertain because Japan has often set kill quotas that are unsustainable, ignoring advice from their own nationals and the international community. The total number of Dall’s Porpoises in the North Pacific may be over 1-2 million individuals. Specific populations are estimated at 104,000 in waters offJapan, 554,000 in the Okhotsk Sea, 83,000 off Alaska, and 100,000 off the US West Coast.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 165-240 cm; weight 60-200 kg. Dall’s Porpoise is the largest member of the family, reaching lengths of up to 240 cm for males and 220 cm for females. It is very stocky, with a very small head and small appendages. There is a very slight, poorly defined beak. Dorsal fin is wide-based and triangular, and in males,it is extremely canted forward. Tailstock is deepened, exceedingly in adult males. Flukes may have a convex trailing edge, especially in adult males. Color pattern is contrasting black and white, with a large, ventrally continuous, white flank patch (extending farther forward in the subspecies truei) and white frosting on upper margins of dorsal fin and trailing edge of flukes. In newborns, color pattern is muted, consisting of various shades of gray, and frosting on fin and flukes is absent. Color pattern becomes bolder as individuals age, and frosting (or trim) begins to appear in the first year of age. Tooth counts generally are 23-28 in each half of each jaw.","habitat":"Deep, cold waters. Dall’s Porpoises are generally found far offshore, but they do occur in nearshore waters where there is water deeper than 100-200 m nearby. They are commonly seen in the inshore waters of north-western USA (Washington, Alaska) and west Canada (British Columbia), where they inhabit deep channels and passes."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2CFFBBFDFC7B25F9D88C18.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B2CFFBBFDFC7B25F9D88C18","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"528","verbatimText":"Family PHOCOENIDAE(PORPOISES)• Small, relatively robust but slender porpoises with short and poorly defined beaks; small spade-shaped teeth.• 120-240 cm.• All oceans and some rivers in East and South Asia.• Shoreward of the continental shelf, mostly shallow waters less than 180 m deep; two species occur in deep, oceanic waters (hundreds to thousands of meters deep), and two in rivers.• 3 genera, 7 species, 11 taxa.• 1 species Critically Endangered, 2 Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2EFFB8FAA27A34FD7D8FF6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B2EFFB8FAA27A34FD7D8FF6","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"541","verbatimText":"2.Narrow-ridged Finless PorpoiseNeophocaena asiaeorientalisFrench:Marsouin du Yangzi/ German:Ostlicher Glattschweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa sin aleta asiaticorientalOther common names:Finless Porpoise; Yangtze Finless Porpoise (asiaeorientalis); East Asian Finless Porpoise (sunameri)Taxonomy.Neomeris asiaeorientalis Pilleri & Gihr, 1972, “Yangtze, Prov. Kiangsu, Shanghai, China.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.a.asiaeorientalisPilleri&Gihr,1972—middleandlowerreachesoftheYangtzeRiver,CChina.N. a. sunameri Pilleri & Gihr, 1975— shallow marine waters of E Asia; records are known from Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan. Occurrence in North Korea is not documented butis strongly suspected, and a stranding record from the island of Okinawa, S Japan, is considered to be extralimital.Descriptive notes.Total length 130-227 cm; weight 40-72 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise is the larger species, with a total body length up to 227 cm, although this may be an outlier because most specimens are much smaller. There is no dorsal fin, but the tubercled patch is narrow, 0.2-1.2 cm, occasionally up to 2-4 cm, in width at its widest point. Dorsal ridge is high (up to 5:5 cm), is covered with 1-10 rows of tubercles, and originates at or anterior to the mid-length of the back. There is no beak, and head is blunt, with a steep forehead. Especially in the Yangtze River, body of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a very soft and “mushy” texture, different from most cetaceans. Coloration tends to be much paler than in the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise (N. phocaenoides). Adults range from pale cream to dark gray, but they are a moderate shade of gray in most populations. Newborns are dark gray and get paler as they age. Compared with their congeners, skull of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a relatively long and narrow rostrum (length 77-97 mm, with a mean of 86-8 mm). Adult condylobasal skull lengths are 210-295 mm. Teeth are small, and tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 16-21 in the upper row and 15-20 in the lower row.Habitat.Shallow, temperate waters of eastern Asia. Both marine and fresh waters are inhabited, and there is a population of Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises found exclusively in the freshwaters of China’s largestriver, the Yangtze. Althoughit tends to occur mostly very near shore, it has a greater tendency than the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise to be found in offshore waters. Shallow, offshore (more than 240 km from shore, but less than 200 m deep) regions of the Yellow and Bohai seas are inhabited by the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise.Food and Feeding.Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic; others are benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish (families such as Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, Engraulidae, Sciaenidae, Gobiidae, and Atherinidae), cephalopods (Octopodidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, and Loliginidae), and crustaceans (mostly shrimps). Available data also indicate that Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises in the Yangtze River feed on fish and shrimps.Breeding.Life history of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has been relatively well studied, largely due to the abundance of specimens available from large bycatches in various fisheries. Newborns are ¢.73-79 cm long and are born mostly in spring and summer, although births in some populations can occur in autumn and winter. Sexual maturity of males occurs at 3-6 years of age and lengths of 132-145 cm, and at c.4-6 years and 132-140 cm for females, with some variation among populations. Gestation lasts ¢.10-11 months. Most individuals appear to reach a maximum age of ¢.20-25 years, but they can live as long as 33 years.Activity patterns.Both species of finless porpoises are very cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not appear to leap from the water very frequently, individuals have been observed performing “tail stands” in the Yangtze River. They can be very active at times and will often chase fish at very high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. There are reports of mother porpoises carrying young on their backs (supposedly with the offspring lying on the roughened dorsal ridge), but these reports are somewhat questionable. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and they may move away with rooster-tail-type splashes when they are startled by a motor boat.On following pages: 3. Spectacled Porpoise (Phocoena dioptrica); 4. Burmeister's Porpoise (Phocoena spinipinnis); 5. Vaquita (Phocoena sinus); 6. Harbor Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena); 7. Dall's Porpoise (Phocoenoidesdall).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Not much is known about individual movements or home range patterns of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise because few studies have been able to track individual movements through tagging or individual identification work. Nonetheless, moderately extensive movements in the Yangtze River are known or suspected. Seasonal shifts in abundance are known from some waters of China and Japan, although these do not appear to qualify as well-defined migrations. Group sizes tend to be small. Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises generally occuras singles or in small groups of up to ten individuals or so. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities, but these groups do not have a cohesive structure.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The nominate subspecies asiaeorientalisis classified as Critically Endangered, and the subspecies sunamerihas not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Vulnerable status is due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. In particular, populations in the Yangtze River and the Inland Sea ofJapan have suffered dramatic declines in recent decades, and the future of both populationsis in serious doubt. Although the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has an extensive distribution, no global assessment of abundance has been attempted. There are, however, thought to be somewhat more than 1800 individuals in the Yangtze River and 5000-10,000 individuals in 5-6 different populations in Japanese waters. In the Yellow Sea of Korea, c.21,500 individuals were estimated to occur in offshore waters and ¢.5500 in coastal waters, but these estimates are thought to be low. They are faced with a number of threats, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution and noise disturbance. As for the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, the major threat to the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise may come from entanglement in equipment of various fisheries, especially those using gillnets and related trammel nets.Bibliography.Akamatsu et al. (2010), Amano (2009), Amano et al. (1992), Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (1995a, 1995b, 1995c), Jefferson & Hung (2004), Kasuya (1999b), Kasuya et al. (2002), Li Songhai et al. (2010), Mei Zhigang et al. (2012), Park Kyum-Joon et al. (2007), Reeves et al. (1997), Shirakihara, K. et al. (2007), Shirakihara, M., Shirakihara & Takemura (1994), Shirakihara, M., Takemura & Shirakihara (1993), Tanabe et al. (1998), Wang Ding (2009), Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008), Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010), Wang Peilie (1992), Wei Zhuo, Wang Ding et al. (2002), Wei Zhuo, Zhang Xianfeng et al. (2003), Yamada & Okamoto (2000), Yoshida (2002), Yoshida et al. (1998), Zhang Chang-lk et al. (2004), Zhao Xiujiang et al. (2008), Zheng Jinsong et al. (2005), Zhou Kaiya, Yang Guang et al. (1998).","taxonomy":"Neomeris asiaeorientalis Pilleri & Gihr, 1972, “Yangtze, Prov. Kiangsu, Shanghai, China.”Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Marsouin du Yangzi @fr | Ostlicher Glattschweinswal @de | Marsopa sin aleta asiaticoriental @es | Finless Porpoise; Yangtze Finless Porpoise (asiaeorientalis); East Asian Finless Porpoise (sunameri) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pilleri & Gihr","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1972","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Neophocaena","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"541","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"asiaeorientalis","name":"Neophocaena asiaeorientalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N.a.asiaeorientalisPilleri&Gihr,1972—middleandlowerreachesoftheYangtzeRiver,CChina.N. a. sunameri Pilleri & Gihr, 1975— shallow marine waters of E Asia; records are known from Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan. Occurrence in North Korea is not documented butis strongly suspected, and a stranding record from the island of Okinawa, S Japan, is considered to be extralimital.","bibliography":"Akamatsu et al. (2010) | Amano (2009) | Amano et al. (1992) | Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (1995a, 1995b, 1995c) | Jefferson & Hung (2004) | Kasuya (1999b) | Kasuya et al. (2002) | Li Songhai et al. (2010) | Mei Zhigang et al. (2012) | Park Kyum-Joon et al. (2007) | Reeves et al. (1997) | Shirakihara, K. et al. (2007) | Shirakihara, M., Shirakihara & Takemura (1994) | Shirakihara, M., Takemura & Shirakihara (1993) | Tanabe et al. (1998) | Wang Ding (2009) | Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008) | Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010) | Wang Peilie (1992) | Wei Zhuo, Wang Ding et al. (2002) | Wei Zhuo, Zhang Xianfeng et al. (2003) | Yamada & Okamoto (2000) | Yoshida (2002) | Yoshida et al. (1998) | Zhang Chang-lk et al. (2004) | Zhao Xiujiang et al. (2008) | Zheng Jinsong et al. (2005) | Zhou Kaiya, Yang Guang et al. (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic; others are benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish (families such as Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, Engraulidae, Sciaenidae, Gobiidae, and Atherinidae), cephalopods (Octopodidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, and Loliginidae), and crustaceans (mostly shrimps). Available data also indicate that Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises in the Yangtze River feed on fish and shrimps.","breeding":"Life history of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has been relatively well studied, largely due to the abundance of specimens available from large bycatches in various fisheries. Newborns are ¢.73-79 cm long and are born mostly in spring and summer, although births in some populations can occur in autumn and winter. Sexual maturity of males occurs at 3-6 years of age and lengths of 132-145 cm, and at c.4-6 years and 132-140 cm for females, with some variation among populations. Gestation lasts ¢.10-11 months. Most individuals appear to reach a maximum age of ¢.20-25 years, but they can live as long as 33 years.","activityPatterns":"Both species of finless porpoises are very cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not appear to leap from the water very frequently, individuals have been observed performing “tail stands” in the Yangtze River. They can be very active at times and will often chase fish at very high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. There are reports of mother porpoises carrying young on their backs (supposedly with the offspring lying on the roughened dorsal ridge), but these reports are somewhat questionable. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and they may move away with rooster-tail-type splashes when they are startled by a motor boat.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Not much is known about individual movements or home range patterns of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise because few studies have been able to track individual movements through tagging or individual identification work. Nonetheless, moderately extensive movements in the Yangtze River are known or suspected. Seasonal shifts in abundance are known from some waters of China and Japan, although these do not appear to qualify as well-defined migrations. Group sizes tend to be small. Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises generally occuras singles or in small groups of up to ten individuals or so. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities, but these groups do not have a cohesive structure.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The nominate subspecies asiaeorientalisis classified as Critically Endangered, and the subspecies sunamerihas not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Vulnerable status is due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. In particular, populations in the Yangtze River and the Inland Sea ofJapan have suffered dramatic declines in recent decades, and the future of both populationsis in serious doubt. Although the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has an extensive distribution, no global assessment of abundance has been attempted. There are, however, thought to be somewhat more than 1800 individuals in the Yangtze River and 5000-10,000 individuals in 5-6 different populations in Japanese waters. In the Yellow Sea of Korea, c.21,500 individuals were estimated to occur in offshore waters and ¢.5500 in coastal waters, but these estimates are thought to be low. They are faced with a number of threats, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution and noise disturbance. As for the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, the major threat to the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise may come from entanglement in equipment of various fisheries, especially those using gillnets and related trammel nets.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 130-227 cm; weight 40-72 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise is the larger species, with a total body length up to 227 cm, although this may be an outlier because most specimens are much smaller. There is no dorsal fin, but the tubercled patch is narrow, 0.2-1.2 cm, occasionally up to 2-4 cm, in width at its widest point. Dorsal ridge is high (up to 5:5 cm), is covered with 1-10 rows of tubercles, and originates at or anterior to the mid-length of the back. There is no beak, and head is blunt, with a steep forehead. Especially in the Yangtze River, body of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a very soft and “mushy” texture, different from most cetaceans. Coloration tends to be much paler than in the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise (N. phocaenoides). Adults range from pale cream to dark gray, but they are a moderate shade of gray in most populations. Newborns are dark gray and get paler as they age. Compared with their congeners, skull of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a relatively long and narrow rostrum (length 77-97 mm, with a mean of 86-8 mm). Adult condylobasal skull lengths are 210-295 mm. Teeth are small, and tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 16-21 in the upper row and 15-20 in the lower row.","habitat":"Shallow, temperate waters of eastern Asia. Both marine and fresh waters are inhabited, and there is a population of Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises found exclusively in the freshwaters of China’s largestriver, the Yangtze. Althoughit tends to occur mostly very near shore, it has a greater tendency than the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise to be found in offshore waters. Shallow, offshore (more than 240 km from shore, but less than 200 m deep) regions of the Yellow and Bohai seas are inhabited by the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2EFFB8FAA27A34FD7D8FF6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B2EFFB8FAA27A34FD7D8FF6","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"541","verbatimText":"2.Narrow-ridged Finless PorpoiseNeophocaena asiaeorientalisFrench:Marsouin du Yangzi/ German:Ostlicher Glattschweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa sin aleta asiaticorientalOther common names:Finless Porpoise; Yangtze Finless Porpoise (asiaeorientalis); East Asian Finless Porpoise (sunameri)Taxonomy.Neomeris asiaeorientalis Pilleri & Gihr, 1972, “Yangtze, Prov. Kiangsu, Shanghai, China.”Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.a.asiaeorientalisPilleri&Gihr,1972—middleandlowerreachesoftheYangtzeRiver,CChina.N. a. sunameri Pilleri & Gihr, 1975— shallow marine waters of E Asia; records are known from Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan. Occurrence in North Korea is not documented butis strongly suspected, and a stranding record from the island of Okinawa, S Japan, is considered to be extralimital.Descriptive notes.Total length 130-227 cm; weight 40-72 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise is the larger species, with a total body length up to 227 cm, although this may be an outlier because most specimens are much smaller. There is no dorsal fin, but the tubercled patch is narrow, 0.2-1.2 cm, occasionally up to 2-4 cm, in width at its widest point. Dorsal ridge is high (up to 5:5 cm), is covered with 1-10 rows of tubercles, and originates at or anterior to the mid-length of the back. There is no beak, and head is blunt, with a steep forehead. Especially in the Yangtze River, body of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a very soft and “mushy” texture, different from most cetaceans. Coloration tends to be much paler than in the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise (N. phocaenoides). Adults range from pale cream to dark gray, but they are a moderate shade of gray in most populations. Newborns are dark gray and get paler as they age. Compared with their congeners, skull of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a relatively long and narrow rostrum (length 77-97 mm, with a mean of 86-8 mm). Adult condylobasal skull lengths are 210-295 mm. Teeth are small, and tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 16-21 in the upper row and 15-20 in the lower row.Habitat.Shallow, temperate waters of eastern Asia. Both marine and fresh waters are inhabited, and there is a population of Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises found exclusively in the freshwaters of China’s largestriver, the Yangtze. Althoughit tends to occur mostly very near shore, it has a greater tendency than the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise to be found in offshore waters. Shallow, offshore (more than 240 km from shore, but less than 200 m deep) regions of the Yellow and Bohai seas are inhabited by the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise.Food and Feeding.Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic; others are benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish (families such as Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, Engraulidae, Sciaenidae, Gobiidae, and Atherinidae), cephalopods (Octopodidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, and Loliginidae), and crustaceans (mostly shrimps). Available data also indicate that Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises in the Yangtze River feed on fish and shrimps.Breeding.Life history of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has been relatively well studied, largely due to the abundance of specimens available from large bycatches in various fisheries. Newborns are ¢.73-79 cm long and are born mostly in spring and summer, although births in some populations can occur in autumn and winter. Sexual maturity of males occurs at 3-6 years of age and lengths of 132-145 cm, and at c.4-6 years and 132-140 cm for females, with some variation among populations. Gestation lasts ¢.10-11 months. Most individuals appear to reach a maximum age of ¢.20-25 years, but they can live as long as 33 years.Activity patterns.Both species of finless porpoises are very cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not appear to leap from the water very frequently, individuals have been observed performing “tail stands” in the Yangtze River. They can be very active at times and will often chase fish at very high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. There are reports of mother porpoises carrying young on their backs (supposedly with the offspring lying on the roughened dorsal ridge), but these reports are somewhat questionable. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and they may move away with rooster-tail-type splashes when they are startled by a motor boat.On following pages: 3. Spectacled Porpoise (Phocoena dioptrica); 4. Burmeister's Porpoise (Phocoena spinipinnis); 5. Vaquita (Phocoena sinus); 6. Harbor Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena); 7. Dall's Porpoise (Phocoenoidesdall).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Not much is known about individual movements or home range patterns of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise because few studies have been able to track individual movements through tagging or individual identification work. Nonetheless, moderately extensive movements in the Yangtze River are known or suspected. Seasonal shifts in abundance are known from some waters of China and Japan, although these do not appear to qualify as well-defined migrations. Group sizes tend to be small. Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises generally occuras singles or in small groups of up to ten individuals or so. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities, but these groups do not have a cohesive structure.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The nominate subspecies asiaeorientalisis classified as Critically Endangered, and the subspecies sunamerihas not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Vulnerable status is due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. In particular, populations in the Yangtze River and the Inland Sea ofJapan have suffered dramatic declines in recent decades, and the future of both populationsis in serious doubt. Although the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has an extensive distribution, no global assessment of abundance has been attempted. There are, however, thought to be somewhat more than 1800 individuals in the Yangtze River and 5000-10,000 individuals in 5-6 different populations in Japanese waters. In the Yellow Sea of Korea, c.21,500 individuals were estimated to occur in offshore waters and ¢.5500 in coastal waters, but these estimates are thought to be low. They are faced with a number of threats, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution and noise disturbance. As for the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, the major threat to the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise may come from entanglement in equipment of various fisheries, especially those using gillnets and related trammel nets.Bibliography.Akamatsu et al. (2010), Amano (2009), Amano et al. (1992), Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (1995a, 1995b, 1995c), Jefferson & Hung (2004), Kasuya (1999b), Kasuya et al. (2002), Li Songhai et al. (2010), Mei Zhigang et al. (2012), Park Kyum-Joon et al. (2007), Reeves et al. (1997), Shirakihara, K. et al. (2007), Shirakihara, M., Shirakihara & Takemura (1994), Shirakihara, M., Takemura & Shirakihara (1993), Tanabe et al. (1998), Wang Ding (2009), Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008), Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010), Wang Peilie (1992), Wei Zhuo, Wang Ding et al. (2002), Wei Zhuo, Zhang Xianfeng et al. (2003), Yamada & Okamoto (2000), Yoshida (2002), Yoshida et al. (1998), Zhang Chang-lk et al. (2004), Zhao Xiujiang et al. (2008), Zheng Jinsong et al. (2005), Zhou Kaiya, Yang Guang et al. (1998).","taxonomy":"Neomeris asiaeorientalis Pilleri & Gihr, 1972, “Yangtze, Prov. Kiangsu, Shanghai, China.”Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Marsouin du Yangzi @fr | Ostlicher Glattschweinswal @de | Marsopa sin aleta asiaticoriental @es | Finless Porpoise; Yangtze Finless Porpoise (asiaeorientalis); East Asian Finless Porpoise (sunameri) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pilleri & Gihr","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1972","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Neophocaena","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"541","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"asiaeorientalis","name":"Neophocaena asiaeorientalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N.a.asiaeorientalisPilleri&Gihr,1972—middleandlowerreachesoftheYangtzeRiver,CChina.N. a. sunameri Pilleri & Gihr, 1975— shallow marine waters of E Asia; records are known from Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan. Occurrence in North Korea is not documented butis strongly suspected, and a stranding record from the island of Okinawa, S Japan, is considered to be extralimital.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6607333/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Akamatsu et al. (2010) | Amano (2009) | Amano et al. (1992) | Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (1995a, 1995b, 1995c) | Jefferson & Hung (2004) | Kasuya (1999b) | Kasuya et al. (2002) | Li Songhai et al. (2010) | Mei Zhigang et al. (2012) | Park Kyum-Joon et al. (2007) | Reeves et al. (1997) | Shirakihara, K. et al. (2007) | Shirakihara, M., Shirakihara & Takemura (1994) | Shirakihara, M., Takemura & Shirakihara (1993) | Tanabe et al. (1998) | Wang Ding (2009) | Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008) | Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010) | Wang Peilie (1992) | Wei Zhuo, Wang Ding et al. (2002) | Wei Zhuo, Zhang Xianfeng et al. (2003) | Yamada & Okamoto (2000) | Yoshida (2002) | Yoshida et al. (1998) | Zhang Chang-lk et al. (2004) | Zhao Xiujiang et al. (2008) | Zheng Jinsong et al. (2005) | Zhou Kaiya, Yang Guang et al. (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic; others are benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish (families such as Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, Engraulidae, Sciaenidae, Gobiidae, and Atherinidae), cephalopods (Octopodidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, and Loliginidae), and crustaceans (mostly shrimps). Available data also indicate that Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises in the Yangtze River feed on fish and shrimps.","breeding":"Life history of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has been relatively well studied, largely due to the abundance of specimens available from large bycatches in various fisheries. Newborns are ¢.73-79 cm long and are born mostly in spring and summer, although births in some populations can occur in autumn and winter. Sexual maturity of males occurs at 3-6 years of age and lengths of 132-145 cm, and at c.4-6 years and 132-140 cm for females, with some variation among populations. Gestation lasts ¢.10-11 months. Most individuals appear to reach a maximum age of ¢.20-25 years, but they can live as long as 33 years.","activityPatterns":"Both species of finless porpoises are very cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not appear to leap from the water very frequently, individuals have been observed performing “tail stands” in the Yangtze River. They can be very active at times and will often chase fish at very high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. There are reports of mother porpoises carrying young on their backs (supposedly with the offspring lying on the roughened dorsal ridge), but these reports are somewhat questionable. They do not ride bow waves of vessels, and they may move away with rooster-tail-type splashes when they are startled by a motor boat.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Not much is known about individual movements or home range patterns of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise because few studies have been able to track individual movements through tagging or individual identification work. Nonetheless, moderately extensive movements in the Yangtze River are known or suspected. Seasonal shifts in abundance are known from some waters of China and Japan, although these do not appear to qualify as well-defined migrations. Group sizes tend to be small. Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises generally occuras singles or in small groups of up to ten individuals or so. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities, but these groups do not have a cohesive structure.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The nominate subspecies asiaeorientalisis classified as Critically Endangered, and the subspecies sunamerihas not been evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List. Vulnerable status is due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. In particular, populations in the Yangtze River and the Inland Sea ofJapan have suffered dramatic declines in recent decades, and the future of both populationsis in serious doubt. Although the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has an extensive distribution, no global assessment of abundance has been attempted. There are, however, thought to be somewhat more than 1800 individuals in the Yangtze River and 5000-10,000 individuals in 5-6 different populations in Japanese waters. In the Yellow Sea of Korea, c.21,500 individuals were estimated to occur in offshore waters and ¢.5500 in coastal waters, but these estimates are thought to be low. They are faced with a number of threats, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution and noise disturbance. As for the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, the major threat to the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise may come from entanglement in equipment of various fisheries, especially those using gillnets and related trammel nets.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 130-227 cm; weight 40-72 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise is the larger species, with a total body length up to 227 cm, although this may be an outlier because most specimens are much smaller. There is no dorsal fin, but the tubercled patch is narrow, 0.2-1.2 cm, occasionally up to 2-4 cm, in width at its widest point. Dorsal ridge is high (up to 5:5 cm), is covered with 1-10 rows of tubercles, and originates at or anterior to the mid-length of the back. There is no beak, and head is blunt, with a steep forehead. Especially in the Yangtze River, body of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a very soft and “mushy” texture, different from most cetaceans. Coloration tends to be much paler than in the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise (N. phocaenoides). Adults range from pale cream to dark gray, but they are a moderate shade of gray in most populations. Newborns are dark gray and get paler as they age. Compared with their congeners, skull of the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise has a relatively long and narrow rostrum (length 77-97 mm, with a mean of 86-8 mm). Adult condylobasal skull lengths are 210-295 mm. Teeth are small, and tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 16-21 in the upper row and 15-20 in the lower row.","habitat":"Shallow, temperate waters of eastern Asia. Both marine and fresh waters are inhabited, and there is a population of Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises found exclusively in the freshwaters of China’s largestriver, the Yangtze. Althoughit tends to occur mostly very near shore, it has a greater tendency than the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise to be found in offshore waters. Shallow, offshore (more than 240 km from shore, but less than 200 m deep) regions of the Yellow and Bohai seas are inhabited by the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2EFFB9FFAA788AF6DB8BC9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B2EFFB9FFAA788AF6DB8BC9","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"541","verbatimText":"1.Indo-Pacific Finless PorpoiseNeophocaena phocaenoidesFrench:Marsouin aptere/ German:Glattschweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa sin aleta indopacificaOther common names:Black Finless Porpoise, Finless Black Porpoise, Finless-backed Black Porpoise, Indian Dolphin, Indian Finless Porpoise, Little Indian Porpoise, Wide-ridged Finless PorpoiseTaxonomy.Delphinus phocenoides G. Cuvier, 1829, “au Cap” (= South Africa, Western Cape Prov., Cape of Good Hope). Almost certainly erroneous; unknown today from the coast of Africa.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Shallow, coastal waters of tropical and subtropical S & E Asia, from the Persian Gulf E to the S East China Sea and S to the Sunda Is. There are no records from Oman and the Philippines, although the species is expected eventually to be found in both locations.Descriptive notes.Total length 135-171 cm; weight 30-55 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is the smaller, reaching a known maximum total body length of only 171 cm. There is no dorsal fin, but there is a dorsal structure (often called a “ridge” or “groove” in the literature) that is lower and wider than in the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise (N. asiacorientalis); it is 4.8-12 cm wide, with 10-17 (occasionally as few as nine or up to 25) roughly longitudinal rows of tubercles. Even in young Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises, the dorsal structure is wider than in adults of the other species of porpoises. The ridge begins posterior to the mid-length of the body. Head of the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is blunt with no beak, and its body is relatively slender. Adult coloration is dark gray to nearly black, although newborns are much paler than adults, often a creamy gray. Adult condylobasal skull length is 181-245 mm. The rostrum is relatively wide and short; its length is 62-92 mm, with a mean of 74-6 mm. Tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 15-22 in the upper row and 16-22 in the lower row.Habitat.Shallow, warm waters near the coast. The Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is often found in high densities in and near estuaries of large rivers. Although it is tropical, there is a record of its occurrence from the Yellow/Bohai Sea area, although thisis considered extralimital. It penetrates into the Indus River for ¢.60 km and into the Brahmaputra River for ¢.40 km from their mouths.Food and Feeding.Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic and others benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish in the families Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, and Engraulidae, plus cephalopods (squid and cuttlefish) and crustaceans.Breeding.Reproduction of the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises has been studied more extensively than in most other species of porpoises. The population that has been best studied is from the area around Hong Kong, where reproduction is strongly seasonal, with most births taking place from October (autumn) to January (winter). Sexual maturity of males occurs at 4-5 years of age and lengths of 138-154 cm, and at 5-6 years and 137-150 cm for females. Gestation appears to last c.11 months, and newborns are ¢.70-80 cm in length. Both species of finless porpoises appear to live up to 20 years, but some individuals in waters near Hong Kong have apparently lived to over 30 years of age.Activity patterns.Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises are cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not often appear to leap from the water, they can be very active at times and will often chase fish at high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. They have more mobility of the neck than do other porpoise species. They do not ride bow waves of vessels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is virtually nothing known about individual movements and home ranges of Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises because no studies have successfully identified or tagged individuals. In some areas, such as around Hong Kong, there are seasonal shifts in abundance, with higher densities near shore in winter and spring, and lower densities in summer and autumn (when individuals are presumed to spend more time farther offshore). As in other porpoise species, Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises generally occur as singles or in small groups of up to c.6 individuals. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise was recently evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List (previous assessmentslisted all finless porpoises as a single species). Its classification as Vulnerable was due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. Although it has an extensive distribution throughout south-eastern Asia, and there are clearly many thousands of Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises, no global population assessment has been attempted. A number of threats face the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution. The major threat, however, comes from entanglement in equipment of variousfisheries, especially gillnets, and this may be threatening the viability of some populations. The population that occurs in waters near Hong Kong is one of the only ones for which robust estimates of abundance have been made, and it appears to number at least 220 individuals. About 1400 Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises occur in waters off Bangladesh.Bibliography.Amano (2009), Amano et al. (1992), Fajardo-Mellor et al. (2006), Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (19953, 1995b, 1995c¢), Goold & Jefferson (2002), Jefferson (2002), Jefferson & Braulik (1999), Jefferson & Hung (2004), Jefferson, Curry & Kinoshita (2002), Jefferson, Hung et al. (2002), Jefferson, Robertson & Wang (2002), Kasuya, (1999b), Parsons (1998), Parsons & Jefferson (2000), Parsons & Wang (1998), Preen (2004), Reeves et al. (1997), Smith & Tun Mya-Than (2008), Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008), Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010), Wang Peilie (1992), Yang Guang, Ren Wenhua et al. (2002), Zhou Kaiya etal. (1993).","taxonomy":"Delphinus phocenoides G. Cuvier, 1829, “au Cap” (= South Africa, Western Cape Prov., Cape of Good Hope). Almost certainly erroneous; unknown today from the coast of Africa.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Marsouin aptere @fr | Glattschweinswal @de | Marsopa sin aleta indopacifica @es | Black Finless Porpoise @en | Finless Black Porpoise @en | Finless-backed Black Porpoise @en | @en | ndian Dolphin @en | ndian Finless Porpoise @en | Little @en | ndian Porpoise @en | Wide-ridged Finless Porpoise @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"G. Cuvier","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1829","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Neophocaena","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"541","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"phocaenoides","name":"Neophocaena phocaenoides","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Shallow, coastal waters of tropical and subtropical S & E Asia, from the Persian Gulf E to the S East China Sea and S to the Sunda Is. There are no records from Oman and the Philippines, although the species is expected eventually to be found in both locations.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6607331/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Amano (2009) | Amano et al. (1992) | Fajardo-Mellor et al. (2006) | Gao Anli & Zhou Kaiya (19953, 1995b, 1995c¢) | Goold & Jefferson (2002) | Jefferson (2002) | Jefferson & Braulik (1999) | Jefferson & Hung (2004) | Jefferson, Curry & Kinoshita (2002) | Jefferson, Hung et al. (2002) | Jefferson, Robertson & Wang (2002) | Kasuya, (1999b) | Parsons (1998) | Parsons & Jefferson (2000) | Parsons & Wang (1998) | Preen (2004) | Reeves et al. (1997) | Smith & Tun Mya-Than (2008) | Wang, J.Y., Frasier et al. (2008) | Wang, J.Y., Yang Shihchu et al. (2010) | Wang Peilie (1992) | Yang Guang, Ren Wenhua et al. (2002) | Zhou Kaiya etal. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises feed on a wide variety of small marine organisms, some of which are pelagic and others benthic or demersal. Its prey includes fish in the families Apogonidae, Carangiade, Clupeidae, Sparidae, and Engraulidae, plus cephalopods (squid and cuttlefish) and crustaceans.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises has been studied more extensively than in most other species of porpoises. The population that has been best studied is from the area around Hong Kong, where reproduction is strongly seasonal, with most births taking place from October (autumn) to January (winter). Sexual maturity of males occurs at 4-5 years of age and lengths of 138-154 cm, and at 5-6 years and 137-150 cm for females. Gestation appears to last c.11 months, and newborns are ¢.70-80 cm in length. Both species of finless porpoises appear to live up to 20 years, but some individuals in waters near Hong Kong have apparently lived to over 30 years of age.","activityPatterns":"Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises are cryptic, and they generally have a low surfacing profile. Although they do not often appear to leap from the water, they can be very active at times and will often chase fish at high speeds, making sharp turns and fast accelerations. They have more mobility of the neck than do other porpoise species. They do not ride bow waves of vessels.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is virtually nothing known about individual movements and home ranges of Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises because no studies have successfully identified or tagged individuals. In some areas, such as around Hong Kong, there are seasonal shifts in abundance, with higher densities near shore in winter and spring, and lower densities in summer and autumn (when individuals are presumed to spend more time farther offshore). As in other porpoise species, Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises generally occur as singles or in small groups of up to c.6 individuals. Larger aggregations of up to several dozen sometimes form in areas of good feeding opportunities.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I (under N. phocaenoides). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise was recently evaluated separately on The IUCN Red List (previous assessmentslisted all finless porpoises as a single species). Its classification as Vulnerable was due to observed population declines and inferred reductions of at least 30% in the past three generations. Although it has an extensive distribution throughout south-eastern Asia, and there are clearly many thousands of Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises, no global population assessment has been attempted. A number of threats face the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise, including destruction of habitat from coastal development, disturbance from vessel traffic and other coastal activities, vessel strikes, and various forms of pollution. The major threat, however, comes from entanglement in equipment of variousfisheries, especially gillnets, and this may be threatening the viability of some populations. The population that occurs in waters near Hong Kong is one of the only ones for which robust estimates of abundance have been made, and it appears to number at least 220 individuals. About 1400 Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises occur in waters off Bangladesh.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 135-171 cm; weight 30-55 kg. Of the two species of finless porpoise, the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is the smaller, reaching a known maximum total body length of only 171 cm. There is no dorsal fin, but there is a dorsal structure (often called a “ridge” or “groove” in the literature) that is lower and wider than in the Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise (N. asiacorientalis); it is 4.8-12 cm wide, with 10-17 (occasionally as few as nine or up to 25) roughly longitudinal rows of tubercles. Even in young Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises, the dorsal structure is wider than in adults of the other species of porpoises. The ridge begins posterior to the mid-length of the body. Head of the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is blunt with no beak, and its body is relatively slender. Adult coloration is dark gray to nearly black, although newborns are much paler than adults, often a creamy gray. Adult condylobasal skull length is 181-245 mm. The rostrum is relatively wide and short; its length is 62-92 mm, with a mean of 74-6 mm. Tooth counts in each half of each jaw are 15-22 in the upper row and 16-22 in the lower row.","habitat":"Shallow, warm waters near the coast. The Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is often found in high densities in and near estuaries of large rivers. Although it is tropical, there is a record of its occurrence from the Yellow/Bohai Sea area, although thisis considered extralimital. It penetrates into the Indus River for ¢.60 km and into the Brahmaputra River for ¢.40 km from their mouths."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2FFFB8FF137123F8358C69.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B2FFFB8FF137123F8358C69","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"542","verbatimText":"3.Spectacled PorpoisePhocoena dioptricaFrench:Marsouin a lunettes/ German:Brillenschweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa de anteojosOther common names:Spectacled DolphinTaxonomy.Phocaena dioptrica Lahille, 1912, Argentina, Buenos Aires, “capturado en Punta Colares, cerca de Quilmes.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Southern Hemisphere (E South America from S Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Is (= Malvinas), South Georgia Is, Kerguelen Is, Heard I, Macquarie I, Auckland Is, and Tasmania).Although previously thought to be exclusively coastal, like other members of the genus, recent sightings in oceanic waters of the Antarctic and subantarctic zones suggest that the species actually has a circumpolar distribution and may be largely oceanic.Descriptive notes.Total length 150-224 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Spectacled Porpoises are relatively large members of the genus, reaching total body lengths of 224 cm for males and 204 cm for females. Males are larger than females and also have much larger dorsal fins, which become oval-shaped and proportionately very large. Leading and trailing edges of dorsalfins are both convex. Females and young have dorsal fins more typical in size and shape for the genus. There is only a slight or no beak, and flippers are small, with rounded tips. Color patternis striking, two-tone black and white. Dorsal surface and upper sides are black, and belly and lowersides are white. Boundary between the two is very distinct and runs along flanks. A white “spectacle” surrounds each eye. There are black lip and eye patches, and several dark stripes from the gape that run toward the flipper. A faint gray post-dorsal fin saddle may be visible in good lighting. Newborns have a much paler dorsal surface than adults. Tooth counts generally are 17-23 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Variable habitats, including very deep, oceanic waters, but also in some rivers and turbid channels near shore. Spectacled Porpoises appear to prefer cold waters, with temperatures of 1-10°C, but in fact,little is known of the ecology ofthis elusive species. The southernmost sighting of Spectacled Porpoisesis currently 64° 34” S.Food and Feeding.Only a very small handful of stomachs from Spectacled Porpoises have been examined, so very little is understood about their feeding habits or preferences. From what is known, they appear to be opportunistic, feeding on prey items ranging from anchovies (Engraulis) and other small schooling fish to stomatopods and even algae (although the latter items may have been ingested incidentally just before stranding).Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but births appear to occur primarily in spring and summer.Activity patterns.Numbers of live sightings of Spectacled Porpoises at sea are very limited, and all of these have been opportunistic, so not much is known about their activity patterns. They have inconspicuous surfacing patterns and generally do not ride bow waves or leap clear of the water, although they have been enticed to occasionally surface quickly alongside the bow of research vessels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Groupsizes of Spectacled Porpoises are generally small, usually singletons, pairs, and trios. Occasionally groups of up to five individuals have been observed. Mother—offspring pairs are usually seen in the company of at least one attending adult male, and this may be suggestive of a mateguarding mating system, as is observed in Dall’s Porpoise (Phocoenoides dall).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Just like virtually everything else about the Spectacled Porpoise, little 1s known of its conservation status. There are no estimates of abundance, and virtually nothing is known about its population structure. The first-ever molecular work on the Spectacled Porpoise indicated a large population off Tierra del Fuego. Some individuals are caught in gillnets when in coastal waters, and there is a record of an individual caught in a mid-water trawl net. They were sometimes harpooned,at least in the past, by Native Fuegians and whalers. The Spectacled Porpoises is not considered endangered or threatened at this point.Bibliography.Best (2007), Curry et al. (1994), Evans, K. et al. (2001), Goodall (1995, 2009c), Goodall & Schiavini (1995), Olavarria (2006), Perrin et al. (2000), Pimperet al. (2012), Pinedo et al. (2002), Rosel et al. (1995), Sekiguchi et al. (2006), Van Waerebeek et al. (2010).","taxonomy":"Phocaena dioptrica Lahille, 1912, Argentina, Buenos Aires, “capturado en Punta Colares, cerca de Quilmes.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Marsouin a lunettes @fr | Brillenschweinswal @de | Marsopa de anteojos @es | Spectacled Dolphin @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lahille","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Phocoena","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"542","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dioptrica","name":"Phocoena dioptrica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Southern Hemisphere (E South America from S Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Is (= Malvinas), South Georgia Is, Kerguelen Is, Heard I, Macquarie I, Auckland Is, and Tasmania).Although previously thought to be exclusively coastal, like other members of the genus, recent sightings in oceanic waters of the Antarctic and subantarctic zones suggest that the species actually has a circumpolar distribution and may be largely oceanic.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6607335/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Best (2007) | Curry et al. (1994) | Evans, K. et al. (2001) | Goodall (1995, 2009c) | Goodall & Schiavini (1995) | Olavarria (2006) | Perrin et al. (2000) | Pimperet al. (2012) | Pinedo et al. (2002) | Rosel et al. (1995) | Sekiguchi et al. (2006) | Van Waerebeek et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"Only a very small handful of stomachs from Spectacled Porpoises have been examined, so very little is understood about their feeding habits or preferences. From what is known, they appear to be opportunistic, feeding on prey items ranging from anchovies (Engraulis) and other small schooling fish to stomatopods and even algae (although the latter items may have been ingested incidentally just before stranding).","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but births appear to occur primarily in spring and summer.","activityPatterns":"Numbers of live sightings of Spectacled Porpoises at sea are very limited, and all of these have been opportunistic, so not much is known about their activity patterns. They have inconspicuous surfacing patterns and generally do not ride bow waves or leap clear of the water, although they have been enticed to occasionally surface quickly alongside the bow of research vessels.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Groupsizes of Spectacled Porpoises are generally small, usually singletons, pairs, and trios. Occasionally groups of up to five individuals have been observed. Mother—offspring pairs are usually seen in the company of at least one attending adult male, and this may be suggestive of a mateguarding mating system, as is observed in Dall’s Porpoise (Phocoenoides dall).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Just like virtually everything else about the Spectacled Porpoise, little 1s known of its conservation status. There are no estimates of abundance, and virtually nothing is known about its population structure. The first-ever molecular work on the Spectacled Porpoise indicated a large population off Tierra del Fuego. Some individuals are caught in gillnets when in coastal waters, and there is a record of an individual caught in a mid-water trawl net. They were sometimes harpooned,at least in the past, by Native Fuegians and whalers. The Spectacled Porpoises is not considered endangered or threatened at this point.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 150-224 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Spectacled Porpoises are relatively large members of the genus, reaching total body lengths of 224 cm for males and 204 cm for females. Males are larger than females and also have much larger dorsal fins, which become oval-shaped and proportionately very large. Leading and trailing edges of dorsalfins are both convex. Females and young have dorsal fins more typical in size and shape for the genus. There is only a slight or no beak, and flippers are small, with rounded tips. Color patternis striking, two-tone black and white. Dorsal surface and upper sides are black, and belly and lowersides are white. Boundary between the two is very distinct and runs along flanks. A white “spectacle” surrounds each eye. There are black lip and eye patches, and several dark stripes from the gape that run toward the flipper. A faint gray post-dorsal fin saddle may be visible in good lighting. Newborns have a much paler dorsal surface than adults. Tooth counts generally are 17-23 in each half of each jaw.","habitat":"Variable habitats, including very deep, oceanic waters, but also in some rivers and turbid channels near shore. Spectacled Porpoises appear to prefer cold waters, with temperatures of 1-10°C, but in fact,little is known of the ecology ofthis elusive species. The southernmost sighting of Spectacled Porpoisesis currently 64° 34” S."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/B8/87/03B887D96B2FFFBFFA6C7C95FD288D52.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03B887D96B2FFFBFFA6C7C95FD288D52","docName":"hbmw_4_Phocoenidae_0528.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff81ffa16b2cffbbffd07927ffdb8900","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"542","verbatimText":"4.Burmeister’s PorpoisePhocoena spinipinnisFrench:Marsouin de Burmeister/ German:Burmeister-Schweinswal/ Spanish:Marsopa espinosaOther common names:Black PorpoiseTaxonomy.Phocaena spinipinnis Burmeister, 1865, Argentina, Buenos Aires, “captured in the mouth of the River Plata.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Near-shore waters of South America, from N Peru (5° S) S to Cape Horn and up the Atlantic coast to S Brazil (28° 50” S). Records from Uruguay and Brazil may be associated with N extrusions ofcold water.Descriptive notes.Total length 150-200 cm; weight 50-105 kg. Burmeister’s Porpoises regularly reach lengths of up to 185 cm (although individuals up to 200 cm long have been reported from Uruguay), and males are slightly larger than females. Body shapeis generally typical of that of phocoenids, with a moderately robust form. Head has a very short, poorly defined beak. Flippers are broad-based with rounded tips, and flukes are typical of other small cetaceans. Dorsal fin is unique; it rises at a very shallow angle from the posterior portion of the back and is narrow, with a convex trailing edge and a slightly concave or straight leading edge. There are several small tubercles along leading edge of dorsal fin, and sometimes on flippers, which give Burmeister’s Porpoise its scientific name. Coloration is generally uniform dark gray, with a slightly paler belly. There are subtle stripes, streaks, and patches on the head, including dark eye and lip patches, a dark chin-to-flipper stripe, and pale streaks on chin and undersides. Flipper stripes are asymmetrical, being narrower and extending farther forward on the right side. Tooth counts generally are 10-23 in each half of each jaw.Habitat.Shallow coastal waters from very near the shoreline up to 50 km offshore. Burmeister’s Porpoises occur in some open-ocean waters but also in enclosed bays, channels, and fjords, and they have even been seen upstream in some rivers. They inhabit cooler waters, and water temperature may limit their northern distribution.Food and Feeding.Burmeister’s Porpoises feed on a variety of pelagic and demersal fish and invertebrate species, including anchovies (Engraulisand Anchoa), hake (Merluccius), sardines (Sardinopsor Sciaena), silversides (Odontesthes), sculpin (Normanichthys), squid (such as Loligo), and shrimps. In the central coast of Peru, fish generally make up the majority of the prey items (98%).Breeding.Life history of Burmeister’s Porpoise has not been well studied, but sexual maturity appears to occur at lengths of ¢.160 cm in males and c.155 cm in females. Gestation lasts ¢.11-12 months. There are apparently protracted summer birthing peaks in most populations, and in Peru (where they have been best studied), most births occur in late summerto early autumn.Activity patterns.Very little is known about behavior and activities of Burmeister’s Porpoises, which have not been the subject of many ecological studies. Like other porpoises, they appear to be shy and inconspicuous, often avoiding vessels. They do not bow ride, and aerial behavior appears to be rather rare.Movements, Home range and Social organization.They live in small groups that generally number up to six individuals. On occasion, aggregations of up to 70 individuals have been reported, but these are presumably opportunistic. Although little is known for certain,it is expected that social bonds are largely short term and transitory. Essentially nothing is known about individual movements or ranging patterns of Burmeister’s Porpoises because no tagging or photo-identification studies have been conducted.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Although very little is known about stock structure in Burmeister’s Porpoises, there appear to be separate populations in Peruvian and Chilean-Argentine waters. Nevertheless, it is not clear if there is a distributional gap separating them. Burmeister’s Porpoises have been hunted with harpoons and nets in Peru and Chile, and the meat is mostly used for human consumption (at least in Peru) and shark and crab bait. These direct kills have been supplemented with incidental kills in gillnets. In Peru, up to 2000 porpoises/year may be killed. Like all members of the family, Burmeister’s Porpoises are vulnerable to gillnet entanglement, and these kills are thought to threaten some populations. Other potential threats include mortality in other fisheries, environmental contamination, and habitat alteration. Essentially nothing is known about abundance or population trends of Burmeister’s Porpoises, but the Peruvian population appears threatened by the high kill rates.Bibliography.Beilis et al. (2000), Brownell & Clapham (1999b), Corcuera et al. (1995), Garcia-Godos et al. (2007), Goodall, Norris et al. (1995), Goodall, Wirsig et al. (1995), Heinrich et al. (2008), Molina-Schiller et al. (2005), Reyes (2009), Reyes & Van Waerebeek (1995), Rosa et al. (2005), Van Bressem et al. (2007), Van Waerebeek & Reyes (1990, 1994), Van Waerebeek et al. (2002).","taxonomy":"Phocaena spinipinnis Burmeister, 1865, Argentina, Buenos Aires, “captured in the mouth of the River Plata.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Marsouin de Burmeister @fr | Burmeister-Schweinswal @de | Marsopa espinosa @es | Black Porpoise @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Burmeister","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1865","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Phocoenidae","interpretedGenus":"Phocoena","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"542","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"spinipinnis","name":"Phocoena spinipinnis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Near-shore waters of South America, from N Peru (5° S) S to Cape Horn and up the Atlantic coast to S Brazil (28° 50” S). Records from Uruguay and Brazil may be associated with N extrusions ofcold water.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6607337/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Beilis et al. (2000) | Brownell & Clapham (1999b) | Corcuera et al. (1995) | Garcia-Godos et al. (2007) | Goodall, Norris et al. (1995) | Goodall, Wirsig et al. (1995) | Heinrich et al. (2008) | Molina-Schiller et al. (2005) | Reyes (2009) | Reyes & Van Waerebeek (1995) | Rosa et al. (2005) | Van Bressem et al. (2007) | Van Waerebeek & Reyes (1990, 1994) | Van Waerebeek et al. (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"Burmeister’s Porpoises feed on a variety of pelagic and demersal fish and invertebrate species, including anchovies (Engraulisand Anchoa), hake (Merluccius), sardines (Sardinopsor Sciaena), silversides (Odontesthes), sculpin (Normanichthys), squid (such as Loligo), and shrimps. In the central coast of Peru, fish generally make up the majority of the prey items (98%).","breeding":"Life history of Burmeister’s Porpoise has not been well studied, but sexual maturity appears to occur at lengths of ¢.160 cm in males and c.155 cm in females. Gestation lasts ¢.11-12 months. There are apparently protracted summer birthing peaks in most populations, and in Peru (where they have been best studied), most births occur in late summerto early autumn.","activityPatterns":"Very little is known about behavior and activities of Burmeister’s Porpoises, which have not been the subject of many ecological studies. Like other porpoises, they appear to be shy and inconspicuous, often avoiding vessels. They do not bow ride, and aerial behavior appears to be rather rare.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"They live in small groups that generally number up to six individuals. On occasion, aggregations of up to 70 individuals have been reported, but these are presumably opportunistic. Although little is known for certain,it is expected that social bonds are largely short term and transitory. Essentially nothing is known about individual movements or ranging patterns of Burmeister’s Porpoises because no tagging or photo-identification studies have been conducted.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Although very little is known about stock structure in Burmeister’s Porpoises, there appear to be separate populations in Peruvian and Chilean-Argentine waters. Nevertheless, it is not clear if there is a distributional gap separating them. Burmeister’s Porpoises have been hunted with harpoons and nets in Peru and Chile, and the meat is mostly used for human consumption (at least in Peru) and shark and crab bait. These direct kills have been supplemented with incidental kills in gillnets. In Peru, up to 2000 porpoises/year may be killed. Like all members of the family, Burmeister’s Porpoises are vulnerable to gillnet entanglement, and these kills are thought to threaten some populations. Other potential threats include mortality in other fisheries, environmental contamination, and habitat alteration. Essentially nothing is known about abundance or population trends of Burmeister’s Porpoises, but the Peruvian population appears threatened by the high kill rates.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 150-200 cm; weight 50-105 kg. Burmeister’s Porpoises regularly reach lengths of up to 185 cm (although individuals up to 200 cm long have been reported from Uruguay), and males are slightly larger than females. Body shapeis generally typical of that of phocoenids, with a moderately robust form. Head has a very short, poorly defined beak. Flippers are broad-based with rounded tips, and flukes are typical of other small cetaceans. Dorsal fin is unique; it rises at a very shallow angle from the posterior portion of the back and is narrow, with a convex trailing edge and a slightly concave or straight leading edge. There are several small tubercles along leading edge of dorsal fin, and sometimes on flippers, which give Burmeister’s Porpoise its scientific name. Coloration is generally uniform dark gray, with a slightly paler belly. There are subtle stripes, streaks, and patches on the head, including dark eye and lip patches, a dark chin-to-flipper stripe, and pale streaks on chin and undersides. Flipper stripes are asymmetrical, being narrower and extending farther forward on the right side. Tooth counts generally are 10-23 in each half of each jaw.","habitat":"Shallow coastal waters from very near the shoreline up to 50 km offshore. Burmeister’s Porpoises occur in some open-ocean waters but also in enclosed bays, channels, and fjords, and they have even been seen upstream in some rivers. They inhabit cooler waters, and water temperature may limit their northern distribution."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD878F341A3F0CFFB0F9DBF6B5FC64.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD878F341A3F0CFFB0F9DBF6B5FC64","docName":"hbmw_5_Ornithorhynchidae_0058.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84fff7341b3f0dffdeff8fffbaf10b","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"67","verbatimText":"PlatypusOrnithorhynchus anatinusFrench: Ornithorynque / German: Schnabeltier / Spanish: OrnitorrincoOther common names: Duck-billed PlatypusTaxonomy.Platypus anatinus Shaw, 1799,“ In Australasia.”The type locality of P. anatinus is often given as “Australia, New South Wales, New Holland (= Sydney),” which did not appear in Shaw’s original publication, and seems to be a subsequent amalgamation of information from various sources. Following the witnessing by Governor J. Hunter of a Platypusbeing speared by aboriginal people in a freshwater lagoon around 60 km north-west of the penal colony ofPort Jackson (now Sydney) in 1797, a number of specimens ofthis strange small furred and amphibious animal were transported to England and to Europe. In 1799, one of these specimens (now the type specimen held in the Natural History Museum in London) was described by G. Shaw and named Platypusanatinus. The German anatomist J. F. Blumenbach independently described another specimen, which in 1800 he named Ornithorhynchusparadoxus. The name Platypushad already been given to a genus of beetles, so Blumenbach’s Ornithorhynchuswas accepted as the genus but anatinus was deemed to have priority over paradoxusas the species name. Monotypic.Distribution.E Australian mainland, including the states of Victoria, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, and Queensland (N up to near Cooktown), Tasmania, and King I. Introduced into W Kangaroo I.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-63 cm (males) and 37-55 cm (females); weight 0.8-3 kg (males) and 0.6-1.7 kg (females). The Platypusis sexually dimorphic, with males ¢.25% larger than females. There is a clinal increase in body size from north to south, with Tasmanian populations exhibiting larger body size and weight. Some populations also exhibit size variations, apparently not related to latitudinal distribution. For example, individuals from rivers flowing inland from the Great Dividing Range in New South Wales and Victoria are often larger than those found in streams flowing toward the coast in these states. The Platypushas dense, waterproof, and insulating pelage, dark brown to reddish-brown above and pale brown to silvery-cream ventrally. It has a streamlined body shape and distinctive bill. Eyes and ear openings are in single grooves on each side of head. Limbs are short, forefeet are webbed and have broad nails, and hindfeet are partially webbed with sharp claws. Males have a spur of c.1-5 cm in length on ankle region of both hindlimbs. Tail is broad, flat, and sparsely furred, with coarser hairs than body pelage.Habitat.Permanent freshwater streams and shallow lakes, isolated pools in ephemeral streams, water storage lakes, weir pools, other artificial ponds, and freshwater wetlands and their adjacent riparian zones from tropical rainforest lowlands to the high elevations of Tasmania and the Australian Alps. Platypuses occasionally occur in upper brackish reaches of estuaries.Food and Feeding.Small benthic macroinvertebrate species are predominant food sources ofPlatypuses. Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, and Plecoptera are the dominant insect groups consumed, but adults of free-swimming species such as small freshwater crustaceans or hemipterans and occasionally tadpoles or small fish are also taken.Breeding.Platypuses are seasonal breeders, and pre-copulatory behavior, mating, and nest building occur in late winter to early spring. Normal number of eggs is two (1-3), and eggs measure c.14 x 17 mm. Females construct nesting burrows that are used to incubate and nurse their young. Gestation is c.21 days, and incubation ofeggs last c.10 days. Lactation lasts c.4 months, with juveniles emerging from nesting burrows in late summer. Breeding is earlier in the north and later in the south. Both sexes are capable of breeding in second season after independence, but many begin breeding later and not all females breed each year. Platypuses are long-lived, surviving 7-14 years (but up to 21 years) in captivity and in the wild.Activity patterns.Foraging activity of Platypuses consists of multiple short dives and is predominantly nocturnal. Most individuals seek shelter in burrows during the day, emerging in the late afternoon and reentering burrows in the early morning. The extent of diurnal foraging can vary within and between populations and with the seasons.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Platypuses are predominantly linear and extend from hundreds of meters to several kilometers. Males appear to have larger and more exclusive home ranges than females. The social system of Platypuses is largely unknown.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Platypuses were historically found in the mountain ranges north and south ofthe city of Adelaide in South Australia but apart from their presence in a small intrusion ofthe Glenelg River across the Victorian border, are represented in this state only by a population introduced between 1929 and 1946 on the western end of Kangaroo Island. There is no evidence that the Platypusever occurred naturally in Western Australia, and several limited introduction attempts appear to have been unsuccessful. The Platypusis a commonspecies over most ofits distribution, except in the state of South Australia where it is considered endangered. Its dependence on persistent water bodies makes it vulnerable to adverse impacts of water extraction, agriculture, mining, and urbanization. Platypuses are caught and drownedin fishing gear, traps, and nets, used legally and illegally to capture freshwater fish and crayfish. Mortality also occurs as a result of entanglement in rubbish, road kill, and attack by exotic Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and feral dogs. A recent review recommended that the Platypusbe given the status of near threatened under Australian law, due to declines in some local populations, especially in the state of Victoria. Such declines are likely to be exacerbated byclimate change.Bibliography.Abbott (2008), Bethge (2002), Bethge et al. (2003, 2009), Blumenbach (1800), Bohringer & Rowe (1977), Carrick et al. (2008), De-La-Warr & Serena (1999), Evans et al. (1994), Faragheret al. (1979), Fleay (1980), Furlan (2012), Furlan, Griffiths, Gust, Armistead et al. (2011), Furlan, Griffiths, Gust, Handasyde et al. (2013), Fur lan, Umina et al. (2010), Gardner & Serena (1995), Gongora et al. (2012), Grant (1982, 1983, 2004a, 2004b, 2007), Grant & Dawson (1978a, 1978b), Grant & Temple-Smith (2003), Grant et al. (2004), Griffiths (1978), Grigg etal. (1992), Grus et al. (2007), Gust & Handasyde (1995), Hamilton-Smith (1968), Hawkins & Battaglia (2009), Holland & Jackson (2002), Hulbert & Grant (1983), Klamt et al. (2011), Kolomyjec (2010), Kolomyjec et al. (2009), Long et al. (2002), Lunney, Dickman et al. (2008), Macgillivray (1827), Mahoney (1988), McLachlan-Troup et al. (2010), Munks et al. (2004), Otley et al. (2000), Pettigrew et al. (1998), Pian et al. (2013), Proske & Gregory (2003, 2004), Robinson (1954), Serena & Williams (1998, 2010, 2012), Serena et al. (1998), Scheich et al. (1986), Shaw (1799), Temple-Smith (1973), Temple-Smith & Grant (2002), Thomas (1923b), Troughton (1965a), Whittington, C.M. et al. (2008), Whittington, R.J. & Grant (1984), Williams et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014b).","taxonomy":"Platypus anatinus Shaw, 1799,“ In Australasia.”The type locality of P. anatinus is often given as “Australia, New South Wales, New Holland (= Sydney),” which did not appear in Shaw’s original publication, and seems to be a subsequent amalgamation of information from various sources. Following the witnessing by Governor J. Hunter of a Platypusbeing speared by aboriginal people in a freshwater lagoon around 60 km north-west of the penal colony ofPort Jackson (now Sydney) in 1797, a number of specimens ofthis strange small furred and amphibious animal were transported to England and to Europe. In 1799, one of these specimens (now the type specimen held in the Natural History Museum in London) was described by G. Shaw and named Platypusanatinus. The German anatomist J. F. Blumenbach independently described another specimen, which in 1800 he named Ornithorhynchusparadoxus. The name Platypushad already been given to a genus of beetles, so Blumenbach’s Ornithorhynchuswas accepted as the genus but anatinus was deemed to have priority over paradoxusas the species name. Monotypic.","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1799","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ornithorhynchidae","interpretedGenus":"Ornithorhynchus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Monotremata","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"67","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"anatinus","name":"Ornithorhynchus anatinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Australian mainland, including the states of Victoria, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, and Queensland (N up to near Cooktown), Tasmania, and King I. Introduced into W Kangaroo I.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621679/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abbott (2008) | Bethge (2002) | Bethge et al. (2003, 2009) | Blumenbach (1800) | Bohringer & Rowe (1977) | Carrick et al. (2008) | De-La-Warr & Serena (1999) | Evans et al. (1994) | Faragheret al. (1979) | Fleay (1980) | Furlan (2012) | Furlan, Griffiths, Gust, Armistead et al. (2011) | Furlan, Griffiths, Gust, Handasyde et al. (2013) | Fur lan, Umina et al. (2010) | Gardner & Serena (1995) | Gongora et al. (2012) | Grant (1982, 1983, 2004a, 2004b, 2007) | Grant & Dawson (1978a, 1978b) | Grant & Temple-Smith (2003) | Grant et al. (2004) | Griffiths (1978) | Grigg etal. (1992) | Grus et al. (2007) | Gust & Handasyde (1995) | Hamilton-Smith (1968) | Hawkins & Battaglia (2009) | Holland & Jackson (2002) | Hulbert & Grant (1983) | Klamt et al. (2011) | Kolomyjec (2010) | Kolomyjec et al. (2009) | Long et al. (2002) | Lunney, Dickman et al. (2008) | Macgillivray (1827) | Mahoney (1988) | McLachlan-Troup et al. (2010) | Munks et al. (2004) | Otley et al. (2000) | Pettigrew et al. (1998) | Pian et al. (2013) | Proske & Gregory (2003, 2004) | Robinson (1954) | Serena & Williams (1998, 2010, 2012) | Serena et al. (1998) | Scheich et al. (1986) | Shaw (1799) | Temple-Smith (1973) | Temple-Smith & Grant (2002) | Thomas (1923b) | Troughton (1965a) | Whittington, C.M. et al. (2008) | Whittington, R.J. & Grant (1984) | Williams et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014b)","foodAndFeeding":"Small benthic macroinvertebrate species are predominant food sources ofPlatypuses. Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, and Plecoptera are the dominant insect groups consumed, but adults of free-swimming species such as small freshwater crustaceans or hemipterans and occasionally tadpoles or small fish are also taken.","breeding":"Platypuses are seasonal breeders, and pre-copulatory behavior, mating, and nest building occur in late winter to early spring. Normal number of eggs is two (1-3), and eggs measure c.14 x 17 mm. Females construct nesting burrows that are used to incubate and nurse their young. Gestation is c.21 days, and incubation ofeggs last c.10 days. Lactation lasts c.4 months, with juveniles emerging from nesting burrows in late summer. Breeding is earlier in the north and later in the south. Both sexes are capable of breeding in second season after independence, but many begin breeding later and not all females breed each year. Platypuses are long-lived, surviving 7-14 years (but up to 21 years) in captivity and in the wild.","activityPatterns":"Foraging activity of Platypuses consists of multiple short dives and is predominantly nocturnal. Most individuals seek shelter in burrows during the day, emerging in the late afternoon and reentering burrows in the early morning. The extent of diurnal foraging can vary within and between populations and with the seasons.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Platypuses are predominantly linear and extend from hundreds of meters to several kilometers. Males appear to have larger and more exclusive home ranges than females. The social system of Platypuses is largely unknown.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Platypuses were historically found in the mountain ranges north and south ofthe city of Adelaide in South Australia but apart from their presence in a small intrusion ofthe Glenelg River across the Victorian border, are represented in this state only by a population introduced between 1929 and 1946 on the western end of Kangaroo Island. There is no evidence that the Platypusever occurred naturally in Western Australia, and several limited introduction attempts appear to have been unsuccessful. The Platypusis a commonspecies over most ofits distribution, except in the state of South Australia where it is considered endangered. Its dependence on persistent water bodies makes it vulnerable to adverse impacts of water extraction, agriculture, mining, and urbanization. Platypuses are caught and drownedin fishing gear, traps, and nets, used legally and illegally to capture freshwater fish and crayfish. Mortality also occurs as a result of entanglement in rubbish, road kill, and attack by exotic Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and feral dogs. A recent review recommended that the Platypusbe given the status of near threatened under Australian law, due to declines in some local populations, especially in the state of Victoria. Such declines are likely to be exacerbated byclimate change.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-63 cm (males) and 37-55 cm (females); weight 0.8-3 kg (males) and 0.6-1.7 kg (females). The Platypusis sexually dimorphic, with males ¢.25% larger than females. There is a clinal increase in body size from north to south, with Tasmanian populations exhibiting larger body size and weight. Some populations also exhibit size variations, apparently not related to latitudinal distribution. For example, individuals from rivers flowing inland from the Great Dividing Range in New South Wales and Victoria are often larger than those found in streams flowing toward the coast in these states. The Platypushas dense, waterproof, and insulating pelage, dark brown to reddish-brown above and pale brown to silvery-cream ventrally. It has a streamlined body shape and distinctive bill. Eyes and ear openings are in single grooves on each side of head. Limbs are short, forefeet are webbed and have broad nails, and hindfeet are partially webbed with sharp claws. Males have a spur of c.1-5 cm in length on ankle region of both hindlimbs. Tail is broad, flat, and sparsely furred, with coarser hairs than body pelage.","habitat":"Permanent freshwater streams and shallow lakes, isolated pools in ephemeral streams, water storage lakes, weir pools, other artificial ponds, and freshwater wetlands and their adjacent riparian zones from tropical rainforest lowlands to the high elevations of Tasmania and the Australian Alps. Platypuses occasionally occur in upper brackish reaches of estuaries."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD878F341B3F0DFE43FD9EF866F5F4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD878F341B3F0DFE43FD9EF866F5F4","docName":"hbmw_5_Ornithorhynchidae_0058.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84fff7341b3f0dffdeff8fffbaf10b","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"66","verbatimText":"Family ORNITHORHYNCHIDAE(PLATYPUS)* Small-sized streamlined, semi-aquatic, egg-laying mammal, with distinctive pliable bill covered with naked moist skin, short limbs, broad flat tail, conspicuously webbed forefeet, and dense fine underfur and coarse overlaying guard hairs.e 40-60 cm.Australasian Region.Inland freshwater bodies and associated riparian zones.1 genus, 1 species, 1 taxon.No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C660A212F8A5FB65F7915168.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C660A212F8A5FB65F7915168","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"249","verbatimText":"62.Dusky Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros aterFrench:Phyllorhine sombre/ German:Dunkle Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido sombreadoOther common names:Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat, Dusky Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros ater Templeton, 1848, “Colombo,” Sri Lanka.Hipposideros aterwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group (13 species). Phylogenetic analyses suggested specimens referred to this species from throughout the range include cryptic species; e.g. in Borneo, and further revision of this widespread species is needed. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.aterTempleton,1848-IndiaandSriLanka.H.a.amboinensisPeters,1871—AmbonI,Moluccas.H.a.antricolaPeters,1861—Philippines.H.a.aruensisj.E.Gray,1858—NewGuinea,BismarckArchipelago,WoodlarkI,andEAustralia(Queensland).H.a.gilbertiD.H.Johnson,1959-WesternAustraliaandNorthernTerritory,Australia.H.a.naUamalaensis.Srinivasulu&B.Srinivasulu,2006-EasternGhats,AndhraPradesh,India.H. a. saevus K. Andersen, 1918-Myanmar S to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, N Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Is (Baliand Lombok), Sulawesi, Moluccas, and Kai Is. Range of this subspecies is tentative and needs revision.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-45 mm, tail 17-28 mm, forearm 17-43 mm; weight 4-5-10 g. Forearm length variable between populations, 34-38 mm (Indian subcontinent) and 36-43 mm (PapuaNew Guinea). Noseleaf of the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat has no supplementary leaflet. Shape of intemarial septum varies between populations, from triangular to parallel-sided, or a swollen bump. Pelage color is variable from dull yellow to golden-orange to gray to dark brown; base of hair is paler than tip. Skull is small; sagittal crest is present but not well developed. P4 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is a very small, thin, straight shaft with simple blunt base and tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, understory of rainforest, dry evergreen forest, and secondary forest.Food and Feeding.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat combines aerial-hawking and foliagegleaning tactics to find insect prey. Its known diet includes beetles, moths, gnats, and mosquitoes.Breeding.In India, females were found pregnant in mid-November to mid-December and gave birth to a single offspring from late May to June, continuing to lactate until mid-August. Females reach sexual maturity within one year. In Sri Lanka, pregnant females were captured in mid-March. In PapuaNew Guinea, pregnant females were found in late October, and a young was found in early December. In Australia, newborn young were observed in October-November. Individual males can be found at maternity roosts.Activity patterns.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat emerges rather late in the evening and flies low down. It roosts in caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, abandoned mines or hollow trees. During the day, it spends time grooming and cleaning fur and membranes. Call frequency of F segment is 163-169 kHz in India, and 154-164 kHz in PapuaNew Guinea.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly (particularly males), or in small groups, in caves, with numbers of up to a few hundred individuals; bats maintain a space of c.lO cm from each other. The species can share a roost with other bat species, but tends to hang apart from them.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species and is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bonaccorso (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Heaney eta/. (2008), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2006).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros ater Templeton, 1848, “Colombo,” Sri Lanka.Hipposideros aterwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group (13 species). Phylogenetic analyses suggested specimens referred to this species from throughout the range include cryptic species; e.g. in Borneo, and further revision of this widespread species is needed. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine sombre @fr | Dunkle Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido sombreado @es | Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Dusky Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Templeton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1848","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"249","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ater","name":"Hipposideros ater","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.aterTempleton,1848-IndiaandSriLanka.H.a.amboinensisPeters,1871—AmbonI,Moluccas.H.a.antricolaPeters,1861—Philippines.H.a.aruensisj.E.Gray,1858—NewGuinea,BismarckArchipelago,WoodlarkI,andEAustralia(Queensland).H.a.gilbertiD.H.Johnson,1959-WesternAustraliaandNorthernTerritory,Australia.H.a.naUamalaensis.Srinivasulu&B.Srinivasulu,2006-EasternGhats,AndhraPradesh,India.H. a. saevus K. Andersen, 1918-Myanmar S to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, N Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Is (Baliand Lombok), Sulawesi, Moluccas, and Kai Is. Range of this subspecies is tentative and needs revision.","bibliography":"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Heaney et al. (2008) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat combines aerial-hawking and foliagegleaning tactics to find insect prey. Its known diet includes beetles, moths, gnats, and mosquitoes.","breeding":"In India, females were found pregnant in mid-November to mid-December and gave birth to a single offspring from late May to June, continuing to lactate until mid-August. Females reach sexual maturity within one year. In Sri Lanka, pregnant females were captured in mid-March. In PapuaNew Guinea, pregnant females were found in late October, and a young was found in early December. In Australia, newborn young were observed in October-November. Individual males can be found at maternity roosts.","activityPatterns":"The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat emerges rather late in the evening and flies low down. It roosts in caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, abandoned mines or hollow trees. During the day, it spends time grooming and cleaning fur and membranes. Call frequency of F segment is 163-169 kHz in India, and 154-164 kHz in PapuaNew Guinea.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly (particularly males), or in small groups, in caves, with numbers of up to a few hundred individuals; bats maintain a space of c.lO cm from each other. The species can share a roost with other bat species, but tends to hang apart from them.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species and is found in several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-45 mm, tail 17-28 mm, forearm 17-43 mm; weight 4-5-10 g. Forearm length variable between populations, 34-38 mm (Indian subcontinent) and 36-43 mm (PapuaNew Guinea). Noseleaf of the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat has no supplementary leaflet. Shape of intemarial septum varies between populations, from triangular to parallel-sided, or a swollen bump. Pelage color is variable from dull yellow to golden-orange to gray to dark brown; base of hair is paler than tip. Skull is small; sagittal crest is present but not well developed. P4 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is a very small, thin, straight shaft with simple blunt base and tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C660A212F8A5FB65F7915168.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C660A212F8A5FB65F7915168","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"249","verbatimText":"62.Dusky Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros aterFrench:Phyllorhine sombre/ German:Dunkle Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido sombreadoOther common names:Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat, Dusky Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros ater Templeton, 1848, “Colombo,” Sri Lanka.Hipposideros aterwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group (13 species). Phylogenetic analyses suggested specimens referred to this species from throughout the range include cryptic species; e.g. in Borneo, and further revision of this widespread species is needed. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.aterTempleton,1848-IndiaandSriLanka.H.a.amboinensisPeters,1871—AmbonI,Moluccas.H.a.antricolaPeters,1861—Philippines.H.a.aruensisj.E.Gray,1858—NewGuinea,BismarckArchipelago,WoodlarkI,andEAustralia(Queensland).H.a.gilbertiD.H.Johnson,1959-WesternAustraliaandNorthernTerritory,Australia.H.a.naUamalaensis.Srinivasulu&B.Srinivasulu,2006-EasternGhats,AndhraPradesh,India.H. a. saevus K. Andersen, 1918-Myanmar S to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, N Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Is (Baliand Lombok), Sulawesi, Moluccas, and Kai Is. Range of this subspecies is tentative and needs revision.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-45 mm, tail 17-28 mm, forearm 17-43 mm; weight 4-5-10 g. Forearm length variable between populations, 34-38 mm (Indian subcontinent) and 36-43 mm (PapuaNew Guinea). Noseleaf of the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat has no supplementary leaflet. Shape of intemarial septum varies between populations, from triangular to parallel-sided, or a swollen bump. Pelage color is variable from dull yellow to golden-orange to gray to dark brown; base of hair is paler than tip. Skull is small; sagittal crest is present but not well developed. P4 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is a very small, thin, straight shaft with simple blunt base and tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, understory of rainforest, dry evergreen forest, and secondary forest.Food and Feeding.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat combines aerial-hawking and foliagegleaning tactics to find insect prey. Its known diet includes beetles, moths, gnats, and mosquitoes.Breeding.In India, females were found pregnant in mid-November to mid-December and gave birth to a single offspring from late May to June, continuing to lactate until mid-August. Females reach sexual maturity within one year. In Sri Lanka, pregnant females were captured in mid-March. In PapuaNew Guinea, pregnant females were found in late October, and a young was found in early December. In Australia, newborn young were observed in October-November. Individual males can be found at maternity roosts.Activity patterns.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat emerges rather late in the evening and flies low down. It roosts in caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, abandoned mines or hollow trees. During the day, it spends time grooming and cleaning fur and membranes. Call frequency of F segment is 163-169 kHz in India, and 154-164 kHz in PapuaNew Guinea.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly (particularly males), or in small groups, in caves, with numbers of up to a few hundred individuals; bats maintain a space of c.lO cm from each other. The species can share a roost with other bat species, but tends to hang apart from them.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species and is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bonaccorso (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Heaney eta/. (2008), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2006).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros ater Templeton, 1848, “Colombo,” Sri Lanka.Hipposideros aterwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group (13 species). Phylogenetic analyses suggested specimens referred to this species from throughout the range include cryptic species; e.g. in Borneo, and further revision of this widespread species is needed. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine sombre @fr | Dunkle Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido sombreado @es | Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Dusky Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Templeton","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1848","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"249","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ater","name":"Hipposideros ater","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.aterTempleton,1848-IndiaandSriLanka.H.a.amboinensisPeters,1871—AmbonI,Moluccas.H.a.antricolaPeters,1861—Philippines.H.a.aruensisj.E.Gray,1858—NewGuinea,BismarckArchipelago,WoodlarkI,andEAustralia(Queensland).H.a.gilbertiD.H.Johnson,1959-WesternAustraliaandNorthernTerritory,Australia.H.a.naUamalaensis.Srinivasulu&B.Srinivasulu,2006-EasternGhats,AndhraPradesh,India.H. a. saevus K. Andersen, 1918-Myanmar S to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, N Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Is (Baliand Lombok), Sulawesi, Moluccas, and Kai Is. Range of this subspecies is tentative and needs revision.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6470435/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Heaney et al. (2008) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat combines aerial-hawking and foliagegleaning tactics to find insect prey. Its known diet includes beetles, moths, gnats, and mosquitoes.","breeding":"In India, females were found pregnant in mid-November to mid-December and gave birth to a single offspring from late May to June, continuing to lactate until mid-August. Females reach sexual maturity within one year. In Sri Lanka, pregnant females were captured in mid-March. In PapuaNew Guinea, pregnant females were found in late October, and a young was found in early December. In Australia, newborn young were observed in October-November. Individual males can be found at maternity roosts.","activityPatterns":"The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat emerges rather late in the evening and flies low down. It roosts in caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, abandoned mines or hollow trees. During the day, it spends time grooming and cleaning fur and membranes. Call frequency of F segment is 163-169 kHz in India, and 154-164 kHz in PapuaNew Guinea.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly (particularly males), or in small groups, in caves, with numbers of up to a few hundred individuals; bats maintain a space of c.lO cm from each other. The species can share a roost with other bat species, but tends to hang apart from them.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species and is found in several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-45 mm, tail 17-28 mm, forearm 17-43 mm; weight 4-5-10 g. Forearm length variable between populations, 34-38 mm (Indian subcontinent) and 36-43 mm (PapuaNew Guinea). Noseleaf of the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat has no supplementary leaflet. Shape of intemarial septum varies between populations, from triangular to parallel-sided, or a swollen bump. Pelage color is variable from dull yellow to golden-orange to gray to dark brown; base of hair is paler than tip. Skull is small; sagittal crest is present but not well developed. P4 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is a very small, thin, straight shaft with simple blunt base and tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C660A212FF52F3F7F35547D7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C660A212FF52F3F7F35547D7","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"249","verbatimText":"61.Maghreb Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros tephrusFrench:Phyllorhine cendrée IGerman:Maghreb-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MagrebOther common names:Ash Gray Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros [sic] tephrusa ­ brera, 1906, Mogador, Morocco.Hipposideros tephrusbelongs to the ruberspecies group. It was previously considered a subspecies of H. coffer. Monotypic.Distribution.Extent of this species’ distribution is not yet known; recorded with certainty in Morocco, Senegal, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. It is thought to be continuously distributed from Mauritaniaand SenegalE to South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. However, boundary between this species and the morphologically identical H. coffer is not known.Descriptive notes.Head-body 45-50 mm, tail 27—35 mm, ear 12—15 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm. The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short, with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and fluffy, gray or brown gray dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph also occurs that is typically reddish golden.Habitat.Inhabits riparian forest in arid savanna and woodland. Occurs in the Sahelzone and further south in Sudanian savanna.Food and Feeding.The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be insectivorous.Breeding.Based on observations in northern Nigeria(which probably refer to this species), a single young is bom in a restricted season: mating appears to take place in November at the end of the rainy season, with births in late April at the beginning of the rainy season. Females lactate for two months, until late June.Activity patterns.The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in a variety of situations including caves, and holes in the ground. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.140-150 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bats may roost in large colonies of up to 1000 individuals. Roosting colonies include adult males and females. At one cave in Nigeria, males apparendy dispersed away from a large colony at the time of parturition, effectively resulting in the cave forming a maternity roost for the remaining females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 7%♂ IUCN Red List. Due to its wide distribution and large populations, the Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat is unlikely to become threatened in the near future.Bibliography.Aellen (1952), Bernard & Happold (2013b), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hill (1963a), Koopman (1989), Koopman et al. (1995), Nader (1982), Vallo et al. (2008), Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros [sic] tephrusa ­ brera, 1906, Mogador, Morocco.Hipposideros tephrusbelongs to the ruberspecies group. It was previously considered a subspecies of H. coffer. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine cendrée @fr | Maghreb-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Magreb @es | Ash Gray Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Cabrera","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1906","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"249","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tephrus","name":"Hipposideros tephrus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Extent of this species’ distribution is not yet known; recorded with certainty in Morocco, Senegal, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. It is thought to be continuously distributed from Mauritaniaand SenegalE to South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. However, boundary between this species and the morphologically identical H. coffer is not known.","bibliography":"Aellen (1952) | Bernard & Happold (2013b) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hill (1963a) | Koopman (1989) | Koopman et al. (1995) | Nader (1982) | Vallo et al. (2008) | Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017)","foodAndFeeding":"The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be insectivorous.","breeding":"Based on observations in northern Nigeria(which probably refer to this species), a single young is bom in a restricted season: mating appears to take place in November at the end of the rainy season, with births in late April at the beginning of the rainy season. Females lactate for two months, until late June.","activityPatterns":"The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in a variety of situations including caves, and holes in the ground. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.140-150 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bats may roost in large colonies of up to 1000 individuals. Roosting colonies include adult males and females. At one cave in Nigeria, males apparendy dispersed away from a large colony at the time of parturition, effectively resulting in the cave forming a maternity roost for the remaining females.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on 7%♂ IUCN Red List. Due to its wide distribution and large populations, the Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat is unlikely to become threatened in the near future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 45-50 mm, tail 27—35 mm, ear 12—15 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm. The Maghreb Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short, with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and fluffy, gray or brown gray dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph also occurs that is typically reddish golden.","habitat":"Inhabits riparian forest in arid savanna and woodland. Occurs in the Sahelzone and further south in Sudanian savanna."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A213F87DFC7EF2EC4DE2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C661A213F87DFC7EF2EC4DE2","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"250","verbatimText":"65.Least Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros cineraceusFrench:Petite Phyllorhine/ German:Aschgraue Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido pequenoOther common names:Ashy Leaf-nosed Bat, Ashy Roundleaf Bat, Least Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros cineraceus Blyth, 1853, near Pind Dadan Khan, Salt Range, Punjab, Pakistan.Hipposideros cineraceuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Taxonomic revision of specimens referred to this species is needed; it may prove to comprise more taxa, with at least one undescribed species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.c.cineraceusBlyth,1853—NPakistan,NIndia,mainlandSEAsia,MalayPeninsula(includingLangkawiI),Sumatra,KrakatauI,Borneo,andKangeanIs.H. c. wrightiK. H. Taylor, 1934-Luzon I, Philippines.Descriptive notes.Forearm 32—36 mm. Noseleaf of the Least Leaf-nosed Bat is narrow, pink or pale brown in color, and lacks supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is buffy brown or pale brown, with whitish bases. Skull is small with rostral chambers not inflated. P3 is small and slightly or fully extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, 1-8-2, 5 mmin length, shaft being narrow and straight with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Least Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps or along trails in understory of various types of forest, from primary lowland rainforest at sea level to dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, mangrove or bamboo forests, secondary or disturbed forests, or hill forest up to 1480 m. It is common in limestone karst throughout its range.Food and Feeding.The Least Leaf-nosed Bat can be found commuting through orchards and rubber and oil-palm plantations from its roosts to its foraging grounds. It feeds on small insects in the forest understory.Breeding.In Malay Peninsula, females were found pregnant in April, June and September. Females give birth to a single offspring in March; peak lactation is between April and June.Activity patterns.The Least Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, old buildings, abandoned mines, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 134—156 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Least Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small groups of a few individuals to a colony size of up to a few hundred, in caves. In large caves, it can be found together with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats (H. bicolor), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), and Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats (77. pendleburyi).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77w IUCN Red List. The Least Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species. Potential threats include habitat loss and unregulated tourism.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal & Kingston (2008b), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010), Heaney et al. (1998), Kingston et al. (2006), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros cineraceus Blyth, 1853, near Pind Dadan Khan, Salt Range, Punjab, Pakistan.Hipposideros cineraceuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Taxonomic revision of specimens referred to this species is needed; it may prove to comprise more taxa, with at least one undescribed species. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Petite Phyllorhine @fr | Aschgraue Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido pequeno @es | Ashy Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Ashy Roundleaf Bat @en | Least Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blyth","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1853","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"250","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cineraceus","name":"Hipposideros cineraceus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.c.cineraceusBlyth,1853—NPakistan,NIndia,mainlandSEAsia,MalayPeninsula(includingLangkawiI),Sumatra,KrakatauI,Borneo,andKangeanIs.H. c. wrightiK. H. Taylor, 1934-Luzon I, Philippines.","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal & Kingston (2008b) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Least Leaf-nosed Bat can be found commuting through orchards and rubber and oil-palm plantations from its roosts to its foraging grounds. It feeds on small insects in the forest understory.","breeding":"In Malay Peninsula, females were found pregnant in April, June and September. Females give birth to a single offspring in March; peak lactation is between April and June.","activityPatterns":"The Least Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, old buildings, abandoned mines, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 134—156 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Least Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small groups of a few individuals to a colony size of up to a few hundred, in caves. In large caves, it can be found together with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats (H. bicolor), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), and Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats (77. pendleburyi).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on 77w IUCN Red List. The Least Leaf-nosed Bat is a widespread species. Potential threats include habitat loss and unregulated tourism.","descriptiveNotes":"Forearm 32—36 mm. Noseleaf of the Least Leaf-nosed Bat is narrow, pink or pale brown in color, and lacks supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is buffy brown or pale brown, with whitish bases. Skull is small with rostral chambers not inflated. P3 is small and slightly or fully extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, 1-8-2, 5 mmin length, shaft being narrow and straight with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"The Least Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps or along trails in understory of various types of forest, from primary lowland rainforest at sea level to dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, mangrove or bamboo forests, secondary or disturbed forests, or hill forest up to 1480 m. It is common in limestone karst throughout its range."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A213FF2FF357F4E14030.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C661A213FF2FF357F4E14030","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"250","verbatimText":"64.Short-headed Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros brevicepsFrench:Phyllorhine des Mentawai/ German:Kurzkopf-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MentawaiOther common names:Short-headed Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros breviceps Tate, 1941, “North Pagi [Island], Mentawi Islands, lowlands,” Sumatra, Indonesia.Hipposideros brevicepswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Reported only from North Pagai I, Mentawai Is, off W Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Head—body 42 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7 mm, forearm 43 mm. The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat (H. galeritus), with ears slightly less haired. Noseleaf is small and presents two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Anterior leaflet is longer than posterior one. Anterior noseleaf has no medial emargination. Posterior leaf has semicircular upper margin with small projection, and has medial septum and two lateral septa forming four cells. Ears are large, triangular and haired for one-half of their length. Dorsal pelage is brownish-black, with paler color at base of each hair; ventral part is covered by grayish-brownish fur, with paler hair base.Habitat.Presumably forest areas.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based on insects.Breeding.Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.Activity patterns.The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat presumably roosts in caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is only known from 37 specimens collected in 1941, and population size, trends, ecology, and threats are still unknown. It is thought that one of its possible threats might be habitat loss due to wood extraction. Further studies are required in order to assess the conservation status of this species accurately, and establish adequate management measures.Bibliography.Hill (1963a), Huang & Sigit (2016), Tate (1941a).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros breviceps Tate, 1941, “North Pagi [Island], Mentawi Islands, lowlands,” Sumatra, Indonesia.Hipposideros brevicepswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine des Mentawai @fr | Kurzkopf-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Mentawai @es | Short-headed Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Tate","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1941","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"250","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"breviceps","name":"Hipposideros breviceps","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Reported only from North Pagai I, Mentawai Is, off W Sumatra.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749163/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hill (1963a) | Huang & Sigit (2016) | Tate (1941a)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based on insects.","breeding":"Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.","activityPatterns":"The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat presumably roosts in caves.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is only known from 37 specimens collected in 1941, and population size, trends, ecology, and threats are still unknown. It is thought that one of its possible threats might be habitat loss due to wood extraction. Further studies are required in order to assess the conservation status of this species accurately, and establish adequate management measures.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 42 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7 mm, forearm 43 mm. The Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat (H. galeritus), with ears slightly less haired. Noseleaf is small and presents two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Anterior leaflet is longer than posterior one. Anterior noseleaf has no medial emargination. Posterior leaf has semicircular upper margin with small projection, and has medial septum and two lateral septa forming four cells. Ears are large, triangular and haired for one-half of their length. Dorsal pelage is brownish-black, with paler color at base of each hair; ventral part is covered by grayish-brownish fur, with paler hair base.","habitat":"Presumably forest areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A213FF37FEFFFBCE4F27.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C661A213FF37FEFFFBCE4F27","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"250","verbatimText":"63.Bicolored Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros bicolorFrench:Phyllorhine bicolore/ German:Zweifarb-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido bicolorOther common names:Bicolored Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus bicolor Temminck, 1834, “ Java, Amboina en op Timor.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1941 to “ Javaand Timor.”Hipposideros bicolorwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now in the new aterspecies group. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. b. bicolor Temminck, 1834-Borneo, Java, and W Lesser Sunda Is.H.b.atroxK.Andersen,1918—SThailand,MalayPeninsula(includingTarutaoandTiomanIs),Sumatra,andBangkaIs.H.b.erigensLawrence,1939-Philippines(Luzon,Mindoro,andBoholIs)H.b.hilliKitchener,1996—TimorI,ELesserSundas..H.b.majorK.Andersen,1918-NiasandEngganoIs,offWSumatra.H.b.selatanKitchener,1996—SavuandRotiIs,ELesserSundas.H. b. tanimbarensis Kitchener, 1996— Tanimbar Is (Selaru).Previous records from TaiwanI, Laos, and Vietnammay prove to be misidentifications and need further verification.Descriptive notes.Forearm 43-48 mm. Noseleaf of the Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat has one thin supplementary leaflet on each side. Anterior leaf is somewhat rounded. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is grayish brown to dark brown, or reddish brown. Skull is small; sagittal crest is moderately developed. P3 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, c. 3 mmin length, with thin, curved shaft with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, and the understory of primary rainforest, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, and secondary forest. It can be found in orchards, rubber and oil-palm plantations near roosting caves. It is abundant in lowland forests in limestone karst habitat and can be found up to 600 m.Food and Feeding.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small insects in forest gaps and along trails or over water bodies; it feeds in the understory, c. 3 maboveground.Breeding.In peninsular Thailand, females were found pregnant in March-May and the young with lactating females were observed in late April-June.Activity patterns.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 127—135 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small to large groups, in caves; these can be shared with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (W. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. pendleburyi), and also various Rhinolophus species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat is fairly common and is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates & Gumal (2008), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010), Heaney et al. (1998), Kingston et al. (2006), Murray et al. (2018), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005), Tate (1941a).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus bicolor Temminck, 1834, “ Java, Amboina en op Timor.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1941 to “ Javaand Timor.”Hipposideros bicolorwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now in the new aterspecies group. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine bicolore @fr | Zweifarb-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido bicolor @es | Bicolored Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"250","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bicolor","name":"Hipposideros bicolor","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. b. bicolor Temminck, 1834-Borneo, Java, and W Lesser Sunda Is.H.b.atroxK.Andersen,1918—SThailand,MalayPeninsula(includingTarutaoandTiomanIs),Sumatra,andBangkaIs.H.b.erigensLawrence,1939-Philippines(Luzon,Mindoro,andBoholIs)H.b.hilliKitchener,1996—TimorI,ELesserSundas..H.b.majorK.Andersen,1918-NiasandEngganoIs,offWSumatra.H.b.selatanKitchener,1996—SavuandRotiIs,ELesserSundas.H. b. tanimbarensis Kitchener, 1996— Tanimbar Is (Selaru).Previous records from TaiwanI, Laos, and Vietnammay prove to be misidentifications and need further verification.","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates & Gumal (2008) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Murray et al. (2018) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005) | Tate (1941a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small insects in forest gaps and along trails or over water bodies; it feeds in the understory, c. 3 maboveground.","breeding":"In peninsular Thailand, females were found pregnant in March-May and the young with lactating females were observed in late April-June.","activityPatterns":"The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 127—135 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small to large groups, in caves; these can be shared with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (W. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. pendleburyi), and also various Rhinolophus species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat is fairly common and is found in several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Forearm 43-48 mm. Noseleaf of the Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat has one thin supplementary leaflet on each side. Anterior leaf is somewhat rounded. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is grayish brown to dark brown, or reddish brown. Skull is small; sagittal crest is moderately developed. P3 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, c. 3 mmin length, with thin, curved shaft with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, and the understory of primary rainforest, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, and secondary forest. It can be found in orchards, rubber and oil-palm plantations near roosting caves. It is abundant in lowland forests in limestone karst habitat and can be found up to 600 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A213FF37FEFFFBCE4F27.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C661A213FF37FEFFFBCE4F27","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"250","verbatimText":"63.Bicolored Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros bicolorFrench:Phyllorhine bicolore/ German:Zweifarb-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido bicolorOther common names:Bicolored Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus bicolor Temminck, 1834, “ Java, Amboina en op Timor.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1941 to “ Javaand Timor.”Hipposideros bicolorwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now in the new aterspecies group. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. b. bicolor Temminck, 1834-Borneo, Java, and W Lesser Sunda Is.H.b.atroxK.Andersen,1918—SThailand,MalayPeninsula(includingTarutaoandTiomanIs),Sumatra,andBangkaIs.H.b.erigensLawrence,1939-Philippines(Luzon,Mindoro,andBoholIs)H.b.hilliKitchener,1996—TimorI,ELesserSundas..H.b.majorK.Andersen,1918-NiasandEngganoIs,offWSumatra.H.b.selatanKitchener,1996—SavuandRotiIs,ELesserSundas.H. b. tanimbarensis Kitchener, 1996— Tanimbar Is (Selaru).Previous records from TaiwanI, Laos, and Vietnammay prove to be misidentifications and need further verification.Descriptive notes.Forearm 43-48 mm. Noseleaf of the Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat has one thin supplementary leaflet on each side. Anterior leaf is somewhat rounded. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is grayish brown to dark brown, or reddish brown. Skull is small; sagittal crest is moderately developed. P3 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, c. 3 mmin length, with thin, curved shaft with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, and the understory of primary rainforest, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, and secondary forest. It can be found in orchards, rubber and oil-palm plantations near roosting caves. It is abundant in lowland forests in limestone karst habitat and can be found up to 600 m.Food and Feeding.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small insects in forest gaps and along trails or over water bodies; it feeds in the understory, c. 3 maboveground.Breeding.In peninsular Thailand, females were found pregnant in March-May and the young with lactating females were observed in late April-June.Activity patterns.The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 127—135 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small to large groups, in caves; these can be shared with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (W. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. pendleburyi), and also various Rhinolophus species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat is fairly common and is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates & Gumal (2008), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010), Heaney et al. (1998), Kingston et al. (2006), Murray et al. (2018), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005), Tate (1941a).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus bicolor Temminck, 1834, “ Java, Amboina en op Timor.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1941 to “ Javaand Timor.”Hipposideros bicolorwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now in the new aterspecies group. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine bicolore @fr | Zweifarb-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido bicolor @es | Bicolored Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1834","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"250","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bicolor","name":"Hipposideros bicolor","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. b. bicolor Temminck, 1834-Borneo, Java, and W Lesser Sunda Is.H.b.atroxK.Andersen,1918—SThailand,MalayPeninsula(includingTarutaoandTiomanIs),Sumatra,andBangkaIs.H.b.erigensLawrence,1939-Philippines(Luzon,Mindoro,andBoholIs)H.b.hilliKitchener,1996—TimorI,ELesserSundas..H.b.majorK.Andersen,1918-NiasandEngganoIs,offWSumatra.H.b.selatanKitchener,1996—SavuandRotiIs,ELesserSundas.H. b. tanimbarensis Kitchener, 1996— Tanimbar Is (Selaru).Previous records from TaiwanI, Laos, and Vietnammay prove to be misidentifications and need further verification.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749161/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates & Gumal (2008) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Murray et al. (2018) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005) | Tate (1941a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small insects in forest gaps and along trails or over water bodies; it feeds in the understory, c. 3 maboveground.","breeding":"In peninsular Thailand, females were found pregnant in March-May and the young with lactating females were observed in late April-June.","activityPatterns":"The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves, rock crevices, houses, old buildings, underground pipes or hollow trees. Call frequency of the F segment is 127—135 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small to large groups, in caves; these can be shared with Kunz’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. kunzi), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. larvatus), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (W. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. pendleburyi), and also various Rhinolophus species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat is fairly common and is found in several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Forearm 43-48 mm. Noseleaf of the Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat has one thin supplementary leaflet on each side. Anterior leaf is somewhat rounded. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Pelage is grayish brown to dark brown, or reddish brown. Skull is small; sagittal crest is moderately developed. P3 is small and extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small, c. 3 mmin length, with thin, curved shaft with blunt base and bifid tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps, and the understory of primary rainforest, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, and secondary forest. It can be found in orchards, rubber and oil-palm plantations near roosting caves. It is abundant in lowland forests in limestone karst habitat and can be found up to 600 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C661A21CF87EF08BF6A640F5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C661A21CF87EF08BF6A640F5","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"250","verbatimText":"66.Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros coronatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Mindanao/ German:Grosse Mindanao-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MindanaoOther common names:Large Mindanao Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.PhyUorhina coronata Peters, 1871, Mainit, Surigao del Norte Province, Mindanao, Philippines.Hipposideros coronatuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its taxonomy requires further study; its position in the phylogeny is uncertain. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Philippines, known only from scattered records on Luzon, Polillo, Bohol, Samar, and Mindanao Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 81-83 mm, tail 27-29 mm, ear 16-6 mm, hindfoot 9-3 mm, forearm 48-8 mm; weight 9-5 g. Ears of the Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat are short and slighdy concave below rounded tip. Tail is long. Noseleaf is simple without supplementary lateral leaflets. Upper margin of posterior leaf is semicircular and it has no vertical septa. Dorsal pelage is brownish and occasionally orange, with paler hair base; ventral part presents light brown or yellowish fur.Habitat.Limestone caves and forest habitats, as well as more degraded areas, such as secondary lowland forests and agricultural land.Food and Feeding.Diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Maternity colonies of Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bats are located in caves. Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.Activity patterns.The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat has been found sharing roosts with other bat species (Miniopterus, Rhinolophus, Myotis, and Eonycteris).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to the lack of information about population size, trends, distribution, and ecology. Habitat loss and degradation, and disturbance at roosts are probably the main threats to the Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat. Further research is needed in order to assess the conservation status of this species adequately.Bibliography.Bennett eta/. (2002), Cabauatan eta/. (2014), Ingle & Heaney (1992), Phelps, Heaney & Sedlock (2016), Sedlock, Jose eta/. (2014).","taxonomy":"PhyUorhina coronata Peters, 1871, Mainit, Surigao del Norte Province, Mindanao, Philippines.Hipposideros coronatuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its taxonomy requires further study; its position in the phylogeny is uncertain. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Mindanao @fr | Grosse Mindanao-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Mindanao @es | Large Mindanao Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1871","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"250","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"coronatus","name":"Hipposideros coronatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Philippines, known only from scattered records on Luzon, Polillo, Bohol, Samar, and Mindanao Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749167/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennett et al. (2002) | Cabauatan et al. (2014) | Ingle & Heaney (1992) | Phelps, Heaney & Sedlock (2016) | Sedlock, Jose et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet is probably based on insects.","breeding":"Maternity colonies of Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bats are located in caves. Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.","activityPatterns":"The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat has been found sharing roosts with other bat species (Miniopterus, Rhinolophus, Myotis, and Eonycteris).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to the lack of information about population size, trends, distribution, and ecology. Habitat loss and degradation, and disturbance at roosts are probably the main threats to the Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat. Further research is needed in order to assess the conservation status of this species adequately.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 81-83 mm, tail 27-29 mm, ear 16-6 mm, hindfoot 9-3 mm, forearm 48-8 mm; weight 9-5 g. Ears of the Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat are short and slighdy concave below rounded tip. Tail is long. Noseleaf is simple without supplementary lateral leaflets. Upper margin of posterior leaf is semicircular and it has no vertical septa. Dorsal pelage is brownish and occasionally orange, with paler hair base; ventral part presents light brown or yellowish fur.Habitat.Limestone caves and forest habitats, as well as more degraded areas, such as secondary lowland forests and agricultural land.Food and Feeding.Diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Maternity colonies of Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bats are located in caves. Generation length is thought to be c.5 years.Activity patterns.The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat has been found sharing roosts with other bat species (Miniopterus, Rhinolophus, Myotis, and Eonycteris).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to the lack of information about population size, trends, distribution, and ecology.","habitat":"Limestone caves and forest habitats, as well as more degraded areas, such as secondary lowland forests and agricultural land."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C662A210F899FEF7F5EF4982.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C662A210F899FEF7F5EF4982","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"247","verbatimText":"56.Benito Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros beatusFrench:Phyllorhine du Benito/ German:Benito-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de BenitoOther common names:Benito Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] beatus K. Andersen, 1906, “ 15 miles[= 24 km] from Benito River,” Rfo Muni, Equatorial Guinea.Hipposideros beatuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group. Validity of subspecies has not been tested with molecular data. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. b. beatus K Andersen, 1906— patchily in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.H. b. maximus Verschuren, 1957patchily in Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and extreme NW Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 43-50 mm, tail 20-31 mm, ear 12-17 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 39-48 mm; weight 6-9 g. The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and short, dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally.Habitat.Inhabits lowland rainforest, and is usually associated with rivers and streams. May also occupy riparian forest in Guineasavanna.Food and Feeding.The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.Breeding.In Gabon, mating seems to occur in June-July with births of single young four months later in October—November. Females reach sexual maturity at six months, males at one year of age.Activity patterns.The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day under boulders and eroded roots of trees, in hollow trees, in holes in the ground, culverts under roads, and cavities under small rocks. It does not roost in large, deep caves. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.130-140 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Benito Leaf-nosed Bats roost singly, in pairs or in small family groups, typically numbering 3-4 individuals. In one study in Gabon, these family groups consisted of a mated pair with one young from the current year and one from the previous breeding season. These pairs broke up at the beginning of the next breeding season when new pairings were formed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. At present, the only significant threat appears to be the loss of rainforest The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat is present in several protected areas and forest reserves.Bibliography.Brosset (1966b, 1982), Grubb eta/. (1998), Happold, D.C.D. (1987), Happold, M. (2013v), Hill (1963a), Koopman (1984a), Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016), Rosevear (1965), Schütter et al. (1982), Thom & Kerbis Peterhans (2009), Verschuren (1957).","taxonomy":"Hipposiderus [sic] beatus K. Andersen, 1906, “ 15 miles[= 24 km] from Benito River,” Rfo Muni, Equatorial Guinea.Hipposideros beatuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group. Validity of subspecies has not been tested with molecular data. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine du Benito @fr | Benito-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Benito @es | Benito Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"K. Andersen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1906","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"247","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"beatus","name":"Hipposideros beatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. b. beatus K Andersen, 1906— patchily in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.H. b. maximus Verschuren, 1957patchily in Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and extreme NW Uganda.","bibliography":"Brosset (1966b, 1982) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Happold, D.C.D. (1987) | Happold, M. (2013v) | Hill (1963a) | Koopman (1984a) | Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016) | Rosevear (1965) | Schütter et al. (1982) | Thom & Kerbis Peterhans (2009) | Verschuren (1957)","foodAndFeeding":"The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.","breeding":"In Gabon, mating seems to occur in June-July with births of single young four months later in October—November. Females reach sexual maturity at six months, males at one year of age.","activityPatterns":"The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day under boulders and eroded roots of trees, in hollow trees, in holes in the ground, culverts under roads, and cavities under small rocks. It does not roost in large, deep caves. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.130-140 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Benito Leaf-nosed Bats roost singly, in pairs or in small family groups, typically numbering 3-4 individuals. In one study in Gabon, these family groups consisted of a mated pair with one young from the current year and one from the previous breeding season. These pairs broke up at the beginning of the next breeding season when new pairings were formed.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. At present, the only significant threat appears to be the loss of rainforest The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat is present in several protected areas and forest reserves.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 43-50 mm, tail 20-31 mm, ear 12-17 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 39-48 mm; weight 6-9 g. The Benito Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and short, dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally.","habitat":"Inhabits lowland rainforest, and is usually associated with rivers and streams. May also occupy riparian forest in Guineasavanna."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C662A210FF52F514FBEA516B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C662A210FF52F514FBEA516B","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"247","verbatimText":"55.Aba Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros abaeFrench:Phyllorhine d'Aba/ German:Aba-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de AbaOther common names:Aba Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros abae J. A. Allen, 1917, “Aba, Uele district, Belgian Congo[= DR Congo].”Hipposideros abaewas formerly included in the speorisspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group (7 species). Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily in Africa N of the equator from GuineaBissauand GuineaE to South Sudanand extreme NW Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head—body 60-70 mm, tail 28—40 mm, ear 18-24 mm, hindfoot 7—13 mm, forearm 54—65 mm; weight 17— 19 g. The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has three lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in males only. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and short, dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists, which is bright orange or rusty brown dorsally and paler ventrally.Habitat.Inhabits Guineasavanna, including derived savanna, dry forest, and recently cleared rainforest. Apparently avoids intact rainforest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Births of single young have been reported in March throughout its range.Activity patterns.The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves, under boulders, and in burrows of mammals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large colonies of up to several hundred individuals. In one study, sex ratio was 1:2 with females doubling males. The species may share its roost with a number of other Hipposideridaeand Rhinolophus.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and relatively common with no major known conservation threats.Bibliography.Decher (1997), Grubb eta/. (1998), Happold, D.C.D. (1987), Happold, M. (2013u), Hill (1963a), Koch-Weser (1984), Rosevear (1965), Schütter eta/. (1982).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros abae J. A. Allen, 1917, “Aba, Uele district, Belgian Congo[= DR Congo].”Hipposideros abaewas formerly included in the speorisspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group (7 species). Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine d'Aba @fr | Aba-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Aba @es | Aba Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1917","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"247","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"abae","name":"Hipposideros abae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Patchily in Africa N of the equator from GuineaBissauand GuineaE to South Sudanand extreme NW Uganda.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749145/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Decher (1997) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Happold, D.C.D. (1987) | Happold, M. (2013u) | Hill (1963a) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Rosevear (1965) | Schütter et al. (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Births of single young have been reported in March throughout its range.","activityPatterns":"The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves, under boulders, and in burrows of mammals.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large colonies of up to several hundred individuals. In one study, sex ratio was 1:2 with females doubling males. The species may share its roost with a number of other Hipposideridaeand Rhinolophus.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and relatively common with no major known conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 60-70 mm, tail 28—40 mm, ear 18-24 mm, hindfoot 7—13 mm, forearm 54—65 mm; weight 17— 19 g. The Aba Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has three lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in males only. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and short, dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists, which is bright orange or rusty brown dorsally and paler ventrally.","habitat":"Inhabits Guineasavanna, including derived savanna, dry forest, and recently cleared rainforest. Apparently avoids intact rainforest."} @@ -653,15 +653,15 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C663A211FF31F628F2CF4179.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C663A211FF31F628F2CF4179","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"58.Sooty Leaf-nosedBat Hipposideros fuliginosusFrench:Phyllorhine fuligineuse/ German:Temminck-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido tiznadoOther common names:Sooty Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.PhyUorrhina /uliginosa Temminck, 1853, “La côte de Guiné[= coast of Guinea].”Hipposideros fuliginosuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group. There has been considerable confusion in the literature regarding the distinguishing features of this species, but this has recently been resolved. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily across tropical Africa with records in Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, extreme SE Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, extreme S Central African Republic, N DR Congo, and SW Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 80-100 mm, tail 29-40 mm, ear 17-20 mm, hindfoot 11—13 mm, forearm 51—60 mm; weight 18—20 g. The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is relatively coarse and dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists which is bright orange or rusty brown. Thumb and thumb claw are well developed compared with other similarsized species of Hipposideros.Habitat.Lowland rainforest, extending up to 1300 mabove sea level in Guineaand Uganda. The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat also occurs in riparian forest in the rainforest-savanna transition zone.Food and Feeding.The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be insectivorous. In one study, average capture height was 1-7 m aboveground, indicating that it was mainly foraging in the understory.Breeding.Based on observations in Ivory Coast, it would appear that there is a single restricted season during which Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat young are bom (young feeding on milk in March and May).Activity patterns.The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in hollow tree trunks. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.120 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sooty Leaf-nosed Bats roost in groups of up to 40 bats, comprising adult males and females, and perhaps also subadults orjuveniles. They may share their roosts with the West and Central African form of H. ruber(sensu lato).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The most important threat to the Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat is probably loss of pristine rainforest.Bibliography.Aellen (1952), ahr (2013k), Grubb eta/. (1998), Hill (1963a), Koopman (1989), Koopman et al. (1995), Monadjem & ahr (2007),Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans (2009), Van Cakenberghe eta/. (2017).","taxonomy":"PhyUorrhina /uliginosa Temminck, 1853, “La côte de Guiné[= coast of Guinea].”Hipposideros fuliginosuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ruberspecies group. There has been considerable confusion in the literature regarding the distinguishing features of this species, but this has recently been resolved. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine fuligineuse @fr | Temminck-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido tiznado @es | Sooty Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1853","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fuliginosus","name":"Hipposideros fuliginosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Patchily across tropical Africa with records in Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, extreme SE Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, extreme S Central African Republic, N DR Congo, and SW Uganda.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749151/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aellen (1952) | ahr (2013k) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Hill (1963a) | Koopman (1989) | Koopman et al. (1995) | Monadjem & ahr (2007) | Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans (2009) | Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017)","foodAndFeeding":"The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be insectivorous. In one study, average capture height was 1-7 m aboveground, indicating that it was mainly foraging in the understory.","breeding":"Based on observations in Ivory Coast, it would appear that there is a single restricted season during which Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat young are bom (young feeding on milk in March and May).","activityPatterns":"The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in hollow tree trunks. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.120 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sooty Leaf-nosed Bats roost in groups of up to 40 bats, comprising adult males and females, and perhaps also subadults orjuveniles. They may share their roosts with the West and Central African form of H. ruber(sensu lato).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The most important threat to the Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat is probably loss of pristine rainforest.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 80-100 mm, tail 29-40 mm, ear 17-20 mm, hindfoot 11—13 mm, forearm 51—60 mm; weight 18—20 g. The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is relatively coarse and dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists which is bright orange or rusty brown. Thumb and thumb claw are well developed compared with other similarsized species of Hipposideros.","habitat":"Lowland rainforest, extending up to 1300 mabove sea level in Guineaand Uganda. The Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat also occurs in riparian forest in the rainforest-savanna transition zone."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C663A212F880F5BFFC194F46.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C663A212F880F5BFFC194F46","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"248","verbatimText":"60.Noack’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros ruberFrench:Phyllorhine de Noack IGerman:Noack-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de NoackOther common names:Noack's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina rubra Noack, 1893, Ngerengere River, Eastern Province, Tanzania.Hipposideros ruberwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ru&erspecies group. There has been much confusion in the literature regarding the taxonomic status of this species, particularly with respect to its relationship with the savanna H. cofferspecies complex. Recent molecular work shows deep divergence between several lineages within this complex. The savanna species H. coffer and H. tephrusare clearly distinct from the rainforest species, based on both morphology and molecular sequences. However, there are at least three distinct species within the rainforest complex. The species Ä ruber(sensu stricto) refers to populations in East Africa. Populations in Central and West Africa refer to different, but as yet unnamed taxa. They have been referred to as separate lineages in the literature, but almost certainly are valid species. This confusion needs urgent attention. Many subspecies have been described but it is not clear what their status is, taxonomy requires reassessment.Distribution.Widely in tropical Africa, but boundaries of each lineage (presumably separate species) are not known; this species complex occurs almost continuously from Senegal, Gambia, and GuineaE to S Sudanand Ethiopia, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Tanzania, with isolated populations in NW Angola, Zambia, Malawi, and N Mozambique; also on Principe and Sâo ToméIs.Descriptive notes.Head-body 52-62 mm, tail 30-41 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 47-55 mm; weight 9-12 g. No obvious sexual differences in pelage or size, although males tend to average slightly larger than females, but with considerable overlap. Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in males. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and fluffy, dark grayish brown or dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists, which is bright rusty brown or golden dorsally and paler ventrally.Habitat.Typically lowland rainforest, as well as riparian forest and secondary forest. Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat does not occur in drier savannas except along rivers. Locally, it occurs at higher elevations—e.g. up to 1000 mon Mount Nimba. It may utilize agricultural land but typically under semi-natural habitats where some indigenous trees and well-developed undergrowth vegetation persists.Food and Feeding.Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominandy on beedes but it may also take a variety of other arthropods. It typically forages in cluttered vegetation, departing from the day roost at sunset and returning with bulging stomach two hours later. It may forage within agricultural land, particularly where these are intermixed with natural vegetation.Breeding.Breeding of Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat is seasonal, with births of single young occurring at different times in different populations. In Liberia, Central African Republic, and northern DR Congo, young are bom in March-April. In contrast, in Tanzania, which refers to H. ruber(sensu stricto), copulation and fertilization occur in June-July followed by retarded development, births in December and lactation through to February. In Gabon, this species appears to have two birthing seasons in March and October, although there is confusion over the exact species that was studied.Activity patterns.Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a variety of cavities and structures including caves, hollow trees, holes in the ground, old mines, culverts under roads, and abandoned houses. Like its congeners, it has a low wing loading and low aspect ratio, allowing it to fly in cluttered environments such as thickets, and to take off from the ground. It is active throughout the year. Bats emerge from day roost at sunset and are active throughout the night, but with three peaks of activity corresponding to the first two hours after sunset, an hour around midnight and the hour before sunrise. Males tend to fly for a longer period per night than females. Echolocation call includes a F component that is highly variable and may be distincdy different in different lineages—e.g. at Mount Nimba, in Liberia, one lineage had an echolocation call at 128 kHz, whereas the second lineage called at 148 kHz. Published accounts of echolocation calls of the H. rubercomplex typically fall within this range of variation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in small to very large colonies of over 500 individuals. Individual bats hang separately from the ceiling of the roost but in close proximity to other group-members. In Ghana, mean home range size of 13 radio-tracked bats was 36 ha, and these overlapped extensively between individuals; the foraging area was 50% of the home range. Mean maximum foraging distance from the day roost was 1 • 1 kmbut extended up to 2-6 km for some individuals, which is within the range predicted for a bat of this size. It occasionally shares its roosting sites with other bat species including various Rhinolophus spp., Hipposideros spp.and the Angolan Soft-fùrred Fruit Bat (Lissonycteris angolensis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat complex has a wide distribution, utilizes many different structures as day roosts, and usually occurs in good numbers.Bibliography.Anciaux de Faveaux (1978), Bernard & Cumming (1997), Brosset (1968), Brosset & Saint Girons (1980), Denys et al. (2013), ahr & Ebigbo (2003), Grubb et al. (1998), Guillén-Servent et al. (2000), Happold, D.C.D. (1987), Happold, D.C.D. & Happold (1990), Happold, M. (2013aa), Hill (1963a), Jones et al. (1993), Kock et al. (2002), Koopman (1989), Koopman et al. (1995), Monadjem & Fahr (2007), Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016), Monadjem, Richards, Taylor, Denys et al. (2013), Monadjem, Schoeman et al. (2010), Monadjem, Taylor et al. (2010), Nkrumah, Vallo, Klose, Ripperger, Badu, Dorsten et al. (2016), Nkrumah, Vallo, Klose, Ripperger, Badu, Gloza-Rausch et al. (2016), Patterson & Webala (2012), Rosevear (1965), Schütter et al. (1982), Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans(2009), Vallo, Benda et al. (2011), Vallo, Guillén-Servent étal. (2008), Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017), Verschuren (1957,1977,1982),Wolton et al. (1982).","taxonomy":"Phyllorhina rubra Noack, 1893, Ngerengere River, Eastern Province, Tanzania.Hipposideros ruberwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the ru&erspecies group. There has been much confusion in the literature regarding the taxonomic status of this species, particularly with respect to its relationship with the savanna H. cofferspecies complex. Recent molecular work shows deep divergence between several lineages within this complex. The savanna species H. coffer and H. tephrusare clearly distinct from the rainforest species, based on both morphology and molecular sequences. However, there are at least three distinct species within the rainforest complex. The species Ä ruber(sensu stricto) refers to populations in East Africa. Populations in Central and West Africa refer to different, but as yet unnamed taxa. They have been referred to as separate lineages in the literature, but almost certainly are valid species. This confusion needs urgent attention. Many subspecies have been described but it is not clear what their status is, taxonomy requires reassessment.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Noack @fr | Noack-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Noack @es | Noack's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Noack","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"248","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ruber","name":"Hipposideros ruber","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widely in tropical Africa, but boundaries of each lineage (presumably separate species) are not known; this species complex occurs almost continuously from Senegal, Gambia, and GuineaE to S Sudanand Ethiopia, and S to Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and Tanzania, with isolated populations in NW Angola, Zambia, Malawi, and N Mozambique; also on Principe and Sâo ToméIs.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749155/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anciaux de Faveaux (1978) | Bernard & Cumming (1997) | Brosset (1968) | Brosset & Saint Girons (1980) | Denys et al. (2013) | ahr & Ebigbo (2003) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Guillén-Servent et al. (2000) | Happold, D.C.D. (1987) | Happold, D.C.D. & Happold (1990) | Happold, M. (2013aa) | Hill (1963a) | Jones et al. (1993) | Kock et al. (2002) | Koopman (1989) | Koopman et al. (1995) | Monadjem & Fahr (2007) | Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016) | Monadjem, Richards, Taylor, Denys et al. (2013) | Monadjem, Schoeman et al. (2010) | Monadjem, Taylor et al. (2010) | Nkrumah, Vallo, Klose, Ripperger, Badu, Dorsten et al. (2016) | Nkrumah, Vallo, Klose, Ripperger, Badu, Gloza-Rausch et al. (2016) | Patterson & Webala (2012) | Rosevear (1965) | Schütter et al. (1982) | Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans(2009) | Vallo, Benda et al. (2011) | Vallo, Guillén-Servent étal. (2008) | Van Cakenberghe et al. (2017) | Verschuren (1957,1977,1982) | Wolton et al. (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominandy on beedes but it may also take a variety of other arthropods. It typically forages in cluttered vegetation, departing from the day roost at sunset and returning with bulging stomach two hours later. It may forage within agricultural land, particularly where these are intermixed with natural vegetation.","breeding":"Breeding of Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat is seasonal, with births of single young occurring at different times in different populations. In Liberia, Central African Republic, and northern DR Congo, young are bom in March-April. In contrast, in Tanzania, which refers to H. ruber(sensu stricto), copulation and fertilization occur in June-July followed by retarded development, births in December and lactation through to February. In Gabon, this species appears to have two birthing seasons in March and October, although there is confusion over the exact species that was studied.","activityPatterns":"Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a variety of cavities and structures including caves, hollow trees, holes in the ground, old mines, culverts under roads, and abandoned houses. Like its congeners, it has a low wing loading and low aspect ratio, allowing it to fly in cluttered environments such as thickets, and to take off from the ground. It is active throughout the year. Bats emerge from day roost at sunset and are active throughout the night, but with three peaks of activity corresponding to the first two hours after sunset, an hour around midnight and the hour before sunrise. Males tend to fly for a longer period per night than females. Echolocation call includes a F component that is highly variable and may be distincdy different in different lineages—e.g. at Mount Nimba, in Liberia, one lineage had an echolocation call at 128 kHz, whereas the second lineage called at 148 kHz. Published accounts of echolocation calls of the H. rubercomplex typically fall within this range of variation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in small to very large colonies of over 500 individuals. Individual bats hang separately from the ceiling of the roost but in close proximity to other group-members. In Ghana, mean home range size of 13 radio-tracked bats was 36 ha, and these overlapped extensively between individuals; the foraging area was 50% of the home range. Mean maximum foraging distance from the day roost was 1 • 1 kmbut extended up to 2-6 km for some individuals, which is within the range predicted for a bat of this size. It occasionally shares its roosting sites with other bat species including various Rhinolophus spp., Hipposideros spp.and the Angolan Soft-fùrred Fruit Bat (Lissonycteris angolensis).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat complex has a wide distribution, utilizes many different structures as day roosts, and usually occurs in good numbers.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 52-62 mm, tail 30-41 mm, ear 15-19 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 47-55 mm; weight 9-12 g. No obvious sexual differences in pelage or size, although males tend to average slightly larger than females, but with considerable overlap. Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with a large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is present in males. Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively small. Fur is fine and fluffy, dark grayish brown or dark brown dorsally, paler ventrally; an orange morph exists, which is bright rusty brown or golden dorsally and paler ventrally.","habitat":"Typically lowland rainforest, as well as riparian forest and secondary forest. Noack’s Leaf-nosed Bat does not occur in drier savannas except along rivers. Locally, it occurs at higher elevations—e.g. up to 1000 mon Mount Nimba. It may utilize agricultural land but typically under semi-natural habitats where some indigenous trees and well-developed undergrowth vegetation persists."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A216FF55EFC7F2B844F7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C664A216FF55EFC7F2B844F7","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"245","verbatimText":"49.Aellen’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros marisaeFrench:Phyllorhine d'Aellen/ German:Aellen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de AellenOther common names:Aellen's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros marisae Aellen, 1954, White Leopard Rock, Duékoué, Ivory Coast.Hipposideros marisaewas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Very patchily in W Africa with records in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory CoastDescriptive notes.Head—body 41—47 mm, tail 19-21 mm, ear 15-17 mm, hindfoot 6-8 mm, forearm 38—42 mm; weight 5 g. There are no obvious sexual differences in pelage or size. Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. A frontal sac is present in both sexes posterior to noseleaf. Intemarial septum is swollen and partially covering the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally.Habitat.Tropical forest in lowland and hilly situations.Food and Feeding.Exact diet of Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat rests up in caves and old mine adits. Echolocation call includes a F component at 146 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly or in small groups, typically consisting of 2-6 individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideros.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small, fragmented distribution, which is under threat of deforestation. Disturbance ofits cave roosting sites is another threat.Bibliography.Fahr (2013h), Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016), Rosevear (1965), Wolton et al. (1982).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros marisae Aellen, 1954, White Leopard Rock, Duékoué, Ivory Coast.Hipposideros marisaewas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine d'Aellen @fr | Aellen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Aellen @es | Aellen's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Aellen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1954","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"245","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"marisae","name":"Hipposideros marisae","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749133/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Fahr (2013h) | Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016) | Rosevear (1965) | Wolton et al. (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Exact diet of Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat rests up in caves and old mine adits. Echolocation call includes a F component at 146 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts singly or in small groups, typically consisting of 2-6 individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideros.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small, fragmented distribution, which is under threat of deforestation. Disturbance ofits cave roosting sites is another threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 41—47 mm, tail 19-21 mm, ear 15-17 mm, hindfoot 6-8 mm, forearm 38—42 mm; weight 5 g. There are no obvious sexual differences in pelage or size. Aellen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. A frontal sac is present in both sexes posterior to noseleaf. Intemarial septum is swollen and partially covering the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally.","habitat":"Tropical forest in lowland and hilly situations."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A216FF55F87CFDE04CB7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C664A216FF55F87CFDE04CB7","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"245","verbatimText":"48 Jones ’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros jonesiFrench: Phyllorhine de Jones/ German: Jones-Rundblattnase/ Spanish: Hiposidérido de JonesOther common names: Jones's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros jonesi Hayman, 1947, Makeni, Sierra Leone.Hipposiderosjonesi was previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily in W Africa with records from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50— 55 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 21-28 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 44—50 mm; weight 4—8 g. Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is greatly swollen and partially covers the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. An orange morph exists, which is orangish-brown to cinnamon throughout.Habitat.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forest, woodland, and savanna habitats, including montane areas; it apparendy avoids the wetter rainforest zones. Presence of appropriate caves appears to be the most important determinant of this species’ habitat requirements.Food and Feeding.The exact diet ofJones’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.Breeding.In Ghana, a single lactating female was collected in March.Activity patterns.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat uses caves and disused mines as roost sites. Echolocation call includes a F component at 46-48 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large mixed-sex colonies of up to several hundred individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideridae, as well as with Rhinolophusand Nycteris species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, based on its fragmented distribution and the fact that for roosting it relies on specific caves, which are under threat of disturbance.Bibliography.Eisentraut & Knorr (1957), Fahr (20131), Happold (1987), Hayman (1947c, 1964), Koch-Weser (1984), Rosevear (1965).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros jonesi Hayman, 1947, Makeni, Sierra Leone.Hipposiderosjonesi was previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.","interpretedAuthority":"Hayman, 1947","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hayman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1947","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"245","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"jonesi","name":"Hipposideros jonesi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Patchily in W Africa with records from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria.","bibliography":"Eisentraut & Knorr (1957) | Fahr (20131) | Happold (1987) | Hayman (1947c, 1964) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Rosevear (1965)","foodAndFeeding":"The exact diet ofJones’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.","breeding":"In Ghana, a single lactating female was collected in March.","activityPatterns":"Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat uses caves and disused mines as roost sites. Echolocation call includes a F component at 46-48 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large mixed-sex colonies of up to several hundred individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideridae, as well as with Rhinolophusand Nycteris species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, based on its fragmented distribution and the fact that for roosting it relies on specific caves, which are under threat of disturbance.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50— 55 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 21-28 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 44—50 mm; weight 4—8 g. Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is greatly swollen and partially covers the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. An orange morph exists, which is orangish-brown to cinnamon throughout.","habitat":"Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forest, woodland, and savanna habitats, including montane areas; it apparendy avoids the wetter rainforest zones. Presence of appropriate caves appears to be the most important determinant of this species’ habitat requirements."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A216FF55F87CFDE04CB7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C664A216FF55F87CFDE04CB7","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"245","verbatimText":"48 Jones ’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros jonesiFrench: Phyllorhine de Jones/ German: Jones-Rundblattnase/ Spanish: Hiposidérido de JonesOther common names: Jones's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros jonesi Hayman, 1947, Makeni, Sierra Leone.Hipposiderosjonesi was previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily in W Africa with records from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50— 55 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 21-28 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 44—50 mm; weight 4—8 g. Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is greatly swollen and partially covers the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. An orange morph exists, which is orangish-brown to cinnamon throughout.Habitat.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forest, woodland, and savanna habitats, including montane areas; it apparendy avoids the wetter rainforest zones. Presence of appropriate caves appears to be the most important determinant of this species’ habitat requirements.Food and Feeding.The exact diet ofJones’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.Breeding.In Ghana, a single lactating female was collected in March.Activity patterns.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat uses caves and disused mines as roost sites. Echolocation call includes a F component at 46-48 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large mixed-sex colonies of up to several hundred individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideridae, as well as with Rhinolophusand Nycteris species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, based on its fragmented distribution and the fact that for roosting it relies on specific caves, which are under threat of disturbance.Bibliography.Eisentraut & Knorr (1957), Fahr (20131), Happold (1987), Hayman (1947c, 1964), Koch-Weser (1984), Rosevear (1965).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros jonesi Hayman, 1947, Makeni, Sierra Leone.Hipposiderosjonesi was previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.","interpretedAuthority":"Hayman, 1947","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hayman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1947","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"245","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"jonesi","name":"Hipposideros jonesi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Patchily in W Africa with records from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749131/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisentraut & Knorr (1957) | Fahr (20131) | Happold (1987) | Hayman (1947c, 1964) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Rosevear (1965)","foodAndFeeding":"The exact diet ofJones’s Leaf-nosed Bat is not known, but it is insectivorous.","breeding":"In Ghana, a single lactating female was collected in March.","activityPatterns":"Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat uses caves and disused mines as roost sites. Echolocation call includes a F component at 46-48 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to large mixed-sex colonies of up to several hundred individuals. It may share its roost with other species of Hipposideridae, as well as with Rhinolophusand Nycteris species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, based on its fragmented distribution and the fact that for roosting it relies on specific caves, which are under threat of disturbance.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50— 55 mm, tail 17-27 mm, ear 21-28 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 44—50 mm; weight 4—8 g. Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat has short, rounded wings. Muzzle is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has one lateral leaflet. Frontal sac is absent. Intemarial septum is greatly swollen and partially covers the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, gray-brown dorsally and slightly lighter ventrally. An orange morph exists, which is orangish-brown to cinnamon throughout.","habitat":"Jones’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forest, woodland, and savanna habitats, including montane areas; it apparendy avoids the wetter rainforest zones. Presence of appropriate caves appears to be the most important determinant of this species’ habitat requirements."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A216FF55FEE8FA6E443F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C664A216FF55FEE8FA6E443F","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"245","verbatimText":"47.Short-tailed Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros curtusFrench:Phyllorhine à queue courte/ German:Kurzschwanz-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de cola cortaOther common names:Short-tailed Roundleaf BatTaxonomy. Hipposideros curtus G. M. Allen, 1921, Sakbayeme, Cameroon.Hipposideros curtuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group (4 species). Monotypic.Distribution. Patchily in Cameroonand Equatorial Guinea, including Bioko I.Descriptive notes. Head—body 50-55 mm, tail 18-23 mm, ear 15-22 mm, hindfoot 7—8 mm, forearm 42—47 mm. Muzzle of the Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is usually present in both sexes posterior to noseleaf. Intemarial septum is swollen and partially covering the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, sepiabrown dorsally, and slightly lighter ventrally.Habitat. Restricted to lowland (0-500 m) forests.Food and Feeding. No information.Breeding. No information.Activity patterns. The Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in caves and under boulders.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bats roost singly or in small groups.Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, because of habitat loss due to logging, and perhaps disturbance at roost sites.Bibliography. Happold, M. (2013x), Hill (1963a), Rosevear (1965), Sanderson (1940).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros curtus G. M. Allen, 1921, Sakbayeme, Cameroon.Hipposideros curtuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group (4 species). Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine à queue courte @fr | Kurzschwanz-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de cola corta @es | Short-tailed Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. M. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1921","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"245","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"curtus","name":"Hipposideros curtus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Patchily in Cameroonand Equatorial Guinea, including Bioko I.","bibliography":"Happold, M. (2013x) | Hill (1963a) | Rosevear (1965) | Sanderson (1940)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bats roost singly or in small groups.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 50-55 mm, tail 18-23 mm, ear 15-22 mm, hindfoot 7—8 mm, forearm 42—47 mm. Muzzle of the Short-tailed Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has two lateral leaflets. A frontal sac is usually present in both sexes posterior to noseleaf. Intemarial septum is swollen and partially covering the nares. Ears are separate, and relatively large. Fur is fine and short, sepiabrown dorsally, and slightly lighter ventrally."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C664A217F898F784FEDD41AC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C664A217F898F784FEDD41AC","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"245","verbatimText":"50.Schneider’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros speorisFrench:Phyllorhine de Schneider/ German:Schneider-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de SchneiderOther common names:Schneider's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Vespertilio speoris Schneiderin Schreber, 1800, Tranquebar, Madras, India.Hipposideros speorisbelongs to the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Indiaand Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head—body 46-62 mm, ear 12-19 mm, forearm 45-54 mm. Ears of Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat are relatively short. Noseleaf has three supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide posterior leaf into four cells. Males have frontal sac behind posterior leaf, whereas it is a tuft of hairs in females. Pelage varies from gray to bright orangebrown or yellowish-brown. Skull length is 18-20-5 mm, with weak rostral inflation and weak sagittal crest. C1 and j are large. P2 is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small and simple, with narrow shaft and blunt tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Dry plains to forested hillsides. Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages either in dry, flat areas or forested hills up to 1385 m.Food and Feeding.Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds in groups of 10-15 individuals on insects near the ground. Diet includes mosquitoes, flies, beetles, and other low-flying insects. After leaving the roost, it has been found to revisit it several times during the night.Breeding.In Maharashtra, mating was observed from late December to mid-March. Females were found pregnant in May-July, giving birth to a single young from mid-May to midJune. Lactating females were captured until mid-September. However, reproductive cycle can be variable between sites—e.g. breeding season starts in mid-November in Bangalore; females give birth in September and October in Tamil Nadu. A single young was carried by its mother until its weight rose to 6 g. Females reach sexual maturity in 7-5-8 months, but this takes 16-17 months for males. Penis and scrotum of males are enlarged and thickened during the breeding season.Activity patterns.Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat can be found roosting in small crevices caves, tunnels, temples, and abandoned buildings. Echolocation of individuals from southern Indiais a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 131-135 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bats are gregarious. Colony size can be as small as a few individuals to hundreds or even thousands. Males and females cohabit at the roost, and the size of the colonies is constant throughout the year. Roosts of this species were shared with FulvusLeaf-nosed Bats {H. fulvus), Indian Rufous Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus rouxii), and Greater Asian False-Vampires (Lyrodermalyrd).On following pages: 51. Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros calcaratus); 52. awn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros galeritus); 55. Aba Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros abae); 56. Benito Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros beatus}; 57. Sundevall's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lamottei); 60. Noack's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros ruber}; 61. Maghreb Leaf-nosed (Hipposiderosbicoloi}; 64. Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros breviceps}; 65. Least Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros cervinus}; 53. Cox's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros coxi}; 54. Cantor's Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscaffed: 58. Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros fuliginosus); 59. Lamotte ’s Bat (Hipposideros tephrus}; 62. Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosatei]; 63. Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat cineraceus); 66. Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros coronatus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List, because it has a wide distribution and large colony sizes. Potential threats are hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Corbet & Hill (1992), Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu (2008b), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Vespertilio speoris Schneiderin Schreber, 1800, Tranquebar, Madras, India.Hipposideros speorisbelongs to the speorisspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Schneider @fr | Schneider-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Schneider @es | Schneider's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Schneider","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1800","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"245","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"speoris","name":"Hipposideros speoris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Indiaand Sri Lanka.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749135/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu (2008b) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds in groups of 10-15 individuals on insects near the ground. Diet includes mosquitoes, flies, beetles, and other low-flying insects. After leaving the roost, it has been found to revisit it several times during the night.","breeding":"In Maharashtra, mating was observed from late December to mid-March. Females were found pregnant in May-July, giving birth to a single young from mid-May to midJune. Lactating females were captured until mid-September. However, reproductive cycle can be variable between sites—e.g. breeding season starts in mid-November in Bangalore; females give birth in September and October in Tamil Nadu. A single young was carried by its mother until its weight rose to 6 g. Females reach sexual maturity in 7-5-8 months, but this takes 16-17 months for males. Penis and scrotum of males are enlarged and thickened during the breeding season.","activityPatterns":"Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat can be found roosting in small crevices caves, tunnels, temples, and abandoned buildings. Echolocation of individuals from southern Indiais a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 131-135 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bats are gregarious. Colony size can be as small as a few individuals to hundreds or even thousands. Males and females cohabit at the roost, and the size of the colonies is constant throughout the year. Roosts of this species were shared with FulvusLeaf-nosed Bats {H. fulvus), Indian Rufous Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus rouxii), and Greater Asian False-Vampires (Lyrodermalyrd).On following pages: 51. Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros calcaratus); 52. awn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros galeritus); 55. Aba Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros abae); 56. Benito Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros beatus}; 57. Sundevall's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lamottei); 60. Noack's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros ruber}; 61. Maghreb Leaf-nosed (Hipposiderosbicoloi}; 64. Short-headed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros breviceps}; 65. Least Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros cervinus}; 53. Cox's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros coxi}; 54. Cantor's Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscaffed: 58. Sooty Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros fuliginosus); 59. Lamotte ’s Bat (Hipposideros tephrus}; 62. Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosatei]; 63. Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat cineraceus); 66. Large Mindanao Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros coronatus}.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List, because it has a wide distribution and large colony sizes. Potential threats are hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 46-62 mm, ear 12-19 mm, forearm 45-54 mm. Ears of Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat are relatively short. Noseleaf has three supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide posterior leaf into four cells. Males have frontal sac behind posterior leaf, whereas it is a tuft of hairs in females. Pelage varies from gray to bright orangebrown or yellowish-brown. Skull length is 18-20-5 mm, with weak rostral inflation and weak sagittal crest. C1 and j are large. P2 is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Baculum is very small and simple, with narrow shaft and blunt tip. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"Dry plains to forested hillsides. Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages either in dry, flat areas or forested hills up to 1385 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A210F87BEF57FC2F4967.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C665A210F87BEF57FC2F4967","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"246","verbatimText":"54.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros galeritusFrench:Phyllorhine de Cantor/ German:Cantor-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de CantorOther common names:Cantor's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderosgaleritus Cantor, 1846, “ Pinang[= Penang],” Malaysia.Hipposideros galerituswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. g. galeritus Cantor, 1846-SE Thailand, S Laos, C & S Vietnam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao and Penang Is), Sumatra, and Bangka I.H. g. brachyotis Dobson, 1874-India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.H. g. insolens Lyon, 1911— Borneo.H. g. longicauda Peters, 1861-W & Java.Also present on Sanana I (Sula Is), but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 45—59-5 mm, tail 29-5— 37 mm, ear 14-5— 17 mm, hindfoot 4-9— 8 mm, forearm 45—51-3 mm; weight 8-6 g. Females are normally larger than males. Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat has relatively short triangular ears; antitragus is as much as one-third of ear length. Noseleaf is simple and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in anterior leaf. Upper margin of intermediate leaf is slightly convex. Posterior leaf has a semicircular upper margin and presents three septa, forming four cells on frontal surface. Frontal sac is well developed in males. Tail is long. Pelage is brownish-grayish and sometimes reddish on dorsum; on ventral area fur is paler.Habitat.Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.Breeding.Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.Activity patterns.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance. Habitat loss and transformation, and disturbance to roosting sites are probably threats.Bibliography.Debata & Palita (2017), Debata eta/. (2015), Francis, Kingston eta/. (2008), Hill (1971c), Jenkins & Hill (1981), Kaur eta/. (2017), Vestjens & Hall (1977).","taxonomy":"Hipposiderosgaleritus Cantor, 1846, “ Pinang[= Penang],” Malaysia.Hipposideros galerituswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Cantor @fr | Cantor-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Cantor @es | Cantor's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Cantor","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1846","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"246","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"galeritus","name":"Hipposideros galeritus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. g. galeritus Cantor, 1846-SE Thailand, S Laos, C & S Vietnam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao and Penang Is), Sumatra, and Bangka I.H. g. brachyotis Dobson, 1874-India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.H. g. insolens Lyon, 1911— Borneo.H. g. longicauda Peters, 1861-W & Java.Also present on Sanana I (Sula Is), but subspecies involved not known.","bibliography":"Debata & Palita (2017) | Debata et al. (2015) | Francis, Kingston et al. (2008) | Hill (1971c) | Jenkins & Hill (1981) | Kaur et al. (2017) | Vestjens & Hall (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.","breeding":"Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.","activityPatterns":"Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance. Habitat loss and transformation, and disturbance to roosting sites are probably threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 45—59-5 mm, tail 29-5— 37 mm, ear 14-5— 17 mm, hindfoot 4-9— 8 mm, forearm 45—51-3 mm; weight 8-6 g. Females are normally larger than males. Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat has relatively short triangular ears; antitragus is as much as one-third of ear length. Noseleaf is simple and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in anterior leaf. Upper margin of intermediate leaf is slightly convex. Posterior leaf has a semicircular upper margin and presents three septa, forming four cells on frontal surface. Frontal sac is well developed in males. Tail is long. Pelage is brownish-grayish and sometimes reddish on dorsum; on ventral area fur is paler.Habitat.Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.Breeding.Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.Activity patterns.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance.","habitat":"Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A210F87BEF57FC2F4967.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C665A210F87BEF57FC2F4967","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"246","verbatimText":"54.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros galeritusFrench:Phyllorhine de Cantor/ German:Cantor-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de CantorOther common names:Cantor's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderosgaleritus Cantor, 1846, “ Pinang[= Penang],” Malaysia.Hipposideros galerituswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. g. galeritus Cantor, 1846-SE Thailand, S Laos, C & S Vietnam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao and Penang Is), Sumatra, and Bangka I.H. g. brachyotis Dobson, 1874-India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.H. g. insolens Lyon, 1911— Borneo.H. g. longicauda Peters, 1861-W & Java.Also present on Sanana I (Sula Is), but subspecies involved not known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 45—59-5 mm, tail 29-5— 37 mm, ear 14-5— 17 mm, hindfoot 4-9— 8 mm, forearm 45—51-3 mm; weight 8-6 g. Females are normally larger than males. Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat has relatively short triangular ears; antitragus is as much as one-third of ear length. Noseleaf is simple and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in anterior leaf. Upper margin of intermediate leaf is slightly convex. Posterior leaf has a semicircular upper margin and presents three septa, forming four cells on frontal surface. Frontal sac is well developed in males. Tail is long. Pelage is brownish-grayish and sometimes reddish on dorsum; on ventral area fur is paler.Habitat.Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.Breeding.Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.Activity patterns.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance. Habitat loss and transformation, and disturbance to roosting sites are probably threats.Bibliography.Debata & Palita (2017), Debata eta/. (2015), Francis, Kingston eta/. (2008), Hill (1971c), Jenkins & Hill (1981), Kaur eta/. (2017), Vestjens & Hall (1977).","taxonomy":"Hipposiderosgaleritus Cantor, 1846, “ Pinang[= Penang],” Malaysia.Hipposideros galerituswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Cantor @fr | Cantor-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Cantor @es | Cantor's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Cantor","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1846","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"246","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"galeritus","name":"Hipposideros galeritus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. g. galeritus Cantor, 1846-SE Thailand, S Laos, C & S Vietnam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao and Penang Is), Sumatra, and Bangka I.H. g. brachyotis Dobson, 1874-India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.H. g. insolens Lyon, 1911— Borneo.H. g. longicauda Peters, 1861-W & Java.Also present on Sanana I (Sula Is), but subspecies involved not known.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749143/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Debata & Palita (2017) | Debata et al. (2015) | Francis, Kingston et al. (2008) | Hill (1971c) | Jenkins & Hill (1981) | Kaur et al. (2017) | Vestjens & Hall (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.","breeding":"Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.","activityPatterns":"Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance. Habitat loss and transformation, and disturbance to roosting sites are probably threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 45—59-5 mm, tail 29-5— 37 mm, ear 14-5— 17 mm, hindfoot 4-9— 8 mm, forearm 45—51-3 mm; weight 8-6 g. Females are normally larger than males. Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat has relatively short triangular ears; antitragus is as much as one-third of ear length. Noseleaf is simple and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in anterior leaf. Upper margin of intermediate leaf is slightly convex. Posterior leaf has a semicircular upper margin and presents three septa, forming four cells on frontal surface. Frontal sac is well developed in males. Tail is long. Pelage is brownish-grayish and sometimes reddish on dorsum; on ventral area fur is paler.Habitat.Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy beetles and moths. It forages in forest habitats, flying close to the ground.Breeding.Small breeding colonies of Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat have been reported, mosdy in caves. Females have been reported carrying young in May.Activity patterns.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, abandoned mines, fissures, churches, temples, crevices in buildings, and tunnels. Echolocation call includes a F component of 109-117 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming groups of tens or hundreds of individuals. It has been observed sharing roosts with the Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ceruinus) and other bat species such as Eonycteris, Dobsonia, Miniopterus, Taphozous, Emballonura, and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H. diadema). In Sri Lanka, it is reported to change its roost sites frequently.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is usually not very abundant, it has a wide range and is thought to have a large overall population, as well as the ability to adapt to a certain amount of habitat disturbance.","habitat":"Both dry and wet forests at elevations from sea level up to 1100 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217F87DF82FF6FE5327.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C665A217F87DF82FF6FE5327","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"246","verbatimText":"53.Cox’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros coxiFrench:Phyllorhine de Cox/ German:Cox-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de CoxOther common names:Cox's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] coxi Shelford, 1901, “Mount Penrisen, Sarawak, Borneo [Malaysia], 4200 feet[= 1280 m].”Hipposideros coxiwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from a few localities in W Borneo (N & SW Sarawak), including Gunung Mulu, Bako, and Tanjung Datu national parks, Mt Penrissen, and Bau Limestone area; it has been reported in Central Kalimantan based on acoustic surveys, but this requires confirmation.Descriptive notes.Forearm 53—55 mm. Ears of Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat are covered with hairs. Noseleaf is enlarged with two lateral leaflets. Anterior leaf fully covers muzzle. Intermediate leaf is bulbous and thickened. Posterior is large with swollen thick bump in middle. Wing membrane is dark. Pelage color is dark brown with ventral side paler.Habitat.Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps understory, e.g. trails. It has been netted in mangrove forest near rock crevices. It occurs in lowlands, from sea level up to a hill cave at 1200 m.Food and Feeding.Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during gleaning.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of46-52 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, typically in small groups of 2-5 individuals. At Wind Cave, Sarawak, it was recorded roosting on the cave ceiling in a group of less than 20 individuals near an opening.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCNRed List. Cox’s Leafnosed Bat is endemic to Borneo and is rare; its population is very small and decreasing (area of occupancy is less than 500 km2). Besides habitat loss, the main threats include mining and bird-nest harvesting. Recorded in Bako, Tanjung Datu, and Gunung Mulu national parks and Wind and Fairy cave reserves.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Khan eta/. (2008), MacArthur (2016a), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Rosli et al. (2018), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposiderus [sic] coxi Shelford, 1901, “Mount Penrisen, Sarawak, Borneo [Malaysia], 4200 feet[= 1280 m].”Hipposideros coxiwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Cox @fr | Cox-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Cox @es | Cox's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Shelford","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1901","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"246","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"coxi","name":"Hipposideros coxi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from a few localities in W Borneo (N & SW Sarawak), including Gunung Mulu, Bako, and Tanjung Datu national parks, Mt Penrissen, and Bau Limestone area; it has been reported in Central Kalimantan based on acoustic surveys, but this requires confirmation.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749141/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Khan et al. (2008) | MacArthur (2016a) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Rosli et al. (2018) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during gleaning.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of46-52 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, typically in small groups of 2-5 individuals. At Wind Cave, Sarawak, it was recorded roosting on the cave ceiling in a group of less than 20 individuals near an opening.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCNRed List. Cox’s Leafnosed Bat is endemic to Borneo and is rare; its population is very small and decreasing (area of occupancy is less than 500 km2). Besides habitat loss, the main threats include mining and bird-nest harvesting. Recorded in Bako, Tanjung Datu, and Gunung Mulu national parks and Wind and Fairy cave reserves.","descriptiveNotes":"Forearm 53—55 mm. Ears of Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat are covered with hairs. Noseleaf is enlarged with two lateral leaflets. Anterior leaf fully covers muzzle. Intermediate leaf is bulbous and thickened. Posterior is large with swollen thick bump in middle. Wing membrane is dark. Pelage color is dark brown with ventral side paler.","habitat":"Cox’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest gaps understory, e.g. trails. It has been netted in mangrove forest near rock crevices. It occurs in lowlands, from sea level up to a hill cave at 1200 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217FF28FCCDFE7A4F99.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C665A217FF28FCCDFE7A4F99","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"246","verbatimText":"51.Spurred Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros calcaratusFrench:Phyllorhine à éperons/ German:Sporn-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de espolonesOther common names:Spurred Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina calcarata Dobson, 1877, “Duke-of-York Island and adjacent coasts of New Irelandand New Britain,” PapuaNew Guinea.Hipposideros calcaratuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group (species). Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. c. calcaratus Dobson, 1877— Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Is, Trobriand Is (Kiriwina), D’Entrecasteaux Is (Normanby), and Misima I; probably on other inshore Is of New Guinea.H. c. cupidus K. Andersen, 1918mainland New Guineaand Yapen I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 49-4— 70 mm, tail 31-44 mm, ear 16-5— 25 mm, hindfoot 7-9— 12 mm, forearm 46-2—55-8 mm; weight 11-5 g. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat has large, funnel-shaped ears, with slighdy rounded tips. Noseleaf is simple, without supplementary leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a medial and well-developed protuberance. Posterior leaf is long, with three vertical septa. There is a small protuberance above each eye and behind both laterals of posterior noseleaf. Frontal sac of males is relatively small. Wing membrane is attached to side of foot. Pelage is long and soft, with dark brown on dorsum, and paler colors over shoulders; fur is whitish-grayish on ventral part, and naked wing membranes are blackish brown. This species can occasionally present a reddish or orange coloration.Habitat.Forests and wet lowlands from sea level to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is based on insects; it probably hunts mainly Blattodea and Orthoptera. Its foraging habitat is still unknown, but forest areas and river bodies are possible feeding zones.Breeding.Breeding colonies have been reported in caves, with aggregations of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Females give birth to one or two offspring in May-June or October—November.Activity patterns.The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and other underground cavities. Echolocation call includes a F component of 125-130 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and can be found in large colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is common within its range. Although the trends are unknown, it is thought that the overall population is large. No major threats to this species are known at present, although habitat loss and human disturbance could be of some importance.Bibliography.Bonaccorso & Reardon (2008f), Hill (1971c), Lavery eta/. (2014), Smith & Hill (1981), Vestjens & Hall (1977).","taxonomy":"Phyllorhina calcarata Dobson, 1877, “Duke-of-York Island and adjacent coasts of New Irelandand New Britain,” PapuaNew Guinea.Hipposideros calcaratuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group (species). Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine à éperons @fr | Sporn-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de espolones @es | Spurred Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dobson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"246","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"calcaratus","name":"Hipposideros calcaratus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. c. calcaratus Dobson, 1877— Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Is, Trobriand Is (Kiriwina), D’Entrecasteaux Is (Normanby), and Misima I; probably on other inshore Is of New Guinea.H. c. cupidus K. Andersen, 1918mainland New Guineaand Yapen I.","bibliography":"Bonaccorso & Reardon (2008f) | Hill (1971c) | Lavery et al. (2014) | Smith & Hill (1981) | Vestjens & Hall (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is based on insects; it probably hunts mainly Blattodea and Orthoptera. Its foraging habitat is still unknown, but forest areas and river bodies are possible feeding zones.","breeding":"Breeding colonies have been reported in caves, with aggregations of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Females give birth to one or two offspring in May-June or October—November.","activityPatterns":"The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and other underground cavities. Echolocation call includes a F component of 125-130 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and can be found in large colonies.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is common within its range. Although the trends are unknown, it is thought that the overall population is large. No major threats to this species are known at present, although habitat loss and human disturbance could be of some importance.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 49-4— 70 mm, tail 31-44 mm, ear 16-5— 25 mm, hindfoot 7-9— 12 mm, forearm 46-2—55-8 mm; weight 11-5 g. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat has large, funnel-shaped ears, with slighdy rounded tips. Noseleaf is simple, without supplementary leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a medial and well-developed protuberance. Posterior leaf is long, with three vertical septa. There is a small protuberance above each eye and behind both laterals of posterior noseleaf. Frontal sac of males is relatively small. Wing membrane is attached to side of foot. Pelage is long and soft, with dark brown on dorsum, and paler colors over shoulders; fur is whitish-grayish on ventral part, and naked wing membranes are blackish brown. This species can occasionally present a reddish or orange coloration.","habitat":"Forests and wet lowlands from sea level to 1000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217FF2BF2D6F7904401.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C665A217FF2BF2D6F7904401","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"246","verbatimText":"52.Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros cervinusFrench:Phyllorhine de Gould/ German:Rehbraune Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de GouldOther common names:awn Horseshoe Bat, awn Roundleaf Bat, Fawn-colored Roundleaf Bat, Gould's Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus ceruinus Gould, 1854, Cape York and Albany Island, Queensland, Australia.Hipposideros ceruinuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Future taxonomic study may prove that the Malay Peninsula population represents a different taxon. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. c. ceruinus Gould, 1854-Sulawesi and adjacent Is, Talaud, Moluccas, Kai, and Aru Is, New Guinea(including Waigeo and Yapen Is), Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagos, NE Australia(Cape York Peninsula and Moa and Albany Is), Solomon Is, and Vanuatu.H. c. labuanensisTomes, 1859-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (includingMentawai, Enggano, and Bangka Is), Borneo, Kangean Is, and Philippines(Palawanand Mindanao Is).Descriptive notes.Head—body 50—55 mm, tail 21—31 mm, ear 14-17-5 mm, forearm 44—53 mm; weight 6-9 g. There are no other specific measurements available. The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat is a small to medium-sized Hipposideros. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide the posterior leaf into four cells. Pelage color is variable from grayish brown or yellowish brown to bright orange; ventral side is paler than the dorsal.Habitat.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat usually roosts in caves but can also be found in other habitats, e.g. abandoned mines and tree hollows. It forages in lowland forest understory from sea level up to 1400 m.Food and Feeding.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during the gleaning.Breeding.In Madang Province, PapuaNew Guinea, females give birth to a single young twice a year, with lactation peaks in March and September. Pregnant females were captured in July-September. Females become sexually mature in c.8—9 months. In peninsular Malaysia, lactating females were found throughout the year, with peak pregnancy in February—March.Activity patterns.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat emerges from the roost at sunset, and sets off, flying fast within 3 mof the ground, for its foraging grounds. It is a cavedwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 144—145 kHz, with the FM segment dropping to 120 kHz. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency is 126 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats roost gregariously. Colony size can be thousands of individuals. In Niah Caves, Borneo, colony size was estimated at up to 250,000 individuals. The species can be found sharing the roost with Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. bicolor) and antor ’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. galeritus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. This species is common to abundant in caves throughout its range, and forms large colonies.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrumgsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal, Hall & Bonaccorso (2008), Francis (2008a), Heaney eta/. (1998), Kingston eta/. (2006), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus ceruinus Gould, 1854, Cape York and Albany Island, Queensland, Australia.Hipposideros ceruinuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Future taxonomic study may prove that the Malay Peninsula population represents a different taxon. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Gould @fr | Rehbraune Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Gould @es | awn Horseshoe Bat @en | awn Roundleaf Bat @en | Fawn-colored Roundleaf Bat @en | Gould's Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gould","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1854","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"246","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cervinus","name":"Hipposideros cervinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. c. ceruinus Gould, 1854-Sulawesi and adjacent Is, Talaud, Moluccas, Kai, and Aru Is, New Guinea(including Waigeo and Yapen Is), Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagos, NE Australia(Cape York Peninsula and Moa and Albany Is), Solomon Is, and Vanuatu.H. c. labuanensisTomes, 1859-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (includingMentawai, Enggano, and Bangka Is), Borneo, Kangean Is, and Philippines(Palawanand Mindanao Is).","bibliography":"Bonaccorso (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrumgsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal, Hall & Bonaccorso (2008) | Francis (2008a) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during the gleaning.","breeding":"In Madang Province, PapuaNew Guinea, females give birth to a single young twice a year, with lactation peaks in March and September. Pregnant females were captured in July-September. Females become sexually mature in c.8—9 months. In peninsular Malaysia, lactating females were found throughout the year, with peak pregnancy in February—March.","activityPatterns":"The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat emerges from the roost at sunset, and sets off, flying fast within 3 mof the ground, for its foraging grounds. It is a cavedwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 144—145 kHz, with the FM segment dropping to 120 kHz. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency is 126 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats roost gregariously. Colony size can be thousands of individuals. In Niah Caves, Borneo, colony size was estimated at up to 250,000 individuals. The species can be found sharing the roost with Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. bicolor) and antor ’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. galeritus).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. This species is common to abundant in caves throughout its range, and forms large colonies.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 50—55 mm, tail 21—31 mm, ear 14-17-5 mm, forearm 44—53 mm; weight 6-9 g. There are no other specific measurements available. The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat is a small to medium-sized Hipposideros. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide the posterior leaf into four cells. Pelage color is variable from grayish brown or yellowish brown to bright orange; ventral side is paler than the dorsal.","habitat":"The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat usually roosts in caves but can also be found in other habitats, e.g. abandoned mines and tree hollows. It forages in lowland forest understory from sea level up to 1400 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217FF28FCCDFE7A4F99.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C665A217FF28FCCDFE7A4F99","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"246","verbatimText":"51.Spurred Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros calcaratusFrench:Phyllorhine à éperons/ German:Sporn-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de espolonesOther common names:Spurred Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina calcarata Dobson, 1877, “Duke-of-York Island and adjacent coasts of New Irelandand New Britain,” PapuaNew Guinea.Hipposideros calcaratuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group (species). Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. c. calcaratus Dobson, 1877— Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Is, Trobriand Is (Kiriwina), D’Entrecasteaux Is (Normanby), and Misima I; probably on other inshore Is of New Guinea.H. c. cupidus K. Andersen, 1918mainland New Guineaand Yapen I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 49-4— 70 mm, tail 31-44 mm, ear 16-5— 25 mm, hindfoot 7-9— 12 mm, forearm 46-2—55-8 mm; weight 11-5 g. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat has large, funnel-shaped ears, with slighdy rounded tips. Noseleaf is simple, without supplementary leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a medial and well-developed protuberance. Posterior leaf is long, with three vertical septa. There is a small protuberance above each eye and behind both laterals of posterior noseleaf. Frontal sac of males is relatively small. Wing membrane is attached to side of foot. Pelage is long and soft, with dark brown on dorsum, and paler colors over shoulders; fur is whitish-grayish on ventral part, and naked wing membranes are blackish brown. This species can occasionally present a reddish or orange coloration.Habitat.Forests and wet lowlands from sea level to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is based on insects; it probably hunts mainly Blattodea and Orthoptera. Its foraging habitat is still unknown, but forest areas and river bodies are possible feeding zones.Breeding.Breeding colonies have been reported in caves, with aggregations of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Females give birth to one or two offspring in May-June or October—November.Activity patterns.The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and other underground cavities. Echolocation call includes a F component of 125-130 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and can be found in large colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is common within its range. Although the trends are unknown, it is thought that the overall population is large. No major threats to this species are known at present, although habitat loss and human disturbance could be of some importance.Bibliography.Bonaccorso & Reardon (2008f), Hill (1971c), Lavery eta/. (2014), Smith & Hill (1981), Vestjens & Hall (1977).","taxonomy":"Phyllorhina calcarata Dobson, 1877, “Duke-of-York Island and adjacent coasts of New Irelandand New Britain,” PapuaNew Guinea.Hipposideros calcaratuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group (species). Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine à éperons @fr | Sporn-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de espolones @es | Spurred Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dobson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"246","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"calcaratus","name":"Hipposideros calcaratus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. c. calcaratus Dobson, 1877— Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Is, Trobriand Is (Kiriwina), D’Entrecasteaux Is (Normanby), and Misima I; probably on other inshore Is of New Guinea.H. c. cupidus K. Andersen, 1918mainland New Guineaand Yapen I.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749137/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonaccorso & Reardon (2008f) | Hill (1971c) | Lavery et al. (2014) | Smith & Hill (1981) | Vestjens & Hall (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is based on insects; it probably hunts mainly Blattodea and Orthoptera. Its foraging habitat is still unknown, but forest areas and river bodies are possible feeding zones.","breeding":"Breeding colonies have been reported in caves, with aggregations of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Females give birth to one or two offspring in May-June or October—November.","activityPatterns":"The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and other underground cavities. Echolocation call includes a F component of 125-130 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and can be found in large colonies.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat is common within its range. Although the trends are unknown, it is thought that the overall population is large. No major threats to this species are known at present, although habitat loss and human disturbance could be of some importance.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 49-4— 70 mm, tail 31-44 mm, ear 16-5— 25 mm, hindfoot 7-9— 12 mm, forearm 46-2—55-8 mm; weight 11-5 g. The Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat has large, funnel-shaped ears, with slighdy rounded tips. Noseleaf is simple, without supplementary leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a medial and well-developed protuberance. Posterior leaf is long, with three vertical septa. There is a small protuberance above each eye and behind both laterals of posterior noseleaf. Frontal sac of males is relatively small. Wing membrane is attached to side of foot. Pelage is long and soft, with dark brown on dorsum, and paler colors over shoulders; fur is whitish-grayish on ventral part, and naked wing membranes are blackish brown. This species can occasionally present a reddish or orange coloration.","habitat":"Forests and wet lowlands from sea level to 1000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C665A217FF2BF2D6F7904401.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C665A217FF2BF2D6F7904401","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"246","verbatimText":"52.Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros cervinusFrench:Phyllorhine de Gould/ German:Rehbraune Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de GouldOther common names:awn Horseshoe Bat, awn Roundleaf Bat, Fawn-colored Roundleaf Bat, Gould's Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus ceruinus Gould, 1854, Cape York and Albany Island, Queensland, Australia.Hipposideros ceruinuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Future taxonomic study may prove that the Malay Peninsula population represents a different taxon. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. c. ceruinus Gould, 1854-Sulawesi and adjacent Is, Talaud, Moluccas, Kai, and Aru Is, New Guinea(including Waigeo and Yapen Is), Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagos, NE Australia(Cape York Peninsula and Moa and Albany Is), Solomon Is, and Vanuatu.H. c. labuanensisTomes, 1859-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (includingMentawai, Enggano, and Bangka Is), Borneo, Kangean Is, and Philippines(Palawanand Mindanao Is).Descriptive notes.Head—body 50—55 mm, tail 21—31 mm, ear 14-17-5 mm, forearm 44—53 mm; weight 6-9 g. There are no other specific measurements available. The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat is a small to medium-sized Hipposideros. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide the posterior leaf into four cells. Pelage color is variable from grayish brown or yellowish brown to bright orange; ventral side is paler than the dorsal.Habitat.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat usually roosts in caves but can also be found in other habitats, e.g. abandoned mines and tree hollows. It forages in lowland forest understory from sea level up to 1400 m.Food and Feeding.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during the gleaning.Breeding.In Madang Province, PapuaNew Guinea, females give birth to a single young twice a year, with lactation peaks in March and September. Pregnant females were captured in July-September. Females become sexually mature in c.8—9 months. In peninsular Malaysia, lactating females were found throughout the year, with peak pregnancy in February—March.Activity patterns.The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat emerges from the roost at sunset, and sets off, flying fast within 3 mof the ground, for its foraging grounds. It is a cavedwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 144—145 kHz, with the FM segment dropping to 120 kHz. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency is 126 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats roost gregariously. Colony size can be thousands of individuals. In Niah Caves, Borneo, colony size was estimated at up to 250,000 individuals. The species can be found sharing the roost with Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. bicolor) and antor ’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. galeritus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. This species is common to abundant in caves throughout its range, and forms large colonies.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrumgsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal, Hall & Bonaccorso (2008), Francis (2008a), Heaney eta/. (1998), Kingston eta/. (2006), Phillipps & Phillipps (2016), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus ceruinus Gould, 1854, Cape York and Albany Island, Queensland, Australia.Hipposideros ceruinuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the calcaratusspecies group. Future taxonomic study may prove that the Malay Peninsula population represents a different taxon. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Gould @fr | Rehbraune Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Gould @es | awn Horseshoe Bat @en | awn Roundleaf Bat @en | Fawn-colored Roundleaf Bat @en | Gould's Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gould","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1854","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"246","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cervinus","name":"Hipposideros cervinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. c. ceruinus Gould, 1854-Sulawesi and adjacent Is, Talaud, Moluccas, Kai, and Aru Is, New Guinea(including Waigeo and Yapen Is), Admiralty Is (Manus), Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagos, NE Australia(Cape York Peninsula and Moa and Albany Is), Solomon Is, and Vanuatu.H. c. labuanensisTomes, 1859-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (includingMentawai, Enggano, and Bangka Is), Borneo, Kangean Is, and Philippines(Palawanand Mindanao Is).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749139/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonaccorso (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrumgsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal, Hall & Bonaccorso (2008) | Francis (2008a) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Kingston et al. (2006) | Phillipps & Phillipps (2016) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on small beedes, moths, and other insects over shrubs, creeks and water bodies by using aerial and gleaning tactics. It can fly slowly and hover during the gleaning.","breeding":"In Madang Province, PapuaNew Guinea, females give birth to a single young twice a year, with lactation peaks in March and September. Pregnant females were captured in July-September. Females become sexually mature in c.8—9 months. In peninsular Malaysia, lactating females were found throughout the year, with peak pregnancy in February—March.","activityPatterns":"The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat emerges from the roost at sunset, and sets off, flying fast within 3 mof the ground, for its foraging grounds. It is a cavedwelling species. Echolocation is a typical CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 144—145 kHz, with the FM segment dropping to 120 kHz. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency is 126 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats roost gregariously. Colony size can be thousands of individuals. In Niah Caves, Borneo, colony size was estimated at up to 250,000 individuals. The species can be found sharing the roost with Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. bicolor) and antor ’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. galeritus).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. This species is common to abundant in caves throughout its range, and forms large colonies.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 50—55 mm, tail 21—31 mm, ear 14-17-5 mm, forearm 44—53 mm; weight 6-9 g. There are no other specific measurements available. The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat is a small to medium-sized Hipposideros. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets. Posterior leaf has three vertical septa, which divide the posterior leaf into four cells. Pelage color is variable from grayish brown or yellowish brown to bright orange; ventral side is paler than the dorsal.","habitat":"The Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bat usually roosts in caves but can also be found in other habitats, e.g. abandoned mines and tree hollows. It forages in lowland forest understory from sea level up to 1400 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C666A214FF55F782F74F4BFC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C666A214FF55F782F74F4BFC","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"243","verbatimText":"46.Peleng Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pelingensisFrench:Phyllorhine de Peleng/ German:Peleng-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de PelengOther common names:Peleng Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros pelingensis Shamel, 1940, “Island of Peleng, Celebes[= east of Sulawesi],”Indonesia.Hipposideros pelingensisis in the diademaspecies group. It was previously considered a subspecies of H. dinops. Further taxonomic research is needed. Monotypic.Distribution.Sulawesiand adjacent Peleng, Buton, and Kabaena Is, also on Tukangbesi Is (Wangi-wangi, Kaledupa, and Tornea).Descriptive notes.Forearm 93-4—96-9 mm; weight 50 g. The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (M dinops) but has shorter tibia. Ears are large and triangular, slightly concave below tip. Noseleaf is well developed, anterior leaf with three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a small protuberance in central part. Upper margin of posterior noseleaf is semicircular and three vertical septa form four cells on frontal surface. Fur is pale brown with brownishyellowish stripes along the sides.Habitat.The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported near karst areas and agricultural lands. It is found from the sea level up to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based on insects. The species has been observed foraging over farmland.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported roosting in caves. Echolocation call includes a F component of52—57 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be gregarious, forming colonies of hundreds or even thousands of individuals, in caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Although the Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is locally common, limestone extraction and human disturbance at roosts could constitute important threats to its population, which is probably decreasing already, or likely to do so in the near future.Bibliography.Hill (1963a, 1983), Hutson, Schütter & Kingston (2008), Murray et al. (2012), Patterson et al. (2017), Shamel (1940).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros pelingensis Shamel, 1940, “Island of Peleng, Celebes[= east of Sulawesi],”Indonesia.Hipposideros pelingensisis in the diademaspecies group. It was previously considered a subspecies of H. dinops. Further taxonomic research is needed. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Peleng @fr | Peleng-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Peleng @es | Peleng Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Shamel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1940","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"243","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pelingensis","name":"Hipposideros pelingensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Sulawesiand adjacent Peleng, Buton, and Kabaena Is, also on Tukangbesi Is (Wangi-wangi, Kaledupa, and Tornea).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749127/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hill (1963a, 1983) | Hutson, Schütter & Kingston (2008) | Murray et al. (2012) | Patterson et al. (2017) | Shamel (1940)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based on insects. The species has been observed foraging over farmland.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported roosting in caves. Echolocation call includes a F component of52—57 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be gregarious, forming colonies of hundreds or even thousands of individuals, in caves.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Although the Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is locally common, limestone extraction and human disturbance at roosts could constitute important threats to its population, which is probably decreasing already, or likely to do so in the near future.","descriptiveNotes":"Forearm 93-4—96-9 mm; weight 50 g. The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (M dinops) but has shorter tibia. Ears are large and triangular, slightly concave below tip. Noseleaf is well developed, anterior leaf with three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Intermediate leaf has a small protuberance in central part. Upper margin of posterior noseleaf is semicircular and three vertical septa form four cells on frontal surface. Fur is pale brown with brownishyellowish stripes along the sides.","habitat":"The Peleng Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported near karst areas and agricultural lands. It is found from the sea level up to 1000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AF898FEA4F2CA4B5E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C668A21AF898FEA4F2CA4B5E","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"257","verbatimText":"85.Pomona Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pomonaFrench:Phyllorhine pomone IGerman:Pomona-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido pomonaOther common names:Pomona Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros pomona K Andersen, 1918, “Haleri, N[orth]. Coorg [= Kodagu],” Karnataka State, south-western India.Hipposideros pomonawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.S India(Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).Descriptive notes.Ear 18—19 mm, forearm 38—39 mm. Pelage of the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with hairs paler at base; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.Habitat No information.Food and Feeding.The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat feeds in gaps of the forest understory.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, or hollow trees. Call frequency is 123-128 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. As the revised species is now restricted to southern India, its population status needs to be re-assessed. The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is likely to qualify to be listed under threatened category and may require conservation measures.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a), Corbet & Hill (1992), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook eta/. (2010), Francis (2008a), Simmons (2005), Wordley eta/. (2014).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros pomona K Andersen, 1918, “Haleri, N[orth]. Coorg [= Kodagu],” Karnataka State, south-western India.Hipposideros pomonawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine pomone @fr | Pomona-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido pomona @es | Pomona Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"K Andersen, 1918","interpretedAuthorityName":"K Andersen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1918","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"257","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pomona","name":"Hipposideros pomona","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S India(Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Francis (2008a) | Simmons (2005) | Wordley et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat feeds in gaps of the forest understory.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, or hollow trees. Call frequency is 123-128 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. As the revised species is now restricted to southern India, its population status needs to be re-assessed. The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is likely to qualify to be listed under threatened category and may require conservation measures.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 18—19 mm, forearm 38—39 mm. Pelage of the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with hairs paler at base; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AF898FEA4F2CA4B5E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C668A21AF898FEA4F2CA4B5E","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"257","verbatimText":"85.Pomona Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pomonaFrench:Phyllorhine pomone IGerman:Pomona-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido pomonaOther common names:Pomona Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros pomona K Andersen, 1918, “Haleri, N[orth]. Coorg [= Kodagu],” Karnataka State, south-western India.Hipposideros pomonawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.S India(Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).Descriptive notes.Ear 18—19 mm, forearm 38—39 mm. Pelage of the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with hairs paler at base; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.Habitat No information.Food and Feeding.The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat feeds in gaps of the forest understory.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, or hollow trees. Call frequency is 123-128 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. As the revised species is now restricted to southern India, its population status needs to be re-assessed. The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is likely to qualify to be listed under threatened category and may require conservation measures.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a), Corbet & Hill (1992), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook eta/. (2010), Francis (2008a), Simmons (2005), Wordley eta/. (2014).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros pomona K Andersen, 1918, “Haleri, N[orth]. Coorg [= Kodagu],” Karnataka State, south-western India.Hipposideros pomonawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine pomone @fr | Pomona-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido pomona @es | Pomona Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"K Andersen, 1918","interpretedAuthorityName":"K Andersen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1918","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"257","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pomona","name":"Hipposideros pomona","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S India(Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749207/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Francis (2008a) | Simmons (2005) | Wordley et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat feeds in gaps of the forest understory.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, or hollow trees. Call frequency is 123-128 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. As the revised species is now restricted to southern India, its population status needs to be re-assessed. The PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is likely to qualify to be listed under threatened category and may require conservation measures.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 18—19 mm, forearm 38—39 mm. Pelage of the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with hairs paler at base; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AF89AF71DF3CE5141.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C668A21AF89AF71DF3CE5141","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"257","verbatimText":"86.Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pygmaeusFrench:Phyllorhine pygmée/ German:Kleine Philippinen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido filipino pequenoOther common names:Philippine Pygmy Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus pygmaeus Waterhouse, 1843, “ Philippine Islands.”Hipposideros pygmaeuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Philippines(S Luzon, Polillo, Marinduque, Samar, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, and N Mindanao).Descriptive notes.Head—body 57—73 mm, tail 18—27 mm, ear 11—15 mm, hindfoot 6—8 mm, forearm 37—41 mm; weight 4 g. Ears of the Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat are triangular, with a broad base, and concave below tip; they are haired for half of their length. Noseleaf is large and complex. Anterior noseleaf is broad and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Unlike posterior pair of leaflets, anterior pair meets beneath anterior noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf has no median emarginations. Posterior leaf is broad, with semicircular upper margin and with three vertical septa, which from four cells. Frontal sac only present in males. Fur is dark brown with whitish bases on dorsum; on ventral part pelage is brown, darker at base of hairs.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland forest. The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported from sea level up to 200 m.Food and Feeding.The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in cluttered areas of forest Common prey of this species includes Araneae, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Blattodea, and Psocoptera.Breeding.Maternity colonies are found in caves.Activity patterns.The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed bat has been reported roosting in limestone caves and other underground habitats. Call frequency of the F segment is c.95-5 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat is a gregarious species and has been observed in caves, usually roosting in small groups, although large numbers have been reported in some caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCNRed List. The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat has a relatively wide distribution and its population is thought to be large. In addition, it is considered to be tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. Potential threats to this species could be disturbance at roosts, cave destruction, deforestation and mining, as well as local hunting in some areas. This species is hunted for food in parts of its range, although this does not seem to heavily harm the species.Bibliography.Heaney, Balete, Dolar eta/. (1998), Heaney, Balete, Ong, Rosell-Ambal,Tabaranza & Esselstyn (2008), Hill (1963a), Ingle & Heaney (1992), Phelps, Jose eta/. (2016),Tate (1941a).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus pygmaeus Waterhouse, 1843, “ Philippine Islands.”Hipposideros pygmaeuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine pygmée @fr | Kleine Philippinen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido filipino pequeno @es | Philippine Pygmy Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"257","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pygmaeus","name":"Hipposideros pygmaeus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Philippines(S Luzon, Polillo, Marinduque, Samar, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, and N Mindanao).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749209/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998) | Heaney, Balete, Ong, Rosell-Ambal,Tabaranza & Esselstyn (2008) | Hill (1963a) | Ingle & Heaney (1992) | Phelps, Jose et al. (2016) | Tate (1941a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in cluttered areas of forest Common prey of this species includes Araneae, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Blattodea, and Psocoptera.","breeding":"Maternity colonies are found in caves.","activityPatterns":"The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed bat has been reported roosting in limestone caves and other underground habitats. Call frequency of the F segment is c.95-5 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat is a gregarious species and has been observed in caves, usually roosting in small groups, although large numbers have been reported in some caves.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on IUCNRed List. The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat has a relatively wide distribution and its population is thought to be large. In addition, it is considered to be tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. Potential threats to this species could be disturbance at roosts, cave destruction, deforestation and mining, as well as local hunting in some areas. This species is hunted for food in parts of its range, although this does not seem to heavily harm the species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 57—73 mm, tail 18—27 mm, ear 11—15 mm, hindfoot 6—8 mm, forearm 37—41 mm; weight 4 g. Ears of the Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat are triangular, with a broad base, and concave below tip; they are haired for half of their length. Noseleaf is large and complex. Anterior noseleaf is broad and has two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Unlike posterior pair of leaflets, anterior pair meets beneath anterior noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf has no median emarginations. Posterior leaf is broad, with semicircular upper margin and with three vertical septa, which from four cells. Frontal sac only present in males. Fur is dark brown with whitish bases on dorsum; on ventral part pelage is brown, darker at base of hairs.","habitat":"Primary and secondary lowland forest. The Philippine Pygmy Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported from sea level up to 200 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AFF48F5F3F8EB514E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C668A21AFF48F5F3F8EB514E","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"257","verbatimText":"84.Biak Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros papuaFrench:Phyllorhine papoue/ German:Biak-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de BiakOther common names:Biak Roundleaf Bat, Geelvink BayLeaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.PhyUorhina papua Thomas & Doria, 1886, “Rorido nell’ Isoladi Misori [= Biak Island], Baja del Geelvink [= Cenderawasih Bay], nella N. Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Hipposideros papuawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Moluccas(Halmahera and Bacan), West Papuan Is (Gebe), Schouten Is (Numfor, Supiori, and Biak), and W New Guinea(Bird’s Head Peninsula).Descriptive notes.Head—body 48-9—58-9 mm, tail 22-34-8 mm, ear 13-3—17-8 mm, hindfoot 6-5—7-7 mm, forearm 49-5—52-7 mm; weight 9-3—10-1 g. The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat has large triangular ears that are slighdy concave below tip. Anterior noseleaf is large, with three supplementary lateral leaflets (the third one very small or absent in some cases). Upper margin of posterior noseleaf is semicircular and has three vertical septa, which separate four cells on frontal surface. A frontal sac is present in males and absent in females. Pelage is dark brown on dorsum and paler on ventral part.Habitat.The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in primary tropical moist woodland habitats at elevations of 100-300 m.Food and Feeding.The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in primary forests. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. Call frequency of the F segment is c.123 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and has been observed in caves roosting in small groups.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although it occurs in a relatively small range, the Biak Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively common species within this, and its population is thought to be stable. The main potential threats to this species might be roost disturbance and habitat degradation.Bibliography.Bates, Rossiter eta/. (2007), Bonaccorso (1998), Helgen (2008b),Tate (1941a), Wiantoro (2011).","taxonomy":"PhyUorhina papua Thomas & Doria, 1886, “Rorido nell’ Isoladi Misori [= Biak Island], Baja del Geelvink [= Cenderawasih Bay], nella N. Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Hipposideros papuawas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine papoue @fr | Biak-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Biak @es | Biak Roundleaf Bat @en | Geelvink Bay Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas & Doria","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1886","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"257","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"papua","name":"Hipposideros papua","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Moluccas(Halmahera and Bacan), West Papuan Is (Gebe), Schouten Is (Numfor, Supiori, and Biak), and W New Guinea(Bird’s Head Peninsula).","bibliography":"Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Helgen (2008b) | Tate (1941a) | Wiantoro (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in primary forests. Its diet is based on insects.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. Call frequency of the F segment is c.123 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious and has been observed in caves roosting in small groups.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although it occurs in a relatively small range, the Biak Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively common species within this, and its population is thought to be stable. The main potential threats to this species might be roost disturbance and habitat degradation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 48-9—58-9 mm, tail 22-34-8 mm, ear 13-3—17-8 mm, hindfoot 6-5—7-7 mm, forearm 49-5—52-7 mm; weight 9-3—10-1 g. The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat has large triangular ears that are slighdy concave below tip. Anterior noseleaf is large, with three supplementary lateral leaflets (the third one very small or absent in some cases). Upper margin of posterior noseleaf is semicircular and has three vertical septa, which separate four cells on frontal surface. A frontal sac is present in males and absent in females. Pelage is dark brown on dorsum and paler on ventral part.","habitat":"The Biak Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in primary tropical moist woodland habitats at elevations of 100-300 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C668A21AFF50FC16FEFE4ABD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C668A21AFF50FC16FEFE4ABD","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"257","verbatimText":"83.Orbiculus Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros orbiculusFrench:Phyllorhine à petit disque/ German:Kleinblatt-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de disco pequenoOther common names:Orbiculus Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros orbiculus Francis, Kock & Habersetzer, 1999, “Abai Siat, SE Kota Baru, 01°02’ S, 101°43’ E, Sumatera Barat, Sumatra, Indonesia.”Hipposideros orbiculuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra.Descriptive notes.Tail 26-34 mm, ear 20-23-5 mm, forearm 46-49 mm; weight 9-3-10-3 g. Ears of the OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat are large and rounded. Pelage is dark chocolate-brown. Noseleaf is broad and covers muzzle, with no lateral supplementary leaflet Intemarial septum is medium-sized and disk-shaped.Habitat The OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat appears to be a lowland-forest species. It has been captured in rubber plantations, in primary forest, and in peat-swamp forest.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in drainage pipes. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency of 80 kHz has been recorded.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The population status of the OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat is unknown, but is doubtless decreasing due to deforestation.Bibliography.Francis (2008a), Francis, Bates et al. (2016), Francis, Kock & Habersetzer (1999), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros orbiculus Francis, Kock & Habersetzer, 1999, “Abai Siat, SE Kota Baru, 01°02’ S, 101°43’ E, Sumatera Barat, Sumatra, Indonesia.”Hipposideros orbiculuswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine à petit disque @fr | Kleinblatt-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de disco pequeno @es | Orbiculus Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Francis, Kock & Habersetzer, 1999","interpretedAuthorityName":"Francis, Kock & Habersetzer","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1999","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"257","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"orbiculus","name":"Hipposideros orbiculus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Peninsular Malaysiaand Sumatra.","bibliography":"Francis (2008a) | Francis, Bates et al. (2016) | Francis, Kock & Habersetzer (1999) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in drainage pipes. In Peninsular Malaysia, call frequency of 80 kHz has been recorded.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The population status of the OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat is unknown, but is doubtless decreasing due to deforestation.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 26-34 mm, ear 20-23-5 mm, forearm 46-49 mm; weight 9-3-10-3 g. Ears of the OrbiculusLeaf-nosed Bat are large and rounded. Pelage is dark chocolate-brown. Noseleaf is broad and covers muzzle, with no lateral supplementary leaflet Intemarial septum is medium-sized and disk-shaped."} @@ -671,7 +671,7 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66AA218FF5CF7A2FD465305.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66AA218FF5CF7A2FD465305","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"255","verbatimText":"75.Kolar Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros hypophyllusFrench:Phyllorhine du Kolar/ German:Kolar-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de KolarOther common names:Kolar Roundleaf Bat, Leafletted Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros hypophyllus Kock & Bhat, 1994, “Hanumanahalli village, 15 kmE of Kolar Town, 13°09’N-78°07’E, Kolar District]., Bangalore Region, Karnataka, India.”Hipposideros hypophylluswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S India(Kolar district, Karnataka), known only from type locality. Previously also on nearby Therahalli, where now absent.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-9—41-7 mm, tail 23-3-24-3 mm, ear 16-7-17-7 mm, hindfoot 6-7-6-9 mm, forearm 38-49 mm. Ears of the Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat are broad. Noseleaf has two lateral supplementary leaflets. Anterior leaf is smoothly rounded, with no emargination. Intemarial septum is broader at base and forms a narrow triangle at tip. Dorsal pelage is grayish brown or rufous brown; ventral area is white to fulvous-white. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Tropical dry shrubland near villages and agricultural fields. The Kolar Leafnosed Bat can be found at elevations of up to 570 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Pregnant and lactating females were found in late summer.Activity patterns.The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat was documented to accumulate fat in winter, suggesting it may use torpor in colder months. Entire known population of this species roosts in a narrow, inaccessible, subterranean cave on a monolithic granite hill. Echolocation call frequency is 103-105 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat shares roosts with Durga Das’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. durgadasi), FulvusLeaf-nosed Bats {H. fulvus), and Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. speoris).Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on IUCNRed List. The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat is very rare and found in only one cave, with a population of less than 200 individuals. The major threat is habitat loss due to granite mining.Bibliography.Chakravarty et al. (2016), Kock & Bhat(1994), Srinivasulu, Srinivasulu & Kaur (2016), Srinivasulu, Srinivasulu, Kaur, Shah et al. (2014).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros hypophyllus Kock & Bhat, 1994, “Hanumanahalli village, 15 kmE of Kolar Town, 13°09’N-78°07’E, Kolar District]., Bangalore Region, Karnataka, India.”Hipposideros hypophylluswas previously included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine du Kolar @fr | Kolar-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Kolar @es | Kolar Roundleaf Bat @en | Leafletted Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Kock & Bhat","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1994","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"28","interpretedPageNumber":"255","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hypophyllus","name":"Hipposideros hypophyllus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to S India(Kolar district, Karnataka), known only from type locality. Previously also on nearby Therahalli, where now absent.","bibliography":"Chakravarty et al. (2016) | Kock & Bhat(1994) | Srinivasulu, Srinivasulu & Kaur (2016) | Srinivasulu, Srinivasulu, Kaur, Shah et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Pregnant and lactating females were found in late summer.","activityPatterns":"The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat was documented to accumulate fat in winter, suggesting it may use torpor in colder months. Entire known population of this species roosts in a narrow, inaccessible, subterranean cave on a monolithic granite hill. Echolocation call frequency is 103-105 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat shares roosts with Durga Das’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. durgadasi), FulvusLeaf-nosed Bats {H. fulvus), and Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. speoris).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on IUCNRed List. The Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat is very rare and found in only one cave, with a population of less than 200 individuals. The major threat is habitat loss due to granite mining.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-9—41-7 mm, tail 23-3-24-3 mm, ear 16-7-17-7 mm, hindfoot 6-7-6-9 mm, forearm 38-49 mm. Ears of the Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat are broad. Noseleaf has two lateral supplementary leaflets. Anterior leaf is smoothly rounded, with no emargination. Intemarial septum is broader at base and forms a narrow triangle at tip. Dorsal pelage is grayish brown or rufous brown; ventral area is white to fulvous-white. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"Tropical dry shrubland near villages and agricultural fields. The Kolar Leafnosed Bat can be found at elevations of up to 570 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66AA218FF5DEF31F3984475.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66AA218FF5DEF31F3984475","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"255","verbatimText":"76.Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros khaokhouayensisFrench:Phyllorhine du Khao Khouay IGerman:Phou-Khao-Khouay-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de Khao KhouayOther common names:Phou Khao Khouay Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros khaokhouayensis Guillén-Servent & Francis, 2006, “ TakLeukwaterfall, along Nam (river) Leuk, in Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity ConservationArea, Saisombun Special Zone, Central Lao PDR, 18°23’N, 103°04’E, 180 melevation.” Hipposideros khaokhouayensiswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Laos, known only from type locality and Ban Nampe, C.I 1 kmNE of Vang Vieng, Vang Vieng district, Vientiane Province.Descriptive notes.Ear 24—26 mm, forearm 46-49 mm. Noseleaf of the Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat is narrow and without lateral supplementary leaflet Intemarial septum forms an intermediate-sized disk shape. Anterior leaf has narrow emargination. Dorsal pelage is generally mid-brown, with individual hairs white at base, brown in the middle, and pale at tip; ventral side is paler. Rostrum is inflated with large posterolateral chamber. Sagittal crest is moderately developed.Habitat.The Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat was captured in patches of intact and disturbed evergreen forests both near and far from caves it is known to occupy. It can be found at elevations of 180—400 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Lactating female was captured in May-June.Activity patterns.The Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation call frequency is 87-91 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on IUCN Red List. The major threat to the Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat is habitat loss; this is aggravated by lack of law enforcement.Bibliography.Bates & Francis (2008a), Francis (2008a), Guillén-Servent & Francis (2006).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros khaokhouayensis Guillén-Servent & Francis, 2006, “ TakLeukwaterfall, along Nam (river) Leuk, in Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity ConservationArea, Saisombun Special Zone, Central Lao PDR, 18°23’N, 103°04’E, 180 melevation.” Hipposideros khaokhouayensiswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but is now placed in the new aterspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine du Khao Khouay @fr | Phou-Khao-Khouay-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Khao Khouay @es | Phou Khao Khouay Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Guillen-Servent & Francis","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2006","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"28","interpretedPageNumber":"255","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"khaokhouayensis","name":"Hipposideros khaokhouayensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Laos, known only from type locality and Ban Nampe, C.I 1 kmNE of Vang Vieng, Vang Vieng district, Vientiane Province.","bibliography":"Bates & Francis (2008a) | Francis (2008a) | Guillén-Servent & Francis (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Lactating female was captured in May-June.","activityPatterns":"The Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation call frequency is 87-91 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on IUCN Red List. The major threat to the Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat is habitat loss; this is aggravated by lack of law enforcement.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 24—26 mm, forearm 46-49 mm. Noseleaf of the Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat is narrow and without lateral supplementary leaflet Intemarial septum forms an intermediate-sized disk shape. Anterior leaf has narrow emargination. Dorsal pelage is generally mid-brown, with individual hairs white at base, brown in the middle, and pale at tip; ventral side is paler. Rostrum is inflated with large posterolateral chamber. Sagittal crest is moderately developed.","habitat":"The Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bat was captured in patches of intact and disturbed evergreen forests both near and far from caves it is known to occupy. It can be found at elevations of 180—400 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66AA219F8B6EF7FF92245DD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66AA219F8B6EF7FF92245DD","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"255","verbatimText":"78.Big-eared Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros macrobullatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Tate/ German:Heinrich-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido orejudoOther common names:Big-eared Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros bicolor macrobullotus Tate, 1941, “Talassa (Maros), South Celebes[= Sulawesi, Indonesia]; 300 meters.”Hipposideros macrobullatuswas described as a subspecies of H. bicolor, but is currendy considered a distinct species. It was formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from three localities in Indonesia(SW Sulawesi, Kangean, and Seram Is).Descriptive notes.Ear 23 mm, forearm 40-42 mm. Ears of the Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat are large. Pelage is brown or reddishbrown, with a whitish base to each hair. Skull is distinctly characterized by large bullae.Habitat.Elevational range is not known: type specimen was collected at 300 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to roost in caves and tree hollows, and to forage in woodland.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Other species collected from the same locality include Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros galeritus) and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H diadema).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Bigeared Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species. Habitat loss and cave disturbance are considered the major threats to this species.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Hutson, Schütter & Kingston (2016a), Simmons (2005), Tate (1941a).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros bicolor macrobullotus Tate, 1941, “Talassa (Maros), South Celebes[= Sulawesi, Indonesia]; 300 meters.”Hipposideros macrobullatuswas described as a subspecies of H. bicolor, but is currendy considered a distinct species. It was formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Tate @fr | Heinrich-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido orejudo @es | Big-eared Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Tate","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1941","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"28","interpretedPageNumber":"255","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macrobullatus","name":"Hipposideros macrobullatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from three localities in Indonesia(SW Sulawesi, Kangean, and Seram Is).","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Hutson, Schütter & Kingston (2016a) | Simmons (2005) | Tate (1941a)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to roost in caves and tree hollows, and to forage in woodland.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Other species collected from the same locality include Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros galeritus) and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H diadema).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Bigeared Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species. Habitat loss and cave disturbance are considered the major threats to this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 23 mm, forearm 40-42 mm. Ears of the Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat are large. Pelage is brown or reddishbrown, with a whitish base to each hair. Skull is distinctly characterized by large bullae.Habitat.Elevational range is not known: type specimen was collected at 300 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Big-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to roost in caves and tree hollows, and to forage in woodland.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Other species collected from the same locality include Cantor’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros galeritus) and the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (H diadema).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Bigeared Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species.","habitat":"Elevational range is not known: type specimen was collected at 300 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA219F877F9AEF50A4F20.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66BA219F877F9AEF50A4F20","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"256","verbatimText":"81.Nicobar Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros nicobarulaeFrench:Phyllorhine des Nicobar/ German:Nikobaren-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de NicobarOther common names:Nicobar Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros nicobarulae G. S. Miller, 1902, “Little Nicobar Island,”India.Hipposideros nicobarulaeis in the aterspecies group, and was previously considered a subspecies of H. ater. Based on detailed morphometric and craniodental studies, it was raised to species level by B. Douangboubpha and colleagues in 2011. Monotypic.Distribution.Nicobar Is, India.Descriptive notes.Ear 15-19 mm, forearm 38-42 mm. Noseleaf of the Nicobar Leafnosed Bat is without lateral supplementary leaflet. Anterior leaf has deep emargination. Intemarial septum is swollen, broader at base and narrower at tip. Rostrum is inflated but only moderately. P2 is small and extruded. Baculum is very small, with a curved shaft and simple base and tips.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Nicobar Leaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in caves and deserted buildings.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ater), which is classified as Least Concern.Bibliography.Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Corbet & Hill (1992), Simmons (2005)","taxonomy":"Hipposideros nicobarulae G. S. Miller, 1902, “Little Nicobar Island,”India.Hipposideros nicobarulaeis in the aterspecies group, and was previously considered a subspecies of H. ater. Based on detailed morphometric and craniodental studies, it was raised to species level by B. Douangboubpha and colleagues in 2011. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine des Nicobar @fr | Nikobaren-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Nicobar @es | Nicobar Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. S. Miller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1902","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"29","interpretedPageNumber":"256","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nicobarulae","name":"Hipposideros nicobarulae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Nicobar Is, India.","bibliography":"Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Nicobar Leaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in caves and deserted buildings.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ater), which is classified as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 15-19 mm, forearm 38-42 mm. Noseleaf of the Nicobar Leafnosed Bat is without lateral supplementary leaflet. Anterior leaf has deep emargination. Intemarial septum is swollen, broader at base and narrower at tip. Rostrum is inflated but only moderately. P2 is small and extruded. Baculum is very small, with a curved shaft and simple base and tips.","habitat":"No information."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA219F877F9AEF50A4F20.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66BA219F877F9AEF50A4F20","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"256","verbatimText":"81.Nicobar Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros nicobarulaeFrench:Phyllorhine des Nicobar/ German:Nikobaren-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de NicobarOther common names:Nicobar Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros nicobarulae G. S. Miller, 1902, “Little Nicobar Island,”India.Hipposideros nicobarulaeis in the aterspecies group, and was previously considered a subspecies of H. ater. Based on detailed morphometric and craniodental studies, it was raised to species level by B. Douangboubpha and colleagues in 2011. Monotypic.Distribution.Nicobar Is, India.Descriptive notes.Ear 15-19 mm, forearm 38-42 mm. Noseleaf of the Nicobar Leafnosed Bat is without lateral supplementary leaflet. Anterior leaf has deep emargination. Intemarial septum is swollen, broader at base and narrower at tip. Rostrum is inflated but only moderately. P2 is small and extruded. Baculum is very small, with a curved shaft and simple base and tips.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Nicobar Leaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in caves and deserted buildings.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ater), which is classified as Least Concern.Bibliography.Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010), Corbet & Hill (1992), Simmons (2005)","taxonomy":"Hipposideros nicobarulae G. S. Miller, 1902, “Little Nicobar Island,”India.Hipposideros nicobarulaeis in the aterspecies group, and was previously considered a subspecies of H. ater. Based on detailed morphometric and craniodental studies, it was raised to species level by B. Douangboubpha and colleagues in 2011. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine des Nicobar @fr | Nikobaren-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Nicobar @es | Nicobar Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. S. Miller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1902","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"29","interpretedPageNumber":"256","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nicobarulae","name":"Hipposideros nicobarulae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Nicobar Is, India.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749197/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Nicobar Leaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in caves and deserted buildings.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (H. ater), which is classified as Least Concern.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 15-19 mm, forearm 38-42 mm. Noseleaf of the Nicobar Leafnosed Bat is without lateral supplementary leaflet. Anterior leaf has deep emargination. Intemarial septum is swollen, broader at base and narrower at tip. Rostrum is inflated but only moderately. P2 is small and extruded. Baculum is very small, with a curved shaft and simple base and tips.","habitat":"No information."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA219FF1AEE0AF4234680.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66BA219FF1AEE0AF4234680","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"256","verbatimText":"80.Malayan Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros nequamFrench:Phyllorhine de Malaisie/ German:Malaya-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido malayoOther common names:Malayan Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros nequam K. Andersen, 1918, “Klang, Selangor,” Malaysia.Hipposideros nequamwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from type locality in Peninsular Malaysia.Descriptive notes.Ear 19 mm, forearm 46 mm. Noseleaf of the Malayan Leafnosed Bat is large, 6 mmin width and 8 mmin length. P2 is small, and is situated in tooth row.Habitat.No information.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. The Malayan Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known only from a single specimen.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Senawi eta/. (2016), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros nequam K. Andersen, 1918, “Klang, Selangor,” Malaysia.Hipposideros nequamwas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Malaisie @fr | Malaya-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido malayo @es | Malayan Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"K. Andersen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1918","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"29","interpretedPageNumber":"256","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nequam","name":"Hipposideros nequam","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from type locality in Peninsular Malaysia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749195/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Senawi et al. (2016) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. The Malayan Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known only from a single specimen.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 19 mm, forearm 46 mm. Noseleaf of the Malayan Leafnosed Bat is large, 6 mmin width and 8 mmin length. P2 is small, and is situated in tooth row.","habitat":"No information."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA219FF23F89FFE325265.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66BA219FF23F89FFE325265","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"256","verbatimText":"79.Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros maggietayloraeFrench:Phyllorhine de Taylor/ German:Maggie-Taylor-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de Maggie TaylorOther common names:MaggieTaylor's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros maggietaylorae J. D. Smith & Hill, 1981, “Lengmebung Cave, 1.3 km south and 3 kmeast Lakuramau Plantation, 80 m, New Ireland Island, New IrelandProv[ince]., PapuaNew Guinea(lat. 2° 54’Slong. 151° 16’E).”Hipposideros maggietayloraeis traditionally confused with H. calcaratus. It was formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its true position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.maggietaylorae].D.Smith&Hill,1981—BismarckArchipelago.H. m. erroris]. D. Smith & Hill, 1981-New Guinea, mainland PapuaNew Guineaand Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo and Batanta); it probably occurs in other Indonesian West Papuaareas.Descriptive notes.Head—body 57-80 mm, tail 30-44 mm, ear 13-5-22 mm, hindfoot 9—17 mm, forearm 50-4-67-2 mm; weight 13-23 g. Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is morphologically very similar to the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat {H. calcaratus).Ears are relatively short, triangular and with rounded tips. Antitragus is short and slightly convex. Noseleaf is simple and supplementary leaflets are absent. Intermediate leaf has two ridges (which hold a vibrissa) lateral to medial ridge. Posterior leaf is relatively small and presents three vertical septa. There is a frontal sac, which is more pronounced in males. Pelage is long, shaggy, and grayish-brownish on dorsum, whitish-grayish on ventral part; fur covering head is darker; pelage can be orange-reddish in some cases. Juveniles are entirely gray..Habitat.Tropical and subtropical dry forest and moist lowland forest. It can also occur in more degraded habitats such as surrounding rural areas. Altitudinal occurrence ranges from sea level up to 380 m.Food and Feeding.Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in dense vegetation of both primary and secondary tropical humid forest, sclerophyll woodlands and rural gardens. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, mines, galleries, tunnels, and even hollow trees. Characteristic F of its echolocation call is 121 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming colonies of several individuals (usually more than 50).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List because it is a common species within its extensive range. In addition, it has a certain degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. Its population size is probably large and relatively stable. No important threats have been reported.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Bonaccorso & Leary (2008c), Robson eta/. (2012), Smith & Hill (1981), Whitmore (2015).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros maggietaylorae J. D. Smith & Hill, 1981, “Lengmebung Cave, 1.3 km south and 3 kmeast Lakuramau Plantation, 80 m, New Ireland Island, New IrelandProv[ince]., PapuaNew Guinea(lat. 2° 54’Slong. 151° 16’E).”Hipposideros maggietayloraeis traditionally confused with H. calcaratus. It was formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its true position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Taylor @fr | Maggie-Taylor-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Maggie Taylor @es | Maggie Taylor's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. D. Smith & Hill","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1981","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"29","interpretedPageNumber":"256","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"maggietaylorae","name":"Hipposideros maggietaylorae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.m.maggietaylorae].D.Smith&Hill,1981—BismarckArchipelago.H. m. erroris]. D. Smith & Hill, 1981-New Guinea, mainland PapuaNew Guineaand Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo and Batanta); it probably occurs in other Indonesian West Papuaareas.","bibliography":"Bonaccorso (1998) | Bonaccorso & Leary (2008c) | Robson et al. (2012) | Smith & Hill (1981) | Whitmore (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in dense vegetation of both primary and secondary tropical humid forest, sclerophyll woodlands and rural gardens. Its diet is based on insects.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, mines, galleries, tunnels, and even hollow trees. Characteristic F of its echolocation call is 121 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming colonies of several individuals (usually more than 50).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List because it is a common species within its extensive range. In addition, it has a certain degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. Its population size is probably large and relatively stable. No important threats have been reported.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 57-80 mm, tail 30-44 mm, ear 13-5-22 mm, hindfoot 9—17 mm, forearm 50-4-67-2 mm; weight 13-23 g. Maggie Taylor’s Leaf-nosed Bat is morphologically very similar to the Spurred Leaf-nosed Bat {H. calcaratus).Ears are relatively short, triangular and with rounded tips. Antitragus is short and slightly convex. Noseleaf is simple and supplementary leaflets are absent. Intermediate leaf has two ridges (which hold a vibrissa) lateral to medial ridge. Posterior leaf is relatively small and presents three vertical septa. There is a frontal sac, which is more pronounced in males. Pelage is long, shaggy, and grayish-brownish on dorsum, whitish-grayish on ventral part; fur covering head is darker; pelage can be orange-reddish in some cases. Juveniles are entirely gray..","habitat":"Tropical and subtropical dry forest and moist lowland forest. It can also occur in more degraded habitats such as surrounding rural areas. Altitudinal occurrence ranges from sea level up to 380 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66BA21AF877F349FDE14058.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66BA21AF877F349FDE14058","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"256","verbatimText":"82.Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros obscurusFrench:Phyllorhine obscure/ German:Philippinen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido filipinoOther common names:PhilippinesForest Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina obscura Peters, 1861, “Paracali [= Paracali, Camarines Norte Province], Luzon,” Philippines.Hipposideros obscuruswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Philippines.Descriptive notes.Head-body c.53-58 mm, tail 19-24 mm, ear 18-22 mm, hindfoot 10-12 mm, forearm 42-48 mm; weight 7-12 g. Males are larger than females. On the dorsal side, pelage of the Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is dark brown at tips and base, paler in middle of each hair; on ventral side, pelage is darker at base and paler at tips; pelage on head often has reddish hue. Noseleaf is broad; two pairs of leaflets are distinctly present, lateral to anterior noseleaf. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 24 and FN = 44.Habitat.The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forest from lowland to montane and mossy forest up to 1100 m.Food and Feeding.The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is usually found feeding on insects, in the understory of lowland forest.Breeding.Females give birth to a single offspring.Activity patterns.The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, mine shafts, hollow trees and logs, and among tree buttresses. Call frequency is 138-145 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is rather common throughout its range. Forest conversion may be causing the population to decrease but in general it is not currently at risk. It is found in several protected areas.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Heaney, Balete, Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza & Gomez (2008), Sedlock (2001), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllorhina obscura Peters, 1861, “Paracali [= Paracali, Camarines Norte Province], Luzon,” Philippines.Hipposideros obscuruswas formerly included in the bicolorspecies group, but its position in the phylogeny is unclear and its taxonomy requires further study. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine obscure @fr | Philippinen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido filipino @es | Philippines Forest Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1861","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"29","interpretedPageNumber":"256","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"obscurus","name":"Hipposideros obscurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Philippines.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749199/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Heaney, Balete, Ong, Rosell-Ambal, Tabaranza & Gomez (2008) | Sedlock (2001) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is usually found feeding on insects, in the understory of lowland forest.","breeding":"Females give birth to a single offspring.","activityPatterns":"The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, mine shafts, hollow trees and logs, and among tree buttresses. Call frequency is 138-145 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is rather common throughout its range. Forest conversion may be causing the population to decrease but in general it is not currently at risk. It is found in several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body c.53-58 mm, tail 19-24 mm, ear 18-22 mm, hindfoot 10-12 mm, forearm 42-48 mm; weight 7-12 g. Males are larger than females. On the dorsal side, pelage of the Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat is dark brown at tips and base, paler in middle of each hair; on ventral side, pelage is darker at base and paler at tips; pelage on head often has reddish hue. Noseleaf is broad; two pairs of leaflets are distinctly present, lateral to anterior noseleaf. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 24 and FN = 44.","habitat":"The Philippine Forest Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forest from lowland to montane and mossy forest up to 1100 m."} @@ -684,21 +684,21 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66DA21FFF2BFC71FE1B4872.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66DA21FFF2BFC71FE1B4872","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"254","verbatimText":"71.House-dwelling Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros einnaythuFrench:Phyllorhine des maisons!German:Myanmar-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de MyanmarOther common names:House-dwelling Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros einnaythu Douangboubpha et al, 2011, “Kan TharYar Beach, Gwa Township, Rakhine State, Myanmar(17°44’00”N, 94°32’30”E).”Hipposideros einnaythuis in the aterspecies group. Specimens of this species were previously referred to H. atratus and H.fulvus. Future surveys and revision of museum specimens may prove it to be more widespread than currently known. Monotypic.Distribution.W Myanmar, known only from type locality (Rakhine State) and in Tanintharyi Region(Tharabwin Village, Myeik, and TanintharyiVillage).Descriptive notes.Forearm 39-5—40-3 mm. Noseleaf of the House-dwelling Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively large with rounded anterior leaf. It has one pair of supplementary leaflets. Intemarial septum is distinctly swollen in middle with a narrow, bluntly pointed tip. Pelage is uniformly dark brown dorsally, slightly paler on ventral part. Braincase and sagittal crest are low. Zygomata are slender with moderate dorsal process.Habitat.The House-dwelling Leaf-nosed Bat was originally discovered flying around a bathroom before dusk. Surrounding habitats included a beach, a patch of palm trees, and dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activitypatterns.All known specimens of this species were collected from human habitation; e.g. a house roof.Movements, Home range and Social organization.One of the specimens was found roosting alone in a human settlement.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCNRed List due to its recent recognition as a species. This is a rare and very poorly known bat.Bibliography.Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook eta/. (2011), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray eta/. (2010).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros einnaythu Douangboubpha et al, 2011, “Kan TharYar Beach, Gwa Township, Rakhine State, Myanmar(17°44’00”N, 94°32’30”E).”Hipposideros einnaythuis in the aterspecies group. Specimens of this species were previously referred to H. atratus and H.fulvus. Future surveys and revision of museum specimens may prove it to be more widespread than currently known. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine des maisons!German @fr | Hiposidérido de Myanmar @es | House-dwelling Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"254","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"einnaythu","name":"Hipposideros einnaythu","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Myanmar, known only from type locality (Rakhine State) and in Tanintharyi Region(Tharabwin Village, Myeik, and TanintharyiVillage).","bibliography":"Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Satasook et al. (2011) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Murray et al. (2010)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"One of the specimens was found roosting alone in a human settlement.","statusAndConservation":"Notassessed on The IUCNRed List due to its recent recognition as a species. This is a rare and very poorly known bat.","descriptiveNotes":"Forearm 39-5—40-3 mm. Noseleaf of the House-dwelling Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively large with rounded anterior leaf. It has one pair of supplementary leaflets. Intemarial septum is distinctly swollen in middle with a narrow, bluntly pointed tip. Pelage is uniformly dark brown dorsally, slightly paler on ventral part. Braincase and sagittal crest are low. Zygomata are slender with moderate dorsal process.","habitat":"The House-dwelling Leaf-nosed Bat was originally discovered flying around a bathroom before dusk. Surrounding habitats included a beach, a patch of palm trees, and dense vegetation."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C66DA21FFF2CF407F3FD471C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C66DA21FFF2CF407F3FD471C","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"254","verbatimText":"72.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros gentilisFrench:Phyllorhine d’Andersen/ German:Andersen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de AndersenOther common names:Andersen's Roundleaf Bat, Exotic Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros gentilis K Andersen, 1918, “Thayetmyo, Burma[= Myanmar].”Previously considered a subspecies of H. pomona, but here considered distinct based on its larger size. Its true position in the phylogeny is unknown, and its taxonomy requires further study. Subspecific limits remain unclear, and they may prove to be two distinct species with an overlapping range. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.g.gentilisKAndersen,1918-Nepal,NEIndia,Bangladesh,Myanmar,Thailand,PeninsularMalaysia,andAndamanIs.H. g. sinensis K. Andersen, 1918-S & SE China(including HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 36 mm, tail 28-35 mm, ear 18-25 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 38-43 mm. Dorsal pelage of Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with paler bases; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.Habitat.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat was captured in primary and secondary forests; also in orchards, and robber and oil-palm plantations. It is common in karst habitats throughout its range.Food and Feeding.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat was captured c.0-5-3 m aboveground in gaps in the forest understory.Breeding.Females were found pregnant and lactating from March to June.Activity patterns.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, hollow trees, pipes, and old houses. Call frequency is 120-140 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small groups of a few individuals or in colonies of several hundreds. In Thailand, it shares the same caves—but different chambers—with Least Leaf-nosed Bats {H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), ThailandLeaf-nosed Bats (Ä halophyllus), Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bats (Ä ZyZri), Dobson’s Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus yunanensis), and Kitti’s Hog-nosed Bats {Craseonycteristhonglongyai).Status and Conservation.Notassessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, where it is included under the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat (AE /jowcwzz) as Least Concern. Limestone mining, and quarrying may be threats for some populations outside protected areas.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a), Corbet & Hill (1992), Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook eta/. (2010), Francis (2008a), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros gentilis K Andersen, 1918, “Thayetmyo, Burma[= Myanmar].”Previously considered a subspecies of H. pomona, but here considered distinct based on its larger size. Its true position in the phylogeny is unknown, and its taxonomy requires further study. Subspecific limits remain unclear, and they may prove to be two distinct species with an overlapping range. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine d’Andersen @fr | Andersen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Andersen @es | Andersen's Roundleaf Bat @en | Exotic Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"K Andersen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1918","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"254","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gentilis","name":"Hipposideros gentilis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.g.gentilisKAndersen,1918-Nepal,NEIndia,Bangladesh,Myanmar,Thailand,PeninsularMalaysia,andAndamanIs.H. g. sinensis K. Andersen, 1918-S & SE China(including HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Csorba, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008a) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Douangboubpha, Bumrungsri, Soisook, Satasook et al. (2010) | Francis (2008a) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat was captured c.0-5-3 m aboveground in gaps in the forest understory.","breeding":"Females were found pregnant and lactating from March to June.","activityPatterns":"Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, rock crevices, hollow trees, pipes, and old houses. Call frequency is 120-140 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small groups of a few individuals or in colonies of several hundreds. In Thailand, it shares the same caves—but different chambers—with Least Leaf-nosed Bats {H. cineraceus), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (H. armiger), ThailandLeaf-nosed Bats (Ä halophyllus), Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bats (Ä ZyZri), Dobson’s Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus yunanensis), and Kitti’s Hog-nosed Bats {Craseonycteristhonglongyai).","statusAndConservation":"Notassessed as a separate species on The IUCN Red List, where it is included under the PomonaLeaf-nosed Bat (AE /jowcwzz) as Least Concern. Limestone mining, and quarrying may be threats for some populations outside protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 36 mm, tail 28-35 mm, ear 18-25 mm, hindfoot 6-9 mm, forearm 38-43 mm. Dorsal pelage of Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat is generally dark brown, with paler bases; ventral side is slightly paler. Noseleaf is wide and rounded, with no lateral supplementary leaflet. Intemarial septum is parallel-sided. Rostrum is narrow and poorly inflated. Baculum is very small, with straight shaft and simple blunt base and tip.","habitat":"Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat was captured in primary and secondary forests; also in orchards, and robber and oil-palm plantations. It is common in karst habitats throughout its range."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C670A202F894FBAEF2635154.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C670A202F894FBAEF2635154","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"233","verbatimText":"17.Striped Leaf-nosed BatMacronycteris vittatusFrench:Phyllorhine rayée/ German:Gestreifte Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Macronicterio de rayasTaxonomy.Phyllorrhina vittata Peters, 1852, Ibo Island, Cap Delgado Province, Mozambique.Macronycteris vittatuswas previously considered conspecific with M. gigasand M. commersonii(under the latter name), and this has created much confusion in the records from old literature. It includes tnarungenris as a synonym. It is not clear whether there are any subspecies within this taxon as it is currently understood. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the savanna regions of Africa, patchily N of the equator from Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya; S of the equator recorded from SE DR Congo, Tanzania, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa; also in ZanzibarArchipelago (Pemba, Unguja, and Mafia Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 97-122 mm, tail 22-39 mm, ear 23-35 mm, hindfoot 17-25 mm, forearm 84-106 mm; weight 51-180 g. Males are larger than females with latter being a richer reddish brown. The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, pale brown to reddish brown dorsally with patches of frosting particularly on head and nape. Fur is somewhat paler ventrally with frosting. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. This species is difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but is slightly smaller and paler. Karyotype is 2n = 52 (South Africa).Habitat.Wooded savanna and coastal forest, but may extend into drier savannas along rivers.Food and Feeding.The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on large beetles (Coleoptera), which it captures by sallying out from a perch; the bat then returns to its perch, where prey is consumed. Perches are in tall trees and typically C. 6 maboveground. The bat scans through an arc of 180° and flies out to intercept prey passing within 10 m. Bats appear to get most of their foraging done within the first hour after sunset. They accumulate large reserves offat during the wet season.Breeding.A single young is bom during a restricted breeding season, which varies geographically. For 4-5 months leading up to the mating season males aggressively defend territories, with many males being wounded during these conflicts. Territorial behavior ends after the mating season. In Zimbabwe, mating takes place in June-July, during the dry season, and births occur in October-November, at the beginning of the rains. In Kenya, mating takes place inJuly-August and young are bom during the wet season in March-April. Females lactate for at least 13 weeks, and young can fly short distances at about two weeks of age. Females form maternity roosts after mating and while suckling their young.Activity patterns.The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but also in tall trees, usually in forested areas. During the cool dry season, it may remain inactive (but not torpid) at its roost for several days presumably taking advantage of accumulated fat reserves. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.62-66 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Some populations are migratory, for example in Kenyawhere they migrate between coastal areas and inland sites to take advantage of differences in rainfall (and presumably insect food supply). Individuals apparently forage singly, flying relatively short distances between roosting and foraging sites. Striped Leaf-nosed Bats typically roost in colonies of a few hundred individuals, but some roosts comprise tens of thousands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros vittatus) due to the fact that a large proportion of the global population roosts as large colonies in just a handful of caves, where this species is disturbed and hunted for food.Bibliography.Aggundey & Schütter (1984), Aldridge & Rautenbach (1987), Bernard & Cumming (1997), Churchill eta/. (1997), Cockle eta/. (1998), Cooper-Bohannon eta/. (2016), Cotterill & Fergusson (1999), Decher eta/. (2010), ahr & Kalko (2011), Fenton (1985b), Fenton & Bell (1981), Foley, Goodman eta/. (2017), Foley, Thong Vu Dinh eta/. (2015), Goodman, Schoeman eta/. (2016), Hill (1963a), McWilliam (1982), Mickleburgh, Hutson, Bergmans & Cotterill (2008c), Monadjem, Richards,Taylor, Denys eta/. (2013), Monadjem, Schoeman eta/. (2010), Monadjem, Taylor eta/. (2010), Patterson & Webala (2012), Pye (1972), Rautenbach eta/. (1993), Shapiro eta/. (2016), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Smithers (1971), Vaughan (1977), Whitaker & Black (1976).","taxonomy":"Phyllorrhina vittata Peters, 1852, Ibo Island, Cap Delgado Province, Mozambique.Macronycteris vittatuswas previously considered conspecific with M. gigasand M. commersonii(under the latter name), and this has created much confusion in the records from old literature. It includes tnarungenris as a synonym. It is not clear whether there are any subspecies within this taxon as it is currently understood. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine rayée @fr | Gestreifte Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de rayas @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1852","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Macronycteris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"233","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vittatus","name":"Macronycteris vittatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in the savanna regions of Africa, patchily N of the equator from Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya; S of the equator recorded from SE DR Congo, Tanzania, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and extreme NE South Africa; also in ZanzibarArchipelago (Pemba, Unguja, and Mafia Is).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749071/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aggundey & Schütter (1984) | Aldridge & Rautenbach (1987) | Bernard & Cumming (1997) | Churchill et al. (1997) | Cockle et al. (1998) | Cooper-Bohannon et al. (2016) | Cotterill & Fergusson (1999) | Decher et al. (2010) | ahr & Kalko (2011) | Fenton (1985b) | Fenton & Bell (1981) | Foley, Goodman et al. (2017) | Foley, Thong Vu Dinh et al. (2015) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Hill (1963a) | McWilliam (1982) | Mickleburgh, Hutson, Bergmans & Cotterill (2008c) | Monadjem, Richards,Taylor, Denys et al. (2013) | Monadjem, Schoeman et al. (2010) | Monadjem, Taylor et al. (2010) | Patterson & Webala (2012) | Pye (1972) | Rautenbach et al. (1993) | Shapiro et al. (2016) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Smithers (1971) | Vaughan (1977) | Whitaker & Black (1976)","foodAndFeeding":"The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on large beetles (Coleoptera), which it captures by sallying out from a perch; the bat then returns to its perch, where prey is consumed. Perches are in tall trees and typically C. 6 maboveground. The bat scans through an arc of 180° and flies out to intercept prey passing within 10 m. Bats appear to get most of their foraging done within the first hour after sunset. They accumulate large reserves offat during the wet season.","breeding":"A single young is bom during a restricted breeding season, which varies geographically. For 4-5 months leading up to the mating season males aggressively defend territories, with many males being wounded during these conflicts. Territorial behavior ends after the mating season. In Zimbabwe, mating takes place in June-July, during the dry season, and births occur in October-November, at the beginning of the rains. In Kenya, mating takes place inJuly-August and young are bom during the wet season in March-April. Females lactate for at least 13 weeks, and young can fly short distances at about two weeks of age. Females form maternity roosts after mating and while suckling their young.","activityPatterns":"The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but also in tall trees, usually in forested areas. During the cool dry season, it may remain inactive (but not torpid) at its roost for several days presumably taking advantage of accumulated fat reserves. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.62-66 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Some populations are migratory, for example in Kenyawhere they migrate between coastal areas and inland sites to take advantage of differences in rainfall (and presumably insect food supply). Individuals apparently forage singly, flying relatively short distances between roosting and foraging sites. Striped Leaf-nosed Bats typically roost in colonies of a few hundred individuals, but some roosts comprise tens of thousands.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros vittatus) due to the fact that a large proportion of the global population roosts as large colonies in just a handful of caves, where this species is disturbed and hunted for food.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 97-122 mm, tail 22-39 mm, ear 23-35 mm, hindfoot 17-25 mm, forearm 84-106 mm; weight 51-180 g. Males are larger than females with latter being a richer reddish brown. The Striped Leaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, pale brown to reddish brown dorsally with patches of frosting particularly on head and nape. Fur is somewhat paler ventrally with frosting. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. This species is difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but is slightly smaller and paler. Karyotype is 2n = 52 (South Africa).","habitat":"Wooded savanna and coastal forest, but may extend into drier savannas along rivers."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C670A202FF4AF1BFF4A1408C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C670A202FF4AF1BFF4A1408C","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"233","verbatimText":"16.Sao TomeLeaf-nosed BatMacronycteris thomensisFrench: Phyllorhine deSao Tomé/ German:Sâo-Tomé-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Macronicterio de Sao ToméOther common names:SaoTome Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina [sic] commersoni [sic] var. thomensis Bocage, 1891, Säo Tomé Island, Säo Tomé and Principe.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Sâo ToméI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 102-106 mm, tail 29-30 mm, ear 25-35 mm.Males are larger than females. The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, uniform blackish brown dorsally, and paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but slightly smaller.Habitat Lowland rainforest, secondary forest, degraded forest, and certain plantations.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves and disused mines that it may share with Sundevall’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscoffer). Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bats may roost in colonies of up to 100 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros thomensis). The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat is a common species, and it appears to be facing no major threats.Bibliography.Bocage (1891), Foley eta/. (2017), Goodman, Schoeman eta/. (2016), Juste & Ibänez (1994b), Monadjem, Juste et al. (2017), Russo eta/. (2011), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllorhina [sic] commersoni [sic] var. thomensis Bocage, 1891, Säo Tomé Island, Säo Tomé and Principe.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Sao Tomé @fr | Sâo-Tomé-Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de Sao Tomé @es | Sao Tome Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bocage","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1891","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Macronycteris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"233","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"thomensis","name":"Macronycteris thomensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Sâo ToméI.","bibliography":"Bocage (1891) | Foley et al. (2017) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Juste & Ibänez (1994b) | Monadjem, Juste et al. (2017) | Russo et al. (2011) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves and disused mines that it may share with Sundevall’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscoffer). Echolocation call is not known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bats may roost in colonies of up to 100 individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros thomensis). The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat is a common species, and it appears to be facing no major threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 102-106 mm, tail 29-30 mm, ear 25-35 mm.Males are larger than females. The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, uniform blackish brown dorsally, and paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but slightly smaller."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C670A202FF4AF1BFF4A1408C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C670A202FF4AF1BFF4A1408C","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"233","verbatimText":"16.Sao TomeLeaf-nosed BatMacronycteris thomensisFrench: Phyllorhine deSao Tomé/ German:Sâo-Tomé-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Macronicterio de Sao ToméOther common names:SaoTome Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Phyllorhina [sic] commersoni [sic] var. thomensis Bocage, 1891, Säo Tomé Island, Säo Tomé and Principe.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Sâo ToméI.Descriptive notes.Head-body 102-106 mm, tail 29-30 mm, ear 25-35 mm.Males are larger than females. The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, uniform blackish brown dorsally, and paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but slightly smaller.Habitat Lowland rainforest, secondary forest, degraded forest, and certain plantations.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves and disused mines that it may share with Sundevall’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscoffer). Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bats may roost in colonies of up to 100 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros thomensis). The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat is a common species, and it appears to be facing no major threats.Bibliography.Bocage (1891), Foley eta/. (2017), Goodman, Schoeman eta/. (2016), Juste & Ibänez (1994b), Monadjem, Juste et al. (2017), Russo eta/. (2011), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllorhina [sic] commersoni [sic] var. thomensis Bocage, 1891, Säo Tomé Island, Säo Tomé and Principe.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Sao Tomé @fr | Sâo-Tomé-Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de Sao Tomé @es | Sao Tome Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Bocage","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1891","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Macronycteris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"233","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"thomensis","name":"Macronycteris thomensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Sâo ToméI.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749069/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bocage (1891) | Foley et al. (2017) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Juste & Ibänez (1994b) | Monadjem, Juste et al. (2017) | Russo et al. (2011) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves and disused mines that it may share with Sundevall’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideroscoffer). Echolocation call is not known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bats may roost in colonies of up to 100 individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros thomensis). The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat is a common species, and it appears to be facing no major threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 102-106 mm, tail 29-30 mm, ear 25-35 mm.Males are larger than females. The Sao TomeLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, uniform blackish brown dorsally, and paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Difficult to distinguish from the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (M. gigas), but slightly smaller."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C670A202FF4DFD68FDAD4EFE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C670A202FF4DFD68FDAD4EFE","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"233","verbatimText":"15.Giant Leaf-nosed BatMacronycteris gigasFrench:Phyllorhine géante/ German:Riesenrundblattnase/ Spanish:Macronicterio giganteOther common names:Giant Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus gigas Wagner, 1845, “ Benguela,” Angola.Macronycteris gigaswas previously considered conspecific with M. vittatusand M. commersonii(under the latter name), and this has created much confusion in the records from old literature. Monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed throughout tropical Africa from SenegalE to extreme W Ugandaand E DR Congo, with isolated populations in W Angola, SE Kenya, and N, NE & SE Tanzania; also on Bioko I.Descriptive notes.Head-body 98-115 mm, tail 25-50 mm, ear 24-36 mm, hindfoot 18-28 mm, forearm 95-124 mm; weight 85-138 g. Males are larger than females. The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species of Macronycteris. It has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three or four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, medium to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally; it has numerous flecks and paler markings. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. An orange morph exists which is rusty brown throughout Difficult to distinguish from the Striped Leaf-nosed Bat (M. vittatus), but is significantly larger and generally darker.Habitat.The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits lowland and coastal rainforest, and extends into wooded savanna, where it occurs in gallery forest. It occurs at elevations up to 1500 m, at Mount Nimba, Liberia.Food and Feeding.The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding on a variety of insects including large beetles (Coleoptera) and winged termites (Isoptera). It puts on significant amounts of fat at the end of the rainy season.Breeding.In Gabon, mating takes place inJune and the single young is bom in October, during the rainy season. Young bats can fly at 30-35 days of age and are fully grown at two months, but only become sexually mature after two years. In coastal Kenya, mating takes place inJuly-August, with births in November.Activity patterns.The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but it may also roost in hollow trees and may hang in thick vegetation. Echolocation call includes a F component at 54—56 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Leaf-nosed Bats roost in colonies of a few tens to a few hundred individuals. Pregnant females segregate into maternity roosts for only a few days. Some populations are migratory (e.g. in Kenyathey migrate from the coast inland in October and again in May to take advantage of the wet season’s arrival).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros gigas). Although the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread, it is locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss (significant deforestation), cave disturbance, and subsistence hunting for food.Bibliography.Brosset (1966b, 1969), Brosset & Saint Girons (1980), Decher & Fahr (2007), Happold, D.C.D. (1987), Happold, M. (2013y), Lang & Chapin (1917a, 1917b), McWilliam (1982), Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016), Monadjem, Richards,Taylor, Denys eta/. (2013), Monadjem, Schoeman eta/. (2010), Monadjem,Taylor et al. (2010), Porter et al. (2010), Pye (1972), Rosevear (1965), Schütter et al. (1982), Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans (2009), Wolton eta/. (1982).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus gigas Wagner, 1845, “ Benguela,” Angola.Macronycteris gigaswas previously considered conspecific with M. vittatusand M. commersonii(under the latter name), and this has created much confusion in the records from old literature. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine géante @fr | Riesenrundblattnase @de | Macronicterio gigante Other common names @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Macronycteris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"233","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gigas","name":"Macronycteris gigas","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widely distributed throughout tropical Africa from SenegalE to extreme W Ugandaand E DR Congo, with isolated populations in W Angola, SE Kenya, and N, NE & SE Tanzania; also on Bioko I.","bibliography":"Brosset (1966b, 1969) | Brosset & Saint Girons (1980) | Decher & Fahr (2007) | Happold, D.C.D. (1987) | Happold, M. (2013y) | Lang & Chapin (1917a, 1917b) | McWilliam (1982) | Monadjem, Richards & Denys (2016) | Monadjem, Richards,Taylor, Denys et al. (2013) | Monadjem, Schoeman et al. (2010) | Monadjem,Taylor et al. (2010) | Porter et al. (2010) | Pye (1972) | Rosevear (1965) | Schütter et al. (1982) | Thorn & Kerbis Peterhans (2009) | Wolton et al. (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding on a variety of insects including large beetles (Coleoptera) and winged termites (Isoptera). It puts on significant amounts of fat at the end of the rainy season.","breeding":"In Gabon, mating takes place inJune and the single young is bom in October, during the rainy season. Young bats can fly at 30-35 days of age and are fully grown at two months, but only become sexually mature after two years. In coastal Kenya, mating takes place inJuly-August, with births in November.","activityPatterns":"The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but it may also roost in hollow trees and may hang in thick vegetation. Echolocation call includes a F component at 54—56 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Giant Leaf-nosed Bats roost in colonies of a few tens to a few hundred individuals. Pregnant females segregate into maternity roosts for only a few days. Some populations are migratory (e.g. in Kenyathey migrate from the coast inland in October and again in May to take advantage of the wet season’s arrival).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros gigas). Although the Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread, it is locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss (significant deforestation), cave disturbance, and subsistence hunting for food.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 98-115 mm, tail 25-50 mm, ear 24-36 mm, hindfoot 18-28 mm, forearm 95-124 mm; weight 85-138 g. Males are larger than females. The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species of Macronycteris. It has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three or four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, medium to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally; it has numerous flecks and paler markings. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. An orange morph exists which is rusty brown throughout Difficult to distinguish from the Striped Leaf-nosed Bat (M. vittatus), but is significantly larger and generally darker.","habitat":"The Giant Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits lowland and coastal rainforest, and extends into wooded savanna, where it occurs in gallery forest. It occurs at elevations up to 1500 m, at Mount Nimba, Liberia."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C671A203F880F704F55B5165.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C671A203F880F704F55B5165","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"234","verbatimText":"20.Temminck’s Trident BatAselliscus tricuspidatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Temminck/ German:Temminck-Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aselisco deTemminckOther common names:Temminck’s Asian Trident Bat, Trident Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835, Amboina, Molucca Islands, Indonesia.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. t. tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835— Moluccas.A. t. koopmani Schütter, S. L. Wilhams & Hill, 1983— Bismarck Archipelago, D’Entrecasteaux Is, Kiriwina I, Misima I, Woodlark I, and Solomon Is.A. t. novaeguinae Schütter, S. L. Williams & Hill, 1983-E New Guineaand Misool, Numfor, Supiori, Biak, and Yapen Is.A. t. novehebridensis Sanborn & Nicholson, 1950-Vanuatu (Espiritu Santo, Aore, and Malekula Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-49 mm, tail 16-9-27 mm, ear 10-3-15 mm, hindfoot 6-3-8-1 mm, forearm 36-5-44-7 mm; weight 4-6 g. As in its sister species Stoliczka’s Trident Bat (A. stoliczkanus), Temminck’s Trident Bat has tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf; intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Forearm and tail are larger than in Stoliczka’s Trident Bat. Ears are short, pointed, and narrow. Tail is long and extended, surpassing uropatagium. Fur is brown or brown-orange with whitish base on dorsum, and brownish yellow in the ventral part.Habitat.Lowland tropical forest. Temminck’s Trident Bat appears to be a lowland species, mainly occurring from sea level to 600 m, although it has been acoustically recorded at above 900 min PapuaNew Guinea.Food and Feeding.Temminck’s Trident Bat is thought to forage in tropical and subtropical forest. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.Females can give birth to one or two offspring each year.Activity patterns.Temminck’s Trident Bat is known to roost in caves, tunnels, and other cavities. Echolocation call frequency is c. 115 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Temminck’s Trident Bats aggregate in small groups of 40-50 individuals, with individuals sometimes separated 30-40 cm from each other. They have also been observed roosting in colonies of several hundred.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Population of Temminck’s Trident Bat seems to be stable, and it is probably not greatly fragmented. There appear to be no major threats to this species, although habitat loss and disturbance of roosts by tourism might be increasingly affecting these animate1.Bibliography.Aplin & Opiang (2009), Bonaccorso (1998), Bonaccorso, Leary & Hamilton (2008b), Leary & Pennay (2011), Li Gang eta/. (2007), Robson eta/. (2012).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835, Amboina, Molucca Islands, Indonesia.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Temminck @fr | Temminck-Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselisco de Temminck @es | Temminck’s Asian Trident Bat @en | Trident Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1835","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Aselliscus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"234","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tricuspidatus","name":"Aselliscus tricuspidatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. t. tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835— Moluccas.A. t. koopmani Schütter, S. L. Wilhams & Hill, 1983— Bismarck Archipelago, D’Entrecasteaux Is, Kiriwina I, Misima I, Woodlark I, and Solomon Is.A. t. novaeguinae Schütter, S. L. Williams & Hill, 1983-E New Guineaand Misool, Numfor, Supiori, Biak, and Yapen Is.A. t. novehebridensis Sanborn & Nicholson, 1950-Vanuatu (Espiritu Santo, Aore, and Malekula Is).","bibliography":"Aplin & Opiang (2009) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Bonaccorso, Leary & Hamilton (2008b) | Leary & Pennay (2011) | Li Gang et al. (2007) | Robson et al. (2012)","foodAndFeeding":"Temminck’s Trident Bat is thought to forage in tropical and subtropical forest. Its diet is based on insects.","breeding":"Females can give birth to one or two offspring each year.","activityPatterns":"Temminck’s Trident Bat is known to roost in caves, tunnels, and other cavities. Echolocation call frequency is c. 115 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Temminck’s Trident Bats aggregate in small groups of 40-50 individuals, with individuals sometimes separated 30-40 cm from each other. They have also been observed roosting in colonies of several hundred.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Population of Temminck’s Trident Bat seems to be stable, and it is probably not greatly fragmented. There appear to be no major threats to this species, although habitat loss and disturbance of roosts by tourism might be increasingly affecting these animate1","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 36-49 mm, tail 16-9-27 mm, ear 10-3-15 mm, hindfoot 6-3-8-1 mm, forearm 36-5-44-7 mm; weight 4-6 g. As in its sister species Stoliczka’s Trident Bat (A. stoliczkanus), Temminck’s Trident Bat has tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf; intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Forearm and tail are larger than in Stoliczka’s Trident Bat. Ears are short, pointed, and narrow. Tail is long and extended, surpassing uropatagium. Fur is brown or brown-orange with whitish base on dorsum, and brownish yellow in the ventral part.","habitat":"Lowland tropical forest. Temminck’s Trident Bat appears to be a lowland species, mainly occurring from sea level to 600 m, although it has been acoustically recorded at above 900 min PapuaNew Guinea."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C671A203F880F704F55B5165.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C671A203F880F704F55B5165","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"234","verbatimText":"20.Temminck’s Trident BatAselliscus tricuspidatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Temminck/ German:Temminck-Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aselisco deTemminckOther common names:Temminck’s Asian Trident Bat, Trident Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835, Amboina, Molucca Islands, Indonesia.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. t. tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835— Moluccas.A. t. koopmani Schütter, S. L. Wilhams & Hill, 1983— Bismarck Archipelago, D’Entrecasteaux Is, Kiriwina I, Misima I, Woodlark I, and Solomon Is.A. t. novaeguinae Schütter, S. L. Williams & Hill, 1983-E New Guineaand Misool, Numfor, Supiori, Biak, and Yapen Is.A. t. novehebridensis Sanborn & Nicholson, 1950-Vanuatu (Espiritu Santo, Aore, and Malekula Is).Descriptive notes.Head-body 36-49 mm, tail 16-9-27 mm, ear 10-3-15 mm, hindfoot 6-3-8-1 mm, forearm 36-5-44-7 mm; weight 4-6 g. As in its sister species Stoliczka’s Trident Bat (A. stoliczkanus), Temminck’s Trident Bat has tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf; intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Forearm and tail are larger than in Stoliczka’s Trident Bat. Ears are short, pointed, and narrow. Tail is long and extended, surpassing uropatagium. Fur is brown or brown-orange with whitish base on dorsum, and brownish yellow in the ventral part.Habitat.Lowland tropical forest. Temminck’s Trident Bat appears to be a lowland species, mainly occurring from sea level to 600 m, although it has been acoustically recorded at above 900 min PapuaNew Guinea.Food and Feeding.Temminck’s Trident Bat is thought to forage in tropical and subtropical forest. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.Females can give birth to one or two offspring each year.Activity patterns.Temminck’s Trident Bat is known to roost in caves, tunnels, and other cavities. Echolocation call frequency is c. 115 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Temminck’s Trident Bats aggregate in small groups of 40-50 individuals, with individuals sometimes separated 30-40 cm from each other. They have also been observed roosting in colonies of several hundred.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Population of Temminck’s Trident Bat seems to be stable, and it is probably not greatly fragmented. There appear to be no major threats to this species, although habitat loss and disturbance of roosts by tourism might be increasingly affecting these animate1.Bibliography.Aplin & Opiang (2009), Bonaccorso (1998), Bonaccorso, Leary & Hamilton (2008b), Leary & Pennay (2011), Li Gang eta/. (2007), Robson eta/. (2012).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835, Amboina, Molucca Islands, Indonesia.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Temminck @fr | Temminck-Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselisco de Temminck @es | Temminck’s Asian Trident Bat @en | Trident Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1835","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Aselliscus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"234","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tricuspidatus","name":"Aselliscus tricuspidatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. t. tricuspidatus Temminck, 1835— Moluccas.A. t. koopmani Schütter, S. L. Wilhams & Hill, 1983— Bismarck Archipelago, D’Entrecasteaux Is, Kiriwina I, Misima I, Woodlark I, and Solomon Is.A. t. novaeguinae Schütter, S. L. Williams & Hill, 1983-E New Guineaand Misool, Numfor, Supiori, Biak, and Yapen Is.A. t. novehebridensis Sanborn & Nicholson, 1950-Vanuatu (Espiritu Santo, Aore, and Malekula Is).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749077/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aplin & Opiang (2009) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Bonaccorso, Leary & Hamilton (2008b) | Leary & Pennay (2011) | Li Gang et al. (2007) | Robson et al. (2012)","foodAndFeeding":"Temminck’s Trident Bat is thought to forage in tropical and subtropical forest. Its diet is based on insects.","breeding":"Females can give birth to one or two offspring each year.","activityPatterns":"Temminck’s Trident Bat is known to roost in caves, tunnels, and other cavities. Echolocation call frequency is c. 115 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Temminck’s Trident Bats aggregate in small groups of 40-50 individuals, with individuals sometimes separated 30-40 cm from each other. They have also been observed roosting in colonies of several hundred.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Population of Temminck’s Trident Bat seems to be stable, and it is probably not greatly fragmented. There appear to be no major threats to this species, although habitat loss and disturbance of roosts by tourism might be increasingly affecting these animate1","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 36-49 mm, tail 16-9-27 mm, ear 10-3-15 mm, hindfoot 6-3-8-1 mm, forearm 36-5-44-7 mm; weight 4-6 g. As in its sister species Stoliczka’s Trident Bat (A. stoliczkanus), Temminck’s Trident Bat has tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf; intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Forearm and tail are larger than in Stoliczka’s Trident Bat. Ears are short, pointed, and narrow. Tail is long and extended, surpassing uropatagium. Fur is brown or brown-orange with whitish base on dorsum, and brownish yellow in the ventral part.","habitat":"Lowland tropical forest. Temminck’s Trident Bat appears to be a lowland species, mainly occurring from sea level to 600 m, although it has been acoustically recorded at above 900 min PapuaNew Guinea."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C671A203FF38F106F4624B76.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C671A203FF38F106F4624B76","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"234","verbatimText":"19.Stoliczka’s Trident BatAselliscus stoliczkanusFrench:Phyllorhine de Stoliczka/ German:Stoliczka-Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aseliseo de StoliczkaOther common names:Stoliczka's Asian Trident BatTaxonomy.Asellia stoliczkana Dobson, 1871, PenangIsland, Malaysia.It is suspected that this could be a species complex: further genetic and morphological research is needed. Taxa trifidus and wheeleri are here treated as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.From NE Myanmarand S ChinaS to S Thailand, C Laos, and C Vietnam; also on Penang and Tioman Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-50 mm, tail 33-44 mm, ear 10—13 mm, hindfoot 9—10 mm, forearm 39-45-6 mm; weight 6-9 g. As in its sister species, Temminck’s Trident Bat (A. tricuspidatus), Stoliczka’s Trident Bat has a tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf. Intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Stoliczka’s Trident Bat has slightly shorter forearm and tail than Temminck’s Trident Bat. Pelage is reddish brown on dorsum and grayish or white-gray in ventral part.Juveniles can be darker than adults. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Stoliczka’s Trident Bat occurs at low densities in limestone areas, often roosting in smaller caves than other bat species, with high levels of humidity to maintain water balance. It has been reported not only in primary forest, but also in agricultural lands and other human-degraded habitats.Food and Feeding.Stoliczka’s Trident Bat forages both in cluttered microhabitats and strongly disturbed areas. Its diet is based predominantly on insects, especially lepidopterans, hemipterans, beetles, and odonates, varying depending on the seasonal availability of prey. Its flight is slow, allowing a high capacity of maneuver, especially when hunting in closed environments. Due to its small size, predation by other bat species might occur.Breeding.Reproductive females have been captured in May-June in Laosand Vietnam.Activity patterns.During winter, Stoliczka’s Trident Bat hibernates in longer caves, which provide more stable microclimates with relatively low temperatures. Echolocation call frequency is c.120-125 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Stoliczka’s Trident Bats have been observed roosting in groups of 10—20 individuals, and sometimes separated from each other by few centimeters. They can share roosts with other bat species in larger caves as compared with single-species caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population size and trends of Stoliczka’s Trident Bat are still unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented and it is not declining markedly. Despite its generally low densities, this species can be locally common; it is present in several protected areas. There are no major threats for this species, but habitat destruction due to limestone mining and disturbance of roosts by tourism are increasingly affecting these animals.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Furey (2008), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Li Gang et al. (2007), Tu Vuong Tan, Csorba et al. (2015), Zhang Zongxiao et al. (2016).","taxonomy":"Asellia stoliczkana Dobson, 1871, PenangIsland, Malaysia.It is suspected that this could be a species complex: further genetic and morphological research is needed. Taxa trifidus and wheeleri are here treated as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Stoliczka @fr | Stoliczka-Dreizackblattnase @de | Aseliseo de Stoliczka @es | Stoliczka's Asian Trident Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Dobson","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1871","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Aselliscus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"234","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"stoliczkanus","name":"Aselliscus stoliczkanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"From NE Myanmarand S ChinaS to S Thailand, C Laos, and C Vietnam; also on Penang and Tioman Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749075/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Furey (2008) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Li Gang et al. (2007) | Tu Vuong Tan, Csorba et al. (2015) | Zhang Zongxiao et al. (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"Stoliczka’s Trident Bat forages both in cluttered microhabitats and strongly disturbed areas. Its diet is based predominantly on insects, especially lepidopterans, hemipterans, beetles, and odonates, varying depending on the seasonal availability of prey. Its flight is slow, allowing a high capacity of maneuver, especially when hunting in closed environments. Due to its small size, predation by other bat species might occur.","breeding":"Reproductive females have been captured in May-June in Laosand Vietnam.","activityPatterns":"During winter, Stoliczka’s Trident Bat hibernates in longer caves, which provide more stable microclimates with relatively low temperatures. Echolocation call frequency is c.120-125 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Stoliczka’s Trident Bats have been observed roosting in groups of 10—20 individuals, and sometimes separated from each other by few centimeters. They can share roosts with other bat species in larger caves as compared with single-species caves.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population size and trends of Stoliczka’s Trident Bat are still unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented and it is not declining markedly. Despite its generally low densities, this species can be locally common; it is present in several protected areas. There are no major threats for this species, but habitat destruction due to limestone mining and disturbance of roosts by tourism are increasingly affecting these animals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-50 mm, tail 33-44 mm, ear 10—13 mm, hindfoot 9—10 mm, forearm 39-45-6 mm; weight 6-9 g. As in its sister species, Temminck’s Trident Bat (A. tricuspidatus), Stoliczka’s Trident Bat has a tridentate noseleaf margin in posterior leaf. Intermediate point of trident is separated from lateral ones by large grooves. Stoliczka’s Trident Bat has slightly shorter forearm and tail than Temminck’s Trident Bat. Pelage is reddish brown on dorsum and grayish or white-gray in ventral part.Juveniles can be darker than adults. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Stoliczka’s Trident Bat occurs at low densities in limestone areas, often roosting in smaller caves than other bat species, with high levels of humidity to maintain water balance. It has been reported not only in primary forest, but also in agricultural lands and other human-degraded habitats."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C671A203FF3CFDBBFEF54D68.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C671A203FF3CFDBBFEF54D68","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"234","verbatimText":"18.Dong BacTrident BatAselliscus dongbacanusFrench:Phyllorhine du Dong Bac/ German:Dong-Bac-Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aselisco de Dong BacOther common names:Dong BacTrident Leaf-nosed Bat, Large Trident BatTaxonomy.Aselliscusdongbacana [sic] Vuong et aL, 2015, “Na Phong cave, Ba Be National Park, Bac Kan province, Vietnam(22°23’N, 105°36’E, entrance altitude: 280 ma.s.l.).”Widely used specific name dongbacana has been changed for gender agreement. This species was previously placed in. stoliczkanus, from which it is distinguishable in genetics; it is rather larger in selected morphological and dental measurements.Monotypic.Distribution.Recorded from different karst and mountainous areas in NE Vietnam, including some offshore Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-47 mm, tail 36-42 mm, ear 8-12 mm, hindfoot 5-6 mm, forearm c.42-8 mm; weight 4-8 g. General pelage color varies from dark to light brown on dorsal surface and from brownish gray to dirty white on ventral surface. In all hairs, distal one-third is darker than remaining part. Muzzle is short with a small noseleaf. Anterior leaf is small with slighdy upward margins; there is a distinct median notch on its anterior edge. There are two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets; of these, first is more developed. Anterior noseleaf and two supplementary leaflets are thin and naked. Outer parts of anterior noseleaf and each of lateral leaflets are darker than their inner parts. Intermediate leaf has a slighdy swollen median septum. Its width is substantially narrower than both anterior and posterior leaves. Upper border of posterior leaf is divided into three distinct points. Pinna of each ear has pointed tip and a slighdy convex anterior margin. On its posterior margin, upper one-half is deeply concave whereas remainder is convex. Dental formula for all members of Aselliscusis 1 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Karst habitats between sea level up to 500 m, or more, on both mainland and offshore islands in northern Vietnam.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.Annual breeding season of the Dong BacTrident Bat is variably from March to August: pregnant females were captured from March until July and lactating females fromJune to August.Activity patterns.The Dong BacTrident Bat roosts during the day in caves. Both sexes depart from the roosts for several hours after sunset. The species uses the typical multiharmonic calls of hipposiderid bats with the maximum energy in the second harmonic. Each signal comprises three components: a very short initial FM component; followed by a dominant F component; and a terminal FM component. Frequency values for the second harmonic are 120-7-133-2 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dong BacTrident Bats roost in small groups of several dozen individuals. It was usually recorded from the same caves as other species including Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats {Hipposideros alongensis), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats {H. armiger), Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bats {H. khaokhouayensis), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. larvatus), PomonaLeaf-nosed Bats {H. pomond), Marshall’s Horseshoe Bats {RhinolophusmarshaUz), Pearson’s Horseshoe Bats {R. pearsonii), and Least Horseshoe Bats (7tpusiUus). It appears in the roosts in every season of the year; it forages in different habitats ranging from fruit tree gardens to secondary and primary forests.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List due to its recent recognition as a species. The Dong BacTrident Bat would be threatened by disturbance at roost sites in caves, and at foraging habitats.Bibliography.Furey, Mackie & Racey et al. (2009, 2011), Thong Vu Dinh (2011), Tu Vuong Tan, Csorba et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Aselliscusdongbacana [sic] Vuong et aL, 2015, “Na Phong cave, Ba Be National Park, Bac Kan province, Vietnam(22°23’N, 105°36’E, entrance altitude: 280 ma.s.l.).”Widely used specific name dongbacana has been changed for gender agreement. This species was previously placed in. stoliczkanus, from which it is distinguishable in genetics; it is rather larger in selected morphological and dental measurements.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine du Dong Bac @fr | Dong-Bac-Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselisco de Dong Bac @es | Dong Bac Trident Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Large Trident Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Vuong, Csorba, Gorfol, Arai, N. T. Son, H. T. Thanh & Hasanin","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2015","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Aselliscus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"234","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dongbacanus","name":"Aselliscus dongbacanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Recorded from different karst and mountainous areas in NE Vietnam, including some offshore Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749073/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Furey, Mackie & Racey et al. (2009, 2011) | Thong Vu Dinh (2011) | Tu Vuong Tan, Csorba et al. (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"Annual breeding season of the Dong BacTrident Bat is variably from March to August: pregnant females were captured from March until July and lactating females fromJune to August.","activityPatterns":"The Dong BacTrident Bat roosts during the day in caves. Both sexes depart from the roosts for several hours after sunset. The species uses the typical multiharmonic calls of hipposiderid bats with the maximum energy in the second harmonic. Each signal comprises three components: a very short initial FM component; followed by a dominant F component; and a terminal FM component. Frequency values for the second harmonic are 120-7-133-2 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dong BacTrident Bats roost in small groups of several dozen individuals. It was usually recorded from the same caves as other species including Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats {Hipposideros alongensis), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats {H. armiger), Phou Khao Khouay Leaf-nosed Bats {H. khaokhouayensis), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats {H. larvatus), PomonaLeaf-nosed Bats {H. pomond), Marshall’s Horseshoe Bats {RhinolophusmarshaUz), Pearson’s Horseshoe Bats {R. pearsonii), and Least Horseshoe Bats (7tpusiUus). It appears in the roosts in every season of the year; it forages in different habitats ranging from fruit tree gardens to secondary and primary forests.","statusAndConservation":"Notassessed on The IUCN Red List due to its recent recognition as a species. The Dong BacTrident Bat would be threatened by disturbance at roost sites in caves, and at foraging habitats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-47 mm, tail 36-42 mm, ear 8-12 mm, hindfoot 5-6 mm, forearm c.42-8 mm; weight 4-8 g. General pelage color varies from dark to light brown on dorsal surface and from brownish gray to dirty white on ventral surface. In all hairs, distal one-third is darker than remaining part. Muzzle is short with a small noseleaf. Anterior leaf is small with slighdy upward margins; there is a distinct median notch on its anterior edge. There are two pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets; of these, first is more developed. Anterior noseleaf and two supplementary leaflets are thin and naked. Outer parts of anterior noseleaf and each of lateral leaflets are darker than their inner parts. Intermediate leaf has a slighdy swollen median septum. Its width is substantially narrower than both anterior and posterior leaves. Upper border of posterior leaf is divided into three distinct points. Pinna of each ear has pointed tip and a slighdy convex anterior margin. On its posterior margin, upper one-half is deeply concave whereas remainder is convex. Dental formula for all members of Aselliscusis 1 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.","habitat":"Karst habitats between sea level up to 500 m, or more, on both mainland and offshore islands in northern Vietnam."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C672A200F89DFECCF4D84ED7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C672A200F89DFECCF4D84ED7","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"231","verbatimText":"10.Semon’s Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina semoniFrench:Phyllorhine de Semon/ German:Semon-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Doryrina de SemonOther common names:Semon's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros semoni Matschie, 1903, Cooktown, Queensland, Australia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.E New Guineaand NE Australia, where it has been reported in several locations of coastal Queenslandfrom the E side of Cape York Peninsula to S of Cooktown; S limit of its distribution is not clear, as there are acoustic reports from other distant areas, such as in the Kroombit Tops National Park.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-50 mm, tail 22-28 mm, ear 18-20 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 38-424 mm; weight 6—10 g. As in the case of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (Z). wollastoni) and the Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat (D. muscinus), Semon’s Leafnosed Bat presents two supplementary leaflets: anterior leaflet is short and broad and posterior leaflet extends beneath anterior leaf onto upper lip. It also presents processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. Median process of posterior leaf is large and club-shaped. Its ears are notably long and well developed with pointed tips, and its rostrum is markedly inflated. Its dark grayish pelage is long and presents a curled appearance, being paler on ventral area.Habitat.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat is found in a wide variety of habitats, from rainforest to savanna forest and dry open areas, at elevations from the sea level up to 1400 m.Food and Feeding.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat usually feeds on insects, especially moths; it also takes beetles, as well as spiders. It hunts prey from the ground, low vegetation or surfaces such as rocks or tree trunks. It has a slow flight, with considerable ability to maneuver, and usually flies within 1—2 mof the ground, foraging within dense vegetation and scrub.Breeding.Females are probably mature in their first year, and give birth probably in early November. Each female produces a single young, but it is thought that in a few cases there may be twins. Generation length is estimated at 6-7 years.Activity patterns.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in many different places such as in caves, mines, abandoned buildings, road culverts, fissures, and tree hollows. Some authors have suggested that this species is more tree-dweller than cave-dweller, inhabiting caves probably during the drier periods. Males and females have been suggested to have different echolocation call frequencies, being c.75 kHz and 95 kHz, respectively.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats have been found roosting alone or in small aggregations. Movement patterns between roosts or habitats have not yet been studied. It may use vegetation strips in rainforests, following rivers and watercourses to move within large dense forest areas. Migration has not been reported.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros semoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented. Habitat loss and fragmentation might be threats for this species, although no major risks have been yet identified. Predation by feral cats has been reported and inappropriate fire management could also become a threat for this species in Australia. In fact, a Recovery Plan has been established for Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats, as it is considered a threatened species under Australian legislation. In PapuaNew Guinea, it is probably widely distributed, as much intact habitat remains. However, it has been suggested that it may occur at low densities, as the species has not been captured or recorded in recent surveys. In addition, its echolocation call might be confused with those of other bat species, which could easily give an erroneous idea of its true range. More research is needed to study and assess its ecology and population status.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2017f), Bonaccorso (1998), Churchill (1998), Coles (1993), Flannery & Colgan (1993), Hall (2008c), Oliveira & Schulz (1997), Vestjens & Hall (1977).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros semoni Matschie, 1903, Cooktown, Queensland, Australia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Semon @fr | Semon-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Semon @es | Semon's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Matschie","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1903","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Doryrhina","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"231","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"semoni","name":"Doryrhina semoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E New Guineaand NE Australia, where it has been reported in several locations of coastal Queenslandfrom the E side of Cape York Peninsula to S of Cooktown; S limit of its distribution is not clear, as there are acoustic reports from other distant areas, such as in the Kroombit Tops National Park.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749057/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Armstrong & Aplin (2017f) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Churchill (1998) | Coles (1993) | Flannery & Colgan (1993) | Hall (2008c) | Oliveira & Schulz (1997) | Vestjens & Hall (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat usually feeds on insects, especially moths; it also takes beetles, as well as spiders. It hunts prey from the ground, low vegetation or surfaces such as rocks or tree trunks. It has a slow flight, with considerable ability to maneuver, and usually flies within 1—2 mof the ground, foraging within dense vegetation and scrub.","breeding":"Females are probably mature in their first year, and give birth probably in early November. Each female produces a single young, but it is thought that in a few cases there may be twins. Generation length is estimated at 6-7 years.","activityPatterns":"Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in many different places such as in caves, mines, abandoned buildings, road culverts, fissures, and tree hollows. Some authors have suggested that this species is more tree-dweller than cave-dweller, inhabiting caves probably during the drier periods. Males and females have been suggested to have different echolocation call frequencies, being c.75 kHz and 95 kHz, respectively.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats have been found roosting alone or in small aggregations. Movement patterns between roosts or habitats have not yet been studied. It may use vegetation strips in rainforests, following rivers and watercourses to move within large dense forest areas. Migration has not been reported.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros semoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented. Habitat loss and fragmentation might be threats for this species, although no major risks have been yet identified. Predation by feral cats has been reported and inappropriate fire management could also become a threat for this species in Australia. In fact, a Recovery Plan has been established for Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats, as it is considered a threatened species under Australian legislation. In PapuaNew Guinea, it is probably widely distributed, as much intact habitat remains. However, it has been suggested that it may occur at low densities, as the species has not been captured or recorded in recent surveys. In addition, its echolocation call might be confused with those of other bat species, which could easily give an erroneous idea of its true range. More research is needed to study and assess its ecology and population status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-50 mm, tail 22-28 mm, ear 18-20 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 38-424 mm; weight 6—10 g. As in the case of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (Z). wollastoni) and the Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat (D. muscinus), Semon’s Leafnosed Bat presents two supplementary leaflets: anterior leaflet is short and broad and posterior leaflet extends beneath anterior leaf onto upper lip. It also presents processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. Median process of posterior leaf is large and club-shaped. Its ears are notably long and well developed with pointed tips, and its rostrum is markedly inflated. Its dark grayish pelage is long and presents a curled appearance, being paler on ventral area.Habitat.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat is found in a wide variety of habitats, from rainforest to savanna forest and dry open areas, at elevations from the sea level up to 1400 m.Food and Feeding.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat usually feeds on insects, especially moths; it also takes beetles, as well as spiders. It hunts prey from the ground, low vegetation or surfaces such as rocks or tree trunks. It has a slow flight, with considerable ability to maneuver, and usually flies within 1—2 mof the ground, foraging within dense vegetation and scrub.Breeding.Females are probably mature in their first year, and give birth probably in early November. Each female produces a single young, but it is thought that in a few cases there may be twins. Generation length is estimated at 6-7 years.Activity patterns.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in many different places such as in caves, mines, abandoned buildings, road culverts, fissures, and tree hollows. Some authors have suggested that this species is more tree-dweller than cave-dweller, inhabiting caves probably during the drier periods. Males and females have been suggested to have different echolocation call frequencies, being c.75 kHz and 95 kHz, respectively.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bats have been found roosting alone or in small aggregations. Movement patterns between roosts or habitats have not yet been studied. It may use vegetation strips in rainforests, following rivers and watercourses to move within large dense forest areas. Migration has not been reported.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros semoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented.","habitat":"Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat is found in a wide variety of habitats, from rainforest to savanna forest and dry open areas, at elevations from the sea level up to 1400 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C672A200FF5AF605FE6052B8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C672A200FF5AF605FE6052B8","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"231","verbatimText":"9.Fly RiverLeaf-nosed BatDoryrhina muscinusFrench:Phyllorhine de Fly River/ German:Fly-River-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Doryrina de Fly RiverOther common names:Fly RiverRoundleaf BatTaxonomy.PhyUorhina [sic] muscina Thomas & Doria, 1886, “Fly River,” Western Province, PapuaNew Guinea.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to New Guinea, mostly along the Central Range, including PapuaProvinceof Indonesiaand Sandaun, Western, Chimbu, Gulf, and Central provinces of PapuaNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head—body 44-52 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 18 mm, hindfoot 7-4- 11 mm, forearm 45-47 mm. Like Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat (D. wollastoni), the Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet, extended beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. Both species also present club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat differs from Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat in its lack of posterior leaf, and in its nearly flat rostrum profile. This species is brownish.Habitat.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat occupies lowland tropical forest rather than the caves typical for its congeners. Altitudinal range was reckoned to extend from sea level up to 750 m, but a more recent study suggested its presence up to 2400 m, based on acoustic registrations. However, its echolocation call might be confused with that of Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, which is a more montane species.Food and Feeding.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.Breeding.This species probably reproduces in forests, as it does not inhabit caves.Activity patterns.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in tree holes. Small aggregations of this species have been observed roosting in hollow trees and, on one occasion, inside a curled banana leaf. Echolocation call frequency is c.89— 90 kHzMovements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros muscinus). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented. Habitat loss and fragmentation might be the major threats for this species, although large areas of intact forest still remain within its range. It is thought to be more tolerant to habitat modification than other congeneric cave-dwellers. More research is needed to study and assess its ecology and population status.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2017d), Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015), Decher & Fahr (2005), Flannery I Colgan (1993).","taxonomy":"PhyUorhina [sic] muscina Thomas & Doria, 1886, “Fly River,” Western Province, PapuaNew Guinea.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Fly River @fr | Fly-River-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Fly River @es | Fly River Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas & Doria","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1886","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Doryrhina","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"231","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"muscinus","name":"Doryrhina muscinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to New Guinea, mostly along the Central Range, including PapuaProvinceof Indonesiaand Sandaun, Western, Chimbu, Gulf, and Central provinces of PapuaNew Guinea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749055/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Armstrong & Aplin (2017d) | Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015) | Decher & Fahr (2005) | Flannery I Colgan (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.","breeding":"This species probably reproduces in forests, as it does not inhabit caves.","activityPatterns":"The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in tree holes. Small aggregations of this species have been observed roosting in hollow trees and, on one occasion, inside a curled banana leaf. Echolocation call frequency is c.89— 90 kHz","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros muscinus). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented. Habitat loss and fragmentation might be the major threats for this species, although large areas of intact forest still remain within its range. It is thought to be more tolerant to habitat modification than other congeneric cave-dwellers. More research is needed to study and assess its ecology and population status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 44-52 mm, tail 23 mm, ear 18 mm, hindfoot 7-4- 11 mm, forearm 45-47 mm. Like Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat (D. wollastoni), the Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet, extended beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. Both species also present club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat differs from Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat in its lack of posterior leaf, and in its nearly flat rostrum profile. This species is brownish.Habitat.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat occupies lowland tropical forest rather than the caves typical for its congeners. Altitudinal range was reckoned to extend from sea level up to 750 m, but a more recent study suggested its presence up to 2400 m, based on acoustic registrations. However, its echolocation call might be confused with that of Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, which is a more montane species.Food and Feeding.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.Breeding.This species probably reproduces in forests, as it does not inhabit caves.Activity patterns.The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat has been found roosting in tree holes. Small aggregations of this species have been observed roosting in hollow trees and, on one occasion, inside a curled banana leaf. Echolocation call frequency is c.89— 90 kHzMovements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros muscinus). Current population size and trends are unknown, but it is probably not greatly fragmented.","habitat":"The Fly RiverLeaf-nosed Bat occupies lowland tropical forest rather than the caves typical for its congeners. Altitudinal range was reckoned to extend from sea level up to 750 m, but a more recent study suggested its presence up to 2400 m, based on acoustic registrations. However, its echolocation call might be confused with that of Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, which is a more montane species."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C672A201F8ADF264FEB245CC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C672A201F8ADF264FEB245CC","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"231","verbatimText":"11.Northern Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina stenotisFrench:Phyllorhine à oreilles fines/ German:Nördliche Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Doryrina nortenaOther common names:Narrow-eared Leaf-nosed Bat, Narrow-eared Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros stenotis Thomas, 1913, “Mary River,” Northern Territory, Australia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Australia, including NE Western Australia, N Northern Territory, and NW Queensland(Mt Isa); also on several offshore Is such as Boongaree, Koolan, and Bathurst Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-46 mm, tail 26-27 mm, ear 19-21 mm, forearm 42—46 mm; weight 4-6-6-4 g. The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat {D. semoni), but considerably smaller. Both species present complex noseleafwith two supplementary leaflets: anterior leaflet is short and broad, and posterior leaflet extends beneath anterior leaf onto upper lip. The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat also presents processes in intermediate and posterior leaves, but differs by having median process of posterior leaf less prominent. Ears are long with pointed tips, and rostral eminences are moderately inflated. Fur is brownish dorsally, paler ventrally.Habitat.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and occupies a wide variety of habitats. It has been recorded in areas with sandstone cliffs, escarpments, gorges and waterholes, tall open forest, floodplains, and open meadows. Elevational range is unknown.Food and Feeding.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat forages both in woodland and on open hilly plains, flying slowly with frequent changes of direction and great ability to maneuver. It mainly hunts flying insects close to the vegetation.Breeding.Between October and January, females give birth to a single young. Northern Leaf-nosed Bats form maternity colonies.Activity patterns.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat can roost in sandstone and limestone caves, abandoned mines, crevices and boulder caves. It is thought that this species prefers low humidity, roosting near to cave entrances. This species emits echolocation calls at 102-106 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Northern Leaf-nosed Bats have been observed roosting alone, in pairs, or in small maternity colonies of 6-12 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros stenotis). Population size and trends are unknown; population is probably not greatly fragmented and is not declining markedly. No major threats are known, although destruction and disturbance of roosts are increasing. Habitat loss and degradation might also be significant, as well as reported predation by feral cats.Bibliography.Churchill (2008), Duncan et al. (1999), Flannery & Colgan (1993), Hourigan (2011), Menkhorst & Knight (2001), Milne & Hall (2008), Schulz & Menkhorst (1986), Thomson & McKenzie (2008), Woinarski et al. (2014).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros stenotis Thomas, 1913, “Mary River,” Northern Territory, Australia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine à oreilles fines @fr | Nördliche Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina nortena @es | Narrow-eared Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Narrow-eared Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1913","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Doryrhina","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"231","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"stenotis","name":"Doryrhina stenotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Australia, including NE Western Australia, N Northern Territory, and NW Queensland(Mt Isa); also on several offshore Is such as Boongaree, Koolan, and Bathurst Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749059/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Churchill (2008) | Duncan et al. (1999) | Flannery & Colgan (1993) | Hourigan (2011) | Menkhorst & Knight (2001) | Milne & Hall (2008) | Schulz & Menkhorst (1986) | Thomson & McKenzie (2008) | Woinarski et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat forages both in woodland and on open hilly plains, flying slowly with frequent changes of direction and great ability to maneuver. It mainly hunts flying insects close to the vegetation.","breeding":"Between October and January, females give birth to a single young. Northern Leaf-nosed Bats form maternity colonies.","activityPatterns":"The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat can roost in sandstone and limestone caves, abandoned mines, crevices and boulder caves. It is thought that this species prefers low humidity, roosting near to cave entrances. This species emits echolocation calls at 102-106 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Northern Leaf-nosed Bats have been observed roosting alone, in pairs, or in small maternity colonies of 6-12 individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros stenotis). Population size and trends are unknown; population is probably not greatly fragmented and is not declining markedly. No major threats are known, although destruction and disturbance of roosts are increasing. Habitat loss and degradation might also be significant, as well as reported predation by feral cats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-46 mm, tail 26-27 mm, ear 19-21 mm, forearm 42—46 mm; weight 4-6-6-4 g. The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Semon’s Leaf-nosed Bat {D. semoni), but considerably smaller. Both species present complex noseleafwith two supplementary leaflets: anterior leaflet is short and broad, and posterior leaflet extends beneath anterior leaf onto upper lip. The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat also presents processes in intermediate and posterior leaves, but differs by having median process of posterior leaf less prominent. Ears are long with pointed tips, and rostral eminences are moderately inflated. Fur is brownish dorsally, paler ventrally.Habitat.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and occupies a wide variety of habitats. It has been recorded in areas with sandstone cliffs, escarpments, gorges and waterholes, tall open forest, floodplains, and open meadows. Elevational range is unknown.Food and Feeding.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat forages both in woodland and on open hilly plains, flying slowly with frequent changes of direction and great ability to maneuver. It mainly hunts flying insects close to the vegetation.Breeding.Between October and January, females give birth to a single young. Northern Leaf-nosed Bats form maternity colonies.Activity patterns.The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat can roost in sandstone and limestone caves, abandoned mines, crevices and boulder caves. It is thought that this species prefers low humidity, roosting near to cave entrances. This species emits echolocation calls at 102-106 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Northern Leaf-nosed Bats have been observed roosting alone, in pairs, or in small maternity colonies of 6-12 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros stenotis). Population size and trends are unknown; population is probably not greatly fragmented and is not declining markedly. No major threats are known, although destruction and disturbance of roosts are increasing.","habitat":"The Northern Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and occupies a wide variety of habitats. It has been recorded in areas with sandstone cliffs, escarpments, gorges and waterholes, tall open forest, floodplains, and open meadows. Elevational range is unknown."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C673A201FF20EE16F31C481E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C673A201FF20EE16F31C481E","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"232","verbatimText":"13.Commerson’s Leaf-nosed BatMacronycteris commersoniiFrench:Phyllorhine de Commerson/ German:Commerson-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Macronicterio de CommersonOther common names:Commerson's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus commersonii É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, “fort Dauphin, île de Madagascar.” Based on neotype selection, identified by Goodman and colleagues in 2016 as “ Madagascar: Province de Fianarantsoa, Parc National de l’lsalo, along Sahanafa River, near foot of Bevato Mountain, 28 kmsouth-east of Berenty-Betsileo, 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6’E, 550 ma.s.l.”Widely used specific epithet commersoni changed as the original name is valid and thus retained. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Madagascar, where it is widely distributed.Descriptive notes.Head-body 104—110 mm, tail 31-45 mm, ear 29-31 mm, hindfoot 13—18 mm, forearm 80—103 mm; weight 39-5— 98 g. Males are larger than females. Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three or four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, reddish brown to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. It is difficult to distinguish from the MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (M cryptaualorond), but is slightly larger. Dental formula for all members of Macronycterisis 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 and FN = 60.Habitat.Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forested and wooded habitats, including degraded forest and the ecotone between forest and agricultural landscapes. It occurs at elevations up to 1350 m.Food and Feeding.Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on large beetles (Coleoptera) and, to a lesser degree, on bugs (Hemiptera). A large variety of other insects are taken in smaller amounts, and even possibly small vertebrates (e.g. frogs). It forages by sallying out from a perch to capture prey, which is returned to the perch to be consumed. It puts on significant amounts of fat at the end of the rainy season.Breeding.Females segregate into maternity roosts during the birthing season, with males and non-reproductive females roosting together in separate caves.Activity patterns.Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but may occasionally also use tall forest trees. Echolocation call includes a GF component at C.65 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Some populations are thought to be migratory, as individuals disappear seasonally from certain caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCNRed List (as Tfrpposideros commersoni) because of extensive hunting pressure. This is partially mitigated by its widespread distribution and tolerance of habitat degradation.Bibliography.Bader eta/. (2015), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Eger & Mitchell (2003), Foley, Goodman eta/. (2017), Foley, Thong Vu Dinh eta/. (2015), Goodman (2006, 2011), Goodman, Andriafidison eta/. (2005), Good man, Ratrimomanarivo et al. (2008), Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016), Hill (1963a), Jenkins & Racey (2008), Kofoky, Andriafidison et al. (2007), Kofoky, Randrianandrianina et al. (2009), Raharinantenaina et al. (2008), Rakotoarivelo, Ralisata et al. (2009), Rakotoarivelo, Ranaivoson et al. (2007), Rakotoarivelo, Willows-Munro et al. (2015), Ramasindrazana et al. (2015), Ranivo & Goodman (2007), Razakarivony et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus commersonii É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, “fort Dauphin, île de Madagascar.” Based on neotype selection, identified by Goodman and colleagues in 2016 as “ Madagascar: Province de Fianarantsoa, Parc National de l’lsalo, along Sahanafa River, near foot of Bevato Mountain, 28 kmsouth-east of Berenty-Betsileo, 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6’E, 550 ma.s.l.”Widely used specific epithet commersoni changed as the original name is valid and thus retained. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Commerson @fr | Commerson-Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de Commerson @es | Commerson's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1813","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Macronycteris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"232","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"commersonii","name":"Macronycteris commersonii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Madagascar, where it is widely distributed.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749063/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bader et al. (2015) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Eger & Mitchell (2003) | Foley, Goodman et al. (2017) | Foley, Thong Vu Dinh et al. (2015) | Goodman (2006, 2011) | Goodman, Andriafidison et al. (2005) | Good man, Ratrimomanarivo et al. (2008) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Hill (1963a) | Jenkins & Racey (2008) | Kofoky, Andriafidison et al. (2007) | Kofoky, Randrianandrianina et al. (2009) | Raharinantenaina et al. (2008) | Rakotoarivelo, Ralisata et al. (2009) | Rakotoarivelo, Ranaivoson et al. (2007) | Rakotoarivelo, Willows-Munro et al. (2015) | Ramasindrazana et al. (2015) | Ranivo & Goodman (2007) | Razakarivony et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on large beetles (Coleoptera) and, to a lesser degree, on bugs (Hemiptera). A large variety of other insects are taken in smaller amounts, and even possibly small vertebrates (e.g. frogs). It forages by sallying out from a perch to capture prey, which is returned to the perch to be consumed. It puts on significant amounts of fat at the end of the rainy season.","breeding":"Females segregate into maternity roosts during the birthing season, with males and non-reproductive females roosting together in separate caves.","activityPatterns":"Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in caves, but may occasionally also use tall forest trees. Echolocation call includes a GF component at C.65 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Some populations are thought to be migratory, as individuals disappear seasonally from certain caves.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCNRed List (as Tfrpposideros commersoni) because of extensive hunting pressure. This is partially mitigated by its widespread distribution and tolerance of habitat degradation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 104—110 mm, tail 31-45 mm, ear 29-31 mm, hindfoot 13—18 mm, forearm 80—103 mm; weight 39-5— 98 g. Males are larger than females. Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with three or four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, reddish brown to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally. Flanks and armpits are white, and there is dark band across shoulders. Ears are long and narrow. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. It is difficult to distinguish from the MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (M cryptaualorond), but is slightly larger. Dental formula for all members of Macronycterisis 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 52 and FN = 60.","habitat":"Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of forested and wooded habitats, including degraded forest and the ecotone between forest and agricultural landscapes. It occurs at elevations up to 1350 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C673A201FF20F962F9C25353.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C673A201FF20F962F9C25353","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"232","verbatimText":"12.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina wollastoniFrench:Phyllorhine de Wollaston/ German:Wollaston-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina de WollastonOther common names:Wollaston's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros wollastoni Thomas, 1913, “Utakwa River, S.W. New Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D. w. wollastoni Thomas, 1913known only from Utakwa River, Fakfak regency, West PapuaProvince, Indonesia.D. w. fasensis Flannery & Colgan, 1993known only from North Coastal Range, N Sandaun Province, PapuaNew Guinea.D. w. parnabyi Flannery & Colgan, 1993— Central Range in Sandaun, Western, Southern Highlands, Chimbu, Gulf, and Morobeprovinces, mostly reported near Tifalmin and Telefomin, PapuaNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-8-45-3 mm, tail 27 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7-8-1 mm, forearm 44 mm; weight 8 g. Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet extending beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. It has club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The characteristic that differentiates Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat from other conspecifics is presence of supplementary structure on posterior leaf, which is of similar height to the posterior leaf. Its rostrum eminences are notably inflated. Fur coloration on dorsum is brownish, while ventral part is brownish grayish.Habitat.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in different habitats of both primary forest (montane Nothofagus, Nothofagaceae, forest, oak forest, and hill forest) and secondary forest. Altitudinal range is very wide (30-2440 m).Food and Feeding.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably feeds on insects.Breeding.No information, but reproduction probably occurs in caves.Activity patterns.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in deeper and wetter caves in limestone areas. Call frequency is c.82 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Small colonies of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bats have been observed roosting in caves. This species often shares roosts with Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bats (D. corynophyllus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros wollastoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented. Loss or disturbance of cave roosts might be one of the major threats for Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, as well as foraging habitat loss and degradation. Further research is needed to study and understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2009, 2017f), Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015), Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007), Bonaceorso (1998), Decher & Fahr (2005), lannery & Colgan (1993), Thomas (1913b).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros wollastoni Thomas, 1913, “Utakwa River, S.W. New Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Wollaston @fr | Wollaston-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Wollaston @es | Wollaston's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1913","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Doryrhina","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"232","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"wollastoni","name":"Doryrhina wollastoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"D. w. wollastoni Thomas, 1913known only from Utakwa River, Fakfak regency, West PapuaProvince, Indonesia.D. w. fasensis Flannery & Colgan, 1993known only from North Coastal Range, N Sandaun Province, PapuaNew Guinea.D. w. parnabyi Flannery & Colgan, 1993— Central Range in Sandaun, Western, Southern Highlands, Chimbu, Gulf, and Morobeprovinces, mostly reported near Tifalmin and Telefomin, PapuaNew Guinea.","bibliography":"Armstrong & Aplin (2009, 2017f) | Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015) | Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Bonaceorso (1998) | Decher & Fahr (2005) | lannery & Colgan (1993) | Thomas (1913b)","foodAndFeeding":"Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably feeds on insects.","breeding":"No information, but reproduction probably occurs in caves.","activityPatterns":"Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in deeper and wetter caves in limestone areas. Call frequency is c.82 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Small colonies of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bats have been observed roosting in caves. This species often shares roosts with Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bats (D. corynophyllus).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros wollastoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented. Loss or disturbance of cave roosts might be one of the major threats for Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, as well as foraging habitat loss and degradation. Further research is needed to study and understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-8-45-3 mm, tail 27 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7-8-1 mm, forearm 44 mm; weight 8 g. Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet extending beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. It has club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The characteristic that differentiates Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat from other conspecifics is presence of supplementary structure on posterior leaf, which is of similar height to the posterior leaf. Its rostrum eminences are notably inflated. Fur coloration on dorsum is brownish, while ventral part is brownish grayish.","habitat":"Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in different habitats of both primary forest (montane Nothofagus, Nothofagaceae, forest, oak forest, and hill forest) and secondary forest. Altitudinal range is very wide (30-2440 m)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C673A201FF20F962F9C25353.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C673A201FF20F962F9C25353","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"232","verbatimText":"12.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina wollastoniFrench:Phyllorhine de Wollaston/ German:Wollaston-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina de WollastonOther common names:Wollaston's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros wollastoni Thomas, 1913, “Utakwa River, S.W. New Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D. w. wollastoni Thomas, 1913known only from Utakwa River, Fakfak regency, West PapuaProvince, Indonesia.D. w. fasensis Flannery & Colgan, 1993known only from North Coastal Range, N Sandaun Province, PapuaNew Guinea.D. w. parnabyi Flannery & Colgan, 1993— Central Range in Sandaun, Western, Southern Highlands, Chimbu, Gulf, and Morobeprovinces, mostly reported near Tifalmin and Telefomin, PapuaNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-8-45-3 mm, tail 27 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7-8-1 mm, forearm 44 mm; weight 8 g. Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet extending beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. It has club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The characteristic that differentiates Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat from other conspecifics is presence of supplementary structure on posterior leaf, which is of similar height to the posterior leaf. Its rostrum eminences are notably inflated. Fur coloration on dorsum is brownish, while ventral part is brownish grayish.Habitat.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in different habitats of both primary forest (montane Nothofagus, Nothofagaceae, forest, oak forest, and hill forest) and secondary forest. Altitudinal range is very wide (30-2440 m).Food and Feeding.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably feeds on insects.Breeding.No information, but reproduction probably occurs in caves.Activity patterns.Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in deeper and wetter caves in limestone areas. Call frequency is c.82 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Small colonies of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bats have been observed roosting in caves. This species often shares roosts with Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bats (D. corynophyllus).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros wollastoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented. Loss or disturbance of cave roosts might be one of the major threats for Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, as well as foraging habitat loss and degradation. Further research is needed to study and understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2009, 2017f), Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015), Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007), Bonaceorso (1998), Decher & Fahr (2005), lannery & Colgan (1993), Thomas (1913b).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros wollastoni Thomas, 1913, “Utakwa River, S.W. New Guinea[= PapuaProvince, Indonesia].”Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Wollaston @fr | Wollaston-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Wollaston @es | Wollaston's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1913","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Doryrhina","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"232","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"wollastoni","name":"Doryrhina wollastoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"D. w. wollastoni Thomas, 1913known only from Utakwa River, Fakfak regency, West PapuaProvince, Indonesia.D. w. fasensis Flannery & Colgan, 1993known only from North Coastal Range, N Sandaun Province, PapuaNew Guinea.D. w. parnabyi Flannery & Colgan, 1993— Central Range in Sandaun, Western, Southern Highlands, Chimbu, Gulf, and Morobeprovinces, mostly reported near Tifalmin and Telefomin, PapuaNew Guinea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749061/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Armstrong & Aplin (2009, 2017f) | Armstrong, Aplin & Lamaris (2015) | Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Bonaceorso (1998) | Decher & Fahr (2005) | lannery & Colgan (1993) | Thomas (1913b)","foodAndFeeding":"Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably feeds on insects.","breeding":"No information, but reproduction probably occurs in caves.","activityPatterns":"Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in deeper and wetter caves in limestone areas. Call frequency is c.82 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Small colonies of Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bats have been observed roosting in caves. This species often shares roosts with Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bats (D. corynophyllus).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as Hipposideros wollastoni). Current population size and trends are unknown, but population is probably not greatly fragmented. Loss or disturbance of cave roosts might be one of the major threats for Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat, as well as foraging habitat loss and degradation. Further research is needed to study and understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-8-45-3 mm, tail 27 mm, ear 15 mm, hindfoot 7-8-1 mm, forearm 44 mm; weight 8 g. Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat presents a posterior lateral leaflet extending beneath anterior leaflet onto upper lip. It has club-shaped processes in intermediate and posterior leaves. The characteristic that differentiates Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat from other conspecifics is presence of supplementary structure on posterior leaf, which is of similar height to the posterior leaf. Its rostrum eminences are notably inflated. Fur coloration on dorsum is brownish, while ventral part is brownish grayish.","habitat":"Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in different habitats of both primary forest (montane Nothofagus, Nothofagaceae, forest, oak forest, and hill forest) and secondary forest. Altitudinal range is very wide (30-2440 m)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C673A202F875F45CFA1E41C2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C673A202F875F45CFA1E41C2","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"232","verbatimText":"14.MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed BatMacronycteris cryptovaloronaFrench:Phyllorhine cryptique IGerman:Madagaskar-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Macronicterio de MadagascarOther common names:Cryptic Leaf-nosed Bat, MadagascarCryptic Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros cryptovalorona Goodman et al, 2016, “ Madagascar: Province de Fianarantsoa, Parc National de l’lsalo, along Sahanafa River, near foot of Bevato, 28 kmsouth-east of Berenty-Betsileo, 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6’E, 550 ma.s.l.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Madagascar, where it is just known from type locality and Androimpano Cave, near Itampolo, Toliara Province.Descriptive notes.Head—body 89—92 mm, tail 30—34 mm, ear 26—27 mm, hindfoot 15-18 mm, forearm 80-81 mm; weight 26-42-5 g. The MadagascarCryptic Leafnosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, reddish brown to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Slightly smaller than Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat (M commersonii), but otherwise difficult to distinguish.Habitat.Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to roost in caves. Echolocation call is not known, but bats captured at Isalo National Park and originally identified as Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat (but possibly belonging to the MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat) had a F component at c.76 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List due to its recent recognition as a species. Due to its restricted distribution and the fact that Macronycteris speciesare under intensive hunting pressure in Madagascar, the MadagascarCryptic Leafnosed Bat may well be threatened.Bibliography.Foley, Goodman eta/. (2017), Foley, Thong Vu Dinh eta/. (2015), Goodman, Schoeman eta/. (2016), Rakotoarivelo eta/. (2015), Ramasindrazana eta/. (2015), Ranivo & Goodman (2007).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros cryptovalorona Goodman et al, 2016, “ Madagascar: Province de Fianarantsoa, Parc National de l’lsalo, along Sahanafa River, near foot of Bevato, 28 kmsouth-east of Berenty-Betsileo, 22°19.0’S, 45°17.6’E, 550 ma.s.l.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine cryptique @fr | Madagaskar-Rundblattnase @de | Macronicterio de Madagascar @es | Cryptic Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Madagascar Cryptic Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Goodman, Schoeman, Rakotoarivelo & Willows-Munro","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"2016","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Macronycteris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"232","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cryptovalorona","name":"Macronycteris cryptovalorona","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Madagascar, where it is just known from type locality and Androimpano Cave, near Itampolo, Toliara Province.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749065/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Foley, Goodman et al. (2017) | Foley, Thong Vu Dinh et al. (2015) | Goodman, Schoeman et al. (2016) | Rakotoarivelo et al. (2015) | Ramasindrazana et al. (2015) | Ranivo & Goodman (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to roost in caves. Echolocation call is not known, but bats captured at Isalo National Park and originally identified as Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat (but possibly belonging to the MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat) had a F component at c.76 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List due to its recent recognition as a species. Due to its restricted distribution and the fact that Macronycteris speciesare under intensive hunting pressure in Madagascar, the MadagascarCryptic Leafnosed Bat may well be threatened.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 89—92 mm, tail 30—34 mm, ear 26—27 mm, hindfoot 15-18 mm, forearm 80-81 mm; weight 26-42-5 g. The MadagascarCryptic Leafnosed Bat has a distinctive noseleaf that is divided into four cells on its posterior margin with four lateral leaflets. Pelage is dense and short, reddish brown to dark brown dorsally, and somewhat paler ventrally. Armpits are white. Ears are long and narrow. Slightly smaller than Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Bat (M commersonii), but otherwise difficult to distinguish.","habitat":"Dry deciduous forest and spiny bush."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A206FF45FDB9FA6E4B85.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C674A206FF45FDB9FA6E4B85","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"229","verbatimText":"1.Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia arabicaFrench:AselliadArabie IGerman:Südarabische Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Asellia de ArabiaOther common names:Arabian Trident Bat, Yemeni Trident BatTaxonomy.Asellia arabica Benda, Vallo & Reiter, 2011, “ Republic of Yemen, Province of Al Mahra, oasis of Hawf (easternmost edge of the country), 16°39’N, 53°03’E, 410 ma.s.l.”This recendy described species was previously included in. tridens, from which it is distinct both in molecular and morphological features. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S Arabian Peninsula, recorded from a narrow coastal strip in SE Yemenand SW Oman.Descriptive notes.Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 43-1-46-5 mm; weight 6-13 g. Muzzle of the Arabian Trident Leafnosed Bat is relatively short with large, distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Dental formula for all members of all species of Aselliais I 1/2, C 1/1, P 1/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 28.Habitat.Coastal arid savanna and shrubland of southern Arabian Peninsula.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves and rock caverns. Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small groups of up to 30 individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on 77ie IUCNRed List. This recently described species may be threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance at roost sites.Bibliography.Benda (2017a), Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011), Harrison & Bates (1991).","taxonomy":"Asellia arabica Benda, Vallo & Reiter, 2011, “ Republic of Yemen, Province of Al Mahra, oasis of Hawf (easternmost edge of the country), 16°39’N, 53°03’E, 410 ma.s.l.”This recendy described species was previously included in. tridens, from which it is distinct both in molecular and morphological features. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Aselliad Arabie @fr | Südarabische Dreizackblattnase @de | Asellia de Arabia @es | Arabian Trident Bat @en | Yemeni Trident Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Benda, Vallo & Reiter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2011","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Asellia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"229","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arabica","name":"Asellia arabica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to S Arabian Peninsula, recorded from a narrow coastal strip in SE Yemenand SW Oman.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749041/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Benda (2017a) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011) | Harrison & Bates (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves and rock caverns. Echolocation call is not known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Arabian Trident Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small groups of up to 30 individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on 77ie IUCNRed List. This recently described species may be threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance at roost sites.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 43-1-46-5 mm; weight 6-13 g. Muzzle of the Arabian Trident Leafnosed Bat is relatively short with large, distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Dental formula for all members of all species of Aselliais I 1/2, C 1/1, P 1/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 28.","habitat":"Coastal arid savanna and shrubland of southern Arabian Peninsula."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A206FF49F065F83845F1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C674A206FF49F065F83845F1","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"229","verbatimText":"3.Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia patriziiFrench:Asellia de Patrizi IGerman:Patrizi-Dreizackblattnase ISpanish:Asellia de PatriziOther common names:Patrizi's Trident BatTaxonomy.Asellia patrizii De Beaux, 1931, “Zona di Gaarre,” Dancalia, Ethiopia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Recorded from a handful of localities in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and offshore islands in the Red Sea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 42—46 mm, tail 13-20 mm, ear 12-16 mm, hindfoot 6 mm, forearm 38-43 mm; weight 3—4 g. Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the smallest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally.Habitat.Low-lying arid and semi-desert shrubland, up to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves, lava tunnels, and anthropogenic structures. Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In one cave, both males and females were present.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although very few specimens have been collected, Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat occurs across a relatively large area with a low human population and in habitat that is not currently under threat. There may be some disturbance at roosting sites.Bibliography.Aulagnier (2013a), Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011), Monadjem, Bergmans, Mickleburgh & Hutson (2017a).","taxonomy":"Asellia patrizii De Beaux, 1931, “Zona di Gaarre,” Dancalia, Ethiopia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Asellia de Patrizi @fr | Patrizi-Dreizackblattnase @de | Asellia de Patrizi @es | Asellia de Patrizi @en | German @en | Patrizi's Trident Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"De Beaux","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1931","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Asellia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"229","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"patrizii","name":"Asellia patrizii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Recorded from a handful of localities in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and offshore islands in the Red Sea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749045/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aulagnier (2013a) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011) | Monadjem, Bergmans, Mickleburgh & Hutson (2017a)","foodAndFeeding":"Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves, lava tunnels, and anthropogenic structures. Echolocation call is not known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In one cave, both males and females were present.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. Although very few specimens have been collected, Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat occurs across a relatively large area with a low human population and in habitat that is not currently under threat. There may be some disturbance at roosting sites.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 42—46 mm, tail 13-20 mm, ear 12-16 mm, hindfoot 6 mm, forearm 38-43 mm; weight 3—4 g. Patrizi’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the smallest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally.","habitat":"Low-lying arid and semi-desert shrubland, up to 1000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A206FF4DF6AAFA214CD4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C674A206FF4DF6AAFA214CD4","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"229","verbatimText":"2.Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia italosomalicaFrench:Aselliade Somalie/ German:Somalische Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:Aselliade SomaliaOther common names:Horn-of-Africa Trident Leaf-nosed Bat, Somalian Trident BatTaxonomy.Asellia tridens italo-somalica De Beaux, 1931, “Oddur,” Somalia.This species was previously considered a subspecies of. tridens, but recent molecular and morphometric work support its treatment as a separate species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Somaliaand Yemen(SocotraI).Descriptive notes.Head—body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8—10 mm, forearm 43-4—48-2 mm; weight 6—13 g. Muzzle of the Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large, distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally.Habitat.Low-lying arid and semi-desert shrubland.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves. Echolocation call is not known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small groups, typically ofseveral dozen individuals; however, c.1000 individuals have been found roosting in a cave on Socotra.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. This newly recognized species may be threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance at roost sites.Bibliography.Benda (2017b), Benda, Vallo & Reiter et al. (2011), Harrison & Bates (1991).","taxonomy":"Asellia tridens italo-somalica De Beaux, 1931, “Oddur,” Somalia.This species was previously considered a subspecies of. tridens, but recent molecular and morphometric work support its treatment as a separate species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Aselliade Somalie @fr | Somalische Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselliade Somalia @es | Horn-of-Africa Trident Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Somalian Trident Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"De Beaux","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1931","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Asellia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"229","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"italosomalica","name":"Asellia italosomalica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Somaliaand Yemen(SocotraI).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749043/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Benda (2017b) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter et al. (2011) | Harrison & Bates (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in caves. Echolocation call is not known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bats roost in small groups, typically ofseveral dozen individuals; however, c.1000 individuals have been found roosting in a cave on Socotra.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. This newly recognized species may be threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance at roost sites.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8—10 mm, forearm 43-4—48-2 mm; weight 6—13 g. Muzzle of the Somalian Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large, distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally.","habitat":"Low-lying arid and semi-desert shrubland."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A207F890F8BFFCE1472F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C674A207F890F8BFFCE1472F","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"229","verbatimText":"4.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia tridensFrench:Aselliatrident/ German:Nordafrikanische Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:AselliatridenteOther common names:Geoffroy’s Trident BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus tridens É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, near Luxor, Egypt.Up to four subspecies have at times been recognized within this species, but recent molecular work suggests the existence of just two. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. t. tridens E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813widespread in N Africa, from Morocco, Mauritania, and SenegalE to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Somalia.A. t. murraianaj. Anderson, 1881widely in the Middle East, including Syria, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Arabian Peninsula, and Iran, and E to W Afghanistanand S Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 45-55 mm; weight 6-13 g. Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 50 and FN = 62.Habitat.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of desert and semi-desert habitats where it is mostly associated with oases and dry riverbeds. It generally occurs at low elevations, but may occur up to 2000 m.Food and Feeding.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat forages by flying low and hawking a variety of large insects including beetles, moths, flies, and grasshoppers.Breeding.Apparently, Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is a seasonal breeder, giving birth to a single young in the boreal summer. In Africa, pregnant females have been reported in April and May, and dependent young in July. In the Middle East, females are pregnant in April-June, with births in June-July followed by 40 days of lactation.Activity patterns.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a wide range of situations including caves, mines, rock caverns, underground irrigation channels, and anthropogenic structures such as buildings, cellars, and tombs. It typically departs from its roost shortly after sunset, with males showing two peaks of activity during the night but females only one; both sexes have the greatest activity period in the hour immediately after sunset, with males showing a second peak in the early hours of the morning. Echolocation call includes a variable CF component of 115-120 kHz that varies individually and is negatively correlated with the size of the bat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to very large colonies, with up to 5000 individuals having been reported from a cave in Iran. Roosts are usually occupied by this species alone, although it may occasionally share its roost with other bats including the Egyptian Rousette (Rousettusaegyptiacus), the Persian Trident Bat {Triaenopspersicus), and mouse-tailed bats {Rhinopoma spp.). Numbers of bats roosting typically vary with season, and sexual segregation has also been reported. Pregnant females form maternity roosts. Throughout much of the Middle East, bats disappear during the boreal winter, reappearing in April-May presumably because they migrate between summer and winter sites. Both sexes put on fat in the boreal autumn before migration. Bats move c.1-5-2 km between roosting and foraging sites.On following pages: 5. Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina camerunensis}; 6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina corynophyllus); 7. CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina cyclops); 8. Hill's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinaedwardshillil; 9. Fly River Leaf-nosed Bat {Doryrhina muscinus); 10. Semon's Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina semoni); 11. Northern Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina stenotis}; 12. Wollaston's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinawollastom); 13. Commerson's Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscommersoniii; 14. MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscryptovalorona); 15. Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris gigas); 16. SaoTome Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris thomensis}; 17. Striped Leafnosed Bat (Macronycteris vittatus); 18. Dong BacTrident Bat (Aselliscus dongbacanus); 19. Stoliczka's Trident Bat (AselliscusstoliczkanusY, 20. Temminck ’s Trident Bat (Aselliscus tricuspidatus); 21. East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithii); 22. Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops robinsoni); 23. Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat (Anthops ornatus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red, List. Its large distribution, often in remote areas and harsh landscapes, suggests that this species ought to be relatively secure.Bibliography.Al-Robaae (1966), Amichai et al. (2013), Aulagnier (2013b), Benda, Andreas et al. (2006), Benda, Dietz et al. (2008), Benda, Faizolâhi et al. (2012), Benda, Lucan et al. (2010), Benda, Spitzenberger et al. (2014), Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Bray & Benda (2016), Brasset & Caubère (1960), De-Blase (1980), Feldman et al. (2000), Gustafson & Schnitzler (1979), Harrison & Bates (1991), Jones et al. (1993), Koch-Weser (1984), Kock (1969d), Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991), Fye (1972), Qumsiyeh (1985), Qumsiyeh & Schütter (1981), Whitaker et al. (1994).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus tridens É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, near Luxor, Egypt.Up to four subspecies have at times been recognized within this species, but recent molecular work suggests the existence of just two. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Aselliatrident @fr | Nordafrikanische Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselliatridente @es | Geoffroy’s Trident Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1813","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Asellia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"229","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tridens","name":"Asellia tridens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. t. tridens E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813widespread in N Africa, from Morocco, Mauritania, and SenegalE to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Somalia.A. t. murraianaj. Anderson, 1881widely in the Middle East, including Syria, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Arabian Peninsula, and Iran, and E to W Afghanistanand S Pakistan.","bibliography":"Al-Robaae (1966) | Amichai et al. (2013) | Aulagnier (2013b) | Benda, Andreas et al. (2006) | Benda, Dietz et al. (2008) | Benda, Faizolâhi et al. (2012) | Benda, Lucan et al. (2010) | Benda, Spitzenberger et al. (2014) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Bray & Benda (2016) | Brasset & Caubère (1960) | De-Blase (1980) | Feldman et al. (2000) | Gustafson & Schnitzler (1979) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Jones et al. (1993) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Kock (1969d) | Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) | Fye (1972) | Qumsiyeh (1985) | Qumsiyeh & Schütter (1981) | Whitaker et al. (1994)","foodAndFeeding":"Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat forages by flying low and hawking a variety of large insects including beetles, moths, flies, and grasshoppers.","breeding":"Apparently, Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is a seasonal breeder, giving birth to a single young in the boreal summer. In Africa, pregnant females have been reported in April and May, and dependent young in July. In the Middle East, females are pregnant in April-June, with births in June-July followed by 40 days of lactation.","activityPatterns":"Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a wide range of situations including caves, mines, rock caverns, underground irrigation channels, and anthropogenic structures such as buildings, cellars, and tombs. It typically departs from its roost shortly after sunset, with males showing two peaks of activity during the night but females only one; both sexes have the greatest activity period in the hour immediately after sunset, with males showing a second peak in the early hours of the morning. Echolocation call includes a variable CF component of 115-120 kHz that varies individually and is negatively correlated with the size of the bat.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to very large colonies, with up to 5000 individuals having been reported from a cave in Iran. Roosts are usually occupied by this species alone, although it may occasionally share its roost with other bats including the Egyptian Rousette (Rousettusaegyptiacus), the Persian Trident Bat {Triaenopspersicus), and mouse-tailed bats {Rhinopoma spp.). Numbers of bats roosting typically vary with season, and sexual segregation has also been reported. Pregnant females form maternity roosts. Throughout much of the Middle East, bats disappear during the boreal winter, reappearing in April-May presumably because they migrate between summer and winter sites. Both sexes put on fat in the boreal autumn before migration. Bats move c.1-5-2 km between roosting and foraging sites.On following pages: 5. Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina camerunensis}; 6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina corynophyllus); 7. CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina cyclops); 8. Hill's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinaedwardshillil; 9. Fly River Leaf-nosed Bat {Doryrhina muscinus); 10. Semon's Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina semoni); 11. Northern Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina stenotis}; 12. Wollaston's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinawollastom); 13. Commerson's Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscommersoniii; 14. MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscryptovalorona); 15. Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris gigas); 16. SaoTome Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris thomensis}; 17. Striped Leafnosed Bat (Macronycteris vittatus); 18. Dong BacTrident Bat (Aselliscus dongbacanus); 19. Stoliczka's Trident Bat (AselliscusstoliczkanusY, 20. Temminck ’s Trident Bat (Aselliscus tricuspidatus); 21. East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithii); 22. Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops robinsoni); 23. Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat (Anthops ornatus}.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red, List. Its large distribution, often in remote areas and harsh landscapes, suggests that this species ought to be relatively secure.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 45-55 mm; weight 6-13 g. Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 50 and FN = 62.","habitat":"Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of desert and semi-desert habitats where it is mostly associated with oases and dry riverbeds. It generally occurs at low elevations, but may occur up to 2000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C674A207F890F8BFFCE1472F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C674A207F890F8BFFCE1472F","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"229","verbatimText":"4.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed BatAsellia tridensFrench:Aselliatrident/ German:Nordafrikanische Dreizackblattnase/ Spanish:AselliatridenteOther common names:Geoffroy’s Trident BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus tridens É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, near Luxor, Egypt.Up to four subspecies have at times been recognized within this species, but recent molecular work suggests the existence of just two. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. t. tridens E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813widespread in N Africa, from Morocco, Mauritania, and SenegalE to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Somalia.A. t. murraianaj. Anderson, 1881widely in the Middle East, including Syria, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Arabian Peninsula, and Iran, and E to W Afghanistanand S Pakistan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 45-55 mm; weight 6-13 g. Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 50 and FN = 62.Habitat.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of desert and semi-desert habitats where it is mostly associated with oases and dry riverbeds. It generally occurs at low elevations, but may occur up to 2000 m.Food and Feeding.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat forages by flying low and hawking a variety of large insects including beetles, moths, flies, and grasshoppers.Breeding.Apparently, Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is a seasonal breeder, giving birth to a single young in the boreal summer. In Africa, pregnant females have been reported in April and May, and dependent young in July. In the Middle East, females are pregnant in April-June, with births in June-July followed by 40 days of lactation.Activity patterns.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a wide range of situations including caves, mines, rock caverns, underground irrigation channels, and anthropogenic structures such as buildings, cellars, and tombs. It typically departs from its roost shortly after sunset, with males showing two peaks of activity during the night but females only one; both sexes have the greatest activity period in the hour immediately after sunset, with males showing a second peak in the early hours of the morning. Echolocation call includes a variable CF component of 115-120 kHz that varies individually and is negatively correlated with the size of the bat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to very large colonies, with up to 5000 individuals having been reported from a cave in Iran. Roosts are usually occupied by this species alone, although it may occasionally share its roost with other bats including the Egyptian Rousette (Rousettusaegyptiacus), the Persian Trident Bat {Triaenopspersicus), and mouse-tailed bats {Rhinopoma spp.). Numbers of bats roosting typically vary with season, and sexual segregation has also been reported. Pregnant females form maternity roosts. Throughout much of the Middle East, bats disappear during the boreal winter, reappearing in April-May presumably because they migrate between summer and winter sites. Both sexes put on fat in the boreal autumn before migration. Bats move c.1-5-2 km between roosting and foraging sites.On following pages: 5. Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina camerunensis}; 6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina corynophyllus); 7. CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina cyclops); 8. Hill's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinaedwardshillil; 9. Fly River Leaf-nosed Bat {Doryrhina muscinus); 10. Semon's Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina semoni); 11. Northern Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina stenotis}; 12. Wollaston's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinawollastom); 13. Commerson's Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscommersoniii; 14. MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscryptovalorona); 15. Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris gigas); 16. SaoTome Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris thomensis}; 17. Striped Leafnosed Bat (Macronycteris vittatus); 18. Dong BacTrident Bat (Aselliscus dongbacanus); 19. Stoliczka's Trident Bat (AselliscusstoliczkanusY, 20. Temminck ’s Trident Bat (Aselliscus tricuspidatus); 21. East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithii); 22. Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops robinsoni); 23. Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat (Anthops ornatus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red, List. Its large distribution, often in remote areas and harsh landscapes, suggests that this species ought to be relatively secure.Bibliography.Al-Robaae (1966), Amichai et al. (2013), Aulagnier (2013b), Benda, Andreas et al. (2006), Benda, Dietz et al. (2008), Benda, Faizolâhi et al. (2012), Benda, Lucan et al. (2010), Benda, Spitzenberger et al. (2014), Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Bray & Benda (2016), Brasset & Caubère (1960), De-Blase (1980), Feldman et al. (2000), Gustafson & Schnitzler (1979), Harrison & Bates (1991), Jones et al. (1993), Koch-Weser (1984), Kock (1969d), Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991), Fye (1972), Qumsiyeh (1985), Qumsiyeh & Schütter (1981), Whitaker et al. (1994).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus tridens É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, near Luxor, Egypt.Up to four subspecies have at times been recognized within this species, but recent molecular work suggests the existence of just two. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Aselliatrident @fr | Nordafrikanische Dreizackblattnase @de | Aselliatridente @es | Geoffroy’s Trident Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1813","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Asellia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"229","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tridens","name":"Asellia tridens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. t. tridens E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813widespread in N Africa, from Morocco, Mauritania, and SenegalE to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Somalia.A. t. murraianaj. Anderson, 1881widely in the Middle East, including Syria, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Arabian Peninsula, and Iran, and E to W Afghanistanand S Pakistan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749047/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Al-Robaae (1966) | Amichai et al. (2013) | Aulagnier (2013b) | Benda, Andreas et al. (2006) | Benda, Dietz et al. (2008) | Benda, Faizolâhi et al. (2012) | Benda, Lucan et al. (2010) | Benda, Spitzenberger et al. (2014) | Benda, Vallo & Reiter (2011) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Bray & Benda (2016) | Brasset & Caubère (1960) | De-Blase (1980) | Feldman et al. (2000) | Gustafson & Schnitzler (1979) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Jones et al. (1993) | Koch-Weser (1984) | Kock (1969d) | Kowalski & Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) | Fye (1972) | Qumsiyeh (1985) | Qumsiyeh & Schütter (1981) | Whitaker et al. (1994)","foodAndFeeding":"Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat forages by flying low and hawking a variety of large insects including beetles, moths, flies, and grasshoppers.","breeding":"Apparently, Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is a seasonal breeder, giving birth to a single young in the boreal summer. In Africa, pregnant females have been reported in April and May, and dependent young in July. In the Middle East, females are pregnant in April-June, with births in June-July followed by 40 days of lactation.","activityPatterns":"Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts during the day in a wide range of situations including caves, mines, rock caverns, underground irrigation channels, and anthropogenic structures such as buildings, cellars, and tombs. It typically departs from its roost shortly after sunset, with males showing two peaks of activity during the night but females only one; both sexes have the greatest activity period in the hour immediately after sunset, with males showing a second peak in the early hours of the morning. Echolocation call includes a variable CF component of 115-120 kHz that varies individually and is negatively correlated with the size of the bat.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in small to very large colonies, with up to 5000 individuals having been reported from a cave in Iran. Roosts are usually occupied by this species alone, although it may occasionally share its roost with other bats including the Egyptian Rousette (Rousettusaegyptiacus), the Persian Trident Bat {Triaenopspersicus), and mouse-tailed bats {Rhinopoma spp.). Numbers of bats roosting typically vary with season, and sexual segregation has also been reported. Pregnant females form maternity roosts. Throughout much of the Middle East, bats disappear during the boreal winter, reappearing in April-May presumably because they migrate between summer and winter sites. Both sexes put on fat in the boreal autumn before migration. Bats move c.1-5-2 km between roosting and foraging sites.On following pages: 5. Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina camerunensis}; 6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina corynophyllus); 7. CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhina cyclops); 8. Hill's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinaedwardshillil; 9. Fly River Leaf-nosed Bat {Doryrhina muscinus); 10. Semon's Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina semoni); 11. Northern Leaf-nosed Bat [Doryrhina stenotis}; 12. Wollaston's Leaf-nosed Bat (Doryrhinawollastom); 13. Commerson's Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscommersoniii; 14. MadagascarCryptic Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteriscryptovalorona); 15. Giant Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris gigas); 16. SaoTome Leaf-nosed Bat (Macronycteris thomensis}; 17. Striped Leafnosed Bat (Macronycteris vittatus); 18. Dong BacTrident Bat (Aselliscus dongbacanus); 19. Stoliczka's Trident Bat (AselliscusstoliczkanusY, 20. Temminck ’s Trident Bat (Aselliscus tricuspidatus); 21. East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithii); 22. Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops robinsoni); 23. Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat (Anthops ornatus}.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red, List. Its large distribution, often in remote areas and harsh landscapes, suggests that this species ought to be relatively secure.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 41-60 mm, tail 16-29 mm, ear 14-22 mm, hindfoot 8-10 mm, forearm 45-55 mm; weight 6-13 g. Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat is the largest species in the genus. Muzzle is relatively short with large and distinctive noseleaf that has three subtriangular projections from its posterior margin. Pelage is beige or pale brownish gray dorsally, somewhat paler ventrally. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 50 and FN = 62.","habitat":"Geoffroy’s Trident Leaf-nosed Bat inhabits a variety of desert and semi-desert habitats where it is mostly associated with oases and dry riverbeds. It generally occurs at low elevations, but may occur up to 2000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C675A200F87CEEF1F91D4A77.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C675A200F87CEEF1F91D4A77","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"230","verbatimText":"8.Hill’s Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina edwardshilliFrench:Phyllorhine d'Edwards Hill/ German:Hill-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina de Edwards HillOther common names:Hill's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.HipposiderosedwardshiUi Flannery & Colgan, 1993, “Imonda Station (3°20’S141°10’E), Bewani Mountains, PapuaNew Guineaat an altitude of 240 m.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.New Guinea, known only from three zones of the Bewani Mts, North Coastal Range, Sandaun Province.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-6 mm, tail 11-1-15 mm, ear 19-3-21-3 mm, hindfoot 8-2 mm, forearm 49-6-51 mm; weight 11 g. Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat is similar to the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (D. corynophyUus), but with darkish brown or reddish fur on dorsum, and more cinnamon color on ventral area; subadults can present grayish coloration. Fur is markedly shorter than on the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat: c.8-7 mm long on mid-back. Noseleaf differs in lower club being less pronounced, shorter and laterally flattened, as compared with that of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat.Habitat.Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-roosting species reported in low hills. It can be present in forest and also in more modified and artificial environments such as gardens or rural village areas, although it always needs cave roosts nearby. It has only been reported at altitudes of c.200-300 m, which accounts for its restricted range.Food and Feeding.Insects constitute its main food. Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported foraging in forests, rural village areas, and gardens.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Unlike the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat, Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat has not been found sharing caves with Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (D. wollastoni).Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as HipposiderosedwardshiUi). Population size and trends of Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat remain unknown. Main threats probably include habitat degradation and transformation of native forest to agricultural lands around Bewani Mountains. In addition, the fact that the North Coastal Range is not limestone might reduce the roost availability, restricting the potential range (100—2000 km2) even more. More research on this species is needed to assess its population status accurately and to discover details of its ecology.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2017c), Bonaccorso (1998), Decher & ahr (2005), lannery & Colgan (1993).","taxonomy":"HipposiderosedwardshiUi Flannery & Colgan, 1993, “Imonda Station (3°20’S141°10’E), Bewani Mountains, PapuaNew Guineaat an altitude of 240 m.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine d'Edwards Hill @fr | Hill-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Edwards Hill @es | Hill's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Flannery & Colgan","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1993","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Doryrhina","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"230","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"edwardshilli","name":"Doryrhina edwardshilli","subspeciesAndDistribution":"New Guinea, known only from three zones of the Bewani Mts, North Coastal Range, Sandaun Province.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749215/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Armstrong & Aplin (2017c) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Decher & ahr (2005) | lannery & Colgan (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"Insects constitute its main food. Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported foraging in forests, rural village areas, and gardens.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Unlike the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat, Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat has not been found sharing caves with Wollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (D. wollastoni).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as HipposiderosedwardshiUi). Population size and trends of Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat remain unknown. Main threats probably include habitat degradation and transformation of native forest to agricultural lands around Bewani Mountains. In addition, the fact that the North Coastal Range is not limestone might reduce the roost availability, restricting the potential range (100—2000 km2) even more. More research on this species is needed to assess its population status accurately and to discover details of its ecology.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-6 mm, tail 11-1-15 mm, ear 19-3-21-3 mm, hindfoot 8-2 mm, forearm 49-6-51 mm; weight 11 g. Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat is similar to the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat (D. corynophyUus), but with darkish brown or reddish fur on dorsum, and more cinnamon color on ventral area; subadults can present grayish coloration. Fur is markedly shorter than on the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat: c.8-7 mm long on mid-back. Noseleaf differs in lower club being less pronounced, shorter and laterally flattened, as compared with that of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat.","habitat":"Hill’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-roosting species reported in low hills. It can be present in forest and also in more modified and artificial environments such as gardens or rural village areas, although it always needs cave roosts nearby. It has only been reported at altitudes of c.200-300 m, which accounts for its restricted range."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C675A207F87BF8D5F50853B9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C675A207F87BF8D5F50853B9","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"230","verbatimText":"7.Cyclops Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina cyclopsFrench:Phyllorhine cyclope IGerman:Zyklopen-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina ciclopeOther common names:Cyclops RoundleafBatTaxonomy.PhyUorrhina cyclops Temminck, 1853, Boutry River, Ghana.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in tropical Africa from SenegalE to extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, W Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, with isolated populations in W & SE Kenyaand NE Tanzania; also on Bioko I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 70—95 mm, tail 18—36 mm, ear 28—38 mm, hindfoot 18—22 mm, forearm 59—75 mm; weight 21—45 g. The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleafwith two median club-shaped processes. Pelage is dense, long and soft, blackish brown with pale frosting dorsally, somewhat paler with inconspicuous frosting ventrally. Ears are long, narrow and pointed at tip. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. An anal sac is present between penis and anus in males. Females do not have this sac but fur around vagina has been replaced by long stiff hairs. This species is difficult to distinguish from the Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (D. caTzzmznmris) but is slighdy smaller.Habitat.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat inhabits lowland rainforest up to 2000 mor more, but also occurs in the transition zone between rainforest and savanna mosaic, and even extends into Guineawoodland, where relict and gallery forests are present.Food and Feeding.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on moths (particularly hawk moths of the family Sphingidae), but it may feed on a variety of other insects including Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. It forages by sallying out from a perch on a branch or twig typically less than 6 maboveground. Captured prey is returned to the perch where it is consumed.Breeding.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat gives birth to a single young that is bom immediately prior to, or during, the local rainy season.Activity patterns.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in the hollow trunks of large trees, but may occasionally also use anthropogenic structures such as disused mines. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.60 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat regularly shares its roost with other bats, as well as rodents (including anomalures). Based on recapture rates, it has been estimated that its home range is small, in the order of several hectares. It roosts singly or in small groups of up to 18 individuals. Groups typically consist of 1-3 males and several females.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros cyclops). It has a wide distribution and occurs in several protected areas and forest reserves. However, its dependence on large trees for day roosts is of concern for this species in logged forests.Bibliography.Aellen (1952), Cockle et al. (1998), Decher & Fahr (2005), Eisentraut (1956, 1973), Fahr (2013j), Hill (1963a), Juste & Ibânez (1994b), Lang & Chapin (1917a, 1917b), Patterson & Webala (2012), Schütter et al. (1986), Thom & Kerbis Peterhans (2009), Verschuren (1957).","taxonomy":"PhyUorrhina cyclops Temminck, 1853, Boutry River, Ghana.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine cyclope @fr | Zyklopen-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina ciclope @es | Cyclops Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1853","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Doryrhina","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"230","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cyclops","name":"Doryrhina cyclops","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in tropical Africa from SenegalE to extreme S South Sudan, NE DR Congo, W Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, with isolated populations in W & SE Kenyaand NE Tanzania; also on Bioko I.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749053/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aellen (1952) | Cockle et al. (1998) | Decher & Fahr (2005) | Eisentraut (1956, 1973) | Fahr (2013j) | Hill (1963a) | Juste & Ibânez (1994b) | Lang & Chapin (1917a, 1917b) | Patterson & Webala (2012) | Schütter et al. (1986) | Thom & Kerbis Peterhans (2009) | Verschuren (1957)","foodAndFeeding":"The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous, feeding predominantly on moths (particularly hawk moths of the family Sphingidae), but it may feed on a variety of other insects including Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. It forages by sallying out from a perch on a branch or twig typically less than 6 maboveground. Captured prey is returned to the perch where it is consumed.","breeding":"The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat gives birth to a single young that is bom immediately prior to, or during, the local rainy season.","activityPatterns":"The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat roosts predominantly in the hollow trunks of large trees, but may occasionally also use anthropogenic structures such as disused mines. Echolocation call includes a F component at c.60 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat regularly shares its roost with other bats, as well as rodents (including anomalures). Based on recapture rates, it has been estimated that its home range is small, in the order of several hectares. It roosts singly or in small groups of up to 18 individuals. Groups typically consist of 1-3 males and several females.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros cyclops). It has a wide distribution and occurs in several protected areas and forest reserves. However, its dependence on large trees for day roosts is of concern for this species in logged forests.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 70—95 mm, tail 18—36 mm, ear 28—38 mm, hindfoot 18—22 mm, forearm 59—75 mm; weight 21—45 g. The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat has a distinctive noseleafwith two median club-shaped processes. Pelage is dense, long and soft, blackish brown with pale frosting dorsally, somewhat paler with inconspicuous frosting ventrally. Ears are long, narrow and pointed at tip. A frontal sac is present in both sexes. An anal sac is present between penis and anus in males. Females do not have this sac but fur around vagina has been replaced by long stiff hairs. This species is difficult to distinguish from the Greater Leaf-nosed Bat (D. caTzzmznmris) but is slighdy smaller.","habitat":"The CyclopsLeaf-nosed Bat inhabits lowland rainforest up to 2000 mor more, but also occurs in the transition zone between rainforest and savanna mosaic, and even extends into Guineawoodland, where relict and gallery forests are present."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C675A207FF22F275F58845A3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C675A207FF22F275F58845A3","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"230","verbatimText":"6.Telefomin Leaf-nosed BatDoryrhina corynophyllusFrench:Phyllorhine deTelefomin/ German:Telefomin-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Doryrina deTelefominOther common names:Telefomin Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros corynophyllus Hill, 1985, “Inum Tem (Cave), 3 kmENE of Telefomin, West Sepik Province, PapuaNew Guinea, 1800 m, c. 5°10’S, 141°35’E.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Known only from a small area around Tifalmin and Telefomin in Sandaun Province, W PapuaNew Guinea, and also collected in Tembagapura region, PapuaProvince, Indonesia. Even so, its echolocation calls have been recorded in other areas and it is thought that this species has a larger distribution, probably occurring throughout the Central Range ofNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head—body 54-9-63 mm, tail 9—12 mm, ear 18-9—22-6 mm, hindfoot 9-5—11-9 mm, forearm 48-54-6 mm; weight 14-5— 17 g. The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat has an elongated rostrum and relatively long hair, which is densely distributed even on face and muzzle. Brownish colors are present on dorsum, with paler silver on ventral area. Fur is long (c.14-2 mm). Ears are relatively long, distally narrowed, and convex on anterior or medial margin of ear, without antitragal lobe. Noseleaf covers much of muzzle, with two lateral leaflets. Anterior leaf has no median emargination, intermedian leaf is elevated laterally, and posterior leaf is high. Median processes of intermediate and posterior leaves are well developed and club-shaped. Lower club is very long and tubular.Habitat.The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat is found in deep limestone caves, usually located at elevations of 1600—1800 m. It also occurs in forests and in other subterranean cavities. The altitudinal range of this species is very wide, ranging from close to sea level up to 2700 m.Food and Feeding.The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in forest habitats.Breeding.The breeding biology of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat is largely unknown; it is probably similar to that ofWollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (D. woUastoni).Activity patterns.Activity patterns of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat are probably similar to those ofWollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat may be found either solitarily or in small groups. It sometimes shares caves with Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat (subspecies pamabyi) in the Telefomin area.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros corynophyllus). Current population trends are unknown, but population is probably not strongly fragmented. Forest loss and modification might be the major threats for the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat, although large areas of intact forest still remain within its range. More research is needed to study and assess the ecology and population status of this species.Bibliography.Armstrong & Aplin (2017b), Bonaccorso (1998), Decher & ahr (2005), lannery & Colgan (1993), lannery & Seri (1990), Helgen (2007a), Hill (1985).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros corynophyllus Hill, 1985, “Inum Tem (Cave), 3 kmENE of Telefomin, West Sepik Province, PapuaNew Guinea, 1800 m, c. 5°10’S, 141°35’E.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Telefomin @fr | Telefomin-Rundblattnase @de | Doryrina de Telefomin @es | Telefomin Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Hill","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1985","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Doryrhina","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"230","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"corynophyllus","name":"Doryrhina corynophyllus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from a small area around Tifalmin and Telefomin in Sandaun Province, W PapuaNew Guinea, and also collected in Tembagapura region, PapuaProvince, Indonesia. Even so, its echolocation calls have been recorded in other areas and it is thought that this species has a larger distribution, probably occurring throughout the Central Range ofNew Guinea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749051/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Armstrong & Aplin (2017b) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Decher & ahr (2005) | lannery & Colgan (1993) | lannery & Seri (1990) | Helgen (2007a) | Hill (1985)","foodAndFeeding":"The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in forest habitats.","breeding":"The breeding biology of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat is largely unknown; it is probably similar to that ofWollaston’s Leafnosed Bat (D. woUastoni).","activityPatterns":"Activity patterns of the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat are probably similar to those ofWollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat may be found either solitarily or in small groups. It sometimes shares caves with Wollaston’s Leaf-nosed Bat (subspecies pamabyi) in the Telefomin area.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List (as Hipposideros corynophyllus). Current population trends are unknown, but population is probably not strongly fragmented. Forest loss and modification might be the major threats for the Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat, although large areas of intact forest still remain within its range. More research is needed to study and assess the ecology and population status of this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 54-9-63 mm, tail 9—12 mm, ear 18-9—22-6 mm, hindfoot 9-5—11-9 mm, forearm 48-54-6 mm; weight 14-5— 17 g. The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat has an elongated rostrum and relatively long hair, which is densely distributed even on face and muzzle. Brownish colors are present on dorsum, with paler silver on ventral area. Fur is long (c.14-2 mm). Ears are relatively long, distally narrowed, and convex on anterior or medial margin of ear, without antitragal lobe. Noseleaf covers much of muzzle, with two lateral leaflets. Anterior leaf has no median emargination, intermedian leaf is elevated laterally, and posterior leaf is high. Median processes of intermediate and posterior leaves are well developed and club-shaped. Lower club is very long and tubular.","habitat":"The Telefomin Leaf-nosed Bat is found in deep limestone caves, usually located at elevations of 1600—1800 m. It also occurs in forests and in other subterranean cavities. The altitudinal range of this species is very wide, ranging from close to sea level up to 2700 m."} @@ -707,74 +707,74 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C678A20AFF4AF83BFC745253.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C678A20AFF4AF83BFC745253","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"241","verbatimText":"39.MakiraLeaf-nosed BatHipposideros demissusFrench:Phyllorhine de Makira/ German:Makira-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MakiraOther common names:MakiraRoundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] demissus K. Andersen, 1909, “Yanuta, San Christoval [= San Cristobal Island],” Solomon Islands. Hipposideros demissusis in the diademaspecies group along (8 species). It was initially described as a distinct species. Subsequently, J. E. Hill in 1963 and. J. Phillips in 1967 suggested reclassifying it as a subspecies of H. diadema, but more recently D.J. Kitchener and colleagues in 1992 and T. F. Flannery in 1995 supported the status of H. demissusas a separate species, based on its noticeably distinct morphological traits. In addition, T. H. Lavery and colleagues in 2014 found strong genetic differences between H. diademaand H. demissus, and recommended that further genetic analyses of these taxa were required to clarify their taxonomy. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Makira (= San Cristobal) I, Solomon Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 64*8-70* 3 mm, tail 34*1-42* 6 mm, ear 20*6-24* 5 mm, forearm 66* 9 mm; weight 27 g. Ears of the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Posterior noseleaf has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. In central part of intermediate noseleaf there is a small protuberance. Posterior noseleaf has a semicircular upper margin and there are four cells on frontal surface, divided by three vertical septa. Tail is long, surpassing uropatagium. In adult males, pelage is yellowish-brownish or greyish on dorsum, with whitish coloration in central portion of each hair. In adult females, pelage can be bright orange. Ventral part is slighdy paler.Habitat.The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat has been reported in caves, along streams, in secondary forest, and also in disturbed habitats such as cacao plantations.Food and Feeding.The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat may forage in both disturbed and undisturbed habitats and its diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Breeding biology of the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is still unknown. o date, only a few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves.Activity patterns.The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. The F part of its echolocation call is 69*3 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming large groups at some roosts.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List due to its restricted range. Population trends of this species are unknown. One of its major threats might be the disturbance of its roosts. Cyclones are also suspected of being a threat to this species. More research focused on the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is needed in order to assess its ecology and threats adequately.Bibliography.Davies et al. (2016), Flannery (1995a), Hamilton (2008b), Hill (1963a), Kitchener, How, Cooper & Suyanto (1992), Lavery et al. (2014), Phillips (1967).","taxonomy":"Hipposiderus [sic] demissus K. Andersen, 1909, “Yanuta, San Christoval [= San Cristobal Island],” Solomon Islands. Hipposideros demissusis in the diademaspecies group along (8 species). It was initially described as a distinct species. Subsequently, J. E. Hill in 1963 and. J. Phillips in 1967 suggested reclassifying it as a subspecies of H. diadema, but more recently D.J. Kitchener and colleagues in 1992 and T. F. Flannery in 1995 supported the status of H. demissusas a separate species, based on its noticeably distinct morphological traits. In addition, T. H. Lavery and colleagues in 2014 found strong genetic differences between H. diademaand H. demissus, and recommended that further genetic analyses of these taxa were required to clarify their taxonomy. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Makira @fr | Makira-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Makira @es | Makira Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"K. Andersen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"241","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"demissus","name":"Hipposideros demissus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Makira (= San Cristobal) I, Solomon Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749113/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Davies et al. (2016) | Flannery (1995a) | Hamilton (2008b) | Hill (1963a) | Kitchener, How, Cooper & Suyanto (1992) | Lavery et al. (2014) | Phillips (1967)","foodAndFeeding":"The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat may forage in both disturbed and undisturbed habitats and its diet is probably based on insects.","breeding":"Breeding biology of the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is still unknown. o date, only a few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves.","activityPatterns":"The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. The F part of its echolocation call is 69*3 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is gregarious, forming large groups at some roosts.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List due to its restricted range. Population trends of this species are unknown. One of its major threats might be the disturbance of its roosts. Cyclones are also suspected of being a threat to this species. More research focused on the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat is needed in order to assess its ecology and threats adequately.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 64*8-70* 3 mm, tail 34*1-42* 6 mm, ear 20*6-24* 5 mm, forearm 66* 9 mm; weight 27 g. Ears of the MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Posterior noseleaf has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. In central part of intermediate noseleaf there is a small protuberance. Posterior noseleaf has a semicircular upper margin and there are four cells on frontal surface, divided by three vertical septa. Tail is long, surpassing uropatagium. In adult males, pelage is yellowish-brownish or greyish on dorsum, with whitish coloration in central portion of each hair. In adult females, pelage can be bright orange. Ventral part is slighdy paler.","habitat":"The MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat has been reported in caves, along streams, in secondary forest, and also in disturbed habitats such as cacao plantations."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C678A20AFF4EEE1BF55E48CD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C678A20AFF4EEE1BF55E48CD","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"241","verbatimText":"40.Diadem Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros diademaFrench:Phyllorhine à diadème/ German:Diadem-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de diademaOther common names:Diadem Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus diadema É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, “Timor [Island].”Hipposideros diademais in the diademaspecies group. Many subspecies have been described (anderseni, ceramensis, custos, enganus, euotis, griseus, masoni, mirandus, natunensis, nicobarensis, nobilis, oceanitis, reginae, speculator, trobrius, vicarious), several of them of dubious validity; validity, diagnoses, and ranges of prospective subspecies require review.Distribution.Mainland SE Asia, Philippines, Indonesian Archipelago, New Guinea(including Bismarck Archipelago), Solomon Is, and NE Australia; also on N Nicobar Is.Descriptive notes.Head—body 66-100 mm, tail 32—51 mm, ear 28—32 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 58—96 mm; weight 22—57 g. Forearm length can be variable between populations, from as small as 58 mm(Nicobar Islands) to as large as 96 mm(Thailand). Pelage on upperparts is dark brown with distinctive white or yellowish white patches on shoulders and sides ofback; fur on underparts is grayish white. Noseleafis yellowish brown. Posterior noseleafis thick and tall. There are 3-4 lateral leaflets on each cheek. Skull is heavily built with large canine, inflated rostral swellings and well-developed sagittal crest P2 is small and extruded from tooth row so C1 and P4 are in contact, or almost. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat has been recorded in a wide range of habitats, from lowland primary forest at sea level to agricultural areas and disturbed forests up to 1210 m.Food and Feeding.The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest understory, in gaps, and over streams in forest. It feeds on insects (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and various orthopteroids were the most common in fecal pellets) and occasionally on birds. It is known to feed by hanging from a perch and waiting for prey to pass by, then flying to snatch it and returning right away to the perch.Breeding.Females give birth to a single young. In peninsular Thailand, females with young were found in the maternity roost in April.Activity patterns.This species roosts in caves, crevices, and hollow trees. In peninsular Thailand, the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat was observed to remain in the cave late, until 20:00 h, being the last species that emerged from the roost Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 58-62 kHz (Malay Peninsula) and 64—66 kHz (Borneo).Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in large colonies in caves. A maternity colony may number several hundred individuals. In southern Myanmar, at least 5000 individuals of this species have been estimated to be sharing a cave with Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats {H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. laruatus), Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. gentilis), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (77. cineraceus), and Large Long-fingered Bats (Afinio/?tenw magnater).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat is found in several protected areas throughout its range but may be locally at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Kingston eta/. (2008), Francis (2008a), Pavey & Burwell (1997), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus diadema É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1813, “Timor [Island].”Hipposideros diademais in the diademaspecies group. Many subspecies have been described (anderseni, ceramensis, custos, enganus, euotis, griseus, masoni, mirandus, natunensis, nicobarensis, nobilis, oceanitis, reginae, speculator, trobrius, vicarious), several of them of dubious validity; validity, diagnoses, and ranges of prospective subspecies require review.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine à diadème @fr | Diadem-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de diadema @es | Diadem Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1813","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"241","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"diadema","name":"Hipposideros diadema","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Mainland SE Asia, Philippines, Indonesian Archipelago, New Guinea(including Bismarck Archipelago), Solomon Is, and NE Australia; also on N Nicobar Is.","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Helgen, Bates, Gumal, Kingston et al. (2008) | Francis (2008a) | Pavey & Burwell (1997) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest understory, in gaps, and over streams in forest. It feeds on insects (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and various orthopteroids were the most common in fecal pellets) and occasionally on birds. It is known to feed by hanging from a perch and waiting for prey to pass by, then flying to snatch it and returning right away to the perch.","breeding":"Females give birth to a single young. In peninsular Thailand, females with young were found in the maternity roost in April.","activityPatterns":"This species roosts in caves, crevices, and hollow trees. In peninsular Thailand, the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat was observed to remain in the cave late, until 20:00 h, being the last species that emerged from the roost Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 58-62 kHz (Malay Peninsula) and 64—66 kHz (Borneo).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in large colonies in caves. A maternity colony may number several hundred individuals. In southern Myanmar, at least 5000 individuals of this species have been estimated to be sharing a cave with Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats {H. armiger), Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (H. laruatus), Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. gentilis), Least Leaf-nosed Bats (77. cineraceus), and Large Long-fingered Bats (Afinio/?tenw magnater).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat is found in several protected areas throughout its range but may be locally at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 66-100 mm, tail 32—51 mm, ear 28—32 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 58—96 mm; weight 22—57 g. Forearm length can be variable between populations, from as small as 58 mm(Nicobar Islands) to as large as 96 mm(Thailand). Pelage on upperparts is dark brown with distinctive white or yellowish white patches on shoulders and sides ofback; fur on underparts is grayish white. Noseleafis yellowish brown. Posterior noseleafis thick and tall. There are 3-4 lateral leaflets on each cheek. Skull is heavily built with large canine, inflated rostral swellings and well-developed sagittal crest P2 is small and extruded from tooth row so C1 and P4 are in contact, or almost. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"The Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat has been recorded in a wide range of habitats, from lowland primary forest at sea level to agricultural areas and disturbed forests up to 1210 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C678A20BF8A6F46DFA7F40E9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C678A20BF8A6F46DFA7F40E9","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"241","verbatimText":"41.Fierce Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros dinopsFrench:Phyllorhine féroce/ German:Salomonen-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de AndersenOther common names:Fierce Roundleaf Bat, Giant Horseshoe BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] dinops K Andersen, 1905, “Rubiana [= Roviana Lagoon], a minute inlet very near western coast of New Georgia, Solomon Islands.”Hipposideros dinopsis in the diademaspecies group. Many authors have considered this species to include pelingensisas a subspecies, but these taxa are separated by 1800 kmand are diagnosably different. Here H. pelingensisis considered a good species, following N. B. Simmons in 2005.Monotypic.Distribution.Solomon Is (Bougainville, New Georgia, Santa Isabel, SanJorge, Malaita, and Guadalcanal).Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-105 mm, tail 54-63 mm, ear 31-35 mm, forearm 86*1-98* 9 mm; weight 78 g. Ears of the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Noseleaf is well developed and has three supplementary lateral leaflets, of which the third is the smallest. Anterior leaf is large and has no central emargination. Intermediate leaf is expanded and presents a protuberance in middle. Upper border of posterior leafis semicircular with a small projection, and has medial septum and two lateral septa forming four cells. Males present a frontal sac. Fur is whitish or white with light brown spots on dorsum, while ventral fur is yellowishbrownish.Habitat.The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed over forest habitats and tropical moist lowland. It has been reported from sea level up to 400 m.Food and Feeding.The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat occupies caves. Its CF echolocation call frequency ranges at 52-55 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting both alone and in small groups of up to twelve individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List, due to the lack of information on its population status. The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and it has only been reported from a few localities. The overall population is thought to be decreasing. Further research on ecology and threats is needed in order to establish adequate conservation measures.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Hamilton (2008c), Hill (1963a), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposiderus [sic] dinops K Andersen, 1905, “Rubiana [= Roviana Lagoon], a minute inlet very near western coast of New Georgia, Solomon Islands.”Hipposideros dinopsis in the diademaspecies group. Many authors have considered this species to include pelingensisas a subspecies, but these taxa are separated by 1800 kmand are diagnosably different. Here H. pelingensisis considered a good species, following N. B. Simmons in 2005.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine féroce @fr | Salomonen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Andersen @es | Fierce Roundleaf Bat @en | Giant Horseshoe Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"K Andersen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1905","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"241","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dinops","name":"Hipposideros dinops","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Solomon Is (Bougainville, New Georgia, Santa Isabel, SanJorge, Malaita, and Guadalcanal).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749117/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonaccorso (1998) | Hamilton (2008c) | Hill (1963a) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat is probably insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat occupies caves. Its CF echolocation call frequency ranges at 52-55 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting both alone and in small groups of up to twelve individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List, due to the lack of information on its population status. The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat occurs at low densities and it has only been reported from a few localities. The overall population is thought to be decreasing. Further research on ecology and threats is needed in order to establish adequate conservation measures.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 88-105 mm, tail 54-63 mm, ear 31-35 mm, forearm 86*1-98* 9 mm; weight 78 g. Ears of the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Noseleaf is well developed and has three supplementary lateral leaflets, of which the third is the smallest. Anterior leaf is large and has no central emargination. Intermediate leaf is expanded and presents a protuberance in middle. Upper border of posterior leafis semicircular with a small projection, and has medial septum and two lateral septa forming four cells. Males present a frontal sac. Fur is whitish or white with light brown spots on dorsum, while ventral fur is yellowishbrownish.","habitat":"The Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed over forest habitats and tropical moist lowland. It has been reported from sea level up to 400 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A20BF87CF9AFF2B24DAE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C679A20BF87CF9AFF2B24DAE","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"242","verbatimText":"44.Indian Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros lankadivaFrench:Phyllorhine indienne/ German:Indien-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido indioOther common names:Indian Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850, Kandy, Sri Lanka.Hipposideros lankadivais in the diademaspecies group. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. I. lankadiva Helaart, 1850-Sri Lanka.H. l. gyi Bates et aL, 2015-NE India, Bangladesh, and N Myanmar.H. l. indus K. Andersen, 1918— peninsular India.Descriptive notes.Tail 35-58 mm, ear 19-5-30 mm, hindfoot 11-7-20 mm, forearm 75—99 mm. Greatest skulls lengths are 31-1—36-1 mm. Pelage on dorsum is pale cream to fulvous brown; ventral area is paler. There are three or four lateral leaflets on cheek, but fourth (outer) is very small or sometimes absent. Skull is robust There is no depression on rostral region. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 is massive; P2is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forests gaps from lower hills up to elevations of 1000m.Food and Feeding.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is known as an aerial-hawking bat, feeding in mid-air. Diet consists mostly of Coleoptera.Breeding.Copulation has been recorded in August and September. Females give birth to a single young once a year; they were found pregnant from February to May, and giving birth and carrying young between May andJune.Activity patterns.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and temples. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 68-8-70-7 kHz (Myanmar).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Colony size can be from 50 up to several thousand individuals. The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat can be found sharing a cave with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires {Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelata}, and Stoliczka’s Trident Bats (AstfZZiscus stoliczkanus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List. Although the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread in the Indian subcontinent, only very few colonies have been recorded. It may be at risk due to hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bates et al. (2015), Bhat& Sreenivasan (1981), Corbet & Hill (1992), Eckrich & Neuweiler (1988), Francis (2008a), Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu et al. (2008a), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850, Kandy, Sri Lanka.Hipposideros lankadivais in the diademaspecies group. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine indienne @fr | German @en | ndien-Rundblattnase @en | Hiposidérido indio @es | Other common names @en | ndian Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Kelaart","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1850","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"242","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lankadiva","name":"Hipposideros lankadiva","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. I. lankadiva Helaart, 1850-Sri Lanka.H. l. gyi Bates et aL, 2015-NE India, Bangladesh, and N Myanmar.H. l. indus K. Andersen, 1918— peninsular India.","bibliography":"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bates et al. (2015) | Bhat& Sreenivasan (1981) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Eckrich & Neuweiler (1988) | Francis (2008a) | Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu et al. (2008a) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is known as an aerial-hawking bat, feeding in mid-air. Diet consists mostly of Coleoptera.","breeding":"Copulation has been recorded in August and September. Females give birth to a single young once a year; they were found pregnant from February to May, and giving birth and carrying young between May andJune.","activityPatterns":"The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and temples. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 68-8-70-7 kHz (Myanmar).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Colony size can be from 50 up to several thousand individuals. The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat can be found sharing a cave with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires {Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelata}, and Stoliczka’s Trident Bats (AstfZZiscus stoliczkanus}.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List. Although the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread in the Indian subcontinent, only very few colonies have been recorded. It may be at risk due to hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 35-58 mm, ear 19-5-30 mm, hindfoot 11-7-20 mm, forearm 75—99 mm. Greatest skulls lengths are 31-1—36-1 mm. Pelage on dorsum is pale cream to fulvous brown; ventral area is paler. There are three or four lateral leaflets on cheek, but fourth (outer) is very small or sometimes absent. Skull is robust There is no depression on rostral region. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 is massive; P2is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forests gaps from lower hills up to elevations of 1000m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A20BF87CF9AFF2B24DAE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C679A20BF87CF9AFF2B24DAE","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"242","verbatimText":"44.Indian Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros lankadivaFrench:Phyllorhine indienne/ German:Indien-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido indioOther common names:Indian Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850, Kandy, Sri Lanka.Hipposideros lankadivais in the diademaspecies group. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. I. lankadiva Helaart, 1850-Sri Lanka.H. l. gyi Bates et aL, 2015-NE India, Bangladesh, and N Myanmar.H. l. indus K. Andersen, 1918— peninsular India.Descriptive notes.Tail 35-58 mm, ear 19-5-30 mm, hindfoot 11-7-20 mm, forearm 75—99 mm. Greatest skulls lengths are 31-1—36-1 mm. Pelage on dorsum is pale cream to fulvous brown; ventral area is paler. There are three or four lateral leaflets on cheek, but fourth (outer) is very small or sometimes absent. Skull is robust There is no depression on rostral region. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 is massive; P2is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forests gaps from lower hills up to elevations of 1000m.Food and Feeding.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is known as an aerial-hawking bat, feeding in mid-air. Diet consists mostly of Coleoptera.Breeding.Copulation has been recorded in August and September. Females give birth to a single young once a year; they were found pregnant from February to May, and giving birth and carrying young between May andJune.Activity patterns.The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and temples. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 68-8-70-7 kHz (Myanmar).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Colony size can be from 50 up to several thousand individuals. The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat can be found sharing a cave with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires {Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelata}, and Stoliczka’s Trident Bats (AstfZZiscus stoliczkanus}.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List. Although the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread in the Indian subcontinent, only very few colonies have been recorded. It may be at risk due to hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bates et al. (2015), Bhat& Sreenivasan (1981), Corbet & Hill (1992), Eckrich & Neuweiler (1988), Francis (2008a), Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu et al. (2008a), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850, Kandy, Sri Lanka.Hipposideros lankadivais in the diademaspecies group. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine indienne @fr | German @en | ndien-Rundblattnase @en | Hiposidérido indio @es | Other common names @en | ndian Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Kelaart","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1850","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"242","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lankadiva","name":"Hipposideros lankadiva","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. I. lankadiva Helaart, 1850-Sri Lanka.H. l. gyi Bates et aL, 2015-NE India, Bangladesh, and N Myanmar.H. l. indus K. Andersen, 1918— peninsular India.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749123/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bates et al. (2015) | Bhat& Sreenivasan (1981) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Eckrich & Neuweiler (1988) | Francis (2008a) | Molur, Yapa & Srinivasulu et al. (2008a) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is known as an aerial-hawking bat, feeding in mid-air. Diet consists mostly of Coleoptera.","breeding":"Copulation has been recorded in August and September. Females give birth to a single young once a year; they were found pregnant from February to May, and giving birth and carrying young between May andJune.","activityPatterns":"The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, and temples. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 68-8-70-7 kHz (Myanmar).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Colony size can be from 50 up to several thousand individuals. The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat can be found sharing a cave with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires {Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelata}, and Stoliczka’s Trident Bats (AstfZZiscus stoliczkanus}.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List. Although the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread in the Indian subcontinent, only very few colonies have been recorded. It may be at risk due to hunting, limestone mining, and quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 35-58 mm, ear 19-5-30 mm, hindfoot 11-7-20 mm, forearm 75—99 mm. Greatest skulls lengths are 31-1—36-1 mm. Pelage on dorsum is pale cream to fulvous brown; ventral area is paler. There are three or four lateral leaflets on cheek, but fourth (outer) is very small or sometimes absent. Skull is robust There is no depression on rostral region. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 is massive; P2is small and slightly extruded from tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"The Indian Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forests gaps from lower hills up to elevations of 1000m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A20BFF34FB87FA4D488D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C679A20BFF34FB87FA4D488D","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"242","verbatimText":"42.Crested Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros inexpectatusFrench:Phyllorhine à crête IGerman:Sulawesi-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido crestadoOther common names:Crested Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros inexpectatus Laurie & Hill, 1954, “Posso (= Poso), north Celebes[= Sulawesi],” Indonesia.Hipposideros inexpectatusis in the diademaspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.N & C Sulawesi.Descriptive notes.Forearm 100-8 mm. No other specific measurements are available. The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat is has similar morphological characters to the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Ä dmops). Ears are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Anterior noseleaf is well developed and has four supplementary lateral leaflets. Fourth is tiny and third is small. Intermediate noseleaf is swollen and has weak medium crest. Upper margin ofposterior leaf is semicircular. There is a central septum with two lateral and less pronounced septa, which form four cells on frontal surface. Pelage coloration has not been well described as all the known specimens have been preserved in alcohol for many years; it is probably similar to that ofthe Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat, whitish-brownish on dorsum and yellowishbrownish on ventral area.Habitat Notwell known but the Crested Leaf-nosed Bat probably occurs in areas with suitable availability of caves and other subterranean roosts.Food and Feeding.The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in open areas. Its diet is based on insects.Breeding.Maternity colonies may be located in caves.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be gregarious, forming colonies of many individuals in caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on T/ze IUCN Red List, due to the lack of information available. No recent captures or registers of the Crested Leafnosed Bat are known. Population trends are also unknown, as are population size, distribution, ecology, and threats. More research on this species is required in order to define adequate management and conservation measures.Bibliography.Hill (1963a), Kingston (2016), Laurie & Hill (1954), Pacifici et al. (2013).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros inexpectatus Laurie & Hill, 1954, “Posso (= Poso), north Celebes[= Sulawesi],” Indonesia.Hipposideros inexpectatusis in the diademaspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine à crête @fr | Sulawesi-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido crestado @es | Crested Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Laurie & Hill","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1954","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"242","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"inexpectatus","name":"Hipposideros inexpectatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N & C Sulawesi.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749119/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hill (1963a) | Kingston (2016) | Laurie & Hill (1954) | Pacifici et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages in open areas. Its diet is based on insects.","breeding":"Maternity colonies may be located in caves.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be gregarious, forming colonies of many individuals in caves.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on T/ze IUCN Red List, due to the lack of information available. No recent captures or registers of the Crested Leafnosed Bat are known. Population trends are also unknown, as are population size, distribution, ecology, and threats. More research on this species is required in order to define adequate management and conservation measures.","descriptiveNotes":"Forearm 100-8 mm. No other specific measurements are available. The Crested Leaf-nosed Bat is has similar morphological characters to the Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Ä dmops). Ears are large, triangular, and slightly concave below tips. Anterior noseleaf is well developed and has four supplementary lateral leaflets. Fourth is tiny and third is small. Intermediate noseleaf is swollen and has weak medium crest. Upper margin ofposterior leaf is semicircular. There is a central septum with two lateral and less pronounced septa, which form four cells on frontal surface. Pelage coloration has not been well described as all the known specimens have been preserved in alcohol for many years; it is probably similar to that ofthe Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat, whitish-brownish on dorsum and yellowishbrownish on ventral area."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A20BFF35F3A2F6D04680.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C679A20BFF35F3A2F6D04680","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"242","verbatimText":"43.Amhem Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros inornatusFrench:Phyllorhine de lArnhem/ German:Arnhem-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de ArnhemOther common names:Arnhem Roundleaf Bat, McKean's Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros diadema inomatus McKean, 1970, “Deaf Adder Creek, where it emerges from the Arnhem Land Plateau, 55 miles[= 89 km] due south of Oenpelli, N.T. [= Northern Territory, Australia], lat. 13°06’S. long. 132°56’E.”Hipposideros inomatusis in the diademaspecies group. It has often been considered a subspecies of H. diadema, with opinions frequently changing. Further genetic analyses are needed to clarify the taxonomy of this taxon. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to a small area in N Northern Territory, N Australia, including few sites in Kakadu National Park and its surroundings, as well as a cave in Litchfield National Park.Descriptive notes.Head-body 66-77 mm, tail 32-46 mm, ear 23-27 mm, forearm 68-74 mm; weight 22-35 g. The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat has wide triangular ears, long tail, and well-developed noseleaf. Anterior leaf is large and presents 3—4 pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Posterior leaf is also large, with three vertical septa that form four noticeable cells on frontal surface. Its fur is brownish or grayish-brownish on dorsum, occasionally orange; paler on ventral part.Habitat.The Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in sandstone areas, close to streams, riparian forests and secondary forest.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amhem Leaf-nosed bat is based on insects, predominantly moths, beetles, leafhoppers, and cockroaches. It is thought to forage close to cliffs and in many different habitats such as riparian forest, rainforest, eucalypt forest, and open sandy areas.Breeding.The breeding biology of this species is still unknown. At the moment, only few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves. Amhem Leaf-nosed Bats are estimated to become sexually mature at c.1-2 years; generation length may be c.6-7 years.Activity patterns.The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in cool, humid caves and unused mines.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In 2014, J. C. Z. Woinarski and colleagues estimated the area of occurrence for the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat at 2100 km2, but 10 km2 when considering only caves and mines. This species is thought to be gregarious, forming groups in different caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List, due to its restricted range and few known roosting sites. In Australia, the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat is protected under law. Its total population size is unknown, but probably does not exceed a total of 300 individuals. Some authors claim that this rare species is stable and secure within its home range, whereas others affirm that it is declining, although not strongly. Habitat loss and disturbance of its roosting sites could be threatening its populations.Bibliography.Churchill (2008), Duncan et al. (1999), McKean (1970), Richards & Milne (2008), Woinarski (2004), Woinarski et al. (2014).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros diadema inomatus McKean, 1970, “Deaf Adder Creek, where it emerges from the Arnhem Land Plateau, 55 miles[= 89 km] due south of Oenpelli, N.T. [= Northern Territory, Australia], lat. 13°06’S. long. 132°56’E.”Hipposideros inomatusis in the diademaspecies group. It has often been considered a subspecies of H. diadema, with opinions frequently changing. Further genetic analyses are needed to clarify the taxonomy of this taxon. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de l Arnhem @fr | Arnhem-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Arnhem @es | Arnhem Roundleaf Bat @en | Mc Kean's Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"McKean","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1970","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"242","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"inornatus","name":"Hipposideros inornatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to a small area in N Northern Territory, N Australia, including few sites in Kakadu National Park and its surroundings, as well as a cave in Litchfield National Park.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749121/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Churchill (2008) | Duncan et al. (1999) | McKean (1970) | Richards & Milne (2008) | Woinarski (2004) | Woinarski et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Amhem Leaf-nosed bat is based on insects, predominantly moths, beetles, leafhoppers, and cockroaches. It is thought to forage close to cliffs and in many different habitats such as riparian forest, rainforest, eucalypt forest, and open sandy areas.","breeding":"The breeding biology of this species is still unknown. At the moment, only few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves. Amhem Leaf-nosed Bats are estimated to become sexually mature at c.1-2 years; generation length may be c.6-7 years.","activityPatterns":"The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in cool, humid caves and unused mines.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In 2014, J. C. Z. Woinarski and colleagues estimated the area of occurrence for the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat at 2100 km2, but 10 km2 when considering only caves and mines. This species is thought to be gregarious, forming groups in different caves.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List, due to its restricted range and few known roosting sites. In Australia, the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat is protected under law. Its total population size is unknown, but probably does not exceed a total of 300 individuals. Some authors claim that this rare species is stable and secure within its home range, whereas others affirm that it is declining, although not strongly. Habitat loss and disturbance of its roosting sites could be threatening its populations.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 66-77 mm, tail 32-46 mm, ear 23-27 mm, forearm 68-74 mm; weight 22-35 g. The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat has wide triangular ears, long tail, and well-developed noseleaf. Anterior leaf is large and presents 3—4 pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Posterior leaf is also large, with three vertical septa that form four noticeable cells on frontal surface. Its fur is brownish or grayish-brownish on dorsum, occasionally orange; paler on ventral part.Habitat.The Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in sandstone areas, close to streams, riparian forests and secondary forest.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Amhem Leaf-nosed bat is based on insects, predominantly moths, beetles, leafhoppers, and cockroaches. It is thought to forage close to cliffs and in many different habitats such as riparian forest, rainforest, eucalypt forest, and open sandy areas.Breeding.The breeding biology of this species is still unknown. At the moment, only few breeding colonies have been reported, all of them in caves. Amhem Leaf-nosed Bats are estimated to become sexually mature at c.1-2 years; generation length may be c.6-7 years.Activity patterns.The Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat typically roosts in cool, humid caves and unused mines.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In 2014, J. C. Z. Woinarski and colleagues estimated the area of occurrence for the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat at 2100 km2, but 10 km2 when considering only caves and mines. This species is thought to be gregarious, forming groups in different caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on 77ze IUCN Red List, due to its restricted range and few known roosting sites. In Australia, the Amhem Leaf-nosed Bat is protected under law. Its total population size is unknown, but probably does not exceed a total of 300 individuals. Some authors claim that this rare species is stable and secure within its home range, whereas others affirm that it is declining, although not strongly.","habitat":"The Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in sandstone areas, close to streams, riparian forests and secondary forest."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C679A214F878F0CFFBBC44ED.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C679A214F878F0CFFBBC44ED","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"242","verbatimText":"45.Large Asian Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros lekaguliFrench:Phyllorhine de Lekagul/ German:Lekagul-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de LekagulOther common names:Large Asian Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros fefcagufö Thonglongya & Hill, 1974, “Phu Nam Tok Tap Kwang, Kaeng Khoi, Saraburi, Thailandc. 14° 34’ N., 101° 09’ E.”Hipposideros lekaguliis in the diademaspecies group. The population in the Philippinesmay prove to be, at least, a distinct subspecies; taxonomic revision is needed. Monotypic.Distribution.S Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and Philippines(Luzon and Mindoro Is).Descriptive notes.Forearm 64-79 mm. Mainland South-eastAsian populations are larger (forearm 71-79 mm) than those ofPhilippines (forearm 64-72 mm). Ears ofthe Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat are large and broad, with a triangular tip. Noseleaf is large and complex——anterior leaf is large and almost covers muzzle; intermediate noseleaf is large and thickened, with distinct median projection; posterior leaf is trilobed and forms three large protruding pockets. Pelage on upperparts is grayish brown or grayish white; underparts are dull creamy white. Skull is robust, with rostral part inflated. Sagittal crest is poorly developed. C1 is large; P2 is small and slightly extruded from the tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats forage in primary or disturbed forests and agricultural areas at low elevation, typically in gaps or over water bodies.Food and Feeding.The Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat is an aerial-hawking bat, feeding on insects up in the air. Diet is mosdy composed of Coleoptera.Breeding.Females were found pregnant in March-April, giving birth and then carrying young between May and June.Activity patterns.Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of45—46 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats roost in colonies. Colony size ranges from a few individuals up to 500 individuals. This species shares caves with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires (Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelaea), Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bats {H. larvatus), and Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Ä pendleburyi).Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on 7%♂ IUCN Red List. The population size of the Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat has been decreasing during recent decades. The major threats are hunting, unregulated activities associated with tourism, limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Balete eta/. (1995), Corbet & Hill (1992), Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal & Kingston (2008a), Francis (2008a), Heaney eta/. (1998), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros fefcagufö Thonglongya & Hill, 1974, “Phu Nam Tok Tap Kwang, Kaeng Khoi, Saraburi, Thailandc. 14° 34’ N., 101° 09’ E.”Hipposideros lekaguliis in the diademaspecies group. The population in the Philippinesmay prove to be, at least, a distinct subspecies; taxonomic revision is needed. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Lekagul @fr | Lekagul-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Lekagul @es | Large Asian Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thonglongya & Hill","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1974","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"242","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lekaguli","name":"Hipposideros lekaguli","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and Philippines(Luzon and Mindoro Is).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749125/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Balete et al. (1995) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Csorba, Bumrungsri, Francis, Bates, Gumal & Kingston (2008a) | Francis (2008a) | Heaney et al. (1998) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat is an aerial-hawking bat, feeding on insects up in the air. Diet is mosdy composed of Coleoptera.","breeding":"Females were found pregnant in March-April, giving birth and then carrying young between May and June.","activityPatterns":"Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of45—46 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats roost in colonies. Colony size ranges from a few individuals up to 500 individuals. This species shares caves with Black-bearded Tomb Bats (Taphozous melanopogon), Greater Asian False-vampires (Lyrodermalyra), Lesser Dawn Bats (Eonycterisspelaea), Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bats {H. larvatus), and Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Ä pendleburyi).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on 7%♂ IUCN Red List. The population size of the Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat has been decreasing during recent decades. The major threats are hunting, unregulated activities associated with tourism, limestone mining, and quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Forearm 64-79 mm. Mainland South-eastAsian populations are larger (forearm 71-79 mm) than those ofPhilippines (forearm 64-72 mm). Ears ofthe Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat are large and broad, with a triangular tip. Noseleaf is large and complex——anterior leaf is large and almost covers muzzle; intermediate noseleaf is large and thickened, with distinct median projection; posterior leaf is trilobed and forms three large protruding pockets. Pelage on upperparts is grayish brown or grayish white; underparts are dull creamy white. Skull is robust, with rostral part inflated. Sagittal crest is poorly developed. C1 is large; P2 is small and slightly extruded from the tooth row. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats forage in primary or disturbed forests and agricultural areas at low elevation, typically in gaps or over water bodies."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA208F89EF856F2434C79.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67AA208F89EF856F2434C79","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"239","verbatimText":"33.Maduran Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros maduraeFrench:Phyllorhine de Madura/ German:Madura-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MaduraOther common names:Maduran Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros modura« Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “Sampang, Pulau Madura [= Madura Island], nr NE Java(7° 13’S; 113° 15’E); altitude 0-30 m,” Indonesia.Hipposideros maduraeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously included in H. larvatusbut is now regarded as a distinct species, based mainly on its generally smaller skull. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.wiodwoeKitchener&Maryanto,1993-MaduraI,offNEJava.H. m. jenningsi Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-E Java.Descriptive notes.Tail 23-6-30-9 mm, ear 19-6-21-2 mm, forearm 53-58 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 20-21 mm, tibia 17-21 mm. The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros larvatus), but has smaller body. As in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, there are three supplementary leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is dark brown to reddish-brown. Baculum has two distinct prongs but is short and oval in shape rather than elongate as in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat.Habitat.In east-centralJava, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat was found in limestone caves near villages. It has been recorded from below 1000 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is known to roost in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maduran Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. It is currently known from the eastern part ofJava, but surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it also occurs in the western part of the island or further east. As a cave-dwelling bat, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat may be at risk due to limestone quarrying.Bibliography.Hutson, Schütter, Kingston & Maryanto (2008), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros modura« Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “Sampang, Pulau Madura [= Madura Island], nr NE Java(7° 13’S; 113° 15’E); altitude 0-30 m,” Indonesia.Hipposideros maduraeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously included in H. larvatusbut is now regarded as a distinct species, based mainly on its generally smaller skull. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Madura @fr | Madura-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Madura @es | Maduran Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Kitchener & Maryanto","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1993","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"239","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"madurae","name":"Hipposideros madurae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.m.wiodwoeKitchener&Maryanto,1993-MaduraI,offNEJava.H. m. jenningsi Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-E Java.","bibliography":"Hutson, Schütter, Kingston & Maryanto (2008) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is known to roost in limestone caves.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Maduran Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. It is currently known from the eastern part ofJava, but surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it also occurs in the western part of the island or further east. As a cave-dwelling bat, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat may be at risk due to limestone quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 23-6-30-9 mm, ear 19-6-21-2 mm, forearm 53-58 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 20-21 mm, tibia 17-21 mm. The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros larvatus), but has smaller body. As in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, there are three supplementary leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is dark brown to reddish-brown. Baculum has two distinct prongs but is short and oval in shape rather than elongate as in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat.","habitat":"In east-centralJava, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat was found in limestone caves near villages. It has been recorded from below 1000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA208F89EF856F2434C79.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67AA208F89EF856F2434C79","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"239","verbatimText":"33.Maduran Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros maduraeFrench:Phyllorhine de Madura/ German:Madura-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de MaduraOther common names:Maduran Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros modura« Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “Sampang, Pulau Madura [= Madura Island], nr NE Java(7° 13’S; 113° 15’E); altitude 0-30 m,” Indonesia.Hipposideros maduraeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously included in H. larvatusbut is now regarded as a distinct species, based mainly on its generally smaller skull. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.m.wiodwoeKitchener&Maryanto,1993-MaduraI,offNEJava.H. m. jenningsi Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-E Java.Descriptive notes.Tail 23-6-30-9 mm, ear 19-6-21-2 mm, forearm 53-58 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 20-21 mm, tibia 17-21 mm. The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros larvatus), but has smaller body. As in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, there are three supplementary leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is dark brown to reddish-brown. Baculum has two distinct prongs but is short and oval in shape rather than elongate as in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat.Habitat.In east-centralJava, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat was found in limestone caves near villages. It has been recorded from below 1000 m.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is known to roost in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Maduran Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. It is currently known from the eastern part ofJava, but surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it also occurs in the western part of the island or further east. As a cave-dwelling bat, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat may be at risk due to limestone quarrying.Bibliography.Hutson, Schütter, Kingston & Maryanto (2008), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros modura« Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “Sampang, Pulau Madura [= Madura Island], nr NE Java(7° 13’S; 113° 15’E); altitude 0-30 m,” Indonesia.Hipposideros maduraeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously included in H. larvatusbut is now regarded as a distinct species, based mainly on its generally smaller skull. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Madura @fr | Madura-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Madura @es | Maduran Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Kitchener & Maryanto","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1993","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"239","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"madurae","name":"Hipposideros madurae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.m.wiodwoeKitchener&Maryanto,1993-MaduraI,offNEJava.H. m. jenningsi Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-E Java.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749103/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hutson, Schütter, Kingston & Maryanto (2008) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is known to roost in limestone caves.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Maduran Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on IUCN Red List. It is currently known from the eastern part ofJava, but surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it also occurs in the western part of the island or further east. As a cave-dwelling bat, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat may be at risk due to limestone quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 23-6-30-9 mm, ear 19-6-21-2 mm, forearm 53-58 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 20-21 mm, tibia 17-21 mm. The Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {Hipposideros larvatus), but has smaller body. As in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, there are three supplementary leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is dark brown to reddish-brown. Baculum has two distinct prongs but is short and oval in shape rather than elongate as in Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat.","habitat":"In east-centralJava, the Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat was found in limestone caves near villages. It has been recorded from below 1000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA208FF57F253F4564418.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67AA208FF57F253F4564418","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"239","verbatimText":"32.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros larvatusFrench:Phyllorhine de Horsfield/ German:Horsfield-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de HorsfieldOther common names:Horsfield’s Roundleaf Bat, Intermediate Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Rhinolophus larvatus Horsfield, 1823, Java, Indonesia.Hipposideros larvatusis in the larvatusspecies group. Clarification is needed of differentiating characters and geographic limits with H. grandis, particularly the taxon leptophyllus. Monotypic.Distribution.NE India, NE Bangladesh, S China(including HainanI), mainland SE Asia, Sumatra (including Simeulue, Nias, and Mentawai Is), Borneo, Java, Kangean, Bali, and many offshore Is.Descriptive notes.Head-body 52-75 mm, tail 32-35 mm, ear 21-25 mm, hindfoot 7—12 mm, forearm 50—67 mm; weight 15—23 g. Greatest skull lengths are 20-4— 22-8 mm, tibia 18-4—24-8 mm. Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bat is very similar to the Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (77. grandis) but smaller. Ears are broad with pointed tip. There are three supplementary leaflets on each side of noseleaf. Posterior noseleaf is as broad as width of anterior leaf. Thickened and swollen structure behind posterior leaf is well defined in males. Pelage is dark gray-brown to orange-reddish brown. In skull, rostral chambers are well inflated. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 and C1 are large. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in the forest understory, and at edges and gaps in the vegetation.Food and Feeding.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the forest understory.Breeding.As in many other Hipposideros, females were usually found pregnant in March—May and lactating in April-July. Young were sighted attached to females at the roost in April-June.Activity patterns.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat can be found roosting in limestone or sandstone caves or man-made underground tunnels. Echolocation calls typically have F components terminating with a FM tail. The range of the frequency of the F part can be variable between populations (89-100 kHz).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies of up to 800 individuals, in caves. It is often found in the same cave with other species; for example, in Thailandit is found together with the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (77. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. pendleburyi), and the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat (77. armigef). Local movements of this species have been observed in several places in Myanmarand Thailand. Colonies are usually dramatically reduced, or totally missing from the known roosts from December to April, the bats returning in May orJune; this may reflect movements to the breeding colony.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List, but some populations could be at risk locally due to cave-bat hunting by local people. Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a common species in limestone habitats, and populations appear to be generally stable. It is recorded in several protected areas.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Suyanto, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Rhinolophus larvatus Horsfield, 1823, Java, Indonesia.Hipposideros larvatusis in the larvatusspecies group. Clarification is needed of differentiating characters and geographic limits with H. grandis, particularly the taxon leptophyllus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Horsfield @fr | Horsfield-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Horsfield @es | Horsfield’s Roundleaf Bat @en | @en | ntermediate Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Horsfield","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"239","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"larvatus","interpretedSubSpecies":"alongensis","name":"Hipposideros larvatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE India, NE Bangladesh, S China(including HainanI), mainland SE Asia, Sumatra (including Simeulue, Nias, and Mentawai Is), Borneo, Java, Kangean, Bali, and many offshore Is.","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Suyanto, Molur & Srinivasulu (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the forest understory.","breeding":"As in many other Hipposideros, females were usually found pregnant in March—May and lactating in April-July. Young were sighted attached to females at the roost in April-June.","activityPatterns":"Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat can be found roosting in limestone or sandstone caves or man-made underground tunnels. Echolocation calls typically have F components terminating with a FM tail. The range of the frequency of the F part can be variable between populations (89-100 kHz).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies of up to 800 individuals, in caves. It is often found in the same cave with other species; for example, in Thailandit is found together with the Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (77. diadema), Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. pendleburyi), and the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat (77. armigef). Local movements of this species have been observed in several places in Myanmarand Thailand. Colonies are usually dramatically reduced, or totally missing from the known roosts from December to April, the bats returning in May orJune; this may reflect movements to the breeding colony.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on 77ze IUCN Red List, but some populations could be at risk locally due to cave-bat hunting by local people. Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a common species in limestone habitats, and populations appear to be generally stable. It is recorded in several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 52-75 mm, tail 32-35 mm, ear 21-25 mm, hindfoot 7—12 mm, forearm 50—67 mm; weight 15—23 g. Greatest skull lengths are 20-4— 22-8 mm, tibia 18-4—24-8 mm. Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bat is very similar to the Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (77. grandis) but smaller. Ears are broad with pointed tip. There are three supplementary leaflets on each side of noseleaf. Posterior noseleaf is as broad as width of anterior leaf. Thickened and swollen structure behind posterior leaf is well defined in males. Pelage is dark gray-brown to orange-reddish brown. In skull, rostral chambers are well inflated. Sagittal crest is well developed. C1 and C1 are large. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in the forest understory, and at edges and gaps in the vegetation."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA208FF57FB47FB1E4E1A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67AA208FF57FB47FB1E4E1A","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"239","verbatimText":"31.Grand Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros grandisFrench:Grande Phyllorhine/ German:Grosse Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido grandeOther common names:Grand Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros larvatits grandis G. M. Allen, 1936, “Akanti [= Hkamti], upper Chindwin River, Upper Burma[= Myanmar], 500 feet[= 152 m].”Hipposideros grandisis in the larvatusspecies group (5 species). Taxonomic status of this species needs further revision for the clarification of differentiating characters and geographic limits with H. larvatus, particularly the taxon leptophyllus of Assam, north-east India. Monotypic.Distribution.S China(Yunnan), Myanmar, NW Thailand, N Laos, and NW Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head-body 69-80 mm, tail 30-45 mm, ear 22-23 mm, hindfoot 10-15 mm, forearm 59-62 mm; weight 17-18 g. The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {H. larvatus) but generally larger. Pelage is dark brown to orange-reddish brown. There are three supplementary leaflets on each side of noseleaf. Thickened and swollen structure behind posterior leaf is well defined in males. Skull is generally similar to that of Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, but rather heavily built. Rostral chambers are gready inflated with a pronounced supraorbital depression. C1 and! are large. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row.Habitat.The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat can be found in primary forest to semideciduous forest, and disturbed habitats such as orchards. It forages in vegetation around limestone outcrops, in forest understory and open spaces in orchards.Food and Feeding.The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in forest understory.Breeding.In Myanmar, females were found lactating in April-May.Activity patterns.The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation calls typically have F components terminating with a FM tail. Based on data from upper Myanmar, near the type locality, the frequency of the F part is 86-91 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In upper Myanmar, the Grand Leafnosed Bat forms small to very large colonies of up to 300 individuals, in caves. Other species that were found in the same roosting cave include the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat (H. lankadiva) and unknown small Rhinolophus.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although the taxonomic status remains unclear, and it is usually confused with Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bat, the Grand Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to be widespread in Indochina.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2016), Corbet & Hill (1992), Dobson (1874), Francis (20.08a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005),Thabah eta/. (2006)","taxonomy":"Hipposideros larvatits grandis G. M. Allen, 1936, “Akanti [= Hkamti], upper Chindwin River, Upper Burma[= Myanmar], 500 feet[= 152 m].”Hipposideros grandisis in the larvatusspecies group (5 species). Taxonomic status of this species needs further revision for the clarification of differentiating characters and geographic limits with H. larvatus, particularly the taxon leptophyllus of Assam, north-east India. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Grande Phyllorhine @fr | Grosse Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido grande @es | Grand Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"G. M. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1936","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"239","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grandis","name":"Hipposideros grandis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S China(Yunnan), Myanmar, NW Thailand, N Laos, and NW Vietnam.","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2016) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Dobson (1874) | Francis (20.08a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005) | Thabah et al. (2006)","foodAndFeeding":"The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in forest understory.","breeding":"In Myanmar, females were found lactating in April-May.","activityPatterns":"The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation calls typically have F components terminating with a FM tail. Based on data from upper Myanmar, near the type locality, the frequency of the F part is 86-91 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In upper Myanmar, the Grand Leafnosed Bat forms small to very large colonies of up to 300 individuals, in caves. Other species that were found in the same roosting cave include the Indian Leaf-nosed Bat (H. lankadiva) and unknown small Rhinolophus.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although the taxonomic status remains unclear, and it is usually confused with Horsfield’s Leafnosed Bat, the Grand Leaf-nosed Bat is believed to be widespread in Indochina.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 69-80 mm, tail 30-45 mm, ear 22-23 mm, hindfoot 10-15 mm, forearm 59-62 mm; weight 17-18 g. The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat {H. larvatus) but generally larger. Pelage is dark brown to orange-reddish brown. There are three supplementary leaflets on each side of noseleaf. Thickened and swollen structure behind posterior leaf is well defined in males. Skull is generally similar to that of Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat, but rather heavily built. Rostral chambers are gready inflated with a pronounced supraorbital depression. C1 and! are large. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row.","habitat":"The Grand Leaf-nosed Bat can be found in primary forest to semideciduous forest, and disturbed habitats such as orchards. It forages in vegetation around limestone outcrops, in forest understory and open spaces in orchards."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67AA209F8A7F031FA57453A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67AA209F8A7F031FA57453A","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"239","verbatimText":"34.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros sorenseniFrench:Phyllorhine de Sorensen/ German:Sorensen-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de SorensenOther common names:Sorensen's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros sorenseni Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “ GuaKramat (s holy cave), Pangandaran, W[est]. Java(c. 7° 41’S, 108° 40’E).”Hipposideros sorenseniis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was initially allocated to H. larvatus. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in WGJava.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-2-60 mm, tail 30-1-36-2 mm, ear 20-2-22-8 mm, forearm 55-4-60-2 mm. Greatest lengths of skulls are 21-1-22-1 mm, tibia 21-4-23-3 mm. Ears of Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat are large and triangular, slightly concave before reaching tip. Anterior noseleaf has small depression in center and three supplementary lateral leaflets. Nasal septum is slighdy inflated. Upper border of posterior leaf is semicircular and there are three septa forming four noticeable cells on frontal surface, delimited by three vertical septa. Pelage is brownish reddish, with whitish at base of each hair; fur is grayish in ventral part. Baculum is large and robust. Both males and females present frontal sexual sac.Habitat.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in caves as well as over ricefields and other agricultural land. Altitudinal range is thought to be up to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages over different types of plantation, feeding predominandy on insects.Breeding.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms breeding colonies.Activity patterns.This species is a cave-dweller.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bats seem to be gregarious, forming colonies of several individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because this species is only found in a small area. Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been and is protected in its whole area of occurrence. Although it is abundant within its small range, the increasing disturbance of its roosts might be threatening its survival.Bibliography.Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Maryanto et al. (2008), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros sorenseni Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993, “ GuaKramat (s holy cave), Pangandaran, W[est]. Java(c. 7° 41’S, 108° 40’E).”Hipposideros sorenseniis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was initially allocated to H. larvatus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Sorensen @fr | Sorensen-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Sorensen @es | Sorensen's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Kitchener & Maryanto","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1993","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"239","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sorenseni","name":"Hipposideros sorenseni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from the type locality in WGJava.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749105/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Maryanto et al. (2008) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat probably forages over different types of plantation, feeding predominandy on insects.","breeding":"Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms breeding colonies.","activityPatterns":"This species is a cave-dweller.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bats seem to be gregarious, forming colonies of several individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because this species is only found in a small area. Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been and is protected in its whole area of occurrence. Although it is abundant within its small range, the increasing disturbance of its roosts might be threatening its survival.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-2-60 mm, tail 30-1-36-2 mm, ear 20-2-22-8 mm, forearm 55-4-60-2 mm. Greatest lengths of skulls are 21-1-22-1 mm, tibia 21-4-23-3 mm. Ears of Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat are large and triangular, slightly concave before reaching tip. Anterior noseleaf has small depression in center and three supplementary lateral leaflets. Nasal septum is slighdy inflated. Upper border of posterior leaf is semicircular and there are three septa forming four noticeable cells on frontal surface, delimited by three vertical septa. Pelage is brownish reddish, with whitish at base of each hair; fur is grayish in ventral part. Baculum is large and robust. Both males and females present frontal sexual sac.","habitat":"Sorensen’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in caves as well as over ricefields and other agricultural land. Altitudinal range is thought to be up to 1000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA209F87BF8BBF3664DD5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67BA209F87BF8BBF3664DD5","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"37.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros prattiFrench:Phyllorhine de Pratt/ German:Pratt-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de PrattOther common names:Pratt's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposiderus [sic] pratti Thomas, 1891, “Kia-ting-fu [= Kiatingfu], Western Sze-chuen [= Sichuan], China.”Hipposideros prattiis in the prattispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.C, E & S China(including HainanI) and N Vietnam; a record from N Myanmarhas not been confirmed.Descriptive notes.Head-body 91-110 mm, tail 50-62 mm, ear 33-38 mm, hindfoot 15-22 mm, forearm 79-89 mm.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a large Hipposideros. It has “shield” (enlarged fleshy lobes, behind posterior noseleaf) as in the Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (77. lylei), but much smaller; in females, in particular, it looks like a ridge rather than a shield. Posterior and anterior noseleaves are similar in width but notjoined. There are two lateral leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is reddish brown, and paler on ventral side. In skull, sagittal is well developed; rostral chambers are somewhat flattened, less inflated than those of the Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat and the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (77. scutinazKs). P2 is small and slightly extruded from tooth row.Habitat Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species.Food and Feeding.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of primary and disturbed lowland forest.Breeding.Females with young were captured in earlyJuly.Activity patterns.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 58-62 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bats roost in large colonies; a maternity colony may have several hundred individuals. The species has been found in a mixed colony with the larger Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat (77. armiger).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 7%e IUCN Red List. Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and locally common in south China.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Francis & Bates (2008a), Niu Huiling eta/. (2007), Robinson eta/. (2003), Simmons (2005), Smith &XieYan (2008), Zhang Libiao, Jones eta/. (2009).","taxonomy":"Hipposiderus [sic] pratti Thomas, 1891, “Kia-ting-fu [= Kiatingfu], Western Sze-chuen [= Sichuan], China.”Hipposideros prattiis in the prattispecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Pratt @fr | Pratt-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Pratt @es | Pratt's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1891","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pratti","name":"Hipposideros pratti","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C, E & S China(including HainanI) and N Vietnam; a record from N Myanmarhas not been confirmed.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749111/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Francis & Bates (2008a) | Niu Huiling et al. (2007) | Robinson et al. (2003) | Simmons (2005) | Smith &XieYan (2008) | Zhang Libiao, Jones et al. (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of primary and disturbed lowland forest.","breeding":"Females with young were captured in earlyJuly.","activityPatterns":"Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 58-62 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bats roost in large colonies; a maternity colony may have several hundred individuals. The species has been found in a mixed colony with the larger Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat (77. armiger).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on 7%e IUCN Red List. Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and locally common in south China.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 91-110 mm, tail 50-62 mm, ear 33-38 mm, hindfoot 15-22 mm, forearm 79-89 mm.Pratt’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a large Hipposideros. It has “shield” (enlarged fleshy lobes, behind posterior noseleaf) as in the Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (77. lylei), but much smaller; in females, in particular, it looks like a ridge rather than a shield. Posterior and anterior noseleaves are similar in width but notjoined. There are two lateral leaflets on each cheek. Pelage is reddish brown, and paler on ventral side. In skull, sagittal is well developed; rostral chambers are somewhat flattened, less inflated than those of the Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat and the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (77. scutinazKs). P2 is small and slightly extruded from tooth row."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA209FF35F162F5CB45F1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67BA209FF35F162F5CB45F1","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"36.Shield-faced Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros lyleiFrench:Phyllorhine de Lyle IGerman:Lyle-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de LyleOther common names:Shield-faced Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros lylei Thomas, 1913, “Chiengdao Cave, 50 miles[= 80 km] north of Chiengmai [= Chiang Mai, northern Thailand]. Alt. 350 m.”Hipposideros lyleiis in the prattispecies group (3 species). Monotypic.Distribution.S China(Yunnan), E & S Myanmar, W & S Thailand, N Vietnam, and Malay Peninsula; a record from Laoshas not been confirmed but the species is very likely to occur there.Descriptive notes.Head-body 72-95 mm, tail 48-55 mm, ear 30 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 73—84 mm. The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat has enlarged fleshy lobes projecting behind posterior noseleaf. Tip is terminated into two projections around forehead. Noseleaf is very large in adult males but much smaller in females and immatures. There are two lateral leaflets on each cheek. Ears are large with triangular tip, and without antitragus. Pelage is uniformly pale gray to fight brown, or sometimes paler on ventral side. In skull, sagittal crest and zygomata are moderately developed. P2 is small and usually slightly extruded from tooth row.Habitat.Primary forest as well as some disturbed and fragmented zones in limestone areas.Food and Feeding.The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of primary and disturbed lowland forestBreeding.The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat has been found pregnant in February and March, and young are found attached to females in late March-April.Activity patterns.The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 70-75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat is usually found sharing caves and mixing in the same large colonies with other large Hipposideros, such as Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (77. armiger), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (77. diadema), and Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (77. laruatus), but it is never abundantStatus and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Shieldfaced Leaf-nosed Bat is recorded in several protected areas throughout its range. However, like other South-eastAsian cave-dwelling bats, it might be at risk because of human disturbance or limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri & Francis (2008b), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005),Thomas eta/. (2013).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros lylei Thomas, 1913, “Chiengdao Cave, 50 miles[= 80 km] north of Chiengmai [= Chiang Mai, northern Thailand]. Alt. 350 m.”Hipposideros lyleiis in the prattispecies group (3 species). Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Lyle @fr | Lyle-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Lyle @es | Shield-faced Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1913","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lylei","name":"Hipposideros lylei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S China(Yunnan), E & S Myanmar, W & S Thailand, N Vietnam, and Malay Peninsula; a record from Laoshas not been confirmed but the species is very likely to occur there.","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri & Francis (2008b) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005) | Thomas et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of primary and disturbed lowland forest","breeding":"The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat has been found pregnant in February and March, and young are found attached to females in late March-April.","activityPatterns":"The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in limestone caves. Echolocation is a CF/FM type, with a call frequency of the F segment of 70-75 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat is usually found sharing caves and mixing in the same large colonies with other large Hipposideros, such as Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats (77. armiger), Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (77. diadema), and Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bats (77.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Shieldfaced Leaf-nosed Bat is recorded in several protected areas throughout its range. However, like other South-eastAsian cave-dwelling bats, it might be at risk because of human disturbance or limestone mining, and quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 72-95 mm, tail 48-55 mm, ear 30 mm, hindfoot 16-21 mm, forearm 73—84 mm. The Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat has enlarged fleshy lobes projecting behind posterior noseleaf. Tip is terminated into two projections around forehead. Noseleaf is very large in adult males but much smaller in females and immatures. There are two lateral leaflets on each cheek. Ears are large with triangular tip, and without antitragus. Pelage is uniformly pale gray to fight brown, or sometimes paler on ventral side. In skull, sagittal crest and zygomata are moderately developed. P2 is small and usually slightly extruded from tooth row.","habitat":"Primary forest as well as some disturbed and fragmented zones in limestone areas."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA209FF37F972F9854DCD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67BA209FF37F972F9854DCD","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"35.Sumban Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros sumbaeFrench:Phyllorhine de Sumba IGerman:Sumba-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de SambaOther common names:Sumba Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros laruatus sumbae Oey, 1960, Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, from cave (c. 9°55’S, 120°41’E).Hipposideros sumbaeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously regarded as a subspecies of H. larvatus, but based on its smaller size it is currently considered a distinct species. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H s. sumbae Oey, 1960— Sumba I 77. s. rotiensis Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Roti and W Timor Is..H. s. sumbawae Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Sumbawa and FloresIs.Specimens from Savu and Semau Is have been included in this species but it is unknown to which subspecies they belong.Descriptive notes.Tail 24-32-5 mm, ear 19-1-23-8 mm, forearm 48-57 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 19-2—21-3 mm. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. Zaraztus), having three supplementary leaflets on each cheek and also fur color similar but slightly darker; however, its skull is generally smaller. Baculum is very short, somewhat ovoid in shape, with robust basal part and two short distal prongs.Habitat.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is found in caves and under the roofs of houses, at low elevations (below 1000 m).Food and Feeding.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Sumban Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is suggested to roost in large colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is a locally common species. However, as a cave-dwelling bat, it might be at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Hutson, Schütter & Suyanto (2008), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros laruatus sumbae Oey, 1960, Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, from cave (c. 9°55’S, 120°41’E).Hipposideros sumbaeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously regarded as a subspecies of H. larvatus, but based on its smaller size it is currently considered a distinct species. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Sumba @fr | Sumba-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Samba @es | Sumba Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Oey","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1960","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sumbae","name":"Hipposideros sumbae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H s. sumbae Oey, 1960— Sumba I 77. s. rotiensis Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Roti and W Timor Is..H. s. sumbawae Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Sumbawa and FloresIs.Specimens from Savu and Semau Is have been included in this species but it is unknown to which subspecies they belong.","bibliography":"Hutson, Schütter & Suyanto (2008) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Sumban Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is suggested to roost in large colonies.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is a locally common species. However, as a cave-dwelling bat, it might be at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 24-32-5 mm, ear 19-1-23-8 mm, forearm 48-57 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 19-2—21-3 mm. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. Zaraztus), having three supplementary leaflets on each cheek and also fur color similar but slightly darker; however, its skull is generally smaller. Baculum is very short, somewhat ovoid in shape, with robust basal part and two short distal prongs.","habitat":"The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is found in caves and under the roofs of houses, at low elevations (below 1000 m)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA209FF37F972F9854DCD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67BA209FF37F972F9854DCD","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"35.Sumban Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros sumbaeFrench:Phyllorhine de Sumba IGerman:Sumba-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de SambaOther common names:Sumba Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros laruatus sumbae Oey, 1960, Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, from cave (c. 9°55’S, 120°41’E).Hipposideros sumbaeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously regarded as a subspecies of H. larvatus, but based on its smaller size it is currently considered a distinct species. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H s. sumbae Oey, 1960— Sumba I 77. s. rotiensis Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Roti and W Timor Is..H. s. sumbawae Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Sumbawa and FloresIs.Specimens from Savu and Semau Is have been included in this species but it is unknown to which subspecies they belong.Descriptive notes.Tail 24-32-5 mm, ear 19-1-23-8 mm, forearm 48-57 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 19-2—21-3 mm. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. Zaraztus), having three supplementary leaflets on each cheek and also fur color similar but slightly darker; however, its skull is generally smaller. Baculum is very short, somewhat ovoid in shape, with robust basal part and two short distal prongs.Habitat.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is found in caves and under the roofs of houses, at low elevations (below 1000 m).Food and Feeding.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Sumban Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is suggested to roost in large colonies.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is a locally common species. However, as a cave-dwelling bat, it might be at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.Bibliography.Hutson, Schütter & Suyanto (2008), Kitchener & Maryanto (1993), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros laruatus sumbae Oey, 1960, Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, from cave (c. 9°55’S, 120°41’E).Hipposideros sumbaeis in the larvatusspecies group. This species was previously regarded as a subspecies of H. larvatus, but based on its smaller size it is currently considered a distinct species. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Sumba @fr | Sumba-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Samba @es | Sumba Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Oey","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1960","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sumbae","name":"Hipposideros sumbae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H s. sumbae Oey, 1960— Sumba I 77. s. rotiensis Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Roti and W Timor Is..H. s. sumbawae Kitchener & Maryanto, 1993-Sumbawa and FloresIs.Specimens from Savu and Semau Is have been included in this species but it is unknown to which subspecies they belong.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749107/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Hutson, Schütter & Suyanto (2008) | Kitchener & Maryanto (1993) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Sumban Leaf-nosed Bats roost in caves.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is suggested to roost in large colonies.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is a locally common species. However, as a cave-dwelling bat, it might be at risk due to limestone mining, and quarrying.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 24-32-5 mm, ear 19-1-23-8 mm, forearm 48-57 mm. Greatest skull lengths are 19-2—21-3 mm. The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is very similar to Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed Bat (77. Zaraztus), having three supplementary leaflets on each cheek and also fur color similar but slightly darker; however, its skull is generally smaller. Baculum is very short, somewhat ovoid in shape, with robust basal part and two short distal prongs.","habitat":"The Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat is found in caves and under the roofs of houses, at low elevations (below 1000 m)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67BA20AF882F09AFA924472.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67BA20AF882F09AFA924472","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"38.Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros scutinaresFrench:Phyllorhine à blason IGerman:Nasenschild-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de escudoOther common names:Shield-nosed Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros scutinares M. F. Robinson et al., 2003, “Ban Khankeo (formerly known as Ban Phahôm), along the upper Nam Hinboun, Bolikhamsai Province, KhammouanLimestone NBCA, Lao PDR, 17°58’N, 104°49’E.”Hipposideros scutinaresis in the prattispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to C Laosand adjacent C Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Tail 50-4—54-3 mm, ear 27*6-29* 4 mm, hindfoot 15—18* 8 mm, forearm 77*9-82* 7 mm; weight 42 g. Ears of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat are well developed, haired in one-third of their length and with a slightly concave shape below tip. On dorsum, fur is brown or orange-reddish at base, followed by a brown-yellowish color in central portion of each hair, with brown tips; in ventral part, fur is brown-reddish at base with brown-yellow tips. In middle of anterior noseleaf there is a small emargination. There are two supplementary lateral leaflets. Lateral borders of anterior and posterior leaves are joined. To rear of posterior noseleaf there is a protuberance on each side of frontal sac; shape of this protuberance reminds supplementary lateral leaflet and is more noticeable in males. Rostrum eminences are slighdy inflated.Habitat.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in caves in limestone areas, karst, and cliffs. It has also been reported in evergreen forest, and deciduous forest with bushes and bamboo. It occurs in primary forests as well as in more degraded habitats including agricultural land, such as ricefields, reaching altitudes of 160 m.Food and Feeding.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in primary forests, as well as agricultural lands and other disturbed habitats. Its diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Breeding colonies are located only in caves. No other information is known as yet about the breeding biology of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat.Activity patterns.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation call frequency of this species is c.63*6 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small geographic range. Reported only in eight areas, six in Laosand two from adjacent Vietnam. The population of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably decreasing, its population size being estimated at 10,000 individuals or less. Habitat loss could be the most important threat to this species.Bibliography.Francis & Bates (2008b), Robinson et al. (2003), Thomas et al. (2013).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros scutinares M. F. Robinson et al., 2003, “Ban Khankeo (formerly known as Ban Phahôm), along the upper Nam Hinboun, Bolikhamsai Province, KhammouanLimestone NBCA, Lao PDR, 17°58’N, 104°49’E.”Hipposideros scutinaresis in the prattispecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine à blason @fr | Nasenschild-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de escudo @es | Shield-nosed Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"M.F. Robinson et al.","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"2003","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"scutinares","name":"Hipposideros scutinares","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to C Laosand adjacent C Vietnam.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749218/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Francis & Bates (2008b) | Robinson et al. (2003) | Thomas et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in primary forests, as well as agricultural lands and other disturbed habitats. Its diet is probably based on insects.","breeding":"Breeding colonies are located only in caves. No other information is known as yet about the breeding biology of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat.","activityPatterns":"The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation call frequency of this species is c.63*6 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small geographic range. Reported only in eight areas, six in Laosand two from adjacent Vietnam. The population of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably decreasing, its population size being estimated at 10,000 individuals or less. Habitat loss could be the most important threat to this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 50-4—54-3 mm, ear 27*6-29* 4 mm, hindfoot 15—18* 8 mm, forearm 77*9-82* 7 mm; weight 42 g. Ears of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat are well developed, haired in one-third of their length and with a slightly concave shape below tip. On dorsum, fur is brown or orange-reddish at base, followed by a brown-yellowish color in central portion of each hair, with brown tips; in ventral part, fur is brown-reddish at base with brown-yellow tips. In middle of anterior noseleaf there is a small emargination. There are two supplementary lateral leaflets. Lateral borders of anterior and posterior leaves are joined. To rear of posterior noseleaf there is a protuberance on each side of frontal sac; shape of this protuberance reminds supplementary lateral leaflet and is more noticeable in males. Rostrum eminences are slighdy inflated.Habitat.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in caves in limestone areas, karst, and cliffs. It has also been reported in evergreen forest, and deciduous forest with bushes and bamboo. It occurs in primary forests as well as in more degraded habitats including agricultural land, such as ricefields, reaching altitudes of 160 m.Food and Feeding.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to forage in primary forests, as well as agricultural lands and other disturbed habitats. Its diet is probably based on insects.Breeding.Breeding colonies are located only in caves. No other information is known as yet about the breeding biology of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat.Activity patterns.The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is a cave-dwelling species. Echolocation call frequency of this species is c.63*6 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List due to its small geographic range. Reported only in eight areas, six in Laosand two from adjacent Vietnam. The population of the Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat is probably decreasing, its population size being estimated at 10,000 individuals or less.","habitat":"The Shield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat has been observed roosting in caves in limestone areas, karst, and cliffs. It has also been reported in evergreen forest, and deciduous forest with bushes and bamboo. It occurs in primary forests as well as in more degraded habitats including agricultural land, such as ricefields, reaching altitudes of 160 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EF89EFC3DF79F4EBC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67CA20EF89EFC3DF79F4EBC","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"237","verbatimText":"26.Ha Long Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros alongensisFrench:Phyllorhine d'Halong/ German:Halong-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de HalongOther common names:Halong BayLeaf-nosed Bat, Ha Long Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros larvatus alongensis Bourret, 1942, Ha Long Bay, north-east Vietnam.Hipposideros alongensisis in the armigerspecies group along (5 species). This species was initially classified as a subspecies of H. larvatus. Subsequently, it was reclassified as a distinct species by G. Topal in 1975, who then reclassified again it as a subspecies of H. turpis. The recent study of Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated through genetic analyses that the three former subspecies of H. turpisinstead constituted three different species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.alongensisBourret,1942—CatBaI,H.a.LongBay,NEVietnam.H. a. sungi Thong et al, 2012scattered localities in mainland NE Vietnam(Na H.a. Nature Reserve and Ba Be and Cue Phuong national parks).Descriptive notes.Ear 18-29 mm, forearm 68-1-76 mm; weight 22-5— 35 g. The two subspecies are very similar, sungi being slightly larger than nominotypical alongensis. Pelage of the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is bicolored; fur is dark brown on dorsum, and brownish or grayish on ventral part. This species presents a well-defined antitragus. It has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in its noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf is narrower than anterior and posterior ones. Posterior leaf has a well-developed fold on upper margin, and its upperpart is wider than base. Four noticeable cells are formed by three vertical septa on frontal part. Males present a protuberance behind posterior leaf, which becomes more noticeable during breeding season. Baculum is small with fork-like bifid tip.Habitat.The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat occurs in limestone karst areas, commonly inhabiting caves and woodlands, from primary forest to more degraded habitats.Food and Feeding.Details of its diet are unknown. The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat forages in both primary forest and disturbed woodland areas.Breeding.The reproductive period is in summer and autumn, generally from May to September. Several females have been captured carrying their offspring during May and June, meaning that they must have given birth somewhat earlier. Males are reproductively active in August and September.Activity patterns.Subspecies differ in echolocation call, F part being 73-3 kHz in sungi and 79-3 kHz in alongensis.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats can aggregate, forming large colonies of 300-500 bats. Some authors have suggested that this species changes its roosts seasonally.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. As its overall range is much smaller than that previously attributed to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat, the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be less secure.Bibliography.Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a), Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012), Topé I (1975, 1993).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros larvatus alongensis Bourret, 1942, Ha Long Bay, north-east Vietnam.Hipposideros alongensisis in the armigerspecies group along (5 species). This species was initially classified as a subspecies of H. larvatus. Subsequently, it was reclassified as a distinct species by G. Topal in 1975, who then reclassified again it as a subspecies of H. turpis. The recent study of Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated through genetic analyses that the three former subspecies of H. turpisinstead constituted three different species. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine d'Halong @fr | Halong-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Halong @es | Halong Bay Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Ha Long Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bourret","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1942","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"237","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alongensis","name":"Hipposideros alongensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.alongensisBourret,1942—CatBaI,H.a.LongBay,NEVietnam.H. a. sungi Thong et al, 2012scattered localities in mainland NE Vietnam(Na H.a. Nature Reserve and Ba Be and Cue Phuong national parks).","bibliography":"Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a) | Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012) | Topé I (1975, 1993)","foodAndFeeding":"Details of its diet are unknown. The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat forages in both primary forest and disturbed woodland areas.","breeding":"The reproductive period is in summer and autumn, generally from May to September. Several females have been captured carrying their offspring during May and June, meaning that they must have given birth somewhat earlier. Males are reproductively active in August and September.","activityPatterns":"Subspecies differ in echolocation call, F part being 73-3 kHz in sungi and 79-3 kHz in alongensis.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats can aggregate, forming large colonies of 300-500 bats. Some authors have suggested that this species changes its roosts seasonally.","statusAndConservation":"Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. As its overall range is much smaller than that previously attributed to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat, the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be less secure.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 18-29 mm, forearm 68-1-76 mm; weight 22-5— 35 g. The two subspecies are very similar, sungi being slightly larger than nominotypical alongensis. Pelage of the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is bicolored; fur is dark brown on dorsum, and brownish or grayish on ventral part. This species presents a well-defined antitragus. It has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in its noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf is narrower than anterior and posterior ones. Posterior leaf has a well-developed fold on upper margin, and its upperpart is wider than base. Four noticeable cells are formed by three vertical septa on frontal part. Males present a protuberance behind posterior leaf, which becomes more noticeable during breeding season. Baculum is small with fork-like bifid tip.","habitat":"The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat occurs in limestone karst areas, commonly inhabiting caves and woodlands, from primary forest to more degraded habitats."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EF89EFC3DF79F4EBC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67CA20EF89EFC3DF79F4EBC","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"237","verbatimText":"26.Ha Long Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros alongensisFrench:Phyllorhine d'Halong/ German:Halong-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de HalongOther common names:Halong BayLeaf-nosed Bat, Ha Long Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros larvatus alongensis Bourret, 1942, Ha Long Bay, north-east Vietnam.Hipposideros alongensisis in the armigerspecies group along (5 species). This species was initially classified as a subspecies of H. larvatus. Subsequently, it was reclassified as a distinct species by G. Topal in 1975, who then reclassified again it as a subspecies of H. turpis. The recent study of Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated through genetic analyses that the three former subspecies of H. turpisinstead constituted three different species. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.alongensisBourret,1942—CatBaI,H.a.LongBay,NEVietnam.H. a. sungi Thong et al, 2012scattered localities in mainland NE Vietnam(Na H.a. Nature Reserve and Ba Be and Cue Phuong national parks).Descriptive notes.Ear 18-29 mm, forearm 68-1-76 mm; weight 22-5— 35 g. The two subspecies are very similar, sungi being slightly larger than nominotypical alongensis. Pelage of the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is bicolored; fur is dark brown on dorsum, and brownish or grayish on ventral part. This species presents a well-defined antitragus. It has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in its noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf is narrower than anterior and posterior ones. Posterior leaf has a well-developed fold on upper margin, and its upperpart is wider than base. Four noticeable cells are formed by three vertical septa on frontal part. Males present a protuberance behind posterior leaf, which becomes more noticeable during breeding season. Baculum is small with fork-like bifid tip.Habitat.The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat occurs in limestone karst areas, commonly inhabiting caves and woodlands, from primary forest to more degraded habitats.Food and Feeding.Details of its diet are unknown. The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat forages in both primary forest and disturbed woodland areas.Breeding.The reproductive period is in summer and autumn, generally from May to September. Several females have been captured carrying their offspring during May and June, meaning that they must have given birth somewhat earlier. Males are reproductively active in August and September.Activity patterns.Subspecies differ in echolocation call, F part being 73-3 kHz in sungi and 79-3 kHz in alongensis.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats can aggregate, forming large colonies of 300-500 bats. Some authors have suggested that this species changes its roosts seasonally.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. As its overall range is much smaller than that previously attributed to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat, the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be less secure.Bibliography.Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a), Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012), Topé I (1975, 1993).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros larvatus alongensis Bourret, 1942, Ha Long Bay, north-east Vietnam.Hipposideros alongensisis in the armigerspecies group along (5 species). This species was initially classified as a subspecies of H. larvatus. Subsequently, it was reclassified as a distinct species by G. Topal in 1975, who then reclassified again it as a subspecies of H. turpis. The recent study of Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated through genetic analyses that the three former subspecies of H. turpisinstead constituted three different species. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine d'Halong @fr | Halong-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Halong @es | Halong Bay Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Ha Long Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bourret","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1942","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"237","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alongensis","name":"Hipposideros alongensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.alongensisBourret,1942—CatBaI,H.a.LongBay,NEVietnam.H. a. sungi Thong et al, 2012scattered localities in mainland NE Vietnam(Na H.a. Nature Reserve and Ba Be and Cue Phuong national parks).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749089/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a) | Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012) | Topé I (1975, 1993)","foodAndFeeding":"Details of its diet are unknown. The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat forages in both primary forest and disturbed woodland areas.","breeding":"The reproductive period is in summer and autumn, generally from May to September. Several females have been captured carrying their offspring during May and June, meaning that they must have given birth somewhat earlier. Males are reproductively active in August and September.","activityPatterns":"Subspecies differ in echolocation call, F part being 73-3 kHz in sungi and 79-3 kHz in alongensis.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bats can aggregate, forming large colonies of 300-500 bats. Some authors have suggested that this species changes its roosts seasonally.","statusAndConservation":"Notassessed on The IUCN Red List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. As its overall range is much smaller than that previously attributed to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat, the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is likely to be less secure.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 18-29 mm, forearm 68-1-76 mm; weight 22-5— 35 g. The two subspecies are very similar, sungi being slightly larger than nominotypical alongensis. Pelage of the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat is bicolored; fur is dark brown on dorsum, and brownish or grayish on ventral part. This species presents a well-defined antitragus. It has three pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets in its noseleaf. Inflated intermediate leaf is narrower than anterior and posterior ones. Posterior leaf has a well-developed fold on upper margin, and its upperpart is wider than base. Four noticeable cells are formed by three vertical septa on frontal part. Males present a protuberance behind posterior leaf, which becomes more noticeable during breeding season. Baculum is small with fork-like bifid tip.","habitat":"The Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat occurs in limestone karst areas, commonly inhabiting caves and woodlands, from primary forest to more degraded habitats."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4AFDB5FE3C4AE4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4AFDB5FE3C4AE4","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"237","verbatimText":"24.Large-eared Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros megalotisFrench:Phyllorhine à grandes oreilles IGerman:Grossohr-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de grandes orejasOther common names:Ethiopian Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat, Ethiopian Large-eared Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.PhyUarrhina megalotis Heuglin, 1862, Keren, Bogos Land, Eritrea.Hipposideros megalotisis the sole member of the megalotisspecies group, and has in the past been placed in a separate genus or subgenus, Syndesmotis. Monotypic.Distribution.Patchily recorded from the W coast of Saudi Arabia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 18—25 mm, hindfoot 5-6 mm, forearm 34-39 mm; weight 5 g. Muzzle of the Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has no lateral leaflets. Frontal sac is absent Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large and, unusually for Hipposideros, they arejoined at base. Fur is reddish brown-gray dorsally, cream or whitish ventrally; an orange morph also occurs and is typically bright cinnamon in color. Dental formula is 11/2, C 1/1, P 1/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 28.Habitat.Affomontane vegetation, including bushland, wooded grassland, and arid savanna.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.A pregnant female with one embryo was collected in December in Kenya.Activity patterns.The Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat has been recorded roosting in a lava tube at Mount Suswa, where fewer than 100 adults were hanging from the ceiling. It is also known to use anthropogenic structures as day roosts.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat has a relatively wide distribution, although it has only rarely been observed, and never in large numbers.Bibliography.Gaucher & Brosset (1990), Happold (2013z), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hill (1963a), Kingdon (1974), Kock & Hillman (1975), Largen et al. (1974), Legendre (1982), Patterson & Webala (2012), Pearch et al. (2001), Tate (1941a).","taxonomy":"PhyUarrhina megalotis Heuglin, 1862, Keren, Bogos Land, Eritrea.Hipposideros megalotisis the sole member of the megalotisspecies group, and has in the past been placed in a separate genus or subgenus, Syndesmotis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine à grandes oreilles @fr | Grossohr-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de grandes orejas @es | Ethiopian Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Ethiopian Large-eared Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Heuglin","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1862","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"237","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"megalotis","name":"Hipposideros megalotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Patchily recorded from the W coast of Saudi Arabia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749085/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Gaucher & Brosset (1990) | Happold (2013z) | Harrison & Bates (1991) | Hill (1963a) | Kingdon (1974) | Kock & Hillman (1975) | Largen et al. (1974) | Legendre (1982) | Patterson & Webala (2012) | Pearch et al. (2001) | Tate (1941a)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"A pregnant female with one embryo was collected in December in Kenya.","activityPatterns":"The Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat has been recorded roosting in a lava tube at Mount Suswa, where fewer than 100 adults were hanging from the ceiling. It is also known to use anthropogenic structures as day roosts.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat has a relatively wide distribution, although it has only rarely been observed, and never in large numbers.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 18—25 mm, hindfoot 5-6 mm, forearm 34-39 mm; weight 5 g. Muzzle of the Large-eared Leaf-nosed Bat is relatively short with large but simple noseleaf that has no lateral leaflets. Frontal sac is absent Intemarial septum is not swollen and does not partially cover the nares. Ears are separate and relatively large and, unusually for Hipposideros, they arejoined at base. Fur is reddish brown-gray dorsally, cream or whitish ventrally; an orange morph also occurs and is typically bright cinnamon in color. Dental formula is 11/2, C 1/1, P 1/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 28.","habitat":"Affomontane vegetation, including bushland, wooded grassland, and arid savanna."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4BF595F4A8407C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4BF595F4A8407C","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"237","verbatimText":"25.Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros boeadiiFrench:Phyllorhine de Boeadi IGerman:Boeadi-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de BoeadiOther common names:Boeadi's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros boeadii Bateset al, 2007, “Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, South-East Sulawesi(04°22’S, 121°44’E),” Indonesia.Hipposideros boeadiiis the sole member of the boeadiispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from type locality in SE Sulawesi.Descriptive notes.Tail 16-21 mm, ear 16' 8—18 mm, hindfoot 6'9—8' 7 mm, forearm 40-2-43-1 mm; weight 6-8-8-5 g.Ears of Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat are rounded. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets; inner is short whereas outer reaches midline anteriorly. Tail is very short. Hair is uniformly reddish brown. Rostrum is moderately inflated with slight depression in midline. Anterior and posteromedial rostral chambers are equally inflated. Zygoma is broad and robust.Jugal bone has well-developed dorsal projection. Sagittal crest is well developed anteriorly. C1 is moderately large. P2 is very small and extruded, so C1 and P4 are almost in contact. Dental formula for all members of this genus (except the Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat, Hipposideros megalotis) is 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Lowland rainforests. The forest where individuals were captured was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge had a high incidence of bamboo and rattan. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat was found in the same area as New GuineaBroad-eared Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus euryotis), SulawesiHorseshoe Bats (AE celebensis), Fawncolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. ceruinus), H. cf. ater, Hardwicke’s Woolly Bats {Kerivoula hardwickii), Papillose Woolly Bats (K. papillosa), Peters’s Trumpet-eared Bats (Phoniscus jagorii), and FloresTube-nosed Bats (Murinaflorium).Food and Feeding.Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of lowland rainforest.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Echolocation calls are typical CF, with frequency of maximum energy of the F portion of 116-6 kHz (114-2—118-3 kHz). Duration of F portion is 2-5-4 milliseconds, whereas the duration of the FM tail is of 1-1-5 milliseconds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known from the single record of seven specimens collected from the type locality.Bibliography.Bates, Rossiter eta/. (2007), Chiozza & Bates (2016).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros boeadii Bateset al, 2007, “Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, South-East Sulawesi(04°22’S, 121°44’E),” Indonesia.Hipposideros boeadiiis the sole member of the boeadiispecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Boeadi @fr | Boeadi-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Boeadi @es | Boeadi's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Bates, 2007","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bates","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2007","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"237","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"boeadii","name":"Hipposideros boeadii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from type locality in SE Sulawesi.","bibliography":"Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Chiozza & Bates (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of lowland rainforest.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Echolocation calls are typical CF, with frequency of maximum energy of the F portion of 116-6 kHz (114-2—118-3 kHz). Duration of F portion is 2-5-4 milliseconds, whereas the duration of the FM tail is of 1-1-5 milliseconds.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known from the single record of seven specimens collected from the type locality.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 16-21 mm, ear 16' 8—18 mm, hindfoot 6'9—8' 7 mm, forearm 40-2-43-1 mm; weight 6-8-8-5 g.Ears of Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat are rounded. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets; inner is short whereas outer reaches midline anteriorly. Tail is very short. Hair is uniformly reddish brown. Rostrum is moderately inflated with slight depression in midline. Anterior and posteromedial rostral chambers are equally inflated. Zygoma is broad and robust.Jugal bone has well-developed dorsal projection. Sagittal crest is well developed anteriorly. C1 is moderately large. P2 is very small and extruded, so C1 and P4 are almost in contact. Dental formula for all members of this genus (except the Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat, Hipposideros megalotis) is 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.","habitat":"Lowland rainforests. The forest where individuals were captured was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge had a high incidence of bamboo and rattan. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat was found in the same area as New GuineaBroad-eared Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus euryotis), SulawesiHorseshoe Bats (AE celebensis), Fawncolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. ceruinus), H. cf. ater, Hardwicke’s Woolly Bats {Kerivoula hardwickii), Papillose Woolly Bats (K. papillosa), Peters’s Trumpet-eared Bats (Phoniscus jagorii), and FloresTube-nosed Bats (Murinaflorium)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20FF899F1F9FC2A4A21.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67CA20FF899F1F9FC2A4A21","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"237","verbatimText":"27.Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros armigerFrench:Phyllorhine de I'Himalaya IGerman:Grosse Himalaya-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de HimalayaOther common names:Great Leaf-nosed Bat, Great Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolphus [sic] armiger Hodgson, 1835, “Nipal [= Nepal].”Hipposideros armigeris in the armigerspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. a. armiger Hodgson, 1835-N India, Nepal, Myanmar, C & S China(including HainanI), and mainland SE Asia except Vietnam.H. a. fujianensis Zhen, 1987-SE China(Fujian).H. a. terasensis Kishida, 1924— TaiwanI.On following pages: 28. Griffin's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosgriffin/}; 29. Pendlebury's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros grandis}; 32. Horsfield's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros larvatus}; 33. Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros maduraesumbae}; 36. Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lylei}; 37. Pratt's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros pratti}; 38. 40. Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema}; 41. Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros dinops}; 42. Crested Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lankadiva}; 45. Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lekaguli}; 46. Peleng Leaf-nosed pendleburyi); 30. Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros turpis}; 31. Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros}; 34. Sorensen's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderossorensenl); 35. Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosShield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros scutinares}; 39. MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros demissus}; Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inexpectatus}; 43. Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inornatus}; 44. Indian Bat (Hipposideros pelingensis}.H. a. traninhensis Bourret, 1942— Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80— 110 mm, tail 48-70 mm, ear 30-35 mm, hindfoot 13-17 mm, forearm 85—103 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat are large and have a pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long, with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, outer one being very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are gready inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations.Food and Feeding.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mostly o leoptera and Hymenoptera, in forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fast in open spaces, perhaps while commuting to and from foraging sites.Breeding.Females were found pregnant from January to early May. Young Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats were seen attached to females in the roost from February to June.Activity patterns.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat often roosts in large numbers in caves. Its echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65—75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c. 10-20 cm from other individuals. It is often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros species, such as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-feced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Hughes eta/. (2010), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Rhinolphus [sic] armiger Hodgson, 1835, “Nipal [= Nepal].”Hipposideros armigeris in the armigerspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de @fr | 'Himalaya @en | Grosse Himalaya-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Himalaya @es | Great Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Great Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1835","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"237","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"armiger","name":"Hipposideros armiger","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. a. armiger Hodgson, 1835-N India, Nepal, Myanmar, C & S China(including HainanI), and mainland SE Asia except Vietnam.H. a. fujianensis Zhen, 1987-SE China(Fujian).H. a. terasensis Kishida, 1924— TaiwanI.On following pages: 28. Griffin's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosgriffin/}; 29. Pendlebury's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros grandis}; 32. Horsfield's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros larvatus}; 33. Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros maduraesumbae}; 36. Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lylei}; 37. Pratt's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros pratti}; 38. 40. Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema}; 41. Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros dinops}; 42. Crested Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lankadiva}; 45. Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lekaguli}; 46. Peleng Leaf-nosed pendleburyi); 30. Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros turpis}; 31. Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros}; 34. Sorensen's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderossorensenl); 35. Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosShield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros scutinares}; 39. MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros demissus}; Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inexpectatus}; 43. Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inornatus}; 44. Indian Bat (Hipposideros pelingensis}.H. a. traninhensis Bourret, 1942— Vietnam.","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Hughes et al. (2010) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mostly o leoptera and Hymenoptera, in forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fast in open spaces, perhaps while commuting to and from foraging sites.","breeding":"Females were found pregnant from January to early May. Young Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats were seen attached to females in the roost from February to June.","activityPatterns":"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat often roosts in large numbers in caves. Its echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65—75 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c. 10-20 cm from other individuals. It is often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros species, such as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-feced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 80— 110 mm, tail 48-70 mm, ear 30-35 mm, hindfoot 13-17 mm, forearm 85—103 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat are large and have a pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long, with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, outer one being very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are gready inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4BF595F4A8407C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67CA20EFF4BF595F4A8407C","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"237","verbatimText":"25.Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros boeadiiFrench:Phyllorhine de Boeadi IGerman:Boeadi-Rundblattnase ISpanish:Hiposidérido de BoeadiOther common names:Boeadi's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros boeadii Bateset al, 2007, “Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, South-East Sulawesi(04°22’S, 121°44’E),” Indonesia.Hipposideros boeadiiis the sole member of the boeadiispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from type locality in SE Sulawesi.Descriptive notes.Tail 16-21 mm, ear 16' 8—18 mm, hindfoot 6'9—8' 7 mm, forearm 40-2-43-1 mm; weight 6-8-8-5 g.Ears of Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat are rounded. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets; inner is short whereas outer reaches midline anteriorly. Tail is very short. Hair is uniformly reddish brown. Rostrum is moderately inflated with slight depression in midline. Anterior and posteromedial rostral chambers are equally inflated. Zygoma is broad and robust.Jugal bone has well-developed dorsal projection. Sagittal crest is well developed anteriorly. C1 is moderately large. P2 is very small and extruded, so C1 and P4 are almost in contact. Dental formula for all members of this genus (except the Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat, Hipposideros megalotis) is 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Lowland rainforests. The forest where individuals were captured was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge had a high incidence of bamboo and rattan. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat was found in the same area as New GuineaBroad-eared Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus euryotis), SulawesiHorseshoe Bats (AE celebensis), Fawncolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. ceruinus), H. cf. ater, Hardwicke’s Woolly Bats {Kerivoula hardwickii), Papillose Woolly Bats (K. papillosa), Peters’s Trumpet-eared Bats (Phoniscus jagorii), and FloresTube-nosed Bats (Murinaflorium).Food and Feeding.Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of lowland rainforest.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Echolocation calls are typical CF, with frequency of maximum energy of the F portion of 116-6 kHz (114-2—118-3 kHz). Duration of F portion is 2-5-4 milliseconds, whereas the duration of the FM tail is of 1-1-5 milliseconds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known from the single record of seven specimens collected from the type locality.Bibliography.Bates, Rossiter eta/. (2007), Chiozza & Bates (2016).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros boeadii Bateset al, 2007, “Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, South-East Sulawesi(04°22’S, 121°44’E),” Indonesia.Hipposideros boeadiiis the sole member of the boeadiispecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Boeadi @fr | Boeadi-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Boeadi @es | Boeadi's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Bates, 2007","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bates","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2007","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"237","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"boeadii","name":"Hipposideros boeadii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from type locality in SE Sulawesi.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749087/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates, Rossiter et al. (2007) | Chiozza & Bates (2016)","foodAndFeeding":"Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects in the understory of lowland rainforest.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Echolocation calls are typical CF, with frequency of maximum energy of the F portion of 116-6 kHz (114-2—118-3 kHz). Duration of F portion is 2-5-4 milliseconds, whereas the duration of the FM tail is of 1-1-5 milliseconds.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat is a very poorly known species, known from the single record of seven specimens collected from the type locality.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 16-21 mm, ear 16' 8—18 mm, hindfoot 6'9—8' 7 mm, forearm 40-2-43-1 mm; weight 6-8-8-5 g.Ears of Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat are rounded. Noseleaf has two supplementary leaflets; inner is short whereas outer reaches midline anteriorly. Tail is very short. Hair is uniformly reddish brown. Rostrum is moderately inflated with slight depression in midline. Anterior and posteromedial rostral chambers are equally inflated. Zygoma is broad and robust.Jugal bone has well-developed dorsal projection. Sagittal crest is well developed anteriorly. C1 is moderately large. P2 is very small and extruded, so C1 and P4 are almost in contact. Dental formula for all members of this genus (except the Largeeared Leaf-nosed Bat, Hipposideros megalotis) is 11/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.","habitat":"Lowland rainforests. The forest where individuals were captured was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge had a high incidence of bamboo and rattan. Boeadi’s Leaf-nosed Bat was found in the same area as New GuineaBroad-eared Horseshoe Bats {Rhinolophus euryotis), SulawesiHorseshoe Bats (AE celebensis), Fawncolored Leaf-nosed Bats {H. ceruinus), H. cf. ater, Hardwicke’s Woolly Bats {Kerivoula hardwickii), Papillose Woolly Bats (K. papillosa), Peters’s Trumpet-eared Bats (Phoniscus jagorii), and FloresTube-nosed Bats (Murinaflorium)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67CA20FF899F1F9FC2A4A21.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67CA20FF899F1F9FC2A4A21","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"237","verbatimText":"27.Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros armigerFrench:Phyllorhine de I'Himalaya IGerman:Grosse Himalaya-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de HimalayaOther common names:Great Leaf-nosed Bat, Great Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Rhinolphus [sic] armiger Hodgson, 1835, “Nipal [= Nepal].”Hipposideros armigeris in the armigerspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H. a. armiger Hodgson, 1835-N India, Nepal, Myanmar, C & S China(including HainanI), and mainland SE Asia except Vietnam.H. a. fujianensis Zhen, 1987-SE China(Fujian).H. a. terasensis Kishida, 1924— TaiwanI.On following pages: 28. Griffin's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosgriffin/}; 29. Pendlebury's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros grandis}; 32. Horsfield's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros larvatus}; 33. Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros maduraesumbae}; 36. Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lylei}; 37. Pratt's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros pratti}; 38. 40. Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema}; 41. Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros dinops}; 42. Crested Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lankadiva}; 45. Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lekaguli}; 46. Peleng Leaf-nosed pendleburyi); 30. Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros turpis}; 31. Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros}; 34. Sorensen's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderossorensenl); 35. Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosShield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros scutinares}; 39. MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros demissus}; Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inexpectatus}; 43. Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inornatus}; 44. Indian Bat (Hipposideros pelingensis}.H. a. traninhensis Bourret, 1942— Vietnam.Descriptive notes.Head—body 80— 110 mm, tail 48-70 mm, ear 30-35 mm, hindfoot 13-17 mm, forearm 85—103 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat are large and have a pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long, with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, outer one being very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are gready inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations.Food and Feeding.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mostly o leoptera and Hymenoptera, in forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fast in open spaces, perhaps while commuting to and from foraging sites.Breeding.Females were found pregnant from January to early May. Young Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats were seen attached to females in the roost from February to June.Activity patterns.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat often roosts in large numbers in caves. Its echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65—75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c. 10-20 cm from other individuals. It is often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros species, such as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-feced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Hughes eta/. (2010), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Rhinolphus [sic] armiger Hodgson, 1835, “Nipal [= Nepal].”Hipposideros armigeris in the armigerspecies group. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de @fr | 'Himalaya @en | Grosse Himalaya-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Himalaya @es | Great Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Great Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1835","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"237","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"armiger","name":"Hipposideros armiger","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H. a. armiger Hodgson, 1835-N India, Nepal, Myanmar, C & S China(including HainanI), and mainland SE Asia except Vietnam.H. a. fujianensis Zhen, 1987-SE China(Fujian).H. a. terasensis Kishida, 1924— TaiwanI.On following pages: 28. Griffin's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosgriffin/}; 29. Pendlebury's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros grandis}; 32. Horsfield's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros larvatus}; 33. Maduran Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros maduraesumbae}; 36. Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lylei}; 37. Pratt's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros pratti}; 38. 40. Diadem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema}; 41. Fierce Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros dinops}; 42. Crested Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lankadiva}; 45. Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lekaguli}; 46. Peleng Leaf-nosed pendleburyi); 30. Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros turpis}; 31. Grand Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros}; 34. Sorensen's Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderossorensenl); 35. Sumban Leaf-nosed Bat (HipposiderosShield-nosed Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros scutinares}; 39. MakiraLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros demissus}; Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inexpectatus}; 43. Arnhem Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros inornatus}; 44. Indian Bat (Hipposideros pelingensis}.H. a. traninhensis Bourret, 1942— Vietnam.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6470379/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis & Csorba (2008) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Hughes et al. (2010) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mostly o leoptera and Hymenoptera, in forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fast in open spaces, perhaps while commuting to and from foraging sites.","breeding":"Females were found pregnant from January to early May. Young Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bats were seen attached to females in the roost from February to June.","activityPatterns":"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat often roosts in large numbers in caves. Its echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65—75 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c. 10-20 cm from other individuals. It is often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros species, such as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (H. diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-feced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 80— 110 mm, tail 48-70 mm, ear 30-35 mm, hindfoot 13-17 mm, forearm 85—103 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of the Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat are large and have a pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long, with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, outer one being very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are gready inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 is small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"The Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67DA208F885F482FD224729.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67DA208F885F482FD224729","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"238","verbatimText":"30.Lesser Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros turpisFrench:Phyllorhine des Ryukyu IGerman:Ryukyu-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de RyukyuOther common names:Lesser Great Leaf-nosed Bat, Lesser Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros turpis Bangs, 1901, “Ishigaki Island, southern group of Liu Kiu Islands,’’ Japan.Hipposideros turpisis in the armigerspecies group. This species was traditionally considered to include three subspecies, turpis, alongensis, and pendleburyi. Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated that all three were distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to Japan, known only from Yaeyama Is (Yonaguni, Iriomote, Ishigaki, and Hateruma).Descriptive notes.Head-body 69-88 mm, tail 42-51 mm, ear 26-5-28 mm, hindfoot 13-4— 18 mm, forearm 64—73-2 mm; weight 25—33-2 g. The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat presents an anterior noseleaf narrowed in mid part, with three depressions on its anterior border. As in the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat (H. alongensis), it presents four pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets, second pair being most developed. Intermediate leaf is attached with inflated intemarial septum. Posterior leaf is narrower than intermediate, and presents four noticeable cells on frontal surface, separated by three vertical septa. Dorsal fur is brownish reddish, ventral fur is paler. Baculum is short and inverted-Y-shaped.Habitat.The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is known to inhabit limestone caves, unused mines and even air-raid shelters in the Yaeyama Islands.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based mainly on insects.Breeding.Female Lesser Leaf-nosed Bats give birth from mid-May to midJune, depending on the temperature and climatic conditions between February and May. The mating period occurs some weeks after the birth of the previous offspring.Activity patterns.Call frequency ranges at 77-4-83-6 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is normally gregarious, forming large colonies of up to 10,000 individuals..Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, when the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat was still thought to comprise three subspecies. No assessments of their conservation status have yet been carried out since the three subspecies were reclassified as distinct species. As this species was initially listed as Near Threatened, the current status should be, at least, within the same category, although its more restricted range probably suggests a more precarious status. The main threat to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat might be disturbance of caves and other roosts. It has been reported that on Iriomote Island, the principal breeding colonies have been visited by people for several years; in addition, this species is also threatened by forest clearance, wood extraction and the expansion of agricultural lands. Strong declines have been reported on other islands of the archipelago. Collection of new data and further research are needed to understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.Bibliography Abe et al. (2005), Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a), Ohdachi et al. (2009), Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros turpis Bangs, 1901, “Ishigaki Island, southern group of Liu Kiu Islands,’’ Japan.Hipposideros turpisis in the armigerspecies group. This species was traditionally considered to include three subspecies, turpis, alongensis, and pendleburyi. Thong Vu Dinh and colleagues in 2012 demonstrated that all three were distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine des Ryukyu @fr | Ryukyu-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Ryukyu @es | Lesser Great Leaf-nosed Bat @en | Lesser Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bangs","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1901","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"238","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"turpis","name":"Hipposideros turpis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to Japan, known only from Yaeyama Is (Yonaguni, Iriomote, Ishigaki, and Hateruma).","bibliography":"Abe et al. (2005) | Csorba, Bates & Furey (2008a) | Ohdachi et al. (2009) | Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Bates et al. (2012)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is probably based mainly on insects.","breeding":"Female Lesser Leaf-nosed Bats give birth from mid-May to midJune, depending on the temperature and climatic conditions between February and May. The mating period occurs some weeks after the birth of the previous offspring.","activityPatterns":"Call frequency ranges at 77-4-83-6 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is normally gregarious, forming large colonies of up to 10,000 individuals..","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List, when the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat was still thought to comprise three subspecies. No assessments of their conservation status have yet been carried out since the three subspecies were reclassified as distinct species. As this species was initially listed as Near Threatened, the current status should be, at least, within the same category, although its more restricted range probably suggests a more precarious status. The main threat to the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat might be disturbance of caves and other roosts. It has been reported that on Iriomote Island, the principal breeding colonies have been visited by people for several years; in addition, this species is also threatened by forest clearance, wood extraction and the expansion of agricultural lands. Strong declines have been reported on other islands of the archipelago. Collection of new data and further research are needed to understand the population distribution and ecology of this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 69-88 mm, tail 42-51 mm, ear 26-5-28 mm, hindfoot 13-4— 18 mm, forearm 64—73-2 mm; weight 25—33-2 g. The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat presents an anterior noseleaf narrowed in mid part, with three depressions on its anterior border. As in the Ha Long Leaf-nosed Bat (H. alongensis), it presents four pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets, second pair being most developed. Intermediate leaf is attached with inflated intemarial septum. Posterior leaf is narrower than intermediate, and presents four noticeable cells on frontal surface, separated by three vertical septa. Dorsal fur is brownish reddish, ventral fur is paler. Baculum is short and inverted-Y-shaped.","habitat":"The Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat is known to inhabit limestone caves, unused mines and even air-raid shelters in the Yaeyama Islands."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67DA20FF87DFECAF79849EC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67DA20FF87DFECAF79849EC","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"238","verbatimText":"29.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros pendleburyiFrench:Phyllorhine de Pendlebury/ German:Pendlebury-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de PendleburyOther common names:Pendlebury’s Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Hipposideros pendleburyi Chasen, 1936, “cave near the foot of Khao Ram, Nakon Sri Tamarat, Peninsular Siam[= Thailand].”Hipposideros pendleburyiis in the armigerspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Peninsular Thailand.Descriptive notes.Tail 48-70 mm, ear 30—35 mm, forearm 75—81 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat re large with pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, with outer one very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are greatly inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact.Habitat.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations.Food and Feeding.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, in the forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fest in open spaces, possibly commuting to and from foraging sites.Breeding.Females were found pregnant fromJanuary to early May. Young were sighted attached to females in the roost from February to June.Activity patterns.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, often in large numbers. Echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65-75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c.10-20 cm from other individuals. They are often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros speciessuch as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (Ä diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).Status and Conservation.Notassessed on The IUCNRed List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Puechmaille et a/. (2009), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Hipposideros pendleburyi Chasen, 1936, “cave near the foot of Khao Ram, Nakon Sri Tamarat, Peninsular Siam[= Thailand].”Hipposideros pendleburyiis in the armigerspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Pendlebury @fr | Pendlebury-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Pendlebury @es | Pendlebury’s Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Chasen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1936","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"238","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pendleburyi","name":"Hipposideros pendleburyi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Peninsular Thailand.","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Puechmaille et a/. (2009) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat feeds on insects, mosdy Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, in the forest understory and around trees. It sometimes flies high and fest in open spaces, possibly commuting to and from foraging sites.","breeding":"Females were found pregnant fromJanuary to early May. Young were sighted attached to females in the roost from February to June.","activityPatterns":"Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves, often in large numbers. Echolocation calls are typical F components terminating with a FM tail, with the frequency of the F part of 65-75 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat forms small to very large colonies in caves. Each individual usually has a roosting space of c.10-20 cm from other individuals. They are often found in mixed colonies with other large Hipposideros speciessuch as Diadem Leaf-nosed Bats (Ä diadema), Large Asian Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lekaguli), or Shield-faced Leaf-nosed Bats (H. lylei).","statusAndConservation":"Notassessed on The IUCNRed List as a separate species from the Lesser Leaf-nosed Bat (H. turpis), which is classified as Near Threatened. Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat is widespread and rather common in cave habitats. It has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.","descriptiveNotes":"Tail 48-70 mm, ear 30—35 mm, forearm 75—81 mm; weight 44-67 g. Males are usually larger than females. Ears of Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat re large with pointed tip. Hair is long and soft, and dark brown. Tail is long with tip free from interfemoral membrane. Noseleaf is rather small and does not cover muzzle. There are four supplementary leaflets, with outer one very small. Intermediate leaf is thick and swollen. Posterior leaf is thick but narrower than anterior leaf. Adult males have a thick, swollen structure behind posterior leaf. Skull is large with well-developed sagittal crest. Rostrum and supraorbital region are greatly inflated. C1 and j are heavily built. P2 small and extruded from tooth row, so that C1 and P4 are in contact.","habitat":"Pendlebury’s Leaf-nosed Bat forages in primary and disturbed forests, seeking its food in the forest itself or in other vegetation near caves. It is also recorded in orchards and rubber plantations."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67DA20FFF31F64EFB1C5151.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67DA20FFF31F64EFB1C5151","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"238","verbatimText":"28.Griffin’s Leaf-nosed BatHipposideros griffiniFrench:Phyllorhine de Griffin/ German:Griffin-Rundblattnase/ Spanish:Hiposidérido de GriffinOther common names:Griffin's Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.HipposiderosgriffiniThong et aL, 2012, “Cat Ba National Park, Cat Ba Island, Ha Long Bay, Vietnam, 20°48’N, 107°0TE, 248 mabove sea level (m a.s.l.).”Hipposideros griffiniis in the armigerspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.NE & C Vietnam, known only from Cat Ba I, Ha Long Bay (Haiphong Province) and Chu Mom Ray National Park (Kon Turn Province).Descriptive notes.Ear 27-5-30 mm, hindfoot 14-1-15-8 mm, forearm 83-3-90 mm; weight 44 g. Pelage of Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat is brownish or grayish, being darker on dorsum than on ventral area; on each hair, distal part is also darker than basal portion. This species presents four pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Second pair of leaflets is longest and widest. Fourth pair of leaflets is shortest and least pronounced, whereas posterior part of third leaflet is merged with an excrescence. Upper edge of posterior leaf is cusp-shaped. Ears are triangular and tail is long. Males present a noticeable excrescence and a sexual sac, which become more pronounced during breeding season.Habitat.Both primary and degraded forest. Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in karstic mountain areas, as well as in lowlands.Food and Feeding.Foraging behavior and diet are still unknown for Griffin’s Leafnosed Bat, but it probably forages in primary as well as disturbed forests; its diet may be based on insects.Breeding.One young was captured in June. Males have been reported breeding in August at Chu Mom Ray National Park.Activity patterns.Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported roosting in rock piles, crevices, caves, old mines, and hollow trees. Echolocation call frequency is c.76-6— 79-2 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts alone or in pairs.Status and Conservation.Notassessed on 7%e IUCNRed List due to its recent recognition as a species. More research on the ecology and population size and trends of Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat is needed to permit the establishment of adequate conservation and management measures.Bibliography.Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Dietz et al. (2012)","taxonomy":"HipposiderosgriffiniThong et aL, 2012, “Cat Ba National Park, Cat Ba Island, Ha Long Bay, Vietnam, 20°48’N, 107°0TE, 248 mabove sea level (m a.s.l.).”Hipposideros griffiniis in the armigerspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Griffin @fr | Griffin-Rundblattnase @de | Hiposidérido de Griffin @es | Griffin's Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thong, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Dietz, Csorba, Bates, Teeling & Schnitzler","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2012","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Hipposideros","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"238","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"griffini","name":"Hipposideros griffini","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE & C Vietnam, known only from Cat Ba I, Ha Long Bay (Haiphong Province) and Chu Mom Ray National Park (Kon Turn Province).","bibliography":"Thong Vu Dinh, Puechmaille, Denzinger, Dietz et al. (2012)","foodAndFeeding":"Foraging behavior and diet are still unknown for Griffin’s Leafnosed Bat, but it probably forages in primary as well as disturbed forests; its diet may be based on insects.","breeding":"One young was captured in June. Males have been reported breeding in August at Chu Mom Ray National Park.","activityPatterns":"Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported roosting in rock piles, crevices, caves, old mines, and hollow trees. Echolocation call frequency is c.76-6— 79-2 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat roosts alone or in pairs.","statusAndConservation":"Notassessed on 7%e IUCNRed List due to its recent recognition as a species. More research on the ecology and population size and trends of Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat is needed to permit the establishment of adequate conservation and management measures.","descriptiveNotes":"Ear 27-5-30 mm, hindfoot 14-1-15-8 mm, forearm 83-3-90 mm; weight 44 g. Pelage of Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat is brownish or grayish, being darker on dorsum than on ventral area; on each hair, distal part is also darker than basal portion. This species presents four pairs of supplementary lateral leaflets. Second pair of leaflets is longest and widest. Fourth pair of leaflets is shortest and least pronounced, whereas posterior part of third leaflet is merged with an excrescence. Upper edge of posterior leaf is cusp-shaped. Ears are triangular and tail is long. Males present a noticeable excrescence and a sexual sac, which become more pronounced during breeding season.","habitat":"Both primary and degraded forest. Griffin’s Leaf-nosed Bat has been reported in karstic mountain areas, as well as in lowlands."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67EA20CF8A3F817F2CE4DB8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67EA20CF8A3F817F2CE4DB8","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"235","verbatimText":"23.Solomons Leaf-nosed BatAnthops omatusFrench:Anthopse des Salomen/ German:Blumennasenfledermaus/ Spanish:Anthops de SalomonOther common names:lower-faced BatTaxonomy.Anthops omatus Thomas, 1888, “Aola, Guadalcanar [= GuadalcanalIsland], Solomon Islands.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Solomon Is (Buka, Bougainville, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, Florida, and Guadacanal).Descriptive notes.Head—body 46-6— 61 mm, tail 3-6-5 mm, ear 16-5-22 mm, hindfoot 9-5— 11 mm, forearm 48—53 mm; weight 8 g. The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat has complex noseleaf with two supplementary leaflets and tridentate margin in posterior leaf, which is composed of three projections that rise, forming spherical cups. Tail is short, not reaching half of external border of membrane. On dorsum, base of pelage is black turning to silver and finishing again with black; fur of ventral part is also black-based changing to silver. Dental formula is I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.Habitat.Reported in primary lowland tropical forest as well as around human villages, flying close to buildings and houses. It can occur from sea level up to 200 m.Food and Feeding.The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be a foliage-gleaning insectivore.Breeding.Females probably give birth around November, as a female with a neonate was captured in this month.Activity patterns.The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat has not yet been encountered roosting in caves, and may be a tree-dweller. Echolocation call frequency is c.75 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. Population size and trends of the Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat are not yet known. Even so, there is probably not a strong fragmentation of its population. There seem to be no major threats to this species, although it might be increasingly affected by habitat loss. More research is needed to assess and study its population status and ecology.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Collen (2012), Hamilton (2008a), Lavery eta/. (2013), Miller (1907).","taxonomy":"Anthops omatus Thomas, 1888, “Aola, Guadalcanar [= GuadalcanalIsland], Solomon Islands.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Anthopse des Salomen @fr | Blumennasenfledermaus @de | Anthops de Salomon @es | lower-faced Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1888","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Anthops","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"235","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"omatus","name":"Anthops omatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Solomon Is (Buka, Bougainville, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, Florida, and Guadacanal).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749083/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonaccorso (1998) | Collen (2012) | Hamilton (2008a) | Lavery et al. (2013) | Miller (1907)","foodAndFeeding":"The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat is thought to be a foliage-gleaning insectivore.","breeding":"Females probably give birth around November, as a female with a neonate was captured in this month.","activityPatterns":"The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat has not yet been encountered roosting in caves, and may be a tree-dweller. Echolocation call frequency is c.75 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List. Population size and trends of the Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat are not yet known. Even so, there is probably not a strong fragmentation of its population. There seem to be no major threats to this species, although it might be increasingly affected by habitat loss. More research is needed to assess and study its population status and ecology.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 46-6— 61 mm, tail 3-6-5 mm, ear 16-5-22 mm, hindfoot 9-5— 11 mm, forearm 48—53 mm; weight 8 g. The Solomons Leaf-nosed Bat has complex noseleaf with two supplementary leaflets and tridentate margin in posterior leaf, which is composed of three projections that rise, forming spherical cups. Tail is short, not reaching half of external border of membrane. On dorsum, base of pelage is black turning to silver and finishing again with black; fur of ventral part is also black-based changing to silver. Dental formula is I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30.","habitat":"Reported in primary lowland tropical forest as well as around human villages, flying close to buildings and houses. It can occur from sea level up to 200 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5BFDBBFB7848A4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5BFDBBFB7848A4","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"235","verbatimText":"21.East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosedBat Coelops frithiiFrench:Phyllorhine de rith/ German:Ostasiatische Schwanzlose Blattnase/ Spanish:Coelopsde rithOther common names:East Asian Tailless Roundleaf Bat, Tailless Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Coelops jrithii Blyth, 1848, “Soonderbuns [= Sunderbans] of Lower Bengal,” India.Taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as diagnostic and geographical limits of each taxon are still unclear. Five subspecies are currendy recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. f. jrithii Blyth, 1848-NE India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and possibly N Thailand. C. f. bemsteini Peters, 1862— Sumatra, Java, and Bali.C.f. formosanus Horikawa, 1928— TaiwanI.C. f. inflatus G. S. Miller, 1928-SE & S China(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.C. f. sinicus G. M. Allen, 1928— C China(Sichuan) Specimens from Malay Peninsula are not yet assigned to any subspecies.Descriptive notes.Head—body 38-50 mm, forearm 34 44 mm; weight 3-7 g. Ears of the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat are very large and rounded with antitragus at base. Noseleaf is distinct, with a large anterior leaf that covers muzzle, and divided by deep median emargination. There are two well developed supplementary lappets, rounded and elongated, projecting forwards under anterior leaf and extending beyond muzzle. Intermediate leaf possesses moderately developed median process. Pelage is long and soft, dark gray, or brown to chestnut-brown on dorsal side; ventral side is paler, brownish or ashy gray. Tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small; braincase is bulbous. In contrast to Hipposideros species, rostral swellings are flattened. Zygoma is without dorsal process. C1 is large, with well-developed posterior cusp. P2 is small and lies within the tooth row. Baculum is very small, with a bilobed base and slightly expanded tip. Dental formula for all members of Coelopsis I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Associated with forest habitats. Recorded from sea level up to 1370 m.Food and Feeding.The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous. Its highfrequency echolocation suggests that its prey is probably small insects, captured within cluttered space of forest habitats; prey also captured very close to water surface.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollow trees. Echolocation is of very high frequency, 350 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies of 16 individuals or less.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on T/ie IUCN Red List. The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively widespread species but rather rare.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Molur (2008), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Coelops jrithii Blyth, 1848, “Soonderbuns [= Sunderbans] of Lower Bengal,” India.Taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as diagnostic and geographical limits of each taxon are still unclear. Five subspecies are currendy recognized.","commonNames":"East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat Coelops frithii @en | Phyllorhine de rith @fr | Ostasiatische Schwanzlose Blattnase @de | Coelopsde rith @es | East Asian Tailless Roundleaf Bat @en | Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blyth","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1848","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Coelops","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"235","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"frithii","name":"Coelops frithii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. f. jrithii Blyth, 1848-NE India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and possibly N Thailand. C. f. bemsteini Peters, 1862— Sumatra, Java, and Bali.C.f. formosanus Horikawa, 1928— TaiwanI.C. f. inflatus G. S. Miller, 1928-SE & S China(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.C. f. sinicus G. M. Allen, 1928— C China(Sichuan) Specimens from Malay Peninsula are not yet assigned to any subspecies.","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Molur (2008) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous. Its highfrequency echolocation suggests that its prey is probably small insects, captured within cluttered space of forest habitats; prey also captured very close to water surface.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollow trees. Echolocation is of very high frequency, 350 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies of 16 individuals or less.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on T/ie IUCN Red List. The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively widespread species but rather rare.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 38-50 mm, forearm 34 44 mm; weight 3-7 g. Ears of the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat are very large and rounded with antitragus at base. Noseleaf is distinct, with a large anterior leaf that covers muzzle, and divided by deep median emargination. There are two well developed supplementary lappets, rounded and elongated, projecting forwards under anterior leaf and extending beyond muzzle. Intermediate leaf possesses moderately developed median process. Pelage is long and soft, dark gray, or brown to chestnut-brown on dorsal side; ventral side is paler, brownish or ashy gray. Tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small; braincase is bulbous. In contrast to Hipposideros species, rostral swellings are flattened. Zygoma is without dorsal process. C1 is large, with well-developed posterior cusp. P2 is small and lies within the tooth row. Baculum is very small, with a bilobed base and slightly expanded tip. Dental formula for all members of Coelopsis I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Associated with forest habitats. Recorded from sea level up to 1370 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5BFDBBFB7848A4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5BFDBBFB7848A4","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"235","verbatimText":"21.East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosedBat Coelops frithiiFrench:Phyllorhine de rith/ German:Ostasiatische Schwanzlose Blattnase/ Spanish:Coelopsde rithOther common names:East Asian Tailless Roundleaf Bat, Tailless Leaf-nosed BatTaxonomy.Coelops jrithii Blyth, 1848, “Soonderbuns [= Sunderbans] of Lower Bengal,” India.Taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as diagnostic and geographical limits of each taxon are still unclear. Five subspecies are currendy recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. f. jrithii Blyth, 1848-NE India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and possibly N Thailand. C. f. bemsteini Peters, 1862— Sumatra, Java, and Bali.C.f. formosanus Horikawa, 1928— TaiwanI.C. f. inflatus G. S. Miller, 1928-SE & S China(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.C. f. sinicus G. M. Allen, 1928— C China(Sichuan) Specimens from Malay Peninsula are not yet assigned to any subspecies.Descriptive notes.Head—body 38-50 mm, forearm 34 44 mm; weight 3-7 g. Ears of the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat are very large and rounded with antitragus at base. Noseleaf is distinct, with a large anterior leaf that covers muzzle, and divided by deep median emargination. There are two well developed supplementary lappets, rounded and elongated, projecting forwards under anterior leaf and extending beyond muzzle. Intermediate leaf possesses moderately developed median process. Pelage is long and soft, dark gray, or brown to chestnut-brown on dorsal side; ventral side is paler, brownish or ashy gray. Tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small; braincase is bulbous. In contrast to Hipposideros species, rostral swellings are flattened. Zygoma is without dorsal process. C1 is large, with well-developed posterior cusp. P2 is small and lies within the tooth row. Baculum is very small, with a bilobed base and slightly expanded tip. Dental formula for all members of Coelopsis I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Associated with forest habitats. Recorded from sea level up to 1370 m.Food and Feeding.The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous. Its highfrequency echolocation suggests that its prey is probably small insects, captured within cluttered space of forest habitats; prey also captured very close to water surface.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollow trees. Echolocation is of very high frequency, 350 kHz.Movements, Home range and Social organization.East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies of 16 individuals or less.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on T/ie IUCN Red List. The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively widespread species but rather rare.Bibliography.Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Molur (2008), Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998), Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Coelops jrithii Blyth, 1848, “Soonderbuns [= Sunderbans] of Lower Bengal,” India.Taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as diagnostic and geographical limits of each taxon are still unclear. Five subspecies are currendy recognized.","commonNames":"East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat Coelops frithii @en | Phyllorhine de rith @fr | Ostasiatische Schwanzlose Blattnase @de | Coelopsde rith @es | East Asian Tailless Roundleaf Bat @en | Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Blyth","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1848","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Coelops","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"235","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"frithii","name":"Coelops frithii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. f. jrithii Blyth, 1848-NE India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and possibly N Thailand. C. f. bemsteini Peters, 1862— Sumatra, Java, and Bali.C.f. formosanus Horikawa, 1928— TaiwanI.C. f. inflatus G. S. Miller, 1928-SE & S China(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and HainanI), Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.C. f. sinicus G. M. Allen, 1928— C China(Sichuan) Specimens from Malay Peninsula are not yet assigned to any subspecies.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749079/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates, Bumrungsri, Francis, Csorba & Molur (2008) | Bogdanowicz & Owen (1998) | Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is insectivorous. Its highfrequency echolocation suggests that its prey is probably small insects, captured within cluttered space of forest habitats; prey also captured very close to water surface.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollow trees. Echolocation is of very high frequency, 350 kHz.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bats are known to roost in small colonies of 16 individuals or less.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on T/ie IUCN Red List. The East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is a relatively widespread species but rather rare.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 38-50 mm, forearm 34 44 mm; weight 3-7 g. Ears of the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat are very large and rounded with antitragus at base. Noseleaf is distinct, with a large anterior leaf that covers muzzle, and divided by deep median emargination. There are two well developed supplementary lappets, rounded and elongated, projecting forwards under anterior leaf and extending beyond muzzle. Intermediate leaf possesses moderately developed median process. Pelage is long and soft, dark gray, or brown to chestnut-brown on dorsal side; ventral side is paler, brownish or ashy gray. Tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small; braincase is bulbous. In contrast to Hipposideros species, rostral swellings are flattened. Zygoma is without dorsal process. C1 is large, with well-developed posterior cusp. P2 is small and lies within the tooth row. Baculum is very small, with a bilobed base and slightly expanded tip. Dental formula for all members of Coelopsis I 1/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 30. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Associated with forest habitats. Recorded from sea level up to 1370 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/BD/87/03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5DF3D4F7BA4553.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03BD87A2C67EA20CFF5DF3D4F7BA4553","docName":"hbmw_9_Hipposideridae_210.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ff84ffdac676a204fff8ff9affef4346","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"235","verbatimText":"22.Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed BatCoelops robinsoniFrench:Phyllorhine de Robinson/ German:Malaiische Schwanzlose Blattnase/ Spanish:Coelops de RobinsonOther common names:Malayan Tailless Roundleaf BatTaxonomy.Coelops robinsoni Bonhote, 1908, “Gunong [= Mount] Tahan at 500 ft.[= 152 m], Pahang,”Peninsular Malaysia.The taxon hirsutus of the Philippinesmay prove to be a distinct species but revision is required. Monotypic.Distribution.Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao I), Borneo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 32-34 mm, ear 12-14 mm, forearm 34—37 mm; weight 3-5— 5 g. The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is similar to the East Asian Tailless Leafnosed Bat (C. frithii), but smaller. Anterior leaf is round and wide, with deep median emargination dividing anterior leaf into two lobes. Supplementary lappets under anterior leaf are well developed, wide and rounded, and project forward covering muzzle. Pelage is long and soft, brown to dark brown on dorsal side, and brown or slightly gray on ventral side. As in the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat, tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small with bulbous braincase. Rostral part is abruptly elevated. Upper tooth rows are almost parallel.Habitat.Primary and secondary forestFood and Feeding.The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest understory.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollows of large trees.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is rather rare and poorly known. The species is probably affected by deforestation in many parts of its range due to logging, expanding agriculture, and plantations and fire. Population is currently declining due to widescale deforestation within its range.Bibliography.Corbet & Hill (1992), Francis (2008a), Heaney (2008), Lekagul & McNeely (1988), Miller (1910), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Coelops robinsoni Bonhote, 1908, “Gunong [= Mount] Tahan at 500 ft.[= 152 m], Pahang,”Peninsular Malaysia.The taxon hirsutus of the Philippinesmay prove to be a distinct species but revision is required. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Phyllorhine de Robinson @fr | Malaiische Schwanzlose Blattnase @de | Coelops de Robinson @es | Malayan Tailless Roundleaf Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bonhote","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Hipposideridae","interpretedGenus":"Coelops","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"235","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"robinsoni","name":"Coelops robinsoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Malay Peninsula (including Tarutao I), Borneo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3749081/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Corbet & Hill (1992) | Francis (2008a) | Heaney (2008) | Lekagul & McNeely (1988) | Miller (1910) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat forages in forest understory.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat roosts in caves or hollows of large trees.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is rather rare and poorly known. The species is probably affected by deforestation in many parts of its range due to logging, expanding agriculture, and plantations and fire. Population is currently declining due to widescale deforestation within its range.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 32-34 mm, ear 12-14 mm, forearm 34—37 mm; weight 3-5— 5 g. The Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat is similar to the East Asian Tailless Leafnosed Bat (C. frithii), but smaller. Anterior leaf is round and wide, with deep median emargination dividing anterior leaf into two lobes. Supplementary lappets under anterior leaf are well developed, wide and rounded, and project forward covering muzzle. Pelage is long and soft, brown to dark brown on dorsal side, and brown or slightly gray on ventral side. As in the East Asian Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat, tail and interfemoral membrane are poorly developed. Skull is small with bulbous braincase. Rostral part is abruptly elevated. Upper tooth rows are almost parallel.","habitat":"Primary and secondary forest"} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1608004DF19285BFD68F44F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C08797A1608004DF19285BFD68F44F","docName":"hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"277","verbatimText":"1.Beecroft’s AnomalureAnomalurus beecroftyFrench:Anomalure de Beecroft/ German:Beecroft-Dornschwanzérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro de BeecroftOther common names:Beecroft's Flying Squirrel, Beecroft's Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Beecroft's Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Anomalurus beecrofti Fraser, 1853, “Fernando Po” (Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, West Africa).Some authors have placed A. beecroftiin the genus Anomalurops, named by P. Matschie in 1914, by itself due to various skull characteristics. Three subspecies have been recognized including beecroftifrom Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, named by L. Fraser in 1853; argenteus from Senegal to Cameroon, named by H. Schwann in 1904; and fulgensfrom Gabon, named by J. E. Gray in 1869. These subspecies typically are not recognized in recent publications. Monotypic.Distribution.Widely distributed in W & C Africa, from Senegal to Gabon, E DR Congo and Bioko I, also isolated records in NW Angola, NW Zambia, and W Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head—body 250-310 mm, tail 160-260 mm; weight 640-660 g. Beecroft’s Anomalureis large and similar in appearance to the smaller Lesser Anomalure (A. pusillus), which has relatively uniform dorsal fur and black-tipped tail. Lord Derby’s Anomalure (A. derbianus) is also similar to Beecroft’s Anomalure, but it has black or brown eye mask, muzzle, and area surrounding ears. Dorsal pelage of Beecroft’s Anomalure is thick, fleecy, and lightly waved; fur at base of tail is smooth-haired, with a slight terminal tuft. Ventral region and underside of gliding membrane are well furred. Color varies considerably but most commonly is silver-gray on back, with a central stripe of golden brown from neck over larger part of back. Ventral side is basically grayish or yellowish; throat and chest are orange. Color variation can be defined by extent of golden brown stripe on back and amount of orange on ventral side. Beecroft’s Anomalure often has a white spot on its forehead but does not have a dark mask around eyes. Tail is narrower than in other species of anomalures and has up to nine pairs of scales on its underside at its base.Habitat.Tropical moist forest and dry forests, preferring swamp forests and areas with abundant palms. Beecroft’s Anomalures are also commonly found in disturbed forest such as cultivated groves of African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). They occur from sea level to elevations of 2500 m.Food and Feeding.Beecroft’s Anomalures eat leaves, bark, and fruit from a variety of trees and occasionally insects. They feed on pulp offruit of the African oil palm, which they manage to access despite the protection of short spines.Breeding.Young Beecroft’s Anomalures are born singly and are carried by their mothers when they are small. There appears to be a prolonged breeding season at the end of the wet season. One pregnant female was captured in July in Cameroon; two females, each with one young, were obtained in early October and late January.Activity patterns.Beecroft’s Anomalures are nocturnal, and during the day, they rest in tree holes located in upper strata or hide among leaves and twigs that form densecongregations. They may also rest in junctions between palm fronds, or cling to sheltered undersides of major tree branches close to the trunk, where their mottled coat helps to camouflage them away from predators. A jaw fragment of Beecroft’s Anomalures was found in a Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) fecal sample in the Tenkere area in Sierra Leone. Other likely predators include crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), long-tailed hawks (Urotriorchis macrourus), and pythons (Pythonidae).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Beecroft’s Anomalures are typically found alone, which suggest they are solitary. The only record of a vocalization is something between a hoot and a whistle.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Beecroft’s Anomalures are difficult to observe, they appear be relatively common in suitable habitats but may be declining locally in some areas.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. & Coolidge (1930), Allen, J.A. (1922), Alp & Kitchener (1993), Bates (1905), Dekeyser & Villiers (1951), Delany (1975), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Fraser (1853), Gray (1869), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Happold (1987), Jackson (2012), Jackson &Thorington (2012), Kingdon (1997, 2013b), Matschie (1914), Rosevear (1969), Sanderson (1940), Schunke (2005), Schwann (1904).","taxonomy":"Anomalurus beecrofti Fraser, 1853, “Fernando Po” (Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, West Africa).Some authors have placed A. beecroftiin the genus Anomalurops, named by P. Matschie in 1914, by itself due to various skull characteristics. Three subspecies have been recognized including beecroftifrom Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, named by L. Fraser in 1853; argenteus from Senegal to Cameroon, named by H. Schwann in 1904; and fulgensfrom Gabon, named by J. E. Gray in 1869. These subspecies typically are not recognized in recent publications. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Anomalure de Beecroft @fr | Beecroft-Dornschwanzérnchen @de | Anomaluro de Beecroft @es | Beecroft's Flying Squirrel @en | Beecroft's Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Beecroft's Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en","interpretedAuthority":"Fraser, 1853","interpretedAuthorityName":"Waterhouse","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Anomaluridae","interpretedGenus":"Anomalurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"277","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"genus","interpretedSpecies":"beecrofti","name":"Anomalurus beecrofty","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widely distributed in W & C Africa, from Senegal to Gabon, E DR Congo and Bioko I, also isolated records in NW Angola, NW Zambia, and W Uganda.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584336/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen, G.M. & Coolidge (1930) | Allen, J.A. (1922) | Alp & Kitchener (1993) | Bates (1905) | Dekeyser & Villiers (1951) | Delany (1975) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Fraser (1853) | Gray (1869) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Happold (1987) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson &Thorington (2012) | Kingdon (1997, 2013b) | Matschie (1914) | Rosevear (1969) | Sanderson (1940) | Schunke (2005) | Schwann (1904)","foodAndFeeding":"Beecroft’s Anomalures eat leaves, bark, and fruit from a variety of trees and occasionally insects. They feed on pulp offruit of the African oil palm, which they manage to access despite the protection of short spines.","breeding":"Young Beecroft’s Anomalures are born singly and are carried by their mothers when they are small. There appears to be a prolonged breeding season at the end of the wet season. One pregnant female was captured in July in Cameroon; two females, each with one young, were obtained in early October and late January.","activityPatterns":"Beecroft’s Anomalures are nocturnal, and during the day, they rest in tree holes located in upper strata or hide among leaves and twigs that form densecongregations. They may also rest in junctions between palm fronds, or cling to sheltered undersides of major tree branches close to the trunk, where their mottled coat helps to camouflage them away from predators. A jaw fragment of Beecroft’s Anomalures was found in a Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) fecal sample in the Tenkere area in Sierra Leone. Other likely predators include crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), long-tailed hawks (Urotriorchis macrourus), and pythons (Pythonidae).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Beecroft’s Anomalures are typically found alone, which suggest they are solitary. The only record of a vocalization is something between a hoot and a whistle.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Beecroft’s Anomalures are difficult to observe, they appear be relatively common in suitable habitats but may be declining locally in some areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 250-310 mm, tail 160-260 mm; weight 640-660 g. Beecroft’s Anomalureis large and similar in appearance to the smaller Lesser Anomalure (A. pusillus), which has relatively uniform dorsal fur and black-tipped tail. Lord Derby’s Anomalure (A. derbianus) is also similar to Beecroft’s Anomalure, but it has black or brown eye mask, muzzle, and area surrounding ears. Dorsal pelage of Beecroft’s Anomalure is thick, fleecy, and lightly waved; fur at base of tail is smooth-haired, with a slight terminal tuft. Ventral region and underside of gliding membrane are well furred. Color varies considerably but most commonly is silver-gray on back, with a central stripe of golden brown from neck over larger part of back. Ventral side is basically grayish or yellowish; throat and chest are orange. Color variation can be defined by extent of golden brown stripe on back and amount of orange on ventral side. Beecroft’s Anomalure often has a white spot on its forehead but does not have a dark mask around eyes. Tail is narrower than in other species of anomalures and has up to nine pairs of scales on its underside at its base.","habitat":"Tropical moist forest and dry forests, preferring swamp forests and areas with abundant palms. Beecroft’s Anomalures are also commonly found in disturbed forest such as cultivated groves of African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). They occur from sea level to elevations of 2500 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1608005DF11265DFC59FBDE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C08797A1608005DF11265DFC59FBDE","docName":"hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"277","verbatimText":"2.Lord Derby’s AnomalureAnomalurus derbianusFrench:Anomalure de Derby/ German:Lord-Derby-Dornschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro de Lord DerbyOther common names:Derby's Flying Squirrel, Lord Derby's Flying Squirrel, Lord Derby's Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Lord Derby's Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Pteromys derbianus Gray, 1842, “W. Africa, Sierra Leone.”Although numerous forms have been attributed to A. derbianus, they are junior synonyms, and no subspecies are recognized. Monotypic.Distribution.W, C & E Africa, from Sierra Leone E to Uganda and SW Kenya, and S to Tanzania, N Mozambique, N Malawi, Zambia, and N Angola, also on Bioko I.Not yet recorded in Benin where may occur and possibly on Zanzibar I.Descriptive notes.Head-body 260-400 mm, tail 220-330 mm; weight 0-45—1-1 kg. Lord Derby’s Anomalure shows the highest variability in color in the family; it varies geographically and within populations. Lord Derby’s Anomalures range in color from more or less uniformly brownish to those with reddish backs, dark gray patagia, black ears, and silverfish stripes on nose. Head typically has a black-to-brown mask around eyes, muzzle, and surrounding the ears. Gliding membranes, which stretch between limbs and onto base of tail, are similarly colored above but black bristles reinforce edge of membrane behind elbow strut. Ventral surface is much less variable and patagium is generally white, but sometimes underside of membrane between hindlegs is brownish to blackish. Base oftail has 12-14 scales. Primary variation among Lord Derby’s Anomaluresis in gray or russet tints on back and shoulders. Face is relatively short and round; naked pinkish ears are set in a surrounding bed of dense velvet-black fur. Bristles covering hind claws are black.Habitat.Variety of forest types from moist rainforests to relatively dry savanna woodlands from sea level up to elevations of ¢.2400 m. In the south-eastern part of its wide distribution, Lord Derby’s Anomalure is known to occur in savanna woodland. Although they can be common in undisturbed forest, they may also nest within dead trees in areas that have been cleared and burned for agriculture, as long as trees are within gliding distance to nearby forest.Food and Feeding.Bark of trunk and main branches of several genera of trees appear to be the dietary staple of Lord Derby’s Anomalure. Feeding individuals appear to focus on bark wounds caused by falling branches, elephanttusks, and growth splits. As a consequence of this feeding behavior, some trees such as beli (Julbernardiapellegriniana, Fabaceae) may lose all their bark on their trunks and main branches over a number of years. Loss of bark appears to be tolerated by the tree because they are able rapidly to regrow their cambium layer, suggesting that these rodents and trees have coevolved. Lord Derby’s Anomalures eat fruits of Carapa(Meliaceae) and Syzygium(Myrtaceae), leaves of Cynometra(Fabaceae) and Myrianthus(Moraceae), and bark of various trees, including those of the genera Neoboutonia(Euphorbiaceae) Cynometra, Pentaclethra(Fabaceae), Klainedoxa(Irvingiaceae), Carapa, Syzygium, and Strombosia (Olacaceae) and Strombosia (Olacaceae). Elsewhere, they eat fruits, flowers, leaves, nuts, and occasional insects such as ants and termites.Breeding.Breeding of Lord Derby’s Anomalures appears to be seasonal in drier areas but not in the main forest block. In some areas, females are known to segregate to give birth and rear young. Pregnant females have been taken in Cameroon in June-July when rains begin, so young are probably born toward the end of rains in September— November. Other observations in Tanzania found well-grown young in May-June during the early dry season. In Equatorial Guinea, lactating females have been collected in February-May, and in Uganda and Kenya, four births were recorded in January, two pregnancies in March, and a lactating female in May. Vaginas of pregnant females are firmly sealed with hard plugs after mating. Generally only one young is born at a time, although there are records of 2-3 young. Offspring remain on a ledge high up in a hollow tree until almost fully grown. Both parents bring offspring well-masticated food, carried in their mouth and cheeks—swollen by a wad as large as a tangerine.Activity patterns.Lord Derby’s Anomalure is nocturnal, with individuals resting in hollow trees during the day, preferably in virgin forest. These hollows can be up to 40 m above the ground (in some woodlands they occupy empty beehives). One radiocollared individual in Gabon had one primary nesting tree hollow and five secondary hollows. They tend to nest alone or in pairs of one female and a young. Other observations suggest that up to eight individuals may share a denning tree, but little is known about their social behavior. Lord Derby’s Anomalures also appear to be sedentary, living in the same hole all year, except when fruit is ripe in another area. Individuals retain use of their dens over very long periods, but seasonal shifts have been recorded. Along with a threatening or defensive hiss and growl, Lord Derby’s Anomalures also purr and twitter. They like to sunbathe in early morning and more rarely in the evening. Pruning in closed-canopy forest is often less frequent or conspicuous than in more open or sunlit areas. Where light breaks through close to a food tree, intense pruning of young trees may help maintain access to a ready food supply by killing or maiming competing trees and keeping flight-paths open. Night is spent moving in lower branches oftall trees and smaller growth, often not more than 9 m above the ground. While resting, a Lord Derby’s Anomalure orientatesitself with head upward and body parallel with the bole of the tree.Movements, Home range and Social organization.When leaping from one tree to another, membranes of Lord Derby's Anomalures are curved such that an individual assumes shape of a small umbrella. They prefer to land on trunks rather than branches of trees. Immediately before reaching a tree trunk, head is actually at a lower level than tail, but at the last second, forelegs are thrown back over shoulders, head comes up, and tail sweeps up to meet it over the back. An individual instantly assumes a vertical position in midair. Momentum carries it to an upright trunk, to which it instantly adheres, and it invariably commences an ascent using its front two feet together and then pulling up the two hindfeet and arching its back like a giant loop-caterpillar. Backward-directed scales at base of the tail and forwardly directed claws on hindfeet dig into the three bark, thus forming a rigid tripod to support the individual while forefeet are released and moved upward. Glides of more than 40 m by Lord Derby’s Anomalures have been recorded at an estimated glide angle of 24° from horizontal. Species of Anomaluruscan gallop up the smooth bark of a giant forest tree with great speed. Distance traveled per night averages 540 m; home range averages 3-4 ha for females and 3-3 ha for males. A radio-collared female had a home range of 3-4 ha; 50% of locations in a small central area comprised 11:3% of her home range. Densities of Lord Derby’s Anomalures are 27-54 ind/km?. Blue Monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) prey on Lord Derby’s Anomalures in Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda.On following pages: 3. Pel's Anomalure (Anomalurus pelii); 4. Lesser Anomalure (Anomalurus pusillus); 5. Long-eared Anomalure (Zenkerella insignis).Pygmy Anomalure (Idiurus macrotis); 6. Zenker's Pygmy Anomalure (/diurus zenkeri); 7. CameroonStatus and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although localized populations of Lord Derby’s Anomalures may be at risk from logging and forest clearance,it is common and widespread. It is also used in traditional medicine.Bibliography.Allen (1922), Delany (1975), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Fairgrieve (1997), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Jones (1971), Julliot et al. (1998), Kingdon (1974, 1997), Rahm (1969), Sanderson (1940), Schunke (2005).","taxonomy":"Pteromys derbianus Gray, 1842, “W. Africa, Sierra Leone.”Although numerous forms have been attributed to A. derbianus, they are junior synonyms, and no subspecies are recognized. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Anomalure de Derby @fr | Lord-Derby-Dornschwanzhérnchen @de | Anomaluro de Lord Derby @es | Derby's Flying Squirrel @en | Lord Derby's Flying Squirrel @en | Lord Derby's Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Lord Derby's Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Anomaluridae","interpretedGenus":"Anomalurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"277","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"derbianus","name":"Anomalurus derbianus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W, C & E Africa, from Sierra Leone E to Uganda and SW Kenya, and S to Tanzania, N Mozambique, N Malawi, Zambia, and N Angola, also on Bioko I.Not yet recorded in Benin where may occur and possibly on Zanzibar I.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584338/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1922) | Delany (1975) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Fairgrieve (1997) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Jones (1971) | Julliot et al. (1998) | Kingdon (1974, 1997) | Rahm (1969) | Sanderson (1940) | Schunke (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Bark of trunk and main branches of several genera of trees appear to be the dietary staple of Lord Derby’s Anomalure. Feeding individuals appear to focus on bark wounds caused by falling branches, elephanttusks, and growth splits. As a consequence of this feeding behavior, some trees such as beli (Julbernardiapellegriniana, Fabaceae) may lose all their bark on their trunks and main branches over a number of years. Loss of bark appears to be tolerated by the tree because they are able rapidly to regrow their cambium layer, suggesting that these rodents and trees have coevolved. Lord Derby’s Anomalures eat fruits of Carapa(Meliaceae) and Syzygium(Myrtaceae), leaves of Cynometra(Fabaceae) and Myrianthus(Moraceae), and bark of various trees, including those of the genera Neoboutonia(Euphorbiaceae) Cynometra, Pentaclethra(Fabaceae), Klainedoxa(Irvingiaceae), Carapa, Syzygium, and Strombosia (Olacaceae) and Strombosia (Olacaceae). Elsewhere, they eat fruits, flowers, leaves, nuts, and occasional insects such as ants and termites.","breeding":"Breeding of Lord Derby’s Anomalures appears to be seasonal in drier areas but not in the main forest block. In some areas, females are known to segregate to give birth and rear young. Pregnant females have been taken in Cameroon in June-July when rains begin, so young are probably born toward the end of rains in September— November. Other observations in Tanzania found well-grown young in May-June during the early dry season. In Equatorial Guinea, lactating females have been collected in February-May, and in Uganda and Kenya, four births were recorded in January, two pregnancies in March, and a lactating female in May. Vaginas of pregnant females are firmly sealed with hard plugs after mating. Generally only one young is born at a time, although there are records of 2-3 young. Offspring remain on a ledge high up in a hollow tree until almost fully grown. Both parents bring offspring well-masticated food, carried in their mouth and cheeks—swollen by a wad as large as a tangerine.","activityPatterns":"Lord Derby’s Anomalure is nocturnal, with individuals resting in hollow trees during the day, preferably in virgin forest. These hollows can be up to 40 m above the ground (in some woodlands they occupy empty beehives). One radiocollared individual in Gabon had one primary nesting tree hollow and five secondary hollows. They tend to nest alone or in pairs of one female and a young. Other observations suggest that up to eight individuals may share a denning tree, but little is known about their social behavior. Lord Derby’s Anomalures also appear to be sedentary, living in the same hole all year, except when fruit is ripe in another area. Individuals retain use of their dens over very long periods, but seasonal shifts have been recorded. Along with a threatening or defensive hiss and growl, Lord Derby’s Anomalures also purr and twitter. They like to sunbathe in early morning and more rarely in the evening. Pruning in closed-canopy forest is often less frequent or conspicuous than in more open or sunlit areas. Where light breaks through close to a food tree, intense pruning of young trees may help maintain access to a ready food supply by killing or maiming competing trees and keeping flight-paths open. Night is spent moving in lower branches oftall trees and smaller growth, often not more than 9 m above the ground. While resting, a Lord Derby’s Anomalure orientatesitself with head upward and body parallel with the bole of the tree.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"When leaping from one tree to another, membranes of Lord Derby's Anomalures are curved such that an individual assumes shape of a small umbrella. They prefer to land on trunks rather than branches of trees. Immediately before reaching a tree trunk, head is actually at a lower level than tail, but at the last second, forelegs are thrown back over shoulders, head comes up, and tail sweeps up to meet it over the back. An individual instantly assumes a vertical position in midair. Momentum carries it to an upright trunk, to which it instantly adheres, and it invariably commences an ascent using its front two feet together and then pulling up the two hindfeet and arching its back like a giant loop-caterpillar. Backward-directed scales at base of the tail and forwardly directed claws on hindfeet dig into the three bark, thus forming a rigid tripod to support the individual while forefeet are released and moved upward. Glides of more than 40 m by Lord Derby’s Anomalures have been recorded at an estimated glide angle of 24° from horizontal. Species of Anomaluruscan gallop up the smooth bark of a giant forest tree with great speed. Distance traveled per night averages 540 m; home range averages 3-4 ha for females and 3-3 ha for males. A radio-collared female had a home range of 3-4 ha; 50% of locations in a small central area comprised 11:3% of her home range. Densities of Lord Derby’s Anomalures are 27-54 ind/km?. Blue Monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) prey on Lord Derby’s Anomalures in Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda.On following pages: 3. Pel's Anomalure (Anomalurus pelii); 4. Lesser Anomalure (Anomalurus pusillus); 5. Long-eared Anomalure (Zenkerella insignis).Pygmy Anomalure (Idiurus macrotis); 6. Zenker's Pygmy Anomalure (/diurus zenkeri); 7.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although localized populations of Lord Derby’s Anomalures may be at risk from logging and forest clearance,it is common and widespread. It is also used in traditional medicine.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 260-400 mm, tail 220-330 mm; weight 0-45—1-1 kg. Lord Derby’s Anomalure shows the highest variability in color in the family; it varies geographically and within populations. Lord Derby’s Anomalures range in color from more or less uniformly brownish to those with reddish backs, dark gray patagia, black ears, and silverfish stripes on nose. Head typically has a black-to-brown mask around eyes, muzzle, and surrounding the ears. Gliding membranes, which stretch between limbs and onto base of tail, are similarly colored above but black bristles reinforce edge of membrane behind elbow strut. Ventral surface is much less variable and patagium is generally white, but sometimes underside of membrane between hindlegs is brownish to blackish. Base oftail has 12-14 scales. Primary variation among Lord Derby’s Anomaluresis in gray or russet tints on back and shoulders. Face is relatively short and round; naked pinkish ears are set in a surrounding bed of dense velvet-black fur. Bristles covering hind claws are black.","habitat":"Variety of forest types from moist rainforests to relatively dry savanna woodlands from sea level up to elevations of ¢.2400 m. In the south-eastern part of its wide distribution, Lord Derby’s Anomalure is known to occur in savanna woodland. Although they can be common in undisturbed forest, they may also nest within dead trees in areas that have been cleared and burned for agriculture, as long as trees are within gliding distance to nearby forest."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1618002DACB233AFDA3F9C5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C08797A1618002DACB233AFDA3F9C5","docName":"hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"278","verbatimText":"5.Long-eared Pygmy AnomalureIdiurus macrotisFrench:Anomalure a oreilles longues/ German:GroRRohr-Gleitbilch/ Spanish:Anomaluro de orejas grandesOther common names:Long-eared Flying Squirrel, Long-eared Scaly-tailed Flying SquirrelTaxonomy.Idiurus macrotis Miller, 1898, “Efulen, Cameroon district, West Africa.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.W & C Africa, distribution disjunct, recorded from Sierra Leone to W Ghana, from SE Nigeria to N Gabon, and in NE DR Congo to Ituri Forest; also historical records from W of Lake Victoria in W Tanzania. It may be more continuously distributed throughoutits range than currently recorded.Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-120 mm, tail 130-190 mm; weight 23-35 g. The Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is a very small anomalure thatis slightly more robustly build than Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure (1. zenkeri). It is pale gray with a brownish sheen on upper surface and paler on under surface. Hairs are blackish-gray at the base. Ears and face are somewhat longer than those of Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure; tail is proportionately shorter, with similar short,stiff hairs on underside. Dense, short fur covers the rest of the tail of the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure.Habitat.[Lowland and mid-elevation tropical rainforest but might also be found in dense woodland.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure appears to be mainly frugivorous but probably eats sap. Captive individuals readily eat palm nuts.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Long-eared Pygmy Anomalures are nocturnal. During the day, they sleep in large hollow trees in deciduous forests during the day. They typically emerge to commence between 18:15 h and 19:00 h and continue until 06:00 h in the morning.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is gregarious. Groups of 6-10 individuals have been recorded in Sierra Leone, while groups up to 40 individuals have been seen in Gabon. Hollows of Long-eared Pygmy Anomalures are used by other species of anomalures including Beecroft’s Anomalure (Anomalurus beecrofti), Lord Derby’s Anomalure (A. derbianus), Pel’s Anomalure (A. pelii), Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure, or other species such as bats. A translocated male Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure was radio-tracked during 48 hours and found to travel 790 m per night. In 1998, C. Julliott and colleagues found densities of 164-437 ind/km?*. Glides of the Longeared have were described by G. Durrell in 1954 as launching from the tree “without any apparent effort at jumping; one minute they were clinging spreadeagled to the bark, the next they were in the air. Their tiny legs were stretched out, and the membranes along their sides were taut. They swooped and drifted through the tumbling clouds of smoke with all the assurance and skill of hawking swallows, twisting and banking with incredible skill and apparently little or no movement of the body... I saw one leave the trunk of the tree at a height of about thirty feet. He glided across the dell in a straight and steady swoop, and landed on a tree about a hundred and fifty feet away, losing little if any height in the process.” Durrell also observed individuals gliding in a series of diminishing spirals and landing on a tree trunk lower down.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overall distribution of the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is similar to that of Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure in eastern parts of their distributions, but according to T. Haltenorth and H. Diller in 1977, the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is rarer. Nevertheless,it is widespread and appears to have no major conservation threats, although deforestation occurs in parts of its distribution.Bibliography.Allen (1922), Durrell (1954), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Jackson & Schouten (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Julliot et al. (1998), Kingdon (1997), Schunke (2005), Schunke & Hutterer (2001, 2007), Stafford & Thorington (2013a).","taxonomy":"Idiurus macrotis Miller, 1898, “Efulen, Cameroon district, West Africa.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Anomalure a oreilles longues @fr | Gro RRohr-Gleitbilch @de | Anomaluro de orejas grandes @es | Long-eared Flying Squirrel @en | Long-eared Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Miller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Anomaluridae","interpretedGenus":"Idiurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"278","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macrotis","name":"Idiurus macrotis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W & C Africa, distribution disjunct, recorded from Sierra Leone to W Ghana, from SE Nigeria to N Gabon, and in NE DR Congo to Ituri Forest; also historical records from W of Lake Victoria in W Tanzania. It may be more continuously distributed throughoutits range than currently recorded.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584344/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1922) | Durrell (1954) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Jackson & Schouten (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Julliot et al. (1998) | Kingdon (1997) | Schunke (2005) | Schunke & Hutterer (2001, 2007) | Stafford & Thorington (2013a)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure appears to be mainly frugivorous but probably eats sap. Captive individuals readily eat palm nuts.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"Long-eared Pygmy Anomalures are nocturnal. During the day, they sleep in large hollow trees in deciduous forests during the day. They typically emerge to commence between 18:15 h and 19:00 h and continue until 06:00 h in the morning.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is gregarious. Groups of 6-10 individuals have been recorded in Sierra Leone, while groups up to 40 individuals have been seen in Gabon. Hollows of Long-eared Pygmy Anomalures are used by other species of anomalures including Beecroft’s Anomalure (Anomalurus beecrofti), Lord Derby’s Anomalure (A. derbianus), Pel’s Anomalure (A. pelii), Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure, or other species such as bats. A translocated male Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure was radio-tracked during 48 hours and found to travel 790 m per night. In 1998, C. Julliott and colleagues found densities of 164-437 ind/km?*. Glides of the Longeared have were described by G. Durrell in 1954 as launching from the tree “without any apparent effort at jumping; one minute they were clinging spreadeagled to the bark, the next they were in the air. Their tiny legs were stretched out, and the membranes along their sides were taut. They swooped and drifted through the tumbling clouds of smoke with all the assurance and skill of hawking swallows, twisting and banking with incredible skill and apparently little or no movement of the body... I saw one leave the trunk of the tree at a height of about thirty feet. He glided across the dell in a straight and steady swoop, and landed on a tree about a hundred and fifty feet away, losing little if any height in the process.” Durrell also observed individuals gliding in a series of diminishing spirals and landing on a tree trunk lower down.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overall distribution of the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is similar to that of Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure in eastern parts of their distributions, but according to T. Haltenorth and H. Diller in 1977, the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is rarer. Nevertheless,it is widespread and appears to have no major conservation threats, although deforestation occurs in parts of its distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70-120 mm, tail 130-190 mm; weight 23-35 g. The Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure is a very small anomalure thatis slightly more robustly build than Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure (1. zenkeri). It is pale gray with a brownish sheen on upper surface and paler on under surface. Hairs are blackish-gray at the base. Ears and face are somewhat longer than those of Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure; tail is proportionately shorter, with similar short,stiff hairs on underside. Dense, short fur covers the rest of the tail of the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure.","habitat":"[Lowland and mid-elevation tropical rainforest but might also be found in dense woodland."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1618005DAC4285EF894F7FD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C08797A1618005DAC4285EF894F7FD","docName":"hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"278","verbatimText":"4.Lesser AnomalureAnomalurus pusillusFrench:Anomalure pygmée/ German:Zwerg-Dornschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro enanoOther common names:Dwarf Anomalure, Dwarf Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Dwarf Scaly-tailed Squirrel, Little Flying SquirrelTaxonomy.Anomalurus pusillus Thomas, 1887, “Bellima and Tingasi, Monbuttu” (= Niangara, DR Congo).This species is monotypic.Distribution.Found in isolated populations in Liberia, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, NW Gabon, W Republic of the Congo, SW Central African Republic, and N DR Congo; may also occur in W Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head-body 190-260 mm, tail 120-200 mm; weight 170-300 g. The Lesser Anomalure is the smallest species of Anomalurus, with dorsal color varying from near black, grizzled gray, to mottled tan or olive brown. Membrane adjoining tail is usually yellower, and lateral membranes are dark gray. Head of the Lesser Anomalure is gray without borders around ears. Undersideis pale yellowish white, without a tinge of rufus; bristles covering hind claws have a rufus tinge. Unlike other species of Anomalurus, the Lesser Anomalure is similar in appearance throughoutits distribution.Habitat.Limited information available but only found in rainforest in Gabon and DR Congo. Most records of Lesser Anomalures have been at low elevations, but there is one record from montane forests at 2200 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Lesser Anomalure appears to include bark and fruits. Drupes of parasol trees (Musanga, Urticaceae) are eaten.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Lesser Anomalures appear to nest alone. Density is only ¢.5 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major threats to the Lesser Anomalure include loss of habitat as a result of conversion to agricultural and logging for timber. In some regions, they are hunted for bushmeat, but this is not thought to be a significant conservation threat.Bibliography.Delany (1975), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Julliot et al. (1998), Kingdon (1997 2013d), Rahm (1969), Rahm & Christiaensen (1963), Schunke (2005).","taxonomy":"Anomalurus pusillus Thomas, 1887, “Bellima and Tingasi, Monbuttu” (= Niangara, DR Congo).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Anomalure pygmée @fr | Zwerg-Dornschwanzhérnchen @de | Anomaluro enano @es | Dwarf Anomalure @en | Dwarf Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Dwarf Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en | Little Flying Squirrel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1887","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Anomaluridae","interpretedGenus":"Anomalurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"278","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pusillus","name":"Anomalurus pusillus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Found in isolated populations in Liberia, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, NW Gabon, W Republic of the Congo, SW Central African Republic, and N DR Congo; may also occur in W Uganda.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584342/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Delany (1975) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Julliot et al. (1998) | Kingdon (1997 2013d) | Rahm (1969) | Rahm & Christiaensen (1963) | Schunke (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Lesser Anomalure appears to include bark and fruits. Drupes of parasol trees (Musanga, Urticaceae) are eaten.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Lesser Anomalures appear to nest alone. Density is only ¢.5 ind/km?.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Major threats to the Lesser Anomalure include loss of habitat as a result of conversion to agricultural and logging for timber. In some regions, they are hunted for bushmeat, but this is not thought to be a significant conservation threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 190-260 mm, tail 120-200 mm; weight 170-300 g. The Lesser Anomalure is the smallest species of Anomalurus, with dorsal color varying from near black, grizzled gray, to mottled tan or olive brown. Membrane adjoining tail is usually yellower, and lateral membranes are dark gray. Head of the Lesser Anomalure is gray without borders around ears. Undersideis pale yellowish white, without a tinge of rufus; bristles covering hind claws have a rufus tinge. Unlike other species of Anomalurus, the Lesser Anomalure is similar in appearance throughoutits distribution.","habitat":"Limited information available but only found in rainforest in Gabon and DR Congo. Most records of Lesser Anomalures have been at low elevations, but there is one record from montane forests at 2200 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1618005DFC12E2CF9C8FE4D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C08797A1618005DFC12E2CF9C8FE4D","docName":"hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"278","verbatimText":"3.Pel’s AnomalureAnomalurus peliiFrench:Anomalure de Pel/ German:Pel-Dornschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro de PelOther common names:Pel’s Flying Squirrel, Pel’s Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Pel’s Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Pteromys pelii Schlegel & S. Miiller, 1845, “Daboerom, aan de Goudkust” (= Dabacrom, Ghana, West Africa).Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.p.peliiSchlegel&Muller,1845—EIvoryCoast(EofBandamaRiver)andGhana(WofVoltaRiver).A.p.auzembergeriMatschie,1914—ELiberiaandextremeWIvoryCoast(WoftheSassandraRiver).A. p. peralbus Schunke & Hutterer, 2005— Ivory Coast between Sassandra and Bandama rivers.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-460 mm, tail 320-450 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. Pel’s Anomalure is the largest species of anomalures and is immediately identified by its distinctive black color on dorsal surface, with varying degrees of white. The nominate subspecies peliihas a narrow white border on dorsal surface ofits patagium and a narrow border on the interfemoral membrane. Tail and hindfeet are whitish, forefeet are blackish, and there is a white patch at base of each ear. Patagium of the subspecies auzembergeriis black on dorsal surface without a white border, interfemoral membrane is black without a white border, and tail is black; there is no white patch at base of each ear and forefeet and hindfeet are black. Dorsal surface of patagium of the subspecies peralbus has a very wide white border that almost reaches the body; there is a wide white border on the interfemoral membrane;tail is white; there is a large white patch at base of each ear; and forefeet and hindfeet are white.Habitat.Moist, low-elevation primary forests, with numerous tall emergents and annual rainfall of 1400-3900 mm.Food and Feeding.Diet of Pel’s Anomalure consists of bark, supplemented by fruits, especially from African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae), leaves, and flowers.Breeding.Pel’s Anomalures have two breeding seasons in April and September and produce 1-4 young/litter, more often 2-3.Activity patterns.Pel’s Anomalures are nocturnal and spend the day asleep in tree hollows or hollow branches. Nests include sticks and small branches. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability oftree holes. One Pel’s Anomalure was found a hollow of Terminalia superba(Combretaceae). Pel’s Anomalures emerge from their dens well after sunset and return to them before sunrise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Primary social organization of Pel’s Anomalure consists of a female and her single offspring, but there are records suggesting that up to six individuals can be found together in a sleeping tree hollow. When disturbed in their den, they are known to make several noises including growls and hisses; they snap their teeth, greatly amplified in the tree hollow. Contact calls of Pel’s Anomalures are described as deep hoots. These sounds may deter predators including birds of prey, primates, small carnivores, and hornbills (Bucerotidae) that may compete for nest holes. Bold color of Pel’s Anomalure suggests that aggressiveness and large size may make it less vulnerable to predation than smaller species of anomalures. Likely predators include African harrier-hawks (Polyboroides typus), crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), hornbills, snakes, and African Palm Civets (Nandinia binotata). 2Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is likely that most populations of Pel’s Anomalures are threatened by the rapid rate of forest degradation in West Africa; surveys are needed to assess their status. To the Mbuti Pygmies in north-eastern DR Congo, skin of species of Anomalurusis burned and ground into a powder to make the drug “Bau,” which is blown into the face ofvictims at night, who then become unable to defend themselves.Bibliography.Adams (1894), Cansdale (1946), Carpaneto & Germi (1989), Corbet & Hill (1991), Dieterlen (1993), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Honacki et al. (1982), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Kingdon (1997), Rosevear (1969), Schunke (2005), Schunke & Hutterer (2004b, 2005).","taxonomy":"Pteromys pelii Schlegel & S. Miiller, 1845, “Daboerom, aan de Goudkust” (= Dabacrom, Ghana, West Africa).Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Anomalure de Pel @fr | Pel-Dornschwanzhérnchen @de | Anomaluro de Pel @es | Pel’s Flying Squirrel @en | Pel’s Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Pel’s Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schlegel & S. Müller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Anomaluridae","interpretedGenus":"Anomalurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"278","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pelii","name":"Anomalurus pelii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.p.peliiSchlegel&Muller,1845—EIvoryCoast(EofBandamaRiver)andGhana(WofVoltaRiver).A.p.auzembergeriMatschie,1914—ELiberiaandextremeWIvoryCoast(WoftheSassandraRiver).A. p. peralbus Schunke & Hutterer, 2005— Ivory Coast between Sassandra and Bandama rivers.","bibliography":"Adams (1894) | Cansdale (1946) | Carpaneto & Germi (1989) | Corbet & Hill (1991) | Dieterlen (1993) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Honacki et al. (1982) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Kingdon (1997) | Rosevear (1969) | Schunke (2005) | Schunke & Hutterer (2004b, 2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Pel’s Anomalure consists of bark, supplemented by fruits, especially from African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae), leaves, and flowers.","breeding":"Pel’s Anomalures have two breeding seasons in April and September and produce 1-4 young/litter, more often 2-3.","activityPatterns":"Pel’s Anomalures are nocturnal and spend the day asleep in tree hollows or hollow branches. Nests include sticks and small branches. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability oftree holes. One Pel’s Anomalure was found a hollow of Terminalia superba(Combretaceae). Pel’s Anomalures emerge from their dens well after sunset and return to them before sunrise.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Primary social organization of Pel’s Anomalure consists of a female and her single offspring, but there are records suggesting that up to six individuals can be found together in a sleeping tree hollow. When disturbed in their den, they are known to make several noises including growls and hisses; they snap their teeth, greatly amplified in the tree hollow. Contact calls of Pel’s Anomalures are described as deep hoots. These sounds may deter predators including birds of prey, primates, small carnivores, and hornbills (Bucerotidae) that may compete for nest holes. Bold color of Pel’s Anomalure suggests that aggressiveness and large size may make it less vulnerable to predation than smaller species of anomalures. Likely predators include African harrier-hawks (Polyboroides typus), crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), hornbills, snakes, and African Palm Civets (Nandinia binotata).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is likely that most populations of Pel’s Anomalures are threatened by the rapid rate of forest degradation in West Africa; surveys are needed to assess their status. To the Mbuti Pygmies in north-eastern DR Congo, skin of species of Anomalurusis burned and ground into a powder to make the drug “Bau,” which is blown into the face ofvictims at night, who then become unable to defend themselves.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-460 mm, tail 320-450 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. Pel’s Anomalure is the largest species of anomalures and is immediately identified by its distinctive black color on dorsal surface, with varying degrees of white. The nominate subspecies peliihas a narrow white border on dorsal surface ofits patagium and a narrow border on the interfemoral membrane. Tail and hindfeet are whitish, forefeet are blackish, and there is a white patch at base of each ear. Patagium of the subspecies auzembergeriis black on dorsal surface without a white border, interfemoral membrane is black without a white border, and tail is black; there is no white patch at base of each ear and forefeet and hindfeet are black. Dorsal surface of patagium of the subspecies peralbus has a very wide white border that almost reaches the body; there is a wide white border on the interfemoral membrane;tail is white; there is a large white patch at base of each ear; and forefeet and hindfeet are white.","habitat":"Moist, low-elevation primary forests, with numerous tall emergents and annual rainfall of 1400-3900 mm."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1618005DFC12E2CF9C8FE4D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C08797A1618005DFC12E2CF9C8FE4D","docName":"hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"278","verbatimText":"3.Pel’s AnomalureAnomalurus peliiFrench:Anomalure de Pel/ German:Pel-Dornschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Anomaluro de PelOther common names:Pel’s Flying Squirrel, Pel’s Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Pel’s Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Pteromys pelii Schlegel & S. Miiller, 1845, “Daboerom, aan de Goudkust” (= Dabacrom, Ghana, West Africa).Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.p.peliiSchlegel&Muller,1845—EIvoryCoast(EofBandamaRiver)andGhana(WofVoltaRiver).A.p.auzembergeriMatschie,1914—ELiberiaandextremeWIvoryCoast(WoftheSassandraRiver).A. p. peralbus Schunke & Hutterer, 2005— Ivory Coast between Sassandra and Bandama rivers.Descriptive notes.Head-body 400-460 mm, tail 320-450 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. Pel’s Anomalure is the largest species of anomalures and is immediately identified by its distinctive black color on dorsal surface, with varying degrees of white. The nominate subspecies peliihas a narrow white border on dorsal surface ofits patagium and a narrow border on the interfemoral membrane. Tail and hindfeet are whitish, forefeet are blackish, and there is a white patch at base of each ear. Patagium of the subspecies auzembergeriis black on dorsal surface without a white border, interfemoral membrane is black without a white border, and tail is black; there is no white patch at base of each ear and forefeet and hindfeet are black. Dorsal surface of patagium of the subspecies peralbus has a very wide white border that almost reaches the body; there is a wide white border on the interfemoral membrane;tail is white; there is a large white patch at base of each ear; and forefeet and hindfeet are white.Habitat.Moist, low-elevation primary forests, with numerous tall emergents and annual rainfall of 1400-3900 mm.Food and Feeding.Diet of Pel’s Anomalure consists of bark, supplemented by fruits, especially from African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae), leaves, and flowers.Breeding.Pel’s Anomalures have two breeding seasons in April and September and produce 1-4 young/litter, more often 2-3.Activity patterns.Pel’s Anomalures are nocturnal and spend the day asleep in tree hollows or hollow branches. Nests include sticks and small branches. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability oftree holes. One Pel’s Anomalure was found a hollow of Terminalia superba(Combretaceae). Pel’s Anomalures emerge from their dens well after sunset and return to them before sunrise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Primary social organization of Pel’s Anomalure consists of a female and her single offspring, but there are records suggesting that up to six individuals can be found together in a sleeping tree hollow. When disturbed in their den, they are known to make several noises including growls and hisses; they snap their teeth, greatly amplified in the tree hollow. Contact calls of Pel’s Anomalures are described as deep hoots. These sounds may deter predators including birds of prey, primates, small carnivores, and hornbills (Bucerotidae) that may compete for nest holes. Bold color of Pel’s Anomalure suggests that aggressiveness and large size may make it less vulnerable to predation than smaller species of anomalures. Likely predators include African harrier-hawks (Polyboroides typus), crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), hornbills, snakes, and African Palm Civets (Nandinia binotata). 2Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is likely that most populations of Pel’s Anomalures are threatened by the rapid rate of forest degradation in West Africa; surveys are needed to assess their status. To the Mbuti Pygmies in north-eastern DR Congo, skin of species of Anomalurusis burned and ground into a powder to make the drug “Bau,” which is blown into the face ofvictims at night, who then become unable to defend themselves.Bibliography.Adams (1894), Cansdale (1946), Carpaneto & Germi (1989), Corbet & Hill (1991), Dieterlen (1993), Dorst & Dandelot (1970), Grubb et al. (1998), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Honacki et al. (1982), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Kingdon (1997), Rosevear (1969), Schunke (2005), Schunke & Hutterer (2004b, 2005).","taxonomy":"Pteromys pelii Schlegel & S. Miiller, 1845, “Daboerom, aan de Goudkust” (= Dabacrom, Ghana, West Africa).Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Anomalure de Pel @fr | Pel-Dornschwanzhérnchen @de | Anomaluro de Pel @es | Pel’s Flying Squirrel @en | Pel’s Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Pel’s Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schlegel & S. Müller","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Anomaluridae","interpretedGenus":"Anomalurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"278","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pelii","name":"Anomalurus pelii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.p.peliiSchlegel&Muller,1845—EIvoryCoast(EofBandamaRiver)andGhana(WofVoltaRiver).A.p.auzembergeriMatschie,1914—ELiberiaandextremeWIvoryCoast(WoftheSassandraRiver).A. p. peralbus Schunke & Hutterer, 2005— Ivory Coast between Sassandra and Bandama rivers.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584340/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Adams (1894) | Cansdale (1946) | Carpaneto & Germi (1989) | Corbet & Hill (1991) | Dieterlen (1993) | Dorst & Dandelot (1970) | Grubb et al. (1998) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Honacki et al. (1982) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Kingdon (1997) | Rosevear (1969) | Schunke (2005) | Schunke & Hutterer (2004b, 2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Pel’s Anomalure consists of bark, supplemented by fruits, especially from African oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae), leaves, and flowers.","breeding":"Pel’s Anomalures have two breeding seasons in April and September and produce 1-4 young/litter, more often 2-3.","activityPatterns":"Pel’s Anomalures are nocturnal and spend the day asleep in tree hollows or hollow branches. Nests include sticks and small branches. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability oftree holes. One Pel’s Anomalure was found a hollow of Terminalia superba(Combretaceae). Pel’s Anomalures emerge from their dens well after sunset and return to them before sunrise.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Primary social organization of Pel’s Anomalure consists of a female and her single offspring, but there are records suggesting that up to six individuals can be found together in a sleeping tree hollow. When disturbed in their den, they are known to make several noises including growls and hisses; they snap their teeth, greatly amplified in the tree hollow. Contact calls of Pel’s Anomalures are described as deep hoots. These sounds may deter predators including birds of prey, primates, small carnivores, and hornbills (Bucerotidae) that may compete for nest holes. Bold color of Pel’s Anomalure suggests that aggressiveness and large size may make it less vulnerable to predation than smaller species of anomalures. Likely predators include African harrier-hawks (Polyboroides typus), crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), hornbills, snakes, and African Palm Civets (Nandinia binotata).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is likely that most populations of Pel’s Anomalures are threatened by the rapid rate of forest degradation in West Africa; surveys are needed to assess their status. To the Mbuti Pygmies in north-eastern DR Congo, skin of species of Anomalurusis burned and ground into a powder to make the drug “Bau,” which is blown into the face ofvictims at night, who then become unable to defend themselves.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 400-460 mm, tail 320-450 mm; weight 1.3-1.8 kg. Pel’s Anomalure is the largest species of anomalures and is immediately identified by its distinctive black color on dorsal surface, with varying degrees of white. The nominate subspecies peliihas a narrow white border on dorsal surface ofits patagium and a narrow border on the interfemoral membrane. Tail and hindfeet are whitish, forefeet are blackish, and there is a white patch at base of each ear. Patagium of the subspecies auzembergeriis black on dorsal surface without a white border, interfemoral membrane is black without a white border, and tail is black; there is no white patch at base of each ear and forefeet and hindfeet are black. Dorsal surface of patagium of the subspecies peralbus has a very wide white border that almost reaches the body; there is a wide white border on the interfemoral membrane;tail is white; there is a large white patch at base of each ear; and forefeet and hindfeet are white.","habitat":"Moist, low-elevation primary forests, with numerous tall emergents and annual rainfall of 1400-3900 mm."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1628006DEAD2878F879FB44.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C08797A1628006DEAD2878F879FB44","docName":"hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"270","verbatimText":"Family ANOMALURIDAE(ANOMALURES)• Small to large-sized arboreal, mainly gliding, rodents with long, fine fur and a gliding membrane or patagium in all except one non-gliding species.• 15-90 cm.• Afrotropical Region.Montane, lowlands rainforests, and woodlands.3 genera, 7 species, 9 taxa.No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1668002DA212F49F8DEF5F0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C08797A1668002DA212F49F8DEF5F0","docName":"hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"279","verbatimText":"7.Cameroon AnomalureZenkerella insignisFrench:Anomalure aptére/ German:Dornschwanzbilch/ Spanish:Anomaluro de CamerunOther common names:Cameroon Scaly-tail, Cameroon Scaly-tailed Squirrel, Flightless Scaly-tailed SquirrelTaxonomy.Zenkerella insignis Matschie, 1898, “Kamerun, Afr. Occ., Yaunde” (= Yaoundé, Cameroon, West Africa).This species is monotypic.Distribution.C Africa in S Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko I), N Gabon, N & W Republic of the Congo, and SW Central African Republic. It may also occur within DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 180-930 mm, tail 150-180 mm; weight 180— 220 g. It is a medium-sized anomalure, but it does not have a gliding membrane. Dorsal surface is slate gray with ochertints; ventral surface is very pale gray. Tail is bushy and black in color, with a terminaltuft.Habitat.Rainforest and semideciduous forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Some authors suggest that the Cameroon Anomalure is diurnal because it does not glide and gliding rodents tend to be nocturnal. Other authors, however, suggest that it is nocturnal and nests in tree hollows during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Cameroon Anomalure appears to be arboreal and ground dwelling.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Deforestation may be a conservation threat in parts of the distribution of the Cameroon Anomalure, although further research is needed to determineits status.Bibliography.Aellen & Perret (1958), Bates (1905), Happold (1987), Kingdon (1997), Pérez del Val et al. (1995), Roche (1972), Stafford & Thorington (2013c).","taxonomy":"Zenkerella insignis Matschie, 1898, “Kamerun, Afr. Occ., Yaunde” (= Yaoundé, Cameroon, West Africa).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Anomalure aptére @fr | Dornschwanzbilch @de | Anomaluro de Camerun @es | Cameroon Scaly-tail @en | Cameroon Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en | Flightless Scaly-tailed Squirrel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Matschie","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Anomaluridae","interpretedGenus":"Zenkerella","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"279","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"insignis","name":"Zenkerella insignis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Africa in S Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko I), N Gabon, N & W Republic of the Congo, and SW Central African Republic. It may also occur within DR Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584348/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aellen & Perret (1958) | Bates (1905) | Happold (1987) | Kingdon (1997) | Pérez del Val et al. (1995) | Roche (1972) | Stafford & Thorington (2013c)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"Some authors suggest that the Cameroon Anomalure is diurnal because it does not glide and gliding rodents tend to be nocturnal. Other authors, however, suggest that it is nocturnal and nests in tree hollows during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Cameroon Anomalure appears to be arboreal and ground dwelling.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Deforestation may be a conservation threat in parts of the distribution of the Cameroon Anomalure, although further research is needed to determineits status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180-930 mm, tail 150-180 mm; weight 180— 220 g. It is a medium-sized anomalure, but it does not have a gliding membrane. Dorsal surface is slate gray with ochertints; ventral surface is very pale gray. Tail is bushy and black in color, with a terminaltuft.","habitat":"Rainforest and semideciduous forest."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C0/87/03C08797A1668002DF1C2C27F8A8FBF0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C08797A1668002DF1C2C27F8A8FBF0","docName":"hbmw_6_Anomaluridae_0270.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff9ffefa1628006df7f2a5fff9ffff5","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"279","verbatimText":"6.Zenker’s Pygmy AnomalureIdiurus zenkerFrench:Anomalure de Zenker/ German:Zenker-Gleitbilch/ Spanish:Anomaluro pequenoOther common names:Pygmy Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel, Zenker’s Flying SquirrelTaxonomy.I diurus zenkeri Matschie, 1894, “Yaunde-Station” (= Yaoundé, Cameroon, West Africa).This species is monotypic.Distribution.C Africa, in Cameroon (SW and Mt Cameroon), Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic, and Republic of the Congo border (Ngotto Forest), and in NE DR Congo (from the Aruwimi and Congo rivers to the foothills of Ruwenzori and Kivu). It may also occur in the extreme W of Uganda.Descriptive notes.Head—body 60-90 mm, tail 70-130 mm; weight 14-17 g. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is the smallest species of anomalures. Dorsal fur is medium brown, with a dark gray base; ventral fur is a similar color to dorsal pelage. Vibrissae are ¢.35 mm in length. Tail is ¢.130% of head-body length and has two lines of short hairs placed laterally on each side. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure has a long thin tail (longer than head-body length) thatis fringed on underside by two rows of short stiff hairs.Habitat.[.owland and montane equatorial moist forests.Food and Feeding.Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure feeds on insects, nuts, oil-palm fruits, and possibly exudates or nectar. Notched upper incisors project out of the mouth, which suggests that some food requires sharp chiseling.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure roosts in hollow trees, or occasionally under bark, in small groups, but it can be found in colonies of up to 100 individuals. They nest in trees, including species of Gilbertiodendron(Fabaceae), Klainedoxa(Irvingiaceae), Paramacrolobium, Pentaclethra, and Pseudoprosopis(all Fabaceae). They share their hollows with Pel’s Anomalure (Anomaluruspeli), the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure (I. macrotis), and the Cyclops Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros cyclops).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is a very efficient, fast, and agile glider. It might travel several kilometers in a night to feed. It emits a shrill, mouse-like squeak.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is widespread, and its major conservation threat includes localized deforestation in parts of its distribution.Bibliography.Allen (1922), Delany (1975), Haltenorth & Diller (1977), Jackson (2012), Jackson & Thorington (2012), Kingdon (1997), Rahm (1966), Rosevear (1969), Sanderson (1940), Schunke (2005), Schunke & Hutterer (2001, 2007), Stafford & Thorington (2013b).","taxonomy":"I diurus zenkeri Matschie, 1894, “Yaunde-Station” (= Yaoundé, Cameroon, West Africa).This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Anomalure de Zenker @fr | Zenker-Gleitbilch @de | Anomaluro pequeno @es | Pygmy Scaly-tailed Flying Squirrel @en | Zenker’s Flying Squirrel @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Matschie","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1894","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Anomaluridae","interpretedGenus":"Idiurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"279","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zenker","name":"Idiurus zenker","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Africa, in Cameroon (SW and Mt Cameroon), Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic, and Republic of the Congo border (Ngotto Forest), and in NE DR Congo (from the Aruwimi and Congo rivers to the foothills of Ruwenzori and Kivu). It may also occur in the extreme W of Uganda.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584346/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1922) | Delany (1975) | Haltenorth & Diller (1977) | Jackson (2012) | Jackson & Thorington (2012) | Kingdon (1997) | Rahm (1966) | Rosevear (1969) | Sanderson (1940) | Schunke (2005) | Schunke & Hutterer (2001, 2007) | Stafford & Thorington (2013b)","foodAndFeeding":"Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure feeds on insects, nuts, oil-palm fruits, and possibly exudates or nectar. Notched upper incisors project out of the mouth, which suggests that some food requires sharp chiseling.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure roosts in hollow trees, or occasionally under bark, in small groups, but it can be found in colonies of up to 100 individuals. They nest in trees, including species of Gilbertiodendron(Fabaceae), Klainedoxa(Irvingiaceae), Paramacrolobium, Pentaclethra, and Pseudoprosopis(all Fabaceae). They share their hollows with Pel’s Anomalure (Anomaluruspeli), the Long-eared Pygmy Anomalure (I. macrotis), and the Cyclops Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros cyclops).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is a very efficient, fast, and agile glider. It might travel several kilometers in a night to feed. It emits a shrill, mouse-like squeak.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is widespread, and its major conservation threat includes localized deforestation in parts of its distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 60-90 mm, tail 70-130 mm; weight 14-17 g. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure is the smallest species of anomalures. Dorsal fur is medium brown, with a dark gray base; ventral fur is a similar color to dorsal pelage. Vibrissae are ¢.35 mm in length. Tail is ¢.130% of head-body length and has two lines of short hairs placed laterally on each side. Zenker’s Pygmy Anomalure has a long thin tail (longer than head-body length) thatis fringed on underside by two rows of short stiff hairs.","habitat":"[.owland and montane equatorial moist forests."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA8586828FA4078B3F66AF6EE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA8586828FA4078B3F66AF6EE","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"430","verbatimText":"11. Azara’s Night Monkey Aotus azaraeFrench:Douroucouli de d'Azara/ German:Azara-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de AzaraOther common names:Azara's Owl Monkey; Bolivian Night Monkey (boliviensis), Feline Night Monkey (infulatus)Taxonomy.Simia azarae Humboldt, 1812,Paraguay. Restricted by Elliot in 1913 to the right bank of Rio Paraguayin northeastern Argentina.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. a. azarae Humboldt, 1812— SC Brazil(Pantanal), S Bolivia(Banados del Izozog), Paraguay(S & W Chaco, W of the Rio Paraguay), and N Argentina(provinces of Chaco& Formosa).A. a. boliviensis Elliot, 1907 — SE Peru(S of the rios Madre de Diosand Inambari) and BoliviaE of the Andes (from the Rio Madre de Dios S to the Banados del Izozog in the border region with Paraguay). A. a. infulatus Kuhl, 1820 — Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas (but with a small enclave in the SE tip of Amapa State), including Marajo and Caviana Is, extending E in the state of Maranhaoas far as the Rio Parnaiba, S along the W bank of Rio Tocantinsto the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, W limits are marked by the rios Tapajos and Juruena.Descriptive notes.Head-body 34 cm (males) and 33 cm (females), tail ¢.31 cm; weight 990-1580 g (males, nominate subspecies) and 1010-1450 g (female nominate subspecies). Azara’s Night Monkey is a highly variable red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 49 in males and 50 in females. An interscapular whorl is generally present. In the subspecies azarae, fur is long, thick, and shaggy, grayish to pale buffyagouti above and pale whitish-orange below. Face stripes are narrow. Basal hairs of the distal one-quarter of tail are orange. In the “Bolivian Night Monkey” (A. a. bolivienss), fur is relatively short, with an olive tone above and contrastingly grayer on limbs. Face stripes are very narrow except where the middle one expands on the crown; the black temporal stripe is poorly defined, the black malar stripe is faint or absent, and there is usually a whitish band between the eyes and temporal stripe. There is a conspicuous whorl between the shoulder blades. The “Feline Night Monkey” (A. a. infulatus) is like the Bolivian Night Monkey, but the white on its face is more prominent. There is generally no whitish band between the eyes and the temporal stripe as with the Bolivian Night Monkey. Temporal stripes are black, well defined, and continuous with the malar stripe. The tail tends to be reddish throughout its length except for the black tip. Orange of underparts extends to or above the ventral one-half of side of neck and to mid-tibia or ankle. Color of the throat varies from orange, with the anterior one-half grayish agouti to entirely orange. Sometimes there is an interscapular whorl, sometimes not.Habitat.Deciduous, gallery, riparian, and secondary forest of the Chaco in Paraguay, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Group sizes of Azara’s Night Monkey are smaller in the more xeric regions of the Chacocompared with humid (mesic) regions. Seasonality in these environments is strong, and temperatures range between —=5°C and 47°C. The Feline Night Monkey has been recorded in Orbignya (Arecaceae) palm forest (the Zona dos Cocais in Maranhao), forest patches and gallery forests in the “cerrado” (bush savanna) of central Brazil, and the “caatinga” (deciduous scrub and forest) in north-eastern Brazil. It also occurs in mangrove forest.Food and Feeding.Diet of Azara’s Night Monkey is composed of fruits, nectar, flowers, leaves, fungi, and insects. Feeding ecology of the nominate subspecies has been studied in the subtropical dry forest of Paraguay. Azara’s Night Monkeys there were more folivorous than the Black-headed Night Monkey (A. nigriceps) in Peru, concentrating on leaves of small trees and vines for 46% of their feeding time and with fruit being only 16% of the diet (as opposed to 60%), and nectar and flowers 33%. At times of fruit shortage, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat more flowers, nectar, fig fruits, and insects, rather than leaves. Flowers can also be seasonally important, for example those of Tabebuiaipe (Bignoniaceae). Azara’s Night Monkeys have been seen to catch cicadas during the day.Breeding.Breeding of Azara’s Night Monkey is seasonal; births peak in January-February in Paraguayand October-November in Argentina. In Argentina, adult body mass is reached at about four years of age, and the onset of reproduction occurs at about six years. In the nominate subspecies azarae, females have a reproductive cycle of ¢.22 days in the wild and 25 days in captivity. Captive and wild females of the subspecies azaraehave a gestation period of ¢.120-130 days. Infants are mostly carried by the male from when they are about ten days old. The median interbirth interval is 370 days (range 345-426 days, n = 13). As has been found for other night monkeys, mating is infrequent. During three years of study and more than 2000 hours of observations, mating was recorded only eight times in five groups. Itis rapid and discreet, and therefore difficult to observe. Although all night monkeys are believed to be monogamous (there is never more than one breeding female and always only one male in the groups), a long-term study of known individuals in a population of the subspecies azaraein northern Argentinashowed considerable turnover of resident adults.Activity patterns.In Paraguay, the nominate subspecies is partially diurnal, foraging during the day for periods of one to three hours. Large raptors such as the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the Guianacrested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) are rare there, and the principal, potential, avian predator is the great horned owl (Bubo virgintanus). When traveling at night, they are quieter than is typical for night monkeys of the Amazonian forest possibly because of this. Temperature may be another factor promoting diurnal activity. Low temperatures do not completely inhibit their traveling and foraging, but when night-time temperatures are 5°-10°C, they forage in the late afternoon at temperatures of 25°-30°C. Diurnal foraging and traveling increases when the weather is cooler. A field study of the subspecies Bolivian Night Monkey in Beni, Bolivia, recorded an activity budget of 31% foraging, 49% resting, and 20% traveling. Groups travel longer during full-moon nights than new-moon nights, and ambient temperature also influences distances moved during full-moon nights.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social structure of Azara’s Night Monkey consists of one adult male and one adult female per group, with a mean group size of 2-3-4 individuals. Subadults are often observed in groups of the nominate subspecies azaraein Argentina. Group density of the subspecies azaraehas been reported at 5-5-16 groups/km? in Argentina. In Paraguay, group density has been estimated at 4 groups/km”. For the Bolivian Night Monkey, there is one report of 68-9 groups/ km?, but the census was taken in an island offorest of only 0-33 ha. Home-range size has been reported to vary from 5 ha to 10 ha. Mean daily movement is estimated at 378-5 m, with mean diurnal movement of 199 m and mean nocturnal movement of 420 m. The population of the subspecies azaraein Guaycolec Ranch, Formosa Province, Argentina, has ¢.25-30% of adults living solitarily. Both males and females disperse. Subadults are often on the periphery of a social group’s home range prior to emigration in the subspecies azarae. Turnover of resident adults is frequent, with 14 of 15 pairs replacing at least one adult in a three-year period. Aggressive interactions in this population are observed between groups during the day and night. Paternal care and provisioning have been observed, with males carrying an infant 84% of the time after the first week oflife. The adult male also plays, grooms, and shares food with the infant. In the subspecies azarae, males and females share food in the wild with infants and mates. Individuals in the population at Guaycolec often travel on the ground when they cross from one patch of forest to the other, sometimes for distances up to 100 m.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Subspecies azaraeand boliviensis are classified as Least Concern and subspecies infulatus is classified as Near Threatened because of logging and the widespread conversion of forest for commercial agriculture, especially for soy beans, and for cattle pasture throughout its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para over the last two decades. The range of Azara’s Night Monkey coincides with the most devastated areas of the Brazilian Amazon. The subspecies azaraeoccurs in the national parks of Rio Pilcomayo in Argentinaand Kaa-lya del Gran Chacoin Bolivia, and in the Defensores del Chaco, and Tinfunqué national parks in Paraguay. The Bolivian Night Monkey occurs in Amboro, Carrasco, Isiboro Sécure, Madidi, and Noel Kempff Mercado national parks and Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve in Bolivia. The Feline Night Monkey occurs in Pantanal Matogrossense and Araguaia national parks and Gurupi and Tapirapé biological reserves in Brazil.Bibliography.Arditi (1992), Arditi & Placci (1990), Defler et al. (2001), Dixson (1983, 1994), Fernandes (1993), Fernandez-Duque (2003, 2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012), Fernandez-Duque & Bravo (1997), Fernandez-Duque & Erkert (2004, 2006), Fernandez-Duque & Huntington (2002), Fernandez-Duque, Rotundo & Ramirez-Llorens (2002), Fernandez-Dugue, Rotundo & Sloan (2001), Fernandez-Duque, Wallace & Rylands (2008), Garcia & Braza (1987, 1989, 1993), Giménez & Fernandez-Duque (2003), Huck & Fernandez-Duque (2011), Huck et al. (2011), Hunter et al. (1979), Jantschke et al. (1998), Ma, Elliott et al. (1976), Ma, Jones et al. (1976), Mudry, Colillas & de Salum (1984), Mudry, Slavutsky & Labal de Vinuesa (1990), Pieczarka & Nagamachi (1988), Pieczarka et al. (1993), Rathbun & Gache (1980), Rotundo et al. (2005), Silva & Fernandes (1999), Silva & Nunes (1995), Smith & Jungers (1997), Stallings et al. (1989), Welker et al. (1998), Wolovich & Evans (2007), Wolovich, Perea-Rodriguez & Fernandez-Duque (2008), Wright (1981, 1985, 1989, 1994), Zunino (1985), Zunino et al. (1986).","taxonomy":"Simia azarae Humboldt, 1812,Paraguay. Restricted by Elliot in 1913 to the right bank of Rio Paraguayin northeastern Argentina.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de d'Azara @fr | Azara-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Azara Other common names @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Humboldt","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1812","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"430","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"azarae","name":"Aotus azarae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. a. azarae Humboldt, 1812— SC Brazil(Pantanal), S Bolivia(Banados del Izozog), Paraguay(S & W Chaco, W of the Rio Paraguay), and N Argentina(provinces of Chaco& Formosa).A. a. boliviensis Elliot, 1907 — SE Peru(S of the rios Madre de Diosand Inambari) and BoliviaE of the Andes (from the Rio Madre de Dios S to the Banados del Izozog in the border region with Paraguay). A. a. infulatus Kuhl, 1820 — Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas (but with a small enclave in the SE tip of Amapa State), including Marajo and Caviana Is, extending E in the state of Maranhaoas far as the Rio Parnaiba, S along the W bank of Rio Tocantinsto the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, W limits are marked by the rios Tapajos and Juruena.","bibliography":"Arditi (1992) | Arditi & Placci (1990) | Defler et al. (2001) | Dixson (1983, 1994) | Fernandes (1993) | Fernandez-Duque (2003, 2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012) | Fernandez-Duque & Bravo (1997) | Fernandez-Duque & Erkert (2004, 2006) | Fernandez-Duque & Huntington (2002) | Fernandez-Duque, Rotundo & Ramirez-Llorens (2002) | Fernandez-Dugue, Rotundo & Sloan (2001) | Fernandez-Duque, Wallace & Rylands (2008) | Garcia & Braza (1987, 1989, 1993) | Giménez & Fernandez-Duque (2003) | Huck & Fernandez-Duque (2011) | Huck et al. (2011) | Hunter et al. (1979) | Jantschke et al. (1998) | Ma, Elliott et al. (1976) | Ma, Jones et al. (1976) | Mudry, Colillas & de Salum (1984) | Mudry, Slavutsky & Labal de Vinuesa (1990) | Pieczarka & Nagamachi (1988) | Pieczarka et al. (1993) | Rathbun & Gache (1980) | Rotundo et al. (2005) | Silva & Fernandes (1999) | Silva & Nunes (1995) | Smith & Jungers (1997) | Stallings et al. (1989) | Welker et al. (1998) | Wolovich & Evans (2007) | Wolovich, Perea-Rodriguez & Fernandez-Duque (2008) | Wright (1981, 1985, 1989, 1994) | Zunino (1985) | Zunino et al. (1986)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Azara’s Night Monkey is composed of fruits, nectar, flowers, leaves, fungi, and insects. Feeding ecology of the nominate subspecies has been studied in the subtropical dry forest of Paraguay. Azara’s Night Monkeys there were more folivorous than the Black-headed Night Monkey (A. nigriceps) in Peru, concentrating on leaves of small trees and vines for 46% of their feeding time and with fruit being only 16% of the diet (as opposed to 60%), and nectar and flowers 33%. At times of fruit shortage, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat more flowers, nectar, fig fruits, and insects, rather than leaves. Flowers can also be seasonally important, for example those of Tabebuiaipe (Bignoniaceae). Azara’s Night Monkeys have been seen to catch cicadas during the day.","breeding":"Breeding of Azara’s Night Monkey is seasonal; births peak in January-February in Paraguayand October-November in Argentina. In Argentina, adult body mass is reached at about four years of age, and the onset of reproduction occurs at about six years. In the nominate subspecies azarae, females have a reproductive cycle of ¢.22 days in the wild and 25 days in captivity. Captive and wild females of the subspecies azaraehave a gestation period of ¢.120-130 days. Infants are mostly carried by the male from when they are about ten days old. The median interbirth interval is 370 days (range 345-426 days, n = 13). As has been found for other night monkeys, mating is infrequent. During three years of study and more than 2000 hours of observations, mating was recorded only eight times in five groups. Itis rapid and discreet, and therefore difficult to observe. Although all night monkeys are believed to be monogamous (there is never more than one breeding female and always only one male in the groups), a long-term study of known individuals in a population of the subspecies azaraein northern Argentinashowed considerable turnover of resident adults.","activityPatterns":"In Paraguay, the nominate subspecies is partially diurnal, foraging during the day for periods of one to three hours. Large raptors such as the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the Guianacrested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) are rare there, and the principal, potential, avian predator is the great horned owl (Bubo virgintanus). When traveling at night, they are quieter than is typical for night monkeys of the Amazonian forest possibly because of this. Temperature may be another factor promoting diurnal activity. Low temperatures do not completely inhibit their traveling and foraging, but when night-time temperatures are 5°-10°C, they forage in the late afternoon at temperatures of 25°-30°C. Diurnal foraging and traveling increases when the weather is cooler. A field study of the subspecies Bolivian Night Monkey in Beni, Bolivia, recorded an activity budget of 31% foraging, 49% resting, and 20% traveling. Groups travel longer during full-moon nights than new-moon nights, and ambient temperature also influences distances moved during full-moon nights.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social structure of Azara’s Night Monkey consists of one adult male and one adult female per group, with a mean group size of 2-3-4 individuals. Subadults are often observed in groups of the nominate subspecies azaraein Argentina. Group density of the subspecies azaraehas been reported at 5-5-16 groups/km? in Argentina. In Paraguay, group density has been estimated at 4 groups/km”. For the Bolivian Night Monkey, there is one report of 68-9 groups/ km?, but the census was taken in an island offorest of only 0-33 ha. Home-range size has been reported to vary from 5 ha to 10 ha. Mean daily movement is estimated at 378-5 m, with mean diurnal movement of 199 m and mean nocturnal movement of 420 m. The population of the subspecies azaraein Guaycolec Ranch, Formosa Province, Argentina, has ¢.25-30% of adults living solitarily. Both males and females disperse. Subadults are often on the periphery of a social group’s home range prior to emigration in the subspecies azarae. Turnover of resident adults is frequent, with 14 of 15 pairs replacing at least one adult in a three-year period. Aggressive interactions in this population are observed between groups during the day and night. Paternal care and provisioning have been observed, with males carrying an infant 84% of the time after the first week oflife. The adult male also plays, grooms, and shares food with the infant. In the subspecies azarae, males and females share food in the wild with infants and mates. Individuals in the population at Guaycolec often travel on the ground when they cross from one patch of forest to the other, sometimes for distances up to 100 m.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Subspecies azaraeand boliviensis are classified as Least Concern and subspecies infulatus is classified as Near Threatened because of logging and the widespread conversion of forest for commercial agriculture, especially for soy beans, and for cattle pasture throughout its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para over the last two decades. The range of Azara’s Night Monkey coincides with the most devastated areas of the Brazilian Amazon. The subspecies azaraeoccurs in the national parks of Rio Pilcomayo in Argentinaand Kaa-lya del Gran Chacoin Bolivia, and in the Defensores del Chaco, and Tinfunqué national parks in Paraguay. The Bolivian Night Monkey occurs in Amboro, Carrasco, Isiboro Sécure, Madidi, and Noel Kempff Mercado national parks and Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve in Bolivia. The Feline Night Monkey occurs in Pantanal Matogrossense and Araguaia national parks and Gurupi and Tapirapé biological reserves in Brazil.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 34 cm (males) and 33 cm (females), tail ¢.31 cm; weight 990-1580 g (males, nominate subspecies) and 1010-1450 g (female nominate subspecies). Azara’s Night Monkey is a highly variable red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 49 in males and 50 in females. An interscapular whorl is generally present. In the subspecies azarae, fur is long, thick, and shaggy, grayish to pale buffyagouti above and pale whitish-orange below. Face stripes are narrow. Basal hairs of the distal one-quarter of tail are orange. In the “Bolivian Night Monkey” (A. a. bolivienss), fur is relatively short, with an olive tone above and contrastingly grayer on limbs. Face stripes are very narrow except where the middle one expands on the crown; the black temporal stripe is poorly defined, the black malar stripe is faint or absent, and there is usually a whitish band between the eyes and temporal stripe. There is a conspicuous whorl between the shoulder blades. The “Feline Night Monkey” (A. a. infulatus) is like the Bolivian Night Monkey, but the white on its face is more prominent. There is generally no whitish band between the eyes and the temporal stripe as with the Bolivian Night Monkey. Temporal stripes are black, well defined, and continuous with the malar stripe. The tail tends to be reddish throughout its length except for the black tip. Orange of underparts extends to or above the ventral one-half of side of neck and to mid-tibia or ankle. Color of the throat varies from orange, with the anterior one-half grayish agouti to entirely orange. Sometimes there is an interscapular whorl, sometimes not.","habitat":"Deciduous, gallery, riparian, and secondary forest of the Chaco in Paraguay, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Group sizes of Azara’s Night Monkey are smaller in the more xeric regions of the Chacocompared with humid (mesic) regions. Seasonality in these environments is strong, and temperatures range between —=5°C and 47°C. The Feline Night Monkey has been recorded in Orbignya (Arecaceae) palm forest (the Zona dos Cocais in Maranhao), forest patches and gallery forests in the “cerrado” (bush savanna) of central Brazil, and the “caatinga” (deciduous scrub and forest) in north-eastern Brazil. It also occurs in mangrove forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA858682BFF797804F9A4F65D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA858682BFF797804F9A4F65D","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"430","verbatimText":"10. Black-headed Night Monkey Aotus nigricepsFrench:Douroucouli de Dollman/ German:Schwarzkopf-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de cabeza negraOther common names:Black-headed Owl Monkey, Night Monkey, Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus nigriceps Dollman, 1909,Peru, Chanchamayo, 1000 m.Populations on either side of the Rio Jurua differ somewhat from each other. Those on the right bank are gray-backed, while those on the left have a reddishbrown back and resemble A. nancymaae. Monotypic.Distribution.Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas-Solimoes and W of the Rio TapajosJuruena to the right bank of the Rio Guaporé and the left (N) bank of the Rio Madre de Dios in N Bolivia, also in SE PeruW to the Rio Huallaga and N as far the Rio Cushabatay at about 07° S.Descriptive notes.Head—body 35-42 cm,tail 35-44 cm; weight ¢.875 g (males) and c.1040 g (females). The Black-headed Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 51 in males and 52 in females. It is iron-gray above with a brownish agouti on the dorsum. The underside is orange with white tones, extending to the neck, throat, chin, and sides of the jaw and to the inner surfaces of the wrists and ankles. The cap is black, face stripes are broad, and areas of white on the face are conspicuous. The interscapular whorl is absent.Habitat.Primary tropical forest, swamp forest, and seasonally flooded forest.Food and Feeding.Black-headed Night Monkeys eatfruits, which account for ¢.60% of their diet, but they also eat nectar, young leaves and buds,insects, and spiders. In Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, they tend to feed more in large trees with larger crowns (more than 11 m in diameter) than sympatric diurnal titi monkeys (similar in size and also living in small monogamous groups) that customarily follow a regular foraging circuit to find small quantities of fruits in smaller crowned trees. Associated with their use of larger-crowned trees, Blackheaded Night Monkeys travel and forage higher up in the forest canopy than the titi monkeys, which spend more than 50% their time in the lower canopy and understory, perhaps due to the titi monkeys susceptibility to predation by diurnal raptors. Diets of Black-headed Night Monkeys and titi monkeys include many bitter or spicy (e.g. Lauraceae) and unripe fruits not generally eaten by other monkeys. Black-headed Night Monkeys forage for insects, especially at dawn and dusk, searching along branches and among foliage. They are adept at catching insects in mid-air and eat moths, beetles, and particularly orthopterans (katydids and grasshoppers of 6-10 cm in length, which call and are active at night and more easily located). Black-headed Night Monkeys are more insectivorous than titi monkeys that supplement the fruit part of their diet more with leaves. When fruits are scarce at the end of the wet season and in the early dry season, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat mostly figs, nectar, and insects. Their consumption of figs is facilitated by the lack of competition from the diurnal primates.Breeding.In Peru, a seasonal peak in births of Black-headed Night Monkeys occurs between August and February during the rainy season, when fruit is abundant.Activity patterns.Black-headed Night Monkeys spend ¢.50% of the night active, with maximallevels of activity when the full moon is near the meridian. An activity budget generally consists of 53% foraging, 21% traveling, 22% resting, and 4% agonistic. They are very regular in their activity periods, consistently beginning their day about 13 minutes after sunset and reentering their sleeping sites about 15 minutes before sunrise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social structure of the Black-headed Night Monkey consists of one adult female and one adult male. Group size ranges from two to five, with a mean of four individuals. In a study at Cocha Cashu, homerange size was 7-14 ha with a mean of 9:2 ha (n = = 9 groups). The distance travelled at night averaged 708 m. They traveled twice as far on moonlit nights than on darker nights. Average distance moved on nights with a new moon was 436 m compared to 780 m on a night with a full moon. On dark and rainy nights, travel was slow and curtailed. They traveled farther at dawn and dusk than at other times. They repeatedly used the same routes through the trees indicating that this helped them to navigate in the dark. Principal predators of the Black-headed Night Monkey in the Amazon are diurnal raptors, which explain their propensity to use tree holes for sleeping during the day. Alternate sleeping sites are in very dense foliage, vines, and lianas where they are well hidden. Good sleeping sites appear to be uncommon and are reused frequently; travel during the night is generally circular, returning before sunrise to the sleeping site that they used the previous day. For 60 nights over a year, a group of Black-headed Night Monkeys usedjust five sites, and one of them was used more than 30 times. Both males and females emigrate. A density estimate for Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, was 36-40 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although the Black-headed Night Monkey is not generally hunted for food, considerable numbers of them were captured and exported to biomedical research laboratories in the 1970s because of their use in research on malaria and in oncology. There is evidence that there is a continuing illegal trade of these monkeys even today. They occur in Manuripe-Heath National Reserve in Boliviaand Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru. The Brazilian national parks of Amazonia, Juruena, Pacaas Novos, and Serra do Divisor are within its known range, as are Abufari, Guaporé, and Jaru biological reserves and Rio Acre Ecological Station.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacion (1994a), Bicca-Marques & Garber (2004), Collins (1994), Cornejo & Palacios (2008b), Hershkovitz (1983), Maldonado et al. (2009), Peres (1993), Wright (1978, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Aotus nigriceps Dollman, 1909,Peru, Chanchamayo, 1000 m.Populations on either side of the Rio Jurua differ somewhat from each other. Those on the right bank are gray-backed, while those on the left have a reddishbrown back and resemble A. nancymaae. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Dollman @fr | Schwarzkopf-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de cabeza negra Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dollman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"430","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nigriceps","name":"Aotus nigriceps","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas-Solimoes and W of the Rio TapajosJuruena to the right bank of the Rio Guaporé and the left (N) bank of the Rio Madre de Dios in N Bolivia, also in SE PeruW to the Rio Huallaga and N as far the Rio Cushabatay at about 07° S.","bibliography":"Aquino & Encarnacion (1994a) | Bicca-Marques & Garber (2004) | Collins (1994) | Cornejo & Palacios (2008b) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Peres (1993) | Wright (1978, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"Black-headed Night Monkeys eatfruits, which account for ¢.60% of their diet, but they also eat nectar, young leaves and buds,insects, and spiders. In Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, they tend to feed more in large trees with larger crowns (more than 11 m in diameter) than sympatric diurnal titi monkeys (similar in size and also living in small monogamous groups) that customarily follow a regular foraging circuit to find small quantities of fruits in smaller crowned trees. Associated with their use of larger-crowned trees, Blackheaded Night Monkeys travel and forage higher up in the forest canopy than the titi monkeys, which spend more than 50% their time in the lower canopy and understory, perhaps due to the titi monkeys susceptibility to predation by diurnal raptors. Diets of Black-headed Night Monkeys and titi monkeys include many bitter or spicy (e.g. Lauraceae) and unripe fruits not generally eaten by other monkeys. Black-headed Night Monkeys forage for insects, especially at dawn and dusk, searching along branches and among foliage. They are adept at catching insects in mid-air and eat moths, beetles, and particularly orthopterans (katydids and grasshoppers of 6-10 cm in length, which call and are active at night and more easily located). Black-headed Night Monkeys are more insectivorous than titi monkeys that supplement the fruit part of their diet more with leaves. When fruits are scarce at the end of the wet season and in the early dry season, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat mostly figs, nectar, and insects. Their consumption of figs is facilitated by the lack of competition from the diurnal primates.","breeding":"In Peru, a seasonal peak in births of Black-headed Night Monkeys occurs between August and February during the rainy season, when fruit is abundant.","activityPatterns":"Black-headed Night Monkeys spend ¢.50% of the night active, with maximallevels of activity when the full moon is near the meridian. An activity budget generally consists of 53% foraging, 21% traveling, 22% resting, and 4% agonistic. They are very regular in their activity periods, consistently beginning their day about 13 minutes after sunset and reentering their sleeping sites about 15 minutes before sunrise.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social structure of the Black-headed Night Monkey consists of one adult female and one adult male. Group size ranges from two to five, with a mean of four individuals. In a study at Cocha Cashu, homerange size was 7-14 ha with a mean of 9:2 ha (n = = 9 groups). The distance travelled at night averaged 708 m. They traveled twice as far on moonlit nights than on darker nights. Average distance moved on nights with a new moon was 436 m compared to 780 m on a night with a full moon. On dark and rainy nights, travel was slow and curtailed. They traveled farther at dawn and dusk than at other times. They repeatedly used the same routes through the trees indicating that this helped them to navigate in the dark. Principal predators of the Black-headed Night Monkey in the Amazon are diurnal raptors, which explain their propensity to use tree holes for sleeping during the day. Alternate sleeping sites are in very dense foliage, vines, and lianas where they are well hidden. Good sleeping sites appear to be uncommon and are reused frequently; travel during the night is generally circular, returning before sunrise to the sleeping site that they used the previous day. For 60 nights over a year, a group of Black-headed Night Monkeys usedjust five sites, and one of them was used more than 30 times. Both males and females emigrate. A density estimate for Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, was 36-40 ind/km?.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although the Black-headed Night Monkey is not generally hunted for food, considerable numbers of them were captured and exported to biomedical research laboratories in the 1970s because of their use in research on malaria and in oncology. There is evidence that there is a continuing illegal trade of these monkeys even today. They occur in Manuripe-Heath National Reserve in Boliviaand Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru. The Brazilian national parks of Amazonia, Juruena, Pacaas Novos, and Serra do Divisor are within its known range, as are Abufari, Guaporé, and Jaru biological reserves and Rio Acre Ecological Station.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 35-42 cm,tail 35-44 cm; weight ¢.875 g (males) and c.1040 g (females). The Black-headed Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 51 in males and 52 in females. It is iron-gray above with a brownish agouti on the dorsum. The underside is orange with white tones, extending to the neck, throat, chin, and sides of the jaw and to the inner surfaces of the wrists and ankles. The cap is black, face stripes are broad, and areas of white on the face are conspicuous. The interscapular whorl is absent.","habitat":"Primary tropical forest, swamp forest, and seasonally flooded forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682AFA8B732DF6E8F454.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA859682AFA8B732DF6E8F454","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"429","verbatimText":"8. Andean Night Monkey Aotus miconaxFrench:Douroucouli des Andes/ German:Anden-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno andinoOther common names:Andean Owl Monkey, Peruvian Night Monkey, Peruvian Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus miconax Thomas, 1927,Peru, Amazonas, San Nicolas, 1372 m above sea level.This species is monotypic.Distribution.A Peruvian endemic, confined to a small area S of the Rio Maranonand W of the Rio Huallaga to about 10° S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 39-4 cm, tail 22 cm (measurements from the type specimen). The Andean Night Monkeyis a red-necked species. Its upper sides are light gray with a brownish tint, often quite infused with red-brown. Its underside is pale orange, extending forward as far as the chin and on the inner sides of the limbs, but not extending above the ventral one-half of the side of neck or to the ankle. Outer surface of body is dominantly brownish to buffy agouti. The tail is bushy; its upper side is blackish, and the lower side reddish orange. Facial pattern is inconspicuous. An interscapular whorlis absent.Habitat.Primary and secondary humid lower montane cloud forest at elevations of 800-2788 m. Temperature range in these habitats is 15°C-19°C, and annual rainfall is ¢.1500-3000 mm.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Andean Night Monkey includes fruits, young leaves and leaf buds, flowers (Melastomataceae), and insects. Studies in La Esperanza in the Bongara Province, Amazonas, Peru, have recorded them eating fruits of at least twelve species, including Ficus(Moraceae), two species of Inga(Fabaceae), Solanum(Solanaceae), Neosprucea montana (Flacourticeae), Styloceraslaurifolium (Buxaceae), two species of Cecropia(Urticaceae), and Bunchosiaarmeniaca (Malpighiaceae). The Andean Night Monkeys there evidently eat more buds and young leaves (30% of their diet) than has been found for Azara’s Night Monkey (A. azarae)—not typical of other species of night monkeys that tend to be more insectivorous.Breeding.There is a record of a birth in April, but otherwise there is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Andean Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. An activity budget recorded at La Esperanza, involving more than ten hours of observation, was 48-8% traveling, 37-8% feeding, and 13-4% resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Groups of 2-6 individuals have been observed in the Cordillerade Colan and in the private reserves of Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva and Huiquilla in the northern part ofits distribution. Sleeping sites have been recorded at heights of 6-9 m in dense vegetation of branches, epiphytes, and lianas. Calls (recorded) of the black-banded owl (Strix huhula) elicit warning vocalizations and mobbing behavior by the Andean Night Monkey. Groups are able to live in small forest patches near and among houses and occasionally go to the ground to reach other forest patches or isolated trees in fruit, risking attack by dogs.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is listed as Endangered on the Peruvian threatened species list published by decree in 2004. The Andean Night Monkey is threatened because of the widespread destruction of its forests for farmland and pasture since the early 1970s throughout its limited distribution. For many years, the Peruvian departments of San Martinand Amazonashave had the highest rates of deforestation and immigration in the country. The Andean Night Monkey is not hunted for food and can be locally quite common. Individuals are sometimes caught when their sleeping trees are cut down, and they are occasionally kept as pets. Andean Night Monkeys are known to occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and possibly Tingo Maria National Park and Cordillerade Colan Reserved Zone.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacién (1994a), Butchart et al. (1995), Cornejo, Aquino & Jiménez (2008), Fernandez-Duque (2007, 2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hershkovitz (1977, 1983), Heymann (2004), Marchena et al. (2011), Shanee & Shanee (2008, 2011c), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994), Young & Leon (1999).","taxonomy":"Aotus miconax Thomas, 1927,Peru, Amazonas, San Nicolas, 1372 m above sea level.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli des Andes @fr | Anden-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno andino Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1927","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"429","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"miconax","name":"Aotus miconax","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A Peruvian endemic, confined to a small area S of the Rio Maranonand W of the Rio Huallaga to about 10° S.","bibliography":"Aquino & Encarnacién (1994a) | Butchart et al. (1995) | Cornejo, Aquino & Jiménez (2008) | Fernandez-Duque (2007, 2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hershkovitz (1977, 1983) | Heymann (2004) | Marchena et al. (2011) | Shanee & Shanee (2008, 2011c) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994) | Young & Leon (1999)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Andean Night Monkey includes fruits, young leaves and leaf buds, flowers (Melastomataceae), and insects. Studies in La Esperanza in the Bongara Province, Amazonas, Peru, have recorded them eating fruits of at least twelve species, including Ficus(Moraceae), two species of Inga(Fabaceae), Solanum(Solanaceae), Neosprucea montana (Flacourticeae), Styloceraslaurifolium (Buxaceae), two species of Cecropia(Urticaceae), and Bunchosiaarmeniaca (Malpighiaceae). The Andean Night Monkeys there evidently eat more buds and young leaves (30% of their diet) than has been found for Azara’s Night Monkey (A. azarae)—not typical of other species of night monkeys that tend to be more insectivorous.","breeding":"There is a record of a birth in April, but otherwise there is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"The Andean Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. An activity budget recorded at La Esperanza, involving more than ten hours of observation, was 48-8% traveling, 37-8% feeding, and 13-4% resting.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Groups of 2-6 individuals have been observed in the Cordillerade Colan and in the private reserves of Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva and Huiquilla in the northern part ofits distribution. Sleeping sites have been recorded at heights of 6-9 m in dense vegetation of branches, epiphytes, and lianas. Calls (recorded) of the black-banded owl (Strix huhula) elicit warning vocalizations and mobbing behavior by the Andean Night Monkey. Groups are able to live in small forest patches near and among houses and occasionally go to the ground to reach other forest patches or isolated trees in fruit, risking attack by dogs.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is listed as Endangered on the Peruvian threatened species list published by decree in 2004. The Andean Night Monkey is threatened because of the widespread destruction of its forests for farmland and pasture since the early 1970s throughout its limited distribution. For many years, the Peruvian departments of San Martinand Amazonashave had the highest rates of deforestation and immigration in the country. The Andean Night Monkey is not hunted for food and can be locally quite common. Individuals are sometimes caught when their sleeping trees are cut down, and they are occasionally kept as pets. Andean Night Monkeys are known to occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and possibly Tingo Maria National Park and Cordillerade Colan Reserved Zone.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 39-4 cm, tail 22 cm (measurements from the type specimen). The Andean Night Monkeyis a red-necked species. Its upper sides are light gray with a brownish tint, often quite infused with red-brown. Its underside is pale orange, extending forward as far as the chin and on the inner sides of the limbs, but not extending above the ventral one-half of the side of neck or to the ankle. Outer surface of body is dominantly brownish to buffy agouti. The tail is bushy; its upper side is blackish, and the lower side reddish orange. Facial pattern is inconspicuous. An interscapular whorlis absent.","habitat":"Primary and secondary humid lower montane cloud forest at elevations of 800-2788 m. Temperature range in these habitats is 15°C-19°C, and annual rainfall is ¢.1500-3000 mm."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682AFF807839F6B1FDD3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA859682AFF807839F6B1FDD3","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"429","verbatimText":"7. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night MonkeyAotus jorgehernandeziFrench:Douroucouli de Hernandez/ German:Hernandez-Camacho-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de Hernandez-CamachoOther common names:Hernandez-Camacho’s Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus jorgehernandezi Defler & Bueno, 2007,type locality uncertain, a captive animal in Quindio Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border of Quindioand Riseralda.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The range is unknown, but it is believed to occur on the W slopes and foothills of the Andes of W Colombia, in the region of Quindioand Riseralda.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available, but it is similar in size to other night monkeys. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The face has two discrete supraocular white patches separated by a broad black frontal stripe. Subocular white bands of fur are separated by a thin black malar stripe on each side of the head. Ventral parts of the arms from the wrists running up into the chest and belly are of thick white fur.Habitat.Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is likely nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it may occur in Tatama National Natural Park in Colombia.Bibliography.Defler & Bueno (2007), Morales-Jiménez & Link (2008b), Yunis et al. (1977).","taxonomy":"Aotus jorgehernandezi Defler & Bueno, 2007,type locality uncertain, a captive animal in Quindio Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border of Quindioand Riseralda.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Hernandez @fr | Hernandez-Camacho-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Hernandez-Camacho Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Defler & Bueno","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2007","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"429","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"jorgehernandezi","name":"Aotus jorgehernandezi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The range is unknown, but it is believed to occur on the W slopes and foothills of the Andes of W Colombia, in the region of Quindioand Riseralda.","bibliography":"Defler & Bueno (2007) | Morales-Jiménez & Link (2008b) | Yunis et al. (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information for this species, but Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is likely nocturnal and arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it may occur in Tatama National Natural Park in Colombia.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available, but it is similar in size to other night monkeys. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The face has two discrete supraocular white patches separated by a broad black frontal stripe. Subocular white bands of fur are separated by a thin black malar stripe on each side of the head. Ventral parts of the arms from the wrists running up into the chest and belly are of thick white fur.","habitat":"Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682BFA887AABFBB0F6CB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA859682BFA887AABFBB0F6CB","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"429","verbatimText":"9. Ma’s Night Monkey Aotus nancymaaeFrench:Douroucouli du Loreto/ German:Nancy-Ma-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de Nancy MaOther common names:Nancy Ma's Night Monkey, Nancy Ma's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus nancymai Hershkovitz, 1983,right bank of Rio Samiria above Estacion Pithecia, Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria, Loreto, Peru, elevation ¢.130 m.This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Brazil(S of the Rio Solimoes from the Rio Javari on the Peruvian border E possibly as far as the Rio Jandiatuba) and NE Peru(from the Javari W to the Rio Huallaga), also found N of the Maranon in an enclave between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza to c.03° S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 29-34 cm, tail 35-42 cm; weight 794-5 g (male average, n = 32) and 780-2 g (female average, n = 24). Ma’s Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 54. Upperparts of the body are grayish-agouti, with a darkened mid-dorsal zone and a pale orange underside; the latter color extends up the sides of the neck and inner limbs. Proximal part of the tail is also orange with, usually, a blackish stripe above; the underside of the tail is blackish. Face is grayish-white, crown stripes are narrow and dark brown, and sides of the throat and jaw are colored like the body. An interscapular whorl is absent.Habitat.[Lowland tropical forest including seasonally flooded forest at elevations of 60-130 m. Densities of Ma’s Night Monkeys are lower in terra firma forest because of a relative paucity of tree holes, their preferred sleeping sites, compared with lowland swamp and seasonally inundated forests. Trees in terra firma forest are predominantly hardwoods that provide fewer hollows for sleeping. Lowland swamp and inundated forests have a predominance of softwood that more easily form hollows and abundant dense vine tangles that these monkeys also use as sleeping sites.Food and Feeding.In captivity, Ma’s Night Monkeys eat insects, geckos,lizards, and on one occasion, a small bird. Food sharing is prevalent in captivity.Breeding.A peak in births has been estimated to be between December and March in the wet season, but captive populations breed throughout the year when photoperiod is kept constant. Age at first reproduction is about 40 months. Single offspring are the rule, and twinning in captivity only occurred in one of 169 births in one study and one in 287 births in a second study. Interbirth intervals in captive females are 9-11 months. In captivity, pregnant females may mate.Activity patterns.Ma’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Field research on the Rio Tahuayo, north-eastern Peru, in 1978-1979 found social groups of 2-5 individuals (average 3-4), including a breeding pair and its offspring. In one instance, a third adult was seen traveling some 20-30 m from a group; it was eventually attacked and chased off by the breeding pair. Density at Rio Tahuayo was estimated at 8-7 groups/km? or 25 ind/km?. An analysis of the population structure found a lack ofjuveniles (450-575 g), indicating poor survival ofthis age category. Density estimates obtained for Ma’s Night Monkey in nine other localities from 1982 to 1985 were 3-9-13-2 groups/km? or 16-54-2 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major identified threats, but their capture for use in medical research continues. Perubanned trade in primatesin 1973 and became a signatory to CITES in 1975. Between 1994 and 2007, registered exports of Ma’s Night Monkey from Perutotaled 1059 animals, but it is still being exported illegally, with Peruvian and Brazilian Ma’s Night Monkeys and Black-headed Night Monkeys (A. nigriceps) appearing in Colombiawhere they do not otherwise occur. Ma’s Night Monkey occurs in the Jutai-Solimoes Ecological Station in Braziland Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve and ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo in Peru.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacion (1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1994a), Aquino et al. (1990, 1992), Bolen & Green (1997), Cornejo & Palacios (2008a), Feged et al. (2002), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Gozalo & Montoya (1990), Held & Wolfle (1994), Hershkovitz (1983), Kumamoto & Houck (2001), Malaga, Weller, Buschbom et al. (1997), Mélaga, Weller, Montoya et al. (1991), Maldonado et al. (2009), Nino-Vasquez et al. (2000), Pieczarka et al. (1992), Wolovich & Evans (2007), Wolovich et al. (2008a, 2010), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Aotus nancymai Hershkovitz, 1983,right bank of Rio Samiria above Estacion Pithecia, Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria, Loreto, Peru, elevation ¢.130 m.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli du Loreto @fr | Nancy-Ma-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Nancy Ma Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hershkovitz","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1983","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"429","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nancymaae","name":"Aotus nancymaae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Brazil(S of the Rio Solimoes from the Rio Javari on the Peruvian border E possibly as far as the Rio Jandiatuba) and NE Peru(from the Javari W to the Rio Huallaga), also found N of the Maranon in an enclave between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza to c.03° S.","bibliography":"Aquino & Encarnacion (1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1994a) | Aquino et al. (1990, 1992) | Bolen & Green (1997) | Cornejo & Palacios (2008a) | Feged et al. (2002) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Gozalo & Montoya (1990) | Held & Wolfle (1994) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Kumamoto & Houck (2001) | Malaga, Weller, Buschbom et al. (1997) | Mélaga, Weller, Montoya et al. (1991) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Nino-Vasquez et al. (2000) | Pieczarka et al. (1992) | Wolovich & Evans (2007) | Wolovich et al. (2008a, 2010) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"In captivity, Ma’s Night Monkeys eat insects, geckos,lizards, and on one occasion, a small bird. Food sharing is prevalent in captivity.","breeding":"A peak in births has been estimated to be between December and March in the wet season, but captive populations breed throughout the year when photoperiod is kept constant. Age at first reproduction is about 40 months. Single offspring are the rule, and twinning in captivity only occurred in one of 169 births in one study and one in 287 births in a second study. Interbirth intervals in captive females are 9-11 months. In captivity, pregnant females may mate.","activityPatterns":"Ma’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Field research on the Rio Tahuayo, north-eastern Peru, in 1978-1979 found social groups of 2-5 individuals (average 3-4), including a breeding pair and its offspring. In one instance, a third adult was seen traveling some 20-30 m from a group; it was eventually attacked and chased off by the breeding pair. Density at Rio Tahuayo was estimated at 8-7 groups/km? or 25 ind/km?. An analysis of the population structure found a lack ofjuveniles (450-575 g), indicating poor survival ofthis age category. Density estimates obtained for Ma’s Night Monkey in nine other localities from 1982 to 1985 were 3-9-13-2 groups/km? or 16-54-2 ind/km?.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major identified threats, but their capture for use in medical research continues. Perubanned trade in primatesin 1973 and became a signatory to CITES in 1975. Between 1994 and 2007, registered exports of Ma’s Night Monkey from Perutotaled 1059 animals, but it is still being exported illegally, with Peruvian and Brazilian Ma’s Night Monkeys and Black-headed Night Monkeys (A. nigriceps) appearing in Colombiawhere they do not otherwise occur. Ma’s Night Monkey occurs in the Jutai-Solimoes Ecological Station in Braziland Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve and ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo in Peru.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 29-34 cm, tail 35-42 cm; weight 794-5 g (male average, n = 32) and 780-2 g (female average, n = 24). Ma’s Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 54. Upperparts of the body are grayish-agouti, with a darkened mid-dorsal zone and a pale orange underside; the latter color extends up the sides of the neck and inner limbs. Proximal part of the tail is also orange with, usually, a blackish stripe above; the underside of the tail is blackish. Face is grayish-white, crown stripes are narrow and dark brown, and sides of the throat and jaw are colored like the body. An interscapular whorl is absent.","habitat":"[Lowland tropical forest including seasonally flooded forest at elevations of 60-130 m. Densities of Ma’s Night Monkeys are lower in terra firma forest because of a relative paucity of tree holes, their preferred sleeping sites, compared with lowland swamp and seasonally inundated forests. Trees in terra firma forest are predominantly hardwoods that provide fewer hollows for sleeping. Lowland swamp and inundated forests have a predominance of softwood that more easily form hollows and abundant dense vine tangles that these monkeys also use as sleeping sites."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA8586828FA4078B3F66AF6EE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA8586828FA4078B3F66AF6EE","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"430","verbatimText":"11. Azara’s Night Monkey Aotus azaraeFrench:Douroucouli de d'Azara/ German:Azara-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de AzaraOther common names:Azara's Owl Monkey; Bolivian Night Monkey (boliviensis), Feline Night Monkey (infulatus)Taxonomy.Simia azarae Humboldt, 1812,Paraguay. Restricted by Elliot in 1913 to the right bank of Rio Paraguayin northeastern Argentina.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. a. azarae Humboldt, 1812— SC Brazil(Pantanal), S Bolivia(Banados del Izozog), Paraguay(S & W Chaco, W of the Rio Paraguay), and N Argentina(provinces of Chaco& Formosa).A. a. boliviensis Elliot, 1907 — SE Peru(S of the rios Madre de Diosand Inambari) and BoliviaE of the Andes (from the Rio Madre de Dios S to the Banados del Izozog in the border region with Paraguay). A. a. infulatus Kuhl, 1820 — Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas (but with a small enclave in the SE tip of Amapa State), including Marajo and Caviana Is, extending E in the state of Maranhaoas far as the Rio Parnaiba, S along the W bank of Rio Tocantinsto the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, W limits are marked by the rios Tapajos and Juruena.Descriptive notes.Head-body 34 cm (males) and 33 cm (females), tail ¢.31 cm; weight 990-1580 g (males, nominate subspecies) and 1010-1450 g (female nominate subspecies). Azara’s Night Monkey is a highly variable red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 49 in males and 50 in females. An interscapular whorl is generally present. In the subspecies azarae, fur is long, thick, and shaggy, grayish to pale buffyagouti above and pale whitish-orange below. Face stripes are narrow. Basal hairs of the distal one-quarter of tail are orange. In the “Bolivian Night Monkey” (A. a. bolivienss), fur is relatively short, with an olive tone above and contrastingly grayer on limbs. Face stripes are very narrow except where the middle one expands on the crown; the black temporal stripe is poorly defined, the black malar stripe is faint or absent, and there is usually a whitish band between the eyes and temporal stripe. There is a conspicuous whorl between the shoulder blades. The “Feline Night Monkey” (A. a. infulatus) is like the Bolivian Night Monkey, but the white on its face is more prominent. There is generally no whitish band between the eyes and the temporal stripe as with the Bolivian Night Monkey. Temporal stripes are black, well defined, and continuous with the malar stripe. The tail tends to be reddish throughout its length except for the black tip. Orange of underparts extends to or above the ventral one-half of side of neck and to mid-tibia or ankle. Color of the throat varies from orange, with the anterior one-half grayish agouti to entirely orange. Sometimes there is an interscapular whorl, sometimes not.Habitat.Deciduous, gallery, riparian, and secondary forest of the Chaco in Paraguay, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Group sizes of Azara’s Night Monkey are smaller in the more xeric regions of the Chacocompared with humid (mesic) regions. Seasonality in these environments is strong, and temperatures range between —=5°C and 47°C. The Feline Night Monkey has been recorded in Orbignya (Arecaceae) palm forest (the Zona dos Cocais in Maranhao), forest patches and gallery forests in the “cerrado” (bush savanna) of central Brazil, and the “caatinga” (deciduous scrub and forest) in north-eastern Brazil. It also occurs in mangrove forest.Food and Feeding.Diet of Azara’s Night Monkey is composed of fruits, nectar, flowers, leaves, fungi, and insects. Feeding ecology of the nominate subspecies has been studied in the subtropical dry forest of Paraguay. Azara’s Night Monkeys there were more folivorous than the Black-headed Night Monkey (A. nigriceps) in Peru, concentrating on leaves of small trees and vines for 46% of their feeding time and with fruit being only 16% of the diet (as opposed to 60%), and nectar and flowers 33%. At times of fruit shortage, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat more flowers, nectar, fig fruits, and insects, rather than leaves. Flowers can also be seasonally important, for example those of Tabebuiaipe (Bignoniaceae). Azara’s Night Monkeys have been seen to catch cicadas during the day.Breeding.Breeding of Azara’s Night Monkey is seasonal; births peak in January-February in Paraguayand October-November in Argentina. In Argentina, adult body mass is reached at about four years of age, and the onset of reproduction occurs at about six years. In the nominate subspecies azarae, females have a reproductive cycle of ¢.22 days in the wild and 25 days in captivity. Captive and wild females of the subspecies azaraehave a gestation period of ¢.120-130 days. Infants are mostly carried by the male from when they are about ten days old. The median interbirth interval is 370 days (range 345-426 days, n = 13). As has been found for other night monkeys, mating is infrequent. During three years of study and more than 2000 hours of observations, mating was recorded only eight times in five groups. Itis rapid and discreet, and therefore difficult to observe. Although all night monkeys are believed to be monogamous (there is never more than one breeding female and always only one male in the groups), a long-term study of known individuals in a population of the subspecies azaraein northern Argentinashowed considerable turnover of resident adults.Activity patterns.In Paraguay, the nominate subspecies is partially diurnal, foraging during the day for periods of one to three hours. Large raptors such as the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the Guianacrested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) are rare there, and the principal, potential, avian predator is the great horned owl (Bubo virgintanus). When traveling at night, they are quieter than is typical for night monkeys of the Amazonian forest possibly because of this. Temperature may be another factor promoting diurnal activity. Low temperatures do not completely inhibit their traveling and foraging, but when night-time temperatures are 5°-10°C, they forage in the late afternoon at temperatures of 25°-30°C. Diurnal foraging and traveling increases when the weather is cooler. A field study of the subspecies Bolivian Night Monkey in Beni, Bolivia, recorded an activity budget of 31% foraging, 49% resting, and 20% traveling. Groups travel longer during full-moon nights than new-moon nights, and ambient temperature also influences distances moved during full-moon nights.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social structure of Azara’s Night Monkey consists of one adult male and one adult female per group, with a mean group size of 2-3-4 individuals. Subadults are often observed in groups of the nominate subspecies azaraein Argentina. Group density of the subspecies azaraehas been reported at 5-5-16 groups/km? in Argentina. In Paraguay, group density has been estimated at 4 groups/km”. For the Bolivian Night Monkey, there is one report of 68-9 groups/ km?, but the census was taken in an island offorest of only 0-33 ha. Home-range size has been reported to vary from 5 ha to 10 ha. Mean daily movement is estimated at 378-5 m, with mean diurnal movement of 199 m and mean nocturnal movement of 420 m. The population of the subspecies azaraein Guaycolec Ranch, Formosa Province, Argentina, has ¢.25-30% of adults living solitarily. Both males and females disperse. Subadults are often on the periphery of a social group’s home range prior to emigration in the subspecies azarae. Turnover of resident adults is frequent, with 14 of 15 pairs replacing at least one adult in a three-year period. Aggressive interactions in this population are observed between groups during the day and night. Paternal care and provisioning have been observed, with males carrying an infant 84% of the time after the first week oflife. The adult male also plays, grooms, and shares food with the infant. In the subspecies azarae, males and females share food in the wild with infants and mates. Individuals in the population at Guaycolec often travel on the ground when they cross from one patch of forest to the other, sometimes for distances up to 100 m.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Subspecies azaraeand boliviensis are classified as Least Concern and subspecies infulatus is classified as Near Threatened because of logging and the widespread conversion of forest for commercial agriculture, especially for soy beans, and for cattle pasture throughout its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para over the last two decades. The range of Azara’s Night Monkey coincides with the most devastated areas of the Brazilian Amazon. The subspecies azaraeoccurs in the national parks of Rio Pilcomayo in Argentinaand Kaa-lya del Gran Chacoin Bolivia, and in the Defensores del Chaco, and Tinfunqué national parks in Paraguay. The Bolivian Night Monkey occurs in Amboro, Carrasco, Isiboro Sécure, Madidi, and Noel Kempff Mercado national parks and Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve in Bolivia. The Feline Night Monkey occurs in Pantanal Matogrossense and Araguaia national parks and Gurupi and Tapirapé biological reserves in Brazil.Bibliography.Arditi (1992), Arditi & Placci (1990), Defler et al. (2001), Dixson (1983, 1994), Fernandes (1993), Fernandez-Duque (2003, 2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012), Fernandez-Duque & Bravo (1997), Fernandez-Duque & Erkert (2004, 2006), Fernandez-Duque & Huntington (2002), Fernandez-Duque, Rotundo & Ramirez-Llorens (2002), Fernandez-Dugue, Rotundo & Sloan (2001), Fernandez-Duque, Wallace & Rylands (2008), Garcia & Braza (1987, 1989, 1993), Giménez & Fernandez-Duque (2003), Huck & Fernandez-Duque (2011), Huck et al. (2011), Hunter et al. (1979), Jantschke et al. (1998), Ma, Elliott et al. (1976), Ma, Jones et al. (1976), Mudry, Colillas & de Salum (1984), Mudry, Slavutsky & Labal de Vinuesa (1990), Pieczarka & Nagamachi (1988), Pieczarka et al. (1993), Rathbun & Gache (1980), Rotundo et al. (2005), Silva & Fernandes (1999), Silva & Nunes (1995), Smith & Jungers (1997), Stallings et al. (1989), Welker et al. (1998), Wolovich & Evans (2007), Wolovich, Perea-Rodriguez & Fernandez-Duque (2008), Wright (1981, 1985, 1989, 1994), Zunino (1985), Zunino et al. (1986).","taxonomy":"Simia azarae Humboldt, 1812,Paraguay. Restricted by Elliot in 1913 to the right bank of Rio Paraguayin northeastern Argentina.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de d'Azara @fr | Azara-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Azara Other common names @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Humboldt","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1812","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"430","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"azarae","name":"Aotus azarae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. a. azarae Humboldt, 1812— SC Brazil(Pantanal), S Bolivia(Banados del Izozog), Paraguay(S & W Chaco, W of the Rio Paraguay), and N Argentina(provinces of Chaco& Formosa).A. a. boliviensis Elliot, 1907 — SE Peru(S of the rios Madre de Diosand Inambari) and BoliviaE of the Andes (from the Rio Madre de Dios S to the Banados del Izozog in the border region with Paraguay). A. a. infulatus Kuhl, 1820 — Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas (but with a small enclave in the SE tip of Amapa State), including Marajo and Caviana Is, extending E in the state of Maranhaoas far as the Rio Parnaiba, S along the W bank of Rio Tocantinsto the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, W limits are marked by the rios Tapajos and Juruena.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726996/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arditi (1992) | Arditi & Placci (1990) | Defler et al. (2001) | Dixson (1983, 1994) | Fernandes (1993) | Fernandez-Duque (2003, 2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012) | Fernandez-Duque & Bravo (1997) | Fernandez-Duque & Erkert (2004, 2006) | Fernandez-Duque & Huntington (2002) | Fernandez-Duque, Rotundo & Ramirez-Llorens (2002) | Fernandez-Dugue, Rotundo & Sloan (2001) | Fernandez-Duque, Wallace & Rylands (2008) | Garcia & Braza (1987, 1989, 1993) | Giménez & Fernandez-Duque (2003) | Huck & Fernandez-Duque (2011) | Huck et al. (2011) | Hunter et al. (1979) | Jantschke et al. (1998) | Ma, Elliott et al. (1976) | Ma, Jones et al. (1976) | Mudry, Colillas & de Salum (1984) | Mudry, Slavutsky & Labal de Vinuesa (1990) | Pieczarka & Nagamachi (1988) | Pieczarka et al. (1993) | Rathbun & Gache (1980) | Rotundo et al. (2005) | Silva & Fernandes (1999) | Silva & Nunes (1995) | Smith & Jungers (1997) | Stallings et al. (1989) | Welker et al. (1998) | Wolovich & Evans (2007) | Wolovich, Perea-Rodriguez & Fernandez-Duque (2008) | Wright (1981, 1985, 1989, 1994) | Zunino (1985) | Zunino et al. (1986)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Azara’s Night Monkey is composed of fruits, nectar, flowers, leaves, fungi, and insects. Feeding ecology of the nominate subspecies has been studied in the subtropical dry forest of Paraguay. Azara’s Night Monkeys there were more folivorous than the Black-headed Night Monkey (A. nigriceps) in Peru, concentrating on leaves of small trees and vines for 46% of their feeding time and with fruit being only 16% of the diet (as opposed to 60%), and nectar and flowers 33%. At times of fruit shortage, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat more flowers, nectar, fig fruits, and insects, rather than leaves. Flowers can also be seasonally important, for example those of Tabebuiaipe (Bignoniaceae). Azara’s Night Monkeys have been seen to catch cicadas during the day.","breeding":"Breeding of Azara’s Night Monkey is seasonal; births peak in January-February in Paraguayand October-November in Argentina. In Argentina, adult body mass is reached at about four years of age, and the onset of reproduction occurs at about six years. In the nominate subspecies azarae, females have a reproductive cycle of ¢.22 days in the wild and 25 days in captivity. Captive and wild females of the subspecies azaraehave a gestation period of ¢.120-130 days. Infants are mostly carried by the male from when they are about ten days old. The median interbirth interval is 370 days (range 345-426 days, n = 13). As has been found for other night monkeys, mating is infrequent. During three years of study and more than 2000 hours of observations, mating was recorded only eight times in five groups. Itis rapid and discreet, and therefore difficult to observe. Although all night monkeys are believed to be monogamous (there is never more than one breeding female and always only one male in the groups), a long-term study of known individuals in a population of the subspecies azaraein northern Argentinashowed considerable turnover of resident adults.","activityPatterns":"In Paraguay, the nominate subspecies is partially diurnal, foraging during the day for periods of one to three hours. Large raptors such as the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the Guianacrested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) are rare there, and the principal, potential, avian predator is the great horned owl (Bubo virgintanus). When traveling at night, they are quieter than is typical for night monkeys of the Amazonian forest possibly because of this. Temperature may be another factor promoting diurnal activity. Low temperatures do not completely inhibit their traveling and foraging, but when night-time temperatures are 5°-10°C, they forage in the late afternoon at temperatures of 25°-30°C. Diurnal foraging and traveling increases when the weather is cooler. A field study of the subspecies Bolivian Night Monkey in Beni, Bolivia, recorded an activity budget of 31% foraging, 49% resting, and 20% traveling. Groups travel longer during full-moon nights than new-moon nights, and ambient temperature also influences distances moved during full-moon nights.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social structure of Azara’s Night Monkey consists of one adult male and one adult female per group, with a mean group size of 2-3-4 individuals. Subadults are often observed in groups of the nominate subspecies azaraein Argentina. Group density of the subspecies azaraehas been reported at 5-5-16 groups/km? in Argentina. In Paraguay, group density has been estimated at 4 groups/km”. For the Bolivian Night Monkey, there is one report of 68-9 groups/ km?, but the census was taken in an island offorest of only 0-33 ha. Home-range size has been reported to vary from 5 ha to 10 ha. Mean daily movement is estimated at 378-5 m, with mean diurnal movement of 199 m and mean nocturnal movement of 420 m. The population of the subspecies azaraein Guaycolec Ranch, Formosa Province, Argentina, has ¢.25-30% of adults living solitarily. Both males and females disperse. Subadults are often on the periphery of a social group’s home range prior to emigration in the subspecies azarae. Turnover of resident adults is frequent, with 14 of 15 pairs replacing at least one adult in a three-year period. Aggressive interactions in this population are observed between groups during the day and night. Paternal care and provisioning have been observed, with males carrying an infant 84% of the time after the first week oflife. The adult male also plays, grooms, and shares food with the infant. In the subspecies azarae, males and females share food in the wild with infants and mates. Individuals in the population at Guaycolec often travel on the ground when they cross from one patch of forest to the other, sometimes for distances up to 100 m.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Subspecies azaraeand boliviensis are classified as Least Concern and subspecies infulatus is classified as Near Threatened because of logging and the widespread conversion of forest for commercial agriculture, especially for soy beans, and for cattle pasture throughout its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para over the last two decades. The range of Azara’s Night Monkey coincides with the most devastated areas of the Brazilian Amazon. The subspecies azaraeoccurs in the national parks of Rio Pilcomayo in Argentinaand Kaa-lya del Gran Chacoin Bolivia, and in the Defensores del Chaco, and Tinfunqué national parks in Paraguay. The Bolivian Night Monkey occurs in Amboro, Carrasco, Isiboro Sécure, Madidi, and Noel Kempff Mercado national parks and Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve in Bolivia. The Feline Night Monkey occurs in Pantanal Matogrossense and Araguaia national parks and Gurupi and Tapirapé biological reserves in Brazil.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 34 cm (males) and 33 cm (females), tail ¢.31 cm; weight 990-1580 g (males, nominate subspecies) and 1010-1450 g (female nominate subspecies). Azara’s Night Monkey is a highly variable red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 49 in males and 50 in females. An interscapular whorl is generally present. In the subspecies azarae, fur is long, thick, and shaggy, grayish to pale buffyagouti above and pale whitish-orange below. Face stripes are narrow. Basal hairs of the distal one-quarter of tail are orange. In the “Bolivian Night Monkey” (A. a. bolivienss), fur is relatively short, with an olive tone above and contrastingly grayer on limbs. Face stripes are very narrow except where the middle one expands on the crown; the black temporal stripe is poorly defined, the black malar stripe is faint or absent, and there is usually a whitish band between the eyes and temporal stripe. There is a conspicuous whorl between the shoulder blades. The “Feline Night Monkey” (A. a. infulatus) is like the Bolivian Night Monkey, but the white on its face is more prominent. There is generally no whitish band between the eyes and the temporal stripe as with the Bolivian Night Monkey. Temporal stripes are black, well defined, and continuous with the malar stripe. The tail tends to be reddish throughout its length except for the black tip. Orange of underparts extends to or above the ventral one-half of side of neck and to mid-tibia or ankle. Color of the throat varies from orange, with the anterior one-half grayish agouti to entirely orange. Sometimes there is an interscapular whorl, sometimes not.","habitat":"Deciduous, gallery, riparian, and secondary forest of the Chaco in Paraguay, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Group sizes of Azara’s Night Monkey are smaller in the more xeric regions of the Chacocompared with humid (mesic) regions. Seasonality in these environments is strong, and temperatures range between —=5°C and 47°C. The Feline Night Monkey has been recorded in Orbignya (Arecaceae) palm forest (the Zona dos Cocais in Maranhao), forest patches and gallery forests in the “cerrado” (bush savanna) of central Brazil, and the “caatinga” (deciduous scrub and forest) in north-eastern Brazil. It also occurs in mangrove forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA858682BFF797804F9A4F65D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA858682BFF797804F9A4F65D","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"430","verbatimText":"10. Black-headed Night Monkey Aotus nigricepsFrench:Douroucouli de Dollman/ German:Schwarzkopf-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de cabeza negraOther common names:Black-headed Owl Monkey, Night Monkey, Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus nigriceps Dollman, 1909,Peru, Chanchamayo, 1000 m.Populations on either side of the Rio Jurua differ somewhat from each other. Those on the right bank are gray-backed, while those on the left have a reddishbrown back and resemble A. nancymaae. Monotypic.Distribution.Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas-Solimoes and W of the Rio TapajosJuruena to the right bank of the Rio Guaporé and the left (N) bank of the Rio Madre de Dios in N Bolivia, also in SE PeruW to the Rio Huallaga and N as far the Rio Cushabatay at about 07° S.Descriptive notes.Head—body 35-42 cm,tail 35-44 cm; weight ¢.875 g (males) and c.1040 g (females). The Black-headed Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 51 in males and 52 in females. It is iron-gray above with a brownish agouti on the dorsum. The underside is orange with white tones, extending to the neck, throat, chin, and sides of the jaw and to the inner surfaces of the wrists and ankles. The cap is black, face stripes are broad, and areas of white on the face are conspicuous. The interscapular whorl is absent.Habitat.Primary tropical forest, swamp forest, and seasonally flooded forest.Food and Feeding.Black-headed Night Monkeys eatfruits, which account for ¢.60% of their diet, but they also eat nectar, young leaves and buds,insects, and spiders. In Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, they tend to feed more in large trees with larger crowns (more than 11 m in diameter) than sympatric diurnal titi monkeys (similar in size and also living in small monogamous groups) that customarily follow a regular foraging circuit to find small quantities of fruits in smaller crowned trees. Associated with their use of larger-crowned trees, Blackheaded Night Monkeys travel and forage higher up in the forest canopy than the titi monkeys, which spend more than 50% their time in the lower canopy and understory, perhaps due to the titi monkeys susceptibility to predation by diurnal raptors. Diets of Black-headed Night Monkeys and titi monkeys include many bitter or spicy (e.g. Lauraceae) and unripe fruits not generally eaten by other monkeys. Black-headed Night Monkeys forage for insects, especially at dawn and dusk, searching along branches and among foliage. They are adept at catching insects in mid-air and eat moths, beetles, and particularly orthopterans (katydids and grasshoppers of 6-10 cm in length, which call and are active at night and more easily located). Black-headed Night Monkeys are more insectivorous than titi monkeys that supplement the fruit part of their diet more with leaves. When fruits are scarce at the end of the wet season and in the early dry season, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat mostly figs, nectar, and insects. Their consumption of figs is facilitated by the lack of competition from the diurnal primates.Breeding.In Peru, a seasonal peak in births of Black-headed Night Monkeys occurs between August and February during the rainy season, when fruit is abundant.Activity patterns.Black-headed Night Monkeys spend ¢.50% of the night active, with maximallevels of activity when the full moon is near the meridian. An activity budget generally consists of 53% foraging, 21% traveling, 22% resting, and 4% agonistic. They are very regular in their activity periods, consistently beginning their day about 13 minutes after sunset and reentering their sleeping sites about 15 minutes before sunrise.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social structure of the Black-headed Night Monkey consists of one adult female and one adult male. Group size ranges from two to five, with a mean of four individuals. In a study at Cocha Cashu, homerange size was 7-14 ha with a mean of 9:2 ha (n = = 9 groups). The distance travelled at night averaged 708 m. They traveled twice as far on moonlit nights than on darker nights. Average distance moved on nights with a new moon was 436 m compared to 780 m on a night with a full moon. On dark and rainy nights, travel was slow and curtailed. They traveled farther at dawn and dusk than at other times. They repeatedly used the same routes through the trees indicating that this helped them to navigate in the dark. Principal predators of the Black-headed Night Monkey in the Amazon are diurnal raptors, which explain their propensity to use tree holes for sleeping during the day. Alternate sleeping sites are in very dense foliage, vines, and lianas where they are well hidden. Good sleeping sites appear to be uncommon and are reused frequently; travel during the night is generally circular, returning before sunrise to the sleeping site that they used the previous day. For 60 nights over a year, a group of Black-headed Night Monkeys usedjust five sites, and one of them was used more than 30 times. Both males and females emigrate. A density estimate for Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, was 36-40 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although the Black-headed Night Monkey is not generally hunted for food, considerable numbers of them were captured and exported to biomedical research laboratories in the 1970s because of their use in research on malaria and in oncology. There is evidence that there is a continuing illegal trade of these monkeys even today. They occur in Manuripe-Heath National Reserve in Boliviaand Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru. The Brazilian national parks of Amazonia, Juruena, Pacaas Novos, and Serra do Divisor are within its known range, as are Abufari, Guaporé, and Jaru biological reserves and Rio Acre Ecological Station.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacion (1994a), Bicca-Marques & Garber (2004), Collins (1994), Cornejo & Palacios (2008b), Hershkovitz (1983), Maldonado et al. (2009), Peres (1993), Wright (1978, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Aotus nigriceps Dollman, 1909,Peru, Chanchamayo, 1000 m.Populations on either side of the Rio Jurua differ somewhat from each other. Those on the right bank are gray-backed, while those on the left have a reddishbrown back and resemble A. nancymaae. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Dollman @fr | Schwarzkopf-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de cabeza negra Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dollman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"430","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nigriceps","name":"Aotus nigriceps","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Brazil, S of the Rio Amazonas-Solimoes and W of the Rio TapajosJuruena to the right bank of the Rio Guaporé and the left (N) bank of the Rio Madre de Dios in N Bolivia, also in SE PeruW to the Rio Huallaga and N as far the Rio Cushabatay at about 07° S.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726992/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aquino & Encarnacion (1994a) | Bicca-Marques & Garber (2004) | Collins (1994) | Cornejo & Palacios (2008b) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Peres (1993) | Wright (1978, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"Black-headed Night Monkeys eatfruits, which account for ¢.60% of their diet, but they also eat nectar, young leaves and buds,insects, and spiders. In Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, they tend to feed more in large trees with larger crowns (more than 11 m in diameter) than sympatric diurnal titi monkeys (similar in size and also living in small monogamous groups) that customarily follow a regular foraging circuit to find small quantities of fruits in smaller crowned trees. Associated with their use of larger-crowned trees, Blackheaded Night Monkeys travel and forage higher up in the forest canopy than the titi monkeys, which spend more than 50% their time in the lower canopy and understory, perhaps due to the titi monkeys susceptibility to predation by diurnal raptors. Diets of Black-headed Night Monkeys and titi monkeys include many bitter or spicy (e.g. Lauraceae) and unripe fruits not generally eaten by other monkeys. Black-headed Night Monkeys forage for insects, especially at dawn and dusk, searching along branches and among foliage. They are adept at catching insects in mid-air and eat moths, beetles, and particularly orthopterans (katydids and grasshoppers of 6-10 cm in length, which call and are active at night and more easily located). Black-headed Night Monkeys are more insectivorous than titi monkeys that supplement the fruit part of their diet more with leaves. When fruits are scarce at the end of the wet season and in the early dry season, Black-headed Night Monkeys eat mostly figs, nectar, and insects. Their consumption of figs is facilitated by the lack of competition from the diurnal primates.","breeding":"In Peru, a seasonal peak in births of Black-headed Night Monkeys occurs between August and February during the rainy season, when fruit is abundant.","activityPatterns":"Black-headed Night Monkeys spend ¢.50% of the night active, with maximallevels of activity when the full moon is near the meridian. An activity budget generally consists of 53% foraging, 21% traveling, 22% resting, and 4% agonistic. They are very regular in their activity periods, consistently beginning their day about 13 minutes after sunset and reentering their sleeping sites about 15 minutes before sunrise.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social structure of the Black-headed Night Monkey consists of one adult female and one adult male. Group size ranges from two to five, with a mean of four individuals. In a study at Cocha Cashu, homerange size was 7-14 ha with a mean of 9:2 ha (n = = 9 groups). The distance travelled at night averaged 708 m. They traveled twice as far on moonlit nights than on darker nights. Average distance moved on nights with a new moon was 436 m compared to 780 m on a night with a full moon. On dark and rainy nights, travel was slow and curtailed. They traveled farther at dawn and dusk than at other times. They repeatedly used the same routes through the trees indicating that this helped them to navigate in the dark. Principal predators of the Black-headed Night Monkey in the Amazon are diurnal raptors, which explain their propensity to use tree holes for sleeping during the day. Alternate sleeping sites are in very dense foliage, vines, and lianas where they are well hidden. Good sleeping sites appear to be uncommon and are reused frequently; travel during the night is generally circular, returning before sunrise to the sleeping site that they used the previous day. For 60 nights over a year, a group of Black-headed Night Monkeys usedjust five sites, and one of them was used more than 30 times. Both males and females emigrate. A density estimate for Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, was 36-40 ind/km?.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Although the Black-headed Night Monkey is not generally hunted for food, considerable numbers of them were captured and exported to biomedical research laboratories in the 1970s because of their use in research on malaria and in oncology. There is evidence that there is a continuing illegal trade of these monkeys even today. They occur in Manuripe-Heath National Reserve in Boliviaand Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru. The Brazilian national parks of Amazonia, Juruena, Pacaas Novos, and Serra do Divisor are within its known range, as are Abufari, Guaporé, and Jaru biological reserves and Rio Acre Ecological Station.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 35-42 cm,tail 35-44 cm; weight ¢.875 g (males) and c.1040 g (females). The Black-headed Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 51 in males and 52 in females. It is iron-gray above with a brownish agouti on the dorsum. The underside is orange with white tones, extending to the neck, throat, chin, and sides of the jaw and to the inner surfaces of the wrists and ankles. The cap is black, face stripes are broad, and areas of white on the face are conspicuous. The interscapular whorl is absent.","habitat":"Primary tropical forest, swamp forest, and seasonally flooded forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682AFA8B732DF6E8F454.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA859682AFA8B732DF6E8F454","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"429","verbatimText":"8. Andean Night Monkey Aotus miconaxFrench:Douroucouli des Andes/ German:Anden-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno andinoOther common names:Andean Owl Monkey, Peruvian Night Monkey, Peruvian Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus miconax Thomas, 1927,Peru, Amazonas, San Nicolas, 1372 m above sea level.This species is monotypic.Distribution.A Peruvian endemic, confined to a small area S of the Rio Maranonand W of the Rio Huallaga to about 10° S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 39-4 cm, tail 22 cm (measurements from the type specimen). The Andean Night Monkeyis a red-necked species. Its upper sides are light gray with a brownish tint, often quite infused with red-brown. Its underside is pale orange, extending forward as far as the chin and on the inner sides of the limbs, but not extending above the ventral one-half of the side of neck or to the ankle. Outer surface of body is dominantly brownish to buffy agouti. The tail is bushy; its upper side is blackish, and the lower side reddish orange. Facial pattern is inconspicuous. An interscapular whorlis absent.Habitat.Primary and secondary humid lower montane cloud forest at elevations of 800-2788 m. Temperature range in these habitats is 15°C-19°C, and annual rainfall is ¢.1500-3000 mm.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Andean Night Monkey includes fruits, young leaves and leaf buds, flowers (Melastomataceae), and insects. Studies in La Esperanza in the Bongara Province, Amazonas, Peru, have recorded them eating fruits of at least twelve species, including Ficus(Moraceae), two species of Inga(Fabaceae), Solanum(Solanaceae), Neosprucea montana (Flacourticeae), Styloceraslaurifolium (Buxaceae), two species of Cecropia(Urticaceae), and Bunchosiaarmeniaca (Malpighiaceae). The Andean Night Monkeys there evidently eat more buds and young leaves (30% of their diet) than has been found for Azara’s Night Monkey (A. azarae)—not typical of other species of night monkeys that tend to be more insectivorous.Breeding.There is a record of a birth in April, but otherwise there is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Andean Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. An activity budget recorded at La Esperanza, involving more than ten hours of observation, was 48-8% traveling, 37-8% feeding, and 13-4% resting.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Groups of 2-6 individuals have been observed in the Cordillerade Colan and in the private reserves of Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva and Huiquilla in the northern part ofits distribution. Sleeping sites have been recorded at heights of 6-9 m in dense vegetation of branches, epiphytes, and lianas. Calls (recorded) of the black-banded owl (Strix huhula) elicit warning vocalizations and mobbing behavior by the Andean Night Monkey. Groups are able to live in small forest patches near and among houses and occasionally go to the ground to reach other forest patches or isolated trees in fruit, risking attack by dogs.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is listed as Endangered on the Peruvian threatened species list published by decree in 2004. The Andean Night Monkey is threatened because of the widespread destruction of its forests for farmland and pasture since the early 1970s throughout its limited distribution. For many years, the Peruvian departments of San Martinand Amazonashave had the highest rates of deforestation and immigration in the country. The Andean Night Monkey is not hunted for food and can be locally quite common. Individuals are sometimes caught when their sleeping trees are cut down, and they are occasionally kept as pets. Andean Night Monkeys are known to occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and possibly Tingo Maria National Park and Cordillerade Colan Reserved Zone.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacién (1994a), Butchart et al. (1995), Cornejo, Aquino & Jiménez (2008), Fernandez-Duque (2007, 2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hershkovitz (1977, 1983), Heymann (2004), Marchena et al. (2011), Shanee & Shanee (2008, 2011c), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994), Young & Leon (1999).","taxonomy":"Aotus miconax Thomas, 1927,Peru, Amazonas, San Nicolas, 1372 m above sea level.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli des Andes @fr | Anden-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno andino Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1927","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"429","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"miconax","name":"Aotus miconax","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A Peruvian endemic, confined to a small area S of the Rio Maranonand W of the Rio Huallaga to about 10° S.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726986/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aquino & Encarnacién (1994a) | Butchart et al. (1995) | Cornejo, Aquino & Jiménez (2008) | Fernandez-Duque (2007, 2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hershkovitz (1977, 1983) | Heymann (2004) | Marchena et al. (2011) | Shanee & Shanee (2008, 2011c) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994) | Young & Leon (1999)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Andean Night Monkey includes fruits, young leaves and leaf buds, flowers (Melastomataceae), and insects. Studies in La Esperanza in the Bongara Province, Amazonas, Peru, have recorded them eating fruits of at least twelve species, including Ficus(Moraceae), two species of Inga(Fabaceae), Solanum(Solanaceae), Neosprucea montana (Flacourticeae), Styloceraslaurifolium (Buxaceae), two species of Cecropia(Urticaceae), and Bunchosiaarmeniaca (Malpighiaceae). The Andean Night Monkeys there evidently eat more buds and young leaves (30% of their diet) than has been found for Azara’s Night Monkey (A. azarae)—not typical of other species of night monkeys that tend to be more insectivorous.","breeding":"There is a record of a birth in April, but otherwise there is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"The Andean Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. An activity budget recorded at La Esperanza, involving more than ten hours of observation, was 48-8% traveling, 37-8% feeding, and 13-4% resting.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Groups of 2-6 individuals have been observed in the Cordillerade Colan and in the private reserves of Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva and Huiquilla in the northern part ofits distribution. Sleeping sites have been recorded at heights of 6-9 m in dense vegetation of branches, epiphytes, and lianas. Calls (recorded) of the black-banded owl (Strix huhula) elicit warning vocalizations and mobbing behavior by the Andean Night Monkey. Groups are able to live in small forest patches near and among houses and occasionally go to the ground to reach other forest patches or isolated trees in fruit, risking attack by dogs.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is listed as Endangered on the Peruvian threatened species list published by decree in 2004. The Andean Night Monkey is threatened because of the widespread destruction of its forests for farmland and pasture since the early 1970s throughout its limited distribution. For many years, the Peruvian departments of San Martinand Amazonashave had the highest rates of deforestation and immigration in the country. The Andean Night Monkey is not hunted for food and can be locally quite common. Individuals are sometimes caught when their sleeping trees are cut down, and they are occasionally kept as pets. Andean Night Monkeys are known to occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and possibly Tingo Maria National Park and Cordillerade Colan Reserved Zone.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 39-4 cm, tail 22 cm (measurements from the type specimen). The Andean Night Monkeyis a red-necked species. Its upper sides are light gray with a brownish tint, often quite infused with red-brown. Its underside is pale orange, extending forward as far as the chin and on the inner sides of the limbs, but not extending above the ventral one-half of the side of neck or to the ankle. Outer surface of body is dominantly brownish to buffy agouti. The tail is bushy; its upper side is blackish, and the lower side reddish orange. Facial pattern is inconspicuous. An interscapular whorlis absent.","habitat":"Primary and secondary humid lower montane cloud forest at elevations of 800-2788 m. Temperature range in these habitats is 15°C-19°C, and annual rainfall is ¢.1500-3000 mm."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682AFF807839F6B1FDD3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA859682AFF807839F6B1FDD3","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"429","verbatimText":"7. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night MonkeyAotus jorgehernandeziFrench:Douroucouli de Hernandez/ German:Hernandez-Camacho-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de Hernandez-CamachoOther common names:Hernandez-Camacho’s Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus jorgehernandezi Defler & Bueno, 2007,type locality uncertain, a captive animal in Quindio Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border of Quindioand Riseralda.This species is monotypic.Distribution.The range is unknown, but it is believed to occur on the W slopes and foothills of the Andes of W Colombia, in the region of Quindioand Riseralda.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available, but it is similar in size to other night monkeys. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The face has two discrete supraocular white patches separated by a broad black frontal stripe. Subocular white bands of fur are separated by a thin black malar stripe on each side of the head. Ventral parts of the arms from the wrists running up into the chest and belly are of thick white fur.Habitat.Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is likely nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it may occur in Tatama National Natural Park in Colombia.Bibliography.Defler & Bueno (2007), Morales-Jiménez & Link (2008b), Yunis et al. (1977).","taxonomy":"Aotus jorgehernandezi Defler & Bueno, 2007,type locality uncertain, a captive animal in Quindio Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border of Quindioand Riseralda.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Hernandez @fr | Hernandez-Camacho-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Hernandez-Camacho Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Defler & Bueno","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2007","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"429","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"jorgehernandezi","name":"Aotus jorgehernandezi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The range is unknown, but it is believed to occur on the W slopes and foothills of the Andes of W Colombia, in the region of Quindioand Riseralda.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726984/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Defler & Bueno (2007) | Morales-Jiménez & Link (2008b) | Yunis et al. (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information for this species, but Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is likely nocturnal and arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it may occur in Tatama National Natural Park in Colombia.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available, but it is similar in size to other night monkeys. Hernandez-Camacho’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The face has two discrete supraocular white patches separated by a broad black frontal stripe. Subocular white bands of fur are separated by a thin black malar stripe on each side of the head. Ventral parts of the arms from the wrists running up into the chest and belly are of thick white fur.","habitat":"Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA859682BFA887AABFBB0F6CB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA859682BFA887AABFBB0F6CB","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"429","verbatimText":"9. Ma’s Night Monkey Aotus nancymaaeFrench:Douroucouli du Loreto/ German:Nancy-Ma-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de Nancy MaOther common names:Nancy Ma's Night Monkey, Nancy Ma's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus nancymai Hershkovitz, 1983,right bank of Rio Samiria above Estacion Pithecia, Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria, Loreto, Peru, elevation ¢.130 m.This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Brazil(S of the Rio Solimoes from the Rio Javari on the Peruvian border E possibly as far as the Rio Jandiatuba) and NE Peru(from the Javari W to the Rio Huallaga), also found N of the Maranon in an enclave between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza to c.03° S.Descriptive notes.Head-body 29-34 cm, tail 35-42 cm; weight 794-5 g (male average, n = 32) and 780-2 g (female average, n = 24). Ma’s Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 54. Upperparts of the body are grayish-agouti, with a darkened mid-dorsal zone and a pale orange underside; the latter color extends up the sides of the neck and inner limbs. Proximal part of the tail is also orange with, usually, a blackish stripe above; the underside of the tail is blackish. Face is grayish-white, crown stripes are narrow and dark brown, and sides of the throat and jaw are colored like the body. An interscapular whorl is absent.Habitat.[Lowland tropical forest including seasonally flooded forest at elevations of 60-130 m. Densities of Ma’s Night Monkeys are lower in terra firma forest because of a relative paucity of tree holes, their preferred sleeping sites, compared with lowland swamp and seasonally inundated forests. Trees in terra firma forest are predominantly hardwoods that provide fewer hollows for sleeping. Lowland swamp and inundated forests have a predominance of softwood that more easily form hollows and abundant dense vine tangles that these monkeys also use as sleeping sites.Food and Feeding.In captivity, Ma’s Night Monkeys eat insects, geckos,lizards, and on one occasion, a small bird. Food sharing is prevalent in captivity.Breeding.A peak in births has been estimated to be between December and March in the wet season, but captive populations breed throughout the year when photoperiod is kept constant. Age at first reproduction is about 40 months. Single offspring are the rule, and twinning in captivity only occurred in one of 169 births in one study and one in 287 births in a second study. Interbirth intervals in captive females are 9-11 months. In captivity, pregnant females may mate.Activity patterns.Ma’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Field research on the Rio Tahuayo, north-eastern Peru, in 1978-1979 found social groups of 2-5 individuals (average 3-4), including a breeding pair and its offspring. In one instance, a third adult was seen traveling some 20-30 m from a group; it was eventually attacked and chased off by the breeding pair. Density at Rio Tahuayo was estimated at 8-7 groups/km? or 25 ind/km?. An analysis of the population structure found a lack ofjuveniles (450-575 g), indicating poor survival ofthis age category. Density estimates obtained for Ma’s Night Monkey in nine other localities from 1982 to 1985 were 3-9-13-2 groups/km? or 16-54-2 ind/km?.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major identified threats, but their capture for use in medical research continues. Perubanned trade in primatesin 1973 and became a signatory to CITES in 1975. Between 1994 and 2007, registered exports of Ma’s Night Monkey from Perutotaled 1059 animals, but it is still being exported illegally, with Peruvian and Brazilian Ma’s Night Monkeys and Black-headed Night Monkeys (A. nigriceps) appearing in Colombiawhere they do not otherwise occur. Ma’s Night Monkey occurs in the Jutai-Solimoes Ecological Station in Braziland Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve and ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo in Peru.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacion (1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1994a), Aquino et al. (1990, 1992), Bolen & Green (1997), Cornejo & Palacios (2008a), Feged et al. (2002), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Gozalo & Montoya (1990), Held & Wolfle (1994), Hershkovitz (1983), Kumamoto & Houck (2001), Malaga, Weller, Buschbom et al. (1997), Mélaga, Weller, Montoya et al. (1991), Maldonado et al. (2009), Nino-Vasquez et al. (2000), Pieczarka et al. (1992), Wolovich & Evans (2007), Wolovich et al. (2008a, 2010), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Aotus nancymai Hershkovitz, 1983,right bank of Rio Samiria above Estacion Pithecia, Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria, Loreto, Peru, elevation ¢.130 m.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli du Loreto @fr | Nancy-Ma-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Nancy Ma Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hershkovitz","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1983","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"429","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nancymaae","name":"Aotus nancymaae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Brazil(S of the Rio Solimoes from the Rio Javari on the Peruvian border E possibly as far as the Rio Jandiatuba) and NE Peru(from the Javari W to the Rio Huallaga), also found N of the Maranon in an enclave between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza to c.03° S.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726990/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aquino & Encarnacion (1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1994a) | Aquino et al. (1990, 1992) | Bolen & Green (1997) | Cornejo & Palacios (2008a) | Feged et al. (2002) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Gozalo & Montoya (1990) | Held & Wolfle (1994) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Kumamoto & Houck (2001) | Malaga, Weller, Buschbom et al. (1997) | Mélaga, Weller, Montoya et al. (1991) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Nino-Vasquez et al. (2000) | Pieczarka et al. (1992) | Wolovich & Evans (2007) | Wolovich et al. (2008a, 2010) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"In captivity, Ma’s Night Monkeys eat insects, geckos,lizards, and on one occasion, a small bird. Food sharing is prevalent in captivity.","breeding":"A peak in births has been estimated to be between December and March in the wet season, but captive populations breed throughout the year when photoperiod is kept constant. Age at first reproduction is about 40 months. Single offspring are the rule, and twinning in captivity only occurred in one of 169 births in one study and one in 287 births in a second study. Interbirth intervals in captive females are 9-11 months. In captivity, pregnant females may mate.","activityPatterns":"Ma’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Field research on the Rio Tahuayo, north-eastern Peru, in 1978-1979 found social groups of 2-5 individuals (average 3-4), including a breeding pair and its offspring. In one instance, a third adult was seen traveling some 20-30 m from a group; it was eventually attacked and chased off by the breeding pair. Density at Rio Tahuayo was estimated at 8-7 groups/km? or 25 ind/km?. An analysis of the population structure found a lack ofjuveniles (450-575 g), indicating poor survival ofthis age category. Density estimates obtained for Ma’s Night Monkey in nine other localities from 1982 to 1985 were 3-9-13-2 groups/km? or 16-54-2 ind/km?.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major identified threats, but their capture for use in medical research continues. Perubanned trade in primatesin 1973 and became a signatory to CITES in 1975. Between 1994 and 2007, registered exports of Ma’s Night Monkey from Perutotaled 1059 animals, but it is still being exported illegally, with Peruvian and Brazilian Ma’s Night Monkeys and Black-headed Night Monkeys (A. nigriceps) appearing in Colombiawhere they do not otherwise occur. Ma’s Night Monkey occurs in the Jutai-Solimoes Ecological Station in Braziland Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve and ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo in Peru.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 29-34 cm, tail 35-42 cm; weight 794-5 g (male average, n = 32) and 780-2 g (female average, n = 24). Ma’s Night Monkey is a red-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 54. Upperparts of the body are grayish-agouti, with a darkened mid-dorsal zone and a pale orange underside; the latter color extends up the sides of the neck and inner limbs. Proximal part of the tail is also orange with, usually, a blackish stripe above; the underside of the tail is blackish. Face is grayish-white, crown stripes are narrow and dark brown, and sides of the throat and jaw are colored like the body. An interscapular whorl is absent.","habitat":"[Lowland tropical forest including seasonally flooded forest at elevations of 60-130 m. Densities of Ma’s Night Monkeys are lower in terra firma forest because of a relative paucity of tree holes, their preferred sleeping sites, compared with lowland swamp and seasonally inundated forests. Trees in terra firma forest are predominantly hardwoods that provide fewer hollows for sleeping. Lowland swamp and inundated forests have a predominance of softwood that more easily form hollows and abundant dense vine tangles that these monkeys also use as sleeping sites."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85D682EFDD27303F82CFA94.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85D682EFDD27303F82CFA94","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"414","verbatimText":"Family AOTIDAE(NIGHT MONKEYS)* Small to medium-sized monkeys with small, rounded head, large, globose eyes, inconspicuous ears, white to off-white hair above eyes and around muzzle, variously distinct triradiate, black stripes on head, and long tail.60-90 cmvv ... z u ...• Neotropical Region.• Moist tropical and subtropical, submontane and montane, dry deciduous and semi-deciduous, gallery and Chacoan forests.• 1 genus, 11 species, 13 taxa.• 4 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682AFA427982FDEFF6C5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85E682AFA427982FDEFF6C5","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"428","verbatimText":"6. Spix’s Night Monkey Aotus vociferansFrench:Douroucouli de Spix/ German:Spix-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de SpixOther common names:Noisy Night Monkey, Spix's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Nyctipithecus vociferans Spix, 1823,Tabatinga, upper Rio Maranon, Peru.Censuses along the Rio Nanay and upper Rio Napo and in north-eastern Peru, within the supposed range of A. vociferans, have recorded individuals that differ in appearance and genotype. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the upper Amazon, extending from NW Brazil(W of rios Negro, upper Uaupés, and Amazonas-Solimoes) into SE Colombia(S of the Rio Tomo in the Orinoco Basin, and perhaps the upper Rio Guyabero), and S into the Ecuadorian Amazon and NE Peru(to the N bank of the rios Maranon and Amazonas, W as far as the Rio Chinchipe); it occurs also S of the Rio Solimoes in a small area on the lower Rio Purus. Ma’s Night Monkey (A. nancymaae) replaces it in a small enclave N of the Rio Maranon between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-45 cm, tail 31-47 cm; weight ¢.708 g (males) and c.698 g (females). Four males from Colombiaaveraged 697-5 g (range 568-800 g). Spix’s Night Monkeyis a gray-necked species, with a diploid number of chromosomes of 46-48. It 1s brown-toned above, with an off-white underside (having the merest trace of orange); this color extends to wrists, ankles, and the chin. Hands and feet are black. The proximal one-third to one-half of the ventral side ofthe tail is reddish or gray-red; the rest ofthe tail is black. Crown stripes are thick and brownish, with white above the eyes restricted to two small patches grading into the agouti crown. Temporal stripes are nearly always united behind, and the malar stripe ranges from well defined to absent. There is an interscapular whorl of centrifugal hairs. The gular gland is more or less circular. The face is white except for the chin.Habitat.Tall tropical lowland forest in seasonally flooded forest, swamp forest, and terra firma forest at elevations of 200-900 m. In the Cordillera del Condor of Ecuadorand Peru, Spix’s Night Monkey occurs at elevations up to 1550 m. As found for Ma'’s Night Monkey, population densities of Spix’s Night Monkey in upland terra firma forest tend to be lower (0-6-3-5 groups/km?) than in swampy and inundated forest (5-9-12:5 groups/km?)— believed to be a result of reduced availability of tree holes in terra firma forest.Food and Feeding.Spix’s Night Monkeys primarily eat fruit, which makes up ¢.83% of the diet. They also eat flowers, accounting for up to 17% of the diet at certain times of the year.Breeding.Records from a captive colony of wild-caught Spix’s Night Monkeys in Iquitos, Peru, provided the following statistics: age atfirst birth averaged about two years, although some individuals began breeding at three years old; the youngest age at conception was 31 months, based on a gestation of 4-5-5 months; interbirth intervals averaged 12-4 months (SD + 6-2 months); ¢.75% of 148 births in the colony occurred between December and May, nearly 60% of them between December and March.Activity patterns.An 18-month study in the Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, found Spix’s Night Monkeys to be entirely nocturnal. They became active at dusk between 18:00 h and 19:20 h and returned to their sleeping tree between 05:00 h and 06:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Spix’s Night Monkeys have a monogamous breeding system. Groups consist of two to five individuals, with an average of three individuals per group. The home range of a group studied in Yasuni National Park was 6-3 ha. The group traveled on average 645 m each night (range 150-1358 m), but travel distances were greater on moonlit nights (average 795 m) than on dark nights with a new moon (average 495 m). The group used only five known sleeping holes during 81 days of study; it used a particular tree for a few days before moving to another. Two of the sleeping sites accounted for 78% of the records. Trees were generally large, but groups also slept in palm crowns on some occasions. A study of night monkeysleeping sites in various localities in northern Perufound most of them in tree holes, sometimes hidden by vines and lianas, and sometimes exposed along banks of creeks, channels or oxbow lakes. They also slept among foliar sheaths in crowns of palms such as buriti (Mauritiaflexuosa), Astrocaryum, and Iriartea. Occasionally they shared their holes with other mammals: the Kinkajou (Polos flavus), the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (Isothrix bistriata), tree porcupines (Coendou), the Browneared Woolly Opossum (Caluromys lanatus), and bats. Densities of 0-6-12-5 groups/ km? (27-9-38-9 ind/km?) have been reported for seven localities in northern Peru.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Spix’s Night Monkeys are wide-ranging and relatively abundant in the western Amazon. There are numerous protected areas where it occurs: Jau National Park, Juami-Japura Ecological Reserve, and two large sustainable development reserves— Amana and Mamiraua in Brazil, and national natural parks of Amacayacu, Cahuinari, Serrania de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, La Paya, Serrania de Chiribiquete, besides Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in the Colombian Amazon. In Ecuador, it occurs in Yasuni and Sumaco-Napo Galeras national parks, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Cuyabeno Reserve, and Limoncocha Biological Reserve.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacién (1986a, 1988, 1994a), Aquino et al. (1990), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Fernandez-Duque, Di Fiore & Carrillo-Bilbao (2008), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Gozalo & Montoya (1990), Hernandez-Camacho & Defler (1985), Hershkovitz (1983), Ma etal. (1985), Maldonado et al. (2009), Montoya et al. (1995), Pieczarka et al. (1992), Puertas et al. (1992, 1995), Tirira (2007), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Nyctipithecus vociferans Spix, 1823,Tabatinga, upper Rio Maranon, Peru.Censuses along the Rio Nanay and upper Rio Napo and in north-eastern Peru, within the supposed range of A. vociferans, have recorded individuals that differ in appearance and genotype. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Spix @fr | Spix-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Spix Other common names @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Spix","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"428","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vociferans","name":"Aotus vociferans","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in the upper Amazon, extending from NW Brazil(W of rios Negro, upper Uaupés, and Amazonas-Solimoes) into SE Colombia(S of the Rio Tomo in the Orinoco Basin, and perhaps the upper Rio Guyabero), and S into the Ecuadorian Amazon and NE Peru(to the N bank of the rios Maranon and Amazonas, W as far as the Rio Chinchipe); it occurs also S of the Rio Solimoes in a small area on the lower Rio Purus. Ma’s Night Monkey (A. nancymaae) replaces it in a small enclave N of the Rio Maranon between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza.","bibliography":"Aquino & Encarnacién (1986a, 1988, 1994a) | Aquino et al. (1990) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Fernandez-Duque, Di Fiore & Carrillo-Bilbao (2008) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Gozalo & Montoya (1990) | Hernandez-Camacho & Defler (1985) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Ma etal. (1985) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Montoya et al. (1995) | Pieczarka et al. (1992) | Puertas et al. (1992, 1995) | Tirira (2007) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"Spix’s Night Monkeys primarily eat fruit, which makes up ¢.83% of the diet. They also eat flowers, accounting for up to 17% of the diet at certain times of the year.","breeding":"Records from a captive colony of wild-caught Spix’s Night Monkeys in Iquitos, Peru, provided the following statistics: age atfirst birth averaged about two years, although some individuals began breeding at three years old; the youngest age at conception was 31 months, based on a gestation of 4-5-5 months; interbirth intervals averaged 12-4 months (SD + 6-2 months); ¢.75% of 148 births in the colony occurred between December and May, nearly 60% of them between December and March.","activityPatterns":"An 18-month study in the Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, found Spix’s Night Monkeys to be entirely nocturnal. They became active at dusk between 18:00 h and 19:20 h and returned to their sleeping tree between 05:00 h and 06:00 h.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Spix’s Night Monkeys have a monogamous breeding system. Groups consist of two to five individuals, with an average of three individuals per group. The home range of a group studied in Yasuni National Park was 6-3 ha. The group traveled on average 645 m each night (range 150-1358 m), but travel distances were greater on moonlit nights (average 795 m) than on dark nights with a new moon (average 495 m). The group used only five known sleeping holes during 81 days of study; it used a particular tree for a few days before moving to another. Two of the sleeping sites accounted for 78% of the records. Trees were generally large, but groups also slept in palm crowns on some occasions. A study of night monkeysleeping sites in various localities in northern Perufound most of them in tree holes, sometimes hidden by vines and lianas, and sometimes exposed along banks of creeks, channels or oxbow lakes. They also slept among foliar sheaths in crowns of palms such as buriti (Mauritiaflexuosa), Astrocaryum, and Iriartea. Occasionally they shared their holes with other mammals: the Kinkajou (Polos flavus), the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (Isothrix bistriata), tree porcupines (Coendou), the Browneared Woolly Opossum (Caluromys lanatus), and bats. Densities of 0-6-12-5 groups/ km? (27-9-38-9 ind/km?) have been reported for seven localities in northern Peru.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Spix’s Night Monkeys are wide-ranging and relatively abundant in the western Amazon. There are numerous protected areas where it occurs: Jau National Park, Juami-Japura Ecological Reserve, and two large sustainable development reserves— Amana and Mamiraua in Brazil, and national natural parks of Amacayacu, Cahuinari, Serrania de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, La Paya, Serrania de Chiribiquete, besides Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in the Colombian Amazon. In Ecuador, it occurs in Yasuni and Sumaco-Napo Galeras national parks, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Cuyabeno Reserve, and Limoncocha Biological Reserve.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-45 cm, tail 31-47 cm; weight ¢.708 g (males) and c.698 g (females). Four males from Colombiaaveraged 697-5 g (range 568-800 g). Spix’s Night Monkeyis a gray-necked species, with a diploid number of chromosomes of 46-48. It 1s brown-toned above, with an off-white underside (having the merest trace of orange); this color extends to wrists, ankles, and the chin. Hands and feet are black. The proximal one-third to one-half of the ventral side ofthe tail is reddish or gray-red; the rest ofthe tail is black. Crown stripes are thick and brownish, with white above the eyes restricted to two small patches grading into the agouti crown. Temporal stripes are nearly always united behind, and the malar stripe ranges from well defined to absent. There is an interscapular whorl of centrifugal hairs. The gular gland is more or less circular. The face is white except for the chin.","habitat":"Tall tropical lowland forest in seasonally flooded forest, swamp forest, and terra firma forest at elevations of 200-900 m. In the Cordillera del Condor of Ecuadorand Peru, Spix’s Night Monkey occurs at elevations up to 1550 m. As found for Ma'’s Night Monkey, population densities of Spix’s Night Monkey in upland terra firma forest tend to be lower (0-6-3-5 groups/km?) than in swampy and inundated forest (5-9-12:5 groups/km?)— believed to be a result of reduced availability of tree holes in terra firma forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682DFF7875D8FF6CF344.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85E682DFF7875D8FF6CF344","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"428","verbatimText":"4. Brumback’s Night Monkey Aotus brumbackiFrench:Douroucouli de Brumback/ German:Brumback-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de BrumbackOther common names:Brumback's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus brumbacki Hershkovitz, 1983,Rio Paraguayarea. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1983 to the Villavicencio region, Department of Meta, Colombia.Previously considered a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that its karyotype is distinct. Monotypic.Distribution.Poorly known, NC Colombiain the E of Boyaca Department, E to the highlands of Metato at least 1500 m above sea level. It is unclear if this species occupies an enclave within the range of the Lemurine Night Monkey (A. lemurinus) or if it replaces it in the NE part ofits distribution.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available. Brumback’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number for both sexes of 50. Its dorsum is grayish-buffy agouti with a dark brown mid-dorsal zone, and the underside is pale orange, the tone extending to the elbows, knees, and lower throat. The entire side of the neck, including the area behind and below the ear, is grayish agouti or brownish agouti, like the flank and outer sides of the arms. There are well-marked, thin, brownish-black temporal stripes. The white above the eyes is yellowish, and the white on the face extends to the chin. The gular gland is long (5 cm) and thin. A short, longitudinal interscapular crest, with raised hairs,is directed backward and laterally— believed to be unique in the genus.Habitat.Closed canopy forest and gallery forest up to an elevation of 1500 m, but typically thought of as a lowland species. Brumback’s Night Monkeys sleep in hollow trees or dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.On the right bank of the Rio Duda in Tinigua National Natural Park, Colombia, Brumback’s Night Monkeys eat fruit (59%), insects and other invertebrates (28%), and flowers (13%).Breeding.There is no specific information on this species, but a birth peak appears to occur in October.Activity patterns.Brumback’s Night Monkeys are nocturnal and arboreal. The activity pattern is 33% resting, 32% traveling, 16% vocalizing, 15% foraging, and 3% engaging in social activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social groups of Brumback’s Night Monkey consist of an adult pair and their infants, juveniles, and subadults, with a mean group size of three individuals. Home-range size of 17-5 ha over six months has been observed, with a mean nightly travel distance of 837 m over 53 nights.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The only place whereit is known to occur for certain is in the forests around Villavicencio, Meta Department, Colombia. There is widespread deforestation throughout its supposed distribution, and populations are thought to have declined by 30% over the past 24 years. The night monkey in Tinigua National Natural Park is believed to be Brumback’s Night Monkey, and it may also occur in the national natural parks of El Cocuy, El Tuparro, and La Macarena.Bibliography.Defler (2003, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Hershkovitz (1983), Solano (1995, 1996), Uribe (1989).","taxonomy":"Aotus brumbacki Hershkovitz, 1983,Rio Paraguayarea. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1983 to the Villavicencio region, Department of Meta, Colombia.Previously considered a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that its karyotype is distinct. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Brumback @fr | Brumback-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Brumback Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hershkovitz","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1983","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"428","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brumbacki","name":"Aotus brumbacki","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Poorly known, NC Colombiain the E of Boyaca Department, E to the highlands of Metato at least 1500 m above sea level. It is unclear if this species occupies an enclave within the range of the Lemurine Night Monkey (A. lemurinus) or if it replaces it in the NE part ofits distribution.","bibliography":"Defler (2003, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Solano (1995, 1996) | Uribe (1989)","foodAndFeeding":"On the right bank of the Rio Duda in Tinigua National Natural Park, Colombia, Brumback’s Night Monkeys eat fruit (59%), insects and other invertebrates (28%), and flowers (13%).","breeding":"There is no specific information on this species, but a birth peak appears to occur in October.","activityPatterns":"Brumback’s Night Monkeys are nocturnal and arboreal. The activity pattern is 33% resting, 32% traveling, 16% vocalizing, 15% foraging, and 3% engaging in social activity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social groups of Brumback’s Night Monkey consist of an adult pair and their infants, juveniles, and subadults, with a mean group size of three individuals. Home-range size of 17-5 ha over six months has been observed, with a mean nightly travel distance of 837 m over 53 nights.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The only place whereit is known to occur for certain is in the forests around Villavicencio, Meta Department, Colombia. There is widespread deforestation throughout its supposed distribution, and populations are thought to have declined by 30% over the past 24 years. The night monkey in Tinigua National Natural Park is believed to be Brumback’s Night Monkey, and it may also occur in the national natural parks of El Cocuy, El Tuparro, and La Macarena.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available. Brumback’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number for both sexes of 50. Its dorsum is grayish-buffy agouti with a dark brown mid-dorsal zone, and the underside is pale orange, the tone extending to the elbows, knees, and lower throat. The entire side of the neck, including the area behind and below the ear, is grayish agouti or brownish agouti, like the flank and outer sides of the arms. There are well-marked, thin, brownish-black temporal stripes. The white above the eyes is yellowish, and the white on the face extends to the chin. The gular gland is long (5 cm) and thin. A short, longitudinal interscapular crest, with raised hairs,is directed backward and laterally— believed to be unique in the genus.","habitat":"Closed canopy forest and gallery forest up to an elevation of 1500 m, but typically thought of as a lowland species. Brumback’s Night Monkeys sleep in hollow trees or dense vegetation."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682DFF7D7D84F59CF74D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85E682DFF7D7D84F59CF74D","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"428","verbatimText":"5. Humboldt’s Night Monkey Aotus trivirgatusFrench:Douroucouli de Humboldt/ German:Ostlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de HumboldtOther common names:Douroucouli, Northern Gray-necked Owl Monkey, Northern Night Monkey, Three-striped Night Monkey, Three-striped Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Simia trivirgatus Humboldt, 1812,Forests of the Rio Cassiquiare, near the foot of Mount Duida, Amazonas, Venezuela.Undal the revision by P. Hershkovitz in 1983, the genus was considered to be monotypic, with A. trivirgatusas the only species. In his catalogue published in 1957, A. Cabrera listed nine subspecies, and W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1960 listed ten. Many of these are now considered distinct species. Some publications up to the 1980s and early 1990sstill referred to all night monkeys as belonging to this one species. Monotypic.Distribution.N Brazil(N of the rios Negro and Amazonasand W of the Rio Trombetas), SC Venezuela(N to middle Orinoco E at least as far as the Rio Caura) and E Colombia(T. Defler reports sightings from the middle Rio Caquetaabove the mouth of the Miriti-Parana and the lower Rio Inirida to the N); as such, Humboldt’s Night Monkey may be sympatric with Spix’s Night Monkey (A. vociferans) in some parts of Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-38 cm,tail 33-40 cm; weight ¢.813 g (males) and c.736 g (females). Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to mainly brownish agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy-agouti. Innersides of the limbs, extending to the wrists and ankle, are similar in colorto the orange-buffy of the chest and belly. The facial pattern is quite inconspicuous, triradiate stripes are brown, and the face is rather grayish compared with the usual white of other night monkeys. Hands and feet are dark brown. Humboldt’s Night Monkey can be distinguished from other night monkeys by its parallel temporal stripes and the lack of an interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Tropical forests, including dry forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Humboldt’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. Climbing, leaping, and quadrupedal and suspensory locomotion have been reported.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Similar to all the night monkeys, Humboldt’s Night Monkey is monogamous, with the male carrying and provisioning young. A home range of size of 3-1 ha and a mean night range of 252 m have been reported, but these numbers are based on data from a single group.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a wide-ranging species and generally not hunted. There are a number of protected areas within its range: Pico da Neblina National Park, biological reserves of Rio Trombetas and Uatuma, and ecological stations of Anavilhanas, Caracarai, and Niquia in Braziland national parks ofJaua-Sarisarinama, Parima-Tapirapeco, Duida-Marahuaca, and Yapacana in southern Venezuela.Bibliography.Bodini & Pérez-Hernandez (1987), Brumback (1973, 1974, 1975b), Brumback et al. (1971), Cabrera (1957), Cicmanec & Campbell (1977), Defler (2003b, 2004), Dixson (1982, 1983), Egozcue (1971), Erkert (1976), Fernandes (1993), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hanson & Montagna (1962), Hershkovitz (1983), Hill (1960), Linares (1998), Napier (1976), Smith & Jungers (1997), Sussman & Phillips-Conroy (1995), Torres et al. (1998), Wright (1978, 1981, 1984, 1990), Yunis et al. (1977), Zito et al. (2003).","taxonomy":"Simia trivirgatus Humboldt, 1812,Forests of the Rio Cassiquiare, near the foot of Mount Duida, Amazonas, Venezuela.Undal the revision by P. Hershkovitz in 1983, the genus was considered to be monotypic, with A. trivirgatusas the only species. In his catalogue published in 1957, A. Cabrera listed nine subspecies, and W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1960 listed ten. Many of these are now considered distinct species. Some publications up to the 1980s and early 1990sstill referred to all night monkeys as belonging to this one species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Humboldt @fr | Ostlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Humboldt Other common names @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Humboldt","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1812","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"428","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"trivirgatus","name":"Aotus trivirgatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Brazil(N of the rios Negro and Amazonasand W of the Rio Trombetas), SC Venezuela(N to middle Orinoco E at least as far as the Rio Caura) and E Colombia(T. Defler reports sightings from the middle Rio Caquetaabove the mouth of the Miriti-Parana and the lower Rio Inirida to the N); as such, Humboldt’s Night Monkey may be sympatric with Spix’s Night Monkey (A. vociferans) in some parts of Colombia.","bibliography":"Bodini & Pérez-Hernandez (1987) | Brumback (1973, 1974, 1975b) | Brumback et al. (1971) | Cabrera (1957) | Cicmanec & Campbell (1977) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Dixson (1982, 1983) | Egozcue (1971) | Erkert (1976) | Fernandes (1993) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hanson & Montagna (1962) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Hill (1960) | Linares (1998) | Napier (1976) | Smith & Jungers (1997) | Sussman & Phillips-Conroy (1995) | Torres et al. (1998) | Wright (1978, 1981, 1984, 1990) | Yunis et al. (1977) | Zito et al. (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"Humboldt’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. Climbing, leaping, and quadrupedal and suspensory locomotion have been reported.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Similar to all the night monkeys, Humboldt’s Night Monkey is monogamous, with the male carrying and provisioning young. A home range of size of 3-1 ha and a mean night range of 252 m have been reported, but these numbers are based on data from a single group.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a wide-ranging species and generally not hunted. There are a number of protected areas within its range: Pico da Neblina National Park, biological reserves of Rio Trombetas and Uatuma, and ecological stations of Anavilhanas, Caracarai, and Niquia in Braziland national parks ofJaua-Sarisarinama, Parima-Tapirapeco, Duida-Marahuaca, and Yapacana in southern Venezuela.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 30-38 cm,tail 33-40 cm; weight ¢.813 g (males) and c.736 g (females). Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to mainly brownish agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy-agouti. Innersides of the limbs, extending to the wrists and ankle, are similar in colorto the orange-buffy of the chest and belly. The facial pattern is quite inconspicuous, triradiate stripes are brown, and the face is rather grayish compared with the usual white of other night monkeys. Hands and feet are dark brown. Humboldt’s Night Monkey can be distinguished from other night monkeys by its parallel temporal stripes and the lack of an interscapular whorl or crest.","habitat":"Tropical forests, including dry forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682CFFBB70C8FD7DF59E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85F682CFFBB70C8FD7DF59E","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"427","verbatimText":"1. Lemurine Night Monkey Aotus lemurinusFrench:Douroucouli Iémurien/ German:Nordlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de vientre grisOther common names:Colombian Night Monkey, Gray-bellied Night Monkey, Lemurine Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus lemurinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843,Colombia, Santa Fé de Bogota.According to T. Defler and coworkers, the karyotype of A. hershkovitzi described by Ramirez-Cerquera in 1983, from the upper Rio Cusiana, Boyaca, Colombia, was 2n = 58 (listed by C. P. Groves in his 2001 book Primate Taxonomy), which was in fact that of true A. lemurinus. Further cytogenetic studies by Defler and M. Bueno concluded that the A. lemurinusdefined in P. Hershkovitz’s 1983 revision was in fact three karyotypically well-defined species: night monkeys of the lowlands of Panamaand the Choco regionof Colombiawere A. zonalis; those of the MagdalenaValley were A. griseimembra; and only those from the slopes of the Andean cordilleras above elevations of 1000-1500 m were A. lemurinus. Monotypic.Distribution.A montane species of the Andes range at elevations above 1000-1500 m in Colombia, in the upper Rio CaucaValley and slopes of Cordillera Oriental (not in the MagdalenaValley, occupied by the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and extending S through the humid subtropical forests of the Cordillera Oriental into Ecuador; perhaps N along the Sierra de Perija into Venezuela, but this has not been confirmed.Descriptive notes.Head-body average 30-6 cm (males, n = 5) and 32-5 cm (females, n = 7), tail average 34-3 cm (males, n = 5) and 34-1 cm (females, n = 7); weight 800 g (one male) and 1050 g (one lactating female). The Lemurine Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 58 for both sexes. Rather shaggy and long-haired, coloration of the upperparts is variable but often grayish to buffy-agouti, with at most a poorly defined brownish medial dorsal band. The ventral side ofthe tail is red nearly to the tip, which is reddish-black. The underside is yellowish to pale orange. Inner sides of limbs are entirely grayish agouti, like the outersides, or they may have yellowish to pale orange tone extending from the chest and belly to usually no further than the mid-arm or mid-leg. Facial pattern is variable, and hands and feet are dark. Temporal stripes may be separate or united behind the head. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Tropical and high-elevation forest at 1000-3200 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the diet is likely composed ofundoubtedly comprises fruits, insects, and nectar.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The range ofthis species has long suffered widespread deforestation and expanding illicit coffee production. Although believed to be threatened, little is known of its actual conservation status, and censuses of populations are needed. The national natural parks of Tama and Puracé in Colombiaare within its range, and it is occurs in Llanganates and Sumaco Napo-Galeras national parks and the Cofan-Bermejo Ecological Reserve in Ecuador.Bibliography.Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler et al. (2001), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hernandéz-Camacho & Cooper (1976), Hernandéz-Camacho & Defler (1985), Hershkovitz (1983), Ramirez (1983), Tirira (2007), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Aotus lemurinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843,Colombia, Santa Fé de Bogota.According to T. Defler and coworkers, the karyotype of A. hershkovitzi described by Ramirez-Cerquera in 1983, from the upper Rio Cusiana, Boyaca, Colombia, was 2n = 58 (listed by C. P. Groves in his 2001 book Primate Taxonomy), which was in fact that of true A. lemurinus. Further cytogenetic studies by Defler and M. Bueno concluded that the A. lemurinusdefined in P. Hershkovitz’s 1983 revision was in fact three karyotypically well-defined species: night monkeys of the lowlands of Panamaand the Choco regionof Colombiawere A. zonalis; those of the MagdalenaValley were A. griseimembra; and only those from the slopes of the Andean cordilleras above elevations of 1000-1500 m were A. lemurinus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli @fr | émurien @en | Nordlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de vientre gris Other common names @es","interpretedAuthority":"Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843","interpretedAuthorityName":"Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"427","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lemurinus","name":"Aotus lemurinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A montane species of the Andes range at elevations above 1000-1500 m in Colombia, in the upper Rio CaucaValley and slopes of Cordillera Oriental (not in the MagdalenaValley, occupied by the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and extending S through the humid subtropical forests of the Cordillera Oriental into Ecuador; perhaps N along the Sierra de Perija into Venezuela, but this has not been confirmed.","bibliography":"Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler et al. (2001) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hernandéz-Camacho & Cooper (1976) | Hernandéz-Camacho & Defler (1985) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Ramirez (1983) | Tirira (2007) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the diet is likely composed ofundoubtedly comprises fruits, insects, and nectar.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The range ofthis species has long suffered widespread deforestation and expanding illicit coffee production. Although believed to be threatened, little is known of its actual conservation status, and censuses of populations are needed. The national natural parks of Tama and Puracé in Colombiaare within its range, and it is occurs in Llanganates and Sumaco Napo-Galeras national parks and the Cofan-Bermejo Ecological Reserve in Ecuador.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body average 30-6 cm (males, n = 5) and 32-5 cm (females, n = 7), tail average 34-3 cm (males, n = 5) and 34-1 cm (females, n = 7); weight 800 g (one male) and 1050 g (one lactating female). The Lemurine Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 58 for both sexes. Rather shaggy and long-haired, coloration of the upperparts is variable but often grayish to buffy-agouti, with at most a poorly defined brownish medial dorsal band. The ventral side ofthe tail is red nearly to the tip, which is reddish-black. The underside is yellowish to pale orange. Inner sides of limbs are entirely grayish agouti, like the outersides, or they may have yellowish to pale orange tone extending from the chest and belly to usually no further than the mid-arm or mid-leg. Facial pattern is variable, and hands and feet are dark. Temporal stripes may be separate or united behind the head. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.","habitat":"Tropical and high-elevation forest at 1000-3200 m above sea level."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682CFFBD7BF0F824FA2D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85F682CFFBD7BF0F824FA2D","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"427","verbatimText":"2. Gray-legged Night Monkey Aotus griseimembraFrench:Douroucouli a bras gris/ German:Elliot-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de patas grisesOther common names:Gray-handed Night Monkey, Yellow-bellied Night Monkey, Yellow-bellied Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus griseimembra Elliot, 1912,Hacienda Cincinnati, Santa Marta, and Rio Sinu Cereté, Bolivar, Colombia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Colombiaand NW Venezuela, where it occurs in the Rio MagdalenaValley and N lowlands in Colombia, including the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and basins of the rios Sinu and San Jorge, extending into Venezuelain the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo and the Sierra de Perija.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.48 cm, tail c.42 cm; weight 800-1000 g. The Graylegged Night Monkey is one of the gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 52-54. Hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to brownish-agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy, with at a poorly- defined brownish medial dorsal band. The chest, belly, and inner surfaces of the legs (as far as the knees and elbows) are brownish or yellowish to pale orange. Pelage is relatively short and adpressed. Facial pattern is inconspicuous, and dorsal parts of the hands and feet are light coftee-brown, with darker hair tips. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Primary and secondary tropical lowland forest. The Gray-legged Night Monkey has also been observed in coffee plantations.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Mean interbirth intervals of c¢.13 months and a gestation of 133 days have been reported for the Gray-legged Night Monkey in captivity.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Group size is 2-4 individuals, typically with an adult pair and their offspring. A density of 150 ind/km® has been reported in a census conducted in northern Colombia, but this unusually high density may be explained by the fact that data were collected in a forest remnant that may have served as a refuge.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Magdalena Valley has been settled and farmed for centuries. Deforestation is widespread, and Gray-legged Night Monkeys are restricted to small and isolated forest fragments. Due to this and its use in biomedical research, it is considered the most threatened of Colombian night monkeys. The Gray-legged Night Monkey occurs in the national natural parks of Catatumbo-Bari, Islade Salamanca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and Tayrona, and the fauna and flora sanctuaries of Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Iguaque.Bibliography.Brumback (1975a), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Dixson & Fleming (1981), Dixson et al. (1980), Erkert & Grober (1986), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Green (1978), Handley (1976), Hunter et al. (1979), Kumamoto & Houck (2001), Rauth-Widmann et al. (1996), Umana et al. (1984), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994), Yunis et al. (1977).","taxonomy":"Aotus griseimembra Elliot, 1912,Hacienda Cincinnati, Santa Marta, and Rio Sinu Cereté, Bolivar, Colombia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli a bras gris @fr | Elliot-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de patas grises Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Elliot","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"427","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"griseimembra","name":"Aotus griseimembra","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Colombiaand NW Venezuela, where it occurs in the Rio MagdalenaValley and N lowlands in Colombia, including the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and basins of the rios Sinu and San Jorge, extending into Venezuelain the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo and the Sierra de Perija.","bibliography":"Brumback (1975a) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Dixson & Fleming (1981) | Dixson et al. (1980) | Erkert & Grober (1986) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Green (1978) | Handley (1976) | Hunter et al. (1979) | Kumamoto & Houck (2001) | Rauth-Widmann et al. (1996) | Umana et al. (1984) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994) | Yunis et al. (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Mean interbirth intervals of c¢.13 months and a gestation of 133 days have been reported for the Gray-legged Night Monkey in captivity.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Group size is 2-4 individuals, typically with an adult pair and their offspring. A density of 150 ind/km® has been reported in a census conducted in northern Colombia, but this unusually high density may be explained by the fact that data were collected in a forest remnant that may have served as a refuge.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Magdalena Valley has been settled and farmed for centuries. Deforestation is widespread, and Gray-legged Night Monkeys are restricted to small and isolated forest fragments. Due to this and its use in biomedical research, it is considered the most threatened of Colombian night monkeys. The Gray-legged Night Monkey occurs in the national natural parks of Catatumbo-Bari, Islade Salamanca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and Tayrona, and the fauna and flora sanctuaries of Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Iguaque.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.48 cm, tail c.42 cm; weight 800-1000 g. The Graylegged Night Monkey is one of the gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 52-54. Hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to brownish-agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy, with at a poorly- defined brownish medial dorsal band. The chest, belly, and inner surfaces of the legs (as far as the knees and elbows) are brownish or yellowish to pale orange. Pelage is relatively short and adpressed. Facial pattern is inconspicuous, and dorsal parts of the hands and feet are light coftee-brown, with darker hair tips. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.","habitat":"Primary and secondary tropical lowland forest. The Gray-legged Night Monkey has also been observed in coffee plantations."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682DFA857722FCDEFBA1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85F682DFA857722FCDEFBA1","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"427","verbatimText":"3. Panamanian Night Monkey Aotus zonalisFrench:Douroucouli du Panama/ German:Panama-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de PanamaOther common names:Chocd Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus zonalis Goldman, 1914,Panama, Gatun, Canal Zone.J. Hernandez-Camacho and R. Cooper in 1976 and C. P. Groves in 2001 recognized this form as a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that night monkeys from Panamaand the Chocoin Colombiaare a separate species, A. zonalis. Monotypic.Distribution.NW Colombiain the Pacific lowlands (E to the Sinu Valley, S towards the Ecuadorian border, and N into Cordoba Department, perhaps as far as Valdivia where it would overlap with the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and most of Panama(along the Pacific coast W to the Rio San Pedro in Veraguasand on the Atlantic side W as far as the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro); it is absent from SW Panama(Chiriqui), and its occurrence in SE Costa Ricais uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head—body ¢.30 cm, tail ¢.36 cm; weight 889 g (males, n = 6) and 916 g (females, n = 11). The Panamanian Night Monkey is a gray-necked species with a diploid chromosome number of 55-56. Body color is brownish in the Canal Zone and Colombia, but it grades into paler and grayer tones along the upper Rio Tuira, eastern Panama. Hair is short and adpressed. The Panamanian Night Monkey is similar to the Gray-legged Night Monkey, exceptfor its dark brown or blackish hands and feet.Habitat.Lowland forest, up to elevations of 650 m. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, they usually move and feed at heights of 7 m in the lower canopy and up to 30 m in highest parts of the forest canopy. Panamanian Night Monkeys have not been seen traveling on the ground.Food and Feeding.Based on an analysis of stomach contents, the Panamanian Night Monkey eats fruits (65%), leaves (30%), and insects (5%) %), based on the stomach contents.Breeding.Night monkeys are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and their offspring and sometimes a subadult. Similar to studies of other species of captive Aotus, captive and wild Panamanian Night Monkeys on the island of Barro Colorado, mate infrequently; it is rapid, and inconspicuous, lacking any evident soliciting behaviors or postures. The newborn is carried by the mother for the first week or so, but then it is transferred to the father, who subsequently carries it most of the time, returning it to the mother only for suckling.Activity patterns.The Panamanian Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. A radiotracking study of a young male followed for nine nights on Barro Colorado indicated two peaks of activity during the night. It became active at dusk (17:00-18:15 h), remaining active with gradually increasing periods of inactivity until about midnight when it would rest for 1-2 hours and then start feeding and foraging until dawn;it returned to its daytime nest at ¢.06:00 h.On following pages 4 Brumback s Nıgm Monkey (Aorus brumbeckı) 5 Humboldt s Nıght Monkey (Aorus mvırgaruså 6 Spıx s Nıght Monkey (Aotus vocılerıns) 7 Hernández-Camacho s Nıght Monkey (Actus l°f96hemandezù B Andean Nıght Monkey (Actus mıoonvd 9 Ma s Nıght Monkey (Actus nencyrrıaee) 10 Black-needed Nıght Monkey (Actus mgnœps) Azara s Nngh! Monkey (Actus azaradMovements, Home range and Social organization.The Panamanian Night Monkey lives in family groups of 4-5 individuals. Groups are territorial and meet rarely. When they do meet at a fruiting tree, for example, they are quite aggressive. Following a slow approach, they leap at the opponent, hitting and attempting to bite it. Aggression is generally directed at individuals of the same sex.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Little is known about the Panamanian Night Monkey, so its conservation status is uncertain. Threats are poorly known, but deforestation and conversion to agriculture are likely among them. The Panamanian Night Monkey is protected in the national natural parks of Ensenada de Utria, Farallones de Cali, Las Orquideas, Los Katios, Munchique, Paramillo, and Tatama in Colombia. In Panama, it is protected in the national parks of Altos de Campana, Camino de Cruces, Cerro Hoya, Chagres, Darién, IslaBastimentos, Portobelo, Sarigua, and Soberania and, among other protected areas, the Reserva Forestal Canglon, the Bosque Protector San Lorenzo, and the Barro Colorado Nature Monument.Bibliography.Baldwin & Baldwin (1976a), Crile & Quiring (1940), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Ford (1994a, 1994b, 2006), Hall (1981), Hladik et al. (1971), Ma et al. (1978), Montoya et al. (1995), Moynihan (1964, 1976), de Rodaniche (1954), Rylands et al. (2006), Svensson et al. (2010), Thorington et al. (1976), Timm (1988), Uribe (1989), Wilson (2001), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Aotus zonalis Goldman, 1914,Panama, Gatun, Canal Zone.J. Hernandez-Camacho and R. Cooper in 1976 and C. P. Groves in 2001 recognized this form as a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that night monkeys from Panamaand the Chocoin Colombiaare a separate species, A. zonalis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli du Panama @fr | Panama-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Panama Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goldman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1914","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"427","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zonalis","name":"Aotus zonalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NW Colombiain the Pacific lowlands (E to the Sinu Valley, S towards the Ecuadorian border, and N into Cordoba Department, perhaps as far as Valdivia where it would overlap with the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and most of Panama(along the Pacific coast W to the Rio San Pedro in Veraguasand on the Atlantic side W as far as the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro); it is absent from SW Panama(Chiriqui), and its occurrence in SE Costa Ricais uncertain.","bibliography":"Baldwin & Baldwin (1976a) | Crile & Quiring (1940) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Ford (1994a, 1994b, 2006) | Hall (1981) | Hladik et al. (1971) | Ma et al. (1978) | Montoya et al. (1995) | Moynihan (1964, 1976) | de Rodaniche (1954) | Rylands et al. (2006) | Svensson et al. (2010) | Thorington et al. (1976) | Timm (1988) | Uribe (1989) | Wilson (2001) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"Based on an analysis of stomach contents, the Panamanian Night Monkey eats fruits (65%), leaves (30%), and insects (5%) %), based on the stomach contents.","breeding":"Night monkeys are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and their offspring and sometimes a subadult. Similar to studies of other species of captive Aotus, captive and wild Panamanian Night Monkeys on the island of Barro Colorado, mate infrequently; it is rapid, and inconspicuous, lacking any evident soliciting behaviors or postures. The newborn is carried by the mother for the first week or so, but then it is transferred to the father, who subsequently carries it most of the time, returning it to the mother only for suckling.","activityPatterns":"The Panamanian Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. A radiotracking study of a young male followed for nine nights on Barro Colorado indicated two peaks of activity during the night. It became active at dusk (17:00-18:15 h), remaining active with gradually increasing periods of inactivity until about midnight when it would rest for 1-2 hours and then start feeding and foraging until dawn;it returned to its daytime nest at ¢.06:00 h.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Panamanian Night Monkey lives in family groups of 4-5 individuals. Groups are territorial and meet rarely. When they do meet at a fruiting tree, for example, they are quite aggressive. Following a slow approach, they leap at the opponent, hitting and attempting to bite it. Aggression is generally directed at individuals of the same sex.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Little is known about the Panamanian Night Monkey, so its conservation status is uncertain. Threats are poorly known, but deforestation and conversion to agriculture are likely among them. The Panamanian Night Monkey is protected in the national natural parks of Ensenada de Utria, Farallones de Cali, Las Orquideas, Los Katios, Munchique, Paramillo, and Tatama in Colombia. In Panama, it is protected in the national parks of Altos de Campana, Camino de Cruces, Cerro Hoya, Chagres, Darién, IslaBastimentos, Portobelo, Sarigua, and Soberania and, among other protected areas, the Reserva Forestal Canglon, the Bosque Protector San Lorenzo, and the Barro Colorado Nature Monument.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body ¢.30 cm, tail ¢.36 cm; weight 889 g (males, n = 6) and 916 g (females, n = 11). The Panamanian Night Monkey is a gray-necked species with a diploid chromosome number of 55-56. Body color is brownish in the Canal Zone and Colombia, but it grades into paler and grayer tones along the upper Rio Tuira, eastern Panama. Hair is short and adpressed. The Panamanian Night Monkey is similar to the Gray-legged Night Monkey, exceptfor its dark brown or blackish hands and feet.","habitat":"Lowland forest, up to elevations of 650 m. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, they usually move and feed at heights of 7 m in the lower canopy and up to 30 m in highest parts of the forest canopy. Panamanian Night Monkeys have not been seen traveling on the ground."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682AFA427982FDEFF6C5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85E682AFA427982FDEFF6C5","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"428","verbatimText":"6. Spix’s Night Monkey Aotus vociferansFrench:Douroucouli de Spix/ German:Spix-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de SpixOther common names:Noisy Night Monkey, Spix's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Nyctipithecus vociferans Spix, 1823,Tabatinga, upper Rio Maranon, Peru.Censuses along the Rio Nanay and upper Rio Napo and in north-eastern Peru, within the supposed range of A. vociferans, have recorded individuals that differ in appearance and genotype. Monotypic.Distribution.Widespread in the upper Amazon, extending from NW Brazil(W of rios Negro, upper Uaupés, and Amazonas-Solimoes) into SE Colombia(S of the Rio Tomo in the Orinoco Basin, and perhaps the upper Rio Guyabero), and S into the Ecuadorian Amazon and NE Peru(to the N bank of the rios Maranon and Amazonas, W as far as the Rio Chinchipe); it occurs also S of the Rio Solimoes in a small area on the lower Rio Purus. Ma’s Night Monkey (A. nancymaae) replaces it in a small enclave N of the Rio Maranon between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-45 cm, tail 31-47 cm; weight ¢.708 g (males) and c.698 g (females). Four males from Colombiaaveraged 697-5 g (range 568-800 g). Spix’s Night Monkeyis a gray-necked species, with a diploid number of chromosomes of 46-48. It 1s brown-toned above, with an off-white underside (having the merest trace of orange); this color extends to wrists, ankles, and the chin. Hands and feet are black. The proximal one-third to one-half of the ventral side ofthe tail is reddish or gray-red; the rest ofthe tail is black. Crown stripes are thick and brownish, with white above the eyes restricted to two small patches grading into the agouti crown. Temporal stripes are nearly always united behind, and the malar stripe ranges from well defined to absent. There is an interscapular whorl of centrifugal hairs. The gular gland is more or less circular. The face is white except for the chin.Habitat.Tall tropical lowland forest in seasonally flooded forest, swamp forest, and terra firma forest at elevations of 200-900 m. In the Cordillera del Condor of Ecuadorand Peru, Spix’s Night Monkey occurs at elevations up to 1550 m. As found for Ma'’s Night Monkey, population densities of Spix’s Night Monkey in upland terra firma forest tend to be lower (0-6-3-5 groups/km?) than in swampy and inundated forest (5-9-12:5 groups/km?)— believed to be a result of reduced availability of tree holes in terra firma forest.Food and Feeding.Spix’s Night Monkeys primarily eat fruit, which makes up ¢.83% of the diet. They also eat flowers, accounting for up to 17% of the diet at certain times of the year.Breeding.Records from a captive colony of wild-caught Spix’s Night Monkeys in Iquitos, Peru, provided the following statistics: age atfirst birth averaged about two years, although some individuals began breeding at three years old; the youngest age at conception was 31 months, based on a gestation of 4-5-5 months; interbirth intervals averaged 12-4 months (SD + 6-2 months); ¢.75% of 148 births in the colony occurred between December and May, nearly 60% of them between December and March.Activity patterns.An 18-month study in the Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, found Spix’s Night Monkeys to be entirely nocturnal. They became active at dusk between 18:00 h and 19:20 h and returned to their sleeping tree between 05:00 h and 06:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Spix’s Night Monkeys have a monogamous breeding system. Groups consist of two to five individuals, with an average of three individuals per group. The home range of a group studied in Yasuni National Park was 6-3 ha. The group traveled on average 645 m each night (range 150-1358 m), but travel distances were greater on moonlit nights (average 795 m) than on dark nights with a new moon (average 495 m). The group used only five known sleeping holes during 81 days of study; it used a particular tree for a few days before moving to another. Two of the sleeping sites accounted for 78% of the records. Trees were generally large, but groups also slept in palm crowns on some occasions. A study of night monkeysleeping sites in various localities in northern Perufound most of them in tree holes, sometimes hidden by vines and lianas, and sometimes exposed along banks of creeks, channels or oxbow lakes. They also slept among foliar sheaths in crowns of palms such as buriti (Mauritiaflexuosa), Astrocaryum, and Iriartea. Occasionally they shared their holes with other mammals: the Kinkajou (Polos flavus), the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (Isothrix bistriata), tree porcupines (Coendou), the Browneared Woolly Opossum (Caluromys lanatus), and bats. Densities of 0-6-12-5 groups/ km? (27-9-38-9 ind/km?) have been reported for seven localities in northern Peru.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Spix’s Night Monkeys are wide-ranging and relatively abundant in the western Amazon. There are numerous protected areas where it occurs: Jau National Park, Juami-Japura Ecological Reserve, and two large sustainable development reserves— Amana and Mamiraua in Brazil, and national natural parks of Amacayacu, Cahuinari, Serrania de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, La Paya, Serrania de Chiribiquete, besides Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in the Colombian Amazon. In Ecuador, it occurs in Yasuni and Sumaco-Napo Galeras national parks, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Cuyabeno Reserve, and Limoncocha Biological Reserve.Bibliography.Aquino & Encarnacién (1986a, 1988, 1994a), Aquino et al. (1990), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Fernandez-Duque, Di Fiore & Carrillo-Bilbao (2008), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Gozalo & Montoya (1990), Hernandez-Camacho & Defler (1985), Hershkovitz (1983), Ma etal. (1985), Maldonado et al. (2009), Montoya et al. (1995), Pieczarka et al. (1992), Puertas et al. (1992, 1995), Tirira (2007), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Nyctipithecus vociferans Spix, 1823,Tabatinga, upper Rio Maranon, Peru.Censuses along the Rio Nanay and upper Rio Napo and in north-eastern Peru, within the supposed range of A. vociferans, have recorded individuals that differ in appearance and genotype. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Spix @fr | Spix-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Spix Other common names @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Spix","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1823","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"428","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"vociferans","name":"Aotus vociferans","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widespread in the upper Amazon, extending from NW Brazil(W of rios Negro, upper Uaupés, and Amazonas-Solimoes) into SE Colombia(S of the Rio Tomo in the Orinoco Basin, and perhaps the upper Rio Guyabero), and S into the Ecuadorian Amazon and NE Peru(to the N bank of the rios Maranon and Amazonas, W as far as the Rio Chinchipe); it occurs also S of the Rio Solimoes in a small area on the lower Rio Purus. Ma’s Night Monkey (A. nancymaae) replaces it in a small enclave N of the Rio Maranon between the lower rios Tigre and Pastaza.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726980/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aquino & Encarnacién (1986a, 1988, 1994a) | Aquino et al. (1990) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Fernandez-Duque, Di Fiore & Carrillo-Bilbao (2008) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Gozalo & Montoya (1990) | Hernandez-Camacho & Defler (1985) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Ma etal. (1985) | Maldonado et al. (2009) | Montoya et al. (1995) | Pieczarka et al. (1992) | Puertas et al. (1992, 1995) | Tirira (2007) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"Spix’s Night Monkeys primarily eat fruit, which makes up ¢.83% of the diet. They also eat flowers, accounting for up to 17% of the diet at certain times of the year.","breeding":"Records from a captive colony of wild-caught Spix’s Night Monkeys in Iquitos, Peru, provided the following statistics: age atfirst birth averaged about two years, although some individuals began breeding at three years old; the youngest age at conception was 31 months, based on a gestation of 4-5-5 months; interbirth intervals averaged 12-4 months (SD + 6-2 months); ¢.75% of 148 births in the colony occurred between December and May, nearly 60% of them between December and March.","activityPatterns":"An 18-month study in the Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, found Spix’s Night Monkeys to be entirely nocturnal. They became active at dusk between 18:00 h and 19:20 h and returned to their sleeping tree between 05:00 h and 06:00 h.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Spix’s Night Monkeys have a monogamous breeding system. Groups consist of two to five individuals, with an average of three individuals per group. The home range of a group studied in Yasuni National Park was 6-3 ha. The group traveled on average 645 m each night (range 150-1358 m), but travel distances were greater on moonlit nights (average 795 m) than on dark nights with a new moon (average 495 m). The group used only five known sleeping holes during 81 days of study; it used a particular tree for a few days before moving to another. Two of the sleeping sites accounted for 78% of the records. Trees were generally large, but groups also slept in palm crowns on some occasions. A study of night monkeysleeping sites in various localities in northern Perufound most of them in tree holes, sometimes hidden by vines and lianas, and sometimes exposed along banks of creeks, channels or oxbow lakes. They also slept among foliar sheaths in crowns of palms such as buriti (Mauritiaflexuosa), Astrocaryum, and Iriartea. Occasionally they shared their holes with other mammals: the Kinkajou (Polos flavus), the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (Isothrix bistriata), tree porcupines (Coendou), the Browneared Woolly Opossum (Caluromys lanatus), and bats. Densities of 0-6-12-5 groups/ km? (27-9-38-9 ind/km?) have been reported for seven localities in northern Peru.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Spix’s Night Monkeys are wide-ranging and relatively abundant in the western Amazon. There are numerous protected areas where it occurs: Jau National Park, Juami-Japura Ecological Reserve, and two large sustainable development reserves— Amana and Mamiraua in Brazil, and national natural parks of Amacayacu, Cahuinari, Serrania de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, La Paya, Serrania de Chiribiquete, besides Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in the Colombian Amazon. In Ecuador, it occurs in Yasuni and Sumaco-Napo Galeras national parks, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Cuyabeno Reserve, and Limoncocha Biological Reserve.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-45 cm, tail 31-47 cm; weight ¢.708 g (males) and c.698 g (females). Four males from Colombiaaveraged 697-5 g (range 568-800 g). Spix’s Night Monkeyis a gray-necked species, with a diploid number of chromosomes of 46-48. It 1s brown-toned above, with an off-white underside (having the merest trace of orange); this color extends to wrists, ankles, and the chin. Hands and feet are black. The proximal one-third to one-half of the ventral side ofthe tail is reddish or gray-red; the rest ofthe tail is black. Crown stripes are thick and brownish, with white above the eyes restricted to two small patches grading into the agouti crown. Temporal stripes are nearly always united behind, and the malar stripe ranges from well defined to absent. There is an interscapular whorl of centrifugal hairs. The gular gland is more or less circular. The face is white except for the chin.","habitat":"Tall tropical lowland forest in seasonally flooded forest, swamp forest, and terra firma forest at elevations of 200-900 m. In the Cordillera del Condor of Ecuadorand Peru, Spix’s Night Monkey occurs at elevations up to 1550 m. As found for Ma'’s Night Monkey, population densities of Spix’s Night Monkey in upland terra firma forest tend to be lower (0-6-3-5 groups/km?) than in swampy and inundated forest (5-9-12:5 groups/km?)— believed to be a result of reduced availability of tree holes in terra firma forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682DFF7875D8FF6CF344.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85E682DFF7875D8FF6CF344","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"428","verbatimText":"4. Brumback’s Night Monkey Aotus brumbackiFrench:Douroucouli de Brumback/ German:Brumback-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de BrumbackOther common names:Brumback's Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus brumbacki Hershkovitz, 1983,Rio Paraguayarea. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1983 to the Villavicencio region, Department of Meta, Colombia.Previously considered a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that its karyotype is distinct. Monotypic.Distribution.Poorly known, NC Colombiain the E of Boyaca Department, E to the highlands of Metato at least 1500 m above sea level. It is unclear if this species occupies an enclave within the range of the Lemurine Night Monkey (A. lemurinus) or if it replaces it in the NE part ofits distribution.Descriptive notes.No body measurements are available. Brumback’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number for both sexes of 50. Its dorsum is grayish-buffy agouti with a dark brown mid-dorsal zone, and the underside is pale orange, the tone extending to the elbows, knees, and lower throat. The entire side of the neck, including the area behind and below the ear, is grayish agouti or brownish agouti, like the flank and outer sides of the arms. There are well-marked, thin, brownish-black temporal stripes. The white above the eyes is yellowish, and the white on the face extends to the chin. The gular gland is long (5 cm) and thin. A short, longitudinal interscapular crest, with raised hairs,is directed backward and laterally— believed to be unique in the genus.Habitat.Closed canopy forest and gallery forest up to an elevation of 1500 m, but typically thought of as a lowland species. Brumback’s Night Monkeys sleep in hollow trees or dense vegetation.Food and Feeding.On the right bank of the Rio Duda in Tinigua National Natural Park, Colombia, Brumback’s Night Monkeys eat fruit (59%), insects and other invertebrates (28%), and flowers (13%).Breeding.There is no specific information on this species, but a birth peak appears to occur in October.Activity patterns.Brumback’s Night Monkeys are nocturnal and arboreal. The activity pattern is 33% resting, 32% traveling, 16% vocalizing, 15% foraging, and 3% engaging in social activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Social groups of Brumback’s Night Monkey consist of an adult pair and their infants, juveniles, and subadults, with a mean group size of three individuals. Home-range size of 17-5 ha over six months has been observed, with a mean nightly travel distance of 837 m over 53 nights.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The only place whereit is known to occur for certain is in the forests around Villavicencio, Meta Department, Colombia. There is widespread deforestation throughout its supposed distribution, and populations are thought to have declined by 30% over the past 24 years. The night monkey in Tinigua National Natural Park is believed to be Brumback’s Night Monkey, and it may also occur in the national natural parks of El Cocuy, El Tuparro, and La Macarena.Bibliography.Defler (2003, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Hershkovitz (1983), Solano (1995, 1996), Uribe (1989).","taxonomy":"Aotus brumbacki Hershkovitz, 1983,Rio Paraguayarea. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1983 to the Villavicencio region, Department of Meta, Colombia.Previously considered a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that its karyotype is distinct. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Brumback @fr | Brumback-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Brumback Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hershkovitz","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1983","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"428","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brumbacki","name":"Aotus brumbacki","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Poorly known, NC Colombiain the E of Boyaca Department, E to the highlands of Metato at least 1500 m above sea level. It is unclear if this species occupies an enclave within the range of the Lemurine Night Monkey (A. lemurinus) or if it replaces it in the NE part ofits distribution.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726974/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Defler (2003, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Solano (1995, 1996) | Uribe (1989)","foodAndFeeding":"On the right bank of the Rio Duda in Tinigua National Natural Park, Colombia, Brumback’s Night Monkeys eat fruit (59%), insects and other invertebrates (28%), and flowers (13%).","breeding":"There is no specific information on this species, but a birth peak appears to occur in October.","activityPatterns":"Brumback’s Night Monkeys are nocturnal and arboreal. The activity pattern is 33% resting, 32% traveling, 16% vocalizing, 15% foraging, and 3% engaging in social activity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Social groups of Brumback’s Night Monkey consist of an adult pair and their infants, juveniles, and subadults, with a mean group size of three individuals. Home-range size of 17-5 ha over six months has been observed, with a mean nightly travel distance of 837 m over 53 nights.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The only place whereit is known to occur for certain is in the forests around Villavicencio, Meta Department, Colombia. There is widespread deforestation throughout its supposed distribution, and populations are thought to have declined by 30% over the past 24 years. The night monkey in Tinigua National Natural Park is believed to be Brumback’s Night Monkey, and it may also occur in the national natural parks of El Cocuy, El Tuparro, and La Macarena.","descriptiveNotes":"No body measurements are available. Brumback’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number for both sexes of 50. Its dorsum is grayish-buffy agouti with a dark brown mid-dorsal zone, and the underside is pale orange, the tone extending to the elbows, knees, and lower throat. The entire side of the neck, including the area behind and below the ear, is grayish agouti or brownish agouti, like the flank and outer sides of the arms. There are well-marked, thin, brownish-black temporal stripes. The white above the eyes is yellowish, and the white on the face extends to the chin. The gular gland is long (5 cm) and thin. A short, longitudinal interscapular crest, with raised hairs,is directed backward and laterally— believed to be unique in the genus.","habitat":"Closed canopy forest and gallery forest up to an elevation of 1500 m, but typically thought of as a lowland species. Brumback’s Night Monkeys sleep in hollow trees or dense vegetation."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85E682DFF7D7D84F59CF74D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85E682DFF7D7D84F59CF74D","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"428","verbatimText":"5. Humboldt’s Night Monkey Aotus trivirgatusFrench:Douroucouli de Humboldt/ German:Ostlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de HumboldtOther common names:Douroucouli, Northern Gray-necked Owl Monkey, Northern Night Monkey, Three-striped Night Monkey, Three-striped Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Simia trivirgatus Humboldt, 1812,Forests of the Rio Cassiquiare, near the foot of Mount Duida, Amazonas, Venezuela.Undal the revision by P. Hershkovitz in 1983, the genus was considered to be monotypic, with A. trivirgatusas the only species. In his catalogue published in 1957, A. Cabrera listed nine subspecies, and W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1960 listed ten. Many of these are now considered distinct species. Some publications up to the 1980s and early 1990sstill referred to all night monkeys as belonging to this one species. Monotypic.Distribution.N Brazil(N of the rios Negro and Amazonasand W of the Rio Trombetas), SC Venezuela(N to middle Orinoco E at least as far as the Rio Caura) and E Colombia(T. Defler reports sightings from the middle Rio Caquetaabove the mouth of the Miriti-Parana and the lower Rio Inirida to the N); as such, Humboldt’s Night Monkey may be sympatric with Spix’s Night Monkey (A. vociferans) in some parts of Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-38 cm,tail 33-40 cm; weight ¢.813 g (males) and c.736 g (females). Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to mainly brownish agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy-agouti. Innersides of the limbs, extending to the wrists and ankle, are similar in colorto the orange-buffy of the chest and belly. The facial pattern is quite inconspicuous, triradiate stripes are brown, and the face is rather grayish compared with the usual white of other night monkeys. Hands and feet are dark brown. Humboldt’s Night Monkey can be distinguished from other night monkeys by its parallel temporal stripes and the lack of an interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Tropical forests, including dry forest.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Humboldt’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. Climbing, leaping, and quadrupedal and suspensory locomotion have been reported.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Similar to all the night monkeys, Humboldt’s Night Monkey is monogamous, with the male carrying and provisioning young. A home range of size of 3-1 ha and a mean night range of 252 m have been reported, but these numbers are based on data from a single group.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a wide-ranging species and generally not hunted. There are a number of protected areas within its range: Pico da Neblina National Park, biological reserves of Rio Trombetas and Uatuma, and ecological stations of Anavilhanas, Caracarai, and Niquia in Braziland national parks ofJaua-Sarisarinama, Parima-Tapirapeco, Duida-Marahuaca, and Yapacana in southern Venezuela.Bibliography.Bodini & Pérez-Hernandez (1987), Brumback (1973, 1974, 1975b), Brumback et al. (1971), Cabrera (1957), Cicmanec & Campbell (1977), Defler (2003b, 2004), Dixson (1982, 1983), Egozcue (1971), Erkert (1976), Fernandes (1993), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hanson & Montagna (1962), Hershkovitz (1983), Hill (1960), Linares (1998), Napier (1976), Smith & Jungers (1997), Sussman & Phillips-Conroy (1995), Torres et al. (1998), Wright (1978, 1981, 1984, 1990), Yunis et al. (1977), Zito et al. (2003).","taxonomy":"Simia trivirgatus Humboldt, 1812,Forests of the Rio Cassiquiare, near the foot of Mount Duida, Amazonas, Venezuela.Undal the revision by P. Hershkovitz in 1983, the genus was considered to be monotypic, with A. trivirgatusas the only species. In his catalogue published in 1957, A. Cabrera listed nine subspecies, and W. C. O. Hill in his review of 1960 listed ten. Many of these are now considered distinct species. Some publications up to the 1980s and early 1990sstill referred to all night monkeys as belonging to this one species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli de Humboldt @fr | Ostlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Humboldt Other common names @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Humboldt","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1812","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"428","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"trivirgatus","name":"Aotus trivirgatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Brazil(N of the rios Negro and Amazonasand W of the Rio Trombetas), SC Venezuela(N to middle Orinoco E at least as far as the Rio Caura) and E Colombia(T. Defler reports sightings from the middle Rio Caquetaabove the mouth of the Miriti-Parana and the lower Rio Inirida to the N); as such, Humboldt’s Night Monkey may be sympatric with Spix’s Night Monkey (A. vociferans) in some parts of Colombia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726978/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bodini & Pérez-Hernandez (1987) | Brumback (1973, 1974, 1975b) | Brumback et al. (1971) | Cabrera (1957) | Cicmanec & Campbell (1977) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Dixson (1982, 1983) | Egozcue (1971) | Erkert (1976) | Fernandes (1993) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hanson & Montagna (1962) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Hill (1960) | Linares (1998) | Napier (1976) | Smith & Jungers (1997) | Sussman & Phillips-Conroy (1995) | Torres et al. (1998) | Wright (1978, 1981, 1984, 1990) | Yunis et al. (1977) | Zito et al. (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"Humboldt’s Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. Climbing, leaping, and quadrupedal and suspensory locomotion have been reported.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Similar to all the night monkeys, Humboldt’s Night Monkey is monogamous, with the male carrying and provisioning young. A home range of size of 3-1 ha and a mean night range of 252 m have been reported, but these numbers are based on data from a single group.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a wide-ranging species and generally not hunted. There are a number of protected areas within its range: Pico da Neblina National Park, biological reserves of Rio Trombetas and Uatuma, and ecological stations of Anavilhanas, Caracarai, and Niquia in Braziland national parks ofJaua-Sarisarinama, Parima-Tapirapeco, Duida-Marahuaca, and Yapacana in southern Venezuela.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 30-38 cm,tail 33-40 cm; weight ¢.813 g (males) and c.736 g (females). Humboldt’s Night Monkey is a gray-necked species. The hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to mainly brownish agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy-agouti. Innersides of the limbs, extending to the wrists and ankle, are similar in colorto the orange-buffy of the chest and belly. The facial pattern is quite inconspicuous, triradiate stripes are brown, and the face is rather grayish compared with the usual white of other night monkeys. Hands and feet are dark brown. Humboldt’s Night Monkey can be distinguished from other night monkeys by its parallel temporal stripes and the lack of an interscapular whorl or crest.","habitat":"Tropical forests, including dry forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682CFFBB70C8FD7DF59E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85F682CFFBB70C8FD7DF59E","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"427","verbatimText":"1. Lemurine Night Monkey Aotus lemurinusFrench:Douroucouli Iémurien/ German:Nordlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de vientre grisOther common names:Colombian Night Monkey, Gray-bellied Night Monkey, Lemurine Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus lemurinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843,Colombia, Santa Fé de Bogota.According to T. Defler and coworkers, the karyotype of A. hershkovitzi described by Ramirez-Cerquera in 1983, from the upper Rio Cusiana, Boyaca, Colombia, was 2n = 58 (listed by C. P. Groves in his 2001 book Primate Taxonomy), which was in fact that of true A. lemurinus. Further cytogenetic studies by Defler and M. Bueno concluded that the A. lemurinusdefined in P. Hershkovitz’s 1983 revision was in fact three karyotypically well-defined species: night monkeys of the lowlands of Panamaand the Choco regionof Colombiawere A. zonalis; those of the MagdalenaValley were A. griseimembra; and only those from the slopes of the Andean cordilleras above elevations of 1000-1500 m were A. lemurinus. Monotypic.Distribution.A montane species of the Andes range at elevations above 1000-1500 m in Colombia, in the upper Rio CaucaValley and slopes of Cordillera Oriental (not in the MagdalenaValley, occupied by the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and extending S through the humid subtropical forests of the Cordillera Oriental into Ecuador; perhaps N along the Sierra de Perija into Venezuela, but this has not been confirmed.Descriptive notes.Head-body average 30-6 cm (males, n = 5) and 32-5 cm (females, n = 7), tail average 34-3 cm (males, n = 5) and 34-1 cm (females, n = 7); weight 800 g (one male) and 1050 g (one lactating female). The Lemurine Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 58 for both sexes. Rather shaggy and long-haired, coloration of the upperparts is variable but often grayish to buffy-agouti, with at most a poorly defined brownish medial dorsal band. The ventral side ofthe tail is red nearly to the tip, which is reddish-black. The underside is yellowish to pale orange. Inner sides of limbs are entirely grayish agouti, like the outersides, or they may have yellowish to pale orange tone extending from the chest and belly to usually no further than the mid-arm or mid-leg. Facial pattern is variable, and hands and feet are dark. Temporal stripes may be separate or united behind the head. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Tropical and high-elevation forest at 1000-3200 m above sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the diet is likely composed ofundoubtedly comprises fruits, insects, and nectar.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The range ofthis species has long suffered widespread deforestation and expanding illicit coffee production. Although believed to be threatened, little is known of its actual conservation status, and censuses of populations are needed. The national natural parks of Tama and Puracé in Colombiaare within its range, and it is occurs in Llanganates and Sumaco Napo-Galeras national parks and the Cofan-Bermejo Ecological Reserve in Ecuador.Bibliography.Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler et al. (2001), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Ford (1994a, 1994b), Hernandéz-Camacho & Cooper (1976), Hernandéz-Camacho & Defler (1985), Hershkovitz (1983), Ramirez (1983), Tirira (2007), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Aotus lemurinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843,Colombia, Santa Fé de Bogota.According to T. Defler and coworkers, the karyotype of A. hershkovitzi described by Ramirez-Cerquera in 1983, from the upper Rio Cusiana, Boyaca, Colombia, was 2n = 58 (listed by C. P. Groves in his 2001 book Primate Taxonomy), which was in fact that of true A. lemurinus. Further cytogenetic studies by Defler and M. Bueno concluded that the A. lemurinusdefined in P. Hershkovitz’s 1983 revision was in fact three karyotypically well-defined species: night monkeys of the lowlands of Panamaand the Choco regionof Colombiawere A. zonalis; those of the MagdalenaValley were A. griseimembra; and only those from the slopes of the Andean cordilleras above elevations of 1000-1500 m were A. lemurinus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli @fr | émurien @en | Nordlicher Graukehl-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de vientre gris Other common names @es","interpretedAuthority":"Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843","interpretedAuthorityName":"Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"427","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lemurinus","name":"Aotus lemurinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A montane species of the Andes range at elevations above 1000-1500 m in Colombia, in the upper Rio CaucaValley and slopes of Cordillera Oriental (not in the MagdalenaValley, occupied by the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and extending S through the humid subtropical forests of the Cordillera Oriental into Ecuador; perhaps N along the Sierra de Perija into Venezuela, but this has not been confirmed.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726964/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler et al. (2001) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Ford (1994a, 1994b) | Hernandéz-Camacho & Cooper (1976) | Hernandéz-Camacho & Defler (1985) | Hershkovitz (1983) | Ramirez (1983) | Tirira (2007) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the diet is likely composed ofundoubtedly comprises fruits, insects, and nectar.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The range ofthis species has long suffered widespread deforestation and expanding illicit coffee production. Although believed to be threatened, little is known of its actual conservation status, and censuses of populations are needed. The national natural parks of Tama and Puracé in Colombiaare within its range, and it is occurs in Llanganates and Sumaco Napo-Galeras national parks and the Cofan-Bermejo Ecological Reserve in Ecuador.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body average 30-6 cm (males, n = 5) and 32-5 cm (females, n = 7), tail average 34-3 cm (males, n = 5) and 34-1 cm (females, n = 7); weight 800 g (one male) and 1050 g (one lactating female). The Lemurine Night Monkey is a gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 58 for both sexes. Rather shaggy and long-haired, coloration of the upperparts is variable but often grayish to buffy-agouti, with at most a poorly defined brownish medial dorsal band. The ventral side ofthe tail is red nearly to the tip, which is reddish-black. The underside is yellowish to pale orange. Inner sides of limbs are entirely grayish agouti, like the outersides, or they may have yellowish to pale orange tone extending from the chest and belly to usually no further than the mid-arm or mid-leg. Facial pattern is variable, and hands and feet are dark. Temporal stripes may be separate or united behind the head. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.","habitat":"Tropical and high-elevation forest at 1000-3200 m above sea level."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682CFFBD7BF0F824FA2D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85F682CFFBD7BF0F824FA2D","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"427","verbatimText":"2. Gray-legged Night Monkey Aotus griseimembraFrench:Douroucouli a bras gris/ German:Elliot-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de patas grisesOther common names:Gray-handed Night Monkey, Yellow-bellied Night Monkey, Yellow-bellied Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus griseimembra Elliot, 1912,Hacienda Cincinnati, Santa Marta, and Rio Sinu Cereté, Bolivar, Colombia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Colombiaand NW Venezuela, where it occurs in the Rio MagdalenaValley and N lowlands in Colombia, including the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and basins of the rios Sinu and San Jorge, extending into Venezuelain the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo and the Sierra de Perija.Descriptive notes.Head-body ¢.48 cm, tail c.42 cm; weight 800-1000 g. The Graylegged Night Monkey is one of the gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 52-54. Hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to brownish-agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy, with at a poorly- defined brownish medial dorsal band. The chest, belly, and inner surfaces of the legs (as far as the knees and elbows) are brownish or yellowish to pale orange. Pelage is relatively short and adpressed. Facial pattern is inconspicuous, and dorsal parts of the hands and feet are light coftee-brown, with darker hair tips. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.Habitat.Primary and secondary tropical lowland forest. The Gray-legged Night Monkey has also been observed in coffee plantations.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Mean interbirth intervals of c¢.13 months and a gestation of 133 days have been reported for the Gray-legged Night Monkey in captivity.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Group size is 2-4 individuals, typically with an adult pair and their offspring. A density of 150 ind/km® has been reported in a census conducted in northern Colombia, but this unusually high density may be explained by the fact that data were collected in a forest remnant that may have served as a refuge.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Magdalena Valley has been settled and farmed for centuries. Deforestation is widespread, and Gray-legged Night Monkeys are restricted to small and isolated forest fragments. Due to this and its use in biomedical research, it is considered the most threatened of Colombian night monkeys. The Gray-legged Night Monkey occurs in the national natural parks of Catatumbo-Bari, Islade Salamanca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and Tayrona, and the fauna and flora sanctuaries of Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Iguaque.Bibliography.Brumback (1975a), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Dixson & Fleming (1981), Dixson et al. (1980), Erkert & Grober (1986), Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012), Green (1978), Handley (1976), Hunter et al. (1979), Kumamoto & Houck (2001), Rauth-Widmann et al. (1996), Umana et al. (1984), Uribe (1989), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994), Yunis et al. (1977).","taxonomy":"Aotus griseimembra Elliot, 1912,Hacienda Cincinnati, Santa Marta, and Rio Sinu Cereté, Bolivar, Colombia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli a bras gris @fr | Elliot-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de patas grises Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Elliot","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1912","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"427","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"griseimembra","name":"Aotus griseimembra","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Colombiaand NW Venezuela, where it occurs in the Rio MagdalenaValley and N lowlands in Colombia, including the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and basins of the rios Sinu and San Jorge, extending into Venezuelain the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo and the Sierra de Perija.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726968/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Brumback (1975a) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Dixson & Fleming (1981) | Dixson et al. (1980) | Erkert & Grober (1986) | Fernandez-Duque (2011a, 2012) | Green (1978) | Handley (1976) | Hunter et al. (1979) | Kumamoto & Houck (2001) | Rauth-Widmann et al. (1996) | Umana et al. (1984) | Uribe (1989) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994) | Yunis et al. (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Mean interbirth intervals of c¢.13 months and a gestation of 133 days have been reported for the Gray-legged Night Monkey in captivity.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but it is no doubt nocturnal and arboreal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Group size is 2-4 individuals, typically with an adult pair and their offspring. A density of 150 ind/km® has been reported in a census conducted in northern Colombia, but this unusually high density may be explained by the fact that data were collected in a forest remnant that may have served as a refuge.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Magdalena Valley has been settled and farmed for centuries. Deforestation is widespread, and Gray-legged Night Monkeys are restricted to small and isolated forest fragments. Due to this and its use in biomedical research, it is considered the most threatened of Colombian night monkeys. The Gray-legged Night Monkey occurs in the national natural parks of Catatumbo-Bari, Islade Salamanca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and Tayrona, and the fauna and flora sanctuaries of Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Iguaque.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body ¢.48 cm, tail c.42 cm; weight 800-1000 g. The Graylegged Night Monkey is one of the gray-necked species, with a diploid chromosome number of 52-54. Hair on the side of the neck is grayish-agouti to brownish-agouti. Upperparts of the body are grayish to buffy, with at a poorly- defined brownish medial dorsal band. The chest, belly, and inner surfaces of the legs (as far as the knees and elbows) are brownish or yellowish to pale orange. Pelage is relatively short and adpressed. Facial pattern is inconspicuous, and dorsal parts of the hands and feet are light coftee-brown, with darker hair tips. There is no interscapular whorl or crest.","habitat":"Primary and secondary tropical lowland forest. The Gray-legged Night Monkey has also been observed in coffee plantations."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/50/03C1502EA85F682DFA857722FCDEFBA1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C1502EA85F682DFA857722FCDEFBA1","docName":"hbmw_3_Aotidae_0414.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff82856a85d682effdf7164ff86ffd3","docPageNumber":"427","verbatimText":"3. Panamanian Night Monkey Aotus zonalisFrench:Douroucouli du Panama/ German:Panama-Nachtaffe/ Spanish:Mico nocturno de PanamaOther common names:Chocd Owl MonkeyTaxonomy.Aotus zonalis Goldman, 1914,Panama, Gatun, Canal Zone.J. Hernandez-Camacho and R. Cooper in 1976 and C. P. Groves in 2001 recognized this form as a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that night monkeys from Panamaand the Chocoin Colombiaare a separate species, A. zonalis. Monotypic.Distribution.NW Colombiain the Pacific lowlands (E to the Sinu Valley, S towards the Ecuadorian border, and N into Cordoba Department, perhaps as far as Valdivia where it would overlap with the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and most of Panama(along the Pacific coast W to the Rio San Pedro in Veraguasand on the Atlantic side W as far as the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro); it is absent from SW Panama(Chiriqui), and its occurrence in SE Costa Ricais uncertain.Descriptive notes.Head—body ¢.30 cm, tail ¢.36 cm; weight 889 g (males, n = 6) and 916 g (females, n = 11). The Panamanian Night Monkey is a gray-necked species with a diploid chromosome number of 55-56. Body color is brownish in the Canal Zone and Colombia, but it grades into paler and grayer tones along the upper Rio Tuira, eastern Panama. Hair is short and adpressed. The Panamanian Night Monkey is similar to the Gray-legged Night Monkey, exceptfor its dark brown or blackish hands and feet.Habitat.Lowland forest, up to elevations of 650 m. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, they usually move and feed at heights of 7 m in the lower canopy and up to 30 m in highest parts of the forest canopy. Panamanian Night Monkeys have not been seen traveling on the ground.Food and Feeding.Based on an analysis of stomach contents, the Panamanian Night Monkey eats fruits (65%), leaves (30%), and insects (5%) %), based on the stomach contents.Breeding.Night monkeys are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and their offspring and sometimes a subadult. Similar to studies of other species of captive Aotus, captive and wild Panamanian Night Monkeys on the island of Barro Colorado, mate infrequently; it is rapid, and inconspicuous, lacking any evident soliciting behaviors or postures. The newborn is carried by the mother for the first week or so, but then it is transferred to the father, who subsequently carries it most of the time, returning it to the mother only for suckling.Activity patterns.The Panamanian Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. A radiotracking study of a young male followed for nine nights on Barro Colorado indicated two peaks of activity during the night. It became active at dusk (17:00-18:15 h), remaining active with gradually increasing periods of inactivity until about midnight when it would rest for 1-2 hours and then start feeding and foraging until dawn;it returned to its daytime nest at ¢.06:00 h.On following pages 4 Brumback s Nıgm Monkey (Aorus brumbeckı) 5 Humboldt s Nıght Monkey (Aorus mvırgaruså 6 Spıx s Nıght Monkey (Aotus vocılerıns) 7 Hernández-Camacho s Nıght Monkey (Actus l°f96hemandezù B Andean Nıght Monkey (Actus mıoonvd 9 Ma s Nıght Monkey (Actus nencyrrıaee) 10 Black-needed Nıght Monkey (Actus mgnœps) Azara s Nngh! Monkey (Actus azaradMovements, Home range and Social organization.The Panamanian Night Monkey lives in family groups of 4-5 individuals. Groups are territorial and meet rarely. When they do meet at a fruiting tree, for example, they are quite aggressive. Following a slow approach, they leap at the opponent, hitting and attempting to bite it. Aggression is generally directed at individuals of the same sex.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Little is known about the Panamanian Night Monkey, so its conservation status is uncertain. Threats are poorly known, but deforestation and conversion to agriculture are likely among them. The Panamanian Night Monkey is protected in the national natural parks of Ensenada de Utria, Farallones de Cali, Las Orquideas, Los Katios, Munchique, Paramillo, and Tatama in Colombia. In Panama, it is protected in the national parks of Altos de Campana, Camino de Cruces, Cerro Hoya, Chagres, Darién, IslaBastimentos, Portobelo, Sarigua, and Soberania and, among other protected areas, the Reserva Forestal Canglon, the Bosque Protector San Lorenzo, and the Barro Colorado Nature Monument.Bibliography.Baldwin & Baldwin (1976a), Crile & Quiring (1940), Defler (2003b, 2004), Defler & Bueno (2007), Ford (1994a, 1994b, 2006), Hall (1981), Hladik et al. (1971), Ma et al. (1978), Montoya et al. (1995), Moynihan (1964, 1976), de Rodaniche (1954), Rylands et al. (2006), Svensson et al. (2010), Thorington et al. (1976), Timm (1988), Uribe (1989), Wilson (2001), Wright (1981, 1989, 1994).","taxonomy":"Aotus zonalis Goldman, 1914,Panama, Gatun, Canal Zone.J. Hernandez-Camacho and R. Cooper in 1976 and C. P. Groves in 2001 recognized this form as a subspecies of A. lemurinus, but T. Defler and M. Bueno argued that night monkeys from Panamaand the Chocoin Colombiaare a separate species, A. zonalis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Douroucouli du Panama @fr | Panama-Nachtaffe @de | Mico nocturno de Panama Other common names @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goldman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1914","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aotidae","interpretedGenus":"Aotus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Primates","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"427","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zonalis","name":"Aotus zonalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NW Colombiain the Pacific lowlands (E to the Sinu Valley, S towards the Ecuadorian border, and N into Cordoba Department, perhaps as far as Valdivia where it would overlap with the Gray-legged Night Monkey, A. griseimembra), and most of Panama(along the Pacific coast W to the Rio San Pedro in Veraguasand on the Atlantic side W as far as the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro); it is absent from SW Panama(Chiriqui), and its occurrence in SE Costa Ricais uncertain.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5726972/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baldwin & Baldwin (1976a) | Crile & Quiring (1940) | Defler (2003b, 2004) | Defler & Bueno (2007) | Ford (1994a, 1994b, 2006) | Hall (1981) | Hladik et al. (1971) | Ma et al. (1978) | Montoya et al. (1995) | Moynihan (1964, 1976) | de Rodaniche (1954) | Rylands et al. (2006) | Svensson et al. (2010) | Thorington et al. (1976) | Timm (1988) | Uribe (1989) | Wilson (2001) | Wright (1981, 1989, 1994)","foodAndFeeding":"Based on an analysis of stomach contents, the Panamanian Night Monkey eats fruits (65%), leaves (30%), and insects (5%) %), based on the stomach contents.","breeding":"Night monkeys are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and their offspring and sometimes a subadult. Similar to studies of other species of captive Aotus, captive and wild Panamanian Night Monkeys on the island of Barro Colorado, mate infrequently; it is rapid, and inconspicuous, lacking any evident soliciting behaviors or postures. The newborn is carried by the mother for the first week or so, but then it is transferred to the father, who subsequently carries it most of the time, returning it to the mother only for suckling.","activityPatterns":"The Panamanian Night Monkey is nocturnal and arboreal. A radiotracking study of a young male followed for nine nights on Barro Colorado indicated two peaks of activity during the night. It became active at dusk (17:00-18:15 h), remaining active with gradually increasing periods of inactivity until about midnight when it would rest for 1-2 hours and then start feeding and foraging until dawn;it returned to its daytime nest at ¢.06:00 h.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Panamanian Night Monkey lives in family groups of 4-5 individuals. Groups are territorial and meet rarely. When they do meet at a fruiting tree, for example, they are quite aggressive. Following a slow approach, they leap at the opponent, hitting and attempting to bite it. Aggression is generally directed at individuals of the same sex.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Little is known about the Panamanian Night Monkey, so its conservation status is uncertain. Threats are poorly known, but deforestation and conversion to agriculture are likely among them. The Panamanian Night Monkey is protected in the national natural parks of Ensenada de Utria, Farallones de Cali, Las Orquideas, Los Katios, Munchique, Paramillo, and Tatama in Colombia. In Panama, it is protected in the national parks of Altos de Campana, Camino de Cruces, Cerro Hoya, Chagres, Darién, IslaBastimentos, Portobelo, Sarigua, and Soberania and, among other protected areas, the Reserva Forestal Canglon, the Bosque Protector San Lorenzo, and the Barro Colorado Nature Monument.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body ¢.30 cm, tail ¢.36 cm; weight 889 g (males, n = 6) and 916 g (females, n = 11). The Panamanian Night Monkey is a gray-necked species with a diploid chromosome number of 55-56. Body color is brownish in the Canal Zone and Colombia, but it grades into paler and grayer tones along the upper Rio Tuira, eastern Panama. Hair is short and adpressed. The Panamanian Night Monkey is similar to the Gray-legged Night Monkey, exceptfor its dark brown or blackish hands and feet.","habitat":"Lowland forest, up to elevations of 650 m. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, they usually move and feed at heights of 7 m in the lower canopy and up to 30 m in highest parts of the forest canopy. Panamanian Night Monkeys have not been seen traveling on the ground."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B15FFC0630AFC0DF6F2B2B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C187E32B15FFC0630AFC0DF6F2B2B3","docName":"hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"131","verbatimText":"3.Pale-throated Three-toed SlothBradypus tridactylusFrench:Paresseux a trois doigts/ German:\\WeiRkehl-Faultier/ Spanish:Perezoso tridactilo de garganta péalidaOther common names:Pale-throated SlothTaxonomy.Bradypus tridactylus Linnaeus, 1758, “America meridionalis arboribus.”Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to Suriname. This species is monotypic.Distribution.N South America, from E Venezuela (E & S of the Orinoco River), E through the Guianas to N Brazil (W to the Amazon River Delta and bounded in the S by the Amazon River).Descriptive notes.Head-body 450-755 mm, tail 22-110 mm, ear 5-21 mm, hindfoot 40-120 mm; weight 3.4-6.5 kg. Adult males are smaller than females. The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth has long, coarse, dark gray hair with black spots, especially around back and shoulders. Pelage is greenish because of algae that grows along cracks of hair shafts. Throat and head are yellowish. Males have dorsal speculum with orange-yellow patch and broad black central stripe. Males and females have small vestigial tails. Females have two mammae on their chests. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 52 and FN = 56.Habitat.Tropical forests with diverse tree species and complex horizontal and vertical cover. Although seldom seen, the Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth is abundant throughout its distribution.Food and Feeding.The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore, consuming leaves from the canopy of overstory trees. Its diet has been reported to almost exclusively contain leaves of Cecropia spp.(Urticaceae), butit also eats leaves of Ceibasamauma (Malvaceae), Elizabethaparaensis (Fabaceae), and Heveaviridis (Euphorbiaceae). The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth has one of the slowest rates of digestion and fermentation because of the large volume of digesta it retains in its gut and its low metabolic rate.Breeding.Breeding of the Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths is seasonal. Pregnancy, inferred from timing of births and assuming six-month gestation, occurs in August— February. One very small young is born per litter, and births appear to occur during the long rainy season (March—June). Interbirth interval is c.12 months, and age of independence for juveniles is ¢.5 months. Young cling to venters of their mothers. They sample leaves as early as three weeks old but do not consume substantial amounts of leaves until they are c.5 weeks old. Young are closely associated with their mothers for the first year oflife.Activity patterns.Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths are strictly arboreal and do notlive outside of the forest. Similar to their congeners, they have limited activity; one individual was observed resting/inactive for 18-5 hours/day, hanging upside down from branches. While sleeping, they are most often seated in crooks of trees on horizontal branches, with their heads tucked into their chests under their arms. They have been observed sunning themselves in tree canopies. The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth swims well and can use rivers as dispersal corridors.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths are primarily solitary, although groups of up to three individuals have been observed. Individuals can be aggressive—primarily with their claws—to conspecifics if they occupy the same tree. They can reach high densities within Neotropical forests. In Suriname, it was the most abundant non-volant mammal and constituted a large proportion of total mammalian biomass in the forests.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Palethroated Three-toed Sloth has a relatively wide distribution, occurs in protected areas, and is rarely targeted for consumption or human use. Clearing of Neotropical forests is detrimental to Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths because they are vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation.Bibliography.Beebe (1926), Eisenberg & Thorington (1973), Foley et al. (1995), Hayssen (2009b), Richard-Hansen & Taube (1997), Taube, Keravec et al. (2001), Taube, Vié et al. (1999), Thomas (1911b).","taxonomy":"Bradypus tridactylus Linnaeus, 1758, “America meridionalis arboribus.”Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to Suriname. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Paresseux a trois doigts @fr | \\Wei Rkehl-Faultier @de | Perezoso tridactilo de garganta péalida @es | Pale-throated Sloth @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bradypodidae","interpretedGenus":"Bradypus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Pilosa","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"131","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tridactylus","name":"Bradypus tridactylus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N South America, from E Venezuela (E & S of the Orinoco River), E through the Guianas to N Brazil (W to the Amazon River Delta and bounded in the S by the Amazon River).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621620/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Beebe (1926) | Eisenberg & Thorington (1973) | Foley et al. (1995) | Hayssen (2009b) | Richard-Hansen & Taube (1997) | Taube, Keravec et al. (2001) | Taube, Vié et al. (1999) | Thomas (1911b)","foodAndFeeding":"The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore, consuming leaves from the canopy of overstory trees. Its diet has been reported to almost exclusively contain leaves of Cecropia spp.(Urticaceae), butit also eats leaves of Ceibasamauma (Malvaceae), Elizabethaparaensis (Fabaceae), and Heveaviridis (Euphorbiaceae). The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth has one of the slowest rates of digestion and fermentation because of the large volume of digesta it retains in its gut and its low metabolic rate.","breeding":"Breeding of the Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths is seasonal. Pregnancy, inferred from timing of births and assuming six-month gestation, occurs in August— February. One very small young is born per litter, and births appear to occur during the long rainy season (March—June). Interbirth interval is c.12 months, and age of independence for juveniles is ¢.5 months. Young cling to venters of their mothers. They sample leaves as early as three weeks old but do not consume substantial amounts of leaves until they are c.5 weeks old. Young are closely associated with their mothers for the first year oflife.","activityPatterns":"Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths are strictly arboreal and do notlive outside of the forest. Similar to their congeners, they have limited activity; one individual was observed resting/inactive for 18-5 hours/day, hanging upside down from branches. While sleeping, they are most often seated in crooks of trees on horizontal branches, with their heads tucked into their chests under their arms. They have been observed sunning themselves in tree canopies. The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth swims well and can use rivers as dispersal corridors.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths are primarily solitary, although groups of up to three individuals have been observed. Individuals can be aggressive—primarily with their claws—to conspecifics if they occupy the same tree. They can reach high densities within Neotropical forests. In Suriname, it was the most abundant non-volant mammal and constituted a large proportion of total mammalian biomass in the forests.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Palethroated Three-toed Sloth has a relatively wide distribution, occurs in protected areas, and is rarely targeted for consumption or human use. Clearing of Neotropical forests is detrimental to Pale-throated Three-toed Sloths because they are vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 450-755 mm, tail 22-110 mm, ear 5-21 mm, hindfoot 40-120 mm; weight 3.4-6.5 kg. Adult males are smaller than females. The Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth has long, coarse, dark gray hair with black spots, especially around back and shoulders. Pelage is greenish because of algae that grows along cracks of hair shafts. Throat and head are yellowish. Males have dorsal speculum with orange-yellow patch and broad black central stripe. Males and females have small vestigial tails. Females have two mammae on their chests. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 52 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Tropical forests with diverse tree species and complex horizontal and vertical cover. Although seldom seen, the Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth is abundant throughout its distribution."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B15FFC06615F835F588BD3F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C187E32B15FFC06615F835F588BD3F","docName":"hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"131","verbatimText":"2.Pygmy Three-toed SlothBradypus pygmaeusFrench:Paresseux nain/ German:Zwergfaultier/ Spanish:Perezoso tridactilo pigmeoOther common names:Pygmy SlothTaxonomy.Bradypus pygmaeusR. P. An- derson & Handley, 2001, “Panama: Bocas del Toro: Isla Escudo de Veraguas, West Point.”Taxonomic status unclear; it was described as a species based on morphometric analyses, notably a smaller body size, but results of recent molecular studies are conflicting and could be a pygmy form of B. variegatus. Monotypic.Distribution.Restricted to the Escudo de Veraguas I, 18 km offshore from the Valiente Peninsula, on the Caribbean coast of Panama.Descriptive notes.Head-body 485-530 mm, tail 45-60 mm, ear 10 mm, hindfoot 94-110 mm; weight 2:5.3-5 kg. The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth is similar in color to the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth (B. variegatus); it is gray with long, coarse hair, covered with algae causing hair to appear green. The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth has dark orbital stripe over lighter colored and browner face. Males have dorsal speculum of shorter cream to orange hair. Forelimbs and hindlimbs have three large and distinct claws.Habitat.[sland mangrove forests. Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are believed to be primarily associated with red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae) that occur along the margins of Isla Escudo de Veraguas. A few sloths have been observed in interior, upland forests of the island. More systematic efforts are needed to survey interior forests to determine the degree to which Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are associated with mangrove and other tree species.Food and Feeding.The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth has been observed eating leaves from mangroves and other species (e.g. Cecropia spp., Urticaceae).Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal, but terrestrial and even swiming locomotion has been recorded.Movements, Home range and Social organization.One study of Pygmy Three-toed Sloths systematically searched all mangrove stands (10-7 ha in total on the island) and located 79 individuals for a density of 7-4 ind/ha. The island is 430 ha, butit is unknown to what extent upland forests are used by Pygmy Three-toed Sloths. A study recently compared sleep characteristics between Pygmy Three-toed Sloths and Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths and found that while both species slept for the same amount of time (9-10 hours/day), the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth preferred to sleep at night; Pygmy Three-toed Sloths showed no preference. It was suggested that the difference could be the result of different predation risk, with island Pygmy Three-toed Sloths being exposed to less risk than mainland Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Given the extremely limited distribution of the Pygmy Three-toed Sloth on a single, small island and uncertainty around the overall population size, exact distribution, and threats of habitat loss from visitors to the island, the viability of the population is unclear.Bibliography.Anderson & Handley (2001), Hayssen (2008), Kaviar et al. (2012), Voirin (2015), Voirin et al. (2014).","taxonomy":"Bradypus pygmaeusR. P. An- derson & Handley, 2001, “Panama: Bocas del Toro: Isla Escudo de Veraguas, West Point.”Taxonomic status unclear; it was described as a species based on morphometric analyses, notably a smaller body size, but results of recent molecular studies are conflicting and could be a pygmy form of B. variegatus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Paresseux nain @fr | Zwergfaultier @de | Perezoso tridactilo pigmeo @es | Pygmy Sloth @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Anderson & Handley","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2001","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bradypodidae","interpretedGenus":"Bradypus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Pilosa","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"131","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pygmaeus","name":"Bradypus pygmaeus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Restricted to the Escudo de Veraguas I, 18 km offshore from the Valiente Peninsula, on the Caribbean coast of Panama.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621616/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson & Handley (2001) | Hayssen (2008) | Kaviar et al. (2012) | Voirin (2015) | Voirin et al. (2014)","foodAndFeeding":"The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth has been observed eating leaves from mangroves and other species (e.g. Cecropia spp., Urticaceae).","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal, but terrestrial and even swiming locomotion has been recorded.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"One study of Pygmy Three-toed Sloths systematically searched all mangrove stands (10-7 ha in total on the island) and located 79 individuals for a density of 7-4 ind/ha. The island is 430 ha, butit is unknown to what extent upland forests are used by Pygmy Three-toed Sloths. A study recently compared sleep characteristics between Pygmy Three-toed Sloths and Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths and found that while both species slept for the same amount of time (9-10 hours/day), the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth preferred to sleep at night; Pygmy Three-toed Sloths showed no preference. It was suggested that the difference could be the result of different predation risk, with island Pygmy Three-toed Sloths being exposed to less risk than mainland Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Given the extremely limited distribution of the Pygmy Three-toed Sloth on a single, small island and uncertainty around the overall population size, exact distribution, and threats of habitat loss from visitors to the island, the viability of the population is unclear.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 485-530 mm, tail 45-60 mm, ear 10 mm, hindfoot 94-110 mm; weight 2:5.3-5 kg. The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth is similar in color to the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth (B. variegatus); it is gray with long, coarse hair, covered with algae causing hair to appear green. The Pygmy Three-toed Sloth has dark orbital stripe over lighter colored and browner face. Males have dorsal speculum of shorter cream to orange hair. Forelimbs and hindlimbs have three large and distinct claws.","habitat":"[sland mangrove forests. Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are believed to be primarily associated with red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae) that occur along the margins of Isla Escudo de Veraguas. A few sloths have been observed in interior, upland forests of the island. More systematic efforts are needed to survey interior forests to determine the degree to which Pygmy Three-toed Sloths are associated with mangrove and other tree species."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B15FFC16316F299F936B84E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C187E32B15FFC16316F299F936B84E","docName":"hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"131","verbatimText":"4.Maned Three-toed SlothBradypus torquatusFrench:Paresseux a criniere/ German:Kragenfaultier/ Spanish:Perezoso tridactilo de crinOther common names:Brazilian Three-toed Sloth, Maned SlothTaxonomy.Bradypus torquatus Illiger, 1811, type locality not given. Restricted by R. M. Wetzel and F. D. de Avila-Pires in 1980 to “the Atlantic drainage of Bahia, Espirito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro,” Brazil and further restricted by S. M. Vaz in 2003 to areas around Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Two distinct and disjunct phylogeographic groups of B. torquatushave been identified (a northern and a southern clade), but taxonomic distinctions need additional research. Monotypic.Distribution.Discontinuous range in Coastal Atlantic Forests of E Brazil, from Sergipe and E Bahia S to S Espirito Santo, N Rio de Janeiro, and E Minas Geraisstates.Descriptive notes.Head—body 590-752 mm, tail 40-54 mm, ear 8-22 mm, hindfoot 100-115 mm; weight 4.6-10.1 kg. Male Maned Three-toed Sloths are smaller in body mass and length than females. It is the largest species of extant Bradypusand is brown with long, coarse hair, often has mutualistic algae. Adult males and females have black manes around dorsal regions of neck, but they are longer and darker in males. Unlike other species of Bradypus, male Maned Three-toed Sloths do not have dorsal speculum. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 50 and FN = 64.Habitat.Wet complex tropical forests, with most records from evergreen forests but some from semideciduous forests, at elevations up to 1000 m. Given limited dispersal behavior of the Maned three-toed Sloth, individuals have been detected in small forest fragments (20 ha). It is also found in regenerating secondary forests and shady agroecosystems.Food and Feeding.The Maned Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore. Leaves from 21 species of Neotropical plants (16 species of trees and five lianas) are consumed—a small proportion oftotal trees available, suggesting a selective diet. Micropholisvenulosa (Sapotaceae), Mandevilla sp.(Apocynaceae, a liana), Ficus sp.(Moraceae), and Prunus sp.(Rosaceae) constitute the most important species. Like other sloths, Maned Threetoed Sloths prefer to eat young leaves, usually making up more than two-thirds of leaves an individual consumes.Breeding.Timing of breeding of Maned Three-toed Sloths is based on a handful of observations. Young are born at the end of the rainy season (February-April), and births occur at regular twelve-month intervals. Infants consume leaves as early as two weeks old, but nursing continues until infants are 2-4 months old. At 9-11 months old, juveniles disperse from or are abandoned by their mothers; they disperse to establish their own home ranges.Activity patterns.Maned Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal. They spend ¢.75% of the day resting or sleeping, 12% feeding, and 11% moving. Autogrooming peaks in early morning, followed by increases in moving and foraging. These activities decline in the afternoon when resting increases. During the dry season (April-September), Maned Three-toed Sloths spend significantly less time resting and more time feeding compared with the wet season (October-March). They are active diurnally and nocturnally, although more regular activity occurs during the day. Nevertheless, at Poco das Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, Maned Three-toed Sloths were primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like congeners, Maned Three-toed Sloths climb slowly and positioning themselves on undersides of branches. During the day, individuals move an average of only 17 m (range 0-306 m); at night, they move even less, an average of 5 m (0-45 m). Maned Three-toed Sloths move an average of 24 m in 24 hours, but individuals are capable of longer forays, with the longest single movement recorded of more than 300 m in 5-5 hours. Similar to other species of three-toed sloths, individuals descend to the forest floor to defecate. Home ranges have been estimated at 2-8-5-9 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and fragmentation are leading threats to the Maned Three-toed Sloth. It has a restricted distribution in the Atlantic Forest region, which is also one of the most populated areas of Brazil. Consequently, up to 90-95% ofthe forest has been lost, and what remains is highly fragmented. Potential available habitat for the Maned Three-toed Sloth is now less than 1000 km* and continues to shrink because of ongoing habitat loss and degradation.Bibliography.Chiarello (1998a, 1998b), Hayssen (2009a), Hirsch & Chiarello (2012), Lara-Ruiz & Chiarello (2005), Lara-Ruiz et al. (2008), Moraes-Barros et al. (2006), Pinder (1993), Svartman (2012), Vaz (2003), Wetzel & de Avila-Pires (1980).","taxonomy":"Bradypus torquatus Illiger, 1811, type locality not given. Restricted by R. M. Wetzel and F. D. de Avila-Pires in 1980 to “the Atlantic drainage of Bahia, Espirito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro,” Brazil and further restricted by S. M. Vaz in 2003 to areas around Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Two distinct and disjunct phylogeographic groups of B. torquatushave been identified (a northern and a southern clade), but taxonomic distinctions need additional research. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Paresseux a criniere @fr | Kragenfaultier @de | Perezoso tridactilo de crin @es | Brazilian Three-toed Sloth @en | Maned Sloth @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Illiger","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1811","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bradypodidae","interpretedGenus":"Bradypus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Pilosa","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"131","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"torquatus","name":"Bradypus torquatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Discontinuous range in Coastal Atlantic Forests of E Brazil, from Sergipe and E Bahia S to S Espirito Santo, N Rio de Janeiro, and E Minas Geraisstates.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621622/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chiarello (1998a, 1998b) | Hayssen (2009a) | Hirsch & Chiarello (2012) | Lara-Ruiz & Chiarello (2005) | Lara-Ruiz et al. (2008) | Moraes-Barros et al. (2006) | Pinder (1993) | Svartman (2012) | Vaz (2003) | Wetzel & de Avila-Pires (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"The Maned Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore. Leaves from 21 species of Neotropical plants (16 species of trees and five lianas) are consumed—a small proportion oftotal trees available, suggesting a selective diet. Micropholisvenulosa (Sapotaceae), Mandevilla sp.(Apocynaceae, a liana), Ficus sp.(Moraceae), and Prunus sp.(Rosaceae) constitute the most important species. Like other sloths, Maned Threetoed Sloths prefer to eat young leaves, usually making up more than two-thirds of leaves an individual consumes.","breeding":"Timing of breeding of Maned Three-toed Sloths is based on a handful of observations. Young are born at the end of the rainy season (February-April), and births occur at regular twelve-month intervals. Infants consume leaves as early as two weeks old, but nursing continues until infants are 2-4 months old. At 9-11 months old, juveniles disperse from or are abandoned by their mothers; they disperse to establish their own home ranges.","activityPatterns":"Maned Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal. They spend ¢.75% of the day resting or sleeping, 12% feeding, and 11% moving. Autogrooming peaks in early morning, followed by increases in moving and foraging. These activities decline in the afternoon when resting increases. During the dry season (April-September), Maned Three-toed Sloths spend significantly less time resting and more time feeding compared with the wet season (October-March). They are active diurnally and nocturnally, although more regular activity occurs during the day. Nevertheless, at Poco das Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, Maned Three-toed Sloths were primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like congeners, Maned Three-toed Sloths climb slowly and positioning themselves on undersides of branches. During the day, individuals move an average of only 17 m (range 0-306 m); at night, they move even less, an average of 5 m (0-45 m). Maned Three-toed Sloths move an average of 24 m in 24 hours, but individuals are capable of longer forays, with the longest single movement recorded of more than 300 m in 5-5 hours. Similar to other species of three-toed sloths, individuals descend to the forest floor to defecate. Home ranges have been estimated at 2-8-5-9 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and fragmentation are leading threats to the Maned Three-toed Sloth. It has a restricted distribution in the Atlantic Forest region, which is also one of the most populated areas of Brazil. Consequently, up to 90-95% ofthe forest has been lost, and what remains is highly fragmented. Potential available habitat for the Maned Three-toed Sloth is now less than 1000 km* and continues to shrink because of ongoing habitat loss and degradation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 590-752 mm, tail 40-54 mm, ear 8-22 mm, hindfoot 100-115 mm; weight 4.6-10.1 kg. Male Maned Three-toed Sloths are smaller in body mass and length than females. It is the largest species of extant Bradypusand is brown with long, coarse hair, often has mutualistic algae. Adult males and females have black manes around dorsal regions of neck, but they are longer and darker in males. Unlike other species of Bradypus, male Maned Three-toed Sloths do not have dorsal speculum. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 50 and FN = 64.Habitat.Wet complex tropical forests, with most records from evergreen forests but some from semideciduous forests, at elevations up to 1000 m. Given limited dispersal behavior of the Maned three-toed Sloth, individuals have been detected in small forest fragments (20 ha). It is also found in regenerating secondary forests and shady agroecosystems.Food and Feeding.The Maned Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore. Leaves from 21 species of Neotropical plants (16 species of trees and five lianas) are consumed—a small proportion oftotal trees available, suggesting a selective diet. Micropholisvenulosa (Sapotaceae), Mandevilla sp.(Apocynaceae, a liana), Ficus sp.(Moraceae), and Prunus sp.(Rosaceae) constitute the most important species. Like other sloths, Maned Threetoed Sloths prefer to eat young leaves, usually making up more than two-thirds of leaves an individual consumes.Breeding.Timing of breeding of Maned Three-toed Sloths is based on a handful of observations. Young are born at the end of the rainy season (February-April), and births occur at regular twelve-month intervals. Infants consume leaves as early as two weeks old, but nursing continues until infants are 2-4 months old. At 9-11 months old, juveniles disperse from or are abandoned by their mothers; they disperse to establish their own home ranges.Activity patterns.Maned Three-toed Sloths are largely arboreal. They spend ¢.75% of the day resting or sleeping, 12% feeding, and 11% moving. Autogrooming peaks in early morning, followed by increases in moving and foraging. These activities decline in the afternoon when resting increases. During the dry season (April-September), Maned Three-toed Sloths spend significantly less time resting and more time feeding compared with the wet season (October-March). They are active diurnally and nocturnally, although more regular activity occurs during the day. Nevertheless, at Poco das Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, Maned Three-toed Sloths were primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like congeners, Maned Three-toed Sloths climb slowly and positioning themselves on undersides of branches. During the day, individuals move an average of only 17 m (range 0-306 m); at night, they move even less, an average of 5 m (0-45 m). Maned Three-toed Sloths move an average of 24 m in 24 hours, but individuals are capable of longer forays, with the longest single movement recorded of more than 300 m in 5-5 hours. Similar to other species of three-toed sloths, individuals descend to the forest floor to defecate. Home ranges have been estimated at 2-8-5-9 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","habitat":"Wet complex tropical forests, with most records from evergreen forests but some from semideciduous forests, at elevations up to 1000 m. Given limited dispersal behavior of the Maned three-toed Sloth, individuals have been detected in small forest fragments (20 ha). It is also found in regenerating secondary forests and shady agroecosystems."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B16FFC066C8F742FE10B913.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C187E32B16FFC066C8F742FE10B913","docName":"hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"130","verbatimText":"1.Brown-throated Three-toed SlothBradypus variegatusFrench:Paresseux a gorge brune/ German:Dreifinger-Faultier/ Spanish:Perezoso tridactilo de garganta marrénOther common names:Bolivian Three-toed Sloth, Brown-throated SlothTaxonomy.Bradypus variegatus Schinz,1825, “Stidamerika.”Restricted by R. Mertens in 1925 to “Brasilien (wahr- scheinlich Bahia)” (= Brazil, probablyBahia).There have been up to nine subspecies recognized, but given their distribution, geographical variability, cryptic nature, and lack of clearly differentiated forms, the actual number is unclear, and subspecific taxonomyrequires reassessment.Distribution.From Honduras SE throughout Central America to Colombia and W & S Venezuela, and S into Ecuador, Peru, most of Brazil, N Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 519-540 mm, tail 52-55 mm, ear 8-22 mm, hindfoot 85-180 mm; weight 3.7-6 kg. Adult Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths weigh less than they appear due to long and thick pelage. Males are slightly smaller (less than 10%) than females. They are gray, with long, coarse hair, but hair is often covered with mutualistic algae (and other microbiota), causing it to have green tinge. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has a dark orbital stripe over a lighter colored and browner face, giving the appearance of a mask. Males have dorsal speculum of shorter cream to orange colored hair, with dark stripe running vertically down the center of it. Contrasting dorsalstripe appears to become accentuated with age and is sometimes accompanied by black spots on either side. Males and females have small vestigial tails. Forelimbs and hindlimbs have three large and distinctive claws. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has long forelimbs (370-450 mm) and relatively short hindlimbs (320-370 mm). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54-55 and FN = 56-58.Habitat.Tropical forests with diversity oftree species and complex horizontal andvertical cover. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth can reach high densities in agricultural landscapes if overhead canopy trees are maintained. It is a generalist and uses manydifferent tree species, although individuals will specialize on a few species of trees and even spend a disproportionate amount of time resting and foraging within a few individual trees, or “modal” trees, in their home ranges. In an agricultural landscape in Costa Rica, Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths were strongly dependent on intact tropical forest and two species oftrees in the nettle family (Cecropra obtusifolia and Coussapoavillosa, Urticaceae). In general, trees that have crowns exposed to sunlight and those that contain masses oflianas are selected.Food and Feeding.The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore, consuming leaves in canopies oftrees. Individuals typically consume leaves in trees where they spend a considerable amount oftime. Diets vary spatially and overall include leaves from more than 50 plant species. They prefer and mostly consume young leaves, presumably because of their nutritional value. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has one of the slowest rates ofdigestion. Nevertheless, estimated leaf removal rate is 5-1 g ofleaves/kg/day. Sloths, in general, are foregut-fermenting mammals, and the Brownthroated Three-toed Sloth possess a unique gut community dominated bythe bacterial phyla Proteobacteria and Firmicutes. Three-toed sloths possess a highly conserved, low-diversity foregut community, with highly abundant species of Neisseria bacteria.Breeding.The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth is polygynous, with males excluding male competitors from their core home ranges. In one study in Costa Rica, only 25% of resident adult males sired offspring, and one individual male sired 50% of all juveniles. Sedentary lifestyle of the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth appears to facilitate polygyny because multiple females can persist within small patches of habitat and be monopolized by a single male. Females appear to use important mating strategies by switching mates among breeding seasons and shifting their home ranges during estrus. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth breeds seasonally. Gestation is ¢.6 months in length, and females give birth to one young over a six-month period that peaks in late February. Neonates are dependent on their mothers, clinging to their venters for 100 days or more. This relatively short time to offspring independence allows females to breed in most years; on average, nearly 75%ofadult females produce young in the wild, and this frequency appears to vary little from year-to-year. Juvenile survival can be high but is lowest immediately following maternal independence.Activity patterns.Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths are active diurnally and nocturnally, but they are more often active during daylight hours and generally avoid activity during the crepuscular periods of the day. Adults usually sleep for 15-18 hours/day, either holding on to a tree with their claws or resting in the crotch of a tree with their heads tucked into their chests. Three-toed sloths have a high degree of heterothermy in their body temperature, and therefore, they behaviorally adjust to ambient temperatures throughout the day. Individuals can be observed in the mornings ascending to the top of the canopy, presumably to warm in full sunlight, and descending into shade as daytime temperatures increase. During rainstorms, Brown-throated Threetoed Sloths do not seek shelter but typically rest in place.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths climb slow and deliberately and position themselves on undersides of branches with their bodies perpendicular to branches when moving. In a single day, an individual only moves an average of 40 m and is often found on the same tree. Once a week, individuals descend to the forest floor. While on the ground, they create shallow depressions with their vestigial tails and defecate. This ritualized behavior reinforces sloth moth (Pyralidae) colonization of fur and increases nitrogen and phosphorous levels in sloth fur contributing to algal growth. Home range sizes do not differ between sexes or by breeding status and are 0-1-19 ha. Most adult male Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths maintain exclusive use of core areas in their home ranges. Home ranges of males overlap with many females but not each other, and home ranges of adult females overlap each other. Juveniles strongly selectfor forest cover during dispersal, avoiding agricultural habitat types.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has the widest distribution of the four species of Bradypusand occurs across various forest types. It occurs in protected areas and is rarely targeted for consumption or other human uses, although occasionally it is hunted in Central America and South America by indigenous groups and for the pet trade. Clearing of tropical forests for crops grown in monoculturesis particularly detrimental because these plantations retain little forest structure. Brown-throated Threetoed Sloths are more vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation than other sloths, especially two-toed sloths (Choloepus spp.). Nevertheless, previous work has shown that shade-grown agriculture, like that found in certain types of cacao plantations embedded within an agroecosystem, can support viable populations of the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth, if immigration from surrounding forests is maintained. In particular, intact riparian forests provide critical movement corridors for maintaining connectivity of populations in modified tropical landscapes.Bibliography.Dill-McFarland et al. (2016), Garcés-Restrepo et al. (2017), Hayssen (2010), Mendoza etal. (2015), Mertens (1925), Montgomery & Sunquist (1978), Moraes-Barros etal. (2010), Noss et al. (2008), Pauli & Peery (2012), Pauli, Mendoza et al. (2014), Pauli, Peery et al. (2016), Peery & Pauli (2014), Sunquist & Montgomery (1973b), Svartman (2012).","taxonomy":"Bradypus variegatus Schinz,1825, “Stidamerika.”Restricted by R. Mertens in 1925 to “Brasilien (wahr- scheinlich Bahia)” (= Brazil, probablyBahia).There have been up to nine subspecies recognized, but given their distribution, geographical variability, cryptic nature, and lack of clearly differentiated forms, the actual number is unclear, and subspecific taxonomyrequires reassessment.","commonNames":"Paresseux a gorge brune @fr | Dreifinger-Faultier @de | Perezoso tridactilo de garganta marrén @es | Bolivian Three-toed Sloth @en | Brown-throated Sloth @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Schinz","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1825","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Bradypodidae","interpretedGenus":"Bradypus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Pilosa","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"130","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"variegatus","name":"Bradypus variegatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"From Honduras SE throughout Central America to Colombia and W & S Venezuela, and S into Ecuador, Peru, most of Brazil, N Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentina.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621614/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dill-McFarland et al. (2016) | Garcés-Restrepo et al. (2017) | Hayssen (2010) | Mendoza etal. (2015) | Mertens (1925) | Montgomery & Sunquist (1978) | Moraes-Barros etal. (2010) | Noss et al. (2008) | Pauli & Peery (2012) | Pauli, Mendoza et al. (2014) | Pauli, Peery et al. (2016) | Peery & Pauli (2014) | Sunquist & Montgomery (1973b) | Svartman (2012)","foodAndFeeding":"The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth is a strict folivore, consuming leaves in canopies oftrees. Individuals typically consume leaves in trees where they spend a considerable amount oftime. Diets vary spatially and overall include leaves from more than 50 plant species. They prefer and mostly consume young leaves, presumably because of their nutritional value. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has one of the slowest rates ofdigestion. Nevertheless, estimated leaf removal rate is 5-1 g ofleaves/kg/day. Sloths, in general, are foregut-fermenting mammals, and the Brownthroated Three-toed Sloth possess a unique gut community dominated bythe bacterial phyla Proteobacteria and Firmicutes. Three-toed sloths possess a highly conserved, low-diversity foregut community, with highly abundant species of Neisseria bacteria.","breeding":"The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth is polygynous, with males excluding male competitors from their core home ranges. In one study in Costa Rica, only 25% of resident adult males sired offspring, and one individual male sired 50% of all juveniles. Sedentary lifestyle of the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth appears to facilitate polygyny because multiple females can persist within small patches of habitat and be monopolized by a single male. Females appear to use important mating strategies by switching mates among breeding seasons and shifting their home ranges during estrus. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth breeds seasonally. Gestation is ¢.6 months in length, and females give birth to one young over a six-month period that peaks in late February. Neonates are dependent on their mothers, clinging to their venters for 100 days or more. This relatively short time to offspring independence allows females to breed in most years; on average, nearly 75%ofadult females produce young in the wild, and this frequency appears to vary little from year-to-year. Juvenile survival can be high but is lowest immediately following maternal independence.","activityPatterns":"Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths are active diurnally and nocturnally, but they are more often active during daylight hours and generally avoid activity during the crepuscular periods of the day. Adults usually sleep for 15-18 hours/day, either holding on to a tree with their claws or resting in the crotch of a tree with their heads tucked into their chests. Three-toed sloths have a high degree of heterothermy in their body temperature, and therefore, they behaviorally adjust to ambient temperatures throughout the day. Individuals can be observed in the mornings ascending to the top of the canopy, presumably to warm in full sunlight, and descending into shade as daytime temperatures increase. During rainstorms, Brown-throated Threetoed Sloths do not seek shelter but typically rest in place.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths climb slow and deliberately and position themselves on undersides of branches with their bodies perpendicular to branches when moving. In a single day, an individual only moves an average of 40 m and is often found on the same tree. Once a week, individuals descend to the forest floor. While on the ground, they create shallow depressions with their vestigial tails and defecate. This ritualized behavior reinforces sloth moth (Pyralidae) colonization of fur and increases nitrogen and phosphorous levels in sloth fur contributing to algal growth. Home range sizes do not differ between sexes or by breeding status and are 0-1-19 ha. Most adult male Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths maintain exclusive use of core areas in their home ranges. Home ranges of males overlap with many females but not each other, and home ranges of adult females overlap each other. Juveniles strongly selectfor forest cover during dispersal, avoiding agricultural habitat types.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has the widest distribution of the four species of Bradypusand occurs across various forest types. It occurs in protected areas and is rarely targeted for consumption or other human uses, although occasionally it is hunted in Central America and South America by indigenous groups and for the pet trade. Clearing of tropical forests for crops grown in monoculturesis particularly detrimental because these plantations retain little forest structure. Brown-throated Threetoed Sloths are more vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation than other sloths, especially two-toed sloths (Choloepus spp.). Nevertheless, previous work has shown that shade-grown agriculture, like that found in certain types of cacao plantations embedded within an agroecosystem, can support viable populations of the Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth, if immigration from surrounding forests is maintained. In particular, intact riparian forests provide critical movement corridors for maintaining connectivity of populations in modified tropical landscapes.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 519-540 mm, tail 52-55 mm, ear 8-22 mm, hindfoot 85-180 mm; weight 3.7-6 kg. Adult Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths weigh less than they appear due to long and thick pelage. Males are slightly smaller (less than 10%) than females. They are gray, with long, coarse hair, but hair is often covered with mutualistic algae (and other microbiota), causing it to have green tinge. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has a dark orbital stripe over a lighter colored and browner face, giving the appearance of a mask. Males have dorsal speculum of shorter cream to orange colored hair, with dark stripe running vertically down the center of it. Contrasting dorsalstripe appears to become accentuated with age and is sometimes accompanied by black spots on either side. Males and females have small vestigial tails. Forelimbs and hindlimbs have three large and distinctive claws. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth has long forelimbs (370-450 mm) and relatively short hindlimbs (320-370 mm). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 54-55 and FN = 56-58.","habitat":"Tropical forests with diversity oftree species and complex horizontal andvertical cover. The Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth can reach high densities in agricultural landscapes if overhead canopy trees are maintained. It is a generalist and uses manydifferent tree species, although individuals will specialize on a few species of trees and even spend a disproportionate amount of time resting and foraging within a few individual trees, or “modal” trees, in their home ranges. In an agricultural landscape in Costa Rica, Brown-throated Three-toed Sloths were strongly dependent on intact tropical forest and two species oftrees in the nettle family (Cecropra obtusifolia and Coussapoavillosa, Urticaceae). In general, trees that have crowns exposed to sunlight and those that contain masses oflianas are selected."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C1/87/03C187E32B17FFC2672EFDF5F9FEBB2A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C187E32B17FFC2672EFDF5F9FEBB2A","docName":"hbmw_8_Bradypodidae_0118.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff8ff9b2b17ffc26666ff81ff96be7c","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"118","verbatimText":"Family BRADYPODIDAE(THREE-TOED SLOTHS)• Medium-sized arboreal folivores with long limbs, three long Class on forelimbs and hindlimbs, short vestigial tails, and foregutfermenting digestive systems.• 55-85 cm.• Neotropical Region.• Low-elevation tropical forests.• 1 genus, 4 species, 4 taxa.• | species Critically Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C3/6F/03C36F2EFFFA347FFDF74172F84E0404.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C36F2EFFFA347FFDF74172F84E0404","docName":"hbmw_1_Ailuridae_0498.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffa1756fffa347fff8e4379ff81011f","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"498","verbatimText":"Family AILURIDAE(RED PANDA)• Small to medium mammals with round head, short muzzle, large and pointed ears, and bushytail; muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges of ears white, eyes with small dark patches, and tail with alternate red and buff colored rings.• 79-122 cm.• Mountains of Central Asia.• Forested mountainous areas; typically deciduous and coniferous forests with bamboo-thicket understory.• 1 genus, 1 species, 2 taxa.• | species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C3/6F/03C36F2EFFFB347EFF11441DF6EF0C5F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C36F2EFFFB347EFF11441DF6EF0C5F","docName":"hbmw_1_Ailuridae_0498.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffa1756fffa347fff8e4379ff81011f","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"503","verbatimText":"Red PandaAilurus fulgensFrench: Panda roux/ German: Kleiner Panda/ Spanish: Panda rojoOther common names: Lesser Panda, Fire Fox, Golden Dog, Bear CatTaxonomy.Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825, Nepal. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. f. fulgens Cuvier, 1825 — E Himalayas in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sikkim; China(S & SE Xizang& NW Yunnan), NE India(Meghalaya), and N Myanmar.A. f. styani Thomas, 1902 — China(W Sichuan& N Yunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body 51-73 cm, tail 28-49 cm; weight 3-6 kg. Head round, muzzle short, ears large and pointed. Muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges ofears white, eyes with small dark patches. Dorsal pelage chestnut brown, ventral pelage and limbs black. Tail bushy, with alternate red and buff colored rings. Feet with hairysoles, and claws semi-retractile. Females have eight mammae. Forepaw with elongated radial sesamoid. Skull robust, with broad zygomatic arches and large occipital condyles. Teeth heavily cusped, with elaborate crown patterns. Compared with fulgens, styani is distinguishable by its longer winter coat, darker bodycolor, larger skull, and more robust teeth.Habitat.Temperate forests of mountains at elevations of 1500-4800 m. In Meghalayaof India, in tropical forests at much lower elevations, between 700-1400 m. Typically in forests with bamboo-thicket understory. High bamboo cover, bamboo height, and canopy cover are important; preferred habitats have a high density ofshrubs, fallen logs, and tree stumps, yielding easy access to bambooleaves.Food and Feeding.Diet largely vegetarian, 80-90% consisting of bamboo leaves, new shoots important in spring, fruits eaten in late summer and autumn. Usually feeds on the most nutritious bamboospecies in its habitat. Also eats roots, lichens, small vertebrates, birds eggs, insects and grubs.Activity patterns.Captive animals are nocturnal and crepuscular, and exhibit a polyphasic activity pattern throughout the night. In the wild, the Red Panda was thought to be most active at dawn, dusk, and at night, but several recent studies have consistently shown it is more active in the daytime than at night. In Wolong Nature Reserve, China, a subadult female, a female, and a male were reported to be active 36:5%, 49%, and 45% of the time, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve, bordering the former reserve on the north, six radio-collared Red Pandas had an average dailyactivity rate of 48-6%, with two peaks from 7:00 h to 10:00 h and from 17:00 h to 18:00 h. Generally, numerous periods ofrest are interspersed with frequent activity periods.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A subadult female in Wolong Reserve occupied a home range of 3-43 km, with a mean linear daily movement of 481 m.Subsequent research in the same area showedthat a female and a male possessed home ranges of 0-94 km* and 1-11 km?®, with a daily distance movedof 235 mand 325 m, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Reserve, the daily movement distance was 461 mand the home range covered 2-34 km” for six collared individuals. Intrasexual and intersexual overlapping of home ranges occurred extensively. Perhaps due to difference in habitat quality and population density, both the females and males in Langtang Nature Reserve, Nepal, had larger home ranges (1-02 to 9-62 km*) than those in Sichuan, China. Several studies reported that Red Pandas live in groups ofthree to five individuals with blood relationships. Other studies found the Red Panda solitary outside the breeding season, with territories well posted by scent marking. Olfactory communication is the primary methodof conveying social signals, through the secretions from anogenital glands deposited in the environment. Secretions from foreskin glands and glands on the soles of the feet can impart an individual’s information, too. Red Pandas leave droppings in groups, and their repeatedly-used defecation sites (latrines) probably facilitate communication among neighbors.Breeding.Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.Status and Conservation.CITESApendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. Global population estimatedat 16,000-20,000, in estimated area of 69,900 Km?. In China, the population decreased byup to 40% due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, trade, forest fires, road construction, and otherdisturbances during the past 50 years, and became extinct in Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghaiprovinces. Protected in all countries where it now occurs with 43, 20, 5, and 7 protected areas established in China, India, Bhutan, and Nepal, respectively.Bibliography.Bininda-Edmonds (2004), Choudhury (2001), Dawkins (1888), Endo et al. (1999), Flynn & Nedbal (1998), Flynn et al. (2000), Fox et al. (1996), Hu (1991), Hu & Wang (1984), IUCN(2008), Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988a), Li, C. et al. (2003), Li, M. et al. (2004), Liu et al. (2003, 2004), MacClintock (1988), Nowak (1999), Pen (1962), Pradhan et al. (2001), Rabinowitz & Khaing (1998), Reid, Hu & Huang (1991), Roberts & Gittleman (1984), Spanner et al. (1997), Tedford & Gustavson (1977), Wei, Feng, Wang & Hu (1999, 2000), Wei, Feng, Wang & Li (1999), Wei, Feng, Wang, Zhou & Hu (1999), Wei, LUet al. (2005), Wei, Wang et al. (2000), Yonzon & Hunter (1991a, 1991b), Zhang, Wei, Li & Hu (2006), Zhang, Wei, Li, Zhang. et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825, Nepal. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Panda roux @fr | Kleiner Panda @de | Panda rojo @es | Lesser Panda @en | Fire Fox @en | Golden Dog @en | Bear Cat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1825","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ailuridae","interpretedGenus":"Ailurus","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"503","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fulgens","name":"Ailurus fulgens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. f. fulgens Cuvier, 1825 — E Himalayas in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sikkim; China(S & SE Xizang& NW Yunnan), NE India(Meghalaya), and N Myanmar.A. f. styani Thomas, 1902 — China(W Sichuan& N Yunnan).","bibliography":"Bininda-Edmonds (2004) | Choudhury (2001) | Dawkins (1888) | Endo et al. (1999) | Flynn & Nedbal (1998) | Flynn et al. (2000) | Fox et al. (1996) | Hu (1991) | Hu & Wang (1984) | IUCN(2008) | Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988a) | Li, C. et al. (2003) | Li, M. et al. (2004) | Liu et al. (2003, 2004) | MacClintock (1988) | Nowak (1999) | Pen (1962) | Pradhan et al. (2001) | Rabinowitz & Khaing (1998) | Reid, Hu & Huang (1991) | Roberts & Gittleman (1984) | Spanner et al. (1997) | Tedford & Gustavson (1977) | Wei, Feng, Wang & Hu (1999, 2000) | Wei, Feng, Wang & Li (1999) | Wei, Feng, Wang, Zhou & Hu (1999) | Wei, LUet al. (2005) | Wei, Wang et al. (2000) | Yonzon & Hunter (1991a, 1991b) | Zhang, Wei, Li & Hu (2006) | Zhang, Wei, Li, Zhang. et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet largely vegetarian, 80-90% consisting of bamboo leaves, new shoots important in spring, fruits eaten in late summer and autumn. Usually feeds on the most nutritious bamboospecies in its habitat. Also eats roots, lichens, small vertebrates, birds eggs, insects and grubs.","breeding":"Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.","activityPatterns":"Captive animals are nocturnal and crepuscular, and exhibit a polyphasic activity pattern throughout the night. In the wild, the Red Panda was thought to be most active at dawn, dusk, and at night, but several recent studies have consistently shown it is more active in the daytime than at night. In Wolong Nature Reserve, China, a subadult female, a female, and a male were reported to be active 36:5%, 49%, and 45% of the time, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve, bordering the former reserve on the north, six radio-collared Red Pandas had an average dailyactivity rate of 48-6%, with two peaks from 7:00 h to 10:00 h and from 17:00 h to 18:00 h. Generally, numerous periods ofrest are interspersed with frequent activity periods.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A subadult female in Wolong Reserve occupied a home range of 3-43 km, with a mean linear daily movement of 481 m.Subsequent research in the same area showedthat a female and a male possessed home ranges of 0-94 km* and 1-11 km?®, with a daily distance movedof 235 mand 325 m, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Reserve, the daily movement distance was 461 mand the home range covered 2-34 km” for six collared individuals. Intrasexual and intersexual overlapping of home ranges occurred extensively. Perhaps due to difference in habitat quality and population density, both the females and males in Langtang Nature Reserve, Nepal, had larger home ranges (1-02 to 9-62 km*) than those in Sichuan, China. Several studies reported that Red Pandas live in groups ofthree to five individuals with blood relationships. Other studies found the Red Panda solitary outside the breeding season, with territories well posted by scent marking. Olfactory communication is the primary methodof conveying social signals, through the secretions from anogenital glands deposited in the environment. Secretions from foreskin glands and glands on the soles of the feet can impart an individual’s information, too. Red Pandas leave droppings in groups, and their repeatedly-used defecation sites (latrines) probably facilitate communication among neighbors.Breeding.Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.","statusAndConservation":"CITESApendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. Global population estimatedat 16,000-20,000, in estimated area of 69,900 Km?. In China, the population decreased byup to 40% due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, trade, forest fires, road construction, and otherdisturbances during the past 50 years, and became extinct in Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghaiprovinces. Protected in all countries where it now occurs with 43, 20, 5, and 7 protected areas established in China, India, Bhutan, and Nepal, respectively.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 51-73 cm, tail 28-49 cm; weight 3-6 kg. Head round, muzzle short, ears large and pointed. Muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges ofears white, eyes with small dark patches. Dorsal pelage chestnut brown, ventral pelage and limbs black. Tail bushy, with alternate red and buff colored rings. Feet with hairysoles, and claws semi-retractile. Females have eight mammae. Forepaw with elongated radial sesamoid. Skull robust, with broad zygomatic arches and large occipital condyles. Teeth heavily cusped, with elaborate crown patterns. Compared with fulgens, styani is distinguishable by its longer winter coat, darker bodycolor, larger skull, and more robust teeth.","habitat":"Temperate forests of mountains at elevations of 1500-4800 m. In Meghalayaof India, in tropical forests at much lower elevations, between 700-1400 m. Typically in forests with bamboo-thicket understory. High bamboo cover, bamboo height, and canopy cover are important; preferred habitats have a high density ofshrubs, fallen logs, and tree stumps, yielding easy access to bambooleaves."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E78FF93FA55FE4F95CFF679.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E78FF93FA55FE4F95CFF679","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"330","verbatimText":"5.Lesser Indo-Malayan ChevrotainTragulus kanchilFrench:Chevrotain kanchil/ German:Kleinkantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén pequenoOther common names:KancilTaxonomy.Moschus kanchil Raffles, 1822, Bengkulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review, and the authors were unable to assess the validity of all taxa. This includes Sfulvicollis from the MalaccaStrait islands (Bengkalis, Padang, Rupat, Tebingtinggi, and Rangsam); pallidus from the small island of Laut, north of Bunguran, Natuna islands group; carimatae from Karimata Island, west of Borneo; lampensis from Lanbi Kyun (= Lampi) Islandin the Mergui Archipelago; insularis from Phuket (= Junk Seylon), Ko Sirae (= Sireh) and Ko Yao Yai (= Panjang) islands; and lancavensis from Langkawi Island. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.k.kanchilRaffles,1822—Sumatra,islandsoffESumatra(Mendol&Berhala).T.k.abruptusChasen,1935—SubiI,oftWBorneo.T.k.affinisGray,1861—Vietnam,Laos,SE&EThailand,Cambodia.T.k.anambensisChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(MatakI).T.k.angustiaeKloss,1918—SMyanmar,SWThaimainland(probablylimitedtoWoftheChaoPhrayaRiver).T.k.everettiBonhote,1903—NatunaIs(Bunguran),offWBorneo.T.k.fulviventerGray,1836—SMalayPeninsula(Sof7°N).T.k.hosetBonhote,1903—Borneo(Sarawak,West,Central,East&SouthKalimantan).T.k.klossiChasen,1935—NBorneo(NEastKalimantan,E&CSabah,andpossiblyWSabahandBrunei.T.k.luteicollisLyon,1906—BangkaI,offESumatra.T.k.pidonisChasen,1940—KohPipidonI(=PhiPhiDon),offWMalayPeninsula.T.k.ravulusMiller,1903—islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(KohAdang&KohRawi).T.k.ravusMiller,1902—SThailand,NMalayPeninsula.T.k.rubeusMiller,1903—RiauArchipelago(BintanI).T.k.siantanicusChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(SiantanI).T. k. subrufus Miller, 1903— Lingga Archipelago (Lingga & Singkep Is).The range on the Asian mainland is poorly known and could occur as far north as China(S Yunnan). As stated in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of some areas of Borneo (W Sabah, Brunei& N Sarawak) and several other islands remains unclear.Descriptive notes.Head—body 37-56 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 1.5-2. 5 kg. Thisis a small chevrotain species that was recently split from 7. javanicus. It is separated from the larger 1. napuprimarily by its smaller size, the number of throat stripes, the visibility of the nape line, and the lack of mottling of the upperparts. There is some degree of melanism in 7. kanchilspecimens from small islands, leading to the development of extra dark, transverse lines, which makes the throat pattern hard to distinguish from that of 1. napu. The degree of erythrism (reddish pigmentation) and melanism is, however, less pronounced than in 7. napu. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Tall forest in lowlands, amidst undergrowth on edges of heavy lowland forest. It has been suggested that 7. kanchiloccurs primarily in hilly areas, but other sources stated that the species was absent from areas above 250 min Sarawak, whereas 7. napuoccurred much higher. This species also occurs in cultivated areas up to 600 min elevation. The habitat of this species could be described as a mosaic ofriverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps, with stands of dense bamboo or palms for daytime resting. In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest, and they can be quite common in monocultural tree plantations in a matrix of secondary forest stands. Even though the evidence is somewhat ambiguous,it appears that this species prefers disturbed forests to primary ones. A review of encounter rates in various parts of the species’ range suggested that the distribution of 7. kanchilis perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features and microhabitats. What these features are remains unresolved, but their water requirements are important, as authors note commonness in riverine areas with surprising regularity. The habitat use of this species with respect to edge—interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult.Food and Feeding.The speciesis largely frugivorous, but also feeds on shoots, young leaves, and fallen fruits. Fruit mass of consumed fruits varied from 1 gto 5 gand seed mass from 0-01 g to 0-5 g. On Borneo, the species feeds on a range offruiting species, including Polyanthia sumatrana, Diospyros macrophylla, Endospermumpeltatum, Quercus sp., Garcinia forbesi and G. parviflora, Litsea caulocarpa and L. orocola, Notaphoebe sp., Dialumimdum, Aglaia sp., Chisocheton sp., Dysoxylum sp., Lansium sp., Artocarpus dadah, Ficus spp., Dimocarpus longan, Paranephelium xestophyllum, and Microros antidesmifolia.Breeding.Males mark their territories and their females with an intermandibular scent gland located under the chin. They chase and fight one another for prolonged periods, slashing with the elongated canine teeth. These teeth are razor sharp and local hunters in Borneo report that sometimes males fight to the death. Mating occurs throughout the year in some areas. In Vietnamthe species mates in November-December and gives birth in April-May. The species is polygynous. Females are almost continuously pregnant. Gestation has been estimated at 140-177 days, the mother produces 2-3 young per year, and fawns are kept hidden.Activity patterns.Diurnal to cathemeral.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A study of this species in the Malaysian state of Sabahsuggested thatit is mostly solitary, with 93-9% of the observations being single animals and the remainder pairs or a female with one or two young. In apparent contrast with this statement, camera trap photos of the species often show two adult animals together. Further studies are needed to determine the social organization of the species and how this varies spatially as well temporally. Population densities on Borneo were estimated at 21-39 ind/km?, with density positively correlated with fruit mass, seed mass, and total fruit resources. The species does not appearto be territorial. The core areas of neighboring animals were completely separate among same-sex individuals, but overlapped widely among opposite-sex individuals. The results suggest that this species is mostly monogamous, although apparently males can also be polygamous. The core area of a paired female overlapped not only with the core area of the paired male, but also with that of another neighboring male. This suggests that males tolerate the presence of females in their core areas and that paired males do not control the movement of paired females into the home ranges of other males. Females establish new home ranges when giving birth. Home range size for females was estimated at 4-4 ha and for males 5-9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the differ ence between males and females was not significant. Mean daily distance travelled for males was 519-1 m (+ 88-8 m), that for females 573-8 m (+ 219-7 m). In a Bornean study area, the density was negatively correlated with pioneer trees, grass, and herbs, suggesting that the species is negatively influenced by the effects of timber harvest, although, as pointed at above, this remains ambiguous. Data from Indochina, suggest that the species is quite tolerant of forest disturbance and may even be considered an edge species that benefits from disturbance. Further studies are needed to elucidate this issue.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and locally common, and at least in non-Sundaic areas persists in environments of very heavy forest degradation, fragmentation, and hunting. The presumed short generation length of the species (under five years) also influences assessment. Thus although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area. The IUCN review points out several major uncertainties in the conservation status assessment. Firstly, there are few modern records of Tragulusfrom both the Sundaic and non-Sundaic portions of the range that have been identified conclusively as to species. Secondly, the conflicting nature of the information available concerning the effects of hunting (harvest levels are locally very high) and habitat destruction makes it difficult to estimate population declines. Thirdly, there are strong indications that in its non-Sundaic range (i.e. Asian mainland) it is localized in occurrence, a pattern for which the reasons remain opaque, but which might be the result of hunting. And fourthly, the apparent restriction to lowland forest, at least in Borneo, suggests that with the rapidly dwindling lowland forests in this part ofits range, the species is losing habitat and its range might decrease and become fragmented. The species apparently has become extinct in Bangladeshdue to high hunting and trapping pressure, although in many other areas it seems to survive despite local poaching and trapping.Bibliography.Caldecott (1988), Davison (1980), Duckworth (1997), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Endo (2004), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Kim et al. (2004), Liat (1973), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Matsubayashi et al. (2003, 2006), Medway (1978), Meijaard (2003), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2005), Miura & Idris (1999), Nolan et al. (1995), O'Brien et al. (2003), Payne et al. (1985).","taxonomy":"Moschus kanchil Raffles, 1822, Bengkulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review, and the authors were unable to assess the validity of all taxa. This includes Sfulvicollis from the MalaccaStrait islands (Bengkalis, Padang, Rupat, Tebingtinggi, and Rangsam); pallidus from the small island of Laut, north of Bunguran, Natuna islands group; carimatae from Karimata Island, west of Borneo; lampensis from Lanbi Kyun (= Lampi) Islandin the Mergui Archipelago; insularis from Phuket (= Junk Seylon), Ko Sirae (= Sireh) and Ko Yao Yai (= Panjang) islands; and lancavensis from Langkawi Island. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.","commonNames":"Chevrotain kanchil @fr | Kleinkantschil @de | Ciervoratén pequeno @es | Kancil @en","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Tragulus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"330","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kanchil","name":"Tragulus kanchil","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.k.kanchilRaffles,1822—Sumatra,islandsoffESumatra(Mendol&Berhala).T.k.abruptusChasen,1935—SubiI,oftWBorneo.T.k.affinisGray,1861—Vietnam,Laos,SE&EThailand,Cambodia.T.k.anambensisChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(MatakI).T.k.angustiaeKloss,1918—SMyanmar,SWThaimainland(probablylimitedtoWoftheChaoPhrayaRiver).T.k.everettiBonhote,1903—NatunaIs(Bunguran),offWBorneo.T.k.fulviventerGray,1836—SMalayPeninsula(Sof7°N).T.k.hosetBonhote,1903—Borneo(Sarawak,West,Central,East&SouthKalimantan).T.k.klossiChasen,1935—NBorneo(NEastKalimantan,E&CSabah,andpossiblyWSabahandBrunei.T.k.luteicollisLyon,1906—BangkaI,offESumatra.T.k.pidonisChasen,1940—KohPipidonI(=PhiPhiDon),offWMalayPeninsula.T.k.ravulusMiller,1903—islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(KohAdang&KohRawi).T.k.ravusMiller,1902—SThailand,NMalayPeninsula.T.k.rubeusMiller,1903—RiauArchipelago(BintanI).T.k.siantanicusChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(SiantanI).T. k. subrufus Miller, 1903— Lingga Archipelago (Lingga & Singkep Is).The range on the Asian mainland is poorly known and could occur as far north as China(S Yunnan). As stated in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of some areas of Borneo (W Sabah, Brunei& N Sarawak) and several other islands remains unclear.","bibliography":"Caldecott (1988) | Davison (1980) | Duckworth (1997) | Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Endo (2004) | Heydon (1994) | Heydon & Bulloh (1997) | Kim et al. (2004) | Liat (1973) | Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005) | Matsubayashi et al. (2003, 2006) | Medway (1978) | Meijaard (2003) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2005) | Miura & Idris (1999) | Nolan et al. (1995) | O'Brien et al. (2003) | Payne et al. (1985)","foodAndFeeding":"The speciesis largely frugivorous, but also feeds on shoots, young leaves, and fallen fruits. Fruit mass of consumed fruits varied from 1 gto 5 gand seed mass from 0-01 g to 0-5 g. On Borneo, the species feeds on a range offruiting species, including Polyanthia sumatrana, Diospyros macrophylla, Endospermumpeltatum, Quercus sp., Garcinia forbesi and G. parviflora, Litsea caulocarpa and L. orocola, Notaphoebe sp., Dialumimdum, Aglaia sp., Chisocheton sp., Dysoxylum sp., Lansium sp., Artocarpus dadah, Ficus spp., Dimocarpus longan, Paranephelium xestophyllum, and Microros antidesmifolia.","breeding":"Males mark their territories and their females with an intermandibular scent gland located under the chin. They chase and fight one another for prolonged periods, slashing with the elongated canine teeth. These teeth are razor sharp and local hunters in Borneo report that sometimes males fight to the death. Mating occurs throughout the year in some areas. In Vietnamthe species mates in November-December and gives birth in April-May. The species is polygynous. Females are almost continuously pregnant. Gestation has been estimated at 140-177 days, the mother produces 2-3 young per year, and fawns are kept hidden.","activityPatterns":"Diurnal to cathemeral.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A study of this species in the Malaysian state of Sabahsuggested thatit is mostly solitary, with 93-9% of the observations being single animals and the remainder pairs or a female with one or two young. In apparent contrast with this statement, camera trap photos of the species often show two adult animals together. Further studies are needed to determine the social organization of the species and how this varies spatially as well temporally. Population densities on Borneo were estimated at 21-39 ind/km?, with density positively correlated with fruit mass, seed mass, and total fruit resources. The species does not appearto be territorial. The core areas of neighboring animals were completely separate among same-sex individuals, but overlapped widely among opposite-sex individuals. The results suggest that this species is mostly monogamous, although apparently males can also be polygamous. The core area of a paired female overlapped not only with the core area of the paired male, but also with that of another neighboring male. This suggests that males tolerate the presence of females in their core areas and that paired males do not control the movement of paired females into the home ranges of other males. Females establish new home ranges when giving birth. Home range size for females was estimated at 4-4 ha and for males 5-9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the differ ence between males and females was not significant. Mean daily distance travelled for males was 519-1 m (+ 88-8 m), that for females 573-8 m (+ 219-7 m). In a Bornean study area, the density was negatively correlated with pioneer trees, grass, and herbs, suggesting that the species is negatively influenced by the effects of timber harvest, although, as pointed at above, this remains ambiguous. Data from Indochina, suggest that the species is quite tolerant of forest disturbance and may even be considered an edge species that benefits from disturbance. Further studies are needed to elucidate this issue.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and locally common, and at least in non-Sundaic areas persists in environments of very heavy forest degradation, fragmentation, and hunting. The presumed short generation length of the species (under five years) also influences assessment. Thus although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area. The IUCN review points out several major uncertainties in the conservation status assessment. Firstly, there are few modern records of Tragulusfrom both the Sundaic and non-Sundaic portions of the range that have been identified conclusively as to species. Secondly, the conflicting nature of the information available concerning the effects of hunting (harvest levels are locally very high) and habitat destruction makes it difficult to estimate population declines. Thirdly, there are strong indications that in its non-Sundaic range (i.e. Asian mainland) it is localized in occurrence, a pattern for which the reasons remain opaque, but which might be the result of hunting. And fourthly, the apparent restriction to lowland forest, at least in Borneo, suggests that with the rapidly dwindling lowland forests in this part ofits range, the species is losing habitat and its range might decrease and become fragmented. The species apparently has become extinct in Bangladeshdue to high hunting and trapping pressure, although in many other areas it seems to survive despite local poaching and trapping.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 37-56 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 1.5-2. 5 kg. Thisis a small chevrotain species that was recently split from 7. javanicus. It is separated from the larger 1. napuprimarily by its smaller size, the number of throat stripes, the visibility of the nape line, and the lack of mottling of the upperparts. There is some degree of melanism in 7. kanchilspecimens from small islands, leading to the development of extra dark, transverse lines, which makes the throat pattern hard to distinguish from that of 1. napu. The degree of erythrism (reddish pigmentation) and melanism is, however, less pronounced than in 7. napu. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"Tall forest in lowlands, amidst undergrowth on edges of heavy lowland forest. It has been suggested that 7. kanchiloccurs primarily in hilly areas, but other sources stated that the species was absent from areas above 250 min Sarawak, whereas 7. napuoccurred much higher. This species also occurs in cultivated areas up to 600 min elevation. The habitat of this species could be described as a mosaic ofriverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps, with stands of dense bamboo or palms for daytime resting. In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest, and they can be quite common in monocultural tree plantations in a matrix of secondary forest stands. Even though the evidence is somewhat ambiguous,it appears that this species prefers disturbed forests to primary ones. A review of encounter rates in various parts of the species’ range suggested that the distribution of 7. kanchilis perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features and microhabitats. What these features are remains unresolved, but their water requirements are important, as authors note commonness in riverine areas with surprising regularity. The habitat use of this species with respect to edge—interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C3/6F/03C36F2EFFFB347EFF11441DF6EF0C5F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C36F2EFFFB347EFF11441DF6EF0C5F","docName":"hbmw_1_Ailuridae_0498.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffa1756fffa347fff8e4379ff81011f","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"503","verbatimText":"Red PandaAilurus fulgensFrench: Panda roux/ German: Kleiner Panda/ Spanish: Panda rojoOther common names: Lesser Panda, Fire Fox, Golden Dog, Bear CatTaxonomy.Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825, Nepal. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A. f. fulgens Cuvier, 1825 — E Himalayas in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sikkim; China(S & SE Xizang& NW Yunnan), NE India(Meghalaya), and N Myanmar.A. f. styani Thomas, 1902 — China(W Sichuan& N Yunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body 51-73 cm, tail 28-49 cm; weight 3-6 kg. Head round, muzzle short, ears large and pointed. Muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges ofears white, eyes with small dark patches. Dorsal pelage chestnut brown, ventral pelage and limbs black. Tail bushy, with alternate red and buff colored rings. Feet with hairysoles, and claws semi-retractile. Females have eight mammae. Forepaw with elongated radial sesamoid. Skull robust, with broad zygomatic arches and large occipital condyles. Teeth heavily cusped, with elaborate crown patterns. Compared with fulgens, styani is distinguishable by its longer winter coat, darker bodycolor, larger skull, and more robust teeth.Habitat.Temperate forests of mountains at elevations of 1500-4800 m. In Meghalayaof India, in tropical forests at much lower elevations, between 700-1400 m. Typically in forests with bamboo-thicket understory. High bamboo cover, bamboo height, and canopy cover are important; preferred habitats have a high density ofshrubs, fallen logs, and tree stumps, yielding easy access to bambooleaves.Food and Feeding.Diet largely vegetarian, 80-90% consisting of bamboo leaves, new shoots important in spring, fruits eaten in late summer and autumn. Usually feeds on the most nutritious bamboospecies in its habitat. Also eats roots, lichens, small vertebrates, birds eggs, insects and grubs.Activity patterns.Captive animals are nocturnal and crepuscular, and exhibit a polyphasic activity pattern throughout the night. In the wild, the Red Panda was thought to be most active at dawn, dusk, and at night, but several recent studies have consistently shown it is more active in the daytime than at night. In Wolong Nature Reserve, China, a subadult female, a female, and a male were reported to be active 36:5%, 49%, and 45% of the time, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve, bordering the former reserve on the north, six radio-collared Red Pandas had an average dailyactivity rate of 48-6%, with two peaks from 7:00 h to 10:00 h and from 17:00 h to 18:00 h. Generally, numerous periods ofrest are interspersed with frequent activity periods.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A subadult female in Wolong Reserve occupied a home range of 3-43 km, with a mean linear daily movement of 481 m.Subsequent research in the same area showedthat a female and a male possessed home ranges of 0-94 km* and 1-11 km?®, with a daily distance movedof 235 mand 325 m, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Reserve, the daily movement distance was 461 mand the home range covered 2-34 km” for six collared individuals. Intrasexual and intersexual overlapping of home ranges occurred extensively. Perhaps due to difference in habitat quality and population density, both the females and males in Langtang Nature Reserve, Nepal, had larger home ranges (1-02 to 9-62 km*) than those in Sichuan, China. Several studies reported that Red Pandas live in groups ofthree to five individuals with blood relationships. Other studies found the Red Panda solitary outside the breeding season, with territories well posted by scent marking. Olfactory communication is the primary methodof conveying social signals, through the secretions from anogenital glands deposited in the environment. Secretions from foreskin glands and glands on the soles of the feet can impart an individual’s information, too. Red Pandas leave droppings in groups, and their repeatedly-used defecation sites (latrines) probably facilitate communication among neighbors.Breeding.Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.Status and Conservation.CITESApendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. Global population estimatedat 16,000-20,000, in estimated area of 69,900 Km?. In China, the population decreased byup to 40% due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, trade, forest fires, road construction, and otherdisturbances during the past 50 years, and became extinct in Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghaiprovinces. Protected in all countries where it now occurs with 43, 20, 5, and 7 protected areas established in China, India, Bhutan, and Nepal, respectively.Bibliography.Bininda-Edmonds (2004), Choudhury (2001), Dawkins (1888), Endo et al. (1999), Flynn & Nedbal (1998), Flynn et al. (2000), Fox et al. (1996), Hu (1991), Hu & Wang (1984), IUCN(2008), Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988a), Li, C. et al. (2003), Li, M. et al. (2004), Liu et al. (2003, 2004), MacClintock (1988), Nowak (1999), Pen (1962), Pradhan et al. (2001), Rabinowitz & Khaing (1998), Reid, Hu & Huang (1991), Roberts & Gittleman (1984), Spanner et al. (1997), Tedford & Gustavson (1977), Wei, Feng, Wang & Hu (1999, 2000), Wei, Feng, Wang & Li (1999), Wei, Feng, Wang, Zhou & Hu (1999), Wei, LUet al. (2005), Wei, Wang et al. (2000), Yonzon & Hunter (1991a, 1991b), Zhang, Wei, Li & Hu (2006), Zhang, Wei, Li, Zhang. et al. (2004).","taxonomy":"Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825, Nepal. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Panda roux @fr | Kleiner Panda @de | Panda rojo @es | Lesser Panda @en | Fire Fox @en | Golden Dog @en | Bear Cat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1825","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Ailuridae","interpretedGenus":"Ailurus","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"503","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fulgens","name":"Ailurus fulgens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A. f. fulgens Cuvier, 1825 — E Himalayas in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sikkim; China(S & SE Xizang& NW Yunnan), NE India(Meghalaya), and N Myanmar.A. f. styani Thomas, 1902 — China(W Sichuan& N Yunnan).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5680928/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bininda-Edmonds (2004) | Choudhury (2001) | Dawkins (1888) | Endo et al. (1999) | Flynn & Nedbal (1998) | Flynn et al. (2000) | Fox et al. (1996) | Hu (1991) | Hu & Wang (1984) | IUCN(2008) | Johnson, K.G. et al. (1988a) | Li, C. et al. (2003) | Li, M. et al. (2004) | Liu et al. (2003, 2004) | MacClintock (1988) | Nowak (1999) | Pen (1962) | Pradhan et al. (2001) | Rabinowitz & Khaing (1998) | Reid, Hu & Huang (1991) | Roberts & Gittleman (1984) | Spanner et al. (1997) | Tedford & Gustavson (1977) | Wei, Feng, Wang & Hu (1999, 2000) | Wei, Feng, Wang & Li (1999) | Wei, Feng, Wang, Zhou & Hu (1999) | Wei, LUet al. (2005) | Wei, Wang et al. (2000) | Yonzon & Hunter (1991a, 1991b) | Zhang, Wei, Li & Hu (2006) | Zhang, Wei, Li, Zhang. et al. (2004)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet largely vegetarian, 80-90% consisting of bamboo leaves, new shoots important in spring, fruits eaten in late summer and autumn. Usually feeds on the most nutritious bamboospecies in its habitat. Also eats roots, lichens, small vertebrates, birds eggs, insects and grubs.","breeding":"Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.","activityPatterns":"Captive animals are nocturnal and crepuscular, and exhibit a polyphasic activity pattern throughout the night. In the wild, the Red Panda was thought to be most active at dawn, dusk, and at night, but several recent studies have consistently shown it is more active in the daytime than at night. In Wolong Nature Reserve, China, a subadult female, a female, and a male were reported to be active 36:5%, 49%, and 45% of the time, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve, bordering the former reserve on the north, six radio-collared Red Pandas had an average dailyactivity rate of 48-6%, with two peaks from 7:00 h to 10:00 h and from 17:00 h to 18:00 h. Generally, numerous periods ofrest are interspersed with frequent activity periods.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A subadult female in Wolong Reserve occupied a home range of 3-43 km, with a mean linear daily movement of 481 m.Subsequent research in the same area showedthat a female and a male possessed home ranges of 0-94 km* and 1-11 km?®, with a daily distance movedof 235 mand 325 m, respectively. In Fengtongzhai Reserve, the daily movement distance was 461 mand the home range covered 2-34 km” for six collared individuals. Intrasexual and intersexual overlapping of home ranges occurred extensively. Perhaps due to difference in habitat quality and population density, both the females and males in Langtang Nature Reserve, Nepal, had larger home ranges (1-02 to 9-62 km*) than those in Sichuan, China. Several studies reported that Red Pandas live in groups ofthree to five individuals with blood relationships. Other studies found the Red Panda solitary outside the breeding season, with territories well posted by scent marking. Olfactory communication is the primary methodof conveying social signals, through the secretions from anogenital glands deposited in the environment. Secretions from foreskin glands and glands on the soles of the feet can impart an individual’s information, too. Red Pandas leave droppings in groups, and their repeatedly-used defecation sites (latrines) probably facilitate communication among neighbors.Breeding.Both sexes sexually mature at 18-20 months and breeding behavioris strictly seasonal. Mating seasonis from early January to mid-March. Females are considered polyestrous, ovulation is induced. Mean gestation length in captivity 135 days, with range of 114 to 145 days. Births occur in June and July in hollow trees or rock crevices. Litter size one to four with a mode oftwo, extreme value offive. Neonates weigh 110 -130 gin captivity. They remain essentially immobile in the first 7-10 days except when nursing. Eyes open by day 18, first excursions out ofnest at approximately 90 days. Adult size is reached at twelve months ofage.","statusAndConservation":"CITESApendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. Global population estimatedat 16,000-20,000, in estimated area of 69,900 Km?. In China, the population decreased byup to 40% due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, trade, forest fires, road construction, and otherdisturbances during the past 50 years, and became extinct in Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghaiprovinces. Protected in all countries where it now occurs with 43, 20, 5, and 7 protected areas established in China, India, Bhutan, and Nepal, respectively.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 51-73 cm, tail 28-49 cm; weight 3-6 kg. Head round, muzzle short, ears large and pointed. Muzzle, lips, cheeks, and edges ofears white, eyes with small dark patches. Dorsal pelage chestnut brown, ventral pelage and limbs black. Tail bushy, with alternate red and buff colored rings. Feet with hairysoles, and claws semi-retractile. Females have eight mammae. Forepaw with elongated radial sesamoid. Skull robust, with broad zygomatic arches and large occipital condyles. Teeth heavily cusped, with elaborate crown patterns. Compared with fulgens, styani is distinguishable by its longer winter coat, darker bodycolor, larger skull, and more robust teeth.","habitat":"Temperate forests of mountains at elevations of 1500-4800 m. In Meghalayaof India, in tropical forests at much lower elevations, between 700-1400 m. Typically in forests with bamboo-thicket understory. High bamboo cover, bamboo height, and canopy cover are important; preferred habitats have a high density ofshrubs, fallen logs, and tree stumps, yielding easy access to bambooleaves."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E78FF93FA55FE4F95CFF679.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E78FF93FA55FE4F95CFF679","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"330","verbatimText":"5.Lesser Indo-Malayan ChevrotainTragulus kanchilFrench:Chevrotain kanchil/ German:Kleinkantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén pequenoOther common names:KancilTaxonomy.Moschus kanchil Raffles, 1822, Bengkulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review, and the authors were unable to assess the validity of all taxa. This includes Sfulvicollis from the MalaccaStrait islands (Bengkalis, Padang, Rupat, Tebingtinggi, and Rangsam); pallidus from the small island of Laut, north of Bunguran, Natuna islands group; carimatae from Karimata Island, west of Borneo; lampensis from Lanbi Kyun (= Lampi) Islandin the Mergui Archipelago; insularis from Phuket (= Junk Seylon), Ko Sirae (= Sireh) and Ko Yao Yai (= Panjang) islands; and lancavensis from Langkawi Island. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.k.kanchilRaffles,1822—Sumatra,islandsoffESumatra(Mendol&Berhala).T.k.abruptusChasen,1935—SubiI,oftWBorneo.T.k.affinisGray,1861—Vietnam,Laos,SE&EThailand,Cambodia.T.k.anambensisChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(MatakI).T.k.angustiaeKloss,1918—SMyanmar,SWThaimainland(probablylimitedtoWoftheChaoPhrayaRiver).T.k.everettiBonhote,1903—NatunaIs(Bunguran),offWBorneo.T.k.fulviventerGray,1836—SMalayPeninsula(Sof7°N).T.k.hosetBonhote,1903—Borneo(Sarawak,West,Central,East&SouthKalimantan).T.k.klossiChasen,1935—NBorneo(NEastKalimantan,E&CSabah,andpossiblyWSabahandBrunei.T.k.luteicollisLyon,1906—BangkaI,offESumatra.T.k.pidonisChasen,1940—KohPipidonI(=PhiPhiDon),offWMalayPeninsula.T.k.ravulusMiller,1903—islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(KohAdang&KohRawi).T.k.ravusMiller,1902—SThailand,NMalayPeninsula.T.k.rubeusMiller,1903—RiauArchipelago(BintanI).T.k.siantanicusChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(SiantanI).T. k. subrufus Miller, 1903— Lingga Archipelago (Lingga & Singkep Is).The range on the Asian mainland is poorly known and could occur as far north as China(S Yunnan). As stated in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of some areas of Borneo (W Sabah, Brunei& N Sarawak) and several other islands remains unclear.Descriptive notes.Head—body 37-56 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 1.5-2. 5 kg. Thisis a small chevrotain species that was recently split from 7. javanicus. It is separated from the larger 1. napuprimarily by its smaller size, the number of throat stripes, the visibility of the nape line, and the lack of mottling of the upperparts. There is some degree of melanism in 7. kanchilspecimens from small islands, leading to the development of extra dark, transverse lines, which makes the throat pattern hard to distinguish from that of 1. napu. The degree of erythrism (reddish pigmentation) and melanism is, however, less pronounced than in 7. napu. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Tall forest in lowlands, amidst undergrowth on edges of heavy lowland forest. It has been suggested that 7. kanchiloccurs primarily in hilly areas, but other sources stated that the species was absent from areas above 250 min Sarawak, whereas 7. napuoccurred much higher. This species also occurs in cultivated areas up to 600 min elevation. The habitat of this species could be described as a mosaic ofriverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps, with stands of dense bamboo or palms for daytime resting. In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest, and they can be quite common in monocultural tree plantations in a matrix of secondary forest stands. Even though the evidence is somewhat ambiguous,it appears that this species prefers disturbed forests to primary ones. A review of encounter rates in various parts of the species’ range suggested that the distribution of 7. kanchilis perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features and microhabitats. What these features are remains unresolved, but their water requirements are important, as authors note commonness in riverine areas with surprising regularity. The habitat use of this species with respect to edge—interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult.Food and Feeding.The speciesis largely frugivorous, but also feeds on shoots, young leaves, and fallen fruits. Fruit mass of consumed fruits varied from 1 gto 5 gand seed mass from 0-01 g to 0-5 g. On Borneo, the species feeds on a range offruiting species, including Polyanthia sumatrana, Diospyros macrophylla, Endospermumpeltatum, Quercus sp., Garcinia forbesi and G. parviflora, Litsea caulocarpa and L. orocola, Notaphoebe sp., Dialumimdum, Aglaia sp., Chisocheton sp., Dysoxylum sp., Lansium sp., Artocarpus dadah, Ficus spp., Dimocarpus longan, Paranephelium xestophyllum, and Microros antidesmifolia.Breeding.Males mark their territories and their females with an intermandibular scent gland located under the chin. They chase and fight one another for prolonged periods, slashing with the elongated canine teeth. These teeth are razor sharp and local hunters in Borneo report that sometimes males fight to the death. Mating occurs throughout the year in some areas. In Vietnamthe species mates in November-December and gives birth in April-May. The species is polygynous. Females are almost continuously pregnant. Gestation has been estimated at 140-177 days, the mother produces 2-3 young per year, and fawns are kept hidden.Activity patterns.Diurnal to cathemeral.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A study of this species in the Malaysian state of Sabahsuggested thatit is mostly solitary, with 93-9% of the observations being single animals and the remainder pairs or a female with one or two young. In apparent contrast with this statement, camera trap photos of the species often show two adult animals together. Further studies are needed to determine the social organization of the species and how this varies spatially as well temporally. Population densities on Borneo were estimated at 21-39 ind/km?, with density positively correlated with fruit mass, seed mass, and total fruit resources. The species does not appearto be territorial. The core areas of neighboring animals were completely separate among same-sex individuals, but overlapped widely among opposite-sex individuals. The results suggest that this species is mostly monogamous, although apparently males can also be polygamous. The core area of a paired female overlapped not only with the core area of the paired male, but also with that of another neighboring male. This suggests that males tolerate the presence of females in their core areas and that paired males do not control the movement of paired females into the home ranges of other males. Females establish new home ranges when giving birth. Home range size for females was estimated at 4-4 ha and for males 5-9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the differ ence between males and females was not significant. Mean daily distance travelled for males was 519-1 m (+ 88-8 m), that for females 573-8 m (+ 219-7 m). In a Bornean study area, the density was negatively correlated with pioneer trees, grass, and herbs, suggesting that the species is negatively influenced by the effects of timber harvest, although, as pointed at above, this remains ambiguous. Data from Indochina, suggest that the species is quite tolerant of forest disturbance and may even be considered an edge species that benefits from disturbance. Further studies are needed to elucidate this issue.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and locally common, and at least in non-Sundaic areas persists in environments of very heavy forest degradation, fragmentation, and hunting. The presumed short generation length of the species (under five years) also influences assessment. Thus although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area. The IUCN review points out several major uncertainties in the conservation status assessment. Firstly, there are few modern records of Tragulusfrom both the Sundaic and non-Sundaic portions of the range that have been identified conclusively as to species. Secondly, the conflicting nature of the information available concerning the effects of hunting (harvest levels are locally very high) and habitat destruction makes it difficult to estimate population declines. Thirdly, there are strong indications that in its non-Sundaic range (i.e. Asian mainland) it is localized in occurrence, a pattern for which the reasons remain opaque, but which might be the result of hunting. And fourthly, the apparent restriction to lowland forest, at least in Borneo, suggests that with the rapidly dwindling lowland forests in this part ofits range, the species is losing habitat and its range might decrease and become fragmented. The species apparently has become extinct in Bangladeshdue to high hunting and trapping pressure, although in many other areas it seems to survive despite local poaching and trapping.Bibliography.Caldecott (1988), Davison (1980), Duckworth (1997), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Endo (2004), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Kim et al. (2004), Liat (1973), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Matsubayashi et al. (2003, 2006), Medway (1978), Meijaard (2003), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2005), Miura & Idris (1999), Nolan et al. (1995), O'Brien et al. (2003), Payne et al. (1985).","taxonomy":"Moschus kanchil Raffles, 1822, Bengkulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review, and the authors were unable to assess the validity of all taxa. This includes Sfulvicollis from the MalaccaStrait islands (Bengkalis, Padang, Rupat, Tebingtinggi, and Rangsam); pallidus from the small island of Laut, north of Bunguran, Natuna islands group; carimatae from Karimata Island, west of Borneo; lampensis from Lanbi Kyun (= Lampi) Islandin the Mergui Archipelago; insularis from Phuket (= Junk Seylon), Ko Sirae (= Sireh) and Ko Yao Yai (= Panjang) islands; and lancavensis from Langkawi Island. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.","commonNames":"Chevrotain kanchil @fr | Kleinkantschil @de | Ciervoratén pequeno @es | Kancil @en","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Tragulus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"330","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kanchil","name":"Tragulus kanchil","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.k.kanchilRaffles,1822—Sumatra,islandsoffESumatra(Mendol&Berhala).T.k.abruptusChasen,1935—SubiI,oftWBorneo.T.k.affinisGray,1861—Vietnam,Laos,SE&EThailand,Cambodia.T.k.anambensisChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(MatakI).T.k.angustiaeKloss,1918—SMyanmar,SWThaimainland(probablylimitedtoWoftheChaoPhrayaRiver).T.k.everettiBonhote,1903—NatunaIs(Bunguran),offWBorneo.T.k.fulviventerGray,1836—SMalayPeninsula(Sof7°N).T.k.hosetBonhote,1903—Borneo(Sarawak,West,Central,East&SouthKalimantan).T.k.klossiChasen,1935—NBorneo(NEastKalimantan,E&CSabah,andpossiblyWSabahandBrunei.T.k.luteicollisLyon,1906—BangkaI,offESumatra.T.k.pidonisChasen,1940—KohPipidonI(=PhiPhiDon),offWMalayPeninsula.T.k.ravulusMiller,1903—islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(KohAdang&KohRawi).T.k.ravusMiller,1902—SThailand,NMalayPeninsula.T.k.rubeusMiller,1903—RiauArchipelago(BintanI).T.k.siantanicusChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(SiantanI).T. k. subrufus Miller, 1903— Lingga Archipelago (Lingga & Singkep Is).The range on the Asian mainland is poorly known and could occur as far north as China(S Yunnan). As stated in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of some areas of Borneo (W Sabah, Brunei& N Sarawak) and several other islands remains unclear.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721293/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Caldecott (1988) | Davison (1980) | Duckworth (1997) | Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Endo (2004) | Heydon (1994) | Heydon & Bulloh (1997) | Kim et al. (2004) | Liat (1973) | Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005) | Matsubayashi et al. (2003, 2006) | Medway (1978) | Meijaard (2003) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2005) | Miura & Idris (1999) | Nolan et al. (1995) | O'Brien et al. (2003) | Payne et al. (1985)","foodAndFeeding":"The speciesis largely frugivorous, but also feeds on shoots, young leaves, and fallen fruits. Fruit mass of consumed fruits varied from 1 gto 5 gand seed mass from 0-01 g to 0-5 g. On Borneo, the species feeds on a range offruiting species, including Polyanthia sumatrana, Diospyros macrophylla, Endospermumpeltatum, Quercus sp., Garcinia forbesi and G. parviflora, Litsea caulocarpa and L. orocola, Notaphoebe sp., Dialumimdum, Aglaia sp., Chisocheton sp., Dysoxylum sp., Lansium sp., Artocarpus dadah, Ficus spp., Dimocarpus longan, Paranephelium xestophyllum, and Microros antidesmifolia.","breeding":"Males mark their territories and their females with an intermandibular scent gland located under the chin. They chase and fight one another for prolonged periods, slashing with the elongated canine teeth. These teeth are razor sharp and local hunters in Borneo report that sometimes males fight to the death. Mating occurs throughout the year in some areas. In Vietnamthe species mates in November-December and gives birth in April-May. The species is polygynous. Females are almost continuously pregnant. Gestation has been estimated at 140-177 days, the mother produces 2-3 young per year, and fawns are kept hidden.","activityPatterns":"Diurnal to cathemeral.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A study of this species in the Malaysian state of Sabahsuggested thatit is mostly solitary, with 93-9% of the observations being single animals and the remainder pairs or a female with one or two young. In apparent contrast with this statement, camera trap photos of the species often show two adult animals together. Further studies are needed to determine the social organization of the species and how this varies spatially as well temporally. Population densities on Borneo were estimated at 21-39 ind/km?, with density positively correlated with fruit mass, seed mass, and total fruit resources. The species does not appearto be territorial. The core areas of neighboring animals were completely separate among same-sex individuals, but overlapped widely among opposite-sex individuals. The results suggest that this species is mostly monogamous, although apparently males can also be polygamous. The core area of a paired female overlapped not only with the core area of the paired male, but also with that of another neighboring male. This suggests that males tolerate the presence of females in their core areas and that paired males do not control the movement of paired females into the home ranges of other males. Females establish new home ranges when giving birth. Home range size for females was estimated at 4-4 ha and for males 5-9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the differ ence between males and females was not significant. Mean daily distance travelled for males was 519-1 m (+ 88-8 m), that for females 573-8 m (+ 219-7 m). In a Bornean study area, the density was negatively correlated with pioneer trees, grass, and herbs, suggesting that the species is negatively influenced by the effects of timber harvest, although, as pointed at above, this remains ambiguous. Data from Indochina, suggest that the species is quite tolerant of forest disturbance and may even be considered an edge species that benefits from disturbance. Further studies are needed to elucidate this issue.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and locally common, and at least in non-Sundaic areas persists in environments of very heavy forest degradation, fragmentation, and hunting. The presumed short generation length of the species (under five years) also influences assessment. Thus although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area. The IUCN review points out several major uncertainties in the conservation status assessment. Firstly, there are few modern records of Tragulusfrom both the Sundaic and non-Sundaic portions of the range that have been identified conclusively as to species. Secondly, the conflicting nature of the information available concerning the effects of hunting (harvest levels are locally very high) and habitat destruction makes it difficult to estimate population declines. Thirdly, there are strong indications that in its non-Sundaic range (i.e. Asian mainland) it is localized in occurrence, a pattern for which the reasons remain opaque, but which might be the result of hunting. And fourthly, the apparent restriction to lowland forest, at least in Borneo, suggests that with the rapidly dwindling lowland forests in this part ofits range, the species is losing habitat and its range might decrease and become fragmented. The species apparently has become extinct in Bangladeshdue to high hunting and trapping pressure, although in many other areas it seems to survive despite local poaching and trapping.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 37-56 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 1.5-2. 5 kg. Thisis a small chevrotain species that was recently split from 7. javanicus. It is separated from the larger 1. napuprimarily by its smaller size, the number of throat stripes, the visibility of the nape line, and the lack of mottling of the upperparts. There is some degree of melanism in 7. kanchilspecimens from small islands, leading to the development of extra dark, transverse lines, which makes the throat pattern hard to distinguish from that of 1. napu. The degree of erythrism (reddish pigmentation) and melanism is, however, less pronounced than in 7. napu. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"Tall forest in lowlands, amidst undergrowth on edges of heavy lowland forest. It has been suggested that 7. kanchiloccurs primarily in hilly areas, but other sources stated that the species was absent from areas above 250 min Sarawak, whereas 7. napuoccurred much higher. This species also occurs in cultivated areas up to 600 min elevation. The habitat of this species could be described as a mosaic ofriverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps, with stands of dense bamboo or palms for daytime resting. In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest, and they can be quite common in monocultural tree plantations in a matrix of secondary forest stands. Even though the evidence is somewhat ambiguous,it appears that this species prefers disturbed forests to primary ones. A review of encounter rates in various parts of the species’ range suggested that the distribution of 7. kanchilis perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features and microhabitats. What these features are remains unresolved, but their water requirements are important, as authors note commonness in riverine areas with surprising regularity. The habitat use of this species with respect to edge—interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E78FF94FF2DFA1E965AFE2D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E78FF94FF2DFA1E965AFE2D","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"330","verbatimText":"4.Silver-backed ChevrotainTragulus versicolorFrench:Chevrotain du Vietnam/ German:Annam-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratdn plateadoTaxonomy.Tragulus versicolor Thomas, 1910, Nhatrang, Annam, Viet Nam. This species 1 monotypic.Distribution.If still extant, the species would likely occur in Vietnam, and possibly in neighboring Cambodiaand Laos. The true distribution of the species is unknown, because there has been very little awareness of the species. Surveys have not sought it, because many have assumed that only one species, Tragulus kanchil, occurs in most of Indochina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40 cm, tail 5 cm, hindfoot 11 cm, ear 3-5 cm; weight 1-7 kg (all measurements from one specimen). The upperparts of 7. versicolorhave a characteristic shabrack or saddlecloth appearance. The fur on the back is uniformly grayish-silver and relatively dense; the hairs are conspicuously tipped with white. The area of the neck and shoulders, although quite uniform in color, is visibly separated from the back in having more brownish and less dense fur. Thesides of the neck possess a somewhat different pattern of pelage structure. The fur of the neck appears to have a coarser, less spiny appearance compared to the sympatric 7. kanchil. This coarse hair was one of the characteristics used to describe the species initially. There are no dark lines from the eye to the nose. Some specimens have a throat pattern with three white and two colored stripes, which are characters of 7. kanchil, whereas there are others with the napwlike five white and four dark stripes. The white area of the underparts in 1. versicolorcontinues uninterrupted from the chin towards the groin area, and there is no transverse brownish collar below the throat, unlike most other Tragulus species.Also, there are no darker-colored markings along the sides and midlines of the belly, which are characteristic of 71. kanchilin Vietnam. The skull of 7. versicoloris significantly smaller than in all other Tragulus species, but relatively wide, with wide bullae and very long nasals. Compared to T. napuand T. kanchil, the large auditory bullae are much more rounded and inflated. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Because no specimens have been traced to specific habitats, and there are no observations of the species in the wild, nothing is known about its habitat preferences.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There is no information on the current range or population status of 7. versicolorbecause of a lack of survey work for the species in appropriate areas of Vietnam. Therefore the species cannot be assessed against range size or population trend criteria. No strong ecological correlates are sufficiently known to allow assessment of population trends through habitat trends. The species’ resilience to hunting is not known. Although there is only one record since 1907, there is no reason to consider it a possibly Extinct candidate, because the paucity of records is assumed to reflect the lack of suitable surveys. A more informed judgment when sufficient data are available is likely to indicate that it is threatened. The population is almost certainly declining due to severe hunting pressure for ground-dwelling mammals, resulting in population reductions of even the most resilient species; it may be found to warrant a very high threat category, particularly as there is no evidence of presence in high altitudes.Bibliography.Kuznetsov & Borissenko (2004), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2004), Thomas (1910), Timmins et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Tragulus versicolor Thomas, 1910, Nhatrang, Annam, Viet Nam. This species 1 monotypic.","commonNames":"Chevrotain du Vietnam @fr | Annam-Kantschil @de | Ciervoratdn plateado @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1910","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Tragulus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"330","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"versicolor","name":"Tragulus versicolor","subspeciesAndDistribution":"If still extant, the species would likely occur in Vietnam, and possibly in neighboring Cambodiaand Laos. The true distribution of the species is unknown, because there has been very little awareness of the species. Surveys have not sought it, because many have assumed that only one species, Tragulus kanchil, occurs in most of Indochina.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721291/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Kuznetsov & Borissenko (2004) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2004) | Thomas (1910) | Timmins et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing known.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There is no information on the current range or population status of 7. versicolorbecause of a lack of survey work for the species in appropriate areas of Vietnam. Therefore the species cannot be assessed against range size or population trend criteria. No strong ecological correlates are sufficiently known to allow assessment of population trends through habitat trends. The species’ resilience to hunting is not known. Although there is only one record since 1907, there is no reason to consider it a possibly Extinct candidate, because the paucity of records is assumed to reflect the lack of suitable surveys. A more informed judgment when sufficient data are available is likely to indicate that it is threatened. The population is almost certainly declining due to severe hunting pressure for ground-dwelling mammals, resulting in population reductions of even the most resilient species; it may be found to warrant a very high threat category, particularly as there is no evidence of presence in high altitudes.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40 cm, tail 5 cm, hindfoot 11 cm, ear 3-5 cm; weight 1-7 kg (all measurements from one specimen). The upperparts of 7. versicolorhave a characteristic shabrack or saddlecloth appearance. The fur on the back is uniformly grayish-silver and relatively dense; the hairs are conspicuously tipped with white. The area of the neck and shoulders, although quite uniform in color, is visibly separated from the back in having more brownish and less dense fur. Thesides of the neck possess a somewhat different pattern of pelage structure. The fur of the neck appears to have a coarser, less spiny appearance compared to the sympatric 7. kanchil. This coarse hair was one of the characteristics used to describe the species initially. There are no dark lines from the eye to the nose. Some specimens have a throat pattern with three white and two colored stripes, which are characters of 7. kanchil, whereas there are others with the napwlike five white and four dark stripes. The white area of the underparts in 1. versicolorcontinues uninterrupted from the chin towards the groin area, and there is no transverse brownish collar below the throat, unlike most other Tragulus species.Also, there are no darker-colored markings along the sides and midlines of the belly, which are characteristic of 71. kanchilin Vietnam. The skull of 7. versicoloris significantly smaller than in all other Tragulus species, but relatively wide, with wide bullae and very long nasals. Compared to T. napuand T. kanchil, the large auditory bullae are much more rounded and inflated. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"Because no specimens have been traced to specific habitats, and there are no observations of the species in the wild, nothing is known about its habitat preferences."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E79FF94FA80FB05947FFB19.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E79FF94FA80FB05947FFB19","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"329","verbatimText":"3.Indian ChevrotainMoschiola indicaFrench:Chevrotain indien/ German:Indien-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén indioTaxonomy.Meminna indica Gray, 1843,“Eastern Ghats”, India.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Peninsular Indiaand possibly S Nepal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-59 cm, tail 2-5 cm; weight 3 kg. Moschiola speciesdiffer from 7 Tragulus, and resemble Hyemoschusin the pattern of the pelage on the flanks and in lacking a large gland between the mandiblesat the front of the lower law.The Indian Chevrotain is a relatively large chevrotain species, with long hindlegs and broad skull, especially across rostrum. The pelage is dull brown; stripes and spots are a very clear white; the upper row of spots forms a continuous stripe on the shoulder, but disintegrates into spots halfway back along the body, and other longitudinalstripes are broken completely into rows of elongated spots; the three spot-rows across croup and rump are partly fused to stripes; crown and forehead are dark brown; underside pale beige, becoming creamy medially. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Tropical deciduous and moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Peninsular Indian hills, plains, and plateaus, but also seen in tall elephant grass Cymbopogon. The species also occurs in montane forests up to around 1850 melevation. It has been observed that the species often occurs along forest streams and rivers. In the Eastern Ghats it was observed that M. indicawas very common, especially around the streams and “nullahs” (intermitent watercourses) which are essential for this species.Food and Feeding.Very little is known about the ecology and behavior of the Indian Chevrotain, and much of the information is in the form of anecdotal observations and sight records. It seems to mostly eat fruits and herbs, with fruit consumption of Terminalia bellerica, Gmelina arborea, and Garuga pinnata being reported; these are all common in the deciduous forests of India. In a study of fruit predation of the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) M. indicaand the Chital (Axis axis) were the most frequent frugivores, accounting for over 95% of fruit removal, with murid rodents accounting for less than 1%. The Indian Chevrotain is a frequent prey of Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) but apparently rarely eaten by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Golden Jackals (Canis aureus). Among the small carnivores, the Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii) is known to prey on the Indian Chevrotain, while the forest eagle owl (Bubo nipalensis) has been reported to predate on young ofthis species.Breeding.Mating apparently occurs inJune andJuly, with births taking place at the end of the rainy season, which normally runs from July to October during the south-west monsoon. The gestation period is about five months, and there are one or two young, with twins apparently being more common than in other tragulids. Mean weight at birth is 319 g. Maximum reported life span in captivity is six years and nine months.Activity patterns.Their activity appears to be mostly crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There are no published estimates of population densities and population status of M. indica. As in other tragulids, the species is mostly encountered alone or rarely in pairs. During the day, the chevrotains stay concealed in dens that may be in hollows at the base of trees or in rocky crevices. They are also reported to be able to climb up sloping tree boles. Sometimes the species is encountered resting in leaf litter on the forest floor, where its dappled pelage acts as effective camouflage during the day. But like other chevrotains the Indian species seems to shun the light, and appears to be most active at night or around dusk and dawn.On following pages 4 Sı ver-backed Chevrolarn (Tragulusversrcolorl 5 Lesser lndo-Malayan Chevrotam (fiagulus lndo-Malayan Chevromın (Traga/us napul 9 Balabac Chevrotam (Tragulusmgrrcansl 10 Water Chevrotaın (Hyemoschuskanchm 6 Northern Chevrotam (Traguluswı/lıamsonı) 7 Jovan Chevrolaın (Tragulusnvomcusl 8 Greater ıquancus)Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In India, M. indicaappears to have been widespread, with records as far north as 28° N, but the present stronghold of the species is the forests of the Western Ghats. The historic presence of a tragulid was recently confirmed for Nepaland possibly parts of northern India. Because of the general biogeographic patterns in this country the species was thought to be most likely M. indica, although without any specimens and with a lack of knowledge of the taxonomic status of tragulids reported from areas such as Bangladesh, there is a small chance that one of the Tragulusspecies once occurred in Nepal. Either way, no recent confirmed records of tragulids exist from Nepal, and if still extant the taxon is likely endangered in that country. Indian Chevrotains are among the most frequently hunted animals in the forests where they occur. The chevrotains are actively hunted using hunting dogs to locate and flush out the animals and kill them. Even women and childrenjoin with men in hunting during the day. The team of hunters beats bushes and flushes animals toward nets held by people; there the animals are caught and killed. In addition, low wire snares with many nooses may be placed along the ground across trails to catch passing chevrotains. Traps are used for night hunting. Much of the hunting is for direct consumption, although wild meatis also sold in local markets in many places. Based on interview surveys in one district, over 75% of the interviewed hunters reported the Indian Chevrotain to be their most commonly hunted prey, with a similar percentage believing that overhunting was the main reason for the species’ decline.Bibliography.Baral et al. (2009), Champion (1929), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Gokula (1997), Hayssen et al. (1993), Krishnan (1972), Kumara & Singh (2004), Madhukumar (2002), Madhusudan & Karanth (2002), Mathew (2002), Mudappa (1999), Nandini (2005), Nowak (1999), Raman (2004), Stockley (1930), Tehsin (1980).","taxonomy":"Meminna indica Gray, 1843,“Eastern Ghats”, India.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Chevrotain indien @fr | German @en | ndien-Kantschil @en | Ciervoratén indio @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschiola","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"329","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"indica","name":"Moschiola indica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Peninsular Indiaand possibly S Nepal.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721287/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baral et al. (2009) | Champion (1929) | Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Gokula (1997) | Hayssen et al. (1993) | Krishnan (1972) | Kumara & Singh (2004) | Madhukumar (2002) | Madhusudan & Karanth (2002) | Mathew (2002) | Mudappa (1999) | Nandini (2005) | Nowak (1999) | Raman (2004) | Stockley (1930) | Tehsin (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"Very little is known about the ecology and behavior of the Indian Chevrotain, and much of the information is in the form of anecdotal observations and sight records. It seems to mostly eat fruits and herbs, with fruit consumption of Terminalia bellerica, Gmelina arborea, and Garuga pinnata being reported; these are all common in the deciduous forests of India. In a study of fruit predation of the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) M. indicaand the Chital (Axis axis) were the most frequent frugivores, accounting for over 95% of fruit removal, with murid rodents accounting for less than 1%. The Indian Chevrotain is a frequent prey of Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) but apparently rarely eaten by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Golden Jackals (Canis aureus). Among the small carnivores, the Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii) is known to prey on the Indian Chevrotain, while the forest eagle owl (Bubo nipalensis) has been reported to predate on young ofthis species.","breeding":"Mating apparently occurs inJune andJuly, with births taking place at the end of the rainy season, which normally runs from July to October during the south-west monsoon. The gestation period is about five months, and there are one or two young, with twins apparently being more common than in other tragulids. Mean weight at birth is 319 g. Maximum reported life span in captivity is six years and nine months.","activityPatterns":"Their activity appears to be mostly crepuscular and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There are no published estimates of population densities and population status of M. indica. As in other tragulids, the species is mostly encountered alone or rarely in pairs. During the day, the chevrotains stay concealed in dens that may be in hollows at the base of trees or in rocky crevices. They are also reported to be able to climb up sloping tree boles. Sometimes the species is encountered resting in leaf litter on the forest floor, where its dappled pelage acts as effective camouflage during the day. But like other chevrotains the Indian species seems to shun the light, and appears to be most active at night or around dusk and dawn.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In India, M. indicaappears to have been widespread, with records as far north as 28° N, but the present stronghold of the species is the forests of the Western Ghats. The historic presence of a tragulid was recently confirmed for Nepaland possibly parts of northern India. Because of the general biogeographic patterns in this country the species was thought to be most likely M. indica, although without any specimens and with a lack of knowledge of the taxonomic status of tragulids reported from areas such as Bangladesh, there is a small chance that one of the Tragulusspecies once occurred in Nepal. Either way, no recent confirmed records of tragulids exist from Nepal, and if still extant the taxon is likely endangered in that country. Indian Chevrotains are among the most frequently hunted animals in the forests where they occur. The chevrotains are actively hunted using hunting dogs to locate and flush out the animals and kill them. Even women and childrenjoin with men in hunting during the day. The team of hunters beats bushes and flushes animals toward nets held by people; there the animals are caught and killed. In addition, low wire snares with many nooses may be placed along the ground across trails to catch passing chevrotains. Traps are used for night hunting. Much of the hunting is for direct consumption, although wild meatis also sold in local markets in many places. Based on interview surveys in one district, over 75% of the interviewed hunters reported the Indian Chevrotain to be their most commonly hunted prey, with a similar percentage believing that overhunting was the main reason for the species’ decline.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-59 cm, tail 2-5 cm; weight 3 kg. Moschiola speciesdiffer from 7 Tragulus, and resemble Hyemoschusin the pattern of the pelage on the flanks and in lacking a large gland between the mandiblesat the front of the lower law.The Indian Chevrotain is a relatively large chevrotain species, with long hindlegs and broad skull, especially across rostrum. The pelage is dull brown; stripes and spots are a very clear white; the upper row of spots forms a continuous stripe on the shoulder, but disintegrates into spots halfway back along the body, and other longitudinalstripes are broken completely into rows of elongated spots; the three spot-rows across croup and rump are partly fused to stripes; crown and forehead are dark brown; underside pale beige, becoming creamy medially. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"Tropical deciduous and moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Peninsular Indian hills, plains, and plateaus, but also seen in tall elephant grass Cymbopogon. The species also occurs in montane forests up to around 1850 melevation. It has been observed that the species often occurs along forest streams and rivers. In the Eastern Ghats it was observed that M. indicawas very common, especially around the streams and “nullahs” (intermitent watercourses) which are essential for this species."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E79FF95FF96FE12934EF7F0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E79FF95FF96FE12934EF7F0","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"329","verbatimText":"1.White-spotted ChevrotainMoschiola meminnaFrench:Chevrotain meminna/ German:Ceylon-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén manchadoTaxonomy.Moschus meminna Erxleben, 1777.Type locality selected by Groves & Meijaard in 2005 as Wariyapola, 7° 37’ N, 80° 13’ E, North Central Province, Sri Lanka.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Dry Zone of Sri Lanka.Descriptive notes.Head-body 55-60 cm, tail 2-5 cm; adult weight 2-45 kg. Color and pattern much as in M. indica, but upper row ofspots does not extensively fuse into a continuousstripe on the shoulder. Size small, hindlegs relatively long. The following are diagnostic cf. M. indica: zygomatic breadth less than 5 cm, occipital height (from basion) less than 2-75 cm, width across canine alveoli less than 1-5 cm, braincase breadth less than 3-3 cm; and the following is diagnostic cf. M. kathygre. hindfoot greater than 12 cm.Habitat.There is little information specific to the species’ habitat other than that this chevrotain lives in deciduous vegetation formations. It is basically a forest species, being found commonly in all forest types within the dry zone, but also in coconut plantations and home gardens. It is seldom far from water. A report of Sri Lankachevrotain densities of around 0-58 ind/km? is likely to concern the Dry Zone species, but the original source has not been traced and without clarification of the underlying methodology and assumptions leading to the estimate,its reliability is unknown.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known. One captive specimen lived 14-5 years.Activity patterns.Little known but presumably similar to M. indica, i.e. mostly crepuscular and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The justification for this listing is that a number of well-secured protected areas within the Dry Zone support chevrotains. Also, the effects of forest degradation and fragmentation on this chevrotain are probably not severe, given its ability to survive in home gardens and coconut plantations. Sri Lankan chevrotains are commonly hunted with firearms for their meat in areas where conservation management was suspended during the civil war, but it seems unlikely that this occurs at sufficient levels to restrain population numbers within reasonably-sized blocks of remaining habitat. In the Dry Zone they remain fairly common in forests even outside protected areas, despite widespread hunting. Hunting techniques that could be dangerous for chevrotains include a lot of trap guns in the forest and the use oflive electric wires, taken off posts, dragged through the forest, and set in rice paddies.Bibliography.Dubost (2001), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972), Groves & Meijaard (2005), Santiapillai & Wijeyamohan (2003).","taxonomy":"Moschus meminna Erxleben, 1777.Type locality selected by Groves & Meijaard in 2005 as Wariyapola, 7° 37’ N, 80° 13’ E, North Central Province, Sri Lanka.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Chevrotain meminna @fr | Ceylon-Kantschil @de | Ciervoratén manchado @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Erxleben","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1777","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschiola","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"329","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"meminna","name":"Moschiola meminna","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Dry Zone of Sri Lanka.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721281/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dubost (2001) | Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972) | Groves & Meijaard (2005) | Santiapillai & Wijeyamohan (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing known.","breeding":"Nothing known. One captive specimen lived 14-5 years.","activityPatterns":"Little known but presumably similar to M. indica, i.e. mostly crepuscular and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The justification for this listing is that a number of well-secured protected areas within the Dry Zone support chevrotains. Also, the effects of forest degradation and fragmentation on this chevrotain are probably not severe, given its ability to survive in home gardens and coconut plantations. Sri Lankan chevrotains are commonly hunted with firearms for their meat in areas where conservation management was suspended during the civil war, but it seems unlikely that this occurs at sufficient levels to restrain population numbers within reasonably-sized blocks of remaining habitat. In the Dry Zone they remain fairly common in forests even outside protected areas, despite widespread hunting. Hunting techniques that could be dangerous for chevrotains include a lot of trap guns in the forest and the use oflive electric wires, taken off posts, dragged through the forest, and set in rice paddies.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 55-60 cm, tail 2-5 cm; adult weight 2-45 kg. Color and pattern much as in M. indica, but upper row ofspots does not extensively fuse into a continuousstripe on the shoulder. Size small, hindlegs relatively long. The following are diagnostic cf. M. indica: zygomatic breadth less than 5 cm, occipital height (from basion) less than 2-75 cm, width across canine alveoli less than 1-5 cm, braincase breadth less than 3-3 cm; and the following is diagnostic cf. M. kathygre. hindfoot greater than 12 cm.","habitat":"There is little information specific to the species’ habitat other than that this chevrotain lives in deciduous vegetation formations. It is basically a forest species, being found commonly in all forest types within the dry zone, but also in coconut plantations and home gardens. It is seldom far from water. A report of Sri Lankachevrotain densities of around 0-58 ind/km? is likely to concern the Dry Zone species, but the original source has not been traced and without clarification of the underlying methodology and assumptions leading to the estimate,its reliability is unknown."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E79FF95FF99F70C9971FBF2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E79FF95FF99F70C9971FBF2","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"329","verbatimText":"2.Yellow-striped ChevrotainMoschiola kathygreFrench:Chevrotain kathygre/ German:Ceylon-Gelbstreifenkantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoraton rayadoTaxonomy.Moschiola kathygre Groves & Meijaard, 2005, eastern side of the Sri Lankan Wet Zone, some 30 kmsouth-east of Kandy, Sri Lanka.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Wet Zone of Sri Lanka, from Sinharaja Forest Reserve through the lowlands around Colombo north to Katagamuwa on the border of the Dry Zone at 6° 24’ N, 81° 25’ E, and into the highlands at least to the Kandy District.Descriptive notes.Head-body 43-51 cm, tail 1-3 cm; weight unknown. The color of M. kathygre is much warmer, more ocherous brown than M. indicaand M. meminna; spots and stripes are yellowed, not white; it has at least two tolerably complete longitudinal stripes along the flanks, with an elongated spot-row between them, and two spot-rows above them; the upperstripe curves round on the shoulder to be continuous with the anterior transverse stripes; it has two bold stripes over the haunch, and a third stripe farther back under the tail; the haunch is more densely spotted than M. meminna, and crown and nose are less darkened. On the undersideis a sharp differentiation between a white median strip and the pale ocher of the rest of underside; the lower halves of the hindlimbs are darker. The size of M. kathygre is small compared to M. indica, and hindlegs are relatively short. The following measurements are diagnostic cf. M. indica: tail length max. 2-6 cm, width across canine alveoli greater than 5 cm, least breadth across maxilla maximum 1: 42 cm, braincase breadth maximum 3-3 cm; and the following measurementis diagnostic cf. both M. indicaand M. meminna: hindfoot length maximum 11-5 cm. Compared to both other species, rostrum breadth is less relative to skull length; compared to M. meminna, bullae are narrower, especially relative to interbullar distance. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Forests and forested grasslands, with lakes and rivers of the Sri Lankan wet zone. It apparently also still occurs in urban scrub forest, freely enters rice paddies,is apparently more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, and occurs in rubber plantations and home gardens. All this strongly suggests significant ecological flexibility in this species.Food and Feeding.Nothing known.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The extent of occurrence of M. kathygreis probably about 15,000 km? within which it probably has an area of occupancy (in terms of available habitat) of about 1500 km®. On this basis the species could potentially be listed as Vulnerable. However, even though the species is frequently hunted with firearms, there is no suspicion that this is a species prone to wild fluctuations in numbers, it occurs in more than ten locations, and there is no evidence for an ongoing decline in numbers. Changes in the wet zone forest cover cannot be used to infer a decline because of the species’ wide habitat adaptability.Bibliography.Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Groves & Meijaard (2005).","taxonomy":"Moschiola kathygre Groves & Meijaard, 2005, eastern side of the Sri Lankan Wet Zone, some 30 kmsouth-east of Kandy, Sri Lanka.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Chevrotain kathygre @fr | Ceylon-Gelbstreifenkantschil @de | Ciervoraton rayado @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschiola","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"329","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kathygre","name":"Moschiola kathygre","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Wet Zone of Sri Lanka, from Sinharaja Forest Reserve through the lowlands around Colombo north to Katagamuwa on the border of the Dry Zone at 6° 24’ N, 81° 25’ E, and into the highlands at least to the Kandy District.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721283/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Duckworth & Timmins (2008) | Groves & Meijaard (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing known.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The extent of occurrence of M. kathygreis probably about 15,000 km? within which it probably has an area of occupancy (in terms of available habitat) of about 1500 km®. On this basis the species could potentially be listed as Vulnerable. However, even though the species is frequently hunted with firearms, there is no suspicion that this is a species prone to wild fluctuations in numbers, it occurs in more than ten locations, and there is no evidence for an ongoing decline in numbers. Changes in the wet zone forest cover cannot be used to infer a decline because of the species’ wide habitat adaptability.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 43-51 cm, tail 1-3 cm; weight unknown. The color of M. kathygre is much warmer, more ocherous brown than M. indicaand M. meminna; spots and stripes are yellowed, not white; it has at least two tolerably complete longitudinal stripes along the flanks, with an elongated spot-row between them, and two spot-rows above them; the upperstripe curves round on the shoulder to be continuous with the anterior transverse stripes; it has two bold stripes over the haunch, and a third stripe farther back under the tail; the haunch is more densely spotted than M. meminna, and crown and nose are less darkened. On the undersideis a sharp differentiation between a white median strip and the pale ocher of the rest of underside; the lower halves of the hindlimbs are darker. The size of M. kathygre is small compared to M. indica, and hindlegs are relatively short. The following measurements are diagnostic cf. M. indica: tail length max. 2-6 cm, width across canine alveoli greater than 5 cm, least breadth across maxilla maximum 1: 42 cm, braincase breadth maximum 3-3 cm; and the following measurementis diagnostic cf. both M. indicaand M. meminna: hindfoot length maximum 11-5 cm. Compared to both other species, rostrum breadth is less relative to skull length; compared to M. meminna, bullae are narrower, especially relative to interbullar distance. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"Forests and forested grasslands, with lakes and rivers of the Sri Lankan wet zone. It apparently also still occurs in urban scrub forest, freely enters rice paddies,is apparently more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, and occurs in rubber plantations and home gardens. All this strongly suggests significant ecological flexibility in this species."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7DFF90FA9AF7A994F1F4AF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E7DFF90FA9AF7A994F1F4AF","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"333","verbatimText":"10.Water ChevrotainHyemoschus aquaticusFrench:Chevrotain aquatique/ German:Hirschferkel/ Spanish:Ciervoratén acuaticoTaxonomy.Moschus aquaticus Ogilby, 1841,Bulham Creek, Sierra Leone.The Water Chevrotain is thought to be the most ancestral of the extant tragulids, with its lineage separating from the species in Asia about 35 million years ago. Morphologically Hyemoschusshows many similarities with the Pliocene genus Dorcatherium of Africa and Europe, and both genera are quite distinct from the Asian Tragulusand Moschiolaspecies. Geographic variation in Hyemoschusis poorly understood. Three subspecies have been named, but the validity of these names is questionable, and craniometrically these taxa are indistinguishable.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.aquaticusOgilby,1841—WAfricafromGuineaandSierraLeonetoGhana.H.a.bates:Lydekker,1906—Nigeria,Cameroon,andpresumablyneighboringcountries.H. a. cottoni Lydekker, 1906— Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and presumably Uganda.The Water Chevrotain reportedly has a disjunct distribution, occurring in coastal forests from West Africa and in the rainforests of Central Africa from Nigeriato DR Congo, marginally entering Uganda. It has been listed for the following countries in Central Africa: Angola(Cabinda), Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, and Uganda(Semliki Valley). A record from Angola’s Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River,is the southernmost record of the species. The species’ status in some countries remains unclear. It is apparently absent from the Republic of Beninand Togo(but the speciesis listed as probable in the Ot Basin in Togo); its supposed occurrence in GuineaBissauand Senegalremains unsupported by evidence. The species was listed for Sierra Leone, although its presence had been called into question. Photographic evidence seems to clarify that the species occurs in Sierra Leone. In 1850, a specimen was recorded from Gambia, but the present status of the species is unclear. Local people report the species from the Boké Préfecture in NW Guinea, which might be the northernmost area from which the species has been recently reported. Extensive field and market surveys there and in the southern Guineasavanna belt did notfind evidence for the species’ presence.Descriptive notes.Head—body 60-102 cm, tail 7.2-10. 9 cm; weight 7-16 kg, with considerable regional variation in size. The Water Chevrotain has a stocky, rounded body and thin legs. Its hindquarters are powerfully muscled, and much higher than the shoulders, giving the body a sloped appearance. The neck is short and thick, and the small head is narrow and pointed, ending in a pointed, leathery nose with slit-like nostrils. The ears are rounded, but apparently quite long compared to other chevrotain species. Unusual for chevrotains and for ungulates in general, female Water Chevrotains are larger than males, weighing on average over 2 kgmore than the males. The shorthaired coat is an overall rich chestnut brown color above and white on the undersides. The body is marked with horizontal white stripes running along the sides from the shoulder to the rump, with white spots on the back arranged in curved vertical rows. Such color patterns presumably provide camouflage during the day through their resemblance to dimpled sunlight on the dark forest undergrowth. There appears to be considerable variation in color and arrangement of the spots and lines, but it is unclear whether this variation allows for the consistent grouping of geographic variants. The chin, throat, and chest are white, covered in coarse hair, and broken up by bold transverse brown stripes that connect to the brown of the flanks. A dark brown lateral band separates the white of the throat stripes from the white of the chest. The tail is pale brown above and has fluffy white fur underneath. The legs are darkish brown. Neither sex has horns or antlers. However, as in other chevrotains, the upper canines are well developed and saber-like in males, flanking the mouth on either side of the lower jaw. Females also have enlarged canines, but they are shorter and blunter than in males. Male Water Chevrotains possess unique glands under the chin in the angle of the lower jaw. Like its Asian cousins, the Water Chevrotain is a good swimmer and can dive underwater or walk along the river bottom to elude predators. It can close its nostrils to keep water out. The species will rarely stray far from a water source, and it will retreat to water and jump in when threatened. When walking, the head is held low, allowing the Water Chevrotain to penetrate virtually impassable thickets and creating a nearly perfectly cone-shaped profile. The efficiency of this tunneling profile is enhanced by a shield of thick, reinforced skin on the dorsal surface, which protects the back from injuries inflicted by dense, resistant vegetation. This thick skin extends to the rump and throat.Habitat.Like other chevrotains, Hyemoschusis confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat it concentrates in areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. The species is, however, not a swamp specialist, and is often found in mature upland forest areas. Its range is thought to be limited by climatic factors: the species prefers habitats with very low seasonality and rainfall equal to or greater than 1500 mm/year, and it does not occur in areas that are even moderately seasonally arid. The species forages in clearings, floodplains, and along river banks at night, and retires to a hiding spot in dense cover during the day.Food and Feeding.The Water Chevrotain is primarily a frugivore, and it has been suggested that year-round availability of fruits could be a key limiting habitat factor. Stomach content analysis of 19 animals in Gabonrevealed that fruits comprise 68-7% of all foods eaten, which appears to be less than its Asian cousins. The rest of the diet includes leaves (9-9%), petioles and stems (20-5%), animal matter (0-14%), flowers (0-7%), and fungi (0-13%). Compared to duikers—small frugivores that share its habitat—the Water Chevrotain eats relatively little fruit and fungi, but many more succulent stems, and year-round fruit availability might not be as crucial a determinant for the species’ presence as suggested by a few ecological studies. At least 76 species of fruits have been identified in the species’ diet, with preferred species including Cylindropsis parvifolia(Apocynaceae), Bombax buonopozense (Bombacaceae), Alchornea cordifolia(Euphorbiaceae), Coelocaryon preussiand Pycnanthus angolensis(Myristicaceae), and Cissus dinklager (Vitaceae). In addition to these fruits, figs (Ficus spp.), Pseudospondias fruits, palm nuts (Elaeis), and breadfruit (Treculia) are consumed, as well as the fruits of gingers and arrowroots. Most fruits consumed are small to medium-sized, with a diameter between 0-5 cm and 2 cm. Water Chevrotains also feed on insects; they actively hunt for ants by licking the ground along ant trails. Apparently crabs, carrion, and scavenged fish also feature in the species’ diet. The Water Chevrotain consumes significantly less animal matter and fungus during the dry season,as well as 44% fewer fruit species. Young individuals that are still nursing eat smaller amounts offruit than adults (only 48:4% of the diet) and a larger proportion ofleaves (31:3%).Breeding.Due to the secretive nature of this species, little is known aboutits life cycle, and reports about breeding behavior often vary considerably. Olfactory communication is important in this species, and feces and urine are deposited anywhere. Both sexes announce their presence with these excrements, which are mixed with an excretion from the anal (male and female) and preputial (male) glands. The interramal gland is occasionally used for marking twigs. The Water Chevrotain also communicates through vocalizations, including an alarm bark. When fighting, females produce a high pulsing chatter. As with pigs, male Water Chevrotains typically vocalize through a closed mouth, when following a female in estrus. While being followed, a receptive female will stop at each cry, allowing the male to lick her rump. After several repetitions of this, the male mounts. An estrous female will mate with a male with whom she shares a home range. She gives birth to one, or occasionally two precocial fawns. Reported gestation lengths range from four to nine months, and it is unclear whether there are errors in these estimates or that indeed this wide range occurs under natural conditions. In Gabon, births occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in births in January and July-August, at the beginning of the twice-annual dry seasons. Infants are usually found separate from their mothers, “lying up” for the first three months of life. During this initial hiding period, the mother will visit her offspring periodically to suckle, at which time small infants are also washed using the tongue. Lactation lasts 3-6 months. The young disperse from the mother’s home range when they reach sexual maturity at 9-26 months of age. Maximum longevity is normally eight years of age, but the species has a potential lifespan of 11-13 years.Activity patterns.The species is thought to be exclusively nocturnal in the wild, being active almost always between dusk and dawn. In a captive population in Monrovia Zoo, Liberia, activity patterns showed that the species was active 4% of the day and 67% of the night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Water Chevrotain is mainly solitary. Male territories overlap those of females, but the males are rarely aggressive toward each other, unlike some of the Tragulusspecies from Asia, in which males frequently fight other males. Although Water Chevrotains do occasionally fight, using their tusks as weapons, they apparently prefer to avoid each other and keep to themselves. Fights are typically short in duration. Two competing males will rush at each other with their mouths open, poke at each other with their muzzles, and bite, using the canines in the upper jaw and incisors in the lower jaw. Females also fight but less frequently than males. Adult females occupy home ranges averaging 13-14 ha in size, and are typically accompanied by their latest offspring. Females usually remain in the same home range for life after they reach maturity. Males, on the other hand, are less sedentary, usually occupying an area for less than a year before moving on. The home ranges of males are typically larger than those of females, averaging 20-30 ha in size and overlapping with the home ranges of at least two females. In Gabon, recorded population densities were between 7-7 ind/km?® and 28 ind/km?, but in the Republic of the Congo, average densities appear to be lower, between 1-5 ind/km?® and 5 ind/ km?*. Whether such variation is due to ecological factors or caused by factors such as hunting is unclear. In West Africa, the species is apparently much rarer and densities presumably lower.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, with the main threats being habitat loss, through agriculture and expanding human development, and hunting for bushmeat. Due to its secretive nature, there is little information on its status in individual countries within its extensive range, although there is some evidence that it is declining in specific areas. In the Niger Delta, the species was described originally as widespread in almost all freshwater habitats, but is now rare in all but the most remote areas, and rapidly becoming extinct in upland areas. The species is hunted for human consumption throughout its range. In Liberia, for example, the Water Chevrotain ranked second in a taste preference survey in eight urban communities. In south-west Cameroon, one animal fetches about US$ 6 inlocal markets, giving some idea of the commercial value of such species in places where most people earn less than US$ 1/day. In the central Ituri Forest, DR Congo, Water Chevrotains are regularly caught by net hunters, and consistently represent about 5% of the total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years. Hunting appears to vary seasonally with the majority of animals entering markets in Equatorial Guineaat the start of the wet season.BibliographyAnsell (1974), Barnett & Prangley (1997), Barnett et al. (1996), Barrie & Camara (2006), Blench (2007), Coe (1975), Crawford-Cabral & Verissimo (2005), Dubost (1975, 1978, 1979, 1984, 2001), Dubost & Feer (1992), East (1999), Gautier-Hion, Duplantier et al. (1985), Gautier-Hion, Emmons et al. (1980), Gray (1850), Happold (1973), Hart (1986), Hoyt (2004), Huffman (2010), Institute of Applied Ecology (1998), IUCN/ SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008), Juste et al. (1995), Kingdon (1997), Newing (2001), Nowak (1999), Pickford et al. (2004), Rahm & Christiaense (1966), Robin (1990), Sidney (1965), Steel (1994), Willcox & Nambu (2007).","taxonomy":"Moschus aquaticus Ogilby, 1841,Bulham Creek, Sierra Leone.The Water Chevrotain is thought to be the most ancestral of the extant tragulids, with its lineage separating from the species in Asia about 35 million years ago. Morphologically Hyemoschusshows many similarities with the Pliocene genus Dorcatherium of Africa and Europe, and both genera are quite distinct from the Asian Tragulusand Moschiolaspecies. Geographic variation in Hyemoschusis poorly understood. Three subspecies have been named, but the validity of these names is questionable, and craniometrically these taxa are indistinguishable.","commonNames":"Chevrotain aquatique @fr | Hirschferkel @de | Ciervoratén acuatico @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ogilby","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Hyemoschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"333","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aquaticus","name":"Hyemoschus aquaticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.aquaticusOgilby,1841—WAfricafromGuineaandSierraLeonetoGhana.H.a.bates:Lydekker,1906—Nigeria,Cameroon,andpresumablyneighboringcountries.H. a. cottoni Lydekker, 1906— Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and presumably Uganda.The Water Chevrotain reportedly has a disjunct distribution, occurring in coastal forests from West Africa and in the rainforests of Central Africa from Nigeriato DR Congo, marginally entering Uganda. It has been listed for the following countries in Central Africa: Angola(Cabinda), Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, and Uganda(Semliki Valley). A record from Angola’s Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River,is the southernmost record of the species. The species’ status in some countries remains unclear. It is apparently absent from the Republic of Beninand Togo(but the speciesis listed as probable in the Ot Basin in Togo); its supposed occurrence in GuineaBissauand Senegalremains unsupported by evidence. The species was listed for Sierra Leone, although its presence had been called into question. Photographic evidence seems to clarify that the species occurs in Sierra Leone. In 1850, a specimen was recorded from Gambia, but the present status of the species is unclear. Local people report the species from the Boké Préfecture in NW Guinea, which might be the northernmost area from which the species has been recently reported. Extensive field and market surveys there and in the southern Guineasavanna belt did notfind evidence for the species’ presence.","bibliography":"","foodAndFeeding":"The Water Chevrotain is primarily a frugivore, and it has been suggested that year-round availability of fruits could be a key limiting habitat factor. Stomach content analysis of 19 animals in Gabonrevealed that fruits comprise 68-7% of all foods eaten, which appears to be less than its Asian cousins. The rest of the diet includes leaves (9-9%), petioles and stems (20-5%), animal matter (0-14%), flowers (0-7%), and fungi (0-13%). Compared to duikers—small frugivores that share its habitat—the Water Chevrotain eats relatively little fruit and fungi, but many more succulent stems, and year-round fruit availability might not be as crucial a determinant for the species’ presence as suggested by a few ecological studies. At least 76 species of fruits have been identified in the species’ diet, with preferred species including Cylindropsis parvifolia(Apocynaceae), Bombax buonopozense (Bombacaceae), Alchornea cordifolia(Euphorbiaceae), Coelocaryon preussiand Pycnanthus angolensis(Myristicaceae), and Cissus dinklager (Vitaceae). In addition to these fruits, figs (Ficus spp.), Pseudospondias fruits, palm nuts (Elaeis), and breadfruit (Treculia) are consumed, as well as the fruits of gingers and arrowroots. Most fruits consumed are small to medium-sized, with a diameter between 0-5 cm and 2 cm. Water Chevrotains also feed on insects; they actively hunt for ants by licking the ground along ant trails. Apparently crabs, carrion, and scavenged fish also feature in the species’ diet. The Water Chevrotain consumes significantly less animal matter and fungus during the dry season,as well as 44% fewer fruit species. Young individuals that are still nursing eat smaller amounts offruit than adults (only 48:4% of the diet) and a larger proportion ofleaves (31:3%).","breeding":"Due to the secretive nature of this species, little is known aboutits life cycle, and reports about breeding behavior often vary considerably. Olfactory communication is important in this species, and feces and urine are deposited anywhere. Both sexes announce their presence with these excrements, which are mixed with an excretion from the anal (male and female) and preputial (male) glands. The interramal gland is occasionally used for marking twigs. The Water Chevrotain also communicates through vocalizations, including an alarm bark. When fighting, females produce a high pulsing chatter. As with pigs, male Water Chevrotains typically vocalize through a closed mouth, when following a female in estrus. While being followed, a receptive female will stop at each cry, allowing the male to lick her rump. After several repetitions of this, the male mounts. An estrous female will mate with a male with whom she shares a home range. She gives birth to one, or occasionally two precocial fawns. Reported gestation lengths range from four to nine months, and it is unclear whether there are errors in these estimates or that indeed this wide range occurs under natural conditions. In Gabon, births occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in births in January and July-August, at the beginning of the twice-annual dry seasons. Infants are usually found separate from their mothers, “lying up” for the first three months of life. During this initial hiding period, the mother will visit her offspring periodically to suckle, at which time small infants are also washed using the tongue. Lactation lasts 3-6 months. The young disperse from the mother’s home range when they reach sexual maturity at 9-26 months of age. Maximum longevity is normally eight years of age, but the species has a potential lifespan of 11-13 years.","activityPatterns":"The species is thought to be exclusively nocturnal in the wild, being active almost always between dusk and dawn. In a captive population in Monrovia Zoo, Liberia, activity patterns showed that the species was active 4% of the day and 67% of the night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Water Chevrotain is mainly solitary. Male territories overlap those of females, but the males are rarely aggressive toward each other, unlike some of the Tragulusspecies from Asia, in which males frequently fight other males. Although Water Chevrotains do occasionally fight, using their tusks as weapons, they apparently prefer to avoid each other and keep to themselves. Fights are typically short in duration. Two competing males will rush at each other with their mouths open, poke at each other with their muzzles, and bite, using the canines in the upper jaw and incisors in the lower jaw. Females also fight but less frequently than males. Adult females occupy home ranges averaging 13-14 ha in size, and are typically accompanied by their latest offspring. Females usually remain in the same home range for life after they reach maturity. Males, on the other hand, are less sedentary, usually occupying an area for less than a year before moving on. The home ranges of males are typically larger than those of females, averaging 20-30 ha in size and overlapping with the home ranges of at least two females. In Gabon, recorded population densities were between 7-7 ind/km?® and 28 ind/km?, but in the Republic of the Congo, average densities appear to be lower, between 1-5 ind/km?® and 5 ind/ km?*. Whether such variation is due to ecological factors or caused by factors such as hunting is unclear. In West Africa, the species is apparently much rarer and densities presumably lower.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, with the main threats being habitat loss, through agriculture and expanding human development, and hunting for bushmeat. Due to its secretive nature, there is little information on its status in individual countries within its extensive range, although there is some evidence that it is declining in specific areas. In the Niger Delta, the species was described originally as widespread in almost all freshwater habitats, but is now rare in all but the most remote areas, and rapidly becoming extinct in upland areas. The species is hunted for human consumption throughout its range. In Liberia, for example, the Water Chevrotain ranked second in a taste preference survey in eight urban communities. In south-west Cameroon, one animal fetches about US$ 6 inlocal markets, giving some idea of the commercial value of such species in places where most people earn less than US$ 1/day. In the central Ituri Forest, DR Congo, Water Chevrotains are regularly caught by net hunters, and consistently represent about 5% of the total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years. Hunting appears to vary seasonally with the majority of animals entering markets in Equatorial Guineaat the start of the wet season.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 60-102 cm, tail 7.2-10. 9 cm; weight 7-16 kg, with considerable regional variation in size. The Water Chevrotain has a stocky, rounded body and thin legs. Its hindquarters are powerfully muscled, and much higher than the shoulders, giving the body a sloped appearance. The neck is short and thick, and the small head is narrow and pointed, ending in a pointed, leathery nose with slit-like nostrils. The ears are rounded, but apparently quite long compared to other chevrotain species. Unusual for chevrotains and for ungulates in general, female Water Chevrotains are larger than males, weighing on average over 2 kgmore than the males. The shorthaired coat is an overall rich chestnut brown color above and white on the undersides. The body is marked with horizontal white stripes running along the sides from the shoulder to the rump, with white spots on the back arranged in curved vertical rows. Such color patterns presumably provide camouflage during the day through their resemblance to dimpled sunlight on the dark forest undergrowth. There appears to be considerable variation in color and arrangement of the spots and lines, but it is unclear whether this variation allows for the consistent grouping of geographic variants. The chin, throat, and chest are white, covered in coarse hair, and broken up by bold transverse brown stripes that connect to the brown of the flanks. A dark brown lateral band separates the white of the throat stripes from the white of the chest. The tail is pale brown above and has fluffy white fur underneath. The legs are darkish brown. Neither sex has horns or antlers. However, as in other chevrotains, the upper canines are well developed and saber-like in males, flanking the mouth on either side of the lower jaw. Females also have enlarged canines, but they are shorter and blunter than in males. Male Water Chevrotains possess unique glands under the chin in the angle of the lower jaw. Like its Asian cousins, the Water Chevrotain is a good swimmer and can dive underwater or walk along the river bottom to elude predators. It can close its nostrils to keep water out. The species will rarely stray far from a water source, and it will retreat to water and jump in when threatened. When walking, the head is held low, allowing the Water Chevrotain to penetrate virtually impassable thickets and creating a nearly perfectly cone-shaped profile. The efficiency of this tunneling profile is enhanced by a shield of thick, reinforced skin on the dorsal surface, which protects the back from injuries inflicted by dense, resistant vegetation. This thick skin extends to the rump and throat.","habitat":"Like other chevrotains, Hyemoschusis confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat it concentrates in areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. The species is, however, not a swamp specialist, and is often found in mature upland forest areas. Its range is thought to be limited by climatic factors: the species prefers habitats with very low seasonality and rainfall equal to or greater than 1500 mm/year, and it does not occur in areas that are even moderately seasonally arid. The species forages in clearings, floodplains, and along river banks at night, and retires to a hiding spot in dense cover during the day."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7DFF90FA9AF7A994F1F4AF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E7DFF90FA9AF7A994F1F4AF","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"333","verbatimText":"10.Water ChevrotainHyemoschus aquaticusFrench:Chevrotain aquatique/ German:Hirschferkel/ Spanish:Ciervoratén acuaticoTaxonomy.Moschus aquaticus Ogilby, 1841,Bulham Creek, Sierra Leone.The Water Chevrotain is thought to be the most ancestral of the extant tragulids, with its lineage separating from the species in Asia about 35 million years ago. Morphologically Hyemoschusshows many similarities with the Pliocene genus Dorcatherium of Africa and Europe, and both genera are quite distinct from the Asian Tragulusand Moschiolaspecies. Geographic variation in Hyemoschusis poorly understood. Three subspecies have been named, but the validity of these names is questionable, and craniometrically these taxa are indistinguishable.Subspecies and Distribution.H.a.aquaticusOgilby,1841—WAfricafromGuineaandSierraLeonetoGhana.H.a.bates:Lydekker,1906—Nigeria,Cameroon,andpresumablyneighboringcountries.H. a. cottoni Lydekker, 1906— Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and presumably Uganda.The Water Chevrotain reportedly has a disjunct distribution, occurring in coastal forests from West Africa and in the rainforests of Central Africa from Nigeriato DR Congo, marginally entering Uganda. It has been listed for the following countries in Central Africa: Angola(Cabinda), Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, and Uganda(Semliki Valley). A record from Angola’s Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River,is the southernmost record of the species. The species’ status in some countries remains unclear. It is apparently absent from the Republic of Beninand Togo(but the speciesis listed as probable in the Ot Basin in Togo); its supposed occurrence in GuineaBissauand Senegalremains unsupported by evidence. The species was listed for Sierra Leone, although its presence had been called into question. Photographic evidence seems to clarify that the species occurs in Sierra Leone. In 1850, a specimen was recorded from Gambia, but the present status of the species is unclear. Local people report the species from the Boké Préfecture in NW Guinea, which might be the northernmost area from which the species has been recently reported. Extensive field and market surveys there and in the southern Guineasavanna belt did notfind evidence for the species’ presence.Descriptive notes.Head—body 60-102 cm, tail 7.2-10. 9 cm; weight 7-16 kg, with considerable regional variation in size. The Water Chevrotain has a stocky, rounded body and thin legs. Its hindquarters are powerfully muscled, and much higher than the shoulders, giving the body a sloped appearance. The neck is short and thick, and the small head is narrow and pointed, ending in a pointed, leathery nose with slit-like nostrils. The ears are rounded, but apparently quite long compared to other chevrotain species. Unusual for chevrotains and for ungulates in general, female Water Chevrotains are larger than males, weighing on average over 2 kgmore than the males. The shorthaired coat is an overall rich chestnut brown color above and white on the undersides. The body is marked with horizontal white stripes running along the sides from the shoulder to the rump, with white spots on the back arranged in curved vertical rows. Such color patterns presumably provide camouflage during the day through their resemblance to dimpled sunlight on the dark forest undergrowth. There appears to be considerable variation in color and arrangement of the spots and lines, but it is unclear whether this variation allows for the consistent grouping of geographic variants. The chin, throat, and chest are white, covered in coarse hair, and broken up by bold transverse brown stripes that connect to the brown of the flanks. A dark brown lateral band separates the white of the throat stripes from the white of the chest. The tail is pale brown above and has fluffy white fur underneath. The legs are darkish brown. Neither sex has horns or antlers. However, as in other chevrotains, the upper canines are well developed and saber-like in males, flanking the mouth on either side of the lower jaw. Females also have enlarged canines, but they are shorter and blunter than in males. Male Water Chevrotains possess unique glands under the chin in the angle of the lower jaw. Like its Asian cousins, the Water Chevrotain is a good swimmer and can dive underwater or walk along the river bottom to elude predators. It can close its nostrils to keep water out. The species will rarely stray far from a water source, and it will retreat to water and jump in when threatened. When walking, the head is held low, allowing the Water Chevrotain to penetrate virtually impassable thickets and creating a nearly perfectly cone-shaped profile. The efficiency of this tunneling profile is enhanced by a shield of thick, reinforced skin on the dorsal surface, which protects the back from injuries inflicted by dense, resistant vegetation. This thick skin extends to the rump and throat.Habitat.Like other chevrotains, Hyemoschusis confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat it concentrates in areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. The species is, however, not a swamp specialist, and is often found in mature upland forest areas. Its range is thought to be limited by climatic factors: the species prefers habitats with very low seasonality and rainfall equal to or greater than 1500 mm/year, and it does not occur in areas that are even moderately seasonally arid. The species forages in clearings, floodplains, and along river banks at night, and retires to a hiding spot in dense cover during the day.Food and Feeding.The Water Chevrotain is primarily a frugivore, and it has been suggested that year-round availability of fruits could be a key limiting habitat factor. Stomach content analysis of 19 animals in Gabonrevealed that fruits comprise 68-7% of all foods eaten, which appears to be less than its Asian cousins. The rest of the diet includes leaves (9-9%), petioles and stems (20-5%), animal matter (0-14%), flowers (0-7%), and fungi (0-13%). Compared to duikers—small frugivores that share its habitat—the Water Chevrotain eats relatively little fruit and fungi, but many more succulent stems, and year-round fruit availability might not be as crucial a determinant for the species’ presence as suggested by a few ecological studies. At least 76 species of fruits have been identified in the species’ diet, with preferred species including Cylindropsis parvifolia(Apocynaceae), Bombax buonopozense (Bombacaceae), Alchornea cordifolia(Euphorbiaceae), Coelocaryon preussiand Pycnanthus angolensis(Myristicaceae), and Cissus dinklager (Vitaceae). In addition to these fruits, figs (Ficus spp.), Pseudospondias fruits, palm nuts (Elaeis), and breadfruit (Treculia) are consumed, as well as the fruits of gingers and arrowroots. Most fruits consumed are small to medium-sized, with a diameter between 0-5 cm and 2 cm. Water Chevrotains also feed on insects; they actively hunt for ants by licking the ground along ant trails. Apparently crabs, carrion, and scavenged fish also feature in the species’ diet. The Water Chevrotain consumes significantly less animal matter and fungus during the dry season,as well as 44% fewer fruit species. Young individuals that are still nursing eat smaller amounts offruit than adults (only 48:4% of the diet) and a larger proportion ofleaves (31:3%).Breeding.Due to the secretive nature of this species, little is known aboutits life cycle, and reports about breeding behavior often vary considerably. Olfactory communication is important in this species, and feces and urine are deposited anywhere. Both sexes announce their presence with these excrements, which are mixed with an excretion from the anal (male and female) and preputial (male) glands. The interramal gland is occasionally used for marking twigs. The Water Chevrotain also communicates through vocalizations, including an alarm bark. When fighting, females produce a high pulsing chatter. As with pigs, male Water Chevrotains typically vocalize through a closed mouth, when following a female in estrus. While being followed, a receptive female will stop at each cry, allowing the male to lick her rump. After several repetitions of this, the male mounts. An estrous female will mate with a male with whom she shares a home range. She gives birth to one, or occasionally two precocial fawns. Reported gestation lengths range from four to nine months, and it is unclear whether there are errors in these estimates or that indeed this wide range occurs under natural conditions. In Gabon, births occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in births in January and July-August, at the beginning of the twice-annual dry seasons. Infants are usually found separate from their mothers, “lying up” for the first three months of life. During this initial hiding period, the mother will visit her offspring periodically to suckle, at which time small infants are also washed using the tongue. Lactation lasts 3-6 months. The young disperse from the mother’s home range when they reach sexual maturity at 9-26 months of age. Maximum longevity is normally eight years of age, but the species has a potential lifespan of 11-13 years.Activity patterns.The species is thought to be exclusively nocturnal in the wild, being active almost always between dusk and dawn. In a captive population in Monrovia Zoo, Liberia, activity patterns showed that the species was active 4% of the day and 67% of the night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Water Chevrotain is mainly solitary. Male territories overlap those of females, but the males are rarely aggressive toward each other, unlike some of the Tragulusspecies from Asia, in which males frequently fight other males. Although Water Chevrotains do occasionally fight, using their tusks as weapons, they apparently prefer to avoid each other and keep to themselves. Fights are typically short in duration. Two competing males will rush at each other with their mouths open, poke at each other with their muzzles, and bite, using the canines in the upper jaw and incisors in the lower jaw. Females also fight but less frequently than males. Adult females occupy home ranges averaging 13-14 ha in size, and are typically accompanied by their latest offspring. Females usually remain in the same home range for life after they reach maturity. Males, on the other hand, are less sedentary, usually occupying an area for less than a year before moving on. The home ranges of males are typically larger than those of females, averaging 20-30 ha in size and overlapping with the home ranges of at least two females. In Gabon, recorded population densities were between 7-7 ind/km?® and 28 ind/km?, but in the Republic of the Congo, average densities appear to be lower, between 1-5 ind/km?® and 5 ind/ km?*. Whether such variation is due to ecological factors or caused by factors such as hunting is unclear. In West Africa, the species is apparently much rarer and densities presumably lower.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, with the main threats being habitat loss, through agriculture and expanding human development, and hunting for bushmeat. Due to its secretive nature, there is little information on its status in individual countries within its extensive range, although there is some evidence that it is declining in specific areas. In the Niger Delta, the species was described originally as widespread in almost all freshwater habitats, but is now rare in all but the most remote areas, and rapidly becoming extinct in upland areas. The species is hunted for human consumption throughout its range. In Liberia, for example, the Water Chevrotain ranked second in a taste preference survey in eight urban communities. In south-west Cameroon, one animal fetches about US$ 6 inlocal markets, giving some idea of the commercial value of such species in places where most people earn less than US$ 1/day. In the central Ituri Forest, DR Congo, Water Chevrotains are regularly caught by net hunters, and consistently represent about 5% of the total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years. Hunting appears to vary seasonally with the majority of animals entering markets in Equatorial Guineaat the start of the wet season.BibliographyAnsell (1974), Barnett & Prangley (1997), Barnett et al. (1996), Barrie & Camara (2006), Blench (2007), Coe (1975), Crawford-Cabral & Verissimo (2005), Dubost (1975, 1978, 1979, 1984, 2001), Dubost & Feer (1992), East (1999), Gautier-Hion, Duplantier et al. (1985), Gautier-Hion, Emmons et al. (1980), Gray (1850), Happold (1973), Hart (1986), Hoyt (2004), Huffman (2010), Institute of Applied Ecology (1998), IUCN/ SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008), Juste et al. (1995), Kingdon (1997), Newing (2001), Nowak (1999), Pickford et al. (2004), Rahm & Christiaense (1966), Robin (1990), Sidney (1965), Steel (1994), Willcox & Nambu (2007).","taxonomy":"Moschus aquaticus Ogilby, 1841,Bulham Creek, Sierra Leone.The Water Chevrotain is thought to be the most ancestral of the extant tragulids, with its lineage separating from the species in Asia about 35 million years ago. Morphologically Hyemoschusshows many similarities with the Pliocene genus Dorcatherium of Africa and Europe, and both genera are quite distinct from the Asian Tragulusand Moschiolaspecies. Geographic variation in Hyemoschusis poorly understood. Three subspecies have been named, but the validity of these names is questionable, and craniometrically these taxa are indistinguishable.","commonNames":"Chevrotain aquatique @fr | Hirschferkel @de | Ciervoratén acuatico @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Ogilby","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Hyemoschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"333","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aquaticus","name":"Hyemoschus aquaticus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.a.aquaticusOgilby,1841—WAfricafromGuineaandSierraLeonetoGhana.H.a.bates:Lydekker,1906—Nigeria,Cameroon,andpresumablyneighboringcountries.H. a. cottoni Lydekker, 1906— Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and presumably Uganda.The Water Chevrotain reportedly has a disjunct distribution, occurring in coastal forests from West Africa and in the rainforests of Central Africa from Nigeriato DR Congo, marginally entering Uganda. It has been listed for the following countries in Central Africa: Angola(Cabinda), Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, and Uganda(Semliki Valley). A record from Angola’s Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River,is the southernmost record of the species. The species’ status in some countries remains unclear. It is apparently absent from the Republic of Beninand Togo(but the speciesis listed as probable in the Ot Basin in Togo); its supposed occurrence in GuineaBissauand Senegalremains unsupported by evidence. The species was listed for Sierra Leone, although its presence had been called into question. Photographic evidence seems to clarify that the species occurs in Sierra Leone. In 1850, a specimen was recorded from Gambia, but the present status of the species is unclear. Local people report the species from the Boké Préfecture in NW Guinea, which might be the northernmost area from which the species has been recently reported. Extensive field and market surveys there and in the southern Guineasavanna belt did notfind evidence for the species’ presence.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721309/files/figure.png","bibliography":"","foodAndFeeding":"The Water Chevrotain is primarily a frugivore, and it has been suggested that year-round availability of fruits could be a key limiting habitat factor. Stomach content analysis of 19 animals in Gabonrevealed that fruits comprise 68-7% of all foods eaten, which appears to be less than its Asian cousins. The rest of the diet includes leaves (9-9%), petioles and stems (20-5%), animal matter (0-14%), flowers (0-7%), and fungi (0-13%). Compared to duikers—small frugivores that share its habitat—the Water Chevrotain eats relatively little fruit and fungi, but many more succulent stems, and year-round fruit availability might not be as crucial a determinant for the species’ presence as suggested by a few ecological studies. At least 76 species of fruits have been identified in the species’ diet, with preferred species including Cylindropsis parvifolia(Apocynaceae), Bombax buonopozense (Bombacaceae), Alchornea cordifolia(Euphorbiaceae), Coelocaryon preussiand Pycnanthus angolensis(Myristicaceae), and Cissus dinklager (Vitaceae). In addition to these fruits, figs (Ficus spp.), Pseudospondias fruits, palm nuts (Elaeis), and breadfruit (Treculia) are consumed, as well as the fruits of gingers and arrowroots. Most fruits consumed are small to medium-sized, with a diameter between 0-5 cm and 2 cm. Water Chevrotains also feed on insects; they actively hunt for ants by licking the ground along ant trails. Apparently crabs, carrion, and scavenged fish also feature in the species’ diet. The Water Chevrotain consumes significantly less animal matter and fungus during the dry season,as well as 44% fewer fruit species. Young individuals that are still nursing eat smaller amounts offruit than adults (only 48:4% of the diet) and a larger proportion ofleaves (31:3%).","breeding":"Due to the secretive nature of this species, little is known aboutits life cycle, and reports about breeding behavior often vary considerably. Olfactory communication is important in this species, and feces and urine are deposited anywhere. Both sexes announce their presence with these excrements, which are mixed with an excretion from the anal (male and female) and preputial (male) glands. The interramal gland is occasionally used for marking twigs. The Water Chevrotain also communicates through vocalizations, including an alarm bark. When fighting, females produce a high pulsing chatter. As with pigs, male Water Chevrotains typically vocalize through a closed mouth, when following a female in estrus. While being followed, a receptive female will stop at each cry, allowing the male to lick her rump. After several repetitions of this, the male mounts. An estrous female will mate with a male with whom she shares a home range. She gives birth to one, or occasionally two precocial fawns. Reported gestation lengths range from four to nine months, and it is unclear whether there are errors in these estimates or that indeed this wide range occurs under natural conditions. In Gabon, births occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in births in January and July-August, at the beginning of the twice-annual dry seasons. Infants are usually found separate from their mothers, “lying up” for the first three months of life. During this initial hiding period, the mother will visit her offspring periodically to suckle, at which time small infants are also washed using the tongue. Lactation lasts 3-6 months. The young disperse from the mother’s home range when they reach sexual maturity at 9-26 months of age. Maximum longevity is normally eight years of age, but the species has a potential lifespan of 11-13 years.","activityPatterns":"The species is thought to be exclusively nocturnal in the wild, being active almost always between dusk and dawn. In a captive population in Monrovia Zoo, Liberia, activity patterns showed that the species was active 4% of the day and 67% of the night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Water Chevrotain is mainly solitary. Male territories overlap those of females, but the males are rarely aggressive toward each other, unlike some of the Tragulusspecies from Asia, in which males frequently fight other males. Although Water Chevrotains do occasionally fight, using their tusks as weapons, they apparently prefer to avoid each other and keep to themselves. Fights are typically short in duration. Two competing males will rush at each other with their mouths open, poke at each other with their muzzles, and bite, using the canines in the upper jaw and incisors in the lower jaw. Females also fight but less frequently than males. Adult females occupy home ranges averaging 13-14 ha in size, and are typically accompanied by their latest offspring. Females usually remain in the same home range for life after they reach maturity. Males, on the other hand, are less sedentary, usually occupying an area for less than a year before moving on. The home ranges of males are typically larger than those of females, averaging 20-30 ha in size and overlapping with the home ranges of at least two females. In Gabon, recorded population densities were between 7-7 ind/km?® and 28 ind/km?, but in the Republic of the Congo, average densities appear to be lower, between 1-5 ind/km?® and 5 ind/ km?*. Whether such variation is due to ecological factors or caused by factors such as hunting is unclear. In West Africa, the species is apparently much rarer and densities presumably lower.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, with the main threats being habitat loss, through agriculture and expanding human development, and hunting for bushmeat. Due to its secretive nature, there is little information on its status in individual countries within its extensive range, although there is some evidence that it is declining in specific areas. In the Niger Delta, the species was described originally as widespread in almost all freshwater habitats, but is now rare in all but the most remote areas, and rapidly becoming extinct in upland areas. The species is hunted for human consumption throughout its range. In Liberia, for example, the Water Chevrotain ranked second in a taste preference survey in eight urban communities. In south-west Cameroon, one animal fetches about US$ 6 inlocal markets, giving some idea of the commercial value of such species in places where most people earn less than US$ 1/day. In the central Ituri Forest, DR Congo, Water Chevrotains are regularly caught by net hunters, and consistently represent about 5% of the total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years. Hunting appears to vary seasonally with the majority of animals entering markets in Equatorial Guineaat the start of the wet season.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 60-102 cm, tail 7.2-10. 9 cm; weight 7-16 kg, with considerable regional variation in size. The Water Chevrotain has a stocky, rounded body and thin legs. Its hindquarters are powerfully muscled, and much higher than the shoulders, giving the body a sloped appearance. The neck is short and thick, and the small head is narrow and pointed, ending in a pointed, leathery nose with slit-like nostrils. The ears are rounded, but apparently quite long compared to other chevrotain species. Unusual for chevrotains and for ungulates in general, female Water Chevrotains are larger than males, weighing on average over 2 kgmore than the males. The shorthaired coat is an overall rich chestnut brown color above and white on the undersides. The body is marked with horizontal white stripes running along the sides from the shoulder to the rump, with white spots on the back arranged in curved vertical rows. Such color patterns presumably provide camouflage during the day through their resemblance to dimpled sunlight on the dark forest undergrowth. There appears to be considerable variation in color and arrangement of the spots and lines, but it is unclear whether this variation allows for the consistent grouping of geographic variants. The chin, throat, and chest are white, covered in coarse hair, and broken up by bold transverse brown stripes that connect to the brown of the flanks. A dark brown lateral band separates the white of the throat stripes from the white of the chest. The tail is pale brown above and has fluffy white fur underneath. The legs are darkish brown. Neither sex has horns or antlers. However, as in other chevrotains, the upper canines are well developed and saber-like in males, flanking the mouth on either side of the lower jaw. Females also have enlarged canines, but they are shorter and blunter than in males. Male Water Chevrotains possess unique glands under the chin in the angle of the lower jaw. Like its Asian cousins, the Water Chevrotain is a good swimmer and can dive underwater or walk along the river bottom to elude predators. It can close its nostrils to keep water out. The species will rarely stray far from a water source, and it will retreat to water and jump in when threatened. When walking, the head is held low, allowing the Water Chevrotain to penetrate virtually impassable thickets and creating a nearly perfectly cone-shaped profile. The efficiency of this tunneling profile is enhanced by a shield of thick, reinforced skin on the dorsal surface, which protects the back from injuries inflicted by dense, resistant vegetation. This thick skin extends to the rump and throat.","habitat":"Like other chevrotains, Hyemoschusis confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat it concentrates in areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. The species is, however, not a swamp specialist, and is often found in mature upland forest areas. Its range is thought to be limited by climatic factors: the species prefers habitats with very low seasonality and rainfall equal to or greater than 1500 mm/year, and it does not occur in areas that are even moderately seasonally arid. The species forages in clearings, floodplains, and along river banks at night, and retires to a hiding spot in dense cover during the day."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7DFF91FF95F8F49822F887.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E7DFF91FF95F8F49822F887","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"333","verbatimText":"9.Balabac ChevrotainTragulus nigricansFrench:Chevrotain de Balabac/ German:Balabac-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén de BalabacOther common names:PilandokTaxonomy.Tragulus nigricans Thomas, 1892,Balabac, Philippines.This species was resurrected as a distinct species in 2004 based on skull morphology. 1. nigricanswas originally allied with 1\" napudue to similarities in body size and markings. Skull measurements demonstrate clear differentiation between T. nigricans, 1. napu, and 1. kanchil, the species from nearby Borneo and surrounding small islands. 7. nigricansis a restricted area species endemic to the Philippines, and there are no subspecies. It has been suggested that the chevrotain population of Pulau Banggi (Malaysia), which lies midway between Balabac and the Bornean mainland, and which was almost certainly (and perhaps repeatedly) connected to both by former (late Pleistocene) land bridges, might belong to this species. Recent morphometric study of specimens from Pulau Banggi indicates its distinctiveness from both 7. napuand 1. nigricans, suggesting that morphometrically the Pulau Banggi population is more closely related to 7. kanchil. Throat patterns and coloration of the upperparts, however, suggests a napurelated taxon, and for now the subspecies T. napu bangueiis retained for the Banggi population. Monotypic.Distribution.Balabac, Ramos, and Bugsuk Is, Palawan region, Phillipines. In the late 1990s, a small stock of eight Balabac Chevrotains escaped from their enclosures on Calauit Island, a small island off the coast of Busuanga Island, north of Palawan, where the species had been maintained and bred since 1982. These animals were reported to have increased to at least 21 free-living individuals by 2006. Apparently the species was also introduced to the larger island of Palawan. No recent records confirm that it is still extant there, although unconfirmed reports suggest that it may survive in southern Palawan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 40-47. 5 cm, tail 6.5-8. 5 cm, shoulder height 18 cm; weight unknown. The Balabac Chevrotain is very small in stature, and smaller than its apparent close relative 71. napufrom neighboring Borneo. T. nigricansis one of the most darkly-colored chevrotains, with an overall dark brown coat. The upperparts are broadly washed with black, and the neck is mixed black and fulvous. Each individual hair has sections of different colors. The base is generally pale, ranging from white to ashy brown, the mid-section is tawny, orange, or brown, and there is a long black tip. The abdominal region is generally orange-brown in color. The lower abdomen, groin, and insides of the thighs are white. The hindlegs have a white stripe on the front that extends from the upper thigh to the tarsal joint; the rest of the leg is fulvous in color. The inner surfaces of the front legs are white, and this coloration extends across the chest in between the front legs as a whitish patch. The tail is dark brown with a white tip. The most striking markings of the Balabac Chevrotain are on the throat, with three narrow white stripes beginning from a white patch under the chin and extending down towards the chest. In contrast to these white stripes, the rest of the throat is jet black; in some specimens the black coloration even overtakes and obscures the stripes. Towards the chest, these black and white markings disappear into a broad brown band that crosses the lower throat. The head itself is generally darker in color than the rest of the body. Broad rufous or fulvous eyebrow stripes extend from the anterior corners of the eyes to the base of ears. The bridge of the nose and forehead are dark brown, becoming increasingly infused with black towards the crown of the head. The sides of the head are more fulvous. A naked glandular patch on underside of the jaw is bordered with white, which runs into the white patch at the top of the throat. Dental formula is 10/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.7. nigricansinhabits both primary and secondary forests as well as shrubland on Balabac Island, using both large blocks of forest and smaller fragments. It may frequent mangroves and more open areas to forage. Dense vegetation within the forest interior provides shelter for this species during the daytime.Food and Feeding.It is reported that 7. nigricansfeeds mostly on leaves, which would set it aside from most other chevrotain species, which are primarily frugivorous. One photograph of a captive animal shows it feeding on grass-like leaves, which would confirm the above observation.Breeding.There is apparently a distinct breeding season, but it is unclear when this occurs and whether it coincides with the distinct dry and wet seasons in the species’ range. Litter size is reportedly almost always one, rarely two.Activity patterns.Reported to be nocturnal. These chevrotains leave their shaded resting spots at night, entering into clearings to feed. Most encounters between humans and the Balabac Chevrotain occur along roads at night, when their eye shine is frequently observed from vehicles.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, and is probably the most range-restricted of all chevrotain species. The species is subject to poaching for food, using guns or snares, and there is minor domestic trade in live animals for local zoos and private collectors. The species is also affected by habitat loss due to conversion of former habitat to coconut plantations and other agriculture.Bibliography.Allen & White (1910), Huffman (2009), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Oliver (1992), Oliver et al. (2008), Rabor (1977), Rico & Oliver (2008), Sanborn (1952), Timm & Birney (1980).","taxonomy":"Tragulus nigricans Thomas, 1892,Balabac, Philippines.This species was resurrected as a distinct species in 2004 based on skull morphology. 1. nigricanswas originally allied with 1\" napudue to similarities in body size and markings. Skull measurements demonstrate clear differentiation between T. nigricans, 1. napu, and 1. kanchil, the species from nearby Borneo and surrounding small islands. 7. nigricansis a restricted area species endemic to the Philippines, and there are no subspecies. It has been suggested that the chevrotain population of Pulau Banggi (Malaysia), which lies midway between Balabac and the Bornean mainland, and which was almost certainly (and perhaps repeatedly) connected to both by former (late Pleistocene) land bridges, might belong to this species. Recent morphometric study of specimens from Pulau Banggi indicates its distinctiveness from both 7. napuand 1. nigricans, suggesting that morphometrically the Pulau Banggi population is more closely related to 7. kanchil. Throat patterns and coloration of the upperparts, however, suggests a napurelated taxon, and for now the subspecies T. napu bangueiis retained for the Banggi population. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Chevrotain de Balabac @fr | Balabac-Kantschil @de | Ciervoratén de Balabac @es | Pilandok @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1892","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Tragulus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"333","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nigricans","name":"Tragulus nigricans","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Balabac, Ramos, and Bugsuk Is, Palawan region, Phillipines. In the late 1990s, a small stock of eight Balabac Chevrotains escaped from their enclosures on Calauit Island, a small island off the coast of Busuanga Island, north of Palawan, where the species had been maintained and bred since 1982. These animals were reported to have increased to at least 21 free-living individuals by 2006. Apparently the species was also introduced to the larger island of Palawan. No recent records confirm that it is still extant there, although unconfirmed reports suggest that it may survive in southern Palawan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721329/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen & White (1910) | Huffman (2009) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Oliver (1992) | Oliver et al. (2008) | Rabor (1977) | Rico & Oliver (2008) | Sanborn (1952) | Timm & Birney (1980)","foodAndFeeding":"It is reported that 7. nigricansfeeds mostly on leaves, which would set it aside from most other chevrotain species, which are primarily frugivorous. One photograph of a captive animal shows it feeding on grass-like leaves, which would confirm the above observation.","breeding":"There is apparently a distinct breeding season, but it is unclear when this occurs and whether it coincides with the distinct dry and wet seasons in the species’ range. Litter size is reportedly almost always one, rarely two.","activityPatterns":"Reported to be nocturnal. These chevrotains leave their shaded resting spots at night, entering into clearings to feed. Most encounters between humans and the Balabac Chevrotain occur along roads at night, when their eye shine is frequently observed from vehicles.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, and is probably the most range-restricted of all chevrotain species. The species is subject to poaching for food, using guns or snares, and there is minor domestic trade in live animals for local zoos and private collectors. The species is also affected by habitat loss due to conversion of former habitat to coconut plantations and other agriculture.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 40-47. 5 cm, tail 6.5-8. 5 cm, shoulder height 18 cm; weight unknown. The Balabac Chevrotain is very small in stature, and smaller than its apparent close relative 71. napufrom neighboring Borneo. T. nigricansis one of the most darkly-colored chevrotains, with an overall dark brown coat. The upperparts are broadly washed with black, and the neck is mixed black and fulvous. Each individual hair has sections of different colors. The base is generally pale, ranging from white to ashy brown, the mid-section is tawny, orange, or brown, and there is a long black tip. The abdominal region is generally orange-brown in color. The lower abdomen, groin, and insides of the thighs are white. The hindlegs have a white stripe on the front that extends from the upper thigh to the tarsal joint; the rest of the leg is fulvous in color. The inner surfaces of the front legs are white, and this coloration extends across the chest in between the front legs as a whitish patch. The tail is dark brown with a white tip. The most striking markings of the Balabac Chevrotain are on the throat, with three narrow white stripes beginning from a white patch under the chin and extending down towards the chest. In contrast to these white stripes, the rest of the throat is jet black; in some specimens the black coloration even overtakes and obscures the stripes. Towards the chest, these black and white markings disappear into a broad brown band that crosses the lower throat. The head itself is generally darker in color than the rest of the body. Broad rufous or fulvous eyebrow stripes extend from the anterior corners of the eyes to the base of ears. The bridge of the nose and forehead are dark brown, becoming increasingly infused with black towards the crown of the head. The sides of the head are more fulvous. A naked glandular patch on underside of the jaw is bordered with white, which runs into the white patch at the top of the throat. Dental formula is 10/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"7. nigricansinhabits both primary and secondary forests as well as shrubland on Balabac Island, using both large blocks of forest and smaller fragments. It may frequent mangroves and more open areas to forage. Dense vegetation within the forest interior provides shelter for this species during the daytime."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7EFF91FF53F7D79400F884.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E7EFF91FF53F7D79400F884","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"332","verbatimText":"8.Greater Indo-Malayan ChevrotainTragulus napuFrench:Chevrotain napu/ German:Grofskantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoraton grandeTaxonomy.Moschus napu F. Cuvier, 1822,Sumatra, Indonesia.Restricted by Sody in 1931 to southern Sumatra.Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review and the authors were unable to assess the validity ofall taxa. In addition to the subspecies below several other taxa have been described for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. This includes nigrocinctus from MalaccaStrait islands (Kundur and Karimun Besar = Great Karimon); bullitonus from Belitung Island (which might be a subspecies of 1. kanchil); amoenus from Musala Island; and several subspecies from island taxa west of Sumatra, including brevipes from Bangkaru Island, russulus and batuanus from Tanahbala and Tanahmasa islands, pinius from Pini Island. All these taxa require further study to determine their taxonomic status. Seven subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.n.napuF.Cuvier,1822—SMyanmar,Thai/MalayPeninsula,islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(Langkawi&Pangkor),Borneo,SSumatra,BangkaI,islandsoffBorneo(Laut&Serasan).T.n.bangue:Chasen&Kloss,1931—BanggiIandBalembanganI,offNBorneo.T.n.bunguranensisMiller,1901—NatunaIs(=Bunguran),oftWBorneo.T.n.neubronneriSody,1931—NSumatra.T.n.nmiasisLyon,1916—NiasI,offWSumatra.T.n.rufulusMiller,1900—TiomanI,offEMalayPeninsula,RiauandLinggaArchipelagos.T. n. terutus Thomas & Wroughton, 1909— Terutau I, off W Malay Peninsula.The species was recently reconfirmed for Singapore. Maps that include Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laosin the distribution range are based on the earlier assumption that 7. versicolorwas a subspecies of 1. napu. Subsequent studies have indicated that 7. versicoloris a distinct species, and that the range of 1. naputherefore does not extend into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. The northern limit on the Thai-Malay peninsula is not well defined. Specimens of 1. napuhave been collected from as far north as Bankachon in southern Myanmar(10° 08” N), but despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kui Buri National Park, Thailand(12° N), 7. napuhas not been photographed there. At the northern margin ofits range, it is generally rare. It has been reported, for example, that during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani Province; about 9° N, 98° 45’ E), only six 7. napuwere rescued compared with 172 71. kanchil. This area is the transition zone from wetter evergreen forest to drier deciduous types, and it might be that 7° napuis not well adapted to the drier forest types towards the northern limit ofits range. There are unconfirmed reports of the species on Java, where it may have been confused with one of the two color morphs of 7. javanicus. As explained in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of several islands remains unclear.Descriptive notes.Head-body 42:5-68 cm, tail 8-5 cm, shoulder height 30-35 cm; weight 3-5—4-5 kg. 1. napuis one of the largest Asian chevrotains. The pelage is orangeybrown in color; the hindquarters are lightly mottled with black. The underparts and legs are paler. The underside of the chin is white, and there are a series of white markings on the neck. The head is triangular in shape, and the large black nose is naked. The eyes are very large, and the ears are medium-sized, lightly covered with black hair. The body is rounded, and the rear quarters are higher than the front. The legs are extremely thin and delicate, being about the diameter of a pencil. Compared to the partly sympatric 1. kanchil, skin patterns of 7. napuare more mottled and 7. napuhas pale lines on the throat and neck, whereas 7. kanchilnormally has three strong white lines on the throat and has uniformly colored upperparts. There is, however, considerable variation within each species in the coloration and striping patterns (also see other Tragulusspecies accounts), especially on the many small islands where the species occur. In several instances it is nearly impossible to determine whether a taxon is more closely related to 7. napuor to T. kanchil. In fact, until an in-depth taxonomic review was recently conducted, 7! napuwas sometimes considered to be a sibling species of 1. kanchil. The pelage coloration in 7. napuis more variable than in 7 kanchil, with varying degrees of melanism and erythrism. Specimens from the larger islands (Borneo and Sumatra) and the Asian mainland and Malay Peninsula are generally dull yellowish-brown, with a mottled appearance. On several islands, 7. naputypically has a red-brown color. Even the nape-stripe is red-brown, somewhat darker than the orange-red neck. The lines from the eye to nose are deep black, and the red-brown back is mixed with black. From studies of hair and skins and from information in the literature it appears that increased redness is the result of fewer all-black and black-tipped hairs in the coat and possibly also an actual increased redness in the hair pigment. The color pattern of the primitive type of 1. napuon the mainland can be summarized as follows: a mixed brown and black neck, the black concentrating along the nape to form an evident napestripe; and a normal throat pattern with a median white longitudinal stripe, on each side of which is a similar stripe, the three meeting in a broad white mass; the space between median and lateral stripes is brown, as in the side of the neck, or somewhat darker; a brown transverse band or collar separates the stripes from the white of the chest. The two lines of variation are toward predominance of yellowish-brown or toward predominance of black. This species was readily differentiated from members of the 1. javanicus/ kanchilgroup by its larger size, relatively small auditory bullae and, in most specimens, the distinct coat coloration. The analysis of skull measurements suggested that within this species there are three geographical groups, none of which is distinct enough to be assigned to species level. Dental formula: 10/3, C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Primary and secondary evergreen rain forest. It has been suggested that the foot morphology of 7. napuindicates a preference for more swampy habitats than 7. javanicus/ 1. kanchil. Another source, from Borneo, however, claims that 7. napuis a hill species, found at no great elevation but never on swamps, plains and less often on river banks than 7. kanchil. T. napuseems to be scarcer in logged forest than in primary forest, with an 86% decline in density being reported following timber harvest. Daily home range use also appears to be more extensive in secondary forest. The sensitivity to logging is probably a consequence of diet constraints that limit the species’ ability to compensate for the reduced abundance of selected fruits in disturbed forest by utilizing browsing. In twelve-year-old logged forest, fewer trees remained belonging to genera eaten by 7. napu. On Tioman Island, of the coast of the Malay Peninsula, densities increased away from human settlements probably in direct relationship to hunting pressure; also 83% of observations on this island were in primary forests and 17% in secondary forests or rubber estates.Food and Feeding.This species is mostly frugivorous, although few details on feeding are known. In captivity they eat most fruits and readily take to bananas, though their favorite food was mentioned to be the fruits and particularly the flowers of “Buah Simpoh” (presumably a Dillenia species). It has been asserted that 7. napuare prone to kill chickens, but no direct evidence for this was found.Breeding.The species is possibly polygynous; there is no distinct mating season and females give birth throughout the year in Peninsular Malaysia; one or rarely two young are born. The gestation period is 152-155 days. Weaning occurs at 2-3 months. The young reach sexual maturity at 4-5 months, and maximum life span in captivity is reported to be up to 14 years. 1. napuwas observed to stamp with one or both hindfeet when slightly alarmed. Other individuals would or would not stamp in response. Both males and females mark objects with the intermandibular gland. Males mark much more frequently than females. Males often lick the urine of females; less frequently, females lick the urine of males. Males court both receptive and unreceptive females. Courting males mark the female on the back or rump with the intermandibular gland and emit a series of squeaks. Females have a postpartum estrus and return to estrus at approximately 14day intervals unless they become pregnant. Females of 7. napuhave the potential to be pregnant throughout adult life, often with only 85-155 minutes passing between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and they are able to stand after 30 minutes. Mothers spend little time with infants. They emit a vocalization that sounds like the squeak of courting males. Both mothers and infants emit a higher-pitched vocalization. Intense agonistic behavior was seen only when strange individuals were introduced into established groups. Males fight by facing each other and biting each other on the ears, neck, and shoulders with their large upper canines. Fighting males usually hold the tail in a vertical position, exposing the white ventral surface, and may emit loud growls. If one male flees, the other pursues and attempts to bite him on the neck and body.Activity patterns.7. napuis reported to be cathemeral (active day and night), but there are few data to support this.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The density of 7. napuin one Borneo site was positively correlated with large strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and negatively correlated with grass and herbs and vine tangle. In primary forest densities vary from 37-72 ind/km?®. On Tioman Island, densities ranged from 27-8 ind/km? to 312-5 ind/ km? The home range in primary forest is about 7 ha. Home range and core area size do not differ according to sex, but are determined by body size of the individuals. The species is mostly solitary, with a mean group size of 1-37 individuals. Recent observations indicate that the species escapes predators by hiding under water in forest streams.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and at least locally common in the Sundaic region and, at least on Borneo, it appears that this species is resilient to hunting, although probably not to habitat degradation. Better data would allow a more confident assessment. Its wide altitudinal tolerance (presumed to be up to 1000 mabove sea level) means that it has large populations above the elevation where very rapid forest loss is occurring. The presumed short generation length of the species, which is likely underfive years, also influences assessment, because it means that the species could quickly recover from local declines. Thus, although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area to threaten its survival.Bibliography.Azlan & Engkamat (2006), Chasen (1940), Chua et al. (2009), Dobroruka (1972), van Dort (1986, 1988), Duckworth (1994, 1997), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2010), Miura & Idris (1999), Nakhasathien (1989), Payne et al. (1985), Ralls et al. (1975), Smit-van Dort (1989), Timmins et al. (2008), Yasuma (1994, 1996), Yasuma & Andau (2000).","taxonomy":"Moschus napu F. Cuvier, 1822,Sumatra, Indonesia.Restricted by Sody in 1931 to southern Sumatra.Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review and the authors were unable to assess the validity ofall taxa. In addition to the subspecies below several other taxa have been described for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. This includes nigrocinctus from MalaccaStrait islands (Kundur and Karimun Besar = Great Karimon); bullitonus from Belitung Island (which might be a subspecies of 1. kanchil); amoenus from Musala Island; and several subspecies from island taxa west of Sumatra, including brevipes from Bangkaru Island, russulus and batuanus from Tanahbala and Tanahmasa islands, pinius from Pini Island. All these taxa require further study to determine their taxonomic status. Seven subspecies presently recognized.","commonNames":"Chevrotain napu @fr | Grofskantschil @de | Ciervoraton grande @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Tragulus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"332","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"napu","name":"Tragulus napu","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.n.napuF.Cuvier,1822—SMyanmar,Thai/MalayPeninsula,islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(Langkawi&Pangkor),Borneo,SSumatra,BangkaI,islandsoffBorneo(Laut&Serasan).T.n.bangue:Chasen&Kloss,1931—BanggiIandBalembanganI,offNBorneo.T.n.bunguranensisMiller,1901—NatunaIs(=Bunguran),oftWBorneo.T.n.neubronneriSody,1931—NSumatra.T.n.nmiasisLyon,1916—NiasI,offWSumatra.T.n.rufulusMiller,1900—TiomanI,offEMalayPeninsula,RiauandLinggaArchipelagos.T. n. terutus Thomas & Wroughton, 1909— Terutau I, off W Malay Peninsula.The species was recently reconfirmed for Singapore. Maps that include Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laosin the distribution range are based on the earlier assumption that 7. versicolorwas a subspecies of 1. napu. Subsequent studies have indicated that 7. versicoloris a distinct species, and that the range of 1. naputherefore does not extend into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. The northern limit on the Thai-Malay peninsula is not well defined. Specimens of 1. napuhave been collected from as far north as Bankachon in southern Myanmar(10° 08” N), but despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kui Buri National Park, Thailand(12° N), 7. napuhas not been photographed there. At the northern margin ofits range, it is generally rare. It has been reported, for example, that during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani Province; about 9° N, 98° 45’ E), only six 7. napuwere rescued compared with 172 71. kanchil. This area is the transition zone from wetter evergreen forest to drier deciduous types, and it might be that 7° napuis not well adapted to the drier forest types towards the northern limit ofits range. There are unconfirmed reports of the species on Java, where it may have been confused with one of the two color morphs of 7. javanicus. As explained in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of several islands remains unclear.","bibliography":"Azlan & Engkamat (2006) | Chasen (1940) | Chua et al. (2009) | Dobroruka (1972) | van Dort (1986, 1988) | Duckworth (1994, 1997) | Heydon (1994) | Heydon & Bulloh (1997) | Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2010) | Miura & Idris (1999) | Nakhasathien (1989) | Payne et al. (1985) | Ralls et al. (1975) | Smit-van Dort (1989) | Timmins et al. (2008) | Yasuma (1994, 1996) | Yasuma & Andau (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"This species is mostly frugivorous, although few details on feeding are known. In captivity they eat most fruits and readily take to bananas, though their favorite food was mentioned to be the fruits and particularly the flowers of “Buah Simpoh” (presumably a Dillenia species). It has been asserted that 7. napuare prone to kill chickens, but no direct evidence for this was found.","breeding":"The species is possibly polygynous; there is no distinct mating season and females give birth throughout the year in Peninsular Malaysia; one or rarely two young are born. The gestation period is 152-155 days. Weaning occurs at 2-3 months. The young reach sexual maturity at 4-5 months, and maximum life span in captivity is reported to be up to 14 years. 1. napuwas observed to stamp with one or both hindfeet when slightly alarmed. Other individuals would or would not stamp in response. Both males and females mark objects with the intermandibular gland. Males mark much more frequently than females. Males often lick the urine of females; less frequently, females lick the urine of males. Males court both receptive and unreceptive females. Courting males mark the female on the back or rump with the intermandibular gland and emit a series of squeaks. Females have a postpartum estrus and return to estrus at approximately 14day intervals unless they become pregnant. Females of 7. napuhave the potential to be pregnant throughout adult life, often with only 85-155 minutes passing between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and they are able to stand after 30 minutes. Mothers spend little time with infants. They emit a vocalization that sounds like the squeak of courting males. Both mothers and infants emit a higher-pitched vocalization. Intense agonistic behavior was seen only when strange individuals were introduced into established groups. Males fight by facing each other and biting each other on the ears, neck, and shoulders with their large upper canines. Fighting males usually hold the tail in a vertical position, exposing the white ventral surface, and may emit loud growls. If one male flees, the other pursues and attempts to bite him on the neck and body.","activityPatterns":"7. napuis reported to be cathemeral (active day and night), but there are few data to support this.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The density of 7. napuin one Borneo site was positively correlated with large strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and negatively correlated with grass and herbs and vine tangle. In primary forest densities vary from 37-72 ind/km?®. On Tioman Island, densities ranged from 27-8 ind/km? to 312-5 ind/ km? The home range in primary forest is about 7 ha. Home range and core area size do not differ according to sex, but are determined by body size of the individuals. The species is mostly solitary, with a mean group size of 1-37 individuals. Recent observations indicate that the species escapes predators by hiding under water in forest streams.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and at least locally common in the Sundaic region and, at least on Borneo, it appears that this species is resilient to hunting, although probably not to habitat degradation. Better data would allow a more confident assessment. Its wide altitudinal tolerance (presumed to be up to 1000 mabove sea level) means that it has large populations above the elevation where very rapid forest loss is occurring. The presumed short generation length of the species, which is likely underfive years, also influences assessment, because it means that the species could quickly recover from local declines. Thus, although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area to threaten its survival.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 42:5-68 cm, tail 8-5 cm, shoulder height 30-35 cm; weight 3-5—4-5 kg. 1. napuis one of the largest Asian chevrotains. The pelage is orangeybrown in color; the hindquarters are lightly mottled with black. The underparts and legs are paler. The underside of the chin is white, and there are a series of white markings on the neck. The head is triangular in shape, and the large black nose is naked. The eyes are very large, and the ears are medium-sized, lightly covered with black hair. The body is rounded, and the rear quarters are higher than the front. The legs are extremely thin and delicate, being about the diameter of a pencil. Compared to the partly sympatric 1. kanchil, skin patterns of 7. napuare more mottled and 7. napuhas pale lines on the throat and neck, whereas 7. kanchilnormally has three strong white lines on the throat and has uniformly colored upperparts. There is, however, considerable variation within each species in the coloration and striping patterns (also see other Tragulusspecies accounts), especially on the many small islands where the species occur. In several instances it is nearly impossible to determine whether a taxon is more closely related to 7. napuor to T. kanchil. In fact, until an in-depth taxonomic review was recently conducted, 7! napuwas sometimes considered to be a sibling species of 1. kanchil. The pelage coloration in 7. napuis more variable than in 7 kanchil, with varying degrees of melanism and erythrism. Specimens from the larger islands (Borneo and Sumatra) and the Asian mainland and Malay Peninsula are generally dull yellowish-brown, with a mottled appearance. On several islands, 7. naputypically has a red-brown color. Even the nape-stripe is red-brown, somewhat darker than the orange-red neck. The lines from the eye to nose are deep black, and the red-brown back is mixed with black. From studies of hair and skins and from information in the literature it appears that increased redness is the result of fewer all-black and black-tipped hairs in the coat and possibly also an actual increased redness in the hair pigment. The color pattern of the primitive type of 1. napuon the mainland can be summarized as follows: a mixed brown and black neck, the black concentrating along the nape to form an evident napestripe; and a normal throat pattern with a median white longitudinal stripe, on each side of which is a similar stripe, the three meeting in a broad white mass; the space between median and lateral stripes is brown, as in the side of the neck, or somewhat darker; a brown transverse band or collar separates the stripes from the white of the chest. The two lines of variation are toward predominance of yellowish-brown or toward predominance of black. This species was readily differentiated from members of the 1. javanicus/ kanchilgroup by its larger size, relatively small auditory bullae and, in most specimens, the distinct coat coloration. The analysis of skull measurements suggested that within this species there are three geographical groups, none of which is distinct enough to be assigned to species level. Dental formula: 10/3, C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"Primary and secondary evergreen rain forest. It has been suggested that the foot morphology of 7. napuindicates a preference for more swampy habitats than 7. javanicus/ 1. kanchil. Another source, from Borneo, however, claims that 7. napuis a hill species, found at no great elevation but never on swamps, plains and less often on river banks than 7. kanchil. T. napuseems to be scarcer in logged forest than in primary forest, with an 86% decline in density being reported following timber harvest. Daily home range use also appears to be more extensive in secondary forest. The sensitivity to logging is probably a consequence of diet constraints that limit the species’ ability to compensate for the reduced abundance of selected fruits in disturbed forest by utilizing browsing. In twelve-year-old logged forest, fewer trees remained belonging to genera eaten by 7. napu. On Tioman Island, of the coast of the Malay Peninsula, densities increased away from human settlements probably in direct relationship to hunting pressure; also 83% of observations on this island were in primary forests and 17% in secondary forests or rubber estates."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7EFF91FF53F7D79400F884.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E7EFF91FF53F7D79400F884","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"332","verbatimText":"8.Greater Indo-Malayan ChevrotainTragulus napuFrench:Chevrotain napu/ German:Grofskantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoraton grandeTaxonomy.Moschus napu F. Cuvier, 1822,Sumatra, Indonesia.Restricted by Sody in 1931 to southern Sumatra.Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review and the authors were unable to assess the validity ofall taxa. In addition to the subspecies below several other taxa have been described for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. This includes nigrocinctus from MalaccaStrait islands (Kundur and Karimun Besar = Great Karimon); bullitonus from Belitung Island (which might be a subspecies of 1. kanchil); amoenus from Musala Island; and several subspecies from island taxa west of Sumatra, including brevipes from Bangkaru Island, russulus and batuanus from Tanahbala and Tanahmasa islands, pinius from Pini Island. All these taxa require further study to determine their taxonomic status. Seven subspecies presently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.n.napuF.Cuvier,1822—SMyanmar,Thai/MalayPeninsula,islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(Langkawi&Pangkor),Borneo,SSumatra,BangkaI,islandsoffBorneo(Laut&Serasan).T.n.bangue:Chasen&Kloss,1931—BanggiIandBalembanganI,offNBorneo.T.n.bunguranensisMiller,1901—NatunaIs(=Bunguran),oftWBorneo.T.n.neubronneriSody,1931—NSumatra.T.n.nmiasisLyon,1916—NiasI,offWSumatra.T.n.rufulusMiller,1900—TiomanI,offEMalayPeninsula,RiauandLinggaArchipelagos.T. n. terutus Thomas & Wroughton, 1909— Terutau I, off W Malay Peninsula.The species was recently reconfirmed for Singapore. Maps that include Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laosin the distribution range are based on the earlier assumption that 7. versicolorwas a subspecies of 1. napu. Subsequent studies have indicated that 7. versicoloris a distinct species, and that the range of 1. naputherefore does not extend into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. The northern limit on the Thai-Malay peninsula is not well defined. Specimens of 1. napuhave been collected from as far north as Bankachon in southern Myanmar(10° 08” N), but despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kui Buri National Park, Thailand(12° N), 7. napuhas not been photographed there. At the northern margin ofits range, it is generally rare. It has been reported, for example, that during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani Province; about 9° N, 98° 45’ E), only six 7. napuwere rescued compared with 172 71. kanchil. This area is the transition zone from wetter evergreen forest to drier deciduous types, and it might be that 7° napuis not well adapted to the drier forest types towards the northern limit ofits range. There are unconfirmed reports of the species on Java, where it may have been confused with one of the two color morphs of 7. javanicus. As explained in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of several islands remains unclear.Descriptive notes.Head-body 42:5-68 cm, tail 8-5 cm, shoulder height 30-35 cm; weight 3-5—4-5 kg. 1. napuis one of the largest Asian chevrotains. The pelage is orangeybrown in color; the hindquarters are lightly mottled with black. The underparts and legs are paler. The underside of the chin is white, and there are a series of white markings on the neck. The head is triangular in shape, and the large black nose is naked. The eyes are very large, and the ears are medium-sized, lightly covered with black hair. The body is rounded, and the rear quarters are higher than the front. The legs are extremely thin and delicate, being about the diameter of a pencil. Compared to the partly sympatric 1. kanchil, skin patterns of 7. napuare more mottled and 7. napuhas pale lines on the throat and neck, whereas 7. kanchilnormally has three strong white lines on the throat and has uniformly colored upperparts. There is, however, considerable variation within each species in the coloration and striping patterns (also see other Tragulusspecies accounts), especially on the many small islands where the species occur. In several instances it is nearly impossible to determine whether a taxon is more closely related to 7. napuor to T. kanchil. In fact, until an in-depth taxonomic review was recently conducted, 7! napuwas sometimes considered to be a sibling species of 1. kanchil. The pelage coloration in 7. napuis more variable than in 7 kanchil, with varying degrees of melanism and erythrism. Specimens from the larger islands (Borneo and Sumatra) and the Asian mainland and Malay Peninsula are generally dull yellowish-brown, with a mottled appearance. On several islands, 7. naputypically has a red-brown color. Even the nape-stripe is red-brown, somewhat darker than the orange-red neck. The lines from the eye to nose are deep black, and the red-brown back is mixed with black. From studies of hair and skins and from information in the literature it appears that increased redness is the result of fewer all-black and black-tipped hairs in the coat and possibly also an actual increased redness in the hair pigment. The color pattern of the primitive type of 1. napuon the mainland can be summarized as follows: a mixed brown and black neck, the black concentrating along the nape to form an evident napestripe; and a normal throat pattern with a median white longitudinal stripe, on each side of which is a similar stripe, the three meeting in a broad white mass; the space between median and lateral stripes is brown, as in the side of the neck, or somewhat darker; a brown transverse band or collar separates the stripes from the white of the chest. The two lines of variation are toward predominance of yellowish-brown or toward predominance of black. This species was readily differentiated from members of the 1. javanicus/ kanchilgroup by its larger size, relatively small auditory bullae and, in most specimens, the distinct coat coloration. The analysis of skull measurements suggested that within this species there are three geographical groups, none of which is distinct enough to be assigned to species level. Dental formula: 10/3, C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Primary and secondary evergreen rain forest. It has been suggested that the foot morphology of 7. napuindicates a preference for more swampy habitats than 7. javanicus/ 1. kanchil. Another source, from Borneo, however, claims that 7. napuis a hill species, found at no great elevation but never on swamps, plains and less often on river banks than 7. kanchil. T. napuseems to be scarcer in logged forest than in primary forest, with an 86% decline in density being reported following timber harvest. Daily home range use also appears to be more extensive in secondary forest. The sensitivity to logging is probably a consequence of diet constraints that limit the species’ ability to compensate for the reduced abundance of selected fruits in disturbed forest by utilizing browsing. In twelve-year-old logged forest, fewer trees remained belonging to genera eaten by 7. napu. On Tioman Island, of the coast of the Malay Peninsula, densities increased away from human settlements probably in direct relationship to hunting pressure; also 83% of observations on this island were in primary forests and 17% in secondary forests or rubber estates.Food and Feeding.This species is mostly frugivorous, although few details on feeding are known. In captivity they eat most fruits and readily take to bananas, though their favorite food was mentioned to be the fruits and particularly the flowers of “Buah Simpoh” (presumably a Dillenia species). It has been asserted that 7. napuare prone to kill chickens, but no direct evidence for this was found.Breeding.The species is possibly polygynous; there is no distinct mating season and females give birth throughout the year in Peninsular Malaysia; one or rarely two young are born. The gestation period is 152-155 days. Weaning occurs at 2-3 months. The young reach sexual maturity at 4-5 months, and maximum life span in captivity is reported to be up to 14 years. 1. napuwas observed to stamp with one or both hindfeet when slightly alarmed. Other individuals would or would not stamp in response. Both males and females mark objects with the intermandibular gland. Males mark much more frequently than females. Males often lick the urine of females; less frequently, females lick the urine of males. Males court both receptive and unreceptive females. Courting males mark the female on the back or rump with the intermandibular gland and emit a series of squeaks. Females have a postpartum estrus and return to estrus at approximately 14day intervals unless they become pregnant. Females of 7. napuhave the potential to be pregnant throughout adult life, often with only 85-155 minutes passing between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and they are able to stand after 30 minutes. Mothers spend little time with infants. They emit a vocalization that sounds like the squeak of courting males. Both mothers and infants emit a higher-pitched vocalization. Intense agonistic behavior was seen only when strange individuals were introduced into established groups. Males fight by facing each other and biting each other on the ears, neck, and shoulders with their large upper canines. Fighting males usually hold the tail in a vertical position, exposing the white ventral surface, and may emit loud growls. If one male flees, the other pursues and attempts to bite him on the neck and body.Activity patterns.7. napuis reported to be cathemeral (active day and night), but there are few data to support this.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The density of 7. napuin one Borneo site was positively correlated with large strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and negatively correlated with grass and herbs and vine tangle. In primary forest densities vary from 37-72 ind/km?®. On Tioman Island, densities ranged from 27-8 ind/km? to 312-5 ind/ km? The home range in primary forest is about 7 ha. Home range and core area size do not differ according to sex, but are determined by body size of the individuals. The species is mostly solitary, with a mean group size of 1-37 individuals. Recent observations indicate that the species escapes predators by hiding under water in forest streams.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and at least locally common in the Sundaic region and, at least on Borneo, it appears that this species is resilient to hunting, although probably not to habitat degradation. Better data would allow a more confident assessment. Its wide altitudinal tolerance (presumed to be up to 1000 mabove sea level) means that it has large populations above the elevation where very rapid forest loss is occurring. The presumed short generation length of the species, which is likely underfive years, also influences assessment, because it means that the species could quickly recover from local declines. Thus, although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area to threaten its survival.Bibliography.Azlan & Engkamat (2006), Chasen (1940), Chua et al. (2009), Dobroruka (1972), van Dort (1986, 1988), Duckworth (1994, 1997), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2010), Miura & Idris (1999), Nakhasathien (1989), Payne et al. (1985), Ralls et al. (1975), Smit-van Dort (1989), Timmins et al. (2008), Yasuma (1994, 1996), Yasuma & Andau (2000).","taxonomy":"Moschus napu F. Cuvier, 1822,Sumatra, Indonesia.Restricted by Sody in 1931 to southern Sumatra.Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review and the authors were unable to assess the validity ofall taxa. In addition to the subspecies below several other taxa have been described for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. This includes nigrocinctus from MalaccaStrait islands (Kundur and Karimun Besar = Great Karimon); bullitonus from Belitung Island (which might be a subspecies of 1. kanchil); amoenus from Musala Island; and several subspecies from island taxa west of Sumatra, including brevipes from Bangkaru Island, russulus and batuanus from Tanahbala and Tanahmasa islands, pinius from Pini Island. All these taxa require further study to determine their taxonomic status. Seven subspecies presently recognized.","commonNames":"Chevrotain napu @fr | Grofskantschil @de | Ciervoraton grande @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Tragulus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"332","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"napu","name":"Tragulus napu","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.n.napuF.Cuvier,1822—SMyanmar,Thai/MalayPeninsula,islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(Langkawi&Pangkor),Borneo,SSumatra,BangkaI,islandsoffBorneo(Laut&Serasan).T.n.bangue:Chasen&Kloss,1931—BanggiIandBalembanganI,offNBorneo.T.n.bunguranensisMiller,1901—NatunaIs(=Bunguran),oftWBorneo.T.n.neubronneriSody,1931—NSumatra.T.n.nmiasisLyon,1916—NiasI,offWSumatra.T.n.rufulusMiller,1900—TiomanI,offEMalayPeninsula,RiauandLinggaArchipelagos.T. n. terutus Thomas & Wroughton, 1909— Terutau I, off W Malay Peninsula.The species was recently reconfirmed for Singapore. Maps that include Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laosin the distribution range are based on the earlier assumption that 7. versicolorwas a subspecies of 1. napu. Subsequent studies have indicated that 7. versicoloris a distinct species, and that the range of 1. naputherefore does not extend into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. The northern limit on the Thai-Malay peninsula is not well defined. Specimens of 1. napuhave been collected from as far north as Bankachon in southern Myanmar(10° 08” N), but despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kui Buri National Park, Thailand(12° N), 7. napuhas not been photographed there. At the northern margin ofits range, it is generally rare. It has been reported, for example, that during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani Province; about 9° N, 98° 45’ E), only six 7. napuwere rescued compared with 172 71. kanchil. This area is the transition zone from wetter evergreen forest to drier deciduous types, and it might be that 7° napuis not well adapted to the drier forest types towards the northern limit ofits range. There are unconfirmed reports of the species on Java, where it may have been confused with one of the two color morphs of 7. javanicus. As explained in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of several islands remains unclear.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721327/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Azlan & Engkamat (2006) | Chasen (1940) | Chua et al. (2009) | Dobroruka (1972) | van Dort (1986, 1988) | Duckworth (1994, 1997) | Heydon (1994) | Heydon & Bulloh (1997) | Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Meijaard et al. (2010) | Miura & Idris (1999) | Nakhasathien (1989) | Payne et al. (1985) | Ralls et al. (1975) | Smit-van Dort (1989) | Timmins et al. (2008) | Yasuma (1994, 1996) | Yasuma & Andau (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"This species is mostly frugivorous, although few details on feeding are known. In captivity they eat most fruits and readily take to bananas, though their favorite food was mentioned to be the fruits and particularly the flowers of “Buah Simpoh” (presumably a Dillenia species). It has been asserted that 7. napuare prone to kill chickens, but no direct evidence for this was found.","breeding":"The species is possibly polygynous; there is no distinct mating season and females give birth throughout the year in Peninsular Malaysia; one or rarely two young are born. The gestation period is 152-155 days. Weaning occurs at 2-3 months. The young reach sexual maturity at 4-5 months, and maximum life span in captivity is reported to be up to 14 years. 1. napuwas observed to stamp with one or both hindfeet when slightly alarmed. Other individuals would or would not stamp in response. Both males and females mark objects with the intermandibular gland. Males mark much more frequently than females. Males often lick the urine of females; less frequently, females lick the urine of males. Males court both receptive and unreceptive females. Courting males mark the female on the back or rump with the intermandibular gland and emit a series of squeaks. Females have a postpartum estrus and return to estrus at approximately 14day intervals unless they become pregnant. Females of 7. napuhave the potential to be pregnant throughout adult life, often with only 85-155 minutes passing between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and they are able to stand after 30 minutes. Mothers spend little time with infants. They emit a vocalization that sounds like the squeak of courting males. Both mothers and infants emit a higher-pitched vocalization. Intense agonistic behavior was seen only when strange individuals were introduced into established groups. Males fight by facing each other and biting each other on the ears, neck, and shoulders with their large upper canines. Fighting males usually hold the tail in a vertical position, exposing the white ventral surface, and may emit loud growls. If one male flees, the other pursues and attempts to bite him on the neck and body.","activityPatterns":"7. napuis reported to be cathemeral (active day and night), but there are few data to support this.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The density of 7. napuin one Borneo site was positively correlated with large strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and negatively correlated with grass and herbs and vine tangle. In primary forest densities vary from 37-72 ind/km?®. On Tioman Island, densities ranged from 27-8 ind/km? to 312-5 ind/ km? The home range in primary forest is about 7 ha. Home range and core area size do not differ according to sex, but are determined by body size of the individuals. The species is mostly solitary, with a mean group size of 1-37 individuals. Recent observations indicate that the species escapes predators by hiding under water in forest streams.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and at least locally common in the Sundaic region and, at least on Borneo, it appears that this species is resilient to hunting, although probably not to habitat degradation. Better data would allow a more confident assessment. Its wide altitudinal tolerance (presumed to be up to 1000 mabove sea level) means that it has large populations above the elevation where very rapid forest loss is occurring. The presumed short generation length of the species, which is likely underfive years, also influences assessment, because it means that the species could quickly recover from local declines. Thus, although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area to threaten its survival.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 42:5-68 cm, tail 8-5 cm, shoulder height 30-35 cm; weight 3-5—4-5 kg. 1. napuis one of the largest Asian chevrotains. The pelage is orangeybrown in color; the hindquarters are lightly mottled with black. The underparts and legs are paler. The underside of the chin is white, and there are a series of white markings on the neck. The head is triangular in shape, and the large black nose is naked. The eyes are very large, and the ears are medium-sized, lightly covered with black hair. The body is rounded, and the rear quarters are higher than the front. The legs are extremely thin and delicate, being about the diameter of a pencil. Compared to the partly sympatric 1. kanchil, skin patterns of 7. napuare more mottled and 7. napuhas pale lines on the throat and neck, whereas 7. kanchilnormally has three strong white lines on the throat and has uniformly colored upperparts. There is, however, considerable variation within each species in the coloration and striping patterns (also see other Tragulusspecies accounts), especially on the many small islands where the species occur. In several instances it is nearly impossible to determine whether a taxon is more closely related to 7. napuor to T. kanchil. In fact, until an in-depth taxonomic review was recently conducted, 7! napuwas sometimes considered to be a sibling species of 1. kanchil. The pelage coloration in 7. napuis more variable than in 7 kanchil, with varying degrees of melanism and erythrism. Specimens from the larger islands (Borneo and Sumatra) and the Asian mainland and Malay Peninsula are generally dull yellowish-brown, with a mottled appearance. On several islands, 7. naputypically has a red-brown color. Even the nape-stripe is red-brown, somewhat darker than the orange-red neck. The lines from the eye to nose are deep black, and the red-brown back is mixed with black. From studies of hair and skins and from information in the literature it appears that increased redness is the result of fewer all-black and black-tipped hairs in the coat and possibly also an actual increased redness in the hair pigment. The color pattern of the primitive type of 1. napuon the mainland can be summarized as follows: a mixed brown and black neck, the black concentrating along the nape to form an evident napestripe; and a normal throat pattern with a median white longitudinal stripe, on each side of which is a similar stripe, the three meeting in a broad white mass; the space between median and lateral stripes is brown, as in the side of the neck, or somewhat darker; a brown transverse band or collar separates the stripes from the white of the chest. The two lines of variation are toward predominance of yellowish-brown or toward predominance of black. This species was readily differentiated from members of the 1. javanicus/ kanchilgroup by its larger size, relatively small auditory bullae and, in most specimens, the distinct coat coloration. The analysis of skull measurements suggested that within this species there are three geographical groups, none of which is distinct enough to be assigned to species level. Dental formula: 10/3, C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"Primary and secondary evergreen rain forest. It has been suggested that the foot morphology of 7. napuindicates a preference for more swampy habitats than 7. javanicus/ 1. kanchil. Another source, from Borneo, however, claims that 7. napuis a hill species, found at no great elevation but never on swamps, plains and less often on river banks than 7. kanchil. T. napuseems to be scarcer in logged forest than in primary forest, with an 86% decline in density being reported following timber harvest. Daily home range use also appears to be more extensive in secondary forest. The sensitivity to logging is probably a consequence of diet constraints that limit the species’ ability to compensate for the reduced abundance of selected fruits in disturbed forest by utilizing browsing. In twelve-year-old logged forest, fewer trees remained belonging to genera eaten by 7. napu. On Tioman Island, of the coast of the Malay Peninsula, densities increased away from human settlements probably in direct relationship to hunting pressure; also 83% of observations on this island were in primary forests and 17% in secondary forests or rubber estates."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7FFF92FA98F95A93D2F7A4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E7FFF92FA98F95A93D2F7A4","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"331","verbatimText":"7.Javan ChevrotainTragulus javanicusFrench:Chevrotain de Java/ German:Java-Kantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén de JavaTaxonomy.Cervus javanicus Osbeck, 1765,Udjung Kulon Peninsula, Java, Indonesia.Craniometrical analysis indicates that there may be two distinct chevrotain taxa on Java. The data are, however, inconclusive. Further research, particularly on skin patterns ofJavan Chevrotain, is required. None of the specimens originally used to describe two subspecies, the gray-necked form pelandoc (from the north coast of West Java Province) and the red-necked form focalinus (from the western part ofJava and to the southern coast), were included in a recent taxonomic review of the genus. An earlier review found all kinds of forms that were intermediate between the two supposed Javan subspecies and concluded that there was probably only one taxon on Java. Monotypic.Distribution.Java. Several biogeographic reviews failed to list the genus for Bali, an island directly east of Javawith strong biogeographic affinities to the latter. A sighting was, however, reported from BaliBaratNational Park, in a birdwatching trip report. Given the live-animal trade of this species on Java, further records are needed to confirm whether or not there is a native population of the genus on Bali. If there is, biogeographic considerations suggest it would be most closely related to the Javan population and quite probably conspecific.Descriptive notes.Head-body 50-53 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 1.7-2. 1 kg. Compared to 1. kanchil, T: javanicusis distinguished by its narrow auditory bullae, narrow braincase, and longer and higher mandibles. Compared with 7. kanchilfrom nearby Sumatra, the rostrum is shorter and the auditory bullae are narrower. Two different taxa of chevrotain have been described from Java, a gray-necked form and a red-necked form. The gray-necked form was distinguished from all other 7. javanicuslike chevrotains by the great width and distinctness of the tawny superciliary stripes and by the grizzled gray neck, which is strikingly contrasted with the tawny body and head; in addition, the nape stripe is absent, although the dark crown sometimesslightly extends onto the nape. The red-necked form, described on the basis of five specimens in the Zoological Museum of the Humboldt University in Berlin, has an orange-brown ground color,slightly grizzled with black. All five specimens had a clear, almost black, nape stripe. The cheeks and the sides of the neck are orange-buff, as opposed to the gray in the gray-necked form. This species was described as having a remarkably long tongue, which “it brings with ease to behind its ears,” but presumably this is a generic rather than species-specific characteristic. Dental formulais 10/3; C1/1; P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.Preferred habitat of the Javan Chevrotain includes evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest. The species has been reported in the drier semi-deciduous forests of eastern Java, butit seems to be rarer there than in the wetter forests of central and west Java. One habitat-use study suggested that 7. javanicususes dense bushes and stands of Salacca zalacca palms during the day. It generally remains not far from rivers. This suggests that chevrotains there might be an “edge” species, apparently preferring areas with thick understory vegetation, such as that along riverbanks. This would not be unusual within the genus (see other Tragulusaccounts). The species occurs from sea level to about 1600 mabove sea level in the mountains.Food and Feeding.In captivity Javan Chevrotains refuse grass as fodder and do not feed on any grasses that grow in their cages. Instead they are kept on banana peels, jackfruit, and the left-overs of rambutan and mangosteen fruits. In captivity, they are partial to leaves of a number of Acalypha(Euphorbiaceae) species, including A. marginata and A. wilkesiana, as well as leaves of Laeucaena glauca, Ipomoea batatas, I. reptans, and Manihot utilissima. In the wild, the species reportedly feeds on fallen fruit, including wild figs (Ficus spp.), and the leaves and buds of a variety of plants.Breeding.Males ofthis species are reported to produce unusual screams during the mating season. In captivity they have been observed to fight to the death. With bared teeth (lips withdrawn) males circled each other, and by approaching from the side, tried to get underneath the opponentto stab or slice with their canines. As a result, the belly of one victim was ripped open, causing its entrails to spill. The female had calmly observed the fight, lying down with the front legs folded underneath her body; mating with the winning male took place soon after. Females in captivity developed bold patches, sometimes chafed and bloody, after mating, apparently caused by the sharp hooves of the male during copulation. Gestation lasts several months, after which one young is born, “the size of a rat”, dark brown, with a very small head and thin legs. Young can run and jump soon after birth, and suckle only occasionally, only at night and very briefly. The young soon start eating the same leaves and fruits as older animals. Neither male nor female parent made any apparent effort to protect their young. A specimen of 7. javanicussuccessfully bred with a chevrotain from Bangka Island (presumably 7 kanchilluteicollis) and produced a young with intermediate characteristics.Activity patterns.Observations in captivity suggest that the species is nocturnal, and during the day rests in a quiet, cool, shaded spot. It becomes active around 16:00 h or 17:00 h in the afternoon.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.The account of 7. javanicuson The IUCN Red List states that the speciesis classified as Data Deficient, partly reflecting the lack of clarity over how many species of chevrotain occur onJava and therefore how much of the available information about the genus refers to 1. javanicus. The authors mention that there are fair indications of a decline, perhaps a major one, and a category such as Vulnerable is quite likely to be applicable. The species is hunted for meat and is also often sold as a pet, for example in markets in West Java. In the 1920s it was reported that the species was commonly trapped using snares, but no recent information on this is available. Dedicated field investigations (throughoutJava) ofstatus are urgently warranted, and the Red List status of the species should be reviewed regularly in light of current uncertainty and concerns.Bibliography.Dakkus (1932), Dobroruka (1967), Doctors van Leeuwen (1921), van Dort (1986, 1988), Duckworth et al. (2008), Farida (2003), Groves & Meijaard (2005), Hoogerwerf (1970), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Supraptomo (1953), van der Vegte (1938).","taxonomy":"Cervus javanicus Osbeck, 1765,Udjung Kulon Peninsula, Java, Indonesia.Craniometrical analysis indicates that there may be two distinct chevrotain taxa on Java. The data are, however, inconclusive. Further research, particularly on skin patterns ofJavan Chevrotain, is required. None of the specimens originally used to describe two subspecies, the gray-necked form pelandoc (from the north coast of West Java Province) and the red-necked form focalinus (from the western part ofJava and to the southern coast), were included in a recent taxonomic review of the genus. An earlier review found all kinds of forms that were intermediate between the two supposed Javan subspecies and concluded that there was probably only one taxon on Java. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Chevrotain de Java @fr | Java-Kantschil @de | Ciervoratén de Java @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Osbeck","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1765","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Tragulus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"331","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"javanicus","name":"Tragulus javanicus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Java. Several biogeographic reviews failed to list the genus for Bali, an island directly east of Javawith strong biogeographic affinities to the latter. A sighting was, however, reported from BaliBaratNational Park, in a birdwatching trip report. Given the live-animal trade of this species on Java, further records are needed to confirm whether or not there is a native population of the genus on Bali. If there is, biogeographic considerations suggest it would be most closely related to the Javan population and quite probably conspecific.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721299/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dakkus (1932) | Dobroruka (1967) | Doctors van Leeuwen (1921) | van Dort (1986, 1988) | Duckworth et al. (2008) | Farida (2003) | Groves & Meijaard (2005) | Hoogerwerf (1970) | Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b) | Supraptomo (1953) | van der Vegte (1938)","foodAndFeeding":"In captivity Javan Chevrotains refuse grass as fodder and do not feed on any grasses that grow in their cages. Instead they are kept on banana peels, jackfruit, and the left-overs of rambutan and mangosteen fruits. In captivity, they are partial to leaves of a number of Acalypha(Euphorbiaceae) species, including A. marginata and A. wilkesiana, as well as leaves of Laeucaena glauca, Ipomoea batatas, I. reptans, and Manihot utilissima. In the wild, the species reportedly feeds on fallen fruit, including wild figs (Ficus spp.), and the leaves and buds of a variety of plants.","breeding":"Males ofthis species are reported to produce unusual screams during the mating season. In captivity they have been observed to fight to the death. With bared teeth (lips withdrawn) males circled each other, and by approaching from the side, tried to get underneath the opponentto stab or slice with their canines. As a result, the belly of one victim was ripped open, causing its entrails to spill. The female had calmly observed the fight, lying down with the front legs folded underneath her body; mating with the winning male took place soon after. Females in captivity developed bold patches, sometimes chafed and bloody, after mating, apparently caused by the sharp hooves of the male during copulation. Gestation lasts several months, after which one young is born, “the size of a rat”, dark brown, with a very small head and thin legs. Young can run and jump soon after birth, and suckle only occasionally, only at night and very briefly. The young soon start eating the same leaves and fruits as older animals. Neither male nor female parent made any apparent effort to protect their young. A specimen of 7. javanicussuccessfully bred with a chevrotain from Bangka Island (presumably 7 kanchilluteicollis) and produced a young with intermediate characteristics.","activityPatterns":"Observations in captivity suggest that the species is nocturnal, and during the day rests in a quiet, cool, shaded spot. It becomes active around 16:00 h or 17:00 h in the afternoon.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"The account of 7. javanicuson The IUCN Red List states that the speciesis classified as Data Deficient, partly reflecting the lack of clarity over how many species of chevrotain occur onJava and therefore how much of the available information about the genus refers to 1. javanicus. The authors mention that there are fair indications of a decline, perhaps a major one, and a category such as Vulnerable is quite likely to be applicable. The species is hunted for meat and is also often sold as a pet, for example in markets in West Java. In the 1920s it was reported that the species was commonly trapped using snares, but no recent information on this is available. Dedicated field investigations (throughoutJava) ofstatus are urgently warranted, and the Red List status of the species should be reviewed regularly in light of current uncertainty and concerns.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 50-53 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 1.7-2. 1 kg. Compared to 1. kanchil, T: javanicusis distinguished by its narrow auditory bullae, narrow braincase, and longer and higher mandibles. Compared with 7. kanchilfrom nearby Sumatra, the rostrum is shorter and the auditory bullae are narrower. Two different taxa of chevrotain have been described from Java, a gray-necked form and a red-necked form. The gray-necked form was distinguished from all other 7. javanicuslike chevrotains by the great width and distinctness of the tawny superciliary stripes and by the grizzled gray neck, which is strikingly contrasted with the tawny body and head; in addition, the nape stripe is absent, although the dark crown sometimesslightly extends onto the nape. The red-necked form, described on the basis of five specimens in the Zoological Museum of the Humboldt University in Berlin, has an orange-brown ground color,slightly grizzled with black. All five specimens had a clear, almost black, nape stripe. The cheeks and the sides of the neck are orange-buff, as opposed to the gray in the gray-necked form. This species was described as having a remarkably long tongue, which “it brings with ease to behind its ears,” but presumably this is a generic rather than species-specific characteristic. Dental formulais 10/3; C1/1; P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"Preferred habitat of the Javan Chevrotain includes evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest. The species has been reported in the drier semi-deciduous forests of eastern Java, butit seems to be rarer there than in the wetter forests of central and west Java. One habitat-use study suggested that 7. javanicususes dense bushes and stands of Salacca zalacca palms during the day. It generally remains not far from rivers. This suggests that chevrotains there might be an “edge” species, apparently preferring areas with thick understory vegetation, such as that along riverbanks. This would not be unusual within the genus (see other Tragulusaccounts). The species occurs from sea level to about 1600 mabove sea level in the mountains."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/87/03C587E31E7FFF93FF91F5FA9914F916.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C587E31E7FFF93FF91F5FA9914F916","docName":"hbmw_2_Tragulidae_0320.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcff9b1e7bff97ffefffba910fff81","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"331","verbatimText":"6.Northern ChevrotainTragulus williamsoniFrench:Chevrotain de Williamson/ German:ThailandKantschil/ Spanish:Ciervoratén de TailandiaTaxonomy.Tragulus williamsoni Kloss, 1916,Meh Lem, Thailand.The recent reallocation of 1. williamsonito species level was based on one specimen from northern Thailand, because the skull dimensions exceeded those of any other T. kanchitlike chevrotains from the Asian mainland. Recently, two additional specimens from Mengla, Yunnan, Chinahave been identified that appear to support the species-level designation of this taxon. This, however, requires further careful study, because even though the two Chinese skulls are similar in size to the specimen from northern Thailand, verification of the measurements is still required. The taxonomic uncertainty of 71. williamsoniis compounded by the lack of available specimens of chevrotains from close to the type locality of T. williamson: with which to test for conspecificity with 7. kanchiland, if the taxon is validated, to determine whetherit is sympatric or parapatric with 7. kanchil. More material is needed for both 7. williamsoniand 1. kanchil, if it occurs there, from the northern parts of Thailand, adjacent southern China, and possibly northern Laosas well as northern Myanmar, to make an informed judgment. Monotypic.Distribution.Thailandand southern China, mainly the Sanchahe part of the Mengman region and the Darongshu of the Longmen region, both in S. Yunnan, but possibly more widespread with potential presence in Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar.Descriptive notes.No measurements available. The type specimen of this species was described as larger than other 7. kanchilspecimens from the Asian mainland, but with color patterns similar to 7. k. affinis. Photos of this type specimen show uniformly colored pale brown upperparts, with a barely visible darker nape streak; the species was described as being like 7. k. affinis but larger and with the upperparts deeper ochraceous and only moderately annulated with brown. Throat patterns are as in 7 k. affinis, with clearly defined white chin and neck stripes and a reddish-brown transverse throat band that separates the white neck and chin from the white chest (unlike in 7 versicolor, in which this dark band is discontinuous, and the white neck and chin and white chest thus connected). Dental formulais10/3; C1/1;P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34.Habitat.A recent study in Yunnanshowed that the species prefers valleys along banks of rivers or streams in low altitude, where they tend to use middle and lower slopes with the favorite fruit trees Ficus hirtal, Baccaurea samiflora, Alpinia kwangsiensis, and Phrynium capitatum. These plants occur along banks ofrivers or streams. Chevrotain habitat use was mostly affected by tall tree coverage, shrub coverage, and herb coverage, and distance to water.Food and Feeding.Based on its habitat use and tree preferences in Yunnan, the diet of T. williamsoniappears to contain significant amounts offruit.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.Nothing known.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, The species’ status cannot be assessed due to taxonomic uncertainty and a paucity of data on extent of occurrence, threats, habitat preferences and altitudinal range. Hunting is heavy in the species’ likely range and habitat perturbation is increasing there. The lack of understanding of the population-level effects on the species rule out inferential application of decline-based criteria. On the IUCN assessmentit is suggested that even modest additional information would allow categorization of the species, and thatit would likely warrant either Near Threatened or one of the threatened categories.Bibliography.Aidong Luo et al. (1999), Cao Mingl et al. (2010), Kloss (1916, 1918), Meijaard & Groves (20044, 2004b), Shi Liming & Chen Yuze (1989), Timmins et al. (2008).","taxonomy":"Tragulus williamsoni Kloss, 1916,Meh Lem, Thailand.The recent reallocation of 1. williamsonito species level was based on one specimen from northern Thailand, because the skull dimensions exceeded those of any other T. kanchitlike chevrotains from the Asian mainland. Recently, two additional specimens from Mengla, Yunnan, Chinahave been identified that appear to support the species-level designation of this taxon. This, however, requires further careful study, because even though the two Chinese skulls are similar in size to the specimen from northern Thailand, verification of the measurements is still required. The taxonomic uncertainty of 71. williamsoniis compounded by the lack of available specimens of chevrotains from close to the type locality of T. williamson: with which to test for conspecificity with 7. kanchiland, if the taxon is validated, to determine whetherit is sympatric or parapatric with 7. kanchil. More material is needed for both 7. williamsoniand 1. kanchil, if it occurs there, from the northern parts of Thailand, adjacent southern China, and possibly northern Laosas well as northern Myanmar, to make an informed judgment. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Chevrotain de Williamson @fr | Thailand Kantschil @de | Ciervoratén de Tailandia @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Kloss","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1916","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Tragulidae","interpretedGenus":"Tragulus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"331","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"williamsoni","name":"Tragulus williamsoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Thailandand southern China, mainly the Sanchahe part of the Mengman region and the Darongshu of the Longmen region, both in S. Yunnan, but possibly more widespread with potential presence in Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5721297/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aidong Luo et al. (1999) | Cao Mingl et al. (2010) | Kloss (1916, 1918) | Meijaard & Groves (20044, 2004b) | Shi Liming & Chen Yuze (1989) | Timmins et al. (2008)","foodAndFeeding":"Based on its habitat use and tree preferences in Yunnan, the diet of T. williamsoniappears to contain significant amounts offruit.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"Nothing known.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, The species’ status cannot be assessed due to taxonomic uncertainty and a paucity of data on extent of occurrence, threats, habitat preferences and altitudinal range. Hunting is heavy in the species’ likely range and habitat perturbation is increasing there. The lack of understanding of the population-level effects on the species rule out inferential application of decline-based criteria. On the IUCN assessmentit is suggested that even modest additional information would allow categorization of the species, and thatit would likely warrant either Near Threatened or one of the threatened categories.","descriptiveNotes":"No measurements available. The type specimen of this species was described as larger than other 7. kanchilspecimens from the Asian mainland, but with color patterns similar to 7. k. affinis. Photos of this type specimen show uniformly colored pale brown upperparts, with a barely visible darker nape streak; the species was described as being like 7. k. affinis but larger and with the upperparts deeper ochraceous and only moderately annulated with brown. Throat patterns are as in 7 k. affinis, with clearly defined white chin and neck stripes and a reddish-brown transverse throat band that separates the white neck and chin from the white chest (unlike in 7 versicolor, in which this dark band is discontinuous, and the white neck and chin and white chest thus connected). Dental formulais10/3; C1/1;P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34.","habitat":"A recent study in Yunnanshowed that the species prefers valleys along banks of rivers or streams in low altitude, where they tend to use middle and lower slopes with the favorite fruit trees Ficus hirtal, Baccaurea samiflora, Alpinia kwangsiensis, and Phrynium capitatum. These plants occur along banks ofrivers or streams. Chevrotain habitat use was mostly affected by tall tree coverage, shrub coverage, and herb coverage, and distance to water."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC2FFE9FA085FBD5EE9FD5D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC2FFE9FA085FBD5EE9FD5D","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"599","verbatimText":"92.Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mantiqueirensisFrench:Rat-épineux de la Mantiqueira/ German:Serra-da-Mantiqueira-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de MantiqueiraOther common names:Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Phyllomys mantiqueirensis Leite, 2003, “Fazenda da Onca, 13 km SW Delfim Moreira, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°36’S 45°20°W, 1850 m.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, Mantiqueira Mts in Minas Gerais State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 217 mm, tail 216 mm; weight 207 g. The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is mediumsized and has brownish-gray upper parts.Dorsal pelt is soft, densely furred, with hairy tail that is tufted at tip. Aristiforms on rump are blackish distally, average 24 mm in length, and very thin. Belly is pale brown, with white-based cream-yellow—tipped hairs. Soft tail is equal to head-body length, covered with brown hairs darker than grayish body color; hairs become more abundant and longer from base totip oftail. Tail tuft is 30 mm long and very distinct. Interorbital region is narrow; lacrimal process is well developed. Rostrum is short and broad; incisive foramina are small and oval-shaped. Mandible has slim and long coronoid process and deep sigmoid notch.Habitat.Steep slopes in cool montane rainforest at an elevation of 1850 m (based on only one specimen). This habitat is very distinct, specific, and naturally restricted. It is known only from the type locality where open overstory is composed of short (10 m) canopy trees and tall emergent araucarias (Araucaria angustifolia, Araucariaceae). Dense understory is composed of ferns, bamboos, vines, lianas, shrubs, and lichens. Type specimen was collected on a 2m high liana connecting two trees.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra de Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information are available for this species, but the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is probably nocturnal.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsMovements, Home range and Social organization.The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is estimated to be less than 100 km?, it is known from only a single location, and there has been continuing decline in quality and availability of habitat. It is currently protected from indiscriminate exploitation at the type locality, which belongs to the Brazilian Army. Nevertheless, it is probably restricted to high-elevation mixed evergreen araucaria forests in the Serra da Mantiqueira, a very specific and naturally restricted habitat. Additional ecological studies ofthis Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys mantiqueirensis Leite, 2003, “Fazenda da Onca, 13 km SW Delfim Moreira, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°36’S 45°20°W, 1850 m.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de la Mantiqueira @fr | Serra-da-Mantiqueira-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Mantiqueira @es | Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Leite","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2003","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"47","interpretedPageNumber":"599","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mantiqueirensis","name":"Phyllomys mantiqueirensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, Mantiqueira Mts in Minas Gerais State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623890/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra de Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Serra de Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information are available for this species, but the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is estimated to be less than 100 km?, it is known from only a single location, and there has been continuing decline in quality and availability of habitat. It is currently protected from indiscriminate exploitation at the type locality, which belongs to the Brazilian Army. Nevertheless, it is probably restricted to high-elevation mixed evergreen araucaria forests in the Serra da Mantiqueira, a very specific and naturally restricted habitat. Additional ecological studies ofthis Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 217 mm, tail 216 mm; weight 207 g. The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is mediumsized and has brownish-gray upper parts.Dorsal pelt is soft, densely furred, with hairy tail that is tufted at tip. Aristiforms on rump are blackish distally, average 24 mm in length, and very thin. Belly is pale brown, with white-based cream-yellow—tipped hairs. Soft tail is equal to head-body length, covered with brown hairs darker than grayish body color; hairs become more abundant and longer from base totip oftail. Tail tuft is 30 mm long and very distinct. Interorbital region is narrow; lacrimal process is well developed. Rostrum is short and broad; incisive foramina are small and oval-shaped. Mandible has slim and long coronoid process and deep sigmoid notch.","habitat":"Steep slopes in cool montane rainforest at an elevation of 1850 m (based on only one specimen). This habitat is very distinct, specific, and naturally restricted. It is known only from the type locality where open overstory is composed of short (10 m) canopy trees and tall emergent araucarias (Araucaria angustifolia, Araucariaceae). Dense understory is composed of ferns, bamboos, vines, lianas, shrubs, and lichens. Type specimen was collected on a 2m high liana connecting two trees."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC2FFF6FF005B695BB6F48C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC2FFF6FF005B695BB6F48C","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"599","verbatimText":"90.Unicolored Tree-ratPhyllomys unicolorFrench:Rat-épineux unicolore/ German:Einfarb-Klistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica unincolorOther common names:Short-furred Atlantic Tree-rat, Unicolored Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Loncheres wunicolor Wagner, 1842, “Brasilia.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Colonia Leopoldina [now Helvécia], 50 km SW Caravelas, Bahia, Brazil, 17°48’S 39°39'W, elev. 59 m.”Phyllomys unicolorwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil, known only from the type locality in S Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 280 mm,tail 202 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Unicolored Tree-rat is the second largest species of Phyllomys, and it has uniform pale rusty red-brown upper parts. Venter becomes gradually buffy. Dorsal pelt is composed of rather short and stiff guard hairs on dorsum (20 mm). Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and thin (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Tail is 73% of head-body length and is rusty. Tail is covered with long (5 mm) hairs covering scales. Tail hairs become longer toward end, wheretip is slightly tufted. Hindfeet are short and broad and bear stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are yellowish. Ears are nearly naked and short, with hair tufts near anterior edges. Skull of the Unicolored Tree-ratis robust and flat dorsally; rostrum is short and robust. Jugal is broad dorso-ventrally, and jugal fossa is deeply concave and has strong beaded ventral lip, with tip of fossa reaching anteriorly to ventral maxillojugal suture. Rounded post-orbital process is present and mainly formed byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends ventrally below lower edge level of external auditory meatus. Tympanic bulla is conspicuously inflated. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior edge offirst lamina of third upper molar. Upper tooth rows are extremely wide (13-9 mm) and parallel. Upperincisors are broad, orthodont, and orange. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen rainforests near the coast. The Unicolored Tree-ratis only known from a single type specimen collected in the 19\" century.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Unicolored Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information are available for this species, but Unicolored Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but Unicolored Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Unicolored Tree-rat is known only from the single specimen collected in a lowland broadleaf evergreen rainforest, which is now highly reduced at the type locality, Helvecia, Bahia State, Brazil. Additional studies near the type locality are needed to locate remaining populations of this poorly known and very distinct tree-rat.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookBibliography.Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Wagner (1842), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres wunicolor Wagner, 1842, “Brasilia.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Colonia Leopoldina [now Helvécia], 50 km SW Caravelas, Bahia, Brazil, 17°48’S 39°39'W, elev. 59 m.”Phyllomys unicolorwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux unicolore @fr | Einfarb-Klistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica unincolor @es | Short-furred Atlantic Tree-rat @en | Unicolored Atlantic Tree-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"47","interpretedPageNumber":"599","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"unicolor","name":"Phyllomys unicolor","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Brazil, known only from the type locality in S Bahia State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623886/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Wagner (1842) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Unicolored Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information are available for this species, but Unicolored Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Unicolored Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Unicolored Tree-rat is known only from the single specimen collected in a lowland broadleaf evergreen rainforest, which is now highly reduced at the type locality, Helvecia, Bahia State, Brazil. Additional studies near the type locality are needed to locate remaining populations of this poorly known and very distinct tree-rat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 280 mm,tail 202 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Unicolored Tree-rat is the second largest species of Phyllomys, and it has uniform pale rusty red-brown upper parts. Venter becomes gradually buffy. Dorsal pelt is composed of rather short and stiff guard hairs on dorsum (20 mm). Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and thin (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Tail is 73% of head-body length and is rusty. Tail is covered with long (5 mm) hairs covering scales. Tail hairs become longer toward end, wheretip is slightly tufted. Hindfeet are short and broad and bear stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are yellowish. Ears are nearly naked and short, with hair tufts near anterior edges. Skull of the Unicolored Tree-ratis robust and flat dorsally; rostrum is short and robust. Jugal is broad dorso-ventrally, and jugal fossa is deeply concave and has strong beaded ventral lip, with tip of fossa reaching anteriorly to ventral maxillojugal suture. Rounded post-orbital process is present and mainly formed byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends ventrally below lower edge level of external auditory meatus. Tympanic bulla is conspicuously inflated. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior edge offirst lamina of third upper molar. Upper tooth rows are extremely wide (13-9 mm) and parallel. Upperincisors are broad, orthodont, and orange. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally.","habitat":"Broadleaf evergreen rainforests near the coast. The Unicolored Tree-ratis only known from a single type specimen collected in the 19\" century."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC2FFF6FF0B5368527EF8FE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC2FFF6FF0B5368527EF8FE","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"599","verbatimText":"91.Patton’s Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys pattoniFrench:Rat-épineux a flancs roux/ German:Patton-Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de PattonOther common names:Rusty-sided Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Phyllomys pattoni Emmons et al., 2002, “Mangue do Caritoti, Caravelas, Bahia, Brazil, 17°43°30” S 39°15’35”\"W: at sea level.”The name P. pattoniwas given to specimens erroneously identified as P. brasiliensisfor more than a century. These specimens had previously been identified as Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil, along the coast from Paraiba to NE Sao Paulo states.638Descriptive notes.Head-body 209-241 mm, tail 190-223 mm; weight 150-380 g. Upper part of Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is dark brown and covered by abundant rustytipped spines. Spines are light gray at bases, darkening toward middle parts and having orange tips. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with short (23 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms, most of them lacking typical whip-like tips present in most other species of Phyllomys. Tail is slightly shorter than head-body length, covered with scattered hairs, leaving scalesvisible;tail tip is not tufted. Skull of Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed and beaded supraorbital ledges. Interorbital region diverges posteriorly and lacks post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching one-third of Jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and composed ofjugal and squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are bullet-shaped. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are short and narrow. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally.Habitat.Mostly coastal broadleaf evergreen rainforests, sometimes associated with mangroves, but also semideciduous forest inland, from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is broadly distributed and locally common, occurring in primary and secondary habitats, including protected areas. It also occurs in highly disturbed urban areas, where it is sympatric with invasive rodents such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus). Its habitat is highly fragmented and reduced in some parts ofits distribution.Food and Feeding.One stomach of a Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat contained plant material, and gut morphology is indicative of an herbivorous diet. Its small intestine is the longest found among four arboreal echimyid genera, indicating possibility of more diverse diets, including fruits, leaves, and insects.Breeding.Pregnant Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rats carrying two embryos were caught in February at Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro, and in August at Vicosa, Minas Gerais. A Juvenile was collected in March at Ilhéus, Bahia. It is reported to build nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat occursis highly fragmented and reduced. Nevertheless, Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is widely distributed, often detected in field studies, and abundant in collections. Its distribution includes several large protected areas, including urban forests and mangroves.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Paresque et al. (2004), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys pattoni Emmons et al., 2002, “Mangue do Caritoti, Caravelas, Bahia, Brazil, 17°43°30” S 39°15’35”\"W: at sea level.”The name P. pattoniwas given to specimens erroneously identified as P. brasiliensisfor more than a century. These specimens had previously been identified as Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a flancs roux @fr | Patton-Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Patton @es | Rusty-sided Atlantic Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Emmons et al., 2002","interpretedAuthorityName":"Emmons","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2002","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"47","interpretedPageNumber":"599","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pattoni","name":"Phyllomys pattoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Brazil, along the coast from Paraiba to NE Sao Paulo states.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623888/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Paresque et al. (2004) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"One stomach of a Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat contained plant material, and gut morphology is indicative of an herbivorous diet. Its small intestine is the longest found among four arboreal echimyid genera, indicating possibility of more diverse diets, including fruits, leaves, and insects.","breeding":"Pregnant Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rats carrying two embryos were caught in February at Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro, and in August at Vicosa, Minas Gerais. A Juvenile was collected in March at Ilhéus, Bahia. It is reported to build nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat occursis highly fragmented and reduced. Nevertheless, Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is widely distributed, often detected in field studies, and abundant in collections. Its distribution includes several large protected areas, including urban forests and mangroves.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 209-241 mm, tail 190-223 mm; weight 150-380 g. Upper part of Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is dark brown and covered by abundant rustytipped spines. Spines are light gray at bases, darkening toward middle parts and having orange tips. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with short (23 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms, most of them lacking typical whip-like tips present in most other species of Phyllomys. Tail is slightly shorter than head-body length, covered with scattered hairs, leaving scalesvisible;tail tip is not tufted. Skull of Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed and beaded supraorbital ledges. Interorbital region diverges posteriorly and lacks post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching one-third of Jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and composed ofjugal and squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are bullet-shaped. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are short and narrow. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally.","habitat":"Mostly coastal broadleaf evergreen rainforests, sometimes associated with mangroves, but also semideciduous forest inland, from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Patton’s Atlantic Tree-rat is broadly distributed and locally common, occurring in primary and secondary habitats, including protected areas. It also occurs in highly disturbed urban areas, where it is sympatric with invasive rodents such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus). Its habitat is highly fragmented and reduced in some parts ofits distribution."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC3FFF6FAD65F325927FC82.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC3FFF6FAD65F325927FC82","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"598","verbatimText":"89.Pallid Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys lamarumFrench:Rat-épineux pale/ German:Helle Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica palidaTaxonomy.Nelomys lamarum Thomas, 1916, “Lamarao, Bahia, about 70 miles N.W. of Bahia city [= Salvador]. Alt. 300 mm [sic].” Amended by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “LLamarao, about 70 miles NW of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 11°47’S 38°53’W,elev. 300 m.”Phyllomyslamarumwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. It is closely related to P. brasiliensis, divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. MonotypicDistribution.E Brazil, NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 180-233 mm; weight 135-290 g. The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has yellow-brown upper parts, with speckled pattern due to short (24 mm) and wide (1-3 mm) aristiforms. Dorsal pelage has bicolored spines, pale at bases and darkening toward ends where they become orange and terminate in dark, thin, whip-like tips. Belly is pale brown, with white patches ranging from buff-white to pure white. There is typical fulvous lateral line separating dorsum from venter. Tail is slender and usually ¢.98% of head-body length. It is thinly furred with pale brownish hairs, making tail scalesstill visible through its entire length. Skull of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with straight edges; post-orbital process is absent or inconspicuous. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height smaller than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly composed ofjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms angle more than 60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Ventral spine is present on jaw atjunction between mandibular rami and angular process.Habitat.Semideciduous forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.On following pages: 90. Unicolored Tree-rat (Phyllomysunicolon; 91. Patton's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomyspatton); 92. Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys mantiqueirensis); 93. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys lundi): 94. Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys kerri); 95. Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys medius); 96. Giant Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys thomasi); 97. Drab Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys dasythrix); 98. Southern Atlantic Treerat (Phyllomyssulinus); 99. Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys nigrispinus).FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats occurs is highly reduced and fragmented due to human activities. It occurs at Estacao Ecolégica de Acaua (a state park) in Minas Gerais State. Additional ecological studies of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Araujo et al. (2014), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Nelomys lamarum Thomas, 1916, “Lamarao, Bahia, about 70 miles N.W. of Bahia city [= Salvador]. Alt. 300 mm [sic].” Amended by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “LLamarao, about 70 miles NW of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 11°47’S 38°53’W,elev. 300 m.”Phyllomyslamarumwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. It is closely related to P. brasiliensis, divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux pale @fr | Helle Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica palida @es | Nelomys lamarum Thomas @en | 1916 @en | “Lamarao @en | Bahia @en | about 70 miles N @en | E Brazil @en | NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1916","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"46","interpretedPageNumber":"598","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lamarum","name":"Phyllomys lamarum","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Brazil, NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states.","bibliography":"Araujo et al. (2014) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Semideciduous forests.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.On following pages: 90. Unicolored Tree-rat (Phyllomysunicolon; 91. Patton's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomyspatton); 92. Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys mantiqueirensis); 93. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys lundi): 94. Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys kerri); 95. Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys medius); 96. Giant Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys thomasi); 97. Drab Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys dasythrix); 98. Southern Atlantic Treerat (Phyllomyssulinus); 99. Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys nigrispinus).FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","breeding":"A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats occurs is highly reduced and fragmented due to human activities. It occurs at Estacao Ecolégica de Acaua (a state park) in Minas Gerais State. Additional ecological studies of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 180-233 mm; weight 135-290 g. The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has yellow-brown upper parts, with speckled pattern due to short (24 mm) and wide (1-3 mm) aristiforms. Dorsal pelage has bicolored spines, pale at bases and darkening toward ends where they become orange and terminate in dark, thin, whip-like tips. Belly is pale brown, with white patches ranging from buff-white to pure white. There is typical fulvous lateral line separating dorsum from venter. Tail is slender and usually ¢.98% of head-body length. It is thinly furred with pale brownish hairs, making tail scalesstill visible through its entire length. Skull of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with straight edges; post-orbital process is absent or inconspicuous. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height smaller than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly composed ofjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms angle more than 60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Ventral spine is present on jaw atjunction between mandibular rami and angular process.","habitat":"Semideciduous forests."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC3FFF6FAD65F325927FC82.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC3FFF6FAD65F325927FC82","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"598","verbatimText":"89.Pallid Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys lamarumFrench:Rat-épineux pale/ German:Helle Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica palidaTaxonomy.Nelomys lamarum Thomas, 1916, “Lamarao, Bahia, about 70 miles N.W. of Bahia city [= Salvador]. Alt. 300 mm [sic].” Amended by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “LLamarao, about 70 miles NW of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 11°47’S 38°53’W,elev. 300 m.”Phyllomyslamarumwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. It is closely related to P. brasiliensis, divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. MonotypicDistribution.E Brazil, NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 180-233 mm; weight 135-290 g. The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has yellow-brown upper parts, with speckled pattern due to short (24 mm) and wide (1-3 mm) aristiforms. Dorsal pelage has bicolored spines, pale at bases and darkening toward ends where they become orange and terminate in dark, thin, whip-like tips. Belly is pale brown, with white patches ranging from buff-white to pure white. There is typical fulvous lateral line separating dorsum from venter. Tail is slender and usually ¢.98% of head-body length. It is thinly furred with pale brownish hairs, making tail scalesstill visible through its entire length. Skull of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with straight edges; post-orbital process is absent or inconspicuous. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height smaller than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly composed ofjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms angle more than 60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Ventral spine is present on jaw atjunction between mandibular rami and angular process.Habitat.Semideciduous forests.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.On following pages: 90. Unicolored Tree-rat (Phyllomysunicolon; 91. Patton's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomyspatton); 92. Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys mantiqueirensis); 93. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys lundi): 94. Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys kerri); 95. Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys medius); 96. Giant Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys thomasi); 97. Drab Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys dasythrix); 98. Southern Atlantic Treerat (Phyllomyssulinus); 99. Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys nigrispinus).FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats occurs is highly reduced and fragmented due to human activities. It occurs at Estacao Ecolégica de Acaua (a state park) in Minas Gerais State. Additional ecological studies of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Araujo et al. (2014), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Nelomys lamarum Thomas, 1916, “Lamarao, Bahia, about 70 miles N.W. of Bahia city [= Salvador]. Alt. 300 mm [sic].” Amended by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “LLamarao, about 70 miles NW of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, 11°47’S 38°53’W,elev. 300 m.”Phyllomyslamarumwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. It is closely related to P. brasiliensis, divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux pale @fr | Helle Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica palida @es | Nelomys lamarum Thomas @en | 1916 @en | “Lamarao @en | Bahia @en | about 70 miles N @en | E Brazil @en | NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1916","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"46","interpretedPageNumber":"598","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lamarum","name":"Phyllomys lamarum","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Brazil, NE Bahia through NE Minas Gerais to N Espirito Santo states.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623920/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Araujo et al. (2014) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Semideciduous forests.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.On following pages: 90. Unicolored Tree-rat (Phyllomysunicolon; 91. Patton's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomyspatton); 92. Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys mantiqueirensis); 93. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys lundi): 94. Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys kerri); 95. Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys medius); 96. Giant Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys thomasi); 97. Drab Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys dasythrix); 98. Southern Atlantic Treerat (Phyllomyssulinus); 99. Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat (Phyllomys nigrispinus).FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","breeding":"A pregnant Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in May at Lamarao, Bahia, Brazil. Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats typically nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where Pallid Atlantic Tree-rats occurs is highly reduced and fragmented due to human activities. It occurs at Estacao Ecolégica de Acaua (a state park) in Minas Gerais State. Additional ecological studies of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 180-233 mm; weight 135-290 g. The Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has yellow-brown upper parts, with speckled pattern due to short (24 mm) and wide (1-3 mm) aristiforms. Dorsal pelage has bicolored spines, pale at bases and darkening toward ends where they become orange and terminate in dark, thin, whip-like tips. Belly is pale brown, with white patches ranging from buff-white to pure white. There is typical fulvous lateral line separating dorsum from venter. Tail is slender and usually ¢.98% of head-body length. It is thinly furred with pale brownish hairs, making tail scalesstill visible through its entire length. Skull of the Pallid Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with straight edges; post-orbital process is absent or inconspicuous. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height smaller than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly composed ofjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms angle more than 60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Ventral spine is present on jaw atjunction between mandibular rami and angular process.","habitat":"Semideciduous forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC3FFF7FFCE525C5DCFF960.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC3FFF7FFCE525C5DCFF960","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"598","verbatimText":"88.Brazilian Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys brasiliensisFrench:Rat-épineux du Brésil/ German:Brasilien-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de BrasilOther common names:Orange-brown Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Phyllomys brasiliensis Lund, 1840, “Lapa das Quatro Bocas,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Phyllomys brasiliensiswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheresand Echimys. The name P. brasiliensiswas incorrectly applied to several museum specimens that were later formally described and named as P. pattoni. Phyllomys brasiliensisis closely related to P. lamarum; divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, Paraopeba and das Velhas rivers in Minas Gerais State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-212 mm, tail 171 mm; weight 240 g. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized; it has a spiny dorsal pelt, orange-brown and sprinkled with black. Rump is spiny, with wide (1-3 mm) and long (27 mm) aristiform hairs that have orange whip-like tips. Venter is creamy and yellowish, with cream-white axillary and inguinal regions; some white-based hairs are present on midline. Tail is ¢.81% of head-body length. Tail is furred with short brown hairs, but tail scales are visible, except at tip where hairs are longer. Skull of the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region slightly divergent posteriorly, with slightly developed post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slender or slightly robust, with maximum height equal or inferior to jugal length. Spinose process of zygoma without squamosal contribution. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends below horizontal midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel, only slightly diverging posteriorly in old individuals. Molar teeth are long and narrow, with palatal width equals width offirst upper molar. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally, and ventral spine is present posterior to junction of mandibular rami.Habitat.Mixed habitats of semideciduous forest and woodland savanna (cerrado) in Atlantic Forest at elevations of 500-800 m. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has limited distribution in Atlantic Forest.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest folivorous diet.Breeding.A pregnant Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat carrying one embryo was caught in September at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is less than 5000 km?. It is known from only three localities in Minas Gerais State. Fragmentation is ongoing, dramatically reducing quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies ofthis Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Patton et al. (2015), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys brasiliensis Lund, 1840, “Lapa das Quatro Bocas,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Phyllomys brasiliensiswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheresand Echimys. The name P. brasiliensiswas incorrectly applied to several museum specimens that were later formally described and named as P. pattoni. Phyllomys brasiliensisis closely related to P. lamarum; divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Brésil @fr | Brasilien-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Brasil @es | Orange-brown Atlantic Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lund","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1840","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"46","interpretedPageNumber":"598","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brasiliensis","name":"Phyllomys brasiliensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, Paraopeba and das Velhas rivers in Minas Gerais State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623882/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest folivorous diet.","breeding":"A pregnant Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat carrying one embryo was caught in September at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is less than 5000 km?. It is known from only three localities in Minas Gerais State. Fragmentation is ongoing, dramatically reducing quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies ofthis Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-212 mm, tail 171 mm; weight 240 g. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized; it has a spiny dorsal pelt, orange-brown and sprinkled with black. Rump is spiny, with wide (1-3 mm) and long (27 mm) aristiform hairs that have orange whip-like tips. Venter is creamy and yellowish, with cream-white axillary and inguinal regions; some white-based hairs are present on midline. Tail is ¢.81% of head-body length. Tail is furred with short brown hairs, but tail scales are visible, except at tip where hairs are longer. Skull of the Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region slightly divergent posteriorly, with slightly developed post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slender or slightly robust, with maximum height equal or inferior to jugal length. Spinose process of zygoma without squamosal contribution. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends below horizontal midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of second upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel, only slightly diverging posteriorly in old individuals. Molar teeth are long and narrow, with palatal width equals width offirst upper molar. Angular process ofjaw is deflected laterally, and ventral spine is present posterior to junction of mandibular rami.","habitat":"Mixed habitats of semideciduous forest and woodland savanna (cerrado) in Atlantic Forest at elevations of 500-800 m. The Brazilian Atlantic Tree-rat has limited distribution in Atlantic Forest."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC3FFF7FFD459BB595CF599.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC3FFF7FFD459BB595CF599","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"598","verbatimText":"87.Golden Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys blainviliiFrench:Rat-épineux doré/ German:Goldfarbige Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica doradaTaxonomy.Nelomys blainvilii Jordan, 1837, “une petite ile sur les cotes du Brésil, pres de Bahia.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Seabra, Bahia, Brazil, ca. 12°25’S, 41°46'W.”Phyllomys blainviliiwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.NE Brazil, from S Ceara to N Minas Geraisstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 175-220 mm, tail 192-270 mm; weight 150-320 g. Dorsum of the Golden Atlantic Treerat is ocherous brown, with black streak hairs, and it becomes paler on sides. Dorsum is moderately spiny, with wide (1 mm) and long (24 mm) aristiform hairs that have; dark middle part and orange whip-like tips. Venter is pale cream, with hint of yellowish. Tail is robust and 120% of head-body length. Tail is densely furred, with long darkish or yellowish hairs; tail scales are hidden under these hairs and tuft of 15 mm is present at tip of tail. Darker tail usually contrasts with paler body color. Skull of the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges and interorbital region with straight borders diverging posteriorly. Zygomatic arch is slender or slightly robust, with maximum height less than or nearly equal to jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal and small part of squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends below horizontal midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa forms 45° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior edge of third upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are long and narrow, with palatal width greater than width of M'. Jaw has an angular process deflected laterally.Habitat.Primary and secondary semideciduous upland forest habitats within the xeric shrubland caatinga, including locally fragmented forests. The Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has a wide distribution, butits area of occupancy is patchy and might represent less than 20,000 km2. It is supposed to be locally common and occurs in forest patches along the Rio Sao Francisco.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth and gut morphology that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.The Golden Altlantic Tree-rat nests in tree hollows, and litter sizes are 1-4 embryos. Pregnant females were caught in October at Crato, Ceara State and February-March at Bom Jesus da Lapa, Bahia State. Young Golden Atlantic Tree-rats at different age categories were collected in October-May at different sites in north-eastern Brazil.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but specimen collection data suggest that Golden Atlantic Tree-rats might be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Golden Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and has been reported to live in small groups.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat are needed. Its wide distribution, local abundance, and recurrent occurrence in patchy habitats make it unlikely that populations are declining at nearly the level required forlisting it as a threatened species..Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Jourdan (1837), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Nelomys blainvilii Jordan, 1837, “une petite ile sur les cotes du Brésil, pres de Bahia.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Seabra, Bahia, Brazil, ca. 12°25’S, 41°46'W.”Phyllomys blainviliiwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux doré @fr | Goldfarbige Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica dorada @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Jordan","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1837","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"46","interpretedPageNumber":"598","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"blainvilii","name":"Phyllomys blainvilii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Brazil, from S Ceara to N Minas Geraisstates.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623880/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Jourdan (1837) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth and gut morphology that suggest a folivorous diet.","breeding":"The Golden Altlantic Tree-rat nests in tree hollows, and litter sizes are 1-4 embryos. Pregnant females were caught in October at Crato, Ceara State and February-March at Bom Jesus da Lapa, Bahia State. Young Golden Atlantic Tree-rats at different age categories were collected in October-May at different sites in north-eastern Brazil.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but specimen collection data suggest that Golden Atlantic Tree-rats might be nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Golden Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and has been reported to live in small groups.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat are needed. Its wide distribution, local abundance, and recurrent occurrence in patchy habitats make it unlikely that populations are declining at nearly the level required forlisting it as a threatened species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 175-220 mm, tail 192-270 mm; weight 150-320 g. Dorsum of the Golden Atlantic Treerat is ocherous brown, with black streak hairs, and it becomes paler on sides. Dorsum is moderately spiny, with wide (1 mm) and long (24 mm) aristiform hairs that have; dark middle part and orange whip-like tips. Venter is pale cream, with hint of yellowish. Tail is robust and 120% of head-body length. Tail is densely furred, with long darkish or yellowish hairs; tail scales are hidden under these hairs and tuft of 15 mm is present at tip of tail. Darker tail usually contrasts with paler body color. Skull of the Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has well-developed supraorbital ridges and interorbital region with straight borders diverging posteriorly. Zygomatic arch is slender or slightly robust, with maximum height less than or nearly equal to jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal and small part of squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends below horizontal midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa forms 45° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior edge of third upper molar. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are long and narrow, with palatal width greater than width of M'. Jaw has an angular process deflected laterally.","habitat":"Primary and secondary semideciduous upland forest habitats within the xeric shrubland caatinga, including locally fragmented forests. The Golden Atlantic Tree-rat has a wide distribution, butits area of occupancy is patchy and might represent less than 20,000 km2. It is supposed to be locally common and occurs in forest patches along the Rio Sao Francisco."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC4FFF0FA775C625C71F484.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC4FFF0FA775C625C71F484","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"593","verbatimText":"81.Dark Tree-ratEchimys saturnusFrench:Rat-épineux noir/ German:Dunkle Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola oscuraOther common names:Dark Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Echimys saturnus Thomas, 1928, “Rio Napo, Oriente of Ecuador. Alt. 3300\" [= 1005 m].”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Andean foothills and adjacent Amazonian lowlands in E Ecuador and N Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 272-335 mm, tail 295-383 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Dark Tree-rat is medium-sized, with glossy dorsal fur of brown tones that contains abundant bristles, with flat spines on mid-back but not over rump. Head and mid-back have typical glossy black color. Under parts are white, white-spotted, or whitish with buff tinge; chin is dark. Tail is ¢.140% of headbody length and densely haired from base to tip. Tail is longitudinally bicolored, with its base glossy black and distal white part of varying length. Ears are short and covered by hairs of head. Hindfeet are brown above, with strong claws on each digit. Some melanistic specimens have been reported in museum collections.Habitat.Pre-montane and lowland rainforest at elevations of 230-1005 m. Dark Treerats have been camera-trapped on the ground along stream edges, both partially in water or moving either toward or away from a water channel.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dark Tree-rat is likely folivorous—frugivorous and might also include insects in its diet, as do other species of Echimys.Breeding.Female Dark Tree-rats have been found with two embryos.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dark Tree-rat appears to be strictly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Dark Tree-rats were camera-trapped nine times during 297 nights at one locality in Ecuador. Pictures showed eightsolitary individuals and a group ofthree individuals. Potential solitary habits are similar to that of the White-faced Tree-rat (E. chrysurus). The group of three individuals might have been a female with two young moving together, apparently in a straight line by following the white-tippedtail of the leading individual.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Dark Tree-rat, an Andean endemic, are needed to assess its conservation status.Bibliography.Blake et al. (2010), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons & Stark (1979), lack-Ximenes et al. (2005), Patton et al. (2015), Thomas (1928a), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys saturnus Thomas, 1928, “Rio Napo, Oriente of Ecuador. Alt. 3300\" [= 1005 m].”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux noir @fr | Dunkle Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola oscura @es | Dark Spiny Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1928","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Echimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"41","interpretedPageNumber":"593","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"saturnus","name":"Echimys saturnus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Andean foothills and adjacent Amazonian lowlands in E Ecuador and N Peru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623862/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Blake et al. (2010) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons & Stark (1979) | lack-Ximenes et al. (2005) | Patton et al. (2015) | Thomas (1928a) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dark Tree-rat is likely folivorous—frugivorous and might also include insects in its diet, as do other species of Echimys.","breeding":"Female Dark Tree-rats have been found with two embryos.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dark Tree-rat appears to be strictly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Dark Tree-rats were camera-trapped nine times during 297 nights at one locality in Ecuador. Pictures showed eightsolitary individuals and a group ofthree individuals. Potential solitary habits are similar to that of the White-faced Tree-rat (E. chrysurus). The group of three individuals might have been a female with two young moving together, apparently in a straight line by following the white-tippedtail of the leading individual.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Dark Tree-rat, an Andean endemic, are needed to assess its conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 272-335 mm, tail 295-383 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Dark Tree-rat is medium-sized, with glossy dorsal fur of brown tones that contains abundant bristles, with flat spines on mid-back but not over rump. Head and mid-back have typical glossy black color. Under parts are white, white-spotted, or whitish with buff tinge; chin is dark. Tail is ¢.140% of headbody length and densely haired from base to tip. Tail is longitudinally bicolored, with its base glossy black and distal white part of varying length. Ears are short and covered by hairs of head. Hindfeet are brown above, with strong claws on each digit. Some melanistic specimens have been reported in museum collections.","habitat":"Pre-montane and lowland rainforest at elevations of 230-1005 m. Dark Treerats have been camera-trapped on the ground along stream edges, both partially in water or moving either toward or away from a water channel."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC4FFF0FF735EB153B2FCC9.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC4FFF0FF735EB153B2FCC9","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"593","verbatimText":"80.Black ToroToromys grandisFrench:Toromys géant/ German:Schwarze Tororatte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola grandeOther common names:Giant Armored Tree-rat, Giant Tree-ratTaxonomy.Loncheres grandis Wagner, 1845, “vom Amazonenstrom.” Restricted by J. Moojen in 1952 to “Manaquiri, lower Rio Solimoes, Amazonas, Brazil.”Toromys grandiswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Makalata. Monotypic.Distribution.Lower Brazilian Amazon at both sides of the Amazon River, from its confluence with the Rio Negro to its mouth at Caviana I.Descriptive notes.Head—body 303 mm, tail 285 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Black Toro is a large arboreal species. Dorsum and flanks have uniform mix of black and golden guard hairs, with darker mid-dorsum. Venteris yellowish gold, sometimes with median yellowish gold midline; hairs are bicolored, light brown at bases, and golden or yellow at tips. Dorsal pelt has coarse, harsh, flexible, and stiff bristles (aristiforms and setiforms). Head is black, sprinkled with golden tint. Furry tail is 80-90% of head-body length and covered with short black hairs, hiding tail scales. Tail hairs decrease in density from proximal to distal end. Hindfeet are broad and have stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are dark brown or black, sprinkled with gold bicolored hairs. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Plantar and palmar surfaces between pads are covered with tubercular rugosities. Ears are black, rounded, and hairy externally. Skull of the Black Toro is short, robust, and broad. Rostrum is distinguished by typical medial constriction of nasal bones when viewed dorsally. Squamosotympanic fenestra is narrow horizontal slit. It has extended and well-developed supraorbital region, with shelf-like supraorbital edge that curves upon frontal bone. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and situated at mid-part of auditory meatus opening and does not extend beyond lower edge of meatus. Maxillary vein passage is located within foramen. Tympanic bulla is not inflated, with auditory meatus situated high near squamosal bone and with short auditory tubes having outward orientation. Basioccipital is narrow and short. Wide mesopterygoid fossa reach M* and M’ contact zone and make 60° angle with posterior edge of M* lamina. Incisive foramina are short and slit-like. Tooth rows are parallel, with uneven loph size occlusal patterns. Upper cheekteeth are square to rectangular and longer than wide. Tooth row is somewhat longer than in species of Pattonomys. Lower dP, is tetralophodont. On tooth rows, anteroloph, protoloph, and metaloph are connected by slender mure, as in species of Pattonomys. Lowerincisors are not strongly curved, and upperincisors are opisthodont. Angular process of jaw is slender, with well-developped massteric ridge and wide condyle.. theWorld of Mammals the of Handbook632FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 38Species AccountsHabitat.Floodplain and riverine rainforests near sea level.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro is reportedly folivorous.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro is reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro has been reported to nest in tree hollows in riverine habitats.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Black Toro might be affected by deforestation, but it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened habitats in the Amazonian region. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to Black Toro are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons, Leite & Patton (2015b, 2015d), lack-Ximenes et al. (2005), Moojen (1952b), Wagner(1845), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres grandis Wagner, 1845, “vom Amazonenstrom.” Restricted by J. Moojen in 1952 to “Manaquiri, lower Rio Solimoes, Amazonas, Brazil.”Toromys grandiswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Makalata. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Toromys géant @fr | Schwarze Tororatte @de | Rata arboricola grande @es | Giant Armored Tree-rat @en | Giant Tree-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Toromys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"41","interpretedPageNumber":"593","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"grandis","name":"Toromys grandis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Lower Brazilian Amazon at both sides of the Amazon River, from its confluence with the Rio Negro to its mouth at Caviana I.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623860/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons, Leite & Patton (2015b, 2015d) | lack-Ximenes et al. (2005) | Moojen (1952b) | Wagner(1845) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro is reportedly folivorous.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro is reported to be nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black Toro has been reported to nest in tree hollows in riverine habitats.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Black Toro might be affected by deforestation, but it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened habitats in the Amazonian region. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to Black Toro are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 303 mm, tail 285 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Black Toro is a large arboreal species. Dorsum and flanks have uniform mix of black and golden guard hairs, with darker mid-dorsum. Venteris yellowish gold, sometimes with median yellowish gold midline; hairs are bicolored, light brown at bases, and golden or yellow at tips. Dorsal pelt has coarse, harsh, flexible, and stiff bristles (aristiforms and setiforms). Head is black, sprinkled with golden tint. Furry tail is 80-90% of head-body length and covered with short black hairs, hiding tail scales. Tail hairs decrease in density from proximal to distal end. Hindfeet are broad and have stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are dark brown or black, sprinkled with gold bicolored hairs. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Plantar and palmar surfaces between pads are covered with tubercular rugosities. Ears are black, rounded, and hairy externally. Skull of the Black Toro is short, robust, and broad. Rostrum is distinguished by typical medial constriction of nasal bones when viewed dorsally. Squamosotympanic fenestra is narrow horizontal slit. It has extended and well-developed supraorbital region, with shelf-like supraorbital edge that curves upon frontal bone. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and situated at mid-part of auditory meatus opening and does not extend beyond lower edge of meatus. Maxillary vein passage is located within foramen. Tympanic bulla is not inflated, with auditory meatus situated high near squamosal bone and with short auditory tubes having outward orientation. Basioccipital is narrow and short. Wide mesopterygoid fossa reach M* and M’ contact zone and make 60° angle with posterior edge of M* lamina. Incisive foramina are short and slit-like. Tooth rows are parallel, with uneven loph size occlusal patterns. Upper cheekteeth are square to rectangular and longer than wide. Tooth row is somewhat longer than in species of Pattonomys. Lower dP, is tetralophodont. On tooth rows, anteroloph, protoloph, and metaloph are connected by slender mure, as in species of Pattonomys. Lowerincisors are not strongly curved, and upperincisors are opisthodont. Angular process of jaw is slender, with well-developped massteric ridge and wide condyle..","habitat":"Floodplain and riverine rainforests near sea level."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC4FFF3FA74535D58BBF6AC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC4FFF3FA74535D58BBF6AC","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"593","verbatimText":"82.White-faced Tree-ratEchimys chrysurusFrench:Rat-épineux a face blanche/ German:\\WeiRnasen-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cara blancaOther common names:\\White-faced Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Myoxus chrysurus Zimmermann, 1780, “Surinam [= Suriname],” based on Allamand’s (1778) “lérot a queue dorée.”Generic assignment of E. chrysurusvaried extensively in the 18\" and 19™ centuries; it was initially assigned to Hystrix and subsequently to Myoxus, Glis, the South American Loncheres, Nelomysand appropriately to Echimys. Monotypic.Distribution.The Guianas and Guianan region of NE Brazil and E Amazon Basin E of the Rio Negro and N of the Amazon River, but extending S of the Amazon to the E of the Rio Xingu in E Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 242-333 mm, tail 250-395 mm; weight up to 760 g. The White-faced Tree-rat is large, with dark gray-brown dorsum densely covered with large spines from neck to rump. Remainder of pelage is composed ofstiff and harsh bristles. Throat, chin, and inguinal areas are white, and white stripe occurs on chest; all other ventral parts are gray-brown, not very different from upper parts. Pale yellowish to whitish blaze extends down center of head from crown to nose; it may completely cover face, appear as narrow stripe, or otherwise be present only as small white tuft on crown. Eyes are dark brown, with weak typical red eye shine. Cheeks, sides of crown, and chin are usually dark brown or reddish. Ears are small, slightly haired, and brown. Tail is c.120% of head-body length, fully haired from base to tip, and longitudinally bicolored with dusky basal part and white distal end covering two-thirds of its length. Feet are broad, with powerful claws on all digits, and gray-brown above. Skull of the White-faced Treerat is similar among species of Echimys, but quite distinct compared with other genera by virtue of small to medium bullae, small auditory meatus, short auditory tube thatis oriented laterally, and external meatus short and positioned close to squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short; squamosotympanic fenestra is small and nearly circular and located anteriorly compared with auditory meatus; premaxillary septum of incisive foramina is incomplete posteriorly; and jugal fossa is broad and deep below post-orbital process. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge, outside fossa of anterior ascending branch ofjaw. Tooth rows are parallel and rectangular, and very high-crowned cheekteeth are longer than wide. Upper teeth have two U-shaped lophs of similar orientations that fuse with wear. Lower dP, is divided into three lophids: anteroconid-anterolophid, metalophid, and enterolophid-posterolophid. Lower molars are similar to other arboreal echimyids that have sigmoid lophid shapes.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 38Species AccountsHabitat.Mature lowland rainforest, primarily middle and upperstrata, especially vinecovered areas, but also open forest, from sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents and field observations of White-faced Tree-rats indicate a frugivorous—folivorous diet, but some insects are eaten. Analysis of the 6\"°C isotope in White-faced Tree-rats in comparison to more terrestrial rodent species suggested a primary diet of C, plants, with potential consumption ofa significant proportion of arthropods.Breeding.A female White-faced Tree-rat was found with two embryos.Activity patterns.White-faced Tree-rats are strictly arboreal and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.White-faced Tree-rats usually move slowly along branches, but speed increases under duress from human disturbance or predators. Mean distance traveled was estimated at 294 m/night based on tracking data and nest locations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitefaced Tree-rat has a wide distribution, and ease of capture and common sightings by zoologists and general extent ofits natural habitat make it presumably less prone to threats from human activity. Additional ecological studies, however, are encouraged in view ofrarity of specimens in museum collections, preference for mature primary forest, and general lack of focused fieldwork.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Cuvier (1809), Desmarest (1817), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Eisenberg & Thor ington (1973), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840), Gloger (1841-1842), lack-Ximenes et al. (2005), llliger (1811), Jourdan (1837), Link (1795), Mares (1982), Mauffrey (1999), Mauffrey & Catzeflis (2003), Mauffrey et al. (2007), Miles et al. (1981), Miranda-Ribeiro (1914), von Olfers (1818), Patton et al. (2015), Richard-Hansen et al. (1999), von Schreiber (1792), Thomas (1916b), Treviranus (1803), Wagner (1840), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Zimmermann (1780).","taxonomy":"Myoxus chrysurus Zimmermann, 1780, “Surinam [= Suriname],” based on Allamand’s (1778) “lérot a queue dorée.”Generic assignment of E. chrysurusvaried extensively in the 18\" and 19™ centuries; it was initially assigned to Hystrix and subsequently to Myoxus, Glis, the South American Loncheres, Nelomysand appropriately to Echimys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a face blanche @fr | \\Wei Rnasen-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de cara blanca @es | \\White-faced Spiny Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Echimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"41","interpretedPageNumber":"593","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"chrysurus","name":"Echimys chrysurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The Guianas and Guianan region of NE Brazil and E Amazon Basin E of the Rio Negro and N of the Amazon River, but extending S of the Amazon to the E of the Rio Xingu in E Brazil.","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Cuvier (1809) | Desmarest (1817) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Eisenberg & Thor ington (1973) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840) | Gloger (1841-1842) | lack-Ximenes et al. (2005) | llliger (1811) | Jourdan (1837) | Link (1795) | Mares (1982) | Mauffrey (1999) | Mauffrey & Catzeflis (2003) | Mauffrey et al. (2007) | Miles et al. (1981) | Miranda-Ribeiro (1914) | von Olfers (1818) | Patton et al. (2015) | Richard-Hansen et al. (1999) | von Schreiber (1792) | Thomas (1916b) | Treviranus (1803) | Wagner (1840) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Zimmermann (1780)","foodAndFeeding":"Stomach contents and field observations of White-faced Tree-rats indicate a frugivorous—folivorous diet, but some insects are eaten. Analysis of the 6\"°C isotope in White-faced Tree-rats in comparison to more terrestrial rodent species suggested a primary diet of C, plants, with potential consumption ofa significant proportion of arthropods.","breeding":"A female White-faced Tree-rat was found with two embryos.","activityPatterns":"White-faced Tree-rats are strictly arboreal and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"White-faced Tree-rats usually move slowly along branches, but speed increases under duress from human disturbance or predators. Mean distance traveled was estimated at 294 m/night based on tracking data and nest locations.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitefaced Tree-rat has a wide distribution, and ease of capture and common sightings by zoologists and general extent ofits natural habitat make it presumably less prone to threats from human activity. Additional ecological studies, however, are encouraged in view ofrarity of specimens in museum collections, preference for mature primary forest, and general lack of focused fieldwork.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 242-333 mm, tail 250-395 mm; weight up to 760 g. The White-faced Tree-rat is large, with dark gray-brown dorsum densely covered with large spines from neck to rump. Remainder of pelage is composed ofstiff and harsh bristles. Throat, chin, and inguinal areas are white, and white stripe occurs on chest; all other ventral parts are gray-brown, not very different from upper parts. Pale yellowish to whitish blaze extends down center of head from crown to nose; it may completely cover face, appear as narrow stripe, or otherwise be present only as small white tuft on crown. Eyes are dark brown, with weak typical red eye shine. Cheeks, sides of crown, and chin are usually dark brown or reddish. Ears are small, slightly haired, and brown. Tail is c.120% of head-body length, fully haired from base to tip, and longitudinally bicolored with dusky basal part and white distal end covering two-thirds of its length. Feet are broad, with powerful claws on all digits, and gray-brown above. Skull of the White-faced Treerat is similar among species of Echimys, but quite distinct compared with other genera by virtue of small to medium bullae, small auditory meatus, short auditory tube thatis oriented laterally, and external meatus short and positioned close to squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short; squamosotympanic fenestra is small and nearly circular and located anteriorly compared with auditory meatus; premaxillary septum of incisive foramina is incomplete posteriorly; and jugal fossa is broad and deep below post-orbital process. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge, outside fossa of anterior ascending branch ofjaw. Tooth rows are parallel and rectangular, and very high-crowned cheekteeth are longer than wide. Upper teeth have two U-shaped lophs of similar orientations that fuse with wear. Lower dP, is divided into three lophids: anteroconid-anterolophid, metalophid, and enterolophid-posterolophid. Lower molars are similar to other arboreal echimyids that have sigmoid lophid shapes.","habitat":"Mature lowland rainforest, primarily middle and upperstrata, especially vinecovered areas, but also open forest, from sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC4FFF3FA74535D58BBF6AC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC4FFF3FA74535D58BBF6AC","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"593","verbatimText":"82.White-faced Tree-ratEchimys chrysurusFrench:Rat-épineux a face blanche/ German:\\WeiRnasen-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cara blancaOther common names:\\White-faced Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Myoxus chrysurus Zimmermann, 1780, “Surinam [= Suriname],” based on Allamand’s (1778) “lérot a queue dorée.”Generic assignment of E. chrysurusvaried extensively in the 18\" and 19™ centuries; it was initially assigned to Hystrix and subsequently to Myoxus, Glis, the South American Loncheres, Nelomysand appropriately to Echimys. Monotypic.Distribution.The Guianas and Guianan region of NE Brazil and E Amazon Basin E of the Rio Negro and N of the Amazon River, but extending S of the Amazon to the E of the Rio Xingu in E Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 242-333 mm, tail 250-395 mm; weight up to 760 g. The White-faced Tree-rat is large, with dark gray-brown dorsum densely covered with large spines from neck to rump. Remainder of pelage is composed ofstiff and harsh bristles. Throat, chin, and inguinal areas are white, and white stripe occurs on chest; all other ventral parts are gray-brown, not very different from upper parts. Pale yellowish to whitish blaze extends down center of head from crown to nose; it may completely cover face, appear as narrow stripe, or otherwise be present only as small white tuft on crown. Eyes are dark brown, with weak typical red eye shine. Cheeks, sides of crown, and chin are usually dark brown or reddish. Ears are small, slightly haired, and brown. Tail is c.120% of head-body length, fully haired from base to tip, and longitudinally bicolored with dusky basal part and white distal end covering two-thirds of its length. Feet are broad, with powerful claws on all digits, and gray-brown above. Skull of the White-faced Treerat is similar among species of Echimys, but quite distinct compared with other genera by virtue of small to medium bullae, small auditory meatus, short auditory tube thatis oriented laterally, and external meatus short and positioned close to squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short; squamosotympanic fenestra is small and nearly circular and located anteriorly compared with auditory meatus; premaxillary septum of incisive foramina is incomplete posteriorly; and jugal fossa is broad and deep below post-orbital process. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge, outside fossa of anterior ascending branch ofjaw. Tooth rows are parallel and rectangular, and very high-crowned cheekteeth are longer than wide. Upper teeth have two U-shaped lophs of similar orientations that fuse with wear. Lower dP, is divided into three lophids: anteroconid-anterolophid, metalophid, and enterolophid-posterolophid. Lower molars are similar to other arboreal echimyids that have sigmoid lophid shapes.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 38Species AccountsHabitat.Mature lowland rainforest, primarily middle and upperstrata, especially vinecovered areas, but also open forest, from sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents and field observations of White-faced Tree-rats indicate a frugivorous—folivorous diet, but some insects are eaten. Analysis of the 6\"°C isotope in White-faced Tree-rats in comparison to more terrestrial rodent species suggested a primary diet of C, plants, with potential consumption ofa significant proportion of arthropods.Breeding.A female White-faced Tree-rat was found with two embryos.Activity patterns.White-faced Tree-rats are strictly arboreal and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.White-faced Tree-rats usually move slowly along branches, but speed increases under duress from human disturbance or predators. Mean distance traveled was estimated at 294 m/night based on tracking data and nest locations.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitefaced Tree-rat has a wide distribution, and ease of capture and common sightings by zoologists and general extent ofits natural habitat make it presumably less prone to threats from human activity. Additional ecological studies, however, are encouraged in view ofrarity of specimens in museum collections, preference for mature primary forest, and general lack of focused fieldwork.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Cuvier (1809), Desmarest (1817), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Eisenberg & Thor ington (1973), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840), Gloger (1841-1842), lack-Ximenes et al. (2005), llliger (1811), Jourdan (1837), Link (1795), Mares (1982), Mauffrey (1999), Mauffrey & Catzeflis (2003), Mauffrey et al. (2007), Miles et al. (1981), Miranda-Ribeiro (1914), von Olfers (1818), Patton et al. (2015), Richard-Hansen et al. (1999), von Schreiber (1792), Thomas (1916b), Treviranus (1803), Wagner (1840), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Zimmermann (1780).","taxonomy":"Myoxus chrysurus Zimmermann, 1780, “Surinam [= Suriname],” based on Allamand’s (1778) “lérot a queue dorée.”Generic assignment of E. chrysurusvaried extensively in the 18\" and 19™ centuries; it was initially assigned to Hystrix and subsequently to Myoxus, Glis, the South American Loncheres, Nelomysand appropriately to Echimys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a face blanche @fr | \\Wei Rnasen-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de cara blanca @es | \\White-faced Spiny Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Zimmermann","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1780","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Echimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"41","interpretedPageNumber":"593","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"chrysurus","name":"Echimys chrysurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"The Guianas and Guianan region of NE Brazil and E Amazon Basin E of the Rio Negro and N of the Amazon River, but extending S of the Amazon to the E of the Rio Xingu in E Brazil.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623864/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Cuvier (1809) | Desmarest (1817) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Eisenberg & Thor ington (1973) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840) | Gloger (1841-1842) | lack-Ximenes et al. (2005) | llliger (1811) | Jourdan (1837) | Link (1795) | Mares (1982) | Mauffrey (1999) | Mauffrey & Catzeflis (2003) | Mauffrey et al. (2007) | Miles et al. (1981) | Miranda-Ribeiro (1914) | von Olfers (1818) | Patton et al. (2015) | Richard-Hansen et al. (1999) | von Schreiber (1792) | Thomas (1916b) | Treviranus (1803) | Wagner (1840) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Zimmermann (1780)","foodAndFeeding":"Stomach contents and field observations of White-faced Tree-rats indicate a frugivorous—folivorous diet, but some insects are eaten. Analysis of the 6\"°C isotope in White-faced Tree-rats in comparison to more terrestrial rodent species suggested a primary diet of C, plants, with potential consumption ofa significant proportion of arthropods.","breeding":"A female White-faced Tree-rat was found with two embryos.","activityPatterns":"White-faced Tree-rats are strictly arboreal and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"White-faced Tree-rats usually move slowly along branches, but speed increases under duress from human disturbance or predators. Mean distance traveled was estimated at 294 m/night based on tracking data and nest locations.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Whitefaced Tree-rat has a wide distribution, and ease of capture and common sightings by zoologists and general extent ofits natural habitat make it presumably less prone to threats from human activity. Additional ecological studies, however, are encouraged in view ofrarity of specimens in museum collections, preference for mature primary forest, and general lack of focused fieldwork.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 242-333 mm, tail 250-395 mm; weight up to 760 g. The White-faced Tree-rat is large, with dark gray-brown dorsum densely covered with large spines from neck to rump. Remainder of pelage is composed ofstiff and harsh bristles. Throat, chin, and inguinal areas are white, and white stripe occurs on chest; all other ventral parts are gray-brown, not very different from upper parts. Pale yellowish to whitish blaze extends down center of head from crown to nose; it may completely cover face, appear as narrow stripe, or otherwise be present only as small white tuft on crown. Eyes are dark brown, with weak typical red eye shine. Cheeks, sides of crown, and chin are usually dark brown or reddish. Ears are small, slightly haired, and brown. Tail is c.120% of head-body length, fully haired from base to tip, and longitudinally bicolored with dusky basal part and white distal end covering two-thirds of its length. Feet are broad, with powerful claws on all digits, and gray-brown above. Skull of the White-faced Treerat is similar among species of Echimys, but quite distinct compared with other genera by virtue of small to medium bullae, small auditory meatus, short auditory tube thatis oriented laterally, and external meatus short and positioned close to squamosal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short; squamosotympanic fenestra is small and nearly circular and located anteriorly compared with auditory meatus; premaxillary septum of incisive foramina is incomplete posteriorly; and jugal fossa is broad and deep below post-orbital process. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge, outside fossa of anterior ascending branch ofjaw. Tooth rows are parallel and rectangular, and very high-crowned cheekteeth are longer than wide. Upper teeth have two U-shaped lophs of similar orientations that fuse with wear. Lower dP, is divided into three lophids: anteroconid-anterolophid, metalophid, and enterolophid-posterolophid. Lower molars are similar to other arboreal echimyids that have sigmoid lophid shapes.","habitat":"Mature lowland rainforest, primarily middle and upperstrata, especially vinecovered areas, but also open forest, from sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC5FFF0FAE2535359D2F9FB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC5FFF0FAE2535359D2F9FB","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"592","verbatimText":"79.Peruvian ToroToromys rhipidurusFrench:Toromys du Pérou/ German:Peru-Tororatte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de PeruOther common names:Peruvian Armored Tree-rat, Peruvian Tree-ratTaxonomy.Echimys rhipidurus Thomas, 1928, “Pebas, 300° [= 92 m],” Loreto, Peru.Toromys rhipiduruswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Makalata. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazonia in Peru. An unconfirmed record from E Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head—body 210-260 mm, tail 180-215 mm; weight 315 g. The Peruvian Toro is the smallest species of Toromys. Dorsum and flanks have uniform blending of reddish and yellowish brown pelt, abundantly streaked with black hairs. Forequarters and head are grayish or yellowish and slightly contrast with dorsum. Dorsal pelt is glossy and mix of narrow, flexible, and stiff bristles (aristiforms and setiforms), with tips drawn out into hair-like processes. These sharp and flat bristles are lacking from flank and side of body. Rump is sometimes lightly sprinkled with few white speckles and white tipped spines, but it usually lacks white or pale tip spines as seen on species of Pattonomys. Venter is yellowish gold, sometimes with median yellowish gold midline and bicolored hairs, light brown at bases, and golden or yellow at tips. Robust tail is 7095% of head—body length. Tail is covered with short reddish and yellowish brown hairs on first 35 mm ofits length, and glossy black dark brown or grayish bristly hairs subsequently cover it, and tail scales are visible. Hindfeet are short and broad and have stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are dark brown or black and sprinkled with gold bicolored hairs. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Ventral surface of tail base and thighs are bright rust-red to dull. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet, hindfeet, and limbs are rusty or reddish compared with dorsum. Plantar and palmar surfaces between pads are covered with tubercular rugosities. Rounded ears are small and naked. Crania of the Peruvian Toro is similar to that of the Black Toro (1. grandis), differing by its smaller size, broader rostrum, shorter tooth rows, less inflated and smaller auditory bulla, narrower zygomatic arches, smaller basicranium, and wider incisor blade. Additionally, the Peruvian Toro has a petrosal wedge separating the auditory meatus from squamosal bone.Habitat.[Lowland riverine rainforests at elevations from c. 90 m to 160 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Peruvian Toro is reportedly folivorous.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Thereis specific information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Peruvian Toro is arboreal.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to the Peruvian Toro are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons, Leite & Patton (2015b, 2015d), Sanborn (1949), Thomas (1928b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys rhipidurus Thomas, 1928, “Pebas, 300° [= 92 m],” Loreto, Peru.Toromys rhipiduruswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Makalata. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Toromys du Pérou @fr | Peru-Tororatte @de | Rata arboricola de Peru @es | Peruvian Armored Tree-rat @en | Peruvian Tree-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1928","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Toromys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"40","interpretedPageNumber":"592","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rhipidurus","name":"Toromys rhipidurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Amazonia in Peru. An unconfirmed record from E Ecuador.","bibliography":"Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons, Leite & Patton (2015b, 2015d) | Sanborn (1949) | Thomas (1928b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Peruvian Toro is reportedly folivorous.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"Thereis specific information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Peruvian Toro is arboreal.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to the Peruvian Toro are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 210-260 mm, tail 180-215 mm; weight 315 g. The Peruvian Toro is the smallest species of Toromys. Dorsum and flanks have uniform blending of reddish and yellowish brown pelt, abundantly streaked with black hairs. Forequarters and head are grayish or yellowish and slightly contrast with dorsum. Dorsal pelt is glossy and mix of narrow, flexible, and stiff bristles (aristiforms and setiforms), with tips drawn out into hair-like processes. These sharp and flat bristles are lacking from flank and side of body. Rump is sometimes lightly sprinkled with few white speckles and white tipped spines, but it usually lacks white or pale tip spines as seen on species of Pattonomys. Venter is yellowish gold, sometimes with median yellowish gold midline and bicolored hairs, light brown at bases, and golden or yellow at tips. Robust tail is 7095% of head—body length. Tail is covered with short reddish and yellowish brown hairs on first 35 mm ofits length, and glossy black dark brown or grayish bristly hairs subsequently cover it, and tail scales are visible. Hindfeet are short and broad and have stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are dark brown or black and sprinkled with gold bicolored hairs. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Ventral surface of tail base and thighs are bright rust-red to dull. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet, hindfeet, and limbs are rusty or reddish compared with dorsum. Plantar and palmar surfaces between pads are covered with tubercular rugosities. Rounded ears are small and naked. Crania of the Peruvian Toro is similar to that of the Black Toro (1. grandis), differing by its smaller size, broader rostrum, shorter tooth rows, less inflated and smaller auditory bulla, narrower zygomatic arches, smaller basicranium, and wider incisor blade. Additionally, the Peruvian Toro has a petrosal wedge separating the auditory meatus from squamosal bone.","habitat":"[Lowland riverine rainforests at elevations from c. 90 m to 160 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC5FFF1FAE55B2352D0F5DC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC5FFF1FAE55B2352D0F5DC","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"592","verbatimText":"78.Bare-tailed Tree-ratPattonomys occasiusFrench:Rat-épineux a queue nue/ German:Nacktschwanz-Tupfelbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola desnudaOther common names:Bare-tailed Armored Tree-ratTaxonomy. Echimys occasius Thomas, 1921,“Gualea, west of Pichincha. Alt. 4000’ [= 1219 m],” Pichincha, Ecuador. According to L. H. Emmons in 2005, the type locality on the western slope of the Andesis very likely an error.This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin of E Ecuador and E Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 218 mm, tail 225 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Bare-tailed Tree-rat is the smallest and most distinct species of Pattonomys. It has dark buff-brown upper parts, streaked with dark brown. Venter is clear creamy orange, often with white thoracic and abdominal regions. Dorsal pelage is heavily spined, especially over rump. Dark-brown spines are long sharp, flexible, and wide but differ from other species of Pattonomysby having a pale rusty rather than white tips on rump, while remaining completely gray brown on flanks. Spine tips are blunt and lack hair-like process extending from tips. Fine, soft, and sparse orange hairs occur between spines over body. Head is covered with stiff but thin bristles. Ears are short and naked, and muzzle and cheeks are reddish. Vibrissae are fine, thin, and long, with mystacial vibrissae reaching posterior to shoulders. Body hair extends onto base of tail for 10-20 mm; rest oftail is conspicuously naked and scaly. Robusttail is 103-110% of head-body length and dark brown. Thighs and tail base are dull brown. Hindfeet are short and broad and have stout claws; dorsal surface is brown. Females have two pairs of lateral mammae. Skull is smaller than other species of Pattonomys, auditory bullae are not inflated, and supraorbital ridges are very weakly developed.Habitat.l.owland Amazonian rainforest at elevations of 120-575 m (based on fewer than ten specimens in museum collections).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Bare-tailed Tree-rat is likely herbivorous, feeding on fruits, seeds, and other plant materials.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Bare-tailed Tree-rat has been reported to be nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to the Bare-tailed Speckled Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1921c¢, 1928b), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys occasius Thomas, 1921,“Gualea, west of Pichincha. Alt. 4000’ [= 1219 m],” Pichincha, Ecuador. According to L. H. Emmons in 2005, the type locality on the western slope of the Andesis very likely an error.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a queue nue @fr | Nacktschwanz-Tupfelbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola desnuda @es | Bare-tailed Armored Tree-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1921","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Pattonomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"40","interpretedPageNumber":"592","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"occasius","name":"Pattonomys occasius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Amazon Basin of E Ecuador and E Peru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624583/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1921c¢, 1928b) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Bare-tailed Tree-rat is likely herbivorous, feeding on fruits, seeds, and other plant materials.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Bare-tailed Tree-rat has been reported to be nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to the Bare-tailed Speckled Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 218 mm, tail 225 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Bare-tailed Tree-rat is the smallest and most distinct species of Pattonomys. It has dark buff-brown upper parts, streaked with dark brown. Venter is clear creamy orange, often with white thoracic and abdominal regions. Dorsal pelage is heavily spined, especially over rump. Dark-brown spines are long sharp, flexible, and wide but differ from other species of Pattonomysby having a pale rusty rather than white tips on rump, while remaining completely gray brown on flanks. Spine tips are blunt and lack hair-like process extending from tips. Fine, soft, and sparse orange hairs occur between spines over body. Head is covered with stiff but thin bristles. Ears are short and naked, and muzzle and cheeks are reddish. Vibrissae are fine, thin, and long, with mystacial vibrissae reaching posterior to shoulders. Body hair extends onto base of tail for 10-20 mm; rest oftail is conspicuously naked and scaly. Robusttail is 103-110% of head-body length and dark brown. Thighs and tail base are dull brown. Hindfeet are short and broad and have stout claws; dorsal surface is brown. Females have two pairs of lateral mammae. Skull is smaller than other species of Pattonomys, auditory bullae are not inflated, and supraorbital ridges are very weakly developed.","habitat":"l.owland Amazonian rainforest at elevations of 120-575 m (based on fewer than ten specimens in museum collections)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFC5FFF1FFDE510C5223FD71.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFC5FFF1FFDE510C5223FD71","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"592","verbatimText":"77.Orinocan Speckled Tree-ratPattonomys punctatusFrench:Rat-épineux ponctué/ German:Orinoco-Tupfelbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola del OrinocoTaxonomy.Loncheres punctatus Thomas, 1899, “Caicara, Orinoco,” Bolivar, Ven-ezuela.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Middle Orinoco River Basin in C Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 236 mm, tail 233 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is one of the largest species of Pattonomys. Fur is spiny, with wide spines reaching 20 mm over back. Overall color is pale gray, with whitish speckles and rufous tint due to hairs with reddish tips but gray bases. Spines on rump are grayish, white basally and tipped with white. Fur on head is coarsely mixed black and white; ears are covered with fine black hairs around their edges, with small tuft of whitish hairs on antitragus and distinct white post-auricular patch. Venter is white, sharply contrasting from gray flanks. Inner surfaces of thighs are white, and outer ones are gray. Forefeet and hindfeet are gray above, with hindfeet white along medial margins; toes are white. Tail is 96-99% of head-body length, thinly haired with visible scales, and uniformly brown from base to tip, only slightly paler below. Skull has nasals equal in length to premaxillary processes, flattened frontal region, broadly expanded supraoccipital ridges, and narrow rather than spatulate hamular processes. Based on the few available specimens, cranial dimensions of the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat appear to be largest among species of Pattonomys.631Habitat.Mainly tropical dry forests in the upper Los Llanos of the central Orinoco Basin from sea level to elevations of ¢.100 m (based on only a few known localities).Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is probably herbivorous.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is reportedly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935, 1939), Thomas (1899b), Trouessart (1904), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres punctatus Thomas, 1899, “Caicara, Orinoco,” Bolivar, Ven-ezuela.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux ponctué @fr | Orinoco-Tupfelbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola del Orinoco @es | Loncheres punctatus Thomas @en | 1899 @en | “Caicara @en | Orinoco @en | ” Bolivar @en | Ven-ezuela @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1899","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Pattonomys","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"40","interpretedPageNumber":"592","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"punctatus","name":"Pattonomys punctatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Middle Orinoco River Basin in C Venezuela.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623852/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935, 1939) | Thomas (1899b) | Trouessart (1904) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is probably herbivorous.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is reportedly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, ecology, abundance, and conservation threats to Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 236 mm, tail 233 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat is one of the largest species of Pattonomys. Fur is spiny, with wide spines reaching 20 mm over back. Overall color is pale gray, with whitish speckles and rufous tint due to hairs with reddish tips but gray bases. Spines on rump are grayish, white basally and tipped with white. Fur on head is coarsely mixed black and white; ears are covered with fine black hairs around their edges, with small tuft of whitish hairs on antitragus and distinct white post-auricular patch. Venter is white, sharply contrasting from gray flanks. Inner surfaces of thighs are white, and outer ones are gray. Forefeet and hindfeet are gray above, with hindfeet white along medial margins; toes are white. Tail is 96-99% of head-body length, thinly haired with visible scales, and uniformly brown from base to tip, only slightly paler below. Skull has nasals equal in length to premaxillary processes, flattened frontal region, broadly expanded supraoccipital ridges, and narrow rather than spatulate hamular processes. Based on the few available specimens, cranial dimensions of the Orinocan Speckled Tree-rat appear to be largest among species of Pattonomys.","habitat":"Mainly tropical dry forests in the upper Los Llanos of the central Orinoco Basin from sea level to elevations of ¢.100 m (based on only a few known localities)."} @@ -791,77 +791,77 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCBFFFFFFD759A85A8AF32A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCBFFFFFFD759A85A8AF32A","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"590","verbatimText":"71.Central American Rufous Tree-ratDiplomys labilisFrench:Rat-épineux du Panama/ German:Panama-Baumstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de CentroaméricaOther common names:Rufous Soft-furred Spiny-rat, Rufous Tree-ratTaxonomy.Loncheres labilis Bangs, 1901, “San Miguel Island, [Archipiélago de las Perlas], Panama.”Diplomys labilishas been variously placed in the genera Echimysor Phyllomysby early authors; O. Thomas in 1916 was the first to assign it to Diplomys. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D. I. labilis Bangs, 1901— San Miguel I, Pearl Is (off SC Panama).D. l. darlingi Goldman, 1912— from C Panama to the Choco and Antioquia departments of W Colombia and S along Pacific coast to NW Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-body 340 mm, tail 200 mm; weight up to 492 g. The Central American Rufous Tree-rat is larger than the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat (D. caniceps). Its fur is stiff but soft, without bristles or spines. Upper parts are ocherous buff to bright rusty, with some black-tipped hairs. Face has grayish mask. Vibrissae are streaked at bases by distinctive white vertical stripes. Whitish stripe of hairs is present around edge of pinnae and behind ears. Ears are otherwise dark, rounded, and short, divided by large anterior lobe and smaller posterior lobe, edged by small fringe of longer hairs. Vibrissae are long, extending toward shoulders. Ventral colors are quite variable, ranging from dark to pale rufous. Face is marked with small pale spots above eyes, contrasting a black eye ring. Tail is robust, 70-100% of head-body length, unicolored brownish, and covered by short hairs that become longer toward tip. The Central American Rufous Tree-rat has distinct short tuft of hair at tip of tail. Like in the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat,tail scales are not visible beneath hair cover. Hindfeet and front feet are silvery gray above. Skull and teeth of the Central American Rufous Tree-rat are typical of Diplomysbut with three major differences compared with the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat: narrower palate, premaxilla sometimes extending anteriorly beyond the nasals, and tooth rows that are parallel.Habitat.Evergreen and deciduous forests, mangroves, cultivated plantations, and second-growth forests at elevations of 300-1500 m. The arboreal Central American Rufous Tree-rat occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforests of north-western Colombia, southern Panama and northern Ecuador. A study of ectoparasites based on 77 captured specimens indicated preference for disturbed forests near agricultural plots of corn, yucca, coffee, and citrus fruits. It was mainly captured in trees preserved to provide shade for crops. All individuals were obtained from tree holes well above the ground and in trees mainly near rivers and covered with epiphytes that otherwise housed a large arboreal mammal community.Food and Feeding.Captive Central America Rufous Tree-rats in Panama have been reported to feed on leaves, seeds, and fruits, thus suggesting a generalized frugivorous and folivorous diet.Breeding.Female Central American Rufous Tree-rats give birth to precocial large, fully haired, and well-developed young of 30-40 g. One female was found with a near term fetus, weighting 59-5 g, or 12% of her 492g body weight. Pregnant females have been collected in January, March-May, August-September, and November. Recorded litter sizes are 1-2 young (mean 1-2). Nests are built in tree holes.Activity patterns.The Central American Rufous Tree-ratis strictly nocturnal. During the day, individuals sleep individually or in pairs of adults in their tree hole nests.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Central American Rufous Tree-rat has been reported to move slowly and avoid detection by remaining motionless for long time periods. Itis an agile climber. Local people comment that individuals may stick out their heads from their tree holes when disturbed. Central American Rufous Tree-rats have been reported to live in pairs that might travel and forage together at night. Captive individuals have been reported to be very aggressive, especially compared with their more gentle terrestrial and sympatric echimyid relatives, Hoplomysand Proechimys. Central American Rufous Tree-rats emit high-pitched calls when disturbed.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Parasitological surveys in Panama suggest that the Central American Rufous Tree-rat is abundant near disturbed habitat. Because much of its distribution has been logged, additional ecological studies of the Central American Rufous Tree-rat are needed because of its rarity in collections and lack offield studies.Bibliography.Alberico et al. (2000), Allen (1916b), Bangs (1901), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Goldman (1912a, 1912b), Hall (1981), Handley (1966), Méndez (1967), Patton et al. (2015), Paynter (1993), Tesh (1970), Thomas (1916a, 1916b), Tirira (2007), Trouessart (1904), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","taxonomy":"Loncheres labilis Bangs, 1901, “San Miguel Island, [Archipiélago de las Perlas], Panama.”Diplomys labilishas been variously placed in the genera Echimysor Phyllomysby early authors; O. Thomas in 1916 was the first to assign it to Diplomys. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Panama @fr | Panama-Baumstachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de Centroamérica @es | Rufous Soft-furred Spiny-rat @en | Rufous Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bangs","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1901","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Diplomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"38","interpretedPageNumber":"590","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"labilis","name":"Diplomys labilis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"D. I. labilis Bangs, 1901— San Miguel I, Pearl Is (off SC Panama).D. l. darlingi Goldman, 1912— from C Panama to the Choco and Antioquia departments of W Colombia and S along Pacific coast to NW Ecuador.","bibliography":"Alberico et al. (2000) | Allen (1916b) | Bangs (1901) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Goldman (1912a, 1912b) | Hall (1981) | Handley (1966) | Méndez (1967) | Patton et al. (2015) | Paynter (1993) | Tesh (1970) | Thomas (1916a, 1916b) | Tirira (2007) | Trouessart (1904) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Captive Central America Rufous Tree-rats in Panama have been reported to feed on leaves, seeds, and fruits, thus suggesting a generalized frugivorous and folivorous diet.","breeding":"Female Central American Rufous Tree-rats give birth to precocial large, fully haired, and well-developed young of 30-40 g. One female was found with a near term fetus, weighting 59-5 g, or 12% of her 492g body weight. Pregnant females have been collected in January, March-May, August-September, and November. Recorded litter sizes are 1-2 young (mean 1-2). Nests are built in tree holes.","activityPatterns":"The Central American Rufous Tree-ratis strictly nocturnal. During the day, individuals sleep individually or in pairs of adults in their tree hole nests.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Central American Rufous Tree-rat has been reported to move slowly and avoid detection by remaining motionless for long time periods. Itis an agile climber. Local people comment that individuals may stick out their heads from their tree holes when disturbed. Central American Rufous Tree-rats have been reported to live in pairs that might travel and forage together at night. Captive individuals have been reported to be very aggressive, especially compared with their more gentle terrestrial and sympatric echimyid relatives, Hoplomysand Proechimys. Central American Rufous Tree-rats emit high-pitched calls when disturbed.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Parasitological surveys in Panama suggest that the Central American Rufous Tree-rat is abundant near disturbed habitat. Because much of its distribution has been logged, additional ecological studies of the Central American Rufous Tree-rat are needed because of its rarity in collections and lack offield studies.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 340 mm, tail 200 mm; weight up to 492 g. The Central American Rufous Tree-rat is larger than the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat (D. caniceps). Its fur is stiff but soft, without bristles or spines. Upper parts are ocherous buff to bright rusty, with some black-tipped hairs. Face has grayish mask. Vibrissae are streaked at bases by distinctive white vertical stripes. Whitish stripe of hairs is present around edge of pinnae and behind ears. Ears are otherwise dark, rounded, and short, divided by large anterior lobe and smaller posterior lobe, edged by small fringe of longer hairs. Vibrissae are long, extending toward shoulders. Ventral colors are quite variable, ranging from dark to pale rufous. Face is marked with small pale spots above eyes, contrasting a black eye ring. Tail is robust, 70-100% of head-body length, unicolored brownish, and covered by short hairs that become longer toward tip. The Central American Rufous Tree-rat has distinct short tuft of hair at tip of tail. Like in the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat,tail scales are not visible beneath hair cover. Hindfeet and front feet are silvery gray above. Skull and teeth of the Central American Rufous Tree-rat are typical of Diplomysbut with three major differences compared with the Colombian Rufous Tree-rat: narrower palate, premaxilla sometimes extending anteriorly beyond the nasals, and tooth rows that are parallel.","habitat":"Evergreen and deciduous forests, mangroves, cultivated plantations, and second-growth forests at elevations of 300-1500 m. The arboreal Central American Rufous Tree-rat occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforests of north-western Colombia, southern Panama and northern Ecuador. A study of ectoparasites based on 77 captured specimens indicated preference for disturbed forests near agricultural plots of corn, yucca, coffee, and citrus fruits. It was mainly captured in trees preserved to provide shade for crops. All individuals were obtained from tree holes well above the ground and in trees mainly near rivers and covered with epiphytes that otherwise housed a large arboreal mammal community."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCCFFF8FA7F591952B4F790.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCCFFF8FA7F591952B4F790","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"585","verbatimText":"64.Para Spiny Tree-ratMesomys stimulaxFrench:Rat-épineux du Para/ German:Para-Amazonas-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de ParaOther common names:Central Brazil Spiny Tree-rat, Surinam Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Mesomys stimulax Thomas, 1911, “Cameta, Lower Tocantins,”Para, Brazil. Mesomys stimulaxwas considered a subspecies of a polytypic M. hispidusby earlier authors. It is now recognized as a distinct species. Future studies may associate Rio Tapajos populations with M. hispidus; if so, distribution of M. stimulaxwould be limited to the region between Rio Xin-gu and Rio Tocantins. Monotypic.Distribution.E Amazon Basin of Brazil, S of the Amazon River, from the Rio Tapajos to the Rio Tocantins in Para State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 154-196 mm, tail 122-199 mm; weight up to 139 g. The Para Spiny Tree-rat is smaller than most Amazonian populations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys hispidus). It differs from the latter byits buffier and paler overall dorsal pelage and distinct venter with white patches on throat, axilla, chest, and inguinal region; otherwise, belly is fawn colored. Tail is 79-101% of head-body length,is brown along its entire length, and terminates in very short tuft. Ears are short, rounded, and black, surrounded by long hairs. Forefeet and hindfeet are dorsally whitish, without buffy suffusion. Skull of the Para Spiny Tree-rat is small, with smaller proportions compared with western Amazonian populations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat, from which it can be distinguished by its shorter muzzle, nasal sides mesially parallel and narrower anteriorly rather than broader, and smaller tympanic bullae. Holotype has distinct incisive foramina, with premaxillary part converging anteriorly to narrow, straight-sided point and posterior part narrowing to form shallowgrooves on anterior palate. Mesopterygoid fossa is straight-sided rather than bowed outward. Chromosomal complement is identical to that of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat: 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Amazonian rainforest, uniformly in trees of terra firma forests at 4-10 m above the ground from sea level to elevations of ¢.250 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Mesomys stimulax Thomas, 1911, “Cameta, Lower Tocantins,”Para, Brazil. Mesomys stimulaxwas considered a subspecies of a polytypic M. hispidusby earlier authors. It is now recognized as a distinct species. Future studies may associate Rio Tapajos populations with M. hispidus; if so, distribution of M. stimulaxwould be limited to the region between Rio Xin-gu and Rio Tocantins. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Para @fr | Para-Amazonas-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de Para @es | Central Brazil Spiny Tree-rat @en | Surinam Spiny Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"33","interpretedPageNumber":"585","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"stimulax","name":"Mesomys stimulax","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Amazon Basin of Brazil, S of the Amazon River, from the Rio Tapajos to the Rio Tocantins in Para State.","bibliography":"Cabrera (1961) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Orlando et al. (2003) | Patton et al. (2015) | Upham et al. (2013) | Voss et al. (2001) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Amazonian rainforest, uniformly in trees of terra firma forests at 4-10 m above the ground from sea level to elevations of ¢.250 m.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","breeding":"Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. There is no information available for this species Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","activityPatterns":"Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","statusAndConservation":"Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Para Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCNRed List. Widespread forest clear-cutting following spread of roads in eastern Amazonia and increased natural fires may be negatively impacting the Para Spiny Tree-rat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats are needed. Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Voss et al. (2001), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 154-196 mm, tail 122-199 mm; weight up to 139 g. The Para Spiny Tree-rat is smaller than most Amazonian populations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys hispidus). It differs from the latter byits buffier and paler overall dorsal pelage and distinct venter with white patches on throat, axilla, chest, and inguinal region; otherwise, belly is fawn colored. Tail is 79-101% of head-body length,is brown along its entire length, and terminates in very short tuft. Ears are short, rounded, and black, surrounded by long hairs. Forefeet and hindfeet are dorsally whitish, without buffy suffusion. Skull of the Para Spiny Tree-rat is small, with smaller proportions compared with western Amazonian populations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat, from which it can be distinguished by its shorter muzzle, nasal sides mesially parallel and narrower anteriorly rather than broader, and smaller tympanic bullae. Holotype has distinct incisive foramina, with premaxillary part converging anteriorly to narrow, straight-sided point and posterior part narrowing to form shallowgrooves on anterior palate. Mesopterygoid fossa is straight-sided rather than bowed outward. Chromosomal complement is identical to that of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat: 2n = 60 and FN = 116.","habitat":"Amazonian rainforest, uniformly in trees of terra firma forests at 4-10 m above the ground from sea level to elevations of ¢.250 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCCFFF8FF795DDD5935F21F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCCFFF8FF795DDD5935F21F","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"585","verbatimText":"63.Hidden Spiny Tree-ratMesomys occultusFrench:Rat-épineux furtif/ German:Blischelschwanz-Amazonas-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola ocultaOther common names:Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Mesomys occultus Patton, da Silva & Malcolm, 2000, “Colocacao ViraVolta, left bank Rio Jurud on Igarapé Arabidi, affluent of Parana Breu, Amazonas,Brazil (3°17’S, 66°14°'W).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin of W Brazil, S of the Amazon River, in the lower Jurua and Urucu rivers in Amazonas State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 167 mm, tail 183 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Hidden Spiny Tree-rat is sympatric with Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (M. lispidus) at both known localities, sharing substantial morphological similarity but sharply different karyotypes and deeply divergent mtDNA genomes. It is equivalent to Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat in size, color, color pattern, and degree of spine development in dorsal fur, but it differs by its spines on neck and shoulders, with orange mid-bands. Hairs along tail are thin and colorless, and tuft of hairs at tail tip are longer, averaging greater than 30 mm. At base oftail, central pigmented hair of each scale is elongated rather than spine line. Cranially, the Hidden Spiny Treerat is unique in having shorter and wider incisive foramina with shorter premaxillary septum, less conspicuous grooves on anterior palate, and flatter and broader paroccipital processes. Otherwise, skulls of these two sympatric species are exceedingly similar. Four labial folds are present on dP, M', and M?, with the fourth very small and usually lost with wear. M? usually has only three labial folds or, if four, middle two may coalesce into a Y-branched structure. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 54.Habitat.Upland Amazonian rainforest. The Hidden Spiny Tree-rat is arboreal and was collected in trees in terra firma forests, at 1-5, 9-6, and 15-4 m above the ground.Food and Feeding.Diet and foraging habits of the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat are presumably similar to those ofits close relative, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat. These two species are syntopic, living side-by-side in the same local forests; potential competitive interactions involving space use and food overlap warrant detailed study.Breeding.A single pregnant Hidden Spiny Tree-rat, captured in June, had a single embryo with crown—rump length of 35 mmActvity patterns. There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat, but one locality of occurrence is adjacent to an oil drilling station. There might be opposing negative (habitat loss or degradation) or positive (minimization of whole-sale forest clear-cutting) forces affecting the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat. No protected areas are included in its distribution. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (2005), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), Upham et al. (2013), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Mesomys occultus Patton, da Silva & Malcolm, 2000, “Colocacao ViraVolta, left bank Rio Jurud on Igarapé Arabidi, affluent of Parana Breu, Amazonas,Brazil (3°17’S, 66°14°'W).”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux furtif @fr | Blischelschwanz-Amazonas-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola oculta @es | Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Patton, da Silva & Malcolm, 2000","interpretedAuthorityName":"Patton, da Silva & Malcolm","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2000","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"33","interpretedPageNumber":"585","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"occultus","name":"Mesomys occultus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Amazon Basin of W Brazil, S of the Amazon River, in the lower Jurua and Urucu rivers in Amazonas State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623814/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons (2005) | Orlando et al. (2003) | Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet and foraging habits of the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat are presumably similar to those ofits close relative, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat. These two species are syntopic, living side-by-side in the same local forests; potential competitive interactions involving space use and food overlap warrant detailed study.","breeding":"A single pregnant Hidden Spiny Tree-rat, captured in June, had a single embryo with crown—rump length of 35 mmActvity patterns. There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat, but one locality of occurrence is adjacent to an oil drilling station. There might be opposing negative (habitat loss or degradation) or positive (minimization of whole-sale forest clear-cutting) forces affecting the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat. No protected areas are included in its distribution. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 167 mm, tail 183 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Hidden Spiny Tree-rat is sympatric with Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (M. lispidus) at both known localities, sharing substantial morphological similarity but sharply different karyotypes and deeply divergent mtDNA genomes. It is equivalent to Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat in size, color, color pattern, and degree of spine development in dorsal fur, but it differs by its spines on neck and shoulders, with orange mid-bands. Hairs along tail are thin and colorless, and tuft of hairs at tail tip are longer, averaging greater than 30 mm. At base oftail, central pigmented hair of each scale is elongated rather than spine line. Cranially, the Hidden Spiny Treerat is unique in having shorter and wider incisive foramina with shorter premaxillary septum, less conspicuous grooves on anterior palate, and flatter and broader paroccipital processes. Otherwise, skulls of these two sympatric species are exceedingly similar. Four labial folds are present on dP, M', and M?, with the fourth very small and usually lost with wear. M? usually has only three labial folds or, if four, middle two may coalesce into a Y-branched structure. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 54.","habitat":"Upland Amazonian rainforest. The Hidden Spiny Tree-rat is arboreal and was collected in trees in terra firma forests, at 1-5, 9-6, and 15-4 m above the ground."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCCFFFBFA03511B5813F90F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCCFFFBFA03511B5813F90F","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"585","verbatimText":"65.Amazon Bamboo RatDactylomys dactylinusFrench:Coro-coro dAmazonie/ German:Amazonas-Fingerratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu del AmazonasTaxonomy.Echimys dactylinus Desmarest, 1817, no type locality given. Restricted byO. Thomas in 1912 “upper Amazon Area.” Dactylomys dactylinusincludes typus as a synonym. An adequate review of geographical patterning of extensive morphological variation present across the large distribution of D. dactylinushas not been under-taken. Three subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.Subspecies and Distribution.D.d.dactylinusDesmarest,1817—UpperAmazonofSEColombia,SVenezuela,NEPeru,WBrazil,andNWBolivia,butwithundefinedlimits.D.d.canescensThomas,1912—LowerAmazonofC&EBrazil.D. d. modestus.onnberg, 1921— Upper Amazon of E Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head—body 315 mm, tail 389 mm; weight up to 325 g. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is large, with relatively soft furred, yellowish to olivaceous, and characterized by distinct pale mid-facial stripe over muzzle and extending posteriorly between eyes and ears onto nape of neck. Stripe contrasts sharply with grizzled yellowish to blackish dorsum, which in turn is streaked with black hairs. Sides become progressively more fulvous, with posterior outer thighs and sides of base oftail bright burnt orange. Ventral color is whitish, with hairs white to bases. Dorsal hairs are black or chestnut at roots, with subterminal black and pale or yellow tips. Head stripe is paler than that of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis). Long mystacial black vibrissae extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae. Apart from its basal part (first 60 mm oftail), tail is naked, not bicolored at base, covered with large pentagonal scales (5 annuli/cm), and overall ¢.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are colorless and short from furred tail base to tip. Forefeet have four digits, with digits two and three distinctly longer and nails instead of claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Amazon Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch are mainly composed ofjugal bone. In contrast to the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, paroccipital processes of the Amazon Bamboo Rat are oriented vertically and do not closely follow bullar curvature. There is no nerve canal in infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind M?, and upper molar rows diverge antero-posteriorly, with dP* nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 94 and FN = 144.Habitat.Amazonian lowlands in cane thickets, seasonally inundated (varzea) forests, bamboo stands, and multi-strata tropical evergreen forest from sea level to elevations of ¢.300m. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is found at lower elevations than the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, but they both might co-occur in headwater habitats.Food and Feeding.Field observations of foraging Amazon Bamboo Rats indicate that they eat bamboo parts.Breeding.One female Amazon Bamboo Rat was collected on Rio Jurua (Brazil) during the high-water season in June with two embryos, one with crown—rump length of97 mm.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Amazon Bamboo Rat is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Vocalizations of Amazon Bamboo Rats recorded along Rio Jurua consisted of series of 5-10 short staccato pulses. In Ecuador, recorded pulses reached a mean of 42, which were produced during 14second calls. Field observations suggest that Amazon Bamboo Rats are social, with family groups foraging together in single bamboo stands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Amazon Bamboo Ratis widely distributed and is known to occur in a variety of bamboo and riparian forest habitats. It also occurs in several protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1900, 1914b, 1916a), Aniskin (1993), Anthony (1920), Bezerra et al. (2007), Desmarest (1817), Deville (1852), Didier (1962), Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1981, 1984, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838b), Jentink (1891), LaVal (1976), Layne (1960), Linares (1998), Lonnberg (1921), Moraes-Santos et al. (1999), Ojasti et al. (1992), Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), Silva, J.S. & Nunes (2000), da Silva, M.N.F. & Patton (1993, 1998), Thomas (1912b), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys dactylinus Desmarest, 1817, no type locality given. Restricted byO. Thomas in 1912 “upper Amazon Area.” Dactylomys dactylinusincludes typus as a synonym. An adequate review of geographical patterning of extensive morphological variation present across the large distribution of D. dactylinushas not been under-taken. Three subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.","commonNames":"Coro-coro d Amazonie @fr | Amazonas-Fingerratte @de | Rata de bambu del Amazonas @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dactylomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"33","interpretedPageNumber":"585","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dactylinus","name":"Dactylomys dactylinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"D.d.dactylinusDesmarest,1817—UpperAmazonofSEColombia,SVenezuela,NEPeru,WBrazil,andNWBolivia,butwithundefinedlimits.D.d.canescensThomas,1912—LowerAmazonofC&EBrazil.D. d. modestus.onnberg, 1921— Upper Amazon of E Ecuador.","bibliography":"Allen (1900, 1914b, 1916a) | Aniskin (1993) | Anthony (1920) | Bezerra et al. (2007) | Desmarest (1817) | Deville (1852) | Didier (1962) | Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1981, 1984, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838b) | Jentink (1891) | LaVal (1976) | Layne (1960) | Linares (1998) | Lonnberg (1921) | Moraes-Santos et al. (1999) | Ojasti et al. (1992) | Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | Silva, J.S. & Nunes (2000) | da Silva, M.N.F. & Patton (1993, 1998) | Thomas (1912b) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Field observations of foraging Amazon Bamboo Rats indicate that they eat bamboo parts.","breeding":"One female Amazon Bamboo Rat was collected on Rio Jurua (Brazil) during the high-water season in June with two embryos, one with crown—rump length of97 mm.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Amazon Bamboo Rat is nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Vocalizations of Amazon Bamboo Rats recorded along Rio Jurua consisted of series of 5-10 short staccato pulses. In Ecuador, recorded pulses reached a mean of 42, which were produced during 14second calls. Field observations suggest that Amazon Bamboo Rats are social, with family groups foraging together in single bamboo stands.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Amazon Bamboo Ratis widely distributed and is known to occur in a variety of bamboo and riparian forest habitats. It also occurs in several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 315 mm, tail 389 mm; weight up to 325 g. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is large, with relatively soft furred, yellowish to olivaceous, and characterized by distinct pale mid-facial stripe over muzzle and extending posteriorly between eyes and ears onto nape of neck. Stripe contrasts sharply with grizzled yellowish to blackish dorsum, which in turn is streaked with black hairs. Sides become progressively more fulvous, with posterior outer thighs and sides of base oftail bright burnt orange. Ventral color is whitish, with hairs white to bases. Dorsal hairs are black or chestnut at roots, with subterminal black and pale or yellow tips. Head stripe is paler than that of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis). Long mystacial black vibrissae extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae. Apart from its basal part (first 60 mm oftail), tail is naked, not bicolored at base, covered with large pentagonal scales (5 annuli/cm), and overall ¢.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are colorless and short from furred tail base to tip. Forefeet have four digits, with digits two and three distinctly longer and nails instead of claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Amazon Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch are mainly composed ofjugal bone. In contrast to the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, paroccipital processes of the Amazon Bamboo Rat are oriented vertically and do not closely follow bullar curvature. There is no nerve canal in infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind M?, and upper molar rows diverge antero-posteriorly, with dP* nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 94 and FN = 144.","habitat":"Amazonian lowlands in cane thickets, seasonally inundated (varzea) forests, bamboo stands, and multi-strata tropical evergreen forest from sea level to elevations of ¢.300m. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is found at lower elevations than the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, but they both might co-occur in headwater habitats."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCCFFFBFA03511B5813F90F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCCFFFBFA03511B5813F90F","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"585","verbatimText":"65.Amazon Bamboo RatDactylomys dactylinusFrench:Coro-coro dAmazonie/ German:Amazonas-Fingerratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu del AmazonasTaxonomy.Echimys dactylinus Desmarest, 1817, no type locality given. Restricted byO. Thomas in 1912 “upper Amazon Area.” Dactylomys dactylinusincludes typus as a synonym. An adequate review of geographical patterning of extensive morphological variation present across the large distribution of D. dactylinushas not been under-taken. Three subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.Subspecies and Distribution.D.d.dactylinusDesmarest,1817—UpperAmazonofSEColombia,SVenezuela,NEPeru,WBrazil,andNWBolivia,butwithundefinedlimits.D.d.canescensThomas,1912—LowerAmazonofC&EBrazil.D. d. modestus.onnberg, 1921— Upper Amazon of E Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head—body 315 mm, tail 389 mm; weight up to 325 g. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is large, with relatively soft furred, yellowish to olivaceous, and characterized by distinct pale mid-facial stripe over muzzle and extending posteriorly between eyes and ears onto nape of neck. Stripe contrasts sharply with grizzled yellowish to blackish dorsum, which in turn is streaked with black hairs. Sides become progressively more fulvous, with posterior outer thighs and sides of base oftail bright burnt orange. Ventral color is whitish, with hairs white to bases. Dorsal hairs are black or chestnut at roots, with subterminal black and pale or yellow tips. Head stripe is paler than that of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis). Long mystacial black vibrissae extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae. Apart from its basal part (first 60 mm oftail), tail is naked, not bicolored at base, covered with large pentagonal scales (5 annuli/cm), and overall ¢.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are colorless and short from furred tail base to tip. Forefeet have four digits, with digits two and three distinctly longer and nails instead of claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Amazon Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch are mainly composed ofjugal bone. In contrast to the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, paroccipital processes of the Amazon Bamboo Rat are oriented vertically and do not closely follow bullar curvature. There is no nerve canal in infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind M?, and upper molar rows diverge antero-posteriorly, with dP* nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 94 and FN = 144.Habitat.Amazonian lowlands in cane thickets, seasonally inundated (varzea) forests, bamboo stands, and multi-strata tropical evergreen forest from sea level to elevations of ¢.300m. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is found at lower elevations than the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, but they both might co-occur in headwater habitats.Food and Feeding.Field observations of foraging Amazon Bamboo Rats indicate that they eat bamboo parts.Breeding.One female Amazon Bamboo Rat was collected on Rio Jurua (Brazil) during the high-water season in June with two embryos, one with crown—rump length of97 mm.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Amazon Bamboo Rat is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Vocalizations of Amazon Bamboo Rats recorded along Rio Jurua consisted of series of 5-10 short staccato pulses. In Ecuador, recorded pulses reached a mean of 42, which were produced during 14second calls. Field observations suggest that Amazon Bamboo Rats are social, with family groups foraging together in single bamboo stands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Amazon Bamboo Ratis widely distributed and is known to occur in a variety of bamboo and riparian forest habitats. It also occurs in several protected areas.Bibliography.Allen (1900, 1914b, 1916a), Aniskin (1993), Anthony (1920), Bezerra et al. (2007), Desmarest (1817), Deville (1852), Didier (1962), Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1981, 1984, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838b), Jentink (1891), LaVal (1976), Layne (1960), Linares (1998), Lonnberg (1921), Moraes-Santos et al. (1999), Ojasti et al. (1992), Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), Silva, J.S. & Nunes (2000), da Silva, M.N.F. & Patton (1993, 1998), Thomas (1912b), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys dactylinus Desmarest, 1817, no type locality given. Restricted byO. Thomas in 1912 “upper Amazon Area.” Dactylomys dactylinusincludes typus as a synonym. An adequate review of geographical patterning of extensive morphological variation present across the large distribution of D. dactylinushas not been under-taken. Three subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.","commonNames":"Coro-coro d Amazonie @fr | Amazonas-Fingerratte @de | Rata de bambu del Amazonas @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dactylomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"33","interpretedPageNumber":"585","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dactylinus","name":"Dactylomys dactylinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"D.d.dactylinusDesmarest,1817—UpperAmazonofSEColombia,SVenezuela,NEPeru,WBrazil,andNWBolivia,butwithundefinedlimits.D.d.canescensThomas,1912—LowerAmazonofC&EBrazil.D. d. modestus.onnberg, 1921— Upper Amazon of E Ecuador.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623816/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1900, 1914b, 1916a) | Aniskin (1993) | Anthony (1920) | Bezerra et al. (2007) | Desmarest (1817) | Deville (1852) | Didier (1962) | Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1981, 1984, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838b) | Jentink (1891) | LaVal (1976) | Layne (1960) | Linares (1998) | Lonnberg (1921) | Moraes-Santos et al. (1999) | Ojasti et al. (1992) | Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | Silva, J.S. & Nunes (2000) | da Silva, M.N.F. & Patton (1993, 1998) | Thomas (1912b) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Field observations of foraging Amazon Bamboo Rats indicate that they eat bamboo parts.","breeding":"One female Amazon Bamboo Rat was collected on Rio Jurua (Brazil) during the high-water season in June with two embryos, one with crown—rump length of97 mm.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Amazon Bamboo Rat is nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Vocalizations of Amazon Bamboo Rats recorded along Rio Jurua consisted of series of 5-10 short staccato pulses. In Ecuador, recorded pulses reached a mean of 42, which were produced during 14second calls. Field observations suggest that Amazon Bamboo Rats are social, with family groups foraging together in single bamboo stands.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Amazon Bamboo Ratis widely distributed and is known to occur in a variety of bamboo and riparian forest habitats. It also occurs in several protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 315 mm, tail 389 mm; weight up to 325 g. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is large, with relatively soft furred, yellowish to olivaceous, and characterized by distinct pale mid-facial stripe over muzzle and extending posteriorly between eyes and ears onto nape of neck. Stripe contrasts sharply with grizzled yellowish to blackish dorsum, which in turn is streaked with black hairs. Sides become progressively more fulvous, with posterior outer thighs and sides of base oftail bright burnt orange. Ventral color is whitish, with hairs white to bases. Dorsal hairs are black or chestnut at roots, with subterminal black and pale or yellow tips. Head stripe is paler than that of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis). Long mystacial black vibrissae extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae. Apart from its basal part (first 60 mm oftail), tail is naked, not bicolored at base, covered with large pentagonal scales (5 annuli/cm), and overall ¢.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are colorless and short from furred tail base to tip. Forefeet have four digits, with digits two and three distinctly longer and nails instead of claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Amazon Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch are mainly composed ofjugal bone. In contrast to the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, paroccipital processes of the Amazon Bamboo Rat are oriented vertically and do not closely follow bullar curvature. There is no nerve canal in infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind M?, and upper molar rows diverge antero-posteriorly, with dP* nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 94 and FN = 144.","habitat":"Amazonian lowlands in cane thickets, seasonally inundated (varzea) forests, bamboo stands, and multi-strata tropical evergreen forest from sea level to elevations of ¢.300m. The Amazon Bamboo Rat is found at lower elevations than the Bolivian Bamboo Rat, but they both might co-occur in headwater habitats."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCDFFF8FADC52EE5B85FA1F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCDFFF8FADC52EE5B85FA1F","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"584","verbatimText":"62.Long-haired Spiny Tree-ratMesomys lenicepsFrench:Rat-épineux du Pérou/ German:LanghaarAmazonas-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de pelo largoOther common names:Peru Spiny Tree-rat, Woolly-headed Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Mesomys leniceps Thomas, 1926, “Yambrashbamba, Amazonas, 1830 m,” Peru. Mesomys lenicepsmay only represent a regional variant of the widespread M. hispidus. Monotypic.Distribution.E Andean slopes of N Peru (Amazonas and San Martin regions).Descriptive notes.Head-body 180 mm, tail 214 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat has brownish and rusty-red dorsal fur that is not as spiny as other species of Mesomys. Spines average 20 mm in length, are freely mixed with softer hairs within the fur, and lack distinct pale tips of other speciesof Mesomys. Head of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is hairier than back, slightly “hispid” to the touch. Venter is hairier, rich ocherous overall but with large white patches in axillary and inguinal areas. Forefeet and hindfeet are pale buff above with white digits. Tail is 118% of head-body length and brown along its length; body hair extends farther onto base oftail than in other species (25 mm on average). Tail scales are also smaller, and scalar hairs are more appressed to the shaft. Long tuft of hairs extends distally from tail tip. Skull of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is similar to those of the Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat and other species of Mesomysbut differs from the latter in several features, including more slender rostrum, nasals that do not extend behind premaxillary process, incisive foramina that are posteriorly narrowed,jugal and frontal bones around anterior orbital foramina slender such that height of zygoma itself is distinctly narrower, anteroposteriorly divergent molar tooth rows, and cheekteeth that decrease notably in size from dP* to M” Habitat.Known only from upper montane rainforest on the eastern slope of the northern Andes in Peru at elevations of 1554-1980 m.ts.= day.* if LeFood and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Habitats in vicinity ofthe type locality of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat are under strong pressure from human expansion and related logging activities. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Long Haired Spiny Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1926b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Upham et al. (2013), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Mesomys leniceps Thomas, 1926, “Yambrashbamba, Amazonas, 1830 m,” Peru. Mesomys lenicepsmay only represent a regional variant of the widespread M. hispidus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Pérou @fr | Langhaar Amazonas-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de pelo largo @es | Peru Spiny Tree-rat @en | Woolly-headed Spiny Tree-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1926","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"584","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leniceps","name":"Mesomys leniceps","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Andean slopes of N Peru (Amazonas and San Martin regions).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623810/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1926b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. Breeding.There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat likely has omnivorous to herbivorous habits of its congeners. There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Habitats in vicinity ofthe type locality of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat are under strong pressure from human expansion and related logging activities. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Long Haired Spiny Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 180 mm, tail 214 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat has brownish and rusty-red dorsal fur that is not as spiny as other species of Mesomys. Spines average 20 mm in length, are freely mixed with softer hairs within the fur, and lack distinct pale tips of other speciesof Mesomys. Head of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is hairier than back, slightly “hispid” to the touch. Venter is hairier, rich ocherous overall but with large white patches in axillary and inguinal areas. Forefeet and hindfeet are pale buff above with white digits. Tail is 118% of head-body length and brown along its length; body hair extends farther onto base oftail than in other species (25 mm on average). Tail scales are also smaller, and scalar hairs are more appressed to the shaft. Long tuft of hairs extends distally from tail tip.","habitat":"of Mesomys. Head of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is hairier than back, slightly “hispid” to the touch. Venter is hairier, rich ocherous overall but with large white patches in axillary and inguinal areas. Forefeet and hindfeet are pale buff above with white digits. Tail is 118% of head-body length and brown along its length; body hair extends farther onto base oftail than in other species (25 mm on average). Tail scales are also smaller, and scalar hairs are more appressed to the shaft. Long tuft of hairs extends distally from tail tip. Skull of the Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat is similar to those of the Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat and other species of Mesomysbut differs from the latter in several features, including more slender rostrum, nasals that do not extend behind premaxillary process, incisive foramina that are posteriorly narrowed,jugal and frontal bones around anterior orbital foramina slender such that height of zygoma itself is distinctly narrower, anteroposteriorly divergent molar tooth rows, and cheekteeth that decrease notably in size from dP* to M” Known only from upper montane rainforest on the eastern slope of the northern Andes in Peru at elevations of 1554-1980 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCDFFF9FFDA53835D0CF536.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCDFFF9FFDA53835D0CF536","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"584","verbatimText":"61.Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-ratMesomys hispidusFrench:Rat-épineux arboricole/ German:Amazonas-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de FerreiraOther common names:Spiny Tree-ratTaxonomy.Echimys hispidus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1939 to “Borba, Rio Madeira, Brazil.”Mesomys hispidusincludes ecaudatus, named byJ. A. Wagner in 1845, ferrugineus named by A. Gunther in 1877, and spicatus named by O. Thomas in 1924. This highly variable and geographically widespread speciesis subdivided into at least six reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades that differ in certain morphological attributes. A thorough evaluation of character variation is thus likely to elevate several of these geographical units to species status, some of which may correspond to currently available names now regarded as synonyms, while others will need formal description. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin from S & E Colombia, S Venezuela, E Ecuador, E Peru, and N Bolivia, E through Brazil to Rio Tapajos (S of the Amazon River), but to the Atlantic seaboard in Amapa State and the Guianas N ofthis river.Descriptive notes.Head-body 171-186 mm, tail 160-192 mm; weight up to 160 g. Sizes of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats vary substantially, being smaller in the Guianan part of its distribution (mean headbody 161 mm) and becoming much larger in western Amazonia (head-body 178-186 mm). Otherwise, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is characterized overall by spiny dorsal fur and long, moderately hairy tail that terminates in short hairy tuft 5-21 mm in length. Upper parts are uniform pale to medium brown, with mid-back often streaked with black. Pelage consists of very conspicuous short, wide, flat, but flexible spines from shoulder to rump, each with pale tip. Eyes are large, and eye shine is moderately bright yellow. Vibrissae are long and fine, reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Tail is robust, uniformly brown, and thinly covered with long, red-brown hairs that do not hide scales. Under parts are uniformly pinkish orange, contrasting sharply with color of sides. Hindfeet are short and broad, each digit has sharp and strongly curved claw, and soles are pink and have large plantar pads. Skulls ofall species of Mesomysare similar to that of the Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat (Lonchothrix emiliae), with short and robust but proportionally narrower rostrum, parallel-sided nasal bones, and low-crowned, rounded cheekteeth with lateral folds that isolate into fossettes with wear. Skull of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is very similar to that of the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat (M. occultus), except that it has proportionally shorter rostrum and palate, longer and narrower incisive foramina that have an absolutely longer premaxillary septum, and dP*~ M* with more strongly developed fourth fold. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Submontane and lowland Amazonian rainforests and montane forest on the eastern Andean slopes in Peru, more commonly in upland flooded forest than in the varzea seasonally flooded plain in Rio Jurua region in Brazil, and semideciduous forest in Bolivia, from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Nearly 97% of all captures atsites along the Rio Jurud were in canopy traps, only 3% were trapped on the ground. Thus, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is predominantly an arboreal specialist that lives in a variety of forest types, including natural and human-disturbed habitats where some arboreal components remain. It may also be common near fallen logs and in villages close to forests where individuals can be found in house rafters.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats include insects, plant materials, and fruit pulp. Intestines are proportionally shorter than those of the echimyid bamboo specialists (Dactylomys) or Atlantic Forest herbivores (Phyllomys).Breeding.Litters of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats have 1-3 young, but most females have single young. Pregnant females were caught throughout the year at localities along the Rio Jurua (Brazil). Male adults consistently had enlarged testes averaging 20 x 9 mm and swollen vesicular glands (18 mm in length); in contrast, testes ofjuveniles maximally measured 10 x 5 mm and vesicular glands were less than 10 mm long.Activity patterns.Trapping data and direct observations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats indicate that it is nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including human-disturbed landscapes that retain some tree cover, and even in human dwellings. Its distribution also encompasses several large national parks or other protected areas, especially in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. Detailed field studies focused on life history, behavior, and other aspects of population ecology are needed. Effort should be directed to delineating species limits within this broadly distributed and highly variable taxon.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Cabrera (1961), Desmarest (1817), Eisenberg (1989), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Fischer (1829), Goeldi (1897), Giinther (1877a), Handley (1976), Hice & Velazco (2012), Leal-Mesquita (1991), Orlando et al. (2003), Patton, Pardifas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (1994, 2000), Stephens & Traylor (1983), Tate (1935, 1939), Thomas (1924b), Voss et al. (2001), Wagner (1843, 1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys hispidus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by G. H. H. Tate in 1939 to “Borba, Rio Madeira, Brazil.”Mesomys hispidusincludes ecaudatus, named byJ. A. Wagner in 1845, ferrugineus named by A. Gunther in 1877, and spicatus named by O. Thomas in 1924. This highly variable and geographically widespread speciesis subdivided into at least six reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades that differ in certain morphological attributes. A thorough evaluation of character variation is thus likely to elevate several of these geographical units to species status, some of which may correspond to currently available names now regarded as synonyms, while others will need formal description. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux arboricole @fr | Amazonas-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de Ferreira @es | Spiny Tree-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"32","interpretedPageNumber":"584","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hispidus","name":"Mesomys hispidus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin from S & E Colombia, S Venezuela, E Ecuador, E Peru, and N Bolivia, E through Brazil to Rio Tapajos (S of the Amazon River), but to the Atlantic seaboard in Amapa State and the Guianas N ofthis river.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623812/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Cabrera (1961) | Desmarest (1817) | Eisenberg (1989) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Fischer (1829) | Goeldi (1897) | Giinther (1877a) | Handley (1976) | Hice & Velazco (2012) | Leal-Mesquita (1991) | Orlando et al. (2003) | Patton, Pardifas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (1994, 2000) | Stephens & Traylor (1983) | Tate (1935, 1939) | Thomas (1924b) | Voss et al. (2001) | Wagner (1843, 1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Stomach contents of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats include insects, plant materials, and fruit pulp. Intestines are proportionally shorter than those of the echimyid bamboo specialists (Dactylomys) or Atlantic Forest herbivores (Phyllomys).","breeding":"Litters of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats have 1-3 young, but most females have single young. Pregnant females were caught throughout the year at localities along the Rio Jurua (Brazil). Male adults consistently had enlarged testes averaging 20 x 9 mm and swollen vesicular glands (18 mm in length); in contrast, testes ofjuveniles maximally measured 10 x 5 mm and vesicular glands were less than 10 mm long.","activityPatterns":"Trapping data and direct observations of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats indicate that it is nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including human-disturbed landscapes that retain some tree cover, and even in human dwellings. Its distribution also encompasses several large national parks or other protected areas, especially in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. Detailed field studies focused on life history, behavior, and other aspects of population ecology are needed. Effort should be directed to delineating species limits within this broadly distributed and highly variable taxon.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 171-186 mm, tail 160-192 mm; weight up to 160 g. Sizes of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rats vary substantially, being smaller in the Guianan part of its distribution (mean headbody 161 mm) and becoming much larger in western Amazonia (head-body 178-186 mm). Otherwise, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is characterized overall by spiny dorsal fur and long, moderately hairy tail that terminates in short hairy tuft 5-21 mm in length. Upper parts are uniform pale to medium brown, with mid-back often streaked with black. Pelage consists of very conspicuous short, wide, flat, but flexible spines from shoulder to rump, each with pale tip. Eyes are large, and eye shine is moderately bright yellow. Vibrissae are long and fine, reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Tail is robust, uniformly brown, and thinly covered with long, red-brown hairs that do not hide scales. Under parts are uniformly pinkish orange, contrasting sharply with color of sides. Hindfeet are short and broad, each digit has sharp and strongly curved claw, and soles are pink and have large plantar pads. Skulls ofall species of Mesomysare similar to that of the Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat (Lonchothrix emiliae), with short and robust but proportionally narrower rostrum, parallel-sided nasal bones, and low-crowned, rounded cheekteeth with lateral folds that isolate into fossettes with wear. Skull of Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is very similar to that of the Hidden Spiny Tree-rat (M. occultus), except that it has proportionally shorter rostrum and palate, longer and narrower incisive foramina that have an absolutely longer premaxillary septum, and dP*~ M* with more strongly developed fourth fold. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 116.","habitat":"Submontane and lowland Amazonian rainforests and montane forest on the eastern Andean slopes in Peru, more commonly in upland flooded forest than in the varzea seasonally flooded plain in Rio Jurua region in Brazil, and semideciduous forest in Bolivia, from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Nearly 97% of all captures atsites along the Rio Jurud were in canopy traps, only 3% were trapped on the ground. Thus, Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat is predominantly an arboreal specialist that lives in a variety of forest types, including natural and human-disturbed habitats where some arboreal components remain. It may also be common near fallen logs and in villages close to forests where individuals can be found in house rafters."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCEFFFAFF6C5DF35D58F61F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCEFFFAFF6C5DF35D58F61F","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"587","verbatimText":"68.Atlantic Bamboo RatKannabateomys amblyonyxFrench: Rat-épineux des bambous / German: Bambus-Fingerratte / Spanish: Rata de bambu atléanticaOther common names: Southern Bamboo RatTaxonomy. Dactylomys amblyonyx Wagner, 1845, “ Ypanema.” Restricted by L. P. Costa and colleagues in 2003 to Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookHabitat.Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).Food and Feeding.Most important food items of Atlantic Bamboo Rats include large terminal or small lateral shoots, dry bamboo stems or sheets and leaves, or small green branches. They can consume 100 g (fresh weight) of bamboo tissues per night—a food rich in water and cyanide toxins and low nutritive content. While feeding, individuals remove outer, hard, and spiny sheet from culms using their incisors while holding branches with specialized hands and feet, and subsequently consuming inner tissues of shoots by directed chewing. They also forage on dry, spineless sheets found at bases of lateral branches, holding them with their forefeet while chewing. Leaves are cut at petioles from bases of lateral branches with incisors, while holding the branch with one hand, and then held by the other forefoot during consumption. A large shoot can weight 1600 g (including sheet) and at least one-fourth of the inner part can be eaten in a single night. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat has a simple, acidic stomach to detoxify bamboo cyanides. These bamboo rats can be located at night from piles of partially consumed bamboo materials that have fallen on the ground and by grinding sounds made while an individual masticates hard materials.Breeding.Young Atlantic Bamboo Rats are born precocial and large-sized. One 600g female was found with two near-term embryos weighting 60 g and 62 g in February. Juveniles have delayed dispersal, staying in parents’ home ranges until near or at adult size. Individuals usually build large nests in bamboo thickets, although no such nests are apparently constructed with any introduced bamboo species in Brazil.Activity patterns.Atlantic Bamboo Rats are arboreal and mainly active at night, but they have been observed feeding and calling at sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Atlantic Bamboo Rats are agile and rapid climbers, moving through complex bamboo by grasping stems and shoots with their specialized hands and feet. Mean distance traveled per night was 259 m using radio-telemetry. Large bamboo nests may serve as diurnal restsites, but individuals have also been observed perched and resting on horizontal branches. Some rare radiotracked individuals were observed at bases of bamboo clumps well below their normal rest sites, possibly to avoid predators (e.g. capuchin monkeys, Cebus sp.). In the Biological Reserve of Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State (south-eastern Brazil), home ranges are 0-09 ha for males and 0-06 ha for females. Densities reached 1-5 ind/km?, Only one radio-tracked male had a home range of 0-16 ha. Males and females used an average of 3-5 restsites, with two sites used less than 50% of the time. These rest sites were usually located at extreme perimeters of home ranges. Some radio-tracked Atlantic Bamboo Rats opportunistically expanded their home ranges when individuals in adjoining home ranges were removed. In Rio Grande do Sul State of southern Brazil, density was estimated at 4-3 ind/km?. Individuals are usually difficult to locate in the canopy and are rarely seen below 3 m. Most reported sightings result from vocalizations or noise generated by feeding individuals. Usually individual callers sat at culms and produced sounds, while throwing muzzles forward at each note. Calling is most common during the night but sometimes begins at sunset. Calls are characterized by series of similar notes produced over similar time intervals. Frequency of these calls is 4 kHz, each note is 0-2 seconds long, and vocalizations might last from less than a second to several minutes. Role of vocalizations is not clearly understood, but it is likely related to predator presence or space and resource defense. Atlantic Bamboo Rats mainly rely on slowly renewed and sparsely dispersed large bamboo shoots, and males and females are likely territorial, particularly females during pregnancy and lactation. Atlantic Bamboo Rats are thought to be socially monogamous, expressed in part by reduced sexual polymorphism, bi-parental care, and delayedjuvenile dispersal. After weaning, both sexes show parental care including food provisioning, grooming, and huddling. Monogamy, however, might be flexible depending on availabilities of food resources because females have reduced home ranges and are confined to widely spaced bamboo patches—two attributes that decrease possible male defense and might promote polygamy. Extensive bi-parental care might also reduce risk of inexperienced young falling from trees and increase availability of low-energy bamboo food.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat is rarely seen, difficult to locate, and even more difficult to trap. It has been reported to colonize new areas with introduced bamboo species and where little natural vegetation persists, but most museum specimens come from primary or secondary forests in highland areas. In view of a highly specialized bamboo-related ecology, this endemic Atlantic Forest species requires additional surveys and research to document possible conservation needs.Bibliography.Costa et al. (2003), Crespo (1982), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Franceschi et al. (2008), Hensel (1872a), Jentink (1891), Kierulff et al. (1991), Leite & Patton (2002), Olmos (1992), Olmos et al. (1993), Patton et al. (2015), da Silva, FA. (2014), da Silva, FA. et al. (2012), Silva, L.EB.M. (1993), Silva, R.B. et al. (2008), Stallings et al. (1994), Tate (1935), Thomas (1903b), Wagner (1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Dactylomys amblyonyx Wagner, 1845, “ Ypanema.” Restricted by L. P. Costa and colleagues in 2003 to Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.Two subspecies are recognized.","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Kannabateomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"587","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"amblyonyx","name":"Kannabateomys amblyonyx","subspeciesAndDistribution":"K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.","bibliography":"Costa et al. (2003) | Crespo (1982) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Franceschi et al. (2008) | Hensel (1872a) | Jentink (1891) | Kierulff et al. (1991) | Leite & Patton (2002) | Olmos (1992) | Olmos et al. (1993) | Patton et al. (2015) | da Silva, FA. (2014) | da Silva, FA. et al. (2012) | Silva, L.EB.M. (1993) | Silva, R.B. et al. (2008) | Stallings et al. (1994) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1903b) | Wagner (1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookHabitat.Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).Most important food items of Atlantic Bamboo Rats include large terminal or small lateral shoots, dry bamboo stems or sheets and leaves, or small green branches. They can consume 100 g (fresh weight) of bamboo tissues per night—a food rich in water and cyanide toxins and low nutritive content. While feeding, individuals remove outer, hard, and spiny sheet from culms using their incisors while holding branches with specialized hands and feet, and subsequently consuming inner tissues of shoots by directed chewing. They also forage on dry, spineless sheets found at bases of lateral branches, holding them with their forefeet while chewing. Leaves are cut at petioles from bases of lateral branches with incisors, while holding the branch with one hand, and then held by the other forefoot during consumption. A large shoot can weight 1600 g (including sheet) and at least one-fourth of the inner part can be eaten in a single night. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat has a simple, acidic stomach to detoxify bamboo cyanides. These bamboo rats can be located at night from piles of partially consumed bamboo materials that have fallen on the ground and by grinding sounds made while an individual masticates hard materials.","breeding":"Young Atlantic Bamboo Rats are born precocial and large-sized. One 600g female was found with two near-term embryos weighting 60 g and 62 g in February. Juveniles have delayed dispersal, staying in parents’ home ranges until near or at adult size. Individuals usually build large nests in bamboo thickets, although no such nests are apparently constructed with any introduced bamboo species in Brazil.","activityPatterns":"Atlantic Bamboo Rats are arboreal and mainly active at night, but they have been observed feeding and calling at sunset.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Atlantic Bamboo Rats are agile and rapid climbers, moving through complex bamboo by grasping stems and shoots with their specialized hands and feet. Mean distance traveled per night was 259 m using radio-telemetry. Large bamboo nests may serve as diurnal restsites, but individuals have also been observed perched and resting on horizontal branches. Some rare radiotracked individuals were observed at bases of bamboo clumps well below their normal rest sites, possibly to avoid predators (e.g. capuchin monkeys, Cebus sp.). In the Biological Reserve of Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State (south-eastern Brazil), home ranges are 0-09 ha for males and 0-06 ha for females. Densities reached 1-5 ind/km?, Only one radio-tracked male had a home range of 0-16 ha. Males and females used an average of 3-5 restsites, with two sites used less than 50% of the time. These rest sites were usually located at extreme perimeters of home ranges. Some radio-tracked Atlantic Bamboo Rats opportunistically expanded their home ranges when individuals in adjoining home ranges were removed. In Rio Grande do Sul State of southern Brazil, density was estimated at 4-3 ind/km?. Individuals are usually difficult to locate in the canopy and are rarely seen below 3 m. Most reported sightings result from vocalizations or noise generated by feeding individuals. Usually individual callers sat at culms and produced sounds, while throwing muzzles forward at each note. Calling is most common during the night but sometimes begins at sunset. Calls are characterized by series of similar notes produced over similar time intervals. Frequency of these calls is 4 kHz, each note is 0-2 seconds long, and vocalizations might last from less than a second to several minutes. Role of vocalizations is not clearly understood, but it is likely related to predator presence or space and resource defense. Atlantic Bamboo Rats mainly rely on slowly renewed and sparsely dispersed large bamboo shoots, and males and females are likely territorial, particularly females during pregnancy and lactation. Atlantic Bamboo Rats are thought to be socially monogamous, expressed in part by reduced sexual polymorphism, bi-parental care, and delayedjuvenile dispersal. After weaning, both sexes show parental care including food provisioning, grooming, and huddling. Monogamy, however, might be flexible depending on availabilities of food resources because females have reduced home ranges and are confined to widely spaced bamboo patches—two attributes that decrease possible male defense and might promote polygamy. Extensive bi-parental care might also reduce risk of inexperienced young falling from trees and increase availability of low-energy bamboo food.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat is rarely seen, difficult to locate, and even more difficult to trap. It has been reported to colonize new areas with introduced bamboo species and where little natural vegetation persists, but most museum specimens come from primary or secondary forests in highland areas. In view of a highly specialized bamboo-related ecology, this endemic Atlantic Forest species requires additional surveys and research to document possible conservation needs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126..","habitat":"Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCEFFFAFF6C5DF35D58F61F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCEFFFAFF6C5DF35D58F61F","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"587","verbatimText":"68.Atlantic Bamboo RatKannabateomys amblyonyxFrench: Rat-épineux des bambous / German: Bambus-Fingerratte / Spanish: Rata de bambu atléanticaOther common names: Southern Bamboo RatTaxonomy. Dactylomys amblyonyx Wagner, 1845, “ Ypanema.” Restricted by L. P. Costa and colleagues in 2003 to Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookHabitat.Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).Food and Feeding.Most important food items of Atlantic Bamboo Rats include large terminal or small lateral shoots, dry bamboo stems or sheets and leaves, or small green branches. They can consume 100 g (fresh weight) of bamboo tissues per night—a food rich in water and cyanide toxins and low nutritive content. While feeding, individuals remove outer, hard, and spiny sheet from culms using their incisors while holding branches with specialized hands and feet, and subsequently consuming inner tissues of shoots by directed chewing. They also forage on dry, spineless sheets found at bases of lateral branches, holding them with their forefeet while chewing. Leaves are cut at petioles from bases of lateral branches with incisors, while holding the branch with one hand, and then held by the other forefoot during consumption. A large shoot can weight 1600 g (including sheet) and at least one-fourth of the inner part can be eaten in a single night. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat has a simple, acidic stomach to detoxify bamboo cyanides. These bamboo rats can be located at night from piles of partially consumed bamboo materials that have fallen on the ground and by grinding sounds made while an individual masticates hard materials.Breeding.Young Atlantic Bamboo Rats are born precocial and large-sized. One 600g female was found with two near-term embryos weighting 60 g and 62 g in February. Juveniles have delayed dispersal, staying in parents’ home ranges until near or at adult size. Individuals usually build large nests in bamboo thickets, although no such nests are apparently constructed with any introduced bamboo species in Brazil.Activity patterns.Atlantic Bamboo Rats are arboreal and mainly active at night, but they have been observed feeding and calling at sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Atlantic Bamboo Rats are agile and rapid climbers, moving through complex bamboo by grasping stems and shoots with their specialized hands and feet. Mean distance traveled per night was 259 m using radio-telemetry. Large bamboo nests may serve as diurnal restsites, but individuals have also been observed perched and resting on horizontal branches. Some rare radiotracked individuals were observed at bases of bamboo clumps well below their normal rest sites, possibly to avoid predators (e.g. capuchin monkeys, Cebus sp.). In the Biological Reserve of Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State (south-eastern Brazil), home ranges are 0-09 ha for males and 0-06 ha for females. Densities reached 1-5 ind/km?, Only one radio-tracked male had a home range of 0-16 ha. Males and females used an average of 3-5 restsites, with two sites used less than 50% of the time. These rest sites were usually located at extreme perimeters of home ranges. Some radio-tracked Atlantic Bamboo Rats opportunistically expanded their home ranges when individuals in adjoining home ranges were removed. In Rio Grande do Sul State of southern Brazil, density was estimated at 4-3 ind/km?. Individuals are usually difficult to locate in the canopy and are rarely seen below 3 m. Most reported sightings result from vocalizations or noise generated by feeding individuals. Usually individual callers sat at culms and produced sounds, while throwing muzzles forward at each note. Calling is most common during the night but sometimes begins at sunset. Calls are characterized by series of similar notes produced over similar time intervals. Frequency of these calls is 4 kHz, each note is 0-2 seconds long, and vocalizations might last from less than a second to several minutes. Role of vocalizations is not clearly understood, but it is likely related to predator presence or space and resource defense. Atlantic Bamboo Rats mainly rely on slowly renewed and sparsely dispersed large bamboo shoots, and males and females are likely territorial, particularly females during pregnancy and lactation. Atlantic Bamboo Rats are thought to be socially monogamous, expressed in part by reduced sexual polymorphism, bi-parental care, and delayedjuvenile dispersal. After weaning, both sexes show parental care including food provisioning, grooming, and huddling. Monogamy, however, might be flexible depending on availabilities of food resources because females have reduced home ranges and are confined to widely spaced bamboo patches—two attributes that decrease possible male defense and might promote polygamy. Extensive bi-parental care might also reduce risk of inexperienced young falling from trees and increase availability of low-energy bamboo food.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat is rarely seen, difficult to locate, and even more difficult to trap. It has been reported to colonize new areas with introduced bamboo species and where little natural vegetation persists, but most museum specimens come from primary or secondary forests in highland areas. In view of a highly specialized bamboo-related ecology, this endemic Atlantic Forest species requires additional surveys and research to document possible conservation needs.Bibliography.Costa et al. (2003), Crespo (1982), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Franceschi et al. (2008), Hensel (1872a), Jentink (1891), Kierulff et al. (1991), Leite & Patton (2002), Olmos (1992), Olmos et al. (1993), Patton et al. (2015), da Silva, FA. (2014), da Silva, FA. et al. (2012), Silva, L.EB.M. (1993), Silva, R.B. et al. (2008), Stallings et al. (1994), Tate (1935), Thomas (1903b), Wagner (1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Dactylomys amblyonyx Wagner, 1845, “ Ypanema.” Restricted by L. P. Costa and colleagues in 2003 to Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.Two subspecies are recognized.","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Kannabateomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"587","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"amblyonyx","name":"Kannabateomys amblyonyx","subspeciesAndDistribution":"K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623824/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Costa et al. (2003) | Crespo (1982) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Franceschi et al. (2008) | Hensel (1872a) | Jentink (1891) | Kierulff et al. (1991) | Leite & Patton (2002) | Olmos (1992) | Olmos et al. (1993) | Patton et al. (2015) | da Silva, FA. (2014) | da Silva, FA. et al. (2012) | Silva, L.EB.M. (1993) | Silva, R.B. et al. (2008) | Stallings et al. (1994) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1903b) | Wagner (1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.K. a. amblyonyx Wagner, 1845 — SE Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.K. a. pallidior Thomas, 1903 — Parana Basin of E Paraguay, NE Argentina(Misiones Province), and adjacent Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookHabitat.Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae).Most important food items of Atlantic Bamboo Rats include large terminal or small lateral shoots, dry bamboo stems or sheets and leaves, or small green branches. They can consume 100 g (fresh weight) of bamboo tissues per night—a food rich in water and cyanide toxins and low nutritive content. While feeding, individuals remove outer, hard, and spiny sheet from culms using their incisors while holding branches with specialized hands and feet, and subsequently consuming inner tissues of shoots by directed chewing. They also forage on dry, spineless sheets found at bases of lateral branches, holding them with their forefeet while chewing. Leaves are cut at petioles from bases of lateral branches with incisors, while holding the branch with one hand, and then held by the other forefoot during consumption. A large shoot can weight 1600 g (including sheet) and at least one-fourth of the inner part can be eaten in a single night. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat has a simple, acidic stomach to detoxify bamboo cyanides. These bamboo rats can be located at night from piles of partially consumed bamboo materials that have fallen on the ground and by grinding sounds made while an individual masticates hard materials.","breeding":"Young Atlantic Bamboo Rats are born precocial and large-sized. One 600g female was found with two near-term embryos weighting 60 g and 62 g in February. Juveniles have delayed dispersal, staying in parents’ home ranges until near or at adult size. Individuals usually build large nests in bamboo thickets, although no such nests are apparently constructed with any introduced bamboo species in Brazil.","activityPatterns":"Atlantic Bamboo Rats are arboreal and mainly active at night, but they have been observed feeding and calling at sunset.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Atlantic Bamboo Rats are agile and rapid climbers, moving through complex bamboo by grasping stems and shoots with their specialized hands and feet. Mean distance traveled per night was 259 m using radio-telemetry. Large bamboo nests may serve as diurnal restsites, but individuals have also been observed perched and resting on horizontal branches. Some rare radiotracked individuals were observed at bases of bamboo clumps well below their normal rest sites, possibly to avoid predators (e.g. capuchin monkeys, Cebus sp.). In the Biological Reserve of Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State (south-eastern Brazil), home ranges are 0-09 ha for males and 0-06 ha for females. Densities reached 1-5 ind/km?, Only one radio-tracked male had a home range of 0-16 ha. Males and females used an average of 3-5 restsites, with two sites used less than 50% of the time. These rest sites were usually located at extreme perimeters of home ranges. Some radio-tracked Atlantic Bamboo Rats opportunistically expanded their home ranges when individuals in adjoining home ranges were removed. In Rio Grande do Sul State of southern Brazil, density was estimated at 4-3 ind/km?. Individuals are usually difficult to locate in the canopy and are rarely seen below 3 m. Most reported sightings result from vocalizations or noise generated by feeding individuals. Usually individual callers sat at culms and produced sounds, while throwing muzzles forward at each note. Calling is most common during the night but sometimes begins at sunset. Calls are characterized by series of similar notes produced over similar time intervals. Frequency of these calls is 4 kHz, each note is 0-2 seconds long, and vocalizations might last from less than a second to several minutes. Role of vocalizations is not clearly understood, but it is likely related to predator presence or space and resource defense. Atlantic Bamboo Rats mainly rely on slowly renewed and sparsely dispersed large bamboo shoots, and males and females are likely territorial, particularly females during pregnancy and lactation. Atlantic Bamboo Rats are thought to be socially monogamous, expressed in part by reduced sexual polymorphism, bi-parental care, and delayedjuvenile dispersal. After weaning, both sexes show parental care including food provisioning, grooming, and huddling. Monogamy, however, might be flexible depending on availabilities of food resources because females have reduced home ranges and are confined to widely spaced bamboo patches—two attributes that decrease possible male defense and might promote polygamy. Extensive bi-parental care might also reduce risk of inexperienced young falling from trees and increase availability of low-energy bamboo food.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Atlantic Bamboo Rat is rarely seen, difficult to locate, and even more difficult to trap. It has been reported to colonize new areas with introduced bamboo species and where little natural vegetation persists, but most museum specimens come from primary or secondary forests in highland areas. In view of a highly specialized bamboo-related ecology, this endemic Atlantic Forest species requires additional surveys and research to document possible conservation needs.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 230-347 mm, tail 300-420 mm; weight up to 570 g. The Atlantic Bamboo Ratis large and arboreal, with coarse fur and predominantly rufous brown or buffy dorsum. Belly is pure white and contrasts sharply with dorsum. Blocky head is covered with more gray to buff hairs; nose and chin are white. Robusttail is c.120% of head-body length, furred along its length, and covered with long whitish or grayish hairs. Tail is bicolored, pale below and dark brown above at base and becomes dusky to white toward tip. Ears are relatively short. Black vibrissae are long and coarse, with mystacial ones reaching posteriorly to shoulders. Forefeet have four digits, with digit two and three nearly twice the length offirst or fourth digits; all toes have nails rather than claws. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux but similar medial digit proportions. Palmar and plantar surfaces are orange. Compared with the two other dactylomyine genera, the Atlantic Bamboo Rat has several unique craniodental features, including shortened muzzle, nearly parallel maxillary tooth rows, tetralophodont cheekteeth, large dP, tooth with a well-developed anteroconid, and labial and lingualflexi that remain separate or wear to U-shaped fold rather than Yor V-shaped folds. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 98 and FN = 126..","habitat":"Primary forest, especially along riparian corridors, and old secondary growth with diverse bamboo understory from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. Primary forest habitats include native bamboo such as Chusqueabambusoides, Guadua sp., and Merostachys sp.(Poaceae); those in disturbed habitats are primarily introduced Phyllostachys sp.and Bambusa sp.(Poaceae)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCEFFFDFA7652905EB1FAB0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCEFFFDFA7652905EB1FAB0","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"587","verbatimText":"69.White-tailed Olalla RatOlallamys albicaudaFrench:Rat-épineux a queue blanche/ German:Olalla-Ratte/ Spanish:Rata olalla de cola blancaOther common names:Colombian Soft-furred Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Thrinacodus albicauda Gunther, 1879, “vicinity of Medellin, ColombianConfederation,” Antioquia, Colombia.L. H. Emmons replaced Gunther’s Thrinacodus with Olallamysin 1988 after recognizing that Gunther’s genus group name was a homonym of an earlier described genus of cartilaginous fish. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.O. a. albicauda Gunther, 1879— E Andes Range in C Colombia.626O. a. apolinariJ. A. Allen, 1914— C Andes Range in Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 150-180 mm, tail 255-260 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The White-tailed Olalla Rat is arboreal, with soft fur and without spines or bristles, smaller than its congener the Greedy Olalla Rat (O. edax). Dorsal pelt is shaded with reddish and brownish hues; belly is pure yellowish and contrasts slightly with dorsum. Tail is ¢.160% of head-body length, sparsely furred, and longitudinally bicolored, with proximal end reddish brown and distally white. Compared with species of Dactylomysand the Atlantic Bamboo Rat (Kannabateomysamblyonyx), forefeet and hindfeet have claws instead of nails, except for presence of asymmetrical nail on digit two of hindfeet. Compared with other dactylomyinae members, both species of Olallamyshave smaller crania and distinct cheekteeth with well-separated lophs and lophids on molars, due to junction between flexus and flexid. Species of Olallamysshare anteriorly convergent upper tooth rows with species of Dactylomys, and both genera are distinguished from the Atlantic Bamboo Rat by this feature.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 37Species AccountsHabitat.Bamboo patches in primary montane rainforest of the Central and Eastern Andes Range in Colombia at elevations of 2300-3300 m. The White-tailed Olalla Rat likely also occupies disturbed forests where bamboo thickets (Chusquea sp., Poaceae) are abundant, based on its presence in scats of the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyonthous, Canidae).Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-tailed Olalla Rat is probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the White-tailed Olalla Rat—a rare mountain endemic—are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1914a), Cabrera (1961), Delgado (2009), Delgado & Zurc (2005), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1988, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Gunther (1877a), Patton et al. (2015), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Thrinacodus albicauda Gunther, 1879, “vicinity of Medellin, ColombianConfederation,” Antioquia, Colombia.L. H. Emmons replaced Gunther’s Thrinacodus with Olallamysin 1988 after recognizing that Gunther’s genus group name was a homonym of an earlier described genus of cartilaginous fish. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a queue blanche @fr | Olalla-Ratte @de | Rata olalla de cola blanca @es | Colombian Soft-furred Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gunther","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1879","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Olallamys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"35","interpretedPageNumber":"587","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albicauda","name":"Olallamys albicauda","subspeciesAndDistribution":"O. a. albicauda Gunther, 1879— E Andes Range in C Colombia.626O. a. apolinariJ. A. Allen, 1914— C Andes Range in Colombia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623826/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1914a) | Cabrera (1961) | Delgado (2009) | Delgado & Zurc (2005) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1988, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Gunther (1877a) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-tailed Olalla Rat is probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the White-tailed Olalla Rat—a rare mountain endemic—are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 150-180 mm, tail 255-260 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The White-tailed Olalla Rat is arboreal, with soft fur and without spines or bristles, smaller than its congener the Greedy Olalla Rat (O. edax). Dorsal pelt is shaded with reddish and brownish hues; belly is pure yellowish and contrasts slightly with dorsum. Tail is ¢.160% of head-body length, sparsely furred, and longitudinally bicolored, with proximal end reddish brown and distally white. Compared with species of Dactylomysand the Atlantic Bamboo Rat (Kannabateomysamblyonyx), forefeet and hindfeet have claws instead of nails, except for presence of asymmetrical nail on digit two of hindfeet. Compared with other dactylomyinae members, both species of Olallamyshave smaller crania and distinct cheekteeth with well-separated lophs and lophids on molars, due to junction between flexus and flexid. Species of Olallamysshare anteriorly convergent upper tooth rows with species of Dactylomys, and both genera are distinguished from the Atlantic Bamboo Rat by this feature.","habitat":"Bamboo patches in primary montane rainforest of the Central and Eastern Andes Range in Colombia at elevations of 2300-3300 m. The White-tailed Olalla Rat likely also occupies disturbed forests where bamboo thickets (Chusquea sp., Poaceae) are abundant, based on its presence in scats of the Crab-eating Fox (Cerdocyonthous, Canidae)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCFFFFAFAF1524F58FAFB7F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCFFFFAFAF1524F58FAFB7F","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"586","verbatimText":"67.Montane Bamboo RatDactylomys peruanusFrench:Coro-coro du Pérou/ German:Peru-Fingerratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu de PeruOther common names:Peruvian Bamboo RatTaxonomy.Dactylomys peruanusJ. A. Al-len, 1900, “Juliaca, Peru, altitude 6000 feet [1828 m].”Corrected by J. A. Allen in 1901 to “Inca mines [= Santo Domingo Mine], about 200 miles north of Juliaca, on the east side of the Andes, on the Inam-bary [Inambari] River, Puno, Peru.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Andean slopes from C Peru to W Bolivia.Descriptive notes. Head-body 240 mm, tail 320 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Montane Bamboo Rat is small, with distinct, very soft fur without any harsh bristles as found in congeners. Ears are small and nearly hidden underfur. Tail is ¢.130% of head-body length and is heavily furred along base, becoming more lightly furred distally, where it ends in distinct dark tufted tip. This tail feature is also unique among congeners. Dorsum is olivaceous, with grayish brown muzzle and forehead but without stripe over top of head. Dorsal hairs are bicolored, buffy at the tips and buffy gray at bases. Rump and flanks are paler due to hairs with longer buffy tips. Color of thighs and lateral tail base ranges from that of dorsum to bright orange. Overall, venter is whitish, but mid-venter may be dusky, washed with buff. Similar to several mountain rodent species,fur is soft, nearly woolly, with long hairs on wrist and heel. Blackish vibrissae are very long and extend backward to shoulder level. Skull of the Montane Bamboo Rat is smaller but similar to that of other species of Dactylomys. Paraoccipital processes are oriented anteriorly and in contact with auditory bulla as in the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis).625FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 37Species AccountsHabitat. Mossy cloud forest where it appears restricted to bamboo thickets at elevations of 1000-3300 m. Type specimen of the Montane Bamboo Rat was collected on the ground along a creek at night. Individuals have been observed in wet bamboo forest of Chusquea sp.(Poaceae) within Machu Picchu Historical Sanctuary, Peru.Food and Feeding. Stomach contents suggest that bamboo leaves are the major food item of Montane Bamboo Rats.Breeding. There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but the Montane Bamboo Rat is nocturnal like other bamboo rats.Movements, Home range and Social organization. In the Willkapampa (= Vilcabamba) region of Peru, Montane Bamboo Rats were reported to make bird-like calls.Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Montane Bamboo Rat are needed to adequately assess its conservation status.Bibliography. Allen (1900, 1901, 1916b), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), SalazarBravo & Emmons (2003), Thomas (1927c¢), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick. (2005).","taxonomy":"Dactylomys peruanusJ. A. Al-len, 1900, “Juliaca, Peru, altitude 6000 feet [1828 m].”Corrected by J. A. Allen in 1901 to “Inca mines [= Santo Domingo Mine], about 200 miles north of Juliaca, on the east side of the Andes, on the Inam-bary [Inambari] River, Puno, Peru.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Coro-coro du Pérou @fr | Peru-Fingerratte @de | Rata de bambu de Peru @es | Peruvian Bamboo Rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dactylomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"586","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"peruanus","name":"Dactylomys peruanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Andean slopes from C Peru to W Bolivia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623822/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1900, 1901, 1916b) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton, Pardinas & D'Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | SalazarBravo & Emmons (2003) | Thomas (1927c¢) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick. (2005)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In the Willkapampa (= Vilcabamba) region of Peru, Montane Bamboo Rats were reported to make bird-like calls.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 240 mm, tail 320 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Montane Bamboo Rat is small, with distinct, very soft fur without any harsh bristles as found in congeners. Ears are small and nearly hidden underfur. Tail is ¢.130% of head-body length and is heavily furred along base, becoming more lightly furred distally, where it ends in distinct dark tufted tip. This tail feature is also unique among congeners. Dorsum is olivaceous, with grayish brown muzzle and forehead but without stripe over top of head. Dorsal hairs are bicolored, buffy at the tips and buffy gray at bases. Rump and flanks are paler due to hairs with longer buffy tips. Color of thighs and lateral tail base ranges from that of dorsum to bright orange. Overall, venter is whitish, but mid-venter may be dusky, washed with buff. Similar to several mountain rodent species,fur is soft, nearly woolly, with long hairs on wrist and heel. Blackish vibrissae are very long and extend backward to shoulder level. Skull of the Montane Bamboo Rat is smaller but similar to that of other species of Dactylomys. Paraoccipital processes are oriented anteriorly and in contact with auditory bulla as in the Bolivian Bamboo Rat (D. boliviensis)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFCFFFFBFFEE5EED524CF66A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFCFFFFBFFEE5EED524CF66A","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"586","verbatimText":"66.Bolivian Bamboo RatDactylomys boliviensisFrench:Coro-coro de Bolivie/ German:Bolivien-Fingerratte/ Spanish:Rata de bambu de BoliviaTaxonomy.Dactylomys boliviensis Anthony, 1920, “Mission San Antonio, Rio Chmore [sic, Chimoré], Prov. Cochabamba, Boliv-1a, altitude 1300 feet [400 m].”Some authors regarded boliviensisas a valid subspecies or simple synonym of D. dactylinus, but recent morphological and molecular studies strongly support D. boliviensisas a distinct species. Monotypic. Distribution. SW Amazon Basin, from C Peru S to C Bolivia and E to W Brazil (C Rio Jurua).Descriptive notes.Head-body 270-290 mm, tail 410 mm; weight up to 600 g. The Bolivian Bamboo Rat is large, olivaceous, arboreal, and characterized by distinct dark mid-dorsal stripe of tricolor hairs (black-brown-black) between head and rump. Its fur is soft, grizzled grayish olivaceus, streaked with black on dorsum but paler on side, with sparse whitish fur on belly. Head is grizzled gray with white striped hairs; olivaceous black stripe hair patch (black might be absent) surrounded by pale-tipped hairs occurs between eyes, nose, ears, and nape; mystacial black vibrissae are short and do not extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae, as they do on the Amazon Bamboo Rat (D. dactylinus). Apart from the initial 65 mm or so of well-furred tail base, long bicolored tail is naked, covered with small scales (with 6 annuli/cm), and overall c.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are dark brown or black at base oftail but become colorless toward tip of tail; scales are less pentagonal than those of the Amazon Bamboo Rat. Forefeet of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat have four digits, with digit two and three distinctly longer than lateral ones; each digit has a nail rather than a claw. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, proportionally broadened supraorbital ledges with well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Jugal is primary component of post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch. Paraoccipital processes are oriented anteriorly and curved to follow contour of each bulla. No nerve canal is present on floor of infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind the M’. Upper molar tooth rows diverge antero-posteriorly so that dP*s are nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 118 and FN = 168.Habitat.Amazonian lowlands, primarily within riparian communities with large cane thickets and bamboo patches (e.g. Guadua spp., Poaceae) at known elevations of 200-1000 m. In Peru, some specimens were collected in a thicket of Bambusa(Poaceae) bamboo and small trees. The Bolivian Bamboo Rat occurred at higher elevations than the Amazon Bamboo Rat, but the possibility that they overlap in headwater habitats needs further study.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of Bolivian Bamboo Rats from La Reserva, Bolivia, indicate an exclusively bamboo diet, with remains of sprouts and epidermis present. Field observations of foraging behavior indicate that the Bolivian Bamboo Rat removes the sheet of a bamboo shoot to access inner parts, putting aside piles of unconsumed material. Other observations include some traces of bamboo leaf consumption and gnawed holes on bamboo stems near internodes.Breeding.One pregnant Bolivian Bamboo Rat was collected with two well-developed embryos weighing 74 g and 82 g in July.Activity patterns.The Bolivian Bamboo Rat is nocturnal, with activity usually starting at dusk and terminating an hour or so before dawn. During the day, individuals use rest sites in dense vegetation on perimeter of their home range. In Bolivia, three rest sites were recorded for one individual: one in a Attalea(Arecaceae) palm in riparian forest near the water edge and two at 10-25 m high in dense vines surrounding tree trunks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Bolivian Bamboo Ratis a slow, precise, and cautious climber, and it is difficult to locate in dense vegetation. Field observations are scarce, but one individual from Cocha Cashu, Madre de Dios (Peru), was radio-tracked for six nights. It was recorded 157 times in a home range of 0-23 ha within a 0-43ha bamboo forest patch. It moved a mean of 61-9 m/night (range 45-68 m), and mean total path length based on two points per hour was estimated at 227 m (range 169-284 m). Movements of this individual were slow (mean displacement of 18-9 m/h). Vocalizations of Bolivian Bamboo Rat are loud and high-pitched and often mistaken for an anuran. Calling Bolivian Bamboo Rats were seen sitting cross-wise over their haunches on tree branches, vines, or branch forks, with their front feet either grasping a branch or tucked close to their chest. Dorsal hairs at base of tail were slightly erected, and tail hung free below body. At each call pulse, mouth was open, and head was positioned forward. In headwaters of Rio Jurua (Brazil), individuals produced series of 15-25 short staccato pulses/ call, with a maximum of 45. In La Reserva (Bolivia), calls from males and females were recorded between 19:00 h and 04:00 h, most frequently between 22:00 h and 02:45 h. Two types of sounds were recorded: long distance high amplitude calls (“L.” calls) and gruntlike pulses of narrower frequency range and lower amplitude that carried over short hearing distances (“A” calls). Short distance “A” calls were produced singly or in a long series lasting 20 minutes or more. In Cocha Cashu, individuals were located only in bamboo stands. Along the Rio Tambopata, Madre de Dios (Peru), Bolivian Bamboo Rats called from within large bamboo patch several kilometers from the main river course. The radiotagged male at Cocha Cashu produced “L” calls twice over four nights of observation between 19:47 h and 22:18 h and again between 00:45 h and 02:00 h. No other individuals made “L” calls from within this male’s home range. Other nights, this same individual produced ten “A” calls, soliciting similar calls by another individual from within its home range about one-half the time. A female replied on two occasions and two other individuals on separate occasions from spots less than 20-50 m from the radio-tagged male. At Cocha Cashu, calls lacked the initial burst and had a mean of 29 pulses. Initial pulses were about three times as long as those of Amazon Bamboo Rats in Ecuador and had no harmonics below 500 Hz. Calls of Bolivian Bamboo Rats at Tombopata were similar to those from Cocha Cashu but had a higher mean of 44 pulses. Individuals also presumably communicate with chemical signals; at Cocha Cashu, two individuals were observed rubbing their sternal glands on a branch just prior to vocalizing.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification is based primarily on the general diversity of riparian forest habitats occupied by Bolivian Bamboo Rats. Despite its loud vocalizations, it is rarely seen and is very difficult to trap alive. Most museum specimens were collected using shotguns in lowland primary and secondary rainforests. More ecological and conservation-directed surveys are needed for this secretive species.Bibliography.Anthony (1920), Calouro (1999), Didier (1962), Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004), Dunnum et al. (2001), Eisenberg (1989), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1981, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Jentink (1891), Patton, Pardinas & D’Elia (2015), Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000), Salazar-Bravo et al. (1994), da Silva & Patton (1993), Vanderhoff (2014), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Dactylomys boliviensis Anthony, 1920, “Mission San Antonio, Rio Chmore [sic, Chimoré], Prov. Cochabamba, Boliv-1a, altitude 1300 feet [400 m].”Some authors regarded boliviensisas a valid subspecies or simple synonym of D. dactylinus, but recent morphological and molecular studies strongly support D. boliviensisas a distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Coro-coro de Bolivie @fr | Bolivien-Fingerratte @de | Rata de bambu de Bolivia @es","interpretedAuthority":"Anthony, 1920","interpretedAuthorityName":"Anthony","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1920","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Dactylomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"34","interpretedPageNumber":"586","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"boliviensis","name":"Dactylomys boliviensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW Amazon Basin, from C Peru S to C Bolivia and E to W Brazil (C Rio Jurua).","bibliography":"Anthony (1920) | Calouro (1999) | Didier (1962) | Dunnum & Salazar-Bravo (2004) | Dunnum et al. (2001) | Eisenberg (1989) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1981, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Jentink (1891) | Patton, Pardinas & D’Elia (2015) | Patton, da Silva & Malcolm (2000) | Salazar-Bravo et al. (1994) | da Silva & Patton (1993) | Vanderhoff (2014) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Stomach contents of Bolivian Bamboo Rats from La Reserva, Bolivia, indicate an exclusively bamboo diet, with remains of sprouts and epidermis present. Field observations of foraging behavior indicate that the Bolivian Bamboo Rat removes the sheet of a bamboo shoot to access inner parts, putting aside piles of unconsumed material. Other observations include some traces of bamboo leaf consumption and gnawed holes on bamboo stems near internodes.","breeding":"One pregnant Bolivian Bamboo Rat was collected with two well-developed embryos weighing 74 g and 82 g in July.","activityPatterns":"The Bolivian Bamboo Rat is nocturnal, with activity usually starting at dusk and terminating an hour or so before dawn. During the day, individuals use rest sites in dense vegetation on perimeter of their home range. In Bolivia, three rest sites were recorded for one individual: one in a Attalea(Arecaceae) palm in riparian forest near the water edge and two at 10-25 m high in dense vines surrounding tree trunks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Bolivian Bamboo Ratis a slow, precise, and cautious climber, and it is difficult to locate in dense vegetation. Field observations are scarce, but one individual from Cocha Cashu, Madre de Dios (Peru), was radio-tracked for six nights. It was recorded 157 times in a home range of 0-23 ha within a 0-43ha bamboo forest patch. It moved a mean of 61-9 m/night (range 45-68 m), and mean total path length based on two points per hour was estimated at 227 m (range 169-284 m). Movements of this individual were slow (mean displacement of 18-9 m/h). Vocalizations of Bolivian Bamboo Rat are loud and high-pitched and often mistaken for an anuran. Calling Bolivian Bamboo Rats were seen sitting cross-wise over their haunches on tree branches, vines, or branch forks, with their front feet either grasping a branch or tucked close to their chest. Dorsal hairs at base of tail were slightly erected, and tail hung free below body. At each call pulse, mouth was open, and head was positioned forward. In headwaters of Rio Jurua (Brazil), individuals produced series of 15-25 short staccato pulses/ call, with a maximum of 45. In La Reserva (Bolivia), calls from males and females were recorded between 19:00 h and 04:00 h, most frequently between 22:00 h and 02:45 h. Two types of sounds were recorded: long distance high amplitude calls (“L.” calls) and gruntlike pulses of narrower frequency range and lower amplitude that carried over short hearing distances (“A” calls). Short distance “A” calls were produced singly or in a long series lasting 20 minutes or more. In Cocha Cashu, individuals were located only in bamboo stands. Along the Rio Tambopata, Madre de Dios (Peru), Bolivian Bamboo Rats called from within large bamboo patch several kilometers from the main river course. The radiotagged male at Cocha Cashu produced “L” calls twice over four nights of observation between 19:47 h and 22:18 h and again between 00:45 h and 02:00 h. No other individuals made “L” calls from within this male’s home range. Other nights, this same individual produced ten “A” calls, soliciting similar calls by another individual from within its home range about one-half the time. A female replied on two occasions and two other individuals on separate occasions from spots less than 20-50 m from the radio-tagged male. At Cocha Cashu, calls lacked the initial burst and had a mean of 29 pulses. Initial pulses were about three times as long as those of Amazon Bamboo Rats in Ecuador and had no harmonics below 500 Hz. Calls of Bolivian Bamboo Rats at Tombopata were similar to those from Cocha Cashu but had a higher mean of 44 pulses. Individuals also presumably communicate with chemical signals; at Cocha Cashu, two individuals were observed rubbing their sternal glands on a branch just prior to vocalizing.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification is based primarily on the general diversity of riparian forest habitats occupied by Bolivian Bamboo Rats. Despite its loud vocalizations, it is rarely seen and is very difficult to trap alive. Most museum specimens were collected using shotguns in lowland primary and secondary rainforests. More ecological and conservation-directed surveys are needed for this secretive species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 270-290 mm, tail 410 mm; weight up to 600 g. The Bolivian Bamboo Rat is large, olivaceous, arboreal, and characterized by distinct dark mid-dorsal stripe of tricolor hairs (black-brown-black) between head and rump. Its fur is soft, grizzled grayish olivaceus, streaked with black on dorsum but paler on side, with sparse whitish fur on belly. Head is grizzled gray with white striped hairs; olivaceous black stripe hair patch (black might be absent) surrounded by pale-tipped hairs occurs between eyes, nose, ears, and nape; mystacial black vibrissae are short and do not extend beyond one-half the length of superciliary vibrissae, as they do on the Amazon Bamboo Rat (D. dactylinus). Apart from the initial 65 mm or so of well-furred tail base, long bicolored tail is naked, covered with small scales (with 6 annuli/cm), and overall c.150% of head-body length. Scale hairs are dark brown or black at base oftail but become colorless toward tip of tail; scales are less pentagonal than those of the Amazon Bamboo Rat. Forefeet of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat have four digits, with digit two and three distinctly longer than lateral ones; each digit has a nail rather than a claw. Hindfeet have five digits, with reduced hallux. Skull of the Bolivian Bamboo Rat is large and has broad and short rostrum, proportionally broadened supraorbital ledges with well-developed subtriangular post-orbital processes, and medium-sized bullae. Jugal is primary component of post-orbital processes of zygomatic arch. Paraoccipital processes are oriented anteriorly and curved to follow contour of each bulla. No nerve canal is present on floor of infraorbital canal. Palate forms a shelf that extends well behind the M’. Upper molar tooth rows diverge antero-posteriorly so that dP*s are nearly in contact. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 118 and FN = 168.","habitat":"Amazonian lowlands, primarily within riparian communities with large cane thickets and bamboo patches (e.g. Guadua spp., Poaceae) at known elevations of 200-1000 m. In Peru, some specimens were collected in a thicket of Bambusa(Poaceae) bamboo and small trees. The Bolivian Bamboo Rat occurred at higher elevations than the Amazon Bamboo Rat, but the possibility that they overlap in headwater habitats needs further study."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDCFFE8FA115B565305F3BE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDCFFE8FA115B565305F3BE","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"601","verbatimText":"98.Southern Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys sulinusFrench:Rat-épineux austral/ German:Sldliche Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica meridionalTaxonomy. Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01”\"W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but it is supposed to be abundant in the most intact sections of Atlantic Forest. Given its wide distribution, and supposedly large population, it is unlikely to be declining in the near future. Additional ecological studies of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01”\"W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux austral @fr | Sldliche Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica meridional @es","interpretedAuthority":"Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008","interpretedAuthorityName":"Leite, Christoff & Fagundes","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2008","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"49","interpretedPageNumber":"601","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sulinus","name":"Phyllomys sulinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.","bibliography":"Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDCFFE8FA115B565305F3BE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDCFFE8FA115B565305F3BE","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"601","verbatimText":"98.Southern Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys sulinusFrench:Rat-épineux austral/ German:Sldliche Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica meridionalTaxonomy. Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01”\"W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but it is supposed to be abundant in the most intact sections of Atlantic Forest. Given its wide distribution, and supposedly large population, it is unlikely to be declining in the near future. Additional ecological studies of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01”\"W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux austral @fr | Sldliche Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica meridional @es","interpretedAuthority":"Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008","interpretedAuthorityName":"Leite, Christoff & Fagundes","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2008","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"49","interpretedPageNumber":"601","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sulinus","name":"Phyllomys sulinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623902/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDCFFE8FF0D501653C6FC82.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDCFFE8FF0D501653C6FC82","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"601","verbatimText":"97.Drab Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys dasythrixFrench:Rat-épineux bistre/ German:Distere Klistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica apagadaTaxonomy. Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel, 1872, “Rio Grande do Sul, Stid-Brasiliens.” Restricted L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 30°04’S 51°07'W.”Phyllomys dasythrixwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. It is closely related to P. sulinus; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Monotypic.Distribution. S Brazil, in Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.Descriptive notes. Head—body 180-195 mm,tail 205-225 mm; weight 250 g. Pelt of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is soft, with long and fine aristiforms on rump, blackish distally and paler at bases with the thin whip-like tips. Tail is nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface, and it lacks a terminal tuft. Skull of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has weakly developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometime with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose postorbital process is short, formed by squamosal bone only. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel. Molar teeth are large, with palatal width less than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw not deflected laterally.Habitat. Semideciduous forest and potentially in evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forest inland from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available forthis species, but Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. A young Drab Atlantic Tree-rat was collected in February at Sao Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Drab Atlantic Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Atlantic tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary. It builds leaf nests in tree hollows. Predation by the Crabeating Fox (Cerdocyonthous) has been documented.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has been recently split from the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat (P. sulinus), and this resulted in a smaller extent of occurrence (10,000 km?). Moreover, the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is known from only seven localities where habitat fragmentation has been reported. Specialists suggest that it should be listed in a higher risk category (Vulnerable) in future revisions of The IUCN Red List.Bibliography. Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011), Patton et al. (2015), Ped6 et al. (2006), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel, 1872, “Rio Grande do Sul, Stid-Brasiliens.” Restricted L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 30°04’S 51°07'W.”Phyllomys dasythrixwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. It is closely related to P. sulinus; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux bistre @fr | Distere Klistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica apagada @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hensel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1872","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"49","interpretedPageNumber":"601","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dasythrix","name":"Phyllomys dasythrix","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Brazil, in Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623900/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Patton et al. (2015) | Ped6 et al. (2006) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary. It builds leaf nests in tree hollows. Predation by the Crabeating Fox (Cerdocyonthous) has been documented.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-195 mm,tail 205-225 mm; weight 250 g. Pelt of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is soft, with long and fine aristiforms on rump, blackish distally and paler at bases with the thin whip-like tips. Tail is nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface, and it lacks a terminal tuft. Skull of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has weakly developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometime with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose postorbital process is short, formed by squamosal bone only. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel. Molar teeth are large, with palatal width less than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw not deflected laterally."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDCFFEBFA17547B5EE6FD5C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDCFFEBFA17547B5EE6FD5C","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"601","verbatimText":"99.Black-spined Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys nigrispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a dos noir/ German:Schwarzstachel-Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negroTaxonomy.Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37°'W,elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsMovements, Home range and Social organization.The Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of the Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat is estimated to be less than 100 km?, it is known from only a single location, and there has been continuing decline in quality and availability of habitat. It is currently protected from indiscriminate exploitation at the type locality, which belongs to the Brazilian Army. Nevertheless, it is probably restricted to high-elevation mixed evergreen araucaria forests in the Serra da Mantiqueira, a very specific and naturally restricted habitat. Additional ecological studies of this Serra da Mantiqueira Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE8FACE542C5E36F84E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDDFFE8FACE542C5E36F84E","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"600","verbatimText":"96.Giant Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys thomasiFrench:Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao/ German:Riesen-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica giganteOther common names:Thomas's Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy. Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21’'W.”639Phyllomys thomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsDistribution. SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).Descriptive notes. Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upper part, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases, becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen rainforests over rugged topography on Sao Sebastiao Island from sea level to elevation of 1379 m.Food and Feeding. A captive female Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was fed fruit for a few days and refused green fodder.Breeding. A nest of a Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was 13 m up in a fork of a tree and was constructed of interwoven dried and twisted leaves, forming roughly an oval dome with its base measuring 38 x 30 x 20 cm.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Giant Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is endemic to Sao Sebastiao Island, which is 336 km?, 80% covered by Atlantic rainforest, and protected as a state park. As many insular species, habitat of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is threatened by ongoing pressure from increasing human population and introduction of invasive species (cats and dogs). There is no infor mation on its population or abundance. Additional ecological studies of the poorly known Giant Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), von lhering (1897), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1952b), Olmos (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","taxonomy":"Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21’'W.”639Phyllomys thomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao @fr | Riesen-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica gigante @es | Thomas's Atlantic Tree-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ihering","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1871","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"48","interpretedPageNumber":"600","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"thomasi","name":"Phyllomys thomasi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | von lhering (1897) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1952b) | Olmos (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upper part, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases, becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE9FACC5C2C524BF449.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDDFFE9FACC5C2C524BF449","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"600","verbatimText":"95.Long-furred Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mediusFrench:Rat-épineux a long poil/ German:LanghaarKistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largoTaxonomy. Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes. Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground,in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Davis (1945b), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Thomas (1909a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes. Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a long poil @fr | Langhaar Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largo @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"48","interpretedPageNumber":"600","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"medius","name":"Phyllomys medius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.","bibliography":"Davis (1945b) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Thomas (1909a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE8FACE542C5E36F84E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDDFFE8FACE542C5E36F84E","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"600","verbatimText":"96.Giant Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys thomasiFrench:Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao/ German:Riesen-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica giganteOther common names:Thomas's Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy. Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21’'W.”639Phyllomys thomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsDistribution. SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).Descriptive notes. Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upper part, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases, becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen rainforests over rugged topography on Sao Sebastiao Island from sea level to elevation of 1379 m.Food and Feeding. A captive female Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was fed fruit for a few days and refused green fodder.Breeding. A nest of a Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was 13 m up in a fork of a tree and was constructed of interwoven dried and twisted leaves, forming roughly an oval dome with its base measuring 38 x 30 x 20 cm.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Giant Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is endemic to Sao Sebastiao Island, which is 336 km?, 80% covered by Atlantic rainforest, and protected as a state park. As many insular species, habitat of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is threatened by ongoing pressure from increasing human population and introduction of invasive species (cats and dogs). There is no infor mation on its population or abundance. Additional ecological studies of the poorly known Giant Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), von lhering (1897), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1952b), Olmos (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","taxonomy":"Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21’'W.”639Phyllomys thomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao @fr | Riesen-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica gigante @es | Thomas's Atlantic Tree-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ihering","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1871","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"48","interpretedPageNumber":"600","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"thomasi","name":"Phyllomys thomasi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623898/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | von lhering (1897) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1952b) | Olmos (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upper part, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases, becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE9FACC5C2C524BF449.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDDFFE9FACC5C2C524BF449","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"600","verbatimText":"95.Long-furred Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mediusFrench:Rat-épineux a long poil/ German:LanghaarKistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largoTaxonomy. Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes. Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground,in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Davis (1945b), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Thomas (1909a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes. Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a long poil @fr | Langhaar Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largo @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"48","interpretedPageNumber":"600","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"medius","name":"Phyllomys medius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623896/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Davis (1945b) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Thomas (1909a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and ¢.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE9FFC85B1B5EEBF6FC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDDFFE9FFC85B1B5EEBF6FC","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"600","verbatimText":"93.Lund’s Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys lundiFrench:Rat-épineux de Lund/ German:Lund-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de LundTaxonomy. Phyllomys lundi Leite, 2003, “Fazenda do Bené, 4 km SE Passa Vinte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°14’S 44°12’W, 680 m.” This species is monotypic.Distribution. SE Brazil, SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.Descriptive notes. Head-body 184-209 mm, tail 200-204 mm; weight 145 g. Lund’s Adantic Treerat is among the smallest species of Atlantic tree-rats. It has orange upper part, mixed with black hairs, and neck and thighs are predominantly orange. Spines are conspicuous from neck to tail. Venter is creamy, with white base hairs. Tail is brown, 100-110% of head-body length, and hairy throughoutits length. Forefeet have distinct yellow-brown fur, graywhite on digits. Dorsal parts of hindfeet are furred, with short gold-cream hairs and toes covered with silvery hairs. Skull of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is gracile, with long and narrow rostrum, and typical wide and convex interorbital region. Lower M, is characterized by three transverse laminae. Jaw has short coronoid process and shallow sigmoid notch.Habitat. Second-growth, broadleaf evergreen rainforests with sparse understory, canopies reaching 20 m, and emergent trees reaching 32 m (based on known localities). Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats were caught on lianas or tree branches using traps set 1-5 m above the ground near streams. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has reduced distribution and small area of occurrence.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information are available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has been found in the protected area Reserva Biologica de Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Its extent of occurrence is small, less than 5000 km?2. It is known from only two localities in highly fragmented forest, and there is continuing decline in quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys lundi Leite, 2003, “Fazenda do Bené, 4 km SE Passa Vinte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°14’S 44°12’W, 680 m.” This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Lund @fr | Lund-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Lund @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Leite","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2003","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"48","interpretedPageNumber":"600","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lundi","name":"Phyllomys lundi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623892/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 184-209 mm, tail 200-204 mm; weight 145 g. Lund’s Adantic Treerat is among the smallest species of Atlantic tree-rats. It has orange upper part, mixed with black hairs, and neck and thighs are predominantly orange. Spines are conspicuous from neck to tail. Venter is creamy, with white base hairs. Tail is brown, 100-110% of head-body length, and hairy throughoutits length. Forefeet have distinct yellow-brown fur, graywhite on digits. Dorsal parts of hindfeet are furred, with short gold-cream hairs and toes covered with silvery hairs. Skull of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is gracile, with long and narrow rostrum, and typical wide and convex interorbital region. Lower M, is characterized by three transverse laminae. Jaw has short coronoid process and shallow sigmoid notch."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDDFFE9FFCB51B85DA1FC48.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDDFFE9FFCB51B85DA1FC48","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"600","verbatimText":"94.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys kerriFrench:Rat-épineux de Kerr/ German:KerrKlstenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de KerrTaxonomy. Echimys (Phyllomys) kerriMoojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo, Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic Distribution. SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State..Descriptive notes. Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat. Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography. Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1950, 1952b), Patton et al. (2015), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys (Phyllomys) kerriMoojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo, Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Kerr @fr | Kerr Klstenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Kerr @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Moojen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1950","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"48","interpretedPageNumber":"600","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kerri","name":"Phyllomys kerri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State..","bibliography":"Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1950, 1952b) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDEFFEAFA115B695305F3BF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDEFFEAFA115B695305F3BF","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"603","verbatimText":"98.Southern Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys sulinusFrench:Rat-épineux austral/ German:Sidliche Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica meridionalTaxonomy.Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01\"W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul statesDescriptive notes.Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but it is supposed to be abundant in the most intact sections of Atlantic Forest. Given its wide distribution, and supposedly large population, it is unlikely to be declining in the near future. Additional ecological studies of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys sulinus Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008, “South bank of the Uruguay River, municipality of Aratiba, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 27°23’39”S 52°18°01\"W, 420 m elevation.”Phyllomyssulinus is closely related to P. dasythrix; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Specimens of P. sulinus have been misidentified as P. dasythrixin museums and publications. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux austral @fr | Sidliche Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica meridional @es | Phyllomys sulinus Leite @en | Christoff & Fagundes @en | 2008 @en | “South bank of the Uruguay River @en | municipality of Aratiba @en | Rio Grande do Sul @en | Brazil @en | 27°23’39”S 52°18°01\"W @en | 420 m elevation @en","interpretedAuthority":"Leite, Christoff & Fagundes, 2008","interpretedAuthorityName":"Leite, Christoff & Fagundes","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2008","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"51","interpretedPageNumber":"603","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sulinus","name":"Phyllomys sulinus","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623916/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Southern Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but it is supposed to be abundant in the most intact sections of Atlantic Forest. Given its wide distribution, and supposedly large population, it is unlikely to be declining in the near future. Additional ecological studies of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-210 mm, tail 160-248 mm; weight 190 g. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper part, with overall orange dorsal color. Venter has cream-colored short hairs (10 mm) that are grayish at bases. Some white patches might occur on chin, throat, and venter. It has a coarse pelage, with aristiform and setiform guard hairs. Aristiforms are wide and pale at bases, becoming gradually thinner and darker toward ends and with whiplike tips. Rump pelt is coarse, with long (26 mm) and mid-wide (0-6 mm) guard hairs. Setiforms are shorter (24 mm) than aristiforms on rump, gray-based, shifting gradually to dark brown, with a 4mm orange stripe near tips. Head is dark brown, in contrast with paler body; nose is blunt, brownish, and grayish; and cheeks are pale. Tail is 120% of head-body length and is bicolored, dark brown above and light brown below. Long tail hairs cover scales; these increase in length distally, terminating in a tufted tip. Dorsal surfaces of front feet and hindfeet are silver gray, with long and pale grayish ungual tufts, slightly extending after claws. Skull of the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometimes with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and reaches ventrally midline level of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are oval. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide. Molar teeth are large, with palate narrower than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Coastal inland habitats, in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, semideciduous forest, and evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.850 m. The Southern Atlantic Tree-rat is widespread; it might be locally common, but due to fragmentation, its habitat is highly threatened."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDEFFEAFF0D502953C7FC83.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDEFFEAFF0D502953C7FC83","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"603","verbatimText":"97.Drab Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys dasythrixFrench:Rat-épineux bistre/ German:Distere Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica apagadaTaxonomy.Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel, 1872, “Rio Grande do Sul, Stid-Brasiliens.” Restricted LL. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 30°04’S 51°07'W.”Phyllomys dasythrixwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelo-mys. It is closely related to P. sulinus; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Monotypic.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookDistribution.S Brazil, in Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-195 mm, tail 205-225 mm; weight 250 g. Pelt of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is soft, with long and fine aristiforms on rump, blackish distally and paler at bases with the thin whip-like tips. Tail is nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface, and it lacks a terminal tuft. Skull of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has weakly developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometime with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose postorbital process is short, formed by squamosal bone only. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel. Molar teeth are large, with palatal width less than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw not deflected laterally.Habitat.Semideciduous forest and potentially in evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forest inland from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.640FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsBreeding.A young Drab Atlantic Tree-rat was collected in February at Sao Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Drab Atlantic Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Atlantic tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary. It builds leaf nests in tree hollows. Predation by the Crabeating Fox (Cerdocyonthous) has been documented.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has been recently split from the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat (P. sulinus), and this resulted in a smaller extent of occurrence (10,000 km?). Moreover, the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is known from only seven localities where habitat fragmentation has been reported. Specialists suggest that it should be listed in a higherrisk category (Vulnerable) in future revisions of The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Leite et al. (2008), Loss & Leite (2011), Patton et al. (2015), Pedo et al. (2006), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel, 1872, “Rio Grande do Sul, Stid-Brasiliens.” Restricted LL. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 30°04’S 51°07'W.”Phyllomys dasythrixwas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelo-mys. It is closely related to P. sulinus; divergence of these two species is relatively recent. Monotypic..","commonNames":"Rat-épineux bistre @fr | Distere Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica apagada @es | Phyllomys dasythrix Hensel @en | 1872 @en | “Rio Grande do Sul @en | Stid-Brasiliens @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hensel","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1872","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"51","interpretedPageNumber":"603","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dasythrix","name":"Phyllomys dasythrix","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Brazil, in Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states.","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Leite et al. (2008) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Patton et al. (2015) | Pedo et al. (2006) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","breeding":"A young Drab Atlantic Tree-rat was collected in February at Sao Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Drab Atlantic Tree-rats probably nest aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Atlantic tree-rats are nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary. It builds leaf nests in tree hollows. Predation by the Crabeating Fox (Cerdocyonthous) has been documented.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has been recently split from the Southern Atlantic Tree-rat (P. sulinus), and this resulted in a smaller extent of occurrence (10,000 km?). Moreover, the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is known from only seven localities where habitat fragmentation has been reported. Specialists suggest that it should be listed in a higherrisk category (Vulnerable) in future revisions of The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-195 mm, tail 205-225 mm; weight 250 g. Pelt of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat is soft, with long and fine aristiforms on rump, blackish distally and paler at bases with the thin whip-like tips. Tail is nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface, and it lacks a terminal tuft. Skull of the Drab Atlantic Tree-rat has weakly developed and beaded supraorbital ridges; interorbital region is slightly divergent posteriorly, sometime with small post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height equal to one-third ofjugal length. Spinose postorbital process is short, formed by squamosal bone only. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms 45-60° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are orthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel. Molar teeth are large, with palatal width less than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Semideciduous forest and potentially in evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forest inland from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDEFFEDFA17547D53E1FBB6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDEFFEDFA17547D53E1FBB6","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"603","verbatimText":"99.Black-spined Adantic Tree-ratPhyllomys nigrispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a dos noir/ German:Schwarzstachel-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negroTaxonomy.Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L.. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37'W, elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsPhyllomys nigrispinuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-262 mm, tail 198-260 mm; weight 250-400 g. Upper part of the Black-spined Atlantic Treerat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms that are black tipped with thin whip-like tips on rump. Belly varies from buffy white to yellow-gray; hairs have whitish bases. Tail is c.112% of head—body length, nearly naked with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface;tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with inconspicuous or absent post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slenderto slightly robust, with maximum height ranging from one-fourth to one-third ofjugal length; postorbital process rounded or spinose, composed primarily of jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and reaches ventral level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M? orfirst lamina of M®. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel and wide. Palatal width is equal to or wider than M' width. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal evergreen rainforests and inland semideciduous forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available forthis species, but Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat occurs in protected areas, and it is locally common in pristine forests. Additional ecological studies of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Moojen (1952b), Leiner & Silva (2012), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Umetsu et al. (2006), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L.. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37'W, elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsPhyllomys nigrispinuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a dos noir @fr | Schwarzstachel-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negro @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"51","interpretedPageNumber":"603","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nigrispinus","name":"Phyllomys nigrispinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina states.","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Moojen (1952b) | Leiner & Silva (2012) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Umetsu et al. (2006) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available forthis species, but Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat occurs in protected areas, and it is locally common in pristine forests. Additional ecological studies of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 195-262 mm, tail 198-260 mm; weight 250-400 g. Upper part of the Black-spined Atlantic Treerat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms that are black tipped with thin whip-like tips on rump. Belly varies from buffy white to yellow-gray; hairs have whitish bases. Tail is c.112% of head—body length, nearly naked with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface;tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with inconspicuous or absent post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slenderto slightly robust, with maximum height ranging from one-fourth to one-third ofjugal length; postorbital process rounded or spinose, composed primarily of jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and reaches ventral level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M? orfirst lamina of M®. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel and wide. Palatal width is equal to or wider than M' width. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Coastal evergreen rainforests and inland semideciduous forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDEFFEDFA17547D53E1FBB6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDEFFEDFA17547D53E1FBB6","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"603","verbatimText":"99.Black-spined Adantic Tree-ratPhyllomys nigrispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a dos noir/ German:Schwarzstachel-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negroTaxonomy.Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L.. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37'W, elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsPhyllomys nigrispinuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 195-262 mm, tail 198-260 mm; weight 250-400 g. Upper part of the Black-spined Atlantic Treerat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms that are black tipped with thin whip-like tips on rump. Belly varies from buffy white to yellow-gray; hairs have whitish bases. Tail is c.112% of head—body length, nearly naked with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface;tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with inconspicuous or absent post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slenderto slightly robust, with maximum height ranging from one-fourth to one-third ofjugal length; postorbital process rounded or spinose, composed primarily of jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and reaches ventral level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M? orfirst lamina of M®. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel and wide. Palatal width is equal to or wider than M' width. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal evergreen rainforests and inland semideciduous forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available forthis species, but Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat occurs in protected areas, and it is locally common in pristine forests. Additional ecological studies of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Moojen (1952b), Leiner & Silva (2012), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Umetsu et al. (2006), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres nigrispina Wagner, 1842, “Ypanema.” Restricted by L.. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Floresta Nacional de Ipanema, 20 km NW Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°26’S47°37'W, elev. 550-970 m.”FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 39Species AccountsPhyllomys nigrispinuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a dos noir @fr | Schwarzstachel-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de dorso negro @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"51","interpretedPageNumber":"603","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nigrispinus","name":"Phyllomys nigrispinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE & S Brazil, in Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina states.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623918/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Moojen (1952b) | Leiner & Silva (2012) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Umetsu et al. (2006) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground, usually in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available forthis species, but Blackspined Atlantic Tree-rats are nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat occurs in protected areas, and it is locally common in pristine forests. Additional ecological studies of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 195-262 mm, tail 198-260 mm; weight 250-400 g. Upper part of the Black-spined Atlantic Treerat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms that are black tipped with thin whip-like tips on rump. Belly varies from buffy white to yellow-gray; hairs have whitish bases. Tail is c.112% of head—body length, nearly naked with some brownish hairs scattered on its surface;tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of the Black-spined Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region diverges posteriorly, with inconspicuous or absent post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is slenderto slightly robust, with maximum height ranging from one-fourth to one-third ofjugal length; postorbital process rounded or spinose, composed primarily of jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is long and reaches ventral level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching last lamina of M? orfirst lamina of M®. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are parallel and wide. Palatal width is equal to or wider than M' width. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Coastal evergreen rainforests and inland semideciduous forests from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEAFACE542C5E36F848.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDFFFEAFACE542C5E36F848","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"602","verbatimText":"96.Giant Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys thomasiFrench:Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao/ German:Riesen-Kiistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica giganteOther common names:Thomas's Atlantic Tree-ratTaxonomy.Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21°'W.”Phyllomysthomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).Descriptive notes.Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upperpart, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.,Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen rainforests over rugged topography on Sao Sebastiao Island from sea level to elevation of 1379 m.Food and Feeding.A captive female Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was fed fruit for a few days and refused green fodder.Breeding.A nest of a Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was 13 m up in a fork of a tree and was constructed of interwoven dried and twisted leaves, forming roughly an oval dome with its base measuring 38 x 30 x 20 cm.,.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Giant Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is endemic to Sao Sebastiao Island, which is 336 km?, 80% covered by Atlantic rainforest, and protected as a state park. As many insular species, habitat of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is threatened by ongoing pressure from increasing human population and introduction of invasive species (cats and dogs). There is no infor mation on its population or abundance. Additional ecological studies of the poorly known Giant Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), von Ihering (1897), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1952b), Olmos (1997), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","taxonomy":"Mesomys thomasi Ihering, 1897, “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°46’S 45°21°'W.”Phyllomysthomas: was formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Euryzygomatomys, Echimys, and Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Sao Sebastiao @fr | Riesen-Kiistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica gigante @es | Thomas's Atlantic Tree-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ihering","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1871","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"50","interpretedPageNumber":"602","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"thomasi","name":"Phyllomys thomasi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, (Sao Sebastiao I, off the Sao Paulo State).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624585/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | von Ihering (1897) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1952b) | Olmos (1997) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"A captive female Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was fed fruit for a few days and refused green fodder.","breeding":"A nest of a Giant Atlantic Tree-rat was 13 m up in a fork of a tree and was constructed of interwoven dried and twisted leaves, forming roughly an oval dome with its base measuring 38 x 30 x 20 cm.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Giant Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is endemic to Sao Sebastiao Island, which is 336 km?, 80% covered by Atlantic rainforest, and protected as a state park. As many insular species, habitat of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is threatened by ongoing pressure from increasing human population and introduction of invasive species (cats and dogs). There is no infor mation on its population or abundance. Additional ecological studies of the poorly known Giant Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 270-299 mm, tail 270-340 mm; weight 432 g. The Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is the largest species of Phyllomys. It has reddish brown upperpart, streaked with black on dorsum and dark on sides. Venter is light cream, gradually darkening from medial part to lateral one. It has spiny pelt, having aristiform guard hairs brownish gray at bases becoming gradually black toward ends with thin whip-like tips. Aristiforms on rump are long (33 mm) and narrow (0-7 mm). Tail is equal to head-body length, robust, covered with dark brown hairs from base toward end, hiding scales, and tip has no distal tuft. Skull of the Giant Atlantic Tree-rat is broad and robust. It has well-developed supraorbital ledges; interorbital region is parallel, with absent or inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height reaching more than one-third ofjugal length. Rounded post-orbital process is mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short, reaching ventrally to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Incisive foramina are teardrop-shaped. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are wide, either parallel or slightly divergent posteriorly. Molar teeth are large, and palate is equal to or wider than M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Broadleaf evergreen rainforests over rugged topography on Sao Sebastiao Island from sea level to elevation of 1379 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFAD35C2D5248F449.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDFFFEBFAD35C2D5248F449","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"602","verbatimText":"95.Long-furred Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mediusFrench:Rat-épineux a long poil/ German:Langhaar-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largoTaxonomy.Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.”Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground, in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Davis (1945b), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Thomas (1909a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.”Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a long poil @fr | Langhaar-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largo @es | Loncheres medius Thomas @en | 1909 @en | “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar @en | Parana @en | S[outhern] @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"50","interpretedPageNumber":"602","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"medius","name":"Phyllomys medius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.","bibliography":"Davis (1945b) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Thomas (1909a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","breeding":"A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground, in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFAD35C2D5248F449.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDFFFEBFAD35C2D5248F449","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"602","verbatimText":"95.Long-furred Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys mediusFrench:Rat-épineux a long poil/ German:Langhaar-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largoTaxonomy.Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.”Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground, in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Davis (1945b), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Thomas (1909a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres medius Thomas, 1909, “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar, Parana, S[outhern]. Brazil. Alt. 1000 m.”Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana, Brazil 25°28’S 49°01’W, elevation 1000 m.”Phyllomys mediuswas formerly classified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a long poil @fr | Langhaar-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de pelo largo @es | Loncheres medius Thomas @en | 1909 @en | “Roca Nova Serro [sic] do Mar @en | Parana @en | S[outhern] @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"50","interpretedPageNumber":"602","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"medius","name":"Phyllomys medius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE & S Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, through Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina to Rio Grande do Sulstates.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623908/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Davis (1945b) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Thomas (1909a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","breeding":"A pregnant Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat carrying two embryos was caught in September at Teresopolis, Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. It probably nests aboveground, in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Longfurred Atlantic tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Forest habitat where the Long-furred Atlantic tree-rat occurs is highly fragmented and reduced, but its distribution is large and it may be locally common. Additional ecological studies of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-230 mm,tail 225-260 mm; weight 248-386 g. The Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is medium-sized and has dark brown upper parts, with darker mid-dorsum. Aristiforms on rump have thin, black, whip like tips and are very long (36 mm) and thin (0-4 mm). Dorsal pelt is soft and stiff. Ventral hairs are bicolored, with gray bases and fulvous distal ends. Tail is furred to tip and c.115% of head-body length. Skull of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat is long and robust; interorbital region has well-developed and parallel to slighly posteriorly divergent supraorbital ridges, with absent or reduced post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is robust, with maximum height higher than or equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present and mainly formed by jugal. Lateral process of supraoccipital is short and extends to level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are distinctive, with small teardrop shape openings. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and forms angle more than 45° anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Molar teeth are narrow, with palatal width equal to width of M'. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Broadleaf evergreen coastal forests and in mixed evergreen araucaria (Araucariaceae) forests inland in Parana State from near sea level in the south part of the distribution to ¢.1000 m in the north. Distribution of the Long-furred Atlantic Tree-rat suggests preference for cooler climates."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFC85B185EE8F6F3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFC85B185EE8F6F3","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"602","verbatimText":"93.Lund’s Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys lundiFrench:Rat-épineux de Lund/ German:Lund-Kistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de LundTaxonomy.Phyllomys lund: Leite, 2003, “Fazenda do Bené, 4 km SE Passa Vinte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°14’S 44°12°’W, 680 m.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 184-209 mm, tail 200-204 mm; weight 145 g. Lund’s Atantic Treerat is among the smallest species of Atlantic tree-rats. It has orange upper part, mixed with black hairs, and neck and thighs are predominantly orange. Spines are conspicuous from neck to tail. Venter is creamy, with white base hairs. Tail is brown, 100-110% of head-body length, and hairy throughoutits length. Forefeet have distinct yellow-brown fur, graywhite on digits. Dorsal parts of hindfeet are furred, with short gold-cream hairs and toes covered with silvery hairs. Skull of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is gracile, with long and narrow rostrum, and typical wide and convex interorbital region. Lower M,is characterized by three transverse laminae. Jaw has short coronoid process and shallow sigmoid notch.Habitat.Second-growth, broadleaf evergreen rainforests with sparse understory, canopies reaching 20 m, and emergent trees reaching 32 m (based on known localities). Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats were caught on lianas or tree branches using traps set 1-5 m above the ground near streams. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has reduced distribution and small area of occurrence.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information are available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.LLund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has been found in the protected area Reserva Biologica de Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Its extent of occurrence is small, less than 5000 km? It is known from only two localities in highly fragmented forest, and there is continuing decline in quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Phyllomys lund: Leite, 2003, “Fazenda do Bené, 4 km SE Passa Vinte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 22°14’S 44°12°’W, 680 m.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Lund @fr | Lund-Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Lund @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Leite","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2003","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"50","interpretedPageNumber":"602","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"lundi","name":"Phyllomys lundi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.","bibliography":"Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat.Second-growth, broadleaf evergreen rainforests with sparse understory, canopies reaching 20 m, and emergent trees reaching 32 m (based on known localities). Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats were caught on lianas or tree branches using traps set 1-5 m above the ground near streams. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has reduced distribution and small area of occurrence.There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information are available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.LLund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information are available for this species, but Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"LLund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has been found in the protected area Reserva Biologica de Poco das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Its extent of occurrence is small, less than 5000 km? It is known from only two localities in highly fragmented forest, and there is continuing decline in quality and availability ofits habitat. Additional ecological studies of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 184-209 mm, tail 200-204 mm; weight 145 g. Lund’s Atantic Treerat is among the smallest species of Atlantic tree-rats. It has orange upper part, mixed with black hairs, and neck and thighs are predominantly orange. Spines are conspicuous from neck to tail. Venter is creamy, with white base hairs. Tail is brown, 100-110% of head-body length, and hairy throughoutits length. Forefeet have distinct yellow-brown fur, graywhite on digits. Dorsal parts of hindfeet are furred, with short gold-cream hairs and toes covered with silvery hairs. Skull of Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat is gracile, with long and narrow rostrum, and typical wide and convex interorbital region. Lower M,is characterized by three transverse laminae. Jaw has short coronoid process and shallow sigmoid notch.","habitat":"Second-growth, broadleaf evergreen rainforests with sparse understory, canopies reaching 20 m, and emergent trees reaching 32 m (based on known localities). Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rats were caught on lianas or tree branches using traps set 1-5 m above the ground near streams. Lund’s Atlantic Tree-rat has reduced distribution and small area of occurrence."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFCA51B95DDEFC48.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFCA51B95DDEFC48","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"602","verbatimText":"94.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys kerriFrench:Rat-épineux de Kerr/ German:KerrKistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de KerrTaxonomy.Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo,Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerlyclassified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State.Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available forthis species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1950, 1952b), Patton et al. (2015), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo,Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerlyclassified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Kerr @fr | Kerr Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Kerr @es | Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen @en | 1950 @en | “Ubatuba @en | S[ao] @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Moojen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1950","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"50","interpretedPageNumber":"602","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kerri","name":"Phyllomys kerri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State.","bibliography":"Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1950, 1952b) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","breeding":"There is no specific information available forthis species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFCA51B95DDEFC48.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFDFFFEBFFCA51B95DDEFC48","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"602","verbatimText":"94.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-ratPhyllomys kerriFrench:Rat-épineux de Kerr/ German:KerrKistenbaumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola atlantica de KerrTaxonomy.Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo,Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerlyclassified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State.Descriptive notes.Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.Habitat.Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available forthis species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons et al. (2002), Leite (2003), Leite & Loss (2015), Loss & Leite (2011), Moojen (1950, 1952b), Patton et al. (2015), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen, 1950, “Ubatuba, S[ao]. Paulo,Brazil.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and colleagues in 2002 to “Estacao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23°25’S 45°07°W.”Phyllomys kerriwas formerlyclassified in the genera Echimysand Nelomys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Kerr @fr | Kerr Kistenbaumratte @de | Rata arboricola atlantica de Kerr @es | Echimys (Phyllomys) kerri Moojen @en | 1950 @en | “Ubatuba @en | S[ao] @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Moojen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1950","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Phyllomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"50","interpretedPageNumber":"602","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kerri","name":"Phyllomys kerri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, known only from its type locality and surroundings in extreme NE Sao Paulo State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623906/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons et al. (2002) | Leite (2003) | Leite & Loss (2015) | Loss & Leite (2011) | Moojen (1950, 1952b) | Patton et al. (2015) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has lophodont cheekteeth that suggest a folivorous diet.","breeding":"There is no specific information available forthis species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat probably nests aboveground in tree hollows.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rats are probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is arboreal and probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional ecological studies of the rare Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 190-235 mm, tail 200-223 mm; weight 200-250 g. Upper part of Kerr's Atlantic Tree-rat is reddish brown and streaked with black hairs. Dorsal pelt is spiny, with long (27 mm) and wide (1 mm) aristiforms on rump, with thin black whip-like tips. Belly is yellow orange, with gray-based hairs. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length and nearly naked, with some brownish hairs scattered on surface; tail tip is slightly hairy but not tufted. Skull of Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat is narrow and long. It has well-developed supraorbital ridges; interorbital region divergent posteriorly with inconspicuous post-orbital processes. Zygomatic arch is strong, with maximum height equal to one-third of jugal length. Spinose post-orbital process is present, formed mainly byjugal. Lateral process of supraoccipitalis short and reaches level of midline of external auditory meatus. Incisive foramina are oval. Mesopterygoid fossa is wide and forms 60° angle anteriorly, reaching posterior lamina of M*. Upper incisors are opisthodont. Upper tooth rows are nearly parallel. Molar teeth large, with palatal width equal to or greater than width of M'. Angular process ofjaw is not deflected laterally.","habitat":"Coastal rainforests of broadleaf evergreens in Atlantic Forest, close to the sea level. Kerr’s Atlantic Tree-rat has small distribution and reduced area of occupancy."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE0FFD4FA0A5BD953EFF3BD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE0FFD4FA0A5BD953EFF3BD","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"565","verbatimText":"26.Lagoa Santa PunareThrichomys apereoidesFrench:Punaré commun/ German:Lagoa-Santa-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de Lagoa SantaOther common names:Common PunareTaxonomy.Echimys apereoides Lund, 1839, “Rio das Velhas Floddal,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Danish naturalist P. W. Lund initially described apereoidesunder the name Echimys apereoidesbut renamed it Echimys antricolain 1840. In 1880, E. L. Trouessart listed antricola in his erection of the genus Thrichomys, but in 1904, he recognized that apereoideshad priority. F. F. Nascimento and colleagues in 2013 documented that specimens from Bahia State with the same diploid number but 52 autosomal arms (FN = 52) belonged to a separate molecular clade, which they referred to as 1 aff. apereoidesthat was distinct but currently undescribed species. Monotypic.Distribution.EC Brazil (Bahia and Minas Geraisstates).Descriptive notes.Head-body 197-209 mm, tail 164-179 mm; weight 210-300 g. Greatest skull length of the Lagoa Santa Punare averages 55-6 mm. Dorsal coloris brownish gray, ventral hairs are completely white or with a light gray bases, sharply contrasting with dorsal color. Dorsal tail hairs are dark brown; ventral hairs are whitish gray. Skull is most similar to that of the Sao Lourenco Punare (7. laurentius), sharing elongated incisive foramina without lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and thin hamular processes of pterygoid bones that are pointed at tips. The Lagoa Santa Punare differs from of the Sao Lourenco Punare by having pronounced lateral flange on posterior margins of incisive foramina, Ushaped mesopterygoid fossa, and keeled palate with well-developed and deep palatal grooves. Chromosome complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 50-52.Habitat.Southern Caatinga to northern Cerrado ecoregions at elevations of 890— 1110 m. Lagoa Santa Punares are found primarily in xeric and rocky environments, including human modified habitats where they can be important agricultural pests. They can occupy caves and human dwellings.Food and Feeding.The Lagoa Santa Punare is omnivorous, with arthropods and seeds comprising its main food items. Large seeds are severely damaged by chewing but small seeds pass through the gut, permitting germination. The Lagoa Santa Punares might be important dispersers of small-seed plants.Breeding.Female Lagoa Santa Punares have 2-3 litters/year, with average litter size of 3-1 young (range 1-6 young). Gestation is ¢.89 days. Sexual maturity is reached at 7-9 months ofage.Activity patterns.The Lagoa Santa Punare is crepuscular to nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Size of daily home ranges of Lagoa Santa Punares vary with sex and age; they are smallest for subadult males and largest for adult males and intermediate for subadult and adult females. Space use also varies between wet and dry seasons for both sexes; wet season ranges are distinctly larger for both sexes. Males and females moveless on leaflitter in the dry season, but they move aboveground equally regardless of season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of Lagoa Santa Punares are unknown, but assessments were made before elevation of some member populations to full species status. It has been found in Pleistocene cave deposits.Bibliography.de Almeida et al. (2013), Bonvicino et al. (2008), Lund (1839a, 1839b, 1840), Moojen (1952b), Nascimento et al. (2013), Pessoba, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Trouessart (1880, 1904).","taxonomy":"Echimys apereoides Lund, 1839, “Rio das Velhas Floddal,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Danish naturalist P. W. Lund initially described apereoidesunder the name Echimys apereoidesbut renamed it Echimys antricolain 1840. In 1880, E. L. Trouessart listed antricola in his erection of the genus Thrichomys, but in 1904, he recognized that apereoideshad priority. F. F. Nascimento and colleagues in 2013 documented that specimens from Bahia State with the same diploid number but 52 autosomal arms (FN = 52) belonged to a separate molecular clade, which they referred to as 1 aff. apereoidesthat was distinct but currently undescribed species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Punaré commun @fr | Lagoa-Santa-Punaré @de | Punaré de Lagoa Santa @es | Common Punare @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lund","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thrichomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"565","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"apereoides","name":"Thrichomys apereoides","subspeciesAndDistribution":"EC Brazil (Bahia and Minas Geraisstates).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623712/files/figure.png","bibliography":"de Almeida et al. (2013) | Bonvicino et al. (2008) | Lund (1839a, 1839b, 1840) | Moojen (1952b) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Pessoba, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Trouessart (1880, 1904)","foodAndFeeding":"The Lagoa Santa Punare is omnivorous, with arthropods and seeds comprising its main food items. Large seeds are severely damaged by chewing but small seeds pass through the gut, permitting germination. The Lagoa Santa Punares might be important dispersers of small-seed plants.","breeding":"Female Lagoa Santa Punares have 2-3 litters/year, with average litter size of 3-1 young (range 1-6 young). Gestation is ¢.89 days. Sexual maturity is reached at 7-9 months ofage.","activityPatterns":"The Lagoa Santa Punare is crepuscular to nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Size of daily home ranges of Lagoa Santa Punares vary with sex and age; they are smallest for subadult males and largest for adult males and intermediate for subadult and adult females. Space use also varies between wet and dry seasons for both sexes; wet season ranges are distinctly larger for both sexes. Males and females moveless on leaflitter in the dry season, but they move aboveground equally regardless of season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of Lagoa Santa Punares are unknown, but assessments were made before elevation of some member populations to full species status. It has been found in Pleistocene cave deposits.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 197-209 mm, tail 164-179 mm; weight 210-300 g. Greatest skull length of the Lagoa Santa Punare averages 55-6 mm. Dorsal coloris brownish gray, ventral hairs are completely white or with a light gray bases, sharply contrasting with dorsal color. Dorsal tail hairs are dark brown; ventral hairs are whitish gray. Skull is most similar to that of the Sao Lourenco Punare (7. laurentius), sharing elongated incisive foramina without lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and thin hamular processes of pterygoid bones that are pointed at tips. The Lagoa Santa Punare differs from of the Sao Lourenco Punare by having pronounced lateral flange on posterior margins of incisive foramina, Ushaped mesopterygoid fossa, and keeled palate with well-developed and deep palatal grooves. Chromosome complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 50-52.","habitat":"Southern Caatinga to northern Cerrado ecoregions at elevations of 890— 1110 m. Lagoa Santa Punares are found primarily in xeric and rocky environments, including human modified habitats where they can be important agricultural pests. They can occupy caves and human dwellings."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE0FFD4FF0950495DBBFC1D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE0FFD4FF0950495DBBFC1D","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"565","verbatimText":"25.Jacobina PunareThrichomys inermisFrench:Punaré des plateaux/ German:Jacobina-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de JacobinaOther common names:Highlands Punare, RabudoTaxonomy.Echimys inermis Pictet, 1843, “la Jacobine (dans les montagnes de las Almas, province de Bahia),”Jacobina, Bahia, Brazil.Swiss zoologist F. J. Pictet in 1843 originally placed this new species in Echimys; E. L. Trouessart in 1880 allocated it to Thrichomys. Samples from Tocantins State in the Northern Caatinga ecoregion, also with chromosome complement of 2n = 26 and FN = 48, belonged to a separate molecular clade that F. F. Nascimento and colleagues in 2013 referred to as 7. aff. inermisand suggested as a distinct, undescribed species. Monotypic.Distribution.C Brazil, from C Bahia State W to C Tocantins State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 181-223 mm, tail 111-200 mm; weight 350 g. The Jacobina Punare is the smallest species of Thrichomys. Greatest skull length averages 50-6 mm. Dorsum is ash-gray, tinged with yellow; dorsal tail hairs are blackish brown, and ventral hairs are whitish gray. Distinct cranial characteristics that Jacobina Punare share with Foster’s Punare (7. foster) and the Pantanal Punare (1. pachyurus) include wide incisive foramina with slight lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and broadened, rectangular hamular processes of pterygoid bones. Features distinguishing the Jacobina Punare from Foster’s Punare and the Pantanal Punare are slender skull, small and not inflated bullae, dorso-ventrally narrow jugals, paroccipital processes appressed to each bulla, and narrow plate (c.0-7 mm) between oval and masticatory foramina. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 26 and FN = 48.Habitat.Central Caatinga ecoregion at elevations of 260-1030 m. TheJacobina Punare is common in granite or sandstone outcrops, locally called “lajeiros” or “lajedos,” that provide crevices for temporary and secure shelter. Rocky habitats provide cool refuge during heat of day and warmth during cold nights. Nests are placed in crevices or tree cavities and are constructed of cotton, straw, or dry leaves. Individuals have been captured at the mouths of caves.Food and Feeding.No dietary information from field-caught Jacobina Punares has been reported, but those in the laboratory adjust food intake and relative urine volume while increasing urine osmolality when exposed to water scarcity.Breeding.Female Jacobina Punares have been recorded with 2-4 embryos in February—March.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Population trends of the Jacobina Punare are unknown, butit is considered common. It has notable tolerance to landscape modifications throughoutits distribution. It is hunted locally and may be affected byfire.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (2008), Moojen (1952b), Nascimento et al. (2013), Pesséa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Pictet (1843), Trouessart (1880, 1904).","taxonomy":"Echimys inermis Pictet, 1843, “la Jacobine (dans les montagnes de las Almas, province de Bahia),”Jacobina, Bahia, Brazil.Swiss zoologist F. J. Pictet in 1843 originally placed this new species in Echimys; E. L. Trouessart in 1880 allocated it to Thrichomys. Samples from Tocantins State in the Northern Caatinga ecoregion, also with chromosome complement of 2n = 26 and FN = 48, belonged to a separate molecular clade that F. F. Nascimento and colleagues in 2013 referred to as 7. aff. inermisand suggested as a distinct, undescribed species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Punaré des plateaux @fr | Jacobina-Punaré @de | Punaré de Jacobina @es | Highlands Punare @en | Rabudo @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pictet","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1941","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thrichomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"565","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"inermis","name":"Thrichomys inermis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Brazil, from C Bahia State W to C Tocantins State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623706/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonvicino et al. (2008) | Moojen (1952b) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Pesséa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Pictet (1843) | Trouessart (1880, 1904)","foodAndFeeding":"No dietary information from field-caught Jacobina Punares has been reported, but those in the laboratory adjust food intake and relative urine volume while increasing urine osmolality when exposed to water scarcity.","breeding":"Female Jacobina Punares have been recorded with 2-4 embryos in February—March.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Population trends of the Jacobina Punare are unknown, butit is considered common. It has notable tolerance to landscape modifications throughoutits distribution. It is hunted locally and may be affected byfire.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 181-223 mm, tail 111-200 mm; weight 350 g. The Jacobina Punare is the smallest species of Thrichomys. Greatest skull length averages 50-6 mm. Dorsum is ash-gray, tinged with yellow; dorsal tail hairs are blackish brown, and ventral hairs are whitish gray. Distinct cranial characteristics that Jacobina Punare share with Foster’s Punare (7. foster) and the Pantanal Punare (1. pachyurus) include wide incisive foramina with slight lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and broadened, rectangular hamular processes of pterygoid bones. Features distinguishing the Jacobina Punare from Foster’s Punare and the Pantanal Punare are slender skull, small and not inflated bullae, dorso-ventrally narrow jugals, paroccipital processes appressed to each bulla, and narrow plate (c.0-7 mm) between oval and masticatory foramina. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 26 and FN = 48.","habitat":"Central Caatinga ecoregion at elevations of 260-1030 m. TheJacobina Punare is common in granite or sandstone outcrops, locally called “lajeiros” or “lajedos,” that provide crevices for temporary and secure shelter. Rocky habitats provide cool refuge during heat of day and warmth during cold nights. Nests are placed in crevices or tree cavities and are constructed of cotton, straw, or dry leaves. Individuals have been captured at the mouths of caves."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE0FFD7FA16547A5B84F8F0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE0FFD7FA16547A5B84F8F0","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"565","verbatimText":"27.Pantanal PunareThrichomys pachyurusFrench:Punaré du Paraguay/ German:Pantanal-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de ParaguayOther common names:Paraguayan PunareTaxonomy.Isothrix pachyura Wagner, 1845, “Cuyaba [= Cuiaba],” Mato Grosso, Brazil.Austrian naturalist J. A. Wagner in 1845 placed this species in the genus Isothrix, the Amazonian brush-tailed rats, where it continued to be listed even by A. Cabrera in 1961, although in 1880 E. L. Trouessart had correctly assigned pachyurato Thrichomys. L.. M. Pesso6a and colleagues in their 2015 review of the genus included T. fosterias a synonym based on shared qualitative craniodental characters and mapped individuals from localities in central Brazil with chromosomal complement of 2n = 30 and FN = 56 as Thrichomys sp.Monotypic.Distribution.W Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sulstates), extreme E Bolivia (Santa Cruz Department), and most of Paraguay.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available, but the Pantanal Punare is among the largest species of Thrichomys, with greatest skull length averaging 55-4 mm. Chromosome complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 56. External and cranial characteristics are similar to those of Foster’s Punare (7. fosteri), with the two species distinguished primarily by karyotype and DNA sequences.Habitat.Northern and central Cerrado ecoregions at elevations of 130-1190 m, being lowest in northern extreme of the distribution. Pantanal Punares occur in dry forest patches, including aggregations of Attaleaphalerata (Arecaceae) palms. In seasonally wet Pantanal devoid of rocky areas, individuals have been caught in traps set in trees 1-5 m above ground during the rainy season.Food and Feeding.Pantanal Punares are known to feed on palm fruits, eating mesocarp flesh and seeds.Breeding.Reproduction of the Pantanal Punare is concentrated in the dry season, which corresponds to a period of higher resource availability, greater habitat availability, and higher population density coupled with reduced individual crowding. Compared with the Sao Lourenco Punare (7. laurentius), the Pantanal Punare has smaller litter sizes (average 2-5) with larger birth weights; females also become reproductively active later and at larger masses.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of the Pantanal Punares estimated from grid trapping and radio-tracking are 0-26-2-9 ha (mean = 0-85 ha).Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend of the Pantanal Punare is unknown, but it is considered common throughout its distribution. No major conservation threats have been reported.Bibliography.Andreazzi et al. (2012), Cabrera (1961), Nascimento et al. (2013), Oliveira-Santos et al. (2013), Pessoa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Pittker et al. (2012), Santos-Filho et al. (2012), Teixeira et al. (2005), Trouessart (1880), Wagner (1845).","taxonomy":"Isothrix pachyura Wagner, 1845, “Cuyaba [= Cuiaba],” Mato Grosso, Brazil.Austrian naturalist J. A. Wagner in 1845 placed this species in the genus Isothrix, the Amazonian brush-tailed rats, where it continued to be listed even by A. Cabrera in 1961, although in 1880 E. L. Trouessart had correctly assigned pachyurato Thrichomys. L.. M. Pesso6a and colleagues in their 2015 review of the genus included T. fosterias a synonym based on shared qualitative craniodental characters and mapped individuals from localities in central Brazil with chromosomal complement of 2n = 30 and FN = 56 as Thrichomys sp.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Punaré du Paraguay @fr | Pantanal-Punaré @de | Punaré de Paraguay @es | Paraguayan Punare @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thrichomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"13","interpretedPageNumber":"565","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pachyurus","name":"Thrichomys pachyurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sulstates), extreme E Bolivia (Santa Cruz Department), and most of Paraguay.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623714/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Andreazzi et al. (2012) | Cabrera (1961) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Oliveira-Santos et al. (2013) | Pessoa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Pittker et al. (2012) | Santos-Filho et al. (2012) | Teixeira et al. (2005) | Trouessart (1880) | Wagner (1845)","foodAndFeeding":"Pantanal Punares are known to feed on palm fruits, eating mesocarp flesh and seeds.","breeding":"Reproduction of the Pantanal Punare is concentrated in the dry season, which corresponds to a period of higher resource availability, greater habitat availability, and higher population density coupled with reduced individual crowding. Compared with the Sao Lourenco Punare (7. laurentius), the Pantanal Punare has smaller litter sizes (average 2-5) with larger birth weights; females also become reproductively active later and at larger masses.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of the Pantanal Punares estimated from grid trapping and radio-tracking are 0-26-2-9 ha (mean = 0-85 ha).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend of the Pantanal Punare is unknown, but it is considered common throughout its distribution. No major conservation threats have been reported.","descriptiveNotes":"There are no specific measurements available, but the Pantanal Punare is among the largest species of Thrichomys, with greatest skull length averaging 55-4 mm. Chromosome complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 56. External and cranial characteristics are similar to those of Foster’s Punare (7. fosteri), with the two species distinguished primarily by karyotype and DNA sequences.","habitat":"Northern and central Cerrado ecoregions at elevations of 130-1190 m, being lowest in northern extreme of the distribution. Pantanal Punares occur in dry forest patches, including aggregations of Attaleaphalerata (Arecaceae) palms. In seasonally wet Pantanal devoid of rocky areas, individuals have been caught in traps set in trees 1-5 m above ground during the rainy season."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE1FFD4FAC3549E58B2F86E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE1FFD4FAC3549E58B2F86E","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"564","verbatimText":"24.Sao Lourenco PunareThrichomys laurentiusFrench:Punaré de Sao Lorenco/ German:Laurentius-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de San LorenzoTaxonomy.Thrichomys laurentius Thomas, 1904, “Sao Lourenco [= Sao Lorenco da Mata], near Pernambuco, Alt. 50 m,” Pernambuco, Brazil.This species is monotypic.Distribution.NE Brazil, from Ceara and Rio Grande do Norte states, S to C Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 125-240 mm, tail 135-214 mm; weight 120-365 g. The Sao Lourenco Punare is medium-sized relative to others in the genus. Greatest skull length averages 53-8 mm. Dorsal color is yellowish gray; ventral hairs are completely white or with light gray bases. Skull is most similar to that of the Lagoa Santa Punare (7. apereoides), sharing elongated incisive foramina without lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and thin hamular processes of pterygoid bones that are pointed at tips. The Sao Lourenco Punare differs from the Lagoa Santa Punare by lacking pronounced lateral flange on posterior margins of incisive foramina, V-shaped mesopterygoid fossa, and almost flat palate without median keel and only shallow palatal grooves. Chromosome complement of specimens from Bahia State is 2n = 30 with 54 autosomal arms; specimens with 2n = 30 and FN = 56 from central Brazil may represent an undescribed species.Habitat.Northern Caatinga ecoregion at elevations from near sea level at 15 m to nearly 800 m.Food and Feeding.Dry season diet of the Sao Lourenco Punare includes buds of the bromeliad (Bromelialacinosa, Bromeliaceae) and cactus (Cereus Jjamacaru, Cactaceae), nuts of Attaleapalms (Arecaceae), and pads of prickly pear cactus (Opuntiapalmadora), an important source of water.Breeding.Reproductive activity of Sao Lourenco Punares in Pernambuco State occurred year-round, with peak in September—-December. Adult females had 2-3 litters/ year, with an interbirth interval of 4-6 months. Litter size averaged 3-1 young but varied from 1-6 young. In Ceara State, pregnant females were captured in July, with 1-4 young (two most common). Littersizes in captive individuals were 1-7 young, averaging 3-2. Liter size generally increased with female age, and gestation lasted 95-98 days. Milk of the Sao Lourenco Punare is high in fat, perhaps an adaptation to minimize water loss in its arid environment. Neonates are precocial, born at an average weight of 2-1 g, eyes and ears open,fully furred body, and erupted upper and lower incisors; motor coordination is sufficient to permit young to eat solid food within a few hours following birth.Activity patterns.Activity of Sao Lourenco Punares peaks at dusk, but individuals remain active during short periods of day and night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of female Sao Lourenco Punares rarely overlap, but those of males overlap with multiple females; male home ranges are relatively exclusive.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (2008), Moojen (1952b), Nascimento et al. (2013), Pessda, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Teixeira etal. (2005), Thomas (1904a).","taxonomy":"Thrichomys laurentius Thomas, 1904, “Sao Lourenco [= Sao Lorenco da Mata], near Pernambuco, Alt. 50 m,” Pernambuco, Brazil.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Punaré de Sao Lorenco @fr | Laurentius-Punaré @de | Punaré de San Lorenzo @es","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1904","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1904","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thrichomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"564","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"laurentius","name":"Thrichomys laurentius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Brazil, from Ceara and Rio Grande do Norte states, S to C Bahia State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623704/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonvicino et al. (2008) | Moojen (1952b) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Pessda, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Teixeira etal. (2005) | Thomas (1904a)","foodAndFeeding":"Dry season diet of the Sao Lourenco Punare includes buds of the bromeliad (Bromelialacinosa, Bromeliaceae) and cactus (Cereus Jjamacaru, Cactaceae), nuts of Attaleapalms (Arecaceae), and pads of prickly pear cactus (Opuntiapalmadora), an important source of water.","breeding":"Reproductive activity of Sao Lourenco Punares in Pernambuco State occurred year-round, with peak in September—-December. Adult females had 2-3 litters/ year, with an interbirth interval of 4-6 months. Litter size averaged 3-1 young but varied from 1-6 young. In Ceara State, pregnant females were captured in July, with 1-4 young (two most common). Littersizes in captive individuals were 1-7 young, averaging 3-2. Liter size generally increased with female age, and gestation lasted 95-98 days. Milk of the Sao Lourenco Punare is high in fat, perhaps an adaptation to minimize water loss in its arid environment. Neonates are precocial, born at an average weight of 2-1 g, eyes and ears open,fully furred body, and erupted upper and lower incisors; motor coordination is sufficient to permit young to eat solid food within a few hours following birth.","activityPatterns":"Activity of Sao Lourenco Punares peaks at dusk, but individuals remain active during short periods of day and night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of female Sao Lourenco Punares rarely overlap, but those of males overlap with multiple females; male home ranges are relatively exclusive.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 125-240 mm, tail 135-214 mm; weight 120-365 g. The Sao Lourenco Punare is medium-sized relative to others in the genus. Greatest skull length averages 53-8 mm. Dorsal color is yellowish gray; ventral hairs are completely white or with light gray bases. Skull is most similar to that of the Lagoa Santa Punare (7. apereoides), sharing elongated incisive foramina without lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and thin hamular processes of pterygoid bones that are pointed at tips. The Sao Lourenco Punare differs from the Lagoa Santa Punare by lacking pronounced lateral flange on posterior margins of incisive foramina, V-shaped mesopterygoid fossa, and almost flat palate without median keel and only shallow palatal grooves. Chromosome complement of specimens from Bahia State is 2n = 30 with 54 autosomal arms; specimens with 2n = 30 and FN = 56 from central Brazil may represent an undescribed species.","habitat":"Northern Caatinga ecoregion at elevations from near sea level at 15 m to nearly 800 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE1FFD5FAD0590F5265F573.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE1FFD5FAD0590F5265F573","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"564","verbatimText":"23.Gracile Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys gratiosusFrench:Rat-épineux gracieux/ German:Zierliche Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa gracilTaxonomy.Proechimys iheringi gratiosus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Caixa Dagua, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brazil; altitude 750 meters.”J. Moojen described three taxa in 1948 as subspecies of Proechimys iheringi gratiosus, bonafider, and panema. M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000; transferred all to Trinomys, elevated gratiosusto species status, and treated bonafidei as a subspecies of T. iheringi. L.. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 included panema as a junior synonym of the nominate subspecies gratiosus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.g.gratiosusMoojen,1948—SEBrazil,coastalEspiritoSantoandNERiodeJaneirostates,andinlandtoSMinasGeraisStateandItatiaiaNationalParkinNWRiodeJaneiroState.T. g. bonafidei Moojen, 1948— SE Brazil, coastal ranges of Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 163-232 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 162-270 g. Upper parts of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are ocherous buff and contrast with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 90% of headbody length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiformsare darker along mid-dorsal region,so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body.Aristiforms are long, up to 27 mm, relatively narrow, and relatively soft; they are gray at bases and blacken toward tips. Setiforms on mid-dorsal region are gray basally, also blacken toward tips, but possess sub-distal ocherous band. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white on dorsal surfaces. Skull of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is slender, lacks conspicuousridges, and averages 50-6 mm. Incisive foramina are large (3-3-5-9 mm long), premaxillary part of septum is broad and extends more than one-half length of foramina opening, maxillary part is very constricted, septum is often incomplete, and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, involving only squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and inflated. Baculum has pronounced dorso-ventral curvature of proximal one-third, has lateral indentation near distal end, and broadens near proximal end but tapers at tip; distal end possesses weak medial depression and without distal wings. Both subspecies have the same 2n = 56, FN = 108, with large submetacentric Xchromosomes and small metacentric Y-chromosomes.Habitat.Atlantic Forest at elevations above 600 m; subspecies bonefidei occurs in Alto Parana Atlantic Forest, Campos Rupestres Montane Savanna, and Serra do Mar coastal forests ecoregions, within primary and secondary evergreen forest with elevated humidity and dense overstory with trees with crowns at least 20 m in height. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.Females of subspecies bonafidei were captured in April and September, with 1-2 embryos.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no majorthreats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is among the better preserved of the many forest types in the broad Atlantic Forest.Bibliography.Carvalho & Salles (2004), Lara & Patton (2000), Leite (2003), Moojen (1948), Pessoa, dos Reis & Pessba (1996), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015).","taxonomy":"Proechimys iheringi gratiosus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Caixa Dagua, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brazil; altitude 750 meters.”J. Moojen described three taxa in 1948 as subspecies of Proechimys iheringi gratiosus, bonafider, and panema. M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000; transferred all to Trinomys, elevated gratiosusto species status, and treated bonafidei as a subspecies of T. iheringi. L.. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 included panema as a junior synonym of the nominate subspecies gratiosus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux gracieux @fr | Zierliche Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa gracil @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Moojen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1948","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"564","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gratiosus","name":"Trinomys gratiosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.g.gratiosusMoojen,1948—SEBrazil,coastalEspiritoSantoandNERiodeJaneirostates,andinlandtoSMinasGeraisStateandItatiaiaNationalParkinNWRiodeJaneiroState.T. g. bonafidei Moojen, 1948— SE Brazil, coastal ranges of Rio de Janeiro State.","bibliography":"Carvalho & Salles (2004) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Leite (2003) | Moojen (1948) | Pessoa, dos Reis & Pessba (1996) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.","breeding":"Females of subspecies bonafidei were captured in April and September, with 1-2 embryos.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no majorthreats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is among the better preserved of the many forest types in the broad Atlantic Forest.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 163-232 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 162-270 g. Upper parts of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are ocherous buff and contrast with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 90% of headbody length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiformsare darker along mid-dorsal region,so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body.Aristiforms are long, up to 27 mm, relatively narrow, and relatively soft; they are gray at bases and blacken toward tips. Setiforms on mid-dorsal region are gray basally, also blacken toward tips, but possess sub-distal ocherous band. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white on dorsal surfaces. Skull of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is slender, lacks conspicuousridges, and averages 50-6 mm. Incisive foramina are large (3-3-5-9 mm long), premaxillary part of septum is broad and extends more than one-half length of foramina opening, maxillary part is very constricted, septum is often incomplete, and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, involving only squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and inflated. Baculum has pronounced dorso-ventral curvature of proximal one-third, has lateral indentation near distal end, and broadens near proximal end but tapers at tip; distal end possesses weak medial depression and without distal wings. Both subspecies have the same 2n = 56, FN = 108, with large submetacentric Xchromosomes and small metacentric Y-chromosomes.","habitat":"Atlantic Forest at elevations above 600 m; subspecies bonefidei occurs in Alto Parana Atlantic Forest, Campos Rupestres Montane Savanna, and Serra do Mar coastal forests ecoregions, within primary and secondary evergreen forest with elevated humidity and dense overstory with trees with crowns at least 20 m in height. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE1FFD5FAD0590F5265F573.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE1FFD5FAD0590F5265F573","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"564","verbatimText":"23.Gracile Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys gratiosusFrench:Rat-épineux gracieux/ German:Zierliche Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa gracilTaxonomy.Proechimys iheringi gratiosus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Caixa Dagua, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brazil; altitude 750 meters.”J. Moojen described three taxa in 1948 as subspecies of Proechimys iheringi gratiosus, bonafider, and panema. M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000; transferred all to Trinomys, elevated gratiosusto species status, and treated bonafidei as a subspecies of T. iheringi. L.. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 included panema as a junior synonym of the nominate subspecies gratiosus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.g.gratiosusMoojen,1948—SEBrazil,coastalEspiritoSantoandNERiodeJaneirostates,andinlandtoSMinasGeraisStateandItatiaiaNationalParkinNWRiodeJaneiroState.T. g. bonafidei Moojen, 1948— SE Brazil, coastal ranges of Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 163-232 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 162-270 g. Upper parts of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are ocherous buff and contrast with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 90% of headbody length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiformsare darker along mid-dorsal region,so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body.Aristiforms are long, up to 27 mm, relatively narrow, and relatively soft; they are gray at bases and blacken toward tips. Setiforms on mid-dorsal region are gray basally, also blacken toward tips, but possess sub-distal ocherous band. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white on dorsal surfaces. Skull of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is slender, lacks conspicuousridges, and averages 50-6 mm. Incisive foramina are large (3-3-5-9 mm long), premaxillary part of septum is broad and extends more than one-half length of foramina opening, maxillary part is very constricted, septum is often incomplete, and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, involving only squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and inflated. Baculum has pronounced dorso-ventral curvature of proximal one-third, has lateral indentation near distal end, and broadens near proximal end but tapers at tip; distal end possesses weak medial depression and without distal wings. Both subspecies have the same 2n = 56, FN = 108, with large submetacentric Xchromosomes and small metacentric Y-chromosomes.Habitat.Atlantic Forest at elevations above 600 m; subspecies bonefidei occurs in Alto Parana Atlantic Forest, Campos Rupestres Montane Savanna, and Serra do Mar coastal forests ecoregions, within primary and secondary evergreen forest with elevated humidity and dense overstory with trees with crowns at least 20 m in height. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.Females of subspecies bonafidei were captured in April and September, with 1-2 embryos.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no majorthreats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is among the better preserved of the many forest types in the broad Atlantic Forest.Bibliography.Carvalho & Salles (2004), Lara & Patton (2000), Leite (2003), Moojen (1948), Pessoa, dos Reis & Pessba (1996), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015).","taxonomy":"Proechimys iheringi gratiosus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Caixa Dagua, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brazil; altitude 750 meters.”J. Moojen described three taxa in 1948 as subspecies of Proechimys iheringi gratiosus, bonafider, and panema. M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000; transferred all to Trinomys, elevated gratiosusto species status, and treated bonafidei as a subspecies of T. iheringi. L.. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 included panema as a junior synonym of the nominate subspecies gratiosus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux gracieux @fr | Zierliche Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa gracil @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Moojen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1948","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"564","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gratiosus","name":"Trinomys gratiosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.g.gratiosusMoojen,1948—SEBrazil,coastalEspiritoSantoandNERiodeJaneirostates,andinlandtoSMinasGeraisStateandItatiaiaNationalParkinNWRiodeJaneiroState.T. g. bonafidei Moojen, 1948— SE Brazil, coastal ranges of Rio de Janeiro State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623702/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Carvalho & Salles (2004) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Leite (2003) | Moojen (1948) | Pessoa, dos Reis & Pessba (1996) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.","breeding":"Females of subspecies bonafidei were captured in April and September, with 1-2 embryos.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no majorthreats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is among the better preserved of the many forest types in the broad Atlantic Forest.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 163-232 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 162-270 g. Upper parts of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat are ocherous buff and contrast with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 90% of headbody length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiformsare darker along mid-dorsal region,so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body.Aristiforms are long, up to 27 mm, relatively narrow, and relatively soft; they are gray at bases and blacken toward tips. Setiforms on mid-dorsal region are gray basally, also blacken toward tips, but possess sub-distal ocherous band. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white on dorsal surfaces. Skull of the Gracile Atlantic Spiny-rat is slender, lacks conspicuousridges, and averages 50-6 mm. Incisive foramina are large (3-3-5-9 mm long), premaxillary part of septum is broad and extends more than one-half length of foramina opening, maxillary part is very constricted, septum is often incomplete, and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, involving only squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and inflated. Baculum has pronounced dorso-ventral curvature of proximal one-third, has lateral indentation near distal end, and broadens near proximal end but tapers at tip; distal end possesses weak medial depression and without distal wings. Both subspecies have the same 2n = 56, FN = 108, with large submetacentric Xchromosomes and small metacentric Y-chromosomes.","habitat":"Atlantic Forest at elevations above 600 m; subspecies bonefidei occurs in Alto Parana Atlantic Forest, Campos Rupestres Montane Savanna, and Serra do Mar coastal forests ecoregions, within primary and secondary evergreen forest with elevated humidity and dense overstory with trees with crowns at least 20 m in height. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE1FFD5FFCF5A935B57F219.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE1FFD5FFCF5A935B57F219","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"564","verbatimText":"22.Sao Paulo Spiny-ratTrinomys iheringiFrench:Rat-épineux d'lhering/ German:|hering-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de IheringOther common names:|hering’s Atlantic Spiny-rat, lhering’s Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys iheringi Thomas, 1911, “Island of Sao Sebastiao, off Sao Paulo, Brazil.”Trinomys iheringiwas originally placed in the subgenus Proechimysby O. Thomas and again by J. R. Ellerman in 1940, transferred to the subgenus Trinomysin 1948 by J. Moojen, and finally treated as a full species in the elevated genus Trinomysby M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000. MonoWDi ic.Distribution.SE Brazil, littoral and plateau areas of SW Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo states, including Ilha Grande off the S coast of Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 185-220 mm,tail 170-224 mm; weight 139-233 g. Upperparts of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat are cinnamon-buff, gradually lightening on sides, but contrasting with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 87% of head—body length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiforms are darker along mid-dorsal region, so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body. Aristiforms are narrow and soft, up to 23 mm; setiforms on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but with sub-distal cinnamon-buff zone. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Skull is elongated and slender, but it has conspicuous ridges, averaging 51 mm. Incisive foramina are oval, short (length 3-7 mm, c.48% of diastema), and constricted posteriorly. Septum is always columnar in shape and complete, with short maxillary part and vomer that is not visible ventrally. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded and formed by jugal and squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, and not inflated. Upper molariform teeth of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat have three primary folds, with rudimentary fourth fold on M?: lowerteeth also have three folds, first are smaller than the others. Baculum is shorter than those of most other species (6-7 mm), lacks any dorso-ventral curvature or lateral indentations; distal end is evenly rounded, lacking distal wings or median depression; and proximal end is rounded. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60-65 due to presence of B-chromosomes; excluding these latter elements, FN = 116. X-chromosomeis large submetacentric, and Y-chromosome is minute metacentric. Presence of B-chromosomes and minute Y-chromosome differentiate the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat from Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat (71. dimidiatus).Habitat.Atlantic Forest biome, primarily in the Serra do Mar Coastal Forest ecoregion, at elevations above 600 m. The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat occurs in primary and secondary evergreen forests with elevated humidity and dense overstory and trees at least 20 m high. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent.Food and Feeding.The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat has been reported to be a scatter hoarder of, at least in one study, seeds of the understory palm Astrocaryumaculeatissimum (Arecaceae). Otherwise, it probably eats a variety of fruits, seeds, and insects.Breeding.Reported litters of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat have only 1-2 embryos. On Ilha do Cardoso, Sao Paulo State, reproduction and survival of females were directly related to food availability, particularly fruit, and rainfall; individuals reproduced yearround and without any seasonal pattern, although with a slight peak at the end of the dry season and beginning of the next wet season. As a result, adults were most abundant during middle to end of the rainy season.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Sao Paulo Spinyrats are large, especially compared with other rodent species of equivalent size that inhabit similar rainforests. Males use larger areas than females, and female ranges are exclusive—attributes suggesting polygynous mating system. Home ranges average 1-1 ha for males and 0-86 ha for females. Available forest cover, fruit productivity, resource competition, and overabundance of mesopredators might limit local population size.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat has a wide distribution and presumably large population sizes. Population trends are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no major threats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is better preserved among varied forest types in Atlantic Forest.Bibliography.Bergallo (1994, 1995), Bergallo & Magnusson (1999), Bergallo et al. (2004), Bovendorp et al. (2013), Donatti et al. (2009), Ellerman (1940), Lara & Patton (2000), Moojen (1948), Pess6a & dos Reis (1996), Thomas (1911Db).","taxonomy":"Proechimys iheringi Thomas, 1911, “Island of Sao Sebastiao, off Sao Paulo, Brazil.”Trinomys iheringiwas originally placed in the subgenus Proechimysby O. Thomas and again by J. R. Ellerman in 1940, transferred to the subgenus Trinomysin 1948 by J. Moojen, and finally treated as a full species in the elevated genus Trinomysby M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000. MonoWDi ic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux d'lhering @fr | |hering-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de @es | hering @en | |hering’s Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | lhering’s Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"12","interpretedPageNumber":"564","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"iheringi","name":"Trinomys iheringi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, littoral and plateau areas of SW Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo states, including Ilha Grande off the S coast of Rio de Janeiro State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623700/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bergallo (1994, 1995) | Bergallo & Magnusson (1999) | Bergallo et al. (2004) | Bovendorp et al. (2013) | Donatti et al. (2009) | Ellerman (1940) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Moojen (1948) | Pess6a & dos Reis (1996) | Thomas (1911Db)","foodAndFeeding":"The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat has been reported to be a scatter hoarder of, at least in one study, seeds of the understory palm Astrocaryumaculeatissimum (Arecaceae). Otherwise, it probably eats a variety of fruits, seeds, and insects.","breeding":"Reported litters of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat have only 1-2 embryos. On Ilha do Cardoso, Sao Paulo State, reproduction and survival of females were directly related to food availability, particularly fruit, and rainfall; individuals reproduced yearround and without any seasonal pattern, although with a slight peak at the end of the dry season and beginning of the next wet season. As a result, adults were most abundant during middle to end of the rainy season.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Sao Paulo Spinyrats are large, especially compared with other rodent species of equivalent size that inhabit similar rainforests. Males use larger areas than females, and female ranges are exclusive—attributes suggesting polygynous mating system. Home ranges average 1-1 ha for males and 0-86 ha for females. Available forest cover, fruit productivity, resource competition, and overabundance of mesopredators might limit local population size.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat has a wide distribution and presumably large population sizes. Population trends are unknown but assumed to be large. There are no major threats; it is protected in several state and national parks, and its montane habitat is better preserved among varied forest types in Atlantic Forest.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 185-220 mm,tail 170-224 mm; weight 139-233 g. Upperparts of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat are cinnamon-buff, gradually lightening on sides, but contrasting with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below and averages 87% of head—body length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Aristiforms are darker along mid-dorsal region, so that back contrasts with paler setiforms on sides of body. Aristiforms are narrow and soft, up to 23 mm; setiforms on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but with sub-distal cinnamon-buff zone. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Skull is elongated and slender, but it has conspicuous ridges, averaging 51 mm. Incisive foramina are oval, short (length 3-7 mm, c.48% of diastema), and constricted posteriorly. Septum is always columnar in shape and complete, with short maxillary part and vomer that is not visible ventrally. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded and formed by jugal and squamosal. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, and not inflated. Upper molariform teeth of the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat have three primary folds, with rudimentary fourth fold on M?: lowerteeth also have three folds, first are smaller than the others. Baculum is shorter than those of most other species (6-7 mm), lacks any dorso-ventral curvature or lateral indentations; distal end is evenly rounded, lacking distal wings or median depression; and proximal end is rounded. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60-65 due to presence of B-chromosomes; excluding these latter elements, FN = 116. X-chromosomeis large submetacentric, and Y-chromosome is minute metacentric. Presence of B-chromosomes and minute Y-chromosome differentiate the Sao Paulo Spiny-rat from Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat (71. dimidiatus).","habitat":"Atlantic Forest biome, primarily in the Serra do Mar Coastal Forest ecoregion, at elevations above 600 m. The Sao Paulo Spiny-rat occurs in primary and secondary evergreen forests with elevated humidity and dense overstory and trees at least 20 m high. Ground terrain in these forests is typically moderately steep, with rocky outcrops and relatively few fallen logs on the ground. Understory usually reaches 1-5 m in height, includes many palms and fruit trees, but has few lianas and vines, with some arboreal bromeliads and abundant arborescent."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE2FFC9FA0A524052CDF92B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE2FFC9FA0A524052CDF92B","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"567","verbatimText":"31.Armored RatHoplomys gymnurusFrench:Rat-épineux cuirassé/ German:Lanzenratte/ Spanish:Rata acorazadaTaxonomy.Echimys gymnurus Thomas, 1897, “Cachavi [= Cachabi], [Esmeraldas,] N. Ecuador,altitude 170 metres.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to 00°58’N, 78°48’W.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.g.gymnurusThomas,1897—NWEcuadorandSWColombia(Chocébioregion).H.g.goethalsiGoldman,1912—SCostaRicatoWColombia;boundarywithgymnuruspoorlyunderstood.H.g.trueiJ.A.Allen,1908—EHonduras,ENicaragua,andNCostaRica.H. g. wetmoret Handley, 1959— Isla Escudo de Veraguas (off NC Panama).Descriptive notes.Head-body 212-320 mm, tail 114-240 mm; weight 220-820 g. The Armored Rat is large-bodied, with stout body, short and thick legs, relatively narrow and elongated hindfeet, nearly naked and proportionately shorttail (60-70% of head-body length), and short rounded ears. Most characteristic external features are broad, flat, and stiffen spines that cover dorsum from behind shouldersto flanks and rump. These spines are 26-33 mm in length and 1.7-2-2 mm in width, and they tend to obscure soft underfur. Spines are tipped black along mid-dorsum but may have pale tips on sides, which gives lateral aspect of skin distinct speckled pattern. As with other species of echimyids with well-developed spines (e.g. Lonchothrix, Mesomys, some Proechimys, and some Trinomys), those of Hoplomysextend down sides to junction with ventral fur. Color varies geographically, ranging from reddish orange dorsally in the southern part of the distribution to more yellowish in the north. Young Armored Rats are more typically dull brown dorsally. Individuals vary with regard to presence or absence of black ocular and crown areas. Venter is predominantly white, although there may be partial or complete dark brown collar across throat and buff lateral bands separating ventral from flank colors; some individuals have fully buffventer. Some Panamanian specimens are melanistic, almost black, with dark brown venters, variably spotted with white. Skull is conformed as in most non-fossorial eumysopine genera: relatively narrow in shape with elongated rostrum, concave interorbital region, and round cheekteeth with deeply oblique lateral folds that do not transect crown and become isolated as fossettes with wear. Prominent temporal ridges are present, supraorbital shelf is beaded, rostrum narrows toward tip, auditory bullae are very small, and floor of infraorbital foramen is typically flat, although slight groove that marks passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve is present in some individuals. Size, flatness, and ridging of skull of Hoplomysincrease with age (as judged by tooth eruption and wear), with growth apparently continuing well after all teeth are erupted and fully functional. As a result, skulls of “adults” exhibit considerable range in overall size—a characteristic of other eumysopine genera, most notably Proechimysand Trinomys. In the original description, Hoplomyswas diagnosed by combination of its impressively broad and stiff dorsal spines and enamel pattern with all maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth possessing four well developed and obliquely positioned folds, a character that was contrasted with three folds typical of Proechimys. In nearly all craniodental and pelage characteristics, Hoplomysis either indistinguishable from or only at the extreme end of a continuum represented by the diverse species of Proechimys. For example, counterfold formula of Hoplomysdoes vary, particularly in lower molars (from 4/4, 4/4, 4/4, 4/4 to, rarely, 4/4, 4/3, 4/3, 4/3), and some species of Proechimysalso exhibit four counterfolds on most, or all cheekteeth (most notably Tome’s Spinyrat, P. semispinosus, and the Napo Spiny-rat, P. quadruplicatus). Moreover, some species of Proechimysapproach Hoplomysin aristiform spine development, such as the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides), which has been placed in Hoplomysby some authors, and the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (P. echinothrix), which has aristiform spines nearly as long and broad (22 x 1-4 mm, on average).Habitat.Near streams in lowland and mid-elevation evergreen rainforest from Choco and Central American regions from sea level to elevations of ¢.1250 m. The Armored Rat might also occur in low-lying habitats such as palm swamps or wet cultivated areas. It is found in very moist habitats and primary or secondary rainforests. It occurs sympatrically with Tomes’s Spiny-rat in some areas. Compared with Tomes’s Spiny-rat, the Armored Rat is more associated with rocky habitats and mature moist and tall forests. Individuals occupy burrows systems near water, which are horizontal, might be 2 m long, and have nest chamber made of shredded vegetation.Food and Feeding.The Armored Rat primarily feeds on fruits, seeds, and insects (e.g. beetles and orthopterans), and some green plant materials were found in some stomach contents.Breeding.In central Panama, sex ratio of the Armored Rat was estimated at 1:1. It is sexually dimorphic with males 38% heavier than females. A maximum litter size of two young has been reported. The Armored Rat seems to be most reproductively active in April-August, but some pregnant females were collected in October and December in central Panama.Activity patterns.The Armored Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, and it occupies burrows as resting sites during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Local abundance of the Armored Rat appears highest in very moist and wet habitats, but it is less common than Tomes'’s Spiny-rat when the two morphologically similar taxa co-occur. Higher densities of Armored Rats were recorded in primary forest compared with secondary rainforest. Adult male and female Armored Rats were more closely associated than were those of sympatric Tomes’s Spiny-rat, suggesting monogamous or polygamous mating system. A mark-recapture study revealed a strong seasonal effect on density, being higher in May-June (1-69-2-89 ind/ha) and lower in October-December (0-69-0-89 ind/ha) in central Panama, which likely reflects reproductive seasonality keyed to variation in precipitation and ambient temperature.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Armored Rat is widespread and present in several primary and secondary rainforest habitats. Its distribution includes a number of protected parks, and overall it appears unlikely to be declining. Local people do hunt Armored Rats for food in central Panama. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Armored Rat are needed.Bibliography.Adler (2011), Adler et al. (1998), Alfaro (1896), Allen (1899b), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Goldman (1912a, 1912b, 1920), Gonzalez & Alberico (1993), Handley (1959), Patton (1987), Patton et al. (2015), Paynter (1993), Tesh (1970), Thomas (1897), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys gymnurus Thomas, 1897, “Cachavi [= Cachabi], [Esmeraldas,] N. Ecuador,altitude 170 metres.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to 00°58’N, 78°48’W.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux cuirassé @fr | Lanzenratte @de | Rata acorazada @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Hoplomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"567","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gymnurus","name":"Hoplomys gymnurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.g.gymnurusThomas,1897—NWEcuadorandSWColombia(Chocébioregion).H.g.goethalsiGoldman,1912—SCostaRicatoWColombia;boundarywithgymnuruspoorlyunderstood.H.g.trueiJ.A.Allen,1908—EHonduras,ENicaragua,andNCostaRica.H. g. wetmoret Handley, 1959— Isla Escudo de Veraguas (off NC Panama).","bibliography":"Adler (2011) | Adler et al. (1998) | Alfaro (1896) | Allen (1899b) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Goldman (1912a, 1912b, 1920) | Gonzalez & Alberico (1993) | Handley (1959) | Patton (1987) | Patton et al. (2015) | Paynter (1993) | Tesh (1970) | Thomas (1897) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Armored Rat primarily feeds on fruits, seeds, and insects (e.g. beetles and orthopterans), and some green plant materials were found in some stomach contents.","breeding":"In central Panama, sex ratio of the Armored Rat was estimated at 1:1. It is sexually dimorphic with males 38% heavier than females. A maximum litter size of two young has been reported. The Armored Rat seems to be most reproductively active in April-August, but some pregnant females were collected in October and December in central Panama.","activityPatterns":"The Armored Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, and it occupies burrows as resting sites during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Local abundance of the Armored Rat appears highest in very moist and wet habitats, but it is less common than Tomes'’s Spiny-rat when the two morphologically similar taxa co-occur. Higher densities of Armored Rats were recorded in primary forest compared with secondary rainforest. Adult male and female Armored Rats were more closely associated than were those of sympatric Tomes’s Spiny-rat, suggesting monogamous or polygamous mating system. A mark-recapture study revealed a strong seasonal effect on density, being higher in May-June (1-69-2-89 ind/ha) and lower in October-December (0-69-0-89 ind/ha) in central Panama, which likely reflects reproductive seasonality keyed to variation in precipitation and ambient temperature.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Armored Rat is widespread and present in several primary and secondary rainforest habitats. Its distribution includes a number of protected parks, and overall it appears unlikely to be declining. Local people do hunt Armored Rats for food in central Panama. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Armored Rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 212-320 mm, tail 114-240 mm; weight 220-820 g. The Armored Rat is large-bodied, with stout body, short and thick legs, relatively narrow and elongated hindfeet, nearly naked and proportionately shorttail (60-70% of head-body length), and short rounded ears. Most characteristic external features are broad, flat, and stiffen spines that cover dorsum from behind shouldersto flanks and rump. These spines are 26-33 mm in length and 1.7-2-2 mm in width, and they tend to obscure soft underfur. Spines are tipped black along mid-dorsum but may have pale tips on sides, which gives lateral aspect of skin distinct speckled pattern. As with other species of echimyids with well-developed spines (e.g. Lonchothrix, Mesomys, some Proechimys, and some Trinomys), those of Hoplomysextend down sides to junction with ventral fur. Color varies geographically, ranging from reddish orange dorsally in the southern part of the distribution to more yellowish in the north. Young Armored Rats are more typically dull brown dorsally. Individuals vary with regard to presence or absence of black ocular and crown areas. Venter is predominantly white, although there may be partial or complete dark brown collar across throat and buff lateral bands separating ventral from flank colors; some individuals have fully buffventer. Some Panamanian specimens are melanistic, almost black, with dark brown venters, variably spotted with white. Skull is conformed as in most non-fossorial eumysopine genera: relatively narrow in shape with elongated rostrum, concave interorbital region, and round cheekteeth with deeply oblique lateral folds that do not transect crown and become isolated as fossettes with wear. Prominent temporal ridges are present, supraorbital shelf is beaded, rostrum narrows toward tip, auditory bullae are very small, and floor of infraorbital foramen is typically flat, although slight groove that marks passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve is present in some individuals. Size, flatness, and ridging of skull of Hoplomysincrease with age (as judged by tooth eruption and wear), with growth apparently continuing well after all teeth are erupted and fully functional. As a result, skulls of “adults” exhibit considerable range in overall size—a characteristic of other eumysopine genera, most notably Proechimysand Trinomys. In the original description, Hoplomyswas diagnosed by combination of its impressively broad and stiff dorsal spines and enamel pattern with all maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth possessing four well developed and obliquely positioned folds, a character that was contrasted with three folds typical of Proechimys. In nearly all craniodental and pelage characteristics, Hoplomysis either indistinguishable from or only at the extreme end of a continuum represented by the diverse species of Proechimys. For example, counterfold formula of Hoplomysdoes vary, particularly in lower molars (from 4/4, 4/4, 4/4, 4/4 to, rarely, 4/4, 4/3, 4/3, 4/3), and some species of Proechimysalso exhibit four counterfolds on most, or all cheekteeth (most notably Tome’s Spinyrat, P. semispinosus, and the Napo Spiny-rat, P. quadruplicatus). Moreover, some species of Proechimysapproach Hoplomysin aristiform spine development, such as the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides), which has been placed in Hoplomysby some authors, and the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (P. echinothrix), which has aristiform spines nearly as long and broad (22 x 1-4 mm, on average).","habitat":"Near streams in lowland and mid-elevation evergreen rainforest from Choco and Central American regions from sea level to elevations of ¢.1250 m. The Armored Rat might also occur in low-lying habitats such as palm swamps or wet cultivated areas. It is found in very moist habitats and primary or secondary rainforests. It occurs sympatrically with Tomes’s Spiny-rat in some areas. Compared with Tomes’s Spiny-rat, the Armored Rat is more associated with rocky habitats and mature moist and tall forests. Individuals occupy burrows systems near water, which are horizontal, might be 2 m long, and have nest chamber made of shredded vegetation."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE3FFD6FAC555005D02F6AC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE3FFD6FAC555005D02F6AC","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"566","verbatimText":"30.CoypuMyocastor coypusFrench:Ragondin/ German:Nutria/ Spanish:CoipuOther common names:NutriaTaxonomy.Mus coypus Molina, 1782, “Chili.” Restricted by C. A. Woods and colleagues in 1992 to “Rio Maipo, Santiago Province, Chile.”Myocastor coypusincludes bonariensis, castoroides, popelairi, chilensis, albomaculatus, dorsalis, santaecruzae, and melanops as synonyms. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.c.coypusMolina,1782—Chilemainland.M.c.bonariensisE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1805—Bolivia,Paraguay,NArgentina,SEBrazil,andUruguay.M.c.melanopsOsgood,1943—ChiloéI(CChile).M. c. santacruzae Hollister, 1914— Argentina, from the Chaco S to Patagonia. Introduced widely into N South America, S North America, Europe, Central Asia, and East Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 472-575 mm,tail 340-405 mm; weight up to 6-7 kg. The Coypu is large-bodied, robust, heavy, and adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. Ears are small, nearly hidden by thick fur; mouth is closable behind incisors;tail is ¢.72% of head-body length, round,thick, scaly, and sparsely haired; limbs are short; forefeet with five clawed digits, but pollex greatly reduced; hindfeet with well-developed claws on all five digits, webbing joining first four digits, fifth digit unwebbed and used for grooming; and pelage is soft and thick, with dense underfur covered by elongated guard hairs. Sebaceous glands are located near corner of mouth and near anus. Female Coypushave four pair of mammae, each lateral in position and located high on sides. Skull is long and broad, flat in lateral profile, and has broad, deep, and elongated rostrum. Sagittal crestis well developed; zygomatic arches are broad and flaring; jugal is thick but does not approach lacrimal; andjugal fossa is reduced. Infraorbital foramen is large, without distinct groove on ventral surface, indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Stems of internal carotid artery and stapedial artery are missing. Angular process of mandible is strongly deflected, and coronoid processis vestigial. All cheekteeth, above and below, are flatcrowned and extremely hypsodont but not hypselodont. Upper tooth rows converge anteriorly but not to the degree as in species of Dactylomys, and they are inclined outward. Upper cheekteeth have two labial and three lingual folds; lower cheekteeth have one labial and three lingual folds, although dP, has an additional anterior lake (fossette). Re-entrantfolds of upper and lower cheekteeth become lakes with wear. Incisors are broad and deep, with enamel strongly pigmented orange. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 76.Habitat.Slow-moving streams, lakes, swamps, freshwater marshes,irrigation channels, and even brackish water, with sufficient succulent vegetation. Coypusare aquatic; they are semi-fossorial and build complex burrows. They are primarily a lowland animal but may occur up to 1200 m in the Andes.Food and Feeding.Coypusfeed preferentially on semi-aquatic and aquatic plants but opportunistically may consume waterside terrestrial vegetation, especially in winter. Dietary items include stems, leaves, roots, and sometime bark; they sometimes use immersed branches or logs as feeding platforms. Forepaws are used to manipulate and hold food items. In Chile, Coypusconsumed 700-1500 g (mean 1100 g) of plant matter per day, which represent daily intake equalto ¢.25% of body mass. Where populations occur near agricultural plots, individuals can be responsible for considerable damage by consuming cereals or other cultivated plants. Coypusare coprophagous in natural and captive situations, an activity usually performed at night.Breeding.Given large body mass and shortlife span (averaging 6-3 years), the Coypu has long gestation of 127-139 days. Age atfirst parturition is 6-15 months; parturition is usually followed by estrus within two days postpartum, with mean postpartum interval of 2-1 weeks. The Coypuis polyestrous, and length of estrus is 5-60 days, with some healthy females showing no sign of estrus over the course of several months. This variation may be related to ovulation induced by coitus. Cholesterol and ketosteroid levels increase incrementally as ovaries of young females develop. During estrus, amounts of these hormones increase in adrenal cortex and ovary. In pregnant females, these hormones are present only in very small amounts. There are 3-17 corpora lutea, usually a higher number than actual implanted embryos, suggesting that the Coypu is polyovular. In introduced populations in the USA, Coypusare non-seasonal breeders, with peak birth rates in December—January and June-July in Louisiana and January, March, May, and October in Oregon. Mean litters in Oregon had 3-6 young (maximum 1-12 young), with a decline in winter. Litters are larger in regions with higher habitat productivity. For unknown reasons, embryos are almost always implanted in left horn of the uterus. Mean body mass of young at birth is nearly 225 g, and neonates rapidly grow during the first five months oflife (growth rates of 0-0116-0-0120 g/day). Neonatal growth rate may be affected by temperature and habitat disturbances. Lactation of feral Coypu in England lasts 7-7 weeks. In captivity, young nursed for c¢.2 months and were able to survive if weaned after 32 days. Milk of the Coypu contains 41:5% dry matter, 27-9% fat, 13-7% protein, and 0-5% sugar, with the remainder being ash. In Maryland, USA, annual productivity was 8-1 young/female,likely related to food availability and abundance, predator abundance, weather conditions, and diseases. When environmental conditions remain stable and good, meanlittersize was 2-7 young, and females produced an average of 15 young/year. Females Coypusmay “practice” birth control by spontaneous abortion when litter size is small or iflitter consists only of female embryos. In these cases, link between embryo disc and decidua basalis is destroyed, leading to death of an embryo and its disc destruction (up to 25% reabsorptions).Activity patterns.The Coypu is essentially nocturnal, with activity usually initiated at dusk and ending before daylight in early morning. Most daily activity is spent feeding, swimming, and grooming. During hottest period of the day, Coypussleep in their burrows, in the sun, in the water, or on their feeding platforms. Individuals build burrows with multiple entrances; some tunnels are 6 m in length (range 1-6 m).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individual Coypususually stay in only one area throughout their lives, but some local emigration has been observed during freezing weather in particularly harsh winters. Otherwise, daily movements are typically less than 45 m; 50% of tagged males were recaptured within a radius of 91-4 m; 80% of all movements were within a radius lesser than 400 m and 20% within radii of 400-1250 m. Radio-collared individuals during a two-year study in the Netherlands moved no more than 300 m in water and 50 m on land, but more extreme movements were observed in young adults, who moved as far as 120 m downstream. Densities were 0-1 ind/ha in unfavorable habitats and 25 ind/ha in more swampy or riverine habitats. A study in France revealed that 40% of suitable habitats was unoccupied in winter. Population size was largely affected by winter cold, affecting reproduction success and adult survival. In suitable French habitats, local densities were 9-1 ind/ha in May and 2-4 ind/ha in November. Densities have also been correlated with habitat quality, especially local population levels, in Florida, where densities were 24-7 ind/ ha in unpolluted waterways but only 5-9 ind/ha in sewage polluted ponds. Within their native distribution in north-eastern Argentina, Coypuslivein social groups with a mean of eleven individuals per group; in captivity, group sizes are 3-13 individuals. These groups usually have one dominant adult male, with several socially subordinated adults, subadult females and males, and juveniles. Most subordinated individuals are related offspring from a single female. Some subgroups of subadults and juveniles were also recorded. Alpha males and alpha females have been identified in several studies, with the female apparently dominant over the male except when pregnant or lactating young. Young adults are frequently expelled from groups and might be occasionally found as solitary individuals. Several amicable and cooperative behaviors are commonly observed among Coypus. They are believed to have polygynous mating system, with a dominant male mating with multiple females per social group. In France, female home range was determined to be quite constant (2-5-5-9 ha), despite density variation, and with broad individual overlap. A similar pattern was observed in Louisiana where home ranges were 2:5-5-7 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Coypu is widespread and abundant within its native habitat in southern South America. At high density, Coypuscan damage agricultural crops but only limitedly. It is also regarded as a pest in some regions due to destruction ofriverbanks, disruption of drainage systems, damage to crops (e.g. rice, sunflower, corn, cowbane, great water dock, and diverse crop roots), and damage to native plant communities. Its wide distribution in its native and introduced lands, occurrence in several national parks over in its native distribution but also in Europe and North America support the current listing. Due to its invasive nature, several eradication programs have been implemented in Palearctic and Nearctic areas but not in its native distribution. Invasive status of the Coypu has made it one of the most studied species of echimyids.Bibliography.Abbas (1991), Bertolino et al. (2005), Borgnia et al. (2000), Bounds (2000), Brown (1975), Burrow (1815), Carter & Leonard (2002), Colares et al. (2010), Corriale et al. (2006), DAdamo et al. (2000), Desmarest (1826), Doncaster & Micol (1989, 1990), Ehrlich (1966, 1967), Felipe et al. (1998), Fischer (1829), Fitzinger (1867), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803, 1804, 1827), Gosling (1974, 1979, 1981), Gosling & Baker (1982), Gosling, Baker & Clarke (1988), Gosling, Guyon & Wright (1980), Gray (1827), Guichén & Cassini(2005), Guichén, Benitez et al. (2003), Guichén, Borgnia et al. (2003), Harris & Webert (1962), Hollister (1914a), llliger (1815), Kerr (1792), Lesson (1842), Link (1795), Lund (1840, 1841), Lund & Couto (1950), Marelli (1931), Molina(1782), Newson (1966), Oken (1816), Osgood (1943), Reggiani, Boitani, D’Antoni & De Stefano (1993), Reggiani, Boitani & De Stefano (1995), Thomas (1881), Wesmael (1841), Willner et al. (1979), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Woods et al. (1992).","taxonomy":"Mus coypus Molina, 1782, “Chili.” Restricted by C. A. Woods and colleagues in 1992 to “Rio Maipo, Santiago Province, Chile.”Myocastor coypusincludes bonariensis, castoroides, popelairi, chilensis, albomaculatus, dorsalis, santaecruzae, and melanops as synonyms. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ragondin @fr | Nutria @de | Coipu @es | Nutria @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Myocastoridae","interpretedGenus":"Myocastor","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"566","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"coypus","name":"Myocastor coypus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.c.coypusMolina,1782—Chilemainland.M.c.bonariensisE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1805—Bolivia,Paraguay,NArgentina,SEBrazil,andUruguay.M.c.melanopsOsgood,1943—ChiloéI(CChile).M. c. santacruzae Hollister, 1914— Argentina, from the Chaco S to Patagonia. Introduced widely into N South America, S North America, Europe, Central Asia, and East Africa.","bibliography":"Abbas (1991) | Bertolino et al. (2005) | Borgnia et al. (2000) | Bounds (2000) | Brown (1975) | Burrow (1815) | Carter & Leonard (2002) | Colares et al. (2010) | Corriale et al. (2006) | DAdamo et al. (2000) | Desmarest (1826) | Doncaster & Micol (1989, 1990) | Ehrlich (1966, 1967) | Felipe et al. (1998) | Fischer (1829) | Fitzinger (1867) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803, 1804, 1827) | Gosling (1974, 1979, 1981) | Gosling & Baker (1982) | Gosling, Baker & Clarke (1988) | Gosling, Guyon & Wright (1980) | Gray (1827) | Guichén & Cassini(2005) | Guichén, Benitez et al. (2003) | Guichén, Borgnia et al. (2003) | Harris & Webert (1962) | Hollister (1914a) | llliger (1815) | Kerr (1792) | Lesson (1842) | Link (1795) | Lund (1840, 1841) | Lund & Couto (1950) | Marelli (1931) | Molina(1782) | Newson (1966) | Oken (1816) | Osgood (1943) | Reggiani, Boitani, D’Antoni & De Stefano (1993) | Reggiani, Boitani & De Stefano (1995) | Thomas (1881) | Wesmael (1841) | Willner et al. (1979) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Woods et al. (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"Coypusfeed preferentially on semi-aquatic and aquatic plants but opportunistically may consume waterside terrestrial vegetation, especially in winter. Dietary items include stems, leaves, roots, and sometime bark; they sometimes use immersed branches or logs as feeding platforms. Forepaws are used to manipulate and hold food items. In Chile, Coypusconsumed 700-1500 g (mean 1100 g) of plant matter per day, which represent daily intake equalto ¢.25% of body mass. Where populations occur near agricultural plots, individuals can be responsible for considerable damage by consuming cereals or other cultivated plants. Coypusare coprophagous in natural and captive situations, an activity usually performed at night.","breeding":"Given large body mass and shortlife span (averaging 6-3 years), the Coypu has long gestation of 127-139 days. Age atfirst parturition is 6-15 months; parturition is usually followed by estrus within two days postpartum, with mean postpartum interval of 2-1 weeks. The Coypuis polyestrous, and length of estrus is 5-60 days, with some healthy females showing no sign of estrus over the course of several months. This variation may be related to ovulation induced by coitus. Cholesterol and ketosteroid levels increase incrementally as ovaries of young females develop. During estrus, amounts of these hormones increase in adrenal cortex and ovary. In pregnant females, these hormones are present only in very small amounts. There are 3-17 corpora lutea, usually a higher number than actual implanted embryos, suggesting that the Coypu is polyovular. In introduced populations in the USA, Coypusare non-seasonal breeders, with peak birth rates in December—January and June-July in Louisiana and January, March, May, and October in Oregon. Mean litters in Oregon had 3-6 young (maximum 1-12 young), with a decline in winter. Litters are larger in regions with higher habitat productivity. For unknown reasons, embryos are almost always implanted in left horn of the uterus. Mean body mass of young at birth is nearly 225 g, and neonates rapidly grow during the first five months oflife (growth rates of 0-0116-0-0120 g/day). Neonatal growth rate may be affected by temperature and habitat disturbances. Lactation of feral Coypu in England lasts 7-7 weeks. In captivity, young nursed for c¢.2 months and were able to survive if weaned after 32 days. Milk of the Coypu contains 41:5% dry matter, 27-9% fat, 13-7% protein, and 0-5% sugar, with the remainder being ash. In Maryland, USA, annual productivity was 8-1 young/female,likely related to food availability and abundance, predator abundance, weather conditions, and diseases. When environmental conditions remain stable and good, meanlittersize was 2-7 young, and females produced an average of 15 young/year. Females Coypusmay “practice” birth control by spontaneous abortion when litter size is small or iflitter consists only of female embryos. In these cases, link between embryo disc and decidua basalis is destroyed, leading to death of an embryo and its disc destruction (up to 25% reabsorptions).","activityPatterns":"The Coypu is essentially nocturnal, with activity usually initiated at dusk and ending before daylight in early morning. Most daily activity is spent feeding, swimming, and grooming. During hottest period of the day, Coypussleep in their burrows, in the sun, in the water, or on their feeding platforms. Individuals build burrows with multiple entrances; some tunnels are 6 m in length (range 1-6 m).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Individual Coypususually stay in only one area throughout their lives, but some local emigration has been observed during freezing weather in particularly harsh winters. Otherwise, daily movements are typically less than 45 m; 50% of tagged males were recaptured within a radius of 91-4 m; 80% of all movements were within a radius lesser than 400 m and 20% within radii of 400-1250 m. Radio-collared individuals during a two-year study in the Netherlands moved no more than 300 m in water and 50 m on land, but more extreme movements were observed in young adults, who moved as far as 120 m downstream. Densities were 0-1 ind/ha in unfavorable habitats and 25 ind/ha in more swampy or riverine habitats. A study in France revealed that 40% of suitable habitats was unoccupied in winter. Population size was largely affected by winter cold, affecting reproduction success and adult survival. In suitable French habitats, local densities were 9-1 ind/ha in May and 2-4 ind/ha in November. Densities have also been correlated with habitat quality, especially local population levels, in Florida, where densities were 24-7 ind/ ha in unpolluted waterways but only 5-9 ind/ha in sewage polluted ponds. Within their native distribution in north-eastern Argentina, Coypuslivein social groups with a mean of eleven individuals per group; in captivity, group sizes are 3-13 individuals. These groups usually have one dominant adult male, with several socially subordinated adults, subadult females and males, and juveniles. Most subordinated individuals are related offspring from a single female. Some subgroups of subadults and juveniles were also recorded. Alpha males and alpha females have been identified in several studies, with the female apparently dominant over the male except when pregnant or lactating young. Young adults are frequently expelled from groups and might be occasionally found as solitary individuals. Several amicable and cooperative behaviors are commonly observed among Coypus. They are believed to have polygynous mating system, with a dominant male mating with multiple females per social group. In France, female home range was determined to be quite constant (2-5-5-9 ha), despite density variation, and with broad individual overlap. A similar pattern was observed in Louisiana where home ranges were 2:5-5-7 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Coypu is widespread and abundant within its native habitat in southern South America. At high density, Coypuscan damage agricultural crops but only limitedly. It is also regarded as a pest in some regions due to destruction ofriverbanks, disruption of drainage systems, damage to crops (e.g. rice, sunflower, corn, cowbane, great water dock, and diverse crop roots), and damage to native plant communities. Its wide distribution in its native and introduced lands, occurrence in several national parks over in its native distribution but also in Europe and North America support the current listing. Due to its invasive nature, several eradication programs have been implemented in Palearctic and Nearctic areas but not in its native distribution. Invasive status of the Coypu has made it one of the most studied species of echimyids.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 472-575 mm,tail 340-405 mm; weight up to 6-7 kg. The Coypu is large-bodied, robust, heavy, and adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. Ears are small, nearly hidden by thick fur; mouth is closable behind incisors;tail is ¢.72% of head-body length, round,thick, scaly, and sparsely haired; limbs are short; forefeet with five clawed digits, but pollex greatly reduced; hindfeet with well-developed claws on all five digits, webbing joining first four digits, fifth digit unwebbed and used for grooming; and pelage is soft and thick, with dense underfur covered by elongated guard hairs. Sebaceous glands are located near corner of mouth and near anus. Female Coypushave four pair of mammae, each lateral in position and located high on sides. Skull is long and broad, flat in lateral profile, and has broad, deep, and elongated rostrum. Sagittal crestis well developed; zygomatic arches are broad and flaring; jugal is thick but does not approach lacrimal; andjugal fossa is reduced. Infraorbital foramen is large, without distinct groove on ventral surface, indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Stems of internal carotid artery and stapedial artery are missing. Angular process of mandible is strongly deflected, and coronoid processis vestigial. All cheekteeth, above and below, are flatcrowned and extremely hypsodont but not hypselodont. Upper tooth rows converge anteriorly but not to the degree as in species of Dactylomys, and they are inclined outward. Upper cheekteeth have two labial and three lingual folds; lower cheekteeth have one labial and three lingual folds, although dP, has an additional anterior lake (fossette). Re-entrantfolds of upper and lower cheekteeth become lakes with wear. Incisors are broad and deep, with enamel strongly pigmented orange. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 76.","habitat":"Slow-moving streams, lakes, swamps, freshwater marshes,irrigation channels, and even brackish water, with sufficient succulent vegetation. Coypusare aquatic; they are semi-fossorial and build complex burrows. They are primarily a lowland animal but may occur up to 1200 m in the Andes."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE2FFC9FA0A524052CDF92B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE2FFC9FA0A524052CDF92B","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"567","verbatimText":"31.Armored RatHoplomys gymnurusFrench:Rat-épineux cuirassé/ German:Lanzenratte/ Spanish:Rata acorazadaTaxonomy.Echimys gymnurus Thomas, 1897, “Cachavi [= Cachabi], [Esmeraldas,] N. Ecuador,altitude 170 metres.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to 00°58’N, 78°48’W.Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.g.gymnurusThomas,1897—NWEcuadorandSWColombia(Chocébioregion).H.g.goethalsiGoldman,1912—SCostaRicatoWColombia;boundarywithgymnuruspoorlyunderstood.H.g.trueiJ.A.Allen,1908—EHonduras,ENicaragua,andNCostaRica.H. g. wetmoret Handley, 1959— Isla Escudo de Veraguas (off NC Panama).Descriptive notes.Head-body 212-320 mm, tail 114-240 mm; weight 220-820 g. The Armored Rat is large-bodied, with stout body, short and thick legs, relatively narrow and elongated hindfeet, nearly naked and proportionately shorttail (60-70% of head-body length), and short rounded ears. Most characteristic external features are broad, flat, and stiffen spines that cover dorsum from behind shouldersto flanks and rump. These spines are 26-33 mm in length and 1.7-2-2 mm in width, and they tend to obscure soft underfur. Spines are tipped black along mid-dorsum but may have pale tips on sides, which gives lateral aspect of skin distinct speckled pattern. As with other species of echimyids with well-developed spines (e.g. Lonchothrix, Mesomys, some Proechimys, and some Trinomys), those of Hoplomysextend down sides to junction with ventral fur. Color varies geographically, ranging from reddish orange dorsally in the southern part of the distribution to more yellowish in the north. Young Armored Rats are more typically dull brown dorsally. Individuals vary with regard to presence or absence of black ocular and crown areas. Venter is predominantly white, although there may be partial or complete dark brown collar across throat and buff lateral bands separating ventral from flank colors; some individuals have fully buffventer. Some Panamanian specimens are melanistic, almost black, with dark brown venters, variably spotted with white. Skull is conformed as in most non-fossorial eumysopine genera: relatively narrow in shape with elongated rostrum, concave interorbital region, and round cheekteeth with deeply oblique lateral folds that do not transect crown and become isolated as fossettes with wear. Prominent temporal ridges are present, supraorbital shelf is beaded, rostrum narrows toward tip, auditory bullae are very small, and floor of infraorbital foramen is typically flat, although slight groove that marks passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve is present in some individuals. Size, flatness, and ridging of skull of Hoplomysincrease with age (as judged by tooth eruption and wear), with growth apparently continuing well after all teeth are erupted and fully functional. As a result, skulls of “adults” exhibit considerable range in overall size—a characteristic of other eumysopine genera, most notably Proechimysand Trinomys. In the original description, Hoplomyswas diagnosed by combination of its impressively broad and stiff dorsal spines and enamel pattern with all maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth possessing four well developed and obliquely positioned folds, a character that was contrasted with three folds typical of Proechimys. In nearly all craniodental and pelage characteristics, Hoplomysis either indistinguishable from or only at the extreme end of a continuum represented by the diverse species of Proechimys. For example, counterfold formula of Hoplomysdoes vary, particularly in lower molars (from 4/4, 4/4, 4/4, 4/4 to, rarely, 4/4, 4/3, 4/3, 4/3), and some species of Proechimysalso exhibit four counterfolds on most, or all cheekteeth (most notably Tome’s Spinyrat, P. semispinosus, and the Napo Spiny-rat, P. quadruplicatus). Moreover, some species of Proechimysapproach Hoplomysin aristiform spine development, such as the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides), which has been placed in Hoplomysby some authors, and the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (P. echinothrix), which has aristiform spines nearly as long and broad (22 x 1-4 mm, on average).Habitat.Near streams in lowland and mid-elevation evergreen rainforest from Choco and Central American regions from sea level to elevations of ¢.1250 m. The Armored Rat might also occur in low-lying habitats such as palm swamps or wet cultivated areas. It is found in very moist habitats and primary or secondary rainforests. It occurs sympatrically with Tomes’s Spiny-rat in some areas. Compared with Tomes’s Spiny-rat, the Armored Rat is more associated with rocky habitats and mature moist and tall forests. Individuals occupy burrows systems near water, which are horizontal, might be 2 m long, and have nest chamber made of shredded vegetation.Food and Feeding.The Armored Rat primarily feeds on fruits, seeds, and insects (e.g. beetles and orthopterans), and some green plant materials were found in some stomach contents.Breeding.In central Panama, sex ratio of the Armored Rat was estimated at 1:1. It is sexually dimorphic with males 38% heavier than females. A maximum litter size of two young has been reported. The Armored Rat seems to be most reproductively active in April-August, but some pregnant females were collected in October and December in central Panama.Activity patterns.The Armored Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, and it occupies burrows as resting sites during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Local abundance of the Armored Rat appears highest in very moist and wet habitats, but it is less common than Tomes'’s Spiny-rat when the two morphologically similar taxa co-occur. Higher densities of Armored Rats were recorded in primary forest compared with secondary rainforest. Adult male and female Armored Rats were more closely associated than were those of sympatric Tomes’s Spiny-rat, suggesting monogamous or polygamous mating system. A mark-recapture study revealed a strong seasonal effect on density, being higher in May-June (1-69-2-89 ind/ha) and lower in October-December (0-69-0-89 ind/ha) in central Panama, which likely reflects reproductive seasonality keyed to variation in precipitation and ambient temperature.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Armored Rat is widespread and present in several primary and secondary rainforest habitats. Its distribution includes a number of protected parks, and overall it appears unlikely to be declining. Local people do hunt Armored Rats for food in central Panama. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Armored Rat are needed.Bibliography.Adler (2011), Adler et al. (1998), Alfaro (1896), Allen (1899b), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Goldman (1912a, 1912b, 1920), Gonzalez & Alberico (1993), Handley (1959), Patton (1987), Patton et al. (2015), Paynter (1993), Tesh (1970), Thomas (1897), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys gymnurus Thomas, 1897, “Cachavi [= Cachabi], [Esmeraldas,] N. Ecuador,altitude 170 metres.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to 00°58’N, 78°48’W.Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux cuirassé @fr | Lanzenratte @de | Rata acorazada @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Hoplomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"567","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gymnurus","name":"Hoplomys gymnurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.g.gymnurusThomas,1897—NWEcuadorandSWColombia(Chocébioregion).H.g.goethalsiGoldman,1912—SCostaRicatoWColombia;boundarywithgymnuruspoorlyunderstood.H.g.trueiJ.A.Allen,1908—EHonduras,ENicaragua,andNCostaRica.H. g. wetmoret Handley, 1959— Isla Escudo de Veraguas (off NC Panama).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623724/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Adler (2011) | Adler et al. (1998) | Alfaro (1896) | Allen (1899b) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Goldman (1912a, 1912b, 1920) | Gonzalez & Alberico (1993) | Handley (1959) | Patton (1987) | Patton et al. (2015) | Paynter (1993) | Tesh (1970) | Thomas (1897) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Armored Rat primarily feeds on fruits, seeds, and insects (e.g. beetles and orthopterans), and some green plant materials were found in some stomach contents.","breeding":"In central Panama, sex ratio of the Armored Rat was estimated at 1:1. It is sexually dimorphic with males 38% heavier than females. A maximum litter size of two young has been reported. The Armored Rat seems to be most reproductively active in April-August, but some pregnant females were collected in October and December in central Panama.","activityPatterns":"The Armored Rat is nocturnal and terrestrial, and it occupies burrows as resting sites during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Local abundance of the Armored Rat appears highest in very moist and wet habitats, but it is less common than Tomes'’s Spiny-rat when the two morphologically similar taxa co-occur. Higher densities of Armored Rats were recorded in primary forest compared with secondary rainforest. Adult male and female Armored Rats were more closely associated than were those of sympatric Tomes’s Spiny-rat, suggesting monogamous or polygamous mating system. A mark-recapture study revealed a strong seasonal effect on density, being higher in May-June (1-69-2-89 ind/ha) and lower in October-December (0-69-0-89 ind/ha) in central Panama, which likely reflects reproductive seasonality keyed to variation in precipitation and ambient temperature.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Armored Rat is widespread and present in several primary and secondary rainforest habitats. Its distribution includes a number of protected parks, and overall it appears unlikely to be declining. Local people do hunt Armored Rats for food in central Panama. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Armored Rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 212-320 mm, tail 114-240 mm; weight 220-820 g. The Armored Rat is large-bodied, with stout body, short and thick legs, relatively narrow and elongated hindfeet, nearly naked and proportionately shorttail (60-70% of head-body length), and short rounded ears. Most characteristic external features are broad, flat, and stiffen spines that cover dorsum from behind shouldersto flanks and rump. These spines are 26-33 mm in length and 1.7-2-2 mm in width, and they tend to obscure soft underfur. Spines are tipped black along mid-dorsum but may have pale tips on sides, which gives lateral aspect of skin distinct speckled pattern. As with other species of echimyids with well-developed spines (e.g. Lonchothrix, Mesomys, some Proechimys, and some Trinomys), those of Hoplomysextend down sides to junction with ventral fur. Color varies geographically, ranging from reddish orange dorsally in the southern part of the distribution to more yellowish in the north. Young Armored Rats are more typically dull brown dorsally. Individuals vary with regard to presence or absence of black ocular and crown areas. Venter is predominantly white, although there may be partial or complete dark brown collar across throat and buff lateral bands separating ventral from flank colors; some individuals have fully buffventer. Some Panamanian specimens are melanistic, almost black, with dark brown venters, variably spotted with white. Skull is conformed as in most non-fossorial eumysopine genera: relatively narrow in shape with elongated rostrum, concave interorbital region, and round cheekteeth with deeply oblique lateral folds that do not transect crown and become isolated as fossettes with wear. Prominent temporal ridges are present, supraorbital shelf is beaded, rostrum narrows toward tip, auditory bullae are very small, and floor of infraorbital foramen is typically flat, although slight groove that marks passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve is present in some individuals. Size, flatness, and ridging of skull of Hoplomysincrease with age (as judged by tooth eruption and wear), with growth apparently continuing well after all teeth are erupted and fully functional. As a result, skulls of “adults” exhibit considerable range in overall size—a characteristic of other eumysopine genera, most notably Proechimysand Trinomys. In the original description, Hoplomyswas diagnosed by combination of its impressively broad and stiff dorsal spines and enamel pattern with all maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth possessing four well developed and obliquely positioned folds, a character that was contrasted with three folds typical of Proechimys. In nearly all craniodental and pelage characteristics, Hoplomysis either indistinguishable from or only at the extreme end of a continuum represented by the diverse species of Proechimys. For example, counterfold formula of Hoplomysdoes vary, particularly in lower molars (from 4/4, 4/4, 4/4, 4/4 to, rarely, 4/4, 4/3, 4/3, 4/3), and some species of Proechimysalso exhibit four counterfolds on most, or all cheekteeth (most notably Tome’s Spinyrat, P. semispinosus, and the Napo Spiny-rat, P. quadruplicatus). Moreover, some species of Proechimysapproach Hoplomysin aristiform spine development, such as the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides), which has been placed in Hoplomysby some authors, and the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (P. echinothrix), which has aristiform spines nearly as long and broad (22 x 1-4 mm, on average).","habitat":"Near streams in lowland and mid-elevation evergreen rainforest from Choco and Central American regions from sea level to elevations of ¢.1250 m. The Armored Rat might also occur in low-lying habitats such as palm swamps or wet cultivated areas. It is found in very moist habitats and primary or secondary rainforests. It occurs sympatrically with Tomes’s Spiny-rat in some areas. Compared with Tomes’s Spiny-rat, the Armored Rat is more associated with rocky habitats and mature moist and tall forests. Individuals occupy burrows systems near water, which are horizontal, might be 2 m long, and have nest chamber made of shredded vegetation."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE3FFD6FAC555005D02F6AC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE3FFD6FAC555005D02F6AC","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"566","verbatimText":"30.CoypuMyocastor coypusFrench:Ragondin/ German:Nutria/ Spanish:CoipuOther common names:NutriaTaxonomy.Mus coypus Molina, 1782, “Chili.” Restricted by C. A. Woods and colleagues in 1992 to “Rio Maipo, Santiago Province, Chile.”Myocastor coypusincludes bonariensis, castoroides, popelairi, chilensis, albomaculatus, dorsalis, santaecruzae, and melanops as synonyms. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.c.coypusMolina,1782—Chilemainland.M.c.bonariensisE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1805—Bolivia,Paraguay,NArgentina,SEBrazil,andUruguay.M.c.melanopsOsgood,1943—ChiloéI(CChile).M. c. santacruzae Hollister, 1914— Argentina, from the Chaco S to Patagonia. Introduced widely into N South America, S North America, Europe, Central Asia, and East Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 472-575 mm,tail 340-405 mm; weight up to 6-7 kg. The Coypu is large-bodied, robust, heavy, and adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. Ears are small, nearly hidden by thick fur; mouth is closable behind incisors;tail is ¢.72% of head-body length, round,thick, scaly, and sparsely haired; limbs are short; forefeet with five clawed digits, but pollex greatly reduced; hindfeet with well-developed claws on all five digits, webbing joining first four digits, fifth digit unwebbed and used for grooming; and pelage is soft and thick, with dense underfur covered by elongated guard hairs. Sebaceous glands are located near corner of mouth and near anus. Female Coypushave four pair of mammae, each lateral in position and located high on sides. Skull is long and broad, flat in lateral profile, and has broad, deep, and elongated rostrum. Sagittal crestis well developed; zygomatic arches are broad and flaring; jugal is thick but does not approach lacrimal; andjugal fossa is reduced. Infraorbital foramen is large, without distinct groove on ventral surface, indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Stems of internal carotid artery and stapedial artery are missing. Angular process of mandible is strongly deflected, and coronoid processis vestigial. All cheekteeth, above and below, are flatcrowned and extremely hypsodont but not hypselodont. Upper tooth rows converge anteriorly but not to the degree as in species of Dactylomys, and they are inclined outward. Upper cheekteeth have two labial and three lingual folds; lower cheekteeth have one labial and three lingual folds, although dP, has an additional anterior lake (fossette). Re-entrantfolds of upper and lower cheekteeth become lakes with wear. Incisors are broad and deep, with enamel strongly pigmented orange. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 76.Habitat.Slow-moving streams, lakes, swamps, freshwater marshes,irrigation channels, and even brackish water, with sufficient succulent vegetation. Coypusare aquatic; they are semi-fossorial and build complex burrows. They are primarily a lowland animal but may occur up to 1200 m in the Andes.Food and Feeding.Coypusfeed preferentially on semi-aquatic and aquatic plants but opportunistically may consume waterside terrestrial vegetation, especially in winter. Dietary items include stems, leaves, roots, and sometime bark; they sometimes use immersed branches or logs as feeding platforms. Forepaws are used to manipulate and hold food items. In Chile, Coypusconsumed 700-1500 g (mean 1100 g) of plant matter per day, which represent daily intake equalto ¢.25% of body mass. Where populations occur near agricultural plots, individuals can be responsible for considerable damage by consuming cereals or other cultivated plants. Coypusare coprophagous in natural and captive situations, an activity usually performed at night.Breeding.Given large body mass and shortlife span (averaging 6-3 years), the Coypu has long gestation of 127-139 days. Age atfirst parturition is 6-15 months; parturition is usually followed by estrus within two days postpartum, with mean postpartum interval of 2-1 weeks. The Coypuis polyestrous, and length of estrus is 5-60 days, with some healthy females showing no sign of estrus over the course of several months. This variation may be related to ovulation induced by coitus. Cholesterol and ketosteroid levels increase incrementally as ovaries of young females develop. During estrus, amounts of these hormones increase in adrenal cortex and ovary. In pregnant females, these hormones are present only in very small amounts. There are 3-17 corpora lutea, usually a higher number than actual implanted embryos, suggesting that the Coypu is polyovular. In introduced populations in the USA, Coypusare non-seasonal breeders, with peak birth rates in December—January and June-July in Louisiana and January, March, May, and October in Oregon. Mean litters in Oregon had 3-6 young (maximum 1-12 young), with a decline in winter. Litters are larger in regions with higher habitat productivity. For unknown reasons, embryos are almost always implanted in left horn of the uterus. Mean body mass of young at birth is nearly 225 g, and neonates rapidly grow during the first five months oflife (growth rates of 0-0116-0-0120 g/day). Neonatal growth rate may be affected by temperature and habitat disturbances. Lactation of feral Coypu in England lasts 7-7 weeks. In captivity, young nursed for c¢.2 months and were able to survive if weaned after 32 days. Milk of the Coypu contains 41:5% dry matter, 27-9% fat, 13-7% protein, and 0-5% sugar, with the remainder being ash. In Maryland, USA, annual productivity was 8-1 young/female,likely related to food availability and abundance, predator abundance, weather conditions, and diseases. When environmental conditions remain stable and good, meanlittersize was 2-7 young, and females produced an average of 15 young/year. Females Coypusmay “practice” birth control by spontaneous abortion when litter size is small or iflitter consists only of female embryos. In these cases, link between embryo disc and decidua basalis is destroyed, leading to death of an embryo and its disc destruction (up to 25% reabsorptions).Activity patterns.The Coypu is essentially nocturnal, with activity usually initiated at dusk and ending before daylight in early morning. Most daily activity is spent feeding, swimming, and grooming. During hottest period of the day, Coypussleep in their burrows, in the sun, in the water, or on their feeding platforms. Individuals build burrows with multiple entrances; some tunnels are 6 m in length (range 1-6 m).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individual Coypususually stay in only one area throughout their lives, but some local emigration has been observed during freezing weather in particularly harsh winters. Otherwise, daily movements are typically less than 45 m; 50% of tagged males were recaptured within a radius of 91-4 m; 80% of all movements were within a radius lesser than 400 m and 20% within radii of 400-1250 m. Radio-collared individuals during a two-year study in the Netherlands moved no more than 300 m in water and 50 m on land, but more extreme movements were observed in young adults, who moved as far as 120 m downstream. Densities were 0-1 ind/ha in unfavorable habitats and 25 ind/ha in more swampy or riverine habitats. A study in France revealed that 40% of suitable habitats was unoccupied in winter. Population size was largely affected by winter cold, affecting reproduction success and adult survival. In suitable French habitats, local densities were 9-1 ind/ha in May and 2-4 ind/ha in November. Densities have also been correlated with habitat quality, especially local population levels, in Florida, where densities were 24-7 ind/ ha in unpolluted waterways but only 5-9 ind/ha in sewage polluted ponds. Within their native distribution in north-eastern Argentina, Coypuslivein social groups with a mean of eleven individuals per group; in captivity, group sizes are 3-13 individuals. These groups usually have one dominant adult male, with several socially subordinated adults, subadult females and males, and juveniles. Most subordinated individuals are related offspring from a single female. Some subgroups of subadults and juveniles were also recorded. Alpha males and alpha females have been identified in several studies, with the female apparently dominant over the male except when pregnant or lactating young. Young adults are frequently expelled from groups and might be occasionally found as solitary individuals. Several amicable and cooperative behaviors are commonly observed among Coypus. They are believed to have polygynous mating system, with a dominant male mating with multiple females per social group. In France, female home range was determined to be quite constant (2-5-5-9 ha), despite density variation, and with broad individual overlap. A similar pattern was observed in Louisiana where home ranges were 2:5-5-7 ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Coypu is widespread and abundant within its native habitat in southern South America. At high density, Coypuscan damage agricultural crops but only limitedly. It is also regarded as a pest in some regions due to destruction ofriverbanks, disruption of drainage systems, damage to crops (e.g. rice, sunflower, corn, cowbane, great water dock, and diverse crop roots), and damage to native plant communities. Its wide distribution in its native and introduced lands, occurrence in several national parks over in its native distribution but also in Europe and North America support the current listing. Due to its invasive nature, several eradication programs have been implemented in Palearctic and Nearctic areas but not in its native distribution. Invasive status of the Coypu has made it one of the most studied species of echimyids.Bibliography.Abbas (1991), Bertolino et al. (2005), Borgnia et al. (2000), Bounds (2000), Brown (1975), Burrow (1815), Carter & Leonard (2002), Colares et al. (2010), Corriale et al. (2006), DAdamo et al. (2000), Desmarest (1826), Doncaster & Micol (1989, 1990), Ehrlich (1966, 1967), Felipe et al. (1998), Fischer (1829), Fitzinger (1867), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803, 1804, 1827), Gosling (1974, 1979, 1981), Gosling & Baker (1982), Gosling, Baker & Clarke (1988), Gosling, Guyon & Wright (1980), Gray (1827), Guichén & Cassini(2005), Guichén, Benitez et al. (2003), Guichén, Borgnia et al. (2003), Harris & Webert (1962), Hollister (1914a), llliger (1815), Kerr (1792), Lesson (1842), Link (1795), Lund (1840, 1841), Lund & Couto (1950), Marelli (1931), Molina(1782), Newson (1966), Oken (1816), Osgood (1943), Reggiani, Boitani, D’Antoni & De Stefano (1993), Reggiani, Boitani & De Stefano (1995), Thomas (1881), Wesmael (1841), Willner et al. (1979), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Woods et al. (1992).","taxonomy":"Mus coypus Molina, 1782, “Chili.” Restricted by C. A. Woods and colleagues in 1992 to “Rio Maipo, Santiago Province, Chile.”Myocastor coypusincludes bonariensis, castoroides, popelairi, chilensis, albomaculatus, dorsalis, santaecruzae, and melanops as synonyms. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Ragondin @fr | Nutria @de | Coipu @es | Nutria @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Molina","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1782","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Myocastoridae","interpretedGenus":"Myocastor","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"566","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"coypus","name":"Myocastor coypus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.c.coypusMolina,1782—Chilemainland.M.c.bonariensisE.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1805—Bolivia,Paraguay,NArgentina,SEBrazil,andUruguay.M.c.melanopsOsgood,1943—ChiloéI(CChile).M. c. santacruzae Hollister, 1914— Argentina, from the Chaco S to Patagonia. Introduced widely into N South America, S North America, Europe, Central Asia, and East Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623722/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abbas (1991) | Bertolino et al. (2005) | Borgnia et al. (2000) | Bounds (2000) | Brown (1975) | Burrow (1815) | Carter & Leonard (2002) | Colares et al. (2010) | Corriale et al. (2006) | DAdamo et al. (2000) | Desmarest (1826) | Doncaster & Micol (1989, 1990) | Ehrlich (1966, 1967) | Felipe et al. (1998) | Fischer (1829) | Fitzinger (1867) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803, 1804, 1827) | Gosling (1974, 1979, 1981) | Gosling & Baker (1982) | Gosling, Baker & Clarke (1988) | Gosling, Guyon & Wright (1980) | Gray (1827) | Guichén & Cassini(2005) | Guichén, Benitez et al. (2003) | Guichén, Borgnia et al. (2003) | Harris & Webert (1962) | Hollister (1914a) | llliger (1815) | Kerr (1792) | Lesson (1842) | Link (1795) | Lund (1840, 1841) | Lund & Couto (1950) | Marelli (1931) | Molina(1782) | Newson (1966) | Oken (1816) | Osgood (1943) | Reggiani, Boitani, D’Antoni & De Stefano (1993) | Reggiani, Boitani & De Stefano (1995) | Thomas (1881) | Wesmael (1841) | Willner et al. (1979) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Woods et al. (1992)","foodAndFeeding":"Coypusfeed preferentially on semi-aquatic and aquatic plants but opportunistically may consume waterside terrestrial vegetation, especially in winter. Dietary items include stems, leaves, roots, and sometime bark; they sometimes use immersed branches or logs as feeding platforms. Forepaws are used to manipulate and hold food items. In Chile, Coypusconsumed 700-1500 g (mean 1100 g) of plant matter per day, which represent daily intake equalto ¢.25% of body mass. Where populations occur near agricultural plots, individuals can be responsible for considerable damage by consuming cereals or other cultivated plants. Coypusare coprophagous in natural and captive situations, an activity usually performed at night.","breeding":"Given large body mass and shortlife span (averaging 6-3 years), the Coypu has long gestation of 127-139 days. Age atfirst parturition is 6-15 months; parturition is usually followed by estrus within two days postpartum, with mean postpartum interval of 2-1 weeks. The Coypuis polyestrous, and length of estrus is 5-60 days, with some healthy females showing no sign of estrus over the course of several months. This variation may be related to ovulation induced by coitus. Cholesterol and ketosteroid levels increase incrementally as ovaries of young females develop. During estrus, amounts of these hormones increase in adrenal cortex and ovary. In pregnant females, these hormones are present only in very small amounts. There are 3-17 corpora lutea, usually a higher number than actual implanted embryos, suggesting that the Coypu is polyovular. In introduced populations in the USA, Coypusare non-seasonal breeders, with peak birth rates in December—January and June-July in Louisiana and January, March, May, and October in Oregon. Mean litters in Oregon had 3-6 young (maximum 1-12 young), with a decline in winter. Litters are larger in regions with higher habitat productivity. For unknown reasons, embryos are almost always implanted in left horn of the uterus. Mean body mass of young at birth is nearly 225 g, and neonates rapidly grow during the first five months oflife (growth rates of 0-0116-0-0120 g/day). Neonatal growth rate may be affected by temperature and habitat disturbances. Lactation of feral Coypu in England lasts 7-7 weeks. In captivity, young nursed for c¢.2 months and were able to survive if weaned after 32 days. Milk of the Coypu contains 41:5% dry matter, 27-9% fat, 13-7% protein, and 0-5% sugar, with the remainder being ash. In Maryland, USA, annual productivity was 8-1 young/female,likely related to food availability and abundance, predator abundance, weather conditions, and diseases. When environmental conditions remain stable and good, meanlittersize was 2-7 young, and females produced an average of 15 young/year. Females Coypusmay “practice” birth control by spontaneous abortion when litter size is small or iflitter consists only of female embryos. In these cases, link between embryo disc and decidua basalis is destroyed, leading to death of an embryo and its disc destruction (up to 25% reabsorptions).","activityPatterns":"The Coypu is essentially nocturnal, with activity usually initiated at dusk and ending before daylight in early morning. Most daily activity is spent feeding, swimming, and grooming. During hottest period of the day, Coypussleep in their burrows, in the sun, in the water, or on their feeding platforms. Individuals build burrows with multiple entrances; some tunnels are 6 m in length (range 1-6 m).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Individual Coypususually stay in only one area throughout their lives, but some local emigration has been observed during freezing weather in particularly harsh winters. Otherwise, daily movements are typically less than 45 m; 50% of tagged males were recaptured within a radius of 91-4 m; 80% of all movements were within a radius lesser than 400 m and 20% within radii of 400-1250 m. Radio-collared individuals during a two-year study in the Netherlands moved no more than 300 m in water and 50 m on land, but more extreme movements were observed in young adults, who moved as far as 120 m downstream. Densities were 0-1 ind/ha in unfavorable habitats and 25 ind/ha in more swampy or riverine habitats. A study in France revealed that 40% of suitable habitats was unoccupied in winter. Population size was largely affected by winter cold, affecting reproduction success and adult survival. In suitable French habitats, local densities were 9-1 ind/ha in May and 2-4 ind/ha in November. Densities have also been correlated with habitat quality, especially local population levels, in Florida, where densities were 24-7 ind/ ha in unpolluted waterways but only 5-9 ind/ha in sewage polluted ponds. Within their native distribution in north-eastern Argentina, Coypuslivein social groups with a mean of eleven individuals per group; in captivity, group sizes are 3-13 individuals. These groups usually have one dominant adult male, with several socially subordinated adults, subadult females and males, and juveniles. Most subordinated individuals are related offspring from a single female. Some subgroups of subadults and juveniles were also recorded. Alpha males and alpha females have been identified in several studies, with the female apparently dominant over the male except when pregnant or lactating young. Young adults are frequently expelled from groups and might be occasionally found as solitary individuals. Several amicable and cooperative behaviors are commonly observed among Coypus. They are believed to have polygynous mating system, with a dominant male mating with multiple females per social group. In France, female home range was determined to be quite constant (2-5-5-9 ha), despite density variation, and with broad individual overlap. A similar pattern was observed in Louisiana where home ranges were 2:5-5-7 ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Coypu is widespread and abundant within its native habitat in southern South America. At high density, Coypuscan damage agricultural crops but only limitedly. It is also regarded as a pest in some regions due to destruction ofriverbanks, disruption of drainage systems, damage to crops (e.g. rice, sunflower, corn, cowbane, great water dock, and diverse crop roots), and damage to native plant communities. Its wide distribution in its native and introduced lands, occurrence in several national parks over in its native distribution but also in Europe and North America support the current listing. Due to its invasive nature, several eradication programs have been implemented in Palearctic and Nearctic areas but not in its native distribution. Invasive status of the Coypu has made it one of the most studied species of echimyids.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 472-575 mm,tail 340-405 mm; weight up to 6-7 kg. The Coypu is large-bodied, robust, heavy, and adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. Ears are small, nearly hidden by thick fur; mouth is closable behind incisors;tail is ¢.72% of head-body length, round,thick, scaly, and sparsely haired; limbs are short; forefeet with five clawed digits, but pollex greatly reduced; hindfeet with well-developed claws on all five digits, webbing joining first four digits, fifth digit unwebbed and used for grooming; and pelage is soft and thick, with dense underfur covered by elongated guard hairs. Sebaceous glands are located near corner of mouth and near anus. Female Coypushave four pair of mammae, each lateral in position and located high on sides. Skull is long and broad, flat in lateral profile, and has broad, deep, and elongated rostrum. Sagittal crestis well developed; zygomatic arches are broad and flaring; jugal is thick but does not approach lacrimal; andjugal fossa is reduced. Infraorbital foramen is large, without distinct groove on ventral surface, indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Stems of internal carotid artery and stapedial artery are missing. Angular process of mandible is strongly deflected, and coronoid processis vestigial. All cheekteeth, above and below, are flatcrowned and extremely hypsodont but not hypselodont. Upper tooth rows converge anteriorly but not to the degree as in species of Dactylomys, and they are inclined outward. Upper cheekteeth have two labial and three lingual folds; lower cheekteeth have one labial and three lingual folds, although dP, has an additional anterior lake (fossette). Re-entrantfolds of upper and lower cheekteeth become lakes with wear. Incisors are broad and deep, with enamel strongly pigmented orange. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 42 and FN = 76.","habitat":"Slow-moving streams, lakes, swamps, freshwater marshes,irrigation channels, and even brackish water, with sufficient succulent vegetation. Coypusare aquatic; they are semi-fossorial and build complex burrows. They are primarily a lowland animal but may occur up to 1200 m in the Andes."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE3FFD7FAD059A35C87F468.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE3FFD7FAD059A35C87F468","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"566","verbatimText":"29.Painted Tree-ratCallistomys pictusFrench:Rat-épineux coloré/ German:Schwarzweile Baumratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola pintadaTaxonomy.Nelomys pictus Pictet, 1843, “Bahia.” Restricted by J. Moojen in 1952 to probably from Fazenda Almada in the region north of the city of Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil.This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, in coastal Atlantic Forest near [1héus and Itabuna, Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 250-295 mm, tail 273-325 mm; weight up to 480 g. The Painted Tree-rat is large, softfurred, and arboreal, with striking black (or brown) and white pelage pattern. Fur is dense and long, with hairs of uneven length. Guard hairs are soft and slender, lacking spines or bristles. Underfur is dense, long, and wavy. Dorsal hairs are brownish at their bases, with black or white tips; black-tipped hairs cover crown of head, shoulders, and dorsum. White-tipped hairs cover neck, shoulders, and flanks. Robusttail is 109-111% of head-body length, densely covered with short black hairs for most of its length but with terminal partsilky white above and golden yellow below. Ears are small and inconspicuous. Forefeet and hindfeet are short, stout, and broad, with elongated toes and stout claws. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Cranially, jugals are expanded dorso-ventrally; lateral jugal fossa is wide and diffuse anteriorly, not coming to sharp point, with anterior edge offossa positioned above dP*, anteriorto line extending from posterior border of ascending maxillary process of zygomatic arch. Superior zygomatic root of maxillary is expanded posteriorly. Tympanic auditory bullae are inflated, and large auditory meatus is positioned at end of strongly developed auditory tube. Angular process of mandible is strongly projected ventrally with respect to inferior projection of symphysis, such that an angle drawn between ventral posterior tip of angular process and occlusal plane of tooth row, with apex at anterior edge of occlusal surface of P, is greater than 30°. All cheekteeth have three roots; upper and lower cheekteeth are high crowned; P4 and M1 are unilaterally hypsodont (lingual side of crown higher than labial side, crown curved outward); P4-M3 are tetralophodont, with three labial folds and one lingual fold; hypoflexi and mesoflexi are deep, with P4 completely divided byjoined hypoflexus-metaflexus into two, U-shaped lophs, with no mure; M'~* have narrow mure connecting protocone and hypocone. Hypoflexids of dP—M, are set at a strong oblique angle, medial end offlexid extend farther anterior then labial end. Lower premolars are tetralophodont; anteroconid and protoconid united, enclosing anteroexternal flexid as slit-like fossetid; anterior one-half of tooth approximates triangle with its axis slightly tipped anterolabially; and hypoflexids and metaflexids do notjoin (P, is not divided by a continuous flexid). Lower incisorsare robust and strongly curved. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 42 and FN = 76.Habitat.[Lowland evergreen forest in Atlantic Forest. The Painted Tree-rat can occur in disturbed habitats like cacao plantations.Food and Feeding.Based on field observations and interviews with local people, the Painted Tree-rat is primarily herbivorous, consuming leaves even from cacao trees in plantations.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.The Painted Tree-rat is primarily arboreal and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Painted Treerat has a highly restricted distribution (15,000 km?®) within what is now severely fragmented habitat in Atlantic Forest. It is known from only 13 specimens in museum collections and from the subfossil record of Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Its population has presumably suffered continuous decline. Based on interviews with local people, the Painted Tree-rat was apparently abundant in the past and is now very difficult to locate. Some uncertain records suggest that it may occur in secondary or other highly degraded forest patches. As a rainforest species occurring near human habitation, the Painted Tree-rat has likely been severely affected by deforestation and hunting and is not known to occur in any protected areas. The Painted Tree-rat would clearly benefit from hunting restrictions, habitat restoration, and a captive breeding program with the goal of eventual reintroduction. Additional studies into distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Painted Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons & Vucetich (1998), Moojen (1952b), Patton et al. (2015), Pictet (1841, 1843), Tate (1935), Vaz (2002), Ventura et al. (2008), Waterhouse (1848), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Nelomys pictus Pictet, 1843, “Bahia.” Restricted by J. Moojen in 1952 to probably from Fazenda Almada in the region north of the city of Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux coloré @fr | Schwarzweile Baumratte @de | Rata arboricola pintada @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pictet","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Callistomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"566","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pictus","name":"Callistomys pictus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, in coastal Atlantic Forest near [1héus and Itabuna, Bahia State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623718/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons & Vucetich (1998) | Moojen (1952b) | Patton et al. (2015) | Pictet (1841, 1843) | Tate (1935) | Vaz (2002) | Ventura et al. (2008) | Waterhouse (1848) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Based on field observations and interviews with local people, the Painted Tree-rat is primarily herbivorous, consuming leaves even from cacao trees in plantations.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"The Painted Tree-rat is primarily arboreal and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Painted Treerat has a highly restricted distribution (15,000 km?®) within what is now severely fragmented habitat in Atlantic Forest. It is known from only 13 specimens in museum collections and from the subfossil record of Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Its population has presumably suffered continuous decline. Based on interviews with local people, the Painted Tree-rat was apparently abundant in the past and is now very difficult to locate. Some uncertain records suggest that it may occur in secondary or other highly degraded forest patches. As a rainforest species occurring near human habitation, the Painted Tree-rat has likely been severely affected by deforestation and hunting and is not known to occur in any protected areas. The Painted Tree-rat would clearly benefit from hunting restrictions, habitat restoration, and a captive breeding program with the goal of eventual reintroduction. Additional studies into distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Painted Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 250-295 mm, tail 273-325 mm; weight up to 480 g. The Painted Tree-rat is large, softfurred, and arboreal, with striking black (or brown) and white pelage pattern. Fur is dense and long, with hairs of uneven length. Guard hairs are soft and slender, lacking spines or bristles. Underfur is dense, long, and wavy. Dorsal hairs are brownish at their bases, with black or white tips; black-tipped hairs cover crown of head, shoulders, and dorsum. White-tipped hairs cover neck, shoulders, and flanks. Robusttail is 109-111% of head-body length, densely covered with short black hairs for most of its length but with terminal partsilky white above and golden yellow below. Ears are small and inconspicuous. Forefeet and hindfeet are short, stout, and broad, with elongated toes and stout claws. There are two pairs of lateral mammae. Cranially, jugals are expanded dorso-ventrally; lateral jugal fossa is wide and diffuse anteriorly, not coming to sharp point, with anterior edge offossa positioned above dP*, anteriorto line extending from posterior border of ascending maxillary process of zygomatic arch. Superior zygomatic root of maxillary is expanded posteriorly. Tympanic auditory bullae are inflated, and large auditory meatus is positioned at end of strongly developed auditory tube. Angular process of mandible is strongly projected ventrally with respect to inferior projection of symphysis, such that an angle drawn between ventral posterior tip of angular process and occlusal plane of tooth row, with apex at anterior edge of occlusal surface of P, is greater than 30°. All cheekteeth have three roots; upper and lower cheekteeth are high crowned; P4 and M1 are unilaterally hypsodont (lingual side of crown higher than labial side, crown curved outward); P4-M3 are tetralophodont, with three labial folds and one lingual fold; hypoflexi and mesoflexi are deep, with P4 completely divided byjoined hypoflexus-metaflexus into two, U-shaped lophs, with no mure; M'~* have narrow mure connecting protocone and hypocone. Hypoflexids of dP—M, are set at a strong oblique angle, medial end offlexid extend farther anterior then labial end. Lower premolars are tetralophodont; anteroconid and protoconid united, enclosing anteroexternal flexid as slit-like fossetid; anterior one-half of tooth approximates triangle with its axis slightly tipped anterolabially; and hypoflexids and metaflexids do notjoin (P, is not divided by a continuous flexid). Lower incisorsare robust and strongly curved. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 42 and FN = 76.","habitat":"[Lowland evergreen forest in Atlantic Forest. The Painted Tree-rat can occur in disturbed habitats like cacao plantations."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE3FFD7FFC45FA559B3F21E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE3FFD7FFC45FA559B3F21E","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"566","verbatimText":"28.Foster’s PunareThrichomys fosteriFrench:Punaré de Foster/ German:Foster-Punaré/ Spanish:Punaré de FosterTaxonomy.Thrichomys fosteri Thomas, 1903, “Sapucay,” Paraguari, Paraguay.Thrichomys foster: was considered a subspecies of T. apereoides(sensu lato) by S. Anderson in 1997. It was included as a junior synonym of T. pachyurusby L. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015, butits karyotype differs from that species (2n = 34, FN = 64 vs. 2n = 30, FN = 56) and its position as a molecular clade basal to one collectively joining 7T. apereoides, T. laurentius, and T. pachyurus. Monotypic.Distribution.SC Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sulstates) and Paraguay.Descriptive notes.Head—body 119-225 mm, tail 111-200 mm; weight 350 g. Dorsum of Foster’s Punare is generally ash-gray, with ventral hairs completely white or light gray at bases; dorsal tail hairs are blackish brown, sharply contrasting color of middorsum; and underside oftail is whitish gray. Its shares distinct cranial characteristics with the Jacobina Punare (7. inermis) and the Pantanal Punare (71. pachyurus), including wide incisive foramina with slight lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and broadened, rectangular hamular processes of pterygoid bones. Foster's Punare (7. foster) and the Pantanal Punare have broad, robust skulls, large and inflated auditory bullae, wide jugal dorso-ventrally, paroccipital processes that are not appressed to each bulla, and wide plates (c.2 mm) between oval and masticatory foramina; this combination of characteristics separate both species from the Jacobina Punare.Habitat.Southern Cerrado ecoregion at elevations of 90-370 m. Foster’s Punare is considered a rocky outcrop specialist within dry forest communities.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Not assessed on The IUCN Red Lust.Bibliography.Anderson (1997), Bonvicino et al. (2008), Fredericksen et al. (2003), Moojen (1952b), Nascimento et al. (2013), Pessoa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015), Thomas (1903a).","taxonomy":"Thrichomys fosteri Thomas, 1903, “Sapucay,” Paraguari, Paraguay.Thrichomys foster: was considered a subspecies of T. apereoides(sensu lato) by S. Anderson in 1997. It was included as a junior synonym of T. pachyurusby L. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015, butits karyotype differs from that species (2n = 34, FN = 64 vs. 2n = 30, FN = 56) and its position as a molecular clade basal to one collectively joining 7T. apereoides, T. laurentius, and T. pachyurus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Punaré de Foster @fr | Foster-Punaré @de | Punaré de Foster @es","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1903","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1903","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Thrichomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"14","interpretedPageNumber":"566","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fosteri","name":"Thrichomys fosteri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SC Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sulstates) and Paraguay.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623716/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson (1997) | Bonvicino et al. (2008) | Fredericksen et al. (2003) | Moojen (1952b) | Nascimento et al. (2013) | Pessoa, Tavares, Neves & da Silva (2015) | Thomas (1903a)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Not assessed on The IUCN Red Lust.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 119-225 mm, tail 111-200 mm; weight 350 g. Dorsum of Foster’s Punare is generally ash-gray, with ventral hairs completely white or light gray at bases; dorsal tail hairs are blackish brown, sharply contrasting color of middorsum; and underside oftail is whitish gray. Its shares distinct cranial characteristics with the Jacobina Punare (7. inermis) and the Pantanal Punare (71. pachyurus), including wide incisive foramina with slight lateral constriction at premaxillomaxillary suture and broadened, rectangular hamular processes of pterygoid bones. Foster's Punare (7. foster) and the Pantanal Punare have broad, robust skulls, large and inflated auditory bullae, wide jugal dorso-ventrally, paroccipital processes that are not appressed to each bulla, and wide plates (c.2 mm) between oval and masticatory foramina; this combination of characteristics separate both species from the Jacobina Punare.","habitat":"Southern Cerrado ecoregion at elevations of 90-370 m. Foster’s Punare is considered a rocky outcrop specialist within dry forest communities."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A538C5C43F7BD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A538C5C43F7BD","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"561","verbatimText":"15.Elias’s Spiny-ratTrinomys eliasiFrench:Rat-épineux d'Elias/ German:Elias-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de EliasOther common names:Elias’s Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys eliasi Pessoa & dos Reis, 1993, “Restinga da Barra de Marica (22°31’S, 47°17°'W), Municipio de Marica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.”Trinomys eliasiwas originally placed in Proechimysand subsequently listed as a species in the subgenus Trinomys; first use of current name combination was by M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Three reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades have been identified, with estimated temporal splits in the early Pleistocene (c.2-1 million years ago) and late Pleistocene (c.0-6 million years ago), suggesting that recognition of additional taxa may be warranted. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, E & NE Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes. Head-body 170- 244 mm, tail 150-220 mm; weight 100- 290 g. Dorsum of Elias’s Spiny-rat is ocherous buff, finely lined with blackish brown; it gradually becomes paler on sides and contrasts sharply with white venter. Tail is bicolored, brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length; it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at its tip. Dorsal aristiform hairs are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. Elias’s Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outer thighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 and without dot-like supernumerary elements.Habitat. Prefers semideciduous and evergreen moist forests in the Atlantic Forest, most commonly on forest floor in dense, vine undergrowth and in and around fallen trees and complex tree roots. Elias’s Spiny-rat also occurs exclusively in forest patches within coastal sandy lowlands at sea level, otherwise characterized by open vegetation dominated by species of Myrtaceae, Erythoxilaceae, Bromeliaceae, Cactaceae, and Mimosaceae.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Elias’s Spiny-rat probably feeds on various plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding. Elias’s Spiny-rats reproduce throughout the year, except in April, with the largest proportion of sexually active individuals in January.Activity patterns. Elias’s Spiny-rat is reported to be crepuscular but probably is also nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Few data are available for Elias’s Spiny-rat, but females and juveniles are occasionally captured in the same trap, suggesting that young may follow their mothers during foraging bouts.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Elias’s Spinyrat has a small and highly fragmented distribution, in which extent and quality of habitat continues to decline. It occurs at only three known localities, and only one apparently affords sufficient protection. Continued habitat destruction is the major conservation threat to Elias’s Spiny-rat.Bibliography. Allen (1899a), Brito & Figueiredo (2003), Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947), Glnther (1877a), Lara et al. (1996), Moojen (1948), Pessba & dos Reis (1993), Pessba, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), Tavares et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Proechimys eliasi Pessoa & dos Reis, 1993, “Restinga da Barra de Marica (22°31’S, 47°17°'W), Municipio de Marica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.”Trinomys eliasiwas originally placed in Proechimysand subsequently listed as a species in the subgenus Trinomys; first use of current name combination was by M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Three reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades have been identified, with estimated temporal splits in the early Pleistocene (c.2-1 million years ago) and late Pleistocene (c.0-6 million years ago), suggesting that recognition of additional taxa may be warranted. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux d'Elias @fr | Elias-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Elias @es | Elias’s Atlantic Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pessoa & dos Reis","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1993","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"561","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"eliasi","name":"Trinomys eliasi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, E & NE Rio de Janeiro State.","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Brito & Figueiredo (2003) | Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947) | Glnther (1877a) | Lara et al. (1996) | Moojen (1948) | Pessba & dos Reis (1993) | Pessba, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | Tavares et al. (2015)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Few data are available for Elias’s Spiny-rat, but females and juveniles are occasionally captured in the same trap, suggesting that young may follow their mothers during foraging bouts.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170- 244 mm, tail 150-220 mm; weight 100- 290 g. Dorsum of Elias’s Spiny-rat is ocherous buff, finely lined with blackish brown; it gradually becomes paler on sides and contrasts sharply with white venter. Tail is bicolored, brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length; it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at its tip. Dorsal aristiform hairs are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. Elias’s Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outer thighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 and without dot-like supernumerary elements."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A59AF5B17F4A8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A59AF5B17F4A8","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"561","verbatimText":"14.White-spined Spiny-ratTrinomys albispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a poils blancs/ German:\\Weil3stachel-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de espinas blancasOther common names:\\White-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys albispinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838, “ile Deos, sur la cote du Brésil, pres de Bahia.”Restricted by J. Moojen in 1948 to Itaparica, near Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.Trinomys albispinuswas originally placed in Echimyswith other spinose echimyids; 1: albispinusand related species were transferred by J. A. Allen in 1899 to his newly named Proechimysand subsequently by O. Thomas in 1921 to Trinomys, as a subgenus of Allen’s Proechimys. In 2000, M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton elevated Trinomysto generic status by documenting that its members were phyletically unrelated to true Proechimys. In 1999, L. M. Pessoa and R. E. Strauss relegated serotinus named by Thomas in 1921, until then uniformly regarded as a distinct subspecies, to the synonymy of the nominate subspecies albispinus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.1 a. albispinus1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838 — E Brazil, coastal and interior parts of Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Sergipe states.1 a. minor dos Reis & Pessoa, 1995 — E Brazil, interior upland areas of Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 153-190 mm, tail 148-175 mm; weight 120-230 g. The White-spined Spiny-rat is small, marked by wide and stiff guard hairs, and distinguished generally from congeners by smaller body and skull size, presence of lanceolate and clavate guard hairs, and whitish aristiforms on back, sides, and rump and at base oftail. Dorsal pelage is ocherous-tawny, gradually changing to ocherous buff on sides; ventral pelage and inner sides of legs are totally white and thus sharply delimited from sides. Forefeet and hindfeet are whitish dorsally. Tail is bicolored, blackish above and white below, and lacks hairy pencil at its tip. Cranially, skull is short and smooth relative to those of other species; cranial length averages 45 mm. Unique craniodental features include incisive foramina with incomplete septum, premaxillary part at level lower than maxillary part, and simplified molars withjust a single counterfold, although both dP* and dP, occasionally with two. Baculum is long, averaging 11-4 mm, with paddle-shaped proximal end and distinct distal wings. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Subspecies albispinus(including serotinus) occurs in climax forest with low percentage of deciduous trees on the coast to primarily climax forest of mainly deciduous trees inland. This is part of the Caatinga ecoregion, which is a dry area characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions and vegetation including species of Cactaceaeand Bromeliaceae. Subspecies minor occurs in the Morro do Chapéu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range, an area characterized by rock formations produced by geosyncline of Precambrian age. Vegetation is characteristically savanna at elevations of 800-1000 m but grades into grassland at 1000-1100 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat presumably feeds on various plant parts, including fruit and seeds, and arthropods.Breeding.Female White-spined Spiny-rats are pregnant in January-June, and litters have 2—4 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the White-spined Spiny-rat are unknown, but it is considered locally common. A major conservation threat is habitat destruction resulting in degraded, fragmented forest patches. The White-spined Spiny-rat occurs in protected areas in Sergipe State, Brazil.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838a), Lara & Patton (2000), Moojen (1948), Pessba & dos Reis (2002), Pess6a & Strauss (1999), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), dos Reis & Pessba (1995), Thomas (19214).","taxonomy":"Echimys albispinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838, “ile Deos, sur la cote du Brésil, pres de Bahia.”Restricted by J. Moojen in 1948 to Itaparica, near Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.Trinomys albispinuswas originally placed in Echimyswith other spinose echimyids; 1: albispinusand related species were transferred by J. A. Allen in 1899 to his newly named Proechimysand subsequently by O. Thomas in 1921 to Trinomys, as a subgenus of Allen’s Proechimys. In 2000, M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton elevated Trinomysto generic status by documenting that its members were phyletically unrelated to true Proechimys. In 1999, L. M. Pessoa and R. E. Strauss relegated serotinus named by Thomas in 1921, until then uniformly regarded as a distinct subspecies, to the synonymy of the nominate subspecies albispinus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a poils blancs @fr | \\Weil3stachel-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de espinas blancas @es | \\White-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"561","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albispinus","name":"Trinomys albispinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"1 a. albispinus1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838 — E Brazil, coastal and interior parts of Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Sergipe states.1 a. minor dos Reis & Pessoa, 1995 — E Brazil, interior upland areas of Bahia State.","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838a) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Moojen (1948) | Pessba & dos Reis (2002) | Pess6a & Strauss (1999) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | dos Reis & Pessba (1995) | Thomas (19214)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat presumably feeds on various plant parts, including fruit and seeds, and arthropods.","breeding":"Female White-spined Spiny-rats are pregnant in January-June, and litters have 2—4 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the White-spined Spiny-rat are unknown, but it is considered locally common. A major conservation threat is habitat destruction resulting in degraded, fragmented forest patches. The White-spined Spiny-rat occurs in protected areas in Sergipe State, Brazil.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 153-190 mm, tail 148-175 mm; weight 120-230 g. The White-spined Spiny-rat is small, marked by wide and stiff guard hairs, and distinguished generally from congeners by smaller body and skull size, presence of lanceolate and clavate guard hairs, and whitish aristiforms on back, sides, and rump and at base oftail. Dorsal pelage is ocherous-tawny, gradually changing to ocherous buff on sides; ventral pelage and inner sides of legs are totally white and thus sharply delimited from sides. Forefeet and hindfeet are whitish dorsally. Tail is bicolored, blackish above and white below, and lacks hairy pencil at its tip. Cranially, skull is short and smooth relative to those of other species; cranial length averages 45 mm. Unique craniodental features include incisive foramina with incomplete septum, premaxillary part at level lower than maxillary part, and simplified molars withjust a single counterfold, although both dP* and dP, occasionally with two. Baculum is long, averaging 11-4 mm, with paddle-shaped proximal end and distinct distal wings. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.","habitat":"Subspecies albispinus(including serotinus) occurs in climax forest with low percentage of deciduous trees on the coast to primarily climax forest of mainly deciduous trees inland. This is part of the Caatinga ecoregion, which is a dry area characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions and vegetation including species of Cactaceaeand Bromeliaceae. Subspecies minor occurs in the Morro do Chapéu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range, an area characterized by rock formations produced by geosyncline of Precambrian age. Vegetation is characteristically savanna at elevations of 800-1000 m but grades into grassland at 1000-1100 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A538C5C43F7BD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A538C5C43F7BD","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"561","verbatimText":"15.Elias’s Spiny-ratTrinomys eliasiFrench:Rat-épineux d'Elias/ German:Elias-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de EliasOther common names:Elias’s Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys eliasi Pessoa & dos Reis, 1993, “Restinga da Barra de Marica (22°31’S, 47°17°'W), Municipio de Marica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.”Trinomys eliasiwas originally placed in Proechimysand subsequently listed as a species in the subgenus Trinomys; first use of current name combination was by M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Three reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades have been identified, with estimated temporal splits in the early Pleistocene (c.2-1 million years ago) and late Pleistocene (c.0-6 million years ago), suggesting that recognition of additional taxa may be warranted. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, E & NE Rio de Janeiro State.Descriptive notes. Head-body 170- 244 mm, tail 150-220 mm; weight 100- 290 g. Dorsum of Elias’s Spiny-rat is ocherous buff, finely lined with blackish brown; it gradually becomes paler on sides and contrasts sharply with white venter. Tail is bicolored, brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length; it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at its tip. Dorsal aristiform hairs are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. Elias’s Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outer thighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 and without dot-like supernumerary elements.Habitat. Prefers semideciduous and evergreen moist forests in the Atlantic Forest, most commonly on forest floor in dense, vine undergrowth and in and around fallen trees and complex tree roots. Elias’s Spiny-rat also occurs exclusively in forest patches within coastal sandy lowlands at sea level, otherwise characterized by open vegetation dominated by species of Myrtaceae, Erythoxilaceae, Bromeliaceae, Cactaceae, and Mimosaceae.Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Elias’s Spiny-rat probably feeds on various plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding. Elias’s Spiny-rats reproduce throughout the year, except in April, with the largest proportion of sexually active individuals in January.Activity patterns. Elias’s Spiny-rat is reported to be crepuscular but probably is also nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Few data are available for Elias’s Spiny-rat, but females and juveniles are occasionally captured in the same trap, suggesting that young may follow their mothers during foraging bouts.Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Elias’s Spinyrat has a small and highly fragmented distribution, in which extent and quality of habitat continues to decline. It occurs at only three known localities, and only one apparently affords sufficient protection. Continued habitat destruction is the major conservation threat to Elias’s Spiny-rat.Bibliography. Allen (1899a), Brito & Figueiredo (2003), Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947), Glnther (1877a), Lara et al. (1996), Moojen (1948), Pessba & dos Reis (1993), Pessba, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), Tavares et al. (2015).","taxonomy":"Proechimys eliasi Pessoa & dos Reis, 1993, “Restinga da Barra de Marica (22°31’S, 47°17°'W), Municipio de Marica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.”Trinomys eliasiwas originally placed in Proechimysand subsequently listed as a species in the subgenus Trinomys; first use of current name combination was by M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Three reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA clades have been identified, with estimated temporal splits in the early Pleistocene (c.2-1 million years ago) and late Pleistocene (c.0-6 million years ago), suggesting that recognition of additional taxa may be warranted. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux d'Elias @fr | Elias-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Elias @es | Elias’s Atlantic Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pessoa & dos Reis","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1993","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"561","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"eliasi","name":"Trinomys eliasi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, E & NE Rio de Janeiro State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623685/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Brito & Figueiredo (2003) | Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947) | Glnther (1877a) | Lara et al. (1996) | Moojen (1948) | Pessba & dos Reis (1993) | Pessba, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | Tavares et al. (2015)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Few data are available for Elias’s Spiny-rat, but females and juveniles are occasionally captured in the same trap, suggesting that young may follow their mothers during foraging bouts.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170- 244 mm, tail 150-220 mm; weight 100- 290 g. Dorsum of Elias’s Spiny-rat is ocherous buff, finely lined with blackish brown; it gradually becomes paler on sides and contrasts sharply with white venter. Tail is bicolored, brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length; it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at its tip. Dorsal aristiform hairs are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. Elias’s Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outer thighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 and without dot-like supernumerary elements."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A59AF5B17F4A8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE4FFD0FF7A59AF5B17F4A8","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"561","verbatimText":"14.White-spined Spiny-ratTrinomys albispinusFrench:Rat-épineux a poils blancs/ German:\\Weil3stachel-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de espinas blancasOther common names:\\White-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys albispinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838, “ile Deos, sur la cote du Brésil, pres de Bahia.”Restricted by J. Moojen in 1948 to Itaparica, near Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.Trinomys albispinuswas originally placed in Echimyswith other spinose echimyids; 1: albispinusand related species were transferred by J. A. Allen in 1899 to his newly named Proechimysand subsequently by O. Thomas in 1921 to Trinomys, as a subgenus of Allen’s Proechimys. In 2000, M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton elevated Trinomysto generic status by documenting that its members were phyletically unrelated to true Proechimys. In 1999, L. M. Pessoa and R. E. Strauss relegated serotinus named by Thomas in 1921, until then uniformly regarded as a distinct subspecies, to the synonymy of the nominate subspecies albispinus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.1 a. albispinus1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838 — E Brazil, coastal and interior parts of Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Sergipe states.1 a. minor dos Reis & Pessoa, 1995 — E Brazil, interior upland areas of Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 153-190 mm, tail 148-175 mm; weight 120-230 g. The White-spined Spiny-rat is small, marked by wide and stiff guard hairs, and distinguished generally from congeners by smaller body and skull size, presence of lanceolate and clavate guard hairs, and whitish aristiforms on back, sides, and rump and at base oftail. Dorsal pelage is ocherous-tawny, gradually changing to ocherous buff on sides; ventral pelage and inner sides of legs are totally white and thus sharply delimited from sides. Forefeet and hindfeet are whitish dorsally. Tail is bicolored, blackish above and white below, and lacks hairy pencil at its tip. Cranially, skull is short and smooth relative to those of other species; cranial length averages 45 mm. Unique craniodental features include incisive foramina with incomplete septum, premaxillary part at level lower than maxillary part, and simplified molars withjust a single counterfold, although both dP* and dP, occasionally with two. Baculum is long, averaging 11-4 mm, with paddle-shaped proximal end and distinct distal wings. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Subspecies albispinus(including serotinus) occurs in climax forest with low percentage of deciduous trees on the coast to primarily climax forest of mainly deciduous trees inland. This is part of the Caatinga ecoregion, which is a dry area characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions and vegetation including species of Cactaceaeand Bromeliaceae. Subspecies minor occurs in the Morro do Chapéu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range, an area characterized by rock formations produced by geosyncline of Precambrian age. Vegetation is characteristically savanna at elevations of 800-1000 m but grades into grassland at 1000-1100 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat presumably feeds on various plant parts, including fruit and seeds, and arthropods.Breeding.Female White-spined Spiny-rats are pregnant in January-June, and litters have 2—4 young.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the White-spined Spiny-rat are unknown, but it is considered locally common. A major conservation threat is habitat destruction resulting in degraded, fragmented forest patches. The White-spined Spiny-rat occurs in protected areas in Sergipe State, Brazil.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838a), Lara & Patton (2000), Moojen (1948), Pessba & dos Reis (2002), Pess6a & Strauss (1999), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), dos Reis & Pessba (1995), Thomas (19214).","taxonomy":"Echimys albispinus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838, “ile Deos, sur la cote du Brésil, pres de Bahia.”Restricted by J. Moojen in 1948 to Itaparica, near Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.Trinomys albispinuswas originally placed in Echimyswith other spinose echimyids; 1: albispinusand related species were transferred by J. A. Allen in 1899 to his newly named Proechimysand subsequently by O. Thomas in 1921 to Trinomys, as a subgenus of Allen’s Proechimys. In 2000, M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton elevated Trinomysto generic status by documenting that its members were phyletically unrelated to true Proechimys. In 1999, L. M. Pessoa and R. E. Strauss relegated serotinus named by Thomas in 1921, until then uniformly regarded as a distinct subspecies, to the synonymy of the nominate subspecies albispinus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a poils blancs @fr | \\Weil3stachel-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de espinas blancas @es | \\White-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"561","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albispinus","name":"Trinomys albispinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"1 a. albispinus1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1838 — E Brazil, coastal and interior parts of Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Sergipe states.1 a. minor dos Reis & Pessoa, 1995 — E Brazil, interior upland areas of Bahia State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623683/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1838a) | Lara & Patton (2000) | Moojen (1948) | Pessba & dos Reis (2002) | Pess6a & Strauss (1999) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | dos Reis & Pessba (1995) | Thomas (19214)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat presumably feeds on various plant parts, including fruit and seeds, and arthropods.","breeding":"Female White-spined Spiny-rats are pregnant in January-June, and litters have 2—4 young.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the White-spined Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of the White-spined Spiny-rat are unknown, but it is considered locally common. A major conservation threat is habitat destruction resulting in degraded, fragmented forest patches. The White-spined Spiny-rat occurs in protected areas in Sergipe State, Brazil.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 153-190 mm, tail 148-175 mm; weight 120-230 g. The White-spined Spiny-rat is small, marked by wide and stiff guard hairs, and distinguished generally from congeners by smaller body and skull size, presence of lanceolate and clavate guard hairs, and whitish aristiforms on back, sides, and rump and at base oftail. Dorsal pelage is ocherous-tawny, gradually changing to ocherous buff on sides; ventral pelage and inner sides of legs are totally white and thus sharply delimited from sides. Forefeet and hindfeet are whitish dorsally. Tail is bicolored, blackish above and white below, and lacks hairy pencil at its tip. Cranially, skull is short and smooth relative to those of other species; cranial length averages 45 mm. Unique craniodental features include incisive foramina with incomplete septum, premaxillary part at level lower than maxillary part, and simplified molars withjust a single counterfold, although both dP* and dP, occasionally with two. Baculum is long, averaging 11-4 mm, with paddle-shaped proximal end and distinct distal wings. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.","habitat":"Subspecies albispinus(including serotinus) occurs in climax forest with low percentage of deciduous trees on the coast to primarily climax forest of mainly deciduous trees inland. This is part of the Caatinga ecoregion, which is a dry area characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions and vegetation including species of Cactaceaeand Bromeliaceae. Subspecies minor occurs in the Morro do Chapéu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range, an area characterized by rock formations produced by geosyncline of Precambrian age. Vegetation is characteristically savanna at elevations of 800-1000 m but grades into grassland at 1000-1100 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE4FFD3FA7C507B5EF4FB08.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE4FFD3FA7C507B5EF4FB08","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"561","verbatimText":"16.Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys paratusFrench:Rat-épineux hérissé/ German:Lanzen-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de espinas durasOther common names:Spiked Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys (Trinomys) iheringi paratus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Capela de Sao Braz, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brasil; altitude 630 meters.”Trinomys paratuswas originally described as a subspecies of “ Proechimys” iheringiand placed in the subgenus 7 Trinomys. Later Trinomyswas elevated to generic status by M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000 and paratuswas treated as a full species in the 2015 review of this genus by L. M. Pessoa and colleagues. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, known only from a few localities in the S one-half of Espirito Santo and EC Minas Gerais states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 187-246 mm, tail 171-235 mm; weight 195-350 g. Dorsum of the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from cinnamon to blackish brown, becoming paler on sides, but sharply contrasting white venter. Tail length is about the same as head-body length; it is markedly bicolored dark above and white below and terminates in conspicuous pencil of hairs at its tip. Aristiform hairs are most rigid and large among congeners, very long and wide over mid-dorsum, averaging 24-2 mm in length and 1-6 mm in width, and are whitish or pale buff basally, gradually becoming sepia along shaft and terminating with black tips. Mid-dorsal setiform hairs are white or pale buff basally, merging into sepia toward tips but are interrupted by light brownish olive intermediate zone. Setiforms over rump display same general color pattern but are overall paler. Skull is large, elongated, and stout, with well-marked ridges;it averages 52-4 mm. Incisive foramina are fusiform to oval and medium in size, occupying ¢.40% of diastema; septum is complete and columnar,its long premaxillary part constituting ¢.75% of foraminal opening length; maxillary part is small but wide; and vomeris notvisible in ventral view. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed and often slightly pointed,typically composed ofjugal and squamosal. Auditory bullae are large, smooth, and slightly inflated. Upper cheekteeth have one major fold and two counterfolds. Baculum is geographically variable but generally elongated and moderate to thin (average length 9-8 mm), with slight dorso-ventral curvature and without distal expansions or apical wings; proximal end is only slightly broader than shaft and somewhat rectangular; distal end is concave. Karyotype is unknown.Habitat.Atlantic Forest at elevations below 400 m. Type series was collected in submontane region of undisturbed, moist, and dense forest, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat also inhabits lowland moist forests, coastal sand vegetation (restingas) close to the littoral zone, and inland semideciduous forest.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on various plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is probably primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There is an absence of recent information on extent of occurrence, threats, local population status, and ecological requirements of the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat. Much ofits original distribution has been heavily converted to agriculture and pasture.Bibliography.Lara & Patton (2000), Moojen (1948), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015).","taxonomy":"Proechimys (Trinomys) iheringi paratus Moojen, 1948, “Floresta da Capela de Sao Braz, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brasil; altitude 630 meters.”Trinomys paratuswas originally described as a subspecies of “ Proechimys” iheringiand placed in the subgenus 7 Trinomys. Later Trinomyswas elevated to generic status by M. C. Lara and J. L. Patton in 2000 and paratuswas treated as a full species in the 2015 review of this genus by L. M. Pessoa and colleagues. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux hérissé @fr | Lanzen-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de espinas duras @es | Spiked Atlantic Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Moojen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1948","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"561","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"paratus","name":"Trinomys paratus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, known only from a few localities in the S one-half of Espirito Santo and EC Minas Gerais states.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623687/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Lara & Patton (2000) | Moojen (1948) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat probably feeds on various plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is probably primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There is an absence of recent information on extent of occurrence, threats, local population status, and ecological requirements of the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat. Much ofits original distribution has been heavily converted to agriculture and pasture.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 187-246 mm, tail 171-235 mm; weight 195-350 g. Dorsum of the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from cinnamon to blackish brown, becoming paler on sides, but sharply contrasting white venter. Tail length is about the same as head-body length; it is markedly bicolored dark above and white below and terminates in conspicuous pencil of hairs at its tip. Aristiform hairs are most rigid and large among congeners, very long and wide over mid-dorsum, averaging 24-2 mm in length and 1-6 mm in width, and are whitish or pale buff basally, gradually becoming sepia along shaft and terminating with black tips. Mid-dorsal setiform hairs are white or pale buff basally, merging into sepia toward tips but are interrupted by light brownish olive intermediate zone. Setiforms over rump display same general color pattern but are overall paler. Skull is large, elongated, and stout, with well-marked ridges;it averages 52-4 mm. Incisive foramina are fusiform to oval and medium in size, occupying ¢.40% of diastema; septum is complete and columnar,its long premaxillary part constituting ¢.75% of foraminal opening length; maxillary part is small but wide; and vomeris notvisible in ventral view. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed and often slightly pointed,typically composed ofjugal and squamosal. Auditory bullae are large, smooth, and slightly inflated. Upper cheekteeth have one major fold and two counterfolds. Baculum is geographically variable but generally elongated and moderate to thin (average length 9-8 mm), with slight dorso-ventral curvature and without distal expansions or apical wings; proximal end is only slightly broader than shaft and somewhat rectangular; distal end is concave. Karyotype is unknown.","habitat":"Atlantic Forest at elevations below 400 m. Type series was collected in submontane region of undisturbed, moist, and dense forest, but the Rigid-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat also inhabits lowland moist forests, coastal sand vegetation (restingas) close to the littoral zone, and inland semideciduous forest."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE5FFD1FADB5B8D5D03F309.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE5FFD1FADB5B8D5D03F309","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"560","verbatimText":"13.GuiaraEuryzygomatomys spinosusFrench:Rat-épineux guira/ German:Guiara/ Spanish:Rata guiraOther common names:Fischer's GuiaraTaxonomy. Rattus spinosus Fischer, 1814, “ peuplade d’Atira, un peu plus de huit lieues (44 kilometres), a 1’'Orient de I’Assomption [= Atyra, 44 km E of Asuncion, Cordillera],” Paraguay.Euryzygomatomys spinosuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, Hypudaeus, Echinomys, and Mesomys. It includes guiara, brachyurus, and catellus as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution. SE & S Brazil (from Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo to Rio Grande do Sul), NE Argentina (Misiones), and S Paraguay.Descriptive notes. Head-body 163-205 mm, tail 60-64 mm; weight 180-210 g. The Guiara is medium-sized and is characterized by fusiform body covered, with brown to black spiny dorsal pelage, short limbs, short ears, and short tail—typical of subterranean rodents. Tail is less than 50% of head-body length and is sparsely covered with short hair. Dorsal pelage varies from yellow-brown to dark brown, with black guard hairs. Body sides are lighter in color, and venter varies from white to slightly yellowish, except for more ferruginous throat. Manus has long and powerful claws, probably adapted for digging; pes has shorter claws. Skull is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone is truncated. Auditory meatus is medium-sized, with partial contact between ectotympanic and squamosal, restricted to posterior portion of dorsal margin of ectotympanic, and forming cleft between these two bones. Incisive foramina are short and oval. Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Incisors are large, heavy, but not grooved. All upper and lower cheekteeth are semicircular in outline. Dentition of the Guiara is unique, characterized by very deep reentrant flexi/flexids, forming elongate fossettes/ fossettids, and by anterior fossette and metafossette sub-equal in size. All upper and lower cheekteeth possess three transverse lophs/lophids. A fourth lophid may be visible on unworn lower teeth.Habitat. Variety of habitats in the Atlantic Forest, but also in adjacent cerrado, from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. Guiaras are habitat generalists and occur in Pinustaeda (Pinaceae) plantations, exotic grasslands (Melinisminutiflora, Poaceae), highland forests and grasslands, secondary vegetation, dry grasslands, wet meadows, forest edges, and agriculturalfields..Food and Feeding. Dentition of the Guiara suggests herbivorous diet. Consumption of P. taeda has been documented in southern Brazil. Leaves of the invasive exotic grass M. minutiflora have been consumed in south-eastern Brazil. Fecal analysis of two specimens collected in cerrado indicated consumption of vegetative parts of plants (leaves and steams) and also insects (Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Hemiptera), suggesting omnivorous diet.Breeding. Pregnant Guiaras carrying 1-3 embryos have been reported in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. One of them was pregnant in November. Given subterranean habits of the Guiara, it probably nests underground.Activity patterns. The Guiara is probably nocturnal. It is preyed on by the American barn owl (7yto alba furcata), which is mainly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Guiara is semi-fossorial, but little 1s known aboutits ecology and behavior.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Guiara is usually not abundant in mammal surveys, but it is widespread, occurring in wide variety of habitats, including human-impacted areas.Bibliography. Bonvicino & Bezerra (2015), Goncalves et al. (2007), Loss et al. (2015), Moojen (1952b), Redford & Eisenberg (1992), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Rattus spinosus Fischer, 1814, “ peuplade d’Atira, un peu plus de huit lieues (44 kilometres), a 1’'Orient de I’Assomption [= Atyra, 44 km E of Asuncion, Cordillera],” Paraguay.Euryzygomatomys spinosuswas formerly classified in the genera Loncheres, Echimys, Hypudaeus, Echinomys, and Mesomys. It includes guiara, brachyurus, and catellus as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux guira @fr | Guiara @de | Rata guira @es | Fischer's Guiara @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Fischer","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1814","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Euryzygomatomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"560","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"spinosus","name":"Euryzygomatomys spinosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE & S Brazil (from Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo to Rio Grande do Sul), NE Argentina (Misiones), and S Paraguay.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623681/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonvicino & Bezerra (2015) | Goncalves et al. (2007) | Loss et al. (2015) | Moojen (1952b) | Redford & Eisenberg (1992) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Guiara is semi-fossorial, but little 1s known aboutits ecology and behavior.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 163-205 mm, tail 60-64 mm; weight 180-210 g. The Guiara is medium-sized and is characterized by fusiform body covered, with brown to black spiny dorsal pelage, short limbs, short ears, and short tail—typical of subterranean rodents. Tail is less than 50% of head-body length and is sparsely covered with short hair. Dorsal pelage varies from yellow-brown to dark brown, with black guard hairs. Body sides are lighter in color, and venter varies from white to slightly yellowish, except for more ferruginous throat. Manus has long and powerful claws, probably adapted for digging; pes has shorter claws. Skull is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone is truncated. Auditory meatus is medium-sized, with partial contact between ectotympanic and squamosal, restricted to posterior portion of dorsal margin of ectotympanic, and forming cleft between these two bones. Incisive foramina are short and oval. Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Incisors are large, heavy, but not grooved. All upper and lower cheekteeth are semicircular in outline. Dentition of the Guiara is unique, characterized by very deep reentrant flexi/flexids, forming elongate fossettes/ fossettids, and by anterior fossette and metafossette sub-equal in size. All upper and lower cheekteeth possess three transverse lophs/lophids. A fourth lophid may be visible on unworn lower teeth."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE5FFD1FFD059FF53E7FDE2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE5FFD1FFD059FF53E7FDE2","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"560","verbatimText":"12.Broad-headed Spiny-ratClyomys laticepsFrench:Rat-épineux a téte large/ German:Breitkopf-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de cabeza anchaTaxonomy.Echimys laticeps Thomas, 1909, “Lagoa Santa, on the Rio Sao Francisco, Minas Gerais,”Brazil.Clyomys laticepswas placed originally in Echimys, but O. Thomas in 1916 designated laticepsas the type species of the new genus Clyomys. In the most recent review in 2015, A. M. R. Bezerra and C. R. Bonvicino regarded whartoni (named by J. Moojen in 1952 as a subspecies of laticeps) and bishopt (named by F. D. de AvilaPires and M. R. C. Wutke in 1981 as a full species), as synonyms of Thomas's laticeps. Monotypic.Distribution.C Brazilian states of Bahia, Distrito Federal, Goias, and Minas Gerais, extending S into Sao Paulo State and W to Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul states, and into E Paraguay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 150-295 mm, tail 48-89 mm; weight 100-350 g. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is medium-sized and semi-fossorial, with short ears, short limbs, long and powerful fore claws, short tail (¢.33% of head-body length) sparsely covered with hair only partially covering underlying scales, and coarse and spinose fur. General color varies from grizzled rufous and black to grizzled yellow and black dorsally, and whitish to buffy ventrally, with or without grayish or pale rufous patches in gular region. Skull of the Broad-headed Spiny-rat is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone and inferior projection of premaxillary are short, and well-developed canal for nerve passage is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Auditory bullae are hypertrophied, extending posteriorly beyond paraoccipital processes when viewed from behind. Incisive foramina are narrow and elongate, and mesopterygoid fossa extends to middle of M* Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Incisors are robust, upper cheekteeth have three roots and three transverse lophs, and mandibular teeth also have three lophs. Male phallus is subcylindrical, elongated, and straight, with longitudinal grooves on sides, small spines covering epidermis and extending into the intromittent (external) sac, and lappet extending only slight beyond the crater. Baculum is simple, long, narrow, and slightly concave at proximal end. Karyotype is variable: specimens from Sao Paulo State are 2n = 34 and FN = 58 or 60; those from Distrito Federal are 2n = 34 and FN = 62; those from Mato Grosso do Sul State are 2n = 34 and FN = 58; and those from Goias State are 2n = 32 and FN = 54.Habitat.Savanna with considerable structural complexity including unflooded grassland and shrubby vegetation with ground cover of grasses and areas of the Paraguayan Chaco, a drier western extension of the cerrado. In the dry season, Broad-headed Spiny-rats occupy areas with partially continuous canopy of 2-3 m tall, with discontinuous herbaceous cover; in the wet season, they occur in areas with partially continuous herbaceous cover, 0-2-1 m tall, but with 10-30% arboreal cover. Density may be positively influenced by abundance of understory palms.Food and Feeding.Broad-headed Spiny-rats are herbivorous, consuming mostly monocots, and they store plant parts in burrow systems. They can be important consumers and dispersers of palm seeds, particularly those of Attaleageraensis, A. phalerata, and Syagrus petraea(all Arecaceae). In one comparative study, the Broad-headed Spiny-rat had the most specialized diet and microhabitat requirements of the assemblage of coexisting rodent species.Breeding.Pregnant Broad-headed Spiny-rats have been captured, with single embryos, in June-December, primarily during the dry season but extending into the wet season. Juveniles have been recorded in the wet season (December—April).Activity patterns.The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is stated by some to be diurnal, but nocturnal foraging excursions on the ground have been documented. Like many fossorial-to-subterranean species, activity pattern is likely to be without an explicit diel pattern. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat exhibits a low resting O, metabolism and tolerance to hypoxia, both characteristics of other fossorial mammals.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is semi-fossorial and colonial, digging complex burrow systems to maximum depths of 1-5 m and with lateral extensions up to 37 m. There is a strong relationship between presence of Clyomysand burrows of armadillos (Cingulata) in some parts of its distribution.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. “Bishop’s Fossorial Spiny-rat” (C. bishopi) is treated here as a synonym of the Broadheaded Spiny-rat but is classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List because of the absence of recent information, with the caution that its taxonomic status needed clarification. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is patchily distributed but locally abundant. There are no documented conservation threats, but habitat conversion to agriculture, especially in the southern part of its distribution, may be detrimental.Bibliography.de Almeida & Galetti (2007), de Avila-Pires & Wutke (1981), Barros et al. (2004), Bezerra & Bonvicino (2015b), Bezerra & de Oliveira (2010), Bueno et al. (2004), Camilo-Alves & Mourao (2010), de Carvalho & Bueno (1975), Lacher & Alho (1989), Moojen (1952b), Thomas (1909a, 1916b), Vieira (1997 2003).","taxonomy":"Echimys laticeps Thomas, 1909, “Lagoa Santa, on the Rio Sao Francisco, Minas Gerais,”Brazil.Clyomys laticepswas placed originally in Echimys, but O. Thomas in 1916 designated laticepsas the type species of the new genus Clyomys. In the most recent review in 2015, A. M. R. Bezerra and C. R. Bonvicino regarded whartoni (named by J. Moojen in 1952 as a subspecies of laticeps) and bishopt (named by F. D. de AvilaPires and M. R. C. Wutke in 1981 as a full species), as synonyms of Thomas's laticeps. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a téte large @fr | Breitkopf-Stachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de cabeza ancha @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Clyomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"560","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"laticeps","name":"Clyomys laticeps","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Brazilian states of Bahia, Distrito Federal, Goias, and Minas Gerais, extending S into Sao Paulo State and W to Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul states, and into E Paraguay.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623679/files/figure.png","bibliography":"de Almeida & Galetti (2007) | de Avila-Pires & Wutke (1981) | Barros et al. (2004) | Bezerra & Bonvicino (2015b) | Bezerra & de Oliveira (2010) | Bueno et al. (2004) | Camilo-Alves & Mourao (2010) | de Carvalho & Bueno (1975) | Lacher & Alho (1989) | Moojen (1952b) | Thomas (1909a, 1916b) | Vieira (1997 2003)","foodAndFeeding":"Broad-headed Spiny-rats are herbivorous, consuming mostly monocots, and they store plant parts in burrow systems. They can be important consumers and dispersers of palm seeds, particularly those of Attaleageraensis, A. phalerata, and Syagrus petraea(all Arecaceae). In one comparative study, the Broad-headed Spiny-rat had the most specialized diet and microhabitat requirements of the assemblage of coexisting rodent species.","breeding":"Pregnant Broad-headed Spiny-rats have been captured, with single embryos, in June-December, primarily during the dry season but extending into the wet season. Juveniles have been recorded in the wet season (December—April).","activityPatterns":"The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is stated by some to be diurnal, but nocturnal foraging excursions on the ground have been documented. Like many fossorial-to-subterranean species, activity pattern is likely to be without an explicit diel pattern. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat exhibits a low resting O, metabolism and tolerance to hypoxia, both characteristics of other fossorial mammals.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is semi-fossorial and colonial, digging complex burrow systems to maximum depths of 1-5 m and with lateral extensions up to 37 m. There is a strong relationship between presence of Clyomysand burrows of armadillos (Cingulata) in some parts of its distribution.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. “Bishop’s Fossorial Spiny-rat” (C. bishopi) is treated here as a synonym of the Broadheaded Spiny-rat but is classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List because of the absence of recent information, with the caution that its taxonomic status needed clarification. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is patchily distributed but locally abundant. There are no documented conservation threats, but habitat conversion to agriculture, especially in the southern part of its distribution, may be detrimental.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 150-295 mm, tail 48-89 mm; weight 100-350 g. The Broad-headed Spiny-rat is medium-sized and semi-fossorial, with short ears, short limbs, long and powerful fore claws, short tail (¢.33% of head-body length) sparsely covered with hair only partially covering underlying scales, and coarse and spinose fur. General color varies from grizzled rufous and black to grizzled yellow and black dorsally, and whitish to buffy ventrally, with or without grayish or pale rufous patches in gular region. Skull of the Broad-headed Spiny-rat is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone and inferior projection of premaxillary are short, and well-developed canal for nerve passage is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Auditory bullae are hypertrophied, extending posteriorly beyond paraoccipital processes when viewed from behind. Incisive foramina are narrow and elongate, and mesopterygoid fossa extends to middle of M* Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Incisors are robust, upper cheekteeth have three roots and three transverse lophs, and mandibular teeth also have three lophs. Male phallus is subcylindrical, elongated, and straight, with longitudinal grooves on sides, small spines covering epidermis and extending into the intromittent (external) sac, and lappet extending only slight beyond the crater. Baculum is simple, long, narrow, and slightly concave at proximal end. Karyotype is variable: specimens from Sao Paulo State are 2n = 34 and FN = 58 or 60; those from Distrito Federal are 2n = 34 and FN = 62; those from Mato Grosso do Sul State are 2n = 34 and FN = 58; and those from Goias State are 2n = 32 and FN = 54.","habitat":"Savanna with considerable structural complexity including unflooded grassland and shrubby vegetation with ground cover of grasses and areas of the Paraguayan Chaco, a drier western extension of the cerrado. In the dry season, Broad-headed Spiny-rats occupy areas with partially continuous canopy of 2-3 m tall, with discontinuous herbaceous cover; in the wet season, they occur in areas with partially continuous herbaceous cover, 0-2-1 m tall, but with 10-30% arboreal cover. Density may be positively influenced by abundance of understory palms."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE6FFD2FF0A5125529EFB55.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE6FFD2FF0A5125529EFB55","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"563","verbatimText":"20.Pau Brasil Spiny-ratTrinomys mirapitangaFrench:Rat-épineux des mirapitangas/ German:Mirapitanga-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de dorso 0ScuroOther common names:Dark-caped Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Trinomys mirapitanga Lara, Patton & Hingst-Zaher, 2002, “Estacao Ecologica do Pau Brasil, 16 km W Porto Seguro, Bahia, Brazil, 16°22’S 39°11'W,40 m alt.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil, S coast of Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body mean 216— 225 mm,tail 185-201 mm; weight 259 g. The Pau Brasil Spiny-rat is medium-sized compared with congeners. Overall color is much darker along mid-dorsal region than in other species, forming dark cape on middle of back that contrasts with much paler sides. Aristiforms on mid-back are smoky-gray at bases, have ocherous buff mid-zone, and are dark brown attips. Lateral setiform hairs typically have four color bands, drabgray at bases followed by smoky-gray and ocherous buff, and terminating in blacktips. Bicolored tail is ¢.80% of head-body length, covered with short hairs. Aristiforms are long (mean 24-9 mm), wide (1-5 mm) at mid-dorsum,shorter, and slightly narrower laterally. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Skull is large, averaging 52-4 mm in length. Incisive foramina are oval, short (c.30% of diastema), and constrict posteriorly; septum is complete and columnar; and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, with jugal and squamosal contributions;it never forms sharp spine. Auditory bullae are smooth and of moderate size. Upper molariform teeth have three primary folds, with rudimentary fourth on M?; lower teeth also have three folds, the first smallest. Baculum is shorter than most other species of Trinomys(length 7-9 mm in one available adult male); has weakly developed distal wings and broad basal expansion that are strongly flexed ventrally; and median trough is evident along dorsal surface of basal part. Karyotype is unknown.Habitat.[Lowland secondary forest in Atlantic Forest; elevation of the two known localities are 20 m and 40 m. Holotype and two paratypes were collected in a biological reserve established to protect one of the largest remaining stands of brazilwood, or pernambuco tree (Caesalpiniaechinata, Fabaceae), an important commercial species for wood products and dye that has been heavily exploited.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Pau Brasil Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.There is no information available forthis species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pau Brasil Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Pau Brasil Spiny-rat has a small distribution, and there is an absence of data on local status or ecological requirements. One of the two known populations is within Pau Brasil National Park, a reserve established to protect brazilwood.Bibliography.Lara et al. (2002), Pessb6a, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015).","taxonomy":"Trinomys mirapitanga Lara, Patton & Hingst-Zaher, 2002, “Estacao Ecologica do Pau Brasil, 16 km W Porto Seguro, Bahia, Brazil, 16°22’S 39°11'W,40 m alt.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux des mirapitangas @fr | Mirapitanga-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de dorso 0Scuro @es | Dark-caped Atlantic Spiny-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lara, Patton & Hingst-Zaher","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2002","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"563","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mirapitanga","name":"Trinomys mirapitanga","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Brazil, S coast of Bahia State.","bibliography":"Lara et al. (2002) | Pessb6a, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Pau Brasil Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.","breeding":"There is no information available forthis species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pau Brasil Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Pau Brasil Spiny-rat has a small distribution, and there is an absence of data on local status or ecological requirements. One of the two known populations is within Pau Brasil National Park, a reserve established to protect brazilwood.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body mean 216— 225 mm,tail 185-201 mm; weight 259 g. The Pau Brasil Spiny-rat is medium-sized compared with congeners. Overall color is much darker along mid-dorsal region than in other species, forming dark cape on middle of back that contrasts with much paler sides. Aristiforms on mid-back are smoky-gray at bases, have ocherous buff mid-zone, and are dark brown attips. Lateral setiform hairs typically have four color bands, drabgray at bases followed by smoky-gray and ocherous buff, and terminating in blacktips. Bicolored tail is ¢.80% of head-body length, covered with short hairs. Aristiforms are long (mean 24-9 mm), wide (1-5 mm) at mid-dorsum,shorter, and slightly narrower laterally. Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Skull is large, averaging 52-4 mm in length. Incisive foramina are oval, short (c.30% of diastema), and constrict posteriorly; septum is complete and columnar; and vomer does not contribute to ventral aspect of septum. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are rounded, with jugal and squamosal contributions;it never forms sharp spine. Auditory bullae are smooth and of moderate size. Upper molariform teeth have three primary folds, with rudimentary fourth on M?; lower teeth also have three folds, the first smallest. Baculum is shorter than most other species of Trinomys(length 7-9 mm in one available adult male); has weakly developed distal wings and broad basal expansion that are strongly flexed ventrally; and median trough is evident along dorsal surface of basal part. Karyotype is unknown.","habitat":"[Lowland secondary forest in Atlantic Forest; elevation of the two known localities are 20 m and 40 m. Holotype and two paratypes were collected in a biological reserve established to protect one of the largest remaining stands of brazilwood, or pernambuco tree (Caesalpiniaechinata, Fabaceae), an important commercial species for wood products and dye that has been heavily exploited."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE6FFD2FF7E590A585DF776.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE6FFD2FF7E590A585DF776","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"563","verbatimText":"19.Moojen’s Spiny-ratTrinomys moojeniFrench:Rat-épineux de Moojen/ German:Moojen-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de MoojenOther common names:Moojen’s Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys moojeni Pessoa, de Oliveira & dos Reis, 1992, “Mata do Dr. Daniel, Conceicao do Mato Dentro, Minas Gerais, Brazil; 19° 01°S, 43° 25°'W.”Trinomys moojeniwas originally placed in the genus Proechimysbut transferred to Trinomysby M. C. Lara and colleagues in 2002. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, S Espinhaco Mts in EC Minas Gerais State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 151-180 mm, tail 144-172 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Moojen’s Spiny-rat is medium-sized compared with congeners;it is distinct by being much darker along mid-dorsal region, forming dark cape on middle of back that contrasts with much paler sides. Aristiforms on mid-back are smoky-gray at bases, have ocherous buff mid-zone, and are dark brown at tips. Lateral setiform hairs typically have four bands of color, drab-gray at bases followed by smoky-gray and ocherous buff, and terminating in black tips. Aristiforms are long (mean 20-4 mm), narrow (0-6 mm) at mid-dorsum, and shorter (mean 15-9 mm) and slightly narrowerlaterally (0-5 mm). Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Bicoloredtail is ¢.80% of head-body length, covered with short hairs. Skull is slender and of moderate size, averaging 50-2 mm in length. Incisive foramina are oval, long (c.40% of diastema), and wide posteriorly; septum is incomplete and almost formed by the premaxillae with a reduced maxillar part. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, with jugal and squamosal equal contributions. Auditory bullae are smooth and small. Upper molariform teeth have two primary folds; lower teeth also have two folds. Baculum is short than most other species of Trinomys(length 6:6 mm); it has slight dorso-ventral curvature, tapered lateral indentation near the midshaft;straight proximal end and paddle shaped, weakly-developed distal wings; and median trough is evident along dorsal surface of basal part. Karyotype is 2n = 56 FN = 106.Habitat.Montane forest at border between Cerrado ecoregion and Atlantic Forest above elevations of 1000 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Moojen’s Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.Breeding.Evidence from one study suggests the lack of defined mating season of Moojen’s Spiny-rat.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Female Moojen’s Spiny-rats are philopatric; males disperse from their natal areas. Females are also thoughtto be territorial. Both sexes vary in numbers seasonally.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Moojen'’s Spiny-rat has a small distribution and is only known from two localities. Populations continue to decline due to habitat degradation and loss; frequent fires are also a major threat. One of two known current localities of Moojen’s Spiny-rat is in a protected area.Bibliography.Cordeiro & Talamoni (2006), Lara et al. (2002), Pesséa, de Oliveira & dos Reis (1992), Pesséa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015).","taxonomy":"Proechimys moojeni Pessoa, de Oliveira & dos Reis, 1992, “Mata do Dr. Daniel, Conceicao do Mato Dentro, Minas Gerais, Brazil; 19° 01°S, 43° 25°'W.”Trinomys moojeniwas originally placed in the genus Proechimysbut transferred to Trinomysby M. C. Lara and colleagues in 2002. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Moojen @fr | Moojen-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Moojen @es | Moojen’s Atlantic Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Pessoa, de Oliveira & dos Reis","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1992","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"563","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"moojeni","name":"Trinomys moojeni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, S Espinhaco Mts in EC Minas Gerais State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623695/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cordeiro & Talamoni (2006) | Lara et al. (2002) | Pesséa, de Oliveira & dos Reis (1992) | Pesséa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Moojen’s Spiny-rat probably feeds on a variety of plant materials, including fruit and seeds, and insects.","breeding":"Evidence from one study suggests the lack of defined mating season of Moojen’s Spiny-rat.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Female Moojen’s Spiny-rats are philopatric; males disperse from their natal areas. Females are also thoughtto be territorial. Both sexes vary in numbers seasonally.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Moojen'’s Spiny-rat has a small distribution and is only known from two localities. Populations continue to decline due to habitat degradation and loss; frequent fires are also a major threat. One of two known current localities of Moojen’s Spiny-rat is in a protected area.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 151-180 mm, tail 144-172 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Moojen’s Spiny-rat is medium-sized compared with congeners;it is distinct by being much darker along mid-dorsal region, forming dark cape on middle of back that contrasts with much paler sides. Aristiforms on mid-back are smoky-gray at bases, have ocherous buff mid-zone, and are dark brown at tips. Lateral setiform hairs typically have four bands of color, drab-gray at bases followed by smoky-gray and ocherous buff, and terminating in black tips. Aristiforms are long (mean 20-4 mm), narrow (0-6 mm) at mid-dorsum, and shorter (mean 15-9 mm) and slightly narrowerlaterally (0-5 mm). Hairs on forefeet and hindfeet are white dorsally. Bicoloredtail is ¢.80% of head-body length, covered with short hairs. Skull is slender and of moderate size, averaging 50-2 mm in length. Incisive foramina are oval, long (c.40% of diastema), and wide posteriorly; septum is incomplete and almost formed by the premaxillae with a reduced maxillar part. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, with jugal and squamosal equal contributions. Auditory bullae are smooth and small. Upper molariform teeth have two primary folds; lower teeth also have two folds. Baculum is short than most other species of Trinomys(length 6:6 mm); it has slight dorso-ventral curvature, tapered lateral indentation near the midshaft;straight proximal end and paddle shaped, weakly-developed distal wings; and median trough is evident along dorsal surface of basal part. Karyotype is 2n = 56 FN = 106.","habitat":"Montane forest at border between Cerrado ecoregion and Atlantic Forest above elevations of 1000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE6FFD5FA0A5D01589EFDC5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE6FFD5FA0A5D01589EFDC5","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"563","verbatimText":"21.Rio de Janeiro Spiny-ratTrinomys dimidiatusFrench:Rat-épineux de Rio de Janeiro/ German:Rio-de-Janeiroa-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa atlanticaOther common names:Soft-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat, Atlantic Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys dimidiatus Gunther, 1877; no type locality given. Identified by L. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 as “Parque Nacional da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.”J. A. Allen transferred Gunther's dimidiatusto Proechimysin 1899, and J. Moojen placed it in the subgenus Trinomysin 1948; first use of current name combination stems from M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Monotypic.Distribution.SE Brazil, Rio de Janeiro State and N coastal border of Sao Paulo State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-244 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 100-290 g. Dorsum of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is ocherous buff,finely lined with blackish brown, gradually becoming paler on sides and contrasting sharply with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Dorsal aristiforms are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiforms on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by an ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. The Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outerthighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 that lacks dot-like supernumerary elements. Baculum is medium-sized, with average length of 7-6 mm, elongate and straight shaft with evenly rounded proximal and distal ends, and no distal wings.Habitat.Atlantic Forest biome from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Typical habitat of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is the relatively open interior of climax evergreen forest characterized by sparse vegetation near the ground and marked middle layer comprised predominantly of species of Anonaceae, Melastomataceae, Myrsinaceae, and Rubiaceaeunder larger trees up to 30 m in height and covered with lianas and epiphytes. Individuals are commonly trapped in moist places and shelter or nest on the ground, usually under boulders, at bases of trees, or near fallen logs where litter accumulates, and typically close to water sources.Food and Feeding.On Ilha Grande off the Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats ate fruit and seeds of the invasive jackfruit tree, Artocarpusheterophyllus (Moraceae). Otherwise, they probably eat a variety of fruits, seeds, and insects.Breeding.Breeding Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats have been observed in March-May and September—-November. Litters have 1-5 young, most commonly two. Captive individuals survived for more than two years; one captive individual, already an adult when caught,lived for an additional 3-1 years.Activity patterns.There is no specific information availablefor this species, but the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult pairs of males and females, sometimes with young, have been found in the same nest, suggesting monogamous mating system. Densities of Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats on Ilha Grande coast were 1-19 ind/ha. Individuals exhibited territorial tendencies, and young and subadult individuals dispersed from natal areas.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats are unknown, butit is regarded as locally common. A primary major threat would be continued deforestation, but Rio de Janeiro Spinyrats occur in several municipal, state, and federal reserves.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947), Glinther (1877a), Lara et al. (1996), Mello et al. (2015), Moojen (1948), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015).","taxonomy":"Echimys dimidiatus Gunther, 1877; no type locality given. Identified by L. M. Pessoa and colleagues in 2015 as “Parque Nacional da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.”J. A. Allen transferred Gunther's dimidiatusto Proechimysin 1899, and J. Moojen placed it in the subgenus Trinomysin 1948; first use of current name combination stems from M. C. Lara and colleagues in 1996. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Rio de Janeiro @fr | Rio-de-Janeiroa-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa atlantica @es | Soft-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | Atlantic Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gunther","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"563","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"dimidiatus","name":"Trinomys dimidiatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Brazil, Rio de Janeiro State and N coastal border of Sao Paulo State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623697/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Davis (1945a, 1945b, 1947) | Glinther (1877a) | Lara et al. (1996) | Mello et al. (2015) | Moojen (1948) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015)","foodAndFeeding":"On Ilha Grande off the Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats ate fruit and seeds of the invasive jackfruit tree, Artocarpusheterophyllus (Moraceae). Otherwise, they probably eat a variety of fruits, seeds, and insects.","breeding":"Breeding Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats have been observed in March-May and September—-November. Litters have 1-5 young, most commonly two. Captive individuals survived for more than two years; one captive individual, already an adult when caught,lived for an additional 3-1 years.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information availablefor this species, but the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Adult pairs of males and females, sometimes with young, have been found in the same nest, suggesting monogamous mating system. Densities of Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats on Ilha Grande coast were 1-19 ind/ha. Individuals exhibited territorial tendencies, and young and subadult individuals dispersed from natal areas.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trends of Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rats are unknown, butit is regarded as locally common. A primary major threat would be continued deforestation, but Rio de Janeiro Spinyrats occur in several municipal, state, and federal reserves.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-244 mm,tail 150-220 mm; weight 100-290 g. Dorsum of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is ocherous buff,finely lined with blackish brown, gradually becoming paler on sides and contrasting sharply with white venter. Bicolored tail is brownish above and white below, averaging 90% of head-body length;it lacks conspicuous pencil of elongated hairs at tip. Dorsal aristiforms are narrow and soft, imparting soft rather than spiny appearance to fur. Setiforms on mid-dorsum are whitish basally, gradually blackening toward tips but interrupted by an ocherous-full sub-distal zone; those on outer thighs are whitish on basal one-half and become gradually grayish in middle and light ocherous buff along distal one-third, often with blackish tips. Skull of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is elongated and slender, without conspicuous ridges, and averages 51-7 mm. Auditory bullae are small, smooth, elongated, and not inflated. The Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is uniquely distinguished from conspecifics by combination of lack of differentiated light-colored pelage on outerthighs, posteriorly wide incisive foramina with complete and columnar septum that is especially thick and wide across maxillary part, primarily squamosal contribution to post-orbital processes of zygoma, and karyotype with 2n = 60, FN = 116 that lacks dot-like supernumerary elements. Baculum is medium-sized, with average length of 7-6 mm, elongate and straight shaft with evenly rounded proximal and distal ends, and no distal wings.","habitat":"Atlantic Forest biome from sea level to elevations of ¢.1000 m. Typical habitat of the Rio de Janeiro Spiny-rat is the relatively open interior of climax evergreen forest characterized by sparse vegetation near the ground and marked middle layer comprised predominantly of species of Anonaceae, Melastomataceae, Myrsinaceae, and Rubiaceaeunder larger trees up to 30 m in height and covered with lianas and epiphytes. Individuals are commonly trapped in moist places and shelter or nest on the ground, usually under boulders, at bases of trees, or near fallen logs where litter accumulates, and typically close to water sources."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE7FFD3FACD5B5A5366F217.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE7FFD3FACD5B5A5366F217","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"562","verbatimText":"18.Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys setosusFrench:Rat-épineux velu/ German:Haarige Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa peludaOther common names:Hairy Atlantic Spiny-rat, Hairy Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys setosus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique.” Restricted byJ. Moojen in 1948 to “(southern?) Bahia,” Brazil.Nomenclatural history of Trinomys setosusis complex, with many names used in earlier literature, now listed in synonymies of myosurus, leptosoma, cinnamomeus, Sfuliginosus, and denigratus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.s.setosusDesmarest,1817—EBrazil,coastalBahiaandEspiritoSantostates,andEMinasGeraisState.T. s. elegans Lund, 1839— SE Brazil, interior SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-226 mm,tail 168-230 mm; weight 113-235 g. Dorsum of the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from brownish olive to cinnamon, gradually changing to olive or pale cinnamon on sides and outer thighs, and contrasting with white venter. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length;it is bicolored, brownish above and white below, and terminates in conspicuous whitish or cinnamon hairy pencil at its tip. In northernmost part ofits distribution, individuals tend to have very spiny appearance, but those in more southerly localities have softer pelage. Aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum are long (17-22 mm), wide in sefosus (mean 1-1 mm) but narrowerin elegans (mean 0-7 mm). Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are gray basally, gradually blackening to tips but interrupted by middle cinnamon zone. Skull is large (average length 51-3 mm) and lacks conspicuous ridges. Incisive foramina are lyreshaped, long, and narrow (length averages c.44% of diastema), usually lacking conspicuous constriction at posterior end; septum is complete, with elongated premaxillary part that touches maxillary part, which is reduced to a small process. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, markedly spiniform but slender, and formed only by jugal. Auditory bullae are large and inflated. Upper premolars have two counterfolds; upper molars have 1-3 counterfolds. Bacular morphology varies within and between subspecies. Baculum of setosusmay have dorso-ventrally curved shaft on proximal one-third, with lateral indentation near middle, broadening near proximal end and around tip, with concave distal end without either median depression or apical wings; others have narrow shaft that lacks any curvature or lateral indentations, rounded proximal end, and thin and concave distal end. In elegans, shaftis straight with any curvature or lateral indentations and has straight proximal end withoutlateral expansions and distal end without median depression or wings. Karyotype is variable, with differences apportioned between the two subspecies: sefosus is characterized by 2n = 56, FN = 108 and elegans by 2n = 56, FN = 104. X-chromosome in both subspecies is large acrocentric, and Y-chromosome is also acrocentric but one of the smallest elements in the complement.Habitat.Atlantic Forest in coastal evergreen forests to interior, semideciduous forests at southern margins of Cerrado ecoregion and nearly always near water bodies. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is reportedly a good swimmer and is known to construct nests in grass along lake margins.Food and Feeding.The Elegantspined Atlantic Spiny-rat is primarily frugivorous, but it also opportunistically feeds on both insects and seeds.Breeding.In coastal forests of Bahia State, a single female Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat captured in January gave birth to two young, weighing 27-8 g at birth; youngof-the-year have been captured in January-May, suggesting that breeding continues at least throughout those months. Breeding in semideciduous, interior forests is yearround, with peaks in mid-dry and mid-rainy seasons.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat has a wide distribution;it is locally abundant across a variety of habitats from savanna edge to forests. There are no known major conservation threats, and it occurs in multiple protected areas.Bibliography.Brants (1827), Desmarest (1817), da Fonseca & Kierulff (1989), Lichtenstein (1820, 1830), Moojen (1948, 1952b), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), Wagner (1843).","taxonomy":"Echimys setosus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique.” Restricted byJ. Moojen in 1948 to “(southern?) Bahia,” Brazil.Nomenclatural history of Trinomys setosusis complex, with many names used in earlier literature, now listed in synonymies of myosurus, leptosoma, cinnamomeus, Sfuliginosus, and denigratus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux velu @fr | Haarige Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa peluda @es | Hairy Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | Hairy Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"562","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"setosus","name":"Trinomys setosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.s.setosusDesmarest,1817—EBrazil,coastalBahiaandEspiritoSantostates,andEMinasGeraisState.T. s. elegans Lund, 1839— SE Brazil, interior SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.","bibliography":"Brants (1827) | Desmarest (1817) | da Fonseca & Kierulff (1989) | Lichtenstein (1820, 1830) | Moojen (1948, 1952b) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | Wagner (1843)","foodAndFeeding":"The Elegantspined Atlantic Spiny-rat is primarily frugivorous, but it also opportunistically feeds on both insects and seeds.","breeding":"In coastal forests of Bahia State, a single female Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat captured in January gave birth to two young, weighing 27-8 g at birth; youngof-the-year have been captured in January-May, suggesting that breeding continues at least throughout those months. Breeding in semideciduous, interior forests is yearround, with peaks in mid-dry and mid-rainy seasons.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat has a wide distribution;it is locally abundant across a variety of habitats from savanna edge to forests. There are no known major conservation threats, and it occurs in multiple protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-226 mm,tail 168-230 mm; weight 113-235 g. Dorsum of the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from brownish olive to cinnamon, gradually changing to olive or pale cinnamon on sides and outer thighs, and contrasting with white venter. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length;it is bicolored, brownish above and white below, and terminates in conspicuous whitish or cinnamon hairy pencil at its tip. In northernmost part ofits distribution, individuals tend to have very spiny appearance, but those in more southerly localities have softer pelage. Aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum are long (17-22 mm), wide in sefosus (mean 1-1 mm) but narrowerin elegans (mean 0-7 mm). Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are gray basally, gradually blackening to tips but interrupted by middle cinnamon zone. Skull is large (average length 51-3 mm) and lacks conspicuous ridges. Incisive foramina are lyreshaped, long, and narrow (length averages c.44% of diastema), usually lacking conspicuous constriction at posterior end; septum is complete, with elongated premaxillary part that touches maxillary part, which is reduced to a small process. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, markedly spiniform but slender, and formed only by jugal. Auditory bullae are large and inflated. Upper premolars have two counterfolds; upper molars have 1-3 counterfolds. Bacular morphology varies within and between subspecies. Baculum of setosusmay have dorso-ventrally curved shaft on proximal one-third, with lateral indentation near middle, broadening near proximal end and around tip, with concave distal end without either median depression or apical wings; others have narrow shaft that lacks any curvature or lateral indentations, rounded proximal end, and thin and concave distal end. In elegans, shaftis straight with any curvature or lateral indentations and has straight proximal end withoutlateral expansions and distal end without median depression or wings. Karyotype is variable, with differences apportioned between the two subspecies: sefosus is characterized by 2n = 56, FN = 108 and elegans by 2n = 56, FN = 104. X-chromosome in both subspecies is large acrocentric, and Y-chromosome is also acrocentric but one of the smallest elements in the complement.","habitat":"Atlantic Forest in coastal evergreen forests to interior, semideciduous forests at southern margins of Cerrado ecoregion and nearly always near water bodies. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is reportedly a good swimmer and is known to construct nests in grass along lake margins."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE7FFD3FACD5B5A5366F217.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE7FFD3FACD5B5A5366F217","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"562","verbatimText":"18.Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-ratTrinomys setosusFrench:Rat-épineux velu/ German:Haarige Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa peludaOther common names:Hairy Atlantic Spiny-rat, Hairy Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys setosus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique.” Restricted byJ. Moojen in 1948 to “(southern?) Bahia,” Brazil.Nomenclatural history of Trinomys setosusis complex, with many names used in earlier literature, now listed in synonymies of myosurus, leptosoma, cinnamomeus, Sfuliginosus, and denigratus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.T.s.setosusDesmarest,1817—EBrazil,coastalBahiaandEspiritoSantostates,andEMinasGeraisState.T. s. elegans Lund, 1839— SE Brazil, interior SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-226 mm,tail 168-230 mm; weight 113-235 g. Dorsum of the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from brownish olive to cinnamon, gradually changing to olive or pale cinnamon on sides and outer thighs, and contrasting with white venter. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length;it is bicolored, brownish above and white below, and terminates in conspicuous whitish or cinnamon hairy pencil at its tip. In northernmost part ofits distribution, individuals tend to have very spiny appearance, but those in more southerly localities have softer pelage. Aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum are long (17-22 mm), wide in sefosus (mean 1-1 mm) but narrowerin elegans (mean 0-7 mm). Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are gray basally, gradually blackening to tips but interrupted by middle cinnamon zone. Skull is large (average length 51-3 mm) and lacks conspicuous ridges. Incisive foramina are lyreshaped, long, and narrow (length averages c.44% of diastema), usually lacking conspicuous constriction at posterior end; septum is complete, with elongated premaxillary part that touches maxillary part, which is reduced to a small process. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, markedly spiniform but slender, and formed only by jugal. Auditory bullae are large and inflated. Upper premolars have two counterfolds; upper molars have 1-3 counterfolds. Bacular morphology varies within and between subspecies. Baculum of setosusmay have dorso-ventrally curved shaft on proximal one-third, with lateral indentation near middle, broadening near proximal end and around tip, with concave distal end without either median depression or apical wings; others have narrow shaft that lacks any curvature or lateral indentations, rounded proximal end, and thin and concave distal end. In elegans, shaftis straight with any curvature or lateral indentations and has straight proximal end withoutlateral expansions and distal end without median depression or wings. Karyotype is variable, with differences apportioned between the two subspecies: sefosus is characterized by 2n = 56, FN = 108 and elegans by 2n = 56, FN = 104. X-chromosome in both subspecies is large acrocentric, and Y-chromosome is also acrocentric but one of the smallest elements in the complement.Habitat.Atlantic Forest in coastal evergreen forests to interior, semideciduous forests at southern margins of Cerrado ecoregion and nearly always near water bodies. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is reportedly a good swimmer and is known to construct nests in grass along lake margins.Food and Feeding.The Elegantspined Atlantic Spiny-rat is primarily frugivorous, but it also opportunistically feeds on both insects and seeds.Breeding.In coastal forests of Bahia State, a single female Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat captured in January gave birth to two young, weighing 27-8 g at birth; youngof-the-year have been captured in January-May, suggesting that breeding continues at least throughout those months. Breeding in semideciduous, interior forests is yearround, with peaks in mid-dry and mid-rainy seasons.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat has a wide distribution;it is locally abundant across a variety of habitats from savanna edge to forests. There are no known major conservation threats, and it occurs in multiple protected areas.Bibliography.Brants (1827), Desmarest (1817), da Fonseca & Kierulff (1989), Lichtenstein (1820, 1830), Moojen (1948, 1952b), Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015), Wagner (1843).","taxonomy":"Echimys setosus Desmarest, 1817, “Amérique.” Restricted byJ. Moojen in 1948 to “(southern?) Bahia,” Brazil.Nomenclatural history of Trinomys setosusis complex, with many names used in earlier literature, now listed in synonymies of myosurus, leptosoma, cinnamomeus, Sfuliginosus, and denigratus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux velu @fr | Haarige Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa peluda @es | Hairy Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | Hairy Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"562","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"setosus","name":"Trinomys setosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"T.s.setosusDesmarest,1817—EBrazil,coastalBahiaandEspiritoSantostates,andEMinasGeraisState.T. s. elegans Lund, 1839— SE Brazil, interior SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro states.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623693/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Brants (1827) | Desmarest (1817) | da Fonseca & Kierulff (1989) | Lichtenstein (1820, 1830) | Moojen (1948, 1952b) | Pessoa, Tavares, de Oliveira & Patton (2015) | Wagner (1843)","foodAndFeeding":"The Elegantspined Atlantic Spiny-rat is primarily frugivorous, but it also opportunistically feeds on both insects and seeds.","breeding":"In coastal forests of Bahia State, a single female Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat captured in January gave birth to two young, weighing 27-8 g at birth; youngof-the-year have been captured in January-May, suggesting that breeding continues at least throughout those months. Breeding in semideciduous, interior forests is yearround, with peaks in mid-dry and mid-rainy seasons.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is presumed to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat has a wide distribution;it is locally abundant across a variety of habitats from savanna edge to forests. There are no known major conservation threats, and it occurs in multiple protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-226 mm,tail 168-230 mm; weight 113-235 g. Dorsum of the Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat varies from brownish olive to cinnamon, gradually changing to olive or pale cinnamon on sides and outer thighs, and contrasting with white venter. Tail is slightly longer than head-body length;it is bicolored, brownish above and white below, and terminates in conspicuous whitish or cinnamon hairy pencil at its tip. In northernmost part ofits distribution, individuals tend to have very spiny appearance, but those in more southerly localities have softer pelage. Aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum are long (17-22 mm), wide in sefosus (mean 1-1 mm) but narrowerin elegans (mean 0-7 mm). Setiform hairs on mid-dorsum are gray basally, gradually blackening to tips but interrupted by middle cinnamon zone. Skull is large (average length 51-3 mm) and lacks conspicuous ridges. Incisive foramina are lyreshaped, long, and narrow (length averages c.44% of diastema), usually lacking conspicuous constriction at posterior end; septum is complete, with elongated premaxillary part that touches maxillary part, which is reduced to a small process. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed, markedly spiniform but slender, and formed only by jugal. Auditory bullae are large and inflated. Upper premolars have two counterfolds; upper molars have 1-3 counterfolds. Bacular morphology varies within and between subspecies. Baculum of setosusmay have dorso-ventrally curved shaft on proximal one-third, with lateral indentation near middle, broadening near proximal end and around tip, with concave distal end without either median depression or apical wings; others have narrow shaft that lacks any curvature or lateral indentations, rounded proximal end, and thin and concave distal end. In elegans, shaftis straight with any curvature or lateral indentations and has straight proximal end withoutlateral expansions and distal end without median depression or wings. Karyotype is variable, with differences apportioned between the two subspecies: sefosus is characterized by 2n = 56, FN = 108 and elegans by 2n = 56, FN = 104. X-chromosome in both subspecies is large acrocentric, and Y-chromosome is also acrocentric but one of the smallest elements in the complement.","habitat":"Atlantic Forest in coastal evergreen forests to interior, semideciduous forests at southern margins of Cerrado ecoregion and nearly always near water bodies. The Elegant-spined Atlantic Spiny-rat is reportedly a good swimmer and is known to construct nests in grass along lake margins."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE7FFD3FFC45CEC5D5EFC98.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE7FFD3FFC45CEC5D5EFC98","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"562","verbatimText":"17.Yonenaga’s Spiny-ratTrinomys yonenagaeFrench:Rat-épineux d'Yonenaga/ German:Yonenaga-Atlantikstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de YonenagaOther common names:Yonenaga's Atlantic Spiny-rat, Torch-tail Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys yonenagae da Rocha, 1995, “Ibiraba, Bahia, Brazil (10°48’S, 42°50'W).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.E Brazil, left bank of the middle Rio Sao Francisco in NW Bahia State.Descriptive notes.Head-body 141-195 mm, tail 169-225 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is small to medium-sized, with generally paler dorsum than congeners, pale cinnamon mixed with darker hairs on mid-dorsum, gradually lightening on sides, and only slightly contrasting with white venter. Tail is markedly bicolored, brownish above and white below, and long, averaging 120% of head-body length. Tail terminates in distinctively long hairy pencil, with hairs extending more than 30 mm beyondits tip. Pelage overall is relatively soft, with aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum of medium length (16-19 mm) and narrow (maximum width ¢.0-06 mm). Hindfeet are especially long compared with other congeners (mean length 44 mm). Skull is moderate in length and relatively narrow, more robust in parieto-occipital region where it is marked by ridges but becomes progressively more slender and delicate toward rostrum. Average skull length is 44-7 mm. Incisive foramina are an elongated oval, occupying c.45% of diastema; septum is complete with premaxillary part occupying ¢.75%; and vomeris not visible in ventral view. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed and typically formed only by jugal. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is unique among its congeners in having laminar inflection ofjugal. Auditory bullae are large, smooth, and distinctly very inflated. Upper cheekteeth are the most simplified in the genus, with only single major fold and counterfold. Baculum is elongated (mean length 8-1 mm) and slender, with slight dorso-ventral curvature and slight lateral indentations near distal end but broadening proximally; distal end has median depression and apical wings, and proximal end is pointed. Karyotype is 2n = 54, FN = 104, with a large acrocentric X-chromosome and small metacentric Y-chromosome. Morphological and behavioral traits of Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat are very distinct relative to forest-dwelling congeners. These traits are broadly shared with other rodents inhabiting semiarid conditions elsewhere in the world and include medium-to-small body size, greatly inflated tympanic bullae, long hindfeet, long and strongly penciled tail, asymmetrical limb coordination, colonial behavior, and burrow-dwelling habits.Habitat.Semiarid sandy dune habitat characterized by sparse vegetative cover in the Caatinga ecoregion. This is a very unique habitat for species of Trinomys. Local herbaceous vegetation is mainly spiny bromeliads and cacti, but the genus Eugenia(Myrtaceae) can comprise 35% of shrub and tree species.Food and Feeding.Diet of Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is almost exclusively seeds of Eugenia(Myrtaceae).Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.Captive Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats have regular circadian pattern of nocturnal activity.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats live in self-dug burrow systems, with mean of9-9 occupied burrows per hectare. Each burrow system has 1-13 entrances. Adults of both sexes share a burrow system, and in some cases, the same nest within a burrow system. Perhaps unsurprisingly, therefore, intensity of interand intrasexualaffiliative behavior is high in laboratory experiments, with affiliation mediated by acoustic communication by both sexes and regardless of whether individuals belong to same or different social groups. Female Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats spend more time near familiar males than unfamiliar males—a pattern interpreted as social monogamy. Home ranges average 5-6 m? for males and 6-7 m? for females; those of the two sexes overlap extensively suggesting a promiscuous mating system. Patchy distribution of preferred food plants, coupled with propensity to cache food, might be important components in burrow sharing. Individuals might use secretions from anal scent glands as communication signals in social interactions. In captive studies, individuals use stop-and-go search strategy—a pattern of locomotion characterized by notable vigilance.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat has very limited distribution, highly restricted to sand dune habitat that faces continued threat from commercial sand extraction.Bibliography.de Freitas, Carvalho et al. (2010), de Freitas, El-Hani & da Rocha (2008), Manaf & de Oliveira (2009), Manaf, de Brito-Gitirana & de Oliveira (2003), Manaf, Morato & de Oliveira (2003), da Rocha (1995), da Rocha et al. (2007), Santos & Lacey (2011).","taxonomy":"Proechimys yonenagae da Rocha, 1995, “Ibiraba, Bahia, Brazil (10°48’S, 42°50'W).”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux d'Yonenaga @fr | Yonenaga-Atlantikstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Yonenaga @es | Yonenaga's Atlantic Spiny-rat @en | Torch-tail Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"da Rocha","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1995","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Trinomys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"562","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"yonenagae","name":"Trinomys yonenagae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Brazil, left bank of the middle Rio Sao Francisco in NW Bahia State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623691/files/figure.png","bibliography":"de Freitas, Carvalho et al. (2010) | de Freitas, El-Hani & da Rocha (2008) | Manaf & de Oliveira (2009) | Manaf, de Brito-Gitirana & de Oliveira (2003) | Manaf, Morato & de Oliveira (2003) | da Rocha (1995) | da Rocha et al. (2007) | Santos & Lacey (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is almost exclusively seeds of Eugenia(Myrtaceae).","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"Captive Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats have regular circadian pattern of nocturnal activity.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats live in self-dug burrow systems, with mean of9-9 occupied burrows per hectare. Each burrow system has 1-13 entrances. Adults of both sexes share a burrow system, and in some cases, the same nest within a burrow system. Perhaps unsurprisingly, therefore, intensity of interand intrasexualaffiliative behavior is high in laboratory experiments, with affiliation mediated by acoustic communication by both sexes and regardless of whether individuals belong to same or different social groups. Female Yonenaga’s Spiny-rats spend more time near familiar males than unfamiliar males—a pattern interpreted as social monogamy. Home ranges average 5-6 m? for males and 6-7 m? for females; those of the two sexes overlap extensively suggesting a promiscuous mating system. Patchy distribution of preferred food plants, coupled with propensity to cache food, might be important components in burrow sharing. Individuals might use secretions from anal scent glands as communication signals in social interactions. In captive studies, individuals use stop-and-go search strategy—a pattern of locomotion characterized by notable vigilance.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat has very limited distribution, highly restricted to sand dune habitat that faces continued threat from commercial sand extraction.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 141-195 mm, tail 169-225 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is small to medium-sized, with generally paler dorsum than congeners, pale cinnamon mixed with darker hairs on mid-dorsum, gradually lightening on sides, and only slightly contrasting with white venter. Tail is markedly bicolored, brownish above and white below, and long, averaging 120% of head-body length. Tail terminates in distinctively long hairy pencil, with hairs extending more than 30 mm beyondits tip. Pelage overall is relatively soft, with aristiform hairs on mid-dorsum of medium length (16-19 mm) and narrow (maximum width ¢.0-06 mm). Hindfeet are especially long compared with other congeners (mean length 44 mm). Skull is moderate in length and relatively narrow, more robust in parieto-occipital region where it is marked by ridges but becomes progressively more slender and delicate toward rostrum. Average skull length is 44-7 mm. Incisive foramina are an elongated oval, occupying c.45% of diastema; septum is complete with premaxillary part occupying ¢.75%; and vomeris not visible in ventral view. Post-orbital processes of zygoma are well developed and typically formed only by jugal. Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat is unique among its congeners in having laminar inflection ofjugal. Auditory bullae are large, smooth, and distinctly very inflated. Upper cheekteeth are the most simplified in the genus, with only single major fold and counterfold. Baculum is elongated (mean length 8-1 mm) and slender, with slight dorso-ventral curvature and slight lateral indentations near distal end but broadening proximally; distal end has median depression and apical wings, and proximal end is pointed. Karyotype is 2n = 54, FN = 104, with a large acrocentric X-chromosome and small metacentric Y-chromosome. Morphological and behavioral traits of Yonenaga’s Spiny-rat are very distinct relative to forest-dwelling congeners. These traits are broadly shared with other rodents inhabiting semiarid conditions elsewhere in the world and include medium-to-small body size, greatly inflated tympanic bullae, long hindfeet, long and strongly penciled tail, asymmetrical limb coordination, colonial behavior, and burrow-dwelling habits.","habitat":"Semiarid sandy dune habitat characterized by sparse vegetative cover in the Caatinga ecoregion. This is a very unique habitat for species of Trinomys. Local herbaceous vegetation is mainly spiny bromeliads and cacti, but the genus Eugenia(Myrtaceae) can comprise 35% of shrub and tree species."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE8FFDCFA7F5E795281F394.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE8FFDCFA7F5E795281F394","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"557","verbatimText":"8.Dwarf HutiaMesocapromys nanusFrench:Hutia nain/ German:Zwerghutia/ Spanish:Jutia enanaTaxonomy.Capromys nana G. M. Allen, 1917, “Sierra de Hato Nuevo, Province of Matanzas, Cuba.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.SW Cuba, in Ciénaga de Zapata, Matanzas Province, but now possibly extinct, as it has not been detected since 1978.Descriptive notes.Head-body 205 mm, tail 164 mm; weight 400-450 g. The Dwarf Hutia is the smallest hutia and among the darkest of all hutia species. Dorsum is dark ferruginous or dark brown-rufous that contrasts conspicuously with slightly paler venter; urogenital area is pale. Head is uniformly dark ferruginous or dark brownrufous but becomes paler around muzzle. Prehensile tail is similar in color to dorsum and c.83% of head-body length. Foot and hand pads are whitish and slightly pinkish. Hand has four digits with reduced pollex, and foot has five digits, including reduced hallux. Foot and hand pads have tiny hexagonal footpads. Females possess two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. Cranial conformation is similar to that of the small-sized Eared Hutia (Mesocapromys auritus), but proportions are distinctly smaller. Jaw of the Dwarf Hutia is also smallerin size; cheekteeth are notably small.Habitat.Grasslands of Cladiumjamaicense (Cyperaceae). Dwarf Hutias are likely scansorial.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dwarf Hutia is likely nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Dwarf Hutia may be extinct, so urgent ecological studies are needed to verify its status; it has not been found in the wild since 1978. Fossil record suggests that the Dwarf Hutia was widespread prior to human arrival on Cuba.Bibliography.Allen (1917), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Camacho et al. (1994), Varona (1970, 1974, 1980a), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Capromys nana G. M. Allen, 1917, “Sierra de Hato Nuevo, Province of Matanzas, Cuba.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hutia nain @fr | Zwerghutia @de | Jutia enana @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"G. M. Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1917","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesocapromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"557","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"nanus","name":"Mesocapromys nanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SW Cuba, in Ciénaga de Zapata, Matanzas Province, but now possibly extinct, as it has not been detected since 1978.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623671/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1917) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Camacho et al. (1994) | Varona (1970, 1974, 1980a) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Dwarf Hutia is likely nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Dwarf Hutia may be extinct, so urgent ecological studies are needed to verify its status; it has not been found in the wild since 1978. Fossil record suggests that the Dwarf Hutia was widespread prior to human arrival on Cuba.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 205 mm, tail 164 mm; weight 400-450 g. The Dwarf Hutia is the smallest hutia and among the darkest of all hutia species. Dorsum is dark ferruginous or dark brown-rufous that contrasts conspicuously with slightly paler venter; urogenital area is pale. Head is uniformly dark ferruginous or dark brownrufous but becomes paler around muzzle. Prehensile tail is similar in color to dorsum and c.83% of head-body length. Foot and hand pads are whitish and slightly pinkish. Hand has four digits with reduced pollex, and foot has five digits, including reduced hallux. Foot and hand pads have tiny hexagonal footpads. Females possess two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. Cranial conformation is similar to that of the small-sized Eared Hutia (Mesocapromys auritus), but proportions are distinctly smaller. Jaw of the Dwarf Hutia is also smallerin size; cheekteeth are notably small.","habitat":"Grasslands of Cladiumjamaicense (Cyperaceae). Dwarf Hutias are likely scansorial."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE8FFDCFF755D53520CF9B3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE8FFDCFF755D53520CF9B3","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"557","verbatimText":"7.Black-tailed HutiaMesocapromys melanurusFrench:Hutia a queue noire/ German:Schwarzschwanz-Zwerghutia/ Spanish:Jutia de cola negraOther common names:Bushy-tailed HutiaTaxonomy.Capromys melanurus Poey, 1865, “Manzanillo,”Granma Province, Cuba.In 2005 C. A. Woods and C. W. Kilpatrick argued that “ Mysateleswas paraphyletic and that the affinities of melanurusare with taxa of the genus Mesocapromysrather than with Mysateles.” This designation is not widely accepted (e.g. G. Silva and colleagues in 2007), hence this species is treated here under Mysateles. Recent molecular results from N. S. Upham and B. D. Patterson in 2015 confirmed the M. melanurusgeneric status, which is close to the other Mesocapromysspecies. This species includes arboricolus and rufescens as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Cuba, W limit to Malagueta Bay and Cauto Estuary, but distribution poorly known.Descriptive notes.Head—body 309-378 mm,tail 212-322 mm; weight up to 1-6 kg. The Black-tailed Hutia has dark fur compared with other Cuban hutias. It has long and woolly hairs that are intermixed dark brown or nearly blackish long guard hairs and fine light brown bases and blond tips of short underfur. Neck and chin contrast with dorsum by being significantly paler. Venter has patches of yellowish-whitish color, varyingly covering entire under parts, or placed only along midline, over entire venter except ventral part of neck, only between legs, or in other patterns. Brushytail is ¢.80% of head-body length and is covered with long black hairs emerging uniformly from tail scales, which remain visible to the eye. Proportionately, the Black-tailed Hutia has longer tail than all other Cuban hutias. It has prehensile tail like the Prehensile-tailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis), but usually more laterally flattened, with reduced density due to tail hair loss, especially on mid-ventral and mid-dorsal parts. Compared with species of Capromys, the Black-tailed Hutia has whitish or pinkish plantar and palmar pads covered with tiny hexagonal tubercles. Hand has four digits including reduced pollex. Hindfoot has five digits, with hallux well separated from other digits. Compared with species of Capromys, Mysateles, and Mesocapromys, the Black-tailed Hutia has contrasting scrotal wrinkles that are more evident in urogenital area between anus and penis. Cranially, compared with the Prehensile-tailed Hutia, squamosal upper part is not as protuberant; post-orbital process is also more slender and less developed; frontal bones are slightly more swollen; zygomatic arch appears more slender; incisor alveoli have thinner mandibular symphysis; and angular process is longer and more slender. Skull seems to have straight or wavy dorsalline in lateral view, and naso-intermaxillary sutures have aboral convergences and greater distance between temporal line and paracondylar process. Paroccipital processes are more slender and abut closer to tympanic bulla.Habitat.Montane rainforests and semideciduous forest on limestone or calcareous substrates, both mixed with cultivated areas. At Palma del Perro and Arroyo Colorado, the Black-tailed Hutia was found in secondary montane sclerophyl forests close to limestone areas, including areas disturbed by human activity. It also occurred in mango plantations (Mangifera indica, Anacardiaceae), mountain immortelle (Erythrina poeppigiana, Fabaceae), macaguey (Guapiraobtusata, Nyctaginaceae), sapodilla (Manilkarazapota, Sapotaceae), and balsam torch wood (Amyrisbalsamifera, Rutaceae), which they use for nesting and food. The Black-tailed Hutia is found in trees and limestone cavities.Food and Feeding.Black-tailed Hutias primarily feed on fruit trees and reportedly consumed petioles ofcitrus trees. In Guisa (Granma Province), they feed on 17 plant species, with most of their food items being cultivated plants. In their native habitats, they reportedly relied on cockspur (Pisoniaaculeata, Nyctaginaceae), leaves of monkey apple (Clusiarosea, Clusiaceae), ramoon (Trophisracemosa, Moraceae), and the Cuban native Erythrina poeppigiana(Rosaceae). Rosidaeand Dilleniidae are the major groups of plant families eaten and were estimated to represent 41-6% and 25% ofthe diet, respectively.Breeding.Black-tailed Hutias have litters of 1-2 young. A pregnant female collected in March 1988 had embryos measuring 91-8 mm. Most uterine scare counts were two, with a single case of three scares. Reproduction peaks in February-March, with pregnancy rates of 100% in February but only 80% in March. Up to 50% oflactating females has been pregnant when caught, suggesting postpartum estrus. Sexual maturity of females was correlated with body size; females weighing 450-500 g had corpora lutea and perforated vaginas. Females apparently super-ovulate because up to 44 corpora lutea have been counted. Sexual maturity of males was not achieved until body weights were at least 870 g; at smaller weights, spermatozoids were not found in epididymis.Activity patterns.During the day, Black-tailed Hutias hide in cavities, tree holes, or ground holes. They are strictly nocturnal, being primarily active between 22:00 h and 04:00 h, but they begin their nightly activity at sunset. They climb trees but appear to be less arboreal than Prehensile-tailed Hutias. They vocalize while climbing and feeding.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Black-tailed Hutia is abundant in Cuba and often considered to be a pest by local people. In and around Parque Nacional Alejandro von Humboldt, they may be more abundant in cultivated fields than in natural habitats. Population trends are highly influenced by hunting pressure in the Guisa area. They are known to be social, commonly observed in opposite-sex pairs, or what are apparently family groups. Males appeared to be more abundant, based on sex ratio estimates and skewed field sampling, which may suggest a polygamous mating system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. It is now illegalto huntall species of hutias on Cuba, which limits harvest for human consumption and allows for increased hutia densities. Eastern Cuba has the highest proportion of preserved habitats, ideal areas for conservation of the Black-tailed Hutia. Nevertheless, due to illegal hunting, populations there seem to have decreased dramatically since the 1980s.Bibliography.Allen (1891), Borroto & Camacho (2012), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Camacho et al. (1994), Kratochvil et al. (1980), Silva et al. (2007a), Upham & Patterson (2015), Varona (1974, 1979), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Capromys melanurus Poey, 1865, “Manzanillo,”Granma Province, Cuba.In 2005 C. A. Woods and C. W. Kilpatrick argued that “ Mysateleswas paraphyletic and that the affinities of melanurusare with taxa of the genus Mesocapromysrather than with Mysateles.” This designation is not widely accepted (e.g. G. Silva and colleagues in 2007), hence this species is treated here under Mysateles. Recent molecular results from N. S. Upham and B. D. Patterson in 2015 confirmed the M. melanurusgeneric status, which is close to the other Mesocapromysspecies. This species includes arboricolus and rufescens as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hutia a queue noire @fr | Schwarzschwanz-Zwerghutia @de | Jutia de cola negra @es | Bushy-tailed Hutia @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Poey","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1865","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesocapromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"557","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"melanurus","name":"Mesocapromys melanurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Cuba, W limit to Malagueta Bay and Cauto Estuary, but distribution poorly known.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623669/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1891) | Borroto & Camacho (2012) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Camacho et al. (1994) | Kratochvil et al. (1980) | Silva et al. (2007a) | Upham & Patterson (2015) | Varona (1974, 1979) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Black-tailed Hutias primarily feed on fruit trees and reportedly consumed petioles ofcitrus trees. In Guisa (Granma Province), they feed on 17 plant species, with most of their food items being cultivated plants. In their native habitats, they reportedly relied on cockspur (Pisoniaaculeata, Nyctaginaceae), leaves of monkey apple (Clusiarosea, Clusiaceae), ramoon (Trophisracemosa, Moraceae), and the Cuban native Erythrina poeppigiana(Rosaceae). Rosidaeand Dilleniidae are the major groups of plant families eaten and were estimated to represent 41-6% and 25% ofthe diet, respectively.","breeding":"Black-tailed Hutias have litters of 1-2 young. A pregnant female collected in March 1988 had embryos measuring 91-8 mm. Most uterine scare counts were two, with a single case of three scares. Reproduction peaks in February-March, with pregnancy rates of 100% in February but only 80% in March. Up to 50% oflactating females has been pregnant when caught, suggesting postpartum estrus. Sexual maturity of females was correlated with body size; females weighing 450-500 g had corpora lutea and perforated vaginas. Females apparently super-ovulate because up to 44 corpora lutea have been counted. Sexual maturity of males was not achieved until body weights were at least 870 g; at smaller weights, spermatozoids were not found in epididymis.","activityPatterns":"During the day, Black-tailed Hutias hide in cavities, tree holes, or ground holes. They are strictly nocturnal, being primarily active between 22:00 h and 04:00 h, but they begin their nightly activity at sunset. They climb trees but appear to be less arboreal than Prehensile-tailed Hutias. They vocalize while climbing and feeding.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Black-tailed Hutia is abundant in Cuba and often considered to be a pest by local people. In and around Parque Nacional Alejandro von Humboldt, they may be more abundant in cultivated fields than in natural habitats. Population trends are highly influenced by hunting pressure in the Guisa area. They are known to be social, commonly observed in opposite-sex pairs, or what are apparently family groups. Males appeared to be more abundant, based on sex ratio estimates and skewed field sampling, which may suggest a polygamous mating system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. It is now illegalto huntall species of hutias on Cuba, which limits harvest for human consumption and allows for increased hutia densities. Eastern Cuba has the highest proportion of preserved habitats, ideal areas for conservation of the Black-tailed Hutia. Nevertheless, due to illegal hunting, populations there seem to have decreased dramatically since the 1980s.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 309-378 mm,tail 212-322 mm; weight up to 1-6 kg. The Black-tailed Hutia has dark fur compared with other Cuban hutias. It has long and woolly hairs that are intermixed dark brown or nearly blackish long guard hairs and fine light brown bases and blond tips of short underfur. Neck and chin contrast with dorsum by being significantly paler. Venter has patches of yellowish-whitish color, varyingly covering entire under parts, or placed only along midline, over entire venter except ventral part of neck, only between legs, or in other patterns. Brushytail is ¢.80% of head-body length and is covered with long black hairs emerging uniformly from tail scales, which remain visible to the eye. Proportionately, the Black-tailed Hutia has longer tail than all other Cuban hutias. It has prehensile tail like the Prehensile-tailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis), but usually more laterally flattened, with reduced density due to tail hair loss, especially on mid-ventral and mid-dorsal parts. Compared with species of Capromys, the Black-tailed Hutia has whitish or pinkish plantar and palmar pads covered with tiny hexagonal tubercles. Hand has four digits including reduced pollex. Hindfoot has five digits, with hallux well separated from other digits. Compared with species of Capromys, Mysateles, and Mesocapromys, the Black-tailed Hutia has contrasting scrotal wrinkles that are more evident in urogenital area between anus and penis. Cranially, compared with the Prehensile-tailed Hutia, squamosal upper part is not as protuberant; post-orbital process is also more slender and less developed; frontal bones are slightly more swollen; zygomatic arch appears more slender; incisor alveoli have thinner mandibular symphysis; and angular process is longer and more slender. Skull seems to have straight or wavy dorsalline in lateral view, and naso-intermaxillary sutures have aboral convergences and greater distance between temporal line and paracondylar process. Paroccipital processes are more slender and abut closer to tympanic bulla.","habitat":"Montane rainforests and semideciduous forest on limestone or calcareous substrates, both mixed with cultivated areas. At Palma del Perro and Arroyo Colorado, the Black-tailed Hutia was found in secondary montane sclerophyl forests close to limestone areas, including areas disturbed by human activity. It also occurred in mango plantations (Mangifera indica, Anacardiaceae), mountain immortelle (Erythrina poeppigiana, Fabaceae), macaguey (Guapiraobtusata, Nyctaginaceae), sapodilla (Manilkarazapota, Sapotaceae), and balsam torch wood (Amyrisbalsamifera, Rutaceae), which they use for nesting and food. The Black-tailed Hutia is found in trees and limestone cavities."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE8FFDFFA7C55045B5EF5C3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE8FFDFFA7C55045B5EF5C3","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"557","verbatimText":"9.Prehensile-tailed HutiaMysateles prehensilisFrench:Hutia & queue préhensile/ German:Langschwanzhutia/ Spanish:Jutia de cola prensilOther common names:Cuban Prehensile-tailed Hutia; Chapman's Prehensile-tailed Hutia (gundlachi)Taxonomy.Capromys prehensilis Poeppig, 1824, “in sylvis versus oram Cubae australe obvia [= wooded south coast, Cuba].”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.p.prehensilisPoeppig,1824—Cubamainland.M.p.gundlachiChapman,1901—NIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).M. p. meridionalis Varona, 1986— S Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head—body 329-452 mm,tail 250-355 mm; weight up to 2-8 kg. Dorsal fur of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is grayish brown, with soft guard hairs. Venter, chin, and limb under parts are pure white. Face is usually pale white, with golden or pale brownish gray hairs on front, being brighter toward muzzle. White extends on side of head and reaches anteriorly to muzzle and posteriorly to back of ears. Darker rings are usually present around eyes and extend anterior to eyes to muzzle and posteriorly to ears. Ears are proportionally longer than those of the Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus), with longer hairs on their surfaces. Prehensile tail is 75-78% of head-body length;it is covered with hairs similar in color to dorsum but with whitish ventral parts on proximal one-third of tail. Feet and hands are whitish. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is cranially very similar to the Black-tailed Hutia, but its teeth are slightly broader and shorter. Skull of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is also absolutely and proportionately larger than that of the Black-tailed Hutia. Upper parts of squamosal and supraorbital are slightly protuberant compared with the Black-tailed Hutia; frontal bones are not as swollen, and basioccipital is wider. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 54-56.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforests and montane gallery forests, especially near rivers and streams. Subspecies gundlachi is found in coastal and mangrove habitats, apparently due to destruction of its native habitat. It is the most arboreal hutia, using vines and lianas as support while climbing and nesting in tree holes. Individuals are rarely seen near the ground in open habitats, close to secondary forest.Food and Feeding.The Prehensile-tailed Hutia eats leaves, bark, and fruit. On northern parts of Isla de la Juventud, subspecies gundlachi foraged on 15 species in pine stands and savanna, with preferences for species from the subclass Rosidaebut also including Byrsonimacrassifolia (Malpighiaceae), Colpothrinaxwright: (Arecaceae), Mataybaoppositifolia (Sapindaceae), and Syzygiumjambos (Myrtaceae). In western Cuba, nominate subspecies foraged on 15 plant species from eleven families, with preferences for Ficus sp.(Moraceae), M. oppositifolia, Ocoteafloribunda (Lauraceae), and Spondiasmombin (Anacardiaceae), but most of them belonged to Rosidae(57:6%). These plants were used in pine, gallery, and secondary forests.Breeding.Litters of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia have 2-3 young, and gestation lasts 90-120 days. Embryos have been found in subspecies of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia in January-February, May, October, and December, suggesting breeding throughout the year. Young are weaned at around three months of age.Activity patterns.Prehensile-tailed Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hide during the day in nesting sites, usually in trees.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is reported to be highly social.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is the second most abundant hutia on Cuba and can be very abundant in local forests. Nevertheless, its habitat is highly fragmented, which may pose serious problems for this species. Populations seem to be declining due to human activity, primarily agricultural expansion. Some populations on Cuba have declined by c.30%—an observation that may require reclassification to Vulnerable in the future.Bibliography.Abreu & Garcia(1990), Abreu & Manojina (1989), Balseiro et al. (2015), Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990), Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990), Borroto & Camacho (2012), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Bucher (1937), Chapman (1901), Gundlach (1877), Kratochvil et al. (1980), Lora (1895), Mohr (1939), Rivero & Borroto (2012), Silva et al. (2007a), Varona (1974, 1986), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Capromys prehensilis Poeppig, 1824, “in sylvis versus oram Cubae australe obvia [= wooded south coast, Cuba].”Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hutia & queue préhensile @fr | Langschwanzhutia @de | Jutia de cola prensil @es | Cuban Prehensile-tailed Hutia; Chapman's Prehensile-tailed Hutia (gundlachi) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Poeppig","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1824","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mysateles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"557","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"prehensilis","name":"Mysateles prehensilis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.p.prehensilisPoeppig,1824—Cubamainland.M.p.gundlachiChapman,1901—NIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).M. p. meridionalis Varona, 1986— S Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).","bibliography":"Abreu & Garcia(1990) | Abreu & Manojina (1989) | Balseiro et al. (2015) | Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990) | Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990) | Borroto & Camacho (2012) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Bucher (1937) | Chapman (1901) | Gundlach (1877) | Kratochvil et al. (1980) | Lora (1895) | Mohr (1939) | Rivero & Borroto (2012) | Silva et al. (2007a) | Varona (1974, 1986) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"The Prehensile-tailed Hutia eats leaves, bark, and fruit. On northern parts of Isla de la Juventud, subspecies gundlachi foraged on 15 species in pine stands and savanna, with preferences for species from the subclass Rosidaebut also including Byrsonimacrassifolia (Malpighiaceae), Colpothrinaxwright: (Arecaceae), Mataybaoppositifolia (Sapindaceae), and Syzygiumjambos (Myrtaceae). In western Cuba, nominate subspecies foraged on 15 plant species from eleven families, with preferences for Ficus sp.(Moraceae), M. oppositifolia, Ocoteafloribunda (Lauraceae), and Spondiasmombin (Anacardiaceae), but most of them belonged to Rosidae(57:6%). These plants were used in pine, gallery, and secondary forests.","breeding":"Litters of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia have 2-3 young, and gestation lasts 90-120 days. Embryos have been found in subspecies of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia in January-February, May, October, and December, suggesting breeding throughout the year. Young are weaned at around three months of age.","activityPatterns":"Prehensile-tailed Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hide during the day in nesting sites, usually in trees.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is reported to be highly social.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is the second most abundant hutia on Cuba and can be very abundant in local forests. Nevertheless, its habitat is highly fragmented, which may pose serious problems for this species. Populations seem to be declining due to human activity, primarily agricultural expansion. Some populations on Cuba have declined by c.30%—an observation that may require reclassification to Vulnerable in the future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 329-452 mm,tail 250-355 mm; weight up to 2-8 kg. Dorsal fur of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is grayish brown, with soft guard hairs. Venter, chin, and limb under parts are pure white. Face is usually pale white, with golden or pale brownish gray hairs on front, being brighter toward muzzle. White extends on side of head and reaches anteriorly to muzzle and posteriorly to back of ears. Darker rings are usually present around eyes and extend anterior to eyes to muzzle and posteriorly to ears. Ears are proportionally longer than those of the Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus), with longer hairs on their surfaces. Prehensile tail is 75-78% of head-body length;it is covered with hairs similar in color to dorsum but with whitish ventral parts on proximal one-third of tail. Feet and hands are whitish. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is cranially very similar to the Black-tailed Hutia, but its teeth are slightly broader and shorter. Skull of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is also absolutely and proportionately larger than that of the Black-tailed Hutia. Upper parts of squamosal and supraorbital are slightly protuberant compared with the Black-tailed Hutia; frontal bones are not as swollen, and basioccipital is wider. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 54-56.","habitat":"Primary and secondary lowland rainforests and montane gallery forests, especially near rivers and streams. Subspecies gundlachi is found in coastal and mangrove habitats, apparently due to destruction of its native habitat. It is the most arboreal hutia, using vines and lianas as support while climbing and nesting in tree holes. Individuals are rarely seen near the ground in open habitats, close to secondary forest."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE8FFDFFA7C55045B5EF5C3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE8FFDFFA7C55045B5EF5C3","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"557","verbatimText":"9.Prehensile-tailed HutiaMysateles prehensilisFrench:Hutia & queue préhensile/ German:Langschwanzhutia/ Spanish:Jutia de cola prensilOther common names:Cuban Prehensile-tailed Hutia; Chapman's Prehensile-tailed Hutia (gundlachi)Taxonomy.Capromys prehensilis Poeppig, 1824, “in sylvis versus oram Cubae australe obvia [= wooded south coast, Cuba].”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.p.prehensilisPoeppig,1824—Cubamainland.M.p.gundlachiChapman,1901—NIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).M. p. meridionalis Varona, 1986— S Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head—body 329-452 mm,tail 250-355 mm; weight up to 2-8 kg. Dorsal fur of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is grayish brown, with soft guard hairs. Venter, chin, and limb under parts are pure white. Face is usually pale white, with golden or pale brownish gray hairs on front, being brighter toward muzzle. White extends on side of head and reaches anteriorly to muzzle and posteriorly to back of ears. Darker rings are usually present around eyes and extend anterior to eyes to muzzle and posteriorly to ears. Ears are proportionally longer than those of the Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus), with longer hairs on their surfaces. Prehensile tail is 75-78% of head-body length;it is covered with hairs similar in color to dorsum but with whitish ventral parts on proximal one-third of tail. Feet and hands are whitish. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is cranially very similar to the Black-tailed Hutia, but its teeth are slightly broader and shorter. Skull of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is also absolutely and proportionately larger than that of the Black-tailed Hutia. Upper parts of squamosal and supraorbital are slightly protuberant compared with the Black-tailed Hutia; frontal bones are not as swollen, and basioccipital is wider. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 54-56.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforests and montane gallery forests, especially near rivers and streams. Subspecies gundlachi is found in coastal and mangrove habitats, apparently due to destruction of its native habitat. It is the most arboreal hutia, using vines and lianas as support while climbing and nesting in tree holes. Individuals are rarely seen near the ground in open habitats, close to secondary forest.Food and Feeding.The Prehensile-tailed Hutia eats leaves, bark, and fruit. On northern parts of Isla de la Juventud, subspecies gundlachi foraged on 15 species in pine stands and savanna, with preferences for species from the subclass Rosidaebut also including Byrsonimacrassifolia (Malpighiaceae), Colpothrinaxwright: (Arecaceae), Mataybaoppositifolia (Sapindaceae), and Syzygiumjambos (Myrtaceae). In western Cuba, nominate subspecies foraged on 15 plant species from eleven families, with preferences for Ficus sp.(Moraceae), M. oppositifolia, Ocoteafloribunda (Lauraceae), and Spondiasmombin (Anacardiaceae), but most of them belonged to Rosidae(57:6%). These plants were used in pine, gallery, and secondary forests.Breeding.Litters of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia have 2-3 young, and gestation lasts 90-120 days. Embryos have been found in subspecies of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia in January-February, May, October, and December, suggesting breeding throughout the year. Young are weaned at around three months of age.Activity patterns.Prehensile-tailed Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hide during the day in nesting sites, usually in trees.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is reported to be highly social.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is the second most abundant hutia on Cuba and can be very abundant in local forests. Nevertheless, its habitat is highly fragmented, which may pose serious problems for this species. Populations seem to be declining due to human activity, primarily agricultural expansion. Some populations on Cuba have declined by c.30%—an observation that may require reclassification to Vulnerable in the future.Bibliography.Abreu & Garcia(1990), Abreu & Manojina (1989), Balseiro et al. (2015), Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990), Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990), Borroto & Camacho (2012), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Bucher (1937), Chapman (1901), Gundlach (1877), Kratochvil et al. (1980), Lora (1895), Mohr (1939), Rivero & Borroto (2012), Silva et al. (2007a), Varona (1974, 1986), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Capromys prehensilis Poeppig, 1824, “in sylvis versus oram Cubae australe obvia [= wooded south coast, Cuba].”Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hutia & queue préhensile @fr | Langschwanzhutia @de | Jutia de cola prensil @es | Cuban Prehensile-tailed Hutia; Chapman's Prehensile-tailed Hutia (gundlachi) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Poeppig","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1824","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mysateles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"557","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"prehensilis","name":"Mysateles prehensilis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.p.prehensilisPoeppig,1824—Cubamainland.M.p.gundlachiChapman,1901—NIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).M. p. meridionalis Varona, 1986— S Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623673/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abreu & Garcia(1990) | Abreu & Manojina (1989) | Balseiro et al. (2015) | Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990) | Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990) | Borroto & Camacho (2012) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Bucher (1937) | Chapman (1901) | Gundlach (1877) | Kratochvil et al. (1980) | Lora (1895) | Mohr (1939) | Rivero & Borroto (2012) | Silva et al. (2007a) | Varona (1974, 1986) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"The Prehensile-tailed Hutia eats leaves, bark, and fruit. On northern parts of Isla de la Juventud, subspecies gundlachi foraged on 15 species in pine stands and savanna, with preferences for species from the subclass Rosidaebut also including Byrsonimacrassifolia (Malpighiaceae), Colpothrinaxwright: (Arecaceae), Mataybaoppositifolia (Sapindaceae), and Syzygiumjambos (Myrtaceae). In western Cuba, nominate subspecies foraged on 15 plant species from eleven families, with preferences for Ficus sp.(Moraceae), M. oppositifolia, Ocoteafloribunda (Lauraceae), and Spondiasmombin (Anacardiaceae), but most of them belonged to Rosidae(57:6%). These plants were used in pine, gallery, and secondary forests.","breeding":"Litters of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia have 2-3 young, and gestation lasts 90-120 days. Embryos have been found in subspecies of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia in January-February, May, October, and December, suggesting breeding throughout the year. Young are weaned at around three months of age.","activityPatterns":"Prehensile-tailed Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hide during the day in nesting sites, usually in trees.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is reported to be highly social.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is the second most abundant hutia on Cuba and can be very abundant in local forests. Nevertheless, its habitat is highly fragmented, which may pose serious problems for this species. Populations seem to be declining due to human activity, primarily agricultural expansion. Some populations on Cuba have declined by c.30%—an observation that may require reclassification to Vulnerable in the future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 329-452 mm,tail 250-355 mm; weight up to 2-8 kg. Dorsal fur of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is grayish brown, with soft guard hairs. Venter, chin, and limb under parts are pure white. Face is usually pale white, with golden or pale brownish gray hairs on front, being brighter toward muzzle. White extends on side of head and reaches anteriorly to muzzle and posteriorly to back of ears. Darker rings are usually present around eyes and extend anterior to eyes to muzzle and posteriorly to ears. Ears are proportionally longer than those of the Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus), with longer hairs on their surfaces. Prehensile tail is 75-78% of head-body length;it is covered with hairs similar in color to dorsum but with whitish ventral parts on proximal one-third of tail. Feet and hands are whitish. The Prehensile-tailed Hutia is cranially very similar to the Black-tailed Hutia, but its teeth are slightly broader and shorter. Skull of the Prehensile-tailed Hutia is also absolutely and proportionately larger than that of the Black-tailed Hutia. Upper parts of squamosal and supraorbital are slightly protuberant compared with the Black-tailed Hutia; frontal bones are not as swollen, and basioccipital is wider. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 54-56.","habitat":"Primary and secondary lowland rainforests and montane gallery forests, especially near rivers and streams. Subspecies gundlachi is found in coastal and mangrove habitats, apparently due to destruction of its native habitat. It is the most arboreal hutia, using vines and lianas as support while climbing and nesting in tree holes. Individuals are rarely seen near the ground in open habitats, close to secondary forest."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE9FFDCFADC5156593CFA86.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE9FFDCFADC5156593CFA86","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"556","verbatimText":"6.Eared HutiaMesocapromys auritusFrench:Hutia oreillard/ German:Langohr-Zwerghutia/ Spanish:Jutia de orejas grandesOther common names:Large-eared HutiaTaxonomy.Capromys auritus Varona, 1970, “Cuba, Las Villas Province, Archipiélago de Sabana, Cayo Fragoso (22°41°N, 79°27'W).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Cayo Fragoso in the Sabana Archipelago (off NC coast of Cuba). Introduced into both Cayo Pasaje and Cayo Sagra in 1988 (NC Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head-body 287 mm, tail 198 mm; weight up to 1 kg. The Eared Hutia is medium-sized and has an agouti dorsum. It is paler on lowerlateral sides and has long whitish guard hairs on flank and limbs. Head is uniformly gray-agouti and is similar to dorsal color. Prehensile tail is c.69-74% of head-body length and sharply contrasts with dorsum, being much paler and rufous or orange, with short black stripe at distal dorsal end. Venteris white from chin to scrotum, with some more grayish underfur. Inguinal area is pale. Foot and hand pads are whitish or slightly pinkish, and are covered by tiny hexagonal bumps. Hands have four digits and a reduced pollex, and feet have similar colors with five digits, including reduced hallux. Females have two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. Cranial conformation is similar to that of other small and medium-sized species of Mesocapromys. Jaw has distinctly longer coronoid and angular processes than other Mesocapromys. Dorsal part of skull is flatter, and rostrum and dental width are broader than other Mesocapromys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 36 and FN = 64.Habitat.On the ground in sandy areas, flooded mangroves, and other forest habitats. The Eared Hutia builds nests with sticks from red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). Nests are large (197 x 281 cm) to small (61 x 42 cm), depending on habitat. It is mainly terrestrial.Food and Feeding.Eared Hutias feed on parts of red mangrove, white mangrove (Lagunculariaracemosa, Combretaceae), and occasionally black mangrove (Avicenniagerminans, Acanthaceae). They are known to forage near the ground and include bark from branches at bases oftrees; they sometimes use these branches to build ground nests.Breeding.Little is known about reproductive biology of the Eared Hutia. It is reported to be reproductively active throughout the year, producing offspring with a 1:1 sex ratio. One neonate weighed 61 g and was 210 mm in length.Activity patterns.The Eared Hutia is crepuscular and nocturnal; it reportedly becomes active one hour before sunset.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Eared Hutia is social and lives in a family group within stick nests placed on the ground.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Eared Hutia has been introduced to small islands off the Cuban coast that serve as refuges for this rare, mangrove specialist. Additional ecological studies are required to understand its rarity, why it disappeared from mainland Cuba, and likely negative interactions with introduced Roof Rats (Rattus rattus) and Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), especially because of their use of the stick nests of Eared Hutias. Refuge areas that were estimated to have 115 nests (600-800 estimated individuals) in 1990 increased to 330 nests (660— 1320 individuals) by 2009. Some optimistic counts recently recorded 2500 individuals.Bibliography.Allen (1891), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Hernandez & Carnero (1992), Hernandez & Sanchez (1987), Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980), Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989, 1994), Varona (1970, 1974), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Capromys auritus Varona, 1970, “Cuba, Las Villas Province, Archipiélago de Sabana, Cayo Fragoso (22°41°N, 79°27'W).”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hutia oreillard @fr | Langohr-Zwerghutia @de | Jutia de orejas grandes @es | Large-eared Hutia @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Varona","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1970","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesocapromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"556","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"auritus","name":"Mesocapromys auritus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Cayo Fragoso in the Sabana Archipelago (off NC coast of Cuba). Introduced into both Cayo Pasaje and Cayo Sagra in 1988 (NC Cuba).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623667/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1891) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Hernandez & Carnero (1992) | Hernandez & Sanchez (1987) | Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989, 1994) | Varona (1970, 1974) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Eared Hutias feed on parts of red mangrove, white mangrove (Lagunculariaracemosa, Combretaceae), and occasionally black mangrove (Avicenniagerminans, Acanthaceae). They are known to forage near the ground and include bark from branches at bases oftrees; they sometimes use these branches to build ground nests.","breeding":"Little is known about reproductive biology of the Eared Hutia. It is reported to be reproductively active throughout the year, producing offspring with a 1:1 sex ratio. One neonate weighed 61 g and was 210 mm in length.","activityPatterns":"The Eared Hutia is crepuscular and nocturnal; it reportedly becomes active one hour before sunset.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Eared Hutia is social and lives in a family group within stick nests placed on the ground.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Eared Hutia has been introduced to small islands off the Cuban coast that serve as refuges for this rare, mangrove specialist. Additional ecological studies are required to understand its rarity, why it disappeared from mainland Cuba, and likely negative interactions with introduced Roof Rats (Rattus rattus) and Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), especially because of their use of the stick nests of Eared Hutias. Refuge areas that were estimated to have 115 nests (600-800 estimated individuals) in 1990 increased to 330 nests (660— 1320 individuals) by 2009. Some optimistic counts recently recorded 2500 individuals.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 287 mm, tail 198 mm; weight up to 1 kg. The Eared Hutia is medium-sized and has an agouti dorsum. It is paler on lowerlateral sides and has long whitish guard hairs on flank and limbs. Head is uniformly gray-agouti and is similar to dorsal color. Prehensile tail is c.69-74% of head-body length and sharply contrasts with dorsum, being much paler and rufous or orange, with short black stripe at distal dorsal end. Venteris white from chin to scrotum, with some more grayish underfur. Inguinal area is pale. Foot and hand pads are whitish or slightly pinkish, and are covered by tiny hexagonal bumps. Hands have four digits and a reduced pollex, and feet have similar colors with five digits, including reduced hallux. Females have two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. Cranial conformation is similar to that of other small and medium-sized species of Mesocapromys. Jaw has distinctly longer coronoid and angular processes than other Mesocapromys. Dorsal part of skull is flatter, and rostrum and dental width are broader than other Mesocapromys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 36 and FN = 64.","habitat":"On the ground in sandy areas, flooded mangroves, and other forest habitats. The Eared Hutia builds nests with sticks from red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). Nests are large (197 x 281 cm) to small (61 x 42 cm), depending on habitat. It is mainly terrestrial."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFE9FFDDFFD854285C55F681.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFE9FFDDFFD854285C55F681","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"556","verbatimText":"5.Cabrera’s HutiaMesocapromys angelcabreraiFrench:Hutia de Cabrera/ German:Cabrera-Zwerghutia/ Spanish:Jutia de CabreraTaxonomy.Mesocapromys angelcabrerai Varona, 1979, “Cayos de Ana Maria, al Sur de Camagtiey (21°30’N, 78°40°'W), Cuba.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.S Cuba (Ciego de Avila Province) in the coastal mainland E of Jacaro and in Cayos Ana Maria and Cayos Salinas around Canal Pasa Seca (off S Cuba). Introduced to Cayo La Loma in 2005 (off S Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head-body 252 mm, tail 176 mm; weight up to 483 g. Cabrera’s Hutia is small and has dark agouti dorsal color and whitish venter. Larger number of rufous or gray hairs, with a darker subapical dorsal band interspersed through dorsal pelage, makes Cabrera’s Hutia darker than other species of Mesocapromys. Head is uniformly agouti and is similar in color to dorsum. Prehensile tail is ¢.70% of head-body length and does not contrast with dorsum, being agouti along its length, butit has short black stripe on its dorsal terminus. Venteris white or buff-white from chin to scrotum, with some more whitish underfur. Urogenital area is similarly pale. Ears of Cabrera’s Hutia are proportionally large compared with head length. Foot and hand pads are whitish orslightly pinkish and are covered by tiny hexagonal processes. Hand has reduced pollex and four digits; hindfoot hasfive digits, including reduced hallux. Females have two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. As other small or mid-sized species of Mesocapromys, skull has wing-like pterygoids, rear sutures ofincisive foramina, and paraoccipital process with length shorter or equal to tympanic bulla. Jaw has distinct short coronoid and thinner angular processes compared with other Mesocapromys; coronoid process is placed lower than condyle. Dorsal part of skull is convex, rostrum is short and narrow, and maxillary tooth rows are slightly bowed laterally outward. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 36 and FN = 64.Habitat.Exclusively on the ground in red mangrove (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae) habitats. Cabrera’s Hutias build nests with sticks from red mangroves. Ground nests are large (74 x 65 cm) or (20 x 30 cm), depending on patch size of available habitat. Cabrera’s Hutia is mainly terrestrial but might also climb, aided by its prehensile tail.Food and Feeding.Cabrera’s Hutias feed almost exclusively on red mangrove at or near the ground or while positioned on limbs. Leaves are apparently preferred, but bark from small and larger branches and trunk is also eaten.Breeding.Cabrera’s Hutia is reported to reproduce through the year, producing young with a 1:1 sex ratio and possibly two litters per year. Females reach sexual maturity at a weight of ¢.340 g and head-body length near 383 mm; males reach sexual maturity at a slightly lower body mass of ¢.300 g.Activity patterns.Cabrera’s Hutia is crepuscular or nocturnal, initiating activity an hour before sunset. On rare occasions,it may be active during the day.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cabrera’s Hutia is social and lives in family groups of 2—4 individuals, occasionally up to six individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Cabrera’s Hutia was reintroduced to new small islands off Cuba, which serve as refuge for this rare and endangered red mangrove specialist. Further ecological studies of Cabrera’s Hutias are required because ofits rarity, its disappearance from Cuba, and competition with introduced Roof Rats (Rattus rattus), especially use of their stick nests. Occurrence on small refuge islands makes Cabrera’s Hutia a rather fragile taxa for which much remains to be known. Fortunately, limited size of the social group and construction ofstick nests make Cabrera’s Hutia relatively easy to survey and count. Numbers of nests were estimated at 177 in 2007 and increased slightly to 190 (380-760 individuals) by 2009. Nevertheless,its reliance on red mangrove habitat means that human disturbances such as fire, hunting, or exotic introductions have lead to its near extirpation in its native habitat.Bibliography.Allen (1891), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Camacho et al. (1994), Chapman (1901), Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980), Silva et al. (2007b), Varona (1974, 1979), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods etal. (2001).","taxonomy":"Mesocapromys angelcabrerai Varona, 1979, “Cayos de Ana Maria, al Sur de Camagtiey (21°30’N, 78°40°'W), Cuba.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hutia de Cabrera @fr | Cabrera-Zwerghutia @de | Jutia de Cabrera @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Varona","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1979","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mesocapromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"556","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"angelcabrerai","name":"Mesocapromys angelcabrerai","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S Cuba (Ciego de Avila Province) in the coastal mainland E of Jacaro and in Cayos Ana Maria and Cayos Salinas around Canal Pasa Seca (off S Cuba). Introduced to Cayo La Loma in 2005 (off S Cuba).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623665/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1891) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Camacho et al. (1994) | Chapman (1901) | Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980) | Silva et al. (2007b) | Varona (1974, 1979) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods etal. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Cabrera’s Hutias feed almost exclusively on red mangrove at or near the ground or while positioned on limbs. Leaves are apparently preferred, but bark from small and larger branches and trunk is also eaten.","breeding":"Cabrera’s Hutia is reported to reproduce through the year, producing young with a 1:1 sex ratio and possibly two litters per year. Females reach sexual maturity at a weight of ¢.340 g and head-body length near 383 mm; males reach sexual maturity at a slightly lower body mass of ¢.300 g.","activityPatterns":"Cabrera’s Hutia is crepuscular or nocturnal, initiating activity an hour before sunset. On rare occasions,it may be active during the day.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Cabrera’s Hutia is social and lives in family groups of 2—4 individuals, occasionally up to six individuals.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Cabrera’s Hutia was reintroduced to new small islands off Cuba, which serve as refuge for this rare and endangered red mangrove specialist. Further ecological studies of Cabrera’s Hutias are required because ofits rarity, its disappearance from Cuba, and competition with introduced Roof Rats (Rattus rattus), especially use of their stick nests. Occurrence on small refuge islands makes Cabrera’s Hutia a rather fragile taxa for which much remains to be known. Fortunately, limited size of the social group and construction ofstick nests make Cabrera’s Hutia relatively easy to survey and count. Numbers of nests were estimated at 177 in 2007 and increased slightly to 190 (380-760 individuals) by 2009. Nevertheless,its reliance on red mangrove habitat means that human disturbances such as fire, hunting, or exotic introductions have lead to its near extirpation in its native habitat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 252 mm, tail 176 mm; weight up to 483 g. Cabrera’s Hutia is small and has dark agouti dorsal color and whitish venter. Larger number of rufous or gray hairs, with a darker subapical dorsal band interspersed through dorsal pelage, makes Cabrera’s Hutia darker than other species of Mesocapromys. Head is uniformly agouti and is similar in color to dorsum. Prehensile tail is ¢.70% of head-body length and does not contrast with dorsum, being agouti along its length, butit has short black stripe on its dorsal terminus. Venteris white or buff-white from chin to scrotum, with some more whitish underfur. Urogenital area is similarly pale. Ears of Cabrera’s Hutia are proportionally large compared with head length. Foot and hand pads are whitish orslightly pinkish and are covered by tiny hexagonal processes. Hand has reduced pollex and four digits; hindfoot hasfive digits, including reduced hallux. Females have two lateral, two pectoral, and two abdominal mammae. As other small or mid-sized species of Mesocapromys, skull has wing-like pterygoids, rear sutures ofincisive foramina, and paraoccipital process with length shorter or equal to tympanic bulla. Jaw has distinct short coronoid and thinner angular processes compared with other Mesocapromys; coronoid process is placed lower than condyle. Dorsal part of skull is convex, rostrum is short and narrow, and maxillary tooth rows are slightly bowed laterally outward. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 36 and FN = 64.","habitat":"Exclusively on the ground in red mangrove (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae) habitats. Cabrera’s Hutias build nests with sticks from red mangroves. Ground nests are large (74 x 65 cm) or (20 x 30 cm), depending on patch size of available habitat. Cabrera’s Hutia is mainly terrestrial but might also climb, aided by its prehensile tail."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEBFFDFFAD55D1D5DE4F205.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFEBFFDFFAD55D1D5DE4F205","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"558","verbatimText":"11.Groove-toothed Spiny-ratCarterodon sulcidensFrench:Rat-épineux du Cerrado/ German:Furchenzahn-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de dientes con surcosOther common names:Owl's Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys sulcidens Lund, 1838, “bassin du Rio das Velhas.” Amended by P. W. Lund in 1841 as “Rio das Velhas Floddal,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Carterodon sulcidenshas been formerly classified in genera Echimys, Nelomys, and Aulacodus. Monotypic.Distribution.C & W Brazil, from Minas Gerais, through Goias and Distrito Federal to Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul.Descriptive notes.Head-body 135-250 mm, tail 656-92 mm; weight 92-195 g. Dorsum ofthe distinct, medium-sized Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is covered with dense and soft hairs (setiforms), intermixed with soft spines (aristiforms). Body is adapted to semi-fossorial habits; it has short limbs with long and powerful claws, short ears, and very short tail ¢.50% of head-body length. Tail is covered with short hairs partially covering scales. Overall pelage is predominantly brownish and grizzled, with black aristiforms on dorsal surface and pale brown hairs on throat and abdominal surface, showing gradual color transition on sides. Skull of the Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone is well developed. Auditory meatus is medium-sized, with partial contact between ectotympanic and squamosal, restricted to posterior part of dorsal margin of ectotympanic, and forming cleft between these two bones. Incisive foramina are short and oval. Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Upper incisors are large and grooved, which is a unique feature among extant echimyids. Maxillary cheekteeth are unilateral hypsodont and nearly parallel to palate. Upper and lower premolar and molar surfaces are semicircular and have three distinctive transverse lophs/lophids. A fourth lophid may be visible on unworn lowerteeth.Habitat.Tropical savanna and grasslands at elevations of 250-1100 m. Most specimens of Groove-toothed Spiny-rats with associated habitat data have been collected in open areas of the Cerrado ecoregion. It has wide distribution but is represented by specimens from only twelve localities. Given its rarity, it might be associated with a specific microhabitat, and thus its area of occupancy might be small and patchy.Food and Feeding.The Groove-toothed Spiny-rat is strictly herbivorous from direct observations and tooth morphology.Breeding.Pregnant and juvenile Groove-toothed Spiny-rats were collected during dry (August) and wet (December) seasons. Litters with 1-2 embryos have been reported at Serra do Roncador, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Grass nests 30 cm deep within burrows have been recorded at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species, but the Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is probably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Groove-toothed Spiny-rat is semi-fossorial. It is preyed on by the American barn owl (7yto alba furcata), which is mainly nocturnal.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, a recent study suggested that the Groove-toothed Spiny-rat should be listed as Vulnerable based on an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km?, severely fragmented distribution, and current presence at no more than ten localities. Most of these localities are highly impacted by agricultural activities, urbanization, and hydroelectric dams.Bibliography.Bezerra & Bonvicino (2015a), Bezerra et al. (2011), Bishop (1974), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Lund (1841), Moojen (1952b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys sulcidens Lund, 1838, “bassin du Rio das Velhas.” Amended by P. W. Lund in 1841 as “Rio das Velhas Floddal,” Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Carterodon sulcidenshas been formerly classified in genera Echimys, Nelomys, and Aulacodus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Cerrado @fr | Furchenzahn-Stachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de dientes con surcos @es | Owl's Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lund","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Carterodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"558","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sulcidens","name":"Carterodon sulcidens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C & W Brazil, from Minas Gerais, through Goias and Distrito Federal to Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623677/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bezerra & Bonvicino (2015a) | Bezerra et al. (2011) | Bishop (1974) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Lund (1841) | Moojen (1952b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Groove-toothed Spiny-rat is strictly herbivorous from direct observations and tooth morphology.","breeding":"Pregnant and juvenile Groove-toothed Spiny-rats were collected during dry (August) and wet (December) seasons. Litters with 1-2 embryos have been reported at Serra do Roncador, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Grass nests 30 cm deep within burrows have been recorded at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species, but the Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is probably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Groove-toothed Spiny-rat is semi-fossorial. It is preyed on by the American barn owl (7yto alba furcata), which is mainly nocturnal.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, a recent study suggested that the Groove-toothed Spiny-rat should be listed as Vulnerable based on an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km?, severely fragmented distribution, and current presence at no more than ten localities. Most of these localities are highly impacted by agricultural activities, urbanization, and hydroelectric dams.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 135-250 mm, tail 656-92 mm; weight 92-195 g. Dorsum ofthe distinct, medium-sized Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is covered with dense and soft hairs (setiforms), intermixed with soft spines (aristiforms). Body is adapted to semi-fossorial habits; it has short limbs with long and powerful claws, short ears, and very short tail ¢.50% of head-body length. Tail is covered with short hairs partially covering scales. Overall pelage is predominantly brownish and grizzled, with black aristiforms on dorsal surface and pale brown hairs on throat and abdominal surface, showing gradual color transition on sides. Skull of the Groovetoothed Spiny-rat is broad, and rostrum is short and wide. Anterior projection of premaxillary bone is well developed. Auditory meatus is medium-sized, with partial contact between ectotympanic and squamosal, restricted to posterior part of dorsal margin of ectotympanic, and forming cleft between these two bones. Incisive foramina are short and oval. Sphenopalatine foramen and sphenopalatine vacuities are well developed. Upper incisors are large and grooved, which is a unique feature among extant echimyids. Maxillary cheekteeth are unilateral hypsodont and nearly parallel to palate. Upper and lower premolar and molar surfaces are semicircular and have three distinctive transverse lophs/lophids. A fourth lophid may be visible on unworn lowerteeth.","habitat":"Tropical savanna and grasslands at elevations of 250-1100 m. Most specimens of Groove-toothed Spiny-rats with associated habitat data have been collected in open areas of the Cerrado ecoregion. It has wide distribution but is represented by specimens from only twelve localities. Given its rarity, it might be associated with a specific microhabitat, and thus its area of occupancy might be small and patchy."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEBFFDFFFD2529652E9FC23.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFEBFFDFFFD2529652E9FC23","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"558","verbatimText":"10.Garrido Tree HutiaMysateles garridoiFrench:Hutia de Garrido/ German:Garrido-Langschwanzhutia/ Spanish:Jutia de GarridoOther common names:Garrido's HutiaTaxonomy.Mysateles garridoi Varona, 1970, “Cayo Maja, junto al extremo norocciden2) Jen [= north-western extremity of] Cayo Largo, Banco de los Jardines y Jardinillos,Archipiélago de los Canarreos,” Cuba.Mysateles garridoiwas previously included in the genus Capromys. Monotypic.Distribution.NW Cayo Largo del Sur, Canarreos Archipelago (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head-body 350 mm, tail 215 mm; weight 1.2-1.3 kg. Because the skin of the Garrido Tree Hutia was lost and there was only one specimen,very little is known about its external features. It was described to have a darker pelt, blackish plantar pads, and blackish genital skin compared with Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides). Cranial morphology of the Garrido Tree Hutia is close to Desmarest’s Hutia, and size of its skull and braincase is between Desmarest’s Hutia and the Prehensiletailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis).Habitat.There is no information available for this species.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Garrido Tree Hutia seems to be distinct from other species of Mysateles, but there is no information aboutits habitats and even uncertainty aboutits type locality. In 1971, O. H. Garrido described distinct excrement pellets of the Garrido Tree Hutia, and in 2012, R. Borroto and colleagues found similar pellets from Cayo Largo del Sur. Additional systematic and ecological studies of the Garrido Tree Hutia are required to confirm its current conservation status.Bibliography.Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Garrido (1971), Varona (1970), Woods (1989), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Mysateles garridoi Varona, 1970, “Cayo Maja, junto al extremo norocciden2) Jen [= north-western extremity of] Cayo Largo, Banco de los Jardines y Jardinillos,Archipiélago de los Canarreos,” Cuba.Mysateles garridoiwas previously included in the genus Capromys. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hutia de Garrido @fr | Garrido-Langschwanzhutia @de | Jutia de Garrido @es | Garrido's Hutia @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Varona","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1970","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Mysateles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"558","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"garridoi","name":"Mysateles garridoi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NW Cayo Largo del Sur, Canarreos Archipelago (off SW Cuba).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623675/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Garrido (1971) | Varona (1970) | Woods (1989) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Garrido Tree Hutia seems to be distinct from other species of Mysateles, but there is no information aboutits habitats and even uncertainty aboutits type locality. In 1971, O. H. Garrido described distinct excrement pellets of the Garrido Tree Hutia, and in 2012, R. Borroto and colleagues found similar pellets from Cayo Largo del Sur. Additional systematic and ecological studies of the Garrido Tree Hutia are required to confirm its current conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 350 mm, tail 215 mm; weight 1.2-1.3 kg. Because the skin of the Garrido Tree Hutia was lost and there was only one specimen,very little is known about its external features. It was described to have a darker pelt, blackish plantar pads, and blackish genital skin compared with Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides). Cranial morphology of the Garrido Tree Hutia is close to Desmarest’s Hutia, and size of its skull and braincase is between Desmarest’s Hutia and the Prehensiletailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis).","habitat":"There is no information available for this species."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEDFFD9FCF75A53526DFA28.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFEDFFD9FCF75A53526DFA28","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"552","verbatimText":"Family ECHIMYIDAE(HUTIAS, SOUTH AMERICAN SPINY-RATS AND COYPU)• Small to large rodents; omnivorous or herbivorous, with highly variable cheekteeth morphologies; spiny, harsh, or soft pelages; and locomotion includes arboreal, terrestrial, semi-fossorial, semi-aquatic, and scansorial lineages.• • 20-100 cm.• Neotropical Region.• Lowland and highland forested habitats, lowland open dry habitats, and wetlands.• 27 genera, 99 species, at least 130 extant taxa.• 6 species Critically Endangered, 10 species Endangered, b species Vulnerable; 10 Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEEFFDAFF775DA2507BFB0B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFEEFFDAFF775DA2507BFB0B","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"555","verbatimText":"3.Ingraham’s HutiaGeocapromys ingrahamiFrench:Hutia des Bahamas/ German:Bahama-Ferkelratte/ Spanish:Jutia de BahamasOther common names:Bahaman Hutia, Bahamian HutiaTaxonomy.Capromys ingrahami J. A. Allen, 1891, “Plana Keys, Bahamas.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Bahamas, only known from the type locality in East Plana Cay. Introduced into Little Wax Cay in 1973 and on Warderick Wells Cay in 1981, also in Bahamas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 280-320 mm, tail 55 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Ingraham’s Hutia is small, with soft, pale grayish, brownish, or buff dorsal fur. Lateral lower parts of ears and cheeks are usually paler or brighter. Venter is brighter than dorsum. Unlike the Jamaican Hutia (G. brownii), cream spots are usually absent, or only rarely present, on venter and are rarely present, which is distinctive, between front limbs and hindlimbs. Tail length is equal to or longer than hindfeet and ¢.20% of head-body length. Ears are naked, with two long tufts on dorsal margins. Skull has no inflated frontal. Alveolar length of maxillary tooth is less than 165 mm. Basicranium is broad and dorso-ventrally curved compared with that of the Jamaican Hutia. Zygomatic arch is situated above cheekteeth laterally, with a jugal spine. Sagittal and temporal crests are weakly developed. Long jugular process is curved anteriorly and reaches mid-level of bulla tympanica. Tympanic bullae are inflated, and palatal spine is absent. Teeth similar in shape to those of the Jamaican Hutia.Habitat.Semiarid habitats of woody shrubs and thickets on East Plana Cay coral atoll. Ingraham’s Hutia lives in underground crevices or caves and under leaf piles ofsilver palm trees (Coccothrinaxargentata, Arecaceae). It does not nest or burrow but has scansorial locomotion and is a good climber.Food and Feeding.Ingraham’s Hutias forage in trees, primarily on leaves, but they eat large amounts of phloem by eating bark. In Little Wax Key, they have overexploited their habitat and caused local extirpation of four tracheophytic species. Diets includes more than 40 plant species, with main food items including leaves of Coccolobadiversifolia (Polygonaceae), Manilkarabahamensis (Sapotaceae), Sophora tomentosa(Fabaceae), and Zanthoxylumcoriaceum (Rutaceae). Diets in other studies have contained 44-4% of the subclass Asteridae, including Boraginaceae(Tournefortia gnaphalodes), Convolvulaceae(Ipomoeabatatas), Oleaceae(Forestierasegregata), and Rubiaceae(Strumpfiamaritima); 33-3% of the subclass Rosidaesuch as Combretaceae(Conocarpuserectus), Euphorbiaceae(Phyllanthus epiphyllanthus and Crotonlucidus); 11-1% Papaya (Caricapapaya, Caricaceae); and 11-1% cactus. Ingraham’s Hutias also occasionally forage on algae on the beach, sea shoal, and human leftovers. They apparently stand on hindlimbs to reach leaves on low-lying shrubs and use their hand pads to manipulate and grasp food. They seem to be adapted to arid habitats by being able to resist water stress and requiring less water than rainforest hutia species. Ingraham’s Hutias may also be able to tolerate drinking saltwater for more than a week.Breeding.Ingraham’s Hutias breed throughout the year. Litter size is apparently only a single young that can weigh up to 80 g.Activity patterns.Ingraham’s Hutia is strictly nocturnal and spends most ofits active period foraging.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A previously captured female Ingraham’s Hutia was recaptured five years later only 20 m from its initial capture site on East Plana Cay Island. Both data points suggested relatively long life spans during which individuals move very little. On East Plana Cay Island over several years, density was high at up to 30 ind/ha. Despite high density, no conflicting or antagonistic behaviors were observed. Ingraham’s Hutia is primarily solitary and nocturnal, butit is non-territorial and has high intraspecific social tolerance; it may often occur in pairs (15 pairs were kept in captivity). Male Ingraham’s Hutias tend to be antagonistic toward other males, particularly when females are in estrus. Marking behavior was studied in laboratory. Ingraham’s Hutias use urine signaling and individuals seem to preferentially mark those previously marked rather than unmarked individuals. Both sexes mark wood sticks, and reproductive condition (estrus) was not a significant factor in marking behavior. Male Ingraham’s Hutias have more odorous urine than females. Overall, urine marking appears to be non-agonistic, which might be important for social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Ingraham’s Hutia is poorly known and needs to be appropriately assessed. It has been extirpated from its native island and has been extirpated over most ofits distribution. Nevertheless, it may be locally abundant on the three small islands where it remains. Population sizes 25-30 years ago were estimated at 12,000 individuals on East Plana Key but only 1200 individuals on Little Wax Key. Updated ecological studies are required to confirm current conservation status of Ingraham’s Hutia.Bibliography.Allen (1891), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Buden (1986), Chapman (1901), Clough (1972, 1974), Howe (1974), Jordan (1989), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods etal. (2001).","taxonomy":"Capromys ingrahami J. A. Allen, 1891, “Plana Keys, Bahamas.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Hutia des Bahamas @fr | Bahama-Ferkelratte @de | Jutia de Bahamas @es | Bahaman Hutia @en | Bahamian Hutia @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1891","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geocapromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"555","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ingrahami","name":"Geocapromys ingrahami","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Bahamas, only known from the type locality in East Plana Cay. Introduced into Little Wax Cay in 1973 and on Warderick Wells Cay in 1981, also in Bahamas.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623661/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1891) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Buden (1986) | Chapman (1901) | Clough (1972, 1974) | Howe (1974) | Jordan (1989) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods etal. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Ingraham’s Hutias forage in trees, primarily on leaves, but they eat large amounts of phloem by eating bark. In Little Wax Key, they have overexploited their habitat and caused local extirpation of four tracheophytic species. Diets includes more than 40 plant species, with main food items including leaves of Coccolobadiversifolia (Polygonaceae), Manilkarabahamensis (Sapotaceae), Sophora tomentosa(Fabaceae), and Zanthoxylumcoriaceum (Rutaceae). Diets in other studies have contained 44-4% of the subclass Asteridae, including Boraginaceae(Tournefortia gnaphalodes), Convolvulaceae(Ipomoeabatatas), Oleaceae(Forestierasegregata), and Rubiaceae(Strumpfiamaritima); 33-3% of the subclass Rosidaesuch as Combretaceae(Conocarpuserectus), Euphorbiaceae(Phyllanthus epiphyllanthus and Crotonlucidus); 11-1% Papaya (Caricapapaya, Caricaceae); and 11-1% cactus. Ingraham’s Hutias also occasionally forage on algae on the beach, sea shoal, and human leftovers. They apparently stand on hindlimbs to reach leaves on low-lying shrubs and use their hand pads to manipulate and grasp food. They seem to be adapted to arid habitats by being able to resist water stress and requiring less water than rainforest hutia species. Ingraham’s Hutias may also be able to tolerate drinking saltwater for more than a week.","breeding":"Ingraham’s Hutias breed throughout the year. Litter size is apparently only a single young that can weigh up to 80 g.","activityPatterns":"Ingraham’s Hutia is strictly nocturnal and spends most ofits active period foraging.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A previously captured female Ingraham’s Hutia was recaptured five years later only 20 m from its initial capture site on East Plana Cay Island. Both data points suggested relatively long life spans during which individuals move very little. On East Plana Cay Island over several years, density was high at up to 30 ind/ha. Despite high density, no conflicting or antagonistic behaviors were observed. Ingraham’s Hutia is primarily solitary and nocturnal, butit is non-territorial and has high intraspecific social tolerance; it may often occur in pairs (15 pairs were kept in captivity). Male Ingraham’s Hutias tend to be antagonistic toward other males, particularly when females are in estrus. Marking behavior was studied in laboratory. Ingraham’s Hutias use urine signaling and individuals seem to preferentially mark those previously marked rather than unmarked individuals. Both sexes mark wood sticks, and reproductive condition (estrus) was not a significant factor in marking behavior. Male Ingraham’s Hutias have more odorous urine than females. Overall, urine marking appears to be non-agonistic, which might be important for social organization.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Ingraham’s Hutia is poorly known and needs to be appropriately assessed. It has been extirpated from its native island and has been extirpated over most ofits distribution. Nevertheless, it may be locally abundant on the three small islands where it remains. Population sizes 25-30 years ago were estimated at 12,000 individuals on East Plana Key but only 1200 individuals on Little Wax Key. Updated ecological studies are required to confirm current conservation status of Ingraham’s Hutia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 280-320 mm, tail 55 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Ingraham’s Hutia is small, with soft, pale grayish, brownish, or buff dorsal fur. Lateral lower parts of ears and cheeks are usually paler or brighter. Venter is brighter than dorsum. Unlike the Jamaican Hutia (G. brownii), cream spots are usually absent, or only rarely present, on venter and are rarely present, which is distinctive, between front limbs and hindlimbs. Tail length is equal to or longer than hindfeet and ¢.20% of head-body length. Ears are naked, with two long tufts on dorsal margins. Skull has no inflated frontal. Alveolar length of maxillary tooth is less than 165 mm. Basicranium is broad and dorso-ventrally curved compared with that of the Jamaican Hutia. Zygomatic arch is situated above cheekteeth laterally, with a jugal spine. Sagittal and temporal crests are weakly developed. Long jugular process is curved anteriorly and reaches mid-level of bulla tympanica. Tympanic bullae are inflated, and palatal spine is absent. Teeth similar in shape to those of the Jamaican Hutia.","habitat":"Semiarid habitats of woody shrubs and thickets on East Plana Cay coral atoll. Ingraham’s Hutia lives in underground crevices or caves and under leaf piles ofsilver palm trees (Coccothrinaxargentata, Arecaceae). It does not nest or burrow but has scansorial locomotion and is a good climber."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEEFFDDFA7A5DA05864F487.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFEEFFDDFA7A5DA05864F487","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"555","verbatimText":"4.Desmarest’s HutiaCapromys piloridesFrench:Hutia pilori/ German:Hutiaconga/ Spanish:Jutia de DesmarestOther common names:Cuban HutiaTaxonomy.Isodon pilorides Say, 1822, “South America or one of the West Indian islands.”Capromys piloridesincludesfourniere, acevedo, and intermedius as synonyms. Subspecies gundlachianus was erroneously elevated to species status, based on sequence divergence of a specimen from Cayo Ballenato del Medio, but this specimen was from a locality outside the known distribution of C. pilorides. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.p.piloridesSay,1822—Cubamainland.C.p.ciprianoiBorroto,Camacho&Ramos,1992—SIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).C.p.doceleguasVarona,1980—JardinesdelaReinaArchipelago(offSCCuba).C.p.gundlachianusVarona,1983—SabanaArchipelago(offNCCuba).C. p. relictus G. M. Allen, 1911— N Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head—body 305-625 mm,tail 131-315 mm; weight up to 7 kg. Pelage of Desmarest’s Hutia ranges from white to dark grayish. Back part of rump and proximal part oftail are paler than remaining parts of dorsum, with grayish or yellowish pale colors. Guard hairs are long and soft. Dorsal pelage is also often brownish gray, with mixture of yellowish or golden guard hairs. Underfur is usually paler, with short soft hairs. Some populations, such as subspecies gundlachianus, have significantly darker pelt. Venter might be whitish or grayish. Head is usually gray or with paler hair around muzzle, cheeks, and area between eyes. Color of front and top of head are similar to dorsum. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length and is covered by thin and short scale hairs, colored similar to rump, that extend toward end oftail. Tail is robust, wide, and uniformly colored, with buff to rusty brown sometimes with darker colors. Slightly divided ears are large, with long extending hairs rising from outer and inner surfaces. Dark footpads are not well developed and are nearly smooth. Head and outer surfaces of hindlegs range from blackish to pale buff or from black and deep rusty. Five toes are narrow and long, with hallux well separated from other four digits. On hands, pollex is reduced with tiny pads and nail well discriminated by four fingers that are slightly enlarged distally due to broad plantar pads. Palmar and plantar surfaces are very distinct, being blackish compared with whitish parts of all other Cuban hutias. Skull is broad and robust, having broad postorbital process and stocky rostrum. Zygomatic arch is very robust, which makes temporal fossa smaller than in other genera of hutias. Paroccipital processes are broad and more elongated than other species of hutias and extend well below tympanic bullae (but not as pronounced as hutias from Hispaniola). Angular and ascending condylar processes are broader and more robust than other Cuban hutias. Cheekteeth converge less anteriorly than in other genera of hutias, but they are similarly shaped with quadratic outline and characteristic epsilon molar loph pattern. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 64.Habitat.Nearly all Cuban habitats, including cultivated areas, secondary and primary habitats, montane forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semideciduous forests, low marshy areas, and some mangroves forest, particularly red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). This wide trophic habitat spectrum makes Desmarest’s Hutia s one of the most adaptable echimyids. Some populations have specializations for red mangrove habitats, where they become nearly arboreal compared with their terrestrial and scansorial counterparts in other Cuban habitats. Usually, Desmarest’s Hutias favor limestone cliffs or karst systems where they can find suitable resting sites. In forest habitats, they most commonly use tree cavities as shelters, but they also build nests in vines or liana tangles among branches.Food and Feeding.Desmarest’s Hutias usually forage on tender leaves,leaving leaf petioles on trees and primarily focusing on limbs. They also consume marine crustaceans, mollusks, and algae. They were reported to hunt and eat small Anolis lizards (A. porcatus and A. sagrei), human leftovers, and different food items encountered on their home ranges. Desmarest’s Hutias that live in red mangroves are strictly arboreal and specialize on red mangrove leaves. Several populations occur on small keys, where they are often seen swimming or foraging near the water. R. Borroto and C. A. Woods in 2012 followed populations of the different subspecies, recording detailed records of their foraging behaviors and proportions of plant items consumed. In southern Isla de la Juventud, subspecies ciprianoiforaged on 14 plant families, including 14 species, preferring species in the subclass Rosidae(65%). In coastal and sub-coastal vegetation communities in the Cabo Corrientes Natural Reserve, subspecies piloridesforaged on 15 families, including 20 species, also preferring Rosidae(45%) but also eating substantial proportions of Arecidae (20%) and Dilleniidae (15%). In secondary habitats in Sierra del Chorillo, piloridesforaged on 35 species, including 22 shrubs, with Rosidae(50-8%) and Asteridae(21%) being the most common food items. Coprophagy also appears to be common.Breeding.Gestation of Desmarest’s Hutia lasts 75-153 days, with an interbirth interval of c.16 days. Three litters per year can occur if conditions are good and food is not limited, but two litters were common in several studies. Litter sizes are 1-3 young, with rare cases of 4-6 embryos; near-term young weigh up to 250 g. Uterine scares typically numbered two, but three were reported in one case. Young nursed for c.153 days and become sexually mature at about ten months old. Desmarest’s Hutias have no special reproductive seasons, and females become pregnant throughout the year. Sexual maturity of females was correlated to body size; individuals weighing more than 2-1 kg had marked corpora lutea and perforated vagina. Ovaries from female Desmarest’s Hutias have high numbers of corpora lutea on very small ovaries that were three times smaller than those of Bushy-tailed Hutias (Mesocapromys melanurus): 0-8-2-5 mm for Desmarest’s Hutia vs. 2-7-1 mm in Bushy-tailed Hutias.Activity patterns.Desmarest’s Hutia is essentially nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity. Individuals are occasionally seen moving about during the day, especially in captivity. In some areas, individuals are arboreal and diurnal, staying at the sun and foraging on leaves on the ground. The activity patterns vary depending on habitats occupied.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements of Desmarest’s Hutia have not been studied in detail, but some individuals were reported to move long distances. It is the most abundant species of hutias in the Greater Antilles. Several cases of overpopulation were reported on Cuba and small islands where humans have introduced Desmarest’s Hutias. Densities range from 17-20 ind/ha in the Sabana Archipelago and 47-50 ind/ha on the Cuba mainland to as high as 92-130 ind/ha inJardines de la Reina Archipelago. In places with several feral or invasive species, or in highly fragmented habitats, densities are considerably lower, reaching only 1-7 ind/ha. Desmarest’s Hutia is reportedly social, living in gregarious family groups where grooming behavior is common and communication between individuals is maintained while foraging.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification of Desmarest’s Hutia results from its relatively large distribution that includes some protected areas and its ability to maintain high densities. Nevertheless, status of some subspecies is poorly known and requires additional investigations for accurate conservation assessment and, if necessary, action. Desmarest’s Hutias are important in the lives of Cuban people, serving as a significant source of meat for local people; they are often kept as pets. Impacts of local hunting or use as pets are unknown, and populations in the most disturbed areas should be surveyed to determine appropriate conservation measures for Desmarest’s Hutia.Bibliography.Abreu & Manojina (1989), Allen (1891), Angulo & Alvarez (1948), Angulo & Roque (1948), Arredondo (1958), Berovides & Comas (1991, 1993, 1997a, 1997b), Berovides & Sanchez (1987), Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990), Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Bouza et al. (1990), Bucher (1937), Chapman (1901), Comas & Berovides (1990), Cornide etal. (1989), Desmarest (1822), Garrido (1971), Gonzalez & Manojina (1990), Gundlach (1877), Kilpatrick et al. (2012), Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980), Lora (1895), Manojina (1987a, 1987b), Manojina, Gonzalez & Abreu (1989), Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989), Mohr (1939), Rysavy (1967), Say (1822), Smith, C.H. (1842), Smith, R. & Berovides (1984), Taylor (1970), Varona (1970, 1979, 1980a, 1980b), Woods (1989), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Isodon pilorides Say, 1822, “South America or one of the West Indian islands.”Capromys piloridesincludesfourniere, acevedo, and intermedius as synonyms. Subspecies gundlachianus was erroneously elevated to species status, based on sequence divergence of a specimen from Cayo Ballenato del Medio, but this specimen was from a locality outside the known distribution of C. pilorides. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Hutia pilori @fr | Hutiaconga @de | Jutia de Desmarest @es | Cuban Hutia @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Say","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Capromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"555","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pilorides","name":"Capromys pilorides","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.p.piloridesSay,1822—Cubamainland.C.p.ciprianoiBorroto,Camacho&Ramos,1992—SIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).C.p.doceleguasVarona,1980—JardinesdelaReinaArchipelago(offSCCuba).C.p.gundlachianusVarona,1983—SabanaArchipelago(offNCCuba).C. p. relictus G. M. Allen, 1911— N Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).","bibliography":"Abreu & Manojina (1989) | Allen (1891) | Angulo & Alvarez (1948) | Angulo & Roque (1948) | Arredondo (1958) | Berovides & Comas (1991, 1993, 1997a, 1997b) | Berovides & Sanchez (1987) | Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990) | Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Bouza et al. (1990) | Bucher (1937) | Chapman (1901) | Comas & Berovides (1990) | Cornide etal. (1989) | Desmarest (1822) | Garrido (1971) | Gonzalez & Manojina (1990) | Gundlach (1877) | Kilpatrick et al. (2012) | Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980) | Lora (1895) | Manojina (1987a, 1987b) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Abreu (1989) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989) | Mohr (1939) | Rysavy (1967) | Say (1822) | Smith, C.H. (1842) | Smith, R. & Berovides (1984) | Taylor (1970) | Varona (1970, 1979, 1980a, 1980b) | Woods (1989) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Desmarest’s Hutias usually forage on tender leaves,leaving leaf petioles on trees and primarily focusing on limbs. They also consume marine crustaceans, mollusks, and algae. They were reported to hunt and eat small Anolis lizards (A. porcatus and A. sagrei), human leftovers, and different food items encountered on their home ranges. Desmarest’s Hutias that live in red mangroves are strictly arboreal and specialize on red mangrove leaves. Several populations occur on small keys, where they are often seen swimming or foraging near the water. R. Borroto and C. A. Woods in 2012 followed populations of the different subspecies, recording detailed records of their foraging behaviors and proportions of plant items consumed. In southern Isla de la Juventud, subspecies ciprianoiforaged on 14 plant families, including 14 species, preferring species in the subclass Rosidae(65%). In coastal and sub-coastal vegetation communities in the Cabo Corrientes Natural Reserve, subspecies piloridesforaged on 15 families, including 20 species, also preferring Rosidae(45%) but also eating substantial proportions of Arecidae (20%) and Dilleniidae (15%). In secondary habitats in Sierra del Chorillo, piloridesforaged on 35 species, including 22 shrubs, with Rosidae(50-8%) and Asteridae(21%) being the most common food items. Coprophagy also appears to be common.","breeding":"Gestation of Desmarest’s Hutia lasts 75-153 days, with an interbirth interval of c.16 days. Three litters per year can occur if conditions are good and food is not limited, but two litters were common in several studies. Litter sizes are 1-3 young, with rare cases of 4-6 embryos; near-term young weigh up to 250 g. Uterine scares typically numbered two, but three were reported in one case. Young nursed for c.153 days and become sexually mature at about ten months old. Desmarest’s Hutias have no special reproductive seasons, and females become pregnant throughout the year. Sexual maturity of females was correlated to body size; individuals weighing more than 2-1 kg had marked corpora lutea and perforated vagina. Ovaries from female Desmarest’s Hutias have high numbers of corpora lutea on very small ovaries that were three times smaller than those of Bushy-tailed Hutias (Mesocapromys melanurus): 0-8-2-5 mm for Desmarest’s Hutia vs. 2-7-1 mm in Bushy-tailed Hutias.","activityPatterns":"Desmarest’s Hutia is essentially nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity. Individuals are occasionally seen moving about during the day, especially in captivity. In some areas, individuals are arboreal and diurnal, staying at the sun and foraging on leaves on the ground. The activity patterns vary depending on habitats occupied.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Movements of Desmarest’s Hutia have not been studied in detail, but some individuals were reported to move long distances. It is the most abundant species of hutias in the Greater Antilles. Several cases of overpopulation were reported on Cuba and small islands where humans have introduced Desmarest’s Hutias. Densities range from 17-20 ind/ha in the Sabana Archipelago and 47-50 ind/ha on the Cuba mainland to as high as 92-130 ind/ha inJardines de la Reina Archipelago. In places with several feral or invasive species, or in highly fragmented habitats, densities are considerably lower, reaching only 1-7 ind/ha. Desmarest’s Hutia is reportedly social, living in gregarious family groups where grooming behavior is common and communication between individuals is maintained while foraging.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification of Desmarest’s Hutia results from its relatively large distribution that includes some protected areas and its ability to maintain high densities. Nevertheless, status of some subspecies is poorly known and requires additional investigations for accurate conservation assessment and, if necessary, action. Desmarest’s Hutias are important in the lives of Cuban people, serving as a significant source of meat for local people; they are often kept as pets. Impacts of local hunting or use as pets are unknown, and populations in the most disturbed areas should be surveyed to determine appropriate conservation measures for Desmarest’s Hutia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 305-625 mm,tail 131-315 mm; weight up to 7 kg. Pelage of Desmarest’s Hutia ranges from white to dark grayish. Back part of rump and proximal part oftail are paler than remaining parts of dorsum, with grayish or yellowish pale colors. Guard hairs are long and soft. Dorsal pelage is also often brownish gray, with mixture of yellowish or golden guard hairs. Underfur is usually paler, with short soft hairs. Some populations, such as subspecies gundlachianus, have significantly darker pelt. Venter might be whitish or grayish. Head is usually gray or with paler hair around muzzle, cheeks, and area between eyes. Color of front and top of head are similar to dorsum. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length and is covered by thin and short scale hairs, colored similar to rump, that extend toward end oftail. Tail is robust, wide, and uniformly colored, with buff to rusty brown sometimes with darker colors. Slightly divided ears are large, with long extending hairs rising from outer and inner surfaces. Dark footpads are not well developed and are nearly smooth. Head and outer surfaces of hindlegs range from blackish to pale buff or from black and deep rusty. Five toes are narrow and long, with hallux well separated from other four digits. On hands, pollex is reduced with tiny pads and nail well discriminated by four fingers that are slightly enlarged distally due to broad plantar pads. Palmar and plantar surfaces are very distinct, being blackish compared with whitish parts of all other Cuban hutias. Skull is broad and robust, having broad postorbital process and stocky rostrum. Zygomatic arch is very robust, which makes temporal fossa smaller than in other genera of hutias. Paroccipital processes are broad and more elongated than other species of hutias and extend well below tympanic bullae (but not as pronounced as hutias from Hispaniola). Angular and ascending condylar processes are broader and more robust than other Cuban hutias. Cheekteeth converge less anteriorly than in other genera of hutias, but they are similarly shaped with quadratic outline and characteristic epsilon molar loph pattern. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 64.","habitat":"Nearly all Cuban habitats, including cultivated areas, secondary and primary habitats, montane forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semideciduous forests, low marshy areas, and some mangroves forest, particularly red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). This wide trophic habitat spectrum makes Desmarest’s Hutia s one of the most adaptable echimyids. Some populations have specializations for red mangrove habitats, where they become nearly arboreal compared with their terrestrial and scansorial counterparts in other Cuban habitats. Usually, Desmarest’s Hutias favor limestone cliffs or karst systems where they can find suitable resting sites. In forest habitats, they most commonly use tree cavities as shelters, but they also build nests in vines or liana tangles among branches."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEEFFDDFA7A5DA05864F487.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFEEFFDDFA7A5DA05864F487","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"555","verbatimText":"4.Desmarest’s HutiaCapromys piloridesFrench:Hutia pilori/ German:Hutiaconga/ Spanish:Jutia de DesmarestOther common names:Cuban HutiaTaxonomy.Isodon pilorides Say, 1822, “South America or one of the West Indian islands.”Capromys piloridesincludesfourniere, acevedo, and intermedius as synonyms. Subspecies gundlachianus was erroneously elevated to species status, based on sequence divergence of a specimen from Cayo Ballenato del Medio, but this specimen was from a locality outside the known distribution of C. pilorides. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.p.piloridesSay,1822—Cubamainland.C.p.ciprianoiBorroto,Camacho&Ramos,1992—SIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).C.p.doceleguasVarona,1980—JardinesdelaReinaArchipelago(offSCCuba).C.p.gundlachianusVarona,1983—SabanaArchipelago(offNCCuba).C. p. relictus G. M. Allen, 1911— N Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).Descriptive notes.Head—body 305-625 mm,tail 131-315 mm; weight up to 7 kg. Pelage of Desmarest’s Hutia ranges from white to dark grayish. Back part of rump and proximal part oftail are paler than remaining parts of dorsum, with grayish or yellowish pale colors. Guard hairs are long and soft. Dorsal pelage is also often brownish gray, with mixture of yellowish or golden guard hairs. Underfur is usually paler, with short soft hairs. Some populations, such as subspecies gundlachianus, have significantly darker pelt. Venter might be whitish or grayish. Head is usually gray or with paler hair around muzzle, cheeks, and area between eyes. Color of front and top of head are similar to dorsum. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length and is covered by thin and short scale hairs, colored similar to rump, that extend toward end oftail. Tail is robust, wide, and uniformly colored, with buff to rusty brown sometimes with darker colors. Slightly divided ears are large, with long extending hairs rising from outer and inner surfaces. Dark footpads are not well developed and are nearly smooth. Head and outer surfaces of hindlegs range from blackish to pale buff or from black and deep rusty. Five toes are narrow and long, with hallux well separated from other four digits. On hands, pollex is reduced with tiny pads and nail well discriminated by four fingers that are slightly enlarged distally due to broad plantar pads. Palmar and plantar surfaces are very distinct, being blackish compared with whitish parts of all other Cuban hutias. Skull is broad and robust, having broad postorbital process and stocky rostrum. Zygomatic arch is very robust, which makes temporal fossa smaller than in other genera of hutias. Paroccipital processes are broad and more elongated than other species of hutias and extend well below tympanic bullae (but not as pronounced as hutias from Hispaniola). Angular and ascending condylar processes are broader and more robust than other Cuban hutias. Cheekteeth converge less anteriorly than in other genera of hutias, but they are similarly shaped with quadratic outline and characteristic epsilon molar loph pattern. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 64.Habitat.Nearly all Cuban habitats, including cultivated areas, secondary and primary habitats, montane forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semideciduous forests, low marshy areas, and some mangroves forest, particularly red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). This wide trophic habitat spectrum makes Desmarest’s Hutia s one of the most adaptable echimyids. Some populations have specializations for red mangrove habitats, where they become nearly arboreal compared with their terrestrial and scansorial counterparts in other Cuban habitats. Usually, Desmarest’s Hutias favor limestone cliffs or karst systems where they can find suitable resting sites. In forest habitats, they most commonly use tree cavities as shelters, but they also build nests in vines or liana tangles among branches.Food and Feeding.Desmarest’s Hutias usually forage on tender leaves,leaving leaf petioles on trees and primarily focusing on limbs. They also consume marine crustaceans, mollusks, and algae. They were reported to hunt and eat small Anolis lizards (A. porcatus and A. sagrei), human leftovers, and different food items encountered on their home ranges. Desmarest’s Hutias that live in red mangroves are strictly arboreal and specialize on red mangrove leaves. Several populations occur on small keys, where they are often seen swimming or foraging near the water. R. Borroto and C. A. Woods in 2012 followed populations of the different subspecies, recording detailed records of their foraging behaviors and proportions of plant items consumed. In southern Isla de la Juventud, subspecies ciprianoiforaged on 14 plant families, including 14 species, preferring species in the subclass Rosidae(65%). In coastal and sub-coastal vegetation communities in the Cabo Corrientes Natural Reserve, subspecies piloridesforaged on 15 families, including 20 species, also preferring Rosidae(45%) but also eating substantial proportions of Arecidae (20%) and Dilleniidae (15%). In secondary habitats in Sierra del Chorillo, piloridesforaged on 35 species, including 22 shrubs, with Rosidae(50-8%) and Asteridae(21%) being the most common food items. Coprophagy also appears to be common.Breeding.Gestation of Desmarest’s Hutia lasts 75-153 days, with an interbirth interval of c.16 days. Three litters per year can occur if conditions are good and food is not limited, but two litters were common in several studies. Litter sizes are 1-3 young, with rare cases of 4-6 embryos; near-term young weigh up to 250 g. Uterine scares typically numbered two, but three were reported in one case. Young nursed for c.153 days and become sexually mature at about ten months old. Desmarest’s Hutias have no special reproductive seasons, and females become pregnant throughout the year. Sexual maturity of females was correlated to body size; individuals weighing more than 2-1 kg had marked corpora lutea and perforated vagina. Ovaries from female Desmarest’s Hutias have high numbers of corpora lutea on very small ovaries that were three times smaller than those of Bushy-tailed Hutias (Mesocapromys melanurus): 0-8-2-5 mm for Desmarest’s Hutia vs. 2-7-1 mm in Bushy-tailed Hutias.Activity patterns.Desmarest’s Hutia is essentially nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity. Individuals are occasionally seen moving about during the day, especially in captivity. In some areas, individuals are arboreal and diurnal, staying at the sun and foraging on leaves on the ground. The activity patterns vary depending on habitats occupied.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Movements of Desmarest’s Hutia have not been studied in detail, but some individuals were reported to move long distances. It is the most abundant species of hutias in the Greater Antilles. Several cases of overpopulation were reported on Cuba and small islands where humans have introduced Desmarest’s Hutias. Densities range from 17-20 ind/ha in the Sabana Archipelago and 47-50 ind/ha on the Cuba mainland to as high as 92-130 ind/ha inJardines de la Reina Archipelago. In places with several feral or invasive species, or in highly fragmented habitats, densities are considerably lower, reaching only 1-7 ind/ha. Desmarest’s Hutia is reportedly social, living in gregarious family groups where grooming behavior is common and communication between individuals is maintained while foraging.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification of Desmarest’s Hutia results from its relatively large distribution that includes some protected areas and its ability to maintain high densities. Nevertheless, status of some subspecies is poorly known and requires additional investigations for accurate conservation assessment and, if necessary, action. Desmarest’s Hutias are important in the lives of Cuban people, serving as a significant source of meat for local people; they are often kept as pets. Impacts of local hunting or use as pets are unknown, and populations in the most disturbed areas should be surveyed to determine appropriate conservation measures for Desmarest’s Hutia.Bibliography.Abreu & Manojina (1989), Allen (1891), Angulo & Alvarez (1948), Angulo & Roque (1948), Arredondo (1958), Berovides & Comas (1991, 1993, 1997a, 1997b), Berovides & Sanchez (1987), Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990), Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992), Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012), Bouza et al. (1990), Bucher (1937), Chapman (1901), Comas & Berovides (1990), Cornide etal. (1989), Desmarest (1822), Garrido (1971), Gonzalez & Manojina (1990), Gundlach (1877), Kilpatrick et al. (2012), Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980), Lora (1895), Manojina (1987a, 1987b), Manojina, Gonzalez & Abreu (1989), Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989), Mohr (1939), Rysavy (1967), Say (1822), Smith, C.H. (1842), Smith, R. & Berovides (1984), Taylor (1970), Varona (1970, 1979, 1980a, 1980b), Woods (1989), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Isodon pilorides Say, 1822, “South America or one of the West Indian islands.”Capromys piloridesincludesfourniere, acevedo, and intermedius as synonyms. Subspecies gundlachianus was erroneously elevated to species status, based on sequence divergence of a specimen from Cayo Ballenato del Medio, but this specimen was from a locality outside the known distribution of C. pilorides. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Hutia pilori @fr | Hutiaconga @de | Jutia de Desmarest @es | Cuban Hutia @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Say","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1822","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Capromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"555","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pilorides","name":"Capromys pilorides","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.p.piloridesSay,1822—Cubamainland.C.p.ciprianoiBorroto,Camacho&Ramos,1992—SIsladelaJuventud(offSWCuba).C.p.doceleguasVarona,1980—JardinesdelaReinaArchipelago(offSCCuba).C.p.gundlachianusVarona,1983—SabanaArchipelago(offNCCuba).C. p. relictus G. M. Allen, 1911— N Isla de la Juventud (off SW Cuba).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623663/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abreu & Manojina (1989) | Allen (1891) | Angulo & Alvarez (1948) | Angulo & Roque (1948) | Arredondo (1958) | Berovides & Comas (1991, 1993, 1997a, 1997b) | Berovides & Sanchez (1987) | Berovides, Alfonso & Camacho (1990) | Berovides, Camacho et al. (1990) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto, Camacho & Ramos (1992) | Borroto, Mancina et al. (2012) | Bouza et al. (1990) | Bucher (1937) | Chapman (1901) | Comas & Berovides (1990) | Cornide etal. (1989) | Desmarest (1822) | Garrido (1971) | Gonzalez & Manojina (1990) | Gundlach (1877) | Kilpatrick et al. (2012) | Kratochvil et al. (1978, 1980) | Lora (1895) | Manojina (1987a, 1987b) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Abreu (1989) | Manojina, Gonzalez & Hernandez (1989) | Mohr (1939) | Rysavy (1967) | Say (1822) | Smith, C.H. (1842) | Smith, R. & Berovides (1984) | Taylor (1970) | Varona (1970, 1979, 1980a, 1980b) | Woods (1989) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Desmarest’s Hutias usually forage on tender leaves,leaving leaf petioles on trees and primarily focusing on limbs. They also consume marine crustaceans, mollusks, and algae. They were reported to hunt and eat small Anolis lizards (A. porcatus and A. sagrei), human leftovers, and different food items encountered on their home ranges. Desmarest’s Hutias that live in red mangroves are strictly arboreal and specialize on red mangrove leaves. Several populations occur on small keys, where they are often seen swimming or foraging near the water. R. Borroto and C. A. Woods in 2012 followed populations of the different subspecies, recording detailed records of their foraging behaviors and proportions of plant items consumed. In southern Isla de la Juventud, subspecies ciprianoiforaged on 14 plant families, including 14 species, preferring species in the subclass Rosidae(65%). In coastal and sub-coastal vegetation communities in the Cabo Corrientes Natural Reserve, subspecies piloridesforaged on 15 families, including 20 species, also preferring Rosidae(45%) but also eating substantial proportions of Arecidae (20%) and Dilleniidae (15%). In secondary habitats in Sierra del Chorillo, piloridesforaged on 35 species, including 22 shrubs, with Rosidae(50-8%) and Asteridae(21%) being the most common food items. Coprophagy also appears to be common.","breeding":"Gestation of Desmarest’s Hutia lasts 75-153 days, with an interbirth interval of c.16 days. Three litters per year can occur if conditions are good and food is not limited, but two litters were common in several studies. Litter sizes are 1-3 young, with rare cases of 4-6 embryos; near-term young weigh up to 250 g. Uterine scares typically numbered two, but three were reported in one case. Young nursed for c.153 days and become sexually mature at about ten months old. Desmarest’s Hutias have no special reproductive seasons, and females become pregnant throughout the year. Sexual maturity of females was correlated to body size; individuals weighing more than 2-1 kg had marked corpora lutea and perforated vagina. Ovaries from female Desmarest’s Hutias have high numbers of corpora lutea on very small ovaries that were three times smaller than those of Bushy-tailed Hutias (Mesocapromys melanurus): 0-8-2-5 mm for Desmarest’s Hutia vs. 2-7-1 mm in Bushy-tailed Hutias.","activityPatterns":"Desmarest’s Hutia is essentially nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity. Individuals are occasionally seen moving about during the day, especially in captivity. In some areas, individuals are arboreal and diurnal, staying at the sun and foraging on leaves on the ground. The activity patterns vary depending on habitats occupied.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Movements of Desmarest’s Hutia have not been studied in detail, but some individuals were reported to move long distances. It is the most abundant species of hutias in the Greater Antilles. Several cases of overpopulation were reported on Cuba and small islands where humans have introduced Desmarest’s Hutias. Densities range from 17-20 ind/ha in the Sabana Archipelago and 47-50 ind/ha on the Cuba mainland to as high as 92-130 ind/ha inJardines de la Reina Archipelago. In places with several feral or invasive species, or in highly fragmented habitats, densities are considerably lower, reaching only 1-7 ind/ha. Desmarest’s Hutia is reportedly social, living in gregarious family groups where grooming behavior is common and communication between individuals is maintained while foraging.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. This classification of Desmarest’s Hutia results from its relatively large distribution that includes some protected areas and its ability to maintain high densities. Nevertheless, status of some subspecies is poorly known and requires additional investigations for accurate conservation assessment and, if necessary, action. Desmarest’s Hutias are important in the lives of Cuban people, serving as a significant source of meat for local people; they are often kept as pets. Impacts of local hunting or use as pets are unknown, and populations in the most disturbed areas should be surveyed to determine appropriate conservation measures for Desmarest’s Hutia.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 305-625 mm,tail 131-315 mm; weight up to 7 kg. Pelage of Desmarest’s Hutia ranges from white to dark grayish. Back part of rump and proximal part oftail are paler than remaining parts of dorsum, with grayish or yellowish pale colors. Guard hairs are long and soft. Dorsal pelage is also often brownish gray, with mixture of yellowish or golden guard hairs. Underfur is usually paler, with short soft hairs. Some populations, such as subspecies gundlachianus, have significantly darker pelt. Venter might be whitish or grayish. Head is usually gray or with paler hair around muzzle, cheeks, and area between eyes. Color of front and top of head are similar to dorsum. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length and is covered by thin and short scale hairs, colored similar to rump, that extend toward end oftail. Tail is robust, wide, and uniformly colored, with buff to rusty brown sometimes with darker colors. Slightly divided ears are large, with long extending hairs rising from outer and inner surfaces. Dark footpads are not well developed and are nearly smooth. Head and outer surfaces of hindlegs range from blackish to pale buff or from black and deep rusty. Five toes are narrow and long, with hallux well separated from other four digits. On hands, pollex is reduced with tiny pads and nail well discriminated by four fingers that are slightly enlarged distally due to broad plantar pads. Palmar and plantar surfaces are very distinct, being blackish compared with whitish parts of all other Cuban hutias. Skull is broad and robust, having broad postorbital process and stocky rostrum. Zygomatic arch is very robust, which makes temporal fossa smaller than in other genera of hutias. Paroccipital processes are broad and more elongated than other species of hutias and extend well below tympanic bullae (but not as pronounced as hutias from Hispaniola). Angular and ascending condylar processes are broader and more robust than other Cuban hutias. Cheekteeth converge less anteriorly than in other genera of hutias, but they are similarly shaped with quadratic outline and characteristic epsilon molar loph pattern. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 64.","habitat":"Nearly all Cuban habitats, including cultivated areas, secondary and primary habitats, montane forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semideciduous forests, low marshy areas, and some mangroves forest, particularly red mangroves (Rhizophoramangle, Rhizophoraceae). This wide trophic habitat spectrum makes Desmarest’s Hutia s one of the most adaptable echimyids. Some populations have specializations for red mangrove habitats, where they become nearly arboreal compared with their terrestrial and scansorial counterparts in other Cuban habitats. Usually, Desmarest’s Hutias favor limestone cliffs or karst systems where they can find suitable resting sites. In forest habitats, they most commonly use tree cavities as shelters, but they also build nests in vines or liana tangles among branches."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEFFFDAFADA59F35BFFFAF7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFEFFFDAFADA59F35BFFFAF7","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"554","verbatimText":"2.Jamaican HutiaGeocapromys browniiFrench:Hutia de Jamaique/ German:Jamaika-Ferkelratte/ Spanish:Jutia de JamaicaOther common names:Brown's Hutia, Indian Coney, Jamaican ConeyTaxonomy.Capromys brownii Fischer, 1830, “Jamaica.”Geocapromys browniiincludes brachyurus as a synonym. Monotypic.Distribution.W, E & S Jamaica, Cockpit Country (SW Trelawny, extreme N Sain Elizabeth, and extreme E Saint James parishes), John Crow and Blue Mts (Portland Parish), Mount Diablo and Croft’s Hill (Saint Thomas Parish), and Harris Savanna and Brazilletto Mts (Clarendon Parish).Descriptive notes.Head-body 372-448 mm, tail 40-64 mm; weight up to 2 kg. The Jamaican Hutia is robust, with large head, short ears, and tail. Dorsum and rump are blackish brown to reddish brown. Venter and lower parts are uniformly dusky brown. Fur is coarse and dense with short hairs (20-25 mm) and few longer guard hairs sparsely distributed on body. Ears are black and tipped with ring of golden brown or bright gray hairs. Two tufts of longer hairs are present behind and above auditory meatus on inner dorsal margins of pinna; otherwise, ears are densely covered with short and fine hairs. Tapering tail is stiff and ¢.84% of head-body length, with tail scale harboring short and bristly hairs. Tail is bicolored black above and grayish brown below. Feet are covered with stiff and short black hairs; soles are also blackish with rasp-like warts. Hallux is set far back and well differentiated from other toes. Multiple tubercles cover plantar and palmar pads. On the hand, pollex is a vestigial tubercle with a blunt nail. There are two pairs of mammae midway on each side of thorax. Skulls of all Geocapromyshave anteriorly converging cheekteeth; roots of lower incisors anterior to dP, alveoli; broad vertically or posteriorly oriented superior zygomatic roots of maxilla; labial inclination of occlusal jugal teeth surfaces; anteroflexid with more inclined angles compared with other mesoand posteroflexids, with a large chewing surface on labial side; and presence of anteroflexid with small third re-entrant angle on surface of dP,. Skull is 15-20% larger than skulls of other species of Geocapromys. Zygomatic arch is broad anteriorly, with arch placed well below orbit and overlapping in lateral view with upper molar row. Frontal apophyse of infraorbital foramen is wide. Jugal spine is huge, and jugal fossa is wide (especially anterior part of the zygomatic arch). Zygomatic root of zygomatic arch is also broad, with slight posterior extension. On the antero-medial part of orbit, parietal bone is inflated, making an inflated structure likely due to a sinus in this region. As a result, anterior part of frontal is wider than posterior part. Indeed, frontal bone is reduced posteriorly due to constriction near their fronto-parietal suture. Sagittal crest can be more or less developed for insertion of temporalis muscles. Paraoccipital process has a well-developed lambdoid crest. Tympanic bullae are not inflated, without nares constriction. Upper tooth rows are slightly converging anteriorly. Jaw is strong, with deep mandibular symphysis. Masseteric ridge is well developed and starts below the first lower molar, continues toward end of the spinous angular process, and ends with slight outer lateral deflection. A triangular coronoid process expands anteriorly above M, or M,; condyle process is lower than occlusal plane of lower molar in other species of Geocapromys. Incisors are fronted with orange enamel and are recumbently curved. Cheekteeth are hypsodont and rootless and have flat occlusal plane inclined labially at 30° angle. Upper cheekteeth have trilophodont occlusal pattern, as in several arboreal echimyids, and with more squarish molar shape. Upper molars have two labial and one lingual flexi; lower molars have one labial and one lingual fold, with dP, having and extra small anterolingual flexid. Baculum has distinct dimensions compared with all hutias from Cuba and Hispaniola, with its width 2-3 times greater than that of the larger Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 88 and FN = 136.Habitat.Restricted to karst areas, nesting in caves, crevices, and tunnels. Density of the Jamaican Hutia appears to be higher in remote hills and mountainous regions with these karst geologic formations.Food and Feeding.Jamaican Hutias forage on bark, shoots, and fruits and den in rock crevices, exposed roots, and foliage of a variety of plant species. They eat parts of at least 57 different plants but also opportunistically feed on human leftovers and freeliving arthropods. Captive Jamaican Hutias drink freshwater more often than species of other genera like Capromysor Plagiodontia.Breeding.Captive Jamaican Hutias reportedly had 1-2 young at a time, rarely three. Litter size averaged 1-5 neonates at the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust. Gestation is ¢.123 days, and interbirth interval is c.168 days. Females first gave birth at approximately one year old, with males reaching sexual maturity later. Neonates appear capable of adult movement and eat plant materials only 30 hours after birth. Hunters and other local people report a similarlitter size and non-seasonal breeding in the wild.On following pages: 3. Ingraham’s Hutia (Geocapromys ingrahami); 4. Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides); 5. Cabrera’s Hutia (Mesocapromys angelcabrerai); 6. Eared Hutia (Mesocapromys auritus); 7. Black-tailed Hutia (Mesocapromys melanurus); 8. Dwarf Hutia (Mesocapromys nanus); 9. Prehensile-tailed Hutia (Mysateles prehensilis); 10. Garrido Tree Hutia (Mysatelesgarridol); 11. Groove-toothed Spiny-rat (Carterodon sulcidens).Activity patterns.Jamaican Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hid during the day in burrows, tunnels, or limestone crevices. They are secretive and very difficult to see at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Jamaican Hutia uses a semiplantigrade waddling gait, with terrestrial locomotion and abilities to jump between rocks and over crevices of karst habitats. Jamaican Hutias live in groups of 2-10 individuals. These groups are usually familial units that live communally in cavities or crevices; size of resting site 1s one factor determining group size. Most harvested individuals are singletons or pairs, probably dispersers from natal family groups and likely using nesting sites more accessible to hunters. Jamaican Hutias do not build or dig nests and resting sites; they use natural cavities or crevices. Familial groups always stay in contact during the day and come back to the same site each night. Social behaviors include cohesive contact during foraging, continuous vocalization among individuals, playing, and affiliative grooming.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Despite being protected, Jamaican Hutias are hunted in many areas in Jamaica, but habitat loss due to agricultural expansion is the most important conservation threat, with direct threats to resting sites in limestone areas. Jamaican Hutias are known to occur at only 16 sites, and although they can be fairly abundant in some areas, habitat loss has severely fragmented their distribution resulting in very small and threatened populations. Introduced species like Roof Rats (Rattus rattus), domestic dogs, and mongoose also represent major threats to this species. Its population trend and distribution has been severely reduced to small density populations. Additional ecological studies are required to confirm the current conservation status of this species.Bibliography.Allen, G.M. (1917), Allen, J.A. (1891), Anderson et al. (1983), Borroto (2002), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Borroto et al. (1992), Chapman (1901), Clough (1972), George & Weir (1972a), Hall (1981), Hill (1851), Kilpatrick et al. (2012), Koopman & Williams (1951), Lawrence (1934), Mittermeier (1972), Mohr (1939), Oliver (1982), Pocock (1926), True (1889b), Varona (1974), Williams (1952), Woods (1982), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Capromys brownii Fischer, 1830, “Jamaica.”Geocapromys browniiincludes brachyurus as a synonym. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hutia de Jamaique @fr | Jamaika-Ferkelratte @de | Jutia de Jamaica @es | Brown's Hutia @en | @en | ndian Coney @en | Jamaican Coney @en","interpretedAuthority":"Fischer, 1830","interpretedAuthorityName":"Chapman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1901","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Geocapromys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"554","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brownii","name":"Geocapromys brownii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W, E & S Jamaica, Cockpit Country (SW Trelawny, extreme N Sain Elizabeth, and extreme E Saint James parishes), John Crow and Blue Mts (Portland Parish), Mount Diablo and Croft’s Hill (Saint Thomas Parish), and Harris Savanna and Brazilletto Mts (Clarendon Parish).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623659/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen, G.M. (1917) | Allen, J.A. (1891) | Anderson et al. (1983) | Borroto (2002) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Borroto et al. (1992) | Chapman (1901) | Clough (1972) | George & Weir (1972a) | Hall (1981) | Hill (1851) | Kilpatrick et al. (2012) | Koopman & Williams (1951) | Lawrence (1934) | Mittermeier (1972) | Mohr (1939) | Oliver (1982) | Pocock (1926) | True (1889b) | Varona (1974) | Williams (1952) | Woods (1982) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Jamaican Hutias forage on bark, shoots, and fruits and den in rock crevices, exposed roots, and foliage of a variety of plant species. They eat parts of at least 57 different plants but also opportunistically feed on human leftovers and freeliving arthropods. Captive Jamaican Hutias drink freshwater more often than species of other genera like Capromysor Plagiodontia.","breeding":"Captive Jamaican Hutias reportedly had 1-2 young at a time, rarely three. Litter size averaged 1-5 neonates at the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust. Gestation is ¢.123 days, and interbirth interval is c.168 days. Females first gave birth at approximately one year old, with males reaching sexual maturity later. Neonates appear capable of adult movement and eat plant materials only 30 hours after birth. Hunters and other local people report a similarlitter size and non-seasonal breeding in the wild.","activityPatterns":"Jamaican Hutias are strictly nocturnal and hid during the day in burrows, tunnels, or limestone crevices. They are secretive and very difficult to see at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Jamaican Hutia uses a semiplantigrade waddling gait, with terrestrial locomotion and abilities to jump between rocks and over crevices of karst habitats. Jamaican Hutias live in groups of 2-10 individuals. These groups are usually familial units that live communally in cavities or crevices; size of resting site 1s one factor determining group size. Most harvested individuals are singletons or pairs, probably dispersers from natal family groups and likely using nesting sites more accessible to hunters. Jamaican Hutias do not build or dig nests and resting sites; they use natural cavities or crevices. Familial groups always stay in contact during the day and come back to the same site each night. Social behaviors include cohesive contact during foraging, continuous vocalization among individuals, playing, and affiliative grooming.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Despite being protected, Jamaican Hutias are hunted in many areas in Jamaica, but habitat loss due to agricultural expansion is the most important conservation threat, with direct threats to resting sites in limestone areas. Jamaican Hutias are known to occur at only 16 sites, and although they can be fairly abundant in some areas, habitat loss has severely fragmented their distribution resulting in very small and threatened populations. Introduced species like Roof Rats (Rattus rattus), domestic dogs, and mongoose also represent major threats to this species. Its population trend and distribution has been severely reduced to small density populations. Additional ecological studies are required to confirm the current conservation status of this species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 372-448 mm, tail 40-64 mm; weight up to 2 kg. The Jamaican Hutia is robust, with large head, short ears, and tail. Dorsum and rump are blackish brown to reddish brown. Venter and lower parts are uniformly dusky brown. Fur is coarse and dense with short hairs (20-25 mm) and few longer guard hairs sparsely distributed on body. Ears are black and tipped with ring of golden brown or bright gray hairs. Two tufts of longer hairs are present behind and above auditory meatus on inner dorsal margins of pinna; otherwise, ears are densely covered with short and fine hairs. Tapering tail is stiff and ¢.84% of head-body length, with tail scale harboring short and bristly hairs. Tail is bicolored black above and grayish brown below. Feet are covered with stiff and short black hairs; soles are also blackish with rasp-like warts. Hallux is set far back and well differentiated from other toes. Multiple tubercles cover plantar and palmar pads. On the hand, pollex is a vestigial tubercle with a blunt nail. There are two pairs of mammae midway on each side of thorax. Skulls of all Geocapromyshave anteriorly converging cheekteeth; roots of lower incisors anterior to dP, alveoli; broad vertically or posteriorly oriented superior zygomatic roots of maxilla; labial inclination of occlusal jugal teeth surfaces; anteroflexid with more inclined angles compared with other mesoand posteroflexids, with a large chewing surface on labial side; and presence of anteroflexid with small third re-entrant angle on surface of dP,. Skull is 15-20% larger than skulls of other species of Geocapromys. Zygomatic arch is broad anteriorly, with arch placed well below orbit and overlapping in lateral view with upper molar row. Frontal apophyse of infraorbital foramen is wide. Jugal spine is huge, and jugal fossa is wide (especially anterior part of the zygomatic arch). Zygomatic root of zygomatic arch is also broad, with slight posterior extension. On the antero-medial part of orbit, parietal bone is inflated, making an inflated structure likely due to a sinus in this region. As a result, anterior part of frontal is wider than posterior part. Indeed, frontal bone is reduced posteriorly due to constriction near their fronto-parietal suture. Sagittal crest can be more or less developed for insertion of temporalis muscles. Paraoccipital process has a well-developed lambdoid crest. Tympanic bullae are not inflated, without nares constriction. Upper tooth rows are slightly converging anteriorly. Jaw is strong, with deep mandibular symphysis. Masseteric ridge is well developed and starts below the first lower molar, continues toward end of the spinous angular process, and ends with slight outer lateral deflection. A triangular coronoid process expands anteriorly above M, or M,; condyle process is lower than occlusal plane of lower molar in other species of Geocapromys. Incisors are fronted with orange enamel and are recumbently curved. Cheekteeth are hypsodont and rootless and have flat occlusal plane inclined labially at 30° angle. Upper cheekteeth have trilophodont occlusal pattern, as in several arboreal echimyids, and with more squarish molar shape. Upper molars have two labial and one lingual flexi; lower molars have one labial and one lingual fold, with dP, having and extra small anterolingual flexid. Baculum has distinct dimensions compared with all hutias from Cuba and Hispaniola, with its width 2-3 times greater than that of the larger Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 88 and FN = 136.","habitat":"Restricted to karst areas, nesting in caves, crevices, and tunnels. Density of the Jamaican Hutia appears to be higher in remote hills and mountainous regions with these karst geologic formations."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEFFFDBFFD15A4059CEF379.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFEFFFDBFFD15A4059CEF379","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"554","verbatimText":"1.Hispaniolan HutiaPlagiodontia aediumFrench:Hutia de Saint-Domingue/ German:Zaguti/ Spanish:Jutia de la EspanolaOther common names:Cuvier’s Hutia, Hispanolan HutiaTaxonomy.Plagiodontia aedium F. Cuvier, 1836, “Saint-Dominguie.”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. a. aedium F. Cuvier, 1836— SW Haiti (Massif de la Hotte).P.a.bondiTurveyetal.,2015—SEHait(MassifdelaSelle),andSWDominicanRepublic(SierradeBaoruco).P. a. hylaeum Miller, 1927— N Dominican Republic.Descriptive notes.Head—body 312-405 mm,tail 125-153 mm; weight up to 1-8 kg. Dorsum of the Hispaniolan Hutia is dark brown and contrasts with slightly paler venter. Hand and footpads are dark, as on Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), either fuscous or light orange brown. Albinistic individuals are known, with pinkish eyes and unpigmented feet, hands, and tail. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length, nearly naked, and dark chocolate. Ears are short (c.15 mm). Dorsum of forefeet and hindfeet are covered with short, dark chocolate hairs; plantar and palmar surfaces are dark pinkish. All digits bear long, slender claws. Skull is very distinct, wide, robust, and massive. Paraoccipital process is wide and large, not typically of echimyid-like rodents. Rostrum is wide, and palatal roof of rostrum is not flat but has a distinct 15° slope. In lateral view, cheekteeth are also inclined with the dP* placed in a lower position compared with M’. Tympanic bullae are not inflated. Mesoperygoid fossa is not wide, and pterygoid region is quite reduced compared with molar size. Post-orbital processes are well developed. Cheekteeth have a typical oblique hypselodont pattern.Jaw also massive, with large condyle and short angular process. Coronoid processis situated well behind M, and more dorsal compared with all other hutias. Cranially, the Hispaniolan Hutia is one of the most distinct hutias due to its sigmoid upper cheekteeth and low mandibular foramen. Cheekteeth are notflat and do not converge anteriorly. There is no hook on dorso-medial side of zygomatic arch dorsal part. The dP4 are replaced laterally. Hypselodont teeth have thin layer of cement. Incisors are procumbent. Pterygoid fossa is medial to M”. There is no supraorbital ridge.Habitat.Rocky places, usually sheltering near the ground, but may occur either on the ground in disturbed habitats or in trees in primary montane habitats. The Hispaniolan Hutia favors crevices and tree holes as resting sites. It is reportedly more common near tree holes and large root system oftrees such as Didymopanax tremulus (Araliaceae). In the Dominican Republic, it has been reported to build nests in strangler figs (Ficus, Moraceae).Food and Feeding.The Hispaniolan Hutia primarily feeds on plants, including cultivars, and has been reported to cause damage to farms. Its natural diet includes bark of twigs and branches on upper parts of trees. In Haiti, individuals favor avocados (e.g. Perseaanomala, Lauraceae) and also feed on its bark, leaves, buds, and fruit. Robust cranial structure, gut morphology, and jaw muscles suggest that it specializes on bark consumption. It was reported to forage on 20 species of plants in Haiti. Opportunistically, captive individuals also ate lizards (Anolis sp.).Breeding.The Hispaniolan Hutia breeds only once a year. Pregnant females were only caught in January-February. A lactating female was collected in September. Neonatal weights were 200-350 g, with young primarily recorded in November—January from camera traps. Larger juveniles were collected in May and September, suggesting that parturition might occur in autumn. Gestation was reported to be 119 days and litter size was typically one young, rarely two.Activity patterns.Hispaniolan Hutias are strictly nocturnal, emerging from their crevices or tree holes at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known about the social behavior of Hispaniolan Hutias. Recent studies with camera traps revealed groups of individuals resting and foraging together, with grooming and amicable behaviors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Compared with Desmarest’s Hutia, the limited reproductive cycle of the Hispaniolan Hutia might hamperits ability to adapt to human activities and environmental changes. It is extremely susceptible to habitat degradation, hunting, and competition with or predation by invasive species. Nevertheless, the Hispaniolan Hutia occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including highly disturbed habitats and human settlements. Ecological studies are required to clarify its status and better delineate taxonomic units in need of conservation.Bibliography.Anderson (1965), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Cuvier (1836), Johnson (1948), Mohr (1939), Turvey et al. (2015), Woods (1981, 1989), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Plagiodontia aedium F. Cuvier, 1836, “Saint-Dominguie.”Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hutia de Saint-Domingue @fr | Zaguti @de | Jutia de la Espanola @es | Cuvier’s Hutia @en | Hispanolan Hutia @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1836","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Plagiodontia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"554","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aedium","name":"Plagiodontia aedium","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. a. aedium F. Cuvier, 1836— SW Haiti (Massif de la Hotte).P.a.bondiTurveyetal.,2015—SEHait(MassifdelaSelle),andSWDominicanRepublic(SierradeBaoruco).P. a. hylaeum Miller, 1927— N Dominican Republic.","bibliography":"Anderson (1965) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Cuvier (1836) | Johnson (1948) | Mohr (1939) | Turvey et al. (2015) | Woods (1981, 1989) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"The Hispaniolan Hutia primarily feeds on plants, including cultivars, and has been reported to cause damage to farms. Its natural diet includes bark of twigs and branches on upper parts of trees. In Haiti, individuals favor avocados (e.g. Perseaanomala, Lauraceae) and also feed on its bark, leaves, buds, and fruit. Robust cranial structure, gut morphology, and jaw muscles suggest that it specializes on bark consumption. It was reported to forage on 20 species of plants in Haiti. Opportunistically, captive individuals also ate lizards (Anolis sp.).","breeding":"The Hispaniolan Hutia breeds only once a year. Pregnant females were only caught in January-February. A lactating female was collected in September. Neonatal weights were 200-350 g, with young primarily recorded in November—January from camera traps. Larger juveniles were collected in May and September, suggesting that parturition might occur in autumn. Gestation was reported to be 119 days and litter size was typically one young, rarely two.","activityPatterns":"Hispaniolan Hutias are strictly nocturnal, emerging from their crevices or tree holes at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Little is known about the social behavior of Hispaniolan Hutias. Recent studies with camera traps revealed groups of individuals resting and foraging together, with grooming and amicable behaviors.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Compared with Desmarest’s Hutia, the limited reproductive cycle of the Hispaniolan Hutia might hamperits ability to adapt to human activities and environmental changes. It is extremely susceptible to habitat degradation, hunting, and competition with or predation by invasive species. Nevertheless, the Hispaniolan Hutia occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including highly disturbed habitats and human settlements. Ecological studies are required to clarify its status and better delineate taxonomic units in need of conservation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 312-405 mm,tail 125-153 mm; weight up to 1-8 kg. Dorsum of the Hispaniolan Hutia is dark brown and contrasts with slightly paler venter. Hand and footpads are dark, as on Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), either fuscous or light orange brown. Albinistic individuals are known, with pinkish eyes and unpigmented feet, hands, and tail. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length, nearly naked, and dark chocolate. Ears are short (c.15 mm). Dorsum of forefeet and hindfeet are covered with short, dark chocolate hairs; plantar and palmar surfaces are dark pinkish. All digits bear long, slender claws. Skull is very distinct, wide, robust, and massive. Paraoccipital process is wide and large, not typically of echimyid-like rodents. Rostrum is wide, and palatal roof of rostrum is not flat but has a distinct 15° slope. In lateral view, cheekteeth are also inclined with the dP* placed in a lower position compared with M’. Tympanic bullae are not inflated. Mesoperygoid fossa is not wide, and pterygoid region is quite reduced compared with molar size. Post-orbital processes are well developed. Cheekteeth have a typical oblique hypselodont pattern.Jaw also massive, with large condyle and short angular process. Coronoid processis situated well behind M, and more dorsal compared with all other hutias. Cranially, the Hispaniolan Hutia is one of the most distinct hutias due to its sigmoid upper cheekteeth and low mandibular foramen. Cheekteeth are notflat and do not converge anteriorly. There is no hook on dorso-medial side of zygomatic arch dorsal part. The dP4 are replaced laterally. Hypselodont teeth have thin layer of cement. Incisors are procumbent. Pterygoid fossa is medial to M”. There is no supraorbital ridge.","habitat":"Rocky places, usually sheltering near the ground, but may occur either on the ground in disturbed habitats or in trees in primary montane habitats. The Hispaniolan Hutia favors crevices and tree holes as resting sites. It is reportedly more common near tree holes and large root system oftrees such as Didymopanax tremulus (Araliaceae). In the Dominican Republic, it has been reported to build nests in strangler figs (Ficus, Moraceae)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFEFFFDBFFD15A4059CEF379.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFEFFFDBFFD15A4059CEF379","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"554","verbatimText":"1.Hispaniolan HutiaPlagiodontia aediumFrench:Hutia de Saint-Domingue/ German:Zaguti/ Spanish:Jutia de la EspanolaOther common names:Cuvier’s Hutia, Hispanolan HutiaTaxonomy.Plagiodontia aedium F. Cuvier, 1836, “Saint-Dominguie.”Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. a. aedium F. Cuvier, 1836— SW Haiti (Massif de la Hotte).P.a.bondiTurveyetal.,2015—SEHait(MassifdelaSelle),andSWDominicanRepublic(SierradeBaoruco).P. a. hylaeum Miller, 1927— N Dominican Republic.Descriptive notes.Head—body 312-405 mm,tail 125-153 mm; weight up to 1-8 kg. Dorsum of the Hispaniolan Hutia is dark brown and contrasts with slightly paler venter. Hand and footpads are dark, as on Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), either fuscous or light orange brown. Albinistic individuals are known, with pinkish eyes and unpigmented feet, hands, and tail. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length, nearly naked, and dark chocolate. Ears are short (c.15 mm). Dorsum of forefeet and hindfeet are covered with short, dark chocolate hairs; plantar and palmar surfaces are dark pinkish. All digits bear long, slender claws. Skull is very distinct, wide, robust, and massive. Paraoccipital process is wide and large, not typically of echimyid-like rodents. Rostrum is wide, and palatal roof of rostrum is not flat but has a distinct 15° slope. In lateral view, cheekteeth are also inclined with the dP* placed in a lower position compared with M’. Tympanic bullae are not inflated. Mesoperygoid fossa is not wide, and pterygoid region is quite reduced compared with molar size. Post-orbital processes are well developed. Cheekteeth have a typical oblique hypselodont pattern.Jaw also massive, with large condyle and short angular process. Coronoid processis situated well behind M, and more dorsal compared with all other hutias. Cranially, the Hispaniolan Hutia is one of the most distinct hutias due to its sigmoid upper cheekteeth and low mandibular foramen. Cheekteeth are notflat and do not converge anteriorly. There is no hook on dorso-medial side of zygomatic arch dorsal part. The dP4 are replaced laterally. Hypselodont teeth have thin layer of cement. Incisors are procumbent. Pterygoid fossa is medial to M”. There is no supraorbital ridge.Habitat.Rocky places, usually sheltering near the ground, but may occur either on the ground in disturbed habitats or in trees in primary montane habitats. The Hispaniolan Hutia favors crevices and tree holes as resting sites. It is reportedly more common near tree holes and large root system oftrees such as Didymopanax tremulus (Araliaceae). In the Dominican Republic, it has been reported to build nests in strangler figs (Ficus, Moraceae).Food and Feeding.The Hispaniolan Hutia primarily feeds on plants, including cultivars, and has been reported to cause damage to farms. Its natural diet includes bark of twigs and branches on upper parts of trees. In Haiti, individuals favor avocados (e.g. Perseaanomala, Lauraceae) and also feed on its bark, leaves, buds, and fruit. Robust cranial structure, gut morphology, and jaw muscles suggest that it specializes on bark consumption. It was reported to forage on 20 species of plants in Haiti. Opportunistically, captive individuals also ate lizards (Anolis sp.).Breeding.The Hispaniolan Hutia breeds only once a year. Pregnant females were only caught in January-February. A lactating female was collected in September. Neonatal weights were 200-350 g, with young primarily recorded in November—January from camera traps. Larger juveniles were collected in May and September, suggesting that parturition might occur in autumn. Gestation was reported to be 119 days and litter size was typically one young, rarely two.Activity patterns.Hispaniolan Hutias are strictly nocturnal, emerging from their crevices or tree holes at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Little is known about the social behavior of Hispaniolan Hutias. Recent studies with camera traps revealed groups of individuals resting and foraging together, with grooming and amicable behaviors.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Compared with Desmarest’s Hutia, the limited reproductive cycle of the Hispaniolan Hutia might hamperits ability to adapt to human activities and environmental changes. It is extremely susceptible to habitat degradation, hunting, and competition with or predation by invasive species. Nevertheless, the Hispaniolan Hutia occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including highly disturbed habitats and human settlements. Ecological studies are required to clarify its status and better delineate taxonomic units in need of conservation.Bibliography.Anderson (1965), Borroto & Woods (2012a), Cuvier (1836), Johnson (1948), Mohr (1939), Turvey et al. (2015), Woods (1981, 1989), Woods & Howland (1979), Woods et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Plagiodontia aedium F. Cuvier, 1836, “Saint-Dominguie.”Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Hutia de Saint-Domingue @fr | Zaguti @de | Jutia de la Espanola @es | Cuvier’s Hutia @en | Hispanolan Hutia @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"F. Cuvier","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1836","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Capromyidae","interpretedGenus":"Plagiodontia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"554","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aedium","name":"Plagiodontia aedium","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. a. aedium F. Cuvier, 1836— SW Haiti (Massif de la Hotte).P.a.bondiTurveyetal.,2015—SEHait(MassifdelaSelle),andSWDominicanRepublic(SierradeBaoruco).P. a. hylaeum Miller, 1927— N Dominican Republic.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623657/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson (1965) | Borroto & Woods (2012a) | Cuvier (1836) | Johnson (1948) | Mohr (1939) | Turvey et al. (2015) | Woods (1981, 1989) | Woods & Howland (1979) | Woods et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"The Hispaniolan Hutia primarily feeds on plants, including cultivars, and has been reported to cause damage to farms. Its natural diet includes bark of twigs and branches on upper parts of trees. In Haiti, individuals favor avocados (e.g. Perseaanomala, Lauraceae) and also feed on its bark, leaves, buds, and fruit. Robust cranial structure, gut morphology, and jaw muscles suggest that it specializes on bark consumption. It was reported to forage on 20 species of plants in Haiti. Opportunistically, captive individuals also ate lizards (Anolis sp.).","breeding":"The Hispaniolan Hutia breeds only once a year. Pregnant females were only caught in January-February. A lactating female was collected in September. Neonatal weights were 200-350 g, with young primarily recorded in November—January from camera traps. Larger juveniles were collected in May and September, suggesting that parturition might occur in autumn. Gestation was reported to be 119 days and litter size was typically one young, rarely two.","activityPatterns":"Hispaniolan Hutias are strictly nocturnal, emerging from their crevices or tree holes at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Little is known about the social behavior of Hispaniolan Hutias. Recent studies with camera traps revealed groups of individuals resting and foraging together, with grooming and amicable behaviors.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Compared with Desmarest’s Hutia, the limited reproductive cycle of the Hispaniolan Hutia might hamperits ability to adapt to human activities and environmental changes. It is extremely susceptible to habitat degradation, hunting, and competition with or predation by invasive species. Nevertheless, the Hispaniolan Hutia occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including highly disturbed habitats and human settlements. Ecological studies are required to clarify its status and better delineate taxonomic units in need of conservation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 312-405 mm,tail 125-153 mm; weight up to 1-8 kg. Dorsum of the Hispaniolan Hutia is dark brown and contrasts with slightly paler venter. Hand and footpads are dark, as on Desmarest’s Hutia (Capromys pilorides), either fuscous or light orange brown. Albinistic individuals are known, with pinkish eyes and unpigmented feet, hands, and tail. Tail is ¢.50% of head-body length, nearly naked, and dark chocolate. Ears are short (c.15 mm). Dorsum of forefeet and hindfeet are covered with short, dark chocolate hairs; plantar and palmar surfaces are dark pinkish. All digits bear long, slender claws. Skull is very distinct, wide, robust, and massive. Paraoccipital process is wide and large, not typically of echimyid-like rodents. Rostrum is wide, and palatal roof of rostrum is not flat but has a distinct 15° slope. In lateral view, cheekteeth are also inclined with the dP* placed in a lower position compared with M’. Tympanic bullae are not inflated. Mesoperygoid fossa is not wide, and pterygoid region is quite reduced compared with molar size. Post-orbital processes are well developed. Cheekteeth have a typical oblique hypselodont pattern.Jaw also massive, with large condyle and short angular process. Coronoid processis situated well behind M, and more dorsal compared with all other hutias. Cranially, the Hispaniolan Hutia is one of the most distinct hutias due to its sigmoid upper cheekteeth and low mandibular foramen. Cheekteeth are notflat and do not converge anteriorly. There is no hook on dorso-medial side of zygomatic arch dorsal part. The dP4 are replaced laterally. Hypselodont teeth have thin layer of cement. Incisors are procumbent. Pterygoid fossa is medial to M”. There is no supraorbital ridge.","habitat":"Rocky places, usually sheltering near the ground, but may occur either on the ground in disturbed habitats or in trees in primary montane habitats. The Hispaniolan Hutia favors crevices and tree holes as resting sites. It is reportedly more common near tree holes and large root system oftrees such as Didymopanax tremulus (Araliaceae). In the Dominican Republic, it has been reported to build nests in strangler figs (Ficus, Moraceae)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF2FFC6FA0D5D1A5218F4FD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF2FFC6FA0D5D1A5218F4FD","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"583","verbatimText":"59.Sinnamary Brush-tailed RatIsothrix sinnamariensisFrench:Rat-épineux du Sinnamary/ German:Sinnamary-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de SinnamaryTaxonomy.Isothrix sinnamariensis Vié et al., 1996, “Sinnamary River right bank, 21 km upstream from the Petit Saut Dam, French Guiana (4°56-80’N-53°1-90’\"W—altitude below 20 m).”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Coast of French Guiana SW to S Suriname and Guyana.Descriptive notes.Head-body 212-215 mm, tail 262 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat is small, similar in most respects to the Plain Brush-tailed Rat (1. pagurus). Dorsum is dark brown, somewhat more reddish brown over rump and hindquarters. Nose is slightly reddish brown. There are small black spots behind eyes, from which long vibrissae emanate. Ears are rounded and short, with small tufts of hair on inner and outer surfaces. Female Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rats have four pairs of lateral nipples and two inguinal ones. Tail is long and 124% of head-body length. Basal part oftail has short muff of dense hairs but otherwise is covered along its entire length by curled hairs, terminating in tuft of long hairs (35 mm) that coil downward. Patch of white hairs is present in ventral urogenital area. Hindfeet are broad, each digit possessing strong claws partially covered by short, pale hairs at base. It has typical craniodental characteristics of other species of Isothrixbut differs from its close relative, the Plain Brush-tailed Rat, by its somewhat shorter maxillary tooth rows. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 28 and FN = 42.Habitat.[Lowland rainforest in seasonally inundated and non-flooded, tall upland forests and non-flooded tall hill evergreen forest from near sea level to elevations of ¢.270 m. The Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat is arboreal and builds nest in trees.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Flooding from filling of the Petit Saut Dam destroyed habitat of the type locality of the Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat in French Guiana. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Lim & Joemratie (2011), Patton etal. (2015), Vie et al. (1996), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Isothrix sinnamariensis Vié et al., 1996, “Sinnamary River right bank, 21 km upstream from the Petit Saut Dam, French Guiana (4°56-80’N-53°1-90’\"W—altitude below 20 m).”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Sinnamary @fr | Sinnamary-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de Sinnamary @es | sothrix sinnamariensis Vié et al @en","interpretedAuthority":"Vie et al., 1996","interpretedAuthorityName":"Vie et al.","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1996","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Isothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"583","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sinnamariensis","name":"Isothrix sinnamariensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Coast of French Guiana SW to S Suriname and Guyana.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623806/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Lim & Joemratie (2011) | Patton etal. (2015) | Vie et al. (1996) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Flooding from filling of the Petit Saut Dam destroyed habitat of the type locality of the Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat in French Guiana. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 212-215 mm, tail 262 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat is small, similar in most respects to the Plain Brush-tailed Rat (1. pagurus). Dorsum is dark brown, somewhat more reddish brown over rump and hindquarters. Nose is slightly reddish brown. There are small black spots behind eyes, from which long vibrissae emanate. Ears are rounded and short, with small tufts of hair on inner and outer surfaces. Female Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rats have four pairs of lateral nipples and two inguinal ones. Tail is long and 124% of head-body length. Basal part oftail has short muff of dense hairs but otherwise is covered along its entire length by curled hairs, terminating in tuft of long hairs (35 mm) that coil downward. Patch of white hairs is present in ventral urogenital area. Hindfeet are broad, each digit possessing strong claws partially covered by short, pale hairs at base. It has typical craniodental characteristics of other species of Isothrixbut differs from its close relative, the Plain Brush-tailed Rat, by its somewhat shorter maxillary tooth rows. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 28 and FN = 42.","habitat":"[Lowland rainforest in seasonally inundated and non-flooded, tall upland forests and non-flooded tall hill evergreen forest from near sea level to elevations of ¢.270 m. The Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat is arboreal and builds nest in trees."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF2FFC6FF0953835003FB5E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF2FFC6FF0953835003FB5E","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"583","verbatimText":"58.Plain Brush-tailed RatIsothrix pagurusFrench:Rat-épineux a queue de brosse/ German:Schlichte Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo lisaTaxonomy.Isothrix pagurus Wagner, 1845, “Borba,” Rio Madeira, Amazonas, Brazil.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Central Amazon Basin of Brazil (Amazonas and Para states), from the left bank of the lower Rio Negro to the mouth of the Rio Pitinga N of the Amazon River axis, and from the lower Rio Madeira to lower Rio Tapajos on the S side of the main Amazon trunk.622Descriptive notes.Head-body 170-234 mm, tail 170-233 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Plain Brush-tailed Rat is a small species of Isothrix. Dorsum is grizzled yellow to gray-brown from forehead to mid-back; rump and flanks are russet. Snout and area around eyes are reddish. There is no black supraorbital stripe over crown. Tail of the Plain Brush-tailed Rat is nearly equal to head-body length (96-114%); it is darker at base but becomes distinctly paler toward tip: and it completely lacks black hairs of species in the I. bistriatacomplex. It has the typical Isothrixcraniodental characteristics. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 22 and FN = 38.Habitat.Lowland, seasonally inundated forest, primarily blackwater or igap6 from near sea level to elevations of c.115 m. Most Plain Brush-tailed Rats have been obtained in mature rainforest, where they are arboreal and build nests in living and dead trees.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Plain Brush-tailed Rat occurs in some protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Plain Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1888), Trouessart (1897 1904), Wagner (1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Isothrix pagurus Wagner, 1845, “Borba,” Rio Madeira, Amazonas, Brazil.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a queue de brosse @fr | Schlichte Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo lisa @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Isothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"583","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pagurus","name":"Isothrix pagurus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Central Amazon Basin of Brazil (Amazonas and Para states), from the left bank of the lower Rio Negro to the mouth of the Rio Pitinga N of the Amazon River axis, and from the lower Rio Madeira to lower Rio Tapajos on the S side of the main Amazon trunk.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623798/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1888) | Trouessart (1897 1904) | Wagner (1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Plain Brush-tailed Rat occurs in some protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Plain Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 170-234 mm, tail 170-233 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Plain Brush-tailed Rat is a small species of Isothrix. Dorsum is grizzled yellow to gray-brown from forehead to mid-back; rump and flanks are russet. Snout and area around eyes are reddish. There is no black supraorbital stripe over crown. Tail of the Plain Brush-tailed Rat is nearly equal to head-body length (96-114%); it is darker at base but becomes distinctly paler toward tip: and it completely lacks black hairs of species in the I. bistriatacomplex. It has the typical Isothrixcraniodental characteristics. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 22 and FN = 38.","habitat":"Lowland, seasonally inundated forest, primarily blackwater or igap6 from near sea level to elevations of c.115 m. Most Plain Brush-tailed Rats have been obtained in mature rainforest, where they are arboreal and build nests in living and dead trees."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF2FFC6FF095B8558A8F4D6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF2FFC6FF095B8558A8F4D6","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"583","verbatimText":"57.Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed RatIsothrix bistriataFrench:Rat-épineux couronné/ German:Zweistreifen-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de corona amarillaTaxonomy.Isothrix bistriata Wagner, 1845, “Rio Guapore.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and J. L. Patton in 2015 to “Isla Leomil, Rio Guaporé, Beni, Bolivia.”Isothrix bistriataincludes Lasiuromys villosusnamed by M. E. Deville in 1852 and I. bistriata boliviensisnamed by F. Petter and H. Cuenca in 1982. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin in E Ecua-dor E Peru, W Brazil, and N Bolivia; prob-ably also in SE Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 214-275 mm, tail 215-271 mm; weight 300-530 g. The Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat is one of the largest species of Isothrix, with soft, lax, and long fur. Dorsum is grizzled yellow-brown to olive, mixed with black hairs. Two conspicuous supraorbital black or brown stripes extend over head onto nape; these stripes surround pale creamy patch on rostrum and forehead. Color and intensity of creamy patch and its surrounding stripes increase with age. Compared with its congeners, the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (/. orinoct) and the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat (I. negrensis), black supraorbital stripes of the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat do not fuse behind head but remain separate. Venteris buff or pale yellow. Tail length is usually 87-6-108-6% of head-body length. Tail is entirely haired and golden or rust colored on basal one-third, usually becoming black distally. In some individuals, distal part may range from pale yellow to white. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.Habitat.Seasonally flooded floodplain forests (either igapo or varzea) at elevations of 100-250 m. Most specimens of Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats have been obtained in traps placed in the canopy and a few directly from tree holes.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Based on placental scars, Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats have litters of 1-2 young. Pregnant females were caught throughout the year along Rio Jurua in Brazil. A lactating female was collected in August with a juvenile weighting 49 g. Presumably reproductively active adult males had enlarged testes averaging 24 x 12 mm and swollen vesicular glands ¢.25 mm in length.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats are known to nest in holes on trunks of large trees, with pairs of adult observed at several different localities. They are vocal, and indigenous people have seen them calling from tree branches and entrances of their nest holes at night.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened habitats in the Amazonian region. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat are needed.. theWorld of Mammals the of HandbookBibliography.Deville (1852), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Emmons & Patton (2015b), Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Petter & Cuenca (1982), Tate (1935), Thomas (1899d, 1916b, 1924b, 1928a), Trouessart (1897), Upham et al. (2013), Wagner (1845), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Isothrix bistriata Wagner, 1845, “Rio Guapore.” Restricted by L. H. Emmons and J. L. Patton in 2015 to “Isla Leomil, Rio Guaporé, Beni, Bolivia.”Isothrix bistriataincludes Lasiuromys villosusnamed by M. E. Deville in 1852 and I. bistriata boliviensisnamed by F. Petter and H. Cuenca in 1982. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux couronné @fr | Zweistreifen-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de corona amarilla @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Isothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"583","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bistriata","name":"Isothrix bistriata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Amazon Basin in E Ecua-dor E Peru, W Brazil, and N Bolivia; prob-ably also in SE Colombia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623796/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Deville (1852) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Emmons & Patton (2015b) | Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Petter & Cuenca (1982) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1899d, 1916b, 1924b, 1928a) | Trouessart (1897) | Upham et al. (2013) | Wagner (1845) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Based on placental scars, Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats have litters of 1-2 young. Pregnant females were caught throughout the year along Rio Jurua in Brazil. A lactating female was collected in August with a juvenile weighting 49 g. Presumably reproductively active adult males had enlarged testes averaging 24 x 12 mm and swollen vesicular glands ¢.25 mm in length.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats are known to nest in holes on trunks of large trees, with pairs of adult observed at several different localities. They are vocal, and indigenous people have seen them calling from tree branches and entrances of their nest holes at night.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened habitats in the Amazonian region. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 214-275 mm, tail 215-271 mm; weight 300-530 g. The Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat is one of the largest species of Isothrix, with soft, lax, and long fur. Dorsum is grizzled yellow-brown to olive, mixed with black hairs. Two conspicuous supraorbital black or brown stripes extend over head onto nape; these stripes surround pale creamy patch on rostrum and forehead. Color and intensity of creamy patch and its surrounding stripes increase with age. Compared with its congeners, the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (/. orinoct) and the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat (I. negrensis), black supraorbital stripes of the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat do not fuse behind head but remain separate. Venteris buff or pale yellow. Tail length is usually 87-6-108-6% of head-body length. Tail is entirely haired and golden or rust colored on basal one-third, usually becoming black distally. In some individuals, distal part may range from pale yellow to white. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 60 and FN = 116.","habitat":"Seasonally flooded floodplain forests (either igapo or varzea) at elevations of 100-250 m. Most specimens of Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rats have been obtained in traps placed in the canopy and a few directly from tree holes."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF2FFF9FA0D547E5F74F5E8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF2FFF9FA0D547E5F74F5E8","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"583","verbatimText":"60.Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-ratLonchothrix emiliaeFrench:Rat-épineux d'Emilie/ German:Blischelschwanz-Stachelratte/ Spanish:Rata arboricola de cola de penachoOther common names:Tuft-tailed Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Lonchothrix emiliae Thomas, 1920, “Villa Braga, on the left bank of the Rio Tapajos, just above the first rapids,”Para, Brazil.This species is monotypic.FAMILY ECHIMYIDAEHutias, South American Spiny-rats and CoypuPlate 37Species AccountsDistribution.C Amazonian Brazil S of the Amazon River, from the lower reaches of the Rio Madeira, Rio Tapajos, and Rio Xingu.Descriptive notes.Head-body 155-220 mm, tail 150-230 mm; weight up to 300 g. The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is small and densely covered by long, flexible, and wide spiny hairs (aristiforms). Dorsum is gray-brown, head is blackish with golden tint, and rump and sides have more yellowish or pale yellowish tones. Venter is whitish, grayish, or buff and usually with buffy central midline. Throat has white-tipped hairs, and chest is pale gray-brown. Robusttail is 96-104% of head-body length and is covered with short, dark, flat, and evenly spaced scale hairs, but tail scales remain still visible. Tail has long terminal tuft of coarse red brown hairs (up to 45 mm). Hindfeet are short and broad, with each digit bearing stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are whitish or pale yellowish; palmar and plantar surfaces are pinkish. Brown ears are short, naked, and hidden by spines on head. Skull of the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is short, robust, and broad. Rostrum is short, and nasal bones have parallel sides. Muzzle is usually broader than in species ofits sister genus, Mesomys. The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat has well-developed squarish interorbital region; well-developed incisive foramina, wider and longer than in species of Mesomys, and shortlateral process of supraoccipital located at mid-part of auditory meatus but not extending below its lower edge. Meatus itself is situated near squamosal, with its short auditory tubes oriented outward; typmpanic bullae are not inflated; mesopterygoid fossa is narrow, with its palatal bridge reaching middle of M* hamular processes of pterygoid bones are narrow, not spatulate; and maxillary vein passage is located within foramen. Upper cheekteeth are round with single, short labial flexus and four well-developed lingual ones; these become isolated as fossettes with wear, similar to species of Mesomysand “eumysopine” genera (e.g. Proechimys). Lower dP, has single lingual fold and four oblique labial ones, and lower molars have single lingual and three labial folds.Habitat.Lowland Amazonian rainforest habitat and mature and secondary (or “capoeira”) forest where tree heights are 5-10 m at elevations below 100 m. Near Alter do Chao, Santarem, the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat was collected in habitats such as white sand grasslands, gallery forest, and rainforest close to human cultivated areas;it has even been captured and observed in wooden houses.Food and Feeding.Stomach contents of Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rats included unidentified yellowish plant mass and fruit pulp, presumably of Byrsonima sp.(Malpighiaceae), which is a common small tree encountered at the site of collection. The Tuftedtailed Spiny Tree-rat is arboreal and appears primarily frugivorous or herbivorous, but it might eat some insects.Breeding.Pregnant Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat was caught in March near Jacareacanga (Para State). Litter sizes of two young have been reported.Activity patterns.The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is primarily nocturnal, although in one study, individuals moved and fed around a house during late afternoon (18:30 h and later).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rats vocalize and feed 67 m up in trees and wooden structures. They are clearly arboreal and live in high capoeira vegetation. They were reported to build nests in tree holes and abandoned buildings. Individuals will remain motionless in the light of a flashlight for several minutes before returning to their nocturnal movements. Most observed individuals were solitary, although a pair was observed on one occasion, possibly a female with a small juvenile.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. One might expect a rainforest species such as the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat to be negatively affected by deforestation. Nevertheless,it occurs in various habitats and several national parks, and it seems to do well in disturbed habitats close to human habitation. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat are needed.Bibliography.Aniskin (1993), Auricchio (2001), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Lara et al. (1996), Leite & Patton (2002), Patton et al. (2015), Thomas (1920c), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Lonchothrix emiliae Thomas, 1920, “Villa Braga, on the left bank of the Rio Tapajos, just above the first rapids,”Para, Brazil.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux d'Emilie @fr | Blischelschwanz-Stachelratte @de | Rata arboricola de cola de penacho @es | Tuft-tailed Spiny-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1920","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Lonchothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"31","interpretedPageNumber":"583","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"emiliae","name":"Lonchothrix emiliae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Amazonian Brazil S of the Amazon River, from the lower reaches of the Rio Madeira, Rio Tapajos, and Rio Xingu.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623808/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aniskin (1993) | Auricchio (2001) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Lara et al. (1996) | Leite & Patton (2002) | Patton et al. (2015) | Thomas (1920c) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Stomach contents of Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rats included unidentified yellowish plant mass and fruit pulp, presumably of Byrsonima sp.(Malpighiaceae), which is a common small tree encountered at the site of collection. The Tuftedtailed Spiny Tree-rat is arboreal and appears primarily frugivorous or herbivorous, but it might eat some insects.","breeding":"Pregnant Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat was caught in March near Jacareacanga (Para State). Litter sizes of two young have been reported.","activityPatterns":"The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is primarily nocturnal, although in one study, individuals moved and fed around a house during late afternoon (18:30 h and later).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rats vocalize and feed 67 m up in trees and wooden structures. They are clearly arboreal and live in high capoeira vegetation. They were reported to build nests in tree holes and abandoned buildings. Individuals will remain motionless in the light of a flashlight for several minutes before returning to their nocturnal movements. Most observed individuals were solitary, although a pair was observed on one occasion, possibly a female with a small juvenile.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. One might expect a rainforest species such as the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat to be negatively affected by deforestation. Nevertheless,it occurs in various habitats and several national parks, and it seems to do well in disturbed habitats close to human habitation. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 155-220 mm, tail 150-230 mm; weight up to 300 g. The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is small and densely covered by long, flexible, and wide spiny hairs (aristiforms). Dorsum is gray-brown, head is blackish with golden tint, and rump and sides have more yellowish or pale yellowish tones. Venter is whitish, grayish, or buff and usually with buffy central midline. Throat has white-tipped hairs, and chest is pale gray-brown. Robusttail is 96-104% of head-body length and is covered with short, dark, flat, and evenly spaced scale hairs, but tail scales remain still visible. Tail has long terminal tuft of coarse red brown hairs (up to 45 mm). Hindfeet are short and broad, with each digit bearing stout claws. Dorsal surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are whitish or pale yellowish; palmar and plantar surfaces are pinkish. Brown ears are short, naked, and hidden by spines on head. Skull of the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat is short, robust, and broad. Rostrum is short, and nasal bones have parallel sides. Muzzle is usually broader than in species ofits sister genus, Mesomys. The Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat has well-developed squarish interorbital region; well-developed incisive foramina, wider and longer than in species of Mesomys, and shortlateral process of supraoccipital located at mid-part of auditory meatus but not extending below its lower edge. Meatus itself is situated near squamosal, with its short auditory tubes oriented outward; typmpanic bullae are not inflated; mesopterygoid fossa is narrow, with its palatal bridge reaching middle of M* hamular processes of pterygoid bones are narrow, not spatulate; and maxillary vein passage is located within foramen. Upper cheekteeth are round with single, short labial flexus and four well-developed lingual ones; these become isolated as fossettes with wear, similar to species of Mesomysand “eumysopine” genera (e.g. Proechimys). Lower dP, has single lingual fold and four oblique labial ones, and lower molars have single lingual and three labial folds.","habitat":"Lowland Amazonian rainforest habitat and mature and secondary (or “capoeira”) forest where tree heights are 5-10 m at elevations below 100 m. Near Alter do Chao, Santarem, the Tufted-tailed Spiny Tree-rat was collected in habitats such as white sand grasslands, gallery forest, and rainforest close to human cultivated areas;it has even been captured and observed in wooden houses."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF3FFC6FACD5FA658A9FCD4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF3FFC6FACD5FA658A9FCD4","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"582","verbatimText":"56.Rio Negro Brush-tailed RatIsothrix negrensisFrench:Rat-épineux du Rio Negro/ German:Rio Negro-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de Rio NegroTaxonomy.Isothrix bistriala negrensis Thomas, 1920, “Aca Acajutuba, lower on the Rio Negro, near its mouth”(= a little above Manaus on the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil).Isothrix negrensiswas initially described and subsequently regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriataby earlier workers, but C. R. Bonvicino and colleagues in 2003 elevated it to full species, largely based on karyotypic differences and reciprocally monophyletic molecular clade structure. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin of extreme E Colombia and NW Brazil through the Rio Negro Basin, and S of the Amazon River from the lower Rio Jurua E to near the Rio Madeira.Descriptive notes.Head—body 203-292 mm, tail 182-271 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is a large species of Isothrix, similar in appearance to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (1. bistriata) but differing from that species primarily by its light and marked post-auricular patches and shorter light crown-patch, which ends at middle of ears rather than extending down nape. Ears are buffy rather than whitish. Compared with the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (1. ornoci), ramp of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is more ocherous, and dorsum is slightly darker. Venter is ocherous buff. Tail is 107% of head-body length. Craniodental characteristics of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are similar to other species of Isothrix, but shorter diastema and deeper cranial vault (when viewed from the side) distinguish it from the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat and the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 112.Habitat.Seasonally inundated habitats in blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea from near sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.On following pages: 57. Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix bistriata); 58. Plain Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix pagurus); 59. Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix sinnamariensis); 60. Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat (Lonchothrix emiliae); 61. Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomyshispidus); 62. Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomysleniceps); 63. Hidden Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys occultus); 64. Para Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys stimulax); 65. Amazon Bamboo Rat (Dactylomysdactylinus); 66. Bolivian Bamboo Rat (Dactylomysboliviensis); 67. Montane Bamboo Rat (Dactylomys peruanus); 68. Atlantic Bamboo Rat (Kannabateomysamblyonyx); 69. White-tailed Olalla Rat (Olallamys albicauda); 70. Greedy Olalla Rat (Olallamys edax).621Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened in the Amazonian region, and much ofits distribution occurs in protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (2003), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1920d), Upham et al. (2013), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Isothrix bistriala negrensis Thomas, 1920, “Aca Acajutuba, lower on the Rio Negro, near its mouth”(= a little above Manaus on the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil).Isothrix negrensiswas initially described and subsequently regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriataby earlier workers, but C. R. Bonvicino and colleagues in 2003 elevated it to full species, largely based on karyotypic differences and reciprocally monophyletic molecular clade structure. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Rio Negro @fr | Rio Negro-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de Rio Negro @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1920","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Isothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"582","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"negrensis","name":"Isothrix negrensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin of extreme E Colombia and NW Brazil through the Rio Negro Basin, and S of the Amazon River from the lower Rio Jurua E to near the Rio Madeira.","bibliography":"Bonvicino et al. (2003) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1920d) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened in the Amazonian region, and much ofits distribution occurs in protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 203-292 mm, tail 182-271 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is a large species of Isothrix, similar in appearance to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (1. bistriata) but differing from that species primarily by its light and marked post-auricular patches and shorter light crown-patch, which ends at middle of ears rather than extending down nape. Ears are buffy rather than whitish. Compared with the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (1. ornoci), ramp of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is more ocherous, and dorsum is slightly darker. Venter is ocherous buff. Tail is 107% of head-body length. Craniodental characteristics of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are similar to other species of Isothrix, but shorter diastema and deeper cranial vault (when viewed from the side) distinguish it from the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat and the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 112.","habitat":"Seasonally inundated habitats in blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea from near sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF3FFC6FACD5FA658A9FCD4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF3FFC6FACD5FA658A9FCD4","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"582","verbatimText":"56.Rio Negro Brush-tailed RatIsothrix negrensisFrench:Rat-épineux du Rio Negro/ German:Rio Negro-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de Rio NegroTaxonomy.Isothrix bistriala negrensis Thomas, 1920, “Aca Acajutuba, lower on the Rio Negro, near its mouth”(= a little above Manaus on the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil).Isothrix negrensiswas initially described and subsequently regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriataby earlier workers, but C. R. Bonvicino and colleagues in 2003 elevated it to full species, largely based on karyotypic differences and reciprocally monophyletic molecular clade structure. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin of extreme E Colombia and NW Brazil through the Rio Negro Basin, and S of the Amazon River from the lower Rio Jurua E to near the Rio Madeira.Descriptive notes.Head—body 203-292 mm, tail 182-271 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is a large species of Isothrix, similar in appearance to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (1. bistriata) but differing from that species primarily by its light and marked post-auricular patches and shorter light crown-patch, which ends at middle of ears rather than extending down nape. Ears are buffy rather than whitish. Compared with the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (1. ornoci), ramp of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is more ocherous, and dorsum is slightly darker. Venter is ocherous buff. Tail is 107% of head-body length. Craniodental characteristics of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are similar to other species of Isothrix, but shorter diastema and deeper cranial vault (when viewed from the side) distinguish it from the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat and the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 112.Habitat.Seasonally inundated habitats in blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea from near sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m.On following pages: 57. Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix bistriata); 58. Plain Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix pagurus); 59. Sinnamary Brush-tailed Rat (/sothrix sinnamariensis); 60. Tuft-tailed Spiny Tree-rat (Lonchothrix emiliae); 61. Ferreira’s Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomyshispidus); 62. Long-haired Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomysleniceps); 63. Hidden Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys occultus); 64. Para Spiny Tree-rat (Mesomys stimulax); 65. Amazon Bamboo Rat (Dactylomysdactylinus); 66. Bolivian Bamboo Rat (Dactylomysboliviensis); 67. Montane Bamboo Rat (Dactylomys peruanus); 68. Atlantic Bamboo Rat (Kannabateomysamblyonyx); 69. White-tailed Olalla Rat (Olallamys albicauda); 70. Greedy Olalla Rat (Olallamys edax).621Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened in the Amazonian region, and much ofits distribution occurs in protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (2003), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Tate (1935), Thomas (1920d), Upham et al. (2013), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Isothrix bistriala negrensis Thomas, 1920, “Aca Acajutuba, lower on the Rio Negro, near its mouth”(= a little above Manaus on the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil).Isothrix negrensiswas initially described and subsequently regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriataby earlier workers, but C. R. Bonvicino and colleagues in 2003 elevated it to full species, largely based on karyotypic differences and reciprocally monophyletic molecular clade structure. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Rio Negro @fr | Rio Negro-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de Rio Negro @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1920","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Isothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"582","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"negrensis","name":"Isothrix negrensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin of extreme E Colombia and NW Brazil through the Rio Negro Basin, and S of the Amazon River from the lower Rio Jurua E to near the Rio Madeira.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623792/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonvicino et al. (2003) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Tate (1935) | Thomas (1920d) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. As a rainforest species, the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat might be affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forests that are not highly threatened in the Amazonian region, and much ofits distribution occurs in protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 203-292 mm, tail 182-271 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is a large species of Isothrix, similar in appearance to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (1. bistriata) but differing from that species primarily by its light and marked post-auricular patches and shorter light crown-patch, which ends at middle of ears rather than extending down nape. Ears are buffy rather than whitish. Compared with the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat (1. ornoci), ramp of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat is more ocherous, and dorsum is slightly darker. Venter is ocherous buff. Tail is 107% of head-body length. Craniodental characteristics of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat are similar to other species of Isothrix, but shorter diastema and deeper cranial vault (when viewed from the side) distinguish it from the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat and the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 60 and FN = 112.","habitat":"Seasonally inundated habitats in blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea from near sea level to elevations of ¢.200 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF3FFC7FAD1591D53ECF8F1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF3FFC7FAD1591D53ECF8F1","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"582","verbatimText":"55.Orinoco Brush-tailed RatIsothrix orinociFrench:Rat-épineux de I'Orénoque/ German:Orinoco-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo del OrinocoTaxonomy.Loncheres bistriatus orinoci Thomas, 1899, “Maipure, upper Orinoco,”Vichada, Colombia.Isothrixorinoct was long regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriata, but L. H. Emmons in 2005 elevated it to species status. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin of the upper Orinoco and Casiquiare rivers of extreme E Colombia and S Venezuela; it might occur in adjacent N Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 207-257 mm, tail 168-278 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat is smaller than but similar to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (I. bistriata) and the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat (1. negrensis). The Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat is distinct in having bright yellow stripe over head between eyes and ears, dulling to grizzled gray, passing on each side without sharp contrast into dark supraorbital lines, which themselves coalesce on neck immediately behind head to form broad, black band. Prominent bright yellow stripe does not contrast significantly with black lines. Ears are dulled gray, but prominent white post-auricular patches contrast sharply with blacking nuchal part of coalesced supraorbital lines. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length (82-108%) and is similar to that of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat. Skull of the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat conforms to other species of Isothrix, but rostrum is shorter and nasal bones are proportionally longer compared with the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat and the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat.Habitat..owland evergreen forest, mostly in trees and rarely on the ground. Most collecting localities of Orinoco Brush-tailed Rats are near rivers and streams. Elevational range is primarily 100-260 m but also upward to top of Cerro Duido in Venezuela at 1600 m.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under I. bistriata). Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat are needed.Bibliography.Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005), Patton & Emmons (1985), Patton et al. (2015), Pittier & Tate (1932), Thomas (1899d), Trouessart (1904), Tate (1935), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Loncheres bistriatus orinoci Thomas, 1899, “Maipure, upper Orinoco,”Vichada, Colombia.Isothrixorinoct was long regarded as a subspecies of I. bistriata, but L. H. Emmons in 2005 elevated it to species status. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de @fr | 'Orénoque @en | Orinoco-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo del Orinoco @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1899","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Isothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"582","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"orinoci","name":"Isothrix orinoci","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin of the upper Orinoco and Casiquiare rivers of extreme E Colombia and S Venezuela; it might occur in adjacent N Brazil.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623790/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2005) | Patton & Emmons (1985) | Patton et al. (2015) | Pittier & Tate (1932) | Thomas (1899d) | Trouessart (1904) | Tate (1935) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat..owland evergreen forest, mostly in trees and rarely on the ground. Most collecting localities of Orinoco Brush-tailed Rats are near rivers and streams. Elevational range is primarily 100-260 m but also upward to top of Cerro Duido in Venezuela at 1600 m.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under I. bistriata). Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 207-257 mm, tail 168-278 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat is smaller than but similar to the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat (I. bistriata) and the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat (1. negrensis). The Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat is distinct in having bright yellow stripe over head between eyes and ears, dulling to grizzled gray, passing on each side without sharp contrast into dark supraorbital lines, which themselves coalesce on neck immediately behind head to form broad, black band. Prominent bright yellow stripe does not contrast significantly with black lines. Ears are dulled gray, but prominent white post-auricular patches contrast sharply with blacking nuchal part of coalesced supraorbital lines. Tail is nearly equal to head-body length (82-108%) and is similar to that of the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat. Skull of the Orinoco Brush-tailed Rat conforms to other species of Isothrix, but rostrum is shorter and nasal bones are proportionally longer compared with the Rio Negro Brush-tailed Rat and the Yellow-crowned Brush-tailed Rat.","habitat":"owland evergreen forest, mostly in trees and rarely on the ground. Most collecting localities of Orinoco Brush-tailed Rats are near rivers and streams. Elevational range is primarily 100-260 m but also upward to top of Cerro Duido in Venezuela at 1600 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF3FFC7FFCE5A0D5BF8F330.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF3FFC7FFCE5A0D5BF8F330","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"582","verbatimText":"54.Barbara Brown’s Brush-tailed RatIsothrix barbarabrownaeFrench:Rat-épineux de Brown/ German:Barbara Brown-Borstenschwanzratte/ Spanish:Rata de cola de cepillo de Barbara BrownTaxonomy.Isothrix barbarabrownae Patterson & Velazco, 2006, “Km 138.5 on the Carretera Paucartambo-Shintuya, near ‘Suecia’ (a roadside restaurant), 1900 m, Provincia de Paucartambo, Departamento de Cuzco, Peru,” in the Cultural Zone of the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve at 13°6:032’S, 71°34-124’W.This species is monotypic.Distribution.SE Peru, known only from the type locality in the Cultural Zone of the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve.Descriptive notes.There are no specific measurements available. Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat is known only from the holotype, a subadult specimen without erupted third molars; neither external measurements nor weight were provided in the original description. Furis lax and long, with hairs reaching 20 mm on back and 10 mm on venter. Dorsal pelage is agouti, gray at base, cinnamon or reddish brown for most of its length, with blackish tips; muzzle is grayish; and crown of head is colored similarly to back, thus lacking differentially colored stripe that characterizes most other species of Isothrix. White-tipped hairs cover flank, neck, and shoulders, and ventral color is only indistinctly separated from that on flanks. Crest of longer hairs is present in supraorbital region. Underfur is also dense, long, and wavy. Tail is densely furred along its entire length, covered by hairs 10 mm long and oriented perpendicularly to its axis. Tail color varies along its length from cinnamon at base, black through mid-part, and white at terminus. Scales remain slightly visible. Forehead and cheeks are washed with snuff brown color. Ear pinnae are burnt umber and mostly naked, except for elongated tuft on crown. Eyelids are fleshy, except for an elongate tuft of hairs. The single specimen retains craniodental characteristics typical of other species of Isothrix: rostrum is short and broad; zygomatic arch is bowed strongly outward and anterior to squamosal; auditory bullae are only slightly inflated and bear medium-sized meatus with distinctively short auditory tube that strongly slants forward. There is distinct slit between basisphenoid and presphenoid sutures. Squamosotympanic fenestra is long and openly rounded vacuity, posteriorly reaching base of supraoccipital process, which is connected to another slit-shaped vacuity along presphenoid and thus shaped like an apostrophe. Pterygoid region has no shelf behind base of hamular processes on wall of buccinator foramen. Mesopterygoid fossa is deep, extending forward to level of second molars. Incisive foramina are wide and broad. Jaws have strongly developed masseteric bases and pterygoid crests. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge and not contained within fossa. Maxillary cheekteeth are short and small compared with skull length. Cheekteeth are sub-circular with occlusal plane nearly parallel to palate. Hypoflexis(ids) of maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth are oval to sub-circular with mure. Loph (id)s just aside hypoflexi(id)s are curved around to molar edge, giving typical shape to teeth of all species of Isothrix. Lower dP, is pentalophodont, with short hypoflexid, mure, and parallel flexids. Distinct skull characteristics of Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat include more compact skull, non-swollen braincase, shallower temporal fossa, narrow and triangular infraorbital foramina, incisive foramina with well-developed maxillary septum, narrow palate, broad foramen magnum with distinct medial notch, and small auditory bullae.Habitat.Montane and elfin forest habitats at elevations of ¢.1850 m. Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat is presumably arboreal but was collected on the ground near a road bordered with ferns, mosses, and bryophytes near aforest. A second individual was sighted at night near the road in a rocky crevice with dry grasses.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat are needed, but the single known locality is within a protected zone.Bibliography.Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008), Patton et al. (2015), Upham et al. (2013), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Isothrix barbarabrownae Patterson & Velazco, 2006, “Km 138.5 on the Carretera Paucartambo-Shintuya, near ‘Suecia’ (a roadside restaurant), 1900 m, Provincia de Paucartambo, Departamento de Cuzco, Peru,” in the Cultural Zone of the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve at 13°6:032’S, 71°34-124’W.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Brown @fr | Barbara Brown-Borstenschwanzratte @de | Rata de cola de cepillo de Barbara Brown @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1845","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Isothrix","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"30","interpretedPageNumber":"582","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"barbarabrownae","name":"Isothrix barbarabrownae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SE Peru, known only from the type locality in the Cultural Zone of the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623778/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Patterson & Velazco (2006, 2008) | Patton et al. (2015) | Upham et al. (2013) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat are needed, but the single known locality is within a protected zone.","descriptiveNotes":"There are no specific measurements available. Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat is known only from the holotype, a subadult specimen without erupted third molars; neither external measurements nor weight were provided in the original description. Furis lax and long, with hairs reaching 20 mm on back and 10 mm on venter. Dorsal pelage is agouti, gray at base, cinnamon or reddish brown for most of its length, with blackish tips; muzzle is grayish; and crown of head is colored similarly to back, thus lacking differentially colored stripe that characterizes most other species of Isothrix. White-tipped hairs cover flank, neck, and shoulders, and ventral color is only indistinctly separated from that on flanks. Crest of longer hairs is present in supraorbital region. Underfur is also dense, long, and wavy. Tail is densely furred along its entire length, covered by hairs 10 mm long and oriented perpendicularly to its axis. Tail color varies along its length from cinnamon at base, black through mid-part, and white at terminus. Scales remain slightly visible. Forehead and cheeks are washed with snuff brown color. Ear pinnae are burnt umber and mostly naked, except for elongated tuft on crown. Eyelids are fleshy, except for an elongate tuft of hairs. The single specimen retains craniodental characteristics typical of other species of Isothrix: rostrum is short and broad; zygomatic arch is bowed strongly outward and anterior to squamosal; auditory bullae are only slightly inflated and bear medium-sized meatus with distinctively short auditory tube that strongly slants forward. There is distinct slit between basisphenoid and presphenoid sutures. Squamosotympanic fenestra is long and openly rounded vacuity, posteriorly reaching base of supraoccipital process, which is connected to another slit-shaped vacuity along presphenoid and thus shaped like an apostrophe. Pterygoid region has no shelf behind base of hamular processes on wall of buccinator foramen. Mesopterygoid fossa is deep, extending forward to level of second molars. Incisive foramina are wide and broad. Jaws have strongly developed masseteric bases and pterygoid crests. Mandibular foramen is anterior to condyloid ridge and not contained within fossa. Maxillary cheekteeth are short and small compared with skull length. Cheekteeth are sub-circular with occlusal plane nearly parallel to palate. Hypoflexis(ids) of maxillary and mandibular cheekteeth are oval to sub-circular with mure. Loph (id)s just aside hypoflexi(id)s are curved around to molar edge, giving typical shape to teeth of all species of Isothrix. Lower dP, is pentalophodont, with short hypoflexid, mure, and parallel flexids. Distinct skull characteristics of Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat include more compact skull, non-swollen braincase, shallower temporal fossa, narrow and triangular infraorbital foramina, incisive foramina with well-developed maxillary septum, narrow palate, broad foramen magnum with distinct medial notch, and small auditory bullae.","habitat":"Montane and elfin forest habitats at elevations of ¢.1850 m. Barbara Brown's Brush-tailed Rat is presumably arboreal but was collected on the ground near a road bordered with ferns, mosses, and bryophytes near aforest. A second individual was sighted at night near the road in a rocky crevice with dry grasses."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF01590A5B1EF58A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF01590A5B1EF58A","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"577","verbatimText":"47.Minca Spiny-ratProechimys mincaeFrench:Rat-épineux de Minca/ German:Minca-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de MincaTaxonomy.Echimys mincae J. A. Allen, 1899, “Minca, Santa Marta District,” Magdalena, Colombia.Proechimys mincaeisa member of the trinitatisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.N Colombia, Lower Rio Magdalena Valley in low-elevation areas of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-230 mm, tail 200-210 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Minca Spiny-rat is moderately large, with proportionately long tail (¢.90% of headbody length). Dorsum is reddish brown speckled with black, becoming slightly paler on sides; venteris white from chin to inguinal region but varyingly bordered by light buff margins. White inner thigh stripe passes weakly across ankle to be confluent with basically dirty white dorsal surface of hindfoot, with toes only slightly darker. All plantar pads are enlarged and well developed, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal in size. Tail is bicolored, brownish gray above and pale cream below. It is thinly haired with large, irregularly shaped scales, that are readily visible to the eye; scale annuli average 8-9/cm. Aristiform spines are long (20-22 mm) and thin (0-6— 0-8 mm) but stiff, giving pelage raspy texture when brushed. Tip of each aristiform may terminate in short, whip-like extension or be blunt. Skull of the Minca Spiny-rat is similar to those of most species of Proechimys: elongated, relatively narrow, and with tapering rostrum. Temporal region of braincase is smooth, lacking virtually any evidence of ridges extending posterior to supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are wide and with somewhat rounded sides giving opening an oval shape; posterolateral flanges are non-existent or so weakly developed that anterior palate lacks grooves; premaxillary part of septum is well developed and long, filling more than one-half the distance of opening, but either does not or only rarely contacts greatly attenuated maxillary part; mid-palate may have small medial ridge, but small maxillary part of septum lacks any hint of keel; and vomer can often be seen in ventral view. Groove marking passage of infraorbital nerve and defined by lateral flange is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, opens at an angle averaging 57°, and penetrates posterior palate to level of M2. Cheekteeth are relatively simple, with never more than three folds above, but often only two on M? and especially M*lower cheekteeth typically have three folds on dP, but only two on each molar; counterfold formula is 3-3-2(3)-2(3) /3-2-2-2. Baculum of the Minca Spiny-rat is long (length 7-:3-9-9 mm) and stout (proximal width 2:4-2-9 mm);distal width 2:4-2-9 mm), similar in size and shape to that of other species in the trinitatisspecies group, except for that of the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 48 and FN = 68.Habitat.Tropical forests around lower flanks of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia from sea level to elevations of ¢.500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Minca Spiny-rat presumably eats fruit, seeds, and other plant parts.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Minca Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats of Minca Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1899a, 1899b), Eisenberg (1989), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys mincae J. A. Allen, 1899, “Minca, Santa Marta District,” Magdalena, Colombia.Proechimys mincaeisa member of the trinitatisspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Minca @fr | Minca-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Minca @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1899","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"577","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mincae","name":"Proechimys mincae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Colombia, Lower Rio Magdalena Valley in low-elevation areas of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623760/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1899a, 1899b) | Eisenberg (1989) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Minca Spiny-rat presumably eats fruit, seeds, and other plant parts.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Minca Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats of Minca Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-230 mm, tail 200-210 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Minca Spiny-rat is moderately large, with proportionately long tail (¢.90% of headbody length). Dorsum is reddish brown speckled with black, becoming slightly paler on sides; venteris white from chin to inguinal region but varyingly bordered by light buff margins. White inner thigh stripe passes weakly across ankle to be confluent with basically dirty white dorsal surface of hindfoot, with toes only slightly darker. All plantar pads are enlarged and well developed, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal in size. Tail is bicolored, brownish gray above and pale cream below. It is thinly haired with large, irregularly shaped scales, that are readily visible to the eye; scale annuli average 8-9/cm. Aristiform spines are long (20-22 mm) and thin (0-6— 0-8 mm) but stiff, giving pelage raspy texture when brushed. Tip of each aristiform may terminate in short, whip-like extension or be blunt. Skull of the Minca Spiny-rat is similar to those of most species of Proechimys: elongated, relatively narrow, and with tapering rostrum. Temporal region of braincase is smooth, lacking virtually any evidence of ridges extending posterior to supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are wide and with somewhat rounded sides giving opening an oval shape; posterolateral flanges are non-existent or so weakly developed that anterior palate lacks grooves; premaxillary part of septum is well developed and long, filling more than one-half the distance of opening, but either does not or only rarely contacts greatly attenuated maxillary part; mid-palate may have small medial ridge, but small maxillary part of septum lacks any hint of keel; and vomer can often be seen in ventral view. Groove marking passage of infraorbital nerve and defined by lateral flange is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, opens at an angle averaging 57°, and penetrates posterior palate to level of M2. Cheekteeth are relatively simple, with never more than three folds above, but often only two on M? and especially M*lower cheekteeth typically have three folds on dP, but only two on each molar; counterfold formula is 3-3-2(3)-2(3) /3-2-2-2. Baculum of the Minca Spiny-rat is long (length 7-:3-9-9 mm) and stout (proximal width 2:4-2-9 mm);distal width 2:4-2-9 mm), similar in size and shape to that of other species in the trinitatisspecies group, except for that of the Guianan Spiny-rat (P. hoplomyoides). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 48 and FN = 68.","habitat":"Tropical forests around lower flanks of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia from sea level to elevations of ¢.500 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF085261522DF468.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF085261522DF468","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"577","verbatimText":"48.Guaira Spiny-ratProechimys guairaeFrench:Rat-épineux de La Guaira/ German:Guaira-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de La GuairaOther common names:La Guaira Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys guairae Thomas, 1901, “La Guaira,” Vargas, Venezuela.Proechimys guairaeis a member of the innitatisspecies group. It includes ochraceus and poliopusas synonyms. It is highly variable in karyotype and has been divided into regional “races,” three of which correspond to formal taxa (at specific or subspecific levels), but others are yet to be defined and diagnosed. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.g.guairaeThomas,1901—N&CVenezuela,inCordilleraCentral,EAndeanfoothills,andWLosLlanos.P.g.ochraceusOsgood,1912—NEColombiaandNWVenezuela,inNEMaracaiboLakeandSistemaCoriano.P.g. poliopus Osgood, 1914— NE Colombia and W Venezuela, in W & S Maracaibo Lake, W Andean foothills, and the upper Los Llanos.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-240 mm,tail 170-200 mm; weight 340-400 g. The Guaira Spiny-rat is medium to large-bodied, with absolutely and proportionately long tail for a species of Proechimys(average c¢.85% of head—body length). Dorsum is light reddish brown, lined with black along southern slopes of the Cordillera de Mérida, but distinctly paler and more yellowish brown in drier forests around Lake Maracaibo. Ventral color is white from chin to inguinal region, including white inner thighs where stripe may be continuous across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. As a consequence, hindfeet are pale above but often have lateral light brown stripe extending from ankle to cover digits. Plantar pads of hindfeet are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads large and sub-equalin size. Tail is bicolored, light brown above and pale below, lightly haired so that large scales are obvious to the eye; scale annuli average 7-8 annuli/cm. Pelage is coarse but relatively soft to the touch, with long (20-22 mm) and narrow (0-5-0-7 mm) aristiform spines tipped with whip-like extensions. Skull of the Guaira Spiny-rat is unremarkable, sharing conformational shape of most species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are undeveloped or present only as weak and short posterior extension from supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are broad and long, oval to slightly teardrop in shape, and with weakly developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming slight moderate grooves; premaxillary part of septum is narrow, extends at least to midpoint of opening but may be only weakly connected to maxillary part, or not at all; maxillary part is thin and attenuated, slightly keeled so that medial ridge may be present on anterior palate; and vomeris visible between premaxillary and maxillary septal elements in ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be either smooth or with slight groove developed by short lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa varies from narrow to moderate in width, with an angle 47-55°, butit penetrates typically to at least the posterior margins of M? and commonly even deeper. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and comprised ofjugal alone or by equal contributions ofjugal and squamosal. Three folds are uniformly present on dP*, M', and M?, with M?* having either 2-3 folds in about equal proportions within samples. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on dP, and two folds on molar series. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/3-(2)3-(2)3-(2)3. Baculum has same elongated, narrow shape and generalsize as other species in the trinitatisspecies group, and ¢.10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide, with bulbous base notched at midline and weakly developed apical wings. Chromosome complement is highly variable: 2n = 62 and FN = 72 at Apure, 2n = 48-50 and FN = 72 at Barinas, 2n = 46 and FN = 72 in nominate subspecies guairae, 2n = 44 and FN = 76 in subspecies ocherous, and 2n = 42 and FN = 76 in subspecies poliopus.Habitat.Primary and secondary dry tropical forests and human agricultural croplands from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m. Guaira Spiny-rats have been trapped amidst roots of wild pineapple (Ananas, Bromeliaceae) in arid forests of the north-eastern slope of Lake Maracaibo.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat probably feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.At one site in coastal Venezuela, reproductively active adult Guaira Spinyrats were trapped throughout a two-year sampling period, butjuveniles were only present at the beginning of the rainy season and otherwise absent during the dry season. Breeding was thus posited to be year-round. One recaptured female was pregnant at least three times during the year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In coastal Venezuela, average home ranges of male Guaira Spiny-rats were three times as large as the average female home range. Females had exclusive home ranges, but those of males overlapped broadly with other individuals of both sexes. Overall population densities were 1 ind/ha to nearly 4 ind/ha, with effective density estimates of 3-20 ind/ha. Similar densities have been reported at another Venezuelan site. These overall patterns suggested that female Guaira Spiny-rats were territorial and the social system was promiscuous or polygynous mating system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, subspecies poliopusis listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as P. poliopus). Although it is relatively abundant in its restricted distribution ofless than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten localities, and extent and quality of its habitat are apparently declining, even in protected areas that are extractive preserves. Otherwise, the Guaira Spiny-rat is viewed as widespread, occupying broad variety of forest types, including those modified by humans; it occurs in several national parks and is not judged to be declining overall despite human alteration. Additional studies of the Guaira Spiny-rat, particularly the area occupied by poliopus, are needed.Bibliography.Aguilera (1999), Aguilera et al. (1995), Benado et al. (1979), Eisenberg (1989), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Hershkovitz (1948), Osgood (1912, 1914), Patton & Leite (2015), Reig & Useche (1976), Reig et al. (1980), Thomas (1901b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys guairae Thomas, 1901, “La Guaira,” Vargas, Venezuela.Proechimys guairaeis a member of the innitatisspecies group. It includes ochraceus and poliopusas synonyms. It is highly variable in karyotype and has been divided into regional “races,” three of which correspond to formal taxa (at specific or subspecific levels), but others are yet to be defined and diagnosed. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de La Guaira @fr | Guaira-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de La Guaira @es | La Guaira Spiny-rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1901","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1901","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"577","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"guairae","name":"Proechimys guairae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.g.guairaeThomas,1901—N&CVenezuela,inCordilleraCentral,EAndeanfoothills,andWLosLlanos.P.g.ochraceusOsgood,1912—NEColombiaandNWVenezuela,inNEMaracaiboLakeandSistemaCoriano.P.g. poliopus Osgood, 1914— NE Colombia and W Venezuela, in W & S Maracaibo Lake, W Andean foothills, and the upper Los Llanos.","bibliography":"Aguilera (1999) | Aguilera et al. (1995) | Benado et al. (1979) | Eisenberg (1989) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Osgood (1912, 1914) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Reig & Useche (1976) | Reig et al. (1980) | Thomas (1901b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat probably feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.","breeding":"At one site in coastal Venezuela, reproductively active adult Guaira Spinyrats were trapped throughout a two-year sampling period, butjuveniles were only present at the beginning of the rainy season and otherwise absent during the dry season. Breeding was thus posited to be year-round. One recaptured female was pregnant at least three times during the year.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In coastal Venezuela, average home ranges of male Guaira Spiny-rats were three times as large as the average female home range. Females had exclusive home ranges, but those of males overlapped broadly with other individuals of both sexes. Overall population densities were 1 ind/ha to nearly 4 ind/ha, with effective density estimates of 3-20 ind/ha. Similar densities have been reported at another Venezuelan site. These overall patterns suggested that female Guaira Spiny-rats were territorial and the social system was promiscuous or polygynous mating system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, subspecies poliopusis listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as P. poliopus). Although it is relatively abundant in its restricted distribution ofless than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten localities, and extent and quality of its habitat are apparently declining, even in protected areas that are extractive preserves. Otherwise, the Guaira Spiny-rat is viewed as widespread, occupying broad variety of forest types, including those modified by humans; it occurs in several national parks and is not judged to be declining overall despite human alteration. Additional studies of the Guaira Spiny-rat, particularly the area occupied by poliopus, are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-240 mm,tail 170-200 mm; weight 340-400 g. The Guaira Spiny-rat is medium to large-bodied, with absolutely and proportionately long tail for a species of Proechimys(average c¢.85% of head—body length). Dorsum is light reddish brown, lined with black along southern slopes of the Cordillera de Mérida, but distinctly paler and more yellowish brown in drier forests around Lake Maracaibo. Ventral color is white from chin to inguinal region, including white inner thighs where stripe may be continuous across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. As a consequence, hindfeet are pale above but often have lateral light brown stripe extending from ankle to cover digits. Plantar pads of hindfeet are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads large and sub-equalin size. Tail is bicolored, light brown above and pale below, lightly haired so that large scales are obvious to the eye; scale annuli average 7-8 annuli/cm. Pelage is coarse but relatively soft to the touch, with long (20-22 mm) and narrow (0-5-0-7 mm) aristiform spines tipped with whip-like extensions. Skull of the Guaira Spiny-rat is unremarkable, sharing conformational shape of most species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are undeveloped or present only as weak and short posterior extension from supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are broad and long, oval to slightly teardrop in shape, and with weakly developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming slight moderate grooves; premaxillary part of septum is narrow, extends at least to midpoint of opening but may be only weakly connected to maxillary part, or not at all; maxillary part is thin and attenuated, slightly keeled so that medial ridge may be present on anterior palate; and vomeris visible between premaxillary and maxillary septal elements in ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be either smooth or with slight groove developed by short lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa varies from narrow to moderate in width, with an angle 47-55°, butit penetrates typically to at least the posterior margins of M? and commonly even deeper. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and comprised ofjugal alone or by equal contributions ofjugal and squamosal. Three folds are uniformly present on dP*, M', and M?, with M?* having either 2-3 folds in about equal proportions within samples. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on dP, and two folds on molar series. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/3-(2)3-(2)3-(2)3. Baculum has same elongated, narrow shape and generalsize as other species in the trinitatisspecies group, and ¢.10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide, with bulbous base notched at midline and weakly developed apical wings. Chromosome complement is highly variable: 2n = 62 and FN = 72 at Apure, 2n = 48-50 and FN = 72 at Barinas, 2n = 46 and FN = 72 in nominate subspecies guairae, 2n = 44 and FN = 76 in subspecies ocherous, and 2n = 42 and FN = 76 in subspecies poliopus.","habitat":"Primary and secondary dry tropical forests and human agricultural croplands from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m. Guaira Spiny-rats have been trapped amidst roots of wild pineapple (Ananas, Bromeliaceae) in arid forests of the north-eastern slope of Lake Maracaibo."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF085261522DF468.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF4FFC0FF085261522DF468","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"577","verbatimText":"48.Guaira Spiny-ratProechimys guairaeFrench:Rat-épineux de La Guaira/ German:Guaira-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de La GuairaOther common names:La Guaira Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys guairae Thomas, 1901, “La Guaira,” Vargas, Venezuela.Proechimys guairaeis a member of the innitatisspecies group. It includes ochraceus and poliopusas synonyms. It is highly variable in karyotype and has been divided into regional “races,” three of which correspond to formal taxa (at specific or subspecific levels), but others are yet to be defined and diagnosed. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.g.guairaeThomas,1901—N&CVenezuela,inCordilleraCentral,EAndeanfoothills,andWLosLlanos.P.g.ochraceusOsgood,1912—NEColombiaandNWVenezuela,inNEMaracaiboLakeandSistemaCoriano.P.g. poliopus Osgood, 1914— NE Colombia and W Venezuela, in W & S Maracaibo Lake, W Andean foothills, and the upper Los Llanos.Descriptive notes.Head-body 210-240 mm,tail 170-200 mm; weight 340-400 g. The Guaira Spiny-rat is medium to large-bodied, with absolutely and proportionately long tail for a species of Proechimys(average c¢.85% of head—body length). Dorsum is light reddish brown, lined with black along southern slopes of the Cordillera de Mérida, but distinctly paler and more yellowish brown in drier forests around Lake Maracaibo. Ventral color is white from chin to inguinal region, including white inner thighs where stripe may be continuous across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. As a consequence, hindfeet are pale above but often have lateral light brown stripe extending from ankle to cover digits. Plantar pads of hindfeet are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads large and sub-equalin size. Tail is bicolored, light brown above and pale below, lightly haired so that large scales are obvious to the eye; scale annuli average 7-8 annuli/cm. Pelage is coarse but relatively soft to the touch, with long (20-22 mm) and narrow (0-5-0-7 mm) aristiform spines tipped with whip-like extensions. Skull of the Guaira Spiny-rat is unremarkable, sharing conformational shape of most species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are undeveloped or present only as weak and short posterior extension from supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are broad and long, oval to slightly teardrop in shape, and with weakly developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming slight moderate grooves; premaxillary part of septum is narrow, extends at least to midpoint of opening but may be only weakly connected to maxillary part, or not at all; maxillary part is thin and attenuated, slightly keeled so that medial ridge may be present on anterior palate; and vomeris visible between premaxillary and maxillary septal elements in ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be either smooth or with slight groove developed by short lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa varies from narrow to moderate in width, with an angle 47-55°, butit penetrates typically to at least the posterior margins of M? and commonly even deeper. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and comprised ofjugal alone or by equal contributions ofjugal and squamosal. Three folds are uniformly present on dP*, M', and M?, with M?* having either 2-3 folds in about equal proportions within samples. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on dP, and two folds on molar series. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/3-(2)3-(2)3-(2)3. Baculum has same elongated, narrow shape and generalsize as other species in the trinitatisspecies group, and ¢.10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide, with bulbous base notched at midline and weakly developed apical wings. Chromosome complement is highly variable: 2n = 62 and FN = 72 at Apure, 2n = 48-50 and FN = 72 at Barinas, 2n = 46 and FN = 72 in nominate subspecies guairae, 2n = 44 and FN = 76 in subspecies ocherous, and 2n = 42 and FN = 76 in subspecies poliopus.Habitat.Primary and secondary dry tropical forests and human agricultural croplands from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m. Guaira Spiny-rats have been trapped amidst roots of wild pineapple (Ananas, Bromeliaceae) in arid forests of the north-eastern slope of Lake Maracaibo.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat probably feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.At one site in coastal Venezuela, reproductively active adult Guaira Spinyrats were trapped throughout a two-year sampling period, butjuveniles were only present at the beginning of the rainy season and otherwise absent during the dry season. Breeding was thus posited to be year-round. One recaptured female was pregnant at least three times during the year.Activity patterns.There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In coastal Venezuela, average home ranges of male Guaira Spiny-rats were three times as large as the average female home range. Females had exclusive home ranges, but those of males overlapped broadly with other individuals of both sexes. Overall population densities were 1 ind/ha to nearly 4 ind/ha, with effective density estimates of 3-20 ind/ha. Similar densities have been reported at another Venezuelan site. These overall patterns suggested that female Guaira Spiny-rats were territorial and the social system was promiscuous or polygynous mating system.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, subspecies poliopusis listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as P. poliopus). Although it is relatively abundant in its restricted distribution ofless than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten localities, and extent and quality of its habitat are apparently declining, even in protected areas that are extractive preserves. Otherwise, the Guaira Spiny-rat is viewed as widespread, occupying broad variety of forest types, including those modified by humans; it occurs in several national parks and is not judged to be declining overall despite human alteration. Additional studies of the Guaira Spiny-rat, particularly the area occupied by poliopus, are needed.Bibliography.Aguilera (1999), Aguilera et al. (1995), Benado et al. (1979), Eisenberg (1989), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Hershkovitz (1948), Osgood (1912, 1914), Patton & Leite (2015), Reig & Useche (1976), Reig et al. (1980), Thomas (1901b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys guairae Thomas, 1901, “La Guaira,” Vargas, Venezuela.Proechimys guairaeis a member of the innitatisspecies group. It includes ochraceus and poliopusas synonyms. It is highly variable in karyotype and has been divided into regional “races,” three of which correspond to formal taxa (at specific or subspecific levels), but others are yet to be defined and diagnosed. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de La Guaira @fr | Guaira-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de La Guaira @es | La Guaira Spiny-rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1901","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1901","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"577","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"guairae","name":"Proechimys guairae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.g.guairaeThomas,1901—N&CVenezuela,inCordilleraCentral,EAndeanfoothills,andWLosLlanos.P.g.ochraceusOsgood,1912—NEColombiaandNWVenezuela,inNEMaracaiboLakeandSistemaCoriano.P.g. poliopus Osgood, 1914— NE Colombia and W Venezuela, in W & S Maracaibo Lake, W Andean foothills, and the upper Los Llanos.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623762/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aguilera (1999) | Aguilera et al. (1995) | Benado et al. (1979) | Eisenberg (1989) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Osgood (1912, 1914) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Reig & Useche (1976) | Reig et al. (1980) | Thomas (1901b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat probably feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.","breeding":"At one site in coastal Venezuela, reproductively active adult Guaira Spinyrats were trapped throughout a two-year sampling period, butjuveniles were only present at the beginning of the rainy season and otherwise absent during the dry season. Breeding was thus posited to be year-round. One recaptured female was pregnant at least three times during the year.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information for this species, but the Guaira Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In coastal Venezuela, average home ranges of male Guaira Spiny-rats were three times as large as the average female home range. Females had exclusive home ranges, but those of males overlapped broadly with other individuals of both sexes. Overall population densities were 1 ind/ha to nearly 4 ind/ha, with effective density estimates of 3-20 ind/ha. Similar densities have been reported at another Venezuelan site. These overall patterns suggested that female Guaira Spiny-rats were territorial and the social system was promiscuous or polygynous mating system.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, subspecies poliopusis listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as P. poliopus). Although it is relatively abundant in its restricted distribution ofless than 20,000 km?, it is known from fewer than ten localities, and extent and quality of its habitat are apparently declining, even in protected areas that are extractive preserves. Otherwise, the Guaira Spiny-rat is viewed as widespread, occupying broad variety of forest types, including those modified by humans; it occurs in several national parks and is not judged to be declining overall despite human alteration. Additional studies of the Guaira Spiny-rat, particularly the area occupied by poliopus, are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 210-240 mm,tail 170-200 mm; weight 340-400 g. The Guaira Spiny-rat is medium to large-bodied, with absolutely and proportionately long tail for a species of Proechimys(average c¢.85% of head—body length). Dorsum is light reddish brown, lined with black along southern slopes of the Cordillera de Mérida, but distinctly paler and more yellowish brown in drier forests around Lake Maracaibo. Ventral color is white from chin to inguinal region, including white inner thighs where stripe may be continuous across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. As a consequence, hindfeet are pale above but often have lateral light brown stripe extending from ankle to cover digits. Plantar pads of hindfeet are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads large and sub-equalin size. Tail is bicolored, light brown above and pale below, lightly haired so that large scales are obvious to the eye; scale annuli average 7-8 annuli/cm. Pelage is coarse but relatively soft to the touch, with long (20-22 mm) and narrow (0-5-0-7 mm) aristiform spines tipped with whip-like extensions. Skull of the Guaira Spiny-rat is unremarkable, sharing conformational shape of most species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are undeveloped or present only as weak and short posterior extension from supraorbital ledge. Incisive foramina are broad and long, oval to slightly teardrop in shape, and with weakly developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming slight moderate grooves; premaxillary part of septum is narrow, extends at least to midpoint of opening but may be only weakly connected to maxillary part, or not at all; maxillary part is thin and attenuated, slightly keeled so that medial ridge may be present on anterior palate; and vomeris visible between premaxillary and maxillary septal elements in ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be either smooth or with slight groove developed by short lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa varies from narrow to moderate in width, with an angle 47-55°, butit penetrates typically to at least the posterior margins of M? and commonly even deeper. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and comprised ofjugal alone or by equal contributions ofjugal and squamosal. Three folds are uniformly present on dP*, M', and M?, with M?* having either 2-3 folds in about equal proportions within samples. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on dP, and two folds on molar series. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/3-(2)3-(2)3-(2)3. Baculum has same elongated, narrow shape and generalsize as other species in the trinitatisspecies group, and ¢.10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide, with bulbous base notched at midline and weakly developed apical wings. Chromosome complement is highly variable: 2n = 62 and FN = 72 at Apure, 2n = 48-50 and FN = 72 at Barinas, 2n = 46 and FN = 72 in nominate subspecies guairae, 2n = 44 and FN = 76 in subspecies ocherous, and 2n = 42 and FN = 76 in subspecies poliopus.","habitat":"Primary and secondary dry tropical forests and human agricultural croplands from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m. Guaira Spiny-rats have been trapped amidst roots of wild pineapple (Ananas, Bromeliaceae) in arid forests of the north-eastern slope of Lake Maracaibo."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF4FFC3FA11544C598BF4F6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF4FFC3FA11544C598BF4F6","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"577","verbatimText":"49.Trinidad Spiny-ratProechimys trinitatisFrench:Rat-épineux de Trinidad/ German:Trinidad-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de TrinidadTaxonomy.Echimys trinitatis |. A. Allen & Chapman, 1893, “Princestown [= Prince Town], Trinidad,” Trinidad and Tobago.Proechimys trinitatisis a member of the trinitatisspecies group. It includes wurichi as a synonym. Mainland wrichi has often been regarded a species distinct from the nominotypical insular trinitatis. Monotypic.Distribution.Trinidad I and adjacent coastal lowlands of N Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 265-270 mm, tail 200-210 mm; weight 460 g.The Trinidad Spiny-rat is moderately large, with proportionately long tail (75-80% of head-body length). Dorsum is brownish orange, heavily mixed with black, only slightly paler on sides and contrasting with pure white venter. White inner thigh stripe may continue across ankle to medial side of hindfoot surface, which is otherwise brownish. Plantar pads of hindfoot are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered very sparsely with short hairs so that it appears quite naked to the eye. Tail scales are large, almost oval in shape, and only 6—7 annuli/cm along mid-tail. Pelage is relatively soft to the touch; aristiform spines are long (20-22 mm) and thin (0-:3-0-5 mm) and terminate in extended whip-like tips. Overall shape of skull of the Trinidad Spiny-rat is similar to most other species of Proechimys, relatively narrow and elongated, with long and tapering rostrum. Weak temporal ridges that extend back to mid-parietal from supraorbital ledges are present in older individuals but are less obvious in younger individuals. Incisive foramina are wide and oval in general shape, with only weak posterolateral flanges, if present at all, so that anterior palate is either flat or weakly groove; premaxillary part of septum is variable in size laterally and may extend virtually entire length of opening or only to a point; maxillary part is narrow and weakly developed, barely in contact with premaxilla, and only weakly keeled, typically without extending onto anterior palate as a continuing medial ridge; and vomer part of septum is usually not visible ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved and bordered laterally by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively narrow, forming angle of ¢.53°, and deep, typically penetrating to anterior edge of M? or posterior edge of M*. Post-orbital process of zygoma is weakly to moderately developed and composed entirely of squamosal. Paroccipital processes are distinctly broad, flattened, and tightly appressed to bulla, more so than in any other species of Proechimys. Upper cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on each, except that M’ occasionally has only two; lower cheekteeth all have three folds, less commonly molars may have only two; counterfold pattern is 3-3-3—(2) /3—-(2)—-(2)-(2). Baculum is elongated (length 9-7-10-5 mm) but moderately wide (proximal width 3-1-3-2 mm; distal width 3-1-3-3 mm), with slightly expanded base with median notch, straight sides, and slight apical wings. It is similar to those of other species within the trinitatisspecies group. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 62 and FN = 80 in Venezuela and on Trinidad Island.Habitat.Open evergreen, seasonal marsh forest with dominant lower canopy of mostly palms (Arecaceae) and emergent upper canopy of hardwood trees, interior secondary rainforest on Trinidad, and coastal lowlands and montane areas of north-eastern Venezuela from near sea level to elevations of ¢.1300 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Trinidad Spiny-rat consists primarily of fruit and seeds and opportunistically includes small leaves and even arthropods.Breeding.Captive breeding of Trinidad Spiny-rats from Trinidad indicated gestation of 62-64 days, mean litter size of 2-4, mean birth weight of 24-7 g, and achievement of reproductive maturity within c¢.5 months of birth.Activity patterns.Trapping data suggest that the Trinidad Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In field studies in marsh forest on Trinidad, monthly average densities were 1-5 ind/ha-2-1 ind/ha; average home range size was 0-17 ha; 95% of all individuals moved less than 95 m over successive trapping events; and home ranges of males and females overlapped ¢.47%. In sum, these data suggest likely polygynous mating system. In captivity, average life spans were 20-41 months. Individuals were also docile when housed alone but became quite aggressive when kept together, often inflicting wounds on one another. This captive observation suggests that Trinidad Spiny-rats are solitary in the wild.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Trinidad Spiny-rat was abundant during 1970 surveys in Trinidad, where it occurred in a large protected area. Little is known about the Trinidad Spiny-rat in coastal Venezuela. Therefore, adequate surveys are needed to appropriately assess current conservation status of the Trinidad Spiny-rat in both parts ofits distribution.Bibliography.Allen & Chapman (1893), Benado et al. (1979), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Everard & Tikasingh (1973), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Reig, Barros et al. (1980), Reig, Tranier & Barros (1979), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys trinitatis |. A. Allen & Chapman, 1893, “Princestown [= Prince Town], Trinidad,” Trinidad and Tobago.Proechimys trinitatisis a member of the trinitatisspecies group. It includes wurichi as a synonym. Mainland wrichi has often been regarded a species distinct from the nominotypical insular trinitatis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Trinidad @fr | Trinidad-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Trinidad @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen & Chapman","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1893","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"25","interpretedPageNumber":"577","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"trinitatis","name":"Proechimys trinitatis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Trinidad I and adjacent coastal lowlands of N Venezuela.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623766/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen & Chapman (1893) | Benado et al. (1979) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Everard & Tikasingh (1973) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Reig, Barros et al. (1980) | Reig, Tranier & Barros (1979) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Trinidad Spiny-rat consists primarily of fruit and seeds and opportunistically includes small leaves and even arthropods.","breeding":"Captive breeding of Trinidad Spiny-rats from Trinidad indicated gestation of 62-64 days, mean litter size of 2-4, mean birth weight of 24-7 g, and achievement of reproductive maturity within c¢.5 months of birth.","activityPatterns":"Trapping data suggest that the Trinidad Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In field studies in marsh forest on Trinidad, monthly average densities were 1-5 ind/ha-2-1 ind/ha; average home range size was 0-17 ha; 95% of all individuals moved less than 95 m over successive trapping events; and home ranges of males and females overlapped ¢.47%. In sum, these data suggest likely polygynous mating system. In captivity, average life spans were 20-41 months. Individuals were also docile when housed alone but became quite aggressive when kept together, often inflicting wounds on one another. This captive observation suggests that Trinidad Spiny-rats are solitary in the wild.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Trinidad Spiny-rat was abundant during 1970 surveys in Trinidad, where it occurred in a large protected area. Little is known about the Trinidad Spiny-rat in coastal Venezuela. Therefore, adequate surveys are needed to appropriately assess current conservation status of the Trinidad Spiny-rat in both parts ofits distribution.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 265-270 mm, tail 200-210 mm; weight 460 g.The Trinidad Spiny-rat is moderately large, with proportionately long tail (75-80% of head-body length). Dorsum is brownish orange, heavily mixed with black, only slightly paler on sides and contrasting with pure white venter. White inner thigh stripe may continue across ankle to medial side of hindfoot surface, which is otherwise brownish. Plantar pads of hindfoot are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered very sparsely with short hairs so that it appears quite naked to the eye. Tail scales are large, almost oval in shape, and only 6—7 annuli/cm along mid-tail. Pelage is relatively soft to the touch; aristiform spines are long (20-22 mm) and thin (0-:3-0-5 mm) and terminate in extended whip-like tips. Overall shape of skull of the Trinidad Spiny-rat is similar to most other species of Proechimys, relatively narrow and elongated, with long and tapering rostrum. Weak temporal ridges that extend back to mid-parietal from supraorbital ledges are present in older individuals but are less obvious in younger individuals. Incisive foramina are wide and oval in general shape, with only weak posterolateral flanges, if present at all, so that anterior palate is either flat or weakly groove; premaxillary part of septum is variable in size laterally and may extend virtually entire length of opening or only to a point; maxillary part is narrow and weakly developed, barely in contact with premaxilla, and only weakly keeled, typically without extending onto anterior palate as a continuing medial ridge; and vomer part of septum is usually not visible ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved and bordered laterally by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively narrow, forming angle of ¢.53°, and deep, typically penetrating to anterior edge of M? or posterior edge of M*. Post-orbital process of zygoma is weakly to moderately developed and composed entirely of squamosal. Paroccipital processes are distinctly broad, flattened, and tightly appressed to bulla, more so than in any other species of Proechimys. Upper cheekteeth are uniform with three folds on each, except that M’ occasionally has only two; lower cheekteeth all have three folds, less commonly molars may have only two; counterfold pattern is 3-3-3—(2) /3—-(2)—-(2)-(2). Baculum is elongated (length 9-7-10-5 mm) but moderately wide (proximal width 3-1-3-2 mm; distal width 3-1-3-3 mm), with slightly expanded base with median notch, straight sides, and slight apical wings. It is similar to those of other species within the trinitatisspecies group. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 62 and FN = 80 in Venezuela and on Trinidad Island.","habitat":"Open evergreen, seasonal marsh forest with dominant lower canopy of mostly palms (Arecaceae) and emergent upper canopy of hardwood trees, interior secondary rainforest on Trinidad, and coastal lowlands and montane areas of north-eastern Venezuela from near sea level to elevations of ¢.1300 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF5FFC1FAC85C105DF9F216.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF5FFC1FAC85C105DF9F216","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"576","verbatimText":"46.Boyaca Spiny-ratProechimys chrysaeolusFrench:Rat-épineux du Boyaca/ German:Boyaca-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de BoyacaTaxonomy.Echimys chrysaeolus Thomas, 1898, “Muzo, N of Bogota,” Cundinamarca, Colombia.Proechimys chrysaeolusbelongs to the trinitatisspecies group. It includes magdalenae as a synonym. Taxonomic relationships between typical chrysaeolusand magdalenae remain unresolved; these two taxa may represent valid races or even distinct species. Monotypic.Distribution.N Colombia, lower Cauca and Magdalena valleys W of E Andes Range.Descriptive notes.Head—body 210-220 mm,tail 145-160 mm; weight 370 g. The Boyaca Spiny-rat is medium-sized relative to other species of Proechimys. Dorsum is dark yellowish to reddish brown, speckled with black hairs on back;sides are only marginally paler than mid-back but abruptly contrasting with venter, which is white from chin to inguinal region. Broad and dark angle band from few white hairs on dorsal surfaces of hindfeet interrupts white inner thigh stripes. Hindfootvaries in dorsal color butis typically dark or may have silvery hairs across metatarsals; toes are always dark brown. All plantar pads are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal in size. Tail is dark brown above and pale below, sparsely haired, and naked to the eye, with scale annuli forming distinct rings, more so than in most other species of Proechimys, with 10-13 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff and bristly to the touch, with well-developed aristiform hairs averaging 20-22 mm in length and 0-9-1-1 mm in width, terminating with very short whip-like or blunt tip. Skull of the Boyaca Spiny-rat is robust, but long and narrow, with particularly elongated rostrum. Temporal ridge is absent or only weakly developed, extending onto anterior parietals from supraorbital ledge,if present. Incisive foramina are oval to teardrop in shape and taperslightly with weak posterolateral flanges extending onto anterior palate forming shallow groove; premaxillary part of septum is well developed, broad, and extendsat least one-half the length of opening; maxillary part may be broad or narrow but always contacts premaxillary part so that vomer is not visible in ventral view; and maxillary part of septum is non-keeled so that palate lacks median ridge. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be entirely smooth or with only moderately developed groove resulting from slight lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately narrow, with angle averaging 59° and depth penetrating to middle of M?, on average. Counterfold pattern of all maxillary cheekteeth is uniformly 3-3-3-3; that of the lower cheekteeth varies slightly because dP, typically has three folds or rarely four, M, always with three folds, and M, and M, have 2-3 folds in about equal frequencies. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3/3(4)— 3-2(3)-2(3). Baculum is long (averaging c.10 mm) but relatively broad (2-5-2-8 mm in width) and has bulbous base with median depression and slightly developed apical wings with median notch at distal end. It is similar in size and shape to other members of the trinitatisspecies group and also to baculum of the Pacific Spiny-rat (P. decumanus). Chromosomal complementis 2n = 32 and FN = 54.Habitats. Primary rainforest at elevations of 50-900 m.Food and Feeding.The Boyaca Spiny-rat forages on fruit, seeds, few arthropods, and leaves.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is reportedly solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Habitat of the type locality of the Boyaca Spiny-rat has been severely altered by agriculture, mining, and logging; these activities are widespread overits distribution. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats to the Boyaca Spiny Spiny-rat are needed to properly access its conservation status.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Bueno et al. (1989), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Hershkovitz (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Thomas (1914), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys chrysaeolus Thomas, 1898, “Muzo, N of Bogota,” Cundinamarca, Colombia.Proechimys chrysaeolusbelongs to the trinitatisspecies group. It includes magdalenae as a synonym. Taxonomic relationships between typical chrysaeolusand magdalenae remain unresolved; these two taxa may represent valid races or even distinct species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Boyaca @fr | Boyaca-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Boyaca @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"576","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"chrysaeolus","name":"Proechimys chrysaeolus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Colombia, lower Cauca and Magdalena valleys W of E Andes Range.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623758/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Bueno et al. (1989) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Thomas (1914) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Boyaca Spiny-rat forages on fruit, seeds, few arthropods, and leaves.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is reportedly solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Habitat of the type locality of the Boyaca Spiny-rat has been severely altered by agriculture, mining, and logging; these activities are widespread overits distribution. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats to the Boyaca Spiny Spiny-rat are needed to properly access its conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 210-220 mm,tail 145-160 mm; weight 370 g. The Boyaca Spiny-rat is medium-sized relative to other species of Proechimys. Dorsum is dark yellowish to reddish brown, speckled with black hairs on back;sides are only marginally paler than mid-back but abruptly contrasting with venter, which is white from chin to inguinal region. Broad and dark angle band from few white hairs on dorsal surfaces of hindfeet interrupts white inner thigh stripes. Hindfootvaries in dorsal color butis typically dark or may have silvery hairs across metatarsals; toes are always dark brown. All plantar pads are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal in size. Tail is dark brown above and pale below, sparsely haired, and naked to the eye, with scale annuli forming distinct rings, more so than in most other species of Proechimys, with 10-13 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff and bristly to the touch, with well-developed aristiform hairs averaging 20-22 mm in length and 0-9-1-1 mm in width, terminating with very short whip-like or blunt tip. Skull of the Boyaca Spiny-rat is robust, but long and narrow, with particularly elongated rostrum. Temporal ridge is absent or only weakly developed, extending onto anterior parietals from supraorbital ledge,if present. Incisive foramina are oval to teardrop in shape and taperslightly with weak posterolateral flanges extending onto anterior palate forming shallow groove; premaxillary part of septum is well developed, broad, and extendsat least one-half the length of opening; maxillary part may be broad or narrow but always contacts premaxillary part so that vomer is not visible in ventral view; and maxillary part of septum is non-keeled so that palate lacks median ridge. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be entirely smooth or with only moderately developed groove resulting from slight lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately narrow, with angle averaging 59° and depth penetrating to middle of M?, on average. Counterfold pattern of all maxillary cheekteeth is uniformly 3-3-3-3; that of the lower cheekteeth varies slightly because dP, typically has three folds or rarely four, M, always with three folds, and M, and M, have 2-3 folds in about equal frequencies. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3/3(4)— 3-2(3)-2(3). Baculum is long (averaging c.10 mm) but relatively broad (2-5-2-8 mm in width) and has bulbous base with median depression and slightly developed apical wings with median notch at distal end. It is similar in size and shape to other members of the trinitatisspecies group and also to baculum of the Pacific Spiny-rat (P. decumanus). Chromosomal complementis 2n = 32 and FN = 54.Habitats. Primary rainforest at elevations of 50-900 m.Food and Feeding.The Boyaca Spiny-rat forages on fruit, seeds, few arthropods, and leaves.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Boyaca Spiny-rat is reportedly solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF5FFC1FFC75DFF53D3FC44.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF5FFC1FFC75DFF53D3FC44","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"576","verbatimText":"45.Gardner’s Spiny-ratProechimys gardneriFrench:Rat-épineux de Gardner/ German:GardnerKurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de GardnerTaxonomy.Proechimys gardneri da Silva, 1998, “Altamira, right bank Rio Jurua, 68°54’W, 6°35’S, Amazonas, Brazil.”Proechimys gardneriis a member of the gardnerispecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin of W Brazil between Rio Madeira and Rio Jurua and extreme N Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 154—209 mm, tail 88-152 mm; weight 110-180 g. Gardner’s Spiny-rat is one of three small-bodied species of Proechimysfrom western Amazonia. It has short ears (21 mm), short hindfeet (40 mm), and proportionately mid-length tail (c.70% of head-body length). Overall body color is reddish brown or auburn, coarsely streaked with varying amounts of black on dorsum and sides; compared with most other sympatric species of spiny-rats, dorsum looks darker, especially over rump, due to presence of heavy, dark brown aristiform spines. These spines are short (length 17-18 mm) and moderately wide (0-9-1 mm), terminate with distinctly blunt tip, and provide distinctly coarse, or stiff, texture to dorsal pelage. Venter and chin are pure white, and most specimens have white lips. Inner surfaces of hindlimbs are pure white and extend across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet so that ankles do not have complete circular dark bands. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are yellowish white, not pure white, often with distal parts of toes brownish. Plantar surfaces of hindfeet have all six tubercles. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and cream to white below; scales are relatively small (averaging 11 annuli/cm at mid-length) but not completely hidden by hair. Skull of Gardner’s Spiny-rat is small and delicate and has relatively long and narrow rostrum and beaded supraorbital ledge above orbits, which extends posteriorly as weakly developed ridge on anterior parietals. Post-orbital process of zygomais obsolete. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking ventral groove. Incisive foramina are ovate to slightly lyrate in shape, with posterolateral margins lying flat or only weakly flanged, and thus outlining only very shallow groove on anterior palate; maxillary part of septum is dorsoventrally compressed posteriorly and narrowed anteriorly, visible over almost one-half the length of foraminal opening, and fully connected to premaxillary part, which is broad and usually about one-half the length of foramen; and vomeris not visible on ventral margin of septum. Palate is smooth, lacking median ridge. Mesopterygoid fossa is long and moderately narrow, with angle of indentation averaging 61° and penetrating palate to middle of M?. Cheekteeth are remarkably small, with tooth row averaging only 7-5 mm in length. All upper teeth typically have three folds, with two occasionally present on M®. Lower dP, has four (occasionally three) folds, M| and M, consistently have three, and M, might have either two or three. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/(3)4-3-3-2(3). Baculum is massive and relatively long (length 6-5-8-6 mm), especially in relation to overall body size, with short, broad (distal width 3-1-4-2 mm), and distolaterally directed apical extensions separated by shallow median depression. Mid-shaft is relatively broad, and base is thick and expanded (proximal width 4-7-5-1 mm). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 54 from middle Rio Madeira (Brazil) and 2n = 40 and FN = 56 from Rio Jurua (Brazil).Habitat.Known only from upland, non-seasonally flooded (terra firma) Amazonian rainforest.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Gardner’s Spiny-rat likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.Breeding female Gardner’s Spiny-rats were collected only in the rainy season along the Rio Jurua (W Brazil), but age structure based on tooth wear suggested that breeding extends into the dry season, a likelihood thatis supported by presence ofjuvenile and subadults in July at Bolivian sites. Modallitter size was 2 (range 1-3).Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Gardner’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Gardner’s Spiny-rat is distributed over a reasonably large area of primarily undisturbed primary forest, but it is known from only a few specimens and a few localities, none of which are within protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Gardner’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Patton & Leite (2015), Patton et al. (2000), da Silva (1998), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys gardneri da Silva, 1998, “Altamira, right bank Rio Jurua, 68°54’W, 6°35’S, Amazonas, Brazil.”Proechimys gardneriis a member of the gardnerispecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Gardner @fr | Gardner Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Gardner @es","interpretedAuthority":"da Silva, 1998","interpretedAuthorityName":"da Silva","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1998","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"24","interpretedPageNumber":"576","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gardneri","name":"Proechimys gardneri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin of W Brazil between Rio Madeira and Rio Jurua and extreme N Bolivia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623756/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton et al. (2000) | da Silva (1998) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Gardner’s Spiny-rat likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.","breeding":"Breeding female Gardner’s Spiny-rats were collected only in the rainy season along the Rio Jurua (W Brazil), but age structure based on tooth wear suggested that breeding extends into the dry season, a likelihood thatis supported by presence ofjuvenile and subadults in July at Bolivian sites. Modallitter size was 2 (range 1-3).","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Gardner’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Gardner’s Spiny-rat is distributed over a reasonably large area of primarily undisturbed primary forest, but it is known from only a few specimens and a few localities, none of which are within protected areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Gardner’s Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 154—209 mm, tail 88-152 mm; weight 110-180 g. Gardner’s Spiny-rat is one of three small-bodied species of Proechimysfrom western Amazonia. It has short ears (21 mm), short hindfeet (40 mm), and proportionately mid-length tail (c.70% of head-body length). Overall body color is reddish brown or auburn, coarsely streaked with varying amounts of black on dorsum and sides; compared with most other sympatric species of spiny-rats, dorsum looks darker, especially over rump, due to presence of heavy, dark brown aristiform spines. These spines are short (length 17-18 mm) and moderately wide (0-9-1 mm), terminate with distinctly blunt tip, and provide distinctly coarse, or stiff, texture to dorsal pelage. Venter and chin are pure white, and most specimens have white lips. Inner surfaces of hindlimbs are pure white and extend across ankles onto dorsal surfaces of hindfeet so that ankles do not have complete circular dark bands. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are yellowish white, not pure white, often with distal parts of toes brownish. Plantar surfaces of hindfeet have all six tubercles. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and cream to white below; scales are relatively small (averaging 11 annuli/cm at mid-length) but not completely hidden by hair. Skull of Gardner’s Spiny-rat is small and delicate and has relatively long and narrow rostrum and beaded supraorbital ledge above orbits, which extends posteriorly as weakly developed ridge on anterior parietals. Post-orbital process of zygomais obsolete. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking ventral groove. Incisive foramina are ovate to slightly lyrate in shape, with posterolateral margins lying flat or only weakly flanged, and thus outlining only very shallow groove on anterior palate; maxillary part of septum is dorsoventrally compressed posteriorly and narrowed anteriorly, visible over almost one-half the length of foraminal opening, and fully connected to premaxillary part, which is broad and usually about one-half the length of foramen; and vomeris not visible on ventral margin of septum. Palate is smooth, lacking median ridge. Mesopterygoid fossa is long and moderately narrow, with angle of indentation averaging 61° and penetrating palate to middle of M?. Cheekteeth are remarkably small, with tooth row averaging only 7-5 mm in length. All upper teeth typically have three folds, with two occasionally present on M®. Lower dP, has four (occasionally three) folds, M| and M, consistently have three, and M, might have either two or three. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3—(2)3/(3)4-3-3-2(3). Baculum is massive and relatively long (length 6-5-8-6 mm), especially in relation to overall body size, with short, broad (distal width 3-1-4-2 mm), and distolaterally directed apical extensions separated by shallow median depression. Mid-shaft is relatively broad, and base is thick and expanded (proximal width 4-7-5-1 mm). Chromosomal complement is 2n = 40 and FN = 54 from middle Rio Madeira (Brazil) and 2n = 40 and FN = 56 from Rio Jurua (Brazil).","habitat":"Known only from upland, non-seasonally flooded (terra firma) Amazonian rainforest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF6FFC2FF745E4C5DF0FA42.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF6FFC2FF745E4C5DF0FA42","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"579","verbatimText":"52.Long-tailed Spiny-ratProechimys longicaudatusFrench:Rat-épineux longicaude/ German:Langschwanz-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de cola largaTaxonomy.Echimys longicaudatus Rengger, 1830, “Northern Paraguay.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1903 to “the 21* parallel of latitude, therefore not far south of Corumba,” Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil.Proechimys longicaudatusis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. It includes myosurus, myosrurus, lewcomystax, villacauda, and ribeiroi as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.SC Brazil, E Bolivia, and N Paraguay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-250 mm, tail 131-150 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is medium-sized, similar to other members of the longicaudatusspecies group in its proportionally short tail (60-63% of head-body length), but differs in its distinctly pale reddish or yellowish brown pelage, streaked with dark brown, that contrasts sharply with dark reddish brown mixed with black appearance of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) and Cuvier’s Spinyrat (P. cuvierr). Venter is pure white, without hint of buffy overtones. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet can be highly variable, from uniformly white, including toes (most specimens), to mostly dusky, or dusky laterally and white medially. Dark ankle band may or may not separate white inner thigh from white foot. Tail is bicolored and thinly haired, with obvious scales and scale annuli averaging 9-10/cm at mid-length. Fur is relatively soft to the touch, with aristiforms narrow (0-6—0-7 mm), rather short (17-18 mm), and terminating with long whip-like tips. Cranially, the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is similar in nearly all features to other members of this species complex, butits skull is generally smaller than that of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat or Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Temporal ridge varies from weakly continuous across parietals or is limited to simple posterior extension of supraorbital ledge. Lyrate shape of incisive foramina are as in the Short-tailed Spiny-rat and Cuvier’s Spiny-rat, with typically well-developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming deep groves, and expanded and long premaxillary part of septum with short, often thin, but typically keeled maxillary part that continues as median ridge onto anterior palate; and vomer part of septum is short but exposed. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, without groove for infraorbital nerve. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed, with equal contributions of Jugal and squamosal. Mesopterygoid fossa is broad (angle averages 78°) but penetrates posterior palate to middle of M®. All maxillary cheekteeth have three counterfolds; mandibular cheekteeth vary from three (rarely four) on P, to 2-3 folds on each lower molar. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Population samples of Long-tailed Spiny-rats have a higher percentage of individuals with two folds on lower molars than those of other species in the group. This pattern fits a general trend of decreasing counterfold number across species, or their populations, along environmental gradient from extremely wet forests (trans-Amazonian Choco and western Amazon) to dry forests (eastern Amazonia and central Brazil). Other examples ofthis trend are the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) in the western Amazon vs. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) in the east, or specimens of Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus) from the Choco in western Colombia vs. those in southern Ecuador (isolated subspecies rosa). Baculum of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is robust, long (length 1-1-1 mm), and wide (proximal width 0-3-0-5 mm; distal width 0-51-0-52 mm), with short, stout apical wings. In these general features,it is virtually identical to the Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50.Habitat.Dry tropical rainforest and mid-savanna and grassland habitat near shaded areas at elevations of 50-1000 m. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is present in primary and secondary habitats and has been reported to den in termite mounds and armadillo burrows.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is presumably eats fruits, seeds, and other plant parts.Breeding.In longitudinal trapping studies in eastern Bolivia, reproduction of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence in early September after a hiatus, based on first appearance of lactating and late-gestation females and shortly before young began to appear in traps. Pregnancies, however, have been recorded in Bolivian specimens in March and August.Activity patterns.There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is generally regarded as terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Longtailed Spiny-rat is widespread, but its primary dry tropical forest habitat has been severely declining in recent decades due to agricultural expansion in Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay; also in Brazil pipelines bisect remaining habitat patches. Critical evaluation of current, range-wide population numbers and connectivity are required to properly determine current conservation status of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat.Bibliography.Anderson (1997), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2009), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840), Lichtenstein (1830), Miranda-Ribeiro (1914), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Pictet (1841), Rengger (1830), Thomas (1901a, 1903b), Wagner (1843), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys longicaudatus Rengger, 1830, “Northern Paraguay.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1903 to “the 21* parallel of latitude, therefore not far south of Corumba,” Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil.Proechimys longicaudatusis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. It includes myosurus, myosrurus, lewcomystax, villacauda, and ribeiroi as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux longicaude @fr | Langschwanz-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de cola larga @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Rengger","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1830","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"579","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"longicaudatus","name":"Proechimys longicaudatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SC Brazil, E Bolivia, and N Paraguay.","bibliography":"Anderson (1997) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2009) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840) | Lichtenstein (1830) | Miranda-Ribeiro (1914) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Pictet (1841) | Rengger (1830) | Thomas (1901a, 1903b) | Wagner (1843) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is presumably eats fruits, seeds, and other plant parts.","breeding":"In longitudinal trapping studies in eastern Bolivia, reproduction of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence in early September after a hiatus, based on first appearance of lactating and late-gestation females and shortly before young began to appear in traps. Pregnancies, however, have been recorded in Bolivian specimens in March and August.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is generally regarded as terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Longtailed Spiny-rat is widespread, but its primary dry tropical forest habitat has been severely declining in recent decades due to agricultural expansion in Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay; also in Brazil pipelines bisect remaining habitat patches. Critical evaluation of current, range-wide population numbers and connectivity are required to properly determine current conservation status of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-250 mm, tail 131-150 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is medium-sized, similar to other members of the longicaudatusspecies group in its proportionally short tail (60-63% of head-body length), but differs in its distinctly pale reddish or yellowish brown pelage, streaked with dark brown, that contrasts sharply with dark reddish brown mixed with black appearance of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) and Cuvier’s Spinyrat (P. cuvierr). Venter is pure white, without hint of buffy overtones. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet can be highly variable, from uniformly white, including toes (most specimens), to mostly dusky, or dusky laterally and white medially. Dark ankle band may or may not separate white inner thigh from white foot. Tail is bicolored and thinly haired, with obvious scales and scale annuli averaging 9-10/cm at mid-length. Fur is relatively soft to the touch, with aristiforms narrow (0-6—0-7 mm), rather short (17-18 mm), and terminating with long whip-like tips. Cranially, the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is similar in nearly all features to other members of this species complex, butits skull is generally smaller than that of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat or Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Temporal ridge varies from weakly continuous across parietals or is limited to simple posterior extension of supraorbital ledge. Lyrate shape of incisive foramina are as in the Short-tailed Spiny-rat and Cuvier’s Spiny-rat, with typically well-developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming deep groves, and expanded and long premaxillary part of septum with short, often thin, but typically keeled maxillary part that continues as median ridge onto anterior palate; and vomer part of septum is short but exposed. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, without groove for infraorbital nerve. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed, with equal contributions of Jugal and squamosal. Mesopterygoid fossa is broad (angle averages 78°) but penetrates posterior palate to middle of M®. All maxillary cheekteeth have three counterfolds; mandibular cheekteeth vary from three (rarely four) on P, to 2-3 folds on each lower molar. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Population samples of Long-tailed Spiny-rats have a higher percentage of individuals with two folds on lower molars than those of other species in the group. This pattern fits a general trend of decreasing counterfold number across species, or their populations, along environmental gradient from extremely wet forests (trans-Amazonian Choco and western Amazon) to dry forests (eastern Amazonia and central Brazil). Other examples ofthis trend are the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) in the western Amazon vs. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) in the east, or specimens of Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus) from the Choco in western Colombia vs. those in southern Ecuador (isolated subspecies rosa). Baculum of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is robust, long (length 1-1-1 mm), and wide (proximal width 0-3-0-5 mm; distal width 0-51-0-52 mm), with short, stout apical wings. In these general features,it is virtually identical to the Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50.","habitat":"Dry tropical rainforest and mid-savanna and grassland habitat near shaded areas at elevations of 50-1000 m. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is present in primary and secondary habitats and has been reported to den in termite mounds and armadillo burrows."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF6FFC2FF745E4C5DF0FA42.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF6FFC2FF745E4C5DF0FA42","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"579","verbatimText":"52.Long-tailed Spiny-ratProechimys longicaudatusFrench:Rat-épineux longicaude/ German:Langschwanz-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de cola largaTaxonomy.Echimys longicaudatus Rengger, 1830, “Northern Paraguay.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1903 to “the 21* parallel of latitude, therefore not far south of Corumba,” Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil.Proechimys longicaudatusis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. It includes myosurus, myosrurus, lewcomystax, villacauda, and ribeiroi as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.SC Brazil, E Bolivia, and N Paraguay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 220-250 mm, tail 131-150 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is medium-sized, similar to other members of the longicaudatusspecies group in its proportionally short tail (60-63% of head-body length), but differs in its distinctly pale reddish or yellowish brown pelage, streaked with dark brown, that contrasts sharply with dark reddish brown mixed with black appearance of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) and Cuvier’s Spinyrat (P. cuvierr). Venter is pure white, without hint of buffy overtones. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet can be highly variable, from uniformly white, including toes (most specimens), to mostly dusky, or dusky laterally and white medially. Dark ankle band may or may not separate white inner thigh from white foot. Tail is bicolored and thinly haired, with obvious scales and scale annuli averaging 9-10/cm at mid-length. Fur is relatively soft to the touch, with aristiforms narrow (0-6—0-7 mm), rather short (17-18 mm), and terminating with long whip-like tips. Cranially, the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is similar in nearly all features to other members of this species complex, butits skull is generally smaller than that of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat or Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Temporal ridge varies from weakly continuous across parietals or is limited to simple posterior extension of supraorbital ledge. Lyrate shape of incisive foramina are as in the Short-tailed Spiny-rat and Cuvier’s Spiny-rat, with typically well-developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming deep groves, and expanded and long premaxillary part of septum with short, often thin, but typically keeled maxillary part that continues as median ridge onto anterior palate; and vomer part of septum is short but exposed. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, without groove for infraorbital nerve. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed, with equal contributions of Jugal and squamosal. Mesopterygoid fossa is broad (angle averages 78°) but penetrates posterior palate to middle of M®. All maxillary cheekteeth have three counterfolds; mandibular cheekteeth vary from three (rarely four) on P, to 2-3 folds on each lower molar. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Population samples of Long-tailed Spiny-rats have a higher percentage of individuals with two folds on lower molars than those of other species in the group. This pattern fits a general trend of decreasing counterfold number across species, or their populations, along environmental gradient from extremely wet forests (trans-Amazonian Choco and western Amazon) to dry forests (eastern Amazonia and central Brazil). Other examples ofthis trend are the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) in the western Amazon vs. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) in the east, or specimens of Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus) from the Choco in western Colombia vs. those in southern Ecuador (isolated subspecies rosa). Baculum of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is robust, long (length 1-1-1 mm), and wide (proximal width 0-3-0-5 mm; distal width 0-51-0-52 mm), with short, stout apical wings. In these general features,it is virtually identical to the Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50.Habitat.Dry tropical rainforest and mid-savanna and grassland habitat near shaded areas at elevations of 50-1000 m. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is present in primary and secondary habitats and has been reported to den in termite mounds and armadillo burrows.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is presumably eats fruits, seeds, and other plant parts.Breeding.In longitudinal trapping studies in eastern Bolivia, reproduction of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence in early September after a hiatus, based on first appearance of lactating and late-gestation females and shortly before young began to appear in traps. Pregnancies, however, have been recorded in Bolivian specimens in March and August.Activity patterns.There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is generally regarded as terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Longtailed Spiny-rat is widespread, but its primary dry tropical forest habitat has been severely declining in recent decades due to agricultural expansion in Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay; also in Brazil pipelines bisect remaining habitat patches. Critical evaluation of current, range-wide population numbers and connectivity are required to properly determine current conservation status of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat.Bibliography.Anderson (1997), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2009), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840), Lichtenstein (1830), Miranda-Ribeiro (1914), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Pictet (1841), Rengger (1830), Thomas (1901a, 1903b), Wagner (1843), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys longicaudatus Rengger, 1830, “Northern Paraguay.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1903 to “the 21* parallel of latitude, therefore not far south of Corumba,” Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil.Proechimys longicaudatusis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. It includes myosurus, myosrurus, lewcomystax, villacauda, and ribeiroi as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux longicaude @fr | Langschwanz-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de cola larga @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Rengger","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1830","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"579","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"longicaudatus","name":"Proechimys longicaudatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"SC Brazil, E Bolivia, and N Paraguay.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623774/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson (1997) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a, 2009) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1840) | Lichtenstein (1830) | Miranda-Ribeiro (1914) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Pictet (1841) | Rengger (1830) | Thomas (1901a, 1903b) | Wagner (1843) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is presumably eats fruits, seeds, and other plant parts.","breeding":"In longitudinal trapping studies in eastern Bolivia, reproduction of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence in early September after a hiatus, based on first appearance of lactating and late-gestation females and shortly before young began to appear in traps. Pregnancies, however, have been recorded in Bolivian specimens in March and August.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information about this species, but the Longtailed Spiny-rat is generally regarded as terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Longtailed Spiny-rat is widespread, but its primary dry tropical forest habitat has been severely declining in recent decades due to agricultural expansion in Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay; also in Brazil pipelines bisect remaining habitat patches. Critical evaluation of current, range-wide population numbers and connectivity are required to properly determine current conservation status of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 220-250 mm, tail 131-150 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is medium-sized, similar to other members of the longicaudatusspecies group in its proportionally short tail (60-63% of head-body length), but differs in its distinctly pale reddish or yellowish brown pelage, streaked with dark brown, that contrasts sharply with dark reddish brown mixed with black appearance of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) and Cuvier’s Spinyrat (P. cuvierr). Venter is pure white, without hint of buffy overtones. Dorsal surfaces of hindfeet can be highly variable, from uniformly white, including toes (most specimens), to mostly dusky, or dusky laterally and white medially. Dark ankle band may or may not separate white inner thigh from white foot. Tail is bicolored and thinly haired, with obvious scales and scale annuli averaging 9-10/cm at mid-length. Fur is relatively soft to the touch, with aristiforms narrow (0-6—0-7 mm), rather short (17-18 mm), and terminating with long whip-like tips. Cranially, the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is similar in nearly all features to other members of this species complex, butits skull is generally smaller than that of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat or Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Temporal ridge varies from weakly continuous across parietals or is limited to simple posterior extension of supraorbital ledge. Lyrate shape of incisive foramina are as in the Short-tailed Spiny-rat and Cuvier’s Spiny-rat, with typically well-developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming deep groves, and expanded and long premaxillary part of septum with short, often thin, but typically keeled maxillary part that continues as median ridge onto anterior palate; and vomer part of septum is short but exposed. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, without groove for infraorbital nerve. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed, with equal contributions of Jugal and squamosal. Mesopterygoid fossa is broad (angle averages 78°) but penetrates posterior palate to middle of M®. All maxillary cheekteeth have three counterfolds; mandibular cheekteeth vary from three (rarely four) on P, to 2-3 folds on each lower molar. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Population samples of Long-tailed Spiny-rats have a higher percentage of individuals with two folds on lower molars than those of other species in the group. This pattern fits a general trend of decreasing counterfold number across species, or their populations, along environmental gradient from extremely wet forests (trans-Amazonian Choco and western Amazon) to dry forests (eastern Amazonia and central Brazil). Other examples ofthis trend are the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) in the western Amazon vs. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) in the east, or specimens of Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus) from the Choco in western Colombia vs. those in southern Ecuador (isolated subspecies rosa). Baculum of the Long-tailed Spiny-rat is robust, long (length 1-1-1 mm), and wide (proximal width 0-3-0-5 mm; distal width 0-51-0-52 mm), with short, stout apical wings. In these general features,it is virtually identical to the Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50.","habitat":"Dry tropical rainforest and mid-savanna and grassland habitat near shaded areas at elevations of 50-1000 m. The Long-tailed Spiny-rat is present in primary and secondary habitats and has been reported to den in termite mounds and armadillo burrows."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF6FFC5FA785E165FDBFBDF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF6FFC5FA785E165FDBFBDF","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"579","verbatimText":"53.Cuvier’s Spiny-ratProechimys cuvieriFrench:Rat-épineux de Cuvier/ German:CuvierKurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de CuvierTaxonomy.Proechimys cuvieri Petter, 1978, “Saul (S21), Guyane francaise,” French Guiana.Proechimys cuvieriis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazon Basin from E Ecuador, NE Peru, SE Colombia, and W Brazil E to the Amazon River mouth and N through the Guianan Region of E Ven-ezuela, and the Guianas.Descriptive notes.Head-body 211-234 mm, tail 144-168 mm; weight 260-420 g. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is moderate-sized, closely similar in external and craniodental characteristics to sympatric samples of the Shorttailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) in the western part ofits distribution, but markedly distinct from sympatric Guyenne Spiny-rat (P. guyannensis) in the Guianan region. Overall color is dark reddish orange, with midline of back darker than sides, which contrast sharply with white venter. Specimens from western Brazil may have slight fulvous edge to ventral fur in some individuals, but generally bright white contrasts sharply with typically buffy venter of sympatric Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Dorsal surface of hindfoot of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is dark on toes and lateral margins, but short hairs above metatarsals are silver, or at least distinctly paler in color than toes. This also generally contrasts with color pattern of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat, where dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are overall dark and dull. Tail averages 70% of head—body length, is sharply bicolored, and clothed in long, slightly curved and dark hairs that give it distinctly shaggy appearance—rather remarkable for a species of Proechimys. Nevertheless, tail scales are visible to the eye; scale annuli average 9-12/cm at mid-tail. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, with well-developed aristiform spines averaging 0-9 mm in width and 20-21 mm in length. Some geographical variation in spine development is apparent, with narrower spines in those from the Guianan region and tips with whip-like extensions in those from south of the Amazon in eastern Brazil; rather blunt tipped spines characterize samples from elsewhere. Head, rump, and sides are devoid of spines, as with most species of Proechimys. Skull of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with long but relatively broad rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledges but with weakly developed temporal ridges. Incisive foramina are lyrate in shape, with only moderate posterior constrictions; posterolateral margins are flanged but not as strongly as in species such as the Short-tailed Spiny-rat, and extend onto palate forming only weak grooves; premaxillary part of septum is long and typically in contact with maxillary part, which may be either keeled or smooth; and vomer is slightly to well exposed ventrally. Groove on floor of infraorbital foramen is absent or only weakly developed,as is lateral flange ofthis groove. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed and formed completely by squamosal, or with only minimal jugal contribution. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad but penetrates posterior palate into M?, with mean angles of 66-73°, depending on geographical sample. Cheekteeth are large, with length of maxillary tooth row greater or equal to 8:2 mm. Three folds are typically present on all four upper and lower cheekteeth, although some variation in number exists among geographical samples. In particular, dP, may have either 3—4 folds, and M, may likewise have either two or three folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3 / 3(4)-3-3-(2)3. Baculum is short (length 6-1-8-:6 mm) and broad (proximal width 5-3-6-7 mm; distal width 5-2-7-4 mm), with short shaft, expanded base, and deep medial notch at distal end that results in distinct apical extensions. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 46-48..theWorldof Mammals the of Handbook618Habitat.Primarily lowland, non-seasonally flooded or terra firma rainforests but seasonally available parts of otherwise inundated rainforest from near sea level to elevations of ¢.500 m. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat also occurs in abandon gardens and second-growth forests. It is usually more abundant than the Guyenne Spiny-rat in early successional forest and edge-dominated habitats in the Guianan region. In French Guiana, most Cuvier’s Spiny-rats were captured on the ground, but two were captured in liana tangles up to 1 m aboveground. There it was found in well-drained primary forest, creekside forest, and secondary vegetation beside logs, at bases of trees, amongstilt roots, on top of logs, and under masses of fallen branches. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is broadly sympatric with the Guyenne Spiny-rat throughout the Guianan region and northern Brazilian Amazon, and it may co-occur with up to four other species of Proechimysalong Rio Jurua in western Brazil, including actual syntopy with up to three other species on the same terra firma trap lines.Food and Feeding.Cuvier’s Spiny-rat has been reported to eat fruit, insect and seeds.Breeding.In Rio Jurua in western Brazil, adult male Cuvier’s Spiny-rats were reproductively active at least from August to March, over the end of the dry season and beginning of the annual rainy season. Pregnant females were found only during the wet season in February-March, and a lactating female was obtained in August. Young individuals were trapped in most months between August and June. These data are insufficient to know if breeding is largely confined to the rainy season or extends over most of the year. Reported litter size was two embryos. In French Guiana, breeding was recorded year-round.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In French Guiana, Cuvier’s Spinyrats were monitored with radio-telemetry and fluorescent tracking. Male home ranges averaged at least twice the size of females; female home ranges were exclusive of other females; and male home ranges overlapped extensively with other residents of both sexes. These data suggested that Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is polygynous or promiscuous.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in several forest types, including those modified by humans, and in protected areas. It is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Cuvier’s Spinyrat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Guillotin (1982), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Petter (1978), Reig et al. (1980), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys cuvieri Petter, 1978, “Saul (S21), Guyane francaise,” French Guiana.Proechimys cuvieriis a member of the longicaudatus-species group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Cuvier @fr | Cuvier Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Cuvier @es","interpretedAuthority":"Petter, 1978","interpretedAuthorityName":"Petter","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1978","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"27","interpretedPageNumber":"579","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cuvieri","name":"Proechimys cuvieri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin from E Ecuador, NE Peru, SE Colombia, and W Brazil E to the Amazon River mouth and N through the Guianan Region of E Ven-ezuela, and the Guianas.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623776/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Guillotin (1982) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Petter (1978) | Reig et al. (1980) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Cuvier’s Spiny-rat has been reported to eat fruit, insect and seeds.","breeding":"In Rio Jurua in western Brazil, adult male Cuvier’s Spiny-rats were reproductively active at least from August to March, over the end of the dry season and beginning of the annual rainy season. Pregnant females were found only during the wet season in February-March, and a lactating female was obtained in August. Young individuals were trapped in most months between August and June. These data are insufficient to know if breeding is largely confined to the rainy season or extends over most of the year. Reported litter size was two embryos. In French Guiana, breeding was recorded year-round.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In French Guiana, Cuvier’s Spinyrats were monitored with radio-telemetry and fluorescent tracking. Male home ranges averaged at least twice the size of females; female home ranges were exclusive of other females; and male home ranges overlapped extensively with other residents of both sexes. These data suggested that Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is polygynous or promiscuous.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in several forest types, including those modified by humans, and in protected areas. It is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Cuvier’s Spinyrat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 211-234 mm, tail 144-168 mm; weight 260-420 g. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is moderate-sized, closely similar in external and craniodental characteristics to sympatric samples of the Shorttailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda) in the western part ofits distribution, but markedly distinct from sympatric Guyenne Spiny-rat (P. guyannensis) in the Guianan region. Overall color is dark reddish orange, with midline of back darker than sides, which contrast sharply with white venter. Specimens from western Brazil may have slight fulvous edge to ventral fur in some individuals, but generally bright white contrasts sharply with typically buffy venter of sympatric Short-tailed Spiny-rat. Dorsal surface of hindfoot of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is dark on toes and lateral margins, but short hairs above metatarsals are silver, or at least distinctly paler in color than toes. This also generally contrasts with color pattern of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat, where dorsal surfaces of hindfeet are overall dark and dull. Tail averages 70% of head—body length, is sharply bicolored, and clothed in long, slightly curved and dark hairs that give it distinctly shaggy appearance—rather remarkable for a species of Proechimys. Nevertheless, tail scales are visible to the eye; scale annuli average 9-12/cm at mid-tail. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, with well-developed aristiform spines averaging 0-9 mm in width and 20-21 mm in length. Some geographical variation in spine development is apparent, with narrower spines in those from the Guianan region and tips with whip-like extensions in those from south of the Amazon in eastern Brazil; rather blunt tipped spines characterize samples from elsewhere. Head, rump, and sides are devoid of spines, as with most species of Proechimys. Skull of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with long but relatively broad rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledges but with weakly developed temporal ridges. Incisive foramina are lyrate in shape, with only moderate posterior constrictions; posterolateral margins are flanged but not as strongly as in species such as the Short-tailed Spiny-rat, and extend onto palate forming only weak grooves; premaxillary part of septum is long and typically in contact with maxillary part, which may be either keeled or smooth; and vomer is slightly to well exposed ventrally. Groove on floor of infraorbital foramen is absent or only weakly developed,as is lateral flange ofthis groove. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed and formed completely by squamosal, or with only minimal jugal contribution. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad but penetrates posterior palate into M?, with mean angles of 66-73°, depending on geographical sample. Cheekteeth are large, with length of maxillary tooth row greater or equal to 8:2 mm. Three folds are typically present on all four upper and lower cheekteeth, although some variation in number exists among geographical samples. In particular, dP, may have either 3—4 folds, and M, may likewise have either two or three folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3-3 / 3(4)-3-3-(2)3. Baculum is short (length 6-1-8-:6 mm) and broad (proximal width 5-3-6-7 mm; distal width 5-2-7-4 mm), with short shaft, expanded base, and deep medial notch at distal end that results in distinct apical extensions. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 28 and FN = 46-48..","habitat":"Primarily lowland, non-seasonally flooded or terra firma rainforests but seasonally available parts of otherwise inundated rainforest from near sea level to elevations of ¢.500 m. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat also occurs in abandon gardens and second-growth forests. It is usually more abundant than the Guyenne Spiny-rat in early successional forest and edge-dominated habitats in the Guianan region. In French Guiana, most Cuvier’s Spiny-rats were captured on the ground, but two were captured in liana tangles up to 1 m aboveground. There it was found in well-drained primary forest, creekside forest, and secondary vegetation beside logs, at bases of trees, amongstilt roots, on top of logs, and under masses of fallen branches. Cuvier’s Spiny-rat is broadly sympatric with the Guyenne Spiny-rat throughout the Guianan region and northern Brazilian Amazon, and it may co-occur with up to four other species of Proechimysalong Rio Jurua in western Brazil, including actual syntopy with up to three other species on the same terra firma trap lines."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF7FFC2FAD95E4F585DFA6F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF7FFC2FAD95E4F585DFA6F","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"578","verbatimText":"51.Short-tailed Spiny-ratProechimys brevicaudaFrench:Rat-épineux a queue courte/ German:Kurzschwanz-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de cola cortaOther common names:Huallaga Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Echimys brevicauda Gunther, 1877, “Chamicuros, Huallaga river,” Loreto, Peru.Proechimys brevicaudais a member of the longicaudatusspecies group. It includes bolivianus, securus, gularis, and elassopus as synonyms. It is variable in color pattern and karyotype over its known distribution and might require taxonomic revision. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, NW Bolivia, and W Brazil (Acre and possibly Amazonas states).Descriptive notes.Head-body 189-253 mm, tail 137-167 mm; weight 240-490 g. The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is moderately sized, with reddish brown overall dorsal color, dark feet, and short (c.65% of head-body length) and weakly bicolored tail. Overall color of head, back, and rump is reddish brown, generally not as dark along midline as in Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri). Fulvous lateral stripe characteristically separates darker dorsal pelage from lighter venter, but venter is variously colored in different parts of its distribution, being brownish or grayish in parts of eastern Ecuador (as in the named form gularisby O. Thomas in 1911), reddish buff throughout most of northern and central Peru and western Brazil, and clear white in most individuals from southern Peru and Bolivia. Fulvous lateral stripe continues across ankle to small paler patch at proximal base of metatarsal area on dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. Otherwise, upper surfaces of hindfeet, including all five toes, are uniformly dark. Tail of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat is sparsely haired, much less so and with distinctly shorter hairs than that of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat; scale annuli average 9-10/cm at mid-length. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, but aristiform hairs are less well developed than in Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Lengths are 18-20 mm, and widths are 0-6—0-8 mm; distinct tapering tips are present on all aristiforms. Cranially, the Short-tailed Spiny-rat is similar to the two other species within the longicaudatusspecies group, being of moderate size with elongated but relatively broad rostrum. Temporal ridge is moderately to weakly developed, often with anterior parietal part separated from posterior lambdoidal part. Incisive foramina are typically strongly lyrate in shape, distally flanged so that anterior palate is deeply grooved with median ridge and complete and keeled septum. Post-orbital process of zygomais nearly obsolete and comprised predominantly byjugal. Mesopterygoid fossa is shallow, generally only barely reaching posterior margins of M?, and wide (angles are 73-80° among geographical specimens). Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking groove indicative of infraorbital nerve. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth is uniformly 3-3-3-3 above and 3(4)—(2)3-(2)3-(2)3 below. In rare individuals, M* and M? may have remnant fourth fold, and southern specimens exhibit higher frequencies of only two folds on M,. Baculum is massive, long (length 7-8-11-7 mm), and wide (proximal width 3:7-5-1 mm; distal width 4-6-5-9 mm), with slight but broad apical wings and expanded base. Rather massive size of baculum make phallusitself long and distinctly heavy or broad in appearance, so much so that palpating phallus in live males 1s an easy way to distinguish the Short-tailed Spiny-rat from sympatric congeners in the field. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 28 and FN = 48 in southern Peru, 2n = 30 and FN = 48 in Ecuador and northern Peru, and 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50 in central Peru and western Brazil.Habitat.Lowland Amazonian rainforest in non-seasonally flooded forest (terra firma) in primary and disturbed habitats including secondary growth and garden plots at elevations of 200-1800 m. The Short-tailed Spiny-rat also occurs on lowerslopes of the eastern slope of the Andes in Peru and Ecuador.Food and Feeding.The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is presumably herbivorous, feeding mostly on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts. It consumes commonly grown local garden products, such as yucca and plantains.Breeding.Breeding of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence at the end of the prolonged dry season (November—-December), with reproduction primarily limited to adults of both sexes. In western Brazil, 39% of a sample of 69 females collected in February-March was pregnant; modal litter size was two young (range 1-4). Details as to parity, age at first reproduction, presence of a postpartum estrus, and length of defined breeding season are unavailable.Activity patterns.The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is easily observed scurrying through leaf litter at night, and all trapping records indicate strictly nocturnal activity pattern.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Densities of Short-tailed Spiny-rats can reach very high levels, even in highly localized indigenous garden plots, suggesting that tolerance of conspecifics is high and home rangesizes are limited and overlap extensively.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in multiple forest types, including those highly degraded. It also occurs in protected parks and is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Short-tailed Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1902), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gunther (1877a), Osgood (1944), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Thomas (19014, 1911b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys brevicauda Gunther, 1877, “Chamicuros, Huallaga river,” Loreto, Peru.Proechimys brevicaudais a member of the longicaudatusspecies group. It includes bolivianus, securus, gularis, and elassopus as synonyms. It is variable in color pattern and karyotype over its known distribution and might require taxonomic revision. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux a queue courte @fr | Kurzschwanz-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de cola corta @es | Huallaga Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Günther","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1877","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"578","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brevicauda","name":"Proechimys brevicauda","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, NW Bolivia, and W Brazil (Acre and possibly Amazonas states).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623772/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1902) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gunther (1877a) | Osgood (1944) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Thomas (19014, 1911b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is presumably herbivorous, feeding mostly on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts. It consumes commonly grown local garden products, such as yucca and plantains.","breeding":"Breeding of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat appears to commence at the end of the prolonged dry season (November—-December), with reproduction primarily limited to adults of both sexes. In western Brazil, 39% of a sample of 69 females collected in February-March was pregnant; modal litter size was two young (range 1-4). Details as to parity, age at first reproduction, presence of a postpartum estrus, and length of defined breeding season are unavailable.","activityPatterns":"The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is easily observed scurrying through leaf litter at night, and all trapping records indicate strictly nocturnal activity pattern.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Densities of Short-tailed Spiny-rats can reach very high levels, even in highly localized indigenous garden plots, suggesting that tolerance of conspecifics is high and home rangesizes are limited and overlap extensively.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Shorttailed Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in multiple forest types, including those highly degraded. It also occurs in protected parks and is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Short-tailed Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 189-253 mm, tail 137-167 mm; weight 240-490 g. The Short-tailed Spiny-rat is moderately sized, with reddish brown overall dorsal color, dark feet, and short (c.65% of head-body length) and weakly bicolored tail. Overall color of head, back, and rump is reddish brown, generally not as dark along midline as in Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri). Fulvous lateral stripe characteristically separates darker dorsal pelage from lighter venter, but venter is variously colored in different parts of its distribution, being brownish or grayish in parts of eastern Ecuador (as in the named form gularisby O. Thomas in 1911), reddish buff throughout most of northern and central Peru and western Brazil, and clear white in most individuals from southern Peru and Bolivia. Fulvous lateral stripe continues across ankle to small paler patch at proximal base of metatarsal area on dorsal surfaces of hindfeet. Otherwise, upper surfaces of hindfeet, including all five toes, are uniformly dark. Tail of the Short-tailed Spiny-rat is sparsely haired, much less so and with distinctly shorter hairs than that of Cuvier’s Spiny-rat; scale annuli average 9-10/cm at mid-length. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, but aristiform hairs are less well developed than in Cuvier’s Spiny-rat. Lengths are 18-20 mm, and widths are 0-6—0-8 mm; distinct tapering tips are present on all aristiforms. Cranially, the Short-tailed Spiny-rat is similar to the two other species within the longicaudatusspecies group, being of moderate size with elongated but relatively broad rostrum. Temporal ridge is moderately to weakly developed, often with anterior parietal part separated from posterior lambdoidal part. Incisive foramina are typically strongly lyrate in shape, distally flanged so that anterior palate is deeply grooved with median ridge and complete and keeled septum. Post-orbital process of zygomais nearly obsolete and comprised predominantly byjugal. Mesopterygoid fossa is shallow, generally only barely reaching posterior margins of M?, and wide (angles are 73-80° among geographical specimens). Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking groove indicative of infraorbital nerve. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth is uniformly 3-3-3-3 above and 3(4)—(2)3-(2)3-(2)3 below. In rare individuals, M* and M? may have remnant fourth fold, and southern specimens exhibit higher frequencies of only two folds on M,. Baculum is massive, long (length 7-8-11-7 mm), and wide (proximal width 3:7-5-1 mm; distal width 4-6-5-9 mm), with slight but broad apical wings and expanded base. Rather massive size of baculum make phallusitself long and distinctly heavy or broad in appearance, so much so that palpating phallus in live males 1s an easy way to distinguish the Short-tailed Spiny-rat from sympatric congeners in the field. Chromosomal complementis 2n = 28 and FN = 48 in southern Peru, 2n = 30 and FN = 48 in Ecuador and northern Peru, and 2n = 28 and FN = 48-50 in central Peru and western Brazil.","habitat":"Lowland Amazonian rainforest in non-seasonally flooded forest (terra firma) in primary and disturbed habitats including secondary growth and garden plots at elevations of 200-1800 m. The Short-tailed Spiny-rat also occurs on lowerslopes of the eastern slope of the Andes in Peru and Ecuador."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF7FFC3FFD053A253B8FA69.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF7FFC3FFD053A253B8FA69","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"578","verbatimText":"50.Guianan Spiny-ratProechimys hoplomyoidesFrench:Rat-épineux du Roraima/ German:Guyana-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de GuayanaOther common names:Guyanan Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys cayennensis hoplomyoides Tate, 1939, “Rondon Camp, Mt. Roraima, 6800 feet [2073 m],” Bolivar, Venezuela.Proechimys hoplomyoidesbelongs to the trinitatisspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.S & SE Venezuela, in Amazonian and Guianan Shield tepui areas; possibly also in adjacent areas of W Guyana and N Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head—body 213 mm, tail 154 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Guianan Spiny-rat is moderate to large. Dorsum is blackish brown; fur is heavily spined, with broad and stiff aristiforms. Venter is whitish. Tail is moderately long butstill shorter than head-body length (72%). Skull is relatively long and narrow; supraorbital ledges are weakly developed and do not extend onto temporal region as distinct ridges; incisive foramina are somewhat lyre-shaped with weakly developed posterolateral margins that define grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is enlarged, encompassing at least one-half of foraminal opening, but maxillary part is attenuated and does not contact premaxilla; floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking groove indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve; and mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and deeply penetrating, extending at least to posterior onehalf of M*. Counterfold pattern is simple, with three folds on each upper and lower tooth; counterfold formula is 3-3—-3-3 for maxillary and mandibular teeth. Baculum is long and relatively narrow (length 11-6 mm, proximal width 2:5 mm, and distal width 0-18 mm in the single specimen available). Karyotype is unknown.Habitat.Known only from evergreen rainforest, including indigenous garden plots and creek-side and riverine forests, at elevations of 130-2300 m.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Guianan Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Guianan Spiny-rat is known from only six specimens from four separate localities. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats to the Guianan Spiny-rat are needed for a proper conservation assessment.Bibliography.Eisenberg (1989), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Handley (1976), Linares (1998), Patton (1987), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Tate (1939), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys cayennensis hoplomyoides Tate, 1939, “Rondon Camp, Mt. Roraima, 6800 feet [2073 m],” Bolivar, Venezuela.Proechimys hoplomyoidesbelongs to the trinitatisspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Roraima @fr | Guyana-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Guayana @es | Guyanan Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Tate","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1939","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"26","interpretedPageNumber":"578","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hoplomyoides","name":"Proechimys hoplomyoides","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S & SE Venezuela, in Amazonian and Guianan Shield tepui areas; possibly also in adjacent areas of W Guyana and N Brazil.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623770/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisenberg (1989) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Handley (1976) | Linares (1998) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Tate (1939) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Guianan Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Guianan Spiny-rat is known from only six specimens from four separate localities. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats to the Guianan Spiny-rat are needed for a proper conservation assessment.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 213 mm, tail 154 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Guianan Spiny-rat is moderate to large. Dorsum is blackish brown; fur is heavily spined, with broad and stiff aristiforms. Venter is whitish. Tail is moderately long butstill shorter than head-body length (72%). Skull is relatively long and narrow; supraorbital ledges are weakly developed and do not extend onto temporal region as distinct ridges; incisive foramina are somewhat lyre-shaped with weakly developed posterolateral margins that define grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is enlarged, encompassing at least one-half of foraminal opening, but maxillary part is attenuated and does not contact premaxilla; floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, lacking groove indicative of passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve; and mesopterygoid fossa is narrow and deeply penetrating, extending at least to posterior onehalf of M*. Counterfold pattern is simple, with three folds on each upper and lower tooth; counterfold formula is 3-3—-3-3 for maxillary and mandibular teeth. Baculum is long and relatively narrow (length 11-6 mm, proximal width 2:5 mm, and distal width 0-18 mm in the single specimen available). Karyotype is unknown.","habitat":"Known only from evergreen rainforest, including indigenous garden plots and creek-side and riverine forests, at elevations of 130-2300 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF8FFCCFF7352735375F515.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF8FFCCFF7352735375F515","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"573","verbatimText":"39.Steere’s Spiny-ratProechimys steereiFrench:Rat-épineux de Steere/ German:Steere-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de SteereRn SeTaxonomy. Proechimys steerei Goldman, 1911, “ Rio Purus, a southern tributary of the Amazon, in north-western [Amazonas], Brazil.” Restricted by E. A. Goldman in 1912 to “Hyutana-han [= Huitanaa], a small village of rubber gatherers, on the north side of the Rio Purus, in the upper part ofits course.”Proechimys steereiis a member of the goeldii species group. It includes kermiti, pachita, hilda, rattinus, and lminalis as synonyms.*®.Sl a.= —= —: we AMonotypic.“Distribution.Amazon Basin in E Peru (S of the Rio Maranon), NW Bolivia, and W Brazil, largely S of the Amazon River and E to beyond the Rio Purus, but extending N of the Amazon River in the Imeri region W of the lower Rio Negro.=Descriptive notes.Head—body 215-493 mm,tail 120-207 mm; weight 300-800 g. Steere’s Spiny-rat is one of the largest species of terrestrial spiny-rats. Its ears and hindfeet are large, and tail is c.65% of head-body length, bicolored dark above and pale below, and covered with fine hairs but with scales conspicuous to the eye. There are typically 8 annuli/cm. Dorsum is light reddish brown, only faintly streaked with darker hairs. Steere’s Spiny-rats vary in the degree to which they are darkened along midline, but in general, they lack dark midline characteristic of most specimens of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicates). Venteris pure white, and texture of ventral fur is thicker and more velvety both to the eye and touch than in other species of Proechimys. Aristiform hairs of dorsum are distinctly narrow, short, and lax, markedly softer compared with all other sympatric species of Proechimysand the other two species in the goelditspecies group. Spines average only c¢.15 mm in length and 0-5 mm in width. Color of dorsal surface of hindfootis characteristic, with pale to dark brown outer band and whitish inner band along length of foot from tarsal joint to end oftoes. Skull of Steere’s Spiny-ratis large, with long and narrow rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledge that extends onto parietals as weakly developed ridge. Incisive foramina are lyrate to oval in outline, with slightly to strongly flanged posterolateral margins that form groovesextending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part is distinctly narrow; both parts of septum are in contact in most specimens; and vomer usually is not visible. Groove is present on floor of infraorbital foramen, butlateral flange is only weakly developed. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad (averaging 67°) but penetrates to midpoint of M’. Counterfold pattern is 3(4)-3(4)-3(4)—(3)4/4-3-3-3. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-7 mm) and of moderate width (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with parallel or slightly concave sides; it is similar in size and shape to those of the Napo Spiny-rat and Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (P. goeldii). Phallus is remarkably small, particularly so for an animal as large as Steere’s Spiny-rat, with prepuce extending as narrow tube and terminating by characteristic tuft of hairs, rather than being rounded and blunt as in most male Proechimys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 40-42.Habitat.Seasonally flooded rainforest in the dry season, such as blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea, but margins of adjacent terra firma forest in the wet season, including secondary forests, abandoned garden plots, riverine margins, and flooded grass patches within forests at elevations of 50-400 m. Overits entire distribution, Steere’s Spiny-rat is the only species present in igapo or varzea.Food and Feeding.Steere’s Spiny-rat feeds mainly on fruit, fungi, and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material and arthropods. Consumption of sporocarps of micorrhizal fungi and seeds suggest that Steere’s Spiny-rat may play a key ecological role in seed and fungal dispersal in forests.Breeding.Autopsy data from Steere’s Spiny-rats collected during a year-long survey along the Rio Jurua in western Brazil indicate that it has a higher reproductive output than most other species of Proechimys, perhaps correlated with ephemeral availability of its primary, seasonally flooded habitat. Both sexes reached sexual maturity at an early age, well before complete molt into their adult pelage; pregnant females, on average, were younger (based on tooth wear) than those of adjacent, terra firma species; almost all females participated in breeding with a large proportion (20%) exhibiting evidence of postpartum estrus (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation); and litter sizes were high for a species of Proechimys(mean = 3 young, range 1-7).Activity patterns.Trapping records indicate that Steere’s Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Steere’s Spiny-rat is widespread and specializes in riverine, seasonally flooded forest that is not under threat from agricultural expansion. It is part of the fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas and is unlikely to be declining. Expansion of illegal gold mining along many major river systems through its distribution, especially in south-eastern Peru, might impact varzea habitat, and focused field studies are needed to assess this possible threat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Steere’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1915a), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Goldman (1911b, 1912a, 1912b, 1912c¢), Hershkovitz (1948), Janos et al. (1995), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Ribeiro (2006), Thomas (1911a, 1923b, 1924b, 1926b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys steerei Goldman, 1911, “ Rio Purus, a southern tributary of the Amazon, in north-western [Amazonas], Brazil.” Restricted by E. A. Goldman in 1912 to “Hyutana-han [= Huitanaa], a small village of rubber gatherers, on the north side of the Rio Purus, in the upper part ofits course.”Proechimys steereiis a member of the goeldii species group. It includes kermiti, pachita, hilda, rattinus, and lminalis as synonyms.*®.Sl a.= —= —: we AMonotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Steere @fr | Steere-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Steere @es","interpretedAuthority":"Goldman, 1911","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goldman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"573","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"steerei","name":"Proechimys steerei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin in E Peru (S of the Rio Maranon), NW Bolivia, and W Brazil, largely S of the Amazon River and E to beyond the Rio Purus, but extending N of the Amazon River in the Imeri region W of the lower Rio Negro.","bibliography":"Allen (1915a) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Goldman (1911b, 1912a, 1912b, 1912c¢) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Janos et al. (1995) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Ribeiro (2006) | Thomas (1911a, 1923b, 1924b, 1926b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Steere’s Spiny-rat feeds mainly on fruit, fungi, and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material and arthropods. Consumption of sporocarps of micorrhizal fungi and seeds suggest that Steere’s Spiny-rat may play a key ecological role in seed and fungal dispersal in forests.","breeding":"Autopsy data from Steere’s Spiny-rats collected during a year-long survey along the Rio Jurua in western Brazil indicate that it has a higher reproductive output than most other species of Proechimys, perhaps correlated with ephemeral availability of its primary, seasonally flooded habitat. Both sexes reached sexual maturity at an early age, well before complete molt into their adult pelage; pregnant females, on average, were younger (based on tooth wear) than those of adjacent, terra firma species; almost all females participated in breeding with a large proportion (20%) exhibiting evidence of postpartum estrus (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation); and litter sizes were high for a species of Proechimys(mean = 3 young, range 1-7).","activityPatterns":"Trapping records indicate that Steere’s Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Steere’s Spiny-rat is widespread and specializes in riverine, seasonally flooded forest that is not under threat from agricultural expansion. It is part of the fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas and is unlikely to be declining. Expansion of illegal gold mining along many major river systems through its distribution, especially in south-eastern Peru, might impact varzea habitat, and focused field studies are needed to assess this possible threat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Steere’s Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 215-493 mm,tail 120-207 mm; weight 300-800 g. Steere’s Spiny-rat is one of the largest species of terrestrial spiny-rats. Its ears and hindfeet are large, and tail is c.65% of head-body length, bicolored dark above and pale below, and covered with fine hairs but with scales conspicuous to the eye. There are typically 8 annuli/cm. Dorsum is light reddish brown, only faintly streaked with darker hairs. Steere’s Spiny-rats vary in the degree to which they are darkened along midline, but in general, they lack dark midline characteristic of most specimens of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicates). Venteris pure white, and texture of ventral fur is thicker and more velvety both to the eye and touch than in other species of Proechimys. Aristiform hairs of dorsum are distinctly narrow, short, and lax, markedly softer compared with all other sympatric species of Proechimysand the other two species in the goelditspecies group. Spines average only c¢.15 mm in length and 0-5 mm in width. Color of dorsal surface of hindfootis characteristic, with pale to dark brown outer band and whitish inner band along length of foot from tarsal joint to end oftoes. Skull of Steere’s Spiny-ratis large, with long and narrow rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledge that extends onto parietals as weakly developed ridge. Incisive foramina are lyrate to oval in outline, with slightly to strongly flanged posterolateral margins that form groovesextending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part is distinctly narrow; both parts of septum are in contact in most specimens; and vomer usually is not visible. Groove is present on floor of infraorbital foramen, butlateral flange is only weakly developed. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad (averaging 67°) but penetrates to midpoint of M’. Counterfold pattern is 3(4)-3(4)-3(4)—(3)4/4-3-3-3. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-7 mm) and of moderate width (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with parallel or slightly concave sides; it is similar in size and shape to those of the Napo Spiny-rat and Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (P. goeldii). Phallus is remarkably small, particularly so for an animal as large as Steere’s Spiny-rat, with prepuce extending as narrow tube and terminating by characteristic tuft of hairs, rather than being rounded and blunt as in most male Proechimys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 40-42.","habitat":"Seasonally flooded rainforest in the dry season, such as blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea, but margins of adjacent terra firma forest in the wet season, including secondary forests, abandoned garden plots, riverine margins, and flooded grass patches within forests at elevations of 50-400 m. Overits entire distribution, Steere’s Spiny-rat is the only species present in igapo or varzea."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF8FFCFFA7552C05824F64C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF8FFCFFA7552C05824F64C","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"573","verbatimText":"40.Goeld1’s Spiny-ratProechimys goeldiiFrench:Rat-épineux de Goeldi/ German:Goeldi-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de GoeldiTaxonomy. Proechimys goeldii Thomas, 1905, “ Santarem [Santarém |, Lower Ama-zon,” Rio Tapajos, Para, Brazil. Identified by M. Guntert and colleagues in 1993 as “Santarém, Barras de Tapajoz” (holotype specimen).Proechimys goeldiiis a member of the goeldi+ species group. It includes hyleae, nesiotes, and leioprimma as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Amazon Basin of Brazil, mostly E of the Rio Madeira and S of the Amazon River, largely in the drainages of the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia, reaching the cerrado biome in Mato Grosso State.Descriptive notes.Head—body 188-271 mm, tail 100-171 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is a geographically variable; general size varies from large to medium, ears are long, hindfeet are large, and tail averages c.68% of head-body length. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, strongly mixed with black especially over mid-back and rump, but specimens from more southern localities are distinctly paler and more orangish red. Venter is clear white from chin to inguinal region; inner thighs are white but separated from dorsal foot color by dark band. Dorsal surface of hindfootis bicolored, with dark lateral band and light inner band—a pattern characteristic of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) and Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer). All plantar pads of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar large and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered with short, sparsely distributed hairs so that it appears naked to the eye. Tail scales are rather small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Aristiform spinesare stout and stiff, averaging 18-20 mm in length and up to 1-1 mm in width, and typically terminate in blunt tips. Skull of Goeldi’s Spinyrat is similar in most respects to the other two species in the goelditspecies group. It is large and elongate,is broad across zygomatic arches, and has relatively long but broad rostrum. Older individuals have weakly continuous temporal ridges, extending from supraorbital ledge across parietals. Incisive foramina are broadly open, weakly lyreshaped or parallel sided, with posterior margins slightly flanged and extending onto anterior palate forming grooves; premaxillary part of septum is short, usually less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part varies greatly, often weak and attenuate, perhaps not in contact with premaxillary part, or even spatulate and filling much of posterior opening; maxillary part, however, has slight keel that continues onto palate as median ridge; and vomeris typically enclosed in premaxillary sheath and thus not visible. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be smooth, lacking any evidence of groove or with groove defined by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, with angle of indentation averaging 65°, but penetrates posterior palate to about midpoint of M?. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and involves mostly squamosal. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies, with number of folds decreasing from west to east and from north to south. Western specimens typically have upper cheekteeth with 3—4(3)—4(3)-3 and lower cheekteeth with 4(rarely 3)-3-3-3 folds; eastern and southern samples have reduced counterfold number of 3-3-3-3 above and 3 (rarely 4)-3-3-3 or 2 below. Baculum of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is generally the same size and shape as those of the other members ofthis group, averaging slightly more than 8 mm in length and nearly 3 mm in width. Sides are straight and parallel, base is slightly expanded, and tip shows only faint development ofapical wings or median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 15 and FN = 16 in Jurudna, Mato Grosso, Brazil and 2n = 24 and FN = 44 in Rio Xingu.Habitat.Seasonally flooded blackwater (igap6) and whitewater (varzea) rainforest, both primary and secondary, and typically along river margins from near sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.Pregnant Goeldi’s Spiny-rats have been found in January at localities on Rio Tapajos and Rio Tocantins.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-1di’s Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is thought to be an abundant and present in undisturbed and deforested areas and other habitats highly modified by agricultural expansion throughoutits distribution. Apparentreliance on seasonally flooded forests, however, may protect Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rats from continued human expansion. Nevertheless, population studies on impact of habitat degradation are necessary to adequately assess its conservation status.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (1996), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gintert et al. (1993), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Thomas (1905a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys goeldii Thomas, 1905, “ Santarem [Santarém |, Lower Ama-zon,” Rio Tapajos, Para, Brazil. Identified by M. Guntert and colleagues in 1993 as “Santarém, Barras de Tapajoz” (holotype specimen).Proechimys goeldiiis a member of the goeldi+ species group. It includes hyleae, nesiotes, and leioprimma as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Goeldi @fr | Goeldi-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Goeldi @es","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1905","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1905","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"573","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"goeldii","name":"Proechimys goeldii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Amazon Basin of Brazil, mostly E of the Rio Madeira and S of the Amazon River, largely in the drainages of the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia, reaching the cerrado biome in Mato Grosso State.","bibliography":"Bonvicino et al. (1996) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gintert et al. (1993) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Thomas (1905a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.","breeding":"Pregnant Goeldi’s Spiny-rats have been found in January at localities on Rio Tapajos and Rio Tocantins.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-1di’s Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is thought to be an abundant and present in undisturbed and deforested areas and other habitats highly modified by agricultural expansion throughoutits distribution. Apparentreliance on seasonally flooded forests, however, may protect Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rats from continued human expansion. Nevertheless, population studies on impact of habitat degradation are necessary to adequately assess its conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 188-271 mm, tail 100-171 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is a geographically variable; general size varies from large to medium, ears are long, hindfeet are large, and tail averages c.68% of head-body length. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, strongly mixed with black especially over mid-back and rump, but specimens from more southern localities are distinctly paler and more orangish red. Venter is clear white from chin to inguinal region; inner thighs are white but separated from dorsal foot color by dark band. Dorsal surface of hindfootis bicolored, with dark lateral band and light inner band—a pattern characteristic of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) and Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer). All plantar pads of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar large and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered with short, sparsely distributed hairs so that it appears naked to the eye. Tail scales are rather small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Aristiform spinesare stout and stiff, averaging 18-20 mm in length and up to 1-1 mm in width, and typically terminate in blunt tips. Skull of Goeldi’s Spinyrat is similar in most respects to the other two species in the goelditspecies group. It is large and elongate,is broad across zygomatic arches, and has relatively long but broad rostrum. Older individuals have weakly continuous temporal ridges, extending from supraorbital ledge across parietals. Incisive foramina are broadly open, weakly lyreshaped or parallel sided, with posterior margins slightly flanged and extending onto anterior palate forming grooves; premaxillary part of septum is short, usually less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part varies greatly, often weak and attenuate, perhaps not in contact with premaxillary part, or even spatulate and filling much of posterior opening; maxillary part, however, has slight keel that continues onto palate as median ridge; and vomeris typically enclosed in premaxillary sheath and thus not visible. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be smooth, lacking any evidence of groove or with groove defined by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, with angle of indentation averaging 65°, but penetrates posterior palate to about midpoint of M?. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and involves mostly squamosal. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies, with number of folds decreasing from west to east and from north to south. Western specimens typically have upper cheekteeth with 3—4(3)—4(3)-3 and lower cheekteeth with 4(rarely 3)-3-3-3 folds; eastern and southern samples have reduced counterfold number of 3-3-3-3 above and 3 (rarely 4)-3-3-3 or 2 below. Baculum of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is generally the same size and shape as those of the other members ofthis group, averaging slightly more than 8 mm in length and nearly 3 mm in width. Sides are straight and parallel, base is slightly expanded, and tip shows only faint development ofapical wings or median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 15 and FN = 16 in Jurudna, Mato Grosso, Brazil and 2n = 24 and FN = 44 in Rio Xingu.","habitat":"Seasonally flooded blackwater (igap6) and whitewater (varzea) rainforest, both primary and secondary, and typically along river margins from near sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF8FFCCFF7352735375F515.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF8FFCCFF7352735375F515","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"573","verbatimText":"39.Steere’s Spiny-ratProechimys steereiFrench:Rat-épineux de Steere/ German:Steere-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de SteereRn SeTaxonomy. Proechimys steerei Goldman, 1911, “ Rio Purus, a southern tributary of the Amazon, in north-western [Amazonas], Brazil.” Restricted by E. A. Goldman in 1912 to “Hyutana-han [= Huitanaa], a small village of rubber gatherers, on the north side of the Rio Purus, in the upper part ofits course.”Proechimys steereiis a member of the goeldii species group. It includes kermiti, pachita, hilda, rattinus, and lminalis as synonyms.*®.Sl a.= —= —: we AMonotypic.“Distribution.Amazon Basin in E Peru (S of the Rio Maranon), NW Bolivia, and W Brazil, largely S of the Amazon River and E to beyond the Rio Purus, but extending N of the Amazon River in the Imeri region W of the lower Rio Negro.=Descriptive notes.Head—body 215-493 mm,tail 120-207 mm; weight 300-800 g. Steere’s Spiny-rat is one of the largest species of terrestrial spiny-rats. Its ears and hindfeet are large, and tail is c.65% of head-body length, bicolored dark above and pale below, and covered with fine hairs but with scales conspicuous to the eye. There are typically 8 annuli/cm. Dorsum is light reddish brown, only faintly streaked with darker hairs. Steere’s Spiny-rats vary in the degree to which they are darkened along midline, but in general, they lack dark midline characteristic of most specimens of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicates). Venteris pure white, and texture of ventral fur is thicker and more velvety both to the eye and touch than in other species of Proechimys. Aristiform hairs of dorsum are distinctly narrow, short, and lax, markedly softer compared with all other sympatric species of Proechimysand the other two species in the goelditspecies group. Spines average only c¢.15 mm in length and 0-5 mm in width. Color of dorsal surface of hindfootis characteristic, with pale to dark brown outer band and whitish inner band along length of foot from tarsal joint to end oftoes. Skull of Steere’s Spiny-ratis large, with long and narrow rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledge that extends onto parietals as weakly developed ridge. Incisive foramina are lyrate to oval in outline, with slightly to strongly flanged posterolateral margins that form groovesextending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part is distinctly narrow; both parts of septum are in contact in most specimens; and vomer usually is not visible. Groove is present on floor of infraorbital foramen, butlateral flange is only weakly developed. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad (averaging 67°) but penetrates to midpoint of M’. Counterfold pattern is 3(4)-3(4)-3(4)—(3)4/4-3-3-3. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-7 mm) and of moderate width (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with parallel or slightly concave sides; it is similar in size and shape to those of the Napo Spiny-rat and Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (P. goeldii). Phallus is remarkably small, particularly so for an animal as large as Steere’s Spiny-rat, with prepuce extending as narrow tube and terminating by characteristic tuft of hairs, rather than being rounded and blunt as in most male Proechimys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 40-42.Habitat.Seasonally flooded rainforest in the dry season, such as blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea, but margins of adjacent terra firma forest in the wet season, including secondary forests, abandoned garden plots, riverine margins, and flooded grass patches within forests at elevations of 50-400 m. Overits entire distribution, Steere’s Spiny-rat is the only species present in igapo or varzea.Food and Feeding.Steere’s Spiny-rat feeds mainly on fruit, fungi, and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material and arthropods. Consumption of sporocarps of micorrhizal fungi and seeds suggest that Steere’s Spiny-rat may play a key ecological role in seed and fungal dispersal in forests.Breeding.Autopsy data from Steere’s Spiny-rats collected during a year-long survey along the Rio Jurua in western Brazil indicate that it has a higher reproductive output than most other species of Proechimys, perhaps correlated with ephemeral availability of its primary, seasonally flooded habitat. Both sexes reached sexual maturity at an early age, well before complete molt into their adult pelage; pregnant females, on average, were younger (based on tooth wear) than those of adjacent, terra firma species; almost all females participated in breeding with a large proportion (20%) exhibiting evidence of postpartum estrus (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation); and litter sizes were high for a species of Proechimys(mean = 3 young, range 1-7).Activity patterns.Trapping records indicate that Steere’s Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Steere’s Spiny-rat is widespread and specializes in riverine, seasonally flooded forest that is not under threat from agricultural expansion. It is part of the fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas and is unlikely to be declining. Expansion of illegal gold mining along many major river systems through its distribution, especially in south-eastern Peru, might impact varzea habitat, and focused field studies are needed to assess this possible threat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Steere’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1915a), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Goldman (1911b, 1912a, 1912b, 1912c¢), Hershkovitz (1948), Janos et al. (1995), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Ribeiro (2006), Thomas (1911a, 1923b, 1924b, 1926b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys steerei Goldman, 1911, “ Rio Purus, a southern tributary of the Amazon, in north-western [Amazonas], Brazil.” Restricted by E. A. Goldman in 1912 to “Hyutana-han [= Huitanaa], a small village of rubber gatherers, on the north side of the Rio Purus, in the upper part ofits course.”Proechimys steereiis a member of the goeldii species group. It includes kermiti, pachita, hilda, rattinus, and lminalis as synonyms.*®.Sl a.= —= —: we AMonotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Steere @fr | Steere-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Steere @es","interpretedAuthority":"Goldman, 1911","interpretedAuthorityName":"Goldman","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1911","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"573","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"steerei","name":"Proechimys steerei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin in E Peru (S of the Rio Maranon), NW Bolivia, and W Brazil, largely S of the Amazon River and E to beyond the Rio Purus, but extending N of the Amazon River in the Imeri region W of the lower Rio Negro.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623744/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1915a) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Goldman (1911b, 1912a, 1912b, 1912c¢) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Janos et al. (1995) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Ribeiro (2006) | Thomas (1911a, 1923b, 1924b, 1926b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Steere’s Spiny-rat feeds mainly on fruit, fungi, and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material and arthropods. Consumption of sporocarps of micorrhizal fungi and seeds suggest that Steere’s Spiny-rat may play a key ecological role in seed and fungal dispersal in forests.","breeding":"Autopsy data from Steere’s Spiny-rats collected during a year-long survey along the Rio Jurua in western Brazil indicate that it has a higher reproductive output than most other species of Proechimys, perhaps correlated with ephemeral availability of its primary, seasonally flooded habitat. Both sexes reached sexual maturity at an early age, well before complete molt into their adult pelage; pregnant females, on average, were younger (based on tooth wear) than those of adjacent, terra firma species; almost all females participated in breeding with a large proportion (20%) exhibiting evidence of postpartum estrus (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation); and litter sizes were high for a species of Proechimys(mean = 3 young, range 1-7).","activityPatterns":"Trapping records indicate that Steere’s Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Steere’s Spiny-rat is widespread and specializes in riverine, seasonally flooded forest that is not under threat from agricultural expansion. It is part of the fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas and is unlikely to be declining. Expansion of illegal gold mining along many major river systems through its distribution, especially in south-eastern Peru, might impact varzea habitat, and focused field studies are needed to assess this possible threat. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Steere’s Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 215-493 mm,tail 120-207 mm; weight 300-800 g. Steere’s Spiny-rat is one of the largest species of terrestrial spiny-rats. Its ears and hindfeet are large, and tail is c.65% of head-body length, bicolored dark above and pale below, and covered with fine hairs but with scales conspicuous to the eye. There are typically 8 annuli/cm. Dorsum is light reddish brown, only faintly streaked with darker hairs. Steere’s Spiny-rats vary in the degree to which they are darkened along midline, but in general, they lack dark midline characteristic of most specimens of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicates). Venteris pure white, and texture of ventral fur is thicker and more velvety both to the eye and touch than in other species of Proechimys. Aristiform hairs of dorsum are distinctly narrow, short, and lax, markedly softer compared with all other sympatric species of Proechimysand the other two species in the goelditspecies group. Spines average only c¢.15 mm in length and 0-5 mm in width. Color of dorsal surface of hindfootis characteristic, with pale to dark brown outer band and whitish inner band along length of foot from tarsal joint to end oftoes. Skull of Steere’s Spiny-ratis large, with long and narrow rostrum and well-developed supraorbital ledge that extends onto parietals as weakly developed ridge. Incisive foramina are lyrate to oval in outline, with slightly to strongly flanged posterolateral margins that form groovesextending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part is distinctly narrow; both parts of septum are in contact in most specimens; and vomer usually is not visible. Groove is present on floor of infraorbital foramen, butlateral flange is only weakly developed. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively broad (averaging 67°) but penetrates to midpoint of M’. Counterfold pattern is 3(4)-3(4)-3(4)—(3)4/4-3-3-3. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-7 mm) and of moderate width (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with parallel or slightly concave sides; it is similar in size and shape to those of the Napo Spiny-rat and Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (P. goeldii). Phallus is remarkably small, particularly so for an animal as large as Steere’s Spiny-rat, with prepuce extending as narrow tube and terminating by characteristic tuft of hairs, rather than being rounded and blunt as in most male Proechimys. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 40-42.","habitat":"Seasonally flooded rainforest in the dry season, such as blackwater igap6 and whitewater varzea, but margins of adjacent terra firma forest in the wet season, including secondary forests, abandoned garden plots, riverine margins, and flooded grass patches within forests at elevations of 50-400 m. Overits entire distribution, Steere’s Spiny-rat is the only species present in igapo or varzea."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF8FFCFFA7552C05824F64C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF8FFCFFA7552C05824F64C","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"573","verbatimText":"40.Goeld1’s Spiny-ratProechimys goeldiiFrench:Rat-épineux de Goeldi/ German:Goeldi-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de GoeldiTaxonomy. Proechimys goeldii Thomas, 1905, “ Santarem [Santarém |, Lower Ama-zon,” Rio Tapajos, Para, Brazil. Identified by M. Guntert and colleagues in 1993 as “Santarém, Barras de Tapajoz” (holotype specimen).Proechimys goeldiiis a member of the goeldi+ species group. It includes hyleae, nesiotes, and leioprimma as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Amazon Basin of Brazil, mostly E of the Rio Madeira and S of the Amazon River, largely in the drainages of the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia, reaching the cerrado biome in Mato Grosso State.Descriptive notes.Head—body 188-271 mm, tail 100-171 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is a geographically variable; general size varies from large to medium, ears are long, hindfeet are large, and tail averages c.68% of head-body length. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, strongly mixed with black especially over mid-back and rump, but specimens from more southern localities are distinctly paler and more orangish red. Venter is clear white from chin to inguinal region; inner thighs are white but separated from dorsal foot color by dark band. Dorsal surface of hindfootis bicolored, with dark lateral band and light inner band—a pattern characteristic of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) and Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer). All plantar pads of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar large and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered with short, sparsely distributed hairs so that it appears naked to the eye. Tail scales are rather small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Aristiform spinesare stout and stiff, averaging 18-20 mm in length and up to 1-1 mm in width, and typically terminate in blunt tips. Skull of Goeldi’s Spinyrat is similar in most respects to the other two species in the goelditspecies group. It is large and elongate,is broad across zygomatic arches, and has relatively long but broad rostrum. Older individuals have weakly continuous temporal ridges, extending from supraorbital ledge across parietals. Incisive foramina are broadly open, weakly lyreshaped or parallel sided, with posterior margins slightly flanged and extending onto anterior palate forming grooves; premaxillary part of septum is short, usually less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part varies greatly, often weak and attenuate, perhaps not in contact with premaxillary part, or even spatulate and filling much of posterior opening; maxillary part, however, has slight keel that continues onto palate as median ridge; and vomeris typically enclosed in premaxillary sheath and thus not visible. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be smooth, lacking any evidence of groove or with groove defined by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, with angle of indentation averaging 65°, but penetrates posterior palate to about midpoint of M?. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and involves mostly squamosal. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies, with number of folds decreasing from west to east and from north to south. Western specimens typically have upper cheekteeth with 3—4(3)—4(3)-3 and lower cheekteeth with 4(rarely 3)-3-3-3 folds; eastern and southern samples have reduced counterfold number of 3-3-3-3 above and 3 (rarely 4)-3-3-3 or 2 below. Baculum of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is generally the same size and shape as those of the other members ofthis group, averaging slightly more than 8 mm in length and nearly 3 mm in width. Sides are straight and parallel, base is slightly expanded, and tip shows only faint development ofapical wings or median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 15 and FN = 16 in Jurudna, Mato Grosso, Brazil and 2n = 24 and FN = 44 in Rio Xingu.Habitat.Seasonally flooded blackwater (igap6) and whitewater (varzea) rainforest, both primary and secondary, and typically along river margins from near sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.Pregnant Goeldi’s Spiny-rats have been found in January at localities on Rio Tapajos and Rio Tocantins.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-1di’s Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is thought to be an abundant and present in undisturbed and deforested areas and other habitats highly modified by agricultural expansion throughoutits distribution. Apparentreliance on seasonally flooded forests, however, may protect Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rats from continued human expansion. Nevertheless, population studies on impact of habitat degradation are necessary to adequately assess its conservation status.Bibliography.Bonvicino et al. (1996), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gintert et al. (1993), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Thomas (1905a), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys goeldii Thomas, 1905, “ Santarem [Santarém |, Lower Ama-zon,” Rio Tapajos, Para, Brazil. Identified by M. Guntert and colleagues in 1993 as “Santarém, Barras de Tapajoz” (holotype specimen).Proechimys goeldiiis a member of the goeldi+ species group. It includes hyleae, nesiotes, and leioprimma as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Goeldi @fr | Goeldi-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Goeldi @es","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1905","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1905","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"21","interpretedPageNumber":"573","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"goeldii","name":"Proechimys goeldii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Amazon Basin of Brazil, mostly E of the Rio Madeira and S of the Amazon River, largely in the drainages of the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia, reaching the cerrado biome in Mato Grosso State.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623746/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonvicino et al. (1996) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gintert et al. (1993) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Thomas (1905a) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds,fruits, and other plant parts.","breeding":"Pregnant Goeldi’s Spiny-rats have been found in January at localities on Rio Tapajos and Rio Tocantins.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Goe-1di’s Spiny-rat is presumably terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is thought to be an abundant and present in undisturbed and deforested areas and other habitats highly modified by agricultural expansion throughoutits distribution. Apparentreliance on seasonally flooded forests, however, may protect Goe-Idi’s Spiny-rats from continued human expansion. Nevertheless, population studies on impact of habitat degradation are necessary to adequately assess its conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 188-271 mm, tail 100-171 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is a geographically variable; general size varies from large to medium, ears are long, hindfeet are large, and tail averages c.68% of head-body length. Dorsum is dark reddish brown, strongly mixed with black especially over mid-back and rump, but specimens from more southern localities are distinctly paler and more orangish red. Venter is clear white from chin to inguinal region; inner thighs are white but separated from dorsal foot color by dark band. Dorsal surface of hindfootis bicolored, with dark lateral band and light inner band—a pattern characteristic of the Napo Spiny-rat (P. quadruplicatus) and Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer). All plantar pads of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat are well developed, with thenar and hypothenar large and sub-equal in size. Tail is covered with short, sparsely distributed hairs so that it appears naked to the eye. Tail scales are rather small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Aristiform spinesare stout and stiff, averaging 18-20 mm in length and up to 1-1 mm in width, and typically terminate in blunt tips. Skull of Goeldi’s Spinyrat is similar in most respects to the other two species in the goelditspecies group. It is large and elongate,is broad across zygomatic arches, and has relatively long but broad rostrum. Older individuals have weakly continuous temporal ridges, extending from supraorbital ledge across parietals. Incisive foramina are broadly open, weakly lyreshaped or parallel sided, with posterior margins slightly flanged and extending onto anterior palate forming grooves; premaxillary part of septum is short, usually less than one-half the length of opening; maxillary part varies greatly, often weak and attenuate, perhaps not in contact with premaxillary part, or even spatulate and filling much of posterior opening; maxillary part, however, has slight keel that continues onto palate as median ridge; and vomeris typically enclosed in premaxillary sheath and thus not visible. Floor of infraorbital foramen may be smooth, lacking any evidence of groove or with groove defined by moderately developed flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately broad, with angle of indentation averaging 65°, but penetrates posterior palate to about midpoint of M?. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately developed and involves mostly squamosal. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies, with number of folds decreasing from west to east and from north to south. Western specimens typically have upper cheekteeth with 3—4(3)—4(3)-3 and lower cheekteeth with 4(rarely 3)-3-3-3 folds; eastern and southern samples have reduced counterfold number of 3-3-3-3 above and 3 (rarely 4)-3-3-3 or 2 below. Baculum of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat is generally the same size and shape as those of the other members ofthis group, averaging slightly more than 8 mm in length and nearly 3 mm in width. Sides are straight and parallel, base is slightly expanded, and tip shows only faint development ofapical wings or median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 15 and FN = 16 in Jurudna, Mato Grosso, Brazil and 2n = 24 and FN = 44 in Rio Xingu.","habitat":"Seasonally flooded blackwater (igap6) and whitewater (varzea) rainforest, both primary and secondary, and typically along river margins from near sea level to elevations of ¢.300 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF9FFCCFAE0527E585CF5A6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF9FFCCFAE0527E585CF5A6","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"572","verbatimText":"38.Napo Spiny-ratProechimys quadruplicatusFrench:Rat-épineux du Napo/ German:Napo-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de NapoOther common names:Venezuelan Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys quadruplicatus Hershkovitz, 1948, “Llunchi, an island in the Rio Napo, about 18 kilometers below the mouth of the Rio Coca, [Orellano,] eastern Ecuador.”Proechimys quadruplicatusis a member of the goeldirspecies group. It includes amphichoricus as a synonym. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin in S & E Colombia, S Venezuela, NW Brazil, E Ecuador, and N Peru, largely N of the Amazon River and E to the left bank of the Rio Negro at Manaus.Descriptive notes.Head-body 211-295 mm, tail 125-202 mm; weight 300-700 g. The Napo Spiny-rat is similar in all external and cranial characteristics to Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer), but its karyotype and mtDNA sequences differ. These two species are so alike that, at least until adequate analyses of morphological characteristics are made, identification may rest solely on either chromosomes or molecules, or on general distributions. The Napo Spiny-rat is large-bodied and has proportionately short tail (¢.70% of head-body length). Overall color is ocherous orange, although it darkens considerably along midline from head to rump. Venter may be pure white or lightly washed pale buff; pale thigh stripe is usually confluent with dorsal surface of hindfoot, which itself is characteristically bicolored, with an external dark longitudinal band encompassing digits four and five and contrasted with a pale internal band encompassing at least digits one and two, and usually three. Tail is bicolored but not as sharply so as in sympatric Simons’s Spiny-rat (P. simonsi). Tail appears nearly naked from a distance because scales are large and conspicuous, averaging 8 annuli/cm at mid-length. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, with well-developed aristiform spines ¢.20 mm long and c.1 mm wide and terminating in weakly developed whip-like tip. Distal one-third of spines are black, which gives an overall darkened tone to midline of back and rump. Spines are most well developed over mid-back, less so in shoulder region or over rump. Skull of the Napo Spiny-rat is large and elongated, with long rostrum and heavy supraorbital ridges that extend posteriorly onto parietals as distinct ridges, especially in older individuals. Incisive foramina vary from weakly lyre-shaped to oval, with lateral margins either tapering slightly posteriorly or parallelsided; premaxilla part of septum is short, usually one-half or less the length of foramen; maxillary part varies greatly, most commonly weak and attenuate, often not in contact with premaxillary part, but sometimes broadly spatulate and filling much of foramen; maxillary part may be slightly ridged butis never keeled, and only rarely does this ridge extend onto anterior palate; and posterolateral margins of foramen are only moderately flanged so that only moderately developed grooves are present on the anterior palate. Moderately developed groove is present in the floor of infraorbital foramen, although its development varies among individuals. Mesopterygoid fossa of the Napo Spiny-rat is narrower than either that of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) or Steere’s Spiny-rat, with angle averaging 61° and extending anteriorly to middle of M”. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies slightly, 4(3)—4(3)-4(3)—4(3) /4-3(4)-3(4)-3, but characteristic four folds upon which Hershkovitz based his name quadruplicatusis the most common condition present in all samples. Counterfold pattern of holotype of amphichoricus, however,is 3-3-3-3/3-3-3-3, which characterizes ¢.50% ofall specimens examined from southern Venezuela and adjacent Brazil. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-:3 mm) and stout (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with nearly straight sides and only slightly flared apical wings and expanded base, similar to those of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat and Steere’s Spiny-rat. Rather short baculum of the Napo Spiny-rat defines a notably small phallus for such a large-bodied rat and particularly contrasts with actually larger phalli in nearly all other species of Proechimys, except for Steere’s Spiny-rat. Significance of these differences in phallic size is unknown. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 26 and FN = 42 in southern Venezuela and 2n = 28 and FN = 42-44 in eastern Ecuador, northern Peru, and north-western Brazil.Habitat.Seasonally flooded forest (varzea and igapo) during dry season and margins of upland forest during the wet season.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.Pregnant Napo Spiny-rats were trapped in northern Peru (Rio Santiago) in July-August, with modal embryo counts of one (range 1-2).Activity patterns.The Napo Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The Napo Spiny-rat shifts its use of microhabitats during the flood season, moving into terra firma forests otherwise occupied by the Guyenne Spiny-rat (FP. guyannensis) in southern Venezuela and northcentral Brazil or the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda), Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri), and Simons’s Spiny-rat in northern Peru.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Napo Spiny-rat is widespread and present in several forest types and protected parks in north-western Amazonia that is sparsely populated by humans. As a result, it is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Napo Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Eisenberg (1989), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Hershkovitz (1948), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys quadruplicatus Hershkovitz, 1948, “Llunchi, an island in the Rio Napo, about 18 kilometers below the mouth of the Rio Coca, [Orellano,] eastern Ecuador.”Proechimys quadruplicatusis a member of the goeldirspecies group. It includes amphichoricus as a synonym. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Napo @fr | Napo-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Napo @es | Venezuelan Spiny-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hershkovitz","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1948","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"572","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"quadruplicatus","name":"Proechimys quadruplicatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Amazon Basin in S & E Colombia, S Venezuela, NW Brazil, E Ecuador, and N Peru, largely N of the Amazon River and E to the left bank of the Rio Negro at Manaus.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623742/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Eisenberg (1989) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"Pregnant Napo Spiny-rats were trapped in northern Peru (Rio Santiago) in July-August, with modal embryo counts of one (range 1-2).","activityPatterns":"The Napo Spiny-rat is nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The Napo Spiny-rat shifts its use of microhabitats during the flood season, moving into terra firma forests otherwise occupied by the Guyenne Spiny-rat (FP. guyannensis) in southern Venezuela and northcentral Brazil or the Short-tailed Spiny-rat (P. brevicauda), Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri), and Simons’s Spiny-rat in northern Peru.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Napo Spiny-rat is widespread and present in several forest types and protected parks in north-western Amazonia that is sparsely populated by humans. As a result, it is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Napo Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 211-295 mm, tail 125-202 mm; weight 300-700 g. The Napo Spiny-rat is similar in all external and cranial characteristics to Steere’s Spiny-rat (P. steerer), but its karyotype and mtDNA sequences differ. These two species are so alike that, at least until adequate analyses of morphological characteristics are made, identification may rest solely on either chromosomes or molecules, or on general distributions. The Napo Spiny-rat is large-bodied and has proportionately short tail (¢.70% of head-body length). Overall color is ocherous orange, although it darkens considerably along midline from head to rump. Venter may be pure white or lightly washed pale buff; pale thigh stripe is usually confluent with dorsal surface of hindfoot, which itself is characteristically bicolored, with an external dark longitudinal band encompassing digits four and five and contrasted with a pale internal band encompassing at least digits one and two, and usually three. Tail is bicolored but not as sharply so as in sympatric Simons’s Spiny-rat (P. simonsi). Tail appears nearly naked from a distance because scales are large and conspicuous, averaging 8 annuli/cm at mid-length. Dorsal pelage is stiff to the touch, with well-developed aristiform spines ¢.20 mm long and c.1 mm wide and terminating in weakly developed whip-like tip. Distal one-third of spines are black, which gives an overall darkened tone to midline of back and rump. Spines are most well developed over mid-back, less so in shoulder region or over rump. Skull of the Napo Spiny-rat is large and elongated, with long rostrum and heavy supraorbital ridges that extend posteriorly onto parietals as distinct ridges, especially in older individuals. Incisive foramina vary from weakly lyre-shaped to oval, with lateral margins either tapering slightly posteriorly or parallelsided; premaxilla part of septum is short, usually one-half or less the length of foramen; maxillary part varies greatly, most commonly weak and attenuate, often not in contact with premaxillary part, but sometimes broadly spatulate and filling much of foramen; maxillary part may be slightly ridged butis never keeled, and only rarely does this ridge extend onto anterior palate; and posterolateral margins of foramen are only moderately flanged so that only moderately developed grooves are present on the anterior palate. Moderately developed groove is present in the floor of infraorbital foramen, although its development varies among individuals. Mesopterygoid fossa of the Napo Spiny-rat is narrower than either that of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat (FP. goeldii) or Steere’s Spiny-rat, with angle averaging 61° and extending anteriorly to middle of M”. Counterfold pattern of cheekteeth varies slightly, 4(3)—4(3)-4(3)—4(3) /4-3(4)-3(4)-3, but characteristic four folds upon which Hershkovitz based his name quadruplicatusis the most common condition present in all samples. Counterfold pattern of holotype of amphichoricus, however,is 3-3-3-3/3-3-3-3, which characterizes ¢.50% ofall specimens examined from southern Venezuela and adjacent Brazil. Baculum is comparatively short (length 7-1-8-:3 mm) and stout (proximal width 2-5-2-9 mm; distal width 2-5-3-1 mm), with nearly straight sides and only slightly flared apical wings and expanded base, similar to those of Goeldi’s Spiny-rat and Steere’s Spiny-rat. Rather short baculum of the Napo Spiny-rat defines a notably small phallus for such a large-bodied rat and particularly contrasts with actually larger phalli in nearly all other species of Proechimys, except for Steere’s Spiny-rat. Significance of these differences in phallic size is unknown. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 26 and FN = 42 in southern Venezuela and 2n = 28 and FN = 42-44 in eastern Ecuador, northern Peru, and north-western Brazil.","habitat":"Seasonally flooded forest (varzea and igapo) during dry season and margins of upland forest during the wet season."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFF9FFCDFAE6591B5CAAF5BB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFF9FFCDFAE6591B5CAAF5BB","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"572","verbatimText":"37.O’Connell’s Spiny-ratProechimys oconnelliFrench:Rat-épineux d'O’Connell/ German:O'Connell-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de O'ConnellTaxonomy.Proechimys oconnelli J. A. Allen, 1913, “Villavicencio (alt. 1600 ft.), [Meta,] Colombia.”Proechimys oconnelliis a member of the semispinosus-species group. Monotypic.Distribution.C Colombia (headwaters of Meta and Guaviare rivers E of E Andes Range).Descriptive notes.Head-body 250 mm, tail 175 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is moderately large-bodied, with medium length tail (c.70% of head—body length). Dorsal color is orange rufous, finely lined with black, paler on sides than mid-back and rump. Venter is pure white, sharply defined against color of sides. Pale inner thigh stripe is continuous across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is two-toned, pale cream on inner one-half and light brown on outer one-half, with dark color typically extending to fourth andfifth toes. Plantar pads are moderate in size, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and creamy white below, and thinly clothed with short, fine hairs. Visible scale annuli are relatively wide, averaging 9 annuli/cm along mid-length oftail. Pelage is neither distinctly nor heavily spiny because aristiforms are weakly developed, long (18-21 mm) and thin (0-8-0-9 mm), and tipped with long whip-like filament. Skull of O’Connell’s Spinyrat is unremarkable, with elongated and tapering rostrum. Temporal ridge is either non-existent or only weakly developed, extending posteriorly from supraorbital ledge onto parietals. In this aspect, O’Connell’s Spiny-rat contrasts sharply with its presumptive sister species, Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus). Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete but formed completely by jugal. Incisive foramina are angular to lyrate in shape, with moderately developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming grooves on either side of midline and despite only moderate development of maxillary keel and median palatal ridge. Premaxillary part of septum is well developed and elongated, encompassing more than one-half the opening; premaxillary part is well developed and always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely encased and notvisible in ventral aspect. Floor of infraorbital foramen has obvious groove formed by distinct lateral flange that supports passage of maxillary nerve. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderate in width, with angle averaging 63°, and penetrates to middle of M?. Upper and lower cheekteeth are simplified, with three folds on each upper tooth and dP, and 2-3 folds on lower molars. Counterfold pattern is 3-3-3-3/3-(2)-(2)-2(3). Baculum of O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is of medium length (length 8:2-8-4 mm) but broad (proximal width 4-9 mm; distal width 4-4-5-3 mm), similar to that of Tomes’s Spiny-rat in its blunt and thickened base but without distal apical extensions. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 52.Habitat.Cis-Andean tropical evergreen forest on eastern slopes of the Eastern Andes Range and Sierra de Macarena at elevations of 170-700 m.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is presumably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Lack of published studies on biology of O’Connell’s Spiny-rat underscores need for fieldwork designed to understand local abundance, habitat requirements, and potential threats before a proper conservation status can be identified.Bibliography.Allen (1913), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Hershkovitz (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Tate (1939), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys oconnelli J. A. Allen, 1913, “Villavicencio (alt. 1600 ft.), [Meta,] Colombia.”Proechimys oconnelliis a member of the semispinosus-species group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux d'O’Connell @fr | O'Connell-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de O'Connell @es","interpretedAuthority":"J. A. Allen","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1913","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"20","interpretedPageNumber":"572","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"oconnelli","name":"Proechimys oconnelli","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C Colombia (headwaters of Meta and Guaviare rivers E of E Andes Range).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623738/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1913) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Tate (1939) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is presumably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Lack of published studies on biology of O’Connell’s Spiny-rat underscores need for fieldwork designed to understand local abundance, habitat requirements, and potential threats before a proper conservation status can be identified.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 250 mm, tail 175 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is moderately large-bodied, with medium length tail (c.70% of head—body length). Dorsal color is orange rufous, finely lined with black, paler on sides than mid-back and rump. Venter is pure white, sharply defined against color of sides. Pale inner thigh stripe is continuous across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is two-toned, pale cream on inner one-half and light brown on outer one-half, with dark color typically extending to fourth andfifth toes. Plantar pads are moderate in size, with thenar and hypothenar sub-equal. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and creamy white below, and thinly clothed with short, fine hairs. Visible scale annuli are relatively wide, averaging 9 annuli/cm along mid-length oftail. Pelage is neither distinctly nor heavily spiny because aristiforms are weakly developed, long (18-21 mm) and thin (0-8-0-9 mm), and tipped with long whip-like filament. Skull of O’Connell’s Spinyrat is unremarkable, with elongated and tapering rostrum. Temporal ridge is either non-existent or only weakly developed, extending posteriorly from supraorbital ledge onto parietals. In this aspect, O’Connell’s Spiny-rat contrasts sharply with its presumptive sister species, Tomes’s Spiny-rat (P. semispinosus). Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete but formed completely by jugal. Incisive foramina are angular to lyrate in shape, with moderately developed posterolateral flanges that extend onto anterior palate forming grooves on either side of midline and despite only moderate development of maxillary keel and median palatal ridge. Premaxillary part of septum is well developed and elongated, encompassing more than one-half the opening; premaxillary part is well developed and always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely encased and notvisible in ventral aspect. Floor of infraorbital foramen has obvious groove formed by distinct lateral flange that supports passage of maxillary nerve. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderate in width, with angle averaging 63°, and penetrates to middle of M?. Upper and lower cheekteeth are simplified, with three folds on each upper tooth and dP, and 2-3 folds on lower molars. Counterfold pattern is 3-3-3-3/3-(2)-(2)-2(3). Baculum of O’Connell’s Spiny-rat is of medium length (length 8:2-8-4 mm) but broad (proximal width 4-9 mm; distal width 4-4-5-3 mm), similar to that of Tomes’s Spiny-rat in its blunt and thickened base but without distal apical extensions. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 52.","habitat":"Cis-Andean tropical evergreen forest on eastern slopes of the Eastern Andes Range and Sierra de Macarena at elevations of 170-700 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFAFFC1FA7F50B35ED9FA39.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFAFFC1FA7F50B35ED9FA39","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"575","verbatimText":"44.Kulina Spiny-ratProechimys kulinaeFrench:Rat-épineux des Kulinas/ German:Kulina-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de KulinaTaxonomy.Proechimys kulinae da Silva, 1998, “Seringal Condor, left bank Rio Jurua, 70°51°W, 6°45’S, Amazonas, Brazil.”Proechimys kulinaeis a memberof the gardnerrspecies group. Monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin in NE Peru (S of the Amazon River) and W Brazil (middle Rio Jurua).Descriptive notes.Head-body 144—190 mm, tail 95-140 mm; weight 130-170 g.The Kulina Spiny-rat is one of the smallest species of Proechimys, certainly the smallest in the western Amazon. It is ofslight build, with short ears (20 mm), short hindfeet (41 mm), and tail ¢.70% of head-body length. Dorsal color is uniform reddish brown, coarsely streaked with varying amounts of black on dorsum and sides. Venter, chin, and undersurfaces of forelimb and hindlimbs are pure white; upper lips are dark and generally lack patches of white hair; tarsal joint is either ringed by dark and rusty hair, ortarsal ring is interrupted by white hair confluent with that of undersurfaces of hindlimbs. Dorsal surface of hindfoot, including digits, is white, with golden tones in some individuals. Only five tubercles are typically present on plantar surfaces, with hypothenar pad lacking in most specimens. Tail appears almost naked, is distinctly bicolored with dark brown above and white below, and has larger scales than other species in the group (averaging 9 annuli/cm at mid-length). Dorsal pelage is spiny to the touch,interspersed with moderately thick (0-8-0-9 mm) but short (17-18 mm) dark brown aristiform hairs that form darkermedial band contrasting with sides of body. Tip of each aristiform is blunt. Skull of the Kulina Spiny-ratis relatively small, has short and narrow rostrum, and well-developed supraorbital ledges extend onto anterior parts of parietals. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed and formed mostly by squamosal. Floor of infraorbital foramenis generally smooth, without demonstrable groove for maxillary nerve. Incisive foramina are mostly square to oval in shape, with nearly flat posterolateral margins; anterior palate is smooth, lacking grooves extending posteriorly from incisive foramina and median ridge; premaxillary part of septum is short, extending for less than one-half the length of foramen; maxillary part is variable, attenuate to expanded anteriorly, and usually in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is either completely enclosed or only barely visible. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow, with angle of indentation averaging 57°; it is moderately deep, usually extending well into M®. All upper cheekteeth have three lateral folds, although M? may, on occasion, have only two. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with four folds on dP, three on M and M,, and only two on M,. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3(2) /4-3-3-2. Baculum is elongate (length 5-4-8-2 mm) and relatively narrow (proximal width 1-6 2.1 mm, distal width 1-7-2-6 mm), with stout and short apical extensions; proximal and distal ends are about equal width. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 52 in eastern Peru.Habitat.Primary and secondary lowland rainforest in seasonally non-inundated regions (terra firma) at elevations of 120-180 m.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.In the Rio Jurua Basin, all Kulina Spiny-rats were captured in dry season months; five of 18 adult females were pregnant, each containing 1-2 embryos (modal count of one). It is not known if breeding also extends into the rainy season.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but trapping records of Kulina Spiny-rats suggest nocturnal habits.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Kulina Spinyrats are known from very few localities, one of which is within the Javari Indigeneous Territory in western Brazil. Overall, distribution of the Kulina Spiny-rat covers mostly pristine areas under no apparent threats, but additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats are needed to properly evaluate its conservation status.Bibliography.Patton & Leite (2015), Patton et al. (2000), da Silva (1998), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys kulinae da Silva, 1998, “Seringal Condor, left bank Rio Jurua, 70°51°W, 6°45’S, Amazonas, Brazil.”Proechimys kulinaeis a memberof the gardnerrspecies group. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux des Kulinas @fr | Kulina-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Kulina @es","interpretedAuthority":"da Silva, 1998","interpretedAuthorityName":"da Silva","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1998","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"23","interpretedPageNumber":"575","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kulinae","name":"Proechimys kulinae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Amazon Basin in NE Peru (S of the Amazon River) and W Brazil (middle Rio Jurua).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623754/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton et al. (2000) | da Silva (1998) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"In the Rio Jurua Basin, all Kulina Spiny-rats were captured in dry season months; five of 18 adult females were pregnant, each containing 1-2 embryos (modal count of one). It is not known if breeding also extends into the rainy season.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but trapping records of Kulina Spiny-rats suggest nocturnal habits.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Kulina Spinyrats are known from very few localities, one of which is within the Javari Indigeneous Territory in western Brazil. Overall, distribution of the Kulina Spiny-rat covers mostly pristine areas under no apparent threats, but additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and threats are needed to properly evaluate its conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 144—190 mm, tail 95-140 mm; weight 130-170 g.The Kulina Spiny-rat is one of the smallest species of Proechimys, certainly the smallest in the western Amazon. It is ofslight build, with short ears (20 mm), short hindfeet (41 mm), and tail ¢.70% of head-body length. Dorsal color is uniform reddish brown, coarsely streaked with varying amounts of black on dorsum and sides. Venter, chin, and undersurfaces of forelimb and hindlimbs are pure white; upper lips are dark and generally lack patches of white hair; tarsal joint is either ringed by dark and rusty hair, ortarsal ring is interrupted by white hair confluent with that of undersurfaces of hindlimbs. Dorsal surface of hindfoot, including digits, is white, with golden tones in some individuals. Only five tubercles are typically present on plantar surfaces, with hypothenar pad lacking in most specimens. Tail appears almost naked, is distinctly bicolored with dark brown above and white below, and has larger scales than other species in the group (averaging 9 annuli/cm at mid-length). Dorsal pelage is spiny to the touch,interspersed with moderately thick (0-8-0-9 mm) but short (17-18 mm) dark brown aristiform hairs that form darkermedial band contrasting with sides of body. Tip of each aristiform is blunt. Skull of the Kulina Spiny-ratis relatively small, has short and narrow rostrum, and well-developed supraorbital ledges extend onto anterior parts of parietals. Post-orbital process of zygoma is well developed and formed mostly by squamosal. Floor of infraorbital foramenis generally smooth, without demonstrable groove for maxillary nerve. Incisive foramina are mostly square to oval in shape, with nearly flat posterolateral margins; anterior palate is smooth, lacking grooves extending posteriorly from incisive foramina and median ridge; premaxillary part of septum is short, extending for less than one-half the length of foramen; maxillary part is variable, attenuate to expanded anteriorly, and usually in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is either completely enclosed or only barely visible. Mesopterygoid fossa is narrow, with angle of indentation averaging 57°; it is moderately deep, usually extending well into M®. All upper cheekteeth have three lateral folds, although M? may, on occasion, have only two. Lower cheekteeth are uniform with four folds on dP, three on M and M,, and only two on M,. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3(2) /4-3-3-2. Baculum is elongate (length 5-4-8-2 mm) and relatively narrow (proximal width 1-6 2.1 mm, distal width 1-7-2-6 mm), with stout and short apical extensions; proximal and distal ends are about equal width. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 34 and FN = 52 in eastern Peru.","habitat":"Primary and secondary lowland rainforest in seasonally non-inundated regions (terra firma) at elevations of 120-180 m."} @@ -869,71 +869,71 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFBFFCEFADB52985834F414.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFBFFCEFADB52985834F414","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"574","verbatimText":"42.Robert’s Spiny-ratProechimys robertiFrench:Rat-épineux de Robert/ German:Robert-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de RobertOther common names:Roberto’s Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys roberti Thomas, 1901, “Rio Jordao, SW. Minas Geraes [sic], Altitude 960 metres,” Araguari, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Proechimys robertiis a member of the guyannensisspecies group. It includes ors, boimensis, and arescens as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.Amazonian lowlands of E Brazil S of the Amazon River, extending S to the cerrado biome in EC Brazil, primarily in the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia fluvial systems of Para, Maranhao, Tocantins, Minas Gerais, Goias, and Mato Grosso states.Descriptive notes.Head-body 200-230 mm, tail 160 mm; weight 170-240 g. Robert's Spiny-rat is moderately sized, similar in size to the Guyenne Spiny-rat (P. guyannensis), with which it shares a number of morphological attributes, but it has a distinctly shorter tail (average c.70% of head-body length). Dorsal color ranges from reddish brown in the northern part ofits distribution in Amazonia proper to pale buff at the southern terminus of its distribution in dry forests and gallery forests of cerrado—a difference in color that reinforced specific status of Robert’s Spiny-rat when O. Thomas described onis in 1904 from near the mouth of the Amazon a few years later. Venter is white from chin to inguinal region, but white of inner thighs is discontinuous, broken by dark ankle bands, with pale surface of hindfeet. In many specimens, brownish patch extends from tarsusto lateral toes. Pads on plantar surface of hindfoot are only moderately developed, but thenar and hypothenar are present and sub-equal in size. As in the Guyenne Spinyrat, tail of Robert’s Spiny-rat is very sparsely covered with short hairs so that is appears naked to the eye. Scales are large, defining 9-10 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff to the touch, although much softer in southern samples; aristiform development is, however, moderate; spines are relatively short (20 mm in length) and narrow (0-6-0-8 mm in width), and each terminates in long whip-like tip. Difference in softness of pelage between Amazonian and cerrado specimens is mostly in aristiform density, not in any appreciable difference in spine width or other features. Skull of Robert’s Spiny-rat is medium-sized but rather narrow, with distinctly narrowed, tapering rostrum, similar in most respects to that of the Guyenne Spiny-rat. Slight temporal ridges extend posteriorly onto parietals from supraorbital ledge in older individuals, but most specimens lack ridges altogether. Incisive foramina cannot be distinguished from those of the Guyenne Spiny-rat by any single feature. They are relatively wide and ovalto teardrop in shape, with little or no posterolateral flange so that anterior palate is either flat of only weakly grooved; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the opening, and either connected to very attenuate maxillary part or separated from the latter entirely; maxillary part is non-keeled, so that anterior palate is without medial ridge; and vomer might be visible ventrally but not always. Floor of infraorbital foramen is eitherflat or with only hint of groove formed by weakly developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is intermediate in width, with angle averaging 64—67°; it penetrates posterior palate to anterior one-half of M®. Postorbital process of zygomais weakly to moderately developed and formed completely by squamosal. Three folds characterize all upper cheekteeth except M?, which may have only two. Number of folds on lower cheekteeth is more variable, with three (occasionally four) on P, and either two (usually) or three on each lower molar; counterfold count 3-3-3-3(2)/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). As with otherspecies of spiny-rats whose populations occur in various forest types, southernmost samples of Robert’s Spiny-rat in the drier cerrado forests typically have simpler teeth, with higher proportions of individuals with only two folds on lower molars. Baculum of Robert’s Spiny-rat is relatively short (5-4—6-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-7-2-3 mm; distal width 1:3-1-8 mm), with general features as described above for the Guyenne Spiny-rat, except specimens from the southern part of its distribution tend to be smaller in length and width. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 54-56, with minor regional differences in numbers of small biarmed vs. uniarmed autosomal pairs.Habitat.Well-drained forests, cerrado gallery forests, sometimes creek-side and gallery forests, but more commonly primary forests from near sea level to elevations of c.1000 m. Robert’s Spiny-rat may be sympatric with Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri) in primary forests. Some have suggested that Robert’s Spiny-rat favors microhabitats with abundant babassu palms (Attalea speciosa, Arecaceae). Sympatry with Goeldi’s Spinyrat (P. goeldii) has been documented along southern margins of the Amazon River in eastern Brazil and also with the Long-tailed Spiny-rat (P. longicaudatus) in dry forests of cerrado in central Brazil.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but Robert’s Spiny-rat is probably nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Robert’s Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in a diverse set of forested habitats, some of which are in protected parks or indigenous areas, including Chapada dos Veadeiros and Brasilia national parks. Although much of eastern Amazonian and southern cerrado parts of its distribution have been severely impacted by forest loss, Robert’s Spiny-rat is not believed to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Robert’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Alho (1981), Allen (1916a), Bonvicino, Lindbergh & Maroja (2002), Bonvicino, Otazu & Vilela (2005), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Ellerman (1940), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Gardner & Emmons (1984), Hershkovitz (1948), Machado et al. (2005), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Ribeiro (2006), Thomas (1901a, 1904b), Valim & Linardi (2008), Weksler et al. (2001), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys roberti Thomas, 1901, “Rio Jordao, SW. Minas Geraes [sic], Altitude 960 metres,” Araguari, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Proechimys robertiis a member of the guyannensisspecies group. It includes ors, boimensis, and arescens as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Robert @fr | Robert-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Robert @es | Roberto’s Spiny-rat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1899","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"574","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"roberti","name":"Proechimys roberti","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazonian lowlands of E Brazil S of the Amazon River, extending S to the cerrado biome in EC Brazil, primarily in the Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu, and Rio Tocantins-Araguaia fluvial systems of Para, Maranhao, Tocantins, Minas Gerais, Goias, and Mato Grosso states.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623750/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alho (1981) | Allen (1916a) | Bonvicino, Lindbergh & Maroja (2002) | Bonvicino, Otazu & Vilela (2005) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Ellerman (1940) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Gardner & Emmons (1984) | Hershkovitz (1948) | Machado et al. (2005) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Ribeiro (2006) | Thomas (1901a, 1904b) | Valim & Linardi (2008) | Weksler et al. (2001) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Robert’s Spiny-rat is probably nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Robert’s Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in a diverse set of forested habitats, some of which are in protected parks or indigenous areas, including Chapada dos Veadeiros and Brasilia national parks. Although much of eastern Amazonian and southern cerrado parts of its distribution have been severely impacted by forest loss, Robert’s Spiny-rat is not believed to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Robert’s Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 200-230 mm, tail 160 mm; weight 170-240 g. Robert's Spiny-rat is moderately sized, similar in size to the Guyenne Spiny-rat (P. guyannensis), with which it shares a number of morphological attributes, but it has a distinctly shorter tail (average c.70% of head-body length). Dorsal color ranges from reddish brown in the northern part ofits distribution in Amazonia proper to pale buff at the southern terminus of its distribution in dry forests and gallery forests of cerrado—a difference in color that reinforced specific status of Robert’s Spiny-rat when O. Thomas described onis in 1904 from near the mouth of the Amazon a few years later. Venter is white from chin to inguinal region, but white of inner thighs is discontinuous, broken by dark ankle bands, with pale surface of hindfeet. In many specimens, brownish patch extends from tarsusto lateral toes. Pads on plantar surface of hindfoot are only moderately developed, but thenar and hypothenar are present and sub-equal in size. As in the Guyenne Spinyrat, tail of Robert’s Spiny-rat is very sparsely covered with short hairs so that is appears naked to the eye. Scales are large, defining 9-10 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff to the touch, although much softer in southern samples; aristiform development is, however, moderate; spines are relatively short (20 mm in length) and narrow (0-6-0-8 mm in width), and each terminates in long whip-like tip. Difference in softness of pelage between Amazonian and cerrado specimens is mostly in aristiform density, not in any appreciable difference in spine width or other features. Skull of Robert’s Spiny-rat is medium-sized but rather narrow, with distinctly narrowed, tapering rostrum, similar in most respects to that of the Guyenne Spiny-rat. Slight temporal ridges extend posteriorly onto parietals from supraorbital ledge in older individuals, but most specimens lack ridges altogether. Incisive foramina cannot be distinguished from those of the Guyenne Spiny-rat by any single feature. They are relatively wide and ovalto teardrop in shape, with little or no posterolateral flange so that anterior palate is either flat of only weakly grooved; premaxillary part of septum is short, less than one-half the opening, and either connected to very attenuate maxillary part or separated from the latter entirely; maxillary part is non-keeled, so that anterior palate is without medial ridge; and vomer might be visible ventrally but not always. Floor of infraorbital foramen is eitherflat or with only hint of groove formed by weakly developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is intermediate in width, with angle averaging 64—67°; it penetrates posterior palate to anterior one-half of M®. Postorbital process of zygomais weakly to moderately developed and formed completely by squamosal. Three folds characterize all upper cheekteeth except M?, which may have only two. Number of folds on lower cheekteeth is more variable, with three (occasionally four) on P, and either two (usually) or three on each lower molar; counterfold count 3-3-3-3(2)/3(4)-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). As with otherspecies of spiny-rats whose populations occur in various forest types, southernmost samples of Robert’s Spiny-rat in the drier cerrado forests typically have simpler teeth, with higher proportions of individuals with only two folds on lower molars. Baculum of Robert’s Spiny-rat is relatively short (5-4—6-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-7-2-3 mm; distal width 1:3-1-8 mm), with general features as described above for the Guyenne Spiny-rat, except specimens from the southern part of its distribution tend to be smaller in length and width. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 54-56, with minor regional differences in numbers of small biarmed vs. uniarmed autosomal pairs.","habitat":"Well-drained forests, cerrado gallery forests, sometimes creek-side and gallery forests, but more commonly primary forests from near sea level to elevations of c.1000 m. Robert’s Spiny-rat may be sympatric with Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri) in primary forests. Some have suggested that Robert’s Spiny-rat favors microhabitats with abundant babassu palms (Attalea speciosa, Arecaceae). Sympatry with Goeldi’s Spinyrat (P. goeldii) has been documented along southern margins of the Amazon River in eastern Brazil and also with the Long-tailed Spiny-rat (P. longicaudatus) in dry forests of cerrado in central Brazil."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFBFFCFFFD0521652F2F5DC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFBFFCFFFD0521652F2F5DC","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"574","verbatimText":"41.Guyenne Spiny-ratProechimys guyannensisFrench:Rat-épineux de Guyane/ German:Cayenne-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de CayenaOther common names:Cayenne Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Mus guyannensis E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803, “Cayenne,” French Guiana.Proechimys guyannensisis a member of the guyannensisspecies group. It includes cherriei, vacillator, warreni, riparum, and arabupu as synonyms. It is currently regarded as monotypic, but this geographically highly variable taxon requires focused attention to determine its status, at subspecific or specific levels of its formally named taxa and its diversity of karyotypic forms.Distribution.Amazon Basin in S & E Venezuela, the Guianas, and NE Brazil (E of Rio Negro and N of Amazon River).Descriptive notes.Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 110-186 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is moderately sized, with relatively long tail for a member of the genus (77-87% of head-body length). Samples across the northern Guianan region are light reddish to yellowish brown, lined with black along mid-back, distinctly paler on lowersides, with abrupt pure white venter from chin to inguinal region. White innerthigh stripes are typically continuous across ankle to dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is light colored with only slight brown patch on tarsus below first digit; all digits tend to be white. Plantar pads on hindfeet are only moderately developed, but thenar and hypothenar are present and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, light brown above and cream below. Hairs on tail are sparsely distributed and very short, so that tail appears completely naked to the eye. Tail scales are small, and annuli consequently narrow, ranging 11-14 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff to the touch, particular along mid-back, with aristiform spines rather short (16-19 mm long) and stout (0-9-1 mm wide); tip is either blunt or terminates with a very short filament. Skull of the Guyenne Spiny-rat conforms to that of virtually all spiny-rats in general shape, but because body size is moderate, skull appears small and rather delicate and lacks heavy ridging that may be present in skulls of larger species of Proechimys. As a result, temporalridges are generally poorly developed,if at all, maximally with just short and weak posterior extensions from supraorbital ledges. Incisive foramina are oval or teardrop in shape, with either no or only weakly developed posterolateral flanges so that anterior palate is typically flat or only very slightly grooved; premaxillary part of septum is short, occupying less than onehalf the opening and usually not in contact with very attenuate and non-keeled maxillary part; anterior palate lacks any medial ridging; and vomeris typically not visible in ventral view. Foraminal shape and structure are especially similar to those of Robert's Spiny-rat (P. roberti) and Simons’s Spiny-rat (P. simonsi). Floor of infraorbital foramen may either lack evidence of groove or have moderately developed lateral flange indicating passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Width of mesopterygoid fossa varies widely among geographical specimens, but it is generally narrow (angle less than 58°); fossa penetrates palate to level of posterior one-half of M? in nearly all specimens. Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete or only weakly developed;it is formed entirely by squamosal. Number offolds on upper cheekteeth is relatively constant, with three characterizing dP*, M', and M?, and either three or less (commonly two) on M?; lower cheekteeth are more variable, with dP, having three folds and M, to M,typically only two, occasionally three. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3—(2) /3-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Compared with sympatric Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri), cheekteeth of the Guyenne Spiny-rat are also notably small in size, with tooth row less or equal to 8 mm in length. Baculum is relatively long (length 6-4-8-9 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-3 mm; distal width 2-2.4 mm), and shaftis straight with little dorsoventral curvature and only a slight taper distally, and minimal lateral indentations. Proximal end is usually evenly rounded and paddle-shaped; distal tip shows only slight development of apical wings and moderate median depression. Chromosome complementis highly variable: 2n = 46 and FN = 50 from Rio Anaua and Rio Branco, Roraima (Brazil); 2n = 44 and FN = 52 from Manaus (Brazil); 2n = 40 and FN = 54 from Cayenne (French Guiana); 2n = 40 and FN = 50 from Icabaru (Bolivar, Venezuela); and 2n = 38 and FN = 52 from upper Rio Negro to RioJari Basin on the Para~Amapa State boundary (Brazil).Habitat.Well-drained lowland forests, sometimes in gallery forest in otherwise more open areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.500m. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is more common in primary forests but ranges into secondary forest and other human disturbed communities. It might occur sympatrically with Cuvier’s Spiny-rat.Food and Feeding.The Guyenne Spiny-rat is mainly frugivorous but also feeds on seeds and fungi.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Guyenne Spiny-rat is reportedly a seasonal breeder.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but anecdotal evidence suggest that the Guyenne Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in various forest types, including severely disturbed areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservations threats to Guyenne spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Desmarest (1817), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Reig et al. (1980), Thomas (1899a, 1903b, 1905b), Wagner (1843), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Mus guyannensis E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803, “Cayenne,” French Guiana.Proechimys guyannensisis a member of the guyannensisspecies group. It includes cherriei, vacillator, warreni, riparum, and arabupu as synonyms. It is currently regarded as monotypic, but this geographically highly variable taxon requires focused attention to determine its status, at subspecific or specific levels of its formally named taxa and its diversity of karyotypic forms.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Guyane @fr | Cayenne-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Cayena @es | Cayenne Spiny-rat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1803","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"22","interpretedPageNumber":"574","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"guyannensis","name":"Proechimys guyannensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazon Basin in S & E Venezuela, the Guianas, and NE Brazil (E of Rio Negro and N of Amazon River).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623748/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Desmarest (1817) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1803) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Reig et al. (1980) | Thomas (1899a, 1903b, 1905b) | Wagner (1843) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Guyenne Spiny-rat is mainly frugivorous but also feeds on seeds and fungi.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Guyenne Spiny-rat is reportedly a seasonal breeder.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but anecdotal evidence suggest that the Guyenne Spiny-rat is terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is widespread and occurs in various forest types, including severely disturbed areas. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservations threats to Guyenne spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 180-230 mm, tail 110-186 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is moderately sized, with relatively long tail for a member of the genus (77-87% of head-body length). Samples across the northern Guianan region are light reddish to yellowish brown, lined with black along mid-back, distinctly paler on lowersides, with abrupt pure white venter from chin to inguinal region. White innerthigh stripes are typically continuous across ankle to dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is light colored with only slight brown patch on tarsus below first digit; all digits tend to be white. Plantar pads on hindfeet are only moderately developed, but thenar and hypothenar are present and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, light brown above and cream below. Hairs on tail are sparsely distributed and very short, so that tail appears completely naked to the eye. Tail scales are small, and annuli consequently narrow, ranging 11-14 annuli/cm. Pelage is stiff to the touch, particular along mid-back, with aristiform spines rather short (16-19 mm long) and stout (0-9-1 mm wide); tip is either blunt or terminates with a very short filament. Skull of the Guyenne Spiny-rat conforms to that of virtually all spiny-rats in general shape, but because body size is moderate, skull appears small and rather delicate and lacks heavy ridging that may be present in skulls of larger species of Proechimys. As a result, temporalridges are generally poorly developed,if at all, maximally with just short and weak posterior extensions from supraorbital ledges. Incisive foramina are oval or teardrop in shape, with either no or only weakly developed posterolateral flanges so that anterior palate is typically flat or only very slightly grooved; premaxillary part of septum is short, occupying less than onehalf the opening and usually not in contact with very attenuate and non-keeled maxillary part; anterior palate lacks any medial ridging; and vomeris typically not visible in ventral view. Foraminal shape and structure are especially similar to those of Robert's Spiny-rat (P. roberti) and Simons’s Spiny-rat (P. simonsi). Floor of infraorbital foramen may either lack evidence of groove or have moderately developed lateral flange indicating passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Width of mesopterygoid fossa varies widely among geographical specimens, but it is generally narrow (angle less than 58°); fossa penetrates palate to level of posterior one-half of M? in nearly all specimens. Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete or only weakly developed;it is formed entirely by squamosal. Number offolds on upper cheekteeth is relatively constant, with three characterizing dP*, M', and M?, and either three or less (commonly two) on M?; lower cheekteeth are more variable, with dP, having three folds and M, to M,typically only two, occasionally three. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3—(2) /3-2(3)-2(3)-2(3). Compared with sympatric Cuvier’s Spiny-rat (P. cuvieri), cheekteeth of the Guyenne Spiny-rat are also notably small in size, with tooth row less or equal to 8 mm in length. Baculum is relatively long (length 6-4-8-9 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-3 mm; distal width 2-2.4 mm), and shaftis straight with little dorsoventral curvature and only a slight taper distally, and minimal lateral indentations. Proximal end is usually evenly rounded and paddle-shaped; distal tip shows only slight development of apical wings and moderate median depression. Chromosome complementis highly variable: 2n = 46 and FN = 50 from Rio Anaua and Rio Branco, Roraima (Brazil); 2n = 44 and FN = 52 from Manaus (Brazil); 2n = 40 and FN = 54 from Cayenne (French Guiana); 2n = 40 and FN = 50 from Icabaru (Bolivar, Venezuela); and 2n = 38 and FN = 52 from upper Rio Negro to RioJari Basin on the Para~Amapa State boundary (Brazil).","habitat":"Well-drained lowland forests, sometimes in gallery forest in otherwise more open areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.500m. The Guyenne Spiny-rat is more common in primary forests but ranges into secondary forest and other human disturbed communities. It might occur sympatrically with Cuvier’s Spiny-rat."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFEFFCAFF0251F75396F8FC.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFEFFCAFF0251F75396F8FC","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"571","verbatimText":"35.Suff-spined Spiny-ratProechimys echinothrixFrench:Rat-épineux du Jurua/ German:Igel-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de espinas rigidasTaxonomy.Proechimys echinothrix da Silva, 1998, “Colocacao Viravolta, left bank Rio Jurua on Igarapé Arabidi, affluent of Parana Breu, 66°14°W, 3°17’S, Amazonas,Brazil.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.W Amazon Basin of Brazil, on both sides of the Amazon River W of the Rio Negro and Rio Madeira, possibly extending along the upper Rio Negro into Colombia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 141-245 mm, tail 106-209 mm; weight 240-280 g. The Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is moderately large in overall size; it has distinctly robust body, long ears (24 mm), proportionately short tail (averaging c.77% of head-body length), and large hindfeet (48 mm). Overall, dorsal color is uniformly reddish brown, coarsely streaked on back and sides with varying amounts of black; interspersed heavy, dark brown guard hairs make mid-dorsum appear somewhat darker, but this grades evenly onto brighter and paler sides of body. Aristiform hairs are long (averaging 21 mm) and much broader (1-4-1-6 mm) than those of any other sympatric species, with distinctly strong and blunt tips that are conspicuous to the eye and touch, especially in mid-dorsal region. Venter and inner surface of limbs are pure white. Tail is indistinctly bicolored, dark above and white below. It is well haired, with scales nearly completely obscured from view. Scales are small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Hindfeet are nearly unicolored white on dorsal surfaces. All six pads are present on plantar surface of hindfeet, but hypothenar is weakly developed in relation to thenar pad. Skull of the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is moderately large, rostrum long and narrow, and well-developed supraorbital ledges extend over orbits but are discontinuous across parietals as weakly developed temporal ridges. Zygoma usually lacks post-orbital process or,if present, is low and rounded with equal contributions by jugal and squamosal. Well-developed groove with lateral flange is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Incisive foramina are ovate to lyrate in general shape, with posterolateral margins mostly flat or only weakly flanged, and thus with very shallow grooves extending onto anterior palate that lacks median ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long and narrow, extending between one-half to two-thirds the length of opening; maxillary part is typically attenuate and has weak to no contact with premaxillary part; and vomeris visible in most specimens. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderate in depth but broad, with angle of indentation averaging c.70° and penetrating palate to front of M?, Median numberoflateral folds on all upper cheekteeth is three, but M, occasionally only has two. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3 / 3-3-3—(2) 3. Baculum is massive, relatively short (length 8-3-8-6 mm) but broad (distal width 4-2-5-1 mm; proximal width 4-8-5-4 mm); its shaft is broad with thick and expanded base, and distal end has pair of divergent apical extensions that are separated by shallow median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 60.Habitat.Non-flooded, or terra firma, lowland evergreen rainforest, and along margins of flooded varzea and igapo forest.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information for this species, but the Stiff spined Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.Along the Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant Stiff-spined Spiny-rats were trapped in wet and dry seasons; modal litter size was 2 (range 1-3).Activity patterns.Trapping data suggest that the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Stiff spined Spiny-rat is uncommon at any locality where it has been trapped, butit has a relatively wide distribution over mostly undisturbed forest and occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Amana and Mamiraua sustainable development reserves and Jau National Park). Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Stiffspined Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Patton & Leite (2015), Patton et al. (2000), da Silva (1998), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys echinothrix da Silva, 1998, “Colocacao Viravolta, left bank Rio Jurua on Igarapé Arabidi, affluent of Parana Breu, 66°14°W, 3°17’S, Amazonas,Brazil.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux du Jurua @fr | German @en | gel-Kurzstachelratte @en | Rata espinosa de espinas rigidas @es","interpretedAuthority":"da Silva, 1998","interpretedAuthorityName":"da Silva","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1998","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"571","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"echinothrix","name":"Proechimys echinothrix","subspeciesAndDistribution":"W Amazon Basin of Brazil, on both sides of the Amazon River W of the Rio Negro and Rio Madeira, possibly extending along the upper Rio Negro into Colombia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623732/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton et al. (2000) | da Silva (1998) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information for this species, but the Stiff spined Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.","breeding":"Along the Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant Stiff-spined Spiny-rats were trapped in wet and dry seasons; modal litter size was 2 (range 1-3).","activityPatterns":"Trapping data suggest that the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is primarily terrestrial and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Stiff spined Spiny-rat is uncommon at any locality where it has been trapped, butit has a relatively wide distribution over mostly undisturbed forest and occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Amana and Mamiraua sustainable development reserves and Jau National Park). Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Stiffspined Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 141-245 mm, tail 106-209 mm; weight 240-280 g. The Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is moderately large in overall size; it has distinctly robust body, long ears (24 mm), proportionately short tail (averaging c.77% of head-body length), and large hindfeet (48 mm). Overall, dorsal color is uniformly reddish brown, coarsely streaked on back and sides with varying amounts of black; interspersed heavy, dark brown guard hairs make mid-dorsum appear somewhat darker, but this grades evenly onto brighter and paler sides of body. Aristiform hairs are long (averaging 21 mm) and much broader (1-4-1-6 mm) than those of any other sympatric species, with distinctly strong and blunt tips that are conspicuous to the eye and touch, especially in mid-dorsal region. Venter and inner surface of limbs are pure white. Tail is indistinctly bicolored, dark above and white below. It is well haired, with scales nearly completely obscured from view. Scales are small, with average of 12 annuli/cm at mid-length. Hindfeet are nearly unicolored white on dorsal surfaces. All six pads are present on plantar surface of hindfeet, but hypothenar is weakly developed in relation to thenar pad. Skull of the Stiff-spined Spiny-rat is moderately large, rostrum long and narrow, and well-developed supraorbital ledges extend over orbits but are discontinuous across parietals as weakly developed temporal ridges. Zygoma usually lacks post-orbital process or,if present, is low and rounded with equal contributions by jugal and squamosal. Well-developed groove with lateral flange is present on floor of infraorbital foramen. Incisive foramina are ovate to lyrate in general shape, with posterolateral margins mostly flat or only weakly flanged, and thus with very shallow grooves extending onto anterior palate that lacks median ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long and narrow, extending between one-half to two-thirds the length of opening; maxillary part is typically attenuate and has weak to no contact with premaxillary part; and vomeris visible in most specimens. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderate in depth but broad, with angle of indentation averaging c.70° and penetrating palate to front of M?, Median numberoflateral folds on all upper cheekteeth is three, but M, occasionally only has two. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-3 / 3-3-3—(2) 3. Baculum is massive, relatively short (length 8-3-8-6 mm) but broad (distal width 4-2-5-1 mm; proximal width 4-8-5-4 mm); its shaft is broad with thick and expanded base, and distal end has pair of divergent apical extensions that are separated by shallow median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 60.","habitat":"Non-flooded, or terra firma, lowland evergreen rainforest, and along margins of flooded varzea and igapo forest."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFEFFCDFA055FB858FEF205.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFEFFCDFA055FB858FEF205","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"571","verbatimText":"36.Tomes’s Spiny-ratProechimys semispinosusFrench:Rat-épineux de Tomes/ German:Tomes-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de TomesOther common names:Gorgona Island Spiny-rat (gorgonae)Taxonomy.Echimys semispinosus Tomes, 1860, “Gualaquiza, SE Ecuador.” Amended by A. L. Gardner in 1983 to “Esmeraldas, province Esmeraldas, on the Pacific coast of Ecuador.”Proechimys semispinosusis a member of the semispinosus-species group. As currently understood, it is polytypic; subspecies boundaries, and thus status, on the mainland of Colombia and Ecuador have not been fully ascertained. The form calidiornamed by O. Thomas in 1911 is considered a synonym of the nominate subspecies and the form chiriguinusnamed by Thomas in 1900 a synonym of panamensis, Echinomys semispinosusnamed by F. W. True in 1889 is included in the subspecies centralis. Ten subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.Subspecies and Distribution.P.s.semispinosusTomes,1860—NWEcuador(EsmeraldasProvince).P.s.burrusBangs,1901—SanMiguelI,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.centralisThomas,1896—EHonduras,E&CNicaragua,andN&ECostaRica.P.s.colombianusThomas,1914—WColombia(Pacificlowlands).P.s.goldmaniBole,1937—SWPanama(AzueroPeninsula).P.s.gorgonaeBangs,1905—GorgonaI(offSWColombia).P.s.ignotusKellogg,1946—IslaSanJosé,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.panamensisThomas,1900—SWCostaRicathroughmostofPanamaandpossiblyextendingintoNWColombia.P.s.rosaThomas,1900—SWEcuador.P.s. rubellus Hollister, 1914— C Costa Rica (Angostura Valley, Cartago Province).Descriptive notes. Head-body 290 mm, tail 240 mm; weight 0-26—c.1 kg. Tomes’s Spinyrat is moderately variable in weight geographically, larger in Central America and northern Colombia than in the southern part ofits distribution in Ecuador. Tail length also varies proportionally from ¢.63% of head-body length in the north to ¢.70% in the south. Dorsal color is rather consistently dark reddish brown, laterally speckled with black; sides are only slightly lighter but still contrasting sharply with uniformly white venter. Pale inner thigh stripe does not continue across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is uniformly dark. Plantar pads are well developed, and thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and pale below, particularly in northern specimens but less bicolored in southern samples from north-western Ecuador. Hairiness of tail varies among individuals, with some moderately covered with elongated hairs such that tail scales are nearly hidden from view while other individuals from the same population have more typical sparsely haired tails. Scale annuli are well developed and usually obvious to the eye, averaging 7-8 annuli/cm. Dorsal pelageis stiff to the touch, but aristiform development also varies from north to south. These spines are of equal length (19-21 mm) in all populations, but vary in width and hencestiffness (0-9-1-1 mm in northern samples and 0-6-0-8 mm in southern ones). Nevertheless, each aristiform terminates in elongated, filamentlike, not blunt, tip. Skull is large and broad across zygomatic arches, and rostrum is elongated and narrowed. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is uniquely characterized among spiny-rats by its well-developed temporal ridges extending from supraorbital ledge across length of parietals. Only rarely is this ridge interrupted into anterior and posterior segments. Incisive foramina of most specimens are rather narrow, with almost parallel sides, or weakly lyre-shaped; posterolateral margins are usually strongly flanged, creating deep grooves extending onto anterior palate despite only moderate development of medial ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long, encompassing nearly entire length of opening; maxillary part varies from well developed to attenuate, is only weakly keeled at best, and is nearly always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely hidden from ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen has groove supporting infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve and is formed by well-developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is of moderate width, but angle becomes broader from north to south (57-62°). In contrast to O’Connell’s Spiny-rat (PF. oconnelli), post-orbital process of zygoma of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is moderately well developed and more commonly formed byjugal (especially in northern samples, less so in southern ones). Counterfold pattern is similar to that of species of the goelditspecies group, with four folds commonly present on all upper cheekteeth and M,, and less commonly on M, and even M,. Nevertheless, fold number decreases in samples from northern Colombia to southern Ecuador (subspecies rosa), where four folds are rare on all teeth and two folds may be found on M? and all lower molars. Therefore, counterfold formula is 4(3)-4(3)—4(3)-4(3-2) /4-4(3-2)-4(3-2)—4(3-2). Baculum is massive, long (length 8:5-9-7 mm), and broad (proximal width 4-2—4-9 mm; distal width 5-1-6:2 mm), with deeply concave margins, broadly expanded and thickened base, and wide distal part with well-developed apical wings separated by median depression. Chromosomal complements are 2n = 30 and FN = 54 in Costa Rica; 2n = 30 and FN = 50-54 in Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador; and 2n = 30 and FN = 56 in Pacific lowlands and Gorgona Island, Colombia.Habitat. Primary lowland rainforest and secondary growth, mostly along riparian corridors and low-lying habitats, from sea level to elevations of ¢.500m. Tomes’s Spiny-rat enters tropical deciduous forest in the southern tip of its distribution. It has also been reported in disturbed habitats such as logged or otherwise fragmented forests.Food and Feeding.Diet of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is mainly fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of other plant material, insects, and fungi. Large seeds and palm nuts are usually carried to a secure feeding place such as a hole. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is an important disperser of several tropical fruit species.Breeding. Pregnant Tomes’s Spiny-rats give birth to precocious young; litters are 1-5 young. In Panama, they breed throughout the year, with females potentially producing four successive litters.Activity patterns. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tomes’s Spiny-rats nest in burrows or cavities under logs, usually in dense vegetation. Insular populations were reported to have midto high density on five islands in Gatun Lake, central Panama. Male home ranges were estimated to be larger than those of females, but home ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively indicating no territoriality. Adults also had small home ranges with greater spatial overlap through rainy seasons when resources were most abundant. In general, degree of overlap was positively correlated with population density. In cases of high density, adults potentially shared diurnal resting sites such as burrows, which were not individual specific. A negative correlation between home range size and density suggested that abundance of food resources had an influence on home range size and degree of overlap. Mating system of Tomes’s Spiny-rat also varied with density and resource abundance, being mostly monogamous on lowdensity islands but polygynous or promiscuous on high-density islands. Seasonality was also a significantly correlated with home range and spatial overlap; overlap increased throughout the rainy season due to an increase in abundance of fruit, providing a greater chance of mating than in the dry season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is widespread and abundant; it is present in multiple forest types across its known distribution and occurs in several protected areas; and it is unlikely to be declining. Increased forest conversion with spread of large-scale agriculture oflarge parts ofits distribution, however, suggest that continued studies are needed to assess conservation status over the next few decades. Despite being common, few detailed population studies of Tomes’s Spiny-rat beyond those in central Panama have ever been undertaken.Bibliography. Adler (1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2011), Adler & Beatty (1997), Adler & Kestell (1998), Adler & Lambert (1997), Adler & Seamon (1991), Adler, Endries & Piotter (1997), Adler, Tomblin & Lambert (1998), Alho (1981), Allen (1899b), Bangs (1901), Bole (1937), Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Endries & Adler (2005), Gardner (1983), Goldman (1920), Hollister (1914a, 1914b), Kellogg (1946), Lambert & Adler (2000), Mangan & Adler (1999), McKee & Adler (2002), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Seamon & Adler (1999), Thomas (1882, 1900a, 1911b), Tomblin & Adler (1998), Tomes (1860), Travi et al. (2002), True (1889a).","taxonomy":"Echimys semispinosus Tomes, 1860, “Gualaquiza, SE Ecuador.” Amended by A. L. Gardner in 1983 to “Esmeraldas, province Esmeraldas, on the Pacific coast of Ecuador.”Proechimys semispinosusis a member of the semispinosus-species group. As currently understood, it is polytypic; subspecies boundaries, and thus status, on the mainland of Colombia and Ecuador have not been fully ascertained. The form calidiornamed by O. Thomas in 1911 is considered a synonym of the nominate subspecies and the form chiriguinusnamed by Thomas in 1900 a synonym of panamensis, Echinomys semispinosusnamed by F. W. True in 1889 is included in the subspecies centralis. Ten subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Tomes @fr | Tomes-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Tomes @es | Gorgona @en | sland Spiny-rat (gorgonae) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Tomes","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1860","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"571","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"semispinosus","name":"Proechimys semispinosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.s.semispinosusTomes,1860—NWEcuador(EsmeraldasProvince).P.s.burrusBangs,1901—SanMiguelI,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.centralisThomas,1896—EHonduras,E&CNicaragua,andN&ECostaRica.P.s.colombianusThomas,1914—WColombia(Pacificlowlands).P.s.goldmaniBole,1937—SWPanama(AzueroPeninsula).P.s.gorgonaeBangs,1905—GorgonaI(offSWColombia).P.s.ignotusKellogg,1946—IslaSanJosé,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.panamensisThomas,1900—SWCostaRicathroughmostofPanamaandpossiblyextendingintoNWColombia.P.s.rosaThomas,1900—SWEcuador.P.s. rubellus Hollister, 1914— C Costa Rica (Angostura Valley, Cartago Province).","bibliography":"Adler (1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2011) | Adler & Beatty (1997) | Adler & Kestell (1998) | Adler & Lambert (1997) | Adler & Seamon (1991) | Adler, Endries & Piotter (1997) | Adler, Tomblin & Lambert (1998) | Alho (1981) | Allen (1899b) | Bangs (1901) | Bole (1937) | Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Endries & Adler (2005) | Gardner (1983) | Goldman (1920) | Hollister (1914a, 1914b) | Kellogg (1946) | Lambert & Adler (2000) | Mangan & Adler (1999) | McKee & Adler (2002) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Seamon & Adler (1999) | Thomas (1882, 1900a, 1911b) | Tomblin & Adler (1998) | Tomes (1860) | Travi et al. (2002) | True (1889a)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is mainly fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of other plant material, insects, and fungi. Large seeds and palm nuts are usually carried to a secure feeding place such as a hole. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is an important disperser of several tropical fruit species.Breeding. Pregnant Tomes’s Spiny-rats give birth to precocious young; litters are 1-5 young. In Panama, they breed throughout the year, with females potentially producing four successive litters.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Tomes’s Spiny-rats nest in burrows or cavities under logs, usually in dense vegetation. Insular populations were reported to have midto high density on five islands in Gatun Lake, central Panama. Male home ranges were estimated to be larger than those of females, but home ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively indicating no territoriality. Adults also had small home ranges with greater spatial overlap through rainy seasons when resources were most abundant. In general, degree of overlap was positively correlated with population density. In cases of high density, adults potentially shared diurnal resting sites such as burrows, which were not individual specific. A negative correlation between home range size and density suggested that abundance of food resources had an influence on home range size and degree of overlap. Mating system of Tomes’s Spiny-rat also varied with density and resource abundance, being mostly monogamous on lowdensity islands but polygynous or promiscuous on high-density islands. Seasonality was also a significantly correlated with home range and spatial overlap; overlap increased throughout the rainy season due to an increase in abundance of fruit, providing a greater chance of mating than in the dry season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is widespread and abundant; it is present in multiple forest types across its known distribution and occurs in several protected areas; and it is unlikely to be declining. Increased forest conversion with spread of large-scale agriculture oflarge parts ofits distribution, however, suggest that continued studies are needed to assess conservation status over the next few decades. Despite being common, few detailed population studies of Tomes’s Spiny-rat beyond those in central Panama have ever been undertaken.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 290 mm, tail 240 mm; weight 0-26—c.1 kg. Tomes’s Spinyrat is moderately variable in weight geographically, larger in Central America and northern Colombia than in the southern part ofits distribution in Ecuador. Tail length also varies proportionally from ¢.63% of head-body length in the north to ¢.70% in the south. Dorsal color is rather consistently dark reddish brown, laterally speckled with black; sides are only slightly lighter but still contrasting sharply with uniformly white venter. Pale inner thigh stripe does not continue across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is uniformly dark. Plantar pads are well developed, and thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and pale below, particularly in northern specimens but less bicolored in southern samples from north-western Ecuador. Hairiness of tail varies among individuals, with some moderately covered with elongated hairs such that tail scales are nearly hidden from view while other individuals from the same population have more typical sparsely haired tails. Scale annuli are well developed and usually obvious to the eye, averaging 7-8 annuli/cm. Dorsal pelageis stiff to the touch, but aristiform development also varies from north to south. These spines are of equal length (19-21 mm) in all populations, but vary in width and hencestiffness (0-9-1-1 mm in northern samples and 0-6-0-8 mm in southern ones). Nevertheless, each aristiform terminates in elongated, filamentlike, not blunt, tip. Skull is large and broad across zygomatic arches, and rostrum is elongated and narrowed. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is uniquely characterized among spiny-rats by its well-developed temporal ridges extending from supraorbital ledge across length of parietals. Only rarely is this ridge interrupted into anterior and posterior segments. Incisive foramina of most specimens are rather narrow, with almost parallel sides, or weakly lyre-shaped; posterolateral margins are usually strongly flanged, creating deep grooves extending onto anterior palate despite only moderate development of medial ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long, encompassing nearly entire length of opening; maxillary part varies from well developed to attenuate, is only weakly keeled at best, and is nearly always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely hidden from ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen has groove supporting infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve and is formed by well-developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is of moderate width, but angle becomes broader from north to south (57-62°). In contrast to O’Connell’s Spiny-rat (PF. oconnelli), post-orbital process of zygoma of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is moderately well developed and more commonly formed byjugal (especially in northern samples, less so in southern ones). Counterfold pattern is similar to that of species of the goelditspecies group, with four folds commonly present on all upper cheekteeth and M,, and less commonly on M, and even M,. Nevertheless, fold number decreases in samples from northern Colombia to southern Ecuador (subspecies rosa), where four folds are rare on all teeth and two folds may be found on M? and all lower molars. Therefore, counterfold formula is 4(3)-4(3)—4(3)-4(3-2) /4-4(3-2)-4(3-2)—4(3-2). Baculum is massive, long (length 8:5-9-7 mm), and broad (proximal width 4-2—4-9 mm; distal width 5-1-6:2 mm), with deeply concave margins, broadly expanded and thickened base, and wide distal part with well-developed apical wings separated by median depression. Chromosomal complements are 2n = 30 and FN = 54 in Costa Rica; 2n = 30 and FN = 50-54 in Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador; and 2n = 30 and FN = 56 in Pacific lowlands and Gorgona Island, Colombia."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFFFFCAFAD952CD5F2BF621.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFFFFCAFAD952CD5F2BF621","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"570","verbatimText":"34.Simons’s Spiny-ratProechimys simonsiFrench:Rat-épineux de Simons/ German:Simons-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de SimonsOther common names:Hendee's Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys simonsi Thomas, 1900, “Perené River, Junin Province, Peru, Altitude 800 m.”Proechimys simonsiincludes hendeei and nigrofulvus as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Andean slopes and Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, N Bolivia, and W Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 165-275 mm, tail 118-231 mm; weight 160-400 g. Simons’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with very characteristic elongated body, long and narrow face, long ears, absolutely and proportionately long tail (¢.85% of headbody length), and long narrow hindfeet.On following pages: 35. Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (Proechimys echinothrix); 36. Tomes'’s Spiny-rat (Proechimys semispinosus); 37. O'Connell's Spiny-rat (Proechimys oconnelli); 38. Napo Spiny-rat (Proechimys quadruplicatus); 39. Steere’s Spiny-rat (Proechimyssteerei); 40. Goeldi's Spiny-rat (Proechimys goeldii); 41. Guyenne Spiny-rat (Proechimys guyannensis); 42. Robert's Spiny-rat (Proechimysrobert); 43. Patton's Spiny-rat (Proechimyspattoni); 44. Kulina Spiny-rat (Proechimys kulinae); 45. Gardner's Spiny-rat (Proechimys gardneri); 46. Boyaca Spiny-rat (Proechimys chrysaeolus); 47. Minca Spiny-rat (Proechimys mincae); 48. Guaira Spiny-rat (Proechimysguairae); 49. Trinidad Spiny-rat (Proechimys trinitatis); 50. Guianan Spiny-rat (Proechimys hoplomyoides); 51. Short-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys brevicauda); 52. Long-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys longicaudatus); 53. Cuvier's Spiny-rat (Proechimyscuvier).Tail is sharply bicolored, dark above and white below; it is covered by sparse, fine hair, although small scales are conspicuous to the eye, with 9-13 annuli/cm. Middorsal color is darker than that of sides, reddish brown in tone, coarsely streaked with black hairs, and interspersed by dark brown aristiforms. Aristiform hairs are long (22-24 mm) and thin (0-2-0-4 mm) and terminate in distinctly whip-like tip. Venter, chin, sides of upper lips, and undersides of forelimbs and hindlimbs are pure white, with white of inner legs typically extending across tarsal joints onto hindfeet, which are also usually white above. Simons’s Spiny-rat lacks hypothenar pads on plantar surfaces of hindfeet. Skull is large, rostrum is distinctly long and narrow, and supraorbital ridges are well developed but do not extend onto parietals as temporal ridge. Oval shape of incisive foramina is diagnostic; this shape is occasionally slightly elongated, but posterior margins are never strongly constricted so that flat posterolateral margins lack grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short and rounded and usually no more than one-half the length of opening; and attenuate maxillary part usually is not in contact with premaxillary part. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved, with moderately developed lateral flange defining passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Anterior border of mesopterygoid fossa is acutely angled (49-53°) and penetrates deeply into posterior palate, reaching anterior one-half of M’ or middle of M?*dP* and M' typically have three folds while M? and M?® have 3-4 folds. Number offolds, particularly on dP,, varies from north to south from four to three, while M -M;typically have three folds, although M, may have only two folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3(4)-3(4) /(3)-3-3—(2). Baculum is long (length 8:4-10-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-5 mm; distal width 1-5-1-9 mm), with rounded and slightly broadened base. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 56-58 in eastern Ecuador, northern and southern Peru, and western Brazil.Habitat.Upland, non-seasonally flooded rainforest (terra firma) in the western Amazon Basin and extending into lower montane forest on eastern Andean slopes at elevations of 50-2000 m. Simons’s Spiny-rat occurs in undisturbed primary rainforest and secondary or disturbed forest habitats such as garden plots.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.In Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant and lactating females were collected throughout most of the year, suggesting continuous breeding. Mean litter size of Simons’s Spiny-rat was two young (range 1-3). Males and females reached sexual maturity after they were fully grown and had molted into their adult pelage. Postpartum estrus was evident in only a few females (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation), and high proportion of adult females (30%) exhibited no prior evidence of mating.Activity patterns.Trapping data of Simons’s Spiny-rat indicate that it is relatively common, terrestrial, and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Peru, female Simons’s Spiny-rats seemed to be territorial, which might explain late sexual maturity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Simons’s Spiny-rat is widespread and common, present in many different forest types across wide elevational distribution, and part of the mammalian fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas. There is no evidence that its numbers are declining. Nevertheless, additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Simon’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Moojen (1948), Osgood (1944), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Patton et al. (2000), Thomas (1900b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys simonsi Thomas, 1900, “Perené River, Junin Province, Peru, Altitude 800 m.”Proechimys simonsiincludes hendeei and nigrofulvus as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Simons @fr | Simons-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Simons @es | Hendee's Spiny-rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1900","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"570","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"simonsi","name":"Proechimys simonsi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Andean slopes and Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, N Bolivia, and W Brazil.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623730/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Moojen (1948) | Osgood (1944) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Patton et al. (2000) | Thomas (1900b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"In Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant and lactating females were collected throughout most of the year, suggesting continuous breeding. Mean litter size of Simons’s Spiny-rat was two young (range 1-3). Males and females reached sexual maturity after they were fully grown and had molted into their adult pelage. Postpartum estrus was evident in only a few females (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation), and high proportion of adult females (30%) exhibited no prior evidence of mating.","activityPatterns":"Trapping data of Simons’s Spiny-rat indicate that it is relatively common, terrestrial, and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In southern Peru, female Simons’s Spiny-rats seemed to be territorial, which might explain late sexual maturity.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Simons’s Spiny-rat is widespread and common, present in many different forest types across wide elevational distribution, and part of the mammalian fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas. There is no evidence that its numbers are declining. Nevertheless, additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Simon’s Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 165-275 mm, tail 118-231 mm; weight 160-400 g. Simons’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with very characteristic elongated body, long and narrow face, long ears, absolutely and proportionately long tail (¢.85% of headbody length), and long narrow hindfeet.On following pages: 35. Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (Proechimys echinothrix); 36. Tomes'’s Spiny-rat (Proechimys semispinosus); 37. O'Connell's Spiny-rat (Proechimys oconnelli); 38. Napo Spiny-rat (Proechimys quadruplicatus); 39. Steere’s Spiny-rat (Proechimyssteerei); 40. Goeldi's Spiny-rat (Proechimys goeldii); 41. Guyenne Spiny-rat (Proechimys guyannensis); 42. Robert's Spiny-rat (Proechimysrobert); 43. Patton's Spiny-rat (Proechimyspattoni); 44. Kulina Spiny-rat (Proechimys kulinae); 45. Gardner's Spiny-rat (Proechimys gardneri); 46. Boyaca Spiny-rat (Proechimys chrysaeolus); 47. Minca Spiny-rat (Proechimys mincae); 48. Guaira Spiny-rat (Proechimysguairae); 49. Trinidad Spiny-rat (Proechimys trinitatis); 50. Guianan Spiny-rat (Proechimys hoplomyoides); 51. Short-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys brevicauda); 52. Long-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys longicaudatus); 53. Cuvier's Spiny-rat (Proechimyscuvier).Tail is sharply bicolored, dark above and white below; it is covered by sparse, fine hair, although small scales are conspicuous to the eye, with 9-13 annuli/cm. Middorsal color is darker than that of sides, reddish brown in tone, coarsely streaked with black hairs, and interspersed by dark brown aristiforms. Aristiform hairs are long (22-24 mm) and thin (0-2-0-4 mm) and terminate in distinctly whip-like tip. Venter, chin, sides of upper lips, and undersides of forelimbs and hindlimbs are pure white, with white of inner legs typically extending across tarsal joints onto hindfeet, which are also usually white above. Simons’s Spiny-rat lacks hypothenar pads on plantar surfaces of hindfeet. Skull is large, rostrum is distinctly long and narrow, and supraorbital ridges are well developed but do not extend onto parietals as temporal ridge. Oval shape of incisive foramina is diagnostic; this shape is occasionally slightly elongated, but posterior margins are never strongly constricted so that flat posterolateral margins lack grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short and rounded and usually no more than one-half the length of opening; and attenuate maxillary part usually is not in contact with premaxillary part. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved, with moderately developed lateral flange defining passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Anterior border of mesopterygoid fossa is acutely angled (49-53°) and penetrates deeply into posterior palate, reaching anterior one-half of M’ or middle of M?*dP* and M' typically have three folds while M? and M?® have 3-4 folds. Number offolds, particularly on dP,, varies from north to south from four to three, while M -M;typically have three folds, although M, may have only two folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3(4)-3(4) /(3)-3-3—(2). Baculum is long (length 8:4-10-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-5 mm; distal width 1-5-1-9 mm), with rounded and slightly broadened base. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 56-58 in eastern Ecuador, northern and southern Peru, and western Brazil.","habitat":"Upland, non-seasonally flooded rainforest (terra firma) in the western Amazon Basin and extending into lower montane forest on eastern Andean slopes at elevations of 50-2000 m. Simons’s Spiny-rat occurs in undisturbed primary rainforest and secondary or disturbed forest habitats such as garden plots."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFEFFCDFA055FB858FEF205.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFEFFCDFA055FB858FEF205","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"571","verbatimText":"36.Tomes’s Spiny-ratProechimys semispinosusFrench:Rat-épineux de Tomes/ German:Tomes-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de TomesOther common names:Gorgona Island Spiny-rat (gorgonae)Taxonomy.Echimys semispinosus Tomes, 1860, “Gualaquiza, SE Ecuador.” Amended by A. L. Gardner in 1983 to “Esmeraldas, province Esmeraldas, on the Pacific coast of Ecuador.”Proechimys semispinosusis a member of the semispinosus-species group. As currently understood, it is polytypic; subspecies boundaries, and thus status, on the mainland of Colombia and Ecuador have not been fully ascertained. The form calidiornamed by O. Thomas in 1911 is considered a synonym of the nominate subspecies and the form chiriguinusnamed by Thomas in 1900 a synonym of panamensis, Echinomys semispinosusnamed by F. W. True in 1889 is included in the subspecies centralis. Ten subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.Subspecies and Distribution.P.s.semispinosusTomes,1860—NWEcuador(EsmeraldasProvince).P.s.burrusBangs,1901—SanMiguelI,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.centralisThomas,1896—EHonduras,E&CNicaragua,andN&ECostaRica.P.s.colombianusThomas,1914—WColombia(Pacificlowlands).P.s.goldmaniBole,1937—SWPanama(AzueroPeninsula).P.s.gorgonaeBangs,1905—GorgonaI(offSWColombia).P.s.ignotusKellogg,1946—IslaSanJosé,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.panamensisThomas,1900—SWCostaRicathroughmostofPanamaandpossiblyextendingintoNWColombia.P.s.rosaThomas,1900—SWEcuador.P.s. rubellus Hollister, 1914— C Costa Rica (Angostura Valley, Cartago Province).Descriptive notes. Head-body 290 mm, tail 240 mm; weight 0-26—c.1 kg. Tomes’s Spinyrat is moderately variable in weight geographically, larger in Central America and northern Colombia than in the southern part ofits distribution in Ecuador. Tail length also varies proportionally from ¢.63% of head-body length in the north to ¢.70% in the south. Dorsal color is rather consistently dark reddish brown, laterally speckled with black; sides are only slightly lighter but still contrasting sharply with uniformly white venter. Pale inner thigh stripe does not continue across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is uniformly dark. Plantar pads are well developed, and thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and pale below, particularly in northern specimens but less bicolored in southern samples from north-western Ecuador. Hairiness of tail varies among individuals, with some moderately covered with elongated hairs such that tail scales are nearly hidden from view while other individuals from the same population have more typical sparsely haired tails. Scale annuli are well developed and usually obvious to the eye, averaging 7-8 annuli/cm. Dorsal pelageis stiff to the touch, but aristiform development also varies from north to south. These spines are of equal length (19-21 mm) in all populations, but vary in width and hencestiffness (0-9-1-1 mm in northern samples and 0-6-0-8 mm in southern ones). Nevertheless, each aristiform terminates in elongated, filamentlike, not blunt, tip. Skull is large and broad across zygomatic arches, and rostrum is elongated and narrowed. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is uniquely characterized among spiny-rats by its well-developed temporal ridges extending from supraorbital ledge across length of parietals. Only rarely is this ridge interrupted into anterior and posterior segments. Incisive foramina of most specimens are rather narrow, with almost parallel sides, or weakly lyre-shaped; posterolateral margins are usually strongly flanged, creating deep grooves extending onto anterior palate despite only moderate development of medial ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long, encompassing nearly entire length of opening; maxillary part varies from well developed to attenuate, is only weakly keeled at best, and is nearly always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely hidden from ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen has groove supporting infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve and is formed by well-developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is of moderate width, but angle becomes broader from north to south (57-62°). In contrast to O’Connell’s Spiny-rat (PF. oconnelli), post-orbital process of zygoma of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is moderately well developed and more commonly formed byjugal (especially in northern samples, less so in southern ones). Counterfold pattern is similar to that of species of the goelditspecies group, with four folds commonly present on all upper cheekteeth and M,, and less commonly on M, and even M,. Nevertheless, fold number decreases in samples from northern Colombia to southern Ecuador (subspecies rosa), where four folds are rare on all teeth and two folds may be found on M? and all lower molars. Therefore, counterfold formula is 4(3)-4(3)—4(3)-4(3-2) /4-4(3-2)-4(3-2)—4(3-2). Baculum is massive, long (length 8:5-9-7 mm), and broad (proximal width 4-2—4-9 mm; distal width 5-1-6:2 mm), with deeply concave margins, broadly expanded and thickened base, and wide distal part with well-developed apical wings separated by median depression. Chromosomal complements are 2n = 30 and FN = 54 in Costa Rica; 2n = 30 and FN = 50-54 in Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador; and 2n = 30 and FN = 56 in Pacific lowlands and Gorgona Island, Colombia.Habitat. Primary lowland rainforest and secondary growth, mostly along riparian corridors and low-lying habitats, from sea level to elevations of ¢.500m. Tomes’s Spiny-rat enters tropical deciduous forest in the southern tip of its distribution. It has also been reported in disturbed habitats such as logged or otherwise fragmented forests.Food and Feeding.Diet of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is mainly fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of other plant material, insects, and fungi. Large seeds and palm nuts are usually carried to a secure feeding place such as a hole. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is an important disperser of several tropical fruit species.Breeding. Pregnant Tomes’s Spiny-rats give birth to precocious young; litters are 1-5 young. In Panama, they breed throughout the year, with females potentially producing four successive litters.Activity patterns. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Tomes’s Spiny-rats nest in burrows or cavities under logs, usually in dense vegetation. Insular populations were reported to have midto high density on five islands in Gatun Lake, central Panama. Male home ranges were estimated to be larger than those of females, but home ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively indicating no territoriality. Adults also had small home ranges with greater spatial overlap through rainy seasons when resources were most abundant. In general, degree of overlap was positively correlated with population density. In cases of high density, adults potentially shared diurnal resting sites such as burrows, which were not individual specific. A negative correlation between home range size and density suggested that abundance of food resources had an influence on home range size and degree of overlap. Mating system of Tomes’s Spiny-rat also varied with density and resource abundance, being mostly monogamous on lowdensity islands but polygynous or promiscuous on high-density islands. Seasonality was also a significantly correlated with home range and spatial overlap; overlap increased throughout the rainy season due to an increase in abundance of fruit, providing a greater chance of mating than in the dry season.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is widespread and abundant; it is present in multiple forest types across its known distribution and occurs in several protected areas; and it is unlikely to be declining. Increased forest conversion with spread of large-scale agriculture oflarge parts ofits distribution, however, suggest that continued studies are needed to assess conservation status over the next few decades. Despite being common, few detailed population studies of Tomes’s Spiny-rat beyond those in central Panama have ever been undertaken.Bibliography. Adler (1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2011), Adler & Beatty (1997), Adler & Kestell (1998), Adler & Lambert (1997), Adler & Seamon (1991), Adler, Endries & Piotter (1997), Adler, Tomblin & Lambert (1998), Alho (1981), Allen (1899b), Bangs (1901), Bole (1937), Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Endries & Adler (2005), Gardner (1983), Goldman (1920), Hollister (1914a, 1914b), Kellogg (1946), Lambert & Adler (2000), Mangan & Adler (1999), McKee & Adler (2002), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Seamon & Adler (1999), Thomas (1882, 1900a, 1911b), Tomblin & Adler (1998), Tomes (1860), Travi et al. (2002), True (1889a).","taxonomy":"Echimys semispinosus Tomes, 1860, “Gualaquiza, SE Ecuador.” Amended by A. L. Gardner in 1983 to “Esmeraldas, province Esmeraldas, on the Pacific coast of Ecuador.”Proechimys semispinosusis a member of the semispinosus-species group. As currently understood, it is polytypic; subspecies boundaries, and thus status, on the mainland of Colombia and Ecuador have not been fully ascertained. The form calidiornamed by O. Thomas in 1911 is considered a synonym of the nominate subspecies and the form chiriguinusnamed by Thomas in 1900 a synonym of panamensis, Echinomys semispinosusnamed by F. W. True in 1889 is included in the subspecies centralis. Ten subspecies recognized, but ranges poorly known and their validity needs to be properly assessed.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Tomes @fr | Tomes-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Tomes @es | Gorgona @en | sland Spiny-rat (gorgonae) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Tomes","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1860","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"571","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"semispinosus","name":"Proechimys semispinosus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.s.semispinosusTomes,1860—NWEcuador(EsmeraldasProvince).P.s.burrusBangs,1901—SanMiguelI,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.centralisThomas,1896—EHonduras,E&CNicaragua,andN&ECostaRica.P.s.colombianusThomas,1914—WColombia(Pacificlowlands).P.s.goldmaniBole,1937—SWPanama(AzueroPeninsula).P.s.gorgonaeBangs,1905—GorgonaI(offSWColombia).P.s.ignotusKellogg,1946—IslaSanJosé,PearlIs(offSCPanama).P.s.panamensisThomas,1900—SWCostaRicathroughmostofPanamaandpossiblyextendingintoNWColombia.P.s.rosaThomas,1900—SWEcuador.P.s. rubellus Hollister, 1914— C Costa Rica (Angostura Valley, Cartago Province).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623736/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Adler (1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2011) | Adler & Beatty (1997) | Adler & Kestell (1998) | Adler & Lambert (1997) | Adler & Seamon (1991) | Adler, Endries & Piotter (1997) | Adler, Tomblin & Lambert (1998) | Alho (1981) | Allen (1899b) | Bangs (1901) | Bole (1937) | Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Endries & Adler (2005) | Gardner (1983) | Goldman (1920) | Hollister (1914a, 1914b) | Kellogg (1946) | Lambert & Adler (2000) | Mangan & Adler (1999) | McKee & Adler (2002) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Seamon & Adler (1999) | Thomas (1882, 1900a, 1911b) | Tomblin & Adler (1998) | Tomes (1860) | Travi et al. (2002) | True (1889a)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is mainly fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of other plant material, insects, and fungi. Large seeds and palm nuts are usually carried to a secure feeding place such as a hole. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is an important disperser of several tropical fruit species.Breeding. Pregnant Tomes’s Spiny-rats give birth to precocious young; litters are 1-5 young. In Panama, they breed throughout the year, with females potentially producing four successive litters.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Tomes’s Spiny-rats nest in burrows or cavities under logs, usually in dense vegetation. Insular populations were reported to have midto high density on five islands in Gatun Lake, central Panama. Male home ranges were estimated to be larger than those of females, but home ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively indicating no territoriality. Adults also had small home ranges with greater spatial overlap through rainy seasons when resources were most abundant. In general, degree of overlap was positively correlated with population density. In cases of high density, adults potentially shared diurnal resting sites such as burrows, which were not individual specific. A negative correlation between home range size and density suggested that abundance of food resources had an influence on home range size and degree of overlap. Mating system of Tomes’s Spiny-rat also varied with density and resource abundance, being mostly monogamous on lowdensity islands but polygynous or promiscuous on high-density islands. Seasonality was also a significantly correlated with home range and spatial overlap; overlap increased throughout the rainy season due to an increase in abundance of fruit, providing a greater chance of mating than in the dry season.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is widespread and abundant; it is present in multiple forest types across its known distribution and occurs in several protected areas; and it is unlikely to be declining. Increased forest conversion with spread of large-scale agriculture oflarge parts ofits distribution, however, suggest that continued studies are needed to assess conservation status over the next few decades. Despite being common, few detailed population studies of Tomes’s Spiny-rat beyond those in central Panama have ever been undertaken.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 290 mm, tail 240 mm; weight 0-26—c.1 kg. Tomes’s Spinyrat is moderately variable in weight geographically, larger in Central America and northern Colombia than in the southern part ofits distribution in Ecuador. Tail length also varies proportionally from ¢.63% of head-body length in the north to ¢.70% in the south. Dorsal color is rather consistently dark reddish brown, laterally speckled with black; sides are only slightly lighter but still contrasting sharply with uniformly white venter. Pale inner thigh stripe does not continue across ankle onto dorsal surface of hindfoot, which is uniformly dark. Plantar pads are well developed, and thenar and hypothenar pads enlarged and sub-equal in size. Tail is sharply bicolored, dark brown above and pale below, particularly in northern specimens but less bicolored in southern samples from north-western Ecuador. Hairiness of tail varies among individuals, with some moderately covered with elongated hairs such that tail scales are nearly hidden from view while other individuals from the same population have more typical sparsely haired tails. Scale annuli are well developed and usually obvious to the eye, averaging 7-8 annuli/cm. Dorsal pelageis stiff to the touch, but aristiform development also varies from north to south. These spines are of equal length (19-21 mm) in all populations, but vary in width and hencestiffness (0-9-1-1 mm in northern samples and 0-6-0-8 mm in southern ones). Nevertheless, each aristiform terminates in elongated, filamentlike, not blunt, tip. Skull is large and broad across zygomatic arches, and rostrum is elongated and narrowed. Tomes’s Spiny-rat is uniquely characterized among spiny-rats by its well-developed temporal ridges extending from supraorbital ledge across length of parietals. Only rarely is this ridge interrupted into anterior and posterior segments. Incisive foramina of most specimens are rather narrow, with almost parallel sides, or weakly lyre-shaped; posterolateral margins are usually strongly flanged, creating deep grooves extending onto anterior palate despite only moderate development of medial ridge; premaxillary part of septum is long, encompassing nearly entire length of opening; maxillary part varies from well developed to attenuate, is only weakly keeled at best, and is nearly always in contact with premaxillary part; and vomer is completely hidden from ventral view. Floor of infraorbital foramen has groove supporting infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve and is formed by well-developed lateral flange. Mesopterygoid fossa is of moderate width, but angle becomes broader from north to south (57-62°). In contrast to O’Connell’s Spiny-rat (PF. oconnelli), post-orbital process of zygoma of Tomes’s Spiny-rat is moderately well developed and more commonly formed byjugal (especially in northern samples, less so in southern ones). Counterfold pattern is similar to that of species of the goelditspecies group, with four folds commonly present on all upper cheekteeth and M,, and less commonly on M, and even M,. Nevertheless, fold number decreases in samples from northern Colombia to southern Ecuador (subspecies rosa), where four folds are rare on all teeth and two folds may be found on M? and all lower molars. Therefore, counterfold formula is 4(3)-4(3)—4(3)-4(3-2) /4-4(3-2)-4(3-2)—4(3-2). Baculum is massive, long (length 8:5-9-7 mm), and broad (proximal width 4-2—4-9 mm; distal width 5-1-6:2 mm), with deeply concave margins, broadly expanded and thickened base, and wide distal part with well-developed apical wings separated by median depression. Chromosomal complements are 2n = 30 and FN = 54 in Costa Rica; 2n = 30 and FN = 50-54 in Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador; and 2n = 30 and FN = 56 in Pacific lowlands and Gorgona Island, Colombia."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFFFFCAFAD952CD5F2BF621.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFFFFCAFAD952CD5F2BF621","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"570","verbatimText":"34.Simons’s Spiny-ratProechimys simonsiFrench:Rat-épineux de Simons/ German:Simons-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de SimonsOther common names:Hendee's Spiny-ratTaxonomy.Proechimys simonsi Thomas, 1900, “Perené River, Junin Province, Peru, Altitude 800 m.”Proechimys simonsiincludes hendeei and nigrofulvus as synonyms. Monotypic.Distribution.E Andean slopes and Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, N Bolivia, and W Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head-body 165-275 mm, tail 118-231 mm; weight 160-400 g. Simons’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with very characteristic elongated body, long and narrow face, long ears, absolutely and proportionately long tail (¢.85% of headbody length), and long narrow hindfeet.On following pages: 35. Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (Proechimys echinothrix); 36. Tomes'’s Spiny-rat (Proechimys semispinosus); 37. O'Connell's Spiny-rat (Proechimys oconnelli); 38. Napo Spiny-rat (Proechimys quadruplicatus); 39. Steere’s Spiny-rat (Proechimyssteerei); 40. Goeldi's Spiny-rat (Proechimys goeldii); 41. Guyenne Spiny-rat (Proechimys guyannensis); 42. Robert's Spiny-rat (Proechimysrobert); 43. Patton's Spiny-rat (Proechimyspattoni); 44. Kulina Spiny-rat (Proechimys kulinae); 45. Gardner's Spiny-rat (Proechimys gardneri); 46. Boyaca Spiny-rat (Proechimys chrysaeolus); 47. Minca Spiny-rat (Proechimys mincae); 48. Guaira Spiny-rat (Proechimysguairae); 49. Trinidad Spiny-rat (Proechimys trinitatis); 50. Guianan Spiny-rat (Proechimys hoplomyoides); 51. Short-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys brevicauda); 52. Long-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys longicaudatus); 53. Cuvier's Spiny-rat (Proechimyscuvier).Tail is sharply bicolored, dark above and white below; it is covered by sparse, fine hair, although small scales are conspicuous to the eye, with 9-13 annuli/cm. Middorsal color is darker than that of sides, reddish brown in tone, coarsely streaked with black hairs, and interspersed by dark brown aristiforms. Aristiform hairs are long (22-24 mm) and thin (0-2-0-4 mm) and terminate in distinctly whip-like tip. Venter, chin, sides of upper lips, and undersides of forelimbs and hindlimbs are pure white, with white of inner legs typically extending across tarsal joints onto hindfeet, which are also usually white above. Simons’s Spiny-rat lacks hypothenar pads on plantar surfaces of hindfeet. Skull is large, rostrum is distinctly long and narrow, and supraorbital ridges are well developed but do not extend onto parietals as temporal ridge. Oval shape of incisive foramina is diagnostic; this shape is occasionally slightly elongated, but posterior margins are never strongly constricted so that flat posterolateral margins lack grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short and rounded and usually no more than one-half the length of opening; and attenuate maxillary part usually is not in contact with premaxillary part. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved, with moderately developed lateral flange defining passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Anterior border of mesopterygoid fossa is acutely angled (49-53°) and penetrates deeply into posterior palate, reaching anterior one-half of M’ or middle of M?*dP* and M' typically have three folds while M? and M?® have 3-4 folds. Number offolds, particularly on dP,, varies from north to south from four to three, while M -M;typically have three folds, although M, may have only two folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3(4)-3(4) /(3)-3-3—(2). Baculum is long (length 8:4-10-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-5 mm; distal width 1-5-1-9 mm), with rounded and slightly broadened base. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 56-58 in eastern Ecuador, northern and southern Peru, and western Brazil.Habitat.Upland, non-seasonally flooded rainforest (terra firma) in the western Amazon Basin and extending into lower montane forest on eastern Andean slopes at elevations of 50-2000 m. Simons’s Spiny-rat occurs in undisturbed primary rainforest and secondary or disturbed forest habitats such as garden plots.Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.In Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant and lactating females were collected throughout most of the year, suggesting continuous breeding. Mean litter size of Simons’s Spiny-rat was two young (range 1-3). Males and females reached sexual maturity after they were fully grown and had molted into their adult pelage. Postpartum estrus was evident in only a few females (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation), and high proportion of adult females (30%) exhibited no prior evidence of mating.Activity patterns.Trapping data of Simons’s Spiny-rat indicate that it is relatively common, terrestrial, and nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.In southern Peru, female Simons’s Spiny-rats seemed to be territorial, which might explain late sexual maturity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Simons’s Spiny-rat is widespread and common, present in many different forest types across wide elevational distribution, and part of the mammalian fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas. There is no evidence that its numbers are declining. Nevertheless, additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Simon’s Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Cabrera (1961), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a, 2005), Moojen (1948), Osgood (1944), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Patton et al. (2000), Thomas (1900b), Thomas & St. Leger (1926), Woods (1993), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Proechimys simonsi Thomas, 1900, “Perené River, Junin Province, Peru, Altitude 800 m.”Proechimys simonsiincludes hendeei and nigrofulvus as synonyms. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Simons @fr | Simons-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Simons @es | Hendee's Spiny-rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1900","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1900","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"570","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"simonsi","name":"Proechimys simonsi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Andean slopes and Amazon Basin of S Colombia, E Ecuador, E Peru, N Bolivia, and W Brazil.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624579/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cabrera (1961) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1982, 1990, 1997a, 2005) | Moojen (1948) | Osgood (1944) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Patton et al. (2000) | Thomas (1900b) | Thomas & St. Leger (1926) | Woods (1993) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"In Rio Jurua (W Brazil), pregnant and lactating females were collected throughout most of the year, suggesting continuous breeding. Mean litter size of Simons’s Spiny-rat was two young (range 1-3). Males and females reached sexual maturity after they were fully grown and had molted into their adult pelage. Postpartum estrus was evident in only a few females (simultaneous pregnancy and lactation), and high proportion of adult females (30%) exhibited no prior evidence of mating.","activityPatterns":"Trapping data of Simons’s Spiny-rat indicate that it is relatively common, terrestrial, and nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"In southern Peru, female Simons’s Spiny-rats seemed to be territorial, which might explain late sexual maturity.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Simons’s Spiny-rat is widespread and common, present in many different forest types across wide elevational distribution, and part of the mammalian fauna in a number of protected parks and indigenous areas. There is no evidence that its numbers are declining. Nevertheless, additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Simon’s Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 165-275 mm, tail 118-231 mm; weight 160-400 g. Simons’s Spiny-rat is relatively large, with very characteristic elongated body, long and narrow face, long ears, absolutely and proportionately long tail (¢.85% of headbody length), and long narrow hindfeet.On following pages: 35. Stiff-spined Spiny-rat (Proechimys echinothrix); 36. Tomes'’s Spiny-rat (Proechimys semispinosus); 37. O'Connell's Spiny-rat (Proechimys oconnelli); 38. Napo Spiny-rat (Proechimys quadruplicatus); 39. Steere’s Spiny-rat (Proechimyssteerei); 40. Goeldi's Spiny-rat (Proechimys goeldii); 41. Guyenne Spiny-rat (Proechimys guyannensis); 42. Robert's Spiny-rat (Proechimysrobert); 43. Patton's Spiny-rat (Proechimyspattoni); 44. Kulina Spiny-rat (Proechimys kulinae); 45. Gardner's Spiny-rat (Proechimys gardneri); 46. Boyaca Spiny-rat (Proechimys chrysaeolus); 47. Minca Spiny-rat (Proechimys mincae); 48. Guaira Spiny-rat (Proechimysguairae); 49. Trinidad Spiny-rat (Proechimys trinitatis); 50. Guianan Spiny-rat (Proechimys hoplomyoides); 51. Short-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys brevicauda); 52. Long-tailed Spiny-rat (Proechimys longicaudatus); 53. Cuvier's Spiny-rat (Proechimyscuvier).Tail is sharply bicolored, dark above and white below; it is covered by sparse, fine hair, although small scales are conspicuous to the eye, with 9-13 annuli/cm. Middorsal color is darker than that of sides, reddish brown in tone, coarsely streaked with black hairs, and interspersed by dark brown aristiforms. Aristiform hairs are long (22-24 mm) and thin (0-2-0-4 mm) and terminate in distinctly whip-like tip. Venter, chin, sides of upper lips, and undersides of forelimbs and hindlimbs are pure white, with white of inner legs typically extending across tarsal joints onto hindfeet, which are also usually white above. Simons’s Spiny-rat lacks hypothenar pads on plantar surfaces of hindfeet. Skull is large, rostrum is distinctly long and narrow, and supraorbital ridges are well developed but do not extend onto parietals as temporal ridge. Oval shape of incisive foramina is diagnostic; this shape is occasionally slightly elongated, but posterior margins are never strongly constricted so that flat posterolateral margins lack grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is short and rounded and usually no more than one-half the length of opening; and attenuate maxillary part usually is not in contact with premaxillary part. Floor of infraorbital foramen is grooved, with moderately developed lateral flange defining passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Anterior border of mesopterygoid fossa is acutely angled (49-53°) and penetrates deeply into posterior palate, reaching anterior one-half of M’ or middle of M?*dP* and M' typically have three folds while M? and M?® have 3-4 folds. Number offolds, particularly on dP,, varies from north to south from four to three, while M -M;typically have three folds, although M, may have only two folds. Counterfold formula is 3-3-3(4)-3(4) /(3)-3-3—(2). Baculum is long (length 8:4-10-1 mm) and narrow (proximal width 1-9-2-5 mm; distal width 1-5-1-9 mm), with rounded and slightly broadened base. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 32 and FN = 56-58 in eastern Ecuador, northern and southern Peru, and western Brazil.","habitat":"Upland, non-seasonally flooded rainforest (terra firma) in the western Amazon Basin and extending into lower montane forest on eastern Andean slopes at elevations of 50-2000 m. Simons’s Spiny-rat occurs in undisturbed primary rainforest and secondary or disturbed forest habitats such as garden plots."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFFFFCBFADB59185CE5F5EE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFFFFCBFADB59185CE5F5EE","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"570","verbatimText":"33.Pacific Spiny-ratProechimys decumanusFrench:Rat-épineux cotier/ German:Pazifik-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa del PacificoTaxonomy.Echimys decumanus Thomas, 1899, “Chongon, Guayas Province, west of Guayaquil, Ecuador.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to “ca. 100 m, 25 km west of Guayaquil.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Pacific coastal lowlands of Ecuador and NW Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 260-300 mm, tail 196 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Pacific Spiny-ratis large-bodied, with proportionately shorttail (¢.65% of head—body length). Dorsal color is coarsely grizzled sandy fawn; sides are paler and grayer; face is grizzled gray; and venter and inner sides of forearms and hips are pure white, with hairs white to bases. Upper surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are white, or slightly washed yellow, and white on inner thighs is continuous across ankle to foot. Plantar pads of hindfeet are large, particularly thenar and hypothenar pads. Tail is bicolored, dark above and pale below, and uniformly but thinly haired with scale annuli narrow (averaging 13 annuli/cm) and visible to the eye. Aristiform spines are long (length 25-27 mm), thin (width 0-5 mm), and tipped with long flexible filament. As a result, pelage is inconspicuously spiny to the eye and touch. Skull of the Pacific Spiny-rat is large and elongated, but rostrum is short and broad. Temporal ridges are moderately developed and either continuous or interrupted across parietals from posterior end of supraorbital flange. Incisive foramina are oval to slightly lyrate in shape and large, with weakly developed posterolateral flanges and weak grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is long, but tapers posteriorly and is in direct contact with maxillary part, which is varyingly developed as either thin, spiculate bone or broad shelf, often perforated by small foramen, and with either no or only limited keel that extends onto anterior palate; and vomer is not visible along septum. Floor of infraorbital foramen is flat, rarely with limited evidence of lateral flange indicating passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately deep, reaching to anterior one-half of M?, and rather narrow, with its angle averaging 53°. Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete. Cheekteeth are simple, typically with three counterfolds on all upper teeth (although rarely only two on M?), and with three folds on dP, and M, but only two folds on M, and M,. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-(2)3 / 3-3-2-2. Baculum is long but stout, among the longest of any species of Proechimys, with average length of 10-12 mm and maximal width 2-8-3-8 mm. In size and shape, baculum of the Pacific Spiny-rat is most similar to those of members of the trinitatisspecies group, with almost parallel sides, rounded base, and only slightly expanded distal tip with weak median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 54.Habitat.Dry lowland, semideciduous rainforest along the coast and lower foothills of western slope of the Andes from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat is assumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat is presumed to be a solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This ranking is somewhat puzzling because the Pacific Spiny-rat has very limited distribution, and its semideciduous forest habitat is being heavily altered by human activity. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Pacific Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Allen (1899a), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Moojen (1948), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Paynter (1993), Thomas (1899b), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys decumanus Thomas, 1899, “Chongon, Guayas Province, west of Guayaquil, Ecuador.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1993 to “ca. 100 m, 25 km west of Guayaquil.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux cotier @fr | Pazifik-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa del Pacifico @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1899","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"570","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"decumanus","name":"Proechimys decumanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Pacific coastal lowlands of Ecuador and NW Peru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623728/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Allen (1899a) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Moojen (1948) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Paynter (1993) | Thomas (1899b) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat, as other species of Proechimys, likely feeds on seeds, fruits, and other plant parts.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat is assumed to be nocturnal and terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Pacific Spiny-rat is presumed to be a solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This ranking is somewhat puzzling because the Pacific Spiny-rat has very limited distribution, and its semideciduous forest habitat is being heavily altered by human activity. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to the Pacific Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 260-300 mm, tail 196 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Pacific Spiny-ratis large-bodied, with proportionately shorttail (¢.65% of head—body length). Dorsal color is coarsely grizzled sandy fawn; sides are paler and grayer; face is grizzled gray; and venter and inner sides of forearms and hips are pure white, with hairs white to bases. Upper surfaces of forefeet and hindfeet are white, or slightly washed yellow, and white on inner thighs is continuous across ankle to foot. Plantar pads of hindfeet are large, particularly thenar and hypothenar pads. Tail is bicolored, dark above and pale below, and uniformly but thinly haired with scale annuli narrow (averaging 13 annuli/cm) and visible to the eye. Aristiform spines are long (length 25-27 mm), thin (width 0-5 mm), and tipped with long flexible filament. As a result, pelage is inconspicuously spiny to the eye and touch. Skull of the Pacific Spiny-rat is large and elongated, but rostrum is short and broad. Temporal ridges are moderately developed and either continuous or interrupted across parietals from posterior end of supraorbital flange. Incisive foramina are oval to slightly lyrate in shape and large, with weakly developed posterolateral flanges and weak grooves extending onto anterior palate; premaxillary part of septum is long, but tapers posteriorly and is in direct contact with maxillary part, which is varyingly developed as either thin, spiculate bone or broad shelf, often perforated by small foramen, and with either no or only limited keel that extends onto anterior palate; and vomer is not visible along septum. Floor of infraorbital foramen is flat, rarely with limited evidence of lateral flange indicating passage of infraorbital branch of maxillary nerve. Mesopterygoid fossa is moderately deep, reaching to anterior one-half of M?, and rather narrow, with its angle averaging 53°. Post-orbital process of zygoma is obsolete. Cheekteeth are simple, typically with three counterfolds on all upper teeth (although rarely only two on M?), and with three folds on dP, and M, but only two folds on M, and M,. Counterfold formula is thus 3-3-3-(2)3 / 3-3-2-2. Baculum is long but stout, among the longest of any species of Proechimys, with average length of 10-12 mm and maximal width 2-8-3-8 mm. In size and shape, baculum of the Pacific Spiny-rat is most similar to those of members of the trinitatisspecies group, with almost parallel sides, rounded base, and only slightly expanded distal tip with weak median depression. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 30 and FN = 54.","habitat":"Dry lowland, semideciduous rainforest along the coast and lower foothills of western slope of the Andes from sea level to elevations of ¢.800 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C5/A0/03C5A071FFFFFFCBFFD759A7592DF3EE.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C5A071FFFFFFCBFFD759A7592DF3EE","docName":"hbmw_6_Echimyidae_0552.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fffcd809ffedffd9ffbc58095a61ff94","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"570","verbatimText":"32.Colombian Spiny-ratProechimys canicollisFrench:Rat-épineux de Colombie/ German:Kolumbien-Kurzstachelratte/ Spanish:Rata espinosa de ColombiaTaxonomy.Echimys canicollis J. A. Allen, 1899, “Bonda, Santa Marta District.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1997 to “Rio Manzanares, where joined Quebrada Matogiro, 9 miles East of Santa Marta,” Magdalena, Colombia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.NE Colombia and NW Venezuela, from the lower Rio Madgalena Valley E to the W margin of Maracaibo Lake.Descriptive notes.Head-body 225 mm, tail 168 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Colombian Spiny-rat is moderate-sized, with proportionately shorttail (75% of head-body length). Pelage is only sparsely intermixed with weakly developed spines, giving body distinctly soft appearance. Aristiforms are long (22-25 mm) and quite narrow (0-02-0-03 mm), and they terminate in long whip-like tips. Dorsal color is pale yellowish brown or pale golden brown, sprinkled with black tipped spines on back and paler and grayer spines on sides. Top of head and nape are grayish, varied with black; sides of head and neck are clear gray, extending onto sides of throat but becoming paler on cheeks. Ventrum is white along midline from throat to inguinal region, but gray lateral bands encroach mid-ventrally from sides, and chin and jowls are gray, completely so in some individuals. Insides of limbs are white and may be continuous across ankle to meet whitish gray upper surfaces of hindfeet. Ears are broad but short, brown in color, and appear naked. Tail of the Colombian Spiny-ratis indistinctly bicolored, blackish above and dull flesh colored below; it is moderately haired, with hairs partially concealing narrow scale annuli that are 13-16 annuli/cm. Skull of Colombian Spiny-rat is moderate in size and, except for distinctly short and broad rostrum, conforms to general shape of other species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are absent or only weakly extend from supraorbital ledge onto anterior parietals. Incisive foramina are broad and oval, with weakly developed postero-lateral flanges and thus anterior palate that exhibits only faint grooves; premaxillary part of septum is broad and long and occupies at least one-half of opening; maxillary part is moderately to weakly developed, always in contact with premaxilla, and sometimes with keel that extends limitedly onto anterior palate; vomer part of septum is usually hidden from view. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, with only occasionally barely perceptible groove. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively deep, extends to anterior one-half of M? and terminates in acute angle averaging 54°. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately well developed and may be comprised completely, or mostly, by either squamosal orjugal in about equal frequency. Cheekteeth are simplest of any species of Proechimys, with very uniform counterfold pattern of 3-2-2-2 for upper series and 2-2-2-2 for lower series. The Colombian Spiny-rat is the only species of Proechimyswith only two folds on dP,. Baculum is relatively short (length 7-7-8-1 mm) and stout (proximal width 2:6-2-8 mm; distal width 2:6-2-8 mm) and has rounded base, weakly concave sides, and rather flat distal tip, with only weakly developed apical wings. It is similar in general size and characteristics to those of members of the goeldir-species group. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 44.Habitat.Dry tropical evergreen and deciduous forests and human landscapes, such as croplands and orchards, in Caribbean lowlands and adjacent foothills of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Sierra de Perija from sea level to elevations of ¢.1700 m. The Colombian Spiny-rat is terrestrial.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Colombian Spiny-rat was reported to include fruit, fungi, and seeds.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Colombian Spiny-rat is presumably nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Colombian Spiny-rat is probably solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Colombian Spiny-rat is common overits limited distribution, tolerant to habitat disturbance, and present in several protected parks; it is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Colombian Spiny-rat are needed.Bibliography.Aguilera & Corti (1994), Aguilera, Reig & Pérez-Zapata (1995), Aguilera, Sanginés & Pérez-Zapata (1998), Allen (1899a, 1899b, 1904), Benado et al. (1979), Corti et al. (2001), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons (1990, 1997a), Garagna et al. (1997), Patton (1987), Patton & Gardner (1972), Patton & Leite (2015), Patton & Reig (1989), Paynter (1997), Reig et al. (1980), Woods & Kilpatrick (2005).","taxonomy":"Echimys canicollis J. A. Allen, 1899, “Bonda, Santa Marta District.” Restricted by R. A. Paynter, Jr. in 1997 to “Rio Manzanares, where joined Quebrada Matogiro, 9 miles East of Santa Marta,” Magdalena, Colombia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Rat-épineux de Colombie @fr | Kolumbien-Kurzstachelratte @de | Rata espinosa de Colombia @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"J. A. Allen","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1899","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Echimyidae","interpretedGenus":"Proechimys","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"570","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"canicollis","name":"Proechimys canicollis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE Colombia and NW Venezuela, from the lower Rio Madgalena Valley E to the W margin of Maracaibo Lake.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6623726/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aguilera & Corti (1994) | Aguilera, Reig & Pérez-Zapata (1995) | Aguilera, Sanginés & Pérez-Zapata (1998) | Allen (1899a, 1899b, 1904) | Benado et al. (1979) | Corti et al. (2001) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons (1990, 1997a) | Garagna et al. (1997) | Patton (1987) | Patton & Gardner (1972) | Patton & Leite (2015) | Patton & Reig (1989) | Paynter (1997) | Reig et al. (1980) | Woods & Kilpatrick (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Colombian Spiny-rat was reported to include fruit, fungi, and seeds.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Colombian Spiny-rat is presumably nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Colombian Spiny-rat is probably solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Colombian Spiny-rat is common overits limited distribution, tolerant to habitat disturbance, and present in several protected parks; it is unlikely to be declining. Additional studies on distribution, habitat, abundance, ecology, and conservation threats to Colombian Spiny-rat are needed.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 225 mm, tail 168 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Colombian Spiny-rat is moderate-sized, with proportionately shorttail (75% of head-body length). Pelage is only sparsely intermixed with weakly developed spines, giving body distinctly soft appearance. Aristiforms are long (22-25 mm) and quite narrow (0-02-0-03 mm), and they terminate in long whip-like tips. Dorsal color is pale yellowish brown or pale golden brown, sprinkled with black tipped spines on back and paler and grayer spines on sides. Top of head and nape are grayish, varied with black; sides of head and neck are clear gray, extending onto sides of throat but becoming paler on cheeks. Ventrum is white along midline from throat to inguinal region, but gray lateral bands encroach mid-ventrally from sides, and chin and jowls are gray, completely so in some individuals. Insides of limbs are white and may be continuous across ankle to meet whitish gray upper surfaces of hindfeet. Ears are broad but short, brown in color, and appear naked. Tail of the Colombian Spiny-ratis indistinctly bicolored, blackish above and dull flesh colored below; it is moderately haired, with hairs partially concealing narrow scale annuli that are 13-16 annuli/cm. Skull of Colombian Spiny-rat is moderate in size and, except for distinctly short and broad rostrum, conforms to general shape of other species of Proechimys. Temporal ridges are absent or only weakly extend from supraorbital ledge onto anterior parietals. Incisive foramina are broad and oval, with weakly developed postero-lateral flanges and thus anterior palate that exhibits only faint grooves; premaxillary part of septum is broad and long and occupies at least one-half of opening; maxillary part is moderately to weakly developed, always in contact with premaxilla, and sometimes with keel that extends limitedly onto anterior palate; vomer part of septum is usually hidden from view. Floor of infraorbital foramen is smooth, with only occasionally barely perceptible groove. Mesopterygoid fossa is relatively deep, extends to anterior one-half of M? and terminates in acute angle averaging 54°. Post-orbital process of zygoma is moderately well developed and may be comprised completely, or mostly, by either squamosal orjugal in about equal frequency. Cheekteeth are simplest of any species of Proechimys, with very uniform counterfold pattern of 3-2-2-2 for upper series and 2-2-2-2 for lower series. The Colombian Spiny-rat is the only species of Proechimyswith only two folds on dP,. Baculum is relatively short (length 7-7-8-1 mm) and stout (proximal width 2:6-2-8 mm; distal width 2:6-2-8 mm) and has rounded base, weakly concave sides, and rather flat distal tip, with only weakly developed apical wings. It is similar in general size and characteristics to those of members of the goeldir-species group. Chromosomal complement is 2n = 24 and FN = 44.","habitat":"Dry tropical evergreen and deciduous forests and human landscapes, such as croplands and orchards, in Caribbean lowlands and adjacent foothills of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Sierra de Perija from sea level to elevations of ¢.1700 m. The Colombian Spiny-rat is terrestrial."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"345","verbatimText":"1.Siberian Musk-deerMoschus moschiferusFrench:Porte-musc de Sibérie/ German:Sibirien-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero siberianoTaxonomy.Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758,Tatary towards China= Altai Mountains.Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.m.moschiferusLinnaeus,1758—ERussia(Altairegion,NalongtheYenisei,reaching69°N,thendowntothemiddleflowoftheLena;E&SEslopesoftheVerkhoyanskRange;StanovoyRange,butdoesnotreachtheSeaofOkhotskorthefloodzonesoftheAmur),EKazakhstan,Mongolia,andNChina(NENeiMongol&NWHeilongjiang,formerlyalsoinNXinjiangbutsupposedlyextincttheresinceearly20\"century).M.m.parvipesHollister,1911—RussianFarEast,KoreanPeninsula,andNEChina(SHeilongjiang,EJilin,ELiaoning,Hebei&Shanxi).M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1929— Sakhalin.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, shoulder height 56-61 cm; weight 7-17 kg. Skull length in the Siberian subspeciesis c¢. 14:5-15. 8 cm; in the other two subspecies rather smaller, 14-15 cm. The pelage is softer,less quilly, than in other species. Individual hairs on the upperparts are dark with a white subterminal band and/ortip, producing an overall color of dark grayish, usually with whitish spots where the white tips cluster together. Underside paler, grayish-brown. Neck brownish, head more grayish, and may be either paler or darker than body. Ears dark brown or black, paler at base. A pair of narrow creamy or white stripes (made up of white-tipped hairs) from chin down neck to chest. The pale spots are variably visible, but always prominent in young. In the skull, the snoutis long but does not form as much as half of the total skull length; the lacrimal bone is shorter than it is high; braincase is elongated; the orbits tubular. Diploid chromosome number is 58; some animals have dot-sized satellite chromosomes situated in the upper part of the fourth pair of autosomes. Deciduous canines in both sexes are replaced by permanent canines, prominent only in males, at six months. The limbs are more elongated than in most other species; the metatarsal is about 111% of the skull length, the metacarpal 84%. Relatively, however, the hindlimbs are greatly elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length (always more than 167 mm) being around 132% of the metacarpal (whose length is always more than 126 mm), and the forelimbs as a whole are 25-30% shorter than the hindlimbs. The metapodials are also very slender, the width of the distal head of the metacarpal being less than 14-5% ofits length, that of the metatarsal less than 12-5% of its length. Russian authors have reported that the musk of the Siberian Musk-deer contains no muscone, which on the face of it would seem to make it much less valuable for perfumes and for medicinal uses. The differences between the subspecies are in size and coloration. Subspecies parvipes and sachalinensis are considerably smaller and darker on average than is moschiferus, and most but not all specimens can be distinguished, though there is a doubt whether most parvipes and sachalinensis can really be differentiated from each other.Habitat.Siberian Musk-deer live in mountain taiga; in the Altaiand Sayan ranges, they are found between 300 mand 1600 m, and farther north, in Yakutia and north-eastern Russia, they live in rhododendron shrub, in light coniferous forest, and in floodland poplar-willow forests. In the northernmost part of the range, Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and foxes (Vulpes spp.) are the main predators, in that order; in Yakutia, the Yellow-throated Marten (Mantesflavigula) tends to be the most important. They are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including mites and fleas, and in the Far East, 100% are infested with larvae of Cordylobia inexspectata(Calliphoridae), a fly related to blowflies, a single individual musk-deer having as many as 2000 larvae.Food and Feeding.In the northern part of the range, Siberian Musk-deer feed on lichens all year round, these forming 60-91% of the weight of stomach contents; in winter, they also eat sprigs of small bushes, conifer needles, moss, dry grass, and rhododendron leaves; in spring and summer, they eat vascular plants.Breeding.Body mass is lowest in June and at its maximum in autumn, when rutting begins. Testis volumeis at its maximum in the early rut (November-December), and the musk gland is at its maximum in November. The full rut takes place in December—January, less frequently February-March. Three-quarters of the females breed every year, the rest only once in two or three years or less. The pre-copulation phase, as judged by the male’s reaction to female urine marks, lasts 15-18 days; the true mating period lasts only 52-64 hours, and the phase of estrus when copulation occurs lastsjust 12-24 hours. Gestation is 182-194 days, with a mean of 187. During courtship, a male first leaves musk marks on the female’s home range, then gradually approaches, then pursues her. Before copulation, the male smells the female’s genitals and occasionally makes the flehmen gesture (corners of the mouth open, pulling back the midline of the upper lip to permit passage of olfactory molecules into the vomeronasal organ); most females rub the side of the neck of the male with their caudal area and look back. A series of copulations takes place, interspersed with resting or feeding. Most births (70%) occur in the first ten days ofJune. The newborns weigh 460-635 g. Meanlitter size overall is 1:7-1-8; i.e. there is a preponderance of twins. In different regions, the rate of multiple births seems slightly different: in East Sayan, twelve triplet, 50 twin, and 28 singleton births were recorded; in Yakutia,six twin and three singleton births. The sex ratio at birth in twins in the Altai regionis 73-82% male; overall, however, sex ratios at birth are equal. Births occur during the day. Neonates stand 16-28 minutes after birth, walk after 28-47 minutes, and suckle after 11-92 minutes. They lie hidden for 12-15 days, and are on their own 80-90% of the time, the mother returning to feed them just once or twice a day for the first month, and after that only once a day. They begin to eat lichen and grass at 15-18 days. Lactation lasts on average four months, occasionally up to six months. The mother—young socialties last till the end of lactation. Juvenile mortality during first three or four months varies from 10-14% in the Far East to 17% in Transbaikalia. Males reach sexual maturity at 10-18 months, females at 8-9 months. Some females remain fertile until 7-12 years of age; in captivity, they remain fertile for longer, up to age 15-17. Mean life expectancy in nature is 5-7 years, which of course reflects the high infant and juvenile mortality, as adults in the wild may live to twelve years.Activity patterns.They are active, nervous animals; sudden high lookout jumps are made, especially by females. Most activity takes place at dusk and dawn. A musk-deer can travel 3-7 km during night foraging, usually returning to the same lair every morning. An individual’s home range will be between 200 ha and 300 ha in size, and muskdeer observe the boundaries quite strictly. In the second half of winter the extent of the home range is ratherless, and seasonal migrations,if they exist at all, are minimal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other musk-deer, males are territorial. Fights between territory owners involve striking with the forelegs and sometimes slashing with the canines. Apparently unlike other musk-deer, they live in pairs with the young of the year, although the female’s home range in and around the territory is not coterminous with the male’s. The territory is maintained by the male, who patrols it, marking the boundaries with caudal gland secretions and feces, and physically chasing away intruders. Sometimes the territory also contains satellite males up to two years old, who assist in maintaining the territory and may take over if the dominant male dies. Young males leave their natal territories in October to April (i.e. during orafter the rut), and young females from April to June before the adult female gives birth. Family groups form “metapopulations” in areas of relatively high population density separated from each other by low-density areas. Solitary individuals form 13-30% of the total. Not all of the home range is defended; the home ranges of males overlap by 3-6% in Altai, and in Far East by up to 15%; those of females, by as much as 17%. In winter, the overlap increases and can be as much as 40-70% of neighboring home ranges. The average population density is around 0-6 ind/km?, but this may increase to up to 4-8-5 ind/km?* when conditions are favorable.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. By the end of the 1990s, populations in Russiawere estimated at about 70,000, having been reduced by 50% to 75% since 1989. In 1999 the Sakhalinpopulation was estimated at about 600-650, and declining, the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000, and that in the Russian Far East as perhaps as much as 150,000. Although apparently less endangered than the Chinese species, the Siberian Musk-deer is still in danger of extinction unless stringent measures are taken.Bibliography.Flerov (1952), MacKinnon (2008), Nyambayar et al. (2008), Prihodko (2003), Sokolov etal. (1987).","taxonomy":"Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758,Tatary towards China= Altai Mountains.Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Porte-musc de Sibérie @fr | Sibirien-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero siberiano @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"345","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"moschiferus","name":"Moschus moschiferus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.m.moschiferusLinnaeus,1758—ERussia(Altairegion,NalongtheYenisei,reaching69°N,thendowntothemiddleflowoftheLena;E&SEslopesoftheVerkhoyanskRange;StanovoyRange,butdoesnotreachtheSeaofOkhotskorthefloodzonesoftheAmur),EKazakhstan,Mongolia,andNChina(NENeiMongol&NWHeilongjiang,formerlyalsoinNXinjiangbutsupposedlyextincttheresinceearly20\"century).M.m.parvipesHollister,1911—RussianFarEast,KoreanPeninsula,andNEChina(SHeilongjiang,EJilin,ELiaoning,Hebei&Shanxi).M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1929— Sakhalin.","bibliography":"Flerov (1952) | MacKinnon (2008) | Nyambayar et al. (2008) | Prihodko (2003) | Sokolov etal. (1987)","foodAndFeeding":"In the northern part of the range, Siberian Musk-deer feed on lichens all year round, these forming 60-91% of the weight of stomach contents; in winter, they also eat sprigs of small bushes, conifer needles, moss, dry grass, and rhododendron leaves; in spring and summer, they eat vascular plants.","breeding":"Body mass is lowest in June and at its maximum in autumn, when rutting begins. Testis volumeis at its maximum in the early rut (November-December), and the musk gland is at its maximum in November. The full rut takes place in December—January, less frequently February-March. Three-quarters of the females breed every year, the rest only once in two or three years or less. The pre-copulation phase, as judged by the male’s reaction to female urine marks, lasts 15-18 days; the true mating period lasts only 52-64 hours, and the phase of estrus when copulation occurs lastsjust 12-24 hours. Gestation is 182-194 days, with a mean of 187. During courtship, a male first leaves musk marks on the female’s home range, then gradually approaches, then pursues her. Before copulation, the male smells the female’s genitals and occasionally makes the flehmen gesture (corners of the mouth open, pulling back the midline of the upper lip to permit passage of olfactory molecules into the vomeronasal organ); most females rub the side of the neck of the male with their caudal area and look back. A series of copulations takes place, interspersed with resting or feeding. Most births (70%) occur in the first ten days ofJune. The newborns weigh 460-635 g. Meanlitter size overall is 1:7-1-8; i.e. there is a preponderance of twins. In different regions, the rate of multiple births seems slightly different: in East Sayan, twelve triplet, 50 twin, and 28 singleton births were recorded; in Yakutia,six twin and three singleton births. The sex ratio at birth in twins in the Altai regionis 73-82% male; overall, however, sex ratios at birth are equal. Births occur during the day. Neonates stand 16-28 minutes after birth, walk after 28-47 minutes, and suckle after 11-92 minutes. They lie hidden for 12-15 days, and are on their own 80-90% of the time, the mother returning to feed them just once or twice a day for the first month, and after that only once a day. They begin to eat lichen and grass at 15-18 days. Lactation lasts on average four months, occasionally up to six months. The mother—young socialties last till the end of lactation. Juvenile mortality during first three or four months varies from 10-14% in the Far East to 17% in Transbaikalia. Males reach sexual maturity at 10-18 months, females at 8-9 months. Some females remain fertile until 7-12 years of age; in captivity, they remain fertile for longer, up to age 15-17. Mean life expectancy in nature is 5-7 years, which of course reflects the high infant and juvenile mortality, as adults in the wild may live to twelve years.","activityPatterns":"They are active, nervous animals; sudden high lookout jumps are made, especially by females. Most activity takes place at dusk and dawn. A musk-deer can travel 3-7 km during night foraging, usually returning to the same lair every morning. An individual’s home range will be between 200 ha and 300 ha in size, and muskdeer observe the boundaries quite strictly. In the second half of winter the extent of the home range is ratherless, and seasonal migrations,if they exist at all, are minimal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like other musk-deer, males are territorial. Fights between territory owners involve striking with the forelegs and sometimes slashing with the canines. Apparently unlike other musk-deer, they live in pairs with the young of the year, although the female’s home range in and around the territory is not coterminous with the male’s. The territory is maintained by the male, who patrols it, marking the boundaries with caudal gland secretions and feces, and physically chasing away intruders. Sometimes the territory also contains satellite males up to two years old, who assist in maintaining the territory and may take over if the dominant male dies. Young males leave their natal territories in October to April (i.e. during orafter the rut), and young females from April to June before the adult female gives birth. Family groups form “metapopulations” in areas of relatively high population density separated from each other by low-density areas. Solitary individuals form 13-30% of the total. Not all of the home range is defended; the home ranges of males overlap by 3-6% in Altai, and in Far East by up to 15%; those of females, by as much as 17%. In winter, the overlap increases and can be as much as 40-70% of neighboring home ranges. The average population density is around 0-6 ind/km?, but this may increase to up to 4-8-5 ind/km?* when conditions are favorable.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. By the end of the 1990s, populations in Russiawere estimated at about 70,000, having been reduced by 50% to 75% since 1989. In 1999 the Sakhalinpopulation was estimated at about 600-650, and declining, the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000, and that in the Russian Far East as perhaps as much as 150,000. Although apparently less endangered than the Chinese species, the Siberian Musk-deer is still in danger of extinction unless stringent measures are taken.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 65-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, shoulder height 56-61 cm; weight 7-17 kg. Skull length in the Siberian subspeciesis c¢. 14:5-15. 8 cm; in the other two subspecies rather smaller, 14-15 cm. The pelage is softer,less quilly, than in other species. Individual hairs on the upperparts are dark with a white subterminal band and/ortip, producing an overall color of dark grayish, usually with whitish spots where the white tips cluster together. Underside paler, grayish-brown. Neck brownish, head more grayish, and may be either paler or darker than body. Ears dark brown or black, paler at base. A pair of narrow creamy or white stripes (made up of white-tipped hairs) from chin down neck to chest. The pale spots are variably visible, but always prominent in young. In the skull, the snoutis long but does not form as much as half of the total skull length; the lacrimal bone is shorter than it is high; braincase is elongated; the orbits tubular. Diploid chromosome number is 58; some animals have dot-sized satellite chromosomes situated in the upper part of the fourth pair of autosomes. Deciduous canines in both sexes are replaced by permanent canines, prominent only in males, at six months. The limbs are more elongated than in most other species; the metatarsal is about 111% of the skull length, the metacarpal 84%. Relatively, however, the hindlimbs are greatly elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length (always more than 167 mm) being around 132% of the metacarpal (whose length is always more than 126 mm), and the forelimbs as a whole are 25-30% shorter than the hindlimbs. The metapodials are also very slender, the width of the distal head of the metacarpal being less than 14-5% ofits length, that of the metatarsal less than 12-5% of its length. Russian authors have reported that the musk of the Siberian Musk-deer contains no muscone, which on the face of it would seem to make it much less valuable for perfumes and for medicinal uses. The differences between the subspecies are in size and coloration. Subspecies parvipes and sachalinensis are considerably smaller and darker on average than is moschiferus, and most but not all specimens can be distinguished, though there is a doubt whether most parvipes and sachalinensis can really be differentiated from each other.","habitat":"Siberian Musk-deer live in mountain taiga; in the Altaiand Sayan ranges, they are found between 300 mand 1600 m, and farther north, in Yakutia and north-eastern Russia, they live in rhododendron shrub, in light coniferous forest, and in floodland poplar-willow forests. In the northernmost part of the range, Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and foxes (Vulpes spp.) are the main predators, in that order; in Yakutia, the Yellow-throated Marten (Mantesflavigula) tends to be the most important. They are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including mites and fleas, and in the Far East, 100% are infested with larvae of Cordylobia inexspectata(Calliphoridae), a fly related to blowflies, a single individual musk-deer having as many as 2000 larvae."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"345","verbatimText":"2.Alpine Musk-deerMoschus chrysogasterFrench:Porte-musc alpin/ German:Gelbbauch-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero doradoTaxonomy.Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions,” probably from the Tibetan Plateau, north of the Himalayas.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.c.chrysogasterHodgson,1839—alpinezoneat2800-4000mofNIndia(includingSikkim),Nepal,andBhutan.M. c. sifanicus Büchner, 1891— alpine zone at 3500-4800 mof C & S China(S Ningxia, Qinghai, S Gansu, W Sichuan, SE Xizang& NW Yunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, height at shoulder, 50-60 cm; weight 11-18 kg. One of the largest species of musk-deer. Skull length in subspecies sifanicus is 1516-5 cm and in the nominotypical subspecies 14:5-16 cm. Overall color striated reddish or yellowish-gray; paler on flanks; underside reddish-creamy-gray, as are the inner surfaces of the limbs and the midline of the throat, but there are no white stripes on the neck. There is an orange eye ring. Individual hairs are brown with a red-yellow subterminal band. Ears are pale brown, tipped with yellow, and gray inside. Throat with a single broad, ill-defined creamy longitudinal band. Legs paler than body on lower segments, grayish-yellow, somewhat darkened down front surfaces. Rump paler than back, yellowish, with a black patch on buttocks. Young spotted. A faint dorsal stripe. Hair bases long, milky gray or brown. Winter hairs 34-42 mm long on withers, 55-64 mm on rump. The face is greatly elongated, constituting more than half the skull length; the lachrymal length is much longer than its height. Limbs are elongated, but not as much as those of the Siberian species: metacarpal length 109-119 mm, metatarsal 128-148 mm. The metapodials are sturdier than those of the Siberian Musk-deer, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal is more than 15-5%, of the metatarsal more than 14-5% of their lengths. The hindlimbs are slightly less elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length is 124-128% of that of the metacarpal. The metatarsal length is 90-95% of skull length, the metacarpal 72-77%.On following pages 3 Hrmalayan Musk-deer (Moschus Ieuoogaston, 4 Kashmır Musk-deer (Moschuscuprousl. 5 Black Musk-deer (Moschus fuscus) 6 AnhuıMusk-deer (Moschusınhuıensısl, 7 Forest Musk-deer (Moschus berezovskıı)Habitat.Once found throughout the “dwarf bush zone” in suitable areas of the Tibetan Plateau, nowadays due to human disturbance the habitat is fragmented and populations are isolated on separate mountains. Chinese Alpine Musk-deer live in highelevation bush, where the mean annual temperature is around 3-7°C and often falls below freezing; they prefer shrubby habitats to meadows. They inhabit shaded slopes with better shelter and less disturbance, the steeper slopes at greater than 30°. The elevation of their habitat is typically 4000-4500 m, only sometimes going below 4000 m. Annual rainfall varies from about 200 mmto as much as 450 mmor more. Musk-deer population density varies from 3-9 ind/km? in the more arid habitats to 71-11 ind/km? where the rainfall is highest; density is lower where there is heavy snow cover. Densities in dwarf forest and shrub are highest, but more continuous dense shrub is avoided, and patchy shrub has the highest densities among habitat types. Where there are more competitors, such as Serow and Goral, and more grazing by domestic herds, and of course more poaching, densities are again lower.Food and Feeding.The diet contains the leaves of 46 species (mostly shrubs and forbs), flowers of 30 species, shoots and stems of 16 species, and seeds ofsix species; the proportion of leaves and tender shoots is highest in spring and summer, of buds and flowers higher in late summer, and of the leaves, twigs, and seeds of forbs and shrubs higher later in the year.Breeding.In the Xinglong Mountain National Nature Reserve, east of QinghaiLake, births occur from May to July, when rainfall and temperature are highest; the younger females (less than two years old) have their birth season more spread out than the more mature females. Compared to the wild, in captivity the birth season is longer and begins later. The twinning rate is lower than in the Siberian Musk-deer, only two in twelve births. The neonates weigh 700-750 g at three days old. Lactation lasts for two months; the young begin browsing at 20 days.Activity patterns.Very little is known about activity patterns, but they have been reported to sleep during the day in a form, which is made by scraping out a shallow depression in the ground, which just fits the body when the animalis crouching low.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization seems to be rather different from that of the Siberian Musk-deer. Males and females seem not to be associated in pairs, nor are there “satellite” males; instead the home ranges of the dominant males overlap those of females, but the other males occupy separate home ranges. Home range in summeris smaller than in autumn; the home ranges of males average 35-5 ha in July to September, and expand to 47-17 ha (i.e. by 63-4%) in October to early November, the rutting season; female ranges enlarge from 28-95 ha to 40-76 ha (a 40-8% increase).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, except Chinese populations which are listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a probable population decline caused by overexploitation, shrinkage in distribution, and habitat destruction and degradation. Although data are lacking regarding recent population levels, the high levels of harvesting and habitat loss do not bode well. A poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 wild individuals in Chinain the 1960s and 1970s and no more than 100,000 within Chinain the 1990s.Bibliography.Grubb (1982), Liu Zhixiao & Sheng Helin (2008), Liu Zhixiao et al. (2002), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Shi Zemei & Jiang Yingwen (2005), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Xia Lin et al. (2003), Yang Qisen et al. (1998), Zhang Hongmao & Hu Jinchu (2000).","taxonomy":"Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions,” probably from the Tibetan Plateau, north of the Himalayas.Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Porte-musc alpin @fr | Gelbbauch-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero dorado @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"345","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"chrysogaster","name":"Moschus chrysogaster","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.c.chrysogasterHodgson,1839—alpinezoneat2800-4000mofNIndia(includingSikkim),Nepal,andBhutan.M. c. sifanicus Büchner, 1891— alpine zone at 3500-4800 mof C & S China(S Ningxia, Qinghai, S Gansu, W Sichuan, SE Xizang& NW Yunnan).","bibliography":"Grubb (1982) | Liu Zhixiao & Sheng Helin (2008) | Liu Zhixiao et al. (2002) | Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Shi Zemei & Jiang Yingwen (2005) | Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Xia Lin et al. (2003) | Yang Qisen et al. (1998) | Zhang Hongmao & Hu Jinchu (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet contains the leaves of 46 species (mostly shrubs and forbs), flowers of 30 species, shoots and stems of 16 species, and seeds ofsix species; the proportion of leaves and tender shoots is highest in spring and summer, of buds and flowers higher in late summer, and of the leaves, twigs, and seeds of forbs and shrubs higher later in the year.","breeding":"In the Xinglong Mountain National Nature Reserve, east of QinghaiLake, births occur from May to July, when rainfall and temperature are highest; the younger females (less than two years old) have their birth season more spread out than the more mature females. Compared to the wild, in captivity the birth season is longer and begins later. The twinning rate is lower than in the Siberian Musk-deer, only two in twelve births. The neonates weigh 700-750 g at three days old. Lactation lasts for two months; the young begin browsing at 20 days.","activityPatterns":"Very little is known about activity patterns, but they have been reported to sleep during the day in a form, which is made by scraping out a shallow depression in the ground, which just fits the body when the animalis crouching low.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The social organization seems to be rather different from that of the Siberian Musk-deer. Males and females seem not to be associated in pairs, nor are there “satellite” males; instead the home ranges of the dominant males overlap those of females, but the other males occupy separate home ranges. Home range in summeris smaller than in autumn; the home ranges of males average 35-5 ha in July to September, and expand to 47-17 ha (i.e. by 63-4%) in October to early November, the rutting season; female ranges enlarge from 28-95 ha to 40-76 ha (a 40-8% increase).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I, except Chinese populations which are listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a probable population decline caused by overexploitation, shrinkage in distribution, and habitat destruction and degradation. Although data are lacking regarding recent population levels, the high levels of harvesting and habitat loss do not bode well. A poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 wild individuals in Chinain the 1960s and 1970s and no more than 100,000 within Chinain the 1990s.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, height at shoulder, 50-60 cm; weight 11-18 kg. One of the largest species of musk-deer. Skull length in subspecies sifanicus is 1516-5 cm and in the nominotypical subspecies 14:5-16 cm. Overall color striated reddish or yellowish-gray; paler on flanks; underside reddish-creamy-gray, as are the inner surfaces of the limbs and the midline of the throat, but there are no white stripes on the neck. There is an orange eye ring. Individual hairs are brown with a red-yellow subterminal band. Ears are pale brown, tipped with yellow, and gray inside. Throat with a single broad, ill-defined creamy longitudinal band. Legs paler than body on lower segments, grayish-yellow, somewhat darkened down front surfaces. Rump paler than back, yellowish, with a black patch on buttocks. Young spotted. A faint dorsal stripe. Hair bases long, milky gray or brown. Winter hairs 34-42 mm long on withers, 55-64 mm on rump. The face is greatly elongated, constituting more than half the skull length; the lachrymal length is much longer than its height. Limbs are elongated, but not as much as those of the Siberian species: metacarpal length 109-119 mm, metatarsal 128-148 mm. The metapodials are sturdier than those of the Siberian Musk-deer, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal is more than 15-5%, of the metatarsal more than 14-5% of their lengths. The hindlimbs are slightly less elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length is 124-128% of that of the metacarpal. The metatarsal length is 90-95% of skull length, the metacarpal 72-77%.On following pages 3 Hrmalayan Musk-deer (Moschus Ieuoogaston, 4 Kashmır Musk-deer (Moschuscuprousl.","habitat":"Once found throughout the “dwarf bush zone” in suitable areas of the Tibetan Plateau, nowadays due to human disturbance the habitat is fragmented and populations are isolated on separate mountains. Chinese Alpine Musk-deer live in highelevation bush, where the mean annual temperature is around 3-7°C and often falls below freezing; they prefer shrubby habitats to meadows. They inhabit shaded slopes with better shelter and less disturbance, the steeper slopes at greater than 30°. The elevation of their habitat is typically 4000-4500 m, only sometimes going below 4000 m. Annual rainfall varies from about 200 mmto as much as 450 mmor more. Musk-deer population density varies from 3-9 ind/km? in the more arid habitats to 71-11 ind/km? where the rainfall is highest; density is lower where there is heavy snow cover. Densities in dwarf forest and shrub are highest, but more continuous dense shrub is avoided, and patchy shrub has the highest densities among habitat types. Where there are more competitors, such as Serow and Goral, and more grazing by domestic herds, and of course more poaching, densities are again lower."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"345","verbatimText":"1.Siberian Musk-deerMoschus moschiferusFrench:Porte-musc de Sibérie/ German:Sibirien-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero siberianoTaxonomy.Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758,Tatary towards China= Altai Mountains.Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.m.moschiferusLinnaeus,1758—ERussia(Altairegion,NalongtheYenisei,reaching69°N,thendowntothemiddleflowoftheLena;E&SEslopesoftheVerkhoyanskRange;StanovoyRange,butdoesnotreachtheSeaofOkhotskorthefloodzonesoftheAmur),EKazakhstan,Mongolia,andNChina(NENeiMongol&NWHeilongjiang,formerlyalsoinNXinjiangbutsupposedlyextincttheresinceearly20\"century).M.m.parvipesHollister,1911—RussianFarEast,KoreanPeninsula,andNEChina(SHeilongjiang,EJilin,ELiaoning,Hebei&Shanxi).M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1929— Sakhalin.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, shoulder height 56-61 cm; weight 7-17 kg. Skull length in the Siberian subspeciesis c¢. 14:5-15. 8 cm; in the other two subspecies rather smaller, 14-15 cm. The pelage is softer,less quilly, than in other species. Individual hairs on the upperparts are dark with a white subterminal band and/ortip, producing an overall color of dark grayish, usually with whitish spots where the white tips cluster together. Underside paler, grayish-brown. Neck brownish, head more grayish, and may be either paler or darker than body. Ears dark brown or black, paler at base. A pair of narrow creamy or white stripes (made up of white-tipped hairs) from chin down neck to chest. The pale spots are variably visible, but always prominent in young. In the skull, the snoutis long but does not form as much as half of the total skull length; the lacrimal bone is shorter than it is high; braincase is elongated; the orbits tubular. Diploid chromosome number is 58; some animals have dot-sized satellite chromosomes situated in the upper part of the fourth pair of autosomes. Deciduous canines in both sexes are replaced by permanent canines, prominent only in males, at six months. The limbs are more elongated than in most other species; the metatarsal is about 111% of the skull length, the metacarpal 84%. Relatively, however, the hindlimbs are greatly elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length (always more than 167 mm) being around 132% of the metacarpal (whose length is always more than 126 mm), and the forelimbs as a whole are 25-30% shorter than the hindlimbs. The metapodials are also very slender, the width of the distal head of the metacarpal being less than 14-5% ofits length, that of the metatarsal less than 12-5% of its length. Russian authors have reported that the musk of the Siberian Musk-deer contains no muscone, which on the face of it would seem to make it much less valuable for perfumes and for medicinal uses. The differences between the subspecies are in size and coloration. Subspecies parvipes and sachalinensis are considerably smaller and darker on average than is moschiferus, and most but not all specimens can be distinguished, though there is a doubt whether most parvipes and sachalinensis can really be differentiated from each other.Habitat.Siberian Musk-deer live in mountain taiga; in the Altaiand Sayan ranges, they are found between 300 mand 1600 m, and farther north, in Yakutia and north-eastern Russia, they live in rhododendron shrub, in light coniferous forest, and in floodland poplar-willow forests. In the northernmost part of the range, Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and foxes (Vulpes spp.) are the main predators, in that order; in Yakutia, the Yellow-throated Marten (Mantesflavigula) tends to be the most important. They are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including mites and fleas, and in the Far East, 100% are infested with larvae of Cordylobia inexspectata(Calliphoridae), a fly related to blowflies, a single individual musk-deer having as many as 2000 larvae.Food and Feeding.In the northern part of the range, Siberian Musk-deer feed on lichens all year round, these forming 60-91% of the weight of stomach contents; in winter, they also eat sprigs of small bushes, conifer needles, moss, dry grass, and rhododendron leaves; in spring and summer, they eat vascular plants.Breeding.Body mass is lowest in June and at its maximum in autumn, when rutting begins. Testis volumeis at its maximum in the early rut (November-December), and the musk gland is at its maximum in November. The full rut takes place in December—January, less frequently February-March. Three-quarters of the females breed every year, the rest only once in two or three years or less. The pre-copulation phase, as judged by the male’s reaction to female urine marks, lasts 15-18 days; the true mating period lasts only 52-64 hours, and the phase of estrus when copulation occurs lastsjust 12-24 hours. Gestation is 182-194 days, with a mean of 187. During courtship, a male first leaves musk marks on the female’s home range, then gradually approaches, then pursues her. Before copulation, the male smells the female’s genitals and occasionally makes the flehmen gesture (corners of the mouth open, pulling back the midline of the upper lip to permit passage of olfactory molecules into the vomeronasal organ); most females rub the side of the neck of the male with their caudal area and look back. A series of copulations takes place, interspersed with resting or feeding. Most births (70%) occur in the first ten days ofJune. The newborns weigh 460-635 g. Meanlitter size overall is 1:7-1-8; i.e. there is a preponderance of twins. In different regions, the rate of multiple births seems slightly different: in East Sayan, twelve triplet, 50 twin, and 28 singleton births were recorded; in Yakutia,six twin and three singleton births. The sex ratio at birth in twins in the Altai regionis 73-82% male; overall, however, sex ratios at birth are equal. Births occur during the day. Neonates stand 16-28 minutes after birth, walk after 28-47 minutes, and suckle after 11-92 minutes. They lie hidden for 12-15 days, and are on their own 80-90% of the time, the mother returning to feed them just once or twice a day for the first month, and after that only once a day. They begin to eat lichen and grass at 15-18 days. Lactation lasts on average four months, occasionally up to six months. The mother—young socialties last till the end of lactation. Juvenile mortality during first three or four months varies from 10-14% in the Far East to 17% in Transbaikalia. Males reach sexual maturity at 10-18 months, females at 8-9 months. Some females remain fertile until 7-12 years of age; in captivity, they remain fertile for longer, up to age 15-17. Mean life expectancy in nature is 5-7 years, which of course reflects the high infant and juvenile mortality, as adults in the wild may live to twelve years.Activity patterns.They are active, nervous animals; sudden high lookout jumps are made, especially by females. Most activity takes place at dusk and dawn. A musk-deer can travel 3-7 km during night foraging, usually returning to the same lair every morning. An individual’s home range will be between 200 ha and 300 ha in size, and muskdeer observe the boundaries quite strictly. In the second half of winter the extent of the home range is ratherless, and seasonal migrations,if they exist at all, are minimal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other musk-deer, males are territorial. Fights between territory owners involve striking with the forelegs and sometimes slashing with the canines. Apparently unlike other musk-deer, they live in pairs with the young of the year, although the female’s home range in and around the territory is not coterminous with the male’s. The territory is maintained by the male, who patrols it, marking the boundaries with caudal gland secretions and feces, and physically chasing away intruders. Sometimes the territory also contains satellite males up to two years old, who assist in maintaining the territory and may take over if the dominant male dies. Young males leave their natal territories in October to April (i.e. during orafter the rut), and young females from April to June before the adult female gives birth. Family groups form “metapopulations” in areas of relatively high population density separated from each other by low-density areas. Solitary individuals form 13-30% of the total. Not all of the home range is defended; the home ranges of males overlap by 3-6% in Altai, and in Far East by up to 15%; those of females, by as much as 17%. In winter, the overlap increases and can be as much as 40-70% of neighboring home ranges. The average population density is around 0-6 ind/km?, but this may increase to up to 4-8-5 ind/km?* when conditions are favorable.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. By the end of the 1990s, populations in Russiawere estimated at about 70,000, having been reduced by 50% to 75% since 1989. In 1999 the Sakhalinpopulation was estimated at about 600-650, and declining, the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000, and that in the Russian Far East as perhaps as much as 150,000. Although apparently less endangered than the Chinese species, the Siberian Musk-deer is still in danger of extinction unless stringent measures are taken.Bibliography.Flerov (1952), MacKinnon (2008), Nyambayar et al. (2008), Prihodko (2003), Sokolov etal. (1987).","taxonomy":"Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758,Tatary towards China= Altai Mountains.Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Porte-musc de Sibérie @fr | Sibirien-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero siberiano @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"345","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"moschiferus","name":"Moschus moschiferus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.m.moschiferusLinnaeus,1758—ERussia(Altairegion,NalongtheYenisei,reaching69°N,thendowntothemiddleflowoftheLena;E&SEslopesoftheVerkhoyanskRange;StanovoyRange,butdoesnotreachtheSeaofOkhotskorthefloodzonesoftheAmur),EKazakhstan,Mongolia,andNChina(NENeiMongol&NWHeilongjiang,formerlyalsoinNXinjiangbutsupposedlyextincttheresinceearly20\"century).M.m.parvipesHollister,1911—RussianFarEast,KoreanPeninsula,andNEChina(SHeilongjiang,EJilin,ELiaoning,Hebei&Shanxi).M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1929— Sakhalin.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5720523/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Flerov (1952) | MacKinnon (2008) | Nyambayar et al. (2008) | Prihodko (2003) | Sokolov etal. (1987)","foodAndFeeding":"In the northern part of the range, Siberian Musk-deer feed on lichens all year round, these forming 60-91% of the weight of stomach contents; in winter, they also eat sprigs of small bushes, conifer needles, moss, dry grass, and rhododendron leaves; in spring and summer, they eat vascular plants.","breeding":"Body mass is lowest in June and at its maximum in autumn, when rutting begins. Testis volumeis at its maximum in the early rut (November-December), and the musk gland is at its maximum in November. The full rut takes place in December—January, less frequently February-March. Three-quarters of the females breed every year, the rest only once in two or three years or less. The pre-copulation phase, as judged by the male’s reaction to female urine marks, lasts 15-18 days; the true mating period lasts only 52-64 hours, and the phase of estrus when copulation occurs lastsjust 12-24 hours. Gestation is 182-194 days, with a mean of 187. During courtship, a male first leaves musk marks on the female’s home range, then gradually approaches, then pursues her. Before copulation, the male smells the female’s genitals and occasionally makes the flehmen gesture (corners of the mouth open, pulling back the midline of the upper lip to permit passage of olfactory molecules into the vomeronasal organ); most females rub the side of the neck of the male with their caudal area and look back. A series of copulations takes place, interspersed with resting or feeding. Most births (70%) occur in the first ten days ofJune. The newborns weigh 460-635 g. Meanlitter size overall is 1:7-1-8; i.e. there is a preponderance of twins. In different regions, the rate of multiple births seems slightly different: in East Sayan, twelve triplet, 50 twin, and 28 singleton births were recorded; in Yakutia,six twin and three singleton births. The sex ratio at birth in twins in the Altai regionis 73-82% male; overall, however, sex ratios at birth are equal. Births occur during the day. Neonates stand 16-28 minutes after birth, walk after 28-47 minutes, and suckle after 11-92 minutes. They lie hidden for 12-15 days, and are on their own 80-90% of the time, the mother returning to feed them just once or twice a day for the first month, and after that only once a day. They begin to eat lichen and grass at 15-18 days. Lactation lasts on average four months, occasionally up to six months. The mother—young socialties last till the end of lactation. Juvenile mortality during first three or four months varies from 10-14% in the Far East to 17% in Transbaikalia. Males reach sexual maturity at 10-18 months, females at 8-9 months. Some females remain fertile until 7-12 years of age; in captivity, they remain fertile for longer, up to age 15-17. Mean life expectancy in nature is 5-7 years, which of course reflects the high infant and juvenile mortality, as adults in the wild may live to twelve years.","activityPatterns":"They are active, nervous animals; sudden high lookout jumps are made, especially by females. Most activity takes place at dusk and dawn. A musk-deer can travel 3-7 km during night foraging, usually returning to the same lair every morning. An individual’s home range will be between 200 ha and 300 ha in size, and muskdeer observe the boundaries quite strictly. In the second half of winter the extent of the home range is ratherless, and seasonal migrations,if they exist at all, are minimal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like other musk-deer, males are territorial. Fights between territory owners involve striking with the forelegs and sometimes slashing with the canines. Apparently unlike other musk-deer, they live in pairs with the young of the year, although the female’s home range in and around the territory is not coterminous with the male’s. The territory is maintained by the male, who patrols it, marking the boundaries with caudal gland secretions and feces, and physically chasing away intruders. Sometimes the territory also contains satellite males up to two years old, who assist in maintaining the territory and may take over if the dominant male dies. Young males leave their natal territories in October to April (i.e. during orafter the rut), and young females from April to June before the adult female gives birth. Family groups form “metapopulations” in areas of relatively high population density separated from each other by low-density areas. Solitary individuals form 13-30% of the total. Not all of the home range is defended; the home ranges of males overlap by 3-6% in Altai, and in Far East by up to 15%; those of females, by as much as 17%. In winter, the overlap increases and can be as much as 40-70% of neighboring home ranges. The average population density is around 0-6 ind/km?, but this may increase to up to 4-8-5 ind/km?* when conditions are favorable.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. By the end of the 1990s, populations in Russiawere estimated at about 70,000, having been reduced by 50% to 75% since 1989. In 1999 the Sakhalinpopulation was estimated at about 600-650, and declining, the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000, and that in the Russian Far East as perhaps as much as 150,000. Although apparently less endangered than the Chinese species, the Siberian Musk-deer is still in danger of extinction unless stringent measures are taken.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 65-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, shoulder height 56-61 cm; weight 7-17 kg. Skull length in the Siberian subspeciesis c¢. 14:5-15. 8 cm; in the other two subspecies rather smaller, 14-15 cm. The pelage is softer,less quilly, than in other species. Individual hairs on the upperparts are dark with a white subterminal band and/ortip, producing an overall color of dark grayish, usually with whitish spots where the white tips cluster together. Underside paler, grayish-brown. Neck brownish, head more grayish, and may be either paler or darker than body. Ears dark brown or black, paler at base. A pair of narrow creamy or white stripes (made up of white-tipped hairs) from chin down neck to chest. The pale spots are variably visible, but always prominent in young. In the skull, the snoutis long but does not form as much as half of the total skull length; the lacrimal bone is shorter than it is high; braincase is elongated; the orbits tubular. Diploid chromosome number is 58; some animals have dot-sized satellite chromosomes situated in the upper part of the fourth pair of autosomes. Deciduous canines in both sexes are replaced by permanent canines, prominent only in males, at six months. The limbs are more elongated than in most other species; the metatarsal is about 111% of the skull length, the metacarpal 84%. Relatively, however, the hindlimbs are greatly elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length (always more than 167 mm) being around 132% of the metacarpal (whose length is always more than 126 mm), and the forelimbs as a whole are 25-30% shorter than the hindlimbs. The metapodials are also very slender, the width of the distal head of the metacarpal being less than 14-5% ofits length, that of the metatarsal less than 12-5% of its length. Russian authors have reported that the musk of the Siberian Musk-deer contains no muscone, which on the face of it would seem to make it much less valuable for perfumes and for medicinal uses. The differences between the subspecies are in size and coloration. Subspecies parvipes and sachalinensis are considerably smaller and darker on average than is moschiferus, and most but not all specimens can be distinguished, though there is a doubt whether most parvipes and sachalinensis can really be differentiated from each other.","habitat":"Siberian Musk-deer live in mountain taiga; in the Altaiand Sayan ranges, they are found between 300 mand 1600 m, and farther north, in Yakutia and north-eastern Russia, they live in rhododendron shrub, in light coniferous forest, and in floodland poplar-willow forests. In the northernmost part of the range, Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and foxes (Vulpes spp.) are the main predators, in that order; in Yakutia, the Yellow-throated Marten (Mantesflavigula) tends to be the most important. They are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including mites and fleas, and in the Far East, 100% are infested with larvae of Cordylobia inexspectata(Calliphoridae), a fly related to blowflies, a single individual musk-deer having as many as 2000 larvae."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"345","verbatimText":"2.Alpine Musk-deerMoschus chrysogasterFrench:Porte-musc alpin/ German:Gelbbauch-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero doradoTaxonomy.Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions,” probably from the Tibetan Plateau, north of the Himalayas.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.c.chrysogasterHodgson,1839—alpinezoneat2800-4000mofNIndia(includingSikkim),Nepal,andBhutan.M. c. sifanicus Büchner, 1891— alpine zone at 3500-4800 mof C & S China(S Ningxia, Qinghai, S Gansu, W Sichuan, SE Xizang& NW Yunnan).Descriptive notes.Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, height at shoulder, 50-60 cm; weight 11-18 kg. One of the largest species of musk-deer. Skull length in subspecies sifanicus is 1516-5 cm and in the nominotypical subspecies 14:5-16 cm. Overall color striated reddish or yellowish-gray; paler on flanks; underside reddish-creamy-gray, as are the inner surfaces of the limbs and the midline of the throat, but there are no white stripes on the neck. There is an orange eye ring. Individual hairs are brown with a red-yellow subterminal band. Ears are pale brown, tipped with yellow, and gray inside. Throat with a single broad, ill-defined creamy longitudinal band. Legs paler than body on lower segments, grayish-yellow, somewhat darkened down front surfaces. Rump paler than back, yellowish, with a black patch on buttocks. Young spotted. A faint dorsal stripe. Hair bases long, milky gray or brown. Winter hairs 34-42 mm long on withers, 55-64 mm on rump. The face is greatly elongated, constituting more than half the skull length; the lachrymal length is much longer than its height. Limbs are elongated, but not as much as those of the Siberian species: metacarpal length 109-119 mm, metatarsal 128-148 mm. The metapodials are sturdier than those of the Siberian Musk-deer, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal is more than 15-5%, of the metatarsal more than 14-5% of their lengths. The hindlimbs are slightly less elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length is 124-128% of that of the metacarpal. The metatarsal length is 90-95% of skull length, the metacarpal 72-77%.On following pages 3 Hrmalayan Musk-deer (Moschus Ieuoogaston, 4 Kashmır Musk-deer (Moschuscuprousl. 5 Black Musk-deer (Moschus fuscus) 6 AnhuıMusk-deer (Moschusınhuıensısl, 7 Forest Musk-deer (Moschus berezovskıı)Habitat.Once found throughout the “dwarf bush zone” in suitable areas of the Tibetan Plateau, nowadays due to human disturbance the habitat is fragmented and populations are isolated on separate mountains. Chinese Alpine Musk-deer live in highelevation bush, where the mean annual temperature is around 3-7°C and often falls below freezing; they prefer shrubby habitats to meadows. They inhabit shaded slopes with better shelter and less disturbance, the steeper slopes at greater than 30°. The elevation of their habitat is typically 4000-4500 m, only sometimes going below 4000 m. Annual rainfall varies from about 200 mmto as much as 450 mmor more. Musk-deer population density varies from 3-9 ind/km? in the more arid habitats to 71-11 ind/km? where the rainfall is highest; density is lower where there is heavy snow cover. Densities in dwarf forest and shrub are highest, but more continuous dense shrub is avoided, and patchy shrub has the highest densities among habitat types. Where there are more competitors, such as Serow and Goral, and more grazing by domestic herds, and of course more poaching, densities are again lower.Food and Feeding.The diet contains the leaves of 46 species (mostly shrubs and forbs), flowers of 30 species, shoots and stems of 16 species, and seeds ofsix species; the proportion of leaves and tender shoots is highest in spring and summer, of buds and flowers higher in late summer, and of the leaves, twigs, and seeds of forbs and shrubs higher later in the year.Breeding.In the Xinglong Mountain National Nature Reserve, east of QinghaiLake, births occur from May to July, when rainfall and temperature are highest; the younger females (less than two years old) have their birth season more spread out than the more mature females. Compared to the wild, in captivity the birth season is longer and begins later. The twinning rate is lower than in the Siberian Musk-deer, only two in twelve births. The neonates weigh 700-750 g at three days old. Lactation lasts for two months; the young begin browsing at 20 days.Activity patterns.Very little is known about activity patterns, but they have been reported to sleep during the day in a form, which is made by scraping out a shallow depression in the ground, which just fits the body when the animalis crouching low.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization seems to be rather different from that of the Siberian Musk-deer. Males and females seem not to be associated in pairs, nor are there “satellite” males; instead the home ranges of the dominant males overlap those of females, but the other males occupy separate home ranges. Home range in summeris smaller than in autumn; the home ranges of males average 35-5 ha in July to September, and expand to 47-17 ha (i.e. by 63-4%) in October to early November, the rutting season; female ranges enlarge from 28-95 ha to 40-76 ha (a 40-8% increase).Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I, except Chinese populations which are listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a probable population decline caused by overexploitation, shrinkage in distribution, and habitat destruction and degradation. Although data are lacking regarding recent population levels, the high levels of harvesting and habitat loss do not bode well. A poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 wild individuals in Chinain the 1960s and 1970s and no more than 100,000 within Chinain the 1990s.Bibliography.Grubb (1982), Liu Zhixiao & Sheng Helin (2008), Liu Zhixiao et al. (2002), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Shi Zemei & Jiang Yingwen (2005), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Xia Lin et al. (2003), Yang Qisen et al. (1998), Zhang Hongmao & Hu Jinchu (2000).","taxonomy":"Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions,” probably from the Tibetan Plateau, north of the Himalayas.Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Porte-musc alpin @fr | Gelbbauch-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero dorado @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hodgson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1839","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"345","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"chrysogaster","name":"Moschus chrysogaster","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.c.chrysogasterHodgson,1839—alpinezoneat2800-4000mofNIndia(includingSikkim),Nepal,andBhutan.M. c. sifanicus Büchner, 1891— alpine zone at 3500-4800 mof C & S China(S Ningxia, Qinghai, S Gansu, W Sichuan, SE Xizang& NW Yunnan).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5720525/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Grubb (1982) | Liu Zhixiao & Sheng Helin (2008) | Liu Zhixiao et al. (2002) | Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Shi Zemei & Jiang Yingwen (2005) | Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Xia Lin et al. (2003) | Yang Qisen et al. (1998) | Zhang Hongmao & Hu Jinchu (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet contains the leaves of 46 species (mostly shrubs and forbs), flowers of 30 species, shoots and stems of 16 species, and seeds ofsix species; the proportion of leaves and tender shoots is highest in spring and summer, of buds and flowers higher in late summer, and of the leaves, twigs, and seeds of forbs and shrubs higher later in the year.","breeding":"In the Xinglong Mountain National Nature Reserve, east of QinghaiLake, births occur from May to July, when rainfall and temperature are highest; the younger females (less than two years old) have their birth season more spread out than the more mature females. Compared to the wild, in captivity the birth season is longer and begins later. The twinning rate is lower than in the Siberian Musk-deer, only two in twelve births. The neonates weigh 700-750 g at three days old. Lactation lasts for two months; the young begin browsing at 20 days.","activityPatterns":"Very little is known about activity patterns, but they have been reported to sleep during the day in a form, which is made by scraping out a shallow depression in the ground, which just fits the body when the animalis crouching low.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The social organization seems to be rather different from that of the Siberian Musk-deer. Males and females seem not to be associated in pairs, nor are there “satellite” males; instead the home ranges of the dominant males overlap those of females, but the other males occupy separate home ranges. Home range in summeris smaller than in autumn; the home ranges of males average 35-5 ha in July to September, and expand to 47-17 ha (i.e. by 63-4%) in October to early November, the rutting season; female ranges enlarge from 28-95 ha to 40-76 ha (a 40-8% increase).","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I, except Chinese populations which are listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a probable population decline caused by overexploitation, shrinkage in distribution, and habitat destruction and degradation. Although data are lacking regarding recent population levels, the high levels of harvesting and habitat loss do not bode well. A poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 wild individuals in Chinain the 1960s and 1970s and no more than 100,000 within Chinain the 1990s.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, height at shoulder, 50-60 cm; weight 11-18 kg. One of the largest species of musk-deer. Skull length in subspecies sifanicus is 1516-5 cm and in the nominotypical subspecies 14:5-16 cm. Overall color striated reddish or yellowish-gray; paler on flanks; underside reddish-creamy-gray, as are the inner surfaces of the limbs and the midline of the throat, but there are no white stripes on the neck. There is an orange eye ring. Individual hairs are brown with a red-yellow subterminal band. Ears are pale brown, tipped with yellow, and gray inside. Throat with a single broad, ill-defined creamy longitudinal band. Legs paler than body on lower segments, grayish-yellow, somewhat darkened down front surfaces. Rump paler than back, yellowish, with a black patch on buttocks. Young spotted. A faint dorsal stripe. Hair bases long, milky gray or brown. Winter hairs 34-42 mm long on withers, 55-64 mm on rump. The face is greatly elongated, constituting more than half the skull length; the lachrymal length is much longer than its height. Limbs are elongated, but not as much as those of the Siberian species: metacarpal length 109-119 mm, metatarsal 128-148 mm. The metapodials are sturdier than those of the Siberian Musk-deer, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal is more than 15-5%, of the metatarsal more than 14-5% of their lengths. The hindlimbs are slightly less elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length is 124-128% of that of the metacarpal. The metatarsal length is 90-95% of skull length, the metacarpal 72-77%.On following pages 3 Hrmalayan Musk-deer (Moschus Ieuoogaston, 4 Kashmır Musk-deer (Moschuscuprousl.","habitat":"Once found throughout the “dwarf bush zone” in suitable areas of the Tibetan Plateau, nowadays due to human disturbance the habitat is fragmented and populations are isolated on separate mountains. Chinese Alpine Musk-deer live in highelevation bush, where the mean annual temperature is around 3-7°C and often falls below freezing; they prefer shrubby habitats to meadows. They inhabit shaded slopes with better shelter and less disturbance, the steeper slopes at greater than 30°. The elevation of their habitat is typically 4000-4500 m, only sometimes going below 4000 m. Annual rainfall varies from about 200 mmto as much as 450 mmor more. Musk-deer population density varies from 3-9 ind/km? in the more arid habitats to 71-11 ind/km? where the rainfall is highest; density is lower where there is heavy snow cover. Densities in dwarf forest and shrub are highest, but more continuous dense shrub is avoided, and patchy shrub has the highest densities among habitat types. Where there are more competitors, such as Serow and Goral, and more grazing by domestic herds, and of course more poaching, densities are again lower."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFB9F058FF7BF5D01AA9FDEB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFB9F058FF7BF5D01AA9FDEB","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"346","verbatimText":"3.Himalayan Musk-deerMoschus leucogasterFrench:Porte-musc de |I'Himalaya/ German:Himalaya-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero himalayoTaxonomy.Moschus leucogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions.” Probably from the Himalayan slopes of Nepal.The similarity between Himalayan (M. leucogaster) and Alpine (M. chrysogaster) Musk-deers has often led to them being confused and regarded as conspecific. At present, no subspecies are recognized, but there does appear to be geographical variation, or possibly the species should even be split into two or more distinct species.Distribution.Known from the southern slopes of Himalayas in N India(including Sikkim), Nepal, and Bhutan.Descriptive notes.Head-body 86-100 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 13-18 kg. A large muskdeer; skull length is 15.3-16 cm. In the typical form ofthis species, from western Nepal, the upperparts are brownish-yellow, weaklystriated; the head gray-brown; the ears brown with grayish-white rims, and gray-white inside; some individuals have a faint grayish eye ring. The legs and rump are dark. Bases of the dorsal hairs are pure white. There is no neck-stripe; the throatis all dark. The interramal region is grayish-white, as is the underside, from chest to groin. Juveniles are clearly spotted. The facial skeleton is somewhat elongated; the lacrimal is longer than it is high, similar to the Alpine Musk-deer. There is a different looking form of this musk-deer, either a separate subspecies (or even a different species?) from Zhangmu (28° N, 87° E) in the forest zone of southern Tibet (Xizang): it is dark, without hair-banding, but the bases of the hairs are still white; the ears, limbs, and neck are all dark; the posterior aspect of the rump is orange-white; and the skull differs in having the nasal bones anteriorly expanded. In the Khumjung area in Nepalthere is another type of musk-deer related to this species. In this population, known only from a few specimens collected on one of the Everest expeditions, the neck is somewhat paler; the throatis pale with a poorly marked stripe on either side; the chin and interramal region are creamy white; the ears are gray basally, black terminally; the buttocks are yellow-brown; the legs are mostly black; the chest is black, and the belly is more grayish. The skull also differs somewhat from M. leucogaster. There is a third unnamed form, related to this species, known from Kulu district and elsewhere in north Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, at 3000 mor more, and from neighboring regions of Nepal; this, which has been called the “pepper-and-salt” form, is brown or red-agouti, sometimes forming a “saddle.” There is often pale spotting; the throatis pale brown, with a pair of pale gray or whitish stripes along either side from the throat to the insides of the forelegs; the lower limbs are paler than the body because of white speckling; the buttocks and tail are paler; the ears are dark gray or brown with a whitish border, and white inside. Hair bases are yellow; the tips of the hairs are dark brown, and there is a white or orange bandjust below the tips. The belly is brown, paler than the rest of the body; the head is gray, flecked with white, and there are orange patches above and below the eyes. The skull is unknown. It is ironic that the only field study of a Himalayan Musk-deer was made in the Kedarnath Wild Life Sanctuary in the Garhwal region, Uttarakhand, and applies to this unnamed “pepper-and-salt” form, which may be distinct and not referable to M. leucogasterat all. In other words, it may be that along the Himalayas there is in fact a series of different species, rather than just a single species.Habitat.Himalayan Musk-deer of this species or species-group inhabit the evergreen oak and birch forests of the Himalayan slopes of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Nepalas far east as the lower slopes of Mount Everest, between 3000 mand 4300 m. In Sikkim, where the treeline is higher because of the more evenly humid climate, they live between 2500 mand 4400 m; in Bhutanand Arunachal Pradesh, the habitat 1s between 2600 mand 3000 min thick bamboo forest. In Kedarnath, musk-deer tend to be in the open pastures on northern slopes at night. These slopes are warmer, more sheltered, and less exposed during the night. They are found on warmer, more sunny southern slopes during the day, when they rest more in shrub cover. The preferred slope angle is 30—-40°.Food and Feeding.Diet in winter consists 39% of leaves of trees and shrubs (half of this being Rhododendron), 16% forbs (half of this being Senecio), 7% grasses, 2% ferns, 15% moss, and 21% lichen. In spring and summer, the diet consists mostly of forbs and lichen; it is mostly forbs and leaves in autumn. This contrasts with the Siberian Muskdeer, whose diet is so heavily composed oflichen.Breeding.Latrines are most frequently used during the autumn rut. The milky-yellow musk, which is produced most strongly between May and July, may be conveyed in the urine of males, and stains it pink or red because it mixes with slough from the inner wall of the sac. Pasting on stems by the caudal gland occurs throughout the winter range, especially during the rut. Gestation length is 196-198 days; the newborn weigh 600 g. The twinning rate of only one in six births seems lower than other species, except perhaps the Alpine Musk-deer.Activity patterns.Overall, 41% of the time is spent active, mainly at night, 59% resting, mainly by day. They are relatively silent, but hiss when alarmed; they squeal when captured or attacked by a predator. Males make a metallic rustling noise, probably by tooth grinding, in aggressive interactions. There is a contact bleat of the young to its mother. Stotting, like a gazelle,is frequent during vigilance behavior. Females seem to be more wary than males, and often flee for up to 100 mbefore stopping and looking back; males have a shorter median flight distance, but they hiss less and tend to look back more when fleeing. In males, the flight distance seems to be greater (30 m) in autumn, in the rut, than in winter and spring, when it is only 15-20 m.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Scent marking includes defecation at latrines by both sexes, and secretion of musk and pasting with the caudal gland by males. Latrines occur throughout the home range and are most frequently used during the autumn rut—and perhaps not used at all in summer. In autumn, these musk-deer seem often to cover the feces with debris (earth, old pellets, and leaflitter), probably helping to keep them moist and smelly; the amount of droppingsis greater in covered than in uncovered latrines. Both sexes make them, but a male’s winter range has about 40 latrines, whereas the winter range of one female had only 23. Some latrines seem to be used exclusively by one individual, others by more than one, probably corresponding with the degree of overlap between two animals’ home ranges. Latrines may also be visitedjust to inspect them, without using them, and they can be located even when covered in snow. Both sexes scrape with the forefeet before and after defecation, but the feces are then covered, so they are not trodden underfoot and do not act to mark trails. The density varies from 3-4 ind/km? in Kedarnath up to 5-6 ind/km? in SagarmathaNational Park, Nepal, where there is more food available in winter because there is less snow. The home range of a two-year-old male in Kedarnath was 15 ha, whereas that of an older male was twice as large, 31-6 ha; an adult female occupied 26-8 ha, comparable to the adult male. Males act territorially, defending their borders by fighting.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a population decline estimated to be more than 50% over the last three generations inferred from overexploitation, which is characteristic of the genus. The species has a relatively restricted range, so its population is unlikely to be large, even if there is only one species ofthis group. According to Michael Green, the potential habitat on the south side of the Himalayas could support about 200,000 musk-deer, but the population in the 1980s was probably only about 30,000, and at least 4000 adult males were killed each year. The current status is unknown.Bibliography.Green (1985, 1986, 1987), Groves et al. (1995), Grubb (1982).","taxonomy":"Moschus leucogaster Hodgson, 1839,“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions.” Probably from the Himalayan slopes of Nepal.The similarity between Himalayan (M. leucogaster) and Alpine (M. chrysogaster) Musk-deers has often led to them being confused and regarded as conspecific. At present, no subspecies are recognized, but there does appear to be geographical variation, or possibly the species should even be split into two or more distinct species.","commonNames":"Porte-musc de | @fr | 'Himalaya @en | Himalaya-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero himalayo @es | Ciervo @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"346","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucogaster","name":"Moschus leucogaster","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known from the southern slopes of Himalayas in N India(including Sikkim), Nepal, and Bhutan.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5720527/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Green (1985, 1986, 1987) | Groves et al. (1995) | Grubb (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet in winter consists 39% of leaves of trees and shrubs (half of this being Rhododendron), 16% forbs (half of this being Senecio), 7% grasses, 2% ferns, 15% moss, and 21% lichen. In spring and summer, the diet consists mostly of forbs and lichen; it is mostly forbs and leaves in autumn. This contrasts with the Siberian Muskdeer, whose diet is so heavily composed oflichen.","breeding":"Latrines are most frequently used during the autumn rut. The milky-yellow musk, which is produced most strongly between May and July, may be conveyed in the urine of males, and stains it pink or red because it mixes with slough from the inner wall of the sac. Pasting on stems by the caudal gland occurs throughout the winter range, especially during the rut. Gestation length is 196-198 days; the newborn weigh 600 g. The twinning rate of only one in six births seems lower than other species, except perhaps the Alpine Musk-deer.","activityPatterns":"Overall, 41% of the time is spent active, mainly at night, 59% resting, mainly by day. They are relatively silent, but hiss when alarmed; they squeal when captured or attacked by a predator. Males make a metallic rustling noise, probably by tooth grinding, in aggressive interactions. There is a contact bleat of the young to its mother. Stotting, like a gazelle,is frequent during vigilance behavior. Females seem to be more wary than males, and often flee for up to 100 mbefore stopping and looking back; males have a shorter median flight distance, but they hiss less and tend to look back more when fleeing. In males, the flight distance seems to be greater (30 m) in autumn, in the rut, than in winter and spring, when it is only 15-20 m.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Scent marking includes defecation at latrines by both sexes, and secretion of musk and pasting with the caudal gland by males. Latrines occur throughout the home range and are most frequently used during the autumn rut—and perhaps not used at all in summer. In autumn, these musk-deer seem often to cover the feces with debris (earth, old pellets, and leaflitter), probably helping to keep them moist and smelly; the amount of droppingsis greater in covered than in uncovered latrines. Both sexes make them, but a male’s winter range has about 40 latrines, whereas the winter range of one female had only 23. Some latrines seem to be used exclusively by one individual, others by more than one, probably corresponding with the degree of overlap between two animals’ home ranges. Latrines may also be visitedjust to inspect them, without using them, and they can be located even when covered in snow. Both sexes scrape with the forefeet before and after defecation, but the feces are then covered, so they are not trodden underfoot and do not act to mark trails. The density varies from 3-4 ind/km? in Kedarnath up to 5-6 ind/km? in SagarmathaNational Park, Nepal, where there is more food available in winter because there is less snow. The home range of a two-year-old male in Kedarnath was 15 ha, whereas that of an older male was twice as large, 31-6 ha; an adult female occupied 26-8 ha, comparable to the adult male. Males act territorially, defending their borders by fighting.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a population decline estimated to be more than 50% over the last three generations inferred from overexploitation, which is characteristic of the genus. The species has a relatively restricted range, so its population is unlikely to be large, even if there is only one species ofthis group. According to Michael Green, the potential habitat on the south side of the Himalayas could support about 200,000 musk-deer, but the population in the 1980s was probably only about 30,000, and at least 4000 adult males were killed each year. The current status is unknown.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 86-100 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 13-18 kg. A large muskdeer; skull length is 15.3-16 cm. In the typical form ofthis species, from western Nepal, the upperparts are brownish-yellow, weaklystriated; the head gray-brown; the ears brown with grayish-white rims, and gray-white inside; some individuals have a faint grayish eye ring. The legs and rump are dark. Bases of the dorsal hairs are pure white. There is no neck-stripe; the throatis all dark. The interramal region is grayish-white, as is the underside, from chest to groin. Juveniles are clearly spotted. The facial skeleton is somewhat elongated; the lacrimal is longer than it is high, similar to the Alpine Musk-deer. There is a different looking form of this musk-deer, either a separate subspecies (or even a different species?) from Zhangmu (28° N, 87° E) in the forest zone of southern Tibet (Xizang): it is dark, without hair-banding, but the bases of the hairs are still white; the ears, limbs, and neck are all dark; the posterior aspect of the rump is orange-white; and the skull differs in having the nasal bones anteriorly expanded. In the Khumjung area in Nepalthere is another type of musk-deer related to this species. In this population, known only from a few specimens collected on one of the Everest expeditions, the neck is somewhat paler; the throatis pale with a poorly marked stripe on either side; the chin and interramal region are creamy white; the ears are gray basally, black terminally; the buttocks are yellow-brown; the legs are mostly black; the chest is black, and the belly is more grayish. The skull also differs somewhat from M. leucogaster. There is a third unnamed form, related to this species, known from Kulu district and elsewhere in north Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, at 3000 mor more, and from neighboring regions of Nepal; this, which has been called the “pepper-and-salt” form, is brown or red-agouti, sometimes forming a “saddle.” There is often pale spotting; the throatis pale brown, with a pair of pale gray or whitish stripes along either side from the throat to the insides of the forelegs; the lower limbs are paler than the body because of white speckling; the buttocks and tail are paler; the ears are dark gray or brown with a whitish border, and white inside. Hair bases are yellow; the tips of the hairs are dark brown, and there is a white or orange bandjust below the tips. The belly is brown, paler than the rest of the body; the head is gray, flecked with white, and there are orange patches above and below the eyes. The skull is unknown. It is ironic that the only field study of a Himalayan Musk-deer was made in the Kedarnath Wild Life Sanctuary in the Garhwal region, Uttarakhand, and applies to this unnamed “pepper-and-salt” form, which may be distinct and not referable to M. leucogasterat all. In other words, it may be that along the Himalayas there is in fact a series of different species, rather than just a single species.","habitat":"Himalayan Musk-deer of this species or species-group inhabit the evergreen oak and birch forests of the Himalayan slopes of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Nepalas far east as the lower slopes of Mount Everest, between 3000 mand 4300 m. In Sikkim, where the treeline is higher because of the more evenly humid climate, they live between 2500 mand 4400 m; in Bhutanand Arunachal Pradesh, the habitat 1s between 2600 mand 3000 min thick bamboo forest. In Kedarnath, musk-deer tend to be in the open pastures on northern slopes at night. These slopes are warmer, more sheltered, and less exposed during the night. They are found on warmer, more sunny southern slopes during the day, when they rest more in shrub cover. The preferred slope angle is 30—-40°."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBAF05CFDE7FD8F1F6DFAAB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFBAF05CFDE7FD8F1F6DFAAB","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"336","verbatimText":"Family MOSCHIDAE(MUSK-DEER)• Small, hornless ruminants with hindquarters considerably higher than forequarters, long, rabbit-like, upright ears, long limbs, small tail, and thick, grayish or brownish hairs, standing erect on upperparts of body; male with long, slender, curved upper canines, large glandular sac on belly, and glandulartail.• 70-100 cm.• Palearctic and Indo-Malayan Regions.• Forest and alpine scrub in mountains and hilly country.• 1 genus, 7 species, 13 taxa.• 6 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF058FAC6FC461016F63D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFBEF058FAC6FC461016F63D","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"347","verbatimText":"6.Anhui Musk-deerMoschus anhuiensisFrench:Porte-musc d'Anhui/ German:Anhui-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero de AnhuiTaxonomy.Moschus anhuiensis Wang, Hu & Yan, 1982,Changling region(31° 10’ N, 115° 53’ E, altitude 500 m), Jinzhai county, Anhui province, China.First proposed as a subspecies of M. moschiferus, this taxon was first transferred to M. berezouskii, then given species rank. Skulls of this species are metrically unlike those of any other, and cytochrome b has consistent differences from other species, and it is probably the sister species to all others except for M. moschiferus. Monotypic.Distribution.Appears to be restricted to SW Anhui.Descriptive notes.Head—body 69.6-76. 5 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height less than 50 cm, hip height less than 60 cm; weight 7.1-9. 7 kg. A small species; skull length is 14.1-14. 9 cm, with a mean of 14-38 cm. Gray-brown in color, with dense but not well-marked pale spots on the body. A neck-stripe is present. Lachrymal length is shorter than its height. Ears are darker than body. Hairs long, 38 mmon withers, 54 mmon rump.Habitat.Little is known of the typical habitat ofthis species, except that it is found in forested regions at low elevations, below 500 m.Food and Feeding.Very little is known ofits way oflife and there are no data on food habits.Breeding.Females reach sexual maturity quickly, and are able to breed in their first year. This species is more likely to have twins than singletons.Activity patterns.No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information available, but likely similar to the Forest Musk-deer.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population estimates are on the order of only 700 to 800 individuals living in the wild. The distribution of the species is very limited, likely only a little over 5000 km?. This speciesis classified as Endangered in the Chinese Red List and on the First Category of State Key Protected Wildlife List in China. Protection of habitatis needed, as well as better enforcement of hunting regulations. It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a clear need to determine the population size, natural history, and the extent of threats to the species.Bibliography.Groves & Feng Zuojian (1986), Su Bing et al. (2001), Wang Qishan etal. (1982).","taxonomy":"Moschus anhuiensis Wang, Hu & Yan, 1982,Changling region(31° 10’ N, 115° 53’ E, altitude 500 m), Jinzhai county, Anhui province, China.First proposed as a subspecies of M. moschiferus, this taxon was first transferred to M. berezouskii, then given species rank. Skulls of this species are metrically unlike those of any other, and cytochrome b has consistent differences from other species, and it is probably the sister species to all others except for M. moschiferus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Porte-musc d'Anhui @fr | Anhui-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero de Anhui @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wang, Hu & Yan","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1982","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"347","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"anhuiensis","name":"Moschus anhuiensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Appears to be restricted to SW Anhui.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5720539/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Groves & Feng Zuojian (1986) | Su Bing et al. (2001) | Wang Qishan etal. (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Very little is known ofits way oflife and there are no data on food habits.","breeding":"Females reach sexual maturity quickly, and are able to breed in their first year. This species is more likely to have twins than singletons.","activityPatterns":"No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information available, but likely similar to the Forest Musk-deer.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population estimates are on the order of only 700 to 800 individuals living in the wild. The distribution of the species is very limited, likely only a little over 5000 km?. This speciesis classified as Endangered in the Chinese Red List and on the First Category of State Key Protected Wildlife List in China. Protection of habitatis needed, as well as better enforcement of hunting regulations. It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a clear need to determine the population size, natural history, and the extent of threats to the species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 69.6-76. 5 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height less than 50 cm, hip height less than 60 cm; weight 7.1-9. 7 kg. A small species; skull length is 14.1-14. 9 cm, with a mean of 14-38 cm. Gray-brown in color, with dense but not well-marked pale spots on the body. A neck-stripe is present. Lachrymal length is shorter than its height. Ears are darker than body. Hairs long, 38 mmon withers, 54 mmon rump.","habitat":"Little is known of the typical habitat ofthis species, except that it is found in forested regions at low elevations, below 500 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF058FF33F7711EAAFCFD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFBEF058FF33F7711EAAFCFD","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"347","verbatimText":"5.Black Musk-deerMoschus fuscusFrench:Porte-musc noir/ German:Schwarzes Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero negroTaxonomy.Moschus fuscus Li, 1981,Babo, Gongshan, Yunnan, 3500 m.Monotypic.Distribution.S China, in SE Xizang(Zayu County, 28° 25’ N, 97° 06’ E) and NW Yunnan(Gongshan County, 26° 30’ N, 98° 50’ E), NE India(Sikkim), Bhutanand N Myanmar(Dchpu L’kha; Adung-Seingku valleys). It is likely on geographic grounds that it occurs in Arunachal Pradesh, NE India, and thatthis speciesis the one that has been found at over 4000 min the Khumbu region of Mt Everest and Tserping, in NW Nepal.Descriptive notes.Head-body 73-80 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Skull length 13-5—-14-5 cm. Blackish-brown all over, much darker than any other species, with no neck or throat markings, but very occasionally traces of yellowish spotting on body. The neck may be paler than the body; the throat has no longitudinal lines running down it, but often has two incomplete yellow collars. Underside is dark like the upper side. Rump with ochery tones, but buttocks black. Juvenile is agouti-banded, but the adult hairs are solid-colored except for very short white bases. Hair is long, 32-46 mm on withers, 51-63 mm on rump. Muzzle is short, less than half the length of the skull, but the lacrimal is longer than it is high. Limbs are more elongated than in M. berezouskii, despite the smaller skull. Metacarpal 88-101 mm, metatarsal 126-135 mm, so the hindlimb is even more elongated than in M. berezouskii; the metatarsal length is 152% of the metacarpal, and 96% of skull length, the metacarpal 63% of skull length. The hooves are elongated: 27-29 mm in one specimen (maximum in other speciesis 24 mm). Khumbu region specimens have a slightly paler underside and interramal region than those from Chinaand Myanmar.Habitat.This speciesis said to live in shady coniferous forest at 2200-4600 m above sea level, extending into the alpine zone.Food and Feeding.The diet is mainly grasses, mosses, and tender shoots of a variety of plants, but no details are available.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information available.Status and Conservation.This species is listed on CITES Appendix I in most countries in its range, and on Appendix II in China. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is on the ChinaKey List as category II and the ChinaRed List as Endangered. This species has gained some protection in Myanmarthrough the creation of Khakaborazi National Park, but poaching remains a problem in many areas.Bibliography.Groves et al. (1995), Li Zhixiang (1981).","taxonomy":"Moschus fuscus Li, 1981,Babo, Gongshan, Yunnan, 3500 m.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Porte-musc noir @fr | Schwarzes Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero negro @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Li","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1981","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"347","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"fuscus","name":"Moschus fuscus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S China, in SE Xizang(Zayu County, 28° 25’ N, 97° 06’ E) and NW Yunnan(Gongshan County, 26° 30’ N, 98° 50’ E), NE India(Sikkim), Bhutanand N Myanmar(Dchpu L’kha; Adung-Seingku valleys). It is likely on geographic grounds that it occurs in Arunachal Pradesh, NE India, and thatthis speciesis the one that has been found at over 4000 min the Khumbu region of Mt Everest and Tserping, in NW Nepal.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5720535/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Groves et al. (1995) | Li Zhixiang (1981)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet is mainly grasses, mosses, and tender shoots of a variety of plants, but no details are available.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information available.","statusAndConservation":"This species is listed on CITES Appendix I in most countries in its range, and on Appendix II in China. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is on the ChinaKey List as category II and the ChinaRed List as Endangered. This species has gained some protection in Myanmarthrough the creation of Khakaborazi National Park, but poaching remains a problem in many areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 73-80 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Skull length 13-5—-14-5 cm. Blackish-brown all over, much darker than any other species, with no neck or throat markings, but very occasionally traces of yellowish spotting on body. The neck may be paler than the body; the throat has no longitudinal lines running down it, but often has two incomplete yellow collars. Underside is dark like the upper side. Rump with ochery tones, but buttocks black. Juvenile is agouti-banded, but the adult hairs are solid-colored except for very short white bases. Hair is long, 32-46 mm on withers, 51-63 mm on rump. Muzzle is short, less than half the length of the skull, but the lacrimal is longer than it is high. Limbs are more elongated than in M. berezouskii, despite the smaller skull. Metacarpal 88-101 mm, metatarsal 126-135 mm, so the hindlimb is even more elongated than in M. berezouskii; the metatarsal length is 152% of the metacarpal, and 96% of skull length, the metacarpal 63% of skull length. The hooves are elongated: 27-29 mm in one specimen (maximum in other speciesis 24 mm). Khumbu region specimens have a slightly paler underside and interramal region than those from Chinaand Myanmar.","habitat":"This speciesis said to live in shady coniferous forest at 2200-4600 m above sea level, extending into the alpine zone."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF058FFCCFDAD1BF5F7A7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFBEF058FFCCFDAD1BF5F7A7","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"347","verbatimText":"4.Kashmir Musk-deerMoschus cupreusFrench:Porte-musc du Cachemire/ German:Kaschmir-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero de CachemiraTaxonomy.Moschus cupreus Grubb, 1982,Kashmir.Initially considered to be a subspecies of the Alpine Musk-deer M. chrysogaster. Monotypic.Distribution.Afghanistan(Nuristan Province) and Kashmir (NE Pakistanand NW India).Descriptive notes.Head—body 85-100 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 12-17 kg. Skull length is 15-15. 5 cm. Gray brown, often vaguely spotted, with a conspicuous coppery reddish unspeckled dorsal “saddle”; rump very dark gray; underside light gray; throat white; lower segments of limbs whitish. Ears dark brown, white at base, with frosted rims. Hairs with long white bases; 33-38 mm long on withers, 37-58 mm on rump. As in Himalayan and Alpine Musk-deer, the lachrymal is longer than it is high.Habitat.Musk-deer of what is probably this species live in conifer and oak forests at 1500-3000 m in Nuristan, Afghanistan. In Pakistan, they are known from subalpine shrub between 3000 mand 4000 min Gilgit-Baltistan; in Dachigam National Park and elsewhere in Kashmir, it lives between 2710 mand 3110 m, and in Pir Panjal Range somewhat lower, between 2530 mand 2650 m.Food and Feeding.Nothing is known about the way oflife ofthis species, but it is not likely to differ greatly from that of M. leucogasterand relatives.Breeding.Nothing known.Activity patterns.No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to stay in more dense cover during the day, and use more open areas at night when they are more active.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Nothing known, but probably similar to M. leucogaster.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Conservation measures are uncertain for this species given its limited range. The value of the musk suggests that conservation will require effective anti-poaching activity. It may occur in some protected areas in Indiaand Pakistan. The Government of Afghanistanhas listed M. cupreuson their Protected Species List, banning all hunting and trading ofthis species in that country.Bibliography.Groves et al. (1995), Grubb (1982).","taxonomy":"Moschus cupreus Grubb, 1982,Kashmir.Initially considered to be a subspecies of the Alpine Musk-deer M. chrysogaster. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Porte-musc du Cachemire @fr | Kaschmir-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero de Cachemira @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Grubb","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1982","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"347","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"cupreus","name":"Moschus cupreus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Afghanistan(Nuristan Province) and Kashmir (NE Pakistanand NW India).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5720531/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Groves et al. (1995) | Grubb (1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Nothing is known about the way oflife ofthis species, but it is not likely to differ greatly from that of M. leucogasterand relatives.","breeding":"Nothing known.","activityPatterns":"No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to stay in more dense cover during the day, and use more open areas at night when they are more active.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Nothing known, but probably similar to M. leucogaster.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Conservation measures are uncertain for this species given its limited range. The value of the musk suggests that conservation will require effective anti-poaching activity. It may occur in some protected areas in Indiaand Pakistan. The Government of Afghanistanhas listed M. cupreuson their Protected Species List, banning all hunting and trading ofthis species in that country.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 85-100 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 12-17 kg. Skull length is 15-15. 5 cm. Gray brown, often vaguely spotted, with a conspicuous coppery reddish unspeckled dorsal “saddle”; rump very dark gray; underside light gray; throat white; lower segments of limbs whitish. Ears dark brown, white at base, with frosted rims. Hairs with long white bases; 33-38 mm long on withers, 37-58 mm on rump. As in Himalayan and Alpine Musk-deer, the lachrymal is longer than it is high.","habitat":"Musk-deer of what is probably this species live in conifer and oak forests at 1500-3000 m in Nuristan, Afghanistan. In Pakistan, they are known from subalpine shrub between 3000 mand 4000 min Gilgit-Baltistan; in Dachigam National Park and elsewhere in Kashmir, it lives between 2710 mand 3110 m, and in Pir Panjal Range somewhat lower, between 2530 mand 2650 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"347","verbatimText":"7.Forest Musk-deerMoschus berezovskiiFrench:Porte-musc de forét/ German:China-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero de bosqueTaxonomy.Moschus berezovskii Flerov, 1929,Ho-tzi-how Pass, near Lungan, Sichuan.Flerov, when he described this species, regarded it as an enigmatic species of apparently restricted distribution in the alpine zone of Sichuan. It was not until the 1960s that it was shown that this is not in fact an alpine zone species at all, but is a forest animal, widespread in the forested areas of south-eastern China. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.b.berezovskiiFlerov,1929—SNingxia,SGansu,SEQuinghai,SShaanxi,WHenan,Sichuan,andSXizang;between500and2500m.M.b.bijiangensisWang&Li,1993—NWYunnantoSEXizang(ZayuCounty).M. b. caobangis Dao, 1969— S Yunnan (Mile County & Nujiang Langcang), Guangxi, Guangdong, and N Vietnam(Cao Bang Province); between 50 mand 400 m. Presence uncertain in N Laos.M. b. yunguiensis Wang & Ma, 1993— from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau margins NE to W Hubei(Yichang).Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-80 cm, tail 3-4 cm, height at shoulder less than 50 cm; weight 6-9 kg. Skull length is 14-15 cm in the nominotypical subspecies, but only 13.2-14. 5 cmin subspecies bijiangensis and yunguiensis, and only 12:5-13-5 mm in caobangis, the smallest of all musk-deer. Hair bases are short, gray-white; the throat has three wide longitudinal stripes, white to orange in color, the lateral pair running from the jaw angles to the brisket. The central stripe is shorter, and all three may sometimes be broken. The haunch is yellower, but the rump is nearly black; the limbs are dark down the front surface. The underside is yellow. The ears are orange at the base, black at the tip, and white inside. The hair is 73-87 mm long on the withers, 45-68 mm on the rump, varying according to season. The facial skeleton is relatively short; the lachrymalis shorter than itis high. The limbs are relatively short: metacarpal length 73-89 mm, metatarsal 103-120 mm. The metatarsal is 135-139% of the metacarpal, so the hindlimb is relatively longer than in most other taxa. The metapodials are relatively short (the metatarsal only 80-81% of the skull length, the metacarpal only 59%) and robust, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal being more than 18% ofits length, of the metatarsal more than 15-5%. M. b. caobangis is very pale in color, limbs dark only from knee and hocks downward, but buttocks and ear tips are black. Hair shorter, 21-30 mm on withers, 38-47 mm on rump. M. b. byiangensis 1s paler than nominotypical M. b. berezouskii, fulvous-brown, with a grayish-white ventral surface; toothrow averaging slightly shorter. M. b. yunguiensis is somewhat smaller than nominotypical M. b. berezouski.Habitat.Lives predominantly in forests with mixed coniferous and broadleaved trees, usually below 3500 m, and often almost at sea level. In pure broadleafforest its population density is lower, and in shrub lowerstill; it goes into bamboo forest, but does not go into grassy areas or the “dwarf bush zone.” It is always found on relatively steep slopes, and does not like slopes under 10°. On northern slopes,it is found in forests between 1700 mand 2100 m, whereas on south-facing slopes,its highest density is in woodlands between 2100 mand 2450 m.Food and Feeding.They feed on twigs, shoots, lichens, moss, grasses, and leaves. Their leaping ability allows them to forage on the lower branches oftrees.Breeding.Dominant females (dominance is calculated by the frequency of one animal supplanting others) give birth from April 25 to May 25, low-ranking femaleslater, from May 15 to June 25. Birthweight is less than in other musk-deer, ranging from 350-558 g. Twinning is extremely high: 137 twin litters and 59 singletons are recorded. Juvenile mortality is high, about 50%, up to age two, but this differs according to the dominance rank of the mother. The survival rate of the offspring of dominant females is 100%; of females of the second rank, 56%; of the third rank, 43%; and of the fourth rank, 25%. In general, 30% of musk-deer survive to age 6, 20% to age 10%, just 10% to age 15.Activity patterns.They are most active between dusk and dawn, but alternately rest and feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization, territoriality, etc., of this species are poorly known. The juvenile sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but after that males predominate until old age. The sex ratio in young adults (2-5-9 years) is 1-77:1, and in older adults (9-14-5 years) 2-8:1, whereas in aged individuals (14-5-20 years)itis 1:2. Young adults, at about 6-8 years of age, are the prime breeders. The mean generation length is 6-5-10 years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. By the early 1990s a decline from earlier levels was noticeable, and there had almost certainly been local extinctions; it remains relatively numerous only in western Sichuanand north-west Yunnan. Population sizes are very difficult to even estimate in musk-deer, but Prof Sheng Helin, from a lifetime’s experience, suggested that in 1992 there would be about 200,000 inthe whole of China, split of course among at least five species, and it is evident that the population continues to decline. In Vietnam, Do Tuoc estimated the population to have been some 200 inthe late 1990s, but here too there has been a decline.Bibliography.Guo Jian et al. (2001), Hu Zhongjun et al. (2007), Wang Yingxiang & Harris (2008), Wang Yingxlang et al. (1993), Wong Yu et al. (2006), Xu Zhenggiang & Xu Hongfa (2002), Yang Qisen, Hu Jinchu & Peng Jitai (1990), Yang Qisen, Meng Xiuxiang et al. (2003),","taxonomy":"Moschus berezovskii Flerov, 1929,Ho-tzi-how Pass, near Lungan, Sichuan.Flerov, when he described this species, regarded it as an enigmatic species of apparently restricted distribution in the alpine zone of Sichuan. It was not until the 1960s that it was shown that this is not in fact an alpine zone species at all, but is a forest animal, widespread in the forested areas of south-eastern China. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Porte-musc de forét @fr | China-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero de bosque @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Flerov","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1929","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"347","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"berezovskii","name":"Moschus berezovskii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.b.berezovskiiFlerov,1929—SNingxia,SGansu,SEQuinghai,SShaanxi,WHenan,Sichuan,andSXizang;between500and2500m.M.b.bijiangensisWang&Li,1993—NWYunnantoSEXizang(ZayuCounty).M. b. caobangis Dao, 1969— S Yunnan (Mile County & Nujiang Langcang), Guangxi, Guangdong, and N Vietnam(Cao Bang Province); between 50 mand 400 m. Presence uncertain in N Laos.M. b. yunguiensis Wang & Ma, 1993— from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau margins NE to W Hubei(Yichang).","bibliography":"Guo Jian et al. (2001) | Hu Zhongjun et al. (2007) | Wang Yingxiang & Harris (2008) | Wang Yingxlang et al. (1993) | Wong Yu et al. (2006) | Xu Zhenggiang & Xu Hongfa (2002) | Yang Qisen, Hu Jinchu & Peng Jitai (1990) | Yang Qisen, Meng Xiuxiang et al. (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"They feed on twigs, shoots, lichens, moss, grasses, and leaves. Their leaping ability allows them to forage on the lower branches oftrees.","breeding":"Dominant females (dominance is calculated by the frequency of one animal supplanting others) give birth from April 25 to May 25, low-ranking femaleslater, from May 15 to June 25. Birthweight is less than in other musk-deer, ranging from 350-558 g. Twinning is extremely high: 137 twin litters and 59 singletons are recorded. Juvenile mortality is high, about 50%, up to age two, but this differs according to the dominance rank of the mother. The survival rate of the offspring of dominant females is 100%; of females of the second rank, 56%; of the third rank, 43%; and of the fourth rank, 25%. In general, 30% of musk-deer survive to age 6, 20% to age 10%, just 10% to age 15.","activityPatterns":"They are most active between dusk and dawn, but alternately rest and feed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The social organization, territoriality, etc., of this species are poorly known. The juvenile sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but after that males predominate until old age. The sex ratio in young adults (2-5-9 years) is 1-77:1, and in older adults (9-14-5 years) 2-8:1, whereas in aged individuals (14-5-20 years)itis 1:2. Young adults, at about 6-8 years of age, are the prime breeders. The mean generation length is 6-5-10 years.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. By the early 1990s a decline from earlier levels was noticeable, and there had almost certainly been local extinctions; it remains relatively numerous only in western Sichuanand north-west Yunnan. Population sizes are very difficult to even estimate in musk-deer, but Prof Sheng Helin, from a lifetime’s experience, suggested that in 1992 there would be about 200,000 inthe whole of China, split of course among at least five species, and it is evident that the population continues to decline. In Vietnam, Do Tuoc estimated the population to have been some 200 inthe late 1990s, but here too there has been a decline.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70-80 cm, tail 3-4 cm, height at shoulder less than 50 cm; weight 6-9 kg. Skull length is 14-15 cm in the nominotypical subspecies, but only 13.2-14. 5 cmin subspecies bijiangensis and yunguiensis, and only 12:5-13-5 mm in caobangis, the smallest of all musk-deer. Hair bases are short, gray-white; the throat has three wide longitudinal stripes, white to orange in color, the lateral pair running from the jaw angles to the brisket. The central stripe is shorter, and all three may sometimes be broken. The haunch is yellower, but the rump is nearly black; the limbs are dark down the front surface. The underside is yellow. The ears are orange at the base, black at the tip, and white inside. The hair is 73-87 mm long on the withers, 45-68 mm on the rump, varying according to season. The facial skeleton is relatively short; the lachrymalis shorter than itis high. The limbs are relatively short: metacarpal length 73-89 mm, metatarsal 103-120 mm. The metatarsal is 135-139% of the metacarpal, so the hindlimb is relatively longer than in most other taxa. The metapodials are relatively short (the metatarsal only 80-81% of the skull length, the metacarpal only 59%) and robust, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal being more than 18% ofits length, of the metatarsal more than 15-5%. M. b. caobangis is very pale in color, limbs dark only from knee and hocks downward, but buttocks and ear tips are black. Hair shorter, 21-30 mm on withers, 38-47 mm on rump. M. b. byiangensis 1s paler than nominotypical M. b. berezouskii, fulvous-brown, with a grayish-white ventral surface; toothrow averaging slightly shorter. M. b. yunguiensis is somewhat smaller than nominotypical M. b. berezouski.","habitat":"Lives predominantly in forests with mixed coniferous and broadleaved trees, usually below 3500 m, and often almost at sea level. In pure broadleafforest its population density is lower, and in shrub lowerstill; it goes into bamboo forest, but does not go into grassy areas or the “dwarf bush zone.” It is always found on relatively steep slopes, and does not like slopes under 10°. On northern slopes,it is found in forests between 1700 mand 2100 m, whereas on south-facing slopes,its highest density is in woodlands between 2100 mand 2450 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/0D/03C90D76FFF8FF98F13CAE6EF88A781C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C90D76FFF8FF98F13CAE6EF88A781C","docName":"hbmw_6_Aplodontiidae_0642.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff0750efff9ff99f15fa822fff9741c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"647","verbatimText":"Mountain BeaverAplodontia rufaFrench:Aplodonte/ German:Stummelschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Castor de montanaOther common names:Boomer, Sewellel; Point Arena Mountain Beaver (nigra), Point Reyes Mountain Beaver (phaea)Taxonomy.Anisonyx? rufa Rafinesque, 1817, “neighborhood of the Columbiariver,” Pacific Northwest, North America.The boundaries of the subspecies were recently revised in a study of the population genetics within the species. In 2013 A. J. Piaggio and colleagues determined that the formerly recognized subspecies rainiert was nested within rufa, but that rufanorth of the Columbia River represents a distinct population from those to the south, resulting in the resurrection of the subspecies olympica. This study also revised the geographic boundaries for the subspecies pacifica. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.r.rufaRafinesque,1817—NWUSA,fromNOregon(justSofColumbiaRiver)tocoastalSOregonandNCalifornia.A.r.californicaPeters,1865—SierraNevadaMtsinECaliforniaandextremeWNevada.A.r.humboldtianaTaylor,1916—HumboldtCounty,coastalNWCalifornia.A.r.nigraTaylor,1914—PointA.r.,MendocinoCounty,coastalNCalifornia.A.r.olympicaMerriam,1899—SWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(WWashington),fromtheFraserRiverStotheColumbiaRiver.A.r.pacificaMerriam,1899—NWcoastofOregonfromthemouthoftheColumbiaRiverStoNewport.A. r. phaea Merriam, 1899— Point Reyes, Marin County, coastal N California.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-430 mm, tail 20-55 mm, ear 13-30 mm, hindfoot 48-63 mm; weight 0.6-1.4 kg. Female Mountain Beavers are ¢.8-10% smaller than males. Pelage is uniformly dark brown, with long guard hairs and short underfur. The Mountain Beaver has a thick, heavily built body with short limbs, long claws (especially on the manus), and small eyes and ears. Head is broad and flat with wide, robust incisors and ever-growing cheekteeth. There are five digits on manus and pes.Habitat.Moist temperate forests and forest openings, especially in secondary growth where undergrowth is tangled and thick. Mountain Beavers are found more frequently in deciduous than coniferous forests. The Mountain Beaver generally constructs its burrow close to water sources, often allowing it to flood parts of the tunnel system.Food and Feeding.The Mountain Beaveris primarily folivorous. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and sword fern (Polystichum munitum) are staples of their diet yearround, but they also eat leaves, bark, and twigs of a variety of other plants as available, apparently specializing in plants toxic to other herbivores. When other food sources are scarce in winter, conifer stems and needles are important sources of food, despite their poor food quality. The Mountain Beaver will pull entire plants underground for consumption, but it will also climb a few metersinto trees to collect and eat stems and leaves. In autumn, hay piles are constructed outside burrow entrances that are used for nesting material and food. The Mountain Beaver also requires abundant water because its inability to concentrate urine limits dehydration tolerance.Breeding.Mountain Beavers breed once a year, in winter, with estrus generally synchronized among females in a population. Young are born in early spring in litters of 2-4 offspring; they are weaned after 6-8 weeks and emerge aboveground soon after weaning. It takes c.2 years to reach adulthood. Life span is estimated at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.The Mountain Beaver, like many fossorial animals, is cathemeral, being active for several bouts of foraging in a 24hour period;it seems to be most active at night. It does not hibernate, although it is rarely active aboveground in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Beavers have small home ranges, with males’ home ranges averaging 0-32 ha and females’ averaging only 0-17 ha. Individuals rarely range far from burrow entrances and spend the majority of their time underground. Even when juveniles disperse from their nests, distance traveled is less than 1 km. The Mountain Beaver is solitary and does not seem to have any social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. At the species level, the Mountain Beaver is oflittle conservation concern; populations on the Pacific Northwest coast and in the Sierra Nevada are quite healthy. The “Point Reyes Mountain Beaver” (phaeassp.) is considered vulnerable by the State of California, given its small distribution and surrounding human development; this vulnerability was challenged in 1995 when a wildfire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned an area of Mountain Beaver habitat. Mortality of Mountain Beavers in the burned area was ¢.99%, and recovery will take an estimated 15-20 years. The “Point Arena Mountain Beaver” (nigrassp.) is listed under the US Endangered Species Act as endangered because habitat loss in the small area it inhabits around Point Arena has led to small population sizes.Bibliography.Camp (1918), Carraway & Verts (1993), Cox & Faulkes (2014), Dice (1932), Druzinsky (2010), Fellers et al. (2004), Furlong (1906), Hooven (1977), Hopkins (2005, 2008), Hubbard (1922), Ingles (1965), Johnson (1970), Lovejoy & Black (1974), Lovejoy et al. (1978), Martin (1971), Maser et al. (1981), Merzenich et al. (1973), Nolte et al. (1993), Nowak (1999a), O'Brien (1988), Piaggio et al. (2013), Rafinesque (1817), Richardson (1829b), Scheffer, TH. (1929), Scheffer, V.B. (1942), Schmidt-Nielsen & Pfeiffer (1970), Servheen (1978), Seton (1929), Sinclair (1904), Voth (1968), Zielinski et al. (2013).","taxonomy":"Anisonyx? rufa Rafinesque, 1817, “neighborhood of the Columbiariver,” Pacific Northwest, North America.The boundaries of the subspecies were recently revised in a study of the population genetics within the species. In 2013 A. J. Piaggio and colleagues determined that the formerly recognized subspecies rainiert was nested within rufa, but that rufanorth of the Columbia River represents a distinct population from those to the south, resulting in the resurrection of the subspecies olympica. This study also revised the geographic boundaries for the subspecies pacifica. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Aplodonte @fr | Stummelschwanzhérnchen @de | Castor de montana @es | Boomer @en | Sewellel; Point Arena Mountain Beaver (nigra) @en | Point Reyes Mountain Beaver (phaea) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aplodontiidae","interpretedGenus":"Aplodontia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"647","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufa","name":"Aplodontia rufa","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.r.rufaRafinesque,1817—NWUSA,fromNOregon(justSofColumbiaRiver)tocoastalSOregonandNCalifornia.A.r.californicaPeters,1865—SierraNevadaMtsinECaliforniaandextremeWNevada.A.r.humboldtianaTaylor,1916—HumboldtCounty,coastalNWCalifornia.A.r.nigraTaylor,1914—PointA.r.,MendocinoCounty,coastalNCalifornia.A.r.olympicaMerriam,1899—SWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(WWashington),fromtheFraserRiverStotheColumbiaRiver.A.r.pacificaMerriam,1899—NWcoastofOregonfromthemouthoftheColumbiaRiverStoNewport.A. r. phaea Merriam, 1899— Point Reyes, Marin County, coastal N California.","bibliography":"Camp (1918) | Carraway & Verts (1993) | Cox & Faulkes (2014) | Dice (1932) | Druzinsky (2010) | Fellers et al. (2004) | Furlong (1906) | Hooven (1977) | Hopkins (2005, 2008) | Hubbard (1922) | Ingles (1965) | Johnson (1970) | Lovejoy & Black (1974) | Lovejoy et al. (1978) | Martin (1971) | Maser et al. (1981) | Merzenich et al. (1973) | Nolte et al. (1993) | Nowak (1999a) | O'Brien (1988) | Piaggio et al. (2013) | Rafinesque (1817) | Richardson (1829b) | Scheffer, TH. (1929) | Scheffer, V.B. (1942) | Schmidt-Nielsen & Pfeiffer (1970) | Servheen (1978) | Seton (1929) | Sinclair (1904) | Voth (1968) | Zielinski et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"The Mountain Beaveris primarily folivorous. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and sword fern (Polystichum munitum) are staples of their diet yearround, but they also eat leaves, bark, and twigs of a variety of other plants as available, apparently specializing in plants toxic to other herbivores. When other food sources are scarce in winter, conifer stems and needles are important sources of food, despite their poor food quality. The Mountain Beaver will pull entire plants underground for consumption, but it will also climb a few metersinto trees to collect and eat stems and leaves. In autumn, hay piles are constructed outside burrow entrances that are used for nesting material and food. The Mountain Beaver also requires abundant water because its inability to concentrate urine limits dehydration tolerance.","breeding":"Mountain Beavers breed once a year, in winter, with estrus generally synchronized among females in a population. Young are born in early spring in litters of 2-4 offspring; they are weaned after 6-8 weeks and emerge aboveground soon after weaning. It takes c.2 years to reach adulthood. Life span is estimated at 5-6 years.","activityPatterns":"The Mountain Beaver, like many fossorial animals, is cathemeral, being active for several bouts of foraging in a 24hour period;it seems to be most active at night. It does not hibernate, although it is rarely active aboveground in winter.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mountain Beavers have small home ranges, with males’ home ranges averaging 0-32 ha and females’ averaging only 0-17 ha. Individuals rarely range far from burrow entrances and spend the majority of their time underground. Even when juveniles disperse from their nests, distance traveled is less than 1 km. The Mountain Beaver is solitary and does not seem to have any social organization.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. At the species level, the Mountain Beaver is oflittle conservation concern; populations on the Pacific Northwest coast and in the Sierra Nevada are quite healthy. The “Point Reyes Mountain Beaver” (phaeassp.) is considered vulnerable by the State of California, given its small distribution and surrounding human development; this vulnerability was challenged in 1995 when a wildfire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned an area of Mountain Beaver habitat. Mortality of Mountain Beavers in the burned area was ¢.99%, and recovery will take an estimated 15-20 years. The “Point Arena Mountain Beaver” (nigrassp.) is listed under the US Endangered Species Act as endangered because habitat loss in the small area it inhabits around Point Arena has led to small population sizes.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 230-430 mm, tail 20-55 mm, ear 13-30 mm, hindfoot 48-63 mm; weight 0.6-1.4 kg. Female Mountain Beavers are ¢.8-10% smaller than males. Pelage is uniformly dark brown, with long guard hairs and short underfur. The Mountain Beaver has a thick, heavily built body with short limbs, long claws (especially on the manus), and small eyes and ears. Head is broad and flat with wide, robust incisors and ever-growing cheekteeth. There are five digits on manus and pes.","habitat":"Moist temperate forests and forest openings, especially in secondary growth where undergrowth is tangled and thick. Mountain Beavers are found more frequently in deciduous than coniferous forests. The Mountain Beaver generally constructs its burrow close to water sources, often allowing it to flood parts of the tunnel system."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C6/E2/03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66","docName":"hbmw_2_Moschidae_0336.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffff9a28ffbaf05cffb1ffc61969ffc9","docISBN":"978-84-96553-77-4","docPageNumber":"347","verbatimText":"7.Forest Musk-deerMoschus berezovskiiFrench:Porte-musc de forét/ German:China-Moschustier/ Spanish:Ciervoalmizclero de bosqueTaxonomy.Moschus berezovskii Flerov, 1929,Ho-tzi-how Pass, near Lungan, Sichuan.Flerov, when he described this species, regarded it as an enigmatic species of apparently restricted distribution in the alpine zone of Sichuan. It was not until the 1960s that it was shown that this is not in fact an alpine zone species at all, but is a forest animal, widespread in the forested areas of south-eastern China. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.b.berezovskiiFlerov,1929—SNingxia,SGansu,SEQuinghai,SShaanxi,WHenan,Sichuan,andSXizang;between500and2500m.M.b.bijiangensisWang&Li,1993—NWYunnantoSEXizang(ZayuCounty).M. b. caobangis Dao, 1969— S Yunnan (Mile County & Nujiang Langcang), Guangxi, Guangdong, and N Vietnam(Cao Bang Province); between 50 mand 400 m. Presence uncertain in N Laos.M. b. yunguiensis Wang & Ma, 1993— from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau margins NE to W Hubei(Yichang).Descriptive notes.Head-body 70-80 cm, tail 3-4 cm, height at shoulder less than 50 cm; weight 6-9 kg. Skull length is 14-15 cm in the nominotypical subspecies, but only 13.2-14. 5 cmin subspecies bijiangensis and yunguiensis, and only 12:5-13-5 mm in caobangis, the smallest of all musk-deer. Hair bases are short, gray-white; the throat has three wide longitudinal stripes, white to orange in color, the lateral pair running from the jaw angles to the brisket. The central stripe is shorter, and all three may sometimes be broken. The haunch is yellower, but the rump is nearly black; the limbs are dark down the front surface. The underside is yellow. The ears are orange at the base, black at the tip, and white inside. The hair is 73-87 mm long on the withers, 45-68 mm on the rump, varying according to season. The facial skeleton is relatively short; the lachrymalis shorter than itis high. The limbs are relatively short: metacarpal length 73-89 mm, metatarsal 103-120 mm. The metatarsal is 135-139% of the metacarpal, so the hindlimb is relatively longer than in most other taxa. The metapodials are relatively short (the metatarsal only 80-81% of the skull length, the metacarpal only 59%) and robust, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal being more than 18% ofits length, of the metatarsal more than 15-5%. M. b. caobangis is very pale in color, limbs dark only from knee and hocks downward, but buttocks and ear tips are black. Hair shorter, 21-30 mm on withers, 38-47 mm on rump. M. b. byiangensis 1s paler than nominotypical M. b. berezouskii, fulvous-brown, with a grayish-white ventral surface; toothrow averaging slightly shorter. M. b. yunguiensis is somewhat smaller than nominotypical M. b. berezouski.Habitat.Lives predominantly in forests with mixed coniferous and broadleaved trees, usually below 3500 m, and often almost at sea level. In pure broadleafforest its population density is lower, and in shrub lowerstill; it goes into bamboo forest, but does not go into grassy areas or the “dwarf bush zone.” It is always found on relatively steep slopes, and does not like slopes under 10°. On northern slopes,it is found in forests between 1700 mand 2100 m, whereas on south-facing slopes,its highest density is in woodlands between 2100 mand 2450 m.Food and Feeding.They feed on twigs, shoots, lichens, moss, grasses, and leaves. Their leaping ability allows them to forage on the lower branches oftrees.Breeding.Dominant females (dominance is calculated by the frequency of one animal supplanting others) give birth from April 25 to May 25, low-ranking femaleslater, from May 15 to June 25. Birthweight is less than in other musk-deer, ranging from 350-558 g. Twinning is extremely high: 137 twin litters and 59 singletons are recorded. Juvenile mortality is high, about 50%, up to age two, but this differs according to the dominance rank of the mother. The survival rate of the offspring of dominant females is 100%; of females of the second rank, 56%; of the third rank, 43%; and of the fourth rank, 25%. In general, 30% of musk-deer survive to age 6, 20% to age 10%, just 10% to age 15.Activity patterns.They are most active between dusk and dawn, but alternately rest and feed.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The social organization, territoriality, etc., of this species are poorly known. The juvenile sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but after that males predominate until old age. The sex ratio in young adults (2-5-9 years) is 1-77:1, and in older adults (9-14-5 years) 2-8:1, whereas in aged individuals (14-5-20 years)itis 1:2. Young adults, at about 6-8 years of age, are the prime breeders. The mean generation length is 6-5-10 years.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. By the early 1990s a decline from earlier levels was noticeable, and there had almost certainly been local extinctions; it remains relatively numerous only in western Sichuanand north-west Yunnan. Population sizes are very difficult to even estimate in musk-deer, but Prof Sheng Helin, from a lifetime’s experience, suggested that in 1992 there would be about 200,000 inthe whole of China, split of course among at least five species, and it is evident that the population continues to decline. In Vietnam, Do Tuoc estimated the population to have been some 200 inthe late 1990s, but here too there has been a decline.Bibliography.Guo Jian et al. (2001), Hu Zhongjun et al. (2007), Wang Yingxiang & Harris (2008), Wang Yingxlang et al. (1993), Wong Yu et al. (2006), Xu Zhenggiang & Xu Hongfa (2002), Yang Qisen, Hu Jinchu & Peng Jitai (1990), Yang Qisen, Meng Xiuxiang et al. (2003),","taxonomy":"Moschus berezovskii Flerov, 1929,Ho-tzi-how Pass, near Lungan, Sichuan.Flerov, when he described this species, regarded it as an enigmatic species of apparently restricted distribution in the alpine zone of Sichuan. It was not until the 1960s that it was shown that this is not in fact an alpine zone species at all, but is a forest animal, widespread in the forested areas of south-eastern China. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Porte-musc de forét @fr | China-Moschustier @de | Ciervoalmizclero de bosque @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Flerov","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1929","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Moschidae","interpretedGenus":"Moschus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Artiodactyla","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"347","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"berezovskii","name":"Moschus berezovskii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.b.berezovskiiFlerov,1929—SNingxia,SGansu,SEQuinghai,SShaanxi,WHenan,Sichuan,andSXizang;between500and2500m.M.b.bijiangensisWang&Li,1993—NWYunnantoSEXizang(ZayuCounty).M. b. caobangis Dao, 1969— S Yunnan (Mile County & Nujiang Langcang), Guangxi, Guangdong, and N Vietnam(Cao Bang Province); between 50 mand 400 m. Presence uncertain in N Laos.M. b. yunguiensis Wang & Ma, 1993— from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau margins NE to W Hubei(Yichang).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5720543/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Guo Jian et al. (2001) | Hu Zhongjun et al. (2007) | Wang Yingxiang & Harris (2008) | Wang Yingxlang et al. (1993) | Wong Yu et al. (2006) | Xu Zhenggiang & Xu Hongfa (2002) | Yang Qisen, Hu Jinchu & Peng Jitai (1990) | Yang Qisen, Meng Xiuxiang et al. (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"They feed on twigs, shoots, lichens, moss, grasses, and leaves. Their leaping ability allows them to forage on the lower branches oftrees.","breeding":"Dominant females (dominance is calculated by the frequency of one animal supplanting others) give birth from April 25 to May 25, low-ranking femaleslater, from May 15 to June 25. Birthweight is less than in other musk-deer, ranging from 350-558 g. Twinning is extremely high: 137 twin litters and 59 singletons are recorded. Juvenile mortality is high, about 50%, up to age two, but this differs according to the dominance rank of the mother. The survival rate of the offspring of dominant females is 100%; of females of the second rank, 56%; of the third rank, 43%; and of the fourth rank, 25%. In general, 30% of musk-deer survive to age 6, 20% to age 10%, just 10% to age 15.","activityPatterns":"They are most active between dusk and dawn, but alternately rest and feed.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The social organization, territoriality, etc., of this species are poorly known. The juvenile sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but after that males predominate until old age. The sex ratio in young adults (2-5-9 years) is 1-77:1, and in older adults (9-14-5 years) 2-8:1, whereas in aged individuals (14-5-20 years)itis 1:2. Young adults, at about 6-8 years of age, are the prime breeders. The mean generation length is 6-5-10 years.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. By the early 1990s a decline from earlier levels was noticeable, and there had almost certainly been local extinctions; it remains relatively numerous only in western Sichuanand north-west Yunnan. Population sizes are very difficult to even estimate in musk-deer, but Prof Sheng Helin, from a lifetime’s experience, suggested that in 1992 there would be about 200,000 inthe whole of China, split of course among at least five species, and it is evident that the population continues to decline. In Vietnam, Do Tuoc estimated the population to have been some 200 inthe late 1990s, but here too there has been a decline.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 70-80 cm, tail 3-4 cm, height at shoulder less than 50 cm; weight 6-9 kg. Skull length is 14-15 cm in the nominotypical subspecies, but only 13.2-14. 5 cmin subspecies bijiangensis and yunguiensis, and only 12:5-13-5 mm in caobangis, the smallest of all musk-deer. Hair bases are short, gray-white; the throat has three wide longitudinal stripes, white to orange in color, the lateral pair running from the jaw angles to the brisket. The central stripe is shorter, and all three may sometimes be broken. The haunch is yellower, but the rump is nearly black; the limbs are dark down the front surface. The underside is yellow. The ears are orange at the base, black at the tip, and white inside. The hair is 73-87 mm long on the withers, 45-68 mm on the rump, varying according to season. The facial skeleton is relatively short; the lachrymalis shorter than itis high. The limbs are relatively short: metacarpal length 73-89 mm, metatarsal 103-120 mm. The metatarsal is 135-139% of the metacarpal, so the hindlimb is relatively longer than in most other taxa. The metapodials are relatively short (the metatarsal only 80-81% of the skull length, the metacarpal only 59%) and robust, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal being more than 18% ofits length, of the metatarsal more than 15-5%. M. b. caobangis is very pale in color, limbs dark only from knee and hocks downward, but buttocks and ear tips are black. Hair shorter, 21-30 mm on withers, 38-47 mm on rump. M. b. byiangensis 1s paler than nominotypical M. b. berezouskii, fulvous-brown, with a grayish-white ventral surface; toothrow averaging slightly shorter. M. b. yunguiensis is somewhat smaller than nominotypical M. b. berezouski.","habitat":"Lives predominantly in forests with mixed coniferous and broadleaved trees, usually below 3500 m, and often almost at sea level. In pure broadleafforest its population density is lower, and in shrub lowerstill; it goes into bamboo forest, but does not go into grassy areas or the “dwarf bush zone.” It is always found on relatively steep slopes, and does not like slopes under 10°. On northern slopes,it is found in forests between 1700 mand 2100 m, whereas on south-facing slopes,its highest density is in woodlands between 2100 mand 2450 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/0D/03C90D76FFF8FF98F13CAE6EF88A781C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C90D76FFF8FF98F13CAE6EF88A781C","docName":"hbmw_6_Aplodontiidae_0642.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff0750efff9ff99f15fa822fff9741c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"647","verbatimText":"Mountain BeaverAplodontia rufaFrench:Aplodonte/ German:Stummelschwanzhérnchen/ Spanish:Castor de montanaOther common names:Boomer, Sewellel; Point Arena Mountain Beaver (nigra), Point Reyes Mountain Beaver (phaea)Taxonomy.Anisonyx? rufa Rafinesque, 1817, “neighborhood of the Columbiariver,” Pacific Northwest, North America.The boundaries of the subspecies were recently revised in a study of the population genetics within the species. In 2013 A. J. Piaggio and colleagues determined that the formerly recognized subspecies rainiert was nested within rufa, but that rufanorth of the Columbia River represents a distinct population from those to the south, resulting in the resurrection of the subspecies olympica. This study also revised the geographic boundaries for the subspecies pacifica. Seven subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.r.rufaRafinesque,1817—NWUSA,fromNOregon(justSofColumbiaRiver)tocoastalSOregonandNCalifornia.A.r.californicaPeters,1865—SierraNevadaMtsinECaliforniaandextremeWNevada.A.r.humboldtianaTaylor,1916—HumboldtCounty,coastalNWCalifornia.A.r.nigraTaylor,1914—PointA.r.,MendocinoCounty,coastalNCalifornia.A.r.olympicaMerriam,1899—SWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(WWashington),fromtheFraserRiverStotheColumbiaRiver.A.r.pacificaMerriam,1899—NWcoastofOregonfromthemouthoftheColumbiaRiverStoNewport.A. r. phaea Merriam, 1899— Point Reyes, Marin County, coastal N California.Descriptive notes.Head-body 230-430 mm, tail 20-55 mm, ear 13-30 mm, hindfoot 48-63 mm; weight 0.6-1.4 kg. Female Mountain Beavers are ¢.8-10% smaller than males. Pelage is uniformly dark brown, with long guard hairs and short underfur. The Mountain Beaver has a thick, heavily built body with short limbs, long claws (especially on the manus), and small eyes and ears. Head is broad and flat with wide, robust incisors and ever-growing cheekteeth. There are five digits on manus and pes.Habitat.Moist temperate forests and forest openings, especially in secondary growth where undergrowth is tangled and thick. Mountain Beavers are found more frequently in deciduous than coniferous forests. The Mountain Beaver generally constructs its burrow close to water sources, often allowing it to flood parts of the tunnel system.Food and Feeding.The Mountain Beaveris primarily folivorous. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and sword fern (Polystichum munitum) are staples of their diet yearround, but they also eat leaves, bark, and twigs of a variety of other plants as available, apparently specializing in plants toxic to other herbivores. When other food sources are scarce in winter, conifer stems and needles are important sources of food, despite their poor food quality. The Mountain Beaver will pull entire plants underground for consumption, but it will also climb a few metersinto trees to collect and eat stems and leaves. In autumn, hay piles are constructed outside burrow entrances that are used for nesting material and food. The Mountain Beaver also requires abundant water because its inability to concentrate urine limits dehydration tolerance.Breeding.Mountain Beavers breed once a year, in winter, with estrus generally synchronized among females in a population. Young are born in early spring in litters of 2-4 offspring; they are weaned after 6-8 weeks and emerge aboveground soon after weaning. It takes c.2 years to reach adulthood. Life span is estimated at 5-6 years.Activity patterns.The Mountain Beaver, like many fossorial animals, is cathemeral, being active for several bouts of foraging in a 24hour period;it seems to be most active at night. It does not hibernate, although it is rarely active aboveground in winter.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Mountain Beavers have small home ranges, with males’ home ranges averaging 0-32 ha and females’ averaging only 0-17 ha. Individuals rarely range far from burrow entrances and spend the majority of their time underground. Even when juveniles disperse from their nests, distance traveled is less than 1 km. The Mountain Beaver is solitary and does not seem to have any social organization.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. At the species level, the Mountain Beaver is oflittle conservation concern; populations on the Pacific Northwest coast and in the Sierra Nevada are quite healthy. The “Point Reyes Mountain Beaver” (phaeassp.) is considered vulnerable by the State of California, given its small distribution and surrounding human development; this vulnerability was challenged in 1995 when a wildfire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned an area of Mountain Beaver habitat. Mortality of Mountain Beavers in the burned area was ¢.99%, and recovery will take an estimated 15-20 years. The “Point Arena Mountain Beaver” (nigrassp.) is listed under the US Endangered Species Act as endangered because habitat loss in the small area it inhabits around Point Arena has led to small population sizes.Bibliography.Camp (1918), Carraway & Verts (1993), Cox & Faulkes (2014), Dice (1932), Druzinsky (2010), Fellers et al. (2004), Furlong (1906), Hooven (1977), Hopkins (2005, 2008), Hubbard (1922), Ingles (1965), Johnson (1970), Lovejoy & Black (1974), Lovejoy et al. (1978), Martin (1971), Maser et al. (1981), Merzenich et al. (1973), Nolte et al. (1993), Nowak (1999a), O'Brien (1988), Piaggio et al. (2013), Rafinesque (1817), Richardson (1829b), Scheffer, TH. (1929), Scheffer, V.B. (1942), Schmidt-Nielsen & Pfeiffer (1970), Servheen (1978), Seton (1929), Sinclair (1904), Voth (1968), Zielinski et al. (2013).","taxonomy":"Anisonyx? rufa Rafinesque, 1817, “neighborhood of the Columbiariver,” Pacific Northwest, North America.The boundaries of the subspecies were recently revised in a study of the population genetics within the species. In 2013 A. J. Piaggio and colleagues determined that the formerly recognized subspecies rainiert was nested within rufa, but that rufanorth of the Columbia River represents a distinct population from those to the south, resulting in the resurrection of the subspecies olympica. This study also revised the geographic boundaries for the subspecies pacifica. Seven subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Aplodonte @fr | Stummelschwanzhérnchen @de | Castor de montana @es | Boomer @en | Sewellel; Point Arena Mountain Beaver (nigra) @en | Point Reyes Mountain Beaver (phaea) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Rafinesque","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1817","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Aplodontiidae","interpretedGenus":"Aplodontia","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Rodentia","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"647","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufa","name":"Aplodontia rufa","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.r.rufaRafinesque,1817—NWUSA,fromNOregon(justSofColumbiaRiver)tocoastalSOregonandNCalifornia.A.r.californicaPeters,1865—SierraNevadaMtsinECaliforniaandextremeWNevada.A.r.humboldtianaTaylor,1916—HumboldtCounty,coastalNWCalifornia.A.r.nigraTaylor,1914—PointA.r.,MendocinoCounty,coastalNCalifornia.A.r.olympicaMerriam,1899—SWCanada(SBritishColumbia)andNWUSA(WWashington),fromtheFraserRiverStotheColumbiaRiver.A.r.pacificaMerriam,1899—NWcoastofOregonfromthemouthoftheColumbiaRiverStoNewport.A. r. phaea Merriam, 1899— Point Reyes, Marin County, coastal N California.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6584475/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Camp (1918) | Carraway & Verts (1993) | Cox & Faulkes (2014) | Dice (1932) | Druzinsky (2010) | Fellers et al. (2004) | Furlong (1906) | Hooven (1977) | Hopkins (2005, 2008) | Hubbard (1922) | Ingles (1965) | Johnson (1970) | Lovejoy & Black (1974) | Lovejoy et al. (1978) | Martin (1971) | Maser et al. (1981) | Merzenich et al. (1973) | Nolte et al. (1993) | Nowak (1999a) | O'Brien (1988) | Piaggio et al. (2013) | Rafinesque (1817) | Richardson (1829b) | Scheffer, TH. (1929) | Scheffer, V.B. (1942) | Schmidt-Nielsen & Pfeiffer (1970) | Servheen (1978) | Seton (1929) | Sinclair (1904) | Voth (1968) | Zielinski et al. (2013)","foodAndFeeding":"The Mountain Beaveris primarily folivorous. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and sword fern (Polystichum munitum) are staples of their diet yearround, but they also eat leaves, bark, and twigs of a variety of other plants as available, apparently specializing in plants toxic to other herbivores. When other food sources are scarce in winter, conifer stems and needles are important sources of food, despite their poor food quality. The Mountain Beaver will pull entire plants underground for consumption, but it will also climb a few metersinto trees to collect and eat stems and leaves. In autumn, hay piles are constructed outside burrow entrances that are used for nesting material and food. The Mountain Beaver also requires abundant water because its inability to concentrate urine limits dehydration tolerance.","breeding":"Mountain Beavers breed once a year, in winter, with estrus generally synchronized among females in a population. Young are born in early spring in litters of 2-4 offspring; they are weaned after 6-8 weeks and emerge aboveground soon after weaning. It takes c.2 years to reach adulthood. Life span is estimated at 5-6 years.","activityPatterns":"The Mountain Beaver, like many fossorial animals, is cathemeral, being active for several bouts of foraging in a 24hour period;it seems to be most active at night. It does not hibernate, although it is rarely active aboveground in winter.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Mountain Beavers have small home ranges, with males’ home ranges averaging 0-32 ha and females’ averaging only 0-17 ha. Individuals rarely range far from burrow entrances and spend the majority of their time underground. Even when juveniles disperse from their nests, distance traveled is less than 1 km. The Mountain Beaver is solitary and does not seem to have any social organization.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. At the species level, the Mountain Beaver is oflittle conservation concern; populations on the Pacific Northwest coast and in the Sierra Nevada are quite healthy. The “Point Reyes Mountain Beaver” (phaeassp.) is considered vulnerable by the State of California, given its small distribution and surrounding human development; this vulnerability was challenged in 1995 when a wildfire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned an area of Mountain Beaver habitat. Mortality of Mountain Beavers in the burned area was ¢.99%, and recovery will take an estimated 15-20 years. The “Point Arena Mountain Beaver” (nigrassp.) is listed under the US Endangered Species Act as endangered because habitat loss in the small area it inhabits around Point Arena has led to small population sizes.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 230-430 mm, tail 20-55 mm, ear 13-30 mm, hindfoot 48-63 mm; weight 0.6-1.4 kg. Female Mountain Beavers are ¢.8-10% smaller than males. Pelage is uniformly dark brown, with long guard hairs and short underfur. The Mountain Beaver has a thick, heavily built body with short limbs, long claws (especially on the manus), and small eyes and ears. Head is broad and flat with wide, robust incisors and ever-growing cheekteeth. There are five digits on manus and pes.","habitat":"Moist temperate forests and forest openings, especially in secondary growth where undergrowth is tangled and thick. Mountain Beavers are found more frequently in deciduous than coniferous forests. The Mountain Beaver generally constructs its burrow close to water sources, often allowing it to flood parts of the tunnel system."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/0D/03C90D76FFF9FF99F023AA36F80E710A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C90D76FFF9FF99F023AA36F80E710A","docName":"hbmw_6_Aplodontiidae_0642.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff0750efff9ff99f15fa822fff9741c","docISBN":"978-84-941892-3-4","docPageNumber":"642","verbatimText":"Family APLODONTIIDAE(MOUNTAIN BEAVER)• Fairly large-sized, burrowing rodent with short limbs and tail, small ears, ever-growing cheekteeth, protrogomorph jaw muscle attachments, and wide flat skull.• 25-50 cm.• Nearctic Region.• • Moist forested temperate habitats from sea level to tim• berline, particularly near streams in second growth, where undergrowth is thick and tangled.•] genus, 1 species, 7 taxa.•• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD1FFB2FD68DC65F8391432.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD1FFB2FD68DC65F8391432","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"391","verbatimText":"4.Western Barred BandicootPerameles bougainuilleFrench:Bandicoot de Bougainville/ German:Streifen-Langnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut listado occidentalOther common names:Barred Bandicoot, Little Marl, Marl, Saddle-backed Bandicoot, Shark Bay Striped Bandicoot, West Australian Striped Bandicoot, Zebra RatTaxonomy.Perameles bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824,“la presqu’ile Péron [= Peron Peninsula], Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia.Extinct form known as the Desert Bandicoot (P. eremiana), previously considered a subspecies of present species, is now accorded separate species status. Two other subspecies described (myosurus and notina), but recent research does not support recognition of these. Race fasciatanamed by J. E. Gray in 1841 (S arid and semi-arid regions from Nullarbor, Western Australia, east to western New South Wales and north-western Victoria) now extinct. One extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. b. bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824— Bernier I and Dorre I, in Shark Bay, Western Australia.Nominate race reintroducedto Heirisson Prong and Faure I (Shark Bay) and to the Arid Recovery Project area in South Australia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 17.3-22.6 cm, tail 8.1-10.6 cm; weight 165-300 g. Females, unusually for peramelids,slightly larger (9-3% heavier) than males. Measurements are for populations on Bernier and Dorre islands; mainland animals (now extinct) were larger. Dorsal fur is gray to fawn-gray, with alternating dark and pale bars running down flanks, while ventralfur, like feet, is white. Ears are long and held erect, and base of tail is sometimes thickened by fat storage. Although similar in appearance to recently extinct Desert Bandicoot, present species has more gray tones in the pelage, a shortertail, and less hairy feet than its desert-dwelling relative.Habitat.On Bernier and Dorre occupies coastal scrub, low heathland and hummockgrass formations, and may also be active on beaches above the strandline. On mainland, this species was found on sandy and stony soils in dense heathland, open shrubland, open woodland, thickets of Allocasuarina(Casuarinaceae), and dense forest vegetation in riparian areas. Nest constructed from grass or other locally sourced materials within deep depression that is dug under cover of dense shrubs; only one opening may be present, but flimsy construction of nest allows animals to burst through at any point if disturbed.Food and Feeding.Insects, other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and occasionally small vertebrates are eaten, shifts between seasons probably reflecting changes in food availability. Like other peramelids,this species obtainsits food on orjust below the ground surface, digging conical holes to 20-25 cm to obtain buried prey.Breeding.Females on Bernier and Dorre carry young in wetter winter months between March and October, with breeding apparently initiated by first substantial rains in autumn. Litter size is 1-3 (average 1-8), larger females carrying largest litters. Females produce at least two litters per breeding season, the newly born young attaching to nipples that have not been recently used; eight nipples are present, arranged in a circular pattern. Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months, with maturity in males delayed by a further month. Recruitment after pouch life into adult population is low (0-16-7%), suggesting that post-weaning mortality rates are high. Reproductive events were probably similar in mainland populations of this bandicoot, although some accounts describelitters of 1-4 young being produced between May and August.Activity patterns.Animals rest by day in their nest and emerge at dusk to begin foraging. Activity continues until dawn in winter, but may cease several hours before daybreak in summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Recaptures of animals made during live-trapping studies on Bernier and Dorre islands show that movements over eleven days averaged 185 m for females and 226 m for males. Overnight movements of more than 1 km also have been recorded, but are exceptional. Home range areas appear to vary with population density: at low density home ranges average 14-2 ha for males and 6-2 ha for females, whereas at high density the respective averages are 2-5 ha and 1-4 ha. There is some evidence that home ranges of males overlap more than do those of females. It is not certain how animals maintain their home ranges but, as with most peramelids, individuals nest and forage separately, and fight vigorously if placed in confinement with each other. Longevity of more than four years has been recorded in island populations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Mainland race fasciata, once widespread across S Australia, is extinct. Nominate bougainvilleis restricted to a small fraction ofits former range, which included Dirk Hartog and Faure islands, and extended widely through southern, central, and north-western arid areas of Western Australia. Current population probably fewer than 10,000 mature individuals: combined total of perhaps c.5000 on Bernier and Dorre islands, where considered abundant and numbers appear to be stable; reintroduced populations include minimum of 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, more than 20 on Faure, and c.40 in Arid Recovery. Declines were probably driven by several interacting processes, including loss and conversion of habitat for agricultural or pastoral usage, changed fire regimes, disease, competition with feral herbivores and, perhaps most importantly, predation by feral cats (Felis catus) and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Despite its gloomy status, the very few sites that now support this bandicoot are protected from predators (three sites in Western Australia are offshore islands; the site in South Australia is a predator-free reserve). All sites are regularly monitored and managed and, in consequence, numbers have increased. Plans are being made to remove the feral cat from several islands off the coast of Western Australia, and this would allow further translocations to take place. Present island populations are not necessarily problemfree. On Bernier, for example, an unknown virus has emerged that causes sometimes fatal carcinomas and papillomas, and genetic diversity is likely to be low. Nonetheless, increases in population size and recognition that this peramelid is not subject to extreme fluctuations in population size have led to recent proposals that the species be more correctly listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Abbott (2006), Ashby et al. (1990), Burbidge et al. (1988), Dickman, Pressey et al. (1993), Finlayson (1961a), Freedman (1967), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gray (1841), Groves (2005c), Kemper (1990), Legge et al. (2012), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Moseby et al. (2011), Richards (2012b), Short, Richards & Turner (1998), Short, Turner et al. (1997), Smith & Hughes (2008), Westerman & Krajewski (2000), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014i, 2014), Woolford et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Perameles bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824,“la presqu’ile Péron [= Peron Peninsula], Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia.Extinct form known as the Desert Bandicoot (P. eremiana), previously considered a subspecies of present species, is now accorded separate species status. Two other subspecies described (myosurus and notina), but recent research does not support recognition of these. Race fasciatanamed by J. E. Gray in 1841 (S arid and semi-arid regions from Nullarbor, Western Australia, east to western New South Wales and north-western Victoria) now extinct. One extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot de Bougainville @fr | Streifen-Langnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut listado occidental @es | Barred Bandicoot @en | Little Marl @en | Marl @en | Saddle-backed Bandicoot @en | Shark Bay Striped Bandicoot @en | West Australian Striped Bandicoot @en | Zebra Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Quoy & Gaimard, 1824","interpretedAuthorityName":"Quoy & Gaimard","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1824","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Perameles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"391","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bougainville","name":"Perameles bougainuille","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. b. bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824— Bernier I and Dorre I, in Shark Bay, Western Australia.Nominate race reintroducedto Heirisson Prong and Faure I (Shark Bay) and to the Arid Recovery Project area in South Australia.","bibliography":"Abbott (2006) | Ashby et al. (1990) | Burbidge et al. (1988) | Dickman, Pressey et al. (1993) | Finlayson (1961a) | Freedman (1967) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gray (1841) | Groves (2005c) | Kemper (1990) | Legge et al. (2012) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Moseby et al. (2011) | Richards (2012b) | Short, Richards & Turner (1998) | Short, Turner et al. (1997) | Smith & Hughes (2008) | Westerman & Krajewski (2000) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014i, 2014) | Woolford et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Insects, other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and occasionally small vertebrates are eaten, shifts between seasons probably reflecting changes in food availability. Like other peramelids,this species obtainsits food on orjust below the ground surface, digging conical holes to 20-25 cm to obtain buried prey.","breeding":"Females on Bernier and Dorre carry young in wetter winter months between March and October, with breeding apparently initiated by first substantial rains in autumn. Litter size is 1-3 (average 1-8), larger females carrying largest litters. Females produce at least two litters per breeding season, the newly born young attaching to nipples that have not been recently used; eight nipples are present, arranged in a circular pattern. Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months, with maturity in males delayed by a further month. Recruitment after pouch life into adult population is low (0-16-7%), suggesting that post-weaning mortality rates are high. Reproductive events were probably similar in mainland populations of this bandicoot, although some accounts describelitters of 1-4 young being produced between May and August.","activityPatterns":"Animals rest by day in their nest and emerge at dusk to begin foraging. Activity continues until dawn in winter, but may cease several hours before daybreak in summer.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Recaptures of animals made during live-trapping studies on Bernier and Dorre islands show that movements over eleven days averaged 185 m for females and 226 m for males. Overnight movements of more than 1 km also have been recorded, but are exceptional. Home range areas appear to vary with population density: at low density home ranges average 14-2 ha for males and 6-2 ha for females, whereas at high density the respective averages are 2-5 ha and 1-4 ha. There is some evidence that home ranges of males overlap more than do those of females. It is not certain how animals maintain their home ranges but, as with most peramelids, individuals nest and forage separately, and fight vigorously if placed in confinement with each other. Longevity of more than four years has been recorded in island populations.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Mainland race fasciata, once widespread across S Australia, is extinct. Nominate bougainvilleis restricted to a small fraction ofits former range, which included Dirk Hartog and Faure islands, and extended widely through southern, central, and north-western arid areas of Western Australia. Current population probably fewer than 10,000 mature individuals: combined total of perhaps c.5000 on Bernier and Dorre islands, where considered abundant and numbers appear to be stable; reintroduced populations include minimum of 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, more than 20 on Faure, and c.40 in Arid Recovery. Declines were probably driven by several interacting processes, including loss and conversion of habitat for agricultural or pastoral usage, changed fire regimes, disease, competition with feral herbivores and, perhaps most importantly, predation by feral cats (Felis catus) and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Despite its gloomy status, the very few sites that now support this bandicoot are protected from predators (three sites in Western Australia are offshore islands; the site in South Australia is a predator-free reserve). All sites are regularly monitored and managed and, in consequence, numbers have increased. Plans are being made to remove the feral cat from several islands off the coast of Western Australia, and this would allow further translocations to take place. Present island populations are not necessarily problemfree. On Bernier, for example, an unknown virus has emerged that causes sometimes fatal carcinomas and papillomas, and genetic diversity is likely to be low. Nonetheless, increases in population size and recognition that this peramelid is not subject to extreme fluctuations in population size have led to recent proposals that the species be more correctly listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 17.3-22.6 cm, tail 8.1-10.6 cm; weight 165-300 g. Females, unusually for peramelids,slightly larger (9-3% heavier) than males. Measurements are for populations on Bernier and Dorre islands; mainland animals (now extinct) were larger. Dorsal fur is gray to fawn-gray, with alternating dark and pale bars running down flanks, while ventralfur, like feet, is white. Ears are long and held erect, and base of tail is sometimes thickened by fat storage. Although similar in appearance to recently extinct Desert Bandicoot, present species has more gray tones in the pelage, a shortertail, and less hairy feet than its desert-dwelling relative.","habitat":"On Bernier and Dorre occupies coastal scrub, low heathland and hummockgrass formations, and may also be active on beaches above the strandline. On mainland, this species was found on sandy and stony soils in dense heathland, open shrubland, open woodland, thickets of Allocasuarina(Casuarinaceae), and dense forest vegetation in riparian areas. Nest constructed from grass or other locally sourced materials within deep depression that is dug under cover of dense shrubs; only one opening may be present, but flimsy construction of nest allows animals to burst through at any point if disturbed."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD1FFB2FD68DC65F8391432.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD1FFB2FD68DC65F8391432","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"391","verbatimText":"4.Western Barred BandicootPerameles bougainuilleFrench:Bandicoot de Bougainville/ German:Streifen-Langnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut listado occidentalOther common names:Barred Bandicoot, Little Marl, Marl, Saddle-backed Bandicoot, Shark Bay Striped Bandicoot, West Australian Striped Bandicoot, Zebra RatTaxonomy.Perameles bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824,“la presqu’ile Péron [= Peron Peninsula], Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia.Extinct form known as the Desert Bandicoot (P. eremiana), previously considered a subspecies of present species, is now accorded separate species status. Two other subspecies described (myosurus and notina), but recent research does not support recognition of these. Race fasciatanamed by J. E. Gray in 1841 (S arid and semi-arid regions from Nullarbor, Western Australia, east to western New South Wales and north-western Victoria) now extinct. One extant subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P. b. bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824— Bernier I and Dorre I, in Shark Bay, Western Australia.Nominate race reintroducedto Heirisson Prong and Faure I (Shark Bay) and to the Arid Recovery Project area in South Australia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 17.3-22.6 cm, tail 8.1-10.6 cm; weight 165-300 g. Females, unusually for peramelids,slightly larger (9-3% heavier) than males. Measurements are for populations on Bernier and Dorre islands; mainland animals (now extinct) were larger. Dorsal fur is gray to fawn-gray, with alternating dark and pale bars running down flanks, while ventralfur, like feet, is white. Ears are long and held erect, and base of tail is sometimes thickened by fat storage. Although similar in appearance to recently extinct Desert Bandicoot, present species has more gray tones in the pelage, a shortertail, and less hairy feet than its desert-dwelling relative.Habitat.On Bernier and Dorre occupies coastal scrub, low heathland and hummockgrass formations, and may also be active on beaches above the strandline. On mainland, this species was found on sandy and stony soils in dense heathland, open shrubland, open woodland, thickets of Allocasuarina(Casuarinaceae), and dense forest vegetation in riparian areas. Nest constructed from grass or other locally sourced materials within deep depression that is dug under cover of dense shrubs; only one opening may be present, but flimsy construction of nest allows animals to burst through at any point if disturbed.Food and Feeding.Insects, other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and occasionally small vertebrates are eaten, shifts between seasons probably reflecting changes in food availability. Like other peramelids,this species obtainsits food on orjust below the ground surface, digging conical holes to 20-25 cm to obtain buried prey.Breeding.Females on Bernier and Dorre carry young in wetter winter months between March and October, with breeding apparently initiated by first substantial rains in autumn. Litter size is 1-3 (average 1-8), larger females carrying largest litters. Females produce at least two litters per breeding season, the newly born young attaching to nipples that have not been recently used; eight nipples are present, arranged in a circular pattern. Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months, with maturity in males delayed by a further month. Recruitment after pouch life into adult population is low (0-16-7%), suggesting that post-weaning mortality rates are high. Reproductive events were probably similar in mainland populations of this bandicoot, although some accounts describelitters of 1-4 young being produced between May and August.Activity patterns.Animals rest by day in their nest and emerge at dusk to begin foraging. Activity continues until dawn in winter, but may cease several hours before daybreak in summer.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Recaptures of animals made during live-trapping studies on Bernier and Dorre islands show that movements over eleven days averaged 185 m for females and 226 m for males. Overnight movements of more than 1 km also have been recorded, but are exceptional. Home range areas appear to vary with population density: at low density home ranges average 14-2 ha for males and 6-2 ha for females, whereas at high density the respective averages are 2-5 ha and 1-4 ha. There is some evidence that home ranges of males overlap more than do those of females. It is not certain how animals maintain their home ranges but, as with most peramelids, individuals nest and forage separately, and fight vigorously if placed in confinement with each other. Longevity of more than four years has been recorded in island populations.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Mainland race fasciata, once widespread across S Australia, is extinct. Nominate bougainvilleis restricted to a small fraction ofits former range, which included Dirk Hartog and Faure islands, and extended widely through southern, central, and north-western arid areas of Western Australia. Current population probably fewer than 10,000 mature individuals: combined total of perhaps c.5000 on Bernier and Dorre islands, where considered abundant and numbers appear to be stable; reintroduced populations include minimum of 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, more than 20 on Faure, and c.40 in Arid Recovery. Declines were probably driven by several interacting processes, including loss and conversion of habitat for agricultural or pastoral usage, changed fire regimes, disease, competition with feral herbivores and, perhaps most importantly, predation by feral cats (Felis catus) and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Despite its gloomy status, the very few sites that now support this bandicoot are protected from predators (three sites in Western Australia are offshore islands; the site in South Australia is a predator-free reserve). All sites are regularly monitored and managed and, in consequence, numbers have increased. Plans are being made to remove the feral cat from several islands off the coast of Western Australia, and this would allow further translocations to take place. Present island populations are not necessarily problemfree. On Bernier, for example, an unknown virus has emerged that causes sometimes fatal carcinomas and papillomas, and genetic diversity is likely to be low. Nonetheless, increases in population size and recognition that this peramelid is not subject to extreme fluctuations in population size have led to recent proposals that the species be more correctly listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.Bibliography.Abbott (2006), Ashby et al. (1990), Burbidge et al. (1988), Dickman, Pressey et al. (1993), Finlayson (1961a), Freedman (1967), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gray (1841), Groves (2005c), Kemper (1990), Legge et al. (2012), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Moseby et al. (2011), Richards (2012b), Short, Richards & Turner (1998), Short, Turner et al. (1997), Smith & Hughes (2008), Westerman & Krajewski (2000), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014i, 2014), Woolford et al. (2007).","taxonomy":"Perameles bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824,“la presqu’ile Péron [= Peron Peninsula], Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia.Extinct form known as the Desert Bandicoot (P. eremiana), previously considered a subspecies of present species, is now accorded separate species status. Two other subspecies described (myosurus and notina), but recent research does not support recognition of these. Race fasciatanamed by J. E. Gray in 1841 (S arid and semi-arid regions from Nullarbor, Western Australia, east to western New South Wales and north-western Victoria) now extinct. One extant subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot de Bougainville @fr | Streifen-Langnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut listado occidental @es | Barred Bandicoot @en | Little Marl @en | Marl @en | Saddle-backed Bandicoot @en | Shark Bay Striped Bandicoot @en | West Australian Striped Bandicoot @en | Zebra Rat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Quoy & Gaimard, 1824","interpretedAuthorityName":"Quoy & Gaimard","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1824","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Perameles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"391","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"bougainville","name":"Perameles bougainuille","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P. b. bougainville Quoy & Gaimard, 1824— Bernier I and Dorre I, in Shark Bay, Western Australia.Nominate race reintroducedto Heirisson Prong and Faure I (Shark Bay) and to the Arid Recovery Project area in South Australia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621754/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Abbott (2006) | Ashby et al. (1990) | Burbidge et al. (1988) | Dickman, Pressey et al. (1993) | Finlayson (1961a) | Freedman (1967) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gray (1841) | Groves (2005c) | Kemper (1990) | Legge et al. (2012) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Moseby et al. (2011) | Richards (2012b) | Short, Richards & Turner (1998) | Short, Turner et al. (1997) | Smith & Hughes (2008) | Westerman & Krajewski (2000) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014i, 2014) | Woolford et al. (2007)","foodAndFeeding":"Insects, other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and occasionally small vertebrates are eaten, shifts between seasons probably reflecting changes in food availability. Like other peramelids,this species obtainsits food on orjust below the ground surface, digging conical holes to 20-25 cm to obtain buried prey.","breeding":"Females on Bernier and Dorre carry young in wetter winter months between March and October, with breeding apparently initiated by first substantial rains in autumn. Litter size is 1-3 (average 1-8), larger females carrying largest litters. Females produce at least two litters per breeding season, the newly born young attaching to nipples that have not been recently used; eight nipples are present, arranged in a circular pattern. Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months, with maturity in males delayed by a further month. Recruitment after pouch life into adult population is low (0-16-7%), suggesting that post-weaning mortality rates are high. Reproductive events were probably similar in mainland populations of this bandicoot, although some accounts describelitters of 1-4 young being produced between May and August.","activityPatterns":"Animals rest by day in their nest and emerge at dusk to begin foraging. Activity continues until dawn in winter, but may cease several hours before daybreak in summer.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Recaptures of animals made during live-trapping studies on Bernier and Dorre islands show that movements over eleven days averaged 185 m for females and 226 m for males. Overnight movements of more than 1 km also have been recorded, but are exceptional. Home range areas appear to vary with population density: at low density home ranges average 14-2 ha for males and 6-2 ha for females, whereas at high density the respective averages are 2-5 ha and 1-4 ha. There is some evidence that home ranges of males overlap more than do those of females. It is not certain how animals maintain their home ranges but, as with most peramelids, individuals nest and forage separately, and fight vigorously if placed in confinement with each other. Longevity of more than four years has been recorded in island populations.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Mainland race fasciata, once widespread across S Australia, is extinct. Nominate bougainvilleis restricted to a small fraction ofits former range, which included Dirk Hartog and Faure islands, and extended widely through southern, central, and north-western arid areas of Western Australia. Current population probably fewer than 10,000 mature individuals: combined total of perhaps c.5000 on Bernier and Dorre islands, where considered abundant and numbers appear to be stable; reintroduced populations include minimum of 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, more than 20 on Faure, and c.40 in Arid Recovery. Declines were probably driven by several interacting processes, including loss and conversion of habitat for agricultural or pastoral usage, changed fire regimes, disease, competition with feral herbivores and, perhaps most importantly, predation by feral cats (Felis catus) and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Despite its gloomy status, the very few sites that now support this bandicoot are protected from predators (three sites in Western Australia are offshore islands; the site in South Australia is a predator-free reserve). All sites are regularly monitored and managed and, in consequence, numbers have increased. Plans are being made to remove the feral cat from several islands off the coast of Western Australia, and this would allow further translocations to take place. Present island populations are not necessarily problemfree. On Bernier, for example, an unknown virus has emerged that causes sometimes fatal carcinomas and papillomas, and genetic diversity is likely to be low. Nonetheless, increases in population size and recognition that this peramelid is not subject to extreme fluctuations in population size have led to recent proposals that the species be more correctly listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 17.3-22.6 cm, tail 8.1-10.6 cm; weight 165-300 g. Females, unusually for peramelids,slightly larger (9-3% heavier) than males. Measurements are for populations on Bernier and Dorre islands; mainland animals (now extinct) were larger. Dorsal fur is gray to fawn-gray, with alternating dark and pale bars running down flanks, while ventralfur, like feet, is white. Ears are long and held erect, and base of tail is sometimes thickened by fat storage. Although similar in appearance to recently extinct Desert Bandicoot, present species has more gray tones in the pelage, a shortertail, and less hairy feet than its desert-dwelling relative.","habitat":"On Bernier and Dorre occupies coastal scrub, low heathland and hummockgrass formations, and may also be active on beaches above the strandline. On mainland, this species was found on sandy and stony soils in dense heathland, open shrubland, open woodland, thickets of Allocasuarina(Casuarinaceae), and dense forest vegetation in riparian areas. Nest constructed from grass or other locally sourced materials within deep depression that is dug under cover of dense shrubs; only one opening may be present, but flimsy construction of nest allows animals to burst through at any point if disturbed."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD1FFB3F86ADAD3FC481A62.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD1FFB3F86ADAD3FC481A62","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"391","verbatimText":"5.Eastern Barred BandicootPerameles gunnFrench:Bandicoot de Gunn/ German:Tasmanien-Langnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut listado orientalOther common names:Gunn's Bandicoot, Tasmanian Barred BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles gunnii Gray, 1838,“ Van Diemen’s Land[= Tasmania],” Australia.There is considerable debate over whether mainland and Tasmanian populations of this species should each be accorded subspecific status. Early work reported minor morphological differences between the two forms, but some authors have considered these too small to warrant subspecific distinction. Genetic differences and additional separation based on analysis of nDNA and mtDNA, however, suggest that subspecific recognition is warranted. Since original description was based on Tasmanian specimens, the mainland Australian population requires formal description and naming. Currently treated as monotypic.Distribution.N & E Tasmania including Bruny I; persists also (very small numbers) in extreme SE Australia (S Victoria).Descriptive notes.Head-body 27-35 cm,tail 7-11 cm; weight 0.5-1.1 kg (Victoria), 0.5-1.4 kg (Tasmania). Adult males weigh at least 10% more than adult females. Dorsal fur is a grizzled fawnish brown to gray above, with 3-4 conspicuous and highly distinctive pale bars running from mid-flank region to rump. Ventral fur is light slate-gray, feet and upper surface oftail white, and ears are long and held erect.Habitat.Prefers open grassland habitats that also provide some access to denser cover for shelter. In Victoria, it inhabited perennial tussock grassland mixed with areas of savanna woodland and, until recently, could be found in semi-natural situations such as golf courses, gardens, parks, and farmland near urban settlement. In Tasmania, this bandicoot occurs in native and exotic grasslands, woodland, and open forest with a grassy understory, and also in farmland and cultivated cropland. Nest is lined and constructed from grass and other debris in depression on ground surface or under cover of shrubs.Food and Feeding.Some food is taken from the ground surface, including seeds, fallen fruits, insects, and small vertebrates, and some is excavated. Animals use their strong and stoutly clawed forefeet to dig conical holes to depths of 15-20 cm, uncovering earthworms, larvae, bulbs, tubers, roots, and subterranean fungi. Diet changes seasonally, reflecting shifts in the availability of different foods throughoutthe year.Breeding.Reproductive activity usually begins in winter and continues to early summer, presumably when food resources are most readily available, but in Victoria some females have been recorded breeding year-round. Females carry litters of 1-5 young (2-3 more usual), with larger litters usually produced in spring rather than at other times. Eight nipples are present, young in successive litters within a season attaching to nipples that have regressed in size from previous use. Gestation is just 12-5 days; young leave the pouch at 48-53 days, and are weaned at c.60 days. Females may mate while lactating and give birth to a furtherlitter just after weaning the preceding one, thus allowing 2-3 litters to be produced within a season. Sexual maturity is achieved by females at ¢.3 months and by males at 4-5 months, and some animals may breed in the season oftheir birth. Despite the high reproductive rate and production of 10-12 young peryear, usually few young (10-15%) are recruited into adult population owing to high rates of mortality after pouch-exit and weaning.Activity patterns.This bandicootis strictly nocturnal. Individuals emerge at dusk or after dark and exhibit several peaks of activity during the night. Most time is spent in foraging, but males probably spend relatively more time than females in patrolling their home ranges. Animals return to their nests before dawn.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like most other peramelids, this species is solitary except for brief periods of courtship and mating and when females have dependent young. Home ranges of males are usually large, averaging 13-20 ha in Victoria and ¢.26 ha in Tasmania, and encompass those of several females. In contrast, female ranges average 2-5-4 ha. There is some overlap in the ranges occupied by each sex, but core areas are usually discrete and separate. It is not clear how individuals maintain the integrity of their range boundaries, but direct aggression may play a role. Population densities of ¢.2 ind/ha have been reported in Victoria and 0-3-2-4 ind/ha in Tasmania, although densities in Tasmania may rise to 8:5 ind/ha in optimal habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Exhibits a decreasing population trend. Historically, this species occurred from southeastern South Australia east to Melbourne area of Victoria, but in this region it now persists, in very small numbers, only in southern Victoria. It is known also from subfossil material from Flinders and Hunter islands, in Bass Strait, but no longer occurs there. In Tasmania, it has declined to low numbers in the Midlands region in recent decades, and its distributional strongholds now are in south-eastern and north-western Tasmania. It occurs also on Bruny Island and has been introduced to Maria Island. Declines in the Midlands were driven by loss of habitat and the intensification of agricultural and pastoral activity, and probably also by increased predation pressure that arose from predators switching their focus from the European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) to the Eastern Barred Bandicoot after rabbit-control began, in 1950s. There is also concern that, as populations of the native Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) continue to crash following the spread of a contagious facial tumor disease, numbers of feral cats (Felis catus) are increasing and placing bandicoots and other native animals under great stress. Introduction of the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) to Tasmania, in what was probably a deliberate act of “bioterrorism” in late 1990s, will, if this carnivore becomes established, act further to drive populations of present species to very low levels. In Victoria, this peramelid occupied a shrinking range for much of 20\" century before the last known wild population was extirpated, in 2002. Many factors have been attributed to the decline, including loss of habitat for agriculture or development, habitat degradation due to livestock and introduced feral herbivores such as the European Rabbit, deliberate persecution from landholders, inadvertent poisoning through pesticides and herbicides, diseases such as toxoplasmosis, and predation by introduced carnivores. Predation appears to have been the prime cause of its final expiration in the wild in mainland Australia. Fortunately, however, before it was lost altogether, a few individuals were removed from the wild for breeding in captivity, and these have provided the founders for subsequent reintroduction attempts. The Victorian form now persists in three sites where it is protected from predation: Mount Rothwell Biodiversity Interpretation Centre, Hamilton Community Parklands, and Woodlands Historic Park. It has been reintroduced to a furtherfive sites but, after initial breeding successes, combinations of drought and predation from feral cat and, especially, Red Fox drove these populations to extinction. In 2012, the bandicoot was introduced to French Island, the largest island in Victoria (170 km?), in a pilot trial. Males were sterilized and animals retrapped at the conclusion of the trial; a decision about a broader-scale release is yet to be made. French Island has suitable habitat for this peramelid and has the major advantage that it is fox-free. Recovery efforts in Victoria have been intensive for more than 25 years, and involve many dedicated individuals and organizations. As a result, the mainland form is likely to be kept in existence for the foreseeable future, albeit in wildlife parks, zoological gardens, and predator-free compounds. Until the scourge of the cat and the Red Fox can be overcome, large wild populations are very unlikely to be seen again. The Near Threatened classification for this species on The [UCN Red List was made in 2008. It is unlikely to receive such a sanguine assessment when it is reviewed again in future.Bibliography.Bryant & Jackson (1999), Dickman (2012), Driessen et al. (1996), Dufty (1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1995), Freedman (1967), Freedman & Joffe (1967), Green (2007), Heinsohn (1966), Hill et al. (2010), Hocking (1990), Kemper (1990), Lyne (1951), Mallick, Driessen & Hocking (1997 2000), Mallick, Haseler et al. (1997), Mallick, Hocking & Driessen (1997, 1998), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Obendorf & Munday (1990), Opie et al. (1990), Reimer & Hindell (1996), Robinson et al. (1993), Seebeck (1979, 2001), Sherwin & Brown (1990), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Watson & Halley (2000), Westerman & Krajewski (2000), Westerman etal. (2012), Winnard & Coulson (2008), Woinarski et al. (2014k, 20141, 2014m).","taxonomy":"Perameles gunnii Gray, 1838,“ Van Diemen’s Land[= Tasmania],” Australia.There is considerable debate over whether mainland and Tasmanian populations of this species should each be accorded subspecific status. Early work reported minor morphological differences between the two forms, but some authors have considered these too small to warrant subspecific distinction. Genetic differences and additional separation based on analysis of nDNA and mtDNA, however, suggest that subspecific recognition is warranted. Since original description was based on Tasmanian specimens, the mainland Australian population requires formal description and naming. Currently treated as monotypic.","commonNames":"Bandicoot de Gunn @fr | Tasmanien-Langnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut listado oriental @es | Gunn's Bandicoot @en | Tasmanian Barred Bandicoot @en","interpretedAuthority":"Gray, 1838","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gray","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1838","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Perameles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"391","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gunnii","name":"Perameles gunn","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N & E Tasmania including Bruny I; persists also (very small numbers) in extreme SE Australia (S Victoria).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621756/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bryant & Jackson (1999) | Dickman (2012) | Driessen et al. (1996) | Dufty (1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1995) | Freedman (1967) | Freedman & Joffe (1967) | Green (2007) | Heinsohn (1966) | Hill et al. (2010) | Hocking (1990) | Kemper (1990) | Lyne (1951) | Mallick, Driessen & Hocking (1997 2000) | Mallick, Haseler et al. (1997) | Mallick, Hocking & Driessen (1997, 1998) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Obendorf & Munday (1990) | Opie et al. (1990) | Reimer & Hindell (1996) | Robinson et al. (1993) | Seebeck (1979, 2001) | Sherwin & Brown (1990) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Watson & Halley (2000) | Westerman & Krajewski (2000) | Westerman etal. (2012) | Winnard & Coulson (2008) | Woinarski et al. (2014k, 20141, 2014m)","foodAndFeeding":"Some food is taken from the ground surface, including seeds, fallen fruits, insects, and small vertebrates, and some is excavated. Animals use their strong and stoutly clawed forefeet to dig conical holes to depths of 15-20 cm, uncovering earthworms, larvae, bulbs, tubers, roots, and subterranean fungi. Diet changes seasonally, reflecting shifts in the availability of different foods throughoutthe year.","breeding":"Reproductive activity usually begins in winter and continues to early summer, presumably when food resources are most readily available, but in Victoria some females have been recorded breeding year-round. Females carry litters of 1-5 young (2-3 more usual), with larger litters usually produced in spring rather than at other times. Eight nipples are present, young in successive litters within a season attaching to nipples that have regressed in size from previous use. Gestation is just 12-5 days; young leave the pouch at 48-53 days, and are weaned at c.60 days. Females may mate while lactating and give birth to a furtherlitter just after weaning the preceding one, thus allowing 2-3 litters to be produced within a season. Sexual maturity is achieved by females at ¢.3 months and by males at 4-5 months, and some animals may breed in the season oftheir birth. Despite the high reproductive rate and production of 10-12 young peryear, usually few young (10-15%) are recruited into adult population owing to high rates of mortality after pouch-exit and weaning.","activityPatterns":"This bandicootis strictly nocturnal. Individuals emerge at dusk or after dark and exhibit several peaks of activity during the night. Most time is spent in foraging, but males probably spend relatively more time than females in patrolling their home ranges. Animals return to their nests before dawn.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like most other peramelids, this species is solitary except for brief periods of courtship and mating and when females have dependent young. Home ranges of males are usually large, averaging 13-20 ha in Victoria and ¢.26 ha in Tasmania, and encompass those of several females. In contrast, female ranges average 2-5-4 ha. There is some overlap in the ranges occupied by each sex, but core areas are usually discrete and separate. It is not clear how individuals maintain the integrity of their range boundaries, but direct aggression may play a role. Population densities of ¢.2 ind/ha have been reported in Victoria and 0-3-2-4 ind/ha in Tasmania, although densities in Tasmania may rise to 8:5 ind/ha in optimal habitat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Exhibits a decreasing population trend. Historically, this species occurred from southeastern South Australia east to Melbourne area of Victoria, but in this region it now persists, in very small numbers, only in southern Victoria. It is known also from subfossil material from Flinders and Hunter islands, in Bass Strait, but no longer occurs there. In Tasmania, it has declined to low numbers in the Midlands region in recent decades, and its distributional strongholds now are in south-eastern and north-western Tasmania. It occurs also on Bruny Island and has been introduced to Maria Island. Declines in the Midlands were driven by loss of habitat and the intensification of agricultural and pastoral activity, and probably also by increased predation pressure that arose from predators switching their focus from the European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) to the Eastern Barred Bandicoot after rabbit-control began, in 1950s. There is also concern that, as populations of the native Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) continue to crash following the spread of a contagious facial tumor disease, numbers of feral cats (Felis catus) are increasing and placing bandicoots and other native animals under great stress. Introduction of the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) to Tasmania, in what was probably a deliberate act of “bioterrorism” in late 1990s, will, if this carnivore becomes established, act further to drive populations of present species to very low levels. In Victoria, this peramelid occupied a shrinking range for much of 20\" century before the last known wild population was extirpated, in 2002. Many factors have been attributed to the decline, including loss of habitat for agriculture or development, habitat degradation due to livestock and introduced feral herbivores such as the European Rabbit, deliberate persecution from landholders, inadvertent poisoning through pesticides and herbicides, diseases such as toxoplasmosis, and predation by introduced carnivores. Predation appears to have been the prime cause of its final expiration in the wild in mainland Australia. Fortunately, however, before it was lost altogether, a few individuals were removed from the wild for breeding in captivity, and these have provided the founders for subsequent reintroduction attempts. The Victorian form now persists in three sites where it is protected from predation: Mount Rothwell Biodiversity Interpretation Centre, Hamilton Community Parklands, and Woodlands Historic Park. It has been reintroduced to a furtherfive sites but, after initial breeding successes, combinations of drought and predation from feral cat and, especially, Red Fox drove these populations to extinction. In 2012, the bandicoot was introduced to French Island, the largest island in Victoria (170 km?), in a pilot trial. Males were sterilized and animals retrapped at the conclusion of the trial; a decision about a broader-scale release is yet to be made. French Island has suitable habitat for this peramelid and has the major advantage that it is fox-free. Recovery efforts in Victoria have been intensive for more than 25 years, and involve many dedicated individuals and organizations. As a result, the mainland form is likely to be kept in existence for the foreseeable future, albeit in wildlife parks, zoological gardens, and predator-free compounds. Until the scourge of the cat and the Red Fox can be overcome, large wild populations are very unlikely to be seen again. The Near Threatened classification for this species on The [UCN Red List was made in 2008. It is unlikely to receive such a sanguine assessment when it is reviewed again in future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 27-35 cm,tail 7-11 cm; weight 0.5-1.1 kg (Victoria), 0.5-1.4 kg (Tasmania). Adult males weigh at least 10% more than adult females. Dorsal fur is a grizzled fawnish brown to gray above, with 3-4 conspicuous and highly distinctive pale bars running from mid-flank region to rump. Ventral fur is light slate-gray, feet and upper surface oftail white, and ears are long and held erect.","habitat":"Prefers open grassland habitats that also provide some access to denser cover for shelter. In Victoria, it inhabited perennial tussock grassland mixed with areas of savanna woodland and, until recently, could be found in semi-natural situations such as golf courses, gardens, parks, and farmland near urban settlement. In Tasmania, this bandicoot occurs in native and exotic grasslands, woodland, and open forest with a grassy understory, and also in farmland and cultivated cropland. Nest is lined and constructed from grass and other debris in depression on ground surface or under cover of shrubs."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD3FFB0F893DED9F5841BCF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD3FFB0F893DED9F5841BCF","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"393","verbatimText":"8.Raffray’s BandicootPeroryctes raffrayanaFrench:Bandicoot de Raffray/ German:GroRer Neuguinea-Nasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de RaffrayOther common names:Long-legged BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles raffrayana Milne- Edwards, 1878,“ Amberbaki,” Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop), Manokwari Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.raffrayanaMilne-Edwards,1878—mostofNewGuinea,includingYapenI,inCenderawasih(=Geelvink)Bay.P.r. rothschildi Forster, 1913— Huon Peninsula, in NE New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27:5-39.2 cm, tail 13.2-17.9 cm; weight 0-65.1-1 kg. Adult males at least 20% heavier than females. Adult of nominate race has dorsal fur coarse and dull, dark brown in color; adult rothschild: retains some rufous tones. Ventral fur is pure white, unlike that of almost all other peramelids exceptfor the variably sized pure white patch on the chest of the Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum). Ears are prominent, and tail dark and almost hairless. Juveniles of both subspecies are rich reddish tan, and darken with age.Habitat.Evidently prefers undisturbed primary forest at altitudes of 1000-2000 m. It is absent from woodland and savanna habitats of the Trans-Fly and probably also from low-lying floodplain of Sepik River. Despite its preference for undisturbed forest, this bandicoot may occur also in mature secondary forest and old gardens, and has been recorded in lowland rainforest at altitudes as low as 50-60 m. On Huon Peninsula it has been recorded at 3900 m; here, trees are stunted or absent, and vegetation is dominated by herbs, shrubs, tree ferns, and tussock grassland. Nest sites have not been described in any detail, but anecdotal accounts suggest that the animals rest temporarily under piles of leaf litter and other debris in sheltered sites on forest floor.Food and Feeding.Has been anecdotally reported to eat figs and fallen pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). There is no quantitative information on the diet but, as with many other peramelids,it is assumed to be omnivorous.Breeding.Females with pouch young have been collected during March, June, August-September, November, and December. Although these records were obtained throughout the range of the species in New Guinea, they suggest that breeding can occur year-round. Females have eight nipples in a rear-facing pouch, and carry litters of one or two young.Activity patterns.Radio-tracking of a single male showed the animal to be inactive on eight of ten occasions when it was located by day, but active on all ten occasions when tracked between 19:00 h and 02:00 h. General reports from trappers also indicate that this bandicoot is most likely to be captured after becoming active in the early evening between 19:00 h and 21:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A large (1 kg) male of this species was shown by radio-tracking to move an average linear distance of 87 m between daytime shelters and to occupy a range of 2-7 ha. It is likely that this bandicootis socially intolerant, as are all peramelids that have been sufficiently well studied, but Daribi people (Chimbu Province) believe that the species nests communally.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This is an uncommon but widespread species. Because of its broad distribution and occurrence in areas that are formally protected or not disturbed,it is assumed to be reasonably secure. It is a favored game species in many areas, but there is no clear evidence that hunting depletes local populations or constitutes a major threat.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (2010), Brass (1956, 1964), Cuthbert & Denny (2014), Dwyer (1983), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Van Deusen (1972), Van Deusen & Jones (1967), Ziegler (1977, 1982).","taxonomy":"Perameles raffrayana Milne- Edwards, 1878,“ Amberbaki,” Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop), Manokwari Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot de Raffray @fr | Gro Rer Neuguinea-Nasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de Raffray @es | Long-legged Bandicoot @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1878","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Peroryctes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"393","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"raffrayana","name":"Peroryctes raffrayana","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.r.raffrayanaMilne-Edwards,1878—mostofNewGuinea,includingYapenI,inCenderawasih(=Geelvink)Bay.P.r. rothschildi Forster, 1913— Huon Peninsula, in NE New Guinea.","bibliography":"Aplin et al. (2010) | Brass (1956, 1964) | Cuthbert & Denny (2014) | Dwyer (1983) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Van Deusen (1972) | Van Deusen & Jones (1967) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Has been anecdotally reported to eat figs and fallen pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). There is no quantitative information on the diet but, as with many other peramelids,it is assumed to be omnivorous.","breeding":"Females with pouch young have been collected during March, June, August-September, November, and December. Although these records were obtained throughout the range of the species in New Guinea, they suggest that breeding can occur year-round. Females have eight nipples in a rear-facing pouch, and carry litters of one or two young.","activityPatterns":"Radio-tracking of a single male showed the animal to be inactive on eight of ten occasions when it was located by day, but active on all ten occasions when tracked between 19:00 h and 02:00 h. General reports from trappers also indicate that this bandicoot is most likely to be captured after becoming active in the early evening between 19:00 h and 21:00 h.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A large (1 kg) male of this species was shown by radio-tracking to move an average linear distance of 87 m between daytime shelters and to occupy a range of 2-7 ha. It is likely that this bandicootis socially intolerant, as are all peramelids that have been sufficiently well studied, but Daribi people (Chimbu Province) believe that the species nests communally.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This is an uncommon but widespread species. Because of its broad distribution and occurrence in areas that are formally protected or not disturbed,it is assumed to be reasonably secure. It is a favored game species in many areas, but there is no clear evidence that hunting depletes local populations or constitutes a major threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 27:5-39.2 cm, tail 13.2-17.9 cm; weight 0-65.1-1 kg. Adult males at least 20% heavier than females. Adult of nominate race has dorsal fur coarse and dull, dark brown in color; adult rothschild: retains some rufous tones. Ventral fur is pure white, unlike that of almost all other peramelids exceptfor the variably sized pure white patch on the chest of the Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum). Ears are prominent, and tail dark and almost hairless. Juveniles of both subspecies are rich reddish tan, and darken with age.","habitat":"Evidently prefers undisturbed primary forest at altitudes of 1000-2000 m. It is absent from woodland and savanna habitats of the Trans-Fly and probably also from low-lying floodplain of Sepik River. Despite its preference for undisturbed forest, this bandicoot may occur also in mature secondary forest and old gardens, and has been recorded in lowland rainforest at altitudes as low as 50-60 m. On Huon Peninsula it has been recorded at 3900 m; here, trees are stunted or absent, and vegetation is dominated by herbs, shrubs, tree ferns, and tussock grassland. Nest sites have not been described in any detail, but anecdotal accounts suggest that the animals rest temporarily under piles of leaf litter and other debris in sheltered sites on forest floor."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD3FFB0F893DED9F5841BCF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD3FFB0F893DED9F5841BCF","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"393","verbatimText":"8.Raffray’s BandicootPeroryctes raffrayanaFrench:Bandicoot de Raffray/ German:GroRer Neuguinea-Nasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de RaffrayOther common names:Long-legged BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles raffrayana Milne- Edwards, 1878,“ Amberbaki,” Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop), Manokwari Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.r.raffrayanaMilne-Edwards,1878—mostofNewGuinea,includingYapenI,inCenderawasih(=Geelvink)Bay.P.r. rothschildi Forster, 1913— Huon Peninsula, in NE New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27:5-39.2 cm, tail 13.2-17.9 cm; weight 0-65.1-1 kg. Adult males at least 20% heavier than females. Adult of nominate race has dorsal fur coarse and dull, dark brown in color; adult rothschild: retains some rufous tones. Ventral fur is pure white, unlike that of almost all other peramelids exceptfor the variably sized pure white patch on the chest of the Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum). Ears are prominent, and tail dark and almost hairless. Juveniles of both subspecies are rich reddish tan, and darken with age.Habitat.Evidently prefers undisturbed primary forest at altitudes of 1000-2000 m. It is absent from woodland and savanna habitats of the Trans-Fly and probably also from low-lying floodplain of Sepik River. Despite its preference for undisturbed forest, this bandicoot may occur also in mature secondary forest and old gardens, and has been recorded in lowland rainforest at altitudes as low as 50-60 m. On Huon Peninsula it has been recorded at 3900 m; here, trees are stunted or absent, and vegetation is dominated by herbs, shrubs, tree ferns, and tussock grassland. Nest sites have not been described in any detail, but anecdotal accounts suggest that the animals rest temporarily under piles of leaf litter and other debris in sheltered sites on forest floor.Food and Feeding.Has been anecdotally reported to eat figs and fallen pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). There is no quantitative information on the diet but, as with many other peramelids,it is assumed to be omnivorous.Breeding.Females with pouch young have been collected during March, June, August-September, November, and December. Although these records were obtained throughout the range of the species in New Guinea, they suggest that breeding can occur year-round. Females have eight nipples in a rear-facing pouch, and carry litters of one or two young.Activity patterns.Radio-tracking of a single male showed the animal to be inactive on eight of ten occasions when it was located by day, but active on all ten occasions when tracked between 19:00 h and 02:00 h. General reports from trappers also indicate that this bandicoot is most likely to be captured after becoming active in the early evening between 19:00 h and 21:00 h.Movements, Home range and Social organization.A large (1 kg) male of this species was shown by radio-tracking to move an average linear distance of 87 m between daytime shelters and to occupy a range of 2-7 ha. It is likely that this bandicootis socially intolerant, as are all peramelids that have been sufficiently well studied, but Daribi people (Chimbu Province) believe that the species nests communally.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This is an uncommon but widespread species. Because of its broad distribution and occurrence in areas that are formally protected or not disturbed,it is assumed to be reasonably secure. It is a favored game species in many areas, but there is no clear evidence that hunting depletes local populations or constitutes a major threat.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (2010), Brass (1956, 1964), Cuthbert & Denny (2014), Dwyer (1983), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Van Deusen (1972), Van Deusen & Jones (1967), Ziegler (1977, 1982).","taxonomy":"Perameles raffrayana Milne- Edwards, 1878,“ Amberbaki,” Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop), Manokwari Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot de Raffray @fr | Gro Rer Neuguinea-Nasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de Raffray @es | Long-legged Bandicoot @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Milne-Edwards","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1878","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Peroryctes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"393","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"raffrayana","name":"Peroryctes raffrayana","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.r.raffrayanaMilne-Edwards,1878—mostofNewGuinea,includingYapenI,inCenderawasih(=Geelvink)Bay.P.r. rothschildi Forster, 1913— Huon Peninsula, in NE New Guinea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621766/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aplin et al. (2010) | Brass (1956, 1964) | Cuthbert & Denny (2014) | Dwyer (1983) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Van Deusen (1972) | Van Deusen & Jones (1967) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)","foodAndFeeding":"Has been anecdotally reported to eat figs and fallen pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). There is no quantitative information on the diet but, as with many other peramelids,it is assumed to be omnivorous.","breeding":"Females with pouch young have been collected during March, June, August-September, November, and December. Although these records were obtained throughout the range of the species in New Guinea, they suggest that breeding can occur year-round. Females have eight nipples in a rear-facing pouch, and carry litters of one or two young.","activityPatterns":"Radio-tracking of a single male showed the animal to be inactive on eight of ten occasions when it was located by day, but active on all ten occasions when tracked between 19:00 h and 02:00 h. General reports from trappers also indicate that this bandicoot is most likely to be captured after becoming active in the early evening between 19:00 h and 21:00 h.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"A large (1 kg) male of this species was shown by radio-tracking to move an average linear distance of 87 m between daytime shelters and to occupy a range of 2-7 ha. It is likely that this bandicootis socially intolerant, as are all peramelids that have been sufficiently well studied, but Daribi people (Chimbu Province) believe that the species nests communally.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This is an uncommon but widespread species. Because of its broad distribution and occurrence in areas that are formally protected or not disturbed,it is assumed to be reasonably secure. It is a favored game species in many areas, but there is no clear evidence that hunting depletes local populations or constitutes a major threat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 27:5-39.2 cm, tail 13.2-17.9 cm; weight 0-65.1-1 kg. Adult males at least 20% heavier than females. Adult of nominate race has dorsal fur coarse and dull, dark brown in color; adult rothschild: retains some rufous tones. Ventral fur is pure white, unlike that of almost all other peramelids exceptfor the variably sized pure white patch on the chest of the Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum). Ears are prominent, and tail dark and almost hairless. Juveniles of both subspecies are rich reddish tan, and darken with age.","habitat":"Evidently prefers undisturbed primary forest at altitudes of 1000-2000 m. It is absent from woodland and savanna habitats of the Trans-Fly and probably also from low-lying floodplain of Sepik River. Despite its preference for undisturbed forest, this bandicoot may occur also in mature secondary forest and old gardens, and has been recorded in lowland rainforest at altitudes as low as 50-60 m. On Huon Peninsula it has been recorded at 3900 m; here, trees are stunted or absent, and vegetation is dominated by herbs, shrubs, tree ferns, and tussock grassland. Nest sites have not been described in any detail, but anecdotal accounts suggest that the animals rest temporarily under piles of leaf litter and other debris in sheltered sites on forest floor."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD5FFB6FE08DD77F891140D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD5FFB6FE08DD77F891140D","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"362","verbatimText":"Family PERAMELIDAE(BANDICOOTS ECHYMIPERAS)• Small to medium-sized marsupials, with long pointed snouts, rather small mouse-like ears, short tails and short limbs.• 25-80 cm.• Australasian Region.• Low heathland, grassland, and woodland to denser forest and treeless subalpine habitat, from lowlands to mountain areas.• 6 genera, 18 species, at least 35 extant taxa.• 4 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; 1 species and 1 subspecies Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD6FFB2FDB2D4CDFCBF1092.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD6FFB2FDB2D4CDFCBF1092","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"390","verbatimText":"3.Northern Brown BandicootIsoodon macrourusFrench:Bandicoot a longue queue/ German:GroRer Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto septentrionalOther common names:Brindled Bandicoot, Giant Brindled Bandicoot, Large Northern Bandicoot, Northern Shortnosed Bandicoot, Short-nosed BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles macroura Gould, 1842,“ Port Essington,” Northern Territory, Australia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I.m.macrourusGould,1842—NNorthernTerritoryandNWesternAustralia,includingmanylargeislandsnearNcoast(e.g.GrooteEylandt,TiwiIs).I.m.moresbyensisRamsay,1877—NewGuinea.I. m. torosus Ramsay, 1877— N Queensland (Cape York) S, including Fraser I, Moreton I, North Stradbroke I and South Stradbroke, to Hawkesbury River, in CE New South Wales.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-47 cm, tail 8-21.5 cm; weight 0.5-3.1 kg. Adult males 80-90% heavier than females. Largest member of genus. Dorsal fur is light to dark brown, interspersed with black spiny bristle hairs that give animals a sleek but grizzled appearance. Ventral fur is light gray or off-white and less spiky than dorsal pelage. Tail is covered with short, dark hair, ears are naked and held erect; both tail and ears of males may be scarred from fighting.Habitat.Occurs in grassland, woodland, open forest and on occasion rainforest in both Australia and New Guinea, and successfully exploits gardens and other disturbed habitats if sufficient ground coveris available to allow access. Prefers ground cover comprising dense shrubs or tall grass in southern parts ofits range, but readily uses areas with sparse ground in monsoon tropical regions in northern Australia and New Guinea. In drier parts of range in Australia, this species persists in marshy areas with heavy ground cover, and penetrates west in Queensland to about the 625mm rainfall isohyet by moving along densely vegetated riparian corridors. Nest usually a simple scrape under a dome of sticks, leaf litter, and other debris, with two or more openings; individuals may also use logs, grass tussocks, or crevices in rocks for shelter.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, and eats wide variety of invertebrates, small vertebrates such as lizards and birds, and their eggs, also fruits, seeds, plant roots, storage organs, and green plant material, as well as underground fungi. Like other members of the genus, this bandicoot forages on ground surface but also uses its powerful forelimbsto dig for food, leaving behind characteristically conical holes that may descend to depth of 30 cm. The diet varies with locality and season, suggesting that animals track and eat different prey types according to their availability.Breeding.Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months and males by six months. Breeding can occur year-round, but in southern parts of range there is usually a hiatus in reproductive activity over winter between April and July and in northern regions during dry season between May and July. Gestation is 12-5 days, and young leave the pouch at 50 days and are weaned at 60 days or less. Litter size 1-7, but more usually 3—4, with larger litters borne by females in southern areas compared with those in northern Australia or New Guinea. Relatively large litter size, rapid growth, and rapid development of this species mean thatit is one of the most fecund of the peramelids. In Darwin area of Northern Territory, one study described females as producing up to fourlitters at intervals of 54 days over the breeding season. As in other members of genus, this bandicoot has eight nipples in a backward-facing pouch, use of individual nipples alternating between successive litters.Activity patterns.Individuals emerge after dark and are active for most of night, covering wide range of habitats in their search for food; males may patrol areas on edge of their home range, especially during the long breeding season. The day is usually spent in resting in the nest or under shelter, but occasional movements have been recorded in early morning orjust before dusk in rugged sandstone country on Groote Eylandt.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both sexes are solitary. Males and females tolerate each other briefly when females are in estrus, but otherwise interactions are characterized by aggression, chases, and fights. Both sexes produce secretions from glands behind the ears and rub them on ground or vegetation during encounters, perhaps using them as “keep-away” signals to reduce likelihood of further encounters. Home ranges relatively small compared with those of its two smaller congeners, averaging 2-7 ha (maximum 6 ha) in one study in abandoned pasture-shrubland area and 1-5 ha in another study in remnant vegetation within limits of city of Brisbane. Population densities can be correspondingly large, ranging from 0-2 ind/ ha to 2:6 ind/ha in New South Wales and southern Queensland, but lower densities of 0-05 ind/ha to 0-7 ind/ha appear to be more typical in tropical regions. Lower densities, larger ranges and more seasonal breeding in northern compared with southern Australia may reflect less abundant and more strongly seasonal food resources in monsoonal tropics compared with mid-latitude habitats. Corresponding differences in recruitment of young into adult population might be expected between regional areas, but limited evidence suggests that recruitment rates are usually 10-15%. Higher recruitment of young, however, follows disturbances such as fire and mechanical damage to habitat and, as with the Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus), the life-history strategy of present species has been interpreted as one that allows rapid colonization of newly created habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend stable. This bandicoot is not considered to be at currentrisk as it occupies an extensive geographical range, has a large overall population, and occurs in many protected areas. Declines have occurred in drier, inland areas near S edge of range of race torosus. While the species continues to decline owing to development, habitat loss, and changes in fire regimes, and overhunting for bushmeat in New Guinea, the declines are mostly local. The larger size of this bandicoot means that it is at less risk of predation from the feral cat (Felis catus), although it still falls prey to Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and wild dogs (Canis). Historical declines in inland pastoral areas were not extensive, and these appear to have slowed or halted. All subspecies appear to be secure.Bibliography.Ashby et al. (1990), Brass (1956), Close et al. (1990), Cockburn (1990), Dickman (2014), FitzGibbon, Putland & Goldizen (2007), FitzGibbon, Wilson & Goldizen (2011), Flannery (1995a), Friend, G.R. (1990), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gemmell (1982, 1990a,1990b), Gordon (1971, 1974), Gordon et al. (1990), Groves (2005¢), Hall (1983, 1990), Johnson & Southgate (1990), Keiper & Johnson (2004), Lyne (1974), Lyne & Mort (1981), Menzies (2011), Pardon et al. (2003), Pope et al. (2001), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Vernes & Pope (2009), Waithman (1979), Westerman et al. (2012), Zenger et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Perameles macroura Gould, 1842,“ Port Essington,” Northern Territory, Australia.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot a longue queue @fr | Gro Rer Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto septentrional @es | Brindled Bandicoot @en | Giant Brindled Bandicoot @en | Large Northern Bandicoot @en | Northern Shortnosed Bandicoot @en | Short-nosed Bandicoot @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gould","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Isoodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"390","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macrourus","name":"Isoodon macrourus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"I.m.macrourusGould,1842—NNorthernTerritoryandNWesternAustralia,includingmanylargeislandsnearNcoast(e.g.GrooteEylandt,TiwiIs).I.m.moresbyensisRamsay,1877—NewGuinea.I. m. torosus Ramsay, 1877— N Queensland (Cape York) S, including Fraser I, Moreton I, North Stradbroke I and South Stradbroke, to Hawkesbury River, in CE New South Wales.","bibliography":"Ashby et al. (1990) | Brass (1956) | Close et al. (1990) | Cockburn (1990) | Dickman (2014) | FitzGibbon, Putland & Goldizen (2007) | FitzGibbon, Wilson & Goldizen (2011) | Flannery (1995a) | Friend, G.R. (1990) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gemmell (1982, 1990a,1990b) | Gordon (1971, 1974) | Gordon et al. (1990) | Groves (2005¢) | Hall (1983, 1990) | Johnson & Southgate (1990) | Keiper & Johnson (2004) | Lyne (1974) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | Menzies (2011) | Pardon et al. (2003) | Pope et al. (2001) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Vernes & Pope (2009) | Waithman (1979) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Zenger et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous, and eats wide variety of invertebrates, small vertebrates such as lizards and birds, and their eggs, also fruits, seeds, plant roots, storage organs, and green plant material, as well as underground fungi. Like other members of the genus, this bandicoot forages on ground surface but also uses its powerful forelimbsto dig for food, leaving behind characteristically conical holes that may descend to depth of 30 cm. The diet varies with locality and season, suggesting that animals track and eat different prey types according to their availability.","breeding":"Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months and males by six months. Breeding can occur year-round, but in southern parts of range there is usually a hiatus in reproductive activity over winter between April and July and in northern regions during dry season between May and July. Gestation is 12-5 days, and young leave the pouch at 50 days and are weaned at 60 days or less. Litter size 1-7, but more usually 3—4, with larger litters borne by females in southern areas compared with those in northern Australia or New Guinea. Relatively large litter size, rapid growth, and rapid development of this species mean thatit is one of the most fecund of the peramelids. In Darwin area of Northern Territory, one study described females as producing up to fourlitters at intervals of 54 days over the breeding season. As in other members of genus, this bandicoot has eight nipples in a backward-facing pouch, use of individual nipples alternating between successive litters.","activityPatterns":"Individuals emerge after dark and are active for most of night, covering wide range of habitats in their search for food; males may patrol areas on edge of their home range, especially during the long breeding season. The day is usually spent in resting in the nest or under shelter, but occasional movements have been recorded in early morning orjust before dusk in rugged sandstone country on Groote Eylandt.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Both sexes are solitary. Males and females tolerate each other briefly when females are in estrus, but otherwise interactions are characterized by aggression, chases, and fights. Both sexes produce secretions from glands behind the ears and rub them on ground or vegetation during encounters, perhaps using them as “keep-away” signals to reduce likelihood of further encounters. Home ranges relatively small compared with those of its two smaller congeners, averaging 2-7 ha (maximum 6 ha) in one study in abandoned pasture-shrubland area and 1-5 ha in another study in remnant vegetation within limits of city of Brisbane. Population densities can be correspondingly large, ranging from 0-2 ind/ ha to 2:6 ind/ha in New South Wales and southern Queensland, but lower densities of 0-05 ind/ha to 0-7 ind/ha appear to be more typical in tropical regions. Lower densities, larger ranges and more seasonal breeding in northern compared with southern Australia may reflect less abundant and more strongly seasonal food resources in monsoonal tropics compared with mid-latitude habitats. Corresponding differences in recruitment of young into adult population might be expected between regional areas, but limited evidence suggests that recruitment rates are usually 10-15%. Higher recruitment of young, however, follows disturbances such as fire and mechanical damage to habitat and, as with the Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus), the life-history strategy of present species has been interpreted as one that allows rapid colonization of newly created habitat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend stable. This bandicoot is not considered to be at currentrisk as it occupies an extensive geographical range, has a large overall population, and occurs in many protected areas. Declines have occurred in drier, inland areas near S edge of range of race torosus. While the species continues to decline owing to development, habitat loss, and changes in fire regimes, and overhunting for bushmeat in New Guinea, the declines are mostly local. The larger size of this bandicoot means that it is at less risk of predation from the feral cat (Felis catus), although it still falls prey to Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and wild dogs (Canis). Historical declines in inland pastoral areas were not extensive, and these appear to have slowed or halted. All subspecies appear to be secure.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 30-47 cm, tail 8-21.5 cm; weight 0.5-3.1 kg. Adult males 80-90% heavier than females. Largest member of genus. Dorsal fur is light to dark brown, interspersed with black spiny bristle hairs that give animals a sleek but grizzled appearance. Ventral fur is light gray or off-white and less spiky than dorsal pelage. Tail is covered with short, dark hair, ears are naked and held erect; both tail and ears of males may be scarred from fighting.","habitat":"Occurs in grassland, woodland, open forest and on occasion rainforest in both Australia and New Guinea, and successfully exploits gardens and other disturbed habitats if sufficient ground coveris available to allow access. Prefers ground cover comprising dense shrubs or tall grass in southern parts ofits range, but readily uses areas with sparse ground in monsoon tropical regions in northern Australia and New Guinea. In drier parts of range in Australia, this species persists in marshy areas with heavy ground cover, and penetrates west in Queensland to about the 625mm rainfall isohyet by moving along densely vegetated riparian corridors. Nest usually a simple scrape under a dome of sticks, leaf litter, and other debris, with two or more openings; individuals may also use logs, grass tussocks, or crevices in rocks for shelter."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD7FFB4FD91DD78F5BF1734.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD7FFB4FD91DD78F5BF1734","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"389","verbatimText":"1.Southern Brown BandicootIsoodon obesulusFrench:Bandicoot obése/ German:Kleiner Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto meridionalOther common names:Brown Bandicoot, Short-nosed Bandicoot, Southern Short-nosed Bandicoot; Nuyts Southern Brown Bandicoot (nauticus)Taxonomy.Didelphis obesula Shaw, 1797,“New Holland.” Restricted by T. Iredale & E. Le G. Troughton in 1934 to “Sydney, N.S.W. [= New South Wales],” Australia.Further restricted by J. M. Dixon in 1981 to “1-5 km south of the Hawkesbury River, 7-5 km from the Coal and Candle Creek Road turnoff on the West Head Road, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, north of Sydney, New South Wales, Lat. 33° 36’ S; Long. 151° 16” E,” Australia.This species has been split at various times into 3-5 geographically separated subspecies, but most contention surrounds the status of present species with respect to the closely related I. auratus. In some morphological and mtDNA analyses the latter has been grouped with Western Australian subspecies fusciventer, which would give this form a large and almost continuous historical distribution throughout Western Australia and most of the central part of the continent. More recent analyses incorporating additional nuclear-gene sequences suggest, however, that I. auratusis sufficiently distinct to warrant separation from I. obesulus, and this arrangement is followed here. Same analyses also hint at a closer relationship between the north-eastern subspecies peninsulae and I. auratusthan between former taxon and other forms of I. obesulus, and show little divergence between nominate obesulusand Tasmanian race affinis. Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis morphologically distinct from the nominate form, butis sometimes subsumed within latter. Pending further work, affinis, fusciventer, nauticus, and peninsulae are treated here as subspecies of 1. obesulus. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I.o.obesulusShaw,1797—NewSouthWales,Victoria,mainlandSouthAustralia,andKangarooI. o.o.affinisWaterhouse,1846—Tasmania.I.o.fusciventerGray,1841—WesternAustralia.I.o.nauticusThomas,1922—NuytsArchipelago,SouthAustralia.I. o. peninsulae Thomas, 1922— N Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-36 cm, tail 9-14.5 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Males up to 40% heavier than females. Dorsal fur is dark brown or dark gray, and has a grizzled appearance owing to presence of black spiny bristle hairs. Ventral furis light gray and softer than stiff dorsal hair, and often has a creamy or yellowish tinge. Tail is covered in short, dark hairs. Older animals may have a stubby tail, ragged ears, and patches of missing fur (from fighting).Habitat.Diverse forest, woodland, heath and shrub communities, often where these occur on sandy soils. It occurs also on the edges of swamps and in riparian habitats where dense ground-level vegetation is present, creating tunnels and runs or using those constructed by other mammals. Recently burnt sites may be exploited for the regenerating food and shelter resources that they provide. Simple nests are formed under dense vegetation, under the skirts of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp., Xanthorrhoeaceae), and occasionally in shallow burrows; plantlitter, soil, and other debris may be used as construction materials to help enclose the nest. This species used to occur in more open habitats, but is probably restricted to areas with dense ground cover that provide shelter from introduced predators such as the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the domestic cat (Felis catus).Food and Feeding.Insects, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents), bird eggs, fruit, green plant material, and fungi are all eaten. In several studies invertebrates have been the dominant food item, but the relative importance of each food type varies with season and locality. Most foraging occurs at night, animals using their hearing to detect surface-active prey and their sense of smell to detect buried prey. Digs characteristic conical holes in topsoil when buried prey has been located, providing a ready and reliable means of determining whether the species is present at a site.Breeding.Females attain sexual maturity at 4-5 months and males at six months. Breeding usually takes place from mid-winter to mid-summer, but can occur yearround. Gestation is c.14 days, and the 1-6 young (average 2-8) are weaned at 60 days. Females have eight nipples housed in a backward-facing pouch; different nipples are used by neonates of alternate litters, allowing time for recently used nipples to regress to a size that allows newly born young to attach to them. Recruitment of young into adult population is typically of the order of 5-15%.Activity patterns.In the wild, usually nocturnal. Animals emerge an hour or more after dusk and appear to spend most of their active time in foraging. Captive individuals are strictly nocturnal and have been recorded as spending 71% of the 24hour day at rest in their nests.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other peramelids, this species is solitary and intolerant of conspecifics except for brief encounters during courtship and copulation, and when females are with dependent young. Some evidence that males maintain territories incorporating resource-rich patches of habitat and tolerate presence of young females within them, but banish older females to poorer-quality habitats. Population densities range from 0-1 ind/ha in poor-quality habitat to 5 ind/ha in sites with abundant food and few predators; home ranges usually of the order of 1-2 ha, but may exceed 6 ha in areas with sparse resources. Although few young usually recruited to the adult population, this species’ high reproductive rate may allow it swiftly to colonize newly created habitats in the wake of wildfires and other disturbances.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Shows a decreasing population trend. With the exception of races affinis and perhaps nauticus, the distributions of all subspecies have been fragmented and reduced in recent decades, this being especially marked in south-eastern Australia. The species occurs in conservation reserves throughout its range, but is susceptible to predation from introduced Red Fox and feral cat, and to loss of habitat in non-reserved areas. Nominate subspecies and Tasmanian endemic race affiniscan be considered near threatened owing to depressive effects of predators and habitat loss or alteration, and Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis vulnerable owing to the small size and restricted area of its population. Cape York subspecies peninsulae has small area of occupancy, but is abundant within its small range and considered to be of least concern. Likewise, race fusciventerin Western Australia is considered to be of least concern; it has declined in the past, but has achieved partial recovery since mid-1990s owing to large-scale and highly successful campaigns to reduce Red Fox numbers. Programs to reduce impacts of introduced predators are currently underway also in Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales, and these should help to guard the security of the species in future.Bibliography.Ashby et al. (1990), Broughton & Dickman (1991), Brown & Main (2012), Close et al. (1990), Coates & Wright (2003), Coates et al. (2008), Cockburn (1990), Copley et al. (1990), Dexter & Murray (2009), Dickman (1988b, 2012, 2014), Dixon (1981), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gordon etal. (1990), Green (2007), Groves (2005c), Haby, Conran & Carthew (2013), Heinsohn (1966), Hocking (1990), Hope (2012), Iredale & Troughton (1934), Keiper & Johnson (2004), Kemper (1990), Larcombe (2003), Li You et al. (2014), Lobert (1990), Lobert & Lee (1990), Lyne & Mort (1981), McKenzie (1967), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Morris et al. (1998), Nagy et al. (1991), Pope et al. (2001), Quin (1988), Stoddart & Braithwaite (1979), Thomas (1990), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Warburton, Grégoire et al. (2013), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014e, 2014f, 2014g, 2014h), Zenger et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Didelphis obesula Shaw, 1797,“New Holland.” Restricted by T. Iredale & E. Le G. Troughton in 1934 to “Sydney, N.S.W. [= New South Wales],” Australia.Further restricted by J. M. Dixon in 1981 to “1-5 km south of the Hawkesbury River, 7-5 km from the Coal and Candle Creek Road turnoff on the West Head Road, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, north of Sydney, New South Wales, Lat. 33° 36’ S; Long. 151° 16” E,” Australia.This species has been split at various times into 3-5 geographically separated subspecies, but most contention surrounds the status of present species with respect to the closely related I. auratus. In some morphological and mtDNA analyses the latter has been grouped with Western Australian subspecies fusciventer, which would give this form a large and almost continuous historical distribution throughout Western Australia and most of the central part of the continent. More recent analyses incorporating additional nuclear-gene sequences suggest, however, that I. auratusis sufficiently distinct to warrant separation from I. obesulus, and this arrangement is followed here. Same analyses also hint at a closer relationship between the north-eastern subspecies peninsulae and I. auratusthan between former taxon and other forms of I. obesulus, and show little divergence between nominate obesulusand Tasmanian race affinis. Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis morphologically distinct from the nominate form, butis sometimes subsumed within latter. Pending further work, affinis, fusciventer, nauticus, and peninsulae are treated here as subspecies of 1. obesulus. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot obése @fr | Kleiner Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto meridional @es | Brown Bandicoot @en | Short-nosed Bandicoot @en | Southern Short-nosed Bandicoot; Nuyts Southern Brown Bandicoot (nauticus) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1797","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Isoodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"389","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"obesulus","name":"Isoodon obesulus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"I.o.obesulusShaw,1797—NewSouthWales,Victoria,mainlandSouthAustralia,andKangarooI. o.o.affinisWaterhouse,1846—Tasmania.I.o.fusciventerGray,1841—WesternAustralia.I.o.nauticusThomas,1922—NuytsArchipelago,SouthAustralia.I. o. peninsulae Thomas, 1922— N Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula.","bibliography":"Ashby et al. (1990) | Broughton & Dickman (1991) | Brown & Main (2012) | Close et al. (1990) | Coates & Wright (2003) | Coates et al. (2008) | Cockburn (1990) | Copley et al. (1990) | Dexter & Murray (2009) | Dickman (1988b, 2012, 2014) | Dixon (1981) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gordon etal. (1990) | Green (2007) | Groves (2005c) | Haby, Conran & Carthew (2013) | Heinsohn (1966) | Hocking (1990) | Hope (2012) | Iredale & Troughton (1934) | Keiper & Johnson (2004) | Kemper (1990) | Larcombe (2003) | Li You et al. (2014) | Lobert (1990) | Lobert & Lee (1990) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | McKenzie (1967) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Morris et al. (1998) | Nagy et al. (1991) | Pope et al. (2001) | Quin (1988) | Stoddart & Braithwaite (1979) | Thomas (1990) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Warburton, Grégoire et al. (2013) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014e, 2014f, 2014g, 2014h) | Zenger et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Insects, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents), bird eggs, fruit, green plant material, and fungi are all eaten. In several studies invertebrates have been the dominant food item, but the relative importance of each food type varies with season and locality. Most foraging occurs at night, animals using their hearing to detect surface-active prey and their sense of smell to detect buried prey. Digs characteristic conical holes in topsoil when buried prey has been located, providing a ready and reliable means of determining whether the species is present at a site.","breeding":"Females attain sexual maturity at 4-5 months and males at six months. Breeding usually takes place from mid-winter to mid-summer, but can occur yearround. Gestation is c.14 days, and the 1-6 young (average 2-8) are weaned at 60 days. Females have eight nipples housed in a backward-facing pouch; different nipples are used by neonates of alternate litters, allowing time for recently used nipples to regress to a size that allows newly born young to attach to them. Recruitment of young into adult population is typically of the order of 5-15%.","activityPatterns":"In the wild, usually nocturnal. Animals emerge an hour or more after dusk and appear to spend most of their active time in foraging. Captive individuals are strictly nocturnal and have been recorded as spending 71% of the 24hour day at rest in their nests.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like other peramelids, this species is solitary and intolerant of conspecifics except for brief encounters during courtship and copulation, and when females are with dependent young. Some evidence that males maintain territories incorporating resource-rich patches of habitat and tolerate presence of young females within them, but banish older females to poorer-quality habitats. Population densities range from 0-1 ind/ha in poor-quality habitat to 5 ind/ha in sites with abundant food and few predators; home ranges usually of the order of 1-2 ha, but may exceed 6 ha in areas with sparse resources. Although few young usually recruited to the adult population, this species’ high reproductive rate may allow it swiftly to colonize newly created habitats in the wake of wildfires and other disturbances.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Shows a decreasing population trend. With the exception of races affinis and perhaps nauticus, the distributions of all subspecies have been fragmented and reduced in recent decades, this being especially marked in south-eastern Australia. The species occurs in conservation reserves throughout its range, but is susceptible to predation from introduced Red Fox and feral cat, and to loss of habitat in non-reserved areas. Nominate subspecies and Tasmanian endemic race affiniscan be considered near threatened owing to depressive effects of predators and habitat loss or alteration, and Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis vulnerable owing to the small size and restricted area of its population. Cape York subspecies peninsulae has small area of occupancy, but is abundant within its small range and considered to be of least concern. Likewise, race fusciventerin Western Australia is considered to be of least concern; it has declined in the past, but has achieved partial recovery since mid-1990s owing to large-scale and highly successful campaigns to reduce Red Fox numbers. Programs to reduce impacts of introduced predators are currently underway also in Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales, and these should help to guard the security of the species in future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 28-36 cm, tail 9-14.5 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Males up to 40% heavier than females. Dorsal fur is dark brown or dark gray, and has a grizzled appearance owing to presence of black spiny bristle hairs. Ventral furis light gray and softer than stiff dorsal hair, and often has a creamy or yellowish tinge. Tail is covered in short, dark hairs. Older animals may have a stubby tail, ragged ears, and patches of missing fur (from fighting).","habitat":"Diverse forest, woodland, heath and shrub communities, often where these occur on sandy soils. It occurs also on the edges of swamps and in riparian habitats where dense ground-level vegetation is present, creating tunnels and runs or using those constructed by other mammals. Recently burnt sites may be exploited for the regenerating food and shelter resources that they provide. Simple nests are formed under dense vegetation, under the skirts of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp., Xanthorrhoeaceae), and occasionally in shallow burrows; plantlitter, soil, and other debris may be used as construction materials to help enclose the nest. This species used to occur in more open habitats, but is probably restricted to areas with dense ground cover that provide shelter from introduced predators such as the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the domestic cat (Felis catus)."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD7FFB5F86CD9D3FCB41A01.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD7FFB5F86CD9D3FCB41A01","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"389","verbatimText":"2.Golden BandicootIsoodon auratusFrench:Bandicoot doré/ German:Goldbrauner Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto doradoOther common names:Northern Golden Bandicoot, Northern Golden-backed BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles auratus [sic] Ramsay, 1887,“ Derby, N. W. Australia.” (= Western Australia, Australia).Recent molecular analyses confirm this taxon as being distinct from I. obesulusand distinguish two forms within it that correspond to subspecies auratusand barrowensis. As noted above, the same analyses suggest that these subspecies cluster with I. o. peninsulae (or even I. peninsulae), and further work may see this form grouped within the “Golden Bandicoot clade.” A further race, arnhemensis, has been distinguished on basis ofits larger size and slight differences in shape ofits skull; it has not, however, been subject to any genetic or molecular analysis, and is not accepted by all authorities. Three subspecies tentatively recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.I.a.auratusRamsay,1887—NWKimberleyandseveralsmallislandsoffKimberleycoast.I.a.arnhemensisLyne&Mort,1981—CapeArnhem,NENorthernTerritory.I. a. barrowensis Thomas, 1901— Barrow I and Middle I, Western Australia.Occurs also (subspecies uncertain) on Marchinbar I, in Wessel Group, Northern Territory, and introduced recently to two further islands in Wessel Group. Barrow I race barrowensisintroduced to nearby Hermite I, to Doole I (in Exmouth Gulf), and to Lorna Glen (mainland of C Western Australia) in recentyears.Descriptive notes.Head-body 19-29.5 cm, tail 8.4-12.1 cm; weight 300-670 g for I. a. auratus, 250-600 g for I. a. barrowensis. Males 40-50% heavier than females. Smallest member of genus. Dorsal fur is golden brown, but has grizzled appearance owing to overlay of long, stiff guard hairs; ventral fur is cream or white. Tail is covered in short, orange to dark brown hairs.Habitat.Prior to its final disappearance from arid regions in mid-20\" century, occurred on sandy soils dominated by hummock grass or low shrubs. In its remnant mainland distribution it occurs in tussock grassland and low woodland dominated by Acacia(Fabaceae) and Eucalyptus spp.(Myrtaceae), often on sandy soils, but also on rugged sandstone habitats. Shows a strong association with hummock grass on Barrow Island, often burrowing under hummocks for shelter, but on Marchinbar Island prefers low heath or shrubland on sand or sandstone. Sometimes found in vine thicket and patches of rainforest, but these do not appear to be preferred habitats. Nest can be a shallow scrape under rock or other shelter, or simple structure constructed from grass and other local materials; constructed on ground surface, under grass hummock and dense shrubs or, on Barrow, in limestone cave. Individuals use different shelters on different days, and visit varied habitats by night when foraging, but generally occupy stable ranges that change little between seasons.On following pages: 3. Northern Brown Bandicoot (/soodon macrourus); 4. Western Barred Bandicoot (Peramelesbougainville); 5. Eastern Barred Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii); 6. Long-nosed Bandicoot (Perameles nasuta), 7. Giant Bandicoot (Peroryctes broadbenti); 8. Raffray’s Bandicoot (Peroryctes raffrayana).Food and Feeding.Invertebrates represent a larger part of diet compared with those of both larger congeners, with beetles, termites, ants, centipedes, and insect larvae consumed. In addition, it eats seeds, roots, tubers, fruits, and other plant material, especially in dry season, and small rodents and lizards also may be eaten. Perhaps because of the diverse habitats that it uses for foraging, including ocean beaches, this species includes in its diet items that are unusual for peramelids, such as washed-up cephalopods and turtle eggs. Conical-shaped pits in sandy soils indicate where foraging has taken place.Breeding.Females reproduce throughout year in all localities where repeated sampling has been carried out, but proportion of females giving birth increases during wet season in summer or after significant rain at other times. Rainfall probably increases availability of food for this species, and also provides free water that assists mothers in maintaining water balance during lactation. Females have eight nipples in a rearopening pouch and carry 2-3 young at a time. One or two young may survive to weaning, but rate of recruitment to adult population is not known. Age at sexual maturity is 6-7 months. There is no information for this species on length of gestation or time to weaning, but these traits are likely to be similar to those of better-studied Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus).Activity patterns.Rests by day in a nest or temporary shelter and emerges after dusk when conditions are dark. Radio-tracking studies indicate that activity can be maintained continuously throughout the night, although animals are usually most active 3—4 hours after dusk and in the hour or so before dawn. Up to 10 ha may be covered each night, although 1-5 ha is more usual. Animals return to their shelters before daybreak.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Limited research on Barrow Island and Marchinbar Island shows that males occupy larger home ranges (4-4-35-6 ha) than females (1-7-12-7 ha). On Marchinbar, home range areas tended to be larger during dry season than in wet season and ranges of the sexes overlapped. On Barrow, male ranges overlapped with those of females but not with each other. Individuals appear to be generally aggressive toward each other and fight if placed in close proximity. Despite this social intolerance, population densities can be high. Marchinbar supports ¢.0-07 ind/ha and Barrow c.0-3 ind/ha, but density may rise to 10 ind/ha in productive areas on the coast, where island food resources are high and subsidies are available from nearby beaches.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species was once widespread in interior of Australia, but is now confined to high-rainfall areas of north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins islands), Barrow Island and Middle Island, off Pilbara coast, all in Western Australia, with an isolated outpost on Marchinbar Island, off N Northern Territory. It is considered to have a declining population trend. Sparsely distributed on mainland Western Australia, where population declines recently recorded. No estimates available for Augustus or Uwins, but the species is said to be sparse on former and relatively common on latter. It appears to be secure on Barrow, where at least 20,000 individuals estimated, and reasonably safe on Middle (c.1000) and Marchinbar (c.1400). Introductions or reintroductions from these populations to two small Wessel Group islands (Guluwuru and Raragala islands) off N Northern Territory, and to Doole Island, Hermite Island, and Lorna Glen in Western Australia, should provide insurance that these forms will remain secure. These sites are conservation reserves or Indigenous Protected Areas and are monitored on a regular or ad hoc basis. Mainland populations of this bandicoot continue to decline owing to predation from domestic or feral cats (Felis catus), habitat loss due to such practices as mining, and inappropriate changes to the fire regime that reduce vegetation cover and expose animals to increased risk of predation. Monitoring takes place at some mainland sites such as Mitchell Plateau and Artesian Range Sanctuary, in Western Australia, with active research and management in place at latter site to mitigate effects of changed fire regimes. Long-term security of this peramelid most likely to occurif cats and other invasive species, such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus), are prevented from establishing on key islands, and if means of managing cat impacts on a broad scale can be found for the remnant populations that persist in mainland areas.Bibliography.Bradshaw et al. (1994), Burbidge et al. (1988), Close et al. (1990), Cockburn (1990), Dahl (1897), Ellis et al. (1991), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Groves (2005c¢), Johnson & Southgate (1990), Jones et al. (2009), Lyne & Mort (1981), McKenzie, Morris & Dickman (2008), Ottewell et al. (2014), Palmer et al. (2003), Pope et al. (2001), Southgate et al. (1996), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski, Burbidge & Harrison (2014d), Woinarski, Palmer et al. (1999), Woinarski, Pavey et al. (2007), Zenger et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Perameles auratus [sic] Ramsay, 1887,“ Derby, N. W. Australia.” (= Western Australia, Australia).Recent molecular analyses confirm this taxon as being distinct from I. obesulusand distinguish two forms within it that correspond to subspecies auratusand barrowensis. As noted above, the same analyses suggest that these subspecies cluster with I. o. peninsulae (or even I. peninsulae), and further work may see this form grouped within the “Golden Bandicoot clade.” A further race, arnhemensis, has been distinguished on basis ofits larger size and slight differences in shape ofits skull; it has not, however, been subject to any genetic or molecular analysis, and is not accepted by all authorities. Three subspecies tentatively recognized here.","commonNames":"Bandicoot doré @fr | Goldbrauner Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto dorado @es | Northern Golden Bandicoot @en | Northern Golden-backed Bandicoot @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ramsay","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1887","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Isoodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"389","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"auratus","name":"Isoodon auratus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"I.a.auratusRamsay,1887—NWKimberleyandseveralsmallislandsoffKimberleycoast.I.a.arnhemensisLyne&Mort,1981—CapeArnhem,NENorthernTerritory.I. a. barrowensis Thomas, 1901— Barrow I and Middle I, Western Australia.Occurs also (subspecies uncertain) on Marchinbar I, in Wessel Group, Northern Territory, and introduced recently to two further islands in Wessel Group. Barrow I race barrowensisintroduced to nearby Hermite I, to Doole I (in Exmouth Gulf), and to Lorna Glen (mainland of C Western Australia) in recentyears.","bibliography":"Bradshaw et al. (1994) | Burbidge et al. (1988) | Close et al. (1990) | Cockburn (1990) | Dahl (1897) | Ellis et al. (1991) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Groves (2005c¢) | Johnson & Southgate (1990) | Jones et al. (2009) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | McKenzie, Morris & Dickman (2008) | Ottewell et al. (2014) | Palmer et al. (2003) | Pope et al. (2001) | Southgate et al. (1996) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski, Burbidge & Harrison (2014d) | Woinarski, Palmer et al. (1999) | Woinarski, Pavey et al. (2007) | Zenger et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Invertebrates represent a larger part of diet compared with those of both larger congeners, with beetles, termites, ants, centipedes, and insect larvae consumed. In addition, it eats seeds, roots, tubers, fruits, and other plant material, especially in dry season, and small rodents and lizards also may be eaten. Perhaps because of the diverse habitats that it uses for foraging, including ocean beaches, this species includes in its diet items that are unusual for peramelids, such as washed-up cephalopods and turtle eggs. Conical-shaped pits in sandy soils indicate where foraging has taken place.","breeding":"Females reproduce throughout year in all localities where repeated sampling has been carried out, but proportion of females giving birth increases during wet season in summer or after significant rain at other times. Rainfall probably increases availability of food for this species, and also provides free water that assists mothers in maintaining water balance during lactation. Females have eight nipples in a rearopening pouch and carry 2-3 young at a time. One or two young may survive to weaning, but rate of recruitment to adult population is not known. Age at sexual maturity is 6-7 months. There is no information for this species on length of gestation or time to weaning, but these traits are likely to be similar to those of better-studied Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus).","activityPatterns":"Rests by day in a nest or temporary shelter and emerges after dusk when conditions are dark. Radio-tracking studies indicate that activity can be maintained continuously throughout the night, although animals are usually most active 3—4 hours after dusk and in the hour or so before dawn. Up to 10 ha may be covered each night, although 1-5 ha is more usual. Animals return to their shelters before daybreak.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Limited research on Barrow Island and Marchinbar Island shows that males occupy larger home ranges (4-4-35-6 ha) than females (1-7-12-7 ha). On Marchinbar, home range areas tended to be larger during dry season than in wet season and ranges of the sexes overlapped. On Barrow, male ranges overlapped with those of females but not with each other. Individuals appear to be generally aggressive toward each other and fight if placed in close proximity. Despite this social intolerance, population densities can be high. Marchinbar supports ¢.0-07 ind/ha and Barrow c.0-3 ind/ha, but density may rise to 10 ind/ha in productive areas on the coast, where island food resources are high and subsidies are available from nearby beaches.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species was once widespread in interior of Australia, but is now confined to high-rainfall areas of north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins islands), Barrow Island and Middle Island, off Pilbara coast, all in Western Australia, with an isolated outpost on Marchinbar Island, off N Northern Territory. It is considered to have a declining population trend. Sparsely distributed on mainland Western Australia, where population declines recently recorded. No estimates available for Augustus or Uwins, but the species is said to be sparse on former and relatively common on latter. It appears to be secure on Barrow, where at least 20,000 individuals estimated, and reasonably safe on Middle (c.1000) and Marchinbar (c.1400). Introductions or reintroductions from these populations to two small Wessel Group islands (Guluwuru and Raragala islands) off N Northern Territory, and to Doole Island, Hermite Island, and Lorna Glen in Western Australia, should provide insurance that these forms will remain secure. These sites are conservation reserves or Indigenous Protected Areas and are monitored on a regular or ad hoc basis. Mainland populations of this bandicoot continue to decline owing to predation from domestic or feral cats (Felis catus), habitat loss due to such practices as mining, and inappropriate changes to the fire regime that reduce vegetation cover and expose animals to increased risk of predation. Monitoring takes place at some mainland sites such as Mitchell Plateau and Artesian Range Sanctuary, in Western Australia, with active research and management in place at latter site to mitigate effects of changed fire regimes. Long-term security of this peramelid most likely to occurif cats and other invasive species, such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus), are prevented from establishing on key islands, and if means of managing cat impacts on a broad scale can be found for the remnant populations that persist in mainland areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 19-29.5 cm, tail 8.4-12.1 cm; weight 300-670 g for I. a. auratus, 250-600 g for I. a. barrowensis. Males 40-50% heavier than females. Smallest member of genus. Dorsal fur is golden brown, but has grizzled appearance owing to overlay of long, stiff guard hairs; ventral fur is cream or white. Tail is covered in short, orange to dark brown hairs.","habitat":"Prior to its final disappearance from arid regions in mid-20\" century, occurred on sandy soils dominated by hummock grass or low shrubs. In its remnant mainland distribution it occurs in tussock grassland and low woodland dominated by Acacia(Fabaceae) and Eucalyptus spp.(Myrtaceae), often on sandy soils, but also on rugged sandstone habitats. Shows a strong association with hummock grass on Barrow Island, often burrowing under hummocks for shelter, but on Marchinbar Island prefers low heath or shrubland on sand or sandstone. Sometimes found in vine thicket and patches of rainforest, but these do not appear to be preferred habitats. Nest can be a shallow scrape under rock or other shelter, or simple structure constructed from grass and other local materials; constructed on ground surface, under grass hummock and dense shrubs or, on Barrow, in limestone cave. Individuals use different shelters on different days, and visit varied habitats by night when foraging, but generally occupy stable ranges that change little between seasons."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDCFFBCF8A6DD76FD8213C6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDCFFBCF8A6DD76FD8213C6","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"396","verbatimText":"13.Long-nosed EchymiperaEchymipera rufescensFrench:Bandicoot roux/ German:Roter Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de hocico largoOther common names:Rufescent Bandicoot, Rufous Spiny BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles rufescens Peters & Doria, 1875,“Insulae Kei [= Kai Island],” Indonesia.Taxonomic status of several insular populations is in need of revision; taxonomic position of populations on Aru Islands and Kai Islands and those on D’Entrecasteaux Islands remains particularly uncertain. Two subspecies generally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.rufescensPeters&Doria,1875—WPapuanIs(Misool),NewGuinea(includingYapenIandD’EntrecasteauxArchipelago),KaiIs,andAruIs.E. r. australis Tate, 1948— Cape York, NE Australia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 21.5-54.5 cm,tail 7.5-11.5 cm; weight 0.3-3 kg. The subspecies australis is smaller of the two subspecies, males attaining head-body length of up to 48 cm and weight of up to 2-2 kg, compared with 54-5 cm and 3 kg, respectively, for nominate rufescens, a small form of latter occurs in Sepik region and a much larger form in Gulf Province. In both subspecies body weight of males may average 70% more than that of females, although occasional females may approach male body size. Dorsal fur is tawny, dark brown or rufous with characteristically stiff, broad, spiky hairs that give pelage a brindled appearance; ventral fur is pale. Crown of head is dark, often black, grading to pale gray on face and throat but with no hint of striping; snout is notably elongated, ears are short and round, and tail short, black, and naked. This species is variable in size and color, with small individuals similar in appearance to female Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara) and the Common Echymipera(E. kalubu); can be distinguished from these two byits usually more rufous toning and the presence of a small black pad on hindfoot.Habitat.In New Guinea occurs in grassland, scrub, lowland rainforest, and foothill forest at altitudes from sea level to 1200 m, occasionally to 2100 m; found also in generally drier and more disturbed habitats than other species in genus. It occupies similar habitats in Australia, but occurs there also in coastal closed heath and extends into drier country along gallery forest, from sea level to 800 m. May rest in logs or under leaflitter in sheltered sites in a similar manner to that of other peramelids, but present species also shows considerable propensity to construct burrows. In Australia, burrow complexes may be 50-80 cm deep, cover up to 3 m? in area, and have two or more entrances.Food and Feeding.In the most detailed study of the diet of this echymipera, at Iron Range, on Cape York Peninsula,fruits and seeds comprised ¢.27% of diet, followed by invertebrates (26%), fungi (19%), and the remains ofleafy plants (18%); other foods included plant roots and soil, grass, and small vertebrates. Pronounced seasonal variation in the amount of each food type consumed probably reflected changes in food availability. More limited information for New Guinea suggests that diet there is similar. Food obtained from forest floor or by excavation; as with many other peramelids, this species’ presence can often be detected by the finding of conical holes 20-30 cm deep that the animals have dug with their powerful forelimbs.Breeding.In Iron Range study, females carried pouch young between November and May, 80-100% of females carrying young during peak of wet season from January to March. Litter size was 1-4 (average 2-8), larger females carrying more young and producing up to two litters per season. Females produced on average 4-9 young per year. Females have eight nipples. Reproductive effort appears similar, or perhaps spread over longer period, in New Guinea, where females recorded as carrying young in pouch in May, October, March, and August. Growth of young appears to be slower than in other peramelids that have been well studied; young leave pouch at c.65 days, are weaned at 70 days, and become sexually mature at 4-5 months.Activity patterns.Rests by day, and is believed to be strictly nocturnal in both its Australian and its New Guinean ranges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is some evidence that animals make repeated use of the same paths through vegetation and that range areas are of the order of 1-2 ha. Captive individuals are intensely intolerant of each other, and males, in particular, often bear scars and wounds inflicted in fights. Despite such mutual intolerance, local population density can be high if resources are available. At Iron Range, 48 resident animals were present on a grid of 2-25 ha, equating ostensibly to a density of 21 ind/ha; true density would have been less than this as the grid probably sampled an area greater than 2-25 ha, but would still have exceeded 10 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Has a decreasing population trend. In New Guinea, nominate subspecies is considered to be uncommon in most parts of its range, although it can achieve high abundance locally if conditionsare suitable. It has a large geographical range, occurs in a number of protected areas, and may be tolerant of at least some habitat disturbance. It is, nonetheless, a favored game species and is susceptible to overhunting. There is also anecdotal evidence that it is susceptible to the gross habitat disturbance that accompanies mining and the forest-firing and clearing that precedes production of commercial crops such as oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). Thus, while nominate rufescensis declining in some areas, the overall rate of decline appears slow and the subspecies cannot be considered at risk. In Australia, subspecies australis appears to be secure. It faces no obvious or immediate threats, has not declined in its distributional range, and remains locally abundantin suitable habitat.Bibliography.Collins (1973), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Gordon & Lawrie (1978), Gordon et al. (1990), Groves (2005¢c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Menzies (2011), Shevill & Johnson (2007), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977, 1982).","taxonomy":"Perameles rufescens Peters & Doria, 1875,“Insulae Kei [= Kai Island],” Indonesia.Taxonomic status of several insular populations is in need of revision; taxonomic position of populations on Aru Islands and Kai Islands and those on D’Entrecasteaux Islands remains particularly uncertain. Two subspecies generally recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot roux @fr | Roter Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de hocico largo @es | Rufescent Bandicoot @en | Rufous Spiny Bandicoot @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters & Doria","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1875","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Echymipera","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"396","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufescens","name":"Echymipera rufescens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.r.rufescensPeters&Doria,1875—WPapuanIs(Misool),NewGuinea(includingYapenIandD’EntrecasteauxArchipelago),KaiIs,andAruIs.E. r. australis Tate, 1948— Cape York, NE Australia.","bibliography":"Collins (1973) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Gordon & Lawrie (1978) | Gordon et al. (1990) | Groves (2005¢c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Menzies (2011) | Shevill & Johnson (2007) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)","foodAndFeeding":"In the most detailed study of the diet of this echymipera, at Iron Range, on Cape York Peninsula,fruits and seeds comprised ¢.27% of diet, followed by invertebrates (26%), fungi (19%), and the remains ofleafy plants (18%); other foods included plant roots and soil, grass, and small vertebrates. Pronounced seasonal variation in the amount of each food type consumed probably reflected changes in food availability. More limited information for New Guinea suggests that diet there is similar. Food obtained from forest floor or by excavation; as with many other peramelids, this species’ presence can often be detected by the finding of conical holes 20-30 cm deep that the animals have dug with their powerful forelimbs.","breeding":"In Iron Range study, females carried pouch young between November and May, 80-100% of females carrying young during peak of wet season from January to March. Litter size was 1-4 (average 2-8), larger females carrying more young and producing up to two litters per season. Females produced on average 4-9 young per year. Females have eight nipples. Reproductive effort appears similar, or perhaps spread over longer period, in New Guinea, where females recorded as carrying young in pouch in May, October, March, and August. Growth of young appears to be slower than in other peramelids that have been well studied; young leave pouch at c.65 days, are weaned at 70 days, and become sexually mature at 4-5 months.","activityPatterns":"Rests by day, and is believed to be strictly nocturnal in both its Australian and its New Guinean ranges.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is some evidence that animals make repeated use of the same paths through vegetation and that range areas are of the order of 1-2 ha. Captive individuals are intensely intolerant of each other, and males, in particular, often bear scars and wounds inflicted in fights. Despite such mutual intolerance, local population density can be high if resources are available. At Iron Range, 48 resident animals were present on a grid of 2-25 ha, equating ostensibly to a density of 21 ind/ha; true density would have been less than this as the grid probably sampled an area greater than 2-25 ha, but would still have exceeded 10 ind/ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Has a decreasing population trend. In New Guinea, nominate subspecies is considered to be uncommon in most parts of its range, although it can achieve high abundance locally if conditionsare suitable. It has a large geographical range, occurs in a number of protected areas, and may be tolerant of at least some habitat disturbance. It is, nonetheless, a favored game species and is susceptible to overhunting. There is also anecdotal evidence that it is susceptible to the gross habitat disturbance that accompanies mining and the forest-firing and clearing that precedes production of commercial crops such as oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). Thus, while nominate rufescensis declining in some areas, the overall rate of decline appears slow and the subspecies cannot be considered at risk. In Australia, subspecies australis appears to be secure. It faces no obvious or immediate threats, has not declined in its distributional range, and remains locally abundantin suitable habitat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 21.5-54.5 cm,tail 7.5-11.5 cm; weight 0.3-3 kg. The subspecies australis is smaller of the two subspecies, males attaining head-body length of up to 48 cm and weight of up to 2-2 kg, compared with 54-5 cm and 3 kg, respectively, for nominate rufescens, a small form of latter occurs in Sepik region and a much larger form in Gulf Province. In both subspecies body weight of males may average 70% more than that of females, although occasional females may approach male body size. Dorsal fur is tawny, dark brown or rufous with characteristically stiff, broad, spiky hairs that give pelage a brindled appearance; ventral fur is pale. Crown of head is dark, often black, grading to pale gray on face and throat but with no hint of striping; snout is notably elongated, ears are short and round, and tail short, black, and naked. This species is variable in size and color, with small individuals similar in appearance to female Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara) and the Common Echymipera(E. kalubu); can be distinguished from these two byits usually more rufous toning and the presence of a small black pad on hindfoot.","habitat":"In New Guinea occurs in grassland, scrub, lowland rainforest, and foothill forest at altitudes from sea level to 1200 m, occasionally to 2100 m; found also in generally drier and more disturbed habitats than other species in genus. It occupies similar habitats in Australia, but occurs there also in coastal closed heath and extends into drier country along gallery forest, from sea level to 800 m. May rest in logs or under leaflitter in sheltered sites in a similar manner to that of other peramelids, but present species also shows considerable propensity to construct burrows. In Australia, burrow complexes may be 50-80 cm deep, cover up to 3 m? in area, and have two or more entrances."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD6FFB2FDB2D4CDFCBF1092.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD6FFB2FDB2D4CDFCBF1092","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"390","verbatimText":"3.Northern Brown BandicootIsoodon macrourusFrench:Bandicoot a longue queue/ German:GroRer Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto septentrionalOther common names:Brindled Bandicoot, Giant Brindled Bandicoot, Large Northern Bandicoot, Northern Shortnosed Bandicoot, Short-nosed BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles macroura Gould, 1842,“ Port Essington,” Northern Territory, Australia.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I.m.macrourusGould,1842—NNorthernTerritoryandNWesternAustralia,includingmanylargeislandsnearNcoast(e.g.GrooteEylandt,TiwiIs).I.m.moresbyensisRamsay,1877—NewGuinea.I. m. torosus Ramsay, 1877— N Queensland (Cape York) S, including Fraser I, Moreton I, North Stradbroke I and South Stradbroke, to Hawkesbury River, in CE New South Wales.Descriptive notes.Head-body 30-47 cm, tail 8-21.5 cm; weight 0.5-3.1 kg. Adult males 80-90% heavier than females. Largest member of genus. Dorsal fur is light to dark brown, interspersed with black spiny bristle hairs that give animals a sleek but grizzled appearance. Ventral fur is light gray or off-white and less spiky than dorsal pelage. Tail is covered with short, dark hair, ears are naked and held erect; both tail and ears of males may be scarred from fighting.Habitat.Occurs in grassland, woodland, open forest and on occasion rainforest in both Australia and New Guinea, and successfully exploits gardens and other disturbed habitats if sufficient ground coveris available to allow access. Prefers ground cover comprising dense shrubs or tall grass in southern parts ofits range, but readily uses areas with sparse ground in monsoon tropical regions in northern Australia and New Guinea. In drier parts of range in Australia, this species persists in marshy areas with heavy ground cover, and penetrates west in Queensland to about the 625mm rainfall isohyet by moving along densely vegetated riparian corridors. Nest usually a simple scrape under a dome of sticks, leaf litter, and other debris, with two or more openings; individuals may also use logs, grass tussocks, or crevices in rocks for shelter.Food and Feeding.Omnivorous, and eats wide variety of invertebrates, small vertebrates such as lizards and birds, and their eggs, also fruits, seeds, plant roots, storage organs, and green plant material, as well as underground fungi. Like other members of the genus, this bandicoot forages on ground surface but also uses its powerful forelimbsto dig for food, leaving behind characteristically conical holes that may descend to depth of 30 cm. The diet varies with locality and season, suggesting that animals track and eat different prey types according to their availability.Breeding.Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months and males by six months. Breeding can occur year-round, but in southern parts of range there is usually a hiatus in reproductive activity over winter between April and July and in northern regions during dry season between May and July. Gestation is 12-5 days, and young leave the pouch at 50 days and are weaned at 60 days or less. Litter size 1-7, but more usually 3—4, with larger litters borne by females in southern areas compared with those in northern Australia or New Guinea. Relatively large litter size, rapid growth, and rapid development of this species mean thatit is one of the most fecund of the peramelids. In Darwin area of Northern Territory, one study described females as producing up to fourlitters at intervals of 54 days over the breeding season. As in other members of genus, this bandicoot has eight nipples in a backward-facing pouch, use of individual nipples alternating between successive litters.Activity patterns.Individuals emerge after dark and are active for most of night, covering wide range of habitats in their search for food; males may patrol areas on edge of their home range, especially during the long breeding season. The day is usually spent in resting in the nest or under shelter, but occasional movements have been recorded in early morning orjust before dusk in rugged sandstone country on Groote Eylandt.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both sexes are solitary. Males and females tolerate each other briefly when females are in estrus, but otherwise interactions are characterized by aggression, chases, and fights. Both sexes produce secretions from glands behind the ears and rub them on ground or vegetation during encounters, perhaps using them as “keep-away” signals to reduce likelihood of further encounters. Home ranges relatively small compared with those of its two smaller congeners, averaging 2-7 ha (maximum 6 ha) in one study in abandoned pasture-shrubland area and 1-5 ha in another study in remnant vegetation within limits of city of Brisbane. Population densities can be correspondingly large, ranging from 0-2 ind/ ha to 2:6 ind/ha in New South Wales and southern Queensland, but lower densities of 0-05 ind/ha to 0-7 ind/ha appear to be more typical in tropical regions. Lower densities, larger ranges and more seasonal breeding in northern compared with southern Australia may reflect less abundant and more strongly seasonal food resources in monsoonal tropics compared with mid-latitude habitats. Corresponding differences in recruitment of young into adult population might be expected between regional areas, but limited evidence suggests that recruitment rates are usually 10-15%. Higher recruitment of young, however, follows disturbances such as fire and mechanical damage to habitat and, as with the Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus), the life-history strategy of present species has been interpreted as one that allows rapid colonization of newly created habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend stable. This bandicoot is not considered to be at currentrisk as it occupies an extensive geographical range, has a large overall population, and occurs in many protected areas. Declines have occurred in drier, inland areas near S edge of range of race torosus. While the species continues to decline owing to development, habitat loss, and changes in fire regimes, and overhunting for bushmeat in New Guinea, the declines are mostly local. The larger size of this bandicoot means that it is at less risk of predation from the feral cat (Felis catus), although it still falls prey to Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and wild dogs (Canis). Historical declines in inland pastoral areas were not extensive, and these appear to have slowed or halted. All subspecies appear to be secure.Bibliography.Ashby et al. (1990), Brass (1956), Close et al. (1990), Cockburn (1990), Dickman (2014), FitzGibbon, Putland & Goldizen (2007), FitzGibbon, Wilson & Goldizen (2011), Flannery (1995a), Friend, G.R. (1990), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gemmell (1982, 1990a,1990b), Gordon (1971, 1974), Gordon et al. (1990), Groves (2005¢), Hall (1983, 1990), Johnson & Southgate (1990), Keiper & Johnson (2004), Lyne (1974), Lyne & Mort (1981), Menzies (2011), Pardon et al. (2003), Pope et al. (2001), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Vernes & Pope (2009), Waithman (1979), Westerman et al. (2012), Zenger et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Perameles macroura Gould, 1842,“ Port Essington,” Northern Territory, Australia.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot a longue queue @fr | Gro Rer Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto septentrional @es | Brindled Bandicoot @en | Giant Brindled Bandicoot @en | Large Northern Bandicoot @en | Northern Shortnosed Bandicoot @en | Short-nosed Bandicoot @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gould","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1842","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Isoodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"390","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macrourus","name":"Isoodon macrourus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"I.m.macrourusGould,1842—NNorthernTerritoryandNWesternAustralia,includingmanylargeislandsnearNcoast(e.g.GrooteEylandt,TiwiIs).I.m.moresbyensisRamsay,1877—NewGuinea.I. m. torosus Ramsay, 1877— N Queensland (Cape York) S, including Fraser I, Moreton I, North Stradbroke I and South Stradbroke, to Hawkesbury River, in CE New South Wales.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621752/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ashby et al. (1990) | Brass (1956) | Close et al. (1990) | Cockburn (1990) | Dickman (2014) | FitzGibbon, Putland & Goldizen (2007) | FitzGibbon, Wilson & Goldizen (2011) | Flannery (1995a) | Friend, G.R. (1990) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gemmell (1982, 1990a,1990b) | Gordon (1971, 1974) | Gordon et al. (1990) | Groves (2005¢) | Hall (1983, 1990) | Johnson & Southgate (1990) | Keiper & Johnson (2004) | Lyne (1974) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | Menzies (2011) | Pardon et al. (2003) | Pope et al. (2001) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Vernes & Pope (2009) | Waithman (1979) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Zenger et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Omnivorous, and eats wide variety of invertebrates, small vertebrates such as lizards and birds, and their eggs, also fruits, seeds, plant roots, storage organs, and green plant material, as well as underground fungi. Like other members of the genus, this bandicoot forages on ground surface but also uses its powerful forelimbsto dig for food, leaving behind characteristically conical holes that may descend to depth of 30 cm. The diet varies with locality and season, suggesting that animals track and eat different prey types according to their availability.","breeding":"Females achieve sexual maturity at 3-5 months and males by six months. Breeding can occur year-round, but in southern parts of range there is usually a hiatus in reproductive activity over winter between April and July and in northern regions during dry season between May and July. Gestation is 12-5 days, and young leave the pouch at 50 days and are weaned at 60 days or less. Litter size 1-7, but more usually 3—4, with larger litters borne by females in southern areas compared with those in northern Australia or New Guinea. Relatively large litter size, rapid growth, and rapid development of this species mean thatit is one of the most fecund of the peramelids. In Darwin area of Northern Territory, one study described females as producing up to fourlitters at intervals of 54 days over the breeding season. As in other members of genus, this bandicoot has eight nipples in a backward-facing pouch, use of individual nipples alternating between successive litters.","activityPatterns":"Individuals emerge after dark and are active for most of night, covering wide range of habitats in their search for food; males may patrol areas on edge of their home range, especially during the long breeding season. The day is usually spent in resting in the nest or under shelter, but occasional movements have been recorded in early morning orjust before dusk in rugged sandstone country on Groote Eylandt.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Both sexes are solitary. Males and females tolerate each other briefly when females are in estrus, but otherwise interactions are characterized by aggression, chases, and fights. Both sexes produce secretions from glands behind the ears and rub them on ground or vegetation during encounters, perhaps using them as “keep-away” signals to reduce likelihood of further encounters. Home ranges relatively small compared with those of its two smaller congeners, averaging 2-7 ha (maximum 6 ha) in one study in abandoned pasture-shrubland area and 1-5 ha in another study in remnant vegetation within limits of city of Brisbane. Population densities can be correspondingly large, ranging from 0-2 ind/ ha to 2:6 ind/ha in New South Wales and southern Queensland, but lower densities of 0-05 ind/ha to 0-7 ind/ha appear to be more typical in tropical regions. Lower densities, larger ranges and more seasonal breeding in northern compared with southern Australia may reflect less abundant and more strongly seasonal food resources in monsoonal tropics compared with mid-latitude habitats. Corresponding differences in recruitment of young into adult population might be expected between regional areas, but limited evidence suggests that recruitment rates are usually 10-15%. Higher recruitment of young, however, follows disturbances such as fire and mechanical damage to habitat and, as with the Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus), the life-history strategy of present species has been interpreted as one that allows rapid colonization of newly created habitat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend stable. This bandicoot is not considered to be at currentrisk as it occupies an extensive geographical range, has a large overall population, and occurs in many protected areas. Declines have occurred in drier, inland areas near S edge of range of race torosus. While the species continues to decline owing to development, habitat loss, and changes in fire regimes, and overhunting for bushmeat in New Guinea, the declines are mostly local. The larger size of this bandicoot means that it is at less risk of predation from the feral cat (Felis catus), although it still falls prey to Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and wild dogs (Canis). Historical declines in inland pastoral areas were not extensive, and these appear to have slowed or halted. All subspecies appear to be secure.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 30-47 cm, tail 8-21.5 cm; weight 0.5-3.1 kg. Adult males 80-90% heavier than females. Largest member of genus. Dorsal fur is light to dark brown, interspersed with black spiny bristle hairs that give animals a sleek but grizzled appearance. Ventral fur is light gray or off-white and less spiky than dorsal pelage. Tail is covered with short, dark hair, ears are naked and held erect; both tail and ears of males may be scarred from fighting.","habitat":"Occurs in grassland, woodland, open forest and on occasion rainforest in both Australia and New Guinea, and successfully exploits gardens and other disturbed habitats if sufficient ground coveris available to allow access. Prefers ground cover comprising dense shrubs or tall grass in southern parts ofits range, but readily uses areas with sparse ground in monsoon tropical regions in northern Australia and New Guinea. In drier parts of range in Australia, this species persists in marshy areas with heavy ground cover, and penetrates west in Queensland to about the 625mm rainfall isohyet by moving along densely vegetated riparian corridors. Nest usually a simple scrape under a dome of sticks, leaf litter, and other debris, with two or more openings; individuals may also use logs, grass tussocks, or crevices in rocks for shelter."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD7FFB4FD91DD78F5BF1734.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD7FFB4FD91DD78F5BF1734","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"389","verbatimText":"1.Southern Brown BandicootIsoodon obesulusFrench:Bandicoot obése/ German:Kleiner Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto meridionalOther common names:Brown Bandicoot, Short-nosed Bandicoot, Southern Short-nosed Bandicoot; Nuyts Southern Brown Bandicoot (nauticus)Taxonomy.Didelphis obesula Shaw, 1797,“New Holland.” Restricted by T. Iredale & E. Le G. Troughton in 1934 to “Sydney, N.S.W. [= New South Wales],” Australia.Further restricted by J. M. Dixon in 1981 to “1-5 km south of the Hawkesbury River, 7-5 km from the Coal and Candle Creek Road turnoff on the West Head Road, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, north of Sydney, New South Wales, Lat. 33° 36’ S; Long. 151° 16” E,” Australia.This species has been split at various times into 3-5 geographically separated subspecies, but most contention surrounds the status of present species with respect to the closely related I. auratus. In some morphological and mtDNA analyses the latter has been grouped with Western Australian subspecies fusciventer, which would give this form a large and almost continuous historical distribution throughout Western Australia and most of the central part of the continent. More recent analyses incorporating additional nuclear-gene sequences suggest, however, that I. auratusis sufficiently distinct to warrant separation from I. obesulus, and this arrangement is followed here. Same analyses also hint at a closer relationship between the north-eastern subspecies peninsulae and I. auratusthan between former taxon and other forms of I. obesulus, and show little divergence between nominate obesulusand Tasmanian race affinis. Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis morphologically distinct from the nominate form, butis sometimes subsumed within latter. Pending further work, affinis, fusciventer, nauticus, and peninsulae are treated here as subspecies of 1. obesulus. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.I.o.obesulusShaw,1797—NewSouthWales,Victoria,mainlandSouthAustralia,andKangarooI. o.o.affinisWaterhouse,1846—Tasmania.I.o.fusciventerGray,1841—WesternAustralia.I.o.nauticusThomas,1922—NuytsArchipelago,SouthAustralia.I. o. peninsulae Thomas, 1922— N Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula.Descriptive notes.Head-body 28-36 cm, tail 9-14.5 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Males up to 40% heavier than females. Dorsal fur is dark brown or dark gray, and has a grizzled appearance owing to presence of black spiny bristle hairs. Ventral furis light gray and softer than stiff dorsal hair, and often has a creamy or yellowish tinge. Tail is covered in short, dark hairs. Older animals may have a stubby tail, ragged ears, and patches of missing fur (from fighting).Habitat.Diverse forest, woodland, heath and shrub communities, often where these occur on sandy soils. It occurs also on the edges of swamps and in riparian habitats where dense ground-level vegetation is present, creating tunnels and runs or using those constructed by other mammals. Recently burnt sites may be exploited for the regenerating food and shelter resources that they provide. Simple nests are formed under dense vegetation, under the skirts of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp., Xanthorrhoeaceae), and occasionally in shallow burrows; plantlitter, soil, and other debris may be used as construction materials to help enclose the nest. This species used to occur in more open habitats, but is probably restricted to areas with dense ground cover that provide shelter from introduced predators such as the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the domestic cat (Felis catus).Food and Feeding.Insects, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents), bird eggs, fruit, green plant material, and fungi are all eaten. In several studies invertebrates have been the dominant food item, but the relative importance of each food type varies with season and locality. Most foraging occurs at night, animals using their hearing to detect surface-active prey and their sense of smell to detect buried prey. Digs characteristic conical holes in topsoil when buried prey has been located, providing a ready and reliable means of determining whether the species is present at a site.Breeding.Females attain sexual maturity at 4-5 months and males at six months. Breeding usually takes place from mid-winter to mid-summer, but can occur yearround. Gestation is c.14 days, and the 1-6 young (average 2-8) are weaned at 60 days. Females have eight nipples housed in a backward-facing pouch; different nipples are used by neonates of alternate litters, allowing time for recently used nipples to regress to a size that allows newly born young to attach to them. Recruitment of young into adult population is typically of the order of 5-15%.Activity patterns.In the wild, usually nocturnal. Animals emerge an hour or more after dusk and appear to spend most of their active time in foraging. Captive individuals are strictly nocturnal and have been recorded as spending 71% of the 24hour day at rest in their nests.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other peramelids, this species is solitary and intolerant of conspecifics except for brief encounters during courtship and copulation, and when females are with dependent young. Some evidence that males maintain territories incorporating resource-rich patches of habitat and tolerate presence of young females within them, but banish older females to poorer-quality habitats. Population densities range from 0-1 ind/ha in poor-quality habitat to 5 ind/ha in sites with abundant food and few predators; home ranges usually of the order of 1-2 ha, but may exceed 6 ha in areas with sparse resources. Although few young usually recruited to the adult population, this species’ high reproductive rate may allow it swiftly to colonize newly created habitats in the wake of wildfires and other disturbances.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Shows a decreasing population trend. With the exception of races affinis and perhaps nauticus, the distributions of all subspecies have been fragmented and reduced in recent decades, this being especially marked in south-eastern Australia. The species occurs in conservation reserves throughout its range, but is susceptible to predation from introduced Red Fox and feral cat, and to loss of habitat in non-reserved areas. Nominate subspecies and Tasmanian endemic race affiniscan be considered near threatened owing to depressive effects of predators and habitat loss or alteration, and Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis vulnerable owing to the small size and restricted area of its population. Cape York subspecies peninsulae has small area of occupancy, but is abundant within its small range and considered to be of least concern. Likewise, race fusciventerin Western Australia is considered to be of least concern; it has declined in the past, but has achieved partial recovery since mid-1990s owing to large-scale and highly successful campaigns to reduce Red Fox numbers. Programs to reduce impacts of introduced predators are currently underway also in Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales, and these should help to guard the security of the species in future.Bibliography.Ashby et al. (1990), Broughton & Dickman (1991), Brown & Main (2012), Close et al. (1990), Coates & Wright (2003), Coates et al. (2008), Cockburn (1990), Copley et al. (1990), Dexter & Murray (2009), Dickman (1988b, 2012, 2014), Dixon (1981), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Gordon etal. (1990), Green (2007), Groves (2005c), Haby, Conran & Carthew (2013), Heinsohn (1966), Hocking (1990), Hope (2012), Iredale & Troughton (1934), Keiper & Johnson (2004), Kemper (1990), Larcombe (2003), Li You et al. (2014), Lobert (1990), Lobert & Lee (1990), Lyne & Mort (1981), McKenzie (1967), Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990), Morris et al. (1998), Nagy et al. (1991), Pope et al. (2001), Quin (1988), Stoddart & Braithwaite (1979), Thomas (1990), Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987), Warburton, Grégoire et al. (2013), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski et al. (2014e, 2014f, 2014g, 2014h), Zenger et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Didelphis obesula Shaw, 1797,“New Holland.” Restricted by T. Iredale & E. Le G. Troughton in 1934 to “Sydney, N.S.W. [= New South Wales],” Australia.Further restricted by J. M. Dixon in 1981 to “1-5 km south of the Hawkesbury River, 7-5 km from the Coal and Candle Creek Road turnoff on the West Head Road, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, north of Sydney, New South Wales, Lat. 33° 36’ S; Long. 151° 16” E,” Australia.This species has been split at various times into 3-5 geographically separated subspecies, but most contention surrounds the status of present species with respect to the closely related I. auratus. In some morphological and mtDNA analyses the latter has been grouped with Western Australian subspecies fusciventer, which would give this form a large and almost continuous historical distribution throughout Western Australia and most of the central part of the continent. More recent analyses incorporating additional nuclear-gene sequences suggest, however, that I. auratusis sufficiently distinct to warrant separation from I. obesulus, and this arrangement is followed here. Same analyses also hint at a closer relationship between the north-eastern subspecies peninsulae and I. auratusthan between former taxon and other forms of I. obesulus, and show little divergence between nominate obesulusand Tasmanian race affinis. Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis morphologically distinct from the nominate form, butis sometimes subsumed within latter. Pending further work, affinis, fusciventer, nauticus, and peninsulae are treated here as subspecies of 1. obesulus. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot obése @fr | Kleiner Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto meridional @es | Brown Bandicoot @en | Short-nosed Bandicoot @en | Southern Short-nosed Bandicoot; Nuyts Southern Brown Bandicoot (nauticus) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Shaw","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1797","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Isoodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"389","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"obesulus","name":"Isoodon obesulus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"I.o.obesulusShaw,1797—NewSouthWales,Victoria,mainlandSouthAustralia,andKangarooI. o.o.affinisWaterhouse,1846—Tasmania.I.o.fusciventerGray,1841—WesternAustralia.I.o.nauticusThomas,1922—NuytsArchipelago,SouthAustralia.I. o. peninsulae Thomas, 1922— N Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621748/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ashby et al. (1990) | Broughton & Dickman (1991) | Brown & Main (2012) | Close et al. (1990) | Coates & Wright (2003) | Coates et al. (2008) | Cockburn (1990) | Copley et al. (1990) | Dexter & Murray (2009) | Dickman (1988b, 2012, 2014) | Dixon (1981) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Gordon etal. (1990) | Green (2007) | Groves (2005c) | Haby, Conran & Carthew (2013) | Heinsohn (1966) | Hocking (1990) | Hope (2012) | Iredale & Troughton (1934) | Keiper & Johnson (2004) | Kemper (1990) | Larcombe (2003) | Li You et al. (2014) | Lobert (1990) | Lobert & Lee (1990) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | McKenzie (1967) | Menkhorst & Seebeck (1990) | Morris et al. (1998) | Nagy et al. (1991) | Pope et al. (2001) | Quin (1988) | Stoddart & Braithwaite (1979) | Thomas (1990) | Tyndale-Biscoe & Renfree (1987) | Warburton, Grégoire et al. (2013) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski et al. (2014e, 2014f, 2014g, 2014h) | Zenger et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Insects, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents), bird eggs, fruit, green plant material, and fungi are all eaten. In several studies invertebrates have been the dominant food item, but the relative importance of each food type varies with season and locality. Most foraging occurs at night, animals using their hearing to detect surface-active prey and their sense of smell to detect buried prey. Digs characteristic conical holes in topsoil when buried prey has been located, providing a ready and reliable means of determining whether the species is present at a site.","breeding":"Females attain sexual maturity at 4-5 months and males at six months. Breeding usually takes place from mid-winter to mid-summer, but can occur yearround. Gestation is c.14 days, and the 1-6 young (average 2-8) are weaned at 60 days. Females have eight nipples housed in a backward-facing pouch; different nipples are used by neonates of alternate litters, allowing time for recently used nipples to regress to a size that allows newly born young to attach to them. Recruitment of young into adult population is typically of the order of 5-15%.","activityPatterns":"In the wild, usually nocturnal. Animals emerge an hour or more after dusk and appear to spend most of their active time in foraging. Captive individuals are strictly nocturnal and have been recorded as spending 71% of the 24hour day at rest in their nests.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like other peramelids, this species is solitary and intolerant of conspecifics except for brief encounters during courtship and copulation, and when females are with dependent young. Some evidence that males maintain territories incorporating resource-rich patches of habitat and tolerate presence of young females within them, but banish older females to poorer-quality habitats. Population densities range from 0-1 ind/ha in poor-quality habitat to 5 ind/ha in sites with abundant food and few predators; home ranges usually of the order of 1-2 ha, but may exceed 6 ha in areas with sparse resources. Although few young usually recruited to the adult population, this species’ high reproductive rate may allow it swiftly to colonize newly created habitats in the wake of wildfires and other disturbances.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Shows a decreasing population trend. With the exception of races affinis and perhaps nauticus, the distributions of all subspecies have been fragmented and reduced in recent decades, this being especially marked in south-eastern Australia. The species occurs in conservation reserves throughout its range, but is susceptible to predation from introduced Red Fox and feral cat, and to loss of habitat in non-reserved areas. Nominate subspecies and Tasmanian endemic race affiniscan be considered near threatened owing to depressive effects of predators and habitat loss or alteration, and Nuyts Archipelago form nauticusis vulnerable owing to the small size and restricted area of its population. Cape York subspecies peninsulae has small area of occupancy, but is abundant within its small range and considered to be of least concern. Likewise, race fusciventerin Western Australia is considered to be of least concern; it has declined in the past, but has achieved partial recovery since mid-1990s owing to large-scale and highly successful campaigns to reduce Red Fox numbers. Programs to reduce impacts of introduced predators are currently underway also in Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales, and these should help to guard the security of the species in future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 28-36 cm, tail 9-14.5 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Males up to 40% heavier than females. Dorsal fur is dark brown or dark gray, and has a grizzled appearance owing to presence of black spiny bristle hairs. Ventral furis light gray and softer than stiff dorsal hair, and often has a creamy or yellowish tinge. Tail is covered in short, dark hairs. Older animals may have a stubby tail, ragged ears, and patches of missing fur (from fighting).","habitat":"Diverse forest, woodland, heath and shrub communities, often where these occur on sandy soils. It occurs also on the edges of swamps and in riparian habitats where dense ground-level vegetation is present, creating tunnels and runs or using those constructed by other mammals. Recently burnt sites may be exploited for the regenerating food and shelter resources that they provide. Simple nests are formed under dense vegetation, under the skirts of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp., Xanthorrhoeaceae), and occasionally in shallow burrows; plantlitter, soil, and other debris may be used as construction materials to help enclose the nest. This species used to occur in more open habitats, but is probably restricted to areas with dense ground cover that provide shelter from introduced predators such as the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the domestic cat (Felis catus)."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFD7FFB5F86CD9D3FCB41A01.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFD7FFB5F86CD9D3FCB41A01","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"389","verbatimText":"2.Golden BandicootIsoodon auratusFrench:Bandicoot doré/ German:Goldbrauner Kurznasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de hocico corto doradoOther common names:Northern Golden Bandicoot, Northern Golden-backed BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles auratus [sic] Ramsay, 1887,“ Derby, N. W. Australia.” (= Western Australia, Australia).Recent molecular analyses confirm this taxon as being distinct from I. obesulusand distinguish two forms within it that correspond to subspecies auratusand barrowensis. As noted above, the same analyses suggest that these subspecies cluster with I. o. peninsulae (or even I. peninsulae), and further work may see this form grouped within the “Golden Bandicoot clade.” A further race, arnhemensis, has been distinguished on basis ofits larger size and slight differences in shape ofits skull; it has not, however, been subject to any genetic or molecular analysis, and is not accepted by all authorities. Three subspecies tentatively recognized here.Subspecies and Distribution.I.a.auratusRamsay,1887—NWKimberleyandseveralsmallislandsoffKimberleycoast.I.a.arnhemensisLyne&Mort,1981—CapeArnhem,NENorthernTerritory.I. a. barrowensis Thomas, 1901— Barrow I and Middle I, Western Australia.Occurs also (subspecies uncertain) on Marchinbar I, in Wessel Group, Northern Territory, and introduced recently to two further islands in Wessel Group. Barrow I race barrowensisintroduced to nearby Hermite I, to Doole I (in Exmouth Gulf), and to Lorna Glen (mainland of C Western Australia) in recentyears.Descriptive notes.Head-body 19-29.5 cm, tail 8.4-12.1 cm; weight 300-670 g for I. a. auratus, 250-600 g for I. a. barrowensis. Males 40-50% heavier than females. Smallest member of genus. Dorsal fur is golden brown, but has grizzled appearance owing to overlay of long, stiff guard hairs; ventral fur is cream or white. Tail is covered in short, orange to dark brown hairs.Habitat.Prior to its final disappearance from arid regions in mid-20\" century, occurred on sandy soils dominated by hummock grass or low shrubs. In its remnant mainland distribution it occurs in tussock grassland and low woodland dominated by Acacia(Fabaceae) and Eucalyptus spp.(Myrtaceae), often on sandy soils, but also on rugged sandstone habitats. Shows a strong association with hummock grass on Barrow Island, often burrowing under hummocks for shelter, but on Marchinbar Island prefers low heath or shrubland on sand or sandstone. Sometimes found in vine thicket and patches of rainforest, but these do not appear to be preferred habitats. Nest can be a shallow scrape under rock or other shelter, or simple structure constructed from grass and other local materials; constructed on ground surface, under grass hummock and dense shrubs or, on Barrow, in limestone cave. Individuals use different shelters on different days, and visit varied habitats by night when foraging, but generally occupy stable ranges that change little between seasons.On following pages: 3. Northern Brown Bandicoot (/soodon macrourus); 4. Western Barred Bandicoot (Peramelesbougainville); 5. Eastern Barred Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii); 6. Long-nosed Bandicoot (Perameles nasuta), 7. Giant Bandicoot (Peroryctes broadbenti); 8. Raffray’s Bandicoot (Peroryctes raffrayana).Food and Feeding.Invertebrates represent a larger part of diet compared with those of both larger congeners, with beetles, termites, ants, centipedes, and insect larvae consumed. In addition, it eats seeds, roots, tubers, fruits, and other plant material, especially in dry season, and small rodents and lizards also may be eaten. Perhaps because of the diverse habitats that it uses for foraging, including ocean beaches, this species includes in its diet items that are unusual for peramelids, such as washed-up cephalopods and turtle eggs. Conical-shaped pits in sandy soils indicate where foraging has taken place.Breeding.Females reproduce throughout year in all localities where repeated sampling has been carried out, but proportion of females giving birth increases during wet season in summer or after significant rain at other times. Rainfall probably increases availability of food for this species, and also provides free water that assists mothers in maintaining water balance during lactation. Females have eight nipples in a rearopening pouch and carry 2-3 young at a time. One or two young may survive to weaning, but rate of recruitment to adult population is not known. Age at sexual maturity is 6-7 months. There is no information for this species on length of gestation or time to weaning, but these traits are likely to be similar to those of better-studied Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus).Activity patterns.Rests by day in a nest or temporary shelter and emerges after dusk when conditions are dark. Radio-tracking studies indicate that activity can be maintained continuously throughout the night, although animals are usually most active 3—4 hours after dusk and in the hour or so before dawn. Up to 10 ha may be covered each night, although 1-5 ha is more usual. Animals return to their shelters before daybreak.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Limited research on Barrow Island and Marchinbar Island shows that males occupy larger home ranges (4-4-35-6 ha) than females (1-7-12-7 ha). On Marchinbar, home range areas tended to be larger during dry season than in wet season and ranges of the sexes overlapped. On Barrow, male ranges overlapped with those of females but not with each other. Individuals appear to be generally aggressive toward each other and fight if placed in close proximity. Despite this social intolerance, population densities can be high. Marchinbar supports ¢.0-07 ind/ha and Barrow c.0-3 ind/ha, but density may rise to 10 ind/ha in productive areas on the coast, where island food resources are high and subsidies are available from nearby beaches.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species was once widespread in interior of Australia, but is now confined to high-rainfall areas of north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins islands), Barrow Island and Middle Island, off Pilbara coast, all in Western Australia, with an isolated outpost on Marchinbar Island, off N Northern Territory. It is considered to have a declining population trend. Sparsely distributed on mainland Western Australia, where population declines recently recorded. No estimates available for Augustus or Uwins, but the species is said to be sparse on former and relatively common on latter. It appears to be secure on Barrow, where at least 20,000 individuals estimated, and reasonably safe on Middle (c.1000) and Marchinbar (c.1400). Introductions or reintroductions from these populations to two small Wessel Group islands (Guluwuru and Raragala islands) off N Northern Territory, and to Doole Island, Hermite Island, and Lorna Glen in Western Australia, should provide insurance that these forms will remain secure. These sites are conservation reserves or Indigenous Protected Areas and are monitored on a regular or ad hoc basis. Mainland populations of this bandicoot continue to decline owing to predation from domestic or feral cats (Felis catus), habitat loss due to such practices as mining, and inappropriate changes to the fire regime that reduce vegetation cover and expose animals to increased risk of predation. Monitoring takes place at some mainland sites such as Mitchell Plateau and Artesian Range Sanctuary, in Western Australia, with active research and management in place at latter site to mitigate effects of changed fire regimes. Long-term security of this peramelid most likely to occurif cats and other invasive species, such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus), are prevented from establishing on key islands, and if means of managing cat impacts on a broad scale can be found for the remnant populations that persist in mainland areas.Bibliography.Bradshaw et al. (1994), Burbidge et al. (1988), Close et al. (1990), Cockburn (1990), Dahl (1897), Ellis et al. (1991), Friend, J.A. (1990a), Groves (2005c¢), Johnson & Southgate (1990), Jones et al. (2009), Lyne & Mort (1981), McKenzie, Morris & Dickman (2008), Ottewell et al. (2014), Palmer et al. (2003), Pope et al. (2001), Southgate et al. (1996), Westerman et al. (2012), Woinarski, Burbidge & Harrison (2014d), Woinarski, Palmer et al. (1999), Woinarski, Pavey et al. (2007), Zenger et al. (2005).","taxonomy":"Perameles auratus [sic] Ramsay, 1887,“ Derby, N. W. Australia.” (= Western Australia, Australia).Recent molecular analyses confirm this taxon as being distinct from I. obesulusand distinguish two forms within it that correspond to subspecies auratusand barrowensis. As noted above, the same analyses suggest that these subspecies cluster with I. o. peninsulae (or even I. peninsulae), and further work may see this form grouped within the “Golden Bandicoot clade.” A further race, arnhemensis, has been distinguished on basis ofits larger size and slight differences in shape ofits skull; it has not, however, been subject to any genetic or molecular analysis, and is not accepted by all authorities. Three subspecies tentatively recognized here.","commonNames":"Bandicoot doré @fr | Goldbrauner Kurznasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de hocico corto dorado @es | Northern Golden Bandicoot @en | Northern Golden-backed Bandicoot @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Ramsay","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1887","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Isoodon","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"389","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"auratus","name":"Isoodon auratus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"I.a.auratusRamsay,1887—NWKimberleyandseveralsmallislandsoffKimberleycoast.I.a.arnhemensisLyne&Mort,1981—CapeArnhem,NENorthernTerritory.I. a. barrowensis Thomas, 1901— Barrow I and Middle I, Western Australia.Occurs also (subspecies uncertain) on Marchinbar I, in Wessel Group, Northern Territory, and introduced recently to two further islands in Wessel Group. Barrow I race barrowensisintroduced to nearby Hermite I, to Doole I (in Exmouth Gulf), and to Lorna Glen (mainland of C Western Australia) in recentyears.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621750/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bradshaw et al. (1994) | Burbidge et al. (1988) | Close et al. (1990) | Cockburn (1990) | Dahl (1897) | Ellis et al. (1991) | Friend, J.A. (1990a) | Groves (2005c¢) | Johnson & Southgate (1990) | Jones et al. (2009) | Lyne & Mort (1981) | McKenzie, Morris & Dickman (2008) | Ottewell et al. (2014) | Palmer et al. (2003) | Pope et al. (2001) | Southgate et al. (1996) | Westerman et al. (2012) | Woinarski, Burbidge & Harrison (2014d) | Woinarski, Palmer et al. (1999) | Woinarski, Pavey et al. (2007) | Zenger et al. (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Invertebrates represent a larger part of diet compared with those of both larger congeners, with beetles, termites, ants, centipedes, and insect larvae consumed. In addition, it eats seeds, roots, tubers, fruits, and other plant material, especially in dry season, and small rodents and lizards also may be eaten. Perhaps because of the diverse habitats that it uses for foraging, including ocean beaches, this species includes in its diet items that are unusual for peramelids, such as washed-up cephalopods and turtle eggs. Conical-shaped pits in sandy soils indicate where foraging has taken place.","breeding":"Females reproduce throughout year in all localities where repeated sampling has been carried out, but proportion of females giving birth increases during wet season in summer or after significant rain at other times. Rainfall probably increases availability of food for this species, and also provides free water that assists mothers in maintaining water balance during lactation. Females have eight nipples in a rearopening pouch and carry 2-3 young at a time. One or two young may survive to weaning, but rate of recruitment to adult population is not known. Age at sexual maturity is 6-7 months. There is no information for this species on length of gestation or time to weaning, but these traits are likely to be similar to those of better-studied Southern Brown Bandicoot (1. obesulus).","activityPatterns":"Rests by day in a nest or temporary shelter and emerges after dusk when conditions are dark. Radio-tracking studies indicate that activity can be maintained continuously throughout the night, although animals are usually most active 3—4 hours after dusk and in the hour or so before dawn. Up to 10 ha may be covered each night, although 1-5 ha is more usual. Animals return to their shelters before daybreak.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Limited research on Barrow Island and Marchinbar Island shows that males occupy larger home ranges (4-4-35-6 ha) than females (1-7-12-7 ha). On Marchinbar, home range areas tended to be larger during dry season than in wet season and ranges of the sexes overlapped. On Barrow, male ranges overlapped with those of females but not with each other. Individuals appear to be generally aggressive toward each other and fight if placed in close proximity. Despite this social intolerance, population densities can be high. Marchinbar supports ¢.0-07 ind/ha and Barrow c.0-3 ind/ha, but density may rise to 10 ind/ha in productive areas on the coast, where island food resources are high and subsidies are available from nearby beaches.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species was once widespread in interior of Australia, but is now confined to high-rainfall areas of north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins islands), Barrow Island and Middle Island, off Pilbara coast, all in Western Australia, with an isolated outpost on Marchinbar Island, off N Northern Territory. It is considered to have a declining population trend. Sparsely distributed on mainland Western Australia, where population declines recently recorded. No estimates available for Augustus or Uwins, but the species is said to be sparse on former and relatively common on latter. It appears to be secure on Barrow, where at least 20,000 individuals estimated, and reasonably safe on Middle (c.1000) and Marchinbar (c.1400). Introductions or reintroductions from these populations to two small Wessel Group islands (Guluwuru and Raragala islands) off N Northern Territory, and to Doole Island, Hermite Island, and Lorna Glen in Western Australia, should provide insurance that these forms will remain secure. These sites are conservation reserves or Indigenous Protected Areas and are monitored on a regular or ad hoc basis. Mainland populations of this bandicoot continue to decline owing to predation from domestic or feral cats (Felis catus), habitat loss due to such practices as mining, and inappropriate changes to the fire regime that reduce vegetation cover and expose animals to increased risk of predation. Monitoring takes place at some mainland sites such as Mitchell Plateau and Artesian Range Sanctuary, in Western Australia, with active research and management in place at latter site to mitigate effects of changed fire regimes. Long-term security of this peramelid most likely to occurif cats and other invasive species, such as the Roof Rat (Rattus rattus), are prevented from establishing on key islands, and if means of managing cat impacts on a broad scale can be found for the remnant populations that persist in mainland areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 19-29.5 cm, tail 8.4-12.1 cm; weight 300-670 g for I. a. auratus, 250-600 g for I. a. barrowensis. Males 40-50% heavier than females. Smallest member of genus. Dorsal fur is golden brown, but has grizzled appearance owing to overlay of long, stiff guard hairs; ventral fur is cream or white. Tail is covered in short, orange to dark brown hairs.","habitat":"Prior to its final disappearance from arid regions in mid-20\" century, occurred on sandy soils dominated by hummock grass or low shrubs. In its remnant mainland distribution it occurs in tussock grassland and low woodland dominated by Acacia(Fabaceae) and Eucalyptus spp.(Myrtaceae), often on sandy soils, but also on rugged sandstone habitats. Shows a strong association with hummock grass on Barrow Island, often burrowing under hummocks for shelter, but on Marchinbar Island prefers low heath or shrubland on sand or sandstone. Sometimes found in vine thicket and patches of rainforest, but these do not appear to be preferred habitats. Nest can be a shallow scrape under rock or other shelter, or simple structure constructed from grass and other local materials; constructed on ground surface, under grass hummock and dense shrubs or, on Barrow, in limestone cave. Individuals use different shelters on different days, and visit varied habitats by night when foraging, but generally occupy stable ranges that change little between seasons."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDCFFBCF8A6DD76FD8213C6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDCFFBCF8A6DD76FD8213C6","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"396","verbatimText":"13.Long-nosed EchymiperaEchymipera rufescensFrench:Bandicoot roux/ German:Roter Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de hocico largoOther common names:Rufescent Bandicoot, Rufous Spiny BandicootTaxonomy.Perameles rufescens Peters & Doria, 1875,“Insulae Kei [= Kai Island],” Indonesia.Taxonomic status of several insular populations is in need of revision; taxonomic position of populations on Aru Islands and Kai Islands and those on D’Entrecasteaux Islands remains particularly uncertain. Two subspecies generally recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.r.rufescensPeters&Doria,1875—WPapuanIs(Misool),NewGuinea(includingYapenIandD’EntrecasteauxArchipelago),KaiIs,andAruIs.E. r. australis Tate, 1948— Cape York, NE Australia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 21.5-54.5 cm,tail 7.5-11.5 cm; weight 0.3-3 kg. The subspecies australis is smaller of the two subspecies, males attaining head-body length of up to 48 cm and weight of up to 2-2 kg, compared with 54-5 cm and 3 kg, respectively, for nominate rufescens, a small form of latter occurs in Sepik region and a much larger form in Gulf Province. In both subspecies body weight of males may average 70% more than that of females, although occasional females may approach male body size. Dorsal fur is tawny, dark brown or rufous with characteristically stiff, broad, spiky hairs that give pelage a brindled appearance; ventral fur is pale. Crown of head is dark, often black, grading to pale gray on face and throat but with no hint of striping; snout is notably elongated, ears are short and round, and tail short, black, and naked. This species is variable in size and color, with small individuals similar in appearance to female Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara) and the Common Echymipera(E. kalubu); can be distinguished from these two byits usually more rufous toning and the presence of a small black pad on hindfoot.Habitat.In New Guinea occurs in grassland, scrub, lowland rainforest, and foothill forest at altitudes from sea level to 1200 m, occasionally to 2100 m; found also in generally drier and more disturbed habitats than other species in genus. It occupies similar habitats in Australia, but occurs there also in coastal closed heath and extends into drier country along gallery forest, from sea level to 800 m. May rest in logs or under leaflitter in sheltered sites in a similar manner to that of other peramelids, but present species also shows considerable propensity to construct burrows. In Australia, burrow complexes may be 50-80 cm deep, cover up to 3 m? in area, and have two or more entrances.Food and Feeding.In the most detailed study of the diet of this echymipera, at Iron Range, on Cape York Peninsula,fruits and seeds comprised ¢.27% of diet, followed by invertebrates (26%), fungi (19%), and the remains ofleafy plants (18%); other foods included plant roots and soil, grass, and small vertebrates. Pronounced seasonal variation in the amount of each food type consumed probably reflected changes in food availability. More limited information for New Guinea suggests that diet there is similar. Food obtained from forest floor or by excavation; as with many other peramelids, this species’ presence can often be detected by the finding of conical holes 20-30 cm deep that the animals have dug with their powerful forelimbs.Breeding.In Iron Range study, females carried pouch young between November and May, 80-100% of females carrying young during peak of wet season from January to March. Litter size was 1-4 (average 2-8), larger females carrying more young and producing up to two litters per season. Females produced on average 4-9 young per year. Females have eight nipples. Reproductive effort appears similar, or perhaps spread over longer period, in New Guinea, where females recorded as carrying young in pouch in May, October, March, and August. Growth of young appears to be slower than in other peramelids that have been well studied; young leave pouch at c.65 days, are weaned at 70 days, and become sexually mature at 4-5 months.Activity patterns.Rests by day, and is believed to be strictly nocturnal in both its Australian and its New Guinean ranges.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is some evidence that animals make repeated use of the same paths through vegetation and that range areas are of the order of 1-2 ha. Captive individuals are intensely intolerant of each other, and males, in particular, often bear scars and wounds inflicted in fights. Despite such mutual intolerance, local population density can be high if resources are available. At Iron Range, 48 resident animals were present on a grid of 2-25 ha, equating ostensibly to a density of 21 ind/ha; true density would have been less than this as the grid probably sampled an area greater than 2-25 ha, but would still have exceeded 10 ind/ha.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Has a decreasing population trend. In New Guinea, nominate subspecies is considered to be uncommon in most parts of its range, although it can achieve high abundance locally if conditionsare suitable. It has a large geographical range, occurs in a number of protected areas, and may be tolerant of at least some habitat disturbance. It is, nonetheless, a favored game species and is susceptible to overhunting. There is also anecdotal evidence that it is susceptible to the gross habitat disturbance that accompanies mining and the forest-firing and clearing that precedes production of commercial crops such as oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). Thus, while nominate rufescensis declining in some areas, the overall rate of decline appears slow and the subspecies cannot be considered at risk. In Australia, subspecies australis appears to be secure. It faces no obvious or immediate threats, has not declined in its distributional range, and remains locally abundantin suitable habitat.Bibliography.Collins (1973), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Gordon & Lawrie (1978), Gordon et al. (1990), Groves (2005¢c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Menzies (2011), Shevill & Johnson (2007), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977, 1982).","taxonomy":"Perameles rufescens Peters & Doria, 1875,“Insulae Kei [= Kai Island],” Indonesia.Taxonomic status of several insular populations is in need of revision; taxonomic position of populations on Aru Islands and Kai Islands and those on D’Entrecasteaux Islands remains particularly uncertain. Two subspecies generally recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot roux @fr | Roter Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de hocico largo @es | Rufescent Bandicoot @en | Rufous Spiny Bandicoot @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters & Doria","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1875","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Echymipera","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"396","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"rufescens","name":"Echymipera rufescens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.r.rufescensPeters&Doria,1875—WPapuanIs(Misool),NewGuinea(includingYapenIandD’EntrecasteauxArchipelago),KaiIs,andAruIs.E. r. australis Tate, 1948— Cape York, NE Australia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621778/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Collins (1973) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Gordon & Lawrie (1978) | Gordon et al. (1990) | Groves (2005¢c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Menzies (2011) | Shevill & Johnson (2007) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)","foodAndFeeding":"In the most detailed study of the diet of this echymipera, at Iron Range, on Cape York Peninsula,fruits and seeds comprised ¢.27% of diet, followed by invertebrates (26%), fungi (19%), and the remains ofleafy plants (18%); other foods included plant roots and soil, grass, and small vertebrates. Pronounced seasonal variation in the amount of each food type consumed probably reflected changes in food availability. More limited information for New Guinea suggests that diet there is similar. Food obtained from forest floor or by excavation; as with many other peramelids, this species’ presence can often be detected by the finding of conical holes 20-30 cm deep that the animals have dug with their powerful forelimbs.","breeding":"In Iron Range study, females carried pouch young between November and May, 80-100% of females carrying young during peak of wet season from January to March. Litter size was 1-4 (average 2-8), larger females carrying more young and producing up to two litters per season. Females produced on average 4-9 young per year. Females have eight nipples. Reproductive effort appears similar, or perhaps spread over longer period, in New Guinea, where females recorded as carrying young in pouch in May, October, March, and August. Growth of young appears to be slower than in other peramelids that have been well studied; young leave pouch at c.65 days, are weaned at 70 days, and become sexually mature at 4-5 months.","activityPatterns":"Rests by day, and is believed to be strictly nocturnal in both its Australian and its New Guinean ranges.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is some evidence that animals make repeated use of the same paths through vegetation and that range areas are of the order of 1-2 ha. Captive individuals are intensely intolerant of each other, and males, in particular, often bear scars and wounds inflicted in fights. Despite such mutual intolerance, local population density can be high if resources are available. At Iron Range, 48 resident animals were present on a grid of 2-25 ha, equating ostensibly to a density of 21 ind/ha; true density would have been less than this as the grid probably sampled an area greater than 2-25 ha, but would still have exceeded 10 ind/ha.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Has a decreasing population trend. In New Guinea, nominate subspecies is considered to be uncommon in most parts of its range, although it can achieve high abundance locally if conditionsare suitable. It has a large geographical range, occurs in a number of protected areas, and may be tolerant of at least some habitat disturbance. It is, nonetheless, a favored game species and is susceptible to overhunting. There is also anecdotal evidence that it is susceptible to the gross habitat disturbance that accompanies mining and the forest-firing and clearing that precedes production of commercial crops such as oil palm (Elaeisguineensis, Arecaceae). Thus, while nominate rufescensis declining in some areas, the overall rate of decline appears slow and the subspecies cannot be considered at risk. In Australia, subspecies australis appears to be secure. It faces no obvious or immediate threats, has not declined in its distributional range, and remains locally abundantin suitable habitat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 21.5-54.5 cm,tail 7.5-11.5 cm; weight 0.3-3 kg. The subspecies australis is smaller of the two subspecies, males attaining head-body length of up to 48 cm and weight of up to 2-2 kg, compared with 54-5 cm and 3 kg, respectively, for nominate rufescens, a small form of latter occurs in Sepik region and a much larger form in Gulf Province. In both subspecies body weight of males may average 70% more than that of females, although occasional females may approach male body size. Dorsal fur is tawny, dark brown or rufous with characteristically stiff, broad, spiky hairs that give pelage a brindled appearance; ventral fur is pale. Crown of head is dark, often black, grading to pale gray on face and throat but with no hint of striping; snout is notably elongated, ears are short and round, and tail short, black, and naked. This species is variable in size and color, with small individuals similar in appearance to female Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara) and the Common Echymipera(E. kalubu); can be distinguished from these two byits usually more rufous toning and the presence of a small black pad on hindfoot.","habitat":"In New Guinea occurs in grassland, scrub, lowland rainforest, and foothill forest at altitudes from sea level to 1200 m, occasionally to 2100 m; found also in generally drier and more disturbed habitats than other species in genus. It occupies similar habitats in Australia, but occurs there also in coastal closed heath and extends into drier country along gallery forest, from sea level to 800 m. May rest in logs or under leaflitter in sheltered sites in a similar manner to that of other peramelids, but present species also shows considerable propensity to construct burrows. In Australia, burrow complexes may be 50-80 cm deep, cover up to 3 m? in area, and have two or more entrances."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBEF866DC89F97A1BCF.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDDFFBEF866DC89F97A1BCF","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"395","verbatimText":"11.Menzies’s EchymiperaEchymipera echinistaFrench:Bandicoot de Menzies/ German:Menzies-Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de MenziesOther common names:Fly River Bandicoot, Fly River EchymiperaTaxonomy.Echymipera echinista Menzies, 1990,Wipim, near lamega(08° 51° S, 142° 58’ E), Western (Fly River) Province, Papua New Guinea.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Papua New Guinea: one specimen known from middle Strickland River area, another from lower Fly River; a third, unconfirmed, record from Mt Menawa (Sandaun Province), in North Coastal Ranges.Descriptive notes.Head—body 32:8-36 cm, tail 9-7 cm; weight 1 kg. Head-body measurements refer to two females, and tail length and body weight to a single individual; no males have been captured. Distinguished from other members of genus by its coat, which is exceptionally spiny and almost completely lacking in softer, non-spinous hairs. Snoutis very narrow and elongate, with dark lines running posteriorly through eyes, and ears are rounded and prominent.Habitat.The very limited information suggests that this peramelid may be restricted to gallery forest in the Fly-Strickland drainage system. The two known specimens were collected at altitudes of, respectively, 40 m and 80 m; if third record is verified, elevational range would extend to foothill forest at up to 1000 m.Food and Feeding.No definite details known, although its long snout and triangular molars have been taken to suggest an insectivorous diet.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. Very little is known about this distinctive and enigmatic echymipera species. If it is to be conserved, a keyfirst step will be to gain a better understanding of where it occurs and whatfactors affect its population size. The low-elevation gallery forests of Fly—Strickland river system would be a logical place in which to target initial investigations, as they have yielded the only confirmed records of the species, but they have not been extensively surveyed. Potential threats, such as predation by feral dogs, should also be documented as part of field surveys. With more understanding of the true status of this echymipera, including its possible occurrence in protected areas, planning forits conservation needs—if any—would have a sound foundation.Bibliography.Flannery (1995a), Leary, Wright, Hamilton, Singadan, Menzies, Bonaccorso, Helgen, Seri, Aplin et al. (2008), Menzies (1990, 2011).","taxonomy":"Echymipera echinista Menzies, 1990,Wipim, near lamega(08° 51° S, 142° 58’ E), Western (Fly River) Province, Papua New Guinea.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bandicoot de Menzies @fr | Menzies-Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de Menzies @es | Fly River Bandicoot @en | Fly River Echymipera @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Menzies","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1990","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Echymipera","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"395","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"echinista","name":"Echymipera echinista","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Papua New Guinea: one specimen known from middle Strickland River area, another from lower Fly River; a third, unconfirmed, record from Mt Menawa (Sandaun Province), in North Coastal Ranges.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621774/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Flannery (1995a) | Leary, Wright, Hamilton, Singadan, Menzies, Bonaccorso, Helgen, Seri, Aplin et al. (2008) | Menzies (1990, 2011)","foodAndFeeding":"No definite details known, although its long snout and triangular molars have been taken to suggest an insectivorous diet.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. Very little is known about this distinctive and enigmatic echymipera species. If it is to be conserved, a keyfirst step will be to gain a better understanding of where it occurs and whatfactors affect its population size. The low-elevation gallery forests of Fly—Strickland river system would be a logical place in which to target initial investigations, as they have yielded the only confirmed records of the species, but they have not been extensively surveyed. Potential threats, such as predation by feral dogs, should also be documented as part of field surveys. With more understanding of the true status of this echymipera, including its possible occurrence in protected areas, planning forits conservation needs—if any—would have a sound foundation.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 32:8-36 cm, tail 9-7 cm; weight 1 kg. Head-body measurements refer to two females, and tail length and body weight to a single individual; no males have been captured. Distinguished from other members of genus by its coat, which is exceptionally spiny and almost completely lacking in softer, non-spinous hairs. Snoutis very narrow and elongate, with dark lines running posteriorly through eyes, and ears are rounded and prominent.","habitat":"The very limited information suggests that this peramelid may be restricted to gallery forest in the Fly-Strickland drainage system. The two known specimens were collected at altitudes of, respectively, 40 m and 80 m; if third record is verified, elevational range would extend to foothill forest at up to 1000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBEFD67DD75FAA319C8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDDFFBEFD67DD75FAA319C8","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"395","verbatimText":"9.Clara’s EchymiperaEchymupera claraFrench:Bandicoot de Clara/ German:Clara-Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de ClaraOther common names:Clara Bandicoot, Clara's Bandicoot, White-lipped BandicootTaxonomy.FEchymipera clara Stein, 1932,Japen (=Yapen) I, Tjenderawasih Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Yapen I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay, and N lowlands of New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 27-41 cm, tail 8-10.6 cm; weight 0-82-17 kg. Males can weigh at least 50% more than females, and have relatively more massive head with highly developed sagittal crest; males also have very large canines, and have heavier, more robust premolars than females. These features, together with a difference in coloration ofbelly fur (pale in females, salmon-colored in males), can make sexes appear like different species. Dorsal fur of both sexes is dark and unpatterned, and less spiny than that of other Echymipera spp.A large and well-developed black pad is present on hindfoot. This species has been termed “White-lipped Bandicoot” in some early works owing to white hair and skin around lips, but this coloration is not present on all specimens.Habitat.Appears to be restricted largely to undisturbed, primary rainforest at 300-1700 m, although occasional specimens have been captured in secondary forest or village gardens. Like other peramelids, this speciesis strictly terrestrial and appears to make simple nests underleaflitter, moss and other debris on the forest floor.Food and Feeding.This species is suspected to be omnivorous, but to date only figs and pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae) have been recorded in the diet.Breeding.Females have six nipples. Litters of one or two young have been reported in January and July.Activity patterns.Mianmin hunters reportthis species as being strictly nocturnal and to rest by day under shelter on the forest floor.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This species is broadly distributed in areas where human population density is low and where disturbance to its preferred rainforest habitat is not extensive. It can be locally abundant, appears readily to tolerate hunting pressure, and is not known to be affected adversely by other potential threats. It also occurs in a number of protected areas. Even though the population trend is not known, these observations suggest that this peramelid is currently secure.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (2010), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Menzies (2011), Stein (1932), Tate (1948b), Van Deusen & Keith (1966), Ziegler (1977, 1982).","taxonomy":"FEchymipera clara Stein, 1932,Japen (=Yapen) I, Tjenderawasih Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bandicoot de Clara @fr | Clara-Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de Clara @es | Clara Bandicoot @en | Clara's Bandicoot @en | White-lipped Bandicoot @en","interpretedAuthority":"Stein, 1932","interpretedAuthorityName":"Stein","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1932","interpretedClass":"Liliopsida","interpretedFamily":"Pandanaceae","interpretedGenus":"Echymupera","interpretedKingdom":"Plantae","interpretedOrder":"Pandanales","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"395","interpretedPhylum":"Tracheophyta","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"clara","name":"Echymupera clara","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Yapen I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay, and N lowlands of New Guinea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621770/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aplin et al. (2010) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Menzies (2011) | Stein (1932) | Tate (1948b) | Van Deusen & Keith (1966) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)","foodAndFeeding":"This species is suspected to be omnivorous, but to date only figs and pandan fruits (Pandanus, Pandanaceae) have been recorded in the diet.","breeding":"Females have six nipples. Litters of one or two young have been reported in January and July.","activityPatterns":"Mianmin hunters reportthis species as being strictly nocturnal and to rest by day under shelter on the forest floor.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. This species is broadly distributed in areas where human population density is low and where disturbance to its preferred rainforest habitat is not extensive. It can be locally abundant, appears readily to tolerate hunting pressure, and is not known to be affected adversely by other potential threats. It also occurs in a number of protected areas. Even though the population trend is not known, these observations suggest that this peramelid is currently secure.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 27-41 cm, tail 8-10.6 cm; weight 0-82-17 kg. Males can weigh at least 50% more than females, and have relatively more massive head with highly developed sagittal crest; males also have very large canines, and have heavier, more robust premolars than females. These features, together with a difference in coloration ofbelly fur (pale in females, salmon-colored in males), can make sexes appear like different species. Dorsal fur of both sexes is dark and unpatterned, and less spiny than that of other Echymipera spp.A large and well-developed black pad is present on hindfoot. This species has been termed “White-lipped Bandicoot” in some early works owing to white hair and skin around lips, but this coloration is not present on all specimens.","habitat":"Appears to be restricted largely to undisturbed, primary rainforest at 300-1700 m, although occasional specimens have been captured in secondary forest or village gardens. Like other peramelids, this speciesis strictly terrestrial and appears to make simple nests underleaflitter, moss and other debris on the forest floor."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBEFD6DD79BF7E212D8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDDFFBEFD6DD79BF7E212D8","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"395","verbatimText":"10.David’s EchymiperaEchymipera davidiFrench:Bandicoot de David/ German:Kiriwina-Stachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso de DavidOther common names:Kiriwina Bandicoot, Kiriwina EchymiperaTaxonomy.Echymipera davidi Flannery, 1990,Kiriwina Island(08° 30° S, 151° 00\" E), Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea.Apparently not closely related to any other species within the genus. Monotypic.Distribution.Kiriwina I, in Trobriand Group, off SE New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 32.7-39.7 cm, tail 10-8 cm; weight 950 g. Head body measurements refer to two males, and tail length and body weight to a single individual; no females have been measured. This distinctive island endemic can be distinguished from other Echymipera spp.by its uniformly brown coloration, sparse coat with both fine hair and stiff, flattened hairs, relatively short snout, and absence of a black pad on hindfoot. It also has molars with small hypocones (cusps on rear internal corner of upper molars) and other dental and cranial features that separate it from other members of genus. Ears are dark and relatively short, forefeet and hindfeet are covered dorsally in short brown hair, and tail is covered with prominent scales.Habitat.Kiriwina Island is extensively cultivated, and has only small areas of swamp and primary forest that have not been disturbed. This echymipera appears to persist in degraded forest and young regrowth forest in close proximity to the resident human population. Specimens in 1956 were collected near village of Liluta at elevation of 10 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species.Breeding.There is no specific information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no specific information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no specific information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. It is represented by five specimens, collected in 1945, 1956, and 1987. As Kiriwina Island coversjust 264 km?, has a high human population density, and is extensively disturbed, “endangered” status for this species would appear to be well justified; as no specimens have been obtained since 1987, and it is not known to occur in any protected areas, it would seem, however, that the species could just as easily be considered Critically Endangered or even Data Deficient. More surveys are needed on Kiriwina and other nearby islands to ascertain the true status of this enigmatic peramelid. When its population status is better known, and threats to its persistence are understood, more informed prescriptions may then be made to ensure that this species can be conserved and managed in future.Bibliography.Brass (1959), Flannery (1990b, 1995b), Groves (2005c).","taxonomy":"Echymipera davidi Flannery, 1990,Kiriwina Island(08° 30° S, 151° 00\" E), Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea.Apparently not closely related to any other species within the genus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Bandicoot de David @fr | Kiriwina-Stachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso de David @es | Kiriwina Bandicoot @en | Kiriwina Echymipera @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Flannery","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1990","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Echymipera","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"395","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"davidi","name":"Echymipera davidi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Kiriwina I, in Trobriand Group, off SE New Guinea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621772/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Brass (1959) | Flannery (1990b, 1995b) | Groves (2005c)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no specific information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no specific information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no specific information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is not known. It is represented by five specimens, collected in 1945, 1956, and 1987. As Kiriwina Island coversjust 264 km?, has a high human population density, and is extensively disturbed, “endangered” status for this species would appear to be well justified; as no specimens have been obtained since 1987, and it is not known to occur in any protected areas, it would seem, however, that the species could just as easily be considered Critically Endangered or even Data Deficient. More surveys are needed on Kiriwina and other nearby islands to ascertain the true status of this enigmatic peramelid. When its population status is better known, and threats to its persistence are understood, more informed prescriptions may then be made to ensure that this species can be conserved and managed in future.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 32.7-39.7 cm, tail 10-8 cm; weight 950 g. Head body measurements refer to two males, and tail length and body weight to a single individual; no females have been measured. This distinctive island endemic can be distinguished from other Echymipera spp.by its uniformly brown coloration, sparse coat with both fine hair and stiff, flattened hairs, relatively short snout, and absence of a black pad on hindfoot. It also has molars with small hypocones (cusps on rear internal corner of upper molars) and other dental and cranial features that separate it from other members of genus. Ears are dark and relatively short, forefeet and hindfeet are covered dorsally in short brown hair, and tail is covered with prominent scales.","habitat":"Kiriwina Island is extensively cultivated, and has only small areas of swamp and primary forest that have not been disturbed. This echymipera appears to persist in degraded forest and young regrowth forest in close proximity to the resident human population. Specimens in 1956 were collected near village of Liluta at elevation of 10 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBFF86FD59EF5CA10D4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDDFFBFF86FD59EF5CA10D4","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"395","verbatimText":"12.Common EchymiperaEchymipera kalubuFrench:Bandicoot épineux/ German:Flachstachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso comunOther common names:Black-headed Bandicoot, Common Spiny Bandicoot, Kalubu EchymiperaTaxonomy.Perameles kalubu Fischer, 1829,“ In insula Waigeo,” (= Waigeo Island, Sorong Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).Four subspecies usually recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. k. kalubu Fischer, 1829— W Papuan Is (Waigeo, Salawati, Misool), and most of New Guinea, including Yapen I and islands NE of mainland (Bagabag, Blup Blup, Kadovar, Karkar, Koil, Vokeo).E. k. cockerelli Ramsay, 1877 — New Britain, Manus, and adjacent islands, in Bismarck Archipelago.On following pages: 13. Long-nosed Echymipera(Echymipera rufescens); 14. Striped Bandicoot (Microperorycteslongicauda); 15. Mouse Bandicoot (Microperoryctes murina); 16. Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (Microperoryctesaplini); 17. Papuan Bandicoot (Microperoryctes papuensis); 18. Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum).E. k. oriomo Tate & Archbold, 1936 — Fly River region, in S New Guinea.E. k. plaulipi Troughton, 1945 — Biak-Supiori and Owi I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22.5-38 cm,tail 6-:3.9-8 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Wide range in measurements reflects differences in size between the subspecies (oriomo and philipi are relatively small, nominate can be 50% more massive than either) and between the sexes; shows marked sexual dimorphism, adult males achieving body weights that on average may be double those of females, though females may nonetheless achieve weights of up to 1-8 kg on occasion. Dorsal fur is coarse reddish brown, flecked with spiny buff and black hairs, and fur below is pale. Cheeks and throat are pale; a dark stripe runs through eye on some individuals, whereas in others entire crown region is black. Melanistic individuals are common in philipi and in some populations of nominate. Unlike the Long-nosed Echymipera(E. rufescens) and the Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara), this species lacks any trace of a black pad on hindfoot.Habitat.Occupies most habitats from sea level to ¢.2000 m. It prefers secondary forest, grassland, and garden habitats nearvillages, rather than primary forest, and at higher elevations is restricted increasingly to disturbed habitats. Recorded also as using canegrass thickets, sago swamps, and coffee and banana plantations. Radio-tracking studies show that animals exploitsites with recent tree-falls, fallen fruit, rotting logs, and dense ground-level vegetation for foraging, and use sites on forest floor for nests. They do not have fixed preferences for a particular type of nest; they nest in hollow logs, tree stumps, piles of leaves, and balls of grass, and in shallow, deliberately constructed burrows with two openings that run for up to 4 m below forest floor.Food and Feeding.The few stomachs that have been examined suggest that this species, while omnivorous, may consume more fruit than other well-studied peramelids. Local people often set traps or wait by fruiting trees to capture foraging animals, and diet samples have been found to contain seeds and pulp from such fruits as banana, fig, and pandan (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). Nonetheless, the species also eats snails or slugs, surface-active invertebrates, and prey such as larvae in rotting wood. Shallow foraging pits indicate that subterranean prey, such as earthworms, are also eaten. There is some evidence that foraging is focused in areas with dense cover, animals moving quickly through open sites to access new sources of food.Breeding.This echymipera is highly fecund and breeds throughout the year. In one long-term study in Karimui region, Chimbu Province, 56 of 85 females were found to be carrying pouch young, intervals between successive litters averaging 120 days. Similar breeding rates (66-71%) have been reported from other localities, including Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Eastern Highlands Province. Females become reproductively active at a weight of ¢.380 g, not long after becoming independent, and testes in males can reach mature size when animals weigh 300 g. Up to three pouch young (average 1-6) were usually present in pouches of females in the Karimui study, similar to reported litter sizes of c¢.1-5 and 1-7 in other areas. Females have six nipples in a rear-opening pouch and, as with other peramelids, young attach to nipples that have not been recently used but which have regressed from an earlier litter.Activity patterns.In Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, individuals became active between 18:00 h and 20:00 h, showed peak activity between 20:00 h and 02:00 h, and became much less active again between 04:00 h and 06:00 h. About three-quarters of fixes on animals radio-tracked at night indicated that these were active and foraging or were patrolling their homes ranges. In contrast, 86% of radio-fixes obtained by day showed that animals were at rest. In anotherstudy, carried out in Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Highlands Province, animals were strictly nocturnal and often used the same pathways when traveling through the forest. Both studies found that the animals use multiple shelters or nest sites between successive days, and sometimes return to these sites at night for short periods.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individuals use diverse habitats when active at night, perhaps in order to exploit different food resources and to track seasonal shifts in food availability. In Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, this echymipera moved on average 344 m per night and covered areas of c.1-2 ha. Home ranges in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area were 0-9-7-3 ha, with the more expansive ranges occupied by larger—usually male—animals. Males usually overlap the ranges of two or more females, but overlaps in range within each sex appear to be minimal and core areas are maintained exclusively. Population density in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area was estimated at 0-85 ind/ha. Anecdotal accounts indicate that individuals are pugnacious and will fight readily if confined.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is stable. This speciesis the most abundant of New Guinea peramelids. It is very widely distributed, not restricted to particular habitats, occurs in several protected areas, and can be abundant even in places where it is hunted. Anecdotal observations indicate that local populations can be depleted by depredation byferal cat (Felis catus) and feral dogs. Nevertheless, even if there are local reductions in abundance, it is very unlikely that overall population is declining at a rate that might qualify this peramelid for listing as Near Threatened. While nominate subspecies appears to be most secure, oriomo of Fly River region and the two endemic island subspecies have been subject to more limited research in recent years. Although there is little reason to suspect that the latter may be at risk, it would be advantageous to carry out surveys of these forms to confirm their current status.Bibliography.Anderson et al. (1988), Cuthbert & Denny (2014), Dwyer (1984), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Hughes et al. (1990), Laurie (1952), Laurie & Hill (1954), Lidicker & Ziegler (1968), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Troughton (1945), Van Deusen & Keith (1966), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977, 1982).","taxonomy":"Perameles kalubu Fischer, 1829,“ In insula Waigeo,” (= Waigeo Island, Sorong Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).Four subspecies usually recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot épineux @fr | Flachstachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso comun @es | Black-headed Bandicoot @en | Common Spiny Bandicoot @en | Kalubu Echymipera @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Fischer","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1829","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Echymipera","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"395","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kalubu","name":"Echymipera kalubu","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E. k. kalubu Fischer, 1829— W Papuan Is (Waigeo, Salawati, Misool), and most of New Guinea, including Yapen I and islands NE of mainland (Bagabag, Blup Blup, Kadovar, Karkar, Koil, Vokeo).E. k. cockerelli Ramsay, 1877 — New Britain, Manus, and adjacent islands, in Bismarck Archipelago.On following pages: 13. Long-nosed Echymipera(Echymipera rufescens); 14. Striped Bandicoot (Microperorycteslongicauda); 15. Mouse Bandicoot (Microperoryctes murina); 16. Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (Microperoryctesaplini); 17. Papuan Bandicoot (Microperoryctes papuensis); 18. Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum).E. k. oriomo Tate & Archbold, 1936 — Fly River region, in S New Guinea.E. k. plaulipi Troughton, 1945 — Biak-Supiori and Owi I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay.","bibliography":"Anderson et al. (1988) | Cuthbert & Denny (2014) | Dwyer (1984) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Hughes et al. (1990) | Laurie (1952) | Laurie & Hill (1954) | Lidicker & Ziegler (1968) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Troughton (1945) | Van Deusen & Keith (1966) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)","foodAndFeeding":"The few stomachs that have been examined suggest that this species, while omnivorous, may consume more fruit than other well-studied peramelids. Local people often set traps or wait by fruiting trees to capture foraging animals, and diet samples have been found to contain seeds and pulp from such fruits as banana, fig, and pandan (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). Nonetheless, the species also eats snails or slugs, surface-active invertebrates, and prey such as larvae in rotting wood. Shallow foraging pits indicate that subterranean prey, such as earthworms, are also eaten. There is some evidence that foraging is focused in areas with dense cover, animals moving quickly through open sites to access new sources of food.","breeding":"This echymipera is highly fecund and breeds throughout the year. In one long-term study in Karimui region, Chimbu Province, 56 of 85 females were found to be carrying pouch young, intervals between successive litters averaging 120 days. Similar breeding rates (66-71%) have been reported from other localities, including Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Eastern Highlands Province. Females become reproductively active at a weight of ¢.380 g, not long after becoming independent, and testes in males can reach mature size when animals weigh 300 g. Up to three pouch young (average 1-6) were usually present in pouches of females in the Karimui study, similar to reported litter sizes of c¢.1-5 and 1-7 in other areas. Females have six nipples in a rear-opening pouch and, as with other peramelids, young attach to nipples that have not been recently used but which have regressed from an earlier litter.","activityPatterns":"In Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, individuals became active between 18:00 h and 20:00 h, showed peak activity between 20:00 h and 02:00 h, and became much less active again between 04:00 h and 06:00 h. About three-quarters of fixes on animals radio-tracked at night indicated that these were active and foraging or were patrolling their homes ranges. In contrast, 86% of radio-fixes obtained by day showed that animals were at rest. In anotherstudy, carried out in Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Highlands Province, animals were strictly nocturnal and often used the same pathways when traveling through the forest. Both studies found that the animals use multiple shelters or nest sites between successive days, and sometimes return to these sites at night for short periods.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Individuals use diverse habitats when active at night, perhaps in order to exploit different food resources and to track seasonal shifts in food availability. In Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, this echymipera moved on average 344 m per night and covered areas of c.1-2 ha. Home ranges in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area were 0-9-7-3 ha, with the more expansive ranges occupied by larger—usually male—animals. Males usually overlap the ranges of two or more females, but overlaps in range within each sex appear to be minimal and core areas are maintained exclusively. Population density in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area was estimated at 0-85 ind/ha. Anecdotal accounts indicate that individuals are pugnacious and will fight readily if confined.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is stable. This speciesis the most abundant of New Guinea peramelids. It is very widely distributed, not restricted to particular habitats, occurs in several protected areas, and can be abundant even in places where it is hunted. Anecdotal observations indicate that local populations can be depleted by depredation byferal cat (Felis catus) and feral dogs. Nevertheless, even if there are local reductions in abundance, it is very unlikely that overall population is declining at a rate that might qualify this peramelid for listing as Near Threatened. While nominate subspecies appears to be most secure, oriomo of Fly River region and the two endemic island subspecies have been subject to more limited research in recent years. Although there is little reason to suspect that the latter may be at risk, it would be advantageous to carry out surveys of these forms to confirm their current status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 22.5-38 cm,tail 6-:3.9-8 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Wide range in measurements reflects differences in size between the subspecies (oriomo and philipi are relatively small, nominate can be 50% more massive than either) and between the sexes; shows marked sexual dimorphism, adult males achieving body weights that on average may be double those of females, though females may nonetheless achieve weights of up to 1-8 kg on occasion. Dorsal fur is coarse reddish brown, flecked with spiny buff and black hairs, and fur below is pale. Cheeks and throat are pale; a dark stripe runs through eye on some individuals, whereas in others entire crown region is black. Melanistic individuals are common in philipi and in some populations of nominate. Unlike the Long-nosed Echymipera(E. rufescens) and the Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara), this species lacks any trace of a black pad on hindfoot.","habitat":"Occupies most habitats from sea level to ¢.2000 m. It prefers secondary forest, grassland, and garden habitats nearvillages, rather than primary forest, and at higher elevations is restricted increasingly to disturbed habitats. Recorded also as using canegrass thickets, sago swamps, and coffee and banana plantations. Radio-tracking studies show that animals exploitsites with recent tree-falls, fallen fruit, rotting logs, and dense ground-level vegetation for foraging, and use sites on forest floor for nests. They do not have fixed preferences for a particular type of nest; they nest in hollow logs, tree stumps, piles of leaves, and balls of grass, and in shallow, deliberately constructed burrows with two openings that run for up to 4 m below forest floor."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDDFFBFF86FD59EF5CA10D4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDDFFBFF86FD59EF5CA10D4","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"395","verbatimText":"12.Common EchymiperaEchymipera kalubuFrench:Bandicoot épineux/ German:Flachstachelnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut espinoso comunOther common names:Black-headed Bandicoot, Common Spiny Bandicoot, Kalubu EchymiperaTaxonomy.Perameles kalubu Fischer, 1829,“ In insula Waigeo,” (= Waigeo Island, Sorong Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).Four subspecies usually recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E. k. kalubu Fischer, 1829— W Papuan Is (Waigeo, Salawati, Misool), and most of New Guinea, including Yapen I and islands NE of mainland (Bagabag, Blup Blup, Kadovar, Karkar, Koil, Vokeo).E. k. cockerelli Ramsay, 1877 — New Britain, Manus, and adjacent islands, in Bismarck Archipelago.On following pages: 13. Long-nosed Echymipera(Echymipera rufescens); 14. Striped Bandicoot (Microperorycteslongicauda); 15. Mouse Bandicoot (Microperoryctes murina); 16. Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (Microperoryctesaplini); 17. Papuan Bandicoot (Microperoryctes papuensis); 18. Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum).E. k. oriomo Tate & Archbold, 1936 — Fly River region, in S New Guinea.E. k. plaulipi Troughton, 1945 — Biak-Supiori and Owi I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay.Descriptive notes.Head-body 22.5-38 cm,tail 6-:3.9-8 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Wide range in measurements reflects differences in size between the subspecies (oriomo and philipi are relatively small, nominate can be 50% more massive than either) and between the sexes; shows marked sexual dimorphism, adult males achieving body weights that on average may be double those of females, though females may nonetheless achieve weights of up to 1-8 kg on occasion. Dorsal fur is coarse reddish brown, flecked with spiny buff and black hairs, and fur below is pale. Cheeks and throat are pale; a dark stripe runs through eye on some individuals, whereas in others entire crown region is black. Melanistic individuals are common in philipi and in some populations of nominate. Unlike the Long-nosed Echymipera(E. rufescens) and the Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara), this species lacks any trace of a black pad on hindfoot.Habitat.Occupies most habitats from sea level to ¢.2000 m. It prefers secondary forest, grassland, and garden habitats nearvillages, rather than primary forest, and at higher elevations is restricted increasingly to disturbed habitats. Recorded also as using canegrass thickets, sago swamps, and coffee and banana plantations. Radio-tracking studies show that animals exploitsites with recent tree-falls, fallen fruit, rotting logs, and dense ground-level vegetation for foraging, and use sites on forest floor for nests. They do not have fixed preferences for a particular type of nest; they nest in hollow logs, tree stumps, piles of leaves, and balls of grass, and in shallow, deliberately constructed burrows with two openings that run for up to 4 m below forest floor.Food and Feeding.The few stomachs that have been examined suggest that this species, while omnivorous, may consume more fruit than other well-studied peramelids. Local people often set traps or wait by fruiting trees to capture foraging animals, and diet samples have been found to contain seeds and pulp from such fruits as banana, fig, and pandan (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). Nonetheless, the species also eats snails or slugs, surface-active invertebrates, and prey such as larvae in rotting wood. Shallow foraging pits indicate that subterranean prey, such as earthworms, are also eaten. There is some evidence that foraging is focused in areas with dense cover, animals moving quickly through open sites to access new sources of food.Breeding.This echymipera is highly fecund and breeds throughout the year. In one long-term study in Karimui region, Chimbu Province, 56 of 85 females were found to be carrying pouch young, intervals between successive litters averaging 120 days. Similar breeding rates (66-71%) have been reported from other localities, including Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Eastern Highlands Province. Females become reproductively active at a weight of ¢.380 g, not long after becoming independent, and testes in males can reach mature size when animals weigh 300 g. Up to three pouch young (average 1-6) were usually present in pouches of females in the Karimui study, similar to reported litter sizes of c¢.1-5 and 1-7 in other areas. Females have six nipples in a rear-opening pouch and, as with other peramelids, young attach to nipples that have not been recently used but which have regressed from an earlier litter.Activity patterns.In Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, individuals became active between 18:00 h and 20:00 h, showed peak activity between 20:00 h and 02:00 h, and became much less active again between 04:00 h and 06:00 h. About three-quarters of fixes on animals radio-tracked at night indicated that these were active and foraging or were patrolling their homes ranges. In contrast, 86% of radio-fixes obtained by day showed that animals were at rest. In anotherstudy, carried out in Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Highlands Province, animals were strictly nocturnal and often used the same pathways when traveling through the forest. Both studies found that the animals use multiple shelters or nest sites between successive days, and sometimes return to these sites at night for short periods.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Individuals use diverse habitats when active at night, perhaps in order to exploit different food resources and to track seasonal shifts in food availability. In Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, this echymipera moved on average 344 m per night and covered areas of c.1-2 ha. Home ranges in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area were 0-9-7-3 ha, with the more expansive ranges occupied by larger—usually male—animals. Males usually overlap the ranges of two or more females, but overlaps in range within each sex appear to be minimal and core areas are maintained exclusively. Population density in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area was estimated at 0-85 ind/ha. Anecdotal accounts indicate that individuals are pugnacious and will fight readily if confined.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is stable. This speciesis the most abundant of New Guinea peramelids. It is very widely distributed, not restricted to particular habitats, occurs in several protected areas, and can be abundant even in places where it is hunted. Anecdotal observations indicate that local populations can be depleted by depredation byferal cat (Felis catus) and feral dogs. Nevertheless, even if there are local reductions in abundance, it is very unlikely that overall population is declining at a rate that might qualify this peramelid for listing as Near Threatened. While nominate subspecies appears to be most secure, oriomo of Fly River region and the two endemic island subspecies have been subject to more limited research in recent years. Although there is little reason to suspect that the latter may be at risk, it would be advantageous to carry out surveys of these forms to confirm their current status.Bibliography.Anderson et al. (1988), Cuthbert & Denny (2014), Dwyer (1984), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Hide et al. (1984), Hughes et al. (1990), Laurie (1952), Laurie & Hill (1954), Lidicker & Ziegler (1968), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Troughton (1945), Van Deusen & Keith (1966), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977, 1982).","taxonomy":"Perameles kalubu Fischer, 1829,“ In insula Waigeo,” (= Waigeo Island, Sorong Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).Four subspecies usually recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot épineux @fr | Flachstachelnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut espinoso comun @es | Black-headed Bandicoot @en | Common Spiny Bandicoot @en | Kalubu Echymipera @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Fischer","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1829","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Echymipera","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"395","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kalubu","name":"Echymipera kalubu","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E. k. kalubu Fischer, 1829— W Papuan Is (Waigeo, Salawati, Misool), and most of New Guinea, including Yapen I and islands NE of mainland (Bagabag, Blup Blup, Kadovar, Karkar, Koil, Vokeo).E. k. cockerelli Ramsay, 1877 — New Britain, Manus, and adjacent islands, in Bismarck Archipelago.On following pages: 13. Long-nosed Echymipera(Echymipera rufescens); 14. Striped Bandicoot (Microperorycteslongicauda); 15. Mouse Bandicoot (Microperoryctes murina); 16. Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (Microperoryctesaplini); 17. Papuan Bandicoot (Microperoryctes papuensis); 18. Seram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum).E. k. oriomo Tate & Archbold, 1936 — Fly River region, in S New Guinea.E. k. plaulipi Troughton, 1945 — Biak-Supiori and Owi I, in Cenderawasih (= Geelvink) Bay.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621776/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson et al. (1988) | Cuthbert & Denny (2014) | Dwyer (1984) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Hide et al. (1984) | Hughes et al. (1990) | Laurie (1952) | Laurie & Hill (1954) | Lidicker & Ziegler (1968) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Troughton (1945) | Van Deusen & Keith (1966) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977, 1982)","foodAndFeeding":"The few stomachs that have been examined suggest that this species, while omnivorous, may consume more fruit than other well-studied peramelids. Local people often set traps or wait by fruiting trees to capture foraging animals, and diet samples have been found to contain seeds and pulp from such fruits as banana, fig, and pandan (Pandanus, Pandanaceae). Nonetheless, the species also eats snails or slugs, surface-active invertebrates, and prey such as larvae in rotting wood. Shallow foraging pits indicate that subterranean prey, such as earthworms, are also eaten. There is some evidence that foraging is focused in areas with dense cover, animals moving quickly through open sites to access new sources of food.","breeding":"This echymipera is highly fecund and breeds throughout the year. In one long-term study in Karimui region, Chimbu Province, 56 of 85 females were found to be carrying pouch young, intervals between successive litters averaging 120 days. Similar breeding rates (66-71%) have been reported from other localities, including Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Eastern Highlands Province. Females become reproductively active at a weight of ¢.380 g, not long after becoming independent, and testes in males can reach mature size when animals weigh 300 g. Up to three pouch young (average 1-6) were usually present in pouches of females in the Karimui study, similar to reported litter sizes of c¢.1-5 and 1-7 in other areas. Females have six nipples in a rear-opening pouch and, as with other peramelids, young attach to nipples that have not been recently used but which have regressed from an earlier litter.","activityPatterns":"In Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, individuals became active between 18:00 h and 20:00 h, showed peak activity between 20:00 h and 02:00 h, and became much less active again between 04:00 h and 06:00 h. About three-quarters of fixes on animals radio-tracked at night indicated that these were active and foraging or were patrolling their homes ranges. In contrast, 86% of radio-fixes obtained by day showed that animals were at rest. In anotherstudy, carried out in Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Highlands Province, animals were strictly nocturnal and often used the same pathways when traveling through the forest. Both studies found that the animals use multiple shelters or nest sites between successive days, and sometimes return to these sites at night for short periods.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Individuals use diverse habitats when active at night, perhaps in order to exploit different food resources and to track seasonal shifts in food availability. In Baiyer River Wildlife Sanctuary, this echymipera moved on average 344 m per night and covered areas of c.1-2 ha. Home ranges in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area were 0-9-7-3 ha, with the more expansive ranges occupied by larger—usually male—animals. Males usually overlap the ranges of two or more females, but overlaps in range within each sex appear to be minimal and core areas are maintained exclusively. Population density in Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area was estimated at 0-85 ind/ha. Anecdotal accounts indicate that individuals are pugnacious and will fight readily if confined.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is stable. This speciesis the most abundant of New Guinea peramelids. It is very widely distributed, not restricted to particular habitats, occurs in several protected areas, and can be abundant even in places where it is hunted. Anecdotal observations indicate that local populations can be depleted by depredation byferal cat (Felis catus) and feral dogs. Nevertheless, even if there are local reductions in abundance, it is very unlikely that overall population is declining at a rate that might qualify this peramelid for listing as Near Threatened. While nominate subspecies appears to be most secure, oriomo of Fly River region and the two endemic island subspecies have been subject to more limited research in recent years. Although there is little reason to suspect that the latter may be at risk, it would be advantageous to carry out surveys of these forms to confirm their current status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 22.5-38 cm,tail 6-:3.9-8 cm; weight 0.4-1.8 kg. Wide range in measurements reflects differences in size between the subspecies (oriomo and philipi are relatively small, nominate can be 50% more massive than either) and between the sexes; shows marked sexual dimorphism, adult males achieving body weights that on average may be double those of females, though females may nonetheless achieve weights of up to 1-8 kg on occasion. Dorsal fur is coarse reddish brown, flecked with spiny buff and black hairs, and fur below is pale. Cheeks and throat are pale; a dark stripe runs through eye on some individuals, whereas in others entire crown region is black. Melanistic individuals are common in philipi and in some populations of nominate. Unlike the Long-nosed Echymipera(E. rufescens) and the Clara’s Echymipera(E. clara), this species lacks any trace of a black pad on hindfoot.","habitat":"Occupies most habitats from sea level to ¢.2000 m. It prefers secondary forest, grassland, and garden habitats nearvillages, rather than primary forest, and at higher elevations is restricted increasingly to disturbed habitats. Recorded also as using canegrass thickets, sago swamps, and coffee and banana plantations. Radio-tracking studies show that animals exploitsites with recent tree-falls, fallen fruit, rotting logs, and dense ground-level vegetation for foraging, and use sites on forest floor for nests. They do not have fixed preferences for a particular type of nest; they nest in hollow logs, tree stumps, piles of leaves, and balls of grass, and in shallow, deliberately constructed burrows with two openings that run for up to 4 m below forest floor."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDEFFBDF8AADDD0F8F7181D.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDEFFBDF8AADDD0F8F7181D","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"398","verbatimText":"18.Seram BandicootRhynchomeles prattorumFrench:Bandicoot de Seram/ German:Seram-Nasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de SeramOther common names:Ceram Bandicoot, Seram Island Long-nosed BandicootTaxonomy.Rhynchomeles prattorumThomas, 1920,“ Mt. Manusela, 6000’,” Seram Island, Indonesia.This species is monotypic.Distribution.Mt Manusela, C Seram.Descriptive notes.Head-body 24.-5-33 cm, tail 10.5-13 cm; no specific data are available for body weight, but probably more than 500 g. Has uniformly chocolate-brown dorsal and ventral fur, except for a variably sized pure white patch on chest. Hindfoot is relatively short and broad, and snout extremely elongate. As in species of Echymipera, incisor I 5 is absent.Habitat.Upper montane tropical forest. Notes made by collectors of all known specimens of this species state that animals were captured in “very precipitous jungle-clad limestone country” and in “heavy jungle, precipitous limestone terrain.” One collection label notes that specimen was taken at 6000 ft (c¢.1800 m).Food and Feeding.There is no information available for this species.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This species is represented by seven specimens collected in 1920 from Mount Manusela; the single known locality lies within Manusela National Park and thus receives nominal protection from habitat disturbance. Recent surveys in Seram have failed to uncover further specimens ofthis cryptic peramelid, but none focused on the rugged and high-altitude moss forests that appear to be the species’ stronghold. Assuming that the bandicoot still persists,it is very likely to be endangered because of a recent acceleration in forest-clearing for timber, conversion of forest at lower altitudes for crops, and increased disturbance due to fire. Pigs, rats, dogs, and possibly domestic cats (Felis catus) also have been introduced to Seram; with habitat degradation potentially providing these introduced pest species with easier access into the higher-altitude forests, the future for this remarkable and endemic peramelid appears bleak. Targeted surveys therefore are needed as a matter of urgency on Mount Manusela and other peaks on Seram in order to define the current status of this species and to inform future conservation actions accordingly.Bibliography.Flannery (1995b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Leary, Wright, Hamilton, Singadan, Menzies, Bonaccorso, Helgen, Seri, Allison, Aplin et al. (2008b), Tate (1948b), Thomas (1920c), Westerman et al. (2012).","taxonomy":"Rhynchomeles prattorumThomas, 1920,“ Mt. Manusela, 6000’,” Seram Island, Indonesia.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bandicoot de Seram @fr | Seram-Nasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de Seram @es | Ceram Bandicoot @en | Seram @en | sland Long-nosed Bandicoot @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1920","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Rhynchomeles","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"398","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"prattorum","name":"Rhynchomeles prattorum","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Mt Manusela, C Seram.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621793/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Flannery (1995b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Leary, Wright, Hamilton, Singadan, Menzies, Bonaccorso, Helgen, Seri, Allison, Aplin et al. (2008b) | Tate (1948b) | Thomas (1920c) | Westerman et al. (2012)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no information available for this species.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This species is represented by seven specimens collected in 1920 from Mount Manusela; the single known locality lies within Manusela National Park and thus receives nominal protection from habitat disturbance. Recent surveys in Seram have failed to uncover further specimens ofthis cryptic peramelid, but none focused on the rugged and high-altitude moss forests that appear to be the species’ stronghold. Assuming that the bandicoot still persists,it is very likely to be endangered because of a recent acceleration in forest-clearing for timber, conversion of forest at lower altitudes for crops, and increased disturbance due to fire. Pigs, rats, dogs, and possibly domestic cats (Felis catus) also have been introduced to Seram; with habitat degradation potentially providing these introduced pest species with easier access into the higher-altitude forests, the future for this remarkable and endemic peramelid appears bleak. Targeted surveys therefore are needed as a matter of urgency on Mount Manusela and other peaks on Seram in order to define the current status of this species and to inform future conservation actions accordingly.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 24.-5-33 cm, tail 10.5-13 cm; no specific data are available for body weight, but probably more than 500 g. Has uniformly chocolate-brown dorsal and ventral fur, except for a variably sized pure white patch on chest. Hindfoot is relatively short and broad, and snout extremely elongate. As in species of Echymipera, incisor I 5 is absent.","habitat":"Upper montane tropical forest. Notes made by collectors of all known specimens of this species state that animals were captured in “very precipitous jungle-clad limestone country” and in “heavy jungle, precipitous limestone terrain.” One collection label notes that specimen was taken at 6000 ft (c¢.1800 m)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDEFFBDFDAEDCFAF80110FB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDEFFBDFDAEDCFAF80110FB","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"398","verbatimText":"17.Papuan BandicootMicroperoryctes papuensisFrench:Bandicoot papou/ German:Mura-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de PapuaTaxonomy.Peroryctes papuensis Laurie, 1952,“ Boneno, Mt. Mura(30 milesNW. Mt. Simpson Main Range, eastern Papua, SE. New Guinea, 4,000-5,000 ft.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Fane village to Mt Simpson, in SE New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 17.5-20.5 cm, tail 14.2-15.8 cm; weight 145-184 g. Males may be slightly larger than females, but sample sizes too small to be certain. This small soft-furred peramelid is gray or brown with a very marked dark stripe running dorsally from head to base oftail, and additional dark stripes on face and rump. Ventral fur is light gray in young animals, but rich orange-buff in adults. Ears and tail are hairless, and terminal one-sixth oftail is white.Habitat.Both primary and secondary forest, at altitudes of 1200-2650 m. Occasional records indicate that this species also visits gardens in small villages. An adult male and a Juvenile have been dug from burrows on separate occasions, providing a hint that shelter may be sought under ground rather than in surface or subsurface scrapes. It occurs sympatrically with the Striped Bandicoot (M. longicauda) in some mid-montane forest areas.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species. As it has been described as a “small replica” of the Striped Bandicoot, however, and co-occurs with latter species at somesites,it is likely to be broadly omnivorous.Breeding.From limited specimen evidence, it appears that this bandicoot breeds throughout year and carries a single young in each litter. Only four nipples are present.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend unknown. Has been recorded from nine localities. Despite being poorly known, this species’ relatively large range—with much of its distribution in rugged, high-altitude forest—its ability to tolerate disturbed habitat, and a lack of obvious threats have all contributed to IUCN’s assessment that it is secure. None of the known localities encompasses protected areas, but the small size ofthis peramelid probably means that it 1s not a focus for hunters.Bibliography.Aplin & Woolley (1993), Flannery (1995a), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005¢), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Laurie (1952), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Westerman, Kear et al. (2012), Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001), Ziegler (1977).","taxonomy":"Peroryctes papuensis Laurie, 1952,“ Boneno, Mt. Mura(30 milesNW. Mt. Simpson Main Range, eastern Papua, SE. New Guinea, 4,000-5,000 ft.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Bandicoot papou @fr | Mura-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de Papua @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Laurie","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1952","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Microperoryctes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"11","interpretedPageNumber":"398","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"papuensis","name":"Microperoryctes papuensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Fane village to Mt Simpson, in SE New Guinea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621791/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aplin & Woolley (1993) | Flannery (1995a) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005¢) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Laurie (1952) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Westerman, Kear et al. (2012) | Westerman, Springer & Krajewski (2001) | Ziegler (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species. As it has been described as a “small replica” of the Striped Bandicoot, however, and co-occurs with latter species at somesites,it is likely to be broadly omnivorous.","breeding":"From limited specimen evidence, it appears that this bandicoot breeds throughout year and carries a single young in each litter. Only four nipples are present.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population trend unknown. Has been recorded from nine localities. Despite being poorly known, this species’ relatively large range—with much of its distribution in rugged, high-altitude forest—its ability to tolerate disturbed habitat, and a lack of obvious threats have all contributed to IUCN’s assessment that it is secure. None of the known localities encompasses protected areas, but the small size ofthis peramelid probably means that it 1s not a focus for hunters.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 17.5-20.5 cm, tail 14.2-15.8 cm; weight 145-184 g. Males may be slightly larger than females, but sample sizes too small to be certain. This small soft-furred peramelid is gray or brown with a very marked dark stripe running dorsally from head to base oftail, and additional dark stripes on face and rump. Ventral fur is light gray in young animals, but rich orange-buff in adults. Ears and tail are hairless, and terminal one-sixth oftail is white.","habitat":"Both primary and secondary forest, at altitudes of 1200-2650 m. Occasional records indicate that this species also visits gardens in small villages. An adult male and a Juvenile have been dug from burrows on separate occasions, providing a hint that shelter may be sought under ground rather than in surface or subsurface scrapes. It occurs sympatrically with the Striped Bandicoot (M. longicauda) in some mid-montane forest areas."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDFFFBCF861DDB2F73A19A3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDFFFBCF861DDB2F73A19A3","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"397","verbatimText":"15.Mouse BandicootMicroperoryctes murinaFrench:Bandicoot souris/ German:Weyland-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut murinoOther common names:Weyland Mouse BandicootTaxonomy.Microperoryctes murina [sic] Stein, 1932,Sumuri Mountain, 2500 m, Weyland Mountains, Paniai Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.This species was shown to be distinct from the similarsized M. aplini in 2004. Monotypic.Distribution.Gunung Sumuri, in Weyland Mts, WC New Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head-body 15.2-17.4 cm, tail 10.5-11.1 cm; no specific data are available for body weight, but probably c.100 g. This species and the Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (M. aplini) are smallest peramelids. Furis soft, dark smoky gray, and lacks dark dorsal stripe of all other members of genus;tail is uniformly colored, and lacks white tip that is present on all congeners. Scrotum is furred and grayish white.Habitat.The three known specimens were collected in montane forest at altitude of 2500 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species. Early workers noted, however, that the claws are similar to those of similarsized fossorial (digging) mammals and also that the soft fur is reminiscent of that of moles (Talpidae) and shrews (Soricidae); this may suggest that this bandicoot obtains food such as invertebrates at orjust below ground surface.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This peramelid is known only from three specimens collected in 1931 from Gunung Sumuri, in the Weyland Mountains of west-central New Guinea. As the type locality has not been revisited since 1931, and other potential localities for this species have not been explored,its status remains completely unknown. Surveys of the type locality, adjacent montane forest, and neighboring mountain tops need to be completed before any informed conservation or management decisions can be made.Bibliography.Flannery (1995a), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Menzies (2011), Stein (1932), Tate (1948b), Tate & Archbold (1937), Ziegler (1977).","taxonomy":"Microperoryctes murina [sic] Stein, 1932,Sumuri Mountain, 2500 m, Weyland Mountains, Paniai Division, Papua Province(= Irian Jaya), Indonesia.This species was shown to be distinct from the similarsized M. aplini in 2004. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Bandicoot souris @fr | Weyland-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut murino @es | Weyland Mouse Bandicoot @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Stein","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1932","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Microperoryctes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"397","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"murina","name":"Microperoryctes murina","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Gunung Sumuri, in Weyland Mts, WC New Guinea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621782/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Flannery (1995a) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Menzies (2011) | Stein (1932) | Tate (1948b) | Tate & Archbold (1937) | Ziegler (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species. Early workers noted, however, that the claws are similar to those of similarsized fossorial (digging) mammals and also that the soft fur is reminiscent of that of moles (Talpidae) and shrews (Soricidae); this may suggest that this bandicoot obtains food such as invertebrates at orjust below ground surface.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This peramelid is known only from three specimens collected in 1931 from Gunung Sumuri, in the Weyland Mountains of west-central New Guinea. As the type locality has not been revisited since 1931, and other potential localities for this species have not been explored,its status remains completely unknown. Surveys of the type locality, adjacent montane forest, and neighboring mountain tops need to be completed before any informed conservation or management decisions can be made.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 15.2-17.4 cm, tail 10.5-11.1 cm; no specific data are available for body weight, but probably c.100 g. This species and the Arfak Pygmy Bandicoot (M. aplini) are smallest peramelids. Furis soft, dark smoky gray, and lacks dark dorsal stripe of all other members of genus;tail is uniformly colored, and lacks white tip that is present on all congeners. Scrotum is furred and grayish white.","habitat":"The three known specimens were collected in montane forest at altitude of 2500 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDFFFBCFD64DCC3F7EE1310.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDFFFBCFD64DCC3F7EE1310","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"397","verbatimText":"14.Striped BandicootMicroperoryctes longicaudaFrench:Bandicoot rayé/ German:Langschwanz-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut estriadoTaxonomy.Peroryctes longicauda Peters & Doria, 1876,“ Hatam, Mons Arfak,” (= Arfak Mountains, Bird's Head, Manokwari Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).The striking west to east change in coloration and distinctiveness of the stripe patterns has long been taken as evidence of a geographical cline, the subspecies being separated by low-elevation valleys along Central Range. Forms dorsalis and ornata, however, appear to overlap in Star (= Jayawijaya) Mountains of central New Guinea, slightly larger dorsalis occurring above 3100 m and ornata at middle elevations of 1400-2600 m; there is no evidence of introgression between the two forms, but, on the contrary, some indication of character displacement in size and shape between them in Star Mountains overlap region, this suggesting that the two are probably separate biological species. Pending further work, a conservative approach is taken here, with dorsalis and ornata treated as distinct subspecies within M. longicauda. Four subspecies currently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.l.longicaudaPeters&Doria,1876—ArfakMts,inEBird'sHead(=Vogelkop)Peninsula,NWNewGuinea.M.l.dorsalisThomas,1922—WCNewGuinea(WsectionofCentralRange).M.l.magnusLaurie,1952—SENewGuinea.M. l. ornatus Thomas, 1904— EC New Guinea (E section of Central Range).Descriptive notes.Head-body 24-30.3 cm,tail 17.8-25.8 cm; weight 350-670 g. Males and females are similar in size. Fur is brown or gray dorsally, with variable rufous tinges, and dark stripes along top of head and flanks, and sometimes face, becoming bolder and more prominent from west to east across species’ range; ventral fur is creamy white in W forms, becoming darker in E; ears and tail are hairless. Nominate subspecies has dull gray and generally unpatterned body coloration; dorsalis is slightly brighter and more rufous, with pronounced dorsal stripe; ornata is distinguished by bolder patterning of dorsal pelage, a distinct dorsal stripe, and lateral stripes on rump; magna has bold stripes like ornata, but is larger and has both longer tail and darker ventral pelage than latter.Habitat.Occurs commonly in primary, secondary, and disturbed rainforest and mossforest habitats, as well as in gardens, cane grass (Saccharum, Poaceae) thickets, and alpine regions above limit of trees. Its altitudinal rangeis from c.1000 m, possibly less in Arfak Mountains, to almost 4000 m, but it appears to be most common above 1400 m. Nests are constructed from leaves, moss, twigs and other debris in shallow burrows or on ground among grass tussocks or tree roots, and have a roof that provides some shelter from rain and predators; nests always have an escape route that reduces the chance of individuals being captured.Food and Feeding.Little quantitative information is available, but this peramelid is reported to be omnivorous. It eats insects and other invertebrates, especially worms, but also includesfallen fruit and possibly small vertebrates in the diet.Breeding.Opportunistic observations suggest that breeding can occur throughout the year, females suckling litters of 1-4 young. Two or three pairs of nipples may be present. Anecdotal observations indicate that young are left in a nest while the mother forages, and that mothers may associate with female young beyond weaning.Activity patterns.Rests by day in its nest, and appears to be active mostly, or only, at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No reliable information is available. Observations of relatively long associations between mothers and young and of up to five animals sharing a nest, however, are perhaps indicative of greater social tolerance by this species than is the case with most other peramelids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. At the species level, the extensive distribution, local abundance, and occurrence in areas away from high-density human populations provide no indication that this bandicoot is currently under any threat. It appears to be susceptible in some local areas to overhunting, especially with dogs, and also to predation by feral dogs, but it still persists in presence of human settlement and may take occasional advantage of this proximity by raiding crops in village gardens. Status of the several subspecies has not been fully assessed, but presence of nominate, dorsalis and ornata at high elevations and in several protected areas along Central Range suggests that all are reasonably secure. Status of south-eastern subspecies, magna, is less clear; as this form hasa very limited distribution and occurs near areas of high human population density, its prognosis may be somewhatless sanguine than that of its close relatives.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (1999), Dwyer (1983), Flannery (1995a), Flannery & Seri (1990b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Hide et al. (1984), Laurie (1952), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Westerman et al. (2001), Ziegler (1977).","taxonomy":"Peroryctes longicauda Peters & Doria, 1876,“ Hatam, Mons Arfak,” (= Arfak Mountains, Bird's Head, Manokwari Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).The striking west to east change in coloration and distinctiveness of the stripe patterns has long been taken as evidence of a geographical cline, the subspecies being separated by low-elevation valleys along Central Range. Forms dorsalis and ornata, however, appear to overlap in Star (= Jayawijaya) Mountains of central New Guinea, slightly larger dorsalis occurring above 3100 m and ornata at middle elevations of 1400-2600 m; there is no evidence of introgression between the two forms, but, on the contrary, some indication of character displacement in size and shape between them in Star Mountains overlap region, this suggesting that the two are probably separate biological species. Pending further work, a conservative approach is taken here, with dorsalis and ornata treated as distinct subspecies within M. longicauda. Four subspecies currently recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot rayé @fr | Langschwanz-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut estriado @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters & Doria","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1876","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Microperoryctes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"397","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"longicauda","name":"Microperoryctes longicauda","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.l.longicaudaPeters&Doria,1876—ArfakMts,inEBird'sHead(=Vogelkop)Peninsula,NWNewGuinea.M.l.dorsalisThomas,1922—WCNewGuinea(WsectionofCentralRange).M.l.magnusLaurie,1952—SENewGuinea.M. l. ornatus Thomas, 1904— EC New Guinea (E section of Central Range).","bibliography":"Aplin et al. (1999) | Dwyer (1983) | Flannery (1995a) | Flannery & Seri (1990b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Hide et al. (1984) | Laurie (1952) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Westerman et al. (2001) | Ziegler (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"Little quantitative information is available, but this peramelid is reported to be omnivorous. It eats insects and other invertebrates, especially worms, but also includesfallen fruit and possibly small vertebrates in the diet.","breeding":"Opportunistic observations suggest that breeding can occur throughout the year, females suckling litters of 1-4 young. Two or three pairs of nipples may be present. Anecdotal observations indicate that young are left in a nest while the mother forages, and that mothers may associate with female young beyond weaning.","activityPatterns":"Rests by day in its nest, and appears to be active mostly, or only, at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No reliable information is available. Observations of relatively long associations between mothers and young and of up to five animals sharing a nest, however, are perhaps indicative of greater social tolerance by this species than is the case with most other peramelids.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. At the species level, the extensive distribution, local abundance, and occurrence in areas away from high-density human populations provide no indication that this bandicoot is currently under any threat. It appears to be susceptible in some local areas to overhunting, especially with dogs, and also to predation by feral dogs, but it still persists in presence of human settlement and may take occasional advantage of this proximity by raiding crops in village gardens. Status of the several subspecies has not been fully assessed, but presence of nominate, dorsalis and ornata at high elevations and in several protected areas along Central Range suggests that all are reasonably secure. Status of south-eastern subspecies, magna, is less clear; as this form hasa very limited distribution and occurs near areas of high human population density, its prognosis may be somewhatless sanguine than that of its close relatives.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 24-30.3 cm,tail 17.8-25.8 cm; weight 350-670 g. Males and females are similar in size. Fur is brown or gray dorsally, with variable rufous tinges, and dark stripes along top of head and flanks, and sometimes face, becoming bolder and more prominent from west to east across species’ range; ventral fur is creamy white in W forms, becoming darker in E; ears and tail are hairless. Nominate subspecies has dull gray and generally unpatterned body coloration; dorsalis is slightly brighter and more rufous, with pronounced dorsal stripe; ornata is distinguished by bolder patterning of dorsal pelage, a distinct dorsal stripe, and lateral stripes on rump; magna has bold stripes like ornata, but is larger and has both longer tail and darker ventral pelage than latter.","habitat":"Occurs commonly in primary, secondary, and disturbed rainforest and mossforest habitats, as well as in gardens, cane grass (Saccharum, Poaceae) thickets, and alpine regions above limit of trees. Its altitudinal rangeis from c.1000 m, possibly less in Arfak Mountains, to almost 4000 m, but it appears to be most common above 1400 m. Nests are constructed from leaves, moss, twigs and other debris in shallow burrows or on ground among grass tussocks or tree roots, and have a roof that provides some shelter from rain and predators; nests always have an escape route that reduces the chance of individuals being captured."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDFFFBCFD64DCC3F7EE1310.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDFFFBCFD64DCC3F7EE1310","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"397","verbatimText":"14.Striped BandicootMicroperoryctes longicaudaFrench:Bandicoot rayé/ German:Langschwanz-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut estriadoTaxonomy.Peroryctes longicauda Peters & Doria, 1876,“ Hatam, Mons Arfak,” (= Arfak Mountains, Bird's Head, Manokwari Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).The striking west to east change in coloration and distinctiveness of the stripe patterns has long been taken as evidence of a geographical cline, the subspecies being separated by low-elevation valleys along Central Range. Forms dorsalis and ornata, however, appear to overlap in Star (= Jayawijaya) Mountains of central New Guinea, slightly larger dorsalis occurring above 3100 m and ornata at middle elevations of 1400-2600 m; there is no evidence of introgression between the two forms, but, on the contrary, some indication of character displacement in size and shape between them in Star Mountains overlap region, this suggesting that the two are probably separate biological species. Pending further work, a conservative approach is taken here, with dorsalis and ornata treated as distinct subspecies within M. longicauda. Four subspecies currently recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M.l.longicaudaPeters&Doria,1876—ArfakMts,inEBird'sHead(=Vogelkop)Peninsula,NWNewGuinea.M.l.dorsalisThomas,1922—WCNewGuinea(WsectionofCentralRange).M.l.magnusLaurie,1952—SENewGuinea.M. l. ornatus Thomas, 1904— EC New Guinea (E section of Central Range).Descriptive notes.Head-body 24-30.3 cm,tail 17.8-25.8 cm; weight 350-670 g. Males and females are similar in size. Fur is brown or gray dorsally, with variable rufous tinges, and dark stripes along top of head and flanks, and sometimes face, becoming bolder and more prominent from west to east across species’ range; ventral fur is creamy white in W forms, becoming darker in E; ears and tail are hairless. Nominate subspecies has dull gray and generally unpatterned body coloration; dorsalis is slightly brighter and more rufous, with pronounced dorsal stripe; ornata is distinguished by bolder patterning of dorsal pelage, a distinct dorsal stripe, and lateral stripes on rump; magna has bold stripes like ornata, but is larger and has both longer tail and darker ventral pelage than latter.Habitat.Occurs commonly in primary, secondary, and disturbed rainforest and mossforest habitats, as well as in gardens, cane grass (Saccharum, Poaceae) thickets, and alpine regions above limit of trees. Its altitudinal rangeis from c.1000 m, possibly less in Arfak Mountains, to almost 4000 m, but it appears to be most common above 1400 m. Nests are constructed from leaves, moss, twigs and other debris in shallow burrows or on ground among grass tussocks or tree roots, and have a roof that provides some shelter from rain and predators; nests always have an escape route that reduces the chance of individuals being captured.Food and Feeding.Little quantitative information is available, but this peramelid is reported to be omnivorous. It eats insects and other invertebrates, especially worms, but also includesfallen fruit and possibly small vertebrates in the diet.Breeding.Opportunistic observations suggest that breeding can occur throughout the year, females suckling litters of 1-4 young. Two or three pairs of nipples may be present. Anecdotal observations indicate that young are left in a nest while the mother forages, and that mothers may associate with female young beyond weaning.Activity patterns.Rests by day in its nest, and appears to be active mostly, or only, at night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No reliable information is available. Observations of relatively long associations between mothers and young and of up to five animals sharing a nest, however, are perhaps indicative of greater social tolerance by this species than is the case with most other peramelids.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. At the species level, the extensive distribution, local abundance, and occurrence in areas away from high-density human populations provide no indication that this bandicoot is currently under any threat. It appears to be susceptible in some local areas to overhunting, especially with dogs, and also to predation by feral dogs, but it still persists in presence of human settlement and may take occasional advantage of this proximity by raiding crops in village gardens. Status of the several subspecies has not been fully assessed, but presence of nominate, dorsalis and ornata at high elevations and in several protected areas along Central Range suggests that all are reasonably secure. Status of south-eastern subspecies, magna, is less clear; as this form hasa very limited distribution and occurs near areas of high human population density, its prognosis may be somewhatless sanguine than that of its close relatives.Bibliography.Aplin et al. (1999), Dwyer (1983), Flannery (1995a), Flannery & Seri (1990b), George & Maynes (1990), Groves (2005c), Groves & Flannery (1990), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Hide et al. (1984), Laurie (1952), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Westerman et al. (2001), Ziegler (1977).","taxonomy":"Peroryctes longicauda Peters & Doria, 1876,“ Hatam, Mons Arfak,” (= Arfak Mountains, Bird's Head, Manokwari Division, Papua Province, Indonesia).The striking west to east change in coloration and distinctiveness of the stripe patterns has long been taken as evidence of a geographical cline, the subspecies being separated by low-elevation valleys along Central Range. Forms dorsalis and ornata, however, appear to overlap in Star (= Jayawijaya) Mountains of central New Guinea, slightly larger dorsalis occurring above 3100 m and ornata at middle elevations of 1400-2600 m; there is no evidence of introgression between the two forms, but, on the contrary, some indication of character displacement in size and shape between them in Star Mountains overlap region, this suggesting that the two are probably separate biological species. Pending further work, a conservative approach is taken here, with dorsalis and ornata treated as distinct subspecies within M. longicauda. Four subspecies currently recognized.","commonNames":"Bandicoot rayé @fr | Langschwanz-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut estriado @es","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters & Doria","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1876","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Microperoryctes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"397","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"longicauda","name":"Microperoryctes longicauda","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M.l.longicaudaPeters&Doria,1876—ArfakMts,inEBird'sHead(=Vogelkop)Peninsula,NWNewGuinea.M.l.dorsalisThomas,1922—WCNewGuinea(WsectionofCentralRange).M.l.magnusLaurie,1952—SENewGuinea.M. l. ornatus Thomas, 1904— EC New Guinea (E section of Central Range).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621780/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aplin et al. (1999) | Dwyer (1983) | Flannery (1995a) | Flannery & Seri (1990b) | George & Maynes (1990) | Groves (2005c) | Groves & Flannery (1990) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Hide et al. (1984) | Laurie (1952) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Westerman et al. (2001) | Ziegler (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"Little quantitative information is available, but this peramelid is reported to be omnivorous. It eats insects and other invertebrates, especially worms, but also includesfallen fruit and possibly small vertebrates in the diet.","breeding":"Opportunistic observations suggest that breeding can occur throughout the year, females suckling litters of 1-4 young. Two or three pairs of nipples may be present. Anecdotal observations indicate that young are left in a nest while the mother forages, and that mothers may associate with female young beyond weaning.","activityPatterns":"Rests by day in its nest, and appears to be active mostly, or only, at night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No reliable information is available. Observations of relatively long associations between mothers and young and of up to five animals sharing a nest, however, are perhaps indicative of greater social tolerance by this species than is the case with most other peramelids.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. At the species level, the extensive distribution, local abundance, and occurrence in areas away from high-density human populations provide no indication that this bandicoot is currently under any threat. It appears to be susceptible in some local areas to overhunting, especially with dogs, and also to predation by feral dogs, but it still persists in presence of human settlement and may take occasional advantage of this proximity by raiding crops in village gardens. Status of the several subspecies has not been fully assessed, but presence of nominate, dorsalis and ornata at high elevations and in several protected areas along Central Range suggests that all are reasonably secure. Status of south-eastern subspecies, magna, is less clear; as this form hasa very limited distribution and occurs near areas of high human population density, its prognosis may be somewhatless sanguine than that of its close relatives.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 24-30.3 cm,tail 17.8-25.8 cm; weight 350-670 g. Males and females are similar in size. Fur is brown or gray dorsally, with variable rufous tinges, and dark stripes along top of head and flanks, and sometimes face, becoming bolder and more prominent from west to east across species’ range; ventral fur is creamy white in W forms, becoming darker in E; ears and tail are hairless. Nominate subspecies has dull gray and generally unpatterned body coloration; dorsalis is slightly brighter and more rufous, with pronounced dorsal stripe; ornata is distinguished by bolder patterning of dorsal pelage, a distinct dorsal stripe, and lateral stripes on rump; magna has bold stripes like ornata, but is larger and has both longer tail and darker ventral pelage than latter.","habitat":"Occurs commonly in primary, secondary, and disturbed rainforest and mossforest habitats, as well as in gardens, cane grass (Saccharum, Poaceae) thickets, and alpine regions above limit of trees. Its altitudinal rangeis from c.1000 m, possibly less in Arfak Mountains, to almost 4000 m, but it appears to be most common above 1400 m. Nests are constructed from leaves, moss, twigs and other debris in shallow burrows or on ground among grass tussocks or tree roots, and have a roof that provides some shelter from rain and predators; nests always have an escape route that reduces the chance of individuals being captured."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/C9/17/03C91729FFDFFFBDF86BD662FEDD1229.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03C91729FFDFFFBDF86BD662FEDD1229","docName":"hbmw_5_Peramelidae_0362.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff06f51ffd5ffb6fd13df74ff8f116d","docISBN":"978-84-96553-99-6","docPageNumber":"397","verbatimText":"16.Arfak Pygmy BandicootMicroperoryctes aplinFrench:Bandicoot dAplin/ German:Arfak-Mausnasenbeutler/ Spanish:Bandicut de las ArfakTaxonomy.Microperoryctes aplini Helgen & Flannery, 2004,Kampong Sururai, Lake Anggi Giji(01°23’S, 133°58’E), 6200 ft(= 1890 m), Arfak Mountains, eastern Vogelkop Peninsula, western New Guinea(Papua Province, Indonesia).Has been considered conspecific with M. murina, primarily on the basis of its similarity in size. Monotypic.Distribution.Arfak Mts, in E Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop) Peninsula, NW New Guinea.This species is monotypic.Descriptive notes.Head—body 14.2-16 cm,tail 11-512 cm; weight unknown, probably less than 100 g. Probably the smallest member of Peramelidae, at least as diminutive as the Mouse Bandicoot (M. murina). Fur is soft brown on dorsal surface, with a pronounced dark stripe that runs from crown to rump, while ventral fur is gray-brown with a creamy-white stripe. Relatively long tail is brown above and creamy white below, with a white tip that extends for about a sixth of tail length.Habitat.Has been collected in forest at altitudes of 1890-2200 m.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species. Like the Mouse Bandicoot, however,it has been suggested as being “subfossorial;” if correct, this species may obtain its food at or just below ground surface.Breeding.There is no information available for this species.Activity patterns.There is no information available for this species.Movements, Home range and Social organization.There is no information available for this species.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This tiny bandicoot is represented by four specimens collected in 1928, 1963, and 1986 from Arfak Mountains, in eastern Bird’s Head Peninsula. Its status is similar to that of the Mouse Bandicoot in that it has not been seen for many years, is known from a small area, and has been subject to little or no dedicated survey work to discoverits true status. Although it is not beset by any known threats and has been recorded from a formal nature reserve, there is a growing human population in lower Arfak Mountains and the species could be potentially at risk from increased hunting pressure or disturbance to its habitat. Surveys are needed in order to define the size of the species’ population, where it occurs, and what threats it may face, so that more informed decisions can be made about its future conservation and management.Bibliography.Flannery (1995a), Groves (2005c), Helgen & Flannery (2004a), Menzies (2011), Tate (1948b), Ziegler (1977).","taxonomy":"Microperoryctes aplini Helgen & Flannery, 2004,Kampong Sururai, Lake Anggi Giji(01°23’S, 133°58’E), 6200 ft(= 1890 m), Arfak Mountains, eastern Vogelkop Peninsula, western New Guinea(Papua Province, Indonesia).Has been considered conspecific with M. murina, primarily on the basis of its similarity in size. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Bandicoot d Aplin @fr | Arfak-Mausnasenbeutler @de | Bandicut de las Arfak @es","interpretedAuthority":"Helgen & Flannery, 2004","interpretedAuthorityName":"Helgen & Flannery","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2004","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Peramelidae","interpretedGenus":"Microperoryctes","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Peramelemorphia","interpretedPageId":"10","interpretedPageNumber":"397","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"aplini","name":"Microperoryctes aplin","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Arfak Mts, in E Bird’s Head (= Vogelkop) Peninsula, NW New Guinea.This species is monotypic.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6621785/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Flannery (1995a) | Groves (2005c) | Helgen & Flannery (2004a) | Menzies (2011) | Tate (1948b) | Ziegler (1977)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species. Like the Mouse Bandicoot, however,it has been suggested as being “subfossorial;” if correct, this species may obtain its food at or just below ground surface.","breeding":"There is no information available for this species.","activityPatterns":"There is no information available for this species.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"There is no information available for this species.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The population trend is unknown. This tiny bandicoot is represented by four specimens collected in 1928, 1963, and 1986 from Arfak Mountains, in eastern Bird’s Head Peninsula. Its status is similar to that of the Mouse Bandicoot in that it has not been seen for many years, is known from a small area, and has been subject to little or no dedicated survey work to discoverits true status. Although it is not beset by any known threats and has been recorded from a formal nature reserve, there is a growing human population in lower Arfak Mountains and the species could be potentially at risk from increased hunting pressure or disturbance to its habitat. Surveys are needed in order to define the size of the species’ population, where it occurs, and what threats it may face, so that more informed decisions can be made about its future conservation and management.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 14.2-16 cm,tail 11-512 cm; weight unknown, probably less than 100 g. Probably the smallest member of Peramelidae, at least as diminutive as the Mouse Bandicoot (M. murina). Fur is soft brown on dorsal surface, with a pronounced dark stripe that runs from crown to rump, while ventral fur is gray-brown with a creamy-white stripe. Relatively long tail is brown above and creamy white below, with a white tip that extends for about a sixth of tail length.","habitat":"Has been collected in forest at altitudes of 1890-2200 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9120FB5DFF58F721FBABD779.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9120FB5DFF58F721FBABD779","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"560","verbatimText":"10.Eastern Spotted SkunkSpilogale putoriusFrench:Moufette tachetée/ German:Ostlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta orientalTaxonomy.Viverra putorius Linnaeus, 1758,South Carolina.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. p. putorius Linnaeus, 1758— E & SE USA(Mississippi, Alabama& N Florida, through Georgia, N to SC Pennsylvania).S. p. ambarvalis Bangs, 1898— SE USA(Peninsular Florida).S. p. interrupta Rafinesque, 1820— USA(Canadian border in Minnesota, C North Dakota, E Wyoming, E Colorado, W Oklahoma, NW Texas, south to C Texas, and east to the MississippiRiver along Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri& Iowa, up to Wisconsin.Descriptive notes.There is considerable variation in size of Eastern Spotted Skunks. Head-body 23-33 cm, mean 30 cm(males), and 19-33 cm, mean 29 cm(females), tail 8-28 cm, mean 16- 4 cm(males), and 8: 5-21 cm, mean 15- 4 cm(females); weight 276-885 g(males) and 207-475 g(females). Eastern Spotted Skunks are smaller than Striped Skunks and more weasel-like in body shape. The pelage of Eastern Spotted Skunks is black with a complex striping pattern of six stripes; the stripes can be interrupted, giving a somewhat spotted appearance. There are usually two white spots on the rump, as well as a white spot between the eyes. The dorsal stripes run down the vertebral column from the head toward the tail. Two stripes run below the dorsal stripes over the shoulder and continue across the ears, forming a small white spot in front of the ears. A third set ofstripes continues from the front feet past the end of the shoulder stripes. Locomotion in Eastern Spotted Skunksis plantigrade and these skunks run with their bodies low to the ground. While walking more slowly and cautiously, they will extend their limbs and raise their heads to get higher off the ground. Spotted skunks have five toes on each foot. They are not such efficient diggers as Conepatusor Mephitis, but are much more agile and able to climb. The dental formula for this species is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, totaling 34 teeth. The P? is always small and may be absent.Habitat.These skunks are rarely found in the open, preferring either forested areas or habitats containing significant vegetative cover. In the Plains States, these skunks inhabit riparian woodlands and areas of vegetation along fences. They also are found in brushy and rocky habitats, but avoid wetlands. They have been observed on sandy soils and beaches in Florida. Eastern Spotted Skunks seem to prefer habitat with extensive vegetative cover, as this cover provides protection from various predators. They den in protected, dark, dry holes including natural crevices in trees, and will den off the ground to an elevation of seven meters in hollow trees. They dig their own burrows, or den in holes previously occupied by other animals, in talus slopes, haystacks, under houses or rocks, and in the walls of houses or barns. They prefer warm holes in the winter and cool dens in the summer, and will change den sites to accommodate these needs.Food and Feeding.Eastern Spotted Skunks forage primarily at night. They are secretive and not often seen. These skunks are exceptional mousers and do farmers a great service when they forage around barns and buildings. They are omnivores, but tend to be more carnivorous than Mephitisor Conepatus. The diet consists mainly of insects, small mammals, birds, and birds’ eggs. Like a center hiking an American football, the skunk uses its front paws to throw an egg through its back legs in order to crack the shell. These skunks also will eat fruits and vegetables in the summer and fall when they are available.Activity patterns.They are generally nocturnal. They usually avoid moonlit nights. On nights when the moon is not out they normally have two periods of activity. They will come out soon after sunset and again before sunrise. They will be active throughout the night as well. Eastern Spotted Skunks have been observed during the day on rare occasions. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. This agility also can be observed in their threat behavior as they are able to perform front handstands. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. This behavior has been reported to last for up to eight minutes in short, 2-5 second bursts of handstanding. However, a young, captive animal from a wildlife rehabilitation effort was observed crouching under a couch on all fours until a domestic cat came into the room. The skunk rushed out from under the couch toward the cat. As soon as its tail cleared the cushion it went into a handstand/run. The cat began to trot away. The skunk followed on its frontfeet, bouncing around a table, about 1-5 mand then jumped up on a stand approximately 6 cmoff the ground, ran along the stand, hopped off the end and continued to chase the cat to the other end of the room. The cat finally ran off and the skunk dropped down on all fours and went back under the couch. Spotted skunks have been reported to spray from the hand-stand position, but they usually drop down and face the predator with both ends in a “U” shape. The handstand is usuallyjust a threat behavior used to drive off the predator.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These skunks usually den alone, but in cold winter months several skunks may bed down together. They usually use more than one den site within their home range. Eastern Spotted Skunks move from den to den and more than one individual has been captured at the same den site in capture-recapture studies. They may also share dens, but with only one animal using the den at a time. Captive male animals have been reported to be aggressive toward one another to the point of one animal killing the other. Females tended not to engage in fatal fights, but remained defensive while in the same cage. Young animals will wrestle and screech at one another, but will also sleep together. Young animals will usually separate before reaching full adulthood. Spotted skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range. Where they occur they can be found at a density of about nine animals per km? to about 20 and even 40 per km”. Eastern Spotted Skunks tend to move greater distances in the spring than in the summer and fall. Home ranges can be up to 4359 ha.Breeding.Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.Status and Conservation.Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. However, there has been concern over the lack of observations of this species throughout its range in the last few decades. Population densities of Eastern Spotted Skunks were believed to be low when settlers first arrived on the Great Plains. When small farm operations flourished there prior to the 1920s, spotted skunks became more numerous as farm buildings provided shelter as well as a supply of mice and rats. When the small farms gave way to larger operations, the density of spotted skunks became lower. Today, the Eastern Spotted Skunk is considered to be threatened in many of the states within its historical range. Natural predators of spotted skunks include larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats and bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls. Ectoparasites found on Eastern Spotted Skunks include fleas and ticks, and endoparasites include various tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidian protozoans. Humans also are known to be a major cause of mortality because of the number of skunks hit by cars. Pneumonia and coccidiosis are diseases that have been reported in this species. Rabies has been reported, but rarely. Histoplasmosis has also been found, and microfilaria,listeriosis, mastitis, tularemia, distemper, and Q fever are likely to affect Eastern Spotted Skunks.Bibliography.Bangs (1898b), Choate et al. (1973), Crabb (1948), Dragoo & Honeycutt, (1999b), Gompper & Hackett (2005), Howell (1906), Kinlaw (1995), Manaro (1961), McCullough & Fritzell (1984), Mead (1968a), Mitchell (1923), Pocock (1921), Reed & Kennedy (2000), Seton (1926), Van Gelder (1959).","taxonomy":"Viverra putorius Linnaeus, 1758,South Carolina.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette tachetée @fr | Ostlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta oriental @es","interpretedAuthority":"(Linnaeus, 1758)","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Spilogale","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"CoL","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"560","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"putorius","name":"Spilogale putorius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. p. putorius Linnaeus, 1758— E & SE USA(Mississippi, Alabama& N Florida, through Georgia, N to SC Pennsylvania).S. p. ambarvalis Bangs, 1898— SE USA(Peninsular Florida).S. p. interrupta Rafinesque, 1820— USA(Canadian border in Minnesota, C North Dakota, E Wyoming, E Colorado, W Oklahoma, NW Texas, south to C Texas, and east to the MississippiRiver along Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri& Iowa, up to Wisconsin.","bibliography":"Bangs (1898b) | Choate et al. (1973) | Crabb (1948) | Dragoo & Honeycutt, (1999b) | Gompper & Hackett (2005) | Howell (1906) | Kinlaw (1995) | Manaro (1961) | McCullough & Fritzell (1984) | Mead (1968a) | Mitchell (1923) | Pocock (1921) | Reed & Kennedy (2000) | Seton (1926) | Van Gelder (1959)","foodAndFeeding":"Eastern Spotted Skunks forage primarily at night. They are secretive and not often seen. These skunks are exceptional mousers and do farmers a great service when they forage around barns and buildings. They are omnivores, but tend to be more carnivorous than Mephitisor Conepatus. The diet consists mainly of insects, small mammals, birds, and birds’ eggs. Like a center hiking an American football, the skunk uses its front paws to throw an egg through its back legs in order to crack the shell. These skunks also will eat fruits and vegetables in the summer and fall when they are available.","breeding":"Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.","activityPatterns":"They are generally nocturnal. They usually avoid moonlit nights. On nights when the moon is not out they normally have two periods of activity. They will come out soon after sunset and again before sunrise. They will be active throughout the night as well. Eastern Spotted Skunks have been observed during the day on rare occasions. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. This agility also can be observed in their threat behavior as they are able to perform front handstands. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. This behavior has been reported to last for up to eight minutes in short, 2-5 second bursts of handstanding. However, a young, captive animal from a wildlife rehabilitation effort was observed crouching under a couch on all fours until a domestic cat came into the room. The skunk rushed out from under the couch toward the cat. As soon as its tail cleared the cushion it went into a handstand/run. The cat began to trot away. The skunk followed on its frontfeet, bouncing around a table, about 1-5 mand then jumped up on a stand approximately 6 cmoff the ground, ran along the stand, hopped off the end and continued to chase the cat to the other end of the room. The cat finally ran off and the skunk dropped down on all fours and went back under the couch. Spotted skunks have been reported to spray from the hand-stand position, but they usually drop down and face the predator with both ends in a “U” shape. The handstand is usuallyjust a threat behavior used to drive off the predator.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"These skunks usually den alone, but in cold winter months several skunks may bed down together. They usually use more than one den site within their home range. Eastern Spotted Skunks move from den to den and more than one individual has been captured at the same den site in capture-recapture studies. They may also share dens, but with only one animal using the den at a time. Captive male animals have been reported to be aggressive toward one another to the point of one animal killing the other. Females tended not to engage in fatal fights, but remained defensive while in the same cage. Young animals will wrestle and screech at one another, but will also sleep together. Young animals will usually separate before reaching full adulthood. Spotted skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range. Where they occur they can be found at a density of about nine animals per km? to about 20 and even 40 per km”. Eastern Spotted Skunks tend to move greater distances in the spring than in the summer and fall. Home ranges can be up to 4359 ha.Breeding.Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.","statusAndConservation":"Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. However, there has been concern over the lack of observations of this species throughout its range in the last few decades. Population densities of Eastern Spotted Skunks were believed to be low when settlers first arrived on the Great Plains. When small farm operations flourished there prior to the 1920s, spotted skunks became more numerous as farm buildings provided shelter as well as a supply of mice and rats. When the small farms gave way to larger operations, the density of spotted skunks became lower. Today, the Eastern Spotted Skunk is considered to be threatened in many of the states within its historical range. Natural predators of spotted skunks include larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats and bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls. Ectoparasites found on Eastern Spotted Skunks include fleas and ticks, and endoparasites include various tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidian protozoans. Humans also are known to be a major cause of mortality because of the number of skunks hit by cars. Pneumonia and coccidiosis are diseases that have been reported in this species. Rabies has been reported, but rarely. Histoplasmosis has also been found, and microfilaria,listeriosis, mastitis, tularemia, distemper, and Q fever are likely to affect Eastern Spotted Skunks.","descriptiveNotes":"There is considerable variation in size of Eastern Spotted Skunks. Head-body 23-33 cm, mean 30 cm(males), and 19-33 cm, mean 29 cm(females), tail 8-28 cm, mean 16- 4 cm(males), and 8: 5-21 cm, mean 15- 4 cm(females); weight 276-885 g(males) and 207-475 g(females). Eastern Spotted Skunks are smaller than Striped Skunks and more weasel-like in body shape. The pelage of Eastern Spotted Skunks is black with a complex striping pattern of six stripes; the stripes can be interrupted, giving a somewhat spotted appearance. There are usually two white spots on the rump, as well as a white spot between the eyes. The dorsal stripes run down the vertebral column from the head toward the tail. Two stripes run below the dorsal stripes over the shoulder and continue across the ears, forming a small white spot in front of the ears. A third set ofstripes continues from the front feet past the end of the shoulder stripes. Locomotion in Eastern Spotted Skunksis plantigrade and these skunks run with their bodies low to the ground. While walking more slowly and cautiously, they will extend their limbs and raise their heads to get higher off the ground. Spotted skunks have five toes on each foot. They are not such efficient diggers as Conepatusor Mephitis, but are much more agile and able to climb. The dental formula for this species is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, totaling 34 teeth. The P? is always small and may be absent.","habitat":"These skunks are rarely found in the open, preferring either forested areas or habitats containing significant vegetative cover. In the Plains States, these skunks inhabit riparian woodlands and areas of vegetation along fences. They also are found in brushy and rocky habitats, but avoid wetlands. They have been observed on sandy soils and beaches in Florida. Eastern Spotted Skunks seem to prefer habitat with extensive vegetative cover, as this cover provides protection from various predators. They den in protected, dark, dry holes including natural crevices in trees, and will den off the ground to an elevation of seven meters in hollow trees. They dig their own burrows, or den in holes previously occupied by other animals, in talus slopes, haystacks, under houses or rocks, and in the walls of houses or barns. They prefer warm holes in the winter and cool dens in the summer, and will change den sites to accommodate these needs."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9121FB52FA02F644FB53DDF5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9121FB52FA02F644FB53DDF5","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"559","verbatimText":"9.Pygmy Spotted SkunkSpilogale pygmaeaFrench:Moufette naine/ German:Zwerg-Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta chicaTaxonomy.Spilogale pygmaea Thomas, 1898,Rosario, Sinaloa, W. Mexico.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa& Nayarit).S. p. australis Hall, 1938— W Mexico(Pacific coastal region from Michoacanto Guerrero& Oaxaca).S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima).Descriptive notes.Head-body 19-21 cm,tail 6.7-7.3 cm(males) and 5.9-6.7 cm(females), hindfoot 2.3-4 cm, ear 1.8-3.3 cm; weight 150-320 g. Tail length has been used to distinguish the sexes. The Pygmy Spotted Skunk is the smallest of the skunks. The body is elongated and the legs are relatively short. This skunk has six continuous white stripes running down the back and sides; the rest of the fur color is brown to black. There is a white stripe across the forehead above the eyes that continues down the side of the body. Pygmy Spotted Skunks have a short rostrum with a black nose pad, short, rounded ears, short legs, and slender feet with small curved claws. The skull is small and fragile and does not have a sagittal crest. The dental formulais 13/3, C1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 for a total of 34 teeth. These skunks have small canines but relatively large molars.Habitat.These skunks inhabit deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub. They have been observed in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetation for cover. They have a patchy distribution, but nearly all individuals have been captured in coastal habitats. However, remains have been found in owl pellets about 115 kmfrom the coast at an altitude of 500 m. They are found from sea level up to 1630 m, but are generally found below 350 m. Pygmy Spotted Skunksare scarce, but if enough habitat is preserved, they are believed to be able to survive in disturbed environments.Food and Feeding.Pygmy Spotted Skunks are opportunistic feeders and consume a variety of invertebrates. Rodents are not taken as frequently as by other spotted skunks, but may be selected as alternative prey when the availability of arthropods is low. Spiny pocket mice are common in the tropical dry forest, and during the dry season, their density is high. During this season rodents also may be easier to detect due to the desiccation ofleaflitter. Birds are rarely taken by these skunks and plant material is less likely to be consumed, although, highly digestible fruits may be eaten. Pygmy Spotted Skunks use food sources such as ants, beetles, and spiders in relation to their abundance in the environment. However, some invertebrates, such as insect larvae, millipedes and centipedes, are selected in higher abundance. True bugs (Hemiptera) tend to be avoided as do crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera). Pygmy Spotted Skunks will eat cockroaches (Blattaria) during the dry season; they may select food items in response to seasonal variation in prey abundance.Activity patterns.They are nocturnal and den underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation. They will use dens dug by other animals such as gophers, squirrels, armadillos, and turtles. They use pathways and stream beds to move to and from bodies of water. Much of their activity occurs below the leaf litter or brush, where they search for the burrows of small rodents. Pygmy Spotted Skunks stomp their feet when threatened. They have been observed doing a partial handstand similar to other species of spotted skunks. Anal secretions are usually only released as a last resort.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These skunks are solitary most of the year except during the breeding season. Males will defend their territory against other males, and only allow females access to their territory.Breeding.Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.Status and Conservation.Not listed with CITES. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. This skunk is locally abundant in certain areas, but is considered to be vulnerable throughout much of its range in Mexicodue to habitat destruction as a result of tourist resort and road construction. These animals also have been stuffed and sold as souvenirs. Skulls have been recovered from barn owl pellets, and snakes and other carnivores probably prey on Pygmy Spotted Skunks. They have been found with various parasites including ticks, cestodes, nematode, and intestinal worms.Bibliography.Cantu-Salazar (2002), Cantu-Salazar, Fernandez & Hidalgo-Mihart (2004), Cantu-Salazar, Hidalgo-Mihart et al. (2005), Ceballos & Miranda(1986), Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Hall (1938), Lopez-Forment & Urbano (1979), Medellin et al. (1998), Schreiber et al. (1989), Teska et al. (1981), Thomas (1898b).","taxonomy":"Spilogale pygmaea Thomas, 1898,Rosario, Sinaloa, W. Mexico.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette naine @fr | Zwerg-Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta chica @es","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Spilogale","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"CoL","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"559","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pygmaea","name":"Spilogale pygmaea","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa& Nayarit).S. p. australis Hall, 1938— W Mexico(Pacific coastal region from Michoacanto Guerrero& Oaxaca).S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima).","bibliography":"Cantu-Salazar (2002) | Cantu-Salazar, Fernandez & Hidalgo-Mihart (2004) | Cantu-Salazar, Hidalgo-Mihart et al. (2005) | Ceballos & Miranda(1986) | Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Hall (1938) | Lopez-Forment & Urbano (1979) | Medellin et al. (1998) | Schreiber et al. (1989) | Teska et al. (1981) | Thomas (1898b)","foodAndFeeding":"Pygmy Spotted Skunks are opportunistic feeders and consume a variety of invertebrates. Rodents are not taken as frequently as by other spotted skunks, but may be selected as alternative prey when the availability of arthropods is low. Spiny pocket mice are common in the tropical dry forest, and during the dry season, their density is high. During this season rodents also may be easier to detect due to the desiccation ofleaflitter. Birds are rarely taken by these skunks and plant material is less likely to be consumed, although, highly digestible fruits may be eaten. Pygmy Spotted Skunks use food sources such as ants, beetles, and spiders in relation to their abundance in the environment. However, some invertebrates, such as insect larvae, millipedes and centipedes, are selected in higher abundance. True bugs (Hemiptera) tend to be avoided as do crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera). Pygmy Spotted Skunks will eat cockroaches (Blattaria) during the dry season; they may select food items in response to seasonal variation in prey abundance.","breeding":"Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.","activityPatterns":"They are nocturnal and den underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation. They will use dens dug by other animals such as gophers, squirrels, armadillos, and turtles. They use pathways and stream beds to move to and from bodies of water. Much of their activity occurs below the leaf litter or brush, where they search for the burrows of small rodents. Pygmy Spotted Skunks stomp their feet when threatened. They have been observed doing a partial handstand similar to other species of spotted skunks. Anal secretions are usually only released as a last resort.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"These skunks are solitary most of the year except during the breeding season. Males will defend their territory against other males, and only allow females access to their territory.Breeding.Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.","statusAndConservation":"Not listed with CITES. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. This skunk is locally abundant in certain areas, but is considered to be vulnerable throughout much of its range in Mexicodue to habitat destruction as a result of tourist resort and road construction. These animals also have been stuffed and sold as souvenirs. Skulls have been recovered from barn owl pellets, and snakes and other carnivores probably prey on Pygmy Spotted Skunks. They have been found with various parasites including ticks, cestodes, nematode, and intestinal worms.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 19-21 cm,tail 6.7-7.3 cm(males) and 5.9-6.7 cm(females), hindfoot 2.3-4 cm, ear 1.8-3.3 cm; weight 150-320 g. Tail length has been used to distinguish the sexes. The Pygmy Spotted Skunk is the smallest of the skunks. The body is elongated and the legs are relatively short. This skunk has six continuous white stripes running down the back and sides; the rest of the fur color is brown to black. There is a white stripe across the forehead above the eyes that continues down the side of the body. Pygmy Spotted Skunks have a short rostrum with a black nose pad, short, rounded ears, short legs, and slender feet with small curved claws. The skull is small and fragile and does not have a sagittal crest. The dental formulais 13/3, C1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 for a total of 34 teeth. These skunks have small canines but relatively large molars.","habitat":"These skunks inhabit deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub. They have been observed in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetation for cover. They have a patchy distribution, but nearly all individuals have been captured in coastal habitats. However, remains have been found in owl pellets about 115 kmfrom the coast at an altitude of 500 m. They are found from sea level up to 1630 m, but are generally found below 350 m. Pygmy Spotted Skunksare scarce, but if enough habitat is preserved, they are believed to be able to survive in disturbed environments."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9122FB50FF56F9E7F5DBDE43.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9122FB50FF56F9E7F5DBDE43","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"558","verbatimText":"7.Hooded SkunkMephitis macrouraFrench:Moufette a capuchon/ German:Haubenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta encapuchadaTaxonomy.Mephitis macroura Lichtenstein, 1832,Gebirgs-Gegenden nord-westlich von der Stadt Mexico” (Mexico, mountains north-west of Mexico City).Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. macroura Lichtenstein, 1832— C & W Mexico(NayaritE to Tamaulipas) and S to Honduras, but not including the Yucatan Peninsula.M. m. eximius Hall & Dalquest, 1950— E Mexico(S Veracruz).M. m. milleri Mearns, 1897— N Mexico(Sonoraand Sinaloato CoahuilaN) to S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas).M. m. richardsoni Goodwin, 1957— Nicaraguaand Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head—body averages about 31 cm(males) and 28 cm(females), tail 27-43 cm; weight averages 957 g(males) 882 g(females). Individuals achieve their greatest weight by late summer. Hooded Skunks in the more southern part of their range are smaller than animals in the northern part of the range. Hooded Skunks have three typical color patterns, but there is considerable variation. These patterns are: two thin stripes running down the side of the body from the shoulder to midabdomen; a single band running down the back from the forehead to the tail (this single white stripe is interspersed with black hair giving a gray appearance), and a combination of both. These skunks also have a white bar between the eyes. The skull is similar to that of the Striped Skunk, but the auditory bullae are larger. Hooded Skunk can be differentiated externally from Striped Skunk by the long hairs on the back of the neck and head,its relatively longer tail, and larger ears. The anal secretions of the Hooded Skunk have seven major components, which comprise 99% of the volatiles. These components are (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, S-3-methylbutenyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol. There are several minor components as well, including phenylmethanethiol, S-phenylmethyl thioacetate, S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide, and S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate. The Hooded Skunk’s secretion contains four compounds not reported from the Striped Skunk: phenylmethanethiol, Sphenylmethyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, and S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate.Habitat.This skunk occurs in a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It is most common in arid lowlands, but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats. Hooded Skunks use similar habitats to Striped Skunks, but are found more often in scrub and urban habitats. Hooded Skunks occur from sea level to 3110 m, in low elevation desert areas (below 2500 m), in rocky canyons, or in heavily vegetated streamsides and valleys, often in association with mesquite, pine—oak, and other shrubs and grasses. Hooded Skunks appearto prefer intermediate elevationsin rockyslopes,at the bases ofcliffs, or on the rocky sides of arroyos, but are also encountered in heavy growth of weeds and shrubs in riparian areas. Dense, brushy cover of stream sides may be important for this species. Hooded Skunks den in holes dug in the ground, rock crevices, and holes in logs. They have even been observed denning more than 1 mabove ground in trees, but they are more likely to den on rocky hillsides. They prefer woodland habitats more than do Striped Skunks. In agricultural areas Hooded Skunks den along fencerows, beneath irrigation canals, and in heavily vegetated areas along streams. Hooded Skunks are less likely than Striped Skunks to den around human dwellings. However, radio-collared individuals were frequently located under buildings and sheds and in culverts.Food and Feeding.The diet of this species consists primarily of insects (including beetles and grasshoppers), fruits, small vertebrates, and birds’ eggs. Hooded Skunks break chicken eggs by throwing them between their back legs rather than biting them. Vertebrates are taken opportunistically. When foraging, Hooded Skunk moves slowly, snuffling among leaves and pouncing on grasshoppers and beetles.Activity patterns.Hooded Skunks remain active all year and have been trapped in the winter. The anal glands are used in self defense. One animal was observed spraying nine times in eleven seconds and again three more times 90 minutes later. The defensive behavior of Hooded Skunk is similar to that of Striped Skunk. Hooded Skunks are active after dusk and travel along rock walls, streambeds, and in weedy fields. They tend to be solitary except when females are raising young, although several may dine together at a feeding station. Females normally do not den together during the winter months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Hooded Skunks can occupy from 2:8-5-0 km? Densities of 1:3-3-9 up to 25 Hooded Skunks/km?* have been reported. Females, when not nursing, tend to stay at a den site longer than males before moving to a different den within the home range. Males will move greater distances from one densite to the next compared to females. The skunks’ home ranges are smaller in urban areas. Urban skunks share mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes with non-urban skunks, which suggests that gene flow occurs between urban and non-urban skunk populations. Genetic data suggest that Hooded Skunks in urban areas represent newer, expanding populations (lower genetic diversity) compared to urban Striped Skunks, which have higher genetic diversity and more stable populations. They are more common in urbanized areas than previously thought, and in some places are more numerous than Striped Skunks. Their numbers are often underreported because it can be difficult to distinguish the two species.Skunks can actually be beneficial because they eat insect pests and rodents.Breeding.The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the status of this species, but they may not be uncommon in some parts of their range in the SW USA. However, in Texas, there is concern about population levels and that the species may no longer occur in that state. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human-altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas. There is a need for more research on Hooded Skunks. During a four year study period in Arizona, survival rates of adult skunks were low (24-56%). Predation accounted for most of the mortality, but disease and parasites were contributing factors. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), mountain lions, bobcats, jaguars, and coyotes may kill Hooded Skunks. Captive Hooded Skunks have lived for at least eight years. Historically, the pelt has not been considered to be of great value,so this skunk has not been hunted to the extent that other species have. Its fur is very long, light, and of low economic value. The flesh has been used for food in some areas, and the fat and scent glands have been used for medicinal purposes. Roundworms (Physaloptera maxillaries), fleas (Pulicidae), and the nematode Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum occur in Hooded Skunks in Trans Pecos, Texas. A new species of Skrjabingylus (S. santaceciliae) was recently described in this skunk species. Rabies rarely is reported in Hooded Skunks; however, a case of rabies in this species has been documented. There is no reason to suspect that they do not contract the virus; more likely they go unnoticed or are misidentified as Striped Skunks. Hooded Skunks also are susceptible to feline distemper. Hooded Skunks have been found with numerous fleas,ticks, lice, and mites.Bibliography.Aranda & Lopez-de Buen (1999), Armstrong et al. (1972), Bailey (1931), Baker (1956), Carreno et al. (2005), Ceballos & Miranda(1986), Dalquest (1953), Davis (1944), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1954), Dragoo et al. (2004), Findley et al. (1975), Goodwin (1957), Hall & Dalquest (1950), Hass (2002a, 2003), Hass & Dragoo (2006), Hoffmeister (1986), Hubbard (1972), Janzen & Hallwachs (1982), Lichtenstein (1827-1834), Mearns (1897b), Patton (1974), Reid (1997), Schmidly (1977, 2004), Wood et al. (2002).","taxonomy":"Mephitis macroura Lichtenstein, 1832,Gebirgs-Gegenden nord-westlich von der Stadt Mexico” (Mexico, mountains north-west of Mexico City).Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette a capuchon @fr | Haubenskunk @de | Mofeta encapuchada @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Mephitis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"558","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macroura","name":"Mephitis macroura","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. macroura Lichtenstein, 1832— C & W Mexico(NayaritE to Tamaulipas) and S to Honduras, but not including the Yucatan Peninsula.M. m. eximius Hall & Dalquest, 1950— E Mexico(S Veracruz).M. m. milleri Mearns, 1897— N Mexico(Sonoraand Sinaloato CoahuilaN) to S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas).M. m. richardsoni Goodwin, 1957— Nicaraguaand Costa Rica.","bibliography":"Aranda & Lopez-de Buen (1999) | Armstrong et al. (1972) | Bailey (1931) | Baker (1956) | Carreno et al. (2005) | Ceballos & Miranda(1986) | Dalquest (1953) | Davis (1944) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1954) | Dragoo et al. (2004) | Findley et al. (1975) | Goodwin (1957) | Hall & Dalquest (1950) | Hass (2002a, 2003) | Hass & Dragoo (2006) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Hubbard (1972) | Janzen & Hallwachs (1982) | Lichtenstein (1827-1834) | Mearns (1897b) | Patton (1974) | Reid (1997) | Schmidly (1977, 2004) | Wood et al. (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet of this species consists primarily of insects (including beetles and grasshoppers), fruits, small vertebrates, and birds’ eggs. Hooded Skunks break chicken eggs by throwing them between their back legs rather than biting them. Vertebrates are taken opportunistically. When foraging, Hooded Skunk moves slowly, snuffling among leaves and pouncing on grasshoppers and beetles.","breeding":"The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.","activityPatterns":"Hooded Skunks remain active all year and have been trapped in the winter. The anal glands are used in self defense. One animal was observed spraying nine times in eleven seconds and again three more times 90 minutes later. The defensive behavior of Hooded Skunk is similar to that of Striped Skunk. Hooded Skunks are active after dusk and travel along rock walls, streambeds, and in weedy fields. They tend to be solitary except when females are raising young, although several may dine together at a feeding station. Females normally do not den together during the winter months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Hooded Skunks can occupy from 2:8-5-0 km? Densities of 1:3-3-9 up to 25 Hooded Skunks/km?* have been reported. Females, when not nursing, tend to stay at a den site longer than males before moving to a different den within the home range. Males will move greater distances from one densite to the next compared to females. The skunks’ home ranges are smaller in urban areas. Urban skunks share mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes with non-urban skunks, which suggests that gene flow occurs between urban and non-urban skunk populations. Genetic data suggest that Hooded Skunks in urban areas represent newer, expanding populations (lower genetic diversity) compared to urban Striped Skunks, which have higher genetic diversity and more stable populations. They are more common in urbanized areas than previously thought, and in some places are more numerous than Striped Skunks. Their numbers are often underreported because it can be difficult to distinguish the two species.Skunks can actually be beneficial because they eat insect pests and rodents.Breeding.The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the status of this species, but they may not be uncommon in some parts of their range in the SW USA. However, in Texas, there is concern about population levels and that the species may no longer occur in that state. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human-altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas. There is a need for more research on Hooded Skunks. During a four year study period in Arizona, survival rates of adult skunks were low (24-56%). Predation accounted for most of the mortality, but disease and parasites were contributing factors. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), mountain lions, bobcats, jaguars, and coyotes may kill Hooded Skunks. Captive Hooded Skunks have lived for at least eight years. Historically, the pelt has not been considered to be of great value,so this skunk has not been hunted to the extent that other species have. Its fur is very long, light, and of low economic value. The flesh has been used for food in some areas, and the fat and scent glands have been used for medicinal purposes. Roundworms (Physaloptera maxillaries), fleas (Pulicidae), and the nematode Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum occur in Hooded Skunks in Trans Pecos, Texas. A new species of Skrjabingylus (S. santaceciliae) was recently described in this skunk species. Rabies rarely is reported in Hooded Skunks; however, a case of rabies in this species has been documented. There is no reason to suspect that they do not contract the virus; more likely they go unnoticed or are misidentified as Striped Skunks. Hooded Skunks also are susceptible to feline distemper. Hooded Skunks have been found with numerous fleas,ticks, lice, and mites.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body averages about 31 cm(males) and 28 cm(females), tail 27-43 cm; weight averages 957 g(males) 882 g(females). Individuals achieve their greatest weight by late summer. Hooded Skunks in the more southern part of their range are smaller than animals in the northern part of the range. Hooded Skunks have three typical color patterns, but there is considerable variation. These patterns are: two thin stripes running down the side of the body from the shoulder to midabdomen; a single band running down the back from the forehead to the tail (this single white stripe is interspersed with black hair giving a gray appearance), and a combination of both. These skunks also have a white bar between the eyes. The skull is similar to that of the Striped Skunk, but the auditory bullae are larger. Hooded Skunk can be differentiated externally from Striped Skunk by the long hairs on the back of the neck and head,its relatively longer tail, and larger ears. The anal secretions of the Hooded Skunk have seven major components, which comprise 99% of the volatiles. These components are (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, S-3-methylbutenyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol. There are several minor components as well, including phenylmethanethiol, S-phenylmethyl thioacetate, S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide, and S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate. The Hooded Skunk’s secretion contains four compounds not reported from the Striped Skunk: phenylmethanethiol, Sphenylmethyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, and S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate.","habitat":"This skunk occurs in a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It is most common in arid lowlands, but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats. Hooded Skunks use similar habitats to Striped Skunks, but are found more often in scrub and urban habitats. Hooded Skunks occur from sea level to 3110 m, in low elevation desert areas (below 2500 m), in rocky canyons, or in heavily vegetated streamsides and valleys, often in association with mesquite, pine—oak, and other shrubs and grasses. Hooded Skunks appearto prefer intermediate elevationsin rockyslopes,at the bases ofcliffs, or on the rocky sides of arroyos, but are also encountered in heavy growth of weeds and shrubs in riparian areas. Dense, brushy cover of stream sides may be important for this species. Hooded Skunks den in holes dug in the ground, rock crevices, and holes in logs. They have even been observed denning more than 1 mabove ground in trees, but they are more likely to den on rocky hillsides. They prefer woodland habitats more than do Striped Skunks. In agricultural areas Hooded Skunks den along fencerows, beneath irrigation canals, and in heavily vegetated areas along streams. Hooded Skunks are less likely than Striped Skunks to den around human dwellings. However, radio-collared individuals were frequently located under buildings and sheds and in culverts."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9122FB53FA50F497F632DD2A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9122FB53FA50F497F632DD2A","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"558","verbatimText":"8.Striped SkunkMephitis mephatisFrench:Moufette rayée/ German:Streifenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta rayadaTaxonomy.Viverra mephitis Schreber, 1776,eastern Canada[Province of Quebec].A complete taxonomic revision has not been done since 1901. Thirteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. mephitis Schreber, 1776— E Canada.M. m. avia Bangs, 1898— Midwestern USA(Most of Illinois, N half of Missouri& E half of Kansas).M. m. elongata Bangs, 1895— E & SE USA(VirginiaS to E Georgia, Florida, S Alabama& Mississippi).M. m. estor Merriam, 1890— W USA(S Utahthrough Arizonaand W New Mexico) to N Mexico(Sonora& Chihuahua).M. m. holzerni Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).M. m. hudsonica Richardson, 1829— C & W Canadaand NC USA(from NE Washingtonto Wisconsinand S into Colorado).M. m. major Howell, 1901— NW USA(N Nevada& Utahto Oregon& Idaho).M. m. mesomelas Lichtenstein, 1832— S USA(W Texas& Oklahomato Arkansas& Louisiana).M. m. nigra Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE Canada(New Brunswick& Nova Scotia) and E USA(from New Englandto Ohio & Indiana and S to Mississippi & Alabama.M. m. notata Howell, 1901— NW USA(C Washington).M. m. occidentalis Baird, 1858— W USA(N Californiato SW Oregon).M. m. spissigrada Bangs, 1898— NW USA(W Washington).M. m. varians Gray, 1837— S Great Plains USA(E New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma& Kansas) S to NW Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 23-40 cm(males), 17-34 cm(females), tail length 20- 47 cm(males), 15-36.3 cm(females); weight 0.8-4.1 kg(males), 0.6-3.6 kg(females). Striped Skunks are about the size of house cats, with small triangularshaped heads. The basic color of skunksis black and white, but other colors, such as brown and red, have been observed in the wild. The typical pattern seen in Striped Skunksis the white “V7” down the back and a white bar running between the eyes from the forehead to the middle of the rostrum. Color pattern in Striped Skunksis highly variable and can range from completely black to completely white (non-albino). The striping pattern cannot be used to determine the sex of the animal, nor can it be used to predict how much snow will fall. Skunks are born with theirstripes before they have hair. The nose pad is relatively small, and the ears are small and rounded. Striped Skunks have short stocky legs and five toes on each foot. They walk on the soles (plantigrade) of their feet. Occasionally, the heel of the hindfeet will be lifted off the ground when they walk. The claws on the front feet are longer than those of the back feet. The tail is less than half the total body length, with long flowing hairs. The skull is heavy and squarish and widest at the attachment of the zygomata, and the forehead is convex. The dental formula for Striped Skunks is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, for a total of 34 teeth. The anal secretions of this animal are composed of several major volatile components. These components include: E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, $-3-methylbutanyl thioacetate, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinolinemethanethiol, and $2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate.Habitat.Striped Skunks use a variety of habitats and tend to be more numerous where good cover and abundant food are available. They can be found in open, exposed arcas, but prefer brushy, weedy stream and gulch bottoms or canyons. In open areas they will burrow into banks or even level ground and as a result are able to occupy many habitats. Other habitats where they can be found include a mixture of woodlands, brushy corners, and open fields broken by wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. They will also utilize cultivated areas, pasture, and hay crops. In other parts of their range they use wetlands surrounded by agricultural areas, grasslands, woodlot edges, fencelines, and refuse piles. Striped Skunks may not have a preference for any particular habitat as long as food and shelter are available.Food and Feeding.Striped Skunks are opportunistic omnivores. With the exception of lima beans, most skunks will eat almost anything. They will feast primarily on insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, moths, cutworms, caterpillars, bees, and wasps. They also will eat earthworms, snakes, snails, clams, crayfish, fish, frogs, mice, moles, rats, squirrels, wild fruits, grains, corn, nuts, birds’ eggs, carrion, and garbage. Striped Skunks use their long foreclawsto dig for insects and grubs. They will search in rotten or fallen logs for mice and insects. Around gardens they will forage forripe fruits and vegetables, but they primarily are looking for insects, and benefit gardeners by eating insects that can damage garden crops. They also will take advantage of any pet food left outside.Activity patterns.Striped Skunks are crepuscular or nocturnal. In the northern part of their range they may go into a torpor (they are not true hibernators) during cold spells or when snow coveris particularly deep. However, in the southern parts of the range, they may actually be more active during the milder winters. When a Striped Skunk perceives a threat,its first responseis to run away. If that does not work, it will spray a noxious chemical from the anal scent glands. However, before spraying, skunks use a series of threat behaviors. They will stomp the ground with both front feet. Sometimes they will charge forward a few paces and then stomp or will edge backwards while dragging their front feet, all the while with the tail up in the air. Each scent gland has a nipple associated with it and skunks can aim and direct the spray with highly coordinated muscle control. When a skunk is being chased by a predator, but cannot see the predator, the spray is emitted as an atomized cloud that the predator must run through. This is the “shotgun” method and usually is enough to deter most predators.When the skunk has a target to focus on the spray is emitted as a stream directed at the predator’s face. This is the “357 Magnum” technique. Trapped or cornered skunks will curl into a “U” shape so that both ends face the predator.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Striped Skunks can be quite variable depending on the available resources (food and shelter primarily).Where there is plenty of food, skunks will tend to have smaller ranges. Home ranges are reported for anywhere from 0-5 km? to over 12 km?. Although Striped Skunks are often found dead on the road, they tend to avoid crossing roads with heavy traffic, and these roads can set the boundaries for some home ranges. During the winter months in the northern part of their range, Striped Skunks become more sedentary and cover less area on their nightly forays. In the southern part of their range, their home ranges remain about the samesize year-round. Striped Skunks are solitary most of the time. In the winter females (and occasionally a single male) may den together to conserve heatand body fat. Most malesare solitary during the winter. In the southern partof the range communal dens are rarely found during the winter months. During the summer femalesraise their young, and by early fall the young have left the den.Breeding.Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Striped Skunks are not considered for any kind of protection as they appear to be doing well throughout their range. Some of the earliest legislation to protect skunks, in the form of closed trapping seasons, was in New Yorkin 1894. Farmers recognized that skunks were the only effective predators of the hop grub and their service in combating the grub made them valuable assets. Striped Skunks are known to harbor numerous ectoparasites and endoparasites, including fleas, lice, ticks, mites, and various helminth infestations. Intestinal roundworms, nematodes, and lung flukes have been reported. Parasite loads can be a major contributor to mortality. Skunks are a primary vector of rabies in some parts of their range. They also have been found to be infected with canine distemper, histoplasmosis, leptospirosis, listerosis, mycoplasma, pulmonary aspergillosis, sarcocystis, streptococcus, toxoplasma, tularemia, and West Nile Virus. Natural mammalian predators for skunks include humans, domestic dogs, coyotes, red foxes, lynx, bobcats, badgers, mountain lions, and fishers. Various birds of prey including great horned owls, eagles, crows, and vultures also will eat skunks. Turnover in skunk populations is high, so a large percentage of animals in any population consist of young of the year. The average lifespan for wild skunksis about 2-3-5 years. However, Striped Skunks kept in captivity live on average to about 8-12 years of age.Bibliography.Bailey (1931), Baird (1857), Bangs (1895, 1898a), Bentler et al. (2007), Blanton et al. (2006), Doty & Dowler (2006), Ganley-Leal et al. (2007), Gehrt (2005), Gehrt et al. (2006), Gray (1837), Greenwood & Sargeant (1994), Hall (1981), Hass (2003), Hass & Dragoo (2006), Howell (1901), Hwang et al. (2007), Kelker (1937), Lantz (1923), Mearns (1897a, 1897b), Merriam (1890b), Neiswenter & Dowler (2007), Neiswenter etal. (2006), Rosatte (1988), Verts (1967), Wade-Smith & Richmond (1978a, 1978b), Wade-Smith & Verts (1982), Wood (1990).","taxonomy":"Viverra mephitis Schreber, 1776,eastern Canada[Province of Quebec].A complete taxonomic revision has not been done since 1901. Thirteen subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette rayée @fr | Streifenskunk @de | Mofeta rayada @es","interpretedAuthority":"(Schreber, 1776)","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Mephitis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"558","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mephatis","name":"Mephitis mephatis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. mephitis Schreber, 1776— E Canada.M. m. avia Bangs, 1898— Midwestern USA(Most of Illinois, N half of Missouri& E half of Kansas).M. m. elongata Bangs, 1895— E & SE USA(VirginiaS to E Georgia, Florida, S Alabama& Mississippi).M. m. estor Merriam, 1890— W USA(S Utahthrough Arizonaand W New Mexico) to N Mexico(Sonora& Chihuahua).M. m. holzerni Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).M. m. hudsonica Richardson, 1829— C & W Canadaand NC USA(from NE Washingtonto Wisconsinand S into Colorado).M. m. major Howell, 1901— NW USA(N Nevada& Utahto Oregon& Idaho).M. m. mesomelas Lichtenstein, 1832— S USA(W Texas& Oklahomato Arkansas& Louisiana).M. m. nigra Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE Canada(New Brunswick& Nova Scotia) and E USA(from New Englandto Ohio & Indiana and S to Mississippi & Alabama.M. m. notata Howell, 1901— NW USA(C Washington).M. m. occidentalis Baird, 1858— W USA(N Californiato SW Oregon).M. m. spissigrada Bangs, 1898— NW USA(W Washington).M. m. varians Gray, 1837— S Great Plains USA(E New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma& Kansas) S to NW Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas).","bibliography":"Bailey (1931) | Baird (1857) | Bangs (1895, 1898a) | Bentler et al. (2007) | Blanton et al. (2006) | Doty & Dowler (2006) | Ganley-Leal et al. (2007) | Gehrt (2005) | Gehrt et al. (2006) | Gray (1837) | Greenwood & Sargeant (1994) | Hall (1981) | Hass (2003) | Hass & Dragoo (2006) | Howell (1901) | Hwang et al. (2007) | Kelker (1937) | Lantz (1923) | Mearns (1897a, 1897b) | Merriam (1890b) | Neiswenter & Dowler (2007) | Neiswenter etal. (2006) | Rosatte (1988) | Verts (1967) | Wade-Smith & Richmond (1978a, 1978b) | Wade-Smith & Verts (1982) | Wood (1990)","foodAndFeeding":"Striped Skunks are opportunistic omnivores. With the exception of lima beans, most skunks will eat almost anything. They will feast primarily on insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, moths, cutworms, caterpillars, bees, and wasps. They also will eat earthworms, snakes, snails, clams, crayfish, fish, frogs, mice, moles, rats, squirrels, wild fruits, grains, corn, nuts, birds’ eggs, carrion, and garbage. Striped Skunks use their long foreclawsto dig for insects and grubs. They will search in rotten or fallen logs for mice and insects. Around gardens they will forage forripe fruits and vegetables, but they primarily are looking for insects, and benefit gardeners by eating insects that can damage garden crops. They also will take advantage of any pet food left outside.","breeding":"Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.","activityPatterns":"Striped Skunks are crepuscular or nocturnal. In the northern part of their range they may go into a torpor (they are not true hibernators) during cold spells or when snow coveris particularly deep. However, in the southern parts of the range, they may actually be more active during the milder winters. When a Striped Skunk perceives a threat,its first responseis to run away. If that does not work, it will spray a noxious chemical from the anal scent glands. However, before spraying, skunks use a series of threat behaviors. They will stomp the ground with both front feet. Sometimes they will charge forward a few paces and then stomp or will edge backwards while dragging their front feet, all the while with the tail up in the air. Each scent gland has a nipple associated with it and skunks can aim and direct the spray with highly coordinated muscle control. When a skunk is being chased by a predator, but cannot see the predator, the spray is emitted as an atomized cloud that the predator must run through. This is the “shotgun” method and usually is enough to deter most predators.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Striped Skunks can be quite variable depending on the available resources (food and shelter primarily).Where there is plenty of food, skunks will tend to have smaller ranges. Home ranges are reported for anywhere from 0-5 km? to over 12 km?. Although Striped Skunks are often found dead on the road, they tend to avoid crossing roads with heavy traffic, and these roads can set the boundaries for some home ranges. During the winter months in the northern part of their range, Striped Skunks become more sedentary and cover less area on their nightly forays. In the southern part of their range, their home ranges remain about the samesize year-round. Striped Skunks are solitary most of the time. In the winter females (and occasionally a single male) may den together to conserve heatand body fat. Most malesare solitary during the winter. In the southern partof the range communal dens are rarely found during the winter months. During the summer femalesraise their young, and by early fall the young have left the den.Breeding.Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Striped Skunks are not considered for any kind of protection as they appear to be doing well throughout their range. Some of the earliest legislation to protect skunks, in the form of closed trapping seasons, was in New Yorkin 1894. Farmers recognized that skunks were the only effective predators of the hop grub and their service in combating the grub made them valuable assets. Striped Skunks are known to harbor numerous ectoparasites and endoparasites, including fleas, lice, ticks, mites, and various helminth infestations. Intestinal roundworms, nematodes, and lung flukes have been reported. Parasite loads can be a major contributor to mortality. Skunks are a primary vector of rabies in some parts of their range. They also have been found to be infected with canine distemper, histoplasmosis, leptospirosis, listerosis, mycoplasma, pulmonary aspergillosis, sarcocystis, streptococcus, toxoplasma, tularemia, and West Nile Virus. Natural mammalian predators for skunks include humans, domestic dogs, coyotes, red foxes, lynx, bobcats, badgers, mountain lions, and fishers. Various birds of prey including great horned owls, eagles, crows, and vultures also will eat skunks. Turnover in skunk populations is high, so a large percentage of animals in any population consist of young of the year. The average lifespan for wild skunksis about 2-3-5 years. However, Striped Skunks kept in captivity live on average to about 8-12 years of age.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 23-40 cm(males), 17-34 cm(females), tail length 20- 47 cm(males), 15-36.3 cm(females); weight 0.8-4.1 kg(males), 0.6-3.6 kg(females). Striped Skunks are about the size of house cats, with small triangularshaped heads. The basic color of skunksis black and white, but other colors, such as brown and red, have been observed in the wild. The typical pattern seen in Striped Skunksis the white “V7” down the back and a white bar running between the eyes from the forehead to the middle of the rostrum. Color pattern in Striped Skunksis highly variable and can range from completely black to completely white (non-albino). The striping pattern cannot be used to determine the sex of the animal, nor can it be used to predict how much snow will fall. Skunks are born with theirstripes before they have hair. The nose pad is relatively small, and the ears are small and rounded. Striped Skunks have short stocky legs and five toes on each foot. They walk on the soles (plantigrade) of their feet. Occasionally, the heel of the hindfeet will be lifted off the ground when they walk. The claws on the front feet are longer than those of the back feet. The tail is less than half the total body length, with long flowing hairs. The skull is heavy and squarish and widest at the attachment of the zygomata, and the forehead is convex. The dental formula for Striped Skunks is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, for a total of 34 teeth. The anal secretions of this animal are composed of several major volatile components. These components include: E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, $-3-methylbutanyl thioacetate, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinolinemethanethiol, and $2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate.","habitat":"Striped Skunks use a variety of habitats and tend to be more numerous where good cover and abundant food are available. They can be found in open, exposed arcas, but prefer brushy, weedy stream and gulch bottoms or canyons. In open areas they will burrow into banks or even level ground and as a result are able to occupy many habitats. Other habitats where they can be found include a mixture of woodlands, brushy corners, and open fields broken by wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. They will also utilize cultivated areas, pasture, and hay crops. In other parts of their range they use wetlands surrounded by agricultural areas, grasslands, woodlot edges, fencelines, and refuse piles. Striped Skunks may not have a preference for any particular habitat as long as food and shelter are available."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9123FB50FA00FBB9FDEBD04B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9123FB50FA00FBB9FDEBD04B","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"557","verbatimText":"6.Humboldt’s Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus humboldtiiFrench:Moufette de Humboldt/ German:Patagonischer Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino patagénicoTaxonomy.Conepatus humboldtii Gray, 1837,Magellan Straits, Chile.Two of the subspecies have been regarded as distinct species, but morphology and color pattern have been used to relegate them to subspecies of C. humboldtii. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. h. humboldtii Gray, 1837— Patagonia (Chileand Argentina) to the Strait of Magellan.C. h. castaneus d’Orbigny & Gervais, 1847— C Argentina(S provinces of Buenos Aires& La Pampato N Rio Negro;it also follows along the Colorado and Black Rivers to Neuquenand S Mendoza).C. h. proteus Thomas, 1902— subandean C Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).Descriptive notes.Head-body 22-32 cm(males), 20-30 cm(females), tail 16.5-20.2 cm(males) and 18-18.5 cm(females); weight 0.5-2.5 kg. Males on average are about 4-6% heavier than females. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be the smallest of the hog-nosed skunks. These skunks, like all South American skunks, have a double stripe similar to that seen in North American Striped Skunks. Typically, they are black and white, but they can range in color from black to dark brown or reddish brown. It has been suggested that the brownish color appears as the result of age. There is considerable variation in the striping pattern. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks do not have any white markings between the eyes. The tail generally is shorter in proportion to the body than in other skunks. The forelimbs and claws are well adapted for digging. Like other skunks in the genus the nose is long and flexible and used for rooting for burrowing insects. The post carnassial molars have large grinding areas relative to the cutting edge of their carnassial teeth.Habitat.Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks use a variety of habitats. They prefer to den in flat or rolling topography. These skunks will den in shallow caves, below tree roots, in hollow trees, under rocks and cracks between stones, and in abandoned tunnels of other animals. They will use habitat from desert areas to forests. In addition to being found in shrub or forest cover, they use man-made structures, denning under buildings and woodpiles. They use areas with natural herbaceous vegetation, except where poisons are used to control the Culpeo (Pseudalopex culpaeus). They are susceptible to poisoning although not targeted. They do however, prefer more open, grassy areas compared to the drier shrubby environments.Food and Feeding.These skunks are opportunistic feeders and usually capture their prey easily. They generally find their prey by sniffing and digging, using their flexible noses and long claws, primarily in grassy habitats. Like other skunks in the genus they eat a variety of insects, including ground beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, and spiders. They will consume fruit when it is available. These skunks also eat a variety of vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents. Carrion is eaten in larger quantities than expected based on relative abundance, when compared with other food items. This would suggest that this species is more carnivorous than insectivorous, but still opportunistic. They also are known to frequent urban garbage sites and vegetable gardens.Activity patterns.This species is generally nocturnal or crepuscular in nature. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks become more active during the day as winter approaches, and are less active when there is snow cover. They use a variety of den sites during the day and normally do not use the same den site for more than a couple of days at a time. They will however, reuse dens that they occupied previously. They are active for about 50% of the day. Their activity period starts between 20:00-22:00 h and continues until 07:00 h the next morning. Some skunks will remain active until 09:00 h and even until 12:00 h. They rarely are seen between 12:00-19:00 h. During periods of activity they have been observed digging or foraging, walking, and even playing. Young animals will venture as far as 1-3 kmfrom their natal dens to survey new territory before returning home. They may eventually relocate to the areas they investigated.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be solitary for most of their lives. However,in stable areas where shelters are secure, small groups of young individuals may den together. These individuals usually are related and will stay together until they become adults. The home range ofjuvenile skunks increases in the fall and winter as they explore new areas away from the natal home range. Home rangesizesare relatively small and are about 7-16 ha. Home ranges of different individuals can overlap. These skunks usually are not found in high numbers. Density estimates of 0-04 to 0-16 km* have been reported in Chile.Breeding. Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.Status and Conservation. Currently, Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks is listed with CI'TIES as Appendix II. They are considered Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The pelt of this species has been used for blankets, and as a result they were hunted and over 100,000 skins were exported. In several areas in Chileit has been suggested that hunt ing pressures be reduced or stopped in order to conserve this species. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks are preyed upon by various raptors as well as Puma. Grazing pressures potentially could decrease populations of this skunk. Additionally, they have been eliminated in some areas as a result of poisoning of other species.Bibliography. Arias et al. (2006), Cabrera (1958), Canevari & Ambrosini (1988), Dragoo et al. (2003), Fuller, T.K. et al. (1987), Gray (1837), Johnson, W.E. et al. (1988), Kipp (1965), Osgood (1943), Thomas (1902a), Wozencraft (2005), Zapata et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Conepatus humboldtii Gray, 1837,Magellan Straits, Chile.Two of the subspecies have been regarded as distinct species, but morphology and color pattern have been used to relegate them to subspecies of C. humboldtii. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette de Humboldt @fr | Patagonischer Skunk @de | Zorrino patagénico @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Conepatus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"557","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"humboldtii","name":"Conepatus humboldtii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. h. humboldtii Gray, 1837— Patagonia (Chileand Argentina) to the Strait of Magellan.C. h. castaneus d’Orbigny & Gervais, 1847— C Argentina(S provinces of Buenos Aires& La Pampato N Rio Negro;it also follows along the Colorado and Black Rivers to Neuquenand S Mendoza).C. h. proteus Thomas, 1902— subandean C Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).","bibliography":"Arias et al. (2006) | Cabrera (1958) | Canevari & Ambrosini (1988) | Dragoo et al. (2003) | Fuller, T.K. et al. (1987) | Gray (1837) | Johnson, W.E. et al. (1988) | Kipp (1965) | Osgood (1943) | Thomas (1902a) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zapata et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"These skunks are opportunistic feeders and usually capture their prey easily. They generally find their prey by sniffing and digging, using their flexible noses and long claws, primarily in grassy habitats. Like other skunks in the genus they eat a variety of insects, including ground beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, and spiders. They will consume fruit when it is available. These skunks also eat a variety of vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents. Carrion is eaten in larger quantities than expected based on relative abundance, when compared with other food items. This would suggest that this species is more carnivorous than insectivorous, but still opportunistic. They also are known to frequent urban garbage sites and vegetable gardens.","breeding":"Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.","activityPatterns":"This species is generally nocturnal or crepuscular in nature. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks become more active during the day as winter approaches, and are less active when there is snow cover. They use a variety of den sites during the day and normally do not use the same den site for more than a couple of days at a time. They will however, reuse dens that they occupied previously. They are active for about 50% of the day. Their activity period starts between 20:00-22:00 h and continues until 07:00 h the next morning. Some skunks will remain active until 09:00 h and even until 12:00 h. They rarely are seen between 12:00-19:00 h. During periods of activity they have been observed digging or foraging, walking, and even playing. Young animals will venture as far as 1-3 kmfrom their natal dens to survey new territory before returning home. They may eventually relocate to the areas they investigated.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be solitary for most of their lives. However,in stable areas where shelters are secure, small groups of young individuals may den together. These individuals usually are related and will stay together until they become adults. The home range ofjuvenile skunks increases in the fall and winter as they explore new areas away from the natal home range. Home rangesizesare relatively small and are about 7-16 ha. Home ranges of different individuals can overlap. These skunks usually are not found in high numbers. Density estimates of 0-04 to 0-16 km* have been reported in Chile.Breeding. Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.","statusAndConservation":"Currently, Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks is listed with CI'TIES as Appendix II. They are considered Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The pelt of this species has been used for blankets, and as a result they were hunted and over 100,000 skins were exported. In several areas in Chileit has been suggested that hunt ing pressures be reduced or stopped in order to conserve this species. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks are preyed upon by various raptors as well as Puma. Grazing pressures potentially could decrease populations of this skunk. Additionally, they have been eliminated in some areas as a result of poisoning of other species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 22-32 cm(males), 20-30 cm(females), tail 16.5-20.2 cm(males) and 18-18.5 cm(females); weight 0.5-2.5 kg. Males on average are about 4-6% heavier than females. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be the smallest of the hog-nosed skunks. These skunks, like all South American skunks, have a double stripe similar to that seen in North American Striped Skunks. Typically, they are black and white, but they can range in color from black to dark brown or reddish brown. It has been suggested that the brownish color appears as the result of age. There is considerable variation in the striping pattern. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks do not have any white markings between the eyes. The tail generally is shorter in proportion to the body than in other skunks. The forelimbs and claws are well adapted for digging. Like other skunks in the genus the nose is long and flexible and used for rooting for burrowing insects. The post carnassial molars have large grinding areas relative to the cutting edge of their carnassial teeth.","habitat":"Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks use a variety of habitats. They prefer to den in flat or rolling topography. These skunks will den in shallow caves, below tree roots, in hollow trees, under rocks and cracks between stones, and in abandoned tunnels of other animals. They will use habitat from desert areas to forests. In addition to being found in shrub or forest cover, they use man-made structures, denning under buildings and woodpiles. They use areas with natural herbaceous vegetation, except where poisons are used to control the Culpeo (Pseudalopex culpaeus). They are susceptible to poisoning although not targeted. They do however, prefer more open, grassy areas compared to the drier shrubby environments."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9123FB51FF0BF8ADF6B7D161.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9123FB51FF0BF8ADF6B7D161","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"557","verbatimText":"5.Striped Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus semistriatusFrench:Moufette d’Amazonie/ German:Amazonas-Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino amazonicoTaxonomy.Viverra semistriatus Boddaert, 1785,Originally described from “ Mexico”. Type locality later described as “Minas de Montuosa, cerca de Pamplona, departamento del norte de Santander, Colombia”.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785— Colombiaand Venezuela.C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838— NE & C Brazil.C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788— SE Mexico(Veracruzand along coast to Campeche).C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812— Ecuador.C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924— higher elevation in N Peru.C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905— Costa Rica, W Panama.C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943— SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Hondurasand Nicaragua.C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900— low hot desert regions of N Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-50 cm(males) and 33-45 cm(females), tail 14-3— 30- 9 cm(males) and 13.5-26 cm(females); weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The tail is less than half the total body length. Striped Hog-nosed Skunks in South America tend to get smaller from north to south. The Striped Hog-nosed Skunk is larger than the other South American species, Molina’s and Humboldt’'s Hog-nosed Skunks. The pelage coloration typically is black with two narrow white stripes running from the head to the rump. There is extensive variation in color pattern. Striped hog-nosed Skunks have small, pig-like noses that are used for rooting insects. Like other Conepatus, the claws are long and the forelimbs are adapted for digging. These skunks also are able to spray a noxious fluid as a means of defense.Habitat.Striped Hog-nosed Skunks use grasslands with scattered palms, sparse deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open grassy areas mixed with sedges and herbaceous plants during the dry season. They prefer not to hang out in areas that have prolonged dry seasons. During the wet season they spend more time on higher ground in deciduousforests. Clearings and pastures near evergreen forests also are frequented by this species. Den sites are dug among tree roots or fallen trees. Burrows are about 1-2 min length and about 0-3 mbelow the surface. When not using the burrows dug for themselves these skunks will use burrows dug by other animals such as armadillos.Food and Feeding.Like other hog-nosed skunks,this species is an opportunistic omnivore. They feed on many invertebrates, but may not dig as much as the other species. Additionally, they consume small vertebrates, including reptiles, mammals, and birds, as well as fruits when they are available.Activity patterns.Striped Hog-nosed Skunks are primarily nocturnal. They become active shortly after sunset. One animal was reported to become active between 19:30 h and 24:00 h and stay out for about six hours at a time. The phase of the moon appeared not to affect activity periods. Though it is not outside the realm of possibility, these skunks rarely are seen during daylight hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other skunks, these animals are primarily solitary (except for mothers with offspring). Home ranges can cover from 18-53 ha.Breeding.These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.Status and Conservation.Notlisted with CITES, and classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The status of this skunk is uncertain. Although not abundant, this species appears to do well in disturbed environments.Bibliography.Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Goldman (1943), Hall (1981), Hall & Dalquest (1963), Lichtenstein (1838), Reid (1997), Sunquist et al. (1989), Thomas (1900a, 1905, 1924), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Viverra semistriatus Boddaert, 1785,Originally described from “ Mexico”. Type locality later described as “Minas de Montuosa, cerca de Pamplona, departamento del norte de Santander, Colombia”.Eight subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette d’Amazonie @fr | Amazonas-Skunk @de | Zorrino amazonico @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Conepatus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"557","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"semistriatus","name":"Conepatus semistriatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785— Colombiaand Venezuela.C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838— NE & C Brazil.C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788— SE Mexico(Veracruzand along coast to Campeche).C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812— Ecuador.C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924— higher elevation in N Peru.C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905— Costa Rica, W Panama.C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943— SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Hondurasand Nicaragua.C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900— low hot desert regions of N Peru.","bibliography":"Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Goldman (1943) | Hall (1981) | Hall & Dalquest (1963) | Lichtenstein (1838) | Reid (1997) | Sunquist et al. (1989) | Thomas (1900a, 1905, 1924) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Like other hog-nosed skunks,this species is an opportunistic omnivore. They feed on many invertebrates, but may not dig as much as the other species. Additionally, they consume small vertebrates, including reptiles, mammals, and birds, as well as fruits when they are available.","breeding":"These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.","activityPatterns":"Striped Hog-nosed Skunks are primarily nocturnal. They become active shortly after sunset. One animal was reported to become active between 19:30 h and 24:00 h and stay out for about six hours at a time. The phase of the moon appeared not to affect activity periods. Though it is not outside the realm of possibility, these skunks rarely are seen during daylight hours.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like other skunks, these animals are primarily solitary (except for mothers with offspring). Home ranges can cover from 18-53 ha.Breeding.These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.","statusAndConservation":"Notlisted with CITES, and classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The status of this skunk is uncertain. Although not abundant, this species appears to do well in disturbed environments.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-50 cm(males) and 33-45 cm(females), tail 14-3— 30- 9 cm(males) and 13.5-26 cm(females); weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The tail is less than half the total body length. Striped Hog-nosed Skunks in South America tend to get smaller from north to south. The Striped Hog-nosed Skunk is larger than the other South American species, Molina’s and Humboldt’'s Hog-nosed Skunks. The pelage coloration typically is black with two narrow white stripes running from the head to the rump. There is extensive variation in color pattern. Striped hog-nosed Skunks have small, pig-like noses that are used for rooting insects. Like other Conepatus, the claws are long and the forelimbs are adapted for digging. These skunks also are able to spray a noxious fluid as a means of defense.","habitat":"Striped Hog-nosed Skunks use grasslands with scattered palms, sparse deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open grassy areas mixed with sedges and herbaceous plants during the dry season. They prefer not to hang out in areas that have prolonged dry seasons. During the wet season they spend more time on higher ground in deciduousforests. Clearings and pastures near evergreen forests also are frequented by this species. Den sites are dug among tree roots or fallen trees. Burrows are about 1-2 min length and about 0-3 mbelow the surface. When not using the burrows dug for themselves these skunks will use burrows dug by other animals such as armadillos."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9120FB5DFF58F721FBABD779.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9120FB5DFF58F721FBABD779","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"560","verbatimText":"10.Eastern Spotted SkunkSpilogale putoriusFrench:Moufette tachetée/ German:Ostlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta orientalTaxonomy.Viverra putorius Linnaeus, 1758,South Carolina.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. p. putorius Linnaeus, 1758— E & SE USA(Mississippi, Alabama& N Florida, through Georgia, N to SC Pennsylvania).S. p. ambarvalis Bangs, 1898— SE USA(Peninsular Florida).S. p. interrupta Rafinesque, 1820— USA(Canadian border in Minnesota, C North Dakota, E Wyoming, E Colorado, W Oklahoma, NW Texas, south to C Texas, and east to the MississippiRiver along Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri& Iowa, up to Wisconsin.Descriptive notes.There is considerable variation in size of Eastern Spotted Skunks. Head-body 23-33 cm, mean 30 cm(males), and 19-33 cm, mean 29 cm(females), tail 8-28 cm, mean 16- 4 cm(males), and 8: 5-21 cm, mean 15- 4 cm(females); weight 276-885 g(males) and 207-475 g(females). Eastern Spotted Skunks are smaller than Striped Skunks and more weasel-like in body shape. The pelage of Eastern Spotted Skunks is black with a complex striping pattern of six stripes; the stripes can be interrupted, giving a somewhat spotted appearance. There are usually two white spots on the rump, as well as a white spot between the eyes. The dorsal stripes run down the vertebral column from the head toward the tail. Two stripes run below the dorsal stripes over the shoulder and continue across the ears, forming a small white spot in front of the ears. A third set ofstripes continues from the front feet past the end of the shoulder stripes. Locomotion in Eastern Spotted Skunksis plantigrade and these skunks run with their bodies low to the ground. While walking more slowly and cautiously, they will extend their limbs and raise their heads to get higher off the ground. Spotted skunks have five toes on each foot. They are not such efficient diggers as Conepatusor Mephitis, but are much more agile and able to climb. The dental formula for this species is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, totaling 34 teeth. The P? is always small and may be absent.Habitat.These skunks are rarely found in the open, preferring either forested areas or habitats containing significant vegetative cover. In the Plains States, these skunks inhabit riparian woodlands and areas of vegetation along fences. They also are found in brushy and rocky habitats, but avoid wetlands. They have been observed on sandy soils and beaches in Florida. Eastern Spotted Skunks seem to prefer habitat with extensive vegetative cover, as this cover provides protection from various predators. They den in protected, dark, dry holes including natural crevices in trees, and will den off the ground to an elevation of seven meters in hollow trees. They dig their own burrows, or den in holes previously occupied by other animals, in talus slopes, haystacks, under houses or rocks, and in the walls of houses or barns. They prefer warm holes in the winter and cool dens in the summer, and will change den sites to accommodate these needs.Food and Feeding.Eastern Spotted Skunks forage primarily at night. They are secretive and not often seen. These skunks are exceptional mousers and do farmers a great service when they forage around barns and buildings. They are omnivores, but tend to be more carnivorous than Mephitisor Conepatus. The diet consists mainly of insects, small mammals, birds, and birds’ eggs. Like a center hiking an American football, the skunk uses its front paws to throw an egg through its back legs in order to crack the shell. These skunks also will eat fruits and vegetables in the summer and fall when they are available.Activity patterns.They are generally nocturnal. They usually avoid moonlit nights. On nights when the moon is not out they normally have two periods of activity. They will come out soon after sunset and again before sunrise. They will be active throughout the night as well. Eastern Spotted Skunks have been observed during the day on rare occasions. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. This agility also can be observed in their threat behavior as they are able to perform front handstands. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. This behavior has been reported to last for up to eight minutes in short, 2-5 second bursts of handstanding. However, a young, captive animal from a wildlife rehabilitation effort was observed crouching under a couch on all fours until a domestic cat came into the room. The skunk rushed out from under the couch toward the cat. As soon as its tail cleared the cushion it went into a handstand/run. The cat began to trot away. The skunk followed on its frontfeet, bouncing around a table, about 1-5 mand then jumped up on a stand approximately 6 cmoff the ground, ran along the stand, hopped off the end and continued to chase the cat to the other end of the room. The cat finally ran off and the skunk dropped down on all fours and went back under the couch. Spotted skunks have been reported to spray from the hand-stand position, but they usually drop down and face the predator with both ends in a “U” shape. The handstand is usuallyjust a threat behavior used to drive off the predator.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These skunks usually den alone, but in cold winter months several skunks may bed down together. They usually use more than one den site within their home range. Eastern Spotted Skunks move from den to den and more than one individual has been captured at the same den site in capture-recapture studies. They may also share dens, but with only one animal using the den at a time. Captive male animals have been reported to be aggressive toward one another to the point of one animal killing the other. Females tended not to engage in fatal fights, but remained defensive while in the same cage. Young animals will wrestle and screech at one another, but will also sleep together. Young animals will usually separate before reaching full adulthood. Spotted skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range. Where they occur they can be found at a density of about nine animals per km? to about 20 and even 40 per km”. Eastern Spotted Skunks tend to move greater distances in the spring than in the summer and fall. Home ranges can be up to 4359 ha.Breeding.Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.Status and Conservation.Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. However, there has been concern over the lack of observations of this species throughout its range in the last few decades. Population densities of Eastern Spotted Skunks were believed to be low when settlers first arrived on the Great Plains. When small farm operations flourished there prior to the 1920s, spotted skunks became more numerous as farm buildings provided shelter as well as a supply of mice and rats. When the small farms gave way to larger operations, the density of spotted skunks became lower. Today, the Eastern Spotted Skunk is considered to be threatened in many of the states within its historical range. Natural predators of spotted skunks include larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats and bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls. Ectoparasites found on Eastern Spotted Skunks include fleas and ticks, and endoparasites include various tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidian protozoans. Humans also are known to be a major cause of mortality because of the number of skunks hit by cars. Pneumonia and coccidiosis are diseases that have been reported in this species. Rabies has been reported, but rarely. Histoplasmosis has also been found, and microfilaria,listeriosis, mastitis, tularemia, distemper, and Q fever are likely to affect Eastern Spotted Skunks.Bibliography.Bangs (1898b), Choate et al. (1973), Crabb (1948), Dragoo & Honeycutt, (1999b), Gompper & Hackett (2005), Howell (1906), Kinlaw (1995), Manaro (1961), McCullough & Fritzell (1984), Mead (1968a), Mitchell (1923), Pocock (1921), Reed & Kennedy (2000), Seton (1926), Van Gelder (1959).","taxonomy":"Viverra putorius Linnaeus, 1758,South Carolina.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette tachetée @fr | Ostlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta oriental @es","interpretedAuthority":"(Linnaeus, 1758)","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Spilogale","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"CoL","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"560","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"putorius","name":"Spilogale putorius","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. p. putorius Linnaeus, 1758— E & SE USA(Mississippi, Alabama& N Florida, through Georgia, N to SC Pennsylvania).S. p. ambarvalis Bangs, 1898— SE USA(Peninsular Florida).S. p. interrupta Rafinesque, 1820— USA(Canadian border in Minnesota, C North Dakota, E Wyoming, E Colorado, W Oklahoma, NW Texas, south to C Texas, and east to the MississippiRiver along Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri& Iowa, up to Wisconsin.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6353165/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bangs (1898b) | Choate et al. (1973) | Crabb (1948) | Dragoo & Honeycutt, (1999b) | Gompper & Hackett (2005) | Howell (1906) | Kinlaw (1995) | Manaro (1961) | McCullough & Fritzell (1984) | Mead (1968a) | Mitchell (1923) | Pocock (1921) | Reed & Kennedy (2000) | Seton (1926) | Van Gelder (1959)","foodAndFeeding":"Eastern Spotted Skunks forage primarily at night. They are secretive and not often seen. These skunks are exceptional mousers and do farmers a great service when they forage around barns and buildings. They are omnivores, but tend to be more carnivorous than Mephitisor Conepatus. The diet consists mainly of insects, small mammals, birds, and birds’ eggs. Like a center hiking an American football, the skunk uses its front paws to throw an egg through its back legs in order to crack the shell. These skunks also will eat fruits and vegetables in the summer and fall when they are available.","breeding":"Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.","activityPatterns":"They are generally nocturnal. They usually avoid moonlit nights. On nights when the moon is not out they normally have two periods of activity. They will come out soon after sunset and again before sunrise. They will be active throughout the night as well. Eastern Spotted Skunks have been observed during the day on rare occasions. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. This agility also can be observed in their threat behavior as they are able to perform front handstands. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. This behavior has been reported to last for up to eight minutes in short, 2-5 second bursts of handstanding. However, a young, captive animal from a wildlife rehabilitation effort was observed crouching under a couch on all fours until a domestic cat came into the room. The skunk rushed out from under the couch toward the cat. As soon as its tail cleared the cushion it went into a handstand/run. The cat began to trot away. The skunk followed on its frontfeet, bouncing around a table, about 1-5 mand then jumped up on a stand approximately 6 cmoff the ground, ran along the stand, hopped off the end and continued to chase the cat to the other end of the room. The cat finally ran off and the skunk dropped down on all fours and went back under the couch. Spotted skunks have been reported to spray from the hand-stand position, but they usually drop down and face the predator with both ends in a “U” shape. The handstand is usuallyjust a threat behavior used to drive off the predator.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"These skunks usually den alone, but in cold winter months several skunks may bed down together. They usually use more than one den site within their home range. Eastern Spotted Skunks move from den to den and more than one individual has been captured at the same den site in capture-recapture studies. They may also share dens, but with only one animal using the den at a time. Captive male animals have been reported to be aggressive toward one another to the point of one animal killing the other. Females tended not to engage in fatal fights, but remained defensive while in the same cage. Young animals will wrestle and screech at one another, but will also sleep together. Young animals will usually separate before reaching full adulthood. Spotted skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range. Where they occur they can be found at a density of about nine animals per km? to about 20 and even 40 per km”. Eastern Spotted Skunks tend to move greater distances in the spring than in the summer and fall. Home ranges can be up to 4359 ha.Breeding.Reproduction in the Eastern Spotted Skunk is different from that in the Western Spotted Skunk. The main breeding season for this species is during March and April, although some individuals may breed again in July, August, or September to produce a second litter. Gestation is estimated to be from 50 to 65 days, with only a two-week period of delayed implantation. First-season litters are produced in late May and early June. Litter size averages five but ranges from 2-9 kits. Young are born naked or with sparse, fine, black and white pelage. The claws are well- developed at birth. The eyes and ears open at about 30 days and teeth become visible at 32 days. They can make squealing vocalizations at an early age. The young are weaned after about two months.","statusAndConservation":"Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. However, there has been concern over the lack of observations of this species throughout its range in the last few decades. Population densities of Eastern Spotted Skunks were believed to be low when settlers first arrived on the Great Plains. When small farm operations flourished there prior to the 1920s, spotted skunks became more numerous as farm buildings provided shelter as well as a supply of mice and rats. When the small farms gave way to larger operations, the density of spotted skunks became lower. Today, the Eastern Spotted Skunk is considered to be threatened in many of the states within its historical range. Natural predators of spotted skunks include larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats and bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls. Ectoparasites found on Eastern Spotted Skunks include fleas and ticks, and endoparasites include various tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidian protozoans. Humans also are known to be a major cause of mortality because of the number of skunks hit by cars. Pneumonia and coccidiosis are diseases that have been reported in this species. Rabies has been reported, but rarely. Histoplasmosis has also been found, and microfilaria,listeriosis, mastitis, tularemia, distemper, and Q fever are likely to affect Eastern Spotted Skunks.","descriptiveNotes":"There is considerable variation in size of Eastern Spotted Skunks. Head-body 23-33 cm, mean 30 cm(males), and 19-33 cm, mean 29 cm(females), tail 8-28 cm, mean 16- 4 cm(males), and 8: 5-21 cm, mean 15- 4 cm(females); weight 276-885 g(males) and 207-475 g(females). Eastern Spotted Skunks are smaller than Striped Skunks and more weasel-like in body shape. The pelage of Eastern Spotted Skunks is black with a complex striping pattern of six stripes; the stripes can be interrupted, giving a somewhat spotted appearance. There are usually two white spots on the rump, as well as a white spot between the eyes. The dorsal stripes run down the vertebral column from the head toward the tail. Two stripes run below the dorsal stripes over the shoulder and continue across the ears, forming a small white spot in front of the ears. A third set ofstripes continues from the front feet past the end of the shoulder stripes. Locomotion in Eastern Spotted Skunksis plantigrade and these skunks run with their bodies low to the ground. While walking more slowly and cautiously, they will extend their limbs and raise their heads to get higher off the ground. Spotted skunks have five toes on each foot. They are not such efficient diggers as Conepatusor Mephitis, but are much more agile and able to climb. The dental formula for this species is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, totaling 34 teeth. The P? is always small and may be absent.","habitat":"These skunks are rarely found in the open, preferring either forested areas or habitats containing significant vegetative cover. In the Plains States, these skunks inhabit riparian woodlands and areas of vegetation along fences. They also are found in brushy and rocky habitats, but avoid wetlands. They have been observed on sandy soils and beaches in Florida. Eastern Spotted Skunks seem to prefer habitat with extensive vegetative cover, as this cover provides protection from various predators. They den in protected, dark, dry holes including natural crevices in trees, and will den off the ground to an elevation of seven meters in hollow trees. They dig their own burrows, or den in holes previously occupied by other animals, in talus slopes, haystacks, under houses or rocks, and in the walls of houses or barns. They prefer warm holes in the winter and cool dens in the summer, and will change den sites to accommodate these needs."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9121FB52FA02F644FB53DDF5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9121FB52FA02F644FB53DDF5","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"559","verbatimText":"9.Pygmy Spotted SkunkSpilogale pygmaeaFrench:Moufette naine/ German:Zwerg-Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta chicaTaxonomy.Spilogale pygmaea Thomas, 1898,Rosario, Sinaloa, W. Mexico.Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa& Nayarit).S. p. australis Hall, 1938— W Mexico(Pacific coastal region from Michoacanto Guerrero& Oaxaca).S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima).Descriptive notes.Head-body 19-21 cm,tail 6.7-7.3 cm(males) and 5.9-6.7 cm(females), hindfoot 2.3-4 cm, ear 1.8-3.3 cm; weight 150-320 g. Tail length has been used to distinguish the sexes. The Pygmy Spotted Skunk is the smallest of the skunks. The body is elongated and the legs are relatively short. This skunk has six continuous white stripes running down the back and sides; the rest of the fur color is brown to black. There is a white stripe across the forehead above the eyes that continues down the side of the body. Pygmy Spotted Skunks have a short rostrum with a black nose pad, short, rounded ears, short legs, and slender feet with small curved claws. The skull is small and fragile and does not have a sagittal crest. The dental formulais 13/3, C1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 for a total of 34 teeth. These skunks have small canines but relatively large molars.Habitat.These skunks inhabit deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub. They have been observed in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetation for cover. They have a patchy distribution, but nearly all individuals have been captured in coastal habitats. However, remains have been found in owl pellets about 115 kmfrom the coast at an altitude of 500 m. They are found from sea level up to 1630 m, but are generally found below 350 m. Pygmy Spotted Skunksare scarce, but if enough habitat is preserved, they are believed to be able to survive in disturbed environments.Food and Feeding.Pygmy Spotted Skunks are opportunistic feeders and consume a variety of invertebrates. Rodents are not taken as frequently as by other spotted skunks, but may be selected as alternative prey when the availability of arthropods is low. Spiny pocket mice are common in the tropical dry forest, and during the dry season, their density is high. During this season rodents also may be easier to detect due to the desiccation ofleaflitter. Birds are rarely taken by these skunks and plant material is less likely to be consumed, although, highly digestible fruits may be eaten. Pygmy Spotted Skunks use food sources such as ants, beetles, and spiders in relation to their abundance in the environment. However, some invertebrates, such as insect larvae, millipedes and centipedes, are selected in higher abundance. True bugs (Hemiptera) tend to be avoided as do crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera). Pygmy Spotted Skunks will eat cockroaches (Blattaria) during the dry season; they may select food items in response to seasonal variation in prey abundance.Activity patterns.They are nocturnal and den underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation. They will use dens dug by other animals such as gophers, squirrels, armadillos, and turtles. They use pathways and stream beds to move to and from bodies of water. Much of their activity occurs below the leaf litter or brush, where they search for the burrows of small rodents. Pygmy Spotted Skunks stomp their feet when threatened. They have been observed doing a partial handstand similar to other species of spotted skunks. Anal secretions are usually only released as a last resort.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These skunks are solitary most of the year except during the breeding season. Males will defend their territory against other males, and only allow females access to their territory.Breeding.Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.Status and Conservation.Not listed with CITES. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. This skunk is locally abundant in certain areas, but is considered to be vulnerable throughout much of its range in Mexicodue to habitat destruction as a result of tourist resort and road construction. These animals also have been stuffed and sold as souvenirs. Skulls have been recovered from barn owl pellets, and snakes and other carnivores probably prey on Pygmy Spotted Skunks. They have been found with various parasites including ticks, cestodes, nematode, and intestinal worms.Bibliography.Cantu-Salazar (2002), Cantu-Salazar, Fernandez & Hidalgo-Mihart (2004), Cantu-Salazar, Hidalgo-Mihart et al. (2005), Ceballos & Miranda(1986), Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Hall (1938), Lopez-Forment & Urbano (1979), Medellin et al. (1998), Schreiber et al. (1989), Teska et al. (1981), Thomas (1898b).","taxonomy":"Spilogale pygmaea Thomas, 1898,Rosario, Sinaloa, W. Mexico.Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette naine @fr | Zwerg-Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta chica @es","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1898","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Spilogale","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"CoL","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"559","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"pygmaea","name":"Spilogale pygmaea","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. p. pygmaea Thomas, 1898— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions of Sinaloa& Nayarit).S. p. australis Hall, 1938— W Mexico(Pacific coastal region from Michoacanto Guerrero& Oaxaca).S. p. intermedia L.opez-Forment & Urbano, 1979— W Mexico(Pacific coastal regions ofJalisco & Colima).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6353159/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Cantu-Salazar (2002) | Cantu-Salazar, Fernandez & Hidalgo-Mihart (2004) | Cantu-Salazar, Hidalgo-Mihart et al. (2005) | Ceballos & Miranda(1986) | Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Hall (1938) | Lopez-Forment & Urbano (1979) | Medellin et al. (1998) | Schreiber et al. (1989) | Teska et al. (1981) | Thomas (1898b)","foodAndFeeding":"Pygmy Spotted Skunks are opportunistic feeders and consume a variety of invertebrates. Rodents are not taken as frequently as by other spotted skunks, but may be selected as alternative prey when the availability of arthropods is low. Spiny pocket mice are common in the tropical dry forest, and during the dry season, their density is high. During this season rodents also may be easier to detect due to the desiccation ofleaflitter. Birds are rarely taken by these skunks and plant material is less likely to be consumed, although, highly digestible fruits may be eaten. Pygmy Spotted Skunks use food sources such as ants, beetles, and spiders in relation to their abundance in the environment. However, some invertebrates, such as insect larvae, millipedes and centipedes, are selected in higher abundance. True bugs (Hemiptera) tend to be avoided as do crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera). Pygmy Spotted Skunks will eat cockroaches (Blattaria) during the dry season; they may select food items in response to seasonal variation in prey abundance.","breeding":"Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.","activityPatterns":"They are nocturnal and den underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation. They will use dens dug by other animals such as gophers, squirrels, armadillos, and turtles. They use pathways and stream beds to move to and from bodies of water. Much of their activity occurs below the leaf litter or brush, where they search for the burrows of small rodents. Pygmy Spotted Skunks stomp their feet when threatened. They have been observed doing a partial handstand similar to other species of spotted skunks. Anal secretions are usually only released as a last resort.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"These skunks are solitary most of the year except during the breeding season. Males will defend their territory against other males, and only allow females access to their territory.Breeding.Breeding occurs from April through August, with most births occurring around July and August. Gestation usually lasts from 43-51 days, and there may be a short period of delayed implantation. More than one litter per year may be produced. The number of young perlitter can range from one to six in this species. The young are born with fine white hair, but the skin pigmentation pattern is similar to that of adults. Newborn kits weigh about 7 g, and their eyes and ears do not open until they are 29-32 days old. Most of the teeth are present at 47 days.","statusAndConservation":"Not listed with CITES. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. This skunk is locally abundant in certain areas, but is considered to be vulnerable throughout much of its range in Mexicodue to habitat destruction as a result of tourist resort and road construction. These animals also have been stuffed and sold as souvenirs. Skulls have been recovered from barn owl pellets, and snakes and other carnivores probably prey on Pygmy Spotted Skunks. They have been found with various parasites including ticks, cestodes, nematode, and intestinal worms.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 19-21 cm,tail 6.7-7.3 cm(males) and 5.9-6.7 cm(females), hindfoot 2.3-4 cm, ear 1.8-3.3 cm; weight 150-320 g. Tail length has been used to distinguish the sexes. The Pygmy Spotted Skunk is the smallest of the skunks. The body is elongated and the legs are relatively short. This skunk has six continuous white stripes running down the back and sides; the rest of the fur color is brown to black. There is a white stripe across the forehead above the eyes that continues down the side of the body. Pygmy Spotted Skunks have a short rostrum with a black nose pad, short, rounded ears, short legs, and slender feet with small curved claws. The skull is small and fragile and does not have a sagittal crest. The dental formulais 13/3, C1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 for a total of 34 teeth. These skunks have small canines but relatively large molars.","habitat":"These skunks inhabit deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub. They have been observed in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetation for cover. They have a patchy distribution, but nearly all individuals have been captured in coastal habitats. However, remains have been found in owl pellets about 115 kmfrom the coast at an altitude of 500 m. They are found from sea level up to 1630 m, but are generally found below 350 m. Pygmy Spotted Skunksare scarce, but if enough habitat is preserved, they are believed to be able to survive in disturbed environments."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9122FB50FF56F9E7F5DBDE43.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9122FB50FF56F9E7F5DBDE43","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"558","verbatimText":"7.Hooded SkunkMephitis macrouraFrench:Moufette a capuchon/ German:Haubenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta encapuchadaTaxonomy.Mephitis macroura Lichtenstein, 1832,Gebirgs-Gegenden nord-westlich von der Stadt Mexico” (Mexico, mountains north-west of Mexico City).Four subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. macroura Lichtenstein, 1832— C & W Mexico(NayaritE to Tamaulipas) and S to Honduras, but not including the Yucatan Peninsula.M. m. eximius Hall & Dalquest, 1950— E Mexico(S Veracruz).M. m. milleri Mearns, 1897— N Mexico(Sonoraand Sinaloato CoahuilaN) to S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas).M. m. richardsoni Goodwin, 1957— Nicaraguaand Costa Rica.Descriptive notes.Head—body averages about 31 cm(males) and 28 cm(females), tail 27-43 cm; weight averages 957 g(males) 882 g(females). Individuals achieve their greatest weight by late summer. Hooded Skunks in the more southern part of their range are smaller than animals in the northern part of the range. Hooded Skunks have three typical color patterns, but there is considerable variation. These patterns are: two thin stripes running down the side of the body from the shoulder to midabdomen; a single band running down the back from the forehead to the tail (this single white stripe is interspersed with black hair giving a gray appearance), and a combination of both. These skunks also have a white bar between the eyes. The skull is similar to that of the Striped Skunk, but the auditory bullae are larger. Hooded Skunk can be differentiated externally from Striped Skunk by the long hairs on the back of the neck and head,its relatively longer tail, and larger ears. The anal secretions of the Hooded Skunk have seven major components, which comprise 99% of the volatiles. These components are (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, S-3-methylbutenyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol. There are several minor components as well, including phenylmethanethiol, S-phenylmethyl thioacetate, S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide, and S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate. The Hooded Skunk’s secretion contains four compounds not reported from the Striped Skunk: phenylmethanethiol, Sphenylmethyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, and S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate.Habitat.This skunk occurs in a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It is most common in arid lowlands, but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats. Hooded Skunks use similar habitats to Striped Skunks, but are found more often in scrub and urban habitats. Hooded Skunks occur from sea level to 3110 m, in low elevation desert areas (below 2500 m), in rocky canyons, or in heavily vegetated streamsides and valleys, often in association with mesquite, pine—oak, and other shrubs and grasses. Hooded Skunks appearto prefer intermediate elevationsin rockyslopes,at the bases ofcliffs, or on the rocky sides of arroyos, but are also encountered in heavy growth of weeds and shrubs in riparian areas. Dense, brushy cover of stream sides may be important for this species. Hooded Skunks den in holes dug in the ground, rock crevices, and holes in logs. They have even been observed denning more than 1 mabove ground in trees, but they are more likely to den on rocky hillsides. They prefer woodland habitats more than do Striped Skunks. In agricultural areas Hooded Skunks den along fencerows, beneath irrigation canals, and in heavily vegetated areas along streams. Hooded Skunks are less likely than Striped Skunks to den around human dwellings. However, radio-collared individuals were frequently located under buildings and sheds and in culverts.Food and Feeding.The diet of this species consists primarily of insects (including beetles and grasshoppers), fruits, small vertebrates, and birds’ eggs. Hooded Skunks break chicken eggs by throwing them between their back legs rather than biting them. Vertebrates are taken opportunistically. When foraging, Hooded Skunk moves slowly, snuffling among leaves and pouncing on grasshoppers and beetles.Activity patterns.Hooded Skunks remain active all year and have been trapped in the winter. The anal glands are used in self defense. One animal was observed spraying nine times in eleven seconds and again three more times 90 minutes later. The defensive behavior of Hooded Skunk is similar to that of Striped Skunk. Hooded Skunks are active after dusk and travel along rock walls, streambeds, and in weedy fields. They tend to be solitary except when females are raising young, although several may dine together at a feeding station. Females normally do not den together during the winter months.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Hooded Skunks can occupy from 2:8-5-0 km? Densities of 1:3-3-9 up to 25 Hooded Skunks/km?* have been reported. Females, when not nursing, tend to stay at a den site longer than males before moving to a different den within the home range. Males will move greater distances from one densite to the next compared to females. The skunks’ home ranges are smaller in urban areas. Urban skunks share mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes with non-urban skunks, which suggests that gene flow occurs between urban and non-urban skunk populations. Genetic data suggest that Hooded Skunks in urban areas represent newer, expanding populations (lower genetic diversity) compared to urban Striped Skunks, which have higher genetic diversity and more stable populations. They are more common in urbanized areas than previously thought, and in some places are more numerous than Striped Skunks. Their numbers are often underreported because it can be difficult to distinguish the two species.Skunks can actually be beneficial because they eat insect pests and rodents.Breeding.The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the status of this species, but they may not be uncommon in some parts of their range in the SW USA. However, in Texas, there is concern about population levels and that the species may no longer occur in that state. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human-altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas. There is a need for more research on Hooded Skunks. During a four year study period in Arizona, survival rates of adult skunks were low (24-56%). Predation accounted for most of the mortality, but disease and parasites were contributing factors. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), mountain lions, bobcats, jaguars, and coyotes may kill Hooded Skunks. Captive Hooded Skunks have lived for at least eight years. Historically, the pelt has not been considered to be of great value,so this skunk has not been hunted to the extent that other species have. Its fur is very long, light, and of low economic value. The flesh has been used for food in some areas, and the fat and scent glands have been used for medicinal purposes. Roundworms (Physaloptera maxillaries), fleas (Pulicidae), and the nematode Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum occur in Hooded Skunks in Trans Pecos, Texas. A new species of Skrjabingylus (S. santaceciliae) was recently described in this skunk species. Rabies rarely is reported in Hooded Skunks; however, a case of rabies in this species has been documented. There is no reason to suspect that they do not contract the virus; more likely they go unnoticed or are misidentified as Striped Skunks. Hooded Skunks also are susceptible to feline distemper. Hooded Skunks have been found with numerous fleas,ticks, lice, and mites.Bibliography.Aranda & Lopez-de Buen (1999), Armstrong et al. (1972), Bailey (1931), Baker (1956), Carreno et al. (2005), Ceballos & Miranda(1986), Dalquest (1953), Davis (1944), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1954), Dragoo et al. (2004), Findley et al. (1975), Goodwin (1957), Hall & Dalquest (1950), Hass (2002a, 2003), Hass & Dragoo (2006), Hoffmeister (1986), Hubbard (1972), Janzen & Hallwachs (1982), Lichtenstein (1827-1834), Mearns (1897b), Patton (1974), Reid (1997), Schmidly (1977, 2004), Wood et al. (2002).","taxonomy":"Mephitis macroura Lichtenstein, 1832,Gebirgs-Gegenden nord-westlich von der Stadt Mexico” (Mexico, mountains north-west of Mexico City).Four subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette a capuchon @fr | Haubenskunk @de | Mofeta encapuchada @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Mephitis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"558","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"macroura","name":"Mephitis macroura","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. macroura Lichtenstein, 1832— C & W Mexico(NayaritE to Tamaulipas) and S to Honduras, but not including the Yucatan Peninsula.M. m. eximius Hall & Dalquest, 1950— E Mexico(S Veracruz).M. m. milleri Mearns, 1897— N Mexico(Sonoraand Sinaloato CoahuilaN) to S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas).M. m. richardsoni Goodwin, 1957— Nicaraguaand Costa Rica.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5684765/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aranda & Lopez-de Buen (1999) | Armstrong et al. (1972) | Bailey (1931) | Baker (1956) | Carreno et al. (2005) | Ceballos & Miranda(1986) | Dalquest (1953) | Davis (1944) | Davis & Lukens (1958) | Davis & Russell (1954) | Dragoo et al. (2004) | Findley et al. (1975) | Goodwin (1957) | Hall & Dalquest (1950) | Hass (2002a, 2003) | Hass & Dragoo (2006) | Hoffmeister (1986) | Hubbard (1972) | Janzen & Hallwachs (1982) | Lichtenstein (1827-1834) | Mearns (1897b) | Patton (1974) | Reid (1997) | Schmidly (1977, 2004) | Wood et al. (2002)","foodAndFeeding":"The diet of this species consists primarily of insects (including beetles and grasshoppers), fruits, small vertebrates, and birds’ eggs. Hooded Skunks break chicken eggs by throwing them between their back legs rather than biting them. Vertebrates are taken opportunistically. When foraging, Hooded Skunk moves slowly, snuffling among leaves and pouncing on grasshoppers and beetles.","breeding":"The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.","activityPatterns":"Hooded Skunks remain active all year and have been trapped in the winter. The anal glands are used in self defense. One animal was observed spraying nine times in eleven seconds and again three more times 90 minutes later. The defensive behavior of Hooded Skunk is similar to that of Striped Skunk. Hooded Skunks are active after dusk and travel along rock walls, streambeds, and in weedy fields. They tend to be solitary except when females are raising young, although several may dine together at a feeding station. Females normally do not den together during the winter months.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Hooded Skunks can occupy from 2:8-5-0 km? Densities of 1:3-3-9 up to 25 Hooded Skunks/km?* have been reported. Females, when not nursing, tend to stay at a den site longer than males before moving to a different den within the home range. Males will move greater distances from one densite to the next compared to females. The skunks’ home ranges are smaller in urban areas. Urban skunks share mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes with non-urban skunks, which suggests that gene flow occurs between urban and non-urban skunk populations. Genetic data suggest that Hooded Skunks in urban areas represent newer, expanding populations (lower genetic diversity) compared to urban Striped Skunks, which have higher genetic diversity and more stable populations. They are more common in urbanized areas than previously thought, and in some places are more numerous than Striped Skunks. Their numbers are often underreported because it can be difficult to distinguish the two species.Skunks can actually be beneficial because they eat insect pests and rodents.Breeding.The reproductive biology of the Hooded Skunk is poorly known. Breeding likely takes place from mid-February to the end of March. Males have a baculum, and females have two pairs of inguinal, one pair of abdominal, and two pairs of pectoral mammae. Litter size ranges from 3-8. Females may nurse young through August.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Little is known about the status of this species, but they may not be uncommon in some parts of their range in the SW USA. However, in Texas, there is concern about population levels and that the species may no longer occur in that state. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human-altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas. There is a need for more research on Hooded Skunks. During a four year study period in Arizona, survival rates of adult skunks were low (24-56%). Predation accounted for most of the mortality, but disease and parasites were contributing factors. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), mountain lions, bobcats, jaguars, and coyotes may kill Hooded Skunks. Captive Hooded Skunks have lived for at least eight years. Historically, the pelt has not been considered to be of great value,so this skunk has not been hunted to the extent that other species have. Its fur is very long, light, and of low economic value. The flesh has been used for food in some areas, and the fat and scent glands have been used for medicinal purposes. Roundworms (Physaloptera maxillaries), fleas (Pulicidae), and the nematode Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum occur in Hooded Skunks in Trans Pecos, Texas. A new species of Skrjabingylus (S. santaceciliae) was recently described in this skunk species. Rabies rarely is reported in Hooded Skunks; however, a case of rabies in this species has been documented. There is no reason to suspect that they do not contract the virus; more likely they go unnoticed or are misidentified as Striped Skunks. Hooded Skunks also are susceptible to feline distemper. Hooded Skunks have been found with numerous fleas,ticks, lice, and mites.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body averages about 31 cm(males) and 28 cm(females), tail 27-43 cm; weight averages 957 g(males) 882 g(females). Individuals achieve their greatest weight by late summer. Hooded Skunks in the more southern part of their range are smaller than animals in the northern part of the range. Hooded Skunks have three typical color patterns, but there is considerable variation. These patterns are: two thin stripes running down the side of the body from the shoulder to midabdomen; a single band running down the back from the forehead to the tail (this single white stripe is interspersed with black hair giving a gray appearance), and a combination of both. These skunks also have a white bar between the eyes. The skull is similar to that of the Striped Skunk, but the auditory bullae are larger. Hooded Skunk can be differentiated externally from Striped Skunk by the long hairs on the back of the neck and head,its relatively longer tail, and larger ears. The anal secretions of the Hooded Skunk have seven major components, which comprise 99% of the volatiles. These components are (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, S-3-methylbutenyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol. There are several minor components as well, including phenylmethanethiol, S-phenylmethyl thioacetate, S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide, and S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate. The Hooded Skunk’s secretion contains four compounds not reported from the Striped Skunk: phenylmethanethiol, Sphenylmethyl thioacetate, 2-phenylethanethiol, and S-2-phenylethyl thioacetate.","habitat":"This skunk occurs in a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It is most common in arid lowlands, but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats. Hooded Skunks use similar habitats to Striped Skunks, but are found more often in scrub and urban habitats. Hooded Skunks occur from sea level to 3110 m, in low elevation desert areas (below 2500 m), in rocky canyons, or in heavily vegetated streamsides and valleys, often in association with mesquite, pine—oak, and other shrubs and grasses. Hooded Skunks appearto prefer intermediate elevationsin rockyslopes,at the bases ofcliffs, or on the rocky sides of arroyos, but are also encountered in heavy growth of weeds and shrubs in riparian areas. Dense, brushy cover of stream sides may be important for this species. Hooded Skunks den in holes dug in the ground, rock crevices, and holes in logs. They have even been observed denning more than 1 mabove ground in trees, but they are more likely to den on rocky hillsides. They prefer woodland habitats more than do Striped Skunks. In agricultural areas Hooded Skunks den along fencerows, beneath irrigation canals, and in heavily vegetated areas along streams. Hooded Skunks are less likely than Striped Skunks to den around human dwellings. However, radio-collared individuals were frequently located under buildings and sheds and in culverts."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9122FB53FA50F497F632DD2A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9122FB53FA50F497F632DD2A","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"558","verbatimText":"8.Striped SkunkMephitis mephatisFrench:Moufette rayée/ German:Streifenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta rayadaTaxonomy.Viverra mephitis Schreber, 1776,eastern Canada[Province of Quebec].A complete taxonomic revision has not been done since 1901. Thirteen subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. m. mephitis Schreber, 1776— E Canada.M. m. avia Bangs, 1898— Midwestern USA(Most of Illinois, N half of Missouri& E half of Kansas).M. m. elongata Bangs, 1895— E & SE USA(VirginiaS to E Georgia, Florida, S Alabama& Mississippi).M. m. estor Merriam, 1890— W USA(S Utahthrough Arizonaand W New Mexico) to N Mexico(Sonora& Chihuahua).M. m. holzerni Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).M. m. hudsonica Richardson, 1829— C & W Canadaand NC USA(from NE Washingtonto Wisconsinand S into Colorado).M. m. major Howell, 1901— NW USA(N Nevada& Utahto Oregon& Idaho).M. m. mesomelas Lichtenstein, 1832— S USA(W Texas& Oklahomato Arkansas& Louisiana).M. m. nigra Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE Canada(New Brunswick& Nova Scotia) and E USA(from New Englandto Ohio & Indiana and S to Mississippi & Alabama.M. m. notata Howell, 1901— NW USA(C Washington).M. m. occidentalis Baird, 1858— W USA(N Californiato SW Oregon).M. m. spissigrada Bangs, 1898— NW USA(W Washington).M. m. varians Gray, 1837— S Great Plains USA(E New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma& Kansas) S to NW Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas).Descriptive notes.Head-body 23-40 cm(males), 17-34 cm(females), tail length 20- 47 cm(males), 15-36.3 cm(females); weight 0.8-4.1 kg(males), 0.6-3.6 kg(females). Striped Skunks are about the size of house cats, with small triangularshaped heads. The basic color of skunksis black and white, but other colors, such as brown and red, have been observed in the wild. The typical pattern seen in Striped Skunksis the white “V7” down the back and a white bar running between the eyes from the forehead to the middle of the rostrum. Color pattern in Striped Skunksis highly variable and can range from completely black to completely white (non-albino). The striping pattern cannot be used to determine the sex of the animal, nor can it be used to predict how much snow will fall. Skunks are born with theirstripes before they have hair. The nose pad is relatively small, and the ears are small and rounded. Striped Skunks have short stocky legs and five toes on each foot. They walk on the soles (plantigrade) of their feet. Occasionally, the heel of the hindfeet will be lifted off the ground when they walk. The claws on the front feet are longer than those of the back feet. The tail is less than half the total body length, with long flowing hairs. The skull is heavy and squarish and widest at the attachment of the zygomata, and the forehead is convex. The dental formula for Striped Skunks is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, for a total of 34 teeth. The anal secretions of this animal are composed of several major volatile components. These components include: E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, $-3-methylbutanyl thioacetate, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinolinemethanethiol, and $2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate.Habitat.Striped Skunks use a variety of habitats and tend to be more numerous where good cover and abundant food are available. They can be found in open, exposed arcas, but prefer brushy, weedy stream and gulch bottoms or canyons. In open areas they will burrow into banks or even level ground and as a result are able to occupy many habitats. Other habitats where they can be found include a mixture of woodlands, brushy corners, and open fields broken by wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. They will also utilize cultivated areas, pasture, and hay crops. In other parts of their range they use wetlands surrounded by agricultural areas, grasslands, woodlot edges, fencelines, and refuse piles. Striped Skunks may not have a preference for any particular habitat as long as food and shelter are available.Food and Feeding.Striped Skunks are opportunistic omnivores. With the exception of lima beans, most skunks will eat almost anything. They will feast primarily on insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, moths, cutworms, caterpillars, bees, and wasps. They also will eat earthworms, snakes, snails, clams, crayfish, fish, frogs, mice, moles, rats, squirrels, wild fruits, grains, corn, nuts, birds’ eggs, carrion, and garbage. Striped Skunks use their long foreclawsto dig for insects and grubs. They will search in rotten or fallen logs for mice and insects. Around gardens they will forage forripe fruits and vegetables, but they primarily are looking for insects, and benefit gardeners by eating insects that can damage garden crops. They also will take advantage of any pet food left outside.Activity patterns.Striped Skunks are crepuscular or nocturnal. In the northern part of their range they may go into a torpor (they are not true hibernators) during cold spells or when snow coveris particularly deep. However, in the southern parts of the range, they may actually be more active during the milder winters. When a Striped Skunk perceives a threat,its first responseis to run away. If that does not work, it will spray a noxious chemical from the anal scent glands. However, before spraying, skunks use a series of threat behaviors. They will stomp the ground with both front feet. Sometimes they will charge forward a few paces and then stomp or will edge backwards while dragging their front feet, all the while with the tail up in the air. Each scent gland has a nipple associated with it and skunks can aim and direct the spray with highly coordinated muscle control. When a skunk is being chased by a predator, but cannot see the predator, the spray is emitted as an atomized cloud that the predator must run through. This is the “shotgun” method and usually is enough to deter most predators.When the skunk has a target to focus on the spray is emitted as a stream directed at the predator’s face. This is the “357 Magnum” technique. Trapped or cornered skunks will curl into a “U” shape so that both ends face the predator.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges of Striped Skunks can be quite variable depending on the available resources (food and shelter primarily).Where there is plenty of food, skunks will tend to have smaller ranges. Home ranges are reported for anywhere from 0-5 km? to over 12 km?. Although Striped Skunks are often found dead on the road, they tend to avoid crossing roads with heavy traffic, and these roads can set the boundaries for some home ranges. During the winter months in the northern part of their range, Striped Skunks become more sedentary and cover less area on their nightly forays. In the southern part of their range, their home ranges remain about the samesize year-round. Striped Skunks are solitary most of the time. In the winter females (and occasionally a single male) may den together to conserve heatand body fat. Most malesare solitary during the winter. In the southern partof the range communal dens are rarely found during the winter months. During the summer femalesraise their young, and by early fall the young have left the den.Breeding.Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Striped Skunks are not considered for any kind of protection as they appear to be doing well throughout their range. Some of the earliest legislation to protect skunks, in the form of closed trapping seasons, was in New Yorkin 1894. Farmers recognized that skunks were the only effective predators of the hop grub and their service in combating the grub made them valuable assets. Striped Skunks are known to harbor numerous ectoparasites and endoparasites, including fleas, lice, ticks, mites, and various helminth infestations. Intestinal roundworms, nematodes, and lung flukes have been reported. Parasite loads can be a major contributor to mortality. Skunks are a primary vector of rabies in some parts of their range. They also have been found to be infected with canine distemper, histoplasmosis, leptospirosis, listerosis, mycoplasma, pulmonary aspergillosis, sarcocystis, streptococcus, toxoplasma, tularemia, and West Nile Virus. Natural mammalian predators for skunks include humans, domestic dogs, coyotes, red foxes, lynx, bobcats, badgers, mountain lions, and fishers. Various birds of prey including great horned owls, eagles, crows, and vultures also will eat skunks. Turnover in skunk populations is high, so a large percentage of animals in any population consist of young of the year. The average lifespan for wild skunksis about 2-3-5 years. However, Striped Skunks kept in captivity live on average to about 8-12 years of age.Bibliography.Bailey (1931), Baird (1857), Bangs (1895, 1898a), Bentler et al. (2007), Blanton et al. (2006), Doty & Dowler (2006), Ganley-Leal et al. (2007), Gehrt (2005), Gehrt et al. (2006), Gray (1837), Greenwood & Sargeant (1994), Hall (1981), Hass (2003), Hass & Dragoo (2006), Howell (1901), Hwang et al. (2007), Kelker (1937), Lantz (1923), Mearns (1897a, 1897b), Merriam (1890b), Neiswenter & Dowler (2007), Neiswenter etal. (2006), Rosatte (1988), Verts (1967), Wade-Smith & Richmond (1978a, 1978b), Wade-Smith & Verts (1982), Wood (1990).","taxonomy":"Viverra mephitis Schreber, 1776,eastern Canada[Province of Quebec].A complete taxonomic revision has not been done since 1901. Thirteen subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette rayée @fr | Streifenskunk @de | Mofeta rayada @es","interpretedAuthority":"(Schreber, 1776)","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Mephitis","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"558","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"mephatis","name":"Mephitis mephatis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. m. mephitis Schreber, 1776— E Canada.M. m. avia Bangs, 1898— Midwestern USA(Most of Illinois, N half of Missouri& E half of Kansas).M. m. elongata Bangs, 1895— E & SE USA(VirginiaS to E Georgia, Florida, S Alabama& Mississippi).M. m. estor Merriam, 1890— W USA(S Utahthrough Arizonaand W New Mexico) to N Mexico(Sonora& Chihuahua).M. m. holzerni Mearns, 1897— SW USA(S California).M. m. hudsonica Richardson, 1829— C & W Canadaand NC USA(from NE Washingtonto Wisconsinand S into Colorado).M. m. major Howell, 1901— NW USA(N Nevada& Utahto Oregon& Idaho).M. m. mesomelas Lichtenstein, 1832— S USA(W Texas& Oklahomato Arkansas& Louisiana).M. m. nigra Peale & Palisot de Beauvois, 1796— SE Canada(New Brunswick& Nova Scotia) and E USA(from New Englandto Ohio & Indiana and S to Mississippi & Alabama.M. m. notata Howell, 1901— NW USA(C Washington).M. m. occidentalis Baird, 1858— W USA(N Californiato SW Oregon).M. m. spissigrada Bangs, 1898— NW USA(W Washington).M. m. varians Gray, 1837— S Great Plains USA(E New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma& Kansas) S to NW Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5684767/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bailey (1931) | Baird (1857) | Bangs (1895, 1898a) | Bentler et al. (2007) | Blanton et al. (2006) | Doty & Dowler (2006) | Ganley-Leal et al. (2007) | Gehrt (2005) | Gehrt et al. (2006) | Gray (1837) | Greenwood & Sargeant (1994) | Hall (1981) | Hass (2003) | Hass & Dragoo (2006) | Howell (1901) | Hwang et al. (2007) | Kelker (1937) | Lantz (1923) | Mearns (1897a, 1897b) | Merriam (1890b) | Neiswenter & Dowler (2007) | Neiswenter etal. (2006) | Rosatte (1988) | Verts (1967) | Wade-Smith & Richmond (1978a, 1978b) | Wade-Smith & Verts (1982) | Wood (1990)","foodAndFeeding":"Striped Skunks are opportunistic omnivores. With the exception of lima beans, most skunks will eat almost anything. They will feast primarily on insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, moths, cutworms, caterpillars, bees, and wasps. They also will eat earthworms, snakes, snails, clams, crayfish, fish, frogs, mice, moles, rats, squirrels, wild fruits, grains, corn, nuts, birds’ eggs, carrion, and garbage. Striped Skunks use their long foreclawsto dig for insects and grubs. They will search in rotten or fallen logs for mice and insects. Around gardens they will forage forripe fruits and vegetables, but they primarily are looking for insects, and benefit gardeners by eating insects that can damage garden crops. They also will take advantage of any pet food left outside.","breeding":"Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.","activityPatterns":"Striped Skunks are crepuscular or nocturnal. In the northern part of their range they may go into a torpor (they are not true hibernators) during cold spells or when snow coveris particularly deep. However, in the southern parts of the range, they may actually be more active during the milder winters. When a Striped Skunk perceives a threat,its first responseis to run away. If that does not work, it will spray a noxious chemical from the anal scent glands. However, before spraying, skunks use a series of threat behaviors. They will stomp the ground with both front feet. Sometimes they will charge forward a few paces and then stomp or will edge backwards while dragging their front feet, all the while with the tail up in the air. Each scent gland has a nipple associated with it and skunks can aim and direct the spray with highly coordinated muscle control. When a skunk is being chased by a predator, but cannot see the predator, the spray is emitted as an atomized cloud that the predator must run through. This is the “shotgun” method and usually is enough to deter most predators.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges of Striped Skunks can be quite variable depending on the available resources (food and shelter primarily).Where there is plenty of food, skunks will tend to have smaller ranges. Home ranges are reported for anywhere from 0-5 km? to over 12 km?. Although Striped Skunks are often found dead on the road, they tend to avoid crossing roads with heavy traffic, and these roads can set the boundaries for some home ranges. During the winter months in the northern part of their range, Striped Skunks become more sedentary and cover less area on their nightly forays. In the southern part of their range, their home ranges remain about the samesize year-round. Striped Skunks are solitary most of the time. In the winter females (and occasionally a single male) may den together to conserve heatand body fat. Most malesare solitary during the winter. In the southern partof the range communal dens are rarely found during the winter months. During the summer femalesraise their young, and by early fall the young have left the den.Breeding.Striped Skunk usually breed from February through March and the young are born starting in April, but births can continue until early June. These skunks usually only go into estrus once a year. However,if a litter is lost early a second litter may be produced. Striped Skunks will breed in their first year, and young males will exhibit breeding behavior in mid- to late summerof their first year, although they are not yet in reproductive condition. Females are usually in estrus for about a week and a half. Striped Skunks are induced ovulators. Ovulation occurs between 40 and 50 hours after first insemination. Males will breed with many females given the opportunity. Most of the females become pregnant by the end ofthe breeding season. Gestation usually lasts from 59-77 days. Females that breed early in the season may undergo a short period of delayed implantation. Striped Skunks can have as many as twelve offspring perlitter, but the average is about 5-7. Females usually have twelve mammae, but the number can range from ten to15. Young skunks are born blind, deaf, and naked. Within a couple of days the black and white hairs cover the pink and white skin. They are born with their scent glands intact and are capable of spraying within the first week of birth. The early scent is more a gas than a liquid. The eyes and ears open after about 28 days (sometimes earlier). After about 6-8 weeks the young are weaned. They begin to forage and explore with mom at this time. By the end of summer or early fall the young begin to disperse.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Striped Skunks are not considered for any kind of protection as they appear to be doing well throughout their range. Some of the earliest legislation to protect skunks, in the form of closed trapping seasons, was in New Yorkin 1894. Farmers recognized that skunks were the only effective predators of the hop grub and their service in combating the grub made them valuable assets. Striped Skunks are known to harbor numerous ectoparasites and endoparasites, including fleas, lice, ticks, mites, and various helminth infestations. Intestinal roundworms, nematodes, and lung flukes have been reported. Parasite loads can be a major contributor to mortality. Skunks are a primary vector of rabies in some parts of their range. They also have been found to be infected with canine distemper, histoplasmosis, leptospirosis, listerosis, mycoplasma, pulmonary aspergillosis, sarcocystis, streptococcus, toxoplasma, tularemia, and West Nile Virus. Natural mammalian predators for skunks include humans, domestic dogs, coyotes, red foxes, lynx, bobcats, badgers, mountain lions, and fishers. Various birds of prey including great horned owls, eagles, crows, and vultures also will eat skunks. Turnover in skunk populations is high, so a large percentage of animals in any population consist of young of the year. The average lifespan for wild skunksis about 2-3-5 years. However, Striped Skunks kept in captivity live on average to about 8-12 years of age.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 23-40 cm(males), 17-34 cm(females), tail length 20- 47 cm(males), 15-36.3 cm(females); weight 0.8-4.1 kg(males), 0.6-3.6 kg(females). Striped Skunks are about the size of house cats, with small triangularshaped heads. The basic color of skunksis black and white, but other colors, such as brown and red, have been observed in the wild. The typical pattern seen in Striped Skunksis the white “V7” down the back and a white bar running between the eyes from the forehead to the middle of the rostrum. Color pattern in Striped Skunksis highly variable and can range from completely black to completely white (non-albino). The striping pattern cannot be used to determine the sex of the animal, nor can it be used to predict how much snow will fall. Skunks are born with theirstripes before they have hair. The nose pad is relatively small, and the ears are small and rounded. Striped Skunks have short stocky legs and five toes on each foot. They walk on the soles (plantigrade) of their feet. Occasionally, the heel of the hindfeet will be lifted off the ground when they walk. The claws on the front feet are longer than those of the back feet. The tail is less than half the total body length, with long flowing hairs. The skull is heavy and squarish and widest at the attachment of the zygomata, and the forehead is convex. The dental formula for Striped Skunks is 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2, for a total of 34 teeth. The anal secretions of this animal are composed of several major volatile components. These components include: E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-(E)-2-butenyl thioacetate, $-3-methylbutanyl thioacetate, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinolinemethanethiol, and $2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate.","habitat":"Striped Skunks use a variety of habitats and tend to be more numerous where good cover and abundant food are available. They can be found in open, exposed arcas, but prefer brushy, weedy stream and gulch bottoms or canyons. In open areas they will burrow into banks or even level ground and as a result are able to occupy many habitats. Other habitats where they can be found include a mixture of woodlands, brushy corners, and open fields broken by wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. They will also utilize cultivated areas, pasture, and hay crops. In other parts of their range they use wetlands surrounded by agricultural areas, grasslands, woodlot edges, fencelines, and refuse piles. Striped Skunks may not have a preference for any particular habitat as long as food and shelter are available."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9123FB50FA00FBB9FDEBD04B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9123FB50FA00FBB9FDEBD04B","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"557","verbatimText":"6.Humboldt’s Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus humboldtiiFrench:Moufette de Humboldt/ German:Patagonischer Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino patagénicoTaxonomy.Conepatus humboldtii Gray, 1837,Magellan Straits, Chile.Two of the subspecies have been regarded as distinct species, but morphology and color pattern have been used to relegate them to subspecies of C. humboldtii. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. h. humboldtii Gray, 1837— Patagonia (Chileand Argentina) to the Strait of Magellan.C. h. castaneus d’Orbigny & Gervais, 1847— C Argentina(S provinces of Buenos Aires& La Pampato N Rio Negro;it also follows along the Colorado and Black Rivers to Neuquenand S Mendoza).C. h. proteus Thomas, 1902— subandean C Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).Descriptive notes.Head-body 22-32 cm(males), 20-30 cm(females), tail 16.5-20.2 cm(males) and 18-18.5 cm(females); weight 0.5-2.5 kg. Males on average are about 4-6% heavier than females. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be the smallest of the hog-nosed skunks. These skunks, like all South American skunks, have a double stripe similar to that seen in North American Striped Skunks. Typically, they are black and white, but they can range in color from black to dark brown or reddish brown. It has been suggested that the brownish color appears as the result of age. There is considerable variation in the striping pattern. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks do not have any white markings between the eyes. The tail generally is shorter in proportion to the body than in other skunks. The forelimbs and claws are well adapted for digging. Like other skunks in the genus the nose is long and flexible and used for rooting for burrowing insects. The post carnassial molars have large grinding areas relative to the cutting edge of their carnassial teeth.Habitat.Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks use a variety of habitats. They prefer to den in flat or rolling topography. These skunks will den in shallow caves, below tree roots, in hollow trees, under rocks and cracks between stones, and in abandoned tunnels of other animals. They will use habitat from desert areas to forests. In addition to being found in shrub or forest cover, they use man-made structures, denning under buildings and woodpiles. They use areas with natural herbaceous vegetation, except where poisons are used to control the Culpeo (Pseudalopex culpaeus). They are susceptible to poisoning although not targeted. They do however, prefer more open, grassy areas compared to the drier shrubby environments.Food and Feeding.These skunks are opportunistic feeders and usually capture their prey easily. They generally find their prey by sniffing and digging, using their flexible noses and long claws, primarily in grassy habitats. Like other skunks in the genus they eat a variety of insects, including ground beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, and spiders. They will consume fruit when it is available. These skunks also eat a variety of vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents. Carrion is eaten in larger quantities than expected based on relative abundance, when compared with other food items. This would suggest that this species is more carnivorous than insectivorous, but still opportunistic. They also are known to frequent urban garbage sites and vegetable gardens.Activity patterns.This species is generally nocturnal or crepuscular in nature. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks become more active during the day as winter approaches, and are less active when there is snow cover. They use a variety of den sites during the day and normally do not use the same den site for more than a couple of days at a time. They will however, reuse dens that they occupied previously. They are active for about 50% of the day. Their activity period starts between 20:00-22:00 h and continues until 07:00 h the next morning. Some skunks will remain active until 09:00 h and even until 12:00 h. They rarely are seen between 12:00-19:00 h. During periods of activity they have been observed digging or foraging, walking, and even playing. Young animals will venture as far as 1-3 kmfrom their natal dens to survey new territory before returning home. They may eventually relocate to the areas they investigated.Movements, Home range and Social organization. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be solitary for most of their lives. However,in stable areas where shelters are secure, small groups of young individuals may den together. These individuals usually are related and will stay together until they become adults. The home range ofjuvenile skunks increases in the fall and winter as they explore new areas away from the natal home range. Home rangesizesare relatively small and are about 7-16 ha. Home ranges of different individuals can overlap. These skunks usually are not found in high numbers. Density estimates of 0-04 to 0-16 km* have been reported in Chile.Breeding. Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.Status and Conservation. Currently, Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks is listed with CI'TIES as Appendix II. They are considered Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The pelt of this species has been used for blankets, and as a result they were hunted and over 100,000 skins were exported. In several areas in Chileit has been suggested that hunt ing pressures be reduced or stopped in order to conserve this species. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks are preyed upon by various raptors as well as Puma. Grazing pressures potentially could decrease populations of this skunk. Additionally, they have been eliminated in some areas as a result of poisoning of other species.Bibliography. Arias et al. (2006), Cabrera (1958), Canevari & Ambrosini (1988), Dragoo et al. (2003), Fuller, T.K. et al. (1987), Gray (1837), Johnson, W.E. et al. (1988), Kipp (1965), Osgood (1943), Thomas (1902a), Wozencraft (2005), Zapata et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Conepatus humboldtii Gray, 1837,Magellan Straits, Chile.Two of the subspecies have been regarded as distinct species, but morphology and color pattern have been used to relegate them to subspecies of C. humboldtii. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette de Humboldt @fr | Patagonischer Skunk @de | Zorrino patagénico @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Conepatus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"557","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"humboldtii","name":"Conepatus humboldtii","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. h. humboldtii Gray, 1837— Patagonia (Chileand Argentina) to the Strait of Magellan.C. h. castaneus d’Orbigny & Gervais, 1847— C Argentina(S provinces of Buenos Aires& La Pampato N Rio Negro;it also follows along the Colorado and Black Rivers to Neuquenand S Mendoza).C. h. proteus Thomas, 1902— subandean C Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5684763/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arias et al. (2006) | Cabrera (1958) | Canevari & Ambrosini (1988) | Dragoo et al. (2003) | Fuller, T.K. et al. (1987) | Gray (1837) | Johnson, W.E. et al. (1988) | Kipp (1965) | Osgood (1943) | Thomas (1902a) | Wozencraft (2005) | Zapata et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"These skunks are opportunistic feeders and usually capture their prey easily. They generally find their prey by sniffing and digging, using their flexible noses and long claws, primarily in grassy habitats. Like other skunks in the genus they eat a variety of insects, including ground beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, and spiders. They will consume fruit when it is available. These skunks also eat a variety of vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents. Carrion is eaten in larger quantities than expected based on relative abundance, when compared with other food items. This would suggest that this species is more carnivorous than insectivorous, but still opportunistic. They also are known to frequent urban garbage sites and vegetable gardens.","breeding":"Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.","activityPatterns":"This species is generally nocturnal or crepuscular in nature. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks become more active during the day as winter approaches, and are less active when there is snow cover. They use a variety of den sites during the day and normally do not use the same den site for more than a couple of days at a time. They will however, reuse dens that they occupied previously. They are active for about 50% of the day. Their activity period starts between 20:00-22:00 h and continues until 07:00 h the next morning. Some skunks will remain active until 09:00 h and even until 12:00 h. They rarely are seen between 12:00-19:00 h. During periods of activity they have been observed digging or foraging, walking, and even playing. Young animals will venture as far as 1-3 kmfrom their natal dens to survey new territory before returning home. They may eventually relocate to the areas they investigated.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be solitary for most of their lives. However,in stable areas where shelters are secure, small groups of young individuals may den together. These individuals usually are related and will stay together until they become adults. The home range ofjuvenile skunks increases in the fall and winter as they explore new areas away from the natal home range. Home rangesizesare relatively small and are about 7-16 ha. Home ranges of different individuals can overlap. These skunks usually are not found in high numbers. Density estimates of 0-04 to 0-16 km* have been reported in Chile.Breeding. Little is known about the reproductive biology of these skunks. The young are born in the spring and disperse in late summer. Gestation has been recorded as short as 42 days, but probably is closer to 60 days. Females generally have only one litter per year and the litters range from 2-5 offspring.","statusAndConservation":"Currently, Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks is listed with CI'TIES as Appendix II. They are considered Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The pelt of this species has been used for blankets, and as a result they were hunted and over 100,000 skins were exported. In several areas in Chileit has been suggested that hunt ing pressures be reduced or stopped in order to conserve this species. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks are preyed upon by various raptors as well as Puma. Grazing pressures potentially could decrease populations of this skunk. Additionally, they have been eliminated in some areas as a result of poisoning of other species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 22-32 cm(males), 20-30 cm(females), tail 16.5-20.2 cm(males) and 18-18.5 cm(females); weight 0.5-2.5 kg. Males on average are about 4-6% heavier than females. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks tend to be the smallest of the hog-nosed skunks. These skunks, like all South American skunks, have a double stripe similar to that seen in North American Striped Skunks. Typically, they are black and white, but they can range in color from black to dark brown or reddish brown. It has been suggested that the brownish color appears as the result of age. There is considerable variation in the striping pattern. Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks do not have any white markings between the eyes. The tail generally is shorter in proportion to the body than in other skunks. The forelimbs and claws are well adapted for digging. Like other skunks in the genus the nose is long and flexible and used for rooting for burrowing insects. The post carnassial molars have large grinding areas relative to the cutting edge of their carnassial teeth.","habitat":"Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks use a variety of habitats. They prefer to den in flat or rolling topography. These skunks will den in shallow caves, below tree roots, in hollow trees, under rocks and cracks between stones, and in abandoned tunnels of other animals. They will use habitat from desert areas to forests. In addition to being found in shrub or forest cover, they use man-made structures, denning under buildings and woodpiles. They use areas with natural herbaceous vegetation, except where poisons are used to control the Culpeo (Pseudalopex culpaeus). They are susceptible to poisoning although not targeted. They do however, prefer more open, grassy areas compared to the drier shrubby environments."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9123FB51FF0BF8ADF6B7D161.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9123FB51FF0BF8ADF6B7D161","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"557","verbatimText":"5.Striped Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus semistriatusFrench:Moufette d’Amazonie/ German:Amazonas-Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino amazonicoTaxonomy.Viverra semistriatus Boddaert, 1785,Originally described from “ Mexico”. Type locality later described as “Minas de Montuosa, cerca de Pamplona, departamento del norte de Santander, Colombia”.Eight subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785— Colombiaand Venezuela.C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838— NE & C Brazil.C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788— SE Mexico(Veracruzand along coast to Campeche).C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812— Ecuador.C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924— higher elevation in N Peru.C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905— Costa Rica, W Panama.C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943— SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Hondurasand Nicaragua.C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900— low hot desert regions of N Peru.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-50 cm(males) and 33-45 cm(females), tail 14-3— 30- 9 cm(males) and 13.5-26 cm(females); weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The tail is less than half the total body length. Striped Hog-nosed Skunks in South America tend to get smaller from north to south. The Striped Hog-nosed Skunk is larger than the other South American species, Molina’s and Humboldt’'s Hog-nosed Skunks. The pelage coloration typically is black with two narrow white stripes running from the head to the rump. There is extensive variation in color pattern. Striped hog-nosed Skunks have small, pig-like noses that are used for rooting insects. Like other Conepatus, the claws are long and the forelimbs are adapted for digging. These skunks also are able to spray a noxious fluid as a means of defense.Habitat.Striped Hog-nosed Skunks use grasslands with scattered palms, sparse deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open grassy areas mixed with sedges and herbaceous plants during the dry season. They prefer not to hang out in areas that have prolonged dry seasons. During the wet season they spend more time on higher ground in deciduousforests. Clearings and pastures near evergreen forests also are frequented by this species. Den sites are dug among tree roots or fallen trees. Burrows are about 1-2 min length and about 0-3 mbelow the surface. When not using the burrows dug for themselves these skunks will use burrows dug by other animals such as armadillos.Food and Feeding.Like other hog-nosed skunks,this species is an opportunistic omnivore. They feed on many invertebrates, but may not dig as much as the other species. Additionally, they consume small vertebrates, including reptiles, mammals, and birds, as well as fruits when they are available.Activity patterns.Striped Hog-nosed Skunks are primarily nocturnal. They become active shortly after sunset. One animal was reported to become active between 19:30 h and 24:00 h and stay out for about six hours at a time. The phase of the moon appeared not to affect activity periods. Though it is not outside the realm of possibility, these skunks rarely are seen during daylight hours.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Like other skunks, these animals are primarily solitary (except for mothers with offspring). Home ranges can cover from 18-53 ha.Breeding.These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.Status and Conservation.Notlisted with CITES, and classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The status of this skunk is uncertain. Although not abundant, this species appears to do well in disturbed environments.Bibliography.Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Goldman (1943), Hall (1981), Hall & Dalquest (1963), Lichtenstein (1838), Reid (1997), Sunquist et al. (1989), Thomas (1900a, 1905, 1924), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Viverra semistriatus Boddaert, 1785,Originally described from “ Mexico”. Type locality later described as “Minas de Montuosa, cerca de Pamplona, departamento del norte de Santander, Colombia”.Eight subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette d’Amazonie @fr | Amazonas-Skunk @de | Zorrino amazonico @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Conepatus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"557","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"semistriatus","name":"Conepatus semistriatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. s. semistriatus Boddaert, 1785— Colombiaand Venezuela.C. s. amazonicus Lichtenstein, 1838— NE & C Brazil.C. s. conepatl Gmelin, 1788— SE Mexico(Veracruzand along coast to Campeche).C. s. quitensis Humboldt, 1812— Ecuador.C. s. taxinus Thomas, 1924— higher elevation in N Peru.C. s. trichurus Thomas, 1905— Costa Rica, W Panama.C. s. yucatanicus Goldman, 1943— SE Mexico (Yucatan & Quintana Roo), Belize, Guatemala, Hondurasand Nicaragua.C. s. zorrino Thomas, 1900— low hot desert regions of N Peru.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5684761/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Goldman (1943) | Hall (1981) | Hall & Dalquest (1963) | Lichtenstein (1838) | Reid (1997) | Sunquist et al. (1989) | Thomas (1900a, 1905, 1924) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Like other hog-nosed skunks,this species is an opportunistic omnivore. They feed on many invertebrates, but may not dig as much as the other species. Additionally, they consume small vertebrates, including reptiles, mammals, and birds, as well as fruits when they are available.","breeding":"These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.","activityPatterns":"Striped Hog-nosed Skunks are primarily nocturnal. They become active shortly after sunset. One animal was reported to become active between 19:30 h and 24:00 h and stay out for about six hours at a time. The phase of the moon appeared not to affect activity periods. Though it is not outside the realm of possibility, these skunks rarely are seen during daylight hours.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Like other skunks, these animals are primarily solitary (except for mothers with offspring). Home ranges can cover from 18-53 ha.Breeding.These skunks breed in the early spring. Gestation lasts about 60 days. Litter sizes can range from 2-5. Otherwise,little is known about the breeding behavior of this species.","statusAndConservation":"Notlisted with CITES, and classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The status of this skunk is uncertain. Although not abundant, this species appears to do well in disturbed environments.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-50 cm(males) and 33-45 cm(females), tail 14-3— 30- 9 cm(males) and 13.5-26 cm(females); weight 1.4-3.5 kg. The tail is less than half the total body length. Striped Hog-nosed Skunks in South America tend to get smaller from north to south. The Striped Hog-nosed Skunk is larger than the other South American species, Molina’s and Humboldt’'s Hog-nosed Skunks. The pelage coloration typically is black with two narrow white stripes running from the head to the rump. There is extensive variation in color pattern. Striped hog-nosed Skunks have small, pig-like noses that are used for rooting insects. Like other Conepatus, the claws are long and the forelimbs are adapted for digging. These skunks also are able to spray a noxious fluid as a means of defense.","habitat":"Striped Hog-nosed Skunks use grasslands with scattered palms, sparse deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open grassy areas mixed with sedges and herbaceous plants during the dry season. They prefer not to hang out in areas that have prolonged dry seasons. During the wet season they spend more time on higher ground in deciduousforests. Clearings and pastures near evergreen forests also are frequented by this species. Den sites are dug among tree roots or fallen trees. Burrows are about 1-2 min length and about 0-3 mbelow the surface. When not using the burrows dug for themselves these skunks will use burrows dug by other animals such as armadillos."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9124FB51FA29F727FD87D246.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9124FB51FA29F727FD87D246","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"556","verbatimText":"4.Molina’s Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus chingaFrench:Moufette de Molina/ German:Anden-Skunk/ Spanish:Zorrino chilenoTaxonomy.Vicerra chinga Molina, 1782,“ Chili”, restricted to “alrededores de Valparaiso”. [Chile].A taxonomic revision of the species is needed. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. c. chinga Molina, 1782— C Chilecoastline (from Coquimboto Concepcion).C. c. budini Thomas, 1919— W Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).C. c. gibsoni Thomas, 1910— Argentina(Pampas region).C. c. inca Thomas, 1900— Peru.C. c. mendosus Thomas, 1921— W Argentina(SW Mendoza) W to C Chile(Los Rios & Los Lagosregions).C. c. rex Thomas, 1898— Bolivia.C. c. suffocans Illiger, 1815— SE Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguayand NE Argentina.Descriptive notes.Head-body 35-49 cm(males), 30-45 cm(females), tail 14.6-29 cm(males), 13.3-28 cm(females); weight 1-3 kg. As in most skunk species, males are larger than females. These skunks are slightly larger than the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks farther south. The pelage color is black, brown, or dark reddish, with two white stripes running down the back slightly to the side. These stripes may or may notjoin on the head. There is considerable variation in color pattern. The ears are short and the nose pad is thick and naked. The palms of the feet are hairless and have thick swellings on the pads. The digits are short and the claws are long. There are 32 teeth, as in other Conepatus. These skunks also have two scent glands at the base ofthe tail just inside the rectum, which are used to expel noxious fluid as a defense mechanism.Habitat.Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunks occur in a variety of habitats and can be found from the dry lowlands to the Altiplano in Bolivia. They have been found from the Paraguayan Chaco to the precordillerean steppe. They forage in grassland, savannas, steppe, and canyons, and den in shrub forests and in talus slopes. Dens in rocky areas are usually found in crevices. Elsewhere, they burrow into the ground, sometimes at the roots of trees, to construct dens. They will also den in caves and use burrows abandoned by other animals. They tend to avoid heavily forested areas. In fact, their populations may increase in areas where forests have been cleared.Food and Feeding.Like other skunks, is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder. Invertebrates constitute the bulk of the diet, but small vertebrates, including frogs, lizards, rodents, and birds as well as bird and reptile eggs are consumed. More vertebrates are consumed during winter months when arthropods are harder to find. Otherwise the diet is similar year round. Arthropod prey items include beetle larvae and spiders. Beetles are found in abundance in skunk faeces even when beetles in the environment are more scarce, suggesting that beetles are a favorite food item.Activity patterns.These skunks are considered to be crepuscular, but can be active throughout the night with their activity usually starting between 19:00 h and 22:00 h. They are active most of the night and settle early in the morning, before 05:00 h. Much of their time is spent searching for food either by digging up insects or sniffing and searching around brush. They tend to dig less in winter when the ground is frozen.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk is primarily solitary when foraging. Home ranges ofthis species (based on a small sample size) are from 3-5-12 times larger than home ranges in other Conepatusand average about 195 ha.Breeding.Little is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species. They have been reported to have a single breeding season, like the other South American skunks. They are similar in ecology and habit to the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunk, so presumably they have a similar gestation period (approximately 60 days) and produce a single annual litter of 2-5 offspring. The breeding season may be longer than in other species.Status and Conservation.Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunks are notlisted with CITES, and are classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. These skunks too have been hunted and trapped for their pelts, which have been used to make blankets. They are susceptible to poisons set out for other animals. They are preyed upon by various birds of prey as well as larger mammalian carnivores. This species also harbors several internal and external parasites.Bibliography.Anderson (1997), Arias et al. (2006), Cabrera (1958), Cabrera & Yepes (1960), Canevari & Ambrosini (1988), Donadio et al. (2001), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Molina (1782), Thomas (1900b, 1910, 1919), Travaini et al. (1998), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Vicerra chinga Molina, 1782,“ Chili”, restricted to “alrededores de Valparaiso”. [Chile].A taxonomic revision of the species is needed. Seven subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette de Molina @fr | Anden-Skunk @de | Zorrino chileno @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Conepatus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"556","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"chinga","name":"Conepatus chinga","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. c. chinga Molina, 1782— C Chilecoastline (from Coquimboto Concepcion).C. c. budini Thomas, 1919— W Argentina(Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis& N Mendoza).C. c. gibsoni Thomas, 1910— Argentina(Pampas region).C. c. inca Thomas, 1900— Peru.C. c. mendosus Thomas, 1921— W Argentina(SW Mendoza) W to C Chile(Los Rios & Los Lagosregions).C. c. rex Thomas, 1898— Bolivia.C. c. suffocans Illiger, 1815— SE Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguayand NE Argentina.","bibliography":"Anderson (1997) | Arias et al. (2006) | Cabrera (1958) | Cabrera & Yepes (1960) | Canevari & Ambrosini (1988) | Donadio et al. (2001) | Eisenberg & Redford (1999) | Molina (1782) | Thomas (1900b, 1910, 1919) | Travaini et al. (1998) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Like other skunks, is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder. Invertebrates constitute the bulk of the diet, but small vertebrates, including frogs, lizards, rodents, and birds as well as bird and reptile eggs are consumed. More vertebrates are consumed during winter months when arthropods are harder to find. Otherwise the diet is similar year round. Arthropod prey items include beetle larvae and spiders. Beetles are found in abundance in skunk faeces even when beetles in the environment are more scarce, suggesting that beetles are a favorite food item.","breeding":"Little is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species. They have been reported to have a single breeding season, like the other South American skunks. They are similar in ecology and habit to the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunk, so presumably they have a similar gestation period (approximately 60 days) and produce a single annual litter of 2-5 offspring. The breeding season may be longer than in other species.","activityPatterns":"These skunks are considered to be crepuscular, but can be active throughout the night with their activity usually starting between 19:00 h and 22:00 h. They are active most of the night and settle early in the morning, before 05:00 h. Much of their time is spent searching for food either by digging up insects or sniffing and searching around brush. They tend to dig less in winter when the ground is frozen.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk is primarily solitary when foraging. Home ranges ofthis species (based on a small sample size) are from 3-5-12 times larger than home ranges in other Conepatusand average about 195 ha.Breeding.Little is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species. They have been reported to have a single breeding season, like the other South American skunks. They are similar in ecology and habit to the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunk, so presumably they have a similar gestation period (approximately 60 days) and produce a single annual litter of 2-5 offspring. The breeding season may be longer than in other species.","statusAndConservation":"Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunks are notlisted with CITES, and are classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. These skunks too have been hunted and trapped for their pelts, which have been used to make blankets. They are susceptible to poisons set out for other animals. They are preyed upon by various birds of prey as well as larger mammalian carnivores. This species also harbors several internal and external parasites.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 35-49 cm(males), 30-45 cm(females), tail 14.6-29 cm(males), 13.3-28 cm(females); weight 1-3 kg. As in most skunk species, males are larger than females. These skunks are slightly larger than the Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunks farther south. The pelage color is black, brown, or dark reddish, with two white stripes running down the back slightly to the side. These stripes may or may notjoin on the head. There is considerable variation in color pattern. The ears are short and the nose pad is thick and naked. The palms of the feet are hairless and have thick swellings on the pads. The digits are short and the claws are long. There are 32 teeth, as in other Conepatus. These skunks also have two scent glands at the base ofthe tail just inside the rectum, which are used to expel noxious fluid as a defense mechanism.","habitat":"Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunks occur in a variety of habitats and can be found from the dry lowlands to the Altiplano in Bolivia. They have been found from the Paraguayan Chaco to the precordillerean steppe. They forage in grassland, savannas, steppe, and canyons, and den in shrub forests and in talus slopes. Dens in rocky areas are usually found in crevices. Elsewhere, they burrow into the ground, sometimes at the roots of trees, to construct dens. They will also den in caves and use burrows abandoned by other animals. They tend to avoid heavily forested areas. In fact, their populations may increase in areas where forests have been cleared."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9125FB56FA0FF56DF94CDDF2.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9125FB56FA0FF56DF94CDDF2","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"555","verbatimText":"3.American Hog-nosed SkunkConepatus leuconotusFrench:Moufette a dos blanc/ German:Ferkelskunk/ Spanish:Zorrino dorsiblancoTaxonomy.Mephitis leuconota Lichtenstein, 1832,“Rio Alvarado” [Veracruz].The white-backed hog-nosed skunks were considered as two distinct species. Genetic, morphometric, and color patterns have been used to relegate them to this single species. Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. l. leuconotus Lichtenstein 1832— S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas), most of Mexico(except YucatanPeninsula) and S to Nicaragua.On following pages: 4. Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatus chinga); 5. Striped Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatussemistriatus Striped Skunk(Mephitis mephitis); 9. Pygmy Spotted Skunk (Spilogale pygmaea); 10. Eastern Spotted Skunk (Spilogale); 6. Humboldt's Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatushumboldti); 7. Hooded Skunk (Mephitis macroura); 8. putorius); 11. Western Spotted Skunk (Spilogale gracilis); 12. Southern Spotted Skunk (Spilogale angustifrons).C. l. figginsi F.W. Miller, 1925— USA(SE Colorado, NE New Mexico, Oklahomapanhandle).C. l. telmalestes Bailey 1905— S USA(Big Thicket region of E Texas).Descriptive notes.Head—-body 34-51 cm(males), 38-50 cm(females), tail, 14—4lcm (males), 12: 2-34 cm(females), length of hindfoot 2: 2-9 cm(males), 3-9 cm(females) and length of ear 0.8-3.6 cm(males), 0.8-3.3 cm(females); weight 2—4 kg. American Hog-nosed Skunk is as large as or larger than the Striped Skunk. They can be distinguished readily from other skunks by the color pattern of the dorsal pelage. These are the only skunks that lack a white dot or medial bar between the eyes and that have primarily black body fur with a single white stripe. The stripe starts as a single wedgeshaped white patch of fur on the head that widens near the shoulders to approximately half the width of the back. The stripe ranges from substantially reduced or absent on the rump to completely covering the entire back. The tail is white along its total length dorsally, but ventrally it can be black or white at the base. Their body generally is larger, and the tail is shorter in proportion to the body, than in other skunks. American Hog-nosed Skunks can be distinguished from the Striped Hog-nosed Skunks of Central and South America by the single dorsal stripe: the latter have two stripes bilateral to the spine. The snout of American Hog-nosed Skunk is relatively long and the nose pad, which is naked,is about 2 cmwide by 2: 6 cmlong, and resembles the nose of a small hog. This species has small and rounded ears. Its legs are stocky and the feet are plantigrade. The hindfeet are broad and large; the soles are naked about half the length of the foot. The upper body is powerfully built for digging and climbing and the foreclaws are very long. The skull is relatively deep (deepest in the temporal region) and the nares are large and truncated. The auditory bullae are not inflated, and the palate ends behind upper molars. The carnassial teeth are not well-developed, and they as well as the large upper molar provide an increased crushing surface. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/3, M 1/2 = 32. Conepatusresorb the milk teeth prior to birth. The scent glands are at the base of the tail on either side of the rectum. Two major volatile components [(£)- 2-butene-1-thiol and (E)-$-2-butenyl thioacetate| and four minor components (phenylmethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinoline-methanethiol, and bis[(£)-2-butenyl| disulfide) are found in the anal sac secretions of American Hog-nosed Skunks.Habitat.American Hog-nosed Skunk can be found in canyons, stream beds, and rocky terrain. They also are found in open desertscrub and mesquite-grasslands. In the southcentral part of their range they can be found in tropical areas as well as in mountains and coastal plains. They also are known to visit cornfields surrounded by brush or grassy plains, and scattered thickets of bull-horn acacia and other thorny plants. They can be found in both thorn woodland and riparian forest. In thorn woodland, the trees can vary in density from sparse to thick enough to form a loose canopy. Trees associated with the riparian forest habitat include pecan (Carya illinoensis), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), Texaspersimmon (Diospyros texana), and live-oak (Quercus virginiana). The understory of the riparian forests where hog-nosed skunks have been found includes briers, tall grasses, and tall weeds. American Hog-nosed Skunks have been found in pine—oak forest in the San Carlos Mountains, and north of these mountains on the Tamaulipan plain, which consists of low scrub and cacti. They also can occur in mesquitebrushland and improved pasture habitat where a few areas of semi-open native grassland have been used exclusively for cattle ranching. Thorny brush and cactus constitute the predominant vegetation in the region of southern Texaswhere these skunks occur.Food and Feeding.They have been observed attacking and devouring small rodents. However, this species is more insectivorous by nature and will spend hours digging for grubs and larvae. They also will eat pears, raisins, squash, green beans, radishes, green peppers, and a variety of other fruits and vegetables (with the exception of lima beans). Naturalists have trouble finding bait suitable for trapping these carnivores and have often had to capture individuals by hand. These skunks also may be capable of obtaining their daily water requirements from their food depending on the moisture content of the menu.Activity patterns.These skunks are solitary and largely nocturnal, but not strictly so. They have been observed feeding during the heat of the day in New Mexicoand Texas. They den in hollows in the roots of trees or fallen trunks and in cavities under rocks, and will take refuge in prickly pear cactus when aggravated. When an American Hognosed Skunk is threatened by a predator,its first response is to flee to cover. It may then turn to face its pursuer and, depending on the size and threat ofthe predator, stand on its hindlegs and even take two or three steps forward. Then it will come down hard on its front paws and exhale a burst of air in a loud hiss. Finally, it will draw its paws under its body, flinging dirt backwards. A defensive, frightened individual will crouch, stomp its front paws, raise its tail and hold it flat against its back, and bare its teeth. In this position it can bite and spray a predator, and will do both. American Hognosed Skunk can squirt a noxious liquid from anal scent glands, either as a mist when the threat is not specifically located, or as a stream directed toward a specific threat. The mist can be emitted while on the run.Movements, Home range and Social organization.American Hog-nosed Skunks are solitary by nature, but will tolerate each other as well as other species depending on the situation. Males and females stay together briefly during breeding season. Females stay with their litters until early fall, when the young disperse. Little is known about the home range ofthis species.Breeding.These skunks breed from late February through early March. A captive female had a gestation period of at least 70 days. Parturition occurs in April through May, and by late August the young begin to disperse. Females usually have litters of one to three; small litters of one to two half-grown young have been observed in late July through mid- August. American Hog-nosed Skunks have three pairs of mammae.Status and Conservation.Not listed with CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List, but populations have been declining for many years throughout a major portion of its historical range in the USA. The eastern Texassubspecies, ftelmalestes, is presumed extirpated throughoutits range in the Big Thicket region. In his Biological Survey of Texas, V. Bailey wrote, “the white-backed skunk is said to be the commonest species, and under a trapper’s shed at a ranch on Tarkington Prairie in November, 1904,I saw eight or ten of their skins hanging up to dry with a small number ofskins of Striped Skunk.” No new specimens of this subspecies have been collected in the Big Thicket area of Texassince Bailey's report in 1905. A telling, albeit fictional, explanation for the skunk’s decline is provided by Larry McMurtry, in his novel Lonesome Dove. one of his characters meets a couple in NE Texas. “In the dusk it was hard to make out much about her except that she was thin. She was barefoot and had on a dress that looked like it was made from part of a cotton sack. ‘I gave twenty-eight skunk hides for her,’ the old man said suddenly”. A more likely cause for the decline of hog-nosed skunk populations may be found in the increase in the number of trappers or possibly in the increased number of feral hogs that have been introduced into the area. Feral hogs compete, to some degree, with several species of wildlife for certain foods. They eat a variety of items, including fruits, roots, mushrooms, and invertebrates, depending on the season. Their rooting behavior is competitive with the rooting behavior of hog-nosed skunks. Feral hogs can have detectable influences on wildlife and plant communities as well as domestic crops and livestock, extensively disturbing vegetation and soil. In southern Texas, where 95% of the native vegetation in the Rio Grande Valley in Texashas been transformed from subtropical plant communities to cotton, sorghum, sugar cane, vegetable crops, and citrus orchards, several additional hog-nosed skunk populations may now be extirpated. However, a population was found recently in southern Texasand currently is being studied. Because hog-nosed skunks generally are associated with rough rocky areas and brushy habitat, the conversion of native vegetation to row-crop agriculture may be partially responsible for the skunks’ decline. However, habitat modification may not be the primary cause of the observed decline, because specimens of this skunk have been collected in cultivated areas near Veracruz, Mexico. A more direct cause may be associated with use of pesticides in agriculture. Hog-nosed skunks are primarily insectivorous, and use of pesticides has increased throughout their range in conjunction with row-crop agriculture. In Colorado, no new specimens ofthis species have been collected since 1933. However, a road-killed animal was seen just south of the Colorado border in New Mexicoin 2003. American Hog-nosed Skunks are taken by many predators, mainly large canids and felids, and by birds of prey. Additionally, the skunks support numerous parasites. External parasites include fleas (Pulex) and ticks (Ixodes texanus); intestinal parasites are roundworms (Psyalopteris maxillaris) and cestodes; and subcutaneous nematodes (Filaria martis) and Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum —infect the frontal sinuses. In west Texas, American Hog-nosed Skunks have been found infected with several species of helminth parasites, including Filaroides milks, Filaria taxidaea, Gongylonema sp., Macracanthorhynchus ingens, Mathevotaenia mephitis, Oncicola canis, Pachysentis canicola, Physaloptera maxillaris, and P. rara. In natural habitats, hognosed skunks are not known to survive for more than three or four years, but American hog-nosed skunks can live for 16 years or more in captivity.Bibliography.Bailey (1905), Beasom (1974), Dalquest (1953), Davis (1951), Davis & Schmidly (1994), Dragoo (1993), Dragoo & Honeycutt (1999a, 1999b), Dragoo & Sheffield(In press), Dragoo et al. (2003), Hall & Dalquest (1963), Hall & Kelson (1952), Leopold (1959), Lichtenstein (1827-1834), Matson & Baker (1986), McMurtry (1985), Meaney etal. (2006), Merriam (1902), Miller (1925), Neiswenter et al. (2006), Patton (1974), Reid (1997), Schmidly (1983, 2002, 2004), Schmidly & Hendricks (1984), Slaughter et al. (1974), Tewes & Schmidly (1987), Wood et al. (1993).","taxonomy":"Mephitis leuconota Lichtenstein, 1832,“Rio Alvarado” [Veracruz].The white-backed hog-nosed skunks were considered as two distinct species. Genetic, morphometric, and color patterns have been used to relegate them to this single species. Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette a dos blanc @fr | Ferkelskunk @de | Zorrino dorsiblanco @es","interpretedAuthority":"(Lichtenstein, 1832)","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Conepatus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"555","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leuconotus","name":"Conepatus leuconotus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. l. leuconotus Lichtenstein 1832— S USA(S Arizona, New Mexico& Texas), most of Mexico(except YucatanPeninsula) and S to Nicaragua.On following pages: 4. Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatus chinga); 5. Striped Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatussemistriatus Striped Skunk(Mephitis mephitis); 9. Pygmy Spotted Skunk (Spilogale pygmaea); 10. Eastern Spotted Skunk (Spilogale); 6. Humboldt's Hog-nosed Skunk (Conepatushumboldti); 7. Hooded Skunk (Mephitis macroura); 8. putorius); 11. Western Spotted Skunk (Spilogale gracilis); 12. Southern Spotted Skunk (Spilogale angustifrons).C. l. figginsi F.W. Miller, 1925— USA(SE Colorado, NE New Mexico, Oklahomapanhandle).C. l. telmalestes Bailey 1905— S USA(Big Thicket region of E Texas).","bibliography":"Bailey (1905) | Beasom (1974) | Dalquest (1953) | Davis (1951) | Davis & Schmidly (1994) | Dragoo (1993) | Dragoo & Honeycutt (1999a, 1999b) | Dragoo & Sheffield(In press) | Dragoo et al. (2003) | Hall & Dalquest (1963) | Hall & Kelson (1952) | Leopold (1959) | Lichtenstein (1827-1834) | Matson & Baker (1986) | McMurtry (1985) | Meaney etal. (2006) | Merriam (1902) | Miller (1925) | Neiswenter et al. (2006) | Patton (1974) | Reid (1997) | Schmidly (1983, 2002, 2004) | Schmidly & Hendricks (1984) | Slaughter et al. (1974) | Tewes & Schmidly (1987) | Wood et al. (1993)","foodAndFeeding":"They have been observed attacking and devouring small rodents. However, this species is more insectivorous by nature and will spend hours digging for grubs and larvae. They also will eat pears, raisins, squash, green beans, radishes, green peppers, and a variety of other fruits and vegetables (with the exception of lima beans). Naturalists have trouble finding bait suitable for trapping these carnivores and have often had to capture individuals by hand. These skunks also may be capable of obtaining their daily water requirements from their food depending on the moisture content of the menu.","breeding":"These skunks breed from late February through early March. A captive female had a gestation period of at least 70 days. Parturition occurs in April through May, and by late August the young begin to disperse. Females usually have litters of one to three; small litters of one to two half-grown young have been observed in late July through mid- August. American Hog-nosed Skunks have three pairs of mammae.","activityPatterns":"These skunks are solitary and largely nocturnal, but not strictly so. They have been observed feeding during the heat of the day in New Mexicoand Texas. They den in hollows in the roots of trees or fallen trunks and in cavities under rocks, and will take refuge in prickly pear cactus when aggravated. When an American Hognosed Skunk is threatened by a predator,its first response is to flee to cover. It may then turn to face its pursuer and, depending on the size and threat ofthe predator, stand on its hindlegs and even take two or three steps forward. Then it will come down hard on its front paws and exhale a burst of air in a loud hiss. Finally, it will draw its paws under its body, flinging dirt backwards. A defensive, frightened individual will crouch, stomp its front paws, raise its tail and hold it flat against its back, and bare its teeth. In this position it can bite and spray a predator, and will do both. American Hognosed Skunk can squirt a noxious liquid from anal scent glands, either as a mist when the threat is not specifically located, or as a stream directed toward a specific threat. The mist can be emitted while on the run.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"American Hog-nosed Skunks are solitary by nature, but will tolerate each other as well as other species depending on the situation. Males and females stay together briefly during breeding season. Females stay with their litters until early fall, when the young disperse. Little is known about the home range ofthis species.Breeding.These skunks breed from late February through early March. A captive female had a gestation period of at least 70 days. Parturition occurs in April through May, and by late August the young begin to disperse. Females usually have litters of one to three; small litters of one to two half-grown young have been observed in late July through mid- August. American Hog-nosed Skunks have three pairs of mammae.","statusAndConservation":"Not listed with CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List, but populations have been declining for many years throughout a major portion of its historical range in the USA. The eastern Texassubspecies, ftelmalestes, is presumed extirpated throughoutits range in the Big Thicket region. In his Biological Survey of Texas, V. Bailey wrote, “the white-backed skunk is said to be the commonest species, and under a trapper’s shed at a ranch on Tarkington Prairie in November, 1904,I saw eight or ten of their skins hanging up to dry with a small number ofskins of Striped Skunk.” No new specimens of this subspecies have been collected in the Big Thicket area of Texassince Bailey's report in 1905. A telling, albeit fictional, explanation for the skunk’s decline is provided by Larry McMurtry, in his novel Lonesome Dove. one of his characters meets a couple in NE Texas. “In the dusk it was hard to make out much about her except that she was thin. She was barefoot and had on a dress that looked like it was made from part of a cotton sack. ‘I gave twenty-eight skunk hides for her,’ the old man said suddenly”. A more likely cause for the decline of hog-nosed skunk populations may be found in the increase in the number of trappers or possibly in the increased number of feral hogs that have been introduced into the area. Feral hogs compete, to some degree, with several species of wildlife for certain foods. They eat a variety of items, including fruits, roots, mushrooms, and invertebrates, depending on the season. Their rooting behavior is competitive with the rooting behavior of hog-nosed skunks. Feral hogs can have detectable influences on wildlife and plant communities as well as domestic crops and livestock, extensively disturbing vegetation and soil. In southern Texas, where 95% of the native vegetation in the Rio Grande Valley in Texashas been transformed from subtropical plant communities to cotton, sorghum, sugar cane, vegetable crops, and citrus orchards, several additional hog-nosed skunk populations may now be extirpated. However, a population was found recently in southern Texasand currently is being studied. Because hog-nosed skunks generally are associated with rough rocky areas and brushy habitat, the conversion of native vegetation to row-crop agriculture may be partially responsible for the skunks’ decline. However, habitat modification may not be the primary cause of the observed decline, because specimens of this skunk have been collected in cultivated areas near Veracruz, Mexico. A more direct cause may be associated with use of pesticides in agriculture. Hog-nosed skunks are primarily insectivorous, and use of pesticides has increased throughout their range in conjunction with row-crop agriculture. In Colorado, no new specimens ofthis species have been collected since 1933. However, a road-killed animal was seen just south of the Colorado border in New Mexicoin 2003. American Hog-nosed Skunks are taken by many predators, mainly large canids and felids, and by birds of prey. Additionally, the skunks support numerous parasites. External parasites include fleas (Pulex) and ticks (Ixodes texanus); intestinal parasites are roundworms (Psyalopteris maxillaris) and cestodes; and subcutaneous nematodes (Filaria martis) and Skrjabingylus chitwoodorum —infect the frontal sinuses. In west Texas, American Hog-nosed Skunks have been found infected with several species of helminth parasites, including Filaroides milks, Filaria taxidaea, Gongylonema sp., Macracanthorhynchus ingens, Mathevotaenia mephitis, Oncicola canis, Pachysentis canicola, Physaloptera maxillaris, and P. rara. In natural habitats, hognosed skunks are not known to survive for more than three or four years, but American hog-nosed skunks can live for 16 years or more in captivity.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—-body 34-51 cm(males), 38-50 cm(females), tail, 14—4lcm (males), 12: 2-34 cm(females), length of hindfoot 2: 2-9 cm(males), 3-9 cm(females) and length of ear 0.8-3.6 cm(males), 0.8-3.3 cm(females); weight 2—4 kg. American Hog-nosed Skunk is as large as or larger than the Striped Skunk. They can be distinguished readily from other skunks by the color pattern of the dorsal pelage. These are the only skunks that lack a white dot or medial bar between the eyes and that have primarily black body fur with a single white stripe. The stripe starts as a single wedgeshaped white patch of fur on the head that widens near the shoulders to approximately half the width of the back. The stripe ranges from substantially reduced or absent on the rump to completely covering the entire back. The tail is white along its total length dorsally, but ventrally it can be black or white at the base. Their body generally is larger, and the tail is shorter in proportion to the body, than in other skunks. American Hog-nosed Skunks can be distinguished from the Striped Hog-nosed Skunks of Central and South America by the single dorsal stripe: the latter have two stripes bilateral to the spine. The snout of American Hog-nosed Skunk is relatively long and the nose pad, which is naked,is about 2 cmwide by 2: 6 cmlong, and resembles the nose of a small hog. This species has small and rounded ears. Its legs are stocky and the feet are plantigrade. The hindfeet are broad and large; the soles are naked about half the length of the foot. The upper body is powerfully built for digging and climbing and the foreclaws are very long. The skull is relatively deep (deepest in the temporal region) and the nares are large and truncated. The auditory bullae are not inflated, and the palate ends behind upper molars. The carnassial teeth are not well-developed, and they as well as the large upper molar provide an increased crushing surface. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/3, M 1/2 = 32. Conepatusresorb the milk teeth prior to birth. The scent glands are at the base of the tail on either side of the rectum. Two major volatile components [(£)- 2-butene-1-thiol and (E)-$-2-butenyl thioacetate| and four minor components (phenylmethanethiol, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinoline-methanethiol, and bis[(£)-2-butenyl| disulfide) are found in the anal sac secretions of American Hog-nosed Skunks.","habitat":"American Hog-nosed Skunk can be found in canyons, stream beds, and rocky terrain. They also are found in open desertscrub and mesquite-grasslands. In the southcentral part of their range they can be found in tropical areas as well as in mountains and coastal plains. They also are known to visit cornfields surrounded by brush or grassy plains, and scattered thickets of bull-horn acacia and other thorny plants. They can be found in both thorn woodland and riparian forest. In thorn woodland, the trees can vary in density from sparse to thick enough to form a loose canopy. Trees associated with the riparian forest habitat include pecan (Carya illinoensis), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), Texaspersimmon (Diospyros texana), and live-oak (Quercus virginiana). The understory of the riparian forests where hog-nosed skunks have been found includes briers, tall grasses, and tall weeds. American Hog-nosed Skunks have been found in pine—oak forest in the San Carlos Mountains, and north of these mountains on the Tamaulipan plain, which consists of low scrub and cacti. They also can occur in mesquitebrushland and improved pasture habitat where a few areas of semi-open native grassland have been used exclusively for cattle ranching. Thorny brush and cactus constitute the predominant vegetation in the region of southern Texaswhere these skunks occur."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9125FB57FF30F53DF79ADC17.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9125FB57FF30F53DF79ADC17","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"555","verbatimText":"2.PalawanStink BadgerMydaus marcheiFrench:Télagon de Palawan/ German:Palawan-Stinkdachs/ Spanish:Melandro de PalawanOther common names:Teledu, Skunk BadgerTaxonomy.Mydaus marche: Huet, 1887,I'ile Palaouan [Philippine Isles, Palawan].The species was once considered a separate genus, Suillotaxus, due to its smaller size, broader upper second premolar, and a shorter tail than that found in M. javanensis. However, this variation was later deemed to be no greater than that found in other species of the family. Monotypic.Distribution.Philippines(PalawanI, Calamian I).Descriptive notes.Head-body 32-49 cm, tail 1-5— 4-5 cm; weight 844-2490 g. PalawanStink Badgers have a sharp face with an elongated and mobile muzzle. The body is squat but heavy, their legs are short, and they walk on plantigrade feet. The claws on the front feet are elongated, curved, and strong. The inner digits of the forepaws are joined by webbing and a muscle extending towards the tips. Stink badgers have small eyes and essentially vestigial external pinnae. The white stripes down the back can be divided, single and narrow, or absent. Like other members of the family the anal scent glands are well-developed and produce a noxious odor. The cheek teeth are rounded with low cusps rather than sectorial, and the first upper molaris larger than the last upper premolar.Habitat.PalawanStink Badgers have been detected in mixed agriculture and secondary forest throughout Palawanas well as in residential and cultivated areas. They have been found in grasslands and grassland/forest mosaics, grassland-shrub, natural damp grassland, and open damp soil along streams. Occasionally, they have been reported in rice fields and freshwater swamp forests where they forage. Shrubs are commonly used for shelter. They also have been seen foraging along roads and paths.Food and Feeding.Their diet consists of soft animal matter such as worms of every kind, birds’ eggs, carrion, insects (including crickets and small beetles), and insect grubs. They also consume small freshwater crabs as well as various plant parts. Their mobile snout and long claws are used for finding insects and freshwater molluscs. While foraging, stink badgers move slowly, rooting around in the uppersoil layer using their snout to dig out grubs.Activity patterns.PalawanStink Badger is nocturnal, but has been seen active both day and night. While walking they are ungainly and awkward, but when startled can maintain a steady trot for 90 m. Even at a trot they are no faster than a walking human. Stink badgers walk with left and right feet apart, and hindfeet usually in line with front feet.Movements, Home range and Social organization.These stink badger are not aggressive. When threatened, they exhibit various threat behaviors. Stink badgers snarl, show their teeth, and stamp their forefeet on the ground in a similar way to North American skunks. They also have been observed to feign death (with the anal area directed at the observer). As a last resort they will squirt a yellowish fluid from their anal glands. The musk is reportedly pungent, but not offensive, smelling faintly of almonds and stink ants. The PalawanStink Badgeralso leaves a scent behind in its wanderings, suggesting that the discharge from its anal glands may be used for more than just defense. Little has been reported about their home ranges and movement within them. When not active, stink badgers take refuge in underground dens.Breeding.Little has been recorded regarding the breeding habits ofthis species. PalawanStink Badgers have six teats, four pectoral and two inguinal. Likely there are 2-3 young in a litter, which is born in the den. Adults can be seen year round whereas young have been seen from November through March.Status and Conservation.Not listed on CITES. The IUCN Red List considers them as Least Concern. The species has a restricted geographic range, but they are common where they occur, and it has been suggested that the former vulnerable listing is not justified. Humans sometimes eat stink badgers. They also are potential prey for Common Palm Civets, Leopard Cats, and Malay Civets. They have been found infected with the nematode Blattophila, and the pentastomid Waddycephalus teretiusculus. These stink badgers eat insects that harm tree growth and agriculture.Bibliography.Esselstyn et al. (2004), Grimwood (1976), Hoogstraal (1951), Huet (1887), Hwang & Lariviére (2004), Jentink (1895), Kruuk (2000), Lawrence (1939), Long (1978, 1981), Long & Killingley (1983), Rabor (1986), Sanborn (1952), Self & Kuntz (1967), Wozencraft (2005).","taxonomy":"Mydaus marche: Huet, 1887,I'ile Palaouan [Philippine Isles, Palawan].The species was once considered a separate genus, Suillotaxus, due to its smaller size, broader upper second premolar, and a shorter tail than that found in M. javanensis. However, this variation was later deemed to be no greater than that found in other species of the family. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Télagon de Palawan @fr | Palawan-Stinkdachs @de | Melandro de Palawan @es | Teledu @en | Skunk Badger @en","interpretedAuthority":"Huet, 1887","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Mydaus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"555","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"marchei","name":"Mydaus marchei","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Philippines(PalawanI, Calamian I).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/5684755/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Esselstyn et al. (2004) | Grimwood (1976) | Hoogstraal (1951) | Huet (1887) | Hwang & Lariviére (2004) | Jentink (1895) | Kruuk (2000) | Lawrence (1939) | Long (1978, 1981) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Rabor (1986) | Sanborn (1952) | Self & Kuntz (1967) | Wozencraft (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Their diet consists of soft animal matter such as worms of every kind, birds’ eggs, carrion, insects (including crickets and small beetles), and insect grubs. They also consume small freshwater crabs as well as various plant parts. Their mobile snout and long claws are used for finding insects and freshwater molluscs. While foraging, stink badgers move slowly, rooting around in the uppersoil layer using their snout to dig out grubs.","breeding":"Little has been recorded regarding the breeding habits ofthis species. PalawanStink Badgers have six teats, four pectoral and two inguinal. Likely there are 2-3 young in a litter, which is born in the den. Adults can be seen year round whereas young have been seen from November through March.","activityPatterns":"PalawanStink Badger is nocturnal, but has been seen active both day and night. While walking they are ungainly and awkward, but when startled can maintain a steady trot for 90 m. Even at a trot they are no faster than a walking human. Stink badgers walk with left and right feet apart, and hindfeet usually in line with front feet.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"These stink badger are not aggressive. When threatened, they exhibit various threat behaviors. Stink badgers snarl, show their teeth, and stamp their forefeet on the ground in a similar way to North American skunks. They also have been observed to feign death (with the anal area directed at the observer). As a last resort they will squirt a yellowish fluid from their anal glands. The musk is reportedly pungent, but not offensive, smelling faintly of almonds and stink ants. The PalawanStink Badgeralso leaves a scent behind in its wanderings, suggesting that the discharge from its anal glands may be used for more than just defense. Little has been reported about their home ranges and movement within them. When not active, stink badgers take refuge in underground dens.Breeding.Little has been recorded regarding the breeding habits ofthis species. PalawanStink Badgers have six teats, four pectoral and two inguinal. Likely there are 2-3 young in a litter, which is born in the den. Adults can be seen year round whereas young have been seen from November through March.","statusAndConservation":"Not listed on CITES. The IUCN Red List considers them as Least Concern. The species has a restricted geographic range, but they are common where they occur, and it has been suggested that the former vulnerable listing is not justified. Humans sometimes eat stink badgers. They also are potential prey for Common Palm Civets, Leopard Cats, and Malay Civets. They have been found infected with the nematode Blattophila, and the pentastomid Waddycephalus teretiusculus. These stink badgers eat insects that harm tree growth and agriculture.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 32-49 cm, tail 1-5— 4-5 cm; weight 844-2490 g. PalawanStink Badgers have a sharp face with an elongated and mobile muzzle. The body is squat but heavy, their legs are short, and they walk on plantigrade feet. The claws on the front feet are elongated, curved, and strong. The inner digits of the forepaws are joined by webbing and a muscle extending towards the tips. Stink badgers have small eyes and essentially vestigial external pinnae. The white stripes down the back can be divided, single and narrow, or absent. Like other members of the family the anal scent glands are well-developed and produce a noxious odor. The cheek teeth are rounded with low cusps rather than sectorial, and the first upper molaris larger than the last upper premolar.","habitat":"PalawanStink Badgers have been detected in mixed agriculture and secondary forest throughout Palawanas well as in residential and cultivated areas. They have been found in grasslands and grassland/forest mosaics, grassland-shrub, natural damp grassland, and open damp soil along streams. Occasionally, they have been reported in rice fields and freshwater swamp forests where they forage. Shrubs are commonly used for shelter. They also have been seen foraging along roads and paths."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9125FB57FF35FDCBFA8BDFF8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9125FB57FF35FDCBFA8BDFF8","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"555","verbatimText":"1.Sunda Stink BadgerMydaus javanensisFrench: Télagon de Java/ German: Sunda-Stinkdachs/ Spanish: Melandro indonesioOther common names: Malayan Stink Badger, Sunda Stink Badger, TeleduTaxonomy.Mephitis javanensis Desmarest, 1820,“Tile de Java”. [Indonesia, Java].Three subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.M. j. javanensis Desmarest, 1820 — Java, Sumatra.M. j. lucifer Thomas, 1902 — Borneo.M. j. ollula Thomas, 1902 — Bunguran I, Natuna I.Descriptive notes.Head-body 37-52 cm, tail 3.4-7.5 cm; weight 1.4-3.6 kg. Stink badgers are brownish-black in color with a white patch on the head. They have thick, coarse fur that gets thinner on the sides and belly. There is a narrow white stripe along the back down to the tail. This stripe sometimesis only partial, and variable. It can run from head to tail, but also can be interrupted. These stink badgers are small with stout bodies. The nose is long, mobile, and sparsely haired. The legs are short and strong. Sunda Stink Badger has larger ears and a longertail than PalawanStink Badger. These stink badgers also have well-developed anal scent glands. The skull shows a long rostrum and is rounded with a large braincase. The coronoid process of the lower jaw is recurved.Habitat.Sunda Stink Badgeris reported to occur in montane regions above 2100 meters, but it has been seen at lower elevations (almost to sea level) as well. On Borneo this species reportedly inhabits caves. However, they also are known to burrow into the ground to den. They occur in secondary forests and open grounds adjacent to forests.Food and Feeding.Captive stink badgers have been observed to consume worms, insects, and the entrails of chickens. Stink badgers in the wild are omnivorous, and consume eggs, carrion, and some vegetable material, in addition to worms and insects. Sunda Stink Badger, when foraging, uses its snout and claws for rooting in the soil in search of food.Activity patterns.Stink badgers are active year-round. They are nocturnal. During the day they shelter in underground burrows that they dig, or they use burrows dug by other animals. Burrows normally are 60 cmdeep.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sunda Stink Badger may “growl” and attempt to bite when handled. If threatened, a stink badger raisesits tail and ejects a pale greenish noxious fluid. Natives report that this secretion can blind or even asphyxiate dogs. Some natives reportedly have been rendered unconscious after being sprayed by the musk. The anal scent glands are used primarily for defense. Little has been reported about the size of home ranges and the animals’ movement within them. However, it has been reported that these stink badgers may live in pairs.Breeding.Sunda Stink Badgers have two inguinal and four pectoral mammae. Natives report that stink badgers may produce 2-3 young. Litters are probably reared in a burrow.Status and Conservation.Not listed with CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. They have been known to cause damage in plantations by digging up seedlings, and have been killed as pests for this reason. The old Javanese sultans used the musk, in suitable dilution, in the manufacture of perfumes. Some natives eat the flesh of Mydaus, removing the scent glands immediately after the animals are killed. Others mix shavings of the skin with water and drink the mixture as a cure for fever or rheumatism.Bibliography.Chasen (1940), Davis (1962), Forbes (1879), Hwang & Lariviere (2003), Jentink (1895), Kloss (1927), Long (1978), Long & Killingley (1983), Lonnberg & Mjoberg (1925), Moulton (1921), Thomas (1902b).","taxonomy":"Mephitis javanensis Desmarest, 1820,“Tile de Java”. [Indonesia, Java].Three subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Télagon de Java @fr | Sunda-Stinkdachs @de | Melandro indonesio @es | Malayan Stink Badger @en | Sunda Stink Badger @en | Teledu @en","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Mydaus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"555","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"javanensis","name":"Mydaus javanensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"M. j. javanensis Desmarest, 1820 — Java, Sumatra.M. j. lucifer Thomas, 1902 — Borneo.M. j. ollula Thomas, 1902 — Bunguran I, Natuna I.","bibliography":"Chasen (1940) | Davis (1962) | Forbes (1879) | Hwang & Lariviere (2003) | Jentink (1895) | Kloss (1927) | Long (1978) | Long & Killingley (1983) | Lonnberg & Mjoberg (1925) | Moulton (1921) | Thomas (1902b)","foodAndFeeding":"Captive stink badgers have been observed to consume worms, insects, and the entrails of chickens. Stink badgers in the wild are omnivorous, and consume eggs, carrion, and some vegetable material, in addition to worms and insects. Sunda Stink Badger, when foraging, uses its snout and claws for rooting in the soil in search of food.","breeding":"Sunda Stink Badgers have two inguinal and four pectoral mammae. Natives report that stink badgers may produce 2-3 young. Litters are probably reared in a burrow.","activityPatterns":"Stink badgers are active year-round. They are nocturnal. During the day they shelter in underground burrows that they dig, or they use burrows dug by other animals. Burrows normally are 60 cmdeep.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sunda Stink Badger may “growl” and attempt to bite when handled. If threatened, a stink badger raisesits tail and ejects a pale greenish noxious fluid. Natives report that this secretion can blind or even asphyxiate dogs. Some natives reportedly have been rendered unconscious after being sprayed by the musk. The anal scent glands are used primarily for defense. Little has been reported about the size of home ranges and the animals’ movement within them. However, it has been reported that these stink badgers may live in pairs.Breeding.Sunda Stink Badgers have two inguinal and four pectoral mammae. Natives report that stink badgers may produce 2-3 young. Litters are probably reared in a burrow.","statusAndConservation":"Not listed with CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. They have been known to cause damage in plantations by digging up seedlings, and have been killed as pests for this reason. The old Javanese sultans used the musk, in suitable dilution, in the manufacture of perfumes. Some natives eat the flesh of Mydaus, removing the scent glands immediately after the animals are killed. Others mix shavings of the skin with water and drink the mixture as a cure for fever or rheumatism.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 37-52 cm, tail 3.4-7.5 cm; weight 1.4-3.6 kg. Stink badgers are brownish-black in color with a white patch on the head. They have thick, coarse fur that gets thinner on the sides and belly. There is a narrow white stripe along the back down to the tail. This stripe sometimesis only partial, and variable. It can run from head to tail, but also can be interrupted. These stink badgers are small with stout bodies. The nose is long, mobile, and sparsely haired. The legs are short and strong. Sunda Stink Badger has larger ears and a longertail than PalawanStink Badger. These stink badgers also have well-developed anal scent glands. The skull shows a long rostrum and is rounded with a large braincase. The coronoid process of the lower jaw is recurved.","habitat":"Sunda Stink Badgeris reported to occur in montane regions above 2100 meters, but it has been seen at lower elevations (almost to sea level) as well. On Borneo this species reportedly inhabits caves. However, they also are known to burrow into the ground to den. They occur in secondary forests and open grounds adjacent to forests."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC9127FB55FD03FDC4F807D070.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC9127FB55FD03FDC4F807D070","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"532","verbatimText":"Family MEPHITIDAE(SKUNKS)• Small- to medium-sized mammals with striking black and white color pattern and large scent glands at the base of the tail.• 30-134 cm.• South-east Asia, North, Central, and South America.• Found in almost all habitats within their range except for the most arid deserts and the colder alpine and arctic climates.• 4 genera, 12 species, 60 extant taxa.• 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC912FFB5CFA18F8C1F89ED795.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC912FFB5CFA18F8C1F89ED795","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"561","verbatimText":"12.Southern Spotted SkunkSpilogale angustifronsFrench:Moufette de Howell/ German:Sudlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta meridionalTaxonomy.Spilogale angustifrons Howell, 1902,Tlalpan, Distrito Federal, Mexico.This skunk has been classified as a subspecies of Spilogale putoriusoff and on throughout: its taxonomic:: history. Recent chromosomal data have helped to elevate it back to species status. There are five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. a. angustifrons Howell, 1902— C Mexico(Distrito Federal& C Michoacan).S. a. celeris Hall, 1938— highlands of NicaraguaS towards C Costa Rica.S. a. elata Howell, 1906— highlands of SE Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador, and Hounduras.S. a. tropicalis Howell, 1902— S Mexico(E Puebla, C Morelos, & C Guerrero, and SE towards Oaxacaand along the Pacific Coast) to E El Salvador.S. a. yucatanensis Burt, 1938— Mexico(occurs throughout the YucatanPeninsula), Belizeand N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Very few specimens are available for measurements. Head-body 21-25 cm(males) and 20-24 cm(females), tail 10.1-14.5 cm; weight 240-533 g. The color pattern in this speciesis very similar to other species of spotted skunks. They have a white spot between the eyes and a series of six vertical white stripes along the back and sides. The top set of white stripes runs along the middle of the back towards the rear of the animal where they branch off and become horizontal on the hips. The next pair runs from the ears parallel to the top stripes. The third set runs from the forelegs along the side and sometimes joins the horizontal stripes on the hips. The tip (one third of the tail) is white. There is considerable variation in this color pattern. Southern Spotted Skunks have five toes on each foot and long claws. The skull is small and narrow with a highly arched cranium. The rostrum is also narrow. The dental formula for this skunk is: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. This species, like other skunks,is endowed with well- developed scent glands, which can expel a noxious fluid to repel potential predators.Habitat.These skunks are found in rocky hills with brush and sparse trees, but they also can be found in pine-oak forests at high elevations. They can occur in a variety of habitats such as rainforests, dry thickets, pine forests, and grasslands. They are commonly found in agricultural fields as well. Southern Spotted Skunks have been found from sea level to about 2800 m. They make dens under logs or rocks, in hollow trees, and between the roots of trees and shrubs. They also use dens abandoned by armadillos and other mammals.Food and Feeding.Like other spotted skunks, Southern Spotted Skunks feed mainly on insects and small mammals. They also will consume amphibians and wild fruit. 50% of their diet consists of invertebrates and the remainder consists of vertebrates and vegetation (including fruits).Activity patterns.These animals presumably are nocturnal. Like the other skunks they are equipped with anal scent glands that can be used in defense. Southern Spotted Skunks probably have very similar activity patterns to Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges for this species have been estimated at about 64 hectares. In areas where they are common they have been reported in densities of 5-8 individuals per square kilometer.Breeding.The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.Status and Conservation.Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. This species is just recently being recognized by taxonomists and is therefore not likely to have been considered for special conservation status. However,it is reported that where they do occur they are common. This species has been reported with antibodies to rabies, parvovirus, and toxoplasma.Bibliography.Baker & Baker (1975), Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Cervantes et al. (2002), Hall (1938), Hall & Kelson (1952, 1959), Howell (1902, 1906), Kinlaw (1995), Owen et al. (1996), Reid (1997), Suzan & Ceballos (2005), Van Gelder (1959), Verts et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Spilogale angustifrons Howell, 1902,Tlalpan, Distrito Federal, Mexico.This skunk has been classified as a subspecies of Spilogale putoriusoff and on throughout: its taxonomic:: history. Recent chromosomal data have helped to elevate it back to species status. There are five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette de Howell @fr | Sudlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta meridional @es","interpretedAuthority":"Howell, 1902","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Spilogale","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"CoL","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"561","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"angustifrons","name":"Spilogale angustifrons","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. a. angustifrons Howell, 1902— C Mexico(Distrito Federal& C Michoacan).S. a. celeris Hall, 1938— highlands of NicaraguaS towards C Costa Rica.S. a. elata Howell, 1906— highlands of SE Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador, and Hounduras.S. a. tropicalis Howell, 1902— S Mexico(E Puebla, C Morelos, & C Guerrero, and SE towards Oaxacaand along the Pacific Coast) to E El Salvador.S. a. yucatanensis Burt, 1938— Mexico(occurs throughout the YucatanPeninsula), Belizeand N Guatemala.","bibliography":"Baker & Baker (1975) | Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Cervantes et al. (2002) | Hall (1938) | Hall & Kelson (1952, 1959) | Howell (1902, 1906) | Kinlaw (1995) | Owen et al. (1996) | Reid (1997) | Suzan & Ceballos (2005) | Van Gelder (1959) | Verts et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Like other spotted skunks, Southern Spotted Skunks feed mainly on insects and small mammals. They also will consume amphibians and wild fruit. 50% of their diet consists of invertebrates and the remainder consists of vertebrates and vegetation (including fruits).","breeding":"The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.","activityPatterns":"These animals presumably are nocturnal. Like the other skunks they are equipped with anal scent glands that can be used in defense. Southern Spotted Skunks probably have very similar activity patterns to Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges for this species have been estimated at about 64 hectares. In areas where they are common they have been reported in densities of 5-8 individuals per square kilometer.Breeding.The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.","statusAndConservation":"Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. This species is just recently being recognized by taxonomists and is therefore not likely to have been considered for special conservation status. However,it is reported that where they do occur they are common. This species has been reported with antibodies to rabies, parvovirus, and toxoplasma.","descriptiveNotes":"Very few specimens are available for measurements. Head-body 21-25 cm(males) and 20-24 cm(females), tail 10.1-14.5 cm; weight 240-533 g. The color pattern in this speciesis very similar to other species of spotted skunks. They have a white spot between the eyes and a series of six vertical white stripes along the back and sides. The top set of white stripes runs along the middle of the back towards the rear of the animal where they branch off and become horizontal on the hips. The next pair runs from the ears parallel to the top stripes. The third set runs from the forelegs along the side and sometimes joins the horizontal stripes on the hips. The tip (one third of the tail) is white. There is considerable variation in this color pattern. Southern Spotted Skunks have five toes on each foot and long claws. The skull is small and narrow with a highly arched cranium. The rostrum is also narrow. The dental formula for this skunk is: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. This species, like other skunks,is endowed with well- developed scent glands, which can expel a noxious fluid to repel potential predators.","habitat":"These skunks are found in rocky hills with brush and sparse trees, but they also can be found in pine-oak forests at high elevations. They can occur in a variety of habitats such as rainforests, dry thickets, pine forests, and grasslands. They are commonly found in agricultural fields as well. Southern Spotted Skunks have been found from sea level to about 2800 m. They make dens under logs or rocks, in hollow trees, and between the roots of trees and shrubs. They also use dens abandoned by armadillos and other mammals."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC912FFB5DFF07FDBCF62DD395.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC912FFB5DFF07FDBCF62DD395","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"561","verbatimText":"11.Western Spotted SkunkSpilogale gracilisFrench:Moufette gracile/ German:Westlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta occidentalTaxonomy.Spilogale gracilis Merriam, 1890,Grand Canon of the Colorado(altitude 3500 feet), Arizona, north of San Francisco Mountain.Western Spotted Skunks were once considered the same species as Eastern Spotted Skunks. Chromosomal and reproductive data have been used to elevate these skunks to specific status. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. g. gracilis Merriam, 1890— W USA(from E Washington& E Oregonto NE California, and then E to W Montana& E Wyomingto C Colorado, and possibly the Black Hills, South Dakota. Then S to N New Mexico, N Arizona, C Nevadaand E & C California).S. g. amphialus Dickey, 1929— SW USA(occurs only on Santa Rosa I and Santa Cruz I in Santa Barbara County, California).S. g. latifrons Merriam, 1890— SW Canada(SW British Columbia) S and W to NW USA(Washingtonand Oregon). The distribution follows the crest of the Cascade Mts.S. g. leucoparia Merriam, 1890— S USA(found from C Arizona, C New Mexico, and W & C central Texas) S to N Mexico(Coahuila& C Durango).S. g. lucasana Merriam, 1890— NW Mexico(S Baja CaliforniaN to Santo Domingo on the W coast and La Pazon the E coast).S. g. martirensis Elliot, 1903— NW Mexico(N & C Baja California).S. g. phenax Merriam, 1890— SW USA(From Californiawest to crest of Sierra Nevada).Descriptive notes.Head-body 25-37 cm(males) and 24-27 cm(females), tail 10-21 cm(males) and 8: 5-20.3 cm(females); weight 255-997 g(males) and 269-566 g(females). Spilogaleis more weasel-like in body plan than any of the other genera (Mephatis, Conepatus, Mydaus). Western Spotted Skunks are similar in color pattern to the Eastern Spotted Skunks in that they also have six stripes along the back and sides. One set ofstripes runs parallel to the backbone, and beside those stripes is another set that extends past the shoulders and over the ears. The third set of stripes runs from the shoulder to the abdomen and then curves upwards towards the back. There is also a spot on each of the hips. The color pattern may break up the body outline on moonless nights. Where the two species potentially come together the Western Spotted Skunks tends to have wider white stripes and a larger spot between the eyes. The Western Spotted Skunks is reportedly longer and more slender with a longertail than the Eastern Spotted Skunks. The feet each have five toes and locomotion is plantigrade. Western Spotted Skunks are quite capable climbers. The skull is flatter and wider than that of the Eastern Spotted Skunks, and the front region of the skull is depressed to the level of the cranium. The baculum of the Western Spotted Skunk is shorter than and not as curved as that of the Eastern Spotted Skunk. Western Spotted Skunks also have two muscular musk glands at the base of the tail inside the anal sphincter. These glands are capable of ejecting a noxious yellow fluid that is used in defense to deter a predator. The musk is composed of three major thiols, (E)-2-butene-I-thiol, 3-methyl-1- butanethiol, and 2-phenylethanethiol, and several minor components, including phenylmethanethiol, 2-methyl-quinoline, 2-quinoline methanethiol, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, and bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide. The Western Spotted Skunks does not have the thiol esters associated with the musk as seen in Mephitisand Conepatus. While the spray is as pungent as in the other skunks it does not have the “staying power” without the thiol esters.Habitat.These skunks are found along streams in riparian thickets composed of willows and cottonwoods or alder, salmonberry, tan oak and other hardwoods. They also occur in all stages of dry forests and pine-oak forests, and use canyons, cliffs, rock piles, lava fields, and dry valleys. They prefer areas where they can find cover protection from predators. These skunks will use tunnels and holes of other animals such as mountain beavers in Oregonand wood rats and ground squirrels in other parts of their range. Western Spotted Skunks have been found in older buildings in rural settings, but also have been taken in urban houses and apartments. They also will den around other man-made structures such as dams as long as protective cover is available.Food and Feeding.Western Spotted Skunks eat a variety of food items. They are omnivores, but tend to have a mostly carnivorous diet. They eat small mammals, birds, and lizards. They consume a number of insects including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, and ants. They also will eat fruits and vegetable matter to supplement their diets.Activity patterns.They are generally nocturnal. They prefer to move under the cover of darkness, but have been observed during daylight hours. When nervous they will walk with heavy deliberate steps. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. Like other spotted skunks, they can perform handstands and walk on only their front paws. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. It can spray in this position, but usually drops to all fours and faces the predator with both ends before spraying.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Spotted Skunks usually den alone, but they use multiple dens. Dens may be used by multiple individuals, but not necessarily at the same time. The skunks usually den in areas that provide protective cover, such as under shrubs or prickly pear cactus. During the late summer and early fall months males tend to be captured more than females. This could be due to increased movement of males during the breeding season, which corresponds to these months. Young animals when playing will let out a loud, ear piercing, high pitched screech when excited. Young males of the same litter will wrestle more aggressively than females. They tend to leave the maternal den sooner in order to look for mates. Western Spotted Skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range and very little study has been done of home range, density, and dispersal. However,in an island population these skunks have a larger home range (about twice the size) in the drier months than during the wet months.Breeding.These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.Status and Conservation.. Not listed in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The island spotted skunk in Californiais listed as a subspecies of special concern. Several larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats, bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls are known to prey on spotted skunks. Various intestinal parasites including tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidia have been found in spotted skunks. They also are susceptible to fleas and ticks. Humans have been known to trap and shoot spotted skunks for fur and they have been poisoned as non target animals during predator control efforts. In the USA, rabies has been reported, butit is rare. Western Spotted Skunks have been reported to survive over ten years in captivity.Bibliography.Bailey (1905, 1931, 1936), Carey & Kershner (1996), Crooks & Van Vuren (1995), Dickey (1929), Doty & Dowler (2006), Genoways & Jones (1968), Grinnell et al. (1937), Hall (1926), Hall & Kelson (1952), Howell (1906), Mead (1968b), Merriam (1890a, 1890b), Neiswenter & Dowler (2007), Neiswenter et al. (2006), Patton (1974), Seton (1926), Van Gelder (1959), Verts & Carraway (1998), Verts et al. (2001), Wood et al. (1991).","taxonomy":"Spilogale gracilis Merriam, 1890,Grand Canon of the Colorado(altitude 3500 feet), Arizona, north of San Francisco Mountain.Western Spotted Skunks were once considered the same species as Eastern Spotted Skunks. Chromosomal and reproductive data have been used to elevate these skunks to specific status. Seven subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette gracile @fr | Westlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta occidental @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Spilogale","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"CoL","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"561","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gracilis","name":"Spilogale gracilis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. g. gracilis Merriam, 1890— W USA(from E Washington& E Oregonto NE California, and then E to W Montana& E Wyomingto C Colorado, and possibly the Black Hills, South Dakota. Then S to N New Mexico, N Arizona, C Nevadaand E & C California).S. g. amphialus Dickey, 1929— SW USA(occurs only on Santa Rosa I and Santa Cruz I in Santa Barbara County, California).S. g. latifrons Merriam, 1890— SW Canada(SW British Columbia) S and W to NW USA(Washingtonand Oregon). The distribution follows the crest of the Cascade Mts.S. g. leucoparia Merriam, 1890— S USA(found from C Arizona, C New Mexico, and W & C central Texas) S to N Mexico(Coahuila& C Durango).S. g. lucasana Merriam, 1890— NW Mexico(S Baja CaliforniaN to Santo Domingo on the W coast and La Pazon the E coast).S. g. martirensis Elliot, 1903— NW Mexico(N & C Baja California).S. g. phenax Merriam, 1890— SW USA(From Californiawest to crest of Sierra Nevada).","bibliography":"Bailey (1905, 1931, 1936) | Carey & Kershner (1996) | Crooks & Van Vuren (1995) | Dickey (1929) | Doty & Dowler (2006) | Genoways & Jones (1968) | Grinnell et al. (1937) | Hall (1926) | Hall & Kelson (1952) | Howell (1906) | Mead (1968b) | Merriam (1890a, 1890b) | Neiswenter & Dowler (2007) | Neiswenter et al. (2006) | Patton (1974) | Seton (1926) | Van Gelder (1959) | Verts & Carraway (1998) | Verts et al. (2001) | Wood et al. (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"Western Spotted Skunks eat a variety of food items. They are omnivores, but tend to have a mostly carnivorous diet. They eat small mammals, birds, and lizards. They consume a number of insects including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, and ants. They also will eat fruits and vegetable matter to supplement their diets.","breeding":"These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.","activityPatterns":"They are generally nocturnal. They prefer to move under the cover of darkness, but have been observed during daylight hours. When nervous they will walk with heavy deliberate steps. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. Like other spotted skunks, they can perform handstands and walk on only their front paws. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. It can spray in this position, but usually drops to all fours and faces the predator with both ends before spraying.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Western Spotted Skunks usually den alone, but they use multiple dens. Dens may be used by multiple individuals, but not necessarily at the same time. The skunks usually den in areas that provide protective cover, such as under shrubs or prickly pear cactus. During the late summer and early fall months males tend to be captured more than females. This could be due to increased movement of males during the breeding season, which corresponds to these months. Young animals when playing will let out a loud, ear piercing, high pitched screech when excited. Young males of the same litter will wrestle more aggressively than females. They tend to leave the maternal den sooner in order to look for mates. Western Spotted Skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range and very little study has been done of home range, density, and dispersal. However,in an island population these skunks have a larger home range (about twice the size) in the drier months than during the wet months.Breeding.These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.","statusAndConservation":"Not listed in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The island spotted skunk in Californiais listed as a subspecies of special concern. Several larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats, bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls are known to prey on spotted skunks. Various intestinal parasites including tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidia have been found in spotted skunks. They also are susceptible to fleas and ticks. Humans have been known to trap and shoot spotted skunks for fur and they have been poisoned as non target animals during predator control efforts. In the USA, rabies has been reported, butit is rare. Western Spotted Skunks have been reported to survive over ten years in captivity.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 25-37 cm(males) and 24-27 cm(females), tail 10-21 cm(males) and 8: 5-20.3 cm(females); weight 255-997 g(males) and 269-566 g(females). Spilogaleis more weasel-like in body plan than any of the other genera (Mephatis, Conepatus, Mydaus). Western Spotted Skunks are similar in color pattern to the Eastern Spotted Skunks in that they also have six stripes along the back and sides. One set ofstripes runs parallel to the backbone, and beside those stripes is another set that extends past the shoulders and over the ears. The third set of stripes runs from the shoulder to the abdomen and then curves upwards towards the back. There is also a spot on each of the hips. The color pattern may break up the body outline on moonless nights. Where the two species potentially come together the Western Spotted Skunks tends to have wider white stripes and a larger spot between the eyes. The Western Spotted Skunks is reportedly longer and more slender with a longertail than the Eastern Spotted Skunks. The feet each have five toes and locomotion is plantigrade. Western Spotted Skunks are quite capable climbers. The skull is flatter and wider than that of the Eastern Spotted Skunks, and the front region of the skull is depressed to the level of the cranium. The baculum of the Western Spotted Skunk is shorter than and not as curved as that of the Eastern Spotted Skunk. Western Spotted Skunks also have two muscular musk glands at the base of the tail inside the anal sphincter. These glands are capable of ejecting a noxious yellow fluid that is used in defense to deter a predator. The musk is composed of three major thiols, (E)-2-butene-I-thiol, 3-methyl-1- butanethiol, and 2-phenylethanethiol, and several minor components, including phenylmethanethiol, 2-methyl-quinoline, 2-quinoline methanethiol, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, and bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide. The Western Spotted Skunks does not have the thiol esters associated with the musk as seen in Mephitisand Conepatus. While the spray is as pungent as in the other skunks it does not have the “staying power” without the thiol esters.","habitat":"These skunks are found along streams in riparian thickets composed of willows and cottonwoods or alder, salmonberry, tan oak and other hardwoods. They also occur in all stages of dry forests and pine-oak forests, and use canyons, cliffs, rock piles, lava fields, and dry valleys. They prefer areas where they can find cover protection from predators. These skunks will use tunnels and holes of other animals such as mountain beavers in Oregonand wood rats and ground squirrels in other parts of their range. Western Spotted Skunks have been found in older buildings in rural settings, but also have been taken in urban houses and apartments. They also will den around other man-made structures such as dams as long as protective cover is available."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC912FFB5CFA18F8C1F89ED795.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC912FFB5CFA18F8C1F89ED795","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"561","verbatimText":"12.Southern Spotted SkunkSpilogale angustifronsFrench:Moufette de Howell/ German:Sudlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta meridionalTaxonomy.Spilogale angustifrons Howell, 1902,Tlalpan, Distrito Federal, Mexico.This skunk has been classified as a subspecies of Spilogale putoriusoff and on throughout: its taxonomic:: history. Recent chromosomal data have helped to elevate it back to species status. There are five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. a. angustifrons Howell, 1902— C Mexico(Distrito Federal& C Michoacan).S. a. celeris Hall, 1938— highlands of NicaraguaS towards C Costa Rica.S. a. elata Howell, 1906— highlands of SE Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador, and Hounduras.S. a. tropicalis Howell, 1902— S Mexico(E Puebla, C Morelos, & C Guerrero, and SE towards Oaxacaand along the Pacific Coast) to E El Salvador.S. a. yucatanensis Burt, 1938— Mexico(occurs throughout the YucatanPeninsula), Belizeand N Guatemala.Descriptive notes.Very few specimens are available for measurements. Head-body 21-25 cm(males) and 20-24 cm(females), tail 10.1-14.5 cm; weight 240-533 g. The color pattern in this speciesis very similar to other species of spotted skunks. They have a white spot between the eyes and a series of six vertical white stripes along the back and sides. The top set of white stripes runs along the middle of the back towards the rear of the animal where they branch off and become horizontal on the hips. The next pair runs from the ears parallel to the top stripes. The third set runs from the forelegs along the side and sometimes joins the horizontal stripes on the hips. The tip (one third of the tail) is white. There is considerable variation in this color pattern. Southern Spotted Skunks have five toes on each foot and long claws. The skull is small and narrow with a highly arched cranium. The rostrum is also narrow. The dental formula for this skunk is: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. This species, like other skunks,is endowed with well- developed scent glands, which can expel a noxious fluid to repel potential predators.Habitat.These skunks are found in rocky hills with brush and sparse trees, but they also can be found in pine-oak forests at high elevations. They can occur in a variety of habitats such as rainforests, dry thickets, pine forests, and grasslands. They are commonly found in agricultural fields as well. Southern Spotted Skunks have been found from sea level to about 2800 m. They make dens under logs or rocks, in hollow trees, and between the roots of trees and shrubs. They also use dens abandoned by armadillos and other mammals.Food and Feeding.Like other spotted skunks, Southern Spotted Skunks feed mainly on insects and small mammals. They also will consume amphibians and wild fruit. 50% of their diet consists of invertebrates and the remainder consists of vertebrates and vegetation (including fruits).Activity patterns.These animals presumably are nocturnal. Like the other skunks they are equipped with anal scent glands that can be used in defense. Southern Spotted Skunks probably have very similar activity patterns to Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Home ranges for this species have been estimated at about 64 hectares. In areas where they are common they have been reported in densities of 5-8 individuals per square kilometer.Breeding.The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.Status and Conservation.Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. This species is just recently being recognized by taxonomists and is therefore not likely to have been considered for special conservation status. However,it is reported that where they do occur they are common. This species has been reported with antibodies to rabies, parvovirus, and toxoplasma.Bibliography.Baker & Baker (1975), Ceballos & Oliva (2005), Cervantes et al. (2002), Hall (1938), Hall & Kelson (1952, 1959), Howell (1902, 1906), Kinlaw (1995), Owen et al. (1996), Reid (1997), Suzan & Ceballos (2005), Van Gelder (1959), Verts et al. (2001).","taxonomy":"Spilogale angustifrons Howell, 1902,Tlalpan, Distrito Federal, Mexico.This skunk has been classified as a subspecies of Spilogale putoriusoff and on throughout: its taxonomic:: history. Recent chromosomal data have helped to elevate it back to species status. There are five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette de Howell @fr | Sudlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta meridional @es","interpretedAuthority":"Howell, 1902","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Spilogale","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"CoL","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"561","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"angustifrons","name":"Spilogale angustifrons","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. a. angustifrons Howell, 1902— C Mexico(Distrito Federal& C Michoacan).S. a. celeris Hall, 1938— highlands of NicaraguaS towards C Costa Rica.S. a. elata Howell, 1906— highlands of SE Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador, and Hounduras.S. a. tropicalis Howell, 1902— S Mexico(E Puebla, C Morelos, & C Guerrero, and SE towards Oaxacaand along the Pacific Coast) to E El Salvador.S. a. yucatanensis Burt, 1938— Mexico(occurs throughout the YucatanPeninsula), Belizeand N Guatemala.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6353175/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Baker & Baker (1975) | Ceballos & Oliva (2005) | Cervantes et al. (2002) | Hall (1938) | Hall & Kelson (1952, 1959) | Howell (1902, 1906) | Kinlaw (1995) | Owen et al. (1996) | Reid (1997) | Suzan & Ceballos (2005) | Van Gelder (1959) | Verts et al. (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Like other spotted skunks, Southern Spotted Skunks feed mainly on insects and small mammals. They also will consume amphibians and wild fruit. 50% of their diet consists of invertebrates and the remainder consists of vertebrates and vegetation (including fruits).","breeding":"The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.","activityPatterns":"These animals presumably are nocturnal. Like the other skunks they are equipped with anal scent glands that can be used in defense. Southern Spotted Skunks probably have very similar activity patterns to Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Home ranges for this species have been estimated at about 64 hectares. In areas where they are common they have been reported in densities of 5-8 individuals per square kilometer.Breeding.The breeding season in this species has not been studied. Because Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks have different periods of delayed implantation, the breeding season in this species would be an interesting study.","statusAndConservation":"Notlisted in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. This species is just recently being recognized by taxonomists and is therefore not likely to have been considered for special conservation status. However,it is reported that where they do occur they are common. This species has been reported with antibodies to rabies, parvovirus, and toxoplasma.","descriptiveNotes":"Very few specimens are available for measurements. Head-body 21-25 cm(males) and 20-24 cm(females), tail 10.1-14.5 cm; weight 240-533 g. The color pattern in this speciesis very similar to other species of spotted skunks. They have a white spot between the eyes and a series of six vertical white stripes along the back and sides. The top set of white stripes runs along the middle of the back towards the rear of the animal where they branch off and become horizontal on the hips. The next pair runs from the ears parallel to the top stripes. The third set runs from the forelegs along the side and sometimes joins the horizontal stripes on the hips. The tip (one third of the tail) is white. There is considerable variation in this color pattern. Southern Spotted Skunks have five toes on each foot and long claws. The skull is small and narrow with a highly arched cranium. The rostrum is also narrow. The dental formula for this skunk is: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. This species, like other skunks,is endowed with well- developed scent glands, which can expel a noxious fluid to repel potential predators.","habitat":"These skunks are found in rocky hills with brush and sparse trees, but they also can be found in pine-oak forests at high elevations. They can occur in a variety of habitats such as rainforests, dry thickets, pine forests, and grasslands. They are commonly found in agricultural fields as well. Southern Spotted Skunks have been found from sea level to about 2800 m. They make dens under logs or rocks, in hollow trees, and between the roots of trees and shrubs. They also use dens abandoned by armadillos and other mammals."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CC/87/03CC87EC912FFB5DFF07FDBCF62DD395.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CC87EC912FFB5DFF07FDBCF62DD395","docName":"hbmw_1_Mephitidae_0532.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff5ff949127fb55ff93ffccffc9d551","docISBN":"978-84-96553-49-1","docPageNumber":"561","verbatimText":"11.Western Spotted SkunkSpilogale gracilisFrench:Moufette gracile/ German:Westlicher Fleckenskunk/ Spanish:Mofeta occidentalTaxonomy.Spilogale gracilis Merriam, 1890,Grand Canon of the Colorado(altitude 3500 feet), Arizona, north of San Francisco Mountain.Western Spotted Skunks were once considered the same species as Eastern Spotted Skunks. Chromosomal and reproductive data have been used to elevate these skunks to specific status. Seven subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.S. g. gracilis Merriam, 1890— W USA(from E Washington& E Oregonto NE California, and then E to W Montana& E Wyomingto C Colorado, and possibly the Black Hills, South Dakota. Then S to N New Mexico, N Arizona, C Nevadaand E & C California).S. g. amphialus Dickey, 1929— SW USA(occurs only on Santa Rosa I and Santa Cruz I in Santa Barbara County, California).S. g. latifrons Merriam, 1890— SW Canada(SW British Columbia) S and W to NW USA(Washingtonand Oregon). The distribution follows the crest of the Cascade Mts.S. g. leucoparia Merriam, 1890— S USA(found from C Arizona, C New Mexico, and W & C central Texas) S to N Mexico(Coahuila& C Durango).S. g. lucasana Merriam, 1890— NW Mexico(S Baja CaliforniaN to Santo Domingo on the W coast and La Pazon the E coast).S. g. martirensis Elliot, 1903— NW Mexico(N & C Baja California).S. g. phenax Merriam, 1890— SW USA(From Californiawest to crest of Sierra Nevada).Descriptive notes.Head-body 25-37 cm(males) and 24-27 cm(females), tail 10-21 cm(males) and 8: 5-20.3 cm(females); weight 255-997 g(males) and 269-566 g(females). Spilogaleis more weasel-like in body plan than any of the other genera (Mephatis, Conepatus, Mydaus). Western Spotted Skunks are similar in color pattern to the Eastern Spotted Skunks in that they also have six stripes along the back and sides. One set ofstripes runs parallel to the backbone, and beside those stripes is another set that extends past the shoulders and over the ears. The third set of stripes runs from the shoulder to the abdomen and then curves upwards towards the back. There is also a spot on each of the hips. The color pattern may break up the body outline on moonless nights. Where the two species potentially come together the Western Spotted Skunks tends to have wider white stripes and a larger spot between the eyes. The Western Spotted Skunks is reportedly longer and more slender with a longertail than the Eastern Spotted Skunks. The feet each have five toes and locomotion is plantigrade. Western Spotted Skunks are quite capable climbers. The skull is flatter and wider than that of the Eastern Spotted Skunks, and the front region of the skull is depressed to the level of the cranium. The baculum of the Western Spotted Skunk is shorter than and not as curved as that of the Eastern Spotted Skunk. Western Spotted Skunks also have two muscular musk glands at the base of the tail inside the anal sphincter. These glands are capable of ejecting a noxious yellow fluid that is used in defense to deter a predator. The musk is composed of three major thiols, (E)-2-butene-I-thiol, 3-methyl-1- butanethiol, and 2-phenylethanethiol, and several minor components, including phenylmethanethiol, 2-methyl-quinoline, 2-quinoline methanethiol, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, and bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide. The Western Spotted Skunks does not have the thiol esters associated with the musk as seen in Mephitisand Conepatus. While the spray is as pungent as in the other skunks it does not have the “staying power” without the thiol esters.Habitat.These skunks are found along streams in riparian thickets composed of willows and cottonwoods or alder, salmonberry, tan oak and other hardwoods. They also occur in all stages of dry forests and pine-oak forests, and use canyons, cliffs, rock piles, lava fields, and dry valleys. They prefer areas where they can find cover protection from predators. These skunks will use tunnels and holes of other animals such as mountain beavers in Oregonand wood rats and ground squirrels in other parts of their range. Western Spotted Skunks have been found in older buildings in rural settings, but also have been taken in urban houses and apartments. They also will den around other man-made structures such as dams as long as protective cover is available.Food and Feeding.Western Spotted Skunks eat a variety of food items. They are omnivores, but tend to have a mostly carnivorous diet. They eat small mammals, birds, and lizards. They consume a number of insects including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, and ants. They also will eat fruits and vegetable matter to supplement their diets.Activity patterns.They are generally nocturnal. They prefer to move under the cover of darkness, but have been observed during daylight hours. When nervous they will walk with heavy deliberate steps. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. Like other spotted skunks, they can perform handstands and walk on only their front paws. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. It can spray in this position, but usually drops to all fours and faces the predator with both ends before spraying.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Western Spotted Skunks usually den alone, but they use multiple dens. Dens may be used by multiple individuals, but not necessarily at the same time. The skunks usually den in areas that provide protective cover, such as under shrubs or prickly pear cactus. During the late summer and early fall months males tend to be captured more than females. This could be due to increased movement of males during the breeding season, which corresponds to these months. Young animals when playing will let out a loud, ear piercing, high pitched screech when excited. Young males of the same litter will wrestle more aggressively than females. They tend to leave the maternal den sooner in order to look for mates. Western Spotted Skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range and very little study has been done of home range, density, and dispersal. However,in an island population these skunks have a larger home range (about twice the size) in the drier months than during the wet months.Breeding.These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.Status and Conservation.. Not listed in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The island spotted skunk in Californiais listed as a subspecies of special concern. Several larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats, bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls are known to prey on spotted skunks. Various intestinal parasites including tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidia have been found in spotted skunks. They also are susceptible to fleas and ticks. Humans have been known to trap and shoot spotted skunks for fur and they have been poisoned as non target animals during predator control efforts. In the USA, rabies has been reported, butit is rare. Western Spotted Skunks have been reported to survive over ten years in captivity.Bibliography.Bailey (1905, 1931, 1936), Carey & Kershner (1996), Crooks & Van Vuren (1995), Dickey (1929), Doty & Dowler (2006), Genoways & Jones (1968), Grinnell et al. (1937), Hall (1926), Hall & Kelson (1952), Howell (1906), Mead (1968b), Merriam (1890a, 1890b), Neiswenter & Dowler (2007), Neiswenter et al. (2006), Patton (1974), Seton (1926), Van Gelder (1959), Verts & Carraway (1998), Verts et al. (2001), Wood et al. (1991).","taxonomy":"Spilogale gracilis Merriam, 1890,Grand Canon of the Colorado(altitude 3500 feet), Arizona, north of San Francisco Mountain.Western Spotted Skunks were once considered the same species as Eastern Spotted Skunks. Chromosomal and reproductive data have been used to elevate these skunks to specific status. Seven subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Moufette gracile @fr | Westlicher Fleckenskunk @de | Mofeta occidental @es","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Mephitidae","interpretedGenus":"Spilogale","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"CoL","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Carnivora","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"561","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gracilis","name":"Spilogale gracilis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"S. g. gracilis Merriam, 1890— W USA(from E Washington& E Oregonto NE California, and then E to W Montana& E Wyomingto C Colorado, and possibly the Black Hills, South Dakota. Then S to N New Mexico, N Arizona, C Nevadaand E & C California).S. g. amphialus Dickey, 1929— SW USA(occurs only on Santa Rosa I and Santa Cruz I in Santa Barbara County, California).S. g. latifrons Merriam, 1890— SW Canada(SW British Columbia) S and W to NW USA(Washingtonand Oregon). The distribution follows the crest of the Cascade Mts.S. g. leucoparia Merriam, 1890— S USA(found from C Arizona, C New Mexico, and W & C central Texas) S to N Mexico(Coahuila& C Durango).S. g. lucasana Merriam, 1890— NW Mexico(S Baja CaliforniaN to Santo Domingo on the W coast and La Pazon the E coast).S. g. martirensis Elliot, 1903— NW Mexico(N & C Baja California).S. g. phenax Merriam, 1890— SW USA(From Californiawest to crest of Sierra Nevada).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6353173/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bailey (1905, 1931, 1936) | Carey & Kershner (1996) | Crooks & Van Vuren (1995) | Dickey (1929) | Doty & Dowler (2006) | Genoways & Jones (1968) | Grinnell et al. (1937) | Hall (1926) | Hall & Kelson (1952) | Howell (1906) | Mead (1968b) | Merriam (1890a, 1890b) | Neiswenter & Dowler (2007) | Neiswenter et al. (2006) | Patton (1974) | Seton (1926) | Van Gelder (1959) | Verts & Carraway (1998) | Verts et al. (2001) | Wood et al. (1991)","foodAndFeeding":"Western Spotted Skunks eat a variety of food items. They are omnivores, but tend to have a mostly carnivorous diet. They eat small mammals, birds, and lizards. They consume a number of insects including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, and ants. They also will eat fruits and vegetable matter to supplement their diets.","breeding":"These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.","activityPatterns":"They are generally nocturnal. They prefer to move under the cover of darkness, but have been observed during daylight hours. When nervous they will walk with heavy deliberate steps. Spotted skunks are quite agile and are capable of climbing. Like other spotted skunks, they can perform handstands and walk on only their front paws. When faced with a potential predator, the skunk rushes forward, then stands on its forepaws with its hind end elevated off the ground. It can spray in this position, but usually drops to all fours and faces the predator with both ends before spraying.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Western Spotted Skunks usually den alone, but they use multiple dens. Dens may be used by multiple individuals, but not necessarily at the same time. The skunks usually den in areas that provide protective cover, such as under shrubs or prickly pear cactus. During the late summer and early fall months males tend to be captured more than females. This could be due to increased movement of males during the breeding season, which corresponds to these months. Young animals when playing will let out a loud, ear piercing, high pitched screech when excited. Young males of the same litter will wrestle more aggressively than females. They tend to leave the maternal den sooner in order to look for mates. Western Spotted Skunks have a patchy distribution throughout their range and very little study has been done of home range, density, and dispersal. However,in an island population these skunks have a larger home range (about twice the size) in the drier months than during the wet months.Breeding.These skunks breed in September and October and undergo a period of delayed implantation. Although a second period of breeding is possible, this breeding season makes them reproductively isolated from Eastern Spotted Skunks. Western Spotted Skunks give birth in April or May to a litter of 2-6 young. Gestation lasts for about 210-230 days. Young are born blind and naked. Their eyes open after about 28 days and they are weaned after two months. Young begin to disperse after about three months.","statusAndConservation":"Not listed in CITES. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The island spotted skunk in Californiais listed as a subspecies of special concern. Several larger carnivores such as domestic dogs, coyotes, foxes, feral cats, bobcats, and birds of prey such as owls are known to prey on spotted skunks. Various intestinal parasites including tapeworms, roundworms, and coccidia have been found in spotted skunks. They also are susceptible to fleas and ticks. Humans have been known to trap and shoot spotted skunks for fur and they have been poisoned as non target animals during predator control efforts. In the USA, rabies has been reported, butit is rare. Western Spotted Skunks have been reported to survive over ten years in captivity.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 25-37 cm(males) and 24-27 cm(females), tail 10-21 cm(males) and 8: 5-20.3 cm(females); weight 255-997 g(males) and 269-566 g(females). Spilogaleis more weasel-like in body plan than any of the other genera (Mephatis, Conepatus, Mydaus). Western Spotted Skunks are similar in color pattern to the Eastern Spotted Skunks in that they also have six stripes along the back and sides. One set ofstripes runs parallel to the backbone, and beside those stripes is another set that extends past the shoulders and over the ears. The third set of stripes runs from the shoulder to the abdomen and then curves upwards towards the back. There is also a spot on each of the hips. The color pattern may break up the body outline on moonless nights. Where the two species potentially come together the Western Spotted Skunks tends to have wider white stripes and a larger spot between the eyes. The Western Spotted Skunks is reportedly longer and more slender with a longertail than the Eastern Spotted Skunks. The feet each have five toes and locomotion is plantigrade. Western Spotted Skunks are quite capable climbers. The skull is flatter and wider than that of the Eastern Spotted Skunks, and the front region of the skull is depressed to the level of the cranium. The baculum of the Western Spotted Skunk is shorter than and not as curved as that of the Eastern Spotted Skunk. Western Spotted Skunks also have two muscular musk glands at the base of the tail inside the anal sphincter. These glands are capable of ejecting a noxious yellow fluid that is used in defense to deter a predator. The musk is composed of three major thiols, (E)-2-butene-I-thiol, 3-methyl-1- butanethiol, and 2-phenylethanethiol, and several minor components, including phenylmethanethiol, 2-methyl-quinoline, 2-quinoline methanethiol, bis[(E)-2-butenyl] disulfide, (E)-2-butenyl 3-methylbutyl disulfide, and bis(3-methylbutyl) disulfide. The Western Spotted Skunks does not have the thiol esters associated with the musk as seen in Mephitisand Conepatus. While the spray is as pungent as in the other skunks it does not have the “staying power” without the thiol esters.","habitat":"These skunks are found along streams in riparian thickets composed of willows and cottonwoods or alder, salmonberry, tan oak and other hardwoods. They also occur in all stages of dry forests and pine-oak forests, and use canyons, cliffs, rock piles, lava fields, and dry valleys. They prefer areas where they can find cover protection from predators. These skunks will use tunnels and holes of other animals such as mountain beavers in Oregonand wood rats and ground squirrels in other parts of their range. Western Spotted Skunks have been found in older buildings in rural settings, but also have been taken in urban houses and apartments. They also will den around other man-made structures such as dams as long as protective cover is available."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A709804FA55F9DCE672F39A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A709804FA55F9DCE672F39A","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"13.Duthie’s Golden MoleChlorotalpa duthieaeFrench:Taupe-dorée de Duthie/ German:Duthie-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de DuthieTaxonomy.Chrysochloris duthieae Broom, 1907, Knysna, Western Cape Province,South Africa. Although C. duthieaeis considered subspe- cifically distinct from C. sclateriby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to S South Africa, occurring along coast between George and Port Elizabeth, Western and Eastern Cape provinces, respectively; found in two subpopulations.Descriptive notes.Head-body 95-125 mm (males) and 96-130 mm (females), hindfoot 9-14 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 26-41 g (males) and 20-27 g (females). Cranial measurements show sexual dimorphism, with males larger than females. Duthie’s Golden Mole is small and slender. Dorsum is reddish black or brownish black, with green sheen; throat and chest are grayish; and muzzle is paler. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.Habitat.Afro-montane and coastal forests, suburban gardens, and pasturelands, using alluvial sands and sandy loams.Food and Feeding.Limited observations indicate that Duthie’s Golden Mole forages in subsurface tunnels and leaflitter; it mostly eats earthworms.Breeding.One pregnant female and two male Duthie’s Golden Moles with enlarged testes were recorded in November. Litters have two young.Activity patterns.Duthie’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Duthie’s Golden Mole moves through shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nests under tree roots. Adults are solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Duthie’s Golden Mole has a small extent of occurrence (known from only nine locations) and is facing apparent decline in extent of suitable habitat. It is increasingly threatened by habitat loss due to development of coastal tourism resorts and urban sprawl.Bibliography.Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2016b).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris duthieae Broom, 1907, Knysna, Western Cape Province,South Africa. Although C. duthieaeis considered subspe- cifically distinct from C. sclateriby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Duthie @fr | Duthie-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Duthie @es","interpretedAuthority":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chlorotalpa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"duthieae","name":"Chlorotalpa duthieae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to S South Africa, occurring along coast between George and Port Elizabeth, Western and Eastern Cape provinces, respectively; found in two subpopulations.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624528/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2016b)","foodAndFeeding":"Limited observations indicate that Duthie’s Golden Mole forages in subsurface tunnels and leaflitter; it mostly eats earthworms.","breeding":"One pregnant female and two male Duthie’s Golden Moles with enlarged testes were recorded in November. Litters have two young.","activityPatterns":"Duthie’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Duthie’s Golden Mole moves through shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nests under tree roots. Adults are solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Duthie’s Golden Mole has a small extent of occurrence (known from only nine locations) and is facing apparent decline in extent of suitable habitat. It is increasingly threatened by habitat loss due to development of coastal tourism resorts and urban sprawl.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 95-125 mm (males) and 96-130 mm (females), hindfoot 9-14 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 26-41 g (males) and 20-27 g (females). Cranial measurements show sexual dimorphism, with males larger than females. Duthie’s Golden Mole is small and slender. Dorsum is reddish black or brownish black, with green sheen; throat and chest are grayish; and muzzle is paler. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.","habitat":"Afro-montane and coastal forests, suburban gardens, and pasturelands, using alluvial sands and sandy loams."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A709804FF50FAC6EA97F5F0.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A709804FF50FAC6EA97F5F0","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"11.Arend’s Golden MoleCarpitalpa arendsiFrench:Taupe-dorée dArends/ German:Arends-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de ArendsTaxonomy.Chlorotalpa (Carpitalpa) arendsiLundholm, 1955, Pungwe Falls, Inyanga,Zimbabwe.G. N. Bronner in 1995 moved arendsifrom Chlorotalpato Carpitalpa. Monotypic.Distribution.Eastern Highlands of E Zimbabwe and narrowly into W Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 115-141 mm (males) and 115-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-16 mm (males) and 12-16 mm (females); weight 43-70 ¢g (males) and 43-56 g (females). Males are slightly larger than females. Arend’s Golden Mole is medium-sized and strongly built, with brownish black dorsum and grayish brown venter. Pelage has violet orsilver sheen. Underfur is dark gray. Muzzle is pale and eye patches are white.Habitat.Montane grassland, with preference for loamy soils; open spaces between grassy tussocks; edges ofriverine forests, with deep leaflitter; cultivated land; and gardens at altitudes of 850-2000 m.Food and Feeding.Limited information exists for this species, but Arend’s Golden Mole is thought to eat earthworms and insects.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Arend’s Golden Mole uses subsurface burrows moving from clumps of grass into open spaces.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Arend’s Golden Mole has a small extent of occurrence;it faces shrinking habitat due to poorly managed agricultural practices resulting from politically motived land reform and badly managed protected areas where uncontrolled fires have damaged habitat.Bibliography.Bronner (1995a, 2013b, 2015a), Lundholm (1955), Smithers & Wilson (1979b).","taxonomy":"Chlorotalpa (Carpitalpa) arendsiLundholm, 1955, Pungwe Falls, Inyanga,Zimbabwe.G. N. Bronner in 1995 moved arendsifrom Chlorotalpato Carpitalpa. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée d Arends @fr | Arends-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Arends @es","interpretedAuthority":"Lundholm","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lundholm","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1955","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Carpitalpa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"arendsi","name":"Carpitalpa arendsi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Eastern Highlands of E Zimbabwe and narrowly into W Mozambique.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624524/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (1995a, 2013b, 2015a) | Lundholm (1955) | Smithers & Wilson (1979b)","foodAndFeeding":"Limited information exists for this species, but Arend’s Golden Mole is thought to eat earthworms and insects.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Arend’s Golden Mole uses subsurface burrows moving from clumps of grass into open spaces.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Arend’s Golden Mole has a small extent of occurrence;it faces shrinking habitat due to poorly managed agricultural practices resulting from politically motived land reform and badly managed protected areas where uncontrolled fires have damaged habitat.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 115-141 mm (males) and 115-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-16 mm (males) and 12-16 mm (females); weight 43-70 ¢g (males) and 43-56 g (females). Males are slightly larger than females. Arend’s Golden Mole is medium-sized and strongly built, with brownish black dorsum and grayish brown venter. Pelage has violet orsilver sheen. Underfur is dark gray. Muzzle is pale and eye patches are white.","habitat":"Montane grassland, with preference for loamy soils; open spaces between grassy tussocks; edges ofriverine forests, with deep leaflitter; cultivated land; and gardens at altitudes of 850-2000 m."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A709804FF52F4C8E67DF99B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A709804FF52F4C8E67DF99B","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"12.Sclater’s Golden MoleChlorotalpa sclateriFrench:Taupe-dorée de Sclater/ German:Sclater-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de SclaterTaxonomy.Chrysochloris sclateri Broom, 1907, Matjiesvlei, Beaufort West, Western Cape Province, South Africa.Although C. sclateriis considered subspecifically distinct from C. duthieaeby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.s.sclateriBroom,1907—fromBeaufortWestEalongKoueveldbergeandSneeubergetoGraaff-Reinet,WesternandEasternCapeprovinces,SSouthAfrica.C.s.guwillarmodiRoberts,1936—fromextremeEFreeStateandSWKwaZulu-NatalSthroughLesothotoCEasternCapeProvince,SouthAfrica.C.s.montanaRoberts,1924—knownonlyfromthetypelocalitynearWakkerstroom,MpumalangaProvince,ESouthAfrica.C. s. shortridgei Broom, 1950— known only from the type locality in Sutherland, Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 83-135 mm (males) and 82-123 mm (females), hindfoot 10-16 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 22-54 g (males) and 22-48 g (females). There is no clear sexual dimorphism, although males are slightly larger than females on average. Sclater’s Golden Mole is small and stocky. Dorsum is glossy reddish brown, with darker midline; venter is dull grayish, with rufous tinge. Lips and cheeks are creamy yellow. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.Habitat.Karoo and grasslands habitats, restricted to high-elevation grasslands, scrub, and forested gorges. Sclater’s Golden Mole mostly occurs in light sandy soils due to weak digging claws but can use slightly heavier soils after rain.Food and Feeding.Sclater’s Golden Mole eats mostly insect larvae and earthworms, foraging in subsurface tunnels extending out from nesting areas.Breeding.Pregnant Sclater’s Golden Moles were recorded in December—January. Litter size is two, and young are born in grass-lined nests.Activity patterns.Sclater’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but they can be active during the day for short periods after rain.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sclater’s Golden Mole is active in shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nesting chambers located under rocks or trees. Adults are solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Sclater’s Golden Mole is relatively widespread, is adaptable to areas transformed by human activities, and occurs in mountainous areas where human impacts are unlikely to be great. It faces no major conservation threats.Bibliography.Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2016a).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris sclateri Broom, 1907, Matjiesvlei, Beaufort West, Western Cape Province, South Africa.Although C. sclateriis considered subspecifically distinct from C. duthieaeby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Sclater @fr | Sclater-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Sclater @es","interpretedAuthority":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chlorotalpa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sclateri","name":"Chlorotalpa sclateri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.s.sclateriBroom,1907—fromBeaufortWestEalongKoueveldbergeandSneeubergetoGraaff-Reinet,WesternandEasternCapeprovinces,SSouthAfrica.C.s.guwillarmodiRoberts,1936—fromextremeEFreeStateandSWKwaZulu-NatalSthroughLesothotoCEasternCapeProvince,SouthAfrica.C.s.montanaRoberts,1924—knownonlyfromthetypelocalitynearWakkerstroom,MpumalangaProvince,ESouthAfrica.C. s. shortridgei Broom, 1950— known only from the type locality in Sutherland, Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.","bibliography":"Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2016a)","foodAndFeeding":"Sclater’s Golden Mole eats mostly insect larvae and earthworms, foraging in subsurface tunnels extending out from nesting areas.","breeding":"Pregnant Sclater’s Golden Moles were recorded in December—January. Litter size is two, and young are born in grass-lined nests.","activityPatterns":"Sclater’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but they can be active during the day for short periods after rain.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sclater’s Golden Mole is active in shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nesting chambers located under rocks or trees. Adults are solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Sclater’s Golden Mole is relatively widespread, is adaptable to areas transformed by human activities, and occurs in mountainous areas where human impacts are unlikely to be great. It faces no major conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 83-135 mm (males) and 82-123 mm (females), hindfoot 10-16 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 22-54 g (males) and 22-48 g (females). There is no clear sexual dimorphism, although males are slightly larger than females on average. Sclater’s Golden Mole is small and stocky. Dorsum is glossy reddish brown, with darker midline; venter is dull grayish, with rufous tinge. Lips and cheeks are creamy yellow. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.","habitat":"Karoo and grasslands habitats, restricted to high-elevation grasslands, scrub, and forested gorges. Sclater’s Golden Mole mostly occurs in light sandy soils due to weak digging claws but can use slightly heavier soils after rain."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A70980BFA68F2E6EDEBF8E7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A70980BFA68F2E6EDEBF8E7","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"14.Stuhlmann’s Golden MoleChrysochloris stuhlmanniFrench:Taupe-dorée de Stuhlmann/ German:Stuhimann-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de StuhlmannTaxonomy.Chrysochloris stuhlmanni Matschie, 1894, Ukondjo and Kinyawan- ga, Rwenzori region, Uganda.Additional specimens are needed to clarify subspecific taxonomy of C. stuhlmanni. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.s.stuhlmanniiMatschie,1894—RwenzoriMts,NEDRCongoandSWUganda.C.s.balsac:Lamotte&Petter,1981—MtOku,WCameroon.C.s.fosteriSt.Leger,1931—MtElgon,EUganda,andCheranganiHills,WKenya.C.s.tropicalisG.M.Allen&Loveridge,1927—UluguruMtsandRungwedistrict,Tanzania.C. s. vermiculus Thomas, 1910— known only from the vicinity of Yambuya and Kisangani, N DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 106-123 mm (males) and 103-111 mm (females), hindfoot 10-12 mm (males) and 10-12 mm (females); weight 42 g. Dorsal pelage has iridescent silvery sheen and can be various shades of brown, including blackish brown, grayish brown, and fawn; venter is paler.Habitat.Montane grasslands, bamboo thickets, heather, and Podocarpus(Podocarpaceae) woodlands with light, easily worked soil and sparse vegetation cover at elevations of 1700-3500 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms and insect larvae (primarily dipterans) but also myriapods, mollusks, and small crustaceans.Breeding.Three pregnant Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles were recorded in July, and they had one embryo each. Altricial young remain with their mothers for 2-3 months.Activity patterns.Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles move through underground tunnels c.4 cm below the surface; extent of movement is determined by ease of digging through soil. In forests, they burrow in leaflitter. Adults are thought to be solitary except during breeding and when females are accompanied by young.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Stuh-Imann’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and away from human activity. Little is known about population trends and conservation threats.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b, 2015b), Duncan & Wrangham (1971), Jarvis (1974).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris stuhlmanni Matschie, 1894, Ukondjo and Kinyawan- ga, Rwenzori region, Uganda.Additional specimens are needed to clarify subspecific taxonomy of C. stuhlmanni. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Stuhlmann @fr | Stuhimann-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Stuhlmann @es","interpretedAuthority":"Matschie","interpretedAuthorityName":"Matschie","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1894","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chrysochloris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"stuhlmanni","name":"Chrysochloris stuhlmanni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.s.stuhlmanniiMatschie,1894—RwenzoriMts,NEDRCongoandSWUganda.C.s.balsac:Lamotte&Petter,1981—MtOku,WCameroon.C.s.fosteriSt.Leger,1931—MtElgon,EUganda,andCheranganiHills,WKenya.C.s.tropicalisG.M.Allen&Loveridge,1927—UluguruMtsandRungwedistrict,Tanzania.C. s. vermiculus Thomas, 1910— known only from the vicinity of Yambuya and Kisangani, N DR Congo.","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b, 2015b) | Duncan & Wrangham (1971) | Jarvis (1974)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms and insect larvae (primarily dipterans) but also myriapods, mollusks, and small crustaceans.","breeding":"Three pregnant Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles were recorded in July, and they had one embryo each. Altricial young remain with their mothers for 2-3 months.","activityPatterns":"Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles are nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles move through underground tunnels c.4 cm below the surface; extent of movement is determined by ease of digging through soil. In forests, they burrow in leaflitter. Adults are thought to be solitary except during breeding and when females are accompanied by young.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Stuh-Imann’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and away from human activity. Little is known about population trends and conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 106-123 mm (males) and 103-111 mm (females), hindfoot 10-12 mm (males) and 10-12 mm (females); weight 42 g. Dorsal pelage has iridescent silvery sheen and can be various shades of brown, including blackish brown, grayish brown, and fawn; venter is paler.","habitat":"Montane grasslands, bamboo thickets, heather, and Podocarpus(Podocarpaceae) woodlands with light, easily worked soil and sparse vegetation cover at elevations of 1700-3500 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A709804FF52F4C8E67DF99B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A709804FF52F4C8E67DF99B","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"12.Sclater’s Golden MoleChlorotalpa sclateriFrench:Taupe-dorée de Sclater/ German:Sclater-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de SclaterTaxonomy.Chrysochloris sclateri Broom, 1907, Matjiesvlei, Beaufort West, Western Cape Province, South Africa.Although C. sclateriis considered subspecifically distinct from C. duthieaeby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.s.sclateriBroom,1907—fromBeaufortWestEalongKoueveldbergeandSneeubergetoGraaff-Reinet,WesternandEasternCapeprovinces,SSouthAfrica.C.s.guwillarmodiRoberts,1936—fromextremeEFreeStateandSWKwaZulu-NatalSthroughLesothotoCEasternCapeProvince,SouthAfrica.C.s.montanaRoberts,1924—knownonlyfromthetypelocalitynearWakkerstroom,MpumalangaProvince,ESouthAfrica.C. s. shortridgei Broom, 1950— known only from the type locality in Sutherland, Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 83-135 mm (males) and 82-123 mm (females), hindfoot 10-16 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 22-54 g (males) and 22-48 g (females). There is no clear sexual dimorphism, although males are slightly larger than females on average. Sclater’s Golden Mole is small and stocky. Dorsum is glossy reddish brown, with darker midline; venter is dull grayish, with rufous tinge. Lips and cheeks are creamy yellow. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.Habitat.Karoo and grasslands habitats, restricted to high-elevation grasslands, scrub, and forested gorges. Sclater’s Golden Mole mostly occurs in light sandy soils due to weak digging claws but can use slightly heavier soils after rain.Food and Feeding.Sclater’s Golden Mole eats mostly insect larvae and earthworms, foraging in subsurface tunnels extending out from nesting areas.Breeding.Pregnant Sclater’s Golden Moles were recorded in December—January. Litter size is two, and young are born in grass-lined nests.Activity patterns.Sclater’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but they can be active during the day for short periods after rain.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Sclater’s Golden Mole is active in shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nesting chambers located under rocks or trees. Adults are solitary.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Sclater’s Golden Mole is relatively widespread, is adaptable to areas transformed by human activities, and occurs in mountainous areas where human impacts are unlikely to be great. It faces no major conservation threats.Bibliography.Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2016a).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris sclateri Broom, 1907, Matjiesvlei, Beaufort West, Western Cape Province, South Africa.Although C. sclateriis considered subspecifically distinct from C. duthieaeby some authors, it is now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color, chromosomal properties, malleus morphology, and habitat selection. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Sclater @fr | Sclater-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Sclater @es","interpretedAuthority":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chlorotalpa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"sclateri","name":"Chlorotalpa sclateri","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.s.sclateriBroom,1907—fromBeaufortWestEalongKoueveldbergeandSneeubergetoGraaff-Reinet,WesternandEasternCapeprovinces,SSouthAfrica.C.s.guwillarmodiRoberts,1936—fromextremeEFreeStateandSWKwaZulu-NatalSthroughLesothotoCEasternCapeProvince,SouthAfrica.C.s.montanaRoberts,1924—knownonlyfromthetypelocalitynearWakkerstroom,MpumalangaProvince,ESouthAfrica.C. s. shortridgei Broom, 1950— known only from the type locality in Sutherland, Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624526/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2016a)","foodAndFeeding":"Sclater’s Golden Mole eats mostly insect larvae and earthworms, foraging in subsurface tunnels extending out from nesting areas.","breeding":"Pregnant Sclater’s Golden Moles were recorded in December—January. Litter size is two, and young are born in grass-lined nests.","activityPatterns":"Sclater’s Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but they can be active during the day for short periods after rain.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Sclater’s Golden Mole is active in shallow subsurface tunnels that radiate from nesting chambers located under rocks or trees. Adults are solitary.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Sclater’s Golden Mole is relatively widespread, is adaptable to areas transformed by human activities, and occurs in mountainous areas where human impacts are unlikely to be great. It faces no major conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 83-135 mm (males) and 82-123 mm (females), hindfoot 10-16 mm (males) and 9-13 mm (females); weight 22-54 g (males) and 22-48 g (females). There is no clear sexual dimorphism, although males are slightly larger than females on average. Sclater’s Golden Mole is small and stocky. Dorsum is glossy reddish brown, with darker midline; venter is dull grayish, with rufous tinge. Lips and cheeks are creamy yellow. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 60.","habitat":"Karoo and grasslands habitats, restricted to high-elevation grasslands, scrub, and forested gorges. Sclater’s Golden Mole mostly occurs in light sandy soils due to weak digging claws but can use slightly heavier soils after rain."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A70980BFA68F2E6EDEBF8E7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A70980BFA68F2E6EDEBF8E7","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"200","verbatimText":"14.Stuhlmann’s Golden MoleChrysochloris stuhlmanniFrench:Taupe-dorée de Stuhlmann/ German:Stuhimann-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de StuhlmannTaxonomy.Chrysochloris stuhlmanni Matschie, 1894, Ukondjo and Kinyawan- ga, Rwenzori region, Uganda.Additional specimens are needed to clarify subspecific taxonomy of C. stuhlmanni. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C.s.stuhlmanniiMatschie,1894—RwenzoriMts,NEDRCongoandSWUganda.C.s.balsac:Lamotte&Petter,1981—MtOku,WCameroon.C.s.fosteriSt.Leger,1931—MtElgon,EUganda,andCheranganiHills,WKenya.C.s.tropicalisG.M.Allen&Loveridge,1927—UluguruMtsandRungwedistrict,Tanzania.C. s. vermiculus Thomas, 1910— known only from the vicinity of Yambuya and Kisangani, N DR Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 106-123 mm (males) and 103-111 mm (females), hindfoot 10-12 mm (males) and 10-12 mm (females); weight 42 g. Dorsal pelage has iridescent silvery sheen and can be various shades of brown, including blackish brown, grayish brown, and fawn; venter is paler.Habitat.Montane grasslands, bamboo thickets, heather, and Podocarpus(Podocarpaceae) woodlands with light, easily worked soil and sparse vegetation cover at elevations of 1700-3500 m.Food and Feeding.Diet of Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms and insect larvae (primarily dipterans) but also myriapods, mollusks, and small crustaceans.Breeding.Three pregnant Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles were recorded in July, and they had one embryo each. Altricial young remain with their mothers for 2-3 months.Activity patterns.Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles are nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles move through underground tunnels c.4 cm below the surface; extent of movement is determined by ease of digging through soil. In forests, they burrow in leaflitter. Adults are thought to be solitary except during breeding and when females are accompanied by young.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Stuh-Imann’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and away from human activity. Little is known about population trends and conservation threats.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b, 2015b), Duncan & Wrangham (1971), Jarvis (1974).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris stuhlmanni Matschie, 1894, Ukondjo and Kinyawan- ga, Rwenzori region, Uganda.Additional specimens are needed to clarify subspecific taxonomy of C. stuhlmanni. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Stuhlmann @fr | Stuhimann-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Stuhlmann @es","interpretedAuthority":"Matschie","interpretedAuthorityName":"Matschie","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1894","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chrysochloris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"7","interpretedPageNumber":"200","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"stuhlmanni","name":"Chrysochloris stuhlmanni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.s.stuhlmanniiMatschie,1894—RwenzoriMts,NEDRCongoandSWUganda.C.s.balsac:Lamotte&Petter,1981—MtOku,WCameroon.C.s.fosteriSt.Leger,1931—MtElgon,EUganda,andCheranganiHills,WKenya.C.s.tropicalisG.M.Allen&Loveridge,1927—UluguruMtsandRungwedistrict,Tanzania.C. s. vermiculus Thomas, 1910— known only from the vicinity of Yambuya and Kisangani, N DR Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624532/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b, 2015b) | Duncan & Wrangham (1971) | Jarvis (1974)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms and insect larvae (primarily dipterans) but also myriapods, mollusks, and small crustaceans.","breeding":"Three pregnant Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles were recorded in July, and they had one embryo each. Altricial young remain with their mothers for 2-3 months.","activityPatterns":"Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles are nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Stuhlmann’s Golden Moles move through underground tunnels c.4 cm below the surface; extent of movement is determined by ease of digging through soil. In forests, they burrow in leaflitter. Adults are thought to be solitary except during breeding and when females are accompanied by young.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Stuh-Imann’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and away from human activity. Little is known about population trends and conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 106-123 mm (males) and 103-111 mm (females), hindfoot 10-12 mm (males) and 10-12 mm (females); weight 42 g. Dorsal pelage has iridescent silvery sheen and can be various shades of brown, including blackish brown, grayish brown, and fawn; venter is paler.","habitat":"Montane grasslands, bamboo thickets, heather, and Podocarpus(Podocarpaceae) woodlands with light, easily worked soil and sparse vegetation cover at elevations of 1700-3500 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A719804FF82F5DEEC60FBA1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A719804FF82F5DEEC60FBA1","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"199","verbatimText":"10.Juliana’s Golden MoleNeamblysomus julianaeFrench:Taupe-dorée de Juliana/ German:Juliana-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de JulianaTaxonomy.Amblysomus julianae Meester, 1972, “Willows, Pretoria (25° 46’ S, 28° 20° E),”Gauteng Province, South Africa. G. N. Bronner in 1995 reassigned juli- anae to Neamblysomuswith N. gunningi. Consistent but subtle morphological differences (dentition and color), preliminary evidence for genetic partitioning, and no indication of gene flow between subpopulations are evident between Kruger National Park subpopulation and Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge subpopulations at extremes of its distribution, suggesting the need for additional investigation into potential cryptic species. Monotypic.Distribution.NE South Africa, known only from three small, widely separated locations: Bronberg Ridge area in SE Pretoria, Gauteng Province (18 sites), Nylsvley Nature Reserve and surrounding farms on Nyl floodplain in Modimolle district,Limpopo Province (9 sites), and near Pretoriuskop Camp, Fayi area (Macili and Machulwane), and Numbi Gate in SW Kruger National Park, Mpumalanga Province (4 sites).Descriptive notes.Head-body 94-111 mm (males) and 92-111 mm (females), hindfoot 12-14 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 21-46 g (males) and 23-29 g (females). Juliana’s Golden Mole is one of the smallest golden moles and has slender shape and foreclaws, relatively short skull (less than 24 mm) with wide braincase (width /length index 67-70%), and wide palate (width 30-32% of greatest skull length). M? of adults lack well-developed talonids, although present in some juveniles, but they are rudimentary and peg-like in shape. M, are variably present in specimens from Kruger National Park subpopulation and are small and peg-like if present; they are absent in specimens from Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge subpopulations. Dorsum of specimens from the Kruger National Park is reddish brown, venter is brown, and cheeks and muzzle are almost pure white. Dorsum of specimens from Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge is cinnamon-brown, becoming darker along mid-back and lighter toward flanks; venter is fawn-colored with reddish brown and gray underfur; and upper chest is tinted yellow. Upper parts of forelimbs, cheeks, throat, and muzzle are off-white, and short off-white bristles are present on upper parts of hindfeet. Robust forefeet have four digits and peg-like claws; first claw is very short, barely reaching point where second claw emerges from skin; and second claw is almost equal in length to third and largest claw (length 8-10 mm, basal width 3—4 mm). Fourth digit is stunted and knob-like. Membrane fuses four digits on hindfeet, each with thin curved claw; third claw is very long. Juliana’s Golden Mole closely resembles Gunning’s Golden Mole (N. gunningi), but smaller size, paler pelage, narrower skull, and subtle chromosomal differences differentiate them. Absence of well-developed talonids on M* and much smaller body size and skull distinguish Juliana’s Golden Mole from the Fynbos Golden Mole (A. corriae), the Hottentot Golden Mole (A. hottentotus), the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps), Meester’s Golden Mole (A. meester), the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis), and the Robust Golden Mole (A. robustus). Juliana’s Golden Mole has broader skull, wider palate, and length of upper tooth row relative to palatal length than does Marley’s Golden Mole (A. marleyi) but is smaller. Small and unspecialized mallei in middle ears of all species of Neamblysomusand Amblysomusare inside crania and represent typical mammalian form. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56, with highly conserved karyotype.Habitat.Mostly open and closed savanna woodlands (bushveld), rocky grasslands, and scrublands varying from Mixed Sour Bushveld and Rocky Highveld Grassland in the Bronberg Ridge area through Clay Thorn Bushveld on the Nyl floodplain or Lowveld Sour Bushveld in the Pretoriuskop, Fayi, and Numbi Gate areas of Kruger National Park. Juliana’s Golden Moles thrive in highly transformed habitats such as urban and rural gardens, cultivated lands, and road edges where narrow passages of suitable soils provide alternative dispersal routes between isolated patches of prime habitats. They are weak diggers due to their small size and gracile foreclaws, and thus they favor soft sandy or loamy soils with tree or vegetation cover, often associated with rocky ridges.Food and Feeding.Juliana’s Golden Moles are presumably insectivorous and carnivorous. A captive individual ate cockroaches, grasshoppers, beetles, other insects and their larvae, ground beef, and some earthworms but avoided snails and slugs; prey was mostly dragged into a burrow but sometimes eaten on the surface.Breeding.GravidJuliana’s Golden Moles were found in winter (July-August) and summer (November—February), indicating an aseasonal polyestrous system. Litters have 1-2 young, and postnatal care is relatively long.Activity patterns.On the Bronberg Ridge, Juliana’s Golden Moles were most active in late morning, late afternoon, and early evening. In Nylsvley Nature Reserve and surroundings, most activity was recorded in late morning (09:00-13:00 h, peak at 11:00 h) and evening (19:00-23:00 h, peak at 21:00 h).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Burrow systems of Juliana’s Golden Moles consist of superficial foraging tunnels in upper soil layers (3-15 cm), visible as raised ridges or broken soil on the surface when fresh, and deeper permanent tunnels for resting, giving birth, and raising young. Some tunnels spiraled down 40-50 cm, but no chambers or nests were found. Foraging activity peaks in wet summer months, declining substantially in cold and dry winter months, although foraging continues in deeper tunnels. Subsurface foraging increases markedly a few days after rain when soil is moist and invertebrate prey is plentiful, but signs of these runways/furrows disappear on the surface during dry conditions. Juliana’s Golden Moles are locally common in suitable habitat. One individual that was radio-tracked for six consecutive days in Nylsvley Nature Reserve used 3964 m* and moved 303-8 m. Fluctuating body temperatures (T,) and shallow torpor were used when ambient temperatures (T) were high, with evidence of behavioral thermoregulation to reduce daily energy expenditure. The individual returned to the same cool area for resting during heat of the day and used passive heating to increase its T, in the early mornings when T, were rising. Adult Juliana’s Golden Moles are solitary except during breeding and when females raise young. Sexes are very territorial; brutal aggressive behavior toward conspecifics occurs in captivity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Bronberg Ridge subpopulation is classified as Critically Endangered. Conservation status of distinct lineages of Juliana’s Golden Moles in widely separated subpopulations might require revision after taxonomy is clarified. Total extent of occurrence is severely fragmented and totals ¢.747-5 km?* ¢.12-5 km* on Bronberg Ridge, ¢.718 km? on the Nyl floodplain, and c.17 km? in Kruger National Park. Estimated area of occupancy is only ¢.160 km? due to specialized habitat requirements, narrow habitat tolerances, and poor dispersal abilities. Currently, two subpopulations are protected in Kruger National Park and Nylsvley Nature Reserve. Only 1% of the Bronberg Ridge subpopulation falls in the Faerie Glen Nature Reserve. Major threats are habitat loss and fragmentation from urbanization (Bronberg Ridge and Modimolle), quartzite mining (Bronberg), infrastructure development (Bronberg, Modimolle, and Kruger National Park) and agriculture (Modimolle). Informing policy makers, developers, and the public are needed to bolster existing conservation activities and enhance protection of remaining suitable habitat. Minor threats include harassment by humans (e.g. gardeners and landowners) and predation (domestic pets, wild carnivores, snakes, and owls). Most captive Juliana’s Golden Moles die from dehydration within a few days after capture because as they refuse to eat, become sluggish, as if in a state of torpor, and then die.Bibliography.Bronner (1990, 1995a, 1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2005), Driver et al. (2012), Freitag & Van Jaarsveld (1997), Gilbert et al. (2008), Jackson, C.R. (2007), Jackson, C.R. & Robertson (2011), Jackson, C.R., Lubbe et al. (2008), Jackson, C.R., Maree et al. (2007), Jackson, C.R., Setsaas, Robertson & Bennett (2008), Jackson, C.R., Setsaas, Robertson, Scantlebury & Bennett (2009), Kuyper (1979), Maree (2015e, 2015f, 2017), Maree, Bennett & Bronner (2016), Maree, Bronner et al. (2003), Martin (2015), Meester (1972), Meester et al. (1986), Skinner & Chimimba (2005).","taxonomy":"Amblysomus julianae Meester, 1972, “Willows, Pretoria (25° 46’ S, 28° 20° E),”Gauteng Province, South Africa. G. N. Bronner in 1995 reassigned juli- anae to Neamblysomuswith N. gunningi. Consistent but subtle morphological differences (dentition and color), preliminary evidence for genetic partitioning, and no indication of gene flow between subpopulations are evident between Kruger National Park subpopulation and Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge subpopulations at extremes of its distribution, suggesting the need for additional investigation into potential cryptic species. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Juliana @fr | Juliana-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Juliana @es","interpretedAuthority":"Meester","interpretedAuthorityName":"Meester","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1972","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Meester","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1972","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Neamblysomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"6","interpretedPageNumber":"199","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"julianae","name":"Neamblysomus julianae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"NE South Africa, known only from three small, widely separated locations: Bronberg Ridge area in SE Pretoria, Gauteng Province (18 sites), Nylsvley Nature Reserve and surrounding farms on Nyl floodplain in Modimolle district,Limpopo Province (9 sites), and near Pretoriuskop Camp, Fayi area (Macili and Machulwane), and Numbi Gate in SW Kruger National Park, Mpumalanga Province (4 sites).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624522/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (1990, 1995a, 1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2005) | Driver et al. (2012) | Freitag & Van Jaarsveld (1997) | Gilbert et al. (2008) | Jackson, C.R. (2007) | Jackson, C.R. & Robertson (2011) | Jackson, C.R., Lubbe et al. (2008) | Jackson, C.R., Maree et al. (2007) | Jackson, C.R., Setsaas, Robertson & Bennett (2008) | Jackson, C.R., Setsaas, Robertson, Scantlebury & Bennett (2009) | Kuyper (1979) | Maree (2015e, 2015f, 2017) | Maree, Bennett & Bronner (2016) | Maree, Bronner et al. (2003) | Martin (2015) | Meester (1972) | Meester et al. (1986) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"Juliana’s Golden Moles are presumably insectivorous and carnivorous. A captive individual ate cockroaches, grasshoppers, beetles, other insects and their larvae, ground beef, and some earthworms but avoided snails and slugs; prey was mostly dragged into a burrow but sometimes eaten on the surface.","breeding":"GravidJuliana’s Golden Moles were found in winter (July-August) and summer (November—February), indicating an aseasonal polyestrous system. Litters have 1-2 young, and postnatal care is relatively long.","activityPatterns":"On the Bronberg Ridge, Juliana’s Golden Moles were most active in late morning, late afternoon, and early evening. In Nylsvley Nature Reserve and surroundings, most activity was recorded in late morning (09:00-13:00 h, peak at 11:00 h) and evening (19:00-23:00 h, peak at 21:00 h).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Burrow systems of Juliana’s Golden Moles consist of superficial foraging tunnels in upper soil layers (3-15 cm), visible as raised ridges or broken soil on the surface when fresh, and deeper permanent tunnels for resting, giving birth, and raising young. Some tunnels spiraled down 40-50 cm, but no chambers or nests were found. Foraging activity peaks in wet summer months, declining substantially in cold and dry winter months, although foraging continues in deeper tunnels. Subsurface foraging increases markedly a few days after rain when soil is moist and invertebrate prey is plentiful, but signs of these runways/furrows disappear on the surface during dry conditions. Juliana’s Golden Moles are locally common in suitable habitat. One individual that was radio-tracked for six consecutive days in Nylsvley Nature Reserve used 3964 m* and moved 303-8 m. Fluctuating body temperatures (T,) and shallow torpor were used when ambient temperatures (T) were high, with evidence of behavioral thermoregulation to reduce daily energy expenditure. The individual returned to the same cool area for resting during heat of the day and used passive heating to increase its T, in the early mornings when T, were rising. Adult Juliana’s Golden Moles are solitary except during breeding and when females raise young. Sexes are very territorial; brutal aggressive behavior toward conspecifics occurs in captivity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Bronberg Ridge subpopulation is classified as Critically Endangered.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Bronberg Ridge subpopulation is classified as Critically Endangered. Conservation status of distinct lineages of Juliana’s Golden Moles in widely separated subpopulations might require revision after taxonomy is clarified. Total extent of occurrence is severely fragmented and totals ¢.747-5 km?* ¢.12-5 km* on Bronberg Ridge, ¢.718 km? on the Nyl floodplain, and c.17 km? in Kruger National Park. Estimated area of occupancy is only ¢.160 km? due to specialized habitat requirements, narrow habitat tolerances, and poor dispersal abilities. Currently, two subpopulations are protected in Kruger National Park and Nylsvley Nature Reserve. Only 1% of the Bronberg Ridge subpopulation falls in the Faerie Glen Nature Reserve. Major threats are habitat loss and fragmentation from urbanization (Bronberg Ridge and Modimolle), quartzite mining (Bronberg), infrastructure development (Bronberg, Modimolle, and Kruger National Park) and agriculture (Modimolle). Informing policy makers, developers, and the public are needed to bolster existing conservation activities and enhance protection of remaining suitable habitat. Minor threats include harassment by humans (e.g. gardeners and landowners) and predation (domestic pets, wild carnivores, snakes, and owls). Most captive Juliana’s Golden Moles die from dehydration within a few days after capture because as they refuse to eat, become sluggish, as if in a state of torpor, and then die.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 94-111 mm (males) and 92-111 mm (females), hindfoot 12-14 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 21-46 g (males) and 23-29 g (females). Juliana’s Golden Mole is one of the smallest golden moles and has slender shape and foreclaws, relatively short skull (less than 24 mm) with wide braincase (width /length index 67-70%), and wide palate (width 30-32% of greatest skull length). M? of adults lack well-developed talonids, although present in some juveniles, but they are rudimentary and peg-like in shape. M, are variably present in specimens from Kruger National Park subpopulation and are small and peg-like if present; they are absent in specimens from Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge subpopulations. Dorsum of specimens from the Kruger National Park is reddish brown, venter is brown, and cheeks and muzzle are almost pure white. Dorsum of specimens from Modimolle and Bronberg Ridge is cinnamon-brown, becoming darker along mid-back and lighter toward flanks; venter is fawn-colored with reddish brown and gray underfur; and upper chest is tinted yellow. Upper parts of forelimbs, cheeks, throat, and muzzle are off-white, and short off-white bristles are present on upper parts of hindfeet. Robust forefeet have four digits and peg-like claws; first claw is very short, barely reaching point where second claw emerges from skin; and second claw is almost equal in length to third and largest claw (length 8-10 mm, basal width 3—4 mm). Fourth digit is stunted and knob-like. Membrane fuses four digits on hindfeet, each with thin curved claw; third claw is very long. Juliana’s Golden Mole closely resembles Gunning’s Golden Mole (N. gunningi), but smaller size, paler pelage, narrower skull, and subtle chromosomal differences differentiate them. Absence of well-developed talonids on M* and much smaller body size and skull distinguish Juliana’s Golden Mole from the Fynbos Golden Mole (A. corriae), the Hottentot Golden Mole (A. hottentotus), the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps), Meester’s Golden Mole (A. meester), the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis), and the Robust Golden Mole (A. robustus). Juliana’s Golden Mole has broader skull, wider palate, and length of upper tooth row relative to palatal length than does Marley’s Golden Mole (A. marleyi) but is smaller. Small and unspecialized mallei in middle ears of all species of Neamblysomusand Amblysomusare inside crania and represent typical mammalian form. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56, with highly conserved karyotype.","habitat":"Mostly open and closed savanna woodlands (bushveld), rocky grasslands, and scrublands varying from Mixed Sour Bushveld and Rocky Highveld Grassland in the Bronberg Ridge area through Clay Thorn Bushveld on the Nyl floodplain or Lowveld Sour Bushveld in the Pretoriuskop, Fayi, and Numbi Gate areas of Kruger National Park. Juliana’s Golden Moles thrive in highly transformed habitats such as urban and rural gardens, cultivated lands, and road edges where narrow passages of suitable soils provide alternative dispersal routes between isolated patches of prime habitats. They are weak diggers due to their small size and gracile foreclaws, and thus they favor soft sandy or loamy soils with tree or vegetation cover, often associated with rocky ridges."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A729805FA56F769ED20F599.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A729805FA56F769ED20F599","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"9.Gunning’s Golden MoleNeamblysomus gunningiFrench:Taupe-dorée de Gunning/ German:Gunning-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de GunningTaxonomy.Chrysochloris gunning: Broom, 1908, “Woodbush Hill, Zoutpansberg [= Soutpansberg district],”Limpopo Prov- ince, South Africa.The species gunning: was originally placed In the genus Chrysochlorisbut included in Amblysomusin several subsequent taxonomic revisions. G. N. Bronner in 1995 elevated it to generic rank. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to NE South Africa, highly restricted and fragmented distribution documented from six confirmed sites in far N Drakensberg escarpment, Limpopo Province.Descriptive notes.Head-body 121-132 mm (males) and 111-128 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-17 mm (females); weight 62-8 (56-70) g (males) and 51 (39-56) g (females). Gunning’s Golden Mole is medium-sized, resembling the Hottentot Golden Mole (Amblysomus hottentotus) and the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis) in shape and appearance but distinguished from these by its gracile claws and consistent presence of M®. Male Gunning’s Golden Moles are somewhat larger and heavier than females. Dorsum varies from dark reddish brown through different hues of brown to black, with distinctive bronze sheen; venter is fawn, with reddish brown and gray underfur. Cheeks and throat are reddish brown, and tip of muzzle is tinged yellow and much paler than upper parts of body. Forefeet are robust, with four digits and distinctive claws. Claw on first digit is short and narrow, claw on second digit is three-quarters the length of claw on longest third digit (12-5-14 mm), and claw on fourth digit is reduced and knob-like. Membrane fuses four digits on hindfeet, and each digit has narrow-curved claw; third claw is significantly longer. Skull is elongate (breadth 63% of greater skull length, GSL), and palate isnarrow (28% of GSL). Talonids on lower molars are absent in adults; rudimentary talonids on M, are sometimes presentin juveniles but become peg-like due to tooth wear. Mallei in middle ears are small and unspecialized. No geographical variation has been recorded for morphological traits. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.[.ow-lying and high-elevation indigenous forests (Mistbelt Forests and Wolkberg Afro-montane Forest Belt) and adjacent montane grasslands (Northeastern Mountain Grassland) in the Savanna Biome of South Africa (southernmost tip of the Zambezian Woodland Biozone). Gunning’s Golden Mole is a forest specialist. It prefers moist sandy or loamy soils along watercourses and near ponds in natural habitat, but its burrow systems can also extend into highly transformed habitats with loose soils, such as timber plantations, cultivated land (e.g. tea fields), pastures (livestock), rural and suburban gardens, and road shoulders. It coexists with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus) in natural, undisturbed habitat and highly transformed areas, but itis confined to moist and friable soils.Food and Feeding.Gunning’s Golden Mole is insectivorous and carnivorous, mainly feeding on insects; evidence from stomach contents suggests it also consumes earthworms. Captive individuals willingly eat mealworms (tenebroid larvae), crickets, and young mice.Breeding.Gravid Gunning’s Golden Moles captured in February, April, and May suggest that seasonal breeding occurs during wet summer months. Females are polyestrous.Activity patterns.Gunning’s Golden Mole is predominantly nocturnal, but some activity occurs in late afternoon in winter. Foraging activity substantially increases after rain when soils are moist and suitable prey items are plentiful.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Gunning’s Golden Mole constructs extensive burrow systems with shallow subsurface foraging tunnels, also used for dispersal, and deeper tunnels (15-30 cm) used for resting and raising young. Small irregular mounds mark entrances to deeper tunnels. Brief bouts of surface foraging in thick layers of leaflitter occasionally occur at night. Adults are solitary, except when females are raising offspring.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Gunning’s Golden Mole faces threats from commercial forestry plantations and associated road infrastructure, replacing indigenous forests and abutting grasslands, cultivation, housing, and tourism infrastructure development in formerly rural areas around Haenertsburg. These have caused severe habitat destruction, fragmentation, and loss for c¢.40 years and resulted in marked decreases in quality and area of suitable habitat found in three localized areas that comprise the small and fragmented distribution of Gunning’s Golden Mole. Area of occupancy estimated from six confirmed locations is only 96 km? and total extent of occurrence is ¢.1327 km? (minimum polygon). Although small parts ofits distribution are protected in state-owned forest reserves (e.g. De Hoek, New Agatha, and Woodbush), currently implemented protection measures and management are not necessarily cognizant of very specific habitat requirements of Gunning’s Golden Mole. Privatization of state-owned forests renders continued protection in some areas uncertain. Minor threats include predation by domestic pets and persecution by gardeners and landowners. Gunning’s Golden Mole is considered of global and regional conservation concern and ranks among the top 100 mammalian species (number 73) in the EDGE of Existence Program, which aims to conserve the world’s Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered species. It received the highest regional priority score for mammals in the former Transvaal Province (South Africa) based on relative occupancy, endemism, taxonomic distinctiveness, and vulnerability. Gunning’s Golden Mole does not receive any dedicated conservation attention, and knowledge of its ecology,life history traits, and evolutionary relationships remains sparse. Such information is crucial for informing effective development of a conservation management plan.Bibliography.Bronner (1990, 1995a, 1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Bennett (2005), Driver et al. (2012), Freitag & Van Jaarsveld (1997), Isaac et al. (2007), Maree (2015d), Maree & Bronner (2016a), Martin (2015), Meester et al. (1986), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Von Maltitz et al. (2003).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris gunning: Broom, 1908, “Woodbush Hill, Zoutpansberg [= Soutpansberg district],”Limpopo Prov- ince, South Africa.The species gunning: was originally placed In the genus Chrysochlorisbut included in Amblysomusin several subsequent taxonomic revisions. G. N. Bronner in 1995 elevated it to generic rank. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Gunning @fr | Gunning-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Gunning @es","interpretedAuthority":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1908","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Neamblysomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gunningi","name":"Neamblysomus gunningi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to NE South Africa, highly restricted and fragmented distribution documented from six confirmed sites in far N Drakensberg escarpment, Limpopo Province.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624518/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (1990, 1995a, 1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Bennett (2005) | Driver et al. (2012) | Freitag & Van Jaarsveld (1997) | Isaac et al. (2007) | Maree (2015d) | Maree & Bronner (2016a) | Martin (2015) | Meester et al. (1986) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Von Maltitz et al. (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"Gunning’s Golden Mole is insectivorous and carnivorous, mainly feeding on insects; evidence from stomach contents suggests it also consumes earthworms. Captive individuals willingly eat mealworms (tenebroid larvae), crickets, and young mice.","breeding":"Gravid Gunning’s Golden Moles captured in February, April, and May suggest that seasonal breeding occurs during wet summer months. Females are polyestrous.","activityPatterns":"Gunning’s Golden Mole is predominantly nocturnal, but some activity occurs in late afternoon in winter. Foraging activity substantially increases after rain when soils are moist and suitable prey items are plentiful.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Gunning’s Golden Mole constructs extensive burrow systems with shallow subsurface foraging tunnels, also used for dispersal, and deeper tunnels (15-30 cm) used for resting and raising young. Small irregular mounds mark entrances to deeper tunnels. Brief bouts of surface foraging in thick layers of leaflitter occasionally occur at night. Adults are solitary, except when females are raising offspring.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Gunning’s Golden Mole faces threats from commercial forestry plantations and associated road infrastructure, replacing indigenous forests and abutting grasslands, cultivation, housing, and tourism infrastructure development in formerly rural areas around Haenertsburg. These have caused severe habitat destruction, fragmentation, and loss for c¢.40 years and resulted in marked decreases in quality and area of suitable habitat found in three localized areas that comprise the small and fragmented distribution of Gunning’s Golden Mole. Area of occupancy estimated from six confirmed locations is only 96 km? and total extent of occurrence is ¢.1327 km? (minimum polygon). Although small parts ofits distribution are protected in state-owned forest reserves (e.g. De Hoek, New Agatha, and Woodbush), currently implemented protection measures and management are not necessarily cognizant of very specific habitat requirements of Gunning’s Golden Mole. Privatization of state-owned forests renders continued protection in some areas uncertain. Minor threats include predation by domestic pets and persecution by gardeners and landowners. Gunning’s Golden Mole is considered of global and regional conservation concern and ranks among the top 100 mammalian species (number 73) in the EDGE of Existence Program, which aims to conserve the world’s Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered species. It received the highest regional priority score for mammals in the former Transvaal Province (South Africa) based on relative occupancy, endemism, taxonomic distinctiveness, and vulnerability. Gunning’s Golden Mole does not receive any dedicated conservation attention, and knowledge of its ecology,life history traits, and evolutionary relationships remains sparse. Such information is crucial for informing effective development of a conservation management plan.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 121-132 mm (males) and 111-128 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-17 mm (females); weight 62-8 (56-70) g (males) and 51 (39-56) g (females). Gunning’s Golden Mole is medium-sized, resembling the Hottentot Golden Mole (Amblysomus hottentotus) and the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis) in shape and appearance but distinguished from these by its gracile claws and consistent presence of M®. Male Gunning’s Golden Moles are somewhat larger and heavier than females. Dorsum varies from dark reddish brown through different hues of brown to black, with distinctive bronze sheen; venter is fawn, with reddish brown and gray underfur. Cheeks and throat are reddish brown, and tip of muzzle is tinged yellow and much paler than upper parts of body. Forefeet are robust, with four digits and distinctive claws. Claw on first digit is short and narrow, claw on second digit is three-quarters the length of claw on longest third digit (12-5-14 mm), and claw on fourth digit is reduced and knob-like. Membrane fuses four digits on hindfeet, and each digit has narrow-curved claw; third claw is significantly longer. Skull is elongate (breadth 63% of greater skull length, GSL), and palate isnarrow (28% of GSL). Talonids on lower molars are absent in adults; rudimentary talonids on M, are sometimes presentin juveniles but become peg-like due to tooth wear. Mallei in middle ears are small and unspecialized. No geographical variation has been recorded for morphological traits. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","habitat":"[.ow-lying and high-elevation indigenous forests (Mistbelt Forests and Wolkberg Afro-montane Forest Belt) and adjacent montane grasslands (Northeastern Mountain Grassland) in the Savanna Biome of South Africa (southernmost tip of the Zambezian Woodland Biozone). Gunning’s Golden Mole is a forest specialist. It prefers moist sandy or loamy soils along watercourses and near ponds in natural habitat, but its burrow systems can also extend into highly transformed habitats with loose soils, such as timber plantations, cultivated land (e.g. tea fields), pastures (livestock), rural and suburban gardens, and road shoulders. It coexists with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus) in natural, undisturbed habitat and highly transformed areas, but itis confined to moist and friable soils."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A729806FA53FCC8E725F816.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A729806FA53FCC8E725F816","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"8.Somali Golden MoleHuetia tytonisFrench:Taupe-dorée de Somalie/ German:Somalia-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de SomaliaTaxonomy.Amblysomus tytonis Simonetta, 1968, Giohar, southern Somalia. Taxonomic placement of tytonisis uncertain (incertae sedis). It was previously assigned to Amblysomus,Chlorotalpa, and Calcochlorisbut here included in Huetiabecause cladistic analyses of the few characteristics available suggest that it is more closely related to H. leucorhina. It is known only from a partially complete specimen in an owl pellet.Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in S Somalia, with no subsequent records, although this might reflect a lack of sampling.Descriptive notes.There is no information available for this species, except the presence of M”.Habitat.Dense bushland and thicket, and savanna of the Somali Peninsula.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but the Somali Golden Mole is probably primarily insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Calcochloristytonas).Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Maree (2015b), Meester (1974), Simonetta (1968).","taxonomy":"Amblysomus tytonis Simonetta, 1968, Giohar, southern Somalia. Taxonomic placement of tytonisis uncertain (incertae sedis). It was previously assigned to Amblysomus,Chlorotalpa, and Calcochlorisbut here included in Huetiabecause cladistic analyses of the few characteristics available suggest that it is more closely related to H. leucorhina. It is known only from a partially complete specimen in an owl pellet.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Somalie @fr | Somalia-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Somalia @es","interpretedAuthority":"Simonetta","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Simonetta","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1968","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Huetia","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"tytonis","name":"Huetia tytonis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from the type locality in S Somalia, with no subsequent records, although this might reflect a lack of sampling.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624516/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b) | Maree (2015b) | Meester (1974) | Simonetta (1968)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but the Somali Golden Mole is probably primarily insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Calcochloristytonas).","descriptiveNotes":"There is no information available for this species, except the presence of M”.","habitat":"Dense bushland and thicket, and savanna of the Somali Peninsula."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A729806FF50F813E6CDFCB3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A729806FF50F813E6CDFCB3","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"7.Congo Golden MoleHuetia leucorhinaFrench:Taupe-dorée du Congo/ German:Kongo-Guldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado del CongoTaxonomy.Chrysochloris leucorhina Huet, 1885, “[Republic of] Congo sur la cote du golfe de Guinée [= Gulf Coast of Guinea].”The species leucorhinawas previously placed in Amblysomus, Chrysochloris, Chlo- rotalpa, and Calcochloris(subgenus Huetia), based on various cranial and dental characteristics. Subgenus Huetiawas afforded full generic status by R. J. Asher and colleagues in 2010, based on phylogeny derived from combined morphological and molecular characteristics. Subspecies leucorhinanow includes other described taxa such as congicus and luluanus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.l.leucorhinaHuet,1885—knownfromvariousisolatedlocationsinextremeSEGabon,DRCongo,andNAngola.H. l. cahni E. Schwarz & Mertens, 1922— S Cameroon, SE Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 63-126 mm, hindfoot 9-10 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Congo Golden Mole is small, similarin size to the Yellow Golden Mole (C. obtusirostris). Dorsum is dark brown to dark gray, becoming slightly paler ventrally. Pale, creamy color occurs over muzzle, extending laterally toward ears. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M” are usually present, resembling other cheek teeth; P1 are molariform (tricuspid); and lower molars lack talonids. Foreclaws are very slender, and claw on third digit is largest.Habitat.Predominantly soft sandy or loamy soils in montane rainforests, forest-savanna mosaics, and lowland equatorial forests. Congo Golden Moles can occur in pastures, cultivated lands, and rural and urban gardens.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Congo Golden Moles are probably primarily insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Congo Golden Moles are terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Limited data are available on distributional limits of and threats to the Congo Golden Mole, and there are no data on population densities. Inferred major threats include destruction and exploitation of indigenous forests in the Congo Basin through unsustainable timber logging, commercial plantations (coffee, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber), agriculture, and associated road and rural infrastructure developments. Parts of the northern distribution of the Congo Golden Mole occur in Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) and Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Cameroon, DR Congo, Central African Republic) and Ngotto Classified Forest in Central African Republic. None of the scattered records in the DR Congo occur in protected areas.Bibliography.Asher et al. (2010), Bronner (1995a, 2013b), Maree (2015c¢).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris leucorhina Huet, 1885, “[Republic of] Congo sur la cote du golfe de Guinée [= Gulf Coast of Guinea].”The species leucorhinawas previously placed in Amblysomus, Chrysochloris, Chlo- rotalpa, and Calcochloris(subgenus Huetia), based on various cranial and dental characteristics. Subgenus Huetiawas afforded full generic status by R. J. Asher and colleagues in 2010, based on phylogeny derived from combined morphological and molecular characteristics. Subspecies leucorhinanow includes other described taxa such as congicus and luluanus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée du Congo @fr | Kongo-Guldmull @de | Topo dorado del Congo @es","interpretedAuthority":"Huet","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Huet","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1885","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Huetia","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucorhina","name":"Huetia leucorhina","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.l.leucorhinaHuet,1885—knownfromvariousisolatedlocationsinextremeSEGabon,DRCongo,andNAngola.H. l. cahni E. Schwarz & Mertens, 1922— S Cameroon, SE Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.","bibliography":"Asher et al. (2010) | Bronner (1995a, 2013b) | Maree (2015c¢)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Congo Golden Moles are probably primarily insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Congo Golden Moles are terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Limited data are available on distributional limits of and threats to the Congo Golden Mole, and there are no data on population densities. Inferred major threats include destruction and exploitation of indigenous forests in the Congo Basin through unsustainable timber logging, commercial plantations (coffee, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber), agriculture, and associated road and rural infrastructure developments. Parts of the northern distribution of the Congo Golden Mole occur in Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) and Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Cameroon, DR Congo, Central African Republic) and Ngotto Classified Forest in Central African Republic. None of the scattered records in the DR Congo occur in protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 63-126 mm, hindfoot 9-10 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Congo Golden Mole is small, similarin size to the Yellow Golden Mole (C. obtusirostris). Dorsum is dark brown to dark gray, becoming slightly paler ventrally. Pale, creamy color occurs over muzzle, extending laterally toward ears. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M” are usually present, resembling other cheek teeth; P1 are molariform (tricuspid); and lower molars lack talonids. Foreclaws are very slender, and claw on third digit is largest.","habitat":"Predominantly soft sandy or loamy soils in montane rainforests, forest-savanna mosaics, and lowland equatorial forests. Congo Golden Moles can occur in pastures, cultivated lands, and rural and urban gardens."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A739806FA9DF835EDCFF908.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A739806FA9DF835EDCFF908","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"197","verbatimText":"0.Yellow Golden MoleCalcochloris obtusirostrisFrench:Taupe-dorée du Mozambique/ German:Gelber Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado amarilloTaxonomy.Chrysochloris obtusirostrisPe- ters, 1851, Inhambane, coastal Mozam- bique.The species obtusirostrishas been vari- ably assigned to Chrysochloris, Amblyso- mus, or Calcochloris. The name Calc- ochloris predates Chrysotricha, commonly used for this genus until 1953, and also Huetia. G. N. Bronner in 1995 placed C. obtusirostrisin the subgenus Calcochloris, and C. leucorhinus in the subgenus Huetia, which previously included C. tytonis. Huetiahas since been elevated to full generic status, leaving Calcochloristo include only C. obtusirostris. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. o. obtusirostris Peters, 1851— Save and Changane river systems of C & S Mozambique, with marginal intrusion into SE Zimbabwe and Limpopo Province of NE South Africa. C. o. chrysillus Thomas & Schwann, 1905 — from Maputo, S Mozambique, S to Maputaland, NE KwaZulu-Natal, E South Africa. C. o. limpopoensis Roberts, 1946 — from around mouth of Limpopo River S to coastal plains near Maputo, SE Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-110 mm (males) and 82-110 mm (females), hindfoot 10-13 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 25-33 g (males) and 15-37 g (females). The Yellow Golden Mole is among the smallest of the southern African species of golden moles, with pronounced sexual dimorphism in size (males are larger and heavier). Subspecies are discriminated by subtle morphological differences but intergrade in size, making distinguishing among them difficult. Yellow Golden Moles are easily distinguished by their yellow-orange venter, which is grayish in all other chrysochlorids. Dorsum can vary considerably from light yellow-orange through orange, bright reddish brown, to dull brown and dark brown; this variation can be attributed to pelage becoming darker and more grizzled with time between molts. Muzzle, throat, and chin are buffy white, and unique foliaceous projections occur on nostrils. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M? are absent, P1 are molariform (tricuspid), lowermolars lack talonids, and canines are bicuspid. Claws on forefeet are slender and flattened, claw on third digit is largest, claws on first and second digits are similar in length, and fourth digit is small with short claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 28 and FN = 56.Habitat.Mosaics of southern African subtropical forest and savanna woodland with light sandy soils, sandy alluvium, and coastal sand dunes. Nominotypical subspecies obtusirostrisinhabits Acaciaand Colophospermummopane (both Fabaceae) savanna (thornveld woodland) and lowveld and Nyadu Sandveld grasslands; subspecies limpopoensis occurs in miombo savanna (woodland); and subspecies chrysillus occurs in Coastal Bushveld—Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. Yellow Golden Moles also thrive in rural and urban gardens and occur in cultivated lands, pastures, and commercial forestry plantations.Food and Feeding.The Yellow Golden Mole is predominantly insectivorous. It responds to vibrations produced by live insect prey including beetle larvae, termites, grasshoppers, flies, moths, and small lizards.Breeding.Breeding of the Yellow Golden Mole can be aseasonal, but breeding individuals have been recorded in October and January, suggesting thatit takes place primarily in wet summer months. Littersize is two.Activity patterns.Yellow Golden Moles are strictly fossorial and predominantly nocturnal, particularly active after rains. They can move at surprising speed in and out of sand in porpoise-like fashion. They construct shallow subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (up to 20 cm) tunnels that lead to nesting chambers, often among tree roots. Deep tunnels are well established and maintained; subsurface foraging tunnels can be temporary and can extend up to 50 m from nesting areas. Yellow Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbance, and they are known to burrow downward in a spiraling pattern when disturbed in subsurface tunnels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult Yellow Golden Moles are solitary and have been recorded to move distances of up to 50 m between nest chambers and foraging areas. They emit high-pitched squeaks when agitated.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yellow Golden Mole is generally widespread and locally common in suitable sandy habitats. Parts of distributions of subspecies obtusirostrisand chrysillus occur in protected areas, but this is not the case for limpopoensis, which has not been recorded in any conservation area.Bibliography.Asher et al. (2010), Bronner (1995a, 2013b), Maree (2015a).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris obtusirostrisPe- ters, 1851, Inhambane, coastal Mozam- bique.The species obtusirostrishas been vari- ably assigned to Chrysochloris, Amblyso- mus, or Calcochloris. The name Calc- ochloris predates Chrysotricha, commonly used for this genus until 1953, and also Huetia. G. N. Bronner in 1995 placed C. obtusirostrisin the subgenus Calcochloris, and C. leucorhinus in the subgenus Huetia, which previously included C. tytonis. Huetiahas since been elevated to full generic status, leaving Calcochloristo include only C. obtusirostris. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée du Mozambique @fr | Gelber Goldmull @de | Topo dorado amarillo @es","interpretedAuthority":"Peters","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1851","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Calcochloris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"197","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"obtusirostris","name":"Calcochloris obtusirostris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. o. obtusirostris Peters, 1851— Save and Changane river systems of C & S Mozambique, with marginal intrusion into SE Zimbabwe and Limpopo Province of NE South Africa. C. o. chrysillus Thomas & Schwann, 1905 — from Maputo, S Mozambique, S to Maputaland, NE KwaZulu-Natal, E South Africa. C. o. limpopoensis Roberts, 1946 — from around mouth of Limpopo River S to coastal plains near Maputo, SE Mozambique.","bibliography":"Asher et al. (2010) | Bronner (1995a, 2013b) | Maree (2015a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Yellow Golden Mole is predominantly insectivorous. It responds to vibrations produced by live insect prey including beetle larvae, termites, grasshoppers, flies, moths, and small lizards.","breeding":"Breeding of the Yellow Golden Mole can be aseasonal, but breeding individuals have been recorded in October and January, suggesting thatit takes place primarily in wet summer months. Littersize is two.","activityPatterns":"Yellow Golden Moles are strictly fossorial and predominantly nocturnal, particularly active after rains. They can move at surprising speed in and out of sand in porpoise-like fashion. They construct shallow subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (up to 20 cm) tunnels that lead to nesting chambers, often among tree roots. Deep tunnels are well established and maintained; subsurface foraging tunnels can be temporary and can extend up to 50 m from nesting areas. Yellow Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbance, and they are known to burrow downward in a spiraling pattern when disturbed in subsurface tunnels.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Adult Yellow Golden Moles are solitary and have been recorded to move distances of up to 50 m between nest chambers and foraging areas. They emit high-pitched squeaks when agitated.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yellow Golden Mole is generally widespread and locally common in suitable sandy habitats. Parts of distributions of subspecies obtusirostrisand chrysillus occur in protected areas, but this is not the case for limpopoensis, which has not been recorded in any conservation area.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 88-110 mm (males) and 82-110 mm (females), hindfoot 10-13 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 25-33 g (males) and 15-37 g (females). The Yellow Golden Mole is among the smallest of the southern African species of golden moles, with pronounced sexual dimorphism in size (males are larger and heavier). Subspecies are discriminated by subtle morphological differences but intergrade in size, making distinguishing among them difficult. Yellow Golden Moles are easily distinguished by their yellow-orange venter, which is grayish in all other chrysochlorids. Dorsum can vary considerably from light yellow-orange through orange, bright reddish brown, to dull brown and dark brown; this variation can be attributed to pelage becoming darker and more grizzled with time between molts. Muzzle, throat, and chin are buffy white, and unique foliaceous projections occur on nostrils. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M? are absent, P1 are molariform (tricuspid), lowermolars lack talonids, and canines are bicuspid. Claws on forefeet are slender and flattened, claw on third digit is largest, claws on first and second digits are similar in length, and fourth digit is small with short claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 28 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Mosaics of southern African subtropical forest and savanna woodland with light sandy soils, sandy alluvium, and coastal sand dunes. Nominotypical subspecies obtusirostrisinhabits Acaciaand Colophospermummopane (both Fabaceae) savanna (thornveld woodland) and lowveld and Nyadu Sandveld grasslands; subspecies limpopoensis occurs in miombo savanna (woodland); and subspecies chrysillus occurs in Coastal Bushveld—Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. Yellow Golden Moles also thrive in rural and urban gardens and occur in cultivated lands, pastures, and commercial forestry plantations."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A729806FF50F813E6CDFCB3.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A729806FF50F813E6CDFCB3","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"198","verbatimText":"7.Congo Golden MoleHuetia leucorhinaFrench:Taupe-dorée du Congo/ German:Kongo-Guldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado del CongoTaxonomy.Chrysochloris leucorhina Huet, 1885, “[Republic of] Congo sur la cote du golfe de Guinée [= Gulf Coast of Guinea].”The species leucorhinawas previously placed in Amblysomus, Chrysochloris, Chlo- rotalpa, and Calcochloris(subgenus Huetia), based on various cranial and dental characteristics. Subgenus Huetiawas afforded full generic status by R. J. Asher and colleagues in 2010, based on phylogeny derived from combined morphological and molecular characteristics. Subspecies leucorhinanow includes other described taxa such as congicus and luluanus. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.H.l.leucorhinaHuet,1885—knownfromvariousisolatedlocationsinextremeSEGabon,DRCongo,andNAngola.H. l. cahni E. Schwarz & Mertens, 1922— S Cameroon, SE Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.Descriptive notes.Head-body 63-126 mm, hindfoot 9-10 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Congo Golden Mole is small, similarin size to the Yellow Golden Mole (C. obtusirostris). Dorsum is dark brown to dark gray, becoming slightly paler ventrally. Pale, creamy color occurs over muzzle, extending laterally toward ears. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M” are usually present, resembling other cheek teeth; P1 are molariform (tricuspid); and lower molars lack talonids. Foreclaws are very slender, and claw on third digit is largest.Habitat.Predominantly soft sandy or loamy soils in montane rainforests, forest-savanna mosaics, and lowland equatorial forests. Congo Golden Moles can occur in pastures, cultivated lands, and rural and urban gardens.Food and Feeding.There is no specific information available for this species, but Congo Golden Moles are probably primarily insectivorous.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Congo Golden Moles are terrestrial.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Limited data are available on distributional limits of and threats to the Congo Golden Mole, and there are no data on population densities. Inferred major threats include destruction and exploitation of indigenous forests in the Congo Basin through unsustainable timber logging, commercial plantations (coffee, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber), agriculture, and associated road and rural infrastructure developments. Parts of the northern distribution of the Congo Golden Mole occur in Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) and Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Cameroon, DR Congo, Central African Republic) and Ngotto Classified Forest in Central African Republic. None of the scattered records in the DR Congo occur in protected areas.Bibliography.Asher et al. (2010), Bronner (1995a, 2013b), Maree (2015c¢).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris leucorhina Huet, 1885, “[Republic of] Congo sur la cote du golfe de Guinée [= Gulf Coast of Guinea].”The species leucorhinawas previously placed in Amblysomus, Chrysochloris, Chlo- rotalpa, and Calcochloris(subgenus Huetia), based on various cranial and dental characteristics. Subgenus Huetiawas afforded full generic status by R. J. Asher and colleagues in 2010, based on phylogeny derived from combined morphological and molecular characteristics. Subspecies leucorhinanow includes other described taxa such as congicus and luluanus. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée du Congo @fr | Kongo-Guldmull @de | Topo dorado del Congo @es","interpretedAuthority":"Huet","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Huet","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1885","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Huetia","interpretedHigherTaxonomySource":"GBIF","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"198","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leucorhina","name":"Huetia leucorhina","subspeciesAndDistribution":"H.l.leucorhinaHuet,1885—knownfromvariousisolatedlocationsinextremeSEGabon,DRCongo,andNAngola.H. l. cahni E. Schwarz & Mertens, 1922— S Cameroon, SE Central African Republic, and N Republic of the Congo.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624513/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Asher et al. (2010) | Bronner (1995a, 2013b) | Maree (2015c¢)","foodAndFeeding":"There is no specific information available for this species, but Congo Golden Moles are probably primarily insectivorous.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Congo Golden Moles are terrestrial.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Limited data are available on distributional limits of and threats to the Congo Golden Mole, and there are no data on population densities. Inferred major threats include destruction and exploitation of indigenous forests in the Congo Basin through unsustainable timber logging, commercial plantations (coffee, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber), agriculture, and associated road and rural infrastructure developments. Parts of the northern distribution of the Congo Golden Mole occur in Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) and Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Cameroon, DR Congo, Central African Republic) and Ngotto Classified Forest in Central African Republic. None of the scattered records in the DR Congo occur in protected areas.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 63-126 mm, hindfoot 9-10 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Congo Golden Mole is small, similarin size to the Yellow Golden Mole (C. obtusirostris). Dorsum is dark brown to dark gray, becoming slightly paler ventrally. Pale, creamy color occurs over muzzle, extending laterally toward ears. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M” are usually present, resembling other cheek teeth; P1 are molariform (tricuspid); and lower molars lack talonids. Foreclaws are very slender, and claw on third digit is largest.","habitat":"Predominantly soft sandy or loamy soils in montane rainforests, forest-savanna mosaics, and lowland equatorial forests. Congo Golden Moles can occur in pastures, cultivated lands, and rural and urban gardens."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A739806FA9DF835EDCFF908.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A739806FA9DF835EDCFF908","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"197","verbatimText":"0.Yellow Golden MoleCalcochloris obtusirostrisFrench:Taupe-dorée du Mozambique/ German:Gelber Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado amarilloTaxonomy.Chrysochloris obtusirostrisPe- ters, 1851, Inhambane, coastal Mozam- bique.The species obtusirostrishas been vari- ably assigned to Chrysochloris, Amblyso- mus, or Calcochloris. The name Calc- ochloris predates Chrysotricha, commonly used for this genus until 1953, and also Huetia. G. N. Bronner in 1995 placed C. obtusirostrisin the subgenus Calcochloris, and C. leucorhinus in the subgenus Huetia, which previously included C. tytonis. Huetiahas since been elevated to full generic status, leaving Calcochloristo include only C. obtusirostris. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.C. o. obtusirostris Peters, 1851— Save and Changane river systems of C & S Mozambique, with marginal intrusion into SE Zimbabwe and Limpopo Province of NE South Africa. C. o. chrysillus Thomas & Schwann, 1905 — from Maputo, S Mozambique, S to Maputaland, NE KwaZulu-Natal, E South Africa. C. o. limpopoensis Roberts, 1946 — from around mouth of Limpopo River S to coastal plains near Maputo, SE Mozambique.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-110 mm (males) and 82-110 mm (females), hindfoot 10-13 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 25-33 g (males) and 15-37 g (females). The Yellow Golden Mole is among the smallest of the southern African species of golden moles, with pronounced sexual dimorphism in size (males are larger and heavier). Subspecies are discriminated by subtle morphological differences but intergrade in size, making distinguishing among them difficult. Yellow Golden Moles are easily distinguished by their yellow-orange venter, which is grayish in all other chrysochlorids. Dorsum can vary considerably from light yellow-orange through orange, bright reddish brown, to dull brown and dark brown; this variation can be attributed to pelage becoming darker and more grizzled with time between molts. Muzzle, throat, and chin are buffy white, and unique foliaceous projections occur on nostrils. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M? are absent, P1 are molariform (tricuspid), lowermolars lack talonids, and canines are bicuspid. Claws on forefeet are slender and flattened, claw on third digit is largest, claws on first and second digits are similar in length, and fourth digit is small with short claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 28 and FN = 56.Habitat.Mosaics of southern African subtropical forest and savanna woodland with light sandy soils, sandy alluvium, and coastal sand dunes. Nominotypical subspecies obtusirostrisinhabits Acaciaand Colophospermummopane (both Fabaceae) savanna (thornveld woodland) and lowveld and Nyadu Sandveld grasslands; subspecies limpopoensis occurs in miombo savanna (woodland); and subspecies chrysillus occurs in Coastal Bushveld—Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. Yellow Golden Moles also thrive in rural and urban gardens and occur in cultivated lands, pastures, and commercial forestry plantations.Food and Feeding.The Yellow Golden Mole is predominantly insectivorous. It responds to vibrations produced by live insect prey including beetle larvae, termites, grasshoppers, flies, moths, and small lizards.Breeding.Breeding of the Yellow Golden Mole can be aseasonal, but breeding individuals have been recorded in October and January, suggesting thatit takes place primarily in wet summer months. Littersize is two.Activity patterns.Yellow Golden Moles are strictly fossorial and predominantly nocturnal, particularly active after rains. They can move at surprising speed in and out of sand in porpoise-like fashion. They construct shallow subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (up to 20 cm) tunnels that lead to nesting chambers, often among tree roots. Deep tunnels are well established and maintained; subsurface foraging tunnels can be temporary and can extend up to 50 m from nesting areas. Yellow Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbance, and they are known to burrow downward in a spiraling pattern when disturbed in subsurface tunnels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult Yellow Golden Moles are solitary and have been recorded to move distances of up to 50 m between nest chambers and foraging areas. They emit high-pitched squeaks when agitated.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yellow Golden Mole is generally widespread and locally common in suitable sandy habitats. Parts of distributions of subspecies obtusirostrisand chrysillus occur in protected areas, but this is not the case for limpopoensis, which has not been recorded in any conservation area.Bibliography.Asher et al. (2010), Bronner (1995a, 2013b), Maree (2015a).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris obtusirostrisPe- ters, 1851, Inhambane, coastal Mozam- bique.The species obtusirostrishas been vari- ably assigned to Chrysochloris, Amblyso- mus, or Calcochloris. The name Calc- ochloris predates Chrysotricha, commonly used for this genus until 1953, and also Huetia. G. N. Bronner in 1995 placed C. obtusirostrisin the subgenus Calcochloris, and C. leucorhinus in the subgenus Huetia, which previously included C. tytonis. Huetiahas since been elevated to full generic status, leaving Calcochloristo include only C. obtusirostris. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée du Mozambique @fr | Gelber Goldmull @de | Topo dorado amarillo @es","interpretedAuthority":"Peters","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1851","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Calcochloris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"197","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"obtusirostris","name":"Calcochloris obtusirostris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C. o. obtusirostris Peters, 1851— Save and Changane river systems of C & S Mozambique, with marginal intrusion into SE Zimbabwe and Limpopo Province of NE South Africa. C. o. chrysillus Thomas & Schwann, 1905 — from Maputo, S Mozambique, S to Maputaland, NE KwaZulu-Natal, E South Africa. C. o. limpopoensis Roberts, 1946 — from around mouth of Limpopo River S to coastal plains near Maputo, SE Mozambique.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624511/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Asher et al. (2010) | Bronner (1995a, 2013b) | Maree (2015a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Yellow Golden Mole is predominantly insectivorous. It responds to vibrations produced by live insect prey including beetle larvae, termites, grasshoppers, flies, moths, and small lizards.","breeding":"Breeding of the Yellow Golden Mole can be aseasonal, but breeding individuals have been recorded in October and January, suggesting thatit takes place primarily in wet summer months. Littersize is two.","activityPatterns":"Yellow Golden Moles are strictly fossorial and predominantly nocturnal, particularly active after rains. They can move at surprising speed in and out of sand in porpoise-like fashion. They construct shallow subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (up to 20 cm) tunnels that lead to nesting chambers, often among tree roots. Deep tunnels are well established and maintained; subsurface foraging tunnels can be temporary and can extend up to 50 m from nesting areas. Yellow Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbance, and they are known to burrow downward in a spiraling pattern when disturbed in subsurface tunnels.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Adult Yellow Golden Moles are solitary and have been recorded to move distances of up to 50 m between nest chambers and foraging areas. They emit high-pitched squeaks when agitated.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yellow Golden Mole is generally widespread and locally common in suitable sandy habitats. Parts of distributions of subspecies obtusirostrisand chrysillus occur in protected areas, but this is not the case for limpopoensis, which has not been recorded in any conservation area.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 88-110 mm (males) and 82-110 mm (females), hindfoot 10-13 mm (males) and 9-14 mm (females); weight 25-33 g (males) and 15-37 g (females). The Yellow Golden Mole is among the smallest of the southern African species of golden moles, with pronounced sexual dimorphism in size (males are larger and heavier). Subspecies are discriminated by subtle morphological differences but intergrade in size, making distinguishing among them difficult. Yellow Golden Moles are easily distinguished by their yellow-orange venter, which is grayish in all other chrysochlorids. Dorsum can vary considerably from light yellow-orange through orange, bright reddish brown, to dull brown and dark brown; this variation can be attributed to pelage becoming darker and more grizzled with time between molts. Muzzle, throat, and chin are buffy white, and unique foliaceous projections occur on nostrils. Skull is short with broad palate, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and no external bullae are visible. M? are absent, P1 are molariform (tricuspid), lowermolars lack talonids, and canines are bicuspid. Claws on forefeet are slender and flattened, claw on third digit is largest, claws on first and second digits are similar in length, and fourth digit is small with short claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 28 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Mosaics of southern African subtropical forest and savanna woodland with light sandy soils, sandy alluvium, and coastal sand dunes. Nominotypical subspecies obtusirostrisinhabits Acaciaand Colophospermummopane (both Fabaceae) savanna (thornveld woodland) and lowveld and Nyadu Sandveld grasslands; subspecies limpopoensis occurs in miombo savanna (woodland); and subspecies chrysillus occurs in Coastal Bushveld—Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. Yellow Golden Moles also thrive in rural and urban gardens and occur in cultivated lands, pastures, and commercial forestry plantations."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A749800FF5EF3DEE8A2F4E6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A749800FF5EF3DEE8A2F4E6","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"196","verbatimText":"3.Highveld Golden MoleAmblysomus septentrionalisFrench:Taupe-dorée du Highveld/ German:Highveld-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado del Alto VeldTaxonomy.Amblysomus corriae septentrionalis Roberts, 1913, “Wakkerstroom,”Mpumalanga, South Africa.Amblysomus septentrionalistraditionally was recognized as a subspecies of A. iris (now incorporated into A. hottentotusand A. corriae). It was raised to full species by G. N.Bronner in 1996 based on unique chromosomal number among chrysochlorids and distinct craniometric properties from sister species A. hottentotusand A. robustus. Monotypic.Distribution.E South Africa, known from Barberton, Ermelo, and Wakkerstroom areas of Mpumalanga Province and Heilbron, Parys, and Harrismith of NE Free State, and Swaziland (Piggs Peak and Mbabane).Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 105-145 mm (females), hindfoot 13-20 mm (males) and 12-17 mm (females); weight 52-86 g. The Highveld Golden Mole is medium-sized and second largest species of Amblysomus. It has pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males on average larger than females. Size and pelage are similar to the Robust Golden Mole (A. robustus) and the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps). Pelage of the Highveld Golden Mole is dark reddish brown dorsally, lighter on flanks, and pale brown to orange ventrally. Pale yellow cheek patches extend laterally to subdermal eyes. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are absent, molar talonids are well developed, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid). Claws on forefeet are well developed but less robust than those of the Robust Golden Mole; claw on third digit is largest. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 34 and FN = 62.Habitat.Mainly grasslands and edges of marshes in high-elevation southern African savanna only in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland and Wet Cold Highveld Grassland biomes at elevations of ¢.1600-1800 m. Highveld Golden Moles can be common in well-irrigated farmlands, gardens, and golf courses and apparently at lower densities in exotic plantations. They are found in thickets of oldwood trees (Leucosideasericea, Rosaceae) on banks of streams in valleys but avoid scrubby vegetation in kloofs (steep-sided, wooded ravine) and along rocky ridges, where Sclater’s Golden Mole (Chlorotalpa sclateri) predominates. Highveld Golden Moles are generally restricted to friable soils in valleys and on mountainsides, where they can occur in sympatry with Rough-haired Golden Moles (Chrysospalaxvillosa).Food and Feeding.The Highveld Golden Mole is insectivorous, feeding mainly on subterranean invertebrates, particularly earthworms and pupae.Breeding.Highveld Golden Moles breed throughout the year but mainly in wet summer months (November-March), and they have 1-2 young/litter. Young are altricial at birth and raised in grass-lined nests in deep nesting chambers.Activity patterns.Highveld Golden Moles construct two-tiered burrow system, with subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (15-30 cm) tunnels leading to latrines and grass-lined nesting chambers. They are predominantly nocturnal, with activity declining rapidly at dawn and leading to daily torpor until late afternoon. Subsurface activity peaks in wet summer months (November—-March) and declines substantially in dry winter months (May—August).Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult Highveld Golden Moles appear to be solitary. They can be locally common; trapping data suggest densities of 3 ind/ha at one locality in the Wakkerstroom district.Status and Conservation.Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Highveld Golden Mole is currently known from twelve localities, with an estimated area of occupancy of only 2500 km?. It has not been found in any provincial or national nature reserves. Based on current estimates of area of occupancy, global population is over 10,000 individuals, although it appears to be declining. Inferred major threats include habitat degradation associated with mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel power stations in its high-elevation grassland habitats. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have not been successful. Farming and agroforestry (exotic pine and eucalypt plantations) have also affected habitat but do not appear to pose a major threat. Predation by domestic pets and persecution by gardeners and greenkeepers could be localized threats. Research is currently underway to acquire data on distributional limits. Additional data are needed to understand densities, ecology, behavior, and reproduction of the Highveld Golden Mole.Bibliography.Bernard et al. (1994), Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b), Mynhardt et al. (2015), Rampartab (2015b), Roberts (1951).","taxonomy":"Amblysomus corriae septentrionalis Roberts, 1913, “Wakkerstroom,”Mpumalanga, South Africa.Amblysomus septentrionalistraditionally was recognized as a subspecies of A. iris (now incorporated into A. hottentotusand A. corriae). It was raised to full species by G. N.Bronner in 1996 based on unique chromosomal number among chrysochlorids and distinct craniometric properties from sister species A. hottentotusand A. robustus. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée du Highveld @fr | Highveld-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado del Alto Veld @es","interpretedAuthority":"Roberts","interpretedAuthorityName":"Roberts","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1913","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Amblysomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"196","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"septentrionalis","name":"Amblysomus septentrionalis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E South Africa, known from Barberton, Ermelo, and Wakkerstroom areas of Mpumalanga Province and Heilbron, Parys, and Harrismith of NE Free State, and Swaziland (Piggs Peak and Mbabane).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624507/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bernard et al. (1994) | Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b) | Mynhardt et al. (2015) | Rampartab (2015b) | Roberts (1951)","foodAndFeeding":"The Highveld Golden Mole is insectivorous, feeding mainly on subterranean invertebrates, particularly earthworms and pupae.","breeding":"Highveld Golden Moles breed throughout the year but mainly in wet summer months (November-March), and they have 1-2 young/litter. Young are altricial at birth and raised in grass-lined nests in deep nesting chambers.","activityPatterns":"Highveld Golden Moles construct two-tiered burrow system, with subsurface foraging tunnels and deeper (15-30 cm) tunnels leading to latrines and grass-lined nesting chambers. They are predominantly nocturnal, with activity declining rapidly at dawn and leading to daily torpor until late afternoon. Subsurface activity peaks in wet summer months (November—-March) and declines substantially in dry winter months (May—August).","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Adult Highveld Golden Moles appear to be solitary. They can be locally common; trapping data suggest densities of 3 ind/ha at one locality in the Wakkerstroom district.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Highveld Golden Mole is currently known from twelve localities, with an estimated area of occupancy of only 2500 km?. It has not been found in any provincial or national nature reserves. Based on current estimates of area of occupancy, global population is over 10,000 individuals, although it appears to be declining. Inferred major threats include habitat degradation associated with mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel power stations in its high-elevation grassland habitats. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have not been successful. Farming and agroforestry (exotic pine and eucalypt plantations) have also affected habitat but do not appear to pose a major threat. Predation by domestic pets and persecution by gardeners and greenkeepers could be localized threats. Research is currently underway to acquire data on distributional limits. Additional data are needed to understand densities, ecology, behavior, and reproduction of the Highveld Golden Mole.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 105-145 mm (females), hindfoot 13-20 mm (males) and 12-17 mm (females); weight 52-86 g. The Highveld Golden Mole is medium-sized and second largest species of Amblysomus. It has pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males on average larger than females. Size and pelage are similar to the Robust Golden Mole (A. robustus) and the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps). Pelage of the Highveld Golden Mole is dark reddish brown dorsally, lighter on flanks, and pale brown to orange ventrally. Pale yellow cheek patches extend laterally to subdermal eyes. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are absent, molar talonids are well developed, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid). Claws on forefeet are well developed but less robust than those of the Robust Golden Mole; claw on third digit is largest. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 34 and FN = 62.","habitat":"Mainly grasslands and edges of marshes in high-elevation southern African savanna only in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland and Wet Cold Highveld Grassland biomes at elevations of ¢.1600-1800 m. Highveld Golden Moles can be common in well-irrigated farmlands, gardens, and golf courses and apparently at lower densities in exotic plantations. They are found in thickets of oldwood trees (Leucosideasericea, Rosaceae) on banks of streams in valleys but avoid scrubby vegetation in kloofs (steep-sided, wooded ravine) and along rocky ridges, where Sclater’s Golden Mole (Chlorotalpa sclateri) predominates. Highveld Golden Moles are generally restricted to friable soils in valleys and on mountainsides, where they can occur in sympatry with Rough-haired Golden Moles (Chrysospalaxvillosa)."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A759800FA9FF391EA6BF398.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A759800FA9FF391EA6BF398","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"195","verbatimText":"2.Robust Golden MoleAmblysomus robustusFrench:Taupe-dorée de Bronner/ German:Robuster Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado robustoOn following pages: 3. Highveld Golden Mole (Amblysomus septentrionalis); 4. Marley's Golden Mole (AmblysomusCongo Golden Mole (Huetia leucorhina); 8. Somali Golden Mole (Huetia tytonis); 9. Gunning'’s Golden Mole (Neamblysomus arendsi); 12. Sclater’'s Golden Mole (Chlorotalpa sclateri); 13. Duthie’'s Golden Mole (Chlorotalpa duthieae); 14. Stuhlmann’s Golden Mole (Chrysochlorisvisagiel); 17. Rough-haired Golden Mole (Chrysospalaxvillosa); 18. Giant Golden Mole (Cryptochloriszyl); 21. Grant's Golden Mole (Eremitalpagrant). marley); 5. Fynbos Golden Mole (Amblysomus corriae); 6. Yellow Golden Mole (Calcochloris obtusirostris); 7. gunning); 10. Juliana’s Golden Mole (Neamblysomus julianae); 11. Arend’'s Golden Mole (Carpitalpa Golden Mole(Chrysochloris stuhlmanni); 15. Cape Golden Mole (Chrysochloris asiatica); 16. Visagie's (Chrysospalax trevelyani); 19. De Winton's Golden Mole (Cryptochloris wintoni); 20. Van Zyl's Golden MoleTaxonomy.Amblysomus robustus Bronner, 2000, “Verloren-Vallei Provincial Nature Reserve (25°18°S; 30°08’E), 22 km northeast of Dullstroom, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Elevation 2 150 m a.s.1.”Amblysomus robustuswas previously included in A. hottentotusand elevated to full species based on unique karyotype, robust build, and subtle craniometric differences from A. hottentotusand A. septentrionalis. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from Steenkampsberg around Lydenburg, Dullstroom, and Belfast, Mpumalanga Province, NE South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head—body 118-143 mm (males) and 90-138 mm (females), hindfoot 18-19 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females); weight 72-98 g (males) and 61-73 g (females). The Robust Golden Mole is medium-sized, with robust build and strong claws, and is the largest species of Amblysomus. It has pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males larger than females. It is similar in size and color to the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps) and the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis). Dorsum of the Robust Golden Mole is dark reddish brown, with bright reddish brown on flanks; dorsum of juveniles is slightly duller, grayish brown to dull orange on flanks. Venter is orange. Yellowish orange cheek patches extend laterally to above subdermal eyes. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M* are usually absent, molar talonids are well developed, and PI are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid). Foreclaws are strong; claw on third digit is largest. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 36 and FN = 68.Habitat.Montane grasslands and marshes in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland biome at elevations of ¢.2000-2100 m. The Robust Golden Mole prefers friable soils but can live in heavier soils common to highveld. It can be found in clay soils, unlike other species of Amblysomus, probably due to its uniquely adapted robust build and strong claws. It avoids shallow substrates along rocky ridges (which might act as dispersal barriers) and waterlogged areas, but it is found in gardens, orchards, and cultivated lands.Food and Feeding.The Robust Golden Moleis insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates, with a preference for earthworms. It eats a wide variety of living invertebrate and vertebrate prey in captivity, including mealworms, kingworms, earthworms, and young mice, and it ignores dead prey.Breeding.Pregnancies and lactation of Robust Golden Moles were recorded in late summer to early autumn (March-April), suggesting that breeding occurs primarily in wet summer seasons.Activity patterns.Robust Golden Moles are mainly active in late afternoon and at night, and they are torpid during heat of day. They construct two-tiered burrow systems typical of golden moles, with subsurface tunnels for foraging and deeper tunnels (20-80 cm) leading to nesting chambers. Some burrows extend upward into rotting trees, which mightarise from moles foraging for invertebrate prey that are likely to be abundant in these trees or seeking refuge when burrows become waterlogged during heavy rains. Subsurface activity declines in dry winter months when abundance of prey is low. At these times, individuals might enter prolonged torpor spanning several days or confine their foraging to deeper tunnels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Adult Robust Golden Moles appear to be solitary and fight aggressively if confined together, although this might be due to stress in captivity.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of Robust Golden Moles is estimated at just less than 5000 km?, with continuing decline and possible severe fragmentation of habitat. It is currently known from only five locations, but it is probably more widespread than suggested by sparse distributional records. Highveld grasslands favored by Robust Golden Moles are being degraded by mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations that occur in its preferred high-elevation grassland habitats, which is an inferred major threat. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have been ineffective. Farming, tourism, resort developments, and agroforestry (exotic pine and eucalyptus plantations) have also transformed habitat but less dramatically; these do not appear to pose major threats. The Robust Golden Mole occurs in provincial Verloren Vallei Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga. Research is currently underway to determine distributional limits of the Robust Golden Mole and to clarify its relationships to the Hottentot Golden Mole (A. hottentotus) and the Highveld Golden Mole using molecular data. Additional research is required to fully understand its basic ecology and reproductive parameters of the Robust Golden Mole.Bibliography.Bronner (1995a, 2000, 2013b), Mynhardt et al. (2015), Rampartab (2015a).","taxonomy":"Amblysomus robustus Bronner, 2000, “Verloren-Vallei Provincial Nature Reserve (25°18°S; 30°08’E), 22 km northeast of Dullstroom, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Elevation 2 150 m a.s.1.”Amblysomus robustuswas previously included in A. hottentotusand elevated to full species based on unique karyotype, robust build, and subtle craniometric differences from A. hottentotusand A. septentrionalis. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Bronner @fr | Robuster Goldmull @de | Topo dorado robusto @es","interpretedAuthority":"Bronner","interpretedAuthorityName":"Bronner","interpretedAuthorityYear":"2000","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Amblysomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"195","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"robustus","name":"Amblysomus robustus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from Steenkampsberg around Lydenburg, Dullstroom, and Belfast, Mpumalanga Province, NE South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624505/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (1995a, 2000, 2013b) | Mynhardt et al. (2015) | Rampartab (2015a)","foodAndFeeding":"The Robust Golden Moleis insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates, with a preference for earthworms. It eats a wide variety of living invertebrate and vertebrate prey in captivity, including mealworms, kingworms, earthworms, and young mice, and it ignores dead prey.","breeding":"Pregnancies and lactation of Robust Golden Moles were recorded in late summer to early autumn (March-April), suggesting that breeding occurs primarily in wet summer seasons.","activityPatterns":"Robust Golden Moles are mainly active in late afternoon and at night, and they are torpid during heat of day. They construct two-tiered burrow systems typical of golden moles, with subsurface tunnels for foraging and deeper tunnels (20-80 cm) leading to nesting chambers. Some burrows extend upward into rotting trees, which mightarise from moles foraging for invertebrate prey that are likely to be abundant in these trees or seeking refuge when burrows become waterlogged during heavy rains. Subsurface activity declines in dry winter months when abundance of prey is low. At these times, individuals might enter prolonged torpor spanning several days or confine their foraging to deeper tunnels.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Adult Robust Golden Moles appear to be solitary and fight aggressively if confined together, although this might be due to stress in captivity.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Extent of occurrence of Robust Golden Moles is estimated at just less than 5000 km?, with continuing decline and possible severe fragmentation of habitat. It is currently known from only five locations, but it is probably more widespread than suggested by sparse distributional records. Highveld grasslands favored by Robust Golden Moles are being degraded by mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations that occur in its preferred high-elevation grassland habitats, which is an inferred major threat. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have been ineffective. Farming, tourism, resort developments, and agroforestry (exotic pine and eucalyptus plantations) have also transformed habitat but less dramatically; these do not appear to pose major threats. The Robust Golden Mole occurs in provincial Verloren Vallei Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga. Research is currently underway to determine distributional limits of the Robust Golden Mole and to clarify its relationships to the Hottentot Golden Mole (A. hottentotus) and the Highveld Golden Mole using molecular data. Additional research is required to fully understand its basic ecology and reproductive parameters of the Robust Golden Mole.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 118-143 mm (males) and 90-138 mm (females), hindfoot 18-19 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females); weight 72-98 g (males) and 61-73 g (females). The Robust Golden Mole is medium-sized, with robust build and strong claws, and is the largest species of Amblysomus. It has pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males larger than females. It is similar in size and color to the Drakensberg Golden Mole (A. longiceps) and the Highveld Golden Mole (A. septentrionalis). Dorsum of the Robust Golden Mole is dark reddish brown, with bright reddish brown on flanks; dorsum of juveniles is slightly duller, grayish brown to dull orange on flanks. Venter is orange. Yellowish orange cheek patches extend laterally to above subdermal eyes. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M* are usually absent, molar talonids are well developed, and PI are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid). Foreclaws are strong; claw on third digit is largest. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 36 and FN = 68.","habitat":"Montane grasslands and marshes in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland biome at elevations of ¢.2000-2100 m. The Robust Golden Mole prefers friable soils but can live in heavier soils common to highveld. It can be found in clay soils, unlike other species of Amblysomus, probably due to its uniquely adapted robust build and strong claws. It avoids shallow substrates along rocky ridges (which might act as dispersal barriers) and waterlogged areas, but it is found in gardens, orchards, and cultivated lands."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A759801FF9AFDAAE6DDF444.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A759801FF9AFDAAE6DDF444","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"195","verbatimText":"1.Hottentot Golden MoleAmblysomus hottentotusFrench:Taupe-dorée hottentote/ German:Hottentotten-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de los HotentotesOther common names:Zulu Golden Mole; Drakensberg Golden Mole (longiceps), Meester’s Golden Mole (meester)Taxonomy.Chrysochloris hottentotus[sic] A. Smith, 1829, “interior parts of South Africa”(= Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa).Amblysomus hottentotus1s synonymous with A. ins, described by O. Thomas and H. Schwann in 1905. Traditionally, A. Aottentotus has included populations that are here considered distinct species: A. corriae, A. marleyi, A. robustus, and A. septentrionalis. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.h.hottentotusA.Smith,1829—coastalpartsofEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica,fromvicinityofVanStadensRivermouthEtoKingWilliam’sTownandEastLondon.A.h.irisThomas&Schwann,1905—NcoastalpartsofKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica,fromStLuciaStoRichard’sBay.A.h.longicepsBroom,1907—DrakensbergescarpmentofKwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovinces,ESouthAfrica,withmarginalintrusionintoFreeStateandMpumalangaprovincesandLesotho.A.h.meester:Bronner,2000—NESouthAfrica,MpumalangaProvince,knownonlyfromNDrakensbergescarpmentaroundMariepskopandGraskop,rangingStovicinityofWhiteRiver,whereasinglespecimenhasbeencollected.A. h. pondoliae Thomas & Schwann, 1905— coastal parts of KwaZulu-Natal Province, E South Africa, between Durban and Port Edward.Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 104-135 mm (females), hindfoot 13-19 mm (males) and 12-18 mm (females) for the nominotypical Aottentotus; head—body 113-125 mm (males) and 104-132 mm (females), hindfoot 12-16 mm (males) and 11-16 mm (females) for subspecies iris; head—body 120-141 mm (males) and 119-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females) for subspecies longiceps; head-body 107-145 mm, hindfoot 14-17 mm for subspecies meesteri; head—body 107-145 mm (males) and 105-135 mm (females), hindfoot 12-18 mm (males) and 11-18 mm (females) for subspecies pondoliae; weight 37-85 g (males) and 37-60 g (females). The Hottentot Golden Mole is medium-sized, with considerable variation in size and pelage color among subspecies and populations. Generally, dorsum is rich dark reddish brown, becoming lighter reddish brown on flanks, with iridescent sheen of bronze, green, purple, or a mix. Venter is light grayish brown, with orange or reddish tinge, that is highly variable within populations, and sometimes with dark brown or pale whitish mid-ventral line from throat to belly. Muzzle is paler than dorsum, with off-white patches on cheeks, over subdermal eyes, and tiny ear openings. Albinistic specimens have creamy-beige to pale yellow (rarely recorded) dorsal and ventral pelage. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are usually absent, but when present, (less than 2% of individuals), they are small and range from triconid (molariform) to peg-like. Molar talonids are well developed except in subspecies meesteri, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid), except in subspecies meesteri, in which P1 tend to be more molariform. Dentition varies randomly and might reflect irregular sequence of tooth replacement in chrysochlorids. Foreclaws are moderately developed, claw on third digit is largest, second digit is much shorter, first digit is about one-half as long as second digit, and fourth digit is vestigial, with knob-like claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats from temperate grasslands and woodland savannas to Afro-montane forests, marshes, and coastal dunes, predominantly in mesic eastern regions of South Africa at elevations of ¢.0-2000 m. The Hottentot Golden Mole occurs mainly in Grassland and Savanna biomes, with marginal intrusion into Fynbos and Nama Karoo biomes in its southern distribution. It is particularly abundant in moist soils near water sources but also occurs far from surface water if soilis friable enough for burrowing and invertebrate prey is abundant. The Hottentot Golden Mole generally occurs in regions with mean annual rainfall more than 500 mm. It is frequently associated with agricultural land, golf courses, and gardens but less common in exotic plantations.Food and Feeding.The Hottentot Golden Mole is insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates such as earthworms and insects. In captivity, they will eat snails and plant material (e.g. potatoes and bulbs), although their digestive tracts are not specialized for herbivory. In nature, more than 97% of diets contain only earthworms, and less than 3% contain variety of insect prey including carabid beetle larvae, slugs, snails, crickets, insect pupae, and spiders. Individuals can consume up to 90% of their body weight daily. Although they will drink water in captivity, they probably obtain their moisture requirements from food and dew in the wild.Breeding.Hottentot Golden Moles breed aseasonally, with peak reproductive activity in wet summer months. Females are polyestrous, with postpartum estrus, and male spermatogenesis is continuous, reflecting relatively constant microclimate of their subterranean niche. Litters have 1-3 young, but in most cases, females will carry one fetus in each uterine horn, giving rise to litters of two young. At birth, young are altricial, pale pink, and naked, except for a few hairs on foreheads and sides of muzzles. Ear openings are marked by small protuberances on sides of the head. Claws are well developed but soft. Neonates are ¢.47 mm long, weigh 4-5 g, and develop short dark brown dorsal pelage by juvenile size at 72 mm long and 17 g; ventral surfaces remain naked; and teeth are unerupted. Pale ventral pelage first appears at the late juvenile size at 80 mm long and ¢.27 g, and eviction from maternal burrows occurs at ¢.35—40 g.Activity patterns.Hottentot Golden Moles live almost exclusively underground, constructing superficial burrows for foraging and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Subsurface tunnels are ¢.3 cm deep and 4-6 cm in diameter. Residential burrows can penetrate as far as 1 m belowground and are relatively complex in form, comprising grassor leaf-lined spherical nesting chambers 10-50 cm deep and 15-20 cm in diameter, other chambers used as latrines, and deeper (29-94 cm deep) spiraling bolt holes. In friable soils, horny nose pads are predominantly used for digging subsurface tunnels, and foreclaws assist with digging deeper tunnels and foraging in heavier soils. Hottentot Golden Moles are estimated to burrow at rates of up to 1-1-5 m/h and up to 9 m daily. Foraging burrows are generally 9.5-240 m long and might be extended by 4-12 m/day, depending on friability of soil and abundance of prey. Excavated soil from deep burrows is pushed up to the surface as molehills or compacted into tunnel walls; superficial foraging burrows result in ridges on the surface. Hottentot Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbances and will retreat quickly from superficial burrows to deeper burrows or bolt-holesif disturbed. They sometimes are attracted to the surface by movements of worms and insects, and they might even emerge and move on the surface, usually only at night and when food is scarce. At these times, they can be vulnerable to predation by owls and other predators. Hottentot Golden Moles are significantly less active in winter than summer, burrowing deeper and often entering torpor during colder winter months. They are particularly active after rain, and daily activity tends to peak at sunrise, sunset, and midnight, with periods of activity of up to two hours and periods of inactivity of 3-5 hours. During heavy rainfall events, underground burrows can become flooded. Hottentot Golden Moles cope with these situations by swimming; they can maintain a certain degree of buoyancy due to a layer of air retained in their wet fur. Soil temperatures in burrow systems are 0-8-32°C, but optimal thermal conditions for activity are 23-33°C, corresponding with their thermoneutral zone. Ambient temperatures below 15°C or higher than 30°C lead to torpor, characterized by reduced metabolic rate and considerable energetic saving.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hottentot Golden Moles are solitary and territorial. They actively defend their burrow systems, fighting aggressively with individuals of either sex by wrestling their opponent using foreclaws and biting opponent’s abdomen. Fighting is often accompanied by highpitched squeaks. Home range overlap is tolerated to some degree, and dominant individuals sometimes invade neighboring burrow systems to increase their home range size. Courtship involves chirruping vocalizations, head bobbing and foot stamping by the male, and rasping and squealing vocalizations by the female. Although solitary, the Hottentot Golden Mole has been recorded in sympatry with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus), even to the point of sharing burrow systems. Densities of Hottentot Golden Moles up to 25 ind/ha have been recorded in prime habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, distinct isolated evolutionary lineages with limited ranges or small population sizes might be under threat due to habitat alteration and degradation resulting from coastal urban development.Bibliography.Bernard et al. (1994), Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b), Bronner & Mynhardt (2015b), Broom (1907 1908), Gilbert et al. (2008), Hickman (1986), Kuyper (1985), McConnell (1986), Mynhardt et al. (2015), Schoeman et al. (2004), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Thomas & Schwann (1905).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris hottentotus[sic] A. Smith, 1829, “interior parts of South Africa”(= Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa).Amblysomus hottentotus1s synonymous with A. ins, described by O. Thomas and H. Schwann in 1905. Traditionally, A. Aottentotus has included populations that are here considered distinct species: A. corriae, A. marleyi, A. robustus, and A. septentrionalis. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée hottentote @fr | Hottentotten-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de los Hotentotes @es | Zulu Golden Mole; Drakensberg Golden Mole (longiceps) @en | Meester’s Golden Mole (meester) @en","interpretedAuthority":"A.Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1829","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Amblysomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"195","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hottentotus","name":"Amblysomus hottentotus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.h.hottentotusA.Smith,1829—coastalpartsofEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica,fromvicinityofVanStadensRivermouthEtoKingWilliam’sTownandEastLondon.A.h.irisThomas&Schwann,1905—NcoastalpartsofKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica,fromStLuciaStoRichard’sBay.A.h.longicepsBroom,1907—DrakensbergescarpmentofKwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovinces,ESouthAfrica,withmarginalintrusionintoFreeStateandMpumalangaprovincesandLesotho.A.h.meester:Bronner,2000—NESouthAfrica,MpumalangaProvince,knownonlyfromNDrakensbergescarpmentaroundMariepskopandGraskop,rangingStovicinityofWhiteRiver,whereasinglespecimenhasbeencollected.A. h. pondoliae Thomas & Schwann, 1905— coastal parts of KwaZulu-Natal Province, E South Africa, between Durban and Port Edward.","bibliography":"Bernard et al. (1994) | Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b) | Bronner & Mynhardt (2015b) | Broom (1907 1908) | Gilbert et al. (2008) | Hickman (1986) | Kuyper (1985) | McConnell (1986) | Mynhardt et al. (2015) | Schoeman et al. (2004) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Thomas & Schwann (1905)","foodAndFeeding":"The Hottentot Golden Mole is insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates such as earthworms and insects. In captivity, they will eat snails and plant material (e.g. potatoes and bulbs), although their digestive tracts are not specialized for herbivory. In nature, more than 97% of diets contain only earthworms, and less than 3% contain variety of insect prey including carabid beetle larvae, slugs, snails, crickets, insect pupae, and spiders. Individuals can consume up to 90% of their body weight daily. Although they will drink water in captivity, they probably obtain their moisture requirements from food and dew in the wild.","breeding":"Hottentot Golden Moles breed aseasonally, with peak reproductive activity in wet summer months. Females are polyestrous, with postpartum estrus, and male spermatogenesis is continuous, reflecting relatively constant microclimate of their subterranean niche. Litters have 1-3 young, but in most cases, females will carry one fetus in each uterine horn, giving rise to litters of two young. At birth, young are altricial, pale pink, and naked, except for a few hairs on foreheads and sides of muzzles. Ear openings are marked by small protuberances on sides of the head. Claws are well developed but soft. Neonates are ¢.47 mm long, weigh 4-5 g, and develop short dark brown dorsal pelage by juvenile size at 72 mm long and 17 g; ventral surfaces remain naked; and teeth are unerupted. Pale ventral pelage first appears at the late juvenile size at 80 mm long and ¢.27 g, and eviction from maternal burrows occurs at ¢.35—40 g.","activityPatterns":"Hottentot Golden Moles live almost exclusively underground, constructing superficial burrows for foraging and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Subsurface tunnels are ¢.3 cm deep and 4-6 cm in diameter. Residential burrows can penetrate as far as 1 m belowground and are relatively complex in form, comprising grassor leaf-lined spherical nesting chambers 10-50 cm deep and 15-20 cm in diameter, other chambers used as latrines, and deeper (29-94 cm deep) spiraling bolt holes. In friable soils, horny nose pads are predominantly used for digging subsurface tunnels, and foreclaws assist with digging deeper tunnels and foraging in heavier soils. Hottentot Golden Moles are estimated to burrow at rates of up to 1-1-5 m/h and up to 9 m daily. Foraging burrows are generally 9.5-240 m long and might be extended by 4-12 m/day, depending on friability of soil and abundance of prey. Excavated soil from deep burrows is pushed up to the surface as molehills or compacted into tunnel walls; superficial foraging burrows result in ridges on the surface. Hottentot Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbances and will retreat quickly from superficial burrows to deeper burrows or bolt-holesif disturbed. They sometimes are attracted to the surface by movements of worms and insects, and they might even emerge and move on the surface, usually only at night and when food is scarce. At these times, they can be vulnerable to predation by owls and other predators. Hottentot Golden Moles are significantly less active in winter than summer, burrowing deeper and often entering torpor during colder winter months. They are particularly active after rain, and daily activity tends to peak at sunrise, sunset, and midnight, with periods of activity of up to two hours and periods of inactivity of 3-5 hours. During heavy rainfall events, underground burrows can become flooded. Hottentot Golden Moles cope with these situations by swimming; they can maintain a certain degree of buoyancy due to a layer of air retained in their wet fur. Soil temperatures in burrow systems are 0-8-32°C, but optimal thermal conditions for activity are 23-33°C, corresponding with their thermoneutral zone. Ambient temperatures below 15°C or higher than 30°C lead to torpor, characterized by reduced metabolic rate and considerable energetic saving.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Hottentot Golden Moles are solitary and territorial. They actively defend their burrow systems, fighting aggressively with individuals of either sex by wrestling their opponent using foreclaws and biting opponent’s abdomen. Fighting is often accompanied by highpitched squeaks. Home range overlap is tolerated to some degree, and dominant individuals sometimes invade neighboring burrow systems to increase their home range size. Courtship involves chirruping vocalizations, head bobbing and foot stamping by the male, and rasping and squealing vocalizations by the female. Although solitary, the Hottentot Golden Mole has been recorded in sympatry with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus), even to the point of sharing burrow systems. Densities of Hottentot Golden Moles up to 25 ind/ha have been recorded in prime habitat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, distinct isolated evolutionary lineages with limited ranges or small population sizes might be under threat due to habitat alteration and degradation resulting from coastal urban development.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 104-135 mm (females), hindfoot 13-19 mm (males) and 12-18 mm (females) for the nominotypical Aottentotus; head—body 113-125 mm (males) and 104-132 mm (females), hindfoot 12-16 mm (males) and 11-16 mm (females) for subspecies iris; head—body 120-141 mm (males) and 119-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females) for subspecies longiceps; head-body 107-145 mm, hindfoot 14-17 mm for subspecies meesteri; head—body 107-145 mm (males) and 105-135 mm (females), hindfoot 12-18 mm (males) and 11-18 mm (females) for subspecies pondoliae; weight 37-85 g (males) and 37-60 g (females). The Hottentot Golden Mole is medium-sized, with considerable variation in size and pelage color among subspecies and populations. Generally, dorsum is rich dark reddish brown, becoming lighter reddish brown on flanks, with iridescent sheen of bronze, green, purple, or a mix. Venter is light grayish brown, with orange or reddish tinge, that is highly variable within populations, and sometimes with dark brown or pale whitish mid-ventral line from throat to belly. Muzzle is paler than dorsum, with off-white patches on cheeks, over subdermal eyes, and tiny ear openings. Albinistic specimens have creamy-beige to pale yellow (rarely recorded) dorsal and ventral pelage. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are usually absent, but when present, (less than 2% of individuals), they are small and range from triconid (molariform) to peg-like. Molar talonids are well developed except in subspecies meesteri, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid), except in subspecies meesteri, in which P1 tend to be more molariform. Dentition varies randomly and might reflect irregular sequence of tooth replacement in chrysochlorids. Foreclaws are moderately developed, claw on third digit is largest, second digit is much shorter, first digit is about one-half as long as second digit, and fourth digit is vestigial, with knob-like claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats from temperate grasslands and woodland savannas to Afro-montane forests, marshes, and coastal dunes, predominantly in mesic eastern regions of South Africa at elevations of ¢.0-2000 m. The Hottentot Golden Mole occurs mainly in Grassland and Savanna biomes, with marginal intrusion into Fynbos and Nama Karoo biomes in its southern distribution. It is particularly abundant in moist soils near water sources but also occurs far from surface water if soilis friable enough for burrowing and invertebrate prey is abundant. The Hottentot Golden Mole generally occurs in regions with mean annual rainfall more than 500 mm. It is frequently associated with agricultural land, golf courses, and gardens but less common in exotic plantations."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A759801FF9AFDAAE6DDF444.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A759801FF9AFDAAE6DDF444","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"195","verbatimText":"1.Hottentot Golden MoleAmblysomus hottentotusFrench:Taupe-dorée hottentote/ German:Hottentotten-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de los HotentotesOther common names:Zulu Golden Mole; Drakensberg Golden Mole (longiceps), Meester’s Golden Mole (meester)Taxonomy.Chrysochloris hottentotus[sic] A. Smith, 1829, “interior parts of South Africa”(= Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa).Amblysomus hottentotus1s synonymous with A. ins, described by O. Thomas and H. Schwann in 1905. Traditionally, A. Aottentotus has included populations that are here considered distinct species: A. corriae, A. marleyi, A. robustus, and A. septentrionalis. Five subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.A.h.hottentotusA.Smith,1829—coastalpartsofEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica,fromvicinityofVanStadensRivermouthEtoKingWilliam’sTownandEastLondon.A.h.irisThomas&Schwann,1905—NcoastalpartsofKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica,fromStLuciaStoRichard’sBay.A.h.longicepsBroom,1907—DrakensbergescarpmentofKwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovinces,ESouthAfrica,withmarginalintrusionintoFreeStateandMpumalangaprovincesandLesotho.A.h.meester:Bronner,2000—NESouthAfrica,MpumalangaProvince,knownonlyfromNDrakensbergescarpmentaroundMariepskopandGraskop,rangingStovicinityofWhiteRiver,whereasinglespecimenhasbeencollected.A. h. pondoliae Thomas & Schwann, 1905— coastal parts of KwaZulu-Natal Province, E South Africa, between Durban and Port Edward.Descriptive notes.Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 104-135 mm (females), hindfoot 13-19 mm (males) and 12-18 mm (females) for the nominotypical Aottentotus; head—body 113-125 mm (males) and 104-132 mm (females), hindfoot 12-16 mm (males) and 11-16 mm (females) for subspecies iris; head—body 120-141 mm (males) and 119-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females) for subspecies longiceps; head-body 107-145 mm, hindfoot 14-17 mm for subspecies meesteri; head—body 107-145 mm (males) and 105-135 mm (females), hindfoot 12-18 mm (males) and 11-18 mm (females) for subspecies pondoliae; weight 37-85 g (males) and 37-60 g (females). The Hottentot Golden Mole is medium-sized, with considerable variation in size and pelage color among subspecies and populations. Generally, dorsum is rich dark reddish brown, becoming lighter reddish brown on flanks, with iridescent sheen of bronze, green, purple, or a mix. Venter is light grayish brown, with orange or reddish tinge, that is highly variable within populations, and sometimes with dark brown or pale whitish mid-ventral line from throat to belly. Muzzle is paler than dorsum, with off-white patches on cheeks, over subdermal eyes, and tiny ear openings. Albinistic specimens have creamy-beige to pale yellow (rarely recorded) dorsal and ventral pelage. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are usually absent, but when present, (less than 2% of individuals), they are small and range from triconid (molariform) to peg-like. Molar talonids are well developed except in subspecies meesteri, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid), except in subspecies meesteri, in which P1 tend to be more molariform. Dentition varies randomly and might reflect irregular sequence of tooth replacement in chrysochlorids. Foreclaws are moderately developed, claw on third digit is largest, second digit is much shorter, first digit is about one-half as long as second digit, and fourth digit is vestigial, with knob-like claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Wide variety of habitats from temperate grasslands and woodland savannas to Afro-montane forests, marshes, and coastal dunes, predominantly in mesic eastern regions of South Africa at elevations of ¢.0-2000 m. The Hottentot Golden Mole occurs mainly in Grassland and Savanna biomes, with marginal intrusion into Fynbos and Nama Karoo biomes in its southern distribution. It is particularly abundant in moist soils near water sources but also occurs far from surface water if soilis friable enough for burrowing and invertebrate prey is abundant. The Hottentot Golden Mole generally occurs in regions with mean annual rainfall more than 500 mm. It is frequently associated with agricultural land, golf courses, and gardens but less common in exotic plantations.Food and Feeding.The Hottentot Golden Mole is insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates such as earthworms and insects. In captivity, they will eat snails and plant material (e.g. potatoes and bulbs), although their digestive tracts are not specialized for herbivory. In nature, more than 97% of diets contain only earthworms, and less than 3% contain variety of insect prey including carabid beetle larvae, slugs, snails, crickets, insect pupae, and spiders. Individuals can consume up to 90% of their body weight daily. Although they will drink water in captivity, they probably obtain their moisture requirements from food and dew in the wild.Breeding.Hottentot Golden Moles breed aseasonally, with peak reproductive activity in wet summer months. Females are polyestrous, with postpartum estrus, and male spermatogenesis is continuous, reflecting relatively constant microclimate of their subterranean niche. Litters have 1-3 young, but in most cases, females will carry one fetus in each uterine horn, giving rise to litters of two young. At birth, young are altricial, pale pink, and naked, except for a few hairs on foreheads and sides of muzzles. Ear openings are marked by small protuberances on sides of the head. Claws are well developed but soft. Neonates are ¢.47 mm long, weigh 4-5 g, and develop short dark brown dorsal pelage by juvenile size at 72 mm long and 17 g; ventral surfaces remain naked; and teeth are unerupted. Pale ventral pelage first appears at the late juvenile size at 80 mm long and ¢.27 g, and eviction from maternal burrows occurs at ¢.35—40 g.Activity patterns.Hottentot Golden Moles live almost exclusively underground, constructing superficial burrows for foraging and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Subsurface tunnels are ¢.3 cm deep and 4-6 cm in diameter. Residential burrows can penetrate as far as 1 m belowground and are relatively complex in form, comprising grassor leaf-lined spherical nesting chambers 10-50 cm deep and 15-20 cm in diameter, other chambers used as latrines, and deeper (29-94 cm deep) spiraling bolt holes. In friable soils, horny nose pads are predominantly used for digging subsurface tunnels, and foreclaws assist with digging deeper tunnels and foraging in heavier soils. Hottentot Golden Moles are estimated to burrow at rates of up to 1-1-5 m/h and up to 9 m daily. Foraging burrows are generally 9.5-240 m long and might be extended by 4-12 m/day, depending on friability of soil and abundance of prey. Excavated soil from deep burrows is pushed up to the surface as molehills or compacted into tunnel walls; superficial foraging burrows result in ridges on the surface. Hottentot Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbances and will retreat quickly from superficial burrows to deeper burrows or bolt-holesif disturbed. They sometimes are attracted to the surface by movements of worms and insects, and they might even emerge and move on the surface, usually only at night and when food is scarce. At these times, they can be vulnerable to predation by owls and other predators. Hottentot Golden Moles are significantly less active in winter than summer, burrowing deeper and often entering torpor during colder winter months. They are particularly active after rain, and daily activity tends to peak at sunrise, sunset, and midnight, with periods of activity of up to two hours and periods of inactivity of 3-5 hours. During heavy rainfall events, underground burrows can become flooded. Hottentot Golden Moles cope with these situations by swimming; they can maintain a certain degree of buoyancy due to a layer of air retained in their wet fur. Soil temperatures in burrow systems are 0-8-32°C, but optimal thermal conditions for activity are 23-33°C, corresponding with their thermoneutral zone. Ambient temperatures below 15°C or higher than 30°C lead to torpor, characterized by reduced metabolic rate and considerable energetic saving.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hottentot Golden Moles are solitary and territorial. They actively defend their burrow systems, fighting aggressively with individuals of either sex by wrestling their opponent using foreclaws and biting opponent’s abdomen. Fighting is often accompanied by highpitched squeaks. Home range overlap is tolerated to some degree, and dominant individuals sometimes invade neighboring burrow systems to increase their home range size. Courtship involves chirruping vocalizations, head bobbing and foot stamping by the male, and rasping and squealing vocalizations by the female. Although solitary, the Hottentot Golden Mole has been recorded in sympatry with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus), even to the point of sharing burrow systems. Densities of Hottentot Golden Moles up to 25 ind/ha have been recorded in prime habitat.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, distinct isolated evolutionary lineages with limited ranges or small population sizes might be under threat due to habitat alteration and degradation resulting from coastal urban development.Bibliography.Bernard et al. (1994), Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b), Bronner & Mynhardt (2015b), Broom (1907 1908), Gilbert et al. (2008), Hickman (1986), Kuyper (1985), McConnell (1986), Mynhardt et al. (2015), Schoeman et al. (2004), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Thomas & Schwann (1905).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris hottentotus[sic] A. Smith, 1829, “interior parts of South Africa”(= Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa).Amblysomus hottentotus1s synonymous with A. ins, described by O. Thomas and H. Schwann in 1905. Traditionally, A. Aottentotus has included populations that are here considered distinct species: A. corriae, A. marleyi, A. robustus, and A. septentrionalis. Five subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée hottentote @fr | Hottentotten-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de los Hotentotes @es | Zulu Golden Mole; Drakensberg Golden Mole (longiceps) @en | Meester’s Golden Mole (meester) @en","interpretedAuthority":"A.Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"A. Smith","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1829","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Amblysomus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"195","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hottentotus","name":"Amblysomus hottentotus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"A.h.hottentotusA.Smith,1829—coastalpartsofEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica,fromvicinityofVanStadensRivermouthEtoKingWilliam’sTownandEastLondon.A.h.irisThomas&Schwann,1905—NcoastalpartsofKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica,fromStLuciaStoRichard’sBay.A.h.longicepsBroom,1907—DrakensbergescarpmentofKwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovinces,ESouthAfrica,withmarginalintrusionintoFreeStateandMpumalangaprovincesandLesotho.A.h.meester:Bronner,2000—NESouthAfrica,MpumalangaProvince,knownonlyfromNDrakensbergescarpmentaroundMariepskopandGraskop,rangingStovicinityofWhiteRiver,whereasinglespecimenhasbeencollected.A. h. pondoliae Thomas & Schwann, 1905— coastal parts of KwaZulu-Natal Province, E South Africa, between Durban and Port Edward.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624503/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bernard et al. (1994) | Bronner (1995a, 1996, 2000, 2013b) | Bronner & Mynhardt (2015b) | Broom (1907 1908) | Gilbert et al. (2008) | Hickman (1986) | Kuyper (1985) | McConnell (1986) | Mynhardt et al. (2015) | Schoeman et al. (2004) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005) | Thomas & Schwann (1905)","foodAndFeeding":"The Hottentot Golden Mole is insectivorous, mainly feeding on subterranean invertebrates such as earthworms and insects. In captivity, they will eat snails and plant material (e.g. potatoes and bulbs), although their digestive tracts are not specialized for herbivory. In nature, more than 97% of diets contain only earthworms, and less than 3% contain variety of insect prey including carabid beetle larvae, slugs, snails, crickets, insect pupae, and spiders. Individuals can consume up to 90% of their body weight daily. Although they will drink water in captivity, they probably obtain their moisture requirements from food and dew in the wild.","breeding":"Hottentot Golden Moles breed aseasonally, with peak reproductive activity in wet summer months. Females are polyestrous, with postpartum estrus, and male spermatogenesis is continuous, reflecting relatively constant microclimate of their subterranean niche. Litters have 1-3 young, but in most cases, females will carry one fetus in each uterine horn, giving rise to litters of two young. At birth, young are altricial, pale pink, and naked, except for a few hairs on foreheads and sides of muzzles. Ear openings are marked by small protuberances on sides of the head. Claws are well developed but soft. Neonates are ¢.47 mm long, weigh 4-5 g, and develop short dark brown dorsal pelage by juvenile size at 72 mm long and 17 g; ventral surfaces remain naked; and teeth are unerupted. Pale ventral pelage first appears at the late juvenile size at 80 mm long and ¢.27 g, and eviction from maternal burrows occurs at ¢.35—40 g.","activityPatterns":"Hottentot Golden Moles live almost exclusively underground, constructing superficial burrows for foraging and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Subsurface tunnels are ¢.3 cm deep and 4-6 cm in diameter. Residential burrows can penetrate as far as 1 m belowground and are relatively complex in form, comprising grassor leaf-lined spherical nesting chambers 10-50 cm deep and 15-20 cm in diameter, other chambers used as latrines, and deeper (29-94 cm deep) spiraling bolt holes. In friable soils, horny nose pads are predominantly used for digging subsurface tunnels, and foreclaws assist with digging deeper tunnels and foraging in heavier soils. Hottentot Golden Moles are estimated to burrow at rates of up to 1-1-5 m/h and up to 9 m daily. Foraging burrows are generally 9.5-240 m long and might be extended by 4-12 m/day, depending on friability of soil and abundance of prey. Excavated soil from deep burrows is pushed up to the surface as molehills or compacted into tunnel walls; superficial foraging burrows result in ridges on the surface. Hottentot Golden Moles are highly sensitive to disturbances and will retreat quickly from superficial burrows to deeper burrows or bolt-holesif disturbed. They sometimes are attracted to the surface by movements of worms and insects, and they might even emerge and move on the surface, usually only at night and when food is scarce. At these times, they can be vulnerable to predation by owls and other predators. Hottentot Golden Moles are significantly less active in winter than summer, burrowing deeper and often entering torpor during colder winter months. They are particularly active after rain, and daily activity tends to peak at sunrise, sunset, and midnight, with periods of activity of up to two hours and periods of inactivity of 3-5 hours. During heavy rainfall events, underground burrows can become flooded. Hottentot Golden Moles cope with these situations by swimming; they can maintain a certain degree of buoyancy due to a layer of air retained in their wet fur. Soil temperatures in burrow systems are 0-8-32°C, but optimal thermal conditions for activity are 23-33°C, corresponding with their thermoneutral zone. Ambient temperatures below 15°C or higher than 30°C lead to torpor, characterized by reduced metabolic rate and considerable energetic saving.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Hottentot Golden Moles are solitary and territorial. They actively defend their burrow systems, fighting aggressively with individuals of either sex by wrestling their opponent using foreclaws and biting opponent’s abdomen. Fighting is often accompanied by highpitched squeaks. Home range overlap is tolerated to some degree, and dominant individuals sometimes invade neighboring burrow systems to increase their home range size. Courtship involves chirruping vocalizations, head bobbing and foot stamping by the male, and rasping and squealing vocalizations by the female. Although solitary, the Hottentot Golden Mole has been recorded in sympatry with Common Mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus), even to the point of sharing burrow systems. Densities of Hottentot Golden Moles up to 25 ind/ha have been recorded in prime habitat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Nevertheless, distinct isolated evolutionary lineages with limited ranges or small population sizes might be under threat due to habitat alteration and degradation resulting from coastal urban development.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 114-135 mm (males) and 104-135 mm (females), hindfoot 13-19 mm (males) and 12-18 mm (females) for the nominotypical Aottentotus; head—body 113-125 mm (males) and 104-132 mm (females), hindfoot 12-16 mm (males) and 11-16 mm (females) for subspecies iris; head—body 120-141 mm (males) and 119-139 mm (females), hindfoot 14-18 mm (males) and 13-18 mm (females) for subspecies longiceps; head-body 107-145 mm, hindfoot 14-17 mm for subspecies meesteri; head—body 107-145 mm (males) and 105-135 mm (females), hindfoot 12-18 mm (males) and 11-18 mm (females) for subspecies pondoliae; weight 37-85 g (males) and 37-60 g (females). The Hottentot Golden Mole is medium-sized, with considerable variation in size and pelage color among subspecies and populations. Generally, dorsum is rich dark reddish brown, becoming lighter reddish brown on flanks, with iridescent sheen of bronze, green, purple, or a mix. Venter is light grayish brown, with orange or reddish tinge, that is highly variable within populations, and sometimes with dark brown or pale whitish mid-ventral line from throat to belly. Muzzle is paler than dorsum, with off-white patches on cheeks, over subdermal eyes, and tiny ear openings. Albinistic specimens have creamy-beige to pale yellow (rarely recorded) dorsal and ventral pelage. Skull is elongated, zygomatic arches lack broad plates sweeping backward, mallei of inner ears are relatively small and unspecialized, and bullae are not externally evident. M? are usually absent, but when present, (less than 2% of individuals), they are small and range from triconid (molariform) to peg-like. Molar talonids are well developed except in subspecies meesteri, and P1 are sectorial (bicuspid) rather than molariform (tricuspid), except in subspecies meesteri, in which P1 tend to be more molariform. Dentition varies randomly and might reflect irregular sequence of tooth replacement in chrysochlorids. Foreclaws are moderately developed, claw on third digit is largest, second digit is much shorter, first digit is about one-half as long as second digit, and fourth digit is vestigial, with knob-like claw. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats from temperate grasslands and woodland savannas to Afro-montane forests, marshes, and coastal dunes, predominantly in mesic eastern regions of South Africa at elevations of ¢.0-2000 m. The Hottentot Golden Mole occurs mainly in Grassland and Savanna biomes, with marginal intrusion into Fynbos and Nama Karoo biomes in its southern distribution. It is particularly abundant in moist soils near water sources but also occurs far from surface water if soilis friable enough for burrowing and invertebrate prey is abundant. The Hottentot Golden Mole generally occurs in regions with mean annual rainfall more than 500 mm. It is frequently associated with agricultural land, golf courses, and gardens but less common in exotic plantations."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A779803FEA7FDADE8EAFA89.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A779803FEA7FDADE8EAFA89","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"180","verbatimText":"Family CHRYSOCHLORIDAE(GOLDEN MOLES)• Small fusiform body shape, short limbs, no visible tail, eyes covered in skin and notvisible, no visible ear pinnae, and variable pelage color.* 8-23 cm.• Afrotropical Region.• Subterranean in subtropical and tropical deserts, grasslands, and forests from sea level into mountains.• 10 genera, 21 species, 42 taxa.•] species Critically Endangered, 5 Endangered, 4 Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E9809FA68F87EE6D5FC8C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A7E9809FA68F87EE6D5FC8C","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"21.Grant's Golden MoleEremitalpa grantFrench:Taupe-dorée de Grant/ German:\\Wistengoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de GrantOther common names:Namib Golden Mole (namibensis)Taxonomy.Chrysochloris granti Broom,1907, Garies, Little Namaqualand, North- ern Cape Province, South Africa.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.g.grantiBroom,1907—StrandveldSucculentKaroo,WcoastofSouthAfrica.E. g. namibensis Bauer & Niethammer, 1960— Sossusvlei, Namib Desert, W Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76-86 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm; weight 15-30 g fornominotypical granti; head—body 65-81 mm (males) and 60-74 mm (females), hindfoot 6-10 mm (males) and 6-8 mm (females); weight 17-30 g (males) and 15-23 g (females) for subspecies namibensis, the “Namib Golden Mole.” Grant’s Golden Mole is the smallest species in the family, and males are larger than females. Dorsum is pale grayish yellow, with iridescent silvery sheen. Flank and venter are paler than dorsum, with more intense yellow; forehead and cheeks are pale yellow. Grant's Golden Mole differs from other species of golden moles by having a well-developed claw on fourth toe. Subspecies namibensis has shorter greater skull length and shorter fur than grant.Habitat.Confined to Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes in South Africa (nominotypical granti) and Namib Desert (subspecies namibensis). Both subspecies have similar microhabitat requirements, preferring soft sands of coastal dune crests but also occurring in interdune valleys with vegetation clumps where sand is not compacted.Food and Feeding.Grant’s Golden Mole has been recorded eating sand-burrowing skinks, legless lizards, web-footed geckos, and insects, including crickets and beetle larvae. When feeding on dunes, the Namib Golden Mole eats similar types of food but specializes in eating sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus), which make up 95% of the diet by mass. Root material is also ingested along with sand. It is thought that termite colonies are detected around dune grass with seismic cues. Both subspecies forage on the surface at night, which provides a much more energy efficient form of locomotion than burrowing through the sand, given that prey species are patchily distributed.Breeding.Pregnant Grant’s Golden Moles have been recorded in October-November. Litters have 1-2 young.Activity patterns.Grant's Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but some afternoon activity occurs in winter; captive individuals were active at midday. In winter, Grant’s Golden Mole is most active between sunset and midnight; summer activity continues all night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both subspecies of Grant’s Golden Moles burrow just below the surface of the sand but occasionally use deeper tunnels in more solid sand; they do not throw up mounds. When inactive, they use temporary rest sites, with no evidence of permanent burrows, tunnels, chambers, or nest material; they rarely reuse the same rest site. Most restsites are situated below hummocks of vegetation, and they never share these sites with conspecifics. Adults are solitary and occupy a consistent home range. Mean home range size of the Namib Golden Molewas estimated as 4-6 ha (n = 8), with males having larger home ranges (3-1-12-3 ha) than females (1-8—4-6 ha). Home ranges of several individuals can overlap, with multiple intersecting tracks observed over the same time-period, but individuals appear to use discrete centers of activity. Direct encounters between neighboring individuals are uncommon. When housed together in captivity, individuals are not aggressive toward conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats. Conservation status will need to be reassessed if subspecies are elevated to distinct species.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Fielden (1991), Fielden et al. (1990), Maree (2015g), Maree & Bronner (2016b), Mason & Narins (2001, 2002), Perrin & Fielden (1999), Seymour & Seely (1996).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris granti Broom,1907, Garies, Little Namaqualand, North- ern Cape Province, South Africa.Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Grant @fr | \\Wistengoldmull @de | Topo dorado de Grant @es | Namib Golden Mole (namibensis) @en","interpretedAuthority":"Broom","interpretedAuthorityName":"Roberts","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1924","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Eremitalpa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"genus","interpretedSpecies":"granti","name":"Eremitalpa grant","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.g.grantiBroom,1907—StrandveldSucculentKaroo,WcoastofSouthAfrica.E. g. namibensis Bauer & Niethammer, 1960— Sossusvlei, Namib Desert, W Namibia.","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b) | Fielden (1991) | Fielden et al. (1990) | Maree (2015g) | Maree & Bronner (2016b) | Mason & Narins (2001, 2002) | Perrin & Fielden (1999) | Seymour & Seely (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Grant’s Golden Mole has been recorded eating sand-burrowing skinks, legless lizards, web-footed geckos, and insects, including crickets and beetle larvae. When feeding on dunes, the Namib Golden Mole eats similar types of food but specializes in eating sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus), which make up 95% of the diet by mass. Root material is also ingested along with sand. It is thought that termite colonies are detected around dune grass with seismic cues. Both subspecies forage on the surface at night, which provides a much more energy efficient form of locomotion than burrowing through the sand, given that prey species are patchily distributed.","breeding":"Pregnant Grant’s Golden Moles have been recorded in October-November. Litters have 1-2 young.","activityPatterns":"Grant's Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but some afternoon activity occurs in winter; captive individuals were active at midday. In winter, Grant’s Golden Mole is most active between sunset and midnight; summer activity continues all night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Both subspecies of Grant’s Golden Moles burrow just below the surface of the sand but occasionally use deeper tunnels in more solid sand; they do not throw up mounds. When inactive, they use temporary rest sites, with no evidence of permanent burrows, tunnels, chambers, or nest material; they rarely reuse the same rest site. Most restsites are situated below hummocks of vegetation, and they never share these sites with conspecifics. Adults are solitary and occupy a consistent home range. Mean home range size of the Namib Golden Molewas estimated as 4-6 ha (n = 8), with males having larger home ranges (3-1-12-3 ha) than females (1-8—4-6 ha). Home ranges of several individuals can overlap, with multiple intersecting tracks observed over the same time-period, but individuals appear to use discrete centers of activity. Direct encounters between neighboring individuals are uncommon. When housed together in captivity, individuals are not aggressive toward conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats. Conservation status will need to be reassessed if subspecies are elevated to distinct species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 76-86 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm; weight 15-30 g fornominotypical granti; head—body 65-81 mm (males) and 60-74 mm (females), hindfoot 6-10 mm (males) and 6-8 mm (females); weight 17-30 g (males) and 15-23 g (females) for subspecies namibensis, the “Namib Golden Mole.” Grant’s Golden Mole is the smallest species in the family, and males are larger than females. Dorsum is pale grayish yellow, with iridescent silvery sheen. Flank and venter are paler than dorsum, with more intense yellow; forehead and cheeks are pale yellow. Grant's Golden Mole differs from other species of golden moles by having a well-developed claw on fourth toe. Subspecies namibensis has shorter greater skull length and shorter fur than grant.","habitat":"Confined to Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes in South Africa (nominotypical granti) and Namib Desert (subspecies namibensis). Both subspecies have similar microhabitat requirements, preferring soft sands of coastal dune crests but also occurring in interdune valleys with vegetation clumps where sand is not compacted."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E9809FA68F87EE6D5FC8C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A7E9809FA68F87EE6D5FC8C","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"21.Grant's Golden MoleEremitalpa grantFrench:Taupe-dorée de Grant/ German:\\Wistengoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de GrantOther common names:Namib Golden Mole (namibensis)Taxonomy.Chrysochloris granti Broom,1907, Garies, Little Namaqualand, North- ern Cape Province, South Africa.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.E.g.grantiBroom,1907—StrandveldSucculentKaroo,WcoastofSouthAfrica.E. g. namibensis Bauer & Niethammer, 1960— Sossusvlei, Namib Desert, W Namibia.Descriptive notes.Head-body 76-86 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm; weight 15-30 g fornominotypical granti; head—body 65-81 mm (males) and 60-74 mm (females), hindfoot 6-10 mm (males) and 6-8 mm (females); weight 17-30 g (males) and 15-23 g (females) for subspecies namibensis, the “Namib Golden Mole.” Grant’s Golden Mole is the smallest species in the family, and males are larger than females. Dorsum is pale grayish yellow, with iridescent silvery sheen. Flank and venter are paler than dorsum, with more intense yellow; forehead and cheeks are pale yellow. Grant's Golden Mole differs from other species of golden moles by having a well-developed claw on fourth toe. Subspecies namibensis has shorter greater skull length and shorter fur than grant.Habitat.Confined to Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes in South Africa (nominotypical granti) and Namib Desert (subspecies namibensis). Both subspecies have similar microhabitat requirements, preferring soft sands of coastal dune crests but also occurring in interdune valleys with vegetation clumps where sand is not compacted.Food and Feeding.Grant’s Golden Mole has been recorded eating sand-burrowing skinks, legless lizards, web-footed geckos, and insects, including crickets and beetle larvae. When feeding on dunes, the Namib Golden Mole eats similar types of food but specializes in eating sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus), which make up 95% of the diet by mass. Root material is also ingested along with sand. It is thought that termite colonies are detected around dune grass with seismic cues. Both subspecies forage on the surface at night, which provides a much more energy efficient form of locomotion than burrowing through the sand, given that prey species are patchily distributed.Breeding.Pregnant Grant’s Golden Moles have been recorded in October-November. Litters have 1-2 young.Activity patterns.Grant's Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but some afternoon activity occurs in winter; captive individuals were active at midday. In winter, Grant’s Golden Mole is most active between sunset and midnight; summer activity continues all night.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Both subspecies of Grant’s Golden Moles burrow just below the surface of the sand but occasionally use deeper tunnels in more solid sand; they do not throw up mounds. When inactive, they use temporary rest sites, with no evidence of permanent burrows, tunnels, chambers, or nest material; they rarely reuse the same rest site. Most restsites are situated below hummocks of vegetation, and they never share these sites with conspecifics. Adults are solitary and occupy a consistent home range. Mean home range size of the Namib Golden Molewas estimated as 4-6 ha (n = 8), with males having larger home ranges (3-1-12-3 ha) than females (1-8—4-6 ha). Home ranges of several individuals can overlap, with multiple intersecting tracks observed over the same time-period, but individuals appear to use discrete centers of activity. Direct encounters between neighboring individuals are uncommon. When housed together in captivity, individuals are not aggressive toward conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats. Conservation status will need to be reassessed if subspecies are elevated to distinct species.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Fielden (1991), Fielden et al. (1990), Maree (2015g), Maree & Bronner (2016b), Mason & Narins (2001, 2002), Perrin & Fielden (1999), Seymour & Seely (1996).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris granti Broom,1907, Garies, Little Namaqualand, North- ern Cape Province, South Africa.Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Grant @fr | \\Wistengoldmull @de | Topo dorado de Grant @es | Namib Golden Mole (namibensis) @en","interpretedAuthority":"Broom","interpretedAuthorityName":"Roberts","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1924","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Eremitalpa","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"genus","interpretedSpecies":"granti","name":"Eremitalpa grant","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E.g.grantiBroom,1907—StrandveldSucculentKaroo,WcoastofSouthAfrica.E. g. namibensis Bauer & Niethammer, 1960— Sossusvlei, Namib Desert, W Namibia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624550/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b) | Fielden (1991) | Fielden et al. (1990) | Maree (2015g) | Maree & Bronner (2016b) | Mason & Narins (2001, 2002) | Perrin & Fielden (1999) | Seymour & Seely (1996)","foodAndFeeding":"Grant’s Golden Mole has been recorded eating sand-burrowing skinks, legless lizards, web-footed geckos, and insects, including crickets and beetle larvae. When feeding on dunes, the Namib Golden Mole eats similar types of food but specializes in eating sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus), which make up 95% of the diet by mass. Root material is also ingested along with sand. It is thought that termite colonies are detected around dune grass with seismic cues. Both subspecies forage on the surface at night, which provides a much more energy efficient form of locomotion than burrowing through the sand, given that prey species are patchily distributed.","breeding":"Pregnant Grant’s Golden Moles have been recorded in October-November. Litters have 1-2 young.","activityPatterns":"Grant's Golden Moles are mostly nocturnal, but some afternoon activity occurs in winter; captive individuals were active at midday. In winter, Grant’s Golden Mole is most active between sunset and midnight; summer activity continues all night.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Both subspecies of Grant’s Golden Moles burrow just below the surface of the sand but occasionally use deeper tunnels in more solid sand; they do not throw up mounds. When inactive, they use temporary rest sites, with no evidence of permanent burrows, tunnels, chambers, or nest material; they rarely reuse the same rest site. Most restsites are situated below hummocks of vegetation, and they never share these sites with conspecifics. Adults are solitary and occupy a consistent home range. Mean home range size of the Namib Golden Molewas estimated as 4-6 ha (n = 8), with males having larger home ranges (3-1-12-3 ha) than females (1-8—4-6 ha). Home ranges of several individuals can overlap, with multiple intersecting tracks observed over the same time-period, but individuals appear to use discrete centers of activity. Direct encounters between neighboring individuals are uncommon. When housed together in captivity, individuals are not aggressive toward conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Grant’s Golden Mole has a wide distribution and occurs in protected areas and mostly away from human activity. Nevertheless, little is known about population trends and threats. Conservation status will need to be reassessed if subspecies are elevated to distinct species.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 76-86 mm, hindfoot 9-12 mm; weight 15-30 g fornominotypical granti; head—body 65-81 mm (males) and 60-74 mm (females), hindfoot 6-10 mm (males) and 6-8 mm (females); weight 17-30 g (males) and 15-23 g (females) for subspecies namibensis, the “Namib Golden Mole.” Grant’s Golden Mole is the smallest species in the family, and males are larger than females. Dorsum is pale grayish yellow, with iridescent silvery sheen. Flank and venter are paler than dorsum, with more intense yellow; forehead and cheeks are pale yellow. Grant's Golden Mole differs from other species of golden moles by having a well-developed claw on fourth toe. Subspecies namibensis has shorter greater skull length and shorter fur than grant.","habitat":"Confined to Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes in South Africa (nominotypical granti) and Namib Desert (subspecies namibensis). Both subspecies have similar microhabitat requirements, preferring soft sands of coastal dune crests but also occurring in interdune valleys with vegetation clumps where sand is not compacted."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E980AFA57FE2EE43EF97F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A7E980AFA57FE2EE43EF97F","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"20.Van Zyl's Golden MoleCryptochloris zyliFrench:Taupe-dorée de van Zyl/ German:Van Zyl-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de van ZylTaxonomy.Cryptochloris zyli Shortridge &Carter, 1938, Compagnies Drift, 16 km inland from Lamberts Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa.The species zyliwas formerly considered subspecifically distinct from C. wintonibut now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color and malleus morphology. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W South Africa, being found at two sites (Groenriviermond in Northern Cape Province and Lamberts Bay in Western Cape Province); possibly ranges N along coast to Olifants River.Descriptive notes.Head—body 82 mm, hindfoot 12 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Based on only three specimens, Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is very small, with short, dark lead-gray dorsal pelage; venter is similar but drab. Course guard hairs have violet metallic sheen, giving pelage sparkly appearance.Habitat.Uncertain, but expected to occur in coastal dune belt and possibly sandy areas of Strandveld Succulent Karoo biome of the Namaqua coastal plain.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is expected to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is found at only two locations (until recently, it was only known from a single location, but it was recorded from a second location near Groenriviermond in 2003) and has a small extent of occurrence (estimated to be just under 5000 km?) and small area of occupancy (estimated at only 32 km?®). Van Zyl’s Golden Mole might be severely threatened by habitat alteration from alluvial diamond mining and locally by construction of wind farms nearits type locality.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b, 2015c¢), Bronner & Asher (2016e), Helgen & Wilson (2001), Simonetta (1968).","taxonomy":"Cryptochloris zyli Shortridge &Carter, 1938, Compagnies Drift, 16 km inland from Lamberts Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa.The species zyliwas formerly considered subspecifically distinct from C. wintonibut now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color and malleus morphology. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de van Zyl @fr | Van Zyl-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de van Zyl @es","interpretedAuthority":"Shortridge & Carter","interpretedClass":"Cryptophyceae","interpretedFamily":"Cryptomonadaceae","interpretedGenus":"Cryptochloris","interpretedKingdom":"Chromista","interpretedOrder":"Cryptomonadales","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Cryptista","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"zyli","name":"Cryptochloris zyli","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to W South Africa, being found at two sites (Groenriviermond in Northern Cape Province and Lamberts Bay in Western Cape Province); possibly ranges N along coast to Olifants River.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624548/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b, 2015c¢) | Bronner & Asher (2016e) | Helgen & Wilson (2001) | Simonetta (1968)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is expected to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is found at only two locations (until recently, it was only known from a single location, but it was recorded from a second location near Groenriviermond in 2003) and has a small extent of occurrence (estimated to be just under 5000 km?) and small area of occupancy (estimated at only 32 km?®). Van Zyl’s Golden Mole might be severely threatened by habitat alteration from alluvial diamond mining and locally by construction of wind farms nearits type locality.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 82 mm, hindfoot 12 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Based on only three specimens, Van Zyl’s Golden Mole is very small, with short, dark lead-gray dorsal pelage; venter is similar but drab. Course guard hairs have violet metallic sheen, giving pelage sparkly appearance.","habitat":"Uncertain, but expected to occur in coastal dune belt and possibly sandy areas of Strandveld Succulent Karoo biome of the Namaqua coastal plain."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E980AFF50F6E1E6C4FEEA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A7E980AFF50F6E1E6C4FEEA","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"19.De Winton’s Golden MoleCryptochloris wintoniFrench:Taupe-dorée de De Winton/ German:De Winton-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de De WintonTaxonomy.Chrysochloris wintoni Broom, 1907, Port Nolloth, Northern Cape Prov- ince, South Africa.The species wintoniwas formerly consid- ered subspecifically distinct from C. zylibut now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color and malleus morphology. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in NW Northern Cape Province, NW South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 86-92 mm, hindfoot 10-3-10-5 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. De Winton’s Golden Mole is very small and is easily confused with Grant’s Golden Mole (Eremitalpa granti). Dorsum is slate-gray, with yellowish tinge on forehead, cheeks, and lips; venter is slightly paler.Habitat.Coastal dunes and adjacent sandy areas in Strandveld Succulent Karoo biome.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. De Winton’s Golden Mole is known from only one location and has not been caught for 50 years. It is no doubt severely threatened by habitat alteration resulting from alluvial diamond mining and infrastructure resulting from expansion of Port Nolloth harbor.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016d), Roberts (1951).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris wintoni Broom, 1907, Port Nolloth, Northern Cape Prov- ince, South Africa.The species wintoniwas formerly consid- ered subspecifically distinct from C. zylibut now considered a distinct species due to consistent differences in pelage color and malleus morphology. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de De Winton @fr | De Winton-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de De Winton @es","interpretedAuthority":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Broom","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1907","interpretedClass":"Cryptophyceae","interpretedFamily":"Cryptomonadaceae","interpretedGenus":"Cryptochloris","interpretedKingdom":"Chromista","interpretedOrder":"Cryptomonadales","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Cryptista","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"wintoni","name":"Cryptochloris wintoni","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from the type locality in NW Northern Cape Province, NW South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624546/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016d) | Roberts (1951)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. De Winton’s Golden Mole is known from only one location and has not been caught for 50 years. It is no doubt severely threatened by habitat alteration resulting from alluvial diamond mining and infrastructure resulting from expansion of Port Nolloth harbor.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 86-92 mm, hindfoot 10-3-10-5 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. De Winton’s Golden Mole is very small and is easily confused with Grant’s Golden Mole (Eremitalpa granti). Dorsum is slate-gray, with yellowish tinge on forehead, cheeks, and lips; venter is slightly paler.","habitat":"Coastal dunes and adjacent sandy areas in Strandveld Succulent Karoo biome."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7E980AFF50FE7DEA21F798.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A7E980AFF50FE7DEA21F798","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"202","verbatimText":"18.Giant Golden MoleChrysospalax trevelyaniFrench:Grande Taupe-dorée/ German:Riesengoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado giganteTaxonomy.Chrysochloris trevelyani Gunther,1875, Pirie Forest, King Williams Town,Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to SE South Africa, occurring between East London and Port St Johns, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 215-235 mm (males) and 208-229 mm (females), hindfoot 20-28 mm (males) and21-27 mm (females); weight 470 g (males) and 410-500 g (females). The Giant Golden Mole is the largest golden mole. Dorsum is dark glossy brown, yellowish brown, or grayish brown; venteris similar but paler. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Transkei Coastal Scarp forests, Amathole Mistbelt forests, and occasionally adjoining grasslands, preferring softsoils, deep leaflitter, and thick undergrowth. The Giant Golden Mole avoids commercial forestry plantations.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Giant Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms, including giant earthworms (Microchaetes spp.), and millipedes. The Giant Golden Mole mostly forages in leaf litter aboveground, leaving signs of stirred up soil and leaves. Captive individuals eat various food types, including House Mice (Mus musculus).Breeding.A Giant Golden Mole gave birth to one young in October.Activity patterns.Giant Golden Moles are primarily nocturnal. Diurnal surface activity is unusual and occurs only under cloudy conditions.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Giant Golden Moles live in short burrows, c¢.10 m long, that are linked by surface runways. They are frequently active aboveground in leaf litter when foraging and use runways to move between burrow entrances. An unconfirmed report indicated that several adults were dug out of a single nest in July, suggesting conspecifics will share burrows in winter (this is the only suggested instance of sociality for adult golden moles).Status and Conservation.Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Golden Mole has an area of occupancy of only ¢.272 km? with severely fragmented distribution, and faces ongoing habitat loss. Although it has been recorded from 17 localities in the Eastern Cape,it is thought to be locally extinct in somesites previously inhabited. It is threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to urban sprawl and expanding coastal tourism.Bibliography.Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016¢c), Maddock (1986).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris trevelyani Gunther,1875, Pirie Forest, King Williams Town,Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Grande Taupe-dorée @fr | Riesengoldmull @de | Topo dorado gigante @es","interpretedAuthority":"Gunther","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Gunther","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1875","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chrysospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"9","interpretedPageNumber":"202","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"trevelyani","name":"Chrysospalax trevelyani","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to SE South Africa, occurring between East London and Port St Johns, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624544/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016¢c) | Maddock (1986)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Giant Golden Mole mainly contains earthworms, including giant earthworms (Microchaetes spp.), and millipedes. The Giant Golden Mole mostly forages in leaf litter aboveground, leaving signs of stirred up soil and leaves. Captive individuals eat various food types, including House Mice (Mus musculus).","breeding":"A Giant Golden Mole gave birth to one young in October.","activityPatterns":"Giant Golden Moles are primarily nocturnal. Diurnal surface activity is unusual and occurs only under cloudy conditions.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Giant Golden Moles live in short burrows, c¢.10 m long, that are linked by surface runways. They are frequently active aboveground in leaf litter when foraging and use runways to move between burrow entrances. An unconfirmed report indicated that several adults were dug out of a single nest in July, suggesting conspecifics will share burrows in winter (this is the only suggested instance of sociality for adult golden moles).","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Golden Mole has an area of occupancy of only ¢.272 km? with severely fragmented distribution, and faces ongoing habitat loss. Although it has been recorded from 17 localities in the Eastern Cape,it is thought to be locally extinct in somesites previously inhabited. It is threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to urban sprawl and expanding coastal tourism.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 215-235 mm (males) and 208-229 mm (females), hindfoot 20-28 mm (males) and21-27 mm (females); weight 470 g (males) and 410-500 g (females). The Giant Golden Mole is the largest golden mole. Dorsum is dark glossy brown, yellowish brown, or grayish brown; venteris similar but paler. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Transkei Coastal Scarp forests, Amathole Mistbelt forests, and occasionally adjoining grasslands, preferring softsoils, deep leaflitter, and thick undergrowth. The Giant Golden Mole avoids commercial forestry plantations."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7F980AFA99F9DDEA51FE38.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A7F980AFA99F9DDEA51FE38","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"17.Rough-haired Golden MoleChrysospalax villosaFrench:Taupe-dorée a poil dur/ German:RauhaarGoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de pelaje asperoTaxonomy.Chrysochloris villosa A. Smith, 1833, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Widely used specific name villosus and sub-specific names rufopallidus and rufus have been changed for gender agreement. Six subspecies recognized, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment.Subspecies and Distribution.C.v.villosaA.Smith,1833—nearDurban,KwaZulu-Natal,ESouthAfrica.C.v.dobsoniBroom,1918—PietermaritzburgandKwaZulu-NatalMidlands,ESouthAfrica.C.v.leschaeBroom,1918—EEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica.C.v.rufaMeester,1953—knownonlyfromthetypelocalityinSpitzkop,CKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica.C.v.rufopallidaRoberts,1924—areasaroundBelfastandWakkerstroom,NC&SMpumalangaProvince,NESouthAfrica.C. v. transvaalensis Broom, 1913— areas around Pretoria and Witwatersrand, Gauteng Province, NE South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 148-175 mm (males) and 127-160 mm (females), hindfoot 14-17 mm (males) and 13-20 mm (females); weight 108-160 g (males) and 93-105 g (females). The Rough-haired Golden Mole is the second largest species in the family and has long, very coarse pelage. Dorsum varies from yellowish brown and grayish brown to dark slate-gray; venter is paler. Guard hairs are sparse and glossy; dense underfur is slate-gray.Habitat.Grasslands and marshland edges in various types of highveld and mountain grasslands, suburban gardens, and along edges of golf courses, preferring dry sandy soils and dense vegetation cover.Food and Feeding.The Rough-haired Golden Mole eats insects and earthworms. It forages underground but also aboveground at night after rain. It uses tough nose-pad to root around, with feeding areas marked by stirred up soil.Breeding.Female Rough-haired Golden Moles give birth to two young.Activity patterns.Rough-haired Golden Moles are expected to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short burrows of Rough-haired Golden Moles are characterized by loose piles of soil that are left open when they go out to forage along well-defined surface runways. They move quickly on the surface to reach burrows when escaping danger. They have not been noted to make subsurface runs like other golden moles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat. Conservation threats are habitat loss through urban sprawl, power infrastructure development, poor agricultural practices (particularly increasing occurrence of livestock grazing in wetlands), and mining.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016b), Skinner & Chimimba (2005).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris villosa A. Smith, 1833, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Widely used specific name villosus and sub-specific names rufopallidus and rufus have been changed for gender agreement. Six subspecies recognized, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée a poil dur @fr | Rauhaar Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de pelaje aspero @es","interpretedAuthority":"A.Smith","interpretedAuthorityName":"A.Smith","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1833","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chrysospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"villosa","name":"Chrysospalax villosa","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.v.villosaA.Smith,1833—nearDurban,KwaZulu-Natal,ESouthAfrica.C.v.dobsoniBroom,1918—PietermaritzburgandKwaZulu-NatalMidlands,ESouthAfrica.C.v.leschaeBroom,1918—EEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica.C.v.rufaMeester,1953—knownonlyfromthetypelocalityinSpitzkop,CKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica.C.v.rufopallidaRoberts,1924—areasaroundBelfastandWakkerstroom,NC&SMpumalangaProvince,NESouthAfrica.C. v. transvaalensis Broom, 1913— areas around Pretoria and Witwatersrand, Gauteng Province, NE South Africa.","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016b) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Rough-haired Golden Mole eats insects and earthworms. It forages underground but also aboveground at night after rain. It uses tough nose-pad to root around, with feeding areas marked by stirred up soil.","breeding":"Female Rough-haired Golden Moles give birth to two young.","activityPatterns":"Rough-haired Golden Moles are expected to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Short burrows of Rough-haired Golden Moles are characterized by loose piles of soil that are left open when they go out to forage along well-defined surface runways. They move quickly on the surface to reach burrows when escaping danger. They have not been noted to make subsurface runs like other golden moles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat. Conservation threats are habitat loss through urban sprawl, power infrastructure development, poor agricultural practices (particularly increasing occurrence of livestock grazing in wetlands), and mining.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 148-175 mm (males) and 127-160 mm (females), hindfoot 14-17 mm (males) and 13-20 mm (females); weight 108-160 g (males) and 93-105 g (females). The Rough-haired Golden Mole is the second largest species in the family and has long, very coarse pelage. Dorsum varies from yellowish brown and grayish brown to dark slate-gray; venter is paler. Guard hairs are sparse and glossy; dense underfur is slate-gray.","habitat":"Grasslands and marshland edges in various types of highveld and mountain grasslands, suburban gardens, and along edges of golf courses, preferring dry sandy soils and dense vegetation cover."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7F980AFA99F9DDEA51FE38.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A7F980AFA99F9DDEA51FE38","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"17.Rough-haired Golden MoleChrysospalax villosaFrench:Taupe-dorée a poil dur/ German:RauhaarGoldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de pelaje asperoTaxonomy.Chrysochloris villosa A. Smith, 1833, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Widely used specific name villosus and sub-specific names rufopallidus and rufus have been changed for gender agreement. Six subspecies recognized, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment.Subspecies and Distribution.C.v.villosaA.Smith,1833—nearDurban,KwaZulu-Natal,ESouthAfrica.C.v.dobsoniBroom,1918—PietermaritzburgandKwaZulu-NatalMidlands,ESouthAfrica.C.v.leschaeBroom,1918—EEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica.C.v.rufaMeester,1953—knownonlyfromthetypelocalityinSpitzkop,CKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica.C.v.rufopallidaRoberts,1924—areasaroundBelfastandWakkerstroom,NC&SMpumalangaProvince,NESouthAfrica.C. v. transvaalensis Broom, 1913— areas around Pretoria and Witwatersrand, Gauteng Province, NE South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head-body 148-175 mm (males) and 127-160 mm (females), hindfoot 14-17 mm (males) and 13-20 mm (females); weight 108-160 g (males) and 93-105 g (females). The Rough-haired Golden Mole is the second largest species in the family and has long, very coarse pelage. Dorsum varies from yellowish brown and grayish brown to dark slate-gray; venter is paler. Guard hairs are sparse and glossy; dense underfur is slate-gray.Habitat.Grasslands and marshland edges in various types of highveld and mountain grasslands, suburban gardens, and along edges of golf courses, preferring dry sandy soils and dense vegetation cover.Food and Feeding.The Rough-haired Golden Mole eats insects and earthworms. It forages underground but also aboveground at night after rain. It uses tough nose-pad to root around, with feeding areas marked by stirred up soil.Breeding.Female Rough-haired Golden Moles give birth to two young.Activity patterns.Rough-haired Golden Moles are expected to be primarily nocturnal.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Short burrows of Rough-haired Golden Moles are characterized by loose piles of soil that are left open when they go out to forage along well-defined surface runways. They move quickly on the surface to reach burrows when escaping danger. They have not been noted to make subsurface runs like other golden moles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat. Conservation threats are habitat loss through urban sprawl, power infrastructure development, poor agricultural practices (particularly increasing occurrence of livestock grazing in wetlands), and mining.Bibliography.Bronner (2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016b), Skinner & Chimimba (2005).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris villosa A. Smith, 1833, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Widely used specific name villosus and sub-specific names rufopallidus and rufus have been changed for gender agreement. Six subspecies recognized, but subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée a poil dur @fr | Rauhaar Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de pelaje aspero @es","interpretedAuthority":"A.Smith","interpretedAuthorityName":"A.Smith","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1833","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chrysospalax","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"villosa","name":"Chrysospalax villosa","subspeciesAndDistribution":"C.v.villosaA.Smith,1833—nearDurban,KwaZulu-Natal,ESouthAfrica.C.v.dobsoniBroom,1918—PietermaritzburgandKwaZulu-NatalMidlands,ESouthAfrica.C.v.leschaeBroom,1918—EEasternCapeProvince,SESouthAfrica.C.v.rufaMeester,1953—knownonlyfromthetypelocalityinSpitzkop,CKwaZulu-NatalProvince,ESouthAfrica.C.v.rufopallidaRoberts,1924—areasaroundBelfastandWakkerstroom,NC&SMpumalangaProvince,NESouthAfrica.C. v. transvaalensis Broom, 1913— areas around Pretoria and Witwatersrand, Gauteng Province, NE South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624542/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016b) | Skinner & Chimimba (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Rough-haired Golden Mole eats insects and earthworms. It forages underground but also aboveground at night after rain. It uses tough nose-pad to root around, with feeding areas marked by stirred up soil.","breeding":"Female Rough-haired Golden Moles give birth to two young.","activityPatterns":"Rough-haired Golden Moles are expected to be primarily nocturnal.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Short burrows of Rough-haired Golden Moles are characterized by loose piles of soil that are left open when they go out to forage along well-defined surface runways. They move quickly on the surface to reach burrows when escaping danger. They have not been noted to make subsurface runs like other golden moles.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Rough-haired Golden Mole has a small area of occupancy, occurring at fewer than ten locations, and ongoing decline in suitable habitat. Conservation threats are habitat loss through urban sprawl, power infrastructure development, poor agricultural practices (particularly increasing occurrence of livestock grazing in wetlands), and mining.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 148-175 mm (males) and 127-160 mm (females), hindfoot 14-17 mm (males) and 13-20 mm (females); weight 108-160 g (males) and 93-105 g (females). The Rough-haired Golden Mole is the second largest species in the family and has long, very coarse pelage. Dorsum varies from yellowish brown and grayish brown to dark slate-gray; venter is paler. Guard hairs are sparse and glossy; dense underfur is slate-gray.","habitat":"Grasslands and marshland edges in various types of highveld and mountain grasslands, suburban gardens, and along edges of golf courses, preferring dry sandy soils and dense vegetation cover."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7F980BFA9AFEB9E9A3FADD.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A7F980BFA9AFEB9E9A3FADD","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"16.Visagie’s Golden MoleChrysochloris visagierFrench:Taupe-dorée de Visagie/ German:Visagie-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de VisagieTaxonomy.Chrysochloris visagiet Broom, 1950, “Gouna, b4 miles [= 87 km] east of Calvinia,”Northern Cape Province, South Africa.Chrysochlorisvisagieir is of uncertain taxonomic placement (incertae sedis) and might be an aberrant C. asiatica. Additional specimens are needed to clarify taxonomy. Monotypic.Distribution.Known only from the type locality in Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.Descriptive notes.Head—body 106 mm, hindfoot 12 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Dorsum of Visagie’s Golden Mole is pale tawny olive; venter is paler. Underfur is pale slate-gray, hidden by long tawny tips. Facial hairs are slightly paler than rest of body, and below the nose, it is much paler.Habitat.Alluvial sand floodplains of the Bushmanland Nama Karoo.Food and Feeding.No information.Breeding.No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Provenance of the type specimen of Visagie’s Golden Mole is uncertain, and it has only been seen once (no specimens have been seen or collected since its description).Bibliography.Bronner (2013b, 2016), Broom (1950).","taxonomy":"Chrysochloris visagiet Broom, 1950, “Gouna, b4 miles [= 87 km] east of Calvinia,”Northern Cape Province, South Africa.Chrysochlorisvisagieir is of uncertain taxonomic placement (incertae sedis) and might be an aberrant C. asiatica. Additional specimens are needed to clarify taxonomy. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée de Visagie @fr | Visagie-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de Visagie @es","interpretedAuthority":"Broom","interpretedAuthorityName":"Lacepede","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1799","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chrysochloris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"genus","interpretedSpecies":"visagiet","name":"Chrysochloris visagier","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Known only from the type locality in Northern Cape Province, W South Africa.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624538/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bronner (2013b, 2016) | Broom (1950)","foodAndFeeding":"No information.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust. Provenance of the type specimen of Visagie’s Golden Mole is uncertain, and it has only been seen once (no specimens have been seen or collected since its description).","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 106 mm, hindfoot 12 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Dorsum of Visagie’s Golden Mole is pale tawny olive; venter is paler. Underfur is pale slate-gray, hidden by long tawny tips. Facial hairs are slightly paler than rest of body, and below the nose, it is much paler.","habitat":"Alluvial sand floodplains of the Bushmanland Nama Karoo."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/CD/87/03CD879C5A7F980BFF84F831EEFFF235.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03CD879C5A7F980BFF84F831EEFFF235","docName":"hbmw_8_Chrysochloridae_0180.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/fff4ffe45a779803fff7ffa3ee05ffad","docISBN":"978-84-16728-08-4","docPageNumber":"201","verbatimText":"15.Cape Golden MoleChrysochloris asiaticaFrench:Taupe-dorée du Cap/ German:Kap-Goldmull/ Spanish:Topo dorado de El CaboTaxonomy.Talpa asiatica Linnaeus, 1758,Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.Up to ten subspecies of C. asiaticahave been previously recognized, but geographical variation in size and color appears to be clinal. Monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to W South Africa, Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces.Descriptive notes.Head-body 100-115 mm (males) and 94-114 mm (females), hindfoot 9-14 mm (males) and 11-14 mm (females). No specific data are available for body weight. Color of dorsum is variable, including blackish, slategray, brownish gray, olive-brown, and drab silver; venter is paler. Cape Golden Moles can have white eye patches. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.Habitat.Various habitats including Fynbos, Renosterveld, and Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes, preferring sandy soils, and gardens.Food and Feeding.The Cape Golden Mole eats mostly insects and other invertebrates including earthworms, centipedes, and millipedes. In captivity, it will eat almost any kind of insect and even juvenile mice. It is thought to eat crustaceans (amphipods and isopods) when moving on sandy beaches at night.Breeding.Breeding of the Cape Golden Mole is seasonal, with young born in June-August during winter rainfall season of the Western Cape Province. Litters have 1-3 young. Young are altricial and suckle for 2-3 months.Activity patterns.Cape Golden Moles are predominantly nocturnal but sometimes active in the late afternoon. They are very active after rain.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Cape Golden Moles mostly move through tunnels below the surface but can burrow deeper. They sometimes leave small soil mounds. They are solitary except during breeding and when young accompany females. They are hostile to conspecifics.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Golden Mole has a wide distribution and ability to adapt to partially transformed habitats including gardens. It faces no major conservation threats.Bibliography.Bennett & Spinks (1995), Bronner (1995b, 2013b), Bronner & Asher (2016a, 1955b), Broom (1907, 1950).","taxonomy":"Talpa asiatica Linnaeus, 1758,Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.Up to ten subspecies of C. asiaticahave been previously recognized, but geographical variation in size and color appears to be clinal. Monotypic.","commonNames":"Taupe-dorée du Cap @fr | Kap-Goldmull @de | Topo dorado de El Cabo @es","interpretedAuthority":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityName":"Linnaeus","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1758","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Chrysochloridae","interpretedGenus":"Chrysochloris","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Afrosoricida","interpretedPageId":"8","interpretedPageNumber":"201","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"asiatica","name":"Chrysochloris asiatica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to W South Africa, Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6624534/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bennett & Spinks (1995) | Bronner (1995b, 2013b) | Bronner & Asher (2016a, 1955b) | Broom (1907, 1950)","foodAndFeeding":"The Cape Golden Mole eats mostly insects and other invertebrates including earthworms, centipedes, and millipedes. In captivity, it will eat almost any kind of insect and even juvenile mice. It is thought to eat crustaceans (amphipods and isopods) when moving on sandy beaches at night.","breeding":"Breeding of the Cape Golden Mole is seasonal, with young born in June-August during winter rainfall season of the Western Cape Province. Litters have 1-3 young. Young are altricial and suckle for 2-3 months.","activityPatterns":"Cape Golden Moles are predominantly nocturnal but sometimes active in the late afternoon. They are very active after rain.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Cape Golden Moles mostly move through tunnels below the surface but can burrow deeper. They sometimes leave small soil mounds. They are solitary except during breeding and when young accompany females. They are hostile to conspecifics.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Golden Mole has a wide distribution and ability to adapt to partially transformed habitats including gardens. It faces no major conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 100-115 mm (males) and 94-114 mm (females), hindfoot 9-14 mm (males) and 11-14 mm (females). No specific data are available for body weight. Color of dorsum is variable, including blackish, slategray, brownish gray, olive-brown, and drab silver; venter is paler. Cape Golden Moles can have white eye patches. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 30 and FN = 56.","habitat":"Various habitats including Fynbos, Renosterveld, and Strandveld Succulent Karoo biomes, preferring sandy soils, and gardens."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D4/9D/03D49D5BDE04FFDC09803BC96932F4E4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D49D5BDE04FFDC09803BC96932F4E4","docName":"hbmw_4_Platanistidae_0358.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffede523de05ffdd090c3e786f2eff8c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"363","verbatimText":"South Asian River DolphinPlatanista gangeticaFrench:Plataniste/ German:Ganges-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del GangesOther common names:Blind River Dolphin, Indian River Dolphin; Ganges River Dolphin, Susu (gangetica); Bhulan, Indus River Dolphin (minor)Taxonomy.Delphinus gangeticus Lebeck, 1801, India.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.g.gangeticaLebeck,1801—Ganges-Brahmaputra-MeghnaandKarnaphuli-SanguriversystemsofSNepal,N&NEIndia,andBangladesh.P. g. minor Owen, 1853— Indus River system of SC Pakistan and NW India (Beas River).Descriptive notes.Total length ¢.170-260 cm, weight c¢.110 kg. The South Asian River Dolphin is a brown or pale gray, stocky dolphin with a very long slender rostrum and exposed teeth. They have small triangular dorsal fins, but very large pectoral flippers and broad tail flukes. The eye is reduced to a tiny slit-like opening in the skinjust above the corner of the mouth. Long, thin, protruding teeth in young individuals wear over time to become flat disks in adults.Habitat.Distributed through several thousand kilometers of large alluvial rivers of the Indian subcontinent, from the foothills of the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains in the North, to the river deltas in the South. They are almost never found in the ocean. The South Asian River Dolphin is patchily distributed and occurs with highest frequency at confluences of rivers and streams. Deltaic waters, particularly in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, are also important habitat, and although very occasionally sightings are reported in nearshore marine waters they generally do not occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt.Food and Feeding.South Asian River Dolphins feed on a large variety of freshwater bottom-dwelling prawns, fish, and crustaceans including catfish (Wallago attu and Sperata aor), carp (Catla catla and Cirrhinus cirrhosus) and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii).Breeding.Females become sexually mature at about eight years of age, and gestation lasts for about one year. Offspring are born during winter or spring and are weaned at about one year of age or before. The breeding cycle is likely two years. Sexual maturity is achieved at around ten years. The oldest individual recorded was a 28year-old male, but it is estimated that animals may live to ¢.35 years.Activity patterns.South Asian River Dolphins surface rapidly and unpredictably, spending only c.1 second at the surface. Very little is known about the behavior of the South Asian River Dolphin because of their short surface interval and the inability to observe them in the turbid water they inhabit.Movements, Home range and Social organization.South Asian River Dolphins are believed to shift their distributions with seasonal changes in river discharge; individuals move upstream and into smaller rivers when rivers are swollen during the summer monsoon and move into the mainstream of larger rivers in the dry season when discharge is low. In many places, dams or irrigation barrages now block these seasonal movements. Individuals occur primarily alone or in small groups, but occasionally in aggregations of 20 or more. Individuals and groups often surface in the same location for periods of at least 30 minutes. There is no specific information available on social organization or home range.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, including both subspecies. Dams and irrigation barrages fragment populations of the South Asian River Dolphin, and its distribution is contracting, especially in the smaller rivers in the northern part of the distributional range. Eleven of 17 subpopulations of the Indus River Dolphin have been extirpated, and only six populations remain, isolated between barrages; three are estimated to have less than 20 individuals each and are probably too small to persist, leaving only three that may be viable in the long-term. The largest population of the Indus River Dolphin is in northern Sindh Province between Guddu and Sukkur barrages. In 2001, this subspecies was estimated to number ¢.1300 individuals and may have been increasing since dolphin hunting ceased in the 1970s. In 2006, the Indus River Dolphin was estimated to number 1550— 1750 individuals. Given its much larger range, the Ganges River Dolphin is likely to be more abundant than the Indus River Dolphin, and there may be several thousand individuals. Significant portions of its range have not been surveyed; however, B. D. Smith and colleagues estimated 255 individuals in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh in 2006. Its major threats are likely population fragmentation, depleted dry-season river flows, and incidental capture in fishing gear. Reduced flows concentrate South Asian River Dolphins, pollutants, and human activities and exacerbate many anthropogenic threats.Bibliography.Anderson (1879), Arnason et al. (2004), Bashir et al. (2010), Braulik (2006, 2012), Braulik, Bhatti et al. (2012), Braulik, Reichert et al. (2012), Brownell (1984), Cassens et al. (2000), Hamilton et al. (2001), Haque et al. (1977), Harrison (1972), Herald et al. (1969), Home (1818), Jefferson et al. (2008), Kasuya (1972), Kelkar et al. (2010), Kinze (2000), Lebeck (1801), Meredith et al. (2011), Owen (1853), Pilleri (1970), Pilleri, Gihr et al. (1976), Pilleri, Zbinden et al. (1976), Purves & Pilleri (1974), Reeves & Brownell (1989), Reeves et al. (1991), Sinha, Behera & Choudhary (2010), Sinha, Das et al. (1993), Sinha, Smith et al. (2000), Smith (1993), Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Ahmed & Mansur (2006), Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Mansur et al. (2009), Ura et al. (2007), Wakid (2009).","taxonomy":"Delphinus gangeticus Lebeck, 1801, India.Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Plataniste @fr | Ganges-Delfin @de | Delfin del Ganges @es | Blind River Dolphin @en | @en | ndian River Dolphin; Ganges River Dolphin @en | Susu (gangetica); Bhulan @en | ndus River Dolphin (minor) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lebeck","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1801","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Platanistidae","interpretedGenus":"Platanista","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"363","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gangetica","name":"Platanista gangetica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.g.gangeticaLebeck,1801—Ganges-Brahmaputra-MeghnaandKarnaphuli-SanguriversystemsofSNepal,N&NEIndia,andBangladesh.P. g. minor Owen, 1853— Indus River system of SC Pakistan and NW India (Beas River).","bibliography":"Anderson (1879) | Arnason et al. (2004) | Bashir et al. (2010) | Braulik (2006, 2012) | Braulik, Bhatti et al. (2012) | Braulik, Reichert et al. (2012) | Brownell (1984) | Cassens et al. (2000) | Hamilton et al. (2001) | Haque et al. (1977) | Harrison (1972) | Herald et al. (1969) | Home (1818) | Jefferson et al. (2008) | Kasuya (1972) | Kelkar et al. (2010) | Kinze (2000) | Lebeck (1801) | Meredith et al. (2011) | Owen (1853) | Pilleri (1970) | Pilleri, Gihr et al. (1976) | Pilleri, Zbinden et al. (1976) | Purves & Pilleri (1974) | Reeves & Brownell (1989) | Reeves et al. (1991) | Sinha, Behera & Choudhary (2010) | Sinha, Das et al. (1993) | Sinha, Smith et al. (2000) | Smith (1993) | Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Ahmed & Mansur (2006) | Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Mansur et al. (2009) | Ura et al. (2007) | Wakid (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"South Asian River Dolphins feed on a large variety of freshwater bottom-dwelling prawns, fish, and crustaceans including catfish (Wallago attu and Sperata aor), carp (Catla catla and Cirrhinus cirrhosus) and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii).","breeding":"Females become sexually mature at about eight years of age, and gestation lasts for about one year. Offspring are born during winter or spring and are weaned at about one year of age or before. The breeding cycle is likely two years. Sexual maturity is achieved at around ten years. The oldest individual recorded was a 28year-old male, but it is estimated that animals may live to ¢.35 years.","activityPatterns":"South Asian River Dolphins surface rapidly and unpredictably, spending only c.1 second at the surface. Very little is known about the behavior of the South Asian River Dolphin because of their short surface interval and the inability to observe them in the turbid water they inhabit.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"South Asian River Dolphins are believed to shift their distributions with seasonal changes in river discharge; individuals move upstream and into smaller rivers when rivers are swollen during the summer monsoon and move into the mainstream of larger rivers in the dry season when discharge is low. In many places, dams or irrigation barrages now block these seasonal movements. Individuals occur primarily alone or in small groups, but occasionally in aggregations of 20 or more. Individuals and groups often surface in the same location for periods of at least 30 minutes. There is no specific information available on social organization or home range.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, including both subspecies. Dams and irrigation barrages fragment populations of the South Asian River Dolphin, and its distribution is contracting, especially in the smaller rivers in the northern part of the distributional range. Eleven of 17 subpopulations of the Indus River Dolphin have been extirpated, and only six populations remain, isolated between barrages; three are estimated to have less than 20 individuals each and are probably too small to persist, leaving only three that may be viable in the long-term. The largest population of the Indus River Dolphin is in northern Sindh Province between Guddu and Sukkur barrages. In 2001, this subspecies was estimated to number ¢.1300 individuals and may have been increasing since dolphin hunting ceased in the 1970s. In 2006, the Indus River Dolphin was estimated to number 1550— 1750 individuals. Given its much larger range, the Ganges River Dolphin is likely to be more abundant than the Indus River Dolphin, and there may be several thousand individuals. Significant portions of its range have not been surveyed; however, B. D. Smith and colleagues estimated 255 individuals in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh in 2006. Its major threats are likely population fragmentation, depleted dry-season river flows, and incidental capture in fishing gear. Reduced flows concentrate South Asian River Dolphins, pollutants, and human activities and exacerbate many anthropogenic threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length ¢.170-260 cm, weight c¢.110 kg. The South Asian River Dolphin is a brown or pale gray, stocky dolphin with a very long slender rostrum and exposed teeth. They have small triangular dorsal fins, but very large pectoral flippers and broad tail flukes. The eye is reduced to a tiny slit-like opening in the skinjust above the corner of the mouth. Long, thin, protruding teeth in young individuals wear over time to become flat disks in adults.","habitat":"Distributed through several thousand kilometers of large alluvial rivers of the Indian subcontinent, from the foothills of the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains in the North, to the river deltas in the South. They are almost never found in the ocean. The South Asian River Dolphin is patchily distributed and occurs with highest frequency at confluences of rivers and streams. Deltaic waters, particularly in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, are also important habitat, and although very occasionally sightings are reported in nearshore marine waters they generally do not occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D4/9D/03D49D5BDE04FFDC09803BC96932F4E4.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D49D5BDE04FFDC09803BC96932F4E4","docName":"hbmw_4_Platanistidae_0358.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffede523de05ffdd090c3e786f2eff8c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"363","verbatimText":"South Asian River DolphinPlatanista gangeticaFrench:Plataniste/ German:Ganges-Delfin/ Spanish:Delfin del GangesOther common names:Blind River Dolphin, Indian River Dolphin; Ganges River Dolphin, Susu (gangetica); Bhulan, Indus River Dolphin (minor)Taxonomy.Delphinus gangeticus Lebeck, 1801, India.Two subspecies are recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.P.g.gangeticaLebeck,1801—Ganges-Brahmaputra-MeghnaandKarnaphuli-SanguriversystemsofSNepal,N&NEIndia,andBangladesh.P. g. minor Owen, 1853— Indus River system of SC Pakistan and NW India (Beas River).Descriptive notes.Total length ¢.170-260 cm, weight c¢.110 kg. The South Asian River Dolphin is a brown or pale gray, stocky dolphin with a very long slender rostrum and exposed teeth. They have small triangular dorsal fins, but very large pectoral flippers and broad tail flukes. The eye is reduced to a tiny slit-like opening in the skinjust above the corner of the mouth. Long, thin, protruding teeth in young individuals wear over time to become flat disks in adults.Habitat.Distributed through several thousand kilometers of large alluvial rivers of the Indian subcontinent, from the foothills of the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains in the North, to the river deltas in the South. They are almost never found in the ocean. The South Asian River Dolphin is patchily distributed and occurs with highest frequency at confluences of rivers and streams. Deltaic waters, particularly in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, are also important habitat, and although very occasionally sightings are reported in nearshore marine waters they generally do not occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt.Food and Feeding.South Asian River Dolphins feed on a large variety of freshwater bottom-dwelling prawns, fish, and crustaceans including catfish (Wallago attu and Sperata aor), carp (Catla catla and Cirrhinus cirrhosus) and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii).Breeding.Females become sexually mature at about eight years of age, and gestation lasts for about one year. Offspring are born during winter or spring and are weaned at about one year of age or before. The breeding cycle is likely two years. Sexual maturity is achieved at around ten years. The oldest individual recorded was a 28year-old male, but it is estimated that animals may live to ¢.35 years.Activity patterns.South Asian River Dolphins surface rapidly and unpredictably, spending only c.1 second at the surface. Very little is known about the behavior of the South Asian River Dolphin because of their short surface interval and the inability to observe them in the turbid water they inhabit.Movements, Home range and Social organization.South Asian River Dolphins are believed to shift their distributions with seasonal changes in river discharge; individuals move upstream and into smaller rivers when rivers are swollen during the summer monsoon and move into the mainstream of larger rivers in the dry season when discharge is low. In many places, dams or irrigation barrages now block these seasonal movements. Individuals occur primarily alone or in small groups, but occasionally in aggregations of 20 or more. Individuals and groups often surface in the same location for periods of at least 30 minutes. There is no specific information available on social organization or home range.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, including both subspecies. Dams and irrigation barrages fragment populations of the South Asian River Dolphin, and its distribution is contracting, especially in the smaller rivers in the northern part of the distributional range. Eleven of 17 subpopulations of the Indus River Dolphin have been extirpated, and only six populations remain, isolated between barrages; three are estimated to have less than 20 individuals each and are probably too small to persist, leaving only three that may be viable in the long-term. The largest population of the Indus River Dolphin is in northern Sindh Province between Guddu and Sukkur barrages. In 2001, this subspecies was estimated to number ¢.1300 individuals and may have been increasing since dolphin hunting ceased in the 1970s. In 2006, the Indus River Dolphin was estimated to number 1550— 1750 individuals. Given its much larger range, the Ganges River Dolphin is likely to be more abundant than the Indus River Dolphin, and there may be several thousand individuals. Significant portions of its range have not been surveyed; however, B. D. Smith and colleagues estimated 255 individuals in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh in 2006. Its major threats are likely population fragmentation, depleted dry-season river flows, and incidental capture in fishing gear. Reduced flows concentrate South Asian River Dolphins, pollutants, and human activities and exacerbate many anthropogenic threats.Bibliography.Anderson (1879), Arnason et al. (2004), Bashir et al. (2010), Braulik (2006, 2012), Braulik, Bhatti et al. (2012), Braulik, Reichert et al. (2012), Brownell (1984), Cassens et al. (2000), Hamilton et al. (2001), Haque et al. (1977), Harrison (1972), Herald et al. (1969), Home (1818), Jefferson et al. (2008), Kasuya (1972), Kelkar et al. (2010), Kinze (2000), Lebeck (1801), Meredith et al. (2011), Owen (1853), Pilleri (1970), Pilleri, Gihr et al. (1976), Pilleri, Zbinden et al. (1976), Purves & Pilleri (1974), Reeves & Brownell (1989), Reeves et al. (1991), Sinha, Behera & Choudhary (2010), Sinha, Das et al. (1993), Sinha, Smith et al. (2000), Smith (1993), Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Ahmed & Mansur (2006), Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Mansur et al. (2009), Ura et al. (2007), Wakid (2009).","taxonomy":"Delphinus gangeticus Lebeck, 1801, India.Two subspecies are recognized.","commonNames":"Plataniste @fr | Ganges-Delfin @de | Delfin del Ganges @es | Blind River Dolphin @en | @en | ndian River Dolphin; Ganges River Dolphin @en | Susu (gangetica); Bhulan @en | ndus River Dolphin (minor) @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lebeck","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1801","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Platanistidae","interpretedGenus":"Platanista","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"363","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"gangetica","name":"Platanista gangetica","subspeciesAndDistribution":"P.g.gangeticaLebeck,1801—Ganges-Brahmaputra-MeghnaandKarnaphuli-SanguriversystemsofSNepal,N&NEIndia,andBangladesh.P. g. minor Owen, 1853— Indus River system of SC Pakistan and NW India (Beas River).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6607653/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Anderson (1879) | Arnason et al. (2004) | Bashir et al. (2010) | Braulik (2006, 2012) | Braulik, Bhatti et al. (2012) | Braulik, Reichert et al. (2012) | Brownell (1984) | Cassens et al. (2000) | Hamilton et al. (2001) | Haque et al. (1977) | Harrison (1972) | Herald et al. (1969) | Home (1818) | Jefferson et al. (2008) | Kasuya (1972) | Kelkar et al. (2010) | Kinze (2000) | Lebeck (1801) | Meredith et al. (2011) | Owen (1853) | Pilleri (1970) | Pilleri, Gihr et al. (1976) | Pilleri, Zbinden et al. (1976) | Purves & Pilleri (1974) | Reeves & Brownell (1989) | Reeves et al. (1991) | Sinha, Behera & Choudhary (2010) | Sinha, Das et al. (1993) | Sinha, Smith et al. (2000) | Smith (1993) | Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Ahmed & Mansur (2006) | Smith, Braulik, Strindberg, Mansur et al. (2009) | Ura et al. (2007) | Wakid (2009)","foodAndFeeding":"South Asian River Dolphins feed on a large variety of freshwater bottom-dwelling prawns, fish, and crustaceans including catfish (Wallago attu and Sperata aor), carp (Catla catla and Cirrhinus cirrhosus) and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii).","breeding":"Females become sexually mature at about eight years of age, and gestation lasts for about one year. Offspring are born during winter or spring and are weaned at about one year of age or before. The breeding cycle is likely two years. Sexual maturity is achieved at around ten years. The oldest individual recorded was a 28year-old male, but it is estimated that animals may live to ¢.35 years.","activityPatterns":"South Asian River Dolphins surface rapidly and unpredictably, spending only c.1 second at the surface. Very little is known about the behavior of the South Asian River Dolphin because of their short surface interval and the inability to observe them in the turbid water they inhabit.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"South Asian River Dolphins are believed to shift their distributions with seasonal changes in river discharge; individuals move upstream and into smaller rivers when rivers are swollen during the summer monsoon and move into the mainstream of larger rivers in the dry season when discharge is low. In many places, dams or irrigation barrages now block these seasonal movements. Individuals occur primarily alone or in small groups, but occasionally in aggregations of 20 or more. Individuals and groups often surface in the same location for periods of at least 30 minutes. There is no specific information available on social organization or home range.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, including both subspecies. Dams and irrigation barrages fragment populations of the South Asian River Dolphin, and its distribution is contracting, especially in the smaller rivers in the northern part of the distributional range. Eleven of 17 subpopulations of the Indus River Dolphin have been extirpated, and only six populations remain, isolated between barrages; three are estimated to have less than 20 individuals each and are probably too small to persist, leaving only three that may be viable in the long-term. The largest population of the Indus River Dolphin is in northern Sindh Province between Guddu and Sukkur barrages. In 2001, this subspecies was estimated to number ¢.1300 individuals and may have been increasing since dolphin hunting ceased in the 1970s. In 2006, the Indus River Dolphin was estimated to number 1550— 1750 individuals. Given its much larger range, the Ganges River Dolphin is likely to be more abundant than the Indus River Dolphin, and there may be several thousand individuals. Significant portions of its range have not been surveyed; however, B. D. Smith and colleagues estimated 255 individuals in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh in 2006. Its major threats are likely population fragmentation, depleted dry-season river flows, and incidental capture in fishing gear. Reduced flows concentrate South Asian River Dolphins, pollutants, and human activities and exacerbate many anthropogenic threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length ¢.170-260 cm, weight c¢.110 kg. The South Asian River Dolphin is a brown or pale gray, stocky dolphin with a very long slender rostrum and exposed teeth. They have small triangular dorsal fins, but very large pectoral flippers and broad tail flukes. The eye is reduced to a tiny slit-like opening in the skinjust above the corner of the mouth. Long, thin, protruding teeth in young individuals wear over time to become flat disks in adults.","habitat":"Distributed through several thousand kilometers of large alluvial rivers of the Indian subcontinent, from the foothills of the Himalaya and Karakoram mountains in the North, to the river deltas in the South. They are almost never found in the ocean. The South Asian River Dolphin is patchily distributed and occurs with highest frequency at confluences of rivers and streams. Deltaic waters, particularly in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, are also important habitat, and although very occasionally sightings are reported in nearshore marine waters they generally do not occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D4/9D/03D49D5BDE05FFDD09DB3C6E68F5FB7C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D49D5BDE05FFDD09DB3C6E68F5FB7C","docName":"hbmw_4_Platanistidae_0358.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffede523de05ffdd090c3e786f2eff8c","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"358","verbatimText":"Family PLATANISTIDAE(SOUTH ASIAN RIVER DOLPHIN)• Medium-sized, stocky river dolphin with very long beak, diminished ayes, large blunt pectoralflippers, and tiny dorsal fin.• 170-260 cm.• Indo-Malayan Region.• Large and medium-sized fresh or brackish rivers in the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra river basins in South Asia.• 1 genera, 1 species, 2 taxa.• | species Endangered; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFC04C0BFF6B3F32F633F5A8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFC04C0BFF6B3F32F633F5A8","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"364","verbatimText":"33. Chestnut Sac-winged BatCormura brevirostrisFrench: Cormure des souches/ German:Kastanienbraune Sackflügelfledermaus / Spanish:CormuracastanoOther common names:Wagner's Sac-wingedBatTaxonomy. Emballonura brevirostrisWagner, 1843,“ Marabitanas.” Corrected by A. von Pelzeln in 1883 to “Baraneiva” and clarified by D.. Carter and P. G. Dolan in 1978 as “Bananeira (approximately10°39’S, 65°23’W), on the Rio Mamore (there forming the boundarybetween Braziland Bolivia), in the state of Mato Grosso.”This species is monotypic.Distribution. Widelydistributed in Central and South America, from E Nicaragua to Panama, W of the Andes to NW Ecuador, and E of Andes from Venezuela and the Guianas to Amazonian Peru, CBrazil and N Bolivia.Descriptive notes.Head—body 46-58 mm, tail 10—16 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 5-8 mm, forearm 41-50 mm; weight 7-11 g. Dorsal fur of the Chestnut Sac-winged Bat is thick, shiny, and chestnut-brown, with underparts slightly paler. Fur almost reaches tip of nose, but lower face is naked. Subadults andjuveniles have black fur. Facial skin, ears, and flight membranes are black. Ear is oval-shaped, and inner surface of pinna is heavily ribbed. Tragus is broad and square-topped. Wingsattach to base of toes. Both sexes have wing sacs, which are vestigial in females; in breeding age males, they are large with opening extending to edge ofwing and outward from body. Calcar is about twice as long as foot. Tail is short, with free end extending at most 3 mm above tail membrane; tail membrane extends well beyond toes when extended. Skull has welldeveloped sagittal crest that is more robust in males. Upper incisors are minute. Lower incisors are slightly larger and form continuousrow between canines. Dental formula is 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32. Karyotype is 2n = 22.Habitat.Along streams and forest edges in moist lowland multi-strata tropical evergreen forests from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m. The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat forages in small open spaces including forest edges and tree fall gaps, flying in long, slow, beats between ground level and forest canopies.Food and Feeding.The ChestnutSac-winged Bat is an aerial insectivore that capably forages in cluttered space. When foraging in areas with Greater Sac-winged Bats (Saccopteryx bilineata)or Lesser Sac-winged Bats (S. lepturd),Chestnut Sac-winged Bats partition space by foraging higher aboveground(5-10 m) or farther from vegetation in gaps and forest edges. It flies faster and in wider circles (20-30 m across) than the Saccopteryxspecies.Breeding. InPanama, female Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are pregnantin April-Maybut not in June—September. In French Guiana, females are pregnantin August- September. Litter size is not reported.Activity patterns.Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are crepuscular. Foraging activity begins at dusk and continues for 10-15 minutes, after which observers found individuals to fly above the canopyand disappear, perhaps moving to different foraging areas. Foraging in the middle of the night is rare, but a secondaryforaging period occurs shortly before dawn. The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat roosts in tree hollows of living, rotting, and fallen trees and under concrete bridges. One group clung to underside of a large leaf of South American traveler’s palm {Phenakospermum guyannense,Strelitziaceae). The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat emits search-phase echolocation calls in triplet pulses, with each subsequentsound pulse 2-3 kHz higher than the preceding pulse. First pulse has mean frequencyof 25-4 kHz that rises to 28-7 kHz and 32-1 kHz on second and third pulses, respectively. Mean durations of these pulses are 5—10 milliseconds, and mean pulse intervals are 84-102 milliseconds. Chestnut Sac-winged Bats use search calls with components that are dominated by narrowband and small FM parts. These characteristics are well suited for detection of flying insects from relativelylong-range detection distances, and similarly used by other members of the tribe Diclidurini.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Chestnut Sac-winged Bats roost in small groups. In French Guiana, roosting groups consisted of 2-5 individuals clustered in compact masses, with individuals touching each other back to belly in a stacked formation. Roosting groups in French Guinea sometimes consisted of more than one adult male but never more than one adult female. Females are able to locate young by contact calls emitted by young, which have been experimentally documented by a mother coming to a captive offspring held in a cloth bag.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on 77/r IUCNRed List.The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat has a large distribution, and there is no evidence of rapid population decline. In general, deforestation is a threat; however, taken in context of its large area of endemism, that threat is not presently a serious concern, especially because it occurs in protected reserves throughout its distribution. Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are locally common in the Amazon Basin and uncommon in Central America lowland moist and wet forests, but it is not well studied because of limitations of earlyfield investigations. As acoustic detection methodology is now becoming more common in Central America and South American, and such surveys likely will providevaluable insight on distribution and ecology of the Chestnut Sac-winged Bat Its distribution follows areas of moist lowland forests, but due to loss of these forests, it might no longer occur in southernmost parts of its distribution.Bibliography.Barclay (1983), Bernard (2003), Carter & Dolan (1978), Emmons & eer (1997), Fleming eta/. (1972), Hood & Gardner (2008), Kalko (1995a), Linares(1998), von Pelzeln (1883), Peters (1867a), Reid (2009), Simmons & Voss(1998), Wagner (1843).","taxonomy":"Emballonura brevirostrisWagner, 1843,“ Marabitanas.” Corrected by A. von Pelzeln in 1883 to “Baraneiva” and clarified by D.. Carter and P. G. Dolan in 1978 as “Bananeira (approximately10°39’S, 65°23’W), on the Rio Mamore (there forming the boundarybetween Braziland Bolivia), in the state of Mato Grosso.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Chestnut Sac-winged Bat @en | Cormure des souches @fr | Kastanienbraune Sackflügelfledermaus @de | Cormuracastano @es | Cormura @en | Wagner's Sac-winged Bat @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Wagner","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1843","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Cormura","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"364","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"brevirostris","name":"Cormura brevirostris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Widelydistributed in Central and South America, from E Nicaragua to Panama, W of the Andes to NW Ecuador, and E of Andes from Venezuela and the Guianas to Amazonian Peru, CBrazil and N Bolivia.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747962/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Barclay (1983) | Bernard (2003) | Carter & Dolan (1978) | Emmons & eer (1997) | Fleming et al. (1972) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | Kalko (1995a) | Linares(1998) | von Pelzeln (1883) | Peters (1867a) | Reid (2009) | Simmons & Voss(1998) | Wagner (1843)","foodAndFeeding":"The ChestnutSac-winged Bat is an aerial insectivore that capably forages in cluttered space. When foraging in areas with Greater Sac-winged Bats (Saccopteryx bilineata)or Lesser Sac-winged Bats (S. lepturd),Chestnut Sac-winged Bats partition space by foraging higher aboveground(5-10 m) or farther from vegetation in gaps and forest edges. It flies faster and in wider circles (20-30 m across) than the Saccopteryxspecies.","breeding":"InPanama, female Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are pregnantin April-Maybut not in June—September. In French Guiana, females are pregnantin August- September. Litter size is not reported.","activityPatterns":"Chestnut Sac-winged Bats are crepuscular. Foraging activity begins at dusk and continues for 10-15 minutes, after which observers found individuals to fly above the canopyand disappear, perhaps moving to different foraging areas. Foraging in the middle of the night is rare, but a secondaryforaging period occurs shortly before dawn. The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat roosts in tree hollows of living, rotting, and fallen trees and under concrete bridges. One group clung to underside of a large leaf of South American traveler’s palm {Phenakospermum guyannense,Strelitziaceae). The Chestnut Sac-winged Bat emits search-phase echolocation calls in triplet pulses, with each subsequentsound pulse 2-3 kHz higher than the preceding pulse. First pulse has mean frequencyof 25-4 kHz that rises to 28-7 kHz and 32-1 kHz on second and third pulses, respectively. Mean durations of these pulses are 5—10 milliseconds, and mean pulse intervals are 84-102 milliseconds. Chestnut Sac-winged Bats use search calls with components that are dominated by narrowband and small FM parts. These characteristics are well suited for detection of flying insects from relativelylong-range detection distances, and similarly used by other members of the tribe Diclidurini.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Chestnut Sac-winged Bats roost in small groups. In French Guiana, roosting groups consisted of 2-5 individuals clustered in compact masses, with individuals touching each other back to belly in a stacked formation. Roosting groups in French Guinea sometimes consisted of more than one adult male but never more than one adult female. Females are able to locate young by contact calls emitted by young, which have been experimentally documented by a mother coming to a captive offspring held in a cloth bag.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 46-58 mm, tail 10—16 mm, ear 13-16 mm, hindfoot 5-8 mm, forearm 41-50 mm; weight 7-11 g. Dorsal fur of the Chestnut Sac-winged Bat is thick, shiny, and chestnut-brown, with underparts slightly paler. Fur almost reaches tip of nose, but lower face is naked. Subadults andjuveniles have black fur. Facial skin, ears, and flight membranes are black. Ear is oval-shaped, and inner surface of pinna is heavily ribbed. Tragus is broad and square-topped. Wingsattach to base of toes. Both sexes have wing sacs, which are vestigial in females; in breeding age males, they are large with opening extending to edge ofwing and outward from body. Calcar is about twice as long as foot. Tail is short, with free end extending at most 3 mm above tail membrane; tail membrane extends well beyond toes when extended. Skull has welldeveloped sagittal crest that is more robust in males. Upper incisors are minute. Lower incisors are slightly larger and form continuousrow between canines. Dental formula is 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32. Karyotype is 2n = 22.","habitat":""} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFC04C14F8DA3ECEF976FAED.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFC04C14F8DA3ECEF976FAED","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"364","verbatimText":"34. Gray Sac-winged BatBalantiopteryx plicataFrench: Emballonura dePeters/ German: Peters-Sackflügelfledermaus / Spanish: Embalonuro de sacos de PetersOther common names: Peters's Sac-winged BatTaxonomy. Balantiopteryx plicataPeters, 1867,Puntarenas, Costa Rica.Two subspeciesare recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.B. p.plicataPeters, 1867- from CSinaloa in Mexico to Nicaraguaand NW Costa Rica.B. p. pallidaBurt, 1948 - confined to S Sonora, N Sinaloa, and the S tip of Baja California Sur states in Mexico.Descriptive notes.Head—body 47—53 mm, tail 13—23 mm, ear 13-15 mm, hindfoot 7-10 mm, forearm 37-5-45-9 mm; weight 5-6 g. Based on forearm length, females (43-1 mm mean) are slightlylarger than males (42-1 mm mean). Dorsal fur of the Gray Sac-winged Bat is smokybrown but often yellowish at base of tail membrane; venter is paler, with hairs faintlytipped bufiybrown along belly and flanks. Wingsare brown-bordered, with white particularly between foot and fifth finger. Legs and forearms are pinkish. Wingsacs open toward body and do not extend to edges ofwings. Dental formula of the three species of Balantiopteryxis 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.Habitat. Deciduous forests, dry thorn scrub, and less commonlyevergreen moist forests from sea level to elevations of c.1500 m.Foodand Feeding. The Gray Sac-winged Bat preyson aerial insects.Breeding.Gray Sac-winged Bats are bom in May-July in Mexico and lateJune in Costa Rica, well after the start of rainyseason. Females givebirth to one young, apparently once a year.Activity patterns.Gray Sac-winged Bats are crepuscular and roost in dim light near entrances of caves, mines, and tunnels; under overhanging large boulders; and in tree hollows and buildings including outdoor, shaded stairwells in close proximity to human foot traffic. Flight emergence begins a little before sunset, and individuals fly above canopies and forage with long, straight sallies and rapid dives to chase aerial insects. Earlyflight above relatively low, open canopies of deciduous forests can easily be observed. Calls with principle energy in second harmonic, start with 42- kHz narrowband component that drops slightlyby 1-1-5 kHz at 39-kHz broadband. Mean call duration is 12 milliseconds. Terminal drop in frequencyover a broadband facilitates targeting approaches to flying insects, and relativelylong call duration is indicative of foraging in open areas rather than close to vegetation.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Groups of Gray Sac-winged Bats often gather in night roosts central to foraging areas, including under bridges. Group size is usually greater than 50 individuals, and male—female sex ratio is c.3:1. When approached, Gray Sac-winged Bats laytheir ears back, like a dog, and back away deeper into the roost.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Gray Sac-winged Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and relativelystable population, and it occurs in protected areas. Threats include habitat loss and vandalism and fire caused byhumans in roost caves.Bibliography.Arroyo-Cabrales & Jones (1988a), Bradbury & Vehrencamp (1976 a, 1976b), Burt (1948), Hood & Gardner (2008), Ibänezet al. (2002), Lopez-Forment (1976), Reid (2009), Solari et al. (2013), Villa(1967).","taxonomy":"Balantiopteryx plicataPeters, 1867,Puntarenas, Costa Rica.Two subspeciesare recognized.","commonNames":"Gray Sac-winged Bat @en | Emballonura de Peters @en | Emballonura de Peters @fr | Peters-Sackflügelfledermaus @de | Embalonuro de sacos de Peters @es | Peters's Sac-winged Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1867","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Balantiopteryx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"15","interpretedPageNumber":"364","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"plicata","name":"Balantiopteryx plicata","subspeciesAndDistribution":"B. p.plicataPeters, 1867- from CSinaloa in Mexico to Nicaraguaand NW Costa Rica.B. p. pallidaBurt, 1948 - confined to S Sonora, N Sinaloa, and the S tip of Baja California Sur states in Mexico.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747964/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arroyo-Cabrales & Jones (1988a) | Bradbury & Vehrencamp (1976 a, 1976b) | Burt (1948) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | Ibänezet al. (2002) | Lopez-Forment (1976) | Reid (2009) | Solari et al. (2013) | Villa(1967)","breeding":"","activityPatterns":"Gray Sac-winged Bats are crepuscular and roost in dim light near entrances of caves, mines, and tunnels; under overhanging large boulders; and in tree hollows and buildings including outdoor, shaded stairwells in close proximity to human foot traffic. Flight emergence begins a little before sunset, and individuals fly above canopies and forage with long, straight sallies and rapid dives to chase aerial insects. Earlyflight above relatively low, open canopies of deciduous forests can easily be observed. Calls with principle energy in second harmonic, start with 42- kHz narrowband component that drops slightlyby 1-1-5 kHz at 39-kHz broadband. Mean call duration is 12 milliseconds. Terminal drop in frequencyover a broadband facilitates targeting approaches to flying insects, and relativelylong call duration is indicative of foraging in open areas rather than close to vegetation.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Groups of Gray Sac-winged Bats often gather in night roosts central to foraging areas, including under bridges. Group size is usually greater than 50 individuals, and male—female sex ratio is c.3:1. When approached, Gray Sac-winged Bats laytheir ears back, like a dog, and back away deeper into the roost.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Gray Sac-winged Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and relativelystable population, and it occurs in protected areas. Threats include habitat loss and vandalism and fire caused byhumans in roost caves.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 47—53 mm, tail 13—23 mm, ear 13-15 mm, hindfoot 7-10 mm, forearm 37-5-45-9 mm; weight 5-6 g. Based on forearm length, females (43-1 mm mean) are slightlylarger than males (42-1 mm mean). Dorsal fur of the Gray Sac-winged Bat is smokybrown but often yellowish at base of tail membrane; venter is paler, with hairs faintlytipped bufiybrown along belly and flanks. Wingsare brown-bordered, with white particularly between foot and fifth finger. Legs and forearms are pinkish. Wingsacs open toward body and do not extend to edges ofwings. Dental formula of the three species of Balantiopteryxis 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.","habitat":"Deciduous forests, dry thorn scrub, and less commonlyevergreen moist forests from sea level to elevations of c.1500 m."} @@ -961,7 +961,7 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCA4C01FF7431D4F8DBF2F5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFCA4C01FF7431D4F8DBF2F5","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"354","verbatimText":"9. Indonesian Tomb BatTaphozous achatesFrench: Taphiend'Indonésie / German:Indonesien-Grabfledermaus /Spanish:Tafozo indonesioTaxonomy. Taphozous achatesThomas, 1915,“ Savu I[slan] d., East of Timor[= Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia].”Taphozous achatesis in the subgenus Taphozous.Until recently, itwas included in. melanopogon.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. a.achatesThomas, 1915- Lesser Sunda Is, recorded from Nusa Perfida, Savu, Semau, Roti, Timor, Wetar, Leti, and Babar Is.. a.minor Kitchener, 1995 — restricted to two island groups in E Indonesia: Tanimbar Is and Kai Is.Descriptive notes.Head—body 74—78-5 mm, tail 25-3—27-3 mm, ear 19-1—20-7 mm, hindfoot 5-4—6-5 mm, forearm 59-6—63-7 mm; weight 21-23-5 g. There is no appreciable sexual dimorphism in the Indonesian Tomb Bat. The two subspecies are quite similar in external appearance and differ primarily in smaller size of skull and external measurements of minor.Dorsal hairs are dark drab brown, with white basal parts; ventral hairs are drab gray, with cream or white basal parts. Mature males have lightdrab brown throat beards. Proximal one-third of inner dorsal surfrice offorearm is lightly furred and similar in color to dorsal pelage. Ear is lightly haired along margin. Uropatagium is lightly furred.Habitat. Coastal and lowland areas from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Indonesian Tomb Batfeeds on aerial insects.Breeding. Two female Indonesian Tomb Bats were not lactating in midJune on Kai Island.Activity patterns.The Indonesian Tomb Batroosts in limestone caves.Movements, Home range and Social organization.On Kai Island, Indonesian Tomb Bats roost in association with Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats (Hipposideros cervinus),Small AsianSheath-tailed Bats (Emballonura alecto),Little Long-fingered Bats (Miniopterus australis),Stalker’s Myotis (Myotis stalkeri),and New Guinea Broad-eared Horseshoe Bats (Rhinolophus euryotis).Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCNRed List.Population status of the Indonesian Tomb Batis unknown. The species is known only from a few localities. Potential threats include cave disturbance by human and domestic animal entry and limestone extraction. It occurs in some protected reserves. Before adequate protective measures can occur, research needs to be conducted to better understand distribution, ecology, population structure, and taxonomy of the Indonesian Tomb Batin relation to its sister species, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat (. melanopogon).Bibliography.Flannery (1995b), Kitchener & Suyanto (1995), Kitchener, Schmitt eta/. (1993), Simmons (2005).","taxonomy":"Taphozous achatesThomas, 1915,“ Savu I[slan] d., East of Timor[= Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia].”Taphozous achatesis in the subgenus Taphozous.Until recently, itwas included in. melanopogon.Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":" @en | ndonesian Tomb Bat @en | Taphiend' @fr | ndonésie @en | German @en | ndonesien-Grabfledermaus @en | Tafozo indonesio @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1915","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"354","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"achates","name":"Taphozous achates","subspeciesAndDistribution":"a.achatesThomas, 1915- Lesser Sunda Is, recorded from Nusa Perfida, Savu, Semau, Roti, Timor, Wetar, Leti, and Babar Is.. a.minor Kitchener, 1995 — restricted to two island groups in E Indonesia: Tanimbar Is and Kai Is.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747920/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Flannery (1995b) | Kitchener & Suyanto (1995) | Kitchener, Schmitt et al. (1993) | Simmons (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Indonesian Tomb Batfeeds on aerial insects.","breeding":"Two female Indonesian Tomb Bats were not lactating in midJune on Kai Island.","activityPatterns":"The Indonesian Tomb Batroosts in limestone caves.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"On Kai Island, Indonesian Tomb Bats roost in association with Fawn-colored Leaf-nosed Bats (Hipposideros cervinus),Small AsianSheath-tailed Bats (Emballonura alecto),Little Long-fingered Bats (Miniopterus australis),Stalker’s Myotis (Myotis stalkeri),and New Guinea Broad-eared Horseshoe Bats (Rhinolophus euryotis).","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 74—78-5 mm, tail 25-3—27-3 mm, ear 19-1—20-7 mm, hindfoot 5-4—6-5 mm, forearm 59-6—63-7 mm; weight 21-23-5 g. There is no appreciable sexual dimorphism in the Indonesian Tomb Bat. The two subspecies are quite similar in external appearance and differ primarily in smaller size of skull and external measurements of minor.Dorsal hairs are dark drab brown, with white basal parts; ventral hairs are drab gray, with cream or white basal parts. Mature males have lightdrab brown throat beards. Proximal one-third of inner dorsal surfrice offorearm is lightly furred and similar in color to dorsal pelage. Ear is lightly haired along margin. Uropatagium is lightly furred.","habitat":"Coastal and lowland areas from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCA4C01FF7F38FCF42FF95A.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFCA4C01FF7F38FCF42FF95A","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"354","verbatimText":"10. Amhem Sheath-tailed BatTaphozous kapalgensisFrench:Taphien de Kapalga IGerman:Arnhemland-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozode KapalgaOther common names:ArnhemTomb Bat, White-stripedSheath-tailed BatTaxonomy.Taphozous kapalgensisMcKean & Friend, 1979, “‘ Kapalga’, at the edge of the western flood plain of the South Alligator River, near Rookery Point, N.T.[= Northern Territory] (lat. 12°32’S, long. 132 °23 ’E),” Australia.Taphozous kapalgensisis in the subgenus Taphozous.Monotypic.Distribution.N Australia, in extreme E Kimberley region ofWestern Australia and in W Top End of the Northern Territory.Additional research might prove that it occurs further E across the Top End of the Northern Territory.Descriptive notes.Head-body 75-85 mm, tail 20-23 mm, ear 16-5-17-6 mm, hindfoot 7 -6 -8 -1mm, forearm 57-6-63 mm; weight 26-29-5 g. The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat has pale orange-brown pelage, with two white ventral flank-stripes. Uropatagium is naked except in sparsely haired anal region. Adult males have well-developed gular pouch, which is a rudimentary slit in females. Radio-metacarpal sacs are present.Habitat.Floodplains, swamps, mangroves, monsoon forests, and open woodlands dominated by Corymbia papuana(Myrtaceae) and Pandanus spiralis(Pandanaceae). The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat occurs in tropical stratified woodlands with mixtures of Eucalyptus tectifica, C. papuana,and C. clavigera(all Myrtaceae). When foraging over floodplains, it typically flies 10—20 m aboveground.Food and Feeding.The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat forages for insects above tree canopies, but it flies closer to the ground in open areas and flyway corridors that can include road cuts. It also will feed low over water. As it feeds, it flies rapidly with abrupt dives and twists while emitting loud, shrill echolocation calls.Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat is nocturnal, but its roosting habitats are unclear. Because it occurs for from rockyoutcrops with caves and rock fissures, it likely roosts in tree hollows. Aboriginal people report that it roosts at the base of Pandanusleaves. Echolocation call frequencies are 22-9—25-5 kHz, with relatively short durations of 3—7 milliseconds.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List.Populations of the Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat are considered stable. It occurs in several protected areas including Kakadu National Park, Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve, and Point Stuart Coastal Reserve. Additional studies on distribution, abundance, roost selection, natural history, and threats are needed to better assess its status and need for conservation action. Potential threats include large-scale invasion of coastal floodplain by introduced plant species, degradation of habitats by feral WaterBuffaloes (Bubalus bubalis),and saltwater intrusion on coastal plains causing loss of tree stands of Melaleuca(Myrtaceae).Bibliography.Chimimba & Kitchener(1991), Lumsden etal. (2005), McKean & riend (1979), Milne & McKean (2008), Milne & Pavey (2011), Milne et al. (2003), Woinarski& Milne (2005).","taxonomy":"Taphozous kapalgensisMcKean & Friend, 1979, “‘ Kapalga’, at the edge of the western flood plain of the South Alligator River, near Rookery Point, N.T.[= Northern Territory] (lat. 12°32’S, long. 132 °23 ’E),” Australia.Taphozous kapalgensisis in the subgenus Taphozous.Monotypic.","commonNames":"10 @en | Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien de Kapalga @fr | Arnhemland-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozode Kapalga @es | Kapalga @en | German @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"McKean & Friend","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1979","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"354","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"kapalgensis","name":"Taphozous kapalgensis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Australia, in extreme E Kimberley region ofWestern Australia and in W Top End of the Northern Territory.Additional research might prove that it occurs further E across the Top End of the Northern Territory.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747922/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Chimimba & Kitchener(1991) | Lumsden etal. (2005) | McKean & riend (1979) | Milne & McKean (2008) | Milne & Pavey (2011) | Milne et al. (2003) | Woinarski& Milne (2005)","foodAndFeeding":"The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat forages for insects above tree canopies, but it flies closer to the ground in open areas and flyway corridors that can include road cuts. It also will feed low over water. As it feeds, it flies rapidly with abrupt dives and twists while emitting loud, shrill echolocation calls.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat is nocturnal, but its roosting habitats are unclear. Because it occurs for from rockyoutcrops with caves and rock fissures, it likely roosts in tree hollows. Aboriginal people report that it roosts at the base of Pandanusleaves. Echolocation call frequencies are 22-9—25-5 kHz, with relatively short durations of 3—7 milliseconds.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List.Populations of the Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat are considered stable.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on TheIUCNRed List.Populations of the Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat are considered stable. It occurs in several protected areas including Kakadu National Park, Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve, and Point Stuart Coastal Reserve. Additional studies on distribution, abundance, roost selection, natural history, and threats are needed to better assess its status and need for conservation action. Potential threats include large-scale invasion of coastal floodplain by introduced plant species, degradation of habitats by feral WaterBuffaloes (Bubalus bubalis),and saltwater intrusion on coastal plains causing loss of tree stands of Melaleuca(Myrtaceae).","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 75-85 mm, tail 20-23 mm, ear 16-5-17-6 mm, hindfoot 7 -6 -8 -1mm, forearm 57-6-63 mm; weight 26-29-5 g. The Amhem Sheath-tailed Bat has pale orange-brown pelage, with two white ventral flank-stripes. Uropatagium is naked except in sparsely haired anal region. Adult males have well-developed gular pouch, which is a rudimentary slit in females. Radio-metacarpal sacs are present.","habitat":""} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCA4C02F82F3255F947FAAB.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFCA4C02F82F3255F947FAAB","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"354","verbatimText":"11. Coastal Sheath-tailed BatTaphozous australisFrench: Taphien de Gould IGerman:Küsten-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozo deGouldOther common names:CoastalTombBat, LittleSheath-tailed Bat, North-eastern Sheath-tailed BatSouthern Sheath-tailedBatTaxonomy. Taphozous australisGould, 1854,“ maritime caves in the sandstone cliffs of Albany Island, Cape York[Peninsula],” Queensland, Australia.Taphozous australisis in the subgenus Taphozous. Monotypic,Distribution.Papua New Guinea (recorded only at the lower Strickland River in WesternProvinceand PortMoresby in National Capital District) and NE coast of Australia from Cape YorkPeninsula to Keppel Bay, also on Moa, Possession, and Albany Is in Torres Strait (possibly also on other islands in this area) and Magnetic I and other coastal islands of Queensland. It might have a larger distribution along S coast ofNew Guinea.Descriptive notes.Head—body 78—90 mm, tail 20-29 mm, ear 22—26 mm, hindfoot 10— 14 mm, forearm 63-67 mm; weight 20-30-5 g. Individuals from Papua New Guinea are reportedly weight 20-26 g, but in Australia, adults are reportedly as large as 30-5 g, with larger body mass associated with fat deposition in colder winters of the central northeastern coast ofQueensland. Dorsum fur of the Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat appears grayish brown or gray, with both color morphs often found in a single colony; venter is slightly paler. Bases of hairs on dorsum and venter are white. Fur on underside of forearm is white. Throat pouch, opening to the anterior, is prominent in adult males and rudimentary in females. Radio-metacarpal sacs are present on both sexes. Triangular ear has blunt apex and is heavily pleated with serrations along posterior margin. Tragusis broad, short, and slightly rounded at tip. Antitragus extends nearly to comer of mouth. Large, dark brown irises make eyesconspicuous. Flight membranes are dark brown. Bare parts of facial region, ears, tail, and forearms are brown to reddish brown. Trailing edges of uropatagium when extended are supported by stiffcartilaginous calcars. Skull rises sharply from nasal region to cranium. Weak sagittal crest is present on older individuals.Habitat.Coastal dune scrublands, coastal heathlands, open eucalypt forests, grasslands, monsoon forests, mangroves, and swamps with swamp paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia,Myrtaceae), no more than a few kilometers inland, from sea level to elevations ofc.300 m.Food and Feeding.The Coastal Sheath-tail Bat is insectivorous and includes beetles in its diet. Large beetles are often carried to a night feeding roost or back to the day roost at the end of the night. Discarded insect parts can be found below either type of roost. While foraging, it flies fast and high above forest canopies but also descends closer to the ground in open areas.Breeding. Pregnant Coastal Sheath-tail Bats can be found in September, and births of single young occur in October-November in Australia.Activity patterns.Coastal Sheath-tail Bats are nocturnal and roost in sea caves, rocky areas, crevices, boulder piles, abandoned militarybunkers, and old buildings. They emerge from day roosts well after dark. Echolocation call is flat to slightlysloped, and characteristic frequencies are 23—27 kHz. Its echolocation calls, however, are difficult to distinguish from Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat (T. troughtoni)or Beccari’s Freetailed Bat (Ozimops beccarii)where they co-occur.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Most roosting groups ofCoastal Sheathtail Bats consist ofless than ten individuals, but larger groups exceeding 100 individuals have been noted, particularly in older published accounts. In winter, Coastal Sheath-tailed Bats can cluster in groups of up to five individuals, but in wanner months, they maintain individual distances of up to 20 cm while roosting. Even in large caves, they roost in well-litareas and remain alert and quickly take flight if approached too closely, moving to another roosting site or deeper into inaccessible parts of large caves. They can commute up to 15 km from roosts to nightly foraging areas. They have been observed flying between offshore island roosts to the mainland ofAustralia to forage. At the extreme southern end of its distribution near Rockhampton, Australia, they deposit fat in autumn and thereafter enter short bouts of torpor during coldest times of the year. Torpid individuals have cold body temperatures that require up to ten minutes or more ofwarming before they can fly.Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on TheIUCNRed List.Nevertheless, the Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat almost qualified as Vulnerable in the most recent evaluation on TheIUCNRed Listixcmseit is highly probable that less than 10,000 mature individuals exist, some recent population declines have been observed, and habitat loss might cause future declines. In Australia, it is potentially threatened byloss of foraging habitat from sand mining and coastal development and disturbance at roosting sites. It is protected in Cape Hillsborough National Park and several other coastal and offshore island protected areas in Australia. Recommended conservation actions include protection of keyroosting sites and foraging habitat Additional field studies also are needed to better assess its distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats in Australia and Papua New Guinea.Bibliography.Bonaccorso (1998), Churchill (2008), Duncan eta/. (1999), Richards(2008b), Strahan (1995).","taxonomy":"Taphozous australisGould, 1854,“ maritime caves in the sandstone cliffs of Albany Island, Cape York[Peninsula],” Queensland, Australia.Taphozous australisis in the subgenus Taphozous.","commonNames":"Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien de Gould @fr | Küsten-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de Gould @es | CoastalTomb Bat @en | Little Sheath-tailed Bat @en | North-eastern Sheath-tailed BatSouthern Sheath-tailed Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Gould","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1854","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"5","interpretedPageNumber":"354","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"australis","name":"Taphozous australis","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Papua New Guinea (recorded only at the lower Strickland River in WesternProvinceand PortMoresby in National Capital District) and NE coast of Australia from Cape YorkPeninsula to Keppel Bay, also on Moa, Possession, and Albany Is in Torres Strait (possibly also on other islands in this area) and Magnetic I and other coastal islands of Queensland. It might have a larger distribution along S coast ofNew Guinea.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747924/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bonaccorso (1998) | Churchill (2008) | Duncan et al. (1999) | Richards(2008b) | Strahan (1995)","foodAndFeeding":"The Coastal Sheath-tail Bat is insectivorous and includes beetles in its diet. Large beetles are often carried to a night feeding roost or back to the day roost at the end of the night. Discarded insect parts can be found below either type of roost. While foraging, it flies fast and high above forest canopies but also descends closer to the ground in open areas.","breeding":"Pregnant Coastal Sheath-tail Bats can be found in September, and births of single young occur in October-November in Australia.","activityPatterns":"Coastal Sheath-tail Bats are nocturnal and roost in sea caves, rocky areas, crevices, boulder piles, abandoned militarybunkers, and old buildings. They emerge from day roosts well after dark. Echolocation call is flat to slightlysloped, and characteristic frequencies are 23—27 kHz. Its echolocation calls, however, are difficult to distinguish from Troughton’s Sheath-tailed Bat (T. troughtoni)or Beccari’s Freetailed Bat (Ozimops beccarii)where they co-occur.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Most roosting groups ofCoastal Sheathtail Bats consist ofless than ten individuals, but larger groups exceeding 100 individuals have been noted, particularly in older published accounts. In winter, Coastal Sheath-tailed Bats can cluster in groups of up to five individuals, but in wanner months, they maintain individual distances of up to 20 cm while roosting. Even in large caves, they roost in well-litareas and remain alert and quickly take flight if approached too closely, moving to another roosting site or deeper into inaccessible parts of large caves. They can commute up to 15 km from roosts to nightly foraging areas. They have been observed flying between offshore island roosts to the mainland ofAustralia to forage. At the extreme southern end of its distribution near Rockhampton, Australia, they deposit fat in autumn and thereafter enter short bouts of torpor during coldest times of the year. Torpid individuals have cold body temperatures that require up to ten minutes or more ofwarming before they can fly.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Near Threatened on TheIUCNRed List.Nevertheless, the Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat almost qualified as Vulnerable in the most recent evaluation on TheIUCNRed Listixcmseit is highly probable that less than 10,000 mature individuals exist, some recent population declines have been observed, and habitat loss might cause future declines. In Australia, it is potentially threatened byloss of foraging habitat from sand mining and coastal development and disturbance at roosting sites. It is protected in Cape Hillsborough National Park and several other coastal and offshore island protected areas in Australia. Recommended conservation actions include protection of keyroosting sites and foraging habitat Additional field studies also are needed to better assess its distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats in Australia and Papua New Guinea.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 78—90 mm, tail 20-29 mm, ear 22—26 mm, hindfoot 10— 14 mm, forearm 63-67 mm; weight 20-30-5 g. Individuals from Papua New Guinea are reportedly weight 20-26 g, but in Australia, adults are reportedly as large as 30-5 g, with larger body mass associated with fat deposition in colder winters of the central northeastern coast ofQueensland. Dorsum fur of the Coastal Sheath-tailed Bat appears grayish brown or gray, with both color morphs often found in a single colony; venter is slightly paler. Bases of hairs on dorsum and venter are white. Fur on underside of forearm is white. Throat pouch, opening to the anterior, is prominent in adult males and rudimentary in females. Radio-metacarpal sacs are present on both sexes. Triangular ear has blunt apex and is heavily pleated with serrations along posterior margin. Tragusis broad, short, and slightly rounded at tip. Antitragus extends nearly to comer of mouth. Large, dark brown irises make eyesconspicuous. Flight membranes are dark brown. Bare parts of facial region, ears, tail, and forearms are brown to reddish brown. Trailing edges of uropatagium when extended are supported by stiffcartilaginous calcars. Skull rises sharply from nasal region to cranium. Weak sagittal crest is present on older individuals.","habitat":""} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1B25C9F5DEF52E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1B25C9F5DEF52E","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"353","verbatimText":"7. Black-bearded Tomb BatTaphozous melanopogonFrench: Taphien à barbe noire / German:Schwarzbart-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozo de barba negraTaxonomy. TaphozousmelanopogonTemminck, 1841,Bantam, Westjava, Indonesia.Taphozous melanopogonis in the subgenus Taphozous.Subspecies philippinensisnamed by G. R.Waterhouse in 1845 is now considered invalid. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. m.melanopogonTemminck, 1841— fromJava through Lesser Sundas including Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor Is, and Timor I.. m. bicolorTemminck, 1841 — E India.. m. cavaticusHollister, 1913-W Sumatra.. m. fretensisThomas, 1916 - Borneo, over scattered locations from N Sabah to Sarawak and S Martapura in S Kalimantan.Taphozous melanopogonoccurs from Sri Lanka and India through S China and SE Asia into islands of Indonesia including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Is, Sulawesi, and many smaller islands, also in the Philippines. Subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.Descriptive notes.Head—body 67—86 mm, ear 21—23 mm, hindfoot 13—15 mm, tail 11 -9—26 mm, forearm 60—68 mm; weight 21—26 g. Dorsum of the Black-bearded Tomb Bat ranges from verydark brown in younger individuals to paler cinnamon drab in mature males. Basal part of hairs is pale pinkish buff in mature adult males and white in juveniles and young adults. Venter is paler than dorsum. Females in India often have a more reddish hue and hairs of young individuals are brown, and mature adults are tawny olive. Throat beard of adult males is dense mat of black hairs up to 25 mm long across full width of throat. Proximal one-third of forearm is furred along inner dorsal surface and same color as dorsum. Ear is lightlyfurred along external margin. Wingmembranes are predominately sepia. Uropatagium is lightly furred butbecomes dense near tail. Tail is thickened at tip. Legs and feet are hairy. There are well-developed radio-metacarpal sacs in wings. Wingmembrane attaches above ankle to tibia.Habitat. Many forest habitats and urban areas from sea level to hillyareas at c.800 m.Food and Feeding.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insects.Breeding.Some colonies of Black-bearded Tomb Bats are unisexual. Single youngare bom after gestation of 120-125 days. Beard ofmales becomes wet with secretions during breeding season, presumablyrelated to chemical communication related to breeding.Activity patterns.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat roosts in well-lit areas in caves including sea caves, large rock crevices, and buildings including temples, mines, and tunnels.Movements, Home rangeand Social organization. Roosting colonies ofBlack-bearded Tomb Bats range from a few individuals to thousands.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on 77 ie IUCN Red List.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumablylarge and stable overall population. Some populations occur in protected reserves. Because it will inhabit secondary forests and anthropogenic habitats, it appears to have locally stable or slightly decreasing populations. In South Asia, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat is regionally threatened by habitat loss from commercial logging and agriculture and disturbance to roost caves by humans. Local subsistence hunting of larger colonies in cave roosts occurs in Laos and the Philippines.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Flannery (1995b), Heaneyeta/. (1998), Kitchener& Suyanto (1995), Kitchener, Schmitt (1993), Lawrence (1939), Molur eta/. (2002), Rickarteta/. (1993), Sanborn (1952), Smith & XieYan(2008), Taylor(1934), Waterhouse (1845).","taxonomy":"TaphozousmelanopogonTemminck, 1841,Bantam, Westjava, Indonesia.Taphozous melanopogonis in the subgenus Taphozous.Subspecies philippinensisnamed by G. R.Waterhouse in 1845 is now considered invalid. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"7 @en | Black-bearded Tomb Bat @en | Taphien à barbe noire @fr | Schwarzbart-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de barba negra @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"353","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"melanopogon","name":"Taphozous melanopogon","subspeciesAndDistribution":"m.melanopogonTemminck, 1841— fromJava through Lesser Sundas including Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor Is, and Timor I.. m. bicolorTemminck, 1841 — E India.. m. cavaticusHollister, 1913-W Sumatra.. m. fretensisThomas, 1916 - Borneo, over scattered locations from N Sabah to Sarawak and S Martapura in S Kalimantan.Taphozous melanopogonoccurs from Sri Lanka and India through S China and SE Asia into islands of Indonesia including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Is, Sulawesi, and many smaller islands, also in the Philippines. Subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.","bibliography":"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Flannery (1995b) | Heaneyet al. (1998) | Kitchener& Suyanto (1995) | Kitchener, Schmitt (1993) | Lawrence (1939) | Molur et al. (2002) | Rickartet al. (1993) | Sanborn (1952) | Smith & XieYan(2008) | Taylor(1934) | Waterhouse (1845)","foodAndFeeding":"The Black-bearded Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insects.","breeding":"","activityPatterns":"The Black-bearded Tomb Bat roosts in well-lit areas in caves including sea caves, large rock crevices, and buildings including temples, mines, and tunnels.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on 77 ie IUCN Red List.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumablylarge and stable overall population. Some populations occur in protected reserves. Because it will inhabit secondary forests and anthropogenic habitats, it appears to have locally stable or slightly decreasing populations. In South Asia, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat is regionally threatened by habitat loss from commercial logging and agriculture and disturbance to roost caves by humans. Local subsistence hunting of larger colonies in cave roosts occurs in Laos and the Philippines.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 67—86 mm, ear 21—23 mm, hindfoot 13—15 mm, tail 11 -9—26 mm, forearm 60—68 mm; weight 21—26 g. Dorsum of the Black-bearded Tomb Bat ranges from verydark brown in younger individuals to paler cinnamon drab in mature males. Basal part of hairs is pale pinkish buff in mature adult males and white in juveniles and young adults. Venter is paler than dorsum. Females in India often have a more reddish hue and hairs of young individuals are brown, and mature adults are tawny olive. Throat beard of adult males is dense mat of black hairs up to 25 mm long across full width of throat. Proximal one-third of forearm is furred along inner dorsal surface and same color as dorsum. Ear is lightlyfurred along external margin. Wingmembranes are predominately sepia. Uropatagium is lightly furred butbecomes dense near tail. Tail is thickened at tip. Legs and feet are hairy. There are well-developed radio-metacarpal sacs in wings. Wingmembrane attaches above ankle to tibia.","habitat":"Many forest habitats and urban areas from sea level to hillyareas at c.800 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1B25C9F5DEF52E.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1B25C9F5DEF52E","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"353","verbatimText":"7. Black-bearded Tomb BatTaphozous melanopogonFrench: Taphien à barbe noire / German:Schwarzbart-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozo de barba negraTaxonomy. TaphozousmelanopogonTemminck, 1841,Bantam, Westjava, Indonesia.Taphozous melanopogonis in the subgenus Taphozous.Subspecies philippinensisnamed by G. R.Waterhouse in 1845 is now considered invalid. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. m.melanopogonTemminck, 1841— fromJava through Lesser Sundas including Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor Is, and Timor I.. m. bicolorTemminck, 1841 — E India.. m. cavaticusHollister, 1913-W Sumatra.. m. fretensisThomas, 1916 - Borneo, over scattered locations from N Sabah to Sarawak and S Martapura in S Kalimantan.Taphozous melanopogonoccurs from Sri Lanka and India through S China and SE Asia into islands of Indonesia including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Is, Sulawesi, and many smaller islands, also in the Philippines. Subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.Descriptive notes.Head—body 67—86 mm, ear 21—23 mm, hindfoot 13—15 mm, tail 11 -9—26 mm, forearm 60—68 mm; weight 21—26 g. Dorsum of the Black-bearded Tomb Bat ranges from verydark brown in younger individuals to paler cinnamon drab in mature males. Basal part of hairs is pale pinkish buff in mature adult males and white in juveniles and young adults. Venter is paler than dorsum. Females in India often have a more reddish hue and hairs of young individuals are brown, and mature adults are tawny olive. Throat beard of adult males is dense mat of black hairs up to 25 mm long across full width of throat. Proximal one-third of forearm is furred along inner dorsal surface and same color as dorsum. Ear is lightlyfurred along external margin. Wingmembranes are predominately sepia. Uropatagium is lightly furred butbecomes dense near tail. Tail is thickened at tip. Legs and feet are hairy. There are well-developed radio-metacarpal sacs in wings. Wingmembrane attaches above ankle to tibia.Habitat. Many forest habitats and urban areas from sea level to hillyareas at c.800 m.Food and Feeding.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insects.Breeding.Some colonies of Black-bearded Tomb Bats are unisexual. Single youngare bom after gestation of 120-125 days. Beard ofmales becomes wet with secretions during breeding season, presumablyrelated to chemical communication related to breeding.Activity patterns.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat roosts in well-lit areas in caves including sea caves, large rock crevices, and buildings including temples, mines, and tunnels.Movements, Home rangeand Social organization. Roosting colonies ofBlack-bearded Tomb Bats range from a few individuals to thousands.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on 77 ie IUCN Red List.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumablylarge and stable overall population. Some populations occur in protected reserves. Because it will inhabit secondary forests and anthropogenic habitats, it appears to have locally stable or slightly decreasing populations. In South Asia, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat is regionally threatened by habitat loss from commercial logging and agriculture and disturbance to roost caves by humans. Local subsistence hunting of larger colonies in cave roosts occurs in Laos and the Philippines.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Flannery (1995b), Heaneyeta/. (1998), Kitchener& Suyanto (1995), Kitchener, Schmitt (1993), Lawrence (1939), Molur eta/. (2002), Rickarteta/. (1993), Sanborn (1952), Smith & XieYan(2008), Taylor(1934), Waterhouse (1845).","taxonomy":"TaphozousmelanopogonTemminck, 1841,Bantam, Westjava, Indonesia.Taphozous melanopogonis in the subgenus Taphozous.Subspecies philippinensisnamed by G. R.Waterhouse in 1845 is now considered invalid. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"7 @en | Black-bearded Tomb Bat @en | Taphien à barbe noire @fr | Schwarzbart-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo de barba negra @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Temminck","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1841","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"353","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"melanopogon","name":"Taphozous melanopogon","subspeciesAndDistribution":"m.melanopogonTemminck, 1841— fromJava through Lesser Sundas including Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor Is, and Timor I.. m. bicolorTemminck, 1841 — E India.. m. cavaticusHollister, 1913-W Sumatra.. m. fretensisThomas, 1916 - Borneo, over scattered locations from N Sabah to Sarawak and S Martapura in S Kalimantan.Taphozous melanopogonoccurs from Sri Lanka and India through S China and SE Asia into islands of Indonesia including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Is, Sulawesi, and many smaller islands, also in the Philippines. Subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747916/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Flannery (1995b) | Heaneyet al. (1998) | Kitchener& Suyanto (1995) | Kitchener, Schmitt (1993) | Lawrence (1939) | Molur et al. (2002) | Rickartet al. (1993) | Sanborn (1952) | Smith & XieYan(2008) | Taylor(1934) | Waterhouse (1845)","foodAndFeeding":"The Black-bearded Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insects.","breeding":"","activityPatterns":"The Black-bearded Tomb Bat roosts in well-lit areas in caves including sea caves, large rock crevices, and buildings including temples, mines, and tunnels.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on 77 ie IUCN Red List.The Black-bearded Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumablylarge and stable overall population. Some populations occur in protected reserves. Because it will inhabit secondary forests and anthropogenic habitats, it appears to have locally stable or slightly decreasing populations. In South Asia, the Black-bearded Tomb Bat is regionally threatened by habitat loss from commercial logging and agriculture and disturbance to roost caves by humans. Local subsistence hunting of larger colonies in cave roosts occurs in Laos and the Philippines.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 67—86 mm, ear 21—23 mm, hindfoot 13—15 mm, tail 11 -9—26 mm, forearm 60—68 mm; weight 21—26 g. Dorsum of the Black-bearded Tomb Bat ranges from verydark brown in younger individuals to paler cinnamon drab in mature males. Basal part of hairs is pale pinkish buff in mature adult males and white in juveniles and young adults. Venter is paler than dorsum. Females in India often have a more reddish hue and hairs of young individuals are brown, and mature adults are tawny olive. Throat beard of adult males is dense mat of black hairs up to 25 mm long across full width of throat. Proximal one-third of forearm is furred along inner dorsal surface and same color as dorsum. Ear is lightlyfurred along external margin. Wingmembranes are predominately sepia. Uropatagium is lightly furred butbecomes dense near tail. Tail is thickened at tip. Legs and feet are hairy. There are well-developed radio-metacarpal sacs in wings. Wingmembrane attaches above ankle to tibia.","habitat":"Many forest habitats and urban areas from sea level to hillyareas at c.800 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1C3147FAC6EFA6.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFCB4C00FF1C3147FAC6EFA6","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"353","verbatimText":"6. Long-winged Sheath-tailed BatTaphozous longimanusFrench: Taphien à longs bras / German:Langflügel-Grabfledermaus / Spanish:Tafozo alilargoOther common names:IndianSheath-tailed Bat, Long-winged Tomb BatTaxonomy.Taphosous[sic] longimanusHardwicke, 1825,“ Calcutta,” Bengal, India.Taphozous longimanusis in the subgenus Taphozous.Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. l. longimanusHardwicke, 1825- Indian subcontinent (Nepal, India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka).. l albipinnisThomas, 1898 - Borneo and Labuan I.. l. kampeniiJentink, 1907 —Java, but distribution is not clearlydelimited.. l. leucopleurusDobson, 1878 - FloresI, Lesser Sundas, butdistribution is not clearly delimited.Wide distribution from South Asia and Indochina to Greater and Lesser Sundas, but subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.Descriptive notes.Head-body73-86 mm, tail 20-30 mm, ear c.20 mm, forearm 54— 63 mm. No specific data are available for hindfoot length or body weight. Dorsum of the Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat varies from reddish brown to black, sometimes speckled with white patches. In Thailand, females tend to be gray, and males tend to be brown. Chin is naked. Legs are coveredwith short fur. Upper surface of wing and uropatagium membranes are furred to about one-half the length of humerus and femur. A well-developed gular pouch and radio-metacarpal pouches are present in males; females have only rudimentary fold on throat. Wingsare long, narrow, and whitish and attached at ankles. Tail tapers to narrow tip. Third finger is longer than forearm.Habitat. Wide variety of habitats from arid areas to humid zones from sea level to elevations of C.1200 m.Food and Feeding.Diet includes beetles and cockroaches.Breeding.Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bats are bom in midJanuary and mid-May. At Varanasi, India, spermatogenesis occurs in September, with appearance of spermatozoa. Spermatogenic arrest occurs in winter dormancy in December and is followed by a second peak of spermatogenesis inJanuary that coincides with ovulation in females. A third peak of spermatogenesis begins in late April, and tubules are found completely regressed after May. Cycle of accessory sex glands generally parallels testicular cycle, reaching maximum hypertrophy in September-January and again in late April. Thereafter, accessory sex glands are involuted. Spermatozoa are present in cauda epididymis throughout the year.Activity patterns.The Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, abandoned human structures (e.g. forts, dungeons, and wells), and hollows and crowns of trees including palms and banyan figs {Ficus benghalensis,Moraceae) and under large rocks and eaves of houses. It emerges from roosts very earlyin the evening and flies fast as it forages.Movements, Home range andSocial organization.The Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat roosts alone or in colonies that can number hundreds of individuals.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Longwinged Sheath-tailed Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population, occurs in protected reserves, and is tolerant of habitat modification. Although populations generally are thought to be stable, some scattered local populations might be decreasing. In South Asia, the Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat occurs in Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary inJharkhand and Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, and it likely is present in most protected areas in peninsular India and many in South-eastAsia. Additional studies are needed on taxonomy, distribution, abundance and population trends, reproduction, and ecology. Some populations might be threatened by roost disturbance, especiallyfrom guano mining in South-east Asia.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison(1997), Bates, Harrison & Muni (1994a, 1994b, 1994c), Brasset (1963), Khan(2001), Molur et al.(2002), Singh (1997), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu(2005, 2012).","taxonomy":"Taphosous[sic] longimanusHardwicke, 1825,“ Calcutta,” Bengal, India.Taphozous longimanusis in the subgenus Taphozous.Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Taphien à longs bras @fr | Langflügel-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozo alilargo @es | Other common names @en | ndian Sheath-tailed Bat @en | Long-winged Tomb Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Hardwicke","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1825","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"353","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"longimanus","name":"Taphozous longimanus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"l. longimanusHardwicke, 1825- Indian subcontinent (Nepal, India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka).. l albipinnisThomas, 1898 - Borneo and Labuan I.. l. kampeniiJentink, 1907 —Java, but distribution is not clearlydelimited.. l. leucopleurusDobson, 1878 - FloresI, Lesser Sundas, butdistribution is not clearly delimited.Wide distribution from South Asia and Indochina to Greater and Lesser Sundas, but subspecies to which many of these populations belong are unknown.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747914/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates & Harrison(1997) | Bates, Harrison & Muni (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) | Brasset (1963) | Khan(2001) | Molur et al.(2002) | Singh (1997) | Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu(2005, 2012)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet includes beetles and cockroaches.","breeding":"","activityPatterns":"The Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat roosts in caves, tunnels, abandoned human structures (e.g. forts, dungeons, and wells), and hollows and crowns of trees including palms and banyan figs {Ficus benghalensis,Moraceae) and under large rocks and eaves of houses. It emerges from roosts very earlyin the evening and flies fast as it forages.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body73-86 mm, tail 20-30 mm, ear c.20 mm, forearm 54— 63 mm. No specific data are available for hindfoot length or body weight. Dorsum of the Long-winged Sheath-tailed Bat varies from reddish brown to black, sometimes speckled with white patches. In Thailand, females tend to be gray, and males tend to be brown. Chin is naked. Legs are coveredwith short fur. Upper surface of wing and uropatagium membranes are furred to about one-half the length of humerus and femur. A well-developed gular pouch and radio-metacarpal pouches are present in males; females have only rudimentary fold on throat. Wingsare long, narrow, and whitish and attached at ankles. Tail tapers to narrow tip. Third finger is longer than forearm.","habitat":"Wide variety of habitats from arid areas to humid zones from sea level to elevations of C.1200 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCB4C01F8C13E42FE31FBDA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFCB4C01F8C13E42FE31FBDA","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"353","verbatimText":"8. Theobald’s Tomb BatTaphozous theobaldiFrench: Taphien deTheobald IGerman:Theobald-Grabffledermaus/ Spanish:Tafozo deTheobaldOther common names:Theobald's BatTaxonomy.Taphozous theobaldiDobson, 1872,Tenasserim, Burma.Taphozous theobaldiis in the subgenus Taphozous.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. t. theobaldiDobson, 1872- Tenasserim, Myanmar.. t. secatusThomas, 1915 - Madhya Pradesh, India.Boundaries and complete distribution for subspecies are unknown, but T theobaldiis patchily distributed from C & SW India (Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala), S China (Yunnan, imprecise locality and therefore not mapped), and SE Asia to Greater Sundas (Borneo, Java) and Sulawesi. Distribution is poorly known in India, and. theobaldilikelyis more widespread than presentlyunderstood. It presumably will be found on other islands of the Indonesian Archipelago.Descriptive notes.Head-body 88-95 mm, tail 25-30 mm, ear 22—28 mm, hindfoot 15-18 mm, forearm 70-76 mm; weight 40-50 g (estimated from forearm size). Dorsal fur of Theobald’s Tomb Bat is gray-brown to dark brown; bases of hairs are paler. Adult males have black beards. Well-developed, radio-metacarpal sacs are present in adult males. Legs, feet, and flight membranes are naked. Wingattaches above ankle to tibia.Habitat. Moist forests from sea level to elevations of c.1200 m. Theobald’s Tomb Bats roost in large limestone caves with deep crevices.Food and Feeding.Theobald’s Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insectswhile flying high above forest canopies.Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Roost colonies of Theobald’s Tomb Bats varyfrom ten individuals to several thousands.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.Theobald’s Tomb Bat has a large distribution and presumably large overall population, and it is not believed to be in serious population decline. It is threatened by disturbance and destruction of roosting sites and harvesting for bushmeat and medicinal purposes in parts of its distribution. Guano is mined from large roost colonies for use as fertilizer in South-east Asia. There are no direct conservation measures in place. Theobald’s Tomb Bat occurs in some protected areas in India including Silent Valley National Parkin Kerala and Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra. Important roosting sites throughout its distribution should be protected. Studies of distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology, and population trends are needed.Bibliography.Bates & Harrison (1997), Bates, Bumrungsri, Walston etal. (2008), Bates, Harrison & Muni (1994a, 1994b, 1994c), Brasset (1963), Francis (2008a), Molur et al. (2002), Smith & XieYan (2008), Wang Yingxiang (2003).","taxonomy":"Taphozous theobaldiDobson, 1872,Tenasserim, Burma.Taphozous theobaldiis in the subgenus Taphozous.Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.. t. theobaldiDobson, 1872- Tenasserim, Myanmar.. t. secatusThomas, 1915 - Madhya Pradesh, India.Boundaries and complete distribution for subspecies are unknown, but T theobaldiis patchily distributed from C & SW India (Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala), S China (Yunnan, imprecise locality and therefore not mapped), and SE Asia to Greater Sundas (Borneo, Java) and Sulawesi.","commonNames":"Taphien de Theobald @fr | Theobald-Grabffledermaus @de | Tafozo de Theobald @es | Theobald's Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Dobson","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1872","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"4","interpretedPageNumber":"353","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"theobaldi","name":"Taphozous theobaldi","subspeciesAndDistribution":"is poorly known in India, and. theobaldilikelyis more widespread than presentlyunderstood. It presumably will be found on other islands of the Indonesian Archipelago.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747918/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bates & Harrison (1997) | Bates, Bumrungsri, Walston etal. (2008) | Bates, Harrison & Muni (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) | Brasset (1963) | Francis (2008a) | Molur et al. (2002) | Smith & XieYan (2008) | Wang Yingxiang (2003)","foodAndFeeding":"Theobald’s Tomb Bat feeds on aerial insectswhile flying high above forest canopies.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Roost colonies of Theobald’s Tomb Bats varyfrom ten individuals to several thousands.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 88-95 mm, tail 25-30 mm, ear 22—28 mm, hindfoot 15-18 mm, forearm 70-76 mm; weight 40-50 g (estimated from forearm size). Dorsal fur of Theobald’s Tomb Bat is gray-brown to dark brown; bases of hairs are paler. Adult males have black beards. Well-developed, radio-metacarpal sacs are present in adult males. Legs, feet, and flight membranes are naked. Wingattaches above ankle to tibia.","habitat":"Moist forests from sea level to elevations of c.1200 m. Theobald’s Tomb Bats roost in large limestone caves with deep crevices."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFCC4C00F834333AFC4CFC29.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFCC4C00F834333AFC4CFC29","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"352","verbatimText":"5. Hildegarde’s Tomb BatTaphozous hildegardeaeFrench: Taphien de Hildegarde / German:Hildegarde-Grabfledermaus ISpanish:Tafozode HildegardeOther common names:White-wingedTombBatTaxonomy. TaphozoushildegardeaeThomas, 1909, “Rabai, 700 ’ [= 213 m],” Mombasa District, Kenya.Taphozous hildegardeaeis in the subgenus Taphozous.Some authorities question localityrecords attributable to central Kenya because. hildegardeaeis otherwise known onlyfrom coastal distribution and habitats; however, these inland records coincide with coastal vegetation along the Tana River, possibly offering suitable habitat Monotypic.Distribution.E Africa along coast of SE Kenya and NE Tanzania (from Lower Tana River S to Dar es Salaam), also on Pemba and Unguja Is (Zanzibar Archipelago); recorded in C Kenya, but verification of museum vouchers and additional fieldwork could clarify distribution there.Descriptive notes.Head-body 79-82 mm, tail 25-29 mm, ear 13-22 mm, hindfoot 11— 18 mm, forearm 63-66 mm; weight 24-36 g (largest weights are for males with heavy fat deposits). Hairs on dorsum of Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat are tricolored, with pale brown above white bases and chocolate-brown tips; venter is white, with lightly frosted brown scattered tips. Exposed skin on limbs and other body parts is brown. Dorsal wing surfaces and uropatagium are brown, but distal part of wing membranes is white. Sparse fur on dorsal and ventral sides of flight membranes is white. Profile of head is concave. Both sexes have radio-metacarpal sacs. Although some sources state that glandular gular pouches are absent, others have observed these glands on mature males. Breeding age males have distinct black beards, covering undersides of their throats.Habitat.Tropical dryforests in very restricted coastal areas from sea level to elevations of C.214 m. Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat also might occur further inland in gallery forests along the Tana River.Food and Feeding.Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat eats species of Orthoptera and Lepidoptera.Breeding. In coastal Kenya, reproductive cycle ofHildegarde’s Tomb Bat closely corresponds to regional seasonality in rainfall. Males have pronounced bimodal cycles of fat deposition, corresponding to relative insect abundance during dual rainy seasons in Kenya. During active courtship and copulation in the first dry season of the year when moth abundance is lowest, males deplete body fat; fat accumulation in males is greatest in the long rainy season in Kenya. Females do not put on appreciable fat deposits, and even near-term pregnant females do not reach large seasonal body weights of males. A secondary peak in body weight and development of male sexual glands are associated with “short rains” in October-December. Second rainy season apparently does not result in reproduction but appears to allow maintenance of year-round harems that might reflect a vestigial polyestrous reproductive cycle.Activity patterns.Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is nocturnal and uses coral sea caves as roosts along the coast. It emerges from day roosts well after dark.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is polygynous, and males maintain roost territories to defend their female harems. In some larger harems, multiple males defend a group’s roosting site. Distance between harems is slightly greater than striking distance of the forearm. Adult males defend harems from intruders by wing flicking, vocalizations, scent marking, postural changes, and aggressive attacks. Males identify females as harem members by anal-genital sniffing. Males also mark harem females by pressing throat glands over females’ dorsum and mark themselves by rubbing their folded wings and forearms over throat glands. Bachelor males andjuveniles roost separately from harems. Colonies of hundreds to c.1000 individuals occur in caves, suggesting that local foraging movements occur at considerable distances from roosting sites. Hildegard’s Tomb Bats often share lit parts of caves with African Sheath-tailed Bats (Coleura afra).The cimicid bug Loxaspis mirandaand the bat fly BrachytarsinaaUuaudihave been identified as common ectoparasites in the larger colonies of Hildegard’s Tomb Bats.Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on TheIUCNRed List.Extent of occurrence of Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is less than 20,000 km2, its distribution is severely fragmented, and there is continuing decline in extent and quality of its forest habitat. It has been recorded from fewer than ten coastal localities. No distribution-wide population estimates are available, but surveys in Kenya and Tanzania in 1988 documented more than 130, 300, and 1000 individuals in three caves. Hildegard’s Tomb Bat likely is declining due to loss of habitat in coastal dry forests and disturbance of cave sites. Updated surveys of cave populations are needed to reassess it conservation status.Bibliography.ACR (2017), Colket & Wilson (1998), Harrison (1962), Kock (1974), McWilliam (1988b), Mickleburgh, Hutson & Bergmans (2008b), Usinger (1966).","taxonomy":"TaphozoushildegardeaeThomas, 1909, “Rabai, 700 ’ [= 213 m],” Mombasa District, Kenya.Taphozous hildegardeaeis in the subgenus Taphozous.Some authorities question localityrecords attributable to central Kenya because. hildegardeaeis otherwise known onlyfrom coastal distribution and habitats; however, these inland records coincide with coastal vegetation along the Tana River, possibly offering suitable habitat Monotypic.","commonNames":"Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat @en | Taphien de Hildegarde @fr | Hildegarde-Grabfledermaus @de | Tafozode Hildegarde @es | White-wingedTomb Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1909","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Taphozous","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"352","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"hildegardeae","name":"Taphozous hildegardeae","subspeciesAndDistribution":"E Africa along coast of SE Kenya and NE Tanzania (from Lower Tana River S to Dar es Salaam), also on Pemba and Unguja Is (Zanzibar Archipelago); recorded in C Kenya, but verification of museum vouchers and additional fieldwork could clarify distribution there.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747912/files/figure.png","bibliography":"ACR (2017) | Colket & Wilson (1998) | Harrison (1962) | Kock (1974) | McWilliam (1988b) | Mickleburgh, Hutson & Bergmans (2008b) | Usinger (1966)","foodAndFeeding":"Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat eats species of Orthoptera and Lepidoptera.","breeding":"In coastal Kenya, reproductive cycle ofHildegarde’s Tomb Bat closely corresponds to regional seasonality in rainfall. Males have pronounced bimodal cycles of fat deposition, corresponding to relative insect abundance during dual rainy seasons in Kenya. During active courtship and copulation in the first dry season of the year when moth abundance is lowest, males deplete body fat; fat accumulation in males is greatest in the long rainy season in Kenya. Females do not put on appreciable fat deposits, and even near-term pregnant females do not reach large seasonal body weights of males. A secondary peak in body weight and development of male sexual glands are associated with “short rains” in October-December. Second rainy season apparently does not result in reproduction but appears to allow maintenance of year-round harems that might reflect a vestigial polyestrous reproductive cycle.","activityPatterns":"Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is nocturnal and uses coral sea caves as roosts along the coast. It emerges from day roosts well after dark.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is polygynous, and males maintain roost territories to defend their female harems. In some larger harems, multiple males defend a group’s roosting site. Distance between harems is slightly greater than striking distance of the forearm. Adult males defend harems from intruders by wing flicking, vocalizations, scent marking, postural changes, and aggressive attacks. Males identify females as harem members by anal-genital sniffing. Males also mark harem females by pressing throat glands over females’ dorsum and mark themselves by rubbing their folded wings and forearms over throat glands. Bachelor males andjuveniles roost separately from harems. Colonies of hundreds to c.1000 individuals occur in caves, suggesting that local foraging movements occur at considerable distances from roosting sites. Hildegard’s Tomb Bats often share lit parts of caves with African Sheath-tailed Bats (Coleura afra).The cimicid bug Loxaspis mirandaand the bat fly BrachytarsinaaUuaudihave been identified as common ectoparasites in the larger colonies of Hildegard’s Tomb Bats.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Vulnerable on TheIUCNRed List.Extent of occurrence of Hildegard’s Tomb Bat is less than 20,000 km2, its distribution is severely fragmented, and there is continuing decline in extent and quality of its forest habitat. It has been recorded from fewer than ten coastal localities. No distribution-wide population estimates are available, but surveys in Kenya and Tanzania in 1988 documented more than 130, 300, and 1000 individuals in three caves. Hildegard’s Tomb Bat likely is declining due to loss of habitat in coastal dry forests and disturbance of cave sites. Updated surveys of cave populations are needed to reassess it conservation status.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 79-82 mm, tail 25-29 mm, ear 13-22 mm, hindfoot 11— 18 mm, forearm 63-66 mm; weight 24-36 g (largest weights are for males with heavy fat deposits). Hairs on dorsum of Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat are tricolored, with pale brown above white bases and chocolate-brown tips; venter is white, with lightly frosted brown scattered tips. Exposed skin on limbs and other body parts is brown. Dorsal wing surfaces and uropatagium are brown, but distal part of wing membranes is white. Sparse fur on dorsal and ventral sides of flight membranes is white. Profile of head is concave. Both sexes have radio-metacarpal sacs. Although some sources state that glandular gular pouches are absent, others have observed these glands on mature males. Breeding age males have distinct black beards, covering undersides of their throats.","habitat":""} @@ -987,11 +987,11 @@ {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDC4C17FF7D36B4FDB6F385.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFDC4C17FF7D36B4FDB6F385","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"368","verbatimText":"40. Lesser Ghost BatDiclidurus scutatusFrench: Diclidure des cyclanthes/ German:Kleine Gespenstfledermaus/ Spanish:Dicliduro pequenoTaxonomy.Diclidurus scutatusPeters, 1869,“Südamerica.” Restricted by A. M. Husson in 1962 to “Para [= Belém], Para, Brazil.Diclidurus scutatusis in the subgenus Depanycteris.Monotypic.Distribution. Amazonian Basin in NE Ecuador (Orellana Province), NE Peru (Loreto Department), E Colombia (Vaupés Department), S & W Venezuela, the Guianas, and N Brazil (Amazonas, Amapa, and Para states), with one additional record from Atlantic DryForest of SE Brazil (Sâo Paulo State).Descriptive notes.Head—body 57-68 mm, tail 17—19 mm, ear 10—15 mm, hindfoot 7-11 mm, forearm 51-58-9 mm; weight c.13 g. Dorsal fur of the Lesser Ghost Bat is long, soft, and either pure white or pale brown at bases of hairs; venter is uniformly white. Claws are black. Flight membranes are unpigmented. Naked skin of wings and legs are pink. Eyes are relatively large, with dark brown irises. Adult males have two glandular pouches on their uropatagia that are particularly prominent during breeding season. Ear is yellowish, rounded at apex, and c.15 mm long; tragus is.6 mm. Greatest length of skull is c.15 mm. Diagnostic skull characteristics include large palatine foramina, with posterior palatal emargination, and no space between premolars.Habitat. Multi-strata evergreen forests (rainforest), Atlantic Dry Forest (one record), and towns and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m.Food and Feeding.The Lesser Ghost Bat preyson insects. One specimen was collected with a large moth in its mouth, and another was captured in a canopy mist net.Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.Lesser Ghost Bats are crepuscular and fly high in open spaces above rivers, streams, lagoons, towns, and forest canopies. They are attracted to insects around lights.Movements, Home range and Social organization.No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List.The Lesser Ghost Bat has a large distribution in areas with intact evergreen forests. Nevertheless, little is known about its taxonomy, distribution, and ecology. Conservation actions should include scientific studies of distribution, roosting behavior, reproduction, diet, and foraging behavior.Bibliography.Albuja (1999), Carter& Dolan (1978), Eisenberg (1989), Escobedo &Velazco (2012), Fonsecaef al. (1996), Handley (1976), Husson (1962, 1978), Lim & Engstrom (2005), Linares (1998), Novaes, Clâudio & Kuniy (2017), Tirira(2017).","taxonomy":"Diclidurus scutatusPeters, 1869,“Südamerica.” Restricted by A. M. Husson in 1962 to “Para [= Belém], Para, Brazil.Diclidurus scutatusis in the subgenus Depanycteris.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Lesser Ghost Bat @en | Diclidure des cyclanthes @fr | Kleine Gespenstfledermaus @de | Dicliduro pequeno @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Peters","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1869","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Diclidurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"19","interpretedPageNumber":"368","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"scutatus","name":"Diclidurus scutatus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Amazonian Basin in NE Ecuador (Orellana Province), NE Peru (Loreto Department), E Colombia (Vaupés Department), S & W Venezuela, the Guianas, and N Brazil (Amazonas, Amapa, and Para states), with one additional record from Atlantic DryForest of SE Brazil (Sâo Paulo State).","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747976/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Albuja (1999) | Carter& Dolan (1978) | Eisenberg (1989) | Escobedo &Velazco (2012) | Fonsecaef al. (1996) | Handley (1976) | Husson (1962, 1978) | Lim & Engstrom (2005) | Linares (1998) | Novaes, Clâudio & Kuniy (2017) | Tirira(2017)","foodAndFeeding":"The Lesser Ghost Bat preyson insects. One specimen was collected with a large moth in its mouth, and another was captured in a canopy mist net.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"Lesser Ghost Bats are crepuscular and fly high in open spaces above rivers, streams, lagoons, towns, and forest canopies. They are attracted to insects around lights.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"No information.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List.The Lesser Ghost Bat has a large distribution in areas with intact evergreen forests. Nevertheless, little is known about its taxonomy, distribution, and ecology.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 57-68 mm, tail 17—19 mm, ear 10—15 mm, hindfoot 7-11 mm, forearm 51-58-9 mm; weight c.13 g. Dorsal fur of the Lesser Ghost Bat is long, soft, and either pure white or pale brown at bases of hairs; venter is uniformly white. Claws are black. Flight membranes are unpigmented. Naked skin of wings and legs are pink. Eyes are relatively large, with dark brown irises. Adult males have two glandular pouches on their uropatagia that are particularly prominent during breeding season. Ear is yellowish, rounded at apex, and c.15 mm long; tragus is.6 mm. Greatest length of skull is c.15 mm. Diagnostic skull characteristics include large palatine foramina, with posterior palatal emargination, and no space between premolars.","habitat":"Multi-strata evergreen forests (rainforest), Atlantic Dry Forest (one record), and towns and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1000 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDD4C16FF073B5EF4A2F586.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFDD4C16FF073B5EF4A2F586","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"367","verbatimText":"38. Northern Ghost BatDiclidurus albusFrench: Diclidure fantôme / German:WeisseGespenstfledermaus / Spanish: Dicliduro nortenoOther common names:White Ghost BatTaxonomy. Diclidurus albusWied-Neuwied, 1820,“ am Ausflusse des Rio Pardo.” Identified by M. P. zu Wied-Neuwied in 1826 as “Canavieiras,” Rio Pardo, Bahia, Brazil.Diclidurus albusis in the subgenus Diclidurus..Populations in Central America might be a distinct species referable as D. virgo,but additional studies are needed. Two subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.D. a.albusWied-Neuwied, 1820- the Guianas, most of Brazil, and E Peru.D. a.virgoThomas, 1903— from SW & S Mexico S through Central America to Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad I, and W Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head—body 68—82 mm, tail 18-22 mm, ear 16-17 mm, hindfoot 10-12 mm, forearm 63-69 mm; weight 17- 24 g. The Northern Ghost Bat has white fur on dorsum and venter, but basal one- third of hairs are neutral gray. Some individuals appear more grayish than white. Flight membranes are unpigmented but appear pinkish from rich vascularization. Ears are yellow. Arms, legs, and face are pink. Eyes are large. Lower regions of the face are naked. Although wing sacs are absent, glandular sac occurs around tip of tail that is more developed in males than females. Thumbs are vestigial. Dental formula of all species of Diclidurusis 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.Habitat. Riparian and tropical rainforests and human-disturbed areas such as plantations, clearings, and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1700 m. In Brazil, the Northern Ghost Bat occurs in Amazonian wet forests and Atlantic Dry Forest, the latter biome being highly fragmented.Food and Feeding. Northern Ghost Bats are insectivorous, and moths are favored in their diets. They forage for aerial insects high above forest canopies and large clearings and over water. Visual observations suggest foraging can occur up to 135 m aboveground.Breeding. In Mexico, copulations occur in January-February, and pregnancy and lactation take place through June. Females produce one young that remains with them at least through August. Non-pregnant adult females have been observed in December-February, suggesting they are monoestrous.Activity patterns.Northern Ghost Bats are crepuscular. Palms are used as day roosts including coconutpalms (Cocos nucifera).On the Pacific slope of Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats roost in native palm Orbignya cohune,and in eastern Mexico Astrocaryum mexicana(all Arecaceae). They roost near rachis ofa palm frond 2-25 m aboveground, with their white coloration making them verycryptic when viewed from below against sunlight. They emit low-frequencyecholocation calls, with very long pulse durations.Movements, Home range andSocial organization.For most of the year, Northern Ghost Bats are solitary except for females with dependent young. Small, temporary groups of a male and up to three adult females occur during breeding season. Individuals in a breeding group roost 5—10 cm from each other. In Jalisco, Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats are present only from late October to May, suggesting some populations are migratory.Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Northern Ghost Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population. Additional studies are needed on its distribution, habitat, ecology, and conservation threats.Bibliography.Ceballos & Medellin (1988), erreira et al.(2013), Hood & Gardner(2008), Kalko (1995a), Lim, B.K. etal. (1999), Potchynok (2006), Villa (1967), Wied-Neuwied (1826).","taxonomy":"Diclidurus albusWied-Neuwied, 1820,“ am Ausflusse des Rio Pardo.” Identified by M. P. zu Wied-Neuwied in 1826 as “Canavieiras,” Rio Pardo, Bahia, Brazil.Diclidurus albusis in the subgenus Diclidurus..Populations in Central America might be a distinct species referable as D. virgo,but additional studies are needed. Two subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Northern Ghost Bat @en | Diclidure fantôme @fr | Weisse Gespenstfledermaus @de | Dicliduro norteno @es | White Ghost Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Wied-Neuwied","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1820","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Diclidurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"367","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albus","name":"Diclidurus albus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"D. a.albusWied-Neuwied, 1820- the Guianas, most of Brazil, and E Peru.D. a.virgoThomas, 1903— from SW & S Mexico S through Central America to Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad I, and W Ecuador.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747972/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Ceballos & Medellin (1988) | erreira et al.(2013) | Hood & Gardner(2008) | Kalko (1995a) | Lim, B.K. etal. (1999) | Potchynok (2006) | Villa (1967) | Wied-Neuwied (1826)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat. Riparian and tropical rainforests and human-disturbed areas such as plantations, clearings, and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1700 m. In Brazil, the Northern Ghost Bat occurs in Amazonian wet forests and Atlantic Dry Forest, the latter biome being highly fragmented.Northern Ghost Bats are insectivorous, and moths are favored in their diets. They forage for aerial insects high above forest canopies and large clearings and over water. Visual observations suggest foraging can occur up to 135 m aboveground.Breeding. In Mexico, copulations occur in January-February, and pregnancy and lactation take place through June. Females produce one young that remains with them at least through August. Non-pregnant adult females have been observed in December-February, suggesting they are monoestrous.Activity patterns.Northern Ghost Bats are crepuscular. Palms are used as day roosts including coconutpalms (Cocos nucifera).On the Pacific slope of Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats roost in native palm Orbignya cohune,and in eastern Mexico Astrocaryum mexicana(all Arecaceae). They roost near rachis ofa palm frond 2-25 m aboveground, with their white coloration making them verycryptic when viewed from below against sunlight. They emit low-frequencyecholocation calls, with very long pulse durations.Movements, Home range andSocial organization.For most of the year, Northern Ghost Bats are solitary except for females with dependent young. Small, temporary groups of a male and up to three adult females occur during breeding season. Individuals in a breeding group roost 5—10 cm from each other. In Jalisco, Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats are present only from late October to May, suggesting some populations are migratory.","breeding":"In Mexico, copulations occur in January-February, and pregnancy and lactation take place through June. Females produce one young that remains with them at least through August. Non-pregnant adult females have been observed in December-February, suggesting they are monoestrous.","activityPatterns":"Northern Ghost Bats are crepuscular. Palms are used as day roosts including coconutpalms (Cocos nucifera).On the Pacific slope of Mexico, Northern Ghost Bats roost in native palm Orbignya cohune,and in eastern Mexico Astrocaryum mexicana(all Arecaceae). They roost near rachis ofa palm frond 2-25 m aboveground, with their white coloration making them verycryptic when viewed from below against sunlight. They emit low-frequencyecholocation calls, with very long pulse durations.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Northern Ghost Bat has a large distribution and presumably large and stable overall population. Additional studies are needed on its distribution, habitat, ecology, and conservation threats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 68—82 mm, tail 18-22 mm, ear 16-17 mm, hindfoot 10-12 mm, forearm 63-69 mm; weight 17- 24 g. The Northern Ghost Bat has white fur on dorsum and venter, but basal one- third of hairs are neutral gray. Some individuals appear more grayish than white. Flight membranes are unpigmented but appear pinkish from rich vascularization. Ears are yellow. Arms, legs, and face are pink. Eyes are large. Lower regions of the face are naked. Although wing sacs are absent, glandular sac occurs around tip of tail that is more developed in males than females. Thumbs are vestigial. Dental formula of all species of Diclidurusis 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.","habitat":"Riparian and tropical rainforests and human-disturbed areas such as plantations, clearings, and villages from sea level to elevations of c.1700 m. In Brazil, the Northern Ghost Bat occurs in Amazonian wet forests and Atlantic Dry Forest, the latter biome being highly fragmented."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDD4C16FF3B3753FCBEF35B.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFDD4C16FF3B3753FCBEF35B","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"367","verbatimText":"37. Short-eared BatCyttarops alectoFrench: Cytarope furieux / German:Dunkelgraue Kurzohrfledermaus / Spanish:Embalonuro orejicortoTaxonomy. Cyttarops alectoThomas, 1913,“ Mucajatuba, near Para,” Brazil.This species is monotypic.Distribution. Central America, locally in Caribbean lowlands from Nicaragua to Panama, and South America in Venezuela (Bolivar State), Guyana, French Guiana, and N Brazil (Para State), also in scattered localities in Amazon Basin (extreme S o ­ lombia, E Peru, W Brazil, and N Bolivia). It might have a much larger distribution in the Amazon drainage of all these countries.Descriptive notes.Head-body 47-55 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 10—12 mm, forearm 45-47 mm; weight 6-7 g. Dorsal fur of the Short-eared Bat is long, fluffy, and entirelydark gray; venter is slighdypaler. Ears are broad and rounded, barely rising about crown. Chin is well haired and appears bearded. Flight membranes are black. Hindfeet are small. Thumbs are tiny. Wingsacs are absent. Nostrils are tubelike and slightlydivergent. Dental formula is 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.Habitat. Humid lowland forests and along riparian gallery forests from sea level to elevations of500 m. In Brazil, the Short-eared Bat can occur along gallery forests lining small rivers in the savanna-like Cerrado ecoregion. It tolerates second growth disturbed by humans and forages near buildings and in oil palm plantations and gardens.Food and Feeding. The Short-eared Bat preys on aerial insects.Breeding. A pregnantShort-eared Bat was reported in dry season in Tocantins State, Brazil. In Costa Rica, females with nursing young and subadults are reported in June- August.Activity patterns.Short-eared Bats are nocturnal and roost beneath fronds in palm trees including coconut and oil palms, usually in relativelyopen areas such as groves or gardens. Roost emergence starts c.45 minutes after sunset. Foraging usually is restricted to immediately around day roosts for 15—30 minutes, after which individuals disperse further from roosts while flying at least 3-4 m aboveground. Echolocation call is unusual among emballonurids: FM call remains above 100 kHz and is short in duration.Movements,Home range and Socialorganization. Short-eared Bats roost in groups of 1—10 individuals. Theyhang freely bytheir feet when roosting, near midribs of fronds. Roosting groups can contain adult males and females, subadults, and dependent young. There is evidence that roosting group composition is notstable even over short periods of time, with different individuals moving into a group.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List.The Shorteared Bat has a large distribution and presumably relativelystable overall population. Its rarity in museum collections, known from fewer than 30 global specimens and c.20 localities, is likely due to inefficiency ofcapture in mist nets. Additional studies are needed on its distribution, habitat, ecology, and threats. Acousticsurveys should produce valuable information to better understand biology and conservation status of Short-eared Bats.Bibliography.Aguirre, Mammani etal. (2010), Fonseca et al. (1996), Koopman(1993), Lim, B.K. (2009 b), Lim, B.K. & Engstrom(2005), Lim, B.K. et al. (1999), Nunes etal. (2006), Reid (2009), Reid & Langtimm (1993), Rodriguez-Mahecha etal. (1995), Simmons &Voss (1998), Starrett (1972), Starrett & Casebeer(1968), Tavares, Bobrowiec & Farias (2012), Velazco etal. (2011).","taxonomy":"Cyttarops alectoThomas, 1913,“ Mucajatuba, near Para,” Brazil.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Short-eared Bat @en | Cytarope furieux @fr | Dunkelgraue Kurzohrfledermaus @de | Embalonuro orejicorto @es","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1913","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Cyttarops","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"367","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"alecto","name":"Cyttarops alecto","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Central America, locally in Caribbean lowlands from Nicaragua to Panama, and South America in Venezuela (Bolivar State), Guyana, French Guiana, and N Brazil (Para State), also in scattered localities in Amazon Basin (extreme S o ­ lombia, E Peru, W Brazil, and N Bolivia). It might have a much larger distribution in the Amazon drainage of all these countries.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747970/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aguirre, Mammani etal. (2010) | Fonseca et al. (1996) | Koopman(1993) | Lim, B.K. (2009 b) | Lim, B.K. & Engstrom(2005) | Lim, B.K. et al. (1999) | Nunes etal. (2006) | Reid (2009) | Reid & Langtimm (1993) | Rodriguez-Mahecha etal. (1995) | Simmons &Voss (1998) | Starrett (1972) | Starrett & Casebeer(1968) | Tavares, Bobrowiec & Farias (2012) | Velazco etal. (2011)","foodAndFeeding":"Habitat. Humid lowland forests and along riparian gallery forests from sea level to elevations of500 m. In Brazil, the Short-eared Bat can occur along gallery forests lining small rivers in the savanna-like Cerrado ecoregion. It tolerates second growth disturbed by humans and forages near buildings and in oil palm plantations and gardens.The Short-eared Bat preys on aerial insects.Breeding. A pregnantShort-eared Bat was reported in dry season in Tocantins State, Brazil. In Costa Rica, females with nursing young and subadults are reported in June- August.Activity patterns.Short-eared Bats are nocturnal and roost beneath fronds in palm trees including coconut and oil palms, usually in relativelyopen areas such as groves or gardens. Roost emergence starts c.45 minutes after sunset. Foraging usually is restricted to immediately around day roosts for 15—30 minutes, after which individuals disperse further from roosts while flying at least 3-4 m aboveground. Echolocation call is unusual among emballonurids: FM call remains above 100 kHz and is short in duration.Movements,Home range and Socialorganization. Short-eared Bats roost in groups of 1—10 individuals. Theyhang freely bytheir feet when roosting, near midribs of fronds. Roosting groups can contain adult males and females, subadults, and dependent young. There is evidence that roosting group composition is notstable even over short periods of time, with different individuals moving into a group.","breeding":"A pregnantShort-eared Bat was reported in dry season in Tocantins State, Brazil. In Costa Rica, females with nursing young and subadults are reported in June- August.","activityPatterns":"Short-eared Bats are nocturnal and roost beneath fronds in palm trees including coconut and oil palms, usually in relativelyopen areas such as groves or gardens. Roost emergence starts c.45 minutes after sunset. Foraging usually is restricted to immediately around day roosts for 15—30 minutes, after which individuals disperse further from roosts while flying at least 3-4 m aboveground. Echolocation call is unusual among emballonurids: FM call remains above 100 kHz and is short in duration.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 47-55 mm, tail 20-25 mm, ear 11-13 mm, hindfoot 10—12 mm, forearm 45-47 mm; weight 6-7 g. Dorsal fur of the Short-eared Bat is long, fluffy, and entirelydark gray; venter is slighdypaler. Ears are broad and rounded, barely rising about crown. Chin is well haired and appears bearded. Flight membranes are black. Hindfeet are small. Thumbs are tiny. Wingsacs are absent. Nostrils are tubelike and slightlydivergent. Dental formula is 11/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 32.","habitat":"Humid lowland forests and along riparian gallery forests from sea level to elevations of500 m. In Brazil, the Short-eared Bat can occur along gallery forests lining small rivers in the savanna-like Cerrado ecoregion. It tolerates second growth disturbed by humans and forages near buildings and in oil palm plantations and gardens."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDD4C17F8F53FA8F921FCBA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFDD4C17F8F53FA8F921FCBA","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"367","verbatimText":"39. Greater Ghost BatDiclidurus ingensFrench:GrandeDiclidure / German:GrosseGespenstfledermaus / Spanish:Dicliduro grandeTaxonomy. Diclidurusingens Hemândez- Camacho, 1955,“ Puerto Legufzamo, Intendencia del Caqueta [= Putumayo],” Colombia.Diclidurusingensis in the subgenus Diclidurus.Monotypic.Distribution. Scattered localities from Colombia (Chocó and Putumayo departments) and adjacent Venezuela to Guyana, extending S to N & C Brazil (Para and Mato Grosso). Futureresearch likely will extend distributional limits and establish occurrence in Peru and Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-bodyc.83 mm, tail 22 mm, ear 14 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 67-9-71-9 mm; weight 20-26 g (most measurements are from a single specimen). Dorsal and ventral fur of the Greater Ghost Bat is composed of bicolored hairs that are cream to pale grayat bases and gray to blackish distally. Flight membranes are unpigmented and appear pinkish from heavy vascularization. Bare skin of face and ears also appears pinkish. Eyes are large and conspicuous, with dark brown irises. An inter-femoral sac is presentalong tail. P1 and P2 are not in contact, which is diagnostic. Presence of four lobes on the I2 of this species is diagnosticand unique among emballonurids.Habitat. Verticallystratified primary and secondaryevergreen forests and banana plantations from sea level to elevations of c.200 m.Food and Feeding.Greater Ghost Bats prey on insects high in open spacesabove rivers, streams, and lagoons and above forest canopies. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around streetlights in towns.On followingpages: 40. Lesser Ghost Bat (Diclidurus scutatus);41. IsabellineGhost Bat (Diclidurus isabella);42. LesserDog-like Bat (Peropteryxmacrotis);43. Greater Dog-likeBat (Peropteryxkappleri);44. TrinidadDog-like Bat (Peropteryx trinitatis);45. White-winged Dog-like Bat(Peropteryx leucoptera);46. Pale-winged Dog-like Bat (Peropteryx pallidoptera);47. Thomas's Shaggy Bat (Centronycteriscentrali);48. CommonShaggy Bat (Centronycterismaximiliani);49. Proboscis Bat (Rhynchonycterisnaso);50. GreaterSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxbilineata};51. Lesser Sac-winged Bat(Saccopteryxleptura);52. rosted Sac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxcanescens);53. AntioquianSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxantioquensis);54. AmazonianSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxgymnura).Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The only roosting record of the Greater Ghost Bat is of a solitaryfemale hanging from the ceiling of a house in a suburban area in Colombia.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List.The Greater Ghost Bat is known from very few specimens and few locations. Information on distribution, status, and conservation threats is lacking.Bibliography.Dalponte& Aguiar (2009), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons & eer(1997), Hood & Gardner (2008), Lim, B.K. et al. (1999), Mantilla-Meluk, Jiménez-Ortega, Palacios & Baker(2009), Ojasti & Linares (1971).","taxonomy":"Diclidurusingens Hemândez- Camacho, 1955,“ Puerto Legufzamo, Intendencia del Caqueta [= Putumayo],” Colombia.Diclidurusingensis in the subgenus Diclidurus.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Greater Ghost Bat @en | Grande Diclidure @fr | Grosse Gespenstfledermaus @de | Dicliduro grande @es","interpretedAuthority":"Hemândez- Camacho, 1955","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Diclidurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"367","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ingens","name":"Diclidurus ingens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Scattered localities from Colombia (Chocó and Putumayo departments) and adjacent Venezuela to Guyana, extending S to N & C Brazil (Para and Mato Grosso). Futureresearch likely will extend distributional limits and establish occurrence in Peru and Ecuador.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747974/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dalponte& Aguiar (2009) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons & eer(1997) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | Lim, B.K. et al. (1999) | Mantilla-Meluk, Jiménez-Ortega, Palacios & Baker(2009) | Ojasti & Linares (1971)","foodAndFeeding":"Greater Ghost Bats prey on insects high in open spacesabove rivers, streams, and lagoons and above forest canopies. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around streetlights in towns.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The only roosting record of the Greater Ghost Bat is of a solitaryfemale hanging from the ceiling of a house in a suburban area in Colombia.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head-bodyc.83 mm, tail 22 mm, ear 14 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 67-9-71-9 mm; weight 20-26 g (most measurements are from a single specimen). Dorsal and ventral fur of the Greater Ghost Bat is composed of bicolored hairs that are cream to pale grayat bases and gray to blackish distally. Flight membranes are unpigmented and appear pinkish from heavy vascularization. Bare skin of face and ears also appears pinkish. Eyes are large and conspicuous, with dark brown irises. An inter-femoral sac is presentalong tail. P1 and P2 are not in contact, which is diagnostic. Presence of four lobes on the I2 of this species is diagnosticand unique among emballonurids.","habitat":"Verticallystratified primary and secondaryevergreen forests and banana plantations from sea level to elevations of c.200 m."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDD4C17F8F53FA8F921FCBA.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFDD4C17F8F53FA8F921FCBA","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"367","verbatimText":"39. Greater Ghost BatDiclidurus ingensFrench:GrandeDiclidure / German:GrosseGespenstfledermaus / Spanish:Dicliduro grandeTaxonomy. Diclidurusingens Hemândez- Camacho, 1955,“ Puerto Legufzamo, Intendencia del Caqueta [= Putumayo],” Colombia.Diclidurusingensis in the subgenus Diclidurus.Monotypic.Distribution. Scattered localities from Colombia (Chocó and Putumayo departments) and adjacent Venezuela to Guyana, extending S to N & C Brazil (Para and Mato Grosso). Futureresearch likely will extend distributional limits and establish occurrence in Peru and Ecuador.Descriptive notes.Head-bodyc.83 mm, tail 22 mm, ear 14 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 67-9-71-9 mm; weight 20-26 g (most measurements are from a single specimen). Dorsal and ventral fur of the Greater Ghost Bat is composed of bicolored hairs that are cream to pale grayat bases and gray to blackish distally. Flight membranes are unpigmented and appear pinkish from heavy vascularization. Bare skin of face and ears also appears pinkish. Eyes are large and conspicuous, with dark brown irises. An inter-femoral sac is presentalong tail. P1 and P2 are not in contact, which is diagnostic. Presence of four lobes on the I2 of this species is diagnosticand unique among emballonurids.Habitat. Verticallystratified primary and secondaryevergreen forests and banana plantations from sea level to elevations of c.200 m.Food and Feeding.Greater Ghost Bats prey on insects high in open spacesabove rivers, streams, and lagoons and above forest canopies. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around streetlights in towns.On followingpages: 40. Lesser Ghost Bat (Diclidurus scutatus);41. IsabellineGhost Bat (Diclidurus isabella);42. LesserDog-like Bat (Peropteryxmacrotis);43. Greater Dog-likeBat (Peropteryxkappleri);44. TrinidadDog-like Bat (Peropteryx trinitatis);45. White-winged Dog-like Bat(Peropteryx leucoptera);46. Pale-winged Dog-like Bat (Peropteryx pallidoptera);47. Thomas's Shaggy Bat (Centronycteriscentrali);48. CommonShaggy Bat (Centronycterismaximiliani);49. Proboscis Bat (Rhynchonycterisnaso);50. GreaterSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxbilineata};51. Lesser Sac-winged Bat(Saccopteryxleptura);52. rosted Sac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxcanescens);53. AntioquianSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxantioquensis);54. AmazonianSac-winged Bat (Saccopteryxgymnura).Breeding. No information.Activity patterns.No information.Movements, Home range and Social organization.The only roosting record of the Greater Ghost Bat is of a solitaryfemale hanging from the ceiling of a house in a suburban area in Colombia.Status and Conservation.Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List.The Greater Ghost Bat is known from very few specimens and few locations. Information on distribution, status, and conservation threats is lacking.Bibliography.Dalponte& Aguiar (2009), Eisenberg (1989), Emmons & eer(1997), Hood & Gardner (2008), Lim, B.K. et al. (1999), Mantilla-Meluk, Jiménez-Ortega, Palacios & Baker(2009), Ojasti & Linares (1971).","taxonomy":"Diclidurusingens Hemândez- Camacho, 1955,“ Puerto Legufzamo, Intendencia del Caqueta [= Putumayo],” Colombia.Diclidurusingensis in the subgenus Diclidurus.Monotypic.","commonNames":"Greater Ghost Bat @en | Grande Diclidure @fr | Grosse Gespenstfledermaus @de | Dicliduro grande @es","interpretedAuthority":"Hemândez- Camacho, 1955","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Diclidurus","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"18","interpretedPageNumber":"367","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"ingens","name":"Diclidurus ingens","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Scattered localities from Colombia (Chocó and Putumayo departments) and adjacent Venezuela to Guyana, extending S to N & C Brazil (Para and Mato Grosso). Futureresearch likely will extend distributional limits and establish occurrence in Peru and Ecuador.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3740275/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Dalponte& Aguiar (2009) | Eisenberg (1989) | Emmons & eer(1997) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | Lim, B.K. et al. (1999) | Mantilla-Meluk, Jiménez-Ortega, Palacios & Baker(2009) | Ojasti & Linares (1971)","foodAndFeeding":"Greater Ghost Bats prey on insects high in open spacesabove rivers, streams, and lagoons and above forest canopies. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around streetlights in towns.","breeding":"No information.","activityPatterns":"No information.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"The only roosting record of the Greater Ghost Bat is of a solitaryfemale hanging from the ceiling of a house in a suburban area in Colombia.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head-bodyc.83 mm, tail 22 mm, ear 14 mm, hindfoot 12 mm, forearm 67-9-71-9 mm; weight 20-26 g (most measurements are from a single specimen). Dorsal and ventral fur of the Greater Ghost Bat is composed of bicolored hairs that are cream to pale grayat bases and gray to blackish distally. Flight membranes are unpigmented and appear pinkish from heavy vascularization. Bare skin of face and ears also appears pinkish. Eyes are large and conspicuous, with dark brown irises. An inter-femoral sac is presentalong tail. P1 and P2 are not in contact, which is diagnostic. Presence of four lobes on the I2 of this species is diagnosticand unique among emballonurids.","habitat":"Verticallystratified primary and secondaryevergreen forests and banana plantations from sea level to elevations of c.200 m."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDF4C14F8FE36E0F767F2F8.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFDF4C14F8FE36E0F767F2F8","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"365","verbatimText":"36. Ecuadorian Sac-winged BatBalantiopteryx infuscaFrench:Emballonure d'Équateur / German:Ecuador-Sackflügelfledermaus / Spanish:Embalonuro de sacos ecuatorianoTaxonomy.Saccopteryx infuscaThomas, 1897,“ [Rio] Cachavi, [Departamento de Esmeraldas], N[orthern]. Ecuador.”This species is monotypic.Distribution.Endemic to a small area of the Chocó Region on Pacific slope of o­ lombia and Ecuador, recorded from only four localities in SW Colombia (Rio Chanco, Valledel Cauca Department) and NW Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Imbabura provinces), and presumablyin appropriate habitat between these localities.Descriptive notes.Head—body 37-42 mm, tail 12—18 mm, ear 10—14 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 37-9-42-4 mm; weight 4—5 g. The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat shows sexual dimorphism in body size, with females slightlylarger as measured by forearm length (males average 38-7 mm and females 40 mm). Dorsal fur is tricolored, with blackish brown distal tips, brown hair shafts, and pale grayish brown bases. Venter is paler, with bicolored hairs having brown tips and grayish brown bases. White, wiry hairs are scattered dorsally and ventrallyon many specimens. Flight membranes are black. Upper one-third of dorsal surface of uropatagium is sparsely haired, especially along short tail. Lower face is naked. Ears are oval-shaped and extend slightly above crown; interior of pinna is heavily ribbed.Habitat. Lowland and pre-montane rainforests at elevations of 150—1200 m.Foodand Feeding. Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats feed on small insects caught in the air.Breeding. Adult female Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats examined in late December in Ecuador included four lactating, two post-lactating, and five reproductively inactive individuals.Activity patterns.The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat roosts in twilight zones of caves and abandoned railroad tunnels.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats roost in association with otherbat species including Greater Sac-winged Bats (Saccopteryx bilineatd).Roosting groups of up to 40 individuals have been observed. Nine individuals of mixed sex and age were captured in mist nets at each oftwo abandoned railroad tunnels.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on TheIUCN Red List.The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat has a small distribution, and populations are believed to be declining. Extentof occurrence is c. 18,551 km2 encompassing three known locations in Ecuador and one in Colombia. Habitathas been reduced by deforestation from expanding agriculture and continues to decline in extent and quality. In Ecuador, habitat is highly fragmented and faces a high risk of destruction in the near future because of uncontrolled illegal logging.Bibliography.Alberico eta/. (2000), Albuja(1999), Alvarez(2002, 2003), Hood & Gardner (2008), McCarthy et al.(2000), Tirira(2017).","taxonomy":"Saccopteryx infuscaThomas, 1897,“ [Rio] Cachavi, [Departamento de Esmeraldas], N[orthern]. Ecuador.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat @en | Emballonure d'Équateur @fr | Ecuador-Sackflügelfledermaus @de | Embalonuro de sacos ecuatoriano @es | French @en","interpretedAuthority":"Thomas, 1897","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Balantiopteryx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"365","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"infosca","name":"Balantiopteryx infusca","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Endemic to a small area of the Chocó Region on Pacific slope of o­ lombia and Ecuador, recorded from only four localities in SW Colombia (Rio Chanco, Valledel Cauca Department) and NW Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Imbabura provinces), and presumablyin appropriate habitat between these localities.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747968/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alberico et al. (2000) | Albuja(1999) | Alvarez(2002, 2003) | Hood & Gardner (2008) | McCarthy et al.(2000) | Tirira(2017)","breeding":"Adult female Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats examined in late December in Ecuador included four lactating, two post-lactating, and five reproductively inactive individuals.","activityPatterns":"The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat roosts in twilight zones of caves and abandoned railroad tunnels.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bats roost in association with otherbat species including Greater Sac-winged Bats (Saccopteryx bilineatd).Roosting groups of up to 40 individuals have been observed. Nine individuals of mixed sex and age were captured in mist nets at each oftwo abandoned railroad tunnels.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 37-42 mm, tail 12—18 mm, ear 10—14 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 37-9-42-4 mm; weight 4—5 g. The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat shows sexual dimorphism in body size, with females slightlylarger as measured by forearm length (males average 38-7 mm and females 40 mm). Dorsal fur is tricolored, with blackish brown distal tips, brown hair shafts, and pale grayish brown bases. Venter is paler, with bicolored hairs having brown tips and grayish brown bases. White, wiry hairs are scattered dorsally and ventrallyon many specimens. Flight membranes are black. Upper one-third of dorsal surface of uropatagium is sparsely haired, especially along short tail. Lower face is naked. Ears are oval-shaped and extend slightly above crown; interior of pinna is heavily ribbed.","habitat":"Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on TheIUCN Red List.The Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat has a small distribution, and populations are believed to be declining. Extentof occurrence is c. 18,551 km2 encompassing three known locations in Ecuador and one in Colombia. Habitathas been reduced by deforestation from expanding agriculture and continues to decline in extent and quality. In Ecuador, habitat is highly fragmented and faces a high risk of destruction in the near future because of uncontrolled illegal logging."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587F2FFDF4C14FF0F3003F806FCC1.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587F2FFDF4C14FF0F3003F806FCC1","docName":"hbmw_9_Emballorunidae.pdf.imd","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Lyny Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff8affcf4c04ffa53577fff8ffe9","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"365","verbatimText":"35. Thomas’s Sac-winged BatBalantiopteryx ioFrench: Emballonure de Thomas IGerman:Thomas-Sackflügelfledermaus / Spanish:Embalonurode sacos de ThomasOther common names:LeastSac-winged BatTaxonomy.Balantiopteryx ioThomas, 1904,“ R[ioJ. Dolores, near Coban[Alta Verapaz], Guatemala.”This species is monotypic.Distribution. Atlantic slope of Mexico and Central America from S Veracruz and Oaxaca to E Guatemala and Belize.Descriptive notes.Head—body 38-44 mm, tail 8—18 mm, ear 10—13 mm, hindfoot 7-8 mm, forearm 36-41-4 mm; weight 3-4 g. Dorsal fur of Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat is dark brown to black; venter is paler gray-brown. Flight membranes are black. Wingsattach to ankles.Habitat. Semideciduous or evergreen forests from sea level to elevations of c.500 m. In the Maya Mountains of Belize, Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat occurs in semideciduous forest.Foodand Feeding. Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats forage on small, aerial insects. Although direct visual observations are difficult due to their late emergence from roost, echolocation call characteristics suggest that they hunt in clutter close to vegetation of forest habitats or over water.Breeding. Pregnant Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats have been recorded in March, May, and July, suggesting polyestry.Activity patterns.Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats are nocturnal. They roost widely and evenly spaced, often occupying dark recesses of large, limestone caves on ceilings of high chambers. Activitystarts well after sunset, later than related species. Echolocation calls include long narrowband component and maximum amplitude on second harmonic. Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats show slightlydownward narrowband component that initially starts at 50-2 kHz and drops to 45-9 kHz, on average, and does not turn upward as in other genera of forest emballonurids. Average call duration is 7-8 milliseconds. During approach and terminal phases, call changes to obtain accurate target information after potential preyhas been detected.Movements,Home range and Socialorganization. Groups of Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats commonly number 50 or more individuals and occasionally1000—2000 individuals in large caves.Status and Conservation.Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List.Thomas’s Sacwinged Bat because depends on highly fragile forested habitat, and it is estimated to have declined by more than 30% due to habitat loss and degradation in the last ten years, with remaining subpopulations fragmented. Adventure tourism leading to vandalism in caves has been and is a significant threat, particularly in Belize, Yucatan, and Guatemala. Needed conservation actions include management and protection of roost caves and additional protection of rapidly disappearing Atlantic forests.Bibliography.Arroyo-Cabrales & Jones (1988b), Lim, Engstrom et al. (2004), Reid (2009), Thomas (1904b), Villa(1967).","taxonomy":"Balantiopteryx ioThomas, 1904,“ R[ioJ. Dolores, near Coban[Alta Verapaz], Guatemala.”This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat @en | Emballonure de Thomas @fr | Thomas-Sackflügelfledermaus @de | Embalonurode sacos de Thomas @es | Least Sac-winged Bat @en","interpretedAuthorityName":"Thomas","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1904","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Emballonuridae","interpretedGenus":"Balantiopteryx","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"16","interpretedPageNumber":"365","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"io","name":"Balantiopteryx io","subspeciesAndDistribution":"Atlantic slope of Mexico and Central America from S Veracruz and Oaxaca to E Guatemala and Belize.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/3747966/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Arroyo-Cabrales & Jones (1988b) | Lim, Engstrom et al. (2004) | Reid (2009) | Thomas (1904b) | Villa(1967)","breeding":"Pregnant Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats have been recorded in March, May, and July, suggesting polyestry.","activityPatterns":"Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats are nocturnal. They roost widely and evenly spaced, often occupying dark recesses of large, limestone caves on ceilings of high chambers. Activitystarts well after sunset, later than related species. Echolocation calls include long narrowband component and maximum amplitude on second harmonic. Thomas’s Sac-winged Bats show slightlydownward narrowband component that initially starts at 50-2 kHz and drops to 45-9 kHz, on average, and does not turn upward as in other genera of forest emballonurids. Average call duration is 7-8 milliseconds. During approach and terminal phases, call changes to obtain accurate target information after potential preyhas been detected.","statusAndConservation":"","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 38-44 mm, tail 8—18 mm, ear 10—13 mm, hindfoot 7-8 mm, forearm 36-41-4 mm; weight 3-4 g. Dorsal fur of Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat is dark brown to black; venter is paler gray-brown. Flight membranes are black. Wingsattach to ankles.","habitat":"Semideciduous or evergreen forests from sea level to elevations of c.500 m. In the Maya Mountains of Belize, Thomas’s Sac-winged Bat occurs in semideciduous forest."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587FDFFC48C11FF26FAAC11BEF663.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587FDFFC48C11FF26FAAC11BEF663","docName":"hbmw_4_Eschrichtiidae_0222.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff85ffc58c13ffe4fff31769ffed","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"240","verbatimText":"Gray WhaleEschrichtius robustusFrench:Baleine grise/ German:Grauwal/ Spanish:Ballena grisOther common names:California Gray Whale, Devilfish, Hard-head, Mussel Digger, Rip Sack, Scrag WhaleTaxonomy.Balaenoptera robusta Lilljeborg, 1861, “pa Grason i Roslagan,” Graso Island, Uppland, Sweden.This species is monotypic.Distribution.N Pacific, from the Arctic Ocean and Bering8 Sea to Baja Y California, the Gulf of California, and portions of the mainland coast of Mexico in the E, and to the coasts of Russia, Japan, Korea, and SE China in the W. Extinct in the N Atlantic Ocean.Descriptive notes.Total length 1300-1420 cm; weight 14,000-35,000 kg. There are no morphological differences among individuals of the eastern and western populations of Gray Whales. The Gray Whale is a medium-sized baleen or “mysticete” whale that can reach a maximum length of 1530 cm. Females are slightly larger than males at all ages. Distance from genitalslit to anus is wider in males; there are no othersignificant differences in external appearance between sexes. Body color ranges from mottled pale gray to dark gray with whitish to cream-colored blotches. White scars accumulate over time and add to distinctive individual color patterns. Gray Whales are heavily infested with species-specific barnacles (Cryptolepas rachianecti), and three species of cyamids or “whale lice” (Cyamus scammoni, C. ceti, and C. kessleri). Neonates are 450-500 cm long and can weigh 800 kg or more. Head is moderately arched and triangular when viewed from above and averages 20% of total length. Double nares or “blowholes,” characteristic of mysticete whales, are located on top of head just above and anterior to neck. The Gray Whale’s “blow,” or exhalation, is vertical and heart-shaped to columnar in form. Throat possesses 2-7 pleats that allow expansion of mouth cavity during feeding. Gray Whale baleen is pale yellow with ¢.130-180 individual plates, 5-40 cm long, on each side of upperjaw. Back is smooth from base of head to anterior section oftail, where instead of a dorsal fin, an elongated hump followed by a series of bumps or “knuckles” runs along dorsal edge oftailstock. Anterior flippers are paddleshaped and pointed at their tips. Flukes are butterflyshaped with pointed tips and average 300-360 cm from tip to tip. Gray Whales possess a unique “tailstock cyst” of unknown function located on the anterior ventral surface of the caudal peduncle.Habitat.Primarily relatively shallow waters along edges of continental shelves from subtropical to polar latitudes and only occasionally open oceanic or pelagic habitats. Gray Whales frequent continental shelf waters along both sides of the North Pacific Ocean, including East China Sea, Yellow Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea, and Chukchi, Beaufort, and East Siberian seas in the Arctic Ocean. Gray Whales are highly migratory. When migrating, they may cross deep ocean and follow undersea mountain ranges and escarpments. In summer, they feed on the bottom of shallow continental shelves in high latitudes. In fall and spring, the western population of Gray Whalesis believed to migrate along the Pacific coast of the Far East from Russia to China. The larger eastern population migrates along the edge of the continental shelf of the Pacific coast of North America from Alaska to Mexico. In winter, Gray Whales congregate in coastal bays and lagoons that afford them protection from predation and warmer water for rearing young and mating. Their habit of frequenting relatively shallow continental shelf waters and coastal areas for feeding, migrating, and breeding is unique among mysticete whales. While capable of navigating deep ocean areas, Gray Whales migrate to and from their summer feeding and winter breeding areas along distinct corridors that follow within a few kilometers of the North American coast (for the eastern Gray Whale) and the eastern Asian coast (for some of the western Gray Whales). They disperse widely across the Arctic and polar seas during summer feeding, and they aggregate in shallow coastal areas, embayments and lagoons in subtropical latitudes for breeding and to give birth.Food and Feeding.Primary summer feeding grounds of Gray Whales include the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, East Siberian Sea, and Sea of Okhotsk, and they also exploit prey resources where they are found throughout their migratory distribution. They forage for patchy concentrations of prey found on relatively shallow (50 m or less) continental shelf areas that correspond with areas of high primary productivity supporting extensive benthic invertebrate communities. Gray Whales use suction feeding to exploit prey from the sea floor, but they can also feed on swimming prey by gulping and skimming prey from near the sea floor and ocean surface. Principal prey includes infaunal, tube-dwelling ampeliscid amphipods, polychaete worms, bivalves, swarming cumaceans, mysids, shrimps, krill, mobile amphipods, and shoals of clupeoid fish such as sardines and anchovies. An adult Gray Whale may consume ¢.220,800 kg of food at a rate of ¢.1200 kg/day for c.180 feeding days. Gray Whales do not feed extensively, or at all, during fall and spring migrations or while in their winter breeding areas. Fasting whales may lose up to 30% of their body fat during winter. This is especially critical for lactating females that are not feeding while nursing and caring for their offspring. Water is obtained from their food and metabolically from body fat. Warming of the Arctic Ocean due to global climate change and subsequent reduction in permanent sea ice has accelerated in recent decades and has affected distributions and availabilities of traditional prey communities. Some historical feeding areas of Gray Whales have declined in size, but it is possible that new prey communities will become established in other areas where oceanic and ice conditions are favorable. Gray Whales are responding by foraging over broader areas and staying longer in their summer feeding areas to obtain sufficient food and energy stores for winter migration and breeding. Flexibility in feeding modes and prey selection of the Gray Whale has allowed it to survive over many Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods in the geologic past. Its abilities to use alternative prey and feeding areas are advantages for dealing with climate-driven oceanographic changes. Although switching prey has the advantage of providing additional feeding options, it may also create competition with other marine species that exploit the same resources.Breeding.Male and female Gray Whales reached sexual maturity at 6-12 years of age. Mating and birthing are strongly seasonal and synchronized with the migratory cycle. Mating occurs during the middle of the fall southward migration and continues in January-February on the winter breeding range. Gray Whales are thought to have a “promiscuous” mating system in which females and males copulate with multiple partners. Individuals may mate in pairs and in groups of up to 20 or more whales. Mating groups are physically active and fluid, with individuals joining and leaving. Sometimes there are high-speed chases interrupted by mating bouts that last from a few minutes to hours. Males may attempt to mate with females that have newborn young, but females with young usually reject breeding males. Little overt competition has been observed among males, and multiple inseminations likely occur. Thus,it is thought that sperm competition operates in the Gray Whale instead of physical aggression to increase chances of an individual male’s fathering a young. Females invest heavily in rearing a limited number of offspring during their lifetimes, whereas males maximize their reproductive success by mating with as many females as possible. Gestation is 11-13 months, with females normally bearing one offspring at intervals of two years, but longer intervals may occur. Births occur from late December to early March, with the median in late January, when near-term females are in or near breeding grounds or migrating southward. Young are weaned and separate from their mothers at c.7-9 months of age during spring migration or on summer feeding grounds. Gray Whales are physically mature at c.40 years. The longevity record is one female killed in the 1960s who had lived as long as 80 years.Activity patterns.Gray Whales migrate continuously day and night at 6-7 km/h, pausing only to catnap, forage, or mate. On average, swimming Gray Whales will surface every b—7 minutes between long dives and take 3-5 breaths at 15-30second intervals before submerging to resume swimming. Before beginning a long dive and after a sequence of breaths, tail flukes are frequently raised above the water’s surface. Aerial behaviors include “breaching” (jumping out of the water), “spy hopping” (raising head vertically out of the water), “tail stands” (holding flukes and tailstock vertically above water’s surface), and “lobtailing” (slapping water’s surface with flukes). Gray Whales forage continuously on their Arctic feeding grounds during long periods of daylight characteristic of these high-latitude areas in summer. During the winter breeding season, courting Gray Whales are continuously active, rarely resting at the water’s surface. In contrast, females that are nursing newborns move about breeding lagoons with their offspring and frequently rest or “sleep” at the surface while their offspring continue to swim around them and nurse. Young appear to be active at all times, never resting or sleeping.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Gray Whales in the eastern North Pacific Ocean are latitudinal migrants, engaging in an annual polar-to-subtropical migration in fall and a spring return migration to polar seas. Their round trip of 15,000-20,000 km spans 55° of latitude, and it is the longest migration of any mysticete. They exit Arctic and Bering seas from mid-Novemberto late December, following the North American coast southward to coastal Mexico and arriving there in January-February. Southward and northward migrants overlap in midwinter along the southern part of their winter range, which spans coastal waters from southern California to Mexico. Pregnant females and females with new offspring arrive in the Mexican portion of the winter range from late December to earlyJanuary, with the bulk of the population arriving by mid-February to early March. The principal winter gathering areas include Laguna Ojo de Liebre (also known as Scammon’s Lagoon), Bahia de Sebastian Vizcaino, Laguna San Ignacio, Bahia de Ballenas, and Bahia Magdalena and adjacent waters. Newly pregnant females lead the spring northward migration of eastern Gray Whales, followed by adult females and males, and then juveniles. Mothers with young are the last to leave the breeding range; they remain the longest to allow young to grow and strengthen before migrating. The western and eastern populations of Gray Whales were thought to be separate and distinct groups, but recent research indicates that they share feeding grounds along the eastern coast of Kamchatka and some western Gray Whales migrate across the Bering Sea and North Pacific Ocean and join the larger eastern population’s migration along the west coast of North America. Gray Whales from the western population have also been photographed in breeding lagoons of the eastern population. Sharing migration routes and winter breeding areas suggests that interbreeding of these two populations occurs. Incidental catches and strandings of Gray Whales offJapan support the contention that some western Gray Whales continue to migrate along the Asian coast and winter off the China coast. The fossil record suggests that eschrichtiids evolved in the Mediterranean or North Atlantic Ocean during the Miocene or earliest Pliocene, and dispersed westward into the Pacific through the then-open Central American Seaway, later dispersing back into the North Atlantic during the Pleistocene, as evidenced by subfossil remains found along the North Atlantic coasts of North America. Support for this hypothesis occurred in May 2010, when a single Gray Whale was observed off the Mediterranean coasts of Israel and Spain, and again in May 2013 when another single Gray Whale was sighted off the Namibia coast. Apparently they had migrated from the North Pacific into the Arctic Ocean, followed the northern Eurasian coast, continued along the European coast and on to the Mediterranean and the Namibia coast. Appearance of Gray Whales in the Atlantic demonstrates that such exchanges between oceans are possible during periods of interglacial minimum ice conditions. Shrinking of Arctic sea ice due to climate change suggests that Gray Whales could recolonize the North Atlantic as ice and temperature barriers to mixing between the northern North Atlantic and the North Pacific biomes are reduced. Gray Whales are not known to be social, but they do form loose aggregations on feeding grounds and during migrations. There is no evidence of social bonding other than during copulation and between mother—offspring pairs. Gray Whales disperse widely across their principal feeding areas in the Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, and Arctic Ocean to forage for prey. Breeding males do not defend territories, show aggression toward conspecifics, or defend female “harems.” Male Gray Whales provide no parental care or assistance with rearing young. Females remain solitary when their offspring are young. They form aggregations within breeding lagoons when young are 2—4 months old. In these groups, a mother—offspring pair will cavort with other mother—offspring pairs, mixing and milling among them, perhaps socializing with each other. Females with young migrate alone rather than in groups, perhaps to minimize detection by predators.Status and Conservation.CITES Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population in the western North Pacific Ocean is classified as Critically Endangered. The eastern population of the Gray Whale ranges from the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea feeding grounds south along the western coast of North America to their winter aggregation and breeding areas along the Pacific coast of Baja California, the Gulf of California, and parts of the mainland coast of Mexico, numbering ¢.21,000 individuals in 2009. The western population is only ¢.120-130 individuals and feeds along the northern shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, off Sakhalin Island, and the eastern coast of Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia; their breeding areas are not certain but are believed to be off south-eastern China. Recent genetic and photographic identification studies indicate that the western and eastern populations of Gray Whales share a summer feeding ground in the western Bering Sea along the Kamchatka coast, and that some western Gray Whales migrate eastward across the Bering Sea and North Pacific in fall to join the southward migration of eastern Gray Whales and overwinter in the coastal breeding lagoons of Baja California. It is not known to what extent, if any, these two populations interbreed, and this is an active area of research. Hunting throughout their distribution reduced numbers of Gray Whales to critically low levels by the 1930s, and it received international protection from commercial whaling under the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Two US statutes, the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act and the 1973 Endangered Species Act, provide protection within US waters. In 1994, the US Department of the Interior removed the eastern North Pacific population from the Endangered Species Act’s List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. In 1972, Mexico protected Laguna Ojo de Liebre (Scammon’s Lagoon), and in 1979, Laguna San Ignacio became a Whale Refuge and Maritime Attraction Zone. In 1980, Mexico extended reserve status to Laguna Manuela and Laguna Guerrero Negro. All of these lagoons lie within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, created in 1988. In 1993, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization designated Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio lagoons as World Heritage Sites, and they are also Ramsar-protected wetlands under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance. In 2002, all Mexican territorial seas and Economic Exclusion Zones were declared a refuge to protect large whales. Gray Whales also receive varying degrees of protection in territorial waters of Canada, Russia, Japan, Korea, and China. Threats that persist throughout the distribution of the Gray Whale include entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with ships, habitat loss from oil and gas exploration, and general disturbance from coastal development.Bibliography.Alter et al. (2007), Andrews (1914), Barnes & McLeod (1984), Bisconti (2008, 2010), Bisconti & Varola (2006), Brownell et al. (2007), Cooke et al. (2007), Dahlheim et al. (1984), Darling et al. (1998), Deméré etal. (2005), Elwen & Gridley (2013), Henderson (1972, 1984), Heyning & Mead (1997), Highsmith et al. (2006), Ichishima et al. (2006), Jones & Swartz (1984, 2009), Jones et al. (1984), Laake et al. (2009), Mate etal. (2003), Mead & Mitchell (1984), Moore (2008), Moore et al. (2007), Nerini (1984), Norris et al. (1977), Omura (1984), Reilly (1984), Rice & Wolman (1971), Rice et al. (1984), Rychel et al. (2004), Scammon (1874), Scheinin et al. (2011), Steeman (2007), Swartz (1986), Swartz et al. (2006), Tomilin (1957), Urban et al. (2003), Weller et al. (2012), Werth (2007), Wisdom (2000).","taxonomy":"Balaenoptera robusta Lilljeborg, 1861, “pa Grason i Roslagan,” Graso Island, Uppland, Sweden.This species is monotypic.","commonNames":"Baleine grise @fr | Grauwal @de | Ballena gris @es | California Gray Whale @en | Devilfish @en | Hard-head @en | Mussel Digger @en | Rip Sack @en | Scrag Whale @en","interpretedBaseAuthorityName":"Lilljeborg","interpretedBaseAuthorityYear":"1861","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Eschrichtiidae","interpretedGenus":"Eschrichtius","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Cetacea","interpretedPageId":"1","interpretedPageNumber":"240","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"robustus","name":"Eschrichtius robustus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N Pacific, from the Arctic Ocean and Bering8 Sea to Baja Y California, the Gulf of California, and portions of the mainland coast of Mexico in the E, and to the coasts of Russia, Japan, Korea, and SE China in the W. Extinct in the N Atlantic Ocean.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6599171/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Alter et al. (2007) | Andrews (1914) | Barnes & McLeod (1984) | Bisconti (2008, 2010) | Bisconti & Varola (2006) | Brownell et al. (2007) | Cooke et al. (2007) | Dahlheim et al. (1984) | Darling et al. (1998) | Deméré etal. (2005) | Elwen & Gridley (2013) | Henderson (1972, 1984) | Heyning & Mead (1997) | Highsmith et al. (2006) | Ichishima et al. (2006) | Jones & Swartz (1984, 2009) | Jones et al. (1984) | Laake et al. (2009) | Mate etal. (2003) | Mead & Mitchell (1984) | Moore (2008) | Moore et al. (2007) | Nerini (1984) | Norris et al. (1977) | Omura (1984) | Reilly (1984) | Rice & Wolman (1971) | Rice et al. (1984) | Rychel et al. (2004) | Scammon (1874) | Scheinin et al. (2011) | Steeman (2007) | Swartz (1986) | Swartz et al. (2006) | Tomilin (1957) | Urban et al. (2003) | Weller et al. (2012) | Werth (2007) | Wisdom (2000)","foodAndFeeding":"Primary summer feeding grounds of Gray Whales include the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, East Siberian Sea, and Sea of Okhotsk, and they also exploit prey resources where they are found throughout their migratory distribution. They forage for patchy concentrations of prey found on relatively shallow (50 m or less) continental shelf areas that correspond with areas of high primary productivity supporting extensive benthic invertebrate communities. Gray Whales use suction feeding to exploit prey from the sea floor, but they can also feed on swimming prey by gulping and skimming prey from near the sea floor and ocean surface. Principal prey includes infaunal, tube-dwelling ampeliscid amphipods, polychaete worms, bivalves, swarming cumaceans, mysids, shrimps, krill, mobile amphipods, and shoals of clupeoid fish such as sardines and anchovies. An adult Gray Whale may consume ¢.220,800 kg of food at a rate of ¢.1200 kg/day for c.180 feeding days. Gray Whales do not feed extensively, or at all, during fall and spring migrations or while in their winter breeding areas. Fasting whales may lose up to 30% of their body fat during winter. This is especially critical for lactating females that are not feeding while nursing and caring for their offspring. Water is obtained from their food and metabolically from body fat. Warming of the Arctic Ocean due to global climate change and subsequent reduction in permanent sea ice has accelerated in recent decades and has affected distributions and availabilities of traditional prey communities. Some historical feeding areas of Gray Whales have declined in size, but it is possible that new prey communities will become established in other areas where oceanic and ice conditions are favorable. Gray Whales are responding by foraging over broader areas and staying longer in their summer feeding areas to obtain sufficient food and energy stores for winter migration and breeding. Flexibility in feeding modes and prey selection of the Gray Whale has allowed it to survive over many Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods in the geologic past. Its abilities to use alternative prey and feeding areas are advantages for dealing with climate-driven oceanographic changes. Although switching prey has the advantage of providing additional feeding options, it may also create competition with other marine species that exploit the same resources.","breeding":"Male and female Gray Whales reached sexual maturity at 6-12 years of age. Mating and birthing are strongly seasonal and synchronized with the migratory cycle. Mating occurs during the middle of the fall southward migration and continues in January-February on the winter breeding range. Gray Whales are thought to have a “promiscuous” mating system in which females and males copulate with multiple partners. Individuals may mate in pairs and in groups of up to 20 or more whales. Mating groups are physically active and fluid, with individuals joining and leaving. Sometimes there are high-speed chases interrupted by mating bouts that last from a few minutes to hours. Males may attempt to mate with females that have newborn young, but females with young usually reject breeding males. Little overt competition has been observed among males, and multiple inseminations likely occur. Thus,it is thought that sperm competition operates in the Gray Whale instead of physical aggression to increase chances of an individual male’s fathering a young. Females invest heavily in rearing a limited number of offspring during their lifetimes, whereas males maximize their reproductive success by mating with as many females as possible. Gestation is 11-13 months, with females normally bearing one offspring at intervals of two years, but longer intervals may occur. Births occur from late December to early March, with the median in late January, when near-term females are in or near breeding grounds or migrating southward. Young are weaned and separate from their mothers at c.7-9 months of age during spring migration or on summer feeding grounds. Gray Whales are physically mature at c.40 years. The longevity record is one female killed in the 1960s who had lived as long as 80 years.","activityPatterns":"Gray Whales migrate continuously day and night at 6-7 km/h, pausing only to catnap, forage, or mate. On average, swimming Gray Whales will surface every b—7 minutes between long dives and take 3-5 breaths at 15-30second intervals before submerging to resume swimming. Before beginning a long dive and after a sequence of breaths, tail flukes are frequently raised above the water’s surface. Aerial behaviors include “breaching” (jumping out of the water), “spy hopping” (raising head vertically out of the water), “tail stands” (holding flukes and tailstock vertically above water’s surface), and “lobtailing” (slapping water’s surface with flukes). Gray Whales forage continuously on their Arctic feeding grounds during long periods of daylight characteristic of these high-latitude areas in summer. During the winter breeding season, courting Gray Whales are continuously active, rarely resting at the water’s surface. In contrast, females that are nursing newborns move about breeding lagoons with their offspring and frequently rest or “sleep” at the surface while their offspring continue to swim around them and nurse. Young appear to be active at all times, never resting or sleeping.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Gray Whales in the eastern North Pacific Ocean are latitudinal migrants, engaging in an annual polar-to-subtropical migration in fall and a spring return migration to polar seas. Their round trip of 15,000-20,000 km spans 55° of latitude, and it is the longest migration of any mysticete. They exit Arctic and Bering seas from mid-Novemberto late December, following the North American coast southward to coastal Mexico and arriving there in January-February. Southward and northward migrants overlap in midwinter along the southern part of their winter range, which spans coastal waters from southern California to Mexico. Pregnant females and females with new offspring arrive in the Mexican portion of the winter range from late December to earlyJanuary, with the bulk of the population arriving by mid-February to early March. The principal winter gathering areas include Laguna Ojo de Liebre (also known as Scammon’s Lagoon), Bahia de Sebastian Vizcaino, Laguna San Ignacio, Bahia de Ballenas, and Bahia Magdalena and adjacent waters. Newly pregnant females lead the spring northward migration of eastern Gray Whales, followed by adult females and males, and then juveniles. Mothers with young are the last to leave the breeding range; they remain the longest to allow young to grow and strengthen before migrating. The western and eastern populations of Gray Whales were thought to be separate and distinct groups, but recent research indicates that they share feeding grounds along the eastern coast of Kamchatka and some western Gray Whales migrate across the Bering Sea and North Pacific Ocean and join the larger eastern population’s migration along the west coast of North America. Gray Whales from the western population have also been photographed in breeding lagoons of the eastern population. Sharing migration routes and winter breeding areas suggests that interbreeding of these two populations occurs. Incidental catches and strandings of Gray Whales offJapan support the contention that some western Gray Whales continue to migrate along the Asian coast and winter off the China coast. The fossil record suggests that eschrichtiids evolved in the Mediterranean or North Atlantic Ocean during the Miocene or earliest Pliocene, and dispersed westward into the Pacific through the then-open Central American Seaway, later dispersing back into the North Atlantic during the Pleistocene, as evidenced by subfossil remains found along the North Atlantic coasts of North America. Support for this hypothesis occurred in May 2010, when a single Gray Whale was observed off the Mediterranean coasts of Israel and Spain, and again in May 2013 when another single Gray Whale was sighted off the Namibia coast. Apparently they had migrated from the North Pacific into the Arctic Ocean, followed the northern Eurasian coast, continued along the European coast and on to the Mediterranean and the Namibia coast. Appearance of Gray Whales in the Atlantic demonstrates that such exchanges between oceans are possible during periods of interglacial minimum ice conditions. Shrinking of Arctic sea ice due to climate change suggests that Gray Whales could recolonize the North Atlantic as ice and temperature barriers to mixing between the northern North Atlantic and the North Pacific biomes are reduced. Gray Whales are not known to be social, but they do form loose aggregations on feeding grounds and during migrations. There is no evidence of social bonding other than during copulation and between mother—offspring pairs. Gray Whales disperse widely across their principal feeding areas in the Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, and Arctic Ocean to forage for prey. Breeding males do not defend territories, show aggression toward conspecifics, or defend female “harems.” Male Gray Whales provide no parental care or assistance with rearing young. Females remain solitary when their offspring are young. They form aggregations within breeding lagoons when young are 2—4 months old. In these groups, a mother—offspring pair will cavort with other mother—offspring pairs, mixing and milling among them, perhaps socializing with each other. Females with young migrate alone rather than in groups, perhaps to minimize detection by predators.","statusAndConservation":"CITES Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The population in the western North Pacific Ocean is classified as Critically Endangered. The eastern population of the Gray Whale ranges from the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea feeding grounds south along the western coast of North America to their winter aggregation and breeding areas along the Pacific coast of Baja California, the Gulf of California, and parts of the mainland coast of Mexico, numbering ¢.21,000 individuals in 2009. The western population is only ¢.120-130 individuals and feeds along the northern shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, off Sakhalin Island, and the eastern coast of Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia; their breeding areas are not certain but are believed to be off south-eastern China. Recent genetic and photographic identification studies indicate that the western and eastern populations of Gray Whales share a summer feeding ground in the western Bering Sea along the Kamchatka coast, and that some western Gray Whales migrate eastward across the Bering Sea and North Pacific in fall to join the southward migration of eastern Gray Whales and overwinter in the coastal breeding lagoons of Baja California. It is not known to what extent, if any, these two populations interbreed, and this is an active area of research. Hunting throughout their distribution reduced numbers of Gray Whales to critically low levels by the 1930s, and it received international protection from commercial whaling under the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Two US statutes, the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act and the 1973 Endangered Species Act, provide protection within US waters. In 1994, the US Department of the Interior removed the eastern North Pacific population from the Endangered Species Act’s List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. In 1972, Mexico protected Laguna Ojo de Liebre (Scammon’s Lagoon), and in 1979, Laguna San Ignacio became a Whale Refuge and Maritime Attraction Zone. In 1980, Mexico extended reserve status to Laguna Manuela and Laguna Guerrero Negro. All of these lagoons lie within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, created in 1988. In 1993, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization designated Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio lagoons as World Heritage Sites, and they are also Ramsar-protected wetlands under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance. In 2002, all Mexican territorial seas and Economic Exclusion Zones were declared a refuge to protect large whales. Gray Whales also receive varying degrees of protection in territorial waters of Canada, Russia, Japan, Korea, and China. Threats that persist throughout the distribution of the Gray Whale include entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with ships, habitat loss from oil and gas exploration, and general disturbance from coastal development.","descriptiveNotes":"Total length 1300-1420 cm; weight 14,000-35,000 kg. There are no morphological differences among individuals of the eastern and western populations of Gray Whales. The Gray Whale is a medium-sized baleen or “mysticete” whale that can reach a maximum length of 1530 cm. Females are slightly larger than males at all ages. Distance from genitalslit to anus is wider in males; there are no othersignificant differences in external appearance between sexes. Body color ranges from mottled pale gray to dark gray with whitish to cream-colored blotches. White scars accumulate over time and add to distinctive individual color patterns. Gray Whales are heavily infested with species-specific barnacles (Cryptolepas rachianecti), and three species of cyamids or “whale lice” (Cyamus scammoni, C. ceti, and C. kessleri). Neonates are 450-500 cm long and can weigh 800 kg or more. Head is moderately arched and triangular when viewed from above and averages 20% of total length. Double nares or “blowholes,” characteristic of mysticete whales, are located on top of head just above and anterior to neck. The Gray Whale’s “blow,” or exhalation, is vertical and heart-shaped to columnar in form. Throat possesses 2-7 pleats that allow expansion of mouth cavity during feeding. Gray Whale baleen is pale yellow with ¢.130-180 individual plates, 5-40 cm long, on each side of upperjaw. Back is smooth from base of head to anterior section oftail, where instead of a dorsal fin, an elongated hump followed by a series of bumps or “knuckles” runs along dorsal edge oftailstock. Anterior flippers are paddleshaped and pointed at their tips. Flukes are butterflyshaped with pointed tips and average 300-360 cm from tip to tip. Gray Whales possess a unique “tailstock cyst” of unknown function located on the anterior ventral surface of the caudal peduncle.","habitat":"Primarily relatively shallow waters along edges of continental shelves from subtropical to polar latitudes and only occasionally open oceanic or pelagic habitats. Gray Whales frequent continental shelf waters along both sides of the North Pacific Ocean, including East China Sea, Yellow Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea, and Chukchi, Beaufort, and East Siberian seas in the Arctic Ocean. Gray Whales are highly migratory. When migrating, they may cross deep ocean and follow undersea mountain ranges and escarpments. In summer, they feed on the bottom of shallow continental shelves in high latitudes. In fall and spring, the western population of Gray Whalesis believed to migrate along the Pacific coast of the Far East from Russia to China. The larger eastern population migrates along the edge of the continental shelf of the Pacific coast of North America from Alaska to Mexico. In winter, Gray Whales congregate in coastal bays and lagoons that afford them protection from predation and warmer water for rearing young and mating. Their habit of frequenting relatively shallow continental shelf waters and coastal areas for feeding, migrating, and breeding is unique among mysticete whales. While capable of navigating deep ocean areas, Gray Whales migrate to and from their summer feeding and winter breeding areas along distinct corridors that follow within a few kilometers of the North American coast (for the eastern Gray Whale) and the eastern Asian coast (for some of the western Gray Whales). They disperse widely across the Arctic and polar seas during summer feeding, and they aggregate in shallow coastal areas, embayments and lagoons in subtropical latitudes for breeding and to give birth."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/D5/87/03D587FDFFC58C13FE05FDEA1084FAF7.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03D587FDFFC58C13FE05FDEA1084FAF7","docName":"hbmw_4_Eschrichtiidae_0222.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 4 Sea Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffecff85ffc58c13ffe4fff31769ffed","docISBN":"978-84-96553-93-4","docPageNumber":"292","verbatimText":"Family ESCHRICHTIIDAE(GRAY WHALE)• Medium-sized baleen whale with prominent external parasites (barnacles and whale lice), no dorsal fin but with distinct knobs on dorsal ridge and anteriortailstock; blow is low and heart-shaped.• 1300-1500 cm.• North Pacific, Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Chukchi Sea, and Arctc Ocean.• (Coastal continental shelf waters, and mid-latitude temperate and subtropical coastal bays, lagoons, and coastal areas to breed.•] genus, 1 species, 1 taxon.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600."} {"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE0FFA056EA45CEF873CD9F.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03DABE4AFFE0FFA056EA45CEF873CD9F","docName":"hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"404","verbatimText":"Family NOCTILIONIDAE(BULLDOG BATS)• Medium to large bats with very short fur; large, flappy cheek pouches and pointy, elongated ears; dull grayto bright orange pelage, with adult males tending to be brighter than females; very broad uropatagium; and medium to very large hindclaws.• 813 cm.• Neotropical and Nearctic (marginally) Regions.• Forests and savannas as long as there are some trees for roosting and water bodies for foraging.•] genus, 2 species, 7 taxa.• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE2FFA357ED4EBEFEECC37C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03DABE4AFFE2FFA357ED4EBEFEECC37C","docName":"hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"410","verbatimText":"1.Greater Bulldog BatNoctilio leporinusFrench:Grand Noctilion/ German:Grofes Hasenmaul/ Spanish:Noctilio grandeOther common names:Fisherman BatTaxonomy.Vespertilio leporinus Linnaeus, 1758, “America.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “ Surinam[= Suriname].”Taxonomy of N. leporinushas been stable for a long time, and in 1973, it was clarified that its taxonomy is quite simple. Morerecent work based on DNA sequencing of mitochondrial (control region) and nuclear (RAG2) genetic material yielded a relatively homogeneous phylogenetic landscape with low genetic diversity that seemedto indicate that the northern subspecies was valid. In South America, N. leporinusmight be represented by only one other subspecies, but additional research is needed. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.l.leporinusLinnaeus,1758—theGuianas,AmazonBasin,andmostofBrazil.N.l.mastivusVahl,1797—W&SMexico,CentralAmerica,WestIndies,N,W&EColombia,Venezuela,WEcuador,andextremeNWPeru.N. l. rufescens Olfers, 1818— E Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, and S Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head—body 82-100 mm, tail 23-28 mm, ear 28-30 mm, hindfoot 25-34 mm, forearm 81-87 mm; weight 50-90 g. The Greater Bulldog Batis relatively large compared with other bats that coexist with it. Furis extremelyshort, almost velvety, andstiff. Colorvaries from light brown usually in females to rich reddish brown or even bright yellow in males. Thereis a pale, almost white thin line along dorsum from nape to rump. Venteris paler. Hindclaws are extremely elongated, sharp, recurved, and used to grabfish when feet are dipped into water. Interfemoral membraneis very wide androbust. Faceis verydistinctive, with naked cheeks and snout andslit upper lip. Ears are separate, narrow, and slightly elongated.Habitat.Dry and humid tropical forests, small coastal lagoons, mangroves, and other tropical vegetation types, with large trees and standing or slow-flowing waterin wide lakes, slow-flowing rivers, or estuaries from sea level to elevations of ¢. 500 m. The Greater Bulldog Bat roosts in hollowtrees, although some have been reportedin caves and rock crevices and occasionally human structures such as bridges.Food and Feeding.Greater Bulldog Bats are adaptedto feed on fish that they capture directly from the watersurface. Fresh andsaltwaterfish dominate diets, but insects are also eaten, sometimes copiously. In adequate conditions, it is quite a spectacle to watch small groups of Greater Bulldog Bats raking the water surface with their claws over and over. One study showed that as much as 80% of the diet can be insects. Other prey included shrimp, crabs, and scorpions. Greater Bulldog Bats have large cheek pouches that they use to store partially chewed prey; they forage until cheek pouches are full and then finely chew and swallow prey items. When foraging over water, they use three forms offishing: high search flight, low search flight, and random rake. In high search flight, they emit long (13-3-17 milliseconds) pulses and fly 20-50 cm above the water surface, point-dipping their hindclaws when a food item is detected. In low search flight, they emit shorter pulses (c.5:6 milliseconds) and fly only 2-4 cm above the water and also point-dip their hindclaws when prey is detected. During random rake, they echolocate as during high search flight but dip their hindclaws in the water for up to 10 m. Random rake is mostly used in the presence of copious jumping fish, and they can catch a fish every 50-200 passes.Breeding.Female Greater Bulldog Bats have a single embryo per pregnancy. One to two seasonal peaks in births occur, depending on the area. Often the first birth peak coincides with the onset of the rainy season, varying geographically from April to June, and the second peak, usually smaller than the first, occurs toward the end of the rainy season. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females and males with scrotal testes have been reported in every month of the year, but individual females have a single pregnancy per year. Although data are limited, gestation seemsto last c.5 months. Testes of males grow and produce sperm seasonally. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.Activity patterns.Greater Bulldog Bats are nocturnal, generally leaving the roost within two hours after sunset. In Puerto Ricobetween November and January, they left the roost within an hour after sunset, but in August, they left an hour later with no apparent reason for the change. Most activity occurs before midnight. On cold nights with temperatures below 12°C, they did not leave the roost. Groups of bats seem to leave the roost together but do not return together. When female members of the same group left the roost, they lingered in its vicinity until other members of the group exited the roost, and then they all flew together toward foraging areas, within 5 mof each other.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Despite their large size and relatively open foraging habitat, few studies have been conducted to follow movements of Greater Bulldog Bats. They have relatively small home ranges, and flying distances to forage are less than 1 kmfrom the roost. Foraging females belonging to the same group had overlapping home ranges, with radio-locations indistinguishable from one another, and females returned to the same foraging area night after night, even in different years. Males forage separately from females. A study in Puerto Ricoshowed that colonies are usually formed by groups of 3-10 females and a single male, plus additional groups of 1-3 bachelor males, but this structure can be repeated more than once in a roost. Social groups are very cohesive, and when a group of females moves to a different roost, they do it together and also with the resident male of the harem. These groups remain as stable units for at least two years. Females and males within a group mark themselves periodically with secretions from subaxial glands. Females rub their heads under wings of other females; males mark themselves the same way. Females also rub their chins or heads against heads of other females within the same social group inside a roost but never against members of other groups. Some females occasionally move temporally to join other social groups in the roost, and during those occasions, all other females smell a visitor’s wings and head for about a minute; the visitor eventually returns to the original group.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country across its distribution lists the Greater Bulldog Bat as threatened or endangered. If habitat is in good condition, their populations are stable. It is likely, however, that removal or disturbance of roosts, such as large hollow trees or caves, can have negative effects on Greater Bulldog Bats.Bibliography.Bordignon (2006), Bordignon & Franca(2016), Bork (2006), Brooke (1994, 1997), Davis (1973), Hood & Jones (1984), Mares et al. (1981), Pavan et al. (2013), Schnitzler et al. (1994), Thomas (1911a), Zortéa & Aguiar (2001).","taxonomy":"of N. leporinushas been stable for a long time, and in 1973, it was clarified that its taxonomy is quite simple. Morerecent work based on DNA sequencing of mitochondrial (control region) and nuclear (RAG2) genetic material yielded a relatively homogeneous phylogenetic landscape with low genetic diversity that seemedto indicate that the northern subspecies was valid. In South America, N. leporinusmight be represented by only one other subspecies, but additional research is needed. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Noctilion @fr | Grofes Hasenmaul @de | Noctilio grande @es | Fisherman Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Linnaeus","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Noctilionidae","interpretedGenus":"Noctilio","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"410","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leporinus","name":"Noctilio leporinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N.l.leporinusLinnaeus,1758—theGuianas,AmazonBasin,andmostofBrazil.N.l.mastivusVahl,1797—W&SMexico,CentralAmerica,WestIndies,N,W&EColombia,Venezuela,WEcuador,andextremeNWPeru.N. l. rufescens Olfers, 1818— E Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, and S Brazil.","bibliography":"Bordignon (2006) | Bordignon & Franca(2016) | Bork (2006) | Brooke (1994, 1997) | Davis (1973) | Hood & Jones (1984) | Mares et al. (1981) | Pavan et al. (2013) | Schnitzler et al. (1994) | Thomas (1911a) | Zortéa & Aguiar (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Greater Bulldog Bats are adaptedto feed on fish that they capture directly from the watersurface. Fresh andsaltwaterfish dominate diets, but insects are also eaten, sometimes copiously. In adequate conditions, it is quite a spectacle to watch small groups of Greater Bulldog Bats raking the water surface with their claws over and over. One study showed that as much as 80% of the diet can be insects. Other prey included shrimp, crabs, and scorpions. Greater Bulldog Bats have large cheek pouches that they use to store partially chewed prey; they forage until cheek pouches are full and then finely chew and swallow prey items. When foraging over water, they use three forms offishing: high search flight, low search flight, and random rake. In high search flight, they emit long (13-3-17 milliseconds) pulses and fly 20-50 cm above the water surface, point-dipping their hindclaws when a food item is detected. In low search flight, they emit shorter pulses (c.5:6 milliseconds) and fly only 2-4 cm above the water and also point-dip their hindclaws when prey is detected. During random rake, they echolocate as during high search flight but dip their hindclaws in the water for up to 10 m. Random rake is mostly used in the presence of copious jumping fish, and they can catch a fish every 50-200 passes.","breeding":"Female Greater Bulldog Bats have a single embryo per pregnancy. One to two seasonal peaks in births occur, depending on the area. Often the first birth peak coincides with the onset of the rainy season, varying geographically from April to June, and the second peak, usually smaller than the first, occurs toward the end of the rainy season. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females and males with scrotal testes have been reported in every month of the year, but individual females have a single pregnancy per year. Although data are limited, gestation seemsto last c.5 months. Testes of males grow and produce sperm seasonally. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.","activityPatterns":"Greater Bulldog Bats are nocturnal, generally leaving the roost within two hours after sunset. In Puerto Ricobetween November and January, they left the roost within an hour after sunset, but in August, they left an hour later with no apparent reason for the change. Most activity occurs before midnight. On cold nights with temperatures below 12°C, they did not leave the roost. Groups of bats seem to leave the roost together but do not return together. When female members of the same group left the roost, they lingered in its vicinity until other members of the group exited the roost, and then they all flew together toward foraging areas, within 5 mof each other.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Despite their large size and relatively open foraging habitat, few studies have been conducted to follow movements of Greater Bulldog Bats. They have relatively small home ranges, and flying distances to forage are less than 1 kmfrom the roost. Foraging females belonging to the same group had overlapping home ranges, with radio-locations indistinguishable from one another, and females returned to the same foraging area night after night, even in different years. Males forage separately from females. A study in Puerto Ricoshowed that colonies are usually formed by groups of 3-10 females and a single male, plus additional groups of 1-3 bachelor males, but this structure can be repeated more than once in a roost. Social groups are very cohesive, and when a group of females moves to a different roost, they do it together and also with the resident male of the harem. These groups remain as stable units for at least two years. Females and males within a group mark themselves periodically with secretions from subaxial glands. Females rub their heads under wings of other females; males mark themselves the same way. Females also rub their chins or heads against heads of other females within the same social group inside a roost but never against members of other groups. Some females occasionally move temporally to join other social groups in the roost, and during those occasions, all other females smell a visitor’s wings and head for about a minute; the visitor eventually returns to the original group.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country across its distribution lists the Greater Bulldog Bat as threatened or endangered. If habitat is in good condition, their populations are stable. It is likely, however, that removal or disturbance of roosts, such as large hollow trees or caves, can have negative effects on Greater Bulldog Bats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 82-100 mm, tail 23-28 mm, ear 28-30 mm, hindfoot 25-34 mm, forearm 81-87 mm; weight 50-90 g. The Greater Bulldog Batis relatively large compared with other bats that coexist with it. Furis extremelyshort, almost velvety, andstiff. Colorvaries from light brown usually in females to rich reddish brown or even bright yellow in males. Thereis a pale, almost white thin line along dorsum from nape to rump. Venteris paler. Hindclaws are extremely elongated, sharp, recurved, and used to grabfish when feet are dipped into water. Interfemoral membraneis very wide androbust. Faceis verydistinctive, with naked cheeks and snout andslit upper lip. Ears are separate, narrow, and slightly elongated.","habitat":"Dry and humid tropical forests, small coastal lagoons, mangroves, and other tropical vegetation types, with large trees and standing or slow-flowing waterin wide lakes, slow-flowing rivers, or estuaries from sea level to elevations of ¢. 500 m. The Greater Bulldog Bat roosts in hollowtrees, although some have been reportedin caves and rock crevices and occasionally human structures such as bridges."} -{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE3FFA357DE4E6AF95BC2A5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03DABE4AFFE3FFA357DE4E6AF95BC2A5","docName":"hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"411","verbatimText":"2.Lesser Bulldog BatNoctilio albiventrisFrench:Petit Noctilion/ German:Kleines Hasenmaul/ Spanish:Noctilio pequenoTaxonomy.Noctilio albiventris Desmarest, 1818, “I’Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Rio Sao Francisco, Bahia, Brazil.Noctilio albiventrisis paraphyletic with respect to N. leporinus. This has been proposed and confirmed using several different molecular markers, including mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Recent studies suggest that N. albiventrisis a complex of at least three and maybe four cryptic species yet to be determined but roughly coinciding with the current subspecific arrangement. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.a.albiventrisDesmarest,1818—lowerAmazonBasinofVenezuela,theGuianas,andC&FEBrazil.N.a.affinisd’Orbigny,1836—SEColombia,EEcuador,upperAmazonBasinofVenezuela,EPeru,WBrazil,andBolivia.N.a.cabreraiW.B.Davis,1976—SBrazil,Paraguay,andNEArgentina.N. a. minor Osgood, 1910—- extreme S Mexico(Chiapas), Central America, N Colombia, and N Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-68 mm, tail 13-16 mm, ear 22-24 mm, hindfoot 16-19 mm, forearm 54-70 mm; weight 22-42 g. The Lesser Bulldog Bat is a smaller version of the Greater Bulldog Bat (N. leporinus), with some minordifferences. Hindclaws of the Lesser Bulldog Bat are much shorter than those in the Greater Bulldog Bat and shorter than calcar. Size and relative length of hindclaws easily allow distinction between the two congeners. Fur is very short and pale brown to bright yellow. Head is almost hairless, with loose cheek skin and hare-like upper lip.Habitat.Primarily tropical rainforests but also other tropical vegetation types such as dry tropical forest and mangrove from sea level to elevations of ¢. 1100 m. Lesser Bulldog Bats usually roost in hollow trees but can also be found in buildings. They often share roosts with other species of bats such as mastiff bats (Molossus sp.). In the Beni Departmentof Bolivia, Lesser Bulldog Bats commute among forest islands across tropical grasslands and use hollow trees of at least eleven species; roosting trees have greater diameters than non-roosting trees.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Lesser Bulldog Bat is strongly dominated by insects, primarily hemipterans, beetles, moths, homopterans, and dipterans. According to all published studies, Lesser Bulldog Bats feed copiously on insects, but other studies also show that they eatfruits of species of Moraceae(Ficus, Brosimum, and Morus) and Urticaceae(Cecropia) and occasionally fish. Pollen of various tree species has also been reported in stomach contents or fecal pellets. Given that they often fly in open areas, they are believed to be good seed dispersers. One study found many remains of dytiscid beetles, a primarily aquatic species, in the diet, and a pimelodid catfish swallowed a Lesser Bulldog Bat, both suggesting association with aquatic environments. Lesser Bulldog Bats have been observed scooping insect prey from the water surface. Observations in the wild show that they fly in open areas including along slow-flowing streams and rivers, lakes, and estuaries, briefly dipping or dragging their feet or interfemoral membrane in the water to scoop up insects. They spend an average of ¢.120 minutes outside of the roost, most of that time foraging.Breeding.Reproductive habits of the Lesser Bulldog Bat indicate a monoestrous cycle, with mating in November—-March and young born in April-May in Panama. In other regions, the cycle varies accordingly. Littersize is one, although one instance of twinning was documented. Reproductive accessory glands, including prostate, are very similar in the Lesser Bulldog Bat and other bats in the families Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae. Captive juvenile Lesser Bulldog Bats did not fly until 5-6 weeks old and nursed until ¢.3 months old. Lactating females suckled only their young, which they appeared to recognize from acoustic cues emitted by their young. Mother and young call in coordinated duets in the roost and while flying and foraging together. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.Activity patterns.Lesser Bulldog Bats leave their roost quite early, right after sunset, in contrast with their larger congener, the Greater Bulldog Bat that leaves the roost up to two hours after sunset. This difference has been suggested to be a mechanism to avoid competition between congeners. Lesser Bulldog Bats stay active usually between sunset and 1-2 hours after sunset and then return to their roost, with a second peak of activity around midnight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Some studies indicate that Lesser Bulldog Bats might be philopatric and very loyal to a particular roost. Social organization seems to be harem-based, with up to ten females per male and several harems inhabiting any particular roost. There is an instance of predation by the great rufous woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes major)—a bird that is known to capture prey and nest inside hollow trees.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country considers the Lesser Bulldog Bat at any level of risk of extinction. In Bolivia, some populations might be prone to extirpation because misdirected control of Common Vampire Bat (Desmodusrotundus) can destroy hollow tree roosts.Bibliography.Aguirre, Lens & Matthysen (2003), Aranguren et al. (2011), Beguelini et al. (2016), Botero-Botero etal. (2015), Brown et al. (1983), Cabrera (1958), Camargo & Laps (2016), Davis (1976b), Dechmann et al. (2013), Fenton, Audet et al. (1993), Forman et al. (1989), Gongalves et al. (2007), Hood & Pitocchelli (1983), Howell & Burch (1974), Kalko et al. (1998).","taxonomy":"Noctilio albiventris Desmarest, 1818, “I’Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Rio Sao Francisco, Bahia, Brazil.Noctilio albiventrisis paraphyletic with respect to N. leporinus. This has been proposed and confirmed using several different molecular markers, including mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Recent studies suggest that N. albiventrisis a complex of at least three and maybe four cryptic species yet to be determined but roughly coinciding with the current subspecific arrangement. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Petit Noctilion @fr | Kleines Hasenmaul @de | Noctilio pequeno @es","interpretedAuthority":"Desmarest","interpretedAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1818","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Noctilionidae","interpretedGenus":"Noctilio","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"411","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albiventris","name":"Noctilio albiventris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N.a.albiventrisDesmarest,1818—lowerAmazonBasinofVenezuela,theGuianas,andC&FEBrazil.N.a.affinisd’Orbigny,1836—SEColombia,EEcuador,upperAmazonBasinofVenezuela,EPeru,WBrazil,andBolivia.N.a.cabreraiW.B.Davis,1976—SBrazil,Paraguay,andNEArgentina.N. a. minor Osgood, 1910—- extreme S Mexico(Chiapas), Central America, N Colombia, and N Venezuela.","bibliography":"Aguirre, Lens & Matthysen (2003) | Aranguren et al. (2011) | Beguelini et al. (2016) | Botero-Botero etal. (2015) | Brown et al. (1983) | Cabrera (1958) | Camargo & Laps (2016) | Davis (1976b) | Dechmann et al. (2013) | Fenton, Audet et al. (1993) | Forman et al. (1989) | Gongalves et al. (2007) | Hood & Pitocchelli (1983) | Howell & Burch (1974) | Kalko et al. (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Lesser Bulldog Bat is strongly dominated by insects, primarily hemipterans, beetles, moths, homopterans, and dipterans. According to all published studies, Lesser Bulldog Bats feed copiously on insects, but other studies also show that they eatfruits of species of Moraceae(Ficus, Brosimum, and Morus) and Urticaceae(Cecropia) and occasionally fish. Pollen of various tree species has also been reported in stomach contents or fecal pellets. Given that they often fly in open areas, they are believed to be good seed dispersers. One study found many remains of dytiscid beetles, a primarily aquatic species, in the diet, and a pimelodid catfish swallowed a Lesser Bulldog Bat, both suggesting association with aquatic environments. Lesser Bulldog Bats have been observed scooping insect prey from the water surface. Observations in the wild show that they fly in open areas including along slow-flowing streams and rivers, lakes, and estuaries, briefly dipping or dragging their feet or interfemoral membrane in the water to scoop up insects. They spend an average of ¢.120 minutes outside of the roost, most of that time foraging.","breeding":"Reproductive habits of the Lesser Bulldog Bat indicate a monoestrous cycle, with mating in November—-March and young born in April-May in Panama. In other regions, the cycle varies accordingly. Littersize is one, although one instance of twinning was documented. Reproductive accessory glands, including prostate, are very similar in the Lesser Bulldog Bat and other bats in the families Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae. Captive juvenile Lesser Bulldog Bats did not fly until 5-6 weeks old and nursed until ¢.3 months old. Lactating females suckled only their young, which they appeared to recognize from acoustic cues emitted by their young. Mother and young call in coordinated duets in the roost and while flying and foraging together. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.","activityPatterns":"Lesser Bulldog Bats leave their roost quite early, right after sunset, in contrast with their larger congener, the Greater Bulldog Bat that leaves the roost up to two hours after sunset. This difference has been suggested to be a mechanism to avoid competition between congeners. Lesser Bulldog Bats stay active usually between sunset and 1-2 hours after sunset and then return to their roost, with a second peak of activity around midnight.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Some studies indicate that Lesser Bulldog Bats might be philopatric and very loyal to a particular roost. Social organization seems to be harem-based, with up to ten females per male and several harems inhabiting any particular roost. There is an instance of predation by the great rufous woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes major)—a bird that is known to capture prey and nest inside hollow trees.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country considers the Lesser Bulldog Bat at any level of risk of extinction. In Bolivia, some populations might be prone to extirpation because misdirected control of Common Vampire Bat (Desmodusrotundus) can destroy hollow tree roosts.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 65-68 mm, tail 13-16 mm, ear 22-24 mm, hindfoot 16-19 mm, forearm 54-70 mm; weight 22-42 g. The Lesser Bulldog Bat is a smaller version of the Greater Bulldog Bat (N. leporinus), with some minordifferences. Hindclaws of the Lesser Bulldog Bat are much shorter than those in the Greater Bulldog Bat and shorter than calcar. Size and relative length of hindclaws easily allow distinction between the two congeners. Fur is very short and pale brown to bright yellow. Head is almost hairless, with loose cheek skin and hare-like upper lip.","habitat":"Primarily tropical rainforests but also other tropical vegetation types such as dry tropical forest and mangrove from sea level to elevations of ¢. 1100 m. Lesser Bulldog Bats usually roost in hollow trees but can also be found in buildings. They often share roosts with other species of bats such as mastiff bats (Molossus sp.). In the Beni Departmentof Bolivia, Lesser Bulldog Bats commute among forest islands across tropical grasslands and use hollow trees of at least eleven species; roosting trees have greater diameters than non-roosting trees."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE2FFA357ED4EBEFEECC37C.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03DABE4AFFE2FFA357ED4EBEFEECC37C","docName":"hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"410","verbatimText":"1.Greater Bulldog BatNoctilio leporinusFrench:Grand Noctilion/ German:Grofes Hasenmaul/ Spanish:Noctilio grandeOther common names:Fisherman BatTaxonomy.Vespertilio leporinus Linnaeus, 1758, “America.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “ Surinam[= Suriname].”Taxonomy of N. leporinushas been stable for a long time, and in 1973, it was clarified that its taxonomy is quite simple. Morerecent work based on DNA sequencing of mitochondrial (control region) and nuclear (RAG2) genetic material yielded a relatively homogeneous phylogenetic landscape with low genetic diversity that seemedto indicate that the northern subspecies was valid. In South America, N. leporinusmight be represented by only one other subspecies, but additional research is needed. Three subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.l.leporinusLinnaeus,1758—theGuianas,AmazonBasin,andmostofBrazil.N.l.mastivusVahl,1797—W&SMexico,CentralAmerica,WestIndies,N,W&EColombia,Venezuela,WEcuador,andextremeNWPeru.N. l. rufescens Olfers, 1818— E Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, and S Brazil.Descriptive notes.Head—body 82-100 mm, tail 23-28 mm, ear 28-30 mm, hindfoot 25-34 mm, forearm 81-87 mm; weight 50-90 g. The Greater Bulldog Batis relatively large compared with other bats that coexist with it. Furis extremelyshort, almost velvety, andstiff. Colorvaries from light brown usually in females to rich reddish brown or even bright yellow in males. Thereis a pale, almost white thin line along dorsum from nape to rump. Venteris paler. Hindclaws are extremely elongated, sharp, recurved, and used to grabfish when feet are dipped into water. Interfemoral membraneis very wide androbust. Faceis verydistinctive, with naked cheeks and snout andslit upper lip. Ears are separate, narrow, and slightly elongated.Habitat.Dry and humid tropical forests, small coastal lagoons, mangroves, and other tropical vegetation types, with large trees and standing or slow-flowing waterin wide lakes, slow-flowing rivers, or estuaries from sea level to elevations of ¢. 500 m. The Greater Bulldog Bat roosts in hollowtrees, although some have been reportedin caves and rock crevices and occasionally human structures such as bridges.Food and Feeding.Greater Bulldog Bats are adaptedto feed on fish that they capture directly from the watersurface. Fresh andsaltwaterfish dominate diets, but insects are also eaten, sometimes copiously. In adequate conditions, it is quite a spectacle to watch small groups of Greater Bulldog Bats raking the water surface with their claws over and over. One study showed that as much as 80% of the diet can be insects. Other prey included shrimp, crabs, and scorpions. Greater Bulldog Bats have large cheek pouches that they use to store partially chewed prey; they forage until cheek pouches are full and then finely chew and swallow prey items. When foraging over water, they use three forms offishing: high search flight, low search flight, and random rake. In high search flight, they emit long (13-3-17 milliseconds) pulses and fly 20-50 cm above the water surface, point-dipping their hindclaws when a food item is detected. In low search flight, they emit shorter pulses (c.5:6 milliseconds) and fly only 2-4 cm above the water and also point-dip their hindclaws when prey is detected. During random rake, they echolocate as during high search flight but dip their hindclaws in the water for up to 10 m. Random rake is mostly used in the presence of copious jumping fish, and they can catch a fish every 50-200 passes.Breeding.Female Greater Bulldog Bats have a single embryo per pregnancy. One to two seasonal peaks in births occur, depending on the area. Often the first birth peak coincides with the onset of the rainy season, varying geographically from April to June, and the second peak, usually smaller than the first, occurs toward the end of the rainy season. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females and males with scrotal testes have been reported in every month of the year, but individual females have a single pregnancy per year. Although data are limited, gestation seemsto last c.5 months. Testes of males grow and produce sperm seasonally. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.Activity patterns.Greater Bulldog Bats are nocturnal, generally leaving the roost within two hours after sunset. In Puerto Ricobetween November and January, they left the roost within an hour after sunset, but in August, they left an hour later with no apparent reason for the change. Most activity occurs before midnight. On cold nights with temperatures below 12°C, they did not leave the roost. Groups of bats seem to leave the roost together but do not return together. When female members of the same group left the roost, they lingered in its vicinity until other members of the group exited the roost, and then they all flew together toward foraging areas, within 5 mof each other.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Despite their large size and relatively open foraging habitat, few studies have been conducted to follow movements of Greater Bulldog Bats. They have relatively small home ranges, and flying distances to forage are less than 1 kmfrom the roost. Foraging females belonging to the same group had overlapping home ranges, with radio-locations indistinguishable from one another, and females returned to the same foraging area night after night, even in different years. Males forage separately from females. A study in Puerto Ricoshowed that colonies are usually formed by groups of 3-10 females and a single male, plus additional groups of 1-3 bachelor males, but this structure can be repeated more than once in a roost. Social groups are very cohesive, and when a group of females moves to a different roost, they do it together and also with the resident male of the harem. These groups remain as stable units for at least two years. Females and males within a group mark themselves periodically with secretions from subaxial glands. Females rub their heads under wings of other females; males mark themselves the same way. Females also rub their chins or heads against heads of other females within the same social group inside a roost but never against members of other groups. Some females occasionally move temporally to join other social groups in the roost, and during those occasions, all other females smell a visitor’s wings and head for about a minute; the visitor eventually returns to the original group.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country across its distribution lists the Greater Bulldog Bat as threatened or endangered. If habitat is in good condition, their populations are stable. It is likely, however, that removal or disturbance of roosts, such as large hollow trees or caves, can have negative effects on Greater Bulldog Bats.Bibliography.Bordignon (2006), Bordignon & Franca(2016), Bork (2006), Brooke (1994, 1997), Davis (1973), Hood & Jones (1984), Mares et al. (1981), Pavan et al. (2013), Schnitzler et al. (1994), Thomas (1911a), Zortéa & Aguiar (2001).","taxonomy":"of N. leporinushas been stable for a long time, and in 1973, it was clarified that its taxonomy is quite simple. Morerecent work based on DNA sequencing of mitochondrial (control region) and nuclear (RAG2) genetic material yielded a relatively homogeneous phylogenetic landscape with low genetic diversity that seemedto indicate that the northern subspecies was valid. In South America, N. leporinusmight be represented by only one other subspecies, but additional research is needed. Three subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Grand Noctilion @fr | Grofes Hasenmaul @de | Noctilio grande @es | Fisherman Bat @en","interpretedAuthority":"Linnaeus","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Noctilionidae","interpretedGenus":"Noctilio","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"2","interpretedPageNumber":"410","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"leporinus","name":"Noctilio leporinus","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N.l.leporinusLinnaeus,1758—theGuianas,AmazonBasin,andmostofBrazil.N.l.mastivusVahl,1797—W&SMexico,CentralAmerica,WestIndies,N,W&EColombia,Venezuela,WEcuador,andextremeNWPeru.N. l. rufescens Olfers, 1818— E Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, and S Brazil.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6606987/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Bordignon (2006) | Bordignon & Franca(2016) | Bork (2006) | Brooke (1994, 1997) | Davis (1973) | Hood & Jones (1984) | Mares et al. (1981) | Pavan et al. (2013) | Schnitzler et al. (1994) | Thomas (1911a) | Zortéa & Aguiar (2001)","foodAndFeeding":"Greater Bulldog Bats are adaptedto feed on fish that they capture directly from the watersurface. Fresh andsaltwaterfish dominate diets, but insects are also eaten, sometimes copiously. In adequate conditions, it is quite a spectacle to watch small groups of Greater Bulldog Bats raking the water surface with their claws over and over. One study showed that as much as 80% of the diet can be insects. Other prey included shrimp, crabs, and scorpions. Greater Bulldog Bats have large cheek pouches that they use to store partially chewed prey; they forage until cheek pouches are full and then finely chew and swallow prey items. When foraging over water, they use three forms offishing: high search flight, low search flight, and random rake. In high search flight, they emit long (13-3-17 milliseconds) pulses and fly 20-50 cm above the water surface, point-dipping their hindclaws when a food item is detected. In low search flight, they emit shorter pulses (c.5:6 milliseconds) and fly only 2-4 cm above the water and also point-dip their hindclaws when prey is detected. During random rake, they echolocate as during high search flight but dip their hindclaws in the water for up to 10 m. Random rake is mostly used in the presence of copious jumping fish, and they can catch a fish every 50-200 passes.","breeding":"Female Greater Bulldog Bats have a single embryo per pregnancy. One to two seasonal peaks in births occur, depending on the area. Often the first birth peak coincides with the onset of the rainy season, varying geographically from April to June, and the second peak, usually smaller than the first, occurs toward the end of the rainy season. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females and males with scrotal testes have been reported in every month of the year, but individual females have a single pregnancy per year. Although data are limited, gestation seemsto last c.5 months. Testes of males grow and produce sperm seasonally. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.","activityPatterns":"Greater Bulldog Bats are nocturnal, generally leaving the roost within two hours after sunset. In Puerto Ricobetween November and January, they left the roost within an hour after sunset, but in August, they left an hour later with no apparent reason for the change. Most activity occurs before midnight. On cold nights with temperatures below 12°C, they did not leave the roost. Groups of bats seem to leave the roost together but do not return together. When female members of the same group left the roost, they lingered in its vicinity until other members of the group exited the roost, and then they all flew together toward foraging areas, within 5 mof each other.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Despite their large size and relatively open foraging habitat, few studies have been conducted to follow movements of Greater Bulldog Bats. They have relatively small home ranges, and flying distances to forage are less than 1 kmfrom the roost. Foraging females belonging to the same group had overlapping home ranges, with radio-locations indistinguishable from one another, and females returned to the same foraging area night after night, even in different years. Males forage separately from females. A study in Puerto Ricoshowed that colonies are usually formed by groups of 3-10 females and a single male, plus additional groups of 1-3 bachelor males, but this structure can be repeated more than once in a roost. Social groups are very cohesive, and when a group of females moves to a different roost, they do it together and also with the resident male of the harem. These groups remain as stable units for at least two years. Females and males within a group mark themselves periodically with secretions from subaxial glands. Females rub their heads under wings of other females; males mark themselves the same way. Females also rub their chins or heads against heads of other females within the same social group inside a roost but never against members of other groups. Some females occasionally move temporally to join other social groups in the roost, and during those occasions, all other females smell a visitor’s wings and head for about a minute; the visitor eventually returns to the original group.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country across its distribution lists the Greater Bulldog Bat as threatened or endangered. If habitat is in good condition, their populations are stable. It is likely, however, that removal or disturbance of roosts, such as large hollow trees or caves, can have negative effects on Greater Bulldog Bats.","descriptiveNotes":"Head—body 82-100 mm, tail 23-28 mm, ear 28-30 mm, hindfoot 25-34 mm, forearm 81-87 mm; weight 50-90 g. The Greater Bulldog Batis relatively large compared with other bats that coexist with it. Furis extremelyshort, almost velvety, andstiff. Colorvaries from light brown usually in females to rich reddish brown or even bright yellow in males. Thereis a pale, almost white thin line along dorsum from nape to rump. Venteris paler. Hindclaws are extremely elongated, sharp, recurved, and used to grabfish when feet are dipped into water. Interfemoral membraneis very wide androbust. Faceis verydistinctive, with naked cheeks and snout andslit upper lip. Ears are separate, narrow, and slightly elongated.","habitat":"Dry and humid tropical forests, small coastal lagoons, mangroves, and other tropical vegetation types, with large trees and standing or slow-flowing waterin wide lakes, slow-flowing rivers, or estuaries from sea level to elevations of ¢. 500 m. The Greater Bulldog Bat roosts in hollowtrees, although some have been reportedin caves and rock crevices and occasionally human structures such as bridges."} +{"http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#wasDerivedFrom":"zip:hash://sha256/5146700132c798f057756c6fde84a3d4c426bdc372dbec6ba18ce4125aa8353b!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/DA/BE/03DABE4AFFE3FFA357DE4E6AF95BC2A5.xml","http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type":"application/plazi+xml","docId":"03DABE4AFFE3FFA357DE4E6AF95BC2A5","docName":"hbmw_9_Noctilionidae_404.pdf.imf","docOrigin":"Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions","docMasterId":"hash://md5/ffe3c632ffe0ffa057444405ffa9c95b","docISBN":"978-84-16728-19-0","docPageNumber":"411","verbatimText":"2.Lesser Bulldog BatNoctilio albiventrisFrench:Petit Noctilion/ German:Kleines Hasenmaul/ Spanish:Noctilio pequenoTaxonomy.Noctilio albiventris Desmarest, 1818, “I’Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Rio Sao Francisco, Bahia, Brazil.Noctilio albiventrisis paraphyletic with respect to N. leporinus. This has been proposed and confirmed using several different molecular markers, including mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Recent studies suggest that N. albiventrisis a complex of at least three and maybe four cryptic species yet to be determined but roughly coinciding with the current subspecific arrangement. Four subspecies recognized.Subspecies and Distribution.N.a.albiventrisDesmarest,1818—lowerAmazonBasinofVenezuela,theGuianas,andC&FEBrazil.N.a.affinisd’Orbigny,1836—SEColombia,EEcuador,upperAmazonBasinofVenezuela,EPeru,WBrazil,andBolivia.N.a.cabreraiW.B.Davis,1976—SBrazil,Paraguay,andNEArgentina.N. a. minor Osgood, 1910—- extreme S Mexico(Chiapas), Central America, N Colombia, and N Venezuela.Descriptive notes.Head-body 65-68 mm, tail 13-16 mm, ear 22-24 mm, hindfoot 16-19 mm, forearm 54-70 mm; weight 22-42 g. The Lesser Bulldog Bat is a smaller version of the Greater Bulldog Bat (N. leporinus), with some minordifferences. Hindclaws of the Lesser Bulldog Bat are much shorter than those in the Greater Bulldog Bat and shorter than calcar. Size and relative length of hindclaws easily allow distinction between the two congeners. Fur is very short and pale brown to bright yellow. Head is almost hairless, with loose cheek skin and hare-like upper lip.Habitat.Primarily tropical rainforests but also other tropical vegetation types such as dry tropical forest and mangrove from sea level to elevations of ¢. 1100 m. Lesser Bulldog Bats usually roost in hollow trees but can also be found in buildings. They often share roosts with other species of bats such as mastiff bats (Molossus sp.). In the Beni Departmentof Bolivia, Lesser Bulldog Bats commute among forest islands across tropical grasslands and use hollow trees of at least eleven species; roosting trees have greater diameters than non-roosting trees.Food and Feeding.Diet of the Lesser Bulldog Bat is strongly dominated by insects, primarily hemipterans, beetles, moths, homopterans, and dipterans. According to all published studies, Lesser Bulldog Bats feed copiously on insects, but other studies also show that they eatfruits of species of Moraceae(Ficus, Brosimum, and Morus) and Urticaceae(Cecropia) and occasionally fish. Pollen of various tree species has also been reported in stomach contents or fecal pellets. Given that they often fly in open areas, they are believed to be good seed dispersers. One study found many remains of dytiscid beetles, a primarily aquatic species, in the diet, and a pimelodid catfish swallowed a Lesser Bulldog Bat, both suggesting association with aquatic environments. Lesser Bulldog Bats have been observed scooping insect prey from the water surface. Observations in the wild show that they fly in open areas including along slow-flowing streams and rivers, lakes, and estuaries, briefly dipping or dragging their feet or interfemoral membrane in the water to scoop up insects. They spend an average of ¢.120 minutes outside of the roost, most of that time foraging.Breeding.Reproductive habits of the Lesser Bulldog Bat indicate a monoestrous cycle, with mating in November—-March and young born in April-May in Panama. In other regions, the cycle varies accordingly. Littersize is one, although one instance of twinning was documented. Reproductive accessory glands, including prostate, are very similar in the Lesser Bulldog Bat and other bats in the families Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae. Captive juvenile Lesser Bulldog Bats did not fly until 5-6 weeks old and nursed until ¢.3 months old. Lactating females suckled only their young, which they appeared to recognize from acoustic cues emitted by their young. Mother and young call in coordinated duets in the roost and while flying and foraging together. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.Activity patterns.Lesser Bulldog Bats leave their roost quite early, right after sunset, in contrast with their larger congener, the Greater Bulldog Bat that leaves the roost up to two hours after sunset. This difference has been suggested to be a mechanism to avoid competition between congeners. Lesser Bulldog Bats stay active usually between sunset and 1-2 hours after sunset and then return to their roost, with a second peak of activity around midnight.Movements, Home range and Social organization.Some studies indicate that Lesser Bulldog Bats might be philopatric and very loyal to a particular roost. Social organization seems to be harem-based, with up to ten females per male and several harems inhabiting any particular roost. There is an instance of predation by the great rufous woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes major)—a bird that is known to capture prey and nest inside hollow trees.Status and Conservation.Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country considers the Lesser Bulldog Bat at any level of risk of extinction. In Bolivia, some populations might be prone to extirpation because misdirected control of Common Vampire Bat (Desmodusrotundus) can destroy hollow tree roosts.Bibliography.Aguirre, Lens & Matthysen (2003), Aranguren et al. (2011), Beguelini et al. (2016), Botero-Botero etal. (2015), Brown et al. (1983), Cabrera (1958), Camargo & Laps (2016), Davis (1976b), Dechmann et al. (2013), Fenton, Audet et al. (1993), Forman et al. (1989), Gongalves et al. (2007), Hood & Pitocchelli (1983), Howell & Burch (1974), Kalko et al. (1998).","taxonomy":"Noctilio albiventris Desmarest, 1818, “I’Amérique méridionale.” Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to Rio Sao Francisco, Bahia, Brazil.Noctilio albiventrisis paraphyletic with respect to N. leporinus. This has been proposed and confirmed using several different molecular markers, including mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Recent studies suggest that N. albiventrisis a complex of at least three and maybe four cryptic species yet to be determined but roughly coinciding with the current subspecific arrangement. Four subspecies recognized.","commonNames":"Petit Noctilion @fr | Kleines Hasenmaul @de | Noctilio pequeno @es","interpretedAuthority":"Desmarest","interpretedAuthorityName":"Desmarest","interpretedAuthorityYear":"1818","interpretedClass":"Mammalia","interpretedFamily":"Noctilionidae","interpretedGenus":"Noctilio","interpretedKingdom":"Animalia","interpretedOrder":"Chiroptera","interpretedPageId":"3","interpretedPageNumber":"411","interpretedPhylum":"Chordata","interpretedRank":"species","interpretedSpecies":"albiventris","name":"Noctilio albiventris","subspeciesAndDistribution":"N.a.albiventrisDesmarest,1818—lowerAmazonBasinofVenezuela,theGuianas,andC&FEBrazil.N.a.affinisd’Orbigny,1836—SEColombia,EEcuador,upperAmazonBasinofVenezuela,EPeru,WBrazil,andBolivia.N.a.cabreraiW.B.Davis,1976—SBrazil,Paraguay,andNEArgentina.N. a. minor Osgood, 1910—- extreme S Mexico(Chiapas), Central America, N Colombia, and N Venezuela.","distributionImageURL":"https://zenodo.org/record/6606991/files/figure.png","bibliography":"Aguirre, Lens & Matthysen (2003) | Aranguren et al. (2011) | Beguelini et al. (2016) | Botero-Botero etal. (2015) | Brown et al. (1983) | Cabrera (1958) | Camargo & Laps (2016) | Davis (1976b) | Dechmann et al. (2013) | Fenton, Audet et al. (1993) | Forman et al. (1989) | Gongalves et al. (2007) | Hood & Pitocchelli (1983) | Howell & Burch (1974) | Kalko et al. (1998)","foodAndFeeding":"Diet of the Lesser Bulldog Bat is strongly dominated by insects, primarily hemipterans, beetles, moths, homopterans, and dipterans. According to all published studies, Lesser Bulldog Bats feed copiously on insects, but other studies also show that they eatfruits of species of Moraceae(Ficus, Brosimum, and Morus) and Urticaceae(Cecropia) and occasionally fish. Pollen of various tree species has also been reported in stomach contents or fecal pellets. Given that they often fly in open areas, they are believed to be good seed dispersers. One study found many remains of dytiscid beetles, a primarily aquatic species, in the diet, and a pimelodid catfish swallowed a Lesser Bulldog Bat, both suggesting association with aquatic environments. Lesser Bulldog Bats have been observed scooping insect prey from the water surface. Observations in the wild show that they fly in open areas including along slow-flowing streams and rivers, lakes, and estuaries, briefly dipping or dragging their feet or interfemoral membrane in the water to scoop up insects. They spend an average of ¢.120 minutes outside of the roost, most of that time foraging.","breeding":"Reproductive habits of the Lesser Bulldog Bat indicate a monoestrous cycle, with mating in November—-March and young born in April-May in Panama. In other regions, the cycle varies accordingly. Littersize is one, although one instance of twinning was documented. Reproductive accessory glands, including prostate, are very similar in the Lesser Bulldog Bat and other bats in the families Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae. Captive juvenile Lesser Bulldog Bats did not fly until 5-6 weeks old and nursed until ¢.3 months old. Lactating females suckled only their young, which they appeared to recognize from acoustic cues emitted by their young. Mother and young call in coordinated duets in the roost and while flying and foraging together. Males have two ancillary skin sacks in the genital area that might have hormonal or glandular function.","activityPatterns":"Lesser Bulldog Bats leave their roost quite early, right after sunset, in contrast with their larger congener, the Greater Bulldog Bat that leaves the roost up to two hours after sunset. This difference has been suggested to be a mechanism to avoid competition between congeners. Lesser Bulldog Bats stay active usually between sunset and 1-2 hours after sunset and then return to their roost, with a second peak of activity around midnight.","movementsHomeRangeAndSocialOrganization":"Some studies indicate that Lesser Bulldog Bats might be philopatric and very loyal to a particular roost. Social organization seems to be harem-based, with up to ten females per male and several harems inhabiting any particular roost. There is an instance of predation by the great rufous woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes major)—a bird that is known to capture prey and nest inside hollow trees.","statusAndConservation":"Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. No country considers the Lesser Bulldog Bat at any level of risk of extinction. In Bolivia, some populations might be prone to extirpation because misdirected control of Common Vampire Bat (Desmodusrotundus) can destroy hollow tree roosts.","descriptiveNotes":"Head-body 65-68 mm, tail 13-16 mm, ear 22-24 mm, hindfoot 16-19 mm, forearm 54-70 mm; weight 22-42 g. The Lesser Bulldog Bat is a smaller version of the Greater Bulldog Bat (N. leporinus), with some minordifferences. Hindclaws of the Lesser Bulldog Bat are much shorter than those in the Greater Bulldog Bat and shorter than calcar. Size and relative length of hindclaws easily allow distinction between the two congeners. Fur is very short and pale brown to bright yellow. Head is almost hairless, with loose cheek skin and hare-like upper lip.","habitat":"Primarily tropical rainforests but also other tropical vegetation types such as dry tropical forest and mangrove from sea level to elevations of ¢. 1100 m. Lesser Bulldog Bats usually roost in hollow trees but can also be found in buildings. They often share roosts with other species of bats such as mastiff bats (Molossus sp.). In the Beni Departmentof Bolivia, Lesser Bulldog Bats commute among forest islands across tropical grasslands and use hollow trees of at least eleven species; roosting trees have greater diameters than non-roosting trees."}